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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2011 with funding from 
The Library of Congress 



http://www.archive.org/details/haydynsdictionarOOhayd 



HAYDN'S 

DICTIONARY OF DATES 



HAYDN'S 



< ' 



Dictionary of Dates 



UNIVERSAL INFORMATION 



RELATING TO ALL AGES AND NATIONS. 



By the late BENJAMIN VINCENT. 

M 

REVISED AND BROUGHT UP TO DATE BY EMINENT AUTHORITIES. 



TWENTY-THIRD EDITION, 

CONTAINING THE HISTORY OF THE WORLD TO 

THE END OF 1903. 



NEW YORK 

G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 

27 and 29 West 23D St. 
1904. 



\v 3 



b € 



o 



V 



\ 



* 



/ 



^>i 



PREFACE TO THE TWENTY-THIRD EDITION. 



This well-known and standard work of reference first appeared in 
1841, and then consisted of 568 pages of smaller size and larger type than 
those of later editions. Mr. Joseph Haydn, the compiler, whose name is 
identified with the title of the book, in 1855 resigned the editorship owing 
to failing health, and was succeeded by Mr. Benjamin Vincent, who under- 
took the continuance of the work, and the superintendence of its Seventh 
Edition while passing through the press. This led eventually to the 
reconstruction of the book, which has been gradually effected by revision 
and copious additions. The new features included Chronological Tables 
at the beginning of the volume, innumerable historical, literary, scientific, 
topographical facts inserted in the body of the work, and a Dated 
Biographical Index. To make room for these additions the size of the 
page has been enlarged, many articles have been condensed or printed in 
smaller type, and matter of inferior importance expunged. 

Numerous excellent year-books record the events and supply statistics 
of the preceding year, and are, consequently, of the greatest utility, but 
Haydn supplies a public want in that it furnishes a systematized record from 
an early date to the present time of historical, political, ecclesiastical, 
legal, social, commercial, scientific, literary, artistic, educational and other 
movements and occurrences— everything, in fact, which comes under the 
purview of the student, the public man, and the intelligent reader of the 
daily newspaper. Haydn is, therefore, not only indispensable to the 
journalist, to every public and private library, but to everyone who desires, 
either in public or private life, to possess an intelligent acquaintance with 



vi PREFACE. 

the facts and occurrences of the present day and of past events, which 
so many persons find most difficult to retain in the mind. 

"We have with much regret to record the death of Mr. Benjamin 
Vincent, 3rd May, 1899, whose painstaking and conscientious labours have 
so largely contributed to the reputation which Haydn's Dictionary of 
Bates enjoys. 

Our thanks are due to those friends who have pointed out errors and 
omissions, which, in a work of such scope and magnitude, are almost 
unavoidable, since much of the information contained in its pages necessarily 
depends on varying statements often difficult to verify. 

The present edition has been enlarged, and contains 197 more pages 
than the previous issue. 

The more important events that have occurred or crnie under notice 
during the printing of the Dictionary are included in its Addenda, at the end 
of the volume. 

EDITOR. 



» 



PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 



The design of the Author has been to attempt the compression of the 
greatest body of general information that has ever appeared in a single 
volume, and to produce a Book of Reference whose extensive usefulness may 
render its possession material to every individual — in the same manner 
that a London Directory is indispensable, on business affairs, to a London 
merchant 

The Compiler persuades himself that the Dictionary of Dates will be 
received as a useful companion to all Biographical works, relating, as it does, 
to things as those do to persons, and affording information net included in the 
range or design of such publications. 

Joseph Haydn. 

London, May, 1841. [Died Jan. IS, 185G.] 



TABLE OF CONTEMPORARY 



Great Britain. 



Peninsula. 



England. 



1066. Will. I 
1087. Will. II. 



1 100. Hen. I 

1135. Steph. 
1154. Hen. 2. 



1 1 72. (Ireld. 

annexed.) 

1189. Rich. I 

1199. John. 



1216. Hen. 3. 



1272. Ed. I. 



1282. (Wales 
annexed. ) 



1307. Ed. II. 
1327. Ed.III. 

1377. Rich. 2. 
1399. Hen. 4. 



1413. Hen. 5. 
1422. Hen. 6. 



1461.Ed.IV. 



1483. Ed.V. 
Rich. 3. 

1484. Hen. 7. 



Scotland. 



France. 



1057. Male. 3. 

1093. Donald 

1094. Dune. 
1094. Donald 

again. 
1098. Edgar. 



1060. Philip I. 



1 107. Alex. I. 
1 1 24. Dav. I. 

1153.Mal.IV 
1165. Will. 



1214. Alex. 2. 



1249. Alex. 3. 



Interregnum 

1292. John 
Baliol. 



1306. Robert 
(Bruce) I. 

1329. Dav. II. 
1332.Ed.Bal. 
1342. Dav. II. 
again. 



1371. Rob. II. 

(Stuart) 
1390. Rob. 3. 



1406. Jas. I. 

1437. Jas. II. 
1460. Jas. III. 



1488. Jas. IV. 



1 108. Louis VI. 



1137. Louis VII. 



1 1 80. Philip II. 



1223. Louis VIII, 
1226. Louis IX. 



1270. Philip III. 



1285. Philip IV. 



1314. Louis X. 
1316. John I. 
Phil. V. 
1321. Chas. IV. 
1328. Phil. VI. 

1350. John II. 
1364. Chas. V. 

1380. Chas. VI. 



1422. Chas. VII. 

461. Louis XI. 
1483. Chas. VIII. 
1498. Louis XII. 



Castile and 
Leon. 



1066. Sancho II. 
1072. AlfonsoVI 



1 109. Urracaand 

Alfonso VII. 
1 126. Alfon.VII 



1 157. Sancho III 
1158.Alfon.VIIl 



1 188. Alfon. IX. 
(Leon.) 



1214. Henry I. 

1217. Ferdin.III. 

(Castile.) 
1230. (Leon.) 



1252. Alfonso X. 



Sancho IV. 
Ferdin.IV. 



AlfonsoXI. 



Peter. 
Henry. 
John I. 



35°. 
1369. 

'379- 



1390. Henry II. 



1406. John II. 



M54 
474> 



Henry IV. 



1065. Sancho. 



1094. Peter. 



1 104. Alfonso I. 



1 1 34. Ramiro. 
1 137. Petronella 
and Raymond. 



1 163. Alfonso II. 



1 196. Peter II. 



Portugal. 



1065. Sancho of 
Castile. 

1072. AlfonsoVI. 

1093. Henry, 

coilnt. 



1112. Alfonso, as 1106. Hen 
count. 



1213. James I. 



1212. Alfonso II. 1208. Otho 4. 

1215. Fred. 2. 
1223. Sancho II. 

1248. Alfon. III. 1250. Con. 4. 
1254. Will. 
1257. Rich. 



1276. Peter III. 
1285. Alfons. III. 
1291. James II. 



1327. AlfonsoIV. 



1336. Peter IV. 



1387. John I. 
1395. Martin. 



1410. lntevregnm. 
1412. Ferdinand 

of Sicily. 
1416. Alfonso V. 



1 139. Alfonso I., 11 
as king. 



Germany. Hungary. 



1056. Hen. 4, 1064. Solom 
emperor. 



1185. Sancho I. 1 190. Hen. 6. 
1 1 98. Philip. 



279. Dionysius 
or Denis. 



1325. AlfonsoIV. 



1357- Peter. 
367. Ferdinand, 



1307. rercimana. 

1378. Wen- 
1383. John I. ceslas. 13 

13 



1458. John II. 
Isabella. 1479. Ferdin. II. 



Spain. 



1479. Ferdinand and Isabella. 



5. 1 1 14. Step. 2. 
1125. Loth.2. 1131. Bela 2. 
3. ii4i.Geisa3. 

1 161. Step. 3. 

1173. Bela 3. 

1 1 96. Emeric 



.38. Conr.; 
ii52.Fred. 



1308. Hen. 7. 1301. Charo- 
1314. Lou. 5. bert. 



1347. Chas. 4. 



1075. Geisa. 

1076. Lad. 1. 
1098. Colo- 
man. 



1204. Ladis- 
las II. 

1205. An- 
drew II. 

1235. Bela 4. 



1270. Ste. 4. 



1273. Ro- 1272. Lad. 3. 
dolph. 

1292. Adolp. 
1298. Alb. 1. 1 



1290. And. 3, 



342. Louis. 



1387. Aarycfc 
1400. Rupert Sigisijnund. 



1440 



1438. Albert.^ 
Fred.3. 144c. Lad. 4. 
1445. Lad. 5. 



1433. Edward. 
1438. Alfonso V. 

1481. John II. 



1495. Emanuel. 1 1403. Max. 1. 1400. Lad. 6. 
1499. Sintz. 
independ. \ 



M5S. 

1 thi; 



Mat-" 

a: 3. 



EUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS, 



Scandinavia. 



Swedes. 



066. Halstan. 



[090. Ingo. 



1069. Olaf. 



1093. Magnus. 



1112. Philip. 
1118. Ingo II. 
1129. Swerker. 



1155. Eric I. 

1161. Char. VII. 

1167. Canute. 



1 199. Swerk. II. 



Norway. 



1 103. Sigurd I., 
and others. 

1122. Sigurd I. 

1130. MagnusIV 
and others. 



Civil war and 
anarchy. 



11S6. Swerro. 



Denmark. 



1047. Sweyn II. 

1076. Harold. 

1080. Canute IV. 

1086. OlausIV. 

1095. Eric I. 



1210. Eric II. 
1216. John I. 
1222. Eric III. 



1250. Birger Jarl 
1266. Waldernar. 
T275. Magnus I. 

1290. Birger II. 



1319. Magn. II. 



1202. Hako III. 

and others. 
1207. Hako IV. 



1263. MagnusVI. 



1280. Eric. 



1299. HakoV. 



1 319. United to 
Sweden. 



1350. Eric IV. 
1359. Magnus II. 
1363. Albert. 



1389. Margaret. 



1389. United to 
Denmark. 



1412. Eric XIII. 

1440. Christopher III. 
. Chas.VIII. 
1457. Christian I. 

1483. John of Denmark. 



1 105. Eric II. 



1137. Eric III. 

1147. Sweyn III. 

Canute V. 

1 157. "Waldemar. 



1 182. Canute VI. 



Poland. 



1058. Boles- 
las. 
1082. Ladis- 



1102. Boles. 3 

11138. Lad. 2. 
1 145. Boles.4 



1173. Miecis- 

las III. 
1178. Ca- 

simir II. 

ii94.Lesk.s. 



Eastern 
Empire. 



Italy. 



1068. Rom. 4 

1071. Mich. 7. 
io78.Nicep.3 
1081. Alexius 



1 1 18. John 
Comnenus. 



1 143. Manuel 
Comnenus. 



1 180. Alex. 2. 
1183. Andro- 

nicus C. 
1185. Isaac 2. 
1195. Alex. 3. 



1202. Walde. II. 1200. Miec.3. 

1202. Lad. 3. 

i227.Boles.5. 
1241. Eric IV. 
1250. Abel. 
1252. Christoph. 
1259. EricV. 



1279. Lesk.6. 



1320. Christo- 
pher II. 

1334. InteiTegnm. 

1340. Wald. III. 

1375. Interregnm. 

1376. OlausV. 

1387. Margaret. 



1448. Christian I 



1481. John. 



-:204.Theodo 

1222. John 

Ducas. 

i255.Theo.2 
1258. John 
Lascaris. 
259. Mich. 8, 



1289. Anarch. 
i2go.Premis- 

las. 
i2g6.Ladis.4 



1300. Win- 
ceslas. 



1333. Cas. 3. 



1370. Louis. 

1382. Mary. 
1384. Hedw 
1396. Lad. 5, 



1434. Lad. 6. 
1445. Casi.4. 

1492. Albert 



1282. Andro 
nicus II. 



Popes. 



1061. Alex. II. 

1073. Greg. VII. 
'6. Victor III. 
8. Urban II. 
1099. Pascal II. 



111B. 
nig. 
1 1 24. 
1 1 30. 
1143. 
1144. 
1145. 
H53- 
1154. 
iiS9 
1181 
1185 
1187 



Gelas. II. 
Calixt. II. 
Honor. II. 
Innoc. II. 
Celest. II. 
Lucius II. 
Eugen.III. 
Anasta.IV. 
Adrian IV. 
Alex. III. 
Lucius III. 
Urban III. 
Greg.VIII. 
Clem. III. 
Celest. III. 
Innoc. III. 



1332. And. 3. 
1341. Johns. 



1 39 1. Man- 
uel VI. 



1425. John 6. 
1448. Con- 
stant. 13. 



Turkey. 



1433. Ma- 
homet II. 
i48i.Bajaz.2 



1227 
1241 
1243 
1254 
1261 
1265. 
1268 
1271 



1276 
1277. 
1281 
1285 
1288 
1292 
1294 



Honor. III. 

Greg. IX. 

Celest. IV. 

Innoc. IV. 

Alex. IV. 

Urban IV. 

Clem. IV. 
9. Vacant. 

Gregory X. 

Innoc. V. 

Adrian V. 

John XXI 

Nichol.III 

Martin IV. 

Honor. IV. 

Nich. IV. 
■3. Vacant. 

Celest. V. 
Bon if. VIII 



Naples and Sicily. 



1131. Roger Guiscard II. 

1154. William I. 
1166. William I. 



1189. Tancred. 

1 194. William III. 

1 197. Fred. II. of Germany. 



1250. Conrad. 

1254. Conradin. 

1258. Manfred. 

1266. Charles of Anjou, 



Sicily. 

1282. Peter 

of Arragon 

1285. Chas.2. 1285. James, 



1295. Fred.2 



1303, 
1305, 

i3 J 4- 
1316, 

1334 
1342 
13S2. 
1362. 

*37° 



Bened. XI. J1309. Robt. 

Clement V. 

(Avignon). 

15. Vacant. 

John XXII. 

Bene. XI I. 

Clem. VI. 

Innoc. VI. 

Urban V. 
(Rome). 

Greg. XL 

Urban VI. 

Bonif. IX. 



1404 
1406. 
1409, 
1410 
1417 
1431 
1447 
1455 



1471 
1484 
1492 



Innoc. VII. 

Greg. XII. 

Alex. V. 
JohnXXIII 

Martin V. 

Eugen. IV. 

NicholasV. 

Calix. III. 

Pius II. 

Paul II. 
, Sixtus IV. 

Inno. VIII. 

Alex. VI. 



*337- 
1343. Joan 1342 
& Andrew 1355. 
of Hung. 
1349. Louis. 1376 
& 
i38i.Chas. 3. 
i385.Ladislas. 



Peter 2. 
.Louis. 
Fred. 3. 

. Maria 
Martin, 



1402. Mart. 1. 

1409. Mart. 2. 
1414. Joan 2. (Uiiiied to- 

Arragon.) 

1410. Ferd. i_ 
1416. Alio. 1 

1435. Alfonso I. 

i4S8.Ferd.i. 1458. John. 

i 494 . Alfo.z.^' Ferd. 

1495. Ferd.2. 

1496. Fred.2. 



TABLE OF CONTEMPORARY 



Great Britain. 



England. 



1509. Hen. 8. 



1547. Ed. VI. 
1553. Mary. 
1558. Eliz. 



Scotland. 



1 51 3. Jas. V. 



1542. Mary. 



1567. Jas. VI. 



France. 



1515. Francis I. 



1547. Henry II. 

1559. Francis II. 

1560. Charles IX. 

1574. Henry III. 
1589. Henry IV. 



1603. Jas. I. (VI. of Scot.) 
1625. Charles I. 



1649. Commonwealth. 
1660. Charles II. 

1685. James II. 

1689. William and Mary. 

1694. William III. 



1610. LouisXIII 



1643. Louis XIV, 



1702. Anne. 
1714. George I. 

1727. George II. 



1760. George III. 



17S3. [United States in- 
dependent. ] 



181 1. (George, Prince of 
- Wales, regent.) 



1820. George IV. 



1330. William IV. 
1837. Victoria. 



1715. Louis XV. 



1774. Louis XVI 



1793. Lou. XVII. 
Republic I. 



Peninsula. 



Castile and 
Leon. 



1504. Joanna & Ferdinand n . 
Philip I. 



Spain. 



1512. Ferd.V.(Cast.)II. (Arragon). 
1516. Charles I. (V. of Germ. 1519). 



1556. Philip II. 



598. Philip III. 



1621. Philip IV. 

1665. Charles II. 
1700. Philip V. 



Holland. 



1579. William of 
Orange, stadt- 
holder. 

1587. Maurice 



1625. Fred. Hen. 



1647. William II. 
1650-72. No 

stadtholder. 

1672. Will. Hen. 
(Will. III. 0/ 
England.) 



1724. (abdicated). 
„ Louis. 
Philip V. 

again. 

1746. Ferd. VI. 
1759. Chas. III. 



1702-47. No 

xtadtholder. 



1747. Will. Hen. 
1757. Will. IV. 




1521. John III. 



1557. Sebastian. 



1578. Henry. 
15S0. Annexed, to 
S2Min. 



Kingdom restored 

1640. John of 

Braganza. 
1656. Alfonso VI. 
1667. Peter, 

regent. 
1683. Peter II. 



(Emperors — Kings of 
Hungary.) 

1558. Ferdinand. 
1564. Maximilian II. 

1576. Kodolph II. 



1612. llathias. 
1619. Ferdinand II. 

1637. Ferdinand III. 
1658. Leopold I. 



iqci. Edward VII. 



1802. Consulate. 
1804. Napoleon I. 
I 8i 4 .Lou.XVIII. 



1824. Charles X. 



1830. Lou. Philip. 
1848. Republic IL 



1852. Napol. III. 



1870. Repub. Ill 
1871.L. A. Thiers 
president. 
1873. Marshal 

MaeMahon, 
i879.Juli's(;i('vy, 
i887.SadiCarnot 

1894. Casimir- 

IVriiT. 

1895. Felix Faure 
1899. Bmile 

Loubet. 



1788. Chas. IV. 
(abdicated). 



1795. Annexed to 
France. 



1806. Louis,/a»f/. 



1808. Ferd. VII. 
(dethroned). 

Jos. Bonap. j Netherlands. 
1814. Ferd. VII. 



(restored). 



1814. Will. Fred. 
king.* 



1833. Isabella II. 

r,,„ 1 1 j 7 j\ ! 1 840. William II 

1868. (dethroned), i ' 



1870. Amadeus. 
[abdicated) 1873. 



1873. Republic. 

1874. Alfons.XII. 
died 25 Nov, 



1849. Will. III. 



3go. Wilhcl- 
miiin. 



1706. John V. 



1750. Joseph. 



1777. Maria and 
Peter III. 

1786. Maria, 
alone. 

1 791. Joh.n,regent 



1705. Joseph p russia< 
17n.Chas.6- AA " ooia " 



.1701. Fred. 1, 

1713. Fred.- 

i William 1. 

1742. Chas. 7. 1740. Fred. 2, 

1745. Francis 

. 

1765. Jos. 2. 



1786. Fred.- 

I William 2. 

i7go.Leop.2. 1797. Fred.- 

1792. Fran. 2. Williams. 



1816. John VI. 
1826. Peter IV. 
Maria II. 
1828. Miguel. 



1833. Maria II. 

1853. Peter V. 
1 861. Luis I. 

1889. Carlos I. 



Austria. 



1806. Fran. I. 



1835. Ferd. 2. 

1848. Francis 1S40. Fred.- 
Jcseph. William 4. 

1S60. Will. 1. 
1871. Ger- 
man e?))2'<?- 
ror. 
iSSS. Fred. 

III. 

1S8S William 

II. 



* Belgium. — 1831. Leopold I. 
,, 1865. Leopold II. 



EUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS, continued. 



Scandinavia. 



Sweden. 



Norway. 



1520. Christian II. 



1523. Gustavus 
Vasa. 



1560. Eric XIV. 
1568. John III. 

1592. Sigismund 



Russia.* 
1533. Ivan IV. 



1584. Feodor I. 



1598. Boris. 



1604. Chas. IX. 

1611. Gustavus 

Adolphus. 

1633. Christina. 

1654. Chas. X. 
1660. Chas. XL 



1597. Chas. XII. 



1606. Basil. 
1613. Michael 
j (Romanoff). 

1645. Alexis. 

1676. Feodor. 
1682. Ivan V. <S 
Peter I. 
!q. Peter I. 



Denmark. 



1513. Christn.II. 

1523. Fredrick I. 
and Norway. 

1534. Christ. III. 
1559. Fred. II. 

1588. Christn.IV. 



1719. Ulrica and 
Frederick I. 



1741. Fred. I. 

1751. Adolphus 

Frederick. 



1771.Gustav.III. 



1792. Gustav. IV. 



1809. Chas. XIII. 
1814. Norway an- 
nexed. 
1S18. Chas. XIV. 



1844. Oscar I. 



1859. Chas. XV. 



1725. Cather. I. 
1727. Peter II. 
1730. Anne. 

1740. Ivan VI. 

1 741. Elizabeth. 



1762. Peter III. 
Cather. II. 



1796. Paul I. 



1 801. Alexand. I. 
1828. Nicholas. 



1855. Alex. II. 



1872. Oscar II. 1881. Alex. III. 
1894. Nicholas II. 



1648. Fred. III. 
1670. Christn. V. 

1699. Fred. IV. 



Poland. 



Turkish 
Empire. 



Italy. 



1501. Alex, j 

1506. Sig. I. 1512- Selim. 

1520. Soly- 
l man II. 



1548. Sig. II. 



1 573- Henry. 
1575. Steph. 
1587. Sig. 3. 



1730. Christn. VI. 
1746. Fred. V. 
1766. Christ.VII. 
i784.PrinceFred. 



1808. Fred. VI. 
1814. Norway 
taken away. 



1 S39. Chris. VI 1 1. 
1848. Fred. VII. 



1863. Chrisn. IX. 



1632. Lad. 7. 

1648. John C. 
1669. Mich. 
1674. John 

Sobieski. 
1697. Fredk. 

August. 1. 



1566. Sel. 2. 

1574. Amu- 
rath III. 



1595. Mah. 3. 



Popes. 



1503 

1513 
1522 

1523 
J534 
1550. 
1555 

1559 
1566. 
1572, 
1585- 
1590. 

1591- 
1592. 



Pius III. 
Julius II. 
LeoX. 
Adrian VI. 
Clem. VII. 
Paul III. 
Julius III. 
Marcel. II. 
Paul IV. 
Pius IV. 
Pius V. 
Greg.XIII. 
Sixtus V. 
Urban VII. 
Greg. XIV. 
Innoc.IX. 
Clem.VIII. 



1704. Stan. 1. 

1709. Fredk. 
Augustus, 
restored. 

1733- Fredk, 
August. 2. 

1764. Stan.2. 



1795. Parti- 
tion. 



Greece. 



1832. Othol. 



1603. Ach. 1. 1605. Leo. XL 

1617. Mus. 1. Paul V. 

1618. Osm.2. I1621. Greg. XV. 

1622. Musta-'i623.UrbanVIII. 
pba, again. (1644. InnocentX. 

1623. Am. 4. : 1655. Alex. VII. 
1640. Ibrah. \t(>6t. Clem. IX. 
1648. Mah. 4. ! 1670. Clem. X. 
1687. Sol. 3. ! 1676. Innoc. XL 
1691. Ach. 2. 1689. Alex. VIII. 
1695. Mus. 2. 1691. Innoc. XII. 



1703. Ach. 3. 



1730. Mah. 5. 



1754. Osm.3. 
1757. Mus. 3. 



1774. Abdul- 
Hamid I. 
or Ach. 4. 

i78g.Selm.3. 



1863. Geo. I. 



1807. Mus. 4. 

1808. Mah- 
mud 6. 



1839. Abdul 
Sledjid. 



1861. Abdul 

Aziz. 
1876. Amu- 
rath V. May 
1876. Abdul- 
Hamid II. 
Aug. 



1700. Clem. XL 

1721. Inno.XIII. 
1724. Bene.XIII. 

1730. Clem. XII. 
1740. Bene. XIV, 



1758. Clem.XIII, 
1769. Clem. XIV 
1775. Pius VI. 



1800. Pius VII. 



1823. Leo XII. 



1806. Joseph 
Bonaparte 

1829. Pius VIII. „ „ T . 
183?. Greg. XVI. ***£«*■ 



Naples and Sicily. 



1501. United to Spain. 



Naples and 
Sicily. 



i7i 3 .Chas. 3 . 
Naples. 
Victor- 
Am. of Sa- 
voy, Sicily. 

1 720 Annexed 

to Germany. 

1738. Chas. 4. 
Naples. 

1759. Fred.4. 
Sicily. 



Naples. 



1846. Pius IX. 



Naples and 
Sicily. 



1815. Ferd.i. 
1825. Fran. 1. 
1830. Ferd.2. 
i859.Fran.2. 
i86oAnnexed 
to Italy. 



3. Leo XIII. 



1903. Pius X. 



Sardinia.t 



1720. Victor- 
Amadeus. 

1 730. Charles 
Ernman. 1. 

1773. Victor- 
Amadeus2. 

1 796. Charles 
Emman. 2. 



1802. Victor- 

Emman. 1. 
1 805^4 nnexed 

to kingdom 

of Italy. 
1814. Victor- 

Emman. 1. 
1821. Charles 

Felix. 
1831. Charles 

Albert. 
1849. Victor- 

Emman. 2. 



Italy. 



1861. Victor-Emmanuel. 
1878. Humbert. 



'1900. Victor-Emmanuel 
III. 



* See Article Russia for preceding Rulers. 
t See Article Savoy. 



POPULATION AND GOVERNMENTS OF THE WORLD. 

{According to the Almanack de Gotha ; see articles Population, and the countries throughout 

the book.) 



COUNTRIES— RELIGIONS. 



Anhalt, E. Population in Dec. 1900 
Argentine Confederation, R.C. 

Dec. 1900 
Austrian Emp. B.C. (after ces- 
sion 1866) Dec. 1900 

Baden, R.C Dec. 1900 

Bavaria, R.C. (after cessions 

1866) 1900 

Belgium, R.C Dec. 1900 

Bolivia, R.C 1897 

Brazil, R. C 1891 

Brunswick, L 1900 

Bulgaria 19°° 

Chili, R.C. (estimated) . . . 1899 
Chinese Empire (estimated), B. 1897 

Colombia, state, R. C 1895 

Costa Rica, R.C (estimated) . 1899 
Denmark <fc colonies, L. (estm.) 1901 

Egypt, &C., M 1897 

Equator (Ecuador), R.C. . ■ 1897 

France alone, R.C 1896 

Germany, R.C.,L. and E. Dec. 1900 
Great Britain and colonies, P. 

(estimated) 1901 

Greece cfe Ion. Is. 6.C. (estim.) . 1896 

Guatemala, R.C 1900 

Hayti (estimated) 1894 

Hesse-Darmstadt, L 1900 

Holland, not colonies, C. Dec. 1900 

Honduras, R.C 1900 

Italy, R.C 1901 

Japan (estimated) 1899 

Liberia, P 1897 

Liechtenstein, R. C 1891 

Lippe, C Dec. 1900 

Luxemburg, R.C 1900 

Mecklenburg-SchwerimZ.Dec. 1900 
Mecklenlmrg-Strelitz, L. . . 19™ 
Mexico, R.C. (estimated) . . 1900 

Monaco, R.C ig°i 

Montenegro, G.C. (estimated) . 1891 

Morocco, M about 

Nicaragua, .R.C 1897 

Oldenburg, P. (estimated) . . 1900 

Panama, R.C 1896 

Papal States annexed to Italy ■ '87° 

Paraguay, R.C 19°° 

Persia, M. (estimated) 

Peru, R. C. (estimated) . . .1896 

Portugal, R.C Dec. 1900 

Prussia, E Dec. 1900 

Reuss, L ig 00 

Roumania '899 

Russia, G.C, Poland, &e. (est.) 1897 
San Marino, R.C (estimated) . 1901 
San Salvador, R. (. . . . Jan. 1901 

Saxe-Altenburg, P 19 00 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, L. . . . 1900 

Saxe-Meiningen, L 19°° 

Saxe-^Veimar-Eisenach, L. . 1900 

Saxony, P 19°° 

Schaumburg-I.ippe, L. . . . 1900 
Schwartzburg-Rudolstadt, £. . 1900 
Schwartzburg-Sondershaus. L. 1900 

Servia, G.C 190° 

Spain, R.C Dec. 1897 

St. Domingo, R.C. (estimated) 1887 
Sweden, Norway, L. (estmtd.) . 1900 
Switzerland, R.C. and V. Dec. 1900 
Transvaal, V. (estimated) . . 1895 
Turkish Empire, M. (estimtd.) 1897 

Uruguay , R.C Dec. 1900 

Venezuela, R.C • 1891 

Wiirtemberg, L 1900 

United States of N.America.P. 1900 



45,310,835 
1,866,584 

6,i75,i53 

6,815,054 

2,000,000 

17,000,000 

464,333 

3,733,189 

3,110,085 

303,24!, 969 

5,000,000 

310,000 

2,578,999 

9,700,000 

1,270,000 

38,517,975 

56,356,246 

394,064,800 

2,430,807 

i,574,338 

1,000,000 

1,119,893 

5,'79,I38 

587,500 

32,449,754 

46,450,9" 

1,500,000 

9,434 

139,238 

236,543 

607,835 

102,628 

13,545,462 

15,180 

200,000 

8,000,000 

310,000 

399,i83 

311,000 

635,571 

7,500,000 

4,559,550 

5,428,8co 

34,468,730 

138,993 

5,912,520 

129,211,113 

9,535 

915.512 

194,914 

229,550 

250,683 

362,873 

4,199,758 

43,132 

93,o59 

80,898 

2,493,770 

18,089,500 

350,000 

7,376,321 

3,3i3,8i7 

325,000 

39,500,000 

930,680 

2,323,527 

2,160,434 

76,356,000 



Frederick, duke . . . 

Gen. Roca, president . 

Francis-Joseph, emperor 
Frederick, grand-duke . 



Otho, king 

Leopold II., king. . . . 
Gen. JosC- M. Pando, pres. 
Dr. F. de P. R. Alves . . 
Prince Albert of Prussia,r<?0< 
Ferdinand, prince . . . 
Sen. German Riesco . 
Kwang Hsu, emperor . 
J. M. Marroquin, president 
Asencion Esquivel, pres. . 
Christian IX., king ■ . . 
Abbas Hilmi, kliedive . . 
Gen. L. Plaza, president . 
Emile Loubet, president . 
William II., emperor . ■ 

Edward VII., king . . . 
George I., king ..... 
Manuel E. Cabrera, pres. 
Gen. Nord Alexis, pres. . 
Ernest Louis, grand-duke 
Wilhelmina, queen . . . 
Gen. M. Bonilla, president . 
Victor Emmanuel, III., king 
Mutsuhito, mikado . . ■ 
, president 
John II., prince .... 
Alexander, prince . . . 
Adolphus, grand-duke. . . 
FredericFrancis TV.gd.-dukc 
Frederic W illiam , grnd-duke 
Porfirio Diaz, president . . 
AlbertHonore' Charles,»r?icc 
Nicholas I., prince . . . 
Muley Abdul Aziz, sultan 
Gen. Zelaya, president . . 
Frederick Augustus, gd.duke 



19 Aug. 1856 



18 Aug. 1 30 
9 Sept. 1826 . 

27 April, 1848 
9 April, 1835 
25 Dec. 1849 



8 May, 1837 . 
26 Feb. 1861 



15 Aug. 1871 

7 Aug. 1827 . 

8 April, 1818 
14 July, 1874 



31 Dec. 1838 
27 Jan. 1859 



9 Nov. 1841 . 
24 Dec. 1845 



25 Nov. 1868 
31 Aug. 1880 



11 Nov. 1869 
3 Nov. 1852 . 



5 Oct. 1840 . 

16 Jan. 1831 . 
21 July, 1817 
9 April, 1882 

17 Oct. 1819 . 



Sen. Escurra, president 
Muzaffer-ed-Deen, shah 
Sen. Manuel Candamo, pi 
Carlos, king ■ . . 
William II., king. . 
Henry XXIV., prince 
( 'lis. of Hohenzollern.fcinff 
Nicholas II., czar . . 
Capitani reggenti . ■ ■ 
Sen. Escalon, presidi nt 
Ernest, duke .... 
Charles Edward ■ ■ . 
(ieorge II., duke . . . 
YV illiam Ernest, grand-duk 
George, king .... 
George, prince .... 
Gonthier, prince . ■ ■ 
Charles, prince .... 
Peter I., king ■ • 
Alfonso XIII. , king 

A. Woss, president ■ . 
Oscar II., King • • ■ 

B. Comtesse, president 
Lord Milner, govt rnor 
Abdul-llaniid lI.,suW 
Sen. Batch', president 
Gen. Castro, president 
William I l.,king. ■ 
Theodore Roosevelt, pres 



13 Nov. 1848 
7 Oct. 1841 . 



ACCESSION. 



1852 . . 
16 Nov. iE 



25 March, 1853 

28'Se'pt. 1863 
27 Jan. 1859 
20 March, 1S7S 

20 April, 1839 

18 May, 1868 

24 March, 1857 
16 Sept. 1826 

19 July, 1884 
2 April, 1S26 
10 June, 1876 
8 Aug. 1832 . 
10 Oct. 1846 . 

21 Aug. 1852 
7 Aug. 1830 . 



1844. . . 
17 May, 1886 

21 Jan. 1829 



22 Sept. 1842 

12 Oct. i860' 
25 Feb. 1S48 
27 Oct. 1858 



1904 

12 Oct. 1898. 

2 Dec. 1848. 
5 Sept. 1856. 

13 June, 1886. 
10 Dec. 1865. 
25 Oct. 1899. 
15 Nov. 1902. 

21 Oct. 1885. 

7 July, 1887. 
18 Sept. 1901. 

12 Jan. 1875. 
Jan. 1900. 

8 May, 1902. 
15 Nov. 1863. 
7 Jan. 1892. 

17 Sept. 1901. 

18 Feb. 1899. 
15 June, 1888. 

22 Jan. 1901. 

5 June, 1863. 
2 Oct. 1898. 
1902. 

13 March, 1892 

23 Nov. 1890. 
1 Feb. 1903. 
29 July, 1900. 

13 Feb. 1867. 
May, 1903. 

12 Nov. 1858. 
20 March, 1895 
23 Nov. 1890. 
10 April, 1897. 

6 Sent. i860. 

I Dec. 1884. 
10 Sept. 1889. 

14 Aug. i860. 

II June, 1894. 
June, 1901. 

13 June, 1900. 



2S Sept. 1902. 
1 May, 1896. 
8 Sept. 1903. 
19 Oct. 1880. 
15 June, 1S88. 

19 April, 1902. 

20 April, 1866. 
1 Nov. 1894. 

1 March, 1903. 
3 Aug. 1853. 

30 July, 1900. 

20 Sept, 1866. 

5 Jan. 1901. 
10 June, 1Q02. 
8'May, 1893. 
10 Jan. 1890. 
17 July, 1S80. 
is June, 1003. 
17 May, 188 
1903. 

iS Sept. 1872. 
1 Jan. 1904. 

21 June, 1902. 

31 Aug. 1876. 

1 March, 1903. 
28 Oct. 1901. 

6 Oct. 1891. 
14 Sept. 1901. 



Predominant Relioions.— R.C, Roman Catholic; G.C. Greek Church; P., Protestant; L.. Lutheran ; E., 
Evangelical Church— a combination of Calvinists and Lutherans; C, Calvinist or Eeformed; HI., Mahometan; 
i\, Buddhist. 



DICTIONARY OF DATES. 



AARGAU. 



ABDICATIONS. 



AARGAU (Switzerland), till 1798 included in 
Berne, was made an independent canton in 1803, 
and settled as such in 1815. Population 188,000. 
Augustine Keller (d. 1883), Swiss educationalist, 
successfully agitated against Jesuit teaching in 
schools 1840-4 ; and the expulsion of the Jesuits 
was decreed in 1847. The capital is Aarau. Popu- 
lation 6,800. Heinrich Zschokke, novelist and 
historian (d. 1848), lived here. 

ABACUS, the tile on the capital of a column. 
That on the Corinthian column is ascribed to Calli- 
machus, about 540 B.C. — This name is also given to 
a frame traversed by stiff wires, on which beads are 
strung, used for calculating by the Greeks, Itomans, 
and Chinese. M. Lalanne published an abacus 
at Paris in 1845, a form of which is used in English 
infant schools, 1902. In the United States it is 
called " The Adder." — The multiplication table has 
been called the Pythagorean abacus. 

ABANCAY, a river in Peru, on the banks 
of which the Spanish marshal Almagro defeated 
and took prisoner Alvarado, a partisan of Pizarro, 
12 July, 1537. 

ABATTOIRS, slaughter-houses for cattle. In 
1810 Napoleon decreed that five should be erected 
near Paris, which were opened on 15 Sept. 18 18. 
One was erected at Edinburgh in 1851, and they 
form part of the London metropolitan cattle-market, 
opened on 13 June, 1855. 

ABBASSIDES (ab'as-sidz). The name of 
the Arabian dynasty, descendants of Mahomet's 
uncle, Abbas-Ben-Abdul-Motalleb, born 556, died 
652. Merwan II., the last of the Ommiades, was 
defeated and slain by Abul Abbas in 750, who 
became caliph. Thirty-seven Abbasside caliphs 
(including Haroun al Raschid, 786-809) reigned 
from 750 to 1258. They settled at Bagdad, built 
by Al-Mansour about 762. Their colour was black ; 
that of the Eatimites being green, and that of the 
Ommiades white. 

ABBAYE, a military prison near St. Germain 
des Pres, Paris, where 164 prisoners were murdered 
by infuriated republicans led by Maillard, 2 and 
3 Sept. 1792. 

ABBEVILLE, fortified port, N. France. Here 
Henry III. met Louis IX. of France and made 
peace, renouncing his right to Normandy and other 
provinces, 20 May, 1259. In 1841 flint implements 
found here associated with remains of the mam- 
moth and rhinoceros gave rise to the controversy 
on the antiquity of man. Pop. 19,772. 



ABBEYS, monasteries for men or women ; see 
Monachism and Convents. The first abbey founded 
in England was at Bangor in 560 ; in France, at 
Poitiers, about 360 ; in Ireland in the fifth century ; 
in Scotland in the sixth century. no alien 
priories were suppressed in England, 2 Henry V. 
1414. Salmon. The gross disorders in these esta- 
blishments occasioned their destruction in Britain. 
After visitations of inquiry, king Henry VIII. com- 
menced the suppression of small monasteries to raise 
revenues for Wolsey's colleges at Oxford and Ips- 
wich, 7 June, 1525 ; many small monasteries were 
suppressed in 1536; and all religious houses were 
suppressed throughout the realm by parliament, 
1539-40: — 186 large monasteries (revenue 104,919/. 
13s. 3^.), 374 lesser monasteries (revenue 33,479/. 
13s. fid.), and 48 houses of the knights hospitalieis 
(revenue 2385/. 12s. 8d. ; total, houses, 608; esti- 
mated revenue, 140,784/. 19s. o%d.) Tanner. The 
Anglo-IS orman record society for the publication of 
the early chartularies and charters of the Norman 
and English abbeys was founded by the duke of 
Norfolk and others, 9 June, 1893. Abbeys were 
suppressed in Austria (by Joseph II.) in 1 780, in 
France in 1790, in Portugal in 1834, in Sardinia 
in 1855, in Mexico in 1861, in Spain in 1837 and 
1868, and in Italy in July, 1866, and April, 1873. 

ABBOT (from Ab, father), the head of an abbey. 
In England, mitred abbots were lords of parliament ; 
twenty-seven abbots and two priors thus distin- 
guished, 1329; the number reduced to twenty-five, 
1396. Coke. The abbots of Reading, Glastonbury, 
and St. John's, Colchester, were executed as traitors 
for denying the king's supremacy, probably for not 
surrendering their abbeys, 1539 ; see Glastonbury. 

ABBOT'S RIPTON, see Hallway Accidents, 
1876. 

ABC CLUB, a name adopted by certain 
republican enthusiasts in Paris, professing to re- 
lieve the abaisses, or depressed. Their insurrection 
5 June, 1832, was suppressed with bloodshed, 6 June. 
These events are described by Victor Hugo in " Les 
Misirables" (1862). 

ABC PROCESS, derives its name from a 
method of purifying sewage by sulphate of alumina, 
blood, charcoal and clay. 

ABC RESTAURANTS, see under Aerated 
Waters. 

ABDICATIONS of sovereigns, voluntary or 
compulsory, have been numerous : — 
Sylla, Roman dictator B.C. 79 



ABECEDARIANS. 

Diocletian, Roman emperor . . . . a.d. 305 

Stephen II., of Hungary 1131 

Albert, the Bear of Brandenburg. . . . 1142 

Lescov V. of Poland 120c 

Uladislaus III. of Poland 1206 

John Balliol, of Scotland . . . . 1296 

Otho (of Bavaria), of Hungary 1309 

Erie IX., of Denmark, &c 1439 

Pope Felix V 1449 

Charles V., as emperor of Germany . . 25 Oct. 1555 
,, as Charles I. king of Si>ain 16 Jan. 1556 

Christina, of Sweden 16 June, 1654 

John Casimir, of Poland 1669 

James II. , of England . . . fled 11 Dec. 1688 
Frederick Augustus II., of Poland .... 1704 

Philip V. of Spain (resumed) 1724 

Victor Amadeus, of Sardinia . . 1730 

Charles, of Naples 1759 

Stanislaus, of Poland 1795 

Charles Emmanuel II., of Sardinia . . 4 June, 1802 
Francis II., of Germany, who became emperor of 

Austria 11 Aug. 1804 

Charles IV., of Spain, m favour of his son, 19 March ; 

in favour of Bonaparte ; see Spain . . 1 May, 1808 
Joseph Bonaparte, of Naples (for Spain) . r June. 1808 

Gustavus IV. , of Sweden 1809 

Louis, of Holland 1 July, 1810 

Jerome, of Westphalia 20 Oct. 1813 

Napoleon I. , of France .... 5 April, 1814 
Victor Emmanuel of Sardinia . . 13 March, 1821 
Pedro IV., of Portugal .... 2 May, 1826 

Charles X., of France 2 Aug. 1830 

Pedro I. , of Brazil 7 April, 1831 

Dom Miguel, of Portugal (by leaving it) 26 May, 1834 

"William I., of Holland 8 Oct. 1840 

Louis-Philippe, of France ... 24 Feb. 1848 

Louis Charles, of Bavaria . . . 21 March, 1848 
Ferdinand, of Austria .... 2 Dec. 1848 
Charles Albert, of Sardinia . . . 23 March, 1849 
Leopold II., of Tuscany .... July, 1859 
Bernhard, of Saxe-Meiningen . . 20 Sept. 1866 
Isabella II., of Spain .... 25 June, 1870 

Amadeus, of Spain n Feb. 1873 

Prince Alexander of Bulgaria (comjmlsory) . 7 Sept. 1886 
Milan, King of Servia 6 March, 1889 

ABECEDARIANS, followers of Storch, an 
Anabaptist in the sixteenth century, derived their 
name from their rejection of all worldly knowledge, 
even of the alphabet. 

ABDUCTION. Carrying off of women in the 
Middle Ages was regarded rather as gallantry than 
crime : since the Statute of Merton, 20 Hen. III., 
many Acts passed, since repealed. The Acts now in 
force are the Criminal Law Consolidation Act 1861, 
and the Criminal Law Amendment Act, 188c;. It 
is felony to take away or detain against Ler will for 
improper prrposcsany woman of any age, or to 
allure or take from her parents or legal guardians a 
woman under the age of 21. The mere abduction 
of an unmarrii d girl under 16 is punisha^e by tw r o 
years' imprisonment, and if taken away for the pur- 
pose of seduction under the age of 18 the same 
penalty is incurred. The consent of the girl is 
no defence. The abduction of a child under 14 
is punishable by 14 years' imprisonment as the 
maximum penalty. 

ABELARD, a celebrated teacher of theology 
and logic, in 11 18 fell in love with Heloi'se, the 
niece of Fulbert, a canon of Paris, became her tutor, 
and seduced her. After a compulsory marriage, he 
placed her iii a convent. Having been cruelly muti- 
lated at the instigation of her relatives, he entered 
the abbey of St. Denis. Compelled to depart thence, 
accused of heresy, he buill and lectured at the 
Paraclete, which eventually he made a convent, 
villi llclo'ise for the abbess. He died 21 April, 
1 142, and was buried in the Paraclete, where also 
Heloiae was laid, 17 May, 1164. Their ashes were 
removed to the garden of the Museum Francois in 



ABERDEEN ACT. 



1800, and to Pere la Chaise in 181 7. Their epistles^ 
&c, were published in 1616. 

ABENCERRAGES, a Moorish tribe of 
Granada, opposed to Ihe Zegris. From 1480 to 1492 
they constantly fought. They were exterminated by 
Boabdil (Abu Abdallah), the last king, who wae- 
dethroned by Ferdinand and Isabella in 1492; his 
dominions were annexed to Castile. 

ABENSBERG, Bavaria. The Austrians were 
here defeated by Napoleon I., 20 April, 1809. 

ABEOKUTA, see Dahomey. 

ABERDEEN (N. Scotland), said to have been 
founded in the third century after Christ, and erected 
into a city about 893. Old Aberdeen was made a 
royal burgh in 1 154 ; the thatched timber-town 
was burnt by the English in 1336; and soon after 
New Aberdeen was built. Since building of Union 
Street in 1800 it has been termed the " Granite 
City." A statue of the prince consort was inaugu- 
rated by the queen 13 Oct. 1863 ; and one of queen 
Victoria by the prince of Wales, 20 Sept. 1866, 
Population, 1901, 153,108. 

St Machar's cathedral, 1357-1527, restored 1869. 

King's college was founded by bishop William Elphin- 
stone, who had a bull from pope Alexander VI. in 1494. 

The University was erected in 1500-6. Marisclial college 
was founded by George Keith, earl marischal of Scot- 
land, in 1593 ; rebuilt in 1837. In i860 the university 
and colleges were united. By the reform act of 1868- 
the universities of Aberdeen and Glasgow send one 
member to parliament. Sir Erasmus Wilson gives- 
10,000?. to endow a chair of pathological anatomy, 1882. 

Lord Strathcona, lord rector of the university, gives 
25,000?. towards the building fund (the public sub- 
scribed 30,000?.), is presented with the freedom of 
the city, 9 April, 1902. 

Robert Gordon's college, royal charters 1772-1779. In 
1881 reorganised. 

Aberdeen Journal 1748. The oldest newspaper north of 
the Forth. 

Royal infirmary established 1740, re-built 1840. Lord 
Mount Stephen gives 25,000?., and endows it with 
1000?. perann., April, 1902. 

Above 30 persons drowned by overcrowding a boat, 
April, 1876. 

Aberdeen farmers agitate for change in land laws ; abate- 
ment of rent, &c, Sept. 1881. 

Aberdeen market destroyed by fire, 29 April, 1882. 

Duthie-park, presented by Miss Duthie, opened by 
princess Beatrice, 27 Sept. 1883. 

The British Association meets here, 14 Sept. 1859 > an ^ 
9 Sept. 1885. 

The marquis of Lome uncovers a colossal statue off 
Wallace, 29 June, 1888. 

Mr. John Gray Chambers, of Banchory, bequeaths 
10,000?. to found a professorship of English literature 
in the university, with other bequests, Nov. 1890. 

Bronze statue of the queen, by Mr. Birch, a.r.a., un- 
veiled, 9 Nov. 1893. 

Address to czar on his way to Balmoral, 22 Sept. 1896. 

Fire at a music-hall (by panic 6 deaths), 30 Sept. 1896. 

Miss Jane Cruikshank gives 15,000?. for a botanic 
garden, April, i8q8. 

Sir George White opens the Gordon Highlanders' 
Memorial Institute, 23 Aug. 1902. 

Malcolm III. having gained a great victory over 
the Dane» in the year 1010, resolved to found anew 
Bishopric, in token of his gratitude for his success, 
and chose Mortlach in Banffshire, where St. Beauus 
was consecrated first bishop, 1015. The see, re- 
moved to Aberdeen early in the twelfth century, 
was discontinued at the revolution, 1689, and is 
now a post-revolution bishopric, instituted in 1721 ; 
Bee Bishops in Scotland. 

ABERDEEN ACT. introduced by the earl of 
Aberdeen, ami passed, 1845, to enforce the obser- 
vance of a convention made with Brazil in 1826 to 
put down the slave trade. Repealed in April, 1869. 



ABERDEEN ADMINISTRATION. 



ABOUKIR. 



ABERDEEN ADMINISTRATION, called 
the Coalition Ministry, as including Whigs, Radi- 
cals, and followers of sir R. Peel. Formed in con- 
sequence of the resignation of the first Derby ad- 
ministration ; sworn in, 28 Dec. 1852; resigned 
30 Jan. 1855 ; succeeded by the Palmer ston ad- 
ministration, which see. 
Earl of Aberdeen,* first lord of the treasury. 
Lord Cranworth, lord chancellor. 
Earl Granville, president of the council. 
Duke of Argyll, lord privy seal. 
Lord John Russell, f foreign secretary. 
Viscount Palmerston, home secretary. 
Duke of Newcastle,! colonial and war secretary. 
William Ewart Gladstone, chancellor of exchequer. 
Sir James Graham, first lord of the admiralty. 
Sir Charles Wood, president of the India board. 
Edward Cardwell, president of board of trade. 
Hon. Sidney Herbert, secretary-at-war. 
Sir William Molesworth, chief commissioner of works. 
Marquess of Lansdowne (without office). 
Viscount Canning, lord Stanley of Alderley, right hon. 

Edward Strutt, &c. 

ABERDEEN PEERAGE CASE. George, 
earl of Aberdeen, grandson of the premier, suc- 
ceeded his father, 22 March, 1864. After travelling 
in a yacht, he became a merchant seaman, and chief 
mate of the Hera ; he was drowned 27 Jan. 1870. 
His brother John's claim to the succession was 
allowed by the house of lords, 3 May, 1872. 

ABER EDW, S. Radnorshire. Near here 
Llewelyn, the last independent prince of Wales, 
was surprised and defeated by the lords marchers, 
II Dec. 1282. He escaped, but was betrayed and 
slain at Builth. 

ABERGELE (N. Wales), see Railway Acci- 
dents, 20 Aug. 1868. 

ABERRATION of Light ; the alteration in 

apparent position of a star produced by the motion 
of the earth in its orbit during the time that the 
light is coming from the star to the eye. Discovered 
by James Bradley (aft. astronomer-royal), through 
his observation of an apparent motion of 7 Draconis, 
a fixed star, 1727. 

ABERYSTWYTH (Cardigan Bay) . One of the 
chief watering-places of Wales. There are remains 
of the castle founded by Gilbert de Strongbow 1109. 
Below the castle is the University College of Wales, 
1872; destroyed by fire 1885, restored 1887 at a cost 
of £17,900. Pop. 1891, 6,725 ; 1901,8013. 

ABHORRERS, a name given in 1679 (reign 
of Charles II.) to the court party in England, the 
opponents of the Addressers (afterwards Whigs), 
so called from their address to the king praying 
for the immediate assembly of the parliament, which 
was delayed on account of its being adverse to the 
court. The former (afterwards Tories) expressed 
their abhorrence of those who endeavoured to en- 
croach on the royal prerogative, 1680. Hume. The 
commons expelled several members for being Ab- 
horrers, among them sir Francis Withens (whom 
they sent to the Tower), and prayed his majesty 
to remove others from places of trust. Oct. 1680. 

* Born in 1784 ; engaged in foreign diplomacy, 1813 : 
became foreign secretary, Jan. 1828 ; joined the party of 
sir R. Peel, 1846 ; died 13 Dee. i860. His " Life," by his 
son, 1893. 

t Lord John Russell was succeeded as foreign secre- 
tary by the earl of Clarendon (Feb. 1853), but continued 
a member of the cabinet, without office ; he afterwards 
became president of the council, in the room of earl 
Granville, appointed to the duchy of Lancaster (June, 
1854). 

t In June, 1854, the offices were separated ; the duke 
of Newcastle remained secretary of war, and sir George 
Grey was made colonial secretary. 



ABINGDON, BERKS- The ancient monas- 
tery, rebuilt about 955, was surrendered at the 
Reformation, 1538. The grammar school was founded 
in 1563, rebuilt 1870. Population in 1901, 6,480; 
In "1645, lord Essex and Waller held Abingdon 
against Charles I. The town was unsuccessfully 
attacked by sir Stephen Hawkins in 1644, and 
by prince Rupert in 1645. On these occasions the 
defenders put every prisoner to death without 
trial ; hence the term " Abingdon law." 

ABIOGENESIS, a term applied by prof. 
Huxley, 1870, to the theory that living matter 
may be produced from non-living. See Spontaneous 
Generation. 

ABJURATION of the pope was enjoined by- 
statute in the reigns of Henry VIII., Elizabeth, and 
James I., and of certain doctrines of the church 
of Rome by stat. 25 Charles II. 1673. The oath 
of abjuration of the house of Stuart was enjoined by 
stat. 13 & 14 Will. III. 1701 ; the form waschanged 
in after reigns. By 21 & 22 Vict. c. 48 (1858) one 
oath for the three oaths of abjuration, allegiance, 
and supremacy was substituted. See Oaths. 

ABKASIA, a province of the Caucasus, annexed 
by Russia, the last prince Michael Shervashiji being 
deposed: an insurrection against the Russian au- 
thorities, 8 Aug. 1866, was quelled with much 
bloodshed. 

ABNEY PARK, see Cemeteries. 

ABO, a port of Russia, founded prior to 1 157,. 
was till '1819 capital of Swedish Finland. It has 
suffered much by fire, especially in 1775 and 1827 ; 
was seized by the Russians in Feb. 1808 ; ceded to 
them, 17 Sept. 1809 ; and rebuilt by them after the 
great fire in 1827. The university, erected by Gus- 
tavus Adolphus and Christina, 1640 et seq., was 
removed to Helsingfors, 1827. The peace of Abo, 
by which Sweden ceded part of Finland to Russia, 
" 18 Aug. 1743. Pop. 38,000. 



ABOLITIONISTS, the party in the northern 
part of the United States opposed to slavery. A 
congress was held, 1774, and legislation attempted 
by the U.S. congress April 6, 1776. They formed a 
small society at Boston about 1832 ; which became 
the nucleus of a great political party, and ultimately 
attained its object by the war of 1861-4. See Slavery 
in United States. 

ABORIGINES (without origin), a name given 
to the earliest inhabitants of Italy; now applied 
to the original inhabitants of any country. — The 
Aborigines Protection Society was established in 
1838 ; annual meetings are held. Select Committee 
of the House of Commons report on natives in 
British colonies, 1837. Kidnapping Act, 1872, also 
a Protection Act, 1875, applies to Pacific Islands. 
African Conference of States at Brussels, 1885 and 
1889-90, to protect natives and suppress slavery. 

ABORTION. Any woman who unlawfully 
administers to herself any noxious thing, or uses 
any means whatever to procure a miscarriage, is 
guilty of felony. Any person aiding her is likewise 
guilty of felony, 24 & 25 Vict. c. 100, 1861. If the 
woman dies, or if the child is born alive but does 
not survive, the offence becomes murder. See Trials. 

ABOUKIR (Egypt) , the ancient Canopus. In 
the bay Nelson defeated the French fleet, I Aug. 
I 1798; see Nile. A Turkish army of 15,000 was 
! defeated here by 5000 French under Bonaparte, 25 
I July, 1799. A British expedition to Egypt under 
I general sir Ralph Abercromby landed here, and 

b 2 



ABEAHAM, EEA OF. 



ABYSSINIA. 



Aboukir surrendered to them after an obstinate and 
sanguinary conflict with the French, 8 March, 1801; 
see Alexandria. 

ABRAHAM, ERA OF, used by Eusebius ; so 
called from the patriarch Abraham, who died 1822 
B.C. The era began 1 Oct. 2016 B.C. To reduce 
this era to the Christian, subtract 2015 years and 
three months. 

ABRAHAM, HEIGHTS OF, near Quebec, 
Lower Canada. The French were defeated and 
Montcalm, their commander, killed here by general 
Wolfe, who fell in the moment of victory, 13 Sept. 
1759 ; see Quebec. 

ABRAHAMITES, a sect holding the errors of 
Paulus, was suppressed by Cyriacus, the patriarch 
of Antioch, early in the ninth century. A deistical 
sect (followers of John Huss) of this name was 
banished from Bohemia by Joseph II. in 1783. 

ABRANTES (Portugal) . By a treaty between 
France and Portugal, signed here 29 Sept. 1801, 
the war was closed, and the French army withdrew ; 
a money compensation having been agreed to, and 
territories in Guiana ceded to France. Pop. 6380. 

ABSCONDING DEBTORS ACT, passed 
9 Aug. 1870. 

ABSENTEE TAX (4s. in the pound), levied 
in Ireland in 1715 on the incomes and pensions 
of absentees (long complained of), ceased in 1753. 
A tax of 2s. in the pound was proposed in vain 
by Mr. Flood in 1773, and by Mr. Molyneux in 1783. 

ABSOLUTION. Till the 3rd centuiy, the 
consent of the congregation was necessary to abso- 
lution; but soon after the power was reserved to 
the bishop ; and in the 12th century the form " 1 
absolve thee" had become general. See Holy 
Cross. 

ABSTINENCE. It is mythically said that 
St. Anthony lived to the age of 105 on twelve ounces 
of bread and water daily, and James the hermit to 
the age of 104; that St. Epiphanius lived to 115 ; 
Simeon the Stylite to 112. 

Cicely de Ridgway, said to have fasted 40 days rather 
than plead when charged with the murder of her hus- 
band John ; discharged as miraculously saved, 1347. 

Ann Moore, the fasting woman of Tutbury, Staffordshire, 
said to have lived 20 months without food ; her im- 
posture detected by Dr. A. Henderson, Nov. 1808. 

A man named Cavanagh at Newry, in Ireland, was 
reported to have lived two years without meat or 
drink, Aug. 1840. His imposture was discovered in 
England, where he was imprisoned as a cheat, Nov. 184 1. 

Sarah Jacobs, the Welsh fasting girl, aged 13, said by her 
father to have lived for more than a year without food, 
after being closely watched for a week, died from ex- 
haustion 17 Dec. 1869. Her parents were sentenced at. 
Carmarthen to imprisonment for fraudulent deception, 
15 July, 1870. 

Dr. Tanner, at New York, was stated to have fasted 40 
days and nights, drinking a little water occasionally; 
losing 36 lb. from 157 J lb., noon 28 June to noon 
7 Aug. 1880. 

Mr. Griscom, of Chicago, said to have fasted 36 days, 
5 July, 1881. 

Louise Lateau, Belgian fanatic, at Bois d'Haine ; said to 
have lived twelve years without food, died, aged -l-i 
Aug 1883. 

[She had remarkable wounds resembling the stigmata on 
the crucifix.] 

Signor Succi, of Rome, said to have fasted 30 days, 1886 ; 
fast of 30 days, at Barcelona, 22 Sept. -23 Oct. 1888. 
Pasted 40 days at Westminster Aquarium, 17 March- 
26 April, 1890. Fast of 42 days by M. Alexandre 
Jacques at the same place, 21 Junc-2 Aug. 1890; 
again 31 July-19 Sept. (50 days), 1891. Succi fasted 



45 days at New York, concluded 20 Dec. 1890 ; at the 
Westminster Aquarium he engaged to fast 52 days, 
but stopped on the 44th day, 29 Jan. 1892. 

Signor Merlatti, of Paris, alleged to have fasted 50 days, 
drinking water; in good health, but greatly emaciated, 
15 Dec. 1886. 

Auguste Christensen, said to have fasted 35 days, drink- 
ing water, 10 Oct.-i4 Nov. 1901. 

Many other cases of long abstinence have been recorded. 
See Fasts, Teetotalers. 

Abstinents, an ascetic sect in Gaul and Spain : about 
288. 

ABU KLEA, about 120 miles from Khartoum. 
Here General Sir Herbert Stewart defeated the 
Mahdi's troops, 17 Jan. 1885. See under Soudan. 

ABYDOS, a city of Upper Egypt. Here a 
tablet was discovered dedicated to the memory of 
his ancestors by Barneses II. (about [322 B.C.). It 
was bought for the British Museum, [837. Another 
tablet was discovered by Mariette in 1865. Other 
discoveries 1902-03. Also a town in Asia Minor, 
celebrated as the place whence (480 B.C.) Xerxes 
and his great army passed into Europe. See 
Hellespont. 

ABYSSINIA, the country of the Habese, 
N.E. Africa. Its ancient history is very uncer- 
tain. The kingdom of the Axumitae (its chief 
town Axum) flourished in the 1st and 2nd 
centuries after Christ. Christianity was intro- 
duced about 329 by Frumentius, consecrated 
Bishop of Abyssinia by St. Athanasius. Between 
470 and 480 monasteries were established. In 522 
Caleb, king of Abyssinia, at the request of the 
emperor Justinian, conquered Yemen. The Ethio- 
pians possessed at that time the richest part of 
Arabia, traded to India, and were in constant com- 
munication with Greece. In the 7th century the 
Mohammedans expelled them from Arabia, and by 
the conquest of Egypt cut them off from the 
civilised world. About 960, Judith, a Jewish 
princess, murdered a great part of the royal 
family, and reigned forty years. The young 
king escaped : and the royal house was restored 
in 1268 in the person of his descendant Icon 
Amlac. In the middle ages it was said to 
be ruled by Prester John, or Prete Janni. The 
Portuguese missions, commenced in the 15th cen- 
tury, after much struggling against opposition, 
were expelled about 1633. The encroachments of 
the Gallas and intestine disorders soon after broke 
up the empire into petty governments. From the 
visits of James Bruce, 1768-73; Henry Salt, 1809- 
10; Edward Kiippell, 1834-7 ; major Harris, 1841 ; 
Mansfield Parky ns, 1844-7, much information 
respecting Abyssinia has been gained. Several 
expeditions into Abyssinia have been organised by 
the French government. The brothers Antoine 
and Arnauld Abbadie visited the country 1837-45. 
Abyssinia was divided into four provinces. In 
1847 Ras Ali was ruler of Amhara ; Ras Ubie of 
Tigre and Samien ; and Sahela Selassie of Shoa. 
Population between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000. The 
ruler of Abyssinia is termed Negus, a title dating 
from the 13th century. 

Treaty of commerce with the king of Shoa con- 
cluded by major Harris ... 16 Nov. 1841 

Mr. Plowden (made British consul at Massowah, 
1848) concludes treaty with Ras Ali, ruler of 
Amhara 2 Nov. 1849 

Ras Ali deposed by his son-in-law Theodore, who 
is crowned, and takes the title of negus, or king 
of kings 11 Feb. 1835 

Protestant missionaries received, replacing Roman 
catholics ,. 



ABYSSINIA. 



ABYSSINIA. 



Mr. Plowden (who had joined the party of Theo- 
dore) killed by rebels, Feb. ; his friend Bell 
killed soon after, when avenging him ; Theodore 
overcomes the rebels and massacres about 150 
prisoners as a sacrifice to their manes . . . 

Captain C. D. Cameron appointed to succeed con- 
sul Plowden Nov. 

He arrived at Massowah 9 Feb. 1S62, goes to Abys- 
sinia, May ; received by Theodore, 7 Oct. ; is 
sent away with a letter for the queen, desiring 
alliance against the Turks ; which arrived 12 Feb. 

It is decided that this letter is not to be answered ; 
Cameron, ordered by earl Russell to remain at 
Massowah, returns to Abyssinia . . June, 

Rev. H. Stern, missionary, beaten and imprisoned 
for alleged intrusion upon Theodore . Oct. 

Cameron, and all British subjects and missionaries, 
imprisoned for pretended insults, 3 Jan. ; report 
of imprisonment reached London 7 May ; pri- 
soners sent to Magdala, and chained like crimi- 
nals Nov. 

Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, a Chaldee Christian, first 
assistant British political resident at Aden, sent 
on mission to Abyssinia ; arrives at Massowah, 24 
July ; lieut. Prideaux and Dr. Blanc appointed 
to accompany him 

Mr. Rassam having negotiated without effect for a 

year, Mr. Gifford Palgrave is appointed by earl 

„ Russell to go to Abyssinia, July ; but is stopped 

\m the intelligence that Theodore has invited 

Rassam to come to him . . .12 Aug. 

Mr. Rassam, lieut. Prideaux, and Dr. Blanc arrive 
at Matemma from Massowah, 21 Nov. 1865 ; and 
are well received by Theodore . . 28 Jan. 

Prisoners released, 12 March ; all seized and im- 
prisoned .... about 13 April, 

Mr. Flad sent to England by Theodore to obtain 
British workmen, April ; arrives, July ; intro- 
duced to queen Victoria, and receives from her 
an autograph letter, dated ... 4 Oct. 

Mr. Flad returned with workmen to Massowah, 

29 Oct. ; Theodore received the queen's letter 

about 19 Dec. 

Lord Stanley's ultimatum to Theodore, demand- 
ing release of the captives in three months (not 
received), sent 16 April, 

Mr. Flad received by the king, and made to join 
his family in prison .... May, 

Preparations for war ; sir Robert Napier appointed 
commander of an expedition ; pioneer force sails 
from Bombay 14 Sept. 

A formal letter from the British government sent 
to Theodore (never arrived) . . 9 Sept. 

Advanced brigade (3500) sail from Bombay, 7, 
8 Oct. ; land at Zoulla . . . . " 21 Oct. 

Napier's proclamation issued in Abyssinia, 26 Oct. 

Captives at Magdala reported well . 1 1 Nov. 

Report that the Gallas have joined the revolt 
against Theodore . . . . 25 Nov. 

The British parliament meets ; the queen's speech 
announces the war, 19 Nov. ; 2,ooo,oooL voted, 

26, 27 Nov. 

Third ultimatum sent by sir R. Napier ; inter- 
cepted by a rebel chief and given to Mr. Rassam, 
who suppressed it as likely to endanger the lives 
of the captives 

Arrival of sir R. Napier at Annesley bay . 4 Jan. 

The captives relieved of their chains . 29 March, 

Sir R. Napier arrives below Magdala . 2 April, 

Theodore massacres about 300 native prisoners, 

9 April, 

Battle of Arogee ; Theodore's troops attack the 
British first brigade ; defeated with much 
slaughter (Good Friday) . . 10 April, 

Theodore requests Mr. Rassam to mediate ; lieut. 
Prideaux, sent to sir R. Napier, returns with a 
letter ; Theodore receives it indignantly, and 
sends an insulting reply . . .11 April, 

Theodore sends a letter of apology offering a present 
of cattle ; Mr. Rassam understanding this present 
to have been accepted, tells the king's agents ; 
the European artizans and families sent to the 
British camp 12 April, 

Part of the Abyssinian troops mutiny ; Magdala 
bombarded and stormed ; Theodore kills "him- 
self 13 April, 



1863 



1867 



1865 
1866 



["I fail to discover a single point of view from 
which it is possible to regard his removal with re- 
gret." — Sir R. Napier .... ib June, 1869] 

Magdala burnt to the ground . . . 17 April, 1868 

Death of Theodore's queen . . .10 May, „ 

Henry Dufton of the "Intelligence department" 
shot by Shosho robbers . . . .28 May, ,, 

Immediate return of the troops ; — all had embarked, 

2 June, ,, 

Troops arrive at Plymouth, 21 June ; sir R. Napier 
at Dover 2 July, „ 

[Cattle said to have been employed in the expedi- 
tion : 45 elephants, 7417 camels, 12,920 mules 
and ponies, 7033 bullocks, 827 donkeys. Natives 
largely employed in the transport service.] 

Theodore's son Alamayou, aged 7, arrives at Ply- 
mouth, 14 July; presented to queen Victoria, 

16 July, ,, 

Pension of 350L to col. Cameron [he died 30 May, 
1870] ; 5000Z. given to Mr. Rassam ; 2000/.. to Dr. 
Blanc ; 2000k to lieut. Prideaux ; announced 

23 Dec. „ 

Prince Alamayou sailed to India for education (re- 
turned to England end of 1871) . . 26 Jan. 1869 

Expenses of the war : s,ooo,oooJ. voted 18 Dec. 
1868 ; 3,300,000?. more voted . . 4 Mar. „ 

[Total: 8,977,500?. Feb. 1880.] 

Report of a commission on the expenses of the ex- 
pedition disclosed much waste, attributed to 
urgency and divided authority . . . Aug. 1870 

War between Gobazye, king of Amhara and Kassa, 
king of Tigre ; Kassa victor . . .21 June, 1871 

Gobazye beaten and taken prisoner . n July, ,, 

Kassa proposes to be crowned emperor and negus 
of all Abyssinia, 21 Nov. ; punishes the Catholic 
missionaries for partisanship ; and forms alliance 
with Egypt , . . July, ,, 

Kassa crowned at Axum as Johanni II. 12 Jan. 1872 

Said to be ruling tyrannically .... 1873-4 

War with Egypt ; the khedive's troops enter Abys- 
sinia ; the natives retire, but surprise and defeat 
the Egyptians at Kherad Iska (a massacre), and at 
Gonda Gouddi (a desperate fight) . 16 Oct. 1875 

Abyssinians defeated in three days' conflict, 

17-iQFeb, 1876 

Col. Gordon said to be negotiating peace for Egypt, 

June, 1877 

King Johanni totally defeats Menelek, king of Shoa, 

middle of June, ,, 

Menelek submits, permitted to rule ; — reported great 
battle ; Menelek said to be killed . 17 Sept. ,, 

Col. Gordon concludes peace ; Abyssinia to have a 
port Oct. 1879 

Prince Alamayou dies at Leeds, 14 Nov., buried at 
Windsor ,, 

King Johanni receives adin. Hewett from Souakim, 
and signs a treaty respecting Massowah, &c, about 

26 May 1884 

Two Abyssinian envoys arrive at Plymouth 19 Aug. ,, 

Received by the queen .... 20 Aug. „ 

Start on return 11 Sept. „ 

Captain Harrison Smith, British agent, well received 
by king Johanni 19 May, 1886 

For disputes with Italy see Massowah. 

Mr. Portal, and a mission from queen Victoria to 
mediate between Italy and Abyssinia (see Mas- 
sowah) received by the king, after much delay ; 
without effect 10-16 Dec. 1887 

The Italians march to Saati to form a camp, 
announced 1 Feb. 1888 

Abyssinians defeated in a skirmish . . 6 Feb. ,, 

Slight beginning of actual hostilities, 4 March ; 
slight firing near Saati, 28 March ; the negus, 
through deficiency in commissariat, <fcc, sues for 
peace ; two chiefs sent to general San Marzano, 

29 March, ,, 

The negus refuses the terms and retires . 2 April „ 

The Italian troops return to Italy, 13 April et seq. ,, 

Rebellion of Menelek, king of Shoa, against king 
John Dec. ,, 

The negus is stated to have been defeated in his 
attack on the dervishes, 10 March ; and to have 
been attacked and killed by them 12 March 1889 

Mission from Menelek, king of Shoa, with presents, 
received by king Humbert, 28 Aug. ; the treaty 
betweenItalyandAbyssinia(2May)ratified,2 Oct. ,, 



ABYSSINIA. 



ACADEMIES. 



Protectorate of Italy over Abyssinia accepted and 

announced 14 Oct. 188c 

The Italian National Bank agree to lend Menelek 

4,000,000 francs 26 Oct. ,, 

Menelek crowned negus of Abyssinia . 3 Nov. ,, 
Ras Mangascia and other opponents of Menelek 
defeated Nov.-Dec. „ 

Gen. Orero, on behalf of Menelek, marches on 
Adua, and is warmly received . . 27 Jan. 189c 

Submission of Degiac Mangascia, 17 March ; he 
meets count Antonelli at Adowa. . . 16 May, „ 

Count Antonelli visits the negus in relation to the 
treaty; count leaves, 11 Feb.; the negus writes 
to king Humbert March, 1891 

The chief Debeb defeated and killed by the chiefs 
Mangascia and Ras Alula . . -29 Sept. „ 

King Menelek's present of two tame lions and a 
decoration teceived by pres. Carnot at Paris, Dec. ,, 

Mr. Theodore Bent published an account of his 
explorations of " The Sacred City of the Ethio- 
pians " (Aksum) Nov. 1893 

Russian Red Cross expedition starts from Odessa, 
under gen. Shvedoff, 11 April; well received by 
Menelek at Entoto, 26 July ; letter and presents 
from the emperor Menelek received by the czar 
at Kieff 2 Sept. 1896 

Arrival of major Nerazzini to negotiate, 7 Oct. ; 
treaty of peace (independence of Ethiopia, release 
of prisoners, indemnity to be fixed) signed at Adis 
Abeba, 26 Oct. ; ratified by Italy . . 16 Nov. 1896 

Commercial treaty with France announced, 2 Feb. 1897 

Ras Alula (born about 1845), powerful chief and 
able general, died .... mid Feb. ,, 

M. Lagarde with a French mission cordially re- 
ceived by the emperor at Adis Abeba, 7-29 March ,, 

An Italian expedition under capt. Boftego treacher- 
ously attacked by the Abyssinians in the Gabo 
district, capt. Bottcgo and 66 men killed, mid 
March ; 2 Italian prisoners released . 22 June „ 

British mission under Mr. Rennell Rodd (K.C.M.G. 
1899) well received at Harar by Ras Makonnen, 
2 April ; warmly received by Menelek at Adis 
Abeba, 29 April; treaty signed, 14 May; ratified, 
28 July ; the party dismissed with honours, and 
a letter and presents to the queen . 15 May ,, 

Prince Henry of Orleans received by the emperor 
at Adis Abeba, 12 April ; an Italian resident 
appointed at Adis Abeba . . . Aug. „ 

The emperor made K.C.M.G. . . . 25 Oct. „ 

Lieut. Harrington, British diplomatic agent, splen- 
didly received at Adis Abeba . . 20 April, 1898 

Bayade, a French post, burnt by the Danakils ; 
18 deaths 2 Oct. ,, 

Lieut. Harrington (made C.B. 1902) delivers a 
phonographic message and presents from the 
queen to Menelek at dis Abeba . 30 Oct. „ 

Ras Makunen (ruler of Tigre) is defeated by Ras 
Mangascia 11 Jan. 1899 

Ras Mangascia and Ras Sebath captured, pay 
homage to Menelek .... 18 Feb. ,, 

The Marchand mission welcomed at Adis Abeba, 

mill April „ 

Capt. Wellby explores the mountain districts of 
Kambat, Walamo and Gamo (10,500 ft. alt.), 
lakes Rudolf and Gallop, and discovers two 
ttources of the river Sobat, etc., Jan. -July [died 
of his wounds in the S. African war, 5 Aug. 1900] „ 

Capt. Bulatovich crosses the region S. of Katfa 
and W. of the Omo, and discovers a chain of 
mountains, reported Sept. ,, 

Mahdist bands beaten by Ethiopians in Ogaden, 

19 March, 1900 

Italian frontier, the Mareb-Belesa-Muna line, set- 
tled, March 1890 ; treaty signed . 10 July „ 

Successful expedition against the Mad Mullah; 
Bee Somaliland 17. July, 1901 

Major Austin's Anglo-Abyssinian frontier expe- 
dition to delimit boundary between lake Rudolf 
and the Sobat, Oct. et seij. 1899, returned, Oct. 
1900, left Omdurman Dec., surveyed and mapped 
country between Nasser and the north of lake 
Rudolf (45 Sudanese died), reached Mombasa. 

6 Sept. „ 

Mining concessions to tbe Abyssinian exploration 
co. refused Dec. „ 

The emperor accepts a gift of books from the 
trustees of the British museum . . Jan. 1902 



Boundary of the British Soudan fixed, agreement 
signed about 31 May, 1902 

S.W. boundary of Eritrea settled, protocol signed, 

mid .Tune, „ 

Ras Makunen, emperor's envoy, visits England, 
23 June-July ; France, mid July ; received by 
the king, made K.C.M.G., London, 8 Aug.; 
returns to Zibuti Sept. „ 

Troops co-operate with British against Mad Mullah; 
dervishes defeated, 300 killed . . 4 May, 1903 

See Russia, Massuwah, 1895-6; Somaliland, 1902-3. 

Party of exploration of S. Abyssinian frontier, 
under Mr. A. E. Butler, reached Lake Rudolph, 
having accomplished its purpose . . 5 May „ 

ABYSSINIAN EBA is reckoned from the 
creation, which the Abyssinians place in the 5493rd 
year B.C., on 29 Aug. old style; their dates 
consequently exceed ours by 5492 years, 125 days. 
To reduce Abyssinian time to the Julian year, sub- 
tract 5492 years, 125 days. 

ACACIANS- I. Followers of Acacius, bishop 
of Caesarea in the fourth century, who held pe- 
culiar doctrines respecting the nature of Christ. 
2. Partisans of Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, 
promoter of the Henoticon {which see), 482-4. 

ACADEMIES. Accidentia, a shady grove 
without the walls of Athens, said to have belonged 
to the hero Academus, was adorned with statues by 
Cimon, the son of Miltiades, and adapted for gym- 
nastic exercises. Here Plato, 428-389 B.C., first 
taught philosophy, and bis followers took the title 
of Academics. — Kome had no academies.* — Ptolemj r 
Soter is said to have founded an academy at Alex- 
andria, about 314 B.C. Abderahman I., caliph of 
Spain, founded academies about a.d. 773. Theo- 
dosius the Younger, Charlemagne, and Alfred are 
also named as founders of academies. Italy is 
celebrated for its academies; and Jarckius men- 
tions 550, of which 25 were in Milan. In 1874 
Grirolamo Ponti, of Milan, bequeathed about 35,000/. 
to the academies of science of London, Paris, and 
Vienna. Many of the following dates are doubtful. 

PRINCIPAL ACADEMIES. 

American Academy of Sciences, Boston, 1780. 

American Acad, of Nat. Science, Philadelphia, 1S12. 

Amsterdam, of Sciences, 1808. 

Ancona, of the Caliginosi, 1642. 

Basil, 1460. 

Berlin ; Royal, of Arts, 1696 ; of Princes, 1703 ; Architec- 
ture, 1799; Sciences, 1800. 

Bologna, Ecclesiastical, 1687 ; Mathematics, 1690 ; 
Sciences and Arts, 1712. 

Brescia, of the Erranti, 1626. 

Brest and Toulon, Military, 1682. 

British, Historical, Philosophical, Philological, 1902. 

Brussels, Belles Lcttres, 1773. 

Budapest, of Sciences, 1825. 

Caen, Belles Lcttres, 1705. 

Cbristiania, 1837. 

Copenhagen, of Sciences, 1743. 

Cortona, Antiquities, 1726. 

Dublin, Arts, 1742 ; Painting, Sculpture, &c, 1823. 

Erfurt, Saxony, Sciences, 1754. 

Faeuza, the Philoponi, 1612. 

Florence, Belles Lcttres, 1272 ; Delia Crusca (now united 
with the Florentine, and merged under that name), 
1582 ; Del. Cimento, 1657 (by cardinal de' Medici) ; 
Antiquities, 1807. 

Geneva, Medical, 1715. 

Genoa, Painting, &c, 1751 : Sciences, 1783. 

Germany, Natwa Citriosi, now Leopoldine, 1662. 

Gottingen, 1734-7. 

Haarlem, the Sciences, 1760. 

Irish Academy. Royal, Dublin, 1782. 

Leipzig, of Sciences, 1846. 

Lisbon, History, 1720; Sciences, 1779. 

London ; see London and Societies. Royal Academy of 
Fine Arts, 176S ; of Music. 1734-43 an d 1822. 

* Cicero termed his villa " Aeademia," and here com- 
posed his " Academic Questions." 



ACADEMY. 



ACCOLADE. 



Lyons, Sciences, 1710 ; Physic and Mathematics added, 
1758. 

Madrid, the Royal Spanish, 1713 ; History, 1738 ; Paint- 
ing and the Arts, 1753 ; Mathematics and Natural 
Science, 1847. 

Manheim, Sciences, 1755 ; Sculpture, 1775. 

Mantua, the Vigilanti, Sciences, 1704. 

Marseilles, Belles Lettres, 1726. 

Massachusetts, Arts and Sciences, 1780. 

Milan, Architecture, 1380 ; Sciences, 1719. 

Munich, Arts and Sciences, 1759 ; Sciences, 1779. _ 

Naples, Bossana, 1540 ; Mathematics, 1560 ; Sciences, 
1695; Herculaneum, 1755. 

New York, Literature and Philosophy, 1814. 

Nismes, Royal Academy, 1682. 

Padua, for Poetry, 1613 ; Sciences, 1792. 

Palermo, Medical, 1645. 

Paris, Sorbonne, 1253 ; Painting, 1391 ; Music, 1543 and 
1671 ; French (by Richelieu), 1635 ; Pine Arts, 1648 ; 
Inscriptions et Belles Lettres (by Colbert), 1663 ; Sciences 
(by Colbert), 1666 ; Architecture, 1671 ; Surgery, 1731; 
Military, 1751 ; Natural Philosophy, 1796, see Institute. 

Parma, the Innomiriati, 1550. 

Perousa, Insensati, 1561 ; Filigirti, 1574. 

Philadelphia, Arts and Sciences, 1749. 

Portsmouth, Naval, 1722 ; enlarged, 1806. 

Rome, Umoristi, 161 1 ; Fantastici, 1625 ; Infecondi, 1653 ; 
Painting, 1656 ; Arcadi, 1656 ; English, 1752 ; Lincei, 
about 1600 ; Nuovi Lincei, 1847. 

Sandhurst-Military, 1822. 

St Petersburg, Sciences, 1725 ; Military, 1732 ; the School 
of Arts, 1764. 

Stockholm, of Science, 1741 ; Belles Lettres, 1753 ; Agri- 
culture, 1781 ; Royal Swedish, 1786. 

Toulon, Military, 1682. 

Turin, Sciences, about 1759 (royal, 1783) ; Fine Arts, 1778. 

Turkey, Military School, 1775. 

Upsal, Royal Society, Sciences, 1720. 

Venice, Medical, <fec, 1701. 

Verona, Music, 1543 ; Sciences, 1780. 

Vienna, Sculpture and the Arts, 1705 ; Surgery, 1783 ; 
Oriental, 1810; Royal, 1847. 

Warsaw, Languages, and History, 1753. 

Washington, U.S., 1863 ; Smithsonian Inst., 1846, 
Science. 

Woolwich, Military, 1741. 

ACADEMY, THE, now a weekly journal 
treating of literary, scientific, and artistic topics, 
was founded by Mr. John Murray, 9 Oct. 1869, as 
an organ of learning and advanced criticism. In 
1896 it was acquired by Mr. J. M. Richards, who 
put it on more popular lines, and introduced special 
features, among these its " Suggested Academy of 
Letters" in 1897, followed by the "Academy 
Awards" for literary merit, exchanged in 1900 for 
liberal awards to amateurs for essays and other 
•compositions. A feature of the Academy is its 
weekly art article by "C. L. H.," the Drama by 
K. E. Chambers, and Science Notes by C. W. 
Saleeby. Distinguished wi iters have contributed 
to its pages. Edited by Dr. Appleton, 1869-1879; 
•C. E. Doble, 1879-1881 ; J. S. Cotton, i88i-i896; 
<C. L. Hind, 1896-1903, rev. T. Shore, 1903. 

ACADIA, see Nova Scotia, 

ACANTHUS, the foliage forming the volutes 
of the Corinthian capital, ascribed to Callimachus, 
about 540 B.C. 

ACAPULCO, Mexico. A Spanish galleon, 
from Acapulco, laden with gold and precious wares 
(estimated at above i,ooo,ooo£. sterling), taken by 
•commodore Anson, who had previously acquired 
booty in his voyage amounting to 600,000/., June, 
1743. ^ e arf i vea a t Spithead in the Centurion, 
having circumnavigated the globe, 15 June, 1744. 

ACARNANIA, N. Greece. The people be- 
came prominent in the Peloponnesian war, having 
invited the help of the Athenians against the Am- 
bracians, 432 B.C. The Acarnanians were subdued 
by the Lacedaemonians in 390; they took part 



with Macedon against the Romans in 200, by whom 
they were defeated in 197, and subjugated in 145. 

ACCADIANS, a name now given to the primi- 
tive inhabitants of Babylon. They are considered 
to have been the earliest civilisers of Eastern Asia, 
and the source of the philosophy and arts of the 
Assyrians and Phoenicians, and hence of Greece. 
Their libraries are said to have existed seventeen 
centuries B.C. 

ACCENTS were first introduced in the Greek 
language by Aristophanes of Byzantium, a gram- 
marian and critic who taught at Alexandria about 
264 B.C. Accents were first used by the French in 
the reign of Louis XIII. (about 1610). 

ACCESSION. THE, i.e., that of the House of 
Hanover to the throne of Great Britain, in the 
person of George I., elector of Hanover, son of 
Sophia, daughter of Elizabeth, daughter of James I. 
He succeeded, 1 Aug. 17 14, by virtue of the act of 
settlement passed in the reign of William III., 
12 June, 1701, which limited the succession to his 
mother (as a Protestant) in the event of queen Anne 
dying without issue. Royal declaration bill modi- 
fying the terms of the oath, passed the lords, 
5 Aug., dropped by the commons, 8 Aug., 1901. 
See Roman Catholics and Parliament. 

ACCESSORIES TO CRIMES. The law re- 
specting them consolidated and amended in 1861. 

ACCIDENTS, see under Coal, Fires, Railways, 
&c. For compensation for accidents, see Camp- 
bell' s Acts and Passengers. In 1869, it was com- 
puted that, in one year, about 192 persons are 
killed, and 1200 injured, in the streets of London ; 
231 were killed in 1875; 2 3? kill - ed ' 3^5 injured, 
1 Jan. 1878—31 Jan. 1879. 163 killed in 1879 ; 252 
in 1881. 

Accident Relief Society, London, established 1836. 
Society for Preventing Street Accidents and Dangerous 

Driving, formed in 1879 ; met at the Mansion House, 

London, 30 Jan. 1880 ; wound up, 1 July, 1881. 
The Fatal Accidents Inquiry Bill was read 2nd 

time by the Commons . . . 25 April, 189s 

ACCIDENTAL DEATHS IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 



1856, 9716 



8947 
9241 
9225 

9 2I 3 

9005 

9952 
10,997 
n,397 
11,262 



1863, 
1864, 
1865, 



1867, 


11,172 


1868, 


11,033 


1869, 


10,725 


1870, 


10,906 


1871, 


11,316 


1872, 


",435 


1873, 


11,284 


1874, 


n,7 8 3 


1875. 


12,254 


1876, 


11,681 


1877. 


11,194 



1878, 


[2, 108 


187Q, 


10,787 


1880, 


10,807 


1881, 


1 1 , 404 


1882, 


11,269 


1883, 


ii,539 


1884, 


n,549 


1885, 


11,149 


1886, 


11,003 


1887, 


11,983 



I8S8, 11,556 

1889, 10,513 

1890, 11,322 

1891, 11,467 

1892, 11,265 

1893, 11,664 
1895, 11,977 

1899, 14,964 

1900, 14,707 

1901, 14,001 



ACCLIMATISATION of Animals. This 

has been prosecuted with great vigour since the 
establishment of the Zoological society of London 
in 1829, and of the Societe d' Acclimatation in Puns. 
Numbers of European animals have been naturalised 
in Australia; the camel has been conveyed to Brazil 
(1859) ; alpacas are bred at Paris ; and ostriches in 
Italy (1859). On 6 Oct. i860, the Bois de Boulogne, 
near Paris, was opened as a zoological garden, con- 
taining only acclimatised animals. An acclimatising 
garden was established at Melbourne, Australia, in 
Feb. 1861, and efforts made to naturalise English 
birds, fishes, &c. See Fish and Climate. 

ACCOLADE. — The embrace {ad collum) or 
slight blow on the neck or cheek when a neophyte 
was received into an order of knighthood. The 
custom is of gre.it antiquity. Later, as at present, 
the flat of a sword was laid on the neck of the 
kneeling candidate. See Knights. 



ACCOLTELLATORI. 



ACIDS. 



ACCOLTELLATORI (gladiators), secret 
assassins, at Eavenna and other places in Italy, 1874- 

ACCORDION, a small free-reed wind-instru- 
ment with keys, invented at Vienna by Damian 
about 1829, and soon after introduced into England. 

ACCOUNTANT-GENERAL in Chan- 
cery, &c, an office instituted in 1726, and abolished 
by an act passed 6 Aug. 1872. In 1841, the office 
of accountant-general of the court of exchequer was 
abolished, and the duties transferred to the account- 
ant in chancery. 

ACCOUNTANTS* Institute, established 

at a meeting, 30 July, 1870 ; the Accountants' 
Society in 1872. Five societies were incorporated 
as " The Chartered Institute of Accountants of 
England and Wales," in 1880. 

ACCUSERS- By occult writers, such as 
Agrippa, accusers are the eighth order of devils, 
•whose chief is called Asteroth, or Spy. In Hernia- 
tion, ch. xii. 10, the devil is called "the accuser of 
the brethren." — False accusers were to be hanged, 
by 24 Henry VI. 1446 ; and burnt in the face with 
an F, by 37 Henry VIII. 1545. Stoic. 

ACEPHALI (Greek a, no; cephale, head), a 
term applied to certain sects who resisted their 
bishops and met privately, about 450 ; and also in 
canon law applied to such bishops, clerks, monks, 
&c, as claim or enjoy independence of the jurisdic- 
tion of the ordinary or metropolitan. 

ACETYLENE, a luminous hydrocarbon gas 
resembling coal gas, discovered by Berthelot. In 
1862 Wohler discovered that carbide of calcium 
treated with water produced lime and acetylene. 
In 1895 acetylene was cheaply produced on a com- 
mercial scale ; it has since come into use for general 
lighting. A committee on acetylene generators 
reported to parliament, 1902. 

ACILEMENIDCE, a dynasty of Persian 
kings of which Cyrus the Great was the founder. 
Tt was overthrown by Alexander the Great. 

ACHAIA (N. Peloponnesus), Greece, settled 
by the Achsei, reputed descendants of Achseus, the 
eon of Xuthus. The kingdom was united with Sicyon 
or subject to the JEtolians until about 284 B.C. 
The Achasi originally inhabited the neighbourhood 
of Argos ; but when the Heraclidae drove them 
thence, they retired among the Ionians, expelled 
. the natives, and seized their thirteen cities, viz. 
Pellene, JEgira, iEgium, Bura, Tritaea, Leontium, 
Ithypes, Cerynea, Olenos, Helice, Patrae, Dyme, and 
Pharae, forming the Achaean League. 
Achaia invaded by Epaminondas . . . b.c. 366 
The Ach.ean league revived by four cities about 

280, and by others 275, 274 

Aratus made praetor 245 

The league joined by Corinth (captured 243), Megara, 

&c 242—228 

Supported by Athens and Antigonus Boson . . 229 
The AchR'ans defeated at Ladocea, by the Spartans, 

under Clcomenes III., 226 ; totally defeat them at 

Sellasia 221 

The Social war begun ; battle of Caphyaj in Arcadia ; 

Aratus defeated 220 

The Peloponnesus ravaged by the jEtolians . . 219 

Peace of Naupactus 217 

Aratus poisoned at TEgium 213 

Philopcemen, leaderof the league, defeats the Spartan 

tyrant Machahidas 208 

Alliance of the league with the Romans . . . 198 
Philopcemen defeated by Nabis in a naval battle . 194 
All the Peloponnesus joins the league . . . igj 
War with Messene : Philopcemen made prisoner and 

slain 183 

The Achseans overrun Messenia with tire and sword 182 



The Romans enter Achaia, and carry off numbers, 
including Polybius the historian .... 165 

War with Rome, 150 ; Metellus enters Greece . . 147 

The Achaeans defeated by Mummius at Leucopetra, 
147 ; the league dissolved ; Corinth taken ; Greece 
subjected to Rome, and named the province of 
Achaia 146 

Achaia made a Latin principality by William of 
Champlitte a.d. 1205 

Obtained by Geoffrey VUlehardouin, 1210 ; by Geof- 
frey II 121S 

By his brother William, 1246 ; who conquers the 
Moors, 1248; makes war with the emperor Michael, 
1259 ; and gains three fortresses .... 1262 

Succeeded by Isabella, 1277 ; who marries Florenz of 
Hainault 1291 

Their daughter Maud, princess, 1311 ; thrice married ; 
forcibly married to John de Gravina, and dies iu 
prison . 1324 

Achaia, a fief of Naples .... 1246 — 1430 

Conquered by the Turks .... about 1540 

ACHEEN, capital of a kingdom K.W. of 

Sumatra, was visited by the Portuguese about 

1509. Factories were set up here by the Dutch, 

1596; by the English, 1602; by the French, 1621. 

For the war with the Dutch, see Sumatra. 

The Nisero of Sunderland, with sugar from Sourabaya, 
stranded on territory of the chief of Pangah, a Maiay 
dependent of Tuku Imam Muda, the rajah of Tenom, 
subject to the sultan of Acheen, 16 Nov. 1883. 

18 British and 6 foreign sailors made prisoners ; the 
captain released to negotiate ; efforts to obtain their 
release, by warlike attacks and proffered ransom, 
ineffectual ; the Butch storm Tenom, but prisoners 
carried off, 7 Jan. 1884. 

H.M. S. Pegasus sent there. The rajah demands free trade, 
and desires subjection to Great Britain. Earl Granville 
recommends conciliation to the Butch government, 
announced May, 1884. See under Mansion Bouse. 

Eighteen prisoners released n Sept., arrived in the 
Thames, 26 Oct. 1884. 

The natives attacking the Butch garrison defeated ; 160 
killed, reported 15 Slay; another engagement, in which 
the Butch lose 19 killed, reported 2 Aug. 1889. 

The Butch repulsed at Benting, near Edi^ 14 May, 1890 ; 
successful in conflicts about n-13 June. War con- 
tinues, reported 1891-4. End of hostilities, re- 
ported, 2 April, 1894. 

Fresh conflicts reported, 8 Mar. ; victory of the Butch 
reported 23 July, 1896. See Holland, 1896-7. 

ACHONRY, SLIGO (N. Ireland), a bishopric 
founded by St. Finian, who erected the church of 
Achad, or Achonry, about 520, and conferred it on 
his disciple Nathy (Dathy, or David), the first 
bishop. The see, held with Killala since 1612, was 
united with Tuani in 1834. 

ACHROMATIC TELESCOPES, in which 

colour is got rid of, were invented by John Dollond, 
and described in Phil. Trans, of the Royal Society, 
London, 1753-8. 

ACIDS (now defined as salts of hydrogen) ar» 
generally soluble in water, redden organic blues, 
decompose carbonates, and destroy the properties of 
alkalies, forming alkaline salts. The number of 
acids was increased by the Arabs ; Geber (8th cen- 
tury) knew nitric acid and sulphuric acid. Theories 
of the constitution of acids were put forth by Becher 
(1669), Lemery (1675), and Stahl (1723). Afterthc 
discovery of oxygen by Priestley, 1 Aug. 1774, 
Lavoisier (1778) concluded that oxvgen was a con- 
stituent of all acids; but about lS"lo Davy, Gay- 
Lussac, and others, proved the existence of acids- 
free from oxygen. In 1816 Dulong proposed the 
binary or hydrogen theory of acids, and in 1837 
Liebig applied the theories of Davy and Dulong to 
explain the constitution of several organic acids. 
Oxygen acids were termed anhydrides by Gerhardt 
(died 1856). Many acids have been discovered 
through the advance of organic chemistry. 



ACOLYTES. 



ACTRESSES. 



ACOLYTES, an inferior order of clergy in the 
Latin church, unknown to the Greek church for 
four hundred years after Christ. 

ACOUSTICS (from akoun, Greek, I hear), the 

science of sound, so named by Sauveur in the 17th 

century. Tbe formation of sound in the air by the 

vibrations of the atmosphere, strings, &c, was 

explained by Pythagoras about 500 B.C., and by 

Aristotle, 330 B.C. See Telephone, Microphone, 

Megaphone. 

The speaking trumpet said to have been used by Alex- 
ander the Great, 335 b.c. 

Galileo's discoveries, about a.d. 1600. 

His theorem of the harmonic curve demonstrated by Dr. 
Brook Taylor, in 1714 ; further perfected by D'Alembert, 
Euler, Bernouilli, and La Grange, at various periods of 
the eighteenth century. 

Hooke calculated the vibration of sounds by the striking 
of the teeth of brass wheels, 1681. 

Sauveur determined the number of vibrations belonging 
to a given note, about 1700. 

Velocity of sound said to be 1473 feet in a second, by 
Gassendi ; 1172 feet by Cassini, Romer, and others ; 
968 feet by Newton ; 1090 feet, at the temperature of 
32° Fahrenheit, by Tyjadall ; the velocity increases with 
the rise of temperature. 

Chladni (who raised acoustics to an independent science) 
published his important discoveries on the figures pro- 
duced in layers of sand by harmonic chords, &c, in 
1787, and since. 

Cagniard-Latour invented the Sirene (which see), 1819. 

Savart determined the range of the perception of the 
human ear to be from 7 to 24,000 vibrations a second, 
1830. 

Biot, Savart, Wheatstone, Lissajous, Helmholtz, Tyndall, 
lord Rayleigh, and others in the 19th century have 
greatly increased our knowledge of acoustics. 

Over-tones, harmonics, well investigated by Helmholtz ; 
under-tones by Auerbach, 1878. 

Tyndall's experiments off the South Foreland on fog- 
signals and gun-cotton, demonstrated that the trans- 
mission of sound is checked by the non-homogeneity 
of the air, independently of fog and rain, July, 1873. 

The results of Tyndall's experiments showed that the 
parabolic-muzzle gun with gun-cotton, and that of 
sir Richard Collinson's gun-cotton roeket, are very 
effective fog-signals. Fine-grain gunpowder with 
howitzers is the best sound-producer ; pebble powder 
the worst, 1874-7. 

Sound produced by electricity, light, and from radiant 
heat, see Telephone and Photophone, 1881. 

Mr. A. Stroh exhibits the attraction and repulsion 
(resembling magnetic) produced by sonorous vibra- 
tions in tubes to the Telegraph Engineers, 27 April, 
1882. 

ACRE, a land measure, formerly of uncertain 
quantity, and differing in various parts of the 
country", was reduced to a standard by Edward I., 
about 1305. In 1824 the standard acre was ordered 
by statute to contain 4840 square yards. 

ACRE, Acca, anciently Ptolemais, in Syria, was 
taken by the Saracens in 638 ; by the crusaders 
under Baldwin I. in 1104 ; by Saladin in 1187 ; and 
again by Richard I. and other crusaders, 12 July, 
1 191, after a siege of 2 years, with a loss of 6 arch- 
bishops, 12 bishops, 40 earls, 500 barons, and 300,000 
soldiers. It was then named St. Jean d' 'Acre. It 
was retaken by the Saracens in 129.1, when 60,000 
Christians perished, and the nuns, who had mangled 
their faces, were put to death. Acre was gal- 
lantly defended by Djezzar Pacha against Bona- 
parte, till relieved by sir Sidney Smith, who 
resisted twelve attempts by the French, between 
16 March and 20 May, 1799, when Bonaparte 
retreated. Acre, as a Turkish pachalic, was seized 
27 May, 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, who had revolted. 
On 3 Nov. 1840, it was stormed by the allied fleet 
under sir Robert Stopford, and taken after a bom- 
bardment of a few hours, the Egyptians losing up- 
wards of 2000 in killed and wounded, and 3000 



prisoners, while the British had but 12 killed and 
42 wounded ; see Syria and Turkey. 

ACROBAT, from the Greek a/cron, extremity^ 
baino, I go, a person who does difficult feats in 
tumbling, vaulting, trapezing, rope walking, &c. 
Among the more noted performers during the 
19th century were Farioso, Mme. Saqui, Diavolo, 
Risley, Leotard (the first to do the flying trapeze), 
Onri, Niblo (the originator of the double somer- 
sault from the trapeze), Lulu and C. Elliot, Chan- 
trell, and Matthews families, Ue la Vanti, and J. 
W. Cragg and family, still performing. Blondhi 
(Jean Francois Gravelet), a noted acrobat, crossed 
the Falls of Niagara in 1859 and i860 (see 
Niagara) on the tight-rope, and performed similar 
feats at the Crystal Palace 1 86 1 -2; his last per- 
formance was at Belfast in 1896. He died 22 Feb. 
1897. 

ACROPOLIS, the ancient citadel of Athens, 
built on a rock. Near it stood the temple of 
Minerva, the Parthenon, which see. Other cities 
had similar fortresses. 

ACROSTIC, a poem in which the first or last 
letters of each line, read downwards, form a word 
or sentence, is said to have been invented by 
Porphyrius Optalianus in the 4th century. Double 
acrostics became very popular in 1867. 

ACS OR ACZ (Hungary). The Hungarians 
under Gorgey were defeated here by the Austrians. 
and Russians, on 2 and 10 July, 1849. 

ACT OF SETTLEMENT, &c. ; see Accession, 
Succession, Supremacy, and Uniformity Acts. 
The Act of Settlement passed in 1662, which secured to 
various persons the possession of forfeited estates of. 
Irish rebels, was repealed by acclamation by the Parlia- 
ment summoned by James II. in May, 1689, and much 
confiscation of the property of Protestants ensued. 
The act was restored by William III., 1690. 

ACTA DIURNA ; see Newspapers. 

ACTA SANCTORUM ("acts of the saints"), 
a work begun by the Jesuits. The first volume ap- 
peared in 1643 : the publication was interrupted in 
1794, when 54 volumes, bringing the work down to 
15 October, had been published. The work was re- 
sumed by the Jesuits m 1837, and 6 more volumes- 
had been published in 1867. The writers have 
been named Bollandists, from John Bolland, whc- 
published the first two volumes. 

ACTINOMETER, an instrument to measure 
the heating power of the solar rays, invented by 
sir John F. Herschel, and described by him in 1825. 
Others have since been invented. See Sun. 

ACTIUM, a promontory of Acarnania, W. 
Greece, near which was fought, 2 Sept. 31 B.C., 
the battle between the fleet of Octavius Caesar, and 
that of Marc Antony and Cleopatra, which decided 
the fate of Antony ; 300 of his galleys going over to 
Cajsar. This victory made Octavius master of the 
world and the Roman empire is commonly dated 
I Jan. 30 B.C. (the Actian Era). The conqueror 
built Nicopolis (the city of victory), and instituted 
the Actian games. 

ACTON BURNEL, or Shrewsbury. At the 
parliament held here by Edward I., Oct. 1283, the 
" statute of merchants" against debtors was enacted. 

ACTONIAN PRIZE, see under Royal 

Institution. 

ACTRESSES appear to have been unknown to 
the ancients in the earliest times, men or eunuehs 



ACTS OP THE APOSTLES. 



10 



ADDRESSERS. 



performing the female part3. They appeared under 
the Eoman empire. Mrs. Colman was the first 
English public actress ; she performed the part of 
Ianthe in Davenant's "Siege of Rhodes," in 1656. 

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, supposed to 
have been written by Luke in continuation of his 
Gospel. It terminates a.d. 63. 

ACTS OF PARLIAMENT, or Statutes, 

see Parliament and Statutes. The following are 
among the most celebrated early statutes: — 

Provisions of Merton, 1235-6. 

Statute of Marlborough, 1267. 
,, of Bigamy, 1275-6. 
„ of Gloucester, the earliest statute of which any 

record exists. 6 Edw. I. 1278. 
,, of Mortmain, 1279. 

Quo Warranto, Oct. 1280. 

Statute of Merchants or Acton-Burnel, 1283. 

Statutes of Wales, 1284. 

„ of Winchester, Oct. 1284. 

,, of Westminster, 1275, 1285, 1290. 

Statute forbidding the levying of taxes without the con- 
sent of parliament, 1297. 
,, of Prtemunire, 1306. 

Statutes first printed in the reign of Richard III., 1483. 

Statutes of the Realm, from Magna Charta to George I., 
printed from the original records and MSS. in 12 vols, 
folio, under the direction of commissioners appointed 
in 1801, 1811-28. 

The statutes passed during each session were formerly 
printed annually in 4to and 8vo, now in 8vo only. 
Abstracts are given in the Cabinet Lawyer. 

Between 1823 and 1829, 1126 acts were wholly repealed, 
and 443 repealed in part, chiefly arising out of the con- 
solidation of the laws by Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) 
Peel ; of these acts, 1344 related to the kingdom at 
large, and 225 to Ireland solely ; and in 1856 many 
obsolete statutes (enacted between 1285 and 1777) were 
repealed. 

By the Statute Law Revision Act of 1861, 770 acts were 
wholly repealed, and a great many partially. By 
similar acts since passed, a great number of enactments 
have been repealed, commencing with the Provisions 
of Merton, 20 Henry III. (1235-6), and ending 1844. 

■"Acts of parliament abbreviation bill" introduced by 
lord Brougham 12 Feb., passed 10 June, 1850. 

The Interpretation Act passed, 30 Aug. 1889. 

1410 acts (passed between 1689 and 1770) partially or 
wholly repealed, 1867. 

■" Chronological Table and Index to the Statutes to the 
end of 1869,'' published 1870. Ninth Edition (1235- 
1883), published 1884. 

Publication of the revised edition of the statutes (1325- 
1878); 18 volumes published, 1870-85. 

Report of select committee on acts of parliament, pub- 
lished July, 1875. 

New edition of the revised statutes proposed 1888, see 
Statutes. 

Short Titles Act passed, 20 May, 1892. 

Agitation for improvement in private bills system, 1897. 

The greatest number of acts passed in any one year 
since 1800 was 570, in 1846 (the railway year); 402 
were local and personal, 51 private, and 117 public acts. 
In 1841, only 13 were passed (the lowest number), 
nf which two were private. The average number 
of the first ten yeai'8 of the iqUi century was 132 
public, acts. In the ten years ending 1850, the average 
number of acts, of public interest, was 112. 

The number oi public general arts passed in 1851 was 106 ; 
in 1852, 88 ; in 1853, 137 ; in 1854, 125 ; in 1855, 134 ; in 
1856, 120; in 1857, 8f > : '" 1858, 109 ; in 1859, 101 ; in 
i860, 154 ; in 1861, 134 ; in 1862, 114 ; in 1S63, 125 ; in 
1864, 121 : in 1865, 127 ; in 1866, 122 ; in 1867, 146 ; in 
1868, 130 ; in 1869, 117; in 1870, 112 ; in 1871, 117 ; in 
1872, 98; in 1873,91 : in 1874, 96; in 1875, 96; in 
1876, 81 ; in 1877, °9 : >'i l8 7 8 . 79; >" 187c. 78 ; in 1S80, 
19 and 4S (new parliament); 1881, 72 ; 1882, 82; 18S3, 
62 ; 1884, 78 ; 1885, 80 ; 1886 (1st sess.), 59 ; 1887, 73 i 
1888, 66 ; 1889, 76 ; 1390, 72 ; 1891, 76 ; 1892, 65 ; 1893, 
73; 1894,60; 1895,44; 1896, 59; 1897, 67; 1898, 62; 
1899, 51 ; 1900, 63 ; igoi, 40; 1902, 42. 

Acts in operation ; 7=, vols, had been replaced by 5 vols., 
reported ; Dec. 1892. 



ACTS, in dramatic poetry, lirst employed by 
the Romans. Five acts are mentioned by Horace 
(Art of Poetry) as the rule (about 8 B.C.). 

ACTUARY, ACTUARIUS, the Roman ac- 
countant. The Institute of Actuaries, founded in 
1848, publishes its proceedings in the "Assurance 
Magazine." International congress, London, 16 
May, 1898. 

ADAM AND EVE, ERA OF, in the English 
Bible, 4004 B.C. ; see Creation. 

ADAMITES, a Gnostic sect in Africa about 
130, who appeared quite naked in their religi- 
ous assemblies, asserting that if Adam had not 
sinned there would have been no marriages. 
Their chief was named Prodicus ; they defied the 
elements, rejected prayer, and said it was not 
necessary to confess Christ. Eusebius. A sect with 
this name arose at Antwerp in the 12th century, 
under Tandemus or Tanchelin, whose followers, 
3000 soldiers and others, committed many crimes. 
It became extinct soon after the death of its chief; 
but another of the same kind, named Turlupins, 
appeared shortly after in Savoy and Dauphiny. 
Picard, a Fleming, revived this sect in Bohemia, 
about 1415; it was suppressed by Ziska, 1420. 

ADDA, a river N. Italy, passed by Suwarrow 
after defeating the French, 27 April, 1799. 

ADDINGTON ADMINISTRATION. Mr. 

Pitt, having engaged to procure Roman Catholic 

emancipation to promote the union with Ireland, 

and being unable to do so as a minister, resigned 

3 Feb. 1801. A new ministry was formed by Mr. 

Addington, March-July, 1801 ; after various changes 

it terminated about 10 May, 1804. 

Henry Addington,* first lord of the treasury and chan- 
cellor of the exchequer. 

Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 

Duke of Portland, lord president. 

Earl of Westmoreland, lord privy seal. 

Lord Pelham, home secretary. 

Mr. R. B. Jenkinson (lord Hawkesbury, 1803 ; and earl 
of Liverpool, 1808), foreign secretary. 

Lord Hobart, colonial secretary. 

Earl St. Vincent, first lord of admiralty. 

Earl of Chatham, ordnance. 

Charles Yorke, secretary-at-icar. 

Viscount Lewisham, lord Auckland, &c. 

ADDISCOMBE COLLEGE, near Croydon, 
Surrey, purchased by the Fast India company in 
1809, for education of candidates for scientific 
branches of the Indian army, was closed in 1861 ; 
here were educated, Henry Lawrence, Eldred 
Pottinger, Arthur Cotton, Proby Cautley, Robert 
Napier, Henry Durand, John Jacob, and others, 
including F.M. earl Roberts of Candahar and 
Pretoria. 

ADDISON'S DISEASE, a dangerous affec- 
tion of the renal capsules, described by its dis- 
coverer, Dr. Thomas Addison, in 1855. 

ADDITIONAL CURATES, the society for 
their employment in populous places was founded 
1837. Income, 1902, 68, 300^. 

ADDLED PARLIAMENT, s&eParliament, 
1614. 

ADDRESSERS, see Abhorrers. 

* Born 1757 ; became viscount Sidmouth, Jan. 1805 ; held 
various offices afterwards, and died in 1S44. His circular 
to the lords-lieutenants, dated 27 March, 1817, directing 
them to adopt severe measures against the authors of 
blasphemous and seditious pamphlets, was greatly cen- 
sured, and not carried into effect. 



ADELAIDE. 



11 



ADMINISTEATIONS. 



ADELAIDE, the capital of South Australia, 
was founded in 1836. Population, 14,000 in 1850 ; 
about 30,000 in 1875; 1891, 133,220; 1901, 
160,691. It was made a bishopric in 1847. It was 
visited by the duke of Edinburgh, 1 March, 1869, 
and by the duke of Cornwall and York (prince of 
Wales) 8-15 July, 1901. University founded, 1876; 
20,000/. given by sir Thos. Elder, who died 7 March, 
1897 ; he bequeathed 155,000/. for public objects 
in Adelaide, including 65,000/. for the university, 
25,000/. for a picture gallery, and 25,000/. for work- 
men's homes, ann., 10 March, 1897. 
The Queen's Jubilee International Exhibition opened, 

21 June, 1887 ; reported successful, 17 Jan. 1888. 
Mr. Martin bequeaths 170,000^. to charities, July, 189S. 
Adelaide time advanced £ hr. in accordance with the 

standard time act, midnight, April 30, 1899. 

ADELPHI (Greek for brothers) several streets 
on the sx)uth side of the Strand, London, erected 
about 1768 by the brothers, John, Robert, James, 
and William Adam, after whom the streets are 
named. Adelphi Theatre, built 1806, rebuilt 
(858 ; see under Theatres. 

ADEN- Known to the Romans as Arabia 
Felix and Attaux, taken by them 24 B.C. Taken 
by the Turks from the Portuguese, 1538. 
From 1730 it was governed by an independent 
sultan. In Dec. 1836 a British ship was 
wrecked and plundered. The sultan promised 
compensation, and agreed to cede the place to the 
English. The sultan's son refusing to fulfil this 
agreement to captain Haynes, a naval and military 
force, under captain H. Smith, of the Volage, was 
dispatched to Aden, which captured it, 19 Jan. 
1839. It is now a garrison and coal depot for 
Indian steamers, &e. Aden, steamer, see Wrecks, 
9 June, 1897. Population in 1901, 41,222. 
Protocol fixing the boundaries of the Italian and British 

influence, signed, 5 May, 1894. See Somaliland. 
The duke and duchess of Cornwall received here, 5 April, 

1901. 
British expedition from Aden destroys a Turkish foit 
erected at Ad Dareja, w ithin the British sphere, after 
hard fighting, 26, 27 July, 1901. Boundary of Hinter- 
land agreed to, Turkish troops withdrawn, 18 Mar. 1903. 
100 men of 1st Hants, regt. and 100 men of 23rd Bombay 
inf. forming escort into Shaibi, treacherously fired on 
by Arabs, 10 Sept. 1903. 

ADIAPHOEISTS(froma^iffj»/?or«,indifferent 
things), a term applied to .Melanchthon and others, 
who were willing to give up certain things to the 
Romanists as indifferent, about 1548. 

ADIGE, a r.ver in N. Italy, near which the 
Austrians defeated the French on 26, 30 March, 
and 5 April, 1799. 

ADJUTATOES, see Agitators. 

ADMINISTRATIONS of England and 

OF GrREAT BRITAIN. Until the Restoration, 1660, 
there was not any cabinet approaching to the modern 
sense. The sovereign was aided by privy councillors, 
varying in number, the men and offices being fre- 
quently changed. The separation of the cabinet from 
the privy council became greater during the reign of 
William III. His ministers included both Whigs 
and Tories, and their dissensions led to much mal- 
administration, civil, military, and naval, and con- 
sequent popular discontent ; the king was therefore 
compelled to have a united ministry, at first wholly 
•composed of Whigs. The change was gradually 
effected, 1694-6. The control of the chief, now 
termed the "premier," began in the reign of 
Anne. " The era of ministries may most properly be 
reckoned from the day of the meeting of the parlia- 
ment after the general election of 1698." Macau- 



lay.* For a fuller account of each administration, 
since 1700, see separate articles headed with the 
name of the Premier, given below in italics. 

Henry VIII. — Abp. Warharn ; bps. Fisher and 
Fox ; earl of Surrey, &c. . . . . a.d. 1509 

Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, <&c 1514 

Earl of Surrey ; Tunstall, bishop of London, <fcc. . 1523 

Sir Thos. More ; bps. Tunstall and Gardiner, and 
Cranmer (afterwards abp. of Canterbury) . . 1529 

Abp. Cranmer ; lord Cromwell, aft. earl of Essex ; 
Thos. Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire, &c 1532 

Thomas, duke of Norfolk ; Henry, earl of Surrey ; 
Thomas, lord Audley ; bishop Gardiner ; sir 
Ralph Sadler, &e. 1540 

Lord Wriothesley ; Thomas, duke of Norfolk ; lord 
Lisle ; sir William Petre ; sir William Paget, &c. 1544 

Edward VI. — Lord Wriothesley, now earl of 
Southampton, lord chancellor (expelled) ; Edward, 
earl of Hertford, lord protector, created duke of 
Somerset ; John, lord Russell ; Henry, earl of 
Arundel ; Thomas, lord Seymour ; sir Wm. Paget ; 
sir Wm. Petre, &c , 1547 

John Dudley, late lord Lisle and earl of Warwick, 
created duke of Northumberland ; John, earl 
of Bedford ; bishop Goodrich, sir William Cecil, 
<fcc 1551 

Mary. — Stephen Gardiner, bp. of Winchester ; Ed- 
mund Bonner, bp. of London ; William, marq. of 
Winchester ; sir Edwd. Hastings, <fcc. . . . 1554 

Elizabeth. — Sir Nicholas Bacon ; Edward lord 
Clinton ; sir Robert Dudley, aftds. earl of Lei- 
cester ; sir William Cecil, aftds. lord Burleigh . 1558 

William, lord Burleigh (minister during nearly all 
the reign) ; sir N. Bacon, &c. .... 1572 

Lord Burleigh ; sir Thomas Bromley ; Robert 
Devereux, earl of Essex (a favourite) ; earl of 
Leicester ; earl of Lincoln ; sir Walter Mildmay : 
sir Francis Walsingham, <fec 1579 

Lord Burleigh ; Robert, earl of Essex ; sir Chris- 
topher Hatton, &c. 1587 

Thomas Sackville, lord Buckhurst, afterwards earl 
of Dorset ; sir Thomas Egerton, afterwards lord 
Ellesmere and viscount Braekley ; sir Robert 
Cecil, &e 1599 

James I. — Thomas, earl of Dorset ; Thomas, lord 
Ellesmere ; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; Thomas, 
earl of Suffolk ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; 
Robert Cecil, afterwards earl of Salisbury, &c. 1603 

Robert Cecil, earl of Salisbury ; Thomas, lord 
Ellesmere ; Henry, earl of Northampton ; Charles, 
earl of Nottingham ; Thomas, earl of Suffolk, <&c. 1609 

Henry, earl of Northampton ; Thomas, lord Elles- 
mere ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; sir Ralph Win- 
wood ; Charles, earl of Nottingham ; Robert, 
viscount Rochester, aftds. earl of Somerset, &c. 161 2 

Thomas, lord Ellesmere ; Thomas, earl of Suffolk ; 
Charles, earl of Nottingham ; sir George Villiers 
(a favourite), afterwards viscount Villiers, and 
successively earl, marquis, and duke of Buck- 
ingham 1615 

Sir Henry Montagu, afterwards viscount Mande- 
ville and earl of Manchester 1620 



* Till 1850 the cabinet council usually consisted of the 
following twelve members : First lord of the treasury ; 
lord chancellor ; lord president of the council ; chan- 
cellor of the exchequer ; lord privy seal ; home, foreign, 
and colonial secretaries ; first lord of the admiralty ; pre- 
sident of the board of trade ; president of the board of 
control ; chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. In 1850 
the number was fifteen, and included the secretary-at- 
war, the postmaster-general, and the chief secretary for 
Ireland. In the Palmerston-Russell cabinet (which see), 
the president of the poor-law-board replaced the secre- 
tary for Ireland. In 1868 the Gladstone cabinet con- 
sisted of 15; that of Mr. Disraeli, in Feb. 1874, of 12. 
The average duration of a ministry has been set down at 
four, five, and six years ; but instances have occurred of 
the duration of a ministry for much longer periods : sir 
Robert Walpole was minister from 1721 to 1742 (21 years) : 
Mr. Pitt, 1783 to 1801 (18 years); and lord Liverpool, 1812 
to 1827 (15 years). Several ministries have not lasted 
beyond a few months, as the Coalition Ministry in 1783, 
and the " Talents " Ministry in 1806. The "Short-lived " 
Administration lasted 10 to 12 Feb. 1746. 



ADMINISTRATIONS. 



12 



ADMINISTRATIONS. 



Lionel, lord Crantield, afterwards earl of Middle- 
sex ; Edward, earl of Worcester ; John, earl of 
Bristol ; John Williams, dean of Westminster ; 
George Villiers, now marquis of Buckingham ; 
sir Edward Conway, &e 1621 

Charles I.— Richard, lord Weston, afterwards earl 
of Portland ; sir Thomas Coventry, afterwards 
lord Coventry ; Henry, earl of Manchester (suc- 
ceeded by James, earl of Marlborough, who, in 
turn, gave place to Edward, lord, afterwards 
viscount, Conway) ; William Laud, bp. of 
London ; sir Albert Morton, &c 1628 

William Laud, now archbishop of Canterbury ; 
Francis, lord Cottington ; James, marquis of 
Hamilton ; Edward, earl of Dorset ; sir John 
Coke ; sir Francis Windebank, &c 1635 

William Juxon, bishop of London ; sir John Finch, 
afterwards lord Finch ; Francis, lord Cottington ; 
Wentworth, earl of Strafford ; Algernon, earl of 
Northumberland ; James, marquis of Hamilton ; 
Laud, archbishop of Canterbury ; sir Francis 

Windebank ; sir Henry Vane, &c 1640 

[The king beheaded, 30 Jan. 1649.] 

Commonwealth. — Oliver Cromwell, protector, 
named a council, the number not to exceed 21 
members, or be less than 13 1653 

Richard Cromwell, son of Oliver, succeeded on the 
death of his father. A council of officers ruled at 
Wallingford house. 1658 

Charles II.— Sir Edward Hyde, afterwards earl of 
Clarendon ; George Monk, created duke of Albe- 
marle ; Edward Montagu, created earl of Sand- 
wich ; lord Saye and Sele ; earl of Manchester ; 
lord Seymour ; sir Robert Long, &c. . . . 1660 

George Monk, duke of Albemarle, made first com- 
missioner of the treasury, <&c 1667 

" Cabal " Ministry ; Clifford, Ashley, Buckingham, 
Arlington, Lauderdale (see Cabal) . . . . 1670 

Thomas, lord Clifford ; Anthony, earl of Shaftesbury ; 
Henry, earl of Arlington ; Arthur, earl of Angle- 
sey ; sir Thomas Osborne, created viscount 
Latimer ; Henry Coventry ; sir George Carteret ; 
Edward Seymour, &c 1672 

Thomas, viscount Latimer, afterwards earl of Danby, 
made lord high treasurer ... 26 June, 1673 

Arthur, earl of Essex (succeeded by Lawrence 
Hyde, aft. earl of Rochester) ; Robert, earl of 
Sunderland, (fee ^79 

[The king nominated a new council on 21 April, con- 
sisting of 30 members only, of whom the princi- 
pal were the great officers of state and great 
officers of the household.] 

Sidney, lord Godolphin ; Lawrence, earl of Ro- 
chester ; Daniel, earl of Nottingham ; Robert, 
earl of Sunderland ; sir Thomas Chicheley ; 
George, lord Dartmouth ; Henry, earl of Claren- 
don ; earls of Bath and Radnor . . . 1684 

James II. — Lawrence, earl of Rochester; George, 
marquis of Halifax ; sir George Jeffreys, after- 
wards lord Jeffreys ; Henry, earl of Clarendon ; 
sir John Ernley ; viscount Preston, &c. . . . 1685 

The earl of Rochester was displaced, and John, lord 
Belasyse, made first commissioner of the treasury 
in his room, 4 Jan. ; the earl of Sunderland made 
president of the council ; viscount Preston, seu- 
retarv of state, <fec 1687-S 

[The king left Whitehall in the night of 11 Dec, and 
quitting the kingdom, landed at Ambleteuse, in 
France, Dec. 1688. 

William III. and Mary.— Charles, viscount Mor- 
daunt ; Thomas Osborne, earl of Danby, created 
marquis of Carmarthen, afterwards' duke of 
Leeds ; George, marquis of Halifax ; Arthur 
Herbert, afterwards lord Torrington : earls of 
Shrewsbury, Nottingham, and Sunderland ; earl 
of Dorset and Middlesex ; Williai art (after- 
wards duke) "f Devonshire ; lord Godolphin ; lord 
Montagu ; lord De la Mere, &c 1689 

Sidney, lord Godolphin ; Thomas, earl of Danby; 
Richard Hampden ; Thomas, earl of Pembroke; 
Henry, viscount Sydney ; Daniel, earl of Notting- 
ham, 6c. 1690 

Sir John Somers became lord Somers in 1697, and 
lord chancellor; Charles Montagu, afterwards 
lord Halifax, was made first commissioner of the 
treasury, 1 May, 1698, succeeded by Ford, earl of 
Tankcrville !6 99 



1702 
1711 
1714 



1717 
1718 



1721 
1727 



Anne. — Sidney, lord (aftenvards earl of) Godolphin; 

'1 homas, earl of Pembroke, &c. . . May, 
Robert Harley, earl of Oxford ; sir Simon Harcourt, 

&c 1 June, 

Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, made lord treasurer 

three days before the queen's death, &c. 30 July, 
George I. — Charles, earl of Halifax (succeeded on 

his death by the earl of Carlisle), <fec. . . . 
Robert Walpole, first lord of the treasury, and chan- 
cellor of the exchequer, &c 

James (afterwards earl) Stanhope; William, lord 

Cowper, &c 

Charles, earl of Sunderland, &c. . . ■ ■ 

Robert Walpole, afterwards sir Robert Walpole, and 

earl of Orford, &c 

George II. — Robert Walpole continued . . . 

[Sir Robert remained prime minister twenty-one 

years ; numerous changes occurring in the time; 

see Walpole.] 

Earl of Wilmington ; lord Hardwicke, <fec. 

Henry Pelham, in the room of earl of Wilmington, 

deceased Aug. 

"Broad-bottom" administration — Henry Pelham; 

lord Hardwicke, <fec Nov. 

"Short-lived" administration— earl of Bath; lords 

Winchilsea and Granville . . . 10-12 Feb. 
Henry Pelham, &c, again . . . .12 Feb. 
Thos. H. Pelham, duke of Neuxasile; earl of Hol- 

derness, &c April, 

Duke of Devonshire ; William Pitt, (fee. . . Nov. 
Duke of Newcastle, and Mr. Pitt, aftenvards earl of 

Chatham, <fcc June, 

George III. — Duke of Newcastle, Mr. Pitt's minis- 
try, continued 

Earl of Bute; lord Henley, <fec. . . . May, 
George Grenville ; earls of Halifax and Sandwich, 

&c April, 

Marquis of Rockingham ; earl of Winchilsea, &c. J uly, 
Earl of Chatham; duke of Grafton, (fee. . Aug. 
Duke of Grafton ; lord North, &c. . . . Dec. 
Frederick, lord North ; earl Gower, &c. . Jan. 
[Lord North was minister during the whole of 

the American war.] 
Marquis of Rockingham; lord Camden; C. J. Fox; 

Edmund Burke, &c. . . . March, 

Earl of Shelburne (afterwards marquis of Lans- 

downe) : William Pitt, &c. . . . July, 

" Coalition Ministry," duke of Portland ; lord North; 

C. J. Fox ; Edmund Burke, (fee. . . April, 

William Pitt; Henry Dundas, &c. . . Dec. 

[During Mr. Pitt's long administration, nu- 
merous changes in the ministry took place.] 
Henry Addington ; duke of Portland ; lord Eldon, 

&c March et seq. 

William Pitt ; lord Eldon ; George Canning, <fee. 

May et seq. 
[Mr. Pitt died 23 Jan. 1806.] 
"All the Talents" — lord Grenville; 

Petty ; lord Erskine ; C. J. Fox 

Grey (afterwards earl Grey). . 
[Mr. Fox's death, 13 Sept. 18c 

merous changes.] 
Duke of Portland; lord Eldon, &c* . March, 
Spencer Perceval ; earl of Liverpool ; viscount Pal- 

merston, <fec Nov. and Dec. 

Regency. — Mr. Spencer Perceval (shot by Belling- 

ham, 11 May, 1812), (fee. ... 5 Feb. 
Earl of Liverpool ; lord Eldon ; Mr. Vansittart ; lord 

Melville ; viscounts Castlereagh, Palmerston, 

&c May, June, 

George IV. — Earl of Liverpool, &c. . 29 Jan. 

[During lord Liverpool's long administration 

numerous changes occurred.] 
George Canning; lord Lyndhurst; viscount Gode- 

rich ; William Huskisson ; viscount Palmerston ; 

duke of Clarence, &c April, 

[Mr. Canning died 8 August, 1827.] 
Viscount Goderich ; viscount Palmerston ; marquis 

of Lansdowne : W. Huskisson. A T c. -Aug. 

Duke of Wellington ; Robert Peel ; Mr. Huskisson ; 

&c Jan. 

[The ministry reconstructed on the retirement 

of the earl of Dudley, lord Palmerston, Mr. Grant, 

Mr. Huskisson.] . . . May and June, 



* The duel between lord Castlereagh and Mr. Canning, 
22 Sept. 1S09, led to the breaking up of this adminis- 
tration. 



1746 
1746 

1754 
1756 



1760 
1762 

1763 

1765 
1766 
1767 
1770 



1782 



1783 



lord Henry 

sir Charles 

Feb. 

5, led to nu- 



1806 
1807 



1S12 
1820 



ADMINISTRATIONS. 



13 



ADMIRAL. 



William IV.— Duke of Wellington, &c. 26 June, 1830 

Earl Grey; marquis of Lansdowne ; lord Brougham ; 
viscount Althorp ; earl of Durham ; viscounts 
Melbourne, Palmerston, and Goderich ; sir James 
Graham ; lord John Russell, cfcc. . . . Nov. „ 

[Earl Grey resigns, owing to a majority against 
him in the lords, on the Reform Bill, 10 May ; but 
resumes his post, 18 May, 1S32.] 

Viscount Melbourne ; &c July, 1834 

[Melbourne administration dissolved, Nov. 1834. 
The duke of Wellington held the seals of office till 
the return of sir Robert Peel from Italy, Dec. 
1834.] 

Sir Robert Peel ; lord Lyndhurst ; duke of Welling- 
ton ; earl of Aberdeen, &c. . Nov. and Dec. ,, 

Viscount Melbourne, <fcc April, 1835 

Victoria. — Viscount Melbourne, &c. . 20 June, 1837 
Subsequent accessions, F. T. Baring ; earl of 
Clarendon ; T. B. Macaulay, &c. Viscount Mel- 
bourne resigned, and sir Robert Peel received 
the queen's commands to form a new administra- 
tion, 8 May. This commanl was withdrawn, and 
lord Melbourne returned to power . . 10 May, 1839 

Sir Robert Peel ; duke of Wellington ; lord Lynd- 
hurst ; sir James Graham ; earl of Aberdeen ; lord 

Stanley, &e Aug. and Sept. 1841 

[Accessions, Sidney Herbert ; W. E. Gladstone, 
&c] 

Lord John Rvissell ; viscount Palmerston ; earl 

Grey, &c July, 1846 

[Accessions : earl Granville ; Mr. Fox Maule ; 
earl of Carlisle ; sir Thomas Wilde, created lord 
Truro, &c.J 

Lord John Russell and the marquis of Lansdowne 
on the 24 Feb. announced the resignation of 
ministers, owing to their defeat on Mr. Locke 
King's motion respecting the franchise ; they in- 
formed parliament, that it having been found im- 
possible to construct a coalition ministry, the 
queen, by the advice of the duke of Wellington, 
had called upon her late ministers to resume office. 
Lord Stanley (since earl of Derby), in the interval, 
had been unable to forma cabinet . . 3 March, 1851 

Earl of Derby (late lord Stanley) ; lord St. Leo- 
nards ; Benjamin Disraeli ; Spencer H. Walpole ; 
earl of Malmesbury ; sir John Pakington ; duke 
of Northumberland, &c. ... 27 Feb. 1852 

Earl of Aberdeen ; lord John Russell ; viscount Pal- 
merston, <fec 28 Dec. ,, 

Various changes of offices took place ; a fourth 
secretary of state was appointed, by the separa- 
tion of the war from the colonial department ; see 
Secretaries of Slate. The retirement of lord J. Rus- 
sell, 24 Jan. 1855, and a majority in the commons 
against ministers of 157 (305 to 148), on Mr. Roe- 
buck's motion respecting the conduct of the war, 
led to the resignation of lord Aberdeen and his 
colleagues, 30 Jan. ; the cabinet was reconstructed 

by 
Viscount Palmerston ; lord Cranworth ; &c. 7 Feb. 1855 
[Secession of sir J. Graham, Mr. Gladstone, and 
Mr. S. Herbert. Accession of lord John Russell ; 
earl of Clarendon ; sir G. Grey ; sir G. C. Lewis ; 
sir W. Molesworth, <fcc, Feb. 24, 1855.] 

On the second reading of the Foreign Con- 
spiracy bill, the government (defeated by a vote 
of censure being passed by a majority of 19, on 
the motion of Mr. Milner Gibson) resigned imme- 
diately 19 Feb. 1858 

Earl of Derby ; B. Disraeli ; Spencer Walpole ; lord 
Stanley ; sir F. Thesiger (lord Chelmsford), &c. 

26 Feb. „ 

[The Derby administration, in consequence of a 

vote of want of confidence in it being carried by a 

majorityof 13, 10 June, 1859, resigned thenextday. 

Earl Granville failed to form an administration. 1 

Viscount Palmerston ; lord John (since earl) Russell, 

<&c 18 June, 1859 

[Lord Palmerston died 18 Oct. 1865.] 
Earl Russell ; W. E. Gladstone ; earl of Clarendon ; 

<&e Oct. 1865 

[Resigned, in consequence of a minority on the 
Reform Bill, 19 June, 26 June, 1866.] 
Earl of Derby, B. Disraeli, lord Stanley, &c. ; for 
changes see Derby Administrations. . 6 July, 1866 

[Earl of Derby resigned through ill-health, 
Feb. 25, 1868.] 
B. Disraeli reconstituted the administration 29 Feb. 1868 



[Mr. Disraeli resigned in consequence of the 
elections in November giving a majority of about 
114 to the Liberals, 2 Dec. 186S.] 
W. E. Gladstone ; earl of Clarendon ; Robert Lowe ; 
John Bright, and others, received seals 9 Dec. 1868 

[Lost their majority by the general election, 
Feb. ; resigned, 17 Feb. 1874.] 
B. Disraeli (earl of Beaconsfield, 16 Aug. 1876), the 
earl of Derby, the marquis of Salisbury, and 
others, received seals . . . . 21 Feb. 1874 
[For changes, see Disraeli Administrations.] 
[Lost their majority by elections in April ; re- 
signed, 22 April, 1S80.] 
W. E. Gladstone; earl Granville, marquis of Harting- 
ton, duke of Argyll, sir Wm. Harcourt, John 
Bright, and others, received seals . 28 April, 1880 

[Resigned in consequence of a minority on the 

Budget Bill (264-252), 9 June, 1885.] 

Marquis of Salisbury ; sir Stafford Northcote (lord 

Iddesleigh), sir Michael Hicks-Beach, lord 

Randolph Churchill and others received seals 

24 June, 18S5 
[Resigned in consequence of a minority on the 
amendment to the address (329-250), 27 Jan. 
1886.] 
W. E. Gladstone ; earl Granville, earl Spencer, earl 
of Rosebery and others . . . 2-6 Feb. t886 

[Resigned in consequence of a majority against 
his Irish Home Rule Bill (343-313) 20 July, 
1886.] 
Marquis of Salisbury; and former colleagues re- 
ceived seals 26 July, 1886 ; resigns . 12 Aug. 1892 
W. E. Gladstone ; with some of former colleagues, 

and others, 18 Aug. 1892 ; resigns . 3 March, 1894 
Earl of Rosebery, with nearly all Mr. Gladstone's 

cabinet, 3 March et seq. ; resigns . 22 June, 1895 

Marquis of Salisbury ; conservatives and unionists, 

25-28 June, ,, 
Marquis of Salisbury ; conservatives and unionists, 

[resigned n July, 1902] . . . .12 Nov. 1900 
A. J. Balfour; conservatives and unionists, 12 July, 1902 
For details and changes, see separate articles under 
the Premier's name. 

ADMINISTRATIVE REFORM ASSO- 
CIATION derived its origin from an opinion 
that the disasters which occurred to the army in the 
Crimea in 1854-5 were attributable to the inefficient 
and irresponsible management of the various de- 
partments of the state. The association was 
organised in London, 5 May, 1855. A meeting 
was held in Drury-lane theatre on 13 June, and 
Mr. Layard's motion on the subject in parliament 
was negatived 18 June following. The association 
was reorganised in 1856, Mr. Roebuck, M.P., be- 
coming chairman, but soon became unimportant ; 
see Civil Service. 

ADMIRAL. The title, derived from the Arabic, 
emir-al-bahr, " Lord of the sea," which occurs in the 
Chanson de Roland, nth century, does not appear 
to have been adopted in England until about 1300. 
Alfred, Athelstan, Edgar, Harold, and other kings, 
were commanders of their own fleets. The first 
French admiral is said to have been appointed 1284. 
The rank of admiral of the English seas was first 
given to William de Ley bourne by Edward I. in 
1297. Spelman ; Eymer. The first Lord High 
Admiral in England was created by Richard II. in 
1385 : there had been previously high admirals of 
districts — the north, west, and south. The duties 
have generally been executed by lords commis- 
sioners ; see Admiralty. A similar dignity existed 
in Scotland from the reign of Robert III. In 1673, 
Charles II. bestowed it upon his natural son Charles 
Lennox, afterwards duke of Richmond, then an 
infant, who resigned the office to the crown in 
1703: after the union it was discontinued. — The 
dignity of lord high admiral of Ireland (of brief 
existence) was conferred upon James Butler by 
Henry VIII., in May, 1534. The Admiral of the 
Fleet is the highest rank in the Royal Navy, 



ADMIEALTY, COURT OF. 



14 



ADMIEALTY OFFICE. 



corresponding to that of field-marshal in the 
army. We have now (Oct. 1903) on the active 
list 5 admirals of the fleet ; senior admiral 
the hon. sir Henry Keppel, Aug. 1877 ; sir Fred. 
W. Richards, Nov. 1898 ; sir Norvell Salmon, Jan. 
1899 ; Sir Jas. E. Erskine, Oct. 1902 ; sir Charles 
F. Hotham, Aug. 1903 ; the German emperor, hon., 
Aug. 1889; the king of Portugal, hon., Sept. 1903 ; 
ioadmirals, 22 vice-admirals, 41 rear-admirals, 217 
captains. The prince of Wales, naval aide-de-camp 
to the king 21 June, 1887 ; was made rear-admiral 
Jan. 1901 ; vice-admiral 26 June, 1903. Admiral 
of the fleet, sir Provo Wallis, b. 12 April, 1791, 
d. 13 Feb. 1892, sir Lewis Tobias Jones, b. 24 Dec, 
1797, d. 11 Oct., 1895. Vice-admiral sir Robt. 
O'Brien Fitzroy, K.C.B., b. 1839, d. 7 May, 1896; 
sir Alex. Milne, G.C.B., b. II Nov. 1806, d. 29 
Dec. 1896 ; sir W. R. Mends, b. 1812, d. 26 June, 
1897. Admiral sir W. Hornby, b. 1812 (retired 
1892), d. 28 June, 1899 ; vice-admiral P. H. Colomb, 
b. 1831, d. 13 Oct. 1899; see Fog; the duke of 
Edinburgh, 1876- 1893; d. 30 July, 1900: see Saxe- 
Coburg; sir George Willes, d., aged 77, 18 Feb. 
1901 ; sir George Wellesley, b. 1814, d. 6 April, 
1901 ; sir J. E. Commerell, d., aged 72, 21 May, 
1901 ; sir A. Hoskins, d., aged 73, 21 June, 1901 ; 
sir W. H. Stewart, G.C.B., d. 13 Nov. 1901 ; lord 
Hood of Avalon, d. 16 Nov., aged 77, 1901 ; sir G. 
Elliot, d. 13 Dec, aged 88, 1901 ; sir Edw. Sotheby, 
d., aged 88, 6 Jan. 1902; sir Edw. B. Rice, d., 
aged 83, 30 Oct., 1902 ; sir J. E. Montgomerie, 
aged 77, d. 10 Sept. 1902 ; sir Edw. S. Adeane, 
d., aged 66, 18 Oct. 1902 ; Edw. C. T. D'Eyncourt, 
aged 89, 14 Jan. 1903 ; Thos. Saumarez, aged 75, 
d. 22 Jan. 1903; hon. F. A. C. Foley, aged 80, 
d. 26 July, 1903 ; R. P. Cator, d. 31 July, 1903 ; 
r.-adm. A. G. Bogle, d. 15 Aug. 1903 ; r.-adm. 
hon. Albert Denison S. Denison, aged 68, 2 Sept., 
1903 ; sir Alexander Buller, d., aged 69, 3 Oct. 
1903. 

ADMIEALTY, Court of, a court for the 
trial of causes relating to maritime affairs, said to 
have been erected by Edward III., in 1357. It was 
enacted in the reign of Henry VIII., that criminal 
causes should be tried by witnesses and a jury, some 
of the judges at Westminster (or, as now, at the Old 
Bailey) assisting. The judgeship of the admiralty 
was constituted in 1514, and was filled by two or 
more functionaries until the Revolution, when it 
was restricted to one. Beatson. The judge has 
usually been an eminent doctor of the civil law. In 
1844 the criminal jurisdiction of this court was re- 
moved, and by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 77 (1857), the judge 
of the Probate court was to be also judge of the 
Admiralty court. The judge of the Admiralty 
court, Dr. Stephen Lushington (appointed 
in 1838), resigned 1 July, 1867, and was suc- 
ceeded by sir Robert Phillimore, who retired March, 
1883. 1 he jurisdiction of this court was extended in 
1861. The very ancient gilt anchor is set up in the 
Admiralty Court of the Royal Courts of Justice. The 
ancient silver oar is laid on the Registrar's Table, 
Oct. 1885. By the acts 1873-5, appeal is now to 
the Supreme Court of Judicature. See Supreme 
Court and Probate Court. 

ADMIRALTY OFFICE dates from 1512, 
when Henry VIII. appointed commissioners to in- 
spect his ships of war. During the Commonwealth 
the admiralty affairs were managed by a committee 
of the parliament ; and at the restoration in 1660, 
James, duke of York, became lord high admiral. In 
1662 the admiralty was first put into commission, 
the great officers of state being the commissioners ; 
see succeeding changes below. In 1688-9 the 



admiralty was put into commission, and the board 
appears to have assembled at admiral Herbert'-s 
lodgings, in Channel-row, Westminster, he being 
at that time first lord. In 1830, 1832, and 1836 
various changes were made in the civil depart- 
ments, several offices being abolished or conso- 
lidated with others. In March, 1861, a royal com- 
mission recommended the abolition of the board of 
admiral ty and the appointment of a minister of the 
navy department. The board was reconstituted 14 
Jan. 1869, and 4 May, 1872. The collective action 
of the board was taken away, and concentrated in 
the person of the first lord. 
The office removed from Somerset House to Whitehall, 

1874-5- 
New buildings erected by virtue of the Public Offices. 
Site Act passed 24 July, 1882. The designs of 
Messrs. Leeming & Leeming, of Halifax, selected for 
approval by parliament, July, 1884. 

FIRST LORDS OF THE ADMIRALTY. 

660. James, duke of York, lord high admiral, 6 June. 
673. King Charles II., 14 June. 
,, Prince Rupert, 9 July. 

679. Sir Henry Capel, 14 Feb. 

680. Daniel Finch, esq., 19 Feb. 

681. Daniel, lord Finch, 20 Jan. 

683. Daniel, earl of Nottingham, 17 April. 

684. King Charles II. 

685. King James II., 17 May. Office in commission. 

689. Arthur Herbert, esq. , 8 March. 

690. Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, 20 Jan, 

692. Charles, lord Cornwallis, 10 March. 

693. Anthony, viscount Falkland, 15 April. 

694. Edward Russel, esq. (aft. earl of Orford), 2 May. 
699. John, earl of Bridgewater, 2 June. 

701. Thomas, earl of Pembroke, 4 April. 

702. George, prince of Denmark, lord high admiral, 

20 May. 

708. Thomas, earl of Pembroke, ditto, 29 Nov. 

Office in commission. 

709. Edward, earl of Orford, 8 Oct. 

710. Sir John Leake, 4 Oct. 

712. Thomas, earl of Strafford, 30 Sept. 
714. Edward, earl of Orford, 14 Oct. 
717. James, earl of Berkeley, 19 March. 
727. George, viscount Torrington, 2 Aug. 
733. Sir Charles Wager, knt. , 25 June. 
742. Daniel, earl of Wincliilsea, 19 March. 
744. John, duke of Bedford, 27 Dec. 
748. John, earl of Sandwich, 10 Feb. 

751. George, lord Anson, 22 June. 

756. Richard, earl Temple, 19 Nov. 

757. Daniel, earl of Wincliilsea, 6 April. 
,, George, lord Anson, 2 July. 

762. George M. Dunk, earl of Halifax, 19 June. 

763. George Grenville, esq. , 1 Jan. 

„ John, earl of Sandwich, 23 April. 

,, John, earl of Egmont, 10 Sept. 
766. Sir Charles Saunders, 10 Sept. 

,, Sir Edward Hawke, 10 Dec. 
771. John, earl of Sandwich, 12 Jan. 

752. Hon. Augustus Keppel, 1 April. 

,, Augustus, viscount Keppel, 18 July. 

783. Richard, viscount Howe, 2S Jan. 

788. John, earl of Chatham, 16 July. 

794. George John, ear] Spencer, 20 Dec. 

801. John, earl St. Vincent, 19 Feb. 

804. Henry, viscount Melville, 15 May. 

805. Charles, lord Barham, 2 May. 

806. Hon. Charles Grey, 10 Feb. 

806. Thomas Grenville, esq. , 23 Oct. 

807. Henry, lord Mulgrave, 6 April. 
809. Charles Yorke, esq., 10 May. 

812. Robert, viscount Melville, 25 March. 

827. William Hknry, duke of Clarence, lord high 

admiral, 2 May, resigned 12 Aug. 1828. 

828. Robert, viscount Melville, 10 Sept. 
830. Sir James li. <•'•■ Graham, baft., 25 Nov. 

834. George, Lord Auckland, ti June. 

,, Thomas Philip, carl do Grey, 23 Dec. 

835. George, lord Auckland, 25 April. 
,", Gilbert, earl of Minto, 19 Sept 

841. Thomas, carl of Haddington, S Sept. 
846. Edward, carl of Ellenborough, 13 Jan. 
, George, earl of Auckland, 24 July. 



ADMIRALTY, WHITEHALL. 



15 



ADULTERY. 



1853. 
1855 
1858. 
1859. 



1877. 



Sir Francis Thornhill Baring, 18 Jan. 

Algernon, duke of Northumberland, 28 Feb. 

Sir James Robert George Graham, 5 Jan. 

Sir Charles Wood, bart., 24 Feb. 

Sir John Pakington, bart., 26 Feb. 

Edward, duke of Somerset, June. 

Sir John Pakington, bart., 6 July. 

Henry Lowry Corry, 8 March. 

Hugh Culling Eardley Childers, 9 Dec. 

George Joachim Goschen, g March. 

George Ward Hunt, 21 Feb. ; died 29 July, 1877. 

Win. Henry Smith, about 7 Aug. 

Thos. Geo. Baring, earl of Northbrook, 28 April. 

1885. Lord George Francis Hamilton, 24 June. 

1886. George Frederick Samuel Robinson, Marquis of 

Bipon, about 6 Feb. 
,, Lord George Francis Hamilton, 26 July. 
1892. John Poyntz, earl Spencer, 18 Aug. 
1895. George Joachim Goschen, 25 June. 
1900. William Waldegrave Palmer, earl of Selborne, 
12 Nov. 

ADMIRALTY, Whitehall. "At the south 
end of Duke-street, Westminster, was seated a large 
house made use of for the admiralty office, until the 
business was removed to Greenwich, and thence to 
Wallingford -house, against Whitehall." It was re- 
built by Ripley about 1726; the screen was erected, 
to conceal the ugliness of the building, by the 
brothers Adam, in 1776. — Lord Nelson lay in state 
in one of the apartments on 8 Jan. 1806 ; and on the 
next day was buried at St. Paul's. 
Explosion in clerks' room (ascribed to gunpowder in an 

iron pot) ; Mr. Swainson much hurt; about 11 a.m. 

23 April, 1885. 

ADMIRALTY ISLANDS. A group of coral 
islands to the N.E. of New Guinea, about 2° S. 
lat. and 147 E. long., discovered by the Dutch 
1616, area 878 sq. m., inhabited by a race of 
savages 800 in number. Together with New 
Britain annexed by Germany in 1885, and now 
form part of the Bismarck Archipelago. 

ADMIRALTY and WAR OFFICE ACT, 

to facilitate improvements in the organisation of 
these offices, by the retirement of clerks from certain 
of the civil departments by granting gratuities, was 
passed 10 Aug. 1878. 

"ADMONITION to the Parliament," 

condemning all religious ceremonies but those com- 
manded by the New Testament, was published by 
certain Puritans in 1571. Its presumed authors, 
Pield and Wilcox, were imprisoned. A second Ad- 
monition by Thomas Cartwright was answered by 
archbishop Whitgift. 

ADORNO AND FREGOSO, two families, of 
which the doges were frequently members, dis- 
turbed Genoa from the 14th to the 16th centuries, 
the former favouring the emperor, the latter the 
French king. Their power was annihilated by 
Andrea Doria about 1528. 

ADOWA, battle of, see Massowah, 29 Feb., 1 
March, 1896. 

ADRIAN'S or HADRIAN'S WALL (to 

prevent the irruptions of the Scots and Picts 
into the northern counties of England, then under 
the Roman government) extended from the Tyne 
to Solway frith, and was eighty miles long, twelve 
feet high, and eight feet in thickness, with watch- 
towers ; built 121. It was repaired and strengthened 
by Severus, 207 — 210. 

ADRIANOPLE, in Turkey, so named after 
its restorer the emperor Adrian (who died 10 July, 
138). Near here Constautine defeated Licinius arid 
gained the empire, 3 July, 323 ; also, near here the 
emperor Valens was defeated and slain by the Goths, 
q Aug. 378. Adrianople was taken by the Turks 



under Amurath in 1361, and was their capital till 
the capture of Constantinople in 1453. It was taken 
by the Russians on 20 Aug. 1829; and restored 
14 Sept. same year; after the capture of the Turkish 
army in the Shipka pass it was occupied by the 
Russians, without resistance, 20 Jan. 1878. Popu- 
lation 1885, 70,886; 1901, about 81,000. See 
Turkey. 

ADRIATIC. The ceremony of the doge of 
Venice wedding the Adriatic sea (instituted about 
1 1 73), took place annually on Ascension-day. The 
doge dropped a ring into the sea from his bucentaur r 
or state barge, being attended by his nobility and 
foreign ambassadors. The ceremony was first 
omitted in 1797. 

ADULLAM, a cave to which David fled from 
the persecution of Saul about 1062 b.c. (i Sam, 
xxii. 1, 2.) 

Mr. Horsman, Mr. R. Lowe, earl Grosvenor, lord Elcho, 
and other liberals who opposed the Franchise Bill in 
1866 were termed " Adullamites." During a debate 
on this bill on 13 March, 1866, Mr. Bright said of Mr. 
Horsman, that he " had retired into what may be called 
his political cave of Adullam, to which he invited 
every one who was in debt, and every one who was. 
discontented," &c. On 19 April, lord Elcho said, " No 
improper motive has driven us into this cave, where 
we are a most happy family, daily — I may say, hourly 
— increasing in number and strength, where we shall 
remain until we go forth to deliver Israel from oppres- 
sion." Although their opposition led to the resig- 
nation of the Russell ministry, they declined to- 
take office under lord Derby in July, 1866. They did 
not vote together uniformly in 1867, and (lord Elcho 
and Mr. Wyld excepted) voted with Mr. Gladstone, 
for the disestablishment of the Irish church, 1 May 
1868. 

ADULTERATION. That of food was pro- 
hibited in England in 1267, and punishments for 
it enacted, 1581, 1604, 1836, 1851, &c. Much 
attention was drawn to it in 1822, through Mr. Ac- 
cum's book, called " Death in the Pot," and in 1855 
through Dr. HassaU's book, " Food and its Adulte- 
rations.' ' By an act for preventing the adulteration 
of food, passed in i860, parochial chemical analysts 
may be appointed . An act to prevent adulteration 
of seeds passed 16 Aug. 1869, amended 1878. An- 
other to prevent adulteration of food and drugs 
passed 10 Aug. 1872. Penalties for adulterating 
liquors were imposed by the new licensing act passed 
same time. The report of a commission, issued in 
July, 1874, declared that the public " were cheated 
rather than poisoned." All the anti-adulteration 
acts were repealed by the Sale of Food and Drugs 
Act, passed II Aug. 1875; which was amended in 
1879; reported very effectual Dec. 1884. Act regu- 
lating sale of margarine, 9 Aug,, 1899. The report 
of the select committee appointed in 1894, with 
suggestions, was issued in July, 1896. 

ADULTERY was punished with death by the 
law of Moses (1490 b.c ; Lev. xx. 10)— and by Ly- 
curgus (884 B.C.). The early Saxons burnt the 
adulteress, and erected a gibbet over her ashes, 
whereon they hanged the adulterer. The ears and 
nose were cut off under Canute, 1031. Adultery 
was ordained to be punished capitally by the parlia- 
ment, May 14, 1650 : but there is no record of this 
law taking effect ; and it was repealed at the re- 
storation. In New England the punishment for 
adultery was made capital to both parties, and 
several suffered for it, 1662. Hardie. Till 1857 the 
legal redress against the male offender was by civil 
action for a money compensation ; the female being 
liable to divorce. By 20 & 21 Vict. c. 85 (1857) 
the "action for criminal conversation" was abolished 
and the Court for Divorce and Matrimonial Causes 



ADVENT. 



16 



.ELFEIC SOCIETY. 



-established with power to grant divorces for adultery 
and ill usage ; see Divorce. An act was passed in 
1869 permitting parties to suits for adultery to give 
evidence. 

ADVENT {adventus, "the coming"). Thesea- 
son includes four Sundays, previous to Christmas, 
the first the nearest Sunday to St. Andrew's day 
(Nov. 30), before or after. Homilies respecting 
Advent are mentioned prior to 378. Advent Sun- 
day, 1896, 29 Nov. ; 1897, 28 Nov. ; 1898, 27 Nov. ; 
1899, 3 Dec. ; 1900, 2 Dec. ; 1901, 1 Dec. ; 1902, 
30 Nov.; 1903, 29 Nov.; 1904, 27 Nov.; 1905, 
3 Dec. 

ADVENTISTS (Seventh-day), an American 
sect in Massachusetts, U.S.A. A large conference 
of delegates from 30 States of the Union, and from j 
Europe, met at Michigan, 7 March, 1891. The presi- 1 
dent Elson reported the building of a college at 
Lincoln, Nebraska, and that the Pitcairn Islanders 
had become Adventists. 

ADVENTURE BAY, S.E. end of Van Die- 
men's Land, discovered in 1773 by capt. Furneaux 
in his first voyage to the Pacific, and named from 
his ship Adventure. It was visited by capt. Cook 
1777 ; by capt. Bligh in 1788 and 1792. 

ADVENTURERS, see Merchants. 

ADVERTISEMENTS in Newspapers, 

as now published, were not general in England till 
the beginning of the eighteenth century. A penalty 
of 50/. was inflicted on persons advertising a reward 
with " No questions to be asked" for the return of 
things stolen, and on the printer, 1754. The ad- 
vertisement duty, (first enacted, 1 712,) formerly 
charged according to the number of lines, was after- 
wards fixed, in England, at 3s. 6d., and in Ireland 
at 2s. 6d. each advertisement. The duty (further 
reduced, in England to is. 6d., and in Ireland to is. 
each, in 1833) was abolished in 1853. 

Early advertisements are found in "Perfect Occur- 
rences of every Dale," 26 March to 2 April, 1647, 
and. " Mereurius Elencticus " . . 4 Oct. 1648 

II. Sampson's " History of Advertising," pub- 
lished Nov. 1874 

The whole libretto of Maefarren's Opera, Robin 
Hood, inserted as an advertisement in the Times 
(4J columns) 16 Oct. i860 

A debate in the Portuguese parliament, translated, 
inserted as advertisement in the Daily News (8 
columns) 3 May, 1877 

Advertising Vans, a great nuisance, prohibited . 1853 

Advertising Stations (Rating) Act, passed . . 18S9 

The name of Mr. II. P. Partridge, surgeon-dentist, 
Dublin, was struck off the registry of the General 
Medical Council for advertising as contrary to pro- 
fessional roles, June 1886; continued by the Court of 
Appeal, 22 March, 1892. 

Posting illustrated advertisements on walls, &c, 
much censured, Nov. 1892; society funned to 
check the practice .... early April, 1S93 

Advertisers' exhibition, Niagara-hall, London, 
opened 22 April, 1899 

International exhibition ,, 1st) at t lie Crystal palace, 

May, 1900 

ADVOCATUS DIABOLI (Devil's Advo- 
oate), in the Roman Catholic Church, the 
functionary appointed to slato the objections 
against a deceased person proposed for canonization. 
The side for its defence is undertaken by the 
Advocatm l>< ((God's Advocate). 

ADVOCATE, The King's (always a doctor 
of the- civil law), was empowered to prosecute at his 
own instance certain crimes about iy)7- The Loud 
Ldvocatj in Scotlind is the same as the attorney - 
general in England, with judicial powers.— It waa 
deoide I in the parliament of Paris, in [685, that 



the king's advocate of France might at the same 
time be a judge; and in Scotland sir William Oli- 
phant (161 2) and sir John Nesbit (1666) were lord 
advocates and lords of session at the same time. 
Beatson. — The powers were diminished in 1881, 
when John Blair Balfour was made Lord Advo- 
cate ; the right hon. J. H. A. Macdonald, 1885-8 ; 
Mr. J. P. B. Kobertson, 1888-Sept. 1891, succeeded 
by sir Charles John Pearson, 1891, by Mr. J. B. Bal- 
four, 1892; sir Charles Pearson, Sept. 1895; it. hon. 
Andrew Graham Murray, May, 1896 ; Mr. C. S. 
Dickson, Oct. 1903; Mr. G. W. T. Omond's work, 
"The Lord Advocates of Scotland," pub. 1884. 
Advocates' library in Edinburgh established by sir 
G. Mackenzie about 1682; in 1709 it obtained the 
right to a copy of every new book published in 
Britain. Number of volumes over 350,000 MSS. 
over 3,000 ; see Judge Advocate. 

ADVOWSONS, right of a presentation to a 
church living. First recorded instance in 448, 
when a bishop was permitted by the council of 
Orange to nominate a clerk to a church he had 
built outside his diocese. Advowsons were allowed 
in the 6th cent. (123 Novel of Justinian). Pat- 
ronage has grown as part of the feudal system. 
The Decretals stated that if with the consent of the 
bishop any man built a church he acquired the 
right of patronage. In Thomas a Becket's time 
presentations were often made against the will of 
the bishop, and for money payments. Exchange of 
advowsons is now regulated by various Acts, notably 
23 & 24 Vict. c. 124, i860, 31 & 32 Vict. c. 114, 
and ^ & 34 Vict. c. 39, 1868-70. See Benefice. 

iEDILES- Roman city officers. I. Two ple- 
beian a;diles were appointed to look after buildings, 
weights and measures, the supply of provisions, 
&e., 494 B.C. 2. The (cdilcs curulcs were ap- 
pointed 365 B.C. 3. Julius Caesar appointed cedilcs 
cereales for watching over the supply of corn. The 
ajdiles became a kind of police under the emperors. 

JEDUI OR HEDUI, a Celtic people, N.E. 
France, subjugated by Julius Caesar, B.C. 52. An 
insurrection, a.d. 21, was quelled by C. Sihus. 

AGATES ISLES, W. of Sicily: near these 
the Roman consul, C. Lutatius Catulus, gained a 
victory over the Carthaginian fleet under Hanno, 
10 March, 241 B.C. Peace ensued, the Romans 
obtaining Sicily and a tribute of 3200 talents. 

JEGINA, a Greek island, a rival of Athens, was 
humbled by Themistocles, 485 B.C. ; and taken and 
its works destroyed 455. Its inhabitants, expelled, 
431, were restored by the Spartans, 404; they re- 
newed war with Athens, 388, and made peace, 387. 
In 181 1, from the temple of Pallas Athene, many 
statues, dating from 50 years before Phidias, were 
taken to Munich, one group represents a combat 
of Greeks and Trojans for the body of Achilles. 

^EGOSPOTAMI, (the Goat-rivers), in the 
Chersonesus, where Lysander, the Lacedaemonian, 
defeated the Athenian fleet, 405 B.C., and ended the 
Peloponnesian war. 

A. E. I. O. U. (for "Austria^ est imperare 
orbi universi," (German, allc Brde ist Oesterreiehs 
Uttterthan,) '' Austria is to rule all the world"), 
was the motto of the weak and unfortunate emperor, 
Frederick III., 1440 — 1 '.03. 

.2ELFRIC SOCIETY; founded 1842; closed 
[856; published " Homilies of JSlfric, archbishop 
of Canterbury," and other Anglo-Saxon works. 



AENEID. 



17 



AFFIRMATION. 



iENEID, the great Latin epic poem, relating 
the adventures of iEneas, written about 24 B.C. by 
Virgil, who died 22 Sept. 19 B.C., before he had 
finally corrected the poem. It was first printed in 
1469, at Some. 

iENIGMA. Samson's riddle (about 1141 B.C. ; 
Judges xiv. 12) is the earliest on record. Gale at- 
tributes senigniatical speeches to the Egyptians. 
The ancient oracles frequently gave responses ad- 
mitting of perfectly contrary interpretations. In 
Nero's time, the Romans had recourse to this 
method of concealing truth. The following epitaph 
on Fair Rosamond (mistress of our Henry II. about 
1173) is a mediaeval specimen: — "Hie jacet in 
tomba Rosa mundi, non Rosa munda ; Non redolet, 
sed olet, quae redolere solet." 

AEOLIA, in Asia Minor, was colonised by a 
principal branch of the Hellenic race about 1 124 B.C. 
The iEolians built several large cities; Mitylene, 
in Lesbos, was considered the capital. 

2EOLIAN HARP. Its invention is ascribed 
to Kircher, 1 650, who wrote on it, but it was pre- 
viously known. St. Dunstan is traditionally said 
to have been its inventor. 

-ZEOLOPILE, a hollow ball with an orifice in 
which a tube might be screwed, was used in the 
17th century as a boiler for experimental steam- 
engines; a similar apparatus is described by Vi- 
truvius, first century, a.d. Its invention attributed 
to Hiero of Alexandria. 

JEQUI, an Italian race, subdued by the Romans 
and their lands annexed, 471-302 B.C. 

AERATED WATERS. Solution of carbonic 
acid in water discovered by Priestley. Suggested 
as a prevention of scurvy. Paper presented to the 
Admiralty 1773. A bottle of soda-water from the 
Royal George, sunk in 1780, sold by auction Mar. 
10, 1903. Apparatus for combining gases with 
water were patented by Thomson in 1807 ; F. C. 
Eakewell in 1832 and 1847 ; Tylor in 1840, and by 
others. Aerated bread is made by processes 
patented by Dr. Dauglish, 1856-7. Aerated Bread 
Company formed 28 Oct. 1862. A. B.C. Restaurants 
very successful and extending, 1903. 

AERIANS, followers of Aerius, a presbyter, in 
the 4th century, who held that there was no dis- 
tinction between a bishop and a presbyter, and 
that prayers should not be offered for "the dead. 
Epiphanius. 

AEROLITES, see Meteors. 

AERONAUTICS and AEROSTATICS, 

see Balloons and Flying. The Aeronautical Society 
of Great Britain was established by the duke of 
Argyll and others, 12 Jan. 1866. Annual meetings. 

AEROPHORE, an apparatus invented by M. 
Denayrouze, to enable persons to enter a noxious 
inflammable atmosphere. It comprises an air-pump, 
lamp, and flexible tubing. It was tried at Chat- 
ham, 12-14 J an - x ^75> an( i reported successful. 
The name Aerophor was given to an apparatus, invented 
by a German engineer, to introduce a very fine water- 
cloud into textile factories to nullify the injurious 
effects of the frictional electricity generated by the 
machinery. In 1890 the apparatus was reported suc- 
cessful in Germany and England. 

^ESCULAPI US, god of medicine : his wor- 
ship introduced at Rome, about 291 B.C. 

^ESOPS FABLES, see Fables. 



JESTHETICISM, an a:t movement to carry 
the love of the beautiful into home-life, sprang up 
during the latter part of the 19th century. It was 
strongly supported by Mr. Ruskin, sir (Id. 1896) 
Frederick Leighton, Mr. (knt. 1899) Alma-Tadema, 
Mr. Holman Hunt, Mr. (bart. 1894) P. Burne- 
Jones, Mr. Gabriel Danti Rossetti and ot ers asso- 
ciated with the Pre-Raphielite movement (which 
see). The fantastic extravagances of some of the 
followers of the cult were cleverly hit off by Gilbert 
and Sullivan in "Patience," produced in 1881, and 
satirised in Fundi about that period. The influence 
of iEstheticisin has been felt in the improvement 
of decorative art in modern houses, and increased 
artistic refinement. 

AESTHETICS (from the Greek aisthesis, per- 
ception), the science of the beautiful (especially in 
art) ; a term invented by Baumgarten, a German 
philosopher, whose work "^Esthetica" was pub- 
lished in 1 750. 

ETHIOPIA, see Ethiopia. 

" .3ETHI0PICA," see Romances. 

AETIANS, followers of Aetius, an Arian heretic 
about 351. 

.ZETOLIA, in Greece, a country named after 
iEtolus of Elis, who is said to have accidentally 
killed a son of Phoroneus, king of Argos, left the 
Peloponnesus, and settled here. After the ruin of 
Athens and Sparta, the iEtolians became the rivals 
of the Achseans, and were alternately allies and 
enemies of Rome. 

The iEtolians join Sparta against Athens . B.C. 455 
The jEtolian league of tribes opposes Macedon . . 323 
Invaded by Antipater during the Lamian war . . 322 
Aid in the expulsion of the Gauls . . . .279 
Invade the Peloponnesus, and ravage Messenia (Social 

War), and defeat the Achajans at Caphyas . . 220 
Philip V., of Macedon, invades iEtolia, and takes 
Thermum— Peace of Naupactus concluded . .217 

Alliance with Rome 211 

Deserted by the Romans, the iEtolians make peace 

with Philip 205 

War with Philip, 200 ; he is defeated at Cynoscephalas 197 
The iEtolians invite the kings of Macedon, Syria, and 

Sparta, to coalesce against the Romans . . 193-2 
Defeat of the allies near Thermopylae . . . . 191 
Conquered by the Romans under Fulvius . . . 189 
Leading patriots massacred by the Roman party . 167 
iEtolia made a province of Rome .... 146 
Seized by Theodoras Angelus, 13th century. 
Anmrath II. in 1432 expelled the Greek gover- 
nors. It is now part of the kingdom of Greece. 

AFFINITY. Marriage within certain degrees 
of kindred was prohibited in almost every age and 
country, but has yet taken place to a considerable 
extent. The Jewish law is given in Leviticus xviii. 
(1490 B.C.) In the English prayer-book the table 
restricting marriage within certain degrees was set 
forth by authority, 1563. Prohibited marriages 
were adjudged to be incestuous and unlawful bj'the 
99th canon, in 1603. All marriages within the for- 
bidden degrees are declared to be absolutely void by 
5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 54, 1835 ; see Marriage (of 
(Fife's Sister). The prohibited degrees were set 
forth in 25 Hen. VIII. c. 22, 1533-4. See Incest. 

AFFIRMATION ; see Quakers. The affirma- 
tion was altered in 1702, 1721, 1837, and in April, 
1859. — The indulgence was granted to persons who 
were formerly Quakers, but who had seceded from 
that sect, 2 Vict. 1838 ; and extended to other dis- 
senters by 9 Geo. IV. c. 32 (1828), and 18 & 19 Vict. 
c. 2 (1855). For Mr. Bradlaugh's case, see Far- 
1880- 1, 1883, and Oaths. 

C 



AFGHANISTAN. 



18 



AFGHANISTAN. 



Affirmation Bill for M.P.'s introduced, 1883 ; rejected in 
the commons (292-289) 3-4 May, 1883. Affirmations 
were substituted for oaths by an act passed 24 Dee. 1888. 

AFGHANISTAN (the Greek Ariana), a large 
country in central Asia, successively part of the 
Persian and Greek empires. Chief cities, Cabul, 
Herat, Candahar, Ghuznee. The tribes are ruled 
by sirdars. Population 1903, about 4,000,000. 

Early Afghan conquests in India . . 1200-1290 
Conquests of Genghis Khan about 1221, and by 

Tamerlane i35>2 

Baber conquered Cabul 1525 

On his death Afghanistan divided between Persia 

and Hindostan. 
The Afghans revolt in 1720 ; invade Persia and take 
Ispahan ; repulsed by Nadir Shall in 1728, who 
subdues the whole of the country . . . . 1738 
On his assassination, one of his officers, Ahmed 
.Shall, an Afghan, made Afghanistan indepen- 
dent, and reigned prosperously . . . 1747-73 
Timur Shah (son), succeeds, 1773 ; rules cruelly ; 

dies leaving 23 sons 1793 

Zeraan becomes ameer, 1793; cripples the power of 

the sirdars ; blinded and dethroned . . . 1S00 
Mahmud Shall, son, ameer 1800; deposed for his 
brother, Suja Shah, 1803 ; Mahmud restored, 
Futtih Khan the vizier predominant, 1809 ; 
Futtih blinded ; Mahmud flees from Cabul and 

becomes ruler at Herat 1816 

Impotent rulers at Cabul ; Dost Mohammed Khan 

becomes ameer 1826 

He is dethroned by the British, and sent to Cal- 
cutta ; Suja Shah restored 1S38 

British occupation of Cabul causes great discon- 
tent ; insurrection ; sir Alexander Burnes and 23 

others killed 2 Nov. 1841 

Akbar Khan, son of Dost Mohammed, head of the 
rebels ; invites sir Wm. Maenaghten to meet, and 
assassinates him and others . . 23 Dec. ,, 
The British army retires from Cabul, and is de- 
stroyed by the Ghilzais in the Khyber pass ; of 
3849' soldiers, and about 12,000 camp followers, 
only Dr. Brydone and four or live natives escaped 

massacre 6-13 Jan. 1842 

Sir George Pollock forces the Khyber pass; defeats 
Akbar Khan at Tezeen ; captures Cabul and re- 
leases lady Sale and others, 16 Sept. ; destroys 
the great bazaar ; retires . . . 12 Oct. ,, 
Dost Mohammed becomes ameer . . . . ,, 
His treaty Of friendship with lord Dalhousie (faith- 
fully kept) 30 March, 1855 

He dies leaving 16 sons; appointing as his suc- 
cessor Shere Ali, the third son, 9 June; who is 
much opposed 1 >>■ his brothers, especially by 
Ufzul, the eldest son (.-iiul his son Abdul-Rah- 
man, or Abdur-Rahman), Azim, Ameen, and Shu- 
reef; yet is recognized by them . . Sept. 1863 
Unsuccessful insurrection of Ufzul and Azim ; Azim 
llees to British territories, 16 May ; Ufzul recon- 
ciled to Shere Ali 2 June, 1864 

Insurrection of Abdul-Rahman ; Ufzul imprisoned 

Aug. „ 
Shore Ali enters Cabul ... 14 Nov. ,, 

Azim and his confederates defeated at Kujhboz, 
near EChelal i Ghllzye, bj Shere Ali (whose gal- 
lant son is killed), 6 June ; in- enters Candahar, 

14 June, 1865 
Azim joins his nephew Abdul-Rahman ; defection 
of Mahomed Rufeek from Ibrahim (Shere Ali's 
son) weakly ruling Cabul ; 1! surrenders to 

A/iin 2 March, 1866 

Shere Ali rouses himself from his grief; raises an 
army; some of his treacherous friends return to 
him ; in- 1- defeated at Sheikhabad, ami Bees to 

Candahar 10 May, ,, 

Ufzul (sensual and easy), and Azim (cruel and 

tyrannical) rule a) Cabal . . . May, etseg. ,, 
Azim and Abdul Rahman defeat Shere Ali at 
Kujhb I in- Bees tot 'ondahor : shut out, 

llees to Herat held by his son, Yakoob . Jan. 1S67 
Hi. army again defeated and ins general ami 

brother, Fy* Mahommed, killed . . 17 sept. ,, 
I \ 0,1 sole ruler at Cabul . Oct ,, 

He quarrels « Ith Abdul Rahman ; who haves him, 
ami refuses to help him . . . March, 1S68 



Yakoob defeats Azim's troops, and enters Canda- 
har April, 186B 

Azim leaves Cabul, July ; his army dissolves by 

desertion ; Shere Ali enters Cabul . 8 Sept. „ 
Sir John Lawrence helps Shere Ali with arms and 
money ; the attempts of Abdul-Rahman repulsed, 

Nov., Dec. „ 
Shere Ali totally defeats him and Azim (who dies 

soon after) Jan. 1869 

Shere Ali honourably received at Umballah by the 
viceroy, the earl of Mayo, and receives a subsidy, 

27 March, et seq. „ 
The limits of his territories denned, about June, 1870 
His son, Yakoob, rebels ; captures Herat 6 May, ,, 
Feramoz Khan, his father's general, assassinated, 

June, 1873 
Yakoob reconciled to his father through lord Mayo, 

July ; made governor of Herat ; soon rebels, Sept. , , 
Usluni, murderer of Feramoz, killed in prison, 

Oct. „ 

Shere Ali agrees to new boundaries, and receives 

another British subsidy, Oct. ; nominates his 

youngest son, Abdoola Jan, his successor, to the 

great dissatisfaction of bis older son Yakoob, 

Dec. 1873 
Yakoob Khan, imprisoned by bis father 

about Dec. 1874 
Shere Ali refusing to allow a British Resident, the 
subsidy withheld ; he raises an army, and is said 
to promote disaffection to the British . . 1877-S 
Death of the heir Abdoola Jan . . . 17 Aug. 187S 
Stolietoff, a Russian envoy, favourably received at 
Cabul, June ; a treaty signed ; Russia to be the 
guardian of the Ameer . . . Aug. „ 

The nawab Gholam Hussein Khan sent as envoy to 
the ameer with letters from the viceroy (16 and 
24 Aug.), 30 Aug. ; dismissed with presents ; 
intercourse with the British declined . Sept. „ 
A mission with military escort under sir Neville B. 
Chamberlain, commander of the Madras army, 
starts from Peshawur ... 21 Sept. t> 
At Ali Musjid, a fort in the Khyber pass, major 
Cavagnari and an advance party are threatened 
with attack if they proceed, 22 Sept. ; they retire 
to Peshawur, 23, 24 Sept. ; Gholam Hussein sent 
with an ultimatum (answer required before 20 

Nov.) 28 Oct, „ 

British army formed in three divisions : at Quettah, 
Peshawur, and Kuram (34,730 natives, 12,740 
Europeans) .... about 16 Nov. „ 
Dispatch from lord Cranbrook supporting the 

viceroy 18 Nov. „ 

No answer received from the ameer ; the army ad- 
vances 21 Nov. ,, 

Ali Musjid shelled and occupied by the British ; 21 
guns taken ; major Birch and lieut. Fitzgerald 
and about 35 men killed . . .22 Nov. ,, 
The viceroy's proclamation to the Afghans, issued 

23 Nov. „ 
Occupation of Dakka and Pisheen, 23 Nov. _; of 

Kuram fort 25 Nov. ,, 

Kuddiun burnt to punish marauding hillmen. 

1 l>eo. „ 
Gen. Roberts victorious at Peiwar pass (w7iic7i sec) 

2 Dec. „ 
Evasive reply of the ameer dated iq Nov., received 

3 Uec. „ 
The British occupy Jellalabad . . 20 Dec. ,, 
Shere Ali llees from Cabul to Balkh, 13 Dee. ; 

Yakoob Khan assumes command ; the Russian 

mission withdraws Dec. ,, 

Gen. Roberts proclaims annexation of Kuram 

district, tm. . 26 Dee. ,, 

lie cnleis the Khoost territory 3 Jan. ; defeats the 

Mangals near Matoon .... 7 Jan. 1879 
Candahar abandoned, 6 Jan. ; entered by general 

Stewart unopposed 7 Jan. ,, 

"Willi Mahomea, a relative of Shere Ali, joins the 

British Jan. ,, 

The Alizais defeated in an attack . . 16 Feb. ,, 
Death of Shere Ali. the ameer (announced) 20 Feb. ,, 
About 46 of the ioth hussars drowned by current 

while crossing the Cabul river, 10 p.m. 31 March, ,, 
G in. Qough, willi the ioth hussars and others, 

defeats about 5000 Khugianis near Futtehabad; 

gallant major wigram Batty killed . 2 April, ,, 



AFGHANISTAN. 



19 



AFGHANISTAN. 



Yakoob Khan, son of the late ameer, arrives at 
Gandamak to negotiate, 8 May ; recognised as 

ameer 9 May, 

Treaty of peace signed at Gandamak ; (the British 
to occupy Khyber pass, and the Kuram and 
Pisheen valleys ; to have a Resident at Cabul ; and 
to pay an annual subsidy of 60,000?. to the ameer), 
26 May ; ratified 30 May ; the British troops retire 

8 June, 

Sir Louis Cavagnari and escort honourably re- 
ceived in Cabul .... 24 July, 

Thanks of the house of lords voted to the viceroy, 
officers, and men 4 Aug. 

Several regiments of Afghan soldiers arrive in 
Cabul from Herat ; about 13 Aug aided by the 
populace they besiege the British residents, who 
after a brave resistance are massacred (including 
sir L. Cavagnai-i, Mr. Jenkyns, his secretary, lieut. 
Hamilton, and Dr. Ambrose Kelly), with about 
26 native cavalry and 50 infantry ; a few natives 
escape 3, 4 Sept. 

Gen. Roberts marches towards Cabul 6 Sept. et seq. 

Mutiny at Herat ; military and civil governors killed 

5 Sept. 

Repulse of an attack on Baker's entrenchments at 
Shutargardan 19 Sept. 

A British convoy attacked by Mongols, near 
Shutargardan ; 8 sepoys and 15 muleteers killed ; 
mules taken 22 Sept. 

Gen. Baker reaches Kushi 24 Sept. ; receives the 
ameer Yakoob and his son, his general Daoud, 
and suite 27 Sept. 

Gen. Roberts arrives at Cabul, 28 Sept. ; occu- 
pies Dakka 29 Sept. 

Attack on British camp at Shutargardan repulsed 

2 Oct 

Battle of Char-asiab ; severe conflict with Afghans 
before Cabul ; captain Young, Dr. Duncan, lieut. 
Fergusson, and about 70 killed and wounded 

6 Oct. 

The enemy decamps ; about 98 guns abandoned ; 
pursued by cavalry ; small parties only overtaken 

8-9 Oct. 

Gen. Roberts visits the abandoned Bala Hissar, n 
Oct. ; enters Cabul, 12 Oct. ; Jellalabad occupied 
by Gough 14 Oct. 

Gen. Roberts' proclamation ; heavy fine ; martial 
law ; gen. Hills to be military governor, with 
Gholab Hussein Khan ... 14 Oct. 

Great explosions (supposed treacherous) in the Bala 
Hissar ; destruction of much arms and ammuni- 
tion ; capt. Shafto and about 20 others missing 

16 Oct. 

Abdication of Yakoob Khan announced 19 Oct. 

5 prisoners (mollahs and others) hanged as mur- 
derers of major Cavagnari and others 20-24 Oct. 

Sahib Jan, a freebooter, with a strong force of 
Taraki Ghilzais, defeated and killed by general 
Hughes at Shahjui, near Candahar . 24 Oct. 

Proclamation of gen. Roberts announcing British 
occupation of Cabul, &c. ... 30 Oct. 

Junction of columns of generals Macpherson and 
Bright at Katasang . . . . 6 Nov. 

163 Afghan mutineers, &c, tried ; 87 executed as 
murderers ; 76 released . . . Oct., Nov. 

Combination of tribes under Mohammed Jan 
Wardak Dec. 

Continued severe fighting, with heavy loss on both 
sides 11-14 Dec. 

Gen. Roberts concentrates his forces in the 
Sherpur cantonments . . . .14 Dec. 

Musa Khan, son of Yakoob, said to be proclaimed 
ameer about 17 Dec. 

Gen. Gough at Jugdulluk attacked ; retreats into 
the fort, 16 Dec. ; indecisive conflicts 18, 19 Dec. 

The Afghans (25,000) defeated with great loss near 
Sherpur cantonments, by gens. Roberts and 
Gough 23 Dec. 

Cabul left by the enemy, 24 Dec. ; the city and 
Bala Hissar reoceupied by the British 26 Dec. 

The enemy dispersed .... 28 Dec. 

Attack of Afghan chiefs on col. "Norman repulsed 
at Jugdulluk 29 Dec. 

Ghuznee seized and held for Musa Khan as the new 
ameer, by Mohammed Jan . about 10 Jan. 

Gen. Roberts proclaims an amnesty with few 

exceptions ; the hill tribes generally subdued, 

about 6 Jan. 



1879 



Molunands and other tribes defeated in an attack 
near Daka 15 Jan. 

Correspondence with Russia ; papers fouad in 
Cabul (to be kept secret) ... 6 Feb. 

Musa Khan and chiefs at Ghuznee submit 21 March, 

Mohammed Jan defeated and killed, lighting with 
Hazaris . about 3 April, 

A camp at Duwai attacked by Pathans ; garrison 
killed 16 April, 

Shere Ali, cousin of the late ameer, made wali or 
governor of Candahar by the British (see 
Candahar) April, 

Gen. sir Donald Stewart defeats a furious attack of 
Ghilzais at Ahmad Khel, 19 April ; again near 
Ghuznee 23 April, 

Col. Jenkins, at Char-asiab, attacked by 4000 
Logaris ; resists till reinforced by gen. Mac- 
pherson ; totally defeats them . 25 April, 

Sir D. Stewart takes chief command at Cabul, 2 May, 

Alleged defeats of Safis and Ghazis near Jellalabad 

19, 22 May, 

Gen. Burrows (with about 2400 men) sent from 
Bombay towards Candahar . . 1 July, 

The troops of the inefficient wali of Candahar, 
Shere Ali, revolt and join Ayoob Khan, about 

14 July, 

Gen. Burrows at Maiwand, near Kusck-i-Nakhud 
(which see) 17 July, 

Abdul-Rahman, or Abdur-Rahinan, born 1845 (see 
above, 1863 et seq.), recognised as ameer at Cabul 
by the British (previously an exile at Samar- 
cand), and proclaimed ... 22 July, 

Ayoob Khan (son of the late ameer, Shere Ali), 
governor of Herat, marches upon Candahar with 
about 12,000 men and 20 guns ; defeats the attack 
of gen. Burrows after severe conflicts ; heavy loss 
on both sides ; many officers of 66th regiment 
killed 27 July, 

Candahar citadel held by British with about 4000 
men 28 July, 

Ayoob encamped at Kokaran . . .9 Aug. 

Gen. sir F. Roberts with about 10,000 men, <fec. . 
marches from Cabul to relieve Candahar 9 Aug. 

Sir D. Stewart, with all the troops, after an inter- 
view with the ameer Abdur-Rahman, withdraws 
from Cabul 11 Aug. 

Attack of Pathans (hill tribes) on the post at Kaeh 
Amadan firmly beaten off by sepoys ; 80 Pathans 
killed 16 Aug 

Ineffectual sortie from Candahar, under gen. ' 
Primrose, against Deh Kwajee village, with heavy 
loss on both sides ; gen. Brooke, col. Newport, 
majors Vandaleurand French, capt. Cruickshank, 
lieut. Marsh, and rev. Mr. Gordon, and 180 men 
killed 16 Aug. 

Ayoob Khan's army (strengthened by Ghilzais) 
about 20,000, about 25 Aug. ; he retires from 
Candahar ..... about. 30 Aug. 

Gen. Roberts arrives at Candahar, 31 Aug. ; de- 
clines Ayoob's terms ; defeats and disperses his 
army at Mazra near the Argandab ; and captures 
his camp at Baba Wali Kotal (see Mazra) 1 Sept. 

Ayoob Khan arrives in Herat ; reported 10 Oct. 

Tranquillity at Cabul, announced . . Nov. 

Shere Ali, wali of Candahar, resigns and retires to 
India Dec. 

Alleged expenses of the war, 1878-80, 23,494,480?., of 
which 5,000,000?. paid by British exchequer, Aug. : 

Russian correspondence with the ameer Shere Ali 
in 1878, published ; explained by Russia as re- 
lating to probable war in the east . 9, 10 Feb. 

Thanks of parliament voted to gen. Roberts and 
the army in both houses ... 5 May, 

Prospect of war between Ayoob Khan of Herat and 
Abdur-Rahinan of Cabul . . May, June, 

Conflicts between partisans of the ameer and Ayoob 
Khan ; the latter defeated . . 3 & 11 June 

Ayoob Khan defeats the ameer's army under 
Gholam-Hyder at Karez-i-atta, 26 July ; enters 
Candahar 30 July, 

Gholam Hyder holding Kelat i-Ghilzai, 6 Aug. ; 
receives reinforcements from Cabul . 21 Aug. 

Ayoob prepares to march ; the ameer's troops at 
Kelat-i-Ghilzai ; rejects Ayoob's proposals, 1-4 
Sept. ; marches to Candahar . about 8 Sept. 

Ayoob, defeated at Old Candahar chiefly through 
desertion of his troops, flees to Herat . 22 Sept. 

The ameer enters Candahar . . .30 Sept. 

c'2 



AFGHANISTAN. 



20 



AFGHANISTAN. 



His army under Abdul-Kudus Khan twice defeats 
Ayoob's adherents, Oct.; again . . . 2 Oct. 188 

Enters Herat . . • . . . . 4 Oct. ,, 

Ayoob flees to Persia 4 Oct. „ 

Abdur-Rahman now virtual ruler of all Afghanistan 

Oct. „ 

Afzul Khan chosen by the ameer as British resi- 
dent in Cabul Feb. 188 

The ameer defeats the Shinwarris about 27 April, 18E 

Peace made about 21 June, ,, 

Indian government grants subsidy to the ameer : 
accepted 21 July, ,, 

Slight insurrection of the Ghilzais under Mollah 
Mushki Alum, announced . . .24 Aug. ,, 

The proposal of an Afghan frontier commission 
accepted by the ameer .... Aug. 18E 

Gen. Sir Peter Lumsden with staff proceeds, and 
successful progress reported . . Oct., Dec. ,, 

Peajdeh assured to Afghanistan by Lord Auckland, 
1840 ; Russian advances resisted up to Nov. 1884. 
The ameer visits Lord Dufferin, the viceroy, at 
Rawul Pindi 2-12 April, who declares at a grand 
durbar, England and Afghanistan will stand side 
by side 8 April 188 

Sir Peter Lumsden arrives in London . 6 June, ,, 

Difference between England and Russia respecting 
the Zulfikar Pass July, „ 

.Strong Russian garrison at Askabad . . July, ,, 

The Russians relinquish Zulfikar Pass, announced 

22 Aug. ,, 

Anglo-Russian Protocol, closing the dispute, signed 
in London 10 Sept. ,, 

■Construction of Quetta Railway begun Sept. 1879 ; 
stopped Oct. 1880; resumed April 1884. Lower 
Bolan Railway joining India opened . 28 Oct. ,, 

Penjdeh given up to Russia, July, 1885, entered 

13 Feb. 18J 

Joint Commission appointed ; First boundary pillar 
formally erected 12 Nov. 1885; the last, many 
perils and privations endured . . . July, ,, 

Joint Commission dissolved . . . . 6 Sept. ,, 

Sir Joseph West Ridgeway, chief, and the Commis- 
sion warmly received at Cabul . . 15 Oct. ,, 

Rising against taxation (treasure seized in transit) 
about 30 Oct. ; rebellion said to be repressed 

Nov. ,, 

The ameer's troops defeated by the Ghilzais, 
announced 19 April ; again at Khelat-i-Ghilzai, 
announced 25 April, 18! 

Meetings Of Afghan frontier Commission at St. 
Petersburg; temporarily closed 12 May; resumed 
6 July ; question settled . . . 20 July, ,, 

M ut inj of 1 Ihilzais at 1 [eral , suppressed with much 
lil lshed 9 June, „ 

General Gholam reported that he defeated the 
Ghilzais i3&T6June, ,, 

The an r proclaims peace, amnesty and remission 

pf taxes for two years, announced . . 8 July, ,, 

Taimar Shah, chief of the Eerat mutineers, ex- 
ecuted at • labul 13 July, ,, 

Great defeat of the rebels at Mashakai, announced 

'5 July, ,, 
1: di rted conflicting accounts of victory of Gholam 

Hyder Khan al Kotaldab . . . 26 July, ,, 
Rebellion said to have collapsed 21 Aug.; several 

tribes return home 29 Aug. ,, 

Escape of Ayoob Khan from Teheran, 14 Aug.; 
enters Afghanistan with o few followers and is 

driven out early Sept. ,, 

Mashakai between the ameer's 
1 roopa and t he Insurgents . . 31 Aug. ,. 

Fighting near Mukur ; rebel leader, Jalander Khan, 

■iied 7 Sep! 

Repot In N iss Sept. Oct. , 

Mi. in surrenders at Meshed to the Indian 
1 nment, announced . . . .9 Nov. , 
South ' ' . announced . 1 j Nov. , 

Reported conflict between ameer's troops and the 

Insurgent », 1 1 killed 15 Nov. , 

Anine-.!;, proclamation issued bj the ameer 

1 • I lee. , 

Conflict i» 1 ■ and Turcomans, Afghans 

\ IctorloUS 1 May, 1 :■■ 

Revolt oflshak Kha in Turkestan, 
; defeated al rash Kurgan 19 Sept. 1888; 
hi M;i arl Sherli pSept. j Ishak Khan a fugitive 
in Russian toi rltory 

Tin- ameer narrowlj canapes assassination. .-• Dec. 



The ameer's troops under Gholam Hyder defeat 
the Shinwarris 3 Feb. 1889 

Gholam Hyder Khan, made Governor-General 

20 Feb. ,, 

Abdur-Rahman (two years absent) returns to Cabul 
with strengthened power . . . Aug. 1890 

Prof. James Darmsteter, during a scientific mis- 
sion in 1886, collected the "Chants populaires 
des Afghans," which he published . . . 1888-90 

Disputes with the Russians respecting the Pamir 
frontier Sept., Oct. 1891 

Mr. T. Salter Pyne, engineer-in-ehief to the ameer 
(5^ years), reports great progress in arts and 
manufactures, many English being employed Feb. 1892 

The ameer's encroachments on the Hazaras 
(checked by the Indian government) lead to fre- 
quent conflicts, and insurrection of other tribes, 
May, June ; the ameer unsuccessful. Rebels join 
the Hazara tribes July, ,, 

The Indian government proposes to send to the 
ameer a deputation headed by lord Roberts ; he 
approves, but defers receiving it, about 7 Aug. ; 
the ameer's army about 40,000 reported . Aug. ,, 

The governor of Candahar and his troops repulsed 
by the Hazaras, reported ... 22 Aug. ,, 

The ameer's troops capture Kamsin from the rebels, 
reported 30 Aug. ; the war continues with vary- ' 
ing results Sept., Oct. ,, 

The ameer's troops occupy Oruzghan, reported 

2 Oct. ,, 

Death of Abdul Kudus Khan, the ameer's general, 
reported 25 Oct. ,, 

Amicable despatches from the ameer to the viceroy 
brought by Mr. Pyne, reported . . 16 March 1893 

Boundary disputes with Russia settled by capt. 
Yates, reported 12 Sept. ,, 

The British mission under sir Henry Mortimer 
Durand and maj. Elles cordially received at 
Dakka by gen. Gholam Haidar, 20 Sept. ; at 
Jellalabad, 23 Sept., at Cabul, with much honour, 
2 Oct. ; cordial interview of three hours with the 
ameer, 10 Oct. ; agreement signed, 12 Nov. ; 
friendly speech of the ameer at a durbah, 13 
Nov. ; sir Henry Mortimer Durand and his 
party leave Cabul .... 15 Nov. ,, 

Mr. (aft. sir) Thomas Salter Pyne in London, 
reports successful progress, Times, 19 Jan. ; 
knighted March 1894 

Frontier warfare, see India ... 3 Nov. ,, 

The order of the bath presented to the ameer by 
the British agent .... 16 Jan. 1895 

The Afghan boundary commission complete their 
work, agreement signed by Mr. Udney and Gho- 
lam Haidar Khan, 13 April ; ratified by the Ameer 

July „ 

The Shahzada Nasrulla Khan, second son of the 
ameer, arrives in London, 24 May : received by 
the Prince of Wales and the royal family, 25 
May ; by the queen at Windsor, 27 May and 2 
July ; at the Derby, 29 May ; visits the Id. -mayor 
at the Guildhall, 6 June ; tour in the provinces, 
•June; farewell to the queen at Windsor, 20 July; 
he leaves England for Paris, 3 Sept. [returns to 
Cabul, Fell. 1896] ,, 

Lieut.-col. Mahomed Akram Khan, British agent 
in Cabul, and ids son killed by a messenger, the 
murderer killed : reported ... 4 Nov. „ 

The ameer attacks the Kafirs in the Verno valley 

20 Dec. ., 
The Bashgol valley dominated, the chiefs submit; 

reported 19 Jan. 1896 

The ameer's two sons made K. CM. G. . April, „ 
The ameer swears loyalty to the British government 

at a durbar ; reported, 25 Aug. 1897 : again 5 Oct. 1897 
Army reserve and reforms started ; reported, Aug. igoo 
Cholera epidemic; government bouses closed; 

1,5 leaths in Kabul, June-July . . . ,, 

"The life of the Ameer," edited by Mir Munshi, 

sultan Mahomed Khan, published . . . ,, 
Death of the ameer, a great ruler and a linn ally 
of the British; aged (Si, 1 Oct .... tgoi 

Eabibullah, bis son. proclaimed ameer ; declares 

bis intention to maintain the boundaries, and 
remain in alliance with lit. Britain, 3 Oct. . ,, 

Proclamation issued : reducing the taxes and land 
revenue and raising the pay of the army, 

reported, t6 < let 

"i tribal prisoners .... Oct. ,, 



AFRICA. 



21 



AFEICA. 



The Had da Mullah received by the ameer, 29 
March . . . . 1902 

Ameer divorces all his wives except four, forbids 
his subjects to have more, reported . 10 Feb. 1903 

British Commission under Maj McMahon to settle 
Persia-Afghan frontier dispute, arrives at the 
Helmand river 12 Feb. ,, 

Col. Yate detained as prisoner for crossing the 
border April, ,, 

AFEICA, called Libya by the Greeks, one of 
the three parts of the ancient world, and the great- 
est peninsula of the globe. For its history, see 
Egypt, Ethiopia, Carthage, Cyrene, Abyssinia, 
Cape, Algiers, Morocco, Ashantee, South Africa, 
Guinea, §c. " European ' spheres' of influence 
extended from under 500,000 square miles in 
1875 to about 10,000,000 square miles in 1900." 
Exports to the United Kingdom, 26,435,000/. ; 
imports, 32,288,000/. in 1901. 

Carthage subdued by the Romans, 146 b.c. ; other pro- 
vinces gained by Pompey, 82. 
Revolts subdued by Diocletian, a.d. 296 ; by Theodosius, 

373- 
N. Africa conquered by the Vandals under Genseric, 

429-35 ; re-conquered by Belisarius, 533-55. 
The Saracens subdue the north of Africa, 637-709. 
Portuguese settlements begun, 1450. 
Cape of Good Hope discovered by Diaz, 1487. 
Vasco de Gama doubles the Cape and explores the coast, 

19 Nov. 1497. 

English merchants visit Guinea in 1550; and Elizabeth 
granted a patent to an African company in 1588 (which 
see). 

Dutch colony at the Cape founded, 1650. 

Capt. Stubbs sailed up the Gambia, 1723. 

Bruce commenced his travels in 1768. 

Sierra Leone settled by the English, 1787. 

Mungo Park made his first voyage to Africa, 22 May, 
1795 ; his second, 30 January, 1804, and never returned 
(see Park). 

Africa visited by Salt, 1805 and 1809 ; Burckhardt, 181 2 ; 
Campbell, 1813 ; Hornemann, 1816 ; Denham and Clap- 
perton, 1822 ; Laing, 1826 : the brothers Lander, 1830. 

Expedition to the Niger originated by Mr. Macgregor 
Laird of Liverpool ; lie went out with Mr. Lauder and 
lieut. Win. Allen and they made a reliable survey of 
the river; July, et seq. 1832. 

The great Niger expedition to start a colony in Central 
Africa (for which parliament voted 6o,oooL), consisting 
of the Albert, lYilberfofce, and Soudan steamships, 
commenced the ascent of the Niger, 20 Aug. 1841 ; 
when they reached Iddah, fever broke out among the 
crews, and they were successively obliged to return, 
the Albert having ascended the river to Egga, 320 miles 
from the sea, 28 Sept. The expedition was relinquished 
owing to disease, heat, and hardships, and all the 
vessels had cast anchor at Clarence Cove, Fernando 
Po, 17 Oct. 1841. 

James Richardson explored the great Sahara in 1845-6, 
and in 1849 (by direction of the Foreign Office) he left 
England to explore central Africa, accompanied by 
Drs. Barth and Overweg. Richardson died 4 March, 
1851 ; and Overweg died 27 Sept. 1852. 

Dr. Vogel sent out with reinforcements to Dr. Barth, 

20 Feb. 1853 ; in April, 1857, said to have been assas- 
sinated. 

Dr. Barth returned to England, and received the Royal 
Geographical Society's medal, 16 May, 1856. His 
travels were published in 5 vols, in 1858. 

Dr. David Livingstone, a missionary traveller, returned 
to England in Dec. 1856, after an absence of 16 years, 
during which he traversed a large part of the heart of 
S. Africa, and walked about 1 1,000 miles, principally 
over country hitherto unexplored. His book was pub- 
lished in Nov. 1857. In Feb. 1858, he was appointed 
British consul for the Portuguese possessions in Africa, 
and left England shortly after. 

Du Chaillu's travels in central Africa, 1856-59, created 
much controversy, 1861. 

Second expedition of Dr. Livingstone, March, 1858. 

Captains Speke and Grant announce the discovery of 
a source of the Nile in Lake Victoria Nyanza, 23 Feb. 
1863. 

[Capt. Speke was accidentally shot by his own gun while 
alone near Bath, 15 Sept. 1864. J 



Some Dutch ladies unsuccessfully explore the White 
Nile, and undergo many privations, July, 1863-1864. 
(One, Miss Tinne, said to have been killed ; reported 5 
Sept. 1869.) 

The " Universities Mission to east central Africa," con- 
sisting of Charles F. Mackenzie, bishop of central 
Africa, and six clergymen and others, started Dec. 
i860, and arrived at the Zambesi, in Feb. 1861. All 
died from privations and disease except two, who 
returned in 1864. The bishop died 31 Jan. 1862 ; suc- 
ceeded by Dr. Tozer. 

Du Chaillu starts on a fresh expedition, 6 Aug. 1863 ; 
after being robbed, and undergoing many privations, 
returned to London near the end of 1865. He gave an 
account of his journey at a meeting of the Royal 
Geographical Society, 8 Jan. 1866. 

Dr. Livingstone returns, 23 July, 1864. 

Death of Dr. W. B. Baikie, at Sierra Leone, 30 Nov. 1864. 
[He was sent as special envoy to the Negro tribes 
near the Niger by the Foreign Office about 1854. He 
opened commercial relations with central Africa.] 

National African company, 1864. 

Mr. (afterwards sir) Samuel Baker discovered a lake, 
supposed to be another source of the Nile, which he 
named Lake Albert Nyanza, 14 March, 1864. 

Dr. Livingstone appointed British consul for inner Africa, 
24 March, 1865. 

Narrative of Livingstone's Zambesi expedition 1858-64, 
published 1866. 

Livingstone left Zanzibar to continue his search for the 
sources of the Nile, March, 1866. 
[See his narrative below.] 

Reports of the murder of Livingstone near Lake Nyassa, 
in Sept. 1866 — March, 1867 ; doubted, July, 1867. 

Expedition of E. D. Young in search of Livingstone, 
sailed 9 July, 1867, returned and reported to the Royal 
Geographical Society his conviction that Livingstone 
was alive, 27 Jan. 1868. 

Letter from Dr. Livingstone dated Bembo, 2 Mar. 1867 ; 
heard of down to Dec. 1867. 

His despatch to lord Clarendon, dated 7 July, 1868 ; read 
to the Royal Geographical Society, 8 Nov. 1869. 

Letter dated 30 May, 1869, published Dec. 1869. 

Uncredited reports of his murder by negroes, Jan. ; his 
probable safety reported by Dr. Kirk, 22 June ; said 
to be at Mozambique, Nov. 1870. 

Expedition of sir Samuel Baker to put down slave trade 
on the Upper Nile (see Egypt), Jan. 1870. 

Expedition in search of Livingstone under lieut. Dawson, 
organised by the Royal Geographical Society ; started 
9 Feb. 1872. 

[It returned on hearing that Stanley had found Living- 
stone.] 

Dutch Guinea settlements purchased and transferred (see 
Elmina), 6 April, 1872. 

Reports current that Livingstone is alive, May, June, 
1872. 

Expedition sent in search of Livingstone by Mr. James 
Gordon Bennett, proprietor of the New York Herald, 
at a cost of about 8,oooi. : — 

Mr. Henry M. Stanley, chief of the expedition, left 
Zanzibar, and, after much opposition from the native 
chiefs, accidentally fell in -with Livingstone at Ujiji, 
near Unyanyembe, 10 Nov. 1871, and remained with 
him till 14 March, 1872, when he brought away his 
diary and other documents. Mr. Stanley reported that 
Livingstone had arrived at Ujiji in bad condition, 
having been robbed and deserted by his attendants. 

Much controversy ensued between Mr. Stanley, the 
members of lieut. Dawson's expedition, Dr. Living- 
stone, Dr. Kirk, the Royal Geographical Society, and 
others, Aug. -Oct. 1872. 

Letter from Dr. Livingstone, at Ujiji, dated Nov. 
1871, to Mr. Bennett (printed in Neiu York Herald, 26 
July, and reprinted in the Times 27 July, 1872). He 
describes his explorations and his painful journey to 
Ujiji; his meeting witli Mr. Stanley ; and he speaks of 
the Nile springs being about 600 miles south of the 
most southerly part of Lake Victoria Nyanza ; and also 
of about 700 miles of watershed in central Africa, of 
which he had explored about 600 ; and of the conver- 
gence of the watershed first into four, and then into 
two, mighty rivers in the great Nile valley (?) between 
10° and 12 ' south latitude. Second letter (dated Feb. 
1872) describes the horrors of the slave trade in eastern 
Africa, printed in the Times 29 July, 1872. 



AFEICA. 



AFEICA. 



Livingstone's despatches, dated Nov. i and 15, 1871, 
received by the Foreign Office, 1 Aug. ; letta- dated 
1 July, received 2 Oct. 1872. 

Mr. Stanley described his discovery of Livingstone to the 
British Association at Brighton in presence of the 
ex-emperor and empress of the French, 16 Aug., and re- 
ceivedagoldsnuff-boxfromthequeenabout3oAug. 1872. 

Livingstone died of dysentery in Ilala, Central Africa ; 
his pupil, Jacob Wainwright, a young negro mission- 
ary, present, 1 May, 1873; his remains interred in 
Westminster Abbey, 18 April; his last journals pub- 
lished, Dec. 1874. 

New Expedition, under sir Bartle Frere, to Zanzibar, to 
Suppress the east African slave trade; lieut. Verney 
Lovett Cameron's offer to aid in the furtherance of 
Livingstone's expedition was accepted ; sailed 20 Nov. 
1872, see Zanzibar. 

Expedition tn explore the upper part of the Congo 
(Mr. Young, of Kelly, to subscribe 2000/. Royal Geo- 
graphical Society to supplement it), proposed Nov. 1872. 

Lieut. Verney Cameron, after the finding of Livingstone, 
continued his explorations, 3872-3. 

Leaving Ujiji, 14 May, 1874, he followed Livingstone's 
route ; explored 1200 miles of fertile country; arriving 
at Portuguese settlements, 4 Nov. 1875. 

He was received by Royal Geographical Society, and 
gave account of his journey, 11 April, 1876. 

Expedition of .Mr. II. M. Stanley (supported by Daily 
Telegraph and New York Herald); he surveyed Lake 
Victoria Nyanza (230 miles by 180), 1875 ; well andsuc- 
cessl'ul, last letter dated 24 April, 1876. 

Stanley reports survey of lake Tanganyika; and states 
that he left Ujiji and crossed Africa from east to west, 
and identified the Lualaba with the Congo river, which 
has an uninterrupted course of over 1400 miles, 24 Aug. 
1876—6 Aug. 1877. 

Arrives at Cape Town, 21 Oct. 1877 ; in London, 22 
Jan. ; published "Through the Dark Continent," May, 
1878. 

Italian expedition under marohese Antinori, well re- 
ceived by king of Scida ; announced 2 Dec. 1876; 
his death reported, Nov. 1877. 

Portuguese government grant 20,000?. for expedition 
into the interior, announced Dec. 1876. 

Dr. (illssfeld, a German, after his exploration into S.W. 
Central Africa, 1873, declared the difficulties insuper- 
able, .875. 

-Mr. H. M. Stanley, with an international Belgian expedi- 
ting explored the Congo, 1879-80. 

R. Geographical Society's successful expedition into 
Eastern Africa under Mr. A. Keith Johnston leaves 
England 14 Nov. 1878, starts from Zanzibar about 14 
May, 1879; Mr. Johnston dies 28 June, succeeded 
by Joseph Thomson, who returns to England Aug. 1880. 

The Royal Geographical Society grants 2,600/. 
for an expedition tn Africa under Joseph Thom- 
son, which sfarl.s 15 Dec. 1882; after successful 
exploration arrives at Zanzibar in June; describes 
to the R.Geo, fc'oc. his exceedingly perilous adven- 
tures, in beautifully varied country, with vicious 
escort, am. in- savage tribes nf different manners, 

. Nov. 1884. See MOTOCCO. 

Death of Dr. Moffat, missionary, aged 87, 9 Aug. 1883. 

Bee under Congo. 
Count Tclekl's expedition into tin- Masai country, &c, 

23 Jan. 1887—25 Oct. 1888. For Mi. n. M. Stanley's 

expedition to relieve Brain pasha, sec Soudan, Jan. 

1887 9. 
Trade route « Ith .( stations on the Congo reported to be 

established by Mr. Stanley (a great work) announced, 

14 Aug. 1882. 

Expedition of Mr. .1. T. Last, supported by the Royal 
Geographical Boclety, to s.W. Zanzibar, Sept. 1885. 

Italian Rclentlllc expedition under count Porro massacred 
reported 16 April, 1886. 

Dr. Junkei reports to the Royal Geographical Society 
ins eventful travels In Central Africa in 1885-6,0 May 
1887. 

Assassination of M. Cnmllle Douls, the explorer, while 
orosslng the Sahara, repoitedSepI 1889. 

Ai^im Hun .11 Ian expedition under counl Samuel 

relekl 1 Ileve Emin pasha arrives near htm, bul is 

superseded bj Mr. st nloy, 1886 9. Bee Jfttttna \ ■■ 

Mi 11. M. Btanley, In his expedition in relieve Emiri 
pasha (see Soudan, 18B7) al Wndelai, ami .luring his 
return march, makes mam discoveries, and re. names 
lake, South Nynnzn (wlili h In d In 1S87), 

Uberl Edward Efyani .. 1339. 



Major Casati publishes his book " Ten years in Equatoria 
— the Heturn with Emin Pasha," translated by the 
Hon. Mrs. J. Randolph Clay, March, 1891. 
[Gaetf.ni Casati, scholar, born 1838 ; soldier 1859 ; left 
Italy for Atrica 24 Dec. 1879; a t Khartoum about 
May, 1880 ; received by Emin pasha April, 1883 ; after 
many perilous adventures with Emin pasha, 1889; 
received by the khedive at Cairo, 4 Maj r , at Rome 
14 July, by the king 17 July, 1890 ; died, 7 March, 1902.] 

For a German exploring expedition, west, see Cameroons, 
1891. 

The German government sends an exploring expedition 
into S.W. African coast, Damaralaud, ichich see. 

French expedition into the interior between the Central 
Soudan and the French Congo under M. Fourneau ; 
starts from Ouassou, 7 March ; arrived at the con- 
fluence of the Massa Sangha and the Kalle, 15 April ; at 
the Sodi, 1 May ; attacked by natives he burns the 
village; encamped at a village, 10 May; suddenly 
attacked, fighting began ; M. Fourneau wounded, 
many of his men killed, the rest demoralized and some 
fled, retreat began under fire from the savages, n May ; 
and the party reached Ouassou, 18 May, 1891. 

Mr. Joseph Thomson returns from an expedition in 
British South Africa, having visited the neighbour- 
hood of lakes Nyassa and Bangweolo and made treaties 
with numerous chiefs, 18 Oct. 1891 [he died 2 Aug. 1895]. 
See Anglo-Frencli Agreement and others. 

MM. Monteil and Badaire explore country near lake 
Tchad, Central Africa, 9 Oct., 1890 et seq., return to 
Paris, 20 Dec. 1892 

Mr. J. Scott's Keltie's " Partition of Africa" published, 
Feb. 1893. 

Death of Mr. W. Cotton Oswell, discoverer of lake 
Ngami, &c, a companion of Livingstone, aged 75, 
1 May, 1893. 

Death of sir Theophilus Shepstone at Durban, aged 76 
(active in S. Africa. 1835 et scq.), 26 June, 1893. 

Mr. Selous's " Travels and Adventures 111 S. E. Africa ' 
(1881 ct seq.) published, 2S Sept. 1893. 

Death of Sir Samuel Baker (see Egypt, 1869), aged 72, 
30 Dec. 1893. 

Death (by accident) of capt. Lovett Cameron, explorer, 
companion of Burton and others, aged 49, 26 March, 
1894. 

Sir Edw. Hertslet's work, " The Map of Africa by 
Treaty," published, 7 Feb. 1895. 

Contract signed at Berlin for the establishment of an 
Anglo-German company to acquire i,ooo,coo acres of 
land in S.W. Africa, 2 May, 1S95. 

Death of Herr Friedrich Gerhard Rohlfs, eminent ex- 
plorer, 3 June, 1896. 

Death of Dr. J. A. Moloney, African explorer (1892 et 
seq.), aged 38, 5 Oct. 1896. 

Death of lieut. Edwaid D. Young, an explorer, see above, 
1867, 4 Nov, 1896. 

" Through Unknown African Countries," by A. Donald- 
son Smith. M.D., published 1S97. 

M. Antoine d'Abbadie, explorer of Abyssinia, &c, 
1837-48 ; died 20 March, 1897. 

"Impressions of S. Africa," by Jas. Brvce, published 
1897. 

M. E. A. Foa, French explorer, with a mission crossed 
the continent from Zanzibar to the Congo, 1894-97. 

" South Africa of To-day," by capt. Francis Younghus- 
band, published 1S97. 

Capt. Roberto Evens, eminent explorer, died 28 Jan. 1S9S. 

M. (lentil's ^ years' successful exploration in Central 

Africa tn lake Chad : reported, 21 July, 1898. 

Major Marchand's expedition lands at Lonngo, 23 July, 
1896, reaches Lomlima, 27 Sept. ; defeats the rebels, 
and arrives at Brazzaville, S Nov. ; ascends the Congo, 
and up the M'Hornu to Mehreh, 1 March — 12 Sept. 
1807; crossed the bush and leaches Fashoda (whicll 
sec) 10 July, iStjS ; left Fashoda. 11 Dec. ; ascended the 

Sobal river; crossed Abyssinia to Adis-Abeba, 10 

March. 1S09; reaching Jibuti, mid May, 1899. 

Mr. .1. Moore's expedition explores the great lakes; 
prooves Nyasa's greatest depth, 430 fathoms, mid 
Aug. 1S00; scientific Collections made at Tanganyika 
and othei places, jo Sept. ttsey. : returns to London, 
July, 1900. 

internal, conference in 1. mi. Inn agree to protect wild 
animals Erom 20 N. to the Zambesi and N. of German 
S.W. Africa, May -June, 1900. 



AFEICA. 

Major Gibbon's expedition leaves England, May, 1898 ; 
explores Marotseland, over 13,000 miles traversed ; dis- 
covers the source of the Middle Zambesi, and reaches 
Omdurman, 20 Aug. 1900. 

Messrs. E. S. Grogan and A. H. Sharp cross Africa from 
the Cape to Cairo, Oct. 1898 — Feb. 1900. 

Major Serpa Pinto, Portuguese African explorer, dies, 
aged 54, 28 Dec. 1900. 

Herr Oscar Neumann and party journey from Zeila to 
Khartoum, chiefly through new country, some valu- 
able discoveries and collections made, Jan. 1900 — 
June, 1901. 

Dr. Emil Holub, eminent (Austrian) explorer, died, 
21 Feb. 1902. 

Revolution in Wadai, fierce battle, sultan Ahmed suc- 
ceeded by Mohamed Dudu ; reported, 17 March, 1902. 

Death of Sheikh Senussi El-Mahdi, a pious Moslem and 
idealist, aged about 65, at Kanem, Lake Chad ; re- 
ported, 15 Aug. 1902. 

•GERMAN EAST AFRICA. Dr. Carl Peters goes to 
Africa as chief agent for the committee lor German 
colonization, concludes treaties with 10 sultans ; the 
German flag hoisted, Nov.-Dec. 1884. 

The German East African Company, mainly founded by 
Dr._ Peters, at Berlin, chartered, 12 Feb. 1886. 

Settlements founded in the valley of the Kingani, March, 
April, 1886. 

Treaty with the sultan of Zanzibar comes into force 19 
Aug. 1886. 

Dr. Peters, with a party of 23 engineers, medical men, 
&c, leaves Germany as the agent of the German 
Emm Pasha Relief Society, April, 1887. 

The Germans attack Bagamoyo and kill natives, 23 Sept. 
i883. 

Collapse of the German settlement, attributed to the 
Arab slave-dealers ; reported Oct. 1888. 

The East African Bill passed by the Parliament, granting 
money for the defence of German interests, and the 
suppression of the slave trade, 30 Jan. 1889. 

The Germans defeat the Arabs at Bagamoyo, 6 March, 
1889. 

Capt., after major, Wissmann, appointed imperial com- 
missioner in East Africa, 21 Feb. (dissension with Dr. 
Peters), 31 March, 1889. 

The German flag hoisted at the consulate ; capt. Wiss- 
mann assumes the command, 5 April, 1889. 

Dr. Peters organizing his Emin Relief Expedition ; men 
and camels engaged, March, April, 1889. 

Capt. Wissmann, aided by 200 German sailors, defeats 
Bushiri, an Arab slave-dealer, with little loss ; Bushiri 
loses 80 killed and 20 prisoners, his camp destroyed, 
May, 1889. 

Capt. Wissmann captures Pangani, 8 July, 1889. 

Aclm. Freemantle seizes the steamship Neera, belonging 
to the Emin Relief Expedition at Lamu, and takes io 
to Zanzibar, June ; Dr. Peters remonstrates, 29 June ; 
after a trial the ship is released, the owners i>aying 
costs, 6 A.ug. ; Dr. Peters directed by his committee 
to proceed no farther, 31 Oct. 1889. 

Differences between the sultan of Zanzibar and the 
Germans respecting territory, about 8 Nov. 1889. 

Major Wissmann receives Mr. H. M. Stanley, Emin pasha 
and party at Bagamoyo, 5 Dec. 1889. 

After tights, Bushiri captured and hanged, 16 Dec. 1889. 

Major Wissmann, after severe fighting, captures Bwana 
Heri's fortified position near Saadani, 5 Jan. 1890. 

Arab tribes come to Bagamoyo and submit, about Jan. 
18, 1890. 

Bwana Heri holds a considerable force against major 
Wissmann, reported 16 Feb. 1890. 

Emin pasha, after a long illness, occasioned by a fall 
from a window at Bagamoyo, 5 Dec. 1889, arrives at 
Zanzibar, 2 March ; accepts the otfers of major Wiss- 
mann, enters the German service, and proceeds witli a 
military expedition to Victoria Nyanza, 31 March et 
seq. 1890. 

Major Wissmann occupies Kilwa without resistance, 4 
May ; also Mikindani, 14 May ; letter from Dr. Peteis 
dated Kapte in Kamassia, 16 Jan., stating that he was 
340 English miles from Wadelai in good health, received 
May, 1890. 

Many losses by death and desertion ; reported 13 May, 
1890. 

Major Wissmann leaves for Germany, lieut. Schmidt 
left in command, 26 May, 1890. 



23 AFEICA. 

German forces : 207 officers, military and naval ; 1,200 
Soudanese, 380 Zulus, 120 Askaris, a number of Sou- 
malis as police, a medical staff and sanitary officers; a 
fleet of 4 steamers, besides whale-boats ; reported May, 
1890. 

A letter from Dr. Peters dated Rubaga in Uganda, 2 
March, received 28 May ; another dated Ukumi in 
Ussukuma, 13 April, receive! ao May, 1890. 

The German Parliament v >tes 4,853,000 marks for East 
African service, 24 June, 1890. 

Mahomed Bin Cassim and three companions were hanged 
at Bagamoyo, after trial for murder of a German mer- 
chant about 8 years previously, 27 June, 1890. 

Anglo-German convention, which see, signed at Berlin 
by the Emperor, 1 July, 1890. 

Major von Wissmann, ennobled and warmly received in 
Berlin and other places, June ; unwell, enjoined abso- 
lute rest, 14 July, 1890. 

Dr. Peters and party arrive at Zanzibar about 10 July, 
telegraphs to his company 18 July, 1890. 

[His treaty with the king of Uganda invalid ; he is 
accused of living by raids on the natives.] 

Advance of Emin pasha, severe fighting with the Masai 
in Ugogo, reported 31 July, 1890. 

Dr. Carl Peters arrives in Berlin, 25 Aug. 1890. 

The German East Africa Company cedes all its territorial 
rights to the Imperial Government, reported 28 Oct. 
1890. 

The emperor contributes 3,000 marks towards the build- 
ing of the steamer Wissmann, to be placed on Lake 
Victoria Nyanza, about 5 Dec. 1890. 

The Emin Pasha Relief Committee dissolves itself, 15 
Dec. 1890. 

Emin Pasha (refractory) recalled to the coast by major 
von Wissmann, imperial commissary, reported 19 Dec. 
1890. 

The German Imperial flag hoisted at Bagamoyo, 1 Jan. ; 
Major von Wissmann established there, 26 Jan. 1891. 

Baron von Soden appointed governor of German East 
Africa, Dr. Carl Peters his commissary, Feb., with a 
peaceful progressive programme, March, 1891. 

Major von Wissmann severely punishes the Kishobo 
tribe for robbery, reported 6 March, 1891. 

Returns to Bagamoyo 15 March, recalled for rest, reported 
14 April, 1891. 

Dr. Peters' "New Light on Dark Africa," published, 
spring, 1891. 

The German expeditionary colonial troops under lieut. 
von Zelewski attacked by the natives (about 3,000) 
S. of the Ruaha river, the lieut. and other officers 
killed, 10 Europeans, and about 300 native members 
of the expedition massacred near the station Mp wapwa, 
Kondora ; large capture of arms and ammunition, 17 
Aug. 1891. 

Captain Ruediger, appointed acting-governor of German 
East Africa, about 1 Oct. 1891. 

Movements of Emin pasha about Albert Nyanza, repu- 
diated by the German government, July ; resignation 
of major von Wissmann, Oct. 1891. 

Revolt of the Wadigoes against taxation; the Germans 
under captain Krenzler defeated 12 Dec, defeated 
again 19 Dec. 1891. 

Baron von Soden pursues a peaceful policy in opposition 
to major von Wissmann, Jan. 1892. 

He meets lieut. C. S. Smith and Dr. Peters, joint com- 
missioners for the delimitation of the territories at 
Wanga, Feb. 1S92. 

The German parliament votes 2, 500,000 marks for German 
interests in E. Africa and the suppression of the slave 
trade, 5 March, 1892. 

Dr. Kayser sent to E. Africa to examine the state of the 
colony, May, 1892. 

Emin pasha's geographical expedition starts from Ka- 
hura, 22 March, with Dr. Stiihlmann ; sutlers by want 
of provisions, &c, Dec. 1891 ; expedition divides, 
Emin ill, left behind by Dr. Stuhlmann, who goes to 
the German station on lake Victoria, 15 Feb., reported, 
May, 1892. 

An expedition defeated by the natives in Moshi terri- 
tory, near Kilima Njaro, baron von Billow, lieut. 
Wolfram, and 30 men killed, 10 June, et seq., the 
station at Kilima Njaro abandoned, reported, 30 June ; 
re-occupied without fighting, 29 July, 1892. 

Dr. Stuhlmann at Bagamoyo, 1 Aug. 1892. 

Collision of Germans with the Wahehes near Kilossa, 
lieut. Briiningand 4 soldiers killed, 6 Oct. 1892. 

Tranquillity restored, Dec. 1892. 



AFRICA. 



24 



AFRICA. 



Baron von Soden commended by the government, 
2 March, resigns April, 1893 

Explorations of Dr. Oscar Baumann, 1892 ; discovers 
Lake Eiassi, etc., near Victoria Nyanza, reported, 
March, 1893. He died, aged 35, mid Oct. 1899. 

Emin pasha murdered near Wadelai, about 20 Oct. 1802; 
reported, May, 1893. 

Sultan Meli's camp stormed on Kilima-Njaro by Freiherr 
von Scheie, 12 Aug. 1893. 

Baron von Scheie appointed governor of German East 
Africa, 21 Sept. 1893. 

Sultan Meli submits to the Germans, reported, 24 Oct. 
1893. 

German flag hoisted at Kionga, Portugal objects, July, 
1894 ; but afterwards yields, 10 Sept. 1894. 

Successful campaign of baron von Scheie against the 
Wahehe, Kuirenga destroyed, 30 Oct.-Nov. 1894. 

Severe famine, through drought and locusts, Nov. to 
Jan. ; relief measures undertaken, reported, Feb. 
1895. 

Major von Wissmann appointed governor, April, 1895 ; 
returns home, June, 1896; succeeded by major-gen. 
Liebert, Dec, 1896. 

Dr. Peters, governor of Lake Tanganyika, &c, 
charged in the diet at Berlin with great in- 
humanity to the natives while acting as imperial com- 
missioner, in Africa, 13 March, 1896; judicial inquiry 
ordered, 16 March ; dismissed the service and fined 
24 April, 1897, appeal dismissed Nov. 1897. 

Two missionaries murdered by natives of Meru in the 
Kilima-Njaro district, 19 Oct. 1896. 

Punitive expedition from Mochi very successful, natives 
sue for peace, 30 Oct. -6 Nov., reported 3 Feb., 1897. 

Friedrich Schroder, agent, sentenced to 5 yrs. imprison- 
ment for cruelty to the natives, 9 Nov. 1896. 

Sulfide of the suitan of Quawa to avoid capture; end 
of the Wahehe rising, reported, 7 Sept. 1898. 

Agreement re the Trans- African telegraph from Cape 
Town to Cairo, signed at Berlin, 15 March, ratified, 
28 Oct. 1899. 

Great mortality from famine, plague and leprosy pre- 
valent, reported, 12 Jan. 1900. 

General von Liebert, governor, succeeded by count von 
Gotzen Dec. 1900. 

Sentence of death on prince Prosper Arenberg for 
murder Of a native commuted to 15 years' imprison- 
ment, reported, 12 March, 1901. 

Financial report, 1901, unsatisfactory, issued, Sept. 1902. 

GERMAN S.-W. AFRICA, see Cameroons. 

ITALIAN AFRICA, see Zanzibar, 1893, Snmaliland 

1897, and MassowaA. 
PI ii; TUGUESE E. AFRICA, see Lourenpo Marques. 

PORTUGUESE W. AFRICA.— Count Almoster, with 
a small force, massacred by natives near Humbe, re- 
ported ^,3 December. 1897. 

Native attacks on fori Humbe repulsed with loss, re- 
ported 3 Feb., 1898. 

Revolt suppressed, 4 native chiefs and 13 others arrested 
at Bailundu, reported, 29 May, 1902; natives repulsed 
at Bailundu, 13, 14 July, 1902; further successes, 20, 
28 Aug. ; 6 Sept. 1902. 

BRITISH r. A.FRICA. The Imperial British East Africa 

Company, supported bv Mr. Wm. .Mackenzie, lord 
Brassey, (ten. Donald Stewart, Mr. Burdett-Coutts, 
and others, sir Wm. Mackinnou, chairman ; charter 
I Sept. 1888; large territories having been conceded 

tn Mr. \V. Mackenzie bj the sultan of Zanzibar; con- 
cession Blgned, 9 Oct. [888 ; confirmed, 1 Sept. 1889. 

The suit. in ot Zanzibar surrenders all control over the 
British East Africa Company's territory for an annual 
payment of 36,000 dollars ; reported 26 Dec. 1889. 

Successful tour ot Mr. Mackenzie through the company's 
territory, April, 1890. 

sir Francis de Winton appointed administrator of the 
Company's territories, May; arrives at Zanzibar and 

pi La t" Mombasa, the chief station, Lamu, &c, 

1890. 

All slaves in the territory declared free by Mr. Mac- 
kenzie al t 1 Maj : in-, final departure for Europe, 

much regn tted, 16 Maj . 1890. 

Mi. Qeorge s Mackenzie, administrator of the territory, 

return to England, July, 1890. 
\,r |o i lerman Convent Ion 1 1, 1 July, il 

ml progress ; army recruited lYom Inditi ; con- 
tinued peace with the natives, July, 1890. 



First general meeting of the company, London ; report 
and statement of accounts read, 25 July, 1890. 

Inauguration of the railway between Mombasa and 
Victoria Nyanza, 26 Aug. 1890. 

Resignation of sir Francis de Winton, Feb. 1891. 

Mr. George Mackenzie, director of the company, wel- 
comed by the sultan of Zanzibar ; the government of 
Witu assumed by the company ; the country quite 
pacified, March, 1891. 

Protocol for the delimitation of the British and Italian 
spheres of influence in East Africa, signed at Rome 
24 March, 1891. 

General Mathews, H.M.'s commissioner, arrives at 
Zanzibar, Sept. 1891. 

Proposed withdrawal of representative from Uganda ; 
serious consequences apprehended ; great need of 
a railway from coastline to Victoria Nyanza, Sept. 1891. 

Sir Gerald H. Portal appointed commissioner and consul- 
general in British East Africa, Feb. He and Mr. E. 
J. L. Berkeley, the administrator, suppress a revolt 
in Witu, April, 1S92. 

Witv. tranqnillised by Mr. Berkeley ; the ex-sultan sub- 
mits, reported, 10 June, 1892. 

The company's new courts of justice at Mombasa opened 
by judge Cracknall, 10 June, 1892. 

Treaty of the company with the king of Uganda (which 
see), 1891-92. 

Disaffection of the Somalis suppressed with bloodshed, 
reported 5 Feb. 1893. 

Uganda evacuated by the company, 31 March, 1893. 

Meeting of the company in London ; illness and resig- 
nation of sir William Mackinnou, 29 May; he died 
22 June, 1893. 

Evacuation of Witu by the company, 31 July, 1893; 
the deposed sultan Fumo Omari resists the British 
occupation, his stronghold stormed and captured, 
reported, 13 Aug. ; Jongeni stormed by Mr. R. Rodd, 
Aug. ; the Somalis at Kismayu revolt ; part of the 
garrison desert, Mr. Hamilton, superintendent, killed 
in an attack, 11 Aug. ; the mutiny suppressed by 
lieut. Lewes and count Lovatelli (Italian traveller), 
18-23 Aug. 1893. 

The rioters and murderers of Mr. Hamilton tried at 
Mombasa and punished, 30 June, 1894. 

"The Rise of our East African Empire," by capt. aft. 
sir F. D. Lngard, published Nov. 1893. 

Annual meeting (see Uganda), 31 July, 1894. 

Special meeting : resolution adopted for dividing the 
company's capital into il. shares ; discussion on the 
claims of the company on the government relative to 
Uganda, 22 Aug. 1894. 

Counter proposals by the government, 14 Nov. 1894. 

Commissioner and consul-gen. sir A. H. Hardinge, Jan. 
1895. 

At a meeting of directors in London, arbitration having 
been refused, they resolve to accept 250,000?. in 
return for the surrender of their charter, concessions, 
and assets, with some exceptions, and to request 
compensation for expenses connected with holding 
Uganda, 27 March, 1895 ; adopted n April, 1895 ; 
50,0001. voted to the company, with 30,000/. for ad- 
ministration of territory, 13 June, 1S95 ; a resolution 
for the winding-up of the company, etc.. passed 24 
July, confirmed 30 Oct. 1895. [The territory made a 
Protectorate 1895.] 

Famine through drought and locusts, reported, 20 
March, 1895. 

Expedition of admiral Rawsonand sir Win. Matthews 
against M'bruck bin Hashed, leaves Mombasa 12 
Aug. ; his stronghold taken at M'wele, 17 Aug. ; his 
camp burnt 2 Oct. 1895. 

Punitive expedition gainst Hands Kombo, an ally of 
Hashed, at Mpwapwa: capt. Lawrence killed in a 
.skirmish near Gazi : Mpwapvva captured, Oct. 1895. 

Ali bin Abdullah a powerful Arab, sentenced to 7 yrs. 
imprisonment and a tine of 5,000 rupees for cruelty 
to slaves: reported. 20, Feb. 1S96. 

An expedition sent from Mombasa against the rebel 
Chief M'Haruk Aziz; 15-22 March, lie and 1,000 fol- 
lowers surrendered to major von Wissmann in German 

territory ; reported 3a April. 1896. 

British judicial .system introduced by order in council ; 
9 July, 1897. 

Sir Arthur Hardinge's report on the protectorate pub- 
lished, Jan. 1898; the silver rupee of India ordered 
to be tic standard coin from 1 Jan, 1899; 20 May, 



AFRICA. 



25 



AFRIKANDER BUND. 



Punitive expedition under Mr. Jeimer against the 
Ogaden Somalis in Jubaland, June, some fighting, 
chiefs surrender, 21 Aug. 1898. 

Col. Macdonald's successful ' expedition returns to 
Mombasa (see Uganda), 5 March, 1899. 

Famine in several provinces, great mortality, March- 
Aug. 1899 

Mt. Kenya, over 17,000 ft. high, first ascended by Mr. 
H. .r. Mackmder, 12, 13 Sept., 1899. 

Mr. Jenner, commissioner, murdered by the Ogaden 
Somalis in Jubaland, 16 Nov. ; the Ogaden sultan 
taken prisoner and Aff-Madu occupied by the British, 
5 Feb. 1901 (see Somaliland). Sir Chas. Eliot, com- 
missioner, 1901 ; Mr. F. J. Jackson appointed dep.- 
commissioner, Nov. 1901. 

BRITISH CENTRAL AFRICA (N. of the Zambesi, 
which see), and a protectorate of the districts around 
lake Nyasa.— Mr. H. H. Johnston (see Kilima-Njaro) 
appointed commissioner of British Central Africa, the 
districts N. of the South Africa Comj.iany's territories, 
March, 1891. 

He and capt. Cecil Maguire attack the Arab slave-dealers, 
and release a large number of slaves, Oct., Nov. 1891. 

Capt. Maguire with 30 sepoys, releases a number of 
slaves in a caravan and burns dhow in presence of a 
large party of enemies, but is killed while swimming 
to his ship ; Dr. Boyce and Mr. M'Ewan are treacher- 
ously killed when about to treat for a truce, 15-17 
Dec. 1 891. 

The Arabs surprise Fort Johnston and capture a gun ; 
Mr. H. H. Johnston has only 70 sepoys and two gun- 
boats on the Shire ; reported, April, 1892. 

Mi. H. H. Johnston reports the pacification of the 
district, about 4 April, 1892. 

Makanjira, and two other chiefs, slave-dealers, pre- 
dominant, Jan. 1892. 

Commissioner Johnston, reinforced with 2 gunboats, 
&c, captures Makanjira's positions ; releases many- 
slaves, and founds Fort Maguire on Lake Nyasa, 
reported, 12 Jan. ; arrives in England, reports the 
defeat of Makanjira, general submission of chiefs, by 
maj. C. A. Edwards at Fort Maguire, and peace made 
in Nyasaland, 4 June, 1894; returns, May, 1895. 

Death of Jumbe, Arab Sultan, on W. coast of lake 
Nyasa, a friend of the British, July, 1894. 

Municipal powers given to Blantyre, the capital ; re- 
ported, 20 Nov. 1894. 

Mr. H. Johnston returns to Zomba from his tour of in- 
spection ; 28 July, 1895. 

Successful N.W. expedition of Mr. Codringt.m ; treaties 
with several chiefs ; reported, 3 Sept. 1895. 

Zarafi slave-trading chief completely defeated by a 
British expedition under major C. A. Edwards, his 
town occupied, 28 Oct. 1895, and many slaves released ; 
expedition returns to Zomba, 17 Nov. ; North Nyasa 
Arabs severely defeated after. 3 davs fighting ; 1-3 
Dec. 1895. 

Mlozi, a slave-raiding chief, tried by native chiefs under 
commissioner Johnston, condemned and hanged, 4 
Dec. 1895. 

Commissioner H. H.Johnston made K.C.B., telegraphic 
communication opened, message to the queen, and 
her reply sent, 19 Dec. 1895 ; arrives in London, on 
leave, 26 June, 1896. 

John S. Brabant, H.M. commissioner in Nyasaland, 
1895. 

Great victories over Mwasi and other slave-dealing 
chiefs, by lieut. Alston and capt. F. T. Stewart on the 
west of lake Nyasa ; British forts erected ; power of 
the slave-trade completely broken ; total of slaves 
released, 1,184; reported, 25 Jan. 1896. 

Lieut. Alston captures Katuri, a cruel Yao chief, releases 
many slaves, and burns his town, other Yao chiefs 
submit to the British ; reported, 30 Sept. 1896. 

Serious attacks on the S.-W. frontier, by the Angoni- 
Zulus under Chikusi, villages raided and people mas- 
sacred ; Mr. Sharpe, acting-commissioner at Blantyre, 
sends 3 columns under capts. Stewart, Manning, and 
lieut. Alston, 12 Oct. [lieut. Alston died of fever, 
much lamented ; reported, 8 May, 1897.] 

The rising in S. Nyasaland suppressed, and Chikusi 
c iptured, tried and hanged, 21 Oct. ; Odete's strong- 
hold carried by assault by Capt. Manning, and Odete 
exiled, 10 Oct. 1896. 

North Charterland exploration company ; lieut.-col. 
R Gardner Warton successfully occupies Mpseni's 
country in Central Africa, north of the Zambesi, and 



establishes friendly relations with this chief ; reported, 
Times, 12 Oct. 1896. 

" British Central Africa," by sir H. H. Johnston, map, 
etc., published June, 1897. 

Expedition under major Macdonald into the interior 
organized at Kiknyu, 16 Aug. 1897. 

Punitive expedition under capt. W. H. Manning against 
the Angurus for raids, &c.,S.-E. lakeShirwa, Serumba's 
town and he himself taken, 9, 10 Aug. 1897. 

Raids and revolt of the Angoni Zulus, Jan. 1898 ; 
repressed by a strong force under col. Manning, 
about 20 natives killed, and the impi broken up ; Mr. 
Carl Wiese and party relieved, 18 Jan. ; successful 
campaign against Mpseni, he surrenders, 9 Feb. 1898. 

Mr. Sharpe's report 1901-2 satisfactory; Times 11 Aug., 
1902. 

The British South Africa Company chartered (see 
Rhodesia, 1896-7, and under Zambesi, 29 Oct. 1889). 

British South African Colonies are Caje Colony, Natal, 
Basil toland, Orange River Colony, and the Transvaal, 
with a protectorate over part of Beclmanaland, 1900, 
et seq. ; high commissioner, Lord Milner, Jan. 1901. 

Proposed international peace exhibition in S. Africa, 
near Johannesburg, in 1904 ; committee formed, lord 
Stratbcona, sir Robert Herbert, sir Albert Rollit, sir 
Alfred Jones, sir J. Jejeebhov, the maharajah of 
Tagore. and others, Times, 13 Aug. 1902. 

BRITISH WEST AFRICA. See Niger Coast, Lagos, etc. 

FRENCH WEST AFRICA, which see, and Senegal. 

French Guinea, Ivory Coast, and Benin constituted 
separate possessions by decree, 17 March, 1893. 

Expedition of M. Maistre and 5 others, July, 1892 ; 
after many difficulties arrives near the mouth of the 
Niger, 26 March, 1893 ; treaties signed with the Garua 
and Sarra countries, reported, Nov. 1893 ; decree 
issued at Paris for the establishment of a colony, the 
French Soudan, under a civil governor, M. Grodet, 
22 Nov. 1893 

Franco-German agreement signed at Berlin as to the 
Hinterland of the Cameroons, 15 March, 1894. 

The king of Bariba, or Borgou, submits to the French, 
by treaty reported, 16 Dec. 1894. 

British South-West Africa Company (see Damara- 
land), Sept. 1892. 

African Association, for promoting the exploration of 
central Africa, was formed in June, 1788, principally 
by sir Joseph Banks ; and under its auspices many addi- 
tions were made to African geography by Ledyard, 
Park, Burckhardt, Hornemann, &c. It merged into the 
Royal Geographical Society, July, 1831. 

African Church. In 1866 Robert Gray, bishop of Cape- 
town (in consequence of a decision of the privy council : 
see Church of England), established synods of the 
'" Church of South Africa." 

African Company (merchants trading to Africa) arose 
out of an association in London formed in 1588. A 
charter was granted to a joint-stock company in 1618 ; 
a second company was created in 1631 ; a third corpora- 
tion in 1662 ; another was formed in 1672 ; remodelled 
in 1695. In 1821 the company was abolished. 

African Exploration Fund, founded by Royal Geo- 
graphical Society, May, 1S77. 

African Institution, founded in London in 1807, for the 
abolition of the slave trade, and the civilization of 
Africa. Many schools have been established with suc- 
cess, particularly at Sierra Leone. 

National African Company incorporated in 1882; char- 
tered, 10 July, 1886, as the Royal Niger Company. See 
Niger. 

AFRICAN EXHIBITION in Pail-Mall, 
chiefly illustrative of life in Central Africa, especi- 
ally near lake Tanganyika; arranged bv captain 
Edward C. Hore ; opened 18 May, 1S93. The 
exhibition was patronized by the Eoyal Geographi- 
cal, Anti-Slavery, an I London Missionary societies. 
African exhibition at the Crystal Palace ; a Somalilanol 
village, with natives and animals, and a loan exhibi- 
tion, including the collections of Mr. F. C. Selous and 
Mr. H. M. Stanley, &c. ; 18 May et seq. 1895. 

AFRIKANDER BUND- A confederation 
of the descendants of the Dutch settlers in South 



AGAP^. 



26 



AGITATOES. 



Africa, formed to extend their influence, became 
prominent after the Transvaal war in 1881. Titie 
changed to S. African Association, 2 Dec. 1902. 
See Boers and Transvaal. A congress of the Bund 
opened at Burghersdorp, 4 Nov. 1891, for the settle- 
ment of the land question. Annual congresses held. 
Opposition to Mr. Cecil Rhodes voted, 18 March, 
1897. See Cape of Good Hope, Dec. 1900 and 1903. 

AGAP.ZE {agape, Greek for love, charity), 
" feasts of charity," referred to Jicde 12, and de- 
scribed by Tertullian, of which the first Christians : 
of all ranks as one family partook, as Christ did with j 
his disciples. Disorders creeping in, these feasts , 
were forbidden to be celebrated in churches by the | 
councils of Laodicea (366) and Cartilage (390). They 1 
are still recognised by the Greek church, and are 
held in their original form weekly by the Glassites ' 
or Sandemanians, and in some degree by the Mora- 
vians, Wesleyans, and others. 

AGAPEMONE (Greek, " the abode of love *'), I 
an establishment at Charlinch, near Bridgwater, I 
Somersetshire, founded in 1845, where Henry James 
Prince,* and his deluded followers, formerly per- 
sons of property, lived in common, professing to [ 
devote themselves to innocent recreation and to I 
maintain spiritual marriage. The Agapemone is 1 
described by Mr. Hepworth Dixon in his" Spiritual 
Wives," published in Jan. 1868. Meetings of the ( 
sect were held at Hamp, near Bridgwater, Dec, 
1872. An "abode" at Spaxton (1849) and at 
Clapton, about 1895. The latter disused iu 1902 
through reprobation of the public. See Inqiostors. 

AGAR-TO WN. the name given to a district 
in St. Pancras parish, N. London. It consisted of 
hovels, erected on the site of the grounds of coun- 
cillor Agar, after 1841, which, from their filthy and 
uncivilised condition, were termed by Charles 
Dickens, in 1851, the English Connemara. The 
-nt ire district was cleared by the Midland Railway 
Company. 

AGE. Chronologers have divided the time 
between the creation and the birth of Christ into 
ages. Hesiod (735 li.c.) described the Golden, 
Silver, Brazen, Heroic, and Iron Ages; Ovid 
(43 B.C. — 18 a.d.) omits in Ids enumeration the 
Heroic Age; sec Dark Ages. 
First A.oe (.from the Creation to the De- u.c. 

luge) • 4004-2349 

Sdiunt) AnK(t" the r ingi.f Abraham into 

Canaan) 2348-1922 

Third A.oK(tothe Exodus from Egypt) 1921-1491 

F01 dim \<;i; 0" the Founding of Sol m's 

Temple) 

l'p hi \<.i (i,, the capture of Jerusalem) 
siMii a.. 1 (i- Hi.' 1. nili of Christ) . 
■ 1 11 A.OB (i" the present time) 



1490-1014 
1014- 588 
533- 4 



• Prince was born in 1811, died Jan., 1899 ; educated 
forthomedlcai profession and licensed to practise 1832* 
gave 11 up t"i Hi.- church .-in. I entered St. David's col- 
lege, Lampeter, and there commenced ultra-revivalist 
movements In 18 6; and llnallj claimed in It an Incar- 
nation "i tin' Deity, with corresponding authority over 
his followers, On May.i ;o, Thomas Robinson sought 

to recovci the 1 ission ..1 ins child from the care of 

in mother f from whom he hod separated); the applii ation 
was refused by the vice-( banceflor.to "save the child 
1 ""I' tin i» 'iiuii,,,,.. 1 Hi,' parent's teaching "—On -. \n 
1858, Mi- 1 oul J me Nottldge died, having transferred 
her propertj to Mi 11. .1. Prince. 11,-1 brother Mr 
"> -in in Hon, recovered from Prim e - 

1- having been fraudulently obtal 1. Extraordlnan 

disclosures were made during tin- trial J 

In the antun .. ol . 1 . 11,. 1;, 1 \i, r,-,, -,. a fti 1 levei ii 

vain ottompta. su led In rescuing his wife from the 

HJ»P« '"'- '''I"-: bad botli boen early Bupporti - 1 of H 



ARCH^OLOGICAL AGES. The various 
stages through which man has passed in the pro- 
cess of development and civilization are divided 
into the Stone Age — (a) Palaeolithic, rough stone 
cutting tools and weapons ; (£) Neolithic, polished 
stone implements — the Bronze Age (with an Age 
of Copper iu place of, or in addition to, the Age of 
Bronze), and (c) the Iron Age, the two last charac- 
terised by tools and weapons of such materials. 
Xo sharply defined chronological division can be 
made between these Ages, the Stone Age of one 
area sometimes co-existing with that of the Bronze 
or Iron Age of another area of the same period. 

AGE. In Greece and Rome twenty-five was 
full age for both sexes, but a greater age was 
requisite for the holding certain offices : e.g. thirty 
for tribunes ; forty-three for consuls. In England 
the minority of a male terminates at twenty-one, 
and of a female in some cases, as that of a queen, 
at eighteen. In 1547, the majority of Edward VI. 
was, by the will of his father, fixed at eighteen 
years ; previously to completing which age, his 
father, Henry VIII., had assumed the reins of 
government, in 1509. —A male of twelve may take 
the oath of allegiance ; at fourteen he may consent 
to a marriage, or choose a guardian ; at seventeen 
he may be an executor, and at twenty-one he is of 
age ; but according to the Statute of Wills, 7 Will. 
IV. & 1 Vict. c. 26, 1837, no will made by any 
person under the age of twenty-one years shall be 
valid. A female at twelve may consent to a mar- 
riage, at fourteen she may choose a guardian, and at 
twenty-one she is of age. 

AGED PILGRIMS' FRIEND SOCIETY, 

founded 1807, provides pensions to Protestants over 
60 years of age; asylums, 1826, 1871, 1879, 1884; 
income 1 900, 15,000/. 

AGINCOURT, OR AziNCOTTR (N. France), 
a village where Henry V. of England, with about 
9000 men, defeated about 60,000 French on St. 
Crispin's day, 25 Oct. 1415. Of the French, there 
were, according to some accounts, 10,000 killed, in- 
cluding the dukes of Alenc;on, Brabant, and Bar, 
the archbishop of Sens, one marshal, thirteen earls, 
ninety-two barons, and 1500 knights; and 14,000 
prisoners, among whom were the dukes of Orleans 
and Bourbon, and 7000 barons, knights, and gentle- 
men. The English lost the duke of York, the earl 
of Suffolk, and about 20 others. St. Remy asserts 
with more probability that the English lost 1600 
men. Henry V. soon after obtained the kingdom 
of France. 

AGIO, the difference between the real and the 
nominal value of money. 

AGITATORS (orAdjutators), officers appointed 
by the Parliamentary army in 1(47, to take care of 
its interests: each troop or company had two. The 
general Cromwell was eventually obliged to re- 
press their seditious power. At a review he seized 
the ringleaders of a mutiny, shot one instantly, in 
the presence of bis companions and the forces on the 
ground, and thus restored discipline. Hume. — 
Daniel O'Connell, the agitator of Ireland, was born 
in 1775. He began to agitate at the elections in 
[820; was elected for Clare, 5 July, 1828; the 
election being declared void, he was re-elected 30 
July, 1829. After the passing of the Catholic 
emancipation bill.be agitated in vain for the repeal 
of the union. 1S54 to 1843. He died 15 May, 1847. 
— Richard Cobden and John Bright were the chief 
Anti-cont-lnw agitators, 1841-45. — Mr. Bright be- 
came a Reform agitator m iSoo. ' 



AGNADELLO- 



27 



AGEICULTUEE. 



AGNADELLO (N.E.Italy). Here Louis XII. 
of France gained a great victory over the Venetians, 
some of whose troops were accused of cowardice and 
treachery; 14 May, 1 509. The conflict is also 
termed the battle of the Rivolta. 

AGNOITiE (from agnoia, Greek, ignorance). 
I. A sect founded by Theophronius of Cappadocia 
about 370 : said to have doubted the omniscience of 
God. 11. The followers of Themistius of Alexandria, 
about 530, who held peculiar views as to the body 
of Christ, and doubted his divinity. 

AGNOSTICS, name given to philosophers who 
assert that we have no knowledge but what we 
acquire by means of our senses, about 1876. The 
word Agnostic was introduced by the late Professor 
Huxley in 1869. "An Agnostic Apology," by Mr. 
Leslie Stephen, published 1893. 

AGNUS DEI (Lat. "Lnmb of God"), the 
title of a prayer set to music in the Roman Catholic 
Mass. Also a figure of a lamb bearing a cross 
impressed on a gold, silver, or wax disc, consecrated 
by the popes since the 14th cent. The A. D. with 
the banner of the cross is used as a symbol of Jesus 
Christ in ecclesiastical art. 

AGONISTICI (from agon, Greek, a conflict) , 
also termed circutores, a branch of the Donatists 
(which see) in the 4th century. They preached 
with boldness, and incurred severe persecution. 

AGEA (N. W. India), founded by Akbar in 
1566, was the capital of the Great Mogul; see 
Mausoleums. In 1658 Aurungzebe removed to 
Delhi. — The fortress of Agra, " the key of Hindo- 
stan," in the war with the Mahrattas surrendered 
to the British forces, under general Lake, 17 Oct. 
1803, after one day's siege : 162 pieces of ordnance 
and 240,000/. were captured. — In June, 1857, the 
city was abandoned to the mutineers by the Euro- 
peans, who took refuge in the fort, from which they 
were rescued by major Montgomery and colonel 
Greathed. Visit of the prince of Wales, 25 Jan., 
1876. — Allahabad was made capital of the N.W. 
provinces of India, instead of Agra, in 1861. Top. 
1901, 188,300. 

AGE, AM (formerly Zagrab), a city of Croatia, 
Hungary, residence of the ban; suffered much by 
earthquakes, 9-12 Nov. 1880. See Croatia. 

AGEAEIAN LAW (Agraria lex), decreed 
an equal division among the Roman people of all 
the lands acquired by conquest, limiting the acres 
which each person should enjoy. It was first pro- 
posed by the consul Spurius Cassius, 486 B.C., and 
occasioned his judicial murder when he went out of 
office in 4815. — An agrarian law was passed by the 
tribune Licinius Stolo, 376 ; and for proposing fur- 
ther amendments Tiberius Gracchus in 133, and 
his brother Cornelius in 121, were murdered. Livius 
Drusus, a tribune, was murdered for the same cause, 
91. Julius Caesar propitiated the plebeians by pass- 
ing an agrarian law in 59. — In modern times 
the term has been misinterpreted to signify a divi- 
sion of the lands of the rich among the poor, fre- 
quently proposed by demagogues, such as Gracchus 
Babeuf, editor of the Tribun du Peuple, in 1794. 
In 1 796 he conspired against the directory with the 
view of obtaining a division of property, was con- 
demned, and killed himself, 27 May, 1797. Agrarian 
league, see Germany, 1895. 

AGEICOLA'S WALL, see Roman Walls. 

AGEICULTUEAL CHILDEEN ACT 

prohibits employment of children under eight years 



of age, and provides for the education of older 
children, 5 Aug. 1873. 

AGEICULTTJEAL HALL, Islington, N. 
London, chiefly for the meetings of the Smithfield 
Club. The foundation stone was laid by the presi- 
dent, lord Berners, 5 Nov. 1861. The hall has 
been much used for industrial exhibitions, public 
meetings, equestrian and pedestrian performances, 
concerts, &c. Tbe hall was visited by queen 
Victoria, 5 March, 1891. See Horses. 

It was opened for an exhibition of dogs, 24 June, 1862 ; 
horses and donkeys exhibited, July, 1864, and annually 
since. 

First Smithfield annual cattle show here, 6 Dec. 1862. 

A great reform demonstration was made here, 30 July, 
1866. 

Grand ball to the Belgian visitors, volunteers and garde 
civique ; prince of Wales present, 18 July, 1867. 

Excellent horse-shows held here, May, 1868, et seq. 

Theatrical bull-fights here stopped, on account of cruelty, 
28 Mar. 1870. 

Workmen's International exhibition opened by the 
prince of Wales, 16 July, 1870. 

National Exhibition of machinery, appliances, manufac- 
tures, and produce, opened 29 Sept. 1879. 

Exhibition by the building trades, ojjened 12 April, 1880. 

Tournaments (which see) held here 21 June, 1880, et seq. 

International food exhibition, opened 13 Oct. 1880. 

Milling exhibition (under direction of National Associa- 
tion of British and Irish Millers), 10-18 May, 1881. 

" Arcadia," rural entertainment, July to Sept. 1887, and 
dairy shows, held annually. 

International shoe and leather fair opened, 10 April, 
1899; and Salvation Army exhibition, 24 July, 1899. 

International tramways and light railways Congress 
and exhibition opened 30 June, 1902. 

National Agricultural Hall, W. Kensington ; foun- 
dation laid by the earl of Zetland 21 July, 1885 ; main 
hall 440 feet long, 250 feet wide and 100 feet high ; 
with a minor hall for offices, &c. ; the roof consists of 
iron and glass ; designed by the late Mr. Henry E. 
Coe ; present architect Mr. James Edmeston ; con- 
tractors Messrs. Lucas and others ; cost of erection 
about 131, oool. ; named Olympia. Opened with horse- 
racing and other diversions 27 Dec. 1886 ; horse show 
opened 14 May, 1887 ; (another 16 May, 1889) ; opened 
by the Paris Hippodrome Company 22 Oct. 1887. See 
Irish Exhibition. 

AGEICULTUEAL HOLDINGS ACT, 

passed 13 Aug. 1875, relates to compensations of 
landlords and tenants, for improvements, &c. Two 
other important acts : for England 46 & 47 Vict, 
c. 61, for Scotland, c. 62, were passed 25 Aug. 1883, 
to begin I Jan. 1884. Another act, introduced by 
Mr. H. Chaplin, 22 Feb., passed 27 June, 1892 ; 
another passed, 8 Aug., 1900. 

AGEICULTUEAL LAND EATING, re- 
duction of rates by half the deficiency being sup- 
plied by imperial taxation; the act introduced by 
Mr. Cbaplin, 20 April; passed committee after 22^ 
hours' sitting, 22 May ; royal assent, 20 July, 
1896; continuance act passed, 15 Aug., 1901; a 
similar act for Scotland passed, 14 Aug., 1896. 

AGEICULTUEE. " Abel was a keeper of 
sheep, but Cain was a tiller of the ground," Genesis 
iv. 2. 

Cato the Censor (died 149 b.c.) and Varro (died 28 B.C.) 
were eminent Roman writers on agriculture. 

Virgil's Georgics, 30 B.C. Agriculture in England im- 
proved by the Romans after a. d. 44. 

Fitzherbert's " Book of Husbandry," printed 1523. 

Tusser's " Five Hundred Points of Husbandry," 1562. 

Blythe's " Improver," 1649. 

Hartlib's " Legacy," 1650. 

Jethro Tull's " Horse-hoeing Husbandry," 1701. 

About the end of the 18th century, fallowing was gradu- 
ally superseded by turnips and green crops. 

Board of Agriculture, proposed by Sir John Sinclair, 
afterwards president, established 1793. Arthur Young 



AGRICULTURE. 



28 



AGRICULTURE. 



many years secretary. Communications published in 
7 vols., 1797— 1811. 

A parliamentary committee to inquire into agricultural 
distress appointed early in 1836. 

In Aug. 1855, a committee presented a report on the best 
mode of obtaining accurate Agricultural Statistics. 
There were, in 1831, 1,055,982 agricultural labourers 
in Great Britain, and in Ireland. 1,131,715. 

Acreage of crojis, and number of cattle, s'leep, and pigs 
in Great Britain and Ireland, beginning with 1066, 
published in the annual " Statistical Abstract," since 
1869. See p. 29. 

It was reckoned by the Agricultural Committee, that the 
cult i vatii m of waste lands would yield above 20,000,000?. 
a year. It was calculated in 1854 that there were in 
England 32,160,000 acres in cultivation, of the annual 
value of 37,412,000?. Since that time, much land has 
been brought into cultivation ; see Jllieat. 

" History of Agriculture and Prices in England (1259- 
1702)," by Professor James T. Rogers, published, June, 
1866-1887. 

Sir James Caird, eminent agriculturist and writer, dies 
9 Feb. 1892. 

National conference on agricultural depression in St. 
James's hall, London ; landowners, tenant-farmers, 
labourers and delegates from clubs, &c. Mr. James 
Lowther, chairman ; Mr. Henry Chaplin, chief 
speaker ; remedies proposed by resolutions : moderate 
protection, reduced rents and taxes, bi-metallisn) and 
the formation of an agricultural union of all classes, 
7, 8 Dec. The earl of Winchilsea appeals to the 
labourers to support the union, 22 Dec. 1892 ; not 
accepted in some counties ; a committee to carry out 
the scheme formed Jan. ; first report of the organizing 
committee issued 10 Jan. 1893. 

Meetings in favour of the union, the earl of Winchilsea 
frequently present: at York, 5 Jan. 1893 ; Winchester, 
14 Jan. ; Gloucester, 14 Jan. ; Bungay and other places, 
Jan. ; Ipswich, 17 Jan. ; Plymouth, 19 Jan. ; Lincoln, 
20 Jan.; Tunbridge Wells, 25 Jan. 1893. 

Meeting of the Central and Associated Chambers of 
Agriculture, London ; the report of the committee for 
organizing the establishment of the ''National Agri- j 
cultural Union," adopted 14 Feb. 1893. 

First meeting of the elected council of the National ' 
Agricultural Union, at St. James's hall (the union has ! 
334 branches, and 35 rural councils), the earl of Win- 
chilsea elected president 10 October, 1894 (died 1898); 
annual congresses, 13 Dec. 1894 ; 12 Dec. 1895 ; 3 Dec. 
1896 ; 9 Dec. 1897; 7 Dec, lord Templetown president, 
1898 

Mr. B. M. Gander's History of the English landed 
interest, published 1892 and 1894. 

Royal commission to inquire into agricultural depression 
appointed, Mi'. Shaw Lefevre (chairman); Mr. H. 
Chaplin, viscount Cobham, lord Vernon, Mr. R. 
Giffen, Mr. C. Mellor, Mr. Walter Long, and others, 
Mr. Herbert I. yon, secretary, Sept. 1893. Meeting 
at Westminster, 14 Sept. ,:-',,, ; ; tirst report presented 
to parliament 2 April, 1894 ; interim report, 2 March, 
1896; final report, Aug. 1897. 

See, mil annual agricultural congress, opened at St. 

James's hall, 7 Dee. 1893. 
"Cable farm " established al Haverholme, Lincolnshire, 
by the earl of Winchilsea, for experiments in the 
growth Of Max, \c, the results to be reported in the 

Cable, a newspaper, April, 1894. 

Agricultural Societies, The earliest mentioned in 
the British Isles was the Society of Improvers of 
Vgrii nil ure in Se,.i bun i, instituted iii 1723. A Dublin 
Agricultural Societj (1749) gave a stimulus to agricul- 
ture in trelaud : its origin is attributed to Mr, Trior of 
Rathdowney, Queen's County, in i:u. The Bath and 
West of England Bociety established, 1777; and the 
Highland Society of Scotland, 1784 Count] v 1 1, ui 
tiir.ii Societies are now numerous. 

Royal counties Bbow al Windsor, s June, 1899. 

Opened by the prince of Wales al Reading, 19 June, 
1902. 

1 Ion Board ol Agriculture established by acl of par- 

Liament . 1793. 

Francis, duke of Bedford, a greai promoter of agricul- 
ture, died 1 Man h, 1803; the duke of Bedford pub. 
lishis •■ a Great Agricultural Est tte: thestory 01 the 
and adiiilnistratl 't Woburn and Thorney," 



Royal Agricultural Society of England established in 
1838, by noblemen and gentlemen, the chief landed 
proprietors in the kingdom, and incorporated by royal 
charter, 26 March, 1840. It holds two meetings 
annually, one in London, the other in the country. It 
awards prizes, and publishes a valuable journal. The 
Society's permanent Show Yard at Park Royal, 
near Twyford Abbey, was opened, and the London 
show held there, 23-27 June, 1903. 

839. Oxford. 1861. Leeds. 1882. Heading. 

840. Cambridge. i»t2. Batt.-rsea. 1883. York. 

841. Liverpool. 1863. Worcester. 1884. Shrewsbury 

842. Bristol. 1864. Newcastle- 1885. Preston. 

843. Derby. on-Tyne. 1886. Norwich. 

844. Southamp- 1865. Plymouth. 1887. Newcastle- 

ton. 1866. Bury St. Ed- on-Tyne. 

£45. Shrewsbury. munds. 1888. Nottingham 

846. Newcastle' 1867. No meeting. 1889. Windsor. 

847. Northamp- 1868. Leicester. 1890. Plymouth. 

ton. 1869. Manchester. 1891. Doncaster. 

848. York. 1870. Oxford. 1892. Warwick. 

849. Norwich. 1871. Wolver- 1893. Chester. 

850. Exeter. hampton. 1894. Cambridge. 

851. Windsor. 1872. Cardiff. 1895. Darlington 

852. Lewes. 1873. Hull. 1896. Leicester. 

853. Gloucester. 1874. Bedford. 1897. Manchester 

854. Lincoln. 1875. Taunton. 1898. Birmingham 

855. Carlisle. 1876. Birmingham 1899. Maidstone 

856. Chelmsford. 1B77. Liverpool. 1900. York 

857. Salisbury. 1878. Bristol. 1901. Cardiff 

858. Chester. 1879. London. 1902. Carlisle(last 

859. Warwick. 1880. Carlisle. country 

860. Canterbury. 1881. Derby. meeting) 

Jubilee state banquet at St. James's Palace, prince of 
Wales in the chair, 26 March, 1889. 

Institute of Agriculture ; South Kensington ; courses 
of lectures given, Oct. 1883. 

International Agricultural Exhibition, promoted by the 
society, and held at Kilburn. London, N.W. Occupied 
106 acres. It was opened by the prince of Wales 30 
June, visited by the Queen in July, and closed finally, 
10 July, 1079. 

Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland, instituted 1841. 

Farmers' Club, 1843. 

" Chambers of Agriculture " were established in France in 
1851. In Great Britain, the Central Chamber was 
founded 1865 ; the associated Chambers in 1903 (Sept.) 
numbered 70, with a membership of about 20,000. A 
journal commenced early in 1868. 

Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester organised, 1842; 
chartered, 1845. 

Agricultural College in Wiltshire ; its establishment pro- 
posed by the Mercers' Company, London, by the gift 
of 60,000/. Oct. 1888. 

Suffolk Agricultural College at Bury St. Edmunds 
opened 1874. Other colleges opened. 

South-Eastt ru Agricultural College at Wye, near Ashford, 
opened 1S94. 

Lady Warwick Hostel, Agricultural college for women, 
at Beading, opened, Oct. 1S9S. 

British Dairy Formers' Association. — Inaugurated ; first 

show opened at Agricultural hall. London, 24-28 Oct. 
1876. 

Royal Agricultural Benevolent Institution.— It relieves 
farmers and their w idows and orphans ; founded chiefly 
by Mr. Mechi, i860. 

/'/,, Associated Agi--rniiuri.il.-- of Until Britain, a limited 

COmpan] . proposed April. 1881. 

\,.i i;\i Chemistry.— Sir Humphry Davy de- 
livered lectures on this subject (afterwards published), 
at the instance of the Hoard of Agriculture, in 1812 ; 
but it excited little attention till the publication of 
Llebig'a work in 1840, which made a powerful impres- 
sion, Liebig's " Letters on Agriculture " appeared in 
1S59. Boussingault's " Economic Rurale "appeared in 
1844; llis "Agronomic" in i860 S. lie died May: 
1887. Greai progress made by the experiments of 
lav,-.. Gilbert, Pasteur, and others. 

The important experiments of sir John Bennet Lawes 
Dr. .L II. Qilberl (knt., Aug. 1893; died 2^ Dec, 
1901) began at Rothamsted, Herts, in 1 84 1. The 
jubilee was Observed at a meeting of the Royal Agri- 
cultural society, 1 March, 1SQ3, the prince of Wales in 



AGRICULTURE. 



29 



AIDE. 



the chair, when it was determined to set up a granite 
memorial on the spot where the experiments were 
carried on. Sitr John, by the gift of ioo,oooL, endowed 
their continuance after his death. The memorial 
was set up, Mr. Herbert Gardner, M.P. , present, 
29 July, 1893. Sir John Lawes died, aged 85, 31 Aug., 
1900. 

Agricuxtqral Gangs.— In the spring of 1867, most 
painful exposures were made of the prevalence of much 
cruelty and immorality in the gang system (in which 
boys and girls are employed) in several of the eastern 
and midland counties ; and in consequence an act was 
passed 20 Aug. for regulating these gangs, licensing 
gang-masters, <fec. 

A Union of Agricultural Labourers, managed chiefly by 
Joseph Arch, formerly a labourer, afterwards a Metho- 
dist preacher (M.P. 1885) (his autobiography, edited 
by the countess of Warwick, published 18*98), was 
inaugurated at Leamington, Warwickshire, 29 March, 
1872. The movement spread, being countenanced by 
Auberon Herbert, M. P. , and others. The Union met in 
London, Arch re-elected president, 16, 17 May, 1877 ; 
at Bedford, 16 Sept. 1881. 

Lock-out of agricultural labourers belonging to the 
Union (lasted 18 weeks, costing the Union much 
money), began at Alderton, Suffolk, March, 1872. 

Dispute between Lincolnshire farmers and labourers 
settled, 18-20 May ; Suffolk and Norfolk farmers 
refuse compromise, about 25 May : the Union ceased 
to support the locked-out labourers, leaving them to 
emigration, or to seek employment, 27 July, 1872. 

The agitation subsided ; the labourers were employed, 
autumn, 1875 ; agricultural return for Great Britain, 
1873 ; reported steady increase in prosperity, 1875. 

The delegates of the National Agricultural Labourers' 
Union met, 26 Oct. 1875. 

Very great agricultural depression through bad seasons, 
and foreign importations ; many landlords remit large 
part of rents, 1877-9. 

"Royal Commission of Inquiry appointed 4 July, 1879. 

Committee of Council on Agriculture appointed, earl of 
Rosebery president, about 27 April, 1883. 

The Agricultural Returns of Great Britain were issued 
for the first time by the newly-constituted Agricul- 
tural Department, 1883. Second return presented, 
27 Oct. 1884, and continued annually. 

The Departmental Committee recommend State aid for 
education, dairy schools, &c, March, 1888. 

A new Board of Agriculture was established by Act 
passed 12 Aug. ; Henry Chaplin appointed president 
and cabinet minister, 5 Sept. The board assumed the 
duties previously fulfilled by a department of the privy 
council, 1889. Herbert Gardner, president, Aug. 1892 ; 
Walter Long, July, 1895 ; enlarged powers given. 
Land Transfer act, 1897 ; Universities and College 
Estates act, 1898 ; Commons act, 1899 ; Sale of 
Food and Drugs act, 1899 ; Improvement of Land act, 
1899 ; Quarterly Journal, No. 1, published 7 Sept. 
1894. 

In accordance with the Board of Agriculture and 
Fisheries Act, 1903, the powers of the Board of Trade 
relating to fisheries were from 1 Oct. 1903 transferred 
to the Board of Agriculture, which from that date is 
styled the Board of Agriculture and Fisheries. 

International Agricultural Congress, at Paris, 1889 ; at 
Vienna, 2 Sept., 1890; The Hague, 7 Sept. 1891 ; 
Brussels, 8-16 Sept. 1895 ; Budapest, 17-20 Sept. 1896 ; 
Lausanne, 12-17 Sept. 1898. 

Much injury caused by the diamond-back moth, summer, 
1891, 1892. 

Chaff Cutting Machines (Accidents) act, 1897. 

An agricultural education committee, a private associa- 
tion formed with a view of making the present educa- 
tional system more applicable to country life and 
pursuits, first meeting, London, sir W. Hart Dyke in 
the chair, sir Henry Roscoe and others present, 20 
Oct.,. 1899. 

Scientific agriculture in the United States, experiment 
stations established under the act of 1887, 445 annual 
reports in 1899. 

The following table, drawn up by Mr. William Couling, 
C.E., in 1827, is extracted from the Third Report of 
the Emigration Committee :— 



Countries. 


Culti- 
vated. 


Wastes 
capable of 
improve- 
ment. 


Unpro- 
fitable. 


Total. 


England . 
Wales 
Scotland . 
Ireland . 
Brit. Isles 


ACRES. 

25,632,000 

3,117,000 

5,265,000 

12,125,280 

383,690 


ACRES. 

3,454,000 

530,000 

5,950,000 

4,900,000 

166,000 


ACRES. 

3,256,400 
1,105,000 
8,523,930 
2,416,664 
569,469 


ACRES. 
32,342,400 
4,752,000 

I9»738,930 

19,441,944 

1,119,159 


46,522,970 


15,000,000 


15,871,463 77,394,433 

1 



About that period it was computed that the soil of the 
United Kingdom was annually cropped in the following 
proportions : 

ACRES. 

Wheat ........ 7,000,000 

Barley and rye 1,950,000 

Potatoes, oats and beans 6,500,000 

Turnips, cabbages, and other vegetables . . 1,150,000 

Clover, rye-grass, &c. 1,750,000 

Fallow . 2,800,000 

Hop-grounds 60,000 

Nursery grounds 20,000 

Inclosed fruit, flower, kitchen and other gardens 1 10,000 

Pleasure grounds 100,000 

Land depastured by cattle . . . 21,000,000 

Hedge-rows, copses, and woods . . . . 2,000,000 

Ways, water, &.C. 2,100,000 

Cultivated land 
Crops of Great Britain and Ireland :— 



1866. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 
1870. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 
1876. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 
1883. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 
1887. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 

1889. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 

1890. Great Britain . 
Ireland . . 

1893. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 
1896. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 
1899. Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 

Great Britain . 

Ireland . . 
1902. United King'm 
See also Breadstuff's. 



1901. 



Corn 

Crops. 

Acres. 

9,252,784 

2,174,033 

9,548,041 

2,173.109 
9,194,669 
1,848,487 
8,618,675 
1,678,125 
8,145,894 
1,562,463 
8,075,172 
1.535,102 
8,033,133 
1,514,607 

7.055.739 
1,480,393 
7,416,690 
1,420,721 
7,406,887 
1,371,608 
7,133,708 
1. 317.590 
8,517,000 



Green 
Crops. 
Acres. 
3,562,434 
1,481,525 
3,586,730 
1,498,719 
3.571,874 
1,363,224 

3.454.579 
1,230,253 
3,463,706 
1,229,092 
3,299,647 
1,219,549 
3,297,528 
1^214,396 
3,286,906 

i,i53.527 
3,258,591 

i,i47-7i7 
3,149,103 
1,102,041 
3,129,198 
1,079,429 
4,241,000 



46,540,000 

Grasses, 

&c. 
Acres. 

I 5,964.553 
12,006,191 
l6 ,577,74o 

18,056,217 

19,461,295 



I5,»65,a6 3 
16,017,492 
16,492,567 
16,726,476 



21,488,193 
12,693,919 
21,683,636 

12.756,399 
28,409,000 



AGRIGENTUM (now Girgenti), a city of 
Sicily, built about 582 B.C. It was governed by 
tyrants from 566 to 470 ; among- these were — 
Phalaris (see Brazen Bull) ; Alcamanes ; Theron 
who, with his step-father Gelon, defeated the 
Carthaginians at Himera, 480 : and Thrasydseus, his 
son, expelled in 470; when a republic was estab- 
lished. It was taken by the Carthaginians in 40$ 
B.C., and held, except during short intervals, till 
gained by the Romans in 262 B.C. From A.D. 825 
till 1086 it was held by the Saracens. 

AHMEDNUGGUR ("W. India), once capital 
of a state founded by Ahmed Shah, about 1493. 
After having fallen into the hands of the Moguls 
and (he Mahrattas, 1797, it was taken from the 
latter by Arthur Wellesley, 12 Aug. 1803, and re- 
stored to the British dominions, June, 1817, made a 
municipality 1855. 

AIDE, see Ayde. 



AID TO THE SICK. 



30 



AIR-GUN. 



AID TO THE SICK AND WOUNDED, 

National Society for. On 4 Aug. 1870, soon 

after the breaking out of the Franco-German war, 
a meeting was held in London, which established 
this society under the rules of the Geneva Conven- 
tion, which see. 

The Queen, patron ; the prince of Wales, president ; 
col. Loyd-Licdsay, chairman of committees ; ac- 
tive supporters, duke of Manchester, earl of Shaf- 
tesbury, lords Ovorstone and Bury, sir Harry Ver- 
ney, general sir John Burgoyne, surgeon-general 
Longmore, and captain (aft. sir) Douglas Galton. 
The operations were chiefly directed by capt. 
Henry Brackenbury, at the seat of war, and by 
Mr. John Farley and general sir Vincent Eyre. 
A fruitless meeting to promote the incorporation of 
the society. It was then reported that 296,298^ 
had been received ; together with stores valued at 

45,000/ 1 Aug. 1871 

Col. Loyd Lindsay conveyed to Versailles and Paris 
from the society 40,000/, , equally divided between 
the Germans and French (gratefully acknow- 
ledged) ... . about 11 Oct. 1870 
The crown-prince of Prussia wrote to colonel Loyd 
Lindsay: — "In this, as on other occasions of 
distress, the help of the English public has been 
poured out with a liberal and an impartial hand. 
The gifts which have been offered in a truly 
Christian spirit have excited a feeling of heartfelt 
gratitude among those on whose behalf I speak." 

2 Nov. 1870 

The society afforded much help in the Servian war, 

July— Sept. 1876, the Russo-Turkish war, 1877-8, and 

the Boer war, 1899- 1902. 

The Princess of Wales' branch of the society closed with 

a surplus of 6,417?. June, 1886. 

AIR or ATMOSPHERE. Anaximenes of Miletus 
(530 B.C.) declared air to be a self-existent deity, 
and the first cause of everything created. Posidonius 
(about 79 n.c.) calculated the height of the atmo- 
sphere to be 800 stadia. The pressure of air, about 
15 lb. to the square inch, was discovered by Galileo, 
1564, and demonstrated by Torricelli (who invented 
the barometer') about a.d. 1643, and was found by 
Pascal, in 1647, to vary with the height. Halley, 
Newton, and others, up to the present time have 
illustrated the agency and inlluences of this great 
power by various experiments, and numerous inven- 
tions have followed; among others, the Aiii-Gun 
of Guter of Nuremberg about 1656; the Air-pump, 
invented by Otto von (juericke of Magdeburg about 
1650; improved by Robert Boyle in 1657, by Robert 
Hooke about 1659 ; * and the Aiu-ptpe, invented by 
Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London, about 1756. The 
density and elasticity of air were determined by 
Boyle ; and its relation to light and sound by Hooke, 
Newton, and Dorham. Tlie extension of our atmo- 
sphere above flic surface of the earth, has been long 
considered as about 45 miles. — Its composition,^ 
about 77 parts of nitrogen, 2\ of oxygen, and 2 of 
other matters (such as carbonic acid, watery vapour, 
a trace of ammonia, &c.) was ascertained by Priestley 
(who discovered oxygen gas in 1774), Scheele 
(1775), Lavoisier, ami Cavendish; and its laws of 
refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737. 
The researches of l>r. Srhonbcin, a German chemist 
of Basel, between i8ao and 1859, led to his descrip- 
tion of two states of the oxygen in the air, which he 

• Sprengel's excellent air-pump, in which water or 

mercury is employed, »:is invented in 1863, sec Vacuum. 

t Air, ms well as its gaseous components, lias been 

COmpreSSed into the liquid slate 1>\ means of great. 

pressure and intense cold. is 77 g, i,\ Raoul Pictel ol 

Geneva, and Coilletet Of Paris, DOO, 1S77. Jan. 1878. At 

the Etoyal Institution, , June, 1885, professor .lames 
Dewar exhibited liquid air obtained ai the temperature 

of — 102 Cent, in March, 1803, he produced solid air 

in Hie form of ice. Several physical properties of 

li |oid aii- were exhibited, ami solid air was pr iduced 

at I lie Friday 1 ling, 19 .Inn. 1 ' 1 1. 



calls ozone and antozone. In Aug., 1894, at Oxford, 
Lord Rayleigh and Professor Kamsay reported to 
the British Association their discovery of a new 
gas in air, afterwards termed Argon, which see. 
JJr. Stenhouse's Air-Jilters (in which powdered 
charcoal is used) were first set up at the Mansion- 
house, London, in 1854. In 1858, Dr. R. Angus 
Smith made known a chemical method of ascer- 
taining the amount of organic matter in the air, 
and published his "Air and Rain" in 1872. See 
Oxygen, Nitrogen, Ozone, Atmospheric Railway, 
Balloons, and Pneumatic Despatch. 

The Aero-steain Engine, the invention of George Warsop, 
a mechanic of Nottingham, who, by employing com- 
pressed air united with steam, is said to have effected 
the saving of 47 per cent, of fuel. The plan was re- 
ported to the British Association, at Exeter, in Aug. 
1869, and was said to act successfully in a tug steamer 
(for China) in the Thames, 26 March, 1 870. Mr. Edward 
Field, in his new motive power, introduced a small 
volume of steam into a large volume of heated air, and 
effected an economy of 12A to 20 per cent, of steam. 
The system was exhibited in London, July, 1891. 

Col. Beaumont's air-engine for propelling railway car- 
riages, tried at Woolwich, reported successful (a little 
steam is used), 6 Oct. 1880. His system largely em- 
ployed in various ways by the Paris Compressed Air 
company, described to the British Association at 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Sept. 1889. 

Victor Popp applies compressed air as a motive power to 
clocks, 1881. 

An air-telegraph, in which the waves of air in a tube are 
employed instead of electricity, invented by sig. Guat- 
tari, was exhibited in London in 1870. It obtained a 
gold medal in Naples. 

Isaac Wilkinson patented a method of compressing air 
by a column of water in 1757, and William Mann pa- 
tented stage pumping by compressed air in 1829. The 
force of compressed air was employed in boring the 
Cenis tunnel (see under ^tfyis), and in making the Black- 
wall tunnel, 1891-7. 

Tram-cars driven by compressed air on the Mekarski 
system in N. London, for a time, June, 1883 ; resumed, 
after improvements made, for a time, 1885 ; again for 
a time, Feb. 1888. 

Prof. Dewar gave six well-illustrated lectures on "Air, 
gaseous and liquid," at the Royal Institution, London, 
28 Dec. 1893—9 Jan. 1894. (Some of the air of the 
room was liquefied in the presence of the audience, 
and remained so for some time, when enclosed in a 
vacuum jacket); again, 1 April, 1898. 

Prof. Dewar demonstrated by some very remarkable 
experiments the intimate connection between phos- 
phorescence and photographic action of the electric 
light on bodies cooled to the temperature of boiling 
liquid air at the Royal Institution, 18 Jan. 1895. 
Liquid air for refrigeration and other purposes largely 
produced by machinery, invented by Heir Liude ; re- 
ported, 21 Oct. 1895. 

Prof. Dcwar's new apparatus for the production of liquid 
air, exhibited at the Royal Institution, 2 Dec. 1S95. 
Experiments with hydrogen, reported 27 March, 1S96. 
M. Paul Giffard, inventor of compressed air and other 

apparatus, died, aht. S April, 1897. 
The Aerograph, an air brush, an application of com- 
pressed air. invented by Mr. C. I.. Burdick (1893); 
used by artists. 
Dr. I. hide's machine for the liquefaction of air, shown 

at the Society of Aits. 14 March, 1898. 
Argon, a new constituent of air, neon and nietargon, 

discovered by prof. Ramsay and Lord Rayleigh, Jan. 

1895. 
"I. old Rayleigh and professor Ramsay had discovered 

four other aerial elements, helium, neon, krypton 

and xenon, which were identified as constituents of 

the atmosphere by prof. Hauis.iy and M. H. Travel's, 

1895-1901 1. ' 
Majoi MacMahon's address at the British Association, 

12 Sept. 1901. 
Prof. Dewar exhibited air in the solid state and a jet of 

liquid air rising to about eft., with beautiful effects, 

P. tore the prince and princess of Wales, 6 June, 1902. 

ATE-GUN. A pressure of 500 atmospheres 
has about halt the elasli force of tired gunpowder. 



AIE-SHIPS. 



31 



ALABAMA. 



English patents, for guns shooting shot and bullets, 
P. Giffard, 1872 ; A. Pope (H. M. Uuackenbush), 
1874; G - G - Bussey, 1876; F. Worth, in 1877. 
Compressed air to pr-oject large shot with pieces 
of ordnance, patented by Bessemer (1867) and 
others. Capt. Zalinski, of U.S. artillery (1866), 
made a practical gun for throwing dynamite shells; 
it was used in the Cuban war (1898). 

AIE-SHIPS, see Balloons. 

AIX LA-CHAPELLE (Aachen), a Roman 
city, now in Rhenish Prussia. Several ecclesiastical 
councils held here (799-1165). Here Charlemagne 
was born, 742, and died, 814 ; having built the mins- 
ter (796 -804), and conferred many privileges on the 
city, in which fifty-five emperors have since been 
crowned. Its mineral springs in use since 1 170. 
The city was taken by the French in Dec. 1792; 
retaken by the A.ustrians, March, 1793 ; by the 
French, Sept. 1794; ceded to Prussia, 1814. 
Population, 1900, 135,235. 

First Treaty of Peace signed here was between "France and 
Spain, when France yielded Franche Comte, but re- 
tained her conquests in the Netherlands, 2 May, 1668. 

The second celebrated treaty between Great Britain, 
France, Holland, Germany, Spain, and Genoa. (By it 
the treaties of Westphalia in 1648, of Nimegnen in 1678 
and 1679, of Ryswick in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, of 
Baden in 1714, of the Triple Alliance in 1717, of the 
Quadruple Alliance in 1718, and of Vienna in 1738, 
were renewed and confirmed.) Signed on the part of 
England by John, earl of Sandwich, and sir Thomas 
Robinson, 7 Oct. 1748. 

Congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia and Prussia, 
assisted by ministers from England and France, met 
at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a convention signed, 9 Oct. 
1S18, which led to the withdrawal of the army of occu- 
pation from France. 

AIX EOADS, see Rochefort-. 

AIZNADIN or AJNADIN (Syria). Here 
the Mahometans defeated the army of the emperor 
Heraclius, 13 July, 633. They took Damascus in 634. 

AJMEEE-MEEWAEA, area 2,711 square 
miles, (1897-8) 404,413 acres cultivated, in great 
measure dependent on irrigation ; 1899-1900 a 
drought cost thousands of lives, pop. 476,330 (1901) : 
ceded in 1818, lies within Rajputana. 

AJACCIO, see Corsica. 

_ AKEEMAN (Bessarabia). After being several 
times taken, it was ceded to Russia in 1812. Here 
the celebrated treaty between Russia and Turkey 
was concluded, 4 Sept. 1826, which secured for the 
former the navigation of the Black Sea, recognised 
the Danubian principalities, &c. 

AKHALZIKH (Armenia). Near here prince 
Paskiewitch and the Russians defeated the Turks, 
24 Aug., and gained the city, 28 Aug. 1828. 

ALABAMA, a Southern state, originally part 
of Georgia, N. America. The country was first 
settled by the French, 1702, who built Mobile, 17 12 ; 
part of it was ceded to Great Britain, 1763. It 
was gradually acquired by the United States, and 
was made a state in 1819; commercial metropolis, 
Mobile. It seceded from the union by an ordinance 
passed n Jan. 1861, was reunited in"i865 ; and re- 
admitted to congress, 1868. 

Murder of about 26 negro miners at the Carbon Hill 
coal mines, Walker county, by white strikers, 
30, 31 Jan.— rioting quelled by troops, 1, 2 Feb. 1891. 

Population, 1890, 1,513,017; 1900, 1,828,697. 

Conflict with strikers at Pratt's mines, near Bir- 
mingham', 6 deaths 17 July, 1894 

Lynching of negroes 1900-1903, some burnt alive. 



False alarm of tire at negro Baptist chapel in 
Birmingham, 115 killed ... 19 Sept. 1902 

ALABAMA, a steam vessel of 900 tons, with 
engines of 300 horse-power, constructed by Messrs. 
Laird at Birkenhead, for the confederate' service ; 
launched 15 May, 1862. During the judicial en- 
quiries after her character, she sailed from the 
Mersey, 28 July, the day before the British govern- 
ment telegraphed to detain her. Under the command 
of capt. Semmes, she did great damage to the 
American mercantile shipping, until her destruc- 
tion by the federal ironclad Kearsage, capt. Winslow, 
off Cherbourg, 19 June, 1864. Several of his crew 
were saved by Mr. John Lancaster, in his yacht. Ad- 
miral Semmes died Sept. 1877. 

Discussion between the two governments, respecting 
claims for damage by the Alabama . . 1865 

A fruitless convention for their settlement, by a 
commission signed at London . . 10 Nov. 1868 

Another convention, signed by the earl of Clarendon 
and Mr. Reverdy Johnson, signed 14 Jan. ; re- 
jected by the United States senate . 13 April, 1869 

Joint commission (British, earl de Grey, sir Stafford 
Northcote and others ; American, secretary Fisk, 
general Schenk, and others) to settle fishery dis- 
putes, Alabama claims, <fcc. Announced, 9 Feb., 
met at Washington, 27 Feb., signed a treaty at 
Washington 8 May, 1873 

Commission for Anglo-American claims, met at 
Washington 25 Sept. ,, 

Formal meeting of the arbitration commission at 
Geneva ; (adjourns to 15 June) . 18 Dec. , ? 

The British and American cases presented 20 Dee. 
Great excitement in England at the introduction 
of enormous claims for indirect losses into the 
American case, loss by transfer of trade from 
American to British ships, increased rates of 
marine insurance, and losses incident to the pro- 
longation of the war Jan. 1872 

Correspondence between the governments : British 
despatch, 3 Feb. ; reply, 1 March ; continued ; 
counter cases presented at Geneva . 15 April, ,, 

Continued correspondence, draft for a supplemen- 
tary treaty, by which both nations agree in future 
to abstain from claims for indirect losses, pre- 
sented to American senate ; approved 25 May, , y 

The British government object to certain modifica- 
tions ; further correspondence ; great excitement 
in parliament ; proposed adjournment of the 
meeting of the arbitration commission ; differences 
about the mode of procedure ; congress adjourns, 
leaving the affair unsettled . . 10 June. „ 

The Arbitration tribunal, consisting of count Fred- 
eric Sclopis for Italy, president, baron Staempfl 
for Switzerland ; vicomte d'ltajuba for Brazil ; Mr. 
G. F. Adams for United States, and sir Alexander 
E. Cockburn for Great Britain, meet at Geneva ; 
The British government presents a note of the ex- 
isting differences ; the conference adjourns, 15 June, J" , 7 

Further adjournment, 17 June ; the arbitrators 
voluntarily declare that the indirect claims are 
invalid, and contrary to international law, 19 
June ; president Grant consents to their with- 
drawal 25 June, ,, 

The British government withdraw their application 
for adjournment of the conference . 27 June, ,, 

The Arbitration commission records its decision 
against the indirect claims, and the proposed leng 
adjournment, and adjourns to 15 July . 28 June, , ? 

Final meeting ; all the arbitrators agree to award 
damages for the injuries done by the Alabama; 
four, for those done by the Florida; and three for 
those done by the Shenandoah. The judgment 
not signed by sir A. Cockburn, whose reasons 
were published ; the damages awarded (including 
interest), about 3,229,166/. 13s. 4<1 ; those claimed 
9,476,166/. 13s. 4(7.. (Decision based on the ad- 
mission of a new ex-jiost facto international law, 
by Great Britain by the treaty of Washington.) 

14 Sept. ,, 

The judgment of sir A. Cockburn (a powerful and 
indignant reply to unjust aspersions, admitting 
the award for the Alabama; opposing the other 
awards ; yet counselling submission to the judg- 



ALADJA DAGH. 



32 



ALBANS, ST. 



ment), signed 14 Sept. and published in London 
Gazette with other documents . . 20 Sept. 1872 
It is stated, that about 1,250,000?. too much were 

awarded Feb. 1873 

3,200,000?. were voted ; the receipt of 3,196,874?. 

acknowledged by Mr. Secretary Fish 9 Sept. ,, 

All awards made ; about 8,000,000 dollars surplus, 

21 Dec. 1876 
The surplus increasing by interest . . . 1881 

About 9,500,000 dollars . . . -31 March, 1885 
Picture of the International Alabama Commis- 
sioners, painted by Mr. F. B. Carpenter, pre- 
sented to the queen by Mrs. W. Carson, 20 Feb. 1892 

ALADJA DAGH, near Ears, Armenia. Here 
the Turks, under Ahmed Mukhtar, after severe con- 
flicts, were totally defeated by the Russians under 
the grandduke Michael, and generals Loris Meli- 
koff, Lazareff, and Heimann, 14, 15 Oct. 1877. 

The Turkish army was divided and broken up, the strong 
camp taken, with many prisoners, including 7 pashas 
and 38 guns. The Russian strategy was highly com- 
mended. This overwhelming disaster, which led to 
the investment of Ears, was attributed to Mukhtar's 
maintaining too extended lines which were turned (20 
miles with only 40,000 men ; when 200,000 were re- 
quired). 

ALAND ISLES (Gulf of Bothnia), taken from 

Sweden by Russia, 1809; see Bomarsund. 

ALANI, a Tartar race, invaded Parthia, 75. 
They joined the Huns in invading the Roman 
empire, and were defeated by Theodosius, 379-382. 
They were subdued by the Visigoths, 452, and 
eventually incorporated with them. 

ALARCOS (Central Spain). Here the Spaniards 
under Alfonso IX., king of Castile, were totally 
defeated by the Moors, 19 July, 1195. 

ALASKA, the name given to the Russian pos- 
sessions in North America, purchased by the United 
States by treaty, 13 March, 1867, for 7,200,000 
dollars, received I Aug. 1868, though so styled it 
is not a territory. The temporary seat of govern- 
ment is at Sitka. Convention respecting the 
boundary signed at Washington, 30 Jan. 1897 ; 
a modus vwendi accepted, 20 Oct. 1899. Treaty 
for a boundary Commission, 3 British and 3 
Americans, ratified, n Feb. 1903. First meeting 
of the Commissioners (United States, Great Britain, 
and Canada) at the Foreign Office, 3 Sept. ; award 
signed 20 Oct. 1 903; see United States. Gold 
discovered in the Yukon, &c. ; great rush in 1897; 
1900, 84,901 ; see Canada. The Yukon and White 
Pass railway opened July, 1899. The railroad con- 
nects at Lake Bennett with boats for the Dawson 
and Yukon valley. Alaska contains 530,000 sq. 
miles, one-third within the Arctic circle. Popula- 
tion, 1890, 30.329; 1900, r>3_s92. Mt. St. Ilias, 
l8, COO ft.. Mircrs-I'iilly climbed by the duke of the 
Abruzzi Mid ') ot hers, [897. 

ALBA LONGA, an ancient city of Italy, said 
to have been founded bj Ascanius, son. of JEneas, 
1052 B.c Its history is mythical. 
An 1 ill ins, the brother of Numitor, seizes the throne, 
794; killed by Romulus, who restores his grand- 
father Numitor 754 

Romulus builds and fortifies Rome (see 753 

Alba conquered by Tullua Bostilius, and incor- 
porated « itii Romi | bi /.'■ 1 ... 665 

ALBANIA, a province in European Turkey, 
formerly part of the ancient Epirus. The Albanians 
became independent during the deoline of the Greek 
empire. The] "ere successfully attacked bj the 
Turks in [388. About [443, under George Castriot 
(Scan derbeg), they baffled the efforts of Mahomet 
II. to subdue them till the siege of Scutari in 1 178, 



when they submitted. Ali Pacha, of Janina, in 
18 12, defeated the Turkish pachas, and governed 
Albania ably, but cruelly and despotically, till Feb. 
1822, when he and his two sons were slain, after 
surrendering under a solemn promise of safety. A 
revolt in Albania was suppressed in 1843. Popula- 
tion about 1,500,000, 1 901. 

An Albanian league (favoured by the Turks) formed 
to resist the cession of any part of the country to 
Austria and Montenegro in April, said to have 
caused the death of Mehemet Ali . . 7 Sept. 1878 

The country semi-independent . . . April, 1879 

Army formed rebels against Turkey . . April, i38o 

The league forces defeated in an attack on Dervish Pas' 
in Uskub between Pristina and Prisrend iq April ; 
reported the country settled, but asked for reinfor 
ments ; more fighting ; Albanians said to be defeat 
and struggle almost over, 12 May, 1881. 

Revolt of chiefs, severe tights, 2, 3 June, 1883. Tin 
defeated with loss ; reported dispersion of the clii 
about 8 June. Continued fighting 12 June et & 
The Turks successful in fight ; the Albanians subn 
announced 21 June. Unsettled 25 June. Insurreeti 
subsiding about 19 July. Albanians apjieal to t 
Powers for annexation to Greece, about 3 Nc 
General disorder and much brigandage reported, Ai . 
1884. See Dulcigno. 

The Albanian society established at Bucharest for 1 
political, moral, and intellectual development of 1 
Albanians has been reorganized, and the sultan 1 
been asked to accept the protectorate, May, 1889. 

Albanian attacks on Montenegro, &c, checked by t 
Turks, July, Aug. 1890. 

North Albania reported to be in a state of sanguin; 
anarchy, middle Dee. 1S90. 

Outrages committed by a band of 250 Arnauts, J: 
1891. 

League of Albanian chiefs formed to resist the Turl 
Nov. 1891. 

Martial law established on the confines of Monteneg 
Dec. 1891. 

Rebel Arnauts attack and loot Prisrend, demanding 
autonomy ; the Turkish garrison retreat into tl 
citadel, 1 Nov. ; rising suppressed, 6 Nov. 1893. 

Conflicts with the Turks, reported 7 March, 1896. 

Demonstration of Albanians against taxation, &c. ; ■ 
Elbassan, reported S Jan. 1897; outbreak in Div 
11 Jan. 1897 ; denied by the Porte, 9 March, 1S97. 

Revolt in Ipek and Diakova ; conflict, heavy loss on bot 
sides, Nov. 1897 ; the Albanians agitate for autonon 
Jan. 1898 ; severe border warfare, many Christi 
villages burnt in the Berane district, June, 1898. 

Fight among Albanian nobles near Ipek, a village bun 
a Servian woman killed, 20 April, 1S99 ; Servi 
frontier guard near Vronya attacked by a band 
Albanians, 1 Servian killed ; 17, 21 May, 1899. 

Outrages on Christians by Mahomedan Albanians rou: 
Ipek and other places, reported 19 Dec. 1899. 

Fighting on the frontier, 7 Christians killed, report 
30 June, 1901. 

Continued outrages on Christians reported Oct., 1901. 

Kiazim pasha, vali for 4 years, resigns, succeeded by 
gen. Shakir pasha, 16, 22 Nov., 1901. 

Further disturbances and great unrest, reported 
29 March, 1902. 

The appointment ofa Russian vice-consul at Mitrovitza 
disallowed. 1 Sept. : revolt against reforms, 
lives lost, Sept. 1902-April, 1903. See Maced 

ALBANS, ST. (Hertfordshire), near the Soman 
Verulam, derived its name from Alban the British 
protomartyr, said to have been beheaded during the 
persecution by Diocletian, 23 June, 286. A stately 
monastery to his memory was erected about 795, 
by Otl'a, king of Mercia, who granted it many 
privileges. Its superior sat as premier abbot in 
parliament till the dissolution in 1 539. A meeting 
was held 22 June, 187I, to inise :; fund for the 
restoration of the abbey, the earl of Verulam, chair- 
man. The results wen' favourable, and the work 
was eontided to Mr. (i. Gilbert Scott, who issued a 
report in June, 1872. The work was carried on 
under the superintendence of Sir Edmund Beckett 

(afterwards Lord Grimthorpe), who contributed 



ALBANY. 



33 



ALBEET MEMOEIALS. 



50,000/. towards it. Mr. H. Hucks Gibbs also con- 
tributed largely to the restoration ( 1 889) . The n ave 
was opened 21 Oct. 1885. Verulam was built on the 
site of the capital of Cassivelaunus, taken by Julius 
Caesar, 54 b. c. It was retaken after much slaughter 
byBoadiceaorBunduica,queenofthe Iceni, A. n. 61. 
First Battle of St. Albans, when the Lancastrians were 

defeated, their leader, Edmund duke of Somerset 

slain, and king Henry VI. taken prisoner, by the 

duke of York and his partisans, 22 or 23 May, 1455. 
Second tattle, queen Margaret totally defeated the Yorkists 

under the earl of Warwick, and rescued the king, 

Shrove Tuesday, 17 Feb. 1461. 
St. Albans incorporated by Edward VI. 1553. 
Disfranchised for bribery, 17 June, 1852. 
St. Albans Murder, see Trials, 1880. 
Act passed to make arrangements for erecting a bishopric 

of St. Albans, 29 June 1875. See constituted, 30 April ; 

made a city, 28 Aug. 1877. Population, 1881, 10,931 ; 

1891, 12,895 ; 1901, 16,019. 
St. Albans Raid, see United States, Oct. 1864. 

BISHOPS. 

1877. Thomas Legh Claughton (trans, from Rochester) ; 

resigned 21 March, 1890 ; died 25 July, 1892. 
1890. John Wogan Festing ; died, 28 Dec. 1902. 
1903. Edgar Jacob (trans, from Newcastle-on-Tyne) ; 

enthroned, 16 May. 

ALBANY OR ALBALNN, the ancient name 
of the Scottish Highlands. Eobert Stewart, the 
brother of King Eobert III., was created the first 
duke of Albany in 1398, and the title has ever since 
been connected with the crown of Scotland. The 
young pretender, prince Charles Edward, and his 
wife took the title of count and countess of Albany. 
See York. 

DOKES OF ALBANY. 

1398. Robert ; regent ; 1406 ; died 3 Sept. 1420. 

1420. Murdoch, son ; regent ; executed for treason by 

king James I., 1424. 
1452. Alexander, brother of king James II. ; acted 

treasonably ; exiled ; killed accidentally at 

Paris, 1485. 
1514. John, son ; regent ; went abroad ; died at Paris, 

1526. 

See York and Albany, dukes. 
1881. Prince Leopold, fourth son of queen Victoria, was 

created duke of Albany 24 May, 1881 ; died 

28 March, 1884. 
1884. Leopold Charles Edward, son, born 19 July ; 

duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, 30 July, 

1900. 
See under England. 

ALBANY, capital of the state of New York. 
The Dutch elected a block-house near here in 
1614, and villages soon arose. The town took its 
name from James, duke of York and Albany, to 
whom it had been given by his brother, King 
Charles II., after its cession to Great Britain in 
1564. Albany received a charter in 1686 ; the first 
general congress met here in 1764, and in 1797 the 
city became the capital of the state. Centenary 
celebrated Jan. 6, 1897. Population, 1800, 5349 ; 
1860,62,367; 1890,94,923; 1900,94,151. 

ALBEET MEMOEIALS. (See England, 
Queen.) The Prince Consort died on 14 Dec. 1861, 
deeply lamented by the whole civilised world. His 
remains were transferred to the mausoleum of 
Frogmore, 18 Dec. 1862. The sarcophagus is com- 
posed of the largest known block of granite without 
flaw. A meeting to organise a method of receiving 
contributions for a great national memorial was 
held at the Mansion-house, 14 Jan. 1862 ; and a 
large sum was quickly subscribed. 36,000/. had 
been received on 1 March; 50,220/. on n June, 
1862 ; and parliament voted 50,000/., in addition 
to the 60,000/. received by voluntary contributions, 
23 April, 1863. 
The nature of the memorial was referred to the queen 



herself. In a letter to the lord mayor, dated 19 Feb. 
1862, sir Charles Grey says, on behalf of her majesty, " It 
would be more in accordance with her own feelings, 
and she believes with those of the country in general, 
that the monument should be directly personal to its 
object. After giving the subject her maturest considera- 
tion, her majesty has come to the conclusion, that 
nothing would be more appropriate, provided it is on a 
scale of sufficient grandeur, than an o belisk to be erected 
in Hyde-park on the site of the Great Exhibition of 
1851, or on some spot immediately contiguous to it. 
Nor would any proposal that could be made be more 
gratifying to the queen herself personally, for she can 
never forget that the prince himself had highly ap- 
proved of the idea of a memorial of this character being 
raised on the same spot in remembrance of the Great 
Exhibition." In a second letter the queen expressed 
her intention of personally contributing towards erect- 
ing the memorial, that " it might be recorded in future 
ages as raised by the queen and people of a grateful 
country to the memory of its benefactor." Shortly 
after a committee was appointed to fulfil her majesty's 
desire. As a suitable block of granite could not be 
obtained, the proposal for an obelisk was given up. 

The queen approved of the design of Mr. Gilbert G. Scott 
for an Eleanor Cross, with a spire 150 feet high, ac- 
companied by statues, &c, 22 April, 1863 ; work begun. 
13 May, 1864. 

The sculptors employed were M'Dowell, Foley, Theed, 
John Bell, and Armistead : material, Sicilian marble. 
(Jan. 1865.) 

The memorial, complete, except the statue, by Foley 
(delayed through illness), was given up to her majesty 
privately, 1 July, 1872. The gilt statue by Foley un- 
covered 9 March, 1876.' Having been much damaged 
by weather, it was restored 1902. 

Doyne C. Bell's Descriptive and Illustrated Account of 
this Monument, published by Mr. John Murray, 1873. 

Inscription on the " Memorial Cairn" on a high mountain 
overlooking Balmoral Palace :—" To the belcveci 
memory of Albert the great and good Prince Consort,, 
erected by his broken-hearted widow, Victoria R 
21 Aug. 1862." Upon another dressed slab, a few inches 
below the above, is this quotation : — " He being made 
perfect in a short time, fulfilled a long time : lor his 
soul pleased the Lord, therefore hasted he to take him 
away from among the wicked."— Wisdom of Solomon, 
chap. iv. 13, 14. 

A statue of the prince-consort (by Theed) inaugurated at 
Rosenau, his birth-place, in the presence of the queen 
and the royal family, 19 Aug. 1865. 

" Early Years of the Prince Consort ;" edited by the Hon. 
Chas. Grey ; published 6 July, 1867. 

Statue by Theed at Balmoral, inaugurated 15 Oct. 1867. 

The statue at the Holborn circus, uncovered by the 
prince of Wales, 9 Jan. 1874. 

The Albert Memorial Chapel at Windsor, opened to the 
public, 1 Dec. 1875. 

Life, by Theodore Martin ; 5 vols, published, 1875-80. 

The Scottish National Memorial to the Prince, Edin- 
burgh, inaugurated by the queen, 17 Aug. 1876. 

Statue at Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, uncovered 
by the prince of Wales, 22 Jan. 1878. 

A bronze equestrian statue of the prince set up near 
Virginia Water in the Great Park, Windsor, by means 
of the women's offering, sec Jubilee, 1887-9; uncovered 
by the queen, 12 May, 1890. 

Many other memorials of the prince have been set up 
throughout the empire. 

Royal Albert Hall of Arts and Sciences ; The 
erection of a great building for congresses, concerts, 
&c, was proposed by the prince-consort at the close 
of the exhibition of 1851, and an estate at Kensington 
was purchased ; a committee, with the prince of Wales 
at the head, to erect the building, was appointed 6 
July, 1865 ; circulars soliciting subscriptions were 
issued April, 1866 ; and the first stone was laid by the 
queen, 20 May, 1867. 

The building was erected by col. Scott, chiefly after de- 
signs by capt. Fowke, and cost about 2oo,oooZ. The 
organ, by Willis, is said to be the largest in the world. 
An experimental concert was given to the workmen 25 
Feb., and the hall was opened by the queen 29 March, 
1871, when a grand concert was given, and many since. 

The hall is said to contain seats for 10,000 persons 
(orchestra 2,000, oval arena 1,000, balcony 2,300, anil 
gallery 2,000). 



ALBERT NYANZA. 



34 



ALCHEMY. 



An International lee Carnival for the West End Hospital 
for Paralysis, &c, inaugurated by the duchess of 
Teck, 14 March, 1889. 

State concert for the German emperor and empress, 
9 July, 1891. 

Gieit unionist meeting (see Ireland), 22 April, 1893. 

Grand military and patriotic concert in aid of the 
troops, &c, in S. Africa, the prince of Wales present, 
5 Dec. 1899. 

International cookery exhibition opened 19 March, 1902. 

Lads' Drill association, lord Neath president, prince and 
princess of Wales present, 7 June, 1902. 

Albert Bridok, Chelsea, opened 23 Aug. 1873; freed 
from toll 24 May, 1879. 

Albert Embankment, <&c, see Thames, 1869; Docks. 

Albert Institute, Windsor, opened by the prince of 
Wales, to Jan. 1880. 

Albert Medals, to be awarded to persons who endanger 
their lives by saving others from shipwreck, appointed 
.by royal warrant, 7 March, 1866. The first was given 
to Samuel Popplcstone on 14 May, 1866, for saving life 
•on 23 March previous. Two decorations instituted, 
April, 1867, first and second class ; extended, April, 
1877, for gallantry in preventing loss of life on land ; 
medals awarded to Pontypridd miners and others for 
saving men imprisoned in a mine through inundation 
(see Coal: Accidents), April, 1877. 

Ai.r.KUT Medal (Gold), founded in 1862, awarded by the 
Society of Arts to sir Rowland Hill, 1864; Napoleon 

III. 1865; Michael Faraday, 1866 ; Charles Wheatstone 
and William Fothergill Cooke, 1867 ; Joseph Whit- 
worth, 186S ; Justus Liebig, 1869; Ferdinand de 
Lesseps, 1870; Henry Cole, C.B., 1871 ; Henry Besse- 
mer, 1872; Michel Eugene Chevreul, 1873 ; C. William 
Siemens, 1874 ; MichelChevallier, 1875; sir G. B. Airy, 
1S76; Jean Baptiste Dumas, 1877 ; sir Wm. G. Arm- 
strong, 1878; sir William Thomson (lord Kelvin, 1892), 
1879; James Preseott Joule, 1S80; Aug. Wm. Hofmann, 
1881 ; Louis Pasteur, 1882 ; sir Joseph D. Hooker, 1883 ; 
capt. James Buchanan Eads, 1884; Henry Doulton, 
1885; Samuel Cunliffe Lister, 1886; the Queen, 1887 
(6 June, presented 8 March, 1888); prof. Hermann 
Louis Helmholtz, 1888 ; John Percy, 1889 ; William 
Henry Perkin, 1890; sir Frederick Abel, 1891 ; Thos. 
Alva Edison, 1892 ; sir John Bennet Lawes and sir 
John H. Gilbert, 1893; sir Joseph Lister (lord Lister, 
1S97), 1894 ; sir Isaac Lowthian Bell, 1895 ; David 
Edward Hughes, 1896; G. T. Symons, 1897; Robert 
Bunsen, 1898 ; sir mm Crookes, 1S99; Henry Wilde, 
1900 ; king Edward VII., 1901 ; Alexander Graham 
I! II. 1902. 

.Albert Exhibition Palace, Batteiisea, opened 6 
.luii.', 1885, closed 1888. 
1 VJbert Orphan Asylum, Bagshot; founded 1864. 

ALBERT NYANZA, sec Victoria Xyanza. 

ALBERT UNIVERSITY, the name pro- 

?osed lor ;i new teaching university, in and for 
.ondon, advocated by University college and King's 
college in 1891. A draft charter was submitted to 
the privy council and approved in July, 1891. The 
subject was eventually referred to a royal com- 
missiorj in March following. See Qresham College 
and London University, 

ALBKJEXKKK, a name given to various per- 
sons who opposed the doctrines and corruptions of 

the church of Koine, living at Albi, in Languedoc, 
and at Toulouse in the [2th century. The) were 

persecutedasalleged Manichseans, 1 [63,andacru8ade 
(proclaimed by pope Innocent III.) againsl them 
commenced in 1207. Sim le Montfon commanded 

500,000 men. and at I!. . i' 1 . I .•" >. he and the pope's 
legate put friends and Iocs to ihe sw 01 d. Baying, 

" God will find his own !" • At Minerba ne burnt 
150 of the Albigenses alive; ami at La Yam- he 
banged the governor, and beheaded the chief people, 
drowning the governor's wile, and murdering other 
women. He defeated l> 13 im nd, count of Toulouse, 
bui was himself killed in 1218. Louis "VIII. and 

IV, kings of France, pai ionised the orusade; 

• Nov • OUtl ell' ted. 



count Raymond was subdued, and abdicated in 1229; 
and the heretics were given up to the Inquisition. 
They bad little in common with the Waldenses, 
which see. 

ALBION. Britain is said to have been so called 
by Aristotle (died 322 B.C.). Julius Caesar and 
others are said to have given it the name (from 
albus, white) on account of its chalky cliffs. 

ALBTJERA OR ALBUHERA, Estremadura, 
Spain. Here a battle was fought between the 
French, commanded by marshal Soult, and the 
British and Anglo-Spanish army, under marshal, 
afterwards lord Beresford, 16 May, 181 1. The 
allies obtained a brilliant victory. Tbe French loss 
exceeded 8000 men previously to their retreat ; but 
the allies lost a large number. The chief brunt 
of the action fell on the British; colonel Inglis, 
22 officers, and more than 400 men, out of 570 who 
had mounted a hill, fell, out of the 57th regiment 
alone ; the other regiments were scarcely better off, 
not one-third being left standing ; " 1500 un- 
wounded men, the remnant of 6000 unconquerable 
British soldiers, stood triumphant on this fatal 
hill." Napier. 

ALBUFERA (Spain, East Central), a lagoon, 
near which the French marshal Suehet (afterwards 
duke of Albufera) defeated the Spaniards under 
Blake, 4 Jan. 1812 : this led to bis capture of 
Valencia on 9 Jan. 

ALCALA DE HENARES, Spain, the 
Roman Complutum. At its once famous univer- 
sity founded by cardinal Ximenes, 1510, was 
printed the Complutensian Polyglot bible, at his 
expense, 1502-15. Cervantes, the author of "Don 
Quixote," was born here, 1547. 

ALCANTARA, a town on the Tagus, W. 
Spain. A tine bridge was built here by Trajan 105. 
The duke of Alva acquired Portugal for Spain by 
defeating the Portuguese army here, 24 June, 15S0. 
The Spanish military order of knighthood of Alcan- 
tara was established in 1 156. The sovereign of Spain 
has been grand master since 1495. Population, 
4,000. 

ALCAZAR-QUIVER, near Fez, N. W. 
Africa, where the Moors totally defeated the Portu- 
guese, whose gallant king Sebastian was slain, 4 
Aug. 1578. The Portuguese disbelieved his death, 
and long expected his return ; this led to the 
appearance of five impostors. 

ALCHEMY, the forerunner of chemistry ; its 
chief objects being the discovery of the philosopher's 
stone (which was to effect the transmutation of 
metals into gold), an alkahest or universal men- 
struum, and the elixir of life.* The alchemists 
assert that their founder was Hermes Trismegistus 
(thrice greatest), an ancient Egyptianking. — Pliny 
says the emperor Caligula was the first who pre- 
pared natural arsenic, in order to make gold of it, 
but Left it off, because the charge exceeded the 
profit. 

Zosiiniis wrote on the subject about 410. 

The Arabians cultivated alchemy, and were followed (in 

the 13th century) bj Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, 
a,quinas, Raymond Lullius, Basil Valentine (born 1394), 
P iracelsus (died 15+1), and others. 
In 1404 the craft of multiplying gold and silver was made 
felony by 5 Hen. [V. c. 4, which act was repealed in 1689. 



• M Martin Zlegler, about 1868, patented a method of 
producing a "vital fluid" by combining nitrogen and 
carbon in a porous cell containing ammonia, immersed 

in a vessel ftlled with molasses, The current was to 
flow through silk threads attached to the vessel. 



ALCOHOL. 



35 



ALE. 



A licence for practising alchemy with all kinds of metals 
and minerals was granted to one Richard Carter, 147S. 
Rymer's Fcedera. 

Dr. Price, of Guildford, in 1782 published an account of 
ihis experiments and brought specimens of gold to 
ithe king, affirming that they were made by means of a 
rred and white powder. Being a fellow of the Royal 
;Society, he was required, under pain of expulsion, to 
jepeat his experiments before Messrs. Kirwan and 
Wolfe (some say Higgins) ; but after much equivoca- 
tion and delay he took poison and died, Aug. 1783. 

ALCOHOL. Pure spirit of wine or hydrated 
alcohol is said to have been obtained by the dis- 
tillation of fermented liquors by Abueasis in the 
I2th century; and the dehydration of this liquor 
to have been partially effected by Raymond Lullius 
In the 13th century by carbonate of potassium. 
In 1820, Faraday and Hennell obtained traces of 
alcohol by passing olefiantgas(bi-carburettedhydro- 
•gen) through sulphuric acid ; and in 1862 this 
process was examined and confirmed by Berth elot. 
Alcohol has been artificially formed from its 
-elements (carbon, hydrogen and oxygen) by 
■chemists; it was solidified by Prof. Dewar at 
the Eoyal Institution, 1886; see Distillation, 
■/Spirits, Brandy, Gin, Bum. About 250 medical 
men, including the president of the Royal College 
of Physicians, and many hospital officials, issued a 
cautionary declaration concerning the use of alcohol 
in medicine, Dec. 1871. See Temperance. 

ALCOLEA (Andalusia, S. Spain). Near the 
bridge a sharp engagement took place between the 
royalists under general Pavia y Lacy, marquis de 
Novaliches, and the insurgents under marshal Ser- 
rano, 27 Sept. 1868. The former was defeated. 

AL-COEAN OR Al-Korak, see Koran, Ma- 
'hometanism, &c. 

ALDEEMAN. The Saxon ealdorman was 
<next to the king, and frequently a viceroy ; but 
after the settlement of the Danes the title was 
gradually displaced by that of earl. Aldermen in 
■corporations are next in dignity to the mayor. 
A curious list of aldermen and their wards is 
assigned to the year 1290. Loftie. Aldermen chosen 
for life, instead of annually, 17 Rich. II. 1394. 
Aldermen made justices of the peace, 15 Geo. II., 
1 741. The council of a borough consists of mayor, 
aldermen, and councillors, Acts, 1835. 

The 26 London (City) aldermen are elected by the wards. 
In 1877 the court of aldermen exercised their ancient 
Tight of veto against Sir John Bennett (thrice chosen 
alderman for the ward of Cheap), and chose Mr. Edgar 
Breffltt, 23 Oct. 1877. 

Aldermen elected by the councillors form part of the 
County Councils established by the Local Government 
Act, 1888, and of the London municipal boroughs, 
•created by the London Government Act, 1899. 

ALDEENEY (English Channel), with Jersey, 
&c, was acquired by William the Conqueror, 1066. 
The "Race" is celebrated for two fatal occur- 
rences; "William of Normandy, son of Henry I. of 
England, and many young nobles (140 youths of 
the principal families of France and Britain), were 
overtaken by a storm, and all lost, 25 Nov. 1120. 
The British man-of-war Victory, of 100 guns and 
1 160 men, was wrecked here, k Oct. 1744; the 
admiral, sir John Balchen, and alibis crew perished. 
Through this strait the French escaped after their 
defeat at La Hogue by admirals Russell and Rooke, 
19 May; 1692. The construction of a breakwater, 
an order to make Alderney a naval station, was 
begun in 1852, and after having cost 1,337,100?., 
was suspended by parliament in 1871. In 1874 the 
harbour and lands were transferred from the control 



of the board of trade to that of the admiralty and 
the war department. See Wrecks 30 March, 1899. 

ALDEESHOT CAMP, on a moor near Farn- 

ham, about 35 miles from London. In Apri 1 , 1854, 

the War office, having obtained a grant of 100,000/., 

purchased 4000 acres of land for a permanent camp 

for 20,000 men. 

Additional land purchased in 1856. 

Barracks since erected for 4000 infantry, 1500 cavalry, 
and several batteries of artillery. Great improvements 
in military cookery introduced (see Cookery) under the 
superintendence of captain John Grant, 1857. 

Visited by the queen, 18, 19 April, 1856. 

The troops returned from the Crimea, reviewed by her, 
7, 16 July, 1856. 

About 15,000 men were stationed here, 1859. 

Cost of the camp, said to be 1,291,531^. up to Feb. i860. 

An industrial and fine-art exhibition, furnished by officers 
and men and their wives, opened, 29 June ; closed 14 
July, 1864. 

Camp set up for 40,000 men to execute military manoeu- 
vres, Aug., Sept. 1871. Many horses broke away 
through a fright, 30 Aug. 1871. 

Review of 14,000 men by the queen, 5 July, 1872. 

Summer manoeuvres here, 1874, 1875, 1876, 1877. 

Review by the queen, 13 May, 1878 ; again (all branches 
of the service represented), 2 July, 1886. 

March of a force equipped for war, 17 Aug. 1886. 

Review and sham fight, 23 June, 1887. 

The queen reviews about 60,000 men, about half volun- 
teers ; grand march past, 9 July, 1887. 

Sir Evelyn Wood appointed commander, 1889. 

Theatre Royal burned down, 8 Feb. 1889. 

The queen reviews 11,945 of all ranks, 31 May, 1889. 

A sham fight and review, in which about 25,530 troops, 
regulars and volunteers, were engaged, took place 
here in the presence of the Emperor William II., the 
Princess of Wales, the Duke of Cambridge, and others 
of the royal family, 7 Aug. 1889. 

The queen reviews the troops, 16 July, 1891 ; 27 June, 
1892 ; 17 March, 1893 ; 12 June, 1894 ; 13 July, 1895. 

Duke of Connaught appointed commander at the camps 
9 Oct. 1893 ; succeeded by sir Redvers H. Buller 
9 Oct. 1898 ; sir A. G. M. Moore, temporary, 15 Dec. 
1899 ; sir Redvers Buller resumes command, 1 Oct. 
(for a speech on 10 Oct. to the Queen's Westminster 
Volunteers, placed on half-pay, 23 Oct. 1901) ; sir H. 
J. T. Hildyard, temporary, 25 Oct. 1901 ; sir J. D. P. 
French appointed, 15 Sept. 1902. 

Queen Victoria reviews on Latfan's plain about 28,000 
troops 5,029 horses, and 57 guns, including the 
Colonial, Indian and African forces, grand march past, 
1 July, 1897 ; again, 12,000 troops, 7 July, 1898 ; again, 
over 14,000, 26 June, 1899. 

New hospital opened, 13 Aug. 1897. 

Manoeuvres, 4 deaths from sunstroke, 11 June, 1900. 

The king attends a military tattoo, 14 June (indisposed) ; 
the queen reviews over 31,00c troops, 16 June, 1902. 

Official residence of sir John French burnt down, 15 
Jan. 1903. 

ALDINE PEESS, that of Aldo Manuzio 
(Aldus Manutius), at Venice, where were printed 
many of the first editions of the Greek, Latin, and 
Italian classics, commencing in 1494 with Musaeus. 

ALDWYCH, the name given to one of the 
two streets, now (1903) in the course of construc- 
tion, which will join the Strand with Holborn. 
Tne name is derived from the old Danish settle- 
ment of Aldwych that once covered the site, and 
left the trace of its former existence in the name of 
Wych-street now demolished. 

ALE, BEER, and Wine. Ale is said to have been 
known as a beverage at least in 404 B.C. Herodotus 
ascribes the first discovery of the art of brewing 
barley- wine to Isis, the wife of Osiris, and a beverage 
of this kind is mentioned by Xenophon, 401 B.C. 
The Romans and Germans very early learned from 
the Egyptians the process of preparing a liquor from 
corn by means of fermentation. Tacitus. Ale- 
houses are mentioned in the laws of Ina, king of 



ALEMANNI. 



36 



ALEXANDRA PARK. 



Wessex. Booths were set up in England, 728, when 
laws were passed for their regulation. None but 
freemen were allowed to keep ale-houses in London, 
13 Edw. I. 1285. They were further subjected to 
regulation by 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 25 (1551). By 
I James I. e. 9 (1603), one full quiirt 01 the best, 
and two quarts of small ale were to be sold for one 
penny. Excise duty on ale and beer was imposed by 
the parliament in 1643, and continued by Charles II. 

il66o) ; repealed, 1 Will. IV. c. $1 (1830) ; see 
her, Porter, Wine, Victuallers. Michael Thomas 
Bass, the eminent brewer of Burton, died 28 April, 
1884, aged 84. 

Mr. John Bickerdyke's book on " The Curiosities of Ale 
and Beer" was published iu 1886. 

ALEMANNI, or All Men {i.e. men of all 
nations), hence Allemand, German. A body of 
Suevi, who tnok this name, were attacked by Cara- 
calla, 211. After several repulses, theyinvaded the 
empire under Aurelian, who subdued them in three 
battles, 271. They were again vanquished by Julian, 
356; 357; by Jovinus, 368. They were defeated and 
subjugated by Clovis at Tolbiac (or Zulpich), 496. 
The Suabians are their descendants. 

ALENCON (N. France) gave title to a count 
and duke. 

1268-82. Peter, made Count by his father king Louis IX. 
1293. Charles I. of Valois, made Count by his brother 

king Philip the Fair. 
1325. Charles II. (his sun), killed at Crecy. 
1346. Charles III. (his sun), became a priest. 
1361. Peter, his brother. 
1404. John (his son), made Duke in 1414, killed at 

Agincourt, 1415. 
1415. John II. (his son), prisoner in England, 1424-9; 

intrigued against the French king ; died in 

prison, 1470. 
1476. Charles IV. fled after the battle of Pavia in 1525, 

and died shortly after of chagrin. The duchy 

was annexed by the crown. 

ALEPPO, North Syria, a large town named 
Bercea by Seleucus Nieator, about 299 B.C. The 
pachalic of Aleppo is one of the five governments of 
Syria. It was taken by the Saracens, A.D. 638, who 
restored its ancient name Haleb or Chaleb ; by Sala- 
din, 1 193; and sacked by Timour, Nov. 1400. Its de- 
population by the plague has been frequent; 60,000 
persons were computed to have perished by it in 
1797; many in 1827. The cholera raged here in 
1832. Aleppo suffered severely from the terrible 
earthquakes in 1822 and 1830; and has often been 
the scene of fanatical massacres. On 16 Oct. 1850, 
the Mahometans attacked the Christians, burning 
every thing. Three churches were destroyed, live 
others plundered, and thousands of persons slain. 
The total loss of property amounted to about a mil- 
lion sterling; ii" interfen nee was attempted by the 
pacha. Population in 1885, 110,000; icjoi,'^. 
127,149. 

ALESSANDRIA, a city of Piedmont, built in 
1168 under the name of Cesar by the Milanese and 
Cremoneee, to di fend the Tan. no against the <m- 
peror, and afterwards named after pope Alexander 
III. It has been frequently besieged and taken. 
The French took ii in 1796,0111 were driven out bj 
Suwarrow, 21 July, 1799. Thej recovered it after 

the battle of Mar. ie., || June. l.Noo, and held it 

till 1814, when trie trong Fortifications ereoted bj 
Napoli on were destroyed. Tin Be have been restored 
sinoe June, 1856. 

ALEUTIAN ISI.KS. in the North Paoific 

Ocean, discovered b} Behrjngj 17.(1, visited by 
Cook, [778, and settle 1 by Russians, 1785, 



"ALEXANDRA CASE," see Trials, 
1862-64. 

ALEXANDRA CLUB, an exclusive club for 
ladies of position, was established 1884. It has. 
a membership of 850. Premises 12, Grosvenor 
street, W. 

ALEXANDRA PARK, Muswell Hill, Lon- 
don, N. purchased by a company, and named after 
the princess of Wales, was opened with a flower 
show, 23 July, 1863. A portion of the Exhibition 
building of 1862 was erected here. The work 
proceeded rapidly in 1864, was suspended in 1865, 
recommenced in 1866, and completed in 1873. 
Horse-races first held here . . 30 June, 1 July, 1868. 
The prospectus of a scheme to organise an institu- 
tion resembling the South Kensington Museum 
and the Crystal Palace, by means of a tontine (to 
cease 30 June, 1886), was issued . 22 July, 1873 
The affairs were to be managed by " The Alexandra 
Palace and Muswell-hill Estate Management Com- 
pany (limited). " Public lectures on the subject, 
Aug. 1871 ; the company's affairs were wound up 

Feb. 1872 
The purchase of the land and buildings for the 

public proposed by the lord mayor and others July ,, 
The palace was opened with a grand concert, &e. , 

24 May ; destroyed by fire . . .9 June, 1873 
Two women, incautiously viewing the ruins, buried, 

25 June ; bodies found ... 21 Aug. ,, 
The new building (386 by 184 feet) opened, 1 May, 1875 
94,125 persons said to have entered the park, Whit- 
Monday 17 May, ,, 

Balfe memorial festival . . . -29 July, 1876 
The estate taken over by the London Financial 
Association, creditors of the company . . 1876-7 

The palace re-opened 10 May, ,, 

Arrival of Nubian hunters, with elephants, rhino- 
ceroses, camels, dromedaries, buffaloes, zebras, 
ostriches, <fee. (imported by Carl Hagenbeck), 

7 Sept.-i3 Oct. , r 
Opened by new proprietors (Mr. Willing and others) 

with new attractions . . . 17 May, 1880 

107,852 visitors (bank holiday) . . 2 Aug. ,, 

Taken by Jones and Barber . . Nov. ,, 

Put up for sale : unsold . ... 11 Feb. 1881 

Varied entertainments . ... 1881-2 

Act for relieving the London Financial Association 
from charge of the Palace (withdrawn March et 

neq.) 1883, again 1884 

Proposals for purchasing the land for recreation, 

June, 1883 
Put up for sale ; no bidders . . . 20 July, „ 
London Financial Association v. Sir John Kelk, 
Lucas &Co. (contractors), and others (directors, 
&c), 400,000/. claimed as misappropriated; about 
25 days' trial ; Vice-Chancellor Bacon dismisses 
case with costs . . . 8 Mar. 1884 

The Palace let to Mr. George Collins Levy, for 

International Exhibition, announced . 25 July, ., 
Temporary Industrial Exhibition opened 31 March, 1885 
Palace closed in 1886; re-opened for the season, 
11 April, 1887, Mr. II. \V. I lav ward, lessee ; 54,720 
visitors on Whit Monday. 30 May, 1SS7 ; reported 
unsuccessful, Feb. 1888 ; re-opened with a grand 
concert (i ,000 performers), 12 May ; second grand 

concert 9 June, 1888 

Celebration of the 23rd anniversary of the organi- 
zation uft.he Sal\ al inn Army . . 9 July, ,, 

For Professor Baldwin's ascents and descents see 
under Balloons ,, 

The park re-opened for the season ; exhibition of 
nearly 1,000 monkeys, balloons and parachutes, 
&c, professor Baldwin, Mr. 7oung, and others, 

i June, 1889 

Comic opera by Mr. C. Wibrow . 17 June et sey. ,, 

French national tcte, lien. Houlanger present, 

13 July ,, 

Professor Baldwin, after 98 ascents and descents, 
retires with intention ol returning to America, 
about 17 July, ,, 

I In I mi, lun Financial Association apply for the 
appointment of a provisional liquidator pending 
the winding-up of the Alexandra Palace and Park 
company, Mr. C. L. Nichols appointed . 27 July, ,, 



ALEXANDEIA. 



37 



ALEXINATZ. 



The palace closed Sept. iS8g 

Licenses renewed to Mr. Charles James Hayter, 

14 Nov. „ 

Bill for repealing the protective clauses of the Acts 
of 1866 and 1S77, promoted by the a. sociation, 
withdrawn from the Commons . . April, 1891 

Purchase of the palace and grounds proposed to the 
Middlesex county council by R. D. M. Littler, 
chairman, Dec. 1891 ; proposal deferred . May, 1892 

Meeting at the Mansion-house ; committee to pro- 
mote the purchase 'formed (275,000?. required), 

8 Feb. 1893 

The London county council decline to support the 
scheme March, ,, 

Lease of the palace obtained by Mr. T. J. Haw- 
kins : announced .... 28 Oct. 1897 

The palace re-opened on Good Friday, perfor- 
mance of the Messiah, etc. . . .8 April, 1898 

■" Christian Endeavour Societies," convention 
opened, over 25,000 present . . 16 July, 1900 

The palace and land bought for 150,120?. raised by 
the Middlesex and other county councils, and. 
opened free (except bank holidays and race days) 
to the public 'by the duke of Bedford . 18 May, 1901 

.Statue of queen Victoria unveiled, and an exhibi- 
tion of the Jubilee and Diamond Jubilee presents 
opened by the lord mayor ... 5 Oct. ,, 

Physical culture classes inaugurated by the princess 
Louise and the duke of Argyll . . iS Jan. 1902 

" London's welcome to the Colonial troops," 

21 June, ,, 
Duke of Connaught inspects the Colonial and 

Indian troops encamped here, and presents 
medals .... 18 June and 16 July, ,, 

Grand military fetes, Fiji war dance, &c. 12, 19 July, ,, 

Islington children's coronation fetes (30,000), 
5 Sept. ; about 5,500 more (Hornsey) . 9 Sept. ,, 

Great meeting to protest against the Education 
bill ; speeches by sir H. Campbell-Bannerman, 
Mr. Asquith, and others . . . 1 Nov. ,, 

Exhibition of balloons, airships, and aeronautical 
appliances, under auspices of the Aeronautical 
Institute, opened . . . . 17 Sept. 1903 

ALEXANDEIA (Egypt), the walls whereof 
were six miles in circuit, was founded by Alexander 
the Great, 332 B.C., who was buried here, 322. It 
became the residence of the Greek sovereigns of 
Egypt, the Ptolemies, 323 ; seventeen councils were 
held here, a.d. 231-633. Population, with its 
suburbs, in 1883, 208,775 > X 9 0I > 319,766. 
Ptolemy Soter erects the Museum, the Serapeum, 

the Pharos, and other edifices, and begins the 

library about B.C. 298 

These works completed by his son P. Philadelphus 

and his grandson P. Euergetes . . . 283-222 
Alexandria taken by Julius Csesar, when a library 

is burnt 47 

Which Antony replaces by one brought from Per- 

gamus 36 

The city restored by Adrian . . . . a.d. 122 
Massacre of the youth by Caracalla, in revenge for 

an insult 215 

Alexandria supporting the usurper Achilleus is 

taken by Diocletian after a long siege . . . 297 
Alexandria disturbed by the feuds between the 

Athanasians and Ariaus 321 

George of Cappadocia was killed, 362, and Athan- 

asius finally restored 363 

50,000 persons perish by an earthquake . . . 365 
Paganism suppressed by Theodosius, when a second 

library is burnt 390 

Alexandria captured by Chosroes II. of Persia . 616 
And by Amrou, the general of the caliph Omar,* 

22 Dec. 640 
Recovered by the Greeks ; retaken by Amrou. . 644 
Cairo founded by the Saracens, which tends to the 

decay of Alexandria ...... 969 

* The statement that Amrou ordered the remains of the 
library to be burnt is apocryphal. The saying of Omar 
— " That if the books agreed with the book of God, they 
were useless; if they disagreed, they were pernicious" 
— is denied by Mahometans. It is also attributed to 
Theophilus, archbishop ot Alexandria (390), and ;o 
cardinal Ximenes (1500). 



Alexandria plundered by the Crusaders . . . 1365 

The French capture Alexandria . . July, 1798 

Battle of Alexandria or Canopus : the British under 
gen. sir Ralph Abercromby defeat the French 
under Menou 2I March, 1801 

Abercromby dies of his wounds, 28 March ; Menou 
and io,coo French surrender to Hutchinson, 

2 Sept. „ 

Alexandria taken by the British under Fraser, 
20 March ; evacuated by them . . 23 Sept. 1807 

By the convention of Alexandria, Egypt was guaran- 
teed to Mehemet Ali and his successors (and 
greatly favoured by them) ^i 

Railway to Cairo formed ^51 

New port, first stone laid by the khedive 15 May, 1871 

Fierce riots against Europeans (see Egypt), n June, 1882 

Panic and great emigration of Europeans . June, ,, 

Bombardment of the forts, conflagration and aban- 
donment of the city (see Egypt) . n-^July, „ 

New museum of antiquities, &c, opened by the 
khedive I7 Oct. 1892 

New harbour works by Messrs. Pearson completed 

June, 1893 

First exhibition of national art and industry, 
opened by the khedive ... 22 April 1894 

Serious assaults on the British and other Euro- 
\ peans Feb. 1895 

New museum and public library opened by the 
khedive 26 Sept. „ 

Bishop Macarius enthroned as R.C. Coptic patriarch, 
under the title of Cyril II. (see Copts) . 21 July, 1899 

M. G. Averoff, benefactor, devoted large sums to 
public and charitable works, dies . 27 July, „ 

Ptolemaic monuments, discovered during excava- 
tions, erected by Dr. Schiess Bey, one to com- 
memorate the queen's jubilee in 1897, and another 
of the fall of Omdurman and Khartum (2 Sept. 
1S98) 7 Sept. „ 

First sod cut of the new graving dock at Gabbari, 

24 Aug. 1900 

Riot, due to the murder of an Egyptian police 
corporal by an Italian .... 7 Aug. 1901 

Slight epidemics of plague, 45 deaths from May to 
Nov. 1899 ; 20 deaths in £900 ; 18 deaths up to 

Sept. „ 

ALEXANDEIAN CODEX, a MS. of the 

Septuagint translation of the Bible in Greek, said 
to have been transcribed by a lady named Thecla, 
in the 6th century, and to have belonged to the 
patriarch of Alexandria in 1098. It was presented 
to Charles I. of England in 1628 by Cyrillus Leucaris, 
patriarch of Constantinople, and was placed in 
the British Museum in 1753. It was printed in 
facsimile, 1786-1821. 

ALEXANDEIAN EEA, see Eras. 

ALEXANDEIAN SCHOOLS of Philo- 
sophy. The first school arose b.c. 323, soon 
after the foundation of Alexandria. It flourished 
under the patronage of the Ptolemies till about 30 
B.C. It included Euclid (300), Archimedes (287- 
212), Apollonius (250), Hipparchus (150), and Hero 
(150). The second school dates from 30 B.C., and 
lasted till about 640. Its most eminent members 
were Ptolemy, the author of the Ptolemaic system 
(150), Diophantus the arithmetician (200), and 
Pappus the geometer (350) . 

ALEXANDEINES, verses of twelve sylla- 
bles, first written by Alexander of Paris, about 1164, 
and since called after him. The last line of the 
Spenserian stanza is an Alexandrine. In Pope's 
Essay on Criticism, this verse is thus happily 
exemplified : — 
" A needless Alexandrine ends the song, 
That, like a wounded snake, drags its slow length 
along. " 

The longest English poem wholly in Alexandrine 
verse is Drayton's Polyolbion, published 1612-22. 

ALEXINATZ, a town in Servia. Severe fight- 
ing took place here between the Turks and Servians, 



ALFORD. 



38 



ALGIERS. 



Aug.-Sept. 1876. The town, head-quarters of the 
Servians, was captured 31 Oct. This led to an 
armistice and peace. See Turkey. 

ALFORD (N. Scotland), BATTLE OF. General 
Baillie, with a large body of covenanters, was 
defeated by the marquis of Montrose, 2 July, 1645. 

ALGEBRA : Diophantus, of Alexandria, wrote 
a work upon Algebra consisting of 13 books, 6 of 
which are extant, 4th century. It was cultivated 
in the 9th century by the Arabs, who derived their 
knowledge from the Hindus and brought it into 
Spain ; and in Italy by Leonardo Bonaccio of Pisa, 
in 1220. In 1494 Luca Paciolo published the first 
printed book on Algebra in Europe. Some of the 
algebraic signs were introduced either by Chris- 
tophe Rudolph (1522-26) or Michael Stifelius of 
Nuremberg, 1544, and others by Francis Vieta, in 
1590, when algebra came into general use. Jerome 
Cardan published his " Ars Magna," containing his 
rule, 1545. Thos. Harriot's important discoveries 
appeared in his "Artis Analytics Praxis," 1631. 
Descartes applied algebra to geometry about 1637. 
The binomial theorem of Newton, the basis of the 
doctrine of fluxions, and the new analysis, 1668. 
Subsequently Euler, Lagrange, Fourier, Peacock, 
De Morgan, Sylvester, and Cayley. 

ALGERIA, see Algiers. 

ALGESIR AS, or Old Gibraltar (S . Spain) . 

Here the Moors entered Spain in 711, and held it 
ill taken by Alfonso XI. March, 1344. — Two en- 
gagements took place here between the English fleet 
under sir James Saumarez and the United French 
and Spanish fleets, 6 and 12 July, 1801. In the first 
the enemy was victorious ; but the British honour 
was redeemed in the latter conflict, the San Antonio, 
74 guns, being captured. Two Spanish ships fired 
on each other by mistake, and took fire ; of 2000 
men on board, 250 were saved by the English. 
Alison. 

ALGIERS, now ALGERIA, N.W. Africa; part 
of the ancient Mauritania, which was conquered by 
the Romans, 46 B.C.; by the Vandals, a.d 439; 
recovered for the empire by Belisarius, ^34; and 
subdued by the Arabs about 690. Population of 
Algeria in' 1866, 2,921,146; 1872,2,146,221;; 1875, 
2,448,691; 1886,3,910,399; 1891,4,124,732; 1896, 
4,429,421; 1901,4,790,000. 
Tlii' town Algiers founded by the Arabs near the 

site of Icosiuin about 

Becoming the seal of the Barbary pirates, captured 

by Ferdinand of Spain, 1509; retaken byHonic 

Barbarossa, and made the capital of a stale; 

governed bv a dey, nominally subject to Turkey, 

1516. Barbarossa was defeated and slain bj the 

Spaniards 

The emperor Charles V. loses a fine Meet and army 

in an expedition against Algiers . . . 
Algiers terrified into pacific measures by Blake, 

" ;; bj I'ii Quesne 1683-4 

For continued piracy, the city successfully bom 

barded by the British fieel under lord Exmouth, 

- Aug. 1816 
A new treaty followed, and Christian slavery was 

abolished * 

Algiers surrendered to a French armament under 

Bo lonl and Duperre, after se\ ere conflicts ; 

Che dey deposed, and the barbarian government 

whollj overthrown 5 July, ,s 30 

The Aral, eiuet \bii el Kader preaches a holy war. 

becomes powerful, and attacks the French, at first 

successfully 

He is recognised as emir of Mascara, by treaty with 

the French 

Ihe French ministry announce then intention to 

retain Algiers permanently . . . 10 Hay, 
War renewed 1835-6 



935 



1518 



1541 



The French take Mascara ... 5 Dec. 1835 

Marshal Clausel defeats the Arabs in two battles, 
and enters Mascara 8 Dec. 1836' 

Gen. Damremont killed in taking Constantina, 

13 Oct. 1837- 

Ahd-el-Kader, thoroughly defeated, recognises the 
French supremacy 30 May, ,, 

War renewed ; French defeated . . . Dec. 1839. 

Algeria annexed to France, and the emir declared a 
rebel Feb. 1842. 

He is defeated by Bugeand at Isly . . 14 Aug. 1844 

500 Arabs in a cave at Khartani refuse to surren- 
der ; suffocated by smoke, said to have been 
ordered by general Pelissier . . . 18 June, 1845, 

After a long struggle Abd-el-Kader surrenders to 
Lamorieiere 23 Dec. 1847* 

Fresh revolts, 1849 I subdued .... 1850. 

An insurrection of the Kabyles subdued by the 
French, after several sharp engagements . . 1851 

Another insurrection suppressed .... 1857 

The government entrusted (for a short time) to 
prince Napoleon 185& 

The Arab tribes attack the French ; defeated, 

31 Oct. and 6 Nov. 1859, 

Algiers visited by Napoleon III. . . . Sept. 1863. 

Marshal Pelissier, duke of Malaklioff, appointed 
governor-general of Algeria . . . Nov. ,, 

The emperor promises a constitution securing the 
rights of the Arabs, saying: "I am as much 
emperor of the Arabs as of the French." . Feb. 1863) 

Insurrection of the Arabs, May ; submission, June, 18641 

Death of marshal Pelissier, 22 May ; MacMahon, dnke 
of Magenta, succeeds him . . .8 Sept. „ 

Fresh revolts ; insurgents defeated by Jolivet 2 Oct. „. 

The emperor well received during his visit, 

3 May — June, 1863 

More rights and privileges promised to the natives, 

July, „ 

The emperor publishes his letter on the policy of 
France in Algeria (20 July) . . . Nov. 1865, 

4000 Arabs defeated by col. Sounis . 2 Feb. 1869 

Resignation of marshal MacMahon . . July, 1870 

Algeria proclaimed in a state of siege . 15 Aug. ,, 

State of siege raised .... 24 June, 187s 

Gen. Chanzy accused of governing despotically ; his 
resignation not accepted by Marshal MacMahon, 
July ; replaced by Albert Grevy . . . 1878s 

An insurrection soon quelled . . June, 1875. 

Dispute with Tunis ; outrages of the savage tribes, 
Kroumirs, &c. (see Tunis) . . . April, 1883 

Arab insurrection, headed by Bou Ameema, June ; 
he is said to be defeated, and a fugitive, 13 July, ,, 

Insurrection dreaded ; troops sent from France 

about 26 Aug. ,„ 

Bou Ameema defeated by the French, 13th July ; 
said to be preparing for a fresh revolt ; three 
French columns advancing against him, Aug. ; 
indecisive skirmishes . . Aug. ,.. 

Resignation of the governor, A. Grevy(died n July, 
1899) Nov. ,, 

M. Til-man appointed Dec. ,,. 

Topographical expedition attacked, 40 said to be 
killed April, 1SS0 

The province Mzab annexed to Algeria, announced 

Dec. „ 

Submission of insurgents announced . 13 June, 1883 

Plague of locusts ... . July, i38S-93 

The ehamber of deputies, Paris, direct the appoint- 
ment to inquire respecting Algerian political 
affairs 5 March, 1890 



1833 
1834 



* lie. with his suite, embarked at Oran, and landed at» 
Toulon on 28 Dec. following, lie was removed to tha- 
castle of Amboise, near Tours, .• Nov. 1S4S, and released 
from his confinement by Louis Napoleon, 16 Oct. 1852.. 
after swearing on the Koran never to disturb Africa 
again ; he was to reside henceforward at Broussa, in Asia, 
Minor; but in consequence of the earthquake at that 
place, 28 Feb. iSs<;. he removed to Constantinople. In, 
July, t86o, Abd el Kader held the citadel of Damascus, 
and there protected many of the Christians whom he- 
had rescued from the massacres then in perpetration byr 
the Turks. He received honours from the English, 
French, and Sardinian sovereigns. He visited Paris and 
London in Aug. 1865. He offered to serve in the Frencb 
army in July, 1S70. He died May, 1S83, agwl 76. 



ALHAMA. 



39 



ALIZARINE. 



Resignation of St. Louis Tirman (dies July, 1899), 
ten years governor, March ; succeeded by 
M. Jules Cambon, arrived . . 11 May, 1891 

Remains of a church of the 5th or 6th century 
discovered during excavations at Tigziat, with 
Pagan relics, reported .... June, 1894 

Forest fires round Bona, with loss of life, 

12 — 19 Sept. „ 

Irruption of locusts in Oran energetically sup- 
pressed in 1896 

Collision between a military and passenger train 
near Adelia station, 7 officers killed . 10 May, ,, 

M. Lepine appointed governor-gen., arrives 31 Oct. 1897 

Severe famine, M. Lepine appeals for help, 120,000 
francs granted 28 Dec. ,, 

Serious riots in connection with the Dreyfus case 
(see France, 1894 and 1898), against the Jews, 2 
deaths, and shops, etc., pillaged, 23-24 Jan. 1898 ; 
over 78 persons sentenced to various terms of 
imprisonment, 26 Jan. ; order restored, 28 Jan. ; 
58 "Anti-Semites pardoned . . 13 June, 1898 

M. Leferriere appointed governor-gen. reported, 

27 July, ,, 

Anti-Jewish rioting in Tunis, 12 Nov. 1898 ; M. Max 
Regis, anti-Semite mayor, suspended, 12 Dec. ; 
M. Pujade (mayor) and municipality suspended 
for anti-Semitic agitation, he dies, 5 Feb. ; 
fatal rioting 9 Feb. 1890 

Anti-Semitic demonstrations by M. Max Regis, 
some fighting .... 20 — 22 Sept. ,, 

Military operations in S. Algeria, Insalah occupied 
by the French, 28 Dec. ; natives routed at 
Iurhar, 19 March, 1900 ; the oases of Twab, 
Tidikelt, and Gurara and the district of Igli occu- 
pied 5 April-May, 190c 

Further fighting with Berbers near Timmimum, 
French loss, 17 killed . . 28 Aug., 7 Sept. „ 

Berbers routed at Timmimum, capt. Guisard and 
9 others killed 18 Feb. 1901 

Marguerite, a village, sacked by Arabs, reported, 

23 April, „ 

M. Jounart appointed gov.-gen., 5 Oct. 1900; 
resigns . May, ,, 

Convention with Morocco, settled in Paris . July, ,, 

M. Paul Revoil, new governor, arrives . 6 Oct. ,, 

M. Max Regis imprisoned for 3 years . 14 Jan. 1902 

Expedition against the Tuaregs . . 31 May, ,, 

Morocco frontier question settled . . 13 Oct. ,, 

Earthquake shocks at Oran and Oned Marsa, 

17 Nov. ,, 

M. Revoil, gov.-gen., resigns. . . 11 April, 1903 

Pres. Loubet well received . . . i, April, ,, 

Organized system of female medical doctors for 
the Zenanas ; dispensary opened at Algiers, 
other establishments in progress, reported, 

July, ,, 

ALHAMA, a town of Granada, S. Spain, de- 
stroyed by an earthquake, 25 Dec. 1884 ; 5 churches, 
5 convents, and other buildings thrown down ; 
reported deaths above 300. 

ALHAMBRA, a Moorish palace and fortress 
near Granada, S. Spain, founded by Mohammed I. 
of Granada about 1253. It was surrendered to the 
Christians about Nov. 1491. The remains have been | 
described in a magnificent work by Owen Jones and : 
Jules Goury, published 1842-5. A fac-simile of a 
part of this palace in the Crystal Palace at Syden- 
ham, was destroyed by the fire, 30 Dec. 1866. By 
a fire at the Alhambra, near Granada, the roof of l 
the Sala de la Barca was destroyed ; except the court 
of the Alberca, other courts w r ere uninjured, 
15, 16 Sept. 1890. — The Panopticon {which see) was ' 
opened as a circus, &c, under the name of Alhambra, , 
in March, 1858. The Alhambra Palace Company, ' 
incorporated in July 1863, applied for dissolution | 
in Jan. 1865. The Royal Alhambra Theatre was 
destroyed by fire, 7 Dec. 1882 : 2 firemen lost their 
lives; reopened, 3 Dec. 1883. Not_ j d for the 
magnificence of its ballets and spectacular per- 
formances. 

ALI, SECT OF (Shiites, orFatimites). Ali, born 
about 598,married Mahomet's daughter Fatima,about 



619; became vizier, 614; and caliph, 656. Ali was 
called by the prophet, *' the lion of God, always 
victorious ; " and the Persians follow the interpre- 
tation of the Koran according to Ali, while other 
Mahometans adhere to that of Abubeker and Omar. 
Ali was assassinated 23 Jan. 661.* 

ALIENS or FOREIGNERS were banished in 

1 155, being thought too numerous. In 1343 they 

were excluded from enjoying ecclesiastical benefices. 

By 2 Rich. II. st. 1, 1378, they were much relieved. 

When they were to be tried criminally, the juries 

were to be half foreigners, if they so desired, 1430. 

They were restrained from exercising any trade of 

handicraft by retail, 1483, a prohibition which was 

relaxed in 1663. 

Alien priories (cells and estates belonging to foreign per- 
sons) suppressed in England, 1414. 

The Alien Act passed, Jan. 1793. 

Act to register aliens, 1795. 

Baron Geramb, a fashionable foreigner, known at court, 
ordered out of England, 6 April, 1812. 

Bill to abolish naturalisation by the holding of stock in 
the banks of Scotland, June, 1820. 

New registration act, 7 George IV. 1826. This last act 
was repealed and another statute passed, 6 Will. IV. 
1836. 

The rigour of the alien laws was mitigated by acts passed 
in 1844 and 1847. 

"Foreigners have reclaimed our marshes, drained our 
fens, fished our seas, and built our bridges and har- 
bours." Smiles, 1861. 

Their status defined by the Naturalisation Act, passed 
12 May, 1870. See under Law. 

The votes of some Hanoverians at the Stepney Parlia- 
mentary Election disallowed by the judges, 5 April, 
1886. 

The prohibition of aliens holding land in the United 
States of North America adopted by several western 
states ; and also stringent restrictions on the employ- 
ment of aliens in manufactures, 1885 el seq. 

A decree respecting aliens and immigrants with restric- 
tions was issued in France, 2 Oct. 1888. 

New alien immigration bill, specially against anarchists 
and incurables, read 2nd time 17 July, 1894 ; dropped. 

Naturalization act amended, naturalizing children of 
British subjects in the service of the crown abroad, 
July 6, 1895. 

Alien immigration committee met June, 1902 ; reported 
29,793 Russian, Polish, and Roumanian immigrants in 
1902 ; excess of 7,717 over 1901, May, 1903. 

Report of royal commission on alien immigi'ation, 
issued Aug. n, 1903. 

Increase of foreign population of United Kingdom, 
135,000 in 1881 to 286,000 in 1901. 

ALIWAL, a village N. "W. India, the site of a 
battle, 28 Jan. 1846, between the Sikh army under 
sirdar Runjoor Singh Majeethea, 19,000 strong, 
supported by 68 pieces of cannon, and the British 
under sir Harry Smith, 12,000 men with 32 guns. 
The contest was obstinate, but ended in the defeat 
of the Sikhs, who lost nearly 6000 killed or 
drowned. 

ALIZARINE, a crystalline body, the colour- 
ing principle of madder discovered in it by Robi- 
quet and Colin in 183 1. Schunck showed that all 
the finest madder colours contained only alizarine 
combined with alkalies and fatty acids. Graebe 
and Liebermann obtained anthracene from alizarine 
in 1868, and alizarine from anthracene in 1869. 
The crystalline body anthracene was discovered in 
coal oils by Dumas and Laurent in 1832. See 
Madder. 

* The first four successors of Mahomet — Abubeker, 
Omar, Othman, and Ali, his chief agents in establishing 
his religion and extirpating unbelievers, and whom on 
that account he styled the " cutting swords of God " — all 
died violent deaths ; and his family was wholly extir- 
pated within thirty years after his own decease. 



ALJUBARROTA. 



40 



ALMA. 



ALJUBAREOTA, Portugal. Here John I. of 
Portugal defeated John I. of Castile, and secured 
bis country's independence, 14 Aug. 1385 ; see 
Batalha. 

ALKALIES (from kali, the Arabic name for 
the plant from which an alkaline substance was 
first procured) are ammonia, potash, soda, and 
lithia. Black discovered the nature of the differ- 
ence between caustic and mild alkalies in 1 736. 
The fixed alkalies, potash and soda, decomposed, and the 
metals potassium and sodium formed, by Humphry 
Davy at the Royal Institution, London, 1807. 
Dr. Ure invented an alkaliineter, 1816. 
The manufacture of alkalies, very extensive in Lanca- 
shire ami Cheshire, is baseil on the decomposition of 
common salt (chloride of sodium), by a process in- 
vented by a Frenchman named Nicolas Le Blanc, 
about 1792 ; his statue set up in Paris, summer, 1885. 
Mr. Losh obtained crystals of soda from brine about 1814. 
Various modifications of these processes are now iD 
use. 
"Alkali works " are denned as works for the manufacture 
of alkali, sulphates of soda, sulphate of potash, and in 
which muriatic gas is evolved. 
Mr. Wm. Gossage's process for condensing muriatic acid 

gas patented in 1836. 
The "ammonia process" of making soda, invented by 
Dyer and Hemming, in 1838 ; patents respecting it 
taken out by Solvay, 1863, 1867, 1872 ; Gossage, 1854 ; 
Schlcesing, 1854, 1858 ; Young, 1871, 1872 ; Weldon, 
1872, 1873 ; and by others. 
Mr. Walter Weldon received the French Lavoisier medal 
for his most important improvements in the alkali 
manufacture, July, 1877. He died of overwork, 2c 
Sept. 1885, aged 53. 
In consequence of the injury to vegetation produced by 
the alkali works in Lancashire and Cheshire, the 
Alkali Works art " for the more etl'ectual condensation 
[of 95 per cent] of muriatic acid gas " (or hydrochloric 
arid) was passed, 28 .July, 1863. It came into opera- 
tion 1 Jan. 1864, proved successful ; was re-enacted, 
1868; and amended, 1874, 1881, and 1892. Mr. James 
Greenwood's electrolytic process for the direct produc- 
tion of caustic soda and chlorine from common salt 

reported successful, Jan. 1892. See Bleaching Cliemicai 
Works and Union. 
Manufacture of ammonia-soda by the Solvay process by 
sir. J. llrunner and Dr. L. Mond at Northwich, 1873. 
Patents taken out tor making chlorine in conjunction 
with soda. These alkali works now the largest in the 
world, 1903. 

ALKMAEE, see Berffen. 

ALLAHABAD (N.YV. Hindostan), the "holy 
city" of the Indian Mahometans, situated at the 
junction of the rivers Jumna and Ganges. The main 
station of the Grand Trunk road and Bast Indian 

railway. line is the pillar of Isoka, 24O B.C. 

The province of Allahabad was successively subject 
to t he sovereigns of Delhi and Oude, bu1 in 1801 was 
partially and in [803 wholly incorporated with the 
British possessions. Bj treaty here, Bengal, &c, 
was ceded to the English in 1765. — During the 
Indian mutiny several Bepoy regiments rose and 
massacred their officers, 1 June, [857; colonel Neil 
marched promptly from Benares and suppressed the 
insurrection. In Nov. l86l, lord Canning made 

tliis city the capital ol the N. W, provinces. Visit 
of the Prince or Wales, 7 March, [874. University 
instituted, [887. \ fair ia held Deo.-Jan., visited 

by about 300,000 persons. Population, 189I, 

[75,246; I'l'l. 17 [,032. 

ALLEGORY abounds in the Bible and i„ 
Homer; iei Jacob's blessing upon his sons, Genesis 

xlix. (K).Si) B.O.), Psalm IXXX., and all the prophets. 

Spenser's Faeru <>'"< > " iv"" and Bunyan's /'//- 
qrim 's Progress (1678) are allegories throughout. 
The Spectator 1711), bj Iddison, Steele, and others, 
abounds in allegories. The allegorical interpretation 



of the scriptures is said to have begun with Origen 
in the 3rd century ; but see Gal. iv. 24. 

ALLIA (more correctly Alia), Italy, a small 
river flowing into the Tiber, where Brennus and 
the Gauls defeated the Romans, 16 July, 390 B.C. 
The Gauls sacked Rome and committed so much 
injury that the day was thereafter held to be un- 
lucky {nefastus), and no public business was per- 
mitted to be done thereon. 

ALLIANCE, Treaties of, between the high 

European powers. The following are the principal : 
see Coalitions, Conventions, Treaties. 
allianci:. 

Of Leipsic 9 April, 1631 

Of Vienna 27 May, 1657 

The Triple 28 Jan. 1668 

Of Warsaw 31 March, 1683 

The Grand . . ... 12 May, 1689 

The Hague 4 Jan. 1717 

The Quadruple 2 Aug. 1718 

Of Vienna 16 March, 1731 

Of Versailles . .... 1 May, 1756 

Germanic 23 July, 1783 

Of Paris . 16 May, 1795 

Of St. Petersburg 8 April, 1805 

Austrian 14 March, 1812 

Of Sweden 24 March, ,, 

OfToplitz 9 Sept. 1813 

Holy Alliance 26 Sept. 1815 

Of England, France, and Turkey . . 12 Mar. 1854 
Of England and France ratified . 3 April, „ 

Of Sardinia with the Western Powers (at Turin) 

26 Jan. 1855 
Of Sweden with the Western Powers . 19 Dec. „ 
Of Prussia and Italy . . . . June, 1S66 

Of France and Russia, confirmed . . Aug. 1897 

Triple (of Germany, Austria and Italy, which see) 

13 March, 1887 
England and Japan .... 30 Jan. 1902 

ALLISON ISLAND, in the Pacific, n. of 
German New Guinea, discovered early in 1887- 

ALL NIGHT SITTINGS, see Parliament, 
1877 and 1881. Have since become of frequent 
occurrence. 

ALL SAINTS' DAY (Nov. 1), or All-Hal- 
lows, a festival said to have been begun by pope 
Boniface IV. about 607, celebrated in the Pan- 
theon at Rome, and established by pope Gregory IV. 
(about 830) for the commemoration of all those 
saints and martyrs in whose honour no particular 
day is assigned. The reformers of the English 
church, 1549, struck out of their calendar a great 
number oi anniversaries, leaving only those which 
were connected with popular tradition. 

ALL SOULS' COLLEGE, Oxford; see 
Oxford. 

ALL SOULS' DAY (2 Nov.), a festival of 
the Roman Catholic church to commemorate the 
souls of the faithful, instituted, it is said, at Cluny 
about 993 or IOOO. 

"ALL THE TALENTS" ADMINIS- 
TRATION, see Gremillc Administrations. 

ALLOBROGES, Gauls, defeated by Q. Fabius 
Muximun, mar the confluence of the Rhone and 
Saone, 121 n.c. 

ALLOTMENTS, see Land. 

ALMA, a river in the Crimea, near which was 
fought a great battle on 20 Sept. 1854. (See 
Rtlsso- Turkish War and Crimea.) The English, 
French, and Turkish army (about 57,000 men) 
moved oul of their lirst encampment in the Crimea 
on 19 Sept., and bivouacked for the night on the 



ALMACK'S. 



41 



ALMSHOUSES. 



left bank of the Bulganac. The Russians (com- 
manded by prince Menschikoff), mustering 40,000 
infantry, had 180 field-pieces on the heights, and on 
the morning of 20 Sept. were joined by 6000 cavalry 
from Theodosia (or Kaffa). The English forces, 
under lord Raglan, consisted of 26,000 men; the 
Freuch of 24,000, under marshal St. Arnaud. At 
12 o'clock the signal to advance was made ; the 
river Alma was crossed, while prince Napoleon took 
possession of the village under the fire of the 
Russian batteries, and at 4, after a sanguinary fight, 
the allies were completely victorious. The enemy, 
utterly routed, threw away their arms and knap- 
sacks in their flight, having lost about WOO men, of 
whom 900 were made prisoners, mostly wouri'led. 
The loss of the British was 26 officers and 327 men 
(chiefly from the 23rd, 7th, and 33rd regiments) ; 
that of the French, 3 officers aud 233 men killed. 
Total loss of the allies about 3400. 

ALMACK'S ASSEMBLY-ROOMS, King- 
street, St. James's, London, at first very exclusive, 
were erected by a Scotchman named Almack or 
M'Call, and opened 12 Feb. 1765. They have 
long been termed Willis's rooms from the name 
of later proprietors; they were offered for sale in 
April and July, 1890. 

ALMANACS (from the Arabic al manah, to 
count ; or better, the Coptic al, computation, and 
men, memory). The Egyptians computed time by in- 
struments; the Alexandrians had almanacs, and log 
calendars are ancient. In the British Museum and 
universities are specimens of early almanacs. Mi- 
chael Nostradamus, the astrologer, wrote an almanac 
in the style of Merlin, 1556. Dufresnoy. Profes- 
sor Augustus De Morgan's valuable " Book oj 
Almanacs, with an index of reference, by which the 
almanac may be found for every year," was pub 
lished in March, 185 1.* Among the earlier and 
more remarkable almauacs were — 
John Somer's Calendar, written in Oxford. . . 1380 
One in Lambeth Palace, written in . . . 1460 

First printed one, published at Buda . . . 1472 
" Shepheard's Kalendar " (first printed in England), 

by Richard Pynson 1497 

Tybalt's Prognostications 1533 

Almanac Liegeois 1636 

Lilly's Ephemeris 1644 

Poor Robin's Almanac 1652 

British Merlin 1658 

Connaissance des Temps (by Picard) . . . . 1679 

Edinburgh Almanac 1683 

Moore's Almanac 1698 or 1713 

Lady's Diary 1705 

Season on the Seasons 1735 

Gentleman's Diary . 1741 

Nautical Almanac, begun by Dr. Neville Maskelyne 

(materially improved, 1834) . .... 1767 

Annual Register 1758 

British Imperial Kalendar 1809 

Hone's Every Day Book 1826 

British Almanac and Companion .... 1828 
Anniversary Calendar, published by W. Kidd . . 1832 

Chambers' Book of Days 1862-63 

The Statesman's Year-book 1864 

Whitaker's Almanack 1869 

Hazell's Annual 1886 

Mr. P. Mayer's International Almanac for 1890, in 

five languages, published . . . Dec. 1889 

Mr. A. Hall's Almanac, designed April, 1899, calls 
New Year's Day Jan. o, the remaining 364 days being 
divided into 13 months of 28 days each, thus causing 
any day of any month to fall on the same day of the 
week. The extra month he proposes to call "Chris- 
tember." 



* Murphy's Almanack for 1838 predicted correctly a 
frost on 7 Jan. ; thaw and frost 14th ; severe frost 21st, 
and then thaw. A great sale of the almanac ensued. 
Afterwards the predictions failed. 



The Stationers' company claimed the excmsive right 
of publishing almanacs in virtue of letters patent from 
James I., granting the privilege to them and the two 
Universities ; but the monopoly was broken up by a 
decision of the Court of Common Pleas in 1775. A bill 
to renew the privilege was lost in 1779. 

The Stamp Duty on English almanacs first imposed in 
1710, was abolished in August, 1834; since when alma- 
nacs have become innumerable, being issued by trades- 
men with their goods. 

Of Moore's (under the management of Henry Andrews, 
the able computer of the Nautical Ephemeris) at one 
time upwards of 430,000 copies were annually sold. . He 
died in 1820. 

Of Foreign Almanacs, the principal are the " Almanach 
de Prance," first published in 1699, the " Almanach de 
Gotha," 1764, in 150 pages ; in 1895, 1,367, and the 
" Livre d'Or des Souverains," by H. R. Hiort-Lorenzen, 
published in Paris, July, 1895. 

ALMANZA (S. E. Spain). Eere on 25 April 

(o. s. 14), 1707, the English, Dutch, and Portuguese 
forces under the earl of Gal way, were totally de- 
feated by the French and Spanish commanded by 
James Fitzjames, duke of Berwick (illegitimate son 
of James II.). Most of the English were killed 
or made prisoners, having beeu abandoned by the 
Portuguese at the first charge. 

ALMEIDA (Portugal), a frontier town, cap- 
tured by Massena, 27 Aug. 1810. The French 
entered Spain, leaving a garrison at Almeida, 
blockaded by the English, 6 April, 1811. Almeida 
was retaken by Wellington (11 May), and Massena 
retired from Portugal. 

ALMENABA, a village N. E. Spain, where on 
28 July, 1 7 10, an English and German army de- 
feated the Spanish army supporting Philip V., the 
grandson of Louis XIV. of France. Stanhope, the 
English general, killed the Spanish general, Ame- 
zaga, in single conflict; an act almost unexampled 
in modern warfare. 

ALMOHADES, Mahometan partisans, fol- 
lowers of Mohammed ben Abdalla, surnamed El- 
Mehedi, in Africa, about 1120. They subdued 
Morocco, 1 145; entered Spain and took Seville, 
Cordova, and Granada, 1146-56; and founded a 
dynasty and ruled Spain till 1232, and Africa till 
1278. 

ALMONER, an office anciently allotted to a 
dignified clergyman who gave the first dish from the 
royal table to the poor, or an alms in money. By an 
ancient canon all bishops were required to keep 
almoners. The grand almoner of France was the 
highest ecclesiastical dignity in that kingdom before 
the revolution, 1789. Hereditary grand almoner 
of England, the marquis of Exeter, 1895. The 
king's almoner (Right Rev. lord Alwyne Compton, 
dean of Worcester, 1882, consecrated bishop of Ely, 
1886) or the sub-almoner distributes the king's 
gifts on Maundy Thursday [which see). 

ALMORAVIDES, Mahometan partisans in 
Africa, rose about 1050 ; entered Spain by invita- 
tion, 1086; were overcome by the Almohades in 
1147. 

ALMSHOUSES for aged and infirm persons 
have been erected by many public companies and 
benevolent individuals, particularly since the 
abolition of religious houses at the Reformation in 
the 16th century. A list of them, with useful infor- 
mation, will be found in " Low's Charities of Lon- 
don," 1862 ; frequently republished. 

Armourers' almshouses, Bishopsgate . . . 1551 
Cornelius Van Dun founded the Red Lion alms- 
houses, Westminster 1577 

Emmanuel College, Westminster, founded by Lady 
Dacre 1594 



ALNEY. 

Alleyn's almshouses, near City road, founded by 
E. Alleyn 1620 

Whittington's almshouses, founded in 1621, were 
rebuilt near Highgate-hill by the Mercers' com- 
pany 1826 

The Fishmongers' company founded almshouses 
in 1618, and rebuilt them on Wandsworth com- 
mon 1850 

Haberdashers' almshouses, Hoxton, founded by 
Robert Aske 1692 

Dame Owen's almshouses, Islington, built in 1613 
(in gratitude for her escape from an arrow-shot), 
were rebuilt by the Brewers' company. See 
Oioen's college 1839 

Bancroft's almshouses, Mile End, were erected . . 1735 

The London almshouses, ui commemoration of the 
passing of the Reform Bill, built at Brixton . 1833 

Numerous almshouses since erected for printers, 
bookbinders, <fec. 

ALNEY, an island in the Severn, near Glouces- 
ter. Here a combat is asserted to have taken place 
between Edmund Ironside and Canute the Great, 
in sight of their armies, 1016. The latter was 
wounded, and proposed a division of the kingdom, 
the south part falling to Edmund. Edmund was 
murdered at Oxford shortly after, it is said by 
./Edric Streon ; and Canute obtained possession of 
the whole kingdom. 

ALNWICK (Saxon Ealnwic), on the river 
Alne in Northumberland, was given at the conquest 
to Ivo de Vesci. It has long belonged to the Perries. 
Malcolm, king of Scotland, besieged Alnwick, and 
he and his sons were killed 13 Nov. 1093. It was 
taken by David I. in 1136, and attempted in July, 
1 1 74, by William the Lion, who was defeated and 
taken prisoner. It was burnt by king John in 1215, 
and by the Scots in 1448. Since 1854 tne castle has 
been repaired and enlarged with great taste and at 
unsparing expense. 

ALPACA (or Paco), a species of the S.Ameri- 
can quadruped, the Llama, the soft hairy wool of 
which is now largely employed in the fabrication of 
cloths. It was introduced into this country about 
1836, by the earl of Derby, An alpaca factory 
(covering II acres), with a town, park, almshouses, 
&c, for the workpeople, was erected at Saltaire, 
near Shipley, Yorkshire, by Mr. (afterwards sir) 
Titus Salt in 1852. A statue of him at Bradford 
was unveiled 1 Aug. 1874. He died 29 Dec. 1876. 
Saltaire visited by the prince and princess of Wales 
22 June, 1882. 
'111.' Royal Yorkshire Jubilee Exhibition at Saltaire 

opened by the Princess Beatrice . . 6 .May, 1837 

ALPHABET, so called from the first two 
Greek letters alpha, beta (Hebrew aleph beth). 
The statements that Cadmus brought the I'lnenician 
letters from Egypt into Greece are legendary. M. 
de Rouge about [859 demonstrated the true origin 
of the alphabet. f)r. Isaac Taylor's learned work, 
"The Alphabet," was published May, 1883; he 
died, aged 72, 18 Oct. 1901. 
N'.uh 200 alphabets are known, of which aboul o are 

mostly developed from the Phoenician alphabet 

Itself, Bald i" have been derived from the Egyptian 
hieroglyphic picture writing; the lb. man alphabet 

was based 111 the Greek. The alphabets of the 

different nations contain the following number of 

let tcrs : 

• Arabic . . . . 2 8 

French . . . . , Persian ... j a 

Italian . . . .22 Turkish ... 28 

Spanish - Sanscrit . . . 44 

German . . . .-<> Chinese radical charac- 

Slavonic . . . . t .. ters . . .114 

Russian ■ • . 35 Chinese alphabet said 

i- at in . . . . 22 to be invented l>j 

Grei 1 -M bishop Eligius Cosi 

Hebrew . . . . 22 of Canton (1880) . -,; 



42 ALSACE. 

ALPHONSINE TABLES, astronomical 
tables, composed by Spanish and Arab astrono- 
mers, and collected in 1253 under the direction of Al- 
phonso X. of Castile, surnamed the AVise, who is 
said to have expended upwards of 400,000 crowns in 
completing the work; he himself wrote the preface. 
The Spanish government ordered the work of Al- 
phonso to be reprinted from the best MSS. ; the 
publication began in 1863. 

ALPS, European mountains. Those between 
France and Italy were passed by Hannibal, 218 
B.C. ; by the Romans, 154 B.C. ; and by Napoleon I. 
May, 1800. Roads over Mont Cenis aDd the 
Simplon, connecting France and Italy, were con- 
structed, by order of Napoleon, between 1801-6; see 
Simplon. The " Alpine Club," which consists 
of British travellers in the Alps, was founded 
in 1858, and published its first work, "Peaks, 
Passes, and Glaciers," 1859; and a journal since. 
Mr. John Ball, F.R.S.,long the able first president, 
and author of excellent "Guides," died 21 Oct. 1889. 
See Jungfrau, Matterhorn. An International Alpine 
Congress opened at Salzburg 14 Aug. 1882. 

Alpine Clubs. — Austrian founded, 1862 ; Swiss, 1863 ; 

Italian, 1863 ; German, 1869, united with the Austrian 

1874, and numbers some 40,000 members. The 

Appalachian Mountain Club of Boston is the principal 

mountaineering Club in the United States. 
Mont Cenis or Col de Frejus Tunnel. — A tunnel, 7J miles 

long through Mont Cenis, connecting Savoy and 

Piedmont, was proposed by M. Medail, and, after long 

lying dormant, was discussed and plans drawn up in 

1848. The execution was prevented by the war of 

1849. 
The work of excavation was begun by king Vietor 

Emmanuel, 31 Aug. 1857. 
The boring was at lirst effected by ordinary piercing 

machinery ; steam power was employed in i860 ; and 

latterly compressed air. 
Engineers — Grattoni, Grandis, and SommeiUer ; the 

boring was completed, 25 Dec. 1870. 
The total cost was about 2,600,000?. As the Italians had 

executed the work within the given time, the French 

government bore the chief expense. 
The first experimental trip was made in 40 minutes, 13 

Sept. , and the tunnel was solemnly inaugurated by the 

passage of 22 carriages in 20 minutes, 17 Sept. 1871 ; 

regular trains pass through, 16 Oct. 1871. 
A railway bn- locomotives over Mont Cenis was con- 

structed upon Mr. Fell's plan in 1867 (see Railways), 

and opened On- traffic, 15 June, 1868. 
The overland mail first travels through the tunnel to 

Brindisi, saving 24 hours, 5 Jan. 1872. 
si. Gothard Tunnel (part of a railway system to connect 

the North Sea and the Mediterranean), about g\ miles -. 

compressed air employed in boring ; begun June, 
1872; completed 29 Feb. 1SS0 : through failure in 

vaulting, May, 18S0. opening deferred. 
The first complete train, carrying one hundred passengers, 

passed through the St. Gothard Tunnel in 50 minutes, 

1 Nov. 1881 ; partially opened 1 Jan. 1S82 ; completely 

opened June, 1882. 
Simplon tunnel, convention for its construction by the 

Italian and Swiss governments, signed .'^ Nov. 1895. 

275 fatal Minn.' accidents. i8qi— 1900 ; 1 ;o in 1903. 

New Rheetian Railway, begun 1898, opened 27 June, 

1903. Scheme Of railway to top Of Ml. Blanc 

proposed bj M. Vallot, Sept. 1903. 
ALRESFORD, battle of, or Cheriton, which 

ALSACE, BLS \ss. formerly part of the king- 
dom of Australia, afterwards tne French depart- 
ments of the Upper and Lower Rhine. It was 
incorporated with the German empire in the 10th 
century. A portion was restored to France, .1648, 
and the whole, including Strasburg, in n><)7. Alsace 
was re-conquered by the Germans, Aug. -Sept. 1870; 
and annexed to their empire, May, 1871; by law, 
June, 1871. The Alsatians were permitted to 



ALSATIA. 



43 



AMALEKITES. 



choose their nationality, before 30 Sept. 1872. Many 
emigrated into France, with much regret. — Alsace- 
Lorraine was constituted a province of the Ger- 
man empire, having been ceded by France by the 
treaty of peace concluded 10 May, 1871, see Belfort. 
The province sends 15 members to the German 
parliament. Administrators, prince Bismarck, 1871 ; 
field-marshal Manteuftel, I Oct. 1879; prince 
Hohenlohe, July, 1885 ; prince Hohenlohe-Langen- 
burg, Oct. 1894. Population of Alsace-Lorraine, 
T885, 1,564,355; 1890, 1,603,107; 1900,1,717,451. 
See Germany, 1887, and Strasburg. The emperor 
William II. visited the province 20 Aug. et seq. 
1889, and 19 Oct. 1895. The stringent passport 
regulations greatly relaxed 1 Oct. 1891 ; the " dic- 
tatorship paragraph" repealed 1 1 May, 1902. 

ALSATIA, a name given to the precinct of 
Whitefriars, London, is described in Scott's " For- 
tunes of Nigel." Its privilege of sanctuary was 
abolished in 1697. 

ALSEN (Denmark), besieged by the Prussians, 
and heroically defended, 26 June; taken, 29 June, 
1864. 

ALTAR. One was built by Noah, 2348 B.C. ; 
3154 Hales; 2481 Clinton (Gen. viii. 20) ; others 
by Abraham, 1921 (Gen. xii. 8). Directions for 
making an altar are given, Exod. xx. 24, 1491 B.C. 
The erection of altars in Greece is mythically 
assigned to Cecrops. The term " altar" was early 
applied to the table used in the celebration of the 
Lord's Supper in Clrristian churches (Heb. xiii. 10). 
Since the time of Elizabeth there has been much 
controversy on the subject, and the Puritans in the 
civil war destroyed many of the ancient stone altars, 
substituting wooden tables In Jan. 1845 ^ was 
decided in the Arches Court that stone altars were 
not to be erected in English churches. 

ALTENKIRCHEN (Prussia). The French, 
who had defeated the Austrians here, 4 June, 1796, 
were themselves defeated, and their general, Mar- 
ceau, killed, 19 Sept. following. 

ALTER EGO (another or second I), a term 
applied to Spanish viceroys when exercising regal 
power; used at Naples when the crown prince was 
appointed vicar-general during an insurrection in 
July, 1820. 

ALTONA (Holstein, N. Germany), acquired by 
the Danes, 1660, and made a city, 1664. It was 
occupied first by the German federal troops, 24 Dec. 
1863, and then by the Prussians (the federal diet 
protesting), 12 Feb. 1864. 

ALT-RANSTADT (Prussia), where the treaty 
of peace dictated by Charles XII. of Sweden, to Frede- 
rick Augustus of Poland, was signed, 24 Sept. 1706, 
o.s. Frederick, deposed in 1704, regained the throne 
of Poland after the defeat of Charles XII., in 1709. 

ALUM, a salt, is said to have been first dis- 
covered at Roccha, in Syria, about 1300; it was 
found in Tuscany about 1470 ; its manufacture was 
brought to perfection in England by sir T. Chal- 
loner, who established large alum works near Whitby 
in 1608 ; it was discovered in Ireland in 1757 ; and 
in Anglesey in 1 790. Alum is used as a mordant in 
dyeing, to harden tallow, and in the paper manu- 
facture. 
Messrs. Peter Spence & Sons produced a colossal 

crystal of alum weighing over eight tons . April, 1886 

ALUMBAGH, a palace with other buildings 
near Lucknow, Oude, India, taken during the mu- 
tiny from the rebels, 23 Sept. 1857, and heroically 



defended by the British under sir James Outram. 
He defeated an attack of 30,000 sepoys on 12 Jan. 
1858, and of 20,000 on 21 Feb., and was relieved by 
sir Colin Campbell in March. 

ALUMINIUM, a metal, the base of the earth 
alumina, which is combined with silica in clay, and 
which was shown to be a distinct earth by Marg- 
grafF in 1754, having been previously confounded 
with lime. It is very light (sp. g. 2-25), malle- 
able, and sonorous ; when pure does not rust, and 
is not acted on by sulphur or any acid except 
hydrochloric. Oerstedtin 1826 obtained the chloride 
of aluminium ; and in 1827 the metal itself was got 
from it by F. Wohler, but was long a scientific 
curiosity, the process being expensive. The mod* 
of production was afterwards simplified by Bunsen 
and others, more especially by H. Ste. - Claire 
Deville, who in 1856 succeeded in procuring 
considerable quantities of this metal by the 
aid of the metal sodium. A cheaper me hod -was 
devised by Mr. Webster, of Hollywood, near Bir- 
mingham, in 1881. Since 1890 by electrolytic 
methods, as th t of Messrs. Cowles of Milton, near 
Stoke-on-Trent, and of Lockport, in New York, 
the chemical process has been practically 
superseded. In March, 1856, it was 3^. the 
ounce; in June, 1857, lis. or 12s., and it gradually 
became much cheaper, at the present time., 
1903, it is 1*. 3^. per lb. The eagles of the 
French colours have been made of it, and many 
otherornamentaland useful articles. Deville' swork r 
" De l'Aluminium," was published in 1859. An 
aluminium manufactory was established at New- 
castle in i860, by Messrs. Bell. They obtain the 
metal from a French mineral, bauxite. Their alu- 
minium bronze, an alloy of copper and aluminium, 
invented by Dr. John Percy, F.R.S., was made ints> 
watch cases, &c, by Messrs. Reid of Newcastle, in 
1862. Aluminium "bronze, which can be manu- 
factured with a textile strength equal to steel, 
renders it a useful material for held guns; its 
endurance and resistance to friction, combined with 
its lightness, adapt it specially for the bearings of 
shafts and other kinds of machinery. Its cost of 
production is, however, high. Combined with tin 
aluminium is used for optical instruments, and 
alloyed with silver forms a metal named Tiers 
Argent, from which forks and spoons are manu- 
factured. " Aluminium gold," used for imitation 
gold jewelry, is an alloy of aluminium with copper. 
Aluminium entered largely into the construction 
of the deck of Shamrock III. 

A steam launch wholly made of aluminium (alloy), 6 
metres long, ij metres wide, was constructed at 
Zurich by Messrs. Escher, Wyss & Co., Sept. 1892. 

An aluminium yacht, Vendenesse, launched on the Seine,, 
6 Dec. 1893. 

The Jules Davovst, 33 feet long, weighs 18 cwt., also 
exhibited on the Seine, Dec. 1893. 

An aluminium torpedo-boat, built by Messrs. Yarrow 
for the French government, successfully tried at 
Greenwich, 29 Sept. 1894. 

The British aluminium company (registered 1894) esta- 
blish works at Foyers, and utilize the Falls ; reported 
June, 1896 ; reservoir works completed, Jan. 1898. 

AMADIS OF GAUL, a Spanish or Portuguese- 
romance, stated to have been composed about I370by 
Vasco de Lobeira. It was enlarged by De Mont- 
alvo, about 1465 ; and first printed (in Spanish)' 
1519; in French, 1540-56. Translation by Southey, 
1803. 

AMALEKITES (descendants of Amalek, 
grandson of Esau, brother of Jacob) attacked the 
Israelites, 149 1 B.C., when perpetual war was de- 
nounced against them. They were subdued by Sau 1 



AMALFI. 



41 



AMBKOSIAN CHANT. 



about 1079, by David, 1058 and 1056; and by the 
Simeonites about 715 B.C. 

AMALFI, a city on the gulf of Salerno, Naples, 
in the 8th century became the seat of a republic, 
and nourished by its commerce till 1075, when it 
was taken by Roger Guiscard, and eventually incor- 
porated with Naples. The Pisans, in their sack of 
the town in 1 135, are said to have found a copy of 
the Pandects of Justinian, and thus to have induced 
the revival of the study of Roman law in Western 
Europe ; the story is now doubted. Flavio Gioia, 
a native of Amalfi, is the reputed discoverer of the 
mariner's compass, about 1302. 

AMATI, a family of celebrated violin makers 
of Cremona, 16th and 17th centuries. Andrea 
(1540- 1 600) founded the business, which was car- 
ried on by his sons Geronimo and Antonio and 1 1 is 
grandson Niccolo.' The last-named was the master 
of both Guamerio and Stradivario, whose violins 
are so highly prized. 

AMATONGALAND, between Zululand and 
the Portuguese possessions, South Africa. The 
territory annexed to the British possession of 
Zululand, 30 Nov. 1897. 

AMAZON, West India mail steam ship, left 
Southampton on her first voyage, Friday, 2 Jan. 
1852, and on Sunday morning, Jan. 4, was destroyed 
by fire at sea, about no miles W.S.W. of Scilly 
(ascribed to the spontaneous ignition of combustible 
matter placed near the engine-room). Out of 161 
persons on board, 102 persons must have perished 
by fire or drowning. 21 persons were saved by the 
life-boat of the ship; 2<; more were carried into 
Brest harbour by a Dutch vessel passing by ; and 
13 others were picked up in the bay of Biscay, also 
by a Dutch galliot. Eliot Warburton, a distin- 
guished writer in general literature, was among 
those lost. 

AMAZON (S. America). The longest river in 
the world. Navigable for large steam vessels 2,500 
miles from the sea. Was discovered by Pinzon in 
1500, and explored by Francisco Orellana in 1540. 
Coming from Peru, he sailed down the Amazon to 
the Atlantic, and observing companies of women in 
arms on its bank, he called the country Amazonia, 
and gave the name of Amazon to the river, previ- 
ously called Marafion. Steam navigation com- 
menced 1850. There is now, 1903, a regular service 
of ocean-going steamers up tlie Amazon. 

AMAZONS. Three nations of Amazons have 
been mentioned — the Asiatic, Scythian, and African. 
They are nivl liieally said fco have been t he descend- 
ants .it Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where 
their husbands, having made incursions, were all 
slain, being surprised in ambuscadesby their euemies. 
Their widows formed a female state, and decreed 
that matrimony was a shameful sen ii tide. Quintw 
Curtius. They were said to have been conquered by 
Theseus. The Amazons were constantly employed 
in wars; and that they might bend the bow 
with more force, their right breasts were burned off, 
whence their name from the Greek, </, no, tnazos, 
breast. Others derive the name from maza, thi' 
moi in, which they are supposed i" have w orshipped. 
About 330 B.C. their queen, Thalestris, visited Alex- 
ander the Great, whilst he was pursuing his eon- 
quests in Asia, with three hundred females in her 
train. Herodotus. For modern amazons, see Daho- 
mey. 

AMBASSADORS. A credited agents, and 
representatives from one oourl to another, are re- 
ferred to in carh, Bges. In most countries thej have 



great privileges; and in England, they and their 
servants are secured against arrest. England has 
eight ambassadors (at Berlin, Constantinople, 
Madrid, Paris, Rome, St. Petersburg, Vienna, 
Washington), twenty-six ministers, and about 
thirty chief consuls, resident at foreign courts, ex- 
clusive of inferior agents; the ambassadors and 
other chief agents from abroad at the court of 
London in 1865 were 47 ; in 1868, 43 ; in 1872, 42 ; 
in 1878, 39 ; in 1889, 43 ; in 1902, 39. 
The Russian ambassador being imprisoned for debt by 
a lace-merchant, 27 July, 1708, led to the passing the 
statute of 7 Anne, for the protection of ambassadors, 
1708. 
Two men, convicted of arresting the servant of an am- 
bassador, were sentenced to be conducted to the house 
of the ambassador, with a label on their breasts, to ask 
his pardon, and then one of them to be imprisoned 
three months, and the other fined, 12 May, 1780. 
The first minister from the United States of America 
to England, John Adams, presented to the king, 1 June, 
1785 ; the first from Great Britain to America was 
Mr. Hammond, in 1791. Mr. Thos. F. Bayard, first 
U. 8. ambassador to London, appointed 1893 ; died, 
aged 69, 28 Sept. 1898. Sir Julian Pauncefote (after 
lord, 1899), British minister, 1889, made ambassador, 
1893 ; died, 24 May, 1902. 
A Japanese minister received by the queen, 3 March, 

1875- 
The first accredited ambassador from China, Kus-ta-Jen, 

landed at Southampton, 21 Jan. 1877. 
In the case of Sir H. Macartney, secretary to the Chinese 

legation v. the Vestry of Marylebone, the Queen's 

Bench decided that tlie plaintiff was free from parish 

rates and taxes, 24 Feb. 1890. 

AMBER, a semi-mineral substance, probably 
fossil resin, derived from extinct coniferse. From 
its property of becoming highly negatively electric 
by friction the term electricity 7 is derived ; elcktron 
being the Greek word for amber. Its use for 
ornaments is of great antiquity, it is found among 
the prehistoric remains of the Swiss lake dwellers, 
and is alluded to in Homer. Theophrastus wrote 
upon it 300 b c. Amber was much valued as a 
charm against witchcraft and disease. It is 
principally found in the northern parts of Europe. 
•' The Tears of the Heliades : Amber as a Gem," 
by W. A. Burt'um, published 1896. 

AMBLEF, near Cologne, Germany. Here 
Charles Martel defeated Chilperic II., and Ragen- 
froi, mayor of the Neustrians, 716. 

AMBOISE (Central France). A conspiracy 
of the Huguenots against Francis II., Catherine de 
Medicis, and the Guises, was suppressed at this 
place in Jan. 1560. On 19 March, 1563, the Paci- 
fication of Amboise was published, granting tole- 
ration to the Huguenots. The civil war was 
however soon renewed. 

AMBOYNA. chief of the Molucca isles, dis- 
covered about 15 1 2 by the Portuguese, but not 
wholly occupied by them till 1580. It was taken 
by the Dutch in 1605. 'I he English factors at this 
set I lenient were cruelly tori ured and put to death, 
17 Feb. 1623-4, by the Dutch, on an accusation of a 
conspiracy to expel them from the island, where the 
two nations jointly shared in the pepper trade of 
Java. Cromwell compelled the Dutcb to give a sum 
ofmonej to the descendants of the sufferers. Am- 
boyna was seized b\ the English, 10 Feb. 1796, but 
was restored by the treaty of Amiens, in 1802. It 
was again seized by the British, 1 7- 19 Feb. l8lO ; 
and again restored at the peace of May, 1814. 
.lii/fim/na tcooi/, a beautiful coloured wood, yielded 
by l'li rnspennnn in/irn»i. 

A.MBROSIAN CHANT, see Chant, Liturgy, 
to. 



AMBULANCE ASSOCIATION. 



45 



AMEEICA. 



AMBULANCE ASSOCIATION, see 

under John's, St. 

First " ambulance ship "(for small-pox convalescents), 

Bed Cross, constructedfor Metropolitan Asylums Board, 

launched at Millwall, 8 Aug. 1883. 

AMEN, an ancient Hebrew word meaning true, 
faithful, certain, is used in the Jewish and Chris- 
tian assemblies, at the conclusion of prayer : see 
1 Cor. xiv. 16 (a.d. 59). Itis translated "verity" 
in the Gospels. 

AMENDE HONORABLE, in France, in the 
9th century, was a punishment inflicted on traitors 
and sacrilegious persons : the offender was delivered 
to the hangman : his shirt was stripped off, a rope 
put round his neck, and a taper in his hand ; he 
was then led into court, and was obliged to beg 
pardon of God and the country. Death or banish- 
ment sometimes followed. These words also denote 
a recantation in open court, or in presence of the 
injured person. 

AMEECEMENT, in Law, a fine assessed for 
an offence done, or pecuniaiy punishment at the 
mercy of the court : thus differing from a fine di- 
rected and fixed by a statute. By Magna Charta, 
1215, a freeman cannot be amerced for a small fault, 
but in proportion to the offence he has committed ; 
the mode was determined by 9 Hen. III., 1225. 

AMERICA,* the great Western Continent, is 
about 9000 miles long, with an area of about 
16,500,000 square miles. It is now believed to have 
been visited by the Norsemen or Vikings in the 10th 
and nth centuries; but the modern discovery is due 
to the sagacity and courage of the Genoese navigator, 
Christopher Columbus. -f " History of the New 
World called America," by Edw. J. Eayne. Vol. 2. 
1899. See Chicago. - 

Columbus sailed on his first expedition from Palos 
in Andalusia on Friday, with vessels supplied by 
the sovereigns of Spain .... 3 Aug. 1492 
He lands on the island of Guanahaui, one of the 
Bahamas ; takes possession of it in the name of 
Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile, and names it 
San Salvador .... Friday, 12 Oct. 1492 
He discovers Cuba, 28 Oct. : and Hispaniola (now 
Hayti), where he builds a fort, La Navidad, 6 Dec. ,, 

* The name is derived from Amerigo Vespucci, a Floren- 
tine merchant, who died in 1512. He accompanied Ojeda 
in his voyage on the eastern coast in 1498 ; and described 
the country in letters sent to his friends in Italy. He is 
charged with presumptuously inserting " Tierra de Ame- 
rigo " in his maps. Irving discusses the question in the 
Appendix to the Life of Columbus, but comes to no con- 
clusion. Humboldt asserts that the name was given to 
the continent in the popular works of Waklseemuller, a 
German geographer, without the knowledge of Vespucci. 
To America we are indebted, among other things, for 
maize, the turkey, the potato, Peruvian bark, and 
tobacco. See Florence, 1898. 

t Christophoro Cotumbo was born about 1445 (or be- 
tween 1435 and 1449) ; first went to sea about 1460 ; settled 
at Lisbon in 1470, where he married Felipa, the daughter 
of Perestrello, an Italian navigator, whereby he obtained 
much geographical knowledge. He is said to have laid 
the plans of his voyage of discovery before the republic of 
Genoa, in 1485, and other powers, and finally before the 
court of Spain, where at length the queen Isabella became 
his patron. After undergoing much ingratitude and cruel 
persecution from his own followers and the Spanish court, 
he died on 20 May, 1506, and was buried with much pomp 
at Valladolid. His remains were transferred, in 1513, to 
Seville ; in 1536 to San Domingo ; and in Jan. 1796 to the 
Havanna, Cuba ; to Seville, 19 Jan. 1899. The original 
inscription on his tomb is said to have been " A Castilla 
y & Leon Nuevo Mundo dio Colon." " To Castile and 
Leon Colon gave a New World. " Humboldt says beauti- 
fully, that the success of Columbus was " a conquest of 
reflection." Itwas stated in Nov. 1890, that Columbus' 
log-book had been fished up from the sea. 



He returns to Spain 15 March, 1493 

He sails from Cadiz on his second expedition, 
25 Sept. ; discovers the Caribbee Isles, — Dominica, 
3 Nov. ; Guadaloupe, 4 Nov. ; Antigua, 10 Nov. ; 
founds Isabella in Hispaniola, the first Christian 
city in the New World .... Dee. „ 

He discovers Jamaica, 3 May ; and Evangelista (now 
Isle of Pines), 13 June ; war with the natives of 
Hispaniola 1494 

He visits the various isles, and explores their coasts 

I49S-6 
Returns. to Spain to meet the charges of his enemies 

11 June, 1496 
John Cabot (Giovanni Cabotto) a Venetian pilot, 
said to have settled in Bristol, 1472, and to haye 
sailed thence with his son Sebastian, with letters 
patent from Henry VII. , and to have discovered 
Labrador on the coast of North America, 24 June, 1497 
Columbus sails on his third voyage, 30 May ; dis- 
covers Trinidad, 31 July ; lands on Terra Firma, 
without knowing it to be the new continent, 
naming it Isla Santa 1 Aug. 149S 

Ojeda discovers Surinam, June ; and the gulf of 
Venezuela 1499 

Vicente Yanez Pinzon discovers Brazil, South Ame- 
rica, 26 Jan. ; and the river Mara lion (the Amazon); 
Cabral the Portuguese lands in Brazil (see Brazil) 

3 May, 1500 

Gaspar Cortereal discovers Labrador . . . . ,, 

Columbus is imprisoned in chains at San Domingo 
by Bobadilla, sent out to investigate into his con- 
duct, May ; conveyed to Spain, where he is honour- 
ably received 17 Dec. „ 

Columbus sails on his fourth voyage, 9 May ; dis- 
covers various isles on the coast of Honduras, 
and explores the coast of the isthmus, July, 
&c. ; discovers and names Porto Bello . 2 Nov. 1502 

Negro slaves imported into Hispaniola . . 1501-3 

Worried by the machinations of his enemies, he re- 
turns to Spain, 7 Nov. ; his friend, queen Isabella, 
dies 20 Nov. 1504. 

He dies while treated with base ingratitude by the 
Spanish government . . . .20 May, 1506 

Solis and Pinzon discover Yucatan . . . . „ 

Ojeda founds San Sebastian, the first colony on the 
mainland i=;io 

Subjugation of Cuba by Velasquez . . . . 

The coast of Florida discovered by Ponce de Leon . 

Vasco de Balboa crosses the isthmus of Darien, and 
discovers the South Pacific Ocean .... 

Mexico discovered by Fernando de Cordova . . 

Grijalva penetrates into Yucatan, and names it New 
Spain 1518 

Passage of Magellan's Straits by him . . . . 1520 

Conquest of Mexico by Fernando Cortes . . 1519-22 

Pizarro discovers the coast of Quito . . . . 1526 



1511 
1512 



1513 
1517 



He invades and conquers Peru .... 1532-5 
Cartier, a Frenchman, enters the Gulf of St. Law- 
rence, and sails up to Montreal . . . 1534-5 
Grijalva's expedition, equipped by Cortes, discovers 

California 1535 

Mendoza founds Buenos Ayres, and conquers the 

adjacent country ,, 

Orellana sails down the Amazon to the sea . 3 540-3 

Louisiana conquered by De Soto ,, 

Chili conquered by Valdivia 1543 

Rebellion in Peru — tranquillity established by Gasca 1548 
Davis's Straits discovered by him .... 1585 
Raleigh establishes the first English settlement — at 

Roanoke, Virginia ,, 

Falkland isles discovered by Davis .... 1592 
De Monts, a Frenchman, settles in Acadia, now 

Nova Scotia 

Jamestown, in Virginia, the first English settlement 

on the mainland, founded by lord de la Wan- 
Quebec founded by the French 



1604 

1607 
1608 
.610 



Hudson's bay discovered by him .... 
The Dutch build Manhattan, or New Amsterdam 

(now New York) on the Hudson . . . . 1614 
Settlement in New England begun by capt. Smith . 
New Plymouth built by the English nonconformist 

exiles 1620 

Nova Scotia settled by the Scotch under sir Wm. 

Alexander 1622 

Delaware settled by the Swedes and Dutch . . 1627 
Massachusetts, by sir H. Boswell . . . . 1628 
Maryland, by lord Baltimore 1633 



AMEEICA. 



4G 



AMIENS. 



Connecticut granted to lords Say and Brooke in 

1630 ; but no English settlement was made here till 1635 
Rhode Island settled by Roger Williams and his 

brethren, driven from Massachusetts . . . „ 
New Jersey settled by the Dutch, 1614, and Swedes, 
1627 ; granted to the duke of York, who sells it to 

lord Berkeley 1664 

New York captured by the English . „ 
South Carolina settled by the English . . . . 1669 
Pennsylvania settled by William Penn, the cele- 
brated Quaker 1682 

Louisiana settled by the French ,, 

The Mississippi explored 1699 

The Scotch settlement at Uarien (1698-9) abandoned 1700 

New Orleans built 1717 

Georgia settled by general Oglethorpe . . .1732 

Kentucky, by colonel Boon 1754 

Canada conquered by the English, 1759-60 ; ceded to 

Great Britain 1763 

American war— declaration of independence by the 

United States, 1776 ; recognised by Great Britain 1783 
Louisiana ceded to Spain, 1763 ; transferred to 

France, 1800 : sold to the United States . . . 1803 
Florida ceded to Great Britain, 1763 ; taken by 
Spain, 1781 ; to whom it is ceded, 1783 ; ceded to 

the United States 1820 

Revolution in Mexico— declaration of independence 1821 
Revolutions in Spanish America ; independence es- 
tablished by Chili, 1810; Paraguay, 1811; Buenos 
Ayrcs, and other provinces, 1816; Peru, 1826. 
CSec Un tied States, Mexico, and other states, through- 
out the volume. For the American Interna- 
tional Congress, see United States, Oct. 1S89.] 

AMERICA, CENTRAL, EEPUBLICS OF, in- 
cludes Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicara- 
gua, and Costa Rica (which sec) . They declared their 
independence, Sept. 21, 1821, and separated from the 
Mexican confederation, 21 July, 1823. The states 
made a treat v of union between them selves, 21 March, 
1 847 . The) c has been anion g them since much anarchy 
and bloodshed, aggravated greatly by the irruption 
of American filibusters under Kenny and "Walker, 
{854-5. In Jan. 1863, a war began between Guate- 
mala (afterwards joined by Nicaragua) and San 
■Salvador (afterwards supported by Honduras). The 
latter were defeated at Santa Rosa, 16 June, and San 
Salvador was taken, 26 Oct. ; the president of San 
Salvador, Barrios, tied; and Carrera, the dictator 
of Guatemala, became predominant over the con- 
federacy. Gen. Barrios, president of Guatemala, 
attempts the union of the five states, himself to be 
dictator; opposed by all except Honduras, Feb. 
1 1, Ls defeated and killed in a prolonged battle at 
Chalchuapa, 2 April; peace with the states signed 
id April, iNN^. The union of the states, under one 
principal president, was proposed atthe Pan-Ameri- 
can Congress, 1889-90. Nicaragua, Salvador and 
Eonduras united as a Central American republic, 
signed, 2S June, 1895. A constitution established, 
reported, Aug. 1898. The live states formed into 
the republic of Central America, autonomy to be 
preserved, bj treaty, signed, 15 June, 1897. Each 
state resumes its absolute sovereignty, reported 
50 Nov. [898. Sec Darien soft. Panama. 

AMERICA, Russian, sold to the United 

3tatesforabou1 p« v«>i>/., March, 1867. See Alaska. 

AMERICA, Smith, see Brazil, Argentine, 
Peru, Paraguay, Uruguay, §-c. 

" AMERICA," AND AMERICA CUP, see 
Yacht. 

A M KRTCAN ASS< >( I ATION for the 
Advancement of SoienoEi resembling the 
British Association, held its firal meeting at Phila- 
delphia 2d Sept. [848, its 28th at Saratoga, 27 Aug. 

[879; 2> »ili al Boston, 2}-2.s Aug. 1880; mel al Cin- 
cinnati, 17 Aug. 1881 ; at Montreal, 26 Aug. 1882; 

•it Minneapolis, Minnesota, [$ Aug. [883; Phila- 
delphia, 4 Sept. [884; Ann Arbor, 1885 ; Buffalo, 



1886; New York, 1887; Cleveland, 1888 ; Toronto, 
Aug. 1889 ; Indianapolis, 19 Aug. 1890 ; Washing- 
ton, 11 Aug. 1891 ; Rochester, N.Y., 18 Aug. 1892; 
Madison, Wisconsin, Aug. 1893; Brooklyn, 16 Aug. 
1894 ; Springfield, Mass. 29 Aug. 1895 ; Detroit, 
9 Aug. 1897; Boston, 22 Aug. 1898; Columbus, 
Ohio, 19 Aug. 1899; New York, 23 June, 1900 ; 
Denver, Colorado, 24 Aug. 1901 ; Pittsburg, 28 
June, 1902 ; Washington, 29 Dec. 1902-3 Jan. 1903. 

AMERICAN BASEBALL, a game resem- 
bling cricket and rounders, introduced into this 
country by teams from Philadelphia and Boston in 
1875 without success. The American teams (Chi- 
cago and All America), after a tour round the world, 
played a game at Kennington Oval in the presence 
of the Prince of "Wales and many distinguished 
spectators 12 March, 1889, and since. 

AMERICAN BOOTS, see under Boots. 

AMERICAN CLUB, &c, London, for Anglo- 
Saxons interested in the Western Hemisphere, es- 
tablished autumn 1887. American society in Lon- 
don founded to assist distressed Americans ; first 
dinner, Mr. Bayard, the U.S. ambassador, in the 
chair, 19 April, 1895. 

AMERICAN EXHIBITION of the Arts, 
Inventions, Manufactures, Products, and Resources 
of the United States — Earl's Court, West Bromp- 
ton, and West Kensington. (A private speculation.) 
It included works of art, specimens of manufacture, a 

" Wild West " section, feats of horsemanship by Buffalo 

Bill (col. the hon. Wm. F. Cody), Red Shirt, a Sioux chief, 

and other Indians ; buffalo hunts, horse catching, &c. 
Visited by the prince and princess of Wales 5 May, 1887. 
Opened by colonel Russell, the president, lord Ronald 

Gower, archdeacon Farrar, and others, 9 May. 
Visited by the Queen, n Slay. 
Closed by a meeting advocating the establishment of an 

International Court of Arbitration, the marquis of 

Lome in the chair, 31 Oct. 1887. 

AMERICANISMS : a dictionary of these ex- 
pressions was compiled by John R. Bartlett, and 

first published in 1848 ; 4th edition, 1877. Another 
by John S. Farmer appeared in 1889. 

AMERICANISTS, a name assumed by some 
persons devoted to the study of the archaeology, 

ethnology, &c, of North and South America, who 
held their first international congress at Nancy in 
July, 1875; one at Luxemburg, Sept. 1877; at 
Brussels, Sept. 1879; at Madrid, 27 Sept.' 1881 ; 
Copenhagen, 21 Aug. 1883; Turin, 1886; Berlin, 
2 Oct. 1888; Paris, 14 Oct. 1890; Huelva, 7 Oct. 
(the queen-regent of Spain present), 1892 ; Stock- 
holm, 3 Aug. 1894. 

AMERICAN ORGAN, a free-reed keyed wind 
instrument, resembling the harmonium, with im- 
portant differences; the principle was discovered 
about 1835 by a workman employed by Alexandre 
of Paris. The invention was taken, to America, 
where instruments were made by Mason and Ham- 
lin, of Boston, about i860. 

AMETHYST, the ninth stone upon the breast- 
plate of the Jewish high priest, 1401 n.c. It is of a 
rich violet colour. One worth 200 rix-dollars, having 
been rendered colourless, equalled a diamond in 
lustre, valued at 18, OOO gold crowns. JJc Boot. — 
Amethysts discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1775. 

AMIENS, a city in Picardy (N. France) ; the 

cathedral was built in 1220. It was taken by the 
Spanish, II March, and retaken by the French, 
25 Sept. 1597. The preliminary articles of the 
peace between Great Britain, Holland. France, and 
Spain, were signed in Loudon by lord Hiwkesbury 



AMMONIA. 



47 



AMSTEEDAM. 



and M. Otto, on the part of England and France, 
I Oct. 1801 ; and the definitive treaty was subscribed 
at Amiens, on 27 March, 1802, by the marquis of 
Cornwallis for England, Joseph Bonaparte for 
France, Azara for Spain, and Schimmelpenninck 
for Holland. War was declared again in 1803. — 
After a conflict, in which the French were defeated, 
27 Nov. 1870, the German general Von Goeben 
entered Amiens, 28 Nov. Population in 1 90 1, 
90,038. 

AMMONIA, the volatile alkali, mainly pro- 
duced by the decomposition of organic substances. 
Its name is ascribed to its having been procured 
from heated camels' dung near the temple of Jupiter 
Amnion in Libya. The discovery of its being a 
compound of nitrogen and hydrogen is ascribed to 
Joseph Priestley in 1774. By the recent labours of 
chemists both the oxide of the hypothetical metal 
ammonium, and ammonium amalgam, have been 
formed ; and specimens of each were shown at the 
Royal Institution in 1856 by Dr. A. W. Hofmann, 
who has done very much for the chemical history of 
ammonia. 

Ammoniaphone. An apparatus for the improvement of 
the voice and lungs, by inhaling combinations of 
ammonia, hydrogen, &c, invented by Dr. Carter 
■Moffat, of Edinburgh, 1883. He asserted that this 
mixture resembles Italian air. The successful effects 
of inhaling the gas were shown at St. James's Hall, 
6 Nov. 1884. 
Ammonite. A new explosive for use in coal mines, said 
to be safer than those in use, composed of pure ammo- 
nium nitrate and nitro-naphthaline. Experiments with 
this explosive exhibited by sir George Elliot at the 
works of the Miners' Safety Explosive Company, 
Stanford-le-Hope, Essex, were considered very satis- 
factory, 9 July, 1891. 

AMMONITES, descended from Ben-Ammi, 
the son of Lot (1897 B.C.), invaded Canaan and 
made the Israelites tributaries, but were defeated by 
Jephthah, 1 143 B.C. They again invaded Canaan, 
intending to put out the right eye of all they sub- 
dued ; but Saul overthrew them, 1095 B - c - lh ev 
were afterwards many times vanquished ; and 
Antiochus the Great took Rabbah, their capital, 
and destined the walls, 198 B.C. Josephus. 

AMNESTY (a general pardon after political 
disturbances, &c.) was granted by Thrasybulus, the 
Athenian patriot, after expelling the thirty tyrants, 
403 B.C. Acts of amnesty were passed after the 
•civil war in 1651, and after the two rebellions in 
England in 1 715 and 1745. — After his victorious 
campaign in Italy, Napoleon III. of France granted 
an amnesty to all political offenders, 17 Aug. 1859. 
An amnesty, with certain exemptions, was granted 
to the vanquished southern states of North America 
by president Johnson, 29 May, 1865. An amnesty 
for political offences was granted by the emperor of 
Austria at his coronation as king of Hungary, 
SJune, 1867; a rather sweeping amnesty bill was 
passed in the United States regarding the rebellion, 
10 April, 1871. An amnesty association on behalf 
of the Fenians was active in Britain, Oct. 1873. 
2245 French communists pardoned by decree, pub- 
lished 17 Jan. 1879; many others during the year: 
■a general amnesty for political offences passed by the 
■chamber (333-140) 21 June, 1880. An amnesty was 
granted to the Cretans after the disturbances, by the 
Sultan of Turkey, Dec. 1889. 

AMOAFUL, near Coomassie, "West Africa. 
After' a severe conflict, 31 Jan. 1874, the Ashantees 
were defeated at this place by Sir Garnet Wolseley. 
Captain Buckle was killed, and about 20 officers 
and 200 men were wounded. The 42nd Highland 
Regiment was very energatic. 



AMCEBA, see Protoplasm. 

AMOY, see China, 1853-5. 

AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL, asserted 
traditionally to have been established at Ther- 
mopylae by Amphictyon, for the management of all 
affairs relative to Greece. This celebrated council, 
composed of twelve of the wisest and most virtuous 
men of various cities of Greece, began 1498 [11 13, 
Clinton'] B.C., and existed 31 B.C. Its immediate 
office was to attend to the temples and oracles of 
Delphi. Its calling on the Greek States to punish 
the Phocians for plundering Delphi caused the 
Sacred wars, 595-586, and 356-346. 

AMPHION, a British frigate, of 38 guns, blown 
up while riding at anchor in Plymouth Sound, and 
the whole of her crew then on board, consisting of 
more than two hundred and fifty persons, officers 
and men, perished, 22 Sept. 1796. 

AMPHIPOLIS, Macedon (N. Greece). A city 
founded here by the Athenians, 437 B.C. ; was seized 
by Brasidas the Spartan, 424; both he and the 
Athenian general, Cleon, were killed in a fruitless 
attempt at the capture of the city by the Athenians, 
422. 

AMPHITHEATKES.roundorovalbuildings, 
said to have been first constructed by Curio, 76 B.C., 
and by Julius Caesar 46 B.C. In the Roman amphi- 
theatres, the people witnessed the combats of gladia- 
tors with wild beasts, &c. They were generally 
built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one of 
stone, under Augustus Caesar; see Coliseum. The 
amphitheatre of Vespasian (capable of holding 
87,000 persons) was built between a.d. 70 and 80° 
and is said to have been a fortress in 1312. The 
amphitheatre at Verona was next in size, and then 
that of Nismes. 

AMPHITEITE, The Ship, see Wrecks, 
30 Aug. 1833. 

AMPUTATION, in surgery was greatly aided 
by the invention of the tourniquet by Morel, a French 
surgeon, in 1674, and of the flap-method by Lowd- 
ham of Exeter in 1679. 

AMSTEEDAM (Holland) . The castle of Am- 
stel was commenced in 1100; the building of the 
city in 1203. Its commerce was greatly increased 
by the decay of that of Antwerp after 1609. The 
exchange was built in 1634 ; and the noble stadt- 
house in 1648; the latter cost three millions of 
guilders, then a large sum. It was built upon 
13,659 piles. Amsterdam surrendered to the king 
of Prussia, when that prince invaded Holland, in 
favour of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French 
were admitted without resistance, 18 Jan. 1795. 
The Dutch government was restored in Dec. 1813. 
A crystal palace for an industrial exhibition was 
opened by prince Frederick of the Netherlands, 16 
Aug. 1864. The canal, from Amsterdam to the 
North Sea, was inaugurated by the king, 1 Nov. 
1876. A new university was opened, Dec. 1877. 
International exhibition opened by the king, 1 May, 
1883. International Agricultural exhibition opened 
26 Aug. 1884. The Grand theatre destroyed by fire 
20 Feb. 1890. Population, 1890, 417,539; 1897, 
494,189 ; 1901, 520,800. 

Violent rioting through prohibition of eel-baiting on the 
canal ; 35 killed, 90 wounded ; 25-26 July, 1886. 

Kiots of the unemployed ; conflicts with the police, 
about, 17 Jan. 1893. 

International exhibition opened by baron van Bellin- 
chave 11 May, 1895. 

Queen Wilhelmina "inaugurated," 6 Sept., and Rem- 
brandt exhibition, see Holland, Sept. 189S. 

Great strike, s?e Holland, April 1903. 



AMYL. 



48 



ANATOMY. 



AMYL, a chemical alcohol radical (first isolated 
by professor (afterwards sir) Edward Prankland in 
1849; he died 9 Aug. 1899). 

AMYLENE, a colourless, very mobile liquid, 
first procured by M. Balard of Paris in 1844, by 
distilling fusel oil (potato- spirit) with chloride of 
zinc. The vapour was employed instead of chloro- 
form first by Dr. Snow in 1856. It has since been 
tried in many hospitals here and in France. The 
odour is more unpleasant than chloroform, and more 
vapour must be used. 

ANABAPTISTS, those who baptize at full 
age, and reject infant baptism ; see Baptists. The 
name was first given to Thomas Miinzer, Storck, 
and other fanatics who preached in Saxony in 1521, 
and excited a rebellion of the lower orders in Ger- 
many, which was quelled with bloodshed in 1525. 
A similar insurrection took place in Westphalia, 
headed by Matthias, 1533, and, after his assassina- 
tion, by John Boccold of Leyden, who was crowned 
"king of Sion" in Miinster, 24 June, 1534. Mini- 
ster was taken in June, 1535 ; and John was executed 
13 Feb. 1536. Several anabaptists were executed in 
England in 1535, 1538, and 1540. On 6 Jan. 1661, 
about 80 anabaptists in London appeared in arms, 
headed by their preacher, Thomas Venner, a wine- 
cooper. They fought desperately, and killed many 
of the soldiers brought against them. Their leader 
and sixteen others were executed, 19 and 21 Jan. 
Annals of England* 

ANACHOEETS, see Monachism. 

ANACREONTIC VERSE, of the baccha- 
nalian strain, named after Anacreon of Teos, the 
Greek lyric poet, whose odes are much prized. He 
died in his eighty-fifth year, about 478 B.C. His 
odes (many said to be spurious) have been frequently 
translated ; Thomas Moore's version was published 
in 1800. 

ANADOLIA (Asia Minor), comprises the 
ancient Lycia, Caria, Lydia, Mysia, Bithynia, 
Paphlagonia and Phrygia {which see). 

ANAESTHETICS, agents for producing total 
or partial loss of sensibility, see Opium, Chloroform, 
Ether, Amylcne, Kerosolene, Nitrous oxide under 
nitric acid, Cocaine, Ethyl bromide, Somncform. 
Intense cold has been also employed in deadening 
pain. 

AN.ESTHESIMETER, an instrument for 
measuring the quantity of an anaesthetic adminis- 
tered. 

ANAGRAMS, formed by the transposition of 
the letters of a word or sentence (as army from 
Mary). Much importance was attached to ana- 
grams by the Jewish Cabalists, the Greek Platonists, 
and the Puritans. Mr. II. B. Wheatley's work " On 
Anagrams" was published in 1862. Ingenious ex- 
amples : the question by Pilate, " Quidcst Veritas?" 
(what is truth ?) the anagram, " Est vir qui adest " 
(the man who is here); from "Horatio Nelson," 
is "Honor est a Nilo" (Honour from the Nile). 

ANALYSTS, Society of Public, founded by 
Professor lledwood, Dr. Dupre, and others, 7 Aug. 
1874. Dr. Charles Mcymott Tidy, an eminent 
analyst and toxicologist, died 15 March, 1892. Sec 
Adulteration. 

AN AM, wo Annam. 

ANARCHY (Greek an, no, archos, chief), de- 
scribed Judges xvii. 6, " In those days there wasno 
king in Israel, but every man did that which was 
right in his own eyes," about B.C. 1406. Anarchy 



frequently prevailed in ancient times. Similar 
principles, now termed socialism, have been emi- 
nently advanced by P. J. Proudhon 1809 — 65, to 
whom is ascribed the maxim, " La propriete e'est le 
vol." See France, Oct. 1882. Many Anarchists 
tried and punished in Austria and other countries, 
1883 e t se Q- Anarchists expelled from Switzerland, 
1885, but return, and cause much trouble ; they held 
a congress at Ticino Jan. 1891. The modem anar-; 
chists declare war against society and all its institu- 
tions, and frequently employ dynamite as a destruc- 
tive agent. An "anarchist album," containing 
about 500 photographs of anarchists, published by 
the French government April, 1894. The anarchists 
term the assassination of M. Carnot an execution, 
26 June, 1894. Twenty-eight Spanish anarchists 
arrive in London, 30 July, 1897. Plot against the 
German emperor frustrated, 9 Italian anarchists 
arrested with bombs at Alexandria, 13 Oct. 1898. 
Asdrubal Malavasi, armed, captured in Islington, 
14 Oct. An anti-anarchist international conference, 
in camera, adm. Canevaro, president, opened at 
Eome (sir Philip Currie, sir Godfrey Lushington, 
and sir Howard Vincent, British delegates), 24 Nov. 
to 21 Dec. 1898. Tsar abandons his visit to Rome 
as the result of the socialist and anarchist agitation 
in Italy, II Oct. 1903. See Dynamite, France, 
Spain, London, Italy, Austria, Barcelona, and 
Trials, 1892, 1894. 

ANATHEMA, the sentence of excommunica- 
tion (1 Cor. xvi. 22), used by the early churches, 
365; see Excommunication. Pope Pius IX. pro- 
pounded a series of anathemas, Feb. 1870. 

ANATOMY (Greek, cutting up) . The human 
body was studied by Aristotle about 350 B.C., and 
became a branch of medical education under Hippo- 
crates, about 420 B.C. Erasistratus and Herophilus 
first dissected the human form, having been pre- 
viously confined to animals : it is said that they 
practised upon the bodies of living criminals, about 
300 and 293 B.C. Galen, who died a.d. 193, was a 
great anatomist. In England, the schools were long 
supplied with bodies unlawfully exhumed from 
graves ; and until 1832, the bodies of executed 
murderers were ordered for dissection.* Pope Boni- 
face VIII. forbade the dissection of dead bodies, 
1297. — The first anatomical plates, designed by 
Titian, were employed by Yesalius, about 1538. 
Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michael Angelo, 
studied anatomy. The great discovery of Harvey 
was made in 1619. William and John Hunter 
were great anatomists: William died 1783, and 
John, 1793. Quain's and Wilson's large anatomical 
plates were published 1842, and Bourgery's great 
work by Jacob, 1830-55. Comparative tmaton y baa 
been treated systematically by 0uvier,Owen, M tiller, 
Huxley, Virchow, Schwann, Haeckel, Agnssiz. 
Burmeister, Carpenter, Flower, Thompson, and 
others. The practice of anatomy greatly aided 



* By 32 Hen. VIII. c. 42 (1540), surgeons were granted 
four bodies of executed malefactors for " anathomyes," 
winch privilege was extended in following reigns : but in 
consequence of the crimes committed by resurrection- 
men in (inter to supply the Burgical schools (robbing 
churchyards and even committing murder, sec Bwrkimg), 
a new statute was passed in 1832, which abated the 
ignominy of dissection by prohibiting that of executed 
murderers, and made provision for the wants of surgeons 
by permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection 
Of persons dying in workhouses, &c. The act also ap- 
pointed Inspectors of anatomy, regulated the schools, 
and required persons practising anatomy to obtain a 
licence, it repealed the clauses of the act of 1828, 
which directed the dissection of the body of an executed 
murderer. 



ANCHORITES. 



49 



ANDREW, ST. 



by the use of the microscope, i8qS. See Rontgen 
Rays. Mr. Thos. Cooke, founder of Cooke's school 
of anatomy, &c, died 8 Feb. 1899. — The anatomy 
of plants has been studied since 1680; see Botany. 
Anatomical Society of Great Britain founded 1887. 

ANCHORITES, see Monachism. 

ANCHORS were invented by the Tuscans. 
Pliny. The second tooth, or fluke, was added by 
Anacharsis the Scythian (592 B.C.). Strabo. 
Anchors said to have been forged in England 
A.D. 578. The Admiralty anchor was introduced 
about 1841. Improved anchors were made by Pering 
and Rodgers about 1828 ; by Porter, 1838 ; by Costell, 
1848 ; by Trotman, 1853 ; and by several other per- 
sons. The anchors of ocean steamships are of 
enormous size. Acts for the proving and sale of 
chain cables and anchors were passed in 1864 and 
1871. 

ANCIENT, see Britons, Councils, French. 

ANCIENT BUILDINGS : a society for their 
protection from injudicious restoration, &c, was 
established in 1877 ; Lord Houghton, Professor S. 
Colvin, Thomas Carlyle, and many eminent artists, 
members. Annual meetings, reports issued. 

ANCIENT CONCERTS, or " King's Con- 
certs," London. "The Concert of Antient Music" 
was established in 1776 by the earls of Sandwich 
and Exeter, and others. Sir Henry Bishop was 
sole conductor from 1843 to 1848, when the con- 
certs ceased. 

ANCIENT HISTORY commences in the 
Holy Scriptures 4004 B.C., and in the history of 
Herodotus about 1687 B.C., and is considered to end 
with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, 
a.d. 476. Modern history begins with Mahomet 
(a.d. 622), or with Charlemagne (768). 

ANCIENT MONUMENTS in Britain. Acts 
for their preservation were passed in 1882, 1892, and 
1900. An edict for their preservation in the Papal 
dominions was issued by card. Pacca, in 1820, and 
has been continued by the Italian government, and 
similar laws exist in France, Spain, Greece, 
Sweden and the United States. 

ANCONA, an ancient Roman port on the 
Adriatic. The mole was built by Trajan, 107. 
After many changes of rulers (Lombards, Saracens, 
Greeks, and Germans) Ancona was annexed to the 
papal states in 1532. It was taken by the French, 
1 797 > retaken by the Austrians, 1 799 ; reoccupied 
by the French, 1801 ; restored to the pope, 1802. It 
was occupied by the French in 1832 ; evacuated in 
1838, and after an insurrection was bombarded and 
captured by the Austrians, 18 June, 1849. The 
Marches (comprising this city) rebelled against the 
Papal government in Sept. i860. Lamoriciere, the 
papal general, fled to Ancona after his defeat at 
Castelfidardo, but was compelled to surrender him- 
self, the city, and the garrison, on 29 Sept. The 
king of Sardinia entered soon after. Population of 
the city in 1881, 31,277 ; 1901, 56,825. 

ANCYRA, now Angora or Engour, a town in 
ancient Galatia, Asia Minor. Councils were held 
here, 314, 358, 375. It was taken by the Persians, 
616; by the Saracens, 1085 ; by the crusaders, 1102. 
Near this city, on 28 July, 1402, Timour or Tamer- 
lane defeated and took prisoner the sultan Bajazet, 
and is said to have conveyed him to Samarcand in 
a cage. 



ANDALUSIA (S. Spain), a province once 
part of the ancient Lusitania and Baetica. The 
name is a corruption of Vandalitia, it having been 
held by the Vandals from 419 to 429, when it was 
acquired by the Visigoths. The latter were expelled 
by the Moors in 711, who established the kingdom 
of Cordova, and retained it till 1236. Andalusia 
suffered much by the earthquakes of Dec. 1884. 

ANDAMAN ISLANDS, in the Bay of Bengal. 
The inhabitants are dwarfs, and in the lowest state 
of barbarism. At Port Blair, on South Island, made 
a penal settlement for the Sepoy rebels in 1858, 
the earl of Mayo, viceroy of India, was assassinated 
by Shere Alee, a convict, 8 Feb. 1872, when going 
on board the Glasgow. Above 200 persons perished 
on land through a cyclone ; see Wrecks, 2 Nov. 1891. 
Chief commissioner col. N. M. T. Horsford, 1892 ; 
Col. R. Temple, May, 1894; he reports the success 
of the system of penal discipline at Port Blair, 
March, 1899. 

ANDERNACH, Rhenish Prussia, once an im- 
perial city. Near here, the emperor Charles I., 
while attempting to deprive his nephews of their 
inheritance, was totally defeated by one of them, 
Louis of Saxony, 8 Oct. 876. 

ANDES, Cordillera de Los, the great. 

mountain system of South America. 

Chimborazo, perpetually snowclad, was ascended by 
Alexander Von Humboldt to the height of 19,286 
feet, 23 June 1802 ; by Boussingault and Hall, 
19,695 feet, 16 Dec. 1831 ; by Edward Whymper, 
20,545 feet, 3 Jan. ; and 20,489 feet 3 July, 188b-. 

Cotopaxi, volcanic ; ascended by Edward Whymper, 
19,600 feet 18 Feb. ,, 

He also first ascended Antisana, 19,260 feet, 10 
March ; and Cayambe, 19,200 feet . 4 April, „ 
[All these mountains are in Ecuador.] 

Mr. Whymper's work on the " Great Andes " was pub- 
lished in March, 1892. 

Railway across the Andes constructing, autumn, 189^. 

Expedition of the R. Geographical Society, headed by 
Mr. E. A. Fitzgerald ; Aconcagua 23,080 ft. , ascended 
by Zurbriggen, Swiss guide, 14 Jan., 1897 ; by Mr.. . 
Vines, 13 Feb. 1897. 

Sir Martin Conway explores the Bolivian Andes, the , 
Cordillera Real, and ascends the highest peaks {Acon- 
cagua) in 55- days, 1898 and 1900. 

ANDORRA, a small republic in the Pyrenees, 
bearing the title of "the valleys and sovereignties 
of Andorra," was made independent by Charlemagne 
about 778, certain rights being reserved to the 
bishop of Urgel. The feudal sovereignty, which, 
long appertained to the counts of Foix, reverted to ■ 
the French king, Henry IV., in 1589; but was. 
given up in 1 790. On 27 March, 1806, an imperial 
decree restored the old relations between Andorra: 
and France. The republic is now governed by a 
council elected for four years; but the magistrates, 
are appointed alternately by the French govern- 
ment and the Spanish bishop of Urgel, to both of 
whom tribute is paid. The population 1875 about 
5,800. Andorra, though neutral, was attacked by 
the Carlists in Sept. 1874. Disputes between the- 
French government and the bishop, respecting; 
arrests, &c. made by him, March ; amicably settled,. 
April, 1884. 

ANDRE'S EXECUTION, see United States > 
1780. 

ANDREW, ST., said to have been martyred 
by crucifixion, 30 Nov. 69, at Patrae, in Achaia. 
His festival was instituted about 359. The Royal 
Society's anniversary is kept on St. Andrew's day. 
The Russian order of St. Andrew was instituted 111 
1698 by Peter I. For the British order, see Thistle. 



ANDREW'S, ST. 



50 



ANGLO-FRENCH. 



ANDREW'S, ST. (E. Scotland), made a royal 
burgh after 1 140. Here Robert Bruce held his first 
parliament in 1309; and here Wishart was burnt 
by archbishop Beaton, 1545, who himself was mur- 
dered here in 1546. The university was founded in 
141 1 by bishop Wardlaw. The cathedral (built 
1159-1318) was destroyed by a mob, excited by a 
sermon of John Knox, June, 1559.* Sir R. Sibbald's 
list of the bishops commences with Eillach, 872. 
The see became archiepiscopal in 1470, ceased soon 
after 1689; was re-instituted in 1844; see Bishops. 
Sir William Taylour Thomson bequeathed 30,000/. 
to the university, announced Oct. 1883. University 
college of Dundee joined to the university, Jan. 
1897. Population, 1 89 1, 6,853 ; 1901,7,621. 

Mr. David Berry, an Australian colonist, a native of 

Cupar in Fife, who died Sept. 1889, bequeathed 

100,000?. to the University, in accordance with the 

unsigned will of his brother, Dr. Alexander Berry, 

who died in 1873. 
The Marquis of Dufferin was elected lord rector, 1889 ; 

address 6 April, 1891. 
The marquis of Bute elected lord rector, 24 Nov. 1892 ; 

Mr. James Stuart, m.p., 23 Jan. 1899. 
Accidental death by poison of Dr. Boyd, " A.K.H.B.," 

aged 74, 1 March, 1899. 
Lord Bute founds a new chair of anatomy with a gift of 

20,000?., July, 1900 ; he died 9 Oct. 1900. 
Lord Balfour installed chancellor, 24 Oct. 1901. 
Lord Elgin, lord Balfour, and Mr. Andrew Carnegie 

presented with the freedom, 18 July, 1902. 
Mr. A. Carnegie installed lord rector, 22 Oct. 1902. 
Chancellor, lord Balfour of Burleigh (1902). 
Dr. Charles Wordsworth, bishop 1852, warm advocate 

for the union of the churches, dies, aged 86, 5 Dec. 

1892 ; succeeded by George H. Wilkinson, retired 

bishop of Truro, Feb. 1893. 

ANDRUSSOV, Peace of (30 Jan. 1667), 

between Ru.sia and Poland, for 13 years. 

ANEMOMETER (Greek, anemos, the wind), 
a measurer of the strength and velocity of the wind, 
was invented by Wolfius, in 1709. The extreme 
velocity was found by Dr. Lind to be 93 miles per 
hour. Osier's and Whewell's anemometers were 
highly approved of in 1844. "Robinson's anemo- 
meter is the simplest and best," Buchan, 1867. 

ANEROID, see Barometer. 

ANGEL, a gold coin, impressed with an angel, 
weighing four pennyweights, valued at 6s. 8rf. in 
the reign of Henry VI., and at 10s. in the reign of 
Elizabeth, 1562. The Angelot, a gold coin, value 
half an angel, was struck at Paris when held by the 
English, 1 43 1. Wood. 

ANGELIC KNIGHTS of St. Geohge. 
This order is said to have been instituted by Constan- 
tine, who died 337. The Angelici were instituted by 
the emperor Angelus Coninenus, IIQI. — The Ange- 
lica, an order of nuns, founded at .Milan by Louisa 
Torelli, 1534. 

ANGERS (W\ Central France), the Roman 
Juliomagus, possessing an amphitheatre ; afterw arda 
Andegavum, the oapital of Anjou {which see). It 

was frequently besieged, and many council ere 
held in it between 4.1:3 and 1 | |S, relating ti < < < lesi- 
astical discipline. Populat.on in 1901, 2,966. 

ANGERSTE1N GALLERY, see National 

Gallery. 

The marquis of Bute having purchased the land. 
Oct. 1 80 ;, t" 1 an cavations on the site ol the ancieni 
priory, and gradually came upon remains ol the prior's 

house (Hospitium Vetus), built about 1140, and 11 astic 

buildin [s, the 1 reat hall, refectory, &c. : rem 
mutilated statues were also found. 



ANGLESEY, called by the Romans Mona 
(N. Wales), the seat of the Druids, who were 
massacred in great numbers, when Suetonius 
Paulinus ravaged the isle, 61. It was conquered 
by Agricola in 78; occupied by the Normans, 1090; 
and with the rest of Wales annexed by Edward I, 
in 1284. He built the fortress of Beaumaris in 
129?. The Menai suspension bridge was erected 
1818-25, and the Britannia tubular bridge 1849-50. 

ANGLICAN CHURCH, see Church of Eng- 
land and Fan Anglican. 

ANGLING. Allusion is made to it in the 
Bible ; Isaiah xix. 8 ; Amos iv. 2. Known as a 
pastime to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. 
Oppian wrote his " Halieutics," a Greek ei>ic poem on 

Fishes and Fishing, about a.d. 198. 
In the book on " Hawkynge and Huntynge," by Juliana 

Bemers or Barnes, prioress of Sopwell, near St. 

Albans, "emprinted at Westmestre by Wynkyn de 

Worde," in 1496, is " The treatise of fysshyng with an 

Angle." 
Izaac Walton's " Compleat Angler" was first published in 

1653- 

ANGLO-AMERICAN ASSOCIATION, 

to cultivate more cordial relations between Great 
Britain and the United States, established 25 Jan. 
1871 ; a league formed, 13 July, 1898. 

ANGLO-CATHOLIC, a term used to desig- 
nate the Church ot England generally, but applied 
more especially to the high church section, wh'ch 
claims that the Anglican church is catholic, and 
favours a doctrine and ritual to some extent ap- 
proaching that of the Roman church. 

ANGLO - CONTINENTAL SOCIETY 

founded in 1853 t0 diffuse the principles of the 
Church of England abroad. 

ANGLO-DANISH EXHIBITION, South 
Kensington, opened by the Princess (and Prince) of 
Wales, 14 May, 1888." The profits devoted to the 
rebuilding of the British Home for Incurables. 

ANGLO-FRENCH, ETC. Agreements re- 
specting Africa and other British interests. 
Anglo-Frbnlh Agrkemknt respecting Africa signed by 
the Marquis of Salisbury and M. Waddington, French 
ambassador in London, 5 Aug. 1890. By this agree- 
ment (lie British protectorate over Zanzibar and the 
French protectorate over Madagascar are recognized, 
and the delimitation of territories in Africa, subject to 
the influence of France, was to be settled by two 
commissioners at Paris. A delimitation convention 
signed, July 1893. One settling the bend of the Niger 
signed at Paris, 14 June, 1898; ratified, June, 1S99 ; 
annihiT. by which fiance renounces territory within 
the Nile basin, but holds her right over Wadai : 
21 March, 1899. • 
Anglo-German A.oreement of 1S90 determined the 
boundaries of the British and German proposed terri- 
tories in East Africa; the protectorate of Zanzibar, 
Wiln, Somaliland or Vitu, «as given up to Great 
Britain ; Kilima-Xjaro assigned and Heligoland ceded 
to Germany; signed at Berlin by sir Edward Malet 
and sir Henry lYrey Anders. .11 for England ; by gen. 
von Caprivi and l'r. Krauel for Germany, 1 Julj ; 
ratified b) an acl of parliament which received the 
royal assent, 4 Aug. 189a Boundary agree at 

Bigned al Berlin, as July, 1893. Others signed, 

autumn, 1898 : .•; Feb. 1901. See West African Settle- 
mi nix. 1893 ; id Oct. 1900. See 1 
Av.i <>■.! \i-\\i:sk [ufori kin A.OR1 i:\ikn r : the status qw 
and independence of China and Corea and open-door 

policy tO be maintained : signed, 30 Jan. 1902. 

\ m.i " 1 1 u 1 an Agreement respecting Africa. Sir 
Evelyn Baring and gen. sir Francis Grenfell received 
.!i Rome bj sig. Crispi, 34 Sept. 1890. Meeting of the 
conference a1 Naples, lord Dufferin and sig. Crispi 
present ; no result, 4 to Oct. iSqo. Treaty for the 
delimitation oi the British and Italian spheres of 



ANGLO-GERMAN. 



51 



ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 



influence in Bast Africa ; signed at Rome, 15 April, 
T891 ; another, delimiting boundaries to the n. of 
Erythrea, ratified 28 Jan. 1899. 

Anglo-Portuguese Agreement delimiting the terri- 
tories subject to the influence of Great Britain and 
Portugal in East Africa ; the text of the agreement was 
settled in London 20 Aug. and published in the Times. 
The free navigation of the Zambezi, and uninterrupted 
■communication between British territories ensured, 
26 Aug. 1890. Portugal gives up all claim to Zambezi 
and Nyasaland. The agreement was annulled, and 
a modus vivendi agreed to, 14 Nov. 1890. A new 
modified treaty, signed at Lisbon, n June, 1891, 
and afterwards ratified. 

Anglo-Russian Agreement regarding railway exten- 
sion in China, signed at St. Petersburg, 28 April, 
1899. 

ANGLO-FRENCH AGREEMENT for 

arbitration of dispute*, signed 14 Oct. 1903, see 
Addenda. 

ANGLO-GERMAN association formed in 
London, June, 1897. 

ANGLO-ISRAELISM is the theory held by 
many in Britain and the United States that the 
English race is ethnologically connected with the 
lost ten tribes of Israel, who were carried into 
captivity by the Assyrians 721 b.c. 

ANGLO-NORMANRECORD SOCIETY, 

founded by the duke of Norfolk and others in 1893 
for the printing- of early ecclesiastical charters. 

ANGLO-SAXONS or ANGLES, derive their 
siam>. <rom a village near Sleswick, called Anglen, 
whose p lulation (called Angli by Tacitus) joined 
the first Saxon freebooters. East Anglia was a 
kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, 
one of whose chiefs, Uffa, assumed the title of king, 
571 ; the kingdom ceased in 792. See Britain. 
Cffidmon paraphrased part of the Bible in Anglo- 
Saxon about 680 ; a translation of the eospels was 
made by abbot Egbert, of Iona, 721; of Boethius, 
Orosius, &c, by Alfred, 888. The Anglo-Saxon 
laws were printed by order of government, in 1840. 
A professorship of Anglo-^cuvon at Oxford was founded by 

Dr. Richard Rawlinson in 1795 ; one at Cambridge by 

Dr. Joseph Bosworth in 1867. 

ANGLO-TURKISH CONVENTION, see 

Turkey, 4 June, 1878. 

ANGOLA (S. W. Africa), settled by the Portu- 
guese soon after the discovery, by Diego Cam- 
about 1484. Loando, their capital, was built 1578. 

ANGORA, see Ancyra, 

ANGOULEME, (the Koman Iculisma,) capi- 
tal of the province of Angoumois, Central France, 
W., was a bishopric in 260. Angouleme became 
an independent country about 856 ; was united to 
the Fr.nch crown in 1308 ; was held by the Eng- 
lish, 1360 to 1372, in the reign of Edward III. 
The count of Angouleme became king of France as 
Francis I. in 1515. Population 36,000. 

ANGRA PEQUENA ; the German settle- 
ment here, north of the Orange river, South Africa, 
declared by prince Bismarck to be under the pro- 
tection of the empire, 24 April, 1884; after alleged 
vacillating British diplomacy, 1882-3. 

ANGRIAS FORT, see India, 1756. 

ANGUILLA, Snake Island, West Indies, set- 
tled by the British, 1666. Valuable deposits of 
phosphate of lime were found here in 1859. The 
island suffered by a famine due to long drought and 
failure of crops early in 1891. Population 1901, 
3,890. 



ANHALT, HOUSE OF, in Germany, deduces 
its origin from Berenthobaldus, who made war upon 
the Thuringians in the sixth century. In 1606, 
the principality was divided among the four sons of 
Joachim Ernest, by the eldest, John-George. Thus 
began the four branches — Anhalt-Dessau (de- 
scended from John-George) ; Zerbst, extinct, 1793; 
Plotsgau or Coethen, extinct, 1847; and Bernburg, 
extinct, 1863 ; (the last duke died without issue, 
22 Aug. 1863.) The princes of Anhalt became 
dukes in 1809. Anhalt is an hereditary constitu- 
tional monarchy (by law 19 Feb. 1872) ; population 
in 1871,203,437; in 1875, 213,565; in 1885, 248,166; 
1890, 271,759 ; 1894, 271,963 ; 1900, 316,035. 
Anhalt joined the North German Confederation, 18 Aug. 

1866. 
Leopold (born Oct. 1, 1794), became duke of Anhalt- 
Dessau, 9 Aug. 1817, and of Anhalt-Bernburg, 30 Aug. 
1863 ; died 22 May, 1871. 
Frederic, duke of Anhalt ; born 29 April, 1831. 

Heir: Frederic; born 19 Aug. 1856. 
Marriage of prince Aribert to princess Louise, a daughter 
of prince and princess Christian, 6 July, 1891. 

ANHOLT, Island of, Denmark, was taken 
possession of by England, 18 May, 1809, in the 
French war, on account of Danish cruisers injuring 
British commerce. The Danes made a fruitless 
attempt to regain it, 27 March, 181 1. 

ANILINE, an oily alkaline body, discovered 
in 1826 by Unverdorben among the products of 
distillation of indigo. From benzole {which see) 
Bechamp, in 1856, obtained it by successive treat- 
ment with concentrated nitric acid and reducing 
agents. The scientific relations of aniline have 
been carefully examined by several chemists, 
especially by Dr. A. W. Hofmann. It was long 
known to yield a series of coloured compounds, but 
it was not till 1856 that Mr. W. H. Perkin showed 
how a violet oxidation-product (mauve) could be 
applied in dyeing. Aniline is now manufactured on 
a largo scale for the commercial production of 
"Mauve"' and "Magenta" (rosaniline) (which 
see), and several other colouring matters, aniline 
blue, 1861 ; violet, 1863; "night" green, &c. 
The patent of Simpson, Maule, and Nicholson, for 
aniline colours, was annulled bv tiie house of lords, 
27 July, 1866. See Alizarine. Poisoning from the 
inhalation of aniline vapours, characterised bj- the 
bluish colour of the lips, cheeks and ears 0"'. the 
persons affe?ted, is termed Anilism. 

ANIMALCULES, Leeuwenhoek's remarkable 
microscopical discoveries were published in the 
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 
for 1677, in his " Arcana Naturae," at Leyden, 1696. 
The great works of Ehrenberg of Berlin on the 
Infusorial Animalcuhe, &c, were issued 1838-57. 
Pritchard's Infusoria, ed. 1861, and Mr. W. Savile 
Kent s Manual of Infusoria, 3 volumes, 1880-2, 
are valuable. The Rev. W. H. Dallinger, Dr. Drys- 
dale and other distinguished scientists, by their 
microscopical observations of bacteria and other low 
forms of lite, have greatly increased our knowledge. 

ANIMAL MAGNETISM (to cure diseases 
by sympathetic affection) was introduced by father 
H.eh.1, a Jesuit, at Vienna, about 1774, and had its 
believers in Prance and England about 1788-89. 
Hehl for a short time associated with Mesmer, but 
they soon quarrelled. — Mr. Perkins (who died in 
1799) invented " Metallic Tractors for collecting, 
condensing, and applying animal magnetism ; ' ' 
but Drs. Falconer and EEaygarth put an end to his 
pretensions by performing many wonders with ■<. 
pair of wooden tractors. Brande. See Mesmerism. 
Animal magnetism disproved by commissions of t:ij 

B 2 



ANIMALS. 



52 



'ANNOYANCE JURIES.' r 



French Academy of Sciences, 1837-8 ; investigation 
closed as of a " dead letter," 1840. Eemarkable feats 
were performed by Miss Abbott, "the magnetic 
lady," at the Alhambra theatre, 14 Nov. et seq. 1891 . 

ANIMALS. Mr. Martin, M.P., as a sena- 
tor, zealously laboured to repress cruelty, and 
in 18:4 the Royal Society for the Preven- 
tion of Cruelty to Animals was instituted. Its 
new house in Jermyn-street, London, was founded 
4 May, 1869. It opposed vivisection in i860, in 
nnison with a French society, and in Oct. 1873, 
offered premiums for improved trucks for conveying 
cattle. A jubilee congress of this and similar 
societies met in London 17 June, 1874. Convic- 
tions obtained by the society 1835 to June, 1876, 
28,209. Convictions in England and Wales, 7,320, 
1896 ; 8,033, 1901 ; 40,000/. bequeathed by Mr. J. H. 
Long, Dec. 1902. Annual meetings are held. See 
Vivisection. Mr. Martin's act was passed 1822, and 
similar acts were passed in 1827, 1835, 1837, 1849, 
and 1854. Dogs were forbidden to be used for 
draught in 1839. See Cattle. 
" FellmvsMp of Animals' Friends," organised about 

10 July, 1879 ; earl of Shaftesbury, president. With 

similar object Mr. Kuskin founded St. George's Guild. 

The Dicky Birds Society in the northern counties 

numbered 8,000 members in 1883. 
The Animals' Institute, Knightsbridge, distributed 

prizes for inventions for the relief of horses and other 

animals, 28 July, 1890. 
A hospital lor animals was opened at 75, Kinnerton-st., 

Wilton place, S.W., April, 1896. See Brown institution. 
Wild animals in captivity protection act passed, 6 Aug. 

1900. 

ANIMISM, the name given to the doctrine 
propounded by George E. Stahl about 1707, that 
the soul (anima) is the proper principle of life, 
"the vital principle" in opposition to materialism, 
which sec. The term animism was given by Dr. 
Edward B. Tylor in 1869, to the belief in the exist- 
ence of active spiritual beings common alike among 
civilized and uncivilized peoples. He lectured on 
animism (terming it a minimum definition of 
religion) at the Royal institution, March 1895. 

ANJOU, a province, "W. France, was taken by 
Henry II. of England from his brother Geoffrey, 
in 1 1 56; their father Geoffrey Plantagenet, count of 
Anjou, having married the empress Matilda in 1127. 
It was taken from king John by Philip of France 
in 1205 ; was reconquered by Edward III. ; relin- 
quished by him at the peace cf Bretigny in 1360, 
and given by Charles V. to his brother Louis with 
the title of duke. The university was formed in 
1349- 

lj6o. Louis I. duke, invested by the pope with the 
dominions of Joanna of Naples, 1381 ; his invading 
ormj destroyed by the plague, 1383; he dies, 1384. 
1384. Louis II., his son, receives the same giant, but is 

also unsuccessful. 
Louis III., adopted by Joanna ; dies 1434. 
1434. Regnier or Rene le bon (a prisoner) declared king 
of Naples, 1435; bis daughter, Margaret, married 
llenry VI. of England, 1445 ; lie was expelled from 
Anjou by Louis xl., 147.), and his estates confiscated, 
Francis, duke of Alengon, brother to Henry ill. ol 
France, became duke of Anjou ; at one' time he 
favoured the Protestants, au.t vainly ottered marriage to 
Elizabeth of England, 15S1-82 ; died 15 84. 

ANJOU or Beauge, Battle of, bet wren 
tin- English and French ; the latter commanded by 
the dauphin of Fiance, 22 March, 1421. The Eng- 
lish were defeated : the duke of Clarence waa alain 
by sir Allan Swinton. a Scotch knight, and kjoo 
men perished on the held ; the earls of Somerset, 
Dorset, and Huntingdon were taken prisoners. 
Beauge was the first battle that turned the tide of 
success against the English. 



ANNAM or ANAM, an empire of Asia, to the 
east of India, nominally subject to China, formerly- 
comprising Tonquin, Cochin China, partof Cambodia,, 
and various islands in the Chinese Sea ; said to- 
have been conquered by the Chinese, 234 B.C.,. 
and held by them till a.d. 263. In 1406 they 
reconquered it, but abandoned it in 1428. After- 
much anarchy, bishop Adran, a French missionary, 
obtained the friendship of Louis XVI. for his- 
pupil Gia-long, the son of the nominally reign- 
ing monarch, and with the aid of a few of hie- 
countrymen established Gia-long on the throne, 
who reigned till his death in 1821, when his son 
became king. In consequence of the persecution of 
the Christians, war broke out with the French, 
who defeated the army of Annam, 10,000 strong, 
about 22 April, 1859, w'hen 500 were killed. On 3 
June, 1862, peace was made ; three provinces were 
ceded to the French, and toleration of the Christiana 
granted. An insurrection in these provinces against 
the French, begun about 17 Dec. 1862, was sup- 
pressed in Feb. 1863. Ambassadors sent from An- 
nam with the view of regaining the ceded provinces- 
arrived at Paris in Sept. 1863, had no success. Cochin 
China and other provinces were annexed to the 
French empire by proclamation, 25 June, 1867, 
Several native Christians were massacred by order 
of a bonze, July, 1868. Population about 3,000,000, 
capital Hue". Buddhism, ancestor worship, com- 
munal life, and education prevail. 
By a treaty concluded 15 March, 1874, at Saigon, the 
independence of the king of Annam was recognized byr 
France, the ports were opened to commerce, and tolera- 
tion of the Christian religion was secured. 
Tu Due, emperor, 34 years, resists the French in Tonquin, 
(which see), 1883 ; dies aged 54, 17 July, 1883,2 
Heiphma succeeds. 
The French protectorate recognized by treaty signed 

at Hue 25 Aug. , r 

The King assassinated by enemies of the French, 

Dec, succeeded by Yoe-Duc . about 14 Dec. „ 
The prince who promoted massacres of Christians 

in December and January executed about 26 Mar. 1884. 
The king dies, succeeded by his brother Kienphuoc 

(a boy) announced 2 Aug. , y 

Treacherous attack of the Regent Thu-Hong, with 

30,000 men, on General de Courcy with 1,000 men 

at the French camp at Hue ; repulsed with heavy 

loss, and the Regent captured . . 5-6 July, 1885 

French protectorate : Chaul Mong, adopted son of 

Tu Due (named Douck Hanh) crowned 19 Sept. ,, 
Reported great massacre of Christians . Oct. „ 
The king dies ; Bun Lafl, his sou, 10 years old (called 
Tham Thai), proclaimed . . .31 Jan. 18S9 

ANNAPOLIS, see Fort Royal. 

ANNATES, see First Fruits. 

I ANNO DOMINI, A.D., the year of On? 
Lord, of Grace, of the Incarnation, of the Cireuni- 

1 oision, and of the Crucifixion (Traoeatonis). The 
Christian era commenced 1 Jan. in the middle of 

j the 4th year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753rd year 
of the building of Koine, and in 4714 of the 
Julian period. This era was invented by a- 
monk, Dionysius Exiguus, about 532. It was. 
introduced into Italy in the 6th century, and 
ordered to be used by bishops by tlie council of? 
Chelsea, in 816, but was not generally employed 
for several centuries. Charles III. id' Germany was- 

I the first who added " in the year of our Lord " to 
his reign, in 879. It was formerly held that Christ 
was born 4 h.o. Mr. AY. T. Lynn considers that 
probably Christ was born towards the end of the 
year 5. 
ANNO MUNDI, sec Creation. 
"ANNOYANCE JURIES," of Westmin- 
ster, chosen from the householders in conformity 

. with 27 Eliz. c. 17 (1585), were abolished in 1861. 



ANNUAL REGISTER. 



53 



ANTHOLOGY, GREEK. 



.ANNUAL REGISTER, a summary of the 
.history of each year (beginning with 1758, and 
continued to the present time), was commenced by 
it. & J. Dodsley. (Edmund Burke at first wrote 
the whole work, but afterwards became only an 
■occasional contributor. Prior.) A similar work, 
*' Annuaire des Deux Moudes," began in Paris 1850. 

ANNUALS, a name given to richly bound 
volumes, containing poetry, tales, and essays, by 
eminent authors, illustrated by engravings, pub- 
lished annually, at first in Germany, and also in 
London in 1823. The duration of the chief of these 
publications is here given : 
Forget-me-not (Ackerman's) .... 1823-48 

Friendship's Offering 1824-44 

Literary Souvenir (first as " the Graces ") . . 1824-34 

Amulet 1827-34 

Keepsake . 1828-56 

Hood's Comic Annual ... . 1830-42 

ANNUITIES or Pensions. In 1512, 20I. a 

year were given to a lady of the court for services 
■done ; and bl. 13s. 4^. for the maintenance of a 
gentleman, 1536. 13^. 6s. 8d. deemed competent 
to support a gentleman in the study of the law, 
1554. An act was passed empowering the govern- 
ment to borrow one million sterling upon an an- 
nuity of fourteen per cent., 4-6 Will. & Mary, 1691-3, 
This mode of borrowing soon afterwards became 
general among governments. An annuity of 
ll. 2s. nd. per annum, accumulatingat 10 per cent.) 
>compound interest, amounts in 100 j r ears to 20,000/. 
The Government Annuities and Life Assurances 
Act was passed in 1864, for the benefit of the 
working classes ; since it enables the government 
to grant deferred annuities for sums payable in 
small instalments. New system of government 
annuities came into operation 3 June, 1884. Works 
on annuities were published by l)e Witt, 1671 ; De 
Moivre, 1724; Simpson, 1742; Tables by Price, 
1792; Milne, 1815 ; Jones, 1843; Farre, 1864; In- 
stitute of Actuaries, 1872 and 1882-7. 

ANNUITY TAX : a tax levied to provide 
■stipends for ministers in Edinburgh and Montrose, 
.and which caused much disaffection, was abolished 
■in i860, and other provisions made for the pur- 
pose. These, however, proved equally unpalatable, 
and their abolition was provided for by an act passed 
<9 Aug. 1870. 

ANNUNCIATION of the Vikgin Mary, 

25th of March, Lady-day (which see), a festival 
■commemorating the tidings brought to Mary by the 
;angel Gabriel (Luke i. 26) : its origin is referred 

to the 4th or 5th century. The religions order of 
She Annunciation was instituted in 1232, and the 
military order, in Savoy, by Amadeus, count of 

Savoy 1360, in memory of Amadeus I., who had 
bravely defended Rhodes against the Tm-ks, 1355. 
New statutes, 1869. It is the highest Italian order. 

ANOINTING, an ancient ceremony observed 
at the inauguration of priests, kings, and bishops. 
Aaron was anointed as high priest, 1491 B.C. ; and 
■Saul, as king, 1095 B - c - Alfred the Great is said 
ito have been the first English king anointed, a.d. 
871 ; and Edgar of Scotland, 1098. — The religious 
(rite is derived from the epistle of James v. 14, about 
a.d. 60. Some authors assert that in 550, dying 
(persons, and persons in extreme danger of death, 
were anointed with consecrated oil, and that this 
•was the origin of Extreme Unction (one of the 
sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church) . 

ANONYMOUS LETTERS, see Threatening 
Letters. 



ANORTHOSCOPE, an optical apparatus, 
described by Dr. Carpenter in 1868. In it distorted 
figures lose their distortion when in rapid motion. 

'_' ANTAGONISM," was demonstrated to be a 
universal principle throughout Nature with bene- 
ficial results by Sir W. R. Grove in a discourse 
at the Royal Institution, London, 20 April 1888. 

ANTALCIDAS, Peace of. In 387 b.c. 

Antalcidas the Lacedaemonian made peace with 
Artaxerxes of Persia, on behalf of Greece, but prin- 
cipally in favour of Sparta, giving up the cities o f 
Ionia to the king. 

ANTARCTIC POLE, &c, the opposite to the 

north or arctic pole; see Southern Continent. 

Antarctic Expedition proposed by the Australian Colo- 
nies ; a committee of the Royal Society formed, Pro- 
fessor Stokes, president, Lord Kayleigh, Professor 
Huxley, and others, Nov. 1887. 

Baron Oscar Dickson, of Gothenburg, undertook to sub- 
scribe 5,000?. and procure the remainder of the expense 
from the Swedish government, if the Australasian 
colonies should subscribe 5,000?. ; the project appeared 
to be in abeyance, Dec. 1891. 

Antarctic whaling expedition from Dundee arrived at 
Port Stanley, Falkland Islands, 11 Dec. 1892. 

Mr. C. E. Borchgrevink, a Norwegian explorer, first to 
laud at Cape Adair, on the S. continent, 23 Feb. 1895 ; 
a scientific expedition under him, equipped by sir 
Geo. Newnes, left London in the Southern Cross 
(capt. B. Jensen) for S. Victoria Land, 22 Aug. 1898; 
readied Cape Adair, 17 Feb. 1899, which they ascend 
to 3,670 ft., 12 March ; valuable collection made at 
Duke of York island and Geikie land (so named by 
Mr. Borchgrevink). Mr. N. Hansen died, 5 Oct. ; 
magnetic position of the S. pole fixed at about lat. 
73, 20 S. and 146 E. ; furthest points, ever reached 
78° 50', 17 March 1900 ; they returned to Stewart 
island, 4 April, 1900. 

The De Gerlache expedition in the Belgica leaves Ant- 
werp, 16 Aug., 1897; explored the S. Shetlands, 21 Jan. 
1898 ; discovered strait Belgica, land to the east, 
named Danco Land, 23 Jan. ; ice-bound, 23 Feb., 
continual night, 17 May — 21 July ; lieut. Danco died, 
5 June ; Punta Arenas, Patagonia, reached, good 
scientific results, 28 March, 1899. 

British Expedition Fund started by a donation of 
25,000?. from Ll. W. Longstaff received a treasury 
grant of 45,000?. The Discovery, capt. Scott, built at 
Dundee, inspected by the king and queen at Cowes, 
Aug. 5, left Port Chalmers Dec. 24, 1901. The Morn-' 
ing, relief ship, left London Aug. 2, 1902, found 
letters from capt. Scott at Cape Crozier, Jan. 18, 1903. 
Penetrated ice-pack to within 10 miles of the Dis- 
covery, transferred coal stores, &c, and left the 
Discovery snugly berthed, her men blasting the ice to 
force a passage, March 2, 1903. Relief ship Terra 
Nova left Portland for Hobart. Tasmania, to be joined 
there by the Morning, from Lyttleton, N. Zealand, 
Aug. 24. 

German expedition. The Gauss, capt. Hans_ Ruser, left 
Hamburg 11 Aug. 1901, reached Kerguelen Island, 2 
Jan. 1902 ; a magnetic station founded there. Found 
bottom at 3,950 fathoms, 18° 15' W. 0° 11' S. 

ANTHEMS were originally antiphons— short 
pieces of plain-song sung before the psalms. Gene- 
rally responsive antiphonic music was used in Jewish 
and early christian worship. Hilary, bishop of 
Poictiers, and St. Ambrose composed such about the 
middle of the 4th century. Lenglet. The modern 
anthem, a passage of scripture set to music, was 
introduced into the Reformed churches in queen 
Elizabeth's reign, about 1560. 

English Anthem Writers : 1520-1625, Tye, Tallis, Byrd, 
Gibbons ; 1650-1720, Humphrey, Blow, Purcell, Croft, 
Clarke ; 1720-1900, Greene, Boyce, Hayes, Battishill, 
Attwood, Walmisley, Wesley, Goss, Elvey, Sullivan. 

ANTHOLOGY, GREEK, a collection of 
popular epigrams and small poems written by 
Archilochus, Sappho, Simonides, Meleager, Plato 



ANTHRACENE. 



54 



ANTIOCH. 



and others, between 680 and 95 B.C. They were 
collected by Meleager, Philippus, Agathias, and 
others, especially by Maximus Planudes, a monk 
in the 14th centurv a.d., and a MS. collection by 
Constantine Cephalas was found at Heidelberg by 
Salmasius in 1606; and published bv Brunck 
1772-6. Translations have been made by Bland, 
Merivale, and others. 

ANTHRACENE, see Alizarine. 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY (an- 
thrnpos, Greek for man) , for promoting the science 
of man and mankind, held its first meeting on 24 
Feb. 1863 ; Dr. James Hunt, president, in the 
chair. The " Anthropological Beview " first came 
out in May, 1863. The Anthropological and Ethno- 
logical Societies were amalgamated 17 Jan. 187 1, 
and styled "The Anthropological Institute," Sir 
John Lubbock, president. The London Anthro- 
pological Society established 1873, ceased 1875. •^• n 
Anthropological congress at Paris was opened 16 
Aug. 1878; others since; at Moscow, 13 Aug. 1892. 
The Anthropometrical Committee reported to the 
British Association the results of measuring about 
53,000 persons in the United Kingdom, Sept. 1883. 
Fourth international congress of Criminal Anthropology 

opened at Geneva, 24 Aug., 1896 ; 5th, Amsterdam, 

9-14 Sept. 1901. See Torres. 

ANTHROPOMORPHITES, a name given 
to the Audiani, which see. 

ANTHROPOPHAGI (eaters of human flesh), 
see Cannibals. 

AKTI- AGGRESSION LEAGUE (oppo- 
sing interference in foreign affairs) formed by Mr. 
John Morley and others, Feb. 1882. 

ANTIBURGHERS, see Burghers. 

ANTICHRIST (opposed to Christ), 1 John ii. 
18, termed the "Man of sin," 2 Thess. ii. 3; of 
these passages many interpretations have been given, 
and many myths were current in the middle ages, 
respecting the incarnation of the devil, &c. The 
term is applied to each other by Koman Catholics 
and Protestants. 

ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE (for pro- 
curing the repeal of the laws charging duty on the 
importation of corn), sprung from various metro- 
politan and provincial associations, was founded at 
Manchester, 18 Sept. 1838, and supported by Messrs. 
Charles Villiers, Richard Cobden, John Bright, &c; 
John Benjamin Smith, ist chairman, d. 15 Sept. 
1879. See Corn Laws, and Protectionists. 
Meetings held in various places . March & April, 1841 
Excited meeting at Manchestei . . 18 May, ,, 
A bazaar held a1 Manchester, a1 which tin' League 

realised 10,000?. a Feb. 1S42 

A in ml 600 deputies connected with provincial asso- 
ciations assemble in London . Feb.-Aug. ,. 

The League at Manchester prnpiisei] tn raise 

50,000?., to depute Lecturers throughout the 
country, and to print pamphlets . 20 en. .. 

First meeting at Drurj lane I'll. ■■lire. 15 March, 1843 

Monthl] meetings at Covent-Garden, commenced 
28 Sept. ; great tree trade met tin ■ i a1 Mani hester 

14 N"\ . 1 B 1 1, ami g • Jan. 1845 

Bazaar a1 Covenl Garden, 25, ; . obtained, 

5 Maj June. ., 

Greal Manchester meeting, at which the 1 
proposed to raise 350000!. . . . : Dec. .. 

The ( "in Importation Bill having passed, ti June, 
tiie League Is formally dissolved; Mr. Cobden was 
rewarded bj b national subscription, nearly 
80,000? -.> July, 1S46 

On the accession of the Derby ministry, n revival of 
the Antl < orn Law League « iut proposi d at Man 
cheater, and a subscription was opened, which 



produced within half an hour 27,520?. (soon proved 

unnecessary) 2 Mar. 185a 

Death of Richard Cobden, 2 April, 1865; John 
Bright 27 Mar. 3889 

ANTIETAM CREEK, near Sharpsburg, 
Maryland, U.S. Here was fought a terrible battle- 
on 17 Sept. 1862, between the Federals under gene- 
ral M'Clellan, and the Confederates under Lee. 
After his victory at Bull Bun or Manassas, 30 Aug. 
Lee invaded Maryland, and was immediately fol- 
lowed by M'Clellan. On 16 Sept. Lee was joined 
by Jackson, and at live o'clock next morning the 
conflict began. About 100,000 men were engaged,. 
and the battle raged till night. The Federals were 
repeatedly repulsed ; but eventually the Con- 
federates retreated and repassed the Potomac ob 
18 and 19 Sept. Federals' loss was estimated at 
12,469 ; the Confederates, 14,000. A national 
cemetery here, was dedicated 17 Sept. 1867. 

ANTI-GAMBLING LEAGUE, NA- 
TIONAL, instituted 1889, to awaken public opiuioii 
on the subject of betting and g.niblmg, ana sup- 
press these evils. The work of the league is carried 
on by the dissemination of literature, the organisa- 
tion of leccures and public meetings, the promotion! 
of amending measures in parliament, and the en- 
forcement ox' existing laws. President, right hon. 
the earl of Aberdeen. Offices, 13, Victoria-street, 
Westminster. See also Betting-houses. 

ANTIGUA, a West Indian island, discovered 
by Columbus in Nov. 1493; settled by the English in 
1632; made a bishopric, 1842. Population in 1861, 
36,412; 1881,34,964; 1891, 36,699: 1901,34,953- 
Govemor, sir B. C. C. Pine, 1869 ; hon. H. T. 
Irving, 1873 ; hon. Geo. Berkeley, 1874-80; sir J. H. 
Glover, 1881 ; sir Wm. Fred. Haynes Smith, 1895. 
Antigua is the seat of government of the Leeward 
Isles, which see. Antigua becomes a crown colony;. 
23 March, 1898. 

" ANTI-JACOBIN or Weekly Examiner," a 
satirical paper, opposed to revolutionary principles, 
published by George Canning and his friends 1797- 
98; its poetry included the "Needy Knife Grinder. 

ANTILLES, or Caribbee Islands, an early ■ 

name of the AVest Indies (which see). 

ANTIMONY, a white brittle metal, com- 
pounds of which were early known. It was, and 
is still, used to blacken both men's and women's 
eyes in the east (2 Kings ix.30, and Jeremiah iv. 

b). Mixed with lead it forms printing type metal. 

"asil Valentine wrote on antimony about 1410. 
Priestley. See Bravo Case and Trials, 1902,. 
Chapman's Case, 

ANTINOMIANS (from the Greek anti, 
against, and nomas, law), a name given by Lutheir 
(in 1538) to John Agricola, who is said to have 
held "that it mattered not how wicked a man was 
if he had but faith." (Opposed to Esm. iii. 28, and 
v. r, 2.) He retracted these doctrines in 1540. The 
Antinomiaus were condemned by the British par- 
liament, 1648. 

ANTIOCH. now Antakjeh, Syria, built by 
Seleuous, 300 b.c. after the battle of Ipsus, 301, 
acquired the name " Queen of the East." Here the 
disciples were tirst called Christians, a.1). 42 (Acts 
xi. 20). Antiooh was taken by tin- Persians, 540; 
by the Saracens about 638; recovered for the Eastern, 
emperor, 966; lost again in 1086; retaken bv the 
Crusaders iii June, ioqS, and made capital of a 
principality, 1099; and held by them till June, 
1268, when it w as captured by the sultan of Egypt. 



I 



ANTI-PARNELLITES. 



55 



ANTWERP. 



It was taken from the Turks in the Syrian war, I 
Aug. 1832, by Ibrahim Pacha, but restored at the 
peace. Antioch suffered much by an earthquake, 
and about 1600 persons were killed, 3 April, 1872. 
A Syrian church still exists at Antioch. — The 
Cesarean Era of Antioch, 48 B.C., is much used 
by the early Christian writers of Antioch and 
Alexandria ; it placed the Creation 5492 years B.C. 
31 councils were held at Antioch, 252-1161. 

ANTI-PARNELLITES, see under PornelU 
ites, 1890. 

ANTIPHONS, see Anthems. 

ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first 
who thought it possible that antipodes existed 
(about 388 B.C.). Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, 
legate of pope Zachary, is said to have denounced 
a bishop as a heretic for maintaining this doc- 
trine, a.d. 741. The antipodes of England lie to the 
south-east of New Zealand, near Antipodes Island. 

ANTI-POPES, rival popes elected at various 
times, especially by the French and Italian factions, 
from 1305 to 1439. In the article Popes, the Anti- 
popes are printed in italics. 

ANTIPYRINE, an artificial alkaloid obtained 
from coal-tar, discovered in 1883 b}' Knorr, of 
Erlangen, is said to be a remedy for sea sickness ; 
a substitute for quinine and a source of aniline 
colours. 

ANTIQUARIES. A college of antiquaries is 
said to have existed in Ireland 700 B.C. The annual 
International Congress of Prehistoric Archaeology 
originated at La Spezzia in 1865 ; meetings have 
been held since at Paris, Norwich, &c. 

A society was founded by archbishop Parker, Camden, 
Stow, and others in 1572. Spelman. 

Application was made to Elizabeth for a charter, her 
death ensued, and her successor, James I., was far 
from favouring the design. 

The "Antiquaries' feast," mentioned by Ashmole, 2 
July, 1659. 

The Society of Antiquaries revived, 1707 ; received its 
charter of incorporation from George II., 2 Nov. 1751 ; 
met in Chancery-lane, 1753 ; apartments in Somerset 
House (granted 1776 ;) occupied, 15 Feb. 1781 ; removed 
to Burlington House, 1874 ; first meeting 14 Jan. 
1875. Memoirs, entitled " Archseologia," first pub- 
lished in 1770 ; president, earl Stanhope, elected 1846 ; 
died 24 Dec. 1875; Frederic Ouvry, 1875 ; by the earl of 
Carnarvon, 1878 ; Mr. John Evans, 1885 ; sir Augustus 
W. Banks, 1893 ; Viscount Dillon, 1900. 

British Archaeological Association founded Dee. 1843 > 
jubilee celebrated 31 July — 5 Aug. 1893. 

Archaeological Institute of Great Britain formed by a 
seceding part of the Association, 1845. Annual meet- 
ings held in the provinces by both bodies. 

Society of Antiquaries of Edinburgh founded in 1780. 

Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland founded 1849. 

Since 1845 many county archaeological societies have 
been formed in the United Kingdom. The fourth 
congress of these archaeological societies, 20 July, 
1892; ninth, 1 Dec. 1897; tenth, London, 6 July, 1898. 

The Society of Antiquaries of France (1814) began in 1805 
as the Celtic Academy. 

" The Antiquary," a magazine, began 1880. 

British School of Archeology (first director, F. C. Pen- 
rose) opened at Athens Nov. 1886. 

The Illustrated Archaeologist (quarterly), June, 1893. 

ANTISANA, see Andes. 

ANTISEPTIC 

Theory. 

ANTI-SLAVERY 

Slave Trade. 



SURGERY, see Germ 
SOCIETY. See under 



ANTITOXIN, a substance present or 
generated in the body, which neutralises the 
action of poisons introduced or generated there. 



The serum of the blood of an animal in which the 
bacillus (b. dip ht her ice) of diphtheria has been 
injected, is used in the treatment of Diphtheria 
{which see). 

ANTI TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of 
Byzantium, at the close of the 2nd century, is sup- 
posed to have been the first who advocated the 
simple humanity of Jesus. See Arians, Socinians, 
Unitarians. 

ANTIUM, maritime city of Latium, now Porto 
d' Anzio, near Rome, after a long struggle for inde- 
pendence, became a Roman colony, at the end of the 
great Latin war, 340-338 B.C. It is mentioned by 
Horace, and was a favourite retreat of the emperors 
and wealthy Romans, who erected many villas in 
its vicinity. The treasures deposited in the temple 
of Fortune here were taken by Octa vius Cassar during 
his war with Antony, 41 B.C. 

ANTLVACCINATION LEAGUE, see 

under Vaccination. 

ANTIVARI, a seaport 011 the Adriatic, ceded 
to Montenegro by the Berlin treaty, 13 July, 1878. 
ANTONELLI CASE, see Italy, 1877-9. 
ANTONINUS' "WALL, see Roman Walls. 

ANTWERP (French, Anvers), the principal 
port of Belgium, is mentioned in history in 517. It 
was a small republic in the nth century, and was 
the first commercial city in Europe till the wars of 
the 16th and 17th centuries. Population, 1890, 
227,225 ; 1900, 285,600. 

Its fine exchange built 1531 

Taken after 14 months' siege by the prince of Parma- 

17 Aug. 1585 
Truce of Antwerp (between Spain and United Pro- 
vinces) for 12 years, concluded . . 29 Mar. 1609 
After Marlborough's victory at Ramillies, Antwerp 

surrenders at once .... 6 June, 1706 

The Barrier treaty concluded here . 16 Nov. 1715 

Taken by marshal Saxe .... 9 May, 1746 
Occupied by the French . . . 1792-3,1794-1814 
Civil war between the Belgians and the House of 

Orange. (See Belgium.) .... 1830-31 
The Belgian troops, having entered Antwerp, were 
opposed by the Dutch garrison, who, after a 
dreadful conflict, being driven into the citadel, 
cannonaded the town with red-hot balls 27 Oct. 1830 
The citadel bombarded by the French, 4 Dec. ; sur- 
rendered by gen. Chasse . . .23 Dec. 1832 
Exchange burnt ; archives, &c, destroyed 2 Aug. 1858 

A fine-art fete held 17-20 Aug. 1861 

Great Napoleon wharf destroyed by fire ; loss 25 

lives and about 400,000?. . . 2 Dec. ,, 

Great fete at the opening of the port by the aboli- 
tion of the Scheldt dues . . . 3 Aug. 1863. 
Fortifications constructed .... 1860-70 
Statue of Leopold I. uncovered . . 2 Aug. 186S 
Tercentenary of Rubens' birth, celebrated . 18 Aug. 1877 
Plantin-Moretus Museum, containing collections of 
about 300 years, viz. : 12,000 old letters, printing 
types, portraits, &c, made by the Plantins 
(descendants of Charles de Tiercelin, seigneur de 
la Roche du Maine), who were printers to the 
kings of Spain ; opened . . about 20 Aug. ,, 
International Exhibition, opened by the king 2 

May, 1885; closed . . . .15 Oct. 1885 

New quays opened by the King . . 26 July, ,, 
Great explosion at M. Corvilain's cartridge factory, 
behind the docks in the port ; large Russian 
petroleum warehouses take fire, causing great 
destruction of property, 6 Sept., the shipping 
only escaped by the direction of the wind ; the 
fire subdued ; visit of the king, 13 Sept. ; reported 
deaths, 120; injured, 130 . . . 18 Sept. 1889 
Trial of M. Corvilain and his engineer, M. Delauney, 
for homicide, &c. ; M. Corvilain sentenced to 5^ 
years' penal servitude, and his engineer, M. 
Delauney, to ij- years, at Brussels, 14 — 27 Nov. 

1889, and 17 Feb. 1890 

Great fire at the African warehouses ; loss about 
1,000,000 francs 8 May, 1893 



ANVAE-I-SUHAILI. 



56 



APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTIONS. 



International, industrial and fine arts exhibition ; 
area, near the Scheldt, between 200 and 3ooacres ; 
main building about 1,300 yards long, erected 
according to plans of Mr. J. F. Hasse ; Belgian 
industry specially represented ; models of old 
Antwerp and of a settlement in the Congo Free 
State; the naval models included the ill-fated 
Victoria ; opened by the king and queen, 5 May 
et seq. ; state visit of the lord mayor of .London 
and others, 3 Aug. et seq. ; distribution of awards 
to exhibitors by the king ... 2 Oct. 1894 
Expulsion of Mr. Sexton, Mr. Ben Tillett, and 

others, trade unionists .... Aug. 1S96 
Compensation to Mr. Ben Tillett referred to arbi- 
tration ; announced . . . .4 March, 1897 
Vandyck tercentenary exhibition opened, 12 Aug. 1899 
Historical procession through the city 14 Aug. ,, 
Shipping dispute, on hours of labour, strike begins, 
17 Dec. 1900, some rioting . . 22, 31 Dec. 1900 

ANVAE-I-SUHAILI, or the Lights of Cano- 
pus, the ancient Persian version of the ancient 
I'ables of Pilpay, Bidpai, or Vishnu Sarma, made 
hy Husain Vaiz, at the order of Nushirvan, king of 
Persia. The English translation by E. B. Eastwick, 
published 1854. See Fables. 

ANZIN COAL MINES, near Valenciennes, 
N. France: first tapped 24 June, 1734. The com- 
pany formed is immensely rich : cabinet ministers 
generally directors. Output, in 1790, 300,000 tons : 
1502, over 4,000,000 tons. The new hauling engine, 
with flat ropes, lifts 15 tons at a time, 1502. 

APATITE, mineral phosphate of lime. About 
1856 it began to be largely employed as manure. It 
is abundant in Norway, and in Sombrero, a small 
West India island. 

APOCALYPSE or Revelation, written by 

St. John in the isle of Patmos about a.d. 95.* 

APOCEYPHA. In the preface to the Apo- 
ci'ypha it is said, ''These books are neyther found in 
the Hebrue nor in theChalde." Bible, 1539. The 
history of the Apocrypha ends 135 B.C. The books 
were not in the Jewish canon, were rejected at the 
council of Laodicea held a.d. 363, but were re- 
ceived as canonical by the Roman Catholic church 
at the council of Trent on 8 April, 1546. Parts of 
the Apocrypha were admitted to be read as lessons 
by the church of England, by the 6th article, 1^63. 
Many of these were excluded by the act passed 1871. 
Revised version completed, Oct., published Nov., 
1895. 

1 Esdras .... from about B.C. 623-44, 

2 Esdras , 

Tobit ,, 734-678 

Judith ,, 656 

Esther „ 510 

Wisdom of Solomon * * 

Ecclesiasticus B.C. 300 or 180 

Baruch * * 

Song ofthe Three Children * 

History of Susannah * * 

Bel ami the Dragon * * 

Prayer of Manasses b c. 676 

1 Maccabees about 323-135 

2 Maccabees from about 187-161 

There arc also Apocryphal writings in connection with 

the New Testament, such as gospels, epistles, &c, 
attributed to Clement, Barnabas, and others. Frag- 
ments of a gospel attributed to St. Peter were found 
in an Egyptian tomb in 1886-7, and printed with a 

* Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the here- 
tic, and. others to John, the presbyter, of Emiesus. In 
the first centuries many churches disowned lit, and in the 
4th century it was excluded from the Bacijd canon by 
the council ol Laodicea, 1 ui was again receded by oilier 
councils, and confirmed by that of Trent.iield in 1545, 

et seq. lis en deal authority is almost universally 

acknowledged. 

/' 



translation in 1892 ; two leaves of a new gospel in 
Coptic discovered by Dr. Jacoby at Strasbourg 
among papyri from Egypt, translated and printed in 
1900. 

APOLLINARISTS, followers of Apollinaris, 
a reader in the church of Laodicea, who taught 
(366) that the divinity of Christ was instead of a 
soul to him ; that his flesh was pre-existent to his 
appearance upon earth, and was sent down from 
heaven, and conveyed through the Virgin; that 
there were two sons, one born of God, the other of 
the Virgin, &c. These opinions were condemned 
by the council of Constantinople, 381. 

APOLLO, the god of the fine arts, medicine, 
music, poetry, and eloquence, had many temples 
and statues, particularly in Greece and Italy. See 
Delphi. The statue of Apollo Belvedere, discovered 
at Antium, in Italy, in 1503, was purchased by pope 
Julius II., who placed it in the Vatican. 

APOLLONICON, an elaborate musical in- 
strument, constructed on the principle of the organ 
(keys and barrel), was invented by Messrs. Flight 
and Robson, of St. Martin's lane, Westminster, and 
exhibited by them first in 181 7. Timbs. 

APOLOGIES fop. Christianity were ad- 
dressed by Justin Martyr to the emperor Antoninus 
Pius about 139, and to the Poman senate about 164. 
Other apologns were written by Quadratus, Aris- 
tides, and other early fathers of the Church. 

APOSTLES (Greek, apostolos, one sent forth). 
Twelve were appointed by Christ, a.d. 31 ; viz. 
Simon Peter and Andrew (brothers), James and 
John (sons of Zebedee), Philip, Nathanael (or Bar- 
tholomew), Matthew (or Levi), Thomas, James the 
Less (son of Alphams), Simon the Canaanite and 
Jude or Thaddeus (brothers), and Judas Iscariot. 
Matthias was elected in the room of Judas Iscariot, 
a.d. 33 {Acts i.) ; and Paul and Barnabas were 
appointed by the Holy Spirit, a.d. 45 {Acts xiii. 2). 

" The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles," a small vellum 
volume in Greek, dated about 1056, discovered by 
Philotheos Bryennios, metropolitan of Nicomedea, in 
the library of the Holy Sepulchre monastery at Con- 
stantinople in 1873 ; and published by him in 1875. 
The composition is ascribed to the first century. The 
text, with English translation and introduction, was 
published by R. D. Hitchcock and Francis Brown in 
1884; improved edition, spring, 1885. 

APOSTLE SPOONS, given as a baptismal 
present in the i(>th and 17th centuries, arc named 
from the figures of the Apostles, which crown the 
handle. A complete set of [6, same date (10 Henry 
V11L), was sold, 1903, for 4,900/. 

APOSTLES' CEEED, erroneously attributed 
to the apostles, is mentioned as the Roman creed by 
Rufinus, died about 410. Ireiueus, bishop of Lyons, 
died 202, gives a creed resembling it. Its repetition 
in public worship was ordained in the Greek church 
at Antioch, and in the Roman church in the nth 
century, whence it passed to the church of England. 

APOSTOLICAL, see Canons and Fathers. 

APOSTOLIC BEETHEEN, a sect, 13th 
century, founded by Sugarelli, a weaver of Parma. 

Its leading teiieis were the return to the primitive 
life of the apostolic age and community of goods. 
The sect incurred papal censure, and Sugarelli was 
burned [380. 

APOSTOLIC CONSTITUTIONS, eight 
books, the Constitutioncs Apostolicte, which bad 
much influence on the development of Christian 



APOSTOLICAL SUCCESSION. 



57 



APPRENTICES. 



doctrine, dogma, and liturgy, written in 3rd and 
4th centuries. The Apostolic Canons, 85 eccle- 
siastical precepts on the priest's office and life, 
extracted from the scriptures and synodical decrees. 
The first 50, compiled 5th century, only were re- 
cognised by the Roman Church ; the 35 canons, 
put forth 6th century, were received by the Greek 
Church. Tradition ascribes both the Constitutions 
and the Canons to Clement of Rome. 

APOSTOLICAL SUCCESSION, the 
doctrine of the uninterrupted transmission of the j 
ministerial authority from Christ, as the fountain j 
of grace, to the Apostles, and from them to the 
episcopate. 

APOSTOLICI, a sect, at the end of the 2nd 
century, which renounced marriage, wine, flesh, &c. 
A second sect, founded by Sagarelli about 1261, 
wandered about, clothed in white, with long beard, 
dishevelled hair, and bare heads, accompanied by 
women called spiritual sisters, preaching against 
the growing corruption of the church of Rome, and 
predicting its downfall. They renounced baptism, 
fche mass, purgatory, &c, and by their enemies 
were accused of gross licentiousness. Sagarelli was 
burnt alive at Parma in 1300, and his followers 
were dispersed in 1307, and extirpated about 1404. 

APOTHECARY (literally, a keeper of a store- 
house). On 10 Oct. 1345, Edward III. settled six- 
pence per diem for life on Coursus de Gangeland, 
Apothccarius London', for taking care of him 
during his severe illness in Scotland. Pymer's 
Fozdera; see Pharmacy and Medical Council. 

Apothecaries exempted from, serving on juries or 
other civil offices 1712 

London Apothecaries' Company separated from the 
Grocers' and incorporated, 1617 ; hall built . . 1670 

Their practice regulated and their authority ex- 
tended over all England, by the Apothecaries act, 
SS Geo. III. c. 19 (1815), amended by 6 Geo. IV. 
c. 133, 1825 ; and by 37 & 38 Vict. c. 34 . . 1874 

Women allowed to qualify by act of 1876. 

Qualifying examination in medicine, surgery, and 
midwifery imperative, Medical Act . . . i8£6 

Botanical Garden at Chelsea left by sir Hans Sloane 
to the company, Jan. 1753, on condition of 
their introducing every year fifty new plants, 
until their number should amount to 2000, Jan. 
175 s ; re-opened by lord Cadogan . 25 July, 1902 

The Dublin guild incorporated .... 1745 

APOTHEOSIS, a ceremony of the ancient 
nations of the world, by which they raised then- 
kings and heroes to the rank of deities. The deify- 
ing a deceased emperor was begun at Rome by 
Augustus, in favour of Julius Caesar, 13 B.C. Tille- 
htdnt. 

APPEAL or Assize of Battle. By the 

old law of England, a man charged with mui'der 
might fight with the appellant, thereby to mak? 
proof of his guilt or innocence. In 1817, a young 
maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have been 
violated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, who, 
on trial, was acquitted. In an appeal, he claimed 
his right by wager of battle, which the court 
allowed ; but the appellant (the brother of the 
maid) refused the challenge, and the accused was 
discharged, 16 April, 1818. This law was struck 
off the statute-book, by 59 Geo. III. c. 46 (1819). 

In 1631 lord Rea impeached Mr. David Ramsey of 
treason and offered battle in proof: a commission 
was appointed, but the duel was prohibited by king 
James I. 

APPEALS. In the time of Alfred (869-901), 
appeals lay from courts of justice to the king in 
council. Courts of appeal at the Exchequer Chamber, 



in error from the judgments of the superior and 
criminal courts, were regulated by statutes in 1357, 
1559, 1830 and 1848. Appeals from English tribu- 
nals to the pope were first introduced about 1 15 1, 
were long A r ainly opposed, and were abolished by 
Henry VIII, 1534; restored by Mary, 1554; again 
abolished by Elizabeth, 1559. House of Lords sat 
as court of appeal in 1278. By 14 Edw. Ill , c. 5, 
1340, a prelate, two earls, and two barons formed 
the court. Protest by House of Commons against 
appeal to the Lords, 1675, resisted by the peers ; 
hearing of appeals resumed, 1677. The principle 
that this jurisdiction was a delegation by the crown 
of its final authority was reaffirmed 1876. See 
Privy Council and Justices, Lords, Common Pleas. 

Court of appeal abolished by the Judicature Act, 
1873 ; abolition suspended and a provisional 
court established 8 Nov. 1875 

The House of Lords was reconstructed as a court 
of final appeal by the Appellate Jurisdiction Act, 
passed 1 1 Aug. ; the Act came into force 1 Noa . 
1876 ; it enacts that every appeal shall be brought 
by petition to the House of Lords, that the 
matter may be reviewed before the Sovereign in 
Parliament. The court first sat . 21 Nov. 1876 

The Act was amended by the Appellate Jurisdic- 
tion Act 1887, the Appeal Act {forma pauperis) 
1893, and the Statute Law Revision Act . . 1894 

The members usually attending (1903) are : — The 
Lord Chancellor, lord Hobhouse, lord Mac- 
naghten, lord Shand, lord Davey, lord James of 
Hereford, lord Brampton, lord Ashbourne, and 
lord Robertson. 

APPELLATE JURISDICTION, see under 
Appeals. 

APPENZELL, a Swiss canton, threw off the 
supremacy of the abbots of St. Gall early in the 15th 
century, and became the thirteenth member of the 
Swiss confederation, 1513. 

APPIAN WAY, a Roman road to Capua, 
made by Appius Claudius Csecus, while censor, 312- 
308 B.C. 

APPLES. Several kinds are indigenous to 
England ; but those in general use have been 
brought at various times from the continent. 
Richard Harris, fruiterer to Henry VIII. , is said to 
have planted a great number of the orchards in 
Kent, and lord Scudamore, ambassador to France in 
the reign of Charles I., planted many of those in 
Herefordshire. Ray reckons 78 varieties of apples 
in his day (1688). In 1903 there were some 2000 
varieties cultivated in Great Britain. The scientific- 
study and classification of apples is entitled 
Pomology. 

APPORTIONMENT ACT (for rents, an- 
nuities, dividends, and other periodical payments) 
passed 1 Aug. 1870. 

APPRAISERS. The valuation of goods for 
another was an early business in England ; and so 
early as 1283, by the statute of merchants, or of 
Acton Burnel, "it was enacted that if they valued 
the goods of parties too high, the appraisers should 
take them at such price as they have limited." In 
1845 their annual licence was raised from 10s. to 40s. 
A duly licensed auctioneer or house agent may 
act as appraiser. 

APPRENTICES. Those of London were 
obliged to wear blue cloaks in summer, and blue 
gowns in winter, in the reign of queen Elizabeth, 
1558. Ten pounds was then a great apprentice fee. 
From twenty to one hundred pounds were given in 
the reign of James I. Stow' s Survey. The appren- 
tice tax enacted 43 Geo. III. 1802. The term of 



APPEOPEIATION ACT. 



58 



AQUILEIA. 



seven years, not to expire till the apprentice was 
24 years old, required by the statute of Elizabeth 
(1563), was abolished in 1814. An act. for the pro- 
tection of apprentices, &c, was passed in 1851. The 
apprentices of London have been at times very riot- 
ous ; they rose into insurrection against foreigners 
on Evil May-day {which see) I May, 1517. 
Exhibition of apprentices' work at the People's Palace 
opened by the prince of Wales 10 Dec. 1888. 

APPEOPEIATION ACT passed annually 
by a clause prohibits the treasury officials from 
applying public money to any service other than 
that to which it has been specially appropriated. 
The principle was adopted by the commonwealth, 
and was definitely established in 1665. 

APPEOPEIATION CLAUSE, of the Irish 
Tithe Bill of 1835, brought forward by lord John 
Russell, whereby any surplus revenue that might 
accrue by the working of the act was to be appro- 
priated for the education of all classes of the people. 
The principle was adopted by the commons, but 
rejected by the lords in 1835 and 1836, and was 
abandoned. 

APPEOPEIATIONS (property taken from 
the church), began in the time of William I. The 
parochial clergy, then commonly Saxons, were im- 
poverished by the bishops and higher clergy (gene- 
rally Normans) to enrich the monasteries possessed 
hy the conqueror's friends. Where the tithes were 
so appropriated, the vicar had only such a compe- 
tency as the bishop or superior thought (it to allow. 
Pope Alexander IV. complained of this as the bane 
of religion, the destruction of the church, and a 
poison that had infected the whole nation. Lay 
appropriations began after the dissolution of the 
monasteries, 1536. 

APEICOT (prcccox, early ripe) Primus Arme- 
niaca, from Asia Minor, said to have been first 
planted in England about 1540, by the gardener of 
Henry VIII. 

APEIL, the fourth month of our year, the 
second of the ancient Romans. 

APTEEYX (wingless), a bird, a native of New 
Zealand, first brought to this country in 1813, and 
deposited in the collection of the earl of Derby. 
Fossil specimens of a gigantic species of this bird 
(named Dinornis) were discovered in New Zealand 
by Mr. Walter Mantell in 1843 and since, and 
much studied and many papers written on it by 
Professor Owen. 

APULIA, a province in S.E. Italy. The people 
favoured Hannibal, and were severely punished by 
the Rinnans at his retreat, 207 B.C. Apulia was con- 
quered by the Normans, whose leader Guiscard re- 
ceived the title of duke of Apulia from pope Nicho- 
las II. in 1059. After many changes 01 masters, it 
was absorbed into the kingdom of Naples, in 1265. 
Strike riot, conflict with troops at Candela, 5 deaths, 

8 Sept. 1902. 

AQUACULTUEE, see under Fisheries. 

AQUA HI I, a sect saiil to lia\e been founded by 
Tatiau in the 2nd century, who forbore the use of 
wine even in the sacrament ; during persecution 
they met secretly at night, for this they were 
censured by Cyprian (martyred, 258). 

AQUAEIUM or AQTJAVTVABITJM, a vessel 

Containing water (marine or fresh) in which animals 
and plants may co-exist, mutual!] supporting each 

other; snails being introduced as scavengers. In 



1849, Mr. N. B. Ward succeeded in growing sea- 
weeds in artificial sea-water; in 1850, Mr. R. 
Warington demonstrated the conditions necessary 
for the growth of animals and plants in jars of 
water; and in 1853 the glass tanks in the Zoological 
Gardens, Regent s Park, were set up by Mr. D. 
Mitchell. In 1854, Mr. Gosse published "The 
Aquarium." Mr. W. AlfordLloyd, late of Portland- 
road, London, who by his enterprise in collecting 
specimens did much to increase the value and inter- 
est of aquaria, has been much employed in erecting 
aquaria. The great aquarium (50 yards long and 
12 wide) at the Jardin d'Acclimatation at Paris, 
was constructed under his direction in i860. He 
also constructed the aquarium at Hamburg and 
others. That at Brighton was inaugurated by prince 
Arthur, 30 March, and publicly opened by the 
mayor, 10 Aug. 1872. That at the Crystal Palace 
was opened, Jan. 1872. 

The Royal Aquarium and Summer and Winter Gardes 
Society was established 1874; the building at Westmin- 
ster, planned by Mr. Wybrow Robertson and Mr. A. 
Bedborough, was opened by the duke of Edinburgh, 
22 Jan. 1876. 
A woman surnamed "Zazel" permitted herself to be 
safely shot from a cannon (by a spring or other me- 
chanical contrivance) ; summer of 1877, el seq. 
Living whales shown here soon died ; see Whale ; Sept., 

1877 ; June, 1878. 
The Imperial theatre added, 1879. 

Purchased by the Wesleyan Methodists with a portion 
of their 20th Century Fund. Celebration meeting 
held 2 Feb. 1903. 

AQUATINT, see Engraving. 

AQUEDUCT, an artificial watercourse. Appius 
Claudius Cascus, while censor, advised and con- 
structed the first Roman aqueduct, as well as the 
Appian way, about 312-308 B.C.* There are now 
some remarkable aqueducts in Europe: that at Lisbon 
is of great extent and beauty ; that at Segovia has 
129 arches; and that at Versailles is three miles 
long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in 
three stories. The stupendous aqueduct on the 
Ellesmere canal, in England (1007 feet in length, 
and 126 feet high) was completed by T. Telford, 
and opened 26 Dec. 1805. The Lisbon aqueduct 
was completed in 1 738, and the Croton aqueduct, 
near New York, was constructed between 1837 and 
1842. The aqueduct to supply Marseilles with 
water was commenced in 1830. An aqueduct to 
supply London with water from the Welsh lakes 
was proposed by Mr. J. F. Bateman in 1865. 

AQUIDABAN, Paraguay. Here the war 
with Brazil was ended with the defeat and death of 
president Lopez, 1 March, 1870. 

AQUILA, S. Italy. Near here the Arragonese 
under the coiulottiere Braccio Forte-Braccio wen- 
defeated by the allied Papal, Neapolitan, and 
Milanese army under Jacob Caldora, 2 June, 1424. 
Braccio, a wounded prisoner, refused to take foou, 
and died, 5 June. 

AQUILEIA (Istria), made a Roman colony 
about 180 B'.C. and fortified A.n. [68. Constantino 
II. was slain in a battle with Constans, fought at 
Aquileia towards the close of March, 340. Maximus 
defeated and slain by Theod >mu<, near Aquileia, 28 
July, 388. Theodosim defeated Eugenius and 
Arbogastes, the (i.ml. near Aquileia, and remained 
sole emperor, 6 Sept. 394. Bugenius was put to 
death, ami Arbogastes died by Ins own hand, mor- 
tified by his overthrow. St. Ambrose held a synod 

" Remains of these and other noble aqueducts, con- 
structed by emperors, still remain, and some supply 
water to the city. 



AQUITAINE. 



59 



ARBITRATION. 



here in 381. In 452 Aquileia was almost totally 
destroyed by Attila the Hun, and near it in 489 
Theodoric and the Ostrogoths totally defeated 
Odoacer, the king of Italy. Aquileia was an early 
patriarchal see. 

AQUITAINE, the Roman province Aquitania 
(S. W. France), conquered by the Romans 28 B.C. ; 
by the Visigoths, a.d. 418; taken from them by 
Clovis in 507. Henry II. of England obtained it 
with his wife Eleanor, 1152. It was erected into a 
principality for Edward the Black Prince in 1362; 
but was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke 
of Aquitaine was taken by the crown of England on 
the conquest of this duchy by Henry V. in 1418. 
The province was lost in the reign of Henry VI. 

ARABIA (W. Asia) . The terms Petrcea (stony) , 
Felix (happy), and Deserta are said to have been 
applied to its divisions by Ptolemy, about a.d. 140. 
The Arabs claim descent from Ishmael, the eldest 
son of Abraham, born 1910 B.C. Gen. xvi. Arabia 
was unsuccessfully invaded by Gallus, the Roman 
governor of Egypt, 24 B.C. The Abyssinians con- 
quered part of Arabia Felix, and retained it 76 
j*ears. In a.d. 622, the Arabians under the name 
of Saracens, followers of Mahomet (born at Mecca, 
570), their general and prophet, commenced their 
course of conquest ; see Mahometauism. Arabia 
was conquered by the Ottomans 1518-39. The 
Arabs greatly favoured literature and the sciences, 
especially mathematics, astronomy, and chemistry. 
The Koran was written in Arabic (622-632). The 
Bible was printed in Arabic in 1671. Seewahabees. 
The aggression of the Turks on the South Arabs 

excited jealousy in England, and was checked by 

the sultan Nov. 1873 

Insurrection in Yemen or Arabia Felix; 5 Jan.-yFeb. 1882 
Egyptian commission for preservation of Arab 

monuments appointed , . . Jan. ,, 

Revolts in Yemen, announced . . 17 Mar. 1883 

Conflicts reported Sept. 1884 

Several revolts against the Turkish government 

suppressed ..... June — Oct. 1891 
Rebellion headed by Iman Ahmed Eddiu, Jan. ; 

reinforcements sent, successful . May — July, 1892 
Iman Ahmed Eddin, killed ; the rebellion quelled, 

and the province Yemen pacified by the Turkish 

governor, reported .... 7 Sept. „ 
Insurrection in Yemen ; the Turks defeated by the 

Imam of Sana in three engagements, Nov. 1895 ; 

another spreading, Abdullah pasha ordered to 

take the command . . . 14 June, 1898 

Insurgents routed in Shanel, Turkish loss heavy, 

30 Nov. „ 
Turkish atrocities, continued fighting . April, 1899 
Abdullah pasha forced to retire on Sana June, ,, 

Ibn Rashid, ex-king of Nejd, defeats Mabaroukh, 

the conqueror of Nejd, with great slaughter, 

reported 12 April, 1901 

Turks attempt to land troops at Koweyt, foiled by 

the captain of H. M.S. Perseus . . 24 Aug. ,, 
Abdullah pasha made vali, Yemen . 20 Oct. 1902 
Ibn Rashid defeats the Wahabis . . Dec. ,, 

ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAIN- 
MENTS (or 1001 Tales) were translated into 
French by Galland, and published in 1704; but 
their authenticity was not acknowledged till many 
years after. The best English translation from the 
Arabic is that of Mr. E. W. Lane, published in 
1839, with valuable notes and beautiful illustra- 
tions. Sir Richard F. Burton's elaborate transla- 
tion in 10 vols, was printed at Benares for sub- 
scribers 1885-7. Lady Burton's expurgated edition, 
edited .by Mr. Justin H. McCarthy, with scholarly 
notes and appendices, was published in 1887 etseq.; 
she died 22 March, 1896. He died, aged 69, 20 Oct. 
1890. " The Thousand and One Days" (inferior to 
the "Nights"): a translation from the Persian by 
Petis de la Croix, was published in 1710. Versions 



are said to have existed in Turkish and other 
Eastern languages. 

ARABIC FIGURES (1, 2, 3, &c), see Arith- 
metic. Arabic Newspaper, " Mar-utu-l- 
AIiwllV (" Mirror of Passing Events"), published 
in London end of 1876. 

ARABICI, a sect which sprung up in Arabia, 
about 207, whose distinguishing tenet was, that the 
soul dies with the body, and will rise again with it. 

ARAGON, part of the Roman Tarraconensis, a 
kingdom, N.E. Spain, was conquered by the Car- 
thaginians, who were expelled by the Romans about 
200 B.C. It became an independent monarchy in 
a.d. 1035 ; see Spain. 

ARAM. Aramaoa, from the Hebrew Aram 
(signifying "high land" as distinguished from 
Canaan, "low land"), a name given to all the 
country N.E. of Palestine ; which included Syria, 
Babylonia and Mesopotamia. The people used two 
dialects, in the west Syriac, in the east Aramaic 
(improperly termed Chaldee), called Hebrew at the 
time of Christ. 

ARANJUEZ (Central Spain), contains a fine 
royal palace, at which several important treaties- 
were concluded. On 17 March, 1808, an insurrec- 
tion broke out here against Charles IV. and his 
favourite, Godoy, the prince of the peace, who re- 
ceived that title for concluding the treaty of Basle. 
The former was compelled to abdicate in favour of 
his son, Ferdinand VII., 19 March. 

ARARAT, a mountain in Armenia (about 
17,112 feet above the sea-level), on which Noah's 
ark is supposed to have rested, B.C. 2348, now- 
termed by the Persians, Koh-i-Nuh (Noah's moun- 
tain) ; by the Armenians, Masis ; by the Turks, 
Agri-Dagh. 

It was ascended by Dr. Parrot, 27 Sept. 1829 ; by Major 
Stuart, 1856, and by others since. Mr. James Bryce, 
who ascended 11, 12 Sept. 1876, described the summit 
as a little plain of snow, silent and desolate, with a 
bright, green sky above ; the view stern, green, and 
monotonous. Ascended by professor Mackoff and M. 
Popoff, Russians, Aug. 1888 ; by Mr. H. P. B. Lynch 
and capt. Lynch, 19 Sept. 1893. 

ARAUCANIA, a province in S. America. Its 
inhabitants maintained almost unceasing war with 
the Spaniards from 1537 to 1773, when their inde- 
pendence was recognised. They are now nominally 
subject to Chili. 

ARAUSIO (now Orange), S. E. France. 

Through the jealousy of the Roman proconsul 
Q. Servilius Csepio, who would not wait for the 
arrival of the army of the consul C. Manlius, both 
were defeated here by the Cimbri with much 
slaughter, 105 b. c. 

ARBELA. The third and decisive battle be- 
tween Alexander the Great and Darius Codomanus 
decided the fate of Persia, I Oct. 331 B.C., on a 
plain in Assyria, between Arbela and Gaugamela. 
The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 foot and 
40,000 horse; the Macedonian army amounted to 
only 40,000 foot and 7000 horse. Arrian. The gold 
and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, 
and Babylon, which fell to Alexander from this 
victory, amounted to thirty millions sterling ; and 
the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to 
Darius, sufficed to load 20,000 mules and 5000 
camels. Plutarch. 

ARBITRATION. Submission to arbitration 
was authorised and made equivalent in force to the 
decision of a jury, by 9 & 10 Will. III. (1698). 



ARBORICULTURE. 



60 



ARCHBISHOP. 



Further enforced by 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 42 (1833) ; 
•see Ouzel Galley. '1 he Common Law Procedure Act 
(1854) authorises the judges of superior courts to 
order compulsory arbitration ; and, by an act passed 
in 1859, railway companies may settle disputes with 
each other by arbitration. The Arbitration (Masters 
and Workmen) Act was passed 6 Aug. 1872. See 
Prud'hommes. 

For Arbitration between Nations, see under 
Peace. United Slates, April, 1896; Jan. -May, 
1897; Oct. 1903; Mexico, 1902; Venezuela, 
1903. 

•Codification of the Arbitration Acts was effected by the 

Arbitration Act passed 26 Aug. 1889. 
Address in favour of arbitration presented by eminent 

British M.P.s and politicians at Washington, U.S., 

1887. 
Arbitration Alliance founded in Feb. 1894, to promote 

international arbitration, first annual meeting in 

London, 30 May, 1895. 

See London Chamber of Arbitration. 

ARBORICULTURE. See Trees. 

ARBUTUS. The Arbutus Andrachne, oriental 
strawberry-tree, was brought to England from the 
Levant about 1724. 

ARC DE TRIOMPHE, Paris, begun in 
1806 in honour of the Grande Armee, continued in 
1823, and completed in 1836. The list of battles, 
•&c. (158), begins with Volmy, 20 Sept. 1792, and 
.the last Ligny, 16 June, 1815. The Arc de Tri- 
•omphe is 165 feet high, 150 feet broad and 75 feet 
thick. 

ARCADES, or walks arched over. The princi- 
pal in London are the Burlington-arcade, opened 
20 March, 1819 ; the Lowther-arcade, Strand, 
opened 1831, closed 1902 ; between Old Bond-street 
and Albemarle -street, opened May, 1880; see 
Strand, and Exeter Change. The Boyal-areade, 
Dublin, opened June, 1820, was burnt to the ground, 
25 April, 1837. The Great Western-arcade, Birming- 
ham, opened 28 Sept. 1876. 

ARCADIA, in the centre of the Peloponnesus, 
Greece, named after Areas, a king. The Arcadians 
regarded their nation as the most ancient of Greece. 
The early history of Arcadia is fabulous. 
Sir Philip Sidney's Arcadia, a pastoral romance, 

was published in 1590, the 8th edition in 1633. 
Magna Graecia, in S. Italy, said to have been 

colonised by Arcadians under (Enotrus, about 

1710 b.c. ; ami under Evander . . . b.c. 1240 
Areas taught his subjects agriculture and to spin 

wool 1514 

Lycsean games instituted, in honour of Pan . . 1320 
Agapenor appears at the head of the Arcadians at 

the siege of Troj (Homer) 1194 

The Lacedaemonians invade Arcadia, and are beaten 

by the women of the country in the absence of 

their husbands ('.') 1102 

Aristocrates 1. (of Orchomenus) pul to death for 

offering violence to the priestess of Diana . . 715 
Aristocrates II. stoned ; a republic founded . . 681 
Supremacy of Sparta (acknowledged six.) abolished 

by the Thebans ; Megalopolis founded bj Epauii- 

nondas " -371 

The Arcadians make alliance with Alliens, ami arc 

defeated by Ajchidamus 367 

Arcadia, having joined the Achrotui League, on its 

suppression is annexed by Home .... 146 

ARCADIANS, an ultra-conservative French 
political dull, composed of a section of the majority 
in the chambers, and opposed to Libera] measures, 
even when emanating from the emperor (such as 
the new press law). It derived its name from line 
de 1' Arcade, where its meetings were held: T'eb. 
i,S(„S. 



ARCH. It appears in early Egyptian and As- 
syrian architecture. The oldest arch in Europe is 
probably in the Cloaca Maxima, at Pome, con- 
structed under the early kings, about 588 B.C. 
The Chinese bridges, which are very ancient, are of 
great magnitude, and are built with stone arches 
similar to those that have been considered a Poman 
invention.* — The Triumphal arches of the Pomans 
formed a leading feature in their architecture. The 
arch of Titus (a.d. 80), that of Trajan (114), and 
that of Constantine (312), were magnificent. The 
arches in our parks in London were erected about 
1828. The Marble Arch, which formerly stood be- 
fore Buckingham Palace (whence it was removed 
to Cumberland-gate, Hyde Park, in 185 1) was 
modelled from the arch of Constantine ; see Hyde 
Park. 

ARCH^EOPTERTX (ancient bird); the 
name given to the earliest known remains of a bird, 
found in the lithographic slate of Solenhofen, by 
Herman von Meyer and Dr. H'aberlein in 1861. Its 
structure approximated more to that of a reptile 
than that of modern birds does. It was described 
by Owen in 1863. 

ARCHANGEL (N. Russia), a city, is thus 
named from a monastery founded here, and dedi- 
cated to St. Michael in 1584. The passage to Arch- 
angel was discovered by the English navigator 
Pichard Chancellor in 1553, and it was the only 
seaport of Pussia till the formation of the docks at 
Cronstadt, and foundation of St. Petersburg in 1703. 
The dreadful fire here, by which the cathedral and 
upwards of 3000 houses were destroyed, occurred 
in June, 1793. Increased commercial development 
under gov. Engelhardt ; Alexandrovsk, a new ice- 
free port, opened by the grand duke Vladimir, 
6 July, 1899. Population of the province, 1886, 
328,819; 1897,346,536. 

ARCHBISHOP (Greek archiepiscopos), a title 
given in the 4th and 5th centuries to the bishops 
of chief cities, such as Pome, Alexandria, Antioeh, 
and Constantinople, who presided over the other 
metropolitans and bishops in the districts attached 
to those places. The word is first found in the 
Apology against the Arians by Athanasius, who 
died 373. Four archbishops of the Eastern church 
are styled patriarchs. Riddle. 

Before the Saxons came to England, there were three 

archbishops : London, York, ami Caerleon-upon-Usk ; 

but soon after St. Augustin Settled the metropolitan 

see at Canterbury, 602 ; see Cantt rbury. 

York continued archiepiscopal ; but London and Caerleon 

lost the dignity : see St. David's. 
The bishoprics in Scotland were under the jurisdiction of 
the archbishop of York until the erection of the archi- 
episcopal sees of si. Andrew's ami Glasgow in 1470 and 
1491 ; these last were discontinued at the Revolution ; 
see Glasgow ami St. .1 Hebrew's. 
The bishop of Brechin was chosen Primus, 1886, the 

title being conferred on one of the bishops by 

election. 
The rank of archbishop was early in Ireland; see Ferns. 
four archbishops were constituted, Armagh, Cashel, 

Dublin, ami Tuam ; (until then the archbishop of 

Canterbury had jurisdiction over tlie Irish as well as 

English bishops, in like manner as the archbishop of 
York had juris, h. tion over those of Scotland), 1151. 
Of these four archbishoprics two were reduced to 

bishopries (Cashel ami TtianO conformably Willi the 

* The bridge of Chester, whose span is 200 feet, was 
commenced in 1829. The central areli of London Bridge 

IS 1 , ■ feel : ami the three east iron aivhes of Sonthwark 
Bridge, Which rest on massh e si..ne piers ami abutments 

are, the two side ones aio feel each, and the centre 240 

leel : thus the centre arch exceeds the admired 

bridge of Sunderland by four feet in the span, and the 

long-famed liiaito at Venice, by in- feet ; see Bridges, 



ARCH-CHAMBERLAIN. 



61 



ARCHIVISTS. 



stat. 3 & 4 Will. IV. by which also the number of sees in 
Ireland was to be reduced from twenty-two to twelve 
(see Bishops, Cashel, Tuam, Pallium, <fcc), 1833. 

ARCH-CHAMBERLAIN. The elector of 
Brandenburg was appointed the hereditary arch- 
chamberlain of the German empire by the golden 
bull of Charles IV. in 1356, and in that quality he 
bore the sceptre before the emperor. 

ARCH-CHANCELLORS were appointed 
under the two first races of the kings of France 
(418-986), and when their territories were divided, 
the archbishops of Mentz, Cologne, and Treves be- 
came arch-chancellors of Germany, Italy, and 
Aries. 

ARCHDEACON, a name early given to the 
first or eldest deacon, who attended on the bishop 
without any power ; but since the couucil of Nice, 
his function has become a dignity above a priest. 
The appointment in these countries is referred to 
the eighth century. There are seventy-five arch- 
deacons in England (1878). The archdeacon's 
court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity ; an 
appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, by 
24 Henry VIII. (1532). 

ARCHERY is ascribed to Apollo, who com- 
municated it to the Cretans. 

Ishmael "became an archer" (Gen. xxi. 20), e.c. 1892 
The Philistine archers overcame Saul(i Sam. xxxi. 3). 1056 
David commanded the use of the bow to be taught 

(2 Sam. i. 18) 1055 

Archery introduced into England previous to a. d. 440 
Harold and his two brothers were killed by arrows 
shot from the cross-bows of the Norman soldiers 

at the battle of Hastings 1066 

Richard I. revived archery in England in 1190, and 

was himself killed by an arrow .... 1199 
The victories of Crecy (1346), Poictiers (1356), and 

Agincourt (1415), were won chiefly by archers. 
Eour thousand archers of the king surrounded the 
houses of Parliament ready to shoot ; pacified by 
the king, 21 Richard II. (Stoiv.) .... 1397 
The citizens of London formed into companies of 
archers in the reign of Edward III. ; and into a 
corporate body by the style of " The Fraternity of 

St. George," 29 Henry VIII 1538 

Roger Ascham's " Toxophilus, theSclwol ofShooting," 

published 1571 

Scorton Annual Arrow Meetings — a silver arrow 

shot for ; articles agreed to . . .14 May, 1673 
Royal company of archers, instituted by the mar- 
quis of Athol, as the king's body guard for Scot- 
land j6 7 6 

The long bow was six feet long, and the arrow three 
feet ; the usual range from 300 to 500 yards. 
Robin Hood is said to have shot from 600 to 800 
yards. The cross-bow was fixed to a stock, and 
discharged with a trigger. 
See Artillery Company, TompMlites, <fec. 

ARCHES, COURT OF, the most ancient con- 
sistory court, chiefly a court of appeal from inferior 
jurisdictions within the province of Canterbury ; it 
derives its name from the church of St. Mary-le- 
Bow (Sancta Maria de Arcubus), London, where it 
was formerly held, and whose top is raised on stone 
pillars built archwise. Cowell. Appeals from this 
court lie to the judicial committee of the privy 
council, by statute, 1832. The Dean and Official 
Principal, Dr. Stephen Lushington, (appointed in 
1828) resigned 1 July, 1867; succeeded by sir 
liobert J. Phillimore, who resigned, 1875. Lord 
Penzance succeeded him; resigned, 1899; died 
9 Dec. 1899 5 succeeded by sir Arthur Charles. 

ARCHIEPISCOPAL COURT, see under 
Canterbury. 

ARCHITECTURE (from the Greek archi- 
tekton, chief artificer) . The five great orders are, 



— the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian (Greek) ; — the- 

Tuscan and Composite (Roman). Gothic began to 

prevail in the 9th century. See the Orders and 

Gothic. 

The Pyramids of Egypt, begun . . about B.C. 1500 

Solomon's Temple, begun 1004- 

Birs Nimroud, in Assyria .... about 900 

The Doric order begins about 650. 

Doric Temple at JEgina 550 , 

Temple of Jupiter and Cloaca Maxima, at Rome 

founded . gjg, 

Babylon built " ." 6 00 , 

The Ionic order begins .... about 500-420. 

The Corinthian order begins 335i 

Choragie Monument of Lysierates . . . 335] 

Architecture flourishes at Athens . . . 480-^20. 

Erechtheum at Athens 450-420. 

The Parthenon finished .,§, 

The Pantheon, &c, built at Rome . . a.». i-\ 

The Colosseum (or Coliseum) 70> 

Hadrian builds temples at Rome, <fec II? 

Diocletian's palace at Spalatro 284. 

Basilicas at Rome 330-000* 

St. Sophia, at Constantinople, begun . . a.d. 5^2 
Rock-cut temples in India— Caves of Ellora . 500-800. 

Canterbury cathedral, founded g 02 . 

Mosque of Omar at Jerusalem .....' 637 
York Minster (present building) begun . about 1173s 

St. Peter's, Rome 1450-162& 

St. Paul's. London 1675-1710. 

R. Cath. Cathedral, Westminster, foundation stone 

laid, 29 June, 1895 > opened Dec. 1903. 

EMINENT ARCHITECTS. 

Bom. Died, 

Vitruvms, about BC- 2 „ 

William of Wickham . . . .a.d. 1324— 1405, 

Filippo Brunelleschi 1377— 1444.' 

Michael Angelo Buonarotti .... 1474 I5 64_ 

Jacopo Tatti Sansovino I47 q 1^70- 

Galeazzo Alessi ISOO I572 

Giacomo Barozzio da Vignola . . . . I5 o 7 i 57 t 

A. Palladio 1518-158& 

Vincenzo Scamozzi 1552— 1616. 

Carlo Maderno 1556— 1620, 

Inigo Jones 1572-1652. 

Bernini 1598— 1680. 

Christopher Wren 1632—172-- 

J. Vanbrugh 1670— 172& 

James Gibbs ^ja—^c. 

Sir Robert Taylor 17I ._ I78s . 

James Stuart I7 i, I7 gg, 

R, and J. Adam .' I72 8_ I7Q4 . 

Sir William Chambers I72 g I? g^. 

Sir John Soane I7 e, ,&t. 

William Wilkins '. /jli—^a. 

Augustus W. Pugin 1811—1852 

Sir Charles Barry . . V . . . 179S _ I 86o. 

C. R. Cockerell 1788—186-? 

Sir Joseph Paxton 1803— 1865 

Sir Robert Smirke 1780—1867- 

James Fergusson . . ' . . . . ^08— 18 86- 

Sir Geo. Gilbert Scott I s II I 8 7 s, 

George Edmund Street . . . ^24 1881 

?- Ba "T i 1830-1881 

John Gibson 1816-1892- 

C. J. Phipps, theatres : Gaiety, Savoy, 

Her Majesty's, 1897, &c. . . .; 1837— 1897 

John L. Pearson 1817—1897 

Thomas Hayter Lewis ....'. J s I 8 189S. 

Sir Arthur Blomfield z $ 2 g i8qn 

Sir Thos. N. Deane .' l828 _ l8 ZZ_ 

William Butterfield 1814-1000 

J. M. Brydon 1840-igor 

An Architectural Club was formed in 1791. An Archi- 
tectural Society existed in London in 1806. The Royal 
Institute of British Architects was founded in 1834. 
The Architectural Society, established in 1831, was united" 
to the Institute in 1842. The Architectural Association 
began about 1846. The Royal Architectural Museum 
Westminster, opened, 21 July, 1869. 

Mr. James Fergusson's "History of Architecture,"' 
4 vols., 1865-76. 

ARCHIVISTS, Society of. In 1893, Mr. Saxe- 
Wyndham founded a society with this title con- 
sisting of autograph and MSS. collectors, &c. 



ARCHONS. 



62 ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION. 



ARCHONS. When royalty was abolished al 
Athens, in memory of king (Jodrus, killed in battle, 
1044 or 1068 B.C., the executive government was 
vested in elective magistrates called archons, whose 
office continued for life. Medon, eldest son of 
Codrus, was the first archon. The office was limited 
to ten years, 752 B.C., and to one year 683 B.C. 

ARCOLA (Lombardy) , the site of battles be- 
tween the French under Bonaparte, and the Aus- 
trians under field-marshal Alvinzi, fought 14-17 
Nov. 1796. The Austrians lost 18,000 men in 
killed, wounded, and prisoners, four flags and 
eighteen guns. The French lost about 15,000, and 
became masters of Italy. In one contest Bonaparte, 
in most imminent danger, was rescued by the 
impetuosity of his troop3. 

ARCOT (East Indies). This city (founded 1716) 
wa3 taken by colonel Clive, 31 Aug. 1751 ; was 
retaken, 1758, but again surrendered to coloneJ 
Coote, 10 Feb. 1760; besieged and taken by Hyder 
Ali, when the British under colonel Baillie suffered 
severe defeat, 31 Oct. 1780. Arcot has been subject 
to Great Britain since 1801 ; see India. 

ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS, see North West 
Passage, and Franklin's Expedition. 

ARDAGH, an ancient bishopric in Ireland, 
founded by St. Patrick, who is said to have made his 
nephew, Mell, the first bishop, 454. This see, held 
with Kilmore since 1742, was held in commendam 
with Tuam {which see) . It was united with Kilmore 
in 1839, and with Elphin in 1841. 

ARDAHAN, a town in Turkish Armenia, 
ceded to Russia by the Berlin treaty, 13 July, 1878. 

ARDFERT Ajstd AGHADOE, bishoprics in 
Ireland long united ; the former was called the 
bishopric of Kerry; Ert presided in the 5th century; 
William Fuller, appointed in 1663, became bishop 
of Limerick in 1667, since when Ardfert and Agha- 
doe have been united to that prelacy. Near the 
cathedral an anchorite tower, 120 feet high, the 
loftiest and finest in the kingdom, suddenly fell, 
1770. 

AREIOPAGUS or Areopagus, a Greek 

tribunal, said to have heard causes in the dark, 
because the judges should be blind to all but facts, 
instituted at Athens about 1507 B.C.; also ascribed 
to Cecrops, 1556. The name is derived from the 
Greek Areios pagos, the hill of Mars, through the 
tradition that Mars was the first who was tried 
there for the murder of ITalirrhotius, who had 
violated his daughter Alcippe. The powers of this 
court were enlarged by Solon, about 594 B.C., and 
diminished by PericlcsJ 461 B.C. Paul preached on 
Mars' hill a.d. 52. {Acts xvii.) See Press. 

AREOMETER or ARAEOMETER (from 
Greek araios, thin), an instrument for measuring 
the density and specific gravity of fluids. Baume 
described his areometer in 1768. Others made by 
Nicholson and Mohr. Also called Hydrometer. 

AREQUIPA, Peru, founded by Pizarro, 1530 ; 
was destroyed by an earthquake, 13 Aug. 1808; 
surrendered to the Chilians 26 Oct. 1883. The 
town is 7,850 ft. above the sea. Pop. 37,000. In 
the neighbourhood is the Harvard University high 
level Observatory (alt. 16,275 ft.); in 1503 under 
the charge of Prof. Barley. The Arequipa-Puno 
section of the Mollendo to Cuzco railway ([com- 
pleted in [873 at a cosl of over s,,000.000/.) is 218 
miles long, and at its highest Level is 14,466 ft. 
above the sea. l'uno, pop. 7,0110, is ,1 town on the 

lakeTiticaca; alt. [2.000ft. Steamers ply 117 miles 
across this lake to Cuiluva. Bolivia 



ARETHTJSA, see Naval Battles, 1778, and 
Chichester. 

AREZZO, near the ancient Arretium or Areti- 
num, an Etrurian city, which made peace with 
Rome for 30 years, 308 B.C., was besieged by 
the Galli Senones, about 283 B.C., who defeated the 
Eoman army Metellus sent to its relief — a disgrace 
avenged signally by Dolabella. Arezzo was an 
ancient bishopric : the cathedral founded in 1277. 
It is renowned as the birthplace of Maecenas, 
Petrarch, Vasari, and other eminent men. Michael 
Angelo was born in the vicinity. 

ARGANDAB, a river in Afghanistan. See 
Afghanistan, 1880. 

ARGAUM, in the Deccan, India, where sir 
Arthur Wellesley, on 29th Nov. 1803, thoroughly 
defeated and subjugated the rajah of Berar and the 
Mahratta chief Scindiah. 

x ARGENTARIA, Alsace (now Colmar, N.E. 
France), where the Roman emperor Gratian totally 
defeated the Alemanni, and secured the peace of 
Gaul, May, 378. 

ARGENTINE (or La Plata) CONFE- 
DERATION, S. America, 14 provinces (Buenos 
Ayres, one). The city Buenos Ayres is the 
capital. This country was discovered by the 
Spaniards in 1515, settled by them in 1553, and 
formed part of the vice-royalty of Peru till 1778, 
when it became that of Rio de la Plata. It joined 
the insurrection in 181 1, and became independent 
in 1816. It was at war with Brazil from 1826 to 
1828, for the possession of Uruguay, which became 
independent as Monte-Video ; and at war with 
France from 1838-40. — Population, in 1869, 
1,877,490; 1887, 3,805,000; 1900, 4,794,149. -See 
Buenos At/res. 

Buenos Ayres seceded in 1853 ; reunited . . . 185^ 
An insurrection in San Juan in Nov. i860 ; sup- 
pressed in Tan. 1862 

J. Urquiza, elected president, 20 Nov. 1853, was 

succeeded by Dr. S. Derqui . . .8 Feb. i860 
Gen. Bartholomew Mitre, elected tor six years, as- 
sumed the president's office . . .12 Oct. 1862 
Lopez, president of Paraguay, declared war against 
Mitre, and invaded the Argentine territories. 
May. Mitre declared war against Paraguay, 16 
April ; and made alliance with Brazil and Uru- 
guay 4 May, 1865 

See Buenos Ayres for the disputes with that state, 

and Brazil for the war with Paraguay. 
Col. Dominique F. Sarmiento elected president for 

six years 12 Oct. 186S 

He suppresses the insurrection of Oorrientes, Nov. ,, 

Urquiza murdered 12 April, 1870 

Treaty with Brazil Jan., 1873 

Defeat of Lopez Jourdan, rebel, announced Pee. „ 
Dr. N. A vellaneda inaugurated president (for 6 years) 

12 Oct. 1874 
Insurrection of Mitre at Buenos Ayres. Sepfc-Nov. 

suppressed ; he submits ... 2 Dec. ,, 
National bank stops ; suspension <>t specie pay- 
ments by government . . . 16 May. 1S76 
Kiel ul' rebellion : eapl are of Jourdan : announced 

12 Pec, ,, 
Disputes with Buenos Ayres ; settled June-July, 1S80 
General Roca (opposed to supremacy ol Buenos 
Ayres) nominated to become president in October, 
opposed by Dr. Tejedor . . June-July. ,, 
General Roca becomes president . . . Oct. ,, 
Tranquillity restored: Buenos ayres to be definitive 

capita] of the Republic .... 7 Pee. ,, 
The Buenos Ayres Exhibition, under the patronage 

of the Government, opened . 15 Feb. 1SS2 

Dr. M. Juarez Celman, President . . 12 Oct. 1SS6 
Negotiations for a Loan fail; a panic on the 
Buenos Ayres bourse, 7 July ; the president and 
chambers authorize the issue of notes to the 
amount of 100,000,000 dollars . 8 — 12 July, 1890 
Dissensions in the armj ; arrest of officers; trials 

about 22 July, 



ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION. 63 ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION. 



Insurrection in Buenos Ayres, instigated by the 
Union Civica, beaded by sen. Aleru, Romero, and 
Del Valle against president Celman and bis 
ministry, charged with conniption ; a provisional 
government proclaimed ; the insurgents supported 
by troops and artillery and many civilians ; the 
government supported by infantry, armed police 
and part of the navy ; the city bombarded ; severe 
fighting in the streets ... 26 July, 

The president retires, leaving Dr. Pellegrini, vice- 
president, in command ; brief armistice ; fighting 
resumed ; the government troops under gen. Roca 
victorious ; surrender of the insurgents, general 
amnesty (about 1,000 persons killed and much 
property destroyed) .... 28 July, 

Resignation of Dr. Celman demanded, he refuses, 
30 July ; financial chaos, bourse closed 31 July, 

Boastful manifesto of president Celman, 31 July ; 
he is compelled to resign, 5 Aug. ; succeeded by 
Carlos Pellegrini, 6 Aug. ; new ministry, sen. 
Lopez, gen. Roca, and others ; business resumed, 
great rejoicings . . . 7 — 11 Aug. 

Great preparations against a dreaded attempt at a 
revolution about 6 Oct. 

Commission to inquire into reported corruptions in 

. government financial affairs appointed . Nov. 

Financial crisis at Buenos Ayres, several credit 
houses stop payment ; successful intervention of 
the government 24 Nov. 

Re-organization of the finances, by a plan proposed 
by a committee in London (lord Rothschild and 
others) about 4 Dec. 

Cordova city flooded by the canal bursting its em- 
bankments, about 150 persons drowned, and 
many houses destroyed ... 21 Dec. 

Excitement on account of proposed tax on deposits 
in private banks 15 Jan. 

The officers implicated in the late rebellion exiled 

about 19 Feb. 

A state of siege proclaimed in Buenos Ayres to 
check conspiracies .... 20 Feb. 

Riots at Cordova ; state of siege proclaimed, about 

22 Feb. 

Financial panic, 4 March ; business suspended by 
decree, 6 — 11 March ; panic ended ; a national 
loan for 100,000,000 dollars at 6 per cent., well 
taken up by the public . . 8 March, et seq. 

Banks re-opened 13 March, 

Arrival of gen. Mitre, warmly received, 18 March ; 
he joins gen. Roca . . . 24 March, 

The National and Provincial Banks suspend pay- 
ment till 1 June by decree . . 7 April, 

State of siege at Buenos Ayres raised, 17 April, 
the congress opened by president Pellegrini, with 
a hopeful message . . . . g May, 

Run on the banks at Buenos Ayres, 2 June ; panic 
abating through the firm conduct of the British 
residents . . . . . . 4 June, 

Tiie " Bank of the Argentine Nation " created by 
vote of the Senate 12 Aug. 

Forced paper currency, premium on gold to be 150 
per cent, and payment in gold suspended for two 
years, authorized by the government to support 
the national bank, 30 Sept. ; the scheme rejected 
by the senate, reported ... 14 Oct. 

Ministerial crisis .... 16—23 Oct. 

Confidence in the ministry voted by the senate and 
deputies 20 Oct. 

Election riots with loss of life and state of siege at 
Cordova and Tucuman, repoi ted . 27 Oct. 

destructive tornado in Santa Fe, 10 persons killed 

middle Nov. 

The Bank of the Argentine Nation opened . 1 Dec. 

Baron Hirsch reports that the Jewish settlements 
in the republic are prospering . . . Jan. : 

Disturbances at Mendoza ; assassinations ; govern- 
ment intervention . . . .22 — 24 Jan. 

Elections for senate and deputies favour the party 
of Mitre and Roca . . . about 8 Feb. 

Attempt at revolution discovered ; a state of siege 
proclaimed ; the radical leaders arrested ; military 
precautions adopted . . . 2 , 3 April, 

Dr. Lu'iz Saenz-Pena elected president,' about' 

12 June, 

State of siege raised 7 July, 

The war-vessel, Resales, founders off Uruguay, 

9 July. 



Conspiracy of about 30 officers in the army, who 
confess their guilt when arrested, tried by court- 
martial 22 Sept. et seq. 1892 

President Dr. Saenz-Pena assumes office 12 Oct. ,, 
Insurrection in the province of Santiago del Es- 
tero ; the governor and his ministers prisoners, 
reported 19 Oct. ; peace restored about 1 Nov. ,, 
Insurrection in the province of Corrientes, about 
24 Oct. 1892 ; again 25 Dec. 1892 ; conflicts with 
varying results ; suppressed by gen. Avellaneda, 

reported 12 Jan. 1393 

Insurrection in Catamarca .... March ,, 
Xew ministry ; Dr. Wenceslao Escalante, premier, 
reported 8 June ; resigned 3 July ; succeeded 
by sen. Lucio Lopez 6 July, ,, 

Radical insurrections in different provinces, re- 
ported 29 July ; continued fighting, 31 July; 
the radicals enter La Plata ; reported 10 Aug. ,, 
New cabinet formed under sen. Manuel Quintana 

at Buenos Ayres 13 Aug. ,, 

La Plata held by national troops ; radicals ex- 
pelled 15 Aug. ,, 

Argentina placed in a state of siege . 17 Aug. ,, 
The rebels enter Corrientes ; the authorities retire, 

reported 21 Aug. ,, 

The rebels defeat col. Acnna near Corrientes, re- 
ported 22 Aug. ,, 

Revolt in Tucuman 7 Sept. ,, 

Rosario taken by the rebels, Dr. Alem head of the 
insurgents, 25 Sept. ; retaken by the government 

1 Oct. „ 
Rebels in Santa Fe defeated, reported . 28 Sept. ,, 
Colonel Espina concerned in the insurrection, sen- 
tenced to 20 years' imprisonment, others exiled ; 
Dr. Alem arrested, 2 Oct., released . 16 Dec. ,, 

Insurrection ended 11 Oct. ,, 

State of siege in Buenos Ayres raised . 27 Feb. 1894 
General state of financial embarrassment June, ,, 
Extradition of Jabez Balfour, see Building Societies, 

1893-95 Aug. ,, 

Destructive earthquake in San Juan, with great 

loss of life 27 Oct. ,, 

Destructive inundation in the province of Menduza, 

20 lives lost, reported . . . .9 Jan. 1895 
The ministry resigns through the president's refusal 
to grant an amnesty to persons concerned in 

the late revolution 16 Jan. ,, 

Resignation of pres. Saenz-Pena . . 22 Jan. ,, 
Dr. J. E. Uriburu becomes president . 23 Jan. ,, 
Amnesty bill passer] anil budget voted . 24 Jan. ,, 
Congress opened, progress reported . 7 May, 1896 

Flights of locusts in Buenos Ayres, reported 

23 June, 1897 
Large financial deficit ; national debt, 62,000,000?., 
July : national loan, 39,000,000 dollars, announ- 
ced .' .10 May, 1898 

Gen. Roca elected president, 12 June ; forms a 

ministry I2 Oct. ,, 

Bad administration ol justice, inadequate protec- 
tion of life and property, reported . . N'ov. ,, 
Congress opened, large deficit reported, 1 May, 1899 
Destructive floods in the Rio Negro valley, early 

June, ,, 
Meeting in Buenos Ayres, petition (50,000 signa- 
tures) for reforms, reduction of duties, &c. 

28 June, ,, 
Commission appointed to inquire into administra- 
tion of justice June, ,, 

President Roca visits Brazil, returns to Buenos 

Ayres 22 Aug. ,, 

Conversion bills (unpopular) passed . 29 Oct. ,, 

Congress opened, general improvement reported, 

1 May, 1900 
Bill to check extraordinary expenditure, becomes 

law 28 Sept. ,, 

Dr. Campos Salles, Brazilian president, visits 

Buenos Ayres, 24 Oct. ; leaves . . 1 Nov. ,, 
Boundary protocol with Chili signed . 27 Dx. „ 
Congress opened, deficit 40,000?. for 1900, 3 May, iqoi 
Agitation, with fatal rioting, against the unifica- 
tion of the Argentine debt, 3 July ; bill with- 
drawn, finance minister resigns, 4, 5 July ; state 

of siege ends 30 July, ,, 

Bill imposing obligatory military service adopted 

by the chamber (56— 21) . . . 21 Sept. ,, 
Monument to gen. Urquiza unveiled at Parana, 

18 Oct. ,, 



ARGINUS^. 



64 ARISTOTELIAN PHILOSOPHY. 



Frontier dispute, relations with Chili strained, 
Dee. ; closed ; the question referred to arbitra- 
tion of Great Britain, reported . . 26 Dec. 1901 
Budget, good surplus for 1902 ; passed, 10 Jan. 1902 
Mr. Wm. Barnett brutally murdered at Zuviria, in 
Cordoba, 26 April ; Aug. Grati sentenced to 8 
years' imprisonment . . . .28 Nov. „ 
Arbitration treaty and other agreements with Chili 
{which see) signed at Santiago, 28 May ; ratified, 

28 June and 31 July, ,, 

Budget: financial improvement, reported 8 Aug. ,, 
Harbour works at Rosario opened . . 26 Oct. ,, 
General strike. State of siege decreed in Buenos 

Ayres and Santa Fe . . . 21-24 Nov. „ 

See Chili, 1898, and Italy, 1898 

ARGLNUSJE, isles between Lesbos and 

Asia Minor; near these Conon and the Athenian 

fleet defeated the Spartan admiral Callicratidas, 
406 B.C. 

ARGON" (from the Greek a and ergon) , a new 
gas discovered by lord Kayleigh and prof. Ramsay, 
in their researches on Air, by different methods : 
remarkable for some of its physical properties and 
chemical inertness ; see Air, 1894-5. 

The subject was reported to the British Associ- 
ation at Oxford, Aug. 1894 ; to the Royal Society at the 
London University, 31 Jan. 1895, and in the Royal In- 
stitution, 5 April, 1895 ; and again . . 17 Jan. 1896 
Lord Rayleigh received the Faraday medal of the 

Chemical Society . . . .27 March, 1895 
The combination of argon with benzene and other 
organic compounds by means of the silent elec- 
tric discharge, reported by M. Berthelot at Paris 

March, „ 
The Smithsonian institution, Washington, awarded 
the first Hodgkins prize of 10,000 dollars to lord 
Rayleigh and prof. William Ramsay for their dis- 
covery of argon Aug. ,, 

The R. S. Davy medal presented to prof. W. Ram- 
say, 30 Nov. ; the Lecomte prize of 50,000 francs 
awarded to prof. Ramsay and lord Kayleigh by 
the French Academy of Sciences . . 16 Dec. ,, 

ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION, dated by 
Hales 1225, by Clinton 1169, said to have been 
undertaken by Jason, to avenge the death of his 
kinsman Phryxus, and to recover the treasures seized 
by his murderer, Jietes, king of Colchis. The ship 
in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been 
adorned with the figure of a ram, led to the fiction 
that the journey was to recover the golden fleece. 
This is the first naval expedition on record. Many 
kings and heroes accompanied Jason, whose ship 
was called Argo, from its builder- 

ARGONAUTS OF ST. NICHOLAS, mili- 
tary knights ; an order founded by Charles III. of 
Naples, 1382. 

ARGOS, the most ancient city of Greece, mythi- 
cally said to have been founded either by Inachus 
or his son, Phoroneus, received its name from Argus, 
the fourth of the Inaehidaj. The early history is 
fabulous. 

Reign of Triopas ; Polycaon seizes part of the king- 
dom and calls it after his wife, Messenia . . 1552 
Gelanor, last of the Inachidse, deposed by Danaus, 

an Egyptian M75 

Feast of the Flamhcam, instituted in honour oi 
Jlypcmincstra, who saved her husband. Lynceus, 
son of JSgyptus, on his nuptial night, while ber 
forty-nine sisters sacrificed theirs, ai the com- 
mand of their father, Danaus .... 1425 

Lynceus dethrones Danaus 1425 

The kingdom divided by the brothers Acrisius and 

Prostus «344 (' t*3 Clinton.) 

Perseus, grandson of Acrisius, leaves Argos and 

founds Mycense {which see) ... . 1313 

The Beraclidse retake the Peloponnesus, and Teme 

nus seizes Argos "°2 

Pheidon's prosperous rule 77°-73° 

War with Sparta : combat of 300 on each side . . 547 



The Argives fine Sieyon and iEgina for helping their B.C. 

enemy, Cleomenes of Sparta 514 

Sparta becomes superior to Argos . . . 495-490 
Tliemistoeles an exile at Argos . . . . ' . 47J 
The Argives destroy Mycense and regain their 

superiority 468 

Peloponnesian war — Argos long neutral, joins 

Athens 420 

The aristocratical party makes peace with Sparta, 

and overthrows the democracy . . . .417 
A reaction — alliance with Athens resumed . . . 395 
Pyrrhns of Macedon besieging Argos, slain . . 272 
Argos governed by tyrants supported by Macedon ; 

freed ; joins the Achaean league .... 229, 

Subjugated by the Romans 146 

Argos taken from the Venetians . . . a.d. 1686 
Taken by the Turks 1 716, who held it until . . 1826 

United to Greece under king Otho (see Greece) 

25 Jan. 1833 

Excavations of the American School of Archaeology 
under Dr. Charles Waldestein begun Feb. 1892 et seq. : 
ruins of the temple of Hera (or Juno) near Argos (de- 
stroyed in the middle ages) ; remains of cyclopeaii 
masonry, sculpture, &c, discovered; reported, 1894. 

ARGUIN, battle of, see Soudan, 2 July, 1889. 

ARGYLE ("W. Scotland), bishopric of, founded 
about 1200, Evaldus being the first bishop; the 
diocese, previously united with Dunkeld, ended 
1688. Argyle and the Isles is a post-revolution 
bishopric, 1847 ; see Bishoprics. 

ARGYLL ROOMS, near Oxford-street, Lon- 
don, opened for musical and other entertainments 
early in the 19th century ; re-erected by Nash, 1818 ; 
held by the Philharmonic Society, 18*13-30. Here 
appeared Spohr, 1820 ; "Weber, 3 April, 1826 ; and 
Mendelssohn, 25 May, 1829. While held by M. 
Chabert, the fire-king, the building was burnt 
down, 5,6 Feb. 1830. The new building waseven- 
tually converted into shops. 
The Argyll Rooms in Windmill-street obtained a very 

vile reputation. The Trocadero now occupies the site. 

ARIAN or ARYAN (in Sanskrit signifying 
noble, warlike), a term applied to the Indo-Germanic 
nations, including the Greek, Latin, Scandinavian, 
Keltic, and Teutonic races, the western branch ; and 
the Persian, Armenian, Northern Hindu races, tin- 
eastern branch. 

ARIANS, followers of Arius* of Alexandria, 
who preached against the doctrine of the 
Trinity, about 315, and died in 336. The con- 
troversy was taken up by Constantine, who pre- 
sided at the council of Nice, June to Aug. 325, 
when the Arians were condemned ; but then- 
doctrine long prevailed. It was favoured by 
Constantius II. 341 ; and carried into Afriea by 
the Vandals in the 5th century, and into Asia by 
the Goths. Servetus published his treatise against 
the Trinity, 1531, and was burnt, 1553. Leggatt, an 
Arian, was burnt at Smithfield in Y014; sve Atha- 
nasian Creed, Socinians, and Unitarians. 

ARICA, Peru, destroyed by an earthquake, and 
inundated by waves of the sea," 13 Aug. 1868. 

ARIKERA, near Scringapatam. Here lord 
Cornwallis defeated Tippoo Sahib, 1^ May, 1 791 . 

ARISTOTELIAN PHILOSOPHY: the 

most comprehensive ever devised b\ man. Aristotle 
was born at Stageiro (hence termed the Stageirite), 
3S4 B.C.; was a pupil of Plato from 364 to 347;. 
became preceptor of Alexander, son of Philip of 
Macedon, in 342 ; and died in 322. He divided the 

* Arius maintained that the Son of God was .^ 
secondary God created by the Father, who raised Him 
far above all men, and consequently not equal with the 
Father. 



ARITHMETIC. 



(3a 



AEMADA. 



circle of knowledge into metaphysics and logic, 
physics (including part of the science of mind), and 
ethics. His philosophy was too much exalted by 
the schoolmen during the middle ages, and too 
much depreciated after the Reformation. His works 
on natural science contain a vast collection of facts 
and an extraordinary mixture of sound and chi- 
merical opinions. To him is attributed the asser- 
tion that nature abhors a vacuum, an opinion now 
maintained by eminent modern philosophers. 
An Aristotelian Society, for the systematic study of phi- 
losophy, was founded in the spring of 1880 ; Dr. Shad- 
worth H. Hodgson, president. 
M. Barthelemy St. Hilaire's complete translation of 

Aristotle, 35 vols., published early in 1891. 
A papyrus containing the lost treatise of Aristotle on 
the "Constitution of Athens," discovered in Egypt 
and conveyed to the British Museum, was published 
by the, trustees, with a preface and notes by Mr. F. G. 
Kenyon, Jan. ; and photographs of the MS. were pub- 
lished March, 1891 ; prof. J. E. Sandys's elaborate 
■edition, Jan. 1893. The work was hitherto only known 
by extracts in ancient writers. The MS. was considered 
genuine by M. Barthelemy St. Hilaire, March, 1891. 
A family tomb, discovered at Eretria, in the island of 
Eubcea, by Dr. Charles Waldstein, early in 1891, was 
considered by him to be really that of Aristotle and 
his family. 

ARITHMETIC is said to have been intro- 
duced from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 
600 B.C. The Chinese used the abacus, or svmn- 
pan, at an early period. It is asserted that the 
ancient Hindus adopted a system having ten as a 



130 
156 



The oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid 
(7th, 8th, and 9th books of his Elements), about 

B.C. 

The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used 

A.D. 

Diophantus, of Alexandria, was the author of thir- 
teen books of arithmetical questions (of which six 
are now extant) about 

Notation by nine digits and zero (Arabic figures), 
known at least as early as the 6th century in Hin- 
dostan — introduced from thence into Arabia, 
about 900 — into Spain, about 980 — into France, 
by Gerbert, soon after— into England, probably in 
14th or 15th century. 

The date in Caxton's Mirrour of the World, Arabic 
characters, is 

Arithmetic of decimals invented .... 

John Sherwood, bishop of Durham's Lucius Arithmo- 
Machince, printed at Rome 

First work printed in England on arithmetic (cle 
Arte Supputandi) was by Tonstall, bishop of 
Durham 

The theory of decimal fractions perfected by Napier 
in his Rhabdologia 

Cocker's Arithmetic appeared in ... . 

Nystrom's Tonal system with 16 as a basis, pub- 
lished 1862 

Sawyer's "Automatic System," published . . 1878 

ARITHMOMETER, see Calculating Ma- 
chines. 

ARIZONA, a territory of the United States, 
originally part of New Mexico, was organised 24 
Feb. 1863 ; capital, Tucson. It was colonised by 
the Jesuits in the 17th century. Population, 1880, 
40,440; 1890,59,620; 1900, 122,931. 
By the bursting of the great dams at Prescott, Seymore 

and other mining villages were destroyed by the great 

rush of water and about 70 persons are said to have 

perished, 22 Feb. 1890. 
Yuma nearly destroyed by floods ; about 100 lives lost, 

1,400 homeless, reported 2 March, 1891. 
The town of Jerome burnt down, n deaths, 12 Sept. 

1898. 

ARK. Mount Ararat (ivhich see) is venerated 
from a belief of its being the place on which 
Noah's Ark rested, after the universal deluge, 2348 



1017 
1677 



B.C. ; see Gen. vi. vii. Some assert Apamea, in 
Phrygia, to be the spot; and medals have been 
struck there with a chest on the waters, and the 
letters NOE, and two doves ; this place is 300 miles 
west of Ararat. The Ark of the Covenant, made by 
Moses to contain the two tables of the law, 1491 
B.C. (Exod. xxv.), was placed in Solomon's temple, 
1004 B.C. (1 Kings viii.). The Babylonian ark, 
papakJm, derived from the ma, or ship of the pre- 
Semitic Sumerians, furnished with a ma-it, oar and 
rudder, besrs a close parallel to the Israelitish ark. 
Hibbert lecture 18S7, by professor Sayce. 

ARKANSAS, originally part of Louisiana, 
ceded by Spain to France, 1763 ; and purchased by 
the United States in 1803, was made a territory, 
1819; and a state, 1836; seceded from the union 
6 May, 1861 ; re-admitted, 1868. Several battles 
were fought in this state in 1862. Capital, Little 
Rock. Population, 1890, 1,128,179; 1900,1,311,564. 
Cherokee Strip, a reserve, opened to settlers, many 

arrive ; towns planned . . . .16 Sept. 1893 
Little Rock partially destroyed by a cyclone, 8 

deaths . 3 Oct. 1894 

Great tire at Hot Springs, 5 lives lost, 28 houses 

burnt 22 Feb. 1895 

Tornado at Fort Smith city, buildings destroyed 

by fire, 31 deaths 12 Jan. 1898 

ARKLOW (in Wick low), where a battle was 
fought between the insurgent Irish, amounting to 
31,000, and a small regular force of British, which 
signally defeated them, 10 June, 1798. The town 
was nearly destroyed by the insurgents in May 
previous. — Native gold was discovered in Arklow, 
in Sept. 1795. Phil. Trans, vol. 86. 

ARLBERG, see under Tunnels. 

ARLES (Arelatum, from the Celtic Ar-lait, 
near the waters), S. France (said to have been 
founded 2000 B.C.), a powerful Roman city, was 
made capital of the kingdom of Provence by Boson 
in 879 a.d. ; and of the kingdom of Aries or Trans- 
jurane Burgundy by Rodolph II. in 933. He was 
succeeded by Conrad I. 937 ; and by Rodolph III. 
993 ; who in 1032, transmitted his king- 
dom to the emperor Conrad II. After various 
changes it was annexed to France in i486. Many 
councils (314-1275) were held at Aries; the most 
celebrated in 314, when British bishops were 
present. 

ARMADA, the Invincible, collected and 

equipped by Philip II. king of Spain, for the subju- 
gation of England. Morant's historical account 
(accompanying Pine's engravings of the tapestries 
formerly in the house of lords) was printed 1739. 
It consisted of 130 ships (besides caravels), 3165 
cannon, 8050 sailors, 2088 galley-slaves, 18,973 
soldiers, 1382 volunteers (noblemen, gentlemen, 
and their attendants), and 150 monks, with Martin 
Alarco, vicar of the Inquisition, — the whole under 
the command of the duke of Medina-Sidonia . 1587 
The English fleet 80 vessels under lord Charles 
Howard, sir Francis Drake, and sir John Haw- 
kins, ready for sea, and three armies on land. Dec. „ 
The Armada sailed from Lisbon ; soon after dis- 
persed by a storm .... 19 May, 1583 
Re-collected, entered the Channel off Cornwall, 

19 July, ,, 
Suffered in a series of engagements (the sharpest 

on 25 July) 21-27 July, „ 

Dispersed by fire-ships sent into the midst, 28 July, ,, 
Many vessels sunk or taken by the English, 

29 July, ,, 
The remainder retreat northward to Spain, suf- 
fering much loss by severe storms, Aug. and Sept. ,, 
Computed Spanish loss — 35 ships ; 13,000 men. 
The queen attended a most solemn thanksgiving 
at St. Paul's 24 Nov. ,, 



ARMAGH. 



66 



ARMENIA. 



An annual thanksgiving sermon was endowed by 
Mr. Chapman, who died 1616 ; it was preached at 
St. Mary-le-Bow 12 Aug. 1877 

Tercentenary at Plymouth celebrated with exhibi- 
tions, &c, 18 July, 1888 ; National memorial 
founded 19 July, 1888 

Fund established at the Mansion House . 3 May, ,, 

Relics exhibited at Drury Lane Theatre 24 Oct. ,, 

" The Spanish Armada," a play at Drury Lane 
Theatre ; first performance . . 22 Sept. ,, 

A bronze statue of Britannia, set up at Plymouth 
Hoe as a National Memorial of the defeat of the 
Armada, was unveiled by the duke of Edinburgh 
on behalf of the queen .. . . 21 Oct. 1890 

" The Spanish story of the Armada," by Mr. J. A. 
Froude, published 1892 

ARMAGH, N. Ireland, of which it was the 
metropolis from the 5th to the 9th century, the seat 
of the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, said to 
have been founded by St. Patrick, its first bishop, 
about 444, and said to have built the first cathedral, 
450. Six saints of the Homan calendar have been 
bishops of this see. Until lately the value was 
estimated at 15,000^. per annum. The see was 
re-constituted (see Pallium) in 1 151. Beatson. 
Armagh was ravaged by the Danes on Easter-day, 
852, and by O'Neil in 1564. See Railway Accidents,, 
12 June, 1889. Population, 1871, 8,946; 1881, 
10,070; 1891, 7,800; 1901,7,569. Great fire, shops 
and buildings destroyed, damage 80,000/, 25 Jan. 
1903. Robert Bent Knox, abp., primate, 1886 ; 
died, aged 85, 23 Oct., 1893, succeeded by R. S. 
Gregg, Dp. of Cork, elected, 14 Dec. 1893; died, aged 
61, 10 Jan. 1896; William Alexander, bp. of Derry, 
elected, 25 Feb. 1896. Michael Card. Logue, R.C. 
abp., 1879. 

ARMAGNACS, a political party in France, 
followers of the duke of Orleans, murdered by the 
Burgundians, 23 Nov. 1407, derived their name 
from his father-in-law, the count of Armagnac. 
About 3500 of this party were massacred at Paris 
in June, 1418, by their opponents, the followers of 
the duke of Burgundy. 

ARMED NEUTRALITY, the confederacy 
against England, formed by Russia, Sweden, and 
Denmark, 1780 ; ended, 1781 ; renewed, and atreaty 
ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected 
by the belligerent powers, 16 Dec. 1800. The prin- 
ciple that neutral flags protect neutral bottoms being 
contrary to the maritime system of England, the 
British cabinet remonstrated, war ensued, and Nel- 
son and Parker destroyed the fleet of Denmark before 
Copenhagen, 2 April, 1801. This event and the 
murder of the emperor Paul of Russia led to the 
dissolution of the Armed Neutrality. 

ARMENIA, Asia Minor, after forming part 
of the Assyrian, Median, and Persian empires, 
became subject to the Greek kings of Syria, after 
the defeat of Antiochus the Great, 190 B.C. The 
Romans established the kingdoms of Armenia 
Major and Minor, but their influence over them 
was frequently interrupted by the aggressions of 
the Parthians. In all their political troubles the 
Armenians have maintained the profession of Chris- 
tianity, and their church is governed by patriarchs, 
not subjectto Rome. Since 1715 an Armenian con- 
vent has existed at Venire, where honks on all 
subjects arc printed in the Armenian language. 

City of Artaxarta linilt B.C. 186 

Antiochus Epiphanes invades Armenia . . . 165 

Tigranes the Great reigns in Armenia Major . . 95 
Becomes King of Syria, ami ih^nurs the title of 

" King of Kings " 83 

Defeated by Lucullus, 69 ; he lays his crown at the 

feel ofPompey 66 



His son, Artavasdes, reigns, 54 ; he assists Pompey 
against Julius Csesar, 48 ; and the Parthians 
against Marc Antony 36 

Antony subdues, and sends him loaded with silver 
chains to Egypt 34 

Artaxias, his son, made king by the Parthians . 33. 

Deposed by the Romans, who enthrone Tigranes II. 20 

Armenia subjected to Parthia . . . . a.d. 15 

Reconquered by Germanicus, grandson of Augustus iS 

After many changes Tiridates is made king by the 
Romans . 58 

The Parthian conquerors of Armenia are expelled 
by Trajan 115 

Severus makes Volagarses king of part of Armenia . 199* 

Christianity introduced, between . . . a.d. 100-300 

Armenia added to the Persian empire . . . 232 

Tiridates obtains the throne through Diocletian, 
286 ; is expelled by Narses, 294 ; restored by 
Galerius 298 

On his death, Armenia becomes subject to Persia, 
342 ; is made neutral by Rome and Persia, 384 ; 
who divide it by treaty 443 

Armenia conquered and reconquered by the Greek 
and Persian sovereigns . . . . 577-687 

And by the Greek emperors and Mahometans 

693-1065 

The Armenian church reconciled to Rome, about . 1330 

Leon VI., last king of Armenia, taken prisoner by 
the Saracens, 1375 ; released : he dies at Paris . 1393. 

Overrun by the Mongols, 1235 ; by Timour, 1383 ; 
by the Turks, 1516; by the Persians, 1534; by the 
Turks . 1583. 

Shah Abbas, of Persia, surrenders Armenia to the 
Turks, but transports 22,000 Armenian families 
into his own states 1604 

Armenia overrun by the Russians .... 1828 

Surrender of Erzeroum . . . .9 July, 1829, 

(See Syria and Russo-Turkish Wars I. and II.) 

By the Berlin treaty. Ears, Ardahan, and Batoum 
were ceded to Russia, with other changes July, 1878' 

The Turkish government charged with oppression 
and cruelty, Aug. ; doubted by some . Sept. 1889. 

Moussa Bey, a Kurdish chief, tried at Constanti- 
nople for alleged cruelties, 23 Nov. ; acquitted (a 
new trial refused), 2 Dec. et seq. 1889 ; eventually 
exiled to Medina .... Sept. Oct. 1890 

Riotous conflicts between Armenians and Mussul- 
mans at Erzeroum, 9 persons killed, reported 

27 June, ,, 

The Armenians in Constantinople attack their 
patriarch, Achikian, in a church during service, 
riot suppressed by the military with loss of life, 

27 July; many arrested Aug., and punished, 
Oct. ; the patriarch resigns, 31 July ; the chief 
rioter sentenced to death, others to imprisonment 

16 Aug. ,, 

The sultan agrees to many reforms in Armenia, 
reported 20 Aug. ,, 

Armed band of Armenians on the Turco-Russian 
frontier dispersed by the Turks and Russians, 
reported ....... 2 Nov. 

Friendly negotiations with the Porte ; loyal address 
to the sultan, and gracious reply ; the patriarch 
withdraws his resignation ... 28 Dec. ,, 

He is received by the sultan, who announces a 
general amnesty, with great release of prisoners 

17 Jan. et seq, 1891 

The central committee for reforms, issue a procla- 
mation against the Turkish government, about 

25 Jan. „ 

Death of Abp. Chorene Xar Bey Lusignan, a 
descendant of l he house of Lusignan of Cyprus, 
an eminent preacher and writer, iS Nov. 1892, 
succeeded by Mgr. Khrimian, Dec. 1S92, anointed 
supreme patriarch 8 Oct. 1893 

Annual meetingof the Anglo-Armenian Association 
in London 6 Jan. ,, 

Seventeen ( 'lnist ians, as alleged revolutionists, con- 
demned to death at Angora ; appeal, 20 June, 
1893; alleged unfair trial, fresh arrests, 26 June; 

aiqieal ; liritish inlencnlion ; sentences of death 

confirmed in 5 cases; other cases, various degrees 
of imprisonment, exile, and hard labour, reported, 

28 July, 1893; investigation, some .sentences re- 
mitted ; 1 70 prisoners released, reported . loSept. 1894 

Sanguinary conflict between the Armenians and 
Turks at Yuzgat, 2 Feb. ; foreign intervention re- 
ported, i March; attempted assassination of the 



ABMENIA. 



67 



AKMENIA. 



Armenian patriarch by discontented Armenians, 
25 March ; he resigns his office . . 12 April, : 

The Armenians impoverished by frequent raids of 
the Kurds in the districts of Sasun, Bitlis, 
Mush, &c, are unable to pay the government 
taxes, and are consequently subjected to great 
cruelty and oppression, 1892-4 [Times, 29, 30 
March, 13, 15 April, 1895] 

Markar, an Armenian teacher who had been to re- 
port their wrongs at Constantinople, hanged at 
Bitlis S Feb. 

Ten days' conflict between the Kurds aided by the 
Turkish troops and the Armenians in the Shadak 
district ; 41 Armenians, who had surrendered on 
promise of an amnesty, massacred by order 

end of June, 

Massacre of a great number of fugitives on Mount 
Andoke, 32 villages burnt and the inhabitants 
killed by the Kurds and Turkish troops 

25 Aug. et seq. 

British remonstrance ; investigations ordered by 
the Sultan, Nov. ; a commission of inquiry con- 
sisting of delegates of Great Britain, France, and 
Russia, appointed Dec. 

Mgr. Izmirlian elected patriarch, Dec. ; enthroned 
at Kum-Kapu, 8 Jan. ; received by the sultan 

Jan. i 

The foreign commission holds its first meeting at 
Mush Jan. 

Protocols of the first 12 sittings, issued . 2 March, 

Over 2,500 political prisoners reported . 8 March, 

Conflict between Mahometans and Christians at 
Tokat, 5 persons killed ... 20 March, 

Several ecclesiastical prisoners at Constantinople 
released and sent to Armenia, reported 

15 April-May, 

Sir Philip Currie reports to the Porte the cruelty 
and oppression to the Armenians and the immi- 
nent danger, if redress and thorough reforms are 
not gran ted ; favourable promises given . 19 Ajiril, 

A commission appointed by the sultan to consider 
a scheme for reforms in Armenia, first meeting 
in Constantinople 23 April, 

Great meeting in St. James's hall, London, respect- 
ing the atrocities, the duke of Argyll and the 
duke of Westminster presiding . . 7 May, 

Zeki Pasha, Turkish commander of the troops, con- 
cerned in the massacres ; recalled . 8 May, 

Scheme of Armenian reform drawn up by the 
British, French, and Russian ambassadors pre- 
sented to the sultan ; terms : appointment of a 
high commissioner, general amnesty and release 
of prisoners, political reforms, abolition of tor- 
ture, &c. , about 11 May 

The commissioners visit the scene of the atrocities 
of Aug. 1894, in the Sasun district, pass through 

• ruined villages and discover two pits in which 
were buried wholesale the victims of the soldiery, 
reported 13 May, 

Great European meeting at Paris on behalf of the 
Armenians 25 May, 

The foreign delegates insulted by the Turkish 
police at Mush, end of May ; satisfaction granted 
by the Porte . ... 2 June, 

Famine in the Sasun district, June ; 2,oooL sent 
from England July, 

Amnesty to political prisoners, many released 

July, 

Renewed conflicts between the Mahometans and 
the Armenians, oppression and extortion of 
Turkish officials, reported . . .27 Sept. 

Terrible massacres of Armenians at Baiburt, 1,000 
killed, 13 Oct. ; Erzingjan, 1,000, 21 Oct. ; Bitlis, 
900, 25 Oct. ; Diarbekr, 2,500, 25 Oct. ; Harpoot, 
1,000, 11 Nov. ; Sivas, 1,200, 12 Nov. ; Marash, 
i,ooo, 18 Nov. ; Gurun, 3,000, 10 Nov. ; Arabkir, 
2,000, 6 Nov. ; Cesarea, 1,000,30 Nov. ; and many 
killed at other places 

The sultan's decree approving the Armenian reform 
scheme promulgated ; no results . . 20 Oct. 

The reform scheme forwarded to Shakir pasha, 
high commissioner for Armenia, with instructions 
for action abt. 22 Oct. 

The Porte in a circular declares the Armenians to 
be the aggressors 29 Oct. 

Turkish troops surrounded at Zeitun surrender to 
the Armenians 11 Nov. 



Estimated loss (io,ooo,oooi. ) of the Armenians 
during the late events in Asia Minor; 40,000 
deaths, reported 25 Nov. 

Six judicial inspectors appointed for the Asiatic 
provinces, and three for the European, announced 

26 Nov. 

Massacres and atrocities by the Hamidieh cavalry 
in the province of Van ; reported . . 28 Nov. 

The U.S. minister demands redress for destruction 
of missions, &c, at Marash, reported . 5 Dec. 

Great distress in six districts, reported . 9 Dec. 

The Armenian patriarch reports to the sultan 
details of the massacres and destructions in the 
provinces, reported .... 19 Dec. 

Total sum, 13,000^., collected in Great Britain re- 
mitted by the duke of Westminster . 26 Dec. 
[3,000^. received from Liverpool, Manchester and 
Leeds, 11 Feb. 1896.] 

Continued barbarities in Sivas, Biredjik, &c, 
reported 23 Dec. 

Summary of massacres from 30 Sept. — 30 Nov. 

given in Times 30 Dec. 

[Two blue books published, Jan. 1896.] 

Massacre at Orfah, 28, 29 Oct ; a state of siege for 
2 months ; final massacre, about 8,000 killed ; 
the cathedral burnt, and about 3,000 men, women 
and children perished, 126 families utterly wiped 
out (Times, 19 May, 1896) . . 28, 29 Dec. 

Mediation of the consuls at Aleppo accepted, hos- 
tilities suspended at Zeitun . . .3 Jan. 

A decree for strengthening the army, issued 4 Jan. 

The Board of Control for Reforms declared by the 
foreign embassies to be inefficient . 18 Jan. 

Refugees at Zeitun (14,000) invited to return to 
their villages under the supervision of the foreign 
consuls 14 Feb. 

The marquis of Salisbury and sir Philip Currie 
appeal to the Armenian relief committee, Lon- 
don, for help, 22 Feb. ; 50,000^. distributed by 
sir Philip Currie, reported . . .22 June, 

Rioting at Adana, 15 Armenians killed 23 Feb. 

The massacre of 15 Armenian families reported from 
Mush 1 March, 

Resolution of the house of commons expressing 
deep sympathy with the Armenians . 3 March, 

T8o,ooof. collected in Paris for Armenian sufferers, 
announced 1 April, 

Disturbances at "Van, reported, 19 June ; renewed 
conflicts, 400 killed ; many refugees at the British 
consulate .... .22 June 

Forced resignation of the Mgr. Izmirlian, 4 Aug. ; 
Mgr. Bartolomeos installed as lociim tenens 

11 Aug. 

Massacre of Armenians by Kurds and Turks at 
Egin, vilayet of Kharput, about 2,000 killed, 
houses pillaged and burnt . . 15-17 Sept. 

10 Armenians killed at Angora ; outrages in other 
villages, and 60 Armenians killed . 18-19 Sept. 

Slaughter at Kaiserieh, Ghemerek and Kharput, 
houses pillaged and burnt, reported, 24 Sept. ; at 
Everek and Feiresse Oct. 

Five Christian governors appointed in various 
districts, announced . . .28 Oct. 

Armenian refugees settled in Greece and Bulgaria 

Nov. 

Eniz pasha, vali of Diarbekr, concerned in the late 
massacres, dismissed .... 7 Nov. 

Execution of reforms ordered . . . 11 Nov. 

Mgr. Malachias Ormanian, bishop of Armash, 
elected patriarch 18 Nov. 

"Armenian Cave," see Liberals, Dec. 1896. 

Sir Philip Currie appeals for n,oooL to the foreign 
office for destitute Armenians, 30 Dec. 1896 ; 
2,oooJ. sent 28 Jan. ; again .... Feb. 

40,000 Armenian emigrants settled in S. Russia, 
relief sent from Moscow and Astrakhan, many 
children perish ; reported ... 22 Jan. 

Massacre of 100 Armenians, houses sacked at Tokat, 
19, 20 March ; the embassies demand redress, 
and send consuls to attend the Turkish commis- 
sion of inquiry, under Hassan Fehmi pasha, 
reported, 27 March ; 9 Mahometans sentenced to 
death, commuted to penal servitude for life, 
23 Aug. ; disturbances in Adana and other pro- 
vinces, reported .... 21 March, 

Concessions granted to the Armenians by irade' 

30 March, 

p 2 



1895 



ABMENIAN EEA. 



68 



AEMY. 



Fresh petition for the execution of reforms ; pre- 
sented by the patriarch to the porte ; reported 

6 May, 1897 

A commission appointed by the sultan to raise sub- 
scriptions for rebuilding schools, churches, &c, 
destroyed during the disturbances . . Oct. ,, 

The patriarch receives i,oco£T. from the Porte for 
distressed Armenians, and 10 prisoners released ; 
reported 19 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Waugh, British vice-consul, distributes 1,850?. 
in Diarbekr, m 9 months, ending 31 March, 1898 

Fatal conflicts between Turks and Armenians in 
Van district ...... Sept. „ 

Great distress round Van, many deaths, the Porte 
prohibits relief Feb. 1899 

An irade granting certain reforms (54 Armenian 
prisoners pardoned and 24 death sentences com- 
muted to life imprisonment) issued . n Oct. ,, 

Massacre at Spaghank, in Sasun, by Turks and 
Kurds, villages burnt ... 16 July ,, 

Ali pasha, governor of Bitlis, dismissed 26 Aug. 1900 

Kurdish raids in Mush and Van ; terrible distress 
reported 20 Oct. ,, 

Council of the Patriarchate suspends sittings 
owing to the Porte's persistent disregard of 
petitions Nov. ,, 

Kurdish outrages in Mush and Sasun districts, 
over 100 Armenians killed . . early Sept. 1901 

The patriarch resigns as a protest against the Porte, 
2 Aug., but resumed his duties on the repeal of 
oppressive laws by irade issued . 31 Aug. 1902 

State of siege at Mush and Sasun . . 26 Sept. „ 

Earthquake in Van vilayet, Melazgard and other 
villages totally destroyed, 860 deaths, many 
cattle and sheep killed . . . 29 April, 1903 
See Turkey, 1895, 1896 ct seq. 

ABMENIAN EEA, commenced on 9 July, 
552 ; the ecclesiastical year on 1 1 Aug. To reduce 
this last to our time, add 551 years and 221 days; 
and in leap years subtract one day from 1 March to 
10 Aug. The Armenians used the old Julian style 
and months in their correspondence with Euro- 
peans. 

. AEMILLAEY SPHEEE, an astronomical 
instrument composed of brass circles disposed in 
such a manner that the greater and lesser circles of 
the sphere may be seen in their natural position and 
motion. It is said to have been invented by Era- 
tosthenes, about 255 B.C.; and was employed by 
Tycho Brahe and others. 

ABMINIANS, or BeMONSTRANTS, derive 
their former name from James Arminius (or Har- 
mensen), a Protestant divine of Leyden, Holland 
(died 19 Oct. 1609) ; the latter name from his fol- 
lowers having presented a Remonstrance to the 
states-general in 1610. They separated from the 
Calvinists, objecting to their views respecting pre- 
destination, &c. Their doctrines were condemned 
in 1619, at the synod of Dort (which see); they were 
exiled till 1625. The Calvinists were sometimes 
styled Gomarists, from Gomar, the chief oppo- 
nent to Arminius. James 1. and Charles I. favoured 
the Arminian doctrine. 

AEMOEIAL BEAEINGS became here- 
ditary in families at the close of the 12th century. 
They were employed by the crusaders, 1 100. The 
lines to denote colours in arms, by their direction or 
intersection, were invented by Columbiere in 1639. 
The armorial bearings of the English sovereigns are 
given under the article England. Armorial bearings 
were taxed in 1798, and again in 1808. The tax 
produced 64,515/. in the year ending }i March, 
1868 ; 1872, (4,228/. ; 1876, 83,527*. ; 1878, 83,104/. ; 
1879,81,854/.; 1881, 79,014/.; r 882, 79,196/.; tgoi-2. 
74,703/. The tax is now 2/. 2s.; il not on carnages, 
it is 1/. is. annually (1903). Sir Bernard Burke's 
"Genera] Armory, 1883, contains the arms of 
above Ot>,ooo British families, &c, Sir Roper Leth- 



bridge, in his " Golden Book of India," describes 
the early armorial bearings of the Indian princes, 
especially the Rajputs, 1893. 

AEMOBICA, now Brittany, N. France, was 
conquered by Julius C*sar, 56 B.C. Many Gauls 
are said to have retired there and preserved the 
Celtic tongue, a.d. 584. A colony of West Britons 
settled in Armorica in the latter part of the 4th 
century, hence the modern name Brittany, which 
see. 

AEMOUE. That of Goliath is described (about 
1063 B.C.) i Sam. xvii. 5. Skins and padded hides 
were early used, and brass and iron armour, in 
plates or scales, followed. The body armour of the 
Britons was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after 
the Roman conquest, for the well-tanned leathern 
cuirass. Tacitus. Hengist is said to have had 
scale armour, a.d. 449. 

The Norman armour formed breeches and jacket . 1066 
The hauberk had its hood of the same piece . . 1100 
John wore a surtout over a hauberk of rings set 

edgeways 1199 

The heavy cavalry covered with a coat of mail. 

Some horsemen had vizors and skull-caps, about. 1216 
Armour exceedingly splendid, about . . . . 1350 
Black armour, used not only for battle, but for 

mourning, Henry V 14 13 

Armour of Henry VII. consisted of a cuirass of 

steel, in the form of a pair of stays, about . . 1500 
Armour ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625 
In the reign of Charles II. officers wore no other 
armour than a large gorget, which is commemo- 
rated in the diminutive ornament known at the 
present day. Meyrick. 
The Zschille armour sold at Christie, Manson, and 
Woods, 862 lots, realised 11,257?. 1IS - • 1 Feb. 1897 

AEMOUE PLATES, see Iron, and Navy of 
England. 

AEMS. The club was the first offensive wea- 
pon ; then followed the mace, battle-axe, pike, 
spear, javelin, sword and dagger, bows and arrows. 
Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the 
Phoenicians ; see Cannon, Firearms, Swords, 
Bayonets, and other articles on the various 
weapons throughout the volume. 
Committee to enquire into the arms (swords and 
bayonets) supplied by the War Office to the 
Admiralty since 1871 appointed (Sir Hussey 
Vivian chairman) . . . .14 Feb. ct scq. 18S7 
Report these weapons to be badly designed and 
manufactured and untrustworthy . 29 March, ,, 

AEMS, see Armorial bearings, and Heraldry. 

AEMS BILLS, for the repression of crime and 
insurrection in Ireland, were passed 1807, 1810, 
1823, 1829, and 15 Oct. 1S31. The guns registered 
under the last act at the close of the first year 
scarcely amounted to 3000. and the number was 
equally small of all other kinds of arms. The new 
Arms bill, passed 22 Aug. 1843, has been since re- 
newed, but was not rigidly enforced till 1807. An- 
other Arms bill brought into the Commons, " An 
act to amend the law relating to the carrying ana 
possession of arms, and for the preservation of public 
peace in Ireland," to last till I Juno, 1886; Royal 
Assent, 21 March, l88l. Art renewed till 31 Dec. 
1887, 4 June, 188b. See Ireland. 
Exportation of arms act, royal assent . 6 Aug. iqoi 

AEMSTEONG GUN, see under Cannon. 

AEMY. Minus and Semiramis had armies 
amounting to nearly two millions of fighting men. 
Biodorus. The tirst guards and regular troops as a 
standing army were formed by Saul, 1093 B - c - 
1 Sam. \iii.2. The army of Xerxes invading Greece 
is said to have been 1,760,000 foot and 80,000 horse : 



AEMY. 69 

480 B.C. One of the first standing armies of which 
we have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. 
The army which Darius opposed to Alexander the 
Great (332 B.C.) is set down as between 750,000 and 
a million. The first standing army which existed 
as such, in modern times, was maintained in France 
by Charles VII. in 1445. The chief European 
nations have had in their service the following 
armies: Spain, 150,000 men; Great Britain, 3 10,000; 
Prussia, 350,000 ; Turkey, 450,000; Austria, 500,000 ; 
Russia, 560,000 ; and France, 1,000,000. Estimated 
number in Europe in 1863, 6,000,000 soldiers, 
1,000,000 horses, 11,000 guns. The European 
powers are still increasing their armies. Estimated 
to consist of 12,000,000 men in Nov. 1888. 
January, 1902 — Germany .... 3,036,000 

,, ,, France . . . . . 3,500,000 

,, - „ Russia ..... 3,975,500 
,, „ Great Britain . . . . 808,752 

ARMY, BRITISH, mainly arose in the reign of 
Charles II. in 1661, in consequence of the extinction 
of feudal tenures. The first five regiments of 
British infantry were established between 1633 and 
1680. James II. established several regiments of 
dragoon guards (1685-8). In 1685 the army con- 
sisted of 7000 foot and 1700 cavalry. The Militia 
then consisted of about 130,000 men, horse and 
foot. Standing armies were introduced by Charles I. 
in 1638 ; they were declared illegal in England, 
31 Car. II. 1679; but one was then gradually 
forming, which was maintained by William III. 
1689, when the Mutiny Act was passed. Grose's 
"History of the British Army" was published in 
1801. See Regiments, Recruiting, Militia, and 
Volunteers. 

BRITISH ARMY. 

1780, Time of war : troops of the Men - Sum votecL 

line ..... 110,000 £7,847,000 

1800, War ..... 168,082 17,973,000 
1810, War: army including foreign 

troops .... 300,000 26,748,000 
1815, Last year of the war . . 300,000 39,150,000 
1820, Time of peace ; war incum- 
brances .... 88,100 18,253,000 
1830, Peace ..... 89,300 6,991,000 

1840, Peace 93,471 6,890,267 

1850, Peace 99,118 6,763,488 

1852, Peace (except Kaffir war) . 101,937 7,018,104 

1854, War with Russia . . . 112,977 7,387,000 

Sum voted 

Total In India* (including 

men. men. ordnance, 

<fcc.) 

1855-6,1 War with Russia. 223,224 29,629 £32,006,603 

1856-57, War with Persia. 265,466 26,363 20,811,242 

1857-58, Indian Mutiny . 175,858 30,197 14,405,850 

1858-59 ..... 222,874 9 2 >739 I 3, 2 94,8i4 

1859-60, Chinese War . 229,551 91,897 14,915,243 

1860-61 228,854 71,528 18,013,896 

1861-62 . . . ... 212,773 60,041 16,854,299 

1862-63 ■ .... 228,973 83,523 16,264,790 

1863-64 ... . . 220,918 72,676 14,723,976 

1864-65 . . . . . 219,450 72,684 14,382,672 

1865-66 213,521 7!,044 J 4, 569, 279 

1866-67 . . . . 203,404 65,827 14,675,540 

1867-68, Abyssinian War . 204,455 65,292 15,418,582 

1868-69 ..... 203,157 64,466 15,000,000 

1869-70 ..... 191,073 63,907 13,565,400 
1870-71, Franco - German 

War . . . 178,000 62,963 13,430,400 

1871-72 ..... 197,911 62,864 15,521,580 

1872-73 .... . 196,606 62,957 14,729,700 

J 873-74 187,928 62,924 14,426,990 

1874-75 224,835 62,840 14,591,434 

1875-76 225,931 62,850 

1876-77 132,884 62,849 15,281,600 

1877-78 . . ... 133,720 62,652 15,919,492 

1879-80 . . ... 135,625 — 13,019,900 

l88o-8t ..... 131,850 62,588 T2.707.QOO 



* Supported by the Indian government, 
t Ending March 31. 



AEMY. 

1S99 — 1902. South African Boer Republics War and 

China, total cost 165,034,000?. 
Total home and colonial establishments, 632,649 ; cost, 

16,641,300?. 
Expended by army purchase commission : — 

1871-2 ....... £340,000 

1872-3 ....... 683,500 

1873-4 7i3>974 

1874-5 579,n5 

Regular troops for home service : — 

1853 1875 1902 

Cavalry .... 7,606 12,945 12,900 
Artillery . ... 8,710 18,853 31,623 
Engineers . . . 1,039 4,°74 7,8n 

Infantry .... 53,651 63,371 104,141 



1S79 



71,006 99, 2 43 I 54,405 
Average strength of the army. Cost. 

. 191,290 *£i6,945,i53 

1880 . . . i8S,986 15,025,145 

1881 . . . 188,708 14,680,762 

1882 . . . 189,229 15,738,002 

1883 . . . 181,971 15,133,451 

1884 . . . 183,004 16,095,326 

1885 . . . 198,064 18,600,338 

1886 . . . 203,805 17,027,084 

1887 . . . 209,574 18,429,272 

1888 . . . 211,105 18,167,196 
1888-9 • • 211,105 16,700,300 
1889-90 . . . 210,298 17,384,732 
1890-1 . . 209,221 17,897,900 
1891-2 . . . 209,699 17,545,300 
1892-3 . . 213,540 37,541,700 
1893-4 • • • 2I 7> 2 79 17,939,700 
1894-5 . . 219,121 17,899,800 

1896 (31 Dec.) . 220,869 18,459,800 

1897 (3 1 Dec.) . 219,283 18,269,800 

1898 . . . 225,027 23,724,599 

1899 . . . 238,739 46,817,333 

1900 . . . 383,037 +95,309,153 

1901 . . . 414,9*7 t9°,7 8l >539 
Volunteers in Great Britain, in 1862, 167,921 ; in 1872, 

172,891 ; in 1875, 181,080; in 1878, 193,026, (with staff)' 
245,648 ; 1S79, 206,265 > 1880, 206,537 ; 1881, 208,308 ; 
1882, 207,336; 1883, 206,365; 1884, 215,015; 1885, 
224,012; 1886, 226,752; 1887, 228,038; 1890, 221,048;: 
1893, 227,741 ; 1898, 230,678 ; 1899, 229,854 ; 1900, 
277,628 ; 1902, 277,396. 

Militia, 1872, 139,018 ; 1879, 127,749 ; 1880, 130,331 ;. 
i88i,t 99,002; 1882, § 92,094; 1883, 116,642; 1884, 
113,787; 1885, 119,356; 1886,122,428; 1887,121,411; 
1890, 113,163; 1893, 124,692; 1897, 117,773; 1898,, 
105,531 ; 1899, 109,551 ; 1900, 96,232. 

Yeomanry, 1872, 15,455; I 879, 12,010; 1880, 11,598; 
18S1, 10,617; 1882, 11,173: 1883, 11,204; 1884, 11,488; 
1885, 11,590; 1886, 11,499; 1887, 11,267; 1890, 10,697; 
1893, 10,400; 1897, 10,184; 1898, 10,207; 1899, 10,114; 
1900, 10,157 ; 1901, 11,907 ; 1902, 17,407. 

Recruits of all classes in 1902, 50,753. See Eecruitlng. 

Army Reserves, 1 Jan. 1869, 17,948; 1874, 31,046 ; il 
37,512 ; 1881, 41,796; 1882, t 34,636; 1883, § 26,203 ; 1 
47,024 ; 1887, 52,553 ; 1888, 55,200 ; 1892, 68,933 ; 1 
76,874; 1897,78,182; 1898, 82,005; !899, 24,159; 1900, 
5,275; 1902, nominally 80,000, actual number only 2,398, 

Men voted, 1901-2, ordinary services, 219,800, war 
230,000 ; 1902-3, ordinary services, 219,700, war 
200,300 ; 1903-4, ordinary services, 221,561, temporary 
(due to war) 14,200. 

The Mutiny Act passed annually since 1689 ; al- 
terations made in this act and in the Articles of 
War. (See below, 1879.) 1855 

Army Service Acts : 12 <fc 13 Vict. c. 37 (21 June, 
1847), and 18 Vict. c. 4 . . . .27 Feb. ,, 

Officers in the service of the East India Company 
to have the same rank and precedence as those in 
the regular army 25 April, „ . 

The office of Master-General of the Ordnance abol- 
ished, and the civil administration of the Army 
and Ordnance vested in the hands of lord 
Panmure, the Minister of War . . 25 May, „ 

* Extra on account of Russo-Turkish war. t Extra 
on account of South African war. J Exclusive of Irish. 
§ Exclusive of army pensioners. 



AEMY. 



Examination of staff officers previous to their ap- 
pointment ordered .... 9 April, 1857 
The army largely recruited for Indian war . . 1857-8 
Examination of candidates for the Military Aca- 
demy, previously confined to pupils from Sand- 
hurst, was thrown open, 1855 ; the principle of 
this measure was affirmed by the house of com- 
mons by vote 26 April, 1858 

The East India Company's army was transferred to 

the Queen 1859 

Much dissatisfaction arose in that army in conse- 
quence of no bounty being granted ; and threaten- 
ings of mutiny appeared, which subsided after an 
arrangement was made granting discharge to those 

who desired it ,, 

By 22 & 23 Vict. c. 42, provision made for a reserve 
force, not to exceed 20,000 men, who had been in 

. her majesty's service ,, 

Flogging virtually abolished in the army : First 
class soldiers to be degraded to second class be- 
fore being liable to it . . -9 Nov. „ 
A report of a commission in 1858 causes great sani- 
tary improvements in the army, barracks, <fec., 
under direction of Mr. Sidney Herbert . 1859-60 
A commission recommend the establishment of a 
recruiting department, increase of pensions, <fec. 

31 Oct. 1866 
Flogging restricted to insubordination (with vio- 
lence) and indecency . . . March (?) 1867 
New Army Enlistment Act (limiting period of 

enlistment to 12 years, &c.) passed . 20 June, ,, 
Increased pay to all soldiers (except to life-guards) 

from 1 April, 1867 ; by warrant, dated . 29 June, ,, 
Act to form a reserve of men in the militia to join 

the army in the event of war, passed . 20 Aug. „ 
" War Department Stores " Act passed . 20 Aug. ,, 
Sir Hy. Storks appointed controller-in-chief, 1 Jan. 1868 
Flogging abolished in time of peace, by an amend- 
ment in the Mutiny Act .... Mar. „ 
Edward Cardwell, secretary for war . . 9 Dec. ,, 
Royal commission on military education appointed, 
23 June, 1868 ; report with recommendations 

issued about Oct. 1869 

Army Service Corps, to be composed of volunteers 
commanded by regular officers, established by 

royal warrant 12 Nov. ,, 

Royal commission on the purchase system, &c, 
appointed 5 April ; report recognises the " over 
regulation payments " hitherto ignored . Aug. 1870 
Regulations under the new " Army Enlistment 

Act "issued . .... 12 Aug. ,, 

2,ooo,ooo£. voted to increase the army by 20,000 

men 1 Aug. „ 

Deaths in the army reduced from 17 per 1000 to 9^, 
in consequence of sanitary improvements, &c, 
(out of 175,460 men, 33,797 under 20, 18,614 under 

19) ; Lord Northbrook June, 1871 

Army Regulation bill (the abolition of the purchase 
system, &c.) passed in the commons, 289-231, 
early 4 July; introduced in the lords, 13 July; 
able speech of the duke of Cambridge in its 
favour, 14 July; rejected (155-130), 2 a.m., 18 July, „ 
Purchase system abolished by royal warrant (in 
pursuance of acts 5 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 16, and 49 
Geo. III. c. 126) on and after 1 Nov. 1871, 20 July, ,, 
Regulation of the Forces Act passed . . 17 Aug. „ 
Autumn Campaign, in Hampshire; about 40,000 
men engaged ; the duke of Cambridge and others 
umpires; the prince of Wales and prince Arthur 
engaged; foreign officers present . . . ,, 

Manoeuvres ac din- t" the Prussian system; 

field days, <fcc 8-12 Sept. „ 

Invading force of 24,000, under Staveley and Carey; 
marching towards London, opposed by sir Hope 

Grant 13 Sept, ,, 

Series of battles near the Hog's Back. Aldershot ; 

Grant declared victor . . . 16-19 Sept. ■■ 

Battle of Fox's-hill ; Carey defeats Staveley, .-i Sept. .. 
[Reported result*: artillery magnificent ; cavalrj 
superb; infantry very good; transport insuffi- 
cient; greater distribution of responsibility 
among officers needed. ] 
Sham fight ; Chatham stormed . . 24 Oct. .. 

Warrant published, 30 Oct., inaugurating the new 
system of promotion of officers (partly by senior- 
ity and partly by sclcctioi ) on . . . 1 Nov. „ 



70 AEMY. 

New organisation of the army proposed by Mr. 
Cardwell : brigade districts, England, 49 ; Scot- 
land, 8 ; Ireland 8 = 65 . . . Feb. 1872 
The duke of Cambridge's favourable report was 

laid before parliament early in . . March, ,, 
Army estimates passed in commons (234-63) 12 Mar. 
Review of 14,000 men by the queen at Aldershot, 

5 July, ,, 
Autumn Manoeuvres in Wiltshire : 50,000 men com- 
manded by sir John Mitchell supposed to land at 
Weymouth, and march towards London, opposed 
by sir R. Walpole ; campaign begins ; skirmishes 

near Blandford 21 Aug. ,, 

Sir A. Horsford repulses gen. Brownrigg at Winch- 

ampton 27 Aug. „ 

Fx-ince of Wales arrives at Salisbury . . 3 Sept. „ 
Battle of Wishford, 7 Sept. ; battle of the Avon, 10 

Sept. ; grand march past near Beacon Hill 12 Sept. ,, 
The new drill and tactics for the army were pub- 
lished 23 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Card well's estimates ; proposes increasing pay 
of soldiers ; and establishment of a chief of the 

staff 24 Feb. 1873 

The Military Intelligence Department established 

1 April, ,, 
Review of troops at Windsor, before the Shah. 

24 June, ,, 
Autumn Manoeuvres at Dartmoor, Cannock Chase, 

and at the Curragh, Dublin . . July, Aug. ,, 
Royal Commission on compensation to officers for 

changes ; appointed . . . .11 Oct. ,, 
Report issued (admits cause for compensation ; and 
considers that officers will be satisfied with what- 
ever the nation chooses to decide for them) June, 1874 
Change of ministry ; Mr. Gathorne Hardy (after- 
wards Lord Cranbrook), secretary for war 21 Feb. ,, 
The victorious troops from Ashantee reviewed by 

the queen 30 March, ,, 

Summer Manoeuvres at Aldershot . . June, ,, 
New regulations respecting first applications for 

commissions ; issued Sept. ,, 

Royal commission on more rapid promotion ; ga- 
zetted ....... 10 Nov. ,, 

Manoeuvres at Aldershot .... Jul}-, 1875 

Royal warrant respecting regimental exchanges, 
dated 6 Aug. ; issued .... 9 Aug. ,, 

Scheme completed for mobilisation of the army, 

announced Dec. ,, 

"Control" Department divided into "commissariat 
and transport departments," and "ordnance 
store departments " .... 11 Dec. ,, 
Mobilisation of the army and the reserve ; experi- 
ment in Surrey reported successful . . July, 1876 
New cavalry regulations issued . . Aug. ,, 

Report of commission on promotion issued; recom- 
mends compulsory retirement in some cases, and 

other changes Aug. „ 

New organisation of artillery proposed about 26 Feb. 1877 
Manoeuvres on a small scale .... July, ,, 
Review by the queen at Windsor . . 10 July. „ 
Army promotion and retiring scheme : royal war- 
rant published 28 July. ,, 

New army medical warrant issued . . 1 Sept. ,, 
About 29,000 recruits in 1877 ; announced Mar. 1878 
Col. F. A. Stanley, war secretary . 2 April, ,, 

Reserves (about 3^,000) called out, 2 April ; com- 
mended ; disbanded .... 31 July ,, 
Tin' report of the commission on the mutiny acts 
recommends consolidation of the mutiny acts and 
the articles of war, and simplification of martial 

law, &c July, „ 

Warrant establishing new warrant officers (" con- 
ductors") agrade between commissioned and non- 
commissioned ..... 24 Jar. 1879 
Army Discipline and Regulation Acts, introduce' I 

27 Feb. ; passed 24 July, ., 

[They relate to discipline, enlistment, billeting, 

court-martials, military law, &c] 
Anny Medical Department ; changes made by a 

new warrant issued 2 Dec. 1879; amended Jan. 1S80 
Mr. Hugh E. Childers, war secretary, 38 April, ,, 
New system of Military Examination for officers; 

introduced Oct. ,, 

Alterations in officers' dress, by orders . Nov. ,, 
System of compulsory retirement of officers came 

into operation 1 Jan. 1881 

Great armyreform measures laid before the Com - 

•nous by Mr. Childers . . . 3 March. ,, 



ARMY. 

Alterations made in the uniform and organisation 

of the infantry .... April et seq. 188 

New organisation comes into effect . . i July, ,, 
Regulation of the Forces and the Army Discipline 
Act (amending the Acts of 1879) passed 27 Aug. ,, 
See Flogging. 
Army Act amended .... 28 April, 188 
Reserves called out (for Egypt) . . 25 July, ,, 
Success of the changes in the army system demon- 
strated by the Egyptian campaign ; within 7 
weeks a large well appointed army was conveyed 
3000 miles under most unfavourable conditions 
and achieved the object of the expedition 

July— Sept. „ 
Review of the return troops and Indian contingent 

by the queen in St. James's Park . . 18 Nov. ,, 
•Queen's thanks published 21 Nov. ; she distributes 

medals, &c. at Windsor . . .21 Nov. „ 
Formation of an Army Telegraph Corps ordered, Feb. 188 
Army Medical Service: system, cfcc, censured by 

report of lord Morley's committee . . May, ,, 
Great increase of recruits ; above 33,000 in 1883. 
Report of committee on colour of uniform recom- 
mending change of red to grey, July, 1882 : issued 

29 March • ,, 

Effective strength of the army reported 1 Dec. 1884, 

188,216 ; about 35,000 added . . . April, 18E 
Order prohibiting officers and soldiers from publish- 
ing military information in the press, &c. 1 April, 18S 
Training of boys between 14 and 17; formation 

of battalions, &c, sanctioned . . June, ,, 

Committee to inquire into the organization and 
administration of the manufacturing departments 
of the army appointed ; announced . 23 June, ,, 
Suspension of com pulsory retirement of officers, Aug. , . 
Summary court-martialabolished by statute, 29 April, , , 
A force of all arms fully equipped as for war marches 

at Aldershot 17 Aug. ,, 

Royal ordnance commission on military stores ap- 
pointed (sir J. F. Stephen, sir A. Alison, Dr. 
Percy and others) about 16 Sept. ; first sat, 16 
Nov. 1886 ; they report the system to be bad and 
inefficient ; results bad, guns and weapons faulty ; 
charge of corruption not proved ; the commis- 
sioners recommend revival of the office of Master 
of Ordnance with council, &c. May, 1887. 
Changes in discipline made ; courts-martial to be 
much discontinued ; summary powers given to 
officers 1 Jan. 1887. 
Including the yeomanry, the general total of the 
army, lirst class army reserve, and auxiliary 
forces, 577,740 in 1886; 595,159 • • .in 18 
Reorganization of the War Office, civil and military, 
announced in the Commons 8 Sept. 1887 ; new 
arrangement announced .... Feb. 18 
Royal commission on Naval and Military Adminis- 
tration (which see) ; lord Hartington, chairman, 

appointed 7 June, ,, 

Diminution of severity leads to less crime and 

irregularities ; reported .... Oct. , 
Warrant for removal of undesirable officers . 3 Jan. 18 

[Alterations made after complaints, Jan. 1890] 
New arrangements of the military district proposed 

to be effected in April Jan. , 

Increased vote 5,004, 500!. for 152,282 men 12 March, , 
Total estimate for 1889-90 17,335,900!. • March, , 
First report, containing various recommendations 

with evidence, issued ... 20 March, iE 
Military exhibition (which see) opened . 7 May, , 
The Jubilee offering of the army presented to the 
queen at Buckingham palace by the duke of 
Cambridge (see Jubilee) ... 10 May, , 

Insubordination of some of the 2nd Battalion 
Grenadier Guards at Wellington barracks, S.W., 
7 July ; court martial on 6 of the oldest privates ; 
sentenced to imprisonment with hard labour (1 
man to 2 years and dismissal with ignominy; 3 
men, 2 years; 2 men, 18 months), 18-21 July, 
[released, 24 Nov.]. Colonel Maitland superseded. 
The battalion, under col. Eaton, sent to Bermuda 

23 July, 

[Highly commended there, return to England 28 

July, 1891.] 

Viscount Wolseley, adjutant general (1882, et seq.), 

succeeded by sir Redvers Buller . . 1 Oct. 

The duke of Connaught appointed commander of 

the southern military district . . Aug. 

Army manoeuvres near Petersfield, Hants 10 Sept. 1 



71 ARMY. 



Report of lord Wantage's committee on service in 
the army (appointed April, 1891), issued Feb., 
evidence April, much discussed . . May, 1892 
See Barracks. 
Manoeuvres (regulars and volunteers) in Surrey, 
Hants, and Berks ; battles, &c, commanders, 
sir Evelyn Wood and others . 18 July-20 Aug. ,, 
Mr. Henry Campbell-Bannerman appointed secre- 
tary for war 18 Aug. ,, 

"The Army Book for the British Empire" first 

published 1893 

Manoeuvres, Berks, Hants, and Wilts 

29 Aug.-isSept. „ 
New order respecting the employment of troops in 

civil disorders 2 March, 1895 

Army estimates, 1895-6, 17,983, 100Z. . 7 March, „ 
Changes in the war office (which see) announced 

21 June ,, 
Army manoeuvres in Surrey and Hants, under the 

duke of Connaught and lord Methuen . Aug. „ 
Army order issued by the duke of Cambridge on 

retiring from the command-in-chief . 31 Oct. ,, 
Order issued by visct. Wolseley on assuming the „ 

chief command 1 Nov. 

New order in council issued defining the duties of 
the principal officers of the army, the com- 
mander-in-chief and others . . .21 Nov. ., 
Army net estimates, 1896-7, 18,056,600?. 5 March, 1896 
Six regiments ordered to South Africa end of April, ,, 
Army manoeuvres at Aldershot, &c. . 28 Aug. „ 

Aggregate military expenditure has advanced from 
about 25! millions to 46 J during the last 30 years ; 

reported 4 Jan - l8 97 

William Anderson, made K.C.B., Jan. 1897, died, 
11 Dec. 1898. See Cordite, 1895. 
Army: 76 battalions abroad, 65 at home, proposed 
addition of 2 battalions of Guards, making a total 
of nine; announced .... 4 Feb. ,, 
Army net estimttes, 1897-8, 18, 340,500!. . May, ,, 
Army manoeuvres at Aldershot . 16-25 Aug. ,, 
Army net estimates, 1898-9, 19,220,500!., net in- 
crease, 880,000?. ; proposed increase of men, 
25,083 (exclusive of India).— Times . . 21 Feb. 1898 
Army manoeuvres on Salisbury plain, July, Aug. 

Sept. „ 
Sir Harry Brackenbury appointed director-gen. of 
ordnance; Col. Bainbridge, chief superintendent 

of ordnance factories Feb. 1899 

The army largely recruited for S. African war 

Oct. et seq. „ 
Reserves called out (for S. Africa) . 7 Oct. 1899-ioco 
Army net estimates, 1899-1900, 20,978,200!., 21 Feb. 
1890, supplementary votes reached a gross grant 
of 46,817,333!. for year ended . 31 March 1900 

Supplementary estimate of 13,000,000!., and 120,000 

men, voted for S. African war . . 16 Jan. ,, 
The queen orders the shamrock to be worn on St. 
Patrick's day in honour of her " brave Irish" 

7 March ,, 

Army estimates ; 430,000 men provided till Sept. 

8 March ,, 
Commissions in the army offered to Australians.— 

Times 22 March „ 

"Irish Guards " formed by tie queen's orders, in 

honour of their bravery in S. Africa . 5 April „ 
Electoral disabilities (military service) act passed 

Aug. „ 

Lord Roberts of Kandahar appointed to succeed 

lord Wolseley 3° Se Pt- >•• 

The lion. St. John Brodrick, secretary for war, 12 Nov. ,, 
Lord Wolseley active in army reforms, such as 
selection by merit, short service ; retires from 
command-in-chief. .... 3° Nov. ,, 
Total estimates for 1900-1, 91,999,400!. ; supple- 
mentary estimates, 16,000,000!., voted 11 Dec. „ 
Supplementary war loan (No. 2) passed 15 Dec. „ 
Army order: war gratuity to troops, issued, 8 Dec. , 
Reorganisation of the War office, which see Dec. ,, 
Army order for the formation of the new "Royal 

Garrison regiment " issued . . 23 Feb. 1901 

Army estimate for 1901-2, 87,915,000!. issued, 1 March „ 
Mr. Brodrick's scheme raising the forces from 
563,000 to 680,000 men, and dividing them into 
6 army corps (to be commanded in peace by the 
men who would command them in war) proposed 

8 March ,, 
Army gross expenditure, 96,242,833?. . 31 March .. 



AEMY (ANNUAL) ACT. 



72 



AEEEST FOE DEBT. 



Reorganisation of the Yeomanry (to be styled 
" Imperial") by order issued . . 1 8 April 1901 

Committee appointed to consider the reorganisa- 
tion of the army medical services, Mr. Brodrick 
(chairman) ; report issued . . 30 Sept. ,, 

Regulations respecting War office administration 
(more control given to the commander-in-chief) 
issued 5 Nov. ,, 

Additional drafts of Imperial Yeomanry and 
militia ordered ; 6 battalions volunteer to serve 
outside the kingdom .... 4 Feb. 1902 

Army estimates : total, 1901-2, 92,915,000?., 450,000 
men; 1902-3, 69,310,000?., 420,000 men ; 219,700 
men for ordinary service, 200,300 men for war 
service; soldiers' pay increased; issued 15 Feb. ,, 

Spion Kop dispatches issued, on account of con- 
troversy relating to the operations in Natal, Jan. 
1900. — Times ..... 18 April, ,, 

Military lands provisional order (No. 1) act, royal 
assent 28 April ,, 

Military education committee issue their report ; 
Sandhurst system and existing methods con- 
demned ; new syllabus drawn up . 7 June ,, 

Army order, special gratuity to the troops for ser- 
vice since 31 Dec, 1901 ; issued . . 9 June ,, 

Army estimates : 1902-03, 39,650,000?. (28,000,000?. 
to be spent), issued .... 10 June „ 

Major C. W. Studdert and others charged with 
breach of contract as to the purchase of horses 
for S. Africa ; case closed by a settlement, 
Dublin. See Ireland, 4 Dec. 1902 . 1 July, 1902 

Royal commission (lords Elgin, Esher, sir H. W. 
Norman, adm. sir J. Hopkins, and others) ap- 
pointed to inquire into the military preparations 
and conduct of the S. African war up to the 
occupation of Pretoria .... Sept. ,, 

Committee of inquiry into the administration of 
remount department, reports favourably. Times, 

10 Oct. ,, 

Grenadier guards " ragging " case . about 10 Feb. 1903 

Army estimates, 1903-4. 34,500,000?., 235,761 men, 
221,561 (ordinary services), issued . 5 March, ,, 

War blanket scandal . . . about 20 May ,, 

Royal Commission on South African War issues its 
report : see South African War . 25 Aug. ,, 

AEMY (ANNUAL) ACT, see Mutiny Act. 

AEMY of Occupation. By treaty, signed 

20 Nov. 1815, the allied powers established the boun- 
daries of France, and occupied certain fortresses for 
three years. — Franco-Prussian "War, 1870-1. The 
departure of the German army of occupation began 
about 20 Sept. 1871; completed 16 Sept. 1873. 

AENOLDISTS, followers of Arnold of Brescia, 
who protested against the corruptions of the Papacy, 
and who was burnt alive by pope Adrian IV. 1 155. 

AEOGEE, Abyssinia. Here sir Robert (after- 
wards lord) Napier defeated the Abyssinians, who 
lost about 700 killed and wounded, 10 April, 1868. 
The British had 20 wounded. 

AEPAD DYNASTY, see Hungary. 

AEPINUM (now Arpino, S. Italy), the birth- 
place of Cicero, 3 Jan. 106 B.C. ; many remains still 
bear his name. 

AEQUEBUS, see Mre Arms. 

AEQUES (N. France). Near here the league 
army, commanded by the due de Mayennc, was de- 
feated by Henry IV*. 21 Sept. 1 589. 

AEEACAN, a province of N.E. India. Arracan, 

the capital, captured by the Burmese, 1783, was 
taken from them by general Morrison, 1 April, 1825. 
The subjugation of the province followed, >S2b. 

AEEAIGNMENT consists in reading the 
indictment by the officer of the court, and calling 
upon the prisoner tosaj whether he is guilty ornol 
guilty. He must not be in fetters, unless it be 
made necessary by apprehended violence. Before 
the question is answered, all legal exceptions or 



objections are to be stated. If be fails, or refuses 
to plead, a jury is sworn to determine, if he is- 
mute of malice or by visitation of God, whether 
he is able to plead and understand the course of 
his trial, whether he is insane. If the prisoner is 
found to be insane, so as to be unfit to plead, th& 
court orders his detention during his Majesty's 
pleasure, otherwise the court directs entry of a plea 
of not guilty and the clerk proceeds to call and 
swear the jury. On a plea of guilty, the court 
proceeds to judgment. A previous conviction must 
not be mentioned on arraignment. Formerly, per- 
sons who refused to plead in cases of felony were 
pressed to death by weights placed upon the breast. 
A person standing mute was declared convicted by 
an act passed 1772 ; but in 1827, the court was 
directed to enter a plea of "not guilty" in such 
cases ; see Mute. 

AEEAS (N. E. France), the country of the 
ancient Atrebates, the seat of a bishop since 390. 
Here a treaty was concluded between the king of 
France and duke of Burgundy, when the latter 
abandoned his alliance with England, 21 Sept. 1435.- 
Another treaty was concluded by Maximilian of 
Austria with Louis XL of France, whereby Bur- 
gundy and Artois were given to the dauphin as a 
marriage portion, 23 Dec. 1482. Yelly. Arras was 
held by the Austrians from 1493 till 1640, when \\ 
was taken by Louis XIII. 

AEEAY. On 23 Dec. 1324, Edward II. directed 
the bishop of Durham to make " arraier" his men 
of arms, horse and foot, and cause them to proceed 
to Portsmouth ; thence to proceed to the war in 
Gascony. Rymcr's Feedera. Hallam says that 
this was the earliest commission of array that he 
could find, and that the latest was dated 1557. The 
attempt of Charles I. to revive commissions of array 
in 1642, founded on a statute of Henry IV., was 
strenuously opposed as illegal. 

AEEEAES OF EENT ACT, Ireland, May, 
1882 ; 45 & 46 Vict. c. 47, passed 18 Aug. 1882. 

AEEEST FOR DEBT. The persons of peers, 
members of parliament, &c, are protected from 
arrest; see Ambassadors. Debt, Ferrars' Arrest. 
Clergyman performing divine service privileged, 50 

Edw. Ill 1375 

Seamen privileged from debts under 20?., by 30 

Geo. Ill 1756 

Barristers are privileged from arrest while going to, 

attending upon, and returning from court, on the 

business of their clients. 
By stat. 29 Car. II. no arrest can be made, nor 

process served, upon a Sunday ; this law was ex- 
tended by Will. III. 
Vexatious arrests prevented by act, May. 1733. 

Prohibited for less than 10?. on process, 1779; and 

for less than 20?. July, 1827 

Ancsts for less than 10/. were prohibited on mesne 

process in Ireland, in June 1829 

Statute abolishing arrest for debt "n mesne process, 

except in eases wherein there is ground to show 

that the defendant designs to leave the countiy, 

2 Vict Aug. 1S3S 

By 7 & S Viet. e. 96, the power of imprisonment 
even upon final process, that is judgment debts, 
is abolished it' the sum decs net exceed 20!. ex- 
clusive of Costs, 1S44 : and by 9 A 10 Viet. e. 95, 
the judge lias no power to punish, except in case 
of fraud or contempt of court .... 1S46 

By the Absconding Debtors' Arrest Act. absconding 
debtors owing 20?. and upwards are liable to 
arrest 1851 

By 32 & 33 Viet. e. 62, and 33 & 34 Vict. c. 76. 
Arrests of persons on civil process is abolished, 
except in cases of contempt of court, of fraudu- 
lent debtors, or debtors who are about to go. 



AESACIDJE. 



73 



ARTICLES OF RELIGION. 



abroad, or absent themselves to avoid proceed- 
ings in bankruptcy 1869-70 

(See Debt.) 

ARSACID2E, a Parthian dynasty, began with 
Arsaces about 250 B.C., and ended with Artabanus, 
killed in battle with Artaxerxes, the founder of the 
Sassanidse, a.d. 226. 

ARSENIANS, partisans of Arsenius, patriarch 
of Constantinople, who excommunicated the emperor 
Michael Palseologus for blinding his colleague the 
young John Lascaris, 1261, and was deposed 1264. 

ARSENIC, a steel-grey coloured brittle mine- 
ral, extremely poisonous, known in early times. 
Brandt, in 1733, made the first accurate experiments 
on its chemical nature. The heinous crimes com- 
mitted by its means induced the legislature to enact 
regulations for its sale, 1 851. In 1858 Dr. A. S. 
Taylor asserted that green paper-hangings and 
dresses prepared from arsenic are injurious to health. 
Much illness and many deaths in Manchester and Liver- 
pool and district due to ai'senic (Oct. -Nov.) found in 
certain kinds of beer, and finally traced back to 
glucose and invert sugar made from impure sulphuric 
acid, containing arsenic ; enormous quantities of 
contaminated beer destroyed ; see Times, 20 Dec. 
1900 ; royal commission (lord Kelvin and others) 
appointed, Feb. 1901 ; first report, preventive mea- 
sures recommended, 24 July, 1901 ; meeting held to 
consider the outbreak of arsenical poisoning at 
Halifax (Dec. igoi), 11 April, 1902. 

ARSON, punished with death by the Saxons 
still remained a capital crime on the consolidation 
of the laws in 1827 and 1837. By the act of 1861 it 
is punishable by penal servitude for life and minor 
degrees of imprisonment. William Anthony was 
convicted of arson, having set many houses on fire, 
for the sake of obtaining the reward for giving 
alarm, 13 Dec. 187 1. There were many incendiary 
fires in Kent, Suffolk, and other counties in 1830 ; 
about 14 at Farthinghoe, in S. Northampton- 
shire, Aug., Sept., 1896, further fires II Oct., 14 
Jan., 1897. 
Convicted of arson in England and Wales in 1887-8, 

315; 1888-9, 4 C2 - 
Wm. Nash was convicted of murder for setting fire 
to his house at Notting-hill, and causing six 
deaths, 30 May; sentenced to death (but reprieved) 

3, 4 Aug. 1881 
Leon Serne sentenced to twenty years' penal servi- 
tude for arson, 274 Strand (property over-insured ; 
his two boys burnt) .... 21 Jan. 1888 
Conspiracy to defraud insurance companies by 
arson : George Cullmer sentenced to 12 years, 
— Trew and Mrs. Wheeler to 5 years' penal 
servitude . . 16 Feb. 1891 

William Parsons sentenced to 20 years' penal servi- 
tude for arson near Dorchester . . iS Feb. ,, 
Alfred W. Walsh sentenced to 7 years' penal servi- 
tude for setting fire to his house . 29 March, 1895 
Elizabeth Ann Kowse sentenced to 4 years' penal 

servitude for arson at Bath . . .4 Nov. ,, 
Henri and Marie Sehaar sentenced to 7 years' penal 

servitude for arson at Edmonton . . 29 Oct. 1896 
George Barber sentenced to 5 years' penal servi- 
tude for arson at Pangbourne . . .8 Nov. 1897 
Edward Peters, 22, sentenced to 3 years' penal 

servitude for arson, in London . . 15 Jan. 1893 
Arthur Collinson (16) sentenced to 4 years' impri- 
sonment for arson in Lambeth . . 24 Nov. ,, 
Charles Price (27) pleaded guilty to setting fire to 
a shed in the Victoria Docks, sentenced to 5 
years' imprisonment . . . .19 Dec. 1901 
(See Fires and Trials.) 

ARSOUF (Syria). At a battle here Richard 1. 
of England, commanding the Christian forces, re- 
duced to 30,000, defeated Saladin's army of 300,000 
Saracens and other infidels, on 6 Sept. 1 191. Ascalon 
surrendered, and Richard marched towards Jeru- 
salem, 1 1 92. 



ART ACT, facilitating the public exhibition of 
works of art (lent to the president of the privy 
council), passed April, 1866. See Arts, Exhibitions, 
and National Portrait Gallery. 

ARTEMISIUM, a promontory in Euboea, 
near which indecisive conflicts took place between 
the Greek and Persian fleets for three days; 480 
B.C. The former retired on hearing of the battle of 
Thermopyhje. 

ARTESIAN WELLS (from Artesia, now 
Artois, in France, where they frequently occur) are 
formed by boring through the upper soil to strata 
containing water which has percolated from a 
higher level, and which rises to that level through 
the boring tube. The fountains in Trafalgar- square 
and government offices near have been supplied 
since 1844 by two of these wells (393 feet deep). 
At Paris the Grenelle well (1798 feet deep), was 
completed in 1841, after eight years of exertion, by 
M. Mulot at an expense of abo'ut 12,000^. ; and the 
well at Passy, which it is said will supply sufficient 
water for nearly 500,000 person-, was begun in 1855, 
and completed in i860 by M. Kind. Messrs. Amos 
and Easton completed an Artesian well for the 
Horticultural Society's garden in 1862, which 
yielded 880,000 gallons of water, at the temperature 
of 81° Fahr., in twenty-four hours. The well at 
Kissingen was completed in 1850. Artesian wells 
are now common. Many London breweries, clubs, 
printing offices have deep wells ; these need lower- 
ing from time to time as their number increases. 
That at the Reform Club is 345 feet in depth. 
Artesian wells, some 4,000 feet in depth, are much 
used for irrigation purposes in W. Australia. 

ARTHUR, king of Britain, said, mythically, to 

have lived a.d. 500 — 532. 

The events of his life and the conflicts of the 
knights of his round table, as sung by the Welsh 
poets Taliesin, Llywarch Hen, and Aneurin, 
were incorporated into his Latin history by 
Geoffrey of Monmouth, about 1115, who died 
1 1 54 ; put into French verse by Geoffrey Gaisnar, 
and by Wace soon after ; and set forth in an 
English poem called Brut by Layamon, about . 1205 

Walter Map by incorporating in his version the 
legend of the Holy Graal, introduced the re- 
ligious element about 1 1 7 * 

Sir Thomas Malory's " Morte d' Arthur," printed by 
Win. Caxton 1485 

Lord Lytton's " King Arthur," published . . . 1848 

Tennyson's " Idylls of the King " . . . 1859-69 

ARTICHOKES are said to have been intro- 
duced from the East into Western Europe in the 
15th cent, and to have reached England in the 16th. 

ARTICLES of Religion. On 8 June, 1536, 

after much disputing, the English clergy in convo- 
cation published "Articles decreed by the king's 
highness" Henry VIII. , who published in 1539 the 
" Statute of Six Articles," decreeing the acknow- 
ledgment of transubstantiation, communion in one 
kind, vows of chastity, private masses, celibacy of 
the clergy, and auricular confession. Offenders 
were punishable as heretics. In 1551 forty-two 
were prepared, and published in 1553. These were 
modified by the convocation, and reduced to Thirty- 
nine in Jan. 1563; and they received the royal 
authority and the authority of parliament in 1571. 
The Lambeth Articles, of a more Calvinistic charac- 
ter, proposed by archbishop Whitgift, were with- 
drawn in consequence of the displeasure of queen 
Elizabeth, 1595. One hundred and four Articles 
were drawn up for Ireland by archbishop Usher in 
1614 ; but in 1635 the Irish church adopted the 
English articles. See Perth Articles. The 39 



ARTICLES OF WAR. 



71 



ARTISANS' DWELLINGS. 



Articles were ordered to be removed from the 
studies at Oxford in Nov. 187 1. 

ARTICLES OP WAR were decreed in the time 
of Eichard I. and John. Those made by Eichard II. 
in 1385 appear in "Grose's Military Antiquities." 
The articles of war now in force are based upon an 
act, passed by William III. in 1689, to regulate the 
army about to engage in his continental warfare. 

ARTIFICERS and Manufacturers. 

Their affairs were severely regulated by the statutes 
of labourers, 1349, 1350, 1360, 1549, and espe- 
cially of 1562. They were prohibited from leaving 
England, and those abroad were outlawed, if they 
did not return within six months after the notice 
given them. A fine of 100/., and imprisonment for 
three months, were the penalties for seducing them 
from these realms, by 9 Geo. II. (1736) and other 
statutes. The law was modified in 1824; see Arti- 
sans, Workmen, &c. 

ARTILLERY, a term including properly all 
missiles, now restricted to cannon. A small piece 
was contrived by Schwartz, a German cordelier, 
soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330. 
Artillery was used, it is said, by the Moors of 
Algesiras, in Spain, in 1343 ; and according to some 
historians, at the battle of Crecy, in 1346, when 
Edward III. had four pieces of cannon. We had 
artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venetians 
•employed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377, 
Voltaire. Said to have been cast, with mortars for 
bomb-shells, by Flemish artists, in Sussex, 1543. 
Rymer's Fcedera. Made of brass 1635; improve- 
ments by Browne, 1728; see Cannon, Bombs, Car- 
ronades (under Carron), Mortars, Howitzers, 
Petard, Rockets, Fire-arms. "Artillery: its Pro- 
gress and Present Position," by E. W. Lloyd and 
A. G. Haucock, published, Aug. 1894. The Royal 
Artillery-regiment was established in the reign of 
Anne. See Archery. 

HONOURABLEARTILLERYCOMPANYOf London.— The 

company incorporated by Henry VIII. for mili- 
tary exercise and better defence of the realm, 
with special privileges, 25 Aug. 1537. Obtained 
lease of the Tessell ground, Bishopsgate, from 
the last prior of the convent of St. Mary, Spittle, 
for thrice 99 years — afterwards known as the old 
artillery ground, 3 Jan. 1540. Obtained lease of 
the "new" artillery ground, Finsbury, their 
present head-quarters, 1641. In the civil war, 
1642-8, the company, as a body, took no part, 
but most of the officers of the Trained Bands 
were also members of the company. James, duke 
of York, afterwards James II., appointed captain- 
general, 1660. The company ordered to take 
precedence next alter the regular forces, 1 June, 
1883. The company numbered 1200 in 1803 
and 800 in 1861. Since 1842 the officers have 
been appointed by the queen. On the decease 
of the duke of Sussex in 1843, the prince consort 
became captain-general and eolotel. He died 14 
Dec. 1861, and the prince of Wales was appointed 
his successor, 24 Aug. 1S63. 350th anniversary 
celebrated by a grand review, n July, 1887. 
On the annual general court, officers and others 
declining In voir 500/. for the payment of Col. 
Borton the adjutant, ami other expenses, the 
prince of Wales, the captain-general, resigns, and 
the company is disarmed by the War Office 

18 Dec. 1888 
The drill of the company resumed . . 17 Jan. 1889 
Reorganisation as an independent force of 2,000 
men by Royal warrant ts .March ; promulgated 

16 March, ,, 
New regulations issued by the War Office . 28 Jan. 1890 
The ancient and Hon. Akiiliikv Company of 
Massachusetts, U.S.A., which was founded in 

1638 by Robert. Keayne, who. with sol ither 

members of the London company, had emigrated 
to New England, si ill maintains friendly relations 



with the elder company. About 200 members of 
this corps visited London, 7-23 July ; received 
by the queen at Windsor ... 8 July, 1S96 

Delegation of the company pay return visit to the 
Hon. Artillery Company of Massachusetts, leave 
London 23 Sept. 1903 

National Volunteer Artillerv Association 
held its first annual meeting for shooting for prizes 
given by the queen and others : at Shoeburyness, 
July, 1865. Meetings were held and prizes dis- 
tributed in July. 1866, and since, generally in 
August. Owing to the S. African war no meet- 
ings were held in 1900, 1901, 1902. 

Royal Artillery Institution, established at Wool- 
wich, proposed by lieuts. F. Eardley-Wilmot, and 
J. H. Lefroy, Feb. 1838 ; approved June, 1838 ; 
building completed Sept. 1840. Proceedings are 
published. 

The alleged great deficiency of artillery in the British 
army, much discusse 1 Sept. 1870; Artillery 
brought tj the camp at Aldershot, reported to 
be very fine. . . . . Sept. 1870 

New organisation of the artillery proposed about 

26 Feb. 1877 

Great improvement made in field guns, and im- 
pulse given to the subject by war in S. Africa, 

1899-1903 

Gun Committee adopt new type of field gun, 
15-pounder, quick firer, with effective shrapnel 
range of 6,500 yards, and further range of 10,000 
yards, said to be the best of its kind, announced, 

23 Sept. 1903 

ARTISANS' AND LABOURERS' 
DWELLINGS, Act "to provide better dwel- 
lings," passed 31 July, 1868, another Act was 
passed 2Q June, I S7 5, "to facilitate the improve- 
ment of the dwellings of the working classes in 
large towns ; " one for Scotland, 2 Aug. 1875 ' other 
acts passed in 1879; amended 1882. See Peabouy 
and Rowton. 

Artisans', Labourers', and General Dwellings 
Company, registered 31 Dec. 1866; purchased 
estates in various parts of the country. The 
Shaftesbury estate (w/iic/i see) was formally opened . 

18 July, 1874 
The director (Dr. John Baxter Langley), secretary 
(Mr. Wm. Swiudlehurst), were, sentenced to be 
imprisoned 18 months ; and Mr. Edwd. Saffery, 
estate agent, 12 months, for conspiring to defraud 
the company of about 24,312/. ; trial 23-26 Oct. 1877 
Royal commission to enquire into the condition of 
the housing of the working classes, appointed, 
consisting of sir Charles Dilke, chairman, the 
prince of Wales, the marquis of Salisbury, arch- 
bishop Manning, sir R. A. Cross, Mr. Goschen, 
Mr. Samuel Motley, a\d ten others, gazetted 4 
March. First met 6 March, 1884. Report issued 
May, 1885. 
Housing of the Poor Act (introduced by the 

marquis of Salisbury) passed . . . 14 Aug. 1S85 
Sir C. Dilke lays foundation stone of a large block 
of buildings on charity land in Hoxton 1 July. 
1885 ; and the prince of Wales opened them 

1 July, 1886 
Two of seven blocks of buildings opened in Seward 

St., Goswell lid. by the lord mayor about 10 June, ,, 
Sir Edward Cecil Guinness, afterwards Baron 
Lveagh, presents 250.000/. to trustees for the 
erection of dwellings for the labouring poor, 
200,000/. for London and 50,000/. for Dublin, 

announced 20 Nov. 1SS9 

50,000/. to lie lent to Dublin in addition by govern- 
ment. Earl Cadogan presents to the trust an 
acre of land in Chelsea, valued at about 40,000/., 

announced 21 March, 1S90 

The important Housing of t lie Working Classes acl 

passed iS Aug. 1S00 ; amended . . 1893, 1894 
The lord mayor, Stuart Knill, reports valuable work 
.lone by I he Mansion House council for dwellings 

of the poor 28 Jan. 1893 

The Working Men's Dwelling bills passed 1893 :,,| d lS 94 

London Count] Council Artisans' Dwellings, 
Boundary Estate opened, 1895; 3,445 tenements 

creeled 1902 

New model artisans' dwellings, in Shoreditch, 
opened by lord Rosebery. . . 13 Nov. 1899 



AETISTS' FUND. 



75 



AEUNDELIAN MAEBLES. 



Housing of the working classes, act passed . . 1900 
Twenty-five associations let dwellings at 3 to 4 per 

cent, interest on outlay. Total income 625,526?., 1902 
Artisans' Institute, for promoting general and 

technical knowledge ; near St. Martin's Lane ; 

•established by aid of the duke of Bedford, lord 

Lyttelton, Mr. S. Morley, and others . 14 Oct. 1S74 

AETISTS' FUND, was established in 1810 to 
provide allowances for sick, and annuities for in- 
capacitated, members. Artists' General Benevolent 
Institution, established 1814. Artists' Orphan 
Fund, 187 1. 

AETOIS (N. France), a province once held by 
the Atrebates, conquered by the Franks in the fifth 
century, given by Charles the Bold, with Flanders, 
as a dowry to his daughter Judith, on her marriage 
with Baldwin Bras-de-fer in 863. Louis XV. created 
his grandson, Charles Philippe, count of Artois, who 
became king as Charles X., 16 Sept. 1824. 
Re-united to the crown by Philip Augustus . . 1180 
Formed into a county for his brother Robert, by 

Louis IX 1237 

Acquired, with Flanders, through marriage, by the 

duke of Burgundy 1384 

Passed, by marriage of Mary of Burgundy to Maxi- 
milian, to the house of Austria .... 1477 

Restored to France 1482 

Reverted to Austria 149^ 

Conquered for France 1640 

Finally confirmed to it by the treaty of Nimeguen, 

10 Aug. 1678 
AETS. In the 8th century, the circle of sciences 
was composed of seven liberal arts— the trivitttn 
(grammai-, rhetoric, logic), the quadrivium (arith- 
metic, music, geometry, and astronomy). Harris. 
The Royal Society of England {which see) obtaineu 
its charter, 2 April, 1663. 

The Society of Arts, to promote the polite arts, com- 
merce, manufactures, and mechanics, originated 
in the patriotic zeal of Mr. W10. Shipley, and its 
first president, lord Folkestone, March. 1754 ; the 
prince of Wales (now king Edward VII.), June, 
1899 ; succeeded by his son, now prince of Wales. 

FINE ARTS. 

First public exhibition by the artists of the British 
metropolis took place at the rooms of the Society 
of Arts . . 1760 

Repeated there for several years, till the Royal 
Academy was founded 1768 

Society of British Artists was instituted 21 May, 
1823 ; styled Royal by order . . 16 Aug. 1887 

Their first exhibition opened 19 April . . . 1824 

Pre-Raphaelites (which see) became prominent about 1850 

Society for the Encouragement of the Fine Arts 
founded in Dec 1858 

Art Unions began in France and Germany early in 
the present century. 

The first in Britain was established at Edinburgh. 

The Art Union of London, 112, Strand, was 
founded (chiefly by the exertions of George God- 
win, the architect, long hon. sec.) 14 Feb. 1837 ; 
and chartered 1 Dec. 1846. The Art Union in- 
demnity act was passed 3 Aug. 1844. Subscrip- 
tion for 1876, 20,932?.; 1877, 15,586?. (depression 
of trade); 1884, 9,634?. Annual meetings; 61st, 

30 April, 1897 

Burlington Fine Arts Club, for exhibition of works 
of art, &c. , founded 1868 

A memorial of a convention for promoting univer- 
sally reproductions of works of art for the bene- 
fit of museums of all countries, signed by the 
prince of Wales, and the crown princes of Prussia, 
Russia, Denmark, Sweden, Italy, Saxony, and 
others, was sent to the duke of Marlborough, 

12 March, ,, 

" The Grosvenor Gallery," Bond Street, W. opened 

1 May, 1877 

Mr. Hubert Herkomer's new School of Art, Bushey, 
Herts, opened 26 Nov. 1883 ; incorporated 1887. 

Anew Art Union established by the Royal Institute 
of Painters in Water Colours announced . Sept. 1887 

" The New Gallery," Regent St., W., opened 9 May, 1888 



"National Association for the Advancement of 
Art," president sir Frederick Leighton, estab- 
lished 8 June ; first; meeting (at Liverpool) 

3-7 Dec. 1888 
Second congress at Edinburgh, president, the Mar- 
quis of Lome . . . 28 Oct.— 2 Nov. 1889 

Third Birmingham, president Mr. J. E. Hodson, R. A. 

4-8 Nov. 1890 

Arts and Crafts Society (Mr. Wm. Morris, Mr. (aft. 
sir E.i Burne-Jones, Mr. Walter Crane, and 
others), begun 1888 ; exhibitions since held. 

Arts and Letters, established by sir Edwin Arnold, 
Mr. D'Oyly Carte, and others . . 7 Nov. 1889 

The Home Arts and Industries Association, begun . 1885 

The nth annual exhibition opened in the Albert 
hall, 21 June, 1895; donation of 1,000 guineas by 
Mr. G. F. Watts, R.A May, 1895 

Society of Portrait Painters, founded. . July, 1891 

Ninth exhibition of the New English Art Club in 
the Dudley Gallery, opened.. . . 19 Nov. 1892 

Sir John Gilbert presents a collection of his own 
paintings to the art galleries of London, Liver- 
pool, and Manchester 1893 

The sale of the art property of the late duchess of 
Montrose realized close on 54,200?. . May, 1895 

Mrs. Lyne Stephens' art collection, pictures, sold 
for 113,557? 17 May, „ 

Prof. H. Herkomer, R.A., explains his "New 
Black and White Art" to the Fine Art society, 
London 28 Jan. 1896 

The Society of Antiquaries' exhibition of English 
mediaeval art, at Burlington House . June, ,, 

The National Art training school at S. Kensington 
ordered to be styled the " Royal College of Art," 

4 Sept. ,, 

The late Mr. Heckscher's collection of works of art 
sold for 64,705?. ios 6 May, 1898 

Internat. art exhibition, at Knightsbridge, opened, 
May, 1898 ; another May, 1899 

The Forman collection of Egyptian, Greek, and 
Roman antiquities realised 22,389?. . 23 June, ,, 

Mr. Constantine Ionides bequeaths his fine art 
collection to the S. Kensington Museum, July 190 o 

Mr. C. Gassiot bequeaths his collection of English 
pictures, value abt. 60,000?., to the City art 
gallery (except 4 for the National Gallery), an- 
nounced 29 May I 9° 2 

British colonial art exhibition opened in Piccadilly 

13 June, ,, 

See British Institution; National Gallery; Royal 
Academy; Albert Hall ; British Museum, 1899. 

AEUNDEL CASTLE (Sussex), built by the 
Saxons about 800. The duke of Norfolk enjoys the 
earldom of Arundel, as a feudal honour, by inherit- 
ance and possession of the castle, without any other 
creation. Philip Howard, son of the attainted 
duke of Norfolk, was made earl of Arundel, by- 
summons, as possessor of this castle, 1580. It was 
thoroughly repaired by a late duke at a vast ex- 
pense, but repairs still going on, 1902. 

AEUNDEL SOCIETY, for the promotion 
of the knowledge of art, was established in 1848. It 
publishes fac-similes and photographs; society dis- 
solved, announced, Sept. 1898. 

AEUNDELIAN MAEBLES, called also 
Oxford Marbles ; one containing the chronology of 
ancient history from 1582 to 355 B.C., and said to 
have been sculptured 264 B.C. They consist of 37 
statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and were 
found in the isle of Paros, in the reign of James I., 
about 1610. They were collected by Mr. W. Petty, 
purchased by lord Arundel, and given by his grand- 
son Henry Howard, afterwards duke of Norfolk, to 
the university of Oxford in 1667 ; and are therefore 
called also Oxford Marbles. The characters of 
the inscriptions are Greek. A variorum edition of 
the inscriptions, by Maittaire, appeared in 1732, 
and a fine one by Chandler in 1763 ; and transla- 
tions by Selden, 1628; by Prideaux, 1676; see 
Kidd's 'Tracts; and Porson' 's Treatise, 1789. 



ARUSPICES. 



76 



ASHANTEES. 



ARUSPICES, see Haruspices. 

ARYAN", see Avian, and Language. 

AS, a Roman weight and coin : as a weight, it 
was a pound; as a coin, it had different weights, 
but the same value. In the reign of Servius, the 
as weighed a pound of brass ; in the first Punic war, 
it weighed two ounce-*, 264 B.C.; in the second Punic 
war, one ounce, 218 B.C. ; and afterwards half an 
ounce ; its value about three farthings sterling. 

ASAPH, St. (N. Wales), a bishopric said to 
have been founded by Kentigern, bishop of Glasgow. 
On returning into Scotland about 560, he left St. 
Asaph his successor, from whom the see is named. 
It is valued in the king's books at 187^. lis. bd. 
The present cathedral was erected by bishop Red- 
man, 1472-95. By an 'order in council, 1838, the 
sees of St. Asaph and Bangor were to have been 
united on the next vacancy in either, and the 
bishopric of Manchester created. This order was 
annulled in 1846. Present income 4,200/. ; see 
Manchester. The cathedral, restored by sir Gilbert 
Scott, re-opened 2 Sept., 1875. 

BISHOPS OF ST. ASAPH. 

1802. Samuel Horsley, died 4 Oct. 1S06. 

1806. William Cleaver, died 15 May, 1815. 

1815. John Luxnioore, died 21 Jan. 1830. 

1830. William Carey, died 13 Sept. 1846. 

1846. Thomas Vowler Short, resigned Feb. 1870 ; died 

13 April, 1872. 

1870. Joshua Hughes, died 21 Jan. 1880. 

1889. Alfred George Edwards, elected 2 March. 

ASBESTOS, a mineral, which may be split 
into threads and filaments, and which is endued 
with the property of remaining unconsumed by 
fire. Cloth was made of it by the Egyptians 
{Herodotus), and napkins in the time of Pliny, 74 ; 
and also paper. The spinning of asbestos known at 
Venice, about 1500. Porta. Asbestos non-inflam- 
mable paints tried in, and proposed for use in theatres, 
&c, 23 Dec. 1881. Asbestos proposed as an insu- 
lator for electric wires by M. H. Geoffroy, Paris, 
Sept. 1882. Exhibition of fire-resisting fabrics, &c, 
made of asbestos by the United Asbestos Company at 
St. James's hall, opened 31 May, 1897. Extensively 
used at present time (1903) for packing, fire-proof 
garments, boiler and steam-pipe sheathing, mill- 
board, gas fires, and other purposes. 

ASCALON (Syria), a city of the Philistines, 
shared the fate of Phoenicia and Judea. The 
Egyptian army was defeated here by the crusaders 
under Godfrey of Bouillon, 12 Aug. 1099. Ascalon 
was besieged by the latter in 1148, taken in 1 153; 
and again in 1191. Its fortifications were "de- 
stroyed for fear of the crusaders by the sultan, 1270. 

ASCENSION", an island in the Atlantic ocean, 
800 miles N. W. of St. Helena, discovered by the 
Portuguese; on Ascension day, 20 May, iijoi ; and 
taken possession of by the English, Oct. 1815. 

ASCENSION DAY, also called Holy Thurs- 
day, when tlic church celebrates the ascension of 
our Saviour, the fortieth day after his resurrection 
from the dead, 14 May, ^ ; first commemorated, it 
is said, 68. Ascension day, 1895, 11 May; 1894, 
3 May; 1895, 23 May; '1896, '14 May ; '1897, z~ 
May; 1898, I9May; [899, II May; 1900, 24 Mav; 
[6 Maj , [601 ; 8 Maj . [902 ; 21 Maj , [903 ; 12 
May, [904 ; 1 June, [905. 

Society lor tin' better observance of Ascension Day, 
formed June, 1869. 

ASCHAFFENBURG, on the Maine, Bavaria, 
S.W.Germany. Here, on 14 July, [866, the Prus- 



sians defeated the German Federal army, captured 
the town, and took 2003 prisoners. 

ASCHAM SOCIETY, formed to promote 
social intercourse among gentlemen engaged in 
education, and improve educational methods, &c. 
1880. First president, J. A. Froude ; honorary 
members, professors Huxley. Tyndall, Morley, &c, 
sirs K. Pollock, J. Lubbock", F. Leighton, and other 
eminent men. 

ASCOT RACES, see Races. 

ASCULUM, now ASCOLI, Apulia, S. Italy. 
Near it, Pyrrhus of Epirus defeated the Romans, 
279 B.C. Asculum, a city of the Piceni, with all 
their country, was conquered by the consul Sem- 
pronius, 268 B.C. Here Andrea, general of the em- 
peror Henry VI., endeavouring to wrest Naples 
from Tancred, was defeated and slain, a.d. 1190. 

ASHANTEES, warlike negroes of West Africa. 

In 1807 they conquered Fantee, in which the 

British settlement Cape Coast Castle is situated. 

On the death of their king, who had been friendly 
to the English, hostilities began ; the Ashantees 
defeated about 1,000 British under sir Charles 
M'Carthy at Accra, and brought away his skull 
with others as trophies . ... 21 Jan. 1824 

They were totally defeated by col. Purdon, 7 Aug. 1826 

Treaty of peace and commerce concluded by Mr. 
Maclean ; the independence of the Fantees re- 
cognised 29 April, 1831 

The governor of Cape Coast Castle began war with 
Asliantees early in 1863 ; suspended through 
sickness of our troops .... May, 1864 

Oftended at the British occupation of Ehnina, the 
Ashantees attacked the Fantees, our allies, with 
varying success April, 1873 

They were severely repulsed, 13 June ; Ehnina 
partially bombarded by the British for favouring 
them 14 June, „ 

Commodore Commerell and his party, sailing up 
the Prah, attacked and wounded ; 4 men killed 
by people of Chamah, which is bombarded 

14 Aug. „ 
Sir Garnet Wolseley (see Hudson Bay) appointed 

governor of the colonies on West Coast of Africa, 
sails with troops, &e. ... 12 Sept. ,, 

He arrives at Cape Coast Castle, 2 Oct. ; addresses 
an assembly of friendly chiefs, urging them to 
faithful action and promising rewards (the war 
to be defensive, if possible) . . 4 Oct. „ 

Ashantees defeated in a conflict in the bush, at 
Essaman. near Ehnina ; villages burnt, 14 Oct. ; 
again at Escabeo, near Dunquah, by col. Festing 

-: Oct. „ 

Despatch from sir Garnet Wolseley, declaring 
native allies worthless, and more British troops 
needed 31 Oct „ 

Indecisive conflict at Dunquah ; lieut. Eardley 
Wilmot killed, 3 Nov. ; Ashantees' attack on 
Abrakampra totally defeated ; their camp taken: 

disorderly retreal . . . • 5, 6 Nov. ,, 
Col. Wood's indecisive attack at Faisorah 27 Nov. ,, 
The Ashantees said to lie retreating in disorder, 

15 Dee. „ 
Sir Garnet Wolseley marches towards the Prah. 

27 Dec. ,, 
The King Kotice Kalealli pretends to accept the 
terms offered; releases captives; prepares for 

battle Jan. 1874 

Skirmish at Borborassie ; captain Nlcol killed, 

29 Jan. ,, 
Ashantees defeated by sir Garnet Wolseley at 

Amoaful 31 Jan. „ 

Bocquah captured by sir A. Alison . . 1 Feb. ,, 
Ashantee attack at Foinmanah repulsed 2 Feb. ,, 
'I'hc king takes command: defeated at Ordahsa, 

4 Feb. „ 
Sir Garnet Wolseley enters Coomassie . 4 Feb. ,, 
The king not acceding to proposals, ins palace and 

Citj burnt 6 Feb. ,, 

Daring ride through Coomassii by capt, Sartorius, 

11 Feb. „ 



ASHANTEES. 



77 



ASHBUETON TEEATY. 



The British retreat ; a treaty of peace (terms : 
perpetual peace ; indemnity of 50,000 oz. of gold ; 
supremacy over Adansi and other tribes re- 
nounced ; free trade guaranteed ; human sacri- 
fices to be prohibited ;) signed . . 13 Feb. 1874 

The king fearing attack from capt. Glover, sends 
first instalment of gold (1000 oz.) . 13 Feb. „ 

Sir Garnet Wolseley enters Cape Coast Castle, 
19 Feb. ; sails ; arrives at Portsmouth 21 March „ 

The courage, skill, and discipline of the troops and 
sailors highly commended ; expedition cost about 
ooo,ooo£. 

The troops reviewed by the Queen at Windsor ; 
sir Garnet Wolseley, commodores Commerell and 
Hewett, col. Festing, capt. Fremantle, sir A. 
Alison, and commander Glover thanked by par- 
liament 30 March, ,, 

The deposed King Koffee Kalcalli, said to be 
defeated in his attack on his brother, king 
Mensali Sept. 1876 

The king- demands surrender of a fugitive prince by 
the governor of Cape Coast Castle, 18 Jan. ; no 
result ; professes desire of peace . . April, 1881 

The king sends the golden axe to the queen, who 
receives it at Windsor Castle . . 30 June, ,, 

Deposition of king Mensah, and desire of British 
protection announced . . . .28 June, 1883 

Fighting at Coomassie between partizans of king 
Mensah and the ex-king Koffee Kalcalli 3 and 5 

Aug. „ 

King Bugay requests British intervention Aug. ,, 

Koffee Kalealli's partizans totally defeated, an- 
nounced 31 Aug. ,, 

He and Mensah prisoners . . . Aug. — Nov. ,, 

Massacre of Koffee's adherents . . . Dec. ,, 

Death of the king, and Kollee Kalcalli ; civil war 
reported Aug. — Dec. 1884 

Troubles in the country ; col. sir Francis Scott 
sent to protect the British settlement ; arrives at 
Abetiti, reported . . . . 21 Nov. 1893 

Expedition successful, reported . . . April, 1894 

Prempeh the young king of Coomassie installed 

11 June, „ 

Accused of promoting slave trade, human sacri- 
fices, attacking friendly tribes, and obstructing 
commerce, all contrary to treaties, British nego- 
tiations fruitless .... Feb. et seq. ,, 

The king protests against a British protectorate 

April, 1895 

The king's envoys not received at the colonial office, 
summer ,, 

Ultimatum sent to the king .... Oct. ,, 

Expedition under col. sir Francis Scott, including 
prince Henry of Battenberg, prince Christian 
Victor, son of prince Christian, and 30 officers 
leaves England, 23 Nov. et seq. ; arrives at Cape 
Coast Castle .... -13 Dec. ,, 

Native kings support the British . Nov. — Dec. „ 

Bridge over the river Prali completed, reported, 

25 Dec. ,, 

The road to Coomassie cleared by the withdrawal 
of the Ashanti pickets at Essian Kwanta 5 Jan. 1896 

Major Ferguson dies of fever at Prahsu . Jan. ,, 

Bekwai and Abodom placed under British pro- 
tection by treaty signed by the kings at Essian 
Kwanta 11 Jan. ,, 

Coomassie occupied unopposed by sir Francis Scott, 

17-18 Jan. „ 

Grand palaver ; John and Albert Ansah envoys, 
returned from England act as interpreters, the 
king reminded of his offences, by governor Max- 
well, accedes to all the British demands including 
the payment of 50,000 oz. of gold for the ex- 
penses of the expedition ; unable to pay, he is 
arrested with his relatives ; (2 war-chiefs, and 
the kings of Mampon, Ejesu and Ofesu, secured 
as hostages), John and Albert Ansah arrested for 
alleged forgery, &c. ; 20 Jan., released . 20 May, „ 

Prince Henry of Battenberg, dies of African fever 
on board H. M.S. Blonde . . . 20 Jan. ,, 

General native rejoicing at British success, re- 
ported 27 Jan. ,, 

Capt. Donald Stewart appointed British resident 
with a detachment of troops at Coomassie ; 
22 Jan. (major C. B. Pigott temporary acting 
resident) 28 Jan. ,, 



Special service corps with sir Francis Scott, prince 
Christian Victor and staff return to Cape Coast 
Castle ; 1 Feb. , arrive in London . . 26 Feb. 

King Prempeh and prisoners arrive at Cape Coast 
Castle, embark for Elmina . . .4 Feb 

Mr. Maxwell on his tour north of Coomassie, re- 
ceived with great enthusiasm at lnsuta, 3 Feb. 
1896, treaties concluded with 7 tribes ; Mr. (aft. 
sir) Wm. Maxwell returns to Cape Coast Castle ; 
25 Feb. ; see Gold Coast 

Sir Francis Scott made K.C.B. and other officers 
promoted 31 March, 

British improvements at Coomassie ; reported, 

May, 

Col. Pigott relieved at Coomassie by capt. Donald 
Stewart, Nov. ; country quiet and trade reviving, 
reported 9 Nov. 

Sir Fred, and lady Hodgson arrived at Coomassie, 
about 25 March ; he holds a palaver of kings and 
chiefs, 28 March, 1900 ; capt. Armitage's small 
force sent in quest of the "Golden stool" symbol 
of royalty is attacked by Ashantees . 31 March 

Fort Coomassie closely invested by rebels ; 6 April ; 
capt. Middlemist and about 50 men charge 
through into Coomassie . . mid. April 

Bebels defeated round Coomassie, 23, 25 April ; 
Capt. Aplix's force arrives after 2 days' hard 
fighting 29 April, 

Great suffering, 30 and 40 deaths per day in the 
fort, April — May ; great loss inflicted on the 
rebels, 2 May ; maj. Morris with 230 men arrives, 
15 May ; the loyal Bekwais after much fighting 
burn Abodom, 24 May ; Hausa quarters destroyed 
at Coomassie, capts. Maguire and Slater and 
others killed 29 May 

Carter and Hall rout the enemy at Bekwai ; capt. 
Wilson and 6 men killed ... 6 June, 

Col. Burroughs is repulsed at Kokofu, lieut. 
Brownlie and 5 men killed . . 3 July, 

Flight of sir Fred, and lady Hodgson with 600 men 
under maj. Morris and 1,000 non-combatants 
(capts. Bishop and Kalph with 115 men left 
behind), 23 June ; they break through the rebels, 
capturing a stockade, capts. Leggett and Mar- 
shall being mortally wounded, and after a hard 
march and much fighting reach Ekwanta, 26 
June ; cross the river Ofin, 30 June, and arrive 
at Accra after great suffering and many deaths, 

11 July, 

Belief of Coomassie by col. Willcocks (K.C.M.G. 
28 July) after a rapid march with his black 
troops and severe fighting, 15 July ; leaves capt. 
Eden there in command and returns with the 
remainder of the sick and starving garrison to 
Bekwai, 17 July ; Morland and Mellis destroy a 
rebel camp at Kokofu, 30 killed . 22 July, 

Beddoes routs the rebels at Formera . 30 July, 

Coomassie reinforced by Burroughs, camp and 
stockades destroyed ; lieut. Greer and 5 others 
killed 7 Aug. 

Opoku defeated, many captured, camp destroyed, 

Aug. 

Col. Brake destroys Ojesu a fetish town ; lieut. 
Burton and capt. Benson killed . 29, 31 Aug. 

Continued fighting, villages destroyed, 1, 22 Sept. 

Sir J. Willcocks totally defeats about 4,000 rebels 
at Obassa, 30 Sept. ; enemy pursued and com- 
pletely dispersed, reported ... 4 Oct. 

Bebel chief of Odumasi surprised and captured, 

14 Nov. 

Major Nathan (aft. sir) governor, receives the kings 
and chiefs of Ashanti at Coomassie, 14, 15 March, 1901 

Mutiny in a native regiment at Coomassie, early 
April, deserters captured, some shot, 128 sur- 
render, reported . . . . 21 April, „ 

Capt. Donald Stewart, chief commissioner, made 
K.C.M.G 9 Nov. 1902 

ASHBOUENE'S (Lord) ACT, see Ire land, 
14 Aug. 1885, and Nov. 1888 ; new act passed 24 
Dec. 1888. Eeported very successful, Dec. 1890-1. 

ASHBUETON TEEATY, concluded at 
Washington, 9 Aug. 1842, by Alexander lord Ash- 
burton, and John Tyler, president of the United 



ASHDOD. 

States: it defined the boundaries of the respective 
countries between Canada and the state of Maine, 
settled the extradition of criminals, &c. 

ASHDOD, or AZOTUS, seat of the worship of 
the Phoenician god, Dagon, which fell down before 
the ark of the Lord, captured by the Philistines 
from the Israelites, about 1141 B.C. (1 Sam. v.) 
Ashdod was taken by the Egyptians after 29 years' 
siege, the longest recorded, B.C. 630. Herodotus. 

ASHDOWN, or ASSENDITNE, now thought 
to be Aston, Berks, where Ethelred and his brother 
Alfred defeated the Danes in 871. At Ashdown, 
near Saffron- Walden, Essex, Canute defeated Ed- 
mund Ironside with great slaughter, 1016. 

Tradition says that the day after the, battle in 871 
Alfred caused his army to carve the figure of a white 
horse, the standard of Hengist, in the vale. Mr. 
Thomas Hughes ("Tom Brown"), in his hook "The 
Scouring of the White Horse " (1859), describes the 
work and festival on 17 and 18 Sept. 1857, a ceremony 
performed at intervals from time immemorial. Record's 
are found of the "scouring" in 1755, 27 May, 1776, 15 
May, 1780, 1785, 1803, 1812 or 1813, 1825, 19, 20 Sept., 
Sept. 184.3. 

The scouring was again effected under the direction 
of Mr. Andrew Dudgeon by order of lady Craven at the 
cost of xol. ; reported Jan. 1893. 

ASHMOLEAN MUSEUM (books, manu- 
scripts, coins, &c), was presented to the university 
of Oxford by Elias Ashmole, the herald and anti- 
quary, and opened 1682. It included the collections 
of the Tradescants, to whom he was executor. He 
died at Lambeth in 1692. Dr. C. D Fortnum pre- 
sented his art collections and a sum of money to 
found the new galleries, about 1888; he died, 6 
March, 1899. The Ashmolean Society, Oxford 
(scientific), was established in 1828. 

ASHTAROTH, a Phoenician goddess, occa- 
sionally worshipped by the Israelites (see Judges 
ii. 13) about 1406 B.C., and even by Solomon, about 
984 B.C. (1 Kings xi. 5.) Greek, Astarte. 

ASH-WEDNESDAY, the first day of Lent, 
which in early times began on the Sunday now 
called the first in Lent. It is said that pope 
Felix III., in 4.87, first added the four days pre- 
ceding the old Lent Sunday, to raise the number of 
fasting days to forty ; that Gregory the Great (pope, 
590) introduced the sprinkling of ashes on the first 
of the four additional days, and hence the names of 
Dies Cinerum, or Ash- Wednesday. At the Refor- 
mation this practice was abolished, "as being a 
mere shadow, or vain show." Ash- Wednesday, 
1893, '5 Feb. ; 1894, 7 Feb. ; 1895, 2 7 Feb. ; 1896, 
iq Feb.; 1897, 3 Mar.; 1898, 23 Feb ; 1899, 15 
Feb.; i900,28Feb.; i90i,20Feb. ; 1902, 12 Feb.; 
1903, 25 Feb. ; 1904, 17 Feb. ; 1905, 8" March. 

ASIA, the largest division of the globe ; part of 
it was so called by the Greeks. The area of Asia 
and its islands is estimated at 17,255,890 square 
miles. Asia was the first quarter of the world 
peopled : here the law of God was first promulgated ; 
here many of the greatest monarchies of the earth 
had their rise; and hence most of the arts and 
sciences have been derived. Its early history is 
derived from the Bible and from Herodotus, who 
relates the wars of Crccsus, Cyrus, and others. The 
Central Asian Railway from the Caspian to Samar- 
cand constructed by general Annenkoff for Russia, 
which now possesses very great influence over the 
country, opened 1888 ; branch line to Bokhara 
completed. M. Sven Iledin successfully explores 
over 12,000 mi. in Central Asia, 1 894- 1900. See 
Population, Jews, China, India, Persia, Turkey, 
and tilt other countries. 



78 ASPERN. 

Capt. Deasy discovers the source of the Khotan-daria in 
N. Tibet, summer of 1898 ; explores the Garkand! 
region and other districts, 5,300 mi., high altitudes, 
over 15,000 ft. reached, Nov. i898-Dec. 1899. 

The czar grants 42,000 roubles for exploration in Central 
Asia, Jan. 1899. 

M. Sven Hedin explores Lob Nor, discovers new lakes, 
and makes many ascents, March-Oct. 1900. 

ASIA MINOR, now Anatolia, comprised 

the Ionian colonies on the coast, the early seats of 
Greek civilisation, and the countries Mysia, Phrygia, 
Lycia, Bithynia, Caria, Lydia, Cappadocia, Galatia, 
&c, with the cities Troy, Ephesus, Smvrna (all 
which see). From the time of the rise of the As- 
syrian monarchy, about 2000 B.C., to that of the 
Turks under Osman, Asia Minor was the battle- 
field of the conquerors of the world. See Seven 
Churches. 

First settlement of the Ionian Greeks - about B.C. 1043; 
Asia Minor subdued by the Medes . . about 711 

Conquered by Cyrus about 546 

Contest between the Greeks and Persians begins 544 
Asia Minor conquered by Alexander . . . . 332 
Contended for by his successors ; separate king- 
doms established 321-27S 

Gradually acquired by the Romans B.C. 188 to a.d. 15 

Possessed by the Persians 609 

Partially recovered by the emperor Basil . . . 874 

Invaded by Timour 1402 

Taken from the Greek emperor, and established as 

an empire by the Turks under Mahomet I. . . 1413 
See Turkey. 
The Asia Minor Exploration Fund established, 1S82, by 

sir Charles Wilson and others, enabled Mr. W. M. 

Ramsay to continue his researches. Valuable results 

were reported in 1884 from Lydia and the early home 

of the Greeks. In Jan. 1890-93, the committee appeal 

for pecuniary help. See Hittites. 
Results of Mr. Anderson's explorations, reported, Times 

27 Aug. 1897. 
Railway from Mersina on the coast to Tarsas and 

Adana, 42 miles, constructing under sir T. Tailored. 

Aug. 1884 ; first section opened 4 May, 1886, wholly 

opened Aug. 1886. 
Conflicts between Christians and Mahometans throughout 

the provinces ; Nov. 1892 et seq. See Armenia and 

Turkey, 1895-96. 
Anarch}' in N.E. provinces, Moslem crimes unpunished ; 

reported, 13 Jan. 1897. 

ASIATIC SOCIETIES. The " Asiatic So- 
ciety of Bengal," at Calcutta, was established by 
sir William Jones in 1784, "the bounds of its in- 
vestigation to be the geographical limits of Asia." 
The "Royal Asiatic Society," which has several 
branches in India, was founded in 1823. It esta- 
blished the "Oriental Translation Fund," in 1828, 
which had published 83 volumes of Eastern litera- 
ture in 1865. The Fund ceased to exist in 1878. 
The Fund was revived in a new form mainly by 
Mr. F. F. Arbuthnot, and volumes since issued, 
1896 et seq. The "Literary Society of Madras," 
1845. The " Asiatic Quarterly Review," London, 
begun 1886. 

ASKESIAN SOCIETY (from the Greekos**- 
sis, exercise), instituted in March, 1796, by some 
young men for discussing philosophical subjects. Its 
founders were Wm. Allen. Win. Phillips, Alex. Til- 
loch, Luke Howard, W. H. Pepys and others. In 
1806 it merged into the Geological Society. 

ASM0NJ5ANS, the proper name of the 
family termed Maccabees (which sec). 

ASPERN, Great, a town, and Essling, a 

village near the Danube and Vienna, where a series 
of desperate conniota took place between the Austrian 
army under the archduke Charles, and the French 
under Napoleon, Massena, &c, on 21-22 May, 1809, 
ending in the retreat of Napoleon. The Austrian 
loss exceeded 20,000 men, and the Freneh 30,000. 



ASPHALT. 



79 



ASSASSINS. 



Marshal Lannes, mortally wounded 22 May, died 
31 May. The bridge of the Danube was destroyed, 
and Napoleon's retreat endangered; but the success 
of the Austrians was fruitless to them, 

ASPHALT, a solid bituminous substance, pro- 
bably derived from decayed vegetable matter. It 
was used as a building material in ancient Babylon. 
Its application for this purpose was revived by 
Eiriuus, a Greek physician, who discovered beds of 
it near Neufohatel in 1712. Asphalt stone was 
found at Seyssel near Geneva in 1802; and after 
several failures, count Sa'ssenay brought it into use 
for pavement about 1832. The artificial asphalt 
obtained from gas-works began to be used as pave- 
ment about 1838. Claridge's patent asphalt was 
laid down in Trafalgar-square, Jan. 1864. Various 
kinds of asphalt pavement have been since laid on 
in London. 

ASPINWALL, or Colon, see Panama. 

ASPROMONTE, Naples. Here Garibaldi was 
defeated, wounded, and taken prisoner 29 Aug. 1862, 
having injudiciously risen against the French occu- 
pation of Rome. 

ASSAM (N. E. India) acquired by the British 
in 1825, and surrendered by the king of Ava in 
1826 The tea-plant was discovered here by Mr. 
Bruce in 1823. A superintendent of the tea-forests 
was appointed in 1836, the cultivation of the plant 
having been recommended by lord William Ben- 
tinck in 1834. The Assam Tea Company, by whom 
Chinese labourers and coolies were introduced, 
was established in 1839. After several years, the 
plantations suffered severely, it is said through over 
speculation and neglect of the labourers ; as a 
remedy a labour act was passed at Calcutta, about 
July, 1867; labour and emigration act passed, 1901. 
Population, 1901, 6,122,000. 
Mr. James Wallace Quinton, chief commissioner, a 

valuable officer, esteemed by three viceroys, 

killed at Manipur (which see) . . 24 March, 1891 
Chief commissioner, William Erskine Ward . . ,, 
Petroleum discovered ; large quantities obtained, 

reported . . . n Feb. 1892 

Chief commissioner, Sir Henry Cotton . . . 1897 
Destructive earthquake; public buildings and crops 

destroyed, June-July, 1897. See India, 12-18 Juue, 18Q7 
Depression and difficulties in the tea trade, reported, 

Sept. 1902 

ASSASSINATION PLOT to kill William 
III., formed by some of the Jacobites, simultane- 
ously with one for an insurrection to be aided by 
French invaders, in 1696. James II. and several 
noblemen and others were said to be privy to it ; 
including the earl of Ailesbury. About forty 
ruffians undertook to kill William near Turnham 
Green, Middlesex, when returning from hunting, 
14 Feb. 1696. Information was given to William 
by Mr. Prendergast, a Boman Catholic, through 
horror of the crime. The following were executed : 
— Charnock, King, and Keyes, 18 March ; sir John 
Friend and sir Win. Parkyns, 3 April; Rookwood, 
Lowick, and Cranbourne, 29 April, 1696 ; sir 
John Fenwick (by attainder), 28 January, 1697. 
Sir George Barclay, a chief organiser of the plot, 
escaped to France. 

ASSASSINS, or ASSASSINIANS, fanatical 
Mahometans, collected by Hassan-ben-Sabah, and 
settled in Persia about 1*090. They murdered the 
marquis of Montferrat in 1 192, Lewis of Bavaria 
in 1213, and the khan of Tartary in 1254. They 
were extirpated in Persia about 1258 and in Syria 
about 1272. The chief of the corps was named 
"Ancient of the Mountain," and "Old Man of 



the Mountain'' 1 They trained up young people to 
assassinate such persons as their chief had devoted 
to destruction. Henault. From them came the 
word assassin. See Mafia, Anarchy, and Vehmie 
Tribunals. 

REMARKABLE ASSASSINATIONS AND ATTEMPTS. 

See Rome, Emperors, for many assassinations. 

Abdul Aziz, sultan (see Turkey, 1881) . 4 June, 1876 
Abdurrahman, Ameer of Afghanistan ; attempt 

26 Dec. 1888 
Albert I., emperor of Germany, by his nephew 

John 1 May, 1308 

Albert Edward, prince of Wales, attempt by Sipido, 

aged 15, at Brussels .... 5 April, 1900 
Alexander II. of Russia ; attempts: by Karakozow at 

St. Petersburg, 16 April, 1866 ; by Berezowski 

at Paris, 6 June, 1867 ; by Alexander Solovieff, 14 

April, 1879 ; by undermining a railway train, 1 

Dec. 1879 ; by explosion of Winter palace, St. 

Petersburg, 17 Feb. 1880 ; killed by explosion of 

a bomb thrown by a man who is himself killed, 

St. Petersburg . . .2 p.m. 13 March, i88r 

Alexander III. ; attempts : 13 March, 1887 ; May, 1888 
Alexander I. of Servia, with his wife Draga, 11 June, 1903 
Alfonso XII. of Spain, attempts: by J. O. Moncasi, 

25 Oct. 1878 ; by Francisco Otero Gonzalez, 30 Dec. 1879 
Amadeus, when king of Spain ; attempt . 19 July, 1872 
Artaxerxes III. of Persia ; by Bagoas . about B.C. 338. 
Aumale, due d' ; attempt .... 13 Sept. 1841 
Beaton, David, cardinal ; by reformers . 29 May, 1546 
Becket, Thomas a, abp. of Canterbury . 29 Dec. 117a 
Berri, Charles due de (father of the comte de Cham- 

bord) .... . . 13 Feb. 1820 

Bismarck, prince ; attempt, by Blind, 7 May, 1866 ; 

by Kullinann 13 July, 1874. 

Bogoliepoff, M., Russian statesman, by P. Karpo- 

vich 27 Feb. 1901 

Borda Idiarte. president of Uruguay ; by Avelino 

Arredondo . .... 25 Aug. 1897 

Bratiano, premier of Roumania ; attempt, by . J. 

Pietraro . ... 14 Dec. 1880 

Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of ; by John 

Felton 23 Aug. 1628 

Burgundy, John the Fearless, duke of ; by Orleanists, 

10 Sept. 14191 
Caj&ar, Julius ; by Brutus and others 15 March, b.c. 44 
Canovas del Castillo, Antonio, premier of Spain ; 

by Michele Angine Golli ... 8 Aug. 1897 
Capo dTstria, count ; Greek statesman . 9 Oct. 1831 
Carnot, Marie Frangois Sadi, president of the 

French republic (see France), by Cesare Giovanni 

Santo 24 June, 1894. 

Cavendish, lord Frederick, chief Secretary for Ire- 
land, and T. H. Burke, under Secretary, in Phoenix 

Park, Dublin, by 4 men 1882; 

Crispi, Francesco, premier of Italy ; attempt, by 

Paolo Lega . .... 16 June, 1894 

Daniel, prince of Montenegro . . 13 Aug. i860 
Darboy, Georges, abp. of Paris ; by communists, 

24 May, 1871 
Darius III. of Persia ; by Bessus . . Jul5 _ , b.c. 330 
Edmund the Elder, of England . 26 March, 946 

Edward the Martyr ,,,,.. 18 March, 979, 
Edward II. ,,,,.. 27 Sept. 1327 

Edward V. ,,,,... July, 1483 

Elizabeth, empress of Austria,byL.Luccheni,ioSept. 1898 
Estrup, M. ; attempt 21 Oct. 1885 ; and by Payitch 

alias Knezevitch 6 July, 1899 

Ferry, Jules, ex-French premier ;byAubertin,ioDec. 1887 
Francis Joseph of Austria ; attempt, by Libenyi, 

18 Feb. 1853 ; by Overdank 1882 

Frederick William IV. of Prussia : attempt, by Sofe- 

lage ... .... 22 May, 1850. 

Garfield (Gen.), president of the United States 

(by Charles Jules Guiteau) : Washington, 2 July, 

died 19 Sept. 1881 

George III. of England, mad attempts, by Margaret 

Nicholson, 2 Aug. 1786; by James Hatfield, 15 May, 1800 
George IV. (when regent), attempt . 28 Jan. 1817 

George I. of Greece ; attempt ; by Karditzis, 26 Feb. 1898 
Guise, Henry duke of; by order of Henry III. of 

France 23 Dec. 158& 

Gustavus III. of Sweden ; by Ankarstrom, 16 March, 

died 29 March, 179a 

Henry III. of France ; by Jacques Clement, 1 Aug. 

died 2 Aug. 1589, 



ASSAY. 



80 



ASSIZE OF BATTLE. 



Henry IV. of France; attempt, "by Jean Chatel, 27 

Dec. 1594 ; killed by Eavaillac . . 14 May, 1610 
Heureaux, gen., president of Dominica, see Hayti, 

by Ramon Caceres .... 26 July, 1899 
Humbert I., king of Italy, attempt, by John Pas- 
santi, at Naples, 17th Nov. 1878 ; attempt, by 
Pietro Acciarito, at Rome, 22 April, 1897 ; by 
Gaetano Bresci, at Monza . . .29 July, 1900 
Hussein Avni and other Turkish ministers ; by 

Hassan, a Circassian officer . . 15 June, 1876 
Isabella II. of Spain ; attempts, by La Riva, 4 May, 
1847 ; by Merino, 2 Feb. 1852 ; by Raymond 

Fuentes 28 May, 1856 

James I. of Scotland ; by nobles . . 21 Feb. 1437 

James III. of Scotland; by nobles . n June, 1488 

Kotzebue, August, German dramatist, for political 

motives ; by Karl Sand ... 23 March, 1819 
Leopold, king of the Belgians ; attempt, by Rubino, 

15 Nov. 1902. 
Lincoln, Abraham, president of United States, N. A. ; 

by Wilkes Booth, 14 April ; died . 15 April, 1865 
Lorraine, Louis of Guise, cardinal of ; by order of 

Henry III. of France . . . 24 Dec. 1588 

Louis XV. of France; attempt, by Damiens, 5 Jan. 1757 
Louis Philippe of France ; many attempts; \>y Fieschi, 
28 July, 1835; by Alibaud, 25 June, 1836; by 
Meunier, 27 Dec. 1836 ; by Darmes, 15 Oct. 1840 ; 
by Lecomte, 14 April, 1846; by Henry. 29 July, 1846 
Lytton, lord, viceroy of India ; attempt, by Busa 

12 Dec. 1878 
Marat ; by Charlotte Corday . . 13 July, 1793 

Mayo, Richard, earl of, gov. -gen. of India; by Shere 

Ali, a convict, in Andaman isles . . 8 Feb. 1872 
McKinley, AVilliam, president of United States, at 

Buffalo, by Leon Czolgosz, 5 Sept. ; died 14 Sept. 1901 
Mehemet Ali Pacha, by Albanians . 7 Sept. 1878 

Melikoff, gen. Loris ; attempt (see Russia) 4 March, 1880 
Michael, prince of Servia . . . 10 June, 1868 
Milan IV. of Servia, attempts, 23 Oct. 1882 ; by 

Payitch alias Knezevitch ... 6 July, 1899 
Murray, James, earl of, regent of Scotland, 23 Jan. 1570 
Muzafler-ed-Deen, shah of Persia, attempt, by 

Salsou 2 Aug. 1900 

Napoleon I. ; attempt, by infernal machine, 24 Dec. 1800 
Napoleon III. ; attempts, by Pianori, 28 April, 1855 ; 
by Bellemarre, 8 Sept. 1855 ; by Orsini and 

others 14 Jan. 1858 

Nasr-ed-Deen, shah of Persia ; by Mollah Reza, 

a Sayyid 1 May, 1896 

Obolens'ki, prince, gov. of Kharkoff, attempt, by 

Katchoor, a peasant .... 11 Aug. 1902 
Orange, William, prince of ; by Balthasar Gerard 

10 July, 1584 
Orleans, Louis Valois, duke of ; by Burgundians 

23 Nov. 1407 
Parma, Ferdinand Charles III., duke of; 26 March, 

died 27 March, 1854 

Paul, czar of Russia ; by nobles . 24 March, 1801 
Pedro II. nf Brazil ; attempt, by Volti . 15 July, 1889 
Percival, Spencer, premier ; by Bellingham, u May, 1812 
Philip II. of Macedon ; by Pausanias . . b.c. 336 
Prim, marshal ; 28 Dec. died . . 30 Dec. 187c 

Roosevelt, pres. U.S., attempt by Weilbreuner, a 

lunatic 1 Sept. 1903 

Rossi, conte Pellegrino, Roman statesman, 15 Nov. 1848 
Sibour, M. W. A., abp. of Paris, by Jean Verger, a 

priest 3 Jan. 1857 

Sipidguine, M., Russian statesman, by Bolmas- 

chefT 15 April, 1902 

Stamboloff, A!., ex-premier of Bulgaria, 15 July, 

died 18 July, 1895 

Victoria, qi n, attempts (.-). Edwd. Oxford, id 

June, 1840; John Francis, 30 May, 1842; Bean, 
3 July, 1 r.4.' ; Win. Hamilton, ig May, 1849; H. 
Maclean, at Windsor . . . " 2 March, 1SS2 

William I. of Prussia and Germany; attempts, by 
Oscar Becker, 14 July, (861 ; l>j Hodel, m May, 
1878 by Dr. Nobiling . . . 2 June, 1878 

William III. of England see Assassination-plot . 1695-6 

William, prince "i WUrtemberg; attempt, bj M 
Miiller . . .... 20 Oct. 1889 

ASSAY of Gold and Silver, originated 

with the bishop of Salisbury, a royal treasurer in 
the reign "l* Henry 1. Du Uange. But certainly 
some species of aesaj was practised as early as the 
lioinan conquest. Assay early established in Eng- 



land was regulated by statutes, 1238, 1700, and 
1705. Assay masters appointed at Newcastle, 1701 ; 
Sheffield and Birmingham, 1773. The laws re- 
specting assay were amended in 1854 and 1855. 
The alloy of gold is silver and copper, that of silver 
is copper. Standard gold is 2 carats of alloy to 22 of 
fine gold. Standard silver is 18 dwts. of copper 
to 11 ozs. 2 dwts. of fine silver; see Goldsmiths' 
Company and Pyx. 

ASSAYE (E. Indies) . The British army, under 
general Arthur Wellesley (afterwards duke of Wel- 
lington), entered the Mahratta states on the south; 
took the fort of Ahmednuggur, 12 Aug. ; and de- 
feated Scindiah and the rajah of Berar at Assaye, 
23 Sept. 1803. This was Wellesley's first great 
battle, in which he opposed 40,000 with only 9,600 
men. The enemy fled, leaving their artillery, &c. 

ASSEMBLY of (130) Divines, held at 

Westminster, 1 July, 1643, convoked by order of 
parliament to consider the liturgy, government, and 
doctrines of the church. Two members were elected 
for each county. The presbyterian majority adopted 
the Scottish covenant, and drew up the directory 
for public worship, a confession, and the catechisms 
now used by the church of Scotland. The last 
(1163rd) meeting was on 22 Feb. 1649; see Church 
of Scotland. 

ASSENT, see Royal Assent. 

ASSESSED TAXES. By some' the date is re- 
ferred to Ethelbert, in 991 ; to Henry VIII. 1522; 
and to "William III. 1689, when a land-tax was im- 
posed ; see Land Tax. The assessed taxes yielded 
in 1815 (the last year of the war), exclusively of the 
land-tax, 6,524,766/., their highest amount. These 
imposts have varied in their nature and amount, 
according to the exigencies of the state. They were 
considerably advanced in 1797 and 1801, ct seq.,\\\X, 
reduced in 1816, and in subsequent years. An act 
for the repeal of certain assessed taxes was passed 
16 & 17 Vict. c. 90, 20 Aug. 1853, explained and 
amended by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 1, 17 Feb. 1854. — Acts 
for the better securing and accounting for the As- 
sessed and Income Taxes, 10 Aug. 1854; see Taxes, 
and Income Tax. Changes were made in the as- 
sessed taxes, their time of collection, &c, by the 
Revenue act, passed 24 June, 1869. Licences for 
servants, dogs, and armorial bearings were also in- 
troduced. An act to provide for uniformity in the 
assessment of rateable property in the metropolis 
was passed 9 Aug. 1869. The "Coui-t of General 
Assessment " first met 19 May, 1870. See House 
Duty and Land {Tax). 

ASSIENTO, a contract between the king of 
Spain and other powers, for furnishing the Spanish 
dominions in America with negro slaves, began with 
the Flemings. By the treaty of Utrecht, 13 July, 
1713, the British government engaged to furnish 
4800 negroes annually to Spanish America for thirty 
years. The contract was renewed in 1748, but given 
up in 1750; see Guinea. 

ASSIGN ATS, a forced paper currency, ordered 
by the National Assembly of France to support 
public credit during the revolution, April, 1790. 
At our period, eight milliards, ov nearly 350 millions 
of pounds sterling, of this paper were in circulation 
in France and its dependencies. Alison. Assignats 
were superseded by mandate in 1796. 

ASSISTANT MASTERS' association, 
founded, 1891, hold-; annual meetings m London 
and provinces; at Mam hester, 14, 15 Sept. 1900. 

A ssi ZE of Battle, sec Appeal. 



ASSIZE. 



81 



ASSYRIA. 



ASSIZE of BREAD, &c, see Bread, and Wool. 
ASSIZE of Jerusalem, a valuable code of 

laws compiled under the direction of Godfrey of 
Bouillon, king of Jerusalem, in I ioo. 

ASSIZE COURTS (from assideo, I sit) are 
very ancient in England, and in old law books are 
defined to be an assembly of knights and other sub- 
stantial men, with the justice, to meet at a certain 
time and place-, regulated by Magna Cnarta, 1215. 
The present justices of assize and Nisi Prms are 
derived from the statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 
1284. Coke; Blackstone. "The king doth will 
that no lord, or other of the country, shall sit upon 
the bench with the justices to take assize in their 
sessions in the counties of England, upon great for- 
feiture to the king." 20 Eich. II. 1396. Statutes, 
Brough Act. Assizes are general or special ; general 
when the judges go their circuits, and special when 
a commission is issued to take cognisance of one or 
more causes ; see Bloody Assize. 

, ASSOCIATIONS, see British, National Asso- 
ciations, Christian, §c. 

. ASSOUAN VILLAGE EXHIBITION, 
illustrating native village life in Egypt, opened at 
Earl's Court, May, 1903. 

ASSUMPTION, Feast of the, 15 Aug. 

It is observed by the church of Home in honour of 
the Virgin Mary, said to have been taken up to 
heaven in her corporeal form, body and spirit, on 
this day, a.d. 45, in her 75th year. The festival 
was instituted in the 7th century, and enjoined by 
the council of Mentz, 813. 

ASSURANCE, see Insurance. 

ASSYRIA, originally Assur, an Asiatic country 
between Mesopotamia and Media, was the seat of 
the earliest recorded monarchy. Till recently its 
history was mainly derived from Greek historians, 
Ctesias, Herodotus, and Diodorus Siculus, Berosus, 
a Grseco-Chaldean priest, and the Holy Scriptures. 
The discovery by Mr. (aft. sir) Austin Layard of 
the Ninevite antiquities,nowin the British Museum, 
and the deciphering of many ancient cuneiform in- 
scriptions, by Grotefend, sir H. Rawlinson, and 
other scholars, have thrown much light upon Assj - 
rian history. The chronologers, Blair, Usher, Hales, 
and Clinton, differ much in the dates. The results 
of recent investigations are given in the rev. G. 
Rawlinson's "Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient 
World,' ' and in prof. A. Say ce's " Assyria, its Princes, 
Priests, and People," 1885. Mr. W. Boscawen's 
article " Assyria " in " Chambers' Encyclopaedia," 
1888, has been used for much of the following sum- 
mary. 

Nimrod or Belus reigns . .B.C. [2554 H. 2235 C] 2245 
" Asshur builded Nineveh" (Gen. x. n) about . 2218 
Ninus, son of Belus, reigns in Assyria, and names 

his capital Nineveh [2182 C] 2069 

Babylon taken by Ninus, who, having subdued the 
Armenians, Persians, Bactrians, and all Asia 
Minor, establishes what is properly the Assyrian 
monarchy, of which Nineveh was the seat of em- 
pire. Blair [2233 C] 2059 

Ninyas, an infant, succeeds Ninus . . . . 2017 
Semiraniis, mother of Ninyas, usurps the govern- • 

nient, enlarges and embellishes Babylon [2130 C] 2007 
She invades Libya, Ethiopia, and India . Lenglet 1975 
She is put to death by her son Ninyas . . . 1965 
Ninyas put to death, and Arius reigns . . . 1927 

Reign of Aralius 1897 

Belochus, the last king of the race of Ninus . . 1446 
He makes his daughter Atossa, surnamed Semiramis 
II. , his associate on the throne- ; . . . 1433 



Atossa procures the death of her father, and marries 
Belatores (or Belaperes) who reigns . . . 1421 

Sardanapalus, luxurious and effeminate when at- 
tacked by Arbaces Satrap of Media, suddenly 
becomes energetic and warlike, defends himself 
in Nineveh for two years, and when overcome 
burns himself in his palace, with his wives and 
treasures, thus ending the first Assyrian Empire. 

(Ctesias) 876 

[This story and most of what is given above, is 
now considered mythical.] The following is 
based upon the records in the ancient Assyrian 
tablets and the Bible. 

Assyria, a province of Babylonia, becomes indepen- 
dent ; first king, Bel-kapkapi, under his suc- 
cessors the kingdom is greatly enlarged ; Rim- 
mon-nirari I. becomes powerful about . B.C. 1320 

His son, Shalmaneser I. founds Calah, and his 
grandson, Tiglath Adar I. captures Babylon . 1280 

His descendant, Tiglath-pileser I. a great con- 
queror and the real founder of the Assyrian 
empire 1140 

His son, Assur-bel-Kala, a weak prince . . .1110 

The empire falls into decay for nearly two centuries. 

The empire revives under Assur-dan II., and is fully 
restored by his successors, Rimmonnirari II. 911-889 
and Assur-natsir-pal 883-858 

His son, Shalmaneser II. makes large conquests in 
W. Asia . 858, et seq. 

At Karkar he defeats Benhadad, king of Damascus, 
Ahab, king of Israel, and Irkhuleni, king of 
Hamath 854 

The empire enlarged by his son, Samas-Rimmon II. 

B.C. 823-810 

The Assyrian eponym canon records a solar eclipse, 
and is thereby the basis of Assyrian chronology . 763 

Assur-nirari king ; many revolts . . . 753, et seq. 

Pulu, or Pul, usurps the throne and styles himself 
Tiglath Pileser. He consolidated the empire, 
reformed the government, quelled revolts and 
enlarged his dominions by the conquest of Baby- 
lon, &c 745-727 

His weak son, Shalmaneser IV. king, 727 ; died, or 
was murdered by Sargon the Tartan, who con- 
tinues the war in Assyria, captures Samaria and 
replaces the inhabitants by colonists. 2 Kings 
xvii. 720 

At the battle of Raphia he checks the advances of 
Egypt, and captures the rich Hittite capital, 
Carchemish 7*7 

Merodach-baladan III. raises a revolt against Sar- 
gon, who, after a severe campaign, captures 
Babylon, and is proclaimed king . . . .710 

Sargon is killed in his new palace . . July, 705 

His son, Sennacherib, succeeds him. 

Babylonia revolts ; Merodach-baladan returns, but 
is defeated at Kisu ; Sennacherib conquers 
Phoenicia, and having been offended by Heze- 
kiah, he ravages Judsea, and besieges Jerusalem, 
which is saved by the sudden destruction of his 
army, Isaiah xxxvii. 36-38; he is killed by his 
sons . Dec. 681 

His son, Esar-haddon defeats Ms brothers, and be- 
comes king at Nineveh, and reorganizes the 
empire 680, et seq. 

He invades Judaea, makes Manasseh prisoner. 

He invades Egypt and captures Memphis, and 
after a long campaign, subdues the country and 
becomes ruler of nearly all the ancient world 

675, et seq. 

Disturbed by a rising in Egypt and conspiracies at 
home, he makes his son, Assur-bani-pal, king at 
Nineveh, April, 669, and dies during a campaign, 
Oct. 667. Assur-bani-pal (Sardanapalus ?), weak 
but ambitious, continues the war in Egypt and 
captures Thebes, invades Phoenicia and captures 
Tyre. 
He appoints his brother, Samas-sum-yukin, viceroy 
of Babylon, who heads a great revolt, which lasts 
five years ; Babylon is taken and the rebel prince 
burns himself in his palace with many of his 
followers 6 47 

Gradual fall of the empire; new revolts; Egypt 
becomes independent ; Kandanalu, viceroy of 
Babylon, and his successor, father of Nebuchad- 
nezzar, become independent ; Assur-bani-pal suc- 
ceeded by his son, Assur-etil-iliyukinni . . 640 

G 



ASTEROIDS. 



82 



ASTRONOMY. 



Esar-haddon II. (the Sarakos of Ctesias), the last 
king ; the N.E. provinces invaded by a vast con- 
federation under the command of Kazaril (Cyax- 
ares the Mede) 

Disruption and anarchy closed by the siege and 
destruction of Nineveh .... about 606 

Assyria becomes a Median province. 

Assyria subdued by Alexander the Great . . . 332 

It subsequently formed part of the kingdoms of 
Syria, Parthia, and Persia. 

It was conquered by the Turks . . . a.d. 1637 

Explored by col. C'hesney and the Euphrates ex- 
ploring expedition 1835-37 

Layard's Discoveries published (see Nineveh) . 1848-53 

Mr. George Smith, of British Museum, began to 
study inscriptions, 1866 ; (received aid from pro- 
prietors of Daily Telegraph), and started to explore 
Assyrian remains, 20 June, 1873 ; worked in 1873- 
74; published " Assyrian Discoveries " March, 1875 

Started to renew his explorations, Oct. 1875; died 
at Aleppo 19 Aug. 1876 

The explorations resumed by Mr. Hormusd Rassam, 
see Nineveh. 

Classes for the study of Assyrian language formed ; 
rev. A. H. Sayce publishes an Assyrian gram- 
mar 1875 

(See Nineveh.') 

ASTEROIDS, a name improperly given to the 
minor planets, see under Planets. 

ASTLEY'S AMPHITHEATRE, see under 

Theatres. 

ASTON RIOTS, see Birmingham, 1884. 

ASTOR BEQUESTS, see Libraries. 

ASTORGA (N.W. Spain), the ancient Asturica 
Augusta, was taken by the French, 22 April, 1810, 
and treated with great severity. 

ASTRAKHAN (S.E. Kussia), a province ac- 
quired from the Mogul's empire in 1554; visited 
and settled by Peter the Great in 1722. Collision 
between two steamers on the Volga, 40 deaths ; re- 
ported, 16 Sept. 1897. Population, 516,000. 

ASTROLABE, an instrument for observing 
the stars, said to have been employed by Hipparchus 
about 130 B.C. ; and by Ptolemy about 140 A.D. 
The modern astrolabe was described by Fabricius in 
1513. Chaucer's "Treatise on the Astrolabe," 
published 1872 by the Early English Text Society. 

ASTROLOGY was cultivated by the Chal- 
da.'ans, Egyptians, Hindus, Etruscans, Chinese, 
Greeks, and liomans. It was much in vogue in 
Italy and France in the 16th century. It is said 
that Bede, 673-735, was addicted to it; and 
Roger Bacon, 1214-1292. Lord Burleigh is said 
to have calculated the nativity of Elizabeth, and 
she, and other princes, were dupes of Dee, the 
astrologer. It is stated that Lilly was consulted 
by Charles I. respecting his projected escape from 
Carisbrook castle in 1647. Ferguson. Astrological 
almanacs are still published in London. 

Michael Nostradamus, a French physician (1503-1566), 
cultivated astrology, published almanacs, and in 1555, 
"Centuries" and "Presages." His oracles, edited 
liy Mr. Chas. A. Ward, appeared in iSoc. Hi' was 
consulted by Catherine de Medici, Henry II. and 
Charles IX. of Prance. 

The Astrological Society of Great Britain founded 19 
Feb. 1879. 

'Neptune," an astrologer, fined for practising 

29 May, 1886 

ASTRONOMER-ROYAL, see Greenwich. 

ASTRONOMY. The earliest astronomical 
observations were made at Babylon it is said about 
2234 lt.c. The study was much advanced in Chahhva 
under Nabonassar; was known to the Chinese about 



1 100 B.C.; some say many centuries before, see 
Eclipses, Stars, Planets, Comets, Sim, Moon, Jupiter, 
Venus, Saturn, Neptune, Mars, Observatories, §c. 

Lunar eclipses observed at Babylon, and recorded B.C. 
by Ptolemy . . ... about 720 

Spherical form of the earth, and the true cause of 

lunar eclipses, taught by Thales . . about 600 
Further discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the 
doctrine of celestial motions, and believed in the 
plurality of habitable worlds ; died . about 470 
Meton introduces the lunar-solar cycle . . . 433 
Treatises of Aristotle "concerning the heavens," 
and of Autolycus " on the motion of the sphere " 
(earliest extant works on astronomy) . about 350 
Aratus writes a poem on astronomy . . . . 281 

Archimedes observes solstices, &c 212 

Hipparchus, greatest of Greek astronomers, deter- 
mines mean motion of sun and moon ; discovers 

precession of equinoxes, &c 160-125 

The precession of the equinoxes confirmed, and the 
places and distances of the planets discovered, by 

Ptolemy a.d. 139-163 

Astronomy and geography cultivated by the Arabs 

about 760 ; brought into Europe . . about 1200 
Alphonsine tables {which see) composed . about 1253 
Clocks first used in astronomy . . . about 1500 
True doctrine of the motions of the planetary bodies 
revived by Copernicus, founder of modern astro- 
nomy ; his " Revolution of the Heavenly Bodies*' 

published 1543 

Astronomy advanced by Tycho Brahe, who opposed 
the Ptolemaic system and started one of his own, 
in which the sun is supposed to move round the 
earth ... .... about 1582 

Galileo constructs a telescope, 1609 ; and discovers 

Jupiter's satellites, &c 8 Jan. 1610 

True laws of the planetary motions announced by 

Kepler ; 1st and 2nd, 1609 ; 3rd .... 161S 
Various forms of telescopes and other instruments 

used in astronomy invented .... 1608-40 
Cartesian system published by Des Cartes . . . 1637 
The transit of Venus over the sun's disc first ob- 
served by Horrocks . . . .24 Nov. 1630 
Huyghens completes the discovery of Saturn's ring 1654 
Cassini draws his meridian line, after Dante ; see 

Bologna 1655 

The aberration of the light of the fixed stars dis- 
covered by Horrebow 1659 

Gregory invents a reflecting telescope . . . . 1663 

Discoveries of Picard 1669 

Charts of the moon constructed by Schemer, Lan- 

grenus, Hevelius, Riccioli, &c. . about 1670 

Discoveries of Rdmer on the velocity of light, and 
his observation of Jupiter's satellites . . . 1675 

Greenwich Observatory founded ,, 

Motion of the sun round its own axis proved by 

Halley 1676 

Newton's Principia published; and the system, as 

now taught, demonstrated 1687 

Catalogue of the stars made by Flamsteed . . i683 
Cassini's chart of the full moon executed . . . 1602 
Satellites of Saturn, &c, discovered by Cassini . 1701 
Halley predicts the return of the comet (of 1758) . 1705 
Flamsteed's Historia Ccetestis published . . . 1725 
Aberration of the light of the stars discovered and 

explained by Dr. Bradley 1727 

John Harrison produces chronometers for deter- 
mining the longitude, 1735 et stq., and obtains the 

reward 1764 

" Nautical Almanac " first published . . . . 1767 
Celestial inequalities found by La Grange . . 1780 
Uranus and satellites discovered by Hersehel ; see 

GeorgiumSidus 13 March, 1781 

iticaniqut Celeste, by La Place, published . 1796 

Royal Astronomical Society ok London founded, 

1820 ; chartered 1831 

Beer and Madler's map of the moon published. . 1834 
Lord Rosse's telescop instructed . . . 1S28-45 

The planet Neptune [which see) discovered, 23 Sept. 1846 

Bona photographs the moon (see Photography, 
celesKaJ) 1851 

Hansen's table of the moon published at expense of 
the British government, 1857 

Trustees of the rev. Richard Sheepshanks present 
10,000/. stock to Trinity College, Cambridge, for 
promotion of the stmiy of astronomy, meteorology, 
and magnetism . '. . . ' . .2 Dec. 1S58 



ASTROPHYSICS. 



83 



ATHEN^A. 



Spectrum analysis applied in astronomy (see Spec- 
trum) 1861 

Large photograph of the moon by W. de la Rue . 1863 

Koyal Astronomical Society removed from Somer- 
set-house to Burlington-house 1874 

Two satellites of Mars discovered by prof. Asaph 
Hall, at Washington, U.S. . . 11, 18 Aug. 1877 

Astronomical Congress opened at Paris ; arrange- 
ments made for photographing charts of the 
heavens at different observatories 16-26 April, 1887 

Met again, Sept. 1889; April, 1891, 1896, and 1900; 
vol. ii. of the charts begun 1892 ; the work pro- 
gressing slowly, reported 1902 

Mr. G. F. Chambers' " Handbook of Astronomy," 
new edition 1889-90 

Mr. C. H. F. Peters, of Hamilton college observa- 
tory, New York, discovered 48 minor planets and 
several comets ; born in Schleswig, 19 Sept. 1813 ; 
died, 19 July, 1890 ; his son, prof. C. A. F. Peters, 
of the Kbnigsberg observatory, died . 2 Dec. 1894 

British Astronomical association : first meeting 

24 Oct. 1890 

Mr. (after sir) Wm. Huggins, president, at the meet- 
ing of the British Association at Carditf,describes 
the results of the application of spectrum analysis 
and photography to astronomy . . 19 Aug. 1891 

Astronomical Society of France inaugurated 

12 Oct. „ 

Mr. Norman Lockyer announces his theory respect- 
ing the constitution of the heavenly bodies (see 
under Meteors) 17 Nov. ,, 

New star in Auriga (see Milky ivay) . .1 Feb. 1892 

Mr. (aft. sir) Norman Lockyer's "Dawn of Astro- 
nomy," published Feb. 1894 

Mr. John Russell Hind born 1823, died 23 Dec. 
1895 (see Planets and Comets). 

M. Tisserand, director of the Paris observatory, 
born 1845, author of " Traite de Mecanique 
Celeste," died 20 Oct. 1896 

Prof. Hugo Gylden, director of the Stockholm 
observatory, died, aged 55 . -9 Nov. ,, 

Astronomical Congress (17th) at Budapest, end 

Sept. 1898 

Miss Elizabeth Brown, eminent astronomer (dies 

. 5 March, 1899) bequeaths her observatory at 
Farther Burton and i,ooo£. to the British Astro- 
nomical Society. 

"Atlas of Representative Stellar Spectra," by 
sir William and lady Huggins, published (see 
Royal Institution Actonian Prize) . . early 1900 

Large projection of Mars discovered 26 May at 
Haivard observatory, 3.35 a.m. g.m.t. reported 

28 May, 1903 

Dr. Andrew A. Common, f.r.s., eminent astronomer, 
died, aged 62 2 June, ,, 

Enormous sunspot . ... Oct. ,, 

ASTROPHYSICS, the science of applying 
physics and chemistry and other terrestrial sciences 
to the heavenly bodies by means of spectrum 
analysis, photography, &c, developed by sir Wm. 
Huggins from the work of Kirehhoff and Bunsen, 
1861 et seq. 

ASTURIAS (Oviedo, since 1833), N.W. Spain, 
an ancient principality. Here Pelayo collected the 
Gothic fugitives, about 713, founded a new kingdom, 
and by his victories checked Moorish conquest. For 
his successors, see Spain. The heir-apparent of the 
monarchy has borne the title " prince of Asturias " 
since 1388, when it was assumed by Henr3 r , son of 
John I. king of Leon, on his marriage with a de- 
scendant of Peter of Castile. In 1808, the junta of 
Asturias began the organised resistance to the French 
usurpation. 

ASYLUMS, or Privileged Places, at 

first were places of refuge for those who by acci- 
dent or necessity had done things that rendered 
them obnoxious to the law. God commanded the 
Jews to build cities of refuge, 1451 B.C., Numbers 
xxv. — Cadmus is mythically said to have built one 
at Thebes, and .Romulus one at Mount Palatine, 
151 B.C. ; see Sanctuaries ; Metropolitan District. 



ATALANTA (formerly Juno), training-ship, 
left Bermuda on a trial voyage, under eapt. Stirling. 
31 Jan. 1880. On board, 15 officers, and 255 petty 
officers, seamen, marines, and boys; never heard 
of again. Many merchant vessels were wrecked 
during a terrific gale, 12-16 Feb. 1880. See Man- 
sion House Funds. 

ATAVISM (Latin atavus, "an ancestor"), 
the reappearance of an ancestral type in an 
animal or plant ; see also Heredity. Dr. Darwin's 
"Variation under Domestication," pub. 1868. 
F. Galton's "Natural Inheritance," pub. 1889. 

ATCHINOFF INCIDENT, see under 
Russia, 1889 

ATELIERS NATIONAUX (National Work- 
shops), were established by the French provisional 
government in Feb. 1848. They interfered greatly 
with private trade, as about 100,000 workmen threw 
themselves upon the government for labour and 
payment. The breaking-up of the system led to 
the fearful conflicts in June following ; and the. 
system was abolished in July. 

ATHANASIAN CREED. Athanasius, of 
Alexandria, elected bishop, 326. He firmly opposed, 
the doctrines of Alius (who denied Christ's divinity), . 
was several times exiled ; died in 373. 
Lumby, in " History of the Creeds ' (1874), asserts that . 
this creed, beginning " Quicunque vult," was not com- 
posed by Athanasius ; that it is made up of two dis- 
tinct parts, and was originally written in Latin and 
put into its present shape between 813 and 850 ; not - 
connected with Athanasius's name by any trustworthy- 
authority before 809 ; set forth first in Gaul, about 
870 ; gradually extended into Italy, Britain, &c. ; ac- 
cepted by the Greek church about 1200. 
This creed asserts the procession of the Holy Ghost 

from the Father and the Son, see Filiogiie. 
Dr. Waterland's Critical History of this creed, 1723. 
Much agitation against the general use of this creed has . 
arisen in the Church of England among both clergy 
and laity, 1870-73. 
Modifications approved by several bishops were negatived 
by the lower house in convocation (62-7) early in May, . 
1872. The vote was rejected by the bishops, and the 
agitation continued. 
In a letter to the earl of Shaftesbury, 22 July, 1872, the- 
archbishops of Canterbury and York expressed their 
hope of devising a way for rendering the reading of the 
creed during public worship not compulsory. 
Great meeting of laity at St. James's Hall in defence of" 

the creed, 31 Jan. 1873. 
Omission of " damnatory clauses " in the creed at services-. 
in Westminster abbey revives discussion as to its use,.. 
Jan. et seq. 1903. 

ATHEISM (from the Greek a, without,. 
Theos, God, see Psalm xiv. 1). It was professed by- 
Epicurus, Lucretius, and other philosophers. 
Spinoza was the defender of a similar doctrine 
(1632-1677). Lucilio Vanini publicly taught athe- 
ism in France, and was condemned to be burnt at 
Toulouse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of Holstein, 
openly professed atheism, and had upwards of a 
thousand disciples in Germany about 1674; he tra- 
velled to make proselytes, and his followers were 
called Conscienciaries, because they held that there 
is no other deity than conscience. Atheism pre- 
vailed during the French republic, 1794 till 1801 ; 
see Materialism. Bill to prevent Atheists sitting 
in Parliament, read, 7 March, 1882; dropped. 
Mr. Bradlaugh's Oaths bill to relieve Atheists, 
passed, 24 Dec. 1888. See Parliament. 

ATHENJEA were great festivals celebrated at 
Athens in honour of Minerva. One was called 
Panathensea, the other Chalcea ; they are mythi- 
cally said to have been instituted by Erechtheus or 
Orpheus, 1397 or 1495 b.c. ; and revived by Theseus, 

G 2 



ATHENAEUM. 



84 



ATHENS. 



who caused them to be observed by all the Athenians, 
the first every fifth year, 1234 B.C. Plutarch. 

ATHENiEUM, a place at Athens, sacred to 
Minerva, where the poets and philosophers recited 
their compositions. That of Rome, of great beauty, 
was erected by the emperor Adrian, 133. — The 
ATHEN'iEL'M Cnjnof London was formed i6i eb. 1824, 
for the association of persons of scientific and literary 
attainments, and artists, <.:.-.. noblemen and gentle- 
men, patrons of learning, &</.. by the earls of Liver- 
pool and Aberdeen, the marquis of Lansdowne, Dr. 
T. Young, Moore, Davy, Scott, Mackintosh, Fara- 
day, Croker, Chantrey, Lawrence, and seven future 
premiers. The clubhouse was erected in 1829-30 on 
the site of the late Carlton palace ; it is of Grecian 
architecture, and the frieze is an exact copy of 
the Panathenaic procession which formed the frieze 
of the Parthenon. — The Liverpool Athenaeum was 
opened 1 Jan. 1799. — At Manchester, Bristol, and 
many other places, buildings under this name, and 
for a like purpose, have been founded. — The 
Athenmum, a weekly literary and scientific journal 
in relation to literature, science, and the fine arts, 
originated by James Silk Buckingham, first appeared 
in 1828. John Francis, publisher, 1831-82, died 6 
April, 1882. Rev. Henry Stebbing, first editor, died 
22 Sept. 1883, aged 84. 'The Athenceum became the 
property of Mr. C. W. Dilke in 1830, and speedily 
became an influential critical journal ; a review of 
the literature in thirteen countries, appeared, 2 
July, i8q8. Prof. Almeric Ramsey, an admirable 
reviewer, born, 31 Jan. 1825, died mid- April, 1899. 
See Trials, 1875. 

ATHENE Y (Gal way). Near here the Irish 
were totally defeated, and a gallant young chief, 
Feidlim O'Connor, slain 10 Aug. 13 16. 

ATHENS, the capital of ancient Attica, and of 
modern Greece. The first sovereign mentioned is 
Ogyges, who reigned in Boeotia, and was master of 
Attica, then called Ionia. Tradition states that in 
his reign (about 1764 B.C.) a deluge laid waste the 
country, which so remained till the arrival of the 
Egyptian Cecrops and a colony, by whom the land 
was re-peopled, and twelve cities founded, 1556 B.C. 
The city, said to have been first called Ceeropia, 
was afterwards named Athens in honour of Minerva 
(Athene), her worship having been introduced by 
Erechtheus, 1383 B.C. Athens was ruled by seven- 
teen successive kings (487 years), by thirteen 
perpetual archons (316 years), seven decennial ar- 
chons (70 years), and lastly by annual archons (760 
years). It attained great power, and no other city 
has bad, in a short space of time, so great a number 
of illustrious citizens. The ancients called Athens 
Astu, the city, by eminence, and one of the ej es oJ 
Greece; see Greece. The early history is mythical 
and the dates conjectural. 
Population of modern Athens, 1871,48,107; 1879, 

63.374: 1889, 114,355; 1896, 179,755 (witli Pireus). 
The MS. irxi of il"' recovered work of Aristotle on 

the I institution of Athens, was published by t lie 

British Museum Jan. 1891 

[See Aristoi lian Philosophy.] 

Arrival of Cecrops [1558 Hal* . [433 Clinton] b.o. 

Usher 1556 

The Areopagus established 1507 

Deucalion arrives in Attica 1502 

Reign ••! \ in 1 ■lii.t \ < -ii .... [ I49 9 //.] i',() 7 
The Panathensean Games . . . | [481 11. 1 1493 

Erichthonius reigns 1487 

Erechtheus teaches husbandry itSj 

B!leu8inian mysteries introdu I by Eumolpus . . 1356 

Erechtheus killed in battle with the Eleusinians . . 1347 
Egeus invades Attica, and ascends the throne . . 1283 
Hi 1 lirows bimsell and is drowned : 

hence the name oi the A ... 



Theseus, his son, succeeds, and reigns 30 years . 1235 
He collects his subjects into one city, and names it 

Athens ......... 1234 

Reign of Mnestheus, 1205; ofDemophoon . . . 1182 

Court of Ephetes established 1179 

The Prianepsse instituted 117S 

Melanthus conquers Xuthus in single combat and is 

chosen king 1128 

Reign of Codxus, his son, the last king . . . 1092 
In a battle with the Heraclidse, Codrus is killed : he 

had resolved to perish ; the oracle having declared 

that the victory should be with the side whose 

leader was killed 1070 

Royalty abolished ; — Athens governed by archons, 

Medon the first (1070 H.) 1044 

Alcmeon, last perpetual archon, dies . . . . 753 

Cherops, first decennial archon .... 752 

Hippomenes deposed for his cruelty . . . . 713 

Erixias, 7th and last decennial archon, dies . . 684 

Creon, first annual archon 683 

Draco, the 12th annual archon, publishes his laws B.C. 

said " to have been written in blood " . . . 621 

Solon supersedes them. by his excellent code . . 594 
Pisistratus, the " tyrant," seizes the supreme 

power, 560 ; flight of Solon, 559. Pisistratus 

establishes his government, 537 ; collects a public 

library, 531 ; dies 527 

First tragedy acted at Athens, on a waggon, by 

Thespis 535 

Hipparehus assassinated by Harmodius and Aristo- 

geiton 514 

The law of ostracism established ; Hippias and the 

Pisistratidse banished 510 

Lemnos taken by Miltiades 504 

The Persian invaders defeated at Marathon . . 490 

Death of Miltiades 489 

Aristides, surnamed the Just, banished . . . 483 

Athens taken by the Persian Xerxes . . . 480 

Burnt to the ground by Mardonius . . . . 479 

Rebuilt and fortified by Themistocles ; Piraeus built 478 

Themistocles banished 471 

Cimon, son of Miltiades, overruns all Thrace . . 469 
Pericles takes part in public affairs, 469 ; he and 

Cimon adorn Athens, 464 ; the latter banished . 461 

Athens begins to tyrannise over Greece . . . 459 

The long wall built 457 

Literature, philosophy, and art flourish . . . 448 

The first sacred (or social) war ; (which see) . . ,, 
Tohnidas conducts an expedition into Boeotia, and 

is defeated and killed near Corouea . . . . 447 
The thirty years' truce between the Athenians and 

Lacedaemonians 445 

Herodotus said to have read his history in the 

council at Athens ,, 

Pericles obtains the government .... 444 

Pericles subdues Samos 440 

Satirical comedies prohibited at Athens . . . ,, 
Alliance between Athens and Corcyra, then at war 

with Corinth, 433 ; leads to the Peloponnesian war 

(lasted -7 years) ; it began 431 

A dreadful plague, which had ravaged Ethiopia, 
Libya. Egypt, and Persia, extends to Athens, and 
continues for live years ...... 430 

Death of Pericles of the plague 429 

Disastrous expedition against Sieily : death of the 
commanders, Demosthenes and Nicias ; Athenian 
fleet destroyed bj Gylippus .... 4 I 5-4 I 3 
Government of the " four hundred " . . . . 411 
Alcibiades defeats the Lacedaemonians at Cyzicus; 
(irii irk see) 410 

Alcibiades, accused Of aspiring to sovereign power. 

banished 407 

Athens victorious in a sea light at Arginnsa- . . 406 

Athenian fleet destroyed b\ Lysander at .Kgospo- 

tanii 405 

He besieges Athens by land and sea : its walls are 

destroyed, and it capitulates, and the Pelopon- 
nesian war terminates 404 

Rule of the thirty tyrants, who are overthrown by 

Thrasybulus 403 

Socrates (aged 70) put to death 399 

the Corinthian war begins 395 

Conon rebuilds the long walls, and fortifies the 

Piraeus 393 

Plato founds the academy 388 

War against Sparta 378 

The Cacedajmonian Heel defeated at Naxus by 
Chabrias ......... 376 



ATHENS. 



85 



ATMOSPHEEIC RAILWAYS. 



General peace 371 

Philip, king of Macedon, opposes the Athenians ; 

see Macedon 359 

Second sacred (or social) war .... 357-355 

First Philippic of Demosthenes 352 

Peace with Macedon 346 

Battle of Cheronsea (which see) ; the Athenians and 

Thebans defeated by Philip . . .7 Aug. 338 
Philip assassinated by Pausanias .... 336 
Athens submits to Alexander, who spares the orators 335 

Death 01 Alexander 323. 

The Lamian war ; the Athenians and others rise 
against Macedon, 323 ; defeated at Cranon ; 

Demosthenes poisons himself 322 

Athens surrenders to Cassander, who governs well, 

318; execution of Phocion 317 

Demetrius Poliorcetes expels Demetrius Phalereus, 
and restores the Athenian democracy, 307 ; the 
latter takes the chair of philosophy . ... 296 
A league between Athens, Sparta, and Egypt . B.C. 277 
Athens taken by Antigonus Gonatas, king of Mace- 
don, 268 ; restored by Aratus 256 

The Athenians join the Achsean league . . . 229 
They join the jEtolians against Macedon, and send 

for assistance to Rome 215 

A Roman fleet arrives at Athens . . . .211 
The Romans proclaim liberty at Athens . . . 196 

Subjugation of Greece 144 

The Athenians implore assistance against the 
Romans from Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose 
general, Archelaus, makes himself master of 

Athens 88 

Athens besieged by Sylla, the Roman general ; it is 

reduced to surrender by famine .... 86 
Cicero studies at Athens, 79 ; and Horace . . . 42 
The Athenians desert Ponrpey, to follow the inte- 
rests of Csesar 47 

Athens visited by the apostle Paul . . a.d. 52 
Many temples, &c. , erected by Hadrian . . 122-135 
Athens taken by Alaric, and spared from slaughter 396 
Acquired by Otho de la Roche, and afterwards 

made a duchy 1205 

Subjected by the Turks 1444 

By Mahomet II 1456 

By the Venetians 1466 

Restored to the Turks 1479 

Athens suffered much during the War of Indepen- 
dence, 1821-7. Taken by the Turks (see Greece) 

17 May, 1827 
Becomes the capital of the kingdom of modernGreece, 1833 
British School of Archaeology, much promoted 
by Sir C. T. Newton, 18S3 ; (first director, F. C. 

Penrose), opened Nov. 1886 

The Parthenon and other buildings injured by 
earthquake (xuhich see) . . 20 April, et seq. 1894 
See Greece. 
The restoration of the ancient stadium in marble by 

M. Averoff; see Olympic Games . . . . 1896 
Destructive thunderstorm, slight shocks of earth- 
quake, overflow of the Kephisos Ilissos, houses 
and bridges wrecked, great destruction at the 
Pirfeus, serious loss of life ; (relief fund opened 

by the king) 26 Nov. ,, 

Student riots in Athens, military called out, 27 
Jan. 1897 ; the university held by the students, 
blockaded by troops, conflicts with the police 
29 Jan. ; intervention of the professors, revolt 

ended 30 Jan. 1897 

Mdme. Syngros presents over quarter million 
sterling for improvement of the water supply, 

March, 1899 
Government scheme to provide Athens with water 
from Lake Stymphalus in the Morea, reported, 

June, ,, 
M. G. Averoff, benefactor, bequeaths large sums to 

public works and charities, dies . 27 July, ,, 
The Piraeus and part of city flooded . .17 Nov. ,, 
A statue of Mr. Gladstone unveiled by the king, 

7 July, 1900 
Opposition to the translation of the Gospel into 
modern Greek, published under the queen's direc- 
tion in 1900 ; fatal rioting, the metropolitan and 
the prefect of police resign, 20, 2- Nov ; the uni- 
versity held by the students, 24 Nov. ; evacuated, 

quiet restored 26 Nov. 1901 

French school of archaeology : new building opened, 

fetes, &c .2 April, 1902 

International Exhibition at Athens opened, 3 June, 1903 



ATHLETIC SPOETS -ere first organised 
by the Greeks. On the plain of Olympia at the 
great natona. festival held every fourth j ear in 
honour of Zeus, athletes trained to the highes'. degree 
of physical per.ection contested in foot, horse and 
chariot races, wr.s ling, boxing and kindred sports, 
receiving for prizes garlands of wild olives, which 
also conferred various civic honours and privileges. 
Similar in lheir character were the Isthmian, 
Nemean fnd Pythian games. The consul, M. 
Fulvius, in 186 B.C., introduced athletic sports in 
Rome, but these speedily degenerated into gladia- 
torial contests. Among Old Eng ish sports were 
running, jumping, archery, qua>terstaff, singlestick, 
and throw mg the bar, in which paBtime Henry VIII. 
(1509-4;) was an adept. The Cotswold games 
were ctl brated in the 16th and 17th centuries, 
as weri also the Cumberland and Westmoreland 
sports. In more recent lim s amateur athletic 
sports may be said to have begun ' heir revival at 1 he 
great athletic meeting of the civil service sports in 
1864, and the univers'ty sports fr.m the meeting 
at Christchurch, Oxford, in 1861, wh u n our king, 
.hen prince of Wales, was presen . Numerous 
clubs, such as ihe Lo:d n athletic club, the 
national cyclists' dub, the B'aekheath harriers, the 
amateur athletic association, the national football 
association, the Rugby union, the M.C.C. represent 
the interests of the \ ario s branches of athletic 
sports, which continue yearly to increase in popu- 
larity. See under 1 arious healings, as Cricket, 
Football, &c. 

ATHLONE, Roscommon, Ireland, was burnt 
during the civil war in 1641. After the battle of 
the Boyne, colonel R. Grace held Athlone for 
James II. against a besieging army, but was killed 
when it was taken by assault by Ginckel, 30 June, 
1691 ; see Aughrim. 

ATHOS. A mountain in Koumelia, termed 
Monte Santo from its numerous monasteries whose 
libraries contain many MSS. especially of the old 
and new testaments, of great antiquity. Professor 
Lambros is preparing a catalogue, 1889. 
By a great fire in the forests, many monasteries and 
hermitages were destroyed, and about 12 monks 
or hermits perished, reported about . 2 Aug. 1890 
A monastery was burnt about . . 14 June, 1891 

ATLANTA, Georgia, population, 1890, 
65,533; 1900,89,872. See United States, 1864. 

ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH, see Electric 
Telegraph, under Electricity . 

ATLANTIC UNION formed f .r the purpose 
of uniting by ties of personal friendship the various 
English-speaking peoples ; committee : sir Walter 
Besant (hon. treasurer), died 9 June, 1901 ; Dr. 
(after sir) Conan Doyle, lord Coleridge, and many 
others ; Feb. 1900. 

ATLAS, see Charts and Mercator. 

ATMOLYSIS, a method of separating the 
constituent gases of a compound gas (such as at- 
mospheric air) by causing it to pass through a vessel 
of porous material (such as graphite) ; first made 
known in Aug. 1863, by the discoverer, the late 
professor T. Graham, F.R.S., master of the mint. 

ATMOSPHERE, see Air. 

ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAYS. The idea 

of producing motion by atmospheric pressure was 
conceived by Papin, the French engineer, about 
1680. Experiments were made on a line of rail, 
laid down across Wormwood Scrubs, London, be- 
tween Shepherd's Bush and the Great Western 



ATOMIC THEORY. 



86 



ATTORNEY-GENERAL. 



railroad, to test the efficacy of atmospheric tubes, 
the working of the air-pump, and speed of carriages 
upon this new principle on railroads in June, 1840, 
and then tried for a short time on a line between 
Croydon and London, 1845. Atmospheric pressure 
was also tried and abandoned, in 1848, on the South 
Devon line. An atmospheric railway was com- 
menced between Dalkey and Killiney, in the vicinity 
of Dublin, in Sept. 1843; opened 29 March, 1844; 
discontinued in 1855. A similar railway was pro- 
posed to be laid down in the streets of London by Mr. 
T. W . liammell, in 1857. Mr. ltammell's Pneumatic 
Kail way was put in action successfully at the Ciwstal 
Palace on 27 Aug. 1864, and following days. An 
act for a pneumatic railway between the Waterloo 
railway station and Whitehall was passed in July, 
1865. Atmospheric pressure was proposed for a 
submarine railway from Dover to Calais, in 1869; see 
Pneumatic Despatch. 

ATOMIC THEORY, in chemistry, deals with 
the indivisible particles of all substances. The 
somewhat incoherent labours of his predecessors 
(such as Wenzel, in 1777) were reduced by John 
Dalton to four laws of combining proportion, which 
have received the name of "Atomic Theory." _ His 
"Chemical Philosophy," containing the exposition 
of his views, appeared in 1808. Dr. C. Daubeny's 
work on the Atomic Theory was published in 1850. 
In his standard of Atomic weights Dalton takes 
hydrogen as 1. Bcrzelius, who commenced his elabo- 
irate researches on the subject in 1848, adopts oxygen 
:as IOO. The former standard is used in this country, 
the latter on the continent. The theory is ac- 
cepted by some, and rejected by other chemists. In 
1855 Hinrichs propounded a new hypothetical 
■science, Atomechanics, in which pantogen, composed 
of panatoms, is regarded as the primary chemical 
principle. " A New View of the Origin of Dalton's 
Atomic Theory," by Sir H. E. Eoscoe and Arthur 
Harden, published April, 1896. 

ATOMS. Democritus (about 400 B.C.) held 
that the only existing things are innumerable in- 
destructible atoms, varying in form, and combined 
in obedience to mechanical laws, and that the soul 
consists of free, smooth, round atoms like those of 
fire ; and that nothing happens by chance. His 
philosophy was adopted by Epicurus (about 306 
B.C.), whose doctrines are luminously expounded 
hy Lucretius in his great poem, " Be Serum Na- 
turu" (On the Nature of Things), 57 B.C. The 
atomic philosophy, in a modified form, was recog- 
nised by Gassendi, who died 1655 a.d. Sir Win. 
Thomson's discourse "On the Size of Atoms,'' at 
the ltnyal Institution, 2 Feb. 1883, is printed in 
the " Proceedings," vol. x. See Times, 13 June, 1883. 

ATREBATES, a Belgic people, subdued by 
Caesar, 57 B.C. ; see Artois. 

ATTAINDER, ACTS OF, whereby a person 
not only forfeited his land, but his blood was at- 
tainted, have been numerous. Two witnesses in 
cases of high treason are necessary where corruption 
of blood is incurred, unless (he party accused shall 
confess, or stand mute, 7&8 Wili.IIL'1694-5. Black 
stone. The attainder of lord Wm. Russell, who was 
beheaded in Lincoln' s-inn- fields, 21 July, 1683, was 
reversed under William, in 1OS9. The rolls and re 
cords of the arts of attainder passed in the reign <>f 
James II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, 2 Oct. 
[695. Sir John Fenwick was the /ast person 
executed by act of attainder, 28 Jan. 1697. 
Amongst the last, acts reversed was the attain! 
of the children of lord Kdward Fitzgt-rald (who was 
implicated in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798J, 



I July, 1819. In 1814 and 1833 the severity of at- 
tainders was mitigated. Several attainders reversed 
about 1827, and one in 1853 (the earl of Perth). 

ATTICA, see Athens. 

ATTILA, suniamed the "Scourge of God," and 
thus distinguished for his conquests and his crimes, 
having ravaged the eastern empire from 445 to 450, 
when he made peace with Theodosius. He invaded 
the western empire, 450, and was defeated by Aetius 
at Chalons, 451 ; he then retired into Pannonia, 
where he died through the bursting of a blood vessel 
on his nuptials with Ildico, a beautiful virgin, 453. 

ATTORNEY (from tour, turn), a person 
appointed to act for another An attorney- at- law 
was a properly qualified Jaw agent practising in 
the common law courts ; persons conducting suits 
in the courts of chancery be.ng termed solicitors. 
The number in Edward III.'s reign was under 400 
for the whole kingdom. In the 32nd of Henry VI., 
1454, a law reduced the practitioners in Norfolk, 
Norwich, and Suffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and 
restricted their increase. The number of attorneys 
practising in the United Kingdom was said to be 
13,824 (.1872). Bv the Judicatuie Act, 1873, which 
came in force, 1 Nov. 1875, all solicitors, attorneys 
and proctors are now called "solicitors of the 
supreme court." 

ATTORNEY - GENERAL, the chief law 
officer of the crown, is appointed by letters patent. 
He acts for the crown in all proceedings at law 
and equity affecting the royal prerogative; and 
prosecutes for the crown in criminal and in revenue 
cases, and grants Hats fir writs of error. His sanc- 
tion is required before proceedings can be taken 
under the Public Health Act, Corrupt Practices 
Act. He may, in his discretion, prosecute for 
any misdemeanour, and can stay proceedings in 
any indictment without consent of prosecutor. 
In" his absence his du/ies are performed by the 
" solicitor-general." The first attorney-general 
was William Bonneville, 1277. 

1660. Sir Jeffrey Palmer. 

1670. Sir Heneage Finch, afterwards earl of Nottingham. 
1673. Sir Francis North, kut. , afterwards lord Guilford. 
1675. Sir William .Jones. 
1679. Sir Cresvel Levinz, or Levinge, knt. 
1681. Sir Robert Sawyer, knt. 
1687. Sir Thomas Powis, knt. 
1689. Henry Pollexfen, esq. 
„ Sir George Trefoy, knt: 

1692. Sir John Summers, knt., afterwards lord Somers. 

1693. Edward Ward, esq. 

1695. Sir Thomas Trevor, knt., afterwards lord Trevor. 
1701. Edward Northcy. esq. 

1707. Sir Simon Barcourt, knt. 

1708. Sir James Montagu, lent. 

1710. Sir Simon Harcourt, again; aft. lord Harcourt. 

,, Sir Edward Northey, Knt. 
1718. Nicholas Lechmere, esq., aft. lord Lechmere. 
1720. Sir Robert Raymond, aft. lord Raymond. 
1724. Sir Philip Yorke, ail. earl of Hardwicke. 
1734. Sir John Willes, knt. 
1737. Sir Dudley Ryder, knt. 
1 1754. lion. William Murray, aft. earl of Mansfield. 

1756. sir Robert Henley, kut.. aft. earl of Nortliington. 

1757. Sir Charles Trail, kut .. afterwards lord Camden. 
t? 62. Hon Charles Yorke. 

170,. Sir Fletcher Norton, knt.. all. lord G rant ley. 

1 105 lion. Charles Yorke. again ; afterwards lord Mordeii 

and lord chancellor; see Chancellors. 
1766. William de Grey, afterwards lord Walsingham. 
1771. Edward Thurlow, esq., afterwards lord Thurlow. 
1778. Alex. Wedderburn, aft lord Loughborough. 
1780. .James Wallace, esq. 

1782. Lloyd Kenyon, esq. 

1783. James Wallace, esq, 

'.. John Lee, esq. 

Lloyd Kenyon, again ; afterwards lord Kenyon. 



ATTRACTION. 



87 



AUERSTADT. 



1784. 
1788. 
1793- 

E799- 



€813. 
1817. 
1819. 
1824. 

11826. 
E827. 
1828. 
1829. 
E830. 



e8 3S . 



3844. 
1845. 



"59- 
e86i. 



1S66. 



E867. 
1868, 



E874. 
1875. 



1895. 
1900, 



Sir Richard P. Arden, aft. lord Alvanley. 
Sir Archibald Macdonald. 

Sir John Scott, afterwards lord Eldon. 

Sir J. Mitford, afterwards lord Bedesdale. 

Sir Edward Law, aft. lord Ellenborough, 14 Feb. 

Hon. Spencer Percival (murdered by Bellinghain, 

11 May, 1812), 15 April. 
Sir Arthur Pigott, 12 Feb. 

Sir Vicary Gibbs, afterwards chief justice of the 
common pleas, 7 April. 

Sir Thomas Plumer, afterwards first vice-chancellor 
of England, 26 June. 

Sir William Garrow, 4- May. 

Sir Samuel Shepherd, 7 May. 

Sir Robert Gitford, aft. lord Gifford, 24 July. 

Sir John Singleton Copley, afterwards lord Lynd- 
hurst, 9 Jan. 

Sir Charles Wetherell, 20 Sept. 

Sir James Scarlett, 27 April. 

Sir Charles Wetherell, again, 19 Feb. 

Sir J as. Scarlett, again : aft. lord Abinger, 29 June. 

SirThos. Penman, aft. lord Denman, 26 Nov. 

Sir William Home, 26 Nov. 

Sir John Campbell, 1 March. 
Sir Frederick Pollock, 17 Dec. 

Sir John Campbell, again, afterwards lord Camp- 
bell (and, 1859, lord chancellor), 30 April. 

Sir Thomas Wilde, 3 July. 

Sir F. Pollock, again ; aft. chief baron, 6 Sept. 

Sir William W. Follett, 13 April. 

Sir Frederick Thesiger, 4 July. 

Sir Thomas Wilde, again ; afterwards lord Truro, 
and lord chancellor, 6 July. 

Sir John Jervis, afterwards chief justice of the 
common pleas, 13 July. 

Sir John Romilly, aft. master of the rolls, 11 July. 

Sir Alex. James Edmund Cockburn, 28 March. 

Sir Frederick Thesiger, again ; afterwards lord 
Chelmsford, and lord chancellor, 2 March. 

Sir Alexander Cockburn, again ; aft. chief justice 
of common pleas and queen's bench, 28 Deo. 

Sir Richard Bethell, 15 Nov. 

Sir Fitzroy Kelly, 27 Feb., aft. chief baron, i860 ; 
d. 1880. 

Sir R. Bethell (since lord Westbury, and lord chan- 
cellor), 18 June. 

Sir William Atherton, 27 July. 

Sir Roundell Palmer, aft. lord Selborne, and lord 
chancellor, 2 Oct. 

Sir Hugh M. Cairns, aft. lord Cairns, and lord chan- 
cellor, 13 July. 

Sir John Rolt (made justice of appeal), 28 Oct. 

Sir John Karslake, 1 July. 

Sir Robert Porrett Collier, 12 Dec. 

Sir John Duke Coleridge, aft. lord Coleridge, and 
lord chief justice, 10 Nov. 

Sir Henry James, Nov. 

Sir John Karslake, Feb. 

Sir Richard Baggallay, 22 April. 

Sir John Holker, 25 Nov. 

Sir Henry James, 13 May. 

Sir Richard E. Webster, June. 

Sir Charles Russell, about 6 Feb. 

Sir Richard E. Webster, 26 July. 

Sir Charles Russell, 18 Aug. ; see Appeal, 1894. 

Sir John Rigby, 1 May (lord justice of appeal, 
Oct. 1894). 

Sir Robert Threshie Reid, 19 Oct. 

Sir Richard E. Webster, 9 July. 

Sir Robert Bannatyne Finlay, 12 Nov. 



ATTRACTION, described by Copernicus, 
about 1520, as an appetence or appetite which the 
Creator impressed upon all parts of matter ; by 
Keplerasa corporeal affection tending to union, 1605. 
In 1687, sir I. Newton published his " Principia," 
containing his important researches on this subject. 
See Gravitation, Magnetism, and Electricity. 

ATWOOD'S MACHINE, for proving the 
laws of accelerated motion by the falling of weights, 
invented by George Atwood ; described 1784: he 
died 11 July, 1807. 

AUBAINE, a right of the French kings, which 
existed from the beginning of the monarchy, where- 
by they claimed the property of every stranger who 



died in their countiy, without having been na- 
turalised, was abolished by the national assembly 
in 1790-91; re-established by Napoleon in 1804, 
and finally annulled 14 July, 1819. 

AUBEROCHE, Guienne, S. France. The 
earl of Derby defeated the French, besieging this 
place, 19 Aug. 1344. 

AUCKLAND, capital of North Island (New 
Zealand), was founde 1 Sept. 1840. The population 
of the district, in 1857, was estimated at 15,000 
Europeans, and 35,000 natives; 1901, 67,226 (city 
and suburbs) . The seat of government was removed 
to Wellington on Cook's Strait, Dec. 1864. Visit 
of the duke of Cornwall and York (prince of 
Wales), 10 July, 1901. 

AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romans, 
mentioned by Cicero, Livy, and Petronius Arbiter. 
The first in Britain was about 1700, by Elisha Yale, 
a governor of Fort George, now Madras, in the 
East Indies, who thus sold the goods he had brought 
home. Auction and sales' tax began, 1779. Various 
acts of parliament have regulated auctions and im- 
posed duties, in some eases as high as five per cent. 
By 8 Vict. c. 15 (1845), the duties were repealed, 
and a charge imposed "on the licence to be taken 
out by all auctioneers in the United Kingdom, of 
10^." In 1858 there were 4358 licences granted, 
producing 43,580^.; 90,774^. id 1902. The abuses 
at auctions, termed "knock-outs," caused by com- 
binations of brokers and others, excited much 
attention in Sept. 1866. An act regulating sales 
of land by auction was passed 15 July, 1867, Certain 
sales are now exempt from being conducted by a 
licensed auctioneer, such as goods and chattels under 
a distress for rent, and sales under the provisions of 
the Small Debts' acts for Scotland and Ireland. 
See the very important Sale of Goods Act. 

AUDIANI, followers of Audseus of Mesopo- 
tamia, who, having been expelled from the Syrian 
church on account of his severely reproving the 
vices of the clergy, about 338, formed a sect and 
became its bishop. Ho was banished to Scythia, 
where he is said to have made many converts. His 
followers celebrated Easter at the time of the Jewish 
passover, attributed the human figure to the Deity, 
and had other peculiar tenets. 

AUDIOMETER (from audio, I hear), an in- 
strument for the measurement of the faculty of 
hearing ; invented by professor Hughes (died 
22 Jan. 1900). It consists of a battery of two Le- 
clanche's cells connected with a simple microphone 
and telephone ; described to the Royal Society, 
15 May, 1879. 

AUDIPHONE, an instrument to assist the 
partially deaf, invented by Mr. R. G. Rhodes of 
Chicago, and modified by M. Colladon of Geneva, 
in 1880. It consists of a thin sheet of hard ebonite 
rubber or card-board. This should be placed 
against the teeth, through which and other bones 
the vibrations are conveyed to the auditory nerve. 

AUDIT-OFFICE, Somerset House. Com- 
missioners for auditing the public accounts were 
appointed in 1785, and many statutes regulating 
their duties have since been enacted. 

AUDLEY'S REBELLION, see Rebellions, 
1497- 

AUERSTADT (Prussia). Here on 14 Oct. 1806, 
the French, under Davoust, signally defeated the 
Prussians, under Blucher, see Jena. 



AUGHRIM. 



AURORA BOEEALES. 



AUGHRIM, near Athlone, in Ireland, where 
on 12 July, 1691, a battle was fought between the 
Irish, headed by the French general St. Ruth, and 
the English under general Ginckel. The former 
were defeated and lost 7000 men; the latter lost 
only 600 killed and 960 wounded. St. Ruth was 
slain. This engagement proved decisively fatal to 
the interest of James II., and Ginckel was created 
earl of Athlone. 

AUGMENTATION of Poor Livings' 

OFFICE, established in 1704. 5597 clerical livings, 
not exceeding 50^. per annum, were found by the 
commissioners under the act of Anne capable of 
augmentation, by means of the bounty then 
established. 

AUGMENTATIONS COURT, established 
in 1535 by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 27, in relation to cap. 28 
same session, which gave the king the property of 
all monasteries having 200/. a year. The court was 
abolished by Mary, 1553, and restored by Elizabeth, 
1558. 

AUGSBURG (Bavaria), originally a colony 
settled by Augustus, about 12 B.C. ; became a free 
city, and nourished during the middle ages. Here 
many important diets of the empire have been held. 
In a.d. 952, a council confirmed the order for the 
celibacy of the priesthood. Augsburg has suffered 
much by war, having been frequently taken by 
siege, — in 788, 1 703, 1 704, and, last, by the French, 
10 Oct. 1805, who restored it to Bavaria in March, 
1806. Population, 1890, 75,523 ; 1900, 89,109. 
Augsburg Diet, summoned by the emperor Charles 
V., to settle the religious disputes of Germany, 
met 20 June, and separated . . . Nov. 1530 
Confession of Augsburg, compiled by Melanchthon, 
Luther and others, signed by the Protestant 
princes, presented to the emperor Charles V. , and 
read to the diet .... 25 June, 1530 
Interim of Augsbtirg, a document issued by 
Charles V. : an attempt to reconcile the Catholics 
and Protestants : (it was fruitless and was with- 
drawn) read 15 May, 1548 

" Peace of Religion " signed at Augsburg, 25 Sept. 1555 
League of Augsburg , for maintenance of the treaties 
of Minister, Nimeguen : a treaty between Holland 
and other powers against France, signed 9 July, 1686 

AUGURY. Three augurs, at Rome, with ves- 
tals and several orders of the priesthood, were 
formally constituted by Numu, about 710 B.C. The 
number increased, and was fifteen at the time of 
Sylla, 81. The college of augurs was abolished by 
Theodosius about a.d. 390. 

AUGUST, the sixth month of the Roman 
year (originally called Sextilis, or the sixth from 
March), by a decree of the senate received its pre- 
sent name in honour of Augustus Caesar, in the 
year 8 B.C., because in this month he was created 
consul, had thrice triumphed in Home, added Egypt 
to the Roman empire, and made an end of the 
civil wars. He added one day to the month, making 
it 31 days. The appearance of shooting stars on 
the 10th of Aug. was observed iu the middle ages, 
when they were termed "St. Lawrence's tears." 
Their periodicity was noticed DJ Mr. Forster early 
in the present century. Sec under Fr/n/rr, 10 
August, 1792. 

AUGUSTAN ERA began 14 Feb. 27 B.C., 

or 727 years alter the foundation of Home. 

AUGUSTIN or AUSTIN PsIABB, a religious 
order, which ascribes its origin to St. AuguBtin, 

bishop of Hipiio, who died .| -;o. They first appeared 
about the I Ith century, and tli der was consti- 
tuted by pope Alexander IV., 125(1. "> 1 ' role re- 
quires poverty, humility, and chastity. Martin 



Luther was an Augustin monk. The Augustins- 
held the doctrine of free grace, and were rivals of 
the Dominicans. The order appeared in England 
soon after the conquest, and had 32 houses at the 
suppression, 1536. One of their churches, at Austin 
Friars, London, erected 1354, and since the Re- 
formation used by Dutch protestants, was partially 
destroyed by fire, 22 Nov. 1862. It was restored, 
and reopened, 1 Oct. 1865. A religious house of 
the order, dedicated to St. Monica, mother of 
Augustin, was founded in Hoxton-square. London, 
[864. Letters and documents of the Dutch Church 
of London, 1462-1874, edited by J. H. Hessels; 
completed, 1897. 

AULIC COUNCIL, a sovereign court in 
Germany, established by the emperor Maximilian I., 
being one of the two courts, the first called the 
Imperial Chamber civil and criminal, instituted at 
Worms, 1495, and afterwards held at Spires and 
Wetzler, and the other the Aulic council at Vienna, 
1506. These courts having concurrent jurisdiction, 
were instituted for appeals in particular eases from 
the courts of the Germanic states. 

AURAY (N. W. France). Here, on 29 Sept. 
1364, the English, under John Chandos, defeated 
the French and captured their leader Du Gueselin. 
Charles of Blois, made duke of Brittany by the 
king of France, was slain, and a peace was made in 
April, 1365. 

AURICULAR CONFESSION. The con- 
fession of sin at the ear (Latin, auris) of the priest 
was an early practice. It is incorrectly stated to have 
been forbidden in the 4th century by Nectarius, arch- 
bishop of Constantinople. It was enjoined by the 
council of Lateran in 1215, and by thp council of 
Trent in 1551 . It was one of the six articles of 
faith enacted by our Henry VIII. in 1539, but was 
abolished in England at the Reformation. Its re- 
vival here has been attempted by the extreme or 
Ritualistic section of the high church party. 
The rev. Alfred Poole, a curate of St. Barnabas, Knights- 
bridge, was suspended by his bishop from his office for 
practising auricular confession in June, 1858, and the 
suspension was confirmed in Jan. 1859. Much excite- 
ment was created by a similar attempt by the rev. 
Temple West at Boyne Hill, in Sept. 1858. 
In May, 1873, 483 clergymen of the Church of England 
presented a petition to convocation for the education, 
selection, and licensing of duly qualified confessors, in 
accordance with the provisions of canon taw. Strongly 
disapproved of by the bishops. 
Letter from the bishop of London asserting that confes- 
sion should be to God ; that to the minister optional, 
21 July, 1871. 
Archdeacon I lenison (in a letter) declares war against all 

opposing auricular confession, 22 Aug. 1873. 
96 peers semi an address against auricular confession to 

the archbishop of Canterbury about Aug. 1877. 
For refusal of confessors to give evidence, see 

In ln„, I . March, 1887 

See Holy Cross. 

AURIFLAMMAorOlUFLAMME.thenational 
banner mentioned 111 French history, belong- 
ing to tile abbey of St. Denis, and suspended over 
the tomb of that saint. Louis lc Gros was the first 
king who took this standard from the abbey to 
battle, 1124. HiJuduII. It appeared for the last 
time at Agincourt, :; Oct. 1415. Tillet. Others 
say at Montlhory, id July, 1465. 

AURORA. FRIGATE, sailed from Britain in 
1771, to the East Indies, and was never again 
heard of. — Ai'itoiiA, daily papal newspaper, ap- 
peared at Home I June, 1880. 

AURORA BOREALES and AUS- 

TEALES (Northern and Southern Polar Lights), 



AUSCULTATION. 



89 



AUSTRALASIA. 



though rarely seen in central Europe, are frequent 
in the arctic and antarctic regions. In March, 1716, 
an aurora borealis extended from the west of Ire- 
land to the confines of Russia. The whole horizon 
lat. 57 N. was overspread with continuous haze of 
a dismal red during a whole night, Nov. 1765. — 
Mr. Foster, the companion of captain Cook, saw 
the aurora in lat. 58 S. The aurora is now attri- 
buted to the passage of electric light through the 
rarefied air of the polar regions. In August and 
September, 1859 (and about 24 Oct. 1870), when 
brilliant aurorse were very frequent, the electric 
telegraph wires were seriously affected, and com- 
munications interrupted. Aurorse were seen at Rome 
and Basel, and also in Australia. A magnificent 
aurora appeared in New York and other states, 
evening of 13 Feb. 1892. A Danish expedition 
under lieut. Le Com starts for N. Finland to study 
the aurora, Dec. iqoo. 

AUSCULTATION, see Stethoscope. 

AUSTERLITZ, a town in Moravia, where a 
battle was fought between the French and the 
allied Austrian and Russian armies, 2 Dec. 1805. 
Three emperors commanded : Alexander of Russia, 
Francis of Austria, and Napoleon of France. . The 
killed and wounded exceeded 30,000 on the side of 
the allies, who lost forty standards, 150 pieces of 
cannon, and thousands of prisoners. The decisive 
victor}^ of the French led to the treaty of Presburg, 
signed 26 Dec. 1805 ; see Presburg. 

AUSTIN FRIARS, see Augustin Friars. 

AUSTRALASIA, the fifth great division of 
the world. This name, originally given it by De 
Brosses, includes Australia, Van Diemen's Land 
(or Tasmania), New Guinea, New Zealand, New 
Rritain. New Caledonia, &c, mostly discovered 
within two centuries. Accidental discoveries were 
made by the Spaniards as early as 1526 ; but the 
first accurate knowledge of the^e southern lands is 
due to the Dutch, who in 1606 explored a part of 
the coast of Papua or New Guinea. Torres, a 
Spaniard, passed through the straits which now bear 
his name, between that island and Australia, and 
gave the first correct report of the latter, 1606. 
The Dutch continued their discoveries. Grant in 
1800, and Flinders again (1801-5) completed the 
survey. M l Culloch. Estimated population of the 
Australasian colonies in 1891, 3,932,000; 1897, 
4,410,124; census 1901,4,544,434. See Australia, 
Gold, &c. 

Gen. Eclwardes having recommended the federal 
action of all the Australian troops for colonial 
defence, Mr. D. Gillies, premier of Victoria, com- 
municates his approval to sir H. Parkes, premier 
of New South Wales, who in his reply considers 
that the federal council act does not authorize 
this combined action, and strongly recommends 
the establishment of an Australian Federation 
with a governor-general, with a constitution like 
that of the Dominion of Canada, and desires a 
meeting of delegates from each colony to consider 

the matter 30 Oct. 1889 

Conference of delegates from all the Australian 
colonies at Melbourne to consider a scheme of 
Australasian federation and federal defence ; Mr. 
Duncan Gillies elected chief representative 6 Feb. 1890 
Sir H. Parkes' motion for the union of the colonies 
under one government unanimously adopted 

13 Feb. „ 
Loyal address to the queen voted, and the meeting 

of a national convention in 1891 agreed to 14 Feb. „ 
Mr. Goschen's plan for uniform colonial postage 
(2^.) accepted by all the colonies, reported May- 
June, 1890 ; to begin . . . . 1 Jan. 1801 
The federal council meets at Hobart ; Victoria, 



Queensland, and Tasmania represented; an ad- 
dress to the queen respecting trade voted, 

20-24 Jan. 

National Australasian Federation Convention, chief 
delegates : New South Wales, sir Henry Parkes ; 
Victoria, hon. James Munro ; Queensland, sir 
Samuel Griffith ; South Australia, hon. Thomas 
Playford ; Tasmania, hon. P. O. Fysh ; New 
Zealand, sir George Grey; Western Australia, 
hon. John Forrest; sir Henry Parkes elected 
president ; sir Samuel Griffith, vice-president ; 
meeting in the legislative chamber, Sydney, 11 
a.m. At the evening banquet, principal toast, 
" One people, one destiny " . . .2 March, 

The title, the " Commonwealth of Australia," 
adopted by the convention (26 to 13) 1 April, 

The federal constitution adopted, 9 April, to be 
accepted by the several colonies and confirmed by 
the British parliament. The Victoria parliament 
requires the title to be changed from " Common- 
wealth " to " Federation" . . . 2i July, 

The Commonwealth bill passed in South Australia, 
about 1 Nov. 

Committee to consider Australasian federation 
appointed, lord Brassey chairman, Mr. Arnold- 
Forster, lord Lamington, lord Playfair, lord 
Reay, sir Charles Tupper, and others, reported 

autumn, 

The federal council meets at Hobart, 26 Jan. ; 
the commonwealth bill approved ; closed, 3 Feb. 

The Australasian federation league meets at Mel- 
bourne ; chairman, sir John Madden, chief justice 
of Victoria ; federation of the states approved, 

23 Jan. 

A conference of premiers at Hobart, 29 Jan. ; 
resolution adopted ; a convention of 10 delegates 
from each colony proposed ; charged to frame a 
federal constitution to be submitted to the queen 
after approval by the colonies . . 30 Jan. 

Australasian federal council opened at Hobart by 
vise. Gormanston, governor ot Tasmania . 31 Jan. 

The Australasian federation enabling act approved 
6 Feb., 1895; amendment bill passed at Sydney, 
reported 27 Nov. 

All the Australian governments telegraph their 
hearty approval to lord Salisbury of the action of 
his government with regard to the Transvaal 
(which see) and promise support, 12 Jan., 1896; 
thanks returned ; announced . . .14 Jan. 

Conference of Australian premiers at Sydney, reso- 
lutions for federation, federal defence, restric- 
tions on immigration, <fcc, adopted, 4, 5, March ; 
the scheme suspended through the opposition of 
Queensland (which see) Oct. 

Australian federal council meets at Hobart, sir 
John Forrest president . . 26 Jan. et seq. 

Conference of premiers at Hobart . . 2-4 Feb. 

Australian federal convention meets at Adelaide, 
Mr. C. C. Kingston (S. Australia) elected presi- 
dent ; delay allowed to Queensland . 22 March 

New constitution adopted ; constitutional, finance, 
and judiciary committees appointed, 31 March ; 
draft constitution bill presented by Mr. Barton, 
12 April ; carried 23 April 

Federal convention meets at Sydney, 2-24 Sept., 
1897 ; final session at .Melbourne, 20 Jan. ; the 
federatiun (commonwealth) bill, adopted, 16 Mar. 

Premiers' conferences on federation, in Melbourne, 
result in agreement . . 28 Jan.-2 Feb. 

Address to the queen from all legislatures, except 
Western Australia, praying for the adoption of 
the commonwealth bill and the grant of a federal 
constitution Sept. 

Federal delegates received by the queen at Windsor, 

27 March, 

Premiers' conference on proposed amendments to 
the federation bill at Sydney, 24 Jan. and 19 April 

Blue-book on federation published. See Times. 

12 May, 

Commonwealth bill introduced into the Commons, 

14 May, 

Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act, 
uniting the 6 Australasian colonies (New Zealand 
excepted), royal assent given . . 9 July, 

Commonwealth bill adopted by a referendum, in 
W. Australia, federation completed, end July, 

Lord Hopetoun appointed gov. -gen. , 14 July ; wel- 
comed at Sydney . . . -is Dec - 



1893 
1895 



1897 



1897 



AUSTRALASIA. 



90 



AUSTRALIA. 



First federal cabinet formed ; Mr. Edmund Barton, 
premier (G.C.M.G. 26 June, 1902) and minister for 
■external affairs ; Mr. Deakin,att. -general ; sirW. 
Lyne, home ; sir Geo. Turner, treasurer ; Mr. 
Kingston, commerce ; Mr. Dickson, defence (knt. 
1 Jan., died 10 Jan. 1901) ; sir John Forrest, de- 
fence ; Mr. J. Drake, postmaster-gen., 

30 Dec-Jan. 

Lord Hopetoun installed governor-gen. of the 
commonwealth at Sydney ; message from the 
queen, expressing her " earnest wish that under 
Divine Providence the commonwealth may en- 
sure the increased prosperity and well-being of 
her loyal and beloved subjects in Australia," 

1 Jan. 
Commonwealth celebrations in Sydney very suc- 
cessful 1-8 Jan. 

Universal mourning on the death of the queen, 22 
Jan. ; business suspended, memorial service held, 

2 Feb. 
Elections for the first commonwealth parliament, 

29, 30 March 

The duke and duchess of Cornwall warmly wel- 
comed at Melbourne .... 6 May, 

The first Parliament consisting of the (king) re- 
presented by the governor-general lord Hope- 
toun, a senate or upper-house, composed of 6 
senators from each of the 6 states (elected for 6 
years), and a house of representatives (more 
varied) composed of 75 members, total in, 
opened in state by the duke and duchess of 
Cornwall, in the exhibition buildingat Melbourne ; 
king's message read amid great rejoicings, over 
15,000 present 9 May, 

-Sir H. Baker elected president of the senate and 
Mr. F. W. Holder speaker of the house of repre- 
sentatives ; the houses then adjourned, 9 May, 

The federal parliament meets, Melbourne, 21 May, 

The duke of Cornwall reviews 15,000 sailors and 
soldiers ; presents many commonwealth honours ; 
takes his degree at the university, 10, 11 May ; 
lays a memorial stone, at Ballarat, to those who 
fell in S. Africa, 13 May ; opens the new 
Alexandra-avenue, 17 May ; reviews 4,000 troops 
at Lytton Plain, Brisbane, and lays the founda- 
tion stone for cathedral, 21, 22 May ; visits a 
squatting station, near Cambogga, 24 May ; 
arrives at Sydney, reviews the troops, 27, 28 
May ; present at a naval review and sham fight, 
lays the first stone of the Queen Victoria Memorial 
Pavilion, and is madeLL.D. at the university, 
30 May ; presents S. African war medals, 1 
June; visits an industrial exhibition, 3 June; 
1 hey leave for New Zealand (which see), 6 June ; 
welcomed at Hobart, Tasmania, 3 July ; lays the 
stone for a soldiers' memorial, 4 July, and the 
first stone of the Post Office, 6 July ; they arrive 
at Adelaide, 9 July ; stone laid for the Maternity 
Hospital, reviews troops, 13 July; leave, 15 
July ; ceremonial progress through Perth, memo- 
rial stone to soldiers killed in 8. African war 
laid, 22, 23 July; they leave Fremantle for S. 
Africa 26 July, 

sir George Turner's budget, high tariff bill, new 
duties, partly fixed anil partly ad valorem, on tea, 
sugar, alcohol, ami tobacco, introduced, 8 Oct. 

immigration restriction liill read, third lime, in 
the house or representatives, 9 Oct. ; read second 
time in the senate .... 15 Nov. 

Mr. Reid's motion of want of confident II the 

tariff proposals rejpcted, after 27 hours debate, 
39 — 25, 1 Nov. ; midnight sittings on Hie tariff 
bill, 33 hours 27 Nov. 

Total revenue tor tin- year, 29,337,064/. ; expendi- 
ture, 30,019,395/. .... ;i Dec. 

Loyal and patriotic s| ;h by Mr. Edmund Barton 

(G.C.M.G. 1903); resolution condemning tin' 
baseless charges against Great Britain ami her 
brave army, affirming readiness to give all re- 
quisite aid to the mother country, adopted by the 
Federal house of representatives . . 14 Jan. 

Many pat riot ic demons! rat ions in Sydnej ami else- 
where, Jan. ; mass meeting at Melbourne, con- 
fidence expressed in Hie imperial govornnvnt's 
policy in s. Africa 17 Feb. 

I.onl Hopetoun's resignation accepted . Maj 

1 lonference of state premiers at Melbourne, 

I'. \|:l\ 



Protracted drought in Australia . . May 1902 

State capitals illuminated to celebrate the king's 
recovery 10 July ,, 

Lord Hopetoun resigns, mid May ; created marquis 
of Linlithgow, 26 June ; sends farewell letters 
and thanks to the Australian people ; leaves 
Brisbane, 16 July ; succeeded by lord Tennyson 
for 1902-3 17 July, „ 

Budget, probable deficit for 1902-03 from the 
drought, &c„ 650,000/ Aug. ,, 

Estimated loss of 40,000,000 sheep and lambs 
through the drought, reported . . 26 Aug. ,, 

Federal parliament agrees to allow the gov. -gen. 
5,500/. per aim., for the maintenance of the 
Government Houses in Sydney and Melbourne, 
reported 4 Sept. ,, 

Day of humiliation and prayer for rain . 7 Sept. ,, 

General rainfall reported . . 10, 11 Sept. ,, 

Commonwealth tariff bill passed by the senate, 

9 Sept. ,, 

Commonwealth revenue, 28,206 469/.; expenditure, 
29,240,334/ 3-1 Dec. ,, 

Conference of premiers, Sydney . . 15 April, 1903 

Coronation honours distributed . . 17 April, ,, 

Resignation of Mr. Kingston, home minister, suc- 
ceeded by Sir Wm. Lyne, re - arrangement in 
ministry mid-Aug. ,, 

Lord Northcote appointed to succeed lord Tenny- 
son in Dec. announced .... mid Aug. ,, 

Senate passed the Naval Agreement bill, 20,000/. 
yearly for 10 years to Imperial navy . 25 Aug. ,, 

Defeat of Government on an amendment to the 
Conciliation bill 9 Sept. ,, 

Sir E. Barton announces bill dropped for the 
session 10 Sept. ,, 

Tumut, N, S. Wales, selected by Committee to 
consider site for Federal capital of Australia, 
reported, 20 July ; rejected by senate . 15 Oct. ,, 

AUSTRALASIAN ASSOCIATION, . for 

the advancement of science, was founded mainly 
by the exertions of prof. Liversidge, 1886, held its 
first meeting in Sydney, Aug. 1888; the 2nd at 
Melbourne, 7 Jan. 1890, president baron von 
Mueller, hon. sec. prof. \V. B. Edwin Spencer; 
3rd Christchurch, New Zealand, 15 Jan. 1891 ; 
4th Hobart, 7 Jan. 1892 ; 5th Adelaide, 25 Sept. 
1893; Brisbane, 1894; Sydney, 6 Jan., 1S9S ; 
Melbourne, 9 Jan. 1900; Hobart, 8 Jan. 1902. 

AUSTRALIA (formerly New Holland), the 

largest island and smallest continent ; estimated 
area about 2,954,417 square miles, including 
five provinces — Xew South Wales, Victoria (formerly 
Port Phillip), South Australia, West Australia (or 
Swan Biver), and Queensland (all which see). 
Population, with Tasmania and New Zealand, in 
iSjr, about 1,958,650; 1874, 2,334,210; 1878, 
2,705,700; 1882,2,936,409; 1888,3^546,725; 1896, 
4,323,171; 1901,4,550,651; of the commonweal tb, 
3<77'So56, Nov. IQOI. 
Mr. I!. II. Major, in 1872, alleged that Australia was 

known to the French prior to .... 1531 
Alleged discovery by Manoel Godiuho de Eredia, a 

Portuguese 1601 

The Dutch also discover Australia . . March, 1606 
The coast surveyed by Dutch navigators ; north, by 

Zeachen, 1618; west, by Edels, 1619 ; south, by 

Nuyts. 1627 ; north, by I'asm.iu .... 1627 
Tasinan coasts S. Australia, and Van Piemen's 

Land 1642-4 

Terra Australia (Western Australia) named New 

Holland by order of the States-General . . 1665 
Wm. Dampier explores the \v. ami x. W. coasts, 

16S4-90 
William Dampier lands in Australia . . Jan. 1686 
Explorations of Willis and Carteret . . . 1763-6 
Capfc Cook, sir Joseph Banks, and others, land at 

Botany Hay, and name the country " New South 

Wiles'' 2 S April, 1770 

Exploration of Furneaux . . . ■ . . . 1773 
Governor Arthur Phillip founds Sydney near Port 

Jackson, with 1030 persons . 26 Jan. 1788 

[The 82nd anniversary of this event was kept with 

much lesth ity, .•() Jan. 1 



AUSTEALIA. 



91 



AUSTEALIA. 



Great distress in consequence of the loss of the 

store-ship "Guardian," captain Riou . . . 1790 
Voyages of Bligh .... . . 1789-92 

First church erected Aug. 1793 

Government gazette first printed . . . . 1795 

Bass's straits discovered by Bass and Flinders . 1798 

First brick church built 1802 

Colony of Van Diemen's land (now Tasmania) estab- 
lished 1803 

Grant, i8co, and Flinders survey the coasts of Aus- 
tralia 1801-5 

Insurrection of Irish convicts quelled . . . 1804 
Governor Bligh for his tyranny deposed and sent 

home 1808 

Superseded by governor Macquarie . . . . 1809 
Expeditions into the interior by Wentworth, Law- 
son, Bloxland, 1813 ; Oxley, &e. . . 1817-1823 
Population, 29,783 (three-fourths convicts) . . 1821 
West Australia formed into a province . . . 1829 

Legislative council established ,, 

Start's expeditions into South Australia . . 1828 31 
South Australia erected into a province . Aug. 1834 

Sir T. Mitchell's expeditions into E. Australia . 1831-6 
First Boman Catholic bishop (Polding) arrives, 

Sept. 1835 
Port Phillip (now Victoria) colonised . . Nov. ,, 
First Church of England bishop of Australia 

(Broughton) arrives . ... June, 1836 

Colony of South Australia founded . . . Dec. ,, 
Eyre's expedition overland from Adelaide to King 

George's Sound 1836-7 

Melbourne founded Nov. 1837 

Capt. Grey explores N. W. Australia . . . 1837-9 
Count Strzelecki explored New South Wales and 
Tasmania, 1838-43 ; discovered gold-fields in Bath- 
urst, Wellington, <fcc. (kept secret by sir George 

Gipps) 1839 

Suspension of transportation ,, 

Strzelecki explores the Australian Alps ; discovers 

Gipps' land ; Eyre explores west Australia . . 1840 
Great exertions of Mrs. Chisholm ; establishment 

of " Home for Female Emigrants " . . . 1841-6 
Census — 87,200 males ; 43,700 females . • . . 1841 
Very numerous insolvencies .... 1841-2 
Incorporation of city of Sydney .... 1842 
Landor and Lefroy explore Western Australia . . 1843 
Start proceeds from South Australia to the middle 

of the continent 1845 

Census (including Port Phillip) — 114,700 males; 
74,800 females .... ... 1846 

Kennedy's 1st expedition 13 Aug. 1847 ; killed 

13 Nov. 1848 
Dr. Leichhardt's expedition leaves More ton bay, 
Aug. 1844 ; arrives at Port Essington, 17 Dec. 
1845 : starts again, not heard of after . ■> April, „ 
Great agitation against transportation, which had 

been revived by earl Grey 1849 

Port Phillip erected into a separate province as 

Victoria . . . 1850 

Gold discovered by Mr. Hargreaves, &c* . . 1851 

* Gold Discovery. — Mr. Edward Hargreaves went to 
California in search of gold, and was struck with the 
similarity between the rocks and strata of California and 
those of Ins own district of Conobolas, some thirty miles 
west of Bathurst. On his return home, he examined the 
soil, and after one or two months' digging, found a 
quantity of gold, 12 Feb. 1851. He applied to the colonial 
government for a reward, which he readily obtained, 
with an appointment as commissioner of crown lands. 
The excitement became intense throughout the colony of 
New South Wales, rapidly spread to that of Victoria and 
other places ; and in the first week of July, 1851, an 
aboriginal inhabitant, formerly attached to the Welling- 
ton mission, and then in the service of Dr. Kerr, of Wal- 
lawa, discovered, whiie tending his sheep, a mass of gold 
among a heap of quartz. Three blocks of quartz (from 
two to three hundred weight), found in the Murroo 
Creek, fifty miles to the north of Bathurst, contained 
112 lb. of pure gold, valued at 4000L The " Victoria 
nugget," a magnificent mass of virgin gold, weighing 340 
ounces, was brought to England from the Bendigo dig- 
gings ; and a piece of pure gold of 106 lb. weight was also 
found. From the gold fields of Mount Alexander and 
Ballarat, in the district of Victoria, up to Oct. 1852, there 
were found 2,532,422 ounces, or 105 tons 10 cwt. of gold ; 
and the gold exported up to the same date represented 
3,863,477/. sterling. In Nov. 1856, the "James Baiues " 



Census — males, 106,000 ; females, 81,000 (exclusive 
of Victoria, 80,000) 1851 

Mints established March, 1853 

Transportation ceased ,, 

A. C. Gregory, accompanied by Ferdinand von 
Mueller as botanist (see Victoria, Oct., 1896), ex- 
plored the north and interior . . . 1848, 1855-8 

Death of archdeacon Cowper (aged 80), after about 
fifty years' residence July, 1858 

Queensland made a province . . .4 Dec. 1859 

J. M'Douall Stuart's expeditions . . . 1858-62 

Expedition into the interior under Mr. Landells 
organised Aug. i860 

Robert O'Hara Burke, Wm. John Wills, and others, 
start from Melbourne . . . .20 Aug. ,, 

Burke, Wills, and two others, cross the Australian 
continent to the gulf of Carpentaria ; all perish 
on their retain, except John King, who arrives 
at Melbourne Nov. 1861 

Stuart, M'Kinlay, and Landsborough cross Aus- 
tralia from sea to sea 1861-2 

Remains of Burke and Wills recovered ; public 
funeral 21 Jan. 1863 

Strong and general resistance throughout Australia 
to the reception of British convicts in West Aus- 
tralia about June, 1864 

Cessation of transportation to Australia in three 
years announced amid much rejoicing . 26 Jan. 1865 

Morgan, a desperate bushranger and murderer, sur- 
rounded and shot April, ,, 

Boundary disputes between New South Wales and 
Victoria, summer 1864 ; settled amicably 

19 April, ,, 

Total population of Australia, exclusive of natives, 
1,298,667 Jan. 1866 

Royal Society of New South Wales (originally the 
Philosophical Society of Australia, founded 1821), 
established May, ,, 

Meeting of ministers from the Australian colonies 
at Melbourne to arrange postal communication 
with Europe March, 1867 

Exploration of South Australia ; capt. Cadell dis- 
covers mouth of the river Roper, and fine pas- 
toral country, lat. 14° S Nov. ,, 

Despatch from lord Kimberley objecting to the 
complex tariffs between the Australian colonies, 

13 July, 1871 

Meeting of delegates from New South Wales, Vic- 
toria, South Australia, and Tasmania ; they object 
to imperial interference with their mutual fiscal 
arrangements 27 Sept. ,, 

Synod of the church of Australia and Tasmania 
held at Sydney 25 Oct. 1872 

Mr. Ernest Morrison walks across the continent 
from the Gulf of Carpentaria to Melbourne in 120 
days, starting .... about 18 Dec. 1882 

Completion of the direct railway between Mel- 
bourne and Sydney June, 1883 

Gradual formation of a defensive Australian fleet 
and army ,, 

The Intercolonial conference of delegates on pro- 
posed annexation of New Guinea, at Sydney, re- 
commended, 6 Dec. ; and the formation of an 
Australasian federal council 7 Dec; closes 8 Dec. ,, 

Canon Barry consecrated bishop of Sydney and 
metropolitan of Australia . . . 1 Jan. 1884 

Mr. Charles Winnicke's exploring party mapped 
40,000 miles of unknown country, announced Jan. , , 

Victoria, Tasmania, and Queensland accept the 
scheme of federation, Aug. ; opposed by New 
South Wales .... about 1 Nov. ,, 

Lord Derby's dispatch deferring consideration of 
the federal scheme 11 Dec. ,, 

Several states protest against the German annexa- 
tions in New Guinea, &c Dec. ,, 

British flag*hoisted on Woodlark and other islands 

Jan. 1885 

The Australian colonies proffer military contingents 
for the Soudan ; thanked by the queen . Feb. ,, 

and " Lightning " brought gold from Melbourne valued 
at i,2oo,oooZ. The "Welcome nugget" weighed 2019I 
ounces ; value, 8376Z. 10s. iorf. ; found at Baker's Hill, 
Ballarat, 11 June, 1858. Between May, 1851, and May, 
t86i, gold to the value of 96,000.000;. had been brought 
to England from New South Wales and Victoria. Mr. 
Hargreaves died about 2 Nov. 1891. 



AUSTEALIA. 



92 



AUSTEIA. 



Federal council of Australasia act passed 14 Aug. 1885 

Federation of the Australasian Colonies, except 
New South Wales and New Zealand, completed 
9 Dec. 1885. The formal opening of the council 
took place at Hobart, 25 Jan. 1886. The council 
met at Hobart on 16-19 J au - I S88 ; again 29 Jan. - 
4 Feb 1889 

Australasian Conference requests the British g ivern- 
ment to treat with China for restriction of 
Chinese immigration, but recommends immediate 

local action 14-16 June, 1888 

See Imperial Defence. 

Mr. Ernest Favenc's " History of Australian Ex- 
ploration from 1788 to 1888," published . „ 

Irish home rule delegates (Mr. Dillon, sir Thomas 
Esmond, and Mr. Deasy, M.P.'s), coolly received 
or opposed in Australia, Tasmania and New Zea- 
land April et seq. 1889 

The Australian colonies contribute about 31,000?. 
to the dock labourers of London, see Strikes 

Sept.-Dec. ,, 

Australian warships launched at Newcastle-on- 
Tyne; Pelorus, 25 Nov. 1889, Persia . 5 Feb. 1890 

Memorial of Mr. William Bede Dalley, Australian 
statesman (1831—88), erected in the crypt of St. 
Paul's, London, unveiled . . .17 July, ,, 

Formation of the National Association (of Austra- 
lia), proposed in Melbourne . . 3 July, 1891 

The earl of Kintore, governor of South Australia, 
and party, travel overland from Adelaide (26 Feb. 
et seq.) to Brisbane, and thence by boat to Port 
Darwin in the extreme north, arriving 31 March, 
after inspecting the town, &c., he commence.! 
his journey south (about 2,125 miles), 9 April, 
reaching Adelaide . . -23 May, ,, 

The auxiliary squadron visits all the colonies, begin- 
ning with Queensland . . . Aug. el seq. ,, 

Mr. David Lindsay, commander of the exploring 
expedition in N. and Central Australia, fitted out 
by sir Thomas Elder, arrives at Esperance bay, 
14 Oct. 1891 ; members resign; reported 13 Jan.. 
and the expedition is suspended, reported 

14 March, 1892 

Twelve Australian banks stop payment, see New 
South Wales, Queensland, and Victoria, reported 
17 May, 1893 ; conference of colonial premiers at 
Melbourne ; a common action adopted . 27 May, 1893 

The Australian Federation conference opened at 
Sydney 31 July, ,, 

The Horn scientific expedition to Central Australia, 
May, 1894 ; returned in Aug., report issued Dec. 1896 

Diamond Jubilee celebrations throughout Aus- 
tralia 20-22 June, et seq. 1897 

Intense heat, averaging 107° in the shade, in Vic- 
toria, S. Australia, and New South Wales, many 
bush fires raging, 26 Dec, et seq., 1897; loss of 
life and many townships, &c, destroyed; re- 
ported 13 Jan. 1898 

Church congress at Ballarat . . mid Nov. ,, 

Federal demonstration at Melbourne, on the anni- 
versary of the foundation of Australia, 25 Jan. 1899 

Australian naval conference in favour of a naval 
reserve, &c, at Melbourne . , . Aug. ,, 

Loyal support of the Imperial government in the 
S. African war ; contingents sent; see Colonies, 
Oct. ; offers accepted . 16 Dec. 1899 — Feb. 1901 

Gold output for the year, i6,ooo,oooi. . end Dec. ,, 
For Federation see Australasia, 1889, et seq. 

GOVERNORS. 

Captain Arthur Phillip 1788 

Captain Hunter 1795 

Captain Philip G. King 1800 

Captain William Hligh 1806 

Colon. 'i Lachlan Macquarie (ahle and successful 

administration) 1809 

General sir Thomas Brisbane 1821 

sir Richard Bourke 1831 

Sir G ge Gipps 1838 

Sir Charles Fitzroy, goveriwi general of all the Aus- 
tralian colonics, with a certain jurisdiction over 

the lieutenant-governors of Van Oilmen's I, ami. 

Victoria, and South and Western Australia . . 1S46 

Sir William T. Denison 1S54 

Sir John Young, of New South Wales ..illy . . i860 
Sue New Smith Wales. 



Acts for the government of Australia, 10 Geo. IV. 

c. 22, 14 May (1829), 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 68, 13 Aug. 

(1836), 13 & 14 Vict. c. 59, 5 Aug. (1850). Act for 

regulating the sale of waste lands in the Austra- 

an colonies, 5 & 6 Vict. c. 36, 22 June (1842). 

AUSTRASIA, (Esterreich (Eastern Kingdom), 
also called Metz, a French kingdom which lasted 
from the 6th to the 8th century. It began with the 
division of the territories of Clovis by his sons, 511, 
and ended by Carloman beconing a monk and sur- 
rendering his power to his brother Pepin, who thus 
became sole king of France, 747. 

AUSTRIA, a Hamburg company's steam-ship, 
sailed from Southampton to New York 4 Sept. 1858, 
with 528 persons on board. On 13 Sept. in lat. 
45 N., long. 41 30' W., it caught tire through the 
carelessness of some one in burning some tar to 
fumigate the steerage. Only 67 persons were saved 
— upwards of 60 by the Maurice, a French barque; 
the rest by a Norwegian barque. A heartrending 
account was given in the Times, 11 Oct. 1858, by 
Mr. Charles Brews, an English survivor. 

AUSTRIA, (Esterreich (Eastern Kingdom), 
anciently Noricum and part of Pannonia, was an- 
nexed to the Roman empire about 33 ; was overrun 
by the Huns, Avars, &c, during the 5th and 6th 
centuries, and taken from them by Charlemagne, 
791-796. He divided the government of the country, 
establishing margraves of Eastern Bavaria and 
Austria. Louis the German, son of Louis le Debon- 
naire, about 817, subjugated Radbod, margrave of 
Austria ; but in 883 the descendants of the latter 
raised a civil war in Bavaria against the emperor 
Charles the Fat, and eventually the margraves o f 
Austria were declared immediate princes of the 
empire. In 1 156 the margraviate was made an 
hereditary duchy by the emperor Frederic I. ; and 
in 1453 it. was raised to an archduchy by the emperor 
Frederic III. Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, elected 
emperor of Germany in 1273, acquired Austria in 
1278; and from 1493 to 1804 his descendants were 
emperors. On 11 Aug. 1804, the emperor Francis II. 
renounced the title of tmperor of Rome and king of 
Germany (popularly termed emperor of Ger- 
many), and became hereditary emperor of Austria. 
The condition of Austria is now greatly improving 
under the enlightened rule of the present emperor. 
The political constitution of the empire is based 
upon — 1. The pragmatic sanction of Charles VI., 
[734, which declares the indivisibility of the empire 
and rules the order of succession. 2. The pragmatic 
sanction of Francis II., I Aug. 1S04. when he became 
emperor of Austria only. 3. The diploma of Francis 
Joseph, 20 Oct. 18O0, whereby he imparted legisla- 
tive power to the provincial state< and the council 
of the empire (Reichsrath). 4. The law of 26 Feb. 
1861, on the national representation. Self-govern- 
ment was granted to Hungary, 17 Feb. 1867. Each 
country has its parliament, and a controlling body 
termed the Delegations, consisting of 120 members, 
half elected by Austria and half by Hungary, was 
also established in 18O7. I'lie empire was ordered 
to be named henceforth the Austro- Hungarian 
monarchy, or Austria- Hungary, by decree, 14 Nov. 
1 868. On n) Oct. [889, the army was ordered to 
be styled '"Imperial and Royal.'* Population of 
the empire* in Oct. 1857, 35,018,988; reduced 

" The empire is now divided into two parts, separated 
by the river l.cithe. The Cis Leithan section comprises 
14 provincial diets : Galicia, Bohemia, Silesia, Moravia, 
lower and upper Austria. Styria, tin- Tyrol and Vorarl- 
berg, Salzburg, Carinthia, Carniola, Trieste, and Istria, 

Dalniatia, and llie liukoviua. The Trans-l.cithan section 

comprises Hungary. Transylvania. Croatia. Slavonia, and 
the city of Flume. 



AUSTRIA. 



93 



AUSTRIA. 



to 32,530,000 by the loss of Venetia, &c, in 
1866 (about 16,000,000 Slavs of different dialects). 
Population, Austria and other Ois-Leithan pro- 
vinces, 20,396,580 (31 Dec. 1869) ; Hungary and 
Trans-Leithan provinces, 15,509,455; the empire, 
in 1880, 37,882,712; in 1890. 41,345,329; 1900, 
47,013,835; 1894, revenue (Austria), 52,910,000/.; 
expenditure,52, 740,000/.; 1902, revenue, 71,675,00/.; 
expenditure, 71,020,00.,/. 

Frederic II. , the last male of the house of Bamberg, 
killed in battle with the Hungarians . 15 June, 1246 

Disputed succession : the emperor Frederic II. se- 
questered the provinces, appointing Otto, count 
of Eberstein, governor in the name of the em- 
peror ; they are seized by Ladislaus, margrave of 
Moravia, in right of his wife, Frederic's niece, 
Gertrude : he died childless 1247 

Herman, margrave of Baden, marries Gertrude, and 
holds-the provinces till his death . . . . 1250 

Premislas Ottocar, of Bohemia, acquires the pro- 
vinces ......... 1254 

Compelled to cede Styriato Hungary, he makes war 
and recovers it, in consequence of a great victory 1260 

He inherits Carinthia, 1263 ; refuses to become em- 
peror of Germany, 1272 ; and to render homage to 
Rodolph of Hapsburg, elected emperor . . . 1273 

War against Ottocar as a rebel : he is compelled to 
cede Austria, Carinthia, and Styria to Rodolph . 1274 

The war renewed : Ottocar perishes in the battle of 
Marchfeld 26 Aug. 1278 

The emperor Rodolph establishes the duchy of 
Austria, &c 27 Dec. 1282 

Albert I. assassinated by his nephew while attempt- 
ing to enslave the Swiss . . .1 May, 1308 

Successful revolt of the Swiss .... 1307-9 

They totally defeat the Austrians under duke Leo- 
pold, at Morgarten . . . . 16 Nov. 131 5 

The Tyrol acquired 1363 

The duke Leopold imposes a toll on the Swiss ; 
which tliey resist with violence : he makes war 
on them, and is defeated and slain at Sempach 

July, 1386 

Duke Albert V. obtains Bohemia and Hungary, and 
is elected emperor of Germany 1437 

The emperor Frederic III. , as head of the house of 
Hapsburg, creates the archduchy of Austria with 
sovereign power 6 Jan. 1453 

Austria divided between him and his relatives, 
1457 ; war ensues between them till . . . . 1463 

The Low countries accrue to Austria by the mar- 
riage of Maximilian with Mary, the heiress of 
Burgundy 1477 

Also Spain, by the marriage of Philip I. of Austria, 
with the heiress of Arragon and Castile . . 1496 

Bohemia and Hungary united to Austria under 
Ferdinand 1 1526 

Austria harassed by Turkish invasions . . 1529-45 

Charles V., reigning over Germany, Austria, Bo- 
hemia, Hungary, Spain, the Netherlands, and 
their dependencies, abdicates (see Spain) . . 1556 

The destructive 30 years' war . . . 1618-48 

War of Spanish succession 1701-14 

Mantua ceded to the emperor ... 3 Jan. 1708 

By treaty of Utrecht he obtains part of the duchy 
of Milan ... . . 11 April, 1713 

By treaty of Rastadt he acquires the Netherlands . 1714 

Naples, &c. , added to his dominions . 15 Nov. 1715 

Further additions on the east (Temeswar, &c.) by 
the peace of Passarowitz . . . . . 1718 

Naples and Sicily given up to Spain . . . 1735 
Death of Charles VI., the last sovereign of the male 
line of the house of Hapsburg ; his daughter, 
Maria Theresa, becomes queen of Hungary 

20 Oct. 1740 

Silesian wars 1740-2 ; 1744-5 

Maria Theresa is attacked by Prussia, France, Ba- 
varia, andSaxony; but supported by Great Britain 1741 
Francis, duke of Lorraine, who had married Maria 

Theresa in 1736, elected emperor . . . . 1745 
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle : Parma, Milan, &c. ceded 

to Spain ... 1:748 

Seven years' war ; Silesia ceded to Prussia . . 1745-63 
Galicia, &c. , acquired from Poland .... 1772 
War with France (see Battles) .... 1792-7 



By the treaty of Campo Formio, the emperor gives 
up Lombardy (which see) and obtains Venice 

15 Oct. 

Treaty of Luneville (more losses) .... 

Francis II., emperor of Germany, becomes Francisl. 
of Austria : declared hereditary emperor of Austria 

ii Aug. 

His declaration against France . . .5 Aug. 

Capitulation of his army at Ulm . . 20 Oct. 

War : Napoleon enters Vienna . . 14 Nov. 

Austrians and Russians defeated at Austerlitz, 

2 Dec. 

By treaty of Presburg, Austria loses Venice and the 
Tyrol rJan. 

Vienna evacuated by the French . . .12 Jan. 

Dissolution of the Germanic confederation, and 
formal abdication of the emperor . .6 Aug. 

The French again take Vienna . . .13 May, 

But restore it at the peace ... 24 Oct. 

Napoleon marries the archduchess Maria Louisa, 
the daughter of the emperor . . .1 April, 

Congress at Vienna . . . . 2 Oct. 

Treaty of Vienna 25 Feb. 

Italian provinces restored with additions — Lom- 
bardo-Venetian kingdom established, 7 April.] 

Francis I. dies ; Ferdinand I. succeeds . 2 March, 

New treaty of commerce with England . 3 July, 

Insurrection at Vienna ; flight of Metternich, 

13 March, 

Insurrection in Italy, see Milan, Venice, and Sar- 
dinia .18 March, 

Another insurrection at Vienna ; the emperor flees 
to Inspruek 15-17 May, 

Archduke John appointed vicar-general of the 
empire ' . 29 May, 

A constituent assembly meet at Vienna 22 July, 

Revolution in Hungary, see Hungary . 1 1 Sept. 

Insurrection of Vienna ; murder of Count Latour, 

6 Oct. 

The emperor abdicates in favour of his nephew, 
Francis-Joseph 2 Dec. 

Convention of Olmiitz . . . .29 Nov. 

The emperor revokes the constitution of 4 March, 
1849 31 Dec. 

Trial by jury abolished in the empire . 15 Jan. 

Death of prince Schwartzenburg, prime minister, 

4 April, 

Attempted assassination of the emperor byLibenyi, 
18 Feb. ; who was executed . . .28 Feb. 

Commercial treaty with Prussia . . 19 Feb. 

Austrians enter Danubian principalities . Aug. 

Alliance with England and France relative to 
eastern question 2 Dec. 

Great reduction of the army . . .24 June, 

By a concordat the pope acquires great power in the 
empire ... ... 18 Aug. 

Amnesty for political offenders of 1848-9, 12 July, 

Austria remonstrates against the attacks of the free 
Sardinian press .... 10 Feb. 

Firm reply of count Cavour . . 20 Feb. 

Austrians quit the Danube principalities . March, 

Diplomatic relations between Austria and Sardinia 
broken off in consequence . . . 23-30 March, 

Emperor and empress visit Hiingary . May, 

Death of marshal Radetzky (aged 92) . .5 Jan. 

Excitement throughout Europe, caused by the 
address of the emperor Napoleon III. to the 
Austrian ambassador : — " I regret that our rela- 
tions with your government are not as good as 
formerly, but I beg of you to tell the emperor 
that my personal sentiments for him have not 
changed " 1 Jan. 

The emperor of Austria replied in almost the same 
words 4 Jan. 

Prince Napoleon Bonaparte marries princess 
Clotilde of Sardinia .... 30 Jan. 

Austria prepares for war ; enlarges her armies in 
Italy ; and strongly fortifies the banks of the 
Ticino, the boundary of her Italian provinces, and 
Sardinia Feb. & March, 

Lord Cowley at Vienna on a " mission of peace," 

27 Feb. 

Intervention of Russia — proposal for a congress ; 

disputes respecting the admission of Sardinia 

— Sardinia and France prepare for war, 

March & April, 



1797 
1801 



1805 



1814 
1815 



1835 
1838 



1851 
1852 



1853 
1854 

1855 



1857 



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94 



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Austria demands the disarmament of Sardinia and 
the dismissal of the volunteers from other states 
within three days . .23 April, 18 

This demand rejected . . . .26 April, ,, 

The Austrians cross the Ticino . . 26 April, ,, 

The French troops enter Piedmont . . 27 April, ,, 

The French emperor declares war (to expel the 
Austrians from Italy) . . . .3 May, ,, 

Resignation of count Buol, foreign minister : ap- 
pointment of count Rechberg . 13-18 May, „ 

The Austrians defeated at Montebello, 20 May ; at 
Palestro, 30-31 May ; at Magenta, 4 June ; at 
Malegnano (Marignano) . . . .8 June, „ 

Prince Metternich dies, aged 86 (he had been 
actively engaged in the wars and negotiations of 
Napoleon I.) 11 June, „ 

Austrians defeated at Solferino (near the Mincio) ; 
the emperors of Austria and France and king of 
Sardinia present .... 24 June, ,, 

Armistice agreed upon, 6 July ; the emperors meet, 

11 July ; the preliminaries of peace signed at Villa 
Franca (Lombardy given up to Sardinia, and 
an Italian confederation proposed to be formed), 

12 July, „ 
Manifesto justifying the peace issued to the army, 

12 July ; to the people . . . .15 July, ,, 
Patent issued, granting greatly increased privileges 

to the Protestants, — announced . . Sept. ,, 

Conference between the envoys of Austria and 
France at Zurich ... 8 Aug. to Sept. „ 

Many national reforms proposed . . . Sept. ,, 

Treaty of Zurich, continuing the preliminaries cf 
Villa Franca, signed . . . .10 Nov. ,, 

Decrees removing Jewish disabilities, 

6, 10 Jan., 18 Feb. 18 

Patent issued for the summoning the great imperial 
council (Reichsrath), composed of representatives 
elected by the provincial diets . . 5 March, „ 

Discovery of great corruptions in the army financial 
arrangements, a deficiency of about 1,700,000?. dis- 
covered ; general Eynatten commits suicide ; 82 
persons arrested March, ,, 

Austria protests against the annexation of Tuscany, 
&c. , by Sardinia March, ,, 

Baron Briick, suspected of complicity in the army 
frauds, dismissed 20 April ; commits suicide, 

23 April, „ 

The Reichsrath assembles, 30 May ; addressed by 
the emperor 1 June, ,, 

Liberty of the press further restrained. . July, ,, 

Unsettled state of Hungary (which see) . July-Oct. „ 

Friendly meeting of the emperor and the regent of 
Prussia at Toplitz .... 26 July, ,, 

Free debates in the Reichsrath ; strictures on the 
concordat, the finances, <fcc. ; proposals for sepa- 
rate constitutions for the provinces, Aug. fo Sept. ,, 

The Reichsrath adjourned ... 29 Sept. ,, 

Diploma conferring on the Reichsrath legislative 
powers, the control of the finances, &c. , a mani- 
festo issued to the populations of the empire (not 
well received) 20 Oct. ,, 

Meeting of the emperor with the emperor of Russia 
and prince regent of Prussia at Warsaw : no im- 
portant result 20-26 Oct. ,. 

The government professes non-intervention in 
Italy, but increases the army in Venetia, 

Oct. & Nov. „ 

The empress goes to Madeira for health . Nov. ,, 

Sale of Venetia, publicly spoken of, is repudiated in 

Dec. „ 

Ministerial crisis : M. Schmerling becomes minister 
— more political concessions . . .13 Dec. ,, 

The proscribed Hungarian, count Teleki, at Dres- 
den, is given up to Austria, which causes general 
indignation, about 20 Dec. ; he is released on parole 

31 Dec. „ 

Amnesty for political offences in Hungary, Croatia, 
&c, published 7 Jan. 18' 

Reactionary policy of the court leads to increased 
general disaffection . . . Jan. & Feb. „ 

The .statutes of the new constitution for the 
Austrian monarchy published . . .26 Feb. ,, 

Civil and political rights granted to Protestants, 
throughout the empire except in Hungary and 
Venice 8 April, „ 

Meeting of Reichsrath no deputies present from 
Hungary, Croatia, Transylvania, Venetia, or [stria 

29 April, ,, 



Ministry of marine created .... Jan. 

Inundation of the Danube, causing great distress, 

4 Feb. 

Increased taxation proposed . . . March, 

At an imperial council, the emperor present, the 
principle of ministerial responsibility is resolved 
on 26 April, 

Deficiency of 1,400,000?. in financial statement — 
indignation of the Reichsrath . . . June, 

Amnesty to condemned political offenders in Hun- 
gary proclaimed 18 Nov. 

Reduction in the army assented to ; and a personal 
liberty law (resembling our habeas corpus act) 
passed Dec. 

Insurrection in Russian Poland, Jan. ; Austria joins 
in the intercession of England and France April 

Meeting of the German sovereigns (except kings of 
Prussia, Holland, and Denmark) with the emperor 
of Austria at Frankfort, by his invitation ; the 
draft of a reform of the federal constitution 
agreed to 16-31 Aug. 

Transylvanian deputies accept the constitution, 
and take seats in the Reichsrath . . 20 Oct. 

Austria joins Prussia in war with Denmark (see 
Denmark) Jan. 

Galicia and Cracow declared to be in a state of siege 

29 Feb. 
The Archduke Maximilian becomes emperor of 

Mexico (see Mexico) .... April, 

The emperor and the king of Prussia meet atCarlsbad 

22 June, 

Resignation of count Rechberg, foreign minister, 
succeeded by count Mensdorft'-Pouilly 27 Oct. 

Peace with Denmark, signed at Vienna . 30 Oct. 

Emperor opens Reichsrath, 14 Nov. ; great freedom 
of debate ; the state of siege in Galicia censured 

Dec. 

Austria supports the confederation in the dispute 
respecting the duchies Dec. 

Apparent reunion between Austria and Prussia, Jan. 

Great financial difficulty ; proposed reduction in the 
army by the chambers .... Jan. 

Contest between the government and the chambers 

April, 

Reported failure of Mr. Hutt's mission to Vienna, 
to promote free trade .... June, 

New ministry formed ; count Mensdorff as nominal 
premier ; counts Belcredi and Esterhazy as minis- 
ters : conciliatory measures towards Hungary, 
proposed 27 July, 

Convention of Gastein (see Gastrin) signed 14 Aug. 

Emperor's rescript suppressing the constitution, 
with the view of giving autonomy to Hungary 
(which see) . . 20 Sept. 

Rejoicings in Hungary, but dissatisfaction in Aus- 
tria, Croatia, &c Nov., Dec. 

Treaty of commerce with Great Britain, signed 

16 Dec. 

Amnesty for Italy issued . . . . 1 Jan. 

Warm disputes with Prussia (aggressive), respecting 
the settlement of Holstein . . Jan., Mar. 

Preparations for war begin . . . March, 

The archduke Albrecht made commander of the 
southern army, 6 Mav ; Benedek of the Northern 

12 May, 

War declared by Prussia, 18 June ; by Italy (which 
see) 20 June, 

The Austrians enter Silesia, iS June ; and the Prus- 
sians Bohemia ..... 23 June 

The Italians defeated by the archduke Albrecht, at 
Custozza 24 June, 

Prussian victories at Nachod, foe. . 27-20 June. 

Benedek totally defeated at Koniggratz or Sadowa 

3 July, 
(For details of the war see Prussia and Italy.) 

The emperor cedes Venetia to t lie emperor Napoleon, 
and requests intervention . . 4 July, 

Preliminaries of peace signed at Nikolsburg, 26 July, 

Treaty of peace with Prussia signed at Prague, 

23 Aug. 

Treaty of peace witli Italy signed at \ ienna. ceding 
Venetia. 3 Oct. The iron crown given up 11 Oct. 

The Quadrilateral and Venice surrendered to the 
Italians ...... n-i9 0ct. 

Baron Ferdinand von Beust, late Saxon minister 
of foreign all urs made Austrian foreign ministei 

30 Oct. 
Meeting of the Reichsrath . . . 19 Nov. 



1862 



1863 



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95 



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Commercial treaty with France (to commence i Jan. 

1867), signed. 11 Dec. 1866 

Great dissension among the nationalities of the em- 
pire Dee. „ 

Extraordinary diet convoked (for 25 Feb.). 3 Jan. 1867 
Establishment of autonomy for Hungary announced, 
mainly the work of Von Beust ; resignation of 
Belcredi, 4 Feb. ; Von Beust made president of 

the council 7 Feb. ,, 

Eescript restoring a separate ministry for Hungary, 

count Andrassy president . . . 17 Feb. „ 
Death of archduke Stephen (palatine of Hungary in 

1848) Feb. „ 

Commercial treaty with Italy, signed . 23 April, ,, 
Reichsrath opened at Vienna . . .20 May, ,, 
The Czechs (of Bohemia and Moravia), Croats, Sla- 
vonians, Serbs, Roumans (of Transylvania), and 
Russinians (of Galicia), protest against absorp- 
tion, and demand national legislative powers 

May <fe July, „ 
Painful death of the archduchess Matilda through 

burns 6 June, ,, 

The emperor and empress crowned king and queen 

of Hungary at Buda .... 8 June, ,, 
Von Beust made chancellor of the empire, 23 June, „ 
The sultan visits Vienna . . .27 July — 1 Aug. „ 
The emperors of Austria and France meet at Salzburg 

18-23 Aug. „ 
Arrangements for the dividing the financial affairs 

of Austria and Hungary, signed . . 13 Sept. „ 
Changes (respecting marriage and education) in the 

concordat, proposed Sept. „ 

28 bishops demand the maintenance of the concordat 

28 Sept. ,, 
Letter from the emperor to cardinal Rausch, de- 
claring for complete liberty of conscience in oppo- 
sition to the concordat ; the concordat almost 
annulled by the lower house .... Oct. ,, 
Emperor of Austria and king of Prussia meet at 

Oos, near Baden-Baden . . . .22 Oct. ,, 
Emperor arrives at Paris, 23 Oct. ; leaves 5 Nov. „ 
Dualism accepted by the Reichsrath at Vienna 

Nov. „ 
New Austrian ministry under prince Auersperg 

constituted 30 Dec. ,, 

Civil marriages bill (annulling clerical jurisdiction 
over them) passed by the upper house, after sharp 
resistance, 21-23 March ; received the emperor's 

assent 25 May, 1868 

German sharp-shooting match, held at Vienna, 

26 July, ,, 
Von Beust justifies the maintenance of an army of 

800,000, ii Oct. ; is made a count . . Dec. ,, 
Continued opposition of the clergy to the government 

Jan. 1869 
The frigate Radetshy blown up, about 340 lives lost 

20 Feb. ,, 
The crown prince of Prussia visits Vienna 7 Oct. ,, 
Ihe emperor visits the East ; — at Jerusalem, 10 
Nov. ; present at the opening of the Suez canal 

17 Nov. 1869 
Successful insurrection against the conscription in 

Dalmatia, Oct. ; ceased .... Nov. „ 
Tne Reichsrath opened by the emperor at Vienna 

13 Dec. „ 
Ministerial crisis, Jan. : the Cis-Leithan ministry 

resigns ; count Potocki, prime minister 4 April, 1870 
Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war announced 

18 July, ,, 
The concordat with Rome declared to be sus- 
pended in consecpience of the promulgation of 
the doctrine of papal infallibility . . 30 July, „ 

The Reichsrath opened by the emperor ; no deputies 
from Bohemia 17 Sept. ,, 

Dissension between the federal and national parties 

29 Sept., Oct. ,, 

The Reichsrath adjourned . . . .22 Nov. ,, 

The ministry support Great Britain in opposing the 
Russian repudiation of the treaty of Paris (see 
Russia) Nov. ,, 

Austrian army, 864,869 regulars ; 187,527 landwehr 
(militia) Dec. „ 

The new German empire recognised by the emperor 

Jan. 1371 

Dismissal of Potocki ; count Hohenwart, minister 

Feb. ,. 

Meeting of the Reichsrath . . . . 20 Feb. ,, 

Death of adin. Tegethotf, much lamented 7 April, „ 



First meeting of "Old Catholics" at Vienna, 

26 July, 1871 
An international exhibition at Vienna in 1873, pro- 
posed Sept. ,, 

Meeting of emperor with emperor William 6-8 Sept. ,, 
Meeting of 17 provincial diets ; struggle between 
the (Slavonian) conservatives and the (German) 
constitutionalists renewed . . -14 Sept. t> 
Political crisis : dissension between German and 
Slavonian parties, Oct. ; resignation of the Hohen- 
wart ministry 25 Oct. 

A ministry formed under baron Kellersperg 4 Nov. ,, 
Resignation of count Beust, the arch-chancellor ; 

much excitement 6 Nov. ,. 

Count Andrassy (see Hungary, 1849 c * se( l-)> having 
opposed von Beust's policy of alliance with 
France, succeeds him as minister of the imperial 
household and of foreign affairs ; Von Beust to be 
ambassador at London ; Lonyay, premier of Hun- 
garian ministry 13-14 Nov. ,, 

New Austrian ministry formed by prince Auer- ,, 

sperg about 25 Nov. ,, 

The Reichsrath opened by the emperor with speech 
announcing political and educational reforms 

28 Dec. ,, 
New constitutional law promulgated, giving the 
emperor power to order new elections of the 

chambers 13 March, 1872 

Meeting of the emperor with the emperor of Ger- 
many and other sovereigns at Berlin 6-12 Sept. ,, 
Reform bill passed changing the Reichsrath into a 

national representative assembly . 10 March, 1873 
Great international exhibition at Vienna ; opening, 

1 May, , r 
Financial crisis through overtrading in 1872 ; 

panic in May, „ 

Visits to Vienna ; the prince of Wales, 28 April ; 
the czar of Russia, 1 June : the shah of Persia, 
30 July ; the king of Italy, 17 Sept. ; the emperor 

of Germany 17 Oct. , T 

Elections for the Reichsrath ; 228 constitutional- 
ists ; 125 federals, 30 Oct. ; the Reichsrath opened 
by the emperor, 5 Nov. ; 25th anniversary of the 
emperor's accession celebrated throughout the 
empire ; amnesty for political offenders . 2 Dec. ,, 
The emperor at St. Petersburg . . . 13 Feb. 1874 
Encyclical letter from the pope condemning the 

new ecclesiastical laws, dated . 7 March, „ 

Protest of the Austrian bishops ; adoption by both 
parties of Cavour's cry, "A free church in a free 

state" April, , T 

The empress at the Isle of Wight . July- Aug. ,, 
Ofenheim, railway financier connected with Messrs. 
Brassey, after long trial for fraud, acquitted at 

Vienna 27 Feb. 1875 

The emperor warmly received at Venice by the 

king of Italy 5 April, ,, 

Inauguration of the new bed of the Danube by the 

emperor 30 May, ,. 

The czar meets the emperor at Eger . 28 June, ,, 
Death of the ex-emperor Ferdinand . 29 June, ,, 
Koloman de Tisza, president of Hungarian ministry, 

20 Oct. , r 
Deficiency in the budget for 1876 ; revenue about 

37,8oo,ooo£. ; expenditure, 40,300,000^. . Nov. ,, 
Death of cardinal Rauscher, prince bishop of 

Vienna 24 Nov. ,, 

The czar and the emperor meet at Reichstadt ; 
agree to neutrality in the Servio-Turkish war, 

8 July, 1876 
New treaty of commerce with Great Britain, signed 

5 Dec. ,, 
Declaration of neutrality in Russo- Turkish war by 
Austrian and Hungarian ministers ; foreign 
policy to be, for "the interest of the monarchy, 
to the exclusion of all antipathies and sym- 
pathies," M. de Tisza (Hungarian) . 26 June. 1S77 
Resignation of Austrian ministry, 26 Jan. ; with- 
drawn 5 Feb. 1878. 

Prince Auersperg announces disagreement with 

the proposed Russian conditions of peace, 19 Feb. ,, 
Deatli of archduke Francis Charles, the emperor's 

father 8 March, ,, 

The Sphinx burnt at sea, near Cape St. Erlie, 500 

perish 8 March, „ 

Resignation of ministry ; withdawn . 6, 7 July, ,, 
Count Andrassy at the Berlin conference 
13 June — 13 July 



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Austria to occupy and administer Bosnia and 
Herzegovina, by treaty of Berlin . .13 July, 

The Austrians enter, and war ensues (see Bosnia) 

20 July, 

Resignation of Auersperg ministry announced to 
the Reichsrath 22 Oct. 

Bosnia occupied (except Novi Bazar) . . Oct. 

Baron de Pretis fails to form a ministry . 30 Oct. 

New ministry under Dr. Stremayr . 15 Feb. 

Silver wedding of the emperor and empress kept, 

24 April, 

Liberal majority at elections . . . 1 c July, 

Resignation of count Andrassy, the premier ; 
ministry formed by count Edw. Taafl'e, 12 Aug. ; 
baron von Haymerle, foreign minister 22 Aug. 

Bismarck's visit to Vienna ; warmly received 

21-24 Sept. 

Reichsrath opened ; the Czech deputies attend 

8 Oct. 

Andrassy formally resigns ; succeeded by baron 
Haymerle as foreign minister and president of 
the council ...... 8 Oct. 

Opening of all the diets of the empire . 8 June, 

Sudden death of baron Haymerle . . 10 Oct. 

The king and queen of Italy warmly received at 
Vienna 28-31 Oct. 

Count Gustav Kalnoky becomes foreign minister, 

20 Nov. 

Temporary rapture with Roumania respecting the 
Danube about 27 Dec. 

Insurrection in Herzegovina, &c. ; several small 
engagements with Austrians, 16-31 Jan. ; insur- 
gents defeated 

Provisional government said to have been formed 
by insurgents about 9 Feb. 

Alleged defeat of insurgents at Glavalicevo and in 
other small engagements . . 16 Feb. et seq. 

Severe conflict at Cettinje ; alleged great loss by 
Austrians ; small loss by insurgents . 25 Feb. 

Mahometans sympathise with Christian insurgents 

Feb. 

Successful advance of the Austrians ; capture of 
Dragali announced .... 14 March, 

Insurgents adopting guerilla warfare about 12 May, 

" New German People's party " formed, manifesto 
published about 29 May, 

Fall of a railway bridge over the Drave ; about 27 
soldiers in a train drowned . . .23 Sept. 

Insurrection suppressed, announced . 26 Oct. 

Execution of Overdank, a soldier, for attempted 
assassination of emperor . . . 20 Dec. 

600th anniversary of the establishment of the 
House of Hapsburg celebrated throughout the 
empire 27 Dec. 

Slavonic agitation against Germans ar d the Mag- 
yars and taxation, see ( 'roatia, Aug. — Sept. ; con- 
ciliatory policy adopted by the, government, Sept. 

Marriage of the archduke Rodolph and the princess 
Stephanie of Belgium, 10 May, 1881 ; birth of 
princess 2 Sept. 

Much social disaffection at Vienna; two detective 
policemen assassinated, Hlubek, Bloch . Jan. 

Corporal Hermann Stellmacher, assassin of Bloch, 
captured, 25 Jan. ; a great conspiracy sus- 
pected ; law decreed by count Taaffe repressing 

public 1 tings, the press, trials by jury, <fcc, 

30 Jan.; many arrested or expelled . .Jan. 

Another policeman murdered . . .9 Feb. 

Government measures adopted by the chambers 

is Feb. 

700 expelled at Vienna . . about 15 March, 

The crown princeand princess visit Constantinople 

17 April, et seq. 

Hugo Schenk and Schlossarck executed for murder 

of several servant girls . . . 32 April, 
Stellmacher executed . 8 Aug. 

Hans Makart, historical painter, died . 3 Oct. 
Grand funeral at sienna .... 6 Oct. 
For 1885; estimate. 1 revenue 504,800,00011.; ex- 

penditure 519,800,00011 Dee. 

Me,iv\ bank frauds; suicide of culprits . .Dec. 
Prince Adolph Auersperg, statesman, died . 5 Jan. 
Dissolution of the Reichsrath, ■ \] ril : meeting of 

the new Relchsrat h . . ■.-■.- s, pi . 

Imperial assent given t" i tie reform act of the upper 

house 30 April. 

Cordial meeting of the emperor and the czar at 

Kremsior in Moravia . . . . 35-26 Lug. 



879 



Political crisis relating to duties on Russian petro- 
leum, end of May, settled . . about 2 June, 

Death of Count F. von Beust, great liberal states- 
man, ex-chancellor .... 24 Oct. 

Increased army estimates voted . . 26 Feb. 

Treaty of alliance with Germany and Italy signed 

73 March 

Anarchists sentenced to imprisonment for dynamite 
plot -28 March, 

Successful military manoeuvres in Transylvania 

Sept. 

Panic at the Bourse at Vienna, through article in 
the Iiivalidts Rwsse (see Russia) . 16-17 Dec. 

Money granted for war preparations . ro Dec. 

Defensive treaty with Germany against Russian or 
other aggression, 7 Oct. 1879 I first published 3 Feb. 

Visit of the German emperor William II., at Vienna 

3 Oct. 

Changes in the Taaffe ministry . . . Oct. 

Fortieth anniversary of the emperor's accession 
celebrated by charities .... 2 Dec. 

Suicide of the archduke Rodolph, heir to the 
throne, 30 Jan. ; solemn funeral . . 5 Feb. 

Changes in the cabinet, announced . . March, 

New army bill as amended by the Hungarian diet 
adopted by the upper house . . 8 April, 

Catholic congress of nobles and clergy met at 
Vienna 29 April, 

Death of count Alfred Potocki, statesman, aged 72, 
about 20 May, 

The emperor and his nephew visit Berlin, 12-15 -Aug. 

Temporary reconciliation of the Czechs and Ger- 
mans in Bohemia in a conference, by the inter- 
vention of the emperor . . . 17-19 Jan. 

Formation of the Anglo- Austrian printing and pub- 
lishing company in Vienna (Lord M lyor Isaacs 
and others, directors), middle . . Feb. 

[Reported unsuccessful, March, 1891.] 

Count Julius Andrassy dies in Istria . 18 Feb. 

Thirty-two persons out of 62 charged, convicted of 
criminal practices in Galicia connected with emi- 
gration ; four months' trial ; sentence, 4-i- years 
and otherterms of imprisonment 12 March, 

Riot of about 1,000 workmen at Biala on the Gali- 
cian frontier, suppressed by military ; 3 men 
killed and about 14 died of wounds 23 April, 

Labour agitation, strikes with rioting in different 
provinces (.sec Vienna), April, 1890, gradually sub- 
sides May, 

The May day demonstration in favour of an eight 
hours labour day passes off tranquilly at Vienna, 
&c. . 1 May, 

Marriage of the emperor's youngest daughter, arch- 
duchess Marie Valerie, to her cousin, the arch- 
duke Francis Salvator ... 31 July, 

Edward von Bauernfeld, poet and dramatist, dies, 
aged 88 10 Aug. 

Austrian licet under archduke Stephen, reviewed 
by queen Victoria off Cowes, [sle of Wight 

11 Aug. 

Gr >at loss of life and property through storms and 
Hoods 12-14 Aug. 

Cordial meeting of the Austrian and German em- 
perors at Rhonstock in Silesia, 17-20 Sept., at 
Vienna 1-8 Oct. 

The archduke John of the Tuscan branch, who 
resigned his dignities and took the name of 
Johann Orth, Oct. 1889, became captain of a mer- 
chant ship, the St. Margaret, supposed to have 
been lost off the coast of 8. America Aug., re- 
ported Oct. 

The compromise between the Hermans and the 
( Izechs in Bohemia nol effected, through the oppo- 
sition of the Young C echs; sa Bohemia joNov, 

Coal mine explosion at Polish Ostrau; about 50 
men perish 3 Jail. 

Dissolution of the Reichsrath ; liberal manifesto 
issued by the government . . -24 Jan. 

The archduke Franz Ferdinand d'Este, heir to the 
emperor, warmly receivedat St. Petersburg, Feb. ; 
at Moscow "14 Feb. 

Result of elections : German Liberals, no; Poles, 
57; Young Czechs, (6 ; Old Czechs, to; < llericals, 
31; Bohemian Conservatives, 18; Miscellaneous, 
93 ; total, 153 ; reported . . 15 .March. 

The German Liberals and Poles support count 
Ta. life's ministry, about . . . 26 March. 

The Reichsrath opened .... n April, 



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New treaty of commerce between Austria-Hungary 

and Germany, signed at Vienna . . 3 May, 18 
The triple alliance renewed ... 28 June, ,, 
Military manoeuvres at Horn, the emperor and the 

German emperor present . . 3 Sept. et seq. ,, 
New commercial treaty with Germany, Italy, Bel- 
gium, and Switzerland, adopted by the lower 
house, 19 Jan., by the senate . . .25 Jan. 18 
Conference of Austrian bishops at Vienna . March, ,, 
Currency reform bill passed . . -27 May, ,, 
By a panic in a church at Vinagora, in Upper Aus- 
tria, during a gale, 25 persons were crushed to 

death 31 Oct. , 

The government defeated on a vote for secret ser- 
vice money by union of Germans and Czechs, 

2 Dec. , 
The new Bourse tax passed, 18 Sept. 1892 ; comes 

into operation 1 Jan. 18 

Tour of the archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir- 
presumptive ; starts, 14 Dec. 1892 ; visits Ceylon, 
5 Jan, ; Bombay, 17 Jan. ; Hyderabad, 24 Jan. ; 
Calcutta, 1 Feb. ; Sydney, 16 May ; Hong Kong, 

July ; Yokohama 2 Aug. ,, 

Meeting of Christian socialists, many eminent per- 
sons, at Vienna 13 March, ,, 

The Beichsrath prorogued ... 26 March, ,, 
Heavy rains and destructive inundations in Buko- 

wina and in Galicia, reported . . 7 June, ,, 
Strike of 5,000 miners at Kladno, reported 12 June, ,, 
Sir Edward Monson, British ambassador, arrives 

27 June, „ 
The Reichsrath reopened ; count Taaffe introducesa 
bill for electoral reform, leading to universal 
suffrage .... 10 Oct. ,, 

Ministerial crisis ; conference of heads of parties, 
4 Nov. ; count Taaffe, the premier, succeeded by 
prince Wiudischgratz . . . 12 Nov. ,, 

Opening of the Beichsrath ; statement of prince 

Windischgriitz 23 Nov. ,, 

Dr. Kohn, Dr. Platzau, and H. Pick, mountaineers, 
perish in attempting the ascent of the Gross 

Glockner 24-25 Dec. ,, 

The Omladina (which see), a political society, active 
in 1893 ; trial began, 15 Jan. 1894: many sen- 
tenced to various terms of imprisonment for 
treason and other serious offences . 21 Feb. 185 
Trial of anarchists (14) ; 8 sentenced to various 

terms of imprisonment, 6 acquitted . 19-23 Feb. ,, 
Ottokar Dolezal, Franz Dragoum, and Joseph 
Kriz, members of the Omladina, charged with the 
murder of Mrva, an official at Prague, 23 Dec. 
1893 ; sentenced to ten years' penal servitude, 

20 March, „ 
Meeting of the Austrian and German emperors at 

Abbazia 29 March, ,, 

Commercial treaty between Austria-Hungary and 

Russia, ratified 6 July, ,, 

Schmul Bibrovic, a Jewish farmer, and his family 
(8 persons) murdered, and his house plundered 
and burnt, at Bosche win . . . 24 Aug. ,, 
Death of the archduke Albrecht ; eminent in the 
army, liberal and popular; born, 1817, son of 
archduke Charles (see Asperri) . . 18 Feb. 189 
Death of prince Richard Metternich, diplomatist 

1 March, „ 
26 students tried at Tarnopol, Galicia, for high 
treason, and conspiring for the independence of 
Poland, 4 March ; all acquitted . . 13 March, „ 
Eesignation of count Kalnoky, prudent foreign 
minister, on account of differences with Hungary 
respecting the action of the papal nuncio, Mgr. 
Agliardi, 16 May ; succeeded by count Agenor 
Goluchowski, conservative and clerical, 17 May, ., 
New electoral reform bill in preparation . May, ,, 
Eesignation of the Windischgratz (coalition) minis- 
try, through the withdrawal of the German 

liberals 19 June ,, 

Provisional cabinet : count Kielmansegg premier, 

20 June, ,, 
Death of the archduke Ladislaus by an accident 

while hunting Sept. „ 

New ministry, count Badeni, premier . 2 Oct. „ 
Opening- of the Reichsrath : count Badeni declares 

a neutral policy 22 Oct. ,, 

Anti-Semitic movement ; see Vienna . . 1895-91 
Financial crisis at Vienna and Budapest in relation 

to Turkey 9 Nov. ,, 

Death of count Taaffe, ex-premier, aged 63, 29 Nov. „ 



The emperor and empress received by queen Vic- 
toria at Nice ..... 13 March, 1896 
Visit of the German emperor and empress at Vienna ; 
14 April ; grand military review ; banquet, the 
two emperors present . . . . 15 April, „ 
Death of the archduke Karl Ludwig, heir-pre- 
sumptive, much lamented . . -19 May, „ 
Electoral reform bill passed by the Reichsrath, 

and adopted by the peers . . . 28 May, ,, 
German progressist party founded . . 29 June, „ 
Differences between Austria and Hungary settled 
by compromise at a meeting of the ministers in 

Vienna 19 July, ,, 

The archduchess Maria Dorothea niece of the em- 
peror married to the duke of Orleans at Vienna 

5 Nov. ,, 
Sir Horace Rumbold, G.C.B., 1897 ; appointed 
British minister ; 18 Aug., 1896 ; received by the 

emperor 11 Jan. 1897 

The Railway labourers' association dissolved by 

government order .... 21 March, 

The Reichsrath opened by the emperor, harmony 

of the powers reported . . .29 March, 

The Badeni cabinet resigns, 2 April ; resignation 

not accepted by the emperor . . 4 April 

Grand military review by the emperors Francis 

Joseph and William II. ... 22 April, 

The emperor arrives at St. Petersburg, received by 

the czar 27-30 April, 

Impeachment of the ministry; disorderly scenes in 
the Reichsrath; 6, 7, 24 May ; deadlock ; the 
session closed, 2 June ; reassembled . 23 Sept. 
Agrarian association founded at Vienna . 29 Aug. 
Duel between count Badeni the premier and Herr 
"Wolf in consequence of insulting language used 
by the latter, the count wounded . . 25 Sept. 
Renewed disorders in the Reichsrath . 19 Oct. 
Nearly 24 hrs. debate in the Reichsrath on the re- 
newal of the Ausgleich with Hungary ; 12 hrs. 
speech by Dr. Lecher ; 28-29 Oct. ; long sitting, 
bill read 1st time, amidst great disorder, 5 Nov. ; 
violent scenes, socialists expelled by the police, 
24-26 Nov. ; Reichsrath prorogued, 27 Nov. ; 
count Badeni resigns, 28 Nov. ; baron Gautsch 
forms a new ministry, 30 Nov.; deadlock, 12. 
Dec. ; the Reichsrath closed by decree 29 Dec. 
Count Kalnoky, born, 29 Dec, 1832, foreign min- 
ister from 1881-95 ; died . . . 13 Feb. : 
Political agitation, large meetings in Styria and 

Bohemia 27 Feb. 

The language ordinances (modified) published 

5 March, 

Baron Gautsch resigns, 5 March ; new cabinet 

formed by count Thun . . . .7 March, 

Prince Ferdinand received by the emperor at 

Vienna 7 March, 

Increase of the navy determined on, 31 March ; 
30,000,000^. demanded for fortifications May, 
Bills for the renewal of the Ausgleich with Hun- 
gary, introduced 20 April, 

Impeachment of count Badeni carried by a majority 
of 8 in the Reichsrath, 26 April, 1898; rejected 
in the lower house, 193-174 . . .17 Nov. 
Jubilee of the emperor's reign celebrated, exhi- 
bition opened (see Vienna) ... 8 May, 
Reichsrath re-assembled (deadlock), 1 June et seq. ; 

prorogued 13 June, 

Anti-Semitic outrages, &c. in W. Galicia, houses 
plundered in 30 villages, troops called out, out- 
break spreading, 24-28 June]; martial law and other 
strong measures adopted with good effect, 29 June, 
Assassination of the empress Elizabeth (born 27 
Dec. i837)at Geneva byLuigi Luccheni(aged 25), 
an Italian anarchist, about 2 p.m., 10 Sept.; 
deeply lamented, public demonstration of Swiss 
sympathy, 12 Sept. ; lying in st ite in the Imperial 
Chapel, Vienna, 16 Sept.; funeral, the emperor 
of Germany and other royal personages present, 
17 Sept.; two anarchists arrested at Lausanne, 

15 Sept. 
Luccheni sentenced to life imprisonment, 10 Nov. 
Jubilee amnesty, to army and navy, issued 20 Nov. 
Increasing agrarian revolt against clerical inter- 
ference in secular affairs ; see Hungary, 21 Nov. 
Count Thun protests against the expulsion of 
Austrians from Prussia . . .29 Nov. 
Celebration of the emperor's jubilee . . 2 Dec. 



AUSTKIA. 



98 



AUSTKIA. 



The Austro-Hungarian Ausgleich renewed for 1899 
by imperial rescript .... 31 Dec. : 

Disorderly scenes in the Reichsrath, crisis, 15 Dec. 
et seq 17 Jan. : 

Violent scene in the Reichsrath, 27 Jan. 1899 ; 
Reichsrath prorogued . . . . 1 Feb. 

Mass meetings of social democrats in Vienna, 
6 Feb. ; manifesto against the Germans by the 
young Czechs, issued . . . .11 Feb. 

Count Rechberg, diplomatist, born 1806, died 

25 Feb. 

Conference of R.C. bishops of Vienna, at Austria, 
on the "emancipation from Rome" movement; 
repressive measures ; 4 societies dissolved in 
Vienna; reported . . . . 12 April 

Count Karl Hohenwart, ex-premier, federalist, died 
aged 75 26 April 

Johann Strauss, "Walzerkonig," popular composer, 
died, aged 73, 3 June ; public funeral at Vienna, 

6 June 

Chevalier von Blumencorn (ex-soldier, musician, 
and diplomatist), editor of the Fremdenblatt, died, 
aged 95 29 June, 

Negotiations respecting the Austro-Hungarian 
Ausgleich, 24 May ; a bill passed 2nd reading, 

4 July 

Agitation against the government increasing, 
meetings violently suppressed . . . July 

Demonstrations against the increased sugar duty 
in Salzburg and elsewhere . . .1 Aug. 

Count Thun's ministry promulgates the outstand- 
ing portions of the Ausgleich, and resigns 23 Sept. ; 
count Clary forms a cabinet . . .1 Oct. 

Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria received with honours 
at Vienna 26-27 Sept. 

Jewish meeting at Vienna to protest against the 
charge of ritual murder revived against their 
creed 7 Oct. 

Language-ordinances repealed, announced, 17 Oct. 

Reichsrath meets, premier states neutral policy, 
18 Oct. ; stormy scene, sitting closed . 24 Oct. 

Fatal Czech riots in Moravia, German and Jewish 
houses looted, troops called out . 22-24 Oct- 

Anti-Semitism and agitation against the use of 
German as the official language in the army, 
rioting in Bohemia and Moravia . . Nov. 

Disorder in the Reichsrath, provoked by the 
Czechs and Anti-Semites, 9-10 Nov. ; crisis 
averted by the emperor . . . 20-21 Nov. 

The Austro-Hungarian delegates received by the 
emperor with a speech from the throne, 1 Dec. ; 
deadlock in the Reichsrath continues . 19 Dec. 

Count Clary's cabinet resigns, 21 Dec. ; Dr. von 
Wittek forms a "provisional" ministry, 22 Dec. 

The emperor intimates firmly to Dr. Stransky, a 
Czech leader, that the language of the army must 
remain German 13 Jan. 

Ccalminers' strike, 91,000 men involved, commis- 
sion of inquiry appointed, reported . 23 Jan. 

Nationality conference (Czechs and Germans) on 
the language question, Dr. von Korber, premier, 
present, 5 Feb. ; closed, sub-committee appointed, 

22 March 

Reichsrath meets, Dr. von Korber, premier, declares 
the cabinet to be neutral ... 22 Feb. 

New language bills for Bohemia and Moravia intro- 
duced, noisy scene in the Reichsrath . 8 May 

I deadlock continues, session closed by the emperor's 
order 9 June 

Sir Francis Rhinkett appointed ambassador at 
Vienna 7 Aug. 

Dissolution of the Reichsrath . . . 7 Sept. 

Tlic emperor attends the army manoeuvres in 
Galicia, receives a Polish parliamentary deputa- 
tion, threatens the suspension of the constitution 
if obstruction continues ... 13 Sept. 

The shah of Persia visits the emperor . 20 Sept. 

Leopold Bilsner, a .lew (.•.•), sentenced to death For 
ciiiiii)! icily in the murder of a Christian girl, Oct. 
1899; sentence quashed May, 1900; 2nd trial at 
Pisek, Bohemia, for another murder, 25 Oct.; 
again found guilty and sentenced to death (ritual 
murder theory rejected) . . . 14 Nov. 

Elections, 3 Jan. loci, defeat of ( llericals and Anti- 
Semites, reported 15 Jan.; the Reichsrath opened 

31 Jan. 

The emperor's speech fnun the throne, proposes 
industrial, economic and social reforms, and 



earnestly protests against the strife of nationali- 
ties 4 Feb. 190a 

Violent scenes in the Reichsrath, 20 Feb. -5 March ,„ 

Stormy debates in the Reichsrath on the action of 
the archduke Franz Ferdinand assuming the pro- 
tectorate over the Catholic schools' association 

23-24 April , r 

Pan-Germanic union advocating emancipation from 
Rome meets in Vienna .... 5 May , T 

Canal bill and government railway bill read 3rd 
time by the Reichsrath . . . . 1 June ,, 

The emperor visits Prague . . 12-18 June ,, 

Dr. Lueger and the Anti-Semitic party beaten at 
the polls in Lower Austria . . .2 July ,,. 

Reichsrath meets, the premier protests against the 
nationality strife .... 17 Oct. ,,. 

The emperor interviews the king of Greece and 
prince George of Crete .... 7 Nov. , r 

Manifesto against obstruction issued by the Ger- 
mans in the Reichsrath . . .19 Nov. , T 

Anti-Clerical association founded, first meeting 
held in Vienna 18 Dec. ,, 

The Reichsrath meets .... 4 Feb. 1902 

Archduke Franz Ferdinand visits the czar 7 Feb. ,, 

Reichsrath: Pan -Germanic demonstration, 18 
March ; uproar over the language question, 9 April , T 

Count von Bulow, German imperial chancellor, 
received by the emperor . . .10 April ,.. 

Conference of Austrian and Hungarian premiers at 
Budapest on the Ausgleich and tariff questions, 
2t, 22 and 26 May; Vienna, 10 July and 22 Aug. , f 

The triple alliance renewed . . .28 June ,, 

The king of Roumania visits Austria . 2 Aug. ,, 

Conference on the A usgleich in Vienna . 22 Aug. „ 

Riots in Agram (see Croatia) . . . Sept. „. 

Reichsrath meets, 15 Oct. ; deadlock on the Ausgleich 
negotiations 17 Oct. , r 

Violent scenes between Czechs and Germans, 

11, 13 Nov. ,„ 

Reichsrath meets. Renewal of Ausgleich for 10 
years agreed to . ... 31 Dec. ;/ 

Floods and loss of life in many parts, reported, 

7 Jan. 1903 

Act of economic union with Hungary signed 11 
Jan. New customs tariff, &c. . 15, 17 Jan. „ 

Sugar convention ratified ... 31 Jan. „ 

Debt conversion bill passed . . .16 Feb. , r 

Army bills passed 20 Feb. ,,. 

Emperor conferred grand cross of the order of 
St. Stephen on Dr. von Korber, the Austrian 
premier mid-April, ,, 

Dispute between Austrian and Hungarian parlia- 
ments respecting the sugar allotment system, 

29 July, , r 

King Edward VII. visits Marienbad . . 13 Aug. ,. 

Visit of the king to Vienna, enthusiastic reception, 

31 Aug. ,- 

Takes leave of the emperor and makes him lion. 
field-marshal of British army . . .3 Sept. ,.. 

Lord Milner visits Vienna, received by Austro- 
Hungarian foreign minister . . 3 Sept. ,„ 

Deatli of count Deym, Austro-Hungarian ambassa- 
dor to (ireat Britain, from 8 Oct. 18S8 . 3 Sept „ 

Inter-parliamentary conference at Vienna adopt 
resolution in favour of a new international con- 
gress to consider the disarmament schemes 
formulated by Russia in 1898 . . . 9 Sept. ._ 
(See Germany, Hungary, Vienna, civ. , and Addenda,} 

Mute: raves of Austria. 
Leopold I., 982; Albert I., 1018 ; Ernest, 1056; Leo- 
pold II., 1075 ; Leopold III., 1096 : Albert II.. 1136; Leo- 
pold IV., 1136 ; Henry II., 1142 (made a duke, 1156). 

Dukes. 

1 1 56. Henry II. 

1177. Leopold V. He made prisoner Richard I. of Eng- 
land when returning incognito from the crusade , 
and was compelled to .surrender him to the cm- 
peror Henry VI. 

1194. Frederic 1., the catholic. 

1198. Leopold VI., the glorious. Killed in battle. 

1230. Frederic II., the warlike. Killed in a battle with 

tlic Hungarians, 15 June, 1246 
Iuterregmim. 
1276. Rodolph I. 
1282. Albert I. and his brother Rodolph II. Albert 

becomes emperor of (in-many, 1298. 
130S. Frederic I. and Leopold I. 



AUTHORS. 



99 



AVENIN. 



1326. 
133°- 
1339- 

i35«5- 

1365- 

1395- 
1411. 



Frederic I. 

Albert II. and Otho, his brother. 

Albert II. 

Rodolph IV. 

Albert III. and Leopold II. or III. (killed at 

Sempach). 
William I. and brothers, and their cousin Albert IV. 
The same. The provinces divided into the duchies 
of Austria and Carinthia, and the county of 
Tyrol. 
1411. Albert V. duke of Austria; obtains Bohemia and 
Moravia ; elected king of Hungary and emperor, 
1437 ; dies, 1439 ; succeeded by his posthumous 
son, 
1439. Ladislaus, who dies childless, 1457. 
1457. The emperor Frederic III. and Albert VI. 
1493. Maximilian I., son of Frederick III. (archduke), 
emperor ; see Germany. 

Emperors. 
1804. Francis I. (late Francis II. of Germany), styled 
emperor of Austria only, 11 Aug. 1804 ; resigned 
empire of Germany, 6 Aug. 1806 ; died 2 Mar. 

1835- 
1835. Ferdinand, his son, 2 March ; abdicated in favour 
of his nephew (his brother Francis-Charles having 
renounced his rights), 2 Dec. 1848 ; died 29 June, 

1875- 

1848. Francis-Joseph (son of Francis-Charles), born 18 
Aug. 1830 ; succeeded, 2 Dec. 1848 ; married 
24 April, 1854, to Elizabeth of Bavaria, assassi- 
nated (see Austria) 10 Sept. 1898 ; crowned 
king of Hungary, 8 June, 1867 ; their son, the 
archduke Rodolph. born 21 Aug. 1858 ; married 
to princess Stephanie Clotilde of Belgium, 10 
May, 1881 ; died, 30 Jan. 1889 (she married count 
Elemer Lonyay, 22 March, 1900). 

Heir presumptive, brother, archduke Charles Louis, 
born 30 July, 1833 ; died 19 May, 1896 ; his son, 
archduke Francis Ferdinand d'Este, born t8 
Dec. 1863 ; married to countess Sophia Chotek 
(created princess von Hohenberg, 1 July), 
1 July, 1900. 

AUTHORS. See Copyrights. The Society of 
Authors established for self-defence, to maintain 
copyrights, protection, &c, by sir W. Frederick Pol- 
lock, cardinal Manning, and others, lord Tennyson, 
president, met 18 Feb., incorporated May, 1884. 
In 1884 there were 68 paying members ; in 1902, 
about 1500. Organ of the soc. The Author. 

It sent a deputation to the celebration of the 50th 
anniversary of the Societe des Gens de Lettres at 
Paris, 10 Dec. 1887. Annual meetings. 

AUTO DA FE (Act of faith), the term given 
to the punishment of a heretic, generally burning 
alive, inflicted by the Inquisition {which see). 

AUTOGRAPHS. J. G. Nicholls' "Autographs 
of Royal and Remarkable Personages in English 
History," 4to, 1829 " Isographie des Hommes 
Celebres," 4 vols., Paris, 1843. Signatures of some 
Eminent Fellows of the Royal Society (lithographs), 
4to, 1851. F. G. Netherclift's " Handbook of Auto- 
graphs," i860. "Royal, Historical, Literary, and 
other Autographs " in the British Museum (photo- 
lithographs), first publication, Nov., 1895. 

AUTOMATON .FIGURES (or An- 

DROIDES), made to imitate living actions, are of 
early invention. Friar Bacon is said to have made a 
brazen head which spoke, a.d. 1264. Albertus 
Magnus spent thirty years in making another. A 
coach and two horses, with a footman and page, and 
a lady inside, were made by Camus for Louis XIV. 
when a child ; the horses and figures moved na- 
turally, variously, and perfectly, 1649. Vaucanson, 
in 1738, made an artificial duck, which performed 
many functions of a real one — eating, drinking, 
and quacking ; and he also made a flute-player. 
The writing automaton, exhibited in 1769, was a 
pentagraph worked by a confederate out of sight. 



The automaton chess-player, of Maelzel, exhibited 
the same year, was also worked by a hidden per- 
son ; so was the " invisible girl," 1800. See Chess. 
Maelzel made a trumpeter about 1809. Early in 
this century, an automaton was exhibited in London 
which pronounced several sentences with tolerable 
distinctness. The " anthropoglossus," an alleged 
talking-machine, exhibited at St. James's hall, 
London, July, 1864, was proved to be a gross im- 
position. The exhibition of the talking-machine 
of professor Faber of Vienna, in London, began 
27 Aug. 1870, at the Palais Royal, Argyll-street, 
\V. Psycho, an automaton card-player, invented 
by J. N. Maskelyne and John Algernon Clarke, ex- 
hibited in London, Jan. 1875. Another Zoe, which 
played cards, was exhibited by Mr. Maskelyne, 
1877. An automaton hare was hunted at Hendon, 
near London, 9 Sept. 1876. 

Automatic machine for producing photographic 
portraits on metal for id., exhibited by Messrs. 
Salter & Co. , West Bromwich . . March, 1890 

Automatic machines for supplying gas " penny in 
the slot," sweetmeats, and other articles, trying 
the weight, &c, much in vogue . . . . 1903 

AUTOMOBILE CLUB, was founded 1897 
for the social intercourse of persons interested in 
motor locomotion and its development. 2,000 
members in 1903. Ladies' Automobile Club, insti- 
tuted 1903, see Motors. 

AUTONOMISTS, a name assumed by a 
socialist party in Paris (see Possibilists), 1887. 

AUTOTYPOGRAPHY, a process of pro- 
ducing a metal plate from drawings, made known 
by Mr. Wallis, in April, 1863 ; it resembled Nature- 
printing {which see). 

AUXERRE DECLARATION, see France, 
May, 1866. 

AVA, the capital of the Burmese empire from 
1364 to 1740, and from 1822 to 1838. Destroyed by 
an earthquake in 1839. See Burmah. 

AVARS, barbarians who ravaged Pannonia, 
and annoyed the eastern empire in the 6th and 7th 
centuries, subdued by Charlemagne about 799, after 
an eight years' war. 

AVEBURY, or ABURY (Wiltshire). Here 
are the remains of the largest so-called I)ruidical 
work in this country. They have been surveyed 
by Aubrey, 1648 ; Dr. Stukeley, 1720; andsirR.C. 
Hoare, in 1812, and by others. Much information 
may be obtained from Stukeley's " Abury " (1743), 
Hoare's "Ancient "Wiltshire" (1812-21), and the 
rev. A. C. Smith's work (1884). They are considered 
to have been set up during the " stone age," i.e., 
when weapons and implements were mainly formed 
of that material. Sir John Lubbock, now lord 
Avebury, takes his title from this place, 22 Jan. 
1900. 

AVEIN, or AVAINE (Luxemburg, Belgium). 
Here the French and Dutch defeated the Spaniards, 
20 May, 1635. 

" AVE MARIA ! " the salutation of the 
angel Gabriel to the Virgin {Luke i. 28), was made 
a formula of devotion by pope John XXI. about 
1326. In the beginning of the 15th century Vin- 
eetitius Ferrerius used it before his discourses. 
Bingham. 

AVENIN. The stimulating qualities of this 
nitrogenous alkaloid in oats were discovered by Mr. 
Sanson in 1882. 

B 2 



L.ofC. 



AVENUE THEATEE. 



100 



AZTECS. 



AVENUE THEATEE, Thames Embank- 
ment, opened n March, 1882. 

AVIGNON, a city, S. E. France, ceded by 
Philip III. to the pope in 1273. The papal seat 
aras removed by Clement V. to Avignon, in 1309. 
In 1348 Clement VI. purchased the sovereignty from 
Jane, countess of Provence and queen of Naples. 
In 1408, the French, wearied of the schism, ex- 
pelled Benedict XIII. , and Avignon ceased to be 
the seat of the papacy. Here were held nine 
councils (1 080- 1 45 7). Avignon was seized and re- 
stored several times by the French kings; the last 
time restored, 1773. It was claimed by the national 
assembly, 1791, and was confirmed to France by 
the congress of sovereigns in 1815. In Oct. 1791, 
horrible massacres took place here. See Popes, 
1309-94- 

AXE, frequently mentioned in the Bible, Bent. 
xix. 5; Judges, ix. 48; I Sam. xiii. 20; Psalm 
lxxiv. 5, etc. See Tools. 

AXUM, or AXJXUME, a town in Abyssinia 
said to have been the capital of a kingdom whose 
people were converted to Christianity by Frumen- 
tius about 330, and were allies of Justinian, 533. 

AYACUCHO (Peru). Here the Peruvians 
finally achieved their independence by defeating 
the Spaniards, 9 Dec. 1824. 

AYDE, or AIDE, the tax paid by the vassal to 
the chief lord upon urgent occasions. In France 
and England an aide was due for knighting the 
king's eldest son. One was demanded by Philip 
the Fair, 13 13. The aide due upon the birth of a 
prince, ordained by the statute of Westminster 
(Edward I.), 1285, was not to be levied until he 
was fifteen years of age, for the ease of the subject. 
The aide for the marriage of the king's eldest 
daughter could not be demanded in this country 
until her seventh year. In feudal tenures there 
was an aide for ransoming the chief lord ; so when 
our Bichard I. was kept a prisoner by the emperor 
of Germany, an aide of 20*., to redeem him, was 
enforced upon every knight's fee : see Benevolence. 

AYLESBUEY, Buckinghamshire, was reduced 
by the "West Saxons in 571. Incorporated by charter 
in 1554; absorbed into the county 1889. The 
ancient parish church was restored by sir G. G. 
Scott, 1849-67. Visited by the queen 14 May, 
1890. Population 1881, 7,795 ; 1891, 8,674; l 9 0l i 
9,244. 

AYLESFOED (Kent). Here, it is said, the 
Britons were victorious over the Saxon invaders, 
455, and Horsa was killed. 

AYE, capital of Ayrshire, S. W. Scotland: char- 
tered and endowed by William the Lion, 12th 
century; fortified by Oliver Cromwell. — By'a sud- 
den fire at Templeton's carpet works, 29 persons 
perished, 16 June, 1876. Statue of burns at Irvine 
unveiled by Mr. Alfred Austin, poet laureate, 18 
July, 1896. Town hall, &c, burnt down, estimated 
loss, 20,000/., 1 July, 1897. Population, 1881, 
20,821; 1891,24,800; [901,28,624. 



AZINCOUE, see Agincourt. 

AZOFF, SEA OF, the Palus Maeotis of the 
ancients, communicates by the strait of Yeni- 
kale (the Bosporus Cimmerius) with the Black 
Sea, and is entirely surrounded by Russian terri- 
tory ; Taganrog and Kertch being the principal 
places. An expedition, composed of British, French, 
and Turkish troops, commanded by sir G. Brown, 
arrived at Kertch, 24 May, 1855, when the Russians 
retired, after blowing up the fortifications. On the 
25th the allies marched upon Tenikale, which also 
offered no resistance. On the same evening the 
allied fleet entered the Sea of Azoff, and in a few 
days completed their occupation of it, after captur- 
ing a large number of merchant vessels, &c. An 
immense amount of stores was destroyed by the 
Russians to prevent their falling into the hands of 
the allies. 

AZOIMLDE, a compound of hydrogen and 
nitrogen (azote), a very explosive gas, obtained 
from organic sources, such as benzoyl-glycollic acid 
and hippuric acid, by prof. Curtius in 1890. It 
forms salts by combination with metals ; it is 
described in Nature, 10 Dec. 1891. 

AZOEES, or "Western Isles (N. Atlantic), 

belonging to Portugal, the supposed site of the 
ancient Atlantis, are said to have been discovered 
in the 15th century by Vanderberg of Bruges, who 
was driven on their coasts by the weather. Cabral, 
sent by the Portuguese court, fell in with St. Mary's 
in 1432, and in 1457 they were all discovered and 
named Azores from the number of goshawks found 
on them. They were given by Alfonso V. to the 
duchess of Burgundy in 1466, and colonised by 
Flemings. They were subject to Spain 1580-1640. 
The isle Terceira, during the usurpation of dom 
Miguel, declared for donna Maria, 1829, and a 
government was established at the capital Angra, 
1830-33. A volcano at St. George's destroyed the 
town of Ursulina, May, 1808; and in 181 1 a volcano 
appeared near St. Michael's, in the sea, where the 
water was eighty fathoms deep ; an island then 
formed gradually disappeared. A destructive earth- 
quake lasting 12 days, happened in St. Michael's. 
1 591. The telegraphic cable from Lisbon to the 
Azores was inaugurated by the king and queen at 
Carcavellos, 27 Aug. 1893. 

AZOTE, the name given by French chemists 
to nitrogen (wh ich see) . 

AZOTUS, see Ashdod. 

AZEAEL, according to Mohammedan mytho- 
logy, the " Angel of Death," who "separates men's 
souls and bodies, and with his assistants either 
tears them asunder witn violence, or draws them 
apart with gentleness." 

AZTECS, the ruling tribe in Mexico at the time 
of the Spanish invasion (1519). In June, 1853, two 
pretended Azte (children were exhibited in Loudon. 
They were considered by professor Owen to be 
merely South American dwarfs. They were married 
in London, I April, 1867. and exhibited for son-e 
I hue alter. 



BAAL. 



101 BABYNGTON'S CONSPIRACY. 



B. 



BAAL (Lord), the male deity of the Phoenician 
nations, frequently worshipped by the Israelites, 
especially by Ahab, 918 B.C. His priests and 
votaries were massacred by Jehu, and his temple 
defiled, 884 B.C. 

BAALBEC, HELIOPOLIS (both meaning 
"City of the Sun"), an ancient city of Syria, of 
which magnificent ruins remain, visited by Wood 
(in 1751), and others. Its origin is lost in antiquity. 
Here Septimius Severus built a temple to the sun, 
200. The city was sacked by the Moslems, 748, and 
by Timour Beg, 1400. Visited by terrible earth- 
quake, 1759. See Heliopolis ; and Germany, 10 
Nov. 1898. 



See Afghanistan, 1 Sept. 



BABA WALL 

1880 ; and Mazra. 

BABBAGE, see Calculating Machines. 

BABBICOMBE MURDER, see Trials, 
Feb. 1885. 

BABEL, To WEE, of, built by Noah's posterity, 
2247 B.C. {Genesis, ch. xi.) The magnificent 
temple of Belus, asserted to have been originally 
this tower, is said to have had lofty spires, and 
many statues of gold, one of them forty feet high. 
In the upper part of this temple was the tomb of 
the founder, Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred scrip- 
tures), who was deified after death. Blair. The 
Birs Nimroud, the site of a temple dedicated to 
Nebo and called the "Temple of the Seven Lights" 
(planets), examined by Rich, Layard, and others, 
is conjectured by some to be the remains of the 
tower of Babel. 

BABEUF'S CONSPIRACY, see Agrarian 
Law. 

BABY-FARMING, see Infanticide. 

BABYLONIA* {Babilu Assyrian, Babirush 
Persian, the Shinar, Babel, and land of the 

* The city of Babylon was at one time the most magni- 
ficent in the world. The Hanging Gardens are described 
as having been of a square form, and in terraces one 
above another until they rose as high as the walls of the 
city, the ascent being from terrace to terrace by steps. 
The whole pile was sustained by vast arches raised on 
other arches ; and on the top were flat stones closely 
cemented together with plaster of bitumen, and that 
covered with sheets of lead, upon which lay the mould 
of the garden, where there were large trees, shrubs, and 
flowers, with various sorts of vegetables. There were 
five of these gardens, each containing about four English 
acres, and disposed in the form of an amphitheatre. 
Strabo ; Diodorus. Pliny said that in his time it was 
but a desolate wilderness. Mr. Rich visited the ruins in 
1811, and sir R. Ker Porter in 1818. The laborious re- 
searches of Mr. (after sir A. H.) Layard, sirH. Rawlinson, 
M. Botta, and others, and the interesting relics excavated 
and brought to this country between the years 1849 and 
1855, have caused very much attention to be given to the 
history of Babylon. Many of the inscriptions in the 
cuneiform or wedge-like character have been translated, 
principally by col. (after sir Henry) Rawlinson, and pub- 
lished in the J ournal of the Royal Asiatic Society. In the 
spring of 1855 he returned to England, bringing with him 
many valuable relics, drawings, &c. , which are now in the 
'British Museum. He gave discourses on the subject at 
the Royal Institution, London, in 1851, 1855, and 1865. 
'The rev. A. Sayce lectured on Babylonian literature at 



Chaldees of the Old Testament), a vast plain 
watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, the seat of a 
great Asiatic empire, traditionally stated to have 
been founded by Belus, supposed to have been the 
Nimrod of Gen. x. 1,8. See Assyria. According 
to the earliest existing history the country was 
divided between two races, the Sumir (Turanian), 
the probable inventors of cuneiform writing; and 
the Accad or Akkad (Semitic), which became pre- 
dominant. See Accadians. "The fragmentary 
Canon of Kings," given by Berosus the Grseco- 
Chaldean priest 268 B.C., had been superseded by 
the newly-discovered Babylonian canon inscrip- 
tions on tablets carefully dated from 2200 to 
647 B.C., an unequalled chronological series. Sum- 
maries are given by Mr. Boscawen in the articles 
" Assyria " and " Babylonia " in " Chambers' Ency- 
clopaedia," 1 90 1. 

Earliest astronomical observations at Babylon, 

b.c. 2234, [2230, H. ; 2233, CI.] 

Nabonassar governor, 747 ; His son Nadinu, 734 ; 
a revolt, Ukinziru, king, about .... 732 

Babylonia conquered by Pul (Tiglath-Pileser) king 
of Assyria, 729 ; becomes independent ; Merodach- 
baladan II. king about 7 22 ' 

Sargon, king of Assyria, captures Babylon ; Mero- 
dach-baladan returns, but is soon expelled by 
Sennacherib 7°5 

Babylonia ruled by viceroys, see Assyria. 

Nabu-abla-utzar (Nabopolassar), general, seizes 
the power about 640 ; proclaimed king . . . 625. 

Succeeded by his son Nebuchadnezzar, very great 
and powerful, 604; he restores the empire, and 
rebuilds Babylon. 

[His acts are recorded on innumerable tablets 
and in the Bible ; 2 Kings, xxiv., xxv. ; 2 Chron. 
xxxvi. ; Jer., xxxvii. — xxxix. ; lii. ; Daniel, 
i.— iv.] 

He captures Jerusalem, 599 ; and destroys the city 
and carries most of the inhabitants captives to 
Babylon, 588 ; dies 5 6 9 

Evil Merodach, 561 ; Neriglissar, king . . • 55 1 

Labynetus, 556 ; Nabonadius, a great monarch, 551; 
Belshazzar king 539 

Babylon taken by the Medes and Persians, under 
Cyrus, and Belshazzar slain. Daniel v. . . 538 

Babylon revolts, and is taken by Darius . . . 518 

Taken by Alexander, 331 ; he dies here . . . 323, 

Seleucus Nicator, who died 280 b. c. , transfers the 
seat of government to Seleucia, and Babylon is 
deserted. Babylonia was conquered by the Par- 
tisans about 140 b.c, and became part of the 
Persian empire. On the overthrow of the Sassa- 
nides by the Mahometans 650 a.d., Babylonia 
became the seat of the califs till 1258. Since 1638 
it has been subject to Turkey. 

BABYNGTON'S CONSPIBACY, to as- 
sassinate queen Elizabeth, and make Mary of 
Scotland queen, was devised by John Savage, a 

the same place in 1877. Important exploration of the 
ruins of Niffer, near Babylon, at the cost of the Baby- 
lonian Exploration Fund of Philadelphia, conducted by 
Dr. Peters, 1888-94, et seq. ; an ancient temple of Bel 
was discovered, with many other relics ; reported Deo. 
1894. American explorations on the site of N. Baby- 
lonia renewed, under Mr. Haynes, in 1893 ; cities of Nip- 
pur, or Niffer, and Mul-lil " Older Bel." in S. Babylonia 
excavated ; reported, Times 24 June, 1897. Explorations 
carried on at Susa, first by Loftus, palaces uncovered by 
M. Dieulafoy, 1884-86, and by M. de Morgan, Dec. 1897, 
palace ruins, monuments, etc., discovered, Times, 10 
Jan. i960. King Khammurabi's laws abt. B.C. 2200, 
■trans, by Dr. Schiel, Times, 14 April, 1903. 



BAB1-ISM. 



102 



BADEN. 



soldier of Philip of Spain, and approved by Wm. 
GifFord and John Ballard, catholic priests. Anthony 
Babyngton and others joined in the scheme. They 
■were betrayed by Pooley, a spy, and fourteen were 
executed, 20, 21 Sept. 1586. 

BABI-ISM, a new sect in Persia, founded in 
1843 by Mirza Ali Mahomed, an enthusiast, at 
Shiraz. He termed himself the "Bab," or "gate," 
of knowledge, and, giving a new exposition of the 
Koran, claimed to be the incarnate Holy Spirit. 
The destruction of himself and the greater number 
of his followers was due to Hossein, one of his 
disciples, who combined political and warlike prin- 
ciples with spiritual dogmas. The sect was tolerated 
by the shah Mohammed, but nearly exterminated 
by his successor in 1848-9. The Bab himself 
was executed 15 July, 1849. The head of the 
sect, Beheyah Allah, propounded a doctrine, termed 
"Bib el Huk," gate of truth. The persecuted sect 
has been favoured by Turkey, and been settled 
latterly at Bagdad. Mr. £dwd. G. Brown's 
"Narrative" respecting Babi-ism, was published 
in 1892. See Persia, 1 May, 1896. 

BACCARAT CASE, see Trials, June, 1891. 

BACCHUS, the name given after the 4th 
century B.C. to Dionysus {which see), the Greek 
god of wine, poetry, and music. 

BACCON or BACON, see Orleans. 

BACH SOCIETY, instituted in London in 
1849, for the collection of the works of J. S. Bach, 
and the promotion of their public performance. 
The original committee included W. Sterndale 
Bennett, Sir G. Smart, J. Hullah, C. Potter, and 
other eminent musicians. The society was dis- 
solved, 21 March, 1870, and the music given up to 
the Koyal Academy of Music. 

BACHELORS. The Roman censors frequently 
imposed lines on unmarried men ; and men of 
full age were obliged to marry. A tax laid upon 
bachelors in England, twenty-five years of age 
(varying from 12I. 10s. for a duke, to is. for a 
■common person), lasted from 1695 to 1706. Bache- 
lors (Romanist priests excepted) were subjected 
to an extra tax on their male and female ser- 
vants in 1785. A grand ball given by 84 bache- 
lors at Kensington House; the prince and princess 
of Wales present, 22 July 1880. The Bachelors' 
Club, London, founded in 1881, consisted of 950 
members in 1903. Members marrying may be 
elected honorary members by the Committee. " 

BACILLI (little rods), one of the forms of, 
and a division of Bacteria. See Germ Theory. 

BACONIAN PHILOSOPHY, propounded 
by Francis Bacon, specially in his " Novum Orga- 
non," published in 1620. Its principles are Utility 
and Progress ; and its objects the alleviation of the 
sufferings and promotion of the comforts of man- 
kind. Macaulay, 1837. 

Bacon Society, established in December, 1885, for the 
study of tin' winks and lite of Francis Bacon, and to 
investigate claims tor his supposed authorship of cer- 
tain works, including the Shakespearian dramas ami 
poems. A journal is published. 

BACTERIA, Schizomycetes, or Bacilli. Es- 
tablished by Colin (1853) to be small, single-celled 
fungoid plants. They are found everywhere, and 
through the researches of Koch, Pasteur, Duguid, I 
Bunion Sanderson, Klein, Fullerton, and others 
the bacilli of many diseases have been identified. ' 
Prof. Molisch, of Prague, reports a lamp illuminated 



by means of bacteria, March, 1903. See Germ 
Theory. 

BACTRIANA, a province in Asia, was subju- 
gated by Cyrus and formed part of the Persian 
empire, when conquered by Alexander, 330 B.C. 
About 254 B.C., Theodotus or Diodotus, a Greek, 
threw off the yoke of the Seleucidae, and became 
king. Eucratides I. reigned prosperously about 
181 B.C., and Menander about 126 B.C. The Greek 
kingdom appears to have been broken up by the 
irruption of the Scythians shortly after. 

BADAJOZ (S. W. Spain). An important barrier 
fortress, surrendered to the French, under Soult, 
11 March, 1811; invested by the British, under 
lord Wellington, on 16 March, 1812, and stormed 
and taken on 6 April following. The French re- 
treated in haste. A short military insurrection, 5 
and 6 Aug. 1883. Population, 1887, 27,279 ; 1897, 
490.551, 

BADDESDOWN HILL, or Mount Badon, 
near Bath, where Bede says the Britons defeated the 
Saxons, 493 ; others say 511 or 520, all doubtful. 

BADEN (S. W. Germany). The house of 
Baden is descended from Hermann, regarded as the 
first margrave (10:52), son of Berthold I., duke of 
Zahringen ; but Hermann II. assumed the title, 
Feb. 1 130. From Christopher, who died 1527, pro- 
ceeded the branches Baden-Baden and Baden-Doui- 
lach, united in 1771. Baden is an hereditary con- 
stitutional monarchy by charter, 26 May, 1818; it 
joined the German empire by treaty, 15 Nov. 1870. 
Population, 1 Dec. 1871, 1,461,562; Dec. 1875, 
1,507,179; 1885, 1,601,255; 1890, 1,656,817; 1900, 
1,866,584. 

Louis William, margrave of Baden-Baden, a great 
general, born 1665 ; sallied out from Vienna and 
defeated the Turks, 1683 ; died 1707. 
Charles William, margrave of Baden-Dourlach, bom 

1679, died 1746 ; succeeded by his son, 
Charles Frederic, born 1728 : margrave of Baden- 
Dourlach, 1738 ; acquired Baden-Baden, 1771, 
made grand-duke by Napoleon, 1806. 
Treaty of Bad '01 :— Landau ceded to France, 7 Sept. 1714 
Baden made a grand-duchy, with enlarged terri- 
tories . . . 1806 

A representative constitution granted by charter, 

18 Aug. 1818 

Republican agitation during 1848 

Insurrection ; joined by the free city Rastatt : the 

grand-duke flees May, 1849 

The Prussians enter Baden, 15 June ; defeat the in- 
surgents commanded by Mierolawski ; Rastatt 
surrenders, 23 July ; the grand-duke re-enters 

Carlsruhe 18 Aug. ,, 

Arrests for political offences . . . 9 July, 1857 
Concordat with the pope signed . . .28 June, 1859 
Greatly opposed by the chambers : annulled by the 
grand-duke by a manifesto, securing autonomy to 
the Catholic and Protestant churches ; signed 

7 April, i860 
Interview at Baden-Baden of the emperor Napo- 
leon 111., the prince regent of Prussia, and the 
German kings and princes . . . 16 June, ,, 
The new ecclesiastical law (adopted by the cham- 
bers) promulgated 16 Oct. ,, 

Opposition of the archbishop of Friburg and the 

clerical party 1860-65 

Disputes in the German diet: the grand-duke 
vainly endeavours to obtain a reconciliation ; and 

remains neutral June, 1866 

Baden joins the Zollvereiu (which see) . . July, 1867 
Meeting of the chambers; liberal measures pro- 
mised, 24 Kept. : universal suffrage adopted by 

the second chamber 29 Oct. 1869 

Civil marriage made obligatory . . 17 Nov. ,, 
Baden joins Prussian) the war with France, about 

20 July, 1870 
Gambling houses suppressed ; finally closed 31 Oct. 1872 
Death of prince William brother of the grand-duke, 

27 April, 1897 



BADMINTON LIBRARY. 



103 



BALAKLAVA. 



The grand-duke's jubilee celebrated, internat. art 
and horticultural exhibition opened at Carlsruhe, 
25 April; the German emperor arrives 26 April, 1902 

GRAND-DUKES. 

c8o6. Charles Fi-ederie ; dies i3ii ; succeeded by his 
grandson, 

c8i r. Charles Louis Frederic, who died without issue in 
1818 ; succeeded by his uncle, 

c8i8. Louis William, died without issue in 1830 ; suc- 
ceeded by his brother, 

0:830. Leopold, died in 1852 ; succeeded by his second 
son (the first being imbecile), 

C852. Frederic (born 9 Sept. 1826), regent 24 April, 1852 ; 
declared grand-duke, 5 Sept. 1856 ; becomes ill, 
his son appointed regent, 11 Nov. 1881. 

Heir : his son Frederic William, born 9 July, 1857. 

BADMINTON LIBRARY. A series of 28 
vols, by eminent Avriters relating to sports and 
(pastimes, edited by the duke of Beav.fbrt (a devoted 
sportsman, born, 1824, died, 30 April, 1899), dedi- 
cated to the prince of Wales, published 1885-96, 

BAFFIN'S BAY (N. America), discovered by 
William Baffin, an Englishman, 1616. The extent 
•of this discovery was much doubted, until the 
■expeditions of Ross and Parry proved that Baffin 
was substantially accurate in his statement. Parry 
entered Lancaster Sound, and discovered the islands 
known by his name, in 1818. British flag hoisted 
;at Cumberland Sound, territory annexed by Cana- 
dian government, Sept., 1897. See North- West 
Passage. 

BAGDAD, in Asiatic Turkey, built by Al 
Mansour, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, 
.about 762. Taken by the Tartars, and a period 
put to the Saracen rule, 1258. Often taken by the 
Persians, and retaken by the Turks, with great 
slaughter : the latter have held it since 1638. Popu- 
lation, 1885, 100,000 ; 1901, 145,000. See Turkey, 
Nov. 1899 et seq., for Baghdad 'Railway Concession. 

BAGPIPE, an ancient Greek and Roman in- 
strument. On a piece of ancient Grecian sculp- 
ture, now in Rome, a bagpiper is represented 
dressed like a modern highlander. Nero is said 
to have played upon a bagpipe, 51. Our highland 
ffegiments retain their pipers. Patrick, Bohan, the 
•celebrated Irish piper, died 9 April, 1884. 

BAHAMA ISLES (N. America) were the 
first points of discovery by Columbus. San Sal- 
vador was seen by him on the night of 1 1 Oct. 1492 ; 
he landed next day. New Providence was settled 
by the English in 1629. They were expelled by 
(the Spaniards, 1641 ; returned, 1666 ; again expelled 
in 1703. The isles were formally ceded to the 
English in 1783. Population in 1861, 35,287 (see 
'Cyclones, Oct. 1866); in 1871, 39,162; in 1881, 
43,521; 1892, 48,913; 1901, 53,725. The Ba- 
hamas profited by blockade-running during the 
American civil war, 1862-5. Governors, William 
Rawson, 1864; sir James Walker, 1868 ; John Pope 
Hennessy, 187 1 ; AVm. Robinson, 1874; Thos. F. 
Callaghan, 1879; Chaides Cameron Lees, 5 Oct. 
1881 ; H. A. Blake, Jan. 1884 ; Sir Ambrose Shea, 
Oct. 1887; sir W. F. Haynes Smith, Jan. 1895 ; sir 
Gilbert T. Carter, Nov. 1897. 

Chief Justice Yelverton's sentence of fine and im- 
prisonment against Mr. Moseley, editor, for contempt of 
•court, May, 1892, annulled by the judicial committee of 
ithe privy council, 2 Feb. 1893. 

Famine in the Bernini islands, destructive storms, 
many deaths, reported, 26 Dec. 1898. 

BAHAR (N. India), a province (conquered by 
Baber in 1530), with Bengal and Orissa, a princely 
dominion, became subject to the English East India 



company in 1765 by the treaty of Allahabad for a 
quit-rent of about 300,000/. 

BAIL. By ancient common law, before and 
since the conquest, all felonies were bailable, till 
murder was excepted by statute ; and by the 
3 Edward I. (1275) the power of bailing in trea- 
son, and in divers instances of felony, was taken 
away. Bail was further regulated in later reigns. 
It is now accepted in all cases, except felony ; and 
where a magistrate refuses bail, it may be granted 
by a judge. Acts respecting bail passed 1826, 1852, 
and 1898. 

BAILIFF, or SHERIFF, said to be of Saxon 
origin. London had its shire-reve prior to the con- 
quest, and this officer was generally appointed for 
counties in England in 1079. Hen. Cornehill and 
Rich. Reynere were appointed bailiffs or sheriffs in 
London in 1 189. Stow. Sheriffs were appointed in 
Dublin under the name of bailiffs, in 1308 ; and the 
name was changed to sheriff in 1548. There are 
still places where the chief magistrate is called 
bailiff', as the high bailiff of Westminster. Bum- 
bailiff is a corruption of bound-bailiff, every bailiff 
being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his 
good behaviour. Blackstone. 

B AIR AM, or BEIRAM, Mahometan festivals. 
The Little Bairam, follows the fast of Ramadan 
(which see) ; the Great Bairam, or feast of sacri- 
fices, takes place 70 days after the shorter one. 

BAIRD LECTURES, were founded in 187 1 
by Mr. James Baird, a wealthy ironmaster and m.p. 
for Falkirk burghs (1851-57), for the defence of 
orthodox theology in Scotland. 

BAIZE, a species of coarse woollen manufac- 
ture, was brought into England by some Flemish 
or Dutch emigrants who settled at Colchester, in 
Essex, about 1568. 

BAKER and Bakehouses ; see Bread. 

BAKERIAN LECTURES, Royal society, 
originated in a bequest of lool. by Henry Baker, 
F.R.S., the interest of which was to be given to 
one of the fellows, for a scientific discourse to be 
delivered annually. Peter Woulfe gave the first 
lecture in 1765. Latterly it has been the custom 
to nominate as the lecture a paper written by one 
of the fellows. Davy, Faradav, Tvndall, and other 
eminent men, have given tbe lecture. 

BAKU- See under Petroleum. 

BALAKLAVA, a small town in the Crimea, 

with a fine harbour, 10 miles S. E. from Sebastopol. 

After the battle of the Alma, the allies advanced 

upon this place, 26 Sept. 1854. 

Battle of BalaMava :— About 12,000 Russians, com- 
manded by general Liprandi, attacked and took 
some redoubts in the vicinity, which had been 
entrusted to about 250 Turks. They next as- 
saulted the English, by whom they were com- 
pelled to retire, mainly through the charge of the 
heavy cavalry, led by brigadier Scarlett, under 
the orders of lord Lucan. After this, from an 
unfortunate misconception of lord Raglan's order, 
lord Lucan ordered lord Cardigan, with the light 
cavalry, to charge the Russian army, which had 
reformed on its own ground with its artillery in 
front. The order was most gallantly obeyed, and 
great havoc was made on the enemy : but of 670 
British horsemen, only 198 returned. (Termed 
by Tennyson " The Charge of the Six Hundred.") 
The infantry engaged were termed a "thin red 

line" 2 5 Oct. 1854 

[A banquet was given to the survivors at the Alex- 
andra Palace, 25 Oct. 1875. 1 
[A subscription for the relief of about 20 destitute 



BALAMBANGAN. 



104 



BALKANS. 



out of ioo survivors of the Light Brigade was 
opened in April, 1890, by the agency of Mr. Her- 
bert and lieut. Wightman, two of their comrades, 
and supported by the St. James's Gazette, rt. hon. 
E. Stanhope, and sir W. Marriott, lords Tenny- 
son, Wolseley, Harrington, and others, May, 1890 ; 
above 4,000^. received, 28 July, 1890.] 

[Total received, including sums from India and the 
colonies, 6,753^. is. $d., 6 April, 1891.J 

A sortie from the garrison of Sebastopol led to a 
desperate engagement here, in which the Russians 
were vigorously repulsed, with the loss of 2000 
men killed and wounded ; the allies losing about 
600 22 March, 1855 

The electric telegraph between London and Bala- 
klava completed April, „ 

A railway between Balaklava and the trenches 
completed June, ,, 

BALAMBANGAN, an uninhabited island, 
N. coast of Borneo, about 50 miles in circum- 
ference, conceded to Mr. Francis, q.c, in 1889. 

BALANCE OF POWER, to assure the inde- 
pendency and integrity of states, and control the 
ambition of sovereigns; a principle said to have 
been first laid down by the Italian politicians of 
the 15th century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. 
of France, 1494. Robertson. It was recognised b\ 
the treaty of Miinster, 24 Oct. 1648. The arrange- 
ments for the balance of power in Europe made in 
1815, without the consent of the people of the 
countries concerned, have been nearly all set aside 
since 1830. See Rowers, European. 

BALAWAT, see Nineveh. 

BALDACHIN, or BALDACHINO, more pro- 
perly ciborium {which see), a. canopy placed over the 
altar in some ancient churches ; the practice, be- 
ginning about 1 130, was introduced into England, 
1279. The proposal to erect one in St. Barnabas' 
church, Pimlico, was opposed in the consistory 
court, Aug. 1873. The trial took place 23, 24 Oct. 
Dr. Tristram decided against the erection of the 
baldachin, 15 Dec. 1873. 

BALEAEIC ISLANDS, in the Mediter- 
ranean, called by the Greeks Balearides, and by 
the Romans Baleares, from the dexterity of the 
inhabitants at slinging : they include Majorca, 
Minorca, Ivic.a, Formentera, Cabrera, Conejera, 
and other islets. They were conquered by the 
Romans, 123 B.C. : by the Vandals, about a.d. 426, 
and formed part of Charlemagne's empire in 
799. Conquered by the Moors about 1005, and 
held by them till about 1286, when they were 
annexed by Arragon ; see Majorca and Minorca. 

BALFOUE ADMINISTEATION.* Lord 
Salisbury (aged 72) resigned, 11 July, 1902 (died 
22 Aug. 1903), and was succeeded by'his nephew, 
Mr. Arthur J. Balfour, without changes in the 
Cabinet, etc. See Salisbury. 4U1 administration. 

Prime Minister, First Lord) 

of the Treasivry, arid Lord [(12 July, 1902) Mr. Balfour. 

Privy Heal . . . ) 
Lord High Chancellor . . Earl of Halsbury. 

Lord 1'icsidiiit of Council . Duke of Devonshire. 



* Arthur James Balfour, born 27 July, 7848 ; M.P. 
for Hertford, 1874 ; private secretary to lord Salisbury, 
whom he accompanied to the Berlin congress, 1S78-80; 
lie led the attack on the Kilmairiham treaty, 1882 ; M.P.' 
for E, Manchester and president of the local govern- 
ment board, 1885; secretary for Scotland, 1.886; chief- 
secrctary for Ireland, 1887; liist lord of the treasury 
and leader or the Commons, 1895 et seq. 



Secretaries : 

Home Mr. Akers Douglas. 

Foreign Marquis of Lansdowne. 

Colonial .... Mr. Chamberlain. 

War Mr. Brodrick. 

Indian .... Lord George Hamilton. 



First Lord of the Admiralty . 
Chancellor of the Exchequer . 
Lord Chancellor of Ireland 
Chief Secretary for Ireland 
Secretary for Scotland . 
President of the Board of 1 

Trade ) 

President of the Local Govern- \ 



nient Board . 

President of the Board 
Agriculture . 

President of the Boon! 

Education . 
Postmaster-General . 



1 



Earl of Selborne. 

Mr. Ritchie. 

Lord Ashbourne. 

Mr. George Wyndham. 

Lord Balfour of Burleigh. 

Mr. Gerald Balfour. 

Mr. Walter Long. 

Mr. Hanbury (died 28 Ap. 
aged 58). The earl of 
Onslow succ. 21 May. 

Marquis of Londonderry. 

Mr. Austen Chamberlain. 



The above form the Cabinet. 

Chancellor Duchy of Lancaster Sir William Walrond- 
First Commissioner of Works Lord Windsor. 

I Mr. Anstruther. 
Junior Lords of the Treasury i Mr. Ailwyn Fellowes. 

i.Mr. H. W. Forster. 

Financial Secretary to the\ m : Ha >: es . ^sher, re- 

Treasury . . . . W n 8 £?• T*' M J' 
" \ A. R.D. Elliot succeed. 

Parliamentary Secretary to the \ Sir Alexander Acland 

Treasury . . ■ ■ f Hood. 

Paymaster-General. . . Sir S. B. Crossley 

Jtidge-Advocate-General . . Sir Francis Jeune. 

Civil Lord of the Admiralty . Mr. Pretyman. 

Secretary to the Admiralty . Mr. Arnold-Forster. 

Under Secretaries : 

Home Mr. Cochrane. 

Foreign Viscount Cranborne. 

Colonial .... Duke of Marlborough. 

War Earl of Hardwicke. 

Indian .... Earl Percy. 

Fi o7! c e ial . '*".'"" '■': '!"" • ! Lord sta,ile >-- 

Parliamentary Secretaries : 

Board of Trade . . . Mr. Bonar Law. 

Local Government Board . Mr. Grant Lawson. 

Board of Education . . Sir William Anson. 
Attorney-General . . .Sir Robert Finlay. 
Solicitor-General . . . Sir Edward Carson. 
Lord Advocate for Scotland . Mr. Graham Murray. 
Solicitor-General for Scotland Mr. Scott Dickson. 
Lord-Lieutenant for Ireland . Earl of Dudley. 
Attorney-General for Ireland . Mr. Atkinson. 
Solicitor-General for In hind . Mr. Campbell. 

For Reconstructed Cabinet see Addenda. 

BALFOUE'S ACTS, see Ireland, 1890-1. 

BALHAM MYSTEEY, see Bravo. 

BALIZE, see Honduras. 

BALKANS, the ancient Hsemus, a range of 
mountains extending- from the Adriatic to the 
Euxine. The passage, deemed impracticable; was 
completed by the Russians under Diebitsch, during 
the Russian and Turkish war, 26 July, 1829. An 
armistice was the consequence; and a treaty of 
peace was signed at Adrianople, 14 Sept. following. 
The Balkans were crossed by the Russians under 
Gourko, 13 July, 1877, see Russo-Turkish Jf'ar 
ff. By the treaty of Berlin, 13 July, 1878, the 
Balkans became the frontiers of the Sultan's Euro- 
pean dominions. 

The Balkan States are Servia, Bulgaria, and Roumelia 
(which see, also Macedonia, 1902-3). 



BALLADS. 



10.5 



BALLOONS. 



BALLADS maybe traced in the British history 
to the Anglo-Saxons. Turner. Adhelme, who died 
709, is mentioned as the first who introduced ballads 
into England. "The harp was sent round, and 
those might sing who could." Bede. Alfred sung 
ballads. Malmesbury. Canute composed one. 
Turner. Minstrels were protected by a charter of 
Edward IV.; but by a statute of E'lizabeth they 
were made punishable among rogues and vaga- 
bonds, and sturdy beggars. Viner. Fletcher, of 
Saltoun (died 1 7 16) in a letter to Montrose ex- 
pressed his opinion that making ballads was more 
important than law-making. The sea-ballads of 
Dibdin were very popular in the French war ; he died 
20 Jan. 1833. Patriotic songs during South African 
war, 1899-1902. Mr. Rudyard Kipling's "Pay, 
pay, pay " very popular. Mr. John Boosey's 
" Ballad. Concerts," St. James's Hall, began 1866, 

Collections.— Bishop Percy's "Beliques of Ancient 
English Poetry," 1765 et seq. Publications of the Percy 
Society, 1840-52; of the Ballad Society, 1868 et seq., in- 
cluding the Boxburghe ballads. 

Sir Walter Scott's "Minstrelsy of the Scottish 
Border," 1802 et seq. 

Professor Child's collection, 8 vols., Boston, U.S.A., 
1857-59 ; his greater work, 1888 et seq. 

Johnson's Scots Musical Museum, 6 vols. 1787-1803. 

Many smaller collections. 

New edition of the Roxburghe ballads edited by the 
rev. J. W. Ebsworth, with much labour and expense, 
completed, 1897-99. 

BALLABAT, an Australian town in Victoria, 
which arose after the discovery of gold in 185 1; see 
Australia and Melbourne, 1854. The " Welcome 
Nugget," largest ever discovered, found at Bakery 
hill, 1 858. Ballarat possesses m any handsome build- 
ings and churches, and has Protestant and R. C. 
bishops. Population 1881, 37,260; 1891, 46,033; 
1901, 46,410. 

BALLETS began through the meretricious taste 
of the Italian courts. Bergonzio di Botta gave one 
of great magnificence at Tortona, 1489, in honour 
of the marriage of the duke of Milan. One per- 
formed at the interview between our Henry VIII. 
and Francis I. of France in the Field of the Cloth 
of Gold, at Ardres, 1520. Ballets became popular 
in France, and Louis XIV. bore a part in one, 1664. 
Introduced into England with operas early in the 
1 8th century. 

BALLIN AMUCK, Longford. Here, on 8 Sept. 
1798, the Irish rebels and their French auxiliaries 
were defeated and captured. 

BALLISTITE, a nearly smokeless gunpowder, 
invented and patented by Mr. Alfred Nobel, and 
assigned by him to a company in 1892, see Cordite. 

BALLOONS.* A just idea of the principle of 
the construction of balloons was formed by Albert 
of Saxony, an Augustine monk in the 14th century, 
and adopted by a Portuguese Jesuit, Francesco 
Mendoza, who died at Lyons in 1626. The idea is 
also attributed to Bartolomeo de Guzmao, who died 
in 1724. The principles of aeronautics include : — 
I, the power of a balloon to rise in the air; 2, the 
velocity of its ascent ; and 3, the stability of its 
suspension at any given height. In 1872 Helmholtz 
thought balloons might be steered, if moving slowly. 
Fatal accidents to the voyagers have been estimated 

* " Astra Castra ; Experiments and Adventures in the 
Atmosphere ; by Hatton Tumor," a copious work, ap- 
peared in 1865. 



at 2 or 3 per cent. The Aeronautical Society of Great 
Britain, founded with the object of fostering and 
developing aeronautics and aerology, by the duke 
of Argyll, Mr. James Glaisher, sir Charles Bright, 
and others, 12 Jan. 1866. 

Francis Lana, a Jesuit, proposed to navigate the 
air by means of a boat raised by four hollow balls 
made of thin copper, from which the air had 
been exhausted 1670 

Joseph Galien suggested the filling a bag with the 
fine diffuse air of the upper regions of the atmo- 
sphere 1755 

Henry Cavendish discovered that hydrogen gas is 
10 '8 times lighter than common air . . . 1766 

And soon after Black, of Edinburgh, filled a bag 
with hydrogen, which rose to the ceiling of the 
room 1767 

Cavallo filled soap bubbles with hydrogen . . 1782 

Joseph Montgolfier made a silken bag ascend with 
heated air {first fire balloon) . . . Nov. ,, 

Joseph and Stephen Montgolfier ascend and descend 
safely by means of a fire balloon at Annonay, for 
which they received many honours . 5 June, 1783 

First ascent in a balloon filled with hydrogen, at 
Paris, by MM. Bobert and Charles . 27 Aug. „ 

Joseph Montgolfier ascends in a balloon inflated 
with smoke of burnt straw and wool 19 Sept. ,, 

First aerial voyage in a Are balloon — Pilatre de 
Rozier and the. marquis d'Arlandes . 21 Nov. ,, 

Second ascent of Charles in a hydrogen balloon to 
the height of 9770 feet ... .1 Dec. „ 

Mr. Tytler ascended in a Montgolfier balloon at 
Edinburgh 27 Aug. 1784 

Ascents become numerous : Andreani, 25 Feb. ; 
Blanchard, 2 March ; Guyton de Morveau, the 
chemist, 25 April and 12 June ; Fleurant and 
Madame Thible (the first female aeronaut), 
28 June; the duke of Chartres (Philip Egalite) 

19 Sept. ,, 

The first ascent in England, made by Vincent Lu- 
nardi, at Moorfields, London . 15 Sept. ,, 

[Centenary : three balloons ascend at same place, 

one of them " The Colonel " containing col. Brine 

and M. L'Hoste, from Finsbury, 15 Sept. 1884.] 

Blanchard and Jeffries ascend at Dover ; cross the 
Channel ; alight near Calais . . . 7 Jan. 1785 

[Centenary celebrated at Guines, 25 May, 1885.] 

The first ascent in Ireland, from Ranelagh gardens, 
Dublin . 19 Jan- „ 

Rozier and Romain killed in their descent near 
Boulogne ; the balloon took fire . . 15 June, „ 

Parachutes constructed and used by Blanchard, Aug. ,, 

Garnerin's narrow escape when descending in one 
in London 2 Sept. 1802 

Sadler, who made many previous expeditions in 
England, fell into the sea, near Holyhead, but 
was taken up 9 Oct. 1812 

Madame Blanchard ascended from Tivoli at night ; 
the balloon, being surrounded by fireworks, took 
tire, and she was precipitated to the ground and 
killed 6 July, 1819. 

Mr. Charles Green's first ascent (he introduced coal 
gas in ballooning) 19 July, 1821 

Lieut. Harris killed in a balloon descent 25 May, 1824 

Sadler, jun. , killed, falling from a balloon . . 1825 

The great Nassau balloon, which had for some time 
previously been exhibited to the inhabitants of 
London in repeated ascents from Vauxhall gar- 
dens, started from that place on an experimental 
voyage, Mr. C. Green, Mr. R. Holland, and Mr. 
Monck-Mason in the car, and after having been 
eighteen hours in the air descended at Weilburg, 
in the duchy of Nassau ... 7 Nov. 1836 

Mr. Cocking ascended from Vauxhall to try his 
parachute ; in its descent from the balloon it 
collapsed, and he was thrown out and killed, 

24 July, 1837 

An Italian aeronaut ascended from Copenhagen, 
in Denmark ; his corpse was subsequently found 
on the sea-shore in a contiguous island, dashed to 
pieces 14 Sept. 1855 

J. B. Lassie's model of an " aerial ship," in which 
the screw was used, was submitted to the academy 
of sciences at Paris, 1859 : an d exhibited at Wash- 
ington, U.S 1859 



BALLOONS. 



106 



BALLOONS. 



Mr. Wise and three others ascended from St. Louis 
.(after travelling 1150 miles they descended in. 
Jefferson county, New York, nearly dead) 

23 June, 1859 

Nadar's great balloon (largest ever made) when fully 
inflated contained 215,363 cubic feet of gas; the 
car, a cottage in wicker work, raised 35 soldiers 
at Paris ; Nadar hoped by means of a screw to 
steer a balloon in the heavens : his first ascent, 
with 14 persons, successful . . 4 Oct. 1863 

His second ascent ; voyagers injured ; saved by 
presence of mind of M. Jules Godard; descend 
at Nieuburg, Hanover ... 12 Oct. ,, 

Nadar and his balloon at the Crystal palace, 
Sydenham .... . Nov. ,, 

Society for promoting aerial navigation formed 
at M. Nadar's, at Paris ; president, M. Barral, 

15 Jan. 1864 

•Godard's great Montgolfier or fire balloon ascends, 

28 July and 3 Aug. „ 

Ascent of Nadar and others in his great balloon at 
Brussels 26 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Coxwell ascends from Belfast in a new balloon; 
several persons are injured by the balloon be- 
coming uncontrollable; it escapes . . 3 July, 1865 

Ascent of Nadar in his Geant balloon, Paris, 

June 23, 1866 

Mr. Coxwell said to have made 55° successful 
ascents up to April, 1867 

An aerial screw machine (helicopteric) suggested, 
in Paris, 1863 ; described by Dr. J. Bell Petti- 
grew, in London, at the Royal Institution, 

22 March, ,, 

Mr. Hodsman crossed the Channel from Dublin, 
and descended at Appleby, Westmoreland 

22 April, ,, 

A great balloon exhibited at Ashburnham-park, 
London, escaped, and was captured at Bouldon, 
Bucks 25 May, 1869 

■Charles Green, aeronaut, said to have made about 
600 ascents, died aged 84 . . .27 Mar. 1870 

Oupuy de Lome at Vincennes ascended with his 
"navigable" balloon, with 13 persons; experi- 
ment reported to be successful . . 2 Feb. 1871 

Professor Wise proposed to cross the Atlantic from 
New York to Liverpool in a balloon, 100 feet in 
diameter, no feet perpendicular, with a supple- 
mentary balloon 36 feet in diameter ; the two 
giving a lifting power of is,9oolbs., a carrying 
power of 9,500 lbs., and disposable ballast 
7,500 lbs., July; the balloon was reported in- 
adequate, Sept. ; a smaller balloon started (with 
a life-boat) 9.19 a.m., 6 Oct., and descended dur- 
ing a storm over Connecticut ; the men narrowly 
escaped 7 Oct. 1873 

Vincent de Groof, a Belgian (named the "flying 
man"), constructed a parachute to imitate the 
flight of a bird ; he brought it to London ; as- 
cended from Cremorne-gardens, and descended 
from a height between 300 and 400 feet in Essex, 
29 June ; at his next attempt, the parachute, 
either detached by himself or by accident, was 
disarranged, and lie was killed by falling, 9 July, 1874 

Under the Government Balloon Committee, Mr. 
Coxwell ascended at Woolwich to try C. A. 
Bowdler's apparatus (based on the screw-propel- 
ler) for steering balloons ; failure reported, 

25 July, ,, 
[It has been proved that a screw with a vertical 
axis can raise or depress a balloon, and thereby 
save gas and ballast. | 

M. and Mme. Dufour (see below, 1S70), ascend from 
Calais to cross (he channel, ;i Aug. : carried out 
to sea ; the balloon fell into the water and 
drifted towards Norway ; rescued by a smack 
(the Grand Charge); the aeronauts were landed 
at Grimsby 4 Sept. „ 

Dufour and others ascend from the Crystal-palace, 

■ t Sept. ,, 

Menier's new hot-air balloon fails on trial, 5 Sept. 

and 16 Oct. ,, 

Ascent Of Capt. Uuniaby ai 1 1 1 1' Crystal palace tn 

try his machine for ascertaining the course of 
the wind above the clouds ; reported successful, 

10 Nov. ,, 
MM. Tissandier, Croee-Spinelli, and Sivel ascend 
in the " Zenith " from La Villette, near Paris ; at 
26, 160 feet Crocc throws oui ballast : they ascend 



rapidly ; he and Sivel die through suffocation ; 
Tissandier recovered . . . .15 April, 1875 

Washington J. Donaldson, eminent aeronaut, 
perishes in Lake Michigan during a storm, 

18 July, ,, 

Reported failure of Carrol's directing apparatus at 
Paris July, 1878 

Frequent ascents in a " captive balloon " . Aug. ,, 

Mr. Gitfard's great captive balloon, "Paris," burst, 

16 or 17 Aug. 1879 

Five balloons start from various places near Lon- 
don, competing for a silver medal given by the 
Balloon Society; the "Owl," Mr. Wright and 
Commander Cheyne, travelled 48 miles in one 
hour (no medal awarded) . . .4 Sept. 1880 

International balloon contest at the Crvstal palace; 
England (" Eclipse "), Mr. Wright ; France, M. de 
Fonvielle ; both alighted near Portsmouth, 21 Oct. ,, 

Giffard and De Lome's aerial ship said to be success- 
ful for direction, speed, &c Jan. 1881 

Mr. Eugene (who had ascended about 2,000 times) 
narrowly escapes destruction by a storm at 
Vienna 21 Aug. „ 

Mr. Walter Powell, M.P., crossed the Bristol 
Channel in a balloon and descended at Dinges- 
ton, and afterwards went on to Hereford, 3 Nov. ; 
Mr. Walter Powell, M.P., capt. Templer, and Mr. 
Agg Gardner ascend at Bath in war-office balloon 
" Saladiu" ; the balloon descends near Bridport ; 
two fell out ; the balloon ascends with Mr. Powell 
and drifts to sea ; not found . . 10 Dee. ,, 

Col. (aft. Gen.) Brine and Mr. Simmons' attempt to 
cross the Channel from Canterbury ; they and the 
balloon picked up half-way. . . 4 Mar. 1882 

Col. Burnaby crosses the Channel from Dover, 
and lands near Dieppe . . . .23 Mar. ,, 

Mr. Simmons goes from Maldon, Essex, to Arras (140 
miles) 2 h 10 June ,, 

Mr. Simmons and sir Claude C. de Crespigny crossed 
the Channel from Maldon, Essex, to Oudekerk, 
near Flushing (140 miles in 6 hours) . 1 Aug. 1883 

By Mr. Simmons and Mr. Small from Hastings to 
Cape La Hague (8 hours) . . 13 Sept. ,, 

Electrical balloon constructed by Gaston and Albert 
Tissandier. successful trial reported . 8 Oct. ,, 

By M. Lhoste from Boulogne to Ashford, 15 Sept. 
1883 ; again from Boulogne to New Romney, 
2 hours . 7 Aug. 1884 

Gen. Brine crosses from Hythe to Hervelinghen 

15 Aug. „ 

Balloon navigation said to be effected by M. Renard 
at Meudon, by an electrical machine 9 Aug. „ 

Another trial, result uncertain . . 12 Sept. „ 

Reported success by M. Tissandier . 26 Sept. „ 

By ('apt. Renard 8 Nov. ,, 

M. Lhoste crosses from Cherbourg to Tottenham 
near London ; attained height 3,600 feet, lowest 
temperature f C 29-30 July, 1SS6 

Mr Lorraine's attempt to propel and steer a 
balloon by boat apparatus at Uxbridge, Middlesex, 
containing three persons, fails . . 24 Aug. ,, 

JIM. Jovis ami Mallet report that they reached the 
altitude of 7,000 metres, in an ascent, at Paris 

13 Aug. 1S37 

Successful voyage of Mr. Morton from Dover to 
Loon, near Dunkirk .... 13 Oct. ,, 

M. Lhoste and M. Mangot ascend at Mondidier 
near Amicus, 6 Nov. ; Mr. Macdonald, master of 
the steamer Prince Tjtopold, witnessed the tailing 
of the balloon and the drowning of the aeronauts 
39 miles S.W. of the Isle of Wight, 13 Nov.; 
reported • Bee. ,, 

Aeronautical Exhibition ai Vienna, opened 1 April iSSS 

Professor Baldwin, ai Rockaway, New York, said 
to have descended safely froma balloon a mile high 
by means ofa parachute in 84 seconds. Aug. 1887. 

lie did the same at Alexandra Park, London, K. 
28 July, 1888, and since. After the 10th time the 
balloon society gave him a gold medal, 1 Sept. 

?888 ; prevented in his attempt to descend from 

an altitude of two miles ; descends from between 
6,000 and 7,000 feci . 1 J Sept., inlh ascent . 12 Sept. ; 

at Manchester, :- 4 Sept. ; (9,100 bit) 18 Oct : at 
Sheffield (4311a descent) 22 Oct.; final descent at 
Alexandra palace. 5000 feet, the Prince of Wales 
present 30 Oct. ,, 



BALLOONS. 



107 



BALLOONS. 



The aeronaut, Mr. Joseph Simmons, ascends from 
Olympia, London, W., and is killed on his descent 

27 Aug. 

George Higgins, an Englishman, descends from a 
balloon in a parachute at Lea Bridge Koad 

27 Oct. 

Ascent of Mr. Percival Spencer, without his 
parachute, at Calcutta 19 March ; afterwards with 
his parachute 

Prof. Dale and five others ascend from Gibraltar 
(2nd ascent there) 7 Dec. 

Mr. Percival Spencer at Secunderabad, Central 
India, ascends in his patent asbestos (Montgolfler) 
balloon, the air being heated by burning methy- 
lated spirit inside the balloon; he descended by 
his parachute 13 Jan. 

Death of Eugene Godard, aged 64, at Brussels, said 
to have made 2,000 ascents . . .11 Nov. 

Mr. Higgins, aeronaut, killed at Kirkstall, near 
Leeds, through a parachute descent . . 8 Aug. 

Mr. Logan ascends with a parachute at Detroit ; 
falls and is killed .... 29 Aug. 

Prince and princess Henry of Prussia, the grand- 
duke of Hesse and other personages ascend in a 
balloon at Frankfort . . . .23 Sept. 

Mr. Percival Spencer ascends in a very large bal- 
loon at Dover, and lands near Hastings 24 Nov. 

Lieut. Mansfield, at Bombay, is killed by falling 
from his balloon, which burst . . 10 Dec. 

Miss Van Tassel, at Dacca, descending with her 
parachute, falls 16 March, and dies . 18 March, 

Capt. Win. Duncan Dale and three others ascend in 
balloon at the Crystal palace ; the balloon bursts ; 
capt. Dale killed by the fall, 29 June ; Mr. Cecil 
V. Shadbolt dies, 8 July ; William Dale (son) and 
Mr. John Macintosh, much injured, recover July, 
[Capt. Dale had made nearly 200 ascents.] 

M. Mallet in a balloon left Paris, 23 Oct. and 
arrived at Wallenrod, in Darmstadt, 360 direct 
miles, in 36 hours .... 25 Oct. 

Commandant Kenard's new "dirigible" balloon 
with propelling mechanism, described . 25 Nov. 

Capt. Whelan (after 315 ascents) dies after a fall 
from his balloon near Shrewsbury (23 Aug.) 

1 Sept. 

M. Charbonnet, his wife, and an assistant, ascend 
in Piedmont ; he is killed by the fall of the bal- 
loon, near Turin it Oct. 

Miss Bassett killed by an accident to her parachute 

5 Aug. 

Balloon accidents near Paris during a storm, 4 
aeronauts killed 26 July, 

Balloon voyage by Mr. Chas. Pollock, from East- 
bourne to Domart near Abbeville . 12 Oct. 

Mr. S. Spencer and Dr. Berson ascend to 27,500 ft. 
from the Crystal palace . . . 15 Sept. 

Mr. P. Spencer and others experiment with steering 
apparatus, Earl's Court, 5 Nov. ; he and Mr. 
L. Swinburne ascend from Crystal palace, 
11.30 a.m., cross the Channel and arrive at St. 
Romain, 4.30 p.m., 20 Dec. ; again, 29 July and 

15 Sept. 

Capt. Lorraine, aeronaut, ascends from Christ- 
church, New Zealand, is carried out to sea and 
drowned 1 Nov. 

Dr. Danilewsky experiments successfully with his 
dirigible balloon, reported, Feb. ; Mr. Edward 
Anderson's contrivance for steering, successfully 
tried from Fulham to Witley . . 3 Sept. 

Herr Berson and Dr. Sirring reached a height of 
over 10,800 metres from Berlin . . 31 July, 

Count von Zeppelin ascends in his air-ship at lake 
Constance, 2 July ; again . 17 and 21 Oct. 

M. Santos Dumont's steerable balloon successful 
in Paris, 12, 29 July, 1901 ; his air-ship was 
wrecked, but he himself saved, 8 Aug. ; he wins 
the Deutsch prize, 100,000 f. by steering from St. 
Cloud, round the Eiffel tower and back 30 sees, 
less than 30 mins., 19 Oct. ; his 5th trip, at 
Monaco failed, owing to a rent in the balloon, 
which fell into the sea, but he was saved by a 
boat 14 Feb. 

Capt. 'von Sigsfeld killed trying to escape from a 
balloon near Antwerp, . . . . 1 Feb. 
M. Severo makes a trial trip in his air-ship at 
Vaugirard, Paris, the balloon exploded and fell 
at the height of about 1,200 feet ; Severo and his 
companion Sachet, were instantly killed, 12 May 



1900 
1901 



Miss Edith Brookes, 23, parachutist killed at Shef- 
field 20 May, 1902 

Mr. Stanley Spencer with his little niece steers 
the " Mellin " air-ship, Crystal palace . 6 July, ,, 

Mr. S. Spencer, in the " Mellin," crossed London, 

19 Sept. ,, 
Baron von Bradsky and Morin, his assistant, killed 

by the break-up of his steerable balloon near 
Pierrefitte 13 Oct. ,, 

Many air-ships building. One by Dr. F. A. Barton 
for the War Office May, 1903 

New method of inflating balloons by means of hot 
air, heated by the vaporisation of petroleum. 
Successful trial made by Mr. T. N. Maskelyne, the 
inventor, at Cold Ash, Newbury, . 10 April, ,, 

Spencer airship ascends from the Crystal palace 
and descends at New Barnet. Attempt to round 
the dome of St. Paul's unsuccessful . 17 Sept. ,, 

MILITARY AND POSTAL APPLICATIONS. 

Guyton de Morveau ascended twice during the battle 
of Fleurus, and gave important information to 
Jourdain 21 June, 1794 

The use of balloons for postal x>urposes invented by 
Mr. G. Shepherd, C.E 1851 

Balloons were used during the battle of Solferino, 
24 June, 1859; and by the Federal army near 
Washington July, 1861 

M. Duf'our conveyed the mail bags from Paris to 
Tours during the siege, 23 Sept. 187c, (he died, 
7 March, 1899). 

Postal balloons from Metz and Paris . Sept. -Dec. ,, 

Postal balloon sent up from Crystal palace, Syden- 
ham (successfully) .... 6 Oct. ,, 

M. Ganibetta, with his secretary and aeronaut, es- 
caped from Paris in a balloon, and fell in the 
Foret d'Epineuse (Somme) 7 Oct. ; he arrived at 
Rouen 8 Oct. ,, 

Sixty-six balloons with 168 persons despatched from 
Paris and other places {Gen. Brine), 23 Sept. 1870- 

28 Jan. 1871 

Military experiments ; ascent of Univers ; very 
cold weather ; valve burst ; several hurt ; near 
Vincennes ; no deaths .... 8 Dec. 1875 

Military ascents and balloon equipment for military 
purposes adopted at Woolwich, announced April, 1879 

Captive balloon at the volunteer review, Brighton, 

29 March, 1880 

Royal Engineers' Balloon Corps arrives at Souakim, 

7 March, 1885 

Mr. F. A. Gower's experiments at Hythe, June, 
1885 ; ascended and not heard of since . July, ,,, 

Mr. Eric S. Bruce's mode of electric signalling from, 
balloons reported successful at Albert-palace 

20 July, ,. 

EQUESTRIAN ASCENTS. 

Mr. Green affirmed that he ascended from London, 
on a horse attached to a balloon . . May, 1828 

He did so from Vauxhall gardens with a very 
diminutive pony July, 1850 

Lieut. Gale, an Englishman, made an ascent with 
a horse from the Hippodrome of Vinceunes, near 
Bordeaux. On descending and detaching the 
animal from the balloon, the people who held its 
ropes, from some misconception, prematurely let 
them go, and the unfortunate aeronaut was rapidly 
borne in the air before he was quite ready to 
resume his voyage. (He was discovered next 
morning dashed to pieces in a field a mile from 
where the balloon was found) . . 8 Sept. ,, 

The ascent of Madame Poitevin from Cremorne 
gardens, near London, as " Europa on a bull " 
(a feat she had often performed in France), and 
several ascents on horses, brought the parties 
concerned before the. police-courts on a charge of 
cruelty to animals, and put an end to experiments 
that outraged public feeling .... Aug. 1852 

M. Poitevin ascended on a horse in the vicinity of 
Paris, about the time just mentioned ; was nearly 
drowned in the sea, near Malaga, while descending 
from his balloon (and died soon after) . . . 1858 

SCIENTIFIC ASCENTS. 

Gay-Lussac and Biot at Paris, 23 Aug. ; Gay-Lussac 
(to the height of 22,977 feet) . . 15 Sept. 1804 

Bixio and Banal at Paris (to the height of 19,000 
feet. They passed through a cloud 9,000 feet 
thick) 1850 

Mr. Welsh ascends, 17, 26 Aug. 21 Oct., 10 Nov. 1852 



BALLOT. 



10S 



BALMORAL CASTLE. 



Scientific balloon ascents having been recom- 
mended by the British Association and funds 
provided, Mr. James Glaisher (died 7 Feb. 1903) 
commenced his series of ascents, provided with 
suitable apparatus, in Mr. Ooxwell's great 
balloon, at Wolverhampton : he reached the 
height of 5 miles 17 July, 1862 

He ascended to the height of about 7 miles at 
Wolverhampton ; at sf miles high he became 
insensible ; Mr. Coxwell lost the use of his hands, 
but was able to open the valve with his teeth ; 
thej r thus descended in safety . . 5 Sept. 186? 

He ascended at the Crystal palace 18 April, 11, n 
July ; at Wolverton, 26 June ; at Newcastle, during 
the meeting of the British Association 31 Aug. 1863 

His 16th ascent ; surveys London . . 9 Oct. ,, 

His 17th ascent at Woolwich ; descends at Mr. 
Brandon's, Suffolk (1st winter ascent this cen- 
tury), 12 Jan. 1864 ; ascends from Woolwich (24th 
time) 30 Dec. ; 25th ascent, 27 Feb. 1865 ; other 
ascents . . . 2 Oct. , 2 Dec. and in May, 1866 

Glaisher's " Travels in the Air" published . Jan. 1871 

Mr. Coxwell's ascent at Hornsey, 22 Sept. 1873 ; he 
continued his ascents till 1885, and died, aged 81, 

5 Jan. 1900 

A so-called "navigable balloon," during its ascent 
near Berlin caught fire and exploded; Dr. Wolfert 
the inventor and his companion killed 12 June, 1897 
See N.E. <£• W. Passage, 1896-7. 

Three balloons sent up from La Villette, simulta- 
neous ascents in other countries 8 June, 1898 

Experiments in wireless telegraphy and acoustics, 
" echoes from the earth " by the rev. J. M. Bacon 
and the Messrs. Maskelyne at Newbury, 26 July, 1899 

The rev. .1. M. Bacon and others ascend from Neath, 
S. Wales, to see the meteors, and narrowly escape 
destruction 15 Nov. ,, 

M. Gaston Tissandier made 44 ascents, see 1875, 
1883 ; died, aged 56 Sept. ,, 

Four scientific ascents under Mr. Percival Spencer's 
direction, London 1 May, 1901 

Many international scientific ascents in Gt. Britain 
and on the continent, 8 Nov., 1900 ; 10 Jan., 
7 Mar., 13 June, and 5 Dec, 1901 ; also 9 Jan., 
6 March, 5 May, and in July, Aug., Sept. . . 1902 

Lieut. Baudie fell from the car of French naval 
balloon off Toulon, and was drowned . 9 June, ,, 

The rev. J. M. Bacon and Mr. Percival Spencer 
cross from Douglas, I. of Man, to Dunscore, nr. 
Dumfries, in 3J hrs. Experimental signalling, 
Norse Code, with H.M.S. Renard tried success- 
fully 10 Nov. ,, 

no registering and 52 manned balloons sent up by 
the International Society in . . . . ,, 

BALLOON SOCIETIES. 

The French Academic d' Aerostation de Meteorolo- 
giijue, authorised 20 Sept. 1872 

Balloon Society op Great Britain, was formed 
21 July, 1880, by some members of the Aeronau- 
tical, Geographical, Astronomical, Chemical, and 
Meteorological societies, and other scientific bo- 
dies, to promote aeronautics and record and uti- 
lise observations made during ascents. Silver 
medals were awarded for ascents . 4 Sept. 1880 

German Aeronautical Society founded at Berlin 

Sept. 1 881 

International congress on aerostatics met at Stras- 
burg 31 March, 1898 

Internationa) commission for scientific ballooning 
met at Berlin mid. May, 1902 

First meeting of the Aero club, Crystal palace, 

25 April, 1903 

BALLOT (French ballotte, a little ball). 
Secret voting was practised by the ancient Greeks 
and Komuns, and the modern Venetians, and is 
now employed in France, in the United States of 
North America, ami, since 1X72, in Great Britain, 
and Colonics. See Scrutin. 

A ballot-box used in 1 1 1 <■ election of aldermen of 
London 1526 

Its use by the company of merchant adventurers, 
in electing an agent, prohibited by Charles I. 

17 Pec. 1637 

The ballot -box used by tin- " Hota," a political club 
at Miles's coffee-house, Westminster . . . 1659 



A tract entitled " The Benefit of the Ballot," said 
to have been written by Andrew Marvell, was pub- 
lished in tlte " State Tracts " 1693 

Proposed, in a pamphlet, to be used in the election 
of members of parliament 1705 

A bill authorising vote by ballot passed the com- 
mons, but rejected by the lords . . . . 1710 

George Grote introduced into the commons a ballot 
bill six times 1833-39 

The ballot an open question in whig governments, 1835-72 

The house of commons rejected the ballot— 257 
being against, and 189 for it . . 30 June, 1853 

Secret voting existed in the chamber of deputies in 
France from 1840 to 1845. It has been employed 
since the coup d'etat in . . . Dec. ,, 

The ballot authorised in the Metropolitan Manage- 
ment Act . 1855 

The ballot adopted in Victoria, Australia . . 1856 

A test-ballot at Manchester ; Ernest Jones elected 
for the city ; he died the next day . 22, 23 Jan. 1869 

For many years annually proposed by Mr. Henry 
Berkeley : rejected 12 July, 1867 ; he died 10 Mar. 1870 

Mr. E. Leathain introduced a ballot bill into par- 
liament, March ; and Mr. Gladstone spoke in 
favour of the ballot ; bill withdrawn 27 July, „ 

The ballot was employed in electing the London 
school board in 9 districts . . .29 Nov. ,, 

The ballot recommended in the queen's speech, 9 
1 eb. ; a bill for it introduced, passed by the com- 
mons ; rejected by the lords (97 to 48) . 10 Aug. 187] 

Bill to amend the law relating to procedure at 
parliamentary and municipal elections, including 
the ballot, read in the commons, 2nd time, 109-51, 
15 Feb. : passed the commons, 271-216, 30 May ; 
read second time in the lords (86-56), important 
amendments carried in committee, making secret 
voting optional (162-91) ; read a third time, and 
passed, 25 June : lords' amendments mostly re- 
jected by the commons ; the optional clause given 
up by the lords, 8 July ; royal assent ; (to continue 
in force till 31 Dec. 1880) . . .18 July, 1872 

The first election by ballot was at Pontefraet, when 
Mr. H. E. Guilders was re-elected . . 15 Aug. „ 

Mr. John Leigh ton makes known his system (in- 
vented in 1886) of secret postal ballot — every 
post-box being used as a ballot box ; Mr. James 
Withers and Mr. John Imray describe voting 
apparatus; Society of Arts, 18 Jan. 1888 ; another 
invented by Mr. W. H. Howe to supersede the 
ballot-box exhibited, London . . . Aug. 1901 

BALL'S BLUFF, Virginia, on the banks of 
the Potomac, North America. On 21 Oct. 1861, by 
direction of the Federal general C. P. Stone, the 
heroic eol. Baker crossed the river to reconnoitre. 
He attacked the Confederate camp at Leesburg, and 
was defeated with great loss. The disaster was 
attributed to mismanagement, and in Feb. 1862, 
general Stone was arrested on suspicion of treason. 

BALLYNAHINTCH (Ireland), where a san- 
guinary engagement took place between a large 
body of the insurgent Irish and the British troops, 
under gen. Nugent, 13 June, 1798. A large part 
of the town was destroyed, and the royal army suf- 
fered very severely. 

BALMORAL CASTLE, Deeside, Aberdeen- 
shire; visited by her majesty in 1848, 1849, 1850. 
The estate was purchased for 31,500/. by prince 
Albert in 1852. A cairn was erected in presence of 
queen Victoria and the prince Consort to com- 
memorate the purchase. 11 Oct. 1852. The present 
building, begun [853; i s B castellated mansion, 
mixed Elizabethan ami Scottish style, with a tower 
at one end flanked by turrets. The whole is of 
white Crathie granite, designed In the prince Con» 
sort to occupy the place of an older building. It 
is now occupied by H.M. king Edward VII. 
The new parish eliureli of ( 'raitliie, to the erection 
and adornment of which the queen, her family, 
and the gentry liberally contributed, was pub- 
licly dedicated in her presence . . 18 June, 1895 
Bust of Queen Victoria in ( 'ratine Church unveiled 
by the King ....'. 20 Sept. 1003 



BALTIC EXCHANGE. 



109 



BANGALORE. 



BALTIC MERCANTILE AND 
SHIPPING EXCHANGE, see Exchange. 

BALTIC SEA,* Ostsee, or Eastern Sea, 

separates Sweden and the Danish isles from Russia, 
Prussia, and Germany. Declared neutral for com- 
merce by treaty between Russia and Sweden, 1759, 
and Denmark, 1760. It is often partially frozen, 
Charles X. of Sweden, with an army, crossed the 
Belts in 1658, and the Russians passed from Finland 
to Sweden on the ice in 1809. 

A ship canal between the Baltic and the North Seas 
proposed Jan. 1884 ; adopted by the Reichstag, 25 Feb. 
1886. First stone of opening lock laid by the emperor 
William I. at Kiel, 3 June, 1887 ; the dam pierced and 
the water let in by the emperor William II., who sails 
on the canal to Rend sburg. . . 6 April, 1891 
Completion of the work ; see Kiel ; opened 20 June, 1895 
A lofty bridge over the canal near Kiel, opened by 
the emperor 3 Dec. 1894 

BALTIC EXPEDITIONS. 

Against Denmark. See Armed Neutrality. — 1. Under 
lord Nelson and admiral Parker, Copenhagen was 
bombarded, and twenty-eight sail of the Danish 
fleet taken or destroyed ... 2 April, 1801 

2. Under admiral Gambier and lord Cathcart, 
eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, and thirty- 
one brigs and gunboats surrendered to the British, 

26 July, 1807 

Against Russia. — 1. The British fleet, commanded 
by sir Charles Napier, sailed from Spithead in 
presence of the queen, who led it out to sea in her 
yacht, the Fairy 11 March, 1854 

It arrived in Wingo Sound, 15 March ; and in the 
Baltic 20 March, 

The gulf of Finland blockaded . . 12 April, 

£0,000 French troops embarked at Calais for the 
Baltic in English ships of war, in presence of the 
emperor 15 July, 

Capture of Bomarsund, one of the Aland islands, and 
surrender of thegarrisou ;see Bomarsund, 16 Aug. 

English and French fleets begin to return homeward 
to winter 15 Oct. 

2. Expedition sailed . . 20 March — 4 April, 1855 

It consisted of 85 English ships (2098 guns), com- 
manded by admiral R. S. Dundas ; 16 French 
ships (408 guns), under admiral Pernand, joined it, 

June, ,, 

Three vessels silenced the Russian batteries at 
Hogland island 21 July, ,, 

The fleet proceeded towards Cronstadt. Many in- 
fernal machines + were discovered. S veaborg was 
attacked (see Sveaborg) . . . 9 Aug. ,, 

Shortly after the fleet returned to England. 

The Baltic and Black-sea Canal, nearly 1,000 
miles, to begin at Riga, 875 miles in canalized 
rivers, 125 miles excavated, ending at Cherson ; 
proposed, Nov. 1897 ; estimated cost 20,000,000^., 
work to begin spring . . . . . . 1898 

BALTIMORE, a maritime city in Maryland, 
United States, founded in 1729. On 12 Sept. 1814, 
the British army under col. Ross advanced against 
this place. He was killed in a skirmish ; and the 
command was assumed by col. Brooke, who attacked 
and routed the American army, which lost 600 
killed and wounded and 300 prisoners. The pro- 
jected attack on the town was, however, abandoned. 
Alison. See United States, 1861. About 70 persons 
drowned while on an excursion on the Patapsco 
river, about 23 July, 1883. By a false alarm of fire 
at a theatre 24 persons were killed, 27 Dec. 1895. 
See Roman Catholics and Chili, 1891. Population, 
1890^434,439; 1901, 541,000. 

* Baltic Provinces of Russia, a kind of provincial 
federation since 1800, were incorporated with the empire 
on the' death of the governor-general Bagration, 20 Jan. 
1876. 

t These were cones of galvanised iron, 16 inches in 
diameter, and 20 inches long. Each contained 9 or 10 lb. 
of powder, with apparatus for firing by sulphuric acid. 
Little damage was done by them. They were said to be 
the invention of the philosopher Jacobf. 



BALTIMORE, fishing village, Cork, raised 
from penury to prosperity by the judicious benefi- 
cence of the Baroness Burdett-Coutts, aided by 
Father Davis, since 1877. She opened an Industrial 
Fishing School, 17 Aug. 1887. Prosperity reported, 
Oct. 1888. 

BALUCHISTAN, see Beloochistan. 

BAMBERG (Bavaria), said to have been 
founded by Saxons, in 804, and endowed with a 
church by Charlemagne. It was made a bishopric 
in 1007, and the bishop was a prince of the empire 
till the treaty of Luneville, 1801, when Bamberg 
was secularised. It was incorporated with Bavaria 
in 1803. The noble cathedral, rebuilt in 1110, has 
been recently repaired. Bamberg was taken and 
pillaged by the Prussians in 1759. 

BAMBOROUGH, or Bamburg, Northumber- 
land, according to the " Saxon Chronicle," was 
built by king Ida about 547, and named Bebban- 
burgh. The castle and estate, the property of the 
Forsters, and forfeited to the crown, through their 
taking part in the rebellion in 1715, were purchased 
by Nathaniel lord Crewe, bishop of Durham, and 
bequeathed by him for various charitable purposes . 
The valuable library was founded by the trustees 
in 1778. The books are lent to persons residing 
within 20 miles of the castle. 

_ BAMPTON LECTURES (Theological), de- 
livered at Oxford annually, began in 1 780, with a 
lecture by James Bandinel, D.D. The lecturer ia 
paid out of the proceeds of an estate bequeathed for 
the purpose by the rev. John Bampton (died 1751) 
and the lectures are published. Among the more 
remarkable lectures were those by White (1784), 
Heber (1815), Whately (1822), Milman (1827), 
Hampden (1832), Mansel (1858), Liddon (1866), 
Hatch (1880), Bigg (1886), Gore (1891). 

BANBURY, Oxfordshire, a Saxon town. The 
castle, erected by Alexander de Blois, bishop of 
Lincoln, 1125, has been frequently besieged. In 
1646 it was taken by the parliamentarians and de- 
molished. At Edgecot or Danesmore, near Ban- 
bury, during an insurrection, the army of Edward 
IV., under the earl of Pembroke, was defeated by 
queen Margaret and her adherents 26 July, 1469 ; 
the earl and his brother were soon after taken 
prisoners and executed. Banbury cakes were re- 
nowned in the time of Ben Jonson, and Banbury 
Cross was destroyed by the Puritans. Cakes were 
presented to the queen at Banbury 30 Nov. 1866. 

BAND OF GENTLEMEN PENSION- 
ERS, see Gentlemen- at- Arms. 

BAND OF HOPE, see under Temperance, 
1855- 

BAND A ISLES (ten), Eastern Archipelago, 
visited by the Portuguese in 1511, who settled on 
them, 1521, but were expelled by the Dutch about 
1600. Rohun island was ceded to the English in 
1616. The Bandaswere taken by the latter in 1796 ; 
restored in 1801 ; retaken in 181 1 ; and restored in 
Aug. 1816. 

BAND A ORIENTAL (South America), a 
portion of the viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, one part 
of which, in 1828, was incorporated with Brazil, 
while another part became independent, as the 
republic of Uruguay. 

BANGALORE (S. India) was besieged bj tl e 
British under lord Coruwallis, 6 March, and taken 
by storm, 21 March, 1791. Bangalore was restored 
toTippoo in 1792, when he destroyed the strong fort, 



BANGKOK. 



110 



BANK. 



deemed the bulwark of Mysore. Population, igoi, 
159.046. 

BANGKOK, capital of Siam. Estimated popu- 
lation in 1891, 100,000. 

BANGOB, (Banchor Iskoed, or jMonachorum), 
Flintshire, the site of an ancient monastery, very 
populous, if it be true that 1200 monks were slain 
by Ethelfrid, king of the Angles, for praying for 
the "Welsh in their conflict with him in 607. 
Tanner. 

BANGOR (N. Caernarvonshire). The church 
is dedicated to St. Daniel, who was a bishop, 516. 
Owen Glendower greatly defaced the cathedral ; 
and the bishop Bulkeley alienated many of the 
lands, and even sold the bells of the church, 1553. 
The see is valued in tlie king's books at 131/. 16*. i\d. 
An order in council directing that the sees of Ban- 
gor and St. Asaph be united on the next vacancy in 
either, was issued in 1838; but rescinded in 184". 
Present income, 4,200/?. Bangor was incorporated 
in 1883. North Wales University College opened, 
18 Oct. 1884. Population, 1881, 9,005 ; 1891, 
9,892 ; 1901, 11,7/0. 

BISHOPS OF BANCOR. 

1S00. Wm. Cleaver, translated to St. Asaph, 1806. 
1806. John Randolph, translated to London, 1809. 
1809. Henry William Majendie, died 9 July, 1830. 
1830. Christopher Bethell, died 19 April, 1859. 
1859. James Colquhoun Campbell. Resigned April, 1890. 
1890. Daniel Lewis Lloyd, elected 27 May ; resigns 29 

Nov. 1898, died 4 August, 1899. 
1899. Watkin Herbert Williams, elected 3 January. 

The cathedral was re-opened after restoration, 11 May, 
1880. 

BANGORIAN CONTROVERSY was oc- 
casioned by Dr. Benjamin Hoadley, bishop of Ban- 
gor, preaching a sermon before George I., 31 March, 
1717, upon the text, " Mi/ kingdom is not of this 
world" {John, xviii.36), in which he demonstrated 
the spiritual nature of the church and kingdom of 
Christ. He thereby drew upon himself the indig- 
nation of almost all thecLrgy, who published hun- 
dreds of pamphlets. 

BANISHMENT, an ancient punishment. By 
39 Eliz. c. 4 (1597) dangerous rogues were to be 
banished out of the realm, and to be liable to death 
if they returned ; see Transportation. 

BANK. The name is derived from banco, a 
bench, erected in the market -place fur the exchange 
of money. The first was established in Italy, 808, 

by the Lombard Jews, (if whom some settled in 

Lombard-street. London, where many hankers still 
reside. The Mint in the Tower of London was 
anciently the depository for merchants' cash, until 
Charles I. seized the money as a loan, and in 1640 the 
traders lodged their money with the goldsmiths in 
Lumliard-street. See Hank of England ; Hankers' 

Books : Drafts ; Savings Hunks. 

Eglbe's bonk at Babylon, mentioned about B.C. 700 

[The Bank of England (1 I90) possesses a Chinese 

bank note, mpposed t<> i»- ol the i.|tl ntury, i.n I 

Barcelona bank (earlie 1 existing bank) founded 
about ......... 1401 

Sainui 1 Lamb, ^ London banker, recommended the 
Protector Cromwell t" establish public bank, 

nid 1658 

Francis Child, a goldsmith, established n bank 

about i6fi . be died 1 1 »ct. 1713 

liu 1 1 "ii tie- London bankers (said to be tie' first) 1 
Charles II arbitrarily suspends all payments to 
bankers out of the exchequer of monies deposited 
there by them ; they lost ultimately 

1 Jai 
abonl ... . . 16S0 

Lank "f England establish) 1 1 . 1&94 



Wood's bank at Gloucester, the oldest county bank, 
established. ........ 1716 

Drummond's bank, Charing-cross, Westminster, 
was founded by Andrew Drummond, brother of 
viscount Strathallan, a Jacobite, who was killed 

at Culloden 16 April, 1746 

[Andrew was cleared from the charge of com- 
plicity in the insurrection, and private accounts 

of George II. and George III. were kept at his 

bank.] 

A list of bankers given in the " Royal Kalendar " . 1765 

Forgeries of Henry Fauutleroy, banker ; executed, 

30 Nov. 1824 

Act passed permitting establishment of oint-stock 
banks (which see) 1S26 

Rowland Stephenson, M.P. , banker and treasurer 
of St. Bartholomew's hospital, absconds ; defaulter 
to the amount of 200,000/. ; 70,000/. in exchequer 
bills ; (caused a great depression among bankers) 

27 Dec. 182S 

Establishment of joint-stock banks .... 1834 

Rogers's bank robbed of nearly 50,000/. (bank notes 
afterwards returned) . . . -24 Nov. 1844 

Failure of Strahan, Paul, and Bates (securities 
unlawfully used) ; private banking much injured, 

11 June, 1855 

Cheque Bank (winch see), opened in Pall Mall, 

23 July, 1873 

Prescott's, Dimsdale's (London) united with Tug- 
well's (Bath) and Miles's (Bristol) as a company 

1 Jan. 1891 

A youth named Mackenzie, in the National Pro- 
vincial Bank of England, robbed of a bag con- 
taining 11,000/. in bank notes . . 16 Feb. 1E91 

Death of Mr. Bertram Wodehouse Currie, of the 
firm of Glyn, Mills, Cume & Co. . . 29 Dec. 1896 

Charles Deane, cashier, pleads guilty of stealing 
3.734/. from the bank of Australasia, sentenced 
to 5 yrs. penal servitude ... 13 Sept. 1S95 

Parr's bank. Bartholomew-lane, robbed of 60,610/. 
in bank of England notes, 23 Jan. 1899 ; 40,000?. 
of notes returned by post, 26 Jan. ; notes amount- 
ing to 19,400/. found at the bank, 8 Feb. 1900 ; 
Chas. Edw. Goss pleads guilty, sentenced to 7 
yrs. penal servitude 13 Sept. 19:0 

The Dumbell bank case (see Man, Isle oj) . . 1900 

Goudie, a clerk in the bank of Liverpool, absconds, 
his defalcations about 170,000?. . 21 Xov. 1901 

Banks in 1855. Notes allowed to he issued. 

Bank of England 1 £14,000,000 

English private banks .... 196 4,999,444 
English joint-stock banks (see Banks, 

JointStock) 67 3,418,277 

Banks in Scotland 18 3,087,209 

Banks in Ireland 8 6.354.404 

200 £31,859,424 
Bank 0/ 

Venice funned 1157 

Geneva 1345 

Barcelona 1401 

Genoa . 1407 

Naples 1539 

Amsterdam ......... 1607 

Bamburg 1610 

Rotterdam 11 ^ 

Stockholm 16SS 

England 1604 

Scotland 1005 

Copenhagi n 17^6 

Berlin 1765 

Caisse d'Escompte, France 1776 

Ireland i 7 s- 

si. Petersburg 17S6 

In the EOSI Indies I? g 7 

in North America i-ci 

Prance,* founded bj Napoleon, aided by count 
Mollien 1S00-3 

■ Supported bj laws passed 14 April. iSo^, and 22 

The statutes were approved 16 Jan. 1S0S. 

\ ipoleonsoid that itsdut] was to provide mone] 

at all times at 4 per cent, interest ; average rate of dis- 
count till 1815,6 per cent.; much variation since; in 
1 j :. .-,<•: the lowest iii Europe. In iSoo the bank 
iomed with others in supporting Messrs. Baring. See 
. Nov, 1890. 



BANK OF ENGLAND. 



Ill 



BANK OF ENGLAND. 



Italy .... 1865 

Imperial Bank of Germany (formerly of Prussia) 

1 Jan. 1876 

BANK OF ENGLAND was projected by "William 
Paterson, a Scotch merchant (see Darien), to meet 
the difficulty experienced by William III. in raising 
the supplies for the war against France. By the 
influence of Paterson and Michael Godfrey, 40 mer- 
chants (aided by Charles Montague) subscribed 
500,000/. towards the sum of 1,200,000/. to be lent 
to the government at 8 per cent., in consideration 
of the subscribers being incorporated as a bank. 
The scheme was violently opposed in- parliament, 
but the bill (a tonnage act), obtained the royal 
assent 25 April, 1694, and the charter was granted 
27 July following, appointing sir John Houblon 
the first governor, and Michael Godfrey the first 
deputy-governor. The bank commenced active 
operations on 1 Jan. 1695, at Grocers' Hall, Poultry, * 
issuing notes for 20/. and upwards, and uis- 
counting bills for 4| to 6 per cent. The charter 
was renewed in 1697," 1708, 1713, 1716, 1721, 1724, 
1746, 1749, 1764, 1781, 1800, 1808, 1816, 1833, 1844. 
Lawson. 
Run on the bank : its notes at 20 per cent, discount ; 

capital raised to 2,201, 171!. ios. . . Nov. 1696 
The bank monopoly established by the prohibition 
of any company exceeding six persons acting as 
bankers (Scotland not included in the act) . . 1708 

Capital raised to 5,559,995'- 10s 1710 

Bank post bills issued (1st record) . 14 Dec. 1738 

Run for gold through rebellion in the North ; bank 

bills paid in silver; the city support the bank, Sept. 1745 
Rd. Vaughan hanged for forging notes . 1 May, 1758 

10/. notes issued 17S9 

Gordon riots ; since then the bank has been pro- 
tected by the military 1780 

5/. notes issued 1793 

Cash payments suspended, in conformity with an 

order in council 26 Feb. 1797 

1/. and 2/. notes issued .... March, „ 
Bank restriction act passed ... 3 May, „ 
Voluntary contribution of 200,000?. to the. govern- 
ment 1798 

Loss by Aslett's frauds (see Exchequer) 342, 697?. . 1803 
Resignation of Abraham Newland, 50 years cashier, 

18 Sept. 1807 
Bramah's machine for numbering notes adopted . 1809 
The bank issues silver tokens for 3s. and is. 6d. 

9 July, 181 1 
Peel's act for the gradual resumption of cash pay- . 

ments July, 1819 

Cash payments for notes to be in bullion at the mint 
price, 1 May, 1821 ; in the current coin of the realm, 

1 May, 1823 
Great commercial panic — many 1/. notes (acciden- 
tally found in a box) issued with most beneficial 

effects Dec. 1825 

The act for the establishment of joint-stock banks 

breaks up the monopoly 1826 

By the advice of the government, branch banks 
opened at Gloucester, 19 July ; Manchester, 21 
Sept. ; Swansea, 23 Oct. . . . . . . ,, 

And at Birmingham, 1 Jan. ; Liverpool, 2 July ; 

Bristol, 12 July ; Leeds, 23 Aug. ; Exeter, 17 Dec. 1827 
The bank loses 360,000/. by Fauntleroy's forgeries, 

estimated, in 1830 

Statements of the bank affairs published quar- 
terly 1833 

Peel's bank charter act (7 & 8 Vict. c. 32) ; renews 
charter till 1 Aug. 1855, and longer, if the debt 
due from the public to the bank (11,015,100/.), 

* The foundation of the building in Threadneedle-street 
was laid 1 Aug. 1732, by sir Edward Bellamy, governor, 
and the bank removed there 5 June, 1734 ; it'Was erected 
by G. Sampson, architect. Great additions have been 
made from time to time by successive architects : sir 
Robert Taylor, sir John Soane, and Mr. C. R. Cockerell. 
It now occupies the site of the church, and nearly all the 
parish of St. Christopher-le-Stocks. The churchyard is 
now termed " the garden. " Another entrance opened 
in Princes-street, 1882. 



with interest, &c. , be not paid after due notice ; 
established the issue department ; requires 
weekly returns to be published ; limited the issue 
of notes to 14,000,000/., <fec. . . . 19 July, 1844 
Commercial panic : lord John Russell authorises 
relaxation of restriction of issuing notes (not acted 
on) ; bank discount 8 per cent. Sunday, 24-25 Oct. 1847 
Gold bullion in the bank (consequent on discovery 

of gold in Australia), 21,845,390/. . . 10 July, 1852 
Branch bank, Burlington-gardens, London, W. 

opened 1 Oct. 1856 

Committee on the bank acts appointed . 12 May, 1857/ 
Bank discount 9 per cent. ; lord Palmerston autho- 
rises addition to issue of notes [to the amount of 
2,000,000/. were issued] . . . .12 Nov. >r 
Much alarm through the announcement of the bank 
solicitor that a quantity of bank paper had been 
stolen from the makers (forged notes soon ap- 
peared) 16 Aug. 1862 

The culprits, soon detected, were tried and con- 
victed (see Trials) .... 7-12 Jan. 1S63 

See Bills oj Exchange, 1873. 
For the Vagliano case, see Trials, 2 Nov. 1888. 
Branch bank, in Fleet Street, opened . 17 Dec. i38S 
The bank authorised (in accordance with the Act of 
1844) to increase their issue of notes by 250,000/. 
about . . . . . . . 11 Feb. 189& 

The bank, aided by the Bank of France and others, 
assists Messrs. Baring, and thereby averts a 

panic . . 15 Nov. , T 

Important changes in the management of the bank, 
proposed by the chancellor of the exchequer, 
4 April, approved by the directors and adopted 
by the proprietors . . . .16 June, 1892 

Resignation of Mr. May, chief cashier, on account 
of grave irregularities ; the loss to the bank, 
250,000/., covered by reserve; bank dividend 
45 per cent, reported . . . 15 March, 1894. 
One-fifth of the metallic reserve to be held in silver 

bullion, proposed 16 Sept. 1897 

Disapproved by the London bankers ; at a meeting, 

22 Sept. „ 
Meeting of bankers and representatives of the 
principal financial institutions of the city, Mr. 
S. S. Gladstone, chairman, to consider the 
national war loan, 35,000,000/. (5,000,000 to be 
reserved for issue as Treasury bills) ; the remain- 
der to be redeemable in 10 years at 2! per cent. ; 
price of issue, 98 J per cent. . . .9 March, 1900 

Bank Discount. 
1858, 3 per cent. Feb. 1. 
i860 (demand for gold in France), 6, Nov. 15. 
1861, 7, Jan. 7 ; 8 (demand for money in France, India, 

United States, &c), Feb. 14 ; 3, Nov. 7. 
1S62, 2%, Jan. ; 3, April ; ih, July ; 2, July 24 ; 3, Oct. — 

Dec. 

1863, raised to 4 per cent., Jan. 16 ; to 5, Jan. 28; re- 
duced to 4, Feb. ; to 3^ and 3, April ; raised to 4, May ; 
raised to 5, 6, in Nov."; to 7 and 8, and reduced to 7 in 
Dec. 

1864, raised to 8, Jan. 20 ; reduced to 7, Feb. 12 ; to 6 r 
Feb. 25 ; raised to 7, April 16 ; to 8, May 2 ; to 9, May 
5 ; reduced to 8, May 19 ; to 7, May 26 ; to 6, June 16 ; 
raised to 7, July 25 ; to 8, Aug. 4 ; to 9, Sept. 5 ; re- 
duced to 8, Nov. 10 ; to 7, Nov. 24. 

1865, reduced to sh> Jan. 12 ; to 5, Jan. 20 ; raised to 55,. 
March 2 ; reduced to 4, March 30 ; raised to 4J, May 
4 ; reduced to 3J, June 1 ; to 3, June 15 ; raised to 3J ; 
July 27 ; to 4, Aug. 3 ; to 4J, Sept. 28 ; to 5, Oct. 2 7 
to 6, Oct. 5; to 7, Oct. 7 (three times in one week) ; re- 
duced to 6, Nov. 23 ; raised to 7, Dec. 28. 

1866, raised to 8, Jan. 4 ; reduced to 7, Feb. 22 ; to 6, 
March 15 ; raised to 7, May 3 ; to 8, May 8 ; to 9, May 
11 (panic — suspension of Bank Act authorised by go- 
vernment) ; to 10, May 12 ; reduced to 8, Aug. 16 ; to 
7, Aug. 23 ; to 6, Aug. 30 ; to 5, Sept. 5 ; to 43, Sept. 
27 ; to 4, Nov. 8 ; to 3J, Dec. 20. 

1867, reduced to 3, Feb. 7 ; to 2k, May 30 ; to 2, July 25. 

1868, raised to 2\ per cent. Nov. 19 ; to 3, Dec. 3. 

1869, raised to 4, April 1 ; to 4 J, May 6 ; reduced to 4, 
June 10 ; to 3^, June 24 ; to 3, July 15 ; to2i, Aug. 19 ; 
raised to 3, Nov. 4. 

1870, raised to 3J, July 21 ; to 4, July 23 ; to 5 (Franco- 
Prussian War), July 28 ; to 6, Aug. 4 : reduced, to 5J, 
Aug. 11 ; to 4 J, Aug. 18 ; to 4, Aug. 25 ; to 3 J, Sept. 1 ; 
to 3, Sept. 15 ; to 2%, Sept. 29. 



BANK OF ENGLAND. 



112 



BANK OF ENGLAND. 



1:871, raised to 3, March 2 ; reduced to i\, April 13 ; to 
25, June 15 ; to 2, July 13 ; raised to 3, Sept. 21 ; to 4, 
Sept. 28 ; to 5, Oct. 7 ; reduced to 4, Nov. 16 ; to 3^, 
Nov. 30 : to 3, Dec. 14. 

£872, raised to 3^, April 4 ; to 4, April 11 ; to 5, May 9 ; 
reduced to 4, May 30 ; to 3 J, June 13 ; to 3, June 20 ; 
raised to 3J, July 18 ; to 4, Sept. 18 ; to 4J, Sept. 26 ; 
to 5, Oct. 2 ; to 6, Oct. 10 ; to 7, Nov. 9 ; reduced to 6, 
Nov. 28 ; to 5, Dee. 12. 

C873, reduced to 47V, Jan. 9 ; to 4, Jan. 23 ; to 3^, Jan. 30 ; 
raised to 4, March 26 ; to 4^, May 7 ; to 5, May 10 ; to 
6, May 17 ; to 7, June 4 ; reduced to 6, June 12 ; to 5, 
July 10 ; to 4^, July 17 ; to 4, July 24 ; to 35, July 31 ; 
to 3, Aug. 21 ; raised to 4, Sept. 25 ; to 5 (panic in New 
York), Sept. 29; to 6, Oct. 14; to 7, Oct. 18 ; to 8, Nov. 
1 ; to 9, Nov. 7 ; reduced to 8, Nov. 20 ; to 6, Nov. 27 ; 
to 5, Dec. 4 ; to 4^, Dec. 11. 

C874, reduced to 4, Jan. 8 ; to 3J, Jan. 15 ; raised to 4, 
April 30 ; reduced to 3^, May 28 ; to 3, June 4 ; to 2.-V, 
June 18; raised to 3, July 30; to 4, Aug. 6; ra£?<cei( 
to 3$-, Aug. 20 ; to 3, Aug. 27 ; raised to 4, Oct. 15 ; to 
5, Nov. 16 ; to 6, Nov. 30. 

[875, reduced to 5, Jan. 7; to 4, Jan. 14; to 3, Jan. 27 ; 
raised to 3J, Feb. 18 ; to 3, July 8 ; reduced to 2J-, July 

29 ; to 2, Au^. 12 ; raised to 2A, Oct. 7 ; to 3^, Oct. 14 ; 
to 4, Oct. 21 ; reduced to 3, Nov. 18 ; raised to 4, Dec. 30, 

1:876, raised to 5, Jan. 6; reduced to 4, Jan. 27; to 3J, 

March 23 ; to 3, April 6 ; to 2, April 20. 
[877, raised to 3, May 3 ; reduced to 2A, July 5; to 2, 

July 12 ; raised to 3, Aug. 28 ; to 4, Oct. 4 ; to 5, Oct. 

ii ; reduced to 4, Nov. 29. 

1878, reduced to 3, Jan. 10 ; to 2, Jan. 31 ; raised to 3, 
March 28 ; reduced to 25, May 30; [minimum omitted 
in bank notices, June] ; raised to 3, June 27 ; to 3J, 
July 4 ; to 4, Aug. 1 ; to 5; Aug. 12 ; to 6, Oct. 14 ; 
reduced to 5, Nov. 21. 

1879, reduced to 4, Jan. 16 ; to 3, Jan. 30 ; to 2J, March 

1 5 ; to 2, April 10 ; raised to 3, Nov. 6. 

1880, reduced to 2A, June 17 ; raised to 3, Dec. 9. 

t88t, raised to 3.V", Jan. ; reduced to 3, Feb. 17 ; to 2i, 
April 27 ; raised to 3, Aug. 3 : to 4, Aug. 25 : to 5, 
Oct 6. 

1882, raised, to 6, Jan. 30 ; reduced to 5, Feb. 23 ; to 4, 
Mar. 9 ; to 3, Mar. 23 ; raised to 4, Aug. 17; to 5, 
Sept. 14. 

1883, reduced to 4, Jan. 25 ; to 3A, Feb. 15 ; to 3, March 1 ; 
raised to 4, May 10; reduced to 3J, Sept. 13; to 3, Sept. 27. 

1884, raised to 3^, Feb. 7 ; reduced to 3, Mar. 13 ; to 2.', 
April 3 ; to 2, June 19 ; raised to 3, Oct. 9 ; to 4, Oct. 

30 ; to 5, Nov. 6. 

1885, reduced to 4, Jan. 29 ; to 3J, March 19 ; to 3, May 
7 ; to 2i, May 14 ; to 2, May 28 ; raised to 3, Nov. 12 ; 
to 4, Dec. 17. 

1886, reduced to 3, Jan. 21 ; to 2, Feb. 18 ; raised to 3, 
May 6 ; reduced to 2A, June 10; raised to 3A, Aug. 26; 
to 4, Oct. 21 ; to 5, Dec. 16. 

1S87, reduced to 4, Feb. 3 ; to 3.V, March 10 ; to 3, March 
24 ; to 2i, April 14 ; to 2, April 28 ; raised to 3, Aug. 
4 ; to 4, Sept. 1. 

1888, reduced to 3i, Jan. 12; to 3, Jan. 19; to 2 J, Feb. 

16 ; to 2, March 15 ; raised to 3, May 10 ; reduced to 
2 1 , June 7 ; raised to 3, Aug. 9"; to 4, Sept. 13 ; to 5, 
( )"cl . 4. 



1889, reduced to 4, Jan. 10 ; 37}, Jan. 24 ; to 3, Jan. 31 ; to 
2j, April 18 ; raised to 3, Aug. 8 ; to 4, Aug. 29 ; to 5, 
Sept. 26 ; to 6, Dec. 30. 

1890, reduced to 5, Feb. 20 ; to 4^, March 6 ; to 4, March 
13 ; to 3j, Aj>ril 10 ; to 3, April 17 ; raised to 4, June 
26 ; to 5^ July 31 -, reduced to 4, Aug. 21 ; raised to 5, 
Sept. 25 ; to 6, Nov. 7 ; reduced to 5, Dec. 4. 

1891, reduced to 4, Jan. 8 ; to 3J, Jan. 22 ; to 3, Jan. 29 ; 
raised to 3J, April 16; to 4, May 7; to 5, May 14 ; 
reduced to 4, June 4 ; to 3, June 18 ; to 2^, July 2 ; 
raised to 3, Sept. 24 ; to 4, Oct. 29 ; reduced to 3J, 
Dec. 10. 

1892, reduced to 3, Jan. 21 ; to 2rV, April 7 ; to 2, April 
28 ; raised to 3, Oct 20. 

1893, reducecU-jto 2$, Jan. 26; raised to 3, May 4; to 3J, 
Slay 11 ; to 4, May 18 ; reduced to 3, June 8 ; to 2J-, 
June 15 ; raised to 3, Aug. 3 ; to 4, Aug. 10 ; to 5, Aug. 
24 ; reduced, to 4, Sept. 14 ; to 3 J, Sept. 21 ; to 3, Oct. 5. 

1894, reduced to 2J, Feb. 1 ; to 2, Feb. 22. 

1895, unchanged. 

1896, raised to 2J, Sept. 10 ; to 3, Sept. 24 ; to 4, Oct. 22. 

1897, reduced to 3$, Jan. 21 ; to 3, Feb. 4 ; to 2J, April 8 ; 
to 2, May 13 ; raised to 2J, Sept. 23 ; to 3, Oct. 14. 

1898, raised to 4, April 7 ; to 3J, May 26 ; reduced to 3, 
June 2 ; 2rV, June 30 ; raised to 3, Sept. 22 ; to 4, 
Oct. 13. 

1899, reduced to 3J, Jan. 19 ; to 3, Feb. 2 ; raised to 
3*, July 13 ; to 4J, Oct. 3 ; to 5, Oct. 5 ; to 6, 
Nov. 30. 

1900, reduced to 5, Jan. 11 ; to 4A, Jan. 18 ; to 4, 
Jan. 25; to 3rV, May 24; to 3, June 14; raised to 
4, July 19. 

1901, raised to 5, Jan. 2 ; reduced to 4J, Feb. 7 ; to 4, 
Feb. 21 ; to 35V, June 6 ; to 3, June 13 ; raised to 4, 
Oct. 31. 

1902, reduced to 3I, Jan. 23 ; to 3. Feb. 6 ; raised to 4, 
Oct. 2. 

1903, reduced to 3J, May 21 ; to 3, June 25 ; raised to 4. 
Sept. 3. 

AVERAGE AMOUNT OF BANK OF ENG. NOTES IN CIRCULATION. 



I718 
1778 
1790 
1800 
1810 
1815 
1S20 
1830 



£1,829,930 
7,030,680 
10,217,000 
15,450,000 
23,904,000 
26,803,520 
27,174,000 
20,620,000 



1S55 
1857 
1859 



£18,215,220 

. 17,231,000 

. 19,262,327 

. 19,776,814 

. 19,616,627 

. 21,036.430 

. 22.705.7S0 



Assets — Securities 

Bullion 
Mobilities 



Dec. 27, 1856. 

. £29.484.000 ) 
10,105,000 1 



£39,589,000 
36,329,000 

Balance £3,260,000 
Nov. 11. 1857 (Ti me »f Panic). 



Assets — Securities 

Bullion 

Liabilities 



£35.480.281 ) 

, t™:=oR t -t42.650.7S9 



7,170.508 I 

39,286,433 

Balance or rest £3,364,356 



Bepl 


M. 


1850 


Aug. 


:o. 


1862 


\„- 


9. 


i"o, 


Mar. 


1 1. 


1866 


Sept. 


.•0. 


,, 


June 


10. 


1867 


Mare 




1868 


lice. 


'O, 


I l„, 


June 


.'. 


l870 


1 in 


5. 


l87I 


June 


■0, 


,, 


.hill. 


3, 


1872 


1 ii 1\ 


3. 


„ 


.l.iii 


8, 


.8 7 3 


July 


9. 




Hit. 


•7- 


,, 


July 


1. 


1874 


Jan. 


6, 


i«75 


June 


30, 




Jan. 


5. 


1876 


July 


s. 


,, 


Jan. 


3. 


877 


July 


4, 





Assets. Securities. 

. . £30,090,179 . 

30,106,295 . 

. . 31,823,066 . 

. 29,415,059 . 

• • 34.418,382 . 

I , |o.i" ■ 

. . 31,226,793 . 

. .I. ( .0.t0.9.|l . 

32,402,200 . 
. 

34,100,342 . 

• J'''.393.708 . 

. . 37,OQO,28l . 

. 32,138,990 . 

• ■ 3 1- 395.344 ■ 
. 30,922,266 . 

• • 36,596,872 . 
. 33,085,823 . 

. . 39.660,166 . 

38,398,985 . 

. . 32.247.ot8 . 

. 35.998.482 • 

• • 35.865,522 . 



• in ;■ 1 1< I Bullion. 

. £17,120,822 . 

17,678,698 . 

14,223,390 . 

14,327,618 . 

16,929,262 . 

21,882,770 . 

21,131 

19,196,622 . 

'".! I4> 

■ I, :■ . 

26,609,540 . 

25,291,761 . 

24,065,094 . 

24,051,412 . 

2-<,374>582 • 

2.M77.563 ■ 

23,929,601 . 

22,085,311 . 

26,690,116 . 

21,215,761 . 
30,190.692 

28,214,165 . 

26,948,340 . 



Liabilities. 
643,503,214 

44.453.778 
12,5 . 
39.934.15° 

47.039.390 

50, 6l 

48,7, 

50.134.2OJ 

49,790.528 

5'. 5' 

57.594.133 

58,497,293 

57,894, Si 1 

52,772.403 

52,338,203 

50,248,577 

57,315,010 

52,786,516 

63,252,1 1 1 

56,362,426 

60,186,939 

61,091,620 

59,682,894 



£3,716,787 
3,331,215 
3.517,879 
3,808,527 
4,ioS,254 
3.120,090 
3,610,694 
3,103,301 
3,097,069 
3.145,562 
3. "5. 749 
3,188,176 
3,250,564 
3.417,999 
3.431,723 
3.151.252 
3,211,463 
3,302,618 
3,107,171 ' 
3,252,320 

3,250.771 
3,121,027 
3,130,968 



BANK OF ENGLAND. 



113 



BANK OF ENGLAND. 



Jan. 2, 1878 .... 34.335.978 ■ • • 24,386,794 . . . 55,560,422 . . . 3,162,350 

■June 26, , 37,366,472 . . . 23,438,504 . . . 57,726,813 . . . 3,078,163 

Jan. 2, 1879 .... 44,286,663 . . . 28,088,361 . . . 69,062,479 . . . 3,312,545 

•July 2, „ 34>95 I > 8 37 • • • 35,286,269 . . . 67,067,079 . . . 3,171,027 

Jan. 1, 1880 .... 41,330,212 . . . 27,601,562 . . . 65,866,659 . . . 3,065,115 

July 1, „ 39,398,901 . . . 29,319,390 . . . 65,634,195 . , . 3,084,096 

•Jan. 5, 1881 .... 39,955,274 ■ • ■ 24,269,276 . . . 61,006,233 . . . 3,218,317 

June 8, 1881 35,890,517 . . . 25,902,159 . . . 58,721,068 . . . 3,071,608 

Jan. 5, 1882 40,438,605 . . . 20,249,034 . . . 57,505,540 . . . 3,182,099 

June 28, „ . . . . . 37,486,806 . . . 24,380,941 . . . 58,772,276 . . . 3,095,471 
Jan. 3, 1883 .... 41,688,522 . . . 20,353,791 . . . 58,856,634 . . . 3,185,679 

July 4, „ 39,827,144 . . . 22,266,535 . . . 58,939,347 • • • 3> I 54,332 

Jan. 2,1884 41,217,256 . . . 21,437,365 . . . 59,53i,i53 • • • 3,i 2 3,468 

July 2, ,, . . . . . 38,323,187 . . . 25,075,683 . . . 60,236,310 . . . 3,162,560 
Jan. 1, 1885 .... 41,663,958 . . . 20,695,496 . . . 59,243,143 . . . 3,116,311 

Jan. 6, 1886 41,446,936 . . . 19,964,811 . . . 58,109,621 . . . 3,302,126 

Jan. 29, 1887 .... 37,545,742 . . . 23,190,671 . . . 57,685,104 . . . 3,051,309 

Jan. 4, 1888 . ... 38,133,062 . . . 20,164,214 . . . 55,175,337 • • • 3, I 2i,939 

July 4, 1888. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,184,900!. Gold coin and bullion, 20,316,920/. 

Notes issued, 36,516,920?. Balance or rest, 3,140,748?. 
Jan. 2, 1889. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,184,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 18,439,030?. 

Notes issued, 34,639,030?. Balance or rest, 3,217,808?. 
July 3, 1889. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,184,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 22,719,385?. 

Notes issued, 38,919,385?. Balance or rest, 3,148,924?. 
Jan. 1, 1890. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,184,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 17,116,690!. 

Notes issued, 33,316,690?. Balance or rest, 3,177,007?. 
July 2, 1890. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 20,034,600?. 

Notes issued, 36,534,600?. Balance or rest, 3,184,670?. 
Jan. 7, 1891. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 23,352,635?. 

Notes issued, 39,802,635?. Balance or rest, 3,462,192?. 
July 1, 1891. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 27,285,550?. 

Notes issued, 43,735,550?. Balance or rest, 3,226,321?. 
Jan. 6, 1892. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 21,690,030?. 

Notes issued, 38,140,030?. Balance or rest, 3,400,148?. 
Jan. 4, 1S93. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 23,052,150?. 

Notes issued, 39,502,150?. Balance or rest, 3,236,173?. 
July 5, 1893. — Government debt, 11.015,100?. Other securities, 5,434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 27,945,965?. 

Notes issued, 44,395,965?. Balance or rest, 3,349,434?. 
Jan. 3, 1894. — Government debt, it 015,100?. Other securities, 5.434,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 22,882,720?. 

Notes issued, 39,332,720?. Balance or rest, 3,244,437?. 
July 4, 1894. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 36,486,455?. 

Notes issued, 53,286,455?. Balance or rest, 3,154,098?. 
Jan. 2, 1895. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 30,849,895?. 

Notes issued, 47,649,895?. Balance or rest, 3,192,427?. 
July 3, 1895.— Government debt, 14,481,477?. Other securities, 22,512,705?. Gold coin and bullion, 37,933,838?. 

Notes issued, 26,309,820?. Balance or rest, 3,074,457?. 
Jan. 1, 1896. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 42,968,325?. 

Notes issued, 59,768,325?. Balance or rest, 3,111,056?. 
July 1, 1896. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 46,129,400?. 

Notes issued, 62,929,400?. Balance or rest, 3,123,614?. 
Jan. 6, 1897.— Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 32,462,765/. 

Notes issued, 49,262,765?. Balance or rest, 3,406,871?. 
July 7, 1897. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 34,401,990?. 

Notes issued, 51,201,990?. Balance or rest, 3,331,673?. 
Jan. 5, 1898. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 29,188,060?. 

Notes issued, 45,988,060?. Balance or rest, 3,388,138?. 
July 6, 1898.— Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 34,736,595?. 

Notes issued, 51,536,595?. Balance or rest, 3,436,734?. 
Jan. 4, 1899. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 28,418,120?. 

Notes issued, 45,218,120?. Balance or rest, 3,284,950?. 
July 5, 1899.— Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 30,314,865?. 

Notes issued, 47,114,865?. Balance or rest, 3,415,616?. 
Jan. 3, 1900.— Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 5,784,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 30,745,660?. 

Notes issued, 47,545,660?. Balance or rest, 3,337,866?. 
July 4, 1900.— Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 6,759,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 30,980,750?. 

Notes issued, 48,755,750?. Balance or rest, 3,381,817?. 
Jan. 9, 1901. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 6,759,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 27,991,970?. 

Notes issued, 45,766,970?. Balance or rest, 3,511,725?. 
July 3, 1901.— Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 6,759,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 35,535, 305?. 

Notes issued, 53,310,305?. Balance or rest, 3,213,740?. 
Jan. 1, 1902. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 6,759,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 30,633,890?. 

Notes issued, 48,408,890?. Balance or rest, 3,218,295?. 
July 9, 1902. — Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 6,759,900/. Gold coin and bullion, 35,405,510?. 

Notes issued, 53,180,510?. Balance or rest, 3,424,240/. 
Jan. 7, 1903.— Government debt, 11,015,100/. Other securities, 7,159,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 28,798,700?. 

Notes issued, 46,973,700?. Balance or rest, 3,500,655?. 

July 2, 1903.— Government debt, 11,015,100?. Other securities, 7,159,900?. Gold coin and bullion, 35,155, 2 3°'- 

Notes issued, 53,330,230/. Balance or rest, 3,218,378/. 

1694 . 
1708 . 



PUBLIC DEBT TO THE BANK OF ENGLAND. 
£l,200,000 I 1716 . . . £4,175,027 I 1742 . . . £10,700,000 I 1S16 

2,175,027 I 1721 . . . 9,100,000 I 1746 . . . 11,686,000 I 1844- 



. £14,686,000 
. 11,00,100 

I 



BANK OF IRELAND. 



114 



BANKRUPT. 



BANK of Ireland. On 9 Dec. 1721, the 
Irish house of commons rejected a bill for establish- 
ing a national bank. Important failures in Irish 
banks occurred in 1727, 1733, and 1758: this led 
gradually to the establishment of the Pank of Ire- 
land at St. Mary's abbey, Dublin, 1 June, 1783. 
The business was removed to the late parliament 
house, in College-green, in May, 1808. Branch 
banks of this establishment have been formed in 
most of the provincial towns in Ireland, all since 
1828. Irish Banking Act passed, 21 July, 1845. 

BANK OF SAVINGS, see Savings 7 Banks. 

BANKERS' BOOKS EVIDENCE ACT, 

39 & 40 Vict. c. 48, passed 1 1 Aug. 1876 ; repealed 
by a fresh act 23 May, 1879. 

BANKERS' INSTITUTE, meeting to esta- 
blish it, 29 May, 1878; Sir John Lubbock elected 
president II March, 1879, 1st general meeting 23 
May, 1879. (1952 members, May, 1887.) One 
inaugurated at Dublin, 29 Oct. 1898. 

BANKS OF SCOTLAND. The old bank of Scot- 
land was set up in 1695, at Edinburgh, and began 
I Nov., the second institution of the kind in the 
empire : lending money to the crown was pro- 
hibited. 
Royal hank of Scotland chartered . . 8 July, 1727 

British Linen company bank 1746 

First stone of present bank of Scotland laid 3 June, 1801 

Commercial bank 1810 

National bank 1825 

Union bank 1830 

City of Glasgow bank* 1839 

Scotch banking act passed ... 21 July, 1845 

Western bank of Scotland and the Glasgow bank 

stopped, causing much distress . . . Nov. 1857 

BANKS, Joint Stock. Since the act of 

1826, a number of these banks have been estab- 
lished, f In Ireland similar banks have been in- 

* City of Glasoow Bank (with unlimited liability) ; 
founded 1839, identified with Glasgow; held Free Church 
Sustentation Fund ; stopped for a lew days during crisis, 
Nov. iS57. In 1878 paid dividend 1? percent. (100I. stock, 
236/.) ; 1272 shareholders, very many in humble circum- 
stances. The bank stopped 2 Oct. Investigation showed 
great fraud and false accounts. F.stiinated loss, 6,7*3,600/. 
causing much calamity and ruin to many. The directors, 
J. Stewart, Lewis Potter, R. Salmond, Wm. Taylor, H. 
[nglis, and J. I. Wright, and the manager, H. S. Stronach, 
were committed for trial, 30 Oct. Stronach and Potter 
were convicted of falsifying and fabricating balance 
sheets (18 months' imprisonment ; the Others of uttering 
the same (8 months' imprisonment), 1 Feb. 1879. 

The liquidators reported that about 1 19 contributors 

had paid about 4,500,1 oof. (i |8. .|<'. in tin pound) 1 Dec, 

1879; aos. in the pound paid to depositors, . March, 1880. 

Mr. James N. Fleming was arrested 25 Jan. for em- 
bezzlement, and sentenced to 8 months' im] lis' nnieut, 
t July, 1882. 

I lose. .t it,, Liquidation; 13,644,856/. paid, announced 
Nov, 1882. 

The receipts by subscription, &c, for the relief of the 
BUfferers amounted to 380,000/. ; Interest 47,1 col., making 
Ol ,| -7,000/. 

t im Royai Bum b Bane was established in 1849, 

by Mr. John McGregor, M.l 1 lit re, under bu R 

loll 1 took banking aoi, .* Vict, c. 113 (1844), 

bs an :itti 11 1 1 1 to mi induce tin Scot, ii banking system 01 

cash credits Into England, < d Bepi 1856, ii stopped 

payi t, occa loningmuch distress and ruin to man] 

email tradesmen and others. In consequence of si 
, \ idem < ot the Bxisteiii c ol fraud in the management ol 
the bank, elicited during the examination before tin 
, ourl of bankrupt! j . I ; instrui ted the at 

tornej general to fill nfoi motions against the 

11 im 1 met on, and several of the 
directors, 1 hey were 1 "eve led 07 1 

trial, and sent, n 1 to various degrees' ol unprl 



stituted, the first being the Hibernian bank. By the 
new Companies Act, passed 15 Aug. 1879, unlimited 
companies may register as limited. The joint-stock 
banks agreed to support the Bank of England, and 
to issue monthly balance sheets, May, June, 1891. 

Chief London Joint-Stock Banks. Founded. 

London and Westminster (becomes limited, 1879) . 1834 

London Joint-Stock 1836 

London and County (pecomes limited, 1879) . . ,, 

Union Bank of London 1839 

City Bank . . (ditto, 1880) . . . 1855 

A full list of joint-stock banks, with their date, capital, 
<fcc, is given in Whitaker's Almanack. 

BANK HOLIDAYS ACT passed 25 May, 
1871, chiefly by the instrumentality of sir John 
Lubbock, now lord Avebury. 

Bank Holidays.— England and Ireland: Easter Mon- 
day ; Monday in Whitsun-week ; first Monday in 
August ; 26 December (if a week day). St. Patrick's 
Day legalised as a bank holiday, in Ireland, by Act of 
1903.— Scotland : New Year's day ; Christmas day (if 
either falls on Sunday, the following Monday to be a 
bank 'holiday) ; Good Friday ; first Monday in May and 
August. 

BANKRUPT (signifying either hank or bench 
broken), a trader declared to be unable to pay his 
just debts. The laws on the subject (1543, 1571 et 
seq.) were consolidated and amended in 1825, 1849, 
1852, 1854, 1861, 1868, 1869, 1883. See Debtors. 
Lord Chancellor Thurlow refused a bankrupt his 
certificate, because he had lost five pounds at one 

time in gaming 17 July, 1788 

Enacted that members of the house of commons 
becoming bankrupt, and not paying their debts 
in full, should vacate their seats .... 
Lord Eldon's Act appointing commissioners . . 
New Bankruptcy Court (including a court " of 
review," 3 judges) erected by 2 Will. IV. c. 56 
(Lord Brougham's Act) ; official assignees ap- 
pointed, <fcc 1831 

Bills for reforming bankruptcy law were in vain 

brought before parliament . . . 1859, i860 
Bill by the lord chancellor Westbury (formerly sir 
R. Bethell), 24 & 25 Vict. c. 134, passed (1861) ; 
great changes made : the court for relief of insol- 
vent debtors abolished, and increased powers 
given to the commissioners in bankruptcy, &c. ; 
the new orders issued .... 12 Oct. 1862 
By lord Hatherley's Bankruptcy Act, passed 9 Aug. 
1869, a new bankruptcy court was established in 
place of the commissioners', which sat last time, 
when above 300 petitions of bankruptcy were 
received, 31 Dec. 1869. "Paid trustee system," 
clauses 125, 126, termed "a gentlemanly way of 
getting rid of debts." The new judge, the hon. 
.lanes Bacon, sat ..... 1 Jan. 1870 
Justice Qiffard, the judge of the Bankruptcy Appeal 
Court, decided (in the case of the duke of New- 
castle) that a peer can be made a bankrupt, Nov. 
1869, which decision was affirmed on appeal to 
the' house of lords in the following year ; other 
petitions against peers have been tiled, it was 
decided thai bankrupts cannot sit in the house 
of peers 10 Feb. 1871 



1S12 
1825 



incut. Attempts to mitigate the punishment failed 
(May, 185S) ; but all wen' released except Cameron and 
Esdaile, in July, 1858. In April, 1S60, dividends had 
been paid to the amount of 15s. In the pound. The at - 
eneral brought in a bill called the Fraudulent 
Trustees' Act, 20 & 21 Vict c. 54, to prevent the reeur- 

1, in e of such transactions. 

On 29 April, i860, a deficient y of 263,000/. was discovered 

I a Mr. George rullinger, a 

cashier, C0nfe88l d himself guilty Of forger] and fraud, and 
was sentenced to .-,. years' imprisonment. 

Feb, 1861, it was discovered that John Durden, a 

eleik of the (1 hum 1 <■ , had robbed his 

employers of 67,000'.. of which 46,000/. might b< recovered. 
In Dec 1864, J w Terry and Thomas Burch, manager 
and secretary ol tin Unity Bank, were committed on 
a charge ol conspiracy foi fabricating accounts; but 
were acquitted on then trial, 



BANNATYNE CLUB. 



115 



BAPAUME. 



Bankruptcy Disqualification Act disqualifies a 
peer from sitting or voting in parliament, passed 

13 July, 

Irish bankruptcy laws consolidated in 1836, and 
further amended in 

Scotch bankruptcy laws consolidated in 1856, and 
further amended in 

New Bankruptcy Act for Ireland, passed . 6 Aug. 

Four Bankruptcy bills introduced by lord chan- 
cellor Cairns, and withdrawn . . . 187^ 

Bankruptcies have diminished through great num- 
ber of liquidations by arranged compositions ; 
many saicl to be fraudulent ; 365 1 of these in 
1870 ; 11,976 in 1879 ; about 20,000,000?. wasted. 

New bankruptcy bill brought in by Mr. Chamber- 
lain 8 April, 1881 (droj 

New Bankruptcy Act passed 25 Aug., 1883, 46 & 47 
Vict. c. 52, places bankrupts' assets in charge of 
board of trade, and makes other important 
changes. By this act bankrupts are disqualified 
for election and sitting as members of the house 
of commons. 

The court in Portugal Street closed ; business trans- 
ferred to High Court of Justice, Jan.; new judge 
first sat 18 Feb. 

Bankruptcy (Discharge and Closure) Act passed . 

Sir Albert Rollit's Bankruptcy Act, 1883-90, passed 

18 Aug. 

Mr. E. T. Hooley, manufacturer, and promoter of 
companies, became bankrupt, his statements at 
his public examinations commencing 27 July, 
respecting monetary transactions with eminent 
persons emphatically denied by them. 17 Aug., 

Case resumed 2 Nov. ; he gave about 39,000?. in 
charities in 1897, plate to St. Paul's 1,500?. ; case 
adjourned till .14 Nov. ; 7 Nov. his public ex- 
amination closed iS Nov. 

(Mr. Martin Rucker fined 200?. with costs, for 
endeavouring to bribe Mr. Hooley to suppress 
evidence, 2 Nov. 1898). 

NUMBER OF BANKRUPTS IN GREAT BRITAIN. 



1871 

1857 



ped) 



1700 




38 


1881 


England & \\ 


ales 1005 


1725 




416 


1882 


ditto 


995 


1750 • 




432 


1883 


ditto 


1046 


1775 




520 


1884 


ditto 


2998 


1800 




1339 


1885 


ditto 


39&5 


1810 


. about 


2000 


1886 


ditto 


4566 


1820 




1358 


1887 


ditto 


4681 


1825* . 




2683 


1888 


ditto 


4695 


1830 . 




1467 


1889 


ditto 


44 r 5 


1840 




1308 


1890 


ditto 


3924 


1845 England & Wales 


1028 


1891 


ditto 


4150 


1850 


ditto 


1298 


1892 


ditto 


4575 


1857 


ditto 


1488 


1893 


ditto 


4805 


i860 


ditto 


1268 


1894 


ditto 


4702 


1863 


ditto 


8470 


1895 


ditto 


4349 


1864 


ditto 


7224 


1896 


ditto 


4109 


1867 


ditto 


8994 


1897 


ditto 


4032 


1869 


ditto 10,396 


1898 


ditto 


4247 


1873 


dittot 


9*5 


1899 


ditto 


4045 


1876 


ditto 


976 


1900 


ditto 


4343 


1878 


ditto 


1084 


1901 


ditto 


4176 


1879 


ditto 


1156 


1902 


United Kingdom 4749 


1880 


ditto 


995 








Bankrupts 


in Scotland: i860, 445 


1876, 482 ; 


1880, 582 ; 


1885, 362 ; 1890, 339 


; 1896, 317 


1899, 2 97 ; 


1900, 341. 


In Ireland : 1880, 312 ; 188 


5, 216 


1887, 204 ; 





BANNATYNE CLUB, named after George 
Banuatyne (the publisher), was established in 1823 
by sir Walter Scott and others, for printing works 
illustrative of the history, antiquities, and litera- 
ture of Scolland, of which about 1 13 volumes were 
issued: dissolved, i860. 

* According to a return to parliament made at the 
close of Feb. 1826, there had become bankrupt in the 
four months preceding , 59 banking-houses, comprising 144 
partners ; and 20 other banking establishments had been 
declared insolvent. Every succeeding week continued 
to add from seventy to a hundred merchants, traders, 
and manufacturers to the bankrupt list. This was the 
period of bubble speculation. 

+ Liquidations under deeds of arrangement nearly as 
numerous as bankruptcies, 1903. Costs 21 per cent, of 
the estate. 



BANNER CROSS MURDER. See Trials 
1879. 

BANNERET, KNIGHT, a dignity between 
baron and knight, anciently conferred by the king 
under the royal standard on the field of battle. Its 
origin is of uncertain time : Edmondson dates it 
736; but it was probably created by Edward I. 
John Chandos is said to have been made a banneret 
by the Black Prince and the king of Castile at Na- 
jara, 3 April, 1367. The dignity was conferred on 
John Smith, who rescued the royal standard at 
Edgehill fight, 23 Oct. 1642. It fell into disuse, 
but was revived by George III. for sir William 
Erskine, in 1764, and for admiral Pye and captains 
Knight, Bickerton, and Vernon, in 1773. 

BANNERS were common to all nations. The 
Jewish tribes had standards or banners — Num. ii. 
(1490 B.C.). See Gross, Auriflamma, Standards, &c. 
The magical banner of the Danes (said to have beer* 
a black raven on a red ground) was taken by Alfred 
when he defeated Hubba, 878. 

BANNOCKBURN (Stirlingshire), the site of 
two battles : (1) between Robert Bruce of Scotland 
and Edward II. of England, 24 June, 1314. The 
army of Bruce consisted of 30,000 ; that of Edward 
of 100,000 men, of whom 52,000 were archers. The 
English crossed a rivulet to the attack, and Bruce- 
having dug and covered pits, they fell into them, 
and were thrown into confusion. The rout was 
complete : the English king narrowly escaped, and 
50,000 were killed or taken prisoners. (2) At 
Sauchieburn, near here, James III. was defeated 
and slain on II June, 1488, by his rebellious 
nobles. 

BANNS, in the feudal law, were a solemn 
proclamation of any kind : hence arose the present 
custom of asking banns, or giving notice before 
marriage; said to have been introduced into the 
English church about 1200. The proper time of 
publishing banns in the church was the subject of 
much discussion in 1867* 

BANQUETING-HOUSE, Whitehall, Lon- 
don, built by Inigo Jones, about 1619. Occupied by 
the museum of the United Service Institution, 1895. 

BANTAM (Java). Here a British factory was 
established by captain Lancaster, in 1603. The 
English and Danes were driven from their factories 
by the Dutch in 1683. Bantam surrendered to the 
British in 181 1, but was restored to the Dutch at 
the peace in 18 14. 

BANTINGISM, see Corpulence. 

BANTRY BAY (S. Ireland), where a French 
fleet bringing succour to the adherents of James 
II., attacked the English under admiral Herbert, 
I May, 1689 : the latter retired to form in line and 
were not pursued. A French squadron of seven 
sail of the line and two frigates, armed en flute, 
and seventeen transports, anchored here for a few 
days, without effect, Dec. 1796. Mutiny of the 
Bantry Bay squadron under admiral Mitchell was 
in Dec. 1 801. In Jan. 1802, twenty-two of the 
mutineers were tried on board the Gladiator, at 
Portsmouth, when seventeen were condemned to 
death, of whom eleven were executed ; the others 
were sentenced to receive each 200 lashes. The 
executions took place on board the Majestic, Cen- 
taur, Formidable, Temdraire, and L' Achille, 8 to 
18 Jan. 1802. Mock battle here, 30 June, 1885. 

BAPAUME, N. FRANCE, the site of severe 
indecisive engagements betwoeu the French army 

I 2 



BAPHOMET. 



116 



BAECA. 



of the north under Fdidherbe, and the Germans 
under Manteuff'el ; the French retreated, 2, 3 Jan. 
1871. 

BAPHOMET, the name of an imaginary idol 
or symbol having- two heads, male and female, sur- 
rounded with a crescent moon and serpents, which 
the knights templars were accused of employing 
in their mysterious rites. The word is said to be a 
corrupted form of Mahomet. 

BAPTISM, the ordinance of admission into 
the church, practised by all Christian sects except 
Quakers. John the Baptist baptized Christ, 30. 
{Matt, iii.) Infant baptism is mentioned by lre- 
nseus about 97. In the reign of Constantine, 319 
baptisteries were built and baptism was performed 
by dipping the person all over. In the west sprink- 
ling was adopted. Much controversy has arisen 
since 1831 (particularly in 1849 and 1850), in the 
church of England, respecting baptismal regenera- 
tion, Avhich the Arches' Court of Canterbury 
decided to be a doctrine of the church of England. 
See Trials, 1849, and note. Demanding fees for 
baptisms was made unlawful by an act passed 18 
July, 1872. 

BAPTISTS (see Anabaptists). A sect dis- 
tinguished by their opinions respecting (1) the 
proper subjects, and (2) the proper mode of baptism : 
the former they affirm to be those who are able to 
make a profession of faith ; the latter to be total 
immersion. There are seven sections of Baptists — 
Arminian, Calvinistic (or Particular), &e. The 
•first Baptist church formed in London was about 
1608. They published their confession of faith in 
1643 ; revised in 1689. Rhode Island, America, 
was settled by Baptists in 1635. 

Baptist Union of the United Kingdom; annual 

meeting held. 
Particular Baptist Fund established . . . . 1717 
Baptist Missionary Society inaugurated . . . 1792 
Baptist College, Regent's Park, founded . . . 1810 
.Mr. C. II. Npurgci Hi's great Baptist tabernacle, New- 
ington Butts, opened, 31 March, 1861 ; burnt 
down, 1 p.m. ; 20 April, 1898 ; reconstructed at 
a cost of about 45, oco?, and re-opened . 19 Sept., 1900 
A Baptist Pastors' College near it, founded by Mr. 

Spurgeon 14 Oct. 1873 

[Mr. Charles Haddon Spurgeon was born 19 June, 
1834, and when quite a youth became a powerful 
preacher, attracting large congregations. He 
died at Mentone, 31 Jan. 1S92. There was a very 
great concourse at his funeral in Norwood Ceme- 
tery, 11 Feb., on which day S. London appeared 
in in- in mourning. His " Autobiography " pub- 
lished, Dec. 1897, 2nd vol. Aug. 1898. His son, 

Thomas Spurg , received as pastor, 12 April, 

1894.I 
,\ givai tabernacle at Shoreditch (rev. Win. Cutr), 

opened 11 Nov. 1879 

In United Kingdom 3,738 chapels ; 304,802 baptised 
members in 1883 ; 3,842 chapels, 364,770 inembei s, 
Dee. 1 « . j 7 : 5,961 chapels, 377,747 members, Dec. 1902 
Baptist Chapel House, Southampton Row, opened, 

28 April, i9'v< 

BAP SUB Arm:, X. E. France. Here the 
French, under Oudinol and Macdonald, were de- 
feated by tin' allies 27 Feb. 1814. 

BARBADOES, aWesI India island, oneofthe 
Windward isles, discovi red l.\ tin- Portuguese about 

[600, taken possession of l'\ tin' English I605, and 

settled by -ir YVtu. Courteen, who Founded James- 
town. [625. AS main royalists Bettled here, the 

island was taken bj the parliamentarians in 1652. 
Population, [876, 162,042: white, [6,560; co- 
loured, 145,482; 1KS1. 173.522; 1S-11, '182.322: 

tgoi, 195,1 >• 



A dreadful hurricane, over 4,000 deaths . 10 Oct. 1780 
A large plantation with all its buildings destroyed, 
by the land removing from its original site to 
another, and covering everything in its peregrina- 
tion . . . . . . . 17 Oct. 1784 

An inundation, Nov. 1795 ; and two great fires, 

May and Dec. 1796 

Bishopric established 1824 

Awful devastation, with the loss of thousands of 
lives and of immense property, by a hurricane 

Aug. 1 83 1 
Nearly 17,000 persons died of cholera . . . 1854 
Property to the amount of about 300,000?. destroyed 

by a fire at Bridgetown . . . .14 Feb. i860 
Great increase in growth of cotton, 1864-5. 

Governor, James Walker 1861 

,, Rawson W. Rawson, 1868 ; retired 1875, 

died 1S99 

,, John Pope Hennessy 1875 

Proposed confederation of the Windward isles ; sup- 
ported by the governor in a speech, 3 March ; op- 
posed by the planters .... March, 1876 
The coloured population ignorantly expecting ad- 
vantage from the confederation, rise, plundering 
and destroying much property and cattle ; negroes 
killed and wounded by police . 21, 22 April, „ 
Great panic among the planters ; the governor and 
clergy said to have acted judiciously ; peace re- 
stored 24 April, ,, 

The governor exonerated from serious blame July, ,, 
Trial of 450 rioters; 82 punished (17 penal servi- 
tude ; others light sentences) . . 12-21 Oct. ,, 
Capt. Geo. C. Strahan appointed governor Nov. ,, 

Sir Henry Buhver, governor 1880 

Sir William Robinson, governor .... 1881 
Sir C. C. Lees, governor .... Aug. 1885 

Sir Walter J. Sendall Sept. 1889 

Sir James Shaw Hav Feb. 1892 

The hon A. J. Pile, speaker in the house of 
assembly, dies of wounds, inflicted by an un- 
known assailant 2 Sept. 18^8 

Great hurricane, 112 deaths (see West Indies) 

10 Sept. „ 
(Home government grants 40,000?. to aid the dis- 
tress). 
Reciprocity treaty between U.S.A. and Barbadoes, 

signed by Gt. Britain . . . .16 June, 1899 
Revenue, 185,475/. > expenditure, 182,866?. . for 1900 
Sir Fred. M. Hodgson, appointed governor . Oct. „ 
Much incendiarism of sugar-cane crops . . Feb. 1901 
Sir Conrad Reeves, eminent chief justice, of negro 

blood, died, aged 75 8 Jan. 1902 

Sugar crisis, cost of production greater than the 

sale Feb. ,, 

Estimated fall of 2,000,000 tons of volcanic dust in 
the island from Mt. Souftriere in St. Vincent ; 

which sec . 7-10 May, .. 

Outbreak of smallpox reported . . 2 Aug. ,, 
Smallpox riot at Bridgetown . . 25 Aug. ,, 
Epidemic ceases . . . .4 April, 1903 

BARBARY, in N. Africa, considered to com- 
prise Algeria, Morocco, Fez, Tunis, and Tripoli, 
with their dependencies. Piratical states (nomi- 
nally subject to Turkey) were founded on the coast 
by Barbarossa about 15 18. 

BARBERS lived in Greece in the 5th century, 
and at Home in the 3rd century B.C. In England, 
formerly, the business of a surgeon was united to 
the barber's, and be was denominated a Barber- 
Surgeon. A London company was • formed in 
1308, ami incorporated, 1462. ' This union was 
partially dissolved in 1540, and wholly so in 1745. 
"No person using any shaving or barbery in Lon- 
don shall occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or 
other matter, except "::!v drawing of teeth." 32 

ll.ii. VIII. 1540. 

BARBUDA, a small West India isle, a de- 
pendant of Antigua, which see, 

BARCA (X. Africa), the Greek Barce, a colony 
ofCyrene. It was successively Bubjugated by the 
Persians, Egyptians, ami Saracens. In 1550 the 



BARCELONA. 



117 



BARFLEUR. 



sultan Solyman combined Barca with the newly 
conquered pashalik of Tripoli. 

BARCELONA (N. E. Spain), an ancient 
maritime city, said to have been rebuilt by Hamil- 
car Barea, father of the great Hannibal, about 233 
B.C. It was held by the Romans, Goths, Moors, 
and Franks, and, with the province of which it is 
the capital, was made an independent country 
about a.d. 864, and incorporated with Aragon, 
1 164, the last count becoming king. The city has 
suffered much by war. The siege by the French 
in 1694 was relieved by the approach of the Eng- 
lish fleet, commanded by admiral Russell ; but the 
city was taken by the earl of Peterborough in 1706. 
It was bombarded and taken by the duke of Ber- 
wick and the French in 17 14, and was taken by 
Napoleon in 1808, and retained till 1814. It re- 
volted against the queen in 1841, and was bom- 
barded and taken in Dec. 1842, by Espartero. Fre- 
quent insurrections here ; one suppressed Jan. 
1874. A 11 exhibition opened by the king, Alfonso 
XII., 4 March, 1877. Barcelona very prosperous, 
1879. Violent riots on account of French treaty, 
March ; Catalonia in a state of siege, 30 March, 
1882. Barcelona tranquil, 1 April, 1882. Popula- 
tion, 1887, 272,481 ; 1897, 5°9j5°9- 

An international exhibition opened 8 April, by the queen 
of Spain, in the name of the infant king, who was pre- 
sent, with the duke and duchess of Edinburgh and 
other royal personages, 20 May ; there was also an un- 
exampled naval exhibition representing the fleets of 
ten powers ; closed 9 Dec. 18S8. For the disturbances 
here and in Catalonia, see Spain, March et seq. 1890, 
and Feb. 1892. 

By the explosion of a bomb thrown into the midst of 
the audience, at the Liceo theatre, during the per- 
formance, 20 persons were killed and many wounded ; 
many anarchists arrested, 7 Nov. ; royal decree en- 
larging the power of arresting suspected persons, 
9 Nov. ; discoveries at the house of an anarchist club, 
chemicals, &c, Miguel Nacher (president) and over 
200 persons under arrest, 22 Nov. 1893. 

An anarchist laboratory discovered in a cave, with 40 
bombs and large quantities of explosives, near 
Vallvidrera, 23 Dec. 1893. 

Six men sentenced to death for attempt on the life of 
marshal Campos and others, and for participation in 
the outrage at the Liceo theatre, 4 sentenced to hard 
labour for life, 30 April ; 2 executed, 21 May, 1894. 

Salvador Franch condemned for the bomb outrage at 
the Liceo theatre, 11 July ; executed, 21 Nov. 1894. 

During a religious procession, a bomb was thrown into 
the crowd, about 15 persons were killed and 50 injured ; 
48 anarchists arrested ; 7 June, 1896. 

Thomas Ascheri-Jesatti, actual perpetrator of the crime, 
and 5 anarchists sentenced to death ; executed 4 May, 
1897 (20 sentenced to imprisonment ; 63 acquitted) ; 
F. Callis sentenced to life imprisonment ; 1 Dec. 1897 

Sewer, in course of construction, falls in, 18 deaths, 11 
Dec, 1898. 

Anti-budget riots, Jesuit schools and convent attacked, 
1-5 June, 1899. 

Sen. Salvador Victory, a local politician, assassinated 
in the Calle Lesna, 18 Jan., 1900. 

Strike riots and anti-clerical demonstrations, mid-March ; 
again, April; state of siege proclaimed, 7 May, igoi ; 
quiet restored, 12 May, 1901. 

Many strikes and labour troubles. Jan. , 1902. 

Spinning factory destroyed by an explosion, about 60 
deaths, 18 Jan., 1902. 

General strike, fatal rioting, state of siege proclaimed, 
17 Feb. ; some anarchists arrested ; quiet restored, 
21-24 Feb. 1902. 

Labour riots, the police fire on the mob, man killed, 
several wounded, 7 Sept. ; state of siege raised, 8 Oct. 
1902. 

BARDESANISTS, followers of Bardesanes, 
of Mesopotamia, who embraced the errors of Valen- 
tinus, after refuting them, and added denial of the 
incarnation , resurrection, &c, about 175. 



BARDS. Demodocus is mentioned as a bard 
by Homer ; and we find bards, according to Strabo, 
among the Romans before the age of Augustus. 
The Welsh bards formed an hereditary order, regu- 
lated, it is said, by laws, enacted about 940 and 
1078. The}' lost their privileges at the conquest 
by Edward I. in 1284. The institution was 
revived by the Tudor sovereigns ; and their 
Eisteddfods (properly Eisteddfodau), meetings of 
4 days, are still frequently held; at Swansea, 
Aug. 1863; at Llandudno, Aug. 1864; in the 
vale of Conway, 7 Aug. 1865 , at Chester, 4 Sept. 
1866; at Carmarthen, 3 Sept. 1867; at Ruthin, 
5-7 Aug. 1868; at Rhyl, 8-12 Aug. 1870; at Port- 
madoc, Aug. 1872: at Mold, Aug. 1873; at various 
places in 1874-1876; at Carnarvon, 21 Aug. 1877 ; 
at Llanrwst, 1-3 Aug. ; at Menai Bridge, Aug. 1878 ; 
at Conway, 6 Aug. and at other places, 1879. The 
Cymmrodorion Society held an Eisteddfod at 
Carnarvon, 23 Aug. 1880. Royal National Eis- 
teddfod at Merthyr-Tydvil, 30 Aug. 1881; at 
Denbigh, 22 Aug. 1882; at Cardiff, 6 Aug. 1883; 
Liverpool, 16 Sept. 1884; Aberdare, Aug. 1885; 
Carnarvon, 14 Sept. 1886; Albert Hall, London, 9 
Aug. 1887 ; Wrexham, 4 Sept. 1888 ; at Brecon, 27 
Aug. 1889 ; Bangor (the queen of Roumania pre- 
sent), 2 Sept. 1890; Swansea, 18 Aug. 1891 ; Rhyl, 
6 Sept. 1892; Pontypridd, 1 Aug. 1893; Carnarvon 
(prince and princess of Wales present), 10 July, 1894 ; 
Llanellv, 30 July-2 Aug. 1895 ; Llandudno, 29 June, 
1896; Newport,'2-6 Aug. 1897; Festiniog, 19 Jul y„ 
1898; Cardiff, 18 July, 1899; Liverpool, 18 Sept., 
1900; Merthyr Tydvil, 6-9 Aug., 1901; Bangor,. 
9 Sept., 1902. The Gwyneddigion Society of Bards 
was founded in 1 770. Tui - logh O'Carolan, the last of 
the Ir is hbards, died in 1 738. Chambers. Evan Davies, 
termed the Arch-Druid of Wales, an eminent Welsh 
scholar, aged 89, died at Pontypridd 23 February, 
1888. In 1880 the bards determined that the- 
Annual National Eisteddfod should hi held alter- 
nately in North and South Wales. Above IOO- 
Eisteddfodau are held every year. Clwydfardd, the- 
Arch-Druid, aged nearly 95, died, 30 Oct. 1894. 
" Eisteddfod Caerlydd " held in the queen's hall,. 
London, 22, 23 Feb., 1899. Arch-Druid, 1903, 
Hwfa Muo. 

BAREBONE'S PARLIAMENT. Crom- 
well, supreme in the three kingdoms, summoned 
122 persons, such as he thought he could manage, 
who, with six from Scotland and five from Ireland, 
met, as a parliament, 4 July, 1653. It obtained its 
appellation from a nickname given to one of its 
members, a leather-seller, named " Praise-God 
Barbon." The majority evinced much sense and 
spirit, proposing to reform abuses, improve the ad- 
ministration of the law, &c. The parliament was 
suddenly dissolved, 13 Dec. 1653, and Cromwell 
made lord protector. 

BAREILLY, province of Delhi (N. W. India), 
ceued to the East India company by the ruler of 
Oude in 1801. A mutiny at Bar'eilly, the capital, 
was suppressed in April, 1816. On 7 May, 1858, 
it was taken from the cruel sepoy rebels. 

BARFLEUR (N. France), where William, 
duke of Normandy, equipped the fleet by which he 
conquered England, 1066. Near it, William, duke 
of Normandy, son of Henry I., in his passage from 
Normandy, was shipwrecked, 25 Nov. 1120, when 
the prince, his bride, and many others perished. Bar- 
fleur was destroyed by the English in the campaign 
in which they won the battle of Crecy, 1346. The 
French navy was destroyed near the cape by 
admiral Russell, after the victory of La Hogue, 19 
May, 1692. 



BARI. 



118 



BAROMETERS. 



BARI (S. Italy), the Barium of Horace, was, 
in the 9th century, a stronghold of the Saracens, 
and was captured by the emperor Louis II., a 
descendant of Charlemagne, in 871. In the 10th 
century it became subject to the eastern empire, 
and remained so till it was taken by Robert Guis- 
card, the Norman, about 1060. A great ecclesiastical 
council was held here on 1 Oct. 1098, when the 
filioque article of the creed and the procession of the 
Holy Spirit were the subjects of discussion. Con- 
flicts between the military and populace with 
bloodshed, 9 Jan. 1894 ; and 1898. 

BARING ISLAND, Arctic Sea, discovered 
by captain Penny in 1 850-1, and so named by him 
after sir Francis Baring, first lord of the admiralty 
in 1849. 

BARIUM (Greek, barys, heavy), a metal found- 
abundantly as carbonate and sulphate. The oxide 
baryta was first recognised as an earth distinct from 
lime by Scheele, in 1774; and the metal was first 
obtained by Humphry Davy, in 1808. Watts. 

BARK, see Jesuits' Bark. 

BARLAAMITES, followers of Barlaam, a 
learned Calabrian monk of the order of St. Basil, 
who maintained various peculiar tenets, attacked 
the Greek monks, supported the Latin against the 
Greek church in a controversy at Constantinople, 
1337, and acted as the emperor's envoy in an attempt 
to reconcile tbe churches in 1339. Died about 1348. 

BARMECIDES, a powerful Persian family, 
celebrated for virtue and courage, were massacred 
through the jealousy of the caliph Haroun-al- 
Raschid, about 802. His visir Giafar was a Bar- 
mecide. The phrase Barmecide (or imaginary) 
feast originated in the story of the barber's sixth 
brother, in the Arabian Nights' Entertainments. 

BARNABITES, an order of monks, established 
in Milan about 1530, were much engaged in in- 
structing youth, relieving the sick and aged, and 
converting heretics. 

BARNARD'S, Sir John, Act (7 Geo. II., 
c. 8), entitled, "an act to prevent the infamous 
practice of stock-jobbing," was passed in [734, and 
repealed in i860. Sir John Barnard (born [685, 
died 1764) was an eminent lord mayor of London. 
Barnard "Peerage case, see Trials, 30 May, [892. 

BARNARDO HOMES (n ,1 Nation ,1 

Waits Association [899), Dr. T. J. Barnardo, of 
German extraction, horn in Inland, came to 
London, and in i.X<>(> began energetically to pro- 
mote the welfare of homeless children. 

His home toi boys at Stepney, founded 1870, was fol- 
lowed by one for u-iils, at Barkingside, fcssex, with 
Infirmary, sol Is, «c. ; all were reported successful 

in 1874. 

A Ba ii Eawkhursl . Kent, tor 100 infant 3, 

opem M . \'i-. 1886. 

it: disinterestedness and management having 1 n im- 
pugned, he gave up the management to trustees, and 
invited Investigation . The arbiters (Canon Miller and 
Mi rs J. B, Maute and Wm. Graham) in their report, 
aftei commenting on the Imperfect evidence, com- 
mended the charities, and generally exonerated Dr. 
Bat nardo, | 1H77. 

Several legal decisions, requiring Dr, Burnardo to pro- 
duce children who bad been committed to his charge, 
were pronounced, 1889-91. 

Dr. Barnardo ■ ippeal respecting a boy named Cossngo 
to the house ol lords was dismissed, 10 Jul ■ 
again, as July, 189s Tho boj was no! found May! 



Jubilee testimonial 3,417?. 10s. s,&. to Dr. Barnardo at 
Exeter-hall by 1,100 subscribers, presented by lord 
Kinnaird ; 26 Nov. 1895. 

Mr. E. H. Watts gives a large building at North Elm- 
ham, Norfolk, and 9,200?., etc., to the homes, Dec., 
1901. 

The duke of Argyll laid the foundation stones of new 
buildings at the Girls' Village Home, Barkingside, 
Essex, 11 July, 1903. 

48,057 children admitted to the homes up to 31 Dec, 
1902. Children maintained and educated in 1902, 
9,785. Boys and girls emigrated to the colonies in 
1902, 1053. Total emigrated 1867-1902, 13,184. Over 
50 separate institutions are maintained in the United 
Kingdom and the colonies, including an immigration 
depot in Ontario, and an industrial farm in Manitoba. 

Annual displays of the children at Albert Hall now held- 

BARNET, Hertfordshire. Here, at Gladsmore 
heath, Edward IV. gained a decisive victory over 
the Lancastrians, on Easter-day, 14 April, 147 r, 
when the earl of Warwick and his brother the mar- 
quis of Montacute, or Montague, were killed. A 
column commemorative of this battle has been 
erected at tbe meeting of the St. Albans and 
Hatfield roads. Is celebrated for its horse fairs. 

BARNUM'S SHOW. The great show of 
Messrs. P. T. Barnum and Mr. J. A. Bailey, con- 
veyed from Brooklyn, New York, arrived at Olympia 
1 Nov., opened n Nov. 1889, closed Feb. 1890; 
re-visited England 1898 ; converted into a limited 
company, Feb., 1899. See Olympia, 1897, et seq. 

The show included a Roman hippodrome and a triple 
American circus, a museum of living human curiosities 
termed "freaks of nature," a double menagerie, Jumbo's 
skeleton and started skin, performing men and animals 
Of many kinds (17 elephants); Imre Kiralfy's grand 
spectacle, " Nero ; or, the destruction of Rome " (1,200 
Roman characters, wild beasts, &c.). A great many 
simultaneous performances. 

The establishment included about 1,200 people and 380 
horses. 

Visited by the prince of Wales and family, 20 Nov. 
1889. 

George Stevens, an attendant, accidentally killed by an 
elephant, 3 Dec. 1889. 

Tbe show closed 15 Feb. ; Mr. Barnum reported his 

sin ss. and thanked the British public, 17 Feb. 1890. 

[Phineas T. Barnum, bom at Bethel, Connecticut, 
U.S.A., 5 July, 1810, died at Bridgeport, 7 April, 1891. 
Besides very different occupations, he specially de- 
voted himself to catering for the amusement of the 
people, by setting up museums, shows and other 
entertainments; in 1842, he brought out Charles S. 
Stratton, generally termed Tom Thumb (see Dwarfs), 
and in 1846 he engaged the celebrated vocalist. Jenny 
l.iml, afterwards Mile. Goldschmidt, In 1S87, his 
great menagerie was destroyed by fire, but was speedily 
renovated. Mis life, by himself, published 1S88, and 

Other works since. I 

BARODA. See India, 1874—5, lS 9 2 > l8 9 6 - 

BAROMETERS. Torricelli, a Florentine, 
knowing that water did not rise in a pump through 
what was supposed to he nature's abhorrence of a 
vacuum, imitated the action of a pump with mer- 
cury, and made the first barometer, about 1643. 
Pascal's experiments (1646) enhanced the value of 
the discovery by applying it to the measurement of 
heights. Wheel barometers were contrived in 1668: 
pendent barometers in [695; marine in 1700 ; and 
man] improvementa have been made since. In the 
aneroid barometer (from a, no, and neros, watery) 
no Liquid is employed; the atmospheric pressure 
being exerted on a metallic spring. Its invention 
(attributed to Cont6, in I 798, but due toVkli, who died 
in April, lS(>(>), excited much attention in 1848-9. 
Barometers were placed at N.Iv coast stations in 
i860, by the duke of Northumberland and others. 



BABON. 



119 



BAKBOW-LN-FUBNESS. 



Mr. James B. Jordan's very delicate glycerine barometer, 
in which one inch is expanded to nearly eleven inches, 
was described to the Royal Society 22 Jan., 1880, and 
was set up during the year at Kew and other places. 
The publication of two-hourly variations of one at 
the office begun in the Times 25 Oct. 1880. 

A new very delicate barometer, invented by Mr. C. O. 
Bartrum and made by Mr. J. J. Hicks, of Hatton 
Garden, London, announced Aug. 1894. 

Col. H. Watkin's mountain aneroid and others de- 
scribed Times, 17 Dec, 1898. 

BABON, formerly the only title in our peerage, 
now the lowest. Its original name in England, 
Vavasour, was changed by the Saxons into Thane, 
and by the Normans into Baron. The council of 
the realm was composed of the greater barons, the 
lesser barons were merely tenants of the crown. 
Many barons had undoubtedly assisted in, or been 
summoned to parliament (in 1205) ; but the first pre- 
cept found is of no higher date than the 49 Hen. 
III. 1265. The first raised to this dignity by patent 
was John de Beauchamp, created baron of Kidder- 
minster, by Richard II., 1387. The barons took 
arms against king John, and compelled him to grant 
the great charter of our liberties, and the charter of 
our forests, at Runnymede, near Windsor, June, 
1215. Charles II. granted a coronet to barons on 
his restoration, 1660. 

BABON AND FEMME, or Femme, terms 
of Norman-French origin, used in English law 
signifying husband and wife. 

BABONETS, the first in rank among the gen- 
try, and the only knighthood that is hereditary, 
were instituted by James I., 161 r. The rebellion 
in Ulster gave rise to this order, it having been re- 
quired of a baronet, on his creation, to pay into the 
exchequer as much as would maintain " thirty 
soldiers three years at eightpence a day in the pro- 
vince of Ulster in Ireland." It was further required 
that a baronet should be a gentleman born, and 
have a clear estate of 1000^. per annum. The first 
baronet was sir Nicholas Bacon (his descendant, sir 
H. B. Bacon, is styled Primus Baronettorum 
Anglice), 22 May, 161 1. The baronets of Ireland 
were created in 1619; the first being sir Francis 
Blundell. — Baronets of Nova Scotia were created, 
1625 ; sir Robert Gordon the first baronet. — All 
baronets created since the Irish union in 1801 are of 
the United Kingdom. Hon. Society of Baronetage 
formed, 26 Jan., first annual meeting, 22 July, 1898, 
presents memorial to the government against un- 
authorised assumption of the title of baronet, June, 
1903.—" Complete Baronetage," by C. E. Cokayne, 
publication commenced 1900. 

BABONS' "WAB, arose in consequence of the 
faithlessness of Henry III. and the oppression of his 
favourites in 1258. The barons, headed by Simon de 
Montfort, earl of Leicester, and Gilbert de Clare, earl 
of Gloucester, met at Oxford in 1262, and enacted 
statutes to which the king objected. In 1263 their 
disputes were in vain referred to the decision of 
Louis IX. of France. War broke out, and on 14 May, 
E264, the king's party was totally defeated at Lewes ; 
and De Montfort became the virtual ruler of the 
kingdom. The war was renewed ; and at the battle 
of Evesham, 4 Aug. 1265, De Montfort was slain, 
and the barons were defeated ; but they did not 
render their final submission till 1268. A history 
of this war was published by Mr. W. H. Blaauw, 
in 1844; 2nd ed., 1871. 

BABBACKS (from" Bar aque—Hutte que font 
les soldats en campagne pour se mettre a couvert ") 
were not numerous in this country until about 



1789. A superintendent-general was appointed in 
1793, and barracks built in the garrison towns and 
central points of the empire. — A report on the state 
of barracks, in 1858, led to their improvement 
under Mr. Sidney (afterwards lord) Herbert; see 
Aldershot. Mr. E. Stanhope's scheme for increase 
and improvement of barracks, camps, &c. (to cost 
about 4,ioo,ooo£.) submitted to the commons, 27 
Feb. ; the Barracks Act passed, 25 July, i Q 90. 

BABBAGE. See under Nile. 

BABBATBY is a general term forth stirring up 
suits and quarrels among the people. Maintenance 
is an officious intermeddling in a quarrel or suit; by 
assisting either party with money or otherwise. It 
is punishable by old statutes (of Richard II., and 
others), with fine and imprisonment. Champerty is 
an illegal bargain with either plaintiff or defendant 
to share in the profits of the matter in dispute. 
Mr. Bradlaugh's action against Mr. Newdigate for main- 
tenance in the case of Clarke v. Braclleiugh (see Parlia- 
ment, 1881) was dismissed, 20 Sept. 1881. 

BABEEL-OBGANS, see Organs. 

BABBICADES, mounds formed of trees and 
earth, for military defence. During the wars of 
the League in France, in 1588, the people made 
barricades by means of chains, casks, &c, and com- 
pelled the royal troops to retire. During the war 
of the Fronde, a barricade was erected in Paris on 
27 Aug. 1648. Barricades composed of overturned 
vehicles, &c, were erected in Paris in the insur- 
rections of 27-30 July, 1830, and 23-26 June, 1848, 
when sanguinary conflicts took place ; and also 2 
Dec. 185 1. 

BAEEIEB TEEATIES. The first, between 
England and the Netherlands, was signed at the 
Hague, 29 Oct. 1709, for mutual support; annulled 
1712; another treaty was concluded at (Jtrecht, 29 
Jan. 1713. The third, by which the Low Countries 
were ceded to the emperor Charles VI., was signed 
by the British, Imperial, and Dutch ministers, 
15 Nov. 1715. 

BABBISTEBS are said to have been first 
appointed by Edward I., about 1291, but there is 
earlier mention of professional advocates. They are of 
various ranks, as king's or queen's counsel, Serjeants, 
&c, which see. Students for the bar must keep a 
certain number of terms at the inns of court, pre- 
viously to being called ; and by the regulations of 
1853 must pass a public examination. See Women, 
1900. 

A committee of the bar, formed about 1885 to protect 
the rights of barristers in relation to the Inns of 
Court, merged into the general council. At a meeting 
of the bar in Lincoln's Inn hall, called by the general 
council, a compromise was arranged. The Inns of 
Court agreed to give an annual contribution of 600I. 
to the bar, 19 June, 1895. 

BAEEOSA, or BAROSSA (S. Spain). The 
British army, commanded by major-general sir 
Thomas Graham, afterwards lord Lynedoch, totally 
defeated the French under marshal Victor, 5 March, 
181 1, the French leaving nearly 3000 dead, six 
pieces of cannon, and an eagle, the first that the 
British had taken; the loss of the British was 1 169 
men killed and wounded. 

BABEOW ISLAND (Arctic Sea), discovered 
by Captain Penny in 1850-51, and named by him 
in honour of John Barrow, Esq., son of sir John. 

BABEOW- IN-FUBNESS (Lancashire), in 
1847, was a village with a population of about 330, 



BAKROWS STEAITS. 



120 



BASQUE PROVINCES. 



which, in 1867, had increased to above 17,000, and in 
1874 to 35,000, in consequence of the large manu- 
facture of iron from the ore (haematite) found there. 
On 19 Sept. 1867, new docks were opened in the 
presence of the dukes of Devonshire and Buccleuch 
(proprietors of the land), Mr. Gladstone, and 
others. Barrow was made a municipal borough in 
1867. Sir James Ramsden, an eminent promoter 
of the prosperity of the town and its first mayor, 
died, aged 74, 19 Oct. 1896. Population in 1881, 
47,259; 1891,51,712; 1901,57,584. 

BARROW'S STRAITS (N. Arctic Sea), ex- 
plored by Edwd. Parry, as far as Melville island, 
fat. 74°26'N., and long. 113° 47' W. The strait, 
named after sir John Barrow, was entered on 
2 Aug., 1819. The thermometer was 55 below 
zero of Fahrenheit. 

BARROWISTS, a name given to the 
Broivnists, which see. 

BARROWS, circular or oblong mounds, found 
in Britain and other countries, were ancient sepul- 
chres. Sir Richard Hoare caused several barrows 
near Stonehenge to be opened ; in them were found 
Celtic ornaments, such as beads, buckles, and 
brooches, in amber, wood, and gold : Nov. 1808. 
230 barrows were opened and discoveries made, 
chiefly in Yorkshire, 1866 et seq., under the super- 
intendence of the rev. canon Wm. Greenwell, who 
published his elaborate work, " British Barrows," 
in December, 1877. 

Barrows at Aldboume, North Wilts, were opened by 
canon Greenwell and rev. Walter Money, Sept.-Oct. 
1878. 

Canon Greenwell gave urns and other results of his ex- 
plorations to the British museum in 1879. 

BARS in music appear in Agricola's " Musica 
Instrumentalis," 1529; and in Morley's " Practical 
Music," 1597, for score music. Henry Lawes used 
them in his " Ayres and Dialogues," 1653. 

BARTHOLOMEW, ST., the Apostle, 

martyred 71. The festival (24 Aug. o.s., 3 Sept. 
n.s.) is said to have been instituted 1130. 

Monastery of St. Bartholomew (of Austin Friars) 

founded by Rahere, a minstrel of Henry I. . 1102 

The hospital founded by him .... about 1123 
Refonnded after the dissolution of monasteries (it 
then contained 100 beds, with 1 physician and 3 
surgeons), 1544 ; incorporated .... 1546 
William 11 m : \ physicliigist physician here 1609-43 
Earliest record of medical school .... 1662 
Hospital rebuilt by subscription .... 1729 

Medical college founded 184^ 

New buildings for Medical School, museum, &c, 

opened by the prince of Wales . . 3 Nov. 1S79 
Tlir Convalescent Borne at Swanley, Cent, for 
which C. T. Kettlewell gave 10,000/., was opened 

by the prim f Wales . . . ij.iuly, 1SS5 

Acquired portion of site of Christ's Hospital. Man- 
sion linns, ramittee of inquiry :is in enlarge- 

ii ii'iit (;.....,, .'. required, present 010001670,5541.), 
lord Sandhurst and 8 others . . . Jan. 1903 
Bartholomew the Gnat, St, near Smithtteld. The 
building of the church said i>> have begun 1102, 
restored by subscription and re-opened .-.i March, 
1868 ; again, 14M.-11.i1. ,.,,1: further restored; 
re-opened by the abp. "t Canterbury, ^ .inn.', 
m,. Mm 1 i.i\ ciuiprl iv npriii'd . i^ May, 1897 

'Bartholomew Fair, The charter \v:is granted by 
Henry [., 1133, and was Ions held In Bmtthfield, 
which see. The bIiows were discontinued In 1850, 
and the fair was proclaimed for the last time in 
1855. In 1858 Mr 11 Morley published his " His 
1 1 11 > hi Bartholomew Fair, vutii many illustra- 
tions. 
The Massacre of sr. Bartholomew commenced 

at Talis un the night of the festival . 34 Aug. 1572 



According to Sully, 70,000 Huguenots, or Frenchi 
Protestants, including women and children, were; 
murdered throughout thekingdom by secret orders, 
from Charles IX., at the instigation of his mother,, 
the queen dowager, Catherine de Medicis. 

La Popelionere calculates the victims at 20,000 ; 
Adriani, De Serres, and De Thou say 30,000 •, 
Davila states them at 40,000 ; and Pereiixe makes 
the number 100,000. Above 500 persons of rank, 
and 10,000 of inferior condition, perished in Paris 
alone, besides those slaughtered in the provinces.. 
Poiie Gregory XIII. ordered a Te De.um to be per- 
formed, with other rejoicings. 

BARTHOLOMEW, ST., a West Indian 
island, held by Sweden. It was colonised by the 
French in 1648 ; and has been several times taken 
and restored by the British. It was ceded to Sweden 
by France in 1785 ; captured by the English and 
restored, 1801 ; ceded to France, 1877. 

BARTHOLOMITES, a religious order ex- 
pelled from Armenia, settled at Genoa 1307, where- 
is preserved in the Bartholomite church the image 
which Christ is said to have sent to king Abgarus- 
The order suppressed by pope Innocent X. 1650. 

BARTON AQUEDUCT (near Manchester) 
was constructed by James Brindley, to carry the 
Bridgewater canal over the Irwell, at a height c-3 
39 feet above the river ; completed in 1761. 

BASEBALL, see American Baseball. 

BASEL (Basle, French Bale), a rich city ia> 
Switzerland. The 18th general council sat here 
from Dec. 1431 to May, 1443. Many important 
reforms in the church were proposed, but not 
carried into effect : among others the union of the- 
Greek and Roman churches. The university was- 
founded in 1460. Treaties of peace between France.. 
Spain, and Prussia were concluded here in 1795. It 
was made a free imperial city 1392, but joined the 
Swiss confederation 1501. Pop. 1901, 111,009- 
Zionist Congress held here 23 August, 1903. 

B ASHI-BAZOUKS, irregular Turkish troops, 
employed partially in the Crimean war, 1854-6, and 
the lliisso-Turkish war of 1877-78. 

BASIENTELLO (S. Naples). Here the army 
of Otho II., in an ambuscade, was nearly cut to- 
pieces by the Greeks and Saracens 13 July, 982 ;. 
the emperor barely escaped. 

BASILIANS, an order of monks, which ob- 
tained its name from St. Basil (who died 380) ; was- 
reformed bypope Gregory, in 1569. — A sect, founded! 
by Basil, a physician of Bulgaria, which rejected 
the books of Moses, the eucharist, and baptism, and 
are said to have had everything in common, HiCt 
Basil was burnt alive in 1118. 

BASILICA, a body of law, in Greek, in- 
cluding the Institutes of Justinian, the Pandects> 
&c, arranged by order of the emperor Basil the 
Macedonian, and his son Leo the Philosopher, 
875—911. The term basilica (palace) was applied to 
places "I' worship under the early Christian emperors 
from their genera] resemblance to the Roman 
basilica. 

BASILIKON DORON (Royal Gift), pre- 
cepts on the art of government, composed by 
James I. of England for his son Henry, and first 
published at Edinburgh in 1599. The collected 
works of this monarch, were published at London r 
lt>lb-20, in one vol. fol, 

BASQUE PROVINCES, N.W. Spain (Bis- 
cay, rjuipuscoa, and Alava). The Basques are; 



BASQUE ROADS. 



121 



BASUTO LAND. 



considered by some to be descendants of the ancient 
Iberi, were termed Vascones by the Eomans, whom 
they successfully resisted. They were subdued with 
great difficulty by the Goths about 580, and were 
united to Castile in the 13th and 14th centuries. 
The origin of the Basque language, like its 
ethnology, is very obscure ; it is polysynthetic, 
and no connection between it and any other 
language has yet been determined. 

BASQUE ROADS (W. France). Fourteen 
French ships of the line, riding at anchor here, 
■were attacked by lords Gambler and Cochrane (the 
latter commanding the fireships), and all were 
destroyed, 11 — 29 April, 1809. Cochrane accused 
Gambier of neglecting to support him. At a court- 
martial, 26 July — 4 Aug., lord Gambier was ac- 
quitted. 

BASSANO (N. Italy). Here the Austrians, 
under Wurmser, were defeated by the French under 
Massena, 8 Sept. 1796. 

BASSEIN, Bombay ; a Mahratta town, taken 
by the British, 1774, 1780; finally annexed by 
them, 1818. By treaty here, 31 Dec. 1802, they 
engaged to support the peishwa's rights. 

BASSETERRE-ROADS, St. Christopher's, 
West Indies. Here the French admiral, the comte 
de Grasse, was repulsed with loss in three desperate 
attacks on the British fleet, commanded by sir 
Thomas Graves, 25, 26 Jan. 1782. 

BASSETT, or BASSETTE, or Pour et Contre, 
a game at cards, said to have been invented by a 
noble Venetian, in the 15th century ; introduced 
into France, 1674. 

BASSOON, a wooden double-reed wind instru- 
ment, said to have been invented by Afranio, a 
canon of Ferrara, early in the sixteenth century. 

BASSORAH, Bussorah, or Basrah (Asia 

Minor), a Turkish city, founded by the caliph 
Omar, about 635. It has been several times taken 
and retaken by the Persians and Turks. 

BASS ROCK, an isle in the Frith of Forth 
(S. Scotland), was granted to the Lauders, 1316; 
purchased for a state prison, 167 1 ; taken by the 
Jacobites, 1690 ; surrendered, 1694 '■> granted to the 
Dalrymples, 1706. 

BASS'S STRAIT, Australia. Mr. Bass, 

surgeon of the Reliance, in an open boat from Port 
Jackson, in 1796, penetrated as far as Western 
Port, and affirmed that a strait existed between 
New South Wales and Van Diemen's Land. Lieu- 
tenant Flinders circumnavigated Van Diemen's 
Land, and named the strait after Mr. Bass, 1798-9. 

BASTARD, a child not bom in lawful wedlock. 
An attempt in England, in 1236, to legitimate bas- 
tard children by the subsequent marriage of the 
parents, failed. The barons assembled in the par- 
liament of Mer ton answered : Nolumus leges Anglice 
mutari (' ' We will not have the laws of England 
changed"). Women concealing their children's 
birth deemed guilty of murder, 21 James I., 1624. 
In Scotland bastard children could not dispose of 
their movable estates by will until 1836. A new 
act, facilitating the claims of mothers, and making 
several provisions for proceeding in bastardy cases, 
was passed 1845. The Bastardy Laws Amendment 
Act was passed 10 Aug. 1872. See Russia, 1891. 

BASTARN2E, a warlike tribe in Podolia and 
Moldavia, hired by Perseus, king of Macedon, in 



his wars with Rome, 168 B.C.; driven across the 
Danube by M. Crassus for their encroachments, 30. 

BASTILLE, Paris, a castle built by Charles 
V., king of France, in 1369, for the defence of Paris 
against the English ; completed in 1383, and after- 
wards used as a state prison. Henry IV. and his 
veteran army assailed it in vain in the siege of 
Paris, during the war (1587 — 1594). "The maii 
with the iron mask," the most mysterious prisoner 
known, died here, 19 Nov. 1703 ; see Iron Mask. On 
14-15 July, 1789, the Bastille was pulled down- 
by the populace ; the governor and other officers- 
were conducted to the Place de Greve ; then - hands- 
and heads were cut off, and the heads carried on 
pikes through the streets. A centenary was cele- 
brated 14 July, 1889. 

BASUTO LAND, near Orange Eiver, South 
Africa, including the Transkei territory, was an- 
nexed to Cape Colony in 1871. Population in 1875, 
whites, 469; natives, 127,707: in 1891, 218,324 
natives, and 578 Europeans. Resident commis- 
sioner, col. sir M. J. Clarke, Jan. 1894; Godfrey Y. 
Lagden (aft. sir), 1895 ; Herbert C. Slobey, 1902. 

Moiroso, a warlike chief, entrenches himself on a 
mountain and makes predatory sallies, Feb. et 
seq. ; his stronghold captured and himself killed 
during the fight .... 20 Nov. 1879 

The Basutos ordered to give up their arms ; many- 
resist ; Letsi, Molappo, and others who sur- 
render, attacked by Masupha, Lerothodi, and 
others, June, July, who make war on the colonist 

forces j 3 Sept. 1880 

Lerothodi defeated in attack on Mafeteng by col. 

Carrington 21 Sept. , r 

Mafeteng, besieged, relieved by col. Clarke, after 

a severe conflict 19 Oct. ,, 

Lerothodi's village stormed and his forces dispersed 

22 Oct. ,, 
Moletsane's stronghold stormed by colonel Clarke 

31 Oct. ,.„ 
Mr. Hope, magistrate, and others treacherously 
murdered by Umhlonhlo, Oct. ; who is defeated 
by Mr. Hawthorn ; announced . . 12 Nov. ,> 
Umhlonhlo totally defeated by Baker it Dec. ,, 

Victories of col. Carrington about 10, 14 Jan. 1883 

Armistice granted .... 18-24 Feb. ,, 
Hostilities resumed ; indecisive ; col. Carrington 

wounded 26 March, ,, 

Basutos severely defeated . . about 16 April, „ 

Peace concluded May, ,,. 

The chief Masupha submits . ■ . Sept. ,, 

Again troublesome Oct. 1882 

Gen. Gordon appointed to settle difficulties, resigns 
through disagreement with the Cape government, 

announced autumn „ 

Peace restored Dec. ,, 

Self-government granted Feb. 1883 

Much fighting among chief's ; subsides . .May, ,, 
The British agree to resume the government as a 

crown colony under conditions . . June, ,,. 
The Cape parliament assents . . 27 July, ,, 

The Basuto chiefs accept conditions at a great meet- 
ing ; Masupha stands aloof . announced 8 Dec. ,, 
Jonathan defeats Joel with great slaughter, i5-i6Mar. 1834 
Battles between Khetisa, Masupha, and Lerothodi, 

23 March, ,, 
Basuto land reported quiet and prosperous . 1887-90 
Masupha (died, July, 1899) refuses to give up his 
son Moiketsi (for assault and gaol-breaking in 
the Orange Free State) ; Lerothodi, the para- 
mount chief, captures Thaba Besigo . 7 Jan. 1898. 
Moiketsi given up to Lerothodi, 18 Jan. ; Masupha 
surrenders, 31 Jan. ; is banished and fined ; 
Moiketsi sentenced to over a year's imprisonment 

1 Feb. „. 
Lerothodi and his chiefs pledge loyalty to the 

queen, sir Godfrey Lagden present . 24 Oct. 18991 
Steady progress, country quiet and prosperous, 
reported ...... end Dec. 1901. 

Joel Molapo, a minor chief, sentenced to a year's 
imprisonment for treason, etc. . 17 July, 1902 



BATALHA. 



122 



BATHS. 



BATALHA, Portugal. The monastery here 
was built by John I., of Portugal, as a token of gra- 
titude for his victory over John I. of Castile, at 
Aljubarrota, 14 Aug. 1385, securing the inde- 
pendence of his kingdom. The restoration of the 
monastery began in 1839. 

BATAVIA and Batavian Bepublic, see 
Holland. 

BATAVIA, the capital of Java, and of all the 

Dutch settlements in the East Indies, built by that 
people about 1619. Taken from the French (who had 
seized it) by sir Samuel Auchmuty, 26 Aug. 181 1 ; 
restored to the Dutch in 1814. See Java. 

BATH (Somerset), named "Aquce solis" by 
the Romans, being remarkable for its hot springs. 
They built extensive baths, the exact site disputed. 
Coel, a British king, is said to have given this city 
a charter, and the Saxon king Edgar was crowned 
here, 973. See Population. 

Bath plundered and burnt in the reign of William 

Rufus, and again in 1137 

The abbey church commenced in 1405 ; finished . 1609 
Beau (Richard) Nash, " king of Bath," who pro- 
moted fame of the waters, and amusements, died 

Feb. 1 76 1 
Present assembly-rooms built . . . . 1771 
Pump-room erected 1704 ; rebuilt .... 1797 
Theatre, Beaufort-square, opened . . . . 1805 
Bath philosophical society formed . . . 1817 
Bath royal literary and scientific institution estab- 
lished ^25 

Victoria park opened by princess Victoria . . 1830 

Theatre burnt 18 April, 1862 

Restoration of the abbey by Sir G. G. Scott 1863 et seq. 
British association met here 14 Sept. 1864; and 5 Sept. 1888 
Museum destroyed by fire ... 20 Jan. 1867 

Bath and West of England society centenary cele- 
brated, 4 June ; fall of Wideombe bridge, 2 
persons killed and many injured . . 6 June, 1877 
Remains of Roman baths discovered . 1877, et seq. 
The art museum, containing pictures, etc. be- 
queathed by sir Thomas Holburne, opened, June 1893 
Much suffering through overflow of the Avon, Nov. 1894 
Death of .Mrs. Roxburgh, benefactress to the city 

Nov. 1896 
New pump-room opened and the Victoria art gallery 

founded by the duke of Cambridge . . 18 Oct. 1897 
Lord Rosebery unveils memorials to the two Pitts, 

is presented with the freedom of the city, 27 Oct. 1898 
State visit Of the lord mayor of London, 10, 11 Sept. 1902 
Lord Roberts presented with the freedom, 26 Sept. ,, 

BATH and WELLS, Bishopric of. The 
see of Wells, whose cathedral church was built by 
In a, king of the West Saxons, in 704, was estab- 
lished in 905, Adeline first bishop. John de 
Villula, bishop, transferred his scat from Wells to 
Hath in 1091. Tinnier. Disputes between the 
monks of Bath and the canons of Wells about the 
■ ■lection of a bishop, were compromised in 1135. 
Henceforward the bishop was to be styled from both 
places; the precedency to |,e given to Bath. The 
see i- rained in the king's books at 531/. is. yl. per 
innum, Present income, 5000?. 

Rea nt Bishops. 

Richard Bes Ion, died . . . .., April, is.?.) 

1 ' ; ' orge lb 111 > 1 .1 \\ , died . .... sept, 18.15 

1 (45. Richard Bagot, died .... Maj . 1 : 

1 ,i RobertJohn, baron Auckland, resigned 6 Sept, 1869 

1869. Lord Arthur Charles Hervey, elected 10 Nov. 

1869 : died 1 .lime, 1894 

1894. George Wyndham Kennion, bp, "t Adelaide, 
elected 1 Sept. 1894. 

HATH \I>MI\IST1:ATI<>.\. Mr. IYlliuni 
and his friends having tendered their resignation to 

king (i -•■ II . 10 Feb, 1746, the formation of a 

new ministry was undertaken by William Pulteney, 
earlol Bath. This expired on 12 Feb., while yet 



incomplete, and received the name of the " Short- 
lived" administration. The members of it were: 
the earl of Bath, first lord of the treasury ; lord 
Carlisle, lord privy seal; lord Winchilsea, first lord 
of the admiralty ; and lord Granville, one of the 
secretaries of state, with the seals of the other in his 
pocket, " to be given to whom he might choose." 
Mr. Pelham and his colleagues returned to power. 

BATH, ORDER OF THE, said to be of early 
origin, but formally constituted 11 Oct., 1399, by 
Henry IV., two days previous to his coronation in 
the Tower, when he conferred the order upon 
forty-six esquires, who had watched the night 
before, and bathed. After the coronation of Charles 
II. the order was neglected until 18 May, 1725, 
when it was revived by George I., who fixed the 
number of knights at 37. 

The prince regent (afterwards George IV.) created 
classes of knights grand crosses (72), knights com- 
manders (180), with an unlimited number of com- 
panions 2 Jan. 1815 

By an order, the existing statutes of this order 
were annulled ; and by new statutes, the order, 
hitherto exclusively military, was opened to 
civilians 25 May, 1847 

Dr. Lyon Playfair and other promoters of the Great 
Exhibition received this honour . . . 1851 

Constitution. Military. Civil. 

1st Class. Knights grand cross, 50 25 

2nd Class. Knights commanders, 100 50 

3rd Class. Companions, 525 200 

The order was further enlarged, June, 1861. 

BATHOMETER (Greek, bathus, deep), an 
apparatus invented by Dr. C. William Siemens to 
measure the depth of water without submerging a 
sounding-line, 1861-76. 

Its action depends on the diminution of the effect of 
gravitation on the surface of the water as compared 
with its effect on the earth, owing to the mass of water 
(of less density) which replaces earth (of greater den- 
sity) : which is duly registered. 

BATHS were early used in Asia and Greece, 
and introduced by Agrippa into Rome, where many 
were constructed' by Augustus and his successors. 
The thermae of the Romans and gymnasia of the 
Greeks (of which baths formed merely an appendage) 
were sumptuous. The marble group of Laoeoon 
was found in 1506 in the baths of Titus, erected 
about 80, and the Farnese Hercules in those of 
Caracalla, erected 211. 

In London, St. Agnes Le Clere, in Old-street-road, 
was a spring of great antiquity; baths said to 
have been formed in 1502. 

St. Chad's-well, Gray's-inn-road, derives its name 
from St. Chad, the fifth bishop Of Lichfield, 667. 

A bath opened in Bagnio-court, now Bath-street, 
Newgate street, London, is said to have been the 
first oath in England for hot bathing . . . 1679 

Old Bath-house, Coldbath-square, in use . . . 1697 

Peerless (Perilous) Pool. Baldwin-street, City-road, 
mentioned by stow (died 1605); enclosed as a 

bathing place 1743 

Turkish sweating oaths became popular . . . 1S60 
The Oriental baths in Victoria-street. Westminster, 
completed 1862 

PUBLIC BATHS AND WASH-HOUSES. 

The first established by Mr. Bowie in the neighbour- 
hood of Hie London docks ^44 

The public baths and wash-houses in Liverpool 
founded (through the instrumentality of Catherine 
Wilkinson, who in 1832 began to lend her room 
and appliances to poor people for washing) „ 

\. is passed to encourage the establishment of public 
baths and wash houses, •■ tor the health, comfort, 
and welfare of the inhabitants of populous towns 

and districts," in England and Ireland . . . 1846 



BATHYBIUS H^ICKELIL 



123 



BATTLES. 



Public baths and wash-houses have since been estab- 
lished throughout the empire. 

Baths and Wash-houses Act authorises establish- 
ment of cheap swimming baths, &c, 27 May, 1878 ; 
amended, 1882. Swimming baths when closed 
may, by license, be used for music or dancing, 

1896 and 1899 

Swimming classes for boys and girls provided for 

by many Board Schools 1903 

See Laundry. 

BATHYBIUS HiECKELII (Greek, bathus, 

deep ; bios, life), the name given by Huxley, 1868, 
to a supposed low form of animal life, a gelatinous 
substance found on stones at the bottom of the sea, 
in Deep Sea Soundings (which see). Described by 
Haeckel, 1870. Its existence is now doubted by 
naturalists. 

BATHYMETRY, the art of measuring depths 
in the sea, especially for scientific investigation; 
see Deep) Sea Soundings. 

BATON, a truncheon borne by generals in the 
French arm y, and afterwards by the marshals of 
other nations. Henry III. of France, before he 
ascended the throne, was made generalissimo of the 
army of his brother Charles IX., and received the 
baton as the mark of the high command, 1569. 
Henault. The baton used by conductors of con- 
certs is said to have been introduced into England 
by Spohr, in 1820. 

BATON ROUGE, Louisiana, United States, 
was captured by the Federals, 5 Aug. 1862, after a 
derce conflict ; see United States, 1862. 

BATOUM, or BatITM, a seaport in Lazistan, 
on the Black Sea. After having repulsed the Rus- 
sians in the war, 4 May, 1877, tbe place was ceded 
to Russia by the treaty of Berlin, 13 July, 1878, 
to become a free commercial port. The port was 
closed by Russia on and after 17 July, 1880. 

The inhabitants at first resisted, but were persuaded 
to submit ; many emigrating, July-Sept. The Russians 
entered, 6 Sept. 1878. 

Foundation of a new cathedral laid bv the czar, 7 Oct. 
1888. 

Disastrous explosion, great loss of life and property, 
25 July, 1 90 1. 

BATTERIES along the coasts were constructed 
by Henry VIII. (who reigned 1509-47). The ten 
floating batteries with which Gibraltar was attacked, 
in the siege of that fortress, were invented by 
D'Arcon, a French engineer. They resisted the 
heavy shells and 32-pound shot, but ultimately 
vielded to red-hot shot, 13 Sept. 1782; see 
Gibraltar. Formidable floating batteries are now 
erected. See Navy, Electricity. 

BATTERING-RAM, Testudo Arietaria, with 
other military implements, are said to have been 
invented by Artemon, a Lacedaemonian, and em- 
ployed by Pericles, about 441 B.C. Sir Christopher 
Wren employed a battering-ram in demolishing the 
walls of old St. Paul's cathedral, 1675. 

BATTERSEA PARK; an act of parliament 
passed in 1846, empowered her majesty's com- 
missioners of woods to form a royal parkin Battersea- 
fields. Acts to enlarge their powers were passed 
in 1848, 1851, and 1853. The park and the new 
bridge connecting it with Chelsea were opened in 
April, 1858 ; the bridge freed from toll, 24 May, 
1879. Albert Exhibition palace opened here, 6 
June, 1885 ; closed 1888. Battersea returns two 
M.P.'s by Act passed 25 June, 1885. New Batter- 
sea bridge opened by the earl of Rosebeiy, 21 July, 
1890. See Parks.- A new Polytechnic hall opened 



by Mr. Balfour, 3 Feb. 1899. Sir C. Lilke opens 
public baths and washhouses, 20 April, 1901. 
Battersea Training College, founded 1840. 

BATTLE, Trial by, or Wager of, a trial 

by combat formerly allowed by our laws, where the 
defendant in an appeal of murder might fight with 
the appellant, and make proof thereby of his guilt 
or innocence; see Appeal. 

BATTLE- ABBEY, Sussex, founded by 
William I., 1067, on the plain where the battle of 
Hastings was fought, 14 Oct. 1066. It was dedica- 
ted to St. Martin, and given to Benedictine monks, 
who were to pray for the souls of the slain. The 
original name of the plain was Hetheland ; see 
Hastings. After the battle of Hastings, a list was 
taken of William's chiefs, amounting to 629, and 
called the " Battel-roll ; ' ' and among these chiefs 
the lands and titles of the followers of the defeated 
Harold were distributed. " The Roll of Battle 
Abbey," edited by the duchess of Cleveland, was 
published, with notes, &c, in 1889. The abbey 
and domain, 6, 1 18 acres, sold to sir Augustus 
Webster for 200,000/., 26 Nov. 1901 ; pictures and 
heirlooms, etc., realized, 16,500/., 8 March, 1902. 

BATTLE-AXE, a weapon of the Celts. The 
Irish were constantly armed with an axe. Burns. 
At the battle of Bannockburn king Robert Bruce 
clove an English champion down to the chine at 
one blow with a battle-axe, 13 14. The battle-axe 
guards, or beaufetiers, vulgarly called beef-eaters, 
and whose arms are a sword and lance, were first 
raised by Henry VII. in 1485. They were originally 
attendants upon the king's buffet ; see Yeoman of 
the Guard. 

BATTLEFIELD, BATTLE OF, see Shrews- 
bury. 

BATTLES- Palamedes of Argos is mythically 
said to have been the first who ranged an army in a 
regular line of battle, placed sentinels round a camp, 
and excited the soldier's vigilance by giving him a 
watchword, and to have been treacherously slain by 
the Greeks before Troy. See Naval Battles, British. 
The following are the most memorable battles, 
arranged in chronological order ; further details of 
the greater part are given in separate articles ; 
n. signifies naval. 

The following are the battles described by Professor 
Creasy in his " Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World": — 

B.C. I A.D. 

Marathon . . . 490 1 Hastings . 14 Oct. 1066 

Syracuse . . . 413 Orleans . 29 April, 1429 

Arbela . 1 Oct. 331 ' Spanish Armada Jvdy, 1588 

Metaurus . . . 207 Blenheim . 13 Aug. 1704 

a.d. Pultowa . 8 July, 1709 

Teutoburg . . . 9 Saratoga . 17 Oct. 1777 

Chalons . . . . 451 t Valniy . 20 Sept. 1792 

Tours . to Oct. 732 I Waterloo . 18 June, 1815 

B.C. 

Abraham defeats kings ot Canaan (Gen. xiv.) . . 1913 

Joshua subdues five kings of Canaan (Josh. x. ) . 1451 

Gideon defeats the Midianites (Judges vii.) . . 1245 

Trojan war commenced 1193 

Troy taken and destroyed 1184 

.lephthah defeats Ammonites 1143 

Ethiopians defeated by Asa (2 Chron. xiv.) . . . 941 

Horatii vanquish Curiatii 669 

Halys (Mules and Lydians stopped by eclipse) 584 or 585 

Thymbra (Cyrus defeats Croesus) 548 

Lake Regillus (Romans defeat Latins) . . . 499 

Marathon (Greeks defeat Persians) . 28 or 29 Sept. 490 

Thermopylae (heroism ofLeonidas) . 7-9 Aug. 480 

Salamis n. (Greeks defeat Persians) . . 20 Oct. „ 

Himera (Gelon defeats Carthaginians) . . . . ,, 

Mycale (Greeks defeat Persians) . . . 22 Sept. 475 

Platsea (ditto : Pausanias) . . . 22 Sept. „ 



BATTLES. 



124 



BATTLES. 



Eurymedon n. (Greeks defeat Persians : Cimon) 

Tanagra (Spartans defeat Athenians) . 

(Enophy ta (A the n ians defeat Bee.ot ia as). 

Coronea (Boeotians defeat Athenians). 

Romans totally defeat Veientes . 

Tanagra (Athenians defeat Spartans) . 

Delium (Boeotians defeat Athenians) 

Amphipolis (Spartans repulse Athenians: Cleon and 

Brasidas killed) 

Mantinea (Spartans defeat Athenians) . 
Athenians defeated before Syracuse . 
Oyzicus n. (Alcibiades defeats Spartans) 
Arginusaj n. (Conon defeats Spartan fleet) . 
jEgospotamos n. (Athenian fleet destroyed) . 
Cunaxa (Cyrus defeated and'killed by Artaxerxes) 

Corinthian War 395 

Haliartus (Lysander killed) 

Cnidus n. (Conon defeats Spartans) 
Covonea,(Argesilaus defeats Athenians and allies) 
Allia (Brennus and the Gauls defeat Romans) 16 July, 
Volsci defeated by Camillus .... 

Volsci defeat the Romans 

Naxus (Chabrias defeats Lacedosmonians) . 376 

Tegyra (Thebans defeat Spartans) 

Leuctra (Thebans defeat Spartans) 

" Tearless Victory " of Archidamus over Argives 

&c 

Camillus defeats the Gauls 

Cynoscephalw (ThcbaMs defeat Thessalians) 
Mantinea (Thebans victors : Epaminondas slain) . 

Tamynte (jEschines there) 

Crimisus (Timolcon defeats Carthaginians) . 
Chueronea (Philip defeats Athenians, &c.) . . Au, 
Thebes destroyed by Alexander . 
Granicus (Alexander defeats Darius) . 22 May. 

Issus (ditto) Oct! 

Arbela (ditto) 1 Oct. 

Pandosia (Alexander ofEpirus defeated and killed) 

Cranon (Antipater defeats Greeks) 

Caudine Forks (Roman army captured) 

Gaza (Ptolemy defeats Demetrius) 

Ecnomus or Himera, (Carthaginians defeat Agathocle, 

Fabius defeats the Tuscans .... 

Vadimonian Lake (Etruscans defeated) . 

Ipsus (Seleucus defeats Antigouus, who is slain) 

Sentinum (Romans defeat Samnites) 

Gauls defeat Romans at Arretium, 284 ; defeated by 

Dolabella 

Vadimonian Lake (Etruscans defeated) . 
Corus (Lysimachus defeated and killed). 
Pandosia (Pyrrhus defeats Romans) 

Asculum (ditto) 

Beneventum (Romans defeat Pyrrhus) . 

First Punic War begins .... 

Mylie n. (Romans defeat Carthaginians) 

Xantippus defeats Regulus 

Panormus (Asdrubal defeated by Metellus) . 

Drepanum n. (Carthaginians defeat Romans) 

Lilybaeum taken by Romans 

jEgates n. (Romans defeat Carthaginians) . 

Ladocea (Achawns defeated) . 

Clusium or Pis* (Gauls defeated) 

Sellasia (Macedon ians defeat Spartans) . 

CaphyaJ (Acha-a its defeat .Etui inns) . 

Saguntum (taken by Hannibal) . 

Second Punic War. — Ticiuus (Hannibal defeats 

Romans) 

Ticinus and Trebia (ditto) 

Trasimene (ditto) 

Raphia (Antiochus defeated bu Ptol. Philopatcr) 
Camiiv (Victory of Hannibal) . . . 2 Au 
Mun<\n(Sci pin defeats Ilastlrnbal) 
Marcellus and Hannibal (former killed) 
Metaurus (Nero defeats Hasdi-ubal, who is killed) 
Za.ma. (Scipio defeats Hannibal) .... 

Abydos (siege of) 

Paneas (Antiochus defeats Egyptians, <£c.) . 
Cynoscephalse (Romans defeat Macedonians) . . 
Boii defeated at the Vadimonian lake . 
Thermopylae (Greeks defeated) . 
Magnesia (Scipio defeats Antiochus) 
TfySna (Romans defeat Perseus) . 
Eleasa (Judas MoccdbaiUS hilled) . 

Third Punic War .... 
Leucopetra (Mummius defeats Acluxans) 
Carthage taken by Publius Scipio 
Mummius takes Corinth 
Allobroges defeated by Q. Fabius Maxim 



June 



379 
377 

375 
37i 

367 

364 
362 
358 
339 
338 
335 
334 
333 
33i 
326 
322 
321 
312 
310 

3°9 
301 

295 



Metellus defeats Jugurtha 

Arausio (Cimbri defeat Romans) 
Aquae Sextite (Aix ; Marius defeats the Teutones) . 
Cimbri and Romans (defeated by Marius) . 
Chseronea (Sylla defeats Mithridates' army) . 
Sacriportus (Marius defeated by Sylla) 
Cabeira (Lucullus defeats Mithridates) . 
Petelia (Spartacus defeated by Crassus) 
Tigranocerta (Lucullus defeats Tigranes) 

Pistoria (Catiline defeated) 

Csesar defeats Cassivelaunus in Britain 
Carrha (Crassus defeated by Parthians) . 9 June : 
Pharsalia (Ccesar defeats Pompey) . . .9 Aug, 
Zela (Ccesar defeats Pharnaccs ; writes, "Veni, vidi 

vici ") • .... 

Thapsus (Cvesar defeats Pompey' s friends) 

Munda (ditto) 17 March 

Mutina (Hirtius defeats Antony) . . 27 April 
Philippi (Brutus and Cassius defeated) 
Mylae, n. (Agrippa, defeats Pompey the Younger) . 
Actium n. (Octavius defeats Antony) . . 2 Sept, 
Teutoburg (Varus defeated by Herman) . a.d, 
Shropshire (Caractacus taken) .... 
Sunbury (?) (Romans defeat Boadicea) . 

Jerusalem taken by Titus 

Agrieola conquers Mona or Anglesea . 
Ardoch (he defeats Galgacus and Caledonians) . 
Bacians defeated and Decebalus slain . 

Issus (Niger slain) 

Lyons (Severus defeats A Ibinus) . 
Verona (emperor Philip defeated and killed) 
Becius defeated and slain by Goths 
Valerian defeated and captured by Sapor . 
Nai'ssus (Claudius defeats Goths, many slain) 
Chaions (Aurelian victor over rivals). 
Allectus defeated in Britain .... 
Constantine def. Maxentius (see Cross) . 27 Oct 
Adrianople (Constant ine defeats Licinius) . 3 July, 
Aquileia (Constantine II. slain) . . March, 



109 
105 
102 
101 
86 



69 
62 
54 
S3 
48 



47 

46 
45 
43 
42 

36 

3 1 

9 

50 

61 

70 

78 

84 

106 

194 

197 

249 

2S» 
260 
269 
274 
296 
312 
323 
340 



Julian defeats Alemanni 356, 357 



Thyatira and Nacolea (Procopins defeated) 
Argentaria (Gratian defeats Alemanni) . May 
Adrianople (Gauls defeat Valens) . . 9 Aug, 
Aquileia (Maximus slain) . . . . 28 July 
Aquileia (Eugenius slain) . . . . 6 Sept, 
Pollentia (Stilieho defeats Alaric) . . .29 Mar, 
Rome taken by Alaric .... 24 Aug, 

Ravenna taken by Aspar 

Franks defeated by Aetius .... 

Genseric takes Carthage 

Chalons-sur-Marne (Attila defeated by Aetius) . 
Aylesford (Britons defeat Saxons ; ? Horsa killed) 
Crayford, Kent (Hengist defeats Britons) . 
Soissons (Clovis defeats Syagrius and Romans) 
Verona (Theodoric defeats Odoacer) . 27 Sept, 
Tolbiach or Zulpich (Claris defeats Alemanni) 
Vougie (Chris defeats Visigoths) 
Baddesdown hill (Britons defeat Saxons) . ? 493 
Veseronce (Gondemar defeats Clodomir) 
Victories of Belisarius in Africa, &c. . 
Narses defeats Totila, 552 ; and Teias 
Heraclius defeats the Persians (Chosroes) 



Beder (first victory of Mahomet) 

Muta (Mahometan's defeat Christians) . 

Hatfield (Heathlield ; Penda defeats Edirin) . 

Ajnadin (Saracens defeat Heraclius) . 13 July, ,, 

Yermuk (Sa race 11 s rictors) . . . 23 Aug. 634 

Yermuk (Saracens defeat Heraclius) . . Nov. 636 

Saracens subline Syria 636-S 

Kadseah (Arabs defeat Persians) 638 

Saracens take Alexandria ...... 640 

Near Oswestry (Penda defeats Oswald of Northum- 
berland) 5 Aug. 642 

Leeds (Oswy defeats Penda, who is slain) . . . 655 

Day of the Camel (AU victor) . . . 4 Nov. 656 

Saracens defeated by Wamba, in Spain . . . 67s. 

Testri (Pepin defeats Thierry) 687 

Xeres (Saracens defeat Roderic) . 19-26 July, 711 
Amblef and Vincy (Clias. Marteldef. Neustrians) 716-17 

Tours (Charles Mattel defeats the Saracens) 10 Oct. 732 

Victories of Charlemagne 775-800 

Roncesvalles(<featfio/.KoZaiuQ 77 s 

Hengestdovm (Danes defeated by Egbert) . . . 835 

Charmouth (Ethelwolfdefeated by the Danes) . . 840 
Fontenaille or Fontaneta (Lothairc defeated, by 

Charles ami Louis) .... 25 June, 841 

Clavijo (Moors defeated) 844 

Albaida (Musa and Moors defeated) .... 85? 



366 
378 



394 
403 
410 
425 
428 
439 
45i 
455 
457 



496 
507 
511 
524 
533-4 
553 
622 
623 
629 
633 



BATTLES. 



125 



BATTLES. 



Danes defeat king Edmund of East Anglia 

Assendon or Ashdown {Danes defeated) 

Basing and Merton (Danes victorious) 

Hafsfiord (Harold Hdrfager's final victory) 

Wilton (Danes victorious over Alfred) 

Andernach (Charles the Bald defeated) . 

Ethandun (Alfred defeats Danes) 

Farnham (Danes defeated) ... 

Zamora (Alfonso defeats Moors) . 

Bury (Edward defeats Ethelwald and Domcs) 

Tettenhall (Danes defeated) ... 6 Aug. 



8 Oct. 



870 
871 



872 
876 



901 
9°S 
910 



Soissons (king Robert, victor, killed) 
Merseburg (Hermans defeat Hungarians) 
Brunanburg (Northmen defeated) . 
Simancas (Spuniards defeat Moors) . 
Nicephorus Phocas defeats Saracens . 
Basientello (Otho II. defeated by Greeks) 



■ ■ 9 2 3 

• 934 

937 

6 Aug. 939 

. . 962 

13 July, 982 



Clontarf (Danes defeated in Ireland) . 23 April, 

Zetunium (Bulgarians defeated) . . 29 July, 

Brentford (Edmund defeats Danes) . . . May, 
Assingdon, Ashdon (Canute defeats Edmund) . . 

Sticklestadt (Olaf defeated by Swedes) . 29 July, 

Civitella (Normans defeat Leo IX. ) .... 
Dunsinane (Macbeth defeated) 



Fulford (Norwegians defeat English) 
Stamford Bridge (Harold defeats Tostig) . 
Hastings (William I. defeats Harold) . 
Fladenheim (emperor Henry defeated) 
Crusades commence .... 
Alnwick (Scots defeated, Malcolm slain) 
Dorylseum (Crusaders defeat Turks) . 
Ascalon (Crusaders victorious) 
Tinohebray (Robert of Normandy defeated) 
Brenneville (Henry I. defeated French) 
Fraga (Moors defeat Spaniards) 
Northallerton, or Battle of the Standard (David I. 
and Scots defeated) 22 Aug. 



20 Sept. 
25 Sept. 
, 14 Oct. 



13 Nov. 
1 July, 
12 Aug. 

.Aug. 

17 July, 



25 July, 
2 Feb. 

9 Aug. 
12 July, 
29 May, 

4 July, 



Ourique (Portuguese defeat Moors) 

Lincoln (Stephen defeated) 

Jaen (Moors defeated by Spaniards) 

Careano (Frederic I. defeated by Italians) 

Alnwick (William the Hon defeated) . 

Legnano (Italians defeat emperor) . 

Tiberias (Saladin defeats Crusaders) . 

Ascoli(2 "ancred defeats emperor Henry VI. 's army) . 

Acre taken by Crusaders .... 12 July, 

Arsouf (Richard I. defeats Saracens) . . 6 Sept. 

Freteville (Richard I. defeats Philip II.). 15 July, 

Arcadiopolis (Bulgarians defeat emperor Isaac) 

Alarcos (Moors defeat Spaniards) . . .19 July, 

Gisors (Richard I. defeats French) . . 20 Sept. 

Tolosa (Moors defeated) 16 July, 

Muret (Albigeuses defeated) ... 12 Sept. 
Bouvines (French defeat Germans) . . 27 July, 
Lincoln (French defeated) .... 20 May, 
Oorte Nuova (Frederick II. defeats Milanese) 27 Nov. 
Taillebourg (French defeat Henry III.) . 20 July, 

Carizmians defeated twice 

Fossalta (Ghibelines defeated) ... 26 May, 
Mansourah (Louis IX. and Crusaders defeated) . 
Largs (Scots defeat Northmen) ... 3 Oct. 
Lewes (English barons victorious) . . 14 May, 
Evesham (Barons defeated; De Montfort killed) 

4 Aug. 
Benevento (Chas. ofAnjou defeats Manfred) 26 Feb. 
Tagliacozzo (Clmrles defeats Conradin) . 23 Aug. 
Marchfeld (Austrians defeat Bohemians) . 26 Aug. 
Aber Edw (Llewellyn of Wales defeated) 
Zagrab (defeat of Charles Martel) 
Dunbar (Scots defeated) . . . . 

Cambuskenneth (Wallace defeats English) 
Goelheim (Adolphus ofNassaii, defeated) 
Falkirk (Wallace defeated) . . 
Courtray (Flemings defeat count of Artois) 
Roslin, Scotland (Comyn defeats English) 
Oephisus (Brienne, duke of Athens defeated) March, 
Bannockburn (Bruce defeats English) . 24 June, 

Morgarten (Swiss defeat Austrians} . — „ 15 Nov. 

Athenry (Irish defeated) . . . .10 Aug. 
Foughard or Dundalk (Ed. Bruce defeated) 5 Oct. 
Boroughbridge (Edward II. clefts. Barons) 
Miihldorf (Bavarians defeat Austrians) 
Duplin (Edward Baliol defeats Mar) 
Halidon Hill (Edward III. defts. Scots) 
Tarifa (Moors defeated) . . . . 28 or 30 Oct. 
Auberoche (earl of Derby defeats French) . 19 Aug. 



. 11 Dec. 

27 April, 

10 Sept. 
. 2 July, 

22 July, 

11 July, 
24 Feb. 



16 Mar. 
28 Sept. 

11 Aug. 
19 July, 



1014 

1016 

1030 
i°53 
i°54 
1066 



1080 
1090 
i°93 
1097 
1099 
1 106 
1119 
"34 

1138 

"39 

1141 

1 i.S7 
1 160 
1174 
1 1 76 
1 187 
1 190 
1191 

1194 

ii95 
1 198 

I2I2_ 

1213 

1214 
1217 

1237 

1242 

1247 
1249 

1250 

1263 

1264 

1265 

1266 

1268 
1278 

1282 
1292 



1302 

!3°3 
1311 

1314 

1315 

1316 

1318 

1322 

1332 
1333 
1340 
1344 



Crecy (English defeat French) . . . 26 Aug. 1346 
Durham, Nevil's Cross (Scots defeated) . 17 Oct. „ 

La Roche Darien (Charles of Bio is defeated) . . 1347 

Poitiers (English defeat French) . . 19 Sept. 1356 

Cocherel (Du Guesclin defeats Navarre) . 16 May, 1364 
Auray (Du GuescI in defeated). . . 29 Sept. ,, 
Najara (Navarrete, Logrono) (Black Prince defeats 

Henry of Trastamare) .... 3 April, 1367 

Montiel (Peter of Castile defeated) 14 March, 1369 

Rosbecque (French defeat Flemings) . 27 Nov. 1382 

Aljubarrota (Portuguese defeat Spaniards) . 14 Aug. 1385 

Sempach (Swiss defeat Austrians) . . 9 July, 1386 

Otterburn (Chevy Chase; Scots victors). . 10 Aug. 1388 
Nafels (Swiss defeat Austrians) ... . ,, 
Cossova (Turks defeat Albanians, and Amurath I. 

killed) Sept. 1389 

Nicopolis (Turks defeat Christians) . . 28 Sept. 1396 

Nesbit (Scots defeated) 7 May, 1402 



Ancyra (Timour defeats Bajazet) . 

Homeldon Hill (English defeat Scots) . 

Shrewsbury (Percies, £c. defeated) . 

Bramham Moor (Henry IV. defeats rebels) 

Tannenberg (Poles defeat Teuton knights) . 

Harlaw (Lord of the Isles defeated) 

Agincourt (English defeat French) . 

Prague (Hussites under Ziska victors) . 

Anjou, Beauge (English deft, by Scots) . 22 March, 1421 

Crevant (English deft. French and Scots) . 11 June, 1423 

Aquila (Arragonese defeated by Italians) . 2 June, 1424 

Verneuil (English defeat French and Scots) . 17 Aug. ,, 

Herrings (English defeat French). . . 12 Feb. 1429 

Orleans (siege relieved) . . . .29 April, ,, 

Pa.ta,y(EngiishdefeatcdbyJoaMofArc) . 18 June, ,, 

Lippau, or Bohmischbrod (Hussites deftd.) 28 May, 1434 

Kunobitza (Hunniades defeats the Turks) 

St. Jacob (French defeat Siviss) 

Varna (Turks defeat Hungarians) 

Cossova (Turks defeat Hunniades) . 

Formigni (English defeated by French) 

Sevenoaks (Jack Cade defeats Stafford) 

Aibar (Agramonts defeat Bcaumonts) . 

Brechin, Scotland (Huntley defeats Crawford) 

18 May, „ 
Castillon Chatillon, (French defeat Talbot) 

17 or 23 July, 1453 

WAR OF THE ROSES — YORKISTS AND LANCASTRIANS. 

St. Albans (Yorkists victorious) . . 22 or 23 May, 1455 



28 July, 

14 Sept. ,, 
23 July, 1403 

. 19 Feb. 1408 

15 July, 1410 
. 24 July, 141 1 

25 Oct. 1415 
. 14 July, 1420 



24 Dec. 1443 

26 Aug. 1444 
10 Nov. „ 

17 Oct. 1448 

15 April, 1450 
27 June, ,, 

23 Oct. 1452 



Bloreheath (Yorkists victors) 
Northampton (ditto, Henry VI. taken) : 
Wakefield (Lancastrians victors) . 
Mortimer's Cross (Yorkists victorious) . 
St. Albans (Lancastrians victors) 
Towton (Yorkists victorious) . 
Hexham (Yorkists victors) . 
Edgecote or Banbury (Yorkists defeated) 
Stamford (Lancastrians defeated) . 

Barnet (ditto) 

Tewkesbury (ditto) 



23 Sept. 1459 

10 July, 1460 
. 31 Dec. ,, 

. 2 Feb. 1461 
. 17 Feb. „ 
29 March, ,, 
. 15 May, 1464 

26 July, 1469 
13 March, 1470 

14 April, 1471 
4 May, ,, 

Belgrade (Mahomet II. repulsed) . . 4 Sept. 1456 
Montlhery (Louis XL ami nobles ; indec.) 16 July, 1465 
Granson (Swiss defeat Charles the Bold) 3 March, 1476 

Morat (ditto) 22 June, „ 

Nancy (Charles the Bold killed) . . . 5 Jan. 1477 
Bosworth (Richard III. defeated) . . 22 Aug. 1485 
Stoke (Lambert Simnel taken) . . 16 June, 1487 
St. Aubin (Orleans defeated) . . .28 July^ 1488 
Sauchieburn, near Bannockburn (James III. deftd. 
by rebels) 



Fornovo (French defeat Italians) 
Seminara (French defeat Spaniards) 
Blackheath (Cornish rebels defeated) . 
Seminara (Gonsalvo defeats French) ' . 
Cerignola (Gonsalvo defeats French) . 
Garigliano (Gonsalvo defeats French) . 
Agnadello (French defeat Venetians) . 
Ravenna (Gaston de Foix, victor, killed) 
Novara (Papal Swiss defeat French) 
Guinegate (Spurs) (French defeated) . 
Flodden (English defeat Scots) 
Marignauo (French defeat Swiss) 
Bicocca, near Milan (La.utrec defeated) . 
Pavia (Francis I. defeated). 
Frankenhausen (Anabaptists defeated) . 
Mohacz (Turks defeat Hungarians) . 
Cappel (Zwinglius slain) 
Lauffen (Hessia.ns defeat Austrians) . 
Assens (Christian III. defeats Danish rebels) 



6 July, 1495 



. 22 June, 


1497 


21 April, 


1503 


. 28 April. 


,, 


. 27 Dec. 


,, 


14 May, 


1509 


11 April, 


1512 


. 6 June, 


I 5 I 3 


16 Aug. 




. 9 Sept. 


,, 


13-15 Sept. 


ISIS 


29 April, 


1522 


24 Feb. 


1525 


15 May, 




. 29 Aug. 


1526 


. 11 Oct. 


JSS 1 


• 13 May, 


1534 


:1s) . 


1535 



BATTLES. 



126 



BATTLES. 



Abancay (Almagro defeated Alvarado) . 12 July, 
Solway Moss (English defeat Scots) . . 25 Nov. 
Ceresuola (French defeat Imperialists) . 14 April, 
Miihlberg (Chas. V. defeats Protestants) . 24 April, 
Pinkey (English defeat Scots) ... 10 Sept. 
Ket's rebellion suppressed by Warwick . Aug. 

Marciauo (Florentines defeat French) . . 3 Aug. 
St. Quentin (Span. & Eng. deft. French) . 10 Aug. 

Calais (taken) 7 Jan - 

Gravelines n. (S'pan. ci Eng. deft. French). 13 July, 
Dreux, in France (Huguenots defeated) . 19 Dec. 

Carberry Hill (Mary of Scotland defeated) 15 June, 
St. Denis (Huguenots defeated) . . . 10 Nov. 
Langside (Mary of Scotland defeated) . 13 May, 
Jarnac (Huguenots defeated) . . 13 March, 
Moncontour (Coligny defeated) . . .3 Oct. 
Lepanto, n. (Don John defeats Turks) . 7 Oct. 
Dormans (Guise defeats Huguenots) . . 10 Oct. 
Alcazar-quiver (Moors defeat Portuguese) . 4 Aug. 
Alcantara (Spaniards defeat Portuguese) . 24 June, 
Zutphen (Dutch & English def Spaniards), 22 Sept. 
Coutras (Henry IV. defeats League) . . 20 Oct. 
Spanish Armada defeated, n. . . July, Aug. 
Arques (Henry IV. defeats League) . .21 Sept. 
Ivry or Yvres (ditto) .... 14 March, 
Epernay taken by Henry IV. of France . 26 July, 
Fontaine Franchise (Henry IV. beats Spaniards) 

5 June, 
Blaekwater (Tyrone and rebels def. Bangal), 14 Aug. 
Nieuport (Maurice defeats Austrians) . 
Kinsale (Tyrone reduced by Mountjoy) 

Kirchholm (Poles defeat Swedes) 

Gibraltar (Dutch defeat Spaniards) . 
Prague (king oj 'Bohemia defeated). . ■ 8 Nov. 
Dessau (Wallenstein defeats Mansfeld) . 25 April, 
Rochelle (taken) . . . .' ■ -28 Oct. 

Stuhm (Gustavus defeats Pules) 

Leipsic or Breitenf eld (Gu.sta mis def. Tilly), 7 Sept. 
Lech (Imperialists defeated ; Tilly killed) 5 April, 
Lippstadt, Lutzingen, or Lutzen (Swedes victorious ; 
Gustavus slain) .... (n.s.) 16 Nov. 
Nordlingen (Swedes defeated) . . -27 Aug. 
Arras (taken by the French) ... 10 Aug. 
Leipsic (Swedes defeat Austrians) . . 23 Oct. 
Rocroy (French defeat Spaniards) . . . May, 
Friedburg (Condi victor) .... Aug. 
Nordlingen (Turenne defeats Austrians) . 

CIVIL WAR IN ENGLAND. 

Worcester (prince Rupert victor) 23 Sept. 

EdgehiU tight (issue doubtful) . ■ 23 Oct. 
Bradock-down (Parliamentarians defeated) . Jan. 



1537 
1542 
1544 
1547 

1549 
1554 
1557 
i5S8 

1562 
1567 

1568 
1569 

I57 1 
I57S 
1578 
1580 
1S86 
1587 
1588 

1589 
159° 
1592 

1595 
1598 
1600 
1 601 
1605 
1607 
1620 
1626 
1628 

1631 
1632 



1634 
1640 
1642 



1644 
i645 



1642 
1643 



Bramham Moor (Fairfax defeated) . 29 March, 

Stratton (Royalists victorious) . . 16 May, ,, 

Chalgrove (Hampden killed) . . .18 June, „ 

Atherton Moor (Royalists victorious) . 30 June, „ 

Landsdown (Royalists victorious) . . 5 July, ,, 

Devizes or Roundway-down (ditto) . 13 July, „ 

Gainsborough (Cromwell victor). . . 27 July, ,, 

Newbury (fav. to Royalists) ... 20 Sept. „ 

Cheriton or Alresfoid (ditto) . . 29 March, 1644 

Cropredy Bridge (Charles I. victor) . 29 June, „ 

Marston Moor (prince Rupert defeated) . 2 July, „ 

Tipperrauir (Montrose defeats Covenanters) . 1 Sept. ,, 

Newbury (indecisive) . . . . . 27 Oct. ,, 

Naseby (Charles I. .totally defeated) . 14 June, 1645 

Ali'ord (Montrose defeats Covenanters) . . 2 July, „ 

Kilsyth (ditto) . . ... 15 Aug. „ 

Philiplriugh (Covenanters defeat Montrose) 13 Sept. ,, 

Benburb (O'Neill defeats English) . . 5 June, 1646 

Dungan-hill (Irish defeated) ... 8 Aug. 1647 

Preston (Cromwell ■ victor) . . ■ 17 Aug. 1648 

Rathmines (Irish Royalists defeated) . . 2 Aug. 1649 

Drogheda (taken by storm) . . 12 Sept. „ 

Corbiesdale (Montrose defeated) . . . 27 April, 1650 

Dunbar (Cromurll defeats Scots) . . 3 Sept. ,, 

Worcester (Cromwell defeats Charles II.) . 3 Sept. 1651 

Galway (surrendered) 1652 

Daventry (Lambert defeated by Monk) . 21 April, 1660 



Arras, France (Turenne defeats Condi) . . . . 1654 

Dunkirk (ditto) 14 June, 1658 

Estremoz (Don John def. by Schomberg) . 8 June, 1663 

St. Gotthard (Montecuculi defeats Turks) . 1 Aug. 1664 

Villa Vieiosa(/W»!/«r.-T def rat SiHiniards) . . 1665 

Pentland hills (Covenanters defeated) . 28 Nov. 1666 

Candia (taken by Turks) . 6 Sept. 1669 



Choczim (Sobieski defeats Turks) . .11 Nov. 
Seneffe (French and. Dutch, indecisive) . 11 Aug. 
Eusisheim (Turenne defeats Imperialists) . 4 Oct. 

Mulhausen (ditto) 31 Dec. 

Turckheim (ditto) 5 Jan. 

Salzbach (Turenne killed) . . . -27 July, 
Drumclog (Covenanters defeat Claverhoii.se) 1 June. 
Bothwell Brigg (Monmouth defeats Covenanters) 

22 June, 
Vienna (Turks defeated by Sobieski) 
Sedgeinoor (Monmouth defeated). 
Moliaez (Turks defeated) 
Killiecrankie (Highlanders def. Moxicay) 
Newtown-butler (Jacobites defeated) 
Boyne (William III. defeats James II.) 
Fleurus (Charleroi, Luxembourg victor) 
Athlone taken by Ginckel . 
Aughrim (James II. 's cause ruined) 
Salenckemen (Louis of Baden def. Turks) 



Enghein or Steenkirk (William III. 



12 Sept. 
6 July, 
12 Aug. 
27 July, 
30 July, 
1 July, 
. 1 July 
30 June, 
12 July, 
19 Aug. 
defeated) 
24 July, 

19 July, 
. 4 Oct. 
11 Sept. 
30 Nov. 

9 July, 

1 Sept. 

20 July, 
26 July, 

14 Oct. 
. 1 May, 
20 Sept. 

2 July, 
24 July, 



1673 
1674 



1675 
1679 



1685 
1687 



1690 
i6qi 



1692 
1693 

1697 
1700 
1701 



i7°3 
1704 



1705 
1706 



Landen (William III. defeated) 
Marsaglia (Pignerol) (French victors) 
Zenta (prince Eugene defeats Turks) 
Narva (Charles XII. defeats Russians) 
Carpi, Modena (Allies defeat French) 
Chiari (Austrians defeat French) . 
Clissau (Charles XII. defeats Poles) . 
Santa Vittoria (French victors) 
Friedlingen (French defeat Germans) 
Pultusk (Swedes defeat Poles) 
Hochstadt (French defeat Austrians) 
Donauwerth (Marlborough victor) 
Gibraltar (taken by Rooke) 

Blenheim or Hochstadt (Marlborough victor), (o. s.) 

2 Aug. 
Tirlemont (Marlborough successful) . . 18 July, 
Cassano (prince Eugene ; indecisive) . . 16 Aug. 
Mittau (taken by Russirms) . . . 14 Sept. 
Ramillies (Marlborough defeats French) . 23 May, 
Turin (French defeated by Eugene) . . 7 Sept. „ 
Kalitsch (Russians defeat Swedes) . . 19 Nov. ,, 
Almanza (French defeat Allies) 14 (o. s.) or 25 April, 1707 
Oudenarde (Marlborough victor) . . .11 July, 1708 
Liesna, Lenzo (Russians defeat Sivedes) . autumn, „ 
LTsle (taken by the Allies) .... Dec. ,, 
Pultowa (Peter defeats Charles XII.) . 8 July, 1709 
Malplaquet (Marlborough victor) . . 11 Sept. ,, 

Dobro (Russians defeat Swedes) . . 20 Sept. ,, 
Almenara (Austrians defeat French) . . 28 July, 1710 

Saragossa (ditto) 20 Aug. „ 

Villa Viciosa (Austrians defeated) . . 10 Dec. „ 
Arleux (Marlborough forces French lines) 5 Aug. 1711 
Bouchain (taken by Marlborough) . . 13 Sept. ,, 
Denain (Villars defeats Allies) . . 24 July, 
Friburg (taken by French) .... 7 Nov. 
Preston (rebels defeated) . . . . 12, 13 Nov. 
Dumblans or Sherifl'-Muir (indecisive) . 13 Nov. 
Peterwardein (Eugene defeats Turks) . . 5 Aug. 

Belgrade (ditto) 16 Aug. 

Bitonto (Spaniards defeat Germans) . 27 May, 
Parma (Austrians and French, indecisive) . 29 June, 
Guastalla (Austrians defeated) . . 19 Sept. 
Erivan (Nadir Shah defeats Turks) . . June, 
Krotzka. (Turks defeat Austrians) . . 22 July, 
Molwitz (Prussians defeat Austrians) . 10 April, 
Dettingen (George II. defeats French) . 16 June, 
Fontenoy (Sa.re defeats Cumberland) . . 30 April, 
Hohenfreiburg (Prussians defeat A-uslrians) 4 June, 

scots' rebellion. 
Gladsmuir near Preston Pans (rebels defeat Cope) 

21 Sept. 1745 
Clifton Moor (rebels defeated) . . 18 Dec. „ 

Falkirk (rebels defeat Hawley) . . . 17 Jan. 1746 
Culloden (Cumberland defeats rebels) . 16 April, „ 



1712 
1713 
1715 

1716 
1717 
J734 



J 73S 
1739 
1741 

1743 
1745 



St. Lazaro (Sardinians defeat French) 
Plaoeiltia (Austrians defeat French) 
Raueoux (Saxe defeats Allies) . 
Latfeldt (Sa.re defeats Cumberland) 
Bxilles (Sardin iaus defeat. French) 
Bergen-op-Zoom (taken) 
Fort du Quesne (Braddock killed) 
Calcutta (taken by Surajah Dowlah) 

SEVEN YEARS' WAR, 1756-63. 

Prague (Frederick defeats Allies) . ' . 6 May, 

Kollin (Frederick defeated) . . . 18 June, 



4 June, 




16 June, 




ii Oct. 




2 July, 


1747 


19 July, 




15 Sept. 


,, 


9 Ju'y, 


17SS 


20 June, 


1756 



BATTLES. 



127 



BATTLES. 



Norkitten (Russians defeated) . . . 13 Aug. 1757 

Rosbach (Frederick defeats French) . . 5 Nov. ,, 

Breslan (Austrians victors) ... 22 Nov. ,, 

Lissa (Frederick defeats Austrians) . . 5 Dec. ,, 

Creveldt (Ferdinand defeats French) . 23 June, 1758 

Zorndorff (Frederick defeats Russians) 25, 26 Aug. ,, 

Hochkirehen (Austrians defeat Prussians) 14 Oct. ,, 

Bergen (French defeat Allies) . . .13 April, 1759 

Zullichau (Russians defeat Prussians) . 23 July, ,, 

Minden (Ferdinand defeats French) . 1 Aug. ,, 

Cunnersdorf (Russians defeat Prussians) 12 Aug. ,, 

Wandewash (Coote defeats Lally) . . 22 Jan. 1760 

Landshut, Silesia (Prussians defeated) . 23 June, ,, 

Warburg (Ferdinand defeats French) . 31 July, ,, 

Pfaffendorf (F rederick defeats Austrians) . 15 Aug. ,, 
Kloster Campen (English and Germans with French, 

indecisive) . . . . . . 15, 16 Oct. ,, 

Torgau (Frederick defeats Austrians) . . 3 Nov. ,, 

Kirchdenkern (Allies defeat French) . 15 July, 1761 

Schweiduitz (Frederick II. def. Austrians) 16 May, 1762 

Johannisberg (French defeat Prussians) 30 Aug. ,, 

Freiberg (Prussians defeat Austrians) . 29 Oct. ,. 



23 June, 1757 

24 July, 1759 
13 Sept. ,, 

. 23 Oct. 1764 

; 13 July, 1769 

Nov. ,, 

28 Sept. 1770 

19 June, 1773 
.1774 



Plassey (dive's victory) 
Niagara (English take Fort) 
Quebec (Wolfe, victor, killed) 
Buxar (Munro defeats army ofOude) 
Choczim (Russians defeat Turks) 30 April 1 
Galatz (Russians defeat Turks) 
Bender taken by Russians 
Brailow (Russians defeat Turks) . 
Silistria (taken) 



1775 
1776 



1779 
1780 



1783 



1790 
1791 



AMERICAN WAR. 

Lexington (Gage victor, ivith great loss) . 19 April, 
Bunker's Hill (Americans repulsed) . 17 June, 
Long Island (Americans defeated) . . 27 Aug. 
White Plains (Howe defeats Americans) . 28 Oct. 
Rhode Island (taken by Royalists) . . 8 Dec. 
Princeton (Washington, defeats British) . 3 Jan. 
Brandywine (Howe defeats Washington) . n Sept. 
Germanstown (Burgoyne's victory) . 3, 4 Oct. 

Saratoga (he is compelled to surrender) . 7 Oct. 

Briar's Creek (Americans defeated) . 3 March, 
Camden (Cornwallis defeats Gates) . . 16 Aug. 
Arcot (Hyder defeats British) , , . 31 Oct. 
Guildford (Cornwallis defeats Gates) . 15 March, 
Camden (Americans defeated) . . 25 April, 
Porto Novo (Coote defeats Hyder) . . 1 July, 
Eutaw Springs (Arnold defeats Americans) . 8 Sept. 
York Town (Cornwallis surrenders) . 19 Oct. 
[Many inferior actions with various success.] 
Rodney's victory over De Grasse, n. . 12 April, 
Arnee (Coote defeats Hyder) ... 2 June, 
Attack on Gibraltar fails . . . 13 Sept. 

Bednore (taken by Tippoo Sahib) . . 30 Aprd, 
Martinesti (Austrians defeat Turks) . . 22 Sept. 
Ismail (taken by storm by Suwarrow) . 22 Dec. 
Bangalore (taken by storm) ... 21 March, 
Arikera (Tippoo defeated) .... 15 May, 
Seringapatam (ditto) 6 Feb. 1792 

FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WAR BEGINS. 

Quievrain (French repulsed) . . .28 April, 1792 

Valmy (French defeat Prussians) . . 20 Sept. ,, 

Jemappes (French victorious) ... 6 Nov. „ 

Neerwinden (French beaten by Austrians) 18 March, 1793 

St. Amand (French defeated by English). . 8 May, ,, 

Valenciennes (ditto) . . 23 May, 26 July, ,, 

Lincelles (Lake defeats French) . . . 18 Aug. ,, 

Dunkirk (duke of York defeated) . . 7, 8 Sept. ,, 

Quesnoy (reduced by Austrians) . . 11 Sept. ,, 

Pirmasens (Prussians defeat French) . 14 Sept. ,, 

Wattignies (French defeat Coburg) . 14, 15, 16 Oct. „ 

Toulon (retaken by British) . 19 Dec. ,, 

Cambray (French defeated) . . .24 April, 1794 

Troisville, Landrecy (taken by Allies) . 30 April, ,, 

Tourcoing (Mcreau defeats Allies) . 18-22 May, ,, 

Espierres (taken by Allies) ... 22 May, ,, 

Howe's naval victory . . . . 1 June, ,, 

Chaiieroi or Fleurus (French defeat Allies) 26 June, ,, 

Misdon (Vendeans defeated) . . .28 July, ,, 

Bois-le-Duc (duke of York defeated) . 14 Sept. ,, 

Boxtel (ditto) 17 Sept. ,, 

Maciejowice (Poles defeated) . . . .10 Oct. ,, 

Nimeguen (French victorious) 28 Oct., (def.) 4 May, ,, 

Praga (Warsaw taken by Suwarrow) . . 4 Nov. ,, 

Bridport's victory off l'Orient, n. . . 22 June, 1795 



Quiberon (Emigrants defeated) . . 21 July, 

Mannheim (taken by Pichegru) . . 20 Sept. 

Loano (French defeat Austrians) . . 23, 24 Nov. 
Montenotte (Bonaparte victorious) . .12 April, 

Mondovi (ditto) 22 April, 

Lodi (ditto) . . .■ . . .10 May, 
Altenkirchen (Austrians defeated) . . 4 June, 
Radstadt (Moreau defeats Austrians) . 5 July, 

Altenkirchen (Austrians victors) . . 16 Sept. 
Roveredo (French defeat Austrians) . 4 Sept. 

Bassano (ditto) 8 Sept. 

Biberach (ditto) 2 Oct. 

Lonato and Castiglione (ditto) . . . 3-5 Aug. 
Neresheim (Moreau def. archduke Charles) 10 Aug. 
Areola (Bonaparte victorious) . . 14-17 Nov. 

Castelnuovo (ditto) 21 Nov. 

Rivoli (ditto) 14, 15 Jan. 

Cape St. Vincent, n. (Spaniards defeated) 14 Feb. 
Tagliamento (Bonaparte def. Austrians) 16 March, 
Camperdowu, n. (Duncan defeats Dutch) n Oct. 

IRISH REBELLION BEGINS . . . May, 

Kilcullen (rebels successful) . . .23 May, 
Naas (rebels defeated) .... 24 May, 

Tara (rebels defeated) 26 May, 

Oulart (rebels successful) . . . 27 May, 

Gorey or New Ross (rebels defeated) . . 4 June, 
Antrim (rebels defeated) .... 7 June, 

Arklow (rebels beaten) . . . .10 June, 
Ballynahmeh (Nugent defeats rebels) . 13 June, 
Vinegar Hill (Lake defeats rebels) . . 21 June, 
Castlebar (French auxiliaries defeated) . 27 Aug. 
Pyramids (Bonaparte def. Mamelukes) 13, 21 July, 
Nile, n. (Nelson defeats French fleet) . . 1 Aug. 
Ballmamuek (French and rebels defeated) . 8 Sept. 
El Arisch (French defeat Turks) . .18 Feb. 
Jaffa (stormed by Bonaparte) . . . 7-10 March, 
Stokach (Austrians defeat French) . 25 March, 

\erona,'(Austrians defeat French) . 28-30 March, 

Magnano (Kray defeats French). . . 5 April, 
Mount Thabor (Bonaparte defeats Turks) 16 April, 
Cassano (Suwarrow defeats Moreau) . .27 April, 
Adda (Suwarrow defeats French) . . „ 

Seringapatam (Tippoo killed) ... 4 May, 
Acre (relieved by sir Sydney Smith) . . 20 May, 
Zurich (French defeated) . . . . 5 June, 
Trebia (Suwarrow defeats French) . 17-19 June, 
Alessandria (taken from French) . 21 July, 

Aboukir (Turks defatted by Bonaparte) 25 July, 

Novi (Suwarrow defeats French) . . .15 Aug. 
Zuyper Sluys (French defeated) . . 9 Sept. 
Bergen and Alkmaer(^lMics defeated) 26 Oct. 19 Sept. 
Zurich (Massena defeats Russians) . 25 Sept. 

Heliopolis (Kleber defeats Turks) . . 20 Mar. 
Engen (Moreau defeats Austrians) . . 3 May, 

Mceskirch (ditto) 5 May, 

Biberach .(ditto) 9 May, 

Montebello (Austrians defeated) . . 9 June, 
Marengo (Bonaparte defeats Austrians) . 14 June, 
Hochstadt (Moreau defeats Austrians) . 19 June, 

Hohenlinden (ditto) 3 Dec. 

Mincio (French defeat Austrians) . . 25-27 Dec. 
Aboukir (French defeated) . . . .8 March, 
Alexandria (Abercrombie's victory) . . 21 March, 
Copenhagen (bombarded by Nelson) . . 2 April, 
Ahmednuggur (Wellesley victorious) . 12 Aug. 
Assaye (ditto, his first great victory) . . 23 Sept. 
Argaum ( Wellesley victor) . . 29 Nov. 

Furruckabad (Lake defeats Holkar) . .17 Nov. 
Bhurtpore (taken by Lake) ... 2 April, 

Elchingen (Ney defeats Austrians) . . 14 Oct. 
Ulm surrenders (Ney defeats Austrians) 17-20 Oct. 
Trafalgar (Nelson destroys Fren. fleet; killed) 21 Oct. 
Austerlitz (Napoleon defeats Austrians & Russ. ) 2 Dec. 
Buenos Ayres (taken by Popham) . .27 June, 
Maida (Stuart defeats French) . . .4 July, 
Saalfeld (French defeat Prussians) . . 10 Oct. 

Jena S & f ( Frenc ^ 1 defeat Prussians) . 14 Oct. 

Halle stormed by French . . . 17 Oct. 

Pultusk (French and Allies, indecisive) . 26 Dec. 

Mohrungen (French def. Russ. & Pruss.). 25 Jan. 

Montevideo (taken) 3 Feb. 

Eylau (indecisive) 7, 8 Feb. 

Ostrolenka (French defeat Pmssians) . . 16 Feb. 

Friedland (French defeat Russians) . 14 June, 

Buenos Ayres (Whitelock defeated) . . 5 July, 

Copenhagen (bombarded by Gathcart) . 2-5 Sept. 



1795 
1796 



1804 
t8o 5 



1806 



BATTLES. 



128 



BATTLES. 



Medina de Rio Seco (French defeat Spaniards) 

15 July, 1808 

Baylen (Spaniards defeat French) . . 20 July, „ 

PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN BEGINS. 

Vimiera (Wellesley defeats Junot) . . 21 Aug. 1808 

Tudela or Ebro (French defeat Spaniards) 23 Nov. ,, 

"Corunna (Moore defeats French) . . 16 Jan. 1809 

Abenberg (Austrians defeated) . . . 20 April, ,, 

Landshut (ditto) 21 April, „ 

Eckmlihl (Davoust defeats Austrians) . 22 April, ,, 

Ebersberg (French defeat Austrians) . . 4 May, ,, 

Oporto (taken). ... 29 March, 12 May, „ 

EssH™ } (Napoleon defeated) . . 21, 22 May, „ 

Wagram (Austrians defeated) . . 5, 6 July, ,, 

Talavera (Wellesley defeats Victor) . 27, 28 July, ,, 

•Silistria (Turks defeat Russians) . 26 Sept. ,, 

Ocana (Mortier defeats Spaniards) . . 19 Nov. ,, 

Busaco (Wellington repulses Mdssena) . 27 Sept. 1810 
Barrosa (Graham defeats Victor-) . . 5 March, 1811 

Badajoz (taken by the French) . . 11 March, ,, 
Fuentes de Onoro (Wellington defeats Massena) 

3. 5 May, ,, 

Albuera (Beresford defeats Soult) . . 16 May, ,, 

Ximena (Spaniards defeat French) . . 10 Sept. ,, 

Merida (Hill defeats French) . . . .28 Oct. ,, 

Albufera (Suchet defeats Sixiniards) . . 4 Jan. 1812 

Ciudad Rodrigo (stormed by English) . 19 Jan. „ 

Badajoz (taken by Wellington) . . .6 April, ,, 

Llerena (Cotton defeats Soult) . . n April, ,, 

Salamanca (Wellington defts. Marmont) . 22 July, ,, 

Mohilow (French defeat Russians) . 23 July. ,, 

Polotzk (French and Russians) . . 30, 31 July, ,, 

Krasnoy, Smolensko (French defeat Russians) 

15, 19 Aug. „ 

BoroXo} (**» ^ Sept. „ 

Moscow (burnt by Russians) . . .15 Sept. ,, 

•Queenstown (Americans defeated) . . 13 Oct. ,, 

Polotzk (retaken by Russians) . . 19, 20 Oct. ,, 

Malo-Jaroslawatz (French victors) . . 24 Oct. ,, 

Witepsk (French defeated) . . . 14 Nov. ,, 

Krasnoi (ditto) 16-18 Nov. ,, 

Beresina (ditto) 25-29 Nov „ 

French Town (taken by Americans) . 22 Jan. 1813 

Kalitsch (Saxons defeated) .... 13 Feb. „ 

Mockern (Eugene defeats Russians) . 5 April, ,, 

Castalla (sir J. Murray defeats Suchet) . 13 April, ,, 

Lutzen (Napoleon checks Allies) . . .2 May, „ 

Bautzen (Nap. and A Hies; indecisive) . 20 May, ,, 

Wurschen (ditto) 21, 22 May, „ 

Hochkirchen (French deft. Aust. and Russ.), 22 May, „ 

Vittoria (Wellington defts. king Joseph) . 21 June, ,, 

Pyrenees (Wellington defeats Soult) 28 July, 2 Aug. ,, 

Katzbach (Bliicher defeats Macdonald) ' . 26 Aug. ,, 

Dresden (Napoleon checks Allies) . . 26, 27 Aug. „ 

St. Sebastian (stormed by Graham) . . 31 Aug. „ 

Dennewitz (Ncy defeated) ... 6 Sept. ,, 

Mockern (French defeated) .... 16 Oct. ,, 

Leipzic (Napoleon defeated) . . . 16-18 Oct. ,, 

Hanau (Napoleon defeats Bavarians) . . 30 Oct. ,, 

St. Jean de Luz (Wellington defts. Soult) 10 Nov. ,, 
Passage of the Nive, 9 Dec. ; several engagements 

between the Allies and French . 10 to 13 Dec. ,, 

St. Dizier, France (French victors) . .26 Jan. 1814 

Brienne (Allies defeated) .... 29 Jan. „ 

La Rothiere (Napoleon defeats Allies). . 1 Feb. ,, 

Bar-sur-Aube (Allies victors) . . . 7 Feb. ,, 

Mincio (pr. Eugene defeats Austrians) . 8 Feb. ,, 

Champ Aubert (French defeat Allies) . 10-12 Feb. ,, 

Montinirail (ditto) n Feb. „ 

Wauehamp (ditto) 14 Feb. „ 

Fontainebleau (ditto) 17 Feb. „ 

Montereau (ditto) 18 Feb. „ 

Orthez (Wellington defeats Soult) . . 27 Feb. „ 

Craonne (French victors) ... 7 March, „ 

Bergen-Op-Zoom (Graham defeated) . . 8 March, ,, 

Daon (French defeated) .... 9-10 March, ,, 

Rheims (Napoleon defeats St. Priest) . 13 March, „ 

'Tarbes (Wellington defeats Soult) . . 20 March, „ 

SPfere Cbampenoise (French defeated) . 25 March, ,, 

St. Dizier (French victors) . . . 28 March, ,, 

Paris, Montmartrft, Romainville (ditto) 30 March, ,, 
Battle of the Barriers, 30 March ; (Marmont evacuates 

Paris, and tlie Allies enter it) . . 31 March, ,, 

Toulouse (Wellington defeats Soult) . 10 April, ,, 

Tolentino (Jtfwrcif defeated) . . . . 3 May, 1815 



Ligny (Bliicher repulsed) . . . . 16 June, 1815 
Quatre Bras (Ney repidsed) . . . . 16 June, ,, 
Waterloo (Napoleon finally beaten) . . 18 June, „ 

AMERICAN WAR. 

Fort George, at Niagara (taken by Americans), 

27 May, 1813 
" Stoney Creek," Upper Canada (Americans routed) 

6 June, ,, 
Chrysler's Farm, Canada . . . .11 Nov. ,, 
Black-rock, America, opposite Buffalo . 30 Dec. ,, 
Longwood (English defeated) ... 4 May, 1814 
Chippawa (British defeated) ... 5 July, „ 

Lundy's Lane (Americans defeated) . . 25 Jul}', ,, 
Fort Erie (British repidsed) ... 15 Aug. ,, 
Bladensburg, near Washington (Americans defeated) 

24 Aug. ,, 
Bellair or Moor's Fields (British repidsed), 30 Aug. ,, 
Baltimore (British victors) . . . .12 Sept. „ 
New Orleans (British repulsed) . 8, 12, & 13 Jan. 1815 

Algiers (bombarded by Exmouth). . . 27 Aug. 1816 
Chacabuco (Chilians defeat Spaniards) . 12 Feb. 1817 
Kirkee (Hastings defeats 1'indarrces) . . 5 Nov. ,, 
Mehadpore (Hislop defeats H olkar). . 21 Dec. ,, 
Valtezza (Turks defeated) . . . .27 May, 1821 
Dragaschan (Ipsilanli defeated) . . 19 June, ,, 
Tripolitza (stormed by Greeks) ... 5 Oct. ,, 
Thermopylae (Greeks defeat Turks) . , 13 July, 1822 

Corinth (taken) 16 Sept. ,, 

Accra (Ashantees defeat sir C. Macarthy) 21 Jan. 1824 
Ayacucho (Peruvians defeat Spaniards) . 9 Dec. ,, 
Bhurtpore (taken by Combermere) . . 18 Jan. 1826 
Accra (Ashantees defeated) ... 7 Aug. „ 

Athens (taken) 17 May, 1827 

Navarino (Allies destroy Turkish fleet) . . 20 Oct. ,, 
Brahilovv (Russians and Turks) . . .18 June, 1828 
Akhalzikh (ditto) . . J . . 24 Aug. ,, 
Varna (surrenders to Russians) . . . 11 Oct. ,, 

Silistria (ditto) 30 June, 1829 

Kainly (Russians defeat Turks) . . . 1 July, ,, 
Balkan (passed by Russians) ... 26 July, ,, 
Adrianople (Russians enter) . . .20 Aug. „ 
Algiers (captured by French) ... 5 July, 1830 
Paris (Days ofJidy) ... 27, 28, 29 July, „ 
Grochow (Poles defeat Russians) . . 19, 20 Feb. 1831 
Praga (Poles defeat Russians) . . .25 Feb. ,, 
Wa,wz(Skrzynecki defeats Russians) ., 31 March, ,, 
Seidlice (Poles defeat Russians) . . . 10 April, „ 

O.strolenka (ditto) 26 May, ,, 

Wilna (Poles and Russians) . . .18 June, ,, 
Warsaw (taken by Russians) ... 7 Sept. ,, 

Horns (Egyptians defeat Turks) ... 8 July, 1832 
Beylan. (Ibrahim defeats Turks) . . 29 July, ,, 
Konieh (Egyptians defeat Turks) . . 21 Dec. ,, 
Antwerp citadel taken by Allies . . 23 Dec. ,, 
Hernani (Carlists defeated) .... 5 May, 1836 

St. Sebastian (ditto) 1 Oct. ,, 

Bilboa (siege raised ; British Legion) . . 24 Dec. ,, 
Hernani (Carlists repidsed) . . .16 March, 1837 
Iran (British Legion defeats Carlists) . . 17 May, ,, 
Valentia (Carlists attacked) ' . . . 15 July, ,, 
Herera (Don Carlos defeats Buereno) . . 24 Aug. ,, 
Constantina (Algiers ; taken by French) 13 Oct. ,, 

St. Eustace (Canadian rebels defeated) . . 14 Dec. ,, 
Pennecerrada (Carlists defeated) . . 22 June, 1838 
Prescott (Canadian rebels defeated) . 17 Nov. ,, 

Aden (taken) 19 Jan. 1839 

Ghiznee (taken by Keane) ... 23 July, 
Sidon (taken by Napier) . . . .27 Sept. 1840 
Beyrout (Allies defeat Egyvtians) . . .10 Oct. ,, 
Afghan War. (See India.) 

Acre (stormed by Allies) .... 3 Nov. ,, 
Kotviah (Sci ude ; English victors). . . 1 Dec. ,, 
Chuen-pe (English victors) ... 7 Jan. 1841 
Canton (English take Bogue forts) . . . 26 Feb. ,, 

Amoy (taken) 27 Aug. ,, 

Chin-hae, &c. (taken) . . . . 10, 13 Oct. ,, 
Candahar (Afghans defeated) . . .10 March, 1842 
Ningpo (Chinese defeated) ... 10 March, ,, 
Jellalabad (Khyber Pass farced) . . 5, 6 April, ,, 
Cbin-keang (taken) .... 21 July, ,, 
Ghiznee (Afghans defeated by Nott) . . 6 Sept. „ 
Meeanee (Napier defeats Ameers) . . . 17 Feb. 1843 

Hyderabad 24 March, „ 

Maharajpoor (Govgh defeats Mahrattas) . 29 Dec. ,, 
Isly (French defeat Abd-cl-Kotlcr) . . .14 Aug. [844 
Moodkee (Goxtgh defeats Sikhs) . . . 18 Dec. 1845 



BATTLES. 



129 



BATTLES. 



Fero'ze'sliah (ditto) 21, 22 Dec. 

Aliwal (Smith defeats Sikhs) . . . 28 Jan. 
Sobraon (Gough defeats Siklis) . . .10 Feb. 
Palo Alto (Taylor defeats Mexicans) . . 8, 9 May, 
Montery (Mexicans def by Americans) 21-23 Sept. 
Bueno Vista (Americans defeat Mexicans) . 22 Feb. 

St. Ubes (Portugal) 9 May, 

Ozontero (Americans defeat Mexicans) . 19, 20 Aug. 
Flensborg (Danes defeat rebels) . . 9 April, 

Dannawerke (Prussians defeat Danes) . 23 April, 
Curtatone (Austrians defeat Italians) . 29 May, 

Custozza (ditto) 23 July, 

Velencze (Croats and Hungarians) . . 29 Sept. 
Mooltan (Sikhs repulsed) . . . 7 Nov. 

Chilianwallah (Gough defeats Sikhs) . . 13 Jan. 

Goojerat (ditto) 21 Feb. 

Gran (Hungarians victors) ... 27 Feb. 
Novara (Radetzky defeats Sardinians) . 23 March, 
Velletri (Roman Republicans defeat Neapolitans) 

19 May, 
Pered (Russians defeat Hungarians) . 21 June, 
Acs (Hungarians repulsed) . . . 2 & 10 July, 
Waitzen (taken by Russians) . . . 17 July, 
Schassberg (Russians defeat Bern) . . 31 July, 
Temeswar (Haynau defeats Hungarians) . 10 Aug. 
Idstedt (DoMes defeat Holsteiners) . . 25 July, 
Nankin taken by Imperialists . . -19 July, 

RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 

Oltenitza (Turks repulse Russians) . . 4 Nov. 
Sinope, n. (Turkish fleet destroyed) . . 30 Nov. 
Citate (Turks defeat Russians) . . .6 Jan. 

Silistria (ditto) 13-15 June, 

Giurgevo (ditto) 7 July, 

Bayazid (Russians defeat Turks) . 29, 30 July, 

Kuruk-Derek (ditto) 5 Aug. 

Alma (English and French defeat Russians) 20 Sept. 

Balaklava (ditto) 25 Oct. 

Inkermann (ditto) 5 Nov. 

Eupatoria (Turks defeat Russians) . . 17 Feb. 
Malakhoff tower (A Hies and Russians ; indec. night 

combats) 22, 23, 24 May, 

Capture of the Mamelon, <&c. . . .7 June, 
Unsuccessful attempt on Malakhoff tower, and 

Redan (Allies and Russians) . . 18 June. 
Tchernaya or Bridge of Traktir (Allies def. Russians) 

16 Aug. 
Malakhoff taken by the French . . 8 Sept. 

tngour (Turks defeat Russians) . . 6 Nov. 

Bai'dar (French defeat Russians) . . .8 Dec. 



1847 



i«5c 
1853 



1853 
1854 



1855 



PERSIAN WAR. 



Bushire (English defeat Persians) 
Kooshab (ditto) 
Mohammerah (ditto) . 



. 10 Dec. 1856 
. 8 Feb. 1857 
26 March, ,, 



Indian mutiny. (See India.) 
Conflicts before Delhi. 30, 31 May ; 8 June ; 
4, 9, 18, 23 July, 
Victories of General Havelock, near Futtehpore, 

11 July, Cawnpore, &c. 12 July to 16 Aug. 
Pandoo Nuddee (victory of Neill) . . 15 Aug. 
Nujuffghur (death of Nicholson, victor) . 25 Aug. 
Assault and capture of Delhi . . 14-20 Sept. 
Conflicts before Lucknow, 25, 26 Sept. ; 18, 25 Nov. 
Victories of Col. Greathed . 27 Sept ; 10 Oct. 
Cawnpore (victory of Campbell) . . .6 Dec. 

Futteghur (ditto) 2 Jan. 

Calpi (victory of Inglis) .... 4 Feb. 
Alumbagh (victories ofOutram) 12 Jan. and 21 Feb. 
Conflicts at Lucknow (taken) . . 14-19 March, 
Jhansi (Rose victorious) . . . .4 April, 

Kooneh (ditto) 11 May, 

Gwalior (ditto) 17 June, 

Bajghur (Mitchell defeats Tantia Topee) . 15 Sept. 
Dhoodea Khera (Clyde defeats Beni Mahdo) 24 Nov. 
Gen. Horsford defeats the Begum of Oude and 

Nana Sahib 10 Feb. 

Italian war. (See Italy.) 
Austrians cross the Ticino . . .27 April, 
French troops enter Piedmont . . . May,' 
Montebello (Allies victorious) ... 20 May, 

Palestro (ditto) 30, 31 May, 

Magenta (ditto) 4 June, 

Malegnano (ditto) 8 June, 

Solferino (ditto) 24 June' 

(Armistice agreed to, 6 July, 1859.) 



Taku, at the mouth of the Peiho or Tien-Tsin-ho 
(English attoxk on the Chinese Forts defeated) 

25 June, 1859 
Taku forts taken (see China) . . 21 Aug. i860 
Chang-kia-wan, 18 Sept. ; and Pa-li-chiau (Chinese 
defeated) 21 Sept. ,, 



Castillejo (Spaniards defeat Moors) 

Tetuan (ditto) 

Guad-el-Ras (ditto) 



. 1 Jan. 

4 Feb. 

23 March, 



1 Oct. 
17 Oct. 
3 Nov. 
22 Jan. 
13 Feb. 



Calatifimi (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) 15 May, 
Melazzo (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) 20, 21 July, 
Castel Fidardo (Sardinians defeat Papal troops), 

18 Sept. 
Volturno (Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans) 
Isernia (Sardinians defeat Neapolitans) . 
Garigliano (Sardinians defeat Neapolitans) 
Sardinians defeat Neapolitan re-actionists 
Gaeta taken by the Sardinians . 
Turks defeat Montenegrins . 19 Oct., 21 Nov. 
Aspromonre (Garibaldi and his volunteers captured 
by Royal Italian Troops) ... 29 Aug. 

Insurrection in New Zealand ; English repulsed, 

14, 28 March ; 27 June ; 10, 19 Sept. ; 9, 12 Oct: i£ 
Maohetia (Maories defeated) ... 6 Nov. , 

CIVIL WAR IN UNITED STATES* — WAR IN MEXICO. 

Big Bethel (Federals repxdsed) . . 10 June, if 
Booneville (Lyon defeats Confederates) . 18" June, , 
Carthage (Federal victory) . . . .5 July, , 
Rich Mountain (ditto) .... n July, , 
Bull Run or Manassas (Federal defeat and panic) 

21 July, j 
Springfield or Wilson's Creek (Feds, victors) 10 Aug. . 
Carnifex ferry (Rosencrans defeats Floyd, Confederate) 

10 Sept. , 
Lexington (taken by Confederates) . . 20 Sept. . 
Pavon, South America (Mitra def. Urquiza) 17 Sept. , 
Ball's Bluff (Federals defeated) . . 21 Oct. , 

Mill Springs, Kentucky (Confederates defeated and 

their general Zollicoffer killed) . . 19 Jan. i£ 

Roanoke Island, N.C. (Federals victors) 7, 8 Feb. . 
Sugar Creek, Arkansas (Confederates defeated) 

8 Feb. , 
Fort Donnelson (taken by Federals) . 16 Feb. 
Pea Ridge, Arkansas (Federals victors) 6-8 March, 
Hampton roads n. (Merrimac repulsed by Monitor) 

9 March, 
Pittsburg Landing, or Shiloh (favourable to Con- 
federates) 6, 7 April, , 

Williamsburg (Federals repulsed) . . 5 May, 
Puebla (Mexicans defeat French) . . 5 May, 
Richmond (successfid sorties of Confederates) 14 May, 



:86i 



Orizaba (Mexicans defeat French) 
Winchester (Federals repulsed) 
Fairoaks (before Richmond, indecisive) 



18 May, 
18 May, 
31 May 
1 June, 
13 June, 



Near Orizaba (French defeat Mexicans) 
Chickahominy (severe conflicts before Richmond; 

Confederates retreat) . . 25 June to 1 July, „ 
Baton Rouge (taken by Federals) . . 5 Aug. ,, 
Cedar Mountain (favourable to Confederates) 9 Aug. „ 
Severe conflicts on the Rappahannock 23-29 Aug. ,, 
Bull Run (defeat of Federals) . . 29, 30 Aug.,. „ 
Antietain (severe ; Confederates retreat) 17 Sept. ,, 

Perryville (Confederates worsted) . . 8, 9 Oct. „ 
Fredericks burg (Federals defeated by Lee) 13 Dec. 1803 
Murfreesburgh (indecisive) 29 Dec. 1862 — 3 Jan. ,, 
Nashville (Confederates defeated) . . 2 Jan. „ 
Chancellorsville (Confederates victors) . 2-4 May, ,, 
Winchester (Ewell defeats Federals) . . 14 June, ,, 
Gettysburg (severe but indecisive) . 1-3 July, ,, 

Chicamauga (Confederates victorious) 19-20 Sept. ' ,, 
Chattanooga (Confederates defeated) . 23-26 Nov. ,, 
Spottsylvania, &c, in the Wilderness, near Chan- 
cellorsville (indecisive) . . . 10-12 May, 1864 
Petersburg, near Richmond (indecisive, but Grant 

advances) 15-18 June, 

Winchester (Confederates defeated) . . 19 Sept. 

Cedar Creek (ditto) 19 Oct. 

Franklin (ditto) 30 Nov. 

Nashville (1'homas, Federal, defeats Hood) 14-16 Dec. 

* There were many smaller conflicts, of which the 
accounts were very uncertain. 



BATTLES. 



130 



BATTLES. 



Five Forks (Lee totally defeated) . . i April, 1865 

Farmville (Lee finally defeated) . . 6 April, ,, 

Oeversee (Danes and Allies) . . 6 Feb. 1864 

Diippel (taken by the Prussians) . . 18 April, ,, 

Alsen (ditto) 29 June, ,, 

Rendsburg (ditto) 21 July, ,, 

south American war. (See Brazil.) 
Santayuna (Allies defeat Paraguayans ; Uruguyana 

taken) 18 Sept. 1865 

Paso de la Patria (indecisive) . . .25 Feb. 1866 

Parana (Allies victors) . . . .16 April, ,, 

Estero Velhaco (ditto) .... 2 May, ,, 

Tuyuty (Allies defeated) ... 16, 18 July, „ 

Curupa'iti (ditto) .... 17, 19, 22 Sept. „ 

Tuyuty (Allies victors) .... 30 Oct. „ 

Corumba (taken by Brazilians) . . 13 June, 1867 

seven weeks' war (Austria and Prussia). 

Custozza (Austrians defeat Italians) . 24 June, 1866 

Lissa (ditto, naval battle) ... 20 July, „ 

Prussian victories (as inscribed on shield exhi- 
bited at Berlin, 20 Sept. 1866, see Prussia). 

Liebenau, Turnau, Podoll . . .26 June, „ 
Nachod, Langensalza (which see), Oswiecin, Hiihner- 

wasser . ■ 27 June, ,, 

Miinchengratz, Soor, Trautenau, Skalitz, 28 June, „ 
Gitschin, Koniginhof, Jaromier, Schweinschadel, 

29 June, ,, 

Koniggratz or Sadowa .... 3 July, ,, 

Dermbach, 4 July ; Hunfeld . . .5 July, ,, 
Waldaschach, Hausen, Hamraelburg, Friederics- 

hall, Kissingen 10 July, ,, 

Laufach, 13 July ; Aschaffenburg . 14 July, ,, 

Tobitschau, 15 July ; Blumenau, 22 July ; Hof, 

23 July, ,, 
Tauber - Bischofsheim, Werbach, Hochhausen, 

24 July, ,, 
Neubrunn, Helmstadt, Gerchsheim . 25 July, ,, 
Roszbrunn, Wurzburg, Baireuth . . 28 July, ,, 

Monte Rotondo (Garibaldians victors) . 27 Oct. 1867 
Mentana (Garibaldi defeated) . . .3 Nov. ,, 

Arogee or Fahla (Abyssinians defeated) . 10 April, 1868 
Magdala stormed . . 13 April, ,, 
Russians defeat Bokharians and occupy Samareand, 

25 May, „ 
Alcolea (Spanish royalists defeated) . 27, 28 Sept. ., 
Villeta (Lopez defeated by Brazilians), &c. n Dec. ,, 
Lopez defeated ... 12, 16, 18, 21 Aug. 1869 
Aquidaban (Lopez defeated and killed) . 1 March, 1870 

franco-Prussian war (which see). 
•Saarbriick, taken by the French, and Prussians re- 
pulsed 2 Aug. 1870 

Wissembourg (French defeated) . . 4 Aug. ,, 

Worth (ditto) 6 Aug. „ 

Saarbriick or Forbach (ditto) ... 6 Aug. ,, 
Courcelles or Pange (ditto) . . . .14 Aug. ,, 

Strasbourg (ditto) 16 Aug. ,, 

Vionville or Mars-la-Tour (ditto). . . 16 Aug. „ 
Gvavelotte or Rezonville (ditto) . . 18 Aug. ,, 
Beaumont (ditto) . . . . . .30 Aug. ,, 

Carignan (ditto) 31 Aug. „ 

Metz (ditto) 31 Aug. ,, 

Sedan (ditto) .... 31 Aug., 1 Sept. ,, 
Before Paris (French defeated) . . .30 Sept. ,, 
Thoury (Germans surprised and repulsed) 5 Oct. „ 
St. Remv (French defeated) . . . 6 Oct. ,, 

Before Metz (ditto) 7 Oct. ,, 

Artenay (ditto) 10 Oct. „ 

Cherizy (Germans repulsed) ... 10 Oct. ,, 
Orleans (French defeated) . . . .11 Oct. ,, 

Bcouis (indecisive) 14 Oct. „ 

Chateaudun (French defeated) . . . 18 Oct. ,, 
Coulmiers, near Orleans (Germans defeated), 

9, 10 Nov. ,, 
Near Amiens (French defeated) . . .27 Nov. ,, 
Villiers, before Paris (Freyich retreat) . 30 Nov. ,, 

2 Dec. „ 
Before Orleans (French defeated) . . 4 Dec. ,, 

Beaugency (ditto) 7, 8 Dec. ,, 

Nuits (ditto) 18 Dec. ,, 

Pont a Noyelles (French claim a victory) 23 Dec. ,, 

Bapaume (indecisive) .... 2, 3 Jan. 1871 

Le Mans (indrcisirc) 6 Jan. ,, 

Le Mans (Charizy def. by pr. Fred. Chas.), 10-12 Jan. „ 



Belfort (Bourbaki defeated) . . . 15-17 Jan. 
St. Quentin (Faidherbe defeated) . . 19 Jan. 
Paris (Trochu's grand sortie repulsed) . 19 Jan. 

Oroquieta (Carlists defeated) ... 4 May, 

Elmina (Ashantees defeated by British) . 13 June, 

Elgueta (Carlists said to be victorious) . . 5, 6 Aug. 

Maiieru (Carlists and Republicans : indecisive) 6 Oct. 

Abrakampra (Ashantees defeated) . . 5, 6 Nov. 

Borborassie (ditto) 29 Jan. 

Amoaf ul (ditto) 31 Jan. 

Bocquah (ditto) 1 Feb. 

Fommanah (ditto) 2 Feb. 

Ordahsa (ditto) . 4 Feb. 

Before Bilbao (severed days ; CoMists retreat ; Concha 
enters Bilbao) 2 May, 

Estella (sharp conflicts; Carlists retreat; Concha 
killed) 25, 27 June, 

Irun (Laserna defeats Carlists) . . .10 Nov. 

Sorota, Peru (Pierota and insurgents defeated) 3 Dec. 

Near Tolosa (Carlists repulse Loma) . 7, 8 Dec. 

Khokand (Russians under Kaufman defeat the Khan's 
troops, &c.) 4, 21 Sept. 

Abyssinians defeat Egyptians .... Oct. 

Assake (Khokand chiefs defeated) . . 30 Jan. 

Servian war begins . . . . 1 July, 

Saitschar (severe conflicts ; Servians retreat) 2, 3 July, 

Urbitza (Montenegrins defeat Turks) . . 28 July, 

Turkish Wars with Servia, and Montenegro, de- 
clared 2 July, 

Zaicar or Saitschar (Turks and Servians, indecisive) 

3 Juiy> 

Novi Bazar (Turks said to be victors) . 6 July, 

Urbitza (Montenegrins victors) . . 28 July, 

Gurgusovatz (Turks victors) . . . 5-7 Aug. 

Medun (Montenegrins victors) . . 7 or 14 Aug. 

Morava valley near Alexinatz (severe conflicts, fa- 
vourable to Turks) . . . 19-27 Aug. 

Podgoritza (Montenegrins victors) . . 26 Aug. 

Alexinatz (Turks victors), 1, 2, 28, 29 Sept., captured 

31 Oct. 

Peace between Turkey and Servia . 1 March, 

Russo-Turkish War (which see), began . 24 April, 

Tahir (Turks defeated) . . . .16 June, 

Nicopolis (stormed by Russians, severe fights) 

15, 16 July, 

Plevna (Russians defeated) 19, 20, & 30, 31 July, 

Kurukdara or Kizil Tepe (ditto) . 24, 25 Aug. 

Valley of Lom (ditto) .... 22-24 Aug. 

Schipka Pass (dreadful conflicts, Turks under Sulei- 
man repulsed) .... 20-27 Aug. 

Karahassankoi, &c, on the Lom (severe; Russians 
retreat) . . . . . . -3" Aug. 

Lovatz or Luftcha (taken by Russians) . 3 Sept. 

Plevna (held by Osman Pasha, severe conflicts, 
Russians defeated) . . . 11, 12 Sept. 

Schipka Pass (Suleiman defeated). . 17 Sept. 

Near Kars (Russians defeated) . . 2-4 Oct. 

Aladja Dagli, near Kara (Turks under Muklitar totally 
defeated) . . . . . . 14, 15 Oct. 

Deve-Boyun, Armenia (Turks under Mukhtar de- 
feated after § hours' fighting) . . 4 Nov. 

Azizi, near Erzeroum (Russians defeated) . 9 Nov. 

Kars taken by storm by Russians . 17, 18 Nov. 

Elena (taken by Turks after sharp conflict) 4 Dec. 

Plevna (Osman Pasha endeavours to break out; 
totally defeated; surrenders unconditionally) 

9, 10 Oec. 

Senova in the Balkans (Turks defeated) 9-10 Jan. 

Near Philippopolis (d itto) . . . 14, 15 Jan. 

Afghan War (see Afghanis/an). 
Ali Musjid captured by British . . 22 Nov. 
Peiwar Pass {victory of gen. Roberts; . 2 Dee. 
Futtehabad (victory of gen. Gough) . . 2 April, 
Char-aseab (Afghans defeated) . . . 6 Oct. 
Severe fighting near Cabul . Dec. 1879-April, 
Ahmed Khel (Stewart defeats Afghans) 19-23 April, 
Kuschki-Nakhud or Maiwand (A>i<: h Khan defeats 

Bwrrows) 7 Jnl y> 

Mazraor Baba Wali (Roberts total y defeats Aiiuob 

Khan) i Sept. 

Zulu War (see Zululand 1. 

Isandula (British surprised and </<;/.< < d • -Ian. 

Rorke's Drift (successfully defended b} 1 1 is/t)2zJiin. 

Ulundi (Cetcwai/o totally defeated by ra < lelms- 

ford) ■ 4-)"ly. 



1872 
1873 



1874 



187S 



1877 



1879 



1879 



BATTLES. 



131 



BAVAEIA. 



Chilian and Peruvian War (see Chili). 
Iquique (Chilians defeat Peruvians) . . Nov. 1879 
Choukos and Miraflores (ditto) . . 17 Jan. 1891 

Russian War. 

Geok or Denghli Tepe (Russians and Turkomans, in- 
decisive) g Sept. 1879 

Geok Tepe (besieged by Russians, severe conflicts), 24 
Dec. 18S0, 4, 9, 10, Jan., taken . 24 Jan. 1881 

Transvaal War. 

Laing's Nek (British defeated) ... 28 Jan. 1881 

Ingogo River (ditto). . . . 8 Feb. ,, 

Majuba Hill (ditto) .... 27 Feb. ,, 

War in Egypt (see Egypt). 
Bombardment of forts at Alexandria . 11 July," 1882 
Tel-el- Mali uta and Masameh (rebels defeated by 

British) 24, 25 Aug. „ 

Kassasin- (ditto) . . . 28 Aug. and 9 Sept. ,, 
Tel-el-Kebir (ditto — decisive) . . .13 Sept. ,, 

[See Soudan.] 
Rebels in the Soudan defeated by Hicks 29 April, 1883 
El Obeid or Kashgal (Hicks and his army destroyed) 

3-5 Nov. ,, 
Tokar (Egyptians defeated) .... 6 Nov. ,, 
Near Teb, Baker with Egyptians was defeated by 

rebels 4 Feb. 1884 

Teb (Graham totally defeats rebels) . . 29 Feb. ,, 

For Chinese and French war, see Cftiuaand Tonquin. 

Abu Klea (Stewart defeats rebels) . . .17 Jan. 1885 

Gubat (rebels defeated) .... 19 Jan. ,, 

Kerkeban (ditto, gen. Earle killed) . . 10 Feb. „ 

Hasheen (rebels defeated) . . .20 March, „ 

Rebel attack near Souakim repulsed 22 March, ,, 

Ak Tapa (Russia7is defeat Afghans) . 30 March, ,, 
Chalchuapa(.Kamo6' defeated and killed) see America, 

Central 2 April, ,, 

Fish Creek (Canadians defeat rebels) . 24 April, ,, 

Battleford (ditto) . . . . 3 May, ,, 

Batoche (ditto) . . . .9 May, ,, 

[See Bulgaria, Burmah, and Soudan.] 

Dagoli near Massowah (Italians destroyed in heroic 

attack on Abyssinians) [See Abyssinia] 25-26 Jan. 1887 
Jelapla Pass (Tibetans defeated) . . 24 Sept. 1888 

Taskkurgan and Mazari Sherif (Ishak Khan, rebel, 

defeated) 29-30 Sept. , , 

Suakim (defeat of the Arab Dervishes by gen. Grenfell) 

20 Deo. ,, 
Dervishes repulsed, 19, 29, 30 April ; 2 June ; 4 

July 1890 

Arguin (Col. Wodehouse defeats Dervishes) . 2 July, ,, 
Anabi (Dervishes defeated) . . . 31 July, ,, 
Toski (ditto by gen. Grenfell) . . . 3 Aug. ,, 
Witu stormed, see Zanzibar ... 27 Oct. ,, 
Wounded Knee Creek, see Indians . . 29 Dec. „ 
Tokar, Soudan (Osman Digna defeated) . 19 Feb. 1891 
Placilla, Chili (Balmaceda defeated by congressists) 

28 A.ug. ,, 
Dogba (Dahomeyans defeated by the French), 

17 Sept. 1892 
Adowa (Italians defeated by Abyssinians), 

29 Feb. -1 March, 1896 
Ferkeh, Soudan (Dervishes defeated by gen. Kit- 
chener) . 7 June, „ 

Bida (Fidahs defeated) ; see Niger . 26, 27 Feb. 1897 
Atbara, Soudan (Dervishes defeatedby gen. Kitchener) 

8 April, 1898 
Omdurman or Khartum, Soudan (total defeat of the 

Khalifa) 2 Sept. ,, 

Om Debrikat, Soudan (the Khalifa defeated and 
killed) [see Soudan] .... Nov. 1899 

War in Korea. See Corea. 
Ping- Yang (Chinese defeatedby Japanese) 15, 16 Sept. 1894 
Yalu river (Naval—ditto) . . . 17 Sept. 
Wei-hai-wei (bombardment) . 30 Jan.-i 2 Feb. 1895 

Greco-Turkish War (which see). 
Analipsis (Turks defeated) . . 16-18 April, 1897 
Maluna Pass (Greeks defeated) . . ■ 17-19 April, 
Mati (Greeks defeated) .... 22 April, 
Larissa, plain of (Greeks defeated) . 20-23 April' 
Pentepigadia (Greeks defeated) . 28-29 April, 
Phersala (Greeks defeated) .... 5 May, 



Gribovo (indecisive) .... 14 May, 1897 
Domoko (indecisive) ..... 17 May, ,, 

Spanish- American war (which see). 

South African War. 

Talana Hill (Boers defeated) ... 20 Oct. 1899 

Glencoe or Dundee (ditto) . . . 20 Oct. ,, 

Elandslaagte (ditto) 21 Oct. ,, 

Nicholson's Nek (British defeated) . 30 Oct. ,, 

Belmont (Boers defeated) .... 23 Nov. ,, 

Enslin (Graspan) (ditto) . . . 25 Nov. ,, 

Modder River (Methuen forced Cronje to quit his 

positions) 28 Nov. ,, 

Stormberg (British defeated) . . . 10 Dec. „ 

Magersfontein (ditto) .... 11 Dec. ,, 

Colenso (ditto) 15 Dec. ,, 

Ladysmith (Boers defeated) ... 6 Jan. 1900 
Spion Kop (captured by the British and afterwards 

evacuated) 17-24 Jan. ,, 

Paardeberg (Boers defeated) . . 16, 18-27 Feb. ,, 

Driefontein (ditto) . . . .10 March, „' 

Sanna's Post (British defeated) . . 31 March, ,, 

Reddersburg (ditto) .... 3, 4 April, ,, 

Senekal (Boers defeated) . . . .29 May, ,, 

Johannesburg (ditto) .... 29 May, ,, 

(For minor engagements, see S. African War). 

(For numerous small conflicts and skirmishes, see Franco- 
Prussian War, Herzegovina, Russo-Turkish Wars, Spain, 
Sumatra, Turkey, United States, Kaffirs, Egypt, Zulu- 
land, Basutoland, Chili, Soudan, Tonquin, Salvador, 
India, Burmah, Manipur, Lagos, Senegal, Dahomey, 
Mashonaland, Brazil, Corea, Chitral, Cuba, Madagascar, 
Massowah, Rhodesia, &c, and for details of important 
engagements see separate articles. Frontier war ; see 
India, 1897.) 

BATUM, see Batowm. 

BAUGE, see Anjou. 

BAUTZEN, a town in Saxony, near which 
desperate battles were fought 20, 21, and 22 May, 
1813, between the French, commanded by Napoleon, 
and the allies under the emperor of Russia and the 
king of Prussia. The struggle commenced on the 
19th, with a contest on the outposts, which cost 
each army a loss of above 2000 men. On the 20th 
(at Bautzen) the French were more successful ; and 
on the 2 1st (at Wurschen) the allies were com- 
pelled to retire ; but -Napoleon obtained no perma- 
nent advantage. Duroc was killed at Eeichenbach 
by a cannon-ball, on 22 May. 

BAVARIA (part of ancient Noricum and Vin- 
delicia), a kingdom in South Germany, conquered 
from the Celtic Grauls (Boii) by the Franks between 
630 and 660. The country was afterwards governed 
by dukes subject to the French monarchs. Tasil- 
lon II. was deposed by Charlemagne, who established 
margraves in 788. The margrave Leopold, 895, 
father of Arnulph the Bad, is styled the first duke. 
Bavaria made a kingdom from 1 Jan. 1806, was 
made a constitutional monarchy, 26 May, 1818. 
It joined the German empire," 22 Nov. 1870. 
Population, 1 Dec. 1871, 4,863,450; Dec. 1875* 
5,022,390; 1885,5,420,199; 1890,5,594,982; 1900, 
6,200,000. See Munich. 

Bavaria supports Austria in the contest with 

Prussia j unej ^66 

Made peace with Prussia . . . .22 Aug. 
Population (after cessions, 1866), 4,824,421 . Dec. 1867 
An international exhibition in a crystal palace 

opened . 20 July, 1869 

The chambers dissolved, as, through a party struggle, 

no president was elected . . . . 6 Oct' 
Resignation of the ministry, 25 Nov. ; only partially 

accepted by the king .... 9 Dec. 
Vote of want of confidence in prince Hohenlohe, 

the president, 12 Feb. ; he resigns . 14 Feb. 1870 
The king announces his intention of joining Prussia 

in the war with France . . about 20 July, 

k2 



BAVARIA. 



132 



BAYONNE. 



The Bavarian contingent highly distinguishes itself 
in the war ; Otho, duke of Bavaria, killed near 
Beglie 27 Jan. 1871 

President of council, and foreign minister, A. de 

Pfretzsclmer 22 Aug. ,, 

[See France -Prussian War.] 

The king in a letter to the king of Saxony, proposes 
that the king of Prussia should be made emperor 
of Germany about 5 Dec. 

Dr. Dollinger excommunicated for opposing papal 
infallibility, t8 April ; elected rector of the uni- 
versity of Munich .... 29 July, ,, 

Government protests against papal infallibility (see 
Germany) 27 Sept. ,, 

"Old Catholic" church opened at Munich, 

end of Sept. ,, 

The king charges Von Gasser to form an Ultramon- 
tane ministry, orjposed to German unity, 3 Sept. 
he fails Sept. 1872 

Queen dowager, Mary of Prussia, received into the 
Catholic Church 12 Oct. 1874 

New Ultramontane party ("popular Catholic") 
formed 6 March, 1877 

International exhibition at Munich opened 19 July, 1879 

Seventh centenary of foundation of the dynasty 
(Otto of Wittelsbach made duke by Frederick 
Barbarossa) 25 Aug. 1880 

Prince Luitpold proclaimed Regent on account of 
the king's mental illness . . . 10 June, 1886 

The king drowns himself in Starnberg Lake ; Dr. 
Gudden drowned in attempting to save him, 

13 June, ,, 

The emperor William II. present at the Bavarian 
military manoeuvres near Munich 7 Sept. et seq. 1891 

An agreement arranged between the emperor and 
prince regent regarding military judicial proce- 
dure, announced 24 Nov. 1898 

DUKES. 

1071. Guelf 1., an illustrious warrior. 

1101. Guelf II. ; son ; married the countess Matilda, 
1089. 

1 1 20. Henry the Black ; brother. 

3126. Henry the Proud ; son. (He competed with Conrad 
of Hohenstaufen for the empire, failed, and was 
deprived of Bavaria.) 

1 138. Leopold, margrave of Austria ; d. 1142. 

1142. Henry of Austria ; brother ; d. 1177. 

1 154. Henry the Lion (son of Henry the Proud), an- 
cestor of the Brunswick family, restored by the 
emperor Frederick Barbarossa, but expelled by 
him 1 180 ; (see Brunswick) : d. 1195. 

1180. Otho, count of Wittelsbach, made duke ; d. 
1183. 

1 183. Louis ; son. 

1231. Otho II., the Illustrious ; son ; gained the palati- 
nate ; assassinated 1231. 

1253. Louis II., the Severe ; son ; d. 1294. 

1294. Louis III. ; son (without the palatinate) emperor ; 
d. 1347. 

1347. Stephen I. ; son ; d. 1375. 

1375. John ; brother ; d. 1397. 

1397. Ernest ; brother ; d. 1438. 

1438. Albert I. ; son ; d. 1460. 

1460. John II. and Sigismund ; sons ; resigned to 

1465. Albert II. ; brother ; d, 1508. 

1508. William I. ; son; opposed the reformation, 1522; 
d. 1550. 

1550. Albert III. ; son; d. 1573. 

1579. William II. ; son ; abdicated, 1596 ; d. 1626. 

1596. Maximilian the Great ; son; the first Elector of 
Bavaria, 25 Feb. 1623 ; the palatinate restored, 
164S ; d. 27 Sept. 1651. 

1651. Ferdinand-Mary ; d. 26 May, 1679. 

1679. Maximilian Emanuel ; son ; allies with France, 
1702 ; defeated at Blenheim, 1704 ; restored to 
his dominions, 1714 ; d. 26 Feb. 1726. 

1726. Charles Albert; son; elected emperor, 1742; de- 
feated, 1744 ; d. 20 Jan. 1745. 

1745. Maximilian-Joseph I. ; son ; as elector ; d. 30 Dec. 
1777 ; end of younger line of Wittelsbach. 

1778. Charles Theodore (the elector palatine of the Rhine 
since 1743). The French take Munich ; he tieats 
with them, 1796 ; d. 1799. 

1799. Maximilian-Joseph II. ; elector; territories changed 
by treaty of Luneville, i8ci; enlarged when 
made king, by treaty of Presburg, Dec. 1805. 



KINGS OF BAVARIA. 

1806. Maximilian-Joseph I. He deserted Napoleon, and! 

had his enlarged territories confirmed to him r 

Oct. 181 3 ; grants a constitutional charter, 22* 

Aug. 1818 ; d. 13 Oct. 1825. 
1825. Louis I., 13 Oct. ; abdicated 21 March, 1848 ;*diet> 

29 Feb. 1868. 
1848. Maximilian-Joseph II. ; son; born 28 Nov. 1811 ; 

died 10 March, 1864. 
1864. Louis II. (son) amiable and eccentric, great. 

patron of composer Wagner : born 25 Aug. 

1845 ; deposed 10 June ; suicide 13 June, 1886. 
1886. Otho William (brother of Louis II.) ; 13 June ; 

born 27 April, 1848 (insane). 
Regent (heir) Prince Luitpold, uncle ; 10 June, 1886 ; 

(born, 22 March, 1821.) 

BAVENO, a village of Piedmont, on the Lago 
Maggiore. At a villa here queen Victoria resided 
from 28 March to 23 April, 1879. 

BAY ISLANDS (the chief, Euatan), in the 
bay of Honduras, central America, belonged to 
Spain till 1821 ; then to Great Britain, which 
formed them into a colony in 1852, but ceded 
them to Honduras, 28 Nov. 1859 : see Honduras. 

BAYEUX TAPESTRY, mythically said to 
have been wrought by Matilda, queen of William I., 
or to have been made under the direction of his 
brother Odo, bishop of Bayeux. It is 19 inches wide, 
214 feet long, and is divided into compartments- 
showing the events from the visit of Harold to the- 
Norman court to his death at Hastings ; it is now 
preserved in the public library of Bayeux near Caen. 
A copy, drawn by C. Stothard, and coloured after 
the original, was pxiblished by the Society of 
Antiquaries in 1821-3. Beproduced by autotype 
process by F. R. Fowke, with notes, 1875 ; new 
edition 1889. 

BAYLEN (S. Spain), where on 20 July, 1808, 
the French, commanded by generals Dupont and 
Wedel, were defeated by the Spaniards under Red- 
ing, Coupigny, and other generals. 

BAYONET, the short dagger fixed at the end 
of fire-arms, said to have been invented at Bayonne, 
in France, about 1647, 1670, or 1690. It was used 
at Killiecrankie in 1689, and at Marsaglia by the 
French, in 1693, " with great success, against the 
enemy unprepared for the encounter with so for- 
midable a novelty." The ring-bayonet was adopted 
by the British, 24 Sept. 1693. 
New pattern of bayonets adopted in 1876 ; asserted to be 

defective in the Soudan campaign 1884-5. 
Strict examination ordered 1885. See under Arms. 

BAYONNE (S. France), an ancient city. It 
was held by the English from 1295 till it was taken 
by Charles VII. The queens of Spain and France 
met the cruel duke of Alva here, June, 1556, it 
is supposed to arrange the massacre of St. Bar- 
tholomew. Charles IV. of Spain abdicated here in 
favour of "his friend and ally " the emperor Napo- 
leon, 4 May, and his sons, Ferdinand prince of 
Asturias, don Carlos, and don Antonio renounced 
their rights to the Spanish throne, 6 May, 1808. 
In the neighbourhood of Bayonne was much des- 
perate fighting between the French and British 
armies, 9-13 Dec. 1813. Bayonne was invested by 
the British, 14 Jan. 1814; on 14 April, the French 

* The abdication of Charles-Louis was mainly caused 
by his attachment to an intriguing woman, known 
throughout Europe by the assumed name of Lola Montes, 
who, in the end, was expelled the kingdom for her inter- 
ference in state affairs, and afterwards led a wandering 
life. She delivered lectures in London, in 1859 ; thence 
proceeded to the United States ; and died at New York, 
17 Jan. 1861. 



BAYREUTH. 



133 



BEARN. 



made a sally, and attacked the English with suc- 
cess, but were at length driven back. The loss of 
the British was considerable, and lieut.-gen. sir 
John Hope was wounded and taken prisoner. — A 
Franco-Spanish industrial and fine arts exhibition 
was opened at Bayonne in July, 1864. 

BAYBEUTH (N. Germany), a margraviate, 
held formerly by a branch of the Brandenburg 
family, was with' that of Anspach abdicated by the 
reigning prince in favour of the king of Prussia, 
1790. The archives wore brought (in 1783) from 
Flassenburg to the city of Bayreuth. which was 
incorporated with Bavaria by Napoleon in 1806. 
National Theatre erected for the performance of 
Wagner's works, completed 1S75. Opened with 
grand representation of his Nibelungen trilogy 
1876. Wagner buried here, 14 Feb. 1S83. 

BAZAAR, or covered market, a word of Arabic 
origin. The magnificent bazaar of Ispahan was ex- 
celled by that of Tauris, which has held 30,000 
men in order of battle. In London the Soho-square 
bazaar was opened by Mr. Trotter in 1816 to relieve 
the relatives of persons killed in the war, oflered 
for sale 1879, closed shortly afterwards. The 
Queen's bazaar, Oxford-street, a very extensive 
one, was (with the Diorama) burnt down, and the 
loss estimated at 50,000^., 27 May, 1829. It was 
rebuilt, and converted into the Princess's Theatre, 
opened 30 Sept. 1841. The St. James's bazaar (built 
by Mr. Crockford) in 1832. The Pantheon, made a 
bazaar in 1834, closed March 2, 1867 ; see Pantheon. 
The Corinthian bazaar, Argyll-street, Oxford-street 
(to replace the bazaar at the Pantheon) opened 
30 July, 1867 ; closed in 1868. The Lowther 
Arcade, a covered walk from West Strand to St. 
Martin's Churchyard, built 1830-32. The last 
pub lie bazaar in London closed 1902. 

BAZAINE, Marshal, trial, &c, Dec. 1873 
and Aug. 1874. See Metz and France. 

BAZEILLES, a village in the Ardennes, N.E. 
France. During the dreadful battle of Sedan, 
I Sept. 1870, Bazeilles was burnt by the Bavarians, 
and atrocious outrages were said to have been com- 
mitted. Of nearly 2000 inhabitants it was asserted 
scarcely fifty remained alive, and these indignantly 
denied having given provocation. Much controversy 
ensued, and in July, 187 1, gen. Von der Tann as- 
serted correctly that the number of deaths had been 
grossly exaggerated, that there had been much 
provocation, and denied the alleged cruelties. 

BAZOCHE-DES-HAUTES, near Orleans, 
central France. Here a part of the army of the 
Loire, under gen. D'Aurelle de Paladihes, was 
defeated after a severe action, by the Germans 
under the grand-duke of Mecklenburg, 2 Dec. 1870. 
See Orleans. 

BEACHY HEAD, a promontory, S.E. Sussex, 
near which the British and Dutch fleet, commanded 
by the earl of Torrington, was defeated by a supe- 
rior French force under admiral Tourville, 30 June, 
1690 ; the allies suffered very severely. The Dutch 
lost two admirals, 500 men, and several ships — 
sunk to prevent them from falling into the hands 
of the enemy ; the English lost two ships and 400 
men. 

BEACONS, see Lighthouses, Jubilee, 1887. 

BEACONSFIELD Administration, see 

Disraeli and People's Tribute. 



BEADS were early used in the east for reckon- 
ing prayers. St. Augustin mentions them 366. 
About 1090, Peter the Hermit is said to have made 
a series of 55 beads. To Dominic de Guzman is 
ascribed the invention of the Rosary (a series of 
15 large and 150 small beads), in honour of the 
Blessed Virgin, about 1202. Beads soon after were 
in general use. The Bead-roll was a list of de- 
ceased persons, for the repose of whose souls a 
certain number of prayers was recited. Beads have 
been found in British barrows. 

BEAM AND SCALES. The apparatus for 
weighing goods was so called, "as it weighs so 
much at the king's beam." A public beam was set 
up in London, and all commodities ordered to be 
weighed by the city officer, called the weigh- 
master, Avho was to do justice between buyer and 
seller, stat. 3 Edw. II. 1309. Stow. Beams and 
scales, with weights and measures, were ordered to 
be examined by the justices at quarter sessions, 
35 Geo. III. 1794 ; see Weights and Measures. 

BEANS, Black and White, were used by 

the ancients in gathering the votes of the people for 
the election of magistrates. A white bean signified 
absolution, and a black one condemnation. The 
precept of Pythagoras to abstain from beans, abstine 
a fabis, has been variously interpreted. " Beans 
do not favour mental tranquillity." Cicero. The 
finer kinds of beans were brought here with other 
vegetables, in Henry VIII.'s reign. 

BEAR-BAITING, an ancient popular English 
sport, prohibited by parliament in 1835. 

BEARDS.* The Egyptians did not wear 
beards; the Assyrians did. They have been worn 
for centuries by the Jews, who were forbidden to 
mar their beards, 1490 B.C. Lev. xix. 27. The 
Tartars waged a long war with the Persians, de- 
claring them infidels, because they would not cut 
their beards, after the custom of Tartary. The 
Greeks wore their beards till the time of Alexander, 
who ordered the Macedonians to be shaved, lest 
the beard should give a handle to their enemies, 
330 B.C. Beards were worn by the Romans, 390 B.C. 
The emperor Julian wrote a diatribe (entitled 
- Misopogon ") against wearing beards, a.d. 362. — 
In England, they were not fashionable after the 
conquest, 1066, until the 13th century, and were 
discontinued at the Restoration. Peter the Great 
enjoined the Russians, even of rank, to shave, but 
was obliged to keep officers on foot to cut off the 
beard by force. Since 1851 the custom of wearing 
the beard gradually increased in Great Britain. 

BEARER COMPANY, introduced in the 
British army 1873 for the removal of the wounded 
from the battle-field and to render first aid. On 
active service half a company is attached to each 
army corps. 

BEARN, S. France, the ancient Benecharnum, 
was held successively by the Romans, Franks, Goths, 

* A bearded woman was taken by the Russians at the 
battle of Pultowa, and presented to the Czar, Peter I., 
1724 : her beard measured ij yard. A woman is said to 
i have been seen at Paris with a bushy beard, and her 
whole body covered with hair. Diet. de. Trivoux. The 
great Margaret, governess of the Netherlands, had a very 
long stiff beard. In Bavaria, in the time of Wolfius, a 
virgin had a long black beard. Mdlle. Bois de Chene, 
born at Geneva (it was said) in 1834, was exhibited in 
London, in 1852-3, when, consequently, eighteen years 
of age ; she had a profuse head of hair, a strong black 
beard, large whiskers, and thick hair on her arms and 
down from her neck on her back, and masculine features. 



BEAES. 



134 



BECHUANA LAND. 



and Gascons, and became a hereditary viscounty in 
819, under Centule I., son of Loup, duke of Gas- 
cony. From his family it passed to the houses — of 
Gabaret, 1134; of Moncade, 1170 ; of Foix, 1290 ; 
and of Bourbon, 1550. Its annexation to France 
was decreed by Henry IV., 1594 ; affirmed by Louis 
XIIL, 1620. 

BEAES and BULLS, see Stocks. 

BEAUGrE, aeeAnjou. 

BEAULIEU, ABBEY OF, (reformed Bene- 
dictines) founded by king John, in the New Forest, 
Hampshire, in 1204, and dedicated to the Blessed 
Virgin, had the privilege of sanctuary. It afforded 
an asylum to Margaret, queen of Henry VI., after 
the defeat of the earl of Warwick at Barnet, 
14 April, 1471 ; and to Perkin Warbeck, Sept. 
1497- 

BEAUMONT, a village near Sedan, depart- 
ment of Ardennes, N.E. France. Near here a part 
of the army of marshal MacMahon under De Failly, 
which, after vainly endeavouring to reach Metz, 
was retreating before the Germans under the crown 
prince of Prussia, was surprised, defeated, and 
driven across the Meuse at Mouzon, 30 Aug. 1870. 
The French loss included about 7000 prisoners, 
many guns, and much camp equipage. The victory 
was chiefly gained by the Bavarians. 

BEAUMONT TEUST. Mr. John Thomas 
Barber Beaumont, artist, financier, founder of the 
London and County Fire Office (born 1774, died 
1840), bequeathed 12,500^. to establish an institu- 
tion for the moral and intellectual improvement of 
the working classes of east London, which was 
opened in Beaumont-square, Mile-end. 
By the munificence of the Drapers' Company, the Royal 
Family, the duke of Westminster, and many others, 
the fund in June, 1886, amounted to 75,0002. The 
trustees proposed the erection of a " People's Palace," 
to include a public library and reading rooms, technical 
schools, summer and winter gardens, a concert hall, 
swimming baths and gymnasia. The queen was patron 
of the undertaking, whicli is partly supported by sub- 
scription. 
The foundation stone of the "Queen's hall" was laid 
by the prince of Wales 28 June, 1886 ; opened by the 
queen (who also laid the foundation of the Technical 
schools) 14 May, 1887 ; Mr. John Rogers Jennings, 
Master of the Drapers' Company, knighted. 
The undertaking greatly supported by sir Edmund 
Currie, and the late Mr. (afterwards sir) Walter 
Besant. 
Exhibition of East London Industries opened in the 

Queen's hall by Lady Rosebery 24 May, 1887. 
Queen's Jubilee ; 10,000 girls and 10,000 boys enter- 
tained by the Drapers' Company 23, 24 June, 1887. 
Educational classes, &c, open 3 Oct. 1887. In Oct. 188S, 

the institution was reported to be highly successful. 
New Technical School opened 5 Oct. 1888. 
The palace opened on Sundays for reading and sacred 
music, 1889. About 3,000 persons attended 2 Oct. 1889. 
Industrial and art exhibition opened by the prince and 
princess of Wales ; 6 June, 1896. 

BEAUNE-LA-EOLLANDE, a village in 
the Loiret, France, a chief seat of the Burgundy 
wine trade, giving its name to one of the best of 
the Burgundies. Here the French army of the 
Loire, under general D'Aurelle de Paladines, was 
defeated by the Germans, under prince Frederick 
Charles, in an attempt to march in the direction of 
Fontainebleau to relieve Paris, 28 Nov. 1870. The 
French loss was reported by the Germans to be 
1000 dead, 4000 wounded; above 1700 prisoners. 
Their own loss was heavy. Pop. 12,000. 

BEAUTY SHOW opened at Spa, Belgium, 
19 Sept. 1888. Of 350 candidates for the prize of 



10,000 francs who sent in their photographs, many 
were excluded from competition, only 20 ladies were 
present on the opening day, representing many 
countries. M. Emile d'Hainault, the director, pro- 
posed annual competitions. The first prize awarded 
to Mdllo. Berthe Soucaret, a Creole of Guadeloupe, 
aged ib", 29 Sept. 1888. Another show at Turin, 26 
Jan. 1889 ; and other places since. 

BEAUVAIS (N. France), the ancient Bello- 
vacum, or Ca?saroniagus, formerly capital of Pieardy. 
When besieged by Charles the Bold, duke of Bur- 
gundy, with 8o,000 men, the women under Jeanne 
Fourquet or Laine, also de la Hachette, from her 
using that weapon, particularly distinguished them- 
selves, and the duke raised the siege, 10 July, 1472. 
In memory of this the young girls of Beauvais walk 
in procession on the anniversary of their deliver- 
ance, bearing a banner commemorating the tearing 
down by Jeanne of the standard of the Burgundians. 

BECHUANA LAND, South Africa, a large 

British colony (1885), capital, Vryburg, see Trans- 
vaal. 

The Bechuanas invade Griqualand West, and are 
repulsed, and part of their territory subdued by 
British volunteers 187& 

Rev. John Mackenzie (an active missionary, died 
23 March, 1899) appointed British resident, 13 
March ; compelled to resign by the Dutch party, 
replaced by Mr. Cecil Rhodes . . Aug. 1884 

Sir Charles Warren made special commissioner Oct. ,, 

The Boer filibusters seize and annex the territory 
of Montsioa, under British protection ; compelled 
to retire Sept., Oct. „ 

Military expedition against Dutch freebooters Nov. ,, 

(Stellaland and Goshen republics) who accept allot- 
ments of land, announced, 27 Nov. ; this policy of 
the Cape government strongly disapproved by 
colony Dec. „ 

Sir Charles Warren meets president Kriiger, 24 Jan. 
and conies to an agreement . . -29 Jan. 1885 

Military government established by sir C. Warren, 
announced 24 Feb. ,, 

Arrest of Mr. Van Niekirk, president of Stellaland 
republic, and others, on charge of murder of Mr. 
Honey, an Englishman, in 1883. Announced 24 
March, 1885 ; released about 27 May. Sir C. 
Warren thanks the volunteers . . . 8 July, ,. 

Judge (afterwards sir S.) Shippard nominated ad- 
ministrator ; sir C. Warren after great success 
recalled Aug. ,, 

Bechuanaland proclaimed British territory 8 Oct. ,, 

A proposal to annex it to Cape Colony was negatived, 
autumn, 1888; adopted . . . 11 June, 1895 

Sir Sydney Shippard nominated commissioner- 
administrator Sept. 1892: 

Khama and 2 other chiefs received at the Colonial 
office by Mr. Chamberlain, n Sept. ; visited Bir- 
mingham and other places, Sept., Oct. ; received 
presents from the queen, at Windsor, 20 Nov ; 
left England 23 Nov. 1895, 

Difficulties with the S. Africa company settled by 
Mr. Chamberlain ; imperial government granted. 

Bechuanaland made a protectorate . . 6 Nov. ,, 

Mr. F. J. Newton appointed resident commissioner; 
announced 19 Nov. , t 

Montsioa and Ikanning withdrawn from the British 
S. Africa company and placed under the high 
commissioner; Mr. Surmon appointed assistant- 
commissioner; announced ... 6 Feb. 1896 

Sir Richard E. R. Martin, appointed commandant- 
gen, of poliee forces, and deputy-commissioner 
for S. Africa; announced . . 12 March, „ 

Distress through the cattle-disease ; etc. See 
Mansion liouse .... April etseq. , t 

Native rising through the killing of diseased cattle, 
at Pokwani ; expedition sent under major Peak- 
man ; reported 23 Dec. ,, 

Pokwani, Qalishwe's stronghold, taken by Mr. 
Robinson and natives routed, 27 Dec. ; many 
natives captured, rising quelled. . 29 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Robinson, a trader, murdered on the Mashowing 
river; the Batlaros tribe in revolt; reported; 
5 Jan. ; further raid reported . . 8 Jan. 1897 



BEGKET'S MURDER. 



135 



BEER. 



Rebels totally defeated, 4c killed in the Takoon 
district ; reported . . . ... 16 Jan. ^897 

Capt. Wood and a small patrol surprised by rebels 
in Langeberg ; lieut. Hopkins and private Venn 
killed, rebel loss heavy ; reported . 18 Feb. ,, 

Gamasep, Lukas Jantje's village, captured and 
burnt, lieut. Harris killed, 6 April ; other kraals 
burnt by col. Dalgety's column, announced 10 
April; further fighting, reported . 30 April, ,, 

Toto's stronghold captured by col. Dalgety, 3 
privates killed 9 May, ,, 

Rebels repulsed with loss at Gamasep . 3 June, ,, 

Reinforcements sent to Langeberg, 30 June ; 
several skirmishes reported, 25 July; decisive 
victory over the rebels, at Langeberg 30 July 
and 1 Aug. ; many surrenders . . 2 Aug. „ 

Major Goold- Adams appointed resident-commis- 
sioner; reported 21 Dec. ,, 

Ralph Champneys Williams, C.M.G., resident- 
commissioner Jan. 1901 

(See S. African War.) 

BECKET' S MURDER.* Thomas Becket, 
archbishop of Canterbury, was murdered at the 
altar, 29 Dee. 1170. The king was absolved of 
guiltj' knowledge of the crime in 1 172, and did 
penance at the tomb in 1 174. The bones of Becket 
were enshrined in gold and jewels in 1220. They 
were ordered to be burned in the reign of Henry 
VIII. 24 April, 1538. A stone coffin, supposed by 
some persons to contain Becket's bones (?), dis- 
covered in a crypt at Canterbury cathedral, Jan. 
1888. The Merchant Adventurers were at one time 
termed " the Brotherhood of St. Thomas a 
Becket." A Koman catholic church at Canter- 
bury, dedicated to him, was opened by cardinal 
Manning, 13 April, 1875. 

BECKETT-DENISON ART COLLEC- 
TION, (including much of the Hamilton Collec- 
tion) sold for 92,231/., 6 June— 15 July, 1885. Mr. 
Christopher Beekett-Denison, brother of sir Edmund 
Beckett (since lord Grimthorpe), died suddenly in 
Ireland, 1884. 

BECKFORD, see under Libraries. 

BED. The ancients slept on skins. Beds were 
afterwards made of loose rushes, heather, or straw. 
The Romans are said to have first used feathers. 
An air-cushion is said to have been used by Helio- 
gabalus, 218-222; air-beds were in use in the 16th 
century. Feather-beds were in use in England in 
the reign of Henry VIIT. The bedsteads of the 
Egyptians and later Greeks, like modem couches, 
became common among the Roman upper classes. 
The ancient great bed at Ware, Herts, capable of hold- 
ing twelve persons, is of the 16th cent. Referred to 
in Shakespeare's Twelfth Night. 
A bedstead of gold was presented to the queen on 2 Nov. 

1859, by the Maharajah of Cashmere. 
Air-beds and water-beds have been made since the manu- 
facture of india-rubber cloth by Clark in 1813 ; and by 
Macintosh in 1823. 
Dr. Arnott's hydrostatic bed invented in 1830. 

BED OF JUSTICE, a French court presided 
over by the king, whose seat was termed a " bed." 

* Thomas Becket was born in 11 19. His father Gilbert 
was a London trader, and his mother is stated to have 
been a convert from Mahpmetanism. He was educated 
at Oxford, and made archdeacon by Theobald, archbishop 
of Canterbury, who introduced him to the. king, Henry II. 
He became chancellor in 1155, but on being elected arch- 
bishop of Canterbury in n62,he resigned the chancellor- 
ship, to the great offence of the king. He opposed 
strenuously the constitutions of Clarendon in 11 64, and 
fled the country ; and in 1166, excommunicated all the 
clergy who agreed to abide by them. He and the king 
met at Fretville, in Touraine, on 22 July, 1170, and were 
formally reconciled. On his return he re-commenced 
his struggle with the king, which led to his tragical 
death, after which he was canonized. 



It controlled the ordinances of the parliament. 
The last was held by Louis XVI. a Versailles, 
19 Nov. 1787, to raise a loan. 

BEDER (Arabia). Here Mahomet gained his 
first victory (over the Koreish of Mecca), 623. It 
was considered to be miraculous. 

BEDFORD, a town, N.N. W. of London, re- 
nowned for its many free educational establish- 
ments, endowed in 1561 by sir Wm. Harpur, a 
London alderman. Here John Bunyan preached, 
was imprisoned, and wrote "The Pilgrim's Pro- 
gress." Population 1881, 19,533; 1891, 28,023; 
1901, 35-H4- 

A statue of Bunyan, the gift of the duke of Bedford, 
was uncovered here, 10 June. 1874. Bronze gates for 
the Bunyan church, given by the duke, were inaugu- 
rated by him 5 July, 1876. New extensive building of 
the grammar school opened by the duke of Bedford 
29 Oct. 1891. 
Statue of John Howard, the philanthropist, by Mr. 
Alfred Gilbert, in the market-place ; unveiled by the 
duke of Bedford, 28 March, 1894. 
Recreation ground presented by the duke, April 1894. 
Mr. George Hurst, born 1800, 5 times mayor, died 

26 Dec. 1898. 
Lieut. -gen. sir John French presented with an address 
by the mayor, 24 July, received the freedom 10 Oct 
1902. 

BEDFORD LEVEL, a portion of the great 
fen districts in the eastern counties, drained in the 
early part of the 17th century by the earl of Bed- 
ford, aided by the celebrated Dutch engineer, sir 
Cornelius Vermuyden, amid great opposition ; see 
Levels. 

BEDLAM, see Bithlehem. 

BEDOUINS, wandering tribes of Arabs, living 
on the plunder of travellers, &c. They profess a 
form of Mahometanism, and are governed by 
sheikhs. They are said to be descendants of Ish- 
mael, and appear to fulfil the prophecy respecting 
him, Gen. xvi. 12, 191 1 b.c. 

BEEF-EATERS, see Battle-axe. 

"BEEF STEAKS, the Sublime Society of," 
was established in 1735 by Rich, an actor at Covent 
G irden Theatre, in the painting-room of which the 
members dined upon , beef-steaks. The society 
became fashionable,, and long included among its 
members the prince of Wales, royal dukes, and 
other eminent persons, who submitted to its some- 
what ludicrous regulations. It became extinct in 
1867, its last place of meeting being a room in the 
Lyceum theatre. Its history was published ty 
Brother Arnold in 1871. 

BEEHIVE HOUSES, are primitive dwell- 
ings of an unknown antiquity found in Scotland 
and Ireland. They are constructed with undressed 
stones and without mortar, conical in shape, with a 
hole at the top of the roof. 

BEER. The manufacture of beer and intoxi- 
cating liquors of kindred nature is of very high 
antiquity. A kind of beer was brewed from barley 
by the Egyptians as early as 3000 B.C. Herodotus 
ascribes its invention to the goddess Isis, and 
Xenophon refers to the use of beer in Armenia. 
Pliny mentions an intoxicating liquor made of 
corn and water in common use among the peoples 
of Western Europe, including the Gauls. Mead 
and cider were chiefly drunk in Britain prior to 
the Roman invasion. ' In the 8th cent, ale booths 
were subject to legal regulations. Beer is manu- 
factured in a primitive manner from millet by 
native tribes in Africa, and from maize by the 



BEES. 



136 



BEHRINGS STRAIT. 



Indians of South Amer'ca. There are numerous 
varieties of beer (including ale) consumed in 
Britain, known as '■ pale ale," ''bitter beer," 
" mild ale," &c, the most celebrated of the mild 
ales being those manufactured at Burton-on-Trent. 
Porter and stcut, dark-coloured varieties of beer, 
are produced chiefly in London and Dublin. 
"Lager beer," a German beer, which in recent 
years has come into use in this country, is also 
manufactured in England and in America. The 
annual consumption of beer in gallons per head in 
the various countries of Europe and in the United 
States and Canada is shown as under: — Belgium, 
36'00; United Kingdom, 26*27 ; Germany, 20"00; 
United States, 14-14; Denmark, n - 65; Holland, 
846; Austria - Hungary, 7 - io; Norway, 636; 
Switzerland, 587; France, $'2i; Sweden, 4'2o; 
Canada, 317 ; Russia, O'&J. ; Italy, 018. — 
Chambers. Condensed beer patented by P. E. Lock- 
wood, 187.V Condensed wort patented by Hermann 
Mertens, of Margate, in 1853. Beer and ale exported 
from the United Kingdom : 1876, 484 ,919 barrels ; 
1880, 412,192 ; 1884, 437,241 ; 1888, 447,940; 1890, 
503,221 ; 1900, 510.843. Excise duty on beer (1893) 
6s. 3d. per barrel; addition of od. June, 1894; 
raised to is. April, 1900. Beer, for purposes of 
taxation, is defined bv the inland revenue acts of 
1880 and 1885. Adulteration, or addition of any- 
thing except finings for clarification, or even the 
mixing of small beer with strong beer, incurs a fine 
of 50^. and forfeiture of the beer. In the case of a 
beer-seller conviction of adulteration is registered 
and may be endorsed on his licence ; see Ale, 
Breicers, Porter, Victualler's, Arsenic. 

BEES. Mount Hybla, on account of its odori- 
ferous flowers, thyme, and abundance of honey, has 
been poetically called the "empire of bees." II y- 
mettus, in Attica, was also famous for its bees and 
honey. The economy of bees was admired in the 
earliest ages ; and Eumelus, of Corinth, wrote a 
poem on bees, 741 B.C. Bees were introduced 
into Boston, JSew England, in 1670, and have 
since spread ever the continent. Mandeville's 
satirical " Fable of the Bees " appeared in 1723. 
Huber published his observations on bees in 1792. 
The Apiarian Society had an establishment at Mus- 
well Hill, near London (1860-2). The Ligurian 
variety of the honey-bee was successfully introduced 
into England in i860. 

A British Beekeepers' Association founded 16 May (sir 
John Lubbock became first president) ; first exhibition, 

in Crystal palace, 8 Sept. 1874; at other places since. 
■Spelling bees, of American origin, introduced into London 

in autumn of 1875 ; first at Holloway. Geographical, 

musical, and other bees began early in 1876. 
Mr. P. R. Cheshire's " Bees and Beekeeping " published 

in 1886-8. 
Maeterlinck. "Life of the Bee," trans, by A. Sutro. 

May, 1901. 

BEES, ST., Cumberland. A monastery was 
founded here by St. Bega, 650; a grammar school 
by abp. Grindal, [583 ; a clerical training college 
by bp. Law, [817. 

BEET-ROOT is extensively grown in Eng- 
land. Beta vulgaris, red beet, is used for the table 
as a salad. Margraff first produced sugar from the 
white beet-root in 1747. M. Achard produced ex- 
cellent sugar from it in 1799 ; and the chemists of 
France, at the instance of Bonaparte, largely ex- 
tracted sugar from the beet-root in 1800. 'More 
than half the sugar consumed in France is now 
manufactured in that country from beet. It is also 
largely manufactured in other countries, especially 
in Germany. A refinery of sugar from beet-root 



has been erected at the Thames bank, Chelsea. 
The cultivation of beet-root in England and Ire- 
land much advocated, 187 1, and again, in 1884, 
when great improvements were proposed, especially 
at Lavenham, Suffolk, by Messrs. Bolton, of West- 
minster. 

BEGGARS were tolerated in ancient times, 
being often musicians and ballad-singers. In 1388, 
I S3°) 1535, 1547-50 severe laws were passed 
against them. By 14 Eliz., c. 5, 1572, sturdy 
beggars were ordered to be " grievously whipped 
and burnt through the right ear; " punished capi- 
tally for the third offence: acts consolidated 173 1. 
By the Vagrant Act (1824), 5 Geo. IV. c. 83, all 
public beggars are liable to a month's imprisonment. 
About 30,000 tramps in England and Wales. Judi- 
cial Statistics, 1865. See Poor Laivs, Mendicity 
Society, and Vagrants. The " Beggar's Opera," 
by John Gay, a satire against the government of 
sir Robert Walpole, was produced at the Lincoln's- 
inn-fields theatre, 29 Jan. 1727-8, and had a run of 
63 nights ; see Gueux. 

BEGUINES, a congregation of nuns first 
established at Liege, and afterwards at Nivelle, in 
1207, some say 1226. The "Grand Beguinage " 
of Bruges was the most extensive. Some of these 
nuns imagined that they could become sinless. The 
council of Vienne condemned this error, and 
abolished a branch of the order in 131 1. They still 
exist in Germany and Belgium, acting as nurses to 
the sick and wounded, &c. 

BEHEADING, the Decollatio of the Romans, 
introduced into England from Normandy (as a less 
ignominious mode of putting high criminals to 
death), by William the Conqueror, 1076, when 
Waltheof, earl of Huntingdon, Northampton, and 
Northumberland, was first so executed. Since then 
this mode of execution became frequent, particu- 
larly in the reigns of Henry VIII., Mary, and 
Elizabeth, when even women of the noblest blood 
thus perished ; the aged countess of Salisbury, 27 
May, 1541 ; lady Jane Grey, 12 Feb. 1554. 

BEHISTUlSr, in Persia. At this place is a 
rock containing important inscriptions cf Darius 
Hystaspes about 518 B.C., in three languages, in 
cuneiform (or wedge-shaped) characters, which 
were deciphered and translated by sir H. Bawlinson 
in 1844-6, and published in the Journal of the Royal 
Asiatic Society. 

BEHRING'S STRAIT, discovered by captain 
Vitus Behring, a Danish navigator in the service of 
Russia. He thus proved that the continents of 
Asia and America are distant from each other about 
thirty-nine miles, 1728. He died at Behring's 
island in 1741. In 1778 captain James Cook sur- 
veyed the coasts of both continents. See United 
States, 1889-91. 

The czar Alexander L, in 1821, declared the Behring 
seas closed to foreign fishing ; this was at once repu- 
diated by Mr. J. Quincy Adams, secretary of the 
United States. Alaska was purchased in 1867 from 
Russia, by the States, who afterwards assumed the 
Russian claim upon the seas, and seized the British 
Columbia's sealing vessels. The seizure of the Blade 
Diamond sealer by the U.S. revenue, cutter Rush, 3 
July, was declared legal by Mr. Secretary Blaine, 
U.S., 1 Aug. 1889; while the British government 
claimed, as heretofore, the right of fishing in waters 
beyond the territorial limits. The governments agreed 
to refer the question to arbitration, Feb. 1890. Presi- 
dent Harrison proclaimed the Behring sea closed to 
unlicensed seal fishing, 25 March. A Blue Book was 
published, 15 Aug., containing the correspondence 
between the two governments from 1 Sept. 1886, to 



BEHRING'S STRAIT. 



137 



BELFAST. 



2 Aug. 1890. The marquis of Salisbury demanded 
that, pending arbitration, British sealing vessels 
should not be molested, adding that if so, they 
should be protected, 2 Aug. 1890. 

Negotiations resumed, arbitration refused by Mr. 
Blaine end of Oct. 1890 

Correspondence referred to the U.S. congress, 

5 Jan. 1 89 1 

The owner of the British sealing schooner, W. ¥. 
Saywdrd (which was seized and condemned in 
1887J, supported by the Canadian government, 
brings the Behring sea difficulty before the U.S. 
Supreme Court at Washington, 12 Jan., case 
opens, 27 Jan. ; the court decides to hear the 
appeal on .... 13 April, 2 Feb. ,, 
[The case decided in favour of the United States, 
29 Feb. 1892.] 

Further correspondence; lord Salisbury consents 
to the proposal to refer the. matter to arbitration, 

21 Feb. ,, 

Letter from Mr. Blaine to sir Julian Pauncefote, 
specifying six points for arbitration . 14 April, „ 

A modus Vivendi respecting the seal fishery agreed 
on by Great Britain and the United States 

15 June, ,, 

Catching of seals by British ships prohibited from 
24 June, 1891, to 1 May, 1892, London Gazette, 

24 June, ,, 
Sir George Baden-Powell and Dr. G. M. Dawson, 

commissioners respecting the seal-fishery, arrive 
at British Columbia. 15 July ; interviews with 
sealers, 16 July ; arrive at Ounalaska island, 

25 July, ,, 
The Behring sea blocked by 3 American and 3 

British warships, announced . . 27 July, ,, 

Behring sea commission meets at Washington, 8 
Feb. ; sign their report ... 4 March, 1892 

The governments agree to refer the question to 
arbitration ; arbiters to be appointed by Italy, 
France, and Sweden Feb. ,, 

The arbitration treaty signed at Washington, 29 
Feb. ; ratified by the senate . . 29 March, ,, 

Mr. Blaine, after requiring the renewal of the 
modus vivendi, accepts the arrangements pro- 
posed by lord Salisbury . . .28 March, ,, 

New modus vivendi (to last till 31 Oct. 1893) ratified 

19 April and 4 May, ,, 

A " tribunal " of seven arbitrators appointed to 
settle the dispute : British, lord Hannen and sir 
John Thompson ; American, Mr. justice Harlan, 
and senator J. P. Morgan ; French, baron Al- 
phonse de Courcel : Italian, marquis Visconti 
Venosta ; one Swedish, M. Gram . July, Aug. ,, 

The British steamer Coquittam, and 25 sealers be- 
longing to Victoria, British Columbia, seized by 
the U. S. cutter Corwin, 22 June ; the Canadian 
government protests July, ,, 

The British schooner Winifred seized by the U. S. 
Rush 20 July, ,, 

Several Victoria sealers seized in the N. Pacific by 
a Russian gunboat, as being in Russian waters ; 
the crews made to sign papers and dismissed, 
July ; Canadian government protests and acts, 
Sept. ; controversy ensues .... Oct. ,, 

The seizure of the Canadian schooner Oscar and 
Hattie declared legal at Victoria ; appeal 5 Jan. 1893 

Russian commission appointed respecting the 
seized British sealers, about 9 Jan. ; agreement 
settled, reported June, ,, 

British agents: lion. C. H. Tupper, sir Charles 
Russell, attorney-general, and sir Richard Web- 
ster. United States agents : Mr. Foster and 
Mr. Phelps. 

The arbitrators meet at Paris, 23 Feb., baron de 
Courcel chosen president, 23 March ; able 
speeches delivered ; arguments closed, 8 July ; 
award delivered, generally favourable to Great 
Britain (Russian territorial claims set aside ; 
American fisheries limited to three miles from 
Behring sea islands ; three months' close time for 
seal fishery decreed ; claims for injuries on both 
sides to be settled) ... 15 Aug. ,, 

The treaty bill passed by parliament in England, 
23 April, 1894 ; in United States, 7 April ; came 
into operation 1 May, 1894 

Claims of British sealers on United States for 
seizures to be settled by payment of 425,000 
dollars . . . 6 Sept. „ 



Agreed to, but disallowed by congress . March, 1895 

A treaty settling the dispute concluded in Feb. ; 
ratified [473,151 dollars voted by the U.S. senate 
for payment of British claims 21 April, 1898, paid 
16th June, 1898.] 3 June, 1896 

Dispute renewed : despatch from Mr. Sherman 
to col. Hay, U.S. ambassador, London, for 
the suspension of pelagic sealing, 10 May, 
1897 ; negotiations : Gt. Britain declines to join 
a conference where Russia and Japan are repre- 
sented - 7 Oct. 1897 

I Conference between Russia, Japan, and United 
States, Mr. Foster chairman, at Washington 23 
Oct. ; convention signed for a temporary sup- 
pression of pelagic sealing ... 6 Nov. ,, 

Canada refuses consent to a year's suspension of 
pelagic sealing, but agrees to a joint commission ,, 

The Canadian and U.S. commissioners report to 
their governments ; awarding 464,000 dollars to 
Canadian sealers for losses by seizures from U.S. 
cruisers, 1886-97, 2 3 Dee. x 897, see above, June, 1898 

40,000 dollars indemnity received by Canada from 
Russia 4 March, ,, 

Hague court of arbitration decrees Russia to pay 
the United States 28,688 dols. and 32,444 dols. 
with interest from 1892 and 1893 for seizure of 
U.S. vessels 29 Nov. 1902 

BELFAST, capital of Ulster, N. Ireland. Its 
castle, supposed to have been built by John de 
Courcy, was destroyed by the Scots under Edward 
Bruce, 1315 ; see Orange. Belfast returns four 
M.P.'s by Act passed 25 June, 1885. Population, 
1821,37,117; 185 1, about 100,000; 1881, 208,122; 
1891, 255,896 ; 1 901, 348,965- 
Belfast granted by James I. to sir Arthur Chichester, 

lord deputy, 1612; and erected into a corporation 1613 
The long bridge (21 arches, 2562 feet long) built . 1682-6 
The first edition of the Bible in Ireland, printed here 1704 

The castle burnt 4 April, 1708 

The bank built 1787 

The mechanics' institute established . . . 1825 
The Queen's bridge (5 arches) built on site of the 

long bridge 1841 

Of three colleges established in Ireland in 1845, one 
inaugurated in Belfast (see Colleges) . . Oct. 1849 

Victoria Channel opened ,, 

British association mot here ..... 1852 
Much rioting at Belfast through Mr. Hanna's open- 
air preaching July-Sept. 1857 

"Victoria chambers" burnt down; the loss esti- 
mated at ioojoooj 1 July, 1859 

Exciting religious revivals . . . Sept. ,, 

Fierce conflicts between Roman Catholics and Pro- 
testants on account of the foundation of the 
O'Connell monument at Dublin — 9 lives lost and 
150 persons injured .... 10-27 Aug. 1864 

Rioting again 30 April, 1865 

Visit of the lord lieutenant, the marquis of Abercorn 

2-4 Oct. 1867 
Severe rioting ; much destruction of property and 
many persons injured. Civil war raging between 
Catholics and Protestants, 15-21 Aug. Peace re- 
stored 22 Aug. 1872 

British association here (2nd time) . 19 Aug. 1874 
End of strike of linen manufacturers . 26 Aug. ,, 
Riots at W. Belfast between Catholic and Protestant 
workmen, with loss of life ; suppressed by the 
military and police, 3-13 June ; more rioting ; the 
town proclaimed, 21 July ; violent conflicts be- 
tween the mobs and the military and police, 11 
killed, many wounded ; order restored by addi- 
tional military .... 9 Aug. et seq. 1886 
Renewed rioting suppressed . . 14, 15 Aug. ,, 
Quietness reported 18 Aug. ; occasional rioting 

1 Sept. el seq. ,, 
Part of Albert bridge falls with loss of life 15 Sept. ,, 
Rioting (2 deaths) 19-20 Sept. 26 Sept. and 29 Sept. ,, 
A commission to inquire into the riots began to sit 

4 Oct. ,, 
Report published ; Protestant attacks on the police ; 

weak magisterial action referred to, about 25 Jan. 18S7 
Renewed rioting ; the police compelled to fire ; 

about 50 arrests 29-30 Jan. ,, 

Prince Albert Victor of Wales opens the new 
Alexandra docks 20 May, and lays the founda- 
tion of Albert bridge . . . .22 May, 1889 



BELFORT. 



133 



BELGIUM. 



Victoria channel extension opened for traffic 

7 July, 1891 

The mayor ordered to be styled " lord " . May, 1S92 

Meeting of Ulster Convention (which see) against 
Home Rule 17 June, ., 

See Ulster, 1892-3. Fighting between Catholic and 
Protestant workmen, suppressed . 24 April, 1893 

Visit of the duke of Devonshire ; banquet o Nov. ,, 

An art and industrial exhibition opened by the lord 
mayor 24 March, 1894 

Art and industrial exhibition opened by the mar- 
quis and marchioness of Londonderry ; pictures 
sent by the queen and others . . 11 April, 1895 

Eight servants of the marquis drowned by the up- 
setting of a boat on Strangford Lough 11 April, ,, 

Strike in the shipbuilding trade; begun, n Oct; 
about 3,000 out, closed ; an advance conceded to 
the men 17 Dec. ,, 

New Empire theatre damaged by lire . 27 Dec. ,, 

Messrs. R. M. Robb & Co., and Messrs. Walpole 
Bro=.' warehouses destroyed by fire . 28 Jan. 1897 

Visit of fclie duke and duchess of York . 8 Sept. ,, 

Sharp rioting (Shankhill-road) suppressed by the 
troops and police, houses looted . 6, 7 June, 1898 

Foundation-stone of a new city hall laid by lord 
Cadogan 18 Oct. ,, 

Death of the rev. Dr. Kane, benefactor . 20 Nov. ,, 

Statue of the queen (Guildhall) unveiled by the 
lord-lieut 24 Nov. ,, 

Frequent disturbances at St. Clement's against 
ritualistic practices . . . Feb. -March, 1899 

Anti-ritualistic meeting in the Ulster hall, 29 March, ,, 

Riot, attributed to offensive language used at 
certain open-air meetings, 1 death . 21 May ,, 

United Irish league demonstration, fighting, 7 p.m. 
riot act read, troops called out, 5 June; again, 
police stoned, over 40 arrests . . 6 June „ 

Mr. T. H. Ismay, of the White Star line receives 
the freedom of the city . . . 20 July „ 

Rioting in connection with the Nationalists 

14-15 Aug. „ 

Lady Shaftesbury lays the first stone of the cathe- 
dral • . 6 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Gerald Balfour receives addresses and speaks 
on the agricultural and technical instruction 
(Ireland) act 19 Jan. 1900 

Sir George White (the defender of Ladysmith) 
receives the freedom .... 12 June ,, 

Lord Dufferin opens a new municipal school of art 

25 Sept. 1 901 

Collapse of a spinning mill at Smithfield, 14 deaths, 
many injured (2,000/. relief fund, 28 Jan.) 20 Jan. 1902 

Clonard print works burnt down, 1 death, over 
20,000?.. damage 2, 3 July ,, 

Mr. Wm. Johnston, m.p., died . . .17 July ,, 

British association met here (3rd time) . 10 Sept. ,, 

Mr. A. Carnegie gives 15,000?. for a library . 3 Nov. ,, 

Lord Dudley lays first stone of a technical institute 

24 Nov. ,, 

F.M. Earl Roberts receives the freedom of the city 

8 Sept. ,, 
King visits the city 27 July, 1903 

BELFORT, or BEFORT, a fortified town in 
Alsace, E. France, was invested by the Germans 3 
Nov. 1870; capitulated 16 Feb. 1871 ; reserved to 
France when Alsace was ceded 26 Feb. ; quitted by 
the Germans Aug. 1873. 

BELGIUM, the southern portionof the Nether- 
lands, and anciently the territory of the Belgae, who 
were finally conquered by Julius Cajsar, 51 B.C. Its 
size is about one-eighth of Great Britain. Its 
government is a liberal constitutional monarchy, 
founded in 1831 . For previous history, see Flanders, 
Netherlands, and Holland. The population (31 Dec.) 
1862, 4,836,566; 1865, 4,984,451 ; 1866, 4,829,320 ; 
1870,5,087,105; 1879,5,536,146; 1887, 5,974J43! 
1890, 6,147,041 ; 1896, 6,495,886; 1901, 6,693,000 
The revolution commences at Brussels 25 Aug. 1830 

The provisional government declares Belgium inde- 
pendent (M. Van de Weyer, active) . 4 Oct. ,, 
Antwerp taken (except the citadel) . . 23 Dec. ,, 
Belgian independence acknowledged by the allied 
powers 26 Dec. „ 



Due de Nemours elected king (his father, the 

French king, refused his consent) . 3 Feb. 1831 
Surlet de Chokier is elected regent . . 24 Feb. ,, 
Leopold, prince of Saxe-Coburg, accepted the 

crown, 12 July ; enters Brussels . 19 July, ,, 
War with the Netherlands commences . 3 Aug. „ 
France sends 50,000 troops to assist Belgium, and 

an armistice ensues Aug. „ 

Conference of ministers of the five great powers held 
in London : acceptance of ^artielesof pacification 

15 Nov. 
Convention between England and France against 

Holland . . . • . . . .22 Oct. 1832 
Antwerp besieged, 30 Nov. ; the citadel taken by the 

French 23 Dec. „ 

The French army returns to France . . 27 Dec. „ 
Preliminary convention with Holland signed 21 May" 1833 
Riot at Brussels (see Brussels) ... 6 April, 1834 
Treaty* between Holland and Belgium signed in 

' London 19 April, 1839 

Clerical education bill passed 1842 

Queen of England visits Belgium . . . Aug. 1852 
The king and his son visit England . . Oct. ,, 
Increase of army to 100,000 men voted . 10 May, 1853 
Opposition to religious charities' billt . June, 1857 
A new ministry under M. Charles Rogier 9 Nov. ,, 
The chambers dissolved ; re-assembled . 10 Dec. ,, 
The king proclaims Belgium neutral in the Italian 

war , May, 1859 

Birth of prince Leopold Ferdinand . 12 June, ,, 

Death of M. Potter 22 July, ,, 

The king visits England June, i860 

Vague rumours of annexation to France produce 

warm loyal addresses to the king . . 13 June, „ 
The octrois abolished . . . 21 July, ,, 

Successful military volunteer movement . Aug. ,, 
Commercial treaty with France signed . . 1 May, 1861 
Continued illness of the king, with occasional 

amendment ... . May, June, 1862 

Commercial treaty with Great Britain adopted by 

the chamber 22 Aug. „ 

Great distress through decay of trade . Aug. ,, 
Fierce dissensions through Roman Catholics, Jan. ; 1864 
the ministry resigns, but resumes office, 4 Feb. ; ,, 
dissolution of the chambers, 17 July ; the Pro- 
testants superior in the election . . . Aug. „ 

Death of Leopold 1 10 Dec. 1865 

The new king and queen visit England, 5 July ; and 

Ghent and other Belgian cities . . . July, 1866 
National rifle meeting (tir) . . 12-16 Oct. ,, 
Mr. Phillips, lord mayor of London, and 1 100 English 
volunteers visit Belgium under col. Loyd Lind- 
say : other foreigners attend ; grand banquet given 
by the king at Brussels . . . .20 Oct. ,, 
Opening of the chambers, with a reassuring speech 

from the king 13 Nov. „ 

Violent rioting in mining districts (Marchienne-au- 
Pont) on account of reduction in wages ; sup- 
pressed by the military ... 1-2 Feb. 1867 
About 2400 Belgians (of the garde civique and volun- 
teers) visit England ; arrive, 10 July ; received by 
lord mayor, 12 July ; by prince of Wales at Wim- 
bledon, 13 July ; dine at Windsor, 16 July ; at a 
ball at Agricultural hall, 18 July ; received by 
Aliss Burdett-Coutts, 19 July ; attend the review 
at Wimbledon, 20 July ; leave London 22 July, „ 
New ministry (under M. Frere-Orban) ; liberal ; 

3 Jan. 186S 
Serious riots in the mining districts ; put down by 

the military ; 10 lives lost . . 25-29 March, ,, 
Monument to Charlemagne at Liege, inaugurated 

26 July, ,, 
Intern, congress of workmen at Brussels, 6-13 Nov. ,, 
The crown prince Leopold Ferdinand, duke of Bra- 
bant, died 22 Jan. 1869 

* This treaty arose out of the conference held in London 
on the Belgian question ; by the decision of which, the 
treaty of 15 Nov. 1831, was maintained, and the pecu- 
niary compensation of sixty millions of francs offered by 
Belgium for the territories adjudged to Holland was 
declared inadmissible. 

t At the revolution in 1830, the Roman Catholic clergy- 
lost the administration of the public charities, which 
they have struggled to recover ever since. In April, 
1857, M. Decker, the head of the ministry, brought in a 
bill for this purpose, but was compelled to withdraw it, 
and eventually to resign. 



BELGIUM. 



139 



BELGIUM. 



Concession of a Luxembourg railway to a French 
railway company, without the assent of the state, 
prohibited by the assembly, 13 Feb. ; dispute with 
the French government arranged, . . May, 1869 
International rifle meeting held at Liege 19 Sept. ,, 
Resignation of Frere-Orban ministry, about 19 June, 1870 
M. d'Anethan's ministry announced . 3 July, ,, 
Warm gratitude to Great Britain expressed by the 

king and people 8 Aug. ,, 

Treaty for the neutrality of Belgium between Great 
Britain and Prussia, signed 9 Aug. .; and France, 

signed 11 Aug. ,, 

After surrender of Sedan many French soldiers enter 

Belgium ; disarmed and interned . 1-2 Sept. ,, 
Strong opposition to the ministry by M. Barra and 

others; riots at Brussels . . . 22-25 Nov. ,, 
Besignation of D'Anethan ; M. Malou (a moderate) 

forms a ministry 7 Dec. 187 1 

The comte de Chambord arrives at Antwerp, 
17 Feb. ; compelled to quit Belgium through popu- 
lar demonstrations . . . .27 Feb. 1872 
The French government denounce the treaty of 

commerce with Belgium . . .29 March, ,, 
Treaty of commerce with France signed . 5 Feb. 1873 
The czar at Brussels .... 22 May, ,, 
M. Van de Weyer, statesman ; active during the 
revolution of 1830 ; ambassador to England 1831- 

67 ; died 23 May, 1874 

International conference at Brussels respecting 
rights of neutrals during war — no results, 

27 July-28 Aug. ,, 
Notes from the German government, complaining 
of publications favouring the censured German 
ecclesiastics, Feb. ; respecting the Duchesne's 
proposal to the archbishop of Paris to assassi- 
nate Bismarck 15 April, 1875 

Dignified Belgian replies . . March and May, ,, 
The court at Liege cannot interfere, May ; modi- 
fication of the criminal law proposed . June, ,, 
Much popular opposition to religious processions : 
riots ...... May, June, ,, 

The king visits England . . . .29 May, 1876 

Catholic successes in the elections ; riots against 

themat Brussels and Antwerp about 16, 17 June, ,, 
Statue, of Van de Weyer, at Louvain, inaugurated 

by the king 1 Oct. ,, 

International congress respecting hygiene, &c. , 

held at Brussels . . -27 Sept.-2 Oct. ,, 

Catholic minority in elections ; the Malou ministry 
resign, 13, 14 June, M Frere-Orban forms a 

liberal ministry 20 June, 1878 

Gigantic weir for water-distribution at La Gileppe, 

near Venders, inaugurated by the king, 2^ July, „ 
The king's silver wedding enthusiastically cele- 
brated 22-25 Aug. ,, 

Eugene T' Kindt de Rooden Veke, a clerk, convicted 
of embezzlement of 20,000,000 francs of the Bank 
of Belgium (149 thefts) ; the governor Fortamps, 
of fraudulently repurchasing shares, <&c. 3 Dec. ,, 
The king sanctions the new law of public instruc- 
tion 1 July, 1879 

Pastoral of the R. C. hierarchy against the govern- 
ment plan of mixed education (sacraments to be 
refused to teachers and parents, &c.) published 

in Germany Sept. ,, 

Archduke Rodolph of Austria betrothed to the 

princess Stephanie .... March, 188c 
Permanent international exhibition opened at 

Brussels 1 June, ,, 

Elections for parliament ; severe struggle between 
liberals and clerical party respecting education ; 
liberals retain moderate majority . . June, „ 
National exhibition at Brussels opened by the king 

and queen 16 June, ,, 

Representative at the Vatican lecalled through 
ecclesiastical disputes ; suspension of diplomatic 

arrangements 28 June, ,, 

Jubilee to celebrate national independence 18 July, ,, 
Statue of Leopold I. unveiled at Laeken 21 July, ,, 
Patriotic fete in the Brussels exhibition 16 Aug. ,, 
Trial of Armand and Leon Peltzer, for the murder 
of Wilhelm Bernays : (an injured husband, a 
faithless wife and her accomplices) . 27 Nov. 1882 
Sentenced to death (commuted) . . 22 Dec. ,, 
Dynamite explosion at Ganshorten, near Brussels ; 

1 death (arrests made) ... 23 Feb. 1883 
Parliamentary reform bill passed by representatives 

17 Au S- » 



Henri Conscience, eminent national Flemish poet 

and novelist, died, aged 73 . .9 Sept. 1883; 

Death of cardinal Deschamps, abp. of Mechlin, the 

primate 29 Sept. ,, 

The king and queen warmly received at Amsterdam 

18 Oct. et seq. ,, 
King and queen of Holland warmly received at 

Brussels 20-22 May, 1884 

Elections ; majority of clericals through dissension 
of moderate liberals and reformers, abjut 
10 June; resignation of M. Frere-Orban 11 June, ,, 
M. Jules Malou forms a conservative catholic 

ministry 12, 13 June, ,, 

Senate dissolved, June ; new senate clerical July, ,, 
Great meeting of burgomasters at Brussels to op- 
pose M. Jacobs' new reactionary education bill, 
9 Aug., which is accepted by the deputies (80-49), 
30 Aug. ; by the senate (40-25) . . 10 Sept. ,, 
Liberal riots at Brussels and Antwerp . 7 Sept. ,, 
Royal assent to the bill . . . . 13 Sept. ,, 
Communal elections ; great liberal majority 19 Oct. ,, 
MM. Malou, Jacobs, and Wceste (catholics) resign, 
M. Beernaert becomes premier . . 24 Oct. „ 

Parliament meets 11 Nov. „ 

King Leopold proclaimed sovereign of the new 

Congo state 2 May, 1885 

Universal exhibition opened at Antwerp by the king 

2 May, ,, 
Death of Charles Rogier (aged 85), member of the 
provisional government in 1830, six times minister 

27 May, ,, 

Riotous strikes in the coal districts between Namur 

and Liege and collision with the military, many 

killed and wounded ; convents, country houses, 

factories, &c, pillaged, works stopped about 

22-29 March, 1886 
Liege quieted by vigorous action ; great disorder in 

Charleroi, Mons, &c. . . . 27-29 March, ,, 
Outrages greatly attributed to the criminal classes; 

order restored, reported ... 7 April „ 

M. Vandersmissen, a clerical member for Brussels, 
convicted of killing his wife, a scandalous case ; 
15 years' penal servitude . . .2 June, „ 
Increased army expenditure proposed . 8 Feb. 1887 
Revival of strikes ; arrival of French dynamitards ; 
universal suffrage demanded ; the strikes subside 

about 31 May, „ 

New Army Bill rejected by the Chamber (69-62) 

14 July, ,, 
State trials of 27 socialists at Mons, nearly all 
acquitted, 25 May ; the minister of justice was 
censured for the prosecution . . May, 1889 

Great colliery strike at Charleroi, &c, about 20,000 

men out 21 Dec. et seq. „ 

Settled by compromise .... 13 J an - 1 ^9°' 
The castle of Laeken, built 17S2, 4 miles from 
Brussels, a royal palace, destroyed by fire ; the 
governess of princess Clementine, Madame de 
Grandcour, perished. Valuable works of art, 
furniture, historical documents, &c, lost. 1 Jan. ,, 
The king visits England . . . 10-26 May, ,, 
Loan to Congo State, see Congo . . . July, „ 
National fete, 25th anniversary of the king's acces- 
sion ; grotesque procession of giants, &c, at 

Brussels 19 July et sec l- >? 

Strike of about 10,000 miners at Mons, 22 Aug. ; 

strike over J Sept. ,, 

Death of prince Baldwin, aged 21, greatly lamented, 

23 Jan. ; grand funeral . . . -29 Jan. 1892 
Great political strike of colliers at Mons, Charle- 
roi, and other places, with rioting, about 2 May ; 
state of siege in the Liege district, about 100,000 

men out 7 Ma y> » 

Strike of the metallurgists in Charleroi district, the 
progressist party demand the revision of the con- 
stitution about 10 May, ,, 

Strike abating near Liege, &c. . . 13 May, ,, 

End of the coal-miners' strike of 70 days . 9 July, „ 
Coal-mine explosion *at Forchies in Hainault ; 27 

deaths 19 Sept. „ 

Meeting of the chambers . . . ■ 10 Nov. ,, 
The hon. sir Edmund Monson succeeds lord Vivian 

as British minister 3a.n. 1892 

Death of M. Emile de Laveleye, eminent publicist 

and writer, aged 69 ... • 3 J an - >> 

The commercial treaties with Austria-Hungary and 
Germany adopted by the chamber, 28 Jan. ; by 
the senate I Feb. ,, 



BELGIUM. 



140 



BELGIUM. 



Discussion in the chamber on the revision of the 
constitution of 1831 2 Feb. 1 

Elections : clerical majority, June ; the new senate 
and chamber unite to form a constituent assem- 
bly to consider the revision of the constitution 
12 July et seq. 

The committee of the chamber meets 3 Oct. ; uni- 
versal suffrage rejected, 2 Nov. ; household 
suffrage adopted 3 Nov. 

Riotous meetings at Ghent and Brussels demand- 
ing universal suffrage, quelled by police 7, 8 Nov. 

The chambers opened by the king, who advocates 
revision of the constitution, 8 Nov. ; universal 
suffrage rejected . .18 Nov. 

Referendum: manhood suffrage voted for at Brus- 
sels 26 Feb. 

All revision proposals rejected by the chamber, 12 
April ; consequent large strike of workmen in 
the Mons district, etc., 13 April et seq. ; rioting at 
Brussels, 14 April ; the civic guard at Mons tires 
on the miners, 4 men killed ; above 1,000 dockers 
on strike at Antwerp ... 17 April, 

Manhood suffrage with plural voting for some 
persons adopted by the chamber (1 19-14) 18 
April ; by the senate ... 27 April, 

The strikes end ; order restored 18 April et seq. 

Sir Francis Plunkett appointed British minister 

May, 

The bill for the revision of the constitution ratified 
by the senate 2 Sept. 

Strike of miners in the centre coal fields and the 
Charleroi district, reported 28 Sept. closed by 
compromise 10 Oct. 

Parliament re-assembles, to prepare for the new 
constitution 17 Oct. 

The Flemish volksraad (people's council) opposed 
to predominance of French influence, annual 
meeting at Brussels . . . . 1 Nov. 

New electoral bill passed by the chamber 17 Feb 

Resignation of M. Beernaert the premier, and M. 
Le Jeune, minister of justice. New ministry, 
M. de Burlet, premier ... 25 March, 

Opening of the chamber .... 3 April, 

Exhibition opened at Antwerp, which sec. 5 May, 

Marriage of the princess Josephine, daughter of the 
count of Flanders, to prince Charles of Hohen- 
zollern-Sigmaringen at Brussels . . 23 May, 

The electoral reform bill linally passed by the 
chamber, 6 June ; by the senate . 27 June, 

Treaty with Great Britain respecting the Congo, 
which see ..... 12 May, 

Parliament dissolved .... 20 Sept. 

Parliamentary elections : 104 catholics, 19 liberals, 
29 socialists and radicals ... 21 Oct. 

The chambers opened .... 13 Nov. 

Annexation of the Congo state proposed by the 
government 4 Jan. 

Mdme. Joniaux after 21 days' trial sentenced to 
death for poisoning 3 relatives, 3 Feb. ; commuted 

12 May, 

The chamber of representatives adopt the bill for 
conversion of the 3} per cent, rente into 3 per 
cent, stock 13 Feb. 

General strike ordered by the labour syndicates 
against the communal electoral bill . 26 March, 

Stopped by the leaders . . about 30 March, 

Rioting at Renaix, collision with the police, one 
man killed 30 March, 

The masters yield to men's demands . 31 March, 

Labour bureau with large powers established by 
decree 30 April, 

Great meeting at Antwerp to protest against tin' 
government's protective policy . . 20 May, 
Re-adjustment of the ministry ; M. de Burlet 
becomes foreign minister . . .26 May, 

Proposed payment of the debt of the Congo state, 
voted . . . . 27, 28 June, 

National demonstration against fcne government 
education bill (teligious instruction made com- 
pulsory) at Brussels .... 28 July, 
Education bill passed by the chamber, r,6 Aug. . 

•royal assent 17 Sept. 

Annexation of the Congo stale postponed ; Sept. 
Parliament opened, with an address by M. Beer- 
naert 12 Nov. 

M. Frere-Orban, eminent liberal Btatesn ai . born, 
1S12 ; died ... a Jan. 



894 



1896 



Resignation of M. de Burlet, 25 Feb. ; succeeded 
by M. de Smet de Naeyer . . . 26 Feb. 1896 

Royal warrant withdrawing the proposal for the 
annexation of the Congo state, read in the 
chamber ....... 19 June ,, 

New chamber of deputies: in clericals, 12 libe- 
rals, 29 socialists ; reported . . - 13 July, „ 

Jan Verhas, eminent painter, died, aged 63 ; 31 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Brassine, minister of war, resigns, on his 
scheme of military reform being rejected, 9 Nov. ; 
chambers opened 10 Nov. ,, 

Official use of Flemish ordered . . 5 Feb. 1897 

Coal miners' strike, 16,500 men out, round Mons ; 
reported 30 June, ,, 

The Anglo-Belgian commercial treaty (1862) to be 
annulled in 1898, announced . . 1 Aug. ,, 

New chamber of deputies, 112 catholics, etc. June, 1898 

Congo fetes at Antwerp, the king present, 15 Oct. ,, 

Georges Rodenbach, novelist and poet, died, aged 44 

26 Dec. ,, 

M. deSmet de Nayer, premier, opposes tminominal, 
voting and resigns .... 23 Jan. 1899 

M. Vandenpeereboom forms a cabinet . . Jan. ,, 

Stormy scene in the chamber, soldiers called in, 

29 March, „ 

Explosion in the fortress at Huy, 6 deaths, 7 April, „ 

Rioting in Brussels, agitation against the electoral 
reform bill, 1 death . . . 28-30 June, ,, 

Socialist obstruction in the chamber, sitting sus- 
pended, 28, 29 June ; conciliation offered by the 
premier, chamber adjourns . . 30 June, ,, 

Agitation for universal suffrage throughout the 
country 4 July, ,, 

Electoral reform bill rejected by the chamber, 
31 July ; the cabinet resigns, 1 Aug. ; new- 
ministry ; M. de Smet de Nayer, premier and 
finance minister, proposes the adoption of pro- 
portional representation ; long debate in the 
chamber, 8 Aug. ; motion for considering the 
revision of the constitution rejected by the 
deputies (59-31) 31 Aug. ,, 

Vandyck tercentenary, see Antwerp . 12 Aug. ,, 

M. Jahson's universal suffrage bill rejected (47-16), 

7 Dec. ,, 

Bill for proportional representation becomes law, 

Dec. „ 

The king presents his real estate to the nation 

April, 1900 

Parliamentary elections: new chamber, 85 clericals, 
33 liberals, and 33 radicals . . . May, „ 

Debate in the chamber on the extradition of Sipido 
from Paris (26 Oct.) ; see Wales, prince of, 1900 ; 
large majority for the government carried, 

20, 21 Nov. „ 

Prince Louis de Ligne's chateau de Belceil, near 
Tournay, with art collections, burnt down, i4Dec. ,, 

Socialist and anarchist meetings held in Liege and 
Brussels in favour of universal suffrage, 7, 8 April, 1901 

Angry scene in the chamber on the proposal for 
restoring temporal power to the pope . 17 May, ,, 

Charleroi glass-workers' strike began, 1 Aug. 1900, 
closed 20 May, ,, 

Congo State bill passed by the chamber ; annexa- 
tion postponed 17 July, ,, 

Old-age pensions act comes into operation, 175,000 
applications early Aug. ,, 

Mathilde Ramboux, "Hilda Ram," popularFlemish 
poetess, died aged 43 . . . early Aug. ,, 

Miners' strike in the Liege basin begins, 27 Sept. 
closed Oct. ,, 

Debate on the prosecution of M. Smeets for using 

seditious language at a meeting ; wild uproar, 

sitting suspended, many arrests . 30 Jan. 1902 
Military reform bill passed the chamber, 24 Jan.; 

the senate 20 March, ,, 

Anti-gambling bill finally passed (Ostend and 

Spa granted 7,000,000!'. as indemnity, 7 May), 

22 March, ,, 
Socialist agitation for electoral reform at Brussels, 

Liege, and elsewhere ; general strike; fatal rioting, 

8-72 April, ,, 
Eight rioters killed at Louvain, iS April; strikes 

closed, except in the coal district . 22 April, ,, 
Revision of the suffrage question, rejected in the 

chamber ; government majority (20), 18 April, ,, 
Budget passed, 25 April ; session closed, 20 May, ,, 
Elections: Catholic majority increased to 24 in the 

chamber 25 May, ,, 



BELGEADE. 



141 



BELLS. 



The king opens an early Flemish art exhibition at 
Bruges ...... 15 June, 1902 

■ Internat. congress re lunacy reforms at Antwerp, 

1 Sept. „ 

Death of the queen .... 19 Sept. ,, 

Frontier riots between French and Belgian miners 

12-14 Oct. ,, 

Attempt to assassinate king Leopold by Rubino, 
an anarchist (sentenced to life imprisonment 10 
Feb. 1003) 15 Nov. ,, 

British Baptist Society thanks the king for his 
support in the Congo .... 6 Jan. 1903 

Dynamite outrage in Brussels by Vandermeuben 
(sentenced to 10 years' imprisonment) . 4 Feb. ,, 

International congress of miners at Brussels 1 June, ,, 

1901. Revenue, just under 20,000,000?., surplus 130,208?. ; 

1903. Estimated surplus 7,000?. 



1831. Leopold,* first king of the Belgians ; born 16 Dec. 
1790 ; inaugurated 21 July, 1831, at Brussels : 
married, 9 Aug. 1832, Louise, eldest daughter of 
Louis Philippe, king of the French (she died 
11 Oct. 1850). He died 10 Dec. 1865. 

1865. Leopold II., son ; born 9 April, 1835 ; married 
archduchess Maria Henrietta of Austria, 22 Aug. 
1853 (she died 19 Sept. 1902, aged 66). 

Daughter. Princess Louise, born 18 Feb. 1858 ; married 
duke Philip of Saxony, 4 Feb. 1875. 

Heir, brother. Philip, count of Flanders ; born 24 March, 
1837; married Mary, princess of Hohenzollern- 
Sigmaringen, 25 April, 1867 ; son, Baldwin, born 
3 June, 1869 ; died 23 Jan. 1891 ; Albert, born 8 
April, 1875 ; married Elizabeth, duchess of 
Bavaria, 2 Oct. 1900 ; son, Leopold, born 3 Nov. 
1901. 

BELGEADE, capital of Servia, a city on 
the right bank of the l)anube. It was taken from 
the Greek emperor by Solomon, king of Hungary, 
in 1072 ; gallantly defended by John Huniades 
against the Turks, under Mahomet II., July to 
Sept. 1456, when the latter was defeated, with the 
loss of 40,000 men. Belgrade was taken by sultan 
Solyman, Aug. 1521, and retaken by the Im- 
perialists in 1688, from whom it was again taken by 
the Turks, 1690. It was besieged in May, 1 7 16, by 
prince Eugene. In that year the Turkish army, 
200,000 strong, approached to relieve it, and on 5 
Aug. a sanguinary battle was fought at Peterwara- 
dein, in which the Turks lost 20,000 men. Eugene 
defeated the Turks here, 16 Aug. 171 7, and Bel- 
grade surrendered 18 Aug. In 1739 it was ceded to 
the Turks, after its fine fortifications had been de- 
molished. It was retaken in 1789, and restored at 
the peace of Reichenbach, in 1 790. The Servian 
insurgents had possession of it, 1806-13. ^ n I ^ I S 
it was placed under prince Milosch, subject to 
Turkey. The fortifications were restored in 1820. 
On 19 June, 1862, the Turkish pasha was dismissed 
for firing on the town during a riot. The university 
was established by private munificence, 1863. The 
fortress was surrendered by the Turks to the Ser- 
vians, 18 April, 1867. The independence of Servia 
proclaimed here, 22 Aug. 1878. Fatal riot'ng 5 
April, 1903. Revolt by officers of the army, king 
Alexander I. and queen Draga murdered in their 
palace between 12 and 2 a.m., 10 June, 1903. 
Ministers, guards and officers loyal to the king, 
with the two brothers of the queen, also killed. 
Prince Peter Karageorgevich made king. He 
swore fealty to the constitution at Belgrade 25 
June. The leading assassins promoted in rank 
July, 1903. Population in 1890, 54,458 ; 1901, 
72,000. See Servia. 

* Leopold married, in May, 1816, the princess Char- 
lotte of Wales, daughter of the prince regent, afterwards 
George IV. of England ; she died in childbed, 6 Nov. 1817. 



BELGEAVIA, a south-western district of the 
metropolis, built between 1826 and 1852 upon land 
belonging to the marquis of Westminster, who is 
also viscount Belgrave. 

BELL, Book, and Candle : in the Romish 

ceremony of excommunication (which see), the 
bell is rung, the book is closed, and candle extin- 
guished; the effect being to exclude the excom- 
municated from the society of the faithful, divine 
service, and the sacraments. Its origin is ascribed 
to the 8th century. 

BELL EOCK LIGHTHOUSE, nearly in 
front of the Frith of Tay, one of the finest in Great 
Britain ; it is 115 feet high, is built upon a rock 
that measures 427 feet in length, and 200 feet in 
breadth, and is about 12 feet under water.* It was 
erected in 1806-10. It has two bells for hazy weather. 

BELLAIE, North America. The town was 
attacked by the British forces under sir Peter 
Parker, who, after an obstinate engagement, was 
killed, 30 Aug. 1814. 

BELLEISLE, an isle on the south coast of 
Brittany, France, erected into a duchy for marshal 
Belleisle, in 1742, in reward of his military and 
diplomatic services, by Louis XV. Belleisle was 
taken by the British forces under commodore 
Keppel and general Hodgson, after a desperate 
resistance, 7 June, 1 76 1, but was restored to France 
in 1763. 

BELLES-LETTEES, or Polite Learn- 
ing, see Academies, and Literature. 

BELLEVILLE, the red republican stronghold 
of Paris, defended by seven barricades, was cap- 
tured by L'Admirault and Vinoy, 27, 28 May, 
1871, when the insurrection was suppressed. 

BELLEVILLE BOILEES, see Ncrnj 
Boilers. 

BELLITE, a Swedish explosive invented by 
Mr. Carl Lamm in 1885. 

BELLMEN, appointed in London to proclaim 
the hour of the night before public clocks became 
general, were numerous about 1556. They were to 
ring a bell at night, and cry, "Take care of your 
fire and candle, be charitable to the poor, and pray 
for the dead." 

BELLOWS. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is 
said to have been the inventor of them, about 569 
B.C. ; and to him is ascribed the invention of tinder, 
the potter's wheel, anchors for ships, &c. Bellows 
were not used in the furnaces of the Romans. The 
great bellows of our foundries must have been early 
used ; see Blowing Machines. 

BELLS were used among the Jews, Greeks, and 
Romans. The responses of the Dodonrean oracle 
were in part conveyed by bells. Strabo. The 
monument of Porsenna was decorated with pin- 
nacles, each surmounted by bells. Pliny. Said to 
have been introduced by Paulinus, bishop of Nola, 
in Campagua, about 400; and first known in France 
in 550. The army of Clothaire II., king of France, 
was frightened from the siege of Sens by the ringing 
of the bells of St. Stephen's church. The second 
excerption of our king Egbert commands every 

* Upon this rock, it is said, the abbots of Aberbro- 
thock fixed the Inchcape bell, so that it was rung by the 
impulse of the sea, thus warning mariners. It is also 
said that a Dutchman, who took the apparatus away, 
was here lost with his ship and crow. 



BELLS. 



142 



BENARES. 



priest, at the proper hours, to sound the bells of his 
church. Bells were used in churches by order of 
pope John IX., about 900, as a defence, by ringing 
them, against thunder and lightning. Bells are 
mythically said to have been cast by Turketul, 
abbot of England, about 941. The celebrated 
"Song of the Bell," by Schiller (died 1805), has 
been frequently translated. The following list is 
that given by'Mr. E. Beckett- Denison (afterwards 
Lord Grrimthorpe) in his discourse on bells at the 
Royal Institution, 6 March, [857. The lecture of 
the Eev. H. R. Haweis, at the same place, 7 Feb., 
1879, was well illustrated. See Imperial Insti- 
tute. 



York, 1845 
Bruges, 1680 
St. Peter's, Rome 
Oxford, 1680 
Lucerne, 1636 
Halberstadt, 1457 
Antwerp 
Brussels 
Dantzic, 1453 
Lincoln, 1834 
St. Paul's, 1716! 
Ghent . 
Boulogne, new 
Exeter, 1675 
Old Lincoln, 161c 
Fourth quarter- 
bell, Westmin- 
ster, 1857 . t 
London, 1882 (St. Paul's) Great Paul || about 17; 
Cologne, 188711 .... about 26 
Baptism of Bells. — They were anointed and baptized 
in churches, it is said, from the 10th century. Du 
Fresnoy. The bells of the priory of Little Dunmow, in 
Essex, were baptized by the names of St. Michael, St. 
John, Virgin Mary, Holy Trinity, <&c, in 1501. Werner. 
The great bell of Notre Dame, of Paris, was baptized by 
the name of duke of Angouleme, 1816. On the continent, 
in Roman Catholic states, they baptize bells as we do 
ships, but with religious solemnity. Ashe. 

Ringing of Bells, in changes of regular peals, is 
almost peculiar to the English. Stow. 
■"Companie of the Schollers of Chepeside," 1603 ; " So- 
ciety of College Youths," 1637 ; " Society of Cumber- 
lands," 1683 ; the "Society of Union Scholars," 1713 ; 
the "Society of Eastern Scholars," 1733; "London 
Youths," 1753; " Westminster Youths," 1776. 



^ 


r eigl 


it. 


Tons Cwt. 


Moscow, 1736;* 






broken, 1737 . 


250 


1 


Another, 1817. 


no 


V 


Three others. 16 tc 


31 




Novgorod . . 


31 





Olnratz 


17 


18 


Vienna, 1711 . . 


17 


14 


Westminster, 1856, t 






" Big Ben " 


IS 


8* 


Erfurt, 1497 . . 


13 


15 


Westminster, 1858,1 






"St. Stephen " 


13 


£o£ 


Sens 


13 


? 


Paris, 1680 . 


12 


16 


Montreal, 1847 


12 


IS 


Cologne, 1448 


11 


3 


Breslau, 1507 . . 


11 





Gorlitz. 


10 


17 



Weight, 


Tons Cwt. 


10 


15 


10 


5 


3 8 





7 


12 


7 


11 


7 7 


10 


7 


3 


7 


i£ 


6 


1 


5 


8 


5 


4 


4 


18 


4 


18 


4 


10 



13 



* The metal has been valued at the lowest estimate, at 
66,565^. Gold and silver are said to have been thrown in 
as votive offerings. 

t The largest bell in England (named Big Ben, after 
sir Benjamin Hall, the then chief commissioner of works), 
cast at Houghton-le-Spring, Durham, by Messrs. Warner, 
under the superintendence of Mr. E. Beckett-Denison, 
and the Rev. W. Taylor, at an expense of 3343?. 14s. gd. 
The composition was 22 parts copper and 7 tin. The 
diameter was 9 ft. 5J in. ; the height, 7 ft. 10 J in. The 
clapper weighed 12 cwt. Rev. W. Taylor. 

X The bell "Big Ben" having been found to be cracked 
on 24 Oct. 1857, it was broken up and another bell cast 
with the same metal, in May, 1858, by Messrs. Mears, 
Whiteehapel. It is rather different in shape from its 
predecessor, "Big Ben," and about 2 tons lighter. Its 
diameter is ft. 6 in. ; the height 7 ft. 10 in. It was 
struck for the first time, 18 Nov. 1858. The clapper 
weighs 6 cwt.— half that of the former bell. The note of 
the bell is E natural ; the quarter-bells being G, B, E, F. 
On 1 Oct. 18511, 1,lis '"'" Wl,s ;lls " found to lir cracked. 

§ The clapper of St. Paul's bell weighs 180 lbs. : the 
diameter of the bell is 10 feet (Mr. Walesby .says 6 ft, 
q^in.), and its thickness 10 in. The hour strikes upon 
this bell, the quarters upon two smaller ones ; sec < 'locks. 

II Height, 8 feet 10 in. ; diameter, 9 feet 6} in. ; note 
lit? : materials tin and copper; cost about 3000Z. ; cast 
by Mr. Taylor, at Loughborough; raised to its place 31 
May, dedicated 3 June, 1882. 

«[' Height 144 feet; diameter at the mouth nj feet; 
note CJcrD; materials chiefly French cannon ; cast by 
Andreas Hamra of Frankenthal ; dedicated July, 1887. 



Fabian Stedman, about 1650, invented a system known 
as " Stedman's principle." Benjamin Auable soon 
after invented " Grandsire Triples." 

720 changes can be rung in an hour upon 12 bells ; 
479,001,600 changes rung upon them, require 75 years, 
10 months, and 10 days. 

Nell Gwynne left the ringers of the bells of St. Martin's-in- 
the-flelds money for a weekly entertainment, 1687, and 
many others have done the same. 

A central council of Church Bell Ringers, representing 
many societies, was established at the Inns of Court 
hotel, London, 10 April, 1890. 

Carillons, a collection of bells, arranged in two or three 
chromatic scales, played by pedals or keyboards, or 
by machinery. The first set is said to have been made 
at Alost in Flanders, in 1487, and that country and 
Holland are renowned for carillons. Matthias van den 
Gheyn was an eminent maker (1721-85). Excellent 
carillon machines are now made by Messrs. Gillett, 
Bland & Co., Croydon. One at Manchester was started 
1 Jan. 1879. It plays 35 tunes on 20 bells. 

BELOOCHISTAN, the ancient Gedrosia 

(S. Asia). Khelat, the capital, was taken by the 

British in the Afghan war, 1839 ; abandoned, July, 

1840; taken and held a short time, Nov. 1840. 

The khan was subsidised in 1854, under certain con- 
ditions, which were not observed ; the arrangement 
was broken up in 1873 ; the negotiations of major 
(after sir Robert) Sandeman in 1875 were successful, 
and Quettah was occupied by the British in 1877, and 
has since become a prosperous station. The khan 
proffered assistance after the defeat of gen. Burrows 
in July, 1880. 

Quettah, with districts of Pishin, Thai Chotiali, and 
Sibi, annexed to British territories, and placed under 
a chief commissioner ; announced, Nov. 1887. 

Col. sir Robert G. Sandeman, the chief commissioner, 
brave and conciliatory, dies, 29 Jan. ; he was suc- 
ceeded by major-gen. sir James Browne, Feb. 1892 ; 
died at Quettah, 13 June, 1896. 

The Zhob Valley annexed by sir Robert Sandeman at 
the request of the chiefs (1888) ; 25 Dec. 1889. The 
first station was named Fort Sandeman. Good report 
received, Dec. 1892. 

Khan of Khelat, Mir Mahmud Khan, 1893. 

Lieut. George J. Home and 6 men killed near Fort 
Sandeman 6 June, 1895 

Col. Holdich appointed commissioner in settling 
the frontier between British Beloochistan and 
Persia ; announced Feb. 1896 

Lieuts. R. H. M. Yeates and O. L. Downes and 2 
men killed by a mad sepoy at Fort Sandeman 

28 Oct. ,, 

A survey party under capt. J. M. Burn and lieut. 
Turner attacked at Kej, in Makrah, by Gichkis, 
native guards killed, camp looted, 13,000 rupees 
carried off, and Pasni looted ; rising among the 
tribes general . . . . . .9 Jan. 1898 

Enemy (1,500) routed by col. Mayne near Turbat, 
about 100 men killed .... 31 Jan. ,, 

Mehrab Khan besieged at Turbat by col. Mayne; 
evacuates the fort 9 Feb. ,, 

Lieut. -col. Gaisford murdered by a Ghazi 15 March, ,, 

Persian raids frequent ; fort in Mekran recaptured 
by the British .... mid. Dec. 1901 

Railway from Quettah to Nushki begun . autumn, 1902 

Land on the Upper Sinde frontier leased to the 
Indian government, reported . . 6 August, 1903 

BELT CASE, see Trials, 1882-4. 

BELVEDERE EXPLOSION", see Gun- 
powder (note). 

BENARES, in India, a holy city of the Hin- 
doos, abounding in temples. It was ceded by the 
nabob of Oudc, Asoph-ud-Dowlah, to the English 
in 1775. An insurrection took place here, which 
had nearly proved fatal to the British interests in 
Hindostan, 1781. The rajah, Cheyt Sing, was de- 
posed in consequence of it, in 1783. Mr. Cherry, 
capt. Conway, and others, were assassinated at 
Benares, by vizier Alv, 14 Jan. 1799. In June, 
1857, col. Neil succeeded in suppressing attempts 
of the native infantry to join the mutiny ; see 



BENBURB. 



143 



BENGAL. 



India. Visit of prince of Wales, 5 Jan. 1876. 
Pop., 1901, 209,331. 

New water- works : foundation laid by prince Albert 
Victor, Jan. 1890 ; opposed by the Brahmins as inter- 
fering with the sacred waters and temples ; serious 
riots, with destruction of property, suppressed by 
the military, 16, 17 April, 1891 ; peace restored by a 
compromise. 

BENBURB, near Armagh (N. Ireland). Here 
O'Neill totally defeated the English under Monroe, 
5 June, 1646. Moore says that it was " the only 
great victory since the days of Brian Boru, achieved 
by an Irish chieftain in the cause of Ireland." 

BENCOOLEN (Sumatra). The English East 
India company made a settlement here which pre- 
served to them the pepper trade after the Dutch had 
dispossessed them of Bantam, 1682. Anderson. York 
fort was erected by the East India company, 1690. 
In 1693 a dreadful mortality raged here, occasioned 
by the town being built on a pestilent morass; 
among others the governor and council perished. 
The French, under count D'Estaing, destroyed the 
English settlement, 1760. Bencoolen was reduced 
to a residency under the government of Bengal, in 
1801, and was ceded to the Dutch, in 1824, in ex- 
change for their possessions in Malacca; see India. 

BENDER, Bessarabia, European Russia. Near 
it was the asylum of Charles XII. of Sweden, after 
his defeat at Pultowa by the czar Peter the Great, 
8 July, 1709. The peace of Bender was concluded 
in 1 7 1 1 . Bender was taken by storm, by the Russians, 
28 Sept. 1770 ; was taken by Potemkin in 1789, and 
again in 1809. It was restored at the peace of 
Jassy, but retained at the peace of 1812. 

BENEDICTINES, an order of monks founded 
by St. Benedict (lived 480-543), who introduced the 
monastic life into Western Europe, in 529, when he 
founded the monastery on Monte Casino in Cam- 
pania, and eleven others afterwards. His Regula 
Monachorum (rule of the monks) soon became the 
common rule of western monachism. No religious 
order has been so remarkable for extent, wealth, 
and men of note and learning, as the Benedictine. 
Among its branches the chief were the Cluniacs, 
founded in 912 ; the Cistercians, founded in 1098, 
and reformed by St. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, in 
1 1 16; and the Carthusians, from the Chartreux 
(hence Charter-house), founded by Bruno about 
1080. The Benedictine order was introduced into 
England by Augustin, in 596; and William I. built 
an abbey for it on the plain where the battle of 
Hastings was fought, 1066 ; see Battle- Abbey. 
William de Warrenne, earl of Warrenne, built a 
«onvent at Lewes, in Sussex, in 1077. Of this 
order it is reckoned that there have been 40 popes, 
200 cardinals, 50 patriarchs, 116 archbishops, 4600 
bishops, 4 emperors, 12 empresses, 46 kings, 41 
queens, and 3600 saints. Their founder was canon- 
ised. Baronius. The Benedictines have taken 
little part in politics, but have produced many 
valuable literary works. The congregation of St, 
Maur published the celebrated " PArt de Verifier les 
Dates," in 1750, and edited many ancient authors. 

The Benedictines with other orders were expelled 
from Prance by decree ... 29 March, 1880 

The 14th centenary of the birth of St. Benedict was 
kept at Monte Casino and other places April, ,, 

BENEFICE (literally a good deed or favour), 
or Fief. Clerical benefices originated in the 12th 
century, when the priesthood began to imitate the 
feudal lay system of holding lands for performing 
certain duties : till then the priests were supported 
by alms and oblations at mass. Vicarages, rectories, 



perpetual curacies, and chaplaincies, are termed 
benefices, in contradistinction to dignities, such as 
bishoprics, &c. A rector is entitled to all the tithes ; 
a vicar, to a small part or to none. — All benefices that 
should become vacant in the space of six months, 
were given by pope Clement VII. to his nephew, in 
1534. Notitia Monastica. Union of Benefices 
(Metropolis) Act was passed in i860; amended, 
6 Aug. 1900. An act for the augmentation of poor 
benefices by the sale of some 01 those in the 
presentation of the lord chancellor, was passed in 
1863, and an act respecting the sequestration of 
benefices and their union passed, 1871. See Pat- 
ronage. 

The Commission on Ecclesiastical Benefices reported, 
recommending amendments in sales of advow- 
sons, discontinuance of sale by auction, <fcc. Nov. 1879 
Mr. Lyttelton's Benefices Bill, patronage, discip- 
line, etc., read 2nd time ... 2 March, 1898 
Mr. Balfour's Union of Benefices bill (patronage) 
and to amend the Pluralities Acts of 1838 and 1885 
(no relation to doctrine or ritual); passed 12 Aug. ,, 

BENEFIT OF CLERGY, see Clergy. 

BENEFIT SOCIETIES, see Friendly 
Societies. 

BENE VENTUM (now Benevento), an ancient 
city in South Italy, said to have been founded by 
Diomedes the Greek, after the fall of Troy. Pyr- 
rhus of Macedon, during his invasion of Italy, was 
totally defeated near Beneventum, 275 B.C. Near 
it was erected the triumphal arch of Trajan, a.d. 
114. Benevento was formed into a duchy by the 
Lombards, 571. At a battle fought here, 26 Feb. 
1266, Manfred, king of Sicily, was defeated andslain 
by Charles of Anj ou, who thus became virtually master 
of Italy. The castle was built 1323 ; the town was 
nearly destroyed by an earthquake, 1688, when the 
archbishop, afterwards pope Benedict XIII., was 
dug out of the ruins alive, and contributed to its sub- 
sequent rebuilding, 1 703. It was seized by the 
king of Naples, but restored to the pope on the 
suppression of the Jesuits, 1773. Talleyrand de 
Perigord, Bonaparte's arch-chancellor, was made 
prince of Benevento, 1806. Benevento was taken 
by the French, 1798, and restored to the pope in 
1815. 

BENEVOLENCES (Aids, Free Gifts, actually 
Forced Loans) appear to have been claimed by our 
Anglo-Saxon sovereigns. Special ones were levied 
by Edward IV., 1473, by Richard III., 1485 (al- 
though a statute forbidding them was enacted 
in 1484), by Henry VII., 1492 ; and by James 
I., in 1613, on occasion of the marriage of the 
princess Elizabeth with Frederick, the elector 
palatine, afterwards king of Bohemia. In 1615 
Oliver St. John, M.P., was fined 5000/., and chief 
justice Coke disgraced, for severely censuring such 
modes of raising money. Benevolences were de- 
clared illegal by the bill of rights, Feb. 1689. 

BENEVOLENT, or Strangers' Friend So- 
ciety, established 1785; Loan Society, 1817; So- 
ciety of Blues, 1824; Society of St. Patrick, 1784. 

BENGAL, chief presidency of British India, 
containing Calcutta, the capital. Its governors 
were appointed by the sovereigns of Delhi, till 
1340, when it became independent. It was added 
to the Mogul empire by Baber, about 1529; see 
India and Calcutta. Population 1881, 66,589,553 ; 
1891,71,346,987; 1901,74,713,020. 
The English first permitted to trade to Bengal. . 1534 
They establish a settlement at Hooghly . about 1652 
Factories of the French and Danes set up . . 1660 
Bengal made a distinct agency 1864 



BENIN RIVER. 



144 



BERKELEY CASTLE. 



Mr. William Hedges appointed agent and governor 1681 
The English settlement removed to Fort William . 1698 
Imperial grant vesting the revenues of Bengal in the 
company, by which it gained the sovereignty of 

the country 12 Aug. 1765 

31 r. Warren Hastings governor 1772 

India Bill ; Bengal made chief presidency ; supreme 

court of judicature established . . 16 June, 1773 
Bishop of Calcutta appointed . . 21 July, 1813 

Railway opened 15 Aug. l8 54 

Awful famine in Orissa (which see) . . .1865-66 
Lieut. -governor, lion. Win. Grey .... 1867 
,, ,, Geo. Campbell . . . . • 1871 

Drought ; consequent famine (see India) . Oct. 1873 
Cyclone : Mednapore destroyed ; about 2000 perish 

Oct. 1874 
Lieut. -governor, sir Richard Temple . . . ,, 
,, „ hon. sir Ashley Eden . . . 1877 

,, ,, Mr. (aft. sir) Rivers Thompson . 

March, 1882 

Sir C. S. Bayley . . April, 1887 

„ „ Sir Chas. A. Elliott . . . 1890 

,, . ., Sir Alexander Mackenzie . . 1895 

,, ,, Sir John Woodburn . March, 1898 

died 20 Nov. 1902 

„ ,, Mr. A. H. Leith Fraser . Dec. 1902 

Bengal Tenancy Bill passed . . .11 March, 1885 

Cyclone on the Orissa coast ; about 5000 perish 

22 Sept. ,, 
For changes in the jury system, see India, Nov. 

1892 March, 1893 

The indigo crops much injured by floods . Aug. ,, 
Epidemic of murder, arms called in . Sept. 1896 
Destructive cyclone at Chittagong, 3 deaths, 

24 Oct. 1897 
Plague epidemic severe in parts, Feb. -March, 1899 ; 

4,725 deaths weekending . . 17 March, 1900 
Tornado over Dacca 416 deaths, crops destroyed 

1 May, 1902 

BENIN RIVER, see Oil rivers protectorate. 

BEN NEVIS, a mountain in Inverness-shire, 
the loftiest in Britain, 4,406 feet above the sea; 
see Meteorology, 1883-4. 

BENWELL TOWER, about two miles W. 
of Newcastle [value above I2,C00^.], was presented 
by Mr. John Wm. Pease to be the palace of the 
new bishopric of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Nov. 1881 

BENZOLE, or Benzine, a compound of 

hydrogen and carbon, discovered by Faraday in the 

oils of portable gas (1825), obtained by Mitscherlich 

from benzoic acid (1834) and by C. B. Mansfield in 

coal tar (1848), the latter of whom unfortunately 

died in consequence of being severely burnt while 

experimenting on it (26 Feb. 1855). Benzole has 

become useful in the arts. Chemical research has 

produced from it aniline (which see), the source of 

the celebrated modern dyes, mauve, magenta, and 

many others ; see Alizarine and Indigo. 

Aromatic essences and perfumes have been obtained 

from benzole by Pcrkin, Tieniann, Harrniann, and 

others. Febrifuge medicines, by O. Fischer, Dewar, 

McKendrick and others, in 1881 ; and saccharine, a 

principle 220 times sweeter than cane sugar, by Falll- 

berg and Reinsen, patented in Britain in 1886 ; a 

convenient preparation in liquid form by Messrs. 

Allen and Hanbury. London, 1893. 

BEOWULF, an ancient Anglo-Saxon epic 
poem, describing events which probably occurred 
in the middle of the 5th century, supposed to have 
been written subsequent to 597. An edition by 
Kemble was published in 1833. It has been trans- 
lated by Kemble, Thorpe, and Waekerbarth. An 
excellent translation by Wm. Morris and A. J. 
Wyatt (1895). 

BERBICE (S. America), settled by the Dutch, 
1626, who surrendered it to the British, 23 April, 
1796, and 22 Sept. 1803; and finally in 1814. It 
was united to Dcmcrara and named British Guiana, 



1831. Coolie riot, mob fired on, 6 killed, reported 
8 May, 1903. 

BERDITSCHEFF, Kiev, S. Russia. At the 
burning of a circus here about 300 persons perish, 
13 Jan. 1883. 

BERENGARIANS, followers of Berengarius, 

archdeacon of Angers, who, about 1049, opposed the 
Komish doctrine of transubstantiation, or the real 
presence in the Lord's supper. Several councils 
of the church condemned his doctrine, 1050-79. 
After much controversy he recanted about 1079, and 
died grieved and wearied in 6 Jan. 1088. 

BERESINA, a river in Russia, crossed by the 
French main army after its defeat by the Russians, 
25-29 Nov. 1812. The French lost upwards of 
20,000 men, and their retreat was attended by 
great calamity and suffering. 

BERG (W. Germany), on the extinction of its 
line of counts, in 1348, was incorporated with 
Juliers. Napoleon I. made Murat grand-duke in 
1806. The principal part is now held by Prussia. 

BERGAMO (N. Italy), a Lombard duchy, was 
annexed to Venice, 1428 ; which chiefly held it till 
it revolted, and was joined to the Cisalpine republic, 
1797. It was awarded to Austria in 1814, and 
ceded to Sardinia, 1859. 

BERGEN (Norway), founded 1070; was the 
royal residence during the 12th and 13th centuries. 
Population 1891, 53,686; 1900, 72,251. 

BERGEN (in Germany), BATTLE OF, be- 
tween the French and allies, the latter defeated, 
13 April, 1752. — (In Holland) i. The allies under 
the duke of York were defeated by the French, 
under gen. Brune, with great loss, 19 Sept. 1799. 
2. In another battle, fought 2 Oct. same year, the 
duke gained a victory over Brune ; but on the 
6th, the duke was defeated before Alkmaer, and on 
the 20th entered into a convention, by which his 
army was exchanged for 6000 French and Dutch 
prisoners in England. 

BERGEN -OP -ZOOM, in Holland. This 
place, whose works were deemed impregnable, was 
taken by the French, 16 Sept. 1747, and again in 
1795. An attempt, made by the British under 
general sir T. Graham (afterwards lord Lynedoch), 
to carry the fortress by storm, was defeated; after 
forcing an entrance, their retreat was cut off, and 
a dreadful slaughter ensued ; nearly all were cut to 
pieces or made prisoners, 8 March, 1814. 

BERGERAC, France. Here John of Gaunt, 
then earl of Derby, defeated the French, in 1344, 
and here a temporary treaty of peace between the 
Catholics and Protestants, establishing liberty of 
conscience, was signed 17 Sept. 1577. 

BERKELEY CASTLE, Gloucestershire, was 
begun by Henry I. in 1 108, and finished in the next 
reign. Here Edward II. was cruelly murdered by 
the contrivance of his queen Isabella (a princess of 
France), and her paramour, Mortimer, earl of 
March, 21 Sept. 1327. Mortimer was hanged at the 
Elms, near London, 29 Nov. 1330; and Edward III. 
confined his mother in her own house at Castle 
Rising, near Lynn, in Norfolk, til! her death, 1357. 
The Berkeley peerage suit in the court of Chancery, due 

to a disputed marriage, lasted from 1416 to 1609. 
In another suit owing to a disputed marriage in 181 1, 
Thomas Moreton Fitz Hardinge Berkeley became 6th 
earl. Earl Fitz Hardinge died unmarried in 1857. His 
next brother Maurice's claim for the barony of Berke- 
ley was not granted, 23 July, 1858. The committee 
of privileges of the h 'use of lords met to consider the 



BERLIN. 



145 



BERLIN". 



claims of earl Fitzhardinge and Mr. Randal Mowbray 
Thomas Berkeley for the Berkeley Peerage, 23 April ; 
committee decided in favour of Mr. R. M. T. Berkeley, 
31 Jul}', 1891, thus confirming lord Eldon's decision in 
1811. 

BERLIN (capital of Prussia, in the province 
of Brandenburg), and since 1871, of the German 
empire, alleged to have been founded by the 
margrave Albert the Bear, about 1 163. Its five 
districts were united under one magistracy, in 17 14 ; 
and it was subsequently made the capital of Prussia 
and greatly improved by the sovereigns. It was 
taken and held by the Russians and Austrians, 9-13 
Oct. 1760. Establishment of the Academy of 
Sciences, 1702; of the university, 1810. On 27 
Oct. 1806, after the battle of Jena (14 Oct.), the 
French entered Berlin ; and from this place Napo- 
leon issued the famous Berlin decree, an interdict 
against the commerce of England, 20 Nov. It de- 
clared the British islands to be in a state of block- 
ade, and ordered all Englishmen found in countries 
occupied by French troops to be treated as prisoners 
of war. On 5 Nov. 1808, Napoleon entered into a 
convention with Prussia, by which he remitted to 
Prussia the sum due on the war-debt, and withdrew 
many of his troops to reinforce his armies in Spain. 
See Prussia, 1866, 1871. Population in 1901, 
1,901,567. 

The railway to Magdeburg opened . . 10 Sept. 1841 
The first constituent assembly held here 21 June, 1842 
An insurrection commenced here . . March, 184S 
Berlin was declared in a state of siege . 12 Nov. ,, 
The continuation of this state was declared to be 
illegal without its concurrence by the lower 

chamber 25 April, 1845 

A treaty of peace between Prussia and Saxony was 

signed 21 Oct. 1866 

The monument of Victory, in memory of the wars 
with Denmark (1864), Austria ^1866), and France 
(1870-1), solemnly uncovered . . 2 Sept. 1873 
Meeting of chancellors of Germany, Austria, and 
Russia, 11, 12 May ; they agree to an urgent note 
to Turkey on the eastern policy ; expressed in a 
note dated 13 May ; accepted by Italy and France ; 
received in London, 15 May ; its acceptance by 
the earl of Derby declined, as her majesty's 
government had not been consulted, 19 May ; 
this note not presented through the revolution 

in Turkey 30 May, 1876 

The "Berlin note" printed in the Times . 4 July, ,, 
International fish and fishing exhibition opened by 

the erown prince .... 20 April, 1880 
International hygienic exhibition burnt ; great loss 

12 May, 1882 ; opened 12 May, closed 15 Oct. 1883 
National theatre burnt .... 4 April , , , 
Statues of Wilhelm and Alexander von Humboldt 

uncovered in presence of the emperor . 28 May, „ 
Foundation of New German parliament-house laid 

by the emperor 9 June, 1884 

International art exhibition opened by the emperor 

22 May, 1886 
Monument to Frederick William IV. unveiled by 

the emperor 10 June, „ 

Queen Victoria warmly received here 24 April ; 

meets prince Bismarck 25 April ; left. 26 April, 1888 
New museum of natural history opened by the 

emperor 2 Dec. 1889 

Visit of the prince of Wales and prince George 

21-28 March, 1890 
Address from 30,000 Berlin citizens presented to 

prince Bismarck .... 22 June, ,, 
International arts exhibition opened by the empress 

Frederick .;.... 1 May, 1891 
Britain, Italy, Spain, well represented; a few 
French works sent. British artists and others 
receive gold medals .... 20 July, ,, 
Suspension of Messrs. Hirschfeld & Wolff, bankers ; 
great losses, about 4 Nov., suspension of Fried- 
lander, Felix, & Siegmund Sommerfeld (Felix 

commits suicide) 7 Nov. , , 

Socialist riots of the unemployed suppressed by the 
armed police, 25-27 Feb. ; rioters sentenced to 
various terms of imprisonment . 19 March, 1892 



New Protestant cathedral foundation laid in 
presence of the emperor . . .17 June, 1894 

New parliament-house opened by the emperor 

5 Dec. „ 

Monument to Luther unveiled by prince Leopold, 

11 June, 1895 

Foundation of a national memorial to the emperor 
William I., laid by William II., 18 Aug. ; (see 
Germany, 22 March, 1897); dedication of the 
Memorial church to the emperor Frederick ; 
statue of the empress Augusta unveiled by the 
emperor 21 Oct. ,, 

Industrial exhibition opened by the emperor, 1 
May, 1896; closed 15 Oct. . .... 1896 

Bi-centenary of the foundation of the Royal Aca- 
demy of Arts celebrated, speech by the empeior, 

2 May, „ 

Li Hung Chang, Chinese statesman, receives the 
order of the Red Eagle . . . 15 June ,, 

The emperor unveils 3 of the 32 historical groups 
of marble statues which he is erecting in the 
Sieges-Allee, 22 March, 1898 ; the last unveiled 

18 Dec. 1901 

The Virchow pathological museum, containing 
20,000 specimens, opened by prof. Virchow 

27 June, ,, 

Monument to prince Bismarck unveiled by the 
emperor 17 June, ,, 

The Pekin astronomical instruments placed in the 
Orangery, Sans Souci park . . 11 Sept. ,, 

Industrial depression, over 35,000 unemployed, 
meetings held 18 Nov. ,, 

Pergamon museum opened, speech by the emperor 

18 Dec. „ 

Elevated and underground electric railway opened 

16 Feb. 1902' 

The emperor unveils the new " Rolandbrunnen" 

25 Aug. „ 

State entry of the king of Italy (he gives about 
400Z. to the poor) 28 Aug. ,, 

Wagner festival Oct. 1903 

BERLIN CONGRESS ON THE EASTERN QUESTION. 

Representatives (with resident ambassadors) : Ger- 
many, prince Bismarck, president ; Russia, 
prince Gortschakoff ; Turkey, Alexander Cara- 
theodori ; Great Britain, lord Beaconsfield and 
marquis of Salisbury (lord Odo Russell ambas- 
sador) ; Austria, count Andrassy ; France, . 
M. Waddington ; Italy, count Corti. 
First meeting, 13 June ; 20th and last meeting ; 

treaty signed 13 July, 1878. 

Articles 1 — 12. Bulgaria constituted an autonomous 
principality, tributary to the sultan ; the 
Balkans southern limit ; the prince, to be 
elected by the population, approved by the. 
sultan and other powers ; public laws, ancL 
other details. 
,, 13—22. New province of Eastern Roumelia 
constituted ; partially autonomous ; boun- 
daries defined : Christian governor-general to- 
be appointed by the sultan ; to be organised 
by an Austrian commission ; a Russian armjr 
of occupation, to remain nine months. 
„ 23. Bosnia and Herzegovina to be occupied 

and administered by Austria-Hungary. 
,, 24 — 30. Montenegro to be independent ; new 

frontiers ; Antivari annexed. 
,, 31 — 39. Servia to be independent, with new- 
frontiers. 
,, 40—49. Roumania to be independent, losing 
partof Bessarabiato Russia, with compensation. 
„ 50 — 54. Regulation of navigation of the 

Danube, &c. 
>> 55 — 57- Legal reforms in Crete, &c. 
,, 58. The Porte cedes to Russia Ardahan, 

Kars, and Batoum, and settles boundaries. 
,, 59. Batoum to be a free commercial port. 
„ 60. Alasgird and Bayazid restored to Turkey. 
,, 61—62. The Porte engages to realise legal 

reforms, and to grant religious liberty, &c. 
,, 63. The treaty of Paris (30 March, 1856), and 
of London (13 March, 1871), maintained when 
not modified by this treaty. 
,, 64. Treaty to be ratified in three weeks time. 

Ratified ....... 3 Aug. 1878 

Circular respecting delay in fulfilling the treaty 
from earl Granville, the British foreign secretary, 
to the foreign powers .... May, 1880 



BERLIN WORK. 



146 



BESSEMER. 



Berlin conference (16 June— i July, 1880). 

The ambassadors : for Great Britain, lord Odo 
Russell (after, lord Ampthill) ; France, comte 
de St. Vallier, etc. president, prince Hohenlohe, 
German foreign minister. 

They agree to a collective note presented to the 
sultan of Turkey (urging the surrender of Dul- 
cigno and cession of provinces to Greece), which 
is presented 15 July, 1880 

Berlin conference respecting the condition of 
the working classes proposed by the German 
emperor, 4 Feb. The delegates (with the ambas- 
sadors and ministers) meet . . 15 March, 1890 

[Delegates : Great Britain, sir John Gorst ; France, 
M. Jules Simon ; Italy, senator Boccardo, and 
others. The conference opened by baron von 
Berlepsch, Prussian minister of commerce, 
elected president, 15 March, closed 29 March, 
1890. Subjects discussed : regulation of labour 
in mines, of Sunday labour, and of the labour of 
children and youths. Recommendations adopted 
referred to the respective legislatures.] 

For other Berlin conferences, see Samoan Isles, 
1889, West African Settlements, Dulcigno, Turkey 
and Greece, 1880-1. 

BERLIN WORK, see Embroidery. 

BERMUDAS or Summers' Isles, a group 

in the North Atlantic ocean, discovered by Juan 
"Bermudas, a Spaniard, in 1522, but not inhabited 
until 1609, when sir George Summers was cast 
away upon them. They were settled by stat. 9 
James I., 1612. Among the exiles from England 
during the civil war was "Waller, the poet, who 
wrote, while resident here, a poetical description of 
the islands. There was an awful hurricane here, 
31 Oct. 1780, and by an other, a third of the houses was 
destroyed, and the shipping driven ashore, 20 July, 
1813. A large iron dry dock here, which cost 
250,000*., was towed from the Med way to the Ber- 
mudas, in June and July, 1869. Governors, sir Fred. 
E. Chapman, 1867; gen. J. H. Lefroy, March, 
1871 ; Sir Eobert Michael Laffan, Feb. 1877 I di ed 
22 March, 1882 ; lieut.-gen. T. L. J. Gallwey, 1882; 
lieut.-gen. N. Newdigate, July, 1888; lieut.-gen. 
T. C. Lyons, June, 1892 ; gen. sir George D. 
Barker, April, 1896 ; sir Henry Le Zuay Geary, 
Jan. 1902. Visited by the princess Louise, Jan. 1883. 
Eoyal engineer office at Prospect burnt down, 
14 Jan. 1897. Eear-adm. Sampson and 2 U.S. 
warships warmly received at Bermuda, 19 — 24 Feb. 
1899. Destructive cyclone, 12 Sept. 1899. The 
great floating dock arrived, 8 Aug. 1902. Severe 
hurricane in the islands, much damage done to 
property, 28 Sept. 1903. Population, 1890, 15,013 ; 
1901, estimated 17,535. 

BERNAL COLLECTION of articles of 
taste and vertu, formed by Ralph Bernal, Esq., many 
years chairman of committees of ways and means 
in the house of commons. He died 26 Aug. 1854. 
The sale in March, 1856, lasted 31 days, and enor- 
mous prices were given. The total sum realised was 
62,680*. 6*. 8d. 

BERNARD, MOUNT ST., so called from a 
monastery founded on it by Bernardine Menthon in 
962. Velan, its highest peak, is about 8000 feet 
nigh, covered with perpetual snow. Hannibal, it is 
said, conducted the Carthaginians by this pass into 
Italy (218 B.C.) ; and by the same route, in May, 
1800, Bonaparte led his troops to Italy before the 
battle of Marengo, 14 June. On the summit of 
Great St. Bernard is the ancient monastery still 
held by monks, who entertain travellers. 

BERNARDINES, or White Monks, a 
strict order of Cistercian monks, established by St. 
Bernard of Olairvaux, about 11 15. 



BERNE, the sovereign canton of Switzerland, 
joined the Swiss League, 1352; the town Berne was 
made a free city by the emperor Frederick, May, 
1218 ; it successfully resisted Eudolph of Hapsburg, 
1288. It surrendered to the French under general 
Brune, 12 April, 1798. The town has beai-s for its 
arms, and some of these animals are still maintained 
on funds specially provided for the purpose. It was 
made capital of Switzerland, 1848. Population, 
1888: canton, 536,679; town, 46,009; 1901, canton, 
587,983; town, 64,864. 

The 700th anniversary of the foundation of Berne 
by duke Berchtold V. of Zahnugen, celebrated 

14-17 Aug. 1891 
Meeting of the International Geographical congress 

10-14 Aug. ,, 
Labour riots : 80 men arrested . about 21 June, 1893 
International Copyright Conventions held here 

1884, 1886, 1896, 1901 ; see Copyright. 

BERNE COPYRIGHT CONVENTION, 

see under Copyright. 

BERRIDGE BEQUEST of 152,000*. for 
philanthropic purposes. Different sums were given 
to the National Society for Promoting Education 
and similar societies, to the Sanitary Institute of 
Great Britain, to the Plumbers' company, to King's 
College and University College, London, and other 
bodies, reported, 7 Oct. 1892. 

BERRY (the ancient Biturigum regis), centra, 
France, held by the Eomans since the conquest by 
Caesar (58-50 B.C.) till it was subdued by the Visi- 
goths ; from whom it was taken by Clovis in A.D. 
507. Erected into a duchy by John II. in 1360, 
incorporated into the royal domains 1601. The 
due de Berry, son of Charles, and father of comte 
de Chambord, was assassinated 13 Feb. 1820. 

BERSAGLIERI, the sharpshooters of the 
Sardinian army, first employed about 1848. 

BERWICK-ON-TWEED, a fortified town 
on the north-east extremity of England, the theatre 
of many bloody contests while England and Scot- 
land were two kingdoms ; it was claimed by the 
Scots because it stood on their side of the river. Here 
John Baliol did homage for Scotland, 30 Nov. 1292. 
It was annexed to England in 1333 ; and after hav- 
ing been taken and retaken many times, was finally 
ceded to England in 1482. In 1551 it was made 
independent of both kingdoms. The town sur- 
rendered to Cromwell in 1648, and to general Monk 
in 1659. Since the union of the crowns (James I. 
1603), the strong fortifications have been neglected. 
The borough was absorbed into Northumberland in 
1885 in respect to parliamentary elections. By an 
explosion in a room for manufacturing cartridges, 
Mr. A. M. Caverhill, the proprietor, and 2 others 
were killed, and much damage done in the neigh- 
bourhood ; 22 Aug. 1896. Population 1881, 13,998; 
1891. 137378; 1901, 13,437- 

BESSARABIA, afrontier province of European 
Russia, part of the ancient Dacia. After being 
possessed by the Goths, Huns, <.V:e., it was conquered 
by the Turks, 1474, seized by the Russians, 1770, 
and ceded to them in 1812. The part annexed to 
Roumania in 1856, was restored to Russia at the 
close of the war in 1878, in exchange for the 
Dobrudscha, by the treaty of Berlin, 13 July, and 
given up, 21 Oct. 1878. Severe drought, crops 
destroyed, May, i8')<) ; serious disturbances, troops 
called out, 20 peasants killed at Bolgrad, early 
Aug. 1899; famine reported, May, 1901. Massacre 
of Jews at Kishineft', 19, 20 April, 1903. Pop. 
1886, 1,612,175; 1897, 1,933,436. 

BESSEMER, see Steel and Steam Navigation. 



BETHELL'S ACT. 



147 



BIANCHI. 



BETHELL'S ACT, see Fraudulent. 

BETHLEHEM iiow contains a large convent, 
enclosing, as is said, the very birthplace of Christ ; 
a church erected by the empress Helena in the form 
of a cross, about 325; a chapel, called the Chapel of 
the Nativity, where the manger in which Christ was 
laid is said to be preserved ; another, called the 
Chapel of Joseph ; and a third, of the Holy Inno- 
cents. Bethlehem is much visited by pilgrims. — 
The Bethlehemite monks existed in England in 
1257. 

BETHLEHEM HOSPITAL (so called from 
having been originally the hospital of St. Mary of 
Bethlehem), a royal foundation for the reception of 
Lunatics, incorporated by Henry VIII. in 1547. The 
old Bethlehem Hospital, Moorfields, erected in 1676, 
pulled down in 1814, was built in imitation of the 
Tuileries at Paris. The present hospital in St. 
{Jeorge's-fields was begun April, 1812, and opened 
in 1815. In 1856 extensive improvements were 
completed under the direction of Mr. Sydney Smirke. 

BETHNAL GREEN, E. London, a poor 
populous parish ; said to have been the seat of Henry 
<de Montfort, hero of the " Blind Beggar of Bethnal 
Green ' ' ( Percy Ballads) . Many churches have been 
erected by the instrumentality of the bishops of 
London and others, and the district has been much 
favoured by the baroness Burdett-Coutts. The &ist 
London Museum here, a branch of that at South 
Kensington, was opened by the prince of Wales, 24 
June, 1872. Sir .Richard Wallace lent to it for a 
fcime a collection of fine pictures and valuable curio- 
sities collected by the marquis of Hertford (died 25 
Aug. 1870). Sir Richard Wallace died 20 July, . 
1890. See Wallace Collection. The gardens opened 
19 May, 187;. See Parks. Returns two M.P.s 
by Act of 1885. Population 1881, 126,961; 1891, 
120,134; 1901,129,681. 

Boundary-street estate, buildings erected by the London 
county council (cost over 6oo,oooL), for the housing 
of 5,380 of the working-clas-es, opened by the prince 
and princess of Wales, lord Welbyand others present, 
3 March, igoo. 

BETHUNE, France, an independent lordship 
since the nth century, was annexed to the monarchy 
by the treaty of Utrecht, 1713, after several changes. 

BETTERMENT, is a term in American law, 
applied to the improvement of property in any 
locality, by the expenditure of public money or 
otherwise, and it is therefore held, that such pro- 
perty ought to be called upon to contribute more to 
taxation. The question much discussed in 1889-90 
in relation to the Strand Improvement bill. 
The principle introduced in the London Improvement 

Bill, 26 June, 1893 ; referred to a committee by the 

lords, May, 1894 ; report favourable with conditions, 

July, 1894. 
Worsement, the opposite principle to betterment, was 

introduced in the Tower-bridge South Approaches 

Bill, 27 May, 1895. 
Betterment of London assoc. founded, president W. B. 

Richmond, early 1902. 

BETTING-HOUSES, affording much tempt- 
ation to gaming and consequent dishonesty, in the 
lower classes, were suppressed by an act passed in 
1853 ( J 6 & 17 Vict. c. 119). A Pari-mutuel, or 
mutual betting machine, in Aug., and the " Knights- 
bridge Exchange," abetting company, 2 Nov. 1870, 
were declared illegal, see Races. New Betting Acts 
passed, 1874 and 1892. 

Kn 1874 this Act was applied to betting stations at races ; 
legal proceedings against Mr. H. Chaplin, as steward 
of the Jockey Club, were quashed by the magistrates 
at Newmarket. 
Betting reported to have greatly increased, 1889, 1895. 



Mr. justice Hawkins and 5 other judges in the cases of 
Hawke v. Dunn and M'Inaney v. Hildreth, decide that 
bookmaking and betting in Tattersall's ring and 
similar enclosed places are illegal in accordance with 
the Betting Act of 1853 ; 13 March, 1897. 

Powell v. the Kemptuii pirk racecourse company, a 
similar case to Hawke v. Dunn ; decision reversed by 
the court of appeal ; the house of lords sustains their 
appeal, 14 March, 1899. 

House of loids committee report increase of betting, but 
in smaller amounts ; localisation and restrictions 
advised, 4 July, 1902. 

Bill to amend the Betting Acts of 1853 and 1874 intro- 
duced in house of lords by lord Davey 28 Apr. 1903 ; 
rejected : contents 39, not contents 48. 

BEVERLEY, E. Yorkshire, the Saxon Bever- 
lac, or Beverlega. St. John of Beverley, arch- 
bishop of York, founded a stately monastery here, 
and died 721 ; and on his account the town received 
honours from Athelstane, William I., and other 
sovereigns. It was disfranchised for corruption in 
1870, after a long investigation. Population 1881, 
11,425; 1891, 12,539; 1901, 13,183. 

BEYROUT (the ancient Berytus), a seaport of 
Syria, colonised from Sidon. It was destroyed by 
an earthquake, 566 ; was rebuilt, and was alter- 
nately possessed by the Christians and Saracens ; 
and after many changes, fell into the power of Amu- 
rath IV. It was taken during the Egyptian revolt 
by Ibrahim Pacha, in 1832. The total defeat of the 
Egyptian army by the allied British, Turkish, and 
Austrian forces, and evacuation of Beyrout (the 
Egyptians losing 7000 in killed, wounded, and pri- 
soners, and twenty pieces of cannon), took place 10 
Oct. 1840. Sir C. Napier was the English admiral 
engaged. Beyrout suffered greatly in consequence 
of the massacres in Syria in May, i860. In Nov. 
i860 above 27,000 persons were said to be in danger 
of starving. Population in 1885, 85,000; 1901, 
about 118,811. See Syria. 

BHOOTAN, a country north of Lower Bengal, 
with whom a treaty was made 25 April, 1774. After 
fruitless negotiations, Bhootan was invaded by the 
British in Dec. 1864, in consequence of injurious 
treatment of an envoy. See India, 1864-5. 
By an insurrection the Deb Rajah was deposed, Aug. 1885. 

BHOPAL, capital of a native state in Central 
India, founded in 1723 by Dost Mohammed Khan, 
and made dependent on the British government in 
1818. The able female sovereign, the begum 
Shah Jahan, received the grand cross of the Star 
of India in 1872. Bhopal was visited by the viceroy 
of India, Nov. 1891 ; when the begum welcomed 
him with a very loyal address ; she died much 
regretted, 16 June, 1901, succeeded by her son, 
Nawab Nasrulla Khan. 

BHURTPORE (India), capital of Bhurtpore, 
was besieged by the British, 3 Jan. 1805, and at- 
tacked five times up to 21 March, without success. 
After a desperate engagement with Holkar, the 
Mahratta chief, 2 April, 1805, the fortress was sur- 
rendered to general Lake. By a treaty, the rajah 
of Bhurtpore agreed to pay twenty lacs of rupees, 
ceded territories that had been granted to him, and 
delivered his son as hostage, 17 April, 1805. On 
the rajah's death, during a revolt against his son, 
Bhurtpore was taken by storm, by lord Combermere, 
18 Jan. 1826 ; see India. The maharajah set aside 
for incapacity ; the British resident governs pro- 
visionally, reported 17 March, 1895. 

BIANCHI (Whites), a political party at Flo- 
rence, in 1300, in favour of the Ghibelines or impe- 
rial party, headed by Vieri de' Cerchi, opposed the 
Neri (or Blacks), headed by Corso de' Donati. The 

L 2 



BIAECHY. 



148 



BIBLE. 



latter banished their opponents, among whom was 
the poet Dante, in 1302. " Bianchi " were also 
male and female penitents, clothed in white, who 
travelled through Italy in Aug. 1399; and were 
suppressed by pope Boniface IX., 1400. 

BIAECHY. When Aristodemus, king of Sparta, 
died, he left two sons, twins, Eurysthenes and 
Procles ; and the people, not knowing to whom pre- 
cedence should be given, placed both upon the 
throne, and thus established the first biarchy, 1102 
B.C. The descendants of each reigned for about 
800 years. Herodotus. 

BIARRITZ, a bathing-place near Bayonne. 
Here resided the comtesse de Montijo and her 
daughter Eugenie, empress of the French, till her 
marriage, 29 Jan. 1853. It was frequently visited 
by the emperor and empress. 
Visited by Queen Victoria . . 7 March-2 April, 1889. 

BIBERACH (Wurtemberg). Here Moreau 
twice defeated the Austrians, — under Latour, 2 Oct. 
1796, and under Kray, 9 May, 1800. 

BIBLE (from the Greek biblos, a book), the 
name especially given to the Holy Scriptures. The 
Old Testament is said to have been collected and 
arranged by Ezra between 458 and 450 B.C. The 
Apocrypha are considered as inspired writings by 
the Roman Catholics, but not by the Jews and Pro 
testants;* see Apocrypha. 

OLD TESTAMENT, f 

Genesis contains the history of the world 

from B.C. 4004 — 1635 

Exodus 1635—1490 

Leviticus . . . 1490 

Numbers 1490— 1451 

DeuteronomyJ 1451 

Job about B.C. 1520 

Joshua from 1451— 1420 

Judges 1425 — 1120 

Ruth ........ 1322 — 1312 

1st and 2nd Samuel 1171 — 1017 

1st and 2nd Kings 1015 — 562 

1st and 2nd Chronicles 1004 — 536 

Book of Psalms (principally by David) . . 1063 — 1015 
Proverbs written .... about 1000 — 700 

Song of Solomon about 1014 

Ecclesiastes. ' about 977 

Jonah about 862 

Joel about 800 

Hosea about 785 — 725 

Amos about 787 

Isaiah about 760 — 698 

Micah . about 750 — 710 

* In April, 1865, was published a proposal for raising 
a fond for exploring Palestine in order to illustrate the 
Bible by antiquarian and scientific investigation ; see 
Palestine. 

t The division of the Bible into chapters has been 
ascribed to archbishop Lanfranc in the nth, and to arch- 
bishop Langton in the 13th century ; but T. Hartwell 
Home considers the real author to ha\e been cardinal 
Hugo ill' Saneto 1 '.no, about the middle of the 13th cen- 
tury. The division into sections was commenced by 
Rabbi Nathan (author of a Concordance), about 1445, and 
completed by Athras, a Jew, in 1661. The present divi- 
sion into verses was introduced by the celebrated printer, 
Robert Stephens, in his Greek Testament (15S1) and in 
his Latin 1111.10(1556-7). 

I Fragments of portions of this book, on leather, as- 
serted to have been written aboirl the Btli century b.c, 
obtained from Arabs in Jerusalem by M. Shapira, were 
exhibited In the British Museum, Aug. 1883, and after a 
critical examination by Dr. Ginsburg and others, de 
clared to be forged. M. Shapira, probably insane, com- 
mitted suicide at Rotterdam, a March, 1884. Dr. 
Harkavy, of St. Petersburg, published a report, aboul 
SlU| 1 84, describing some apparently ancienl Eebrew 
Ms. roils of Lamentations and other books, said to 
have been found by Jews in Rhodes about 1850. 



Nahum about 713 

Zephaniah . about 630 

Jeremiah about 629 — 588 

Lamentations about 588 

Habakkuk about 626 

Daniel from 607 — 534 

Ezekiel from 595 — 574 

Obadiah about 587 

Ezra about 536 — 456 

Esther about 521 — 495 

Haggai about 520 

Zechariah about 520 — 518 

Nehemiah about 446 — 434 

Malachi about 397 

NEW TESTAMENT. 

Gospels by Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, 

B.C. 5— a.d. 33: 

Acts of the Apostles a.d. 33—65 

Epistles— 1st and 2nd of Paul to Thessalonians abt. 54 

To Galatians 58- 

1st Corinthians 59 

2nd Corinthians 60 

Romans 60 

Of James 60 

1st of Peter 60 

To Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Hebrews, 

Philemon 64 

Titus, and 1st to Timothy 65, 

2nd to Timothy 66- 

2nd of Peter 66 

Of Jude 66 

1st, 2nd, and 3rd of John after . . . .90. 

Revelation q6 

[The date and authorship of the various books are much 
disputed by Biblical critics. Consult " New Dic- 
tionary of the Bible" (Hastings), and " Encyclopedia. 
Biblica"; see Higher Criticism, under nationalism.] 

The most ancient copy of the Hebrew Scriptures existed! 
at Toledo, called the Codex of Hillel ; it was of very 
early date, probably of the 4th century after Christ j 
some say about 60 years before Christ. The copy of 
Ben Asher, of Jerusalem, was made about noo. 

The reputed oldest copy of the Old and New Testament 
in Greek, is that in the Vatican, which was written in 
the 4th or 5th century. Mai's edition appeared in 1857. 
The next in age is the Alexandrian Codex (referred to- 
the 5th century) in the British Museum, presented by 
the Greek patriarch to Charles I. in 1628. It has been 
printed in England, edited by Woide and Baber, 1786 — 
1821. — Codex Ephraemi, or Codex Regius, ascribed to 
the 5th century, in the Royal Library, Paris : published 
by Tischendorf in 1843. 

The Codex Sinaiticus,. probably written in the 4th cen- 
tury, was discovered by M. Constantine Tischendorf, 
at St. Katherine's monastery in 1844 and 1859, and pre- 
sented to the czar of Russia, at whose cost a splendid 
edition was published in 1862. 

The Hebrew Psalter was printed at Bologna in 1477. The 
complete Hebrew Bible was first printed by Soneino in 
Italy in 1488, and the Greek Testament (edited by 
Erasmus) at Rotterdam, in 1516. Aldus's edition was- 
printed in 1518 ; Stephens' in 1546 : and the textus re- 
ceptus (or received text) by the Elzevirs in 1624. 

The Codex Beza 1 Cantabrigiensis (Cambridge university" 
press) admirably photographed by M. Dujai din's new 
process, 1899. 

translations. 

The Old Testament, in Greek, termed the Septuagint 
(which see), generally considered to have been made by 
order of Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt, about 
286 or 285 b.c; of this many fabulous accounts are 
given. 

Ongen, after spending twenty-eight years in collating 
MSS. , commenced his polyglot Bible at C.esarea in a.d- 
231 ; it contained the Greek versions of Aquila, Syni- 
iii.i.lius, and Thcodotiou, all made in or about the 2nd 
century after Christ. 

The following arr ancient versions: — Syriac, 1st or 2nd! 
century; the old Latin version, early in the 2nd cen- 
tury, revised h\ Jerome, in 3S4 ; who, however, com- 
pleted a new version in 405, now called the Vulgate 
[which see) ; the Brst edition was printed (without date) 
about 1450; the iirsi dated 1462; — Coptic, 2nd or 3rd 
century; Ethiopia Armenian, 4th or 5th century; 
Slavonic, qth century ; and the Mceso-Gothic, by Ulfilas, 
the apostle of the Goths, about 360, a manuscript copy 



BIBLE. 



149 



BIBLE SOCIETIES. 



-of which, called the Codex Argenteus, is at Upsal. 
The Psalms were translated into Saxon by "bishop 
Aldhelm, about 706 ; Csedmon's metrical paraphrase 
■of a portion of the Bible, about 680 ; and the Gospels 
lby bishop Egbert, about 721 : parts of the Bible by 
Bede, in the 8th century. 
Bible Translation Society, founded by Baptists and others, 
24 March, 1840. 

ENGLISH VERSIONS AND EDITIONS. 

MS. paraphrase of the whole Bible at the Bodleian 
Library, Oxford, dated by Usher .... 1290 

Versions (from the Vulgate) by Wickliife and his 
followers (above 170 MS. copies extant) . . 1356-84 

[Part published by Lewis, 1731 ; by Baber, 1810 ; 
thewhole by Madden and Forshall, atOxford 1850.] 

William Tyndale's version of Matthew and Mark 
from the Greek printed, 1524 ; of the whole New 
Testament, 1525 ; 6 editions .... 1525-30 

Miles Coverdale's version of the whole Bible ; print- 
ing finished 4 Oct. 1535 

f Ordered by Henry VIII. to be laid in the choir of 
every church, " for every man that will to look 
and read therein. "] 

'T. Matthews' (said to be fictitious name for John 
Rogers) version (partly by Tyndale* and Coverdale) 1537 

Crammer's Great Bible (Matthews' revised), the first 
printed by authority 1539 

{Bible reading prohibited] .... 1502-57 

•Geneva version, " Breeches Bible," (the first with 
figured verses), 1540-1557 ; published . . . 1560 

Archbishop Parker's called " The Bishops' Bible " 
(eight of the fourteen persons employed being 
bishops) 1568 

Roman Catholic authorised version : New Testa- 
ment, at Rheims, 1582 ; Old Testament, atDouay, 

1609-10 

King James's Bible, the present authorised version 
— revision began 1604 ; published . . . .1611 

([Dr. Benjamin Blayney's revised edition, 1769.] 

Authorised Jewish English version . . . 1851-61 

'The revision of the English version now in use was re- 
commended by the bishops in convocation, 10 Feb. 
1870. The committee, including eminent scholars of 
various denominations, appointed in May, held their 
first meeting at Westminster Abbey 22 June, 1870. 

Revision of the New Testament completed (103 sessions, 
or 407 days), n Nov. 1880 ; various editions published 
17 Maj - , i38i. Revision of the Old Testament com- 
pleted, July, 1884. Published 19 May, 1885. Holy 
Bible, Tvio-version Edition: prepared by A. F. Buxton, 
1900. 

Paragraph Bibles published in England by John Reeve, 
1808 ; by the Tract Society, 1848 ; at Cambridge, Mas- 
sachusetts, by Dr. Coit, 1834. 

Smallest Bible known (^x?x\ inches: weight under 
3J oz.), issued from Oxford University press, Oct. 1875. 

Polychrome Bible (James Clarke), 3 vols. (6s. each) out of 
20, Judges, Psalms, Isaiah, published, March, 1898. 

A MS. of Wycliffe's Bible (date about 14 10) sold for 
i,2ooZ., 16 May, 1901. 

The Temple Bible (authorised version), a set of small 
vols., edited by prof's. Sayce, Davidson, and others, 
published, 1902. 

MODERN TRANSLATIONS, f 

N. TEST. BIBLE. 

Flemish 1477 

Spanish (Valencian) . . . . 1478 

Oemian 1522 1530 

English 1526 1535 

French 1487 

Swedish 1526 1541 

Danish 1524 1550 

Dutch . 1475 

Italian 1471 

Spanish 1543 1569 

Russian (parts) 1519 1822 



* He was strangled at Antwerp, 6 Oct. 1536, at the 
instigation of Henry VIII. and his council. His last 
words were, " Lord, open the king of England's eyes !" 
14 editions of his Testament had then been published. 
His statue on the Thames embankment was uncovered 
■7 May, 1884. 

t " The Bible of Every Land," ed. i860, published by 
Messrs. Bagsters, London, is full of information respect- 
ing ancient and modern versions of the Bible. 



N. TEST. BIBLE. 

Welsh . . . '. 1567 1588 

Hungarian 1574 1589 

Bohemian 1488 

Polish . ... . . . . 1551 1561 

Virginian Indians 1661 1663 

Irish 1602 1686 

Georgian 1743 

Portuguese 1712 1748 

Manks 1748 1767 

Turkish 1666 1814 

Sanscrit 1808 1822 

Modern Greek 1638 1821 

Chinese 1814 1823 

Japanese 1888 

The British and Foreign Bible Society continue to 
make and print translations of the Bible in all the 
dialects of the world; see Polyglot. 

BIBLE CHRISTIANS, a branch of the 
Methodists began in 1815, formerly termed 
Bryanites after Wm. O'Bryan, their leader. In 
the United Kingdom they number about 40,000 
joined members ; they are numerous in N. Zealand 
and Australia. 

BIBLE DICTIONAEIES. The most re- 
markable are Calmet's "Dictionary of the Bible," 
1722-8 ; Kitto's" Cyclopaedia of Biblical Literature," 
1843 and 1851 ; Smith's " Dictionary of the Bible," 
1860-3 ; and " New Dictionary of the Bible," 
general editor, dr. J. Hastings, 1898-1902 ; 
"Encyclopaedia Biblica," 1899-1903, edited by 
canon Cheyne and dr. J. S. Blade. See Concord- 
ances.* 

BIBLE SOCIETIES. Among the principal 
and oldest societies which have made the dissemina- 
tion of the Scriptures a collateral or an exclusive 
object, are the following : — 

Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge . . 1698 
Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign 

Parts 1701 

Society in Scotland, for Promoting Christian Know- 
ledge 1709 

Society for Promoting Religious Knowledge among 

the poor 175° 

Naval and Military Bible Society .... 1780 

Sunday School Society 1785 

French. Bible Society 1792 

British and Foreign Bible Society, + begun 1803 ; or- 
ganised 1804. Inaugural meeting of centenary of 
the society held at the Mansion house under 
presidency of the lord mayor. Speeches by 
right hon. A. J. Balfour, lord Northampton (pre- 
sident), and others, 6 Mar. 1903. Centenary fund 
of 250,000 guineas started, the king contributes 
100 guineas. 

* " An Index to the Persons, Places, and Subjects oc- 
curring in the Holy Scriptures," compiled by B. Vincent, 
late editor of the present work (died 3 May, 1899), was 
published anonymously by the queen's printers in 1848. 
It is still (1903) printed as an addendum to many 
editions of the Bible. 

t This society had issued 24,247,667 copies of the 
Bible or parts of it up to Jan. 1851 : in May, 1863, the 
number had risen to 43,044,334 : m l86 7 to 52,669,089 ; in 

1875 to 76,432,723 ; in March, 1881, to 91,014,448 ; in 
1884 to 100,035,933; in 1887 to 112,253,547; in 1890, 
to 123,929,046 ; in 1892, 135,894,552 ; l8 97, I 55, 5 2 9>954 ! 
in 1901, 175,038,965. The income of the year 1S76 
was ,6206,978; in the year 1880-1, .£209,519 ; in 
1886-7, ,£116,761; hi 1889-90, £212,077; 1894-95, 
£233,362 ; 1897, .£229.749 ; 1901, £236,292. In 1857 
the societv published a catalogue of their library, which 
contains a large number of remarkable editions of the 
Bible. The foundation-stone of the Bible-house, Queen 
Victoria-street, London, was laid by the prince of Wales, 
11 June, 1866 ; opened 3 May, 1869. The society had 
promoted translations of the Bible into 367 languages 
or dialects in 1903. The rev. Wm. Wright, d.d., since 

1876 the superintendent of the translation department 
and author of the "Brontes in Ireland," &c, died 31 
July, 1899. 



BIBLIA PAUPERUM. 



150 



BILLIARDS. 



Hibernian Bible Society 1806 

City of London Auxiliary Bible Society . . .1812 

American Bible Society 1816 

A bull from the pope, Pius VII., against Bible 
Societies appeared in 18 17 

BIBLIA .PAUPERUM (the Bible for the 
poor), consisting of engravings illustrating scripture 
history, with texts, carved in wood, a "block book," 
printed early in the 15th century, was compiled by 
Bonaventura, general of the Franciscans, about 1260. 
A fac-simile was published by J. R. Smith, in 1859. 

BIBLICAL ARCHEOLOGY, Society 

fok, established by Dr. Samuel Birch, and others, 
1871. Besides a journal, it has published, " Re- 
cords of the Past," translations from the Assyrian, 
Eg}'ptian, and other languages, 1873-89. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY, the Science of Books. 
Gesner's " Bibliotheca Universale " appeared . . 1545 
De Bure's " Bibliographie Instructive " . . . 1763 

Peignot, Manuel 1823 

Home, Introduction to the Study of Bibliography . 1824 
English, Watt's Bibliotheca Britannica . . . ,, 
German, Hinrich's Verzeichniss 

French, Querard 1828-64 

Lorenz 1840-1903 

English Catalogues, by Sampson Low . 1835-1903 
Scriptural, Orme, Bibliotheca Biblica, 1824 ; Bar- 
ling, Bibliographica 1854-8 

Classical, Fabricius, Clarke, and Dibdin. 
Lowndes, Bibliographer's Manual, 1834 ; new ed. by 

Bonn 1857-62 

Brunet's Manuel du Libraire, istedit. 1810 ; 5th ed., 

with supplements 1860-8 

Allibone's Dictionary of English Literature, 1859-71 ; 

supplement by John F. Kirk .... 1891 
Sonnenschein's " The Best Books " .1887, 2nd ed. ,, 
Bibliographical Society, London, founded by Mr. 

W. A. Copinger Oct. 1892 

"Bibliographica," parts I.— VI. published . . 1894-5 

BIBLIOMANIA (or book madness) prevailed 
in 181 1, when Dr. Dibdin' s work with this title was 
published ; see Boccaccio, and Printing, 1450-5. 

BICOCCA, N. Italy. Lautrec and the French 
were here defeated by Colonna and the Imperialists, 
29 April, 1522. 

BICYCLE, see Velocipede. The earliest bi- 
cycles with cranks and pedals fixed to the front 
wheel date from 1855. In 1869 Michaux invented 
the ordinary cycle with a large front wheel. Mr. 
Starley's safety bicycle produced 1885. In 1888 
Mr. Dunlop, a surgeon of Belfast, introduced the 
pneumatic tyre. (The idea had already been 
patented by W. Thompson in 1846.) The Dunlop 
Co. founded in 1889, in 1894 had a capital of 
5,000,000^. The "free-wheel," recently introduced, 
largely adopted 1903. Cycling has become 
universal throughout the world. 

BIDASSOA. The allied army under lord Wel- 
lington, having driven the French from Spain, 
effected the passage of this river 8 Oct. 1813, and 
entered France. 

BIDDENDEN MAIDS. A distribution of 
bread and cheese to the poor takes place at Bidden- 
den, Kent, on Easter Mondays, the expense being 
defrayed from the rental of "twenty acres of land, 
in 1875 yielding about 20I. a year, the reputed 
bequest of the Uiddenden maids, "two sisters named 
Chulkhurst, said to have been joined together like 
the Siamese twins, and to have died i:i the 12th 
century. In 1656, Win. Horner, the rector, was 
non-suited in an attempt to add 'the "Bread and 
Cheese lands " to his glebe. 



BIGAMY. The Romans branded the guilty 
party with an infamous mark ; and in England the 
punishment, formerly, was death. An act respect- 
ing it was passed 5 Edw. I. 1276. Viner's Statutes. 
Declared to be felony, without benefit of clergy, 1 
James I. 1603. Punishable, by imprisonment ©r 
transportation, 35 Geo. III. 1794; by imprisonment, 
24 & 25 Vict. c. 100 (1861). 

BILBAO (N.E. Spain), founded about 1300 ;. 
was taken by the French and held a few days, July, 
1795. It was delivered from the Carlists by Espar- 
tero, assisted by the British, 24 Dec. 1836. It was 
besieged by Carlists from Feb. to May, 1874, when 
the siege was raised by marshal Concha, who entered 
Bilbao 2 May. Population, 1887, 50,772 ; 18973, 
74>°93- 

Strike of ironworkers, riotous proceedings, conflict 
with the police, state of siege, and military occu- 
pation 14— 16 May, 1890 

Great fire in the dockyard, estimated damage, 
2,500,000 pesetas 1 May, 1S91 

Great strike of miners, middle Jan., disturbances ; 
intervention of the military ; state of siege, 27 
Jan. ; work resumed, 8 Feb. ; quiet restored 

16 Feb. 189E 

Meeting of the Iron and Steel Institute 1 Sept. 1896 

The king lays first stone of the new harbour, 

7 Sept. 1902 

BILL OF EXCEPTIONS. The right of 
tendering such a bill to a judge, either to his charge, 
to his definition of the law, or to other errors of the 
court, at a trial between parties, provided by the 
2nd statute of Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 1284, was 
abolished by the Judicature Act, 1875. 

BILL OF PAINS, &c. ; see Queen Caroline. 

BILL OF RIGHTS, &c. ; see Rights. 

BILLIARDS (Old French billard, "a stick 
with a curved end "). The French ascribe the inven- 
tion to Henrique Devigne, an artist, about 1571 ; 
the game was mentioned by Spenser about 1591, 
and by Shakspeare, 1607. It was described by 
Cotton in his " Compleat Gamester," 1674. Slate 
billiard tables were introduced in England in 1827 ; 
other changes since. American tournament (14 
competitors) at the Egyptian hall, London. 
Jan. 1899. The game is now popular; tournaments- 
frequently held. 

The Champion Clip has been won since 1870: by W. 
Cook, 11 Feb. 1870, 25 May, 1871, 21 Nov. 1871, 4 Mar. 
1872, 4 Feb. 1874 ; by J. Roberts, junr., 14 April, 1870 ; 
30 May, 1870, 30 Jan. 1871, 24 May, 1875, 20 Dec. 1875, 
28 May, 1877, 30 Mar.-i April, 1885, 1-3 June, 1885 ; by 
J. Bennett, 28 Nov. 1870, 8 Nov. 1880, 12-13 J an - 1881. 
From 1885 to 1898 J. Roberts, junr., held undisputed! 
claim to the title of champion, when in the last-named 
year he was challenged by C. Dawson, the match taking. 
place under the new rules regulating the "spot stroke" 
and "push stroke," the width of the pockets, and the- 
distance of the billiard spot from the top cushion. The 
new rules, framed by the Billiard Association, came 
into force 1 Oct. 1898. A match of 18,000 up was 
played Mar. — April, 1899, between Roberts and Daw- 
son, the former winning by 1,814 points. 

The Highest Spot-barred Breaks are : 1,467 by T. Taylor r. 
H. McNeil, Royal Aquarium, 24 April, 1891 ; 2,539 by 
F. C. Ives, Humphrey's hall, Knightsbridge, 1-2 June, 
1893 ; 1,392 by J. Roberts, junr. v. Diggle, at Man- 
chester, 3-4 May, 1804; 985 by E. Diggle v. J. 
Roberts, junr., Argyll hall, 4 Jan. 1895. 

Highest Breaks in Exhibition Matches (ordinary tables) 1 : 
3.304 (93, 3, 150, 123, 172, 400 spots) by W. J. Peall, at 
Westminster Aquarium, 4-6 Nov. 1896 ; 1,989 (649 
spots) by W. J. Peall, at Cambridge, 19 May, 1884; 
1.709 (18, 543 spots) by W. J. Peall, at Westminster 
Aquarium, 3, 4 Nov. 1885; 1,621 (536 spots) by W. 
Mitchell, at Westminster Aquarium, 3 Nov. 1885.; 



BILLINGSGATE. 



151 



BI-METALLISM. 



1,413 (334, 449, 3 spots) by W. J. Peall, at Westminster 
Aquarium, 4, 5 Nov. 1886 ; 189 successive cannons by 
H. W. Stevenson, atWaverley Market, Edinburgh, 30 
Jan, 1895. 

Highest Breaks on Standard Tables : 985 (spot-barred) by 
E. Diggle, at Argyll hall, 4 Jan. 1895 ; 772 (spot and 
push barred) by C. Dawson, at Argyll hall, 20, 21 Oct. 
1899 ; 791 by E. Diggle, at Brighton, 24, 25 Feb. 1902. 

BILLINGSGATE, the fish-market in London, 
is said to have derived its name from Beliuus Mag- 
nus, a British prince, the father of king Lud, 400 B.C., 
but Stow thinks from a former owner. It was the 
old port of London, and the customs were paid here 
under Ethelred II., a.d. 979. Stoic. Billingsgate 
was made a free market, 1699. Chamberlain. Fish 
by land-va.rria.ge, as well as sea-borne, now arrives 
daily here. In 1849, the market was extended and 
improved, and a new one was erected in 1852, Mr. 
Bunning, architect. Another new one, erected by 
Horace Jones, founded 27 Oct. 1874 ; completed 
Sept. 1876; lit by electric light, 25 Nov. 1878. Bil- 
lingsgate market was declared to be insufficient for 
the tish supply of the metropolis in the report of 
the commission appointed by the city corporation, 
presented to the common council, II Aug. 1881. 

BILLS OF EXCHANGE were invented by 
the Jews as a means of removing their property from 
nations where they were persecuted, 1 160. Anderson. 
Bills are said to have been used in England, 1307. 
The only legal mode of sending money from England, 
4 Richard II. 1381. Kegulated, 1698 ; first stamped, 
1782; duty advanced, 1797; again, June 1801 ; and 
since. It was made capital to counterfeit bills of 
exchange in 1734. In 1825, the year of disastrous 
speculations in bubbles, it was computed that there 
were 400 millions of pounds sterling represented by 
bills of exchange and promissory notes. The present 
amount is not supposed to exceed 50 millions. The 
many statutes regarding bills of exchange were con- 
solidated by act 9 Geo. IV. 1828. An act regulating 
bills of exchange passed 3 Vict. July, 1839. Great 
alterations were made in the law on the subject by 
17 & 18 Vict. e. 83 (1854), and 18 & 19 Vict. c. 67 
(1855). Days of grace were abolished in the case of 
bills of exchange payable on sight in Aug. 187 1. 
Forgery of bills to obtain discount was detected by 
the bank of England, 28 Feb., after 102,2 1 7^. had 
been paid. The culprits (Americans) were tried 
and condemned to penal servitude for life, 26 Aug. 
1873. See Trials, Aug. 1873. 

A Bills of Exchange Act, declaring the law relating to 
acceptance, passed 16 April, 1878 ; new Act passed 18 
Aug. 1882. 

BILLS OF MORTALITY for London. 

These bills were first compiled by order of Cromwell, 
about 1538, 30 Hen. VIII. , but in a more formal and 
recognised manner in 1603, after the great plague 
of that year. No complete series of them has been 
preserved. They have been superseded by the 
weekly returns of the registrar-general, since"i837. 
See Public Health. The following show the 
numbei-s for London at decennial periods : — 



ENGLAND AND WALES. 



Christenings 


Burials. 


Christenings. 


Burials. 


1780 


16,634 


20,507 


1830 


27,028 


23,524 


1800 


19,176 


23,068 


1840 


30,387 


26,774 


1810 


i9.93o 


19,892 


1850 


39.973 


36,947 


1820 


26,158 


19,348 










IN ENGLAND 


AND WALES. 






Births. 


Deaths. 




Births. 


Deaths. 


1840 


502,303 


356,634 


i860 


684,048 


422,721 


1S4.S 


543.521 


349,366 


1861 


696,406 


436,114 


1849 


578,159 


440,839 


1862 


712,684 


436,573 


1853 


612,391 


421,097 


1863 


7 5 7,4i7 


473,837 


1856 


657.453 


390,506 


1864 


740,275 


495,53i 





Births. 


Deaths. 


Births. 


Deaths. 


Births. 


Deaths. 


1865 


748,069 


490,909 


113,126 


70,821 


144,970 


93,i54 


1866 


753,870 


500,689 


"3,639 


71,273 


146,237 


93,59 s 


1867 


768,349 


471,073 


114,115 


69,024 


144,318 


93.9 11 


1868 


786,858 


480,622 


"5,673 


69,386 


146,108 


86,803 


1869 


773,38i 


494,828 


"3,395 


75,789 


145,659 


89,573 


1870 


792,787 


515,329 


115,423 


74,067 


150,151 


90.695 


1871 


797,428 


514,879 


116,127 


74,644 


151,665 


88,720 


1872 


825,907 


492,265 


118,873 


75-741 


149,292 


97,577 


1873 


829,778 


492,520 


119,738 


76,857 


'44,377 


97,537 


1874 


854,956 


526,632 


I2 3,795 


80,676 


141,288 


91,961 


1875 


850,607 


546,453 


123,693 


81,785 


138,320 


98,114 


1S76 


887,968 


510,315 


126,749 


74,122 


140,469 


92,324 


1877 


888,200 


500,496 


126,824 


73,946 


139,659 


93,543 


1878 


891,906 


539,872 


126,707 


76,775 


I34,H7 


99,629 


1879 


880,389 


526,255 


125,736 


73,329 


135,328 


105,089 


1880 


881,643 


528,624 


124,652 


75,795 


128,086 


102,906 


1881 


883,642 


49 J >935 


126,214 


72, 3 QI 


125,847 


90,035 


1882 


889,018 


516,654 


126,182 


72.966 


122,648 


88,500 


1883 


890,722 


522,997 


124,462 


76,867 


118,163 


96,228 


1884 


906,750 


530,828 


129,041 


75,128 


118,875 


87,154 


1885 


894,270 


522,750 


126,110 


74,603 


"5,95i 


90,712 


1886 


903,866 


537,276 


127,927 


73.622 


lr 3,927 


87,292 


1887 


886,331 


530,758 


124,418 


74.546 


112,400 


88,585 


1888 


879,868 


510,971 


123,269 


7i,i74 


109,557 


85,868 


1889 


885,944 


5i8,353 


122,783 


73-238 


107,841 


82,908 


1890 


8 69.937 


562,248 


121,530 


78,978 


105,254 


85,850 


1891 


9M.I57 


587,925 


125,986 


83,578 


108,116 


85,999 


1892 


897,957 


559.684 


125,011 


75,568 


104,234 


90,044 


1S93 


914,189 


569,923 


127,040 


79,641 


106,031 


82,822 


1894 


890,289 


498,827 


124,367 


7 I > II 3 


105,354 


83.528 


1895 


921,860 


568,758 


126,454 


81,864 


106,113 


84,395 


1896 


917,201 


527,929 


129,153 


70,634 


107,641 


75.700 


1897 


921,693 


541,487 


128,877 


79, J 4+ 


106,664 


83,839 


1899 


928,640 


581,824 


130,656 


89,548 


103,900 


79,699 


1900 


927,062 


587.459 


i3i,355 


82,267 


101,459 


87,606 


1901 


929,270 


55i,3i6 


132,178 


80,103 


100,966 


79,126 




IN LONDON AND 


SUBURBS 


(52 OR 53 WEEKS). 








Births. 






Deaths. 


i854 






84,684 






73.697 


1856 






86,833 






57.786 


1858 


(Females, 


43,400) . 


88,620 


(Female 


', 31,3*9) 63,882 


1862 






97, TI 4 






66,950 


1864 






102,187 






77.723 


1867 


(Females, 


54.862) . 


112,264 






70,588 


1868 


(53 weeks 


) • • 


"5.744 






74,908 


1869 






1x1,930 






77,933 


1870 






II3.449 






77,278 


l8 7 I 












80,332 


1872 






117,200 






70,893 


1873 


(53 weeks) 


121,100 






76,334 


1874 






121,394 






76,606 


1875 






122,871 






81,513 


1876 


(Females, 


62,095) . 


127,015 






77,4n 


1878 






129,184 






83,695 


1879 






134,096 






85,540 


1880 


(Females, 64,659) . 


132,173 


Females 


39,426) 


81,128 


1885 






132,952 ■ 






80,946 


1887 






133.359 






82,449 


1888 


(52 weeks) . 


131,080 






78,848 


1889 






132,223 






76,026 


1890 






128,161 






87,689 


1891 






134,003 






90,216 


1892 






I3I.535 






87,749 


1893 






132,975 






9^536 


T894 






i3o,553 






77,o39 


1898 






132,432 






83,936 


1900 






130,868 






84,103 



BILLS OF SALE, an act to consolidate and 
amend the law for preventing frauds upon creditors 
by secret bills of sale of personal chattels (41 & 42 
Vict. c. 31) passed 22 July, 1878, amended, 1882. 

Bl-METALLISM, the system of having two 
standard metallic currencies in a country, gold and 
silver, much advocated by MM. H. Cernuschi and 
E. Laveleye, and others since 1867. By 56 Geo. 
III. c. 68 "( I 8i6), it was enacted that " gold coins 
only should be legal tender in all payments of 
more than 40s." in this country ; the tender of 

■* Approximative registration defective 



BINARY ARITHMETIC. 



152 



BIRDS. 



silver being previously unlimited. A bi-metallic 

currency was established in France in 1803. It 

was recommended for Germany in 1879, and was 

discussed at the Monetary Conference at Paris, 

April, 1881. The unrestricted coinage of silver was 

suspended in the countries termed the Latin Union 

in 1873. 

The Bimetallic League hold a conference at Man- 
chester 4 April, 1888 J 

The marquis of Salisbury mid Mr. Goschen declare 
their neutrality to a deputation, 30 May, 1889 ; 

11 May, 1892 

Mr. Samuel Smith's resolution proposing an inter- 
national conference on bi-inetallism negatived by 
the commons, 183—87 . . . .18 April, 1890 

The Bimetallic League declare that their chief 
object is to secure the opening of the mints of the 
leading nations, to the unrestricted coinage of 
silver and gold at a fixed ratio, Nov. 1890 ; an- 
nual meeting 2 March, 1892, and since. See 
Monetary Conferences. 

The commons rejects bi-metallism . 28 Feb. 1893 

Annual meeting of the Bi-metallic League at Man- 
chester, 6 Feb. 1894 ; London . . 3 April, 1895 

International bi-metallic conference at the Man- 
sion-house, London .... 2 May, 1894 

A bi-metallic league formed in Paris . 23 March, 1895 

The principle accepted in Germany, April, May, 
1895 ; United States, which see . . . May ,, 

The Gold Standard Defence Association founded in 
the summer of T895 ; the German bi-metallist 
league meets in Bei'lin, professes co-operation 
with England 7 Nov. ,, 

International bi-metallic conference meets at Paris 

10 Dec. ,, 

A resolution, proposing a conference with foreign 
powers respecting the currency, adopted by the 
commons, 26 Feb. 1895 ; a similar resolution, 
adopted after powerful speeches in defence of the 
gold standard, by sir M. Hicks Beach and sir 
J. Lubbock . . .17 March 1896 

Statement of the Bi-metallic League (Times) 13 April 
international congress held at Brussels, 20 April ; 
resolutions favouring bi-metallism adopted 

24 April ,, 

A gold standard adopted by Japan from Oct. 1897, 
announced 1 March 1897 

Memorial of London bankers and merchants to the 
government against bi-metallism, 15 Oct. ; an 
international conference at Washington declined 
by the British government, announced, 22 Oct. ; 
the Bi-metallic League protests to the govern- 
ment against any modification of the gold 
standard 22 Oct. ,, 

Major L. Darwin's "Bimetallism" was published 
in 1898. 

BINARY ARITHMETIC, that which counts 
by twos, for expeditiously ascertaining the property 
of numbers, and constructing tables, was invented 
by Leibnitz of Leipsic, about 1703. For the Binary 
theory in chemistry, see Compound Radical. 

BINOMIAL ROOT, in Algebra, composed of 
only two parts connected with the signs plus or 
minus; a term first used by Recorda, about 1550, 
when he published his Algebra. The celebrated 
binomial theorem of Newton is said to have been 
discovered in 1663. 

BIOGRAPHY (from the Greek bios, life, and 
ffrapho, I write), defined as " history teaching by 
example." The book of Genesis contains the bio- 
graphy of the patriarchs; and the Gospels that of 
Christ. Plutarch wrote the Lives of Illustrious 
Men ; Cornelius Nepos, Lives of Military Com- 
manders; and Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve 
Caesars (all three in the first century after Christ) ; 
Diogenes Laertius. Lives of the Philosophers (about 
205). — Boswell's Life of Johnson (published in 
1790) is the most remarkable English biography. 
Mr. John Wilson Croker's edition appeared in 1831. 
A magnificent edition, edited by Rev. Alex. Napier, 



published by Messrs. Bell, Feb. 1884. An excel- 
lent edition by Dr. George Birkbeck Hill (Claren- 
don Press), published June, 1887. 

Important Dictionaries. — Biographie Universelle, 85 vols. , 
1811-62 ; Nouvelle Biographie Generale, 46 vols., 
1852-66 ; General Biographical Dictionary, by Alex. 
Chalmers, 32 vols., 1812-17 ; New General Biographi- 
cal Dictionary, by H. J. Rose, 12 vols., 1848 ; Bio- 
graphia Britannica, 7 vols., 1747 ; Dictionary of 
National Biography, edited by Leslie Stephen and 
afterwards by Sidney Lee, vol. i. published by Smith. 
Elder & Co., 1 Jan. 1885 ; vol. xliii. 1895 ; vol. lv, 
1898; 2 supplementary vols. 1898; last vol., lxiii., 
29 June, 1900 ; epitome and index, April, 1903. 

BIOLOGY, the science of life and living things, 
expounded by Treviranus, of Bremen, in his 
"Biology, the philosophy of living nature," 
published 1802-5. Biology includes zoology, 
anthropology, botany, and ethnology {which see). 
Herbert Spencer's "Principles of Biology," pub- 
lished 1864-67 ; revised, 1898. Prof. T. H. Huxley, 
born 4 May, 1825, died 29 June, 1895, published 
"Practical instruction in Biology," 1875. In 183 1 
about 70,000 animals were known and described ; 
in 1903, about 350,000. 

A society for the Biological Investigation of the Coasts 
of the United Kingdom, established by the Royal 
Society and others 31 March, 1884 ; president, professor 
Huxley ; incorporated as the Marine Biological Asso- 
ciation ; patron the prince of Wales ; fine laboratory 
at Plymouth opened 30 June, 1888. See A"aj.)/es, 
1872. Annual reports issued. See Cell Theory. 
Albert von Kolliker, eminent biologist, born at Zurich, 

6 July, 1817. 
G. J. Romanes died 1894, see Species. 
Dr. St. George Mivart died, aged 72, 1 April, 1900. 
Internat. conference for research, at Copenhagen, 22 July, 
1902. Mr. F. J. Quick bequeaths over 50,000^ for 
research, Jan. 1903. 

BIRCH TREE. The black (Betula nigra). 
brought from North America, 1736. The birch tree 
known as the Betula pumila, introduced into Kiw 
gardens, England, by Mr. James Gordon, from 
North America, 1762. Hardy's Annals. 

BIRDS were divided by Linnfeus into six orders 
(1735) ; by Blumenbach into eight (1805) ; by Cuvier 
into six (1817) ; and by Huxley into three (1807). 
The most remarkable works are those published by 
John Gould, F.R.S.; they consist of 44 folio 
volumes of coloured plates, &c. They now include 
the birds of Europe, Asia. Australia, Great Britain, 
and New Guinea, besides monographs of the 
humming-birds, &c, 1889-92. John Gould died 
3 Feb. 1881. " Au Analytical Index" of his works 
by Dr. R. Bowdler Sharpe was published May, 1893. 
Dr. John Latham's "Synopsis of Birds," 1781-90. 
John James Audubon's " Birds of America," 1826-40. 
See mid Birds. 
"British Ornithologists' Union" founded 1858; 

published the " Ibis" 1859, et seq. 
A morphological classification of birds (based on 
Huxley's), put forth by professors Parker and 
Newton; Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed. . 1875 
International Congress of Ornithologists, at Vienna, 

April 7-11,1884 ; at Budapest . . May 17, 1891 
A "Plumage League" formed by lady Mount- 
Temple, rev. F. O. Morris and others to check 
the destruction of wild birds, whose plumage is 

used for ornament Dec. 1885 

Mr. W. Yarrell's " British Birds," 4th edition pub- 
lished in !i 

Twenty-ninth annual bird show at the Crystal 
palace, .17 Feb.— 2 March, 1892 ; 30th, n-15 Feb. 
1893 ; a special show .... 4 Oct. 1898 
The rev. F. (>. Morris, author of "A History of 
British Birds," 3rd edition, 6 vols. 1891, died 

10 Feb. 1893 
Mr. Alfred Newton's and others "Dictionary of 
Birds," completed . ... April 1897 



BIRKBECK INSTITUTION. 



153 



BIRMINGHAM. 



Agitation against the slaughter of birds, egrets, &c, 
for the sake of their feathers . Aug. et seq., 1898 

International agreement on the continent (Italy 
excepted.) for the protection of birds useful to 
agriculture, signed, Paris . . 19 March, 1902 

Lieut. Boyd Alexander discovers 32 new species in 

Fernando Po Dec. ,, 

See Selborne Society. 

BIRKBECK Literary and Scientific 

INSTITUTION', Bream's buildings, W.C., the pre- 
sent name of the mechanics' institution founded by 
Dr. Birkbeck in 1823. Foundation stone of new 
building laid by the Duke of Albany, 23 April, 
1883. New building opened with an address by 
Dr. Tyndall, 22 Oct. 1884 ; formally by Prince of 
Wales, 4 July, 1885. Additional rooms through 
the liberality of Mr. Bivenscroft, opened I Dec. 
1900; he bequeathed 5,000^. to found a scholar- 
ship, June, 1902. 

A run on the Birkbeck bank caused a temporary 
panic ; well met by Mr. Ravenscroft, manager, 
supported by other banks . about 12-15 Sept. 1892 
Mr. Francis Ravenscroft, the founder of the bank in 
1851, died aged 73 .... 15 June, 1902 

BIRKENHEAD (Cheshire), a modern town 
on the Mersey, opposite to Liverpool. The great 
dock here was projected by Mr. John Laird, con- 
structed by Mr. Itendell, and opened in Aug. 1847 
by lord Morpeth. In 1861 Birkenhead whs made a 
parliamentary borough, ;md Mr. Laird was elected 
first representative. He died 29 Oct. 1874. Bir- 
kenhead received a charter of incorporation in 1878. 
Population in 1831, 200; in 1861, 51,649; in 1871, 
65,971 ;in 1881,84,006 ; 1891,99,184; 1901, 110,926. 
See Wrecks, 1852. 

BIRMAN EMPIRE or Empire of Ava, 
see Burmah and India. 

BIRMINGHAM (Warwickshire) existed in 
the reign of Alfred. There were "many smythes" 
here in the time of Henry VIII. (Leland), but its 
great importance commenced in the reign of 
William 111. See Population. 

Grammar school founded by Edward VI. . . 1552 

Besieged and taken by prince Rupert . . . . 1643 
Button manufactures established .... 1689 
Soho works established by Matthew Boulton about 
1764 ; and steam engine works about . . . 1774 

Birmingham Canal originated ' 1767 

Dr. Ash's hospital founded, 1766 ; first Birmingham 

musical festival for it 1768 

Riots against Dr. Priestley and others commemo- 
rating the French Revolution, much property 

destroyed 14 July, 1791 

Theatre destroyed by fire ... 7 Aug. 1792 

Theatre burnt • Jan. T820 

Political Union, formed by T. Attwood . Feb. 1831 

Birmingham made a borough by Reform Act (2 

members) 1832 

Town-hall built 1833 

Political Union dissolved itself . . 10 May, 1834 

Birmingham and Liverpool railway opened as the 

Grand Junction 4 July, 1837 

London and Birmingham railway opened its entire 

length 17 Sept. 1838 

Great Chartist riot ; houses burnt . . 15 July, 1839 
Town incorporated, and Police Act passed . . ,, 
Meeting of British Association . . 29 Aug. ,, 

•Queen's College incorporated 1843 

Corn Exchange opened .... 27 Oct. 1847 
British Association (meet again) . . 12 Sept. 1849 

"Queen's College organised . . . . . Jan. 1853 
Birmingham and Midland Institute incorporated . 1854 
Public park opened (ground virtually given by 

Mr. Adderley) 3 Aug. 1856 

New music-hall opened .... 3 Sept. „ 
Another park opened by the duke of Cambridge, 
100,000 persons present (ground given by lord 

Calthorpe) 1 June, 1857 

Death of G. F. Muntz, M.P. . . 30 July, „ 



John Bright elected M. P. 10 Aug. 1857, and April, 1859 
The queen and prince consort visit Birmingham, 
Warwick &c, for the first time, and open Aston 
park . . .... 14-16 June, 1858 

The Free Library opened . . . .4 April, 1861 

Factory explosion : 9 killed ... 23 June, 1862 
People's park purchased by corporation . Sept. 1864 

New Exchange opened 2 Jan. 1865 

The bank of Attwoods and Spooner stops payment 

and causes much distress . . 10 March, ,, 

Meeting of British Association (3rd) . 6 Sept. ,, 
Stoppage of the " Banking Company " 13 July, 1866 

First annual horse show , , 

Great Reform meeting „ 

Violent riots through the lectures of Murphy, an 

anti-popery orator, at a tabernacle 17, 18 June, 1867 
An 1 additional M.P. given to Birmingham by 

Reform Act 15 Aug. ,, 

Meeting of Nat. Social Science Association, 7 Oct. 1868 
First club house here opened . . .3 May, 1869 
Erdington orphan houses, endowed by Josiah 
Mason, a manufacturer of steel-pens ; begun 1858 ; 

finished July, „ 

National Education League meet . . 12, 13 Oct. ,, 
Explosion at Kynoch's cartridge-factory, Witton, 

many deaths and injuries . . . 17 Nov. 1870 

Explosions at Messrs. Ludlow's cartridge-factory at 
Witton, 17 killed and 53 injured, several dying 
soon after : noon, 9 Dec. ; 33 dead up to 13 Dec. ; 

51 up to 26 Dec ,, 

Prince Arthur opens Royal Horticultural Exhibi- 
tion 25 June, 1872 

Sir Josiah Mason (knighted 1872) endows a college 

for practical science 1873 

Cannon-hill park (presented to the town by Miss 

Ry lands) opened . . . . 1 Sept. ,, 

Speech of Mr. Bright (after re-election on resuming 
office as chancellor of duchy of Lancaster) to 
about 16,000 persons in Bingley hall . 22 Oct. ,, 
Statue of Priestley (in commemoration of his dis- 
covery of oxygen) unveiled by prof. Huxley 1 Aug. 1874 
Visit of the j.'rince and princess of Wales, 3 Nov. ,, 
Foundation of sir Josiah Mason's college laid by 

himself and Mr. Bright ... 23 Feb. :87s 
Birmingham Philosophical Society founded 28 Feb. 1876 
Wm. Dudley bequeaths ioo.oooZ. for charitable pur- 
poses in Birmingham .... March, ,, 
Annual meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society 

17-24 July, ,, 
Great Western arcade opened . . .28 Sept. ,, 
Mr. W. E. Gladstone addresses about 30,000 persons 

in Bingley hall 31 May, 1877 

Birmingham liberal federation formed . May, June, ,, 
Fire at Mr. Denison's, confectioner; Mrs. Denison 
and 3 others perish, 26 Aug. ; verdict at inquest, 
arson, criminal unknown ... 30 Sept. 1878 
Central library, comprising the chief free reference 
library and the Shakspeare library, Cervantes 
collection, &c. , with priceless treasures, destroyed 

by fire n Jan. 1879 

Death of sir Josiah Mason ... 16 June, 1881 

Discovery of nitro-glycerine manufacture carried 

on by Alfred Whitehead (arrested) ; box conveyed 

to London seized 4 April ; a large quantity, made 

into dynamite, at great risk burnt in a field 

8 April, 1883 
[See Dynamite April, 1884.] 
Festival in honour of John Bright, 25 years M.P. 

for Birmingham .... 11-15 June, ,, 
Statue of the queen, by T. Woolner (to accompany 
that of the prince consort, by Foley), in the 
Free Library, uncovered . . . . q May, 1884 
Great reform demonstration, Mr. Bright and Mr. 

Chamberlain present .... 4 Aug. ,, 
Great Conservative demonstration at Aston (sir 
Stafford Northcote, lord Randolph Churchill, 
and others), prevented by brutal rioters ; a free 
fight ; many wounded and much damage of pro- 
perty 13 °ct. „ 

Statue of sir Josiah Mason unveiled by sir John 

Lubbock 1 Oct. 1885 

The prince of Wales opens a suburban hospital and 

new art gallery .... 27-28 Nov. ,, 
Meeting of the British Association here (4th) 1 Sept. ,, 
Returns seven M.P.s by act passed . . 25 June, ,, 
An industrial exhibition opened . . 26 Aug. 1886 
The queen lays foundation stone of the " Victoria 
(Law) Courts " ; about 500,000 persons out ; no 



BIRTHS. 



154 



BISHOPS. 



disturbance or casualties, 23 March ; Mr. T. 
Martineau, the mayor, knighted 25 March, 1887 

Miss Rylands presents 2,000/. to enlarge Victoria 
park . Oct. ,, 

Birmingham Liberal Unionist Association ; Mr. 
Chamberlain elected president . . 28 May, 1888 

Mr. Ph. Muntz, an eminent townsman, died 25 Dec. „ 

Birmingham created a city . . -14 Jan. 1889 

Death of Miss Louisa Ann Rylands, great benefac- 
tress to the town, aged 75 . . . 28 Jan. ,, 

Death of Mr. John Bright, M. P. . 27 March, ,, 

His son, Mr. J. Albert Bright, elected his successor 
as M.P 15 April, ,, 

The Victoria law courts opened by the prince of 
Wales 21 July, 1891 

Alderman Thomas Avery and his wife bequeathed 
11,000/. to hospitals, &c. ; reported . 23 Feb. 1894 

The Birmingham canal burst its banks near Wolver- 
hampton 10 July, ,, 

Visit of the duke and duchess of York ; foundation 
stone laid of a new general hospital . 8 Sept. ,, 

Birmingham chamber of arbitration inaugurated 

8 Nov. ,, 

Death of the rev. Dr. B. W. Dale, aged 76, con- 
gregationalist minister, educationist 13 March, 1895 

The title of lord conferred on the mayor . May 1896 

The princess Christian opens the new building of 
the general hospital .... 7 July 1897 

New meat market opened by sir James Smith, lord 
mayor 27 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Chamberlain s speech, 13 May ; censured in 
Europe, as to Gt. Britain's isolation, &c. May, 1898 

Establishment of a Birmingham university with 
faculties in arts, science, medicine, and com- 
merce, 95,244/.. donations (50,000/. from Mr. 
Andrew Carnegie, May, 1899), total fund, 325,000/. 
Charter granted 1900 .... July, ,, 

Mr. Richard Cadbury, philanthropist, born about 
1836, died . . . . . 22 March, 1899 

Mr. Richard Chamberlain (ex-mayor 1879) bequeaths 
over 50,000/. to charities ; dies . . 2 April, ,, 

Turner exhibition opened here, in the gallery, 

22 July, ,, 

Death of Mr. F. Schnadhorst, an eminent liberal 
organizer, aged 59 . . • • -2 Jan. 1900 

Sir John Zaffray, public benefactor, dies, aged 81, 

4 Jan. 190 1 

Scheme for a 2,000,000 shilling fund for Birming- 
ham proposed at a meeting of clergy and laity, 

8 Jan. ,, 

Diamond jubilee statue of the queen x»resented by 
Mr. H. Barber, unveiled . 10 Jan. ,, 

Serious damage by a canal burst . . 28 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Chamberlain opens a new temperance hall, 

14 Oct. ,, 
Demonstration against Mr. Lloyd-George, M.P., 

in Victoria-square, some rioting, 1 death, 18 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Chamberlain, chancellor of the university 
court ; the lord mayor elected vice-chancellor, 
31 May ; prof, sir Oliver Lodge appointed prin- 
cipal, 23 June ; 50,000?. from Sir James Chance 
(died about 7 Jan. 1902) and land valued at 20,0 o/. 
from lord Calthorpe and son, July; parliamentary 
grant 2,000/. ; total fund 420,000/. in hand, Jan. 1902 

The Lightwoods estate acquired as a public park, 

28 Oct. ,, 

Farewell banquet and torchlight procession in 
honour of Mr. Chamberlain on his departure to 
S. Africa 17 Nov. .. 

Important speech by Mr. Chamberlain at the town 
hall on the Colonies ami preferential tariffs 

15 May 1903 
Lord Roberts receives the freedom of the city, 

18 July, ., 
Birmingham musical festival, 13 Oct.; Dr. Elgar's 
new oratorio, 'The Apostles, produced . 14 Oct. ,, 

BIRTHS. The births of children were taxed 
in England, viz. : birth of a duke, 30/. ; of a common 
person, 2s., 7 Will. III. 1695. Taxed again, 1783. 
The instances of four children at a birth are 
numerous; but it is recorded that a woman of 
Konigsberg (3 Sept. 1784), and the wife of Nelson, a 
tailor, of Oxford-market, London (Oct. 1S00), had 
rive children at a birth. The queen usually pre- 
eents a small sum of money to a poor woman giving 



birth to three or more living children at one time. 
See Bills of Mortality and Key inters. 

BISHOP (Greek episcopos, overseer), a name 
given by the Athenians to those who had the in- 
spection of the city. The Jews and llomans had 
also like officers. St. Peter, styled the first bishop 
of Rome, was martyred 65. The presbyter was the 
same as a bishop. Jerome. The episcopate became 
an object of contention about 144. The title of 
pope was anciently assumed by all bishops, and 
was exclusively claimed by Gregory VII. (1073-85). 

BISHOP OF LONDON'S FUND, see 

under Church of Enyland, 1864, et seq.; amount 
received up to 31 Dec. 1878, 603,718/. 

A special appeal was made by the bishop, 27 May, i836 ; 
23,074/. 19s. 4<l. received in 1888 ; 277,85/. 10s. 1889 ; 
17,000/. 1890 ; 1S94, 24,541/. ; 1895, 22,243/. i 1896, 
23,558/. ; 1897, 22,877/. (i.oooZ. from lord Iveagh, Feb. 
1093); 1898, 20,793/. 3 s - 2( '- ' (5,000/. from the duke of 
Westminster, Nov. 1K99) 1899, 26,198/. ; 1900, 26,744/. • 
1301, 28,795/. 16s. id. ; 1902, 27,800/. 

BISHOPS IN ENGLAND* were coeval with 
the introduction of Christianity. The see of London 
is mythically said to have been founded by Lucius, 
king of Britain, 179. Restitutus, bishop of London, 
is said to have been present at the council of Aries, 
314. The early dates given below are doubtful. 

Bishops made barons 1072 

Intervention of the pope in regard to bishops, 13th 

century 
The Conge d'EUre of the king to choose a bishop 

originated in an arrangement by king John. 
Bishops were elected by the king's Conge d'Elire, 

25 Henry VIII 1534 

Bisuops to rank as barons by stat. 31 Hen. VIII. . 1540 
Seven were deprived for being married . . . 1554 
Several suffered martyrdom under queen Mary, see 

Protestants 1555-6 

Bishops excluded from voting in the house of peers 

on temporal concerns, 16 Charles I. 1641 

Several protest against the legality of acts of parlia- 
ment passed while they are deprived of votes, 
28 Dee. ; committed to the tower . 30 Dec. ,, 

The order of archbishops and bishops abolished by 

the parliament 9 Oct. 1646 

Bishops regain their seats .... Nov. 166:1 
Seven bishops (Canterbury, Bath, Chichester, St. 
Asaph, Bristol, Ely, and Peterborough) sent to 
the tower for not reading the king's declaration 
for liberty of conscience (intended to bring the 
Roman Catholics into ecclesiastical and civil 
power), 8 June ; tried and acquitted, 29-30 June, 1688 
The archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Sancroft) and 
five bishops (Bath and Wells, Ely, Gloucester, 
Norwich, and Peterborough) suspended for refus- 
ing to take the oaths to William and Mary, 1689 ; 

deprived 1690 

Retirement of bishops : The bishops of London and 

Durham retired on annuities 1856 

The bishop of Norwich resigned .... 1857 

The Bishops' Resignation (for Infirmity) Act (author- 
ising the appointment of bishop coadjutors) 
passed, 11 Aug. 1869; made perpetual by Act 
passed ....... 14 June, 1875 

Bishopric of St. Albans created, and dioceses of 
London, Winchester, and Rochester re-arranged, 
38 <fe 39 Viet. c. 34 ; passed . . . 29 June, ,, 
Bishopric of Truro founded, 39 & 40 Vict. c. 54; 

passed n Aug. 1876 

The Bishoprics A.ct, 41 .v 4J Vict. C. 68, authorises 
the endowment of four new bishoprics, Liver- 
pool, Newcastle, and Waketield (York), and 
Southwell (Canterbury). The number of bishops 
in parliament is not to be increased . 16 Aug. 1878 

• Bishops have the titles of Lord and Right i?ee. Father 
in. Hod. The archbishops of Canterbury and York have 
the title of tjhrace. The bishops of London, Durham, and 
Winchester have precedence of all bishops; the others 
rank according to seniority of consecration. 



BISHOPS. 



155 



BISHOPS. 



Confirmation of election of bishops, discussions in 
convocation . . . . . 26, 27 Jan. 18 
See Canterbury, Arclibishops, 1896. 



ENGLISH BISHOPRICS. 



Founded. 

(?) i79 

4th cent. 

4th cent. 

5th cent. 

5th cent. 

about5i6 

. about 560 

598 

604 



630 



Sees. 

London (abpc.) 

York (abpc. ) 

Sodor and Man 

Llandaff 

St. David's 

Bangor* 

St. Asaph 

Canterbury (abpc.) 

Rochester . 

London (see London) . 

East Anglia (afterwards 
Norwich, iogi) . . 

Lindisfarne, or Holy 
Island (afterwards 
Durham, 995) . 

West Saxons, (after- 
wards Winchester, 
705) .... 

Mercia (afterwards 
Lichfield, 669) . 

Hereford 

Worcester . . . 

Lindisse (afterwards 
Lincoln, 1067). 

Sherborne (afterwards 
Salisbury, 1042) . . 



634 



635 



Sees. Founded. 

Cornwall and Devon- 
shire (afterwards 
Exeter, 1050) . . 909 

Wells . „ 

Selsey about 681 ; re- 
moved to Chichester 

about 1082 

Bath .... 1088 

Ely . . 

Carlisle . ... 

Peterborough 

Gloucester t . . . 

Bristol t (re-consti- 
tuted 1897) 



1 108 



1541 



Chester 
Oxford 
Bipon 

Manchester 

St. Albans 

Truro 

Liverpool 

Newcastle . 

Southwell 

Wakefield 



1542 

1836 
1847 
1876 
1877 



Ossory 


founded 


402 


Ferns . . about 598 


Trim . 




432 


Cloyne . . before 604 


Killala . 


. about 


434 


Cork . . about 606 


Armagh, 445 


abpc. . 


1152 


Giendalough . before 612 


Emly 


. about 


448 


Deny . . before 618 


Elphin 




450 


Kilmacduach about 620 


Ardagh . 




454 


Lismore . about 631 


Clogher 


before 


493 


Leighlin . . . 632 


Down 


. about 


499 


Mayo . . about 665 


Ardfert and 


Aghadoe 




Baphoe . . before 885 




before 


500 


Cashel, before 901 ; 


Connor 


about 




abpc. . ■ . .1152 


Tuam, about 501 ; 




Killaloe, abpc. . . 1019 


abpc. . 




1152 


Waterford . . . 1096 


Dromore 


about 


510 


Limerick. . before 1106 


Kildare . 


. before 


5*9 


Kilmore . . -1136 


Meath . 




520 


Dublin, abpc. . . . 1152 


Achonry 




S3Q 


Kilfenora . before 1254 


Louth . 




534 


(For the new combina- 


Clonmacnois 




S48 


tions, see the sepa- 


Clonfert 




SS8 


rate articles.) 


Boss 


. about 


57o 





* An order in council, Oct. 1838, directed the sees of 
Bangor and St. Asaph to be united on the next vacancy 
in either, and Manchester, a new see, to be created 
thereupon ; this order, as regarded the union of the sees, 
was rescinded 1846. 

t The sees of Bristol and Gloucester were united, 
1836, separated. 1884. See Bristol 1884, ct seq. 



156a 



161& 



BISHOPS IN IRELAND are said to have been 
consecrated in the 2nd century ; see Church of Ireland. 

Prelacies were constituted, and divisions of the 
bishopries in Ireland made, by cardinal Paparo, 

legate from pope Eugene III 1151 

Several prelates deprived by queen Mary . . . 1554 
Bp. Atherton suffered death ignominiously . . 1640 
Two bishops deprived for not taking the oaths to 

William and Mary 1691 

Church Temporalities Act, for reducing the number 
of bishops in Ireland, 3 & 4 Will. IV., c. 37, passed 

14 Aug. 1833 
By this statute, of the four archbishoprics of Armagh, 
Dublin, Tuam, and Cashel, the last two were to be 
abolished on the decease of the then archprelates, 
which has since occurred ; and it was enacted that 
eight of the then eighteen bishoprics should, as they 
became void, be henceforth united to other sees, which 
was accomplished in 1850 ; so that the Irish church 
at present consists of two archbishops and ten 
bishops.] 



BISHOPS IN SCOTLAND were probably 
nominated in the fourth century. 

The Beformers, styling themselves "the Congrega- 
tion of the Lord," having taken up arms and 
defeated the queen-mother, Mary of Guise, called a 
parliament, which set up a new form of church 
polity on the Genevese model, in which bishops 
were replaced by " superintendents " . 

Episcopacy restored by the regent Morton (see Tid- 
chan Bislwps) 1572- 

Three prelates for Scottish sees consecrated at 
Lambeth (John Spottiswood, Gawin Hamilton, 
and Andrew Lamb) for Glasgow, Galloway, and 
Brechin 21 Oct. 

Episcopacy abolished, the bishops in a body de- 
posed, and four excommunicated, by a parliament, 
elected by the people (covenanters), which met 
at Glasgow Dec. 1638 

Episcopacy restored ; an archbishop (James Sharp) 
and three bishops consecrated by Sheldon, bishop 
of London 15 Dec. 1661 

The Scottish convention expelled the bishops ; 
abolished episcopacy ; declared the throne vacant ; 
drew up a claim of right ; and proclaimed William 
and Mary n April, 1689 

Episcopacy formally abolished, and the bishops' 
revenues sequestrated .... 19 Sept. „ 

The Episcopal church was thus reduced to the 
condition of a Nonconformist body, at first barely 
tolerated. It opened its first congress, 19 May, 1874 

Bishop Rose connected the established episcopal 
church of Scotland with that form of it which is 
now merely tolerated, he having been bishop of 
Edinburgh from 1687 till 1720, when, on his death, 
Dr. Fullarton became the first post-revolution 
bishop of that see. Fife (now St. Andrews, so 
called in 1844) now unites the bishopric of 
Dunkeld (re-instituted in 1727) and that of Dun- 
blane (re-instituted in 1731). Ross (of uncer- 
tain date) was united to Moray (re-instituted in 
1727) in 1838. Argyll and the Isles never existed 
independently until 1847, having been conjoined 
to Moray and Ross, or to Ross alone, previously 
to that year. Galloway has been added to the see 
of Glasgow. 



Orkney, founded. 

Uncertain. 
Isles . . . . 360 
Galloway . before 50c 
St. Andrews, 800 ; 

abpc. . . . . 1470 
Glasgow, about 560 ; 

abpc. 



Caithness 


. about 


1066 


Brechin 


before 


1155 


Moray . 




i"5 


Boss . 




1124 


Aberdeen 




1125 


Dunkeld 




1130 


Dunblane 


. before 


"53 


Argyll. 




1200 



Edinburgh 



163 



POST-REVOLUTION 
BISHOPS. 

Edinburgh . . . 1720 
Aberdeen and the 

Isles . . . . 1721 
Moray (and Ross), 1727 
Brechin (primus 1886). 173a 
Glasgow (and Gallo- 
way) . . ,, 
St. Andrews (Dun- 
keld, Dunblane, &c.) 1733 
Argyll and the Isles . 1847 



Romanist Bishoprics revived by Pope Leo XIII. 

4 March, 1S78 
Scotch Protestant bishops protest . 13 April, „ 

BISHOPS, AMERICAN. The first was Samuel 
Seabury, consecrated bishop of Connecticut by four 
nonjuring prelates, at Aberdeen, in Scotland, 14 
Nov. 1784. The bishops of New York and Penn- 
sylvania were consecrated in London, by the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury, 4 Feb. 1787, and the bishop 
of Virginia in 1790. Several American bishops 
formed part of the Pan-Anglican synod, at Lambeth, 
24-27 Sept. 1867. The first R. C. bishop of the 
United States was Dr. Carroll, of Maryland, in 1780. 

BISHOPS, Colonial, &c* By 15 & 16 

Vict. c. 52 (1852), and 16 & IJ Vict. c. 49 (1853), 

* Between 1847-59, Miss (now baroness) Burdett Coutts- 
gave 6o,ooo£. to endow colonial bishoprics. In 1866 she- 
petitioned parliament, on account of some of the bishops 
professing independence of the church of England. 
Since then, colonial bishops have been appointed with- 
out intervention of the civil power. Much discussion 



BISHOPS. 



156 



BLACKBURN. 



the colonial bishops may perform all episcopal 
functions in the United Kingdom, but have no juris- 
diction. 90 colonial bishops in 1902. 

Nova Scotia . . 1787 

Quebec . . . . 1793 

Calcutta . . . 1813 

Barbados . . . 1824 

Jamaica . . . 1824 

Madras . . . . 1835 

Australia (see Sydney) 1836 

Montreal . . . „ 

Bombay . . . 1837 

Newfoundland . . 1839 

Toronto . . . ,, 

•Gibraltar. . . . 1841 
New Zealand (see 

ChristcJiurch) . . ,, 

Antigua . . . . 1842 
•Guiana, S. America . ,, 

Huron, Canada . . ,, 

Tasmania . . . ,, 

■Colombo, Ceylon . . 1845 
Fredericton, N. Brans. ,, 

Adelaide, S. Australia 1847 

•Cape Town. . . ,, 

Melbourne . . . „ 

Newcastle, N. S. W. . „ 
Sydney (Metropolis of 

Australia) . . ,, 

Rupert's Land . . 1849 

Victoria, Hong Kong . ,, 

Sierra Leone . . 1852 

Graham's-town . . 1853 

Natal, S. Africa. . ,, 

Mauritius . . . 1854 
LabuanfjoinedwithSing- 

apore, and so-called) 1855 

Christchurch, N. Z. . 1856 

Perth, W. Australia . ,, 

Wellington, N. Z. . 1858 
Nelson, N. Zealand . ,, 

Brisbane, Queensland. 1859 
British Columbia . . ,, 
•Goulbourn, N. S. W. . ,, 
St. Helena . . . ,, 
Waiapu, N. Z. . . ,, 

Melanesia . . . i860 

Ontario, Canada . . 1861 
Nassau, Bahamas . ,, 

Grafton, Australia. . 1863 
Dunedin, New Zealand 1866 

Maritzburg, S. Africa. 1869 

Auckland, NewZeald. ,, 
Bathurst . . . „ 



Falkland Isles . 


1869 


Huron . . . . 


1871 


Trinidad 


1872 


Ballarat . . . . 


,, 


Moosonee . 


,, 


Algoma . . . . 


1873 


St. John's, Kaffraria . 


,, 


Athabasca . 


1874 


Saskatchewan . . 




Niagara 


1875 


Rangoon . . . 


1877 


Transvaal . 




Lahore . . . . 




Pretoria 




North Queensland 


j8 7 8 


Travancore and Cochin 


1879 


New Caledonia (B. C.) 




New Westminster 


,, 


Riverina 


1883 


Mackenzie River . . 


1884 


Qu'Appelle. 


,, 


Mombasa . 


1880 


Chota Nagpur . . 


1890 


Travancore and Cochin 


,, 


Bloemfontein . . 


,, 


Selkirk 


1891 


Zululand . . . 


,, 


Lebombo . 


1892 


Tinnevelly . . . 


1896 


Osaka, Ja/pan 


,, 


Uganda . . . . 


1897 


Keewatin . 


1900 


Koolenay . . . 


,, 


Carpentaria (Aus- 




tralia) 


,, 


Nagpur . . . . 


1902 


Calgary 


,, 



MISSIONARY BISHOPS. 

Jerusalem . . . 1! 
Honolulu ' . . 1! 

Zanzibar . . . 1! 
Equatorial Africa and 

Niger Territory . il 
Madagascar . . . 

North China 
Corea .... 
Mid-China . . . 
W. Equatorial Africa. 
Western China . 
Likoma . . . . 



1870 



1893 



BISHOPS, SUFFRAGAN, to assist metropoli- 
tans, existed in the early church. Twenty -six, 
appointed by Henry VIII. 1534, were abolished by 
Mary, 1553, and restored by Elizabeth, 1558. The 
last appointed is said to have been Sterne, bishop of 
Colchester, 1606. The appointment of suffragan 
bishops was revived in 1869, and archdeacon Henry 
Mackenzie, suffragan bishop of Nottingham (diocese 
of Lincoln), was consecrated 2 Feb. 1870, and arch- 
deacon Edward Parry, suffragan bishop of Dover 
(diocese of Canterbury), 23 March, 1870. Others 
have been appointed since; there were 9 in 1889; 
i6in 1892; 24 suffragans in 1903, See Svjfragan. 

BISLEY COMMON, Surrey, see Volunteers, 
1889. 

BISMUTH was recognised as a distinct metal 
by Agricola, in 1^29. It is very fusible and brittle, 
and of a yellowish white colour. 

BISSEXTILE, see Calendar and Leap Year. 

took place in 1867, through the deposition of Dr. Colenso, 

bishop of Natal, by his metropolitan, Dr. Gray, bishop of 
Capetown, and the attempts of the latter to consecrate a 
new bishop, in opposition to the law ; see under Africa, 
and Church oj England. 

* Transferred to the American church, Jan. 1902. 



BITHYNIA, an ancient province in Asia 
Minor, is said to have been invaded by Thracian 
tribes, some named Bithyni, who gave it the name 
of Bithynia. It was subject successively to the 
Assyrians, Lydians, Persians, and Macedonians. 
Most of the cities were rebuilt by Grecian colonists. 
Dydalsus revolted and reigned, about . B.C. 430-440 

Botyras, his son, succeeds 378 

Bas, or Bias, son of Botyras, 376 ; repulses the 

Greeks 328 

Zipsetes, son of Bias, resists Lysimachus . . . 326 
He dies, leaving four sons, of whom the eldest, 
Nicomedes I. , succeeds (he invites the Gauls into 

Asia) 278 

He rebuilds Astacus, and names it Nicomedia . . 264 
Zielas, son of Nicomedes, reigns . . . about 250 
Intending to massacre the chiefs of the Gauls at a 
feast, Zielas is detected in his design, and is him- 
self put to death, and his son Prusias I. made 

king, about 228 

Prusias defeats the Gauls, and takes cities . . 223 
Prusias allies with Philip of Macedon, and marries 

Apamea, his daughter 208 

He receives and employs Hannibal, then a fugitive, 
187 ; who poisons himself to escape betrayal to 

the Romans 183 

Prusias II. succeeds 180 

Nicomedes II. kills his father Prusias and reigns . 149 
Nicomedes III., surnamed Philopator ... 91 
Deposed by Mithridates, king of Pontus . . . 88 

Restored by the Romans 84 

Bequeaths his kingdom to the Romans . . . 74 
Pliny, the younger, pro-consul . . .ad. 103 
The Oghusian Tartars settle in Bithynia . . . 1231 
The Othman Turks take Prusa, the capital (and 
make it the seat of their empire till they possess 
Constantinovile) ....... 1327 

BITONTO (Naples). Here Montemar and the 
Spaniards defeated the Germans, 27 May, 1734, arm 
thereby acquired the kingdom of the Two Sicilies 
for Don Carlos. 

BLACK ACT, 9 Geo. I. c. 22 (1722), was 
passed to punish armed persons termed blocks, going 
about in disguise with their faces blacked, robbing 
warrens and fish-ponds, cutting down plantations, 
killing deer, &c. By this act, sending anonymous 
letters demanding money, &c, was made felony. 

BLACK AND WHITE, a weekly illustrated 
paper, first published 6 Feb. 1901, price 6d. 

BLACK APT, see Alchemy, Witchcraft. 

BLACK ASSIZE, see under Oxford, 

BLACK BOOK (Liber Niger), a book kept in 
the exchequer, which received the orders of that 
court. It was published by Hearne in 1728. 

A book doubtfully said to have been kept in monas- 
teries, wherein details of the enormities practised in reli- 
gious houses were entered for the inspection of visitors, 
under Hen. VIII. 1535. The name was given to the list 
of pensioners, printed 1831 ; and to other books. See 
Italy, 1876. The title Black Book was given to a list of 
Habitual Criminals, 1869-76; published by lieut.-eol. 

Du Cane of Brixton, Mareh, 1877. 

BLACKBUPN, Lancashire, so called in 
Domesday-book. The manufacture of a cloth called 
Blackburn cheque, carried on in 1650, was super- 
seded by Blackburn greys. In 1767, James Har- 
greaves, of this town, invented the spinning-jenny, 
for which he was eventually expelled from the 
county. About 1810 or 1812, the townspeople 
availed themselves of his discoveries, and engaged 
largely in the cotton manufacture, now their staple 
trade. Blackburn murder, see lYi/ils, July, 1876, 
See Riots, 1878. Population, 1881, 104,014; 1891, 
120,064; 1901, 127,527. 
The prince of Wales laid the foundation of a technical 

school, 9 May, i388. 



BLACK CABINET. 



157 



BLACK SEA. 



Blackburn mission to China respecting trade, Messrs. 
Nevile and Bell and Mr. Bourne reached Shanghai, 
autumn of 1896, report published 1898. 

BLACK CABINET, see under Cabinet (note). 

BLACK DEATH, see Plagues, 1340, 1866, 
1894, et seq. 

BLACK FLAG, customary to hoist one after 
an execution : the one adopted by pirates, see 
Buccaneers, Piracy, and Tonquin, 1883. 

BLACK FRIARS, see Dominicans. 

BLACKFRIARS BRIDGE, London. The 
first stone of the late bridge was laid 31 Oct. 1760, 
and it was completed by Mylne, in, 1770. It was 
frequently repaired, 1834-50, and began to sink. In 
1864 it- was pulled down, and a temporary bridge 
erected. The foundation of a new five-arched 
bridge, designed by Mr. Joseph Cubitt, was laid by 
lord mayor Hale, 20 July, 1865, and the bridge was 
opened by the queen 6 Nov. 1869. The first railway 
train (London, Chatham, and Dover) entered the 
city of London over the new railway bridge, Black ■ 
friars, 6 Oct. 1864. Another railway bridge opened 
7 Jan. 1884. 

BLACK FRIDAY, n May, 1866, the height 
of the commercial panic in London, through the 
stoppage of Overend, Gurney, & Co. (limited), on 10 
May. Messrs. John Henry and Edmund Gurney, 
and their partners, committed for trial for conspiracy 
to defraud, 21 Jan. 1869, were tried and acquitted, 
13-23 Dec. 1869. On Friday, 21 Nov. 1890, a tem- 
porary panic was produced by the embarrassments 
of Messrs. Baling Brothers. 

BLACK HAND, see Spain, 1883. 

BLACKHEATH, Kent, near London. Here 
Wat Tyler and his followers assembled 12 June, 
1381 ; and here also Jack Cade and his 20,000 
Kentish men encamped, 1 June, 1450 ; see Tyler 
and Cade. Here the Cornish rebels were defeated 
and Flammock's insurrection quelled, 22 June, 
1497. The ancient cavern, on the ascent to Black - 
heath, popularly termed "the retreat of Cade," and 
of banditti in the time of Cromwell, was re-dis- 
covered in 1780. Several daring highway robberies 
were committed near the heath, and the youthful 
culprits punished, in 1877. Murder of Mrs. 
Arabella C. Tyler at Kidbrook-park-road, 14 Aug. 
1898. See Trials. 

BLACK-HOLE, see Calcutta, 1756. 

BLACK LEAD, see Graphite. 

BLACKLEGS- A name commonly given to 
cheating gamblers, was unjustly given to non- 
unionist workmen by the unionists and others 
during the labour agitation in 1889 and 1890. 

BLACK LETTER, employed in the first 
printed books in the middle of the 15th century. 
The first printing types were Gothic ; but they were 
modified into the present Boman type about 1469 : 
Pliny's Natural History was then printed in the 
new characters. 

BLACK LIST, name given to printed lists of 
insolvents, bankrupts, and other matters affecting 
the credit of firms and individuals, published in 
London, weekly or bi-weekly, drawn from public 
register-. The legality of issuing information of 
this kind has been questioned, but, in the case of 
the Scottish Mercantile Society's Record in 1848, 
the house of lords found "such publication" was 
not slanderous. Private lists of a searching kind 



issued to subscribers were first started by Mr. 
Thos. Perry of Cornhill, Stubbs' being the best 
known of the kind. Similar S3'stems widely used 
in America and elsewhere. Chambers. 

Since the licensing act of 1902, confirmed drunkards 
who have been before the magistrates several times, 
are placed on the " Black List," and their names and 
photographs are sent round to publicans, who are- 
forbidden to supply them with intoxicating liquors. 

BLACK-MAIL, a compulsory payment for 
protecti m nf cattie, &c, made in the border counties- 
was prohibited by Elizabeth in 1601. It was exacted 
in Scotland from the lowlanders by the highlanders, 
till 1745. It checked agricultural improvement. The 
term black-mail has been applied to the payments of 
new commercial companies for notices respecting 
them in certain newspapers, 1889-90. 
Five men convicted and sentenced for black-mail- 
ing (Andrew Grant and Herbert Coulton — penal 
servitude for life) ... . July 5, 1897 

Richard, Edward, and Leonard Chrimes sentenced 
to several yeai's penal servitude for blackmailing 
women ....... 20 Dec. 1898- 

Oliver Fletcher sentenced to 7 years and John Cox . 
to 9 months imprisonment . . .15 April, 1899 

BLACK MONDAY, Easter Monday, 14 April, 

I 1360, " so full dark of mist and hail, and so bitter 

j cold that many men died on their horsebacks with 

I the cold." Stow. In Ireland, Black Monday was- 

the day on which a number of the English were 

slaughtered at a village near Dublin, in 1209. 

BLACK MONEY, base foreign coin so termed,, 
1335. 

BLACK MOUNTAIN EXPEDITIONS, 

1 see India, 1888 and 1891. 

BLACK MUSEUM, at Scotland Yard, is a» 
i collection of relics connected with crime, begun in 
I 1874- 

BLACKPOOL, Lancashire, a watering place. 
The foundation-stone of an Eiffel Tower was laid 
here 25 Sep. 1891. Population in 1851, 1664; 
1881, 14,229; 1891,23,846; 1901,48,000. 

BLACK PRINCE, Edward, eldest son of 

king Edward III., born 15 June, 1330 ; victor at 
Poitiers, 19 Sept. 1356; at Najara, 3 April, 1367 ;. 
died 8 June, 1376. 

BLACK REPUBLIC, see Hayti. 

BLACK ROD has a gold lion at the top, and is- 
earried by the usher of the order of the knights of the 
garter (instituted 1349), instead of the mace. He- 
also keeps the door when a chapter of the order is- 
sitting, and during the sessions of parliament 
attends the house of lords and acts as their messen- 
ger to the commons. Gen. sir M. Biddulph, g.C.b. 

BLACK SEA, THE Exjxine (Pontus Euxinus 
of the ancients), a large internal sea between the 
j S. W. provinces of Russia and Asia Minor, con- 
nected with the sea of Azoff by the straits of Yenikale, 
and with the sea of Marmora by the channel of 
Constantinople. 

This sea was much frequented by the Greeks and 
Italians, till closed to all nations by the Turks 
after the fall of Constantinople in 1453. 
The Russians obtained admission by the treaty of 

Kainardji 10 July, 1774 

It was partially opened to British and other traders, 
(since which time the Russians gradually obtained 

the preponderance). 1779 

Entered by the British and French fleets, at the 
requisition of the Porte, after the destruction of 
the Turkish fleet at Sinope by the Russians, 
30 Nov. 1853 3 J an - l8 54 



BLACKS. 



158 



BLIND. 



A dreadful storm in this sea raged, and caused 
great loss of life and shipping, and valuable stores 
for the allied armies. See Russo-Tiirkish War. 

nto 16 Nov. 1S54 

The Black Sea was opened to the commerce of all 
nations by the treaty of 1856. 

The article of the treaty of Paris, 30 March, 1856, 
by which the sea was opened to the commerce of 
all nations, and interdicted to any ships of war ; 
and the erection of military maritime arsenals for- 
bidden, was repudiated by a Russian circular, 
dated . 31 (19) Oct. 1870 

After some correspondence, the meeting of a con- 
ference on the subject, in London, was agreed to 
by all the powers concerned in the treaty . . ,, 

The conference met in London 17 Jan. 1871, and a 
treaty was signed by which the neutralization of 
the sea was abrogated ; but it was agreed by a 
special protocol, that no nation shall liberate itself 
from the obligations of a treaty without the con- 
sent of the others who signed it . 13 March, 1871 

Blockade of the Black Sea declared by Turkey 
during the war .... about 3 May, 1877 

Revival of the Black Sea Fleet : Tchesma, ironclad 
launched by the Czar at Sebastopol (others to 
follow) 18 May, 1886 

The Black Sea territory reorganized as a Russian 
province by decree ; announced . . 4 Aug. 1896 

BLACKS, or Neri ; see Bianchi. 

BLACKWALL (London), the site of fine 
commercial docks and warehouses. See Bocks. 
The Blackwall railway was opened to the public, 4 
July, 1840 ; the eastern terminus being at Black- 
wall wharf, and the western in Fenchurch street. 
See Tunnels, 1891, et scq. and Navy, June, 1898. 

BLACK WATCH, armed companies of the 
loyal clans (Campbells, Monros, &c.) employed to 
watch the highlands from about 1725 to 1739, 
when they were formed into the celebrated 42nd 
regiment, enrolled as "The Royal Highland Black 
"Watch." Their removal for foreign service probably 
facilitated the outbreak in 174.5. They wore dark 
tartans, and hence were called Black Watch. They 
distinguished themselves in the Ashantee war, Jan. 
Feb. 1874, in Egypt, 1882-5, in S. Africa 1899-1902. 

BLACKWATER, Battle of, in Ireland, 

14 Aug. 1598, when the Irish chief O'Neil defeated 
the English under sir Henry Bagnall. Pope 
Clement VIII. sent O'Neil a consecrated plume, 
and granted to his followers the same indulgence as 
to crusaders. 

BLACKWOOD'S Edinburgh Magazine 
established, 181 7; " William Blackwood and Sons' 
Magazine," by Mrs. Oliphant, published 1897. 

BLADENSBURG, see Washington, 1814. 

BLANC, see Mont Blanc. 

BLAND ACT, see United States, Feb. 1S78. 

BLANDFORD'S ACT, 19&20 Vict. c. 104, 
■for augmentation of benefices, &c. passed, 1856. 

BLANK VERSE, see Verse. 

BLANKETEERS- A number of operatives 
who, on 10 March, 1817, met in St. Peter's field, 
near Manchester, many of them having blankets, 
rugs, or great coats rolled up and fastened to their 
backs. This was termed the Blanket meeting. 
They proceeded to march towards London, but were 
dispersed by the magistracy. It is stated that their 
object was to commence a general insurrection. 
See Derby. Eventually the ringleaders had an 
interview with the cabinet ministers, and a better 
understanding between the working classes and the 
government ensued. 



BLANKET SCANDAL, see under South 
African War. 

BLANKETS are said to have been first made 
at Bristol by Thos. Blanket, in the 14th century. 
This is doubtful. 

BLASPHEMY was punished with death by 
the law of Moses {Lev. xxiv.) 1491 B.C. ; and by the 
code of Justinian, a. d. 529. It is punishable hy 
the civil and canon law of England, regulated by 60 
Geo. III. c. 8 (1819). Daniel Isaac Eaton was 
tried and convicted in London of blasphemy, 6 
March, 1812. Robert Taylor, a protestant clergyman, 
was tried twice for the same crime. He was sen- 
tenced to two years' imprisonment, and largely 
fined, July, 1831. In Dec. 1840, two publishers of 
blasphemous writings were convicted. 

BLASTING GELATINE (a mixture of 
nitro-glycerine and gun-cotton), a violent explosive 
prepared by Alfred Nobel, and modified by professor 
Abel, 1879. See Nobel Bequest. 

BLAZONRY. Bearing coats-of-arms was in- 
troduced and became hereditary in France and 
England about 1192, owing to the knights painting 
their banners with different figures, thereby to dis- 
tinguish them in the crusades. Dugdale. See 
Heraldry. 

BLEACHING was known in Egypt, Syria. 
India, and Gaul. Pliny. An improved chemical 
system was adopted by the Dutch, who introduced 
it into England and Scotland in 1768. There were 
large bleach-fields in Lancashire, Fife, Forfar, and 
Renfrew, and in the vale of the Leven, in Dumbar- 
ton. The application of the gas chlorine to bleaching 
is due to Berthollet's discovery, about 1785. Its 
combination with lime (as chloride of lime) \\ as 
devised by Mr. Tennant, of Glasgow, who took out 
a patent for the process in 1798, and by his firm it 
is still extensively manufactured. In 1822 Dr. Ure 
published an elaborate series of experiments on this 
substance. Anew and more rapid process in vented by 
Mr. Jacob Bayncs Thompson, tried at Bolton, and 
reported successful, April, 1884. Improvements 
made by Mr. William Mather, 1885. The manu- 
facture of bleaching powder was cheapened by 
Mond's proeess, in which the wasted chlorine is 
utilized, by Messrs. Brunner, Mond & Co., reported, 
Oct. 1892. In i860 bleaching and dyeing works 
were placed under the regulations of the Factories 
Act. 

BLENHEIM (or Plintheim) a village in 
Bavaria on the left bank of the Danube, near the 
town of Hochstett, the site of a battle fought 2 Aug. 
(new style, 13), 1704, between the English and 
confederates, commanded by the duke of Marl- 
borough, and the French and Bavarians, under 
marshal Tallard and the elector of Bavaria. The 
latter were defeated with the loss of about I2,0C0 
killed, and 13,000 prisoners (including Tallard). 
Bavaria became the prize of the conquerors. The 
British parliament gave Marlborough the honour of 
Woodstock and hundred of Wotton, and erected for 
him the house of Blenheim.* 

BLIND. The first public school for the blind 
was established by Valentine Haiiy, at Paris in 
1784. The first in England was at Liverpool, in 
1 791 ; in Scotland, at Edinburgh, in 1792 ; and the 

* On s Feb. 1861, a fire broke out at this place, which 
destroyed the "Titian Gallery" and the pictures; the 
Hitter, a present from Victor Amadeus. king of Sardinia, 
to John, the great duke of Marlborough. Pictures, 
library, and other valuables sold 1SS5 6. 



BLIND. 



159 



BLOOD. 



first in London in 1799. Printing in raised or 
embossed characters for the use of the blind was 
begun at Paris by Haiiy in 1786. The whole Bible 
was printed at Glasgow in raised Eoman characters 
about 1848. Louis Braille, born near Paris, Jan. 
1809, died 1852, became blind from an accident at 
the age of three. He adapted from M. Barbier's 
system his own simple and beautiful one of dots, 
for reading and writing, now bearing his name, 
which he published in 1829 and fully developed in 
1834. The Braille musical notation is also much 
used. A sixpenny magazine for the blind, 
edited by the late rev. W. Taylor, F.R.S., so 
eminent for his forty years' exertions on behalf of 
these sufferers, was published in 1855-6. He aided 
the establishment of a college for the blind of the 
upper classes at Worcester, in 1866. There is 
hardly any department of human knowledge in 
which blind persons have not obtained distinction.* 
Laura Bridgman, born in 1829, became dumb and 
blind two years after. She was so well taught by 
Dr. Howe, of Boston, U.S., as to become an able 
instructor of blind and dumb persons ; she died 24 
May, 1889. By the census of 1851, there were in 
Great Britain, 21,487 blind persons; 11,273 males, 
10,214 females; about one in 975 blind. The 
number of the blind in Great Britain has propor- 
tionally decreased since 185 1, according to the cen- 
sus, 22,800 in 1881. In 1881 about one in 1138 
blind. Royal Normal College and Academy of 
Music for the Blind, established 1873, at Nor- 
wood, Surrey, mainly by the exertions of Mr. 
Francis Joseph Campbell, an American, himself 
blind, and an able teacher, aided by the marquis, 
aft. duke, of Westminster, purchased for 22.000/. 
by the London school board for the education of the 
blind, Jan. 1896. Mr. Campbell ascended Mont 
Blanc in 1880. There were 29 Societies for the blind 
in London in 1889. 

Eoyal Commission on the condition of the blind ; ex- 
tended to the deaf and dumb, Jan. 1886. 

According to the census of 1881, the number of blind 
in the United Kingdom was about 32,101, England and 
Wales 22,832, Scotland 3,158, Ireland 6,111, England 
and Wales, 1891, 23,467. The royal commission to 
enquire into their condition was appointed 28 July, 
1885, and on the 20th Jan. 1886, additional members 
were appointed, and its inquiries were extended to the 
deaf, dumb, and imbecile in the United Kingdom, 
Paris, Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. The com- 
- mission, after 116 sittings, and many visitations and 
examinations of witnesses, issued their first report 
July, 1889. The number of the deaf under instruction 
in the United Kingdom was in 1851 1,300, in 1888 
3,138. The commission met with great uncertainty in 
regard to idiots and imbeciles. 

The Weekly Summary, a newspaper for the blind, pub- 
lished in London on Wednesdays, started in June, 
1892. 

Elementary Education (Blind and Deaf Children) Act, 
passed in 1893. 

Death of Dr. Win. Moon, inventor of the largely adopted 
system of printing for the blind, 10 Oct. 1894. 

International congress for improving the condition 
of the blind, opened at Brussels . . 6 Aug. 1902 



* James Holman, the "blind traveller" (born 1786, 
died 1857), visited almost every place of note in the 
world. His travels were published in 1825. In April, 
1858, a blind clergyman, rev. J. Sparrow, was elected 
chaplain to the Mercers' Company, London, and read the 
service, &c. , from embossed books. 

Viscount Cranborne (blind) was the author of many 
interesting historical essays. He died in June, 1865. 
On 13 July, 1865, Henry Fawcett, the blind professor of 
political economy at Cambridge, was elected M.P. for 
Brighton; for Hackney, 1874 and 1880; and was ap- 
pointed postmaster-general, April, 1880, died 6 Nov. 1884. 
Miss Alice King, blind at 7 years of age, learnt 7 lan- 
gauges by ear, novelist, beneficent to the poor, died 
aged 55, early May, 1894. 



M. Dussand's new writing system for the blind re- 
ported . Aug. 1902 

BLINDING by consuming the eyeballs with 
lime or scalding vinegar, was a punishment inflicted 
anciently on adulterers, perjurers, and thieves. In 
the middle ages the penalty was frequently changed 
from total blindne-s to a diminution of sight. A 
whole army of Bulgarians was deprived of sight by 
the emperor Basil, 104. Several of the eastern 
emperors had their eyes torn from their heads. 

BLISTERS, used by Hippocrates (460-357 
B.C.), made, it is said, of cantharides {which see). 

BLIZZARD, an old term applied in the Mid- 
land counties to the snow-blast, also signifying 
anything blazing, blinding, or stifling. Of late 
years violent snow-storms have been termed blizzard 
in the United States of North America, as well as in 
Britain. See Storms, n-13 Jan. ; and 11-13 March, 
1888, and since. 

BLOCKADE is the closing an enemy's ports 
to all commerce; a practice introduced by the Dutch 
about 1584. The principle recognized by the 
European powers is that every blockade, in order to 
be binding, must be effective. Cadiz blockaded 
1797-9 > "the Elbe was blockaded by Great Britain, 
1803; the Baltic, by Denmark, 1848-49 and 1864; 
the gulf of Finland by the Allies, 1854 ; and the 
ports of the Southern States of North America by 
president Lincoln, April 19, 1861. See Orders in 
Council, and Berlin. Part of the east coast of Africa 
was blockaded by England and Germany on account 
of the slave trade, 2 Dec. 1888 — I Oct. 1889 : see 
Zanzibar. 

BLOCK BOOKS, see Printing. 

BLOCKS employed in the rigging of ships were 
much improved in their construction by Walter 
Taylor, about 1781. In 1801, Mark I. Brunei in- 
vented a mode of making blocks by machinery, 
which was put into operation in 1808, and in 1815 
was said to have saved the country 20,000/. a year. 

BLOEMFONTEIN CONFERENCE, see 
Orange Free State, 1899. 

BLOIS, France, the Roman Blesum. The 
count Guy II. sold it with his domains to Louis 
duke of Orleans in 1391, and eventually it accrued 
to the crown. The states-general were held here 
1576 and 1588, on account of the religious wars; 
and here Henry duke of Guise was assassinated by 
order of the king, Henry III., 23 Dec. 1588. The 
empress Maria Louisa retired here in 1814. 

BLOOD- The circulation of the blood through 
the lungs was known to Michael Servetus, a Spanish 
physician, in 1553. Caesalpinus published an ac- 
count of the general circulation, of which he had 
some confused ideas, improved afterwards by 
experiments, 1569. Paul of Venice, or Father 
Paolo (real name Peter Sarpi), discovered the valves 
which serve for the circulation ; but the honour of 
the positive discovery of the circulation belongs to 
William Harvey, between 1619 and 1628. Freind. 
A memoi-ial window in the church at Folkestone, 
his birthplace, was uncovered 9 April, 1874, and a 
statue at the same place, 6 Aug. 1881. 
Eating Blood was prohibited to Noah, Gen. ix. , to the 
Jews, Lev. xvii., &c, and to the Gentile converts by 
the apostles at an assembly at Jerusalem, a.d. 52, 
Acts xv. 
Blood-Drinking was anciently tried to give vigour to 
the system. Louis XI. in his last illness, drank the 
warm blood of infants, in the vain hope of restoring his 
decayed strength, 1483. Henault. 



BLOOD'S CONSPIEACY. 



160 



BOATS. 



In the 15th century an opinion prevailed that the de- 
clining vigour of the aged might be repaired by tkans- 
fusing into their veins the blood of young persons. 
It was countenanced in France by the physicians 
about 1668, and prevailed for many years, till the most 
fatal effects having ensued, it was suppressed by an 
edict. "An English physician (Louver, or Lower) 
practised in this way; he died in 1691." Freind. It 
was attempted again in France in 1797, and more 
recently there, in a few cases, with success ; and in 
England (but the instances are rare) since 1823. Tried 
at Philadelphia, U.S., April, 1877 ; in London, un- 
successful. 10 May, 1877. 

BLOOD'S CONSPIRACY. Blood, a dis- 
carded officer of Oliver Cromwell's household, with 
his confederates, seized the duke of Ormond in his 
coach, intending to hang him, and had got him to 
Tyburn, when he was rescued by his friends, 6 Dec. 
1670. Blood afterwards, in the disguise of a clergy- 
man, attempted to steal the regal crown from the 
Jewel-office in the Tower, 9 May, 1671; yet, not- 
withstanding these and other offences, he was not 
only pardoned, but had a pension of 500^. per annum 
settled on him by Charles II. 167 1. He died 24 
Aug. 1680. 

"BLOODY ASSIZES," held by Jeffreys in 
the west of England, in Aug. 1685, after the defeat 
of the duke of Monmouth in the battle of Sedgmoor. 
Upwards of 300 persons were executed after short 
trials ; very many were whipped, imprisoned, and 
fined ; and nearly 1000 were sent as slaves to the 
American plantations. 

BLOOMER COSTUME, see a note to article 
Dress. 

BLOOMSBURY GANG, a cant term applied 
to an influential political party in the reign of 
George III. , who met at Bloomsbury House, the 
residence of the duke of Bedford. The marquis of 
Stafford, the last survivor, died 26 Oct. 1803. 

BLOREHEATH (Staffordshire), where, 23 
Sept. 1459, the earl of Salisbury and the Yorkists 
defeated the Lancastrians, whose leader, lord 
Audley, was slain with many Cheshire gentlemen. 
A cross commemorates this conflict. 

BLOWING-MACHINES, the large cylin- 
ders, used in blowing machines, were erected by 
Mr. Smeaton at the Carron iron works, 1760. One 
equal to the supply of air for forty forge fires was 
erected at the king's dockyard, Woolwich. The 
hot-air blast, a most important improvement, causing 
great economy of fuel, was invented by Mr. James 
B. Neilson, of Glasgow, and patented in 1828. He 
died 18 Jan. 1865. 

BLOW-PIPE. An Egyptian using one is 
among the paintings on the tombs at Thebes. It 
was employed in mineralogy, by Antony Von Swab, 
a Swede, about 1733, and improved by Wollaston 
and others, In 1802, professor Robert Hare, of 
Philadelphia, increased the action of the blow-pipe 
by the application of oxygen and hydrogen. By the 
agency of Newman's improved blow-pipes, in 1816, 
Dr. E. D. Clarke fused the earths, alkalies, metals, 
&c. Works on the blow -pipe by Plattner and Mus- 
pratt, 1854 ; G. Plympton, 1874, and W. A. Ross, 
1880-8. 

BLUE was the favourite colour of the Scotcb 
covenanters in the 17th century. Blue and orange 
or yellow, became the whig colours after the revolu- 
tion in 1688 ; and were adopted on the cover of the 
whig periodical, the " Edinburgh Review," first 
published in 1802. The Prussian blue dye was dis- 
covered by Diesbach, at Berlin, in 1710. Fine 



blues are now obtained from coal-tar ; see Aniline, 
Blue-coat Schools, so called in reference to the 
costume of the children. The Blue-coat schooL 
formerly in Newgate-street, London, was instituted 
by Edward VI. in 1552; see Christ's Hospital, 
Blue-stocking, a term applied to literary ladies,, 
was originally conferred on a society comprising 
both sexes (1760, et seq.). Benjamin Stillingtleet r 
the naturalist, an active member, wore blue worsted 
stockings; hence the name. The beautiful Mrs. 
Jerningham is said to have worn blue stockings at 
the conversaziones of Mrs. Montague. Blue Ribbon 
Army, see Temperance, 1882. 

BLUE-BOOKS, reports and other papers- 
printed by order of parliament, are so named on ac- 
count of their wrappers ; 70 vols, were printed for 
the lords, and 76 vols, for the commons in 1871, 
The official colour of France is yellow, Spain red,. 
Germany white, Italy green, Portugal ivhite, United) 
States, N. A., green, Austria, red. 

BLUMENAU, Lower Austria ; on 22 July, 1866, 
the Austrians in possession of this place were- 
attacked by the Prussians on their march toward* 
Vienna, a severe conflict was interrupted by the 
news of the armistice agreed to at Nikolsburg ; and 
the same evening Austrians and Prussians bivouacked 
together. 

BOARD OF ADMIRALTY, Agricul- 
ture and Fisheries Control, Green- 
Cloth, Health, Trade, Education, &c., 

see under Admiralty, &c. 

BOATS. Flat-bottomed boats brought into use 
by Barker, a Dutchman, about 1690 ; see Life-Boat, 
A mode of building boats by the help of the steam- 
engine was invented by Mr. Nathan Thompson of 
New York in i860, and premises were erected for its- 
application at Bow, near London, in 1861. Charles- 
Clifford's valuable Boat-lowering apparatus was in- 
vented 1856. See Canal-Boats and Life-Boats. 

Boat Voyage. Alfred Johnson, a young man, 
started from America in the Centennial, a boat 
20 feet long, on 15 June, and landed at Aber- 
castle, Pembrokeshire ... 11 Aug. 1876 

Two young sailors crossed the Atlantic in the City 
of Bath, a boat 14 feet long : arriving at Fal- 
mouth 24 Aug. 188a 

Mr. Terry formed a boat on the framework of a 
tricycle, and on it went from London to Dover, 
crossed the Channel to Calais and proceeded to 
Paris July, 1883 

Submarine boats, one is said to have been invented 
about 1578 ; and one tried in the Thames early in 
the seventeenth century, and one at Plymouth 
in 1774. Robert Fulton's experiments in this 
direction were not accepted (early nineteenth 
century). Unsuccessful attempts made by several 
European powers in 1851, and since. Nordenfelt's- 
submarine boat first constructed at Stockholm in 
1883, to be employed in naval warfare, exhibited 
at Landskrona in presence of officers sent by all 
the great powers 23 Sept. 1885 ; the boat, made 
of steel, 64 feet long ; motive power, steam ; 
crew of 3 or 4 men, breathe for six hours by 
means of sealed up compressed air ; the boat may 
be raised or sunk at the will of the crews and by 
means of torpedoes may cause the destruction of 
any vessel. The boat was successfully tried 
in Southampton water, 19-20 Dec. 1887; the- 
l\ ml. Spanish submarine torpedo boat, launched 
8 Sept. t888; Gttstave Zidi, named after the con- 
structor of the (linn note (1886), successful trip- 
let w'<<n Toulon and Marseilles, mill Jan. 1899;. 
submarine boats tried successfully at Cherbourg,. 
7 Jan. 1901 ; 1st British launched at Barrow, 
63 ft. long, it ft. 9 in. wide, 2 Oct. 1901 ; the . 
Silure, launched at Cherbourg, 29 Oct. 1901 ; 4th 
British launched at Barrow . . 23 May,, 1902: 



BOAT-RACES. 



161 



BOHEMIA. 



Lieut. Isaac Peral's submarine boat, travelled for 
one hour under water near Cadiz 7 June ; he was 
ennobled by the government . . 16 June, 1890 

The Sapolio, a boat 15 feet long, withcapt. William 
Andrews crossed the Atlantic from N. America 
in 68 days, arriving at Huelva . . 27 Sept. 1892 

Lieut. H. R. Sayce, of Bristol, crossed the 
English Channel in his patent collapsible life- 
boat ; weight under 35 lbs., length, 8£ ft. 

17 June, 1893 

Mr. J. M. Porter crossed from Folkestone to Bou- 
logne in a canoe, 14 ft. 6 ins. long, in 10 hours 

29 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Sayce in a canvas boat, supported by air bags, 
designed by himself, crossed from Dover to 
Calais in 10J hours .... 19 June, 1894 

Mr. John Ruck, accompanied by Mr. R. E. Wicker, 
crossed from Dover to Calais in a tandem cycle 
boat in 7 hrs. 15 min. . . . 12 May, 1895 

Harbro and Samuelson, Norwegians, cross the 
Atlantic from New York in a rowing boat 16 ft. 
long, in 55 days ; arrive at Scilly . 1 Aug. 1896 

Capt. Slocum alone in the Spray, 9 tons reg. net. 
1270 gross, sails round the world . . . 189S 

Capt. H. Blackburn crossed the Atlantic in a small 
boat, alone, in 38 days, reaching Lisbon, 21 July, 1901 

Exhibition of boats and boating apparatus at Earl's 
court, opened 1 March, 1902 

Mr. and Mrs. Bradley crossed the Atlantic in a 
sailing boat, 16 ft. long, from Nova Scotia, arrived 
at Dover 21 July, ,, 

BOAT-RACES; see Doggett, and University. 
First regatta on the Thames, 1775. Rowing clubs 
formed 1800-18. Leander in 1819. Oxford Univer- 
sity boat club in 1839. Cambridge University boat 
club 1829. ( First Oxford and Cambridge University 
boat-race, 10 June, 1829.) Henley regatta founded 
1839. Eoyal Thames regatta started 1843. London 
rowing club formed 1856. The Amateur rowing 
association founded 1876. International race at 
Cork : English won, 23 July, 1902. 

BOCCACCIO'S DECAMERONE, a col- 
lection of a hundred stories or novels (many very 
immoral), severely satirising the clergy, feigned to 
have been related in ten days, during the plague of 
Florence in 1348. Boccaccio lived 1313-75. A copy 
of the first edition (that of Valdarfer, in 1471) was 
knocked down at the duke of Roxburgh's sale, 
to the Duke of Marlborough, for 2260^., 17 June, 
1812. This copy was afterwards sold by public 
auction, for 875 guineas, 5 June, 1819. 

. BODLEIAN LIBRARY, Oxford, founded 
in 1598, and opened in 1602, by sir Thos. Bodley 
(died, 28 Jan. 1612). Jt is open to the public, and 
claims a copy of all works published in this country. 
In 1868, it contained about 250,000 volumes; in 
1885, 432,417 volumes (MSS. 26,598.) For rare 
works and MSS. it is said to be second only to the 
Vatican. Mr Macray's "Annals of the Bodleian 
library," 1868. Tercentenary celebrated 8-9 Oct. 
1902. 

BCEOTTA, a division of Greece, north of Attica, 
known previously as Aonia, Messapia, Hyantis, 
Ogygia, and Cad'meis. Thebes, the capital, was 
celebrated for the exploits and misfortunes of its 
kings and heroes. The term Boeotian was used by 
the Athenians as a synonym for dulness ; but un- 
justly, — since Pindar, Hesiod, Plutarch, Democritus, 
Epaminondas, and Corinna, were Boeotians. The 
early history and dates are mythical ; see Thebes. 
Arrival of Cadmus, founder of Cadmea (Hales, 1494 ; 

Clinton, 1313) B.C. 1493 

Reign of Polydore 1459 

Labdachus ascends the throne . . . . 1430 

Amphion and Zethus besiege Thebes, and dethrone 

Laius 1388 

Myth of (Edipus ; he kills in an affray his father 
Laius ; confirming the oracle foretelling his death 
by the hands of his son, 1276 ; resolves the 
Sphinx's enigmas 1266 



War of the Seven Captains 1225 

Thebes besieged and taken 1213 

Thersander reigns 1 198 ; slain 1193 

The Thebans abolish royalty (ages of obscurity 

follow) about 1 120 

The Thebans fight with the Persians against the 

Greeks at Platsea . 479 

The Spartans aiding the Thebans defeat the Athe- 
nians near Tanagra 457 

Battle of Coronea, in which the Thebans defeat the 

Athenians . . 447 

The Thebans, under Epaminondas and Pelopiclas 

enrol their Sacred Band, and join Athens against 

Sparta 377 

Epaminondas defeats the Lacedasmonians at 

Leuctra, and restores Thebes to independence . 371 
Pelopidas killed at the battle of Cynosceiihalse . 364 
Epaminondas gains the victory of Mantinea, but is 

slain 362 

Philip, king of Macedon, defeats the Thebans and 

Athenians near Chasronea 338 

Alexander destroys Thebes, but spares the house of 

Pindar 335 

The Boeotian confederacy dissolved by the Romans 170 
Boeotia henceforth partook of the fortunes of 

Greece : and was conquered by the Turks unde±' a.d. 

Mahomet II 1456 

BOERS (peasants) , a name given to the Dutch 
settlers, in South Africa, since the 16th century, 
who still retain their national character. Discon- 
tented with the British rule in the Cape since 1814, 
large bands of them in 1835-7 trekked or emigrated 
northwards, and founded the Orange Free State 
(1836) , and the Transvaal Republic (1848), after much 
fighting with the natives. See Transvaal 1891. 

BOG OP ALLEN, the name given to an 
extensive series of bogs in Ireland, on the E. side 
of the Shannon. 

BOGOTA, SANTA Fe DE, capital of New 
Grenada (which see), founded 1538. 

BOGS) probably the remains of forests, covered 
with peat and loose soil. An act for the drainage 
of Irish bogs, passed March, 1830. The bog-land of 
Ireland has been estimated at 3,000,000 acres ; that 
of Scotland at upwards of 2,d00,000 ; and that of 
England at near 1,000,000 of acres. In Jan. 1849, 
Mr. Rees Reece took out a patent for certain 
valuable products from Irish peat. Candles and 
various other articles produced from peat have been 
since sold in London. Fuel for railway engines and 
other purposes was made from peat (April, 1873") ; 
and a peat, coal, and charcoal company established. 

A considerable trade is carried on in Dublin in bog- 
oak jewelry and ornameuts, originated on the occasion 
of the visit of Geo. IV. to Ireland, 1821. 

Much destruction has been caused by the motion of 
bogs. Leland (about 1546) speaks of Chat Moss doing 
so. 

Mischief was done at Enaghmore, Ireland, 3 Jan. 1853 ; 
and farm houses and fields near Dunmore were covered, 
Oct. 1873. Through heavy rains and the percolation of 
water, the Knocknageeha bog a mile long and a J mile 
broad at Rathmore in E. Kerry gave way, and swept 
everything in its course for about 2 miles ; the Don- 
nelly family (8 persons) at Quarry -lodge, on lord Ken- 
mare's estate, submerged ; salmon fishery in the river 
Flesk, and small farmers ruined, 28, 29 Dec. 1896 ; bog 
slip near Liscannor, West Clare, much damage and live- 
stock lost, 11, 12 Nov. 1901. 

BOGUE FORTS, see China, 1841. 

BOHEMIA, formerly the Hercynian forest 
(Boiemum, Tacitus'), derives its name from the Boii, 
a Celtic tribe. It was governed by dukes (Borzivoi 
the first, 891), till Ottocar assumed the title of king, 
1 198. The kings at first held their territory from 
ihe empire : and the crown was elective till it came 
to the house of Austria, in which it is now here- 
ditary. Prague, the capital, is famous for sieges 

it 



BOHEMIA. 



162 



BOHN'S LIBRARIES. 



and battles. Population in 1857, 4,705,525; * n 
1870,5,140,544; in 1890, 5,843,250; 1900, 6,318,280; 
see Prague. For Bohemians, see Gypsies. 

The Czechs (Slavonians) conquer Bohemia about 5th 
century. 

City of Prague founded 759 

Introduction of Christianity 894 

Bohemia conquered by the emperor Henry III. who 

spreads devastation through the country . . 1041 
Ottocar (Premislas) I., first king of Bohemia . . 1198 
Ottocar II. rules over Austria, and obtains Styria, 

&c, 1253 ; refuses the imperial crown . . . 1272 
Ottocar vanquished by the emperor Rudolph and 
deprived of Austria, Styria and Carniola, 1277 ; 
killed at Marchfeld .... 26 Aug. 1278 

King John (blind), slain at the battle of Crecy . . 1346 
John Huss and Jerome of Prague, two of the first 
reformers, burnt for heresy ; which occasions an 
insurrection . . . 1415. 1416 

Ziska, leader of the Hussites, takes Prague, 1419 ; 

dies of the plague 1424 

Albert, duke of Austria, marries the daughter of the 
late emperor and king, and receives the crowns of 

Bohemia and Hungary 1437 

The succession infringed by Ladislas, son of the 
king of Poland, and George Podiebrad, a protes- 

tant chief 1440-1458 

Ladislas, king of Poland, elected king of Bohemia. 

on the death of Podiebrad 1471 

The emperor Ferdinand I. marries Anne, sister of 

Louis the late king, and obtains the crown . . 1527 
The emperor Ferdinand II., oppressing the protes- 
tants, is deposed, and Frederic the elector-pala- 
tine, elected king . . * . . .5 Sept. 1619 
Frederic, totally defeated at Prague, flees to 

Holland 9 Nov. 1620 

Bohemia secured to Austria by treaty . . . 1648 
Silesia and Glatz ceded to Prussia . . . . 1742 
Prague taken by the Prussians .... 1744 
Prussians defeat Austrians at Prague . . 6 May, 1757 

Revolt of the peasantry 1775 

Edict of Toleration promulgated 1781 

The French occupy Prague 1806 

Insurrection at Prague, 12 June ; submission, state 

of siege raised 20 July, 1848 

The Prussians enter Bohemia, which becomes the 

seat of war (see Germany, 1866) . . 24 June, 1866 
Agitation of the Czechs, who require the emperor 
to be crowned king of Bohemia with the crown of 
St. Wenceslas at'Prague . . . autumn, 1867 
Riots at Prague ; habeas corpus act suspended, 

10 Oct. 1868 
Bohemian agitation for self-government ; addresses 

to the emperor . . 14 Sept. and 5 Oct. 1870 

Manifesto of the emperor ... 14 Sept. 1871 
Bohemian deputies absent from the reichsrath, 

Dec. „ 
The " Young Czech " party defeated in the elections 

July, 1874 
Czech deputies enter reichsrath . . 8 Oct. 1879 
The motion of the Young Czechs in the assembly 
for the coronation of the emperor as king of 
Bohemia negatived, after several days' warm 

debate 6 Nov. 1889 

Peaceful settlement of the disputes between Czechs 
and Germans, in a conference, by the intervention 

of the emperor 17 — 19 Jan. 1890 

Peace confirmed at a meeting of the diet 19 May, „ 
Strike of about 6,000 miners at Niirschau ; light 

with military ; five men killed . .19 — 29 May, ,, 
The diet re-opened 14 Oct., the Young Czechs 

obstruct legislation Oct. ,, 

Meeting of the diet; the Young Czech party ob- 
structive ; the reconciliation of Germans and 

Czechs delayed Nov. „ 

The Briix mine inundated through heavy rains, 87 

colliers perish, announced . . 30 Nov. ,, 

The emperor intervenes to promote the passing of 
the compromised bill by the diet; the Young 
Czechs require autonomy like Hungary 

middle Dec. ,, 
Gradual dissolution of the Old Czech party (mode- 
rates) Dec. ,, 

The Austrian government determine to make no 
more concessions to the Czechs ; announced to 
the diet 5 Jan. 1891 



Useful legislation in the diet obstructed by the 
Young Czechs, about . . . .16 Jan. 1891 

The Young Czechs victorious in the elections ; Dr. 
Rieger, the venerable leader of the Old Czechs, 
and his party, totally defeated, 2 —4 March ; he 
retires from public life (died 3 March, 1903), 

March, ,, 

The emperor visits Prague to promote peace be- 
tween the Germans and Czechs, 26 Sept. — 1 Oct. ,, 

Explosion of a bridge at Rosenthal, over which 
the emperor was expected to pass . 30 Sept. ,, 

The government compromise discussed in the diet 
and strongly opposed ... 24 March, 1892 

Fire in the great silver mine, Birkenberg, near 
Przibram, about 319 deaths . . 31 May „ 

Disagreements in the diet ; ordered to be closed, 

17 May, 1893 

Disturbances of workmen at Prague and Briinn, 
suppressed 18 June ,, 

Repression of the Young Czech agitation in Prague, 
about 12 Sept. ,, 

Amnesty granted for political offences ; announced 
(see Prague, Dec. 1897) .... 5 Nov. 1895 

New language ordinance issued . . . Jan. 1898 

Palacky (Czech historian) centenary of birth cele- 
brated 19 June, „ 

Strike riots at Machod, 7 Jewish shops sacked and 
burnt, troops called out . . . 5, 6 April,' 1899 

Card, count Schoenborn, abp. of Prague, died, 
aged 55, about 25 June, ,, 

Fatal riots at Graslitz, troops called in, 20 Aug. ,, 

Language ordinances repealed, announced 17 Oct. ,, 

The emperor warmly received at Prague, 12-18 June, 1901 

Diet elections completed, Czech majority, 17 Oct. ,, 

Budget and language question discussed in the 
diet 24 July, 1902 

Bohemian language is the Czech, one of the most 
cultivated of the Slavonic dialects, it is also 
spoken in Moravia and N. Hungary ; its literature 
divides itself into three periods. From the 
earliest time to the burning of Huss, 1415 ; from 
1415 to Josef II. 's edict of toleration, 1781 ; and 
thence to the present time. The Bible translated 
during the 13th and 14th centuries. Thomas of 
Stitny, theo. and fix. 1373-1400 ; John Huss, theo. 
1365-1415 ; A. J. Puchmajer, p. 1795-1814; 
Polak's poem, "Sublimity of Nature," 1819 ; Dr. 
Polacky's history completed in German, 1867 ; in 
Bohemian, 1876. 

KINGS. 

1198. Premislas Ottocar I. 

1230. Wenceslas III. 

1253. Premislas Ottocar II. 

1278. Wenceslas IV., king of Poland. 

T305. Wenceslas V. 

1306. Rudolph of Austria. 

1307. Henry of Carinthia. 

1 3 10. John of Luxemburg (killed at Crecy). 
1346. Charles I., emperor (1347). 
1378. Wenceslas VI., emperor. 
1419. Sigismund I., emperor. 
1438. Albert of Austria, emperor. 
1440. Ladislas V. 
1458. George von Podiebrad. 
1471. Ladislas VI., king of Hungary (in 1490). 
1516. Louis, king of Hungary (killed at Mohatz). 
1526. Bohemia united to Austria under Ferdinand I. 
elected king. See Germfl/ny, emperors. 

BOHEMIAN BRETHREN, a body of 
Christians in Bohemia, appear to have separated 
from the Calixtines (which sec), a branch of the 
Hussites in 1467. Dupin says " They rejected the 
sacraments of the church, were governed by simple 
laics, and held the scriptures for their only rule of 
faith. They presented a confession of faith to king 
Ladislas in 1504 to justify themselves from errors 
laid to their charge." Luther, in 1533, testifies to 
their purity of doctrine, and Melanchthon commends 
their discipline. They were dispersed during the 
religious wars of Germany in the 17th century. 

BOHN'S LIBRARIES. Mr. H. G. Bohn 

began the publication of his "Standard Library" 
in 1846. This was followed by the classical, anti- 



BOIL 



163 



BOLOGNA. 



quarian, scientific and illustrated libraries, above 
600 volumes. Tbese were bought by Messrs. Bell 
and Daldy in 1864, who have added many other 
volumes. Mr. Bonn died 22 Aug. 1884, aged 90. 
His pictures, china, and works of art by sale, 
realized 45,000^. in 1885. 

BOII, a Celtic people of N. Italy, who emigrated 
into Italy, and were defeated at the Vadimonian 
lake, 283 B.C. They were finally subdued by Scipio 
Nasica, 191 b.c. 

BOILERS, STEAM- Many lives have been 
lost by their explosions. 23 persons were killed at 
Glasgow iron- works, 5 March, 1879; and 21 killed 
at the Birchill ironworks, near Walsall, 15 May, 
1880. Boilers Explosion Act, passed 1882, amended 
in 1890. See also Navy Boilers. 

By the explosion of a defective' neglected boiler at Mr. 
Mattison's bedding manufactory, Bhodeswell Road, 
Stepney, 4 men were killed and 17 persons injured, 
31 May, 1886. 

The annual average of explosions in six years ending 
June, 1888, was 47 ; deaths 30. 

1871-1890, 1,005 persons killed ; June, 1892-93, 20 deaths ; 
June, 1893-94, 24 deaths ; June, 1894-95, 43 deaths ; 
June, 1895-96, 25 deaths ; June, 1896-97, 27 deaths ; 
1898-99, 36 deaths ; 1900-01, 33 deaths ; 1901-2, 30 
deaths. 

Committee of inquiry issue report favouring legal inspec- 
tion, 20 July, igoo. 

BOILING TO DEATH, made a capital 
punishment in England, by stat. 22 Hen. VIII., 
1 53 1 (repealed in 1547). This act was occasioned 
by seventeen persons having been poisoned by 
Richard Rosse, otherwise Coke, the bishop of 
Rochester's cook, two of whom died. Margaret 
Davy, a young woman, suffered in the same manner 
for a similar crime, 28 March, 1542. Stow. 

BOIS-LE-DUC, Dutch Brabant, the site of a 
battle between the British and the French repub- 
lican army, in which the British were defeated, and 
forced to abandon their position and retreat to 
Schyndel, 14 Sept. 1794. This place was captured 
by the French, 10 Oct. following ; it surrendered 
to the Prussian army, under Bulow, in Jan. 1814. 

BOKHARA, the ancient Sogdiana, after suc- 
cessively forming part of the empires of Persia, of 
Alexander, and Bactriana, was conquered by the 
Turks in the 6th century, by the Chinese in the 7th, 
and by the Arabs about 705. After various changes 
of masters it was subdued by the Uzbek Tartars, its 
present possessors, in 1505. The British envoys, 
colonel Stoddart and captain Conolly, were mur- 
dered at Bokhara, the capital, by the khan, about 
17 June, 1842. Bokhara was visited by Dr. Joseph 
Wolff in 1844. In the war with Russia, begun in 
1866, the emir's army was defeated several times in 
May, et seq. Peace was made II July, 1867. The 
Russians were again victors, 25 May, 1868, and 
occupied Samarcand the next day. Further con- 
quests were made by the Russians, and Samarcand 
was secured by treaty, Nov. 1868. A new political 
and commercial treaty with Russia was published 
Dec. 1873. The right of the present khan, Said- 
Abdul- Ahad, since 1885, to the government being 
disputed, he appealed to Russia for protection Dec. 
1890. Population 1891, estimated 1,250,000 ; 
1894,2,130,000. The emir visits Russia : at Mos- 
cow, 8 Jan., at St. Petersburg, 13 Jan.~9 Feb. 
1893; again, May-June, 1898. See Asia. 

BOLIVIA, a republic in South America, for- 
merly part of Peru, population in 1875, about 



2,000,000; in 1880, 2,325,000; 1890, 1,189,800; 

1897 (estimated) 2,000,000. 

The insurrection of the ill-used Indians, headed by 

Tupac Amaru Andres, took place here . . 1780-2 
The country declared its independence . . 6 Aug. 1824 
Secured by the victory of Ayaeucho . . 9 Dec. ,, 
Took the name of Bolivia, in honour of general 

Bolivar n Aug. 1825 

First congress met 25 May, 1826 

General Sucre governed ably .... 1826-8 

Slavery abolished 1836 

Santa Cruz ruled 1828-39 

Gen. Velasco, president 9 Feb. 1839 

Jose Ballivian, president in 1841 

Gen. Belzu until 1855 

Free-trade proclaimed 1853 

General Cordova, president 1855-7 

Succeeded by J ose Maria Linares . 31 March, 1859 
George Cordova, constitutional president . . i860 
Succeeded by Jose M. de Acha . . . May, 1861 
General Melgarejo defeats the troops of president 

De Acha 28 Dec. 1864 

Becomes dictator of the republic . . Feb. 1865 

Puts down an insurrection under Belzu, March, ,, 
Totally defeats Arguedas at Viacha and publishes 

an amnesty 24 Jan. 1866 

Suppresses a revolt 17 Oct. „ 

Proclaims an amnesty .... 21 Dee. 1867 

Civil war 1867-70 

The president, A. Morales, 1871 ; said to have been 

murdered Jan. 1873 

President, Dr. Tomas Frias . . .14 Feb. 1874 
Corral's insurrection suppressed . . . Sept. „ 
General Hilarion Daza, president . . 4 May, 1876 
Bolivia joins Peru in war against Chili (see Chili) 

April, 1879 
Revolution ; Daza deposed ; flees ; Campero presi- 
dent 1 June, 1880 

Peace with Chili ; conditions finally settled . Dec. 1883 
Aniccto Arce (president 15 Aug.) suppresses a 

revolution Oct. 1888 

Insurrection of gen. Camacho suppressed, sen. Don 

Mariano Baptista declared president . 8 Aug. 1892 
Ultimatum addressed to Peru, demanding satis- 
faction, within 24 hours, for invasion of territory 
during the civil war, 10 July ; Bolivian minister 
recalled ; invasion of Peruvian troops, reported, 
15 July ; the dispute to be referred to arbi- 
tration 23 Aug. 1895 

Sen. Matta, the Chilian minister, assassinated by 

Jose Cuellar, 15 Aug. ; died . . .16 Aug. 1896 
Severo Fernandez Alonso assumes the presidency ; 

reported 20 Aug. ,, 

Revolutionary outbreak ; government forces 

defeated near La Paz . . . 17 Jan. 1899 

The Corocoro mining works attacked by the Indians, 
the manager kills his wife and colleague and him- 
self to avoid surrender ; reported . . 8 Feb. ,, 
Revolutionists victorious ; gen. Pando enters Orurd, 

pres. Alonso flies ; reported . . 21 April, ,, 
Frontier line of Cunha to Gomez adopted, Sep. ,, 
Gen. Pando elected president . . -24 Oct. ,, 
Rupture with Brazil : Bolivians defeated by 
Brazilians in the Acre territory, state of siege 

declared 9 Nov. 1902 

Arbitration treaty with Peru respecting boundaries 

signed 2 Jan. 1903 

Modus vivendi re Acre disputes signed . March ,, 

BOLLANDISTS, see Acta Sanctorum. 

BOLOGNA (central Italy), the ancient Fel- 
sina, afterwards Bononia, a city distinguished for 
its architecture, made a Roman colony, 189 B.C. 
Population 1890, 143,607 ; 1901, 152,009. 

A university said to have been founded by Theo- 

dosius, about 433 ; really in 1116 

Bologna joins the Lombard League . . . . n 67 
Pope Julius II. takes Bologna ; enters in triumph 

11 Nov. 1506 
It becomes part of the states of the Church . . 1513 
In the church of St. Petronius, remarkable for its 
pavement, Cassini drew his meridian line (over 
one drawn by Father Ignatius Dante in 1575) . 1653 

M 2 



BOLOMETEE. 



164 



BOMBAY. 



1815 
1 83 1 



1859 



Bologna was taken by the French, 1796 ; by the 
Austrians, 1799 ; again by the French, after the 
battle of Marengo, in 1800 ; and restored to the 
pope in 

A revolt suppressed by Austrian interference . 

Rebellion, 1848 ; taken by Austrians . 16 May, 

The Austrians evacuate Bologna : and cardinal Fer- 
retti departs : the citizens rise and form a pro- 
visional government . . . .12 June, 

Which decrees that all public acts shall be headed 
" Under the reign of king Victor Emmanuel," &c. 

T Oct. „ 

He enters Bologna as sovereign . . . 2 May, i860 
Exhibition opened by the king and queen . 6 May, 1888 
The king unveils statue of Victor Emmanuel, 
11 June; establishment of the University cele- 
brated n-i6June, ,, 

Serious affray between the army and the populace 
through caricatures in a Bologna paper, 1, 2 Aug. 1891 

BOLOMETEE (Greek bolos, a throw or cast), 
an electrical instrument, invented by prof. S. P. 
Langley, of U.S., who also terms it an "actinic 
balance." It is much more sensitive to radiant 
heat than the thermopile {Nature, 3 Nov. 1881). 
By its means he made discoveries in the ultra red 
rays of the spectrum. 

BOLTON, Lancashire, was stormed by prince 
Rupert, 1644. It was an early seat of the cotton 
manufacture. Cotton velvets were made here in 
1756, and muslins in 1782. Temple Opera-house 
burned 16 April, 1882. Bay ley's cotton works 
burned, several persons killed, and many injured; 
about 60,000^. worth damaged, 16 Aug. 1882. See 
Strikes 1887, 1890. Population 1881, 105,414; 
1891, 115,002; 1901, 168,205. 

Theatre Royal burnt, 4 Jan. ; 100Z. reward for discovery 
of suspected incendiary, about 5 Jan. 1S88. Robert 
Preston sentenced to twelve years' penal servitude 
for arson, 7 Feb. 1888. 

Great fire at the co-operative stores, estimated damage 
50,000?., 1 June, 1902; part of messrs. Blair & Sum- 
ner's bleachworks gutted, estimated damage 40,000?. 
30 Aug. 1902. 

BOMAESUND, a strong fortress on one of the 
Aland isles in the Baltic sea, taken by sir Charles 
Napier, commander of the Baltic expedition, aided 
by the French military contingent under general 
Baraguay d'Hilliers, 15 Aug. 1854. The governor 
Bodisco, and the garrison, about 2000 men, became 
prisoners. The fortifications were destroyed. 

BOMBAY, the most westerly and smallest of 
our Indian presidencies, was visited by the Portu- 
guese in 1509, and acquired by them in 1530. It 
was given (with Tangier in Africa, and 300,000?*. in 
money) to Charles II. as the marriage portion of the 
infanta Catherine of Portugal, 1662. In 1668, it 
was granted to the East India company, who had 
long desired it, "in free and common socage," as 
cf the manor of East Greenwich, at an annual rent 
of 10;. Confirmed by William III. 1689. The 
two principal castes at Bombay are the Parsees 
(descendants of the ancient Persian fire-worship- 
pers) and the Borahs (sprung from early converts 
to Islamism). They are both remarkable for com- 
mercial activity. Population: presidency, 1881, 
16,469,199; 1891, 18,873,342; 1901, 25",5oo,ooo 
(city and island, 776,006). 

First British factory established at Ahmedmiggur . 1612 
Mr. Gyfibrd, deputy-governor, 100 soldiers, and 

other English, perish through the climate, 

Oct. 1675— Feb. 1676 
Captain Keigwin usurps the government . . 1681-84 
Bombay made chief over the company's settlements 1687 
The whole island, except the fort, seized and held 

for a time by the mogul's admiral . . . . i6go 
Bombay becomes a distinct presidency . 1708 



Additions to the Bombay territory : — Bancot river,. 

1756 ; island of Salsette 

Bishopric established 

Lord Elphinstone governor 

The benevolent sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, a Parsee 

(who erected several hospitals, <fcc), dies 15 April, 
His son sir Cursetjee, visits England 

Sir G. R. Clerk, governor 

Rioting against the income-tax suppressed Nov. Dec. 
Sir Henry Bartle Frere, governor . . March, 
Greatly increased prosperity through the cotton 

trade, leads to immense speculation . . Nov. 
Reported failure of Mr. Byramjee Cama, a Parsee, 

for 3,300,000?. ; other failures, and great depres- 
sion ; the projected international exhibition in 

1867 abandoned May, 

Recovering from commercial crisis . . Aug. 
Mr. (after sir) W. R. Seymour Fitzgerald, appointed 

governor, Nov. 1866 ; arrived . . 28 Feb. 
Held a durbar of native princes, at Poona . 6 Oct. 
Grand reception of the duke of Edinburgh, n March, 
Sir Philip Wodehouse, governor . . April, 
Riots : Mahometans attack Parsees for publishing 

part of Washington Irving's "Life of Mahomet"; 

lives lost and property destroyed . 13-15 Feb. 

Culprits punished by the British 

The prince of Wales warmly received, 8 Nov. 1875 ; 

sailed from here for home . . . 13 March, 
Meeting of loyal Mahometans to petition the epieen 

in favour of the Sultan ... 24 Sept. 
Sir Richard Temple, governor . . . early 
Dreadful famine, relieved by government and 

by British subscriptions 

Statue of the prince of Wales (given by sir Albert 

Sassoon), uncovered , . 26 or 27 June, 

Sir James Fergusson nominated governor . Feb. 
A patriotic fund to relieve sufferers by Afghan war, 

liberally subscribed to by natives and others, Aug. 
Lord Reay appointed governor . . . Dec. 
Native troops sail for the Soudan . . 23 Feb. 
For the Crawford Case, see India .... 
George R. Canning, Lord Harris, appointed governor 

(Lord Reay having resigned), 18 Nov., 1889 ; 

arrives 11 April, 

An epidemic prevails resembling influenza, 

Feb.-March, 
The duke of Connanght commander-in-chief of 

Bombay, with the duchess, much esteemed, leaves 

for home 13 March, 

Prince Albert Victor of Wales lands at Bombay, 9 

Nov. 1889, after a tour in India ; departs for 

England 28 March, 

Lady Du (term's hospital for women opened by the 

viceroy 24 Oct. 

The collapse of a large ill-built house in the city ; 

about 30 persons killed .... 17 Dec. 
Great tire at Poonah, over 200 houses destroyed 

12 Jan. 
Destructive floods through heavy rains about 

29 July, 
The viceroy opens the new Bombay waterworks, 

great undertaking, designed by major Tulloch 

31 March, 
62 persons drowned in the great tank . 17 April, 
Banking difficulties . . . March-May, 
Gen. sir John Hudson, commander of Bombay 

army, killed by a fall from his horse, 9 June ; 

succeeded by major-gen. C. E. Nairne . Aug. 
Hindoo and Mahometan rioting quelled by troops 

end of June ; renewed ; about 60 persons killed ; 

mosques and temples desecrated, n, 13 Aug. ; 

1,500 arrests ..... 15 Aug. 

(Riots attributed to the Cow Protection Society.) 
Bombay and Madras Armies Act passed . 5 Dec. 
Lord Sandhurst appointed governor, Dec. 1894, 

arrived 18 Feb. 

Statue of Lord Reay unveiled by lord Sandhurst, 

19 Dee. 
Lord Sandhurst cuts the first sod of the Ahmadabad- 

Prantij railway 14 Feb. 

Sir Albert Sassoon. an eminent benefactor of the 

city, born 1818, died at Brighton . 24 Oct. 
Epidemic ot bubonic plague in Bombay city ; 

remedial measures adopted ; segregation of 

patients, &c, Oct. ; panic and exodus, scarcity 

of food, rioting and bloodshed atSholapur, 8 Nov. 

1896 ; great mortality among cattle, no fodder 

Jan. 



I77S 
1837 
1853 

1859, 
i860 



1865 



1870 
1872 



1874 
1876 
187? i, 

18791 



BOMBAY. 



165 



BONAPARTE. 



Population returning, 30 April ; mortality about 
normal 28 May, 

Many persons inoculated by Dr. Haffkine ; a 
monthly salary granted him by government, May, 

Death of surgeon-major Robt. Manser, of the Jam- 
setjee hospital, active investigator of the plague 

6 Jan. 

Lieut. C. E. Ayerst shot dead while driving, and 
Mr. W. C. Band, Poona plague commissioner, 
mortally wounded near Poona . . 22 June, 

Seditious leaflets circulated in Poona and Bom- 
bay, June ; incendiary articles in native journals 
against the government, &c, reported 24 Jane, 

Punitive police force occupies Poona . 30 June, 

Meeting of citizens, firm speech of Mr. Lamb, 
magistrate 30 June, 

'The brothers Natu (two Brahmins) imprisoned and 
deported for disloyalty to the British govern- 
ment under a lettre de cachet law of 1827 ; (re- 
leased May, 189S ;) other native editors arrested 

28, 29 July, 

Large peaceful meeting of Mahomedans and Hindus 
at Poona 2 Aug. 

Plague increasing in Bombay and Poona, Aug. -Nov. 

Trial of Mr. Tilak for seditious writing begins, 8 
Sept. ; sentenced to 18 months' imprisonment, 
14 Sept. ; appeal rejected, 24 Sept. ; others con- 
victed Nov. 

Reconstruction of the city, sanitation, etc., sup- 
ported by government .' . . . .Oct. 

Serious riot in Gujarat, 5 sepoys killed ; reported 

13 Jan. 

Destructive riots against the plague measures at 
Sinnar, a hospital assistant killed ; 150 arrests 

29 Jan. 

Damodar Chapekar confesses to the murder of Mr. 
Rand and lieut. Ayerst (see above, 22 June), 4 Oct. 
1897 ; tried, sentenced to death . . 3 Feb. 

Great increase of plague since Dec. 1897 ; exodus 
and stagnation of business ; 71,000 deaths from 
Sept. 1896, to end of Feb. 1898 ; serious rioting 
with loss of life, troops called out ; many arrests, 
9-1 1 March; town quiet, 14 March ; plague riot 
in Garshanker, a village, 9 rioters killed, 29 April, 

Dr. Haffkine reports 8,200 persons inoculated 
during the winter, 1897— S. 

Plague commission (prof. T. R. Fraser, F.R.S.), pre- 
sident, arrives 26 Nov. 1898; see India, Nov. 1898 
and Nov. 1901 ; exodus of natives continues, Feb. 
1899; 3rd epidemic, average deaths daily 350 
(lord Sandhurst actively superintends relief 
measures), 6 camps and 26 plague hospitals in 
Bombay, segregation successful, total deaths 
94,000, up to 3 March, 

Two Brahmins named Dravid, witnesses against 
Chapekar, see above, assassinated at Poona, 8 Feb. 

Vasudev Chapekar and two others sentenced to 
death for the murder of Mr. Rand and lieut. 
Ayerst ; Salhe, an accomplice, to 10 years im- 
prisonment 5 March, 

Lieut. -gen. sir Chas. Nairne, late commander-in- 
chief, died, aged 62 . . . .19 Feb. 

Serious caste riots in the Tinnevelli and Madura 
districts, 150 villages attacked, houses burnt, 25 
persons killed, 6-13 June ; quiet restored, 22 June, 

Failure of the monsoon, famine relief started 

mid. Sept. 

See India, 1900, 1901, 1902. 

Plague increasing ; many deaths reported, 20 Dec. 
1899; high mortality, 376 deaths on 12 Jan. 1900, 
408 deaths on 6 Feb. 

Sir Stafford Northcote appointed governor, Oct. 
1899 ; made a peer Jan. 1900 ; arrives . 16 Feb. 

Cholera mortality high, specially in famine-stricken 
districts, May, et seq.; 6,669 deaths in week end- 
ing 23 June, 

Plague reappears in Bombay ; many deaths, 13 Feb. ; 
400 deaths 25, 26 Feb. 

Sir Dinshaw M. Petit, eminent Parsee millionaire 
and benefactor, died, aged 78 . . 5 May, 

Land revenue bill passed by the legislative council, 

25 Aug. 

Good rainfall, rapid decrease of famine relief, 
reported 2 g e pt. 

Lord Lamington appointed governor in succession 
to lord Northcote Aug. 

Departure of lord Northcote (see Australia) 5 Sept.' 



BOMBS (iron shells filled with gunpowder), 
said to have been invented at Venlo, in 1495, and 
used by the Turks at the siege of .Rhodes in 1522. 
They came into general use in 1634, having been 
previously used only by the Dutch and Spaniards. 
Bomb-vessels were invented in France in 1681. 
Voltaire. The shrapnel shell (invented by colonel 
Henry Shrapnel, who died in 1042) is a bomb filled 
with balls, and a lighted fuse to make it explode 
before it reaches the enemy. 

BONA, Algeria ; an early station of the French 
African company, till 1789. It was taken by the 
French from the Arabs, 6 May, 1832. 

BONAPARTE, or BUONAPARTE, 

FAMILY. The name appears at Florence and 
Genoa in the 13th century ; in the 15th a branch 
settled in Corsica. See Table in Vincent's " Dic- 
tionary of Biography." 
Charles Bonaparte, born 29 March, 1746, died 24 Feb., 

1785. He married in 1767, Letitia Ramolina (born 

24 Aug., 1750, died Feb. 1836) ; issue, 

1. Joseph, born 7 Jan. 1768, made king of Two Sicilies, 
1805 ; of Naples alone, 1806 ; of Spain, 1808 ; resides 
in United States, 1815 ; comes to England, 1832 ; 
settles in Italy, 1841 ; dies at Florence, 28 July, 1844. 

2. Napoleon I. , emperor, born 15 Aug. 1769 (see France.) 

3. Lucien, prince of Canino, born 1775 ; at first aided 
his brother Napoleon, but opposed his progress towards 
universal monarchy. He was taken by the English on 
his way to America, and resided in England till 1814. 
He died at Viterbo, 30 June, 1840. His son Charles 
(born 1803, died 1857) was an eminent naturalist. 
Charles Napoleon, prince of Canino, born 1839, died 
about 12 Feb. 1899. His granddaughter, Mme. Studol- 
mine Bonaparte Wyse (Rattazzi), a brilliant woman 
and writer, died, aged about 71, 6 Feb. 1902. 
Louis Lucien, an eminent philologist, born in 1813 ; 
published his translations of parts of the Bible in several 
English dialects ; received a pension of 250Z. from 
the British government ; died 3 Nov. 1891. 

4. Louis, born 2 Sept. 1778 ; made king of Holland, 1806; 
died 15 July, 1846. By his marriage with Hortense 
Beauharnais (daughter of the empress Josephine), in 
1802, he had three sons : 1. Napoleon Louis (born 1803, 
died 1807) : 2. Louis Napoleon (born 1804, died 1831) ; 
and 

3. Charles-Louis-Napoleon, born 20 April, 1808 ; 

educated under the care of his mother at Aremberg, 

Switzerland, and at Thun, under general Dufour ; 

took part in the Carbonari insurrection in the Papal 

States in March, 1831 
Attempted a revolt at Strasbourg, 30 Oct. 1836. 
Sent to America, 13 Nov. 1836. 
Repairs to London, 14 Oct. 1838. 
Lands at Boulogne with fifty followers, 6 Aug. 1840. 
Condemned to imprisonment for life, 6 Oct. 1840. 
Escapes from Ham, 25 May, 1846. 
Arrives at Boulogne, 2 March, 184S. 
Elected deputy, 8 June ; and takes his seat, 27 Aug. 
see France 1848-71 : died at Chislehurst, 9 Jan. 1873. 

Son : Napoleon Eugene Louis Jean Joseph ; born 
16 March, 1856 ; educated at military academy, 
Woolwich ; killed in Zululand. June 1, 1879. 
Both buried at Chislehurst ; removed to a mausoleum 

at Farnborough, 9 Jan. 1888. 

5. Jerome, born 15 Nov. 1784 ; king of Westphalia, 
1 Dec. 1807-1814 ; [married : I. Elizabeth Paterson, in 
America, 24 Dec. 1803 ; son Jerome, born at Camber- 
well, London, 7 July, 1805 (she died, aged 94, 4 April, 
1879). II. Princess Catherine, of Wurtemberg, 12 Aug. 
1807.] Made governor of the Invalides, 1848 ; and 
marshal, 1850 ; died 24 June, i860 ; his children — 

Mathilde, born 27 May, 1820 ; married to prince 
A. Demidoff in 1841. 

Napoleon, born 9 Sept. 1822 ; married princess Clo- 
tilde of Savoy, 30 Jan. 1859, died 17 March, 1891 : 
issue, Victor, born 18 July, 1862 : Louis, born 16 
July, 1864 : Marie, born 20 Dec. 1866 ; prince Victor 
separates from his father ; accepted as chief by the 
Bonapartists ; the father publishes painful corre- 
spondence, June, 18S4. Expelled from Franca 
(see France) May-June, i836 ; disinherited March, 
1891 ; accepted as head of the family 31 March, 



BOND. 



166 



BOOK. 



BOND, Dutch for league, a name adopted by 
the Dutch-speaking population of Southern Africa, 
see Afrikander and Boers. Bonds, see Foreign. 

BONDAGE, see Villanage. 

BONDED WAREHOUSES, see Excise. 

BONES. The art of softening bones was dis- 
covered about 1688, and they were used in the 
cutlery manufacture, &c, immediately afterwards. 
The declared value of the bones of cattle and of 
other animals, and of fish (exclusive of whale-fins) 
imported into the United Kingdom from Russia, 
Prussia, Holland, Denmark, &c, amounted to 
363,613^. in 1851, to 659,416^. in 1871, to 741,899/. 
m 1877, to 617,748/. in 1883, to 313,765/. in 1887, 
to 449,526/. in 1890. Bone-dust has been extensively 
employed in manure since the publication of Liebig' s 
researches in 1840. 

BONE-SETTINGf cannot be said to have 
been practised scientifically until 1620. Bell. 

The ignorant "bone-setters" often did good and 
often harm ; the principle upon which they acted 
is now adopted by surgeons : and is set forth in 
Dr. Wharton Hood's work on "The Setting and 
Treatment of Joints," 1871. 
Mr. John Hutton, an eminent (unprofessional) 
" bone-setter," died July, 1887. 

BON MARCHE (cheap). Name given by 
some shopkeepers in London to their mode of 
selling goods to the poor at very small profits ; 
now applied to great establishments in London, 
Paris, and many large provincial towns. 
The system was originated at Paris by Mdme. 
Boucicault, originally a shop-girl ; about 1842, 
she, with her husband, opened a shop in the 
time of deep distress for meeting the wants 
of the poorest people. In time her business 
greatly increased w ith enlarged premises, and she 
adopted the system of the division of profits with 
her employed. She realised a large fortune, and 
became a munificent benefactress of the city. She 
died in Dec. 1887, worth it is said four "million 
pounds sterling. M. Crespin de Vidouville, a simi- 
lar eccentric character, died at Paris 20 Feb. 1888. 

BONN, atown on the Rhine (the Roman Bonna) , 
was in the electorate of Cologne. It has been 
frequently besieged, and was assigned to Prussia 
in 1814. The academy founded by the elector in 
1777, made a university 1784 ; abolished by Napo- 
leon; re-established and enlarged, 1818. Here 
Albert, our late prince consort, was entered as a 
student, May, 1837. Population 1890, 39,801 ;• 
1900, 50,737- 

BONNY RIVER, Guinea, West Africa; a 
seat of the palm oil trade ; king George visited 
England in 1878. A sanguinary battle was fought 
between the king Oko Jumbo and the people of 
New Calabar, who were defeated, 9 April, 1882. Peace 
made by British intervention on Aug. 14, 1882. 
King Oko Jumbo visited London, summer 1885 ; left 

15 July, 1885 ; his death reported Aug. 1891. 
Government offices, etc., destroyed by fire at Old Cala- 
bar, 24 Nov. 1895. 
Death of king Duke, the. last of the Old Calabar kings, 

at Duketown, early Nov. i8q6. 
See Niger Coast Protectorate. 

BONS HOMMES, hermits of simple and 
gentle lives, appeared in France about 12^7; in 
England about 1283. The prior of the order was 
called le bon howme by Louis VI. 

BOOK (Anglo-Saxon, boo; German, buch). 
Books were O'iffinallv made of boards, or the inner 



bark of trees : afterwards of skins and parchment. 
Papyrus, an indigenous plant, was adopted in 
Egypt. Books with leaves of vellum were invented 
by Attalus, king of Pergamus, about 198 B.C.. at 
which time books were in volumes or rolls. The 
MSS. in Herculaneum consist of papyrus, rolled 
and charred and matted together by the fire, and 
are about nine inches long, and one, two, or three 
inches in diameter, each being a separate treatise. 
The first Printed Books (see Printing) were 
printed on one side only, the leaves being pasted 
back to back. See Libraries. 

Title-pages to printed books in England were not 
introduced till shortly before 1490, they were 
used by Wynkyn de Worde, but not by Caxton, 
in the 15th century. Mr. A. W. Pollard's " Last 
words on Title-pages," appeared in 1891. See 
Printing. 

Books of astronomy and geometry were ordered to 
be destroyed in England as being infected with 
magic, 6 Edw. VI. (Stow) .... 1552 

Anne's act, 1709, relating to the price of books, 
repealed 1739 

2032 volumes of new works, and 773 of new editions, 
were published in London in .... 1839 

3359 new works, and 1159 new editions, and 908 
pamphlets, were published in 1852 

3553 volumes were published in ... . 1864 
Published in Great Britain : — 





New 


New 




New 


New 




Works. 


Editions. 




Works. 


Editions. 


1870 


• 4775 




1887 


. 4410 


1276 


1871 


• 3547 


1288 


1888 


. 4960 


1631 


1872 


• 3419 


1 100 


1889 


• 4 6 94 


1373 


1874 


• 3351 


961 


1890 


• 4414 


132 1 


i»75 


• 3573 


1331 


1891 


■ 4429 


1277 


1876 


■ 2931 


1957 


1892 


• 49 J 5 


1339 


1877 


• 3049 


2046 


1893 


• 5129 


1253 


1878 


• 3730 


1584 


1894 


• 53°° 


1185 


1879 


• 4294 


1540 


1895 


• 558i 


935 


1880 


• 4293 


1415 


1896 


• 5234 


1339 


188 r 


. 4110 


1296 


1897 


. 6244 


1682 


1882 


• 3978 


1146 


1898 


. 6008 


150S 


1883 


• 4732 


I4 J 3 


1899 


• 5971 


1596 


1884 


. 4832 


I54 1 


1900 


• 5760 


1389 


iBSs 


• 43°7 


J 333 


1901 


. 6044 




1886 


• 3984 


1226 


1902 


• 738i 





The production of a Universal Catalogue of books 
printed in the United Kingdom, proposed by the 
Society of Arts, in the " Journal " . n April, 1879 

See Bibliography. 

Prices of Books.— Jerome (who died 420) states that 
he had ruined himself by buying a copy of the works of 
Origen. A large estate was given by Alfred for a book 
on cosmography, about 872. The Soman de la Rose was 
sold for about 30?. ; and a homily was exchanged for 
200 sheep and five quarters of wheat. Books frequently 
fetched double or treble their weight in gold. They sold 
at prices varying from 10?. to 40J. each in 1400. A copy 
of Macklin's Bible, ornamented by Mr. Toiukins, was 
declared worth 500 guineas. Butler. A yet more superb 
copy was insured in a London office for 3000?. See 
Boccaccio's Decamerone. 

Petrarca by Bernardino di Novara, 14SS, at the Sun- 
derland sale bought by 15. Quai'itcn fur 1950/., 11 
Nov. 1882; hegave forsir John Thorold's Mazarin 
bible, 3900?. 13 Dee. ; and his "Psalnioruiii Codex," 
4950Z 19 Dec. 1884 

Book-Binding. — The book of St. Cuthbert, a very 
early ornamental book, is supposed to have beeu 
bound about 650 

A Latin Psalter was bound in oak boards, 9th, 
century. 

A MS. copy of the four Evangelists, the book on 
which our kings from Henry I. to Edward VI. 
took their coronation oath, was bound in oaken 
boards, nearly an inch thick 

Velvet was the covering in the 14 th century; and 
silk -soon alter. Vellum was introduced early in 
the 15th century; it was stamped and orna- 
mented about hoc 

Leather came into use about the same time. 



BOOK-KEEPING. 



167 



BORDEAUX. 



The rolling machine, invented by Mr. Win. Burr, 
was substituted for the beating-hammer, and gas 
stoves began to take the place of the charcoal 
fires used to heat the gilder's finishing tools, 

about 1830 

Cloth binding superseded the common boards 
generally about 1831 

Caoutchouc or india-rubber backs to account-books 
and large volumes were introduced in . . . 1841 

The use of thin metal plates instead of paste- 
board introduced 1886 

"Bookbindings" by Byre and Spottiswoode . 1895 

" English book-bindings in the British museum," 
1896, and " Foreign book-bindings," by W. Y. 
Fletcher 1897 

Exhibition at the Society of Arts, opened 24 Jan. 

et seq 1898 

..Cheap Books. — Mrs. (aft. lady) Brassey's "Voyage 
of the Sunbeam," Nov. 1881, published for six- 
pence (she died, 14 Sept. 1887) ; and Martin's 
" Life o"f the Prince Consort," for 2s. 6d. 

Autumn 1881 

Book-Hawking Societies (already in Scotland) 
begun in England in 1851 by archdeacon Wigram 
(afterwards bishop of Rochester). The hawkers 
vend moral and religious books in a similar man- 
ner to the French colporteurs. 

" Books about Books," a series, 1893, et seq. Mr. 
W. J. Hardy's " Book Plates," 1893, et seq. 

A Book Plate or Ex Libris society was formed in 
1891 ; exhibitions held in London . . 1894-5 

" The Book-hunter in London," by Mr. Wm. 
Roberts, is full of information . . Nov. 1895 

H. B. Wheatley s "Prices of Books" published, 

Aug. 1898 

"Book Prices Current. Prices at which Books 
have been sold at auction." Vol. 1, 1887 ; vol. 16, 

Oct. 1902 

BOOK-KEEPING. The system by double- 
entry, called originally Italian book-keeping, was 
taken from the course of algebra published by 
Burgo, in the loth century, at Venice. John 
Gowghe, a printer, published a treatise "on the 
kepyng of the famouse reconynge . . . Debitor 
and Creditor," London, 1543. This is our earliest 
work on book-keeping. James Peele published his 
Book-keeping in 1569. John Mellis published "A 
Briefe Instruction and Manner how to Keepe Bookes 
of Accompts," in 1588. Improved systems were 
published by Benjamin Booth in 1789 and by Edw. 
Thos. Jones in 1821 and 1831. 

BOOK OF COMMON PRAYER, see 

Common Prayer. " Book of the Dead," see Dead. 
Book of Sports, see Sports. Book Dost, see Post. 

BOOK SOCIETY, 28, Paternoster-row, es- 
tablished for the gratuitous distribution of bibles 
and good books, 1750. 

BOOKS, National, Coloured. See under Blue- 
Books . 

BOOKSELLERS, at first migratory like 
hawkers, became known as stationarii, from their 
practice of having booths or stalls at the corners of 
streets and in markets. They were long subject to 
vexatious restrictions, from which they were freed 
in 1758. 

The earliest bookseller's catalogue is said to be that 
published by Andrew Maunsell, of Lothbury, dedicated 
to queen Elizabeth, 1595. 

"Booksellers' Provident Institution" founded 1837; 
" Retreat," Abbot's Langley, Herts, 1843. 

The Bookseller, a monthly newspaper of British and 
foreign literature, published in 1858 ; with it was incor- 
porated Bent's Literary Advertiser, established in 1802. 

BOOKSELLERS' ASSOCIATION. For 

upwards of 100 years publishers associated to bring 
out works of reference and books of a popular 
character. This- kind of partnership was usually 



agreed at a trade dinner of the associated book- 
sellers. This custom developed into the trade 
dinners given annually by leading publishers, at 
which prices and issues of important works were 
settled. Messrs. Longman & Co.'s last dinner was 
in 1872, John Murray's in 1887, Messrs. Bentley & 
Son, 1897. On 29 Dec. 1828, the chief publishers 
in London formed themselves into an association 
and fixed the amount of discount to be allowed, 
and restricted the retail booksellers from selling 
copies of works under the full publishing price. 
A dispute arose which was referred to lord chief 
justice Campbell, at Stratheden house, 14 April. 
1852. His lordship gave judgment against the 
association, which led to its dissolution, 19 May 
following. The London Booksellers' society was 
formed ; the inaugural dinner took place 2 Oct. 
1890. Association of booksellers of Great Britain, 
conferences held 1895. 

BOOTHIA FELIX, a large peninsula, N.W. 
point of America, discovered by sir John Boss in 
1830, and named after sir Felix Booth, who had 
presented him with 20,000/. to fit out his polar 
expedition. Sir Felix died at Brighton in Feb. 1850. 

BOOTHISM, see Salvation Army. 

BOOTS, said to have been the invention of the 
Carians, were mentioned by Homer, 907 B.C., and 
frequently by the Roman historians. A variety of 
forms may be seen in Fairholt's " Costume in Eng- 
land." An instrument of torture termed " the 
boot " was used in Scotland upon the covenanters 
about 1666. 

A new system of boot-making introduced by Mr. M. 
L. Lion and Mr. F. Cutlan, reversing the ordinary 
method, July, 1887. 

See Strikes, March, 1890, Aug. 1892, et seq. 6 March- 
19 April, 1895. 

National conference of the boot and shoe trade at 
Leicester, Jan. 1894. 

Leicester arbitration board dissolved. 28 Feb. 1895. 

Boots and shoes of our ancestors, as exhibited by the 
Cordwainers' company, by W. H. Button, 1898. 

Great competition in the trade due to large American 
and foreign imports in recent years still continues in. 
1903. 

BORAX (Boron), known to the ancients, used 
in soldering, brazing, and casting gold and other 
metals, was called chrysocolla. Borax is produced 
naturally in the mountains of Thibet, and was 
brought to Europe from India about 1 713. Hom- 
berg in 1702 discovered in borax boracic acid, which 
latter in 1808 was decomposed by Gay-Lussac, 
Thenard, and H. Davy, into oxygen and the pre- 
viously unknown element, boron. Borax has lately 
been found in Saxony. It is now largely manu- 
factured from the boracic acid found in certain 
lagoons in Tuscany. Very largely used as an anti- 
septic and in preservation of perishable foods, 1 903. 

BORDEAUX (W. France), the Roman Bur- 
digalla, in Aquitania, was taken by the Goths, 412 ; 
by Clovis, 508. It was gained by Henry II. on his 
marriage with Eleanor of Aquitaine, 1151. Edward 
the Black Prince brought John, king of France, 
captive to this city after the battle of Poictiers, 
19 Sept. 1356, and here held his court eleven 
years: his son, our Richard II., was born at Bor- 
deaux, 1366. After several changes Bordeaux finally 
surrendered to Charles VII. of France, 14 Oct. 1453. 
The fine equestrian statue of Louis XV. was erected 
in 1743. Bordeaux was entered by the victorious 
British army after the battle of Orthez, fought 
27 Feb. 1814. — 13 vessels were burnt and others 
injured in the port through the ignition and 



BORNEO. 



168 



BOSCOBEL. 



explosion of petroleum spirit, 28 Sept. 1869. The 
French delegate government and the represen- 
tatives of foreign powers removed here from Tours, 
II Dec. 1870. M. Gambetta remained for a time 
with the army of the Loire. By the " pacte de 
Bordeaux," between the different parties of the 
national assembly, M. Thiers became chief of the 
executive power, 17 Feb. 1871. The French Asso- 
ciation for the Advancement of Science held its 
first meeting here, 5 Sept. 1872 ; M. Quatrefages, 
president. Great fire in the pine forests, 10 persons 
perish, about 28 Aug. 1891. The Bordeaux wines, 
Medoc, Claret, etc. largely exported ; see Vines, 
1881-91, and Wine. Population, 1891, 238,899; 
1901, 257,471. 

BORNEO, an island in the Indian Ocean, the 
largest in the world except Australia and New 
Guinea, was early known to the Chinese. 

The Dutch trade here in 1604 ; establish factories, 
1609 ; abandon them, 1623 ; re-establish them . 1776 

Sarawak settled by sir James Brooke ; appointed 
rajah 1841 

The pirates of Borneo chastised by the British in 
1813, and by captain Keppel in . . March, 1843 

;>By a treaty with the sultan, through the instru- 
mentality of sir J. Brooke, the island of Labooan, 
or Labuan (N. W. of Borneo), and its dependen- 
cies, incorporated with the British empire, and 
formally taken possession of in presence of the 
Bornean chiefs 2 Dec. 1846 

James Brooke, rajah of Sarawak (1846), governor of 
Labuan and consul-general of Borneo, visits 
England and receives many honours . . Oct. 1847 

He destroys many of the Bornean pirates . . . 1849 

Labuan made a bishopric ; the bishop (F. J. Mae- 
Dougall) consecrated at Calcutta, the first English 
bishop consecrated out of England . 18 Oct. 1855 

The Chinese in Sarawak rise in insurrection and 
massacre a number of Europeans ; sir J. Brooke 
escapes by swimming across a creek ; he speedily 
returns with a force of Malays, &c, and chas- 
tises the insurgents, of whom 2000 are killed, 

17, 18 Feb. 1857 

He comes to England to seek help from the govern- 
ment, without success 1S58 

His health being broken up, an appeal for a sub- 
scription for him made ,, 

Deputation of merchants waits on the eail of Derby 
recommending the purchase of Sarawak, which 
is declined 30 Nov. ,, 

Sir J. Brooke returns to Borneo . . 20 Nov. i860 

Returned to England ; died, succeeded by his 
nephew, sir Charles Johnson Brooke (born 3 
June, 1829) 11 June, 1868 

The rajah of Sarawak, with an expedition of Malays 
and Dyaks, defeats and punishes a marauding 
decapitating tribe of Dyaks . . . June, 1870 

British North Borneo company gazetted, 8 Nov. ; 
threatened protest of Spanish government Nov. 1881 

Meeting of committee in London . . 3 Oct. 1882 

Freedom of trade in the ai-chipelago settled by 
Great Britain, Germany, and Spain, 1877 > further 
with Spain 1884 

Sultan Hasim Jalilal Alain succeeds . . May, 1885 

North Borneo reported prosperous . . May, ,, " 

Rebels defeated . . 10 Feb., war over April, 1889 

Rajah Brooke, nf Sarawak, annexes the Limbang 
region of Brunei on .... 17 March, 1890 

He proclaims his son, Charles Vyner Brooke, 
aged 17, his heir, as Rajah Muda : announced 

7 Aug. 1891 

North Borneo, with Sarawak and Brunei, consti- 
tuted a British protectorate, 1885 ; governor, 
Charles V. Crcagh, 1892 ; Leicester Paul Beaufort 1895 

Mat Salleh, native chief, and 60 rebels attack and 
burn Gaja, 50 mi. north of Labuan ; the treasury 
looted ; Mr. Neubronner and two others taken 
prisoners, 11 July, 1897: rescued; flight of 
rebels 16 July, 1897 

Ambong attacked by Mat Salleh, residency burnt 
down, rebels retreat to the hills . 13 Nov. ., 



Expedition of about 50 police, under adjutant 
Jones, Mr. Hewitt, the resident, and two officers, 
attack the rebel fort ; adj. Jones and 6 Sikhs 

killed 13 Dec. 1897 

Fort Ranau taken, 105 rebels killed . . 9 Jan. 1898 
Final submission of Mat Salleh . . 19, 22 April, ,, 
Gov. Beaufort and Mr. Fraser well received by 

Mat Salleh 23 Jan. 1899 

British N. Borneo company occupy the Tambunan 

country by native request .... July, ,, 
Native rising under Mat Salleh ; capt. Harrington 

captures 2 forts and villages . . 8, 9 Jan. 1900 
Mat Salleh's fort bombarded, 21 Jan. et seq. ; he 
and many others killed, 31 Jan. ; the fort and 
many prisoners taken . . . . 1 Feb. ,, 
Kudat raided, but recaptured. . . 28 April, ,, 

The rajah of Sarawak's Trusun expedition reported 

successful 31 May, ,, 

Mr. Hugh Clifford, governor . Jan. — 21 Sept. ,, 
Mr. E. W. Birch, U.M.G., appointed governor . . 1901 
Railway opened from Jesselton, W. Coast, to Beau- 
fort (60 m.) end March, ,, 

Telegraphic communication between Kudat and 

London completed ; reported . . 14 May, 1902 
Strong punitive expedition under the rajah Mudah, 
Mr. Vyner Brooke, against Bantin, aDyak chief, 
attacked by cholera, over 1000 deaths, 9-19 June, ,, 
Rajah of Sarawak subdues the Dyak tribes, 2 Apr. 1903 

BORNOU, an exlensive kingdom in central 
Africa, explored by Denham and Clapperton (sent 
out by the British government), in 1822. The 
population is estimated by Denham at 5,000,000, 
by Barth. at 9,000,000. Rabah, an adventurer who 
had subdued the kingdom ; defeated and killed by 
the French at Kusli, reported, 20 July, 1900. See 
French IF. Africa and Niger Coast, 1901-2. 

BORODINO, a Russian village on the river 
Moskwa, near which a sanguinary battle was fought, 
7 Sept. 1812, between the French under Napoleon, 
and the Russians under Kutusoff; 240,000 men 
being engaged. Each party claimed the victory ; 
but the Russians retreated, leaving Moscow, which 
the French entered, 14 Sept. ; see Moscow. 

BORON, see Borax. 

BOROUGH or BURGH, anciently a fortified 
town (bnrh), now means an incorpoi-ated city or 
town. They are all (except city of London) 
governed under the Municipal Corporations Act, 
1882. County boroughs were incorporated under 
the Local Government Act, 1888. Parliamentary 
boroughs are the electoral divisions which send 
members to parliament, since the election of 
burgesses in the reign of Henry III. (1265). They 
do not of necessity coincide with the Municipal 
boroughs which give them their name. Charters 
were granted to towns by Henry I. 1 132; which 
were remodelled by Charles II. in 1682-4, Dl 't re " 
stored in 1G88. 22 new English boroughs were 
created in 1553. Burgesses were first admitted into 
the Scottish parliament by Robert Bruce, 1326; and 
into the Irish, 1365 ; see Constituency. 

BOROUGH-BRIDGE (W.R.ofYork). Here 
Edward II. defeated the earls of Hereford and Lan- 
caster, 16 March, 1322. Lancaster was mounted on 
a lean horse, led to an eminence near Pontefract, 
and beheaded. 

BOROUGH-ENGLISH, an ancient tenure 
by which the vounger son inherits. It is mentioned 
as occurring 834, prevailing in some old boroughs 
in Middlesex, Kent, Surrey, Sussex and Somerset. 
Abolished in Scotland by Malcolm III. in 1062. 

BOSCOBEL, near Donington, Shropshire. 
Charles II. (after his defeat at Worcester, 3 Sept. 
1651), disguised in the clothes of the Pendriiis, 
remained from 4 to 6 Sept. at White Ladies; on 



BOSNIA. 



169 



BOS WORTH FIELD. 



7 and 8 Sept. he lay at Boscobel house, near which 
exists an oak, said to be the scion of the Royal Oak 
in which the king was part of the time hidden with 
col. Careless. ISharpe. The "Boscobel Tracts" 
were first published in 1660. In 1861 Mr. F. Man- 
ning published " Views," illustrating these tracts. 
W. H. Ains worth's " Boscobel," a story with 
authentic details, published 1872. 

BOSNIA, in European Turkey, formerly part of 
Pannonia, was governed by chiefs till a brother-in- 
law of Louis king of Hungary was made king, 1376. 
He was defeated by the Turks in 1389, and became 
their vassal. Bosnia was incorporated with Turkey 
in 1463. Many efforts have been made by the 
Bosnians to recover their independence. A re- 
bellion, begun in 1849, was quelled by Omar Pasha 
in 1 85 1. The Bosnians joined the insurgents in 
Herzegovina, Sept. 1875 ; revolt was subdued, Aug. 
1877. See Turkey. 
About 100,000 Bosnian fugitives said to be in 

Austrian territories .... July, 1878 

Proclamation of the emperor before his troops enter 
Bosnia (in conformity with the treaty of Berlin, 

13 July) 27 July, „ 

Advance of the Austrians, 29 July, vigorously re- 
sisted by the Bosnian begs, aided by Turks 

4-6 Aug. ,, 
The Bosnians defeated between Zepce and Maglai, 

7, 8 Aug. „ 
The Austrians occupy Travnik, the old capital, n 

Aug. ; slightly repulsed ... 16 Aug. ,, 
Victories of Philippovich at Han Belalovioh, 16 

Aug. ; of Tegethoff . . . .18 Aug. „ 
Serajevo, the capital, bombarded and taken by storm 

19 Aug. ; other successes . . 30 Aug., 5 Sept. ,, 
The fortress Trebinje voluntarily surrenders 

7 Sept „ 
Behacs firmly resists, 10 Sept. ; taken 19 Sept. ,, 
Senkovics, a strong fortress, with arms and ammu- 
nition, taken 21 Sept. ,, 

.Zwornik, a stronghold, surrenders about 25 Sept. ,, 
Livno bombarded and taken . . 28 Sept. ,, 

Other places surrender . . . about 12 Oct. ,, 
Resistance ended ; general amnesty issued 

about 9 Nov. „ 
Austrian loss estimated 5000 killed, wounded, 

missing Nov. „ 

The country settled, gradual political reforms 

Jan. et seq. 1880 
Population, 1,504,091 ; announced, Feb. 1889 ; 
steadily increasing, country progressing and good 

budget reported 20 May, 1902 

Baron Burian appointed Imperial Minister of 
Finance and Administrator . reported 29 July, 1903 

BOSPHORE EGYPTIEN, see Egypt, 1885. 

BOSPHOBUS, THRACIAN (now Channel of 
Constantinople). Darius Hystaspes threw a bridge 
of boats over this strait when about to invade 
Greece, 493 b.c. See Constantinople. 

BOSPORUS (or also BOSPHORUS) CIMME- 
RIAN- The name given by the ancients to the 
strait which leads from the Black Sea to the Sea of 
Azov. Called also the straits of Kertch or Yenikale. 
The history of the kingdom is involved in obscurity. 
It was named Cimmerian, from the Gimmeri. who 
dwelt on its borders, about 750 B.C. 
The Archtenactidae from Mitylene rule . .B.C. 502-480 
They are dispossessed by Spartacus I. 438 

Seleucus, -431 ; Satyrus I 407 

Leueon, 393 ; Spartacus II., 353 ; Pai-ysades . . 348 
Eumelus, aiming to dethrone his brother Saty- 
rus II., is defeated ; but Satyrus is killed . . 310 
Prytanis, Ms next brother, ascends the throne, but 

is murdered by Eumelus 309 

Eumelus puts to death all his relations, 309 ; and is 

killed 3 o 4 

The Scythians conquer Bosporus ... . . 285 
Mithridates "VI., of Pontus, conquers Bosporus . 80 



He poisons himself ; and the Romans make his son, 

Pharnaces, king 63 

Battle of Zela, gained by Julius Caasar over Phar- 
naces II. (Ciesar writes home, Veni, vidi, vici, " I 

came, I saw, I conquered ") 47 

Asander usurps the crown ,, 

Cajsar makes Mithridates of Pergamus king . . ,', 
Polemon conquers Bosporus, and favoured by 

Agrippa, reigns 14 

Polemon killed by barbarians of the Palus Ma?otis a.d. 33 

Polemon II. reigns 

Mithridates II. reigns 4'r 

Mithridates conducted a prisoner to Rome, by 

order of Claudius ; Cotys I. king . . . . 49 
A list of kings given by some writers ends with 
Sauromates VII 344 

BOSTON, Lincolnshire ; a trading seaport, 
growing in importance since making of docks, &c, 
1882- 1900; made a staple for wool, 1357; St. 
Botolph's church with a lofty tower, was erected 
about 1309. Population 188 1, 14,941 ; 1891, 

14,953 ; 1901, 15,583- 

BOSTON, Massachusetts, United States, built 
about 1627. Here originated that resistance to the 
British authorities which led to American inde- 
pendence. The act of parliament laying duties on 
tea, papers, colours, &c. (passed June, 1767) 
greatly excited the indignation of the citizens of 
Boston. Population 1890, 448,477 ; 1900, 560,892. 

" Boston News Letter," first American newspaper, 
appeared 24 April, 1704 

The duties on paper, &c, were suspended, that on 
tea, retained ; the citizens of Boston seize the 
tea in three vessels in the harbour, and cast it 
into the sea 16 Dec. 1773 

Boston seaport shut by the English parliament, 
until restitution should be made to the East 
India Company for the tea lost . . 25 March, 1774 

Arrival of gen. Gage as commander-in-chief of the 
Colonies, with troops . . . .13 May, ,, 

The town besieged by the Americans, and 400 
houses destroyed 1775 

Battle of Bunker Hill, between the royalists and 
independent troops ; the latter defeated, 

17 June, ,, 

The city evacuated by the king's troops . April, 1776 

Industrial exhibition opened . . . Oct. 1856 

Great peace jubilee ; concert of about 10,371 voices 
and 1094 instruments, with anvils, bells, &c, 
begun 15 June, 1869 

International peace jubilee ; chorus about 20,000; 
orchestra, 1000 ; with military bands and other 
performers of different nations, including the 
British grenadier guards' band ; a day allotted to 
each nation .... 17 June— -4 July, 1872 

Tremendous fire ; great loss of life and property ; 
about 80 acres of buildings burnt ; 959 houses 
(125 dwellings) ; 35 persons killed . 9, 10, 11 Nov. „ 

Great Are ; many buildings destroyed ; estimated 
loss 5,000,000 dollars. Two firemen killed 

28 Nov. 1889 

Many buildings destroyed by fire ; five deaths, es- 
timated loss, 3,000,000 dollars . 10 March, 1893 

Another fire, 500 families homeless, 15-16 May, and 
a great fire in warehouses, estimated loss, above 
1,000,000 dollars . . . . .17 May, 1894 

Destructive blizzard, city blocked, 200 horses killed 

31 Jan. 1898 

Boston has the longest railway station in the 
United States, opened 1898. Street electric 
tramways (and subway), and an elevated line 
carry 50,000,000 people annually, completed . 1901 

BOSWORTH FIELD, Leicestershire, the 
site of the thirteenth and last battle between the 
houses of York and Lancaster, 22 Aug. 1485, when 
Richard III. was defeated by the earl of Richmond, 
afterwards Henry VII., and slain, through the 
desertion of sir Wm. Stanley. It is said that 
Henry was crowned on the spot with the crown of 
Richard found in a hawthorn bush near the field. 



BOTANY, 



170 



BOULOGNE. 



BOTANY. Aristotle is considered the founder 
of the science (about 347 B.C.) . Historia Plantarum 
of Theophrastus was written about 320 B.C. Authors 
on botany became numerous at the close of the 15th 
century. Fuchsius, Bock, Bauhin, Caesalpinus, and 
others, wrote between 1535 and 1600. The system 
and arrangement of the great Linnaeus (see 
Linncean system) was made Known about 1 735 ; 
and Jussieu's system, founded on Tournetort's, 
and called "the natural system," in 1758. At 
Linnseus's death, 1778, the species of plants 
actually described amounted in number to 11,800. 
The number of species now recorded cannot fall 
short of 100,000. J. C. Loudon's " Encyclo- 
pasdia of Plants," a most comprehensive work, first 
appeared in 1829. De Candolle's "Prodromus 
Systematis Naturalis Eegni Vegetabilis" (of which 
Vol. I. appeared in 1818), was continued by his son 
Alphonse, who died aged 86, April, 1893. An 
Internationa] Botanical congress was opened in 
London, 23 May, 1866, professor A. De Candolle 
president; another at Amsterdam, 13 April, 1877. 
Eobert Brown, who accompanied Flinders in his 
survey of New Holland in 1803, died 10 June, 
1858, aged 85, was long acknowledged to be the 
chief of the botanists of his day. 
Linnsean Society instituted 1788, incorporated 1802. 
Royal botanic society's jubilee fete, 15 July, 1889. 
International botanical congress at Genoa, 5 Sept. 1892 ; 

Paris, 1 Oct. 1900 ; at Geneva, 7 Aug. 1901. 
Dr. Wm. Williamson, geol. botanist, d. 23 June, 1895. 
Charles Naudin, French botanist, died 19 March, 1899 ; 

J. G. Agardh, Swedish, born 1813, died 17 Jan. 1901. 
Nature study exhibition opened by the duke of Devon- 
shire, 23 July, 1902 ; laboratory opened Jan. 1903. 
New botanical and horticultural laboratory in connec- 
tion with Botanical society school opened 1 April, 1903. 

BOTANIC GARDENS. 

Established about 
Kew, 1760 ; greatly im- 
proved . . 1841-65 
Cambridge . . . 1763 
Coimbra. . . . 1773 
St. Petersburg . . 1785 
Calcutta. . . . 1793 
Dublin . . . 1800 
Horticultural Society's, 

Chiswick . . .1821 
Royal Botanic Society's, 

Regent's Park. . 1839 
Royal Horticultural 
Society's ; see Hor- 
ticulture . . .i860 
BOTANY BAY, Australia, discovered by 
captain Cook, 28 April, 1770, received its name 
from the great variety of plants growing on the 
shore. It was fixed on for a colony of convicts 
from Great Britain, which was however established 
at Sydney, near Port Jackson. The first governor, 
captain Arthur Phillip, who sailed from England in 
May, 1787, arrived at the settlement in Jan. 1788. 
The colony was eventually established at Port 
Jackson, about thirteen miles to the north of the 
bay ; see New South Wales, and Transportation. 

BOTHIE SYSTEM, a system which prevails 
in the eastern and north-eastern districts of 
Scotland of building- the outhouses (barns, stables, 
byres, &c.) of a farmstead in the form of barracks, 
in which the unmarried male servants reside. 

BOTHWELL BRIDGE, Lanarkshire. The 
Scotch covenanters, who took up arms against the 
intolerant government, of Charles II., and defeated 
the celebrated Claverhouse at Drumclog, 1 June, 
1679, were totally routed by the earl of Monmouth 
at Bothwell Bridge, 22 June, 1679, and many pri- 
soners were tortured and executed. 

BOTTLE-CONJURER. In accordance with 
a wager, a person having advertised that he would 



Established about 


Padua . 


• • *545 


Moutpellier 


■ 1558 


Leyden . 


• • 1577 


Leipsic 


. 1580 


Paris (Jardin 


des 


Plantes) 


. . 1624 


Jena . 


. 1629 


Oxford . 


• ■ 1632 


Upsal . 


• 1657 


Chelsea . 


. 1673-86 


Edinburgh . 


. 1680 


Vienna . 


• • I 753 


Madrid 


■ 1755 



jump into a quart bottle at the Haymarket theatre, 
on 16 Jan. 1749, the house was densely crowded 
and besieged by thousands anxious to gain ad- 
mittance. The pickpockets had a rich harvest, and 
the duped crowd nearly pulled down the edifice. 

BOTTLES in ancient times were made of 
leather. The art of making glass bottles and 
drinking-glasses was known to the Romans at least 
before 79; for these articles and other vessels have 
been found in the ruins of Pompeii. Bottles were 
made in England about 1558. A bottle which con- 
tained two hogsheads was blown, we are told, at 
Leith, in Scotland, in Jan. 1747-8; see Glass. 

Ashley's patent for making glass bottles by auto- 
matic machinery 13 Nov. 1886 

Bottles largely made of paper in Chicago . . 1887 
Screw-stoppered bottles in universal use for aerated 
waters 1903 

BOUILLON, Belgium, formerly a duchy, was 
sold by Godfrey its ruler, to Albert, bishop of Liege, 
to obtain funds for the crusade, 1095. ^ was 
seized by the French in 1672, and held by them till 
1815, when it was given to the king of the Nether- 
lands, as duke of Luxemburg. It was awarded to 
Belgium after the Revolution of 1830. 

BOULANGISTS, see France, 1886-91. 

BOULEVARDS (Bulwarks), sites of old 
fortifications in Paris and other French towns, now 
planted with rows of trees. The practice has been 
adopted in London and its suburban roads, 1875, 
et seq. See Playground. 

BOULOGNE, an important seaport in Picardy, 
N. France, added to Burgundy, 1435 ; to France, 
1447. Here Henry VIII. and Francis I. concluded 
a treaty to oppose the Turks, 28 Oct. 1532. 
Boulogne was besieged by Henry VII. 2 Oct. 1492, 
for a few days; taken by Henry VIII. on 14 Sept. 
1544, but restored for a sum of money, 1550. Its 
trade is growing ; in 1902 the exports and imports 
amounted to over 19,000,000^ The fishing fleet 
(many steamers) earn over 500,000?. annually. 
Population 1901, 49,083. 
Lord Nelson attacked a flotilla here, disabling ten 

vessels and sinking five .... 3 Aug. 1801 
In another attempt he was repulsed with great loss, 

captain Parker of the Medusa killed . 18 Aug. ,, 
Bonaparte assembled 160,000 men and 10,000 horses, 
and a flotilla of 1300 vessels and 17,000 sailors to 
invade England in 1804 ; the coasts of Kent and 
Sussex were covered with martello towers and 
lines of defence ; and nearly half the adult popu- 
lation of Britain was formed into volunteer corps ; 
sir Sidney Smith unsuccessfully attempted to 
burn the flotilla with fire machines called cata- 
marans .2 Oct. 180 4 

The army removed on the breaking out of war with 

Austria 1805 

Congreve-rockets used in another attack, and set 

the town on lire 8 Oct. 1806 

Louis Napoleon (afterwards emperor) made a fruit- 
less descent here with about 50 followers, 6 Aug. 1840 
As emperor, he reviewed the French troops destined 
for the Baltic. 10 July, 1S54 •' au '' entertained 
prince Albert and the king of (he Belgians, 5 Sept. 1854 
Statue of Edw. Jenner here inaugurated 11 Sept. 1865 
Pilgrimages here to adore an image of the Virgin 
and Child, said to have been miraculously brought 

in a boat in 633 1857-75 

Law authorising construction of a new deep-sea 
harbour, by M. Stoecklin (in 15 years), cost about 
680,000/. : passed 19 June ; first stone laid, by 

M. Freyeinet 9 Sept. 1878 

Great lire, shipping and timber destroyed, 29 Sept. 1895 
I hi 1 ish associat ion entertained by the French asso- 
ciation at the town hall, a monument of Dr. 
Duchesne, eminent scientist, and a plaque in 
memorial of the poet Campbell, unveiled, 21 Sept. 1899 



BOUNDABY ACTS. 



171 



BOXING. 



Pies. Loubet lays first stone of the new dock 

6 July, 1903 

BOUNDARY ACTS. Commissioners were ap- 
pointed by the Reform Bill, passed 15 Aug. 1867. 
Viscount Eversley, Russell Gurney, sir John T. B. 
Duckworth, sir Francis Crossley, and John Walter, 
first sat 16 Aug. England and Wales were divided 
into 18 districts, and other arrangements made. 
Another boundary act was passed 13 July, 1868. 
Boundary commissioners appointed to carry out 
the redistribution of seats bill Nov. 1884. Work 

completed 10 Feb. 1885 

[Sir John Lambert (chairman), lion. T. H. W. Pelham, 
sir P. R. Sandford, Mr. J. T. Henley, lieut.-col. R. O. 
Jones, and Major H. Tulloch.] 
Boundaries commission appointed by the Local 
Government (Boundaries) Act passed 16 Sept. . 1887 
[BarLBro wnlow (chairman), Lord Edmond Fitzmaurice, 
Lord Basing, sir HenrySelwyn Ibbetsonand Mr.Hibbert.] 

BOUNTIES, premiums granted to the producer, 
exporter, or importer of certain articles ; a principle 
introduced into commerce by the British parliament. 
The first granted on corn, in 1688, were repealed in 
1815. They were first legally granted in England 
for raising naval stores in America, 1703, and have 
been granted to the herring fishery, on sail-cloth, 
linen, and other goods. See Queen Anne's Bounty 
and Sugar. 

BOUNTY MUTINY, took place onboard the 
Bounty, an armed ship which quitted Otaheite, with 
bread-fruit trees, 7 April, 1789. The mutineers 
put their captain, Bligh, and nineteen men into an 
open boat, with a small stock of provisions, near 
Annamooka, one of the Friendly isles, 28 April, 
1789; these reached the island of Timor, south of 
the Moluccas, in June, after a voyage of nearly 
4000 miles. Some of the mutineers were tried 
15 Sept. 1792 ; six were condemned and three ex- 
ecuted. For the fate of others, see Bitcaim's Island. 

BOUBBON, House OF (from which came 

the royal houses of France, Spain, and Naples), 

derives its origin from the Archambauds, lords of 

Bourbon in Berry. 

Robert, count of Clermont, son of Louis IX. of 
France, married the heiress Beatrice in 1272 ; died 
1317 ; and their son Louis I. created duke of 
Bom'bon and peer of France by Charles IV. . . 1327 

The last of the descendants of their elder son Peter 
I., Susanna, married Charles, duke of Montpen- 
sier, constable of Bourbon, who, offended by his 
sovereign Francis I., entered into the service of 
the emperor Charles V., and was killed at the 
siege of Rome . . ... . .6 May, 1527 

From James, the younger son of Louis I., descended 
Antony, duke of Vendome, who married (1548) 
Jeanne d'Albret, daughter of Henry, king of Na- 
varre. Their son, Henry IV., bom at Pau, 14 
Dee. 1553, became king of France . 31 July, 1589 

The crown of Spain was settled on a younger 
branch of this family, 1700, and guaranteed by 
the peace of Utrecht (Rapin) 17I3 

Bom-bon Family Compact (a defensive alliance 
between France, Spain, and the Two Sicilies 
concluded by M. de Choiseul) . . 15 Aug. 1761 

Tlie Bourbons expelled France, 1791 ; restored 
1814; again expelled on the return of Bonaparte 
from Elba, and again restored after the battle of 
"Waterloo, 1815. The elder branch was expelled 
once more, in the person of Charles X. and his 
family, in 1830, in consequence of the revolu- 
tion of the memorable days of July in that year. 

Orleans branch ascended the throne in the person 
of the late Louis Philippe, as " king of the 
French," 9 Aug. 1830 ; deposed, 24 Feb. 1848 ; and 
his family also was expelled. 

The Bourbon family fled from Naples (6 Sept. i860), 
and Francis II. lost his kingdom ; expelled from 
Spain, Sept. 1868 ; restored by Alfonso XII. 31 
Dec. 1874 ; see France, Spain, Naples, Orleans, 
Parma, Condc, and Legitimists. 



The fusion of the parties supporting the comte de 
Chambord with the Orleanists, said to be accom- 
plished, s Aug. 1873. The comte de Chambord, last 
of the elder branch, died aged nearly 63, 24 Aug. 1883 
See France and Orleans. 

BOUBBON, ISLE OF (in the Indian ocean), 
discovered by the Portuguese about 1542. The 
French are said to have first settled here in 1649. 
It surrendered to the British, under admiral Rowley, 
8 July, 1810, and was restored to France in 1815. 
An awful hurricane in Feb. 1829, did much mis- 
chief. Bourbon was named " 1'Ile de la Reunion" 
in 1848; population, 1892, 171,731. 

BOUBGOGNE, LA, see Wrecks footnote, 
4 July, 1898. 

BOUBIGNONISTS, a sect founded by An- 
toinette Bourignon, who, in 1658, took the Augus- 
tine habit and travelled in France, Holland, Eng- 
land, and Scotland; in the last she made many 
converts about 1670. She maintained that Chris- 
tianity does not consist in faith and practice, but in 
inward feeling and supernatural impulse. A disciple 
named Court left her a good estate. She died in 
1680, and her works, 21 volumes 8vo, were pub- 
lished 1686. 

BOUBNOUS, the Arabic name of a hooded 
garment worn in Algeria, which has been introduced 
in a modified form into England and France since 
1847. 

BOUVINES (N. France), the site of a despe- 
rate battle, 27 July, 1214, in which Philip Augustus 
of France was victorious over the emperor Otho and 
his allies, consisting of more than 150,000 men. The 
counts of Flanders and Boulogne were taken pri- 
soners, and the earl of Salisbury, brother of king 
John. 

BOVILL'S ACT, 23 & 24 Vict. c. 34, i860, 
relates to petitions of right. 

BOVBIL, "Ox-strength." The name given 
to a preparation of lean beef from which the water, 
about 75 per cent., has been excluded; and the 
albumen and fibrine, the nutritive parts retained 
by processes gradually invented by Mr. J. Lawson 
Johnston, who began his experimental researches 
in Canada about 1872. Bovril is now largely 
manufactured by a company having its head quar- 
ters in London. 

BOWLS or BOWLING, an English game as 
early as the 13th century. Henry VIII., Charles I. 
played at it, and also Charles II. at Tunbridge. 
Grammont. Bowling clubs are general throughout 
England. Public bowling greens are provided in 
Finsbury-park, Clissold-park and other London 
recreation grounds, 1903. 

BOW-STBEET, see Magistrates. 
Bow Street Runners, a name popularly given to the 
special officers attached to each police office of 
the metropolis, commonly called " Robin Red- 
breasts " from their red waistcoats. They were 
famous for the detection of hidden crimes, 
especially Townsend, who was a favourite of 
King George III. and his family, Limberham, 
Macmanus, Jealous, Forester and others. They 
were superseded by the new police established in 1829 

BOWS AND ARROWS, see Archery. 

BOXING, or Prize-Fighting, the pugi- 

latus of the Romans, once a favourite sport with the 
British, who possess strong arms, giving them 
superiority in battles decided by the bayonet. 
Broughton's amphitheatre, behind Oxford-road, 
built 1742 



BOXTEL. 



172 



BRACELETS. 



Schools opened in England to teach boxing . . 179c 

Mendoza opened the Lyceum in the Strand in . 1791 

Boxing was much patronised from about 1820 to 1830 

'Tom Winter (nicknamed Spring), beside other vic- 
tories, beat Langau (for ioooi.) . . 8 June, 1824 

John Gully, originally a butcher, afterwards a 
prize-fighter, acquired wealth, and became M.P. 
for Pontefract( 1832-37) died . . 9 March, 1863 

Desperate conflict at Farnborough between Thomas 
Bayers, the Champion of England, a light Sussex 
man, about 5 feet 8 inches high, and John Heenan, 
the " Benicia Boy," a huge American, in height 
6 feet 1 inch. Strength, however, was matched 
by skill ; and eventually the light was interrupted, 
17 April Both men received a silver belt 

31 May, i860 

Tom King beat Mace, and obtained the champion's 
belt, &c 26 Nov. 1862 

He beat Goss, 1 Sept., and Heenan (nearly to death) 

10 Dec. 1863 

A trial, in consequence of the last fight, ensued : 
the culprits were discharged, on promising not 
to offend again 5 April, 1864 

Wormald obtained the championship after a con- 
test with Marsden 4 Jan. 1865 

Contest for championship between Mace and O'Bald- 
win, a giant ; prevented by the arrest of Mace, 

15 Oct. 1867 

Railways prohibited carrying persons going to a 
prize-fight, 31 & 32 Vict. c. 119 . . . . 1868 

Prize-fight in St. Andrew's hall (formerly Tavistock 
chapel), London, W.C., stopped . 27 March, 1S82 

Attempted revival of pugilism in London, 1889—90 ; 
Queensberry rules drawn up by the marquis of 
Queensberry and generally adopted about . 1890 

A fight between Slavin and M'Aulitt'e, pugilists 
from Australia, at the Ormonde club, Walworth, 
stopped, the gloves to be used being considered 
insufficient, 23 Sept. ; fight took place 27 Sept. ; 
the men committed for trial, 10 Oct. ; the jury 
disagree 17 Nov. ,, 

Fitzsimmons, of Cornwall, beats Corbett, of Denver 1897 

Walter Croot, after an encounter with James Barry 
at the Nat. Sporting club, from 10.15 P- m - 6 Dec. 
till 12.15 a - m - 7 Dec, died 9 a.m. . . Dec. 1897 

Jeffreys, of Ohio, beat Fitzsimmons, 12,000?. divided 
between them 1S99 

Thos. Turner dies after a contest, 17 Nov. 1898 ; 
Michael Riley fatally injured at the Nat. Sporting 
club, 29 Jan. 1900 ; an American pugilist fatally 
injured there 22 April, 1901 

'Sullivan, an eminent prize-fighter in 1903 

Winners of the Amateur Boxing Association Champion- 
ship 1Q02 : — Bantam weights (8st. 41b. and under), 
A. J. Milner ; Fe •titer weiyhts {gat. and under), C. J. 
Clarke; Ug\t weights (lost, and under), A. Warner; 
Middle weights (11st. 4II1. and under), E. .Mann ; 
Heary lucights (any weight), F. Parks. 

BOXTEL (in Dutch Brabant), where the 
British and allied army, commanded by the duke 
•of York, was defeated by the French republicans, 
who took 2000 prisoners and eight pieces of cannon, 
«7 Sept. 1794. 

BOX-TREE, indigenous to this country, and 
excaedingly valuable to wood-engravers. In 1815 
a large box-tree at Box-hill, Surrey, was cut down, 
-and realised a large sum. Macculloch says, that 
■"the trees were cut down in 1815, and produced 
upwards of 10,000^." About 1820 the cutting of 
trees on the hill produced about boool. 

BOY-BISHOP. During (lie middle ages a 
choir-boy was frequently elected on St. Nicholas' 
day, 6 Dec, and held oilice till the 28th. The cus- 
tom was suppressed in England in July, 1542; but 
lingered for some time after. 

BOYCOTTING, see Ireland, 1880, et seq. 
Condemned by the Pope, 20 April, 1888. A Boy- 
cott fund toassistcapt. Boycott (died 21 June, [897) 
in his trouble was subscribed 1880-1. Boycotting 
very prevalent in Tipperary, [889-90. 



BOYDELL'S LOTTERY for his Shak- 
speare gallery of paintings got up (1786), by 
alderman Boydell, lord mayor of London. Every 
ticket was sold at the time the alderman died, 12 
Dec. 1804, before the decision of the wheel. 

BOYLE LECTURES, instituted by his will 
(18 July, 1691), by Kobert Boyle (son of the great 
earl of Cork), a philosopher, distinguished by his 
genius, virtues, and benevolence, who died 30 Dec. 
1691. Eight lectures (in vindication of the Chris- 
tian religion) are to be delivered. The office of 
lecturer is tenable for three years. 

BOYNE, a river in Ireland, near which "Wil- 
liam III. defeated his father-in-law, James II., 
1 July, 1690. The latter lost 1500 (out of 30,000) 
men ; the Protestant army lost about a third of that 
number (out of 36,000). James fled to Dublin, 
thence to Waterford, and escaped to France. The 
duke of Schomberg was killed by mistake by his 
own soldiers as he was crossing the river, and here 
also was killed the rev. George Walker, who de- 
fended Londonderry, in 1689. Near Drogheda is a 
splendid obelisk, 150 feet in height, erected in 1736 
by the Protestants of the empire in commemoration 
of this victory. 

BOYNE, man-of-war of 98 guns, destroyed by 
fire at Portsmouth, 4 May, 1795, by the explosion 
of the magazine ; numbers perished. Portions were 
recovered June, 1840. 

BOYS' BRIGADE, inaugurated 1884, by 
Mr. W. A. Smith, with the obiect of promoting 
habits of obedience, self-control and Christian 
manliness among lads of 12 to 16 years of age. 
The companies cf the brigade are formed in con- 
nection with the Sunday schools, churches and 
missions of religious bodies in all parts of the 
United Kingdom. The boys wear a simple uniform, 
and are exercised in military drill. The total 
number enrolled (1902) in the United Kingdom was 
50,000, with 4000 officers The movement has ex- 
tended to the Unite! States and the colonies; the 
total strength throughout the world being 85,000. 
The Prince of Wales is the patron, and the Arch- 
bishop of Canterbury the vice-patron of 'he brigade. 
Demonstration in theAlbert hall under presidency 

of major-general Baden-Powell . . . May, 1903 

BOYTON'S Swimming Apparatus. See 

under Life Boat, &c. 

BRABANT, part of Holland and Belgium, an 
ancient duchy, part of Charlemagne's empire, fell 
to his son Charles, 806. It became a separate 
duchy (called at first Lower Lorraine) in 959. It 
desceuded to Philip II. of Burgundy, 1429, and in 
regular succession to the emperor Charles V. In 
the 17th century it was held by Holland and 
Austria, as Dutch Brabant and the Walloon pro- 
vinces, and underwent many changes through the 
wars of Europe. The Austrian division was taken 
by the French in 1746 and 1 794. It was united to 
the Netherlands in 1814, but South Brabant was 
given to Belgium, 1830. The heir of the throne of 
Belgium is styled duke of Brabant; see Belgium. 

BRACELETS are of great antiquity, and have 
been worn by almost every nation, savage or 
civilised. Bracelets were in use in Egypt at a 
very early period. Frequent mention is made in 
the Bible of this custom. Creek and Roman 
women wore this ornament, and a kind of bracelet 
(armillcv) was conferred on the Roman soldier as a 
reward for bravery. Bracelets constituted the 
chief ornament of the ancient German tribes, and 
are frequently found in ancient graves. 



BEACHYGEAPHY. 



173 



BEAY. 



BEACHYGEAPHY, see Stenography. 

BBADFIELD EESEEVOIE, see Sheffield, 
1864. 

BEADFOED, West Riding of Yorkshire, an 
ancient seat of the woollen manufacture ; made a 
parliamentary borough in 1832; has thriven since 
1851. Bradford returns three M.P.'s by Act passed 
25 June, 1885 ; made a city June, 1897. See 
Poisoning. Population, 1881, 194,495; 1891, 
216,361; 1901, 279,767. 

New town-hall was opened . . .9 Sept. 1873 
British Association Diet here . . . 17 Sept. ,, 
Statue of Sir Titus Salt unveiled . . 1 Aug. 1874 
Statue of R. Cobden unveiled . . 25 July, 1877 
New technical school opened by the prince of Wales 

23 June, 1882 
Fall of chimney of New Lands mills ; 54 killed, 

250 injured 28 Dec. ,, 

Statue of Mr. W. E. Forster.long M.P. for Bradford, 

unveiled by the marquis of Ripon . 17 May, 1890 
Strike of about 15, 000 operatives at the Manningham 

mills, Dec'. 1890 : ended . . .27 April, 1891 

Rioting suppressed by military . 13, 14 April, ,, 

Fire at Messrs. Sutcliife and Sons' cotton mills, 

etc., damage, about 2o,oooZ. . . 27 Nov. 1893 
Lord Masham offers 47,0002. to found an institute 

in Lister park as a memorial of Dr. Cartwright, 

May, 1898 
Greenhill Mills burnt, damage 40,000^. . n March, 1903 

BEADLATTGH CASE, see Parliament, 
1880-5. Mr - Charles Bradlaugh, M.P. for North- 
ampton, died 30 Jan. 1891, aged 57. 

BEADSHAWS EAILWAY GUIDE was 

first published by Mr. G. Bradshaw, assisted by Mr. 

W. J. Adams, in Dec. 1841. The Continental 

Bradshaw was established in 1848. 

The beginning of railway guides is involved in 
obscurity. Mr. Bradshaw issued his first railway 
time tables in two forms, one for the Liverpool 
and Manchester district, and one for London 
and the Birmingham district, 19 and 25 Oct. 1839. 
His Railway Companion appeared in 1840 ; (F. 
Madan, Athenceum) Dec. 24, 1887 

BBAGANZA, a city in Portugal, gave title to 
Alfonso, natural son of John I. of Portugal (in 
1422), founder of the house of Braganza. When 
the nation, in a bloodless revolution in 1640, threw 
off the Spanish yoke, John duke of Braganza, was 
called to the throne as John IV., and his descen- 
dants have since reigned over Portugal. 

BBAHMINS, Hindoo priests, the highest of 
the four castes. Pythagoras is thought to have 
learned from them his doctrine of the Metempsycho- 
sis ; and it is affirmed that some of the Greek philo- 
sophers went to India on purpose to converse with 
them. The Brahmins derive their name from 
Brahmah, one of the three beings whom God, ac- 
cording to their theology, created, and with whose 
assistance He formed the world. See Vedas and 
Buddhism. 

BEAHMO SOMAJ, see Deism. 

BBAIN, see under Craniology and Nerves. 

BEAINTEEE CASE (in Essex) decided in 
1842 by Dr. Lushington, who determined that a mi- 
nority in a parish vestry cannot levy a church rate. 

BEAKES, see under Railways. 

BEAMHAM (W. R. York) : near here the earl 
of Northumberland and lord Bardolf were defeated 
and slain by sir Thomas Rokeby, the general of 
Henry IV., 19 Feb. 1408 ; and Fairfax was defeated 



by the royalists under the earl of Newcastle, 29 
March, 1643. 

BEANDENBTJEG, a city in Prussia, founded 
by the Slavonians, who gave it the name of Banber, 
which signified Guard of the Forest, according to- 
some ; others explain the name as Burg, or city, 
of the Brenns. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler, 
after defeating the Slavonians, fortified " Bran- 
nibor," 926, as a rampart against the Huns, and 
bestowed the government on Sigefroi, count of 
Ringelheim, with the title of margrave, or protector 
of the marches or frontiers. The emperor Sigis- 
mund gave perpetual investiture to Frederick IV. 
of Nuremburg, of the house of Hohenzollern, 
ancestor of the royal family of Prussia, made 
elector in 1417. For a list of the margraves since 
1 134, see Prussia. Population, 1890, 37,823 ; 1900, 
49,263. 

BBANDY (German Branntwein, burnt wine), 
the spirit distilled from wine. Alcohol appears to 
have been known to Raymond Lully in the 13th 
century, and to have been manufactured in France- 
early in the 14th. It was at first used medicin- 
ally, and miraculous cures were ascribed to its in- 
fluence. In 1852, 3,959,452; in 1866, 5,621,930; 
in 1870, 7,942,965; in 1874, 3,378,057; in 1876, 
7,913,092 ; in 1877, 2,962,697 ; in 1879, 5,024,668 ; 
in 1883, 2,202,344; in 1 888, 2,655,004 ; in 1889, 
2,858,774; in 1890, 3,100,450; in 1893, 2 >739>455 ; 
in 1896, 2,749,624; in 1900, 2,596,265; 1 901, 
2,434,970 gallons of foreign spirits were imported 
into the United Kingdom. In 1901, 55,306,438 
gallons of spirits were manufactured in Britain. 
Manufacture of genuine French brandy has almost 
ceased. 

BEAND YWINE, a river in N. America, near 
which a battle took place between the British, under 
Howe, and the Americans under Washington, in 
which the latter (after a day's fight) were defeated 
with great loss, 11 Sept. 1777. Philadelphia fell 
into the possession of the victors. 

BEASS- That mentioned in the Bible was 
most probably bronze. When Lucius Mummius 
burnt Corinth to the ground, 146 B.C., he found 
immense riches, and during the conflagration, it is 
said, all the metals in the city melted, and running 
together, formed the valuable composition described 
as Corinthian Brass. This is well doubted, for the 
Corinthian artists had long before obtained great 
credit for their method of combining gold and 
silver with copper. Bit Fresnoy. Some of the 
English sepulchral engraved brasses are said to be 
as old as 1277; a white brass produced by Mr. P. 
M. Parsons, about 1875. 

BEAYO CASE. Mr. Charles Delauney Turner 
Bravo, barrister, died suddenly and mysteriously 
(at Balham, county of London), suicide suspected, 
18 April, 1876 ; open verdict at inquest ; new in- 
quest ordered, 26 June, 1876 ; began 10 July. Ver- 
dict : " Wilful murder by administration of tartar 
emetic ; but not sufficient evidence to fix the guilt 
upon any person," 11 Aug. 1876. 

BEAY, Berks. Fuller says that its vicar, 
Symon Symonds, was twice a papist and twice a 
Protestant — in the reigns of Henry VIII., Ed- 
ward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth (1533-1558). Upon 
being called a turn-coat, he said he kept to hi* 
principle, that of " living and dying the vicar of 
Bray." The story is doubted. The modern song- 
refers to the political changes of the 17th and 18th 
centuries. Bray, the " Irish Brighton," a beauti- 
ful seaside town 13 miles S.E. of Dublin, with 
esplanade a mile long. Pop. 6,888. 



BEAY'S ASSOCIATES. 



174 



BEAZIL. 



BBAY'S ASSOCIATES for founding clerical 
libraries and supporting negro schools. This so- 
ciety began in 1723, by Dr. Thomas Bray, rector of 
Sheldon, appointing trustees to expend 900?. be- 
queathed by Mr. D'Allone for the instruction of 
negroes. In 1733 these trustees received their pre- 
sent name, and their fund was increased by legacies 
in 1767 and 1768. 

Dr. Bray, who was one of the founders of the Society 
for Propagating the Gospel, and who had acted ener- 
getically as commissary in Maryland for the bishop of 
London, about 1696, died 15 Feb. 1730, bequeathing 
part of his books to Sion College and part to found a 
parochial library, under certain conditions, complied 
with at Maidstone ; and also money for other religious 
purposes. The associates assist schools and libraries in 
the colonies, and parochial libraries at home. 

BBAZEN BULL, said to have been contrived 
by Perillus, at Athens, for Phalaris, tyrant of Agri- 
gentum, 570 B.C. It had an opening in the side to 
admit the victims, and a fire was kindled under- 
neath to roast them to death. Phalaris ordered the 
artist to make the first experiment. Pindar (522- 
422 B.C.) speaks of the cruelties of Phalaris, but 
later writers give him a different character. 

BRAZIL, an empire in South America, was dis- 
covered by Vincent Pinzon, 26 Jan. 1500. Pedro 
ALvarez de Cabral, a Portuguese, driven upon its 
coasts by a tempest, April following, called it the 
land of the Holy Cross ; but it was subsequently 
named Brazil, on account of its red wood. The 
French having seized on Portugal in 1807, the 
royal family and nobles embarked for Brazil, and 
landed 7 March, 1808. The dominant religion is 
Eoman Catholic ; but others are tolerated. Consti- 
tution of 25 March, 1824 ; modified 12 Aug. 1834 and 
12 May, 1840. Population in 1888, 14,002,335, 
estimated; 1891,17,000,000. See Portugal. ' 
The emperor was deposed and a Federal republic, styled 
The United States of Brazil, proclaimed 15, 16 
Nov. 1889 (see bcloiv) ; a new constitution was promul- 
gated, 22 June, 1890 and 24 Feb. 1891. It consists of 
a president, elected for 4 years, secretaries of state, a 
senate and a house of rejiresentatives. 
Brazil explored by Amerigo Vespucci . . about 1504 
Divided into captaincies by the king of Portugal . 1530 
Martin de Souza discovers Rio, and founds the first 

European colony at San Vincente . . . . 1531 
Jews banished from Portugal to Brazil . . . 1548 
San Salvador (Bahia) founded by Thome de Souza . 1549 
French protestants occupy bay of Rio Janeiro . 1555-60 

Sebastian founded 1567 

Brazil, with Portugal, becomes subject to Spain . 1580 
James Lancaster captures Pernambuco . . . 1593 
The French establish a colony al; Maranham . . 1594 

Belein founded by Calderia 1615 

The French expelled ,, 

The Dutch seize the coast of Brazil, 1630 ; and hold 

Pernambuco 1630 

Defeated at Guararapes, 1646 ; give up Brazil . . 1661 

Gold mining commences 1693 

Destruction of Palmares 1697 

The French assault and capture Rio Janeiro . 1710-11 
Diamond mines discovered in Sezzo Frio. . . 1729 

Jesuits expelled 1758-60 

Capital transferred from Bahia to Eio Janeiro . 1763 
Royal family of Portugal arrive at Brazil, 7 March, 1808 
First printing-press established . . . . ,, 

Brazil becomes a kingdom 1815 

King John VI. returns to Portugal, and dom Pedro 

becomes regent 1821 

Brazil declares its independence . . . 7 Sept. 1822 
Pedro I. crowned emperor . . . 1 Dec. ,, 
New constitution ml Mii'd . . . 25 March, 1824 
Independence recognised by Portugal . 29 Aug. 1825 

Revolution at Bio Janeiro : abdication of dom 
Pedro 1 7 April, 1831 

Abolition of slave trade decreed (not ell'eeied till 
1852) .... , 

Reform of I lie r. 01 .1 il ill ion, , .• Aug. iS m and 12 May, 1840 
Pedro II. declared of age . . . 23 July, , 



Steam-ship line to Europe commenced . . . 1850 
Suppression of the slave-trade ; railways com- 
menced 1852 

Rio Janeiro lit with gas 1854 

The British ship Prince of Wales wrecked at 
Albardas, on coast of Brazil, is plundered by 
some of the natives, and some of the crew killed, 

about 7 June, 1861 
Reparation long refused ; reprisals made ; five 
Brazilian merchant ships being seized by the 

British 31 Dec. 1862 

The Brazilian minister at London pays 3,200^. as an 

indemnity, under protest c. . . 26 Feb. 1863 
The Brazilian government request the British to 
express their regret for reprisals ; declined ; diplo- 
matic intercourse suspended . , 5-28 May, „ 
Dispute between the governments respecting the 
arrest of some British officers at Rio Janeiro (17 
June, 1862) referred to the arbitration of the king 
of the Belgians, who decides in favour of Brazil, 

18 June, ,, 
New ministry formed ; F. J. Furtado, presidents — 

prospect of reconciliation with Gt. Biitain,3oAug. 1864 
U. S. war-steamer Wacluisett seizes the eon- 
federate steamer Florida in the port .of Bahia, 
while under protection of Brazil, 7 Oct. ; after 
remonstrance, Mr. Seward, U.S. foreign minister, 
apologises. [The Florida (inadvertently) sunk?] 

26 Dec. ,, 
War with Uruguay — the Brazilians take Paysandu, 

and march upon Monte Video . . .2 Feb. 1865 
The comte d'Eu and princess Isabella (on marriage 

tour) land at Southampton . . . 7 Feb. ,, 
Lopez, president of Paraguay, declares war against 

the Argentine Republic . . . April, ,, 

Treaty between Brazil, Uruguay, and the Argentine 
Republic against Paraguay, governed by Lopez, 

signed 1 May, ,, 

Scientific expedition under Agassiz favoured by the 

emperor July, ,, 

Amicable relations with England restored . Aug. ,, 
The emperor joins the army against Lopez Aug. „ 
The allies under Flores defeat the Paraguayans at 

Santayuna on the Uruguay . . 18 Sept. „ 

Uruguayana surrenders to the allies . 18 Sept. ,, 
Indecisive battle between the aUies and the Para- 
guayans, at Paso de la Patria . about 25 Feb. 1866 
Paraguayans defeated on the Parana 16, 17 April, ,, 
Victory of the allies at Estero Velhaco, 2 May ; in- 
decisive battle there . . . .24 May, „ 
Bombardment of the allied camp on the Parana 

14 June, ,, 
Two days' fight at Tuyuty ; allies defeated, 

16, 18 July, ,, 
Fruitless meeting of president Lopez with the chiefs 

on proposals of peace . . . . 12 Sept. ,, 
The allies attack the fortress of Curupaiti ; defeated 

with severe loss . . . 17-19, 22 Sept. ,, 
The allies' camp bombarded, 18 Oct. ; the Para- 
guayans repulsed at Tuyuty . . .30 Oct. , , 
The Brazilians take Corumba . . -13 June, 1867 
The duke of Edinburgh visits Rio de Janeiro 

15-22 July, ,, 
The Paraguayans victors, 24 Sept. ; severely defeated 

3 and 21 Oct. „ 
Proposals for peace by Lopez declined . . Oct. ,, 
Severe defeat of Paraguayans before Tuyuty 3 Nov. ,. 
Freedom decreed to slaves belonging to the nation 

wlio shall become soldiers . . . 6 Nov. ,, 
Three monitors pass Curupaiti, 011 the Paraguay, 
17 Feb. : 6 ironclads force (he passage of Ilumaita : 
they lind Asuncion abandoned . . 21 Feb. 1868 
Fierce resistance of the Paraguayans ; Lopez said to 

have armed 4000 women . . . June, ,, 

After several conflicts Lopez is totally defeated at 

Villeta, and flies . . . .11 Dec. ,, 

The comte d'Eu appointed general of the allied army 

24 March', 1S69 
The allies surprise and capture Rosario and garrison 

8 May, „ 
Lopez defeated in severe conflicts, 12, 16. iS, 21 Aug. ,, 
Lopez defeated and killed near the Aquidaban, 

1 March, 1870 
Treaty of peace with Paraguay, quite subdued 

20 June, ,, 
'flic niiinl and countess d'Eu arrive in England, 

13 Sept. „ 
New ministry under viscount St. Vincent, 2q Sept. ,, 



BEAZIL. 



175 



BRAZIL. 



The emperor and empress come to Europe, and visit 
public and scientific institutions, manufactories 
in Great Britain and other countries, June-Aug. 

Gradual slave emancipation bill passed by the 
senate ; great rejoicings . . 27, 28 Sept. 

The emperor and empress, after visiting the conti- 
nent, return to Brazil . . .31 March, 

Treaty with the Argentine republic . . . Jan. 

Prosecution of the archbishop of Pernambuco and 
other prelates, for infraction of the constitution 

Sept.-Dec. 

In a settlement of German emigrants at Porto 
Alegre, a number of fanatics, popularly termed 
Mucker (hypocrites), headed by Jacobina Maurer, 
a prophetess who claimed to be a female Christ, 
and her priest Hans Georg Maurer, attempt to 
convert their neighbours by force, and desolate 
the property of those who refuse. She and nearly 
all her band are killed after several conflicts with 
their neighbours, aided by the military 

21-26 July, 

Great bank failures at Rio Janeiro . . May, 

Duke de Caixias president of ministry . 25 June, 

Emperor and empress at opening of Philadelphia 
Exhibition, 10 May, 1876 ; travelled in Europe, 
&c. , returned to Rio Janeiro . . Sept. 

A ministerial crisis respecting emancipation of 
slaves (see under Slavery) .... Sept. 

The emperor supports his minister Dantas ; 1 , 200,000 
slaves in Brazil 

Resignation of Dantas, anti-slavery minister, on 
account of minority in the chamber . . 5 May, 

The new minister Seraiva introduces a gradual 
emancipation bill 12 May, 

Ministry resigns, succeeded by Baron de Cotegipe, 

about 20 Aug. 

Bill for gradual abolition of slavery passed by 
senate and deputies .... Sept. 

New ministry under Sen. de Oliviera . March, 

Bill for total abolition of slavery passed by the 
chambers, 10-14 May ; decree issued (about 700,000 
persons freed) May, 

The emperor visits Europe ; arrives at Paris, 20 
July, 1887 ; returns to Rio Janeiro . 22 Aug. 

The emperor fired at by Adriano Valte, a Portuguese 
republican; not injured . . . 15 July, 

Revolution at Rio de Janeiro, begun by the army ; 
baron de Ladario, minister of marine, wounded ; 
a republic proclaimed ; marshal Deodoro da Fon- 
seca, chief of a provisional government; people 
quiet ; the emperor imprisoned, refuses to submit, 
15, 16 Nov. ; the emperor and family forcibly con- 
veyed to the Alagoas ; sail for Europe . 18 Nov. 

The emperor, at St. Vincent, refuses the offer of the 
provisional government to give him 500,000?. a 
year ........ Nov. 

Official announcement that the republic will respect 
all state engagements ... 18 Nov. 

All the provinces support the republic, separate 
governments organizing ; suffrage conferred on 
all who can read and write ; the republic blessed 
by the Abp. of Brazil, reported . . 23 Nov. 

The republic recognized informally by Prance ; the 
United States of N.A. and Switzerland, about 

29 Nov. 

The emperor and family arrive at Lisbon, received 
by the king ...... 7 Dec. 

Decree fixing the general elections for 15 Sept. and 
a meeting of the constituent assembly for 15 
Nov. 1890 . . . . . .20 Dec. 

Decree banishing the emperor and his family and 
viscount de Ouro Preto, the late premier, and 
recalling the grant to the emperor and suspending 
his annual allowance .... 20 Dec. 

Mutiny of two artillery regiments at Rio suppressed 
with much bloodshed ; about 2c ringleaders shot ; 
several citizens arrested . . 18-20 Dec. 

Sudden death of the empress at Oporto . 28 Dec. 

Decree for the separation of church and state, 7 Jan 

The emperor arrives at Cannes . . 16 Jan. 

The republic formally recognized by the United 
States N.A. 29 Jan. 

Issue Bank of the United States of Brazil, estab- 
lished 5 Feb. 

Serious disturbances in Rio Grande in opposition 
to government financial measures, 1 May, et seq. ; 
rioting checked by the police ; military govern- 
ment appointee . . . 13 May, et seq. 



1872 
1873 



1875 
1877 



New constitution promulgated . . 22 June 

The republic formally recognised by Great Britain, 

about 20 Oct. 

The first congress of the republic meets ; the pre- 
sident transfers to it the powers of the provisional 
government 15 Nov. 

Decree rescinding the banishment of the late im- 
perial ministers 20 Nov. 

Secret decree to encourage immigration, 29 June, 
published in Warsaw, 26 Dec. 1890, about 25,000 
Polish emigrants said to be received . Jan. 

The first republican ministry (sen. J. C. de Faria 
Alvim and others), resigns ... 20 Jan. 

New cabinet formed by sen. Uchoa . . 22 Jan. 

Reciprocal treaty of commerce with the United 
States N. A 5 Feb. 

A new constitution passed by the Constituent 
Assembly, 23 Feb. — promulgated . . 24 Feb. 

Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca elected president for 
four years, gen. Floriano Peixoto vice-president, 
25 Feb. , installed .... 26 Feb. 

The legislative session opens ; cheerful speech of 
the president 15 June, 

The British Foreign office warns emigrants against 
invitations to Brazil Aug. 

The congress, having passed a law opposing the 
veto of president Fonseca, is dissolved by him, 
and martial law proclaimed, 3 Nov. ; he assumes 
the dictatorship 4 Nov. 

The provinces of Rio Grande do Sul and Grao Para 
declare their independence ... 10 Nov. 

Insurrection' in Rio Grande spreading ; the gover- 
nor, sen. J. Castilho, deposed, 13 Nov. ; pro- 
visional government established under sen. Assis, 
about 15 Nov. The junta holds all the pro- 
vince, and prepares to resist the dictator Fonseca, 
reported 17 Nov. , about 30,000 men in arms ; 
Fonseca's proposals rejected by the junta, 19 Nov. 

President Fonseca proclaims the election of a new 
congress for 29 Feb. to meet on 3 May, 1892, 

21 Nov. 

Insurrection of the navy and others against pre- 
sident Fonseca ; he resigns and is succeeded by 
gen. Floriano Peixoto ; no bloodshed, 23 Nov. ; 
he issues a manifesto declaring the re-establish- 
ment of legality 25 Nov. 

Death of the ex-emperor Pedro II. at Paris 5 Dec. 

Gen. Rocha Osorio appointed governor of Rio 
Grande 6 Dec. 

Disturbances in Rio de Janeiro province suppressed 
with bloodshed 8 Dec. 

Revolution in Sao Paulo, begun 13 Dec, the gover- 
nor resigns . . .... 15 Dec. 

Meeting of congress ; the president's message satis- 
factory 18 Dec. 

Revolution in Espiritu Santo ; vice-governor de- 
posed 19 Dec. 

Sen. Silveira Martinez appointed governor of Rio 
Grande about 26 Dec. 

Commercial treaty with Portugal signed . 15 Jan. 

Mutiny at the fortress of Santa Cruz ; 2 forts cap- 
tured by the rebels, who demand the restoration 
of Deodoro da Fonseca ; the mutiny suppressed 
by government troops . . .19 Jan. et seq. 

The chambers prorogued till May . . Jan. 

Revolt of the province of Matto Grosso, 12 April; 
suppressed June, 

The Solimoes, armour-clad war- vessel, founders off 
Cape Polonio, Uruguay, about 100 men drowned, 

21 May, 

Death of gen. Deodoro da Fonseca . 23 Aug. 

Insurrection in Rio Grande do Sul, suppressed 

4 Nov. 

Outrages on Italians in Rio Grande, Nov., Dec. 
1892 ; reparation claimed . . about 25 Jan. 

Disturbances in Rio Grande, conflict at Inhanduhy, 
reported 7 May, 

Revolution in Santa Catharina, indecisive fighting, 
29-31 July ; peace restored ... 3 Aug. 

Revolt of 3 cruisers under adm. Custodio de Mello 
against military government, bombardment of 
Rio de Janeiro stopped by the foreign admirals, 

7 Sept. 

Bombardment of Rio, many killed . 14-25 Sept. 
[The insurgents hold the arsenal at Nictheroy, 
adm. de Mello commands 6 warships and other 
vessels.] 



1893 



BRAZIL. 



176 



BRAZIL. 



Pres. Peixoto calls on the provinces for troops to 

defend Rio 17 Sept. iE 

The state of Santa Catharina, Itaqui in Rio 
Grande, and other frontier towns declare for the 

rebels 4 0ct - » 

The commanders of foreign warships protest 
against the bombardment of Rio, 8 Oct. ; con- 
tinued firing on the forts . . 9 Oct. et seq. , 
Government forces defeated in several parts of 

Rio Grande 12-21 Oct. , 

Sen. Frederico Lorena appointed provisional pre- 
sident, by adm. de Mello, reported . 23 Oct. , 
Daily bombardment of Nictheroy, <fcc. . 27 Oct. , 
Collision between the Rcpublica and Rio de Janeiro 
(transport), about 500 lives lost, reported 27 Oct. 
Explosion of a powder magazine at Rio, 3 British 
naval officers killed, others missing, reported, 

6 Nov. , 
Renewed bombardment of Nictheroy . 4-10 Nov. , 
The insurgents hoist the imperial flag, and are 
joined by adm. Saldanha da Gama and other im- 
portant persons 7 Nov. , 

The insurgent vessel Javary sunk by firing from 

fortSa5Joao 22 Nov. , 

Indecisive warfare .... 3-15 Dec. , 
Renewed bombardment of Rio . . 28 Dec. . 

Insurgent successes in Rio Grande . . Jan. ii 
Adm. de Mello organizes a government in the state 

of Parana Jan. . 

The insurgents hold possession of the harbour of 

Rio ; the foreign naval commanders telegraph to 

their governments for instructions . 25 Jan. . 

Difficulties between the American fleet under adm. 

Benham and adm. da Gama's fleet, shots fired on 

both sides 29 Jan. , 

Adm. Benham declaring that he acted only for the 
protection of American ships, his conduct ap- 
proved by theU.S. A. government, and hostilities 

are suspended 30 Jan. 

The British government maintains neutrality, Feb. 
The blockade of Rio de Janeiro raised . 3 Feb. 
Indecisive engagements near Nictheroy, much 
bloodshed. .... 9-12 Feb. 

Severe fighting in Parana .... Feb. 
Explosion on the insurgent war vessel Venus, the 
commander and 32 men killed, reported 27 Feb. 
Insurgents defeated in Rio Grande, reported, 

2 March, 
Dr. Prudente de Moraes elected president, 1 March, 
Terms of surrender proposed by adm. da Gama, 
rejected by marshal Peixoto ; the firing of the 
government forts on the insurgent forts and 
ships not returned ; ships deserted, and uncon- 
ditional surrender of the insurgents . 13 March, 
Two Portuguese warships allowed to depart with 
adm. da Gama and 70 officers, 18 March ; arrive 
at Buenos Ayres (to be conveyed to Portuguese 

territory) 26 March, 

The state of Parana in the hands of the insurgents 

under gen. Saraiva March, 

Adm. de Mello is proclaimed president at Desterro, 

reported 23 March, 

The insurgents defeated in Rio Grande with heavy 

loss, reported 10 April, 

Adm. de Mello and squadron surrender to the 

Argentine republic at Buenos Ayres, as political 

refugees ; the Rrpuhlim and other ships given up 

to the Brazilian minister - . .16 April, 

Adm. da Gama and 220 insurgents escape from the 

Portuguese transport to Montevideo, and join 

the insurgents in the south, 26 April; others 

taken to Ascension island . . 27 April, 

The president's message to congress, declares the 

country settled, reported ... 7 May, 

Diplomatic relations with Portugal broken off with 

respect to the escaped insurgents, reported, 

14 May, 

Brazilian refugees, 148. arrive at Lisbon. 31 May, 

Gen. Saraiva defeated with great loss by the 

government forces under gen. Lima, near Passo 

Fuiido, Rio Grande .... 27 June, 

Gen. Saraiva defeated and mortally wounded at 

Cavory 10 Auu. 

State of siege abolished by the president, reported, 

1 Sept. 

Dr. Prudente Jose de Moraes assumes ollice as 

president ; grants a political amnesty . 15 Nov. 



Amnesty to deserters during the revolt granted, 

2 Jan. 

Explosion on board a pleasure steamer off the port 

of Nictheroy, 120 lives lost ... 7 Jan. 

A new 5 per cent, internal currency loan announced 

(well taken up) 21 Feb. 

Renewal of the war in Rio Grande, gen. Sampaio 

defeated near the Uruguay frontier . 28 Feb. 

Rupture with Portugal settled, through British 

influence 14 March, 

Claims of Italy for compensation for Italian losses 
during the civil war .... 2 May, 
Congress re-opened by the president . 4 May, 
Defeat of the rebels at Cuareim ; suicide of admiral 
da Gama, 26 June ; armistice till 9 July, an- 
nounced, 3 July ; peace negotiations ; treaty 
signed ; reported, 23 Aug. ; death of gen. Peixoto, 

late president 29 June, ,, 

Amnesty bill to rebels in the late revolt in Rio 

Grande do Sul ; signed by the president, 21 Oct. ,, 
Congress opened by the president, large deficit ; 

revision of the tariff, &c, proposed . 14 May, 1896 
Disputes with Italy ; Italians attacked by the mob 
at San Paulo, several persons killed, 24 Aug. ; 
conflicts at Rio, 25 Aug. ; order restored, 27 Aug. „ 
Italian squadron for S. American waters ; ap- 
pointed, 31 Aug. ; Italian claims settled, 19 Nov. ,, 
The president, through ill-health, transfers his 
duties temporarily, to the vice-president, Dr. 
Manuel V. Pereira, 10 Nov. 1896 ; resumes his 
functions ... ... 4 March, 1897 

Monarchist newspaper offices destroyed by a mob 
at Rio de Janeiro, and the proprietor sen. Gentil 
Castro assassinated ... 8 March, „ 

Insurrection of the "Fanatics" under Antonio 
Conselheiro in Bahia ; government forces de- 
feated at Canudos ; gen. Moreira Cesar, 32 officers, 
and 600 men, killed, and their arms captured, 

3 March, ,, 
8,000 Fanatics defeated by the troops at Canudos 

in Bahia, much slaughter ; reported 7 June, ,, 

Canudos, the stronghold of the Fanatics, after a 
long siege, captured by government troops ; 
much slaughter, Antonio Conselheiro killed, 

6 Oct. „ 
Attempt to assassinate president Moraes by Mar- 
cellino de Mello (who commits suicide, 24 Jan. 
1898) ; general Bittencour, killed, 5 Nov. (attri- 
buted to newspaper attacks on the government) ; 
their offices destroyed by the mob . 7 Nov. „ 
Five conspirators sentenced to long imprisonment, 
5 Nov. 1898 ; capt. Diocteano and 2 others sen- 
tenced to 30 years' imprisonment, reported, 5 
July, 1899. 
Jacobin attacks on an Italian colony Esperito 

Santo, 6 Italians killed ; reported . . 8 Nov. ,, 
Suspected conspiracy, a state of siege proclaimed ; 
convicts in revolt at Rio ; reported, 10 Nov. ; 
martial law enacted, till 23 Feb. 1898 12 Nov. ,, 
Internal public loan at 6 per cent. ; announced, 

27 Nov. ,, 
The Franco-Brazilian arbitration treaty passed by 
the senate ; approved by the president 8 Dec. ,, 

Congress closed 10 Dec. ,, 

Police report incriminating 20 persons, including 
Dr. Manuel V. Pereira, vice-pres., in the attempt 
to assassinate the president (see above, 5 Nov.) ; 
published, 12 Jan. 1898 ; lie protests his inno- 
cence and refuses to appear before the court, in 
an address issued .... 28 Feb. 189S 

Dr. Campos Salles elected president . 2 March, ,, 
The 4 per cent, loan of 1890 converted into 5 per 

cent, currency bonds . . . . 1 July, ,, 
British proposal to submit the Guiana boundary 

question to arbitration, accepted . March, 1899 
Naval ami military arsenals abolished, 3,970 
soldiers disbanded, loans redeemed, expenditure 

reduced April, ,, 

Congress opened by the president . . 3 May, ,, 
I'ros. Hoea of Argentina visits Rio . S, 18 Aug. ,, 

Congress closed 22 Nov. , 

Financial crisis: the Banco da Republica suspends 
payment on cheques. 12 Sept. 1900; the bank 
placed under government control by law passed 
20 Sept. 1900 ; re-opened . . .5 Nov. 1900 



BREACH OF PROMISE. 



177 



BREADSTUFFS. 



Brazil and French Guiana frontier dispute (200 
years) settled in favour of Brazil, by the Swiss 
Federal council, about 3,000 sq. miles allotted to 
France 1 Dec. 1900 

Congress opened 3 May, 1901 

The government's financial policy much praised 

17 Sept. ,, 

Rodriguez Alves installed president, reform scheme 
issued 15 Nov. 1902 

Dr. Prudente de Moraes, ex-pres., died . 3 Dec. ,, 

Agreement with Bolivia re Alve dispute, signed 

March, 1903 

Congress opened 3 May ,, 

EMPERORS OF BRAZTL. 

1822. Dom Pedro (of Portugal) ; abdicated in favour of his 
infant son, 7 April, 1831 ; died 24 Sept. 1834. 

1831. Dom Pedro II. (born 2 Dec. 1825) ; assumed the 
government, 23 July, 1840 ; crowned, 18 July. 
1841 ; married, 4 Sept. 1843, princess Theresa of 
Naples (born 14 March, 1822 ; died 28 Dec. 1889). 
Pedro II. deposed 15 Nov. 1889; died at Paris 5 
Dec, buried in the cathedral at St. Vincent, 
Lisbon, 12 Dec. 1891. 

Heiress. Isabella, born 29 July, 1846 ; married (15 Oct. 

1864) Louis comte d'Eu, son of the due de 

Nemours (born 29 April, 1842). 
Heir. Pedro, born 15 Oct. 1875. 

BREACH OF PROMISE ; see Marriage. 

BREAD. Ching-Noung, the successor of Fohi, 
is reputed to have been the first who taught men 
(the Chinese) the art of husbandry, and the method 
of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, 
1998 B.C. Univ. Hist. Baking of bread was known 
in the patriarchal ages : see JHxodus xii. 15. It 
became a profession at Rome, 170 B.C. After the 
conquest of Macedon, 148 B.C., numbers of Greek 
bakers came to Rome, obtained special privileges, 
and soon obtained a monopoly. During the siege of 
Paris by Henry IV., owing to famine, bread, which 
had been sold whilst any remained for a crown a 
pound, was at last made from the bones of the 
charnel-house of the Holy Innocents, a.d. 1594. 
Renault. In the time of James I., barley bread was 
used by the poor; and now in Iceland, cod-fish, 
beaten to powder, is made into bread ; potato-bread 
is used in Ireland. The London Bakers' Company 
was incorporated in 1307. Bread-street was oDce 
the London market for bread. Until 1302, the 
London bakers were not allowed to sell any in their 
own shops. Stow. Bread was made with yeast by 
the English bakers in 1634. In 1856 and 1857 Dr. 
Dauglish patented a mode of making "aerated 
bread," in which carbonic acid gas is combined with 
water and mixed with the flour, and which is said 
to possess the advantages of cleanliness, rapidity, 
and uniformity. In 1862 a company was formed to 
encourage Stevens' bread-making machinery. An 
act for regulating bakehouses was passed in July, 
1863. A strike of the journeymen bakers of the 
metropolis, 23 Sept., was settled by concessions, 
9 Oct. 1872. A Bread Reform League formed ; meet- 
ing at the Mansion house, London, 17 Dec. 1880. 
The Bread. Union, limited, established in London, 
Sept. 1889 ; failure, Oct. 1890. Delegated meeting 
of working bakers in London, demanding increased 
pay and shorter time of labour, 5 Sept. ; strike 
averted by concessions, Nov. J889. 

National school for bakers and confectioners in- 
augurated at a meeting at the Agricultural Hall, 

21 Sept. 1899 
New bakery at the Borough Polytechnic opened, 

9 Sept. 1902 



Quartern Loaf (41b. 5$qz.) I 1800 
1735 . . Price 5jd. 
1745 . . . . 4I 
• 5 



1755 
1765 
1775 
1785 
1795 



1825 



1835 
1840 



1845 



185s 



1859 



Price ij^d. 
[For 4 weeks, ii\<i. 



1 8 12 Aug. 
1814 . 



1872 

1873 

1874 (medium). 

Assize of Bread. 



mffb 


St) 

lort. 


1875 




11 


1876 




104 


1877 • 




7 


1878 




9 


1879 . 


June 


Dec. 


1880 


ikd. 


7*d. 


1881 . 


7 


6k 


1882 


10 


11 


1883 . 


11 


10J 


1884 


11 


105 


1885 • 


92 


8i 


1886 


8 


7 


1887 . 


8 


7+ 


1888 


8* 


9 


1889 . 


9 


9 


1890 


9 


8 


1891 . 


8 


7 


1892 


7 


7 


1893 . 


7 


8 


1894 


8+ 


9 


1895 . 


10 


xo* 


1896 


10 


8i 


1897 . 


8 


ih 


1S98 


7i 


H 


1899 . 


9 


a 


1900 


Q* 


10 


1902 . 


8 


8 




8 


6J 


I0o 3 



June. 

6 

. 6J 

7s 

• 7 



15* 

2l£ 
12^ 



Dec. 

7 

7 

7 

6 

7 

7 

7 

6* 

6* 

6 

si 

6 

si 

6 

6 

6 

6i 

5i 

Si 

5 

S 

6 

6| 

7i- 

5 



Oct. 

si si 



The first statute for the regulation 
of the sale of bread was 3 John, 1203. The' chief justi- 
ciary, and a baker commissioned by the king, had the 
inspection of the assize. Matthew Paris. The assize 
was further regulated by statute in 51 Hen. III. 1266, 
and 8 Anne, 1710. Bread. Act, Ireland, placing its sale 
on the same footing as in England, 1 Vict. 1838. Bread 
was directed to be sold by weight in London in 1822 ; the 
statute " Assessa Panis " was repealed in 1824; and the 
sale of bread throughout the country was regulated in 
1836. 

In France the old laws were superseded, and a law 
enabling the municipalities to fix the price of bread 
(still unrepealed) was passed, July, 1791. 

BREAD-FRUIT TREE, a native of the 
South Sea islands. A vessel under captain Bligh 
was fitted out to convey some of these trees to 
various British colonies in 1789 (see Bounty), and 
again in 1791. The number taken on board at 
Otaheite was 1151. Some were left at St. Helena, 
352 at Jamaica, and five were reserved for Kew 
Gardens, 1793. The tree was successfully culti- 
vated in French Guiana, 1802. 

BREADSTUFFS. Confectioners and Bakers' 
International Exhibition (nth Annual), Agri- 
cultural Hall, 5-12 Sept. 1903. The figures follow- 
ing show the relative proportions of the supplies of 
breadstuffs, wheat and flour (tons), received from 
British possessions and foreign countries during the 
period 1895-1902 :— 
India: 1895, 440,000; 1896, 106,000; 1897, 29,000; 1898, 

477,000 ; 1899, 410,000 ; 1900, nil ; 1901, 167,000 ; 1902, 

442,000. 
Canada: 1895, 255,000; 1896, 315,000; 1897, 347,000; 

1898, 387,000 ; 1899, 436,000 ; 1900, 400,000 ; 1901, 
429,000; 1902, 611,000. 

Australia: 1895, 179,000; 1896-7, nil ; 1898, 11,000; 

1899, 151,000 ; 1900, 146, oco ; 1901, 310,000 ; 1902, 
211,000. 

New Zealand : 1899, 35,000; 1900,57,000; 1901,69,000; 

1902, 8,000. 
Total British Possessions : 1895, 874,000; 1896, 421,000; 

1897, 376,000 ; 1898, 875,000 ; 1899, 1,032,000 ; 1900, 

603,000 ; 1901, 975,000 ; 1902, 1,272,000. 



BREAKWATERS. 



178 



BRESLAU. 



FOR* ION. 

United States : 1895, 2,266,000; 1896, 2,639,000; 1897, 

2,707,000; 1898, 3,104,000; 1899, 3,104,000; 1900, 

2,871,000; 1901, 3,343,000; 1902, 3,248,000. 
Argentina: 1895, 572,000; 1896, 250,000; 1897, 47,000; 

1898, 201,000; 1899, 576,000; 1900, 938,000; 1901, 

415,000 ; 1902, 227,000. 
Russia: 1895, I > I S3.ooo ; 1S96, 863,000; 1897, 756,000; 

1898, 320,000; 1899, 126,000; 1900, 225,000; 1901, 

129,000; 1902, 331,000. 
Austria- Hungary : 1895, 91,000; 1896, 96,000; 1897, 

79,000; 1898, 51,000; 1899, 72,000; 1900, 81,000; igoif 

56,000 ; 1902, 48,000. 
Other Foreign Countries: 1895, 407,000; 1896, 713,000; 

1897, 469,000; 3898, 170,000; 1899, 108,000; 1900, 

212,000; 1901, 135,000; 1902, 270,000. 
Total Foreign: 1^95, 4,489,000; 1896, 4,561,000; 1897 

4,058,000 ; 1898, 3,846,000 ; 1899, 3,893,000 ; 1900 

4!3 2 7! 00 ° > 190I) 4,078,000; 1902, 4,124,000. 

BREAKWATERS. The first stone of the 
Plymouth breakwater was lowered 12 August, 1812. 
It stretches 5280 feet across the sound, is 360 feet 
in breadth at the bottom and more than 30 at the 
top, and consumed 3,660,000 tons of granite blocks, 
from one to five tons each, up to April, 1841, and 
cost a million and a half sterling. The architects 
were Mr. John Eennie and his son sir John. The 
first stone of the lighthouse on its western extremity 
■was laid 1 Feb. 1841. Breakwaters have been con- 
structed at Holyhead, Portland, Dover, Middles- 
horough, &c. A great barrier, about two-thirds of 
a mile long, erected to defend the haematite iron 
mines near the Daddon estuary, was completed by 
Messrs. Lucas & Aird, sir John Coode being the 
•engineer, Oct. i8go. A breakwater in connection 
with extension of Admiralty pier is in progress 
(1903), much damaged by gale of 10 Sept. 1903. 

BREAST-PLATE. One was worn by the 
Jewish high priest, 1491 B.C. (Exod. xxxix.) 
Goliath " was armed with a coat of mail," 1063 
B.C. (1 Sam. xvii.) Breast-plates dwindled to the 
diminutive gorgets. Ancient breast-plates are men- 
tioned as made of gold and silver. 

BRECHIN, Scotland ; sustained a siege against 
the army of Edward III., 1333. The battle of 
Brechin or Huntly-hill was fought between the 
earls of Huntly and Crawford, the latter defeated, 
18 May, 1452. The see of Brechin was founded by 
David I. in 1150. One of its bishops, Alexander 
Campbell, was made prelate when but a boy, 1556. 
The bishopric, discontinued soon after the revolu- 
tion in 1688, was revived in 1 73 1. 

BREDA, Holland, was taken from the 
Spaniards by prince Maurice, of Nassau, in 1590; 
retaken by the Spaniards, under Spinola, June, 
1625 ; and by the Dutch, Oct. 1637. The " Com- 
promise of Breda" was a proposal to Philip II., de- 
precating his harsh measures in the Netherlands, 
presented and refused in 1566. Our Charles II. 
resided here at the time of the restoration, and here 
he issued his declaration of a free general pardon, 
and promised religious toleration, 14 April, 1660; 
see Restoration. Breda was taken by the French in 
1793. The French garrison was expelled by the 
burgesses in 1813. Population, 1890, 22,536. 

BREECHES. Among the Greeks, this gar- 
ment indicated slavery. It was Avorn by the 
Dacians, Parthians, and other northern nations; 
and in Italy, it is said, was worn in the time of 
Augustus Ca?sar. In the reign of Honorius, about 
394, the braccarii, or breeches-makers, were ex- 
pelled from Homo. The " Geneva Bible," termed 
the "Breeches Bible" (from the rendering in 
Gen. hi. 7), published 1560. 



BREECH-LOADERS, see under Cannon 
and Firearms. 

BREED'S HILL, see Bunker's Hill. 

BREHON LAWS, the ancient jurisprudence 
of Ireland, said to have been administered by here- 
ditary judges called Brehons. It was enacted by 
the statute of Kilkenny, that no English subject 
should submit to the Brehon laws, 40 Edw. III., 
1366. These laws, however, were recognised by the 
native Irish till 1650. A translation of them was 
proposed in 1852, and a commission appointed. The 
publication of the " Ancient Laws of Ireland" by 
the government, began 1865; completed, by vol. vi., 
glossary, July, 1 902. 

BREITENFELD, see Leipsic. 

BREMEN (N. Germany), said to have been 
founded in 788, and long an archbishopric, and one 
of the leading towns of the Hanseatic League, was 
allowed a seat and a vote in the college of imperial 
cities in 1640. In 1648 it was secularised and 
erected into a duchy and held by Sweden till 1712, 
when it was taken possession of by Denmark, by 
whom it was sold to Hanover in 1731- It was 
taken by the French in 1757, who were expelled 
by the Hanoverians in 1758. Bremen was annexed 
by Napoleon to the French empire in 1810 ; but its 
independence was restored in 1813, and all its old 
franchises in 1815. It became a member of the 
North German Confederation in 1866. International 
agricultural exhibition opened 13 June, 1874. 
Population of the province, 1871, 122,402 ; 1885, 
165,628; 1890, 180,443: of the city, 125,684; 
1900, 224,882 ; city, 163,297. See Hanse Towns. 
For the explosion at Bremerhaven (the port of 
Bremen), 11 Dec. 1875, see Dynamite. The statue 
of the emperor, "William I. unveiled by William II. 
18 Oct. 1893. Hermann H. Meier, founder of N. 
German Lloyd, died, aged 88, 18 Nov. 1898. 

BRENNEVILLE, N.W. France. Here 
Henry I. of England defeated Louis VI. of France, 
who supported William Cliton, son of Bobert, duke 
of Normandy, 20 Aug. 11 19. 

BRENTFORD, county town of Middlesex. 
Here Edmund Ironside defeated the Danes, May, 
1016. It was taken by Charles I., after a sharp 
fight, 12 Nov. 1642. Cowper and others alluded 
to its "two kings on one throne." Falstaff 
(" Merry Wives of Windsor") disguises himself as 
a "fat woman of Brentford." — Chambers. New 
market opened 24 May, 1893. New workhouse 
cost 100,000/'., opened 4 Nov. 1902. Population, 
1881, 11,805; 1891, 13,736; 1901, 15,171. 

BRESCIA, N. Italy (the ancient Brixia), be- 
came important tinder the Lombards, and sufi'ered 
by the wars of the Italian Republics, being attached 
to Venice. It was taken by the French under 
Gaston de Foix, Feb. 1512, when it is said 40,000 
of the inhabitants were massacred. It was retaken 
26 May, 1516. It surrendered to the Austrian 
general ILiynau, 30 March, 1849, on severe terms. 
It was annexed to Sardinia in 1859. 

BRESLAU, in Silesia, was burnt by the Mon- 
gols in 1 24 1, and conquered by Frederick II. of 
Prussia, Jan. 1741. A fierce battle took place here 
between the Austrians and Prussians, the latter 
under prince Bevern, who was defeated 22 Nov. 
1757. Breslau was taken ; but was regained 21 Dec. 
same year. It was besieged by the" French, and 
surrendered to them, Jan. 1807, and again in 181 3. 
Statue of the emperor William I. unveiled by 



BEESSA PEIZE. 



179 



BRIBERY. 



■William II. ; visit of the czar and czarina, review 
and banquet, 5 Sept. 1896. Population of the city, 
1895,378,250; 1900,422,738. 

BRESSA PRIZE. Dr. Cesare Antonio 
Bressa. by will of 4 Sept. 1835, bequeathed property 
to the Royal Academy of Sciences, Turin, to give a 
prize every two years for some important discovery 
or valuable work published relating to physics, 
natural history, geography, history, statistics, &c. 
The first prize (about 1206^.) was to be awarded in 
1879 to a foreigner; the second to an Italian, and 
so on alternately. The prize awarded to the late 
M. Pasteur in 1888. 

BREST, a seaport, N. W. France, possessed by 
the English a.d. 1378. Lord Berkeley and a British 
fleet and army were repulsed here with dreadful loss 
in 1694. The magazine burnt, to the value of some 
millions of pounds sterling, 1 744. The marine hos- 
pitals, with fifty galley slaves, burnt, 1766. The 
magazine again destroyed by fire, 10 July, 1784. 
From this great depot of the French navy, numerous 
squadrons were equipped against England, among 
them the fleet which lord Howe defeated on 1 
June, 1794. England maintained a large block- 
ading squadron off the harbour from 1793 to 1815 ; 
but with little injury to France. It is now a chief 
naval station, and is considered impregnable. 
Failure of sardine fishery, British subscriptions in 
aid of fishermen, Jan. 1902. Population in 1901, 
^1,948. 

BRETAGNE, see Brittany. 

BRETHREN, see Bohemian and Plymouth 
Brethren. 

BRETIGNY, Peace of, concluded with 

France, 8 May, 1360, by which England retained 
Gascony and Guienne, and acquired other provinces ; 
renounced her pretensions to Maine, Anjou, Tou- 
araine, and Normandy ; was to receive 3,000,000 
crowns, and to release king John, long a prisoner. 
The treaty not being carried out, the king remained 
and died in England. 

BRETON, see Cape Breton, and Brittany. 

BRETWALDA (wide-ruling chief), one of 
the kings of the Saxon heptarchy, chosen by the 
others as a leader in war against their common 
enemies. The title was bestowed upon Egbert, 
828 ; see Britain. Palgrave, Kemble, and Freeman 
differ in regard to this title. 

BREVIARY (so called as being an abridgment 
of the offices used in the Roman Catholic service) , con- 
tains the seven canonical hours, viz., matins about 
midnight; lauds (when not joined to matins, about 
3 a.m.), primes (about 6), tierce (about 9), sexts 
(about 12), nones (about 3 p.m.), vespers (4 or 6), 
camplines (about 9) . Lord Bute published a trans- 
lation of the breviary, 1879. T ne breviary is 
ascribed to pope Gelasius I. about 492. It was 
first called the custos, and afterwards the breviary ; 
came into use among the ecclesiastical orders about 
1080 ; and was reformed by the councils of Trent 
and Cologne, and by Pius V., Urban VIII., and 
other popes. The quality of type in which the 
breviary was first printed is said to have givem 
the name to the printing type called brevier. 

The Sforza Horae, " Book of Hours," a collection of 
illuminated MSS. of the 15th and 16th centuries, for- 
merly the property of the emperor Charles V. and his 
successors, was eventually acquired by Mr. Malcolm, of 
Poltallock, who gave it in 1893 to the British Museum, 
which already possessed the breviaries of Isabella the 
Catholic, and her daughter Joan. Forty-six " Books of 



Hours" sold in the " Ashburnham " library, 7 Dec. 1897 ; 
an early isth-ceutury " Book of Hours" realised 640L, 
4 July, 1901. 

BREWERS are traced to Egypt. Brewing was 
known to the Greeks, Romans, and to our Anglo- 
Saxon ancestors. Tindal. " One William Murle, a 
rich maltman or bruer, of Dunstable, had two horses 
all trapped with gold, 1414." Stow. In Oct. 1851, 
there were 2305 licensed brewers in England, 146 m 
Scotland, and 97 in Ireland ; total, 2548 : these are 
exclusive of retail and intermediate brewers. There 
were 40,418 licensed brewers in the United Kingdom 
in 1858 ; the revenue from whom to the state was in 
that year 81,030^. In 1858 in England there were 
205 great brewers ; see Ale, Porter, and Vacuum. 

In 1880 the brewers' licence (for sale) was made il., 
not for sale, 6s. ; a duty was laid upon beer calculated 
upon the specific gravity of the wort (43 & 44 Vict. c. 20) ; 
now (1903) 7s. gd. per barrel. 

Annual Brewers' exhibition at the Agricultural Hall, 
London, began 1879. 

BRIAR'S CREEK (ST. America), near which 
the Americans, 2000 strong, under general Ashe, 
were totally defeated by the English under general 
Prevost, 3 March, 1779. 

BRIBERY forbidden {Petit, xvi. 19). Samuel's 
sons were guilty of it, 1112 B.C. (1 <S«>K.viii.3). Thos. 
de Weyland, a judge, was banished for bribery in 
1288; he was chief justice of the common pleas. 
William de Thorpe, chief justice of the king's 
bench, was convicted of bribery in 135 1. Another 
judge was fined 20,000^. for the like offence, 1616. 
Mr. Walpole, secretary-at-war, was sent to the 
Tower for bribery in 1 712. Lord Strangford was 
suspended from voting in the Irish house of lords, 
for soliciting a bribe, Jan. 1 784. 

BRIBERY at Elections. In 1854 an im- 
portant act was passed consolidating and amending 
previous acts relating to this offence, from 7 
Will. III. (1695) to 5 & 6 Vict. c. 184. 
Messrs. Sykes and Eumbold fined and imprisoned 

for bribery .... .14 March, 1776 

Messrs. Davidson, Parsons, and Hopping, impri- 
soned for bribery at Ilchester . . 28 April, 1804 
Mr. Swan, M.P. for Penryn, fined and imprisoned, 
and sir Manasseh Lopez sentenced to a fine of 
ia,oool. and two years' imprisonment for bribery 

at Grampound Oct. 1819 

The members for Liverpool and Dublin unseated . 1831 
The friends of Mr. Knight, candidate for Cambridge, 

convicted of bribery 20 Feb. 1835 

Elections for Ludlow and Cambridge made void . 1840 
Sudbury disfranchised, 1848 ; St. Albans also . . 1852 
Elections at Derby and other places declared void 

for bribery 1853 

Corrupt Practices Act passed 1854 

[n Cooper v. Slade, it was ruled that the payment 

of travelling expenses was bribery . 17 April, 1858 
Gross bribery practised at Gloucester, Wakefield, 

and Berwick 1859 

Mr. Wm. H. Leatham convicted of bribery at Wake- 
field i9J ul y> i860 

Government commissions of inquiry respecting 
bribers, sat at Great Yarmouth, Totnes, Lancas- 
ter, and Reigate ; and disgraceful disclosures 

were made Aug. -Nov. 1866 

The boroughs were disfranchised by the Reform bill, 

passed 15 Aug. 1867 

The Parliamentary Elections Act enacted that elec- 
tion petitions should be tried by a court ap- 
pointed for the purpose, passed . 31 July, 1868 
First trials under this act ; Mr. Roger Eykyn (at 
Windsor) was declared duly elected, 15 Jan., and 
sir H. Stracey (at Norwich) was unseated, 

18 Jan. 1869 

Dr. Kinglake, Mr. Fenelly, and others, were sen- 
tenced to be fined for bribery in parliamentary 

elections 1° May, 1870 

k 2 



BRIC-A-BRACS. 



180 



BRIEFS. 



Beverley, Bridgewater, Sligo, and Cashel disfran- 
chised for bribery and corruption . . . 1870 

Mucb corruption during the elections of April ; 
members for Oxford, Chester, Boston, and other 
places, unseated 1880 

Stringent Act against it, brought in by sir H. James, 
attorney-general, was passed in . . . . 1881 

Public Bodies Corrupt Practices Act . . . 1889 
See Corrupt Practices. 

BRIC-A-BRACS (French), old curiosities, 
such as cabinets, pieces of ironwork, &c. The 
collecting began about the time of queen Anne, 
1702-14. The publication of Bric-d-Brac, a 
monthly price-list, began in 1869. See Strawberry 
Hill, Hamilton and Spitzer Fonthill. 

BRICKS were used in Babylon, Chaldtea, 
Egypt (cf. Ex. i. 12, 14), Greece, and Borne; 
in England by the Komans. The size was regu- 
lated by order of Charles I., 1625. Taxed, 1784. 
The number of bricks which paid duty in England in 
1820 was 949,000,000 ; in 1830, above 1,100,000,000 ; 
in 1840^ 1,400,000,000; and in 1850, 1,700,000,000. 
The duties and drawbacks of excise on bricks were 
repealed in 1850. In 1839 Messrs. Cooke and Cun- 
ningham brought out their machinery for brick- 
making. Clayton & Co., of London, 1861, Bradley 
& Craven, of >n akefield, and many others followed. 
Brick-making by steam is now almost universal. 
18,000 bricks made in ten hours. 

BRIDEWELL, once a palace of king John, 
near Fleet-ditch, London, 12 10, was given to the 
city for a workhouse by Edward VI., 1553.* The 
New Bridewell prison, erected in 1829, was pulled 
down in 1864 ; that of Tothill-fields was rebuilt in 
1831. 

BRIDGE, a fashionable card game, 'which at 
the present time (1903) is played extensively. 
The excessive gambling associated with the game 
and the heavy losses incurred by players in 
"society " circles, especially among ladies, has 
given rise to considerable scandal. 

BRIDGES were first of wood. There are 
ancient stone bridges in China. Abydos is famous 
for the bridge of boats which Xerxes built across 
the Hellespont, 480 B.C. Trajan's magnificent 
stone bridge over the Danube, 4770 feet in length, 
was built in a.d. 105. Brotherhoods for building 
bridges existed in S. France about 11 80. The Devil's 
bridge in the Canton of Uri was built on two high 
rocks ; and many stories have been invented to ac- 
count for it. At SchafThausen an extraordinary 
bridge was built over the Bhine, 400 feet wide : there 
was a pier in the middle of the river, but it is doubt- 
ful whether the bridge, rested upon it ; a man of 
the lightest weight felt the bridge totter under him, 
yet waggons heavily laden passed over without 
danger. The bridge was destroyed by the French 
in 1799. See Hammersmith, London, Waterloo, 
Blaekfriars, Southwarh, Forth, Tag, Toiver, 
Westminster, and other bridges, in separate ar- 
ticles. The chief Thames bridges were freed from 
toll 24 May, 1879, arid 2 6 June, 1880. 

Triangular bridge at Croyland abbey referred to in 
a charter dated 043 

London bridge: one existed about 978; one built 
of wood, nil. 1 ; cue bj Peter of Colechuroh, 1176- 
1209 ; new bridge finished (widened 1901-3) . . 1S31 

* Of the old buildings little remains: merely offices 
and a tew cells for refractorj City apprentices. 'By the 
Charily Commissioners' scheme ( [86o)the annual income 
(14,682?. in 1876) is devoted to the maintenance of two 

industrial schools : for Leys, at Witl.\\. Slurry; for -iris. 
at St. George's fields. 



A stone bridge erected at Bow, near Stratford, by 
queen Matilda about 1100-1S 

Bishop's bridge, Norwich 1293 

The first large iron bridge erected over the Severn, 
Shropshire 1777 

Sunderland bridge by Wilson, 100 feet high, an 
arch with a span of 236 feet 1796 

The chain suspension bridge at Menai Strait . . 1825 

Old Westminster, opened, 1750; old Blaekfriars, 
1769 ; Waterloo, 1817 ; Southwark, 1819 ; Hunger- 
ford, 1845 ; Chelsea, 1858 ; Vauxhall, 1816. 

A railway bridge z\ miles long projected over the 
Firth of Forth (not executed) . . . Dec. 1864. 

The very wide Victoria bridge, over the Thames (by 
which the London, Chatham and Dover railway 
enters the Victoria station, Pimlieo) ; founded by 
lord Harris 22 Feb. 1865 

For details see separate articles, and also Tubular 
bridge, Neivcastle, Niagara, Victoria bridge, &c. 

New York and Brooklyn bridge, 5862 feet long; 
1600 central span ; 130 feet high ; July, 1872, et seq. 

Tay bridge {which see) 1871-7 ; Forth bridge (see 
under Forth) 1879-89 

The great railway bridge over the Severn (about % 
mile long), connecting the Forest of Dean with 
Sharpness Point, the port of Gloucester (cost 
i,ooo,oooL), was formally opened . 17 Oct. 1879 

Great railway bridge over the Volga, near Syzlan, 
Saratoy government, built .... 1877-80 

Suspension bridge from New York to Brooklyn 
(5989 feet long) opened ... 24 May, 1885 

The Gokteik viaduct, Shan hills, Burmah, the 
highest railway bridge in the world, completed, 

13 Dec. 1900 

BRIDGEWATER, seaport of Somersetshire, 
was incorporated by king John, in 1200. Coasting 
trade about 160,006 tons, 1902. In the civil war it 
was taken by the parliamentary forces, 23 July, 
1645. Here stood an ancient castle in which the 
ill-advised duke of Monmouth lodged when pro- 
claimed king in 1685. The town was disfranchised 
for bribery, 1870. Population, 1881, 12,007; 1891, 
12,429; igoi, 15,209. 

BRIDGEWATER CANAL, the first groat 
work of the kind in England, was begun by the 
duke of Bridgewater, the father of canal navigation 
in this country, in 1759, and opened 17 July, 1761. 
James Brindley was the engineer. It commences 
at Worsley, seven miles from Manchester ; and at 
Barton Bridge is an aqueduct which, for upwards 
of 200 yards, conveys the canal across the river 
IrweU. The length of the canal is about twenty- 
nine miles. The duke's canals connected the 
Thames, Humber, Severn and Mersey; and London, 
Hull, Bristol, and Liverpool. 

BRIDGEWATER TREATISES. The rev. 
Francis, earl of Bridgewater, died in April, 1829, 
leaving by will 8,000^. to be given to the author or 
authors, appointed by the president of the Royal 
Society, who should write an essay "on the power, 
wisdom, and goodness of God, as manifested in the 
creation." The essays (by sir Charles Bell, Drs. T. 
Chalmers, John Kidd, William Buckland, William 
Prout, Peter M. Eoget, and the revs. William 
Whewell and William Kirby) were published 1833- 
35- 

BRIEFS are the letters of the pope despatched 
to princes and others on public affairs, and 
written short, without preface or preamble, and on , 
paper ; in which particulars they are distinguished 
from bulls. Briefs are sealed with red wax and 
the seal of the. fisherman, or St. Peter in a boat, 
and always in the presence of the pope. Letters of 
the English sovereign, called "briefs," authori- 
sing collections in churches for charitable purposes, 
abolished in 1828. "Church Briefs," by Mr. W". 
A. Bewes, published Feb. 1897. A lawyer's brief 
is an abridgment nf his client's ease. It is endorsed 



BRIENNE. 



181 



BRISTOL. 



1651 



1007 
1823 



1S61 



1865-6 



with the title of the Court and the action, and with 
the names of the counsel and the solicitor, and 
marked with the proper fee. 

BRIENNE (N. E. France). Here the allied 

armies of Russia and Prussia, under Blucher, were 
defeated by the French, 29 Jan. 18 14. 

BRIGANDAGE. See Italy, 1861 et seq. ; 
Greece, 1870 ; Spain, 1870; and Turkey. 

BRIGHTS DISEASE, a degeneration of the 
tissues of the kidneys into fat, investigated about 
1830 by Dr. Richard Bright. 

BRIGHTON, formerly Brighthelmstone, a 
fishing town, Sussex, was made a place of fashion- 
able resort by the prince of Wales, afterwards 
George IV. Brighton returns two M.P.'s by Act of 
4885. Population, 153,691, 1901. 
At Shoreham, near Brighton, Charles II. embarked 

for France after the battle of Worcester 
Visit of the prince of Wales 
He founded the Pavilion 1784 ; it was greatly en 

larged and made to resemble the Kremlin at Mos 

cow, 1784-1823 ; sold to the town for 53,000? 
The Block-house swept away . . .26 March 
Part of the cliff fell ; great damage . . 16 Nov 
Chain-pier, 1134 feet long, 13 wide, completed 
Brighton made a parliamentary borough 
The railway to London opened . . 21 Sept, 
Collision of trains in Clayton tunnel, 23 person: 

killed and many injured . . .25 August 
Volunteer reviews here on Easter Monday, 1862 

and often since, see under Volunteers. 
New " West " pier erected .... 
Great aquarium inaugurated by prince Arthur, 30 

Mar. ; and formally opened by the mayor, 10 Aug. 1872 
British Association meet here . . 14 Aug. ,, 
Free library, museum, and picture gallery, opened 

12 Sept. 1873 
Inauguration of statue of sir John Cordy Burrows, 

great benefactor to the town . . .14 Feb. 1878 
About 2000 French and Belgian singers and musi- 
cians meet 5 Sept. 1881 

Grand concert room, &c, burned . . 8 Oct. 1882 
New town hall, Hove, opened . . 13 Dec. ,, 

Electric railway tried .... 4 April, 1884 

Preston park (purchased for 60,000?. aided by legacy 

from W. E. Davis) opened by the mayor . 8 Nov. ,, 
Railway to Devil's Dyke opened . . 1 Sept. 1887 
International exhibition of arts and manufactures 

at Hove opened 21 Oct. 1889 

New terraces, sheltered walk, halls, &c, opened by 

the mayor 25 May, 1890 

Museum of British birds, bequeathed to the town 

by Mr. E. T. Booth, opened by the mayor, 3 Nov. ,, 
Visit of the prince of Wales to lay the foundation 

stone (extension) of the Sussex county hospital 

29 Feb. 1896 
Visit of the duke and duchess of York ; see Teachers 

9 April ,, 
New electric railway on the shore opened 28 Nov. ,, 
Chain pier completely destroyed t>y a gale, and 

other damage 4 Dec. ,, 

Steep grade railway on the Devil's Dyke opened 

24 July, 1897 
Statue of the queen by prof. Nicoli, presented by 

mayor (sir John Blaker), unveiled . 8 Dec. ,, 
New pier with marine palace, 1,700 feet long, 

opened 20 May, 1899 
Bronze statue of queen Victoria, unveiled . 9 Feb. 1901 
Public art galleries, museum, news-rooms and 

library, cost 40,000?., opened . . . 5 Nov. 1902 

BRILL OR Bejel, Holland. A seaport, seized 
by the expelled Dutch confederates, became the 
seat of their independence, 1572. Briel, given up 
to the English in 1585 as security for ^advances 
made by queen Elizabeth to Holland, was restored 
in 1616.' 

_ BRISBANE, capital of Queensland, on the 
river Brisbane, Australia, was founded by Oxley, 
in 1.823, settled as a penal station in 1825 by sir J. 
Brisbane, and made a bishopric in 1859, when the 



colony was constituted. Spacious dry dock opened 
at S. Brisbane in 1881. By the capsizing of the 
steamer Pearl about 40 persons were drowned on 
the Brisbane river, 13 Feb. 1896. Population in 
1887 (with suburbs), 73,649; 1891, 93,657; 1901, 
119,428. For the great floods, see Queensland, 
1893. 

BRISSOTINS, see Girondists. 

BRISTOL (W. England) is mentioned in 430 
as a fortified city. It was called Caer Oder, a city in 
the valley of Bath ; and, sometimes Caer Brito, the 
British city, and by the Saxons Brightstowe, plea- 
sant place. Gildas and rTennius speak of Bristol in 
the 5th and 7th centuries. From the 12th to the 
1 8th century it was, next to London, the most 
nourishing port in England ; it has since been sur- 
passed by Liverpool. See under Orphan-houses. 
An industrial aud fine art exhibition for Somerset 
and Gloucester opened 2 Sept. 1884. Population 
1901, 329,990. Bristol returns four M.P.'s by Act 
of 1885. 

Taken by the earl of Gloucester, in his defence 
of his sister Maud, the empress, against king 

Stephen 1z -,q 

Eleanor of Brittany (daughter of Geoffrey, son of 
Henry II.) dies in the castle after 39 years' im- 
prisonment 1 241 

Church of St. Mary Redcliff built 1292, restored 

1376 ; again 1470 ; spire completed . . . 1872 
Bristol made a distinct county by Edward III. . 1373 

Bishopric founded by Henry VIII 1542 

Taken by prince Rupert, 26 July, 1643 ; by Cromwell, 

10 Sept. 1645 
Edwd. Colston's hospital, a free school, and other 
charities established [his birthday, 13 Nov. kept 

annually] I7 o8 

[Annual dinners : the Dolphin Society (conserva- 
tive) since 1749 ; the Anchor Society (liberal) 
since 1768 ; Grateful Society (neutral) since 
I757-] 

New charter I7IO 

Act passed for new exchange, 1723 ; erected . . 1741 

Bread riots 1753 

Bridge built May, 1760 

Attempt to set the shipping on fire . . 22 Jan. 1777 
Riot on account of a toll ; the troops fire on the 
populace, and many arc wounded . 25 Oct. 1793 

Docks built 1804-9 

Riot on the entrance of sir Charles Wetherell, the 
recorder, into the city, he being opposed to the 
reform bill ; the mansion house, the bishop's 
palace, several merchants' stores, some of the 
prisons (the inmates liberated), nearly 100 houses 
burned, and above 500 persons killed by the mili- 
tary or perished .... 29-31 Oct. 1831 
Trial of rioters (four executed ; 22 transported), 
2 Jan. ; suicide of col. Brereton, during trial by 

court-martial g Jan. 1832 

Meeting of British Association . . . Aug. 1836 
Railway to London completed . . 30 June, 1841 
Clifton suspension-bridge opened . . 8 Dec. 1864 
Industrial Exhibition opened . . 19 Sept. 1865 
British Association, 2nd meeting .... 1875 
Proposed foundation of a college for science and 
literature here for the south and west of England; 
meeting, 13 June, 1874 ; medical school added ; 
opened as University College . . .10 Sept. 1876 
Great fire ; Clutterbuck's. drysalters, <fcc., loss be- 
tween 80,000?. and 100,000?. . . 24-25 May, ,, 
Avonmouth dock opened ... 24 Feb. 1877 
Merchant venturers' technical college, founded . 1885 
Statue of Mr. Samuel Morley, long M.P. for 

Bristol, unveiled 22 Oct. 1887 

Explosion of 300 barrels of naphtha on board the 

J ersey ketch The United ; 3 deaths . 21 Nov. 1888 
Great flood ; damage about 100,000?. . 8-9 March, 1889 
Trade paralyzed by strikes ; settled by compromise 

Oct.-Dec. ,, 
About 10,000 of the boot trade locked out, 23 Dec, 

1889 ; settled by compromise . about 20 Jan. 1890 
Dock and other strikes ; rioting checked by the 
police and military .... 23 Dec. 1892 



BRISTOL, SEE OF. 



182 



BRITAIN. 



Visit of the duke of Devonshire; speech against 
Irish home rule bill .... 6 April, 1893 

Art and industrial exhibition opened by the mayor 
(Mr. Barker) 28 Aug. ,, 

Statue of Edmund Burke presented by sir Win. 
Wills, unveiled by the earl of Rosebery . 30 Oct. 1894 

Wesleyan chapel, Redland-road, burnt down, 24 Oct. 1896 

Visit of lord Dufferin ; receives the freedom of the 
city and lays the foundation of the Cabot tower, 
24 June, 1897 ; opened by him . . 6 Sept. 1898 

Colston-hall and Messrs. Clarke's factory burnt 
down 1 Sept. ,, 

British association, 3rd meeting . ■ • 7 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Vincent Stuckey Lean, dies 24 March ; be- 
queaths 50,000?. for free libraries and 29,000?. to 
other charities .... 29 March, 1899 

The queen opens the Convalescent (Diamond 
Jubilee) Home (site presented by Mr. E. P. 
Wills, K.C.B., 1899); Mr. Herbert Ashman, 
knighted 15 Nov. ,, 

Exhibition of Jamaican products and industries 
opened 11 April, 1901 

The prince of Wales cuts the first sod of the Boyal 
Edward dock at Avonmouth . . 5 March, 1902 

The dock entrances and clearances each amount to 
about 1,250,000 tons ,, 

Mr. M. Whitwill, philanthropist, etc., died 6 Aug. 1903 

Church congress held .... 13-16 Oct. ,, 

BRISTOL, SEE OF, one of the six bishoprics 
erected by Henry VIII. out of the spoils of the dis- 
solved monasteries, 1542. The cathedral was the 
church of the abbe}' of St. Austin, founded here by 
Eobert Fitz-Harding, son to a king of Denmark, and 
a citizen of Bristol, 1148. The see is valued in the 
king's books at 338/. 8*. /\d. Paul Bushe, provincial 
of the Bons-hommes, was the first bishop, in 1542 — 
deprived for being married, 1554. The see of Bris- 
tol was united by an order in council with that of 
Gloucester, in 1836, but in 1884 an act was passed 
to provide for their again becoming separate 
bishoprics. Amendment, 1894, and 1896. Sub- 
scriptions received Aug. 1896 ; the bishopric re- 
constituted by an order in council, 7 July, 1897. 
The cathedral (under repair since 1844) was re- 
opened in 1861 ; a new nave opened 23 Oct. 1877 ; 
restoration of the Lady Chapel, tower, etc., pro- 
ceeding 1893, et seq., the choir reopened, 5 May, 
1895 ; a beautiful reredos unveiled, mid Oct. 1899. 

BISHOPS OF BRISTOL. 

1803. Hon. G. Pelham, translated to Exeter, 1807. 

1807. John Luxmoore, translated to Hereford, 1808. 

1808. Win. Lort Mansell, died, 27 June, 1820. 
1820. John Kaye, translated to Lincoln, 1827. 
1827. Robert Gray, died 28 Sept. 1834. 

1834. Joseph Allen, the last bishop, translated to Ely 
in June, 1836. (In October the diocese was 
united with Gloucester.) 

1897 (Re-constituted). George Forrest Browne, D.D. 
(bp. suff. of Stepney), elected 16 Sept. 1897. 

BRITAIN (called by the Romans Britannia,* 
from its Celtic name Prydain {Camden). The 
earliest records of the history of this island are the 
manuscripts and poetry of the Cambrians. The 
Celts, the ancestors of the Britons and modern 
"Welsh, were the first inhabitants of Britain. It is 
referred to as the Cassiterides or tin-islands by 
Herodotus, 450 B.C. ; as Albion and Ierne (England 
and Ireland) by Aristotle, 350 B.C., and Polybius, 
260 B.C. Britain, including England, Scotland, 
and Wales, was anciently called Albion, the name 
of Britain being applied to all the islands collec- 

* The Romans eventually divided Britain into Britan- 
nia Prima (country south of the Thames and Severn); 
Britannia Secunda (Wales) : Flavia Ccesariensis (between 
the Thames, Severn, and Dumber) ; Maxima Ccesariensis 
(between the Dumber and Tyne) ; and Valmtia (between 
the Tyne and Firth of Forth). The figure of Britannia 
on coins was first struck by the Romans. See Copper, 
1665. 



tively — Albion to only one. {Pliny). See Albion, 
England, Scotland, and Wales. Early history and 
dates doubtful. 

Divitiacus, king of the Suessones, in Gaul, said ts B.C. 
have supremacy over part of Britain . . .57 
First invasion of Britain by the Romans, under 

Julius Csesar 26 Aug. 55 

Second invasion ; he defeats Cassivelaunus, British 

general 54 

Cymbeline (Cunobelin), king of Britain . . . 4 
Aulus Plautius defeats the Britons . . . a.d. 43 
He and Vespasian reduce S. Britain . . . . 47 
Caraetacus defeated by Ostorius, 50 ; carried in 

chains to Rome 53 

Romans defeated by Boadicea, queen of the Iceni ; 
70,000 slain, and London burnt : she is defeated 
by Suetonius ; 80,000 slain, place uncertain . 61 
Agricola, governor, conquers Anglesey, and over- 
runs Britain in seven campaigns, and reforms the 

government 78-84 

He defeats the Caledonians under Galgacus ; sur- 
renders the islands 84 

The emperor Adrian visits Britain, 120 ; and builds 

a wall from the Tyne to the Solway . . . 121 
Lucius, king of the Britons, said to have sent an 
embassy 011 religious affairs to pope Eleutherius, 

about 18 b 
The Britons (allies of Albinus) defeated at Lyons by 

Severus 197 

Southern Britain subdued and divided by the- 

Romans into two provinces .... 204 
Severus keeps his court at York, then called Ebora- 
cum, 208 ; finishes his wall, and dies at York, 

4 Feb. 211 
Carausius usurps the throne of Britain . . . 286 
He is killed by Allectus, another usurper . . 294 
Constantius recovers Britain and kills Allectus . 296 
St. Alban and 17,000 Christians martyred (Bede) . 304 
Constantius, emperor of Rome, dies at York, 

25 July, 306 
British bishops at the council of Aries . . . 314 
Scots and Picts invade Britain, 360 ; routed by 

Theodosius 36S 

Romans gradually withdraw from Britain . 402-436 

Reign of Vortigern 425 

The Saxons and Angles aid in expelling the Picts 

and Scots 429. 

The Romans quit Britain 436 

The Anglo-Saxon invaders drive the Britons into 

Wales and Cornwall - . . . . 449-455 
Man}' Britons settle in Armorica (Brittany) . 388-437 
The Saxon Heptarchy ; Britain divided into seven 

or more kingdoms 457 

Ella invades South Britain, 477 ; founds kingdom 

of Sussex 491 

Supposed reigns of Vortimer, 464 ; Vortigern again, 
471 ; Aurelius Ambrosius, 481 ; and Arthur Pen- 
dragon 500 

Great Saxon invasion under Cerdic . . . . 495, 
The renowned king Arthur said to reign . . 500-532 
Arrival of St. Augustin (or Austin), and re-establish- 
ment of Christianity 597 

Cadwallader, last king of the Britons, reigns . . 678 
Lindisfarne church destroyed by the Northmen. . 794 
Egbert, king of Wessex, virtually king of England 827 

KINGS OF THE HEl'TAECHV,* See Brftimlda. 

Kent. [The sft i re of Ke >it. ] 
454. Hengist. [473, Saxon Chronicle.] 
488. iE.se, Esca. or Escus, son of Hengist : in honour of 

whom the kings of Kent were for some time called 

iEscings. 
512. Octa, son of iEse. 
542. Hernienric, or Knneiiric, son of Octa. 
560. St. Ethelbert ; first Christian king (styled Best 

Anglorum). 
616. Eadbald, son of Ethelbert. 
640. Ercenbert, or Ereombert, son of Eadbald. 
664. Eobert, or Egbert, sun of Ercenbert. 
673. Lothar, or Lothair, brother of Eebert. 
685. Edric : slain in 687. [The kingdom now subject to> 

various leaders.] 
694. Wihtred, or Wihgtred. 



* The term "Octarchy" is sometimes used; North- 
umbria being divided into Bernicia and Deira, separate 
kingdoms. 



BRITAIN. 



183 



BRITANNY. 



72 a' ™?i^U tt I sons of Wihtred, succeeding 

748. Ethelbert II., V each other. 

760. Alnc, ) 

794. Edbert, or Ethelbert Pryn ; deposed. 

796. Cuthred, or Guthred. 

805. Baldred ; who lost his life and kingdom to 

823. Egbert, king of Wessex. 

South Saxons. [Sussex and Surrey.] 

491. Ella, a warlike prince, succeeded by 

514. Cissa, his son, whose reign was long and peaceful, 
exceeding 70 years. 
[The South Saxons then fell into an almost total de- 
pendence on the kingdom of Wessex.] 

648. Edilwald, Edilwach, Adelwach, or Ethelwach. 

686. Authun and Berthun, brothers, reigned jointly ; 
vanquished by Ina, king of Wessex, 689 ; kingdom 
conquered in 725. 

Wert. Saxons. [Berks, Hampshire, Wilts, Somerset, 

Dorset, Devon, and part of Cornwall.] 
519. Cerdie. 

534. Cynric, or Kenric, son of Cerdie. 
560. Ceawlin, son of Cynric ; banished ; dies in 593. 
591. Ceolric, nephew to Ceawlin. 
597. Ceolwulf. 
611. ) Cynegils, and in 
614. f Cwichelm, his son, reigned jointly. 
643. Cenwal, Cenwalh, or Cenwald. 
672. Sexburga, his queen, sister to Penda, king of Mer- 

cia ; of great qualities ; probably deposed. 
674. Escwine, with Centwine ; on his death, 
676. Centwine rules alone. 
685. Ccedwallo : went to Rome, to expiate his deeds of 

blood, and died there. 
688. Ina or Inas, a brave and wise ruler ; journeyed to 

Rome ; left an excellent code of laws. 
728. Ethelheard, or Ethelard, related to Ina. 
740. Cuthred, brother to Ethelheard. 

754. Sigebright, or Sigebert, having murdered his friend 

Cumbran, governor of Hampshire, was slain by 
one of his victim's retainers. 

755. Cynewulf, or Kenwulf, or Cenulpe, a noble youth 

of the line of Cerdie ; murdered. 
784. Bertric, or Beorhtric ; poisoned by drinking of a 

cup his queen had prepared for another. 
800. Egbert, afterwards sole monarch of England, and 

Bretwalda. 

East Saxons. [Essex, Middlesex, and part of Herts.] 

526, 527, or 530, Erchenwin, or Erchwine. 

587. Sledda ; his son. 

597. St. Sebert, or Sabert ; son, first Christian king. 
614. Saxred or Sexted, or Serred. jointly with Sigebert 

and Seward ; all slain. 
623. Sigebert II. surnamed the little ; son of Seward. 
655. Sigebert III. surnamed the good ; brother of Sebert : 

put to death. 
661. Swithelm (or Suidhelm), son of Sexbald. 
663. Sigher, or Sigeric, jointly with Sebbi, or Sebba, who 

became a monk. 
693. Sigenard, or Sigehard, and Suenfrid. 
700 Offa ; became a monk at Rome. 
709. Suebricht, or Selred. 
738. Swithred, or Swithed ; a long reign. 
792. Sigeric ; died in a pilgrimage to Rome. 
799. Sigered. 
823. Kingdom seized by Egbert of Wessex. 

Northumbria. [Lancaster, York, Cumberland, Westmore- 
land, Durham, and Northumberland.] 

\* Northumbria was at first divided into two govern- 
ments, Bernicia and Deira; the former stretching 
from the Tweed to the Tyne, and the latter from the 
Tyne to the Humber. 
547. Ida, a valiant Saxon. 
560. Adda, his eldest son ; king of Bernicia. 
„ Ella, king of Deira ; afterwards the sole king of 
Northumbria (to 587). 
567. Glappa, Clappa, or Elapea ; Bernicia. 

572. Heodwulf ; Bernicia. 

573. Freodwulf ; Bernicia. 
580. Theodoric ; Bernicia. 

588. Ethelric ; Bernicia. 

593. Ethelfrith, surnamed the Fierce. 
617. Edwin, son of Ella, king of Deira in 590 ; a great 
prince. Slain in battle with Penda, of Mercia. 



634. Eanfrid rules in Bernicia, and Osric in Deira ; both 

put to death. 

635. Oswald slain in battle. 

642. Osweo, or Oswy ; a reign of great renown. 

670. Ecfrid, or Egfrid, king of Northumbria. 

685. Alcfrid, or Ealdferth. 

705. Osred, or Ealdferth. 

716. Cenric ; sprung from Ida. 

718. Osric, son of Alcfrid. 

729. Ceolwulf ; died a monk. 

737. Eadbert, or Egbert ; retired to a monastery. 

757. Oswulf, or Osulf ; slain in a sedition. 
759. Edilwald, or Mollo ; slain by Aired 
765. Aired, Ailred, or Alured ; deposed 
774. Ethelred, sou of Mollo ; expelled. 

778. Elwald, or Celwold ; deposed and slain. 

789. Osred, son of Aired ; fled. 

790. Ethelred restored ; afterwards slain. 
794. Erdulf, or Ardulf ; deposed. 

806. Alfwold. 

808. Erdulf restored. 

809. Eanred. 

841. Kingdom annexed by Egbert. 

East Angles. [Norfolk, Suffolk, Cambridge, Ely.] 

526. Uffa lands. 

571 or 575. Uffa ; a German, said to be first king. 

578. Titilus, or Titulus ; son of Uffa. 

599. Redwald, son of Titilus ; the greatest prince of 

East Angles. 
624. Erpwald, Eorpwald, or Eordwald. 
627. Richbert. 

629. Sigebert, half-brother to Erpwald. 
632. Egfrid, or Egric ; cousin to Sigebert. 
635. Anna, or Annas ; a just ruler ; killed. 

654. Ethelric, or Ethelhere ; slain in battle. 

655. Ethelwald ; his brother. 
664. Aldulf, or Aldwulf. 
713. Selred, or Ethelred. 
746. Alphwuld. 

749. Beorna and Ethelred, jointly. 

758. Beorna alone. 
761. Ethelred. 

790. Ethelbert, or Ethelbryght ; treacherously put to 
death in Mercia in 792, when Offa, king of Mercia, 
overran the country, which was finally subdued by 
Egbert. 

870. St. Edmund (vassal king) slain by the Danes. 

Mercia. [Gloucester, Hereford, Chester, Stafford, Worces- 
ter, Oxford, Salop, Warwick, Derby, Leicester, 
Bucks, Northampton, Notts, Lincoln, Bedford, Rut- 
land, Huntingdon, and part of Herts.] 

586. Crida, or Cridda, a noble chieftain. 

593. [Interregnum— Ceolric] 

597. Wibba, a valiant prince, his son. 

615. Ceorl, or Cheorl ; nephew of Wibba. 

626. Penda ; fierce and cruel ; killed in battle. 

655. Peada, son of Penda ; killed to make way for 

656. Wulfhere (brother) ; slew his two sons. 
675. Ethelred ; became a monk. 

704. Cenred, or Cendred ; became a monk at Rome. 
709. Ceolred, Celred, or Chelred ; son of Ethelred. 
716. Ethelbald ; slain in a mutiny by his successor. 
755. Beornred, or Bernred ; himself slain. 

,, Offa ; formed the great dyke near Wales. 
794. Egfrid, or Egferth, son of Offa ; died suddenly. 

,, Cenulph Cenwulf, or Kenulph ; slain. 
819. Kenelm, or Cenelm, a minor ; reigned five months 
killed by his sister Quendreda. 

,, Ceolwulf, uncle to Kenelm ; expelled. 
821. Beornwulf ; killed by his own subjects. 
823. Ludecan ; a valiant ruler ; slain. 
825. Withlafe, or Wiglaf. 
838. Berthulf, or Bertulf. 
852. Burhred, or Burdred. 
874. Ceolwulph ; deposed by the Danes, 877. 

[The kingdom merged into that of England.] 

BRITANNIA, see Britain. 

BRITANNIA TUBULAR BRIDGE, see 

Tubular Bridge. 

BRIT ANN Y, or BRETAGNE (N. W. France), 
the ancient Armorica {which see), formed part of 
the kingdom of the Franks. The Bretons still 



BRITISH. 184 

retain much of their ancient Celtic language and 
customs (1891). Sardine fishery fails 1902. See 
Brest. 

Nomenoe revolts and becomes the first count . . 841 
Britanny ravaged by Northmen, 907 ; ceded to them 92 r 

Geoffrey I. , the first duke 992 

AJan V., 100S ; Conan II 1040 

HoelV., 1066; Alan VI 1084 

Conan III I1I2 

Hoel VI. expelled ; Geoffroy of Anjou duke . . 1155 
Conan IV. duke, 1156; on the death of Geoffroy, 
cedes Britanny to Henry II. of England, and 
betroths his daughter, Constance, to Henry's son, 

Geoffroy (both infants) 1159 

Geoffroy succeeds, 1171 ; killed at a tournament . 1186 
His son, Arthur, dies mysteriously at Rouen, his 
uncle John suspected ; his daughter, Eleanor, 
imprisoned at Bristol (for 39 years) . April, 1203 
Alice, daughter of Constance by her second hus- 
band, Guy de Thours, proclaimed duchess, 1203 ; 
marries Peter of Dreux, made duke . . . . 1213 

John I., duke, 1237; John II 1286 

John III., 1372 ; dies without issue . . . . 1341 
The succession disputed between John of Montfort 
(John IV.) supported by Edward of England, and 
Charles of Blois, made duke by Philip VI. of 
France. John is made prisoner ; his wife, Jane, 
besieged at Hennebonne, holds out, and is re- 
lieved by the English, 1343 ; John dies . .1345 
■Charles of Blois defeated and slain at Auray, 29 Sept. ; 
John V. , son of Montfort, duke .... 1364 

John VI., duke, 1399 : Francis 1 1442 

Jeter II., 1450 ; Arthur III 1457 

Francis II., 1458 ; takes part with the Orleanists in 

France : defeated at St. Aubin, 28 July, 1488 ; dies 1488 
Ajme, his daughter and heiress, marries 1st, 
Charles VIII. of France, 1491 ; 2nd, Louis XII., 
1499 ; her eldest daughter, Claude (born 1499), 
marries Francis, count of Angouleme, 15 14 ; king 

of France 1 Jan. 1515 

Britanny formally united to the monarchy . . . 1532 
Britanny held by the Spaniards, 1591 ; recovered by 

Henry IV I594 

' The Bretons take part in the Vendean insurrection 
(see La Vendee) in 1791 

BRITISH, see Architects; Antiquaries ; Banks, 
. Joint Stock ; Guiana, Honduras, National, Medi- 
cal, Orphans, Societies. 

BRITISH ACADEMY, for the promotion 

of historical, philosophical and philological studies ; 
first meeting held at the British museum, 
17 Dec. 1901 ; petition to the king for incorpora- 
tion, signed by 127 eminent men, issued London 
■Gazette, 14 Jan. 1902 ; royal charter granted, list 
■of 49 fellows ; lord Eosebery, vise. Dillon, Mr. A. J. 
Balfour, Mr. John Morley, Mr. Lecky (d. 22 Oct. 
*9°3), a n.d others, lord Keay elected president 28 
Nov. 1902. 

BRITISH AMERICA (see America) com- 
prises the Dominion of Canada, in which are 
included British Columbia, North-west Territories, 
the provinces of Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, New 
Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, 
and that portion not in the Dominion, viz., iNew- 
foundland and its dependency, Labrador. 
Delegates from the first six provinces met at Quebec on 

10 Oct., and agreed to the basis Of a Federal union. 

with the queen as the executive (represented by the 

governor-general), a legislative council Of on members 

for life, and a house of commons of 104 members, 20 

Oct. 1864. 
The secretary for the colonies, Mr. Cardwell, expressed 

his approval of the plan, 3 Dec. 1864. 
The plan opposed by New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. 

7 March, 1865. 
Messrs. Cartier and Gait came to England to advocate it 

April, 1865. 
The British North Americaact: the Dominion of Canada 

to be divided into 4 proi inces, \ iz, : < tularin, formerlj 

Upper Canada; Quebec, formerly Lower Canada; 

Nova Scotia and New Biuuswiek, biought intopailia- 



BRI11SH ASSOCIATION. 



ment by the earl of Carnarvon, 19 Feb., passed 29 

March, 1867. 
(The British government guaranteed a subsidy of 

3,ooo,ooo£. to complete the intercolonial railway.) 
By the British North America act, the parliament of 

Canada may establish new provinces, 29 June, 1871. 
British American, see George, St., Sons of. 

BRITISH AND FOREIGN-Bible Society, 
established 1804 (see under Bible) ;— School Society, 
1808 ; — Sailors' Society, 1818. 

BRITISH ASSOCIATION for the Advance- 
ment of Science, was established by sir David 
Brewster, sir B. I. Murchison, &c, in 1831. Pro- 
fessor John Phillips was secretary till 1863. It holds 
annual meetings; the first of which was held at 
York on 27 Sept. 1831. One of its main objects is 
" to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate 
science with each other." It appoints commissions 
and makes pecuniary grants for scientific research ; 
and publishes annually a volume containing Keports 
of the proceedings ; about 66 local societies are now 
in union (1895). Kew observatory presented to 
the association by the queen in 1842. Superinten- 
dents, Francis Konalds, the first; John Walsh, 
1852; Balfour Stewart, 1859. It was purchased for 
the Eoyal Society by Mr. J. P. Gassiot, in 1871. 
See Women, 1900. 

40. Liverpool (3rd) . 1870 

41. Edinburgh (3rd) . 1871 

42. Brighton . . 1872 

43. Bradford . . . 1873 

44. Belfast (2nd) . 1874 

45. Bristol (2nd) . . 1875 

46. Glasgow (3rd) . 1876 

47. Plymouth (2nd) . 1S77 

48. Dublin (3rd) . . 1S78 

49. Sheffield . . 1879 

50. Swansea (2nd) . 1880 

51. York (3rd) Jubilee 1881 

52. Southampton 
(2nd) 23 Aug. 1882 

53. Southport,i9Sept. 1883 

54. Montreal . . 1884 

55. Aberdeen (2nd) 9 
Sept. 1S85 

56. Birmingham (4th). 1886 

57. Manchester (3rd) 
(most successful) . 1887 

58. Bath (2nd), 5 Sept. 1888 

59. Newcastle (3rd) . 1889 

60. Leeds (2nd), 2 Sept. 1890 

61. Cardiff . . . 1891 

62. Edinburgh (4th) . 1892 

63. Nottingham (2nd) 1893 

64. Oxford ( 4 th), 8 
Aug. 1894 

65. Ipswich, 11 Sept. 1895 

66. Liverpool (4th), 16 
Sept. 1896 

67. Toronto, 18 Aug. 1897 

68. Bristol . . .1898 

69. Dover 13 Sept. 1899 

70. Bradford . . 1900 

71. Glasgow 11 Sept. 1901 

72. Belfast 10 Sept. 1902 

73. Southport 9 Sept. 1903 

Presidents. — 1. Viscount Milton ; 2. Dr. Buckland ; 
3. Prof. Sedgwick ; 4. Sir Thos. Brisbane ; 5. Provost 
Bartholomew Lloyd; 6. Marquis of Lansdowne ; 7. Earl 
of Burlington ; S. Duke of Northumberland ; 9. Rev. W. 
Vernon Harcourt ; 10. Marquis of Breadalbane ; 11. Pro- 
fessor Whewell ; 12. Lonl Francis Egerton; 13. Earl of 
Rosse ; 14. Dean Peacock ; 15. Sir J. F. W. Herschel ; 
16. Sir R. I. Murchison ; 17. Sir R. H. Inglis ; 18. Mar- 
quis of Northampton ; 19. Rev. Dr. T. K. Robinson ; 20. 
Sir D. Brewster; 21. Prof. C>. B. Airy; 22. Col. E. 
Sabine: 23. Mr. W. Hopkins; 24. Earl of Harrowby ; 
25. Duke of Argyll ; 26. Dr. C. G. B. Daubeny; 27. Rev. 
Dr. Humphry Lloyd; .:S. Prof. R. Owen;' 29. Prince 
Ubert; 30. Lord Wrottesley; 31. Win. Fairbaim; 32. 
Prof. R. Willis ; 53 Sir Wm. Armstrong ; 34. Sir Charles 
Ljell; 35. Pro.. Jehu Phillips; ,6. VV. E. Grove ; 37. 



.1 


York Meeting . . 


1831 


2 


Oxford . 


1832 


3 


Cambridge . . 


1833 


4 


Edinburgh . 


1834 


S 


Dublin . . . 


183s 


6 


Bristol . 


1836 


7 


Liverpool. . . 


1S37 


8 


Newcastle . 


1838 


q. 


Birmingham . . 


i83q 


10. 


Glasgow 


1840 


11. 


Plymouth . . 


1841 


12. 


Manchester . 


1842 


n- 


Cork . . . 


1843 


14. 


York (2nd time) . 


1844 


IS- 


Cambridge (2nd) . 


184s 


16. 


Southampton 


1846 


* 7- 


Oxford (2nd) . . 


1847 


18. 


Swansea 


1848 


iq. 


Birmingham (2nd) 


1840 


20. 


Edinburgh (2nd) . 


18 so 


21. 


Ipswich . . . 


i8si 


22. 


Belfast . 


18^2 


23. 


Hull . . . 


18S3 


24. 


Liverpool (2nd) . 


i8 S4 


2S- 


Glasgow (2nd) . . 


i8ss 


26. 


Cheltenham . 


iS S 6 


27. 


Dublin (2nd) . . 


18S7 


28. 


Leeds . 


i8s8 


2q. 


Aberdeen . . . 


1859 


30. 


Oxford (3rd) . 


1S60 


V- 


Manchester (2nd). 


1861 


32. 


Cambridge (3rd) . 


1862 


33- 


Newcastle (2nd) 


1863 


M- 


Bath . 


1864 


3S- 


Birmingham (3rd) 


186, 


36. 


Nottingham . 


iyni 


37- 


Dundee . . . 


1867 


38. 


Norwich 


1868 


39- 


Exeter . . . 


IS69 



BRITISH CHURCH. 



185 



BRITISH MUSEUM. 



Duke of Buecleuch ; 38. Dr. J. D. Hooker ; 39. Prof. 
G. G. Stokes; 40. Prof. T. H. Huxley; 41. Sir Wm. 
Thomson ; 42. Dr. W. B. Carpenter ; 43. Prof. A. W. 
Williamson ; 44. Prof. J. Tyndall ; 45. Sir John Hawk- 
shaw ; 46. Prof. Thos. Andrews ; 47. Prof. Allen Thom- 
son ; 48. Dr. Wm. Spottiswoode ; 49. Dr. G. Allman ; 
50. Prof. A. C. Ramsay ; 51. Sir J. Lubbock ; 52. Dr. 
0. Wm. Siemens ; 53. A. Cayley ; 54. Lord Rayleigh ; 55. 
Sir Lyon Playfair ; 56. Sir John William Dawson ; 57. 
Sir Henry E. Roscoe, M.P. ; 58. Sir Frederick Bramwell ; 
59. Professor W. H. Flower; 60. Sir F. A. Abel; 61. 
Dr.W. Huggins ; 62. Sir A. Geikie ; 63. Dr. B. Sanderson ; 
64. Marquis of Salisbury ; 65. Sir Douglas Galton ; 66. Sir 
Joseph Lister; 67. Sir John Evans; 68. SirWm. Crookes; 
69. sir Michael Foster; 7c. sir Wm. Turner; jr. prof. 
Arthur Rucker(knt. 1902); 72. prof. James Dewar ; 73. 
sir Norman Lockyer. 

BRITISH CHURCH, see Church of Eng- 
land. 

BRITISH COLUMBIA (N. America). In 
June, 1858, news came to California that in April 
gold had been found in abundance on the mainland 
of North America, a little to the north and east of 
Vancouver's Island. A great influx of gold-diggers 
(in a few weeks above 50,000) from all parts was 
the consequence ; and Mr. Douglas, governor of 
Vancouver's Island, evinced much ability in pre- 
serving order. The territory with adjacent islands 
was made a British colony with the above title, and 
placed under Mr. Douglas. The colony was nomi- 
nated and the government settled by 21 & 22 Vict, 
c. 99 (Aug. 1858), and a bishop nominated in 1859. 
Visited by the marquis of Lome and princess 
Louise, 20 Sept. 1882. — For a dispute in July, 1859, 
see United States. Vancouver's Island was incor- 
porated with the colony in 1866, and Victoria was 
made the capital, 24 May, 1868. Recent lieut.- 
governors : Frederick Seymour, 1864 ; Anthony 
Musgrave, 1869 ; J. W. Trutch, 1871 ; C. F. Corn- 
wall; Hugh Nelson, Feb. 1892 ; Hon. Edgar Dewd- 
ney, Oct. 1892. Hon. T. R. Mclnnes, 1897 ; sir 
Henri Joly de Lotibiniere, 22 June, 1900. The 
colony was annexed to Canada, 1871. Population, 
1891,92,767; 1901,190,000. 
Disputes with Canada respecting the non-construc- 
tion of railways, middle of ... . 1S76 
Visit of lord Dufferin, gov. -gen. of Canada . Aug. ,, 
Anti-Chinese legislation and oppression stopped by 

the Privy Council in England . . . 1884-8 
Visit of lord Stanley, gov. -gen. . . 26 Oct. 1889 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaught, 21 May, 1890 
Destructive floods with loss of life, caused by the 

overflow of the Frazer River, reported 30 May, 1894 
New coal mines opened and towns built in the 
Kootenay district, during 1895, reported April, 
1896 ; and rapid development of gold mining, re- 
ported Aug. et seq. ; 336 companies, 345,000,000 
dollars capitalization, in ... . 1896-8 
Snow slides on the Chilkoot and Dyea trails, over 

100 deaths 3-10 April, 1898 

Great Are at New Westminster, thousands homeless 

10, n Sejit. ,, 
Bill prohibiting aliens from acquiring mining- 
claims becomes law .... 18 Jan. 1899 
Anti-Japanese laws disallowed by an order in 

council 5 June, „ 

The Semlin ministry dismissed by the lieut.-gov. 

27 Feb. ,, 
Legislative assembly prorogued . . 1 March, 1900 
Elections: the government defeated . 9 June, ,, 
Mr. J. Dunsmuir foims a cabinet . 27 June, ,, 
Legislature opened by the governor . 18 July, ,, 
The church, mission buildings, schools, etc., at 

Metlakahtla burnt down ... 22 July, ,, 
Mineral production greatly increased . during 1901 

BRITISH EAST AFRICA, see under 
Africa. BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY, 
see Zambezi. 

BRITISH ECONOMIC ASSOCIATION, 

see Eeonomy. 



BRITISH EMPIRE, see England, etc. 
British Empire League, established to maintain 
the unity of the Empire, and to succeed the late 
Imperial Federation League, ivhiclt, see : the duke 
of Devonshire, pres. ; Sir J. Lubbock (now lord 
Avebury), chairman, May, 1895 ; inaugural meeting 
at the Mansion house, London, 29 Jan. 1896. Annual 
meetings ; banquet in honour of the colonial troops 
in S. Africa and of the Australian delegates, 
London, the prince of Wales, lord Salisbury, and 
others present, 30 April, 1900; annual meeting, 
7 July, 1902, the duke of Devonshire presided, sir 
E. Barton and sir Gordon Sprigg, colonial premiers, 
present ; annual meeting, 20 July, 1903, lord mayor 
presided, the duke of Devonshire spoke on Mr. 
Chamberlain's visit to S. Africa and promotion of 
trade within the empire. 

BRITISH GUIANA AND HONDU- 
RAS, see Guiana and Honduras. 

BRITISH INSTITUTE of Preventive Medi- 
cine, see Preventive Medicine. 

BRITISH INSTITUTION (for the encour- 
agement of British artists, Pall-mall, founded in 
1805) oppned 18 Jan. 1806, on a plan formed by sir 
Thomas Bernard. In the gallery (erected by alder- 
man Boydell, to exhibit the paintings executed for 
bis edition of Shakspeare) , were from time to time 
exhibited pictures by the old masters, deceased 
British artists and others, till 1867, when the lease 
of the premises expired. The fund of 16,200/. in the 
hands of earl Powis and other trustees, to be devoted 
to the promotion of the tine arts, had accumulated 
to 24,610/. in 1884. 

BRITISH LEGION, raised by lord John Hay, 
col. De Lacy Evans, and others to assist queen Isa- 
bella of Spain against the Carlists in 1835, defeated 
them at Hernani, 5 May, 1836, andat St. Sebastian's, 
I Oct. 

BRITISH MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, 

see Medical. 

BRITISH MUSEUM, originated with the 
grant by parliament (5 April, 1753) of 20,000/. to the 
daughters of sir Hans Sloane, in payment for his 
fine library, and vast collection of the productions of 
nature and art, Avhich had cost him 50,000/. The 
library contained 50,000 volumes and valuable MSS., 
and 69,352 articles of virtu enumerated in the cata- 
logue. Montagu-house was obtained by government 
as a place for their reception. The museum (includ- 
ing the Cottonian, Harleian, and other collections) 
was opened 15 Jan. 1759, and has since been enor- 
mously increased by gifts, bequests, and purchases.* 
The old royal library was given by George II., 
1757. A list of the more important additions is given 
below. See Mummies, 1898. 

* The total expenditure by the government on the 
British Museum for the year ending 31 March, i860, was 
78,445?. ; 1867, 110,756?. ; 1877, 108,947?. ; 188^, 152,133?. 
The number of visitors to the general collection in 1851 
(exhibition year), 2,524,754 ; in 1859, S I 7>895 ; in 1862 
(exhibition year), 895,007 ; in 1863,440,801 ;in 1866,516,550; 
1871,418,094; 1875,663,891; in 1878, 448,516; in 1879, 
606,394; in 1880, 665,688; in 1882, 767,402; in 1883, 
660,557; nl 1896, 581,906; 1901, 718,614; 1902, 845,369. 
The number of visitors to the collection in the Natural 
History Museum in 1S84, 375,231 ; at Bloomsbury in 
1884, 468,873 ; in 1887, 501,256 ; in 18S9, 504,537 ; in 1890, 
463,833; 1893, 538,560; 1896, 453.956; 1901, 417,691; 
1902, 433,619. Additions to library in 1880, 27,543 volumes 
and pamphlets (including books of music and volumes 
of newspapers); in 1894, 38,378 books only. Expenditure 
on purchases, 1753-1875, 1,070,934?. Readers in 1883, 
152,983; 1893, 194,102 ; 1896, 191,363; 1901, 200,035 > I 9° 2 > 
211,244. 



BRITISH MUSEUM. 



186 



BRITISH MUSEUM. 



New buildings erected by sir R. Smirke . . 1823-47 

Iron railing completed 1852 

The great reading-room erected by Sydney Smirke, 
according to a plan by Mr. Antonio Panizzi, the 
librarian (cost about 150,000?. ; height of dome, 
106 feet ; diameter, 140 feet ; contains about 
80,000 volumes, and accommodates 300 readers), 
opened to public .... 18 May, 1857 

Incorporation of the four library catalogues into one 
alphabet begun ; three copies made . . . 1861 

The proposed separation of the antiquarian, literary, 
and scientific collections, was disapproved by a 
commission in i860 ; and a bill to remove the 
natural history collections to South Kensington 
rejected by the commons . . .19 May, 1862 

Number of books (estimated) 1,600,000 . Jan. 1870 
>> ,, „ 1,350,000(50,000 MSS.) 1884 

60001!. voted lor a Natural History Museum at South 
Kensington 2 Aug. 1870 

Photographs of above 5000 objects of antiquity 
(supplying evidence of man's progress in civilisa- 
tion), published for about 11 61. . . .Aug. 1872 

Castellani collection of gold ornaments, gems, 
bronzes, &c, purchased tor 52,000? . . . . 1872-3 

The museum partly opened daily after 11 Feb. 1879 

Electric light adopted in the reading-room for 
evenings in the winter months . . 20 Oct. ,, 

The White bequest (60,000?.) 1880 

The new British Museum J or Natural History, South 
Kensington; building completed, Nov. 1880; 
part of the collection opened 18 April 1881 : 
directors, sir Richard Owen, i856(K.C.B. 1892), 
professor W. H. Flower, 1884 (K.C.B., 1892 ; re- 
signed July, T898 ; died, 1 July, 1899 > succeeded 
by professor E. Ray Lankester, 1898) ; opened on 
Sundays, 17 May et seq., 1896. Professor Owen 
died 18 Dec. 1892. At a meeting of the Royal 
Society, the prince of Wales in the chair, it was 
resolved to place a marble statue of the pro- 
fessor in the hall of the Natural History 
museum, of which he was the chief originator, 
21 Jan. 1893 ; statue, by T. Brock, placed, March, 
1897 > collections enriched by explorers from all 
parts of the world. Statue of prof. Huxley (by 
Onslow Ford, R.A.) unveiled by the prince of 
Wales, 28 April, 1900 

John Gould's humming-birds, &c, bought April, ,, 

New buildings in Montague-street, founded (by 
means of Mr. Wm. White's legacy of 63,941?.) 

23 Sept. 1882 

New Assyrian room (including Mr. Rassam's col- 
lection) opened Jan. 1884 

New catalogue printing, Dec. t88i, et seq. ; new 
catalogues of the bible issued . . Dec. 1892 

The Marquis of Tweeddale's ornithological library 
presented by capt. Wardlaw Ramsay . Oct. 1887 

New galleries opened ; glass and pottery, 1888 ; 
Greek sculpture, 1889 ; mummies, etc. . . 1858 

Electric light set up in the public galleries, opened 
in the evenings, 8 to 10 . . . .1 Feb. 1890 

Gallery of Religions in the museum at Blooms- 
bury, opened 19 Feb. 1S94 

Mr. J. B. Martin and his wife, Mrs. Victoria Wood- 
hull Martin 1;. the trustees of the British Mu- 
seum and Mr. E. M. Thompson, librarian, for 
giving out books containing libels against 
Mrs. Martin, relating to the Beecher scandal 
(see United States, 1874-5), queen's bench division ; 
verdict of the jury, the defendants acted with 
bona fides and not negligently, but did not (by 
their ollicers) discharge their duties with proper 
care, caution and judgment, damages, 20s. 23-27 
Feb. ; judgment given by baron Pollock for the 
defendants, with costs ; appeal granted .! March, 
dismissed 19 April, ,, 

British Museum Purchase of Land (of the duke of 
Bedford) Act, passed . . . .17 Aug. „ 

George Bullen, O.B., library assistant, 1838 ; keeper 
of printed books, 1875-90 ; died . 10 Oct. ,, 

Sir Charles Thos. Newton, keeper of antiquities, 
1868-85, died 28 Nov. „ 

Mr. Reginald Stuart Poole, keeper of coins, 1870- 
93, died 8 Fet). 1895 

The Malcolm collection of early drawings and 
engravings presented by Mr. Wm. Mitchell, July. ,, 

Mr. II. Sccin.ii.il bequeaths his collection of bird 
skins and skeletons to the Nat. Hist, depart- 
ment, Kensington . . . . ,, 



The museum opened from 2.30 to 7 p.m. on Sun- 
days 17 May et seq. 1896 

"Catalogue of biids in the museum," 27 vols., 
begun 1874, completed . . . March, 1899 

Exhibition of Rembrandt's drawings and etchings 

March, ,, 

Dr. Richard Garnett, keeper of printed books, 
1851-99, retires March, ,, 

Mr. Vincent Stuckey Lean bequeaths 50,000?. for 
the library and leading-room, see Bristol, 

March, ,, 

Dr. C. D. Fortnum, a trustee, dies 6 March, 
bequeaths a fund for the building of the " Fort- 
num galleries " for the Frank's collection, etc. ; 
see Ashmolean museum. 

Antiquities from Benin city and other parts of W. 
Africa presented by lord Salisbury . spring, ,, 

300 notable books added to the library . 1890-99 

"The Royal library of Assyria," about 23,000 
tablets, from Nineveh, catalogued (5 quarto vols.) 
by Dr. Carl Bezold, see Times . 14 April, 1900 

The "General Catalogue of Printed Books" began 
1881, completed early ,, 

British museum act passed . . 20 June, 1902 

Lord Cheylesmore's (died 10 July) bequest of 14,000 
English mezzotint portraits to the nation placed 
heie. 

Impoktant Additions (bought or given). (Edwards.) 

Those marked * were gifts or bequests. 

'Solomon Da Costa, Hebrew Library . . . 1759 

*G. Thomason, collection (political) from Geo. III. 1762 

'Solander, fossils 1766 

*Birch, library and MSS ,, 

Hamilton vases, &c 1772 

*Musgrave library 1790-95 

^Cracherode library 1799 

Hatchett minerals ,, 

'Alexandrian collection (from Geo. III.) . . . 1S02 
Lansdowne MSS. (catalogue published 1819) . . 1807 

Townley marbles 1805-17 

Greville minerals 1810 

Roberts, English coins ,, 

Hargrave library 1813 

Pliigaleian marbles 18 15 

Elgin marbles 1816 

Burney library 1818 

'Banks' archaeological collections ....,, 
*King George III.'s library, given by George IV. 1823-5 

'Payne Knight's collections 1824 

'Sir J. Banks' library and collections . . . . 1827 

'Egerton MSS 1829 

"Arundelian MSS 1831 

Mantell, fossils 1839 

Syriac MSS. . 1841-7 

*Lycian marbles (by sir C. Fellows) . . . 1845 

'Grenville library, collected by right lion. Ihos. 

Grenville (20,240 vols.) 1847 

Morrison's Chinese library ,, 

Assyrian collections (by A. Layard) . . . 1851-60 
Haliearnassian and Cnidian marbles (by C.T.Newton) 

1855-60 
Carthaginian antiquities (by N. Davis) . . . 1859 
Cyrene marbles (by Smith and Porcher) . . . i860 

Cureton, Oriental MSS 1864 

DukeofBlacas museum (bought for 48,000?.) . . 1866 

"Abyssinian antiquities 1868 

"Slade collection (glass, &c.) ,, 

"Mr. George Smith's (of Daily Telegraph) Assyrian 

collections 1S73 

♦Elamite antiquities, by col. Ross . . . . 1876 
'Urns, implements, ornaments, 4c, from 234 

British barrows (see Barrows), by rev. canon 

Greenwell 1870 

About 300 Babylonian tablets purchased . June 1882 
Osbcrt Salvin and F. du Cane Godman's collec- 
tion of American birds, \c 1885 

"Indian birds and eggs from Mr. A. O. Hume . ,, 

Tin' marquis of Tweeddale's collection of birds 

given by capt. Wardlaw Ramsay . . . Oct. 1887 
Mr. Octavius Morgan's collection of watches, 

clocks, keys, rings, &c, reported . . Oct. 1888 
A great present of books and photographs from 

the Sultan of Turkey .... May, 1894 
The collection of sir Augustus Wollaston Franks, 

late keeper of antiquities, bequeathed . . , 1897 



BRITISH NATIONALITY. 



187 



BROOKLYN. 



Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild's cinque-cents col- 
lection, value 300,000?., " the Waddesdon bequest 
room," bequeathed Jan. 1899 | 

Hardwicke papers and MSS. . . 18 Feb. ,, 

Principal Librarians. 

Dr. Gowin Knight 1753 

Dr. Matthew Maty 1772 

Dr. Charles Morton -1776 

Joseph Planta 1799 

Henry Ellis 1827 

Antonio Panizzi 1856 

J. Winter Jones 1866 

Edward Augustus Bond, Aug. 1878 ; resigned June, 

1888 ; K.C.B. 1 Jan. 1898; died . . 2 Jan. 1898 

Sir Edward Maunde Thompson .... 1888 

BRITISH NATIONALITY, see Naturali- 
zation. 

BRITISH ORCHESTRAL SOCIETY, 

established 1872. 

BRITISH PRODUCE Supply Association : 
directors, the earl of Winchilsea, lord Kesteven, 
and others ; started early in 1896, for the purchase, 
sale, &c, of British agricultural produce. Local 
bodies forming, Aug. ; central depot, Long Acre, 
opened 21 Oct. 1896. 

BRITONS, ANCIENT, Society of, established 
1715, see Wales; 178th anniversary celebrated 1 
March, 1893. 

BRITTANY, see Britanny. 

BRITTON, an ancient treatise on English law 
written in French by or in the name of king Edward 
1. about 1291. Coke attributed the work to John le 
Breton, bishop of Hereford, who died in 1275. An 
edition of " Biitton," with a translation in English 
by Mr. F. Nicholls, was published in 1865. 

BROAD ARROW. All attempts to ascertain 
the origin of this mark have been fruitless! It is 
stated that timber trees tit for shipping in the 
forest of Dean in 1639 were marked with the crown 
and broad arrow. It is said to have been the device 
of viscount Sydney, earl of Komney, master-general 
of the ordnance, 1693-1702. Brewer. 

"BROAD BOTTOM" ADMINISTRA- 
TION- The Felham administration {which see) 
was so called because formed by a coalition of parties, 
Nov. 1744. 

BROAD CHURCH SCHOOL, in the 

Church of England, had its origin in a reaction 
from the Tractarian movement (see Tractarianism 
and Puseyism), influenced by German rationalism 
and the growth of the scientific and critical spirit. 
It became prominent in 1836 through the lectures 
of Dr. Hampden, and still more through the 
"Theological Essays" of the late F. C. Maurice in 
1853, and found fuller expression in "Essays and 
Reviews," issued in i860, written by Dr. Temple 
(late Archbishop of Canterbury), Dr. Rowland 
Williams, Professor Jowett, Baden Powell, Mark 
Pattison, H. B. Wilson, and C. H. Goodwin. These 
essays, with the exception of that on the " Educa- 
tion of the World" by Dr. Temple, were of a 
destructive critical nature, dealing with the 
subjects of the inspiration of the Scriptures, 
miracles, the Pentateuch, creeds and kindred 
subjects, and aroused a storm of hostile criticism 
from the bishops and " orthodox" members of the 
Church. The publication (1862 et seq.) of Dr. 
Coleuso's work on the Pentateuch gave rise to still 
further controversy (see Church of England, May 
20, 1863, et seq.). Although not numerically a 
strong party, the influence of broad-churchism has 
made itself felt among all sections of the Church, 



and includes among its past and present adherents- 
such names as Dr. Arnold, dean Stanley, canon 
Kingsley, Aug. William and Julius C. Hare, 
Stopford Brooke, bishop We^tcott, canon Driver,, 
bishop Moorhouse, H. R. Haweis, canon Cheyne, 
dean Robinson, canon Henson, and other able and 
distinguished men. The attitude of the Broad 
Church school may be thus briefly stated. It pays- 
little attention to either dogma or ceremony ; it 
seeks to extend the liberty of belief within the 
Church to its greatest possible extent ; it attaches 
great importance to the social Christian virtues and 
purity of life, adopting the precepts rather than 
the dogmas of religion. The "Churchmen's. 
Union" {which see), an association of clergy 
holding "broad" views, but not necessarily 
members of the Broad Church school, was formed 
at the Bradford Church Congress, 1898. 

BROCADE, a silken stuff, variegated with gold 
or silver, and enriched with flowers and figures, 
originally made by the Chinese ; the manufacture 
was established at Lyons in 1757. 

BROCCOLI, said to have been brought to Eng- 
land from Italy in the 1 6th century. 

BROKERS, both of money and merchandise, 
were known early in England"! See Appraisers. 
They are licensed, and their dealings regulated by 
law in 1695-6, 1816, and 1826. The dealings of 
stockbrokers were regulated in 1719, 1733, and 1736, 
and subsequently ; see Pawnbroker, and Barnard's 
Act. Brokers in the city of London placed under 
the supervision of the lord mayor and aldermen, 
in 1707, were relieved from it by an act passed 9 
Aug. 1870. 

BROMINE (from the Greek bromos, a stink), 
a poisonous volatile liquid element discovered in 
salt water by M Balard in 1826. It is found m 
combination with metals and mineral waters. 

BRONTOMETER, thunderstorm measurer, 
an apparatus invented by M. M. Richard, of Paris, 
and commended by Mr. J. Symons, in Nature, 
July, 1890. 

BRONZE was known to the ancients, some of 
whose bronze statues, vessels, &c, are in the British 
Museum. The bronze equestrian statue of Louis 
XIV., 1699, in the Place Vendome at Paris (demol- 
ished 10 Aug. 1792), the most colossal ever made ; 
it contained 60,000 lbs. Bronze is composed of 
copper and tin, with sometimes a little zinc and 
lead. The present bronze coinage, penny, half- 
penny, and farthing (composed of 95 parts of copper, 
4 tin, I zinc), came into circulation Dec. i860. 

BROOKLYN, a city on Long Island, in the 

state of New York, first settled in 1636, organised 
by the Dutch governor of New Amsterdam, and 
named Breukelen, after a place in Holland. It 
contains many fine churches and public building*, 
and a large naval yard. Incorporated in 183.4. 
Population in 1810, 4402: in 1830, 15.396; im 
1850, 96,838; in 1890, S06.343; see New York? 
1900. 

Brooklyn theatre burnt, about 300 perish 5 Dec. 1876 
The bridge from New York to Brooklyn (see New 

York), begun 3 Jan. 187c ; opened . 24 May, 1883 
St. James's cathedral destroyed by lightning 

11 or 12 June, 18S9 
Brooklvn and other towns consolidated with New 
York, 27 Feb. 1894 ; act takes effect . 25 March, 1897 
I Strike of tram car men; rioting; military called 
out, 20 Jan. ; further conflicts, with bloodshed, 
21-25 Jan. ; subsiding .... 26 Jan. 1895 
i City Hall much injured by tire . . . 26. Feb. ,» 



BEOOKS'S CLUB. 



188 



BEUNSWICK. 



BEOOKS'S CLUB, first a gaming club in 
Pall Mall kept by Almack and afterwards by 
Brooks in 1764, gradually became the "Whig cluo, 
and was removed to St. James's Street in 1778, now 
Liberal and social, 650 members. 

BEOTHEEHOODS, see Hermandad, Santa, 
and Lay Brotherhood. 

BBOUGHAM, a popular vehicle said to have 
been invented in 1839, and so named in consequence 
of its adoption by lord Brougham. Brougham' s Act, 
13 & 14 Vict. c. 21 ; see Acts, and Bankrupt. 

BEOWN INSTITUTION, Battersea, with an 
hospital for quadrupeds and birds useful to man, esta- 
blished by means of a bequest of Thomas Brown of 
Dublin; opened 2 Dec. 1871. First professor, Dr. 
Burdon Sanderson (bart. June 1899); Dr. Green- 
field, professor, Dec. 1878 ; Dr. C. S. Roy, pro- 
fessor, 1885 ; Professor Victor Horsley, 1889 ; 
C. S. Sherrington, M.D., was professor in 1895. 

BEOWN'S INSUEEECTION, see United 
States, 1859. 

BBOWNIAN MOTION. So called from 
Robert Brown, the celebrated botanist, who in 1827, 
by the aid of the microscope, observed in drops of 
•dewa motion of minute particles which at fiist was 
attributed to rudimentary life, but was afterwards 
decided to be due to currents occasioned by inequali- 
ties of temperature and evaporation. 

BBOWNING SOCIETY, for the study and 
discussion of the works of Robert Browning, inau- 
gurated at University college, London, 28 Oct. 
1881 ; dissolved, 1893. Mr. Browning died 12 Dec. 
1889, aged 77. " The Browning Cyclopa3dia," by 
Edward Berdoe, published 19 Dec. 1891. "Brown- 
ing Studies," edited by Dr. Berdoe, published 
1895. Browning settlement founded in Walworth, 
1895. See Faraday, 1901. Browning club and 
ooffee tavern opened here, 14 June, 1901. 

BBOWNISTS or BAKROWISTS, the first In- 
dependents {which see), named after Robert Brown, 
a schoolmaster in Southwark, about 1580. John 
Penry, Henry Barrow, and other Brownists were 
cruelly executed for alleged sedition, 29 May, 1593. 

BEUCE'S TEAVELS. James Bruce, the 
"Abyssinian traveller," set out in June, 1768, to 
discover the source of the Nile. Proceeding first to 
Cairo, he navigated the Nile to Syene, thence crossed 
the desert to the Red Sea, and, arriving at Jedda, 
passed some months in Arabia Felix, and after 
various detentions reached Gondar, the capital of 
Abyssinia, in Feb. 1770. On 14 Nov. 1770, he ob- 
tained a sight of the sources of the Blue Nile. He 
returned to England in 1773, and died 27 April, 1794. 

BEUGES, Belgium, in the 7th century was 
capital of Flanders, and in the 13th and 14th cen- 
turies almost the commercial metropolis of the world. 
It suffered much through an insurrection in 1488, 
and the consequent repression. It was subjected to 
France in 1794, to the Netherlands in 1814, and to 
Belgium in 1830. Population, 1890,47,331; 1900, 
52,867. 

BEUMAIEE EEVOLUTION, see Direc- 
tory, 1799. 

BEUNANBUEG (supposed by some to be near 
Ford, Northumberland). Anlaf, with an army of 
Northmen from Ireland, and Constantino III. king 
of Scots, landed at the mouth of the Humber, and 
were defeated with very greal slaughter at Brunan- 
burg by Athelstan, 937. 



BEUNDISIUM (now Brindisi), S. Italy, a 
Greek city, taken by the Romans, B.C. 267 ; and 
made a colony, 244. Here Virgil died 22 Sept. 

19 B.C. 

BBUNN, capital of Moravia, since 1641 ; was 
entered by the French under Murat, 18 Nov. 1805, 
and by the Prussians, 13 July, 1866. Population, 
1890, 95,342; 1900, 108,944. 

BEUNSWICK CLUBS, established to main- 
tain the house of Hanover and the Protestant as- 
cendency in church and state, began in England at 
Maidstone, 18 Sept. 1828; in Ireland at the Rotunda 
in Dublin, 4 Nov. same year. Other cities formed 
similar clubs. 

BEUNSWICK, House of. The duchy of 

Brunswick, in Lower Saxony, was conquered by 
Charlemagne, and governed afterwards by counts 
and dukes. Albert-Azzo II. marquis of Italy and 
lord of Este, died in 1097, and left by his wife Cune- 
gonde (the heiress of Guelph duke of Carinthia in 
Bavaria), a Sun, Guelph, who was invited into Ger- 
many by Imitza, his mother-in-law, and invested 
with all the possessions of his wife's step-father, 
Guelph of Bavaria ; see Bavaria. His descendant, 
Henry the Lion, married Maud, daughter of Henry 
II. of England, and was the founder of the Bruns- 
wick family. His dominions were very extensive ; 
but having refused to assist the emperor Frederick 
Barbarossa in a war against pope Alexander III., 
through the emperor's resentment he was proscribed 
at the diet at "Wurtzburg, in 1180. The duchy of 
Bavaria was given to Otho of Wittelsbach, ancestor 
of the family of Bavaria ; the duchy of Saxony to 
Bernard Ascanius, founder of the house of Anhalt; 
and his other territories to different persons. On 
this, he retired to England ; but at the intercession 
of our Henry II. Brunswick and Luneburg were 
restored to him. The house of Brunswick in 1409 
divided into several branches. Brunswick was in- 
cluded by Napoleon in the kingdom of "Westphalia 
in 1806, but was restored to the duke in 1S15. — 
Population of the duchy of Brunswick in 1871, 
312,170; 1875, 327,493; 1880, 349,367; 1885, 
372,452; 1890, 403,788; city, 101,047; 1900, 
464,251; city, 128,231. Brunswick joined the 
North German Confederation, 18 Aug. 1866. 

DUKES OF BRUNSWICK. 

1136. Henry, duke of Bavaria. 

1139. Henry the Lion (sou).- 

1195. Henry the Long and William (sons). 

1213. Otho I. (son of William). 

1252. Albert I. (son of preceding). 

127S. Albert II. (son). 

1318. Otho, Magnus I., and Ernest (sons). 

136S. Magnus II. (Torquatus) (son of Magnus I.) 

DUKES OF BEUNSWICK -WOL FENBUTTEL. 

First Branch. 
[409. Henry I. (son of Magnus II.) 
1416. William L and Henry II. (sens). 
14S2. Frederic and William II. ) .-n--,,- T 

1495. Henry III. and Eric J sous of William I. 

1 514. I bury IV. (son Of I bury II.) 
1568. Julius (sen of preceding). 
1589. Henry Julius (son). 
1613. Frederie-Ulrie (sen), died without issue. 

Second Branch. 
1634. Augustus (son of Henry of Luneburg). 
1666. Rodolph-Augustus ; who associated his next brother, 
Anthony-Ulric, in the government, from 1685; 

died, 1704. 
1704. Anthony-Ulric new ruled alone; became a Roman 

Catholic in re ; died in 1714. 

1714. Augustus-William (sen). 

1731. Lewis-Rodolph (brother). 

1735. Ferdinand-Albert, duke of Brunswick-Bevern, 
married Antoinette-Amelia, daughter of Lewis- 
Rodolph, and succeeded him. 



EEUNSWICK. 



189 



BUCCANEEBS. 



1735. Charles (son). 

1780. Charles-William-Ferdinand (son) ; a great general 
(served under his uncle Ferdinand in the Seven 
Years' War, 1756-1763); married princess Augusta 
of England ; was mortally wounded at the battle 
of Auerstadt, 14 Oct., and died 10 Nov. 1806; suc- 
ceeded by his fourth son (his elder sons being 
blind, abdicated). 

1806. William-Frederick, whose reign may be dated from 
the battle of Leipsic in Oct. 1813 ; fell at Quatre- 
Bras, commanding the avantgarde under the duke 
of Wellington, 16 June, 1815 ; succeeded by his 
eldest son. 

1815. Charles-Frederick-William, (very eccentric) ; as- 
sumed government 30 Oct. 1823. [Revolution at 
Brunswick ; the duke (declared incapable of 
reigning by the German diet) retired to England, 
7 Sept. 1830 ; died at Geneva, bequeathing his 
immense property to that city, 18 Aug. 1873.] 

1830. William, brother; born 25 April, 1806; succeeded 
provisionally, 7 Sept. 1830 ; and, on the demand 
of the Germanic diet, definitively, 20 April, 1831 ; 
unmarried; died, deeply lamented, 18 Oct. 1884. 
(His magnificent palace was destroyed by fire, 
24 Feb. 1865.) His jubilee celebrated 25 April, 
1881. Succession claimed by the duke of Cum- 
berland (set aside by the diet, 30 June, & 20 
Oct. 1885) ; regency assumed, 18 Oct. 1884. 
Prince Albert of Prussia, born 8 May, 1837, 
nephew of the emperor of Germany, elected 
regent 21 Oct. ; accepts about 24 Oct. ; warmly 
received in Brunswick, 2 Nov. 1885. 
See under Cumberland, 1892. 

DUKES OF BRUNSWICK-LUNEBURG. 

1409. Bernard (son of Magnus II., duke of Brunswick, 

see above). 
1434. Otho and Frederic (his sons). 
1478. Henry (son of Otho). 
1532. Ernest I. (son of Otho). His sons were 
1546. Henry (founder of second branch of Brunswick- 
Wolfenbuttel) and William, whose seven sons cast 
lots to determine who should marry. The lot'fell 
on George, sixth son. Four of the brothers 
reigned, viz. : — 
Ernest II. ~i 
Christian. f j 
Augustus. j 
Frederic II. J 

Christian-Lewis (son of the George above-mentioned.) 
George-William (brother of Christian-Lewis), dies 
in 1705; leaving as heiress Sophia-Dorothea, his 
daughter, who married in 1682 her cousin, prince 
George-Lewis of Hanover, afterwards George I. 
of England (son of Ernest of Hanover, youngest 
son of the above-mentioned George). 
(See Hanover and England.) 

BBUNSWICK THEATEE, Well-street, 
East London, built toreplace the. Royalty (burnt down 
II April, 1826), was opened 25 Feb. 1828. On the 
29th the building was destroyed by the falling in of 
the walls, too much weight being attached to the 
heavy iron roof. Fortunately the catastrophe hap- 
pened in the day-time (during a rehearsal of " Guy 
Mannering "), and only twelve persons perished. 

BBUSSELS, once capital of Austrian Brabant, 
now of Belgium (since 1831), was founded by St. 
Gery, of Cambray, in the 7th century. It is cele- 
brated for its fine lace, carpets, and tapestry. The 
Hotel de Ville was erected early in the 15th cen- 
tury ; has a turret 364 feet in height ; and on its 
top is a copper figure of St. Michael, 17 feet high, 
which turns with the wind ; see Belgium. Popula- 
tion, 1890, 182,305 ; 1900, 570,844 (including 
suburbs). 

Cathedral of St. Gudule (begun 1010?) completed . 1273 
Made capital of the Low Countries .... 1507 

Ruled tyrannically by Alva 1567 

" Union of Brussels " to expel the Spaniards . 1577-78 
Bombarded by marshal Villeroi ; 14 churches and 

10,000 houses destroyed .... Aug. 1695 
Taken by the French, 1701 ; by Marlborough, 1706 ; 

by Saxe, 16 Feb. 1746, and by Dumouriez, Nov. 1792 



1592. 
1611. 
1633. 
3636. 
1648. 
1665. 



The revolution commences . . -25 Aug. 1830 

The costly furniture of 16 houses demolished in con- 
sequence of a display of attachment to the house 
of Orange 5 April, 1834 

Maritime conference to obtain uniform meteoro- 
logical observations held here .... 1853. 

International philanthropic congress . . Sept. 1856 

International association for social science meet 

22-25 Sept. 1862 

Brussels Conference. The Society for the Ameliora- 
tion of the condition of prisoners of war sent 
circulars (dated 28 March) to the great powers. 
On 17 April Russia issued a programme for con- 
sideration at the conference, consisting of 71 
articles, embracing! all the "usages of war." 
Lord Derby (for Great Britain), in a despatch, de- 
clined the discussion of international law, 4 July. 
General sir Alfred Horsford was sent delegate for 
Great Britain without active powers : reserving 
liberty of action. The congress was opened 
27 July; baron Jomini (from Russia) president. 
The United States not represented. The sittings 
were secret. The conference closed without im- 
portant results, 28 Aug. 1874. British Report 
published in London Gazette . . .24 Oct. 1874 

Belgian Industrial exhibition opened . 5 Sept. „ 

International exhibition of objects relating to pub- 
lic health and safety, opened by the king, 26 June ; 
a congress met ... 27 Sept. — 2 Oct. 1876 

International congress of commerce and industry, 

6 — 10 Sept. 1880 

Commercial Museum opened . . about 17 Deo. 1882 

The magnificent new Palace of Justice opened by 
the king 15 Oct. 1883 

The parliament houses burnt ; valuable library 
destroyed ; loss about 480,000?. . . 6 Dec. „ 

Industrial exhibition opened . . . 29 Dec. ,, 

International Exhibition opened 19 May, by the 
king, 7 June ; closed .... n Nov. ,, 

Theatre de la Bourse burnt ... 7 Jan. 1889 

Anti-slavery conference meets . 18 Nov. et seq. ,, 

Arrival of Mr. H. M. Stanley from Africa ; enter- 
tainment by the king, &c. . . 19-25 April, 1890 

Great tire at the palace of the Due d'Arenberg, 
formerly the residence of the Egmont family, 
many of whose relics are destroyed . 24 Jan. 1892 

The International Colonial Institute founded ; lord 
Reay, M. Leon Say and others present . 8 Jan. 1894 

A formidable explosion in a house in the Rue Royal ; 
estimated loss, 500, ooof. . . . 18 June, ,, 

A large hall and buildings in the market burnt ; 
attributed to explosives . . . .11 July, ,, 

Decree signed changing the city's name to " Brux- 
elle port de mer " .... 19 Oct. 1895 

Opening of the international exhibition (British art 
well represented, a Congo village, 200 natives, 
etc.), deferred in consequence of the death of the 
duehesse d'Aleneon, see Paris, 4 May ; opened 
by the king, 10 May ; visit of the lord mayor, sir 
G. Faudel-Phillips, 31 July ; entertained by the 
king, 1 Aug. ; closed .... 20 Oct. 1897 

Monument to Charles Rogier, the Belgian patriot 
of 1830, unveiled 25 July, ,, 

Socialist demonstration by the labour party, 15 Aug. ., 

International colonial congress opened . 16 Aug. ,, 

Death of Mdme. Auguste Couvreur, Times corres- 
pondent 23 Oct. ,, 

The city boundaries extended for shipping ware- 
houses, etc 1900 

BEUTTIUM (now Calabria Olta), S. Italy. 
The Bruttians and Lucanians defeated and slew 
Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 326 B.C. They 
were conquered by Rome, 277. 

BUBBLE COMPANIES, see Companies, 

Law' s Bubble, and South-sea Bubble. 

BUCCANEEES, cruel piratical adventurers, 
French, English, and Dutch, who commenced their 
depredations on the Spaniards of America soon after 
the latter had taken possession of that continent and 
the West Indies. Their numbers were much in- 
creased by a twelve years' truce between the Span- 
Lards and Dutchin 1609, when many of the discharged 
sailors joined the buccaneers. The first levy of 



BUCENTAUR. 



190 



BUDGET. 



ship-money in England in 1635 was to defray the 
expense of chastising these pirates. The principal 
commanders of the first buccaneers were Montbar, 
Lolonois, Basco, and Morgan. Van Horn, of Ostend, 
captured Vera Cruz, 1603 ; Morgan took Panama, 
1670; Gramont seized Campeachy, 1685 ; andPointis 
took Carthagena, 1697 ; all gained enormous booty. 
The buccaneer confederacy was broken up through 
the peace of Ryswick, 10 Sept. 1697. 

BUCENTAUK, the vessel in which the doge of 
Venice used to proceed to wed the Adriatic, from the 
I2th to the 18th century. 

BUCHANITES (in Scotland) : followers of 
Mrs. Buchan, who about 1779 pretended to be the 
woman of Rev. xii., and promised to conduct them 
to the new Jerusalem, &c. She died in 1 791, and 
her followers dispersed. 

BUCHABEST (in Wallaehia). Preliminaries 
of peace were ratified at this place between Eussia 
and Turkey, it being stipulated that the Pruth 
should be the frontier of the two empires ; signed 
28 May, 1812. The subsequent war between these 
powers altered many of the provisions of this treaty. 
Bucharest was occupied by the Russians, Turks, and 
Austrians successively in the Crimean war. The 
last quitted it in 1856. It is now capital of the 
kingdom of Roumania, established 26 March, 1881. 
Population, 1885, 221,000; 1899, 282,071. 

BUCKHURST PEERAGE, see Trials, 1876. 

BUCKINGHAM PALACE, the London 

residence of the sovereign. Old Buckingham-house 
was built on the "Mulberry-gardens," by John 
Sheffield, duke of Buckingham, in 1703. In 1761 it 
was bought by George 111., who in 1775 settled it 
on his queen, Charlotte. She made it her town 
residence; and here all her children, except the 
eldest, were born. Here were married the duke of 
York and princess Frederica of Prussia, in 1791 ; 
the duke of Gloucester and princess Mary, 1816; 
the prince of Hesse-Homburg and princess Eliza- 
beth, 1818 ; and the duke of Cambridge and princess 
■of Hesse the same year. The house was pulled down 
in 1825, and the present palace commenced on its 
site. After an expenditure of nearly a million 
sterling, it was completed, and occupied by queen 
Victoria, 13 July, 1837. Further improvements 
were made in 1853. l' ae marble arch, taken down 
from the exterior of this palace, was re-erected at 
<Jumberland-gate, Hyde-park, 29 March, 185 1. 

BUCKLES were worn instead of shoe-strings 
in the reign of Charles II., and soon became fashion- 
able and expensive ; about 1791 they fell out of use. 
Ornamental buckles became fashionable, 1873. 

BUD A (or OFEN), the ancient Aquincum, on 
the W. bank of the Danube opposite Pesth, and with 
it (termed Buda-Pesth) the capital of Hungary. It 
was taken by Charlemagne in 799 ; and sacked by 
Solyman II. after the battle of Mohatz, when the 
Hungarian king, Louis, was killed, and 200,000 of 
his subjects carried away captives, 1526. Buda was 
sacked a second time, when the inhabitants were put 
to the sword, and Hungary was annexed to the 
Ottoman empire, 1541. Retaken by the Imperialists, 
under the duke of Lorraine, and the Mahometans 
delivered up to the fury of the soldiers, 1686. It 
suffered much in 1848; was entered without resist- 
ance by the Austrians, 5 Jan. 1849 ; stormed, 20 May; 
given up by Russians to Austrians, July, 1849. 
Here the emperor Francis Joseph was crowned king 
of Hungary, 8 June, 1867; see Hungary. Buda- 
Pesth constituted the capital of Hungary, Nov. 



1873 ; equal to Vienna, June, 1892. Great loss of 
life (about 120) and property by a storm, 26 June, 
1875; another storm, n July following. Popula- 
tion of Buda-Pesth, 1890, 506,384; 1900, 732,222. 

The anniversary of the re-capture of the citadel of Buda 
from the Turks after ten weeks' siege on 2 Sept. 1686, 
was enthusiastically celebrated on 2 Sept. 1886. 

Many drowned in the Danube, through the breaking nf 
the ice, 4 Jan. ; destructive inundations through rising 
of the Danube, 13 March etseq., 1891. 

Congress of nationalities of E. Europe, 10 Aug. 1895. 

Millennial national exhibition opened, 2 May, 1896. 

Riots of unemployed, 200 arrests, 21 Dec. 1901. 

English art, etc., exhibition opened, 30 Sept. 1902. 

Students' riots, 20 March, 1903. 

BUDDHISM, the chief religion in Asia beyond 
the Ganges, and in China, Japan, and Ceylon, origi- 
nated with Gautama Siddartha, the Sakya Muni, 
generally termed Buddha, or " the enlightened," a 
prince of Kapalivastu in Central India, said to have 
been born 623, and to have died 543 B.C. 

In July, 594 B.C., disgusted with the behaviour of the Brah- 
mins, he retired from the world for a time, and oncom- 
ing forth, preached a new religion so successfully that 
it predominated in India till the 10th century, a.d.* 

Buddhism inculcates strict morality ; it forbids killing, 
stealing, adultery, lying, and drunkenness, and every 
shade of these vices, and declares charity or love to be 
the source of all virtues. Some writers assert thai 
Buddhism includes belief in the transmigration of 
souls, and the absorption of good souls into God him- 
self, from whom they have emanated ; others reckon 
annihilation or eternal sleep (the Nirvana) amongst 
Buddhist tenets. 

A form of Buddhism, termed the religion of Fo, exists in 
China, besides the system of Confucius and Laot-se. 
It is said to have been introduced in the reign of Ming-ti, 
a.d. 68-81. 

" Le Bouddha et ses Religions," by M. J. B. St. Hilaire, 
was published in i860. Mr. T. Rhys Davids' " Bud- 
dhism," in 1878. 

The Buddhists in the world are estimated at 455,000,000. 

Buddhism in Japan reported to be declining, 3,737 
temples in Kioto, the old capital, and 3.555 in"i889. 

Mr. Brian Houghton Hodgson, eminent writer on Bud- 
dhism, etc., died, aged 94, 30 May, 1894. 

The king of Siam subscribes to the publication of 
a translation of Buddhist sacred books, 1805. 

The reputed birthplace of Buddha and other antiqui- 
ties discovered, 1897-8 ; a well-preserved dapa con- 
taining the ashes and relics of Buddha, authenticated 
by a direct inscription, discovered at Piprava, Nepal 
frontier, presented to the government by .Mr. Win. 
Peppo, who present it to the king of Siam, Jan. 1898. 

BUDE LIGHT (so named from Bude in Corn- 
wall, the residence of Mr. (aft. sir) Goldsworthy 
Gurney, its inventor), consisted of two or more 
concentric argand gas or oil burners, one rising 
above another, fed by oxygen gas in place of air ; 
patents 1839 and 1841. 

BUDGET (from the French bougette, Latin 
bulga, a small bag), a term applied lo the English 
chancellorof the exchequer's annual statement of the 
finances of the country, from the documents having 
been formerly presented in a leather bag. The 
budgets of sir R. Peel in 1842 (including the income- 
tax) and 1846 (free trade), and of Mr. Gladstone 
in i860 (in connection with the treaty with 
France), were very important. A surplus of about 
6,000,000/. was announced by sirSta lord Nortkcote, 
16 April, 1874. See Revenue. Mr childors in his 
budget proposed the reduction of consols from 3 to 
2k per cent, for capital raised to 108/., and the 
coinage of 10s. pieces worth gs. to meet the loss by 
wear of gold coinage. Coinage bill withdrawn 10 
July, 1884. 



* Mr. (aft. sir) Edwin Arnold's "Light of Asia, ! 
poem, in 1879. 



BUDGET. 



191 BUFFS. 



Budget of Mr. Childers, 30 April, 1885, to provide for 
estimated expenditure of 88,872,600?., and a vote of 
credit for n,ooo,ooo?. on account of war in the 
Soudan, and probable war with Russia. 
Income tax raised to 3d. Increase of duty on beer and 
. spirits, succession duties, duty on property of corpo- 
rate bodies. 
Bill rejected on second reading (264-252), 8-9 June ; 
modified by Sir M. Hicks-Beach, new duties given up, 
and 4,000,000?. exchequer bills, 16 July, 1885. 
Mr. Goschen's budget introduced 21 April, 1887, included 
abstraction of 2,000,000?. from the sinking fund, 
reduction of income tax from 8c?. to yd., and of 
tobacco duty from 3s. 6c?. to 3s. 2c?. ; a grant in aid of 
local rates, &c. 
Mr. Goschen's budget introduced 26 March ; aiming 
at a permanent equitable adjustment of imperial and 
local taxation ; income tax reduced to 6d. ; resolutions 
adopted 9 April ; Mr. Gladstone's amendment on the 
succession duties rejected (310-217) 23 April ; act 
passed 16 May, 1888. 
Mr. Goschen's budget introduced 15 April, 1889, pro- 
vided for the increased expenditure for the army and 
navy, by dealing with the consolidated fund and 
slightly increasing the succession and beer duties. 
Mr. Goschen's budget, surplus, 3,549,000?.; house duty 
reduced to 2d., 4c?., and 6d., 540,000?.; additional 
duty on spirits, 6c?. per gallon — resolutions carried 
17-22 April, 1890. 
Mi - . Goschen's budget introduced 23 April, 1891 : surplus, 
1,756,000?. ; proposed grant for free (or assisted) educa- 
tion from 1 Sept., about 2,000,000?. a year; resolu- 
tions agreed to, 27 April, iSqi. 
Mr. Goschen's budget introduced 11 April, 1892 : surplus, 
1,067,000?. ; the duties on sparkling wines equalised 
to 2s. a gallon, 16 May, 1892. 
Sir Win. Harcourt's budget introduced, 24 April, 1893 ; 
deficit, 1,574,000?., met by addition of ic?. to the in- 
come tax, making it yd. ; passed 12 May, 1893. 
Sir Wm. Harcourt's budget introduced 16 April, 1894 ; 
deficit, 507,000?., income tax, raised from 7c?. to 8c?. ; 
appropriation of sinking fund, death or estate duties, 
additional duties on beer (6<?. per barrel), spirits 
(6c?. per gallon) ; Finance Act, passed 31 July, 1894. 
Sir Win. Harcourt's budget: receipts, 94,684,000?., ex- 
penditure, 94,588,000?., surplus, 766,000?. ; the addi- 
tional spirit duty dropped, 2 May, 1895 ; act passed 
30 May, 1895. 
Sir Michael Hicks-Beach's budget: receipts, 101,974,000?.; 
surplus 1895-6, 4,210,000?. ; expenditure, 97,764,000?. 
16 April, 1896 ; estimated expenditure, 1896-7, 
100,047,000?. ; relief from the death duties, relief of 
agriculture, reduction of the land-tax, etc. ; Finance 
Act passed, 7 Aug. 1896. 
Budget : receipts, 103,360,000?. ; estimated expenditure, 
101,791,000?. ; estimated surplus, 1,569,000?. ; disposal 
of surplus, 1897-8, navy, S. Africa garrison, post- 
office, etc., 29 April, Finance Act passed, 15 July, 1897. 
Budget: receipts, 108,615,000?. ; estimated expenditure, 
106,829,000?. ; estimated surplus, 1,786,000?. ; reduc- 
tion of income-tax, death duties, land tax, tobacco 
duty, 21 April ; Finance Act passed, 1 July, 1898. 
Budget, 1899-1900: receipts, 129,757,000?. ; expenditure, 
133,810,000?. ; deficit, 13,882,000?. (reduction of the 
national debt by 2,000,000?.) and met by increase of 
stamp and wine duties ; Finance Act passed, 20 June, 
1899. 
Budget, 1900-1901, introduced, 5 March : receipts, 
130,385,000?. ; expenditure, 183,592,000?. (army, 
61,499,000?.) ; deficit, 53,207,580?. ; provided for by 
treasury bills, 8,000,000?., and war loan about 
43,000,000?., income tax raised from 8c?. to is. ; ad- 
ditional duties on beer, spirits, tea (raised to 6cZ.), 
tobacco, stamps, &c. ; Finance Act, royal assent, 
9 April, 1900. 
Budget: receipts (estimated), 132,255,000?.; expendi- 
ture, 187,612,000?. ; deficit, 55,357,000?., to be met by 
2C?. on the income tax (14c?.), a fci. per lb. on sugar, and 
is. per ton on exported coal ; war loan, 30,000,000?. ; 
60,000,000?. asked for in consols, 18 April ; Finance 
Act, royal assent, 26 July, 1901. 
Budget : receipts (estimated), 147,785,000?. ; expendi- 
ture, 174,609,000?. ; deficit about, 23,924,000?., to be 
met by the consols loan, 29,920,000?. ; and a ic?. on the 
income tax (15c?.), 3c?. and 5;?. per cwt. on imported 
corn and flour; sinking fund, 4,640,000?., restored; 
new loan, 32,000,000?., and draft on exchequer 



balances about 3,500,000?., 14 April ; Finance Act 
passed, 4 July, 1902. 
Budget : receipts (estimated), 144,270,000?. ; expendi- 
ture, 143,954,000?. ; estimated surplus, 316,000?. ; re- 
duction of income tax, 4c?. (nc?..); corn and flour 
duty, 3d. and 4c?. per cwt., repealed from 1 July, 
1903 ; Finance Act, royal assent, 30 June, 1903. 

BUENOS AYRES, a province of S. America, 
now part of the Argentine republic. The country 
was explored by Sebastian Cabot in 1526, and the 
capital, Buenos Ayres, founded by don Pedro de 
Mendoza in 1535. In 1585 the city was rebuilt and 
recolonised ; and made a bishopric, 1620 ; and a 
viceroyalty, 1775. La Plata, the new capital, 
founded by Dr. Rocha, the governor, 24 Nov. 1882 ; 
made seat of government April, 1884. Population 
in 1888 : province, 3,793,800; city, 500,000; 1900, 
821,291. See Argentine Confederation. 
A British fleet and army, under sir Home Popham 
and gen. Beresford, take the city, 27 June; it is 
retaken by the Spaniards, 12 Aug. ; by the British 

29 Oct. 1806 
Monte Video taken by storm by sir Samuel Auch- 

muty, 3 Feb. ; evacuated . . . .7 July, 1807 
General Whiteloek and 8000 British enter Buenos 
Ayres ; were repulsed with great slaughter 5 July ; 
retired from the country on degrading terms, 

6 July, „ 
[He was cashiered for inefficiency.] 
Independence of the province declared 19 July, 1816 
Recognised as forming part of the Argentine con- 
federation Feb. 1822 

[A prey to civil war through the violent intrigues of 
Rosas, Oribe, Urquiza, and others, for many 
years.] 
Urquiza overthrows Rosas, and is made provisional 

dictator 1851 

Oribe defeated by general Urquiza, to whom Buenos 

Ayres capitulates 3 Feb. 1852 

Rosas flees, arrives at Plymouth . . 25 April, „ 
Urquiza deposed, 10 Sept. ; invests the city; after 
some successes he retires .... Dec. „ 

Constitution voted 23 May, 1853 

Buenos Ayres secedes from the Argentine confede- 
ration, and is recognised as an independent state ; 
the first governor, Dr. D. Pastor Obligado, elected 

12 Oct. „ 
Dr. Valentin Alsina elected governor . . May, 1857 
War breaks out ; Urquiza, general of the forces of the 
Argentine confederation, has an indecisive conflict 
with the Buenos Ayres general Mitre 23 Oct. 1859 

A treaty signed, by which Buenos Ayres is re-united 

with the Argentine confederation . . n Nov. ,, 
Fresh contests : Mitre defeats Urquiza in an almost 
bloodless contest at Pa von ; Urquiza retires 

17 Sept. 1861 
National congress at Buenos Ayres . 25 May, 1862 
Mitre installed president .... 12 Oct. „ 
Jesuits' college and archbishop's palace burnt down, 
and several priests killed, by a great mob ; mar- 
tial law proclaimed . . . .28 Feb. 1875 
General amnesty bill passed . . . Aug. 1883 
International exhibition . . 6 May et seq. 1890 
New docks opened by the president . . 24 June 1897 
(See Argentine Republic.) 

BUFFALO, a city in New York state, founded 
in 1801 ; incorporated 1832 ; burned by the British 
during the war, 1813. Population, 1832, 15,000; 
1890, 255,664; 1900, 352,387. Pan-American 
Exhibition, opened 20 May, 1901 ; president 
McKinley shot at and wounded here by Leon 
Czolgosz, 5 Sept. 1901. See Niagara, 1896. 

BUFFOONS were originally mountebanks in 
the Roman theatres. Their shows were discouraged 
by Domitian, and abolished by Trajan, 98; see 
Jesters. 

BUFFS, this famous regiment took its name 
from the distinguishing colour of its uniform — coats 
faced with buff, and waistcoats, breeches and 
stockings of the same hue. The " Old Buffs " 



BUILDING. 



192 



BULGAKIA. 



were raised in 1689 (it is stated by some that they 
were raised by Charles II. , and were called the 
"Holland regiment"). At one period they were 
known as the "Buff Howards," from Howard, 
their colonel (1737-1749)- The "Old Buffs" 
formed the 3rd regiment of foot. The "Young 
Buffs," the old 31st foot, were raised 1702, and are 
now known as the Kent (East) regiment. Their 
uniform is scarlet with buff facings. The "Roth- 
shire Buffs," the old 78th regiment, form ihe 2nd 
battalion of the Seaforth Highlanders (the duke of 
Albany's). Brewer. 

BUILDING. In early times men dwelt in 
caves ; wood and clay were the first building mate- 
rials. Building with stone was early among the 
Tyrians. In Ireland a castle was built of stone at 
Tuam by the king of Connaught, in 1161 ; and it 
was "so new and uncommon as to be called the 
Wonderful Castle." Building with brick was intro- 
duced by the Romans into their provinces. Alfred 
encouraged it in England in 886. It was adopted 
by the earl of Arundel, about 1598, London being 
then almost wholly built of wood; see Architecture. 
Building acts were passed by Elizabeth in 1562, 1580, 
and 1592 ; and "by Charles II. in 1667. Recent 
acts are very numerous. The Building Act for 
the Metropolis, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 84 (1844), was 
amended in 1855, i860, 1869, 1871, 1878, and 1882. 
Building societies, formed to enable a person to pur- 
chase a house by paying money periodically to a 
society for a certain number of years, instead of 
paying rent to a landlord, began about 1836, when 
an act was passed for their regulation. Their 
nature and objects having been considerably 
changed, a new act was passed 30 July, 1874, 
another, 1894. Building Societies in United King- 
dom : 1877, 715; 1882, 1,606; 1887, 2,197; 190O) 
2,239; 1891, England and Wales: 2,262; Scotland, 
61 ; Ireland, 59 ; 1895, England and Wales : 2,181 ; 
Scotland, 136 ; Ireland, 56 ; 1898, England and 
Wales: 2,219; I 899, 2,124; 1900, 2 i°3i > Scot- 
land, 144 ; 1899, 136 ; 1900, 139 ; Ireland, 62 ; 
1899, 65 ; 1900, 69. 
Annual meetings of the Building Societies Asso- 
ciation held 3 Feb. 1892 ; 19 Jan. 1893, et seq. 
London and General Bank established in 1882 
under the influence of Mr. Jabez Balfour, in con- 
nection with the Liberator Permanent Building 
and Investment Society, which was founded in 
1868, and closely combined with the Land Allot- 
ment Company and several other companies, 
forming what is termed the " Balfour group." 
This body, professing to have a capital of 
7,000,000/., by means of prospectuses, false ac- 
counts and balance-sheets, attracted thousands 
of shareholders and depositors. Estates were 
purchased, speculations undertaken, dividends 
were paid out of fictitious profits, and large sums 
were absorbed by managing directors. The bank 
and companies failed Oct. 1892 ; official liquidators 
were appointed. An appeal was made for the 
poorer sufferers, and a committee was appointed 
Dec. 1892 ; 30,226/. received up to 18 Oct. 1893 ; 
much relief given to the sufferers, reported May, 
1894 ; total, 114,360/. ; about 92,000/. expended, 

reported 10 April, 1903 

Mr. Jabez Spencer Balfour, M.P. for Burnley, ac- 
cused of fraud connected with this society; ab- 
sconds 14 Dec. 1892 ; at Buenos Ayres, April, 
1893; is arrested near Bun ims Ayres, Jan. 1894; 
negotiations for extradition ; sails fur England, 
7 April, 1805 ; arrives .... 6 May, 1895 
Mr. S. Wheeler's (official receiver) scheme for liqui- 
dation, accepted 6 .June, ,, 

Total liabilities, 8,360,804/. ; supposed assets, 
cboSS^S^- > 23,000 shareholders ; 28,000 creditors, 
(Sir B. Webster's statement) . . . 25 Oct. „ 
The failure caused ureal national distress. 

See Triiila, March, 1893-1895; Strikes, 1899. 

BULGARIA, tbe nuclei 1 1 Mcesialnferior, aprin- 
oipalitj 1 ri luiiary to Turkey. The Bulgarians were a 
Slavonian tribe, who harassed the Eastern empire 



I and Italy from 499 to 678, when they established a 

kingdom. They defeated Justinian II., 687; hut 

were subdued, after several conflicts, by the emperor 

Basil, in 1018. After defeating them in 1014, and 

j taking 15,000 Bulgarian prisoners, he caused their 

. eyes to be put out, leaving one eye only to every 

hundredth man, to enable him to conduct his 

countrymen home. The kingdom was re-established 

in 1 186; but after several changes was conquered 

j by Bajazet and annexed to the Ottoman empire, 

j 1396. Bulgaria was a chief site of the Russo- 

Turkish war {which see), 1877-8. Population of 

j Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia, 3,154,375 in 1888, 

\ 3,733,189 in 1900. Capital, Sofia {which see). 

The Bulgarians said to support the revolt in Her- 
zegovina {which see) ..... 1875-6 

Insurrection in Bulgaria, quickly suppressed with 
great cruelty ("Bulgarian Horrors," see England, 
1876 : Daily News) ; see Turkey . May-Sept. 1876 

Zankoff and Balabanow, Bulgarian delegates, re- 
ceived in London 9 Oct. ,, 

Bulgaria constituted an autonomous principality, 
tributary to the sultan, by the Berlin treaty (which 
see) 13 July, 1878 

First parliament (or sobranje) opened at Tirnova by 
prince Dondoukofl Korsakoff ; the new constitu- 
tion brought forward . . . .22 Feb. 1879 

Prince Alexander of Hesse elected prince as Alex- 
ander I. 29 April, ,, 

Visits the European courts ; received- by queen 
Victoria . . . . . .5 June, „ 

Takes the oaths to the constitution at Tirnova 

9 July, » 

Bulgaria said to be quitted by the Russians 17 July, „ 

Ministerial difficulties; parliament dissolved 18 Dec. „ 

The prince announces the summoning a national 
assembly, and threatens to resign . 9 May, 1883 

Zankoff and other liberal ministers arrested for in- 
sulting the prince in their election addresses 
(soon released) 21 June, „ 

Elections for national assembly ; voters said to be 
coerced 27 June el seq. „ 

Meeting of the assembly ; the prince's proposals 
unanimously accepted ; lie promises reforms and 
adherence to the constitution . . 13 July, „ 

The late liberal ministers, Zankoff and Slaviekoff, 
temporarily arrested . . about 23 July, ,, 

Amnesty for political offences proclaimed 12 Sept. ,, 

New council of state established . about 28 Sept. ,, 

New ministry under gen. Skobeloff and M. Kypriak 

15 March, 1883 

The prince virtually dictator ; opposes Russia, 
under whose influence a liberal reaction against 
the prince takes place, and a new constitution is 
proposed; the national assembly meets 16 Sep't. ,, 

Manifesto of the prince restoring the Tirnova con- 
stitution; Zankoff minister . . . 20 Sept. ,, 

Col. Redigher, war minister, and other Russian 
officers summarily dismissed by the prince, 

26 Oct. ,, 

Peaceful relations with Russia re-established about 

15 Nov. ,, 

Changes in the constitution proposed by govern- 
ment adopted 17 Dec. ,, 

Disputes with Servia respecting refugees and 
boundaries May, June, 1884 

M. Zankoff 's ministry resigns ; succeeded by Kara- 
veloff July ,, 

Raids of Servians repelled ; the Bulgarian govern- 
ment protests .... Sept. Oct. ,, 

Disputes with Servia unsettled . . . Dec. ,, 

Re-union with Roumelia (termed South Bulgaria 
April, i;'.;Y.).lrrlarril ; about 1S Sept. ; all Bulgaria 
arming: action suspended on advice of the 
powers of Europe . . . . about 15 Oct. 1885 

Declaration of war by Servia 13 Nov. ; circular to 
the powers alleging Bulgarian aggression ; denied 

bj prince Alexander, 14 Nov.; Bulgaria invaded 
at four points ; skirmishes, several killed and 

wounded, and small places occupied by Servians ; 

prince Alexander appeals to Turkey for help, 

14 Nov. ,, 
. e fighting: Servians take positions at 
Raptcha, Bulgarians retreat to Slivnitza; 400 
Bulgarians captured j 50 Servians killed 15 Nov. ,, 



BULGAEIA. 



193 



BULGAEIA. 



Servian attack repulsed, 16 Nov. ; renewed with 
artillery with success, many Bulgarian prisoners, 

17 Nov. 18 

Bulgarians defeated between Kula (Adlie) and 
Widdin 17 Nov. , 

The Bulgarians bravely defend the Dragoman pass, 
attacked by 40,000 Servians, but retire at 
night 15 Nov. ,. 

Prince Alexander submits to the Porte and orders 
evacuation of Eastern Roumelia . . 19 Nov. ,. 

Prince Alexander and the Bulgarians attack the 
Servians at Slivnitza ; severe fighting ; king 
Milan and the Servians retire, leaving 400 pri- 
soners I 7 _I 9 Nov. ,, 

Bulgarians totally defeat the Servians near the 
Dragoman pass 21-22 Nov. 1885 ; near Zaribrod, 
which is occupied by prince Alexander . 23 Nov. ,, 

Estimated Servian loss 6,000 killed and wounded, 

17-21 Nov. „ 

Servians retreat to Pirot, 24 Nov. ; prince Alexander 
enters Servia, defeats Servians and occupies 
Pirot after severe conflict, 26-27 Nov. ; siege of 
Widdin, Bulgarian sally repulsed . 27 Nov. ,, 

Cessation of hostilities through Austrian inter- 
vention 28 Nov. ,, 

Servian proposals rejected . . about 2 Dec. ,, 

Sir W. M. White at Constantinople supports the 
Bulgarian union .... Nov.-Dec. ,. 

Protocol signed by International Commission ; 
Pirot in Servia and Widdin in Bulgaria to be 
evacuated ; armistice to last till 1 March, 21 Dec. ,, 

The powers in a collective note call upon the 
Balkan rulers to disarm ; refused by Greece and 
Servia about 16 Jan. 18 

Virtual (not nominal) union of Eastern Roumelia 
with Bulgaria ; prince Alexander representing 
the sultan, his suzerain, for five years ; Jan. ; 
Decree promulgated 2 Feb. ,, 

Peace between Bulgaria and Servia signed at 
Bucharest 3 March ; ratified 17 March ; by the 
sultan 13 March, ,, 

Prince Alexander demands governorship for life, 
about 15 March, 1886 ; not agreed to . March, ,, 

The conference of powers at Constantinople; 
Turco-Bulgarian convention protocol nominating 
prince Alexander governor of Eastern Roumelia 
for five years signed 5 April ; accepted with 
reservation by prince Alexander . 8 April, ,. 

Bulgarian assembly opened ; Eastern Roumelian 
deputies present 14 June, ,. 

Conspiracy at Sofia, prince Alexander carried off 
a prisoner 21-23 Aug. >> 

Provisional government formed by M. Zankoff 
and others 21 Aug. ,, 

Their proclamation disavowed by the army and 
people at Sofia, Philippopolis and other places . ,, 

M. Stefan Stamboloff a lawyer, an ardent Bulgarian, 
elected deputy at Tirnova, 1879, president of the 
sobranje ,, 

A loyalist provisional government formed at 
Tirnova by Stamboloff and others, which issues 
manifesto in the prince's name . . 23 Dec. „ 

The prince landed at Keni Russi in Russian 
Bessarabia ,, 

Conflicts with M. Zankoff s supporters . . . ,, 

The rebel government prisoners or fugitives, 25 Aug. ,, 

Return of prince Alexander ; triumphant reception 
at Rustchuk : he issues a proclamation, 29 Aug. 
1886; arrives at Philippopolis, 1 Sept., at Sofia 
3 Sept. M. Zankoff and others released ; prince 
Alexander submits to Russia, announces his 
intention to abdicate, 4 Sept. ; regency appointed 
Stamboloff, Mutkuroft, and Karaveloff . 6 Sept. ,, 

Prince Alexander leaves Sofia with simple dignity, 
8 Sept. ; Sofia in a state of siege . . . . ,, 

The revolting soldiers degraded and officers arrested, 

about 8 Sept. ,, 

Arrival of gen. Kaulbars as Russian agent, intimi- 
dating policy 25 Sept. ,, 

M. Tisza, Hungarian Prime Minister, declares for 
maintenance of the treaty of Berlin and Bulgarian 
independence 30 Sept. „ 

M. Radoslavoft, premier, and ministry, firmly resist 
general Kaulbars, 4 Oct. ; his mission in the pro- 
vinces unsuccessful Oct. „ 

Elections for the sobranje (parliament) ; majority 
for the regency (about 400 to 20), 78 Zankoffists 

10 Oct. „ 



Gadban Effendi, Turkish envoy, impugns the 
elections and requires delay of the meeting of the 
sobranje ; resisted by the regency . 20 Oct. i 

Russian war ships at Varna ; state of siege renewed 
at Sofia 28 Oct. 

The sobranje opened ; the rebel officers released 

1 Nov. 

Gen. Kaulbars threatens to retire if Russians are 
ill-treated ; 100 Russian sailors land at Varna, 

1, 2 Nov. 

Captain NabokofTs attempt to create an insurrection 
in favour of the czar at Bourgas quickly sup- 
pressed 4 Nov. 

Prince Waldemar of Denmark elected prince by the 
sobranje 10 Nov. (declined 13 Nov.) ; resignation 
of the regent M. Karaveloff 10 Nov. ; succeeded 
by M. Zivkoff 13 Nov. 

Important speeches of the marquis of Salisbury 
(9 Nov.) and of count Kalnoky against Russian 
aggression I3 Nov. 

Gen. Kaulbars' ultimatum unanswered ; he and 
Russian consuls quit Bulgaria . 20 Nov. et seq. 

Prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg invited for 
election as prince by Bulgarian delegates, 15 Dec. ; 
prince Nicholas of Mingrelia recommended by 
Russia 

The delegates (MM. Stoiloff, Grekoff, and Caltcheff) 
visit various courts ; not received at St. Peters- 
burg ; received unofficially at Vienna and 
Berlin Dec. ; London (favorably) 29 Dec. 1886 ; 
Paris 9 Jan. ; Rome 18 Jan. ; Constantinople 

29 Jan. 

Military revolt at Silistria, col. Kristeff shot ; 
quickly suppressed . . . 1, 2 March, 

Military insurrection at Rustchuk ; fighting, many 
killed and wounded 3 March ; suppressed by the 
militia and people 4 March ; several ringleaders 
executed 6 March ; many imprisoned 8-9 March, 

Sofia in a state of siege ; MM. Karaveloff, Nikoforoff 
and 22 others arrested 4 March ; released 6 April, 

Reported execution of 14 rebels at Rustchuk, 

11 March, 

M. Man toff, prefect of Rustchuk, shot at at 
Bucharest 3I March, 

Prince Alexander definitively declines re-election, 
about 12 June, 

Meeting of the sobranje at Tirnova 4 July; unani- 
mous election of prince Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg 
and Gotha as prince 7 July ; he accepts condi- 
tionally 8 July ; the ministers and regency resign, 
announced 9 July. M. Stoiloff forms a ministry 
12 July ; the regency on request withdraw resigna- 
tion about 14 July, 

Prince Ferdinand arrives at Tirnova, and signs the 
constitution, &c, and issues a proclamation, 
14 Aug. ; the Russian government protests 
against this 15 Aug. 

The prince well received at Philippopolis 21 Aug. ; 
and at Sofia 22 Aug. 

The sultan declares prince Ferdinand's position 
illegal 22 Aug. 

Stamboloff forms a strong ministry . 1 Sept. 

Proposed mission of general Ernroth (Russian) 
opposed by the powers early . . . Sept. 

State of siege closed; the opposition to the govern- 
ment active Sept. 

The Bulgaria publishes a libellous statement re- 
specting the German Consul, Herr Loper, Aug. ; 
contradiction published by intervention of the 
Bulgarian government, and the paper suppressed 
Sept. ; matter referred to the German govern- 
ment about 14 Sept. ; pacific settlement an- 
nounced 21 Sept. 

Elections for the sobranje ; majority for the 

ministry (260 — 32) ; riots at Plevna, suppressed 

with bloodshed, 10 killed . . . .9 Oct. 

Sobranje opened by the prince . . -27 Oct. 

Insurrection at Eski-Zagra suppressed, 17 soldiers 

killed announced 16 Nov. 

Russian note to the sultan and the powers declaring 
the illegality of prince Ferdinand's position, 
Russia supported by France and Germany ; 
Austria, England and Italy maintain reserve ; 
middle Feb.-March 1888 ; the Porte telegraphs 
to M. Stamboloff that prince Ferdinand's position 
is illegal, 6 March ; no answer returned . March, 1 

Temporary resignation of the ministry, 13-24 June, 

Prince Ferdinand's first anniversary . 14 Aug. 





BULGARIA. . 



194 



BULGARIA. 



M. Stamboloff reconstitutes his ministry, about 

22 Dec. 

About 60 eminent men arrested by M. Stamboloff 
for petitioning the Exarch at Constantinople, as 
favouring M. Zankoff . 5-6 Feb. 

Death of Zacharia Stoianoff, president ot the so- 
branje, eminent patriot, at Paris . 15 Sept. 

Prince Ferdinand visits Germany [M. Stamboloff 
appointed regent] S Oct. 

The Russian prince Dolgoroukoff visits Sofia, in- 
trigues with the Zankotfists, and is expelled 

8-12 Oct. 

Loan of 25,000,000 francs at 6 per cent, obtained on 
the railways announced . . . .20 Oct. 

Prince Ferdinand, after a successful tour, during 
which he visited Paris, 16 Oct., Vienna, 27 Oct., 
returns to Sofia ; the parliament opened, 3 Nov. 

Russian circular note to the powers stating that the 
terms of the loan are contrary to the treaty of 
Berlin ; this is denied by the Bulgarian govern- 
ment ; the loan fully subscribed for five or six 
times at Vienna, Berlin, &c. . . . Jan. 

Major Panitza, a high army official, and six others 
arrested on a charge of plotting against the prince 
and government (in 1S87 ct seq.) . . 1 Feb. 

More arrests ; M. Stamboloff acts as prefect of 
police 7 Feb. 

Trial of major Panitza and 14 others, charged with 
conspiring to overthrow the government and 
assassinate prince Ferdinand and his ministers : 
9 officers, 4 civilians, and capt. Kalobkoff, a 
Russian, also arraigned. Court-martial opened 
15 May ; sentences, major Panitza to be shot ; 
capt. Kalobkoff nine years' imprisonment ; lieut. 
Rifoff and M. Arnodoff six years, 4 officers three 
years, one man five months, the rest acquitted 
30 May ; sentences confirmed on appeal, 19 June, 

Major Panitza* shot at Sofia . . 28 June, 

The government sends a courteous but firm note to 
the Porte requesting the recognition of prince 
Ferdinand and religious autonomy to the Mace- 
donian Bulgarians .... 26 June, 
(Answer deferred, July, 1890.] 

3 Bulgarian bishops in Macedonia appointed by the 
Porte about 31 July, 

Disapproved by the Greek patriarch, who resigns 
about 5 Aug. 

Kalobkoff, the Russian intriguer., released and ex- 
pelled from Bulgaria about . . 25 Aug. 

Elections : great majority for the government, Sept. 

The prince opens the sobranje with a firm speech, 

27 Oct. 

He is partially recognised by the Porte . 5 Feb. 

Detection of a plot by major Bendereff against the 
government, reported . . . 17 March, 

M. Beltcheff, minister of finance, assassinated in 
the street in the presence of M. Stamboloff (for 
whom it was thought he was taken) about 8 p.m. 
27 March ; many arrests . . 28 March, 

Connection with major Bendereff 's conspiracy sus- 
pected, 28 March ; above 150 arrests up to April, 

Archiepiscopal palace at Sofia searched by order of 
M. Stamboloff ; documents and letters carried off, 

30 Aug. 

The sobranje votes by acclamation a pension of 
50,000 francs to prince Alexander of Battenberg 
(count Hartenau), reported . . 13 Dec. 

Rupture with Fiance, on account of the expulsion 
of M. Chadourne, a journalist, accused of pub- 
lishing injurious intelligence. . . 15 Dec. 

Rupture with France settled by explanation and 
apology, about 21 Jan. 

Dr. Vulkoviteh, Bulgarian agent at Constantinople, 
stabbed 24 Feb. ; died ... 26 Feb. 

Government note to the Porte complaining of plots, 
&c, delivered . ... 13 April, 

Plot at Rustchuk ; bombs discovered, 22 April ; 
many arrests .... April, May, 

The prince, during a tour, visits Britain, 30 May ; 
received by the queen at Balmoral, 6-8 June ; 
leaves 11 June, 

Trial of 18 persons connected with the conspiracy 
against prince Ferdinand and the assassination 



1890 



* He was born at Tirnova, 1852 ; became an advocate ; 
he distinguished himself as leader of a volunteer band in 
the Servo-Bulgarian war ; was favoured by prince Alex- 
ander, and unwillingly submitted to prince Ferdinand. 



of M. Beltcheff (27 March, 1891), 30 June-18 July ; 
sentences, imprisonment: M. Petko Karaveloff, 
ex-premier and regent, 5 years ; Ghorghi Veli- 
koff, 15 years; three persons, 9 years; one, 5 
years; one, 3 years: one, 16 months; six ac- 
quitted ; Sweetoslaw Milaroff, Constantin Popoff, 
Toma Gheorghieff, and Alexander Karagulotf 
sentenced to death, 18 July ; executed . 27 July, 

M. Stamboloff, invited by the sultan, warmly 
received at Constantinople . . 12-14 Aug. 

First Bulgarian exhibition opened at Philippopolis 
by prince Ferdinand, 27 Aug. ; closed . 13 Nov. 

Dispute with Greece respecting Greek schools and 
the new Bulgarian education law 21 Sept. etseq. ; 
the question referred to the powers, about 27 
Sept. ; the schools re-opened . . 1 Oct. 

The sobranje opened by the prince with a cheerful 
speech 27 Oct. 

Loan of .142,780,000 francs for railways authorised, 
about 22 Nov. 

Revision of the constitution ; Ferdinand and his 
heirs to remain R. C. ; bill introduced . 16 Dec. 

The bill passed permitting prince Ferdinand and 
his first successor to be Romanists, the next to 
belong to the Greek church . . 19 Dec. 

M. Zankoff issues a fruitless manifesto against the 
prince and government . . about 24 Feb. 

The metropolitan Clement arrested for exciting 
the people against the government in a sermon 
at Tirnova 26 Feb. 

Russian circular to the powers against Bulgarian 
changes about 15 March, 

Ilia Gheorghieff convicted as an accomplice in the 
murder of M. Beltcheff . . .22 March, 
[Acquitted and discharged, 3 Nov.] 

Marriage of prince Ferdinand to princess Marie 
Louise of Parma at Florence . . 20 April, 

Meeting of the grand sobranje, 15 May ; the new 
constitution passed 27 May ; proclaimed 29 May, 

Public entrance of the prince and princess into 
Sofia ; great festivities . . . 10, 11 June, 

The metropolitan, M. Clement, sentenced to 
banishment for his sermon (26 Feb.), 22 July ; 
commuted to 3 years' imprisonment . 10 Nov. 

Government majority in the elections . 30 July, 

The first Bulgarian steamship navigation company 
inaugurated at Varna . . . .29 Aug. 

The sobranje opened by prince Ferdinand, 27 Oct. 

Discovery of a plot to assassinate prince Ferdinand ; 
arrest of lieut. Ivanoff and others, reported, 

1 Dec. 

Bill restricting the press passed ; the sobranje 
adjourns 1 Jan. 

Trial of lieut. Luka Ivanoff and Stojan Ivanoff 
began 26 Jan. ; Luka sentenced to 15 years' and 
Stojan Ivanoff to 3 years' imprisonment, 30 Jan. 

Archbishop Clement's appeal dismissed, 21 Feb. ; 
pardoned by the prince . . . 15 March, 

Resignation of M. Stamboloff and ministry, 

29 May, 

M. Stoiloff forms a new ministry . . 31 May, 

Rioting at Sofia, checked by the police . 1 June, 

Prioce Ferdinand, in a warm complimentary 
rescript, expresses deep regret at the retirement 
of M. Stamboloff .... 12 June, 

M. Stamboloff, for uttering remarks against prince 
Ferdinand, is prosecuted and bailed . 5 Sept. 

The sobranje opened by prince Ferdinand, 27 Oct. 

M. Stoiloff reconstitutes his ministry . 21 Dec. 

Amnesty for political offences granted, with some 
exceptions 30 Dec. 

The sobranje closed 1 Jan. 

M. Zankoff returns to Sofia ; warmly received by 
the people, 4 Jan. ; and the prince . 9 Jan. 

Elections ; government majority . . 4 Feb. 

Prosecution of M. Stamboloff; in ill health ; his 
passport refused May, 

Frontier conflicts and disputes with Turkey, Mace- 
donian agitation reported . . . 19 June, 

Rupture with Turkey, M. Dimitroff (minister) re- 
called 23 June, 

Bulgarian note to the powers ... 8 July, 

M. Stamboloff with his friend M. Petkoff attacked 
and dreadfully wounded in his carriage by three 
assassins, 15 July ; he dies 3 a.m., 18 July ; much 
sympathy expressed to Madame Stamboloff by 
queeu Victoria and other foreign powers ; 19 July, 



1894 



BULGARIA. 



195 



BULGARIA. 



public funeral : address by M. Petkoff, socialist 
rioting 20 July 

Bulgarian mission well received by the czar at St. 
Petersburg, 17 July ; no reconciliation with 
prince Ferdinand ; returns to Sotia . 4 Aug. 

The sobranje opened with a favourable speech by 
prince Ferdinand 31 Oct. 

■Communication of reconciliation of the Russian 
government with prince Ferdinand, in conse- 
quence of his assent to the conversion of prince 
Boris to the Greek church ... 8 Feb. 

~M. Stoiloff honourably received by the sultan, who 
sends representatives to the prince's conversion, 
9 Feb. ; conversion of prince Boris from the 
Roman to the Greek church ; solemn ceremony ; 
.the czar as sponsor represented by gen. Kutuzoflf, 
14 Feb. ; the sobranje presents 500,000 francs to 
prince Boris, to remain in the bank till his 
majority i4Feb. 

Prince Ferdinand recognized by all the powers ; 
announced 19 Feb. ; warmly received by the 
sultan at Constantinople, 26 March ; receives 
Turkish honours, April ; arrives in St. Peters- 
burg, receives honours from the czar, 18, 
.21 April ; at Paris, receives the cordon of the 
legion of honour, 25 April; arrives at Berlin, 
30 April ; receives honours, May ; received at 
Belgrade by the king of Servia, 7 May ; returns 

- to Sofia 9 May 

Dissolution of the sobranje ordered, 22 Oct. ; re- 
opened with a speech from the prince . 13 Dec. 

Trial of persons implicated in the murder of M. 
Stamboloff, 21 Dec. ; Mdme. Stamboloff sum- 
moned to the court, asserts the innocence of the 
prisoners, and that the real assassins are known 
to the court, 27 Dec. ; 1 prisoner acquitted, and 
2 others sentenced to 3 years' imprisonment, 

30 Dec. 
'The sultan grants three new bishoprics in Mace- 
donia ; announced 24 April 

Explosion at a cartridge factory near Rustchuk, 
about 81 deaths 6 Aug. 

The sobranje opened, 27 Oct. ; closed . 27 Dec. 

Raids, murders, &c, by Arnauts, in various dis- 
tricts, reported 14 Dec. 

Three new bishoprics granted by the sultan, 4 Jan. 

Capt. Boitcheff and M. Novilitch, prefect of police, 
convicted of the murder of Anna Simon, and 
sentenced to death .... 25 Jan. 

Strong appeals to the sultan respecting torturing 
of prisoners, outrages, &c, at Kossova, and de- 
manding the dismissal of Turkish officials, 31 Jan. 
and 3 Feb. ; rejected by the Porte . 12 Feb. 

The public debt converted into a 3 per cent, loan of 
about 29o,ooo,ooof. .... 20 Dec. 

The Macedonian committee memorialise the powers 
in favour of reforms, autonomy, &c. . Jan. : 

M. Stoiloff s ministry resigns, 28 Jan. ; M. Grekoff 
forms a conciliation cabinet . . 31 Jan. 

Death of princess Marie Louise, much lamented, 

31 Jan. 
Elections : government majority (104) . 7 May, 
Cabinet crisis : M. Grekoff, premier, resigns, early 

Oct. ; new ministry, M. Ivantchoff premier and 
foreign minister 13 Oct. 

New railway, branch line to the Danube between 
Roman, Plevna, and Shumla, opened by the 
prince 20 Nov. 

Fatal rioting round Rustchuk quelled by the 
military, martial law proclaimed early May, 1 

Lawlessness and reign of terror against resident 
Roumanians in Sofia, many political murders ; 
see Rotimania .... July, Aug. 

New railway from Rustchuk to Tirnova, opened by 
prince Ferdinand .... 21 Oct. 

The sobranje opened by the prince, 28 Oct. ; closed, 

12 Dec. 

Frequent changes of ministry . . Oct. et say. 

New French loan, i2o,ooo,ooof., reported 1 Jan. i 

Elections (reported unsatisfactory), 10 Feb. ; minis- 
try resigns 26 Feb. 

Turkish troops ordered to the frontier owing to the 
Macedonian agitation . . . .26 Feb. 

M. Karaveloff forms a joint cabinet with the 
Zankoffists 4 March, 

Prince Ferdinand opens the sobranje, financial 
situation serious .... 7 March, 



The porte demands the dissolution of the Mace- 
donian committee, March ; the leaders are 
arrested in Sofia 5 April, 1901 

M. Stoiloff, ex-premier, born 1856, dies . 6 April, „ 

Impeachment of ex-ministers by the budget com- 
mittee 24 May, ,, 

Visit of the grand-duke Alexander and Russian 
fleet, at Varna . . . . .12 July, „ 

Sarafof, ex- president of the Macedonian committee, 
and 3 others charged with assassination (see 
Rowmania), tried, and acquitted . 12, 14 Aug. ,, 

Prince Ferdinand opens the sobranje with a hope- 
ful speech, 28 Oct. ; resigns . . . 16 Dec. „ 

Contract for a loan of i25,ooo,ooof. from a Paris 
bank, signed, 13 Dec. ; withdrawn government 
resigns 16 Dec. „ 

M. Ivantcheff, ex-premier, and 3 colleagues im- 
peached on charges of treason, &c, by the 
sobranje, 6 Sept., which closed . . 8 Sept. „ 

Financial and ministerial crisis ; proposed French 
loan rejected, the sobranje suspended ; the 
ministry resigns . . . . 24, 27 Dec. „ 

M. Daneff forms a cabinet, 3 Jan. ; supplies rejected, 
the sobranje dissolved ... 5 Jan. 1902 

Conflict with Turkish troops in Kossova, 10 Bul- 
garians killed mid. Jan. ,, 

M. Kantcheff, minister of public instruction, 
assassinated by a discharged schoolmaster, who 
afterwards committed suicide . . 6 Feb. „ 

Elections : small government majority . 3 March, „ 

Cabinet (Zankoflists) reconstructed, M. Daneff 
premier and foreign minister . 22 March, ,, 

Bulgarian band destroyed by Turkish troops at 
Patili ; reported 3 July, j, 

Budget passed, deficit over 6,ooo,ooof. . 8 Aug. ,, 

Split m the Macedonian congress at Sofia, col. 
Zoutcheff president . . . .10 Aug. „ 

Macedonian band captured near Sofia . mid. Aug. ,, 

Cols. Zoutcheff and Nicoloff charged with aiding 
revolutionary bands, arrested 1, 2 Sept.; escaped, 

23 Sept. „ 

Bulgarian raids into Macedonia {which see 1903), 

9, 11 Oct. ,, 

Anti-Greek riots at Varna ... 4 Nov. ,, 

Visit of king of Roumania . . . .11 Nov. ,, 

M. Daneff announces resignation of cabinet on 
account of internal differences . . 14 Nov. ,, 

Reconstructs cabinet. M. Daneff premier and 
foreign minister 17 Nov. ,, 

Government grant of so,ooof. voted for Macedonian 
refugees ; budget, 1903, estimated surplus 
335,o29f 17 Dec. ,, 

Count Lamsdorff, Russian foreign minister, nego- 
tiates on the Macedonian question . 26, 28 Dec. ,, 

M. Karaveloff, thrice premier, died, aged 58, 6 Feb. 1903 

Macedonian committees in Sofia suppressed, leaders 
arrested 14 Feb. „ 

Vote of confidence in the government carried after 
two days' debate 19 Feb. ,, 

Fatal rioting near Sofia . . . . 11 Mar. ,, 

Gen. Paprikoff (war) resigns, crisis, 7 March; the 
ministry resigns, 27 March, but returns, with 
col. Savoff war minister . . -31 March, ,, 

Gen. Paprikoff created inspector-gen. of the army, 

about 7 April, ,, 

Sobranje prorogued after longest session in annals 
of the Principality .... 13 April, ,, 

Prince Ferdinand visits Mentone . . 16 April, , 

Foundation-stone of a mausoleum for Russian 
officers killed at Plevna, 1877, laid . 25 April, , 

Resignation of cabinet, a Stamboloffist cabinet, 
gen. PetrofF premier . . . . 15 May, „ 

Anti-Greek revolt suppressed with great severity, 

May-June, ,, 

Bulgarian government addresses note to the great 
powers, protesting against the cruelties of the 
Porte in Macedonia, and threatening action 
unless the powers intervene, reported . 14 Sept. ,j 
See Macedonia and Addenda, 

PRINCE. 

Alexander (Joseph) I. (son of prince Alexander, 
uncle of Louis IV., grandduke of Hesse), born 
5 April, 1857 ; elected 29 April, 1879 ; deposed 
(see above) 4th Sept. 1886 ; declines re-election 
12 June, 1887 ; dies 17 Nov. 1893 

Ferdinand, duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, born 
26 Feb. 1861 ; elected 7 July ; married princess 
Marie Louise (daughter of Robert, duke of Parma, 

o 2 



BULL. 



196 



BUNHILL-FIELDS. 



b. 17 Jan. 1870 ; died 31 Jan. 1899), 20 April, 1893 ; 
lieir, Boris (son), born, 18 Jan. 1894 ; Cyril, born 
17 Nov. 1895 ; Clementina, born . 30 Jan, 1899 

BULL, or Edict of the Pope. The bulla 

is properly the seal, either of gold, silver, lead, or 
wax. On one side are the heads of Peter and Paul; 
and on the other the name of the pope, and year of 
his pontificate. A bull against heresy was issued 
by Gregory IX. in 1 231. Pius V. published a bull 
against Elizabeth, 25 April, 1570; in 1571 bulls 
were forbidden to be promulgated in England. The 
bull Unigenitus (beginning with this word) against 
the Jansenists was issued by Clement XL, 1713 ; 
confirmed by Benedict XIII., 1725. The Golden 
Bull of the emperor Charles IV., so-called from its 
golden seal, was made the fundamental law of the 
German empire, at the diet of Nuremburg, 1356; 
see Brazen Bull. Pius IX. published an encyclical 
letter censuring modern errors, 8 Dec. 1864 ; see 
under Rome; see Stocks. 

BULL-BAITING or Bull-Fighting, was 

an amusement at Stamford in the reign of John, 
1209 ; and at Tutbury, 1374. In the Sports of 
England, we read of the " Easter fierce hunts, when 
foaming boars fought for their heads, and lusty bulls 
and huge bears were baited with dogs " ; and near 
the Clink, London, was the Paris, or Bear Garden, 
so celebrated in the time of Elizabeth for the exhi- 
bition of bear-baiting, then a fashionable amuse- 
ment. A bill to abolish bull-baiting was thrown 
out in the commons, chiefly through the influence 
of Mr. William Windham, who made a speech in 
favour of the custom, 24 May, 1802. It was made 
illegal in 1835; see Cruelty to Animals. Bull- 
fights were introduced into Spain about 1260; 
abolished there, " except for pious and patriotic 
purposes," in 1784. Bull-fights are very common in 
Spain. A bull-fight at Lisbon, attended by 10,000 
spectators, on Sunday, 14 June, 1840 ; one took 
place at Havre, 5 July, 1868. Somewhat theatrical 
fights with Spanish bulls, at the Agricultural Hall, 
London, were stopped 28 March, 1870, for cruelty. 
At a bull-fight at Marseilles about 17 persons were 
killed, and 230 injured, by the fall of wooden stands, 
Sunday, 14 Aug., 1881. Abull-fightat Nimes (since 
prohibited), 12 June, 1884. 
A bull-fight at the Hippodrome, Paris, for sufferers 
by inundations in S. France, very successful, no 
casualties, Spanish ambassador present, 16 Jan. 1887 
Bull-fights formed part of the entertainments at 
Paris during the universal exhibition in 1889 ; 
renewed with restrictions . . May et seq. 1890 
Prohibited in France .... 25 Sept. 1894 
Bioting at Marseilles through restrictions at a bull- 
fight 9 Aug. 1896 

Several bull-fights at Boulogne, English visitors 

present Aug. -Sept. 1899 

Collapse of a stand at a bull-fight at Pedreguer, 
Alicante, 12 deaths, 200 injured . 13 Nov. igoo 

BULLETS of stone were in use 15 14. Iron 
ones are mentioned in the Fcedera, 1550. Leaden 
bullets were made before the close of the 16th 
century. The conoiclal cup rifle-ball was invented 
by capt. Minie, about 1833. Other and greatly 
improved bullets have been since devised for use 
with modern rifles, such as the Martini-Henry, the 
Enfield-Martini, the Mauser, the Mannlicher, and 
the Lee-Metford. The dum-ditm bullet, so named 
from its Inning been invented and manufactured 
at the arsenal of that name near Calcutta, flattens 
out on striking an object. A bullet, a modification 
of the Lee-Metford bullet, having similar proper- 
ties as the dum-dum, was issued to the army in R'99, 
but was not used, it being considered that it came, 
like the dum-dum, under the category of " explosive 
bullets," condemned by the Geneva Convention. 



A bullet-proof coat or cuirass invented by Mr. Dowe 
at Vienna : successfully tested at Mannheim ; re- 
ported efficient but heavy 13 March, 1894: tested. 
at the Alhambra, London, in the presence of the 
duke of Cambridge, and other officers ; report as 
to practical value indecisive, 23 May, 1894. The 
Prussian war office, after various trials, declare 
the cuirass to be worthless . 3 Sept. 1894 

Mr. Maxim's bullet-proof cuirass ; indecisive trials 
at Erith, 2 June, and at the Aquarium 9 June, 1895 

Mr. Loris' bullet-proof and dagger-proof cuirasses 
exhibited at the Crystal palace . . 20 Aug. , r 

Capt. Boynton's bullet-proof shield tried atSheffield, 

15 Sept. , r 

BULLION, uncoined gold and silver. The 
" Bullion Keport " of a parliamentary committee in 
1810, principally guided by Mr. Horner and Mr. 
(afterwards Sir E.) Peel, established the conclusion 
that paper money is always liable to be over-issued, 
and consequently depreciated, unless it be at ali 
times immediately convertible into gold. This 
principle has been adopted in British monetary 
arrangements ; see Bank of England. 



VALUE OF 


BULLION IMPORTED 


INTO GREAT BRITAIN. 




Gold. 


Silver. 


1S58 


£22,793,126 


£6,700,064 


1868 


17,136,177 


7,716,418 


1870 


18,806,728 


10,648,940 


1874 


18,081,019 


12,298,169 


1876 


23,475.975 


1 3>57 s ,269> 


1878 


20,871,410 


11,551.545 


1879 


13,368,675 


10,786,863 


1880 


9,454,861 


6,799,022 


1881 


9,963,006 


6,901,402' 


1882 


14.376,559 


9,242,925 


1883 


7,755,8oo 


9,468,002 


1884 


10,744,408 


9,633,495 


1886 


I 3>39 2 ,256 


7,471,639 


1887 


9.955,326 


7,819,438 


1888 


15,787,588 


6,213,940. 


1889 


T-7,9~L4>°i9 


9,185,400 


1890 


23,568,049 


10,385,659 


1891 


30,275,620 


9,315,59s 


1892 


21,583,232 


10,746,382 


1893 


24,834.727 


",9131395 


1894 


27.572,347 


11,005,417 


1895 


36,009,329 


10,666,332 


1896 


24,468,580 


14,329,116 


1899 


32,533,497 


12,727,989 


1900 


26,190,873 


13,322,300 


1901 


20,715,618 


11,501,67s 


1902 


21,629,049 


9,764,296 



BULL-BUN BATTLES, see Manassas. 

BULWER - CLAYTON TREATY, con- 
cluded 19 April, ratified 4 July, 1850, by which sir 
Henry Lytton Bulwer for the British, and Mr. Clay- 
ton for the American government, declared that 
neither should obtain exclusive control over the 
proposed ship canal through Central America, or 
erect any fortification on any part of the country. 
Disputes afterwards arose with respect to this 
treaty, and the connection of Great Britain with 
the Mosquito territory (which see), which were 
settled in 1857. 

Its abrogation was proposed by the Americans in 1880, 
on account of De Lesscps' plan for a canal in Central 
America. The treaty was finally superseded by the 
Hay-Pamuvt'oti' Isthmian canal treaty, signed by Mr. 
Hay and lord Pauncefote at Washington, 18 Nov. ; 
ratified 16 Dec. 1901. 

BUNDSCHUH, see Jacquerie. 

BUNHILL- FIELDS (originally Bonhill- 
Field), a burial-ground near Finsbury-square, 
E. London, termed by Southey the " Campo Santo 
of the Dissenters; " first used in 1665. Here were 
interred Thomas Goodwin (1679), John Owen (1683), 
Isaac Watts (1748), John Bunyan (1688), George 



BUNKER HILL. 



197 



BURIALS. 



Fox, the Quaker (1690), general Fleetwood, son-in- 
law of Cromwell (1692), and Daniel De Foe (1731). 
Cunningham. An act for the preservation of the 
ground as an open space was passed, 15 July, 1867, 
and it was re-opened by the lord mayor, 14 Oct., 
1869 ; and a monument to De Foe, subscribed for 
hy boys and girls, was inaugurated, 16 Sept. 1870. 

BUNKER HILL, more properly Breed's 
hill (near Boston, U.S.). Here the British (nearly 
3000), after severe loss, compelled the revolted 
Americans (about 5000) to retreat, after a desperate 
(Conflict, 17 June, 1775. Ralph Farnham, who was 
present at the battle, died on 28 Dec. i860, aged 
1043 years. He was introduced to the prince of 
Wales when in America. Centenary of the battle 
celebrated June, 1875. 

BUONAPARTE, see Bonaparte. 

BURFORD CLUB, the appellation given 
(according to Mr. Layer, the barrister, a conspira- 
tor, see Layer) by the Pretender and his agents to a 
pretended Jacobite club, of which lord Orrery was 
chairman, and lord Strafford, sir Henry Goring, 
earlCowper, Mr. Hutcheson, the bishop of Rochester, 
sir Constantine Phipps, general Webb, lord Bingley, 
lord Craven, Mr. Dawkins, lord Scarsdale, lord 
Bathurst, Mr. Shippen, and lord Cower, were mem- 
bers. This story was set aside by the solemn decla- 
rations of lord Cowper and lord Strafford. The list 
of this club was published in the Weekly Journal, 
printed in Whitefriars ; but when Read, the printer, 
was ordered to appear at the bar of the house, he 
absconded. March, 1722. Salmon. 

BURGESSES, from the French Bourgeois, a 
distinction coeval in England with corporations. 
They were called to parliament in England, 1265; 
in Scotland in 1326; and in Ireland about 1365. 
Burgesses to be resident in the places they repre- 
sented in parliament, 1 Hen. V. (1413) ; see 
Borough. 

BURGH, see Borough. Burgh Convention, 
see under Home Rule. 

BURGHERS and Anti-Burghers. In 

1732 Ebenezer Erskine and others seceded from the 
church of Scotland. Differing in regard to the in- 
terpretation of the burgess oath, they divided into 
two sections with the foregoing names in 1747. In 
[[820 they were reunited as the United Associate 
Synod of the Secession church, which, on 13 May, 
1847, joined the Relief church, together forming the 
United Presbyterian church. 

BURGLARY was a capital offence till 1829. 
Formerly he who convicted a burglar was exempted 
from parish offices, 1693; Statute of Rewards, 5 Anne, 
1706; and 6 Geo. I. 1720. Receivers of stolen plate 
and other goods to be transported, 10 Geo. III. 1770. 
Persons having upon them picklock-keys, &c, to be 
deemed rogues and vagabonds, 13 Geo. III. 1772-3. 
The laws with respect to burglary were amended by 
Mr. (afterwards sir Robert) Peel's acts between 1823 
and 1829 ; by the criminal laws of 1861 ; and by 
Act passed, 14 Aug. 1896. Insurance policies against 
burglaries issued by many insurance companies, 
1903. 
Burglaries and housebreaking in England and Wales, 

1885-6, 3,545; 1886-7, 3,852; 1888-9, 3.620; 1889-90, 

3,401 ; .1890-1, 3,418; 1891-2, 3,986. Changes made 

in the return, 1893, 7,390; 1894, 6,740; 1895, 4,166; 

1896, 5,922; 1897, 6,179; 1898, 6,703; 1899, 5,581; 

1900, 6,289 ; 1901, 7,057. 
Capture of a gang of burglars with a large amount of 

stolen property at the Queen's Head tavern, Wharf road, 

City road, London, 8 Nov. 1891. 



Frederick Clark and 7 others were convicted and sen- 
tenced to various terms of penal servitude, 18, 19 Jan. 
1892. It was stated that they had been concerned xa. 
86 burglaries. 

Harry Jackson, 41, detected and convicted of burglary 
at Denmark-hill, by the identification of fingerprints 
he had left on a window-sill, sentenced to 7 years 
penal servitude, 13 Sept. 1902. 

BURGOS (Spain), the burial place of the Cid, 
1099. Lord Wellington entered Burgos on 19 Sept. 
after the battle of Salamanca (fought 22 July, 1812). 
The castle was besieged by the British and allied 
army, but the siege was abandoned 21 Oct. same 
year. The fortifications were blown up by the 
French, 12 June, 1813. Population 1887, 31,301; 
1897, 30,856. 

BURGUNDY, a large province in France, 
derives its name from the Burgundians, a Gothic 
tribe who overran Gaul in 275, and were driven cut 
by the emperor Probus : they returned in 287, and 
were defeated by Maximin. In 4 [3 they established 
a Kingdom, comprising the present Burgundy, 
large parts of Switzerland, with Alsace, Savoy, 
Provence, &c. Gondicar, their leader, the first 
king. It was conquered by the Franks, 534. — The 
second kingdom, consisting of a part of the first, 
began with Gontran, son of Clotaire I. of France, in 
561. The kingdoms of Aries, Provence, and Trans- 
jurane Burgundy, were formed out of the old king- 
dom. — Duchy. In 877 Charles the Bald made his 
brother-in-law Richard the first duke of Burgundy. 
In 938, Hugh the Great, count of Paris, founder of 
the house of Capet, obtained the duchy. His de- 
scendant, Henry, on becoming king of France, con- 
ferred it 011 his brother Robert, in whose family it 
remained till the death of Philippe de Rouvre, 
without issue, in 136 1. In 1363, king John of 
France made his fourth son, Philip, duke ; sse 
Austria and Germany. 

DUKES. 

1363. Philip the Bold ; marries Margaret, heiress of 
Flanders, 1369. 

1404. John the Fearless (son) ; joined the English inva- 
ders of France ; privy to the assassination of the 
duke of Orleans in 1407; see Armagvac; himself 
assassinated at Montereau, in presence of the 
dauphin, Sept. 14 19. 

1419. Philip the Good (son), the most powerful duke. 

1467. Charles the Bold ; married to Margaret of York, 
sister to Edward IV., 9 July, 1468; invaded 
France, 1472 ; Switzerland, 1476 ; killed in an 
engagement with the Swiss, before Nancy, 4 
Jan. 1477. 

1477. Mary (daughter) ; married, 19 Aug. 1477, to Maxi- 
milian of Austria ; died, 27 March, 1482. 

1479. Louis XI. annexed Burgundy to France. The other 
dominions fell to Austria. 

BURIALS. Abraham buried Sarah at Mach- 
pelah, i860 B.C., Gen. xxiii. Places of burial were 
consecrated under pope Calixtus I. in a.d. 210. 
Eusehius. The Greeks had their burial-places at a 
distance from their towns; the Romans near the 
highways; hence the necessity for inscriptions. 
The first Christian burial-place, it is said, was in- 
stituted in 596; burial in cities. 742; in conse- 
crated places, 750; in churchyards, 758. Many of 
the early Christians are buried in the catacombs at 
Rome ; see Catacombs, Cemeteries, and Dissenters. 

Vaults erected in chancels first at Canterbury . . 1075 
Woollen shrouds only permitted to be used in Eng- 
land 1666 

Linen scarfs introduced at funerals in Ireland, 
1729 ; and woollen shrouds used . . . . 1733 

Burials taxed 1695 

A tax enacted on burials in England — for the burial 
of a duke 50!. , and for that of a common person 
4s.— under Will. III. 1695, and Geo. III. . . . 1783 
Acts relating to metropolitan burials passed . 1850-6* 



BURKING. 



19S 



BURMAH. 



Parochial registers of burials, births, and marriages, 
instituted in England by Cromwell, lord Essex, 
about 1538. Stow. 

" Earth to earth" system of burial advocated by Mr. 
Seymour Haden ; wicker-coffins exhibited at Staf- 
ford-house 17 June, 1875 

Consecrated burial grounds in England, 13,673 ; 
closed, 141 1 1877 

Burials Act (permitting any Christian service in a 
parish churchyard) passed . . .7 Sept. 1880 

New bill read second time in the commons, 

6 March, 1895 

"The London Burial-grounds: Notes on their 
history from the earliest times to the present 
day," by Mrs. Basil Holmes, published . . 1896 

New burial act (many reforms) passed . . . 1900 
See Dissenters. 

BURKING, a new species of murder, com- 
mitted in Britain, thus named from Burke, the first 
known criminal by whom it was perpetrated. His 
victims were killed by pressure or other modes of 
suffocation, and the bodies, which exhibited no 
marks of violence, were sold to the surgeons for 
dissection. He was executed at Edinburgh, 28 
Jan. 1829. A monster named Bishop was appre- 
hended in Nov. 1831, and executed in London 
5 Dec. with Williams, one of his accomplices, for 
the murder of a poor friendless Italian boy, named 
Carlo Ferrari. They confessed to this and other 
similar murders. 

BURLINGHAME TREATY, promoted by 
Mr. Anson Burlinghame and a Chinese embassy, 
and signed at Washington 4 July, 1868. It autho- 
rised mutual immigration. California prospered 
through Chinese labour ; but depression in 1879-80 
led to a demand for its expulsion and abrogation of 
the treaty. 

BURLINGTON ARCADE, Piccadilly, 
opened 20 March, 1819. 

BURLINGTON FINE ARTS CLUB, for 

exhibiting works of art, and promoting intercourse 
between artists, amateurs, &c, founded 1866, 500 
members. 

BURLINGTON HEIGHTS. After a fierce 
contest here between the British and the United 
States American forces, 6 June, 1813, the British 
carried the heights. 

BURLINGTON HOUSE, Piccadilly, Lon- 
don, was built by Denham for lord Burlington, 
about 1664 ; and rebuilt by lord Burlington, the 
architect, about 173 1. It was bought for 140,000^. 
by the government, authorised by vote of the house 
of commons, on 27 July, 1854. It became the home 
of the Eoyal, Linnean, and Chemical societies in 
1857 (who occupied new rooms in 1873), and of the 
Antiquaries, Geological, and Royal Astronomical 
societies in 1873. In 1866, sites 'for buildings for 
the University of London and the Royal Academy 
were granted in the grounds of Burlington House. 
The entrance, colonnade, &c, were removed in 
1868, and the exhibition of the Royal Academy was 
first opened here 3 May, 1869. Burlington charity 
school near here, founded 1699. 

BURMAH, or BURMESE EMPIRE, 

founded in the middle of the 18th century by 
Alompra, the first sovereign of the last dynasty. 
Our first dispute with this formidable power in 1795 
was amicably adjusted by general Erskine. Hos- 
tilities were commenced by the British in 1824, and 
they took Rangoon on May n. The fort and 
pagoda of Syriam were taken' in 1825. After a short 
armistice, hostilities were renewed, 1 Dec. same 
year, and pursued until the successive victories 



of the British led to the cession of Aracan,. 
and to the signature of peace, 24 Feb. 1826. For 
the events of this war, and of the war in 1851, see 
India. Pegu was annexed to our Indian empire, 
20 Dec. 1852. The war ended 20 June, 1853. Popu- 
lation of Upper Burmah, reported in 1892, over 
3,000,000; in 1901, 3,849,833; Lower Burmah, 
nearly 4,750,000 in 1892 ; 5,371,328 in 1901. 
Capitals of Burmah : lower, Rangoon ; upper, Man- 
dalay ; northern, Bhamo. 

Rebellion against the king (of Upper Burmah) 
suppressed by British aid . . about Sept. 1866- 

Treaties with Great Britain . . 1862 and 25 Oct. 1867' 

Burmese embassy in England, 6 June ; introduced 
to the queen 21 June, 1872? 

The king Mindone suspected of inciting Chinese 
to attack British expedition to West China (see 
India) Feb. 1875 

Sir Douglas Forsyth's mission to the king ; arrives 
at Mandalay, 14 June ; submission of the king 
announced about 18 June ; he refuses permission 
for British troops to inarch as a convoy through 
his territories to China; sir D. Forsyth retires, 

June, , f 

CoL Duncan sent to Mandalay . . about Aug. ,, 

The king eventually acceded to the British de- 
mands : announced Oct. ,, 

The king dies, about 5 Sept. , announced 2 Oct. 1878. 

His successor, Thebau (Wongyee prince of 
Thebau) kills many of the royal family and their 
friends Feb. 1879. 

The British resident and others quit Mandalay, 

8 Oct. ,, 

The king, attacked by small-pox, commits fresh 
atrocities 12 April, 188c 

Prince Nyoung's rebellion, May, June, suppressed ; 
he enters British territory . . 27 June, ,, 

Political massacres at Mandalay recommenced, an- 
nounced 21 April, 1882- 

Destructive fire at Mandalay, announced n April, 1883 

Another great fire 9 April, 1884. 

Misgovernment ; massacres at Mandalay, 21 Sept. ; 
prospect of British intervention . . Oct. „ 

Town of Bhamo violently captured by the Chinese, 

8-10 Dec. ,, 

Captain Terndrup of the steamer Kdhbyor rescues 
missionaries and others . . 12-13 ^ ec - ,> 

Treaty between France and Burmah signed at Paris 

15 Jan. 1885. 

Bhamo recaptured by the Burmese about 16 March, ,, 

French negotiations with the king . . Oct. ,„ 

Dispute between the half mad king and the Bom- 
bay and Burmah Trading Association ; communi- 
cation from British commissioner, dated 28 Aug. t 
insolently rejected ; envoy not received ; the 
king refuses the arbitration of the viceroy of 
India ; the commissioner if British Burmah asks 
for 8,000 men .... about 13 Oct. ,.. 

Ultimatum sent by lord Duflerin requiringequitable 
settlement of the dispute ; reception of a British 
resident with a guard ; protection of British 
subjects, &c. ; rejection ; proclamation of war 
about 8 Nov. ; advance of the army under gen. 
Harry N. D. Prendergast . . 9 Nov. ,,. 

Burmese war steamer captured 16 Nov. ; Miuhla 
and Gurgyong forts taken, 3 hours attack, 
liout. Robt. A. Dury killed and 3 others, 17 Nov. „. 

The army advances ; Magwe captured, 20 Nov. ; 
Pagan and My ingyan . . . . 28 Nov. ,,. 

The king sends flag of truce ; agrees to surrender 
himself, his army, and Mandalay; Ava forts 
occupied 27 Now : gen. Prendergast enters 
Madalay without resistence . . 28 Nov. ,, 

Native rioting with bloodshed quelled . Dec. ,,. 

Sharp engagement at Nyadan, stockades taken, 

2 Dec. ,, 

Great quietness in Mandalay . . . 9 Dec. ,, 

Dacoit pillaging outside Mandalay, Dec. ; sharp 
conflicts with several bands, and some officers 

killed Dec. 1885 ;. Jan. 18861 

Thebau and COUrt sent tn Madras, arrived 14 Dec. 1885. 
Reported massacre of three servants of the Bombay 
and Burmah Co. at Kendat on the Chindwin 
river Nojk. ,„ 



BUEMAH. 



199 



BUEMAH. 



Thebau's brother issues a proclamation against 
British rule ; arrival of Mr. Bernard establish- 
ing provisional government . . 18 Dec. 1885 
General Prendergast warmly received at Bhamo, 

28 Dec. ,, 
Rebels defeated at Moutshobo by major "William- 
son 29 Dec. ,, 

Tynedah Mengyle, Thebau's minister, accused of 
murder, sent to Rangoon ; two pretenders to the 
throne appear with the dacoits . . . Jan. 1886 
Surgeon Heath killed 9 Jan. ; Alompra, a pre- 
tender, captured, Jan. ; tried and shot . Feb. ,, 
Burmese defeated at Kadol, 16 Jan ; and at 
Kunnah ; 36 rebels killed ; the rebel princes flee, 

19 Jan. ,, 
Insurgents defeated by major Williamson on the 

Mas river 27 Jan. ,, 

Lord Dufferin, the viceroy, arrives at Mandalay 12 

Feb. ; well received 13 Feb. ; leaves about 23 Feb. ,, 
400 rebels surprised and defeated at Yindawango ; 

68 killed 18 March, „ 

40 rebels killed near Zemethen . about 26 March, „ 
General Prendergast leaves Mandalay . 31 March, ,, 
Rebels defeated 5 April ; British repulsed 17 April, ,, 
The Alhompra pretender Myinzaing prince attempts 
to burn Madalay ; the palace greatly injured, 

15 April, ,, 
Successful expedition of col. Fitzgerald ; insurgent 

chiefs surrender May, ,, 

Defeat of insurgents at Ngape by Mr. Phayre 6-7 

June ; Mr. Phayre killed . . .8 June," ,, 
Captain Durrsford killed in a conflict with 500 

dacoits at Salen .... 12 June, ,, 

Major Hailes repulsed with loss by the Burmese, 

near Tummoo 19 June, ,, 

British Bubmah, including Aracan, Pegu, and 
Tenasserim, constituted 1862. Sir Arthur Phayre, 
the able first commissioner, died 15 Dec. 1885. 
Upper Burmah annexed by proclamation of the 
viceroy, lord Dufferin, 1 Jan. 1886 (the Shan 
states partially independent). Upper and Lower 
Burmah united in one province under Mr. C. 
Bernard as chief commissioner, Feb. 1886 ; he 
issues a pacific proclamation, 6 March ; he 
assumes office at Mandalay, 12 March; all Burmah 
included in British India by decree . 15 May, ,, 
Increase of dacoity in Upper and Lower Burmah ; 
two additional regiments and four commissioners 
ordered to be sent to Burmah . . July, , , 
The Myentzeen prince offers 200?. for Sir C. 

Bernard's head 13 July, ,, 

Convention with China ; many concessions ; signed 

at Pekin 24 July, ,, 

Lieut. Huggins defeats insurgents, who lose 150 

killed and wounded . . . .26 July, ,, 
Several sharp engagements ; major Aitkinson 

killed • . .1 Aug. ,, 

Reinforcements ordered from India . . Aug. ,, 
Sharp engagement at Lazay near Isagain . 9 Aug. ,, 
Inundation of Mandalay by the Irrawaddy ; great 
loss of life and property, 16 Aug. Subsiding, 

25 Aug. ,, 

Serious fighting 16 Sept. ,, 

General Macpherson, commander-in-chief, arrives 
at Mandalay, 17 Sept. ; dies of fever on the Irra- 
waddy near Prome, 20 Oct. ; succeeded by general 
sir Frederick Roberts . . 21 Oct. ,, 

Minhla burnt by the rebels . . .2 Nov. ,, 
Several skirmishes ; British successful with some 

loss of officers .... 9-14, 21 Nov. ,, 
General sir Frederick Roberts arrives at Mandalay 

18 Nov. „ 
Colonel Holt captures position at Puzan Myang ; 
leader of the rebels, Thamban, and his son 

killed 23 Nov. ,, 

Conflict near Pakoka ; col. Gatacre and Bombay 

lancers disperse the rebels . . 12 Dec. „ 
Expeditions against Boshway and Hla-Oo, dacoit 
chiefs ; their strongholds captured and bands 
dispersed by gen. Low and major Symonds, 

Nov.-Dec. ,, 
Dacoits defeated in skirmishes . 10-12 Dec. ,, 
In a proclamation the Bhuddist archbishop recom- 
mends submission to Great Britain, about 

31 Dec. ,, 
Attack on Bosh way's camp ; he escapes, announced 

24 Jan. 188; 



I General Roberts after great success leaves Burmah, 
succeeded by general Arbuthnot . . Feb. 18 
Band of dacoits repulsed by Hyderabad cavalry 
after hard fighting, announced . . 8 Feb. , 
I Thequeen'sjubileecelebratedatMandalay,is-i6Feb. , 
Woontho Tsawbwa, an important chief, submits, 

about 5 March, , 
Death of Hla-Oo, reported . . . April, , 
Numerous petty fights ; dacoits defeated, March, , 
Boshway's party defeated, he escapes . 9 March, , 
Col. Dance defeats dacoits . .22 March, , 

Successful skirmishes with the dacoits . April, , 
Octama defeated with loss of 23 men . 20 April, , 
Dacoits defeated by Madras lancers in Tourrd- 

wingee district .... 23 April, , 

Skirmishes at Sidotia ; captain A. W. Rendle 

killed, 30 April ; renewed skirmishes . 2-4 May, , 
The Limbin prince, the last legitimate Alaungpaa 

prince, surrenders 23 May, , 

Desultory war with dacoits . . . June, , 

New roads and a railway constructing . Sept. , 
Camp near Chindwin captured ; major Kennedy 
and captain Beville killed, and about 50 dacoits, 

16 Oct. 

Discontent in Mandalay through taxation, &c, , 

Nov. 1887 ; quietness restored . . Jan. 1! 

About 20,000 effective military police established 

in Burmah ; renewed fighting . . Jan. 

Mr. Chan-Toon, a Burmese, as a law student in the 

Middle Temple gains all the principal prizes, June, 

Boh Sway and many followers killed, announced 

27 July, 
Dacoits defeated and two of their chiefs killed 

25 Oct. 
Victorious conflicts of gen. Collett with native 

chiefs ; many of the enemy killed . 1 Jan. 1 
The dacoits defeated in several conflicts . Jan. 
Sawlon captured by gen. Collett . . 9 Jan. 

Rebel position near Popa stormed by the Rifle 
Brigade under major Francis Howard 9 Feb. 

Railway to Rangoon formally opened at Mandalay 

27 Feb. 
Khama, the capital of the Lepu Kaehyens, and 17 
villages destroyed by the British troops, an- 
nounced 9 March, 

Gen. "Wolseley's expedition against the Phunkan 
Tsawbwa starts 13 April ; he captures a village, 
18 April ; returns to Bhamo, May ; dacoits 
very active, successful in some severe conflicts 

April-May, 

A great fire at Mandalay, 450 houses burnt n May 

Mr. Dyson, assistant commissioner, and others, 

killed in an unsuccessful attack upon the dacoits, 

reported 2 June 

Savage tribes beyond the frontier of Burmah 
Proper ; incited by rebel Burmese chiefs ; re- 
duced to submission by the police and military 

Jan.-June, 
Frequent engagements with bands of dacoits 

June-July, 

Rebel chief Boh Kyee Tha defeated and killed and 

arms captured bv Rifle Brigade Mounted Infantry 

under lieuts. K. J. Mackenzie and H. G. Majendie 

23 July, 
Mr. C. A. MaeDonnell appointed chief commis- 
sioner in the absence of sir C. Crosthwaite, an- 
nounced 3 Aug. 

Gen. Gordon at Mandalay organizing an expedition 
against the Chins and other border tribes about 

22 Sept. 
Improved condition of the country under sir C. 
Crosthwaite's administration reported . Sept. 
Successful attacks on the Chins by capt. Gookhas 
16, 17, 19 Oct. 
The Mingoon prince on the frontiers . . 3 Nov. 
Interned by the French at Saigon . . Nov. 

Prince Albert Victor of Wales at Rarrgoon, 20 Dec. ; 

at Mandalay 24 Dec. 

Three Chin villages destroyed by British . Dec. 
Mr. MaeDonnell retires after successful government 

Dec. 
Repulse of the attack of tire Clrins on the British 
advanced camp, a stockade captured and de- 
stroyed, reported 30 Dec. 

Lowsaing captured 15 J an - 

Dacoits very troublesome ; destructive attack of 
rebels on Sandoway, Aracan coast, repulsed by 
police, reported 22 Feb. 



BURMAH. 



200 



BURMAH. 



The dacoits burn Kangyi, chastised by police, re- 
ported 2 March, i 

Conspiracy to burn Mandalay and set Moungba, an 
Alhompra pretender, on the throne, discovered 
and arrests made . . . . .9 March, 

Major Blundell's expedition from Bhamo, to punish 
Kan Hlaing, chief of the Swesaing Tonhon Kach- 
yens, for raids on British territories, and for 
harbouring the Alhompra pretender Sawyauni. 
Starts 15 Dec., severe fighting 23 Dec, after 
further successes the expedition returned to 
Bhamo April, 

Gen. Gordon ( successful) relinquishes his command ; 
succeeded by brigadier Wolseley . . June, 

Many dacoit gangs surrender, two eminent chiefs 
captured, reported .... 21 June, 

Boh Yanyun, a dacoit leader, surrenders to Mr. 
M'Donald, his life being assured . July, 

Many intercessions for him, 9 Aug. ; transported 
for life about 23 Aug. 

Great floods, Mandalay in danger, about . 9 Aug. 

Gen. Wolseley concludes peace with the Sinyin 
Chins; tribute paid, and prisoners exchanged, 
reported 2 Sept. 

Mr. (aft. sir) Alex. Mackenzie appointed to succeed 
sir C. Crosthwaite as chief commissioner, re- 
ported 31 Oct. ; arrives at Rangoon . . 3 Dec. 

In Upper Burinah Kanlaing, a rebel chief with a 
large following, appears at Man waing about 3 Dec. 

Mr. Wetherell, political officer, killed by the Chins 
in an ambush, at Yokwa ... 21 Dec. 

Dacoit raids and murders reported about 24 Dec. 

A strong punitive force sent against the Chins and 
others, reaches Thetta ; after a repulsed attack, 
Thetta surrenders ; lieut. James and two men 
killed about 2 Jan. : 

Expedition against the Shan state, Momeik, to 
punish outrages, about 17 Jan. fighting; a village 
Burnt, many natives killed and wounded about 

28 Jan. 

Major Nixon, lieut. Jameson, adjutant and two 
Sepoys killed by a mad Pathan at Fort Stedman 
in the Shan states . . • n Feb. 

The Kanhow chiefs chastised for raids ; submit ; 
restore captives and pay fines to capt. Rundall ; 
five villages attacked and destroyed, reported 

15 Feb. 

Insurrection in Wuntho, a frontier state ; pretended 
objections to the railway; capt. Smith present 
with 400 Europeans ; reinforcements ordered ; 
arrive 19 Feb. 

Proclamation issued, deposing the Tsawbwa of 
Wuntho for his attacks, and annexing his territory 

22 Feb. 
Gen. Wolseley takes the command in Wuntho, 26 

Feb. ; the rebels at Okpho attacked, above 50 
killed, arms and ammunition captured 
British force at Kavvlin, 600 men (200 Europeans) ; 
capt. Hastings punishes the Panohaung Chins for 
their raids, destroying villages, &c, reported 

23 Feb. 
The Kanhow Chins subdued by capt. Rundall, 

surrender captives and pay fines . .24 Feb. 

Wuntho occupied by Major Smyth, without oppo- 
sition, 25 Feb. ; the villagers lay down their arms ; 
the Tsawbwa Hies ; his palace burnt ; capt. Alex. 
Hutchinson defeats rebels near Okhau, after five 
hours' lighting [he died of his wounds] ; Kanhoco 
chiefs, raiders, submit about . . 25 Feb. 

The Tsawbwa solicits pardon, which is promised on 
speedy surrender, but not re-instatement, about 

27 Feb. 

More villages surrender about 

Gen. Stedman leaves for England ; in four years he 
created an effective army of military police (about 
20,500) 28 Feb. 

Gen. Wolseley holds a durbar at Wuntho, well 
attended, British flag hoisted . . 3 March, 

Advance of gen. Wolseley and col. Macgregor into 
the Wuntho territory ; the two Tsawbwas retreat, 
reported n March, 

Several lights with the Chins, with casualties re- 
ported 6 April, 

Disturbances on the trade route between Bhamo, 
reported 9 April, 

Gen. Wolseley returns to Mandalay, the campaign 
ended . . . . 4 May, 



Alarming deficiency of rain in Upper Burinah, Aug. ; 
fall of rain -in some places, Sept.; investigation 
by sir A. Mackenzie ; his minute published 15 
Sept.; relief works begun, early Sept. ; prospects 
improved Oct. 1 

Gen. Wolseley transferred to Belgaum . . Nov. 

Boh Le, a dacoit leader, killed, and his band cap- 
tured or dispersed by lieut. Magrath, assistant- 
commandant at Katha, reported . . 31 Dec. 

Major Yule captures Sadon after two days' fighting 

6 Jan. 1 

Successful operations of lieut. Macnabb in the Chin 
country Jan. 

Severe fighting in Upper Burmah ; the Kachins 

repulsed in their attack on Sadon by lieut. 

Hairison; successful advance of major Yule 

19 Feb. et se'j. 

[Sadon re-named Fort Harrison.] 

Joined by capt. Davies at Sadon, about 25 Feb. 

Continued fighting at Sadon . . 28 Feb. etseq, 
[Kachins, a warlike but not intractable tribe, in- 
habiting the hilly tracts east of head waters of the 

Irrawaddy in Upper Burmah, adjoining Chinese 

provinces.] 

Boh Minlaung, famous Aracan dacoit, captured at 
Kudoung about 26 Feb. ; sentenced to death with 
others about 14 March, 

Mr. Chan Toon, a Burmese barrister, made a judge 
about 28 Feb. 

Falam, headquarters of the Tashons, occupied by 
the British about .... 17 March, 

Great fire at Mandalay, destroying the telegraph 
office and a large part of the city ; estimated loss 
1,000,000^. ..... 30-31 March, 

Sentence of death upon the Minlaung prince and 
others confirmed .... 30 March, 

Sir A. Mackenzie ill, leaves for England ; Mr. F. W. 
Fryer appointed deputy . . about May, 

Famine greatly relieved .... May, 

Amnesty to the Tswabwa of Wuntho and his fol- 
lowers ; he enters China about . -15 May, 

Lieut. Nightingale repulses an attack on Lwekaw, 
in the S. Shan states ... 25 June, 

Rising of the Chins ; 7 sepoys killed in a conflict 
near Fort White. The Chins retire on the arrival 
of lieut. Henegan with 50 sepoys. Fort White 
reinforced by lieut. Wardell . . 14 Oct. 

Chin rising checked ; several villages burnt 

Nov. -Dec. 

Exploring expedition to the Chinese frontier, &c. ; 
conflicts with the Kachins, a warlike tribe, Dec. 

Capt. Morton killed during a conflict . 6 Jan. 

Chins punished for raids .... Jan. 

The Kachins repulsed in their attacks on Sima 
(re-named Fort Morton), by capt. Atkinson, 
17-30 Jan. ; they are defeated at Meungyn 4 Feb. 
et seq. ; lieut. Williams killed at North Theinni, 
reported 12 Feb. ; major Hammans reduces the 
Siyin and Nwengal Chins to submission in North 
Theinni and round Sima, 20-24 Feb. ; disarma- 
ment of the Chins, reported 13 March ; an old 
dacoit gang, led by Tanka, captured, reported 

21 July, 

The viceroy warmly received at Rangoon, 18 Nov., 
Mandalay, &c. ; leaves Rangoon . n Dec. 

Frontier convention with China signed . March, 

Punitive expedition under Mr. W. N. Porter against 
the Kaswa Chins for their murderous raid on 
Naingtaung(Feb.) . . . 24 March, 

Total submission of the Siyin Chins . May, 

The Chins completely disarmed and the country 
quieted June, 

Thetta occupied without resistance . 3 Jan. 

Thonze, ruler of the Shan state, removed ; Sawke, 
son of Thebaw Tswabwa, appointed . Jan. 

Expedition against the Sana Kachins, no opposi- 
tion; reported 5 Jan. 

Major G. D. Atkinson died of fever . . 17 Feb. 

Sir Fred. Wm. R. Fryer, chief commissioner, holds 
a durbar at Mandalay, and bestows honour's on 
the northern Shan chiefs ; reported . 19 Jan. 

Capt. Eliott successful in some sharp skirmishes 
with the tribes in the Wa country . 22 March 

Punitive expedition against the Yindu Chins for 
raids, 19 March; very successful, captives re- 
leased, &c, announced . . . 11 Jan. 



BUENETT PEIZES. 



201 



BUENING-GLASS. 



Failure of crops, relief works started, Oct.-Nov. 
1896 ; famine in Upper Burniah ; 30,000 on relief 
works Dec, 17,000 reported 25 April, 1897 ; 
end of famine announced .... Dee. 1897 

Burmah placed under a lieut. -governor (Sir F. W. 
Fryer) with a local legislative council, from 1 
May, 1897 ; first meeting ... 4 Nov. „ 

Exploring party (Upper Irawaddy) under lieut. 
Eldred Pottinger attacked, 2 killed . 22 May ,, 

New Anglo-Chinese frontier agreement modifying 
the trade convention of 1894, and ceding to 
Great Britain the Shan state of Kokang, &c, 
signed at Peking 5 June » 

Mr. Scott, superintendent of the Shan states, falls 
into an ambuscade in the Wa country, the Was 
driven back with heavy loss, 6 British killed, 
reported 4 July " 

Attack of 25 Burmans on Mandalay fort repulsed, 
4 killed, 14 captured . . . .11 Oct. ,, 

Delimitation of the Burmo-Chinese frontier begins 
at the Taping river, 8 Dec. 1897 ; completed by 
Mr. Scott in Yun-nan, reported . . 5 July, 1899 

Sir Fred. Fryer holds a durbar at Rangoon, peace 
and prosperity reported ... 25 July, 1898 

Lord Elgin well received at Rangoon and other 
places 16 Nov.-io Dec ,, 

Capt. Wingate reaches Rangoon by a new overland 
route from Shanghai . . . .27 April, 1899 

Sir F. Fryer holds a durbah at Rangoon, several 
Burmese decorated ; suppression of dacoitism ; 
record rice crop, reported . . .16 Jan. 1900 

Burmo-Chinese boundary commission attacked at 
Monghem, on the Gal ween, major Kiddle and M.v 
A. Sutherland killed by the Was at Meng-tun 

8 Feb. „ 

British exploring party under Mr. Hertz and capt. 
Taylor attacked by Chinese at Hapang ; 71 
Chinese killed, stockades, &c, captured ; British 
loss slight 13 F eb. ,, 

Further fighting ; 60 Was killed, reported 2 March ,, 

Sir Fred. Fryer opens the Gokteik viaduct and 
railway to Thibaw 1 June, 1901 

The viceroy tours through Upper Burmah, at 
Kindat, 23 Nov. ; holds a large durbar at Manda- 
lay, and notes the increasing revenue, peaceful 
progress and development of the country ; 28 
Nov. ; welcomed at Rangoon, receives deputa- 
tions 9, 10 Dec. ,, 

Sir Hugh S. Barnes, new governor, arrives at Ran- 
goon 4 April, 1903 

BURNETT PEIZES, to be awarded every 
40 .years to the authors of the two best essays on 
" The evidence that there is a Being all powerful, 
wise, and good, by whom everything exists, &c," 
were founded by Mr. Burnett, a "Scottish gentleman, 
who died 1784, bequeathing moneys for the pur- 
pose. Various amounts have been paid to Dr. 
W. L. Brown, to rev. J. B. Sumner, afterwards 
archbishop of Canterbury, 1815 ; to rev. R. A. 
Thompson, and to Dr. "J. Tulloch, 1855; Prof. 
G. G. Stokes, 1885. The establishment of a Bur- 
nett lectureship in Aberdeen by the trustees (the 
lecturer to be chosen in 1883) was sanctioned Aug. 
1880. Prof. W. Robertson. Smith's lectures on the 
" Religion of the Semites," were published in 1889. 

BUENHAM BEECHES, Bucks, the pictu- 
resque remains of an ancient forest, were purchased 
for public use by the corporation of London in 
1879. Dedicated 3 Oct. 1883. 

BUBNING ALIVE was inflicted among the 
Romans, Jews, and other nations, and was counte- 
nanced by bulls of the pope; see Witches. Many 
persons have been burned alive as heretics. Sir 
"William Sawtre, priest of St. Osyth, London, 
suffered 12 Feb. 1401. In the reign of Mary num- 
bers were burned ; see Protestants. Elizabeth 
Gaunt, an Anabaptist, was burnt at Tyburn i:or 
treason (concealing rebels under Monmouth), 23 
Oct. 1685. 



BUENING THE DEAD was practised 
among the Greeks and Romans, and Homer gives 
descriptions. It was very general about 1225 B.C., 
and was revived by Sylla about 78 B.C. It is still 
practised in parts of the East Indies, and has been 
advocated in this country by the eminent surgeon 
sir Henry Thompson, and others, 1873 ; see Suttees, 
Barrows. 

Professor L. Brunetti exhibited his plan and results 

at the Vienna exhibition 1873 

Cremation societies founded in London, Vienna, and 

Berlin, &c 13 Jan- 1874 

Lady Dilke cremated at Dresden . . 10 Oct. ,, 
A crematorium erected at Milan, Jan. 1883 ; in 

Paris 1884 

Cremation increasing at Rome . . „ 

Mr. Justice Stephen decides that it is legal, March, ,, 
The erection of a crematorium at Woking stopped 
by authorities, summer 1879; afterwards per- 
mitted and first used, 26 March, 1885 ; again 21 
Oct. 1885 ; and 25 Jan. 1886 ; and others occa- 
sionally. 
Dr. Cameron's bill for the regulation of cremation 
rejected by the commons (149-79), 30 April, 1884. 
The Cremation society of England in Feb. 1892, reported 
that at Woking there had been 3 cremations in 1885 ; 
10 in 1886; 13 in 1887; 28 in 1888; 46 in 1889; 54 in 1890; 
in 1891, 99 ; 1892, 104 ; 1898, 240 ; 1900, 301 ; 1901, 
273 ; 1902, 275. Among these were that of the mar- 
quis of Ely, 13 April, 1889 ; sir Tindal Robertson, M.P., 
10 Oct. 1889 ; baron Huddleston, 11 Dec. 1890 ; Mr. 
A. W. Kinglake, 8 Jan. 1891 ; the duke of Bedford, 
16 Jan. 1891 ; lord Bramwell, 13 May, 1892 ; sir 
Samuel W. Baker, 4 Jan. 1894 ; sir A. H. Layard, 
9 July, 1894 ; Sergius Stepniak, 28 Dec. 1895 ; Mr. 
George Du Marnier, 10 Oct. 1896 ; Dr. George 
Harley, 30 Oct. 1896; sir B. Ward Richardson, 
27 Nov. 1896; Miss Matilde Blind, 1 Dec. 1896; 
sir Isaac Pitman, 28 Jan. 1897 ; sir Spencer Wells, 
8 Feb. 1897 ; Elizabeth, dowager-duchess of Bedford, 
26 April, 1897 ; Frances Anna Maria, dowager 
Countess Russell, 20 Jan., 1898; lord Sackville 
Cecil, 2 Feb. 1898 ; sir Edward Burne-Jones, 20 June, 
1898 ; sir Wm. Flower, 5 July, 1899 ; lord Farrer, 14 
Oct. 1899 ; Mr. Grant Allen, 27 Oct. 1899 ; Mr. Jacob 
Bright, 10 Nov. 1899 ; the duke of Westminster, 24 
Dec. 1899 ; Mr. Sims Reeves, 31 Oct. 1900 ; the rev. H. 
R. Haweis, 4 Feb. 1901 ; Miss Kate Greenaway, 12 Nov. 
1901 ; William E. Henley, 14 July, 1903 ; major-gen. 
D. Strong, 15 July, 1903; It. -gen. the hon. C. 
W. Thesiger, 1 Aug. 1903 ; countess of Galloway, 
21 Aug. 1903. Golders Green :— Quintin Hogg, 
founder of Polytechnic Instn.. 21 Jan. 1903; rev. Nor- 
man Macleod Ferrers, D.D. Camb., 5 Feb. 1903; lord 
Edward W. Manners, 4 March, 1903 ; lady Richardson, 
19 May, 1903 ; Mrs. Forrest Browne, wife of Id. bishop 
of Bristol, 25 June, 1903 ; sir Vincent H. Kennett Bar- 
rington, 17 July, 1903; sir P. H. Edlin, K.C., D.L., 
retd. chairman London qr. sessions, 22 July, 1903; 
Benjamin L. Farjeon, author, 25 July, 1903 ; sir Henry 
Rae Reid, bart., 8 Sept. 1903; rt. hon. W. E. H. 
Lecky, 26 Oct. 1903. Cremations carried out from 
1 Jan.— 7 Sept. 1903: Golders green, 103; Woking, 
105 ; total, 208. 
Cremation greatly increasing in France and Italy, 1890. 
International Cremation Conference at Berlin, 4 Aug. 1890. 
Similar societies formed in Great Britain. 
Dr. W. Price cremated in a field adjoining his house at 
Llantrissant, 31 Jan. 1893 ; Miss Emily Faithfull near 
Manchester, 4 June. 1895. 
Cremations near New York in 9 years (to 1894), 1,262 ; 

in United States during 1901, 3,613. 
Crematorium opened at Liverpool, 11 Sept. 1890; at 
Hendon, 22 Nov. 1902. Cremation acts passed, 6 Aug. 
1900, and 24 Feb. 1902. Came into force 1 April, 1903. 
First municipal crematorium opened by the mayor in 
Hull, 2 Jan. 1901. Foundation stone laid of City of 
London crematorium at Ilford cemetery, 14 Oct. 1903. 

BUENING-GLASS and Concave Mir- 
rors. Their power was known to Archimedes, 
and it is mythically sta+ed that by their aid he burnt 
a fleet in the harbour of Syracuse, 214 B c. Their 
powers were increased by Settalla ; Tsehirnhausen, 



BUESE. 



202 



BUTTEE. 



1680; Buffbn, 1747 ; and Parker and others more re- 
cently. The following experiments were made about 
1800, with Mr. Parker's lens or burning mirror, 
which cost Jool., and is said to have been the 
largest ever made. It was sold to capt. Mackenzie, 
who took it to China, and left it at Pekin. 

Substances fused. Weight. Time. 

Pure gold 20 grains 4 seconds. 

Silver 20 ,, 3 „ 

Copper , . 33 ,, 20 ,, 

Platina 10 ,, 3 ,, 

Cast iron (a cube) . . . . 10 ,, 3 „ 

Steel . 10 ,, 12 „ 

A topaz 3 ,, 45 ,, 

An emerald 2 ,, 25 ,, 

A crystal pebble 7 ,, 6 ,, 

Flint 10 „ 30 „ 

Cornelian 10 ,, 75 „ 

Pumice stone xo ,, 24 „ 

Green wood takes fire instantaneously ; water boils 
immediately ; bones are calcined ; and things not 
capable of melting at once become red-hot, like iron. 

BUESE, see Exchange. 

BURTON CEESCENT. London. Here Mrs. 
Rachael Samuel, a widow living alone, was mur- 
dered in the night 11 Dec. 1878. No robbery. 
Mary Donovan, a charwoman, was arrested and 
discharged, 10 Jan. 1879. In a house here also, 
Mary Ann Tates was found murdered, q March, 
1884! 

BITE WELL FLEE. A number of persons 
assembled to see a puppet-show in a barn at Bur- 
well, near Newmarket, 8 Sept. 1727 A candle 
having set fire to a heap of straw, seventy-six indi- 
viduals perished, and others died of their wounds. 

BUEY ST. EDMUND'S, Suffolk, named 
from St. Edmund, king of East Anglia, who was 
murdered by the Danes on 20 Nov. 870, and buried 
here, and to whose memory its magnificent abbey 
was founded. Magna Charta was prepared here by 
the barons on 20 Nov 12 14. Henry VI. summoned 
a parliament in Feb. 1447, when Humphry, duke 
of Gloucester, was imprisoned, and died here, it is 
supposed by poison It was almost consumed by 
fire in 1608, and was desolated by plague in 1636. 
Population 1881, 1 6, 1 1 1 ; 1891, 16,630; 1901, 
16,255. 

BUEYING ALIVE. In Bceo'ia, Creon 
ordered Antigone, the lister of Polynices, to be 
buried alive, 1225 B.C. The Roman vestals were 
subjected to it for any levity that excited suspicion 
of their chastity. The vestals buried alive on a 
charge of incontinence, were Minutia, 337 b c. ; 
Sextilla, 274 b.c ; Cornelia, A.d. 92. Lord Bacon 
gives instances of the resurrection of persons who 
had been buried alive ; Duns Scotus being of the 
number. The two assassins of Capo d'Istria, presi- 
dent of Greece, were sentenced to be immured in 
brick walls built around them up to their chins, 
and to be supplied with food in this species of tor- 
ture until they died, Oct. 1831. 

BUSACO, or BUZACO (Portugal 1 ). Here the 
British, under lord Wellington, repulsed the French 
under Massena-, 27 Sept. 1810. The latter lost one 
general and lOOOmen killed, two generals and about 
3000 men wounded, and several hundred prisoners ; 
the loss of the allies did not exceed 1300 ; the 
British retreated to the lines of Torres Vedras, too 
strong for Massena to force, and the armies re- 
mained in sight of each other to the end of the 
year. 

BUSHEL. This measure was ordered to con- 
tain eight gallons of wheat, 12 Henry VIII., 1520; 



the legal Winchester bushel was regulated 9 Will. 
III. Ib97 ; the imperial corn bushel of 2218U92 
cubic inches is to the Winchester of 2150*42 as 32 
to 31. Regulated by act 5 Geo. IV., June, 1824, 
which act came into operation I Jan. 1826. 

BUSHIEE (on the Persian Gulf) , attacked by sea 
by sir H. Leeke, and by land by general Stalker, w as- 
taken 10 Dec. 1856. The place proved stronger than 
was expected, and was bravely defended. Brigadier 
Stopford and col. MaLet were killed in a previous- 
attack on the fore at Reshire, 9 Dec. The loss of 
the British was four officers killed, and one 
wounded ; five men killed, ana thirty-five wounded. 

BUSHBANGEES, Australian highwaymen, 
formerly escaped convicts. Morgan, a desperate 
robber and murderer, was surrounded and shot 
April, 1865. The " Kelly gang" seized and pillaged 
the town of Jerilderie, New South Wales, 8-10 
Feb. 1879. Ned Kelly and some of his gang were 
captured and taken to Melbourne, 27, 28 June, 
1880. 

BUSSOEAH, see Bassorah. 

BUSTS. Lysistratus, the statuary, was the 
inventor of moulds, from which he cast wax 
figures, about32SB.c. Pliny. Busts from the face in 
plaster of paris, were first taken by Andrea Verrochi, 
about a.d. 1466. Smaller busts and statuettes are 
now accurate^ produced from larger ones by 
machinery. 

BUTCHEES. Among the Romans there were- 
three classes : the Suarii provided hogs, the Boarii 
or Pecuarii oxen and sheep, which the Lanii or Carni- 
jices killed. The butchers' company in London ia 
ancient, though not incorporated till 1606. See 
Provisions. 

BUTE ADMINISTBATION. John earl 

of Bute,* tutor ot prince Ceorge (afterwards George 

III.), formed an administration in May, 1762, 

which, after various changes, resigned 8 April, 1763. 

It was severely attacked by Junius and John 

Wilkes. 

John earl of Bute, first lord of the treasury. 

Sir Francis Dash wood, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl Grenville, president of the council. 

Duke of Bedford, privy seal. 

Earl of Halifax, admiralty. 

Earl of Egremont and George Granville, secretaries of 

state. 
Lord Ligonier, ordnance. 
Henry Fox, afterwards lord Holland, paymaster of the 

forces. 
Viscount Barrington, treasurer of the navy. 
Lord Sandys, first lord of trade. 
Duke of Marlborough, earl Talbot, lord Huntingdon, 

lord Anson, lord North, &c. 

BUTTEE is said to have been used by the 
Arabs in early times, but not by the Greeks and 
Romans, who had excellent oil. It is not men- 
tioned as food by Galen a.d. 130-200. It has long 
been used by northern nations. Various statutes 
have passed respecting its package, weight, and sale ; 
the principal of which are the 36th &38th Geo. III. 
and 10 Geo. IV. 1829. In Africa, vegetable butter 
is made from the fruit of the shea tree, and is of 
richer taste, at Kebba, than any butter made from 
cow's milk. Mango Park. The import duties of 
5*. per cwt. on foreign butter (producing in 1859, 
104,587^. on 421,354 cwts.) were repealed in i8t>0. 
Butter imported, f8j6, 257,385 cwt. ; 1856, 513,329 
cwt.; 1866, 1,165,081 cwt.; 1870, 1,159,210 cwt.; 



* John Stuart, earl of Bute, born 1713; secretary of 
state, March, 1761 ; prime minister, May, 1762 ; died 
10 March, 1792. 



BUTTONS. 



203 



BYZANTIUM. 



1874, 1,619,808 cwt. ; 1876, 1,659,492 cwt. ; 
1877, 1,637,403 cwt. ; 1885, 2,401,373 cwt. ; 1889, 
(butter),- 1,927,842 cwt. ; (margarine) 1,241,690 
cwt. ; 1890 (butter), 2,027,717 cwt. ; (margarine) 
1,079,856 cwt. ; 1893 (butter) 2,327,474 cwt. ; (mar- 
garine) 1,299,970 cwt. ; 1896, 3,037,718 cwt. 
(margarine) 925,934 cwt. ; 1898, 3,209,153 cwt. 
(margarine) 900,615 cwt.; 1899, 3,389,851 cwt. 
(margarine) 953,175 cwt. ; 1900, 3,378,516 cwt. 
(margarine) 920,412 cwt.; 1901, 3,702,890 cwt. 
(margarine) 962,127 cwt. ; T902, 3,974,933 cwt. 
(margarine) 966,170 cwt. 

Butterine, a composition of fats as a substitute for 
butter, sold in London 1885, and declared to be 
wholesome by eminent chemists. Bills to change 
the name to oleomargarine, and check its sale, 
brought in and withdrawn 1885-6. The Butterine 
Defence Association formed 1886. 
By the Margarine Act, 1887, butterine and other sub- 
stances like butter must be termed margarine on and 
after 1 Jan. 1888. The term " butter" is restricted to 
the product of milk or cream or both by this act. 
Butter manufactured from cocoa-nuts in Mannheim, &c, 
coming into use, 1888 ; much imported into India, 
from whence the nuts are largely brought, 1889 et seq. 

BUTTONS, an early manufacture in England ; 
those covered with cloth were prohibited, to en- 
courage the manufacture of metal buttons, 8 Geo. I. 
1 72 1. Buttons largely employed to ornament 
ladies' dresses, 1873 ei se Q- Birmingham is the 
chief centre of the button trade in England. The 
manufacture of buttons is carried on extensively in 
France, but in recent years Germany has become 
a formidable competitor, especially with the 
cheaper kinds. New York and Philadelphia are 
the seats of button-making in the United States. 
Large quantities of buttons are manufactured from 
the corozo nut (vegetable ivory), mother-of-pearl, 
glass, various kinds of wood, metal, bone, and horn. 
Machinery is now much used in making buttons. 

BUXAR, a town in Bengal, near which, on 
23 Oct. 1764, major, afterwards sir Hector Monro 
(with 857 Europeans and 6215 sepoys) gained a 
great victory over the troops of the nabob of Oude, 
&c, 50,000 in number ; 6000 of these were killed, 
and 130 pieces of cannon were taken. The loss of 
the English was trifling. 

BY-LAWS, or BYE-LAWS, private ordi- 
nances, made by subordinate communities, such as 
corporations. These laws must not militate against 
the law of the land. By 5 & 6 Will. IV. 1834, 
those made by corporate bodies become valid, if not 
disallowed by the king's council within forty days 
after their enactment. 

BYE PLOT (also termed Surprise or Sur- 
prising Plot), planned by George Brooke, brother 
of lord Cobham, sir Griffin Markham, lord Grey of 



Wilton and two Romanist priests, to seize James I. 
to compel him to change his ministers and to grant 
toleration of their religion, &c. The conspirators 
were apprehended July, 1603. This plot was con- 
nected with the " Main plot, which see. 

B YNG, Hon. Admiral John, was charged 

with neglect of duty in an engagement with the 
enemy off Minorca, 20 May, 1756, condemned for 
an error of judgment, and shot on board the 
Monarch at Spithead, 14 March, 1757. 

BYBON'S VOYAGE. Commodore Byron- 
left England on his voyage round the globe, 21 
June, 1764, and returned 9 May, 1766. He dis- 
covered the populous island in the Pacific Ocean 
which bears his name, 16 Aug. 1765. Though 
brave and intrepid, such was his general ill-fortune 
at sea, that he was called by the sailors of the fleet 
" Foulweatber Jack." 

BYRON NATIONAL MEMORIAL. Its. 
erection determined on, at a meeting in London, 
16 July, 1875; ^ r - Disraeli in the chair. About 
3000/. were subscribed. The statue by Richard 
Claude Belt, placed on a pedestal near Hamilton- 
place, Hyde-park, was uncovered privately by lord 
Houghton, 24 May, 1880. " The works of lord 
Byron,' ' an enlarged edition revised and illustrated, 
by Ernest Hartley Coleridge, Letters and Journals- 
6 vols. ; Poetry, 6 vols. ; 1898- 1903. 

BYTOWN, Canada, was named after col. By,, 
the British surveyor, 1823-6. In 1854 its name 
was changed to Ottawa, after the river on which it 
is situated, and in 1858 it was made the capital of 
the Dominion. See Ottawa. 

BYZANTIUM, now . Constantinople, and 
Stamboul, in the ancient Thrace, founded by a. 
colony of Megarians, under Byzas, 667 B.C. ; but 
various dates and persons are given. It was taken 
successively by the Medes, Athenians, and Spar- 
tans. In 340 B.C., in alliance with the Athenians,, 
the Byzantines defeated the fleet of Philip of 
Macedon. During the wars with Macedon, Syria,. 
&«, it became an ally of the Romans, by whom it 
was taken, a.d. 73. Rebelling, it was taken after 
two years' siege, and laid in ruins by Severus in 
196. It was refounded by Constantine in 324, and 
dedicated on 22 May, 330, all the heathen temples- 
being destroyed ; and from him it received its name ; 
see Constantinople. Byzantine Art flourished 
from the time of Constantine to about 1204. The 
Byzantine or Eastern empire really commenced 
in 395, when Theodosius divided the Roman em- 
pire; see East. The "Byzantine Historians," 
from 325 to 1453, were published at Paris, 1645- 
1711 ; and at Venice, 1722-33. 



CAABA. 



'204 



CABRIOLETS. 



C. 



CAABA, the shrine of the sacred black stone, 
kept in a temple at Mecca, and venerated by the 
Arabs, long before the Christian era. Its guardians, 
the tribe of Koreish, were defeated by Mahomet, 
■by whose followers it is still venerated. 

CABAL. In English history the term has 
been applied to the cabinet of Charles II. 1667-73 > 
the word Cabal being formed from the initials of 
■their names : sir Thomas, afterwards lord Clifford 
(C) ; the lord Ashley (A), (afterwards earl of 
Shaftesbury) ; George Villiers, duke of Bucking- 
ham (B) ; Henry, lord Arlington (A) ; and John, 
duke of Lauderdale (L). The term had been pre- 
viously applied to a secret faction or cabinet. 

CABBAGES. Some new kinds were brought 
to England from Holland about 1510, it is said by 
sir Arthur Ashley of Dorset, and introduced into 
Scotland by Cromwell's soldiers. 

CABBALA, a Jewish system of philosophy or 
theosophy, deriving its name from a Hebrew word, 
signifying reception or tradition, said to have been 
given by God to Adam, and transmitted from father 
to son by his descendants. It is said to have been 
lost at the Babylonian captivity (587 B.C.), but to 
have been revealed again to Ezra. Its supporters 
assert that the cabbalistic book " Sohar," or 
" Splendour," a mystic commentary on the Penta- 
teuch, was first committed to writing by Simon 
Ben Jochai, a.d. 72-1 10. The true date of the books 
containing the cabbala is now considered to range 
from 9th to the 14th centuries, and their origin to 
be the mingling of talmudism with the Greek 
philosophy termed Neo-Platonism. Some of their 
dogmas are akin to Christian tenets, such as the 
trinity, the incarnation, &c. The cabbala exercised 
much influence upon the mental development of 
■the Jews, and even captivated the greatest thinkers 
of the 16th and 17th centuries. 

CABEIRA (Asia Minor). Here Mithridates, 
king of Pontus, was defeated by Lucullus, 71 B.C. 

CABINET COUNCIL. There were councils 
in England as early as the reign of Ina, king of 
the "West Saxons, 690; Offa, king of the Mercians, 
758 ; and in other reigns of the Heptarchy. State 
couucils are referred to Alfred the Great. Spel- 
man ; see Administrations.* 

CABLES. A machine was invented in 1792 
for making them, by which human labour was re- 
duced nine-tenths. Chain cables were introduced 
into the British navy about 1812; directions for 
testing them enacted, 1864 and 1874. " Cable 
Farm," see Agriculture, 1894. 

CABOCHIENS, an armed Burgundian faction, 
including 500 butchers, named from their leader 
fiimonct Caboche, a skinner, 1412. They ruled 
Paris with violence, and constrained the doctors of 
the Sorbonne to become their allies and the dau- 
phin to recognise them as the "White Hoods," and 
reformers. They were exterminated by the citizens, 
in 1418. 

* Cabinet Noir, or "Dark Closet," the chamber in 
which letters entrusted to the French post were opened 
for state purposes. The system, which began with 
Louis XI.. was organised under Louis XV. ; and is said 
to have been discontinued in 1868. The Spanish go^ em- 
inent have a similar system—" Gabinetc negro. 



CABRIOLETS (vuhjo Cabs), one-horsed 
vehicles, were introduced into the streets of London 
in 1823, when the number plying was twelve. In 
1831 they had increased to 165, and then the 
licences were thrown open. The number in 1862 
running in the metropolis exceeded 6000 (of which 
about 1800 only plied on Sundaj r ). Previous to 
throwing open the trade, the number of hackney 
carriages was limited to 1200, when there were few 
omnibuses. Number in 1871 was 7818; in 1881, 
9652; 1893, 7,193 hansoms; 3,613 clarences : 1896, 
7,585 hansoms, 3,449 clarences: 1901, 7,454 han- 
soms ; 3,719 clarences. See Hackney Coaches. 
Mr. Joseph Aloysius Hansom, architect, invented 
his patent safety cab about, 1833. He died 29 
June, 1882. 
Cab Strike. — On 28 Jane, 1853, an act (called Mr. 
FitzRoy's act) was passed for " the better regula- 
tion of metropolitan stage and hackney carriages, 
and for prohibiting the use of advertising 
vehicles," by which the cab fares were reduced 
to 6& a mile. It came into operation 11 July, 
and on the 27th a general strike of the London 
cabmen took place. Much inconvenience was 
felt, and every kind of vehicle was employed to 
supply the deficiency. Some alterations having 
been made in the act, the cabs re-appeared on the 
stands on the 30th. 
Cabmen's clubs began at Paddington in . . Feb. 1859 
A London General Cab Company published its 

prospectus, professing a reformed system, July, 1862 
Cabs running in London : in 1855, 3296 ; in 1867, 

6149 ; in 1874, 7864 ; in 1877, about 8000. 
Cab Tragedy.— H. H. Hunt, a servant of Butler and 
McCulloch's, seedsmen, Covent-garden, London, 
poisoned his wife and children in a cab, on 7 Nov. 
1863 ; and himself on 9 Nov. at his own house, 
just before his apprehension. 
The cabmen in Paris strike against a company ; 
above 3000 vehicles stopped, 16 June ; fierce attack 
on men who give in ; strike subsides 23 June, 1865 
Second Cab Strike. — Metropolitan Streets Act, 30 & 
31 Vict. c. 17 (passed 20 Aug.) required hackney 
carriages to carry lamps ; and changed lowest 
fare from 6d. to is. The cab-proprietors and 
drivers struck at 4 p.m., 3 Dec. ; but by the 
intervention of lord Elcho, an arrangement was 
made with Mr. Gathorne Hardy, the home secre- 
tary, and the strike ceased . . .4 Dec. 1867 
Th ird Cab Strike to compel railway companies to dis- 
continue privileged cabs ; unsuccessful, 5-9 Sept. 1868 
Licences on cabs reduced from 19?. and ijl. to 42s. 

by act of 1869 1 Jan. 1870 

Cab-drivers' Benevolent Association founded . . ,, 
First Cabmen's Shelter opened by hou. A. Kinnaird 
at St. John's-wood, 6 Feb. 1875 ; others soon 
after. Cabmen's Mission Hull, King's-cross, Lon- 
don, N., opened 12 Nov. 1875. Thirty-nine 

Shelters in 1888 

Disputes about wages ; lock-out of 100 drivers 
(hansom), 27 June, 1SS2, closed : proposed estab- 
lishment of Cab-drivers' Co-operative Cab com- 
pany, about 29 July, 1882. 
St like of the Shrewsbury-Talbot Cab company's 

men April, 1S91 

Strike of about 300 other cabmen 14 April ; demon- 
stration in Hyde-park 19 April ; strike gradually 

subsided ,, 

Tho cab distance-recorder and fare-indicator of 
Messrs. W. C. Owen ami W. Grimes described, 

'rimes 29 Sept. ,, 

The newly-formed Loudon Cab-drivers' union 
orders a strike against the proprietors, which 
begins 16 May, 1894 ; little public, inconvenience ; 
about 7000 men on strike ; mediation of Mr. 
Asquith ; meetings at the house of commons, 



CABUL. 



205 



CAI-FONG 



5 June et seq. ; terms to last till i April, 1895 ; 
accepted 11 June, 1894 

London Cab Act passed .... 7 Aug. 1896 

Strike of about 1,300 London cab-drivers against 
the privilege system at railway stations, 22 
Sept. ; gradual failure of the strike, Nov. ; 
practically over .... 25 Dec. ,, 

Mass meeting of cab-drivers in Trafalgar- square to 
protest against the privilege system at railway 
termini . . ,~ . . .' 16 Jan. 1897 

Electric cabs. See Carriages, 1897. 

Crawlers forbidden in Bond street, Strand, and 
other great thoroughfares, 1 Feb. 1899 ; 23 new 
stands, and 17 abolished ... 14 Feb. 1899 

Taxameter (fare-meter) cabs parade along the 
Embankment, etc., 18 April; another fare-meter 
devised May, ,, 

Fifty motor hansom cabs of the London Express 
Motor Service, Ltd., for London traffic, 
announced Sept. 1903 

CABUL, or CABOOL, on the river Cabul, 
about 1774, by Timsur Shah, was made capital of 
Afghanistan. A British mission received at Cabul, 
1893 ; see Afghanistan ; great fire at the bazaar, 
150 shops burnt, 4 deaths, 6, 7 Sept. 1897. 

CACHET, see Lettres cle Cachet. 

CADDEE, or League of God's House, 

the league of independence in Switzerland, formed 
by the Grisons to resist domestic tyranny, 1396 to 
1419. A second league of the Grisons was called 
the Grise or Gray League, 1424. A third league, 
the League of Ten Jurisdictions, was formed in 
1436; see Grisons. They united in 1471- 

CADE'S INSURRECTION. In May, 1450, 
Jack Cade, an Irishman, who assumed the name of 
Mortimer, laid before the royal council the com- 
plaint of the commons of Kent. He headed about 
20,000 Kentish men, who armed " to punish evil 
ministers, and procure a redress of grievances." 
He defeated and slew sir Humphry Stafford, at 
Sevenoaks, 27 June, entered London in triumph, 
and beheaded the lord treasurer, lord Saye, and 
several other persons of consequence, 3 July. When 
the insurgents lost ground, a general pardon was 
proclaimed, and Cade, deserted by his followers, fled. 
A reward having been offered for his apprehension, 
he was discovered, and refusing to surrender, was 
slain by Alexander Iden, sheriff of Kent, II July. 

CADET'S COLLEGE, see Sandhurst. 

CADIZ (W. Spain), anciently Gadiz, the Ro- 
man Gades ; said to have been built by the Phoeni- 
cians, about 1100 B.C. Population in 1887, 62,531 ; 
1897, 70,177. 

One hundred vessels of the Spanish armada de- 
stroyed in the port by sir Francis Drake . . 1587 
Cadiz was taken by the English under the earl of 

Essex, and plundered . . . -15 Sept. 1596 
Vainly attacked by sir George Rooke . . . . 1702 
Bombarded by the British .... July, 1797 
Blockaded by lord St. Vincent for two years . 1797-9 
Again bombarded by the British . . . Oct. 1800 
A French squadron of five ships of the line and a 
frigate surrender to the Spanish and British, 

14 June, 1808 
Besieged by the French, but the siege was raised 

after the battle of Salamanca . . . July, 1812 
Insurrection,, 1819 ; massacre of many inhabitants 

by the soldiery 9, 10 March, 1820 

Taken by the French in Oct. 1823, and held till . 1828 

Declared a free port 1829 

Insurrection against the queen began with the fleet 

here (see Spain) 17 Sept. 1868 

Republican insurrection suppressed with bloodshed, 

5-13 Dec. ,, 
Naval exhibition opened ... 15 Aug. 1887 
fctrlke riots, shops pillaged, people injured, 11 Dec. 1901 



CADMIUM, a metal, discovered by Strorneyer 
and Hermann in 18 18. 

CADOUDAL, see Georges. 

C^ECILIAN SOCIETY, instituted in Lon- 
don, in 1785, for the performance of sacred music, 
especially Handel's. At first it met at private 
houses, afterwards at various city company halls, 
and finally at Albion hall, Moorfields, till its dis- 
solution in 1 861. Mr. Z. W. Vincent, the first 
conductor, held the office for upwards of thirty 
years. Out of this society, which was the prede- 
cessor of the Sacred Harmonic Society, came many 
eminent professional musicians. 

CAEN (N. France), a place of importance before 
912, when it became the capital of the possessions 
of the Normans, under whom it flourished . It was 
taken by the English in 1346 and 1417 ; but was 
finally recovered by the French 1 July, 1450. Here 
were buried "William the conqueror (1087), and his 
queen (1083). 

CAERLEON, Monmouthshire, a Rom an station, 
and made the seat of an archbishopric by Dubritius. 
His disciple and successor, St. David (522), is said to 
have removed it to Menevia, now St. David's, 577. 

CAERNARVON (N. Wales). In the castle 
(founded in 1282) Edward II. was born, 25 April, 
1284 ; and the town was then chartered by Edward I. 
The town suffered by the civil war of Charles, but 
was finally retained for the parliament. The North 
Wales Training College destroyed by fire, 20 Dec. 
1891. Population, 1881, 10,258; 1891,9,804; 1901, 
9,760. 

C2ESAREA, the Roman capital of Judea, built 
by Herod the Great, 10 B.C. Eusebius the historian 
was bishop about 315. 

C2ESARS, see Some; Emperors. The Era of 
the Cajsars or Spanish Era, is reckoned from 1 Jan, 
38 B.C., being the year following the conquest of 
Spain by Augustus. It was much used in Africa, 
Spain, and the south of France ; but by a synod 
held in 1 180 its use was abolished in all the churches 
dependent on Barcelona. Pedro IV. of Arragon 
abolished the use of it in his dominions in 1350. 
John of Castile did the same in 1383. It was used 
in Portugal till 1415, if not till 1422. The months 
and days of this era are identical with the Julian 
calendar ; and to turn the time into that of our era, 
subtract thirty-eight from the year ; but if before 
the Christian era, subtract thirty-nine. 

CAESIUM (Latin, bluish), a rare alkaline 
metal, found in some mineral waters by Bunsen 
in 1861, by means of the " Spectrum analysis," 
ivhich see. 

CAFEINE (English Caffeine), an alkaline 
body, discovered in coffee by Runge in 1820, and 
in tea (and named theine) by Oudryin 1827. The 
identity of the two was proved by Jobst and Mulder 
in 1828. 

CAFFRARIA, and Caffre "War, see 
Kaffraria. 

CAGLIARI, see Naples, note. 

CAGOTS, an outcast race in the Pyrenees, sup 
posed to be descendants of the ancient Goths. They 
have been subjected to superstitious persecution so 
lately as 1755. 

CAI-FONG, the old capital of China, was be- 
sieged by 100,000 rebels, in 1642. The commander 



ca IEA. 



206 



CALCUTTA. 



of the relieving forces, in order to drown the enemy, 
broke down its embankments. All the besiegers 
and 300,000 of the citizens perished. 

CA IRA ! the burden of a popular song, during 
the French revolution, first heard at Paris, 5 Oct. 
1789 : 
■"Ah! ga ira, 5a ira, ga ira! Malgre les mutins, tout 

reussira." An after addition was " Les aristocrates 

a la lanterne ! " 
<" It will proceed ! &c. In spite of mutineers, all will 

succeed." "Hang the aristocrats ! ") 

CAIRO, or GRAND CAIRO, the modern capital 
of Egypt, remarkable for its mosques, and the sepul- 
•chres of its Fatimite caliphs ; see Egypt, Cholera. 
Partially built by the Saracens .... 969 

Taken by the Turks from the Egyptian sultans . .1517 
Ruined by an earthquake and a great tire, when 

40,000 persons perished .... June, 1754 
'Taken by the French under Napoleon Bonaparte ; 

they enter the city .... 23 July, 1798 
Taken by the British and Turks, when 6000 French 

capitulated 27 June, 1801 

Massacre of the Mamelukes . . . 1 March, 181 1 
Visit of the prince of Wales . . . March, 1862 
Riots against Nubar Pasha and the British ministers 

18 Feb. 1879 
After their victory at Tel-el-Kebir, 13 Sept. 1882, 

the British entered Cairo the next day. 
Electric tramway opened, 1 Aug. 1898. 
Population 31 Dec. 1878, 327,462 ; 1897, 576,400. 

See Cholera, 1883. 
Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaught, 9 Feb. 1899 
First stone of the Nat. bank laid by the Khedive 

4 March, ,, 
Museum of Egyptian antiquities opened 15 Nov. 1902 
Powder magazine explosion, 18 deaths . 18 Nov. „ 

CALABAR, Odd and New, rivers in West 
Africa, see Bonny. 

CALABRIA (the ancient Messapia of S. E. 
Italy), was conquered by the .Romans, 266 B.C. It 
formed part of the kingdom of the Ostrogoths under 
Theodoric, a.d. 493 ; was re-conquered (for the 
Eastern empire) by Belisarius, 536 ; subdued by the 
Lombards and joined to the duchy of Benevento, 
572. After various changes, it was conquered by 
Robert Guiscard, the Norman, 1058, who obtained 
the title of duke of Calabria, and eventually that of 
king of Naples. Population, 1890, 1,309,554; see 
Naples. 

CALAIS (N. W. France), fortified by Baldwin 
IV., count of Flauders, 997 ; taken by Edward III. 
after a year's siege, 4 Aug. 1347. It was retaken by 
the duke of Guise, in the reign of Mary, 7 Jan. 
1558, and its loss so deeply touched the queen's 
heart, as to cause some to say it occasioned her death, 
which occurred soon afterwards, 17 Nov. same year. 
" When I am dead," said the queen, " Calais will 
be found written on my heart." It was taken by 
the Spaniards, April, 1596, restored, 1598. About 
12 persons drowned in a house by bursting of a 
reservoir, 30 Jan. 1882. The new harbour and 
docks were opened by president Carnot, 3 June, 1889 ; 
see Tunnels. 
Great strike of lace- workers, Sept. 1890 ; ended by 

concession of the masters . . -3° Oct. 1890 
Hogarth's picture of the " Gate of Calais " given to 
the National Gallery by the duke of West- 
minster Dec. 1895 

CALATRAVA, see Knighthood. 

CALCIUM, the metallic base of lime, was 
discovered at the Royal Institution, London, by 
Humphry Davy in 1808. 

CALCULATING MACHINES. To avoid 
eiTors in computing and printing logarithms and 
tables of figures, machines to calculate and print 



have been devised. Pascal, when nineteen years of 
age, invented one about 1650. The construction of 
Mr. C. Babbage's differential machine was com- 
menced at the expense of government in 1823, and 
continued till 1833, when the work was suspended 
after an expenditure of 17,000/. The portion 
completed was placed in the library of King's Col- 
lege, London ; it is now at South Kensington. Pro- 
fessor Clifford, in his lecture at the Royal Institu- 
tion, 24 May, 1872, stated that Babbage expended 
20,000/. upon his machines, and that the analytical 
machine was nearly finished, and would eventually 
be much used. " Babbage's Calculating Engines : a 
Collection of Papers relating to them," was published 
by his son, Gen. Babbage, in 1889. C. Babbage died 
1871, aged 78. In 1857, Messrs. K. and G. Scheutz, 
two Swedish engineers, publisbed in London speci- 
men tables, calculated and printed by machinery 
constructed between 1837 and 1843, after a study of 
the account of Mr. Babbage's machine. Messrs. 
Scheutz brought their machine to England in 1854. 
It was bought for 1000I. by Mr. J. F. Kathbone, an 
American merchant, to be presented to Dudley ob- 
servatory in his own town, Albany. In 1857, Messrs. 
Scheutz were engaged to make one for the British 
government, which was completed. Mr. Wiberg's 
machine, exhibited at Paris, Feb. 1863, was much 
commended. Tables constructed by means of 
Scheutz's machine, and edited by Dr. W. Fair, were 
published by the government in 1864. The arith- 
mometer, patented by M. Thomas (de Colmar) in 
1822 ('?), exhibited at the International exhibitions, 
1851 and 1862, is said to be in use in assurance 
offices. Geo. B. Grant described a simpler machine 
in the "American Journal of Science," Oct. 1874. 
Other machines have been constructed since. 

The "calculating boy," George P. Bidder, born 
14 June, 1806 ; noted in 1815 et seq. ; president 
of the institution of civil engineers, 1860-61 ; 
died 20 Sept. 1878 

An " arithmometer," for adding up figures and 
printing, was invented by Mr. Burroughs in the 
United States, and introduced into this country 
by Mr. H. E. Winter in i8q3 

M. Jacques Inaudi, a young Italian, eminent in 
mental arithmetic, visited Paris and London in 
the spring of 

CALCUTTA, capital of Bengal and British 
India ; the first settlement of the English here was 
made in 1689. Population, 1881, 766,298; 1891, 
840,130; 1901 (including suburbs), 1,026,987. 

Purchased as a zemindary, and Fort William built 1698 
Made the head of a separate pi'esidency . . . 1707 
The fort attacked and taken by an army of 70,000 
horse and foot, and 400 elephants (147 of the 
British crammed into the " Black-hole prison," a 
dungeon, 18 feet square, from whence 23 only 
came forth the next morning alive) (monument 
unveiled by the Viceroy, 19 Dec. 1902), 20 June, 1756 
Calcutta retaken by Olive ... 2 Jan. 1757 
Supreme court of judicature established . . . 1773 

Asiatic society founded 1784 

College founded 1801 

Bishopric of Calcutta instituted by act, July, 1813 ; 
first bishop, Thomas F. Middleton . . . 1814 

Bishop's college founded 1820 

Cathedral founded 1840 

An industrial exhibition opened . . .25 Jan. 1855 
Great cyclone, followed by a " bore " or spring tide 
in the Hooghly ; water rises 30 feet high ; immense 
damage done to shipping and houses ; about 
60,000 persons said to have perished . 5 Oct. 1864 
Another cyclone ; about 30,000 small houses un- 
roofed, much small shipping injured ; and the 
crops in Lower Bengal destroyed (about 90,000 
persons drowned ; 75,000 die of cholera), 1 Nov. 1867 
Visited by the king of Siam . . . Jan. 1872 
Visited by the prince of Wales, 25 Dec. 1S75— 3 Jan. 1876 
Statue of lord Mayo unveiled by him . 1 Jan. ,, 



CALEDONIA. 



20} 



CALICO. 



Statue of the queen given by the Maharajah of 

Burdwan, nnveiled . . . . i Jan. 1878 
International exhibition opened by the viceroy, 
the marquis of Ripon, the duke and duchess of 
Connaught present, 4 Dec. 1883 ; closed 10 March, 1884 j 
Destructive cyclone ; the Sir John Lawrence and 
the tug Retriever lost, about 700 lives lost, 

23 May et seq. 1887 
About sixty persons killed by the collision of a 

ferry steamer with a tug-boat near Calcutta 6 Nov. 1888 | 
Visit of prince Albert Victor of "Wales, great fes- 
tivities 3-13 Jan. 1890 

Fatal religious riot, May, 1891 ; trial of rioters, 

5 Aug. 1 89 1 
Statue of the marquis of Dufferin unveiled, 8 Dec. ,, 
Cyclone ; 64 men drowned while unloading the 

Germania, reported . . . .29 May, 1893 
Destructive earthquake, the cathedral, churches, 
and other buildings damaged ; 8 natives killed in 

a panic, 5 p.m. 12 June, 1897 

Serious Mahometan riots at Chitpur ; troops 
called out, 1 1 rioters killed ; quelled by the 
police, 29, 30 June, and 1 July ; compromise 
effected . . . . . . 2 July, ,, 

Statue of lord Roberts unveiled . 2 March, 1898 

Rev. J. B. C. Welldon, bishop . . Aug. 1898-1902 
Statue of queen Victoria unveiled . 19 March, ,, 
Coronation festivities ; 60,000 poor feasted, 27 Jan. 1903 
Imperial Library opened by Lord Curzon 30 Jan. ,, 
See Bengal and India. 

CALEDONIA, the Koman name for part of 
Scotland, north of the wall of Antoninus, so termed 
by Tacitus, who died 99. Venerable Bede says 
that it retained this name until 258, when it 
was invaded by a tribe from Ireland, and called 
Scotia. The ancient inhabitants appear to have 
been the Caledonians and Picts, tribes of the Celts, 
who passed over from the opposite coast of Gaul. 
About the beginning of the 4th century of the 
Christian era they were invaded (as stated by some 
authorities) by the Scuyths or Scythins (since 
called Scots), who, having driven the Picts into 
the north, setth d in the Lowlands, and gave their 
name to the whole country ; see Scotland. 

Caledonian monarchy, mythically said to have been 

founded by Fergus I. . . . about B.C. 330 
The Picts from England settle in the south . . 140 
Agricola, the Roman, invades Caledonia . a.d. 79 
He defeats Galgacus, and builds a wall between the 

Forth and Clyde 84 

Wall of Antoninus built 140 

Ulpius Marcellus repels their incursions . . 1S4 

Christianity introduced in the reign of Donald I. . 201 
The Caledonians invade South Britain, 207 ; repelled 
by the emperor Severus, who ad% f ances to the 

Moray Frith 209 

Caledonia invaded by the Scuths, or Scotti, from 

Ireland, about 306 

Caledonian monarchy revived by Fergus II. . . 404 
Kenneth II., king of the Scotti, subdues the Cale- 
donians and Plots, and founds one monarchy, 
named Scotland 838 to 843 

CALEDONIAN ASYLUM, Eoyal, for 

children of indigent respectable Scotch parents, 
established in 1815, at Caledonian road, London. 
Some 200 children are maintained and educated. 
Princess Henry of Battenberg laid the first stone of 
the new building at Bushey, 10 May, 1902, to which 
the asylum was removed 26 May, 1903. The 
Caledonian Society of London holds annual festivals, 
25 Jan., Burns's birthday. 

CALEDONIAN CANAL, from the North 
Sea to the Atlantic Ocean. The act for its construc- 
tion received the royal assent 27 July, 1803 ; and 
the works were commenced same year. The nautical 
intercourse between the western ports of Great 
Britain and those also of Ireland to the North Sea 
and Baltic, is shortened in some instances 800, and 
in others 1,000 miles. A sum exceeding a million 
sterling was granted by parliament Irom time to 



time ; and safe navigation for ships was opened 1 
Nov. 1822. It has not been successful commercially 
Annual income trom tonnage, 1 May, 1859, 5,080/.; 
expenditure, 6,951/. ; annual income, April, 1866-7, 
6,541/. ; expenditure, 6,698/. ; receipts, April, 
T890-91, 7,530/. ; expenditure, 10,001/. 

CALENDAR, see Jewish Era and Calendar. 
The Roman calendar was introduced by Romulus, 
who divided the year into ten months, comprising 
304 days, 738 B.C. This year was of fifty days' less 
dui ation than the lunar year, and of sixty-one less 
than the solar year, and its commencement did not 
correspond with any fixed season. N uma Pompilius, 
713 B.C., added two months; and Julius Csesar, 46 
B.C., to make it m<>re correct, fixed the solar year at 
365 days 6 hours, every fourth year being bissextile 
or leap-year; see Leap-year. This calendar was 
defective, as the solar \ ear consists of 365 days, 5 
hours, 49 minutes, and not of 365 days 6 hours. 
The pontiffs erroneously inserted on intercalary day 
each third instead of each fourth year, so that they 
had inserted 12 instead of nine 29 Febs, up to B.C. 
8 ; Augustus Caesar ordained that there should be 
no leap-year for 12 years, until this was rectified. 
The uifference in the 16th century amounted to 
10 entire days, the vernal equinox falling on nth 
instead of 21st March. To obviate this error, pope 
Gregory XIII. ordained, in 1582, that that year 
should consist of 355 days only (5 Oct. became 15 
Oct.) ; and to prevent further irregularity, it was 
determined that a year ending a century should 
not be bissextile, with tbe exception of that end- 
ing each fourth century; thus 1700, 1800 and 
1900 have not been bissextile, but the year 
2000 will be a leap-year. In this manner three 
days are retrenched in 400 years, because the lapse 
of eleven minutes makes three days in about that 
period. The year of the calendar is thus made as 
nearly as possible to correspond with the true solar 
year, and future errors of chronology are avoided. 
See New Style and French Revolutionary Calendar. 
The Greek and Russian calendars retaio. the old 
style, 1895. 

CORRESPONDENCE OF CALENDARS WITH A.D. 1903. 

Julian period 6616 

Year of the world (Jewish year) 2 Oct. 1902 5663-64 

Hegira 1320 

Foundation of Rome (Varro) .... 2652 

United States Independence .... 127-128 

Year of king Edward VII 2-3 

Comte, in his "Systemede Politique Positive" (insti- 
tuting the "Religion of Humanity"), published a 
calendar of 13 months, dedicated successively to 
Moses, Homer, Aristotle, Archimedes, Caesar, Paul, 
Charlemagne, Dante, Guttenberg, Shakespeare, Des- 
cartes, Frederic, and Bichat ; an eminent person was 
commemorated every day. 

CALENDER, a machine used in glazing 
various kinds of cloth was iutroduced into England 
by the Huguenots, who were driven by persecution 
from France, Holland, and the Netherlands to these 
countries, about 16S5. Anderson. 

CALENDS were the first days of the Roman 
months. The Nones of March, May, July, and Oct., 
fell on the 7th; and their Ides on the 15th. The 
other months had the Nones on the 5th and the 
Ides on the 13th. As the Greeks had no Calends, 
"on the Greek Calends," ad Grcecas Calendas, 
meant never. 

CALICO, cotton cloth, named from Calicut, a 
city of India, visited by the Portuguese in 1498. 
Calico was first brought to England by the East 
India Company in 1631. Calico-printing and the 
Dutch loom engine were first used in 1676, when a 



CALICUT. 



208 CALLIGEAPHY. 



Frenchman established a factory at Richmond, near 
London. Anderson. Calicoes were prohibited to be 
printed or worn in 1 700 ; and again in 1 72 1 a penalty 
of 5/. was laid on the wearer, and 20I. on the seller of 
calico. In 1831, by the exertions of Mr. Charles 
Poulett Thompson, afterwards lord Sydenham, and 
others, the consolidated duty of T,\d. on the square 
yard of printed calico was taken off. Since 1834, 
the manufacture has been greatly increased by the 
applications of science. Printing cylinders are 
made by electric deposition, dyes are artificially 
made from coal tar products, by the discoveries of 
Liebig, Hofmann, Perkin, and others; see Cotton 
and Dyeing. 

John Mercer, a great improver of calico-printing, died 
30 Nov. 1866. 

CALICUT (now Kolikod), S. W. India, the first 
Indian port visited by Vasco da Gama, 20 May, 1498. 
It was seized by Hyder Ali, 1766; taken by the 
English, 1 782 ; destroyed by Tippoo Saib, 1 789 ; 
ceded to the English, 1792. 

CALIFORNIA (from the Spanish, Calienfe 
Fornalla, hot furnace, in allusion to the climate), 
was discovered by Cortez in 1537; others say by 
Cabrillo in 1542 ; and visited by sir Francis Drake, 
who named it New Albion, in 1579. California was 
admitted into the United States in 1850. The 
population in 1856 was 506,067 ; in 1880, 864,694 ; 
in 1890, 1,208,130; 1900, 1,485,053. State capital, 
Sacramento. San Francisco is the largest city. 

The Spanish establish missionary and military 
stations 1698 

California becomes subject to Mexico . . . 1823 

After a bloodless revolution, it becomes virtually 
independent 1836 

Occupied by the army of the United States . . 1846 

Gold discovered in great abundance by capt. Sutter 
and Mr. Marshall Sept. 1847 

Ceded to the United States 1848 

Made a sovereign state 1850 

Numerous murders in San Francisco — Lynch law 
prevailing 1853-60 

Adhered to the union during the war . . . 1861-4 

Suffered much damage by an earthquake, 21 Sept. 1868 

Bank of California, long very prosperous, stops 
through unsuccessful speculations, suspected 
suicide of " the prince," Wm. C. Ralston, ma- 
nager about 25 Aug. 1S75 

Great opposition to increasing Chinese immigration, 

March, 1876 

Political agitation caused by Dennis Kearney 
against cash payments .... Aug. 1878 

New constitution (excluding Chinese from citizen- 
ship ; altering taxation to favour the working- 
classes ; restricting companies, &c.) promoted by 
Dennis Kearney, the agitator ; passed 8 May, 1879 

Political disorders ; Mr. de Young, an editor, dan- 
gerously wounds rev. Mr. Kallock, the elected 
mayor Aug. „ 

Violent reaction against Kearney, who flees for his 
life July, 1880 

Anti-Chinese bill passed ; resident Chinese may 
remain, immigrants prohibited . 13 March, 1891 

Towns and villages in the Sacramento valley suffer 
by an earthquake . . . .19 April, 1892 

California international exhibition (midwinter fair) 
at San Francisco, opened by gov. -gen. Markham, 

27 Jan. 1894 

Sacramento occupied by Federal troops in con- 
sequence of the Pullman railway strike, 11 July ; 
mail train wrecked on a bridge by strikers, 
several deaths, 1 1 July ; martial law, bloodshed, 

13 July, ,, 

Suicide of a Chinese murderer at Oakland by 
blowing up the magazine of the California fuse 
works; 6 deputy sheriffs and several women 
also killed 18 July, 1898 

Successful biological survey of mount Shasta 
(14,450 feet), under Dr. Meniam, new peaks 
named, 5 new species of plants and 8 of mammals 
discovered in ..... . 1898-99 



A large reflector set up at S. Pasadena, concen- 
trates the solar rays, by which steam is produced 
in a boiler, and a motor driven that pumps water 
from a well for irrigation, reported successful, 

April, 1901 

Los Alamos suffers by an earthquake . 31 July, 1902 

CALIPEE COMPASS, whereby the bore of 
cannon, small arms, &c, is measured, is said to have 
been invented by an artificer of Nuremberg in 1540. 

CALIPH (Arabic), Vicar, or Lieutenant, the 
title assumed by the sophi of Persia, as successor of 
Ali, and, since 1517, by the sultan of Turkey, as 
successor of Mahomet, and sovereign of Mecca and 
Medina. The caliphat began with Abubeker, the 
father of the prophet's second wife. Sir Wm. 
Muir's " Caliphate " published 1891. 

CALIPHS OF ARABIA. 

632. Abubeker. 

634. Omar I. 

644. Otlnnan. 

655. Ali. 

661. Hassan. 

The Ommiades ruled 661-750. 

The Abbasides ruled 750-1258. 

In 775 they were styled caliphs of Bagdad. 

Haroun-al Raschid ruled 786-809. 

See Ommiades and Abbasides. 

CALIPPIC PERIOD, invented by Calippus, 
about 330 B.C., to correct the Metonic cycle, consists 
of four cycles, or of seventy-six years, at the expira- 
tion of which he incorrectly imagined the new and 
full moons return to the same day of the solar year. 
This period began about the end of June, third year 
of 112th Olympiad, year of Rome 424, and 330 b c. 

CALIXTINS, 1. A sect derived from the Hus- 
sites, about 1420 demanded the cup (Greek, Kalix) in 
the Lord's supper. They were also called Utraquists 
as partaking of both elements. They were recon- 
ciled to the Roman church at the council of Basle, 
1433. 2. The followers of George Calixtus, a Lu- 
theran, who died in 1656. He wrote against the celi- 
bacy of the priesthood, and proposed a re-union of Ca- 
tholics and Protestants based on the Apostles' creed. 

CALI YUGA, the Hindoo era of the Deluge, 
dates from 3101 B.C. (according to some, 3102), and 
begins with the entrance of the sun into the Hindoo 
sign Aswin, now on n April, N.S. In 1600 the 
year began on 7 April, N.S., from which it has now 
advanced four days, and from the precession of the 
equinoxes, is still advancing at the rate of a day in 
sixty years. The number produced by subtracting 
3102 from any given year of the Cali Yuga era will 
be the Christian year in which the given year 
begins. 

CALLAO (Peru). After an earthquake, the 
sea retired from the shore, and returned in moun- 
tainous waves, which destroyed the city in 1687, and 
on 28 Oct. 1746. The attempt of the" Spanish ad- 
miral Nunez to bombard Callao, 2 May, 1866, was 
defeated by the Peruvians; blockaded by Chilians, 
April 1880, see Chili, Population, 1876, 33,502. 

CALLIGRAPHY (beautiful writing). Calli- 
crates is said to have written an elegant distich on 
a scsamum seed, 472 B.C. In the 16th century 
Peter Bales wrote the Lord's Prayer, Creed, and 
Decalogue, two short Latin prayers, his own name, 
motto, day of the month, year of our Lord, and of 
the reign of queen Elizabeth (to whom he presented 
them at Hampton Court), all within the circle of a 
silver penny, enchased in a ring and border of gold, 
and covered with crystal, so accurately done, as to 
be plainly legible, llolinslied. 



CALMAE. 



209 



CAMBEIA. 



CALMAE, UNION OF. The treaty whereby 
Denmark, Sweden, and Norway were united under 
one sovereign, Margaret, queen of Sweden and Nor- 
way, " the Semiramis of the north ; " June, 1397, see 
Sweden. The union was dissolved by Gustavus 
Vasa in 1523. 

CALMUCKS, see Tartary. 

CALOMEL ("beautiful black"), a compound 
of mercury, sulphuric acid, and chloride of sodium, 
first mentioned by Crollius early in the 1 7th century. 
The first directions given for its preparation were by 
Beguin in 1608. 

CALOEESCENCE. In Jan. 1865 Professor 
Tyndall rendered the ultra-red rays of the spectrum 
of the electric light visible by causing a focus of 
them to impinge on a plate of platinum, which they 
raised to a white heat. He termed the phenomenon 
Calorescence ; see Fluorescence. 

CALOEIC, see Heat. 

CALOTYPE PEOCESS (from the Greek 
kalos, beautiful), by which negative photographs 
are produced on paper, is the invention of Mr. Henry 
Fox Talbot about 1840. Also called Talbotype. 
See Photography . 

CALOYEES (meaning good old men). The 
monks of the Greek church, of the order of St. Basil. 
Their most celebrated monastery in Asia is at Mount 
Sinai, endowed by Justinian (died 565) ; the Eu- 
ropean one is at Mount Athos. 

CALPEE, India. Sir Hugh Rose defeated the 
mutineers here, and took the town, 22, 23 May, 1858. 

CAL VAEY, MOUNT, the place where the Re- 
deemer suffered death, 5 April, a.d. 30; {Hales, 31 ; 
Clinton, 29; others 38) ; see Luke xxiii. 33. Adrian, 
at the time of his persecution of the Christians, 
erected a temple of Jupiter on Mount Calvary, and 
a temple of Adonis on the manger at Bethlehem, 
142. The empress Helena built a church here about 
326 ; see Holy Places. 

CALVES' HEAD CLUB, noblemen and 
gentlemen, who are said to have exposed raw calves' 
heads at the windows of a tavern, 30 Jan. 1735, the 
anniversary of the execution of Charles I. An angry 
mob was dispersed, and the club suppressed. 

CAL VI (Corsica). The British forces besieged 
the fortress of Calvi, 12 June, 1794. After fifty -nine 
days it surrendered on 10 Aug. It surrdiaered to 
the French in 1796. 

CALVINISTS, named after John Calvin (or 
Chauvin), who was born at Noyon, in Picardy, 10 
July, 1509. Adopting the reformed doctrines he fled 
to Angouleme, where he composed his Institutio 
GJiristiance Religionis in 1533; published in 1536. 
He retired to Basle, and settled in Geneva, where 
he died, 27 May, 1564. He was instrumental in 
burning Servetus for denying the Trinity in 1553. 
A formal separation between the Calvinists and 
Lutherans took place after the conference of Poissy 
in 1561, where the former expressly rejected the 
tenth and other articles of the confession of Augs- 
burg, and took the name of Calvinists. In France 
(see Huguenots) they took up arms against their 
persecutors.. Henry IV., originally a Calvinist, on 
becoming king, secured their liberty by the Edict of 
Nantes in 1598 {which see). Calvinistic doctrines 
appear in the articles of the Church of England and 
in the confession of the Church of Scotland, and are 
held by many protestant sects. They include pre- 



destination, particular redemption, total depravity, 
irresistible grace, and the certain perseverance of 
the saints. 

CAMALDULES or CAMALDOLITES, a reli- 
gious order founded at Camaldoli near Florence, by 
Romuald about 1022. 

CAMBAY, see India, 1890. 

CAMBEEWELL, south London. The 
grammar school was established (Mr. W. Minet) by 
the rev. E. Wilson, 29 Sept. 17 15. The ancient 
church was burnt 7 Feb. 1841. Camberwell returns 
3 members to parliament by the acts of 1884-85. 
The public library presented by Mr. George 
Livesey, opened by sir E. Clarke, 18 Oct. 1890. 
Fine art gallery, library and lecture-hall, gift of 
Mr. Passmore Edwards ; central free public library 
opened by the prince of "Wales and the duke and 
duchess of York, 9 Oct. 1893. New mission hall 
opened by princess Christian, 18 Oct. 1902. 
Houses wrecked by a cyclone, 29 Oct. 1898. 
Population, 1891,235,312; 1901,259,258. 

CAMBIUM BEGIS ; see Royal Exchange. 

CAMBODIA, or Camboja, an ancient state in 
central Asia, formerly subject to Annam and 
later to Siam. The country was called Khmer, 
and the remains of early sculptures, temples, &c, 
exhibit evidences of a high civilization. The people 
are of Hindu origin and akin to the Siamese, the 
religion being Buddhism. Population, estimated, 
1901, 1,500,000. Capital, Pnompenh since 1866; 
population, 1894, 50,000. 

The kingdom visited by the Portuguese, Spaniards 
and Dutch, 16th century ; dismembered 17th 
century. Disastrous voyage and death of M. 
Doudart de Lagree on the river Mekong 1866-68 

The powerful influence of France began with a 
treaty with king Norodom, n Aug. 1863 ; the 
French protectorate was confirmed by treaty 

17 June, 1884 

Rebellion of the king's brother, Si-Votha, 12 Jan. ; 
quelled by the French, Jan., April, July, 1885. 
The French supreme ; the rule of king Norodom 
nominal 1892 et seq. 

CAMBEAY (N. France), the ancient Camara- 
cum, was in the middle ages the capital of a prince 
bishop subject to the emperor. It gives its name to 
cambric. Councils held here, 1064, 1303, 1383, 
I565- 
Held by Louis XI. of France .... 1477-8 

Taken by Charles V. 1544 

By the Spaniards 1595 

By the French and annexed 1667 

Fe'nelon made archbishop 1695 

The French were defeated at Caesar's camp, in the 
neighbourhood, by the allied army under the duke 

of York 24 April, 1794 

It was invested by the Austrians, 8 Aug. , when the 
republican general, Declay, replied to the sum- 
mons to surrender, that "he knew not how to do 
that, but his soldiers knew how to fight." It 
was taken by Clairfait, the Austrian general, 

10 Sept. 1798 
Cambray seized by the British, under sir Charles 

Colville 24 June, 1815 

League of Cambray against the republic of Venice, 
comprising pope Julius II., the emperor Maxi- 
milian, and Louis XII. of France, and Ferdinand 
of Spain, entered into ... 10 Dec. 1508 

Treaty between Francis I. of France, and Charles V. 
of Germany, (called Paix ales Dames, because nego- 
tiated by Louisa of Savoy, mother of the French 
king, and Margaret of Austria, aunt of the 

emperor) 1529 

Treaty between the emperor Charles VI. and 
Philip V. of Spain 1724-5 

CAMBEIA, ancient name of Wales {which see) . 



CAMBEIC 



210 



CAMBRIDGE. 



CAMBRIC first made at Cambray; worn in 
England, and accounted a great luxury, 1580. Stow. 
Its importation restricted in 1745; prohibited in 
1758; re-admitted, 1786; prohibited 1795. 

CAMBRIDGE, supposed to be the Roman 
Camboricmn and the Saxon Granta bricsir, fre- 
quently mentioned by the earliest British historians, 
was burnt by the Itanes in 870 and 1010. See 
table in Population, Itede Lecture and Torres. 

Fortified by William I. 1070 

Plundered by the barons 1088 

In Wat Tyler's and Jack Straw's rebellion, the 

rebels enter the town, seize the university records 

and burn them in the market-place . . . 1381 

Garrisoned by Cromwell 1642 

Cambridge Philosophical Society established in 1819, 

and chartered 1832 

Eailway to London opened . . . June, 1845 
Fitzwilliam museum, endowed 1816 ; founded 1837 ; 

completed 1847 

British association met here . . 1833, 1845, 1862 
Visit of prince and princess of Wales . 2-4 June, 1864 
Royal Agricultural society show . 25 June et seq. 1894 
Training college for women teachers, costing over 

10,000?., opened by the marquis of Ripon, 19 Oct. 1895 
Houses wrecked by cyclone ... 29 Oct. 1898 
Small pox epidemic, 146 cases, 15 deaths . . 1903 

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY. 

The early history is traditional till the 12th century. 
Sigebe'rt, king of the East Angles, is mythically 
said to have set up a school about 630. Scholars 
are said to have collected here and to have been 
favoured by Henry I., 1110. Henry III. granted 
the first charter in 1231, about which time the 
students began to live together in hostels which 
afterwards became colleges named after saints. 
It is said that there were 27 hostels in 1280. The 
university was incorporated in 1571, and sent 
two members to parliament in 1603. University 
tests act passed, 16 June, 1870. University com- 
mission respecting property was appointed 6 
Jan. 1872. Universities act, making many 
changes was passed .... 10 Aug. 1877 
St. Paul's Hostelry for Indian students, chartered 

18 July, 1883 
New Museum of Classical Art and Archaeology 

opened 6 May, 1884 

Henry Fawcett, M.P., postmaster-general, buried 

at Trumpington 10 Nov. ,, 

Miss A. F. Ramsay, of Girton, senior and alone in 
the first division of the classical tripos ; Miss B. 
M. Hervey, of Newnham, alone in the first division 
of the mediaeval and modern languages tripos, 

18 June, 1887 
Prof. G. G. Stokes, Bart., elected M.P. for the 
university, 17 Nov. 1887 ; his jubilee as Lucasian 
professor celebrated (died 1 Feb. , 1903) 1, 2 June, 1899 
Miss G. P. Fawcett, Newnham (daughter of the late 
professor), above the senior wrangler in mathe- 
matics 7 June, 1890 

The senate supports the compulsory study of 

Greek (575-185) 29 Oct. 1891 

Establishment of an engineering school, proposed 

Dec. ,, 
New science buildings, for engineering, &c, opened 

by lord Kelvin . . 28 Oct. 1893 ; 15 May, 1894 
"Companions of St. John," an eccentric secret 
society, founded by the rev. E. J. Heriz-Smith, 
about 1892 ; much criticised . . early in 1896 
Depressed financial condition, reported by the duke 

of Devonshire, chancellor . Times, 23 April, 1897 
Controversy respecting granting degrees for 

women; see Women, 1896-7 . March etseq. ,, 
Cambridge university association formed, meeting 
at Devonshire house, 31 Jan. 1899; new endow- 
ment fund, total 67,000?. (10,000/. from Mr. W. 

Astor) Oct. 1900 

The "John Hopkinson" wing of the engineering 
laboratory at the university erected by his family 
(see Switzerland), Aug. i8g8 ; opened . 2 Feb. .. 
Lord Acton's Library (about 65,000 vols.) presented 

in the university by Mr. John Morley 20 Oct. 1902 
" The Cambridge Modern History," vol. rpub. Jan. 1903 
Mr. F. J. Quick bequeathed over 50,00c?. for bio- 
logical research, reported . . .14 Jan. ,, 



COLLEGES. 

Peterhouse College, founded by Hugo de Balsham, 

bishop of Ely 1257 

Pembroke College, founded by the countess of 

Pembroke 1347 

Gonville and Caius, by Edmund Gonville . . . 1348 

Enlarged by Dr. John Caius 1558 

Corpus Christi, or Benet 135 2 

King's College, by Henry VI 1441 

Queens' College, by Margaret of Anjou, 1448 ; and 

Elizabeth Woodville 1449 

Jesus College, by John Alcock, bishop of Ely . . 1496 
Christ's College, founded 1442 ; endowed by Mar- 
garet, countess of Richmond, mother of Henry 

VII 1505 

St. John's College, endowed by Margaret, countess 

of Richmond 1511 

Magdalene College, by Thomas, baron Audley . .1519 

Trinity College, by Henry VIII 1546 

Emmanuel College, by sir Walter Mildmay . . 1584 
Sidney-Sussex College, founded by Frances Sidney, 

countess of Sussex 1598 

Downing College, by sir George Downing, by will, 

in 1717 ; its charter 1800 

Ridley Hall (theological), foundation-stone laid, 

17 Oct. 1879 
Selwyn College, founded . . . . 1 June, 1881 

THREE HALLS. 

Clare Hall, or College, first founded by Dr. Richard 
Baden in 1326 ; destroyed by fire and re-estab- 
lished by Elizabeth de Bourg, sister to Gilbert, 

earl of Clare about 1342 

Trinity Hall, by Wm. Bateman, bishop of Norwich, 1350 

St. Catharine's College or Hall, founded . . . 1473 

[Cambridge University Calendar.] 

CHANCELLORS. 

Charles, duke of Somerset, elected . . . . 1688 

Thomas, duke of Newcastle 174S 

Augustus Henry, duke of Grafton . . . . 1768 

H.R.H. William Frederick, duke of Gloucester . 1811 

John, marquis Camden 1834 

Hugh, duke of Northumberland 1840 

The Prince Consort [died Dec. 14, 1861] 28 Feb. 1847 
William, duke of Devonshire [died 21 Dec. 1891] 

31 Dec. 1861 

Spencer C, duke of Devonshire . . 4 Jan. 1892 

PRINCIPAL PROFESSORSHIPS. FOUNDED 

Divinity (Lady Margaret, mother of Henry VIII.) 

1502; Regius 1540 

Laws, Hebrew, Greek and Physic . . . . ,, 

Arabic 1632 

Mathematics (Lucasian) 1663 

Music 1684 

Chemistry 1702 

Astronomy 1704, 1749 

Anatomy 1707 

Modern History, Botany 1724 

Natural and Experimental Philosophy . . . 1783 

Mineralogy 1S08 

PoliticalEconomy 1863 

Slade (fine art) . 1869 

Agriculture 1899 

Cambridge Union Society begun as a debating 
club at the "Red Lion" in 1811 ; settled in its 
new building in 1S86. Dr. Whewell was president 
in 1817. Lord Houghton, sir Alex. Cockburn, 
lords Macaulay and Lytton were early members. 

DUKES OF CAMBRIDGE. 

George Augustus, electoral prince of Hanover, 
created duke 9 Nov. 1706; king as George II., 
11 June, 1727, see England. 

Adolphus Frederick, fifth son of George III., born 
24 Feb. 1774, created duke 27 Nov. 1801 ; viceroy 
of Hanover, 1816-37; died S July, 1850. 

George William Frederick Charles, son, born 26 
March, 1819; duke, 8 July, 1850; colonel, 3 
Nov. 1837 ; commanded the first division in the 
Crimean war; general commanding in chief, 5 
July, 1856; commander-in-chief by patent, 1887; 
resigned from Nov. 1895; a marble bust of the 
duke was unveiled in his presence in the Guild- 
hall, London, and an address of thanks, in a gold 
casket, presented to him in recognition of his 
public services, 19 Oct. 1896. 

gee England (royal family) end. 



CAMBRIDGE. 



211 



CAMISAKDS. 



CAMBRIDGE, a city in Massachusetts ; first 
settled in 1630. The "Bay Psalm book,"_ said to 
be the first book printed in British America, was 
published here in 1640. See Harvard College. 
Population in 1870, 39,364; 1890, 70,028; 1900, 
.91,886, 

CAMBITSKENNETH, near Stirling (Cen- 
tral Scotland). Here Wallace defeated the English 
under Warreune and Cressingham, 10 Sept. 1297. 
The abbey, one of the richest in Scotland, was founded 
by king David I. in 1147, was spoiled and the fabric 
nearly destroyed by the reformers in 1559. 

CAMDEN (S. Carolina). Here 16 Aug. 1780, 
lord Cornwallis defeated the revolted Americans 
Binder Gates. At a second battle (also called Hob- 
kirk's hill), between general Greene and lord Raw- 
d<jn, the Americans were again defeated, 25 April, 
1781. Camden was evacuated and burnt by the 
British, 13 May, 1781. 

CAMDEN SOCIETY, established 1838, in 
Ihonour of the distinguished historian and antiquary 
(1551-1623), publishes British historical documents. 
1517 volumes have been issued, 1895. 

CAMDEN TOWN, N.W. London, begun by 
land let for building 1400 houses by earl Camden 
in 1791 ; received his name a few years after. 

CAMEL, DAY OF THE, 4 Nov. 656 (according 
to some 658 or 659) when Talha and Zobeir, rebel 
Arab chiefs were defeated and slain by the caliph 
Ali. Ayesha, Mahomet's widow, friend of the 
chiefs, was present in a litter, on a camel, hence 
the name. 

A camel corps was raised during the Soudan campaigns 
of 1884-5. It consisted of about 1,000 camels, con- 
trolled by British cavalry and marines. 

CAMERA LUCID A, invented by Dr. Hooke 
*ibout 1674; another by Dr. Wollaston in 1807. 
Cameka Obscura, or dark chamber, constructed, 
it is said, by Boger Bacon in 1297; improved by 
Baptista Porta, about 1500; and remodelled by sir 
Isaac Newton; see Photography. The Camera 
Club (photographers), founded 1885, holds annual 
meetings. 

CAMERON'S ACT, Dr., see Debt, 1880. 

CAMERONIANS, a name frequently given 
to the Reformed Presbyterian church of Scotland, 
the descendants of the covenanters of the 17th cen- 
tury, the established church, 1638-50.* Charles II. 
signed the League and Covenant in 1 650, in hopes 
of recovering his kingdoms, but renounced it in 1661, 
and revived episcopacy. A revolt ensued in 1666, 
when many covenanters were slain in battle (in the 
Pentland hills, &c), and many refusing to take the 
oaths required, and declining to accept the king's 
indulgence, died on the scaffold, after undergoing 
cruel tortures. The name Cameronian is derived 
from Richard Cameron, one of their ministers, who 
was killed in a skirmish, in 1680. On 22 June in 
that year he and others issued at Sanquhar a de- 
claration for religious liberty. The bi-centenary 
was kept in 1880. In 1689 they raised a body of 

* They were frequently called hill-men or mountain men, 
and society people{from the places and modes of worship 
to which they were frequently reduced), and McMillanites, 
from John McMillan, their first minister, after their 
secession from the church of Scotland on account of its 
subserviency to the English government, and its declining 
from its original rigid principles. They assumed the 
name of the "Reformed Presbyterian Church," on May 
5, 1876, and soon after united with the Free Church of 
Scotland. 



soldiers to support William III., who enrolled 
them under the command of lord Angus, as the 
26th regiment, since so famous, now designated 
the Cameronians (the Scottish Rifles). In 1712 they 
renewed their public covenants, and are described 
in one of their tracts as " the suffering anti-popish, 
and anti-prelatical, anti-erastian, true presbyterian 
church of Scotland." They have now between 
thirty and forty congregations in Scotland. — The 
Cameron Highlanders ("the Queen's Own") 
formerly the 79th foot, raised in 1793 by Allan 
Cameron, were not connected with the Cameronian 
movement. 

CAMEROONS. Mountains and river, S. W. 

Africa. Dr. Nachtigall founded a German colony 

here, Aug. , which was recognised Oct. 1884. He 

died 24 April, 1885. To it was annexed the 

British colony Victoria, 28 March, 1887. 

A German expedition in 1889 left the Cameroons 
under the command of lieut. Morgan with 250 
men, to investigate the inland district of the 
Niger tributaries ; after suffering many priva- 
tions and troubles with the men, and losing 
over 100 men, lieut. Morgan and his party were 
brought from the Benue river to Akassa by an 
agent of the royal Niger company, reported 

20 March, i8gr 

Occasional fighting with the natives, capt. von 
Gravenreutli killed, reported . . Nov. , 

Mutiny of 60 Dahomey soldiers, assisted by 40 
women ; the women flogged by order of Herr 
Leist, 15 Dec. ; the rising suppressed by thecrpw 
of the Hycena and others, 21 Dec. 1893 ; Herr 
Leist is recalled to Berlin, April ; tried, censured, 
but acquitted, 16 Oct. 1894 ; a higher court 
sentence him to expulsion from the public ser- 
vice, &c April, 1895 

Major Leutwein appointed chief commander in 
S. W. Africa ; major von Francois commander of 
the troops, reported ... 20 March, 1894 

Hendrik Witbooi's stronghold stormed, 27 Aug. ; 
he surrenders unconditionally ; reported 14 Sept. ,, 

Buea captured by the Germans after slaughter of 
the natives, reported .... 17 Feb. 1895 

Bakoko tribes defeated : Jaunde occupied without 
resistance, repoited .... 7 June, ,, 

Native outbreak suppressed . . . Jan. 1896 

Two engagements near Gobabis, natives repulsed, 
with loss, by capt. Estorff . . . 5 April, ,, 

Capt. Estorff defeats the Hottentots and Hereros, 
near Gobabis 18, 19 April, ,, 

The insurrection of Hottentots suppressed by 
major Leutwein ; reported . . 19 June, ,, 

A large tract of land acquired by the Germans, 

June, ,, 

Rebellion in the south, repressed . . May, 1898 

Capt. Kamptz captures the native usurper in the 
Tibati country 25 Aug. 1899 

Rebel raids into Kribi, Batanga, repulsed after 
some days' fighting, 21-26 Sept. ; English and 
other factories looted by the Bulis, native rising, 
reported, 14 Nov. ; 2 Germans murdered, : e- 
ported, 14 Jan. ; punitive expedition sent, officers 
wounded, reported ... 23 March, 1900 

Military operations in Adamawa, chiefs submit, 
reported 9 July, 1902 

CAMISARDS (from chemise, Latin camisa, a 
shirt, which they frequently wore over their dress in 
night attacks), a name given to the French Pro- 
testants in the neighbourhood of the Cevennes 
(mountain chains in S. France), who after enduring 
much severe persecution in consequence of the 
revocation of the edict of Nantes, 22 Oct. 1685, took 
up arms in July, 1 702, to rescue some imprisoned 
brethren. They revenged the cruelties of their 
enemies, and maintained an obstinate resistance 
against the royalist armies commanded by marshal 
Montrevel, and other distinguished generals, till 
1705, when the insurrection was suppressed by 
marshal Villars. After futile conciliatory efforts, 
several of the heroic leaders suffered death rather 

p 2 



CAMLET. 



212 



CANADA. 



than surrender. Cavalier, an able general, unable 
to carry out a treaty made with Villais, seceded in 
1704, entered the British service, and died governor 
of Jersey, 1740. 

CAMLET, formerly made of silk and camel's 
hair, but now of wool, hair, and silk. Oriental 
camlet first came here from Portuguese India, in 
1660. Anderson. 

CAMORRA, a secret society of plunderers and 
ratteners, exacting money from shopkeepers and 
traders, in Naples (said to have originated from 
the extreme destitution of the lower classes); tole- 
rated under the Bourbons ; checked by the king of 
Italy ; about 80 Camorristi seized and transported, 
Sept. -Oct. 1874. Many Camorristi seized in the 
markets at Naples, 30 Aug. and 1 Sept. et seq., 1877. 
179 of these tried at Bari, mid- April, May, 1891. 
The Camorristi are said to be the highest grade of 
the society named "Mala Vita." 

159 members of the Mala Vita society arrested at 
Taranto . . . . March. 1892 

CAMP (Lat. castra, English camp is derived 
from Lat. campus, a plain), the name given to the 
place and the aggregate body of tents or huts in 
the field. Encampments are mentioned about 
1490 B.C. (Numbers ii.). The Lacedaemonians 
among the Greeks were the first who cultivated the 
art of forming military camps, the form of which 
was circular. The Romans, whose camps were 
square and entrenched, attained to a high degree 
of skill in this science. Polybius, who accom- 
panied Scipio the younger in many campaigns, 
givesa very full description of the Roman camp. As 
described by this historian the camp of a consular 
army accommodated 16,800 foot and 1,800 horse 
soldiers, and was elaborately constructed. Vestiges 
of Roman camps exist at the present day in various 
parts of England and Scotland. The introduction 
of gunpowder greatly modified the construction and 
area of camps. Artillery of the most improved type, 
and strong detached forts, constitute the chief defen- 
sive feature of entrenched camps. The vast size of 
European armies of the present day necessitate 
the accommodation of troops in cantonments or 
bivouacs, but in expeditions in hot climates, with 
flying columns, tents are used. If occupied for one 
or two nights only camps are called "flying 
camps," if for a longer period " standing camps." 
Camps of exercise of large extent are established at 
Aldershot (q.v.), Colchester, Shornclirf'e, the Cur- 
ragh, Kildare (q.v.). A camp was formed in Hyde- 
park in 1745 and I 8i4, and at the Alexandra Palace 
and Hampton Court for the Indian and Colonial 
troops, 1901-1902 (see Coronation). 

CAMPAGNA, near Rome. Its drainage and 
planting were authorised by the Italian senate, 31 
May, 1878; works completed, July, 1895. 

CAMPANIA (S. Italy), was occupied by Han- 
nibal and various cities declared in his favour 216 
B.C. ; conquered by the Romans, 213. Its capital 
was Capua {which see). 

CAMPBELL'S ACTS, introduced by John 
Campbell, lord chancellor. 1. Against libels and 
slanders, 6 & 7 Vict. c. 96 (1843), and 8 & 9 Vict. c. 
75 (1845). 2. To compel railway companies to make 
compensation for injuries by culpable accidents, 9 & 
10 Vict. c. 93 (1846). 3. Against obscene publica- 
tions, prints, &c, 20 & 21 Vict. c. 83 (18157). In 
accordance with the second act, the family of a 
gentleman killed through the breaking of a rail, 



obtained a verdict for 13,000*?. from the Great 
Northern railway company. On appeal the sumi 
was reduced. 

CAMPBELLITES, or Rowites, a name given, 
to the followers of the rev. John McLeod Campbell, 
minister of Row, Dumbartonshire, who, on 24 May,. 
183 1, was deposed by the general assembly of the- 
church of Scotland for teaching the universality of 
the atonement, and other doctrines contrary t& the- 
church's standard. Dr. Campbell established a* 
congregation in Glasgow in 1833. The " Disciples 
of Christ," which see, are also sometimes termed) 
Campbellites. 

CAMPE ACHY -BAY (Yucatan, Central 
America), discovered about 1517, and settled by 
Spaniards in 1540; taken by the English in 1659;. 
by the buccaneers in 1678; and by the freebooters- 
of St. Domingo in 1685. These last burnt the town 
and blew up the citadel. The English logwood- 
cutters made their settlement here about 1662. 

CAMPERDO WN : south of the Texel, Hol- 
land, near which admiral Duncan defeated the Dutch 
fleet, commanded by admiral De Winter ; the latter- 
losing fifteen ships, either taken or destroyed, IB' 
Oct. 1797. The British admiral was made lord Dun- 
can of Camperdown. He died suddenh r on his way 
to Edinburgh, 4 Aug. 1804. 

CAMPO FORMIO (N. Italy). Here a treaty 
was concluded between France and Austria ; the- 
latter yielding the Low Countries and the Ionian. 
Islands to France, and Milan, Mantua, and Modenai 
to the Cisalpine republic, 17 Oct. 1797. By a secret; 
article the emperor gained the Venetian dominions- 

CAMPO SANTO (Holy Field), a burial-place. 
That at Pisa, surrounded by au arcade erected by 
archbishop Ubaldo, about 1300, is celebrated for 
the frescoes painted on the walls by Giotto, Memmij. 
and others. 

CAMPUS RATJDIUS, near Verona, N. Italy. 
Here the Cimbri were defeated with great slaughter 
by Marius and Catulus, 101 B.C. 

CANAAN (Palestine), is considered to have- 
been settled by the Canaanites, 1965 B.C. (Clinton,. 
2088). Abiam, by divine command, went into the 
land of Canaan, B.C. 1921, Gen. xii. The land was- 
divided among the Israelites by Joshua, 1445 (Hales Y 
1602). 

CANADA (N. America) , was discovered by John 
and Sebastian Cabot, 24 June, 1497. In 1*524, a 
French expedition under Verazani formed a settle- 
ment named New France, and in 1535 Jacques 
Cartier (a Breton mariner), ascended the St. Law- 
rence as far as the site of Montreal ; see Montreal 
and Quebec. Canada has been termed "the Do- 
minion," since its incorporation with the other 
North American colonies, 1 July, 1867. Mr. Cas- 
tell Hopkin's " Encyclopaedia of Canada," an 
elaborate work, with articles by the chief literary- 
men of the country, vol. 2 pub. March, 1899. 
Besides the governor-general there arc the lieut.- 
governors of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, Cape 
Breton Island, New Brunswick, Manitoba, Prince 
Edward Island, British Columbia, and 'Western, 
Territories, 1892 ; N.W. territories, 1897. 
Population : 1S57, Lower Canada, 1,220,514 ; Upper- 
Canada, 1,350,923 ; of the Dominion, 1871,. 
3,788,614; 1881, 4,359,933; 1891, nearly 5,000,000 ; 
1901, 5,369,666. i 

1886-7, revenue, 7,364,916?.; expenditure. 7,326,920?. ; 
1890, revenue, 39,879,925 dollars ; expenditure, 
35,994,031 dollars ; 1893, revenue, 38,168,609. 
dollars ; expenditure, 36,814,053 dollars ; 1894-95, 



CANADA." 



213 



CANADA. 



1836 
1837 



1040 
1841 



1853 



revenue, 36,374,693 dollars ; expenditure, 
37,585,025 dollars ; 1896-7, revenue, 37,829,778 
■dollars; expenditure, 38,349,759 dollars; 1900, 
surplus, 8,054,715 dollars; 19.11, 5,648, 333 dollars. 
£886-7, imports, 23,197,035?. ; exports, 18,393,660?. ; 
1890, imports, 121,858,241 dollars ; exports, 
■ 96,749,149 dollars; 1893, imports, 129,094,268 
■dollars; exports, 118,564,352 dollars; 1897, im- 
ports, 111,294,021 dollars ; exports, 123,959,835 
dollars; 1901-02, imports, 202,791,595 dollars; 
exports, 211,725,563 dollars. 

SFirst permanent settlement : Quebec founded . . 1608 

■•Canada taken by the English, 1629 ; restored . . 1632 

'War begins in 1756 ; Canada conquered by the Eng- 
lish, 1759 (see Quebec), confirmed to them by the 
treaty of Paris, signed . . . 10 Feb. 1763 

legislative council established ; the French laws 
confirmed, and religious liberty given to Roman 
Catholics 1774 

'The Americans under Montgomery invade Canada, 
and surprise Montreal, Nov. 1775 ; expelled by 
Carleton March, 1776 

>Canada divided into Upper and Lower . . . 1791 

The " clergy reserves " established by parliament— 
one-seventh, of the waste lands of the colony ap- 
propriated for the maintenance of the Protestant 
clergy (during the debates on this bill the quarrel 
between Mr. Burke and Mr. Fox arose) . . . ,, 

'Canada made a bishopric 1793 

(United States army, under general Hull, invades 
Canada, 12 July, 1812, crossing at Detroit, re- 
pulsed at River Canard, about 3 miles from 
Amherstburgh, retreated across to Detroit and 
surrendered to gen. Brock . . 16 Aug. 18 12 

.Americans take York, 27 April ; Fort George, 27 
May, 1813 ; defeated at Lundy's Lane, 25 July, 
1814; peace signed at Ghent . . 24 Dec. 1814 

Opposition to Canada clergy reserves . . 1817 et seq. 

Treaty with United States respecting fisheries 

First railway in Canada opened . . July, 

The Papineau rebellion commences at Montreal by 
a body called Fils de la Liberte 

The rebels routed and dispersed at Toronto, 7 Dec. 

Earl of Durham appointed gov.-gen. . 16 Jan. 

(Lount and Mathews (rebels) hanged . 12 April, 

Lord Durham's ordinance prohibiting the return of 
banished rebels to Canada under pain of death, 
28 June ; censured by the home government ; he 
annuls the ordinance by proclamation, 9 Oct. ; 
justifies his conduct, resigns, and returns to 
England (where he died in 1840) . . Oct. 

(Rebellion appears in Beauharnais, 3 Nov. ; the in- 
surgents at Napierville, under Nelson, routed, 
6 Nov. ; rebellion suppressed . . .17 Nov. 

■Sir John Colborne, governor .... Dec. 

Acts relating to government of Lower Canada, 
passed in Feb. 1838, and . . . Aug. 

•Chas. Poulett Thompson (afterwards lord Sydenham), 
governor Sept. 

Upper and Lower Canada re-united . 10 Feb. 

Sir Chas. Bagot, governor .... Oct. 

■Sir Chas. T. (aft. lord) Metcalfe, governor Feb. 

Earl Catheart, governor . . . March, 

Earl of Elgin, gov. -general .... Oct. 

Riots in Montreal ; parliament house burnt 

26 April, 

•Canada clergy reserves abolished by the British 
parliament 9 May, 

'Concluded a reciprocity treaty with United States, 

7 June, 1854 

The Grand Trunk railroad of Canada (850 miles), 
from Quebec to Toronto, opened . 12 Nov. 1856 

On reference made to the queen, Ottawa, formerly 
Bytown, appointed the capital ; this decision 
unpopular Aug. 1858 

•Canada raises a regiment of soldiers (made one of 
the liae, and called the 100th) . . . . ,, 

The prinee of Wales presents the colours at Shorn- 
cliffe 10 Jan. 1859 

The prince of Wales, the duke of Newcastle, <fcc, 
arrived at St. John's, Newfoundland, 24 July ; 
-visit Halifax, 30 July ; Quebec, 18 Aug. ; Montreal, 
and ©pens the Victoria railway bridge, 25 Aug. ; 
'Ottawa, 1 Sept. ; leave Canada, 20 Sept.; after 
visiting the United States embark at Portland, 
20 Oct. ; and arrive at Plymouth . 15 Nov. i860 

Lord Monti; assumes office as gov.-gen. . 28 Nov. 1861 



In consequence of the Trent afair (see United 
States, 1861), 3000 British troops sent to Canada ; 
warlike preparations made . . Dec. 

British N. American association founded in London 

Jan. 

Cartier's ministry defeated on Militia bill ; Mr. J. 
Sandfield Macdonald, premier . 20-23 May, 

The assembly vote only 5000 militia and 5000 re- 
serve towards the defence of the country ; this 
causes discontent in England . . . July, 

Mr. J. Macdonald again premier . . 20 May, 

New Militia bill passed .... Sept. 

Military measures in progress . . Sept. 

Meeting of about 20,000 volunteers ; delegates from 
N. American colonies at Quebec, to deliberate on 
the formation of a confederation, 10 Oct. ; agree 
on the bases 20 Oct. 

Between 20 and 30 armed confederates quit Canada 
and enter the little town of St. Alban's, Vermont ; 
rob the banks, steal horses and stores, fire, and 
kill one man and wound others, and return to 
Canada, 19 Oct. ; 13 are arrested, 21 Oct. ; but are 
discharged, on account of some legal difficulty, 
by Judge Coursol . . . . 14 Dec. 

Great excitement in United States, general Dix 
proclaims reprisals ; volunteers called out in 
Canada to defend the frontiers ; president Lin- 
coln rescinds Dix's proclamation . . Dec. 

The confederation scheme rejected by New Bruns- 
wick 7 March, 

The British parliament grant 50,000?. for defence of 
Canada 23 March, 

The St. Alban's raiders discharged, 30 March ; 
Mr. Seward gives up claim for their extradition. 

April, 

Messrs. Gait and Cartier visit England to advocate 
confederation April, 

The threatened invasion of the Fenians, 9 March ; 
10,000 volunteers called out . . 15 March, 

The renewal of reciprocity treaty declined by 
United States 17 March, 

The Canadian parliament opened, for the first time, 
at Ottawa ; the Habeas Corpus act suspended : 
many Fenians flee ; 35,000 men under arms (see, 
Fenians) 8 J une, 

Discovery of gold in Hastings county, Canada west, 

Nov. 

Act for the union of Canada, Nova Scotia, and New 
Brunswick under the name of the Dominion of 
Canada, with parliament, to consist of the Queen, 
a senate of 72 members, and a house of commons 
of 181 members, passed . . .29 March, 

Canada railway loan act passed . 12 April, 

Lord Monck sworn in as viceroy of Canada, by 
virtue of the act for the union of the British 
provinces in North America . . 2 July, 

New parliament meets at Ottawa (John Alex. Mac- 
donald premier) 6 Nov. 

Reported agitation against the new confederation in 
Nova Scotia . .... Jan. 

Murder of Mr. D'Arcy McGee . . .7 April, 

A Fenian raid into Canada vigorously repelled by 
the militia .... about 24 May, 

Visit of prince Alfred . . . Sept. et seq. 

Sir John Young (aft. lord Lisgar) appointed gover- 
nor-general in room of lord Monck (resigned), 
arrives 27 Nov. 

Hudson's Bay territories purchased, subject to 
conditions, for 300,000?. (see Hudson's Bay) Nov. 

In consequence of the resistance of some of the 
settlers (see Rupert's Land), an expedition, under 
colonel Wolseley, arrived at Fort Garry, and 
a conciliatory proclamation was issued 23 July, 

Rupert's Land formed into a province, named Mani- 
toba ; Mr. Adams G. A. Archibald named the first 
governor Aug. 

Canada defences loan act passed . . 9 Aug. 

Disputes with United States respecting fishing, Nov. 

Opposition to the fishery clauses in the treaty of 
Washington June, 

By the British North America act, the parliament 
of Canada may establish new provinces, 29 June, 

British Columbia united to the " Dominion " . . 

Departure of last battalion of royal troops . Nov. 

A liberal ministry constituted under Mr. Edward 
Blake 23 Dec. 

Lord (aft. earl of) Dufferm appointed governor- 
general ; inaugurated ... 25 June 



1H01 
1862 



1863 



1865 



1867 



1869 
1870 

1871 
1872 



CANADA. 

Sir George Cartier, statesman, died . . 20 May, 

Mr. Arch, on behalf of British labourers, visits 
Canada autumn 

The ministry of sir John Alexander Macdonald 
charged with corruption connected with the Pa- 
cific railway ; the parliament suddenly prorogued 
by lord Dufferin 13 Aug. 

Commission of inquiry Sept. 

Parliament meets, 23 Oct. ; the ministry resigns, 
5 Nov. ; Mr. Alex. Mackenzie forms a ministry, 

7 Nov. 

New reciprocity treaty rejected by the U.S. senate, 

4 Feb. 

The Canadian and United States fishery commission 
(sir Alexander Gait for Canada, Mr. E. T. Kellogg 
for United States, and M. Delfoss, Belgian U.S. 
ministei) meet at Halifax, 15 June; award 
5,500,000 dollars to Canada, Mr. Kellogg dissent- 
ing 23, 24 Nov. 

American fishermen in Fortune Bay attacked for 
breaking laws respecting fishing . . 6 Jan. 

Elections : great majority against the government, 
about 19 Sept. 

The marquis of Lome appointed governor-general, 

14 Oct. 

Kesignation of ministry ; sir John Macdonald forms 
a new one about 19 Oct. 

Halifax award paid .... 21 Nov. 

The marquis of Lome and princess Louise land at 
Halifax 25 Nov. 

The Queen's telegram, "Delighted at reception, say 
so " ....... 1 Dec. 

A protectionist budget passed . . . 15 Mar. 

Dominion industrial exhibition at Ottawa opened 
by the marquis of Lome. . . -24 Sept. 

Fortune Bay affair (Jan. 1878), compensation refused 
by the earl of Salisbury, granted by lord Gran- 
ville, but rules affirmed ... 26 Oct. 

Return of Canadian prosperity affirmed by the mar- 
quis of Lome 9 Dec. 

Contract for new Pacific railway ratified by the 
assembly 1 Feb. ; work commenced . . May, 

Victoria steamer sunk on the Thames, great loss of 
life (see Wrecks) 24 May, 

Fortune Bay affair ; 15, 000L awarded . 28 May, 

Successful progress of the governor- general through 
the dominion .... July— Oct. 

The marquis of Lome arrives at Birkenhead 
14 Nov. 1881 ; returns to Canada . . 21 Jan. 

Pacific railway bill passed . . . 20 April, 

Society for the Advancement of Literature and 
Science founded in Ottawa by the marquis of 
Lome 25 May, 

Elections : a protectionist majority . . June, 

Western territory beyond Manitoba divided into 
four new districts : Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, 
Alberta, and Athabasca : by order in council July, 

Marquis of Lome returns to Ottawa from a visit to 
British Columbia, Washington, &c. . 31 Jan. 

New parliament meets .... 8 Feb. 

The marquis of Lansdoivne arrives at Quebec as 
governor-general 22 Oct. 

Canada offers military assistance in the Soudan Feb. 

Insurrection in N. W. Territories (see Manitoba), 

March, 

Insurrection in N.W. territories, headed by Louis 
Kiel, of Batoche (see Hudson's Bay, 1870), sup- 
ported by French half-breeds and Indians, claim- 
ing political and social rights alleged to have been 
promised in 1870; government stores seized, &c, 
about 24 March. Capt. Crozier attacks and kills 
many rebels, but retreats. Col. Irvine evacuates 
and burns Fort Carleton . . 25-27 March, 

Troops despatched from various parte of the 

dominion March, April, 

Battleford besieged by Indians . . 1 April, 
Col. Irvine at Prince Albert waiting help 1 April, 

Col. Otter occupies Battleford without opposition 

24 April, 

Gen. Middleton defeats rebels at Fish Creek after 

severe conflict, and suffering much by an ambush 

of sharpshooters 24 April. 

Skirmishing at Cut Knife Creek . . 1 May, 
Gen. Middleton attacks Batoche on the Saskatche- 
wan river, well defended by Kiel, with rifle-pits, 
&c. British success greatly due to the skill and 
courage of capt. Howard, U.S., in using the 



214 



CANADA. 



1873 



1875 



1877 



Gatling gun, which mowed down the enemy 
(Batoche captured) 9 May, : 

The Indian chief Poundmaker captures a supply 
train, 31 waggons ; defeated in an engagement 
but supplies not recovered ... 14 May, 

Riel surrenders to gen. Middleton's scouts ; many 
of his followers surrender . . . 15 May, 

1500 Indians under Big-Bear and Poundmaker 
hold out, reported 15 May, 

Surrender of the Indian chiefs ; Poundmaker sur- 
renders 26 May, 

General Strange attacks Big-Bear's entrenched 
camp, about 20 miles from Fort Pitt, but retreats 
in good order . . . . 28, 29 May, 

Big-Bear's army divided, pursued by generals Mid- 
dleton and Strange ; his escape reported 7 June, 
captured 3 July ; sentenced with others to im- 
prisonment 27 Sept 

Canadian Pacific Railway completed about 2900 
miles ; first through train from Montreal to Van- 
couver 8 Nov. 

[First public daily train 28 June, 1886.] 

Message of congratulation from the Queen to the 
people of Canada 6 Nov. 

Trial of Louis Riel at Regina 20 July ; convicted 
1 Aug. ; 28 prisoners plead guilty to treason 
felony 5 Aug. ; appeal for Riel on ground of 
insanity disallowed 10 Sept. ; appeal dismissed by 
privy council, London, 22 Oct. ; Riel executed near 
Regina 16 Nov. 

French demonstrations against the government at 
Montreal and Quebec without rioting 17 Nov. 

Eight Indian murderers hanged at Battleford 

27 Nov. 

Seizure of American vessel for illegal fishing in the 

Bay of Fundy announced about 24 April ; released 

about 27 April, 

David J. Adams, U.S. fishing vessel, seized at Digby, : 
Nova Scotia, for alleged illegal practices, an- 
nounced 8 May (captain fined 19 July) ; the 
Americans seize the Sisters, a Canadian smack, 
in retaliation (released 30 May) ; Mr. Bayard, 
U.S. minister, appeals to the British government 
for release of David J. Adams ; Canadian armed 
fleet sent out ; new legislation at Ottawa May, 

Seizure and counter-seizure of 35 vessels . . 18 

General amnesty to all persons implicated in the 
rebellion, except murderers . . 9 July, 1 

Dissolution of Parliament . . . 17 Jan. i 

Sir Alexander Campbell appointed high com- 
missioner for Canada in London in succession to 
sir Charles Tupper Feb. 

Elections, majority for government 49, 23 Feb. ; 
House opened 13 April, 

Fisheries Retaliation Bill passed by the United 
States congress .... 3 March, 

Mr. Wm. O'Brien, editor of United Ireland, arrives 
at Montreal on a mission 1 1 May ; visits Ottawa, 
Toronto, &c. ; generally unsuccessful, and fre- 
quently stoned ; left . . . .28 May, 

Joint commission on fisheries dispute (3 British, 
including Mr. J. Chamberlain, and 3 United 
States) appointed . . . about 30 Ang, 

British vessels seized by United States authorities 
in N. Pacific waters . . 2, 9, 12, 17 Aug. 

Great railway bridge over the St. Lawrence at 
Lachine completed .... 30 July, 

Arrangements made for a fortnightly mail service, 
&c, from London to the East by the Pacific 
Railway by government subsidies . . Sept. 

Treaty respecting fisheries signed at Washington, 
U.S. (see Fisheries) .... 15 Feb. i 

The senate refuses to ratify . . .21 Aug. 

The David J. Adams and Ella Doughty, the American 
fishing vessels, released ... 28 Feb. 

The bill for trade reciprocity with United States 
negatived after 15 days' debate . . 7 April, 

The marquis of Lansdowne leaves Canada 23 May ; 
succeeded by Lard Stanley of Preston (see Salisbury 
Admin.) ; who took the oath . . n June, 

Commissioners report the capability of the great 
Mackenzie basin, &c. (about 1,260,000 square 
miles) for colonization ; announced . . Sept. 

Proposed extension by Manitoba of the Red River 
railway across the Pacific railway; opposed by 
the Canadian Pacific Company as interfering 
with their monopoly, and disallowed by the 
Dominion parliament : a compromise agreed to ; 



CANADA. 



215 



CANADA. 



the Manitoba government determine to proceed ; 
the Canadian compmy resists, Oct. ; conflict 
between the men, the company successful, 26 
Oct. ; decision of the supreme court in favour of 
Manitoba announced 23 Dec. ; leave given to cross 
the line 28 Jan. 

Proposal of a petition to the Queen to give the 
governor-general independent action in foreign 
affairs negatived by parliament (94-66) . 18 Feb. 

Jesuits' estate act, restoring property to them, 
much opposed by Protestants in Quebec ; their 
petition against the act disallowed by govern- 
ment Aug. 

Destructive storm from Ontario to Quebec, 14 Jan. 

Parliament opened, general prosperity announced 

16 Jan. 

The commons of the dominion unanimously vote 
a resolution of adhesion to the mother country ; 
a copy to be sent to the queen . . 29 Jan. 

The Manitoba railway named the Great Northern 
railway of Canada Jan. 

Crowfoot, the lawyer chief of the Blackfeet Indians 
dies, sending a message of thanks for kindness 
received from the government . . 26 April 

Resignation of gen. Middleton, commander of 
militia (under censure) . . about 24 June, 

David Crockett, U.S. schooner, seized for illegal 
fishing, near Prince Edward Island, released on 
bond, reported 28 Sept. 

John Reginald Birchall, an educated Englishman, 
tried at Woodstock, Ontario, for the murder in 
Niagara swamp, of Mr. F. J. Benwell (whom he 
had decoyed from England into a farming part- 
nership), 17 Feb. Birchall wrote a forged letter 
to Col. Benwell, requesting him to send 500^ to 
his son : evidence circumstantial ; eight days' 
trial; Birchall convicted 11.45 p.m., 29 Sept. ; 
executed 14 Nov. 

The Indians of Ontario and Quebec, at a meeting 
on 21 Nov., agree to petition the government to 
release them from the political franchise, and to 
permit them to elect their own chiefs as formerly, 
still remaining subject to the queen ; petition 
presented, and reserved for consideration, Dec. 
1890 ; parliament dissolved . . .4 Feb. 

Sir John Macdonald, the premier, and the con- 
servatives, propose reciprocity with the United 
States, restricted to natural products ; Mr. 
Laurier and the liberals propose unrestricted 
reciprocity 

Elections ; estimated result, for the government, 
124 ; for the opposition, 91 . . 5 March, 

The Canadian Pacific railway completed by giving 
an entrance to New York over the New York 
central lines, by agreement between the com- 
panies 28 March, 

The new parliament opened by lord Stanley, 

30 April, 

Death of sir John Macdonald, aged 76, greatly 
lamented, 6 June ; public funeral at Kingston, 

10, 11 June, 

The lion. John Joseph C. Abbott becomes premier, 

14 June, 
[K.C.M.G. 24 May.] 

Motion in favour of unrestricted reciprocity with 
the United States, after 15 days' debate, rejected 
in the commons, by a government majority of 26, 

29 July, 

Great strike in the lumber mills at Ottawa begins 

14 Sept. 

Sir Hector Louis Langevin, minister of public 
works, and his friend, the hon. Thomas 
McGreevy, an active ministerialist M.P., and 
other officials, charged by Mr. Tarte, M.P., a jour- 
nalist, with corruption in relation to contracts 
for government works in 1890 ; the matter re- 
ferred to the standing committee on privileges 
and elections, which met 21 July ; sir H. 
Langevin makes his defence, 11 Aug. ; his re- 
signation as minister accepted, 7 Sept. ; Mr. 
T. McGreevy makes damaging admissions, and 
retires to the United States ; the committee in 
their report exonerate sir H. Langevin from all 
e.harges, except that of negligence ; they censure 
Mr. T. McGreevy, and certain officials, 14 Sept. 

Report adopted by the house . . 25 Sept. 

The St. Clair tunnel connecting the Canadian and 
the United States railways running to Chicago 



890 



opened by sir Henry Tyler, chairman of the 
Grand Trunk railway . . . -19 Sept. 

Lady Macdonald created a peeress as baroness 
Macdonald of Earnscliffe .... Oct. 

Very large crop of wheat in the N.W. territories, 

eDd of Nov. 

In consequence of the restriction of Newfoundland 
in its supply of herring bait to Canadian fisher- 
men, the Dominion government imposes a duty 
on imported Newfoundland fish . . 8 Dec. 

Mr. Nicholas Conolly and Mr. Thomas McGreevy 
committed for trial .... 24 Dec. 

Lachute, on the Canadian Pacific line, burnt, 

7 Jan. 

Meeting at Washington of the representatives of 
Canada and the United States to consider reci- 
procity, no result .... 10-15 Feb. 

Negotiations broken off . . . .20 June, 

The dominion parliament opened by lord Stanley 
of Preston 24 Feb. ■ 

Difficulty with Newfoundland ended ; return to the 
status of 1889 21 May, 

Mr. Thomas McGreevy sentenced to 12 months' 
imprisonment April, 

The hon. Alexander Mackenzie, originally a Scotch 
mason, came to Canada and gradually rose till he 
became liberal premier, 1873-8 ; he passed several 
important acts and promoted great public works ; 
visited Great Britain and was received at Windsor, 
1875 ; died aged 70 . . . . 17 April, 

Motion for a new reciprocity tariff with Great 
Britain, adopted by the commons at Ottawa 
(98—64) 25 April, 

Death of sir William Ritchie, chief justice and 
statesman .... about 25 Sept. 

Resignation of sir John Abbott, premier, 25 
Nov. ; succeeded by sir John S. D. Thompson 

Nov. 

Department of trade and commerce to be created 

Dec. 

The sentence of Mr. Thomas McGreevy reduced 
from 12 to 9 months' imprisonment . 17 Dec. 

Parliament opened ; prosperity reported, 26 Jan. ; 
closed 2 April, 

Treaty for reciprocal trade between Fiance and 
Canada signed at Paris .... 9 Feb. 

Lord Stanley of Preston becomes earl of Derby 

21 April, 

The earl of Aberdeen appointed governor-general, 
May ; arrives at Ottawa ... 25 Sept. 

Meetings of the liberal convention at Ottawa for 
promoting tariff reform, reciprocity, and an 
elective senate, &c mid June, 

Sir Alexander Gait, statesman, aged 76, died, 19 
Sept. ; Sir John Abbott, aged 72, died . 30 Oct. 

Mr. Thomas McGreevy and Mr. N. K. Conolly 
sentenced at Ottawa to 1 year's imprisonment 
for conspiracy to defraud the government, 
22 Nov. 1893 ; released . Fob. 

New tariff bill, favouring trade with Great Britain, 
introduced 27 March, 

Annual meeting of the Canadian Imperial Federa- 
tion League held at Ottawa . . .29 May, 

Intercolonial conference opened at Ottawa (see 
Colonies) .... 28 June-9 July, 

The earl and countess of Aberdeen close an exten- 
sive tour in W. Canada . . . .23 Nov. 

Death of sir John Thompson (born 10 Nov., 1844), 
of heart disease, at Windsor Castle, after being 
sworn in as privy councillor, 12 Dec. ; state 
funeral at Halifax, St. Mary's Cathedral, R.C., 
the earl and countess of Aberdeen, and other 
eminent persons present, 3 Jan. 1895. 

New ministry formed by Mr. Mackenzie Bowell 

14 Dec. 

See Behring Straits and Manitoba . . March, 

Opening of parliament, federation with Newfound- 
land (which see), proposed . . 19 April, 

Report of royal commission on the liquor traffic, 
with recommendations ; prohibition disapproved 
of ; issued 25 April, 

Budget announced, 1895-6 ; probable deficit, 
4,500,000 dollars, to be met by increased 
taxation 3 Ma Y. 

Tottenham partially destroyed by fire, estimated 
damage, 150,000 dollars . . .18 June, 

First exhibition at Regina, N.W. Canada, opened 
by the gov. -general „ 3°J u ^y> 



1S93 



CANADA. 216 



CANADA. 



Franco-Canadian commercial treaty ratified 7 Oct. 1895 
The Imperial government agrees to grant 75,000?. 
per annum to support a fast mail service and 
Pacific cable between Gt. Britain and Canada ; 
announced 19 Nov. „ 

Thanksgiving day for a bountiful harvest 21 Nov. ,, 

A draft bill amending the Copyright Act of 1889 (a 
compromise) brought forward . . 25 Nov. „ 

"Bell river," the name given to a large river dis- 
covered by sir Robert Bell, near the upper 
Ottawa, reported Nov. ,, 

The earl and countess of Aberdeen return to 
Ottawa after a long visit to the Far West, 7 Dec. ,, 

Discontent with the premier, sir Mackenzie Bowell ; 
7 ministers resign 5 Jan. 1896 

Ministry reconstituted . . . .15 Jan. ,, 

Sir Charles Tupper, jun., secretary of state 

16 Jan. ,, 

Total force of all ranks, 28,962, reported by the 
militia department .... 30 Jan. ,, 

' ^British empire league " meeting held at 

Ottawa 4 March, ,, 

The Catholic Schools remedial (Manitoba) bill read 
second time, 112 — 94, 39 hours sitting, 20 March ; 
debate on the third reading, religious and politi- 
cal differences, after 129 hours continuous sitting 
the house adjourned, 6-1 1 April; after 59 more 
hours the debate suspended, 16 April ; parlia- 
ment prorogued ... 23 April, ,, 

Sir Mackenzie Bowell resigns, 27 April; new 
ministry formed by sir Charles Tupper . 1 May, „ 

Royal society of Canada (unification of time, etc., 
considered) met at Ottawa . . .19 May, ,, 

Elections : victory of Mr. Wilfrid Laurier (French 
origin) and the liberals . . . 23 June, ,, 

Resignation of sir Charles Tupper . 8 July, ,, 

Mr. Laurier made president of the privy council 
11 July ; premier . . . .13 July, ,, 

New parliament opened at Ottawa by the earl of 
Aberdeen, 20 Aug ; liberal majority in first con- 
flict (34) 22 Sept. „ 

Lord Russell of Killowen arrives at Montreal, 27 
Aug ; at Ottawa 2 Sept. „ 

The dispute with Manitoba to be settled by arrange- 
ment ; reported 6 Sept. ,, 

Strike on the Canadian Pacific railway, 28 Sept. ; 
ended by compromise . ... 7 Oct. „ 

Parliament prorogued .... 5 Oct. „ 

About 21,341 immigrants arrive during the year ; 
reported i 7 Dec. ,, 

The "United empire association" started at 
Ottawa ; announced .... 3 Jan. 1897 

War eagle mine in British Columbia purchased, by 
a Toronto syndicate for 850,000 dollars . Jan. „ 

Parliament opened by lord Aberdeen 25 March, ,, 

Budget : new tariff, favouring and strengthening 
the union with Gt. Britain and colonies ; oppo- 
sing the United States ; increase on spirits and 
tobacco, reduction on iron, steel and taxation, 
proposed ; 22 April ; passed, at Ottawa 18 June, ,, 

Sir Donald Smith, high commissioner, made a peer 
(lord Strathcona) .... 21 June, „ 

Mr. Laurier, sir Richard Cartwright, and sir Oliver 
Mowat made, G.C.M.G. . . .21 June, ,, 

Parliament prorogued .... 29 June, ,, 

The alien labour laws in the United States en- 
forced against Canadians, causes much indig- 
nation ; reported ; 7 July ; retaliation enforced ; 
announced 14 July, ,, 

Gold discovered in the N.W., in the Yukon 
districtand(oi) the Klondyke by Geo. McCormack, 
17 Aug. 1896), about 250,000 square miles rapid 
development; new government mining regula- 
tions, July ; great rush to the Klondyke gold- 
fields ; much suffering at Dawson city, site 
belonging to Joseph Ladue, provisions scarce, 
miners leaving, Aug. ; starvation averted (major 
Walsh appointed governor, early 1898) . Dec. „ 

Steamer from Klondyke, with 35 miners and 
200,000 dollars of gold, arrives at Victoria, B.C., 
29 Aug. ; [nearly 1,000,000 dollars in value arrived 
there, 15 July, 1898I 

Sir Wilfrid Laurier warmly welcomed on his return 
from England 30 Aug. ,, 

Busli fires (300 squ. mi.); 3 villages destroyed, 20 
mi. S. of Ottawa : 5 deaths ; reported 6 Oct. ,, 

Discovery of a rich vein of gold. nearWawa lake : 
reported . « . Oct. 



New government mining regulations in the Yukon 
district ; issued 17 Jan. 1 

Gold discovered in the Hay, Buffalo, and other 
rivers that run into the Great Slave lake . Jan. 

Parliament opened, with a cheerful speech, 3 Feb. 

Resignation of the earl of Aberdeen (to leave in 
Oct.) announced .... 13 May, 

Parliament prorogued .... 13 June, 

Lord Herschell, sir Wilfrid Laurier, sir R. Cart- 
wright, and sir L. H. Davies (Canada 1 appointed 
British high commissioners for the international 
commission between United States and Canada, 
29 June. Mr. Chas. Fairbanks and four others 
appointed U.S. commissioners, 16 July ; meet at 
Quebec 23 Aug. et seq. 

The earl of Minto appointed to succeed the earl of 
Aberdeen as governor-gen. . . . July, 

A pier of the Ottawa and New York railway bridge 
fell, 14 deaths 6 Sept. 

A statue of Samuel Champlain, founder of Quebec 
in 1608, unveiled there by lord Aberdeen, 21 Sept. 

Farewell banquet to lord and lady Aberdeen, 
1 Nov.; they leave Quebec on the arrival of lord 
and lady Minto 12 Nov. 

Serious fires at Dawson city, 14 Oct. (again, 25 
April and 3 July, 1899) 

Postage rate reduced from 3 to 2 cents to U.S.N. A. 
and all parts of Canada .... Dec. 

Father Chiniquy, born 30 July, 1809, a great tem- 
perance leader, seceded from Romanism 1858, 
dies 16 Jan. : 

Archibald Lampman, poet, born 17 Nov. 1861, dies 

11 Feb. 

Internat. c 'mmission (U.S. and Canada) adjourns ; 
disputed questions, Alaskan boundary, &c, re- 
mitted to the two governments, 20 Feb. ; lord 
Herschell, the president, dies suddenly, 1 March, 

Parliament opened by the governor . 16 March, 

Sir Charles Tupper's motion for a judicial inquiry 
into the administration of the Yukon, defeated, 
majority of 50 30 June, 

Dominion day (32nd) kept from the Atlantic to the 
Pacific 1 July, 

The hon. Wm. Eli Sanford, "wool king," born 
1838, drowned in the Muskoka lakes, Ontario 

10 July, 

Serious riots due to a tram strike in London, 
Ontario, troops called out . . 8, 9 July, 

Government redistribution bill rejected by the 
senate, 36 — 14 . ... 20 July, 

Canada's contribution to the Pacific cable to Aus- 
tralia and New Zealand (cost 1,700,000?.) sanc- 
tioned 25 July, 

Sir Wilfrid Laurier's resolution of sympathy with 
the imperial government's S. African policy 
adopted unanimously in both houses, 

31 July, 1 Aug. 

Sir James D. Edgar, speaker of the commons, 
author of "This Canada of ours," and other 
poems, born 1841, died ... 31 July, 

The Soulanges canal (1,435 miles 14 ft. navigation), 
from Quebec to lake Superior, opened 9 Oct. 

Ministry reconstituted ; the hon. G. W. Ross, 
premier 21 Oct. 

Provisional boundary between Canada and Alaska, 
proposed by U.S.N. A., accepted by Great Britain, 

20 Oct. 

The hon. Peter Mitchell, one of the "Fathers" of 
Canadian federation, born 1818, died . 25 Oct. 

Departure of troops for S. Africa from Quebec, 

30 Oct. 

Sir Wm. Dawson, born 1820, eminent naturalist 
and writer, principal and prof. nat. phi', of McGill 
university, Montreal, in 1855, dies . 19 Nov. 

Lord Strathcona' s offer to raise and maintain 400 
men for service in S. Africa accepted . 12 Jan. 1 

Great fire in Dawson city, Klondike, estimated 
damage 400,000 dols. .... 10 Jan. 

Lord Minto reviews the 2nd battalion of Canadian 
M.R. for S. Africa at Ottawa . . 10 Jan. 

Parliament opened by lord Minto, 1 Feb. ; address 
passed, 6 Feb. ; great speech by sir Wilfrid 
Laurier on Canada and Great Britain . 7 Feb. 

Loyal mass meeting at Toronto . . 20 Feb. 

Sir Wilfrid Laurier speaks warmly in favour of the 
S. African war; vote ol confidence, 119-10, 

13 March 



CANADA. 



217 



CANADA. 



Mr. Fielding introduces the budget with an 
eloquent speech, reports great prosperity in 1899, 
the first year in which the preferential tariff, 25 
per cent, reduction in favour of the United 
Kingdom, was in full force . . 23 March, 

Attempt to blow up a lock on the Welland canal, 
between lakes Brie and Ontario, 21 April: 3 
men convicted and sentenced to life imprison- 
ment 24 May, 

Hull, a suburb of Ottawa, nearly destroyed by 
fire, and part of Otrawa also burnt ; 8 deaths, 
18,000 homeless, 5,000 unemployed ; estimated 
damage 3,ooo,oooL, 26, 27 April ; queen's mes- 
sage of sympathy, 27 April ; .-ee Mansion House; 
relief fund at Ottawa, 952,182 dols. (8 Jan. 1901) 

27 April 

Forest fires in N. Ontario, many settlers ruined 

May, 

Copyright bill passed both houses of parliament, 
announced 10 July 

Parliament prorogued ; many laws passed during 
session 18 July 

Great fire at Paris (Ontario) ; 40 houses burnt ; 
estimated damage over 300,000 dol. . 12 Sept. 

Dissolution of parliament ... 9 Oct. 

Lord and lady Minto's successful tour through 
Western Canada to the Pacific (over 10,000 miles) 
completed 16 Oct. 

Demonstrations in honour of lord Strathcona at 
Montreal 19 Oct. 

Elections : large government majority . 7 Nov. 

Canadian troops under col. Otter warmly thanked 
by the queen at Windsor for their se .vices in 
S. Africa 30 Nov. 

Universal mourning on the death of the queen 

22 Jan. 

Lord Strathcona's Regiment of Horse presented 
with colours and medals by the king in London 

15 Feb. 

Dr. Geo. Mercer Dawson, eminent geologist, born 
1849, died 2 March, 

Sir Wilfrid Laurier upholds British policy in 
S. Africa, an adverse motion rejected, 144 — 3 

12 March, 

Budget: la'ge surplus, 8,054,715 dol. for 1900, 

14 March, 

May 24 made a Bank holiday and called Victoria 
Day by bill passed 9 May, 

Parliament prorogued .... 23 May, 

Sir Thomas Gait, late chiel justice in Ontario, 
dies, aged 86 end June 

Royal Tour : the duke and duchess of Cornwall 
warmly received at Quebec, the duke made LL.D. 
of the Laval university, 16 tept. ; review of 
troops, 17 Sept. ; a loyal welcome at Montreal, 
5 Iroquois chiefs with their squaws presented ; 
the medical hall at McGib university opened, 
degrees conferred, 18, 19 Sept. ; receive! at 
Ottawa by lord Minto, presented with an address 
at the parliament housf, 20 Sept.; the duke 
unveils a statue of queen Victoria and presents 
war medals, etc.. to the troops, 21 bept. ; cele- 
brations and festivities at Winnipeg, 26 Sept.; 
at Regina, N.W. Territory, 27 Sept.; at Calgary 
war medals presenter! and an Indian encampment 
visited, 28 Sept.; warmly welcomed at Vancouver, 
30 Sept., and Victoria, 1 Oct.; at Toronto 11,000 
troops reviewed, lieut. Cockburn receives the 
V.C., 11 Oct.; London and Niagara visited, 
12 Oct.; Hamilton, Kingston, and other cities 
visited, 14-16 Oct.; St. John, New Brunsw'ck, 
17 Oct.; "unrivalled among the naval ports of 
the world" were the duke's woids on arriving at 
Halifax, Nova Scotia, 19 Oct.; see Newfoundland, 

21 Oct. 

Canadian manufacturers' a-isoc. meets at Montreal, 
lord Strathcona, sir W. Laurier, ant others 
present; resolutions adopted . . 6 Nov. 

Parliament opened by the governor . 13 Feb. : 

Royal commission recommends prohibition of 
further immigration of Chinese labourers . Feb. 

Mr. Fielding's budget: estimated surplus (1902) 
5,800,000 dol 17 March, 

Meeting of 60 chambers of commerce on imperial 
trade at Toronto 4 June, 

Great sympathy with the king's illness 24 June, 

Lord Lmndonald, new commander of militia, 
enthusiastically received ... 25 July, 



Canadian coronation arch in Whitehall, London, 
erected by the government, June ; finely illu- 
minated 9-12 Aug. 

Sir Wilfrid Laurier visits England and France 

during summer 

Lord Minto reviews the Nat. Guards (New York 
State) 1 Sept. 

V sit of sir E. Barton, sir J. Forrest, and other 
Australians early Sept. 

Russian immigrants of the Dukhobor sect leaving 
their settlements in East Assiniboia migrate into 
Manitoba : they are compelled by the govern- 
ment to return Oct. 

Pacific cable completed Nov. 

American syndicate purchased 2,000,000 acres in 
the North-West to settle 12,500 citizens, 

reported 14 Nov. 

Railway collision in Ontario, 28 lives lost . 26 Dec. 

Alaska boundary treaty signed . . 24 Jan. 

Report of Canadian department of Indian affairs 
1901-02, showing distinct progress . issued Feb. 

Paardeberg day celebrated in all the principal cities 
by gathering of S. African veterans . 27 Feb. 

New Brunswick general election, government 
secures 38 out of 46 seats . . .28 Feb. 

Resolution advocating home rule for Ireland 
carried in the Dominion parliament by 102 votes 
to 41. Decennial redistribution bill introduced 

Great floods around Montreal, much damage done. 
Toronto opera house destroyed by fire, 1 50,000 dols. 
loss 25 March 

Official return of Ontario plebiscite, taken 4 Dec. 
recording 190,692 in favour of the Liquor Act, 
103,482 against, requisite majority required to 
bring the Act in force not obtained, published Feb. 

Sir W. Laurier introduced bill for the readjustment 
of the constituencies, based on census of 1901 

1 April 

New provisions of Canadian customs tariff relating 
to German goods came into force . . 16 April 

Budget estimated surplus, 1903, 13,350,000 dols. 

16 April 

Sir Oliver Mowat, statesman, dies, aged 82 ; see 
Ontario 19 April 

Volcanic explosion in Rocky Mountains coal- 
mining region, 75 lives lost . . .29 April 

Dock strike at Montreal, causing much incon- 
venience to shipping .... 7-10 May 

Great fire at Ottawa, 1,200 people homeless, 10 May, 
and at St. Hyacinthe, 1,000,000 dols. damage, 
many shops and 250 houses burnt . 20 May 

Extension of the earl of Minto's governorship for 
another year from October, 1903, announced 

end May 

Ministry of Brit. Columbia dismissed by lt.- 
governor. Mr. R. McBride, leader of the opposi- 
tion, forms new government, himself as premier 
and chief commissioner . . early June 

Great forest fires reported from Manitoba and in 
Eastern Canada .... early June 

Drought of 66 days in Montreal section broken 

12 June 

House of commons rejected by 102 to 50 votes 
motion declaring for a fiscal policy adequately 
and firmly protective of national and Canadian 
interests late June 

Resignation of Mr. Blair, minister of railways and 
canals mid-July 

Great victory of conservatives in Manitoba elec- 
tions 20 July 

Federal government, in view of future development 
of the North-West, adopts scheme of new railway 
from Moncton, New Brunswick, via Quebec, to 
Winnipeg, 2,000 miles, at cost of 12,000,000^., to 
be constructed under specially appointed com- 
missioners, line to be leased for 50 years to Grand 
Trunk Pacific co. early July, agreement between 
government and company signed . 27 July 

Bill for construction of the new transcontinental 
railway introduced in the house of assembly by 
sir W. Laurier 3° July 

Fifth congress of chambers of commerce of the 
empire under presidency of lord Brassey, opened 
at Montreal 17 Au S- 

Canadian government steamer Neptune sails for 
Hudson Bay and Arctic regions on a botanical, 
geological and natural history expedition, 22 Aug. 



1902 



CANAL BOATS. 



218 



CANCER HOSPITAL. 



Government's transcontinental railway proposals 
passed by the Dominion house of commons by 
117 votes to 71 end Aug. 1903 

Lord Lyveden and members of the British par- 
liamentary party, on tour of investigation in 
Canada and the United States, arrive at Quebec, 
end Aug. Entertained by mayor of Montreal 

1 Sept. ,, 

36 hours' sitting of house of commons in con- 
sequence of opposition declining to pass clause 2 
of the Grand Trunk Pacific agreement until 
government furnishes fuller information, 3-4 Sept. „ 

Ontario conservative convention re-affirms its vote 
for preferential trade within the empire, mid Sept. „ 

Reports of serious reduction of yield of crops by 
storms officially contradicted, and stating that 
90 to 9s per cent, of estimated crop for 1903 
(57,000,000 bush.) will be marketed . 18 Sept. ,, 

Alaska award signed at London . . 20 Oct. ,, 

CANAL BOATS, used as dwellings; an act 
passed for their registration and regulation, 14 Aug. 
1877 (40 & 41 Vict. c. 60); amended, 1884. M. 
Rigoni's application of mechanical traction to canal 
boats by means of an endless cable of Bessemer 
steel, set in motion by fixed engines ; tried between 
Antwerp and Liege, Sept. 1882. 

CANALS (artificial watercourses). The im- 
perial canal in China, commenced in the 13th 
century, is said to pass over 2000 miles, and to 41 
cities ; see Ganges, Suez, Panama, Punjaub, and 
Germany, 1899. 
The canal of Languedoc (Canal du Midi) which joins 

the Mediterranean with the Atlantic Ocean, was 

completed 1681 

Orleans from the Loire to the Seine commenced . 1675 

Burgundy canal i 775 

That between the Baltic and the North Sea, at Kiel, 

opened i 7 8 5 

That of Bourbon, between the Seine and Oise, 

commenced 1790 

Seine and Loire, opened 179! 

That from the Cattegat to the Baltic . . 1794-1800 
The great American Erie canal, 363 miles in length, 

was commenced 18 17 

That of Amsterdam to the sea . . . . 1819-25 

Ganges canal completed 1S54 

Canal between Amsterdam and the North Sea 

opened 1 Nov. 1876 

Grand canal connecting the Atlantic and Medi- 
terranean (between Bordeaux and Narbonne) 

proposed May, 1884 

Baltic and North Sea canal (61 miles long) proposed 

Jan. 1884; completed, see Baltic and Kiel, 1895. 
Inland navigation congress at Brussels opened 

25 May, 1885 
Manchester ship canal (see Manchester) . . . ,, 
Railway and Canal Traffic Act passed . 10 Aug. 1888 
Fourth international congress on inland navigation, 

Manchester, 28-31 July, 1890; fifth, Paris, 21 July, 1892 
Joint parliamentary committee sitting . June, 1893 
Canals protection (London) act, passed . 25 July, 1898 
Canal embankment in the Stour valley gave way, 

near Dudley port; market flooded ; much damage 

9 Sept. 1 899 
The Michigan-Mississippi (cost over 30,000,000 dol.) 

opened 1 Jan. 1900 

Palontnotchnie canal, from the mouth of the 

Danube through Russian territory, opened 5 Oct. ,, 

BRITISH CANALS. 

The first was by Henry I., when the Trent was .joined 
to the Witham, 1134. 

Francis Mathew in 1656, and Andrew Yarranton in 1677, 
in vain strongly urged improvement in internal navi- 
gation. 

In England there are said to be 2800 miles of canals, and 
2500 miles of rivers, faking the length of those only 
thai are navigable total, 5300 miles. (Mr. Porter, ii: 
1851, says 4000 miles.) 

In Inland there are 300 miles of canals ; 150 of navigable 
rivers ; and 60 miles of the Shannon, navigable below 
Limerick ; in all, 510 miles. Williams. 

The prosperity of canals, for a time largely checked by 
tin' formation of railways, is now greatly revived ; anil 
railways are connected with them (1878-1889). 



INLAND NAVIGATION. 

New river commenced 1609 

Brought to London 1613 

Thames made navigable to Oxford . . . . 1624 

Rennet navigable to Reading 1715 

Caermarthenshire canal 1756 

Droitwich to the Severn ,, 

Duke of Bridgewater's navigation (first great canal) 

commenced (see Bridgewater) 1759 

Northampton navigation 1761 

Dublin to the Shannon (the Grand) . . 1765-1788 
Stafford and Worcester, commenced . . . ,, 
Grand Trunk (Trent and Mersey) commenced by 

Brindley 1766 

Forth to Clyde, commenced 1768 

Birmingham to Bilston ,, 

Oxford to Coventry, commenced . . . 1769 

Lea made navigable from Hertford to Ware, 1739 ; 

to London ......... 1770 

Leeds to Liverpool „ 

Monkland (Scotland), commenced . . . . „ 

Ellesmere and Chester 1772 

Basingstoke canal begun ,, 

Liverpool to Wigan 1774 

Stroud to the Severn - 1775 

Staffordshire canal, begun 1776 

Stourbridge canal, completed ,, 

Runcorn to Manchester ,, 

Mersey, opened 1777 

Chesterfield to the Trent „ 

Belfast to Lough Neagh . . . ... 1783 

Severn to the Thames, completed .... 1789 

Forth and Clyde, completed 1790 

Bradford, completed ."....,, 

Grand Junction, begun ,, 

Birmingham and Coventry ,, 

Monasterevan to Athy 1793 

Worcester and Birmingham ,, 

Manchester, Bolton, and Bury ,, 

Warwick and Birmingham 1793 

Crinan, Argyllshire, cut .... 1793-1801 

Barnsley, cut 1794 

Rochdale, act passed ,, 

Huddersfield, act passed ,, 

Derby, completed ,, 

Hereford and Gloucester 1796 

Paddington Canal begun 1798 

Kennet and Avon, opened 1799 

Peak-forest canal, completed 1800 

Thames to Fenny Stratford ,, 

Buckingham canal ... ... 1801 

Grand Surrey, act passed 

Brecknock canal 1802 

Caledonian canal begun .... . 1803 

Ellesmere aqueduct 1805 . 

Ashby-de-la-Zoueh, opened , 

Royal Military canal, Hythe to Rye .... 1807 I 

Aberdeen, completed ,, 

Glasgow and Ardrossan, opened .... 1811 

Leeds and Liverpool, opened 1816 | 

Wye and Avon ,, 

Edinburgh and Glasgow Union 1818 

Sheffield, completed 1819 ! 

Regent's canal, opened 1S20 \ 

Caledonian canal, completed . . 30 Oct. 1822 1 

Birmingham and Liverpool, begun . . . . 1826 , 
Gloucester and Berkeley, ship-canal, completed . 1827 I 
Norwich and Lowestoft navigation opened . . . 1831 
Manchester ship canal opened .... 1894 

Medway and Thames canal projected . . . . 1902 !' 

CANARY ISLANDS (N. W. Africa), known § 
to the ancients as the Fortunate Isles. The3 r were 
re- discovered by a Norman named Bethencourt, \i 
about 1400 ; his descendants sold them to the |i 
Spaniards, who became masters, 1483. The canary- 
bird, a native of these isles, brought to England 
about 1500. Teneriffe is the largest island. Fcrro, \ 
the most south-western, was appointed the French , ; | 
meridian hy Louis XIII. in 1632. Destructive 1 
floods in N. Canary, estimated damage, ";o,OOOl.,\ 
reported 22 Feb. 1896. 

CANCER HOSPITAL (Free), Brompton.j, 
S.W. London, was founded in 1851 by the late;;} 
Dr. William Marsden (born Aug. 1796), who actively! ' 



CANCER RESEARCH FUND. 



219 



CANDIA. 



superintended it till his death, 16 Jan. 1867. The 
foundation-stone of the building was laid by Miss 
(afterwards Baroness) Burdett Coutts, an early 
liberal benefactor, 30 May, 1859. See Free Hospital, 
founded by Dr. Marsden in 1828, and Middlesex 
Hospital, 1900; Dr. John Gilman, in Chicago, re- 
ports treatment of the disease with Rontgen rays, 
Nov. 1901-1903. 

CANCER RESEARCH FUND, had its 
origin in 1901 for the investigation of the cause, 
nature, and treatment of cancer. 100,000/. stated 
to be necessary as capital. 5,000/. contributed by 
Goldsmiths' company, and 25,000/. from other 
sources, appeal in Tunes, 18 April, 1902. Scheme 
adopted by Roy. Colleges of Physicians and 
Surgeon*, 4 July. First meeting of executive 
committee held, London, 30 July (Times, 31 July). 
Dr. E. T. Bashford appointed superintendent of 
c.ancer research, and visited Germany to inquire 
into position of inve stigntion in that country. First 
annual meeting, 30 July, 1903. Address' by Mr. 
A. J. Balfour. Beneficial effects of Rontgen rays 
on superficial cancer reported, no progress made in 
treatment of malignant growths. About 74,000/. 
received to Sept. 1903, including 20,000/. contri- 
buted by Mr. W. Waldorf Astor. President, the 
prince of Wales. Offices, Examination hall, 
Victoria embankment. 

CANDAHAR, a province of Afghanistan held 
by Duranis and Ghilzais. Candahar, the capital, 
is said to have been founded by Alexander the 
Great (334-323 B.C.) After being subject to suc- 
cessive rulers of India, it was made capital of 
Afghanistan by Ahmed Shah, 1747, but the seat of 
government was transferred to Cabul in 1774. 
Taken and held by the British 7 Aug. 1 839 to 22 May, 1842 
Gen. Nott (with major Rawlinson and major Lane) 

defeated the Afghans neai here . Jan. and June, ,, 
The government of Candahar conferred on Shere 
Ali (a cousin of the late ameer Shere Ali), with the 
title of Wali, by the viceroy of India . April, 1880 
Shere Ali resigned, and went to Calcutta in Dee. ,, 
After the disaster of Maiwand, 27 July, 1880, Can- 
dahar was held by British during the winter 1880-1 
In the house of lords on the earl of Lytton's mo- 
tion to retain Candahar, 165 voted for its reten- 
tion, 76 against 5 March, 1881 

The house of commons, on Mr. Stanhope's motion 
for retention, 336 voted against it ; 216 for it, 

24-26 March, ,, 
Candahar evacuated by the British, 1G-21 April, ,, 
Sirdar Kashim Khan (on behalf of Abdur-rahman, 

ameer of Cabul) enters Candahar . 16 April, „ 
Invasion of Ayoob Khan ; he defeats the ameer's 
army at Karez-i-Atta, 26 July ; enters Candahar 

30 July, ,, 
After a severe conflict, 22 Sept., the ameer enters 
Candahar ...... 30 Sept. ,, 

See Afghanistan. 
CANDIA, the mediaeval name (now disused) of 
Crete, of which Candia is the capital, an island in 
the Mediterranean Sea, mythically celebrated for 
its 100 cities, its centre Mount Ida, the laws of its 
king Minos, and its labyrinth to secure the Mino- 
taur. It was conquered by the Romans 68 B.C. 
Population estimated 1889, 210,000; 1897, 250.OOO ; 
1900, 301,577 (including 33,422 Mahometans). 

Seized by the Saracens a.d. 823 

Re-taken by the Greeks 961 

Sold to the Venetians .... Aug. 1204 

Rebelled ; reduced 1364 

Gained by the Turks, after a twenty-four years' 
siege, during which about 30,000 men perished . 1669 

Ceded to the Egyptian pacha 1830 

Restored to Turkey 1840 

Insurrections suppressed, 184 1 ; by conciliation. . 1858 
Persecution of the Christians . . . 31 July, 1859 
The Christians demand redress of grievances, June, 1866 
They establish a " sacred battalion " . 12 Aug. ,, 



Publish an address to the powers protecting Greece, 

21 Aug. 1866 
The Cretan general assembly proclaim the abolition 
of the Turkish authority in Candia, and union 

with Greece 2 Sept. 

Commencement of hostilities : the Turkish army 

commanded by Mustapha Pacha . . n Sept. ,, 
Greeks victorious in several conflicts, Sept. and Oct. „ 
The Greek steamer Panhellenion begins to convey 

volunteers, &c, to Candia . . . Oct. ,, 
Monastery of Arkadi besieged ; blown up by the 

defenders ; great loss on both sides . 26 Nov. ,, 
Proposition of Austria, Prussia, Italy, and Switzer- 
land to the sultan to give up Candia, 28 March ; 

declined 31 March, 1867 

Many defenceless villages said to be burnt June, ,, 
Collective note from Russia and other powers urging 
the Porte to suspend hostilities . 15 June, „ 

Indecisive conflicts July, ,,. 

The Arkadi Greek steamer, after running the block- 
ade 22 times, landing Greek volunteers, and 
bringing away women and children, destroyed by 
the Turkish vessel Izecldin . . . iq Aug. ,, 
Assembly of delegates meet the vizier . 22 Sept. ,, 
Insurrection subsides ; the grand vizier arrives, 28 
Sept. ; proclaims an amnesty, and promises re- 
forms s Nov. 

Successful blockade running by the Greeks ; Omar 
Pasha, the Turkish general, resigns his command 

in the island Nov. ,, 

The delegates' demands granted . . 11 Dec. ,, 
The war renewed (indecisive) . . . Feb. 186S 
The Petropaulakes landed about 2500 men on oppo- 
site sides of the isle, 10 Dec, but failed in their 
attempt to unite ; after several skirmishes, in 
which they lost about 650 men, all surrendered, 
(and were sent to Greece) . . .26 Dec. „ 
The provisional government surrendered 30 Dec. ,,, 
The new Turkish governor, Omer Fenizi, arrived, 

and the blockade ended . . .8 March, 1869 
The " Organic statute," a scheme of reform, com- 
piled about 1872 

Insurrection announced, with provisional govern- 
ment about 20 Dec. 1877 

Union with Greece proclaimed, 31 Jan. ; decreed 

by a general assembly . . . 11 Feb. 1878 
Insurrection unsubdued ; anarchy ; Berlin treaty 
declares for enforcing legal and political reforms, 

13 July, ,» 
Pacification by Mukhtar Pasha through concession 

of self-government, <fec Oct. t , 

The Pact of Halepa drawn up under British influ- 
ence, sanctioned by the porte . . . Nov. , T 
Insurrection on account of religious difficulties 

8 Feb. 1884 
The christian notables appeal to the sultan for a 
christian governor, and to Greece and other 
powers for mediation . . about 1 March, „ 
Photiades, reappointed governor for live years an- 
nounced 6 March, ,, 

Temporary disturbances, order restored 1-6 May, 1887 
Anarchy through party strife of Christians and 
Mahometans, May-June ; Turkish troops sent to 
Crete, 13 June ; provisional government formed 

to restore order 13 June, 18813, 

Mahmoud Djellalledin pasha, Turkish com- 
missioner, well received ; agitation calmed by his 
inquiries, June 14 ctseq. An insurgent assembly 
demands a constituent assembly, judicial reforms, 
and dismissal of the governor, the people neutral 
about 1 July ; the sultan sends 20,000^ T. , 6 
July ; Mahmoud Djellalledin pasha informs a 
deputation that their demands must be referred 
to the sultan, S July ; he is suddenly recalled, 

8 July, .„ 

Asserted influence of Greek agitators, 22 July ; 

insurrection increasing ; call for annexation to 

Greece, or British protection, about 25 July ; 

Djavad pasha arrives to take command of the 

troops 1 Aug. ,? 

Riza pasha appointed temporary governor, with 

extra powers for repressing disorder . 4 Aug. , 
Fighting going on, villages burnt, reported 5 Aug. ,„ 
Note from the Greek gove-nment to the powers, 
urging intervention in Crete, 6 Aug. ; they 
decline, leaving the settlement to the Sultan, 9-12 
Aug. ; about 17,000 Turkish troops in Crete, 
reported 7 Aug. „ 



CANDIA. 

JRiza Pasha, the governor, recalled ; replaced by 
.Shakir pasha, who arrives with plenary powers, 
13 Aug. ; proclaims martial law . . 14 Aug. 

Partial submission of the insurgents ; amnesty 
promised 17 Aug. 

'Tranquillity gradually restored by Turkish moderate 
firmness Sept. 

The Notables address the sultan, thanking him for 
his good government .... 28 Jan. 

Turkish circular to the great powers, reporting 
the pacification of Crete, 6 March ; amnesty, 
except to 18 persons convicted of crimes, an- 
nounced 11 March, 

<Great return of refugees from Greece about 10 May, 

Djevad pasha appointed governor about 7 July, in 
room of Shakir pasha 

Mahmoud Djellalledin pasha appointed governor 
(Djevad pasha having been made grand vizier) 
about ....... 8 Sept. 

Disturbances ; several conflicts with the Turkish 
troops Oct. et seq. 

Turkhan pasha appointed governor ; discontent 
among the people, reported . . 13 Aug. 

Alexander Karatheodory pasha (a Christian) ap- 
pointed governor March, 

Reforms demanded by the assembly ; refusal of the 
Porte; reported .... 12 Nov. 

■Sanguinary conflict between Turkish troops and 
Cretans at Kampos .... 20 Nov. 

Turkish troops defeated with heavy loss at Vryses, 
in Apokorona 10 Dec. 

Reinforcements sent ; prisoners released by request 
of the Greek consul ; reported . . 26 Dec. 

Renewed conflicts and murders between Turks and 
Christians, intervention of the Greek govern- 
ment ; reported 23 Feb. 

Karatheodory, gov. -general, resigns, 27 Feb. ; suc- 
ceeded by Turkhan jiasha . . .6 March, 

■General amnesty proclaimed . . 18 March, 

Serious conflicts between Turks and Christians, 
many killed ; reported . . . .23 April, 

Krape, in the mountains of Sphakia, held by the 
Cretan reform committee ; negotiations between 
the Greek government and the porte ; reported 

7 May, 

Turkish garrison besieged at Vamos, 17 May; con- 
tinued hostilities ; siege raised by Abdullah 
pasha, the new governor . . -30 May, 

Turkhan pasha recalled . . . .21 May, 

Massacre of Christians in Canea without provoca- 
tion by the Turkish soldi-jry . . .24 May, 

H.M.S. Hood and other foreign warships arrive 

26 May, et seq. 

Turkish troops burn and sack Tsivara and other 
villages ; reported 1 June 

Anarchy and destruction over the western portion 
of the island ; increased excesses by the Turks ; 
state of siege proclaimed ; reported . 4 June, 

Turkish troops defeated at Aghia . . 11 June, 

•Galata and other villages looted and burnt by the 
Turks, 6-10 June ; subscriptions at Alexandria 
for relief of the sufferers .... June, 

Protest of the foreign consuls submitted to the 
governor-gen. 12 June, 

The Cretan relief committee at Athens appeal to 
the world for assistance ... 15 June, 

The Turkish proclamation promising reforms, etc., 
discredited ; the Cretans demand securities 

19 June, 

Frequent encounters and massacres by Turkish 
troops, reported .... 19-21 June, 

■Georgi Pasha Bei'ovitch, prince of Samos, appointed 
governor-general of Crete, reported . 28 June, 

The Cretan committee issue a circular calling for a 
provisional government and union with Greece 

29 June, 

The powers recommend that the porte should grant 
a Christian governor-general, the revival of the 
Halcpa constitution, the immediate convocation 
of the assembly, and a general amnesty ; all 
granted 3 July, 

The Christian deputies arrive at Canea ii-iz July, 

The assembly opened by the governor . 13 July 

Desultory lighting near Candia, Retimo, and other 
places July, 

Villages destroyed, 3 Aug. ; anarchy and rioting at 
Heraklion, 4 Aug ; 30,000 Mahometans enter 
the town, flight of Christians . . 5-9 Aug. 



220 



CANDIA. 



Reform committee dissolved ; new revolutionary 
assembly formed at Canea ; they profess sub- 
mission to the premier and deputies, and await 
the action of the powers, reported . 9 Aug 

The monastery of St. John at Anopolis attacked 
and burnt, 32 men, women, and children and 3 
monks killed, churches and other villages 
burnt 8 Aug. 

Zihni pasha, special commissioner, and Ibrahim 
pasha, military commander, arrive in Canea 

13 Aug. 

Four Christian villages and two monasteries sacked 

11 Aug. 
Greek officers and volunteers land on the W. and 

E. coasts 16 Aug. et seq. 

Fighting at Tenedos in Candia, reported . 16 Aug. 

Turkish troops besieged by Christians at Kasteli, 
reported 24 Aug. 

The ambassador's scheme of reforms ; political in- 
dependence of the island, etc. ; Christian gover- 
nor for 5 years to be appointed ; accepted by the 
porte, 25, 29 Aug. ; by the Cretan deputies, 1 
Sept. and by the insurgents . . 6 Sept. 

Devastation and massacre at Platania, near Canea, 
reported 29 Aug. 

New " organic statute" comprising the scheme of 
reforms, promulgated .... 2 Sept. 

Georgi Pasha Beruvitch re-appointed as the first 
Christian governor-gen. , reported . 11 Sept. 

Three villages looted and burnt in Monofatsi by 
armed Mahometans from Candia, reported 

27 Sept. 

Saadeddin pasha, the sultan's envoy, recalled, 
through the remonstrances of the ambassadors, 
announced 15 Dec. 

Organisation of temporary gendarmerie proceed- 
ing 13 Jan. 

Anarchy and murders at Heraklion, Retimo, Galata, 
and Canea, villages burnt . 14 Jan. -5 Feb. 

Exodus of 5,000 refugees in foreign war vessels to 
the Pineus and Greek islands . . 6-7 Feb. 

Canea desolate ; 2 entire streets, the bishop's 
house and schools destroyed, 20 lives lost ; fires 
suppressed by bluejackets from the British fleet 

Major Bor appointed commandant of the gen- 
darmerie ; arrives and takes active measures ; 
chief offices guarded by marines . . 7 Feb. 

Mahometans capture rifles from the arsenal at 
Heraklion ; panic among the Christians 7 Feb. 

Desperate fight at Kisamo Kasteli ; women and 
children killed ; 22 Mahometans killed . 7 Feb. 

H.M.S. Revenge, flagship of rear-admiral Harris, 
arrives at Retimo and H.M.S Trafalgar at 
Heraklion ; conflicts at Sitia, villages burnt 
and eastern districts blockaded by Christians, 
reported 9-10 Feb. 

Mahometans plunder Heraklion . . n Feb. 

Desultory fighting ; flotilla of torpedo boats, 
under prince George of Greece, arrives at Canea 

12 Feb. 
Halepa declared neutral territory by the Cretan 

insurgents and the foreign consuls, announced 

12 Feb. 

Georgi Pasha Berovitch, governor-gen., resigns to 
Mushavir Ismail Bey, and takes refuge on the 
Russian flagship off Halepa, 13 Feb. ; Ibrahim 
pasha, military gov. also resigns . . 14 Feb. 

The Greek consuls leave Canea and other places ; 
Canea bombarded by the Christians, frequent 
conflicts, with much bloodshed . . 14 Feb. 

Naval occupation of Canea, Heraklion, and Retimo 
by the allied powers; the Greek commodore 
called on to withdraw ... 15 Feb. 

Greek forces, under col. Vassos, land atColumbari ; 
fighting reported near Heraklion . 15 Feb. 

Col. Vassos issues a proclamation in the name of 
king George ; the fort of Aghia attacked and 
captured, 400 Mahometans taken prisoners, two 
Greek officers killed .... 16 Feb. 

The porte appeals to the powers to intervene 16 Feb. 

The Italian admiral, on behalf of the powers, warns 
the Greek commodore that any attack on the sea- 
ports will be repelled by force ; the Greek govern- 
ment concurs and the Greek consulate is re- 
opened ; the Greek army remains in the interior 

17 Feb. 
Massacre of prisoners at Sitia by Christians, 

18 Feb. 



CANDIA- 



221 



CANDIA. 



Photiacles Karatheodery pasha made governor, and 
Saadeddin pasha military commander ; Turkey 
preparing for war .... 18 Feb. 1897 

Massacre of 104 Mahometans at Sarakina in Selino, 
including 23 women and 61 children, reported 

18 Feb. „ 

The Greek army attacks the Turkish outposts at 
Platania ; the tower of Bukolies captured by the 
Greeks, 7 Greeks killed, reported . . 19 Feb. ,, 

The foreign consuls reject the proclamation of col. 
Vassos concerning the annexation of Crete by 
Greece 18 Feb. „ 

Circular note from lord Salisbury to the powers 
recommending autonomy for Crete, announced 

18 Feb. „ 

Col. Vassos proclaims the occupation of Ciete by 
Greece at Retimo and Candia . . 20 Feb. ,, 

Insurgents take possession of the heights above 
Halepa, and are tired on from the Turkish out- 
posts and bombarded by the foreign squadron, 
21 Feb., 3 men killed (Turks afterwards declared 
to be the aggressors) ; constant firing kept up 
by the Turks on the insurgents and on the 
Greek outposts at Platania but not returned 

22, 23 Feb. ,, 

Turks and Mahometans (2,000) besieged at Can- 
dano Feb. ,, 

Seven days' armistice agreed to in Selino 22 Feb. ,, 

The zone of protection under the powers extended 

25 Feb. ,, 

The Christians blockaded at Hierapetra, liberated ' 
by the Italian warship Etna ; announced 25 Feb. ,, 

Sharp fight at Malaxa and near Retimo with blood- 
shed 27, 28 Feb. ,, 

Union with Greece demanded by the insurgents, 
Tewfik pasha, new military governor, arrives 

28 Feb. ,, 

Fort Stavros captured by the Cretans, 3,000 Turks 
prisoners; reported .... 1 March, ,, 

Mutiny of the Turkish gendarmerie at Canea sup- 
pressed, Suleiman Bey (col.) and 2 others killed 

2 March, „ 
Collective and identical note from the powers in- 
forming the Greek government of their decision 

to give autonomy to Crete under Turkish suze- 
rainty, and withdrawal of the Greek forces within 
6 days demanded .... 2 March, ,, 

The Greek government declines to accede to the 
request of the powers .... 8 March, ,, 

Death of Mgr. Timotheos, archbishop of Candia on 
landing at the Pirasus, 2 March ; state funeral, 

3 March, ,, 
Declaration of neutrality and unanimity by the 

foreign admirals .... 4 March, ,, 
Turkish outrages continue . . .8 March, ,, 
Col. Vassos ordered by his government to avoid 
conflicts, desultory fighting at Akrotiri, on the 
east coast ; Greeks ordered to quit Canea 8 March „ 
Sir A. Biliotti, British consul, with a mixed foreign 
force under capt. Rainier, of H.M.S. Rodney, 
rescues the besieged Mahometans (about 2,000) 

in Candano 9 March, ,, 

Greek volunteers (500) landed . . n March, ,, 
The fortress of Spinalonga bombarded by insurgents 

and Greeks 12 March, ,, 

The interior of Crete held by Greeks and insurgents ; 
Mahometans rescued by detachments from the 
warships from Kisamo Kasteli . 14 March, ,, 
International gendarmerie disbanded, col. Bor 

leaves Canea 15 March, ,, 

The Greek fleet leaves Cretan waters . 16 March, ,, 
Autonomy proclaimed in Crete . . 17 March, „ 
Col. Chermside appointed British military commis- 
sioner in Crete . . . . 17 March, ,, 
Blockade of the island by the six powers, begun 21 

March ; the Greek government protests 26 March, ,, 
Conflicts near Candia, Malaxa, and Retimo 

16-23 March, ,, 
British and foreign troops landed £3-24 March, ,, 
Desperate fighting between Turks and insurgents 
at Malaxa; Malaxa bombarded by the foreign 

fleet 25 March, ,, 

Turkish troops fire on a body of insurgents with a 

flag of truce 28 March, ,, 

Fort Butsunaria occupied by a foreign contingent 

29 March, , , 
Desultory fighting near Retimo and Canea ; insur- 
gents driven back, 2 killed, by the foreign 



bombardment ; Fort Izedin occupied by a foreign 
contingent ; villages burnt by Turkish troops 

30, 31 March, 1 

Mahometans attack the insurgents near Canea, and 
are afterwards disarmed by European troops 

3-4 April, 

Turks repulsed near Retimo . . .5 April, 

Fruitless negotiations .... 8-18 April, 

Insurgents bombarded by the warships at Kisamo- 
Kasteli ; refugees taken away by foreign ships 

9 April, 

Insurgents bombarded by the Turkish worships, 
Kalyves destroyed 15 April, 

Bashi-bozouks disarmed at Canea . 15 April, 

Relaxation of the blockade ; 65,000 persons in 
receipt of relief . . . 24-28 April, 

Greek army recalled ; leaves . . 9-26 May, 

Insurgents retire after a severe conflict with Bashi- 
bozouks at Elia ; major Mustapha bey killed 

9-26 May, 

Insurgents gradually disarming . . . May, 

Mahomedan raid from Candia, Christian village 
burnt, 14 persons killed. . . .29 May, 

The insurgents institute a provisional government ; 
reported 2 June, 

Mahomedan outrages on Christians near Candia, 
Kani-Kasteli and other places burnt, many killed, 
22-25 June ; another raid . . . .7 July, 

The Christian delegates style their body at Armeni 
the "General insurrectionary assembly of Cre- 
tans," Dr. Sphakianaki president, and present a 
document to the foreign admirals announcing 
their constitution 14 July, 

Conflicts between Bashi-bozouks and Christians ; 
reported 13 July, 

Mahometan outrages, murders, &c. 15, 16 July, 

Mahometans prohibited from carrying arms, 16 
July ; 20 arrested and taken on board five 
European ships 18 July, 

Djevad pasha arrives as military commander at 
Canea 24 July, 

An assembly of deputies proclaim their acceptance 
of autonomy 1 Aug. ; notified to the admirals 

Nov. 

An international commission appointed as a court 
of summary jurisdiction for the island, reported 
15 Aug. ; M. Vandenbrook (France) president 

21 Aug. 

The porte protests to the powers against the com- 
mission ; announced . . . .21 Sept. 

Suda placed under the jurisdiction of capt. 
Amoretti ; reported . . . .26 Sept. 

Col. Schiifter chosen by the powers as gov. -general 
of Crete ; reported 22 Oct. ; opposed by the 
porte, 27 Oct. ; and dropped . . 29 Nov. 

International court holds its first sitting at Canea 

3 Nov. 

Appeal from the Cretan assembly to the powers for 
relief from tribute to the sultan through poverty ; 
reported 6 Dec. ; again . . . .27 Dec. 

Perivolaki besieged by insurgents to avenge a 
murder : reported 8 Dec. 

Great excitement in Canea through the murder of a 
Christian merchant, 13 Dec. ; public funeral 

T5 Dec. 

International committee of consuls agree to Bozo 
Petrovitch (Montenegrin), proposed as governor, 
about 19 Dec. 1897 ; rejected ; prince George of 
Greece proposed by Russia, Great Britain and 
France, 29 Dec. ; opposed by the sultan, Ger- 
many, and Austria, Jan. 1898 (deferred). 

Distress in the island increasing . . Dec. 

Fifteen Christians killed by an ambuscade of Bashi- 
bozouks ; announced .... 28 Dec. 

The Cretan assembly address a memorial to the 
powers against the ambassadors' proposals for 
the government of the island . . . Jan. 

Candia pillaged by Bashi-bozouks ; reported 20 Jan. ; 
20 of them taken prisoners and embarked on 
H.M.S. Hood ; Edhem pasha appointed governor 
of Candia in consequence of the protests of the 
admirals 23 Jan. 

Memorial from the Cretan assembly respecting the 
raids, &c, to the admirals ... 24 Jan. 

Mahomedan raids at Retimo, and great distress ; 
reported 31 Jan. 

Refugees (506) starving near Candia, relief afforded 
by officers and men of H.M.S. Anson . Feb. 



CANDIA. 



222 



CANDLES. 



German and Austrian troops withdrawn from 
Canea ... 16 March and 12 April, 18 

Turkish cordon removed from Canea ; outposts 
taken by international troops, 2 April ; peaceable 
meetings of Christians and Mahometans at mar- 
kets instituted by Sir A. Biliotti, near Candia, 
under British protection . . 6 April et seq. , 

The admirals decide that the island shall be divided 
into 4 provinces under the 4 powers, 10 April ; 
military tribunals instituted . . . May, , 

Modus vivendi committee of the national assembly, 
under supervision of the admirals, carries on 
the government, June ; Ihe porte protests 
against the provisional regime arranged by the 
4 powers (the Cretan assembly to govern the 
interior and the admirals the coast towns), 8 July, , 

British troops attacked in Candia by Mahome- 
tans and Turkish troops dissatisfied with the 
measures taken by the admirals, 4 hours fight- 
ing, lieut. Bobt. Haldane and 12 British soldiers 
and marines killed, 42 (6 mortally) wounded, 
about 500 Christians mas- acred, 29 Bashi-Bozouks 
and 4 Turkish soldiers killed ; Mr. L. A. 
Calocherino, British vice-consul, and his servants, 
massacred, the town looted and set fire to by 
Bashi-Bozouks, 6 Sept. ; foreign consulates looted 
and burnt, 7 Sept. ; Edhem pasha, the governor, 
held responsible for the massacre by his inac- 
tion (succeeded by col. Chevki, 29 Sept.) ; foreign 
reinforcements landed, martial law proclaimed, 

9 Sept. , 

Two British soldiers murdered by Bashi-Bozouks 

10 Sept. , 

Adm. Noel (K.C.M.G., Nov.) in H.M.S. Revenge, 
arrives, 12 Sept. ; Biitish ultimatum: surrender 
of ringleaders, Turkish disarmament, &c, 
13 Sept. ; demands acceded to, reinforcements 
arrive, 14 Sept. ; prisoners transferred to British 
warships, 16 Sept. ; a stringent ultimatum de- 
spatched to the sultan by the four powers 5 Oct. ; 
accepted, 16, 20 Oct. ; 17 murderers hanged at 
Candia by British authority, 19, 29 Oct., 7 Nov. ; 
2 shot, 22 Nov. ; others sentenced to life im- 
prisonment 30 Nov. , 

Turkish troops evacuate the island . 19 Oct. -Nov. , 

Exodus of Mahometans ... 7 Nov. , 

Ismail Bey, ex-civil gov. -gen. of Crete, leaves, n Nov. , 

General peace and order; Biitish administration 
in Candia and 6 provinces very successful, 21 Nov. , 

Internat. court-martial opened at Candia, 3 Turks 
sentenced to death .... 21 Nov. , 

Prince George of Greece appointed by the 4 powers 
high commissioner of Crete for 3 years under the 
sultan's suzerainty, 26 Nov. ; agreed to by the 
porte 7 Dec. , 

Sir A. Biliotti returns to Candia from a tour of 
the 6 provinces under British governors, 1 Dec. , 

Mahometan petition to the queen, begging for 
British protection, and that sir H. Chermside 
may remain 6 Dec. , 

Blockade of Crete abolished . . .5 Dec. , 

The executive committee resign, their demands 
being granted 7 Dec. , 

Prince George well received at Canea ; the 
Christians express gratitude to England and 
the queen 21 Dec. , 

Prince George visits the mosque, 22 Dec. ; lays the 
foundation-stone of new Christian schools (given 
by the czar) at Canea . . . .26 Dec. , 

Adm. sir Gerard Noel presented with an address of 
gratitude; leaves .... 27 Dec. . 

Commission appointed to draw up a constitution, 
inaugural meeting, prince George presides, 

12 Jan. 1! 

Sir Edward Law (financier) received by the prince 
at Canea 9 Jan. 

Prince George warmly received at Betimo, fStes, 
&c. ; visits the monastery of Arcadi ; opens 2 
new schools .... 21, 22, 23 Jan. . 
Prince George opens the assembly; new constitu- 
tion voted ; M. Sphakianaki elected president, 

20, 21 Feb. 
Great decrease in crime and contraband trade 

March, 

Amnesty granted to political offenders (between 

16 Sept. 1896 and 9 Pec. iSqSI, with some 

exceptions April, 



M. de Bloney, a Swiss, financial adviser to prince 
George, arrives 8 April, 1899 

Loan of 9,000,000 drachma, 3 per cent., voted by 
the assembly, reported . . .27 April, ,, 

The princess of Wales visits Crete . 27-30 April, ,, 

The first administrative (autonomous) council (4 
Christians and 1 Mahometan) formed . 30 April, ,, 

Prince George visits Candia ; festivities, &c, 
12-14 May ; he returns to Halepa after a success- 
ful tour in the Betimo district . . 21 May, ,, 

Mahometan emigration continues . . May, ,, 

Cretan exploration fund formed ; prince George 
patron ; excavations under the direction of 
Messrs. Evans and Hogarth (British school at 
Athens) ; the palace of Minos at Knossos and 
the " Labyrinth " (about 2,000 b.c.) discovered, 
&c May, et seq. ,, 

The British resign, 21 July ; Cretan government 
begins at Candia, 24 July ; the Bussians evacuate 
Betimo 27 July, ,, 

Queen of Greece welcomed at Canea, 

19 Sept. -5 Oct. ,, 

Anniversary of prince George's arrival in Crete, 
celebrated 21 Dec. ,, 

Prince George visits Europe to negotiate for union 
with Greece, Oct. 1900 ; returns . 15 Dec. 1900 

Union with Greece rejected by the powers, 22 Feb. 1901 

M. Venezelo, councillor, suggests a temporary prin- 
cipality in Crete ; is dismissed from office, April, ,, 

Prince George opens the assembly ; resolution 
appealing for union with Greece passed by the 
chamber, 31 May ; again refused by the powers, 
the status quo to be maintained . 18 June, ,, 

Further excavations : the palace of Plnestos in the 
south revealed 1900-1901 

Prince George re-appointed high commissioner for 
3 years 15 Dec. ,, 

Three years' excavations at Knossos completed ; 
another Mycenaean palace discovered near 
Ph«stos 24 May 1902 

Four Mussulman boatmen murdered at Sphakia, 
reported . .... 9 June, ,, 

Elections give the government a majority, 

early Apr. 1903 

Further discoveries at Knossos reported . 11 Apr. ,, 

CANDLEMAS DAY, 2 Feb. is kept in the 
church in memory of the purification of the Virgin, 
who presented the infant Jesus in the Temple. 
From the number of candles lit (it is said in 
memory of Simeon's song, Lnke ii. 32, "a Light to 
lighten the Gentiles," &c). this festival was called 
Candlemas, as well as the Purification. Its origin 
is ascribed by Bede to pope Gelasius in the 5th 
century, by others to the Human emperor Justinian, 
541. Some antiquarians trace a connection between 
the Christian festival with the great feast of expia- 
tion and purification called Februa, held 15 Feb. 
in ancient Home. The practice of lighting the 
churches was forbidden by order of council, 2 £dw. 
VI. 1548; but is still continued in the church of 
Home. Candlemas is a Scotch quarter-day. 

CANDLES. The Roman candles were com- 
posed of string surrounded by wax, or dipped in 
pitch. Splinters of wood fatted were used for light 
among the lower classes in England, about 1300. 
Wax candles were little used, and dipped candles 
were usually burnt. The Wax Chandlers' com- 
pany was incorporated 1483. Mould candles are 
said to be the invention of the sieur Le Brez, of 
Paris. Spermaceti candles are of modern manu- 
facture. The Chinese make candles from wax ob- 
tained from the candlebcrry-tree (unjrica cerifera). 
The duty upon candles made in England, imposed 
in 1709, amounted to about 500,000/. annually 
when it was repealed in 1 83 1. Improvements in the 
manufacture of stearine candles, due to the researches 
on oils and fats by Chevreul, 181 1-23. He died 
April, [889, aged 102. The plaited wick intro- 
duced by Cambaccres 1825, improved by "Wilson 
1844, did away with snuffing. At Price's manu- 
factory at Lambeth, the principles involved in many 



CANDLESTICKS. 



223 



CANNON. 



patents are carried into execution ; including those 
of Gwynne (1840), Jones and Price (1842), and 
"Wilson in 1844, for candles which require no 
snuffing. When tallow was high in price palm 
and cocoa-nut oils were for a time extensively used. 
The discovery of paraffin by Dr. James Young, 
1847-50, introduced a material which has practically 
superseded all others. Price's patent candle com- 
pany, established 1847, incorporated by act of 
parliament 1848 and 1857, have the largest candle- 
making works in tha world. In 1870 the manu- 
facture of candles from a mineral substance named 
ozokerit began. Cricklite in vogue, 1903. 

CANDLESTICKS (or lamp-stands) with 
6eyen branches were regarded as emblematical of 
the priest's office, and were engraven on their seals, 
cups, and tombs. Bezaleel made "a candlestick of 
pure gold" for the tabernacle, B.C. 149 1 (Exod. 
xxxvii. 17). Candlesticks were used in Britain in 
the days of king Edgar, 959 ("silver candelabra 
and gilt candelabra well and honourably made "). 

CANDY or KANDY (Ceylon), was taken by 
a British detachment, 20 Feb. 1803, who capitu- 
lated 23 June following, on account of its un- 
healthiness, and many were treacherously massacred 
at Colombo, 26 June. The war was renewed in 
Oct. 1814; the king was made prisoner by general 
Brownrigg, 19 Feb. 1815 ; and the sovereignty was 
vested in Great Britain, 2 March, 1815. Candy has 
many objects of interest; among these are the 
governor's house, one of the finest structures in 
Ceylon, and the Buddhist temple, "the palace of 
the tooth," containing, it is said, a tooth of 
Gautauma the Buddha, the most sacred spot in the 
Buddhist world. 

CANICULAR PERIOD, see Bog -star. 

CANNiE (Apulia). Here, on 2 Aug. 216 B.C., 
Hannibal with 50,000 Africans, Gauls, and Spaniards, 
defeated iEmilius Paulus and Terentius Varro, with 
88,000 Romans, and their allies. This great army 
was nearly annihilated, the far greater part being 
slain on the field, including the consul vEmilius 
Paulus, his chief officers, above 80 senators, with 
many other persons of high rank. Hannibal is 
said to have lost about 6,000 men. The other con- 
sul, Varro, who had escaped with some cavalry, con- 
ducted himself with so much discretion and firmness 
after the battle, that the senate, instead of blaming 
him for the defeat, thanked him for not despairing 
of the Roman Commonwealth. 

CANNES, a fashionable watering place and 
seaport of France, in the department of Alpes- 
Maritimes, situated on a bay of' the Mediterranean 
(22 miles N.W. of Nice). Founded by the Romans 
between Via Aiirelia and the sea. Held as a fief 
by the convent of the Lerins during the middle 
ages. In 1580 it was devastated by the great 
plague, and during the religious wars it was sacked 
By the duke of Savoy. Napoleon landed at Cannes 
on his return from Elba, 1815. Its rise as a water- 
ing place is due to lord Brougham, who in 1834 
selected Cannes as a health resort. The duke of 
Albany died at the Villa Nevada, 28 March, 1884, 
and the late queen Victoria visited Cannes in 18S7 
to inspect the Albert Memorial church of St. George 
of England, built in memory of the prince. During 
the winter it is frequented by visitors of all 
nationalities. Population, 19,385. 

CANNIBAL, an Indian term, thought to be 
a form of Carribal ; as Columbus, in 1493, found 
the Caribs of the West Indies gross cannibals. 
Anthropophagi (man-eaters) are mentioned by 



Homer and Herodotus ; and the practice still exists 
in some of the South Sea Islands and other savage 
countries. For Mignonette case, see Wrecks, 1884. 
Superstitious cannibalism practised in Hayti, 1884. 
A number of Melanesian labourers said to have 
killed and eaten the entire crew of a ship convey- 
ing them to Apia, Navigators Island . . Dec. 1886 
Lieut, de Magnee and party reported to have been 
killed and eaten by cannibals at Port Boni, 

14 June 1902 

CANNING ADMINISTRATION.* The 

illness of lord Liverpool, Feb., led to the formation 
of this administration, 24-30 April, 1827. Mr. 
Canning died 8 Aug. following : see Goderich. 
George Canning, first lord of the treasury and chancellor 

of the exchequer. 
Earl of Harrowby, president of the council. 
Duke of Portland, lord privy seal. 
Viscount Dudley, viscount Goderich, and Mr. Sturges 

Bourne, foreign, colonial, and home secretaries. 
W. W. Wynn, president of the India board. 
Wm. Huskisson, board of trade. 
Lord Palmerston, secretary at tuar. 
Lord Bexley, chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster. 
Duke of Clarence, lord high admiral. 
Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor, &c. 
Marquis of Lansdowne, without office; afterwards home 

secretary. 
Earl of Carlisle, ivoods and forests. 

CANNON. Gibbon describes a cannon em- 
ployed by Mahomet II. at the siege of Adrianople, 

1453 ; see Artillery. 

The first cannon cast in England was by Hugget, at 
Uckfleld, Sussex, 1543. 

Mons Meg, a large cannon (above 13 ft. long, 20 
inches calibre) in Edinburgh castle, said to have 
been cast at Mons in Hainault, in i486, but more 
probably forged at Castle Douglas, Galloway, by 
three brothers named M'Kini, and presented by 
them to James II. at the siege of Thrieve castle, 
1455. It was removed to London, 1754 ; but, at 
the request of sir Walter Scott, restored to Edin- 
burgh, 1829. 

A cannon of Mahomet II., dated 1464, presented to 
the British government by the sultan of Turkey, 
and placed in the Artillery Museum, Woolwich, 
1868. 

Moolk-e-Maedan, an Indian bronze gun of Beejapoor, 
calibre 23 inches ; 17th century. 

At Ehrenbreitstein castle, opposite Coblentz on the 
Khine, is a cannon, eighteen feet and a half long, 
a foot and a half in diameter in the bore, and 
three feet four inches in the breech ; the ball for 
it weighs i8otb. , and its charge of powder 94th. 
It was made by one Simon 1529 

In Dover castle is a brass gun (called queen Eliza- 
beth's pocket pistol), 24 feet long, a present from 
Charles V. to Henry VIII. 

Fine specimens in the Tower of London. 

A leathern cannon fired three times in the King's 
park, Edinburgh. Phillips . . 23 Oct. 1788 

The Turkish piece, now in St. James's park, was 
taken by the French at Alexandria ; but was re- 
taken, and placed in the park . . March, 1803 

Messrs. Horsfall's monster wrought-iron gun was 
completed in May, 1856, at Liverpool. Its length 
is 15 feet 10 inches, and its weight 21 tons 17 cwt. 
1 qr. 14ft. Its cost was 3500Z. With a charge of 
25ft. it struck a target 2000 yards' distance. It 
has been since presented to government. 

Rifled ordnance committee appointed . 20 Aug. 1858 

Great improvements made in the construction of 
cannon, by Messrs. Whitworth, Mallet, Arm- 
strong, and others. Mr. Wm. G. Armstrong 
knighted 18 Feb. 1859 



* George Canning was born 11 April, 1770; became 
foreign secretary in the Portland administration, 1807 ; 
fought a duel with Id. Castlereagh and resigned, 1809 ; 
president of the India board in 1820 ; disapproved of the 
queen's trial and resigned in 1821 ; appointed governor- 
general of India in 1822, soon after foreign secretary 
till 1827, when he- became premier. He died 8 Aug. 
same year. 



CANNON. 



224 



CANNON. 



He had been working for four years on gun-making, 
and had succeeded in producing " a breech-load- 
ing rifled wrought-iron gun of great durability 
and of extreme lightness, combining a great ex- 
tent of range and extraordinary accuracy. " The 
range of a 32-tb. gun, charged with 51b. of powder, 
was a little more than 5 miles. The accuracy of 
the Armstrong gun is said at equal distances to 
be fifty-seven times more than that of our com- 
mon artillery, which it greatly exceeded also in 
destructive effects. The government engaged the 
services of sir W. Armstrong for ten years (com- 
mencing with 1855) for 2o,oooZ., as consulting 
engineer of rifled ordnance ... 22 Feb. 

A parliamentary committee on ordnance was ap- 
pointed 20 Feb. , and reported . . 23 July, 

His gun said to be very effective in the attack on 
the Chinese forts at Taku . . 21 Aug. 

Mr. Whitworth's guns and rifles greatly commended 

ise 

An American cannon, weighing 35 tons, stated to 
be the largest in the world, cast . . . . 

Great endeavours made to improve the construction 
of cannon, to counterbalance the strength given 
to ships of war by iron plates. Trials at Shoe- 
buryness, Essex . 

Targets of the thickness of the iron sides of the 
Warrior, three 5-inch plates of wrought iron 
bolted together, pierced three times by 156th. 
shot from an Armstrong gun smooth bore, 3001b., 
muzzle-loaded with charges of 40ft). of powder, 
twice, and once of soft. ... 8 April, 

The Horsfall gun, mentioned above, with a charge 
of 75ft. of powder and a shot of 270ft. , smashed a 
Warrior target 16 Sept. 

Mr. Wnitworth's shells sent through 5^-inch iron 
plates and wood-work behind . . 12 Nov. 

Sir W. Armstrong resigned his appointment 5 Feb. 

Clark's target destroyed .... 7 July, 

Armstrong's gun " Big Will" tried and pronounced 
to be perfect ; weight, 22 tons ; length, 15 feet ; 
range with shot weighing 5101b., 748 to 4187 yards 

19 Nov. 

Reed's target tried successfully . . 8 Dec. 

The competitive trial between the Armstrong and 
Whitworth guns began . . . 1 April, 

Iron-plate commission experiments close 4 Aug. 

Capt. Palliser, afterwards sir W., by experiment, 
has shown that iron shot cast in cold iron moulds 
instead of hot sand, is much harder, and equals 
steel ; he also suggested the lining cast-iron guns 
with wrought-iron exits, which is stated to be 
successful 

He received 24,000^. from the government, besides 
other remuneration 

The competitive trials of Armstrong's and Whit- 
worth's cannon upon the Alfred target-ship at 
Portsmouth closed . . . .15 Nov. 

" Hercules target," 4 ft. 2 in. thick, uj inches of 
iron, resists 300 pounders . . . June, 

National Artillery Association (see Artillery) . . 

Duel between the Bellerophon, with a 12^-ton 9-inch 
rifled naval service gun with steel bolts (250 lb.), 
and powder charge of 481b., and the single gun 
turret of the Royal Sovereign by capt. Cowper 
Coles : the equilibrium of the turret base undis- 
turbed by any amount of pounding . 15 June, 

At Shoeburyness Palliser's chilled metal shot 
(250th.) by 43 th. of powder in a g-inch muzzle- 
loading wrought-iron Woolwich rifle gun, is sent 
through a target of 8 inches rolled iron, 18 inches 
teak, and 3 inch iron, and about 20 feet beyond, 

13 Sept. 

[His patent is dated 27 May, 1863. Mr. James 
Nasmyth had previously suggested the use of 
chilled iron.] 

Many experiments made with cannon and targets at 
Shoeburyness 

The American 15-inch naval gun, with a cast-iron 
spherical shot 453th. , greatly damages an S-ineh 
target ; other experiments at Shoeburyness, 

23 July, 

Continued experiments at Shoeburyness ; Ply- 
mouth model fort, with 15-inch solid shield- 
plates, tried with 23-ton gun of 12-inch bore, 
bearing 6oo1b. Palliser shot ; exterior of fort de- 
stroyed ; interior intact ; — the 10-inch English 



1865 



1S67 



gun shown to be superior to American and Prus- 
sian great guns .... 16-24 June, 

Capt. Moncrieffs protected barbette gun-carriage (in 
which the recoil is utilized for reloading), tried at 
Shoeburyness and proved successful . 2 Oct. 

Contest at Shoeburyness : the iron targets of Brown 
of Sheffield resist the Whitworth guns, 2 March, 

Palliser shot said to have failed in the Hercules. 

20 Jan. 

" Woolwich Infant," 35 tons ; largest gun then ever 
made ; length 16 feet 3 inches ; formed of a steel 
tube with coiled breech piece ; designed to fire a 
700ft. projectile, with 120ft. charge ; made at 
Woolwich in 1870 ; when tried in Dec. 1871, the 
inner tube cracked ; others made .... 

Duel between the Hotspur (with 25-ton 12-inch rifle 
gun, heaviest afloat, with Palliser's 600ft. shot, 
and 85ft. of powder), and the Glatton iron-clad, 
whose turret plates successfully resisted the 
attack (animals in the turret uninjured), 5 July, 

Col. Moncrieft's hydro-pneumatic carriage for artil- 
lery invented about April ; the principle claimed 
by sir Win. Armstrong for hydraulic machine 

11 Nov. 

Woolwich Infant. — Experimental gun constructing 
at Woolwich ; 80 tons ; 27 feet long ; for 1650 ft. 
shot ; 300 ft. of powder .... May, 

81-ton gun tried at Woolwich ; shot 1250 ft. ; 190 ft. 
of powder ; 12 men rammed in the charge ; shot 
penetrated 50 feet of sand ; tried successfully 
18 Sept. 1S75, 24-26 July, with 370 ft. of powder 

4 Aug. 

Gen. von Uchatius's steel bronze cannon making at 
Vienna, . Sept. 1875 ; reported successful, Sept. 

Sir Wm. Armstrong's 100-ton gun for Italy tried 
successfully at Spezzia, 2000 ft. shot and 330 ft. 
powder 21 Oct. 

81-ton (or 80-ton) gun tried at Shoeburyness for 
sea-range, with 1760 ft. Palliser shell 

27 Sept. et seq. 1876, and 1 Feb. 

Four 100-ton guns by Armstrong ordered by go- 
vernment March, 

A 100-ton gun tried at Woolwich, 13 June ; finally 
proved 16 July, 

Great guns by Krupp successfully tried at Meppeu, 
Hanover 5-8 Aug. 

[He has supplied thousands of cannon to different 
governments ; he died, aged 77, 14 July, 1887.] 

Breech-loading cannon ordered to be made Dec. 

Experiments with the 38-ton Thutiderer gun (see 
Navy, 1879), 9 Dec. 1879 ; exploded when double- 
charged 3 Feb. 

One of Armstrong's 100-ton guns in the Duilio near 
Naples exploded .... 6 March, 

A Krupp gun, of 130 tons, cast for Italy . Oct. 

Mr. Hiram Stevens Maxim's machine-gun, in which 
the recoil is utilised for reloading and retiring 
until the store of ammunition is exhausted (de- 
scribed in " Nature," 5 March, 1S85) . . . 

Sir Wm. Armstrong's 1 1 1 -tori gun tried at Woolwich , 
length 43 ft. 8 in., charge 960 lbs. of gunpowder, 
weight of projectile 1800 lbs., range of about 8 
miles June, 

Manufacture of guns largely removed from Wool- 
wich ; about 56 per cent, transferred to private 
firms announced Nov. 

Zalinski gun for the projection of dynamite adopted 
by the United States for coast defence, Feb. 1889 ; 
by the British Government . . . Feb. 

The Graydon torpedo projector announced March, 

Messrs. Krupp, of Essen, make a gun weighing 
270,000 lbs., for Croustadt ; reported 10 March, 

Lieut. James W. Graydon, late of U. S. Navy, 
invents the Graydon dynamite gun, in which 
dynamite shells are discharged by means of con- 
densed air, the force of the dynamite being 
moderated by means of non-conductors of heat ; 
one of these guns manufactured by Messrs. 
Taunton & Co., of Birmingham . . . Jan. 

The Maxim-Nordenfelt Gun Company v. Mr. 
Thorsten Nordenfelt, on appeal ; he is prohibited 
carrying on business .... 18 Dec. 

The Giffard gun, in which the propelling agent is 
liquefied carbonic acid gas, the invention of M. 
Paul Giffard, a French engineer ; the gas is said 
to be cheaply manufactured, liquefied, and stored; 
many experiments on the continent reported 



1870. 



1872 



1874 



1876 



1877 
1878 
1879. 



CANOE. 



225 



CANTERBURY. 



successful, 1889-90 ; M. Giffarcl exhibited and 
discharged rifles, illustrating his inventions in 
London before a number of distinguished 
persons 18 July ; tried at Nottingham . 3 May, 1893 
The Hotchkiss Ordnance Company, registered 1887 ; 
their weapons were used with effect in sup- 
pressing the Indian revolt in the United States, 
Dec. 1890 ; one of their improved guns success- 
fully tried at Exeter . . . .12 April, 1897 
Messrs. Vickers, Sons, and Maxim (Limited), new 
quick-firing gun tried successfully at Eynsford, 
lord Roberts and others present . 6 June, 1898 
The Colt machine quick-firing gun tried at Bunny- 
• mede, duke of Cambridge present . 20 July, 1899 
Death of lord Armstrong, aged 90 . 27 Dec. igoo 
See Artillery, 1903. 

CANOE. In the "Rob Roy" a very lightly 
constructed canoe, " giving the pleasure of a yacht 
without the expense," Mr. J. Macgregor, in 1865, 
travelled about a thousand miles on the rivers and 
lakes of Europe. His second cruise was on the 
Baltic. He explored the Suez canal, Nov., and the 
rivers of Syria, Dec. 1868, and the canals and lakes 
of Holland in the summer of 187 1. The "Octoroon" 
(16 feet long, 23 inches broad) crossed the Channel 
from Boulogne to Dover, in n hours, 19 Aug. 
1867. The Royal canoe club founded, 1866. The 
prince of Wales president, 1876. 
Mr. Fowler crossed from Boulogne to Sandgate 

standing in an india-rubber twin canoe (the Podo- 

scaphe), in 12 hours .... 19 Aug. 1878 
M. Felix Cauchois crossed from Dover to Calais in 

a canoe 14 ft. long and 2 ft. wide . 9, 10 Sept. 1900 
An ancient Irish canoe, 52 ft. long, found in a bog 

near Tuam end Dec. 1901 

CANON, a piece of music in two or more parts, 
imitating each other. " Non nobis, Domine," by 
Birde (died 1523) is an early specimen. 

CANON of SCRIPTURE, see Bible. 

CANONBURY TOWER, Islington, N. 
London, relic of ancient priory, built by Prior 
Bolton, of the order of St. John of Jerusalem, said 
to have been visited by queen Elizabeth. 

CANONICAL HOURS, see Breviary. 

CANONISATION of pious men and martyrs 
as saints, was instituted by pope Leo III., 800. 
Tallent. Ever} r day in the calendar is now a 
saint's day. The first canonisation \>y papal autho- 
rity was of St. Udalricus, Ulric, in 993. Previously 
canonisation was the act of the bishops and people. 
Henault. On 8 June, 1862, the pope canonised 27 
Japanese, who had been put to death on 5 Feb. 
1597, near Nagasaki, and 25 others, on 29 June, 
1867. Among persons canonised by pope Pius IX. 
in Oct. 1872, was the late queen of Naples. Sir 
Thomas More, Bishop John Fisher, and others were 
canonised, Jan. 1887. See Popes, 1881. Francis 
Xavier Binachi of the Order of the Barnabites 
canonised, 22 Jan. 1893. Anthony Zaccaria, born 
1502, died 1539, founder of the Barnabites, and 
Peter Fourier, born 1565, died 1640, canonised at 
St. Peter's, Rome, 27 May, 1897. 

CANONS, Apostolical, ascribed to the 

Apostles by Bellarmin and Baronius, by others to 
St. Clement, are certainly of much later date (since 
325). The Greek church allows 85, the Latin 50 of 
them. The first Ecclesiastical Canon was promul- 
gated 380. Usher. Canon law of the church. 
Gratian compiled a text-book of the canon law as 
it existed in his time, about 1130-50; it was intro- 
duced into England about 1 154 ; see Decretals. The 
present Canons and Constitutions of the Church of 
England, collected from former ordinances, were 
established in 1603 by the clergy in convocation, 



and ratified by king James I., 1604. A new body 
of canons formed by the convocation in 1640, were 
declared unlawful by the commons, 16 Dec. 1641. — 
An intermediate class of religious, between priests 
and monks, in the 8th century, were termed canons, 
as living by a rule. Canons in some of our cathedrals 
and collegiate churches resemble the prebendaries 
in others. The endowment of canonries was facili- 
tated by the Cathedrals Act, 1873. 

CANOPUS, see Alexandria. 

CANOSSA, a castle in Modena. Here h 
emperor Henry IV. of Germany, submitted to 
penance imposed by his enemy, pope Gregory VII. 
(Hildebrand), then living at the castle, the resi- 
dence of the great countess Matilda. Henry was 
exposed for several days to the inclemency of 
winter, Jan. 1077, till the pope admitted him, and 
granted absolution. Matilda greatly increased the 
temporal power of the papacy by bequeathing to it 
her large estates, to the injury of her second hus- 
band, Guelph, duke of Bavaria. A Canossa monu- 
ment, near Harzburg, against the papacy, was in- 
augurated 26 Aug. 1877. 

CANTERBURY (Kent), the Durovemum of 
the Romans, and capital of Ethelbert, king of Kent, 
who reigned 560-616. He was converted to Chris- 
tianity by Augustin, 596, upon whom he bestowed 
many favours, giving him land for an abbey and 
cathedral, dedicated to Christ, 602. St. Martin's 
church is said to be the oldest Saxon church in 
Britain. The riot at Boughton, near Canterbury, 
produced by a fanatic called Tom or Thom, who 
assumed the name of sir "William Courtenay, oc- 
curred 28-31 May, 1838; see Thomites. The rail- 
way to London was completed in 1846. — The Arch- 
bishop is primate and metropolitan of all England, 
and the first peer in the realm, having precedency 
of all officers of state, and of all dukes not of the 
blood royal. Canterbury had formerly jurisdiction 
over Ireland, and the archbishop was styled a 
patriarch. This see has yielded to the Church of 
Rome 18 saints and 9 cardinals; and to the civil 
state of England, 12 lord chancellors and 4 lord trea- 
surers. This see was made superior to Yoi-k, 1073 ; 
see York. The revenue is valued in the king's 
books at 2816?. Js. gd. Beatson. Present income, 
15,000?. The Cathedral was sacked by the Danes, 
ion, and burnt down 1067 ; rebuilt by Lanfranc 
and Anselm, and the choir, completed by the prior 
Conrad in 1 130, and in which Becket was mur- 
dered, 1 1 70, was burnt 1 1 74. It was rebuilt by 
William of Sens (1174-78), and hy " English 
William," 1178-84. A new nave was built and 
other parts, 1378-1410. The great central tower 
was erected by prior Goldstone about 1495. The 
gorgeous shrine of Becket was stripped at the 
reformation, and his bones burnt. Here were in- 
terred Edward the Black Prince, Henry IV., car- 
dinal Pole, and other distinguished persons. Part 
of the roof was destroyed by an accidental fire, 
and the edifice narrowly escaped, 3 Sept. 1872. 
The clock-tower was nearly on fire, 2 June, 
1876. Restoration of the cathedral and cloisters. 
Chapter-house re-opened by the prince of Wales 
and others, 29 May, 1897. See Huguenots. Dr. 
Beaney, of Melbourne, bequeaths 10,000?. to the 
city, announced July, 1891. Population, 1881, 
21,848; 1891, 23,026; 1901, 24,868. Great fire at 
the barracks ; estimated damage about 13,000?., 16 
Nov. 1891. 

By the Archbishop's court which existed before the 
Reformation, Thos. Watson, bishop of St. David's, 
was deprived for simony, 3 Aug. 1699. Dr. E. King, 
bishop of Lincoln, was cited before this court by 



CANTERBURY. 



226 



CANTHARIDES. 



Bead and others, and appeared before the archbishop 
and the bishops of London, Winchester, Rochester, 
Oxford, and Salisbury (he was prosecuted for ritualistic 
practices connected with the holy communion 4 Dec. 
1887 el seq.) 12 Feb. He protested against the juris- 
diction of the court, and the case was adjourned 13 
Feb. ; court adjourns 27 March ; met and decided to 
uphold its jurisdiction, 13 May, i88g. 

The trial of the bishop of Lincoln before the arch- 
bishop and other bishops at Lambeth began (sir 
Horace Davey and others for the promoters of" 
the suit, Dr. Phillimore and others for the bishop) 

4-7, 20-25 Feb. 1890 

All the charges against the bishop were dismissed 
except two ; his practices of breaking the bread 
and taking the cup " not before the people," and 
making the sign of the cross while pronouncing 
absolution and benediction, were declared to be 
unjustifiable additions to the ceremonies of the 
church, and were ordered to be discontinued (no 
costs allowed on either side) . . 21 Nov. ,, 

An appeal to the judicial committee of the Privy 
Council, July, 1891 ; was dismissed . 2 Aug. 1892 

Mr. H. B. Wilson's saw-mills destroyed by fire, loss 
about 2,ooo£ 27 Aug. 1896 

Lord George Hamilton unveils a memorial to 41 
Kentish martyrs burnt in the reign of queen 
Mary 10 June, 1899 

Royal museum, institute and library (built by aid 
of Dr. Beaney's bequest of 10,000?., 1897) opened 
by the mayor 11 Sept. ,, 

Visit of members of the French and British asso- 
ciations (see Dover and Boulogne) . 20 Sept. ,, 

Princess Louise and the duke of Argyle unveil a 
memorial to officers and men who fell in India, 
1895-98 12 June, 1900 

Lord Roberts and general sir John French receive 
the freedom 26 Aug. 1902 

Death of dean Farrar, aged 71 . . 22 Mar. 1903 

Dr. Wace, dean ,, 

Archbishops of Canterbury. 

602-605. St. Augustine, or Austin, died 26 May. 

605-619. St. Lawrence 

619-624. St. Mellitus. 

624-630. Justus. 

631-653. St. Honorius. 

655-664. Deusdedit (Adeodatus). 

668-690. Theodore of Tarsus. 

693-731- Berhtuald. 

731-734. Taetwine. 

735-74 1 - Nothelm. 

741-758. Cuthbert. 

759-762. Breogwine. 

763-790. Jaenbehrt, or Lambert. 

790-803. ^Ethelheard. 

803-829. Wulfred. 

829. Fleogild. 

830-870. Ceolnoth. 

870-889. jEthelred. 

891-923. Plegemund. 

923 (?) iEthelm. 

928-941. Wulfelm. 

941-958. Odo. 

959-988. St. Dunstan, d. 19 May. 

988-989. iEthelgar. 

990-995. Sigeric. 

995-1006. jElfric. 

1006-1011. St. iElphage, murdered by the Danes, 19 April. 
1013-1020. Lyting, or jElfstun. 
1020-1038. iEthelnoth. 
1038-1050. St. Eadsige. 
1050-1052. Robert of Jumieges. 
1052-1070. Stigand : deprived. 
1070-1089. St. Lanfranc, d. 24 May. 
1093-1109. Anselm. 

[See vacant 5 years.] 
1114-1122. Radulphus de Turbine. 
1123-1136. William de Curbellio. 
1139-1161. Theobald. 
1162-1170. Thomas a Becket : murdered 29 Dec. 

[See vacant.] 
1174-1184. Richard.- 
1184-1190. Baldwin. 

1191. Reginald Fitz-Joeeline, died 26 Dec. 

[See vacant.] 



Hubert Walter. [Reginald the sub-prior, and 
John Grey, bishop of Norwich, were lift- 
cessively chosen, but set aside.] 

Stephen Langton, died 6 July. 

Richard Weathershed. 

Edmund de Abingdon. 

Boniface of Savoy. 

Robert Kilwarby (resigned). 

John Peckham. 

Robert Winchelsey. 

Walter Reynolds. 

Simon de Mepham. 

John Stratford. 

John de Ufford. 

Thomas Bradwardin. 

Simon Islip. 

Simon Langham (resigned). 

Win. Whittelsey. 

Simon Sudbury, beheaded by the rebels, 14 
June. 

William Courtenay. 

Thos. Fitzalan or Arundel (attainted). 

Roger Walden (expelled). 

Tho. Arundel (restored). 

Henry Chicheley. 

John Stafford. 

John Kemp. 

Thomas Bouchier. 

John Morton. 

Henry Deane or Denny. 

Wm. Warham. 

Thos. Cranmer (burnt 21 March). 

Reginald Pole, d. 17 Nov. 

Matt. Parker, d. 17 May (see Nag's Head). 

Edm. Grindal, d. 6 July. 

John Whitgift, d. 29 Feb. 

Rd. Bancroft, d. 2 Nov. 

Geo. Abbot, d. 4 Aug. 

Wm. Laud (beheaded, 10 Jan.). 
[See vacant 16 years.] 

Wm. Juxon, d. 4 June. 

Gilb. Sheldon, d. 9 Nov. 

Wm. Sancroft (deprived 1 Feb.), d. 24 Nov. 
1693. 

John Tillotson, d. 22 Nov. 

Thos. Tenison, d. 14 Dec. 

Wm. Wake, d. 24 Jan. 

John Potter, d. 10 Oct. 

Thos. Herring, d. 13 Mar. 

Matt. Hutton, d. 19 Mar. 

Thos. Seeker, d. 3 Aug. 

Fred. Cornwallis, d. 19 Mar. 

John Moore, d. 18 Jan. 

Chas. Manners Sutton, d. 21 July. 

Wm. How-ley, d. 1 1 Feb. 

John Bird Sumner, d. 6 Sept. 

Chas. Thos. Longley, d. 27 Oct. 

Archibald Campbell Tait, d. 3 Dec. 1882. 

Edward White Benson (trans, from Truro), 
d. suddenly n Oct. ; state funeral in the 
cathedral, 16 Oct. 1896 ; memorial unveiled 
by the duchess of Albany, 8 July, 1899. 

Frederick Temple (trans, from London, Oct.), 
elected 25 Nov. ; confirmed 22 Dec. 1896 ; 
d. 23 Dec. 1902. 
1903. Randall Thomas Davidson (trans, from Win- 

chester), enthroned 12 Feb. 1903. 

CANTERBURY (New Zealand), a Church of 
England settlement founded in 1850. Population 
in 1854, 6000, in 1868, 54,000; 1901, 143,041. 
Large quantities of mutton are annually exported 
to Great Britain. Canterbury mutton is of a fine 
quality and commands a large sale. 

CANTERBURY TALES, by Geoffrey 
Chaucer, were written about 1364 ; and first printed 
about 1475 or 1476 (by Caxton). A copy dated 
1478 sold for 1020/., 26 Feb. 1896. Chaucer Society 
established 18(37. 

CANTHARIDES, venomous green beetles 
(called Spanish Hies), employed to raise blisters. 
This use is ascribed to Are'taius of Cappadocia, 
about 50 B.C. 



1206-1228. 
1229-1231. 
1233-1240. 
1240-1270. 
1272-1278. 
1279-1292. 
1293-1313. 
1313-1327. 

1327-1333- 

1333-1348. 

1348-1349. 

1349. 

1349-1366. 

1366-1368. 

1368-1374. 

1375-1381. 

1381-1396. 

1397-1398. 

1398. 

1399-1414. 

1414-1443. 

1443-1452. 

1452-1454. 

1454-1486. 

1486-1500. 

1501-1503. 

1503-1532. 

1533-1556. 

1556-1558. 

i559- I 575- 
1576-1583. 
1583-1604. 
1604-1610. 
1611-1633. 
1633-1645. 

1 660- 1 663. 
166V1677. 
1678-1691. 

1691-1694. 
1695-1715. 
I7 1 5"i737- 
i737" I 747- 
I747-I757- 
I757-I758- 
1758-1768. 
1768-17S3. 
1783-1805. 
1805-1828. 
1828-1848. 
1848-1862 
1862-1868. 



1896-1902. 



CANTICLES. 



227 



CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 



CANTICLES, these are the Benedictus, Mag- 
nificat, Nunc dimittis, &c, in the Book of Common 
Prayer, and especially the "Song of Solomon." 

CANTILEVER, a large bracket used in archi- 
tecture and bridge building, primitively in Japan, 
India, and China. It is defined as " a structure 
overhung from a fixed base." The principle was 
adopted in the Forth bridge and the Mississippi 
bridge (which see). 

CANTON, founded about 200 B.C., the only 
city in China with which Europeans were allowed 
to trade, till the treaty of 29 Aug. 1842. Merchants 
arrived here in 1517. English factory established, 
1680. A fire destroying 15,000 houses, 1822. An 
inundation swept away 10,000 houses and 1000 
persons, Oct. 1833. Canton was taken by the British 
in 1857; restored, 1861. See China 1835, 1839, 
1856, 1861. The "flower-boats" burnt, about 100 
persons missing, 31 Aug. 1894. Population es- 
timated at 1,600,000 in 1890. 

CANTOR LECTURES, scientific courses 
given annually at the rooms of the Society of Arts. 
The expenses are defrayed by a legacy from Dr. Theo- 
dore Edward Cantor, 0! the Indian civil service ; who 
died about 1859. The lectures began 7 Dec. 1863. 

. CANULEIAN LAW, permitting the patri- 
cians and plebeians to intermarry, was passed at 
Home 445 B.C. 

CAOUTCHOUC or India Rubber, an 

elastic resinous substance that exudes by incisions 
from several trees that grow in South America, 
Mexico, Africa, and Asia, especially Castilloa 
Hevea or Siphonia elastica, and Ficus elastica. 
Observed at Hayti by Columbus (Herrera) . . . 1493 

Described by Torquemada 1615 

Discovered by La Condamine in Quito (termed by 

natives cahout-chou) ; brought to Europe about 1735 
Dr. Priestley said that he had seen "a substance 
excellently adapted to the purpose of wiping from 
paper the marks of a black lead pencil." It was 
sold at the rate of 3s. the cubic half-inch . . 1770 
India-rubber cloth was made by Samuel Peal and 

patented 1791 

Caoutchouc discovered in the Malay Archipelago, 

1798 ; in Assam 1810 

Vulcanised rubber formed by combining India rub- 
ber with sulphur, which process removes the sus- 
ceptibility of the rubber to change under atmo- 
spheric temperatures, was patented in America, 

by Mr. C. Goodyear 1839 

Invented also by Mr. T. Hancock (of the firm of 

Macintosh <fe Co.), and patented . . . . 1843 
Mr. Goodyear invented the hard rubber (termed 
Ebonite) as a substitute for horn and tortoise- 
shell ^49 

A mode of retaining India rubber in its natural 
fluid state (by applying to it liquid ammonia) 
patented in England for the inventor, Mr. Henry 

Lee Norris, of New York 1853 

See under Printing. 

African caoutchouc imported into England . . 1856 
Caoutchouc imported in 1850, 7617 cwts. ; in 1856, 
28,765 cwts. ; in 1864, 71,027 cwts. ; in 1866, 
72,176 cwts. ; in 1870, 152,118 cwts. ; in 1874, 
129,163 cwts.; in 1876, 158,692 cwts.; in 1879, 
150,601 cwts. ; in 1883, 229,101 cwts. ; in 1887, 
237, 5 11 cwts. ; in 1888, 220,350 cwts. ; in 1889, 
236,310 cwts. ; in 1890, 264,008 cwts. ; 1893, 
' 2 93>373 cwts. ; 1899, 449,651 cwts. ; 1900, 513,286 
cwts. ; 1901, 466,474 cwts. 

CAPE BRETON, a large island, E. coast of 
N. America, said to have been discovered by Cabot, 
1497 ; by the English in 1584 ; taken by the French 
in 1632, but was afterwards restored ; and again 
taken in 1745, and re-taken in 1748. The fortress, 
Louisburg, was captured by the English 26 July, 
1758, when the garrison were made prisoners, and 



eleven French ships were captured or destroyed. 
The island was ceded to England, 10 Feb. 1763 ; in- 
corporated with Nova Scotia 1819. Population in 
1881, 84,262 ; 1891, 86,914. Lieut. -governor, hon. 
M. B. Daly (1891). Chief town, Sidney. Popula- 
tion, 1901, nearly 18,000. 

CAPE- COAST CASTLE, in Upper Guinea, 
S. \V. Africa. Settled by the Portuguese in 1610 ; 
taken by the Dutch 1643 ; demolished by admiral 
Holmes in 1661. All the British factories and ship- 
ping along the coast were destroyed by the Dutch 
admiral, De Ruyter, in 1665. It was confirmed to 
the English by the treaty of Breda, in 1667. See 
Ashantees and Gold Coast. 

CAPE FINISTERRE (N. W. Spain). Off 
this cape admirals lord Anson and Warren de- 
feated and captured a French fleet under De la 
Jonquiere, 3 May, 174". 

CAPE HORN, or HOORN, on the last island of 
the Fuegian archipelago, the southernmost point of 
America, was discovered and named by Schouten, 
[616, after his birth-place in the Netherlands. 

CAPE LA HOGUE, see La Rogue (correctly, 
Hague) . 

CAPEL COURT, see under Stocks. 

CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, a promontory on 
the S. W. point of Africa, called " Cabo Tormen- 
toso" (the stormy cape), the " Lion of the Sea," 
and the " Head of Africa," discovered by Bar- 
tholomew de Diaz in 1487. Its present name was 
given by John II. of Portugal, who augured favour- 
ably of future discoveries from Diaz having reached 
the extremity of Africa. Population of " Cape 
Colony" in 1856, 267,096; in 1881, 720,984; in 
1891, 1,527,224 ; Dec. 1901, estimated 2,433,000. 
Cape Town and suburbs, population, 1888, 6o,000 ; 
1902, 167,200. For governors, see below. 

The cape was doubled, and the passage to India 

discovered by Vasco da Gama . . 19 Nov. 1497 
Cape Town, the capital, founded by the Dutch . 1650 
Colony taken by the English under admiral Elphin- 

stone and general Clarke . . .16 Sept. 1795 
Restored at the peace of Amiens . . 25 March, 1802 
Taken by sir D. Baird and sir H. Popham 9 Jan. 1806 
Finally ceded to England . . . 13 Aug. 18 14 
British emigrants arrive .... March, 1820 
The Kaffirs make irruptions on the British settle- 
ments, and ravage Grahamstown ; see Kaffraria, 

Oct. 1834 
Bishopric of Cape Town founded ; Dr. Robert Gray, 

first bishop 1847 

The inhabitants successfully resist the attempt to 

make the cape a penal colony . . 19 May, 1849 
Territories north of Great Orange river placed under 
British authority, 3 Feb. 1848 ; annexed as the 
Orange river territory .... March, 1851 
The constitution granted to the colony promulgated 

and joyfully received 1 July, 1853 

General Prsetorius, chief of the Transvaal republic, 

died Aug. ,, 

The British jurisdiction over the Orange river 
territory abandoned, 30 Jan. ; a free state was 
formed ; see Orange river . . . March, 1854 
The first parliament meets at Cape Town 1 July, ,, 
The Kaffirs much excited by a prophet named 
Umhla-kaza ; by the exertions of sir George Grey, 
the governor, tranquillity maintained . Aug. 1856 
The cape visited by prince Alfred in . July, i860 

The first railway from Cape Tow n, about 58 miles 

long, opened ..... about Dec. ,, 
Governor, sir Philip E. Wodehouse .... 1861 
Disputes between bishops of Cape Town and Natal ; 

see Church of England 1863-5 

Cape Town visited by the duke of Edinburgh, 

17 Aug. 1867 
Discovery of diamonds ; leads to disputes between 
the free states and the tribes ; see Diamonds 1867-70 

a 2 



CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 



228 



CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 



Large tracts of territory devastated by fire Feb. 

Death of Moshesh, an eminent chief of the Basutos, 
friendly to the British . . .11 March, 

New harbour, breakwater, and docks at Cape 
Town inaugurated by the duke of Edinburgh, 

12 July, 

Sir Henry Barkly appointed governor . Aug. 

Energy of sir Henry Barkly, in repressing 
aggressions of the president of the Orange river 
territory March, 

Colony of Griqualand constituted . . 27 Oct. 

The British flag erected amidst the diamond fields 
with great acclamation . . . .17 Nov. 

Great success in the diamond fields ; robbery of 
diamonds valued between 35,000/,. and 40,0001. ; 
oppression of the natives stopped by sir H. Barkly, 

Aug. 

Death of bishop Gray, deeply lamented . 1 Sept. 

Maeonio, an eminent Kaffir chief, died . 11 Sept. 

Insurrection of Langalibalele, a chief, suppressed 
(See Natal) Nov. Dec. 

South African Confederation {which see), proposed 
by earl of Carnarvon ; opposed by Mr. Molteno 
and his cabinet, May ; long debate commenced 
on it in the Cape parliament . . .11 Nov. 

Earl of Carnarvon, in a despatch, proposes that the 
conference on the confederation shall be trans- 
ferred to England, 22 Oct. ; much resented Nov. 

Earl of Carnarvon's despatch expressing earnest 
desire for the confederation, and proposing a 
meeting of delegates in London, their decision 
not to be conclusive, 15 Nov. ; parliament pro- 
rogued 26 Nov. 

Conference of delegates in London began ; earl of 
Carnarvon, not Mr. Molteno, present . 5 Aug. 

Sir H. Bartle E. Frere appointed governor and lord 
high commissioner for South Africa . . Nov. 

He opens a successful exhibition at Cape town 

S April, 

Transvaal republic (which see) annexed 12 April, 

Troublesome disputes between tribes (Fingoes and 
Galekas) ; lead to war (see Kaftraria) . Sept. 

The minister Molteno opposes employing im- 
perial troops in the Kaffir war . Jan., Feb. 

Mr. Molteno's ministry dismissed ; one formed by 
Mr. J. Gordon Sprigg, about 12 Feb. ; reported 
successful April, 

Kaffir war ended ; amnesty to surrendering rebels 
announced 2 July, 

Thanksgiving day for restoration of peace 1 Aug. 

Zulu war begins (see Zululand) . . 12 Jan. 

Insurrection in the Transvaal (which see) Dec. 

Telegraphic communication with Great Britain 
completed ; telegram from the queen to sir 
Bartle Frere and others . . . .25 Dec. 

Government proposition for conference of delegates 

to promote federation, rejected by the assembly 

about 24 June, 

War witli Basutos June, 

Recall of sir Bartle Frere, 1 Aug. ; announced in 

parliament 2 Aug. 

Opinions [as to his policy and that of the home 
government greatly differed.] 

Sir Hercules G. R. Robinson appointed governor 
and Lord High Commissioner for South Africa 

21 Aug. 

Resignation of Mr. Sprigg's ministry, through 

narrow esca] f vote t>f censure; .succeeded by 

Mi Beanlen and Mr. Molteno . 6, 7 May, 

Bottled difficulty with Transvaal {which see) .' 1 

Ministry defeated, resigns) Mr. Qpington, new 
minister 7 May, 

They agree to support the imperial government in 
repressingthe Boer filibusters . . Oct. 

Railway in Kimberley opened by sir H.Robinson 

28 Nov. 
1 he houses of pai liamenl opened . . . . 

The P los invade Xesibeland 20 Oct.; p 

announced 9 Dec. 

New ministry ; sir J. Gordon Sprigg primeminister 
about as Nov. 

New re lateral Ion acl di Irani hi tag manj natives 
passed ; muchopposed toi| . 81 pt. ; supported by 
' I"- home gm ernmenl 1 vi . 

The South African Jubilee Exhibition opened al 
Gwhamstown by sir Berculi s Robinson, 1 1 lee. 



1870 



1871 



1872 
1873 



1875 



1876 
1877 



1879 



1881 
(83-4 



Conference of delegates from Cape Colony, Natal, 
and the Orange Free State heid at Cape Town ; 
a customs union and railway extension proposed ; 
a movement towards S. African federation ; con- 
ference closed 18 Feb. 

Sir H. Brougham Loch appointed governor and high 
commissioner for South Africa about 22 June, 
1889 ; arrives 13 Dec. He unveils a statue of 
the queen in front of the houses of parliament, 
Cape Town . . . . . .21 Jan. 

Defeat of the ministry on the great railway schemes 
about 5 July ; resignation of sir J. Gordon 
Sprigg, under whom the colony prospered 

to July, 

New ministry formed by Mr. Cecil John Rhodes, the 
" diamond, king," founder of the. British South 
Africa company ... .17 July, 

Failure of the Cape of Good Hope bank after long 
run on it ; much alarm throughout the colony, 
24 Sept. ; reported deficiency, 464,000?., 16 Oct. 

South African Language Association, 1st Congress 
opened at Cape Town . . . 31 Oct. 

Sir Henry Loch and Mr. Rhodes visit London to 
discuss South African affairs with the govern- 
ment, 2-27 Feb. Satisfactory results reported 

6 March, 

Great fire at Cape Town ; the exhibition buildings 
and other places destroyed . . .21 Feb. 

Sir H. B. Loch opens the junction railway between 
Cape Colony and the Free State . 10 March, 

A new franchise act opposed by the coloured 
population (1892), not vetoed by the queen, Feb. 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes returns from a visit to England, 
8 March ; he resigns ; reconstructs his ministry, 
including sir J. Gordon Sprigg . . 4 May, 

Vote disapproving Mr. Cecil Rhodes' continuance 
as premier and a director of the S. Africa com- 
pany, rejected (57-2) .... 22 June, 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes arrives at Cape Town after his 
tour through Mashonaland and Matabeleland, 
reports the conquest of Matabeleland . 3 Jan. 

Sir Henry B. Loch arrives in England, 21 April ; 
returned to Cape Town .... 7 Nov. 

Budget: surplus, 334,161?. . . . 14 June, 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes made privy councillor . 2 Feb. 

Sir Hercules Robinson appointed to succeed sir 
Henry Loch, Feb. : warmly received at Cape 
Town 30 May, 

Sir Charles Mills, agent-general for the eolonj , 
1882, et seq., a brave soldier and able financier, 
bom in 1825, died . . . -31 March, 

Win. Lippert, formerly manager of the Union bank 
of Cape Town, sentenced to 7 years' penal servi- 
tude for forgeries on the bank amounting to 
200,000? 25 April, 

British Bechuanaland annexed by the assembly, 

1 1 June and 1 Aug. 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes accused of complicity with Dr. 
Jameson's action ; see Transvaal, Jan. 1S96 ; 
resigns ; 6 Jan. ; succeeded by sir John Gordon 
Sprigg 6 Jan. 

Sir II. Robinson returns from his successful visit 
to the Transvaal (which see) . . 16 Jan. 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes arrives in London, 4 Feb ; in- 
terview with Mr. Chamberlain, 6 Feb. ; leaves 
for Rhodesia 10 Feb. 

Loyal colonial league, formed to maintain the 
British supremacy in some of the frontier towns ; 
reported 2S April, 

Parliament opened .... 1 May, 

Sir II. Robinson leaves for England; 20 May; 
created Baron Rosmead, July (1896); returns to 
Cape Town 31 Aug. 

Petition for the reinstatement of Mr. Cecil Rhodes. 
13,000 signatures, transmitted to Mr. Chamber- 
lain 22 Sept. 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes warmly received at Cape Town ; 
30 Pee. ; sails for England . . . 6 Jan. 

Lord Rosmead resigns, succeeded by sir Alfred 
Milner; announced .... 15 Feb. 

Great meeting in favour of Mr. Cecil Rhodes, and 
against the evidence of Mr. Sehreiner at the 
s. Africa committee, London . . 29 March, 

Explosion of two cases of blasting gelatine, at a 
mine ; jo deaths 14 April, 

Mr. Rhodes arrives at Cape Town; well received, 

20 April, 

Lord Rosmead leaves for England . 21 April. 



1893 



1895I 



.. ' 



CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 



229 



CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 



Sir J. Gordon Sprigg's budget ; estimated surplus, 
227,000?. 29 April, 

Vote of censure on the ministry, defeated by the 
speaker's casting vote ... 30 April, 

Sir Alfred Milner arrives at Cape Town ; cordially 
received 5 May, 

Solemn fast (13 June), owing to the spread of rin- 
derpest, proclaimed . . . .28 May, 

Suicide of Mr. B. I. Barnato, by leaping overboard 
from the Scot (insane); a highly successful specu- 
lator in gold and diamonds, and very influential 
in Africa and London ... 14 June, 

Diamond jubilee celebration throughout S. Africa ; 
rejoicings at Cape Town . 20 June et seq. 

Sir J. Gordon Sprigg (in London) authorized by 
the Cape parliament, offers Mr. Goschen, first 
lord of the admiralty, to present the cost of a 
1st class battleship, as a contribution from Cape 
Colony, 10 July ; proposed to take the form of 
the payment of the yearly interest (abt. 25,000?.) ; 
announced 16 Dec. 

Colonial tour of sir Alfred Milner ; 30 Aug. -26 Sept. 

Sigcau, the Pondo chief, claims 1,500?. from the 
government as damages for false imprisonment ; 
announced 30 Dec. 

Legislative council dissolved . . . Jan. 

Galishwe, rebel chief, captured by capt. Denison ; 
30 Aug. 1897 ; sentenced to 10 years' imprison- 
ment 11 Feb. 

The Graaf Beinet-Middelburg railway, opened by 
sir A. Milner 3 March, 

The Customs union conference opened at Cape 
Town 12 April, 

Telegraphic communication established between 
Cape Town and Blantyre ... 20 April, 

Parliament opened 20 May ; Mr. Schreiner's motion 
of want of confidence voted, 22-23 June ; parlia- 
ment ' prorogued , 28 June; opened by sir A. 
Milner, 10 Oct. ; Mr. Schreiner's vote of want of 
confidence carried, 39-37, n Oct. ; (ministry 
resigns) new one under Mr. Schreiner, 14 Oct. 

Death of general sir W. Goodenough, commander- 
in-chief, 24 Oct. ; succeeded by general Butler, 
who arrives at Cape Town . . -30 Nov. 

Redistribution act, 16 new seats ; total, 95 mem- 
bers, passed 7 Dec. 

Imperial navy contribution bill (30,000?. annually) 
passed without debate ... 9 Dec. 

Customs union convention comes into operation, 

3 Jan. 

Parliament prorogued . . 11 April, 14 July, 

The Swellendam railway opened by sir A. Milner, 
12 A pril ; he leaves Cape Town for Natal {which see), 
29 May ; returns, his Transvaal policy, " equality 
all round," warmly supported . . June, 

Van Riebeck's statue, presented by Mr. Rhodes, 
unveiled at Cape Town . . .18 May, 

Parliament opened, with queen's speech, 14 July, 

Demonstration to Mr. Rhodes on his return to 
Cape Town 18 July, 

General sir F. Forestier-Walker arrives to take 
command of troops .... 6 Sept. 

General sir Red vers Buller received with great re- 
joicing at Cape Town (see South African War), 

31 Oct. 

Loyal meeting of Mahomedans at Cape Town, 

30 Oct. 

Sir A. Milner's proclamation of equality to British 
and Dutch alike, issued . . .23 Nov. 

Field-marshal lord Roberts and lord Kitchener 
arrive at Cape Town . . . .10 Jan. 

Disaffection among the Dutch in Cape Colony, in- 
creasing Jan. 

Dr. W. Hiddingh bequeaths 30,000?. to the Cape 
university, with a site for new buildings, and 
10,000?. to the South Africa college, reported 

mid. Jan. 

The City of London imperial volunteers reviewed 
by lord Roberts, 31 Jan. ; 2nd detachment 
arrives 3 Feb. 

Rapid rally of volunteers, Brabant's Horse and 
others, in a few weeks . . . Jan. -Feb. 

Great rejoicings at the relief of Kimberley (see 
South African War), 15 Feb. ; the surrender of 
general Cronje, 27 Feb., and the relief of Lady- 
smith 28 Feb. 

Public meeting of Irishmen, loyal message to the 
queen 16 March, 



1897 



Great fire in Grave-street, Cape Town, building 
gutted 25 March, : 

Sir George White (the defender of Ladysmith) 
warmly received at Cape Town . 27 March, 

Loyal mass meetings in Cape Town and elsewhere, 

March-April, 

Many Cape rebels sentenced to various terms of 
imprisonment 23 April, 

Mr. David Gill, astronomer-royal at the Cape, 
made K.C.B 24 May, 

Annexation of the Orange Free State proclaimed 
at Cape Town, 28 May, 

Ministerial crisis, disruption of the Bond party, 
Mr. Schreiner, premier, upholds the policy of 
sir A. Milner and home government, 11, 12 June ; 
he resigns, 13 June ; sir J. Gordon Sprigg forms 
a (progressive) cabinet, Mr. Rose-Innes, att.- 
gen. ; Mr. Graham, col. sec. . . 18 June, 

Parliament opened by sir A. Milner . 19 July, 

Sir J. Gordon Sprigg's budget statement, deficit 
69,000?. ; estimated revenue for 1900, 7,252,000?. ; 
expenditure, 7,225,026?. . . .21 Aug. 

Royal hospitals commission arrives, first meeting 
held at Cape Town . . . . 21 Aug. 

Letters found at Pretoria and Bloemfonteim, 
written by leading South Africans in Cape Colony 
and English M.P.'s to Boer officials, published 
as a parliamentary paper ... 23 Aug. 

The annexation of the Transvaal announced in the 
house of assembly .... 3 Sept. 

General Baden-Powell, hero of Mafeking, received 
with great enthusiasm at Cape Town, 7-12 Sept. 

Treason bill read third time in the house of as- 
sembly, 46 — 37, 21 Sept., and the legislative 
council, 12 — 8 . . . . .28 Sept. 

Transvaal concessions commission began work in 
South Africa, end of Aug. ; meets at Cape Town 
(see Transvaal, Oct., June, and Nov. 1901), 

2 Oct. 

South African league congress opened with a cheer- 
ful speech by Mr. Rhodes, he is re-elected presi- 
dent 10, 13 Oct. 

Parliament prorogued . . . . 13 Oct. 

General Buller warmly received at Cape Town, 

23, 24 Oct. 

Afrikander congress at Worcester ; resolutions 
against the war and demanding the independence 
of the Boer republics carried, 6 Dec. ; presented 
to sir A. Milner 12 Dec. 

Lord Roberts presented with a sword of honour 
and addresses at Cape Town . . 8-1 1 Dec. 

Boer raids, see South African War, Dec. T900 et seq. 

Proclamation calling for volunteers (loyal re- 
sponse), issued 1 Jan. 

Serious plague epidemic, many deaths, Feb.-May, 

Sir Walter P. Hely- Hutchinson appointed governor, 
Jan. ; arrives 6 March, 

Martial law proclaimed in the Paarl district, April, 

Mr. Malan, editor of Ons Land, and two others 
sentenced to 6 months, and Mr. Cartwright, 
editor of the South African News, to a year's im- 
prisonment for seditious libel . 19, 22 April, 

Sir A. Milner leaves for Pretoria, 28 Feb. ; returns 
to Cape Town, presented with an address of con- 
fidence (over 10,000 signatures), leaves for 
England, 4-8 May ; made a peer (lord Milner of 
St. James' and Cape Town) . . 24 May, 

Parliament prorogued .... 7 June, 

Sir W. Hely-Hutchinson well received on tour by 
the Dutch in the west, returns to Cape Town, 

8 June, 

South African constabulary formed, reported suc- 
cessful 4 July 

Duke and duchess of Cornwall welcomed at Cape 
Town, receive 95 addresses and many gifts, 19 
Aug. ; Khama, Lethorodi, and over too chiefs pre- 
sented, 20 Aug. ; the duke installed chancellor 
of the university, children's fete, &c, 21 Aug. ; 
foundation-stones laid for the new cathedral and 
a nurses' home, 22 Aug. ; the Boer prisoners pre- 
sent several serviette rings and a brooch made 
from Kruger coins to the duke and duchess, 
who left 23 Aug. 

Lord Milner returns to Cape Town . . 27 Aug. 

Martial law extended through the colony, 9 Oct. 

Life assurance offices in Cape Town burnt, esti- 
mated damage 200,000?. . 11 Oct. 



CAPE OF GOOD HOPE. 



230 



CAPETIANS. 



Mr. Marais charged with violating certain regula- 
tions in the Paarl district under martial law, 
and imprisoned, Aug. ; his claim to be tried by 
a civil tribunal rejected by the supreme court, 
and again by the judicial committee of the privy 
council, London 18 Dec. 

The governor's eastern tour (1,200 miles) very suc- 
cessful, reported 6 Feb. 

Mass meeting at Cape Town, the mayor, chairman, 
to protest against Continental and pro-Boer 
slanders on British troops in South Africa, 8 
Feb. ; another by Germans. . . 10 Feb. 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes, statesman, philanthropist, and 
millionnaire, "a great empire builder," born 5 
July, 1853; died, greatly mourned, 26 March, 
1902 ; laid in state, impressive funeral cere- 
monies at Cape Town (see Rhodesia) . 3 April, 

Princess Radziwill convicted of forging promissory 
notes ; sentenced to 2 years' detention in a house 
of correction 30 April, 

Mr. Seddon, the New Zealand premier, visits Cape 
Town 26 May, 

Peace rejoicings 12 June, 

Sir J. Gordon Sprigg (G. CM. G. 26 June, 1902) op- 
poses the suspension of the constitution, 2 June, 

Thanksgivings for the conclusion of peace and 
public holiday . . . . 8, 9 June, 

Cold and storm general, cattle and sheep perish, 

June, 

Proclamation calling on rebels to surrender before 
10 July, issued 11 June, 

Meetings in favour of the suspension of the consti- 
tution . . .6, zi, 23 June and 4, 5 July, 

Lord Kitchener (visct., 26 June) enthusiastically 
received, presented with an address, leaves for 
England ...... 23 June, 

Great fire in Cape Town, 5 buildings gutted, 

27, 28 June, 

Cape Town illuminated at news of the king's pro- 
gress towards recovery .... 3 July, 

Petition for the temporary suspension of the Cape 
constitution, signed by 42 members of the Cape 
parliament and over 34,000 others, negatived by 
Mr Chamberlain, but the speedy summoning of 
the legislature agreed to, in order to pass the 
necessary legislation . . . .5 July, 

Peace thanksgivings in Dutch churches, 13 July, 

Ex-pres. and Mrs. Steyn leave for England ; Mrs. 
Steyn receives a purse of 1,000?. from the ladies 
of Cape Town, about . . . .16 July, 

Cape Town cathedral memorial fund meeting held 
(see England) 17 July, 

Generals Louis Botha, Delarey, and De Wet well 
received, 23-29 July ; sail for Europe . 30 July, 

Sir J. Gordon Sprigg returns from England, 20 July, 

Cape Town sword of honour presented to lord 
Kitchener by the lord mayor, in London, 31 July, 

Sir W. Hely-Hutchinson opens the new railway at 
Caledon 1 Aug. 

The first train de luxe from Bulawayo reaches 
Cape Town in 74 hours ... 13 Aug. 

Parliament opened by the governor . 20 Aug. 

Split in the progressives; Dr. Smartt elected 
leader 20 Aug. 

Dr. Jameson denounces the proposed colonial com- 
mission of inquiry into martial law . 28 Aug. 

Smallpox reported in Cape Town . 29 Aug. 

Violent gale at Algoa Hay and Port Elizabeth, 
great loss of life and shipping . . 1 Sept. 

< ' • • 1 1 1 < 1 . ■ 1 1 < - • - of Hutch loyalists at Paarl, Aug. ; peti- 
tion of grievances presented . . .2 Sept. 

Breach between sir Gordon Sprigg and the pro- 
gressives Aug. Sept. 

Budget: estimated surplus (1902-3), 286,227/.; 
navy grant increased I" ......»,/. per aim., o Sept. 

Budget, 1901 -■ deficit, 2,291,942/. ; estimated 
revenue, 1902-3, 10,350,000/. . . . 10 Sept. 

Indemnity bills passed . . . 11 Sept. 

Royal commission (lord Alvevstcinc, Mr. Justice 
Blgham, and others) reviews martial law sen- 
tences at (ape Town, 26 Aug. ,t geg. ; leaves for 
the north i.< Sept. 

.Martial law repealed ; peace preservation Act pro- 
claimed 17 Sept. 

African Gold Farms Company (ltd.) holding 

2,000,000 acres, 600,000/. capital, 100,000?. reserve, 

floated l>j Messrs. Harnato lnos. at Johanncs- 

2 Jan. 



1 901 
1902 



Cape Town branch of progressive association 
formed. Enthusiastic welcome to Dr. Jameson,, 
who stated that he hoped the S. African league 
and progressive association would work side by 
side to carry out progressive cause, and suggested 
amalgamation with the league. Mr. Rudyard 
Kipling heartily received . . . s6 Jan. 1903). 

Carl van der Merwe, former Boer landrost, com- 
mitted for trial on charges of flogging the Kaffir ' 
Esau end Jan. ,„ 

Mr. Chamberlain at Cape Town, enthusiastic re- In- 

ception, 10 Feb. ; receives deputations from S. 
African league, the progressive parliamentary 
committee, and other bodies ; entertained at. 
lunch by government at Groot Constantia, 20 
Feb. ; Rondebosch, 21 Feb. ; addiesses great 
gathering of children under auspices of the 
league of children of the empire ; important 
interview with leading members of S. African, 
party, a new association which has taken the 
place of the Bond ; receives deputation of loyal 
Dutchmen of Cape Colony, headed by sir Henry 
Juta ; farewell banquet at Cape Town, 23 Feb., 
urges the importance of amity and co-operation 
for the interests of the empire, concluding with, 
the remark, "All the divergent- races which, 
went to make up the British empire had as their 
motto, ' One life, one flag, one fleet, one empire.' " 
Leaves Cape Town for England . . 24 Feb. , r ' 

Bond congress opened at Somerset East . 30 April ,„ 

Passes resolution urging a colonial commission of 
inquiry into the administration of martial law. 
Revision of the constitution of the Bond agreed 
to. Mr. Theron elected president . . 1 May ,, I 

Bill authorising expenditure of over 2,000,000?. on . 
new railways introduced in Cape assembly, 

late June „ ; 

Appointment of members of legislative council of 
the Transvaal and Orange River Colonies an- 
nounced late June „ I 

Customs convention accepted by house of assem- 
bly 29 June ,„ I 

Attorney-general announced refusal of government 
to appoint a commission to inquire into martial 
law 29 June ,, 

Optimistic budget speech by sir J. Gordon Spriggs 
dwelling upon enormous growth of imports and 
exports. Expenditure to June, 1903, 10,738,484?. 
leaving surplus of 1,028,682?. Estimated revenue 
for 1903-04, 11,725,000?., expenditure, 11,585,232?. 

*3 July » 

Revenue, 3,160,658?., expenditure, 3,332,907?., 
1886-7 > imports, 5,036,135?., exports, 7,719,385/., 
1887 ; 1889-90, actual revenue, 4,430,050?. ; ex- 
penditure, vote, 3,878,925 ; 1892-93, revenue, 
6,41.6,149?., expenditure, 5,734,503?., imports, ex- 
cluding specie, 11,364,836/., exports, ditto, 
12,956,554/. ; 1900, imports, 19,678,336/. ; exports, 
8,147,670?. ; Dec. 1901, imports, 23,990,543?. ; 
exports, 10,873,273?. 1902, imports, 34,190,500/.; 
exports, 17,436,131/. Revenue, 1899 -1900, 
6)565,752/. I expenditure, vote, 6,667,651?. 
Revenue, 1901, 7,957,499?. 

For recent wars, see Basutoland, Zululand, and j 

Transvaal. 

CAPE ST. VINCENT (S.W. Portugal) J 
Sir George Eooke, with twenty- three ships of warJ 
and the Turkish fleet, was attacked by Tourvillej 
with 160 ships, oft' Cape St. Vincent, when twelve! 
English and Dutch men-of-war, and eighty mer-| 
chantmen, were captured or destroyed by the 
French, 16 June, 1693. — Sir John Jervis, with the; 
Mediterranean fleet of fifteen sail, defeated the. 
Spanish fleet of twenty-seven ships of the line oft] 
this cape, taking four ships and sinking othersy 
14 Feb. 1797. For this victory sir John was raised 
to the peerage as earl St. Vincent. Nelson was! 
engaged in this battle. Near this cape the fleet of, 
dou] Pedro, under admiral Charles Napier, captured 
dom Miguel's fleet, 5 July, 1833. 

CAPETIANS, the third race of the kings of 
France, named from Hugo Capet, count of Paris, 
and Orleans, who seized the throne on the death of 



CAPE VEED ISLANDS. 



231 



CAPUCHIN FEIAES. 



Louis V., called the Indolent, 987. Henavlt. The 
first line of the house of Capet ended with Charles 
IV., in 1328, when Philip VI. of Valois ascended 
the throne ; see France. 

CAPE VEED ISLANDS (N. Atlantic 
Ocean), belonging to Portugal, were known to 
the ancients as Gorgades, but not to the moderns till 
discovered by Antonio de Noli, a Genoese navigator 
in the service of Portugal, 1446, 1450, or 1460. 
Population, 1885, 110,926; 1900, 147,424. 

CAPILLAEITY (the rising of liquids in 
small tubes, and the ascent of the sap in plants) 
is said to have been first observed by Niccolo 
Aggiunti of Pisa, 1600-35. l' ne theory has been 
examined by Newton, La Place, and others. Dr. 
T. Young's theory was put forth in 1805, and 
Mr. "Wertheim's researches in 1857. 

CAPITAL PUNISHMENT, see Death and 
Crime. 
CAPITATION TAX, see Poll-tax. 

CAPITOL, said to have been so called from 
a human head {caput) found when digging the 
foundations of the fortress of Rome, on Mons Tar- 
peius. Here a temple was built to Jupiter Capito- 
linus. The foundation was iaid by Tarquinius 
Priscus, 616 B.C.; the building was continued by 
Servius Tullius ; completed by Tarquinius Super- 
bus, but not dedicated till 507 b.c. by the consul 
Horatius. It was destroyed by lightning 6 July, 
183; burnt during the civil wars, 83; rebuilt by 
Sylla, and dedicated again by Lutatius Catulus, 69 ; 
again burnt a.d. 69, 80 ; rebuilt 70, 82 ; sacked by 
Genseric, June, 455. The Roman consuls made 
large donations to this temple, and the emperor 
Augustus bestowed on it 2000 pounds weight of 
gold, of which metal the roof was composed : its 
thresholds were of brass, and its interior was de- 
corated with shields of solid silver. The Capitoline 
games, instituted 387 B.C. to commemorate the de- 
liverance from the Gauls, were revived by Domitian, 
a.d. 86. The Campidoglio contains palaces of the 
senators, erected on the site of the Capitol by 
Michael Angelo soon after 1546. The corner-stone 
of the capitol at Washington, U.S.A., was laid 
18 Sept. 1793. 

CAPITULAEIES, laws of the Frankish kings, 
commencing with Charlemagne (801). Collections 
have been published by Baluze (1677) an ^ others. 

CAPITULATIONS: a name given to the 
judicial rights granted by treaties to foreign consuls 
in Turkey, beginning with Genoa in 1453. The 
English capitulations, 1675, contain rrost favoured 
nation clauses, and were maintained till April, 1870, 
when Nubar Pasha, Egyptian minister of foreign 
affairs, persuaded the great powers to substitute 
mixed international courts and a uniform code. 
The capitulations were finally abolished July, 1872. 

CAPPADOCIA, Asia Minor. Its early history 
is involved in obscurity. 

Pharnaces said to have founded the kingdom B.C. 744 
Cappadocia conquered by Perdiccas, regent of 
Macedon ; the king, Ariarathes I., aged 82, 

crucified 322 

Recovers its independence 315 

Conquered by Mithridates of Pontus . . . 291 
Held by Seleucus, 288 ; independent . . . . 288 
Ariarathes V., Philopator, reigns, 162 ; dethroned 
by Holophernes, 158, but restored soon after by 
the Komans ; killed with Crassus in the war 
against Aristonicus . . ... 130 

His queen, Laodice, poisons five of her sons ; the 
sixth (Ariarathes VI.) is saved ; she is put to death ,, 



Ariarathes VI. murdered by Mithridates Eupator ; 
who sets up various pretenders ; the Roman 
senate declares the country free, and appoints 

Ariobarzanes I. king B.C. 93 

He is several times expelled by Mithridates, &c, 

but restored by the Romans ; dies ... 64 
Ariobarzanes II. supports Pompey, and is slain by 

Crassus 4 2 

Ariarathes VII. deposed by Antony .... 36 
Archelaus is favoured by Augustus, 20 B.C. ; but 
accused by Tiberius, he comes to Rome and dies 
there oppressed with age . . . . a.d. 15 

Cappadocia becomes a Roman province . . .17 

Invaded by the Huns 5*5 

And by the Saracens 7 1 ? 

Recovered by the emperor Basil 1 876 

Conquered by Soliman and the Turks . . . 1074 
Annexed to Turkish Empire 13 60 

CAPPEL (Switzerland). Here the reformer 
Ulric Zwinglius was slain in a conflict between 
the catholics and the men of Zurich, 11 Oct. 1531. 

CAPEI (Caprese), an island near Naples, the 
sumptuous residence of Augustus, and particularly 
of Tiberius, memorable for the debaucheries he 
committed during his last years, 27-37. Remains- 
of his famous triremes which lie at the bottom of 
lake Nemi, discovered, in 1897. Capri was taken, 
by sir Sydney Smith, 12 May, 1806. 

CAPS, see Eats. 

CAPS AND HATS. About 1738, Sweden was- 
much distracted by two factions thus named, the 
former in the interest of the Russians, and the latter 
in that of the French. They were broken up and! 
the names prohibited by GustavuslII. in 1771, who- 
desired to exclude foreign influence. His assassina- 
tion by Ankarstrom, 16 March, 1792, set aside all 
his plans for the improvement of Sweden. 

CAPSTAN, used to work ships' anchors, is 
said to have been invented, but more probably was- 
only improved, by sir Samuel Morland, who died 
30 Dec. 1695. 

CAPTAIN, H.M.'s iron-clad turret ship, 
capsized during a squall, 12.15 a.m., 7 Sept., 1870.- 
Capt. Hugh Burgoyne, capt. Cowper Coles, who 
designed the vessel, and 481 persons perished. See 
under Navy of England. Subscriptions for relief 
of the widows and orphans of the lost up to 17 Nov. t . 
34,894^.; 3 Dec, 38,004^.; 31 Dec, about 46,000;. ; 
May, 1871, about 55,000;.; 25 June, 1871, about 
55,700;. Total, 57,824;. The fund was transferred 
to the Royal Commission of the Patriotic Fund. 

CAPUA, capital of Campania, took the part 
of Hannibal when his army wintered here after 
the battle of Cannae, 216 B.C., and it is said be- 
came enervated. In 211, when the Romans re- 
took the city, they scourged and beheaded all the 
surviving senators ; the others had poisoned them- 
selves after a banquet previous to the surrender of 
the city. Only two persons escaped; one woman 
who had prayed for the success of the Romans, and 
another who succoured some prisoners. During the 
middle ages Capua was successively subjugated by 
the Greeks, Saracens, Normans, and Germans. It 
was restored to Naples in 1424, and captured by 
Cassar Borgia, 24 July, 1501; was taken by Garibaldi 
2 Nov. i860. 

CAPUCHIN FEIAES, Franciscans, so 
named from wearing a Capuchoti, or cowl hanging 
down upon their backs. The order was founded by 
Matthew Baschi, about 1525; and established by 
the pope Clement VII. 1529. The capuchin con- 
fessors of the queen Henrietta introduced here 1630, 
were imprisoned by the parliament, 1642. 



CAE. 



232 



CABDINALS. 



CAE. The invention is mythically ascribed to 
Eriehthonius of Athens. Covered cars (currus 
arcuati) were used by the Romans. The lectica (a 
soft cushioned car), next invented, gave place to the 
carpentum, a two-wheeled car, with an arched 
covering, hung with costly cloth. Still later were 
the carrucce, in which the officers of state rode. 
Triumphal cars, introduced by Tarquin the Elder, 
were formed like a throne. See Carriages and 
Motor Car. 

CAEACAS (S. America), part of Venezuela, 
discovered by Columbus 1498. It was reduced by 
arms, and assigned as property to the Welsers, 
German merchants, by Charles V. ; but for their 
tyranny, they were dispossessed in 1550, and a 
crown governor appointed. The province declared 
its independence, 9 May, 1810. In the city Leon 
de Caracas, on 26 March, 1812, nearly 12,000 per- 
sons perished by an earthquake. Population, 1889, 
72,429. See Venezuela. 

CAEAITES, see Karaites. 

CAEASMIA, see Khiva. 

CAEBEEEY HILL (S. Scotland). Here 
lord Hume and the confederate barons dispersed the 
royal army under Bothwell, and took Mary queen 
of Scots prisoner, 15 June, 1567. Bothwell fled. 

CABBO-DYNAMITE, a powerful explosive 
of the nitro-glycerine class, invented by Messrs. 
Eeid and Borland, was tried in 1888, and in July, 
1889 was said to be practically perfect. 

CAEBOLIC ACID (or phenic acid), obtained 

by the distillation of pit-coal, by Laurent, 1846-7, 
is a powerful antiseptic. It is largely manufac- 
tured for surgical purposes, and has been advan- 
tageously used at Carlisle and Exeter in the deodo- 
risation of sewage (1860-1); and as a disinfectant 
during the prevalence of cholera in London in 1866. 
It was successfully used for embalming by profes- 
sor Seely in 1868. Professor F. Crace Calvert, a 
great manufacturer of this acid, died 1873. 

CABBON was shown to be a distinct element 
by Lavoisier in 1788. He proved the diamond to 
be its purest form, and converted it into carbonic 
acid gas by combustion. 

CAEBONAEI (charcoal-burners), a powerful 
secret society in Italy, which derived its origin, 
according to "some, from the Waldenses, and which 
became prominent early in the present century. It 
aimed at the expulsion of foreigners from Italy, and 
the establishment of civil and religious liberty. In 
March, 1820, it is said that 650,000 joined the so- 
ciety, and an insurrection soon after broke out in 
Naples, general Pfipe taking the command. The 
king Ferdinand made political concessions, but the 
influence of the allied sovereigns at Laybach led 

Ferdinand to annul them and suppress the liberal 
party, Jan. 1821, when the Carbonari were denounced 
as traitors. 

CAEBONIC ACID GAS, a gaseous com- 
pound of carbon and oxygen, found in the air, and a 
product of combustion, respiration, and fermentation. 
The tirotto del Cai.c yields 200,000 lbs. per annum. 
No animal can breathe this gas; The briskness oi 
ohampagne, beer, &c, is due to its presence. It 
was liquefied bj atmospheric pressure i>\ Faradayin 
[823. On exposing the liquid to the air it becomes 
solid, resembling Bnow, through vaporisation. See 
under Cannon^ [889 90. 

CABCHEMISH, see Eittites. 



CAEDIFF, S. Wales, here was an ancient 
Welsh and Norman castle founded in 1080, where 
Robert, duke of Normandy, eldest son of William I., 
is said to have been imprisoned from 1106 till his 
death 10 Feb. 1135. The prosperity of the town 
has been greatly increased by the construction of a 
canal (1794) and railroad, and by docks, &c, pro- 
moted by the Marquis of Bute. Population, 1881, 
82.761; 1891. 128,849; 1901, 164.420. Cardiff 
University College, established, 1883. 
Stoppage of a savings bank (established in 1819) through 
the embezzlements of the actuary, the late Mr. R. E. 
Williams, effected through the neglect of the trustees ; 
defalcations about 37,000*. April 1886. Report of the 
lion. E. Lyulph Stanley issued, Times, 22 Dec. 1887. 
Mr. Peter Davies, a trustee, was declared to be 

liable for a part of the hank losses . 27 March, 1890 
Church Congress met here . . . 1 Oct. 1889 

Seamen's Congress 8 Oct. „ 

Cardiff building society, established 1865, defalca- 
tion of 37,000!., partly through the long-con- 
tinued embezzlement of the funds by Arthur J. 
Robbins, a clerk, the loss re-imbursed partly by 
the defaulter and his family, the remainder by 
the secretary and directors— reported January. 
Robbins sentenced to five years' penal servitude. 

25 March, 1890 
Strike of railway servants, see Strikes . 8 Aug. „ 
New bridge over the Taff opened by the Duke of 
Clarence . . .... 17 Sept. ,, 

See Shipping, Feb. 1891 ; and Strikes . . . ,, 
Meeting of British Association . . 19 Aug. ,, 
Strike of about 4,000 men of the building trades . 

30 April — 3 June, 1892 
The Merchants' Exchange at the Pier-head, and 30 

offices destroyed by fire ; great loss . 19 Nov. ,, 
Remains of a Roman villa, etc., discovered by Mr. 

John Storrie, reported ... 26 Sept. 1894 
Industrial and fine arts exhibition opened by lord 
Windsor, 2 May ; visit of prince and princess of 

Wales 27 June, 1896 

Anti-ritualist demonstration . . . 26 July, 1899 
Grain warehouses burnt, over 40,000!. damage, 

21 Feb. 1903 

CAEDIGAN BAY, see Fishguard. 

CAEDINALS, princes in the church of Eome, 
the council of the pope, and the conclave or "sacred 
college," at first were the principal priests or in- 
cumbents of the parishes in Rome, and said to have 
been called cardinales in 853. They began to as- 
sume the exclusive power of electing the popes 
about 1 179. They first wore the red hat to remind 
them that they ought to shed their blood for re- 
ligion, if required, and were declared princes of the 
church by Innocent IV., 1243 or 1245. Paul II. 
gave the scarlet habit, 1464; and Urban VIII. the 
title of Eminence in 1623 or 1630. In 1586 Sixtus V. 
fixed their number at 70 ; but there are generally 
vacancies. In i860 there were 69 cardinals. In 
1873, 5 of the order of bishops ; 34 priests; 6 dea- 
cons; 45 in all. Nine cardinals (one a Bonaparte) 
were made, 13 March, 1868.* Eleven new car- 
dinals appointed, 12 March, 1877. In 1885, 6 car- 
dinal bishops, 35 priests, 11 deacons; in all 52. In 
Jan. 1894, there were 72 cardinals, 9 bishops, 
52 priests and 14 deacons; 9 cardinals created, 29 
Nov. 1895; 4 created, 23 June, 2 on 30 Nov. 1896; 
4 on 19 April; 3 French, 20 May, 1897; 10 
Italian, 2 foreign, created, re April, 1901 ; 3 created, 
<) June, 1902 ; 58 cardinals in March, 1903. 

* British Cardinals: Henry Stuart, created 1747; 
Charles Erskine, 1S01 ; Thomas Weld, 1830; Charles 
Acton, 1839; Nicholas Wiseman, 30 Sept. 1850 — 65; 
Henry Edward Manning, 1S75— 14 Jan. 1892; Edward 
11. Howard, 12 March, 1877, died 16 Sept. 1892; John 
Henry Newman, 12 May. 1879— n Aug. 1890; Ewd. 
Mc.Cabe, 17 Much. .:>v- (d. ti Feb. 1885); Herbert 
Vuughan (d. 19 June, iocs) and Michael Logue, 16 Jan. 
•1893- 



CARDROSS CASE. 



233 



.CARLOWTTZ. 



CARDROSS CASE, see Trials, 1861. 

CARDS, PLAYING. The origin of the game 
is uncertain. It is said to have been brought to 
Viterbo in 1379. Cards were illuminated for Charles 
VI. of France, 1392, then depressed in mind. 
W. A. Chatto's work on the "History of Playing 
Cards," published, 1848. Piquet and all the early 
names are French. — Cards first taxed in England 
1710. 428,000 packs were stamped in 1775, and 
986,000 in 1800. In 1825, the duty being then 
2s. 6d. per pack, less than 150,000 packs were 
stamped ; but in 1827 the stamp duty was reduced 
to I*., and 310,854 packs paid duty in 1830. Duty 
was paid on 239,200 packs in the year ending 5 Jan. 
1840 ; and on near 300,000, year ending 5 Jan. 
1850. By an act passed in 1862 the duty on cards 
was reduced to 3d. per pack, and the sellers were 
required to take out a licence, ll.; duty paid 1901-2, 
23,323/. See also Christmas. 

C ARIA (Asia Minor) , was conquered by Cyrus, 
546 B.C. ; by Dercyllidas, a Lacedfemonian, 397 ; 
his successor Hecatomnus became king, 385 B.C. ; 
for his son Mausolus the Mausoleum was erected 
{which see). Caria was annexed by the Romans, 
129 B.C. It is now part of the Turkish empire. 

CARIBBEE ISLANDS, see West Indies. 

CARICATURES were drawn by the ancient 
Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. Bufalmaco, an 
Italian painter, about 1 330, drew caricatures and put 
labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences. 
Modern caricature began with Hogarth (1697- 1764). 
The caricatures of Gillray, Rowlandson, Cruikshank, 

H. B. (John Doyle ™ = H3), Richard Doyle, John 

Leech, John Tenniel, Du Maurier, Pellegrini, 
"F.C.Gr." are justly celebrated. "Punch" was first 
published in 1841. See Charivari and Punch. Mr. 
T. Wright published a "History of Caricature," 
1865 ; and " the Life and Works of James Gillray," 
1873. ^ r - J- Grego published T. Rowlandson's 
Works and Life, 1880. Mr. Alfred Bryan, a clever 
caricaturist in black-and-white, died, aged 47, 
17 May, 1899. Phil May died, aged 39, 5 Aug. 
1903. 

CARIGNAN, a small town about twelve miles 
from Sedan, department of Ardennes, N.E. France. 
At the plain of Douzy near this place and the en- 
campment of Vaux, a part of MacMahon's army, 
retreating before the Germans, turned round and 
made a stand, 31 Aug. 1870. After a long, severe 
engagement, in which the same positions were 
taken and retaken several times, the Germans 
turned the flank of their enemies, who were com- 
pelled to fall back upon Sedan, where they were 
finally overcome, I Sept. 

CARILLONS, see Bells. 

CARINTHIA, a Bavarian duchy, annexed to 
the territories of the duke of Austria, 1336. Popu- 
lation, 1890, 361,008 ; 1900,367,344. 

CARISBROOKE CASTLE (Isle of Wight), 
said to have been a British and Roman fortress. 
Its Norman character has been ascribed to William 
Fitz-Osborne, earl of Hereford in William I.'s time. 
Here Charles I. was imprisoned Nov. 1647 to Nov. 
1648 ; and here his daughter Elizabeth, aged fifteen, 
died, 8 Sept. 1650; museum opened, 11 Aug. 1898; 
visited by the king, 2 April, 1902. 

CARIZMIANS (fierce shepherds living near 
the Caspian), having been expelled by the Tartars, 



invaded Syria in 1243. The union of the sultans 
of Aleppo, Hems, and Damascus was insufficient to 
stem the torrent, and the Christian military orders 
were nearly exterminated in a single battle in 1244. 
In Oct. they took Jerusalem. They were totally 
defeated in two battles in 1247. 

CARLAVEROCK CASTLE (S. Scotland), 
taken by Edward I., July, 1300, the subject of a 
contemporary poem published, with illustrations, 
by sir Harris Micolas in 1828. 

CARLISLE (Cumberland), a frontier town of 
England, wherein for many ages a strong garrison 
was kept. Just below this town the famous Picts' 
wall began, which crossed the whole island to New- 
castle-upon-Tyne, and here also ended the great 
Roman highway. Of the great church, called St. 
Mary's, a large part was built by David, king of 
Scotland, who held Cumberland, Westmoreland, 
and Northumberland, from the crown of England. 
The castle, destroyed by the Danes, 875, restored in 
1092 by "William II., was the prison of Mary queen 
of Scots in 1568.— Taken by the parliamentary forces 
in 1645, an d by the young Pretender, 15 Nov. 1745; 
retaken by the duke of Cumberland, 30 Dec. same 
year; partly destroyed by fire, 18 Jan. 1890. — The 
see was erected by Henry I. in 1132, and made 
suffragan to York. The cathedral had been founded 
a short time previously, by Walter, deputy for 
William Rufus. It was almost ruined by Crom- 
well, 1648, and partially repaired after the Restora- 
tion. It was reopened in 1856 after renovation, 
costing 15,000/. The see has been held by one lord 
chancellor and two lord treasurers ; it is valued in 
the king's books at 530/. 4s. lid. per annum. 
Present income 4500/. "Home for Art and 
Science,'' with a library at Tullie House estab- 
lished by the corporation, cost about 20,000/., 
opened by the mayor, 8 Nov. 1893. Prince Christian 
receives the freedom, and unveils a statue of queen 
Victoria, 7 July, 1902. Population of the city 1881, 
36,585; 1891,39,176; 1901,46,000. 

BISHOPS OF CARLISLE. 

1791. Edward Venables Vernon, trans, to York, 1807. 

1808. Samuel Goodenougli, died 12 Aug. 1827. 

1827. Hugh Percy, died Feb. 1856. 

1856. Hon. H. Montagu Villiers, trans, to Durham, 

May, i860. 
i860. Hon. Samuel Waldegrave, died 1 Oct. 1869. 
1869. Harvey Goodwin; consecrated Jan. 1870, died 

25 Nov. 1891. 
1891. John W. Bardsley, translated from Sodor and 

Man, Dec 

CARLISLE 

Halifax. 

CARLISTS, see Spain, 1830-40, 1872-6, and 
1898. The legitimists of Europe subscribed to their 
cause 1873-6. A committee in London supplied 
arms and money. 

CARLOVINGIANS, or CAROLIN- 

GTANS, the second dynasty of the French kings, 
752-987. Charles Martel (715-741) and Pepin his 
son (741-752) were mayors of the palace. The 
latter became king 752 ; see France. 

C ARLO W (S . E . Ireland) . The castle, erected 
by John, 1180, surrendered after a desperate siege to 
Rory Oge O'Moore, in 1577; again to the parlia- 
mentary forces, in 1650. Here the royal troops 
routed the insurgents 24 May, 1798. 

CARLOWITZ, Austria. Here was concluded 
a treaty of peace between Turkey and the allies, 
Germany, Russia, Poland, and Venice, 26 Jan. 1699, 
in consequence of the great defeat of the Turks by 



ADMINISTRATION, see 



CARLSBAD. 



234 



CAROLINE ISLANDS. 



prince Eugene at Zeuta, II Sept. 1697, by which 
Hungary was finally secured to Austria. 

CARLSBAD (or Charles's Bath), in Bohemia, 
the celebrated springs, said to have been discovered 
by the emperor Charles IV. in 1370. — On I Aug. 
1819, a congress was held here, when the great 
powers decreed measures to repress the liberal 
press, &c. Destructive gale and inundations, esti- 
mated damage, 2,500,000 florins, 23-25 Nov. 1890. 

CARLSRUHE, capital of Baden, built by 
margrave Charles William, 1715. A revolution 
here was suppressed by 1'russian aid, June, 1849, 
and the grand-duke returned 18 Aug. Population, 
1890, 73,496; 1900, 97,164. 

CARLTON CLUB, Pall Mall (Conservative), 
established by the duke of Wellington and others, 
183 1 -2 ; present house opened 1855. 

CARLYLE CLUB. Formed in 1881 for the 
purpose of affording to disciples and students of 
Thomas Carlyle a means of meeting together and 
of discussing the religious, political, and social pro- 
blems treated of in his writings. His statue on the 
Thames-embankment, Chelsea, was unveiled by 
Prof. Tyndall 26 Oct. 1882. Centenary of Carlyle's 
birth, exhibition of a loan collection of portraits, 
&c, at his house, Chelsea (purchased by a trust 
fund) ; celebrated, 4 Dec. 1895. 

CARLYLE SOCIETY, founded in 1879, con- 
sists of students and admirers of Carlyle's works, 
desirous of extending his influence ; they meet 
monthly to read papers, &c. They have a branch 
at Montreal. 

CARMAGNOLE, a Piedmontese song and 
dance, written about Aug. 1792; popular in France 
during the reign of terror, 1793-4. The chorus was 
" Dansons la Carmagnole: vive le son du canon ! " 

CARMATHIANS, a Mahometan sect. Car- 
math, a Shiite, about 890, assumed the title of "the 
guide, the director," &c, including that of the 
representative of Mahomet, St. John the Baptist, 
and the angel Gabriel. His followers subdued 
Bahrein in 900, and devastated the east. Dissen- 
sions arose amongst themselves, and their power 
soon passed away. 

CARMAUX STRIKE, see France, Aug. 
1892. 

CARMELITES, or White Friars, of 

Mount Carmel, one of the four orders of mendi- 
cants with austere rules, founded by Berthold about 
1 156, and settled in France in 1252. Henault. 
Their rules were modified about 1 540. They claimed 
succession from Elijah. They had numerous mon- 
asteries in England, and a precinct in London 
without the Temple, west of lilackfriars, is called 
Whitefriars to this day, after a community of their 
order, founded there in 1245. A Carmelite church 
at Kensington was founded By archbishop Manning, 
July, 18(15. The Carmelites, as well as other orders, 
were expelled from their houses in France in Oct. 
1880. 

CARNARVON, see Caernarvon. 

CARNATTC. a district of Southern Hindostan, 
extending along the whole coasl of Coromandel. 
Hyder Ali entered the Carnal ic with 80,000 troops, 
in 1780, and was defeated by the British under 
Bir Eyre Coote, 1 July and 27 Aug, 1781 ; and de- 
cisively overthrown 2 June, [782. The Camatic 
was overrun by Tippoo in 1790. The British ac- 



quired entire authority over the Camatic by treaty, 
31 July, 1801 ; see India. 

CARNATION, so called from the original 
species being of a flesh colour (carnis. of flesh). 
Several varieties were first planted in England by 
the Flemings, about 1567. Stow. 

CARNEIAN GAMES, observed in many 
Grecian cities, particularly at Sparta (said to have 
been instituted in the 5th century B.C. in honour 
of Apollo, surnamed Carneus), lasted nine days. 

CARNIVAL {Carni vale, Italian, i.e. Flesh 
farewell !), a festival time in Italy and other 
catholic countries before beginning Lent. The 
" Battle of Flowers," a sport, probably of heathen 
origin, is played at this time, in S. France and 
Italy. 

CAROLINAS (N. America). Said to have been 
discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1498, or by De Leon 
in 1512. Raleigh formed a settlement at Roanoke 
in June, 1585, which was broken up in 1586. About 
850 English settled here about 1660 ; and Carolina 
was granted to lord Clarendon and others in 1663. 
The cultivation of rice was introduced by governor 
Smith in 1695, and subsequently cotton. A con- | 
stitution drawn up by John Locke was abandoned. 
The province was divided into North and South in 
1729; see America. The Carolinas being slave I 
states, great excitement prevailed in them in Nov. 
i860, on account of Abraham Lincoln's election to 
the presidency of the United States, he being 
strongly opposed to slavery. South Carolina began | 
the secession from the United States, 20 Dec. i860 : j 
North Carolina followed, 21 May, 1861 ; see United'. 
States, 1861-5. Both re-admitted to the Union i 
25 June, 1868. Embezzlements of South Carolina | 
" official ring " (state government) disclosed ; pro- J 
secutions, Sept., Oct. 1877. Increasing disaffection | 
between the whites and negroes, riots and fighting j 
at Charlotte, N. Carolina, 15 April, 1891. Popula- 
tion 1880, N. Carolina, 1,399,750; S. Carolina 
995)577; '890, N. Carolina, 1,017,947; 1900, 
1,893,810; S. Carolina, 1,151,149; 1900, 1,340,316. 
Capitals, North, Baleigh; South, Columbia; chief 
city, Charleston, founded 1680. 
Severe conflict at Bakersville, N. Carolina, after 
the lynching of a prisoner ; the officers and 
many of the mob killed ... 3 Jan. 1893 | 
Destructive cyclone (over 1000 deaths reported) 

S. Carolina 28 Aug. ,, 

Riots at Darlington, S. Carolina, against a law re- 
stricting the sale of alcoholic liquors except by 
state official dispensaries: 5 men killed ; martial 
law, 30 March, 1894 ; the law declared uncon- 
stitutional by the Supreme Court, 5 April ; end 
of martial law ...... 6 April, 1894 1 

Convention against the negro race : disfranchise- 
ment, <fec, adopted . . . Sept. — Nov. 18951 
Mr. Gonzales, editor of the State newspaper, mor- 
tally wounded by Mr. Tillman, lieut.-gov. of 
S.Carolina 15 Jan. 1903 

CAROLINE ISLANDS (S. Pacific), said! 
to have been discovered by the Portuguese, 1525; 
also by the Spaniard, Lopez de Villalobos. 1545, and ; 
named after Charles II. of Spain, 1686. The Jesuits! 
laboured in them in vain, 1710-33. The claims of| 
Spain, uncontested till the protest of England in 
1 875, were virtually given up by Spain in 1876. The 
Germans occupied some of the islands, againsti 
which Spain protested in Aug. 1885. Spanish 
vessel arrived at the island of Yap, 21 Aug. ; the) 
Germans land and set up their flag without resist- 
ance, 24 Aug. See Spain. The dispute referred' 
to the pope ; the sovereignty awarded to Spain, | 
with commercial concessions to Germany and Great 
Britain; agreement signed, 25 Nov.; confirmed at 



CARPENTARIA. 



235 



CARRIAGES. 



Eome, I" Dec. 1885. Anglo-Spanish protocol 
signed, 8 Jan. 1886. Missionaries imprisoned ; 
natives kill the governor, announced 28 Sept. 1887. 
See Spain, 1899. 

Massacre of 28 Spanish soldiers at Yap, and defeat 

of others sent to punish . . .10 Aug. 1890 
The natives were punished by a Spanish expedition ; 

150 were killed, and a village burnt. The Spanish 

lost 7 men killed ; reported . . 13 Oct. ,, 
Dissensions between the Spaniards, the natives, 

and the American missionaries, reported Dec. 

1890 ; about 300 persons killed during the war 

up to Tan. 1891 

After several reverses, 500 Spaniards subdue the 

natives, reported . .... Feb. ,, 

The islands explored by Mr. Fred. W. Christian, 

his report published 1898 

Spanish garrison at Ponape massacred by native 

forces and Henry Nanopi chosen ruler, reported, 

30 Dec. ,, 
The islands ceded to Germany (see Spain), June, 

1899 ; the Spanish garrison leaves early t)ec. ,, 

CARP, a fresh-water or pond fish, was, it is 
said, first brought to these countries about 1525. 
Walton. It is mentioned by lady Juliana Berners 
in her book printed 1496. 

CARPENTARIA, gulf of N. Australia, dis- 
covered about 1627. and said to have been named in 
honour of Pieter Carpentier, a retired governor of 
the Dutch Indies. 

CARPETS are of ancient use in the East. The 
manufacture of woollen carpets was introduced into 
France from Persia, in the reign of Henry IV., 
between 1589 and 1610. Some artisans who had 
quitted France in disgust established the English 
carpet manufacture, about 1750. A cork-carpet 
company was formed in 1862. 

CARPET-BAGGERS, a name given to ad- 
venturers in the southern states of iS'ortli America, 
■who, after the conclusion of the war, in 1865, en- 
deavoured, from interested motives, to promote the 
political predominance of the negroes. Their in- 
fluence counteracted by the conciliatory measures 
of president Hayes, 1877-8. 

CARPI (N. Italy). Here prince Eugene and 
the Imperialists defeated the French 9 July, 1701. 

CARPOCRATIANS, followers of Carpocrates, 
a Gnostic, in the 2nd century. 

C ARRACK or KARRACK (Italian, Caracca), 
a large ship in the middle ages. The Santa Anna, 
the property of the knights of St. John, of about 
1700 tons, sheathed with lead, was built at Nice 
about 1530. It was literally a floating fortress, and 
aided Charles V. in taking Tunis in 1535. It con- 
tained a crew of 300 men and 50 pieces of artillery. 

CARRAGEEN, a seaweed, Chrondus crispus, 
with flat fronds of a deep purple-brown colour, 
found with some other allied species on rocks and 
stones on the shores of Britain and northern 
Europe. After being gathered it is washed in 
fresh water and dried and bleached in the open 
air, when it becomes whitish and transparent. It 
is used for making soups, jellies, size, &c, and is 
regarded as a beneficial article of diet for invalids. 
It takes its name from Carragheen, near Waterford, 
in Ireland, and is also known as Irish Moss. 

CARRARA, a town in N. Italy, province 
Massa-Carrara, near which are the celebrated 
marble quarries (now about 400), which have been 
worked about 2,000 years. Population in 1 881, 
11,869; 0I which the greater part are marble 
workers. Disturbances attributed to anarchists. 



checked by the military with loss of life, and a 
state of siege proclaimed, 16 Jan. et seq. 1894. 
Many arrested and imprisoned, 5 Feb. 1894 ; Carle- 
Gattini sentenced to 25 years, and Pietro Gattini 
to 12 years' solitary confinement, and 5 others to- 
varying terms of imprisonment, 17 Feb. 1894; 
state 01 siege raised, 3 June, 1894. 

CARRIAGES, see Chariots. Rude carriages 
were known in France in the reign of Henry II. r 
a.d. 1547 ; in England in 1555. Henry IV. of 
France had one without straps or springs. They 
were made in England in the reign of Elizabeth, 
and then called whirlicotes. The duke of Buck- 
ingham, in 1619, drove six horses ; and the 
earl of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove eight. 
Carriages were let for hire in Paris, in 1650, 
at the Hotel Fiacre : hence the name, fiacre ; see- 
Car, Cabriolets, Coaches and Licence duty. — 
Annual licence duty for carriages : 4 wheels, 
2l. 2s. ; under 4 cwt. or less than 4 wheels, 153. 
Carlo Bianconi successfully introduced cars 
into Ireland about 1815 : he died, nearly 90, 
16 Sept. 1875. G. A. Thrupp's "History of 
Coaches" published, 1877. The duties on carriages 
altered by Customs Act, 1888. 

The motor-car club formed to promote the horse 
less carriage industry, exhibited specimens of 
such carriages at the Imperial institute ; loco- 
motion obtained by compressed air, gas, oil 
combustion, steam, &c, or electricity, 15 Feb. 1896 

International exhibition of carriages (horseless, <fec.) 
opened at the Crystal palace by lord mayor 
Wilkin. 2 May „ 

Light locomotives on highways, act passed 

14 Aug. ,, 

Motor-cars licensed to run in Paris, Aug. 1896 ; 
public service of cars, opened . . . 3 June, 1898 

Regulations respecting motor-cars issued by the 
local government board come into force 14 Nov. ,, 

Great meet of motor-cars near Whitehall-place, lord 
Winchilsea, Mr. Harry Lawson and others pre- 
sent, movements impeded by crowds and 
vehicles ; 24 cars start, 10.33 a.m., 13 of the 
club's cars arrive at Brighton between 12.30 and 
6 p.m. ; 20 cars from Brixton arrived during the 
evening, 14 Nov. 1896; another meet 8 June, ,, 

A van started by Messrs. Thornycroft at Chiswick, 
30 Dec. 1896, arrived at Cardiff . . 2 Jan. 1897 

An electrical omnibus, Radcliffe-Ward system, 
successful trial trip in London . . 9 Jan. ,, 

A motor-car race from Paris to Trouville, about 
108 miles, won by M. Gille's car in 4 hours 20 
minutes 15 Aug. , t 

Electric cabs started in London, 19 Aug. ; reported 
successful Sept. „ 

Mr. F. Lanchester's improved motor-car goes from 
Birmingham to London in 6J hours . March, 1899. 

Motor-car display at the Crystal Palace, races, &c, 

6 May, ,, 

Automobile club show at Richmond opened by 
prince Edward of Saxe-Weimer, 17 June ; exhi- 
bition at the Agricultural hall opened . 3 July, ,, 

65 automobile vehicles leave London for a 1,000- 
mile trial, 23 April ; 46 return, 12 May, 1900 ; 
gold medal awarded to the 12-h.p. Panhard(Hon. 
C. S. Rolls) early July, 190a 

Motor-car race, left Paris about 3.30 a.m., 27 June ; 
won by M. Founder, at Berlin, 11.46 a.m., 

29 June, 1901 

Motor-cars to carry passengers at omnibus fares 
from Piccadilly-circus to Putney, started, 18 Sept. ,, 

International automobile exhibition opened at 
Paris, M. Loubet present . . .10 Dec. ,, 

Motor war-car invented by Mr. F. R. Simms, 
exhibited at the Crystal palace . 4 April, 190a 

Motor-car exhibition at the Agricultural hall, 
Islington 19 April, ,, 

International motor race, Paris-Vienna, emperor's 
prize won by M. Renault . . .1 July, ,, 

Mr. S. F. Edge wins the Paris to Innsbruck motor 
race, announced 5 July, , y 



CARRICKFERGUS. 



236 



CARTHAGE. 



Motor-car expedition round the world left London 
end April, Berlin 31 Aug., arrived in St. Peters- 
burg 26 Sept. 1902 

Stanley Automobile exhibition, Earl's Court, 16-27 
Jan. Motor-car show, Crystal palace . 30 Jan. 1903 

Paiis to Madrid race began on Sunday, May 23 ; 3 
persons on the road killed and 4 automobilists. 
The Spanish government prohibited the cars 
from crossing the frontier, Sunday . May 23 ,, 

Gordon-Bennett Internat. race in Ireland autho- 
rised by act of parliament ; 5 cars completed the 
course of 370! miles ; Jenatzy (Germany) winner, 
6h. 39m 2 July, ,, 

Motor-car bill introduced in the house of lords, 
6 July; royal assent . . . . 14 Aug. „ 

Act to be in force from Jan. 1, 1904, to Bee. 31, 
1906. 
See Motor Cars. 

CARRICKFERGUS (Antrim, Ireland). Its 
castle is supposed to have been built by Hugh de 
Lacy in 1 178. The town surrendered to the duke 
of Schomberg 28 Aug. 1689. The castle surrendered 
to the French admiral Thurot, Feb. 1760; see 
Thurot. 

CARRIERS ACT, n Geo. IV. & i Will. IV. 
c. 68, 1830. 

CARROCIUM, a vehicle containing a crucifix 
and a banner, usually accompanied Italian armies in 
the middle ages. The Milanese lost theirs at Cor- 
tenuova, 27 Nov. 1237. 

CARRON IRONWORKS, on the banks of 
the Carron, in Stirlingshire, established in 1760, 
are still (1903) the most extensive in the kingdom. 
The pieces of ordnance called Carronades or 
smashers, invented by gen. Melville, were first 
made at these works in 1779, but are now super- 
seded. 

CARROTS and other edible roots were im- 
ported from Holland and Flanders, about 1510. 

CARS, see Carriages. 

CARSE, a Scottish name for low alluvial lands, 
usually clayey and fertile, adjoining rivers. 

CARTEL (challenge), a name given to the 
powerful coalition of the conservatives and national 
liberals, which for five years formed the govern- 
ment majority, 23, in the German Imperial parlia- 
ment. The majority was lost by the elections, 
Feb., March, 1890. 

CARTES DE VISITE. The small photo- 
graphic portraits thus termed are said to have been 
first taken at Nice, by M. Ferrier, in 1857. The 
duke of Parma had his portrait placed upon his 
visiting rinds, and bis example was soon followed in 
Paris and London, 

CARTESIAN DOCTRINES, promulgated 
by Rene" Descartes, the French philosopher, in 
1637. His metaphysical principle is, "1 think, 
therefore I am ;" his physical principle, " Nothing 
exists buf substance." He accounts for all physi- 
cal phei lena on his theory of vortices, motions 

excited bj God, the source of all motion. He was 
born 150'), and died ;il Stockholm, the guest of 
queen 1 'Ini-i iua, m 1(130. 

CARTHACE iX.r,,:M ,,!' Aim., near Tunis), 
founded i>\ Dido or Elissa, aooording to the legend 
adopted 03 Virgil in the .Knoid. some time in the 
oth century B.o.; 878, 853, 826 are mentioned. 
She Bed from her brother l'\ gmalion, king of Tj re, 
who had killed her husband, and took refuge in 
Africa. Towns Bubjecl to Carthage were gradually 
founded ahum the coast, and colonies in Spain and 
Sicilj . Carthage disputed the empire of 1 he world 
with Rome, which occasioned the Punic wars. 
III. Carthaginians bore the character of a faithless 



480 
407 
406 
396 
379 



260 



people, hence the term Punic faith. Cato the cen- 
sor ended his speeches in the senate with Belenda 
est Carthago! "Carthage must be destroyed!" 
Many councils were held here, A.r>. 200-535. 

First alliance of Carthaginians and Romans . B.C. 509 

The Carthaginians in Sicily defeated at Himera by 
Gelon ; the elder Hamilcar perishes 

They send 300,000 men into Sicily 

Take Agrigentum 

Defeated at the siege of Syracuse, see Sicily 

The Carthaginians land in Italy 

The first Punic war begins (lasts 23 years) 

The Carthaginians defeated by the Roman consul 
Duilius in a naval engagement near Mylse 

War in Sicily ; Roman victories . . . 264 et seq. 

Regulus with an army crosses to Africa, and defeats 
the Carthaginians ; his hard terms of peace re- 
jected . 256 

Xanthippus defeats Regulus 255 

Hasdrubal defeated by Metellus at Panormus . . 250 

Regulus, prisoner, accompanies an embassy to 
Rome to propose peace, which he opposes ; he re- 
turns to Carthage, and dies there . . . . „ 

Long siege of Lily bajum .... 250 et seq. 

Hamilcar Barca, successful commander in Sicily . 

247 et seq. 

The great Hannibal born 247 

Roman naval victory near the iEgates ; treaty of 
peace ; Sicily lost by Carthage .... 241 

Hasdrubal founds New Carthage (Carthagena) . 242 

War between the Carthaginians and African merce- 
naries 241 

Hamilcar Barca sent into Spain : takes his son, 
Hannibal, at the age of nine years, having first 
made him swear an eternal enmity to the Romans 238 

Hamilcar killed . . 229 

Hasdrubal assassinated ...... 221 

Hannibal conquers Spain, as far as the Iberus . . 219 

The second Punic war begins (lasts 17 years) . . 218 

Hannibal crosses the Alps, and enters Italy . . ,, 

He defeats the Roman consuls at the Ticinus and 
Trebia, 218 ; at the lake Trasimenus, 217 ; and at 
Canute (which see) 2 Aug. 216 

The two Scipios in Spain, at first successful, de- 
feated and slain by the young Hasdrubal, Hanni- 
bal's brother 212 

The Romans take Syracuse, 212 ; and expel the 
Carthaginians from Sicily 210 

Hannibal unable to relieve Capua, closely besieged, 
marches to Home, but does not attack it ; Capua 
surrenders, and is severely punished . . . 211 

Philip, king of Macedon, prevented from joining 
Hannibal about ,, 

Publius Scipio carries war into Spain and takes New 
Carthage 210 

Hasdrubal arrives with an army ; defeated and slain 
at the Metaurus 207 

Carthaginians expelled from Spain by Scipio . . 206 

Scipio arrives in Africa, and gains victories 

Hannibal recalled to Carthage 

Totally defeated at Zama (which see) . 

End of the second Punic war . . . . . 

Hannibal reforms the state, and prepares for a fresh 
contest with Rome, but is exiled, and takes refuge 
with Antiochus III., king of Syria, whom he in- 
cites against Koine, after whose defeat, 190, he 
resided ii the court of Prusias, king of Bithynia, 
till lie took poison, when about to be surrendered 
to the Romans about 183 

The third Punic war ; Scipio invades Africa . . 149 

Carthage taken and burned, by order of the Senate 

July, 14B 

Colony settled at Carthage by 0. Gracchus 

its rebuilding planned by Julius Csesar 

And executed by his successors 

The new city becomes a Christian bishopric 

Cyprian holds a council here 

Taken by Genseric the Vandal 

Retaken by Belisarius .... 



204 
203 
202 

201 



about 116 

. . 46 

19 et seq. 

A. D. 200 

■ 252 

. 9 Oct. 439 

■ 533 
Ravaged by the Arabs ....... 647 

Taken and destroyed by Hassan, the Saracenic 

governor of Egypt 698 

Carthaginian antiquities (excavated by Mr. Nathan 

Davis) brought to the British museum . . . 1861 

His excavations about toberenewed . Aug. 1876 

Mr. Bosworth Smith's " Carthage," published . 1878 



CARTHAGENA. 



237 



CASTES. 



CARTHAGENA, or New Carthage (8.E. 

Spain), built by Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian 
general, 242 B.C."; taken by surpiise by Publius 
Scipio Africanus, 210 or 269. The modern Car- 
thagena was taken by a British force under sir 
John Leake, June, 1706; retaken by the duke 
of Berwick, Nov. It was the last place held by 
the Intransigentes and Internationalists of Spain ; 
was besieged by general Martin Campos, about 
22 Aug. 1873. Bombardment begun 26 Nov., taken 
by general Lopez Dominguez, 12 Jan. 1874. See 
Spain. — Carthagena, in Columbia, South Ame- 
rica, was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1585 ; 
pillaged by the French buccaneers in 1697 ; 
bombarded by admiral Vernon in March, 1741 ; 
and unsuccessfully besieged, April, 1741. Popula- 
tion, 1884, 75,980 ; 1897, 86,245. 

CARTHUSIANS, a religious order (springing 
from the Benedictines) founded by Bruno of 
Cologne, who retired with six companions about 
1084, to Chartreuse {which see), in the mountains 
of Dauphine. Their austere rules were formed by 
Basil VII., their general. In France in 1880 the 
majority of the order refused to "seek authorisa- 
tion" to remain in their monasteries, were expelled, 
and sought refuge in England and other countries. 
They appeared in England about 1180, and a 
monastery was founded by sir William Manny, 
1371, on the site of the present Charter-house, 
London; see Charter-house. The Carthusian 
powder of father Simon, at Chartreuse, was first 
compounded about 1715- 

CARTOONS, large chalk drawings preparatory 
to oil painting. Those of Raphael (twenty-five 
in number) were designed (for tapestries) in the 
chambers of the Vatican under Julius II. and 
Leo X. about 1510 to 1516. The seven preserved 
were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. 
of England, for Hampton-court palace in 1629. 
They were i-emoved to South Kensington 28 April, 
1865. — The tapestries executed at Arras from these 
designs are at Rome. They were twice carried 
away by invaders, in 1526 and 1798, and were re- 
stored in 1815. — The Cartoons for the British 
houses of parliament were exhibited in July, 1843. 
Raphael's cartoons. 

1. The Miraculous Draught of Pishes. 

2. The Charge to Peter. 

3. Peter and John Healing the Lame at the Gate of the 

Temple. 

4. The Death of Ananias. 

5. Elymas the Sorcerer Struck with Blindness. 

6. The Sacrifice to Paul and Barnabas, at Lystra. 

7. Paul Preaching at Athens. 

CASAMICCIOLA, Ischia. See Earth- 

quakes, 4 March, 1881, and 28 July, 1883. 

CASHEL (Tipperary, Ireland). Cormack Cuil- 
linan, king and bishop of Cashel, was the reputed 
founder or restorer of the cathedral, 901. In 1152 
bishop Donat O'Danergan was invested with the 
pall ; see Pallium. Cashel was valued in the 
king's books, 29 Henry VIII. at 661. 13s. \d. Irish 
money. By the Church Temporalities Act, 1833, it 
ceased to be archiepiscopal, and was joined to 
Waterford and Lismore. 

CASHMERE, also Kashmir, in the valley of the 
Himalayas : was subdued by the Mahometans under 
Akbar, in 1586; by the Afghans in 1752; by the 
Sikhs, 1819 ; and by the treaty of Lahore, 9 March, 
1846, ceded to the British, who gave it to the Maha- 
rajah Gholab Singh, as tributary sovereign. The true 
Cashmere shawls, first brought to England in 1666, 
are well imitated at Bradford and Huddersfield. 



Shawls of Thibetan wool, for the omrahs, cost 
150 rupees each, about 1650. Population, 1881, 
1,534,972; 1891,2,543,000; 1901,2,906,000. 

Gholab dies, succeeded by his son Runbeer, a 
favourer of education, 1857 ; who assists in sup- 
pressing the Indian mutiny and receives further 
guarantees March, i860 

The prince of Wales warmly received by the maha- 
rajah at Jummoo . . . • . .20 Jan. 1876 

Dreadful famine (partly due to continued de- 
structive snowstorms, Oct. 1877 — May, 1878) 

summer, 1879 

The maharajah dies 12 Sept, 1885 ; succeeded by his 
son Pertab Singh ; the power of the British 
resident greatly increased ; the country virtually 
subject to the viceroy of India, through incom- 
petence and folly of the maharajah . . 1888-9 

The viceroy of India informs the maharajah that if 
he reform he may be restored to power . Aug. 1889 

Increased prosperity of the country reported Nov. 1890 

Visit of the viceroy of India ; honourably received 
at Srinagar, the capital . . . ■ . 23 Oct. 1891 

Increased powers given to the maharajah . Oct. ,, 
See India, Dec. 1891. 
See Earthquakes, 1885. 

Destructive floods, with loss of life ; part of Srina- 
gar swept away, reported, 30 July, 1893 ; destruc- 
tive fire there 29 Oct. 1898 

CASPIAN SEA, between Europe and Asia. 
The Trans-Caspian Railway (Russian) from the 
sea to Samarcand, opened May, 1889, was reported 
successful in Nov. 1892. 

CASS'S CHARITY. Sir John Cass, a citi- 
zen of London, in 1709 bequeathed property to 
found a Church of England school in the parish of 
St. Botolph, Aldgate, which has existed from 17 10 
to the present time, with some alterations. The 
value of the property having enormously increased, 
the charity commissioners proposed a scheme in- 
volving important changes, Feb. 1893, opposed by 
the parishioners, 15 May, 1893. 

CASSANO (N. Italy). Site of an indecisive 
conflict between prince Eugene of Savoy and the 
French, 16 Aug. 1705. 

CASSATION, Court of, the highest court 
of appeal in France, was established 10 Nov. 1790, 
by the national assembly. 

CASSEL, formerly the capital of Hesse-Cassel, 
Central Germany, acquired importance through be- 
coming the refuge of French protestants after the 
revocation of the edict of Nantes, 1685. It was the 
capital of Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia, 
1807-13, and Wilhelmshohe, a neighbouring castle, 
became the residence of Napoleon III. after his 
surrender to the king of Prussia, 2 Sept. 1870, ar- 
riving at 9.35 p.m. 5 Sept. He went to England 
in 1871. Population, 1890, 72,461 ; 1900, 106,001. 

CASSITERIDES, see Stilly Isles. 

CASTALIA, see under Steam. 

CASTEL-FIDARDO, near Ancona, Central 
Italy. Near here general Lamoriciere and the 
papal army of 1 1,000 men were totally defeated by 
the Sardinian general, Cialdini, 18 Sept. i860. 
Lamoriciere with a few horsemen fled to Ancona, 
then besieged. On 29 Sept. he and the garrison 
surrendered, but were shortly after set at liberty. 

CASTES, distinct sections of society in India. 
In the laws of Menu (see Menu), the Hindus are 
divided into the Brahmans, or sacerdotal class; 
the Kshatrya or Chuttree, military class; the 
Vaisya, or commercial class ; and the Sudras, or 
sooders, servile class. " Hindu Castes and Sects," 
by J. N. Bhattacharya, published 1896. 



CASTIGLIONE. 



238 



CATEAU CAMBRESIS. 



CASTIGLIONE (N. Italy). Here the French 
under Augereau defeated the Austrians, commanded 
by Wurmser, with great loss, 5 Aug. 1796- 

CASTILE (Central Spain). A Gothic govern- 
ment was established here about 800. — Roderick, 
count of Castile, 860 ; Ferdinand, a count, became 
king, 1035. Ferdinand, king of Arragon, married 
Isabella, queen of Castile, in 1474, and formed one 
monarchy, 1479 ; see p. viii., and Spain. 

CASTILLEJOS (N. Africa). Here on 1 Jan. 
i860, was fought the first decisive action in the 
war between Spain and Morocco. General Prim, 
after a vigorous resistance, repulsed the Moors 
under Muley Abbas, and advanced towards Tetuan. 

CASTILLON, Guienne (S. France). Here 
the army of Henry VI. of England was defeated 
by that of Charles VII. of France, and an end put 
to the English dominion in France, Calais alone 
remaining, 17 or 23 July, 1453. Talbot, earl of 
Shrewsbury, was killed. 

CASTLEBAR (Ireland). About 1 100 French 
troops, under Humbert, landed at Killala, and as- 
sisted by Irish insurgents here, compelled the king's 
troops under Lake to retreat, 27 Aug. 1798; but 
were compelled to surrender at fiallinamuck, 
8 Sept. 

CASTLEPOLLARD (Ireland). At an affray 
at a fair here between some peasantry and a body 
of police, thirteen persons lost their lives, and many 
were wounded, 23 May, 1831. 

CASTLES. The castle of the Anglo-Saxon 
was a tower keep, either round or square, and 
ascended by a flight of steps in front. William I. 
erected 48 strong castles. Several hundreds, built 
by permission of Stephen, between 1135 and 1154, 
were demolished by Henry II., 1154. Many were 
dismantled in the civil wars. Ricnborough, Stud- 
fall, and Burgh are existing specimens of Roman 
castles. 

CASUAL POOR ACT, 45 & 46 Vict. c. 36, 
passed 18 Aug. 1882 ; another bill withdrawn 23 
June, 1892. 

CAT. The generally received opinion that our 
domestic cat is derived from the European wild cat 
is doubted by Mr. T. Bell (1827). Itiippell (died 
1794) found a wild cat in Nubia, whose conforma- 
tion agreed with that of the Egyptian cat mummies. 
See Mummies. Cats fetched high prices in the 
middle ages, and were protected by law in Wales, 
about 948. Great cat shows are annually held 
at the Crystal palace ; the 35th, 1903. A cat 
interrupted the debates in the commons, 9 July, 
1874. A cat asylum formed at Battersea, Dec. 1882 ; 
and at Hampstead, Jan. 1S96 ; removed to Camden 
town, 1900; 49,373 lost cats received up to Jan. 1902. 
A discussion respecting the use of the " cat of nine 

tails" took place in the commons, and navy cats 

and others were inspected (sec Flogging), 5 July, 1879 
First annual international show at St. Stephen's 

hall, Westminster .... 19 Jan. 1899 

CATACLYSMISTS, see Continuity. 

CATACOMBS. The early depositories of the 
dead. The first Christians at Rome met for wor- 
ship in the catacombs ; and here are said to have 
been the tombs of the apostles Peter and Paul. 
Belzoni in 1815-18 explored many Egyptian cata- 
combs, built 3000 years ago. He brought to Eng- 
land the sarcophagus of Psammetiohus, formed of 
oriental alabaster, exquisitely sculptured. In the 
Parisian catacombs (formerly stone quarries), human 



remains from the cemetery of the Innocents were 
deposited in 1785 ; and many of the victims of the 
revolution in 1 792-4, are interred in them. — On 
31 May, 1578, some labourers digging on the Via 
Salaria, two miles from Rome, discovered the cele- 
brated catacombs, of which an account with engrav- 
ings was published by Antonio Bosio, in his " Roma 
Sotteranea" (1632), and by Aringhi (1659), and 
others. John Evelyn saw them in 1645. Elaborate 
accounts have been published recently by De Rossi ; 
an abstract of whose researches will be found in the 
"Roma Sotteranea" of the Rev. J. S. Northcote 
and W. R. Brownlow, 1869 and 1879. 

CATALOGUES, see libraries, Books, Scien- 
tific Papers. 

CATALONIA (N.E. Spain), was settled by the 
Goths and Alani, about 409 ; conquered by the 
Saracens, 712 ; recovered by Pepin, and by Charle- 
magne (788). It formed part of the Spanish marches 
and the territory of the count of Barcelona_ {which 
see). The natives were able seamen: being fre- 
quently unruly, their peculiar privileges were 
abolished in 1 7 14. See Barcelona. 

CATALYTIC FORCE. The discovery in 
1819 by Theuard of the decomposition of peroxide 
of hydrogen by platinum, and by Dobereiner in 
1823 of its property to ignite a mixture of hydro- 
gen and oxygen, formed the groundwork of the 
doctrine of catalytic force, also termed " action of 
contact or presence," put forth by Berzelius and 
Mitscherlich. Their view has not been adopted by 
Liebig and other chemists. 

CATAMARANS (or carcases), fire-machines 
for destroying ships ; tried in vain by sir Sydney 
Smith, 2 Oct. 1804, on the Boulogne flotilla destined 
by Bonaparte to invade England. 

CATANIA (the ancient Catana), a town nea)- 
Etna, Sicily, was founded by a colony from Chalcis, 
about 730 B.C. Ceres had" a temple here, open to 
none but women. Catania was almost totally over- 
thrown bv an eruption of Etna in 1669, and in 1693 
was nearly swallowed up by an earthquake : in a 
moment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were 
buried in the ruins. An earthquake did great 
damage, 22 Feb. 181 7. In Aug. 1862, the town 
was held by Garibaldi and his volunteers, in op- 
position to the Italian government. He was cap- 
tured on 29 Aug. Population in 1890, 109,687 ; 
1901, 149,694. 

CATAPHRYGIANS, heretics in the second 
century who followed the errors of Montanus. 
They are said to have baptized their dead, forbidden 
marriage, and mingled the bread and wine in the 
Lord's supper with the blood of young children. 

CATAPULTiE, military engines of the cross- 
bow kind, for throwing huge stones as well as 
darts and arrows ; said to have been invented by 
Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse, 399 B.C. 

CATCH CLUB, Noblemen and Gen- 
tlemen's, formed in 1761, included eminent 
musicians of the time. Prizes were given occa- 
sionally; sometimes, since 1821, for a composition, 
a gold or silver cup. 

CATEAU CAMBRESIS (N. France), where, 
on 2, 3 April, 1559, peace was concluded between 
Henry 11. of France, Philip II. of Spain, and 
Elizabeth of England, France ceded Savoy, Corsica, 
and nearly 200 forts in Italy and the Low Countries 
to Philip. 



CATECHISMS. 



239 



CATTLE. 



CATECHISMS are said to have been com- 
piled in the 8th or 9th century. Luther's were 
published 1520 and 1529. The' catechism of the 
church of England in the first book of Edward VI., 
7 March, 1549, contained merely the baptismal 
vow, the creed, the ten commandments, and the 
Lord's prayer, with explanations ; but James I. 
ordered the bishops to add an explication of the 
sacraments, 1612. The catechism of the council of 
Trent was published in 1566 ; those of the Assem- 
bly of Divines at Westminster (one termed the 
shorter catechism), 1647 and 1648; Evangelical 
Free Church catechism, published, 5 Jan. 1899. 

CATHAEI (from the Greek katharos, pure), 
a name given to the Novatians (about 251), Mon- 
tanists, and other early Christian sects. See Puri- 
tans. 

CATHAY, an old name for China. 

CATHEDRAL, the chief church of a diocese, 

as containing the cathedra, or seat of the bishop, 

obtained the name in the 10th century. 

A conference of the higher clergy to consider 
cathedral institutions held at Lambeth, 1 March, 1872 

The act 3 & 4 Vict. c. 113, for the regulation of 
cathedrals passed in 1840, amended and the en- 
dowment of canonries facilitated in . . . 1873 

A royal commission to inquire respecting cathedral 
churches appointed (abp. of Canterbury, lord 
Cranbrook, Mr. Beresford Hope, and others), 
July ; met in Aug. 1879 

Report issued recommending more flexibility in 
services, with use of nave, &c. . . Feb. 1882 

Final report issued April, 1885 

CATHERINE. The order of knights of St. 
Catherine was instituted in Palestine, 1063. An 
order of ladies of the highest rank in Russia was 
founded by Peter the Great, 17 14, in honour of the 
bravery of his empress Catherine. They were to 
be distinguished, as the name implied (from 
katharos, pure), for purity of life and manners ; 
see Bocks and Katharine. 

CATHOLIC ASSOCIATION, see under 
Roman Catholics. 

CATHOLIC LEAGUE formed by English 
churchme)) more Romanistic than the English 
Church Union, June, 1882. 

CATHOLIC MAJESTY. This title was 
given by pope Gregory III. to Alphonso I. of Spain, 
739, and to Ferdinand V. and his queen in 1474 by 
Innocent VIII. on account of their zeal for religion, 
and their establishment of the Inquisition. 

CATHOLICS, see Roman Catholics. 

CATHOLIC UNION, and CATHOLIC 
TRUTH Society, see Roman Catholics. 1868. 

CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. Lucius Ser- 
gius Catiline, a dissolute Roman noble, having been 
refused the consulship (65 B.C.), conspired to kill 
the senate, plunder the treasury, and set Rome on 
fire. This conspiracy was timely discovered and 
frustrated. A second plot (in 63), was detected by 
the consul Cicero, whom he had resolved to murder. 
Catiline's daring appearance in the senate-house, 
after his guilt was known, drew forth Cicero's cele- 
brated invective, " Quousque tandem, Catilina!" 
on 8 Nov. On seeing five of his accomplices ar- 
rested, Catiline fled to Gaul, where his partisans 
were assembling an army. Cicero punished the 
conspirators at home, and Petreius routed their 
forces; Catiline being killed in the engagement, 
Jan. 62 B.C. 

CAT ISLE, see Salvador. 



201,193 ; 
474.750; 
555.222; 

562,55^ 



CATO, SUICIDE OF. Considering freedom as 
that which alone '• sustains the dignity of man," 
and unable to survive the independence of his 
country, Cato stabbed himself at Utica, 46 B.C. 

CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY : a gang 
of desperate men, headed by Arthur Thistle wood, 
assembled in Cato-street. Edgware-road, and pro- 
posed the assassination of the ministers of the 
crown, at a cabinet dinner. They were betrayed 
and arrested, 23 Feb. 1820, and Thistlewood, Brunt, 
Davidson, Ings, and Tidd, were executed as traitors, 
on 1 May. 

CATTI, a German tribe, attacked but not sub- 
dued by the Romans a.d. 15, and 84; absorbed by 
the Franks, 3rd century. 

CATTLE. The importation of horned cattle 
-from Ireland and Scotland into England was pro- 
hibited by a law, 1663 ; but the export of cattle 
from Ireland became very extensive. In 1842 the 
importation of cattle into England from foreign 
countries was subjected to a moderate duty, and in 
1846 they were made duty free ; and since then the 
numbers imported have enormously increased.* 
Horned cattle imported into the United Kingdom 
1849,53,480; 1853,125,523; 1855 (war), 97.527; 
i860, 104,569; 1865, 283,271 ; 1866, 237,739; 1867, 
177,948; 1868, 136,688; 1869, 220,190; 1870, 
202,172; 1874, 193,862; 1876, 271,576; 1877, 
1879, 247,768; 1881, 319,374; 1883. 
1887, 295,961; 1888, 377,088; 1889, 
1890, 642,596; 1892, 502,237; 1896, 
1900, 495,645 ; 1902, 419,488. See under 
Sheep? Smit.hjield, Foreign Cattle-market. 
A cattle plague began in Hungary ; extended over 

Western Europe, destroying 1^ million cattle 1711-14 
A severe cattle plague raged in England and west 

Europe (about 3 million cattle perish) . . 1745-56 
The privy council ordered diseased beasts to be 
shot, and their skins destroyed ; granting mode- 
rate compensation . . . .12 March, 1746 
Great disease among foreign cattle ; excluded from 

this country by prohibitions . . . April, 1857 
The cattle plague appears at Laycock's dairy, 
Barnsbury, London, N. ; rapidly spreads, about 

24 June, 1865 
27,432 beasts had been attacked ; 12,680 died ; 

8,998 slaughtered, up to . . . .21 Oct. „ 
A royal commission to inquire into the causes of 
cattle plague and suggest remedies met first, 10 
Oct. ; report of majority considered the disease 
to have been imported, and recommend slaughter 
of animals, and stringent prohibition of passage 
of cattle across public roads, <&c, 31 Oct. 1865 ; 
second report, 6 Feb. ; 3rd report . 1 May, 1866 
Orders in council for regulatiug the cattle plague 
(in conformity with the act of 1850), 23 Nov. and 

16 Dec. 1865 ; and 20 Jan. ,, 

Disease raging ; official report ; cattle attacked, 
120,740 ; killed, 16,742 ; died, 73,750 ; recovered, 
14,162 ; unaccounted for, 16,086 . . 1 Feb. ,, 
Cattle Disease Acts passed 20 Feb. and 10 Aug. „ 
Orders in council making uniform repressive mea- 
sures throughout the country . . 27 March, „ 
The disease materially abates . . . April, „ 
Privy council return : cattle attacked, 248,965 ; 
killed, 80,597 : died, 124,187 ; recovered, 32,989 ; 
unaccounted for, 11,192 .... 22 June, ,, 
The disease nearly " stamped out" . 27 Oct. „ 
Order in council directing that foreign cattle be 
landed only at certain ports (after 13 Nov.), there 
to be subjected to quarantine . . .10 Nov. „ 
Cattle plague re-appears in Cheshire and Lanca- 
shire and Yorkshire Dec. ,, 

Re-appears at Barnsbury (see 24 June, 1865), 46 

animals slaughtered .... 2 Feb. 1867 
Re-appearance in various places . . June, July, ,, 

* Sale of 30 of duke of Devonshire's shorthorn bulls 
for 19,923?., about Sept. 1878. 



CATTLE. 



240 



CAUCUS. 



Contagious Diseases (Animals) Act renewed 1867 ; 
amended 

Order of council permitting cattle to be removed 
from the metropolis . . . .25 July, 

New general orders issued .... Aug. 

Prevalence of "foot-and-mouth disease" in 
England . Aug. 1869 — Dec. 1870 ; June, July, 

Disease appears at Kaiserslautern, rear of the Ger- 
man army ; cautionary regulations promulgated 
by the privy council .... 9 Sept. 

New foreign cattle market determined on, Nov. 
1870; opened Dec. 1871 ; suffers by great fire, 
about io.oooZ. lost . . . .18 Sept. 

Foot-and-mouth disease in England . July, Aug. 

Appearance of the plague in German cattle ; further 
importation suspended . . about 3 Aug. 

Cattle-plague appears at Pocklington, Yorkshire ; 
vigorously treated, 3 Sept. ; stringent order from 
the privy council 7 Sept. 

Live cattle imported to Glasgow from America by 
Mr. Bell July, 

Foot-and-mouth disease in some English counties, 

Aug. — Sept. 

Re-appearance of cattle-plague in England ; restric- 
tions in London and other places ; much cattle 
killed Jan.— May, 

Cattle-plague commission enlarged, 3 May ; plague 
said to be stamped out ; restrictions removed, 26 
June ; fresh cases in London ; restrictions re- 
sumed 13 July; removed . . . 31 July, 

New Cattle Contagious Diseases Act passed 16 Aug. 

Order in council prohibiting importation of living 
cattle from eastern half of -Europe after 1 Jan. 
1879 ; imports permitted from some countries, 
cattle to be slaughtered ; (no restriction respect- 
ing some countries) .... 6 Dec. 

Foot-and-mouth disease in E. Lancashire, Aug. 
1881 ; in Staffordshire, Aug. 1882 ; Norfolk Oct. 

International cattle show at Hamburg . July, 

Foot-and-mouth disease prevailing in English mid- 
land counties, July ; in Kent . July, et seq. 

Severe at Odessa . . . Oct. 1883 — May, 

Abating in England through suspension of fairs, 
&c, announced April, 

Cattle-men of United States ; above 12,000 delegates 
hold a convention at St. Louis, organize a 
national live stock association, and recommend 
the formation of a national trail ten miles wide 
for the passage of cattle from the Red River to 
the Northern boundary of the States 18-22 Nov. 

Contagious Diseases Act (amended) 1884, 1886, 1890, 
1892, and 

Foot-and-mouth disease stamped out, Earl Spencer, 
28 May ; favourable reports . . . Dec. 

Cattle disease in Leicestershire . . . June 

Foot-and-mouth disease in Germany ; importation 
into England checked Oct. 

Pleuro-pneumonia and anthrax in the United 
Kingdom reported 6 Feb. 

Foot-and-mouth disease at the Metropolitan cattle 
market detected in some Danish cattle ; all 
slaughtered, 4-6 Feb. The sale of live cattle 
temporarily suspended, 8 Feb. The disease soon 
after appeared in Kent, Surrey, Vf. R. Yorkshire, 
Chester, Westmoreland, Edinburgh, Glasgow, 
Paisley, and was vigorously stamped out by the 
action of the board of agriculture . Feb. -July, 

Pleuro-pneumonia in Dundee and other places, Oct. 

Importation of live Canadian cattle prohibited 

Oct. 

Foot-and-mouth disease in N. London ; movement 
of cattle prohibited, 2 Jan.: tho disease dis- 
appears 7 Jan. : order rescinded, 16 Jan. 1893, re- 
appears in Kssfx, Cambridgeshire and Kent Nov. 

Consolidal ion Act passed in 

Great Bpread of rinderpest in S. Africa, April ttseq. 

Diseases of Animals a.ct, ordering 'immediate 
slaughter of diseased foreign cattle when landed, 
passed 20 July 

In 1894 three-fourths of the live cattle and nearly 
six-sevenths of the fresh beef imported into the 
United Kingdom came from the United States ; 
still increasing 

Dr. Koch in Cape Town renders cattle immune by 
means of a mixture of serum and rinderpest 
blood; announced, [a Feb. el seq. 1897; Dr. 
Holies aud Dr. Qeoi e Turner's treatment by 



1870 



1872 



1873 
1875 

1877 



injection very successful, reported (Roy. Soc), 

30 Nov. 1898 

Boycotting practised by certain butchers and sales- 
men against farmers and others in Scotland, 
respecting the sale of cattle, checked by an 
agreement, the result of conferences between the 
board of agriculture, the Scottish chamber of 
agriculture, and some of the leading salesmen 

Times, 28 and 29 Nov. ,, 

Outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in Norfolk and 
Suffolk Jan., Feb. 1900 

Rinderpest in S. Africa successfully checked by 
inoculation Sept. 1901 

Dr. Remo Guzzi's cure for foot-and-mouth disease 
by injections of a solution of corrosive sublimate 
successful in Italy, reported. . . 12 Nov. ,, 

Board of Agriculture issues order revoking the 
Foreign Animals Amendment Order of 1900, 
which prohibited the landing in the United King- 
dom of animals from the Argentine republic and 
from Uruguay 3 Feb. 1903 

CATTLE AND SHEEP IN THE UNITED KINGDOM AND 
ISLANDS. 

Cattle. Sheep. Cattle. Sheep. 

1881 9,905,013 27,896,273 

1882 9,832,417 27,448,220 

1883 10,097,943 28,347,560 

1884 10,422,762 29,376,78.7 

1885 10,868,760 30,086,200 

1886 10,872,811 28,955,240 

1887 10,639,960 29,401,750 

1888 10,268,600 28,938,716 
1890 10,789,858 31,667,195 
1894 10,780,796 30,037,818 
1896 10,942,423 30,853,809 

1901 11 437,217 30.755^950 

1902 11,338,180 29,981,446 



866 8,570,000 26,380,000 

868 9,083,416 35,607,812 

869 9,078,282 34,250,272 

870 9,235,052 32,786,783 

871 9,346,216 31,403,500 

872 9,718,505 32,246,642 

873 10,153,670 33,982,404 

874 10,281,036 34,837,597 

875 10,162,787 33,491,948 

876 9,997,189 32,252,579 

877 g^ 1 ^? 3 2 > 22 °- o6 7 

878 9,761,288 32,571,018 

879 9,961,536 32,237,958 



CATTLE SHOW, see Smithfield. 

CAUBUL, see Gabul. 

CAUCASUS, a loft}' mountain, a continuation I 
of the ridge of Mount Taurus, between the Euxine 
and Caspian seas. The passes near the mountain I 
were called Caucasice Portce, and it is supposed that | 
through them the Sarmatians or Huns invaded the l 
provinces of Rome, a.d. 447. Population of ihe ' 
province, 1885, 7,824,567; 9 Peb. 1897, 9>7 2 3>5S3 ■ 
see Circassia. 
Two explorers, Mr. W. F. Donkin and Mr. H. Fox, 

and their guides lost . . . about 1 Sept. 1888 I 1 
Alpine club search party find only some of their 

property 29 July, 1889. || 

Agricultural exhibition opened at Tiflis 27 Sept. ,, | 
Violent rioting against the cattle sanitary laws It 
suppressed by the military in Borgustan, re- 
ported 22 Aug. 1894!'' 

Brigandage and murder in Batum and Elizabetpol, |' 

reported 7 Nov. 189611 

Prince Galitzin, gov. -gen. 1896, issues reports, see h| 

Kmes 5 April, 1899IJ 

Glacier disaster in the Ghenal Don valley, 32 lives ij 

lost mid July, 1002 A 

Brigandage and lawlessness . . . . Jan. 1903,1 

CAUCUS. An American term applied to ah' 
private meeting of the leading politicians of a party):; 
to agree upon the plans to be pursued during an 1 
election or session of congress. This institution is [J 
now a very powerful antagonist to public opinion, y 
The word is said to be derived from " ship " -caulkers' j' 
meetings. A "caucus club" is mentioned by John! j 
Adams, in 176?. Bartlett. Similar meetings areji 
occasionally held in London by conservatives and)! 
Liberals; one was held by Mr. Gladstone respecting ^i 
the ballot bill, 6 July, 1871. Jealousy respecting 
the m stem was aroused in 1878. 

The Birmingham Liberal association began in 1868 
a powerful caucus, systematized by Sir. Schnad- 
horst, very efficient 1873 et seq.; a similar conser- 
vative association since formed; a network of 
similar societies exist throughout the kingdom 

Autumn 18851 



CAUDINE FOEKS. 



241 



CELEEY. 



The London Liberal and Radical council, actually 
a caucus, active in November, 1885 

io,5ooZ. presented to Mr. Schnadhorst by the 
Liberals, 9 March, 1887 ; he retired from poli- 
tics, Nov. 1894, die( l .... 2 Jan. 1900 

CAUDINE FOEKS, according to Livy, the 
Turculm Caudinm (in Samuium, S. Italy), were two 
narrow denies or gorges, united by a range of moun- 
tains on each side. The Romans went through the 
first pass, but found the second blocked up ; on re- 
turning they found the first similarly obstructed. 
Being thus hemmed in by the Samnites, under the 
command of C. Pontius, they surrendered at discre- 
tion, 321 B.C. (after a fruitless contest, according to 
Cicero). The Roman senate broke the favourable 
treaty. C. Pontius, taken prisoner in the third 
Samnite war, was executed at Rome, 2QO. 

CAULIFLOWEE, said to have been brought 
from Cyprus to England about 1603. 

CAUSTIC, IN PAINTING, a method of burn- 
ing colours into wood or ivory, invented by Gausias 
of Sicyon. He painted his mistress Glvcere sitting 
"on the ground making garlands with flowers; the 
picture was hence named Stephanoplocon. It was 
bought by Lucullus for two talents, 335 B.C. Pliny. 

CAUTIONAEY TOWNS (Holland), (the 
Briel, Flushing, Rammekins, and Walcheren), 
were given to queen Elizabeth in 1585 as security 
for their repaying her for assistance in their struggle 
with Spain. They were restored to the Dutch 
republic by James I. in 1616. 

CAVALIEE. The appellation given to the 
supporters of the king during the civil war, from a 
number of gentlemen forming themselves into a 
body-guard for the king in 1641. They were 
opposed to the Roundheads, or parliamentarians. 

CAVALEY. Used by the Canaanites in war, 
1450 B.C. {Josh. xi. 4). Attached to each Roman 
legion was a body of 300 horse, in ten turma? ; the 
commander always a veteran. — The Persians had 
10,000 horse at Marathon, 490 B.C. ; and 10,000 
Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, ^^ 
B.C. Plutarch. In the wars with Napoleon I. the 
British cavalry reached to 31,000 men. Our cavalry 
force, in 1840, was 10,733. In 1867, cavalry of the 
line, 10,023 ; in depots, 838 ; in India, 5421 ; total, 
T-hSW, in !88o, total 17,245; 1903-4, 554 officers, 
1337 non-commissioned, 14,271 rank and file; in 
India, total 5,635 ; voted household cavalry 
60,900/., line 419,000/. Cavalry Manoeuvres on the 
Berkshire Downs, eight regiments, director, sir 
Evelyn "Wood; general in command, sir Baker 
Russell, Sept. 1890. The manoeuvres are now 
annually repeated near Aldershot, Aug. -Sept. see 
Horse Guards, §e. " Achievements of Cavalry," 
by gen. sir Evelyn "Wood, published 1897. 

CAVENDISH COLLEGE, . Cambridge 
(founded in 1871 to give cheap university education 
to youths younger than those admitted at other col- 
leges, and leaving earlier for business), was in- 
augurated by the duke of Devonshire, 26 Oct. 1876. 
New buildings opened by the marquis of Harting- 
ton, 16 Nov. 1889; closed since 1891. 

CAVENDISH EXPEEIMENT. In 1798 
the hon. Henry Cavendish described his experi- 
ment for determining the mean density of the 
earth, by comparing the force of terrestrial attrac- 
tion with that of the attraction of leaden spheres of 
known magnitude and density, by means of the 
torsion balance. Brande. The Cavendish Society, 
for the publication of chemical works, which ceased 



with Gmelin's Chemistry (1848-72), was established 
1846. 

CAVES are frequently mentioned in the Bible 
as dwellings, refuges, and burying-places. Mr. W. 
B. Dawkins' " Cave-hunting ; Researches on the 
Evidence of Caves respecting the Early Inhabitants 
of Europe," was published 1874. Oreston cave, 
Devon, discovered 1816; Kirkdale, Yorkshire, 1821 ; 
Kent's Hole, Torquay, ivhich see, 1825 ; Brixham 
cave, 1858 ; Wookey Hole, Somerset, 1859 ; and 
many others, have been well explored, including 
the caves in the valley of the Lesse in Belgium, of 
the Pyrenees and Perigord in France, and the 
Kesserloch, Thaingen, Switzerland. The remains 
of extinct mammalia found in these caves furnish 
proof of the antiquity of man. 

CAWNPOEE, a town in India, on the Doab, 
a peninsula between the Ganges and Jumna. During 
the mutiny in June, 1857, it was garrisoned by na- 
tive troops under sir Hugh Wheeler. These broke 
out into revolt. An adopted son of the old Peishwa 
Bajee Rao, Nana Sahib, who had long lived on 
friendly terms with the British, came apparently to 
their assistance, but joined the rebels. He took the 
place after three weeks' siege, 26 June ; and in 
spite of a treaty massacred great numbers of the 
British, without respect to age or sex, in the most 
cruel manner. General Havelock defeated Nana 
Sahib, 16 July, at Futtehpore, and retook Cawn- 
pore, 17 July. Sir Colin Campbell defeated the 
rebels here on 6 Dec. following. A column was 
erected here, in memory of the sufferers, by their 
relatives of the 32nd regiment. In Dec. i860, 
Nana was said to be living at Thibet ; and in Dec. 
1861 was incorrectly said to have been captured at 
Kurrachee ; see India, 1857. Population, 1901, 
197,170. 

CAXTON SOCIETY, established for the 
publication of chronicles and literature of the 
Middle Ages, published sixteen volumes, 1844-54. 
Caxton Celebration, see under Printing, 1877. 

CAYENNE, French Guiana (S. America), 
settled by the French, 1604-35. It afterwards came 
successively into the hands of the English (1654), 
French, and Dutch. The last were expelled by the 
French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by the British, 
12 Jan. 1809, but was restored to the French in 
1814. Here is produced the Capsicum baccaium, or 
cayenne pepper. Many French political prisoners 
were sent here in 1848. 

CECILIAN SOCIETY, see Ccecilian. 

CEDAE CEEEK and MOUNTAIN, 

Virginia, U.S. On 19 Oct. 1864, gen. Sheridan 
converted the defeat of the Federals by the Con- 
federates under Longstreet into a complete victory. 
At Cedar Mountain gen. Stonewall Jackson 
defeated Banks, 9 Aug. 1862. 

CEDAE TEEE. The red cedar (Juniper us 
virginiana) came from North America before 
1664; the Bermudas cedar from Bermudas before 
1683 ; the Cedar of Lebanon (Pinus Cedrus) from 
the Levant before 1683. In 1850 a grove of vener- 
able cedars, about 40 feet high, remained on 
Lebanon. The cedar of Goa {Cupressus lusitanica) 
was brought to Europe by the Portuguese about 
1683 ; see Cypress. 

CELEEY is said to have been introduced into 
England by the French marshal, Tallard, during 
his captivity in England, after his defeat at Blen- 
i heim by Marlborough, 2 Aug. 1704. 



CELESTIAL GLOBE. 



242 



CEPHALONIA. 



CELESTIAL GLOBE, see Globes. 

CELIBACY (from ceelebs, unmarried) was 
preached by St. Anthony in Egypt about 305. His 
early converts lived in caves, &c, till monasteries 
were founded. The doctrine was rejected in the 
council of Nice, 325. Celibacy was enjoined on 
bishops only in 692. The decree was opposed in 
England, 958-978. The Romish clergy generally 
were enjoined a vow of celibacy by pope Gregory 
VII. in 1073-85, and its observance was established 
by the council of Placentia, held in 1095. Mar- 
riage was restored to the English clergy in 1547. 
The marriage of the clergy was proposed, but nega- 
tived at the council of Trent (1563); also at a con- 
ference of the old catholics at Bonn, June, 1876. 
Sir- Baitle Frere termed the Zulu army " a celibate 
man-slaying machine," 1878. 

CELL THEORY (propounded by Schwann 
in 1839) supposes that the ultimate particles of all 
animal and vegetable tissues are small cells. Some 
of the lowest forms of animal and vegetable life 
are composed of merely a single cell, as the great 
majority of the Protozoa and Protophyta. Prof. 
Virchow proved in his Croonian lecture in London 
that all new cells proceed from old ones, 16 March, 
1893, see Protoplasm. 

CELLULOID, see Ivory. 

CELTIBERI, see Numantine War. 

CELTS, or KELTS, a group of the Aryan 
family; see Gauls. Chiefly by the exertions of 
Prof. John S. Blackie a Celtic professorship at the 
university of Edinburgh was founded 1876 ; 
11,937/. subscribed April, 1879. One was estab- 
lished at Oxford in 1876 ; see Gaelic. 

CEMETERIES. The burying-places of the 
Jews, Greeks, Romans, were outside their towns 
{Matt, xxvii. 60). Many public cemeteries re- 
sembling " Pere La Chaise" * at Paris, have been 
opened in all parts of the kingdom since 1856; see 
Catacombs, Bun hill- fields. 

PRINCIPAL METROPOLITAN CEMETERIES. 

Kensal-green cemetery, 53 acres ; consecrated, 2 Nov. 1832 

South Metropolitan and Norwood cemetery, 40 
acres ; consecrated 6 Dec. 1837 

Highgate and Kentish-town cemetery, 22 acres; 
opened and consecrated ... 20 May, 1839 

Abney Park cemetery, Stoke Newington, 30 acres ; 
opened by the lord mayor ... 20 May, 1840 

Westminster, or West London cemetery, Kensing- 
ton-road ; consecrated . . . 15 June, ,, 

Nunhead cemetery, about 5° acres ; consecrated 

29 July, ,, 

City of London and Tower Hamlets cemetery, 
30 acres ; consecrated 1841 

London Necropolis and National Mausoleum, at 
Woking, Surrey, 2000 acres ; the company incor- 
porated in July, 1852 ; opened . . Jan. 1855 

City of London ce tery, Uford; opened, 24 June, 1856 

and many others since. 

Acts respecting burials passed . . .1850-57 

CENIS, MOUNT, see under Alps. 

CENSORS, Roman magistrates, to survey 
and rate the property, and correct the manners of 
the people. The two firs! censors were appointed, 
443 b.c. Plebeian censors were first appointed, 1 }i 
b.c. Cato, the censor, elected 1S.4 B.C., strenuously 
endeavoured to restrain the luxury and vice of the 

* Pere La chaise was the Favourite and confessorof 
Louis XIV., who made him superior of a greal establish- 
ment of the Jesuits on this spot, then named Mont 

i i lie house and ground wet e bought for a national 

. i in, i. iv. which was laid out by M. Brongniart, and first 
list 'I on ;i Maj , 1804. 



patricians. The office, abolished by the emperors, 
was revived by Decius, a.d. 251 ; see Press. 

CENSUS. The Israelites were numbered by 
Moses, 1490 B.C. ; and by David, 1017 B.C. ; Deme- 
trius Phalereus is said 'to have taken a census of 
Attica, 317 b.c. Servius Tullius is traditionally 
said to have enacted that a general estimate of 
every Roman's estate and personal effects should 
be delivered to the government upon oath every 
five years, 566 B.C. A census of the people is 
stated to have been taken at Florence in 1527 ; 
at Venice, 1584; in Francp, 1700; in Sweden, 
1749; and in the United States, N.A., 1790. In 
England the proposal for a census in 1753 was 
opposed as profane and subversive of liberty. In 
the United Kingdom the census is now taken at 
decennial periods since 1801 ; 1811, 1821, 1831, 
1841, 1851, 1861 (7 April), 1871 (3 April), 1881 
(3 April), 1891 (5 April), 1901 (31 March). 
See Population. For the latest census of other 
countries, see Table at the beginning of this work. 

CENTAL, a new name given to the 100- lbs. 
weight, London Gazette, 7 Feb. 1879. 

CENTENARIANS, see Longevity. 

CENTRAL AFRICA, see under Africa. 

CENTRAL AMERICA, seeAmerica,Cmtral. 
A large American steamer of this name was wrecked 
during a gale in the gulf of Mexico, 12 Sept. 1857. 
Of about 550 persons only 152 were saved; several 
of these after drifting on rafts above 600 miles. 
The loss of about 2\ million dollars in specie aggra- 
vated the commercial panic in New York shortly 
after. The captain and crew behaved heroically. 

CENTRAL ASIA. See under Asia. 

CENTRAL CRIMINAL COURT, estab- 
lished in 1834. Commissions are issued to the 
fifteen judges of England (of whom three attend in 
rotation at the Old Bailey) for the periodical de- 
livery of the gaol of Newgate, and the trial of : 
offences of greater degree, committed in Middlesex I 
and parts of Essex, Kent, and Surrey; the new f 
district is considered as one county. 

CENTRAL PROVINCES OF INDIA, || 

constituted out of territories from the North- West ;j 

provinces and Madras in 1861 and placed under a .. 
chief commissioner. Population in 1881, 9.8^8,791 ; 

1891, 10,761,630; 1901,9,845,318. Capital, Nagpur, 11 

population, 1891, 117,910. Chief commissioners, fj 

Alex. Mackenzie (1887) ; A. Patrick MacDonnell f 

(1891) ; J. Woodburn (1895) ; C. J. Lyall (1895) ; h, 
A. H. L. Fraser (1901). 

CENTURION, the captain, head, or com- 
mander of a subdivision of a Roman legion, which 
consisted of 100 men, and was called a centuria. 
By the Roman census each hundred of the people 
was called a centuria, 556 B.C. 

CENTURY. The Greeks computed time by 
the Olympiads, beginning 776 B.C., and the Roman 
church by Indictions, the first of which began 24 
Sept., a.d. 312. The method of computing time 
by centuries commenced from the incarnation of 
Christ, and was adopted in chronological history I' 
first in France. Dupin. See Dictionaries, 1889. 

CEPHALONIA, the ancient Cephallenia, one 
of the Ionian islands, was taken from the JEtolians 
by the Romans, 189 B.C., and given to the Athenians 
by Hadrian, a.i>. 135; see Ionian Isles. 



CEPHISUS. 



243 



CHALD^A. 



It was held successively by the eastern emperors, by 
the Pranks in the 12th century, by the princes 
of Achaia, 1224 ; by the Turks, 1479 ; by the 
Venetians 1500-1797 

Mr. P. A. Vagliano, of Bayswater (died 25 Jan. 1902), 
bequeathed 500,000?. for charities in the island. 

CEPHISUS, a river in Attica, near which 
Walter de Brienne, duke of Athens, was defeated 
and slain by the Catalans, 131 1. 

CEBBEBE, a French gun-brig, with a crew 
of 87 men, and seven guns, in the harbour of 
L'Orient, within pistol-shot of three batteries, was 
captured in a most daring manner by lieut. Jeremiah 
Coghlan, in a cutter with 19 companions aided by 
two boats, one of which was commanded by mid- 
shipman Paddon. The prize was towed out under 
a heavy but ineffectual fire from the batteries, 
26 July, 1800. Nicolas. 

CEEEMONIES, Master op the, an office 

instituted for the more honourable reception of 
ambassadors and persons of quality at court, 
I James I. 1603. The order maintained by the 
master of the ceremonies at Bath, "Beau Nash," 
the "King of Bath," led to the adoption of the 
office in ordinary assemblies ; he died in his 88th 
year, 1761. Ashe. 

CERES, a planet, 160 miles in diameter, was 
discovered by M. Piazzi, at Palermo, 1 Jan. 1801 ; 
he named it after the goddess highly esteemed by 
the ancient Sicilians. 

CEBESUOLA (N. Italy). Here Francis de 
Bourbon, count d'Enghien, defeated the imperialists 
under the marquis de Guasto, 14 April, 1544. 

CEEIGNOLA (S. Italy). Here the great 
captain Gonsalvo de Cordova and the Spaniards 
defeated the due de Nemours and the French, 
28 April, 1503. 

CEBINTHIANS, followers of Cerinthus, a 
Jew, who lived about a.d. 80, are said to have com- 
bined Judaism with pagan philosophy. 

CEEIUM, a very rare metal, discovered by 
Klaproth and others in 1803. 

CEUTA (the ancient Septa), a town on N. coast 
of Africa, stands on the site of the ancient Abyla, 
the southern pillar of Hercules. It was taken 
from the Vandals by Belisarius for Justinian, 534 ; 
by the Goths, 618 ; by the Moors about 709, from 
whom it was taken by the Portuguese, 1415. With 
Portugal, it was annexed in 1580 to Spain, which 
power still retains it. See Morocco, 1893. 

CEYLON (the ancient Taprobane), an island 
in the Indian Ocean, called by the natives the seat 
of paradise. It became a seat of Buddhism, 307 
B.C., and was known to the Romans about 41 a.d. 
Population 1873, 2,323,760; 1881,2,758,165; 1891, 
3,008,239; 1901,3,576,990. Imports, 72,340,662 Rs.; 
exports. 74,195,367 Rs., in 1893 5 imports, 
I22 >339>758 ; exports, 94,962,277, in 1900. 
The Mahavansa, a metrical chronicle in Pali, gives 
the history of Ceylon from 543 B.C. down to 432 
a.d., which has been continued to 1756. Bud- 
dhism was established as the national religion 
_, b.c. 307 

1 he usurpation of the Malabars . . . .237 
Wyjayo Bahu re-establishes a native dynasty a..d. 1071 
Prakrama Bahu, a great prince, reigns . 1153 etseq. 
Wars with the Malabars, 12th and 13th centuries. 
Invaded by the Portuguese Almeyda . . . 1505 
The Dutch landed in Ceylon, 1602 ; and captured 

^ the capital, Colombo ^03 

Frequent conflicts ; peaceful commercial relations 
established (the Portuguese having been expelled) 1664 



Intercourse with the British begun . . . . 1713 
A large portion of the country taken by them in 

1782 ; was restored 1783 

The Butch settlements seized by the British : Trin- 

comalee, 26 Aug. ; Jaffhapatam . . Sept. 1795 
Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain by the peace of 

Amiens 1802 

British troops treacherously massacred or im- 
prisoned by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo ; 

see Candy 26 June, 1803 

Complete sovereignty of the island assumed by 

England 1815 

Bishopric of Colombo founded 1845 

The governor, lord Torrington, absolved from a 
charge of undue severity in suppressing a rebel- 
lion " May, 1851 

Prosperity of Ceylon greatly increased under the 

administration of sir H. Ward . . . 1855-60 

Sir J. E. Tennent's work, " Ceylon," appeared . 1859 
Sir Hercules G. Robinson appointed governor, 

7 March, 1865 
The duke of Edinburgh visited Ceylon . April, 1870 
Wm. H. Gregory, M.P., appointed governor, 9 Jan. 1872 
Visit of the prince of Wales . . .1 Dec. 1875 
Sir J. R. Longden appointed governor . Nov. 1876 
Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon .... Feb. 1883 
Sir Arthur E. Havelock ... 12 March, 1890 

Sir Joseph West Ridge way . . . Sept. 1895 
Death of Mr. Henry Trimen, P.R.S., eminent 

botanist 16 Oct. 1896 

Increased revenue and diminished debt, public 
works and railways much promoted, announced 

6 Nov. 1897 
First sod of the Colombo graving dock cut by the 

governor 1 March, 1899 

Sir J. Ridgeway returns ; Colombo decorated, 

addresses presented ... 25 Nov. ,, 

Cambridge expedition, under Mr. S. Gardiner, to 
the Maldives and Laccadives to investigate the 
coral reefs, &c. ; 300 islands visited . 1899-1900 
Boer prisoners (5,127) deported from S. Africa 

located here 1900-1 

The duke and duchess of Cornwall warmly received, 

12-16 April, 1901 
Queen's statue unveiled at Colombo . 25 June, 1902 
Rev. E. A. Copeland consecrated bishop of Colombo 

30 Aug. 1903 

CH^EEONEA (Boeotia). Here Greece was 
ruined by Philip ; 32,000 Macedonians defeating 
30,000 Thebans, Athenians, &c, 6 or 7 Aug. 338 B.C. 
Here Archelaus, lieutenant of Mithridates, was 
defeated by Sylla, and 110,000 Cappadocians were 
slain, 86 B.C. ; see Coronea. 

CHAIN BBLDGES, see Suspension Bridges. 

CHAIN-CABLES, Pumps, and Shot. 

Iron chain-cables were in use by the Veneti, a people 
intimately connected with the Belgae of Britain in 
the time of Caesar, 57 b. c. These cables came into 
use, generally in the navy of England, in 1812. 
Acts for the proving and sale of chain-cables and 
anchors were passed in 1864, i87i,and 1874. — Chain 
Shot, to destroy the rigging of an enemy's ship, 
were invented by the Dutch admiral, De Witt, in 
1666. — Chain- Pumps were first used on board the 
Flora, British frigate, in 1787. 

_ CHALCEDON, Asia Minor, opposite Byzan- 
tium, colonised by Megarians, about 684 b.c. It 
was taken by Darius, 505 B.C. ; by the Romans, 
74 B.C.; plundered by the Goths, a.d. 259; taken by 
Chosroes, the Persian, 609; by Orchan, the Turk, 
1338. Here was held the "Synod of the Oak," 
403 ; and the fourth general council, which annulled 
the act of the "Robber Synod," 8 Oct. 451. 

CHALCIS, see Euboea. 

CHALD2EA, the ancient name of Babylonia, 
but afterwards restricted to the S. W. portion. The 
Chaldseans were devoted to astronomy and astrology ; 
see Dan. ii. &c. — The Chaldean Registers of 
celestial observations, said to have commenced 



CHALGEOVE. 



244 



CHANCELLOR OF ENGLAND. 



2234. B.C., were brought down to the taking of 
Babylon by Alexander, 331 B.C. (1903 years). 

CHALGEOVE (Oxfordshire). At a skirmish 
here with prince Rupert, 18 June, 1643, John 
Hampden, of the parliament party, was wounded, 
and died 24 June. A column was erected to his 
me.nory, 18 June, 1843. 

CHALLENGEE, see Deep Sea Soundings. 

CHALONS-SUE-MAENE (N.E. France). 
Here the emperor Aurelian defeated Tetricus, the 
last of the pretenders to the throne, termed the 
Thirty Tyrants, 274; and here in 451 Aetius 
defeated Attila tbe Hun, compelling him to retire 
into Pannonia. 

CHAM, see Charivari. 

CHAMBEELAIN, early a high court officer 
in France, Germany, and England. The office of 
chamberlain of the exchequer ceased in 1834. 

Joint-Hereditary Lord Great Chamberlains of 
England. — The sixth great officer of state, whose duties, 
among others, relate to coronations and public solemnities. 
The office was long held by the De Veres, earls of Oxford, 
granted by Henry I. in 1101. On the death of John De 
Vere, the sixteenth earl, Mary, his sole daughter, 
marrying lord Willoughby De Eresby, the right was 
established in that nobleman's family by a judgment of 
the house of peers, 2 Charles I. 1625. On the death of 
his descendant, unmarried, in July, 1779, the house of 
lords and twelve judges concurred that the office de- 
volved to lady Willoughby De Eresby, and her sister the 
lady Georgina Charlotta Bertie, as heirs to their brother 
Robert, duke of Ancaster, deceased ; and that they had 
powers to appoint a deputy to act for them, not under 
the degree of a knight, who, if his majesty approved of 
him, might officiate accordingly. Beatson. This dignity 
was for some time held jointly by the lord Willoughby 
De Eresby and the marquis of Cbolmondeley, descendants 
of John de Vere, earl of Oxford. Lord Willoughby 
De Eresby died without issue 27 Aug. 1870, and lord 
Aveland, his sister's son, was appointed to act. The 
marquis of Cbolmondeley died 16 Dec. 1884, and was 
succeeded by his grandson, George H. H., the present 
marquis, 1884 ; re-appointed, 2 Sept. 1901 ; again by the 
king, 21 June, 1902. Lady Willoughby De Eresby died 
26 July, 1879, was succeeded by her sons, the earl of 
Ancaster and lord Carrington (earl, 1895). 

Lord Chamberlain of the Household. — An ancient 
office. The title is from the French Chambellan, in 
Latin Cumerarhts. Sir William Stanley, knt., afterwards 
beheaded, was lord chamberlain, 1 Henry VII. 1485. 
A vice-chamberlain acts in the absence of the chief ; the 
offices are co-existent. Beatson. The earl of Lathom, 
1885 ; lord Carrington, 1892 ; earl of Lathom, 1895 (died 
aged 61, 19 Nov. 1898); the earl of Hopetoun, Dec. 
1898 ; tbe earl of Clarendon, Sept. 1900. 

The Chamberlain of London is an ancient office. 

CHAMBEELAIN'S, ME., TOUE IN 
SOUTH AFEICA, see under Cape Colony, 
Natal, Transvaal. 

CHAMBEES, see Commerce, Agriculture, 
Shipping. 

CHAMBEES'JOUENAL was first published 

at Edinburgh in Feb. 1832. Jubilee kept 4 Feb. 
1882. Robt. Chambers died 17 Mm-. 1871. William 
died 20 May, 1883. Chambers' Encyclopaedia, see 

under " Kiinjcliijii, ■ilia ." 

CHAMBE E A RDENTE (fiery chamber) . an 
extraordinary French tribunal bo named from the 
punishment frequently awarded by it. Francis I. 
in [535, iiml Hi in \ II. in [549, employed ii tor the 
extirpation of heresy, which led to the civil war 
witli the Huguenots in [560; and in [679 Louis 
XIV. appointed one to investigate the poisoning 
cases which arose after tin' execution of the mar- 
chioness Brinvilliers. 



CHAMBEE INTEOTJVABLE, a name 
given to the chamber of deputies, elected in France 
in 1815, on account of its ignorance, incapacity, and 
bigoted reactionary spirit. 

CHAMPAGNE, an ancient province, N. E. 
France, once part of the kingdom of Burgundy, was 
governed by counts from the 10th century till it 
was united to Navarre, count Tbibaut becoming 
king, in 1234. The countess Joanna married 
Philip IV. of France, in 1284; and in 1361 Cham- 
pagne was annexed by their descendant king John. 
The effervescing wine termed Champagne became 
popular in the latter part of the 18th century. 

CHAMP DE MAES, an open square in front 
of the Military school at Paris, with artificial 
embankments on each side, extending nearly to the 
river Seine. The ancient assemblies of the Frankish 
people, the germ of parliaments, held annually in 
March, received this name. In 747, Pepin changed 
the month to May. Here was held, 14 July, 1790 
(the anniversary of the capture of the Bastile), the 
"federation," or solemnity of swearing fidelity to 
the "patriot king" and new constitution: great 
rejoicings followed. On 14 July, 1791, a second 
great meeting was held here, directed by the Jacobin 
clubs, to sign petitions on the ' ' altar of the country,' " 
praying for the abdication of Louis XVI. A com- 
memoration meeting took place, 14 July, 1792. 
Another constitution was sworn to here, under the 
eye of Napoleon I., 1 May, 1815, at a ceremony 
called the Champ de Mai. The prince-president 
(afterwards Napoleon III.) had a grand review in 
the Champ de Mars, and distributed eagles to the 
army, 10 May, 1852. Here also was held the in- 
ternational exhibitions opened I April, 1867, and 
I May, 1878, see Paris. 

CHAMPEETY, see Barratry. 

CHAMPIONS OF CHEISTENDOM, see 
Seven Champions of Christendom. 

CHAMPION of the King of England 

(most honourable), an ancient office, since 1377 hasj 
been attached to the manor of Scrivelsby, held by 
the Marmion family. Their descendant,"sir Henry I 
Dymoke, the seventeenth of his family who held j 
the office, died 28 April, 1865 ; succeeded by hislj 
brother John ; he died, and his son Henry Lionel I 
succeeded, who died Dec. 1875; succeeded by|' 
Francis Seaman Dymoke, who died 2 June, 1893"; I 
succeeded by his son, Mr. Francis Seaman Dymoke. 1 
An account of the champions, and the Marmion 
and Dymoke families, is given by the rev. Samuel: 
Lodge, in his " Scrivelsby," 1893. At the corona-' 
tion of the English kings the champion used to 
challenge anyone that should deny their title. The 
Dymoke suit of armour presented to the kingJ 
13 June, 1901. 

CHAMPLAIN, see lake Champlain. 

CHANCELLOE OP ENGLAND, Lord; 
HIGH, the first lay subject after the princes of thef 
blood royal. Anciently the office was conferred! 
upon some dignified ecclesiastic termed Ca //cel- 
lar i us, or doorkeeper, who admitted suitors to the! 
sovereign's presence. Arfastus or Herefast, chaplainj 
to the king (William the Conqueror) and bishop off 
Elniham, was lord chancellor in 1067. Hardy} 
Thomas a Becket was made chancellor in 1154.;: 
Tlic firsl person qualified by education, to decide? 
causes upon his own judgment, was sir Thomasi! 
More, appointed in 1520, before which time the; 
officer was rather a state functionary than a judge. 
Sir Christopher Hatton, appointed 'lord chancellor 1 



CHANCELLOR OF ENGLAND. 



245 



CHANCELLOR OF IRELAND. 



in 1587, was very ignorant, on which account the 
first reference was made to a master in 1588. The 
great seal has been frequently put in commission ; 
the lord chancellor's powers enlarged over legal 
officials by act passed in 1881 ; in 1813 the office of 
Vice- Chancellor was established; see Keeper, and 
Vice- Chancellor. — Salary, 6000^. ; as speaker of 
house of lords, 4000^. 

LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS. 

1487. John Moreton, archbishop of Canterbury. 
1504. William Warham, aft. archbishop of Canterbury. 
1515. Thomas Wolsey, cardinal and abp. of York. 
1529. Sir Thomas More. 
J532. Sir Thomas Audley, keeper. 
1533. Sir Thomas Audley, chancellor, aft. lord Audley. 
1544. Thomas, lord Wriothesley. 
1547. William, lord St. John, keeper. 
,, Richard, lord Rich, lord chancellor. 

1551. Thomas Goodrich, bishop of Ely, keeper. 

1552. The same ; now lord chancellor. 

J553. Stephen Gardiner, bishop of Winchester. 
1556. Nicholas Heath, archbishop of York. 
1558. Sir Nicholas Bacon, keeper. 
1579. Sir Thomas Bromley, lord chancellor. 
1587. Sir Christopher Hatton. 

1591. The great seal in commission. 

1592. Sir John Puckering, lord keeper. 
1596. Sir Thomas Egerton, lord keeper. 

1603. Sir T. Egerton, lord Ellesmere, chancellor. 

1617. Sir Francis Bacon, lord keeper. 

1618. Sir Francis Bacon, cr. Id. Verulam, Id. chancellor. 
1621. The great seal in commission. 

1625. John, bishop of Lincoln, lord keeper. 
,, Sir Thomas Coventry, afterwards lord Coventry, 
lord keeper. 

1640. Sir John Finch, afterwards lord Finch. 

1641. Sir Edward Lyttelton, afterwards lord Lyttelton, 

lord keeper. 
1643. The great seal in the hands of commissioners. 

1645. Sir Richard Lane, royal keeper. . 

1646. In the hands of commissioners. 

1649. In commission for the commonwealth. 

1653. Sir Edward Herbert, king's lord keeper. 

1654. In commission during the commonwealth. 

1660. Sir Edward Hyde, lord chancellor, afterwards 

created lord Hyde, and earl of Clarendon. 
1667. Sir Orlando Bridgman, lord keeper. 

1672. Anthony Ashley, earl of Shaftesbury, lord chan- 

cellor. 

1673. Sir Heneage Finch, lord keeper. 

1675. Heneage, now lord Finch, lord chancellor, after- 
wards earl of Nottingham. 

1682. Sir Francis North, cr. lord Guilford, lord keeper. 

1685. Francis, lord Guilford, ; succeeded by 

,, George, lord Jeffreys, lord chancellor. 

1689. In commission. 

1690. Sir John Trevor, knt., sir William Rawlinson, knt., 

and sir George Hutchins, knt., commissioners 
or keepers., 

1693. Sir John Somers, lord keeper. 

1697. Sir John Somers, cr. lord Somers, chancellor. 

1700. Lord chief justice Holt, sir George Treby, chief 
justice, C. P., and chief baron, sir Edward Ward, 
lord keepers. 
,, Sir Nathan Wright, lord keeper. 

1705. Right hon. William Cowper, lord keeper, after- 
wards lord Cowper. 

1707. William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor. 

1710. In commission. 
,, Sir Simon Harcourt, cr. lord Harcourt, keeper. 

1713. Simon, lord Harcourt, lord chancellor. 

1714. William, lord Cowper, lord chancellor. 
1718. In commission. 

,, Thomas, lord Parker, lord chancellor ; afterwards 
earl of Macclesfield. 
1725. In commission. 

1725. Sir Peter King, cr. lord King, chancellor. 
1733. Charles Talbot, cr. lord Talbot, chancellor. 
1737. Philip Yorke, lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 

1756. In commission. 

1757. Sir Robert Henley, afterwards lord Henley, last 

lord keeper. 
1761. Lord Henley, lord chancellor, afterwards earl of 

Northington. 
1766. Charles, lord Camden, lord chancellor. 



1770. Hon. Charles Yorke, lord chancellor. s 

[Created lord Morden ; died by suicide within 
three days, and before the seals were put to his 
patent of peerage. ] 

1770. In commission. 

1771. Henry Bathurst, lord Apsley ; succeeded as earl 

Bathurst. 

1778. Edward Thurlow, created lord Thurlow. 

1783. Alexander, lord Loughborough, and others, com- 
missioners. 
„ Edward, lord Thurlow, again. 

1792. In commission. 

1793. Alexander Wedderburne, lord Loughborough, lord 

chancellor. 
1801. John Scott, lord Elclon. 

1806. Hon. Thomas Erskine, created lord Erskine. 

1807. John, lord Eldon, again. 

1827. John Singleton Copley, created lord Lyndhurst. 
1830. Henry Brougham, created lord Brougham. 

1834. Lord Lyndhurst, again. 

1835. Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, master of the rolls, 

vice-chancellor Shadwell, and Mr. justice Bosan- 
quet, C. P., commissioners. 

1836. Sir Charles Christopher Pepys, created lord Cot- 

tenham, lord chancellor. 16 Jan. 
1841. Lord Lyndhurst, a third time. 3 Sept. 
1846. Lord Cottenham, again lord chancellor, 6 July. 
1850. Lord Langdale, master of the rolls, sir Launcelot 

Shadwell, vice-chancellor of England, and sir 

Robert Monsey Rolfe, B.E., commissioners of 

the great seal. 19 June. 
,, Sir Thomas Wilde, lord Truro. 15 July. 
1852. Sir Edward Sugden, lord St. Leonards. 27 Feb. 
„ Robt. Monsey Rolfe, lord Cranworth. 28 Dec. 

1858. Sir Frederic Thesiger, lord Chelmsford. 26 Feb. 

1859. John, lord Campbell, 18 June ; died 23 June, 1861. 
1861. Richard Bethell, lord Westbury. 26 June. Re- 
signed 4 July, 1865. 

1865. Robert Monsey Rolfe, lord Cranworth, again, 

6 July. Resigned June, 1866. 

1866. F. Thesiger, lord Chelmsford, again. 6 July. Re- 

signed Feb. 1868. 
1868. Hugh Cairns, lord Cairns. 29 Feb. 
„ William Page Wood, lord Hatherley ; died 10 July, 

1881. 
1872. Roundell Palmer, lord Selborne. 15 Oct. 
1874. Hugh Cairns, lord Cairns. 21 Feb. ; died 2 April, 

18S5. 
1880. Roundell Palmer, lord (aft.earl) Selborne. 28 April. 

1885. Sir Hardinge Giffard (lord Halsbury). 24 June. 

1886. Sir Farrer Herschell (lord Herschell). 6 Feb. 
,, Hardinge Giffard, lord Halsbury. 26 July. 

1892. Lord Herschell, 18 Aug. 

1895. Lord Halsbury, 25 June (vise. Tiverton, earl of 
Halsbury, Jan. 1898). 

CHANCELLOR OF IRELAND, Lord 

HIGH- The earliest nomination was by Richard 
I., 1 189, when Stephen Ridel was elevated to this 
rank. The office of vice-chancellor was known in 
Ireland in 1232, Geoffrey Turvillo, archdeacon of 
Dublin, being so named. The Chancery and Com- 
mon Law Offices (Ireland) act was passed 20 Aug. 
1867. 

LORD HIGH CHANCELLORS OF IRELAND. 

Patent. 

1690. Sir Charles Porter. 29 Dee. 

1697. Sir John Jeffreyson, Thomas Coote, and Nehemiah 

Donellan, lords keepers. 12 Jan. 
,, J. Methuen. 11 March. 
,, Edward, earl of Meath, Francis, earl of Longford, 

and Murrough, viscount Blessington, lords 

keepers. 21 Dec. 
1702. Lord Methuen, lord chancellor. 26 Aug. 
1705. Sir Richard Cox, bart., 6 Aug. ; resigned in 1707. 
1707. Richard Freeman. June. 

1710. Robert, earl of Kildare, archbishop (Hoadley) of 

Dublin, and Thomas Keightley, commissioners. 
28 Nov. 

1711. Sir Constantine Phipps. 22 Jan. Resigned Sept. 

1714. 
1714. Alan Brodrick, afterwards viscount Middleton. 
11 Oct. Resigned May, 1725. 

1725. Richard West. June. 

1726. Thomas Wyndham, afterwards lord Wyndham of 

Finglas. 21 Dec. 



CHANCELLOR of the EXCHEQUER. 246 



CHANTRY. 



1739. Robert Jocelyn, afterwards lord Newport and viset. 

Jocelyn. 7 Sept. ; died 25 Oct. 1756. 
1757. John Bowes, afterwards lord Bowes of Clonlyon. 

22 March ; died 1767. 
1768. James Hewitt, afterwards viscount Lifford. 9 Jan. 

died 28 April, 1789. 
1789. John, baron Fitzgibbon, afterwards earl of Clare. 

20 June ; died 28 Jan. 1802. 
1802. John, baron Redesdale. 15 March. Resigned Feb. 

1806. 

1806. George Ponsonby. 25 March ; resigned April, 1807. 

1807. Thomas Manners Sutton, lord Manners, previously 

an English baron of the exchequer. May. Re- 
signed Nov. 1827. 
1827. Sir Anthony Hart, previously vice-chancellor of 

England. 5 Nov. Resigned Nov. 1830. 
1830. William, baron Plunket. 23 Dec. Resigned Nov. 

1834. 
1835. Sir Edward Burtenshaw Sugden. 13 Jan. Resigned 

April, 1835. 
„ William, baron Plunket, a second time. 3c April. 

Resigned June, 1841. 
1841. John Campbell. June. Resigned Sept. 1841. 
„ Sir Edward Sugden, afterwards lord St. Leonards. 

a second time. Oct. Resigned July, 1846. 
1846. Maziere Brady. 16 July. Resigned Feb. 1852. 

1852. Francis Blackburne. March. Resigned Dec. 

1853. Maziere Brady, again. Jan. 

1858. Joseph Napier. Feb. 

1859. Maziere Brady, again. June. 

1866. Francis Blackburne. July. Resigned March, 1867. 

1867. Abraham Brewster. 24 March. 

1868. Thomas, lord O'Hagan. Resigned, Feb. 1874. 
1875. John T. Ball. 1 Jan. 

1880. Thomas, lord O'Hagan. April. Resigned g Nov. 

1881. 

1881. Hugh Law, died 10 Sept., 1883. 

1883. (in commission) 22 Sept., sir Edwd. Sullivan. 5 
Dec, 1883 ; died 13 April, 1885. 

1885. John Naish, about 25 April. 

,, Edward Gibson, lord Ashbourne. 24 June. 

1886. John Naish, about 2 Feb. 

,, Edward Gibson, lord Ashbourne, 26 July. 
1892. Samuel Walker, Aug. 
1895. Lord Ashbourne. 25 June. 

CHANCELLOR of the EXCHEQUER, 

Bee Exchequer. 

CHANCELLOR OF SCOTLAND, Lord, 

The laws of Malcolm II. (1004) say: — "The 
chancellar sail at al tymes assist the king in giving 
him counsall mair secretly nor the rest of the 
nobility. . . The chancellar sail he ludgit neir 
unto the kingis grace, for keiping of his bodie, and 
the seill, and that he may be readie, baith clay and 
nicht, at the kingis command." Sir James Balfour. 
Evan was lord chancellor to Malcolm III., Caninore, 
1057; and James, earl of Seafield, afterwards 
Findlater, was the last lord chancellor of Scotland, 
the office having been abolished in 1708; see 
Keeper. 

CHANCELLOR'S AUGMENTATION 

ACT, passed 1863, enabled the lord chancellor to 
sell the advowson of certain livings in his gift for 
augmenting poor benefices. 

CHANCELLORSVILLE, Virginia, U.S., a 
large brick hotel, once kept by a Mr. Chancellor, 
was the site of severe saiiguinan conflicts between 
the American federal army of the Potomac under 
general Honker, and the confederates under general 
Leo. On 28 April, 1863, the federal army crossed the 
Rappahannock; on 2 May, general "Stonewall" 
Jackson furiously attacked and routed the right 
wing, but was mortally wounded by his own party 

firing en him by mistake. Gen. Stuart tooK hoe 
command, and after a severe conflict on •; and 4 
May, with great Loss to both parties, the federals 
were compelled to reoross the Rappahannock, The 
struggle was compared to that at Hougoraont 
during the battleo Waterloo, Jackson died to May. 



CHANCERY, COURT OF, is mythically said 
to have originated with Alfred (871-901) or Wil- 
liam I. (1066-1087). Its power was probably 
derived from the council of state, under which it 
acted, and of which it became gradually indepen- 
dent. Its acts were frequently complained of by 
the commons in the 14th and 15th centuries. Its 
professed object was to render justice complete, 
and to moderate the rigour of other courts 
that are hound to the strict letter of the 
law. It gives relief to or against infants, not- 
withstanding their minority ; and to or against 
married women, notwithstanding their coverture ; 
and all frauds, deceits, breaches of trust and confi- 
dence, for which there is no redress at common 
law, are relievable here. Blackstone ; see Chan- 
cellors of England. The delays in chancery pro- 
ceedings having long given dissatisfaction, the 
subject was brought before parliament in 1825, and 
frequently since ; which led to the passing of im- 
portant acts in 1852, 1853, 1855, 1858, and 1867, to 
amend the practice in the court of chancery. See 
Accountant, County Courts, and Supreme Court, 
Berkeley. 

The Chancery division of the high court of 
justice now consists of the lord chancellor and six 
judges, an additional judge, sir G. Farwell, having 
been appointed, Oct. 1899. The chancery taxing 
office, the bankruptcy and other taxing depart- 
ments, amalgamated with the central office, 11 Jan. 
1902. 
Chancery forgery case, see under Trials, 4 Feb. 1888. 

CHANDOS CLAUSE, see Counties. 

CHANNEL ISLANDS, a group about 80 
miles south of England, see Jersey, §c. 

CHANNEL STEAMERS, see under Steam. 

CHANNEL TUNNEL COMPANY, regis- 
tered 15 Jan. 1872; see Tunnels. 
The construction of a channel bridge from Dover to 
Calais was proposed in Paris, 1889, by MM. 
Schneider and Hersent, and sir John Fowler and 
Mr. (afterwards sir Benjamin) Baker, and dis- 
cussed in i8qo. 
M. Bunau Varilla, of Paris, engineer, publishes his 
plans for a mode of communication between 
Dover and Calais, consisting of a pier or viaduct 
half a mile long, on each side connected by a 
tunnel, and estimated cost io,ooo,oooL . May, 1890 
Sir E. J. Reed proposed the construction of a 

tubular railway, above the bed of the sea . 1890-1 
In relation to a proposed Channel bridge, a new 
survey of the Straits of Dover was undertaken ; 
a report on the scheme was published 26 Dec. . 1890 
Meeting held ; no further development announced, 

2 Dec. 1902 
CHANTING is attributed to Ambrose, about 
386. About 602, Gregory the Great added tones to 
the Ambrosian chant, "and established singing 
schools. M. Gevaet, of Brussels, in Oct. 1889, 
asserted that this statement is legendary and that 
it was Gregory III. (731-741) who made the 
change. Chanting was adopted by some dissenters 
about 1859. 

John Marbeck's " Book of Common Praier noted "(1559) 

is the first adaptation of the ancient Latin music to 

the Reformed Church; Clilford's " Common Tunes " 

for chanting, 1664. 

The Plains..!!- and Medieval Music Society was founded 

in 1888. 
"The 8a rum Gradual and the Gregorian Antiphonale 
Missarum," edited by \V. H. Krere, 1896. 

CHANTREY LEGACY, see Royal Aca- 
demy. 

CHANTRY, a chapel endowed with revenue 
for priests to sing mass for the souls of the donors; 



CHAPEL. 



247 



CHAEITIES. 



see Chanting. Chantries were abolished in England 
in 1545- 

CHAPEL. There are free chapels, chapels of 
ease, the chapel royal, &c. Cowell. The gentlemen 
pensioners (formerly poor knights of Windsor, who 
were instituted by the direction of Henry VIII. in 
his testament, 1546-7) were called knights of the 
chapel; see Poor Knights of Windsor. — The Private 
Chapels Act passed 14 Aug. 1871. The place of con- 
ference among printers, and the conference itself, 
are by them called a chapel, it is said, because the 
first work printed in England by Caxton was exe- 
cuted in a ruined chapel in We>tminster-abbey. 

CHAPLAIN, a clergyman who performs divine 
service in a chapel, for a prince or nobleman. About 
seventy chaplains are attached to the chapel royal. 
The chief personages invested with the privilege of 
retaining chaplains are the following, with the 
number that was originally allotted to each rank, 
by 21 Hen. VIII. c. 13 (1529) : — 



Archbishop. . . . 8 
Duke . ... 6 
Bishop . . . . 6 
Marquis . . . .5 

Earl. 5 

Viscount . . . .4 

Baron 3 

Chancellor . . .3 



Knight of the Garter 
Duchess . 
Marchioness 
Countess . 
Baroness 

Master of the Rolls 
Royal Almoner 
Chief Justice 



CHAPLETS, the string of beads used by the 
Roman Catholics in reciting the Lord's prayer, Ave 
Maria, &c. ; see Beads. 

CHAPTER. Anciently the bishop and clergy 
lived in the cathedral, the latter to assist the former 
in performing holy offices and governing the church, 
until the reign of Henry VIII. The chapter is now 
an assembly of the clergy of a collegiate church or 
cathedral. Cowell. The chapter-house of West- 
minster-abbey was built in 1 250. By consent of 
the abbot, the commoners of England held their 
parliaments there from 1377 until 1547, when 
Edward VI. granted them the chapel of St. Stephen. 

CHAE-ASIAB, the heights before Cabul; 
held by Afghan mutineers, were gallantly carried 
by general Baker, with the 72nd Highlanders and 
5th Ghoorkas, 6 Oct. 1879. The enemy was totally 
defeated with severe loss. Capt. Young, Dr. 
Duncan, and lieut. Fergusson were killed, and 
about 70 of the British force killed and wounded. 
Thu British were falsely accused of cruelty after the 
victory. 

CHARCOAL AIR-FILTERS were devised 
by Dr. John Stenhouse, F.R.S., in 1853. About 
the end of the last century Lbwitz, a German 
chemist, discovered that charcoal (carbon) possessed 
the property of deodorising putrid substances, by 
absorbing and decomposing otfensive gases. Air- 
filters, based on this property, have been success- 
fully applied to public buildings, sewers, &c. Dr. 
Stenhouse also invented charcoal respirators. See 
Fireman's Respirators. 

CHARING CROSS. At the village of Charing 
stood the last of the memorial crosses ereeted in 
memory of Eleanor, queen of Edward I., in con- 
formity with her will. She died, 28 Nov. 1290. 
The cross remained till 1647, when it was destroyed 
as a monument of popish superstition. The present 
cross was erected for the South Eastern railway 
company in 1865 by Mr. E. M. Barry. The houses 
at Charing-cross were built about 1678; alterations 
began in 1829. The first stone of Charing-cross 
hospital was laid by the duke of Su-sex, 15 Sept. 
1831. Hungerford-bridge (or Charing-cross bridge) 



was opened 1 May, 1845 ; taken down July, 1862, 
and the materials employed 111 erecting Clifton sus- 
pension bridge, beginning March, 1863; sue Clifton. 
— Charing-cross Railway. The first train passed 
over it, 2 Dec. 1863, and it was opened to the public 
on 11 Jan. 1864. The new railway bridge, built 
of iron with brick piers, was constructed by Mr. 
(aft. sir John) Hawkshaw. The foot-bridge was 
opened toll free 5 Oct. 1878. Pleistocene fossils 
found in excavations for Drummond's banking 
house : cave lion, mammoth, Irish deer, rhinoceros, 
&c. Autumn, 1882. 
Charing - cross - road, from Tottenham-court-road to 

Charing-cross, was opened by the duke of Cambridge, 

26 Feb. 1887. 

CHARIOTS are frequently mentioned in the 
Bible, those of Joseph are mentioned Gen. 1. 9, B.C. 
1689. Chariot-racing was a Greek exercise. War- 
chariots were effectively used by the Gauls in Italy. 
Caesar relates that Cassivelaunus, after dismissing, 
his other forces, retained no fewer than 4000 war- 
chariots about his person ; see Carriages, &c. 

CHARITABLE BEQUESTS, &c. Boards, 
for their recovery were constituted in 1764 and 
1800, and a board for Ireland (chiefly prelates 
of the established church), in 1825. The Roman. 
Catholic Charitable Bequests Act passed in 1844, 
and an act for the better administration of Chari- 
table Trusts in 1853, when commissioners were ap- 
pointed, who have from time to time published 
voluminous reports. Amendment acts were parsed 
1855 and 1871. 1,200,0002. bequeathed 1892; 
1,390,136^., 1899; 2,016,6002., 1900; 1,926,850^., 
1901 ; 4,443,2002., 1902. 

CHARITABLE BRETHREN, an order 
founded by St. John of God, and approved by pope 
Pius V. 1572 ; introduced into France 1601 ; settled 
at Paris, 1602. Henault. 

CHARITABLE FUNDS INVESTMENT 

ACT passed, 1 Aug. 1870. 

CHARITABLE LOANS (Ireland) act 
passed, 30 July, 1900. 

CHARITABLE RELIEF, society for or- 
ganizing, established about 1867. There are 40 
offices, where applications are received and inquiries 
made (1889). Reported successful, 188 1, in which 
year about 14,000 persons were assisted. Annual 
meetings held ; 23,603 new cases dealt with ; 
1,089 persons in receipt of pensions in 1895 ; 
14,555 applications; about 50,0002. expended in 
relief 1902. A conference of representatives of 
this and similar societies was held at Oxford on I, 2 
Oct. 1890. See Mendicity, Charity Organisation 
Society. 

CHARITABLE TRUSTEES' INCOR- 
PORATION ACT passed, 27 June, 1872. 

CHARITABLE TRUSTS ACTS, 1853-69, 
amended in 1887 and 1894. 

CHARITABLE USES, statute of, 43 Eliz. 
c. 4 (1601), passed " to redresse the misemployment 
of landes, goodes, and stockes of money, heretofore 
given to charitable uses." The law respecting the 
conveyance of land for charitable uses was amended 
in 1861. 

CHARITIES and CHARITY SCHOOLS, 

see Education. The Charity Commission reported 
to parliament that the endowed charities alone of 
Great Britain amounted to 1,500,0002. annually in 
1840. Charity schools were instituted in London to 



CHAEITY CHILDREN. 



248 



CHARTER-HOUSE. 



prevent the seduction of the infant poor into Roman 
Catholic seminaries, 3 James II., 1687-8. Mr. Low's 
"Charities of London" was published 1862, and 
frequently since (1903). Mr. W. F. Howe's 
" Classified Directory to the Metropolitan Chari- 
ties," published annually, 187; et seq. The house 
of lords, on appeal in a special case (the Moravian 
Brethren), decide that religious and charitable 
societies are exempt from income tax, 20 July, 1891. 

First charity commission originated by Mr. (after- 
wards lord) Brougham in 1816, appointed in 
1818 ; issued reports in 38 vols, (income of chari- 
ties, 1,209,395?.) 1819-40 

New commissioners appointed 1853 ; office, Gwy- 
dyr house, Whitehall; powers increased . . i860 

A meeting was held at the Mansion house, London, 
to consider objections to charity electioneering, 
without immediate result ... 30 Oct. 1873 

Additional commissioners appointed through abo- 
lition of the Endowed Schools commission . . 1874 

The Charity Voting association held its first 
annual meeting 18 Feb. 1875 

The Metropolitan charities receivedabout3, 195,181/. 
in 1874 ; 4,114,489/. in 1875 ; 4,447,436/. in 1884 ; 
4,918,652/. in 1889-90 ; 5,638,270/. in 1896-7 ; 
6,431,062/. in 1990-01. 

The Charity Commissioners' scheme for the Camp- 
den estates, Kensington ; much opposed ; con- 
firmed by Chancery .... 27 May, 1881 

The earl of Shaftesbury, who died 1 Oct. 1885, and 
lord Kinnaird, who died 26 April, 1887, were 
eminent supporters of philanthropic institutions. 

The City of London Parochial Charities Act, jiassed 
20 Aug. 1883, places the parochial charities at the 
disposal of "the Charity Commissioners ; they re- 
commended theapplication of the funds of the City 
Parochial Charities (about 50,000/. a year) to the 
general benefit of the poor of London . .Sept. 1887 

Their scheme issued Sept., which was opposed by 
the London County Council . . . . Dec. 1889 

Mr. Henry Quinn bequeaths 50,000!. to London 
charities 1888 

Gross income of parochial charities in 1879-80, 
London, 116,960/. ; Westminster, 33,173/. 

Resolution in the commons passed, recommending 
parliamentary control over the Charity commis- 
sion, 30 March, 1894; a select committee of the 
Commons on the working of the Charity com- 
mission sat May, 1894 ; another resolution 
stopped, 23 April, 1895 ; the annual report shows 
that they held intrust 18 J millions sterling, end of 
1897 — total : 21,616,912'. ... 31 Dec. 1901 

Mr. Alfred Marriott, died 28 July, bequeaths 
250,000?. to charities, 1896 ; Mr. Edw. Mackeson 
bequeaths about 100,000/., 12 March, 1898; Mrs. 
Marian Leigh, of Halifax, bequeaths over 29,000/. 
to various institutions, announced . 26 April, 1900 

Sir H. Barron bequeaths 27,000/. to benefiting 
institutions in London and Ireland . Dec. „ 

Mr. 8. Lewis bequeaths about 1,000,000/. to hos- 
pitals and charities .... mid Jan. 1901 

Mr. V. T. Freeman bequeaths 120,000/. (estimated) 

3 Feb. 1902 
Mr. C. fiassiot bequeaths about 421,000/. to hos- 
pitals and charities .... 16 May, ,, 
Mr. li. Stokes bequeaths in all about 60,000/. to 
King's College hospital, announced . 29 Jan. 1903 

See also CanCI '■ Research and Hospitals. 

CHARITY CHILDREN of London ; meet- 
ings began at SI. Andrew's, llolboril, I 704 ; held at 
other churches ill 1801 and since at St. Paul's, 
with intermissions; no meeting in 1878 and since, 
the erections interfering with the ordinary services. 

CHARITY ORGANISATION SOCIETY, 

SCO under Poof. 

CHA1M VAKI (French for " clattering of pots 
and pans," &c, noise made to annoy obnoxious 
persons), the name assumed bj the French illus- 
trated satirical journal, first published 1 Dec. 
iS^j, edited by Louis Desnoyers, Altaroche, and 
Albert Clerc, Among the artists were " Cham." a 



name taken by the comte de Noe, who contributed 
from 1842 till his death, 6 Sept. 1879. See 1'unch, 
"the London Charivari." 

CHARLEROI, in Belgium; fortified and 
named by the Spanish governor Eodrigo, 1666. 
Several great battles have been fought near this 
town, especially in 1690 and 1794; see Fleurus. 
Charleroi was besieged by the prince of Orange, 
1672 and 1677 ; but he was soon obliged to retire. 
Near here, at Ligny, Napoleon attacked the Prus- 
sian line, making it fall back upon "Wavres, 16 June, 
1815. 

CHARLES-ET-GEORGES, a French ves- 
sel, professedly conveying free African emigrants 
(but really slaves), seized by the Portuguese, in 
Conducia bay, 29 Nov. 1857, sent to Lisbon, and 
condemned as a slaver. The French government 
sent two ships of war to the Tagus, and the vessel 
was surrendered under protest ; but the emperor of 
France gave up the free emigration scheme. 

CHARLESTON (South Carolina), founded by 
people from old Charlestown, 1680. The English 
fleet here was repulsed with great loss, 28 June, 
1776. It was besieged by the British troops at the 
latter end of March, 1780, and surrendered 13 May 
following with 6000 prisoners ; it was evacuated, 
14 Dec. 1782. Great commotion arose herein Nov. 
i860, through the election of Mr. Lincoln for the 
presidency, he being opposed to slavery. On 
12, 13 April, 1861, the war began by the confede- 
rates bombarding Fort Sumter ; see United States. 
In Dec. 1861, the federals sank a number of vessels 
laden with stone in order to choke up the entrance 
to Charleston harbour. Unsuccessful attacks were 
made on Charleston by the federals between April, 
1863, and 17 Feb. 1865, when the confederates were 
compelled to retire ; and the federals replaced their 
standard on fort Sumter, 14 April, the day on which 
president Lincoln was assassinated. 
About three-fourths of the city destroyed by an earth- 
quake, 10 p.m. 31 Aug. 1S86 ; 96 persons killed. 
Population, 1890, 54,955 ; 1900, 55,807. 

CHARLESTOWN (Massachusetts) was burnt 
by the British forces under general Gage, 17 June, 
1775. Charlestown taken by the British, 7 May, 1779. 

"CHARTE CONSTITUTIONNELLE," 

the French political constitution acknowledged by 
Louis XVIII., 4-10 June, 1814. The infraction of 
this constitution led to the revolution of 1830. The 
amended " Charte " was promulgated by Louis 
Philippe, 14 Aug. 1830; and set aside by the revo- 
lution of 1848. 

CHARTER-HOUSE (a corruption of Chart- 
reuse, which see), London, formerly a Carthusian 
monastery, founded in 137 1 by sir Walter de Manny, 
one of the knights of Edward III., now an extensive 
charitable establishment. The last prior, John 
Houghton, was executed as a traitor, for denying 
the king's supremacy, in May, 1535. After the 
dissolution of monasteries in 1539, the charter- 
house passed through various hands till I Nov. 
161 1, when it was sold by the earl of Suffolk to 
Thomas Sutton for 13,000/., who obtained letters 
patent directing that it should be called " the hos- 
pital of king James, founded in the Charter-house," 
and that " there should be for ever 16 governors," 
&c. On the foundation are So poor brothers and 
44 poor scholars. Sutton died, 12 Dec. 1611. The 
expenditure for 1853-4 was 22,396/. ; the receipts, 
28,908/.; receipts in 1885, 30,364/. This school 
was affected by the Public Schools Act, 1868. In 
Sept. 1872, the school was opened in new buildings, 



CHAETEE-PAETY. 



249 



CHATHAM. 



at Godalming, Surrey. The old buildings, adapted 
for the Merchant Taylors' (day) school, were 
opened by the prince of "Wales, 6 April, 1875. 
The buildings for the poor " brethren " were 
also modified, and in Nov. entirely new arrange- 
ments for them were proposed. Bill proposing 
removal of the "brethren" (55), who are to 
become annuitants with additions; and erection 
of buildings on the site of the old buildings 
and land (four acres), a total reversal of 
Sutton's will, introduced; opposed; withdrawn 
7 May, 1886. The " Charter-house past and 
present," by Dr. Wm. Haig Brown, head master, 
published 1879. 

CHAETEE-PAETY,. a covenant between 
merchants and masters of ships relating to the ship 
and cargo, said to have been first used in England 
about 1243. 

CHAETEES, granted to corporate towns to 
protect their manufactures by Henry I. in 1132; 
modified by Charles II. in 1683; the ancient charters 
restored in 1698. Alterations were made by the 
Municipal Reform Act in 1835. See Magna Charta 
and Boroughs. Ancient Anglo-Saxon charters are 
printed in Kemble's "Codex Diplomaticus," 1829. 

CHAETISTS, the name assumed by large 
bodies of the lower classes, shortly after the passing 
of the Reform Bill in 1832, from their demanding 
the people's Charter,* the six points of which were 
Universal Suffrage, Vote by Ballot, Annual Parlia- 
ments, Payment of the Members, the abolition of the 
Property Qualification (which was enacted, June, 
1858), and Equal Electoral Districts. In 1838 the 
ehartists assembled in various parts of the country, 
armed with guns, pikes, and other weapons, and 
carrying torches and flags. A proclamation was 
issued against them, 12 Dec. Their petition (agreed 
to at Birmingham, 6 Aug. 1838) was presented to 
parliament by Mr. T. Attwood, 14 June, 1839. 
They committed great outrages at Birmingham, 
15 July, 1839, and at Newport {which see), 4 Nov. 
1839. They held for some time a sort of parliament 
called the "National Convention," the leading 
men being Feargus O'Connor, Henry Vincent, Mr. 
Stephens, &c. On 10 April, 1848, they proposed to 
hold a meeting of 200,000 men on Kennington- 
common, London, to march thence in procession to 
Westminster, and present a petition to parliament ; 
but only about 20,000 came. The bank and other 
establishments were fortified by military, preventive 
measures adopted, and not less than 150,000 persons 
of all ranks (including Louis Napoleon, afterwards 
emperor) were voluntarily sworn to act as special 
constables. The chartists dispersed after slight en- 
counters with the police, and the monster petition, 
in detached rolls, was sent in cabs to the house of 
commons. From this time the proceedings of the 
chartists became insignificant. 

CHAETEEUSE, La Grande, chief of the 

monasteries of the Carthusian order, situated among 
the rugged mountains near Grenoble, in France, 
was founded by Bruno of Cologne, about 1084. At 
the revolution in 1792, the monks were expelled and 
their valuable library destroyed. They returned to 
the monastery after the restoration of 1815. In 
Nov. 1880 they declined to accept indulgence from 
the decrees for expelling the religious orders from 
France. The monks of the Grande Chartreuse 
locked themselves in their fortress and awaited 
expulsion by force. This took place on the 29th 
April, 1903. 

* Wm. Lovett, its alleged author, died Aug. 1877. 



CHAETS AND MAPS. Anaximander of. 
Miletus is said to have been the inventor of geo- 
graphical and celestial charts, about 570 B.C. 
Modern sea-charts were brought to England by 
Bartholomew Columbus to illustrate his brother's 
theory respecting a western continent, 1489. The 
first tolerably accurate map of England was drawn 
by George Lilly, who died in 1559. Gerard Mer- 
cator published an atlas of maps in 1595; see 
Mercator. The daily papers published in their 
columns maps illustrating the wars of 1870-1, 
1876-7, &c. 

Atlases. Ab.Ortelius, Epitome Theatri PriBcipuarum Orbis 
Regionum Delineationes, &c, 1595. J. Speed, "Pro- 
spect, &c, of the world and of Great Britain's Em- 
pire," 1646. J. B. D'Anville, Atlas, 1761-1807. W. 
Faeden, "General Atlas," 1790. A. Arrowsmith, 
" Comparative Atlas," 1828. Maps of the Society for 
the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, 1844-56. A. K. 
Johnston," Physical Atlas," 1849; "Royal Atlas," 1861 
and 1878. Stanford's "London Atlas of Geography," 
1887; "The Times Atlas," 1896, and many others. 
Rand, M'Nally & Co.'s " Indexed Atlas of the World," 
Chicago and New York, autumn 1892. Scheme for a 
map of the world, on a uniform scale of 1 — 1, 000,00c, 
proposed by prof. A. Penck, of Vienna, 1891 ; maps on 
this scale since published by the Royal Geographical 
Society of parts of Africa, Asia, etc. The Howard 
Vincent map of the British Empire, reduced edition 
for use in barrack rooms and lower decks of H.M. 
ships, club rooms, &c, pub. by W. & A. K. Johnston, 
1903. 

CHASSEPOT EIFLE, a modified needle, 
gun, and a breech-loader (named after its inventor, 
Alphonse Chassepot), adopted by the French 
governmentin 1866. In April, 1867, 10,000 had been 
issued to the troops. In his report on the battle of 
Mentana {which see), 3 Nov. 1867, gen. De Failly 
said, "The chassepot has done wonders." It was 
generally considered successful in the war, 1870-1. 
"The range of the chassepot being 1800 paces, and 
that of the needle-gun only between 600 and 700, 
the Germans in all their charges had to traverse 
1200 paces before their arms could be used to pur- 
pose." Many Germans were armed with the chasse- 
pot after the surrender of the French army at Sedan, 
2 Sept. 1870. 

CHATEAUDUN, an old city, N. C. France, 
the residence of the heroic Dunois, who died 1468. 
Here were massacred, 20 July, 1 183, about 7000 
Brabanqons, fanatic mercenaries who had been hired 
to exterminate the Albigenses by the cardinal 
Henry, abbot of Clairvaux, in 1181. They had 
become the scourge of the country, and the " Capu- 
chons " were organised for their destruction. Cha- 
teaudun was captured by the Germans after a 
severe conflict of about nine hours, 18 Oct. 1870. 
Barricades had been erected in the town, and the 
Garde Mobile fought bravely. The town was re- 
occupied by the French, 6 Nov. 

CHATHAM (Kent), a principal station of the 
royal navy; the dockyard, commenced by queen 
Elizabeth, has been greatly extended. The 
Chatham Chest, for the relief of the wounded and 
decayed seamen, originally established here by 
the queen and admirals Drake and Hawkins, in 
1588, was removed to Greenwich in 1803. On 
10 June, 1667, the Dutch fleet, under admiral De 
Ruyter, sailed up to this town, and burnt several 
men-of-war ; but the entrance into the Medway is 
now defended by Sheerness and other forts, and 
additional fortifications were made at Chatham. 
On 8-1 1 Feb. 1861, a violent outbreak of the convicts 
was suppressed by the military, and many rioters 
flogged. About wool, worth of property was de- 
stroyed, and many persons were seriously hurt. 



CHATHAM ADMINISTRATION. 250 



CHELTENHAM. 



New docks and a basin, said to be the largest and 
finest in the world, opened by Mr. Goschen, 21 
June, 1871. Additional docks completed, 1883. 
New municipal buildings opened by lord Hosebery, 
23 Jan. 1900. Theatre Royal, opened July, 1897, 
burnt down, estimated damage 30,000/., 16 May, 
1900. Naval barracks, erected at cost of 500,000?., 
completed, 30 April, 1903 ; see Navy,£o\- launch of 
battleship-. Pop. in 1891, 31,711; 1901,35,659. 

CHATHAM ADMINISTRATION,* suc- 
ceeded the first Rockingham administration in Aug. 
1766: after several changes it terminated Dec. 
1767. See Grafton. 

Earl of Chatham, first minister and lord privy seal. 
Duke of Grafton, first lord, of the treasury. 
Lord Camden, lord chancellor. 
Charles Townshend, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Earl of Northington, lord president. 
Earl of Shelburne and general Conway, secretaries of state. 
Sir Charles Saunders (succeeded by Sir Edward Hawke), 

admiralty. 
Marquis of Granby, ordnance. 
Lord Hillsborough, first lord of trade. 
Viscount Barrington, secretary at war. 
Lord North and sir George Cooke, joint paymasters. 
Viscount Howe, treasurer of the navy. 
Duke of Ancaster, lord le Despencer, &c. 

CHATILLON (on the Seine, France). Here 
a congress was held by the four great powers allied 
against France, at which Caulaincourt attended for 
Napoleon, 4 Feb. 1814 : the negotiations for peace 
were broken off on 19 March following. 

CHAT MOSS (Lancashire), a peat bog, twelve 
miles square, in most places so soft as to be in- 
capable of supporting a man or horse, over which 
George Stephenson, the railway engineer, carried 
the Liverpool and Manchester railway, after over- 
coming difficulties considered invincible. The road 
(literally a floating one) was completed by 1 Jan. 
1830, when the first experimental train, drawn by 
the Rocket locomotive, passed over it. See Bogs. 

CHATTANOOGA (Tennessee). Near here 
the federal generals, Sherman and Thomas, de- 
feated the confederate general Brag?, after storming 
the entrenchments, 24-25 Nov. 1863. Bragg re- 
treated into Georgia, and Longstreet into Virginia. 

CHAUMONT (on the Marne, France), Treaty 
of, entered into between Great Britain, Austria, 
Russia, and Prussia, 1 March, 1814. This treaty 
was succeeded by that of Paris, 1 1 April, by which 
Napoleon renounced his sovereignty ; see Paris. 

CHAUVINISM, a term said to be derived 
from Chmvin, the principal character in Scribe's 
" Soldat Laboureur," a veteran soldier of the first 
empire, filled with intense admiration for Napoleon 
and for all that belonged to him. Scribe was born 
24 Dec. 1794, died 20 Feb. 1861. 

CHEAP TRAINS ACT, 7 & 8 Vict. c. 85, 

1844. Another act passed, A."g. 1883 ; still (1903) 
the governing statute. See Railways. 

CHEATS were punishable by pillory, impri- 
sonment, and fine, and a rigorous statute was 

* William Pitt, earl of Chatham (the "great commoner "), 
born 15 Nov. 1708, entered parliament in 1735; became 
secretary of state (virtually the premier) in the Devon- 
shire administration, Nov. 1756, secretary in the New- 
castle administration, Jan. 1757. in 1766 he became 
premier, lord prh v seal, and afterwards earl of Chatham, 
which lord Chesterlleld calledoyiiW upstairs. Beopposed 
the taxation of the American colonies, bul protested 

against the r ignition of then- Independence, 7 April, 

1778, and died n May following. 



enacted against them in 1542. Persons cheating at 
play, or winning at any time more than 10/. or any 
valuable thing, were deemed infamous, and were to 
suffer punishment as in cases of perjury, 9 Anne, 
1 7 1 1 . Blackstone. , 

CHEE-FOO CONVENTION, see China, 
1876. 

CHEESE is mentioned by Aristotle, about 
350 B.C. It is supposed by Camden and others that 
the English learned cheese-making from the Romans. 
W ilts, G loucester, and Cheshire make vast quantities . 
In 1 140 we imported from abroad about 10,000 tons ; 
in 1855, 384,192 cwt. ; 1866,872,342 cwt. ; 1870, 
1,041,281 cwt. ; 1876, 1,531,204 cwt ; 1881, 
1,840,090 cwt.; 1887, i,836,78c)cwt.; 1890,2,244,974 
cwt.; 1893, 2,077,462 cwt.; 1896, 2,244,525 cwt. ; 
[899, 2,384,069 cwt.; 1900. 2,705,878 cwt; 1901, 
2,586,837 cwt. ; 1902, 2,546,384 cwt. Exported: 
1876, 17,411 cwt. ; 1880, 11,903 cwt. ; 1885, 
12.708 cwt. ; 1890, 12,211 cwt. ; 1893, 10,917 cwt. ; 
1896, 10,333 cwt. ; 1902, 51,863 cwt. The duty 
on foreign cheese, producing annually about 50,000/. , 
was taken off in i860. 
The Cheddar system of cheese-making, named after a 

village in Somersetshire, has been largely adopted in 

the British colonies and the United States during the 

present century. 

CHELSEA (Middlesex). A council held here 
27 July, 816. Nicolas. A theological college here, 
founded by James I. in 1609, was converted by 
Charles II. in 1682 to an asylum for wounded and 
superannuated soldiers. The erection was carried 
on by James II., and completed by William III. in 
1690. The projector was sir Stephen Fox, grand- 
father of the 01 ator C. J. Fox ; the architect was sir 
Christopher Wren ; and the cost 150,000/. In 1850 
there were 70. 000 out- and 539 in-pemioners.— 
The physic garden of sir Hans Sloane, at Chelsea, 
was given to the Apothecaries' company, 1 721. — The 
Chelsea waterworks were incorporated, 1722. — The 
first stone of the Military Asylum, Chelsea, was laid 
by Frederick duke of York, 19 June, 1801. — The 
bridge, constructed by Mr. T. Page to connect Chelsea 
with Battersea-park, was opened March, 1858. The 
Chelsea embankment was opened by the duke and 
duchess of Edinburgh, 9 May, 1874. See Trials, 
July, 1870 and 1872. Cremorne public gardens 
closed, 1877. The Albert-bridge was opened 31 
Dec. 1872 ; both freed from toll, 24 May, 1879. 
The parliamentary borough of Chelsea, created by 
the Reform act, 15 Aug. 1867, consisted of Chelsea, 
Kensington, Fulham, and Hammersmith. By the 
act of 1855, Chelsea alone returns 1 member. The 
Chelsea Savings Bank suspended payment; lia- 
bilities to be sustained by trustees, 18' Jan. 1890. 
Free library opened by earl Cadog.m, 21 Jan. 1891. 
Thos. Carlvlc's house, Cheyne-row, opened as a 
museum, with personal relics, 26 July, 1895. 
New drill-hall opened by the prince of Wales, 
16 May, 1902 ; Chelsea physic garden opened by 
lord Cadogan, 25 July, 1902. Population, 1881, 
88,128 ; 1891, 96,272 ; 1901, 73,856. 

CHELTENHAM (Gbu, estershire). Its cele- 
brated mineral spring was discovered in 1718. 
The king's well was sunk' in 1778; and other wells 
by Mr. P. Thompson in 1806. Magnesian salt was 
tirsl found in the waters in 1811. The theatre was 
erected in 1804 Ciran.mir school and almshouses, 
endowed by Richard Pates, 1574. Cheltenham was 
incorporated, [876. Population, 1881, 43,972; 
ts,)i, 42.914; 1901, 49439. 

Cheltenham College was founded in 1841, mainly by 
Mr. George Simon Harcourt and rapt. James Shrubb 
Tredell for a classical, mathematical, and general 



CHEMICAL SOCIETIES. 



251 



CHESAPEAKE. 



education in strict conformity with the principles of 
the church of England ; among the pupils have been 
Lord Plunket, archbishop of Dublin, sir Henry James, 
aft. lord James of Hereford, prince Alamayn, son of 
Theodore negus of Abyssinia, prince Louis Napoleon, 
and prince Francis of Teck. The college was visited, 
and the prizes distributed, by llie duke of Cambridge ; 
29 June, 1883 ; and by the duchess of Teck, 28 June, 
1886 ; incorporated 1894 

Art gallery, the gift of the baron de Ferrieres, 
with his fine collection of Dutch and Belgian 
pictures, opened 26 Oct. 1809 

Princess Henry of Battenberg unveils a bust of 
queen Victoria by the countess Feodora Gleichen ■ 
at the Ladies' college ... 16 Nov. ,, 

CHEMICAL SOCIETIES. One formed in 
London in 1780 did not long continue. The 
present Chemical society of London was established 
in 1841 (jubilee celebrated at Burlington house, 24 
Feb. 1891) [Mr. J. J. Tustin gave 1,000 guineas 
to the society's Research fund, Jan. 1897], banquet 
to past presidents, prof. Dewar in the chair, II 
Nov. 1898 ; that of Paris in 1857 ; that of Germany 
at Berlin, 1867; that of America, 1876. The Insti- 
tute of Chemistry of Great Britain formed, pro- 
fessor Edward Frankland first president, 1877 (died 
9 Aug. 1899) ! nr3t meeting, j Feb. 1878 ; char- 
tered, Oct. 1885. Chemical Industry Society 
founded 4 April, 1881. 

CHEMICAL EESEABCH LABOEA- 
TOEIES founded by Mr. Henry S. "Wellcome, 
in King-street, Snow-hill, for investigations in pure 
and applied chemistry; opened, 18 June, 1900. 

CHEMICAL UNION of manufacturers of 
bleaching powders, alkalies, &c. , was projected 
July, 1890. The union, named the united alkali 
company, advertised shares for sale to the amount 
of 1,256,000^., Feb. 1891. 

CHEMICAL WOEKS. Royal commission 
appointed to inquire into the management of 
chemical works, to ascertain the effect of gases and 
vapours given off, an I the means of prevention : 
the commissioners were lord Aberdare, earl Percy: 
professors Abel, A. "Williamson, Roscoe, and others, 
18 July, 1876. In their report, issued Aug. 1878, 
they recommended increased inspection and more 
stringent regulations. See Alkalies. 

CHEMISTEY was introduced into Spain by 
the Moors, about 1150. The Egyptians and Chinese 
claim an early acquaintance with chemistry. The 
first chemists were the Alchemists (see Alchemy) ; 
but chemistry was not a science till the 17th 
century ; during which its study was promoted by 
Bacon, Hooke, Mayow, and Bojde. In the early 
part of the 18th century, Dr. Stephen Hales laid the 
foundation of Pneumatic Chemistry, and his con- 
temporary Boerhaave combined the study of 
chemistry with medicine. These were succeeded 
by Bergman, Stahl, Black, &c. In 1772, Priestley 
published his researches on air, having discovered 
the gases oxygen, ammonia, &c. ; and thus com- 
menced a new chemical era. He w;is ably seconded 
by Cavendish, Scheele, Lavoisier, Chaptal, and 
others. The 19th century opened with the brilliant 
discoveries of Davy, continued by Dalton, Faraday, 
Thomson, &c. Organic Chemist) y has been very 
greatly advanced by Berzelius, Liebig, Dumas, 
Laurent, Hofmann, Cahours, Frankland, William- 
son,* and others, since 1830; see Pharmacy, Elec- 

* In 1828 Wdhler produced artificially urea, a body 
hitherto known only as a product of the animal organ- 
ism. Since then, acetic acid, alcohol, grape sugar, 
various essential oils, similar to those of the pine-apple, 
pear, garlic, <&c, have been formed by combinations of 



tricity, Galvanism. For the analytical processes 
termed '■'■Spectrum analysis," invented by Kirchboff 
and Bunsen (1861), and "■Dialysis" (1861), and 
" Atmolysis" (1863), invented by Mr. T. Graham, 
see those articles. — The Royal College of Chemistry, 
Ox ford -street, London, was established in 1845 ( now " 
at South Kensington) — Henry Watts' great "Dic- 
tionary of Chemistry," begun 1863, has supple- 
ments; new edition, 1890-94; he died 30 June, 
1884. M. Ad. Wurtz's equally great " Dictionnaire 
de Chimie," 1868-85. Prof.'T. E. Thorpe's Dic- 
tionary of Applied Chemistry, 1890-93. Von Meyer, 
"A History of Chemistry," 1892. Eighth internat. 
congress of applied chemistry at Berlin, 4 June, 1903. 

CHEQUE BANK, opened in Pall Mall East, 
23 July, 1873. I* issued cheques for sums from 
it. upwards to suit persons not having a banker. 
The plan was due to Mr. James Hertz. He died 
23 Feb. 1880. The bank is now (1903) in liquida- 
tion, owing to extensive forgeries of its cheques. 

CHEQUES, see Drafts. 

CHEEBOUEG, the great naval fortress and 
arsenal of France on the coast of Brittany, about 
60 or 70 miles equi-distant from Portsmouth and 
Plymouth. It was captured by our Henry V. in 
1418, and lost in 1450. Under the direction of 
Louis XIV., some works were erected here by the 
great Vauban, which with some shipping, &c, were 
destroyed by the British, 6, 7 Aug. 1758. The 
work--, resumed by Louis XVI., were interrupted by 
the revolution. The breakwater, commenced in 
1783, resumed by Napoleon I. about 1803, and com- 
pleted in 1813, forms a secure harbour, affording 
anchorage for nearly the whole navy of France, and 
protected by strong fortifications. On 4, 5 Aug. 
1858, the railway and the Grand Napoleon docks 
were opened, the latter in the presence of the 
queen of England and court. The British fleet 
visited Cherbourg, 15-17 Aug. 1865, receiving much ' 
hospitality. Presidents Grevy, Leon Say, and 
Gambetta visit Cherbourg ; launch of a man-of- 
war, &c, 8- [I Aug. 1880; visit of president 
Loubet, 18 July, 1900. 

CHEEITON DOWN (Hants). Here sir ¥m. 
Waller defeated the royalists under lord Hopton, 
29 March, 1644. 

CHEEEY, the Primus eerasus (from Cerasus, 
a city of Pontus, whence the tree was brought by 
Lucullus to Rome, about 70 B.C.), first planted in 
Britain, it is said, about 100. Fine kinds were 
brought from Flanders, in 1540, and planted in 
Kent. 

CHEESON, see Kherson. 

CHEESONESUS, see Crimea. 

CHESAPEAKE. At the mouth of this river 
a contest took place between the British admiral 
Graves and the French admiral De Grasse aiding 
the revolted states of America; the former was 
obliged to retire, 5 Sept. 1781. The Chesapeake and 
Delaware were blockaded by the British fleet in the 
American war of 1812, and the bay was, at that 
period, the scene of great hostilities of various 
results. 

Chesapeake, an American frigate, in Boston bay, com- 
manded by capt. Lawrence (50 guns, 376 men), struck 
to the Shannon, British frigate (38 guns, 330 men) com- 
manded by capt. Philip Vere Broke, after a severe 

the gases, oxygen, hydrogen, and carbonic acid. The 
barrier formed by chemists between organic and inorganic 
bodies is thus broken down. Indigo artificially formed 
by Bayer, 1878. 



CHESHUNT COLLEGE. 



252 



CHICAGO. 



action of eleven minutes, i June, 1813. Eleven minutes 
■elapsed between the firing of the first gun and the 
boarding, and in four minutes more the Chesapeake was 
the Shannon's prize. Capt. Lawrencedied of his wounds. 
Adm. sir Provo W. P. Wallis, who succeeded in the com- 
mand of the Shannon, when capt. Broke was disabled, 
born 1791, died 13 Feb. 1892. 

CHESHUNT COLLEGE, Herts, founded 
fcy Selina, countess of Huntingdon, for the educa- 
tion of ministers of her "connexion," Calvinistic 
methodists. The college was first opened at Tre- 
vecca-house, Talgarth, near Brecon, by the countess 
and George Whitefield, 1768. It was removed to 
Cheshunt in 1792. She died 17 June, 1791. Tre- 
vecca college is still used by the Calvinistic 
methodists, 1890. 

CHESS. An ancient game of eastern origin, 

probably brought into Europe by the Arabs ; the 

invention is doubtfully ascribed to India, China, 

Persia and Egypt. 

Caxton printed "the Game and Playe of the Chesse" 1474 

A chess-club formed at Slaughter's coffee-house, St. 
Martin's-lane 1747 

The automaton chess-player of Maelzel, worked by 
a hidden person, was exhibited in 1769 

M.F. A. Danican, known as Philidor, played three 
matches blindfolded at the Salopian ; he died . 1795 

The London Chess-club founded in 1807, and St. 
George's 1833 

Herr Paulsen played ten games at once, of which 
he won five, and lost one ; three were drawn, and 
one not played out Dec. 1861 

International chess congresses : 1, 2, London (winner, 
M. Anderssen, of Breslau), 1851, 1862 ; 3, Paris, 
(M. Kolisch), 1867 ; 4, Paris (M. Anderssen), 1870 ; 
S, Vienna (M. Steinitz), Aug. 1S73. 

Automaton chess-player at the Crystal-palace (a 
youth concealed in box perforated with holes) 
exhibited 1873 

Howard Staunton, a great player, died . . June, 1874 

J. J. Lbwenthal, eminent Hungarian player, died 

20 July, 1876 

J. H. Zukertort of Riga, gains first prize at the 
International Chess Congress, Paris, June, July, 1878 

"Mephisto," a mechanical chess-player, exhibited 
at the Westminster Aquarium . . 2 Oct. ,, 

Chess Congress at New York . . .Jan. 1880 

Chess tournament at Wiesbaden, 9 July, 1880 ; at 
Berlin, 30 Aug. 1881 (1st prize, Mr. Blackburne) ; 
at Vienna, first prize, M. Steinitz . 24 June, 1882 

In London (M. Zukertort, 1st prize), 26 April — 
23 June 1883 

M. J. H. Zukertort died aged 46 . . 20 June, 1888 

International chess tournament, New York, closed ; 
equal prizes awarded to Herr Weiss (Vienna) and 
M. Tischigorin (Russia) . . . .27 May, 1889 

One at Amsterdam, 28 Aug. 1889 ; at Manchester, 
(1st prize, Dr. Tarrasch, of Nuremberg), 25 Aug.- 
8 Sept. 1890 ; at Dresden, Dr. Tarrasch, 18-29 J llr y> 
1892 ; Leipsic, Sept. 1804 ; Hastings, Aug. 1895 ; 
St. Petersburg, Jan. ; Nuremburg, Aug. ; Buda- 
pest, Sept. 1896. Match between 10 English and 
10 U.S.N. A. players by cable, London, won by 
English, $1 to 4! games, 12, 13 Feb. 1897 ; another 
won by the British (5$ to 4A-), 18, 19 March, 1898. 
England and American match by cable, Newnes 
trophy won by the Americans, n March, 1899; 
again won by the Americans, 24 March, rgoo; 
another ends in a draw, 2c April, 1901 ; Ameri- 
cans win, 1 5 March, 1902. 

Games, in which 1 1 1 < ■ pices were replaced by living 
men, were played at St. Leonards, Sussex, 14 Jan. 1891 

41 The Hastings Chess Tournament, 1895," edited 
by Horace F. Cheshire, published . . . 1S96 

Death of Wilhelm Steinitz, a aoted pkvj er, aged 64, 

1 Aug. 1900 

Americans win an inter-university match (by 

cable), 4$ to 1 1 26 April, 1902 

Games played by wireless telegraph] between 

steamers to and from United States . . . 1903 
Third and last vol. of Mr, M. Morgan's "Chess 

Digest,," a complete survey of the whole Held of 

chess, ami giving tin- openings of rs, 000 games, 

published Feb. ,, 



Monte Carlo tournament : Dr. Tarrasch, winner 
20 games ; Maroczy, 19 ; Pillsbury, i8£ ; Teich- 
mann, i6£ ; 14 players .... Mar. 1903 

Seventh American Chess Congress to be held at 
the World's Fair, Louisiana, U.S., 1904. Open 
to all the world, announced . . . Oct. ,, 

CHESTER (England, N. W.), the British 
Caerleon and the Roman Deva, the station of the 
twentieth legion, Valeria Victrix, quitted by them 
about 406. The city wall was first built by Edel- 
fleda, about 908 ; and Hugh d' Abrinces, called 
Lupus, the earl, nephew of William I., rebuilt 
the Saxon castle in 1084, and the abbey of St. 
Werburgh. Chester was incorporated by Henry 
III. and made a distinct county. The palatine 
jurisdiction was abolished by parliament, 23 July, 
1830. The see, anciently part of Lichfield, one of 
who<e bishops, Peter, removing the seat hither in 
1075, occasioned his succssors to be styled bishops 
of Chester ; but it was not made a distinct bishopric 
until Henry VIII. in 1541 raised it to this dignity, 
and allotted" the church of the abbey of St. Wer- 
burgh for the cathedral. After extensive repairs, 
the cathedral was re-opened, 25 Jan. 1872. This 
see is valued in the king's books at 420^. is. 8d. 
per annum. Present income 4500^. Population, 
1881,36,794; 1891,37,105; 1901,41,603. 
Taken, after three months' siege, for the parliament 1645 

Fatal gunpowder explosion 1772 

Royal Agricultural Society's show . . July, 1858 

Exchange and town hall burnt . . 30 Dec. 1862 

A projected attack of Fenians on Chester castle was 
defeated by the vigilance of the authorities and 
the arrival of the military . . n, 12 Feb. 1867 
New town hall opened by the prince of Wales 

15 Oct. 1869 
Cathedral re-opened after restoration by sir Gilbert 

G. Scott 7 Aug. 1876 

Ancient tower of St. John's Church fell 15 April, 1881 
Foundation stone of Grosvenor Museum and 
School of Art laid by the duke of Westminster 

3 Feb. 1885 opened 6 Aug. 18S6 

Royal Agricultural Society's show . 19 June, 1893 
Town-hall council chamber burnt . 27 March, 1897 
Remains of a Roman basilica, date about 300 a.d., 
discovered July, ,, 

REGENT BISHOPS OF CHESTER. 

1800. Henry Wm. Majendie, trans, to Bangor, 1809. 

1S10. Bowyer Edward Sparke, trans, to Ely, 1812. 

1812. George Henry Law, trans, to Bath, 1824. 

1824. Chas. J. Blomfield, trans, to London, Aug. 1828. 

1S28. John Bird Sumner, trans, to Canterbury, 1848. 

1848. John Graham, died 15 June, 1865. 

1865. William Jacobson. Resigned Jan. ; died 13 July, 

1884. 
1884. Wm. Stubbs, Feb. ; translated to Oxford, July, 

1888. 
1888. Francis John Jayne, elected 26 Jan. 

CHESTER LE STREET. It is stated that 
a bishopric founded in Holy Island was removed 
to this place in 875, and to Durham, 995 ; see 

Dur/iaiii. 

CHEVY CHASE, see Otterburne. 

CHICAGO, 912 m. from New York, Illinois, 

United States, a nourishing city settled in 1831 ; 

incorporated 1837 ; population, 1867, above 200,000 ; 

in 1880, 503,185; 1890, 1,099,859; 1901, 1,750,000. 

Chicago was nearly destroyed by fire, occasioned by 
the upsetting of a paraffin lamp. . 7-1 1 Oct. 1S71 

About 250 persons perished, and 08,500 were rendered 
destitute, The loss was reckoned at 290,000,000 
dollars. Luge sums were collected for relief of 
the sufferers in London (io,ooo(. in a few hours)and 
other British cities, as well as in North America. 
The area of the lire was computed at from three 
to live square miles, and about 25,000 buildings 
were destroyed. The heart of the city was com- 
posed of old wooden buildings. The city was re- 
built most energetically 1872- 



CHICAGO. 



253 



CHICKAHOMINY BATTLES. 



Another great fire ; many homeless . . 14 July, 

A convention of Irish National Delegates met 

19-22 Aug. 

Socialist riots with bloodshed on 4 May, 1886. See 
United States. . . . . . n Nov. 

The World's Columbian Exposition, 1893 ; Chicago 
chosen as the site (7 m. from the city, 586 acres, 
with many lagoons) .... 25 Feb. 

Mr. Thomas W. Palmer, of Michigan, chosen as the 
president of the fair . . . .27 June 

Mr. George R. Davis elected director-general, 19 Sept. 

President Harrison announces the day of opening 
to be 1 May, to close 31 Oct. 1893. 

Congress votes 2,500,000 dollars for expenses 5 Aug. 

Solemn dedication of all the buildings (400), " White 
City " (central dome, 275 ft. high), with prayers 
by John Ireland, archbishop of St. Paul, and 
Charles H. Fowler, bishop of California ; a 
dedicatory ode by Miss Harriet F. Monroe, 
several addresses, an oration by Mr. Chauncey 
Depew, and much music, in the presence of the 
hon. L. P. Morton, vice-president of the United 
States, the members of the government, and 
other officials, foreign representatives, many 
eminent persons, and about 100,000 spectators, 
in the manufactures and liberal arts building, 
21 Oct. 1892 (the fourth centenary of thejanding 
of Columbus). See America, 1492. 
[President Harrison was absent through the ill- 
ness of his wife, who died 25 Oct.] 

The exhibition opened by president Cleveland in 
the presence of a distinguished company, includ- 
ing the duke of Veragua and family, a lineal 
descendant of Columbus, with great rejoicings ; 
by pressing a button the president started a vast 
amount of machinery ; Handel's "Hallelujah 
Chorus " was sung, and followed by other 
demonstrations (about 300,000 persons present), 
noon 1 May, 

The British exhibition in Victoria house included 
work sent by the queen and princess Beatrice, 
and specimens of works of art and manufactures 
from all parts of the world ; literary, scientific, 
and other congresses, and also a "world's pai- 
liament of religions," were held ; catalogues were 
published July et seq. 

Hotels and other buildings destroyed by a great 
wave at Chicago .... 7 April, 

Great fire at a warehouse in the grounds, 17 
deaths, 10 July ; Senate hotel burnt, 8 deaths, 

14 Aug. 

"British day" at the fair ; processions, &c. 19 Aug. 

Great fire in S. Chicago, 5,000 homeless . 24 Aug. 

" Chicago day ' at the fair ; 713,646 paying visitors 
(6 killed by the crush) . . . .9 Oct. 

The fair closed without' festivities owing to the 
murder of the mayor, Mr. Carter H. Harrison 
(28 Oct.), 30 Oct. ; Prendergast, the murderer, 
executed, 13 July, 1894. • 

Total number of visitors, 23,529,400; estimated 
surplus for stockholders, 1,000,000 dollars 31 Oct. 

Medals awarded to artists : United States N.A., 90 ; 
British, 72 ; Germany, 81 ; Austria, 26 ; Italy, 15 ; 
Spain, 29 ; Sweden, 16 ; Denmark, 12 ; Holland, 27 ; 
Japan, 38 ; France did not compete. 

Sculptors : United States, 14 ; British, 6 ; Germany, 
19 ; Italy, 12 ; Austria, 5 ; Spain, 6 ; Sweden, 3 ; 
Denmark, 3, and Japan, 7. 

Financial success reported, surplus, 1 ,404, 84idollars, 

26 Nov. 

About 40,000 men out of work ; much distress, 
reported n Dec. 

A destructive fire in the buildings of the fair 8 Jan. 

A number of the exhibition buildings, covering 
80 acres, burnt by incendiaries ; several deaths, 
5 July ; conflicts between the troops and rioters, 
chiefly foreigners ; several deaths and much 
destruction of property . . 6-8, 11 July, 

President Cleveland proclaims martial law ; gen. 
Miles at the head of Federal troops, 8 July ; im- 
proved traffic under military protection, 9 July, 

Mr. Eugene Debs and other officers of the Ameri- 
can Railway Union indicted for obstructing 
the mails and other offences ; bailed for large 
sums 10, 11 July, 

Strike declared over, 13 July; 17 lives lost, and 
4,000,000 dollars property (railway) destroyed, 
reported 14 July, 



1874 



*«93 



Mr. Debs and other leaders of the railway strike 
sentenced to terms of imprisonment, Dec. ; re- 
leased on bail Jan. 1895 

Irish national convention, see United States 

Sept. -Oct. ,„ 

Mr. George M. Pullman, millionaire, inventor of 
the Pullman car system, 1863 (see Railways, 
1874), died, aged 66 .... 19 Oct. 1897 

The coliseum, a large building, burnt down : 9 
deaths ; estimated loss, 700,000 dollars 25 Dec. ,, 

Peace jubilee, pres. McKinley present . 16-20 Oct. 1898 

Collapse of the new Colliseum in course of erec- 
tion, over 12 deaths .... 28 Aug. 1899 

Corner-stone of new Federal building laid by pres. 
McKinley, naval and military review . 9 Oct. ,, 

Great sanitary works, canal (29 mi. long), 7 yrs. in 
construction, cost about 6,ooo,oooL, from lake 
Michigan, by way of the Illinois and Mississippi, 
to the Gulf of Mexico, completed . early Jan. 1900- 

Anarchist meeting stopped by the police, some 
rioting 5 Aug. ,, 

Mr. J. D. Rockfeller gives 1,250,000 dol. to the 
university, reported .... 17 April, 1902- 

St. Luke's sanatorium burnt, over 8 deaths, 9 June, ,, 

Lincoln hotel burnt, 14 deaths . . 4 Dec. „ 

CHICAMAUGA (" the stream of death"), near 
Chattanooga, Tennessee, North America. Near 
here the confederates under general Bragg, aided 
by Longstreet, totally defeated the federals under 
Rosencrans, 19, 20 Sept. 1863. The loss was severe 
on both sides. The credit of the victory was attri- 
buted to Longstreet ; its fruitlessness to Bragg. 

CHICHESTER (Sussex), built by Cissa, 
about 540. The cathedral was completed about 
1 108, burnt with the city in 1114, and rebuilt by 
bishop Seffrid .about 1187. The present cathedral 
was erected during the 13th century. The spire 
fell 20 Feb. 1861 ; the foundation of a new one was 
laid 2 May, 1865, completed June, 1866. The cathe- 
dral re-opened after repairs, 14 Nov. 1867. The 
bishopric originated thus : Wilfrid, archbishop of 
York, compelled to flee by Egfrid, king of Northum- 
berland, preached the gospel in this country, and 
built a church in the Isle of Selsey, about 673. In 
681 Selsey became a bishopric, and so continued 
until it was removed to Chichester, then called 
Cissan-Caester, from its builder, Cissa, by Stigand, 
about 1082. This see has yielded to the church 
two saints, and to the nation three lord chancellors. 
It is valued in the king's books at 677^. is. 3d. per 
annum. Present income, 4500^ The borough was 
absorbed into Sussex, 1885. Population, 1881,. 
8,114; 1891,7,812; 1901,12,241. 

RECENT BISHOPS OF CHICHESTER. 

1798. John Buckner, died 2 May, 1824. 
1824. Robert J. Carr, trans, to Worcester, Sept. 1831. 
1831. Edward Maltby, translated to Durham, 1836. 
1836. Charles Otter, died 20 Aug. 1840. 
1840, Philip Nicholas Shuttleworth, died 7 Jan. 1842. 
1842. Ashurst Turner Gilbert, died 21 Feb. 1870. 
1870. Richard Durhford, died, aged 92, 14 Oct. 1895. 
1895. Ernest Roland Wilberforce, trans, from New- 
castle, Nov.. 1895. 

"CHICHESTER" training-ship for home- 
less London boys, established chiefly by the earl of 
Shaftesbury and Mr. Williams, in connection with 
the refuges for destitute children, Great Queen- 
street. 50 boys placed in it, 18 Dec. 1866 ; reported 
highly successful. The baroness Burdett-Coutts 
gave 5000/. in 1874. H.M.S. Arethusa was de- 
voted to a similar object, through the instrumen- 
tality of the same persons, 3 Aug. 1874. The 
Goliath traiuing ship was burnt, 22 Dec. 1875 ; 
several lives were lost. See Wrecks, 1875. 

CHICKAHOMINY BATTLES, see Fair- 
oaks, and United States, June, 1862. 



CHICORY. 



254 



CHILI. 



CHICORY, the wild endive, or Ciehorimh 
Intybus of Linnaeus, grows wild in calcareous soils. 
It was for many years so largely mixed with coffee 
in England that it became a matter of serious com- 
plaint, the loss of revenue being estimated at 
100,000/. a year. An excise order was issued, 
interdicting the mixture of chicory with coffee, 3 
Aug. 1852. The admixture, however, has since been 
permitted, provided the word " chicory " be plainly 
printed on each parcel sold. In i860 a duty of 3*. 
per cwt. was put upon English-grown chicory until 
April, 1861 ; it is now 13s. yl. per cwt. (1903). 

CHIGNON, French for the "back-hair" of 
ladies. In directions for full dress in 1783, it 
is said : " The hair large and the chignon low be- 
hind." Lady's Magazine. Large chignons began 
to be worn in England in 1866 ; discontinued 1875. 

CHILDERMAS DAY, 28 Dec, of ancient 
observance by the Eoman Church, in memory of 
the slaughter of the Holy Innocents. (Matt, ii.) 

CHILDREN. Many ancient nations exposed 
their infants, — the Egyptians on the banks of 
rivers, and the Greeks on highways, — when they 
could not support or educate them ; in such cases, 
they were protected by the state. The old custom 
of English parents selling their children to the , 
Irish for slaves, was prohibited by Canute, about 
1017. See Emigration, Foundling, Factory Acts, 
and Infanticide. 
Children's Dangerous Performances Act (earl de la 

Warr's act) passed : much needed . 24 July, 1879 
By the new factory act the age of child-labour was 

raised from 10 to 11 . . . .5 Aug. 1891 
National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to 
Children, founded 8 July, 1884, to protect them 
from neglect, ill-usage, and immorality. (A simi- 
lar society established in Liverpool, 19 April, 
1883, was very efficient.) See Trials . 19 Oct. 1893 
Frequent prosecutions by the society, 1894-1903 ; 
Mr. W. Astor gives io,oooJ. to the society, end 
Sept. 1901. 
Prevention of cruelty to, and protection of children 

act passed, 26 Aug. 1889 ; acts consolidated . 1894 

State Children's Aid Association, vise. Peel chair, 
man, supported by abp. of Canterbury and 
others, started Dec. 1896. Annual meetings. 
New poor law board in relation to diseased chil- 
dren ; 55 members, to be elected by the guardians 
of the unions ; subject to the local government 
board ; proposed, Jan. ; adopted . . 1 Feb. 1897 
Childhood Society, lor the scientific study of the 
mental and physical conditions of children. 
Report based on the observation of 100,000 school 
children examined individually, 1888-94, issued 
1896. Appeal for funds by sir Douglas Galton, 

Times 1 March, ,, 

Internat. congress for the protection of children, 
presidents carl Bcauchamp and sirjas Crichton- 
Browne, opened by the lord mayor at the Guild- 
hall 15 July, 1902 

Nat. Society's new central offices in Leicester- 
square opened by Lord Alverstono . . 4 Feb. 1903 
Employment of Children Act . . . Aug. ,, 

CHILI, OR CiriLF, a republic of S. America, 
discovered by Magellan, who landed at Chiloe, 1520. 
It was explored by Diego de Almagro, one of the 
conquei-ors of Peru, 1536, Capital, Santiago, 
founded 1541. Chili was subdued, but not wholly, 
in 1546. Population in 1865, 1,068,447; I 88*5, 
2,527,320; 1896,3,300,000; 1900, about 3,110,000; 
and about 50,600 Indians. 

Chili declares its independent f Spain, 18 Sept. 1810 

War with varying success: decisive victory gained 

by San Martin over the royal forces at Chacabuce, 
12 Feb. 1817 ; the province declared independent, 

12 Feb. 1818 
Peace with Spain 1826 



Present constitution established . . 22 May, 

Manuel Montt elected president . . 18 Oct. 

Insurrection headed by Pedro Gallo, Dec. 1858, sup- 
pressed April, 

Jose J. Perez, president . . . 18 Sept. 

Conflagration of the Jesuits' church at Santiago 
(see Santiago), more than 2,000 persons perished 

8 Dec. 

Rupture between Chili and Bolivia respecting the 
"Guano "isles 1 March, 

Disputes with Spain respecting Peru settled by the 
Spanish minister, 20 May, disavowed by his 
government 25 July, 

Religious toleration enacted. . . . July, 

J. J. Perez again proclaimed president ; vigorous 
prosecution of the war .... Oct. 

The Spanish admiral Pareja appears before Val- 
paraiso claiming satisfaction for Chilian inter- 
vention in the war with Peru, 17 Sept. ; refused, 
21 Sept. ; he declares a blockade, 24 Sept. ; Chili 
declares war against Spain, 29 Sept. ; joins Peru, 

5 Dec. 

The Spaniards bombard Valparaiso . 31 March, 

End of the blockade . . . .14 April, 

J. J. Perez re-elected president . . 18 Sept. 

F. Errazuriz elected president . . 18 Sept. 

Gold mines discovered near Iquique . . Oct. 

The Tacna (capt. Hyde), overloaded, left Valpa- 
raiso, 7 March ; soon after sank; 19 (some chil- 
dren) drowned ; captain and officers saved ; he 
was reprimanded at Valparaiso, and set free ; 
afterwards seized by orders of the Chilian govern- 
ment at Lota ; eventually released and compen- 
sated 

International exhibition provisionally opened at 
Santiago, 26 Sept. ; to the public . 31 Oct. 

Anibal Pinto, president (till 1881) . 18 Sept. 

Bolivian forts seized by the Chilians . Dec. 

Chili refuses to recognise a treaty between Peru and 
Bolivia (6 Feb. 1873) respecting boundaries ; they 
declare war against Chili . . . April, 

The Chilian wooden vessels Esmeralda and Cova- 
donga blockade Iquique ; the Peruvian ironclad 
turret ships (with rams) Huascar and Indepen- 
dencia attempt relief ; Esmeralda, sunk by Huascar 
(about no perish); Independencia runs ashore 
while chasing Covadonga ; capt. Pratt and 6 men 
climb up Huascar and are killed fighting on the 
deck 21, 23 May, 

Huascar enters port of Iquique, and captures 2 
vessels 29 July, 

Blockade of Iquique raised; announced 4 Aug. 

Huascar captured by Chilian fleet off Mejillones, 
after 6 hours' gallant fight ; the admiral and 
many officers killed .... 8 Oct. 

Pisagua bombarded and captured by Chilians, 

2 Nov. 

Combined Peruvian and Bolivian army defeated 
near Iquique (which surrenders), Nov.; again near 
Tarapaca, which is taken . about 27 Nov. 

Naval engagement ; dashing conduct of Peruvian 
vessels 27 Feb. 

Callao blockaded by Chilians ; alarm at Lima, 

about 18 April, 

Battle of Tacna ; it is captured by Chilians, 

26 May, 

Arica taken by the Chilians . . . 8 June, 

Pierola dictator of Peru ; declares for perseverance 
in the war ; excitement at Lima ; levy en masse, 

28 June, 

Chilian transport Loo sunk by torpedo, by a Peru- 
vian launch apparently laden with fruit ; Callao 
greatly shaken 3 July, 

Chilian vessel Covadonga bombarding town, sunk 
by Peruvian torpedoes off Chaucay ; about 115 
perish (severe reprisals) ... 14 Sept. 

Chilians storm Lurin, 4 Jan. ; defeat the Peruvians 
at Chorillos, 1 3 Jan. ; at Miraflores, 15 Jan. ; 
occupy Lima without resistance, Pierola flees, 
about 17 Jan. ; Callao taken S oon alter . Jan. 

Conditions of peace reported ; cession of territory ; 
750 million dollars indemnity; occupation of 
Callao; working of mines till indemnity paid; 
announced 30 Jan. 

England and France requested to mediate by Peru 

Feb. 



1833 
1851 

1859 
1861 



1863 
1864 



1874 

1875 

1876 
1878 

1879 



CHILI. 

Treaty of peace between Spain confirmed . Sept. i£ 

Calderon elected president, announced . i Sept. . 

President; Domingo Santa-Maria . . 1 8 Sept. , 

Treaty of peace with Bolivia . . . 25 Jan. iS 

Peace protocol between Chili and Peru, agreed to 

March, , 

War resumed ; skirmishes ; Chilians generally suc- 
cessful July, , 

Peruvians defeated by Chilians in several engage- 
ments, 13, 15, and 16 July, also 8 Aug. . . , 

Concepcion burned, announced . . 19 July, , 

Reported peace ; cession of Tarapaca and Tacna 

28 Sept. , 

Negotiations fail, announced ... 8 Oct. , 

Peace said to be signed ; Peru cedes Tacna and 
Ariea to Chili for 10 years, reported 25 May, 18 

Severe battle, Peruvians defeated u ith great loss at 
Huamachuca 10 July, , 

Peruvian leaders defeated at Huanchuco by col. 
Grostiago 19 July, , 

Peace with Peru signed at Ancon . . 20 Oct. , 

Lima evacuated 23 Oct. , 

Sefior Don Jose Manuel Balmaceda, president 

18 Sept. 18 

After much agitation, great electoral reforms carried 

Oct. 18 

The congress issues a declaration deposing the pre- 
sident for treason against the constitution, 
tyranny, and misuse of the public money, and 
designates sen. Jorge Montt as its assistant in 
restoring the due observance of the constitution. 

1 Jan. 18 

The navy (under capt. J. Montt) revolts against 
the president ; the army remains faithful to him 

about 7 Jan. , 

Valparaiso, held for the president, blockaded by 
the navy ; frequent skirmishes ; contradictory 
reports 16 Jan. , 

Small British squadron sent to Chilian waters 

about 17 Jan. , 

The navy blockades the coast ... 20 Jan. , 

Coronel bombarded by the navy, reported 25 Jan. , 

The congressists take Pisagua ... 26 Jan. , 

A French squadron ordered to the Chilian coast . 

about 28 Jan. , 

The government troops re-take Pisagua ; the con- 
gressists occupy Talta . . . about 1 Feb. , 

Fighting at Castro ; congressists defeated ; 130 
killed reported 4 Feb. , 

Insurrection confined to the chief harbours 5 Feb. , 

Pisagua and Iquique burned by bombardment, 
reported 13 Feb. , 

The president's troops defeated at Dolores, 15 Feb., 
and Iquique 19 Feb. , 

The congressists defeated at Pisagua . 22 Feb. , 

Iquique bombarded by the congressists ; the British 
admiral Hotham intervenes to save women and 
children ; capt. Lambton, of the Warspite, passes 
through a heavy fire to obtain an armistice ; the 
town and troops surrender to the congressists 

20 Feb. , 

Tarapaca taken by the congressists reported 27 Feb. , 

Conflicting news . . . Jan., Feb., March, , 

The troops at Pisagua declare for the congressists . 
reported 3 March, , 

The president's troops defeated at Pozo Almonte, 
4 March ; the province of Tarapaca held by the 
congress party . . . about 8 March, , 

Fart of the army joins the congress party, which 
holds all southern Chili, reported . 12 March, , 

Col. Robles, with the president's troops, totally de- 
feated ; he is killed after the engagement at Pozo 
Almonte, 4 March. The province of Tarapaca 
held by the congress party . . .8 March, , 

The port of Antofagasta taken by the congressist 
fleet 18-23 March, , 

Tacna and Arica occupied by the congressists 
without resistance .... 7 April, , 

A provisional government or junta established by 
the congress party, at Iquique . . 10 April, ,, 

Part of the regular army (2,450) crosses the Argen- 
tine territory to reach Santiago, reported 14 April, , 

Newly-elected congress (his nominees) opened by 
the president ; his conduct reported very tyran- 
nical 21 April, ,, 



255 



CHILI. 



The congressist ironclad Blanco Encalada, in Cal- 
dera Bay, Atacama, sunk by Balmaceda's torpedo 
boats early 23 April, 

Revolt of troops at Coquimbo, to the congressists . 

25 April, 

The congressist cruiser Magellanes, in Valparaiso 
harbour, beats off a fierce attack of three govern- 
ment torpedo boats . . . .28 April, 

Capiapo, the capital of Atacama, occupied by the 
congressists, reported ... 29 April, 

President Balmaceda invites foreign mediation, 
reported 6 May, 

Negotiations between the government and the con- 
gressists fail about 8 May, 

The Itata, and Robert and Minnie, private trans- 
ports, supply the congress party with contra- 
band articles from New York, 15 April et seq. ; 
they are chased by the U.S. cruiser Charleston, 

early May, 

Amicable arrangement between the congressists 
and the United States respecting the Itata, 
reported 20 May, 

Balmaceda's ships, Condell and Imperial, bombard 
Iquique 22 May, 

The officers and crew of Balmaceda's torpedo 
launch Giralda, shot for suspected desertion 

30 May, 

The statements respecting the various conflicts 
and movements of the two parties very uncertain 
and frequently contradictory . . May, June, 

The congressional provisional junta at Iquique 
issues decrees respecting the state finances 

22 May, 

The Itata surrenders to the American cruisers at 
Iquique 4 June, 

The provisional junta at Iquique issues a circular 
note to the powers denouncing president Balma- 
ceda as a dictator, and asking to be recognised 
as a belligerent, 7 May, published . 11 June, 

Balmaceda's squadron bombards Pisagua, 8 June ; 
Iquique 9 June, 

Reported reign of terror in Santiago through the 
tyranny of president Balmaceda . . 25 June, 

The-congressists occupy Huasco . . 2 July, 

Sen. Pedro Montt and sen. Varas, on behall of the 
congressists, declare that the financial dealings 
of president Balmaceda will not be recognised by 
them 10 July, 

The ten conspirators who attempted to blow up 
Balmaceda's ships at Valparaiso shot . 14 July, 

The judges and legal officers of the republic dis- 
charged by Balmaceda and replaced by his 
ignorant partisans ; no security for foreigners, 
reported 21 July, 

The congress partv occupy the Atacama province 

25 July, 

The congressist army, about 10,000, with batteries, 
&c. , commanded by col. Canto, land at Quinteros 
Bay, 20 Aug., and after a night's march, they 
completely defeat Balmaceda's army at Colmo ; 
the congressists have about 300 killed ; Bal- 
maceda has about 1,000 killed, 21 Aug. ; they 
advance and take Salto, 24 Aug. ; and Quilpue, 
25 Aug. ; march toward Valparaiso, receiving 
large numbers of deserters from the enemy, and 
encamp in a farm-house ... 27 Aug. 

Battle of Placilla : Balmaceda's army totally de- 
feated ; about 1,000 killed and 3,000 prisoners ; 
congressists, 400 killed ; the battle lasted tipm. 
7.30 to 10.30, and the congressists took posses- 
sion of Valparaiso at 1 p.m. . . . 28 Aug. 

Santiago occupied by the congressists, who restore 
constitutional government . . 30 Aug. 

Temporal resistance at Coquimbo ; several of Bal- 
maceda's officers shot . . reported 1 Sept. 

The great powers recognise the congressist pro- 
visional government . . about 16 Sept. 

National holiday with great rejoicings, 16-20 Sept. 

Balmaceda's funds being exhausted he issues state 
notes to the amount of 12,000,000 pesos, he also 
seizes bars of silver valued at 4,500,000 pesos, 
the metallic reserve of the paper currency and 
illegally offers it for sale, without effect Feb. et 
seq. ; he then forms a new congress to support 
him, April ; and negotiates for the purchase of 
a steamer at Montevideo without effect ; Mr. 



CHILI. 



256 



CHIMBOEAZO. 



Kennedy, British minister at Santiago, places 
at Balmaceda's disposal H.M.S. Espiegle to 
convey the silver bars to Montevideo, June et 
seq. ; 338 silver bars transferred to H.M.S. Moselle, 
which conveys them to Southampton 16 Sept. 

Litigation ensued between the republic of Chili and 
the London and River Plate Bank, who had ad- 
vanced money on the bars of silver to Balmaceda. 
Finally the court of appeal in London awarded 
the silver to the company ... 7 Aug. 

Balmaceda concealed at the Argentine Legation in 
Santiago ; commits suicide, leaving ajustificatory 
letter, and is secretly buried . . 19 Sept. 

Two ironclad cruisers, the Presidente Pinto and 
Presidente Errazuriz, constructed for Balmaceda 
at Bordeaux ; col. Villagran with 114 soldiers 
claims them for him, 6 April ; an embargo on 
these vessels raised by order of a French law 
court, 8 July ; the vessels leave Bordeaux, and 
after endeavouring to enlist men at several ports 
in Europe, July, Aug., are given up at the end of 
the war to the new provisional government, 
Sept. et seq. 

Election of senate and deputies . about 21 Oct. 

Mr. Patrick Egan, the U.S. minister, charged with 
breach of neutrality by favouring Balmaceda's 
party during the war Oct. 

At Valparaiso some of the populace assault the 
boats' crews of the U.S. ship Baltimore; 2 of 
the crew killed, 16 Oct. ; the U.S. government 
demands reparation ; the Chilian government 
promises investigation . . . .29 Oct. 

The case against the Itata dismissed by the U.S. 
court 3 Nov. 

Sefihor Jorge Montt elected president . 4 Nov. 

Amnesty granted to the followers of Balmaceda, 

24 Dec. 

A liberal-conservative ministry constituted ; sen. 
Barros Luco premier . . . .31 Dec. 

The Chilian rioters sentenced (some to imprison- 
ment and some to penal servitude), for assault- 
ing the sailors of the Baltimore, 3 Jan. ; the 
president apologises to the U.S.A. government ■ 
for the incident Jan. 

After further correspondence the Chilian govern- 
ment accepts the stringent U.S.A. ultimatum, 

25-30 Jan. 

The first congress closes after progress . 30 Jan. 

A new ministry constituted under sen. Edouardo 
Matte about 13 March, 

New ministry formed by sen. Barros Luco, 11 June, 

Mr. P. Egan concludes a convention between Chili 
and the United States . . . . Aug. 

Resignation of the cabinet . . about 8Nov. 

Balmacedist plots in the army suppressed, Nov. Dec. 

Amnesty granted to Balmaceda's partisans, with 
some exceptions . . . reported 8 Feb. 

Mr. Patrick Egan replaced by Mr. James D. Porter 
as minister for U.S.A. . . . 30 March, 

Disturbances ; martial law proclaimed in Santiago, 
Valparaiso and Aconcagua . reported 10 April, 

New ministry ; sen. Pedro Montt premier 26 April, 

Arbitration commission on the claims of the United 
States against Chili, at Washington ; award to the 
States, 240,564 dollars ; other claims not ac- 
cepted, 24 April ; paid 9 Oct. ; finance of presi- 
dent Montt reported successful 

Resignation of sen. Maclver's ministry, 
succeeded by sen. Hamon B. Luco . 

The congress house at Santiago burnt 

Congress opened ; revived prosperity 

Resignation of the ministry, 6 July ; new ministry 
formed by sen. Recabarren . . 29 July, 

National guard established ; announced 14 April, 

Gen. Federico Errazuriz elected president, 25 July, 

The ministry resigns, 8 Nov. ; new liberal cabinet 

17 Nov. 

Elections : government majority . 13 March, 

Frequent changes of ministry . . June-Dec. 

Boundary disputes with Argentina referred to the 
arbitration of queen Victoria, early July, 1897 
(settled Oct. 1898). 

Financial panic ; banks closed; 7 July ; a morator- 
ium, 30 days, ordered, 10 July; paper money 
authorised . . . 20 July, 



Aug 
5 Nov. ; 
. 7 Dec. 
18 May, 
2 June, 



1895 



897 



Convention with Peru relating to the retrocession 
of Tacna and Arica, adopted . . 26 Sept. 1898 
See Peru, April, 1898. 

Frauds discovered at the arsenal ; suicide of seii. 
Navarro, chief accountant . . . 13 Oct. ,, 

Puna de Atacama award settled by compromise, 

24 March, 1899 

Frequent changes of ministry . . Dec-Sept. ,, 

Naval arsenal at Taleahuano burnt ; estimated loss 
50,000 dol. ...... 30 June, ,, 

Severe storms and tidal wave at Valparaiso ; rail- 
way wrecked ; great damage ; at Santiago villages 
destroyed 8-15 Aug. „ 

Congress opened by the president, with a cheerful 
speech 1 June, 1900 

Compulsory military service, with some excep- 
tions, decreed 5 Sept. ,, 

Coalition cabinet formed, sen. Fontecilla premier, 

4 Nov. ,, 

Boundary protocol signed by Chili and Argentina, 

27 Dec. ,, 

Pres. Errazuriz resigned from illness, 1 May ; he 
died 12 July, 1901 

Sen. Arias Sanchez, Ecuador consul, assassinated in 
Valparaiso 17 July, ,, 

Sen. German Riesco proclaimed president 25 July, ,, 

New ministry, sen. Barros Luco, premier n Sept. ,, 

Frontier dispute with Argentina, Dec. ; question to 
be submitted to British arbitration . 26 Dee. ,, 

British commission, sir Thos. Holdich and others, 
to delimit the Argentine-Chilian frontier, arrive 

1 March, 1902 

Naval arsenal at Valparaiso burnt down, 15 March, „ 

Treaties with Argentina for arbitration under king 
Edward, limitation of naval armaments, boun- 
daries, &c, signed at Santiago, 28 May; ap- 
proved by the chamber of deputies . 12 Aug. „ 

Congress opened 1 June, ,, 

Bursting of a reservoir at Las Palmas (35 deaths, 
and many houses destroyed) . . 11 July, „ 

Battleships. — Constitution, launched at Newcastle- 
on-Tyne ; Libertad, at Barrow . 14, 15 Jan. 1903 

Crisis, 6 Apr. ; Seii. Ramon Barros Luco forms a 
coalition cabinet 8 Apr. „ 

Pisaqua, a nitrate port, nearly destroyed by fire, 

mid- Apr. ,, 

Labour troubles at Valparaiso, resulting in strikes 
and arson ; conflict between troops and strikers ,, 

CHILLED SHOT, see Cannon, 1864-6. 

CHILLI ANW ALLAH, Battle of, India, 

between the Sikh forces in considerable strength, 
and the British commanded by lord (afterwards 
viscount) Gough, fought 13 Jan. 1849. The Sikhs 
were completely routed, but the loss of the British 
was very severe : 26 officers were killed and 66 
wounded, and 731 rank and file killed, and 1446 
wounded. The Sikh loss was 3000 killed and 
4000 wounded.* On 21 Feb. lord Gough attacked 
the Sikh army, under Shere Singh, in its position 
at Goojerat, with complete success ; and the whole 
of the enemy's camp fell into the hands of the 
British. 

CHILTEEN HUNDEEDS (viz. Bumham, 
Desborough, near Stoke), an estate of the crown on 
the chain of chalk hills that pass from east to west 
through the middle of Buckinghamshire. The 
stewardship is a nominal office, with a salary of 25s., 
conferred on members of parliament when they wish 
to vacate their seats. The strict legality of the 
practice is questioned. The practice began in 1750. 
" The Chiltern Hundreds," by A. J. Foster, pub- 
lished 1897. 

CHIMBOEAZO, highest point in the Andes, 
South America (altitude 21,068 feet); was as- 

* The duko of Wellington (commander-in-chief) did 
not think the victory complete. Gough was superseded, 
and sir Charles Napier sent out (March, 1S40), who 
did not arrive in India till Gough had redeemed his 
reputation. 



CHIMNEY-TAX. 



257 



CHINA. 



eended by Humboldt, 23 June, 1802, by Boussin- 
gault and Hall, 16 Dec. 1831 ; by Edward Whym- 
per, 3 July, 1880. See Andes. 

CHIMNEY-TAX, see Hearth. 

CHIMNEYS. Chafing-dishes were in use 
previous to the invention of chimneys, which 
were first introduced into Britain about 1200. 
Chimneys were general in domestic architecture 
in the 14th century. At the chemical works, 
Glasgow, is a chimney (there termed a stalk) 
420 feet in height ; the height of the monument 
in London being 202 feet ; of St. Paul's, 404 feet. 

Act to regulate chimney-sweeping, 28 Geo. III. . . 1789 
The chimney-sweeping machine was invented by 

Smart 1805 

A statute regulating the trade, the apprenticeship 
of children, the construction of tines, preventing 
calling " sweep " in the streets, &c, passed . . 1834 
By 3 & 4 Vict. c. 85 (1840), itis not lawful formaster 
sweeps to take apprentices under sixteen years 
of age; and no individual under twenty -one to 
ascend a chimney after ... 1 July, 1842 

Enforcement of this law made more stringent . . 1864 
Joseph Glass, inventor of the sweeping machine 

now in general use, not patented, died 29 Jan. 1868 
New chimney-sweepers' acts passed . 1875 and 1894 
By the fall of a chimney at Marsh Mills, Cleck- 
heaton, Yorkshire, 15 persons were killed, 

24 Feb. 1892 

CHINA (TsiNG), the "Celestial Empire," in 
Eastern Asia, for which the Chinese annals claim 
an antiquity of from 80,000 to 100,000 years B.C. 
The three religions are Confucianism, Taoism, and 
Buddhism, which see. Mr. B. C. Boulger's " History 
of China," 3 vols., 1881-84. Professor Legge has 
published " Chinese Classics " and a translation of 
the Chinese " sacred books." Population (as stated 
at Pekin) in 1888, 303,241,969; 1890, 360,250,000; 
i897» 303.241,969 ; 1903, 4 26 ,447>ooo. 
The early condition of China was tribal, which 
gradually merged into a vast feudal system, 
nominally ruled by many contemporaneous 
dynasties, dated from 2205 B.C. The king of 
Ts'in put down all other rulers ana assumed 
the title of Hwang Ti, or emperor, declaring 
that '• as there is but one sun in the sky, there 
should be but one ruler in the nation" . . 221 
Principal dynasties : Han, 206 B.c-220 a.d. ; T'ang, 
618-906 ; Sung, 960-1279: Yuan, the Mongol, 1280- 
1367 ; the Ming, 136S-1643 ; the Ch'ing, or Ts'ing, 
Manchu Tartar, 1643 to the present date. Legge. 

Supposed age of Confucius (Kungfutze), the philo- 
sopher b.c. 551-479 

Stupendous wall of China completed . . . . 211 
Literature and the art of printing encouraged . b.c. 202 
Battle between Phraates and the Scythians ; the 
Chinese aided the latter, and ravaged the coasts 
of the Caspian : their first appearance in history 

{Lenglet) I29 

The religion of Laot-se begun 15 

A form of Buddhism, or the religion of Fo, intro- 
duced about a. d. 68-81 

Nankin becomes the capital 420 

The atheistical philosopher, San-Shin, flourishes . 449 
The Nestorian Christians permitted to preach . . 635 
They are proscribed and extirpated .... 845 
China ravaged by Tartars, 9th to nth centuries. 
Seat of government transferred to Pekin . . . 1260 
Marco Polo introduces missionaries . . . 1275 
Kublai Khan establishes the Yuen or Mongol 

dynasty about „ 

Ming dynasty I3 68 

Canal, called the Yu Ho, completed . . about 1400 
Europeans first arrive at Canton .... 1517 
Macao is granted to the Portuguese . . . . 1536 
Jesuit missionaries are sent from Rome . . . 1575 
The country is conquered by the eastern or Man- 
chu Tartars, who establish the present reigning 

Tsing dynasty 1616-43 

Tea brought to England . .... 1660 



An earthquake throughout China, buries 300,000 

persons at Pekin alone 1662 

Galdan, a prince of Jangaria, conquers Kashgaria 
and becomes supreme in Central Asia, 1678 ; 
checked by Kang-hi, 1689 ; totally defeated . 1695 
Commerce with East India Company begins . . 1680 

Jesuit missionaries preach 1692 

Commercial relations with Russia . . . 1719-27 

Tne Jesuits expelled ■ 1724-32 

Another general earthquake destroys 100,000 per- 
sons at Pekin, and 80,000 in a suburb . . . 1731 
Successful war in Central Asia ; Davatsi and his 
opponent Amursana, subdued by Keen-lung, 
1755 et seq. ; Kashgar, Khokand, the Khirgez, &c. 

annexed 1760 

In a salute by one of our ships in China, a gun was 
inadvertently fired, which killed a native ; the 
government demanded the gunner ; he was soon 

strangled 1785 

Earl Macartney's embassy arrives at Pekin ; his re- 
ception by the emperor ... 14 Sept. 1793 
[This embassy threw light on the empire ; it ap- 
peared to be divided into 15 provinces, containing 
4402 walltd cities ; the population of the whole 
was given at 333,000,000 : its annual revenues at 
66,ooo,oooZ. ; and the army, including the Tartars, 
1,000,000 of infantry and 800,000 cavalry ; the 
religion Pagan, and the government absolute. 
Learning, and the arts and sciences, were encou- 
raged, and ethics studied.] 
He is ordered to depart .... 7 Oct. ,, 
And arrives in England . . . .6 Sept. 1794 
The affair of the Company's ship Neptune, when a 

Chinaman was killed 1807 

Edict against Christianity 1812 

Chinese rule in Central Asia weakened . . . ,, 
Lord Amherst's embassy ; he leaves England 8 Feb. 1816 
[His lordship failed in the objects of his mission, 
having refused to make the prostration of the 
liotou, lest he should thereby compromise the 
majesty of England.] 
Temporary insurrections in'Kashgar . 1826, et seq. 
Exclusive rights of the E. I. Co. cease . 22 April, 1834 
Free-trade ships sail for England . 25 April, ,, 
Lord Napier arrives at Macao to superintend 

British commerce .... 15 July, ,, 
Affair between the natives and two British ships of 

war ; several Chinese killed . . 5 Sept. „ 
Lord Napier dies, and is succeeded by Mr. (after- 
wards sir John) Davis . . . . 11 Oct. 
Opium dispute begins ; the trade prohibited by the 

emperor Nov. ,, 

Chinese seize the Argylc and crew . . 31 Jan. 1835 
Opium burnt at Canton by Chinese . . 23 Feb. ,, 
Captain Elliot, chief British commissioner, 14 Dec. 1836 
A British commissioner settled at Canton, March, 1837 
Admiral Maitland arrives at Macao . . 12 July, 1838 
Commissioner Lin orders seizure of opium, 18 
March ; British and other residents forbidden to 
leaveCanton, 19 March : the factories surrounded 
and outrages committed . . 24 March, 1839 

Captain Elliot requires British subjects to surrender 
to him all opium, promising them full value of it, 
27 March ; half of it is given up as contraband 
to the Chinese, 20 April; the remainder (20,283 
chests) surrendered, 21 May ; captain Elliot and 
the British merchants leave Canton, 24 May ; the 
opium destroyed by the Chinese . 3 June, ,, 
Affair between the British and American seamen 
and the Chinese ; a native killed . . 7 July 

Hong-Kong taken 23 Aug. 

The British boat Black Joke attacked, and the crew 
murdered, 24 Aug. ; the British merchants re- 
tire from Macao 26 Aug. 

Affair at Kow-lung between British boats and 

Chinese junks 4 Sept. 

Attack by 28 armed junks on the British frigates 

Volage and Hyacinth : several junks blown up 3 Nov. 

The British trade with China ceases, by an edict of 

the emperor, and the last servant of the company 

leaves this day 6 Dec. 

Edict of the emperor interdicting all trade and 
intercourse with England for ever . 5 Jan. 
The Hellas ship attacked by armed junks, 22 May, 
blockade of Canton by a British fleet, by orders 
from sir Gordon Bremer, 28 June ; the Blonde 
with a flag of truce tired on at Amoy, 2 July ; 



CHINA. 



258 



CHINA. 



Ting-hai, in Chusan, surrenders, 5 July ; blockade 
established along the Chinese coast, 10 July ; Mr. 
Staunton carried off to Canton . . 6 Aug. 1840 
Captain Elliot, on board a British steam-ship, 

enters the Peiho river, near Pekin . 11 Aug. „ 
The ship Kite lost on a sand-bank, and the captain's 
wife and a part of the crew are captured by the 
natives, and confined in cages . . 15 Sept. „ 
Lin finally degraded ; Keshin appointed imperial 
commissioner, 16 Sept. ; capt. Elliot's truce with 

him 6 Nov. ,, 

British plenipotentiaries off Macao . . 20 Nov. ,, 
Admiral Elliot's resignation announced . 29 Nov. „ 
Mr. Staunton released .... 12 Dec. ,, 
Negotiations cease, owing to breach of faith on 

the part of the Chinese emperor . . 6 Jan. 1841 
Chnen-pe and Tae-coc-tow, and 173 guns (some sent 

to England) captured .... 7 Jan. ,, 
Hong-Kong ceded by Keshin to Great Britain, and 
6,000,000 dollars agreed to be paid within ten days 
to the British authorities . . . 20 Jan. ,, 
Hong-Kong taken possession of . . . 26 Jan. ,, 
The emperor rejects Keshin's treaty, n Feb; hos- 
tilities resumed, 23 Feb. ; Chusan evacuated, 
24 Feb. ; rewards proclaimed at Canton for the 
bodies of Englishmen, dead or alive : 50,000 dollars 
to be given for chiefs .... 25 Feb. ,, 
Bogue forts taken by sir G. Bremer ; admiral Kwan 

killed ; 459 guns captured ... 26 Feb. ,, 
The British squadron proceeds to Canton, 1 March ; 
sir H. Gough takes command of the army, 
2 March ; hostilities again suspended, 3 March ; 
and again resumed, 6 March ; Keshin degraded 

by the emperor 12 March ,, 

Flotilla of boats destroyed, Canton threatened, the 
foreign factories seized, and 461 guns taken by 
the British forces . . . . 18 March, ,, 
New commissioners from Pekin arrived at Canton, 

14 April, „ 
Hong Kong Gazette first published . . 1 May, „ 
Capt. Elliot prepares to attack Canton . 17 May, ,, 
Heights behind Canton taken . . 25 May, ,, 
The. city ransomed for 6,000,000 dollars ; 5,000,000 

paid down ; hostilities cease . . . 31 May, ,, 
British forces withdrawn, 1 June ; and British trade 

re-opened 16 July, ,, 

Arrival at Macao of sir Henry Pottinger, who, as 
plenipotentiary, proclaims the objects of his 
mission ; capt. Elliot superseded . 10 Aug. „ 
Amoy taken, and 296 guns destroyed . 27 Aug. ,, 
The Bogue forts destroyed ... 14 Sept. „ 
Ting-hae taken, 136 guns captured, and Chusan re- 
occupied by the British, 1 Oct. ; they take Chin- 
hae, 10 Oct. ; Ning-po, 13 Oct. ; Yu-yaou, Tsze- 
kee, and Foong-hua .... 28 Bee. ,, 
Chinese attack Ning-po and Chin-hae, and are re- 
pulsed with great loss, 10 March ; 8000 Chinese 
are routed near Tze-kee . . .15 March, 1842 

Cha-pou attacked ; defences destroyed 18 May, ,, 
The British squadron enters the river Kiang 
15 June ; capture of Woosung and of 230 guns 
and stores 16 June ; Shang-hae taken, 19 June, ,, 
The British armament anchors near the " Golden 
Isle," 20 July ; Chin-Keang taken ; the Tartar 
general and many of the garrison commit suicide, 
21 July ; the advanced ships reach Nankin, 
4 Aug. ; the whole fleet arrives, and the disem- 
barkation commences, 9 Aug. ; Keying arrives 
at Nankin, with full powers to treat for peace, 

12 Aug. ,, 
Treaty of peace signed before Nankin, on board the 
Cornwattis by sir Henry Pottinger for England, 
and Keying Elepoo* and Neu-Kien on the part of 
the Chinese emperor — [Conditions : lasting peace 
and friendship between the two empires ; China 
to pay 21,000,000 of dollars ; Canton, Amoy, Foo- 
choofoo, Ningpo, and Shang-hai to be thrown 
open to the British, and consuls to reside at those 
cities ; Hong-Kong to be ceded in perpetuity to 
England, Ac. ; Chusan and Ku-lang-su to lie held 
by the British until the provisions are fulfilled t] 

29 Aug. ,, 

•He took part (it was said without authority) in 
arranging the treaty of Tien-tsin in June, 1858. He was 
in consequence condemned to death — by suicide. 

tThe non-fulfilment of this treaty led gradually to the 
war of 1? 56-57. 



The ratification signed by queen Victoria and the 

emperor formally exchanged . . 22 July, 1843 
Canton opened to the British . . 27 July, „ 
Appointment of Mr. Davis in the room of sir Henry 

Pottinger 16 FeD. 1844 

Bogue forts captured by the British . 5 April, 1847 
Hong-Kong and the neighbourhood visited by a 
violent typhoon ; immense damage done to the 
shipping ; upwards of 1000 boat-dwellers on the 

Canton river drowned Oct 1848 

H.M. steam-ship Medea destroys 13 pirate junks in 

the Chinese seas 4 March, 1850 

Rebellion breaks out in Quang-si . . . Aug. ,, 
Appearance of the pretender, Tien-teh* March, 1851 

Defeat of Leu, the imperial commissioner, and de- 
struction of half the army . . . 19 June, 1852 
Successful progress of the rebels ; the emperor ap- 
plies to the Europeans for help, without success, 

March and April, 1853 
The rebels take Nankin, 19, 20 March ; Amoy, „ 

19 May ; Shang-hae 7 Sept. ,, 

And besiege Canton without success Aug. -Nov. 1854 
The scanty accounts are unfavourable to the rebels, 
the imperialists having retaken Shang-hae, Amoy, 

and many important places 1855 

Outrage on the British lorcha Arrow, in Canton 

river t 8 Oct. 1856 

After vain negotiations with commissioner Yen, 

Canton forts attacked and taken . 23 Oct. ,, 

A Chinese fleet destroyed and Canton bombarded, 

by sir M. Seymour . . . . 3, 4 Nov. „ 

Imperialists defeated, quit Shang-hae . . 6 Nov. ,, 
The Americans revenge an attack by capturing three 

forts 21-23 Nov. ,, 

Rebels take Kuriking .... 25 Nov. ,, 

Other forts taken by the British . . . Dec. ,, 
The Chinese burn European factories . . 14 Dec. ,, 
And murder the crew of the Thistle . 30 Dec. ,, 
The Mahometans of Panthay, in Yunan, become 

independent during Tae-ping rebellion . . ,, 

A-lum, a Chinese baker, acquitted of charge of 

poisoning the bread 2 Feb. 1857 

Troops arrive from Madras and England ; and lord 

Elgin appointed envoy .... March, ,, 
No change on either side : Yeh said to be straitened 
for money : the imperialists seem to be gaining 
ground upon the rebels .... May, ,, 



* The emperor Taou-Kwang, who died 25 Feb., 1850, 
during the latter part of his reign, became liberal in his 
views, and favoured the introduction of European arts ; 
but his son, the late emperor, a rash and narrow-minded 
prince, quickly departed from his father's wise policy, 
and adopted reactionary measures, particularly against 
English influence. An insurrection broke out in conse- 
quence, Aug. 1850, and quickly became of alarming im- 
portance. The insurgents at first proposed only to expel 
the Tartars ; but in March, 1851, a pretender was an- 
nounced among them, first by the name of Tien-teh 
(Celestial Virtue), but afterwards assuming other names. 
He is stated to have been a native of Quang-si, of 
obscure origin, but to have obtained some literary know- 
ledge at Canton about 1835, and to have become acquainted 
at that time with the principles of Christianity from a 
Chinese Christian, named Leang-afa, and also from the 
missionary Roberts in 1844. He announced himself as 
the restorer of the worship of the true God, Shang-ti, 
and derived many of his dogmas from the Bible. He de- 
clared himself to be the monarch of all beneath the sky, 
the true lord of China (and thus of all the world), the 
brother of Jesus, and the second son of God, and de- 
manded universal submission. He made overtures for 
alliance to lord Elgin in Nov. i860. His followers were, 
termed Taepings, "princes of peace," a title utterly 
belied by their atrocious deeds. The rebellion was virtu- 
ally terminated, 18 July, 1S64. by the capture of Nankin, 
the suicide, of the Tien-Wang, and the execution of the 
military leaders. 

t It was boarded by the Chinese officers, 12 men out of 
the crew of 14 being carried oil' and the national ensign 
taken down. Sir ,1. Howling, governor of Hong-Kong, 
being compelled to resort to hostilities, applied to India 
ami (.'(•> Ion for troops. On 3 March, 1857, the house of 
commons, by a majority of 19, censured sir John for the 
" violent measures" he had pursued. The ministry (who 
took his part) dissolved the parliament ; but obtained a 
large majority in the new one. 



CHINA. 259 

Total destruction of the Chinese fleet by commodore 
Elliot, 25, 27 May ; and sir M. Seymour and com- 
modore Keppel 1 June, 1857 

Blockade of Canton Aug. ,, 

Stagnation in the war — lord Elgin departs to Cal- 
cutta, with assistance to the English against the 
Sepoys, 16 July ; returns to Hong-Kong 25 Sept. „ 

■Gen. Ashburnham departs for India, and gen. Strau- 
benzee assumes the command . . 19 Oct. ,, 

Canton bombarded and taken by English and 
French, 28, 29 Dec. 1857 ; who enter it . 5 Jan. 1858 

Yeh* sent a prisoner to Calcutta . . . Jan. ,, 

The allies proceed towards Pekin, and take the Pei- 
ho forts 20 May, „ 

The expedition arrives at Tien-tsin . 20 May, ,, 

Negotiations commence, 5 June ; treaty of peace 
signed at Tien-tsin by lord Elgin, baron Gros, and 
Keying (who signed the treaty of 1842)— [Ambas- 
sadors to be at both courts ; freedom of trade ; 
toleration of Christianity ; expenses of war to be 
paid by China ; a revised tariff ; term I {bar- 
barian) to be no longer applied to Europeans] 

26, 28, 29 June, ,, 

Lord Elgin visits Japan, and concludes an im- 
portant treaty with the emperor . 28 Aug. „ 

The British destroy about 130 piratical junks in the 
Chinese seas .... Aug. and Sept. ,, 

Lord Elgin proceeds up the Yang-tse-Kiang to 
Nankin, Jan. ; returns to England . May, 1859 

Mr. Bruce, the British envoy, on his way to Pekin, 
is stopped in the river Pei-ho (or Tien-tsin) ; ad- 
miral Hope attempting to force a passage, is re- 
pulsed with the loss of 81 killed, and about 390 
wounded 25 June, „ 

The American envoy Ward arrives at Pekin, and 
refusing to submit to degrading ceremonies, does 
not see the emperor . . . .29 July, „ 

Commercial treaty with America . . 24 Nov. ,, 

The English and French prepare an expedition 
against China Oct. „ 

Lord Elgin and baron Gros sail for China, April 26 ; 
wrecked near Point de Galle, Ceylon, 23 May ; 
arrive at Shang-hae .... 29 June, i860 

The war begins : the British commanded by sir Hope 
Grant, the French by general Montauban. The 
Chinese defeated in a skirmish near the Pei-ho 

12 Aug. ,, 

The allies repulse the Taeping rebels attacking 
Shang-hae, 18-20 Aug. ; and take the Taku forts, 
losing 500 killed and wounded ; the Tartar general 
San-ko-lin-sin retreats . . . .21 Aug. ,, 

After vain negotiations, the allies advance towards 
Pekin ; they defeat the Chinese at Chang-kia-wan 
and Pa-li-chiau . . . . 18 & 21 Sept. ,, 

Consul Parkes, captains Anderson and Brabazon, 
Mr. de Norman, Mr. Bowlby (the Times' cor- 
respondent), and 14 others (Europeans and 
Sikhs), advance to Tung-chow, to arrange con- 
ditions for a meeting of the ministers, and 
are captured by San-ko-lin-sin ; capt. Brabazon 
and abbe de Luc beheaded, and said to be 
thrown into he canal ; others carried into Pekin 

21 Sept. „ 

The allies march towards Pekin ; the French ravage 
the emperor's summer palace, 6 Oct. ; Mr. Parkes, 
Mr. Loch, and others, restored alive, 8 Oct. ; capt. 
Anderson, Mr. De Norman, and others die of ill- 
usage 8-11 Oct. „ 

Pekin invested ; surrenders, 12 Oct. ; severe pro- 
clamation of sir Hope Grant ... 15 Oct. ,, 

The bodies of Mr. De Norman and Mr. Bowlby 
solemnly buried in the Russian cemetery, Pekin, 
17 Oct. ; the summer palace (Yuen-ming-yuen) 
burnt by the British, in memory of the outraged 
prisoners 18 Oct. „ 

Convention signed in Pekin by lord Elgin and the 
prince Kung, by which the treaty of Tien-tsin 
is ratified ; apology made for the attack at Pei-ho 
(25 June, 1859) ; a large indemnity to be paid im- 
mediately, and compensation in money given to 
the families of the murdered prisoners, &c. ; Kow- 
loon ceded in exchange for Chusan, and the treaty 

* He died peacefully at Calcutta, 9 April, 1859. He is 
said to have ordered the beheading of about 100,000 
rebels. 



CHINA. 

and convention to be proclaimed throughout the 
empire 24 Oct. : 

Allies quit Pekin 5 Nov. 

Treaty between Russia and China — the former ob- 
taining free trade, territories, <fcc. . 14 Nov. 

First instalment of indemnity paid . . 30 Nov. 

Part of the allied troops settled at Tien-tsin ; con- 
sulate established 5 Jan. 

Adm. Hope examines Yang-tse-Kiang, &c. . Feb. 

English and French embassies established at Pekin, 

March, 

The emperor Heinfung dies . . .21 Aug. 

Canton restored to the Chinese . .21 Oct. 

Ministerial crisis; several ministers put to death, 
Nov. ; Kung appointed regent . . 13 Dec. 

Advance of the rebels ; they seize and desolate 
Ning-po and Hang-ehow .... Dec. 

They advance on Shang-hae, which is placed under 
protection of the English and French, and 
fortified Jan. 

Rebels defeated in two engagements . April, 

English and French assist the government against 
the rebels — Ning-po retaken . . 10 May, 

French admiral Protet killed in an attack on rebels, 

17 May, 

Captain Sherard Osborne permitted by the British 
government to organise a small fleet of gunboats 
to aid the imperialists to establish order July, 

Imperialists gain ground, take Kali-sing, &c. Oct. 

Tungani (Mahometan) revolt in Central Asia ; mas- 
sacre of Buddhists 

Commercial treaty with Prussia ratified 14 Jan. 

The Imperialists under col. Charles Gordon defeat 
the Taepings under Burgevine, &c. . Oct. 

Gordon captures Sowchow (after a severe attack, 
27, 28, Nov.) ; the rebel chiefs treacherously 
butchered by the Chinese . . 4, 5 Dec. 
Capt. Osborne came to China : but retired in con- 
sequence of the Chinese government departing 
from its engagements .... 31 Dec. 

Gordon's successes continue . Jan. to April, 
Repulsed ; he takes Chang-chow-foo 23 March, 

He takes Nankin (a heap of ruins) ; Hun-seu-tseun, 
theTien-wang, the rebel emperor, commits suicide 
by eating gold leaf, 30 June ; Chang-wang and 
Kan-wang, the rebel generals, are "cut into a 
thousand pieces .... 18 July, 

Great mortality among British troops at Kowloon, 

Jan. 

The Taepings hold Ming-chow ; the Mahometan 
rebellion (Douganese) progressing in Honau, 

Jan. -March, 

Taepings evacuate Ming-chow . . 23 May, 

Rebellion in the north advancing . . June, 

A rebellion of the Nien-fei in the north ; Pekin in 
danger July, 

The Chinese general San-ko-lin-sin defeated and 
slain ; his son more successful . . July, 

Prince Kung chief of the regency again . 7 Nov. 

Sir Rutherford Alcock, ambassador at Pekin, 

26 Nov. 

Chinese newspaper "Messenger of the Flying 
Dragon," appears in London . . 14 Jan. 

Great victory over the Nien-fei announced at Canton 

13 March, 

Chinese commissioners visit London . June, 

Rivalry of two great political chiefs in China, Li- 
Hung Chang and Tsen-kvvo-fan . . July, 

Reported victory over the Nien-fei over the impe- 
rialists Dec. i 

Mahomed Yakoob Beg defeats the Tungani, becomes 
supreme in Kashgar, 1866 ; is recognised by 
Europe 

The rebels seize Ningpo .... Oct. i 

The people at Yang-chow, incited by the "literati" 
(learned classes) destroy the Protestant mission- 
houses, 22 Aug. : redress not obtained ; a British 
squadron proceeds to Nankin, 8 Nov. ; the vice- 
roy Li-Hung-Chang is superseded, and the 
British demands acceded to . . 14 Nov. 

Chinese embassy (Mr. Anson Burlinghame, Chin 
Kang, and Sun Chia Su) received by president 
Johnson at Washington, 5 June ; they sign a 
treaty (see Burlinghame) ; 4 July ; arrive in Lon- 
don, Sept. ; received by the queen . 20 Nov. 

Chinese embassy received by the emperor at Paris 

24 Jan. : 

s 2 



CHINA. 



260 



CHINA. 



Pekin visited by the duke of Edinburgh, incognito, 

Oct. 1869 

Supplementary convention to the treaty of Tien-tsin 
(June, 1858) for additional commercial freedom, 
signed 24 Oct. „ 

Burlinghame dies at St. Petersburg . 22 Feb. 1870 

Successful rebellion of Mahometans in north-west 
provinces reported May, ,, 

Cruel massacre of the French consul at Tien-tsin, 
Roman catholic priests, sisters of Mercy (22 per- 
sons), besides many native converts, and above 
30 children in the orphanage, by a mob, with, it 
is said, the complicity of the authorities : the 
missionaries were accused of kidnapping children, 

21 June, ,, 

Increased hatred of the people to foreigners at Tien- 
tsin ; lukewarm proceedings of the government 
against the murderers .... July, ,, 

Ma, a viceroy of Nankin, favourable to Europeans, 
assassinated .... about 22 Aug. „ 

Chapels destroyed at Fatshan . . 21 Sept. „ 

The French ultimatum refused ; the murderers of 
the nuns unpunished ; Chinese warlike prepara- 
tions reported 26 Sept. „ 

Judicious mandate from the mandarin Tseng-kwo- 
fan, exculpating the missionaries, and condemn- 
ing their massacre Oct. ,, 

16 coolies beheaded, 15 Sept., and 23 exiled ; in- 
demnity to the sufferers by the outrage ordered ; 
reported 26 Oct. ,, 

End of the difficulty announced . . 3 Nov. ,, 

Chung-how, an envoy, arrives in London . Aug. 1871 

Memorial addressed to the Chinese government by 
Mr. Hart, inspector of customs, recommending 
changes in civil and military administration, 

autumn, 

The young emperor married ... 16 Oct. ,, 

Received at Paris ; apologizes for Tien-tsin massa- 
cres, and reports redress ... 23 Nov. ,, 

Russia annexes Kuldja ,, 

Win. Armstrong Russell consecrated Anglican 
bishop of North China .... Dec. ,, 

The emperor's majority ; he assumes the govern- 
ment 23 Feb. 1873 

Talifoo, capital of the insurgent Panthay Mahome- 
tans, captured ; thousands massacred . Feb. „ 

Foreign ministers for the first time received by the 
emperor 29 June, ,, 

Dispute with Japan, see Formosa, July-Aug. ; 
settled by treaty 31 Oct. 1874 

The Spark sails from Canton to Macao ; capt. Brady 
and Mr. Mnndy, and a foreign crew and passen- 
gers ; pirates, who came on board secretly, kill 
captain and others, and carry off booty, while 
on voyage ; the wounded crew manage to reach 
Macao 22 Aug. ,, 

Death of the emperor .... 12 Jan. 1875 

Proclamation of his successor, Tsai-tien, son of 
Chun, 7th son of Taou-Twang (nephew of Kung), 

4 Feb. „ 

Exploring expedition under col. Horace Browne 
to open a passage from Burmah into S. W. China, 
Dec. 1874 ; Mr. Margary and 5 Chinese going 
before, killed at Manwyne, 21 Feb. ; col. Browne 
and his troops repulse an attack by Chinese, but 
retreat to Rangoon, 22 Feb. ; some of the party 
missing 12 March, „ 

Through negotiations of Mr. Wade, the Chinese 
government promise due reparation ; announced 

Sept. ,, 

Edict permitting intercourse between chiefs of 
depart ments and foreign ministers, about 4 Oct.; 
enjoining proper treatment of foreigners, n Oct. ,, 

Telegram from Mr. Wade ; he has obtained necessary 
guarantees, satisfaction for the murder of Mr. Mar- 
gary, and coi ssions for foreign trade 18 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Lee-see-ta-hee ordered for trial, u Feb. ; Mar- 
gary's murderers Bald to be executed, 5 May, 1876 

First railway in China, from Shang-hae to Oussoon 
(Woosung), (11 milrs); trial trip, [6 March (at 
li^i opposed) ; publicly opened . p June, ,, 

Mr. Grosvenorand others, senl to inquire respecting 
the murder nf Mr. Margary, arrive al the place 
and repoii the proposed punishment of the 
murderers Tune, ., 

• '1 -I 'imventiini between sir Tims. Wade and 

Li-Hung-Chang; difficulties in the negotiations 
removed (the government agree to compensation 



to Mr. Margary's family ; removal of commercial 
grievances ; opening of four ports ; proper official 
intercourse) ; said to be signed, 13 Sept. ; rati- 
fied . . . . . . 17 Sept. 1S76 

War against the Tungani ; Manas captured ; great 
massacre of rebels .... 6 Nov. ,, 

Accredited Chinese envoy (Quo-ta-Zhan) lands at 
Southampton 21 Jan. 1877 

Decree of equal rights to Chinese Christians, 1 Feb. ,, 

Dreadful famine in northern provinces . . . ,, 

Four more Chinese ports opened . . 1 April, , r 

Opium smoking interdicted after 3 years ; an- 
nounced Aug. ,, 

The railway from Shang-hae bought to be stopped, 
31 Oct. ; resumed Dec. ,, 

Quo-ta-Zhan (or Kuo-ta-Jen) first accredited minis- 
ter at London ; Liu-ta-Jen at Berlin about Nov. ,, 

Yakoob Beg of Kashgaria totally defeated by the 
Chinese general, Tso-tsung-tang ; is assassinated, 
May ; Kashgar and other towns captured ; end 
of war Dec. ,, 

The Chinese minister's first grand evening reception 

19 June, 1878 

Destruction of mission property at Wu-shih-shan 
by a fanatical mob, unrestrained by the mandarins 

30 Aug. ,,. 

Famine abating; 48,303?. for relief collected in 
England Sept. , r 

The Shang-hae railway plant removed to For- 
mosa ,, 

Chinese immigrants virtually excluded from Aus- 
tralia by a poll-tax ,, 

Rebellion in Kwang-si, announced . . Oct. ,, 

Chung-How, ambassador at St. Petersburg, demands 
the surrender of Kuli Beg, a fugitive from Kash- 
gar, and restitution of the territory . Dec. „ 

Rebellion in Hainan, in Canton province ; Li- 
Yang-tsai, who invades Annam, claims the 
throne by descent ; reported . . . Jan. 1879 

Marquis Tseng, the new Chinese ambassador, 
arrives in London, 28 Feb. ; presents his cre- 
dentials to the queen ... 20 March, „ 

Treaty with Russia, who agrees to evacuate the 
Kuldja territory, China to pay an indemnity 

about June, , r 

Li-Yang-tsai, rebel chief, captured ; announced 

2 Dec. „ 

Chung-How, the late Chinese ambassador at St. 
Petersburg, imprisoned and the treaty disavowed 

spring, 1880 

Chinese from Kashgar said to invade Russian 
territory May, ,, 

Prospect of war ; col. Gordon goes to China from 
Bombay June, ,, 

Li-Hung-Chang, governor of metropolitan pro- 
vinces, fortifies approaches to the capital, June; 
visited by col. Gordon .... July, ,, 

Chung-How released ; proposed war With Russia 
given up ; announced . . . 15 July, ,, 

Thomas duke of Genoa sails up the Yang-tse-Kiang 
in an Italian vessel .... April, „ 

Peace with Russia, who makes concessions nego- 
tiated by marquis Tseng; treaty signed 19 Aug. i88r 

Complication with France respecting Tonquin (see 
Tonquin) Sept. 1883 

Mr. Logan sentenced to seven years' penal servi- 
tude for killing a coolie at Canton . . Sept. ,, 

Canton greatly excited against foreigners . Oct. ,, 

Correspondence ofFranceand ChinarespectingTon- 
quin published in the Times, both firm 29 Oct. ,, 

Warm reception of sir Henry Parkes as British 
ambassador Sept. ,, 

China issues a circular claiming Annam as a de- 
pendency Nov. ,, 

Coup ill tui at Pekin effected by prince Chun, 

father of the reigning emperor, who becomes 

dictator; prince Kung, and the viceroy Li-Hung- 

Chang, deposed . . . . n April, ct scq. 1884 

The marquis Tseng recalled from Paris, announced 

2 May, ,, 

Replaced by Li-Fong-Pao . . about 8 May, ,, 
Treaty with France, signed by capt. Fournier and 
Li-Hung-Chang, at Tientsin : French protectorate 
ofAnnam and Tonquin recognized ; three southern 
provinces opened to commerce . . n May, ,, 
The Chinese break the treaty by attacking the 
French marching to occupy Langson (sec Tonquin) ,, 



CHINA. 



261 



CHINA. 



The French demand evacuation of the Tonquin 

frontier forts, and io,ooo,oooZ. indemnity . July, 1884 
The war party at Pekin oppose the empress and 

Li-Hung-Chang the viceroy . . . July, ,, 
The frontier towns to be surrendered, the indemnity 

refused, announced . . . .3° July> »> 
China offers reduced indemnity . . . Aug. ,, 
Kelung in Formosa bombarded and forts destroyed 

by alleged treachery by adm. Lespes 5, 6 Aug. ,, 
Adm. Courbet at Foochow . . . 10 Aug. ,, 
Negotiations at Shanghai .... Aug. ,, 
France declines mediation of the powers ; France 

issues a circular to the powers . 17 Aug. ,, 

Indemnity claimed by France, reduced to 3,200,000^. 

19 Aug. ; refused by China ,, 

The French ambassador, Semalle, leaves Pekin ; 

war ensues 21 Aug. ,, 

Adm. Courbet with his fleet sails up the Min river 
unattacked ; destroys the Chinese fleet with 
much slaughter, 23 Aug. ; bombards the arsenal 
at Foochow, and dismantles the forts ; destroys the 
forts and batteries, &c, at Mingan and Kinpai ; 
French killed, about 7 ; Chinese said to be about 
1000. ...... 26-28 Aug. „ 

iLi-Hung-Chang deprived of his highest offices about 

28 Aug. ,, 
Chinese declaration of war, in a manifesto to the 
people, announced .... 6 Sept. ,, 

H.M. gun-boat Zephyr fired on by mistake, 6 Sept.; 
Chinese apologise . . . . 18 Sept. ,, 

Chinese sa.d to be defeated at Kinpai Pass, about 

16 Sept. ,, 
Europeans, at Shanghai and other places, protest 

against the war Sept. ,, 

Li-Hung-Chang reappointed viceroy about 24 Sept. „ 
Adm. Courbet captures Kelung 1 Oct. ; adm. Lespes 
bombards Tamsui, 2 et seq. Oct. ; lands ; retires 

8 Oct. „ 
N. and W. Formosa blockaded . . 23 Oct. ,, 
Kelung occupied by French ; little resistance 8 Oct. ,, 
1000 Chinese defeated near Tamsui, 2 Nov. ; re- 
pulsed in attack on Kelung. announced 12 Nov. „ 
Fruitless mediation of earl Granville with marquis 

Tseng, announced .... 10 Dec. ,, 

Eeported Chinese defeat near Kelung . . 13 Dec. ,, 
The native press, originally official (Pekin Gazette, 

ancient), becomes political and popular . . ,, 
Foreign Enlistment Act proclaimed at Hong Kong 

23 Jan. 1885 
French attack near Kelung, Chinese works carried 

25 Jan. ,, 
Chinese defeated with much loss 31 Jan. ,, 

Two Chinesejunks sunk by French torpedoes, 15 Feb. ,, 
Bombardment of Chin-hae, at the mouth of the 

Yung-Kiang river .... 2 March, „ 
Siege of Tuyen Quan, much slaughter 2-3 March, ,, 
Several forts at Kelung captured, 

Sanguinary conflicts . . . 4-12 March, ,, 
Sir Harry Parkes, ambassador, dies . 22 March, ,, 
Pescadores Islands captured . . 30-31 March, ,, 
Preliminaries of peace, through intervention of sir 
Robt. Hart, signed at Pekin about 6 April ; treaty 
signed 9 June ; ratified ... 28 Nov. ,, 

Sir Robert Hart, British ambassador, 23 June ; 

resigns about 31 Aug. ,, 

.Formosa evacuated about . . .23 June, ,, 
Introduction of railways authorized — new policy 

about Aug. ,, 
Disputes with Japan settled ; reported . Aug. ,, 
The emperor agrees to receive a papal agent to 

protect R. C. missionaries . . . July, „ 

Death of Tso Tsung-Tang, a great statesman and 

guardian of the king .... 4 Sept. ,, 
Sir John Walsham British minister . 7 April, 1886 
Liu-shin-fun, ambassador for Great Britain, arrives 

28 April, ,, 
M. Agliardi appointed Internuncio . 14 July, ,, 
The scheme suspended by the Pope through French 

opposition .... about 15 Sept. ,, 
Convention with many concessions by the British 
government respecting the Burmese frontiers 
and trade signed at Pekin ... 24 July, ,, 
The French consent to the transfer of the Pehtang 
Cathedral from its contiguity with the palace 

Nov. „ 
The Chinese annul the French protectorate over 
all christians Nov. ,, 



Decanville railway successfully opened 21 Nov. 1 
General proclamations for protection of christian 
missionaries and converts, excluding foreign 

protection Jan. 1 

Remarkable presents from the emperor to sir Halli- 
day Macartney, secretary of the British and other 
legations (for good services to China) received in 

London Feb. 

The emperor, aged 16, assumes the government 

7 Feb. 

Convention between Great Britain and China, 

respecting Burmah and Thibet, signed 24 July, 

and ratified 25 Aug. 

Chinese fleet of five ironclads (three constructed in 
Britain) at Spithead ; sail for China under 
admiral Lang with others lent by the Admiralty 

Sept. 
Commercial treaty with Franc?, 1886 ; signed and 

ratified Aug. 

Reported convention of Li-Hung-Chang, the viceroy, 
with count Mitkiewicz and an American syndi- 
cate for introduction of railways, telegraphs, 
telephones, &c.,and a loan, Aug. ; repudiated by 
the Chinese government .... Oct. 
Overflow of the Hoang Ho, or Yellow River, caus- 
ing immense destruction; about 1,500 populous 
villages destroyed, and the important city 
Chuhsien Chen narrowly escaped with loss of 
suburbs ; millionsofpersonssaid to have perished ; 
famine imminent ; the government active in pro- 
viding relief Sept. -Oct. 

Treaty with United States to allow Chinese immigra- 
tion for 20 years with some exceptions (lawful 
marriage and children, property worth 1,000 
dollars, &c.) signed 14 March, 1888 ; China 
refuses the ratification .... Sept. 
The empress-mother announces her resignation 
of the administration of government, which is to 
be assumed by the emperor . . 27 July, 
The Chinese Exclusion Act vigorously carried out 
at San Francisco, and at other places middle Oct. 
Railway from Tientsin to Taku opened . Nov. 
Conventions with Italy and Germany for them to 
protect their missionaries . . announced Dec. 
New R. C. cathedral at Pekin consecrated 8 Dec. 
Great famine in consequence of inundations of 
the Yangtsze and Yellow River valleys announced 
Jan. 1889; relief money sent from London, above 
3o,oooL (gratefully acknowledged) (see Mansion 

House Fund) 

Riots at Chin-Kiang, the British consulate and 

foreigners' houses burnt . . . 4, 5 Feb. 

Marriage of the Emperor .... 25 Feb. 

Hsieh Ta Jen appointed minister for London, Paris, 

Brussels, and Rome, announced . 4 June, 

Luchow, in the province of Szechuen, destroyed by 

fire, about 1,200 persons perish . . 27 June, 

The Yellow River bursts its banks at Shantung, and 

inundates the country, and countless lives are 

lost, reported 26 July, 

Great inundations in North China through ty- 
phoons ; about 5,000 persons perish, reported 

30 Aug. 
The Yellow River again burst its banks, causing 
much destruction about . . .22 July, 
Insurrection in the province of Fuhkien ; sup- 
pressed ; 100 insurgents killed ; announced 9 Sept. 
The construction of a trunk railway from Pekin to 
Hankow, 700 miles, proposed . . . Aug. 
The project postponed through opposition Dec. 
Insurrection in the Amour district of Manchuria ; 
reported success of the rebels ; they seize the 
town Lan-pei-tuan ; imperialists defeated in 
battles ; announced .... Dec. 

Collapse of a temple theatre at Hangting, near 
Shantung ; about 250 persons killed 13 Oct. 

Imperial decree for reforms in the army and civil 
services ; promoted by the emperor . Jan. -Feb. 
Convention for the opening of the Chung-King to 
commerce signed at Pekin . . 31 March, 
Death of the marquis Tseng, eminent statesman 

12 April, 

The duke and duchess of Connaught honourably 

received in Canton and Shanghai . . May, 

Great floods at Pekin, Tungchow and Tientsin; 

business stopped, 3 Aug. ; renewal of the Yellow 

River inundations early Sept. ; also in the 



S3 7 



CHINA. 



262 



CHINA. 



provinces Shantung and Chilili ; great loss of life 
and prospect of famine reported . . 16 Oct. i 

Explosion of the government powder magazine at 
Canton, killing many persons and destroying 200 
houses, 15 Aug. ; a similar explosion at Taiping- 
Pu, 300 persons killed, reported . 7 Nov. 

Massacre of many native Christians at Jong- 
tuytsin and other places by a fanatical society 
reported Dec. 

An imperial decree, granting audience of the 
emperor to representatives of foreign powers 
issued 12 Dec. 

The first audience .... 5 March, : 

Death of prince Chung, father of the emperor, 
reported 2 Jan. 

Disastrous floods in Shue-Shang, Wen-Chnan, and 
other districts, about 1,000 lives lost, early Feb. 

Anti-European riots at Wuhu ; much destruction ; 
British consulate wrecked ; the consul and his 
wife escape ; quiet restored by force, 12, 13 May, 

Increased popular anti-foreign; gitation throughout 
China, June ; the diplomatic body appeal to the 
government ; the emperor issues a decree for the 
protection of foreigners and punishment of 
aggressors about 15 June, 

French church and orphanage at Woosieh destroyed 
by fire 9 June, 

Loss of life and much destruction by the rising of 
the Yang-tse-Kiang about . . .21 July, 

Continued persecution of foreigners ; the imperial 
decree ineffectual ; the diplomatic body press the 
government about .... 18 Aug. 

The Kolao Hui, a secret society, strongly opposed 
to foreigners and Christianity, active, summer, 

The American mission at Ishang destroyed, 1 1 Sept. 

The outrages against foreigners increase ; the diplo- 
matic body report to their respective govern- 
ments about 15 Sept. 

Great Britain, France, Germany and the United 
States, N.A., unite for the common support of 
their people against Chinese violence, reported 

21 Sept. 

Compensation paid to the sufferers in Wuhu by the 
viceroy about 23 Oct. 

British squadron and other vessels at Nagasaki 
and other ports about .... 23 Oct. 

A modus Vivendi with the Chinese authorities 
arranged by the European ministers, reported 

11 Nov. 

Insurrection in Mongolia and N. China against 
foreigners and native Christians ; reported mas- 
sacres, Nov. ; suppressed by government troops 
after battles, with much slaughter 28, 29 Nov. 

Agreement of the Hunan societies against Euro- 
peans, &c, published at Shanghai about 7 Dec. 

Memorials of the viceroys of Nanking and Hukuang 
(attributing the anti-foreign outrages to baseless 
rumours circulated by conspirators) issued Dec. 

The government pays indemnities amounting to 
ioo,ooo£. to Christian missions and others, and 
punishes Chinese officials and offenders . Dec. 
Mr. Christopher Gardner, British consul, and Dr. 
Griffith John, missionary, assert that the anti- 
foreign outbreaks originated with the local man- 
darins, aidi'd by Chanhan (or Chou Han), an 
eminent Hunan scholai and writer of offensive 
placards, &c, reported .... Dee 

The rebels in the north, headed by Li Hung, 
defeated by Yuhi, reported . . . 3 Jan. 
Mr. Nicholas R. O'Conor appointed British minister 

at Pckin about 4 March, 

Chanhan, the agitalnr. ordered t<> be arrested. 25 
March ; not arrested ; the right of audience by 
the emperor requested by the foreign ministers, 
rejected, early April, 

Bill for the stringent exclusion of Chinese immi- 
grants from the United States, N. A., passed by 
congress early May, 

Renewed outrages on European missionaries 
27 April, reported .... 14 June. 

Great lire at Tchang ; about 511 junks destroyed and 
200 lives losl 4 Sept. 

Great inundation by the Yellow River; 12 towns 
said i" be desl roj ed ; reported . . 23 Sept. 

Mr. OX'oniir. Hritish minister, warmly received 
informally by the emperor ... 13 Dec. 

The ancestors of sir Hallidaj Macartney raised to 
mandarins, reported .... Dec. 



Famine in N. Shen-si reported . . 8 March, 

The Chinese exclusion (immigration) act in the 
United States comes into effect ; (107,475 in the 
States) 5 May, 

Kung Chao-quan appointed minister at St. James's, 
reported 29 June, 

Chinese exclusion amended bill passed by the U.S. 
senate 2 Nov. 

Insurrection in Manchuria reported . 31 May, 

Gen. Ting sent to suppress the rising, and to re- 
dress grievances, reported 4 June ; rebellion sub- 
sides 14 June, 

War with Japan, see Corea .... July, 

Murderous outrages on missionaries ; murder of 
the rev. James Wylie, presbyterian, by soldiers 
at Liao-Yang ; the murderers beheaded and 
officers degraded, reported . . .15 Sept. 

Treatybetween China and United States ratified Aug. 

Great fire in Chung King ; many deaths 25 Aug. 

Disorganization of the government and its resources 
reported Aug. 

Prince Kung returns to power, announced Oct. 

Imperial edict for the protection of foreigners and 
missionaries 15 Oct. 

Li Hung Chang (minister) superseded by prince 
Kung with enlarged powers . . 4 Nov. 

Rebellion at Wu-hu ; admiral Fremantle proceeds 
there, reported 10 Dec. 

Prince Kung appointed president of the grand 
council, virtually dictator ; Li Hung Chang 
returns to power 13 Dec. 

Risings in S.W. Kwang-tung, government troops 
repulsed, reported . . . .22 March, 

Treaty of peace with Japan, concluded ; see Corea, 
17 April ; ratifications exchanged . 8 May, 

Foreign mission houses at Chengtu and Szechuan 
destroyed by rioters ; missionaries safe 29, 

31 May, 

Loan of 16,000,000?. sterling from France and 
Russia, reported June, 

Treaty with France respecting boundaries, com- 
merce, etc., signed at Pekin . . . 25 June, 

Loan of 4oo,ooo,ooof. 4 per cent, guaranteed by 
Russia, signed at Pekin, 4 Julv, at St. Petersburg, 

6 July, 

Massacre of British missionaries (the rev. R. W. 
Stewart, 8 ladies and 2 children) at Whasang, 
near Ku-cheng by a fanatical sect called Vege- 
tarians 1 Aug. 

British and American missions attacked, hospitals 
destroyed at Fatshan .... 7 Aug. 

The British governmentdemands immediate redress 

17 Aug. 

Japan demands an indemnity for giving up the 
Liao-tong peninsula ; evacuations to begin on 
first payment, Aug. ; supplementary treaty 
signed - . 8 Nov. 

The Chinese government acting with the foreign 
consuls ; arrests and punishes criminals ; re- 
ported Aug. 

Additional outrages reported in Aug. ; 10 members 
of the Vegetarian society and others convicted 
about 28 Aug. ; 7 criminals executed at Ku- 
cheng 17 Sept- 
Insurrection of the Dungans, Chinese troops 
defeated near Su-chau, gen. Soui beheaded ; re- 
ported 22 Sept. 

British ultimatum demanding the degradation of 
the viceroy of Szu-chuan and others, 28 Sept. ; 
accepteil by China 30 Sept. 

China agrees to pay compensation to Germany for 
the plundering of a mission station at Swatau; 
an agreement concluded at Shanghai for a crown 
concession to Gi rmany at Han-kau, 6 Oct. ; and 
atTien-tsin; reported, 30 Oct 

The viceroy of Fo-kien agrees to the trial and 
punishment of I hose convicted in the Ku-cheng 
massacres, owing to the arrival of the British 

admiral ; reported .... 15 Oct. 

An explosion on the transport Kung Pai, near 

Kinchau, 500 soldiers killed . 14 Oct. 

Lan-chau fu, capital ofKansu, captured by Maho- 

medailS : reported '31 Oct. 

Li-Hung-Chang charged with orders to suppress 
the Insurrection ; mutiny of troops at Kiu-kiang 
Khiaiig Nov. 

Sii C. M. Macdonald appointed British envoy and 
minister at Pekin, Jan. ; arrives . 22 April, 



1896 



CHINA. 

Anglo-German loan for 16,000,000/. at 5 per cent, 
signed at Pekin .... 24 March 1 

Sir Robert Hart appointed superintendent of posts 
and telegraphs ; reported . . .30 March 

China enters the postal union . . .2 April 

M. Gerard, French mini ter, recalled . 2 April 

Mahomedan rebellion : a town in Kansu captured 
by the Dnngans ; reported . . .25 May 

Li-Hung-Chang, grand secretary, received by the 
Czar at St. Petersburg, 4 May ; travels in Ger- 
many — Berlin (honoured), Essen, etc., visits 
prince Bismarck, 25 June ; at the Hague, 4 July ; 
Brussels, 8 July ; Paris, 13 July ; London and 
other cities, 1-21 Aug; received by the marquis 
of Salisbury, 4 Aug. ; received and decorated by 
the queen at Osborne, 5 Aug. ; arrives at New 
York, 28 Aug., received by pres. Cleveland, 
29 Aug. ; Canada : Toronto, 7 Sept. ; leaves 
Victoria, full of gratitude, 16 Sept. ; Yokohama, 
27 Sept. ; Pekin 20 Oct. ; appointed minister for 
foreign affairs 26 Oct. 

Second payment of war indemnity to Japan at the 
bank of England (4,400,506/.) . . . 8 May 

Tidal wave at Hai-chau, 4,000 lives lost 26 July, 

Reparation granted for the injuries done to French 
missionaries, at Kwei-chau, since 1886 Sept. 

Sun Wen or Sun Yat Sen, medical student, detained 
at the Chinese legation, London, on suspicion of 
being a conspirator, 11 Oct. ; released by the in- 
tervention of lord Salisbury ... 23 Oct. 

Ministers appointed in London, Washington, Berlin, 
and St. Petersburg ; announced . 24 Nov. 

Chinese Eastern, or Russian Manchurian railway ; 
see Russia ; Dec. 1896. 

Baron von Wahlborn appointed first Austro-Hun- 
garian minister at Pekin ; announced ; 10 Jan. 1 

Sheng Ta-jen, director of railways ; contract for 
the construction of the Han-K.au railway signed 
with a Belgian syndicate . . -30 May, 

Chang Yin-huan, special envoy, arrives in England, 

26 May, 

Prince Oukhtomsky's mission to Pekin ; well re- 
ceived May, 

New Russian bank opened at Pekin . 27 May, 

The West river opened to foreign trade . 4 June, 

Reparation demanded by Germany for the recent 
murder of 2 German missionaries ; troops landed 
at Kiao-chau bay : the Chinese retired, 14 Nov. ; 
indemnity, 200,000 taels (about 35,000/.), etc., 
refused ; 29 Nov. ; [Kiao-chau, ceded to Germany, 
with adjacent territory, 99 yrs. lease; 5 Jan. : 
ratified ; 24 Jan. 1898.] 

Russian fleet, arrives at Kinchau, near Port Arthur, 
with China's approval . . . .18 Dec. 

Li Hung Chang recalled to power . . 3 Jan. 1 

Negotiations with Gt. Britain and Russia, re- 
specting loans, fail . . . Jan., Feb. 

Trains blown up with dynamite, by the insurgents, 
near Nuevitas ; 3 deaths ; reported . 25 Jan. 

Japan claims payment of the indemnity, 9 Feb. 
(11,008,857/. paid by the bank of England on 
behalf of China, 7 May). 

Inland waters to be opened to British and other 
steamers, with regulations, in June . 20 Feb. 

Pere Favier (30 years resident) consecrated as 
bishop at Pekin 20 Feb. 

Chinese loan of 16,000,000/. at \\ percent., between 
Hong-kong and other banks ; ratified . 3 March, 

German-Chinese agreement relating to privileges in 
Shan-tung, signed .... 6 March, 

Four ports opened to trade, April ; see Russia, 
England, and France, 1898. 

The Yangtsze trade regulations, drawn up by sir 
Robert Hart, agreed to . . . 13 May, 

Death of prince Kung, aged 68 . . 29 May, 

Wei-hai-wei, occupied by the British, 30 May ; con- 
vention signed 1 July 

Successful steam navigation of the Yangtsze 
rapids (750 miles) by Mr. Little. . . May, 

Prince Henry and the German squadron visits Kiao- 
chau, 5 May ; received by the emperor and em- 
press at Pekin .... 15-18 May, 

Serious riots at Sha-shi, Japanese consulate and 
other offices, &c, destroyed, 9 May ; indemnity, 
&c, paid ...'.... 12 July, 

Indemnity and concession* granted to France for 
the murder of pere Berthollet . . 7 June, 



263 CHINA. 



Convention signed at Pekin leasing extension of 
boundaries to Hong-kong . . .9 June, 

Rebellion in Kwaug-tung ; a magistrate and his 
wife killed ; reported .... 10 June, 

Concession for Grand-central railway from Hankau 
to Pekin secured by Franco-Belgian syndicate ; 
reported 15 June, 

Contract signed at Pekin, authorizing the Anglo- 
Italian syndicate to work coal and iron mines 
in Honan, &c, for 60 years . . 21 June, 

Typhoon at Port Arthur, 130 Chinese sailors 
drowned ; reported . . . .23 June, 

Riots in Shanghai concerning the sale by the 
French local authorities of the Ning-po guild 
cemetery, French marines and police fire on the 
mob, 14 natives killed, 16 July ; provisional 
agreement, quiet restored, . . .18 July, 

Contract for Russian loan for the Pekin Han- 
kau railway ratified . . . • . 12 Aug. 

Black Flag rising in Kwang-si ; British consul at 
Wu-chau telegraphs for gunboats, 28 June ; a 
magistrate and many officials killed ; nine towns 
captured, and troops defeated near Wu-chau, 
reported 12 July ; further conflicts reported, 

19 Aug. 

Li Hung Chang dismissed from the Tsung-li-Yamen 
by decree 7 Sept. 

Reforms progressing ; reported . . Sept. 

American and French missions attacked at Ho- 
chau, 50 miles from Chung-king ; reported, 
Sept. 1898 [indemnity paid to the United States, 
Jan. 1899]. 

Coup d'etat, regency of the empress restored, re- 
actionary policy, flight of Kang-Yu-Wei, reformer 
(saved by British consuls, and conveyed to 
Hong-kong) 22 Sept. 

The marquis Ito visits Pekin, received by the 
emperor 20 Sept. 

Six members of the reform party executed 

28 Sept. 

Great fire at Han-kau, 1000 deaths reported, 1 Oct. 

Violent insults to Europeans, 1 Oct. ; foreign 
escorts arrive at Pekin . . . .7 Oct. 

Reformers in office dismissed . . .10 Oct. 

Lord Charles Beresford, on a commercial mission, 
arrives at Pekin, 16 Oct. ; well received at 
Chinese ports ; returns to Hong-kong, advocates 
the "open door" (which see), 3 Jan. 1899. 

French missionary and converts massacred at Pak- 
lung ; indemnity demanded by France . 20 Oct. 

Military outrages on Englishmen near Pekin, rail- 
way work stopped, 23, 24 Oct. ; Chinese troops 
removed 15-27 Nov. 

Yellow river floods in Shan-tung, villages destroyed, 
early Nov. ; Li Hung Chang sent to concert pre- 
ventive measures, 30 Nov. [his report issued, end 
of March, 1899]. 

Chinese force (1000) enrolled under British officers 
at Wei-hai-wei mid-Nov. 

M. de Giers, new Russian minister, arrives, 

24 Nov. 

Mr. W. S. Fleming, British missionary, murdered 
at Pang-hai, 4 Nov. (2 murderers executed and 3 
officials degraded, Jan. 1899 > further reparation 
demanded, June, July). 

Anti-Christian riot in Hu-pei, French priest killed 

Dec. 

Great distress reported Dec. 

Rebels defeated at Sah-chiao-tsang . 27 Dec. 

Edict initiating administrative reforms issued 

30 Dec. 

Tseng-ho, governor of Hu-pei, in favour of reforms, 
degraded Jan. 

Insurrection in An-hui Jan. 

Hu Yu Fen, director of northern railways, dis- 
missed, Jan. ; sir Claude. Macdonald insists on an 
investigation, 31 Jan. ; Hu Yu Fen is acquitted, 

7 Mar. 

Russian troops (1300) at Port Arthur and neigh- 
bourhood, Feb. ; fight between Russians and 
Chinese at Ta-lien-wan, many Chinese killed, 
reported .... -19 Feb. 

2800 miles of railway granted to British investors 

Feb. 

Sig. Martino, Italian minister, demands a naval 
station at Sammun bay, &c, 28 Feb. ; refused, 
3 March ; ultimatum presented to China, 



CHINA. 



264 



CHINA. 



rejected, u, 12 March ; sig. Martino recalled, and 
his action disavowed by his government, 14 Mar. 
Su Hsien, founder of the anti-foreign and anti- 
Christian sect, the "Boxers," made governor of 
Shantung Mar. 

Boundary of territory leased by Russia near Port 
Arthur settled, mid. March ; anti-foreign dis- 
disturbances by the Boxers' (Red Fist) and the 
Big Knife societies, in Shantung, March ; Ger- 
man punitive expedition, villages burnt, Yi-chau 
occupied April, 

Anglo-Russian agreement with regard to railway 
extension in Manchuria and the Yang-tsze-kiang, 
&c, signed at St. Petersburg . . 28 April, 

Extension of the cosmopolitan settlement at 
Shanghai, agreed to, ?o June (ratified Dec.) 

Anglo-German Tien-tsin-Chin-kiang railway loan, 
7>4°°)°ooZ. (5 per cent.), ratified at Pekin, 18 May, 

French consulate and other houses at Mong-tsze 
destroyed in a riot 22 June 

Marqu. Salvago-Raggi, new Italian minister, arrives 

24 June 

German railway works raided (18 June) near Kiao- 
chau, troops sent, 17 Chinese killed. 23-26 June 

Two Russian engineers and 10 Cossacks killed by 
brigands in Niu-chwang .... June 

Burmo-Chinese boundary completed . . July, 

Imperial edict against the malpractices of revenue 
officials issued i 2 July, 

Ta-lien-wan declared a free port . . 13 Aug! 

Fight between Chinese troops and brigands at 
Cokton on the West River, many killed 

mid-Aug. 

Russian province of Kwang-tung placed under a 
gov. -gen . early Sept. 

lanoFumio, Japanese minister at Pekin, recalled 

mid-Oct. 

Two French naval officers massacred near Mon- 
tao ; villages seized by adm. Courregolles ; the 

. Chinese repulsed with loss . . 1 5-18 Nov. 

Indemnity demanded by M. Pichon, Nov. [paid 
16 Jan. 1900.] 

Li Hung Chang appointed minister of commerce, 
Nov., and viceroy of Canton . . . Dec. 

Rev. Mr. Brooks massacred by rioters in Shan- 
tung, officials degraded and 2 of the murderers 
beheaded, by edict issued 5 Jan. 1900; another 
edict evasive as to the suppression of the 
"Boxers" and other anti-Christian societies, 
> ssu ed it Jan. : 

■C'cmp d'etat by the empress-dowager, edict issued, 
naming Po Ching ( I4 ), son of prince Tuan, the 
heir-designate 24 Jan. 

Foreign ministers demand the suppression of the 
Boxers and other hostile secret societies 

27 Jan. 

Ivegotiations, edicts issued without effect 

Feb.-Mar. 

Boundary convention of Kwang-chau-wan, 99 years' 
lease to France, ratified, reported . . 4 Mar. 

Extension of the French settlement in Shanghai 

mid-March 

The "open door" in China for the world's com- 
merce successfully promoted by Mr. Hay, U.S.A. 
sec. of state March 

Treacherous attacks on the Wei-hai-wei boundary 
commission repulsed by Chinese under col. Bower 
and capt. Watson 5) 6 May 

Massacre (if native Christians by Boxers between 
Pao-ting-fu and Pekin . . . mid-May 

Troops sent to the disturbed areas; 6 leader's 
arrested in Pekin .... 21 .May, 

Insurrection spreads; railway property, &c, des- 
troyed ; Chinese employes killed .' 27 May. 

Feng-tai railway station' burnt by the Boxers; 
refugees arrive at Pekin . . . 28 Maj 

Evasive edict, practically encouraging the Boxers 
issued 2C , M a y 

Emphatic protests rethe Boxer movement from the 
legations to the Yamfin . . 20-30 May, 

Foreign marine guards (340 ; 75 British), arrive at 
(lie Pekin legal ion .... 31 May, 

Pao-ting-fu refugees attacked by Boxers/., killed 
and many missing . . * . .31 May, 

Mr. Norman and Mr. Robinson, missionaries, and 
5 converts murdered at Yung-ehing . 2 June, 

Huang-tsun station burnt, employes killed by the 
Boxers . . . ' . . 4 June, 



German and Austrian guards arrive in Pekin, 

3-5 June, 1900 

Foreign reinforcements land at Tien-tsin, 5 June, ,, 

Railway communication stopped at Pekin, anti- 
foreign movement still spreading, another evasive 
edict issued 6 June, ,, 

Massacres and destruction of railway and mission 
stations spreading from Pekin district to other 
provinces 7, 8 June, ,, 

Imperial edict decreeing a massacre of foreigners, 
issued 9 June (changed into a protective edict 
by 3 members of the Tsung-li-Yamen, who were 
afterwards cruelly executed, 14 Aug.). 

The Tsung-li-Yamen reorganised under prince Tuan 
and 3 Manchus 10 June, ,, 

Adm. sir Edw. Seymour's force defeats the Boxers 
at Lang-fang n June, ,, 

M. Sugiyama, Japanese chancellor, murdered by 
Chinese troops in Pekin . . .11 June, ,, 

Massacre of native converts and foreign employes 
in Pekin, buildings burnt . . 13, 14 June, ,, 

Disbandment of troops in the Taku forts demanded 
by allies, 16 June ; the forts open fire on allied 
fleets, but are captured . . .17 June, ,, 

Tien-tsin foreign settlement fiercely attacked, 

17 June, ,, 
Stern message from France to the viceroy of Yun- 
nan, respecting the safety of the missions there, 

18 June, ,, 
Adm. Seymour repels the enemy at Lang-fang, 

14, 18 June, ,, 
Mr. James Watts (C.M.G., May, 1901) carries 

despatches from Tien-tsin to Ta-ku . 19 June, ,, 
Foreign legations ordered to quit Pekin 19 June, ,, 
Baron von Ketteler murdered by Chinese troops in 
Pekin, the legations besieged (see below) 

20 June, ,, 
The dowager-empress and prince Tuan issue anti- 
foreign decrees .... 22 or 23 June, ,, 
Seymour captures arsenal near Tien-tsin, 22 June ; 

Chinese driven back, capt. Beyts killed, 23 June, ,, 
Tien-tsin foreign garrison hard pressed, 21 June; 

relieved by allies after hard fighting, 23 June, ,, 
Seymour, retunis to Tien-tsin . . 26 June, ,, 
Edict issued at Pekin virtually declares war on all 
foreigners, and their expulsion ordered, 

26 June, ,, 
Arsenal N.E. of Tien-tsin captured by the allies, 

27 June, ,, 
Insurrection spreads to Manchuria in the north 

and Shantung in the south, slaughter of Chinese 

near Tien-tsin, reported ... 29 June ,, 
Imperial edict disclaims responsibility for the 

fighting and throws all blame on the Europeans, 

29 June, ,, 
Adm. Seymour's advance to Pekin checked,' retires 

to Tien-tsin. . . . . 29 June, ,, 

Joint proclamation by the Nankin and Wu-chang 

viceroys, generally satisfactory, issued 3 July, ,, 
Chinese attack on foreign settlements of Tien-tsin 

repulsed 3, 4 July, ,, 

Anarchy in Manchuria, missions destroyed, bishop 

Guillon, R.C., and others, burned alive in the 

cathedral of .Mukden July ,, 

Edict from Pekin ordering the extermination of 

foreigners, issued ..... July, ,, 
British government announces that it will hold the 

authorities in Pekin responsible for injuries to 

foreigners 5 July, ,, 

Li Hung Chang maintains order in Canton, frequent 

executions of robbers and pirates, reported, 

6 July, „ 
Co-operation of the powers, Japan allowed a free 

hand, about 6 July, ,, 

British government assures the viceroy of Nankin 

of support in quelling disorder in the Yang-tsze 

region 8 July, ,, 

Massacre of about 54 missionaries, men, women, 

and children, at 'i'ai-yuen-fu in Shan-si, by Yu- 

llsien. the governor's, orders, 28 June and 9 July, ,, 
Li Hung Chang made viceroy of Chi-li . 9 July, ,, 
Fierce lighting at Tien-tsin, 6 July; the allies seize 

an arsenal, about 386 Chinese killed, 9 July; 

Chinese attack on the railway station repelled 

withheavj loss u July, ,, 

Tien-tsin, native city and forts, captured, a fort 

and 4S guns seized by the Japanese, 13, 14 July. 
[Allies casualties about 800; 26 British of the 



CHINA. 



265 



CHINA. 



naval contingent alone killed and 149 wounded 
during the 4 weeks' fighting]. 
Fighting on the Russian frontier of the Amur, 

Blagovestchensk bombarded . . 16 July, 1900 
Li Hung Chang confers with the governor in Hong- 
kong 18 July, „ 

Russians rout the Chinese on the Amur, 18, 19 July, ,, 
Capt. Watts-Jones and 10 or 12 Europeans mur- 
dered at Kwei-hua-cheng by the governor's 

order, about 20 July, ,, 

Li Hung Chang arrives at Shanghai . 21 July, ,, 
The emperor appeals in vain for mediation to 
France, Germany, America, and Japan, 

19, 21 July, ,, 
Further massacres of missionaries and others in 
Shan-si at Pao-ting-fu, Chu-Chau, and other 
places in the north . ... 21 July, ,, 
Severe fighting at Niu-Chwang . 19-26 July, ,, 
British successes near Wei-hai-wei, reported 

23 July, ,, 
Gen. Zakharoff captures San-sung in Manchuria, 

28 July, „ 
Two progressive Yamen ministers beheaded in 
Pekin by the empress's order, and the exiled 
Chang-Yin-Huan, G.C.M.G., executed in Kash- 

garia 29, 31 July, ,, 

The Russians seize Hailar, Harbin relieved, Chinese 
defeated at Blagovestchensk, Sakhalin, and Niu- 

chwang captured 3, 4 Aug. ,, 

Allies advance to Pekin, Japanese victory, Chinese 
driven out of Pei-tsang, many killed, 4, 5 Aug. ; - 
Yang-tsun captured .... 6 Aug. ,, 
British troops land at Shanghai . . 9 Aug. ,, 
Frequent executions of pirates in Canton Aug. ,, 

Bengal lancers charge Tartar cavalry at Ho-si-pou 

with success 9 Aug. ,, 

Allies occupy Tung-chau, enemy fled . 12 Aug. ,, 
Emperor, empress, and court fly from Pekin after 
ordering the execution of 5 pro-foreign members 

of the Yamen 14 Aug. ,, 

Russians seize both banks of the Amur, massacre 
of about 4,800 Chinese by Gribsky and his 
Cossacks at Blagovestschensk . . 14 Aug. ,, 
[Siege of the Pekin Legations begins ; total 
guards : 18 officers, 389 men ; the British legation 
filled with refugee-i ; outposts fiercely attacked ; 
prof. J. Huberty and others killed, 20 June ; sir 
Claude Macdonald takes command at the British 
legation, the Hanlin academy burnt by Chinese, 
22 June ; the Japanese repulse a fierce attack, 
many Chinese killed, 24 June ; combined attack 
of Boxers and troops repulsed with severe loss, 
27 June ; brilliant sortie, many Chinese killed, 
3 July ; captain Strouts killed, 16 July ; armis- 
tice concluded, but siege continued, 17 July ; the 
allies relieve the legations after a rapid march 
and much fighting, general Gaselee and his Sikhs 
arrive first, followed by the Americans, amid the 
wildest .joy, 3 p.m., 14 Aug. (total casualties 
during the siege, about 67 killed, 120 wounded, 
and 5 other deaths) ; the queen sent a message of 
thankfulness and sympathy, 20 Aug.] 
Pei-tang R. C. bishopric, in Pekin, nobly defended 
by mgr. Favier, 133 priests, and 42 French and 
Italian marines, with about 3,000 refugees, 20 
June, till relieved by the Japanese and allies, 17 
Aug. [Total deaths during the siege, 400.] 
Imperial city entered, palace gates held by allies, 

17 Aug. 
Forbidden city closely guarded by allies, 17 Aug. 
Boxers defeated near Tien-tsin, 300 killed, 64 cap- 
tured 19 Aug. 

British force defeats Chinese and Boxers in the 

park, Pekin 20 Aug. 

Sir Robert Hart resumes his office in Pekin, 

21 Aug. 
Li Hung Chang's peace overtures rejected by the 

powers 22 Aug. 

The allies forbid looting, and call on the Chinese to 
return, 22 Aug. ; they march through the For- 
bidden city and occupy the imperial palace, 

28 Aug. 
Continued Russian successes in Manchuria, 

24-29 Aug. 

Wholesale massacres of missionaries and native 

converts at Fu-chau-fu, 15 Aug., and many other 

places July- Aug. 

Four Boxer leaders executed at Tien-tsin, 30 Aug. 



Boxers routed round Pekin . . early Sept. 1900 
British traops occupy Feng-tai, near Pekin, 

early Sept. ,, 
Liang-hsiang, S.W. of Pekin, stormed by German 
marines and Bengal lancers, 500 Boxers killed, 

11 Sept. „ 
20 Germans killed in an encounter with Boxers 

near Pekin 13 Sept. ,, 

Boxers routed, and over 200 killed by Americans 

and Bengal lancers, at Mo-tao . . mid-Sept. ,, 
Total allies in Pekin, 62,000 (22,000 Russians, 

19,000 Japanese, and 5,000 British) . 14 Sept. ,, 
Accident to British party while destroying gun- 
powder at Tung-chau, 16 deaths and 22 wounded, 

14 Sept. ,, 
Boxers defeated at Pa-ta-chu . . .17 Sept. ,, 
Ti-lin occupied by the allies and afterwards burnt, 

mid-Sept. „ 
Russians occupy the Manchurian frontier and 6 
towns, columns penetrating the interior, much 
slaughter, reported .... 18 Sept. ,, 
Punitive expeditions of the allies against the 

Boxers, reported effective . . .21 Sept. ,, 
Pei-tang and Lutai captured with heavy losses by 

the allies 20, 21 Sept. ,, 

Anti- Christian riots in the south, converts 

slaughtered, reported . . . .21 Sept. ,, 
Boxers routed by the British, 15 m. S. of Pekin, 

25 Sept. ,, 
Kirin, a rich town in Manchuria, occupied by the 

Russians, 24 Sept. ; An-shan-jan captured, 26 Sept. ,, 
Degradation and punishment of prince Tuan and 4 
others, ordered by imperial edict (reported a 
forgery, 15 Oct.) .... 25 Sept. ,, 
Count von Waldersee appointed commander-in- 
chief of the allies, Aug.; arrives at Tien-tsin, 

27 Sept. ,, 

Shan-hai-kwan forts surrender to the British 

29 Sept. ,, 

Russian garrison in Pekin reduced . . 29 Sept. ,, 
The German emperor, in reply to the emperor 
Kwang-su's message, states that he cannot regard 
the murder of baron von. Ketteler as expiated by 
certain ceremonies, refers to the massacres of mis- 
sionaries, and insists on full reparation for the 
crimes committed and punishment of the guilty 
officials 1 Oct. „ 

Mukden taken by the Russians . . 1 Oct. ,, 

Summer palace looted by the Russians, Sept. ; occu- 
pied by the British and Italians . . 3 Oct. „ 

French note, demanding punishment of the chief 
culprits, prohibition of the import of arms, in- 
demnities for states, societies, or persons, esta- 
blishment of permanent legation guards at Pekin, 
dismantlement of the Taku forts, and military 
occupation of certain points between Tien-tsin 
and Taku (accepted as the basis of negotia- 
tions), issued 4 Oct. » 

Pekin-Tien-tsin railway held by the British ; 
Russian claim to left bank of river at Tien-tsin 
disputed 8 Oct. ,, 

The Czar announces that no part of China shall be 
annexed by Russia 8 Oct. ,, 

Conference of ministers in Pekin : Chinese pro- 
posals pronounced inadequate, 8 Oct. ; punish- 
ment of guilty officials, payment of an indemnity, 
dismantling of Taku and other forts, abolition of 
the Tsung-li-Yameu and appointment of one 
minister for foreign affairs, provision for rational 
intercourse with the emperor, &c, agreed to as a 
basis of negotiations .... 10 Oct. „ 

Prince Ching, Li Hung Chang, Liu Kun-yi, and 
Chang Chih-tung appointed peace negotiators, by 
edict 13 Oct. „ 

Chinese camp, 3 officers and 200 men, captured in 
Manchuria 14 Oct. ,, 

Imperial court reported at Si-ngan-fu . . 15 Oct. ,, 

Anti-dynastic rebellion in S. China, reported 

mid Oct. ,, 

Reactionary Manchus appointed to high posts in 
Yang-tsze districts Oct. ,, 

Anglo-German agreement— chief points: the "open 
door" and the integrity of China to be main- 
tained 16 Oct. ,, 

Allies (4000, under gens. Campbell and Bailloud) 
enter Pao-ting-fu .... 15-21 Oct „ 



CHINA. 

Sir Claude Macdonald, by his own wish, translated 
to Tokio, Japan ; sir E. Satow arrives at Pekin 

20 Oct. 

Death of Kang Yi, instigator of the Boxer move- 
ment and chief secretary of state, confirmed 

24 Oct. 

Rebels victorious in Kwai-sin, much slaughter, 
reported 25 Oct. 

Sir C. Macdonald leaves Pekin amid regret 25 Oct. 

Punitive expeditions by the allies, villages de- 
stroyed Oct. 

242 missionaries (mainly British), with their wives 
and children, murdered during the Boxer rising 
in 1900. 

The governor and 13 headmen beheaded at Pao- 
ting-fu for the murder of missionaries and others ; 
city bastions and temple destroyed . 27 Oct. 

Boxers defeated near Shun-i-hsien . 31 Oct. 

Fatal explosion at Nankin, the Yamgn destroyed, 
reported 2 Nov. 

Kunan-sien captured by an Italo-German column, 

2, 3 Nov. 

Explosion at Tiu-lin, 5 soldiers and many Chinese 
killed 6 Nov. 

Russian excesses, indiscriminate slaughter, 5000 
Chinese thrown into the Amur . . Oct.-Nov. 

Illusory punishments on guilty princes and officials 
decreed 13 Nov. 

China resumes the civil government of Manchuria 
under Russian protection .... Nov. 

The emperor writes to the German emperor owning 
that punishment of the guilty officials would be 
just I4 Nov. 

Count Torek's column occupies Kalgan, Chinese fly, 
18 Nov. [he died 25 Nov.] 1900. 

Yu-chang, governor of Hu-pei (Oct.), dismissed 
through sir E. Satow, and one friendly to for- 
eigners appointed .... mid-Nov. 

Anti-Christian riots in Kwang-si, reported 19 Nov. 

Boxers defeated in several small actions, and the 
Ming tombs occupied, reported . . 19 Nov. 

Che-kiang, governor, to whom was due the Chu- 
chau massacre of 20 missionaries (9 British) and 
others, dismissed e 8 Nov. 

The astronomical instruments, erected over 2 cen- 
turies ago by the Jesuits, seized by the Germans 

29 Nov. 

Russians exterminate brigands and Chinese troops 
in Manchuria Nov.-Dec. 

Districts round Pekin placed under the allies 

19 Dec. 

Yu-Hsien, ex-governor of Shan-si, executed 

19 Dec. 

Gen. Bailloud defeats Boxers and Chinese, many 
killed, near Pei-chau, town burnt . 22 Dec. 

Joint note, after long negotiations, demanding 
China's compliance to " 12 irrevocable condi- 
tions," preliminary to the withdrawal of the 
allies from Pekin and provinces, signed by the 
ministers in Pekin, 20 Dec. ; presented, 22 Dec. ; 
accepted by the emperor in his decree . 27 Dec. 

German operations in Chi-li, indiscriminate punish- 
ment, 5-15 Dec. ; much criticised . 28 Dec. 

En-hai, the murderer of baron von. Ketteler, exe- 
cuted in Pekin 31 Dec. 

Russian de facto protectorate over Feng-tien and 
Mukden ; Manchuria-Russo-Chinese agreement 
signed, about 3I Dec. 

Germans defeat the Boxers in Chi-li, about 200 
killed 3_ 5 Jan. 

Col. Tulloch's punitive expedition to Kao-li-ying 
successful, returns to Pekin . . .6 Jan. 

Peace protocol signed at Pekin, 14 Jan. ; ratified 
by the emperor I7 Jan. 

New .judicial system, under < 'hinese, instituted by 
the allies iii Pekin Jan. 

The Russians hand over the Shan-hai-kwan-Pekin 
railway to the Germans ran. 

Kwei-chau rebels defeated by Chinese, reported 

24 Jan. 

Russian operations against the Eungus in Man- 
churia Ian. 

Imperial goven nt reform decree, issued, 30 Jan. 

Explosion at Shan-hai-kwan, 40 Japanese killed, 
reported 30 Jan.. 

Edict suppressing anti-foreign societies, under 
penalty of dcutli . . ■ . . .1 Feb. 



266 



CHINA. 



8 Boxer leaders executed at Han-kau, reported, 

16 Feb. 

The court, after much evasion and delay, and 
threatened by a foreign military expedition, 
accepts the demands of the powers, punishment 
of guilty officials conceded . . 20 Feb. 

Prince Tuan sentenced to life-imprisonment, Duke 
Lan and gen. Tung-fuh-siang banished, prince 
Chuang and 2 others ordered to commit suicide, 
and 2 others to be executed, by edicts, 13, 21 Feb. 

Germans rout the Chinese W. of Pao-ting-fu, 

21 Feb. 

Chi-hsiu and Hsu-Cheng-yu executed in Pekin, 

26 Feb. 

N. China railway restored to the British, 21-28 Feb. 

Anglo-Russian dispute over a railway siding at 
Tien-tsin, 15 March ; British reinforcements 
arrive, matter referred to arbitration, 

22, 23 March, 

Rev. J. Stonehouse murdered by Chinese near 
Lo-fa, on the Tien-tsin line, about . 23 March, 

Manchurian convention, opposed by the powers 
and rejected by the emperor, end of March; 
withdrawn by Russia .... 5 April, 

The "Winter palace nearly destroyed by fire, gen. 
von Schwarzhoff killed ... 17 April, 

The privy council replaced by a "general board 
of state affairs," by edict . . 23 April, 

Sharp fighting near Ching-wang-tao, maj. Brown- 
ing and a sepoy killed ; enemy defeated by the 
allies near Shan-hai-kwan . about 23 April, 

Chinese routed by Germans at the Great Wall, 

23, 24 April, 

British capture 16 Krupp guns, &c, reported, 

26 April, 

New Chinese board appointed to consider reforms, 

April et scq. 

Famine in Shan-si spreading, great mortality, 

April, 

German raids on the borders of Shan-si . April, 

The viceroy of Canton abolishes the privileges of 
the Manchus 1 May, 

Fresh fighting in Manchuria, reported . 1 May, 

M. Beau succeeds M. Pichon as French minister, 

19 May, 

Six out of the 11 chief criminals reported to have 
met their death ; punishments demanded by all 
the powers, Russia excepted, in 107 cases, 

21 May, 

Trade prosperous in Canton . . mid-May, 

Boxers dispersed, no killed near Pao-ting-fu, 
reported 22 May, 

Departure of foreign troops . . May et scq.. 

Edict favouring reform in official business and 
increasing taxation, reported . . 30 May, 

Count von Waldersee leaves Pekin for Germany, 

3 June, 

Great fire in the Forbidden city at Pekin, 4 June, 

"Allied villagers" new anti-foreign movement 
spreading, reported .... 24 June, 

Russian civil administrator installed at Niu- 
chwang June, 

Chinese government partially resumed in the 
British section of Pekin . . . 1 July, 

New Russian concession at Tien-tsin opened, 

13 July, 

General Gaselee leaves Pekin . . 14 July, 

Destructive floods in the Yang-tsze districts. 
1 June; many deaths (over io,ooc,ooo homeless). 

15-24 July, 

Sixtieth ministerial meeting in Pekin; Chinese 
indemnity of 450,000,000 taels at 4 per cent, 
finally agreed upon, 26 July; notified to Chinese 
envoys 28 July, 

Edict forbidding examinations in all -ltus whsr: 
foreigners were massacred or cruelly treated, 

19 A "S- 

British famine relief mission leaves Pekin for 
Shan-si mid-Aug. 

Sir E. Satow demands the punishment of the 
authors of the Chu-chan massacre, when Mr. 
and Mrs. Thompson, their children. Miss Des- 
mond, and 5 other English missionaries, Wu, a 
Chinese magistrate, and 31 others, were barbar- 
ously killed, about 21 July, 1900 [4 high officials 
banished. 15 others executed, 9 banished and 7 
imprisoned, reported, 13 Sept.]. 



CHINA. 



267 



CHINA. 



Prince Chun's mission received at Potsdam (see 
Germany), 4 Sept. 1901 ; Chinese envoy sent to 
Japan, which see Sept. 1 

Peace protocol with China signed by the n foreign 
ministers), 15 Aug. ; by prince Clung and envoys 
(see Times, 10 Oct. 1901) ... 7 Sept. 

The Summer palace occupied by the British and 
Italians, 12 Oct. 1900; transferred to the Chinese, 

14 Sept. 

The Japanese and Americans hand over the For- 
bidden city to the Chinese ; the evacuation of 
Pekin completed . . . . 17 Sept. 

Total German losses during the expedition to 
China, 676, including deaths from disease, re- 
ported, 23 Sept. ; French casualties, 433, 61 
killed Oct. 

Many reform edicts issued .... Oct. 

The Basel mission at Piang-tong, N.B. Kwang- 
tung, burnt by Triad rebels, end Sept. ; rebels 
routed near Swatau with great slaughter by gen. 
Wu, 1 Oct. ; another station destroyed in the 
Hsing-ning district, reported . . 5 Oct. 

The court leaves Si-ngan-fu for Pekin . 6 Oct. 

The Chinese maintain peace and order in Pekin, 
N. China, and railways, mines, &c, active, Oct. 

Welsh barracks burnt at Tien-tsin, 2 deaths, 1 Nov. 

Tang-tsze valley reported peaceful and prosperous, 

S Nov. 

Death of Li Hung Chang, diplomatist, friend of 
Russia, aged about 78, 7 Nov. ; succeeded by 
Yuan Shih-kai, an able man, as governor of" 
Chi-li 8 Nov. 

Missionary work and reform encouraged by the 
viceroys of Shan-si, Shan-tung, and Yang-tsze, 
reported 7 Sept. 

Imperial edicts favouring reorganisation and re- 
forms issued ; Pu Chun, heir-apparent, disin- 
herited, but styled duke . . .30 Nov. 

Sir Robert Hart appointed one of the guardians of 
the heir-apparent .... mid. Dec. 

Rising in N. Chi-li suppressed, daily executions of 
rebels in Pekin .... mid. Dec. 

Impressive funeral to the Christians massacred in 
1900, and public atonement made by the officials 
of Tung-chau and 50 villages . . 20 Dec. 

Two missionaries and 3 converts murdered in 
Ean-su, Dec. ; officials degraded by edict issued 
31 Dec. ; Tung-fuh-siang ordered to be beheaded, 

Jan. : 

The imperial court returns to Pekin ; the 
dowager-empress again supreme . 7 Jan. 

Edicts protecting missionaries and native Chris- 
tians, and ordering punishment of officials com- 
plicated in the Boxer movement, issued, 14 Jan. 

A French priest and 2 converts murdered in 
Kwang-tung 16 Jan. 

Foreign ministers received at court, 22 Jan. ; the 
ladies received by the dowager-empress, who 
expressed regrets for late events, and desire for 
progress 1 Feb. 

Marriage between Chinese and Manchus legalised ; 
the custom of foot-binding deprecated by edicts, 

1 Feb. 
United States of America note protesting against 

Russian encroachments in Manchuria . 1 Feb. 
Yung-lu appointed first grand secretary by edict, 

2 Feb. 
European professors dismissed from the Imperial 

university 8 Feb. 

Conflicts in Manchuria between Russians and 
Tunguses .... Jan. -Feb. 

German mission in Kwang-tung destroyed by 
Chinese, reported . . ... 10 Feb. 

Anglo-Japanese agreement, maintaining the status 
quo, the " open door" policy, independence and 
territorial integrity of China and Corea, signed 
in London, 30 Jan., issued . . n Feb. 

Sir Robt. Hart and mgr. Favier received in court, 

24 Feb. 

Marshal Su defeats the rebels at Lang-chau, Kwang- 
si ; 2 French officers murdered on the frontier, 
reported 12, 13 March' 

Franco-Russian joint declaration, the integrity of 
China to be maintained . . 19 March 

Edict issued degrading 2 magistrates in conse- 
quence of a rebellion and murder of 1^ converts 
in S. Honan .... 25 March, 



Chinese attack on a Russian post in Kwau-tung, 
Manchuria, defeated . . . .26 March, 1902 

Riots at Ta-ming-fu in Chi-li, many killed, re- 
ported ...... 29 March, „ 

Manchurian convention revised, the status quo to 
be maintained, Russia to withdraw gradually in 
18 months, signed and ratified . . 8, 9 April, ,, 
Kwang-si rebels severely defeated . early April, ,, 
Russian force inflicts terrible loss on a robber 

band on the Mukden frontier, reported, 12 April, ,, 
N. China railway restored to China, agreement 
signed by sir E. Satow, Yuan Shih-kai, and Hu 

Yu-fen 29 April, ,, 

The emperor and empress-dowager return to Pekin 
from a pilgrimage (cost over a million taels) to 
the Eastern Tombs .... 29 April, , r 
Imperial postal service gradually supersedes 

private agencies, reported . . 30 April, , r 
Anti-indemnity riots at Ching-ting-fu, French mis- 
sionary murdered, reported . . 2 May, , r 
Rebels totally defeated by the troops at Nan-ning, 

5 May, ,, 
Export duty on tea reduced, to about %d. per lb. 

(5 per cent.), reported ... 12 May, , f 
Chou-fu, treasurer of Chi-li appointed governor of 

Shan-tung .... about 30 May, , f 
Grand duke Cyril (Russian) received with highest 

honours at Pekin .... 6 June, ,. 

Sir Ernest Satow agrees to a pro rata reduction of 
the final indemnity claims to about 2 per cent., 

reported 12 June, ,, 

Anglo-French syndicate secures a mining conces- 
sion (60 years) in Yun-nan . . 15 June, ,, 
Russia withdraws from the Tien - tsin foreign 

government, announced . . .20 June, , t 
Kai Chi, Chinese cruiser, blown up by an explosion 
in the powder-magazine near Nankin, 150 lives 

lost 22 June, , t 

Boxer movement in Sze-chuan, Methodist chapel 

destroyed, 10 converts killed ; English and 

American missions at Tien-ku-chao destroyed, 

and a missionary killed, reported, 23, 27 June, ,, 

Yuan Shih-kai's plan for the reorganisation of 

Manchuria, published . . . 30 June, ,, 
Chinese accept the conditions for the restoration 

of Tien-tsin iy July, ,, 

Native steamer capsized on the West river, 200 

deaths, reported .... 23 July, , f 

Chang Chih-tung, viceroy of Wun-chang, appointed 

imperial commissioner of trade, about 29 July, , 
Tariff revision completed by China, Great Britain, 

and 8 powers 29 July, ,, 

Order restored in Sze-chuan, over 300 rioters 
killed ; rebel leader in S. Chi-li captured and 

executed - end July, ,, 

The viceroy of Sze-chuan deposed . early Aug. ,,. 
Great mortality from cholera in Manchuria, 

July- Aug. , t 
Floods in Shan-tung, great distress . . Aug. ,, 
Rebels defeated with great slaughter in Sze-chuan, 

12 Aug. „ 
Tien-tsin transferred to the Chinese . 15 Aug. „ 
Protocol tariff signed by the British and 6 other 

powers 16 Aug. „ 

Rev. H. R. Lowis and rev. J. R. Bruce mur- 
dered by rioters at Cheu-chau, in Hu-nan (Lin- 
Hann-Yu, a mandarin, executed 17 Nov.) 15 Aug. n 
Sir James Mackay's (G.C.M.G. 9 Nov.) British 
treaty, abolishing Hkin dues on all goods, native 
or foreign, and substituting other import and 
export duties, &c, signed after long negotia- 
tions 5 Sept. „ 

Evacuation of Shanghai completed by departure of 

last detachment of German troops . 3 Jan. 1903: 
Shanghai Taotai makes half-year's indemnity pay- 
ments on a silver basis. Foreign ministers, 
except U.S. representative, sign joint note that 
protocol adopted by the bankers' commission 
provides for payment of the indemnity in gold : 
failure to fulfil obligation must entail grave con- 
sequences 7 Jan. ,.. 

Telegraphic returns from treaty ports show cus- 
toms revenue for 1902 over 3^,000,000 taels, as 
compared with 25,500,000 taels in 1901. Total of 
Shanghai 10,000,000 taels . . . early Jan. , r 
Agreement for construction of a railway from 
Shanghai to Nankin, in substitution for the pre- 
liminary contract of May 1898, concluded with 



CHINA. 



268 



CHITEAL. 



government by British and Chinese corporation, 

early Jan. 1903 

Memorial arch erected at Pekin by Chinese govern- 
ment as atonement for murder of baron von 
Ketteler in 1900, formally dedicated by prince 
Chun in presence of baron Goltz and large num- 
ber of foreigners and natives . . 18 Jan. ,, 

Russia presents 7 demands as conditions for carry- 
ing out the Manchurian convention, and the 
evacuation of Niu-chwang and the two southern 
provinces of Manchuria. Chief provisions : No 
new treaty ports to be opened in Manchuria, and 
no new foreign consuls permitted ; all customs 
revenues to be paid into Russo-Chinese bank; 
no portion of Manchuria to be alienated to any 
other power ; none but Russians to be employed 
in any administrative capacity, civil or military, 
in Manchuria ; reported . . -23 April, ,, 

Demand rejected by China ... 29 April, „ 

Imperial decree sanctioning construction of the 
Shanghai-Nankin railway; to be completed in 
5 years from date of signing final contract, 

11 June, ,, 

Pekin and North Chi-li suffering from severest 
drought known for many years ; reported 1 1 June, ,, 

Settlement of a Chinese customs at Dalny, on the 
Russian frontier of leased territory . 12 June, ,, 

Negotiations with Japan for revision of commer- 
cial treaty, in consequence of the insistence of 
Japan on clause in treaty opening Mukden, Ta- 
ku-shen, and other Manchurian centres to 
foreign trade, announced . . 12 June, ,, 

Report of U.S. consul at Niu-chwang on trade of 
Manchuria in 1902. Increase of foreign imports 
for last 10 years from 100 to 500 per cent., 
reached highest point in 1902 ; total import and 
export trade about 8,ooo,oooZ. . mid-June, ,, 

Secret agreement between China and Russia re- 
garding Manchuria, reported . . 22 June, „ 

Ratification of Mackay treaty announced on way 
to Pekin 28 June, „ 

Wang Chi-chung, the notorious governor of 
Kwangsi, marshal Su, and other high officials of 
that province, removed by imperial decree, 

mid- July, ,, 

Negotiations for opening the ports desired by 
Japan and U.S. reported to be successful, 

end July, „ 

Ratifications of Anglo-Chinese commercial treaty 
exchanged ' 28 July, ,, 

Chinese journalist and reformer, Shen Chien, 
beaten to death by order of government, 31 July, ,, 

Protest of British government . . . 7 Aug. ,, 
See also Addenda. 

CHINESE EMPERORS. 

1627. Chwang-lei. 

1643. Shun-che (first of the Tsing dynasty). 

1662. Kang-hi, an able sovereign ; consolidated the em- 
pire, compiled a great Chinese dictionary. 

1723. Yung-ching. 

1736. Keen-lung, warlike; fond of art ; greatly embel- 
lished Pekin. 

1795. Kea-king. 

J820. Taou-Kwang. 

1S50. Hiong-fung, 25 Feb. 

1861. Ki-tsiang (altered to Toung-chi) 21 Aug. ; born 27 
Apiil, 1856; married 16 Oct. 1872; died 12 Jan. 
1875. 

1875. Tsai T'ien (altered to Kwang Su), aged 4, 12 Jan. ; 
married, 21 Feb. 1889. 
[China was ruled by two empresses (Tsze An and Tsze 

Chi), 1861-1881 ; and by one (Tsze Clii, born 1834), a 

powerful woman, 1881 et seq. 

1887. The emperor nominally assumed the government, 
7 Feb. 

CHINA GRASS, or Rhea ; a prize of 5000^. 
was offered bythe Indian government for machinery 
to prepare and cleanse the fibre, 11 Jan. 1870. 
Mr. John Greig's machine was exhibited in Edin- 
burgh, Dec. 1871. Various unsuccessful machines 
and processes were tried; eventually Mr. Gomess 
invented processes by which a variety of fabrics can 
be manufactured, and a Rhea Fibre Treatment 
company was formed in London, with associations 
in India, Europe, and America, reported A.ug. 189b. 



CHINA PORCELAIN, introduced intoEng. 
land about 1531 ; see Pottery. 

CHINA ROSE, &c. The Rosa indica was 
brought from China, and successfully planted in' 
England, 1786; the Chinese apple-tree, or Pyrus\ 
spectabilis, about 1780. 

CHINCHA ISLES, see Peru, 1864-5. 

CHINCHONA, see Jesuits. 

CHINESE WALL, said to have been com- 
pleted about 211 n.c. Reported in 1879 to be 1728 
miles long, 18 feet wide, 15 feet thick at the top. 

CHINS and Lushais, savage tribes living in the 
mountainous region between Lower Bengal and 
Upper Burmah, of very primitive habits. 

For their raids and chastisements, see Burmah, 
1889-95, and India, 1890-2. 

A conference of the authorities concerned at Cal- 
cutta, to consider the best means of keeping in 1 
order the Chins near Upper Burmah and the 
Lushais near Assam and Bengal ; the transference |l 
of the southern Lushais from Bengal to Assam, 
recommended Jan. i8q2 ; this is effected, 1 April, 1S93 1- 

CHIOS (now Scio), an isle in the Greek Archi- 
pelago, revolted against Athens, 412 and 357 B.C. j 
It partook of the fortunes of Greece, being conquered, 
by the Venetians, a. ft 1124; by the crusaders, 1204;, 
by the Greek emperor, 1329, by the Genoese, 1340; ' 
and finally by the Turks in 1594. A dreadful mas-i 
sacre of about 40,000 inhabitants by the Turks took 
place 11 April, 1822, during the Greek insurrection. |j 

About 4000 perished by an earthquake ; the town 
Chio and many villages were destroyed, 3 April ; 
many shocks since up to 12 April, 1881 

CHIPPAWA (Upper Canada). Here the 
British under Riall were defeated by the Americans |. 
under Brown, 5 July, 1814. The Americans were 
defeated by the British under Drummond and Riall 
at Lundy's Lane, 3 miles from Chippawa, 25 July, 
following ; Kiall was wounded and taken prisoner. 

CHIROMANCY, see Palmistry. 

CHITRAL, a small frontier state in Kafiristan, ' 

N. India, subject to the maharajah of Cashmere, ] 

and under British influence. 

Murder of 1 he mehtar reported . . 30 Aug. 1892 

His younger son, Afzul-ul-Mulk, seizes the govern- 
ment, reported 17 Oct. ,, | 

He is murdered by his uncle, Sher Afzul Khan, 
who usurps the government, reported . 25 Nov. ,, | 

Sher Afzul defeated by Nizam-ul-Mulk ; flees to 
Afghanistan, about .... 12 Dec. „ I 

Nizam-ul-Mulk recognized by the British . Jan. 1893 

Dr. Robertson, British Agent, with a mission ar- 
rives at Chitral; well received, 28 Jan. leaves June ,, 

Civil war reported 1 June, 

Nizam-ul-Mulk, able and educated, murdered by 
his brother, Amir-ul-Mulk, who seizes the gov- 
ernment, reported .... 10 Jan. 

Invasion of Umra Khan of Jandol . . Jan. 

Dr. Robertson arrives at Chitral, and temporarily 
recognises Amir-ul-Mulk as mehtar . 31 Jan. 

Umra Khan retreats to Drosh fort . 22 Feb. 

Shuja-ul-Mulk made temporary mehtar by Mr. 
Robertson : Amir-ul-Mulk under surveillance, 

2 March, 

Sher Afzul escapes from Cabul and joins Umra 
Khan, reported, S March; British proclamation 
against Umra Khan issued . . 19 March, 

A detachment of 60 men marching to relieve lieu- 
tenants Fowler and Edwards at Reshun is at- 
tacked in a detde at Karagh by a large body of 
tribesmen, S March ; they retreat, lighting des- 
perately ; capt. Clave Ross, aged 33, and 40 Sikhs 
killed, 10 March : limit. Jones and 14 men tell back 
on Boni and thence to Mastuj . . March, 



1894 



CHIVALRY. 



269 



CHOIR. 



Malakand pass held by tribesmen ; stormed by the 
relief force under major-gen. sir Robt. Low ; 
enemy's loss heavy, British slight . 3 April, 1895 

Successful advance of the British ; the enemy 
again repulsed with loss ... 4 April, ,, 

Lieuts. Fowler and Edwards with a small party, 
after seven days' vigorous defence, are captured 
by treachery, and held prisoners by Umra Khan 
at Barwa, reported .... 6 April, ,, 

The British cross the Swat river ; enemy driven 
back with loss 7 April, „ 

Loyal offers of support to the British from r.ative 
chiefs 9 April, „ 

Col. Kelly's force crosses the Shandur Pass (12,000 
ft. high) and reaches Laspur, 7 April ; enemy 
defeated near Gasht ; lieut. Jones relieved at 
Mastuj 9 April, ,, 

The Panjkora river crossed . 9 April, etseq. ,, 

Lieut. -col. F. D. Battye, of the Guides, and three 
Sepoys, killed in a skirmish while reconnoitring 
at Sado on the Panjkora ; enemy lost heavily, 

13 April, ,, 

Capt. A. L. Peebles, aged 27, fatally wounded at 
Panjkora 14 April, „ 

Lieut. Edwards released ; arrives in camp 14 
April ; lieut. Fowler and other prisoners arrive, 

16 April, ,, 

Col. Kelly defeats the tribesmen at Sanoghar, 

12 April, ,, 

About 3,000 of the enemy repulsed near Miankalai, 
and Munda fort occupied ; flight of Umra Khan, 

17, 18 April, ,, 

Umra Khan surrenders to Gholam Hyder, Afghan 
commander, near Asmar . . 24 April, „ 

Siege of Chitral fort by combined forces of Umra 
Khan and Sher Afzul ; bravely defended by the 
British, Sikhs, etc. ; 463 combatants, under capts. 
Campbell (wounded), C. V. Townsliend, lieuts. 
Gurdon and Harley, 3 March, et seq.; capt. John 
Macdonald Baird, mortally wounded, 3 March ; 
successful sally by lieut. Harley, etc. , 8 killed ; 
enemy's loss, about 60, 17 April ; flight of the 
enemy, the siege raised (British loss during the 
siege, 40), 18 April. (Six months' additional pay 
presented to the garrison, May.) Arrival of col. 
Kelly's force after a brilliant march from Gilgit, 

20 April, ,, 

Order restored in Chitral, reported . 29 April, ,, 

Sher Afzul surrenders to the Khan of Dir, who brings 
him with followers into camp at Dir, 27 April, ,, 

Umra Khan and Mahomed Shah Khan sent to Ca- 
bin, 4 May ; imprisoned by the Ameer . June, ,, 

Native night attacks on the British camp at Munda, 
sentry James Green killed ; 7 coolies killed at 
Kambat 14 May, „ 

Arrival of sir R. Low at Chitral ; Shuja-ul-Mulk, 
mehtar, present 17 May, ,, 

Honours and promotions of officers, etc. gazetted, 

16 July, ,, 

Dr. Robertson made K.C. of the star of India. 

Jandol to be given up to native government ; Chitral 
to be retained by the British, announced 10 Aug. ,, 

" The Relief of Chitral," by capts. G. J. and F. E. 
Younghusband, published . . . autumn, ,, 

With reference to the maintenance of the military 
road to Chitral, see Tunes, n Dec. 1897. 

CHIVALRY arose out of the feudal system in 
the latter part of the 8th century (chevalier, or 
knight, being derived from the caballarius, the 
equipped feudal tenant on horseback). From the 
1 2th to the 15th century it tended to refine manners. 
The knight swore to accomplish the duties of his 
profession, as the champion of God and the ladies, 
to speak the truth, to maintain the right, to protect 
the disti'essed, to practise courtesy, to fulfil obliga- 
tions, and to vindicate in every perilous adventure 
his honour and character. Chivalry expired with 
the feudal system. See Knighthood and Tourna- 
ments. By letters patent of James I. the earl-mar- 
shal of England had "the like jurisdiction in the 
courts of chivalry, when the office of lord high con- 
stable was vacant, as this latter and the marshal did 
jointly exercise," 1623. 



CHLORAL HYDRATE, a crystalline com- 
pound of the marsh gas series, discovered by Liebig- 
in 183 r, which, when taken dissolved in water,, 
produces deep sleep, but not insensibility to pain. 
This property was discovered by Oscar Liebreich, 
and reported to the French Academy of Sciences, 
16 Aug. 1869. Its use requires great caution, 
particularly if weakness of the heart is suspected. 
The lamented death of prof. John Tyndall was 
caused by an overdose of chloral given by mistake 
for sulphate of magnesia, 4 Dec. 1893. 

CHLORALUM, or chloride of alumina, a com- 
pound of chlorine and alumina, an antiseptic 
disinfectant, invented by Dr. Gamgee about 1870. 
It is safe and efficacious, and useful in medicine 
for gargles, washing wounds, &c. 

CHLORINE (Greek chloros, pale green), a gas 
first obtained by Scheele in 1774, by treating man- 
ganese with muriatic (hydrochloric) acid. Sir H. 
Davy, in 1810, stated this gas to be an element, and 
named it chlorine. Combined with sodium it forms 
common salt (chloride of sodium), and combined 
with lime it forms the bleaching powder and disin- 
fectant, chloride of lime ; see Bleaching. In 1823 
Faraday condensed chlorine into a liquid. 
The supposed dissociation of oxygen from chlorine by 
heat by V. and H. Meyer of Zurich, was announced 
Aug. 1879. Afterwards chlorine was proved to exist 
in two similar states at high temperatures. 

CHLOROFORM (the ter-chloride of the hypo- 
thetical radical formyl) is a compound of carbon^ 
hydrogen, and chlorine, and was made from alcohol, 
water, and bleaching powder. It was discovered by 
Soubeiran in 1831, and independently by Liebig- 
in 1832 ; and its composition was determined by 
Dumas in 1834. Chloroform was first applied as an 
anaesthetic experimentally by Mr. Jacob Bell in 
London, in Feb., and dr. Simpson of Edinburgh in 
Nov. 1847 : its jubilee was celebrated by the society 
of Anaesthetists, 18 Nor. 1897; and was administered 
in England on 14 Dec. 1848, by Mr. James Robinson, 
surgeon-dentist. A committee of the Royal Medical 
and Chirurgical Society in July, 1864, after examin- 
ing statistics, reported that the use of anoesthetics 
had in no degree increased the rate of mortality. 
By the invitation of the Nizam through the Lancet, 
Dr. Lauder Brnnton arrived at Hyderabad, 21 
Oct., 1889 ; and there with other medical men 
investigated experimentally on the peculiar 
action of chloroform. They came to the con- 
clusion that the danger of its use was not 
specially due to its effect upon the heart, but 
upon respiration, which could be easily obviated 
by proper caution. The Nizam remitted i,ooo£. 
for the expenses of the commission. Lancet 

Jan. March, 1890 
Full report issued (estimated cost io,oooL), Dec. 
1891 ; book published .... Aug. 1896 

CHOBHAM COMMON, in Surrey. A mili- 
tary camp was formed here on 14 June, 1853, by 
a force between 8000 and 10,000 strong. 

CHOCOLATE, made of the cocoa berry, intro- 
duced into Europe (from Mexico and the Brazils) 
about 1520, was sold in the London coffee-houses 
soon after their establishment, 1650. 

CHOCZIM, Bessarabia, S. Russia. Here the 
Turks were totally defeated by John Sobieski, king- 
of Poland, 11 Nov. 1673; and by the Russians, 30 
April and 13 July, 1769. 

CHOIR. This was separated from the nave of 
the church in the time of Constantine. The choral 
service was first used in England at Canterbui-y, 
677 ; see Chanting. 



CHOLERA MORBUS. 



270 



CHOLERA MORBUS. 



CHOLERA MORBUS (Asiatic cholera) was 
described by Garcia del Huerto, a physician of Goa, 
about 1560. It appeared in India in 1774, and at 
other times, and became endemic in Lower Bengal 
in 1817, whence it gradually spread, till it reached 
Russia in 1830, and Germany in 1831, carrying oft' 
more than 900,000 persons in 1829-30. In England 
and Wales in 1848-9, 53,293 persons died of cholera, 
and in 1854, 20,097 ; see Germ Theory of Disease* 

Cholera appears at Sunderland . . 26 Oct. 1831 

And at Edinburgh 6 Feb. 1832 

First observed at Botherhithe and Limehouse, 

London, 13 Feb. ; and in Dublin . 3 March, „ 
Deaths reported in England in 1831-2, 52,547. 
Mortality very great, but more so on the Continent ; 

18,000 deaths at Paris, between March and Aug. ,, 
Cholera rages in Bome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, 

Berlin, &c, in .... July and Aug. 1837 
24,014 deaths in Palermo in 17 weeks . . . „ 
Another visitation of cholera in England : the num- 
ber of deaths in London, for the week ending 15 
Sept. 1849, was 3,183 ; the ordinary average, 1,008 ; 
and the number of deaths by cholera from 17 
June to 2 Oct. in London alone, 13,161. The 
mortality lessened and the distemper disappeared 

about 13 Oct. 1849 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Hexham, Tynemouth, and 
other northern towns, suffer much from cholera, 

Sept. 1853 
It rages in Italy and Sieily ; above 10,000 are said 
to have died at Naples ; it was also very fatal to 
the allied troops at Varna . . autumn, 1854 

Cholera very severe for a short time in the southern 
parts of London, and in Soho and St. James's, 
Westminster .... Aug. and Sept. „ 
Raging in Alexandria, June ; abated . July, 1865 

Prevailing in Ancona (843 deaths) Aug., subsiding, 

Sept. „ 
Very severe in Constantinople, nearly 50,000 deaths, 

Aug. ; subsides after the great fire . 6 Sept. ,, 
Cases at Marseilles, Toulon, and Southampton, 

end of Sept. ,, 
Cholera prevalent at Marseilles, Paris, Madrid, and 

Naples July-Oct. „ 

An international meeting at Constantinople, to con- 
sider preventive measures, proposed, Oct. 1865, 
met 18 Feb. 1866. At the last sitting the conclu- 
sions adopted were that cholera may be propa- 
gated, and from great distances ; and a num- 
ber of preventive measures were recommended, 

26 Sept. 1866 
Cholera appears at Bristol, 24 April ; at Liverpool, 

13 May ; at Southampton . . . July, „ 
Cholera severe in east of London : 346 deaths in 

week ending 21 July, „ 

House to house visitation ; Metropolitan Relief 
Association formed ; large subscriptions received 
(Queen's 500 J.) . . . . July and Aug. „ 

Cholera subsides Sept. , , 

Very severe at Naples .... Sept. ,, 

Cholera Relief Committee closes . . 31 Oct. ,, 

Cholera declared to be extinct in London 1 Dec. ,, 
Cholera in Rome, Naples, and Sicily, Aug. -Sept, ; 

in Switzerland Oct. 1867 

Alarm of approaching cholera, July; said to be 

severe in Konigsberg in Prussia . . Aug. 1871 
Cholera severe in Vienna, Aug. ; Paris . . Sept. 1873 
Egypt, at Damietta, June ; at Cairo about 16 July ; 
Alexandria about 1 Aug. ; the disease abating, 
Aug. ; deaths up to 31 Aug.— 27,318, including 
140 among British troops ; cholera lingering at 
Alexandria, Sept. et seg. ; no cases 31 Dec. 1883 

France, June; registered deaths: Toulon, 880, 
18 June— 26 Oct. ; Marseilles, 1700, 27 June — 26 
Oct. ; estimated total deaths in Paris, nearly 900, 
Sept. — Nov. ; the disease appeared at Aries, 
Nantes, Yport, and other places ; total deaths in 
France estimated 5000 up to . 15 Sept. 1884 

* Dr. Fcrran inoculates by microbes many persons ; 
reported successful; stopped June; permitted 23 June; 
a commission reports ii unsatisfactory, Oct. 1885. Many 
persons inoculated in India by Dr. W. M. Haffkine, 
June, 1893-4 ; successful reports, Jan. 1896, et seq. 



Italy. Cholera severe at Turin, 7 Aug. ; spread- 
ing 19 Aug., increasing at Spezzia, &c, 23, 
24 Aug., and at Naples and Turin 2 Sept. ; very 
many deaths at Genoa 24 Sept. — 8 Oct. ; very 
severe at Naples (visited by the king) 2 Sept. — 

2 Nov 1884 

Spain, 1884. Cholera appears in Alicante 1 Sept. 
et seq. ; much panic : at Toledo, Madrid, and other 

places Sept., Oct , 

Spain (Grenada, Malaga, Valencia, Murcia, &c), 

91,000 deaths (998 in Madrid) . May to 11 Sept. 1885 
Official returns for all Spain, 12,337 deaths, March 

to 7 July ,, 

Total since outbreak 61,521 . . . 22 Aug. „ 

Gibraltar, 191 deaths in ... . Sept. „ 
Palermo, Sicily, 2,540 deaths . 7 Sept. to 31 Oct. „ 
Marseilles, i,25odeaths, 1 Aug. to 1 Sept. ; gradually 

diminished up to . . . . 16 Sept. ,, 
Toulon, slight outbreak, 6 deaths 20 Aug. ; 32, 26 

Aug. ; gradually diminished till . . 18 Sept. ,, 
Italy, 1886, Brindisi province, 4 — 31 July : Venice, 
a few deaths, May-Aug. ; Ravenna, about 178 
deaths, Aug., Fiume, about 55 deaths, July; 
Bologna, about 95 deaths, Aug. ; Barletta, total 

about 611 deaths Aug. 1886, 

Japan. 37,000 deaths . . . Jan. -Sept. „ 
Hungary, principally Pesth and Szegedin. 966 

cases ; 409 deaths .... Oct.-Dec. „ 
Trieste. 882 cases, 544 deaths . . 7 June-Oct. ,, 
Istria. 671 cases, 374 deaths . 13 July-Oct. „ 
Naples, Brindisi, &c. Temporary outbreak . Sept. „ 
Great epidemic of cholera in India 1887 ; N. W. 

Provinces, 30,780 deaths in . . . Aug. 1887 
Sicily, provinces, July-Oct. 1887 ; deaths daily 

varied from 1 to 27. 
Messina. Deaths daily rose from 1 to 63 ; Sept. — Oct. ,, 
Palermo, Sept. Deaths daily varied from 2 to 11 ; 

Sept „ 

Malta. Deaths daily varied from 4 to 10, Aug. -Sept. ,, 
Cholera in Mesopotamia, 5,983 cases in autumn, 
1889 ; 3,000 fatal cases in 'Bussorah, reported 21 
Jan. ; it passed off in the spring, but returned in 

July- Aug. 1890 
Cholera severe at Mecca, &c. (about 30,000 deaths), 

Arabia, July-Aug. ; at Jeddah and in Syria, Aug. ,, 
Cholera appears at Biebla de Bugal, a village in 
Valeutia, Spain, 13 May ; continues in the pro- 
vince and neighbourhood ; 2,840 deaths reported 

up to March, ,, 

Cholera severe at Guatemala, S.A., 1,200 deaths in 

seven weeks . . . reported 14 Dec. ,, 
The progress of cholera greatly checked by the 
exertions of the International Quarantine board 

at Tor in Egypt autumn, 1891 

France. On the coast, 217 deaths . 1 Jan. -19 April 1892 
Cholera severe at Damascus, Aleppo, <fec, in Syria ; 
at Mecca (about 11,000 deaths), Oct. et seq., 1891 ; 
at Benares, 130 deaths up to . . 23 April, „ 
The disease appeared in India in March ; about 
6,000 deaths in Cabul and 2,000 deaths in Herat 
were reported ; and about 3,000 deaths in Cash- 
mere up to 3 June, ,, 

Nantes. About 17 deaths, reported . 29 Aug. ,, 
Roumania. 594 deaths . .21 July-4 Sept. ,, 
Hungary, Budapest, 153 deaths . Aug.-n Sept. ,, 
Rotterdam. About 30 deaths . n Aug. -Oct. ,, 
Galicia. 400 deaths . . . Aug.-i9 Sept. „ 
Brest, etc. 259 deaths . . .1 Sept. -Oct. ,, 
Palermo. 81 deaths . . 30 Sept. -8 Oct. ,, 

Persia. Total deaths reported, 60,000, May-Oct. „ 
(deaths in Teheran rose from 20 to 800 daily, 7- 
.■1 Aug. and gradually decreased). 
Russia. The disease appeared in the south and 
thence traversed the empire, June. It was 
severe in Baku and neighbouring districts ; 
St. Petersburg, total deaths up to 23 Oct. 1,150. 
All Russia, since outbreak, 260,000 deaths, 13 Dec. ,, 
France. Total deaths, 3,184 . April-16 Oct. „ 
Hamburg State. Total deaths, 7,611 20 Aug. -27 Nov. ,, 
Jli'lginm. Total deaths, 564 . 25 July-13 Oct. ,, 
(lira) lirittiin. A few isolated cases, chiefly foreign- 
ers, some fatal .... Aug. -Sept. „ 
England. Several deaths from choleraic disease at 
Grimsby, Hull, etc.; n deaths in Greenwich 
workhouse (Government report published April, 

1895) Aug. -Oct. „ 

Spain, Bilbao, 99 deaths . . 28 Sepk-19 Oct. ,, 



CHOEAL HARMONISTS' SOCIETY. 271 CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE. 



Budapest. Total deaths, 395 . . 13 Nov. 181 

Mecca. 6,721 deaths . . . June-July i8< 
Jeddah. 1,586 deaths . . 2gJune- 7 July „ 
Smyrna. 42 deaths .... Aug.-Sept. „ 
Teheran. About 700 deaths since 21 Sept. ; extinct 

3i Oct. „ 
Russia. 369 deaths in 14 provinces 1 Jan.-7 Feb. 
many deaths, June, July ; total in all Russia, 
1,209, 24-31 Aug. Moscow, 67 deaths, 8-12 Aug. 
St. Petersburg', 47 deaths, 6-9 Oct. ; about 30 
deaths daily, reported .... 16 Dec. ,, 
Germany, Nietlebeh, near Halle, 46 deaths Jan-6 Feb. , , 
Hamburg. 46 deaths . . 16 Sept.-2 Oct. ,, 
Stettin. 41 deaths ... 23 Sept.-Oct. ,, 
Russia. Severe throughout the provinces and 
Polish frontier during the summer. Average 
deaths weekly, 2,500, reported . . 6 Sept. 1894 
St. Petersburg. 1,014 deaths, 8 July-7 Sept. ; de- 
creasing Oct.-Dec. ,, 

Galicia and Bukovina. Total deaths, 2,400, July- 

Aug., reported, 5 Sept. ; decreasing ; ceased Oct. ,, 
Germany. 490 deaths reported . . May-Dec. ,, 
Japan. 16,000 deaths up to . .22 Aug. 1895 

Russia. Volkynia, 3,085 deaths, Aug.-i4 Sept ; 
Podolia, 64 deaths, 21 Aug.-i4Sept. ; decreasing, 
Oct. ; St. Petersburg, 31 deaths ; reported 

18 Nov. ,, 
• India. Inoculation for cholera successfully prac- 
tised by dr. Haffkine in the north (42,445 cases) ; 

reported Sept. ,, 

Egypt, Lower (English supervision). 14,498 deaths, 
11 Oct. 1895-14 Aug. 1896 ; decreasing, Sept. ; ex- 
tinct 25 Oct. 1896 

Nubia, P. & O. steamer, from Calcutta, outbreak 

due to fruit, &c, taken on board at Port Said, 

arrived at Plymouth Sound : 4 deaths . 2-9 Jan. 1897 

N. W. India. Outbreak at relief works in native 

state of Rewa ; 160 deaths in two days ; reported 

23 Feb. ,, 
India. Karachi, native district, 1,099 deaths, May, 
1899 ; severe in Bombay and the famine districts, 
May, et seq. ; 6,669 deaths week ending 23 June ; 

decreasing Aug. 1900 

Afghanistan. Severe in Kabul and Djebal Abad, 
great mortality ; total deaths in Kabul, 4,500, 

June- Aug. ,, 
Mecca. 523 deaths, 10-24 March, 1,129 deaths since 
outbreak ; 928 deaths and 61 at Jeddah week 
ending 31 March; 1, 127 deaths in the Hedjaz week 

ending 31 March, 1902 

Tokio 28 June, ,, 

Manchuria. Severe at Harbin, over 100 deaths 

daily reported 2 Aug. ,, 

Corea. Spreading in the South . . Aug. ,, 

Philippines. 3,091 deaths . . . 29 Sept, ,, 
Egypt. Total deaths 31,540, reported . 3 Oct. ,, 
Palestine. Severe in Jerusalem, Jaffa and Gaza 

Nov.-Dec. ,, 

CHORAL HARMONISTS' SOCIETY, 

London, existed 1833-51. 

CHORUS, a band of singers which formed an 
important part of the Greek dramas, beginning in 
the 6th century B.C., and has been continued in 
modern oratorios and operas. 

CHOUANS, a name given to the Bretons 
during the war of La Vendee in 1792, from their 
chief Jean Cottereau, using the cry of the Chat- 
huant, or screech-owl, as a signal. He was killed 
in 1794. Georges Cadoudal, their last chief, was 
said to be connected with Pichegru in a conspiracy 
against Napoleon wb en first consul, and was executed 
in 1804. 

CHRISM, consecrated oil, was used early in the 
ceremonies of the Greek and Roman churches, 
Musk, saffron, cinnamon, roses, and frankincense, 
are mentioned as used with the oil, in 1541. It was 
ordained that chrism should consist of oil and 
balsam only ; the one representing the human 
nature of Christ, and the other his divine nature, 
1596. 

CHRIST, see Jesus Christ. 



CHRIST CHURCH, see Lincoln Tower and 
New Zealand. 

CHRIST'S HOSPITAL (the Blue-Coat 
school) was established in conformity with a grant 
made b}; Henry VIII. in 1547, by Edward VI. 1553, 
on the site of the Grey Friars' monastery. A mathe- 
matical ward was founded bv Charles II. 1672. The 
Tunes ward was founded in 1841. Large portions of 
the e ditice having fallen into decay, it was rebuilt : in 
1822 a new infirmary was completed, and in 1825 
(25 April) the duke of York laid the first stone of 
the magnificent new hall. On 24 Sept. 1854, the 
master, Dr. Jacob, in a sermon in the church of the 
hospital, censured the system of education and the 
general administration of the establishment, and 
many improvements have since been made. ttev. G. 
C. Bell, successor of Dr. Jacob, 12 Aug. 1868-1876. 
The subordinate school at Hertford, for 416 
younger boys and 80 girls, was founded in 
"1683. — Trie annual income varies. The removal 
of the school to the country negatived by the 
governors, 26 April, 1870. The proposal that the 
buildings and ground should be purchased by the 
Mid- London Railway Company for 600,000^. was 
not carried out. The Charity Commissioners' 
scheme for the reformed administration of the hos- 
pital published in the Times, 9 March, 1885. 

The appeal of the governors against the charity 
commissioners' scheme was submitted to the 
judicial committee of the privy council 18 June ; 
the appeal was disallowed ... 14 Dec. 1889 

Royal assent to the new scheme given 15 Aug. 1890 

The new governing body, the duke of Cambridge 
president, first met, 1 Jan., 1891, when the 
scheme came into operation ; by it 700 boys, 
150 junior boys, and 350 girls are provided for.* 

Site for the new buildings at Horsham, Sussex, 
purchased Nov. 1892 

The long controversy between the governors and 
the charity commissioners settled by compro- 
mise : important changes to be made . June, 1896 

Foundation stone of the new schools laid by the 
prince of Wales at West Horsham, 23 Oct., 1897 ; 
occupied by the boys ... 29 May, 1902 

Old buildings demolished 1903 

CHRISTIAN BROTHERS, an organised 
secret society which existed in London, 1525, for 
the distribution of English New Testaments and 
tracts. It mainly consisted of the middle and lower 
classes, and produced martyrs. 

CHRISTIAN COMMUNITY, founded 
about 1685 by Huguenot refugees, re-organised 
by John Wesley and others in 1772, for visiting 
and preaching the gospel in workhouses, asylums, 
rooms, &c, and in the open air ; and for distribution 
of tracts. 

CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOUR, see Young 
People's Society of Christian Endeavour. 

CHRISTIAN ERA, see Anno Domini. Most 
Christian King ; Cltristianissimus Rex, a title 
conferred by pope Paul II. in 1469 on the crafty 
Louis XL of France. 

CHRISTIAN EVIDENCE SOCIETY 

established by earl Russell, the bishop of London, 
and others to counteract " the current forms of un- 
belief among the educated classes," 1870. Lectures 
for this purpose were given in St. George's Hall in 
187 1, beginning with the archbishop of York, 25 
April. Volumes of lectures and tracts for circu- 
lation are published. Annual meetings are held ; 
income 1901-02, 1,166/. 

CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE, Society 
for Promoting, founded 1698, to promote 



CHRISTIAN SCIENTISTS. 



272 



CHRISTOPHER'S, ST. 



charity schools, and to disperse Bibles and religious 
tracts. 1877 : income, for charitable purposes (in- 
cluding legacies of 16,000/.), 52,581/.; 1892: 
41,000/.; income 33,887/., expenditure 54,256/., 
reported Dec. i8g6 ; 10,000 members, income 
39,000/., 1900. Bibles, &c, given away; churches 
and schools helped ; bishoprics maintained, &c. 

Offices removed fiom Lincoln's Inn-Fields to Northum- 
berland avenue, opened 3 Nov., 1879. 

Bi-centenary celebrated, meeting at the Guildhall, 8 
March, 1898. 

CHRISTIAN SCIENTISTS, a sect founded 
in the United States by Mrs. M. B. G. Eddy. In 
1867 she taught that the Spirit of God being Love 
and Good, moral and physical evil are contrary to 
that Spirit, and that a true knowledge of God and 
Christ can therefore cure all disease mental and 
physical; in 1876 her adherents formed the 
Christian Scientists Association ; in 1903 they are 
numerous in the United States, see Mind-cure. 

CHRISTIAN SOCIALISM, had its origin 
in 1848, under the leadership of Frederick D. 
Maurice, Charles Kingsley, Tom Hughes, Vansittart 
Neale, J. M. Ludlow, and others, in the practical 
interest in social reform evoked by the evils of the 
factory system, the efforts for reform by the 
working classes, and the political ideals of the 
Chartists. It is represented at the present time by 
the Guild of St. Matthew, and the Christian Social 
Union, which has a large and increasing member- 
ship, and seeks by raising its ideal of Christian 
duty to increase the quantity and improve the 
quality of Christian influences on social legislation 
and administration. 

CHRISTIAN SOCIAL UNION, see 

Christian Socialism. 

CHRISTIAN UNITY, Association for 

THE PROMOTION OF, on the basis of the three 
creeds, formed by thirty members of the Greek, 
Soman, and English Churches, 8 Sept. 1857 ; 20th 
anniversary kept in London, 8 Sept. 1877. A meet- 
ing to promote the reunion of Christendom was held 
in London, 19 July, 1878, the bishop of Fredericton 
in the chair. 

CHRISTIANIA, the capital of Norway, built 
in 1624, by Christian IV. of Denmark, to replace 
Opslo (the ancient capital founded by Harold Haard- 
rade, 1058), which had been destroyed by fire. On 
13 April, 1858, Christiania suffered by fire, the loss 
being about 250,000/. The university was established 
in 181 1. New Storthing (parliament house) built 
1861-2. Statue of Charles John XIV. unveiled, 7 
Sept. 1875. Population, 1891, 150,444 ; 1900, 
227,606. 

Visit of the German emperor . r July etseq. 1890 
Destructive fire, 9 deaths. . . . 6 Aug. 1896 
Or. Henrik Ibsen's 70th birthday celebrated with 

great festivities . . . .' . 21 March, iSoS 
National theatre opened by the king . 1 Sept. 1899 

CHRISTIANITY. The name Christian was 
first given to the disciples of Christ at Antioeh, in 
Syria, 43 (Acts xi. 26; 1 Peter iv. 6). The first 
Christians were divided into episcopal (bishops or 
overseers) or presbyteroi (elders), diaconoi (ministers 
or deacons), and pistoi (believers) ; afterwards were 
added catechumens, or Learners, and energumens, who 
were to be exorcised ; sec Persecutions. 
Christianity preached in Jerusalem, \.i>. 33; Sa- 

maria, 34; Damascus, 35; &.sia Minor, 41 ; Cyprus, 

45; Macedonia, 53; Athens, Corinth, &c, 54; 

Ephcsus, 56 ; Truas, &c, 60 ; Homo ... 63 
Christianity said to be taught in Britain, about 

64; and propagated with some success (.BecZe) . . 156 



Christianity said to be introduced into Scotland in 

the reign of Donald I. about 

Constantine the Great professes the Christian 

religion 

Frumentius preaches in Abyssinia . . about 

Introduced among the Goths by Ulfilas . 

Into Ireland in the second century, but with more 

success after the arrival of St. Patrick . . . 
Christianity established in France by Clovis . 
Conversion of the Saxons by Augustin . . . 
Introduced into Helvetia, by Irish missionaries 
Into Flanders in the 7th century. 

Into Saxony, by Charlemagne 

Into Denmark, under Harold 

Into Bohemia, under Borsivoi 

Into Russia, by Swiatoslaf .... about 

Into Poland, under Meicislaiis I 

Into Hungary, under Geisa 

Into Norway and Iceland, under Olaf I. . 
Into Sweden, between 10th and nth centuries. 
Into Prussia, by the Teutonic knights, when they 

were returning from the holy wars 
Into Lithuania ; paganism was abolished about . . 
Into Guinea, Angola, and Congo, in the 15th 

century 
Into China where it made some progress (but was 

afterwards extirpated, and thousands of Chinese 

Christians were put to death) .... 
Into India and America, in the 16th century. 
Into Japan, by Xavier and the Jesuits, 1549 : but 

the Christians were exterminated . . . . 
Christianity re-established in Greece 



312 
34° 
376 

432 

496 
597 
643 

785 
827 
894 
94a 
992 
994 



1227 
1386 



1638 
1628 



CHRISTINOS, supporters of the queen-regent 
Christina against the Carlists in Spain during the 
war, 1833-40. 

CHRISTMAS, a festival in commemoration of 
the nativity of Christ, the exact time of which is 
quite unknown. Its observation appears to have 
begun in the second century in different months, 
January, April or May; for two or three centuries 
the Eastern church kept the feast Jan. 6 (see Epi- 
phany), whilst the Latin church observed it 25 Dec. 
The Armenians celebrate both feasts on 18 Jan. 
The holly and mistletoe used at Christmas are said 
to be the remains of the religious observances of the 
Druids ; see Anno Domini. 

Christinas Cards. — About 1862 pictures of robins, holly, 
&c, on cards, designed by Mr. John Leighton, were 
issued by Messrs. Goodall of London, playing-carrl 
makers. Artistic designs were introduced in 1865. 
Great improvements were made in Germany, France, 
and in London by Messrs. de la Rue, Marcus Ward, and 
others, 1879-1903. 

CHRISTMAS ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, 
so named by captain Cook, who landed here on 
Christmas-day, 1777. He had passed Christmas- 
day at Christmas-sound, 1774. On the shore of 
Christmas Harbour, visited by him in 1776, a man 
found a piece of parchment inscribed: " Ludovico 
X V. Galliarum rege, et d. Boynes regi a sccrctis ad 
res maritimas, annis 1772 et 1773." On the other 
side captain Cook wrote : " Naves Resolution et 
Discovery de rege Magnce Britannia, Dec. i"~," 
and placed it in a bottle. 
Annexed to the Straits Settlements . . Jan. 1880 

CHRISTMAS ISLAND (Indian Ocean), an 
ancient coral atoll , visited by H.M.S. Egeria, 
1887; annexed by Great Britain, 1888; leased to 
sir John Murray and Mr. G. Clunies Boss, i8qi ; 
transferred to a company, 1897 ; scientifically 
explored by Mr. C. W. Andrews, a "Monograph " 
by him published, 1900. Sir John Murray's 
expedition to the island reported successful, March, 
1901. 

CHRISTOPHER'S, St. (or St. Eitt's), a West 
India Island, discovered in 1493, by Columbus, who 
gave it his own name. Settled by the English and 
French, 1 623 or 1626. Ceded to England by the 



CHEOMIUM. 



273 



CHURCH DISCIPLINE ACT. 



peace of Utrecht, 1713. Taken by the French 
in 1782, but restored the next year. The town of 
Basseterre suffered from fires, 3 Sept. 1776; also 
3 and 4 July, 1867, when the cathedral and nearly 
all the town were destroyed. About 200 lives lost 
by* inundations, II, 12 Jan. 1880. Population in 
1891,47,662; 1901,46,446. 

CHEOMIUM (Greek, chroma, colour), a rare 
metal, discovered by Vauquelin in 1797. It is found 
combined with iron and lead, and forms the colour 
ing matter of the emerald. Chromium is now (1903) 
prepared in large quantities in the electric furnace 
by a process discovered by Moissan in 1895. 

CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY, see Printing 
in Colours. 

CHRONICLES- The earliest are those of the 
Jews, Chinese, and Hindoos. In Scripture there 
are two "Books of Chronicles" ; see Bible. Col- 
lections of the British chronicles have been pub- 
lished by Camden, Gale, &c, since 1602 ; in the 
present century by the English Historical Society, 
&c. In 1858, the publication of "Chronicles and 
Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland during the 
Middle Ages," commenced under the direction of 
the Master of the Rolls (still going on, 1903). 
In 1845 Mam-ay's " Manual of British Historians" 
was published. Some of the monkish chronicles 
are now discredited. " The Chronicle of Froissart," 
translated by lord Berners, vol. i., Jan. 1901. 

CHRONOGRAM, an inscription on tombs, 
buildings, medals, &c. in which a date or epoch is 
expressed by letters (the Roman numerals) added 
together as they occur in the sentence. A large 
collection of" Chronograms," with translations and 
explanations, was published by Mr. James Hilton 
in 1882, 1885, and 1896. 

CHRONOLOGY, the science of time ; see Eras 
and Epochs. Valuable works on the subject are V Art 
de Verifier les Dates, compiled by the Benedictines 
(1 783-1820). Playf air's Chronology, 1784; Blair's 
Chronology, 1753 (new editions by sir H. Ellis in 1844, 
and by Mr. Rosse, in 1856). The Oxford Chrono- 
logical Tables, 1838. Sir Harris Nicolas' Chronology 
of History, 1833 ; new edition, 1852. Hales' Chrono- 
logy, 2nd edition, 1830; Woodward and Cates' Ency- 
clopaedia of Chronology, 1872; Mr. H. Fynes-Clin- 
ton's Fasti Hellenici and Fasti Romani (1824-50). 

CHRONOMETER, see Clocks, and Harrison. 

CHRONOSCOPE, an apparatus invented by 
professor Wheatstone in 1840, to measure small 
intervals of time. It has been applied to the velocity 
of projectiles and of the electric current. A chrono- 
scope was invented by Pouillet, in 1844, and by 
others since. Capt. Andrew Noble (engaged by sir 
William Armstrong) invented an apparatus for 
determining the velocity of a projectile in a gun; 
a second of time is divided into millionths, and the 
electric spark is employed in recording the rate of the 
passage. The apparatus was exhibited at Newcastle- 
on-Tyne in Aug. 1869, and in London in April, 1870. 

. CHRYSANTHEMUMS were introduced 
into England from China, about 1790; and many 
varieties since. Centenary celebrated in London, 
II Nov. 1890. 

CHRYSOPOLIS, or Scutari {which see). 

CHUNAR, or CHUNARGHUK, N.W. India, 
taken by the British, 1763, and ceded to them, 1768. 
Here was concluded a treaty between the nabob of 
Oude and governor Hastings, by which the nabob 
was relieved of his debts to the East India Company, 



on condition of bis seizing the property of the be- 
gums, his mother and grandmother, and delivering 
it up to the English, 19 Sept. 1781. This treaty 
enabled the nabob to take the lands of Fyzoola Khan, 
a Rohilla chief, who had settled at Rampoor, under 
guarantee of the English. The nabob presented to 
Mr. Hastings 100,000/. ; see Hastings. 

CHUECH (probably derived from the Greek 
kyriakos, pertaining to the Lord, Kyrios), signifies 
both a collected body of Christians, and the place 
where they meet. In the New Testament, it sig- 
nifies " congregation," in the original ekklesia. 
Christian architecture commenced with Constantine, 
who erected at Rome churches called basilicas (from 
the Greek brfsileus, a king) ; St. Peter's about 330. 
His successors erected others, and adopted the 
heathen temples as places of worship. Several very 
ancient churches exist in Britain and Ireland. See 
Architecture ; Choir and Chanting ; Rome, Modern ; 



opes. 

CHUECH AND STAGE GUILD, was 

formed in 1880 to promote morality and temperance 
by the agency of theatrical performances. 

CHUECH AEMY, constituted in 1882 under 
episcopal control. Founder, Rev. W. Carlile. It 
is a working-man's mission to working-men, and 
includes evangelists' and nurses' training homes, 
and labour homes for tramps and inebriates ; one 
opened by the marquis of Lome in Whitechapel, 
25 April, 1896. Annual services and meetings are 
held. Income, 1902, 147,000/. The work of the 
Church Army is divided into Evangelistic and 
social departments. 66 colportage and mission 
vans carry on the work in the country, and the 
pioneer and tent mission hold missions in London 
and the provinces. Labour yards and relief depots 
gave assistance to 68,000 cases in 190?. Head- 
quarters, 130, Edgware-road, London, W. 

CHURCH ASSOCIATION, founded to 
maintain Reformation principles, 1865. Annual 
meetings are held in London and the provinces. 

The prosecutions under the Public Worship Regu- 
lation Act, which see, have been supported by the 
Association. 

CHUECH BUILDING. The society for 
promoting the enlargement, building, and repairing 
of churches and chapels, was established 1818, and 
incorporated 1828. A commission for building 
churches in populous places, appointed in 1820, was 
incorporated with the ecclesiastical commission 
about 1856. 

CHUECH CONGRESSES, meet annually 
since 186 1. See under Church of England. 

CHURCH DEFENCE INSTITUTION; 

founded in 1859 — the archbishop of Canterbury pre- 
sident. It does not meddle with doctrines. 

The Oxford Laymen's League for defence of the 
national church founded Aug. 1886. Lord Sel- 
borne's "Defence of the Church of England 
against Disestablishment" published . 1 Dec 1886 

Great church defence meeting, Queen's Hall, Lon- 
don, the two abps., chairmen . 1 March, 1895 

An appeal to raise 20, 000L, published, Times, 6 April, 1895 

Annual meetings are now held. 

CHURCH DISCIPLINE ACT (3 & 4 

Vict. c. 86), passed 7 Aug. 1840, enables bishops to 
issue commissions of inquiry, and on conviction to 
inhibit clergymen from performing service, &c. 
A new bill brought in by the archbishop of Can- 
terbury, read second time, 15 March, 1888 ; 
another rejected (2nd reading) 3 10-156, 10 May, 1899 

T 



CHUKCH OF ENGLAND. 



274 



CHUECH OF ENGLAND. 



Two bills were brought forward in 1903, No. 1 
" the Liverpool bill." by Mr. Austin Taylor, M.P. 
for the East Toxteth division of Liverpool, to 
compel obedience of the clergy to the vestries, 
and to abolish the episcopal veto, passed second 
reading 190 to 139 . . . . 13 March, 1903 

No. 2, introduced by Mr. C. A. Cripps, M.P. for 
the Stretford division, Lanes., gave the bishops 
increased power to enforce discipline, read the 
second time : for 80, against 56 . 13 May, ,, 

CHURCH of England.* The earliest 
history is legendary. See Bishops. The following 
are leading facts in her history : for details, refer 
to separate articles ; see Clergy and Free Church. 
In Sept. 1880, the archbishop of Canterbury said 
that he was in communion with 162 bishops. 288 
bishops in the Anglican communion, announced, 
1897. 
Christianity probably introduced into Britain by 

Gaulish missionaries, and bishroprics founded 

in the 3rd and 4th centuries. 
Eestitutus, bishop of London, and Adelfius of 

Caerleon, said to have been present at the 

council of Aries 3 X 4 

Eise and spread of the Pelagian heresy, 400 et seq. 
The persecutions of the Saxon invaders, drive 

the Christian into Wales and Cornwall, 5th 

and 6th centuries. 
The Saxons converted by Augustin and his com- 
panions, 597 et seq. He landed at Ebbs Fleet. 
Dunstan establishes the supremacy of the monastic 

orders, about 9°° 

The aggrandising policy of the Church, fostered by 

Edward the Confessor, checked by William I. and 

his successors 1066 et seq. 

Contest between Henry II. and Becket respecting 

" Constitutions of Clarendon " . . . 1164-1170 
Contest between national or English party and 

Roman party (chiefly Norman) nth and 12th centuries 
John surrenders his crown to the papal legate . 1213 
Rise of the Lollards— Wickliffe publishes tracts 

against the errors of the church of Rome, 1356 ; 

and a version of the Bible, about .... 1383 
The clergy regulated by parliament, 1529 ; they lose 

the first fruits 1534 

The royal supremacy imposed on the clergy by 

Henry VIII., 1531 ; many suffer death for refusing 

to acknowledge it iS3S 

Coverdale's translation of the Bible commanded to 

be read in churches >> 

" Six Articles of Religion " promulgated . . . 1539 
First Book of Common Prayer issued . . . iS49 

The clergy permitted to marry , 

" Fortv-two Articles of Religion " issued . . 1552 

Restoration of the Roman forms, and tierce perse- 
cution of the Protestants by Mary . . . i553'8 
The Protestant forms restored by Elizabeth ; the 

Puritan dissensions begin .... 1558-1603 
Matthew Parker, consecrated abp. of Canterbury 

at Lambeth, by bps. Barlow, Hodgkins, and two 

others (see Nag's Head) . . . 17 Dec. 1559 
" Thirty-nine " Articles published .... 1563 
Hampton Court conference with the Puritans . . 1604 
New translation of the Bible published . . . 1611 
Book of Common Prayer suppressed and Directory 

established by parliament 1644 

Presbyterians established by the Commonwealth . 1649 
Act of Uniformity (14 Chas. II. c. 4) passed— 2000 

nonconforming ministers resign their livings . 1662 



i 



* The church consists of three orders of clergy— bishops, 
priests and deacons ; 1903 ; two archbishops, 33 bishops, 
with 22 suffragans, 8 assistant bishops, about 100 
colonial and missionary bishops, and about 23,000 clergy. 
The other dignitaries are chancellors, deans (of cathe- 
drals and collegiate churches), archdeacons, preben- 
daries, canons, minor canons, and priest-vicars. In 
1903, the number of ecclesiastical parishes or districts 
with churches or chapels was about 1400. Total revenue 
of the church, ancicntendowineuts, 5,469,171/. ; through 
private bounty (since 1703), 284,336/. Estimated total 
revenue of the church, 7,250,000'., 1891. Benefices about 
14,250/., reported 1891. Voluntary offerings to the 
church foryear ending Easter, 1901, 7,778,134'. 17s. 41'.; 
1902, 8,217,316?. 5S. $d. 



1691 



1704 
1710 



1717 
1738 



Attempts of James II. to revive Romanism ; "De- 
claration of Indulgence " published . . . . 1687 
Acquittal of the seven bishops on a charge of 

" seditious libel " 1688 

Comprehension bill for dissenters introduced . 1689 
The Non-juring bishops and others deprived ; (they 
formed a separate communion) . . 1 Feb. 

"Queen Anne's Bounty," for the augmentation of 

l>oor livings 

Act for building 50 new churches passed . . 

Fierce disputes between the low church and the 

high church; trial of Henry Sacheverell, for 

seditious sermons ; riots 

The Bangorian controversy begins . ... 

John Wesley and George Whitefleld commence 
preaching ........ 

Rise of the Evangelical party in the church, under 
Newton, Romaine, and others, latter part of 

1 8th century 
Church of England united with that of Ireland at 

the Union ^°° 

Clergy Incapacitation Act passed .... 1801 
Incorporated Church Building Society established, 

6 Feb. 1818 
Church Inquiry Commission, appointed 23 June, 1832 
Ecclesiastical Commissioners incorporated by act, 

13 Aug. 1836 
Acts for building and enlarging churches, 1828, 1838 
200 new churches erected in the diocese of London 

under bishop C. J. Blomfield . . . 1828-56 
" Tracts for the Times " (No. 1-90) published (much 

controversy ensued) . . . . • • 1833-41 
Church Pastoral Aid Society, founded . . . 1836 
Additional Curates' Society, founded . . . . 1837 
New Church Discipline Act (3 & 4 Vict. c. 86) . . 1S40 , 
For the Gorham and Denison cases, see Trials, 1849, 1856 
Anglo-Continental Society (which see), founded . 1853 
English Church Union, established . ... i860 
" Essays and Reviews "published, i860 ; numerous 

Replies issued (see Essays and Reviews') . 1861-2 
[The Church of England is now said to be divided 
into High, Moderate, Low (or Evangelical), and 
Broad Church : the last including persons who 
hold the opinions of the late Dr. Arnold, the Rev. 
F. D. Maurice, dean Stanley, canon Kingsley, and 
others. ] 
Church Congresses began at Cambridge, 1861 ; and 

at Oxford July. 1862 

Dr. Colenso, bishop of Natal, publishes his work 
on "The Pentateuch," about Oct. 1862; the 
bishops, in convocation, declare that it contains 
" errors of the gravest and most dangerous cha- 
racter" 20 May, 1863 

A Church Congress at Manchester 13, 14, 15 Oct. ,, 
Bishop Colenso deposed by his metropolitan, Dr. 

Gray, bishop of Capetown. . . 16 April, 1864 
" Oxford Declaration " (authorship ascribed to arch- 
deacon Denison and Dr. Pusey), respecting belief 
in eternal punishment, drawn up and signed on 
25 Feb. , and sent by post to the clergy at large 
for signature : about 3000 are said to have signed ; 
it was presented to the archbishop of Canterbury 

12 May, ,, 
Bishop of London's Fund, for remedying spiritual 
destitution in London, established 1863; the queen 
engages to give (in three years) 3000/., and prince 

of Wales 1000' 7 March, „ 

100,456/. received ; 72,003/. promised . 31 Dec. „ 
The queen engages to give 15,000/. in 10 years, 

April, 1865 
Church Congress at Bristol .... Oct. 1864 
Church of England Education Society, founded . „ 
Church Association (against popery and ritualism) 

established 1S65 

District Churches Tithes act passed (rectories con- 
stituted) • " 

Bishop C'olenso's appeal came before the privy 
council, which declared bishop Gray's proceed- 
ings null and void (since a colonial bishop can 
have no authority except what is granted by par- 
liament or by the colonial legislature), 21 March, ,, 
London Free and open Church Association, founded ,, 
AYir form of clerical subscription proposed by a 

commission in 1S64: adopted by parliament, July, ,, 
Clvurch Congress at Norwich . . . 3-7 Oct. ,, 
Meetingin London of three English bishops, Dr. 
Pusey, and nearly So of the clergy and laity, with 
counts Orloffand Tolstse, and the Russian chap- 



CHUECH OF ENGLAND. 



275 



CHUECH OP ENGLAND. 



lain, to consider on the practicability of uniting 
the English and Russian churches . 15 Nov. 1865 
Bishop Colcnso publicly excommunicated at Maritz- 

burg cathedral, by bishop Gray . . 5 Jan. 1866 
Bishop Gray declares himself independent, estab- 
lishes synods, and calls his see "The Church of 

South Africa" early in „ 

The Church Missionary Society refuses to support 
colonial bishops, unless they keep within the for- 
mularies of the Church of England . early in „ 
Church Congress at York . . . .6 Oct. ,, 
Much excitement caused by the progress of ritual- 
ism (which see) .... Sept. -Nov. ,, 
Bishop Colenso v. Gladstone and others (trustees of 
the Colonial Bishopric Fund) for withholding his 
salary. Verdict of master of the rolls, for plaintiff, 

with costs 6 Nov. „ 

Unqualified condemnation of ritualism by the 
bishops in convocation, 13 Feb. ; the lower house 

concurred^ 15 Feb. 1867 

The bishop of Salisbury (Dr. Hamilton) in a church 
asserts the doctrine of the supernatural gifts of 
priests, the Divine presence in the sacrament ; 
public protest against it . .16 May, ,, 

Trial in Court of Arches, Martin v. Mackonochie, 
respecting extreme ritualistic practices at St. 
Alban's, Holborn ; case deferred . 21 May, ,, 
Boyal Ritualistic Commission appointed to inquire 
respecting rubrics in the Prayer-Book, table of 
lessons, &c. , 3 June ; first report, censuring in- 
novation, signed . . . . .19 Aug. ,, 

Pan-Anglican Synod (which see) meets at Lambeth, 

24-27 Sept. „ 
Church Congress at Wolverhampton . . 1 Oct. ,, 
Meeting of ritualists in St. James's Hall, claiming 
liberty ...... 19 Nov. „ 

Case of Martin v. Mackonochie, begun 4 Dec, 

lasted 14 days ; resumed . . 16-18 Jan. 1868 

Proposal of bishop Gray of Capetown to consecrate 
Mr. Macrorie bishop of Natal in opposition to 
bishop Colenso, disapproved of by the English 

and Scotch bishops Jan. „ 

Bishop of London's Fund, received, 312, 309?. 31 Jan. ,, 
Martin v. Mackonochie decided ; verdict for plain- 
tiff ; use of incense, mixing water with the wine, 
and elevation of the elements, in the sacrament, 

forbidden 28 March, „ 

Great meeting at St. James's hall, in defence of the 
Irish Church establishment ; 23 bishops present, 

6 May, ,, 
District Churches Act, constituting vicarages 

(Bishop of Oxford's Act), passed . . . . ,, 
Church Congress at Dublin ... 29 Sept. ,, 
Sharp party contests at a special meeting of the 

Christian Knowledge Society . . 8 Dec. ,, 
Martin v. Mackonochie : appeal case ; verdict for 
plaintiff, declaring certain ritualistic practices 

illegal 23 Dec. ,, 

Warm meeting of ritualists at St. James's hall, 

12 Jan. 1869 
First meeting of a Church Reform Society (since 
named "Liturgical Revision Society"): Lord 
Ebury, chairman .... 13 May, „ 

■Church conference at Sheffield . . 24 May, ,, 

Church Cox,gress at Liverpool . . .5 Oct. ,, 
Martin v. Mackonochie : defendant censured by 

privy council for evading sentence . 4 Dec. ,, 
Bislwp of London's Fund: — 411,839?. received, 

July, 1870 
*' Clerical Disabilities Act " passed . . Aug. ,, 
Church Co ngress at Southampton . . 11 Oct. ,, 
Christian Knowledge Society votes 10,000?. to sup- 
port Church schools .... 20 Oct. ,, 
Rev. Mr. Mackonochie suspended from duty for 
three months by decree of privy council for 
evading former sentence ... 25 Nov. ,, 
Rev. C. Voysey sentenced to be deprived for heresy ; 
appeal to judicial committee of privy council 
disallowed (see Voysey) . . . .10 Feb. 1871 
Hebbert v. Purchas, of Brighton ; verdict against 
defendant for offences against ecclesiastical law; 
considered a great defeat of the ritualists, and 
caused much excitement ... 23 Feb. „ 

Mr. Miall's resolution for disestablishing the church 
of England defeated in the commons — 374-89, 

q May, ,, 
Incumbents' Resignation Act passed . 13 July, ,, 
Agitation for revival of diocesan synods, Sept. -Oct. „ 



Church Congress at Nottingham ; closed 10 Oct. 1871 

Sheppard v. Bennett (for teaching the divine pre- 
sence in the sacrament) ; appeal to privy council, 
28 Nov. ; judgment adjourned . . 2 Dec. ,, 

Bishop of London's Fund — received 441,199?.. 31 Dec. ,, 

The convocation authorised to consider alterations 
in the Prayer Book Feb. 1872 

Church reform meeting at St. James's hall ; paro- 
chial councils recommended . . 15 Feb. ,, 

Rev. John Purchas, of Brighton, to be suspended 
from duties for one year, from . .18 Feb. ,, 
[He died 18 Oct.] 

Conference of bishops, cleans, and canons at Lam- 
beth, to consider cathedral reform . 1 March, ,, 

Sheppard v. Bennett ; judgment for defendant, who 
is censured 8 June, „ 

Mr. Miall's motion for royal commission to in- 
quire into the property of the church lost (295-94) 

2 July, „ 

Church Co ngress at Leeds . . . 8-11 Oct. „ 

Memorial (signed by 60,200 persons) against Ro- 
manist teaching, <fcc. in the church, presented at 
Lambeth to the archbishop by the church asso- 
ciation 5 May, 1873 

The archbishops in reply admit the danger, and 
recognize their duty, as well as the difficulties of 
action, saying, "We live in an age when all 
opinions and beliefs are keenly criticised, and 
when there is less inclination than ever was 
before to respect authority in matters of opinion. 
In every state, in every religious community, 
almost in every family, the effect of this unsettled 
condition may be traced." . . . 1 June, ,, 

Mr. Miall's motion for disestablishing the church, 
lost (356-61) 16 May, ,, 

483 clergymen petition convocation for the licens- 
ing of duly qualified sacramental confessors, May, ,, 

Church Congress, at Bath .... 9 Oct. ,, 

Archdeacon Denison, Dr. Pusey, canons Liddon 
and Liddell, and others, publish a declaration in 
favour of confession and absolution in Times, 

6 Dec. „ 
Archdeacon Denison attacks the bishops in a Latin 

pamphlet, " Episcopatus Bilinguis" . Dec. ,, 

Public Worship Regulation Act (which see) brought 
in by the archbishops, 20 April ; royal assent, 

7 Aug. 1874 
Meeting of lay and clerical delegates at Lambeth 

palace on church affairs . . .10 June, ,, 

Addresses to the archbishops largely signed for and 
against the sanction of a distinctive dress for the 
minister during the celebration of the holy com- 
munion Sept. ,, 

Church Congress at Brighton met . . 6 Oct. „ 

New society formed by bishops of Manchester, Car- 
lisle, and Edinburgh, and others, to promote union 
with orthodox dissenters Oct. ,, 

Bishop of London's Fund: — 500,187?. received or 
promised . . .... Nov. ,, 

Martin v. Mackonochie : new suit in court of arches 
(see 1870), 26 Nov. ; Mackonochie to be suspended 
for 6 weeks and pay costs . . .7 Dec. ,, 

Pastoral of the archbishops and bishops (bishops of 
Salisbury and Durham excepted) to the clergy 
and laity (counselling moderation and forbearance, ) 

dated 1 March, 1875 

Mackonochie declines to appeal ; excitement at his 
church ; rev. A. Stanton and congregation cele- 
brate holy communion at St. Vedast's, Foster- 
lane 27 June, et seq. ,, 

Church Congress at Stoke-upon-Trent . 5-9 Oct. ,, 

Several clergymen secede to Rome . . Oct. ,, 

Public Worship Regulation Act : new court, under 
lord Penzance, meet at Lambeth-palace ; first case 
the Parish of Folkestone v. rev. Charles Joseph 
Ridsdale, 4 Jan. ; verdict for plaintiffs . 3 Feb. 1876 

Reported negotiation of ritualistic ministers with 
Rome disclaimed by Mr. Mackonochie and about 
100 others in Times 4 Feb. ,, 

Church of England Working Men's Society estab- 
lished at St. Alban's, Holborn . . 5 Aug. ,, 

Chicrch Congress at Plymouth . . .3-9 Oct. ,, 
"English Church Union" deny the authority of any 
secular court in matters spiritual, at a meeting, 

16 Jan. 1877 
Address to the archbishops and bishops (signed by 
Dr. Church, dean of St. Paul's, and other deans 
and canons) against the Public Worship Regula- 

t 2 



CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 



276 



CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 



tion act, &c, requiring legislation respecting 
ecclesiastical affairs to be made by church synods 
and adopted by parliament . . .3 April, 

Both archbishops vote for permitting dissenters' 
funeral service in churchyards . . 17 May, 

Bishop of London's Fund received 571,597?. . June, 

Declaration of above 41,000 (clergy and laity) and 
proposed petition to the queen against judgment 
in the Ridsdale case .... July, 

96 peers (Duke of Westminster and others) address 
the archbishop of Canterbury against auricular 
confession, "Priest in Absolution," &c, about 

9 Aug. 

17th Clmrch Congress at Croydon, the archbishop of 
Canterbury president ; very successful, 9-12 Oct. 

Pan-Anglican Congress (which see) meet at Lam- 
beth, &c, 2-27 July, 

Bishoprics Act authorising establishment of four 
new sees, passed . . 16 Aug. 

i8tli Clmrch Congress, at Sheffield, archbishop of 
York president 1-4 Oct. 

New rubrics in Prayer-book agreed to by the con- 
vocation, 4 July ; act for them passed by convo- 
cation Aug. 

19th Clmrch Congress at Swansea . . 7 Oct. 

Dr. Julius v. the bishop of Oxford (for not prose- 
cuting rev. Mr. Carter, of Clewer), queen's bench ; 
verdict against the bishop in 1879 ; reversed on 
appeal by house of lords ; (the bishop may but 
is not compelled to prosecute) . 22 March, 

20th Church Congress, at Leicester ; friendly ad- 
dress from nonconformists . 28 Sept.— 1 Oct. 

Rev. John Baghot de-la Bere, jun., vicar of Prest- 
bury, Gloucestershire, deprived for disobedience 
respecting ritualism, &c, by court of arches 

21 Dec. 1880, and 8 Jan. 

Memorial to the archbishop of Canterbury, from 
five deans (Dr. Church, dean of St. Paul's, and 
other clergymen) in favour of toleration of diver- 
gence in ritualistic practice . . 10 Jan. 

Counter memorial from bishops Parry and Ryan, 
dean Close, and other deans and clergymen, 
opposing toleration of unscriptural practices 

31 Jan 

Mr. Mackonochie's appeal to the house of lords 
dismissed ; sentence of 3 years' suspension 
afftimed 7 April, 

21st Church Confess at Newcastle-on-Tyne 4-10 Oct. 

Catholic league formed . . . . June, 

Death of Dr. B. B. Pusey , . . 16 Sept. 

22nd Clmrch Congress at Derby . . 3-6 Oct. 

Rev. A. Mackonochie resigns living at St. Alban's, 
Holborn, at the request of abp. of Canterbury, 

1 Dec. 

23rd (Jhwrch Congress at Beading . . 2 Oct. 

"Official Year-book of the Church of England" 
first published ... .... 

Church School Company formed, 1883 ; first animal 
meeting 21 Feb. 

24th f'hiiri-li Cunt/i rss at Carlisle . . 30 Sept. 

Clmrch of England Purity Society, see White Cross 
Arm 11 - 

25th Church Congress at Portsmouth . 6 Oct. 
Agitation for disestablishment and disendowment 

preparatory to elections 

Address to the archbishops and bishops from 

important members ofthe university of Cambridge 

advocating church reform , . . 30 Nov. 
Bee 1 <>>n,n „. Hon > of, which Bret met . 16 Feb. 
Proposed disestablisl ml of the Church in Wales 

negatived in the Commons (241-220) . March, 
26th Chvwrch Congress at Wakefield (Church reform 

discussed) 5 Oct. 

Proposed erection of a Church Bouse for general 

business, meetings, &c. ; committee appointed 

al Lambeth Palace . . . . 18 1 let . 
Church Patronage Hill introduced ; sec fatrniiinjc, 

May, 
ajthChurch Congri al Wolverhampton began 3 Oct. 
Church Bouse I loi poration, first annual mei 1 ing 

21 July, 
28th Church it Manchester; disputed 

questions boldlj discussed . . . 1 1 let, 
j ' 1 1 and laity 

adopted at a lai ;e 1 ing . . 13 Nov. 

received > 1887; 

23,000/ in 1888 



1877 



1879 



29th Church Congress at Cardiff ; position of Welsh 
church discussed 1 Oct. 

" Churchmen in council," initiated in Zion College, 
May, 1889. Large meeting in Westminster town- 
hall to promote the relief of the church by ob- 
taining for it, from the state, the power of settling 
its differences in doctrine and ritual in a liberal 
spirit, by the agency of convocation . 6 Feb. 

"Protestant churchmen's alliance," lord Grimthorpe 
president ; object to promote the substitution 
of deprivation for imprisonment ; support of the 
bishops reported ; first general meeting 25 Feb. 

30th Church Congress at Hull . 30 Sept. -3 Oct. 

31st Church Congress at Rhyl ; the bishop of St. 
Asaph president ; the abps. of Canterbury and 
York present 6 Oct. 

A declaration of faith in the divine inspiration and 
truth of the Holy Scriptures, on the testimony of 
the universal church, independently of human 
criticism, signed by dean E. M. Goulburn and 37 
other eminent clergymen . . Times, 18 Dec. 

32nd Church Congress at Folkestone ; the abp. of Can- 
terbury president 4-7 Oct. 

Secession of a small body of clergy in consequence 
of the Lincoln judgment ; see Canterbury, they 
propose to form a new evangelical sect . Aug. 

Meeting at the Mansion-house, London, convened 
by the bishops of London, Rochester, and St. 
Albans, to consider the spiritual needs of the 
metropolis 17 Feb. 

Protest against the Lincoln judgment signed by 50 
selected clergymen .... 27 Feb. 

Great meeting of the bishops, clergy, laymen and 
churchwardens, in London to consider the 
(Welsh) Suspensory bill (which see), and defence 
of the National Clmrch (convoked by the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury), 13 March ; at the Albert 
hall, after a service in St. Paul's . 16 May, 

Many meetings throughout the country opposing 
the Welsh Suspensory bill . March, April, 

33rd Church Congress at Birmingham ; the bp. of 
Worcester president, 3 Oct., 1893 ; (discussions 
on the proposed bishopric of Birmingham ; paiish 
councils bill ; church disestablishment ; crema- 
tion). 

Declaration of the archbishops and bishops against 
the Welsh disestablishment bill . 17 May, 

34th Church Congress at Exeter, opened, the bishop 
of Exeter president ; discussions on religious 
instruction, Church reform, &c. . 9-12 Oct. 

Letter from Cardinal Vaughan denying the validity 
of Anglican orders (5 Oct.), much controversy 
ensues ; Times, 5 Oct. ct seq. 

The 250th anniversary of the execution of abp. 
Laud, celebrated at the church of All Hallows, 
Barking, London, E.C. ; an exhibition of relics ; 
addresses by the bp. of Peterborough and others 

10 Jan. 

35th Church Congress at Norwich; the bishop of 
Norwich president .... 8-11 Oct. 

Since the passing of the education act of 1S70, the 
church has raised for her voluntary schools 
13,144,7750, reported .... April, 

Inauguration of the "Church Reform league" at 
the Church House, Westminster . 27 Nov. 

Voluntary contributions in 1894 to support the 
church, 5,851, 986J.. reported ' . . 20 Feb. 

Anglican church conference held at Vienna, 3 June, 

Anglican orders, sec Pope, 1S96-8. 

Mr. Allied Marriott, of Hopton, Devvsbury, be- 
queaths 400,000?. to the church and its societies ; 
announced 3 Oct. 

36th Church Coytgress at Shrewsbury, the bishop of 
Lichfield president; discussions on church re- 
form, clerical poverty, &c. (see Clergy) 6-9 Oct. 
17th 1 'hurt '< 1 '01 i ess at Nottingham, the bishop of 
Southwell president . . 28 Sept.-i Oct. 

H.< '. eclcbrat f the 13th centenary ofthe land- 
ing of St. Augustine at Ebbs Fleet, Ramsgate 

12-17 Sept. 

"The Conversion of England" in relation to the 
landing of St. Augustine, a spectacular historical 
pli) bj the rev. Benrj Creswell, resembling the 
ni\stery plays (mv Ihumi), said to have 'been 
first performed at St. Peter's, Vauxhall, in 1885, 
revived at Canterbury, anonymous actors, in- 
cluding clergy and laitv. 17 Nov. 1807, and at 
the Church Bouse, Westminster . 15 Jan. et seq. 



1893, 



1S94 



1895 



1897! 



CHUKCH OF ENGLAND. 



27^ 



CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 



Agitation against ritualism, the so-called "Church 
crisis," the abp. of Canterbury and bps. and 
convocation censure changes in the worship con- 
tary to the Book of Common Prayer, n May; 
letter from the bp. of London to his clergy to the 
same effect .... Times, 27 June, 

38th Church Congress at Bradford ; bp. of Ripon pre- 
sident ; Churchmen's union founded, 27-30 Sept. 

Demonstrations by Mr. Kensit and others against 

ritualistic practices, in various churches, autumn, 

Anti- ritualistic ineeting, lord Midletoninthe chair, 

Church-house, Westminster . . n Jan. 

See Ecclesiastical courts, 1899, an d Manchester. 

Anti-ritualistic meeting (chiefly nonconformists), 
lord Kinnaird in the chair, at the Albert hall, 

31 Jan. 

National Protestant Church union present a memo- 
rial to the queen against ritualistic practices, 

9 Feb. 

'The use of the revised version of the Bible in 
church services, authorized . . 10 Feb. 

Anti-ritualistic demonstrations at Liverpool, 

31 March, 

Centenary of the Church Missionary society at 

Exeter-hall 10-15 April, 

See English Church Union, 1899. 

Deputation representing over 10,000 laymen, ex- 
pressing confidence and sympathy in the arch- 
bishops and bishops in their efforts to secure due 
observance of the rules prescribed by the Book of 
Common Prayer, received at Lambeth palace, 

1 May, 

The abps. decide, re the appeal of the rev. H. 
Westall, of St. Cuthbei t's, London, and the rev. 
E. Ram, of St. John's, Norwich, that incense and 
processional lights are prohibited by the orna- 
ments rubric of the Church of England, 31 July, 

Lady Wimborne's ladies' anti-ritualistic league 
founded July, 

39th Church Congress at London, the bp. of London 
president; received at the Guildhall; congress 
held at the Albert hall, after services at St. Paul's, 
the Abbey, &c 10-14 Oct. 

Protest signed by 13,794 ^ a y members presented to 
the abp. of Canterbury by the duke of Newcastle, 
lord E. Churchill, and Mr. R. W. Burnie, against 
opinion of the 2 abps. regarding incense and pro- 
cessional lights ; the abp. affirmed that he based 
his action entirely on the Book of Common 
Prayer, 19 Jan. 1900 ; reservation of the Sacrament 
pronounced unlawful by both abps. . 1 May, 

Davey v. Hinde : in the consistory court at Lewes, 
Dr. Tristram, chancellor, granted the petitioner 
an order for the removal of certain ornaments 
from the church of the Annunciation at Brighton, 
within 3 months 21 Aug. 

40th Church Congress at Newcastle-on-Tyne ; very 
successful ; the bp. of Newcastle, president ; 
progress of the church, its policy in elementary 
education, and its autonomy, &c, discussed 

25-28 Sept. 

Fulham round-table conference on " The doctrine 
of the Holy Communion, and its expression in 
ritual," 11-13 Oct.; see Times . . 27 Nov. 

'The abps. and bps. appeal to the clergy for loyalty 
and obedience, Times . . . .21 Jan. 

41st church Congress at Brighton . . 1-4 Oct. 

A "Petition of Right," against the appointment of 
canon Gore as bp. of Worcester, by the Church 
assoc. and the Nat. Protestant league . 28 Nov. 

King v. the abp. of Canterbury and the vicar-gen.: 
the lord chief justice and justices Wright and 
Ridley held that under act 25 Henry VIII. c. 20, 
the abp. or vicar-gen. could not question the 
fitness of a person nominated to a bishopric by 
the crown; the rules for a mandamus to the abp. 
•of Canterbury and the vicar-gen. directing them 
to hear objections to the confirmation of canon 
'Gore as bp. of Worcester were accordingly dis- 
charged "10 Feh. 

Death of rev. Wm. ("Father") Dolling, devoted 
high churchman .... 15 May, 

Education bill (see under Education) excites much 
controversy; vigorous opposition to it by non- 
conformists ; introduced . . .24 May, 

42nd Church Congress held at Northampton, 

7-1 1 Oct. 

.Education bill received royal assent . .8 Dec. 



Death of Dr. Temple, abp. of Canterbury, aged 81, 

22 Dec. 

Omission of "damnatory clauses" by dean and 
chapter of Westminster in cathedral services 
excites much discussion (see Times, 28 Jan.), Jan. 

Bp. of Stepney (Dr. Lang) delivers an address at 
Sion college on "The dangers of clericalism," 

27 Jan. 

Official statement of the bp. of London regarding 
"reservation" published in London Diocesan 
Magazine 1 Feb. 

The rev. H. Myddleton Evans, vicar of St. 
Michael's, Shoreditch, against whom the bp. of 
London had decided to proceed under the Church 
Discipline act, 1840, resigns his benefice, 1 Feb. 

Dr. Randall Davidson, late bp. of Winchester, 
enthroned abp. at Canterbury . . 12 Feb. 

Death of Dr. Lyttleton, bp. suffr. of Southampton, 

19 Feb. 

Deputation of unionist M.P.sto abps. at Lambeth, 
to call attention to lack of discipline and novel 
practices in church services ; important speech 
by abp. of Canterbury . . . n March, 

Death of Dr. Bradley, ex-dean of Westminster 
(dean 21 years) 13 March, 

Church Discipline bill No. 1, "the Liverpool bill," 
to compel observance of rubrics and abolish 
bishops' veto, passed second reading (house of 
commons), 190 to 139 ... 13 March, 

Death of Dr. Farrar, dean of Canterbury, aged 71, 

22 March, 

Announcement made of proposed celebration of 
the Holy Communion on 6 May at St. Paul's 
cathedral in commemoration of those members 
of the guilds of the Holy Standard and St. 
Helena who died in the S. African war, 9 April, 

Death of prebendary Kitto, prominent evangelical, 

13 April, 

Letter from lady Wimborne, president of the 
Ladies' Anti-Ritualistic league, to Times, protest- 
ing that the proposed service is a revival of the 
Roman use of prayers for the dead, and that 
prayers for the souls of the departed have been 
discontinued in the English church for 350 years, 

17 April, 

Bp. Taylor Smith, chaplain-gen. to the forces, 
withdraws his membership of the guild as a pro- 
test against the proposed service, which is sub- 
sequently abandoned .... April, 

Convocation of Canterbury opened. Upper house 
passes resolutions on church reform ; lower 
house agrees to appoint a committee on the rela 
tion of the Church of England with other 
churches. House of laymen approved Church 
Discipline bill No. 2 . . . . 12 May, 

Convocation of York opened. House of laymen 
adopted resolution deploring the lack of disci- 
pline in the church, and urging that further 
powers be given to the bishops . .13 May, 

Declaration drawn up by committee of high 
church clergy (Rev. Russell Wakefield, chair- 
man), embodying statements of belief in regard 
to the obligations imposed on the clergy under 
the 36th canon ; the authority of the ceremonial 
system provided by the first prayer-book of 
Edward VI., and the desirability of a complete 
restoration of the synodical action of the church, 
pending that, of obedience to the bishops, May, 

Remarriage of a divorced person at St. Mark's, 
North Audley-street, the subject, of controversy 
between the bp. of London, the vicar of St. 
Mark's, and Dr. Tristram, chancellor of the dio- 
cese. Opinion of Mr. Dibdeu, new dean of 
Arches, in response to request of archbp. of Can- 
terbury, published, Times ... 30 May, 

Convocations of Canterbury and York hold joint 
meetings and pass resolutions on the formation 
of a National Church council, and on the qualifi- 
cations of electors for lay representatives, 10 July 

Abps. receive deputation representing the signa- 
tories to the clerical declaration on ritual : 
speech by the archbp. of Canterbury on the orna- 
ments rubric, the authority of the privy council, 
and synodical action . . . . 11 July, 

Dr. Moorhouse, bp. of Manchester, intimates the 
resignation of his see at the end of October, 

late July, 

Death of Dr, Webber, bp. of Brisbane . 3 Aug. 



1902 
1903 



CHURCH OF FRANCE. 



278 



CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. 



Deatii of canon Overton, eminent ecclesiastical 
historian Sept. 1903 

43rd Church Congress held at Bristol . 13-16 Oct. „ 
See Canterbury ; Public Worship Regulation Act ; Trials. 

CHURCH of France. St. Pothinus is said 

to have preached Christianity to the Gauls about 
160; became bishop of Lyons, and suffered martyr- 
dom with others, 177. For the reformed church 
see Huguenots and Protestants. 

Amission of seven bishops arrived in 245 ; followed 
by severe persecution 286-288 

Christianity tolerated by Constantius Chlorus . 292 

Council of Aries convoked by Constantine, about 
600 bishops present ; the Donatists condemned . 314 

Christianity established by Clovis .... 496 

Pragmatic sanction of St. Louis restraining the 
impositions of the pope ; and restoring the light 
of electing bishops, &c 1269 

Pragmatic sanction of Bourges, declaring a general 
council superior to the pope, and prohibiting 
appeals to him 1438 

Concordat of Leo X. and Francis I. annulling the 
pragmatic sanction .... 18 Aug. 1516 

Disputes between the Jesuits and Jansenists . 1640 

Declaration of the clergy (drawn up by Bossuet) in 
accordance with the pragmatic sanctions, con- 
firmed by the king .... 23 March, 1682 

The Jansenists excommunicated by the Bull Uni- 
geuitus 1713 

Concordat with Pius VII. and Napoleon 1801 and 1813 

The principles of the concordat of Leo X. restored 
by Pius VII. and Louis XVIII 1827 

The archbishop of Paris and other prelates resist 
dogma of papal infallibility at the council at Rome 1870 

The clergy at first supported Napoleon III. ; but op- 
opposed his Italian policy. 1852-70 ; energetically 
support MacMahou's ministry, in elections. Sept., 

Oct. 1877 

18 archbishops, 77 bishops ,, 

The abbe Bougaud asserts that there are 2658 
parishes without priests, and 3000 parishes 
without churches 1878 

Jesuits and other orders in France dissolved by 
decree 29 March, 1880 

.Many members af the Carthusian order, refusing to 
seek authorisation to remain in their monasteries, 
are expelled during 1880 

Association law against unauthorised religious 
communities and tutelage promulgated, 1 July, 190T 

Abrogation of the Falloix law, guaranteeing 
liberty of instruction, voted . . 14 Feb. 1902 

Action of government in closing schools for in- 
fringement of the association law approved by 
large majority of the chamber . . 4 July, ,, 

Protest .it liisin >ps ami clergy against closing con- 
ventual schools; much excitement and hostile 
demonstrations .... end July, ,, 

Bishop* ordered by minister of interior and public 
worship to renounce the employment of Maris ts 
ami Lazarists ..... 3 Oct. ,, 

Resolution carried supporting the government in 
closing conventual schools . . .17 Oct. ,, 

Committee appointed by chamber to consider the 
question of the separation of church and state, 

20 Oct. „ 

Seventy-four bishops petition government in favour 
of the religious orders; declared illegal, 28 Nov. .. 

A' 1 ol goven ni in reaped to their treatment of 

religiouB orders supported by large majority, 

15 Jan. 1903 
Dispute with Pope concerning appointmenl to 
vacant bishoprics ..... Feb. 
Motion for suppression of budgei of public worship 
rejected 1 March. .. 

Several bishops and various religious associations 
resist the measures of bhe government; the 
stipends of some of the clerg] suspended : expul- 
sion ol orders 20 April, ,, 

Anti-clerical demonstrations . . 17 May, .. 
Motion for the separation of church and state 
rejected by 278 to 147; policj of the government 
in their action inward the clergj approved, 

.' 20 May, .. 



CHURCH OF ENGLAND TEMPER- 
ANCE SOCIETY. See Temperance Societies. 

CHURCH of Ireland, founded by St. 
Patrick in the 5th century ; accepted the Reforma- 
tion about 1550 ; united with that of England as 
the United Church of England and Ireland in 1800 jj 
see Bishops Ireland, 1868, and Armagh. 

" An act to put an end to the establishment of the 
church of Ireland," introduced into the house of 
commons by Mr. Gladstone, 1 Mar. ; vote for 
second reading, 368; against 250; 2 a.m., 24 
March ; for third reading, 361 ;against,247 531 May, 1869 

Introduced into the house of lords by earl Gran- 
ville, 1 June ; read third time, 12 July ; some 
amendments by the lords accepted, others re- 
jected ; received royal assent [to come into effect, 
1 Jan. 1871] 26 July, ,, 

Address of bishops to the clergy and laity dated, 

"18 Aug. „ 

Meeting of the general synod of the Irish church in 
St. Patrick's cathedral, Dublin, for re-organiza- 
tion of the general council . . 14 Sept. ,, 

Conference of the laity ; duke of Abercorn chair- 
man 13 Oct. „ 

Church of Ireland disestablished . . 1 Jan. 1871 

A sustentatlon fund established (well supported) ,,. 

First elected bishop (Dr. Maurice Day, bishop of 
Cashel) consecrated at St. Patrick's, Dublin, 

14 April, 1S72 

The new ecclesiastical court meets ; tries a case of 
ritual practices 26 June „ 

The Irish Church Act amended . . June, ,. r 

Received for the sustentation fund, 33,573?. up to 

31 Dec. ,, 

The first bishop elected by clergy and laity of Kil- 
more, &c, archdeacon Darley (12 candidates), 

23 Sept. 1S7* 

Alleged migration of clergy to England . Autumn ,, 

Warm discussion upon the revision of the liturgy, 

May, 1875 

CHURCH of North America was estab- 
lished in Nov. 1784, when bishop Seabury, chosen 
by the churches in Connecticut, was consecrated in 
Scotland. The first convention was held at Phila- 
delphia in 1785. On 4 Feb. I"8", bishops Provost 
and White were consecrated at Lambeth. The 
centenary was celebrated at Lambeth, 4 Feb. 1887. 
Two American bishops, Lyman and Potter, were 
present. In 185 1 there were 37 bishops; in 1903 
there were, in the United States, 58 dioceses, 82 
bishops, 27 missionary bishops, and 4,776 priests- 
and deacons, see Pan-Anglican Synod. 

After much discussion, for several years, the church 
convention passed a stringent canon against ritulaism, 
27 Oct. 1847. 

CHURCH of Scotland, see Bishops in 

Scot/run/. On the abolition of Episcopacy, in 1638, 
Presbyterianism became the established religion. 
Its formulary of faith, said to have been compiled 
by John Knox, in 1560, was approved by the par- 
liament and ratified' in 1567, finally settled by an 
act of the Scottish senate in 1696, and secured by 
the treaty of union with England in 1707 ; see 
Discipline, Patronage, and Bishops. The church 
is regulated by four courts — the gei eral assembly, 
the synod, the presbytery, and kirk sessions; see 
Presbyterians, For important secessions, see- 
Burghers (1732), and Free Church (1843). 

The first general assembly of the church was held! 
20 Dec. 1560. 

The general assembly constitutes the highest ecclesi- 
astical court in the kingdom ; it meets annually in Edin- 
burgh iu May, and sits about ten days, [t consists of a 
grand commissioner, appointed by the sovereign, and 
delegates from presbyteries, royal boroughs, and univer- 
sities, some being laymen. To this court all appeals 
from the inferior ecclesiastical courts lie, and its decision 

is linal. 

Patronage was abolished after 1 Jan. 1S75, by act 
passed 7 Aug. 1874. 



CHURCH HOUSE. 



279 



CIMBRL 



Prosecution of Rev. Wm. L. M'Farlan of Lenzie for 
heresy in " Scotch Sermons" (published 1880) by the 
Presbytery of Glasgow, Oct. 1880. Mr. Hastie, principal 
of the Church (Calcutta) Institution, 1878 ; dismissed for 
bad temper, &c, Nov. 1883 ; his appeal to the General 
Assembly, dismissed (193-90), 29 May, 1884. 

Mr. Finlay's Bill for Promoting re-union of Presby- 
terian churches negatived by the Commons (202-177) 
17 March, 1866. 

Dr. Cameron's resolution for disestablishment nega- 
tived in the Commons, 30 March, 1886 ; (260-208) 22 June, 
1888 ; (256-218) 2 May, 1890 ; (265-209) 24 May, 1892 ; his 
bill read, isttime. 1893, 1895. 

" Basis of Union " between the Church, the United 
Presbyterians, the Free Church, and some others, 

reported June, 1898 

The Free and United Presbyterian churches of 
Scotland united as one under the title of the 
United Free Church of Scotland, by act adopted 
in Edinburgh (see Glasgow, Jan. 1903) . 31 Oct. 1900 
Lord Mount-Stephens gives 40,000?. to increase the 
incomes of over 20 ministers in Aberdeenshire 
and Banffshire, July, 1901 ; Mrs. Elizabeth 
Carnegie bequeathed 38,000/. to various church 
schemes 8 July, 1902 

CHURCH HOUSE. A corporation was esta- 
blished to commemorate the queen's jubilee of 1887, 
by the erection of a building in London for the 
general use of the clergy of England. The two 
houses of convocation meet in the Church House. 
Charter obtained 23 Feb. 1888; on 7 July, 1888, 
65,853?. had been subscribed, by means of which 
a site, with useful buildings, in Dean's Yard, 
Westminster, was purchased. A meeting was 
held on 21 July, 1888 ; the 1st general meeting 
of the corporation on their own premises was 
held on 26 June, 1890, the archbishop of Can- 
terbury being in the chair. At a meeting at 
Norwich, 1 Feb. 1890, it was reported that 
70,000?. had been subscribed. 
The foundation stone of the great hall laid by the 
duke of Connaught, 24 June, 189 1 (architect, sir 
Arthur Blomrield) ; opened by the duke of York, 
in the presence of the two archbishops and 

others 11 Feb. 1896 

Henry Hoare Memorial hall (house of laymen) 
open ; other buildings progressing . . . 1903 

CHURCH LADS' BRIGADE, a movement 
to influence the elder boys of a parish by combining 
systematic religious teaching with physical exer- 
cise based on military drill. Founded 1891. In- 
come, 1902, 906/., for general support of the work. 

CHURCHMEN'S UNION, a broad church 
movement originated at the Bradford Church con- 
gress 1898. It has for its objects the restatement of 
belief in the light of scientific and biblical criticism, 
the spirit of tolerance in non-essentials, the rights 
of the laity, and the promotion of friendly relations 
with other Christian communities. 

CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY, 

founded 1799. Income, 1876, 195,116/.; 1887, 
237,639/. ; 1890, 260,282/. ; 1902, 342,619/. Annual 
meetings are held. Mr. Eugene Stock's "History," 
3 vols., pub. 1899; "Centenary vol.," pub. 1902. 

CHURCH PASTORAL AID SOCIETY 

(Evangelical), instituted in 1836 to maintain 
curates and lay-agents in densely populated dis- 
tricts. Annual meetings are held. Income utilized 
1902, 118,766/ amongst 1006 workers. 

CHURCH PATRONAGE, see Patronage. 

CHURCH-RATES. The maintaining the 
church in repair belongs to the parishioners, who 
have the sole power of taxing themselves for the 
expense when assembled in vestry. The enforce- 
ment of payment, which is continually disputed by 
dissenters and others, belonged to the ecclesiastical 
courts. Many attempts were nade to abolish 



church-rates before Mr. Gladstone's "Compulsory 
Church-rate Abolition" Bill, passed 31 July, 1868. 
Church Rate Abolition for Scotland repealed in the 
Commons (204-143) . . . . 11 July, 1877 

CHURCH REFORM LEAGUE, for se- 
paration of Church and State, began at St. Alban's 
s hools, Holborn, London, Rev. A. H. Mackonochie, 
president; 1876-7. Meeting at the Church House, 
Westminster, over 1,000 clergymen and about 1,000 
laymen present, 18 Jan. 1899; another, 27 Feb. 1903. 

CHURCH SERVICES were ordered by pope 
Vitelianus to be read in Latin, 663 ; by queen 
Elizabeth in 1558 to be read in English. 

CHURCH-WARDENS, officers of the 
church, appointed by the first canon of the synod of 
London, in 1127. Overseers in every parish were 
also appointed by the same body r , and they continue 
now nearly as then constituted. Johnson's Canons. 
Church-wardens, by the canon of 1603, are to be 
chosen annually, and are elected at the Easter 
vestry. 

CHURCHING of Women is the act of 

returning thanks in the church by women after 
child-birth. It began about 214. Wheatley ; see 
Purification. 

CHURCHYARDS, are bv common law the 
freehold of the rector of the parish, who has power 
to prohibit the erection of monuments, &c. See 
Consecration and Burials. 

CHUSAN, a Chinese isle; see China, 1840-1, 
i860. 

CIBORIUM, in early Christian times, was a 
protection to the altar-table, first a tabernacle, and 
afterwards a baldachin over the altar, and also a 
canopy used at solemn processions. Ciborium also 
means the vessel in which the eucharist is received. 

CIDER (Zider, German), when first made in 
England, was called wine, about 1284. The earl of 
Manchester, when ambassador in France, is said to 
have passed oft' cider for wine. It was subjected to 
the excise in 1763, et seq. The duty was taken off 
in 1830. Many orchards were planted in Hereford- 
shire by lord Scudamore, ambassador from Charles I. 
to France. John Philips published his poem 
"Cider" in 1706. The National association of 
Cidermakers founded, in London, Oct. 1894. 
" Cider," a monthly periodical, appeared in 1895. 
Great increase of manufacture of cider in France, 
through failures of the grape crops ; reported 1896. 

CIGAR SHIP, see under Steam, 1866. 

CIGARS, see Tobacco. 

CILICIA, in Asia Minor, partook of the fortunes 
of that country. It became a Roman province about 
64 B.C., and was conquered by the Turks, a.d. 1387. 

CIMBRI, a Teutonic race from Jutland, in- 
vaded the Roman empire about 120 B.C. They 
defeated the Romans under Cneius Papirius Carbo, 
113 B.C.: the consul Junius Silanus, 109; the 
consul Cassius Longiuus (who was killed) near the 
lake of Geneva, 107; and the united armies of the 
consul Cn. Mallius and the proconsul Servilius 
Caepio near the Rhone, 105. Their allies, the 
Teutones, were defeated by Marius in two battles 
at Aquse Sextias (Aix) in Gaul ; 200,000 were 
killed, and 70,000 made prisoners, 102 B.C. The 
Cimbri were defeated by Marius and Catulus, at 
Campus Raudius, when about to enter Italy ; 
120,000 were killed, and 60,000 taken prisoners, 



CIMENTO. 



280 



CIECUITS. 



IOI B.C. They were afterwar Is absorbed into the 
Teutones or Saxons. 

CIMENTO (Italian, experiment). The "Acca- 
demia del Cimento," at Florence, held its first 
meeting for making scientific experiments, 18 June, 
1657. It was patronised by Ferdinand, grand duke 
of Tuscany. The Royal Society of London was 
founded in 1660, and the Academy of Sciences at 
Paris in 1666. The Nuovo Cimento, a scientific 
periodical, published at Pisa, began in 1855. 

CINCHONA, or ClIINCHONA, see Jesuits' 
Bark. 

CINCINNATI. A society established by 
officers of the American army soon after the peace 
of 1783, "'to perpetuate friendship, and to raise a 
fund for relieving the widows and orphans of those 
who had fallen during the war." On the badge 
was a figure of Cincinnatus as symbolismg 
Washington and other patriots who had left their 
rural affairs to fight for their country. The people 
dreaded military influence, and the society dissolved 
itself. 

CINCINNATI, the chief city of the state of 
Ohio, North America, founded 1789.' This nourishing 
citv desolated by an inundation caused by the rising 
of the river Ohio, 13 Feb. 1883. Several lives were 
lost, and about 50,000 rendered homeless. Ample 
relief afforded. About 50 persons killed and 150 
wounded in an attack on the gaol to execute 
murderers (especially Wm. Berner) ; new court- 
house burnt, 28-30 "March, 1884; one regiment 
refused to march. Ten persons killed by a tram- 
way accident, 15 Oct. 1889. Population in 1880, 
2 5S> I 39; m 1S90, 296,908; 1900, 405,000. 

CINEMATOGRAPH, see Einematograph 
ami Kinetoscope, March, 1896, and Vivagraph 
Pictures. 

CINNAMON, a species of laurel, is mentioned 
among the perfumes of the sanctuary {Exodus xxx. 
23) 1491 B.C. It was found in the American forests 
by don Ulloa, 1736, was cultivated in Jamaica and 
Dominica 1788, and is now grown in Ceylon. 

CINQUE-CENTO (five hundred) ; ter cento, 
&c. ; see note to article Italy. 

CINQUE PORTS, on the south coast of 
England, were originally five (hence the name) — 
Dover, Hastings, Eythe, Romney, and Sandwich; 
Win chelsea and Rye" were afterwards added. Jeake. 
Their jurisdiction was vested in barons, called war- 
dens. These ports, instituted by Saxon monarchs, 
wereennsiiiuieil h\ William 1. and succeeding kings, 
who required them to supply ships in defend the 
■coast. Nearly all the harbours, except Dover, have 

been destroyed b\ il ition of the sea. The latest 

lord- wardens : the duke el Wellington, 1828-52; 
the marquis ol Ualhousie, [852-60; lord Palmerston, 

l8i.l-f>5; earl (Iran villc, appointed Dec. 1865, died 
31 March, [891 ; W. II. Smith, May, died u (let. : 
the in trquisol Dufferin ami Ava.aboul | \.n . [891 ; 
re n- ,1; ti„. marquis of Salisbury, Oct. 1895: 
died 22 Aug. 1903, Their peculiar jurisdiction was 
abolished in 1855. 

('INTRA (Portugal). Here was signed an 
agreement en 22 An-. 1S08, bet ween the French 
and English the d.,\ after the battle of Vimeira. 
As i! contained the basis of the convention signed 
en 30 Aim. following, i: has been termed the 1 on- 

TOltion "I I'mtra. By it .Inn..! and his annv were 

permitted to evacuate Portugal free, in liritish 
ships. The convention was publioh condemned, 
and a court <>i inquiry was In Id at Chelsea, which 



exonerated the British commanders. Both Wel- 
lington and Napoleon justified sir Hew l)alrymple. 

CIPHER, a secret manner of writing. Julius 
Ca;sar and Augustus when writing secret despatches 
are said to have employed the second or third letter 
instead of the first, and the same sequence with 
regard to the others. This cipher was in use till 
the reign of Sixtus IV. (1471-84), when the secret 
was divulged by Leon Battista Albert!, and a new 
sort of cipher sprang up. The father of Venetian 
cipher was Zuan Soro, who flourished about 1516. 
Rawclon Brown. Cipher telegrams, see Transvaal, 
29 April, 1896. — See Cryptograph. 

CIRCASSIA (Asia, on N". side of the Caucasus). 
The Circassians, said to be descended from the Al- 
banians, were unsubdued, even by Timour. In the 
1 6th century they acknowledged the authority of 
the czar Ivan II. of Russia, and about 1745, the 
princes of Kabarda took oaths of fealty. Many 
Circassians became Mahometans in the 18th century. 

Circassia surrendered to Russia by Turkey by tlie 
treaty of Adrianople (but the Circassians, under 
Schamyl, long resist) ... 14 Sept. 1829 

Victories of Orbelliani over them, June, Nov., Dec. 1857 

He subdues much country, and expels the inhabi- 
tants . April, 1858 

Schamyl, the great Circassian leader, captured, and 
treated with much respect . . .7 Sept. 1859 

About 20,000 Circassians emigrate to Constanti- 
nople, suffer much distress, and are relieved, 

28 April, i860 

Vaidar, the last of the Circassian strongholds, 
captured, and the grand duke Michael declares 
the war at an end .... 8 June, 1864 

Many thousand Circassians emigrate into Turkey ; 
partially relieved by the sultan's government, 

June, et seq. „ 

Schamyl and his son at the marriage of the czaro- 
witcii, 9 Nov. 1866 ; he dies . . . March, 1871 

Revolt against Russia ; suppressed. Many Circas- 
sians flee to Turkey and joiu the army, July, Aug. 1877 

CIRCENSIAN GAMES were combats in 
the Roman circus (at first in honour of Consus, the 
god of councils, but afterwards of Jupiter, Neptune, 
Juno, and Minerva), said to have been instituted by 
Evander, and established at Rome, 732 B.C. by 
Romulus. Tarquin named them Circensian ; their 
celebration continued from 4 to 12 Sept. 

CIRCLE. The quadrature, or ratio of the 
diameter of the circle to its circumference, has 
exercised the ingenuity of mathematicians of all 
ages. Archimedes, about 221 B.C., gave it as 7 to 
22 ; Abraham Sharp (1717) as I to 3 and 72 deci- 
mals ; and Lagny (1719) as I to 3 and 122 decimals. 

CIRCLES OF GERMANY (formed by Maxi- 
milian I. about 1500, to distinguish the members of 
the diet of tlie empire) were, in 1512, Franconia, 
Bavaria, Upper Rhine, Suabia, V\ estphalia, and 
Lower Saxony; in 1512, Austria, Burgundy, Lower 
Rhine, the Palatinate, Upper Saxony and Bran- 
denburg were added. In 1804 these divisions were 
annulled by the establishment of the Confedera- 
tion ,<\' the Rhine, in [806 (which see). 

CIRCUITS IN ENGLAND were divided into 
three, ami three justices were appointed to each, 
n;(>. They were afterwards divided into four, 
with live justices to each division, 1180. Bapin. 
They have been frequent^ altered. England and 
Wales were formerly divided into eight — each 
travelled in spring and summer for the trial of civil 
and criminal eases, the larger towns are visited in 
winter tor trials of criminals only; this is called 
"going the circuit." The circuits wei-e settled by 
order in council, 5 Feb. i s 'r<'. There are monthly 



CIRCULAR IRONCLADS. 



281 



CITATE. 



sessions for the city of London and county of Mid- 
dlesex. 

The circuit system was much modified by the council 
of judges, with the object of retaining more judges in 
London", and economising their labour, 10 June, 1884. 

The system was again changed, three circuits being 
adopted in place of four with a few exceptions ; (civil 
and criminal Feb., July ; criminal Oct.) Dec. 1887. 

CIRCULAR IRONCLADS- The design is 
attributed to the Russian admiral Popoff; died 
March, 1898 ; one of these, named after himself, 
was launched at the port of Nicolaieff, 7 Oct. 1875. 
The admiral stated that he derived the idea from 
the works and views of Mr. E. J. Eeed, late con- 
structor of the British navy, who has expressed 
his approbation of the admiral's works. 

CIRCULATING- LIBRARY. Stationers 
lent books on hire in the middle ages. The public 
circulating library in England, opened by Samuel 
Fancourt, a dissenting minister of Salisbury, about 
1740, failed; but similar institutions at Bath and 
in London succeeded, and others were established 
throughout the kingdom. There was a circulating 
library at Crane-court, London, in 1748, of which 
a catalogue in two vols, was published. — No books 
can be taken from the British Museum except for 
judicial purposes, but the libraries of the Royal 
Society and the principal scientific societies, except 
that of the Royal Institution, London, are circulat- 
ing. — The London Library (circulating) which was 
founded 24 June, 1840, is of great value to literary 
men. — Of the subscription libraries that founded by 
Chas. E. Mudie, in New Oxford-street, is remarkable 
for the large quantity and good quality of the books : 
several hundreds, sometimes thousands, of copies 
of a new work being in circulation. It began in 
1842, and grew into celebrity in Dec. 1848, when 
the first two volumes of Macaulay's History of Eng- 
land were published, for which there was an un- 
precedented demand, supplied by this library. 
The hall was opened in Dec. i860. Mr. C. E. 
Mudie died 28 Oct. 1890, aged 72. Other libraries 
are:— The Grosvenor Gallery Library; W. H. 
Smith (exchanges made at railway stations) ; 
Mitchell's Royal Library ; Law Lending Library ; 
Day's Library, and Cawthorn and Hutt's Library. 
The " Tabard," with numerous exchange depots, 
1903. 

CIRCULATION of the Blood, see Blood. 

CIRCUMCISION (instituted 1897 B.C.) was 
the seal of the covenant made by God with Abra- 
ham. It was practised by the ancient Egyptians, 
and is still by the Copts and some oriental nations. 
The Festival of the Circumcision (of Christ), origi- 
nally the octave of Christmas, is mentioned about 
487. It was introduced from the Roman missal 
into the first English prayer-book in 1549. 

CIRCUMNAVIGATORS. Among the most 
daring human enterprises at the period when it was 
first attempted, was the circumnavigation of the 
earth in 1519-22. 

Magellan or Magalhaens, a native of Portugal, in the 
service of Spain, sailed from San Lucar, 20 Sept. 
1519; with three ships passed the Straits named 
after him, 28 Nov. 1520; he was killed in a con- 
flict on the Philippine Isles, 17 April, 1521 ; Juan 
Sebastian del Cano in the Vittoria, the only re- 
maining ship of five, reached San Lucar 6 Sept. 1522 
Grijalva, Spaniard . . . ■" . . , _ I537 

Alvaradi, Spaniard 

Mendana, Spaniard ' jig- 

Sir Francis Drake, first English . . . . 1577-80 

Cavendish, first voyage ' 1586-88 

Le Maire, Dutch . .-, . . . [ 1615-17 



Cuiros, Spaniard ....... 1625 

Tasman, Dutch . , 1642 

Cowley, British . 1683 

Dampier, English . . 1689 

Cooke, English . . 1708 

Clipperton, British . 1719 

Roggewein, Dutch .... . . 1721-23 

Anson {afterwards lord) 1 740-44 

Byron, English . 1764-66 

Wallis, British 1766-68 

Carteret, English 1766-69 

Bougainville, French 1766-9 

James Cook 1768-71 

On his death the voyage was continued by King . 1779 

Portlocke, British 1788 

King and B'itzroy, British .... 1826-36 

Belcher, British 1836-42 

Wilkes, American 1838-42 

The steamer Ionic sailed from New Zealand to 

Plymouth and back in 86 days. . . 24 Aug. 1883 
Arawa sailed from Plymouth to New Zealand and 

back in 73 days, 5I1. 4m. . 28 March-12 July, 1885 
Lady Brassey published "Voyage in the Sunbeam" 

(yacht) in 1876, 1878 ; she died at sea . Sept. 1887 
The Sunbeam, after voyage of 36,000 miles, arrived at 

Portsmouth 14 Dec. ,, 

See North East and West Passage and Deep Sea Soundings. 

CIRCUS (Greek, Hippodrome). There were 
eight (some say ten) buildings of this kind at 
Rome ; the largest the Circus Maximus, was built 
by the elder Tarquin, 605 B.C. It was an oval 
figure : length three stadia and a half, or more than 
three English furlongs ; breadth 960 Roman feet. 
It was enlarged by Julius Caesar so as to seat 150,000 
persons, and was rebuilt by Augustus. Julius 
Caesar introduced into it large canals of water, 
which could be quickly covered with vessels, and 
represent a sea fight. Pliny ; see Amphitheatres, 
Factions and Hippodrome. 

CIRRHA, a town of Phocis (N. Greece), for 
sacrilege, razed to the ground in the Sacred War, 
586 B.C. 

CISALPINE REPUBLIC, including the 
territories of Milan, Mantua, Modena, Bergamo, 
Ferrara, Bologna, Ravenna, &c. (N. Italy), 
formed by the French in May, 1797, from the 
Cispadane and Transpadane republics, acknow- 
ledged by the emperor of Germany by the treaty 
of Campo Formio (which see), 17 Oct. following. 
It received a new constitution in Sept. 1798 ; was 
remodelled, and named the Italian republic, with 
Napoleon Bonaparte president, 1802 ; and merged 
into the kingdom of Italy in March, 1805 ; see 
Italy. 

CISPADANE REPUBLIC, with the 
Transpadane republic, merged into the Cisal- 
pine republic, Oct. 1797. 

CISTERCIANS (the order of Citeaux), a 
powerful order of monks founded about 1098 by 
Robert, a Benedictine, abbot of Molesme, named 
from Citeaux, in France, the site of the first convent, 
near the end of the nth century. The monks 
observed silence, abstained from flesh, lay on straw, 
and wore neither shoes nor shirts. They were re- 
formed by St. Bernard ; see Bernar dines. The 
Feuillants, and the nuns of Port Royal, the 
Recollets (reformed Cistercians), and the monks of 
La Trappe, emanated from this order. Their 
earliest establishment in England (1128) was 
Waverley Abbey, Farnham. 

CITATE. The Russian general Gortschakoff, 
intending to storm Kalafat, threw up redoubts at 
Citate, close to the Danube, which were stormed by 
the Turks under Omer Pacha, 6 Jan. 1854. The 
fighting continued on the 7th, 8th and 9th, when 
the Russians were compelled to retire to their 



CITIZEN. 



282 



CIVIL LIST. 



former position at Krajowa, having lost 1500 
killed and 2000 wounded. The loss of the Turks 
was estimated at 338 killed and 700 wounded. 

CITIZEN. It was not lawful to scourge a 
citizen of Home. Livy. In England a citizen is a 
person who is free of a city, or who doth carry on 
a trade therein. Camden. Various privileges have 
been conferred on citizens as freemen in several 
reigns. — The wives of citizens of London (not being 
aldermen's wives, nor gentlewomen by descent) 
"were obliged to wear minever caps, being white 
woollen knit three-cornered, with the peaks pro- 
jecting three or four inches beyond their foreheads ; 
aldermen's wives made them of velvet, 1 Eliz. 1558. 
Stow. — On 10 Oct. 1792, the convention decreed 
that "citoyen" and "citoyenne" should be the 
only titles in France. 

CITY. (Latin civitas, French cite, Italian 
cittd.) Originally signified a state. Cities were 
incorporated in Spain, -France, and England in the 
nth and 12th centuries. A city has been usually, 
but not always, the seat of a bishop. Truro and 
St. Albans were made cities in 1877, Newcastle in 
1882, and Liverpool in 1883, having become 
bishoprics. Birmingham was made a city, Jan. 
1889. 

CITY AND GUILDS OF LONDON IN- 
STITUTE (see Education, 1878-81). Foundation 
stone of Central Institution, South Kensington, laid 
by the prince of Wales, the president, 18 July, 1881. 

CITY'S CASH. The City have published a 
tabulated statement of the receipts and payments 
of that portion of their property known as "the 
City's Cash " during the years 1893-1902. The 
receipts in that time amounted to 7,621,850/. — 
viz., in 1893, 711,428/. ; 1111894,718,722/.; 1895, 
509,545'- ; 1896, 733, I2 3'- ; i?97> 1,010,835/. ; 

1898, 1,508,614/. ; 1899,436,408/. ; 1900,464,396/. ; 
1901, 611,636/. ; and 1902,917,478/. The principal 
totals in the decade were the following : — rents, 
1,838,470/.; interest, 50,893/.; markets, 1,859,645/.; 
corn and fruit dues, 6,197/.; mayor's court fees, 
665719/. ; betting per.alti.es, 1,807/. > justiciary fees, 
23,467/. ; and loans raised for markets, &c, 
3,563,954/. The payments in the san e period 
were as follows: — 1894, 7i - ,629/. ; 1895, 7 2 9>355''- ! 
1896, 499,753/. ; 1897,740,539/. ; 1898, 1,004,04*7. : 

1899, 422,677/. ; 1900, 489,859/. ; 1901, 625,006/., 
and 1902, 955,938/., making a total for the ten 
years of 7,7 10,5 10/. Among the chief items of ex- 
penditure were: — income-tax, 118,050/.; charges 
on markets, 1,532,016/.; expenses of the magis- 
tracy, 1 1 1,436/. ; City police, 356,781/. ; administra- 
tion of justice, 82,072/. ; allowances to ten lord 
mayors, [OI,0( 0/. ; expensi S of the Mansion-house, 
74,941/.; salaries to officers, 327,267/. ; charitable 
donations and pensions, [97,185/.; donations lor 
public and other purposes, 43,100/.: technical 
education, 3,900/.; receptions of royal and illus- 
trious guest's. Sec, 21,000/.; celebration of corona. 
Hon, 27,680/.; celebration of Queen Victoria's 
diamond jubilee, 9,786/. 

CITY CHURCH PROTECTION SO- 
CIETY, founded to preserve old churches, 1879. 

CITY GUILDS REFORM ASSOCIA- 
TION held tilth annual meeting, 2 Sept. 1880. It 
had recommended the appointment of the royal 
commission of inquirj of t88o, 

CITY LIBRARY and MUSEUM, see 
Guildhall. 



CITY OF GLASGOW BANK, see under 
Banks. 

CITY OF LONDON COLLEGE (for ycung 
men) established 1861 ; began in 1848 as Metro- 
politan Evening Classes. 

CITY OF LONDON COURT, the name 
given to the Sheriffs' Court (established 15 17) by 
the County Courts act of Aug. 1867. 

CITY OF LONDON SCHOOL, established 
by parliament in 1834 (based on an endowment by 
John Carpenter in 1442) was opened first in 
Honey-lane. The foundation of the new buildings 
on the Victoria Embankment laid 14 Oct. 1880; 
opened, 1883. 

CITY OF PARIS, Atlantic steamer, see 
Wrecks, March, 1890. 

CITY OF REFUGE, the name given to each 
of the six cities of Canaan set apart by the Mosaic 
law as places of refuge to which the person who 
tad committed unintentional homicide might tlee 
(see Num. xxxv., Deut. xix., Josh. xx.). If the 
elders of the city recognised the manslayers' claim 
for asylum, he was secure from the avenger, until 
his right to protection was judicially decided. The 
cities of refuge on the west side of Jordan were 
Hebron, Shechem, and Kedesh; on the east Golan, 
Kamoth-Gilead, and Bezel'. 

CITY ROAD, from London to Islington, was 
projected by Mr. Dingier, and cut out about 1760. 

CIUDAD RODRIGO, a strong fortified town 
in Spain invested by the rrench, 11 June, 1810, 
and surrendered to them 10 July. It remained in 
their possession until it was stormed by the British, 
under Wellington, 19 Jan. 1812. 

CIVIL CLUB (at the New Corn Exchange 
Tavern, Mark-lane), was established 19 Nov. 
1669, for the purpose of promoting fellowship, 
mutual assistance, and the revival of trade after 
the interruption to business in consequence of the 
tire, Sept. 1666. 

Only one person of the same trade or profession can be 
a member of this club, and the members pledge them- 
selves to give "preference to each other in their re- 
spective callings." The club meets monthly, and the 
members dine together four times a year. Its officials 
are a treasurer, stewards, auditors, a secretary (all 
merchants of London), and a chaplain. 

CIVIL ENGINEERS, see Engineers. 

CIVIL LAW. See Codes. Civil law was 
restored in Italy, Germany, &c, 1127. Blair. It 
was introduced into England by Theobald, a Nor- 
man abbot, afterwards archbishop of Canterbury, in 
1 138. It is now used in the spiritual courts only," and 
in maritime affairs; see Doctors' Common*, and Laws. 

CIVIL LIST. This now comprehends the 
revenue awarded to the kings of England in lieu of 
their ancient hereditary income. The entire revenue 
of Elizabeth was not more than 600,000/., and that 
of Charles 1. was about 800,000/. After the revolu- 
liuii a civil list revenue was settled on the new king 
and queen of 700,000/. (in 1660), the parliament 
taking into its own hands the support of the forces 
bulb maritime and military. The civil list of 
George 11. was increased to 800,000/. ; and that of 
George 111., in the 55th year of his reign, was 
1,030,000/. 
In 1831. the civil list of the sovereign was fixed at 

510,000/.. and in December, 1837, the civil list of 

the queen was fixed at 385,000?. 



CIVIL PROCEDURE ACTS. 



283 



CLARE. 



Prince Albert obtained an exclusive sum from par- 
liament of 30,000?. per aim. . ■ 7 *' eb - l8 4° 

Sir H. Parnell's motion for inquiry into the civil list 
led to the resignation of the Wellington adminis- 
tration 15 Nov. 1830 

A select committee was appointed by the house of 
commons for the purpose ... 2 Feb. i860 
See Crown Lauds. 

A select committee appointed to consider the pro- 
vision to be made for the king and the royal 
family, 11 March, 1901 ; the civil list of the king 
fixed at 470,000'.; total, with annuities and pen- 
sions for members of the royal family, 543,000/. 
9 May ; act passed . . . .25 June, 1901 

CIVIL PROCEDURE ACTS, 42 & 43 Vict, 
c. 59, passed 15 Aug. 1879 ( lt: abolishes outlawry 
in civil proceedings); and 44 & 45 Vict. c. 59, passed 
27 Aug. 1881. 

CIVIL SERVICE. Nearly 17,000 persons 
were employed in this service under the direction of 
the treasury, and the home, foreign, colonial, post, 
and revenue offices, &c. In 1855, a commission re- 
ported most unfavourably on the existing system 
of appointments, and on 21 May commissioners 
were appointed to examine into the qualifications 
of the candidates, who report annually. By an 
order of council, 4 June, 1 870, the system of compe- 
titive examination was made general after 1 Oct. 
1870. The civil service superannuation act passed 
in April, 1 
31 March) - 
Year. 
1855 • 
1865 . 



CLAMEURS, see Haro. 

CLANS are said to have arisen in Scotland, in 
the reign of king Malcolm II., about 1008. The 
legal power of the chiefs and other remains of 
heritable jurisdiction were abolished in Scotland, 
and liberty was granted to clansmen in 1747, in 
consequence of the rebellion of 1745. The following 
is a list of all the known clans of Scotland, with 
the badge of distinction anciently worn by each. 
The chief of each clan wears two eagle's feathers- 
in his bonnet, in addition to the badge. Chambers. 
A history of the clans by fm. Buchanan was pub- 
lished in 1775. 



Civil service for the year (ending 



Cost. 
■ £7>73S,5i5 
. . 10,205,413 
1867 . . . 10,523,019 
1871 . . . 13,176,659 
1877 (estimate) i5>77°>779 

1880 . . . 15,155,522 

1881 . . . 15,432,442 
1883-4 • • 17, 253, 03 4 
1884-5 . . . 17,243,254 
1885-6 . . 17,678,149 



Year. Cost. 

1891-2 . . £17,060,875 
1892-3 (estimate) 17,310,920 
1893-4 • • 18,129,929 
1894-5 . . . 20,021,785 
1895-6 . . 19,297,744 
1896-7 . . . 19,795,040 
1897-8 . . 20,167,968 
1898-9 . . . 21,792,646 
1899-1900 . . 22,179,665 
1900-1 . . . 22,846,308 
1901-2 (net) 23,637,620 
. 26,443,145 
. 20,205,000 



1902-3 
i9 3-4 



1888-9 ■ • jS, 037, 730 
i889-9r . . . 15,739,092 
1890-1 . . 15,660,959 

A select committee to inquire into this expendi- 
ture issued its report, June, 1874. Important 
changes made, by order in council, 12 Feb. 1875- 
See Public Departments Commission. Further 
changes in the lower, now named second division ; 
salaries limited, to be from 70^. to 250^. a year, 4 
Feb. 1890. 'I 'lie fourth and last report of the 
Royal Commission on Civil Establishments, dated 
30 July, issued 28 Aug. 1890. Parliamentary 
return, issued Jan. 1903, shows that the total 
number of persons employed in the civil service on 
31' March, 1902, was 107,782, including 77,035 
. employed in the postal service, and 8,869 in the 
Admiralty. 

CIVIL "WARS, see England, France, United 
States, Chili, &c. 

CIVILISATION. The opinion thatthecivili- 
sation of mankind was gradually developed from a 
low savage state is advocated by sir John Lubbock 
in his "Origin of Civilisation," 1870, and by Mr. 
Edward B. Tylor in his " Primitive Culture," 1871. 

CLAIM OF RIGHT. A document agreed 
to by the Scottish Convention parliament at Edin- 
burgh asserting the constitutional liberties of the 
kingdom, accepted by King William III. and Queen 
Mary II. at Whitehall, 1 1 May, 1689. 

CLAIMANT, The. See Trials, 1871-4; see 
France, 1874. 

CLAIRVOYANCE, see Hijpnotism and 
Mesmerism. 



Badge. 
Birch. 
Oak. 
Myrtle. 
Alder. 
Hazel. 
Common 

sallow. 
Holly. 

Purple fox- 
glove. 

Poplar. 

Broom. 

Yew. 

Ivy. 

Laurel. 

Cranberry 
heath. 

Rosewort. 

Crab-apple 
tree. 

Five-leaved 
heath. 

Bell-heath. 

Mountain- 
heath. 

Cypress. 

Cloud-berry 
bush. 

Pine. 

Box-wood. 

Bull-rush. 



Name. 
M'Kenzie . 
M'Kinnon . 

M'Lachlan . 

M'Lean . . 

M'Leocl . . 

M'Nab . . 

M'Neil . . 
M'Pherson . 

M'Quarrie . 
M'Rae . . 

Menzies . . 
Munro . . 

Murray . . 
Ogilvie. 
Oliphant 
Robertson . 

Rose . 
Ross . 
Sinclair . . 
Stewart 
Sutherland . 



Badge. 
Deer-grass. 
St. John's 

wort. 
Mountain- 
ash. 
Blackberry 

heath. 
Red whortle- 
berries. 
Rose black- 
berries. 
Sea-ware. 
Variegated 

box-wood. 
Blackthorn. 
Fir-club 
moss. 
Ash. 
Eagle's 

feathers. 
Juniper. 
Hawthorn. 
Great maple. 
Fern, or bre- 

chans. 
Briar-rose. 
Bear-berries. 
Clover. 
Thistle. 
Cat's-tail 
grass. 



Name. 

Buchanan . 
Cameron 

Campbell . 

Chisholm . 

Colquhoun . 

dimming . 

Drummoud . 

Farquharson 

Ferguson . 

Forbes . . 

Frazer . . 

Gordon . . 

Graham . . 

Grant . . 

Gun . 
Larnont 

M'Alister . 

M' Donald . 
M'Donnell . 

M'Dougall . 
M'Farlane . 

M'Gregor . 
M'Intosh . 
M'Kay . . 

CLAN-NA-GAEL (brotherhood of Gaels), ars 
Irish secret oath-bound society, originating out of 
the Fenian brotherhood in 1870, it became the 
heart of the Irish National League in the United 
States, of which it was the extreme violent part. 
Its action much restrained by the influence of 
Messrs. Parnell, Sexton, and other members of the 
Irish Parliamentary party who originated a " new 
departure." It obtained 'the support of the Irish 
peasantry bv promising to obtain them their farms 
without rent. The ultimate object of the Clan-na- 
Gael is said to be the establishment of Ireland as a 
perfectly independent state ; it is termed a dynamite 
party ("Parnellism and Crime," series III., June, 
1887). 

For murder of Dr. Cronin, &c, see United States, 1389. 
The Clan-na-Gael at Chicago declare against any 

form of violence . . . reported Feb. 1890. 

CLAPHAM SECT, a name given to the 
evangelical party in the Church of England, first 
by the rev. Sydney Smith, in the latter part of the 
181 h century. The rev. Henry Venn was vicar of 
Clapham, and several of its eminent members lived 
there. The sect included Wm. Wilberforce r 
Zichary Macaulay (father of the historian), and 
the Rev. W. Romaine. 

Memoirs of some appear in sir James Stephen's " Ec- 
clesiastical Biography," 1849. 

CLARE AND CLARENCE (Suffolk). Richard 

de Clare, earl of Gloucester, is said to have seated 

I here a monastery of the order of Friars Eremites, 

- the first of this" kind of mendicants who came to 



CLARE. 



281 



CLEARING-HOUSE. 



England, 1248. Tanner. Lionel, third son of Ed- 
ward III., becoming possessed of the honour of 
Clare, by marriage, was created duke of Clarence. 
The title has ever since belonged to a branch of the 
royal family. 

DUKES OF CLARENCE. 

1362. Lionel, bora 1338, died, 1369 ; see York. 

1411. Thomas (second son of Henry IV.), born 1389; 
killed at Bauge, 1421. 

1461. George (brother of Edward IV.), murdered, 1478. 

1789. William (third son of George III.), afterwards king 
William IV. 

1890. Albert Victor Christian Edward, eldest son of the 
prince of Wales, see tinder Wales, created duke 
of Clarence and Avondale and earl of Athlone, 
about 23 May ; died 14 Jan., 1S92. See 
England, 1892. 

CLARE was the first place in Ireland since 
f 68y that elected a Roman Catholic M.P. ; see Roman 
Catholics. At the election, held at Ennis, the 
■county town, Mr. Daniel O'Connell was returned, 
5 July, 1828. He did not sit till after the passing 
of the Catholic Emancipation Act, in 1829, being 
re-elected 30 July, 1829. 

CLARE, NUNS OF St., a sisterhood, called 
Minoresses, founded in Italy by St. Clare and St. 
Francis d' Assisi, about 1212. They were also called 
Urbanists ; their rule having been modified by pope 
Urban IV., who died 1264. This order settleu in 
France about 1260, and in England, in the Minories 
without Aldgate, London, about 1293, by Blanche, 
queen of Navarre, wife of Edmund, earl of Lan- 
caster, brother of Edward I. At the suppression, 
the site was granted to the bishopric of Bath and 
Wells, 1539. Tmnier. 

CLAREMONT (Surrey), the residence of the 
princess Charlotte (daughter of the prince-regent, 
afterwards George IV., married to prince Leopold 
of Saxe-Coburg, 2 May, 1816) : here she died in 
childbirth, 6 Nov. 1817. The house was built by 
sir John Vanbrugh, and was the seat successively 
of the earl of Clare, of lord Clive, lord Calloway, 
and the earl of Tyroonnel. It was purchased of 
Mr. Ellis by government for 65,000/. for the prince 
and princess of Saxe-Coburg ; and the former, the 
late king of Belgium, assigned it to prince Albert 
in 1840. The exiled royal family of France 
resided at Clarcmont, 4 March, 1848 ; and the 
king, Louis Philippe, died there, 29 Aug. 1850. 
Bought by Queen Victoria, March, 1882. The 
duchess of Albany lived here for a time, returned 
27 April, 1903. 

CLARENCIEUX, the second king-at-arms, 
eaid to have been nominated by Thomas, son of 
Henry IV., created duke of Clarence, 1411. His 
duty was to arrange the funerals of baronets, 
knights, esquires, anil gentlemen, on the south side 
of the Trent, from whence he is also called sur-roy 
or soiith-roy. 

CLARENDON, CONSTITUTIONS or, were 
enacted at a council held 25 Jan. [ 164, at Claren- 
don, in Wiltshire, to retrench the powei of tin 
clergy. They led to Becket's quarrel with Henjrj 11., 
were annulled 1 ■ > the pope, and abandoned by the 
king. April, u.74. The following is approximative : 

I. All suits concerning advowsons to be determine 1 in 
•■■i\ ii 1 ourts. 

II. The clergy accused of any crime to lie tried by civil 
fudges. 

III. No person of anj rank whatever to be permitted to 
leave 1 lie realm wit! 1 1 he roj a) Uci m e 

iv Laics nol to !"■ accused In spiritual courts, excepl 
bj lej ii and reputable promoters and witnesses. 

v. No chief tenant of the crown to be excommui 
nor his lands pu1 under Interdict. 

VI. Revenues "i 1 , ,,ii sei i to belong to the king. 



VII. Goods forfeited to the crown not to lie protected 
in churches. 

VIII. Sons of villeins not to be ordained clerks with- 
out the consent of their lord. 

IX. Bishops to be regarded as barons, and be sub- 
jected to the burthens belonging to that rank. 

X. Churches belonging to the king's see not to be 
granted in perpetuity against his will. 

XI. Excommunicated persons not to be bound to give 
security for continuing in their abode. 

XII. No inhabitant in demesne to be excommunicated 
for non-appearance in a spiritual court. 

XIII. If any tenant in capite should refuse submission 
to spiritual courts, the case to be referred to the king. 

XIV. The clergy no longer to pretend to the right of 
enforcing debts contracted by oath or promise. 

XV. Causes between lajmien and ecclesiastics to be 
determined by a jury. 

XVI. Appeals to be ultimately carried to the king, and 
no further without his consent. 

CLARENDON PRESS, Oxford. The 

building was erected by sir John Vanbrugh, in 
1711-13, the expense being defrayed out of the 
profits of lord Clarendon's History of the Rebellion, 
the copyright of which was given to the university 
by his son. The original building was converted 
into a museum, lecture-rooms, &c, and a new 
printing-office erected by Blore and Robertson, 
1825-30. 

CLARIONET, or CLARINET, a wind instru- 
ment of the reed kind, said to have been invented 
by Johann Christopher Uenner, in Nuremberg, 
about 1690. Mr. James Clinton's "combination" 
clarinet was exhibited at the Royal College of 
Music, 7 July, 1896. A tenor clarinet, called the 
basset-horn, is used in orchestral music. 

CLASSIS. The name was first used by Tullius 
Servius (the sixth king of aucient Rome), in 
making divisions of the Roman people, 573 B.C. 
The first of the six classes were called classiei, by 
way of eminence, and hence authors of the first 
rank (especially Greek and Latin) came to be 
called classics. 

CLAVECIN, French for harpsichord. See 
Pianoforte. 

CLAVICHORD, a keyed-stringed musical in- 
strument of various forms in use in France, Spain, 
and Germany, in the 16th and 17th centuries. See 
Virginals, Spinet, Harp and Piano. 

CLAVICYTHERIUM, an upright musical 
instrument, probably resembling the harpsichord, 
used in the 16th century. 

CLAVIER, German for pianoforte (which see). 

CLAY'S ACT, Sir William, 14 & 15 Vict. 

c. 14 (1851), relates to the compound householders. 

CLAYTON 
Buhner, 



BULWER TREATY, see 



GLEARINGr-HOUSE. In 1775, a building 
in LomBard-street was set apart for the use of 
hankers, in which they might exchange drafts, 
hills, and securities, and thereby save labour and 
curtail the amount of floating cash requisite to 
meet the settlement of the different houses, if 
effected singly. 1>\ means of transfer tickets, trans- 
actions to the amount of millions daily are settled 
without the intervention of a hank note. In 1861, 
the clearing-house was used by 117 companies, and 
in May, 18(14, it wasjoiuedli\ 1 he li. ink of England. 
In the year ending 30 April, 1808, 3,257,411^000/. 
passed through the clearing-house; 30 April, 1873, 
6.003. 335,000/. ; 1877-8, 3,060.533.000/. ; 1880-1, 
5,909,989,000/.; 31 Dec. 1887, 6,077,097,000/.; 



CLEMENTINES. 



285 



CLEBKENWELL. 



1890, 7,801,000,000/. ; 1892, 6,482,000,000/. ; 1893, 
6,478,000,000/. ; 1896, 7,575,000,000/. ; 1899, 
9,150,000,000/.; 1900, 8,960,000.000/.; 1901, 
9,561,169,000/. ; 1902, 10,028,742.000/. The Rail- 
way clearing-house in Seymour-street, near Kuston- 
square, established 2 Jan. 1842, is regulated by an 
act passed in 1850. The jubilee was celebrated 
Jan. [892. Clearing House Act (Ireland) i860, 
and the Cotton Brokers Bank, at Liverpool. New 
York clearing-house, the Hrst started in America, 
1853; Vienna, 1864; Paris, 1872; Berlin, ^883. 
A clearing-house for the systematic relief of the 
unemployed in London was constituted at the 
Polytechnic Institution, Regent Street, in 1892. 

CLEMENTINES, apocryphal pieces, attri- 
buted to Clemens Romanus, a contemporary of 
St. Paul, and said to have succeeded St. Peter as 
bishop of Rome. He died 102. Niceron. Also the 
decretals of pope Clement V. who died 1314, pub- 
lished by his successor. Bowyer. Also Augustine 
monks, each of whom having been a superior nine 
years, then merged into a common monk. — 
Clementines were the adherents of Robert, son of 
the count of Geneva, who took the title of Cle- 
ment VII. on the death of Gregory XL, 1378, and 
Urbanists, those of pope Urban VI. Christendom 
was divided by their claims : France, Castile, Scot- 
land, &c, adhering to Clement; Rome, Italy, and 
England, to Urban. The schism ended in 1409, 
when Alexander V. was elected pope, and his rivals 
resigned ; see Anti-Popes. 

CLEOPATEA'S NEEDLE, see Obelisks. 

CLEPSYDBA, a water-clock ; see Clocks. 

CLEBGY (from the Greek kleros, a lot or in- 
heritance) in the first century were termed pres- 
byters, elders, or bishops, and deacons. The bishops 
{episcopal or overseers), elected from the presbyters, 
in the second century assumed higher functions 
(about 330), and, under Constantine, obtained the 
recognition and protection of the secular power. 
Under the Lombard and Norman-French kings in 
the 7th and 8th centuries, the clergy began to pos- 
sess temporal power, as owners of lands ; and after 
the establishment of monachism, a distinction was 
made between the regular clergy, who lived apart 
from the world, in accordance with a regula or rule, 
and the secular (worldly) or beneficed clergy. The 
English clergy write clerk after their names in 
legal documents. See Church of England (note) and 



The clergy were first styled clerks, owing to the judges 
being chosen after the Norman custom from the sacred 
order, and the officers being clergy : this gave them 
that denomination, which they keep to this day. Black- 
stone. 

As the Druids kept the keys of their religion and of 
letters, so did the priests keep both these to themselves ; 
they alone make profession of letters, and a man of 
letters was called a clerk, and hence learning went by 
the name of clerkship. Pasquier. 

Benefit of Clergy, Privilegium Clericale, arose in the 
regard paid by Christian princes to the church, and 
consisted of : 1st, an exemption of places consecrated 
to religious duties from criminal arrests, which was 
the foundation of sanctuaries ; 2nd, exemption of the 
persons of clergymen from criminal process before the 
secular judge, in particular cases, which was the 
original meaning of the privilegium clericale. The 
benefit of clergy was afterwards extended to everyone 
who, could read ; and it was enacted, that there should 
be a prerogative allowed to the clergy, that if any man 
who could read were to be condemned to death, the 
bishop of the diocese might, if he would, claim him as 
a clerk, and dispose of him in some places of the clergy 
as he might deem meet. The ordinary gave the pri- 
soner at the bar a Latin book, in a black Gothic 



character, from which to read a verse or two ; and if 
the ordinary said, "Legit ut Clericus" ("He reads 
like a clerk "), the offender was only burnt in the 
hand ; otherwise, he suffered death, 3 Edw. I. (1274). 

The privilege was restricted by Henry VII. in 1489, and 
abolished, with respect to murderers and other great 
criminals, by Henry VIII., 1512. Stow. 

The reading was discontinued by 5 Anne. c. 6 (1706). 

Benefit of Clergy was wholly repealed by 7 <fc 8 Geo. IV. 
c. 2s (1827). 

CLERGY CHARITIES. 

William Assheton, an eminent theological writer, was the 
first proposer of a plan to provide for the families of 
deceased clergy. He died Sepjt. 1711. Watts's Life of 
Asshetoii. 

Festival of the " Sons of the Clergy," held annually at St. 
Paul's cathedral, instituted about 1655 ; from it sprang 
the. charity called the "Sons of the Clergy" (clergy 
orphan and widow corporation), incorporated, 1 July, 
1678. 

Clergy Orphan corporation, 1749. 

Friend of the Clergy corporation, 1849. 

St. John's foundation school for sons of poor clergy, 
1852. 

Poor Clergy Belief corporation, established 1856 ; incor- 
porated 1867. 

There are several other charities for relatives of the 
clergy. See Bromley College. 

The clergy prevented from being members of parliament 
by 41 Geo. III. c. 63, 1801. 

A bill to repeal this act was lost in the commons (no to- 
101), Ti May, 1881. 

Clergy discipline (immorality) bill introduced by the 
archbishop of Canterbury, 23 Feb. ; passed 

27 June, 1892 

Poverty of the Clergy in 1895, 400 benefices under 
Sol. a year, 3,500 less than 100?. a year . . Oct. 1896 
1,400, at 65/.. a year, reported . . 4 July, 1898 

Queen Victoria Clergy fund. The queen sends 
i,oooZ., Xmas, 1897 ; meeting of the council, lord 
Ashcombe in the chair, at the Church house ; 
total fund, 63,137?., 25,000?. to be voted to 
affiliated dioceses, 25 Feb. (total 145,000?.) . . 1898 

See Church and Clerical Aid Society. 

CLEEICAL DISABILITIES, an act passed 
9 Aug. 1870, relieves persons who have been ad- 
mitted priests or deacons of certain clerical dis- 
abilities upon their resigning their ecclesiastical 
offices and preferments, and declares them incapable 
of officiating henceforward. 

CLEEICAL SUBSCEIPTION ACT, 

28 & 29 Vict. c. 122, passed 5 July, 1865, simplified 
and modified the oaths to be taken by the clergy 
when ordained. 

CLEEK OF ABBAIGNS, see Arraignment. 

CLEBKENWELL, a parish, N. E. London, 
so called from a well {fons clericorum) in Ray- 
street, where the parish clerks occasionally acted 
mystery-plays : once before Richard II. in 1390. 
Hunt's political meetings in 1817 were held in 
Spa-fields in this parish. In St. John's parish are 
the remains of the priory of the knights of St. 
John of Jerusalem. Clerkenwell prison was built 
in 1615, in lieu of the noted prison called the Cage, 
which was taken down in 1614 ; the then Bride- 
well having been found insufficient. The prison 
called the House of Detention, erected in 1775, was 
rebuilt in 1818 ; again 1844. For the explosion 
here, see Fenians, Dec. 1867. At Clerkenwell- 
close formerly stood the house of Oliver Cromwell, 
where some suppose the death-warrant of Charles I. 
was signed, Jan. 1649. 

Free library in Skinner street (site given by Skinners' 

company) opened by the lord mayor . 10 Oct. 1890 
Bosebery avenue opened by the earl of Rosebery 

21 July, ,, 
Hugh Myddelton School on site of " House of De- 
tention," opened by the prince of Wales 13 Dec. 1893 
New town-hall opened by the earl of Bosebery 

14 June, 1895 



CLERMONT. 



286 



CLOGHER. 



Visit of the prince of Wales (see John, St., knights 
of) ii June, 1902 

CLERMONT (France). Here was held the 
council under pope Urban II. in 1095, in which the 
first crusade against the infidels was determined 
upon, and Godfrey of Bouillon appointed to com- 
mand it. In this council the name of pope is said 
to have been first given to the head of the Roman 
Catholic church, exclusively of the bishops who used 
previously to assume the title. Philip I. of France 
was (a second time) excommunicated by this 
assembly. JTeriaiilt. 

CLEVEDON COURT, Somersetshire, the 
mediaeval seat of sir Arthur Hallam Elton ; de- 
stroyed by fire 27 Nov. 1882 — damage about 20,000/. 

CLEVELAND, see Steel, a town in Ohio, U.S.; 
the Euclid Avenue opera house burnt down, 29 
Oct, 1892; population in 1880, 160,146; 1890, 
261,353; 1900,381,768. 

CLEVELAND IRON DISTRICT, see 
Middlesbrough. 

CLEVES (N.E.Germany). Eutger, count of 
Cleves, lived at the beginning of the nth century. 
Adolphus, count of Mark, was made duke of Cleves 
by the emperor Sigismund, 141 7. John William, 
duke of Cleves, Berg, Juliers, &c, died without 
issue, 25 March, 1609, which led to a war of suc- 
cession. Eventually Cleves was assigned to the 
elector of Brandenburg in 1666 ; seized by the 
French in 1757; restored at the peace in 1763, and 
now forms part of the Prussian dominions. 

CLIFTON SUSPENSION - BRIDGE, 
over the Avon, connecting Gloucestershire and 
Somersetshire, constructed of the removed Hunger- 
ford -bridge, was completed in Oct. and opened 
8 Dec. 1864. It is said to have the largest span 
(702 feet) of any chain bridge in the world. In 
1753 Alderman vick, of Bristol, bequeathed IOOO/. 
to accumulate for the erection of a bridge over the 
Avon. In 1831 Brunei began one, which was aban- 
doned after the expenditure of 45,000/. 

CLIMACTERIC, the term applied to certain 
periods of time in a man's life (multiples of 7 or 9), 
in which it was affirmed notable alterations in the 
health and constitution of a person happen. The 
{/rand climacteric is 63. 

CLIMATE. The condition of a place in regard 
to natural phenomena of the atmosphere as tem- 
perature, moisture, &c, sec Meteorology. 
international Congresses on Climatology met at Paris 
Oct. 1889, and Home in 189?. ; at Liege, 25 Sept. 1898. 
Dr. Lombard's Trail r de Climatologie published 1877- 

80; lie died at Geneva, aged nearly q:', 22 .lau. 1S95. 
Pan-Russian congress on climate in reference to 

health, opened by the grand duke Paul . Jan. 1399 
[nternat. Congress ; Grenoble . . . 29 Sept. 1902 

CLINICAL SOCIETY of London, for 
the cultivation of practical medicine and surgery, 
established in Dec. [867 : first president, sir Thomas 
Watson. See Lecture s (clinical). 

CLIO. The initials ('. I,. I. 0.. forming the 
name of the muse of history, were rendered famous 
from the mosl admired papers of Addison, in the 
Spectator, having been marked by one or other of 
( In in, si gn oil consecutively, in 1713. Cibbt <■. 

CLISSOLD PARK, Slok, Xewington, Lon- 
don, N., pun'li isi d by the Charity Commissioners 
and the Metropolitan Board of Works, &c., for public 
use, [887. See Parks. 

CLITIIEkOE CASE, see m,-,*. tS.,i. 



CLOACA MAXIMA, the chief of the cele- 
brated sewers at Borne, the construction of which is 
attributed to king Tarquinius Priscus (600 B.C.) and 
his successors. 

CLOCK. The clepsydra, or water-clock, was 
introduced at Rome from the east about 158 B.C. by 
Scipio Nasica. Toothed wheels were applied to them 
by Ctesibius, about 140 B.C. Clocks said to have 
been found by Caesar on invading Britain, 55 B.C. 
The only clock supposed to be then in the world was 
sent by pope Paul I. to Pepin, king of France, a.d. 
760. Pacificus, archdeacon of Genoa, invented one 
in the 9th century. Originally the wheels were 
three feet in diameter. The earliest complete clock 
of which there is any certain record was made by 
a Saracen mechanic in the 13th century. Alfred 
is said to have measured time by wax tapers, and 
to have used lanterns to defend them from the 
wind, about 887. 

The scapement ascribed to Gerbert .... 1000 
A great clock put up at Canterbury cathedral cost 



30'. 



292 



A clock constructed by Richard, abbot of St. 

Alban's about 1326 

John Visconti sets up a clock at Genoa . . . 1353 
A striking clock in Westminster .... 1368 
A perfect one made at Paris, by Vick . . . . 1370 

The first portable one made 1530 

In England no clock went accurately before that 
set up at Hampton-court (maker's initials N. 0.) 1540 
• ' • • "Like a German clock, 
Still a-repairing ; ever out of frame ; 
And never going aright." 

Shakspeare, " Love's Labour's Lost," 1598 
The pendvlum is said to have been applied to clocks 
by the younger Galileo, 1639 • an d by Richard 
Harris (who erected a clock at St. Paul's, Covent- 

garden) 1641 

Christian Huyghens said he made his pendulum 

clock previously to 1658 

Fromantil, a Dutchman, improved the pendulum 

about 1659 
Repeating clocks and watches invented by Barlow, 

about 1676 
Spiral pendulum spring invented by Robert Hooke, 
about 1658 ; cylinder and escapement, by Thos. 

Tompion 1695 

The dead beat, and horizontal escapements, by 

Graham, about 1700 ; compensating pendulum . 1715 
The spiral balance spring suggested, and the duplex 
scapement, invented by Dr. Hooke : pivot holes 
jewelled by Facio ; the detached-scapement, 
invented by Mudge, and improved by Berthould, 
Arnold. Eamshaw, and others in the 18th, century. 
Harrison's time-piece (which see) constructed . 1735 
Clocks and watches taxed, 1797 ; tax repealed . 1798 

Church clocks illuminated : the first, St. Bride's, 

London 2 Dec. 1826 

The Horological Institute established . . . 1858 
The great Westminster clock set up . . 30 May, 1S59 

Sei Vaiil's, St. 

266,750 clocks and 8.621 watches imported into 
the United Kingdom in 1857 ; 258,628 clocks, 
372,420 watches in 1870; 687,271 clocks in 1877; 
839,934 in 1S86 

The duty came off 1861 

Messrs. Barraud and Lund's electric system of 
synchronising clocks: city of London circuit of 
108 clocks in action .... Nov. 1S7S 

Victor Popp of Vienna applies compressed air as a 
motive power to clocks ; announced . March, 1881 
See Electric Clock, under Electricity. 

CLOGHER (Ireland). St. Macartin, a disciple 
of St. Patrick, fixed a bishopric at Clogher, where 
he also built an abbey "in the street before the 
royal seat of the kings of Ergal." He died in 506. 
Cloghei takes its name from a golden stone, from 
which, in times of paganism, the devil used to 
pronounce juggling answers, like the oracles of 
Apollo Pythius. 'Sir James Ware. In 1041 the 
cathedral was built anew, and dedicated to its 



CLONFERT. 



287 



CLUBS. 



founder. Clogher merged, on the death of its last 
prelate (Dr. Tottenham), into the archiepiscopal see 
of Armagh, by the act of 1833. 

CLONFERT (Ireland). St. Brendan founded 
an abbey at Clonfert in 558 : his life is extant in 
jingling monkish metre in the Cottonian library at 
Westminster. In his time the cathedral, famous 
in ancient days for its seven altars, was erected ; 
and Colgan makes St. Brendan its founder and the 
first bishop ; but it is said, in the Ulster Annals, 
under the year 571, " Mama, bishop of Clonfert- 
Brenain, went to rest.'' Clonfert, in Irish, signifies 
a wonderful den or retirement. In 1839 the see 
merged into that of Killaloe ; see Bishops. 

CLONTARF (near Dublin), the site of a battle 
fought on Good Friday, 23 April, 1014, between 
the Irish and Danes, the former headed by Bryan 
Boroimhe, monarch of Ireland, who defeated the 
invaders, after a long and bloody engagement, was 
wounded, and soon afterwards died. His son Mur- 
chard also fell with many of the nobility ; 13,000 
Danes are said to have perished in the battle. 

CLOSTERSEVEN (Hanover) Convention 
OF, was entered into 8 Sept. 1757, between the 
duke of Cumberland, third son of George II., 
hardly pressed, and the duke of Richelieu, com- 
mander of the French. By it 38,000 Hanoverians 
laid down their arms, and were dispersed. The 
treaty was disavowed by the king, and soon broken ; 
the duke resigned all his commands. 

CLOSURE, see Cloture. 

CLOTH, see Woollen Cloth and Calico. 

CLOTURE, the power of closing a debate in 
the French chamber of deputies, exercised by the 
president. A similar power, termed Closure, was 
given to the speaker of the House of Commons, 11 
Nov. 1882 ; first enforced 24 Feb. 1885 ; the closure 
made part of a standing order, 18, 19 March, 1887. 
By a new rule the power of closure was given to a 
house of 100, 28 Feb. 1888; and was frequently 
exercised in 1888, and since. See Parliament, 
1887 and 1893. 

CLOUD, St., a palace near Paris, named from 
prince Clodoald or Cloud, who became a monk 
there in 533, after the murder of his brothers, and 
died in 560. The palace was built in the 16th 
century, and in it Henry III. was stabbed by Cle- 
ment, i Aug. (died 2 Aug.) 1589. This palace, long 
the property of the dukes of Orleans, was bought 
by Marie Antoinette in 1785. It was a favourite 
residence of the empress Josephine, of Charles X. 
and his family, and of the emperor Napoleon III. 
It was burnt during the siege of Paris, having 
been fired upon by the French themselves, 13 Oct. 
1870. The ruins were cleared away, and the site 
sold, July, 1892. 

CLOUDS consist of minute particles of water, 
often in a frozen state, floating in the air. In 1803 
Mr. Luke Howard published his classification of 
clouds, now generally adopted, consisting of three 
primary forms — cirrus, cumulus, and stratus ; three 
compounds of these forms; and the nimbus or 
black rain clouds (cumulo cirro-stratus.) A new 
edition of Howard's Essay on the Clouds appeared 
in 1865. Important international cloud work by 
prof. F. H. Bigelow ; 10 standard types of clouds 
defined by the international cloud committee, 
taken during 1896 ; published by the U.S. Weather 
Bureau, 1900. 



CLOVESHOO (no-v Cliff-), Kent. Here was 
held an important council of nobility and clergy 
concerning the government and discipline of the 
church, Sept. 747 ; and others were held here, 800, 
803, 822, 824. 

CLOYNE (S. Ireland), a bishopric, founded in 
the 6th century by St. Coleman, was in 1431 united 
to that of Cork, and so continued for 200 years. It 
was united with that of Cork and Ross, 1834 ; see 
Bishops. 

CLUBMEN, associations founded in the 
southern and western counties of England, to re- 
strain the excesses of the armies during the civil 
wars, 1642-9. The}' professed neutrality, but in- 
clined towards the king, and were considered 
enemies by his opponents. 

CLUBS, originally consisted of a small number 
of persons of kindred tastes and pursuits, who met 
together at stated times for social intercourse. The 
club at the Mermaid tavern, established about the 
end of the 16th century, consisted of Raleigh, 
Shakspeare, and others. Ben Jonson set up a club 
at the Devil tavern. Addison, Steele, and others, 
frequently met at Button's coffee-house, as de- 
scribed in the Spectator. Some odd clubs are 
described in No. 9 of that journal, 10 March, 
1710-11. The present London clubs, some com- 
prising 500, others about 6000 members, possess 
handsome, luxuriously furnished edifices in or near 
Pall Mall. The members obtain choice viands and 
wines at moderate charges, and many clubs possess 
excellent libraries, particularly the Athenaeum 
{whichsee). The annual payment varies from 7,1. 3*. 
to 11/. us. ; the entrance fee from 5/. 5.S. to 42/. A 
bill for the registration of clubs was read a second 
time in the commons, 22 March, 1893. The follow- 
ing are the principal clubs ; several are described 
in separate articles : — 

Rota (political) 1659 

Civil Club (■professional and commercial) 19 Nov. 1669 
White's (Tory), at White's Coffee-house, 1698 ; re- 
vived 1888 

Kit-Cat (literary) ... ... 1700 

Dilettanti {fine arts) 1734 

Beefsteak 1735 

Royal Society (scientific) .... before 1743 

Cocoa Tree 1746 

Boodle's 1762 

Literary Club (which see), termed also "The Club," 

and Johnson's Club 1764 

Brooks's, originally Almack's (Whig) . . . „ 

Royal Naval 1705 

Arthur's „ 

Alfred (literary) 1808-51 

Roxburghe, London 1812 

Guards 1813 

United Service 1815 

Travellers' 1819 

Union 1S21 

United University 1822 

Bannatyne, Edinburgh 1823 

Athenaeum (which see) 1824 

Oriental ,, 

United Service (Junior) 1827 

Wyndham 1828 

Maitland, Glasgow ,, 

Oxford and Cambridge 1829 

Carlton (Conservative), founded by the duke of Wel- 
lington and others 1831 

Garrick ,, 

City of London Club 1832 

Abbotsford, Edinburgh 1835 

Reform (Liberal) 1836 

Parthenon 

Army and Navy 1837 

Etching, London 1838 

Spalding, Aberdeen 1839 

Conservative 1840 

Gresham 1843 



CL*UBS. 



2ib 



COAL. 



1845 



1847 
1857 



1865 



1870 



1871 
1874 



National 

Whittington (founded by Douglas Jerrold and 

others) 

Bast India United Service 

Savage 

St. James's 

Naval and Military 

Grafton 

Arts 

Junior Carlton 

Thatched House 

Cobden Club 

Savile 

City Carlton 

Marlborough 

Lyric . 

St. Stephen's 

Universities 

Scientific 

Wanderers 

Devonshire (Liberal) „ 

City Liberal Club 

Verulam (Literary and Scientific) ,, 

Byron 1875 

Hanover Square 1876 

New Athenaeum Club 1878 

Eighty Club 1880 

National Liberal Club 1882 

Constitutional 1883 

Grosvenor, Bond Street ,, 

Imperial and American 1885 

Camera . „ 

National Conservative 1886 

National Union 1887 

Arts and Letters 1889 

Thirteen Club „ 

Amphitryon, Albemarle Street, W 1890 

Cavalry „ 

Golfers 1893 

Automobile 1897 

Colonial 1899 

Oxford and Cambridge Musical . . . . „ 

Box (literary), Dickensonian 1900 

O.P. club (playgoers and others connected with the 

drama) ,, 

Imperial Service 1901 

Auxiliary Forces 1902 

See Working Men's Clubs ; Ladies' Clubs, in London 
1898, et seq. : University, New Somerville, Alexandra, 
Pioneer, Writers' and others. 

CLUBS, FRENCH. The first arose about 1782. 
They were essentially political, and greatly con- 
cerned in the revolution. The Club Breton became 
the celebrated Club des Jacobins, and the Club des 
Cordeliers comprised among its members Danton 
and Camille Desmoulins. From these two came 
the Mountain party which overthrew the Girondists 
in 1793, and fell in its turn in 1794. The clubs 
disappeared with the Directory in 1799. They were 
revived in 1848, but did not attain to their former 
eminence, and were suppressed by decrees, 22 June, 
1849, and 6 June, 1850. Bouillet. 

CLUB-FOOT, a deformity due to the shorten- 
ing of one or more of the muscles, although at- 
tempted i'> be relieved bj Lorenz in [784, by 
cutting the tendo Achillis, was uol effectually, cured 
till [831, when Stromeyer of Erlangen cured Dr. 
Little by dividing the tendons of the contracted 
muscles with a vei-\ thin knife. 

CLUGNY or CLUNY, ABBEY OF, in France, 
formerly moal magnificent, founded bj Benedictines, 
under the abbot Bern, aboul 910, and sustained 
afterwards i>\ William, duke of Berry and Aqui- 
taine. English foundations for Cluniac monks were 
instituted soon nfter. 

CLYDE \xn FORTH WALL was buill 

In AgTICOla, 84. The Forth and Clvde C.wat, was 

commenced b.\ Mr. Smeaton, to July, [768, and 
was opened 28 July, [790. It forms a communi- 



cation between the seas on the eastern and western 
coasts of Scotland. 

CNTDUS, in Caria, Asia Minor: near here 
Conon the Athenian defeated the Lacedaemonian 
fleet, under Peisander, 394 B.C. 

COACH (from coche, Spanish). Beckmann 
states that Charles of Anjou's queen entered Naples 
in a caret 'ta (about 1282). Under Francis I. there 
were but two in Paris, one belonging to the 
queen, the other to Diana, the natural daughter of 
Henry II. There were but three in Paris in 1 550; 
and Henry IV. had one without straps or springs. 
John de Laval de Bois-Dauphin set up a coach on 
account of his enormous bulk. The first coach seen 
in England was about 1553. Coaches were intro- 
duced by Fitz-Alan, earl of Arundel, in 1580. Stow. 
A bill was brought into parliament to prevent the 
effeminacy of men riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601. 
Carte. Repealed 1625. The coach of the duke of 
Buckingham had six horses, that of the earl of 
Northumberland eight, 1619. The coach-tax com- 
menced in 1747. Horace Walpole says that the 
present royal state coach (first used 16 Nov. 1762) 
cost 7,528^. The lord mayor's old state coach was 
not used 9 Nov. 1867; see Car, Carriages, Cha/riots, 
Hackney Coaches, Mail Coaches, &c. G. Thrupp's 
" History of Coaches" published 1877. 

A coachmakers' exhibition, London, opened 2 June, 1879. 

A private university teacher is termed a " Coach." Dr. 
Edward John Routh, of Cambridge, out of 631 pupils 
produced 27 senior wranglers, 1858-88. On his retire- 
ment his old pupils presented his portrait to his 
wife, 3 Nov. 1888. Mr. Walter Wren, eminent coach, 
died Aug. 1898. 

COAL.* It is contended, with much seeming 
truth, that coal, although not mentioned by the 
Romans in their notices of Britain, was yet in use 
by the ancient Britons. Brandt. Henry III. is 
said to have granted a licence to dig coals near 
Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1234 ; some say earlier, 
and others in 1239. Sea-coal was prohibited from 
being used in and near London, as being "preju- 
dicial to human health;" and even smiths were 
obliged to burn wood, 1273. Stow. In 1306 the 
gentry petitioned against its use. Coal was first 
made an article of trade from Newcastle to London, 
4 Rich II. 1 38 1. Rt/mer's Feeder a. Notwithstanding 
the many previous complaints against coal as a 
public nuisance, it was at length generally burned 
in London in 1400; but it was not in common use 
in England until the reign of Charles I. 1625. Coal 
was brought from Dublin to Newry in 1742. Coal 
declared a contraband of war by Great Britain, 
April, 1898. 

1700 consumed in London . . . 317,000 chald. 

175° 510,000 ,, 

i860 814,000 „ 

1810 ........ 980,372 ,, 

1820 1.171,178 ,, 

1830 1,588,360 ,, 

1835 2,299,816 tons. 

184c 2,638,256 „ 

l8 Sc • .... 3,638,883 „ 

Coal and fuel exported: value: 1856,2,826,582?.; 1869, 

5,165,668/. ; 1873, 13,188,511?. ; 1878,7,330,474?. ; 1883, 

10,645,919?.; 1887, 10,169,991?.; 1888, n 345,299?. ; tSSo, 

..mo?.; 1890, 19,020,269?.; 1893, 14,375,476?.; 1900, 

38,619,856?.; 1Q01, 30,434,744?. 

The coal BeldsofGreal Britain are estimated at 5400 
square miles; of Durhamand Northumberland, 

1 here are live kinds of fossil fu. 1 : anthracite, coal, 

lignite, bituminous shale, and bitumen. No satisfactory 

definition of coal lias yet been given, Thei omposilion of 

is e>'' carbon, 63 hydrogen, 44 -6 oxygen ; of eoal 

irbon, 5'6 hydrogen, n*8 oxygen. 



COAL. 



289 



COAL. 



723 sqnare miles. Bakewcll. In 1857 about 655 
millions of tons were extracted (value about 
16,348, 676?.) from 2095 collieries ; about 25 millions 
■are consumed annually in Great Britain. 1882, 
collieries, 3,759. 
Coal obtained in Great Britain and Ireland : — 

1854. 64,661,401 tons. 1865. 98,150,587 tons. 

1861. 83,635,214 „ 1866. 101,630,544 „ 

1862. 81,638,338 ,, - 1867. 104,500,480 ,, 
, 1863. 86,292,215 ,, 1868. 103,141,157 ,, 

£864. 92,787,873 „ 1869. 107,427,557 ,, 

1870. 110,431,192 tons value. 27,607,798?. 

1871. 117,352,028 ,, ,, 35,205,608?. 

1872. 123,497,316 ,, ,, 46,311,143?. 

1873. 127,016,747 ,, ,, 47,631,280?. 

5:874. 125,067,016 ,, ,, 45,849,194?. 

1875. 131,867,105 ,, ,, 46,163,486?. 

1876. 133,344,826 ,, ,, 46,670,668?. 

1877. 134,610,763 , ,, 47,113,767?. 

5878. 132,654,887 ,, ,, 46,429,210?. 

1879. 134,008.228 ,, ,, 46,902,879?. 

1880. 146,818,622 ,, , 62,395,414?. 

t88i. 154,184,300 ,, ,, 65,528,327?. 

1882. *i56, 499, 977 ,, ,, 44,118,409?. 

1883. 163,737,327 , ,, 46,054,143?. 

1884. 160,757,779 » .. 43.446,183?. 

1885. 159,351,418 ,, ,, 41,139,408?. 

1886. 157,518,482 „ ,, 38,145,930?. 

1887. 162,119,812 , , 39,092,830?. 

1888. 169,935,219 ,, ,, 42,971,276?. 

1889. 176,916,724 ,, ,, 56,175,426?- 

1890. 181,614,288 ,, ,, 74,953>997^ 

1891. 185,479,126 ,, , 74,099,816?. 

-1892. 181,786,871 ,, ,, 66,050,451?. 

2893. 164,325,795 ,, ,, 55,809,808?. 

1894. 188,277,525 ,, „ 62,730,179?. 

1895. 189,661,362 ,, ,, 57,231,213?. 

1896. 195,361,260 ,, ' ,, 57,190,147?. 

1898. 202,042,303 ,, ,, 64,169,382?. 

1899. 220,094,781 ,, ,, 83,481,137?. 

1900. 225,181,300 ,, „ 121,652,596?. 

1901. 219,046,945 ,, ,, 102,846,552?. 

United States, 41,752,609 tons, obtained in 1872 

Mr. Sopwith, in 1855, computed the annual product 
of the coal-mines of Durham and Northumberland 
at 14 million tons : — 6 millions for London, i\ 
millions exported, 2J millions for coke, 1 million 
for colliery engines, &c, and two millions for 
local consumption. 

By a stipulation in the commercial treaty of i860, in 
consequence of the French government greatly 
reducing the duty on imported coal, the British 
government (it is thought by many imprudently) 
engaged to lay no duty on exported coal for ten 
years. In 1859 about 7,000,000 tons of British 
coals were exported, of which 1,391,009 tons went 
to France ; over 8,000,000 tons sent in 1900. 

A commission (consisting of the duke of Argyll, sir 
R. I. Murchison, Dr. John Percy, professor 
Ramsay, and others) appointed to investigate into 
the probable quantity of coal in the coal-fields of 
the United Kingdom, <fcc. 28 June, 1866, reported 
•27 July, 1871 : — 

TONS 

Attainable quantity of coal known . 90,207,000,000 
Probable available coal in other 
places 56,273,000,000 



146,480,000,000 



Total coal production in 1901, 789,000,000 tons. 

Another commission appointed . . . Dec. 1901 
44J million tons exported to the colonies and foreign 

countries ; reported Dec. 1897 

Sale of Coal Regulation Act 1831 

The duties on the exportation of British coal, which 
had existed since the 16th century, were prac- 
tically repealed 1834 

Sir R. Peel imposed a duty of 4s. a ton in 1842 ; 

caused much dissatisfaction ; repealed . . . 1845 
Women were prohibited from working in English 
collieries in 1842 

* The plan adopted for obtaining the value of the 
coal produced was changed in 1882. 



The consumption of coal in France in 1780, only 

400,000 tons, rises to 6,000,000 tons in . . . 1845 
The United States produced between 8 and g millions 

of tons : Belgium, 5,000,000 ; and France, 4,500,000, 1855 
An Act for the regulation and inspection of mines 

passed i860 

Duplicate shafts act passed 1862 

Coal-pitmen's strikes frequently occur ; a long and 
severe one arose in Staffordshire in 1864 ; near St. 
Helen's, March, 1868 ; in S. Wales . Jan. -March, 1873 
Coal-mines regulation act, tending to check the sup- 
ply, passed 10 Aug. 1872 ; act amended . . 1886 
By another act preceding acts were consolidated, 
the employment of women and boys under 12 
underground was prohibited, the qualifications 
of managers is to be tested by examiners, and 
other regulations made ... 6 Sept. 1887 
A coal-cutting machine at work, producing about 
70 tons in 8 hours (work of 40 men) ; requires 
attendance of 3 or 4 men . . Times, 6 Feb. 1873 
reported successful in Northumberland . Nov. ,, 
Great dearth of coal in London (see Strikes), best 

coal 52s. a ton 15 Feb. ,, 

Duty on Coal brought to London, 9c?. a ton, and $d. 
a ton for London improvements ; produced 

381,249?. . . ,, 

Parliamentary committee respecting coal first met 

24 March, ,, 
Exhibition of coal-raising machinery at Salford, 

Manchester, opened .... 30 Jan. 1874 
Royal Commission on spontaneous combustion of 
coal (Mr. H. C. Childers, professor Abel, &c.) met 
11 Nov. 1875 ; report issued ; alludes to danger 
of absorption of oxygen, need of ventilation, &c. 

Aug. 1876 
A commission to inquire into the causes and 
remedies for explosions was appointed (including 
Messrs. Warington W. Smyth, Tyndall, F. A 

Abel, and others) Feb. 1879 

[Preliminary report issued Nov. 1881 ; final report 
15 March, 1886.] 
A great reduction of accidents through improved 

management announced .... Nov. 1881 
A new method of blasting by quick-lime-cartridges 

invented by Smith and Moor much recommended 1882 
Increase of wages obtained in consequence of the 

miners conference at Manchester . Jan. -Feb. 1883 
Yorkshire Miners' Association (Benjamin Pickard 
and others) demand diminution of time of labour, 
and decrease of output in order to raise the price 

of coal Feb. „ 

Government circular issued, recommending the 

use of Fleus's apparatus for rendering foul air 

respirable after explosions (see Diving) March, ,, 

Important meeting of delegates from about 17,000 

miners requiring 15 per cent, increase of wages 

at Ardwick 6 Nov. ,, 

Pit-brow women employed outside of coal mines in 
Lancashire and South Wales ; an attempt to 
prohibit this negatived by the commons 23 June, 1887 
Messrs. Ash worth and Kneen patent a furnace which 
saves about 35 per cent, of coal and consumes 
smoke, autumn 1887. 
Proposed formation of " The Coal Owners and 

Consumers Co-operative Association " March, 1889 
Coal-field discovered near Dover . . 15 Feb. 1890 
Federation of colliery owners proposed (except 
S. Wales, Northumberland, and Durham) in 
opposition to strikes, &c. . 31 Jan., n Feb. ,, 
The colliers' demand for advance of 10 per cent. 

pay, resisted . . .- . .11 Feb. ,, 

The miners' delegates (40). at Westminster (repre- 
senting 350,000) threaten a general strike if the 
advance of 10 per cent, is not conceded before 15 

March 15 Feb. „ 

The strike begins 15 March 

Meeting of delegates from both parties ; and imme- 
diate advance of 5 per cent, on Aug. 1 agreed to ; 

strike closes 20 March, „ 

Royal commission appointed to inquire into the 
effect of coal dust in relation to explosions in 
mines (Mr. J. Chamberlain, lord Rayleigh, prof. 
Dixon, and others); first meeting . 6 March, 1891 
The Northumberland coal-miners agree to a reduc- 
tion of 5 per cent, on their wages . 2 Jan. 1892 
The new " sliding scale" agreed to, 1 Jan., adopted 
at Cardiff and Aberdare . . . 4 Jan. ,, 

U 



COAL. 



290 



COAL. 



The representatives of the National Miners' Federa- 
tion at Manchester, recommend a temporary sus- 
pension of w< rk (12-26 March), to raise the prices 
and maintain the rate of pay to miners ; gene- 
rally accepted, except in South Wales, Northum- 
berland, Durham, Worcestershire, Staffordshire, 

and Scotland Feb. 1 

Prices raised in London, &c, temporary panic 

29 Feb. et seq. 
Strike of the Durham coal-miners against the pro- 
posed 10 per cent, reduction of wages, n March ; 
92,588 said to be out, 16 March ; the men agree 
to accept y% or 10 per cent, reduction ; the coal- 
owners require 13^ per cent. ; compromise 
effected by the intervention of bishop Westcott 
at a meeting at Auckland Castle, 10 per cent, 
accepted by both parties, 1 June ; manufactures 
on the Tyne and Wear much suspended 

March — June, 

The reduction of 5 per cent, on wages accepted by 

the Northumbrian miners, 3 Nov. 1892, et seq. ; 

by the Durham miners . . 13 March, 1 

Strike of about 3,000 colliers at the Forest of Dean 

against reduced wages, 8 July ; return to work 

' 18 Sept. 
The midland coal-owners propose a reduction of 
25 per cent, on the excess wages paid in 1888 et 
seq. Meetings of coal-owners and miners held in 
London ; the miners reject the reduction and 
arbitration, 21 July. Strike of about 200,000 
miners begins against reduction, 24 July et seq. ; 
strike extends to N. Wales, Yorkshire, and N.W. 
Scotland, 9 Aug. ; about 35,000 men out, mid. 
Aug. Strike collapsing in Wales ; rioting checked 
by the military in Derbyshire, S. Yorkshire 

Notts Aug. — Sept. 

Eesumption of work at old wages in some parts 
Oct. ; joint conference at Westminster, 4-6 Nov ; 
no result ; by advice of Mr. Gladstone, a joint 
conference meets at the foreign office, the earl of 
Rosebery chairman : result, a board of concilia- 
tion of 14 delegates from each side and a chair- 
man, with a casting vote, to be appointed for a 
year ; work to be resumed at once at the old rate 
of wages till 1 Feb. 1894 (the strike lasted 16 
weeks') ... 17 Nov. 

Destruction of the works at lord Masham's col- 
liery, Featherstnne, near Pontefract, by rioters ; 
intervention of the military ; James Gibbs and 
James Duggan killed, and many wounded 7 Sept. 
Royal commission of inquiry (lord Bowen and 
others), 19-25 Oct. ; report issued justifying the 
conduct of the magistrates and military . 8 Dec. 
200?. awarded to the relatives of the men killed, 

reported March, 1 

The strike occasions much stoppage of work in the 
country, and great distress through the rise of 
the price of coal .... Sept.— Nov. 1! 
Strike of miners in the Pas de Calais and Belgium, 

&c. (see France) .... Sept.— Oct. , 

Strike of Scotch coal-miners for an advance of is. 
per day, 22 Nov. ; about 100,000 men out of work, 
4 Dec. ; end of strike by compromise . 11 Dec. , 
The formation of a coal-trust for the United King- 
dom, proposed by sir George Elliot and others, 
by the co-operation of coal-owners, bankers, &c. 
as a company — Times, 20 Sept. ; scheme favour- 
ably received at a conference in Newcastle-on- 
Tyne, Nov. ; sir George Elliot, originally a pit- 
lad, gradually rose through his great abilities 
to be a wealthy proprietor ; died, aged 78, 23 Dec. , 
Joint conference of masters and men at West- 
minster to consider the formation of a board of 
conciliation ; the selection of a chairman re- 
ferred to the speaker of the house of commons 

1 ; l'i e. . 
The increase of 5 per cent, recently granted to 
Northumberland minors raised to 7A per cent. 

13 Jan. if 
Miners' conciliation board: and meeting in Lon- 
don, 15 Jan. ; lord Shand Dominated chairman 
by the speaker, reported 26 Jan. ; accepted at a 
meeting 14 Feb.; 4th meeting; lord Shand 
present ; rulesadqpted. . . . 3 April, , 
Wages to be reduced 10 per cent, from 1 Aug. 1894 
to 1 Jan. 1806; settled at a meeting of the con- 
ciliation board 19 July, , 

Strike of about 5,000 in the Wigan district 1 Aug. . 



Great strike of Scotch miners (about 65,000) began- 
26 June ; negotiations fail ; contributions for 
their support from the British miners' federa- 
tion received ; work gradually resumed : end of 

the strike 22 Oct. 1894 

. Wales coal trade sliding-scale, arrangement 
settled for 18 months ... 28 March, 1895 

Coal Mines Regulation Act of 1887 amended 1894 ; 
and 1896. 

Coal strikes : see United States, April — June, 1894. 

Earl of Durham sells his collieries, shipping, &c, 
co. Durham, to Messrs. Joicey and Co. ; reported, • 

20 May, 1896 

London Coal combination : 8 firms form a com- 
pany, headed by Wm. Cory and Son . Sept. „ 

Death of Mr. Wm. Armstrong, aged, 84 ; mining 
engineer, "Father of the coal trade" 3 Nov. ,, 

"Our Coal resources," by Edw. Hull; published 1897 

Discussion respecting the output of coal . Dec. ,, 

The use of dangerous explosives in coal mines pro- 
hibited ; order issued .... 20 Dec. ,, 

United States, 198,250,000 tons output in 1897, 
April, 1898 ; 267,542,444 in 1900. See Strikes 

April, 1898 

Lord James of Hereford chairman of conciliation 
board, 16 Dec. ; wages to be increased 5 per cent., 
April, 1899, an d 22 per cent, from Oct.; decided, 
10 Feb. 1899, further advance; wages now 46J per 
cent, above those of 1879 . . . May, 1900 

"Annals of Coal Mining and the Coal Trade," by 
R. L. Galloway Feb. 1899 

Coal struck at Barham, Kent, 24 March ; and at 
Ropersole, near Dover . . . early April, ,, 

The world — 723,239,000 tons output in 1899. 

Sir Wm. Thos. Lewis, founder of the sliding scale 
system, resigns his over 50 years' leadership of 
the S. Wales' coal-owners' association . July ,, 

Sir M. Hicks Beach imposed is. per ton duty on 
exported coal 18 March, 1901 

Demonstrations against the proposed coal tax, 

April, ,, 

Royal commission appointed, Mr. W. L. Jackson 
(made a peer, lord Allerton, June, 1902), chairman, 
to inquire into the coal supplies of the United 
Kingdom end Dec. ,, 

Strike of winding enginemeu in W. Monmouthshire, 
14,000 colliers affected ... 31 Dec. ,, 

Lord James of Hereford awards a 10 per cent, re- 
duction in wages from July . . .16 June, 1902 

Decrease of wages (mines and quarries), 1,075,000/. 
in 1901, reported . • . . 27 Aug. ,, 

Welsh miners' demonstration at Mountain Top, 
Cefn Glass, in favour of a conciliation board, 

13 Sept. ,, 

Crisis in South Wales, 31 Dec; settlement effected 

24 Jan. 1903 
Accidents. — About 1000 lives are lost annually by 

explosion and accidents in mines. (1856-76). 1877,1208 

lost: 1878, 1413 ; 1879, 973 lost; 1880, 1318 lost; 1881, 

954 lost ; 1882, 1126 lost ; 1883, 1054 lost ; 1884, 942 lost ; 

1S85, 1150 lost; 1886, 953; 18S7, 995; 1888, 888; 1889, 

1,110; 1890, 1,206; 1891, 1,030; 1896, 1,025; J 897, 930 • 

1898, 908 ; 1899, 916 ; 1900, 1,012 ; 1901, 1,131 ; 1902, i,oiS. 
More men employed than formerly, consequently more 

deaths at explosions (1886). Pits deeper than formerly. 

Dust as well as after-damp causes explosions. 

in iSsS.by explosions in coal-mines, 52 persons perished 
at Bardsley : 20 at Duffryn, near Newport ; 52 at 
Tyldesley, near Leeds ; and about 36 in different parts of 
the country. 

1859 — 5 April, 26 lives were lost at the chain colliery, 
near Neath, through the irruption of.water. 

i860 — 76 lives were lost on 2 March, at Burradon, near 
Killingworth ; 145 at the Rise's mine, near Newport, 
Mon., 1 Dec. : and 22 at the Hetton mine, Northumber- 
land. 20 Dec. 

1S61 — 11 June, 21 lives were lost through an inundation 
in the Claycross mines, Derbyshire. 

85 lives were lost at Lalle coal-mine, in France, in Oct. 
1861. 

1S62— 47 lives were lost at Gethin mine, Merthyr 
Tydvil, S. Wales, 10 Feb. : at Walker, near Newcastle- 
on Tyne, 15 lives lost, 22 Nov. ; Edmund's Main, near 
Bamsley, 60 lives lost, S Pee. 

1863 — 13 lives lost at Coxbridge, near Newcastle, 
6 March ; 30 lives lost at Margani, S. Wales, 17 Oct. ; 14 
lives lost at Maesteg, S. Wales, 26 Dec. 



COAL. 



291 



COAL. 



1865 — 6 lives lost at Claycross, 3 May ; 24 at New 
Bedwellty pit, near Tredegar, 16 June ; explosion at 
Gethin mine, Merthyr Tydvil, 30 lives lost, 20 Dec. 

1866 — Explosion at Highbrook colliery, near Wigan, 
Lancashire, about 30 lives lost, 23 Jan. ; at Dukinfield 
near Ashton, 37 lives lost, 14 June ; at Pelton Fell 
colliery, near Durham, about 24 lives lost, 31 Oct. ; at 
Oaks colliery, Hoyle-mill, near Barnsley, about 360 
persons killed, 12 Dec. ; 28 searchers killed (including 
Mi - . Parkin Jeffcock, mining engineer) by fresh explosion, 

13 Dec. ; at Talke-of-the-hill, Staffordshire, about 8c 
persons perish, 13 Dec. 

1867 — Explosion at Garswood colliery, near St. Helen's, 

14 lives lost, 29 Aug. ; Shankhouse colliery, Cramlington . 
Northumberland, flooded, 1 man drowned, 1 Nov. ; ex- 
plosion at Perndale colliery, Rhondda valley, Glamorgan- 
shire, about 178 lives lost: attributed to naked lights, 
8 Nov. 

(For still more fatal accidents, see Lundhill and 
Hartley.) . 

47 lives lost in a mine near Jemmapes, Belgium, 6 
Aug. 1868. 

1868. Explosions: at Green pit, near Ruabon, 11 
persons killed, 30 Sept. ; at Aiiey mine, Hindley-green, 
near Wigan, 62 killed, 26 Nov. ; at Norley mine, near 
Wigan, about 7 killed, 21 Dec. ; at Haydock collieries, 
near St. Helen's, 26 deaths, 30 Dec. 

1869. Brierly pit, near Stourbridge, inundated 17 
March, many lost ; — some rescued, 20, 21 March. 
Explosions at Highbrook colliery, near Wigan, about 
33 persons perished, 1 April ; at Ferndale colliery, 
Glamorganshire, about 60 lost, 10 June ; Haydock pit, 
St. Helen's, about 58 lost, 21 July ; Moss Coal Company's 
pit, near Hindley, about 30 lost, 22 Nov. 

1870. Explosions — at Silverdale colliery, Staffordshire. 
19 killed, 7 July ; Llansamlet, near Swansea, 19 killed, 
23 July ; Brynn-hall, near Wigan, about 19 killed, 16 
Aug. 

1871. Explosions, Renishaw park colliery, Eckington, 
near Sheffield, 27 killed, 10 Jan. ; Pentre colliery, 
Rhondda valley, 38 killed, 24 Feb. ; Victoria, near Ebbw 
Vale, Monmouthshire, about 19 killed, 2 March ; Moss 
Pits, near Wigan, 70 killed, 6 Sept. ; Grisons, Belgium, 
30 killed, 27 Sept. ; Gelly pit, Aberdare, 4 killed, 4 Oct. ; 
Seaham, 30 killed, 25 Oct. 

1872. Explosions — Llynvi valley near Bridgend, 11 
killed, 11 Jan. ; Black lake colliery, S. Staffordshire, 8 
killed, (through carelessness), 25 Jan. ; Morley main, near 
Dewsbury and Leeds, 7 Oct. about 34 deaths : great 
carelessness and bad discipline ; Rains mine, Pendlebury, 
6killed, 6 Nov. ; Monceaux, department of Saone et Loire, 
about 38 killed, 8 Nov. ; Pelsall-hall, Walsall, about 22 
drowned by influx of water from an old working, 14 Nov. 

1873. Explosion at Talke colliery, N. Staffordshire Coal 
and Iron Company's works, about 20 killed, 18 Feb. ; 
Drummond colliery, Nova Scotia, explosion and fire, 
about 75 perished, 13 May ; Shamokin, Pennsylvania, 
U.S., 15 killed, 18 June ; Meshes colliery, near Wigan, 

6 killed, 21 Nov. 

1874. Explosions — Astley pit, Dukinfield, near Man- 
chester, 54 killed, (attributed to gross ignorance or cul- 
pable carelessness), 14 April ; Saw-mills pit, near Wigan, 

15 killed, 18 July ; Rawmarsh colliery near Rotherham, 
explosion through naked lights, about 23 killed, 20 Nov. ; 
Bignall hall colliery, near Dudley, Staffordshire, 17 
killed, 24 Dec. 

1875. Explosions— Aldwarke Main, near Rotherham, 

7 killed, 5 Jan. ; Ruffery colliery, Dudley, 4 killed, 6 Jan.; 
Bunker's Hill, North Staffordshire, (through a gun- 
powder fuze), 43 deaths, 30 April ; Donnington Wood, 
Shropshire, n killed, n Sept. ; Ashton Vale, near Bed- 
minster, 4 killed, 7 Oct. ; Haigh, near Wigan, Alexandra 
pit (accident with descending cages), 7 killed, 3 Dec. ; 
Powell Duffryn, New Tredegar, 22 killed, 4 Dec. ; Llan- 
eolly, Pentyrch, (naked light), skilled, s Dec. ; Swaithe 
main, near Barnsley, about 140 killed, 6 Dec. ; Methley 
junction, near Leeds, 6 killed, 9 Dec. Explosion at a 
colliery near Mons, Belgium, about no killed, 14 Dec. 

1876. Explosions— Talke, North Staffordshire, 5 killed, 
S Jan. ; St. Etienne, France, about 30 killed, 4 Feb. 
Birley, near Sheffield, 6 killed, 26 June ; Abertillery, 
Monmouthshire, 17 killed, 18 Dec. 

1877. Explosions, &c— Stonehill, near Bolton, about 
18 killed, 23 Jan. ; Darcy Lever, near Bolton, about 10 
killed, 7 Feb. ; Tyldesley, near Bolton, 7 killed, 6 March ; 
New Worcester pit, Swansea, 18 or 19 killed, 8 March, In- 
undation— Tynewydd mine, near Pontypridd, S. Wales, 
several drowned, n April, several rescued by excavation. 



after ten days' imprisonment ; great heroism shown, see 
Albert Medals, 20 April ; Mr. Thomas, manager, accused of 
culpable negligence, after inquest on 5 deaths, 17 May. — 
King Pit, Pemberton, near Wigan, about 33 perished 
(including Mr. Walker, the manager, and two overlookers 
attempting rescue) n Oct. : High Blautyre, near Glasgow, 
Messrs. Dixon's pits, above 200 perished, 22 Oct. ; South 
Kirby, near Barnsley, rope broke, 4 killed, 29 Oct. 

1878. Explosions, <fec. — High Blantyre, 6 perished, 9 
March ; Kilsyth, Stirlingshire, Barnard Pit, 16 immured. 

March ; Kearsley, near Bolton, about 43 perished, 12 
March ; Apedale, near Chesterton, N. Staffordshire, about, 
jo perished, 27 March ; Wood Pits, Florida mine, Hay- 
dock, near Wigan, about 189 perished, 7 June ; Ebbw 
Vale colliery, Abercarne, 12 miles from Newport, Mon- 
mouthshire, about 268 out of 387 perished, 11 Sept. 

i879. Explosions, &o. — Dinas pit, Rhondda valley,, 
Glamorganshire, about 63 perish, 13 Jan. ; " Deep 
Drop " pit, near Wakefield, 19 perish, 4 March ; Victoria 
colliery, Snydale, near Wakefield ; rope of descending 
cage broke, 8 killed, 7 March ; Cwmavon, Glamorgan- 
shire ; chain broke, 6 killed, 24 June ; High Blantyre 
collieries, Dixon & Co., 28 killed, 2 July; Lady pit, 
Silverdale, N. Staffordshire, 8 deaths, 12 Sept. ; Wann. 
Llwyd, Ebbw Vale, Monmouth, 3 killed, 22 Sept. 
Shorthcath, near Wolverhampton, 6 killed, 12 Nov. ; 
Scowcrofts, Kearsley, near Bolton, 7 deaths, 25 Dec. 

1880. Explosions, <fec. —Leycett, near Newcastle- 
under-Lyme, about 73 deaths, 21 Jan. ; Anderlaus 
(France), about 20 deaths, 1 April ; Risca, 6 miles from 
Newport, Mon., about 120 deaths 15 July; Seaham, 
near Sunderland, Durham, 164 deaths, 8 Sept. ; Pen-y- 
graig, S. Wales, 101 perished, 10 Dec. 

1881. Explosions.— Whitfield colliery, Chell, N. Staf- 
ford, 20 killed, 7 Feb. ; Hanley, Staffordshire, about 5 
killed, 21 Nov. ; Cockerill colliery, Belgium, 66 perished,, 
about 9 Dec. ; Abram colliery, near Wigan, about 48 
perished, 19 Dec. (13 explosions, with loss of 99 lives). 

1882. Explosions — Coedlae, Glamorganshire, 6 lives,, 
n Feb. ; Trimdon Grange colliery, 74 perished, 16 Feb. ; 
Blaina, Monmouthshire, 5 deaths, 27 Feb. ; Lumley, near 
Fencehouses, Durham, fall of shaft,about 100 imprisoned, 
14 March ; Tudhoe colliery, Weardale, Durham, 37 lives 
lost, 18 April; West Stanley, Durham, 13 lives 
lost, 19 April ; lord Lonsdale's colliery, near White- 
haven, 4 killed, 25 April ; Baxterley mine, near Ather- 
stone, Warwickshire, about 32 lives lost, 2 May ; Vic- 
toria colliery, Brantcliff, Morley, near Leeds, 7 killed, 1 
May ; Claycross, above 45 deaths, 7 Nov. 

1883. Explosions.— Wharncliffe colliery, near Barns- 
ley, 17 deaths, 19 Oct. ; Fair Lady pit, near Leycett, 
Newcastle-under-Lyme, 22 Oct. ; Moor-fields colliery, 
near Accrington, Lancashire, about 68 deaths, 7 Nov. 

1884. Explosions, &c— Gamant, Cwmamman, South 
Wales; rope broke; cage fell; 11 killed, 16 Jan.; 
Rhondda valley, Glamorganshire, explosion, about 11 
perished, Jan. ; Pochin colliery, near Tredegar, 14 
deaths, 8 Nov. 

1885. Explosions, &c. — Usworth, near Newcastle-on- 
Tyne ; about 42 deaths, 2 March ; Camphausen, near 
Saarbriick. about 140 perish, 17 March ; Dombrau, 
Ostrau, MOravia, about 41 deaths, 27 March ; Fenton 
colliery, near Stoke-on-Trent, 3 deaths, 7 April ; Hough- 
ton-le Spring, about 12 perish, 3 June ; Clifton Hall, near 
Pendlebury, Lancashire, about 177 perish, 9.30 a.m. 18 
June ; Burley, Apedale, N. Stafford, 9 killed, 20 June ; 
Mardy colliery, Pontypridd, S. Wales, 200 entombed, 81 
deaths, 23 Dec. (Explosions in Britain 16, deaths 322.) 

1886. Explosicns, &c. — Easton colliery, Bristo', 4 
killed, 19 Feb. ; Werfa old pit, Abernant, near Aberdare, 
3 killed, 27 March ; Woodend or Bedford colliery, near 
West Leigh, S.W. Lancashire, explosion, 38 deaths, 

13 Aug. ; Bedminster colliery, near Bristol, 10 killed, 
10 Sept. ; Braysdown colliery, near Radstock, 3 killed, 

14 Sept. ; Schalke, in Westphalia, 45 perish, 24 Sept. ; 
Pope and Pearson's colliery, Altofts, near Wakefield, 
22 deaths, 2 Oct. ; Taunton colliery near Ashby-de-la- 
Zouch, Mr. Lakin, the owner, and three others killed 
by choke-damp, 6 Oct. ; Albion colliery, near Ponty- 
pridd, four killed, Nov. ; Elemore colliery, Durham 
28 deaths, 2 Dec. ; Houghton Main colliery, near 
Barnsley, 10 men killed by fall of a cage, 30 Dec. 

1887. Explosions, &c. — Ynyshir colliery, Rhonddi*. 
valley, Wales, about 39 lives lost, 18 Feb. ; Mons 
colliery, Belgium, about 87 perish, 5 March ; Bulli 
(Sydney), 85 perish, 23 March ; Victoria colliery, 
Nanaimo, Vancouver Island, over 170 perish, 4 May; 
Udston colliery, near Glasgow, 73, perish, -28 May; 

v 2 



COAL. 



292 



COALITIONS. 



Gelsenkircliener, Prussia, above 60 perish, 8 June ; 
Walker, near Newcastle, 8 killed, 24 Oct. 

1888. St. Helen's colliery, Workington, about 30 lives 
lost, 19 April ; Aber colliery, Glamorgan, 5 lives lost, 
20 May ; Aveyron, France, 40 lives lost, 3 Nov. ; Dour, 
Belgium, 21 lives lost, 13 Nov. 

1889. Hyde colliery, Cheshire, 23 lives lost, 18 Jan. ; 
Brynnally colliery, near Wrexham, 20 lives lost, 13 
March. Explosion of fire-damp in Verpilleux mine, near 
St. Etienne, about 184 deaths, 3 July ; Shell colliery, 
N. Staffordshire, explosion, 3 deaths, 17 Aug. ; Peni- 
cuik colliery (Mauricewood pit), Midlothian, fire dis- 
covered, 2 men escaped, 63 reported to have perisV.ed, 
5 Sept. ; Mosstield colliery, Adderley Green, Longton, 
N. Staffordshire, 59 deaths, 16 Oct. ; Hebburn colliery, 
near Newcastle-on-Tyne, 6 deaths, 4 Nov. 

1890. Explosions, &c. — Glynn Pit, near Pontypool, 
5 deaths, 23 Jan. ; Llanerch colliery, near Abersychan, 
Monmouthshire, 176 deaths (relief subscribed nearly 
26,000?.), 30 April ; colliery near Decize, Nievre, 
France, about 44 deaths, 18 Feb. ; Morfa colliery, Tar- 
bach, Glamorganshire, 87 deaths, 10 March ; Hill Farm 
mine, Pennsylvania, 34 perish, 16 June; Pelissiermine, 
St. Etienne, S. France, about 109 lives lost, 29 July ; 
Mayback pit, near Wendel, 24 deaths, 15 Sept. 

1891. Explosions, &c— Sladderhill pits, Apedale, near 
Newcastle-under-Lyme, about 10 lives lost, 2 April ; 
Malago Vale, Bedminster, 10 deaths, 31 Aug. ; Aber- 
gwynii, Avon Valley, S. Wales, 7 men killed by accident 
to machinery, 30 Sept. ; St. Etienne, France, explosion 
through fire-damp, about 73 deaths, 6 Dec. 

1892. Explosions, &c. — Anderlues colliery, Mons, Bel- 
gium, about 153 killed, 11 March; Ravenswharf, near 
Dewsbury, 6 men drowned by flooding of a pit, 4 Aug. ; 
Yniscelyn colliery in Ystradgynlais, Brecon, derange- 
ment of machinery, 7 deaths, 24 Aug. ; Park Slip 
co'liery, Tondu, Aberkenfig-cefn, near Bridgend, S. 
Wales, outof 151 persons there were n6deaths, 26 Aug. ; 
Mr. Asquith, the home secretary, visited the place 
28 Aug. ; Agrappe colliery, Frameries, Belgium, 25 
deaths, 1 Sept. ; Bamfurlong, near Wigan, fire, 16 deaths, 

14 Dec. 

1893. Explosions, &c. — Kings, near Como, Colorado, 
27 deaths, 10 Jan. ; Pontypridd, Wales, accident, 7 men 
killed, 23 Jan. ; Fortschritt mine, Dux, Bohemia, about 
17 deaths, 24 Jan. ; near Recklingshausen, 18 deaths, 
1 Feb. ; fire at the Great Western colliery, Pontypridd, 
Rhondda valley, 61 deaths, 11 April ; Combs colliery, 
Thornhill, near Dewsbury, 139 deaths, 4 July; Dort- 
mund, Germany, firedamp, 50 deaths, reported 20 Aug. 

1894. Explosions, &c. — Disastrous explosions in Silesia 
(which see), 14 June, 1894, and 1895 ; explosion at the 
Albion colliery, 3 miles from Pontypridd, S. Wales, 
about 286 deaths, 23 June. 

1895. Explosions, &c— Colliery flooded at Andley, 
N. Staffordshire, 77 lives lost, 14 Jan. ; explosion (fire- 
damp) at Montceau-les-Mines, 33 lives lost, 4 Feb. ; 
Radstock, Somerset, 7 deaths, 6 Feb. ; Denny, near 
Stirling, 13 deaths, 26 April ; near Bochum, Germany, 
33 deaths, 25 July ; TyUlesley, near Manchester, Mr. 
Kay, managi r, and 4 others killed, 1 Oct. ; Blackwell, 
Derbyshire, 7 deaths, n Nov. 

1896. Explosions, &c, at Tylors Town colliery, S, 
Wall's, 57 deaths, 27 Jan. ; Braneepeth pit, CO. Durham, 
20 deaths, 13 April; Mieklelield colliery, near Leeds, 
66 deat lis, 30 April ; relit;!' fund, 50?. from the Queen., 
total over 20,000/. reported 6 Oct. ; at Bochebelle, near 
Alais, France, 25 deaths, 2 June; Neath colliery, Gla- 
morgau, 6 deaths, 4 Aug. ; gen. Blumenthal colliery, 
Westphalia, about 25 deaths, 19 Nov. ; colliery flooded 
at Abernant, S. Wales, 6 men drowned, 9 Dec. ; Reschitza 
colliery, Hungary, about 36 killed, reported, 20 Dec. 

1897. Explosion, Ac., at Broadoak, near Loughor, s, 

Wales, s deaths, s .Ian. ; 10 men killed by the fall of a 

cage at Qartli colliery, Glamorganshire, ii June. 

1898. Whitwick, Leicestershire, a "gob" tire, -; s 
deaths, [9 April; explosion, firedamp, near Mons., 
13 deaths, 15 May; Drumley pit, Ayr. 6 deaths, 9 Sept. 

1809. Explosions, &C, at St. Helens, tall of roof, 3 
deaths, 20 Feb.; Caledonia mine, Cape Breton, ,, 

deaths, i'> .11 ; Brandon colliery, Durham, 5 deaths, 

15 Aug.; Llest coalpit at Pontyrhyl, near Cardiff, 10 
deaths, 18 Aug. (due to naked lights); I'ouchard mine, 
near St. Etienne, chain broke, 16 deaths, 28 Aug. 

iqoo. Explosions, &c. Haydock colliery, s deaths, 
so June; No. c pit, near Kilmarnock, 6 deaths, 17 Au^. ; 
Gflenavon colliery, Glamorgan, Hooded, s deaths, 24 



Oct. ; Preston colliery, N. Shields, 3 deaths, 16 Nov. ; 
Fenelon pit, Aniche, Dep. du Nord, 16 deaths, 28 Nov. 

1901. Explosions, &c. — Beath colliery, Dunfermline, 

7 deaths from " white damp," 15 Feb. ; Orrell, near 
Wigan, 4 deaths, 10 April ; Crolt pit, Whitehaven col- 
liery, 4 deaths, 17 April ; at Wasmes, near Mons, 19 
deaths, 26 April ; Universal colliery, near Caerphilly, 
81 deaths, 24 May ; Talk-o'-th'-hill colliery, Stafford- 
shire, 4 deaths, 27 May ; Dayton, Ohio, about 30 
deaths, 27 May ; Donibristle, Fifeshire, 14 entombed, 

8 deaths, 26 Aug. [Mr. Andrew Carnegie gave 4 of the 
rescuers 100/. apiece, 2 Sept.] ; at Llanbradach colliery, 
S. Wales, 8 deaths, 10 Sept. 

1902. Explosions, &c. — Milfraen colliery, S. Wales, 3 
men killed by a cage tilting, 4 March ; Edge-green shaft, 
near Wigan, 9 killed, 6 April ; Fraterville colliery, Ten- 
nessee, estimated deaths over 200, 19 May ; Crow's Nest 
Pass, Ferme, British Columbia, about 150 deaths, 23 
May ; Dowlais, S. Wales, 8 deaths, 3 June ; Rolling 
Mill mine, Pennsylvania, 105 deaths, 10 July ; Mt. 
Kembla, New S. Wales, over 85 deaths, 31 July ; 
Abertysswg, S. Wales, 16 deaths, 3 Sept. ; Coleford, 
Forest of Dean, 4 deaths, 4 Sept. 3 saved, 9 Sept.; 
Tirpentwys, Pontypool, winding accident, 8 deaths, 1 
Oct. ; Fauldhouse* Linlithgow, fire, 4 deaths, 21 Oct. ; 
Donisthorpe cage accident, 2 deaths, 25 Oct. ; cage 
accident, Treharris, S. Wales, 5 deaths, n Nov.; Us 
pensk, Russia, fire, 58 deaths, about 27 Dec. 

1903. Explosion and tire, Hanna, Wyoming, 175 
deaths, 30 June. 

See also Wyoming, 1895, and Utah, 1900. 

See Mansion-house Funds. 

Coal Exchange, London, established by 47 Geo. 
III. c. 68 (1807). The present building (a most 
interesting structure) was erected by Mr. J. B. 
Buuning, and opened by prince Albert 30 Oct. 1849 

Coal-wiiippers' Board, to protect the men em- 
ployed in unloading coal-vessels from publicans, 
formed by an act of parliament in 1843, lasted 
till 1856, when the coakowners themselves esta- 
blished a whipping office. The use of steam ma- 
chinery in discharging cargoes has diminished the 
employment of coal-whippers. 

COAL DUES, on coal entering the port of I 
London for metage are mentioned in 1444. The j 
right of the Corporation to ^d. per chaldron was es- 
tablished in 159 1. The amount of the tax and the 
term of levying it have been frequently changed ji 
since 1694. In 1831, the tax was directed to ben 
levied on all coals entering London by water or j 
railways, to be regulated by weight and not byj: 
measure. The tax of 13d. per ton by the act of I 
1868 extended to 5 July, 1889. The receipts in. 
1885 amounted to 449,343/. Latterly the money 
was expended on extensive City improvements.! 
Much discussion ou the subject, 1887-9. 
An act for the abolition of these dues received the 
royal assent 9 July, 1S89. Provision was made for the' 
continuance of these dues another year to enable thej 
corporation to pay debts due for the Holborn Viaduct 
and various city improvements. They ceased 5 July, 
1890. Tax of is. per ton on exported coal, iS March, 
see Budget, 26 July, igoi. 

COALING STATIONS, for supplying shipsi 
of the navy and the mercantile marine, are estab-l 
lished by the British government at important 
parts of the empire. Many of these stations are; 
fortified, and in the event of war would be of the! 
first importance to the navy as points of refuge,! 
defence, and repair, as Aden, Hong Kong, Singa-; 
pore, St. Helena, Simon's Town, and other 
stations. 

COAL TAR, see Tar and Benzole. 

COALITIONS against France generally 

arose through England subsidising the great powers 
of the continent. See Treaties. 
Austria, Prussia and Great Britain .... 
Great Britain. Germany, Russia, Naples, Portugal, 
and Turkey, signed .... 22 June, 179 



79:- 



COALITION MINISTRIES. 



293 



CODES. 



Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Naples, 5 Aug. 1805 
Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Saxony, 6 Out. 1806 
England and Austria .... 6 April, 1809 
Russia and Prussia ; the treaty ratified at Kalisch 

17 March, 1813 

COALITION MINISTRIES, see Aberdeen, 

Grenville II, Felham, Portland, and Salisbury, III. 

COAST GUARD. In 1856, the raising and 
governing this body was transferred to the ad- 
miralty. A coast brigade of artillery was established 
in Nov. 1859. — Coast Volunteers, see under 
Navy of Em/land. The importance of electric coast 
communication in time of storms, &c, was much 
discussed in 1892. A royal commission on the 
subject met 18 June, 1892, see Lighthouses. Good 
results from electric communications, reported Oct. 
1892, sse Hydrophone. 

COASTING TRADE of Great Britain thrown 
open to all nations by 17 Vict. c. 5, 1854. 

COBALT, a rare mineral found among the veins 
of ores, or in the fissures of stone, at an early date, 
in the mines of Cornwall, where the workmen call 
it mundic. Kill. It was distinguished as a metal 
by Brandt, in 1733. 

COBDEN CLUB, instituted to spread and 
develop Cobden's principles; held first dinner, 
~W. E. Gladstone in the chair, 21 July, 1866. The 
statue of Richard Cobden, at Camden Town, was 
Inaugurated, 27 June, 1868. 12 out of 14 cabinet 
ministers were members July, 1880. 
At a meeting of the club, 12 May, 1890, earl Granville in 
the chair, an address was presented to Mr. T. B. 
Potter, founder and hon. secretary for 30 years (dies 
6 Nov. 1898) ; and Mr. W. B. Gladstone gave a dis- 
course on free trade. 
Increased activity of the club consequent on Mr. 
Chamberlain's fiscal proposals and campaign. 
Meetings organised under the auspices of the 
club, and literature disseminated in support of 
free trade June et seq 1903 

COBURG, see Saxe-Coburg. 

COCA, a powerful narcotic existing in the Ery- 
throxylon Coca, a South American plant known in 
1580; men taking a little of this are enabled to en- 
dure hard labour without any food for six or seven 
days and nights. Dr. Mantegazza's prize essay in 
German was published at Vienna in 1849. Cocaine, 
an anaesthetic obtained from this plant, is used in 
operations of the eye and mucous membranes. The 
habitual use of cocaine produces cocaism, which 
induces deterioration of the moral sense aud various 
nervous conditions. 

COCCEIANS, a small sect founded by John 
Cocceius, of Bremen, in the seventeenth century. 
He held, amongst other opinions, that of a visible 
reign of Christ in this world, after a general con- 
version of the Jews and all other people to the 
Christian faith. He died in 1665. 

COCHEREL (near Evreux, N. W. France). 
Here Bertrand du Guesclin defeated the king of 
Navarre, and took prisoner the captal de Buch, lb 
May, 1364. 

COCHIN (India), held by the Portuguese, 1503 ; 
by the Dutch, 1663 ; by Hyder Ali, 1776 ; taken by 
the British, 1796 ; ceded to them, 1814. 

COCHIN CHINA, previously province of 
Annam, was acquired by the French in 1861-62, 
and their sovereignty recognized by treaty, 25 Aug. 
1884; by China, 9 June, 1885. Population, 1885, 
I ,79 2 ,933- Capital, Saigon; population, 1895, 
17,235. Lieut.-gov. M. Ducos (1895) ; M. Pi- 
canon, iqoo. See Indo- China. 



COCHINEAL INSECT (Coccus cacti), de- 
riving its colour from feeding on the cactus, became 
known to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of 
Mexico in 1518. Cochineal was brought to Europe 
about 1523, but was not known in Italy in 1548, 
although the art of dyeing then flourished there. 
In 1858 it was cultivated successfully in Teneriffe, 
the vines having failed through disease. 260,000 lbs. 
of cochineal were imported into England in 1830; 
1,081,776 lbs. in 1845; 2,360,000 lbs. in 1850; 
3,034,976 lbs. in 1859; 47,790 cwt. in 1870; and 
32,094 cwt. in 1877 ; 30,017 cwt. in 1881 ; 21,440 
cwt. in 1883; 10,089 cwt. in 1887; 7,808 cwt. 
in 1890; 4,471 cwt. in 1893; 5,697 cwt. in 1896 ; 
3,823 cwt. in 1899. The use of cochineal has been 
much replaced by the coal tar colours. Duty 
repealed 1845. 

COCKER' S ARITHMETIC • Edward Cocker, 
an eminent penman, born 1631, died 1675, compiled 
a book which first appeared in 1677, edited by John 
Hawkins. 

COCKERTON CASE, see under Education, 
20 Dec, 1900. 

COCK-FIGHTING, practised by the Greeks, 
was brought by the Remans into England. "William 
Fitz-Stephen, in the reign of Henry II., describes 
cock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on Shrove- 
Tue?-day. It was prohibited by Edward III. 1365 ; 
by Henry VIII. ; and by Cromwell, 1653, and 
latterly in 1849. Part of the site of Drury-lane 
theatre was a cock-pit in the reign of James I. ; and 
the Cock-pit at Whitehall was erected by Charles II. 
Formerly there was a Cock-pit-ltoyal in St. James's 
Park; but the governors of Christ's Hospital would 
not renew the lease for the building. Cock-fighting 
is now forbidden by law. On 22 April, 1865, 34 
persons were fined at Marlborough-street police- 
office, for being present at a cock-fight. It was 
popular in New York, 1873. 

COCK-LANE GHOST, an imposition prac- 
tised by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter, 
by means of a female ventriloquist, during 1 760 and 
1 761, at No. 33, Cock-lane, London, was at length 
detected, and the parents were condemned to the 
pillory and imprisonment, 10 July, 1762. 

COCOA or CACAO, the kernel or seed of Theo- 
broma cacao (Linn.), was introduced into this- 
country shortly after the discovery of Mexico, where 
it is an article of diet. From cocoa is produced 
chocolate. The cocoa imported into the United 
Kingdom, chiefly from the British West Indies and 
Guiana, was in 1849, 1,989,477 lbs.; in 1855, 
7,343,458 lbs.; in 1861, 9,080,288 lbs.; in 1866, 
10,308,298 lbs.; in 1870, 14,793,950 lbs. ; in 1876, 
20,443,591 lbs. ; in 1879, 26,155,788 lbs. ; in 1887, 
27,352,568 lbs. ; in 1890, 28,112,210 lbs ; in 1893, 
32,982,005 lbs.; in 1896, 38,281,803 lbs.; in 1898, 
42,833,993 lbs. : in 1899, 43,473,241 lbs. ; in 1900, 
52,647,318 lbs.; 1901, 51,798,802 lbs. 

COCOA-NUT TREE (Cocos nucifera, Linn.), 
supplies the Indians with almost all they need, as 
bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, 
honey, sugar, needles, clothes, thread, cups, spoons, 
basins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails, cord- 
age, nails, covering for their houses, &c. Hay. 
In Sept. 1829, Mr. Soames patented his mode of 
procuring stearine and elaine from cocoa-nut oil. 
It is said that 32 tons of candles have been made 
in a month from these materials at the Belmont 
works, Lambeth. 

CODES, see laws. Alfrenus Varus, the civilian, 
first collected the Roman laws about 66 B.C. ; and 



CODEX. 



294 



COIN. 



bervius Sulpichis, the civilian, embodied them 
about 53 B.C. The Gregorian and Hermoginian 
codes were published a.d. 290 ; the Theodosian 
code commenced by order of Theodosius II. in 
429 ; and published for the eastern empire in 438. 
In 447 he transmitted to Valentinian his new con- 
stitution spromulgated as the law of the west in 
448. The celebrated code of the emperor Justinian 
in 529 — a digest from this last made in 533 ; see 
Basilica. Alfred's code, a selection from existing 
laws, is the foundation of the common law of 
England, 887. — The Code Napoleon, the civil code 
of France, was promulgated from 1803 to 1810. 
The emperor considered it his most enduring monu- 
ment. It was prepared under his supervision by 
the most eminent jurists, from the 400 systems 
previously existing, and has been adopted by other 
countries. For Code telegrams, see Telegraphs. 
A conference of jurists and publicists to consider 

an international code held at Brussels, July, Aug. 1874 
The new German civil code, after much preparation, 

was passed by the parliament . . 1 July, 1896 

CODEX, see under Bible, Alexandrian, &c. 

CODFISH, see Holland, 1347. 

COD-LIVER OIL was recommended as a 
remedy for chronic rheumatism by Dr. Percival in 
1782, for diseases of the lungs about 1833, and by 
professor Hughes Bennett in 1841. De Jongh's 
treatise on cod-liver oil was published in Latin, 
1844; in English, 1849. 

COERCION BILLS, see Ireland, 1881 and 
18S7. 

CCEUR DE LION or the Lion-Hearted, 
a surname given to llichard I. of England, on ac- 
count of his courage, about 1192 ; and also to Louis 
VIII. of France, who signalised himself in the cru- 
sades, and in his wars against England, about 1223. 

COFFEE. The tree was conveyed from Mocha 
in Arabia to Holland about 1616; and earned to 
the West Indies in 1726. First cultivated at Suri- 
nam by the Dutch, 1718. The culture was encour- 
aged in the plantations about 1 732, and the British 
and French colonies now grow coffee abundantly. 
Its use as a beverage is traced to the Persians. It 
came into great repute in Arabia Felix, about 1454; 
and passed thence into Egypt and Syria, and thence 
(in 151 j) to Constantinople, where a coffee-house 
was opened in 1551. M. Thevenot, the traveller, 
first brought it to France, 1662. Chambers. See 
Cafeine. 

Coffee brought into England by Mr. Nathaniel 
Canopus, a Cretan, who made it his common 
beverage at Balliol college, Oxford. Anderson . 1641 
The first coffee-house in England was kept by a 

•Jew. named Jacobs, in Oxford . . . 1650 

Mr. Edwards, an English Turkey merchant, brought 
home with him Pasqua Rosee, a Greek servant, 
who opened tho first coffee-house in London, in 

George yard, Lombard-streot 1652 

Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened 

the lirst house in thai country. Anderson. 
Rainbow roller imihr, Triiiplc bar, represented as a 
nuisance 1657 

Coffee-houses suppressed by proclamation, 1675; 
the order revoked on petition of the traders . . 1676 

Licences to sell coffee abolished .... 1869 
Duty on eoll'ee reduced lo 1 \ii. Hie pound from 

•• May, 1872 
The quantity of coltee Imported into these realms 

in 1852, 54,935,510 lbs. ; in i860, 82,767,746 lbs. ; 

in 1866, 127,044, 810 lbs. ; in 1873, 183,397,576 lbs. ; 

in 1876, 1,361,642 OWtS, ; in 1879, 1, 609,386 OWtS. ; 

in 1883, 1,407,134 cwts. ; in 1887, 1,045,698 cwts. ; 

in 1890, 864,454 cwts.; in 1896, 713,468 cwts.; 

in 1898, 922,252 cwts. ; in 1899,974,991 cwts. ; in 

1000, 759,056 cwts. ; inn, os; : ..j'>., CWCS. 



Coffee Palaces, founded by Dr. Barnardo to replace 
public-houses for working-men. The " Edinburgh 
Castle," Limehouse, the first opened, 1873 ; the 

" Dublin Castle," Mile End 1876 

Coffee Taverns, many opened in London . 1 877-1889 
Coffee Public-house National Society, formed April, 

1879 ; opened a house at Shadwell . 28 June, 1879 
Coffee disease prevalent in Ceylon, &c. autumn, 1882 
M. Raoul reports the destructive, nearly uni- 
versal ravages of Hemilia Vastatrix . . June, 1888 

COFFERER of the Household, formerly 

an officer of state, and a member of the privy council, 
who had special charge of the other officers of the 
household. Sir Henry Cocks was cofferer to queen 
Elizabeth. In 1782 the office was suppressed. 

COFFINS. Athenian heroes were buried in 
coffins of cedar; owing to its aromatic and incor- 
ruptible qualities. Thucydides. Coffins of marble 
and stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is 
said to have been buried in one of gold; and glass 
coffins have been found in England. Gough. Patent 
coffins were invented in 1796; air-tight metallic 
coffins advertised at Birmingham in 1861. 

COIF. The Serjeant's coif was introduced 
before 1259, to hide the tonsure of such clergy- 
men as chose to remain advocates in the secular 
courts, notwithstanding their prohibition by canon. 
Blacks/one. The coif was at first a thin linen 
cover gathered together in the form of a skull 
or helmet, the material being afterwards changed 
into white silk, and the form eventually into the 
black patch at the top of the forensic wig, which 
is now the distinguishing mark of the degree of 
serjeant-at-law. Foss's Lives of the Judges. 

COIMBRA was made the capital of Portugal 
by Alfonso, the first king, 1139, and remained so 
for about 250 years; many of the early kings of 
Portugal are interred here. The only Portuguese 
university was transferred from Lisbon, where it 
was originally established J 288, to Coimbra in 
1308; finally settled in 1527. In a convent here, 
Alfonso IV. caused Inez de Castro, at first mistress 
and afterwards wife of his son Pedro, to be cruelly 
murdered in 1355. Fatal riots against the rates 
mid-March, 1903. Population, 13,369. 

COIN. Homer speaks of brass money, 1184 
B.C. The invention of coin is ascribed to the 
Lydians, whose money was of gold and silver. 
Both were coined by Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, about 
862 B.C. Money was coined at Rome under Servius 
Tullius, about 573 B.C. The most ancient known 
coins are Macedonian of the 5th century B.C. Brass 
money only was in use at Rome previously to 269 
B.C. (when Fabius Pietor coined silver). Gold was 
coined 206 B.C. Iron money was used in Sparta, 
and iron and tin in Britain. Dufresnoy. In the 
earlier days of Rome the heads were those of deities, 
or of those who had received divine honours. 
J alius Caesar first obtained permission of the senate 
to place his portrait on the coins, and the example 
was soon followed. The Britons and Saxons coined 
silver. — Rev. Roger finding's "Annals of the Coin- 
age of Great Britain," published 1817-40. — The 
gold and silver coinage in the world is about 
250,000,0002. silver, and 1 $0,000,000/. gold. Times, 
25 June, 1852. See Gold, Silver, Copper and Guineas, 
and other coins under names. An international 
conference relative to a universal system of coinage 
met at Paris in 1867; and a royal commission was 
appointed in London, Feb. 1S68. £ for libra, 
Roman pound of 12 ounces; .1. for solidi (Anglo- 
Saxon still or stilling) ; d. for denarii, the Romau 
penny. 



COIN. 



295 



COIN. 



The first coinage was at Camalodununi, or Col- 
chester. 
Coin was made sterling in 1216, before which time 
rents were mostly paid in kind, and money was 
found only in the coffers of the barons. Stow. 
Coinage reformed by Edward VI. . . . 1547-53 

Queen Elizabeth caused the base coin to be recalled 

and genuine issued 1560 

During the reigns of the Stuarts the coinage was 
greatly debased by clipping, &c. A commission 
(Charles Montague, aft. earl of Halifax, lord 
Somers, sir Isaac Newton, and John Locke) was 
appointed by William III. to reform the coinage ; 
an act was passed, withdrawing the debased 
coin from circulation, and 1,200,000?. was raised 
by window-tax duty to defray the expense . 1695-96 
Broad-pieces called in, and re-coined into guineas . 1732 
The gold-coin brought into the Mint by proclama- 
tion, amounted to about 15,563,593?. ; the expense 
of collecting, melting, and recoining it, was 

754.019^ 1773-6 

Act for weighing gold coin passed . . 13 June, 1774 
The coin of the realm valued at about 12,000,000?. 
in 1711. Davenant. At 16,000,000?. in 1762. An- 
derson. It was 20,000,000?. in 1786. Chalmers. 
37,000,000?. in 1800. Phillips. 

New silver coinage 1816 

English and Irish money assimilated . . 1 Jan. 1826 
The gold is 28,000,000?., and the rest of the metallic 

currency is 13,000,000?. Duke of Wellington . 1830 
Metallic currency calculated to reach 45,000,000?. . 1840 
Estimated as approaching, in gold and silver, 
60,000,000?. ........ 1853 

Silver coined in London, value 11,108,265?. 15s. 1816-40 

Ditto, value 2,440,614? 1837-47 

Light gold called in 1842 

Napier's coin-weighing machine at the bank of 

England constructed 1844 

The law respecting coinage offences consolidated . 1861 

The first gold coins on certain record, struck 42 

Hen. III. 1257 

Gold florin first struck, Edw. III. (Camden) . . 1337 
He introduced gold 6s. pieces, and nobles of 6s. Sd. 
(hence the lawyer's fee), afterwards half and 

quarter nobles 1344 

Edw. IV. coined angels with a figure of Michael and 
the dragon, the original of George and the dragon 1465 

Sovereigns first minted 1489 

Shillings first coined (Dr. Kelly) . . 1503 or 1504 

Crowns and half-crowns coined 1553 

Irish shillings struck . . . . . . 1560 

Milled shilling of Elizabeth 1562 

First large copper coinage, putting an end to the 
circulation of private leaden pieces, &c. . . 1620 

Modern milling introduced 1631 

Halfpence and farthings 1665 

Copper coined by government 1672 

Guineas (value 20s.), 2-guinea and 5-guinea pieces, 1663-64 

Quarter-guinea coined, 3 Geo. 1 1716 

Two-penny copper pieces 1797 

Gold 7s. -pieces authorised . . .29 Nov. ,, 
Sovereigns, new coinage, St. George and dragon, de- 
signed by Pistrucci 1817 

Four-penny pieces (see Groat) coined . . 1836-56 
Three-penny pieces : 3,299,208 coined . . . . 1861 

Half-farthings coined 1843 

Silver florin (2s.) 1849 

No crowns (1848-78) or half-crowns coined . 1848-73 
Bronze coinage issued, 1 Dec, i860 ; a new penny 

issued in 1895 

Coinage act passed, 4 April, 1870 ; amended 

5 Aug. 1 891 
St. George and dragon sovereigns re-issued 14 Jan. 1871 
Half-crowns again coined; recommended by bankers 1874 
New die for gold coin finished . . March, 1882 
The bankers complain of great loss, by receiving 

light gold coins 1882-3 

See Budget, 1884. 
Sale of Mr. Whittall's great collection of Greek and 

other coins', 1,668 lots realized 3,951?. . July, 1884 
Proclamation against importation of foreign bronze 
coins [to be received with slight reduction at 
post offices up to May 31] . . .25 March, 1887 
Proclamation respecting changes in coinage, viz., 
in pieces value of 5?., 2 ?., i?., 10s., 5s., 2s. 6d., is., 
is., and 6d. ; also Maundy monies value of ^d., 3d., 
■2d., & id. New coin ordered, double florin 4s: ; 



new effigy and designs 13 May ; new coinage issued 

20 June, 1887 

The importation of imitation coins was prohibited 
by act passed 26 Aug. 1889 

Mr. Goschen introduces a bill for the withdrawal of 
light gold coin issued before June, 1837, and the 
substitution of coin of full weight provisionally, 
at the expense of the mint, July ; passed 30 Aug. ,, 
[The offer expired 13 Jan., extended to 31 March, 1890.] 

The coinage committee (sir John Lubbock, sir Frede- 
rick Leighton, the deputy-master of the mint, and 
others) recommends that new designs by various 
artists be adopted for the sovereign and other 
coins, gold and silver ; report presented, March, 1892 

Permission to Victoria, Australia, to coin silver, 
granted with conditions . . Sept. „ 

Proclamation for the issue of the new coinage, 
30 Jan. London Gazette ... 14 Feb. 1893 
[Designs : obverse of all coins, the queen's head as 

modelled by Mr. Brock ; reverse of 5?., 2?., 1?. , 10s., 

5s., St. George and the dragon, by Pistrucci ; 2s. 6d. 

by Mr. Brock ; 2s. and is. by Mr. Poyuter, 6d. and 

3d. as at present.] 

New Coinage Act passed . . .28 March, ,, 

Proclamation for the issue of the new silver coin- 
age, 14 Jan., London Gazette, 1902. 

AMOUNT OF MONEY COINED. 

Elizabeth £5,832,000 

James 1 2,500,000 

Charles I. 10,500,000 

Cromwell 1,000,000 

Charles II 7,524,100 

James II 3,740,000 

William III 10,511,900 

Anne ... ..... 2,691,626 

George I. .... 8,725,920 

George II. . . 11,966,576 

George III gold . 74,501,586 

George IV 41,782,815 

William IV 10,827,603 

[The quantity of gold that passed through the Mint, 
since the accession of queen Elizabeth in 1558, to the 
beginning of 1840, is 3,353,561 pounds weight, troy. 
Of this, nearly one-half was coined in the reign of 
George III., namely, 1,593,078 pounds weight, troy.] 
Victoria, from 1837 to 1848, gold, 29,886,457?. ; weight, 
746,452 lbs. ; silver, 2,440,614?. ; copper, 43,743?. 
1848-1852, gold, silver, and copper, 19,838,377?. 
Gold coined in 1853 (when Australian gold came in), 
12,664,125?. ; in 1854, 4,354,201?. ; in 1855, 9,245.264?. ; 
Australian colonies authorized to coin gold, 1855 ; 
in 1856, 6,476,060?. 
Coined in 1859, 1,547,603 sovereigns ; 2,203,813 half-sov. 
Coined from 1 July, 1854, to 31 Dec. i860: gold, 

27,632,039?. ; silver, 2,432,116?. 
Coined in 1861 : gold, 8,190,170?.; silver, 209,484?.; 

copper (bronze), 273,578?. 13s. 4d. 
Coined in 1862: gold, 7,836,413?.; silver, 148,518?.; 

copper, 352,800?. 
Coined in 1866 : gold, 5,076,676?. ; silver, 493,416?. ; 

copper, 50,624?. 
Coined in 1869 : gold, 7,372,204?. ; silver, 76,428?. ; 

copper, 20,832?. 
Coined in 187^ G ess than l8 7 2 ) : S old > sovereigns, 
2,382,835; half-sovereigns, 1,001,733?. ; silver, (number 
ofpieces) florins, 5,965,740; is., 6,486,480; 6d., 4,395,600; 
4 d., 4158; 3d., 4,059,528; id., 7920. Copper: id., 
8,494,080 ; Jd.. 3.584.000 ; \d., 3,215,600. 
Coined in 1876 (work stopped five months through break- 
down of machinery), gold, sovereigns, 3,318,705?. ; half- 
sovereigns, 1,401,943?. ios. ; silver, half-crowns, 
79,200?. ; florins, 60,786?. 
In 1877, 30,131, 130 pieces; value 1,567,936?. 15s. 6£d. 
Value of coinage in ten years (1867-76). Gold, 46,802,517?.; 

silver, 5,642,406?.; bronze, 401,309?. 
1879: Gold, sovereigns, 17,525; half-sovereigns 35,050; 
total value, 35,050?. 3s. od. Silver, half-crowns, 901,296 ; 
florins, 1,354,320 ; shillings, 3,611,520 ; sixpences, 
3,326,400 ; fourpences, 4,158 ; threepences, 2,966,568 ; 
twopences, 4,752 ; pence, 7,920 ; total value, 549,054?. 
Bronze : Pence, 7,848,964 ; halfpence, 3,584,000 ; far- 
things, 4,300,800 ; total value, 44,650?. 13s. 4d. 
Net loss to the Mint in 1878, 51,543'- ■ in l8 79. 27,955?. 
1880: Gold, 4,150,052?. Silver, 761,508?. Copper, 

19,264?. : total, 4,930,824?. 
1883 : Gold, 1,403,713?. Silver, 1,274,328?. Copper, 
33,450?. ; total, 2,711,491?. 



COINAGE. 



296 



COLLEGES. 



l. i. i. 

1887 : Gold, 1^08,686 Silver, 861,498 Copper, 45,173 

1889 : Gold, 7,500,700 Silver, 2,178,888 Bronze, 66,950 

1890 : Gold, 7,680,156 Silver, 1,694,688 Bronze, 90,285 

1891 : Gold, 6,723,648 Silver, 1,000,548 Bronze, 89,535 
1892: Gold, 13,907,840 Silver, 849,932 Bronze, 58,556 
1893: Gold, 9,266,251 Silver, 1,008,971 Bronze, 46,664 
1894: Gold, 5,678,100 Silver, 942,^56 Bronze, 33,485 
1895: Gold, 3,810,636 Silver, 1,196,168 Bronze, 40,995 
1896: Gold, 4,984,800 Silver, 1,235' 161 Bronze, 122,860 
1897 : Gold. 1,820,497 Silver, 982,001 Bronze, 107,230 
1898: Gold, 5,780,446 Silver, 1,312,306 Bronze, 84,555 
1899: Gold, 9,011,011 Silver, 1,616,246 Bronze, 139,065 
1900: Gold, 13,103,793 Silver, 2,013,381 Bronze, 168,295 
1991: Gold, 2,599,000 Silver, 914,201 Bronze, 120,280 
1002 : Gild, 6,908,000 Silver, 937,202 Bronze, 148,399 

COINAGE. Originally the metal was placed 
between two steel dies, and struck by a hammer. 
In 1553, a mill, invented by Antoine Brucher, in- 
troduced into England, 1562. An engine invented 
by Balancier, 1617. Great improvements effected 
by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, 1788. The erection 
of the Mint machinery, London, began 1811. The 
machinery was re-organised in 1869. 

COLCHESTER (Essex), Camulodunum, a 
Roman station, obtained its first charter from 
Richard I., 1189. Its sixteen churches and all its 
buildings sustained great damage at the ten weeks' 
siege, June-Aug. 1648. Two of its defenders, sir 
George Lisle and sir Charles Lucas, were tried and 
shot after surrendering. The baize manufacture was 
established here, 1660. Anderson. The railway to 
London was opened in 1843. A great fire; several 
business establishments destroyed, about 25,000^. 
damage, 18 Aug. 1882. Foundation stone of a 
new town hall laid by the duke of Cambridge, 31 
Oct., 1898 ; opened by lord Rosebery, who was pre- 
sented with the freedom of the city, 15 May, 1902. 
Treasure trove of 10.000 silver groats discovered, 
early July, 1902. Population in 1881, 28,374 ; 
1891. 34.559; 1901, 3?,3 2 3- See Earthquakes, 
22 April, 1884. 

COLCHIS, N.W. Asia, now Mingrelia. See 
Argonautic Expedition . 

COLD. On 3 Jan. 1854, the thermometer in 
London marked 8° below zero, Fahrenheit ; on 25 
Dec. i860, it fell (on the grass) at Nottingham, to 
13-8° Fahr. Mr. Lowe. From 23 to 30 Dec. the 
cold was excessive. On 4 Jan. 1867, the thermometer 
stood at 3° below zero at Hammersmith and Hornsey, 
near London ; on 7 Jan., at 55 above. 

Very cold Nov. 1878— May 1879, and Nov. 1879— Feb. 
1880. 

The December of 1879 said to be the coldest since 1796. 

Temperature said to have been on 19 Jan. 13° Fahr. at 
Stepney, London, 1S81; Cambridge, 4 Fahr.; Oxford, 
9° Fahr. ; London, 16 Fahr. 21 Dec. 1890. 

The summer of tS88 exceptionally eold in Europe; 

I- Ion, 11 July, temperature from 42-8° to 55-7° (Jan. 

1, 1877, from 49 - 3° to 54 "o" Fahr.)— G. ■!. Symons. 

Very eold throughout the continent ; the Danube, Kibe, 
Rhine, Seine and oilier rivers frozen; heavy falls of 
snow, Jan. 1891. 

Temperature in I Ion, night, 17-18 Feb. 1892, 17-5° 

Fahr. ; 16 fahr. 26 Dec. 1892 ; is'S" 14 Feb., 1902. 

Whilst liquefying gases, at the Royal institution, pro- 
fessor Dewar obtained the temperature of zi 1 Cent., 
June, 1884. The liquefaction of carbonic acid was 
obtained al t8o° Cent. ; oxygen -184 Cent. ; air 
— io2°t'cnt. ; nitrogen i.ti'i'mi. He stated the zero 
of absolute temperature tobeaboul 273° Cent. June, 

188s. He liipielled hydro-en al .-.,,, Cent. 10 May, 1898. 
and solidified il al 16 Cent, absolute scale, reported 
Jan. 1900. 
See Air, Frosts, Ice, Cong* lation, Regi lotion and Provisions. 

COLDINGIIAM, near lierwick, is celebrated 
for the heroism of its nuns, who, on the attack of 



the Danes, to disfigure themselves, cut off their 
noses and lips. The Danes burnt them all, with the- 
abbess Ebba, in their monastery, 870. 

COLDSTEEAM GUAEDS. General Monk, 
before marching from Scotland into England to 
restore Charles II. , raised this regiment at Cold- 
stream, at the confluence of the Leet and Tweed, 
1660. For its services in suppressing Venner's- 
insurrection in 1661, it was not disbanded, but 
constituted the 2nd regiment of foot guards. Col. 
Ross-of-Bladensburu's " History of the Coldstream 
Guards, published Dec. 1896. 

COLENSO CONTEOVEESY, see Church 

of England, 1862-8. 

COLEY'S FLUID, a fluid obtained by the 
culture of the bacilli of erysipelas-, streptococci, and 
staphylococci, used in the treatment of cancer. 

COLIN, see Kolin. 

COLISEUM or COLOSSEUJI, at Rome, aid 
elliptical amphitheatre, of which the external dia- 
meter is 1641 Italian feet, supposed to have beery 
able to contain 80,000 spectators of the fights with 
wild beasts, and other sports in the arena. It was 
erected between 75 (some say 77) and 80, by the 
emperors Vespasian and Titus, at an expense suffi- 
cient to have built a metropolis. Its remains are very 
imposing. Excavations have been made since 1874. 

COLLAE, a very ancient ornament. The 
Roman hero Titus Manlius slew a gigantic Gaul in 
single combat, and put his torques (twisted chain or 
collar) on his own neck, and was hence surnamed 
Torquatus, 361 B.C. A collar is part of the ensigns, 
of the order of knighthood. That of the order of the 
garter is described, and its wearing enjoined, in the- 
statutes of Henry VIII. , 24 April, 1522 ; but a collar 
had been previously worn. Ashmole. The collar 
of SS. was adopted by Henry IV., and became 1*. 
Lancastrian badge ; some consider the letters stand 
for " souveraigne," in reference to his claim to the- 
crown. Some writers consider SS. to be in honour 
of St. Simplicius, a martyr. The order of the Collar 
or Necklace (or Annonciada) was instituted by 
Amadeus VI. of Savoy, about 1360. 

COLLECTIVISTS, a name adopted by some- 
socialists, who opened their fourth congress at 
Calais, 13 Oct., 1890. Collectivism is a name given 
to a scheme for reconstituting society, by union of 
individuals together for mutual benefit, in 1894. 

COLLECTS, short prayers, very ancient, intro- 
duced into the Roman service by pope Gelasius, 
about 493, and into the English liturgy in 1548. 
The king of England coming into Normandy, ap- 
pointed a collect for the relief of the Holy Land, 
1 166. ll< (j> in. 

COLLEGES, from the Latin collegium, as- 
semblages of persons for sacred, civil, literary or 
scientific purposes. University education preceded 
the erection of colleges, which were founda- 
tions to relieve the students from the expense of 
living at lodging-houses and at inns. Collegiate- 
or academic degrees are said to have been first 
conferred at the university of Paris, 1 140 ; but some- 
authorities say not before 1215. In England, it is- 
contended that the date is much higher, and some- 
hold that Bede obtained a degree formally at Cam- 
bridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford, and that they 
were (he first doctors of these universities; see Cam- 
bridge, Oxford, Aberdeen, Queen's Colleges. Heralds, 
Working Men's Colleges, Preceptors, &c. Some- 
grammar-schools are termed colleges. 



COLLIEEY ACCIDENTS. 



297 



COLOMBIA. 



Birmingham, Queen's College 
Cheshunt College .... 
City of London . . . . 

Doctors' Commons, civil law 
Dulwich College .... 

Eton College 

Firth College, Sheffield . 
Glasgow College, now University 
Gresham College .... 
Haileybury, or East India College . 
Highbury College .... 

Highgate 

King's College, London 

Maynooth College .... 

Military College, Sandhurst 

Music, Royal College of ; see Music. 

Naval College, Osborne 

Naval College, Portsmouth 

New College, St. John's Wood 

Owens College, Manchester 

Physicians, London 

Physicians, Lublin . . . . 

Physicians, Edinburgh . 

St. Andrews, Scotland 

Sion College, incorporated . 

Stonyhurst, Lancashire (Jesuit) 

Surgeons, London . . . . 

Surgeons, re-incorporated . 

Surgeons, Dublin . . . . 

Surgeons. Edinburgh (new) . 

Trinity College, Dublin . 

University College. London 

University, Sheffield 

"Winchester College 



A.l>. 
1853 
1792 



1451 
158l 



1806 ; closed 1858 

. 1826 

. • 1564 



1705 
1799 
1883 
1903 
1722 
1850 
1870 
151S 
1667 
1681 
1410 
1630 
1794 
1745 
1800 
1786 
1803 

1591 
1826 
1903 
1387 



College de France, the name given about 1793 to the 
College Royal, which in "the 16th century was 
formed by the incorporation of the "king's 
readers " or professors, and settled at Paris, in- 
dependently of the universities. The college was 
much favoured by the Directory and Napoleon I. 
It is supported by the state, and the lectures, by 
eminent men, are free. 

COLLIEEY ACCIDENTS, see under Coal. 

COLLISIONS, see Seas, and Railways. 

COLLODION, a film obtained from the solu- 
tion of gun-cotton in ether. The iodised collodion 
extensive^ employed in photograph}', was invented 
by Mr. F. Scott Archer, and announced in the 
"Chemist," in March, 1851. On the premature 
death of himself and wife, a pension of 50/. per 
annum was granted by government to his three 
orphan children. 

COLLYEIDIANS, Arab heretics who offered 
eoUyrides, little cakes, to the Virgin Mary as a goddess 
in the 4th century. 

COLMAE, "W. Germany ; an imperial city 
13th century ; taken by the Swedes, 1632 ; by 
Louis XIV. of Fiance, who destroyed the fortifica- 
tions, 1673 ; ceded to France, 1697 ; with Alsace, 
restored to Germany, 187 1. 

COLNEY HATCH, Middlesex. County 
lunatic asylum here erected, 1851, see Fires, 27 
Jan. 1903." 

COLOGNE {Colonia Agrippind), on the Rhine, 
the site of a colony founded by the empress Agrip- 
pina, about 50; an imperial town, 957; a member 
of the Hanseatic league, 1260. Many ecclesiastical 
councils held here, 782-1536. The Jews were ex- 
pelled from it in 1485, and the Protestants in 1618, 
and it then fell into decay. Cologne was taken by 
the French under Jourdan, Oct. 1794. The arch- 
bishopric secularised, 1801 ; assigned to Prussia, 
1814. Population in 1885, 161,401 ; in 1895, 
321,564; 1900, 372,229. 

The cathedral, termed dom (containing many sup- 
posed relics, such as the heads of the magi or three 



kings, bones of the 11,000 virgins, <fec.) founded 
by abp. Conrad von Hochstade or Hochstettin ; 
architect Gerhard von Riehl or Rile . .15 Aug. 1248, 

Building intermittent ; suspended .... 1509 

Great collections made for resuming it by Prussia 

1814 et seq. 

Repairs completed : new buildings founded 

4 Sept. 1842: 

The body of the cathedral opened in the presence of 
the king, 600th anniversary of the foundation 

15 Aug. 1848 

International industrial exhibition opened by the 
crown prince 2 June. 1865 

Dispute between the king and the chapter respect- 
ing the electing an archbishop, settled ; the pope 
appoints Melchers Jan 1866 

Congressof Old Catholics meet (iv/uc7i. sec) 20, 22 Sept. 1872 

Archbishop Melchers arrested . . 30 March, 1874 

A colossal statue of Frederick-William III., 22 feet 
high, with pedestrian figures at the base (Blucher, 
Humboldt, and others), the work of Blaser and 
Calendrelli, subscribed for by Rhinelanders ; un- 
veiled by the emperor William I. . 26 Sept. 1878. 

The cathedral solemnly opened by the emperor and 
other German sovereigns, 15 Oct. 1880. For the 
new bell see Bells, 1887. 

A statue of the emperor William I. unveiled by the 
emperor William II 18 June, 1897 

Destructive tornado .... 7 Aug. 1898 

COLOMBIA, a republic of S. America, formed 
of states which declared their independence of 
Spain, 5 July, 1811. A long war ensued. Esti- 
mated population of the present state, in 1888, 
4,000,000 ; 1895, abt. 5,000,000. Capital, Bogota. 

Union of New Grenada and Venezuela . 17 Dec. i8tc> 
The royalists defeated at Carabobo . 24 June, 1821 
Bolivar named dictator .... 10 Feb. 1824 
Alliance between Colombia and Mexico 30 June ,, 
Independence of Colombia recognised . ... 1825 
Alliance with Guatemala .... March, ,, 
Congress at Lima names Bolivar president, Aug. ; 

dictator 23 Nov. 1826 

Padilla's insurrection .... 9 April, 1828 
Conspiracy of Santander against Bolivar 25 Sept. ,, 
Venezuela separates from Grenada . . Nov. 1829. 
Bolivar resigns, 4 April ; dies ... 17 Dec. 1830 

Santander dies 26 May, 1840 

The republic now named Colombia instead of New 

Grenada ; president, general E. Salgar . . . 1871 
Manuel Murillo Toro, president . . 1 April, 1872 
Santiago Perez, president . . . .1 April, 1874 
Aquileo Parra, president . . . 1 April, 1876 

General Trujillo, president, proclaimed, 1 April, 1878 
General R. Nunez, president, proclaimed, 1 April, 1880 
President Zyalclua died .... Dec. 1882 
T. E. Otalora, president . . . . 1 April, 1883 
Rafael Nunez elected president Sept. 1S83 ; again 

7 Aug. 1886 
Insurrection ; government troops defeated at Tunja 

announced 9 Jan. 1885 ; peace restored 10 Jan. 1885 
Fresh insurrection; government troops defeated 
at Barranquilla, announced 2 March ; rebels de- 
feated about 13 July ; rebellion over, reported 

31 July, „ 
Death of president Nunez, 18 Sept. ; Miguel a Caro 

became president Oct. 1894 

Insurrection at Bogota, 31 Jan. ; rebels defeated at 
Corozal ; gen. Salmiento surrenders, reported 
9 Feb. ; amnesty granted . . .16 Feb. 1895 
Government forces defeated at Cucuta with great 

loss ; the city captured . reported 4 March, „ 
Rebels defeated at Ensiso . . . 15 March, ,, 
Government forces defeated . . .24 June, ,, 
Quinto Calveron, president .... Oct. 1896 
An Italian squadron under admiral Candiani anchors 
off Cartagena to enforce payment of an award 
given by president Cleveland to signor Cerruti 
for robbery and imprisonment (March, 1897) mid 
July, 1898 ; controversy settled, reported. 

16 July, 1899 
Insurrection suppressed, rebels defeated, 

Oct. -25 Nov. ,, 
Death of sen. Sanclemente, president, 1898 ; etseq., 

reported 8 Jan. 1900 

J. M. Marroquin, vice-president. . . Jan. ,, 



COLOMBO. 



298 



COLONIES. 



Eebels defeated before Cartagena, and dispersed 

13, 16 May, 1900 

Cucuta held by the rebels and Venezuelan invaders, 
taken by gen. Gonzales Valencia, reported, 

25 July ,, 

Rebels routed after 2 days' fighting at Girardo 
Point, reported ig Dec. ,, 

Rebels defeated outside Panama . . 12 Jan. 1901 

Insurrection, severe fighting near Colon, 

28, 29 July, ,, 

Relations strained with Venezuela, which see ; 
American mediation accepted, but refused by 
gen. Castro early Sept. „ 

Colombia invaded by Venezuelans, who are totally 
routed near La Hacha . . . .14 Sept. ,, 

Insurgents defeated near Ambaleg, much slaughter, 

5 Oct. „ 

Insurrection, the Liberals attack and capture 
Colon, 19 Nov. ; fierce fighting near Colon, the 
insurgents defeated, 24 Nov. ; they surrender at 
Colon 29 Nov. ; Honda attacked, fierce fighting, 
insurgents defeated with loss . . .9 Dec. „ 

Naval fight at Panama, Dr. Alban, the governor 
of Panama, killed 20 Jan. 1902 

Insurgents repulsed with great loss 20 miles from 
Bogota, reported 26 Jan. „ 

Aguadulce attacked by gen. Hen-era, great slaugh- 
ter ; gen. Castro abandons the town and breaks 
through the Liberal lines . . 23-27 Feb. „ 

Peace treaties signed, general amnesty for politi- 
cal offences, reported . . . .25 June „ 

Fresh outbreak, terrible fighting at Aguadulce, 
29-31 July ; 2,000 men surrender there ; desperate 
fighting elsewhere, and great slaughter, 5-8 Sept. „ 

Civil war ends, peace signed . . about 22 Nov. „ 

(See New Grenada, Venezuela, and United States 22 Jan., 
1903. 

COLOMBO (Ceylon), fortified in 1638 by the 
Portuguese, who were expelled by the Dutch in 
1666; the latter surrendered it to the British, 15 
Feb. 1796; see Ceylon, 1803, 1845. 

COLON (:)• The colon and period were adopted 
by Thrasymachus about 373 B.C.- (Suidas), and 
known to Aristotle. The colon and semicolon (;) 
first used in British literature in the 16th century. 
For Colon, a S. American seaport, see Panama. 

COLONEL (from Italian colonna, a column) , 
the highest regimental military officer. The term 
had become common in England in the 16th century. 

COLONIAL, see under Colonics. 

COLONIAL COLLEGE, The, was 
founded 1887 to train youths for colonial life. 
The course of instruction is scientific and practical, 
and includes veterinary science, hygiene, surveying, 
farming, fruit culture, dairy keeping, and other 
branches of agricultural knowledge. The college 
is at Hollesley Bay, Suffolk, with an estate of 
2000 acres. Since it-< opening some 600 students 
have received instruction at the college. 

COLONIES- The Phoenician and Greek colo- 
nies, frequently founded by political exiles, soon 
became independent of the' mother country. The 
Roman colonies, on the contrary, continued'in close 
connection witli Kome itself; being governed almost 
entirely by military law. — The Colonies of Great 
Biutatn partake of both these characters. The N. 
American colonies revolted in consequence of the 
attempt at taxation without their consent in 1764. 
The loyal condition of the present colonies now is 
due to the gradual relaxation of the pressure of the 
home government. The population of the British 
colonies in all parts of the world was estimated, in 
1861, at 142,952,243; in 1888, 275,520,216; in 1902 
400,000,000. The revenue of the colonies was esti- 
mated in 1865 to be 51,492,000/., the expenditure, 
59i353>°00 | '- : i" 1902, 144,000,000/. The- act for the 



abolition of slavery in the British colonies, and for 
compensation to the owners of slaves (20,000,000/. 
sterling"!, was passed in 1833. All the slaves 
throughout the British colonies were emancipated 
on I Aug. 1834. Germany and other powers 
showed great desire for colonization in 1884-5 e ^ se Q' 
See Holland and Germany. 
Resolution of House of Commons recognises the 
claims of colonies to protection from conse- 
quences of imperial policy, but " is of opinion that 
colonies exercising rights of self-government 
ought to undertake the main responsibility of pro- 
viding for their own internal order and security, 
and ought to assist in their own external defence" 1862 
Chief Colony, or Possession. Date of Settlement, &c. 
Aden 



African Forts 

Anguilla . 

Antigua 

Ascension 

Australia, South 

Australia, W. (Swan river) 

Bahama Island . 

Barbadoes 

Basutoland 

Bechuanaland 

Bengal .... Settlement 

Berbera 

Berbice Capitulation, 



about 
. Settlement about 

. Settlement . 
. Occupied . . . . 

Settlement . 
Settlement . . . 
Settlement 1629, et seq. 
Settlement . . . 



Sept. 



Bermudas 
Bombay ... 
British Burmah (Upper 

Burmah, 1885) . . 
British Columbia . 
Brunei 
Canada 

Cape Breton . . . . Ceded 
Cape Coast Castle . . By cession 
Cape of Good Hope . . Capitulation 
Ceylon .... All acquired . . . 

Cyprus Ceded (under conditions) 

Demerara and Essequibo . Capitulation Sept. 

Dominica . 

Elmina and Dutch Guinea 

Falkland Islands 

Fiji .... 

Gambia 

Gibraltar . . 

Gold Coast . 

Gozo .... 

Grenada 



Settlements 1609, et seq. 
See India . . . 

See Pegu 

Settlement . . . 



Capitulation, Sept. 1759-60 

763 

667 

Jan. 

815 



Ceded by France 

By cession . Feb. 

See Falkland Islands . 

Ceded . . 

Settlement 

Capitulation 

Settlement . 

Capitulation, . 

Ceded by France 

Settlement . 27 Oct. 

Capitulation 

Capitulation 

Bv treaty 

Ceded 

Capitulation 



Aug. 

about 
Sept. 



See Borneo 
Ceded . 



See India 
Capitulation 



Griqualand, S. Africa 

Guiana, British 

Heligoland . 

Honduras 

Hong-Kong (Victoria) 

Jamaica . 

Keeling Islands . 

Kermadec Islands 

Labuan 

Lagos 

Leeward Isles . 

Madras . 

Malacca (under Bengal) 

Malta 

Mashonaland 

Matabeleland 

Mauritius . 

Montserrat 

Natal .... 

Nevis 

New Brunswick . 

Newfoundland 

New Guinea 

New South Wales . 

New Zealand 

Niger districts 

Norfolk Islands 

North Borneo 

Nova Scotia . . . . Settlement . 
Orange Free State (Orange 

River Colony). . . Conquered 

Pegu Conquered 

Port Phillip . . . . See Victoria. 
Prince Edward Island . Capitulated 
Prince of Wales Island 

(Penang) . . . Settlement . 



Capitulation 

Settlement 

Settlement . 

Settlement 

Settlement 

Settlement 

Settlement . 
Settlement 



Sept, 



T622 
about 



618 

666 
632 
S15 
834 
829 

605 



652 
33 4 
803 



662 



763 
872 

833 
874 

631 
704 
618 
800 
763 
871 
803 
807 
670 
841 
655 
857 
S86 
846 
S61 
763 
639 



890 
890 

810 
632 
823 
628 
713 
500 
884 

787 
840 
885 
787 



901 
852 



786 



COLONIES. 



299 



COLONIES. 



Queensland, N. S. Wales . Settlement . . . i860 

Sarawak 1888 

Sierra Leone . . . Settlement . . . 1787 
[United with other settlements as West Africa, Feb. 1866. ] 
Singapore . . . . Purchased . . . 1819 

Socotra 1886 

St. Christopher's . . Settlement . . 1623 

St. Helena . . . . Capitulated . . . 1600 
St. Lucia .... Capitulation . June, 1803 
St. Vincent .... Ceded by France . . 1763 
Swan River .... See West Australia. 
Tasmania . . . . See Van Diemen s Land. 
Tobago .... Ceded by France . . 1763 

Tortola Settlement . . . 1666 

Transvaal .... Annexed, 1877 ; con- 
quered . . . 1901 
Trinidad . . . . Capitulation . Feb. 1797 

Van Diemen's Land . . Settlement . . . 1803 
Vancouver Island . . Settlement . . 1781 

Victoria (Port Phillip) . Settlement . . . 1850 
Victoria .... See Hong-Kong. 
Virgin Isles . . . . Settlement . . . 1666 

Windward Isles 1605-1803 

Zululand ,1886 

Colonial bishoprics fund, established . . . 1841 
Colonial Branch Army Act passed . . . . 1866 

Colonial Clergy Act, 37 & 38 Vict. c. 77, passed 7 
Aug. 1874, removes certain disabilities of persons 
not ordained by bishops of the united church 
of England and Ireland. 

Colonial and Continental Church Society (formerly 
"Colonial Church Society"), took its name 1 May, 
1861. It deals with colonial dioceses and British 
residents on the continent. 

Colonial Defences Commission (including the earl 
of Carnarvon, Mr. Childers, and others), appointed 
about 12 Sept. 1879 

Works recommended by government ; expenditure 
imperial and local 1884 

Colonial Naval Defence Act, to enable the Colonies 
to take effectual measures for their defence against 
attacks by sea, was passed in .... 1865 

Colonial Society, established to promote the in- 
terests of the colonies, lord Bury, president, held 
its first meeting 26 June, 1868, and first annual 
meeting 28 June, 1869, when it assumed the title 
"Royal." On 7 March, 1870, it became " The 
Royal Colonial Institute ;" incorporated 1882. The 
"Proceedings" are published. 4208 fellows, 
income 7142X in igoi. A colonial congress met 
at Amsterdam 19 Sept. 1883. 

The formation of a National and Colonial League 
was resolved on at a meeting in London 5 Jan. 1870 

Colonial Exhibition. An Exhibition of the pro- 
ducts, manufactures, and arts of India and the 
colonies in London in 1886 ; Royal Commission 
8 Nov. 1884 ; great exertion of the prince of Wales 
and sir P. C. Owen ; opened with great splendour 
by the Queen ; ode by lord Tennyson, set to music 
by sir A. Sullivan, sung 4 May, 1886 ; visited by 
5,550,745 persons ; closed 10 Nov. A surplus 
of 35,235^., of which 5964L supplied the deficit on 
the Inventions exhibition, and 25,000^ supplied to 
the funds of the Imperial Institute, leaving a 
reserve of 4279^ ; meeting of commission, 30 April 
1887. Testimonial for his exertions was presented 
to sir Philip Cunliffe Owen, 18 Dec. . . . 1886 

Mr. E. Stanhope, colonial secretary, proposes a 
conference of agents-general on colonial defence 
and communication with Great Britain . Dec. ,, 

Colonial conference; first meeting of representatives 
of all the colonies ; president, sir H. T. Holland, 
colonial secretary, the marquis of Salisbury and 
other ministers present ; questions discussed, 
defence of colonies, coaling stations, &c, cable 
communication, new harbours, employment of 
Imperial naval and military officers, relations 
with foreign powers, postal regulations, legal 
affairs, census returns, &c, 4 April, 1887. Results 
of the conference successful ; closed 9 May. The 
delegates received by the Queen at Windsor, 

4 May, 1887 

Lord George Hamilton's plan for colonial defence 
accepted by Australia, &c. . about 22 April, 



Naval Defence Act passed at Melbourne with 
royal assent, 24, 25 Nov. ; accepted by Tasmania, 
New South Wales, South Australia, and New 
Zealand 1 Dec. ; deferred by Queensland . Dec. 1887 

Canadian co-operative colonization company 
founded . 1889 

The> committee of the commons on coloniza- 
tion appointed in 1889; sir James Fergusson, 
chairman, issued a report, with sensible recom- 
mendations, about . . ■ • 18 March, 1891 

Burke's " Colonial Gentry," vol. i. published Sept. „ 

The title of "honourable" assumed by certain 
colonial officials approved by the queen . June, 1893 

iMiperial and inter-colonial conference opened at 
Ottawa ; the earl of Aberdeen present ; delegates 
from Australia, Canada, Cape Colony, and other 
eolonies, the earl of Jersey for the home govern- 
ment, 28 June ; Mr. Mackenzie Bowell elected 
president ; imperial unity strongly advocated, 
29 June ; closing sitting, 9 July ; lord Jersey s 
report published Dec. 1894 

Colonial boundaries act passed . . 6 July, 1895 

Despatch of Mr. Chamberlain to colonial governors 
on the great importance of the development of 
commerce 28 Nov. ,, 

Large sums voted by the colonies in reference to 
the queen's diamond jubilee (20 June), 1897; 
celebrations and rejoicings throughout all the 
colonies and British possessions, 20 June et seq. 1897 

Mr. Laurier, from Canada, and 10 other colonial 
premiers, received by the duke of Devonshire at 
Liverpool, 12 June ; visit Edinburgh, 14 June ; 
Glasgow, 15 June ; Birmingham, 21 June ; Paris, 

19 July, „ 

Banquet to the premiers, the prince of Wales pre- 
sent, at the Imperial institute, London, 18 June, „ 

The eleven premiers made privy councillors ; 21 
June ; entertained by the lord mayor at the 
Mansion house ; lord Salisbury, and a dis- 
tinguished company, present, 1 J nly ; received 
by the queen at Windsor ... 7 July, „ 

Colonial and Indian troops entertained and re- 
viewed by the queen at Windsor, 2 July ; by 
the prince and princess of Wales, at Buckingham 
palace 3 J "ly .. 

Colonial loans act passed .... 9 Aug. 1899 

Troops sent from each colony to S. African war, 

Oct. et seq. „ 

Colonial marriages (deceased wife's sister) act 
passed ° Au g- 1900 

Colonial stock act, royal assent . . . 8 Aug. „ 

Death of the queen, universal mourning, . 22 Jan. 1901 

The king sends his thanks for sympathy, declaring 
that with God's blessing he would solemnly work for 
the welfare of the great empire over which he had 
been called to reign ; 4 Feb. ,, 

International colonial institute at the Hague 
opened 28 May, „ 

Colonial acts confirmation bill passed . 16 Aug. ,, 

Government's policy in S. Africa approved ; ad- 
miration for Mr. Chamberlain and British troops 
throughout the colonies .... Feb. 1902 

Peace thanksgivings 8 June, „ 

Colonial premiers received by the prince and prin- 
cess of Wales at St. James's palace 10 July ; 
by the king, 12 Aug. ; entertained throughout 
the country June-Sept. „ 

Colonial conferences with Mr. Chamberlain, Lon- 
don, 30 June, etseq. ; resolutions passed regarding 
preferential tariff's and subsidies to steamship 
lines, military defence and political relations of 
the empire ; contracts for army and navy sup- 
plies ; reduction of postal rates ; united contribu- 
tion to the queen Victoria memorial ; 10th and 
final meeting resolutions were adopted on com- 
mercial relations of the empire and in favour of the 
metric system of weights and measures, 11 Aug. ,, 

Colonial and Indian troops in London, see Alexan- 
dra Park, June ; visit the fleet at Spithead, 30 
June ; special service at the Abbey, 17 Aug. ; 
leave end Aug. ,, 

Total troops sent to S. Africa, 1899-31 May, 1902, 
30,238 ; total returned to colonies after the war, 
12,294, reported 4 Sept. ,, 

Sir H. Norman unveils a memorial tablet to 16 
fellows of the Royal Colonial Institute who fell 
in the S. African war .... 17- Feb. 1903 



COLOEADO. 



300 



COLUMBUS. 



Mr. Chamberlain's tour to colonies in S. Africa : 
lie leaves England 25 Nov. 1902, and arrives home 

14 March, 1903 

The inter-imperial tariff scheme advocated Uy Mr. 
Chamberlain, and his subsequent resignation, 
arouses much interest in the colonies, and meets 
with general approval . . .15 May et s q. ,, 

See Bishops (Colonial), Imperial Defence, Imperial 
Institute, Secretaries, Nurses, and separate articles. 

COLOEADO (so called from its coloured 
ranges), a territory of the United States of ISlorth 
America, was organised 2 March, 1861 ; proclaimed 
a state, Aug. 1876; capital, Denver City. Popula- 
tion in 1880, 194,327; 1890, 412,198; 1900, 
539,700. 

Gold found here, 1858, and much copper and lead. La 

Sal Mining Co. shipped 3500 tons higher grade silver 

and copper ores, 1902. 
Women enfranchised, Nov. 1893. 
Strike of miners at Cripple Creek, with cruel outrages ; 

1 1 deaths, 26 May ; troops called out, 27 May ; the 

country controlled by a rebel encampment on Bull 

Hill, 1 June ; skirmish with the troops, 7 June ; the 

strikers yield, 9 June, 1894. 
3 Italians shot by a mob in connection with the murder 

of a deputy-sheriff (Mr. Lixon) at Walsenburg ; order 

restored, 10-14 March, 1895. 
Mining strike, rioting with bloodshed ; militia called 

out, 21 Sept. 1896. 
Collision on the Rio Grande railway, near Newcastle, 25 

deaths, 10 Sept. 1897. 
Irrigation act passed by congress, March i, 1902. 
Tenth Nat. Irrigation congress, Colorado springs (value 

of irrigated land, 40*77 dol. per acre), Oct. 6, 1902. 
New mint, May 1, 1902. 

Colorado Beetle, so called from its striped colouring, 
was first found in Wisconsin, was described by Thomas 
Say, and named Doryplwra decemlineata, in 1824, when 
he found it near the Upper Missouri. It soon took to 
feeding on potatoes, as they were planted, and gradually 
proceeded eastward through Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois, 
Ohio, &c, to the New England states, destroying the 
crops, 1859 et seq. In 1873 it reached New York, and 
the Atlantic seaboard in 1874, swarming there in 1876, 
and attacking Canada. The fear of its invading Britain 
led to an order in council respecting its destruction, 
&c, 14 Aug. 1877. Very few specimens arrived. Dis- 
covered among potatoes at Tilbury dock, crops, and 
grass promptly destroyed iu the infected area, re- 
ported, 3 Sept. 1901 ; again there May, 1902. 

COLOSSEUM, see Coliseum. The building in 
Regent's Park, London, was planned by Mr. llornor, 
a land surveyor, and commenced in 1824, by Peto 
and Grissell, from designs by Decimus Burton. The 
chief portion was a polygon of 16 faces, 126 feet in 
diameter externally : the walls were three feet thick 
at the ground: the height to the glazed dome 112 
feet. On the canvas walls of the dome was painted 
the panoramic view of London, completed in 1829 
from sketches by Mr. llornor taken from the summit 
of St. Paul's cathedral in 1 82 1 -2. The picture covered 
above 46,000 square feet, more than an acre of can- 
vas. The different parts were combined by Mr. E. 
T. Parris, who in 1845 repainted the whole. In 
1848 a panorama of Pans was exhibited ; succeeded, 
in 1850, by the lake of Thun in Switzerland; in 
1851 the panorama of London was reproduced. In 
1848 the theatre, with the panorama of Lisbon, was 
added. In 1831, when Mr. Eomor failed, the esta- 
blishment was sold for 40,000/. to Messts. Braham 
and Yates. In 1843 it was bought by .Mr. D. Mon- 
tague for 23,000 guineas. Timbs. ' After having 
been long closed, the building was opened to the 
public at Christmas, [856, at one shilling. Under 
the charge of Dr. Bachhoffner, ii continued open till 
the spring of 18(14, when it was again closed. The 
Bale of the site was announced 1870. It wasannounced 
in Dec. 1871, that a company was about to transform 
the building and grounds into club-chambers, baths, 



a winter garden, &c. In 1874, it was sold; large 
mansions have been erected on the site. 

COLOSSUS OF EHODES, a brass statue of 
Apollo, seventy cubits high, esteemed one of the 
wonders of the world, was erected at the port of 
Rhodes in honour of the sun, by Chares of Lindus, 
disciple of Lysippus, 290 or 288 B.C. It was thrown 
down by an earthquake about 224 B.C. The figure 
is said mythically to have stood upon two moles, 
a leg being extended on each side of the harbour, so- 
that a vessel in full sail could enter between. The 
statue was in ruins for nearly nine centuries, and 
had never been repaired ; when the Saracens, taking 
Rhodes, pulled it to pieces, and sold the metal, 
weighing 720,900 lbs., to a Jew, who is said to have 
loaded 900 camels in transporting it to Alexandria 
about 653. Dufresnoy . 

COLOUE is to light what pitch is to sound, 
according to the undulatory theory of Huyghens 
(about 1678), established by Dr. T. Young, and 
others. The shade varies according to the number 
of vibrations. 458 millions of millions of vibra- 
tions in a second attributed 10 the red end of the 
spectrum : to the violet, 727 ; see Spectrum.* See 
Blue-Books for National official colours. Pho- 
tography. 

COLSTON DAY, Nov. 13, see Bristol. 

COLUMBIA, a federal district round the city 
of Washington in Maryland ; established 1800. 
Slavery was abolished in 1862. Population in 1880, 
177,624; 1890, 230,392; 1900, 278,718; see British 
Columbia. 

COLUMBIA MAEKET, Bethnal Green, E. 
London ; erected by Mr. Darbishire, architect, in 
the pointed Gothic style, and inaugurated by Miss 
(now lady) Burdett-Coutts, the proprietor, 28 April, 
1869. It cost her 200,000/. It was opened as a 
wholesale iish-market, 21 Feb. 1870, but was not 
successful. On 3 Nov. 1871, lady Burdett-Coutts 
presented the market to the corporation of London, 
and on 18 July, 1872, she received publicly the 
freedom of that city. 
The market did not succeed, and the buildings wore 

restored to the donor .... 4 Dee. 1874 
Again opened on liberal terms under superintend- 
ence of Great Eastern, Great Northern, and Mid- 
land railway companies . . . . 15 Dec. 1S75 
Reported failure; proposed use as a co-operative 

store April, 1878 

Re-opened as a fish-market . . . 17 July, 18S3 
Market a failure, the building subsequently con- 
verted into industrial dwellings. 

COLUMBIUM, a metal discovered by C. 
Hatchett, in a mineral named columbite, in 1801. 
It is identical with niobium, and not with tantalum, 
as supposed by some chemists. Watts. 

COLUMBUS, capital of Ohio. U.S.A., founded 
in [8l2, is the seat of important manufactures. 
Population, 1870, 31,274; 1.890, 88,150; IQOO, 
[25,560. Columbus celebrations, sec Spam, United 
States, Genoa, Chicago, $r., 1892. 

Some persons(about6soutof n 54) cannot distinguish 
between colours, .-01(1 arc termed Colour blind. The 

defect said to have been first described by Priestley, 

Phil. Trans. 1777. In 1859, professor J. Clerk Maxwell 
invented spectacles to remedy this defect, which is also 
(ill., 1 " Daltonism," after John Dalton, the chemist, to 
whom scarlet appeared drab-colour. Dr. George Wilson, 
"Researches on Uolour-Bliudness," 1847; Dr. Joy 
Jeffries, "Colour Blindness," 1870. The Royal Society 
commission appointed in March to consider colour 
blindness, reported in May, 1892 ; Holmgren's method 
of testing by the use of skeins of coloured wool was 
recommended. 



COMBAT. 



301 



COMETS. 



COMBAT, SINGLE. Trial by this commenced 
by the Lombards, 659. Baronius. It was intro- 
duced into England tor accusations of treason, if 
neither the accuser nor the accused could produce 
good evidence ; see Appeal of Battle. 

A battle by single combat was fought before the king, 
William II., and the peers, between Geoffrey Bay- 
nard and William, earl of Eu, who was accused by 
Baynard of high treason ; and Baynard having con- 
quered, Eu was deemed convicted, and blinded and 
mutilated, 1096. 

A combat proposed between Henry of Bolingbroke, duke 
of Hereford (afterwards Henry IV. ), and Thomas, duke 
of Norfolk, was forbidden by Richard II. Sept. 139S. 

A trial was appointed between the prior of Kilmainham 
and the earl of Ormond, the former having impeached 
the latter of high treason, quarrel taken up by the 
king, decided without fighting, 1446. 

A combat was proposed between lord Reay and Mr. 
David Ramsey, in 1631, but the king prevented it. 

In a combat in Dublin castle, before the lords justices 
and council, between Connor MacCormack O'Connor 
and Teig Mac-Gilpatrick O'Connor, the former had his 
head cut off, and presented to the lords, 1553. 

COMBINATION. Laws were enacted from 
the time of Edward I. downwards, regulating the 
price of labour and the relations between masters 
and workmen, and prohibiting the latter from com- 
bining for their own protection. The combination 
laws consolidated in 1799 and 1800 were repealed 
in 1825, due protection being given to both parties. 
The act was amended in 1859 by 22 Vict. c. 34, when 
the subject was much discussed, in consequence of 
the strike in the building trades, see Trades Unions 
and Strikes. 

COMBS, found in Pompeii; Combmakers' com- 
pany incorporated, 1636 or 1650. 

COMBUSTION, see Spontaneous. 

COMEDIE FEANCAISE,Paris, established 
i63o. 3 

At the death of Moliere in 1673, his company of actors, 
at the Palais Royal, separated into two bodies. The 
fusion of these formed the French National Theatre, 
founded by Louis XIV. by a decree 18 Aug., first 
performance 25 Aug. 1680 ; the actors, 15 men, and 12 
women, being the best of the time. The theatre was 
much depressed in the king's last years ; revived under 
Louis XV.; ceased in 1799; restored in 1803; and 
established in the Theatre Francais, Paris. 

The company visited London in 1879 ; first appearance 
at the Gaiety, 2 June, 1879 • eminent actors, Madame 
Sarah Bernhardt, MM. Got (died 21 March, 1901), De- 
launay, and Coquelin, and Miles. Bi'ohan and Favart. 

The 200th anniversary of the establishment celebrated 
21 Oct., et seq. 1880. 

The Theatre Francais burnt down, Mile. Henriot, a 
young actress, killed, 8 March, 1900. New theatre 
opened, state performance, 29 Dec. 1900. 

COMEDY. Thalia is the muse of comedy and 
lyric poetry. Susarion and Dolon, the reputed in- 
ventors of theatrical exhibitions, 578 B.C., performed 
the first comedy at Athens, on a waggon or movable 
stage, on four wheels, for which they were rewarded 
with a basket of figs and a cask of wine ; see Arun- 
■delian Marbles, and Drama. 

Comedy, for libel, prohibited at Athens, 440 b.c. 

Aristophanes called the prince of ancient comedy, 434 
B.C., and Menander that of the new, 320 B.C. 

Of Plautus, 20 comedies are extant ; he nourished 220 b.c. 

•Statius Cascilius wrote upwards of 30 comedies ; flourished 
at Rome 180 b.c. 

"Comedies of Lselius and Terence first acted 154 B.C. 

First regular comedy performed in England about a.d. 
1551- 

It was said of Sheridan that he wrote the best comedy 
(the School for Scandal), the best opera (the Duenna), 
and the best afterpiece (the Critic), in the English lan- 
guage (1775-1779)- 



COMETS (Greek come, a hair). See Astron. 
Soc. Mr. Hind, in his little work on comets, gave 
a chronological list (1852). The identity and perio- 
dicity of comets are considered in Mr. G. F. 
Chambers' Handbook of Astronomy, 1889-90, and 
in Mr. W. T. Lynn's "Remarkable Comets," 10th 
edition, 1902. Amedee Guillemin's " World of 
Comets," by J. Glaisher, published 1877. The 
spectrum analysis of Donati (1864), Dr. Wm. 
Huggins, and Br. William Allen Miller in 1866, et 
seq., and others, indicate in comets the presence of 
gaseous matter in a state of incandescence. There 
are 20 known periodical comets, 1889. 

The Chinese annalists give early accounts of comets. 

Aristotle describes one which appeared, b. c. 371. 

At the birth of the great Mithridates two [probably only 
one] large comets appeared, which were seen for seventy- 
two days together, whose splendour eclipsed that of 
the mid-day sun, and occupied the fourth part of the 
heavens, about 134 B.c. Justin. 

A grand comet seen, 1264. It is considered to have 
reappeared in 1556, with diminished splendour ; and 
was expected to appear again about A.ug. 1858 or Aug. 
i860. Hind. 

A remarkable one seen in England, June, 1337. Stow. 

Tycho Brahe demonstrated that comets are extraneous 
to our atmosphere, about 1577. 

A comet observed by Tycho Brahe and others in 1596. 

A comet which terrified the people from its near approach 
to the earth was visible from 3 Nov. 1679 to 9 March, 
1680. It enabled Newton to demonstrate that comets, 
as well as planets, are subject to the law of gravitation, 
and most probably move in elliptic orbits, 1704. 

A comet first seen by Klinkenberg at Haarlem, 9 Dec. 
1743- 

Hallev's Comet, 1682. Named after one of the greatest 
astronomers of England. He first proved that many 
of the appearances of comets were but the periodical 
returns of the same bodies, and he demonstrated that 
the comet of 1682 was the same with the comet of 1456, 
1531, and 1607, deducing this fact from a minute obser- 
vation of the first-mentioned comet, and being struck 
by its wonderful resemblance to the comets described 
as having appeared in those years : Halley, therefore, 
first fixed the identity of comets, and predicted their 
periodical returns. Vince's Astronomy. The revolution 
of Halley 's comet is performed in about 75 years ; it 
appeared (as he had predicted) in 1758, and came to its 
perihelion on March 13 ; its last appearance was 1835 ; 
its next will be 1910. 

A most brilliant comet appeared in 1769, which passec 
within two millions of miles of the earth, first seen by 
Messier 8 Aug. This beautiful comet, moving with 
immense swiftness, was seen in London ; its tail 
stretched across the heavens like a prodigious lumin- 
ous arch, 36,000,000 miles in length. 

The computed length of that which appeared in 181 1, and 
which was so remarkably conspicuous, was, on 15 
Oct. according to the late Dr. Herschel, upwards of 
100,000,000 miles, and its apparent greatest breadth, at 
the same time, 15,000,000 miles. It was visible all the 
autumn to the naked eye. Philos. Trans. Royal Soc. 
for 1812. Another comet, Dec. 1823. 

Encke's Comet was observed by Meehain in 1786, Miss 
Caroline Herschel in 1795, and Thulis in 1805 ; redis- 
covered by Pons, 26 Nov. 1818, but justly named by 
astronomers after professor Encke, for his success in 
detecting its orbit, motions, and perturbations ; it is, 
like the preceding one of the three comets which have 
appeared according to prediction, and its revolutions 
are made in 3 years and 15 weeks. Thirteenth return 
observed at Copenhagen by M. d'Arrest, 20 July, 1863 ; 
observed in England, 14 Oct. 1871 ; seen 13 April, 1875; 
in New South Wales, 3 Aug. 1878 ; visible at Washing- 
ton, &c, 18-21 Sept. 1881 ; imperfectly seen in Italy 
by Cerulli and others, 1 Nov. 1894 ; seen at Cambridge, 
Mass., 6 Aug. ; and at Heidelberg, 9, 10 Aug. 1901. 

Biela's Comet has been an object of fear to many on 
account of the nearness with which it has approached, 
not the earth, but a point of the earth's path ; it was 
first discovered by M. Biela, an Austrian officer, 27 Feb. 
1826. It is one 6f tho three comets whose re-appear- 
ance was predicted, its revolution being performed in 



COMETS. 



302 



COMMEND AM. 



6 years and 38 weeks. Its second appearance was in 
1832, when the time of its perihelion passage was 27 
Nov. ; its third was in 1839 ; its fourth in 1845 ; and 
its fifth in 1852 ; it lias since vanished. 

Comet discovered by M. Faye at Paris, Nov. 1843 ; 
reappears every 7 years. Brorsen's cornet discovered 
by him in 1846. 

Donati's Comet, so called from its having been first ob- 
served by Dr. Donati, of Florence, 2 June, 1858, being 
then calculated to be 228,000,000 miles from our earth. 
It was very brilliant in England in the end of September 
and October following, when the tail was said to be 
40,000,000 miles long. On the 10th of October it was 
nearest to the earth ; on the 18th it was near coming 
into collision with Venus. Opinions varied as to this 
comet's brilliancy compared with that of 181 1. 

The Great Comet of 1861 was first seen by Mr. Tebbutt 
at Sydney, in Australia, 13 May ; by M. Goldschmidt 
and others in France and England on 29, 30 June. The 
nucleus was about 400 miles in diameter, with a long 
bush-like tail, travelling at the rate of i#,ooo,ooo miles 
in 24 hours. On 30 June, it was suggested that we 
were in the tail— there being " a phosphorescent auroral 
glare. " 

A tailless comet was discovered in the constellation Cas- 
siopceia, by M. Seeling, at Athens, on 2 July, and by 
M. Tempel, at Marseilles, 2 and 3 July, 1867. 

A comet detected at Marathon, N.Y., by Mr. Swift, 
15 July, and by Rosa, at Rome, on 25 July, 1862. It 
was visible by the naked eye in August and September. 

Six telescopic comets were observed in 1863, and several 
in 1864. 

A fine comet appeared in the southern hemisphere, and 
was visible in South America and Australia, in Jan.- 
Feb. 1865. 

M. Babinet considered that comets had so little density 
that the earth might pass through the tail of one with- 
out our being aware of it, 4 May, 1857. 

Schiaparelli, of Milan, discovered that the August meteors 
move round the sun in an orbit almost identical with 
the third comet of 1862. 

One discovered at Bonn by Dr. Winnecke, 13 June, 1858. 

Several small comets discovered by various astronomers 
1873-81. 

Coggia's Comet, discovered by him at Marseilles, 
18 April, became visible (near Polar star) in London 
about 4 July ; gradually increased in brightness, and 
passed out of sight in a few weeks, in Europe ; and 
appeared brilliant at Melbourne, 1 Aug. 1874. 

A bright comet appeared in the southern hemisphere, 
large nucleus, fan-shaped tail ; visible in the southern 
hemisphere, May ; in London, 22 June et seq. 1881. 

Denning's comet appears 4 Oct. 1881. 

Another at Madeira, at Ealing, near London, &o. (pro- 
bably that of 1843 and 1880) 17 Sept. 1882 ; at Paris, 
27 Sept. ; seen at Vienna, 29 Sept. 1882. 

New comet discovered by prof. Barnard at Lick 10 
July, 1884. 

New comet discovered at Heidelberg by Dr Max Wolf 
17 Sept. 1884. 

Another discovered by M. Fabry of Paris 3 Dec. 1885 • 
by Mr. Brooks of New York Jan. 1886. ' 

Three comets visible, Brooks', Fabry's, and Barnard's, 
Jan. ; increasing in brightness, May, 1886. 

New comet discovered by Mr. Finlay of the Cape 
observatory 26 Sept. 1886. 

One discovered by Mr. Brooks at Geneva, New York 6 
July, 1889. 

A comet observed by Mr. Brooks at New York, 19 
March ; one by prof. Denning H t Bristol, 23 July ; 'one 
by prof. Zona at Palermo, 15 Nov. 1890. 

Tempel Swift's canitit(i&6g and 1880) seen by Mr. Denning 
30 Sept., 1 Oct. 1 891. 

A comet observed by prof. Lewis Swift, 7 March ; one 
by Mr. W. P. Denning near Bristol, 18 March, 1892. 

Winnecke's comet observed by Dr. Spitaler, iS March 
1892; one discovered by 'Mr. Edwin Holmes at 
Islington, London, 6 Nov. 1892. 

A comet a discovered by Mr. Denning at Bristol, 26 
March, 1894. 

A comet b discovered by Mr. Gale, of Sydney 3 April 
1894. ' -' J 

Numerous telescopic comets observed at different places 
in 1892-4. 

Temple's comet (discovered by him at Milan, 3 July 
1873) seen again by Mr. Finlay at the Capo,~S May, 



1894 ; one discovered by Mr. E. Swift in California, 
21 Nov. 1894. 

One discovered by prof. L. Swift, California, 20 Sept. 

1895 ; one discovered by Mr. Perrine at the Lick 
observatory, U.S.A., 16-17 Nov. 1895 ; one by prof. 
Brooks at Geneva, New York, 21 Nov. 1895. 

One by Mr. Perrine at Lick, 14 Feb. 1896 ; one b dis- 
covered by prof. Swift at S. Carolina, 13 April, 1896; 
one by Mr. W. Sperra, Ohio, 31 Aug. 1896 ; one by 
M. Giacobini, 4 Sept. 1896 ; two near the sun by 
prof. L. Swift at Lick, 20 Sept. 1896 one / dis- 
covered by Mr. Perrini at Lick, California, 2 Nov. 
1896; one g discovered by him at Lick, 9 Dec. 1896. 

One a discovered by Mr. Perrine at Lick, 16 Oct. 1897 ; 
one b discovered by him there, 8 Dec, and another 20 
March, 1898 ; one by M. Giacobini, Nice, 18 June, 1898. 

One a discovered by prof. L. Swift, California, 3 March, 
1899; Turtle's periodical comet 6 (first discovered by 
Mechain in 1790) detected by Dr. Wolf, 5 March ; one 
e discovered by M. Giacobini, 30 Sept. 1899. 

One a discovered by him, 31 Jan. 1900; one 6 by M. 
Borelly at Marseilles, and Mr. Brooks at Geneva, N. Y. 
23 July, 1900 ; one c by M. Giacobini at Nice, 20 Dec. 
1900. 

One a by Mr. A. Hill at Queensforvvn, S. Africa, and by 
Mr. Tattersall at Cape Leeuwin, Australia, 24 April", 
1 901. 

One a by Mr. Brooks at Geneva, 15 April, 1902 ; 6 by 
Mr. Perrine at Lick, 1 Sept, 1902 ; c by Mr. Grigg at 
Mames, N.Z., 22 July, 1902 ; d by M. Giacobini, Nice, 
2 Dec. 1902 ; and a by him, Nice, 15 Jan. 1903. 

COMMANDER-IN-CHIEF, an office in tie 
British army occasionally vacant. When the duke 
of Wellington resigned the office, on becoming prime 
minister, in 1828, his successor, lord Hill, became 
commander of the forces, or general commanding- 
in-ehief. 
By Order in Council the duties of the Commander- in 

Chief were defined and published . 2 Feb. 188S 
captains-general. 

Duke of Albemarle 1660 

Duke of Monmouth 1678 

Duke of Marlborough 1690 

Schomberg, duke of Leinster 1691 

Duke of Ormond . . .'. . . .1711 

Duke of Marlborough, again 1714 

Duke of Cumberland 1744 

Duke of York 1790 

commanders-in-chief. 

Duke of Monmouth 1674 

Duke of Marlborough 1690 

Duke of Schomberg 691 

Duke of Ormond 171 1 

Earl of Stair I744 

Field-Marshal Wade 1745 

Lord Ligonier i 757 

Marquis of Granliy 1766 

Lord Amherst, general on the staff .... 1778 

Gen. Seymour Conway 1782 

Lord Amherst, again 179^ 

Frederick, duke of York . . . . n Feb. 1795 
Sir David Dundas .... 25 March, 1800 

Frederick, duke of York, again . . 29 May, 1811 

Duke, of Wellington . 22 Jan. —5 May ; 27 Aug. 1827 
Lord Hill, general commanding-in-chi3f" 25 Feb. 1828 
Duke of Wellington, again . . . . 15 Aug. 1842 
Viscounl Bardmge (died 24 Sept. 1856), general 

commanding-in-chief 28 Sept. 1852 

Duke of Cambridge, ditto 15 July, 1856; appointed 

commander-in-chief by patent, 1887; resigned 

from ! Nov. 1895 

Lord Wolseley (for five years) . . . Nov. 1S95 
Lord Roberts (earl, Jan. 1901) assumed command 

Jan. 1901 

COMMEMOEATION, see Enccenia, Jubilee, 
1887 an 1 1897. 

COMMEND AM, "a benefice or church 
living, which being void, is commended to the 
charge of some sufficient clerk, to be supplied until 
it may bo conveniently supplied with a pastor." 
Blount. By 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 77 (1836), future 
bishops were prohibited from holding in commendam 
the livings they held when consecrated. 



COMMEECE. 



303 



COMMON PLEAS. 



COMMERCE early flourished in Arabia, 
Egypt, and among the Phoenicians, see the descrip- 
tion of Tyre, 588 B.C., Ezek. xxvii. In later times 
it was spread over Europe by a confederacy of 
maritime cities, 1241 (see Hanse Towns) ; by the 
discoveries of Columbus ; and by the enterprises of 
the Dutch and Portuguese ; see Exports, Im- 
ports, and articles connected with this subject. 

The first treaty of commerce made by England with 
any foreign nation was entered into with the 
Flemings, 1 Edw. I. 1272. The second was with 
Portugal and Spain, 2 Edw. II. 1308. Anderson ; 
see Treaties. Hertslet's Collection, in 16 vols. 
8vo, published 1828-85, has a copious index. 

An important commercial treaty was concluded with 
France (see French Treaty) i860 

Chambers of Commerce originated at Marseilles in 
the 14th century, and similar chambers were 
instituted in all the chief cities in France, about 1700 

These chambers suppressed in 1791 ; restored by 
decrees 3 Sept. 1851 

A chamber of commerce was started by John 
Weskett, merchant, he receiving payment, about 1782 

The chamber of commerce at Glasgow was esta- 
blished 1783 ; at Edinburgh, 1785 ; Manchester, 
1820 ; Hull, 1837 ; at Liverpool (mainly through 
the exertions of Professor Leone Levi) . . 1849 

Associated (twenty-seven) chambers of commerce 
(not including Liverpool, Manchester, and Glas- 
gow) met at Westminster for interchange of 
opinions on various questions, 21 Feb. 1865 ; 
annual and other meetings held since : Hull, 
19 Sept. 1889; London, 25 March, 1890; 3 March, 
1 89 1 ; 8 March, 1892 ; 12 March 1895 ; 24 March, 
1896; 9-11 March, 1897; 15 March, 1898; 14 
March, 1899 ; 13 March, 1900 (special meeting in 
Paris, opened 5 Sept. 1900); London, 12 March, 
1901 ; 4 March, 1902 ; 3 March, 1903. 

Congress of chambers of the empire, 1886 ; 28 June, 
1892 ; 9 June, 1896. 

Commercial education : conference at the Mansion 
House to promote the scheme put forth by the 
London chamber of commerce, 5 Feb. 1890 ; 
another at the Guildhall, 9 July, 1898 ; reported 
successful Nov. 1899 ; 6th international con- 
gress at Venice, 4 May, 1899. 

The London chamber of commerce constituted, 
Sept. issued prospectus, about 10 Oct. 1881 ; 600 
members first general meeting . . 25 Jan. 1882 

First annual meeting, 24 Jan. 1883 (publishes its 
report of its special commission on secret com- 
missions prevalent" in all trades and said to be 
increasing March, 1899 

International Congress of Commerce at Brussels, 
6-10 Sept. 1883 ; one at Philadelphia, mid. Oct.- 
Nov. 1899 ; one at Ostend . . 26 Aug. 1902 

The International Congress of Commercial Law 
met at Antwerp, 1885 ; Brussels . . 30 Sept. 1888 

Australasian chamber of commerce founded in 
London 4 July, 1901 

Commercial Travellers' schools, Pinner, founded 
1845 ;— Benevolent Institution, Finsbury . . 1849 

Commercial Travellers' Association founded in Man- 
chester, 1883, has many branches in the country. 
See London Chamber of Arbitration. 

Commercial Court. The judges of the Queen's Bench 
resolved, May, 1894, "That a Commercial Court should 
be constituted from amongst themselves ; in 1895 they 
laid down rules for procedure. It is not authorised 
by act of parliament, as a matter of convenience it 



is much resorted to 



!9°3 



COMMERCIAL INTELLIGENCE 
OFFICE, a branch of the board of trade, insti- 
tuted Oct. 1899, "to provide the public with 
accurate information on all tariff and trade matters.' ' 
Statistics of wages, the conditions and hours of 
labour, state of the labour market and the social 
condition of the working classes are collected, with 
statistics relating to strikes and industrial questions. 
The Labour Gazette containing such information is 
published monthlv. 



COMMISSION, see High Commission, Courtof. 

. COMMISSIONAIRES, street messengers 
in Paris. Those in London were originally pen- 
sioned soldiers wounded either in the Crimea or 
India, first employed in the west-end. They were 
appointed by a society, founded 13 Feb. 1859 by 
capt. Edward Walter, which is now under the 
patronage of the king and the commander-in- 
chief. The charges are regulated by a tariff'. In 
Jan. 1861 the society commenced the gratuitous 
issue of a Monthly Advertising Circular. In March, 
1864, there were 250 commissionnaires in London ; 
in Nov. 1866, about 340; in Oct. 1872, 500 ; in Feb. 
1887, 1,650; 1 Jan. 1895, 2,151; 2,450 in June, 1898; 
1 Jan. 1902, 2,709. On 17 June, 1865, capt. Edward 
Walter resigned, and a permanent system of 
administration was formed. In 1865 com- 
missionnaires were first engaged as private night- 
watchmen. A testimonial (piece of plate) from 
the officers of the army and navy was pre- 
sented to captain Walter, 14 June, 1884; knighted, 
1887. The corps was inspected by lord R >berts at 
Chelsea, 18 June, 1893. Annual inspection, 1894, 
et seq. Commissionnaires have been introduced in 
the colonies, beginning at Sydney, Feb. 1888. 

. COMMITTEES, Standing and Grand, were 
directed to be appointed by the new rules for pro- 
cedure passed by the House of Commons in 1882, 
for facilitating the progress of legislation. The first 
grand committee (on trade, shipping, &c.) met 9 
April, 1883 ; another (on law, &c.) soon after. 

These Committees were re-appointed by the new 
rule (13). March 1888, and since. See Scotland, 
April 1894, May 1895. 

. COMMON COUNCIL of London. The 

city parliament, consists of 206 members elected 
annually on St. Thomas' day, 21 Dec. by the 
freemen householders of the 26 wards and their 
aldermen. This court, which appears to have been 
gradually organized in the 12th century, is men- 
tioned in a charter granted by John, 12 14. See 
Plough Monday. A Common Hall is held occa- 
sionally. The common council supported the prince 
of Orange in 1688, and queen Caroline in 1820. It 
vigorously opposed the scheme for amalgamation 
with the London County Council, 1893. 

COMMON LAW of England, an ancient 

collection of unwritten maxims and customs (leges 
nonscriptm), of British, Saxon, and Danish origin, 
which has subsisted immemorially in this kingdom ; 
and although somewhat impaired by the rude shock 
of the Norman conquest, has weathered the violence 
of the times. At the parliament of Merton, 1236, 
"all the earls and barons," says the parliament 
roll, " with one voice answered, that they would 
not change the laws of England, which have 
hitherto been used and approved;" eminently the 
law of the land ; which has been supported by the 
reports of the decisions of the courts of law and 
the statutes passed by parliament; see Bastard. 
The process, practice, and mode of pleading in the 
superior courts of common law, were amended in 
1852 and 1854. 

COMMON PLEAS, COupt of, in Eng- 
land, in ancient times followed the king's person, 
and is distinct from that of the King's Bench ; but 
on the grant of Magna Charta by king John, 
in 1215, it was fixed at Westminster. In 1833 the 
mode of procedure in all the superior courts was made 
uniform. In England, no barrister under the degree 
of serjeant could plead in the court of common pleas ; 
but in 1846 the privilege was extended to barristers 



COMMON PLEAS. 



304 



COMMONS, HOUSE OF. 



practising in the superior courts at Westminster. 
Sat last, July, 1875. By an order in council, 16 
Dec. 1880, the courts of exchequer and eommon 
pleas were abolished and were consolidated into 
■one called the " Queen's bench division," underthe 
lord chief justice of England. By the Act 44 and 45 
Vict., sec. 68, passed 27 Aug. 1881 ; the lord chief 
justice was endowed with the powers of the chief 
justice of common pleas and the chief baron of 
the exchequer. 

chief justices. (England.) 

1558. Sir Anthony Browne. 

1559. Sir James Dyer. 

1582. Sir Edmund Anderson. 

1605. Sir Francis Gawdy. 

1606. Sir Edward Coke. 
1613. Sir Henry Hobart. 
1626. Sir Thomas Richardson. 
1631. Sir Robert Heath. 
1634. Sir John Finch. 

1639. Sir Edward Lyttleton. 
T640. Sir John Bankes. 
1648. Oliver St. John. 

1660. Sir Orlando Bridgman, afterwards lord keeper. 
1668. Sir John Vaughan. 

1675. Sir Francis North, afterwards lord keeper Guildford . 
1683. Sir Francis Pemberton. 
,, Sir Thomas Jones. 

1 686. Sir Henry Bedingtield. 

1687. Sir Robert Wright. 
,, Sir Edward Herbert. 

1689. Sir Henry Pollexfen. 

1692. Sir George Treby. 

1701. Sir Thomas Trevor, afterwards lord Trevor. 

1714. Sir Peter King, afterwards lord chancellor King. 

1725. Sir Robert Eyre. 
1.736. Sir Thomas Reeve. 
1737. Sir John Willes. 

1 761. Sir Charles Pratt, afterwds. lord chancellor Camden. 

1766. Sir John Eardley Wilmot. 

-1 771. Sir William de Grey, afterwards lord Walsingham. 

1780. Alexander Wedderburne, aft. Id. ch. Loughborough. 

1793. Sir James Eyre. 

2799. Sir John Scott, afterwards lord chancellor Eldon. 

1801. Sir Richard Pepper Arden (lord Alvanley) 22 May. 

1804. Sir James Mansfield, 21 April. 

1814. Sir Vicary Gibbs, 24 Feb. 

1818. Sir Robert Dallas, 5 Nov. 

-C824. Sir Robert Gifford, 9 Jan. ; (lord Gifford) ; after- 
wards master of the rolls. 
,, Sir William Draper Best, afterwards lord Wynford, 
IS April. 

1S29. Sir Nicolas C. Tindal, 9 June ; died July, 1846. 

1846. Sir Thomas Wilde, 11 July ; afterwards lord chan- 
cellor Truro. 

1850. Sir John Jervis, 16 July ; died 1 Nov. 1856. 

1856. Sir Alex. Coekburn, Nov. ; eh. j. Q. B. June, 1859. 

1859. Sir William Eric, June ; retired Nov. 1866. 

1866. Sir William Bovill, 29 Nov. ; died 1 Nov. 1873. 

1873. John Duke Coleridge, Lord Coleridge, Nov. ; re- 
moved to queen's bench, Nov. 1880. 
The last chief .justice of the common pleas (see 

Supreme Court of Judicature Act, 1881). 

chief justices. (Ireland.) 

1691. Richard Pync, 5 Jan. 
1695. Sir John Hely, 10 May. 
1701. Sir Richard Cox, 4 May. 
1703. Robert Doyne, 27 Dec. 
1714. John Forster, 30 Sept. 
1720. Sir Richard Levinge, 13 Oct. 
1724. Thomas Wyndham, 27 Oct. 

1726. William Whitshed, 23 Jan. 

1727. James Reynolds, 8 Nov. 
1740. Henry Singleton, n May. 
1754. Sir William York''. 4 Sept. 
1761. William Aston, 5 May. 

• 765. Richard Clayton, 21 Feb. 

1770. Marcus Patterson, 18 June 

1787. Hugh Carleton, afterwards viscount Carleton, 

30 April. 
1800. John Tolcr, afterwards lord Norbury, 22 Oct. 
1827. Lord Plunket, 18 June. 
1830. John Doherty, 23 Dec. 
1850. James Henry Monalian, 23 Sept. ; died 8 Dec. 1878. 



1376. Sir Michael Morris (Lord Morris and Kilianin), 
Jan. ; died, 8 Sept. 1901. The last of the chief 
justices. 

COMMON PKAYEE, BOOK OF, was ordered 
by parliament to be printed in the English language 
on 1 April, 1548. It was voted out of doors by parlia- 
ment, and the Directory (which see) set up in its- 
room in 1644, and a proclamation was issued against 
it in 1647. With a few changes the English Com- 
mon Prayer-book is used by the episcopal churches 
in Scotland, Ireland, and North America. 

The King's Primer published . . . . 1545 

First book of Edward VI. printed . . 7 March, 1549 

Second book of Edward VI. 1552 

First book of Elizabeth (revised) .... 1559 

King James's book . ditto 1604 

Scotch book of Charles 1 1637 

Charles II. 's book (Savoy Conference) now in use . 1662 
[The original MS. of this book, signed by convocation 
in 1661, and annexed to the act of uniformity in 1662, 
was in time detached and lost, and not found till 1867 ; 
photographs were published by the queen's printers and 
the universities early in 1891 ; reproduced in type, 1893.] 
The State services (which had never formed part of the 
Prayer-book, but were annexed to it at the beginning of 
every reign) for 5 November (Gunpowder treason), 30 
Jan. (Charles I.'s execution), and 29 May (Charles II. 's re- 
storation), were ordered to be discontinued ; 17 Jan. 1859. 
Changes in the Lectionary or calendar of lessons 
were recommended in the third report of the 
Ritual Commission, 12 Jan. 1870. A bill for 
sanctioning these changes passed the house of 
lords, but was dropped in the house of commons 
through want of time, Aug. ; passed . 13 July, 1871 
[The old tables might be used till 1 Jan. 1879.] 
The fourth report of the Ritual Commission dis- 
closed great difference of opinion amongst the 

commissioners Aug. 1870 

Shortened services and other changes were autho- 
rized by the New Uniformity Act, passed 18 July, 1872 
Public Worship Regulation Act (to check ritual- 
ism) passed Aug. 1S74 

The Wesleyan Methodists who had used the Prayer- 
book appoint a committee to revise it . Aug. ,, 
The Prayer Book revision society petition the abp. 

of Canterbury for changes . . Jan.-Feb. 18S3 
The name of St. Patrick to be inserted in the 

calendar, resolved on 25 April, 1900 

Coronation Prayer Book issued . mid-June, 1902 

Slight alterations adopted. See Times . 11 Mar. 1903 

COMMONS, HOUSE OF, originated with 
Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, who by the 
Provisions of Oxford ordered returns to be made of 
two knights from every shire, and deputies from 
certain boroughs, to meet such of the barons and 
clergy as were his friends, with a view thereby to 
strengthen his own power in opposition to that of 
his sovereign Henry III., 1258. Stow ; see Parlia- 
ment. In 1S59 Mr. Newmarch estimated the con- 
stituency of England and Wales at 934,000. It was 
largely increased by the reform act of 1867 : — Regis- 
tered parliamentar}' electors, 1872 : England and 
Wales, boroughs, 1,250,019; counties, 801,109. 
Scotland, burghs, 49,025 ; counties, 79,919. Ire- 
land, boroughs, 171,912 ; counties, 175,439. Total, 
2,526,423. " By the Franchise Act of 1884, the 
electors of the United Kingdom were increased to 
about 5,000,000, and many changes were made by 
the Redistribution Act of 1885 (disqualified persons 
about 7,000,000), 1,911,955 voters in boroughs in 
England and Wales; and 2,579,403 in counties in 
1888. The present house of Commons (counties, 
boroughs, and universities) : England, 465 ; Wales, 
30; Scotland, 72; Ireland, 103 members (1903). 
See under Reform. 

Parliamentary electors: England and Wales: 1875, 
2,301,266 ; 1S78, 2,416,222 ; 1883, 2,632,223. Scotland, 
1875,289,789; 1883, 226,511. Ireland, 1875, 230,436 
1883, 322,967 ; total, 1878, 2,952,005. Electorate, 1889 



COMMONS. 



30-5 



COMMUNALISTS. 



England and Wales, 4,501,851 ; Scotland, 571,911 ; 
Ireland, 763,145; total, 5,836,907; United Kingdom, 
total, 6,528,629, hi 1898; total, 6,891,093 in 1903. 
By the reform act of 1884, the county franchise was 

made uniform with that of the boroughs, and about 

2,000,000 voters were added. 

By the acts of 1884-5, 670 members : elections, July, 
1892, reported : Liberals, 270 ; Parnellites, 9 ; anti- 
Parnellites, 72 ; Labour members, 4 ; Conservatives, 



268 ; Liberal-Unionists, 47. 12 Aug. 1895 : Conserva- 
tives, 340; Liberal-Unionists, 71 — 411 ; Liberals and 
Radicals, 177 ; anti-Parnellites, 70 ; Parnellites, 12 — 
259. Unionist majority, 152; (137, 7 Feb. 1899); total 
670. 
Elections, 27 Sept. et seq. 1900: Conservatives, 334 
Liberal-Unionists, 68 ; Liberals and Labour members, 
186; Irish. Nationalists, 82. Unionist majority, 134; 
total 670 ; 3 Dec. 1900. 



Old House. 




ENGLAND. 


Members. 


202 Cities or boroughs . 


■ • 4°3 


40 Counties 


. 82 


2 Universities . 


• • 4 



WALES. 

12 Cities or boroughs 
12 Counties 



SCOTLAND. 

15 Cities or burghs . 
33 Counties 



IRELAND. 

33 Cities or boroughs 
32 Counties 
1 University . 

66 

382 



By the Reform Act 0/1832.* 
England. Members. 

187 Cities or boroughs . . . 323 
40 Counties . . . .144 

1 Isle of Wight .... 1 

2 Universities ... 4 



230 

WALES. 

14 Cities or boroughs 
12 Counties 



472 



Scotland. Members. 

21 Cities or burghs . . . 23 
33 Counties . . . .30 



54 

IRELAND. 

33 Cities or boroughs . 
32 Counties 
1 University 



Total 



i°5 
Total 658 



By the Acts of 1867 and 1868. 
England. Members. 

186 Cities or boroughsf . . 286 

40 Counties 171 

1 Isle of Wight ... 1 
3 Universities . . . . 5 



230 

WALES. 

14 Cities or boroughs 
12 Counties 

26 

SCOTLAND. 

22 Cities or burghs . 
33 Counties 
4 Universities 

59 

IRELAND. 

33 Cities or boroughs t 
32 Counties 
1 University 

66 



463 



• 15 

• • 15 

3° 

Members. 
. 26 

• • 32 




COMMONS. In 1685, of the 37,000,000 acres 
of land in England, about 18,000,000 were moor- 
land, forest, and fen. In 1727, about 3,000,000 
acres more had been brought into cultivation ; and 
from that time to 1844, by means of 4000 private 
acts of parliament, about 7,000,000 acres more 
were enclosed. Since the inclosure act of 1845, 
which established commissioners, another 1,000,000 
acres have been enclosed . 

Act for improvement, protection, and management 
of commons near the metropolis, passed . Aug. 1866 

The Commons Preservation Society established 1865 
elected Wm. Cowper, president . ■ ■ Feb. 1867 

Metropolitan commons act, to prevent inclosure 
in the neighbourhood of London, passed, 1866 and 1869 

It is stated that there are 900,000 acres of common 
land capable of cultivation in England and Wales, 

Aug. 1874 

Act for the regulation of commons, passed 11 Aug. 1876 

Mr. de Morgan, active opponent of enclosures, im- 
prisoned for contempt of court (The Rolls) . Jan. 1878 

Metropolitan Board of Works authorised to secure 
commons, &c. by act passed . . 16 Aug. ,, 

About 14,000 acres of land near London preserved 
by the agency of the Commons Preservation 
Society reported at the annual meeting on 

10 Dec. 18S6 



* In 1844 Sudbury, and in 1852 St. Alban's, were dis- 
franchised for bribery and corruption ; each having 
previously returned two members ; the aggregate number 
of the house then became 654. In 1861, the forfeited 
seats were thus distributed by act of parliament — two 
additional to the west riding of York, one additional to 
South Lancashire, ami one to a newly-created borough, 
Birkenhead. 

t Disfranchised and replaced, 1867 : Lancaster, Yar- 
mouth, Totnes, and Reigate. — Disfranchised, 1870: Be- 
verley and Bridgwater, each two members ; Cashel and 
Sligo, each one member : 652 members, 1878 ;.i2 members 
short, through void elections, Aug. 1880. 



Law of commons amendment act requires consent 
of the board of agriculture before inclosure . 1893 
By the ranges act, passed in 1891, power was given to 
any lord of the manor to acquire possession of any part 
of any common over which his rights extend, in order 
that the secretary of state for war may establish ranges 
for rifle practice, &c, with regulations. 

New commons act (to preserve open spaces for the 
public) passed, 1899. 

COMMONWEALTH of ENGLAND, the 

term applied to tbe interregnum between the death 
of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles II. A 
republic was established at the execution of 
Charles I., 30 Jan. 1649, — a new oath called the 
"Engagement" was framed, which all officials 
were obliged to take.* Salmon. Oliver Cromwell 
was made protector, 16 Dec. 1653 (see Naseby) ; 
succeeded by his son Richard, 3 Sept. 1658. Mon- 
archy was restored 8 May, and Charles II. entered 
London, 29 May, 1660. Commonwealth of 
Australia constitution act, royal assent, 9 July, 
1900, see Australasia. 

COMMITNALISTS, or Communists, pro- 
pose to divide France into about a thousand small 
thoroughly independent states, with councils elected 
by all the population, Paris to be the ruling head. 
They declare that capital and its holders must be 
adapted to nobler uses, or cease to exist. Their 
creed is stated to be atheism and materialism. 
They are intimately connected with the Interna - 

* By this oath they swore to be true and faithful to 
the Commonwealth, without king or house of lords. 
The statues of Charles were next day demolished, par- 
ticularly that at the Royal Exchange, and one at the 
west end of St. Paul's ; and in their room the following 
inscription was conspicuously set up : —"Exit Tyrannus 
Regum ultimus, Anno Libertatis Anglice Restitutes Primo. 
Anno Bom., 164S, Jan. 30." 

X 



COMMUNES. 



306 



COMPANIES ACTS. 



tional Society of workmen (see Workmen), and 
with the communists or socialists (1871-3).* 

_ COMMUNES, in France, are territorial divi- 
sions under a mayor. In the nth century the 
name was given to combinations of citizens, favoured 
by the crown, against the exactions of the nobles. 
In 1356 Stephen Marcel, during the English inva- 
sion, vainly endeavoured to establish a confederation 
of sovereign cities, having Paris as the governing 
head ; and for six months it, was really governed by 
a commune in 1588. After the insurrection of Jul}-, 
1 789, the revolutionary committee which replaced the 
city council took the name of " commune of Paris," 
Pethion being mayor. It met at the Hotel de 
Ville, and was definitively constituted, 21 May, 
1791. It had great power under Robespierre, and 
fell with him 17 July, 1794; being replaced by 
twelve municipalities. The commune of Paris was 
proclaimed 28 March, 1871, during the insurrection, 
which began 18 March, and ended with the capture 
of the city by the government troops, 28 May follow- 
ing. 2241; communists were pardoned by decree 
issued 17 Jan. 1879; aD -d many others afterwards. 
A number re-entered Paris, 4 September following. 
For the events of the communal rule in Paris, see 
France, 187 1. See Socialism. 

COMMUNION, a name given to the ordinance 
of the Lord's Supper, 1 Cor. x. 16. Communicating 
under the form of bread alone is said to have had 
its rise in the west, under pope Urban II., 1096. The 
cup was first denied to the laity by the council of 
Constance, 1414-18. The fourth Lateran council, 
1215, decreed that ever} r believer should receive the 
communion at least at Easter. The communion ser- 
vice of the church of England was set forth in 1549. 

COMMUTATION, see Tithes. 

COMOEN, see Komom. 

COMORO ISLANDS, see Madagascar, 1891. 

COMPANIES.! The London trade com- 
panies were gradually formed out of the trade or | 
craft guilds, mainly by the exertions of Walter 
Harvey, mayor, in 1272, who is said to have 
been very active in enlarging and maintaining the 
liberties and privileges of the city. The original 
religious element in the companies gradually 
disappeared. Among the earliest commercial com- 
panies in England may be named the Steel- I 
yard society, established 1232. The second com- | 
pany was the merchants of St. Thomas a Becket, 
in 1248. Stoiv. The Merchant Adventurers, I 
incorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. Mr. Edward | 
Arnold's Early Chartered Companies, published 
July, 1896. The following are the city companies 
of London ; the first twelve are the chief, and are 



styled "the honourable." Many companies &r® 
extinct, and many dates are doubtful. An inquiry 
into their affairs was partially resisted by them in 
1835. I Q '869 the gross income of the endowed 
charities of the city companies was stated to be 
above 99,000^. A motion in the commons for 
inquiry into the revenues and other affairs of 89 
companies, by Mr. "VV. H. James, withdrawn, 23, 
May, 1876. A commission of inquiry was appointed 
(the earl of Derby, duke of Bedford, lords Coleridge 
and Sherbrooke, sir R. A. Cross, &c), 14 July, 
1880. Five reports issued with recommendations- 
for reform, 1884-5. 

In 1884, 7319 liverymen and about 10,000 freemen, 
estimated annual income about 750,000?., expended in 
maintenance, education, and charities ; about 75,000?. 
spent in entertainments. 

Grants from the companies to the City Guilds of 
London Institute (Goldsmiths 46,000?., Drapers 43,000?., 
Cloth workers 37,000?., Fishmongers 34,000?., Mercers 
22,000?., Grocers 10,000?.) ; for technical education, &e. 
(Drapers 60,000?., Goldsmiths 85,000?., Mercers 60,000?.^ 
and others promised 1878-88. 

46. Plasterers . . 1502 

47. Stationers . . 1556 

48. Broderers . . 156L 

49. Upholders . . 1626 

50. Musicians . . 1604 

51. Turners . . ,, 

52. Basket-makers . 1569 

53. Glaziers . . 1631 

54. Homers . . . 163S 

55. Farriers . . 1684 

56. Paviors . . . 14791 

57. Dormers . . 1712. 

58. Apothecaries . .1617 

59. Shipwrights . 1605, 

60. Spectacle-makers. 1629. 

61. Clock-makers . 1631 

62. Glovers . . . 1639 

63. Comb-makers . 1635 

64. Felt-makers . . 1604 

65. Framework knit- 
ters . . . 1663- 

66. Silk-throwsters . 1629. 

67. Silk-men . . 1608 

68. Pin-makers . . 1636 

69. Needle-makers . 1656 

70. Gardeners . . 1605 

71. Soap-makers . 163S 
1606 1 72. Tinplate-workers . i67r 
1272 ! 73. Wheelwrights . 1670 
x 477 i 74- Distillers . . . 1638. 
J 438 75- Hatband-makers . 1664 
1581 j 76. Patten-makers . 1671 
1606 77. Glass-sellers . 
1677 I 78. Tobacco - pipe 



I. 


Mercers 


1393 


2. 


Grocers . . . 


i34S 


S- 


Drapers 


1438 


4- 


Fishmongers (salt, 
I433;stock,i509) 






united . . . 


1537 


5- 


Goldsmiths . 


!.3 2 7 


6. 


Skinners . . . 




7- 


Merchant Taylors. 


1326 


8. 


Haberdashers 


1448 


9- 


Salters . . . 


I5S8 


10. 


Ironmongers 


1464 


11. 


Vintners . . . 


1363 


12. 


Cloth-workers 


1480 


13- 


Dyers . . . 


1471 


14. 


Brewers 


1438 


is; 


Leather-sellers 


1444 


16. 


Pewterers . . 


1473 



1453 



* M. Dufaure, in opposing the amnesty, 17 May, 1876, 
asserted that the outbreak was organised by about 7000 
communists and 1500 foreigners; 40,000 persons were 
inculpated; 10,000 tried ; 25,000 dismissed. See Fra nee. 

t Bubble companies have been formed, commonly by 
designing persons. Law's bubble, in 1720-1, was per- 
haps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the South 
Sea Bubble, in the same year, was scarcely less memor- 
able for its ruin of thousands of families'. Many com- 
panies were established in these countries in 1S24 and 
1825, and turned out to be bubble*. Immense losses 
were, incurred by individuals, and the families of thou- 
sands of speculators were totally ruined, Many railway 
enterprises (1844-5) wore termed bubbles. Lord chief 
justice Russell stated that, from 1891-7, over 28 millions 
sterling had been lost to the community in connection 
with dishonest company promotions, Nov. 1898. See 
Law's Bubble; South Sea; Railways; Joint-Stock Com- 
panies. 



17. Barber-Surgeons . 1462 

18. Cutlers . . . 1415 

19. Bakers . . . 1509 

20. Wax-chandlers . 1483 

21. 'Tallow-chandlers . 1462 

22. Armourers and 

Braziers . . 

23. Girdlers 

24. Butchers . . . 

25. Saddlers 

26. Carpenters . . 

27. Cordwainers 

28. Painter-stainers . 

29. Curriers 

30. Masons . . . 

31. Plumbers 

32. Inn-holders . . 

33. Founders 

34. Poulterers . . 

35. Cooks . 

36. Coopers . . . 

37. Tilers and brick- 

layers 

38. Bowyers . . . 

39. Fletchers 

40. Blacksmiths . . 

41. Joiners. 

42. Weavers . . . 

43. Woolmen 

44. Scriveners . . 

45. Fruiterers . 



16; 

1515 

1614 

1504 

1482 

1501 



1664 
1619 



makers 
79. Coach and Har- 
ness makers . 1677 
So. Gunmakers . . 1637 

81. Gold and Silver 
wire-drawers . 1693 

82. Bowstring-makers 1440 
1568 83. Card-makers . 1628 
1621 84. Fan-makers . . 1709 
1536 i 85. Wood-mongers . 1605 
1571 ! 86. Starch-makers . 1632 
1571 ! 87. Fishermen . . 1687 
1 184 88. Parish clerks . 1223 
1484 ' 89. Carmen . . . 1606 
1617 90. Porters . . 1154 
1606 qi. Watermen . . 1556 

COMPANIES ACTS : one passed 1862, was 
amended and continued, 20 Aug. 1867 ; both 
amended by acts, 2 July, 1877, 15 Aug. 1879, and 
Aug, 1898. The important companies winding-up 
act was passed 18 Aug. 1890 ; amended 1893. 

By the last act, unlimited banking companies were 
regulated in regard to their issue of notes, audit, of 
accounts, &c. The aets of 1862, 1867, 1877, and 1879 
were amended by 43 Vict. c. 19 (1880), in 1883 and 1886. 

Committee appointed by the board of trade to inquire 



COMPASS. 



307 



CONCLAVE. 



into the working of companies acts : lord Davey, Mr. 
iustice Chitty, and others, Nov. 1894 ; the report 
recommends important changes, Aug. 1895. 

Legality of a " one man company " affirmed on appeal, 
by the house of lords, in the case of Salomon (pauper) 
v. Aron Salomon, 16 Nov. ; Times, 17, 18 Nov. 1896. 

Companies act (for the regulation of limited companies, 
limited liability, and the discovery of fraud), passed, 
S Aug. 1900. 

Companies registered in the United Kingdom 1862-1902, 
83,915; nominal capital 6,305,578,902?.. Of these 3933, 
with nominal capital 156,714,468?., were registered in 
1902. By the official return of the Registrar, 33,259 
joint-stock companies were believed to be carrying on 
business, April 1902 ; paid-up capital, including 
vendors' shares, 1,805,141,161?. 

COMPASS, MAEINEE'S, said to have 
been early known to the Chinese, 1115 B.C., and 
brought to Europe by Marco i'olo, a Venetian, 
1260, A.d. Flavio Gioja, of Amalfi, a navigator, of 
Naples,* is said to have introduced the suspension 
of the needle, 1302. The compass is also said to 
have been known to the Swedes in the time of 
king Jarl Birger, 1 250. Its variation was discovered 
first by Columbus, 1492 ; afterwards by Sebastian 
Cabot, 1540. The compass box and hanging com- 
pass used by navigators were invented by William 
fiarlowe, an English divine and natural philosopher, 
in 1608 ; see Magnetism. The measuring compass 
was invented by Jost Bing, of Hesse, in 1602. The 
compass of sir William Thomson (lord Kelvin), 
patented in 1876, is considered the best. The Evoy 
compass, constructed so as to be unaffected by the 
magnetism inseparable from an iron ship, reported 
successful, Feb. 1900. 

COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS, see 

Civil Service. 

COMPIEGNE, a French city north of Paris, 
the residence of the Carlovingian kings. During 
the siege, Joan of Arc was captured by the Bur- 
gundians, 25 May, 1430, and given up to the English 
for money. The emperor Napoleon III. and the king 
of Prussia met here on 6 Oct. 1861. 

COMPLITTENSIAN BIBLE, see Polyglot. 

COMPOSING-MACHINES, see Printing 

and Times. 

COMPOSITE OEDEB, a mixture of the 
Corinthian and Ionic, and also called the Roman 
order, is of uncertain date. 
Composite Portraits. By means of photography in 1877-8, 

Mr. Francis Galton combined from 2 to 9 separate 

portraits ; the result was generally an improvement 

on the features of the components. 

COMPOUND HOUSEHOLDERS (in 

regard to the payment of rates) were constituted 
by the Small Tenements act of 1851. Their posi- 
tion, with regard to the suffrage, caused much 
discussion during the passing of the Reform act in 
1867 j aQ d their claims were rejected. 

COMPOUND EADICAL, in organic chem- 
istry, is a substance which, although containing 
two or more elements, in ordinary circumstances 
performs the part of an element. The Radical or 
Binary theory was propounded by Berzelius, 1833, 
and by Liebig, 1838 ; and modified in the nucleus 
theory of Aug. Laurent, 1836. The first compound 
radical isolated was cyanogen (which see), by Gay- 
Lussac, in 1815 ; see Amyl, Ethyl, and Methyl. 

* The statement that the fleur-de-lis was made the 
ornament of the northern point of the compass in com- 
pliment to Charles, the king of Naples at the time of 
the discovery, has been contradicted. 



I COMPEEHENSION BILL. Passed by 
the house of lords in 1689, it proposed changes 
likely to induce nonconformists to join the church 
of England — it was dropped in the commons, 
being unsatisfactory to all parties. 

COMPEOMISE, see Breda. 

I COMTE PHILOSOPHY, see Positive 
1 Philosophy. 

CONCEPTION, Immaculate. A festival 
(on 8 Dec.) appointed in 1389, observed in the 

j Roman Catholic Church in honour of the Virgin 
Mary's having been conceived and born immacu- 
late, or without original sin. Opposition to this 

I doctrine was forbidden by decree of pope Paul V. 

I in 161 7, confirmed by Gregory XV. and Alexander 

1 VII. Henault. On 8 Dec. 1854, pope Pius IX. 
promulgated a bull, declaring this dogma to be an 
article of faith, and charging with heresy those who 
should doubt it or speak against it. — The Concep- 

j tionists were an order of nuns in Italy, esta- 
blished in 1488 ; see Santiago. 

CONCEET OF EUEOPE, termed by lord 
Salisbury, " inchoate federation," 9 Nov. 1897 ; 
gradually formed by the ambassadors at Con- 
stantinople, with regard to the troubles in Turkey y. 
Candia, and Greece, 1896-7. 

CONCEETINA, a musical instrument in- 
vented by prof, afterwards sir Charles Wheatstone^ 
about 1825, and improved by Mr. G. Case. The 
sounds are produced by free vibrating metal springs. 

CONCEETS. The Filarmonia gave concerts 
at Vicenza in the 16th century. The first public 
subscription concert was performed at Oxford in 
1665 ; the first in London is said to have been in 
1672, by John Banister, afterwards by Thomas 
Britton till his death, 1714. The Academy of 
Ancient Music, which introduced concerts in London ,, 
began in 1710 ; the Concerts of Ancient Music 
in 1776; and the present Philharmonic Society in, 
1813 ; see others, under Music; Crystal Palace^ 
and Handel. Colossal peace concerts were held at 
Boston, U.S., 15 June, &c. 1869; 17 June to- 
4 July, 1872 ; see Boston. 

Concerts Spirituels at Paris, organized by Anne Dannican 
Philidor, began in Passion week, 18 March, 1725 : 
closed in 1791 ; re-established, 1805 ; rejilaced by the- 
Concerts du Conservatoire, begun 9 March, 1828. 
Jullien's Popular Concerts, with monster quadrilles, began 
at Drury Lane Theatre 8 June, 1840 ; a farewell 
series, 18*59. He greatly promoted the taste for classi- 
cal music. 
Promenade Concerts revived at Covent Garden Theatre, 
autumn, 1880 ct seq. ; Queen's Hall, 1895, et seq. 

CONCHOLOGY, the science of shells, is 
mentioned by Aristotle and Pliny. It was first 
reduced to a system by John Daniel Major, of 
Kiel, who published his classification of the Tes- 
tacea in 1675. Lister's system was published in 
1685; and that of Largius in 1722. Johnson's 
Introduction (1850) and Sowerby's Manual of 
Conchology (1842) are useful. Forbes and Han- 
ley's " British Mollusca and their Shells " (1848-53) 
is a magnificent work. " British Conchology," by 
J. G. Jeffreys, published in 1862-9. 

CONCILIATION COUNCILS, see 

Councils. Conciliation (trade disputes) act passed, 
7 Aug. 1896. 

CONCLAVE (L. con together, clavis a key). 
A meeting of persons shut up to consult in privacy. 
The term is now specially used to signify the 
assembly of cardinals locked up in apartments of 
the Vatican till they have elected a pope. The 



CONCORD. 



308 



CONFERENCES. 



practice is said to have been instituted by Alexander 
III. in 1 1 79. Clement IV. having died at Viterbo 
in 1268, the cardinals were unable to agree in the 
choice of a successor. In 1271 they were on the 
point of breaking up, when the magistrates, by 
the advice of St. Bouaventura, shut the gates of 
their city, and locked up the cardinals, upon which 
Gregory X. was elected. This pope in 1274, with 
aid from a council, formulated rules for the seclu- 
sion of cardinals during a papal election, which, 
with slight alterations, are still adhered to. Small 
cells are erected in a hall of the Vatican, with 
access to the Sistine chapel, in which the votes (by 
ballot) are cast. All doors but one are built up, 
every possible outlet being strictly guarded. The day 
after the death of a pope the cardinals are locked 
up in these apartments and do not come out until 
from amongst their number a pope has been chosen. 
The latest conclave was on July 31, 1903, when the 
Sacred college to the number of 62 cardinals entered 
the conclave; on Aug. 4 Cardinal Sarto (who has 
taken the name of Pius X.) was elected pope ii. 
succession to Leo XIII. 

CONCORD (Massachusetts, N. America). Near 
here was fought the battle of Lexington {which 
see), 19 April, 1775. 

CONCORDANCE. An index or alphabetical 
catalogue of all the words and also a chronological 
account of all the transactions in the Bible. The 
first concordance was made under the direction of 
Hugo de St. Caro, who employed as many as 500 
monks upon it, 1247. Abbe Leng let. Itwas based 
on one compiled by Anthony of Padua. Thomas 
Gibson's "Concordance of the New Testament" 
published, 1535. John Marbeck's "Concordance " 
(for the whole Bible), 1550. Two Concordances (with 
royal privileges), by Rob. F. Herrey, appeared in 
1578. Cruden's Concordance was published in 
London in 1737. Dr. Robert Young's valuable 
''Analytical Concordance to the Bible," 1879-80. 
The Index to the Bible, published by the King's 
printers and others, prepared by B. Vincent, 1848, 
still in use 1903. 

Verbal indexes accompany good editions of the 
ancient classics. An index to Shakspeare, by Ayscough, 
appeared in 1790 ; another by Twiss in 1805 ; and Mrs. 
Cowden Clarke's (late Mary Novello) concordance to 
Shakspeare's Plays (on which she spent 16 years' labour) 
in 1847. Shakspeare-Le.xicon by Dr. A. Schmidt, 2 vols. 
1874-5. Mrs. Horace Furness's concordance to Shak- 
speare's Poems, 1874. Todd's verbal index to Milton, 1809. 
Cleveland's concordance to Milton, 1867. Other con- 
cordances are— to Burns, by Reid, 1889; to Cowper, by 
Neve, 1887 ; to Dante's: Divina Com/media, by Fay, 
1888; to Homer, by Dunbar, 1880; to Pope, by Abbott, 
1875 ; to Shelley, by Ellis, 1892. 

CONCORDAT. An instrument of agree- 
ment between a prince and the pope, usually con- 
cerning benefices. The concordat between the em- 
peror Henry V. of Germany and pope Calixtus II., 
in 1 1 22, has been regarded as the fundamental law 
of the church in Germany. The concordat be- 
tween Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII., signed 
at Paris, 15 July, 1801, re-established the Catholic 
church and the papal authority in France. Napo- 
leon was made in effect the head of the Qallicao 
church, as bishops were to have their appointments 
from him, and their investiture from the pope. 
Another concordat, between the same persons was 
signed at Fontainebloau, 25 Jan. 1813. These were 
almost nullified by another, 22 Nov. 1817. A con- 
cordat, signed 18 Aug. 1855, between Austria and 
Rome, by which a great deal of the liberty of the 
Austrian church was given up to the papacy, 
caused much dissatisfaction. In 1808 it was vir- 



tually abolished by the legislatures of Hungary 
and Austria. 

CONDE, Louis I. de Bourbon, prince of, 
brother of Antony of Bourbon, king of Navarre, was 
born 7 May, 15^0 ; representative of an ancient 
race, taking their name from the town of Conde, 
distinguished in the wars of the time, a leader of 
the Huguenots, taken prisoner at the battle of 
Jarnac, and killed by che baron de Montesquieu 
(1569). Louis II. de Bourbon, "the Great Conde," 
born, 8 Sept. 1621, commander of the French forces 
in the Thirty Years war, defeated the Spaniards at 
Rocroi, a brilliant victory (1643), and others, 
1644-8. Retired finally to Chantilly, about 1675, 
and died, 11 Dec. 1686. " Histoire des princes de 
Conde," by the due d'Aumale, published 9 vols., 
1865-96. 

CONDENSATION, see Gas, Beer, Milk. 

CONDOTTIERI, conductors or leaders of 
mercenaries, termed free companies or lances, 
which became so troublesome in Italy, that the 
cities formed a league to suppress them in 1342. 
Many ravaged France after the peace of Bretigny, 
in 1360. 

CONDUITS. Two remarkable conduits, 
among a number of others in London, existed 
early in Cheapside. The " great conduit" was the 
first cistern of lead erected in the city, and was 
built in 1825. At the procession of Anna Boleyn, 
on the occasion of her marriage, it ran with white 
and claret wiue all the afternoon, 1 June, 1533. 
Stow. 

CONFEDERATE STATES of North 

Amekica. The efforts of the Southern States for 
the extension of slavery, and the zeal of the Northern 
States for its abolition, with the consequent political 
dissensions, led to the great secession of 1860-1. On 
4 Nov. i860, Abraham Lincoln, the Republican or 
Abolitionist candidate, was elected president of the 
United States. Hitherto, a president in the interest 
of the South had been elected. On 20 Dec, South 
Carolina seceded from the Union; and soon after 
Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, 
Texas, Virginia (except West Virginia), Arkansas, 
Tennessee, and North Carolina also. Jefferson Davis 
was inaugurated president of tne Southern Con- 
federacy at Montgomery in Alabama, 18 Feb. 1861. 
For the events of the war which ensued, and the 
restoration of the Southern States to the Union, 
see United States, 1861-5. Jefferson Davis's "Rise 
and Fall of the Confederate Government," 2 vols., 
published June, 1881 ; he died, aged 81, 6 Dec. 1889. 

CONFEDERATION at Paris, 14 J" 1 )', 

1790; see Champ de Mars and Bastille. 

CONFEDERATION of the Rhine, the 

League of the Germanic States, .formed by Napo- 
leon Bonaparte, 12 July, 1806, when he abolished 
the Holy Roman Empire, and the emperor of Ger- 
many became emperor of Austria. In Dec. it 
consisted of France, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Saxony, 
and Westphalia ; seven grand duchies ; six duchies; 
and twenty principalities. The princes collectively 
engaged to raise 258,000 troops to serve in case of 
war, and established a diet at Frankfort. This 
league terminated with the career of Bonaparte in 
1814; and in 181 ^ it was replaced by the Germanic 
Confederation {which see, and German//). 

CONFERENCES, Ecclesiastical. One 

was held at Hampton Court palace, between the 
prelates of the church of England and the puritan 
ministers, in order to effect a general union, at the 



CONFESSIONAL. 



309 



CONGO RIVER. 



instance of the king, James I., 14,16, 18 Jan. 1604. 
It led to the new translation of the Bible, now in 
general use in England; executed in 1607-11. 
Some alterations in the church liturgy were agreed 
upon ; but tbese not satisfying the dissenters, 
nothing more was done. — Another conference of the 
bishops and presbyterian ministers, with the same 
view, was held in the Savoy, 15 April to 25 July, 
1661. The dissenters' objections were generally 
disallowed, but some alterations were recommended 
in the Prayer-book. See Wesleyans and Congresses. 

CONFESSIONAL, see Auricular Confession. 

CONFESSIONS of Faith, or Creeds; 

see Apostles' , Nicene (325), and Athanasian (about 

434) Creeds. J. R. Lumbj's "History of the 

Creeds," published 1874. 

The confession of faith of the Greek church was 
presented to Mahommed II. in 1453. This gave 
way in 1643 to one composed by Mogila, metro- 
politan of Kiev, which is the iiresent standard 
of the Russo-Greek church. 

The creed of Pius IV. , composed of the Nicene creed, 
with additional articles which embody all the 
peculiar dogmas of the Roman Catholic church, 
published by the council of Trent . . . 1564 

The church of England retains the Apostles', - 
Nicene, and Athanasian creeds, with articles : — 
42 in 1552 ; reduced to 39 1563 

The confession of Augsburg (that of the Lutherans) 
was drawn up principally by Melancthon, in 
1530, and has since undergone modifications, the 
last of which is called the " Form of Concord " . 1579 

The Westminster confession was agreed to in 1643 ; 
and adopted by the presbyterian church of Scot- 
land ; see Westminster 1647 

The congregational dissenters published a declara- 
tion of faith 



1833 

CONFIRMATION, or "laying on hands," 
was practised by the Apostles in 34 and 56 (Acts viii. 
17; xix. 6), and was general, according to some 
church authorities, in 190. In the church of ling- 
land it is the public profession, with laying on 
of hands by a bishop, of the Christian religion by 
an adult person, who has been baptized in infancy. 
It is made a sacrament by the church of Rome. 

CONFLANS (.near Paris), TREATY OF, 
between Louis XI. of France and the dukes of 
Bourbon, Brittany, and Burgundy, 5 Oct. 1465. 
By its provisions Normandy was ceded to the duke 
of Berry, and an end was put to the " War of the 
Public Good." It was confirmed by the Treaty of 
Peronne, 1468. 

CONFUCIANISM, the doctrines or system 
of morality taught by Confucius K'ung Fu-tze, or 
"the Master K'ung" (b.c. 551-479), which has 
been long adopted in China as the basis of juris- 
prudence and education. It inculcates no worship 
of a god, and doubts a future state. 

CONGE D'ELIRE (permission to elect), the 
licence given by the sovereign as head of the church, 
to chapters and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, 
particularly bishops ; the right asserted by Henry 
Vlir., 1535. After the interdict of the pope upon 
England had been removed in 1214, king John 
made an arrangement with the clergy for the 
election of bishops. 

CONGELATION, the act of freezing. Dr. 
Cullen produced ice by rapid evaporation of water 
by an air pump. Ice was produced in summer by 
means of chemical mixtures, by Mr, Walker, in 
1783. In 1810 Leslie used an air-pump in com- 
bination with a vessel of sulphuric acid. Numer- 
ous freezing mixtures have been discovered since. 
Intense colu is produced by the aerification of 



liquefied carbonic acid gas. Ice-making machines 
invented by Jacob Perkins 1834, John Gorrice 
1848, and others. In 1857 Jas. Harrison patented a 
machine for manufacturing ice for commercial 
purposes, by means of ether and salt water, and 
made large blocks. In i860, M. Carre devised a 
method of freezing to 6o° below zero by making 
water in a close vessel absorb and give off the gas 
ammonia. Siebe's ice-making machine, an im- 
provement on Harrison's, exhibited in use i86i-2o. 
R. Reece liquefied ammonia by compression and 
vaporised it in a closed vessel surrounded with the 
liquid to be cooled, 1868. Prof. Linde of Munich 
followed up this principle and produced an ammonia 
compression machine, 1873. Compression machines, 
ammonia or carbonic, are now 1903 in general use. 

CONGESTED DISTRICTS BOARD 

(Ireland), constituted by the purchase of land act, 
5 Aug. 1 89 1, amended 1893, 1894. Land purchased, 
works undertaken, &c; reportedNov. 1895. Reports 
issued, 1896, 1897, 1898. Another act (Ireland) 
passed, 1 Aug. 1899. Congested districts act (Scot- 
land) passed, 1897. 

CONGO RIVER, S.W. Africa. The mouths 
of the Congo were discovered by the Portuguese in 
1484, and they have .ever since claimed territories 
on its banks, having founded settlements, and sent 
missionaries, with temporary success. Dr. Living- 
stone explored the Congo, 1867-71. The natives 
on its bank and on the creeks having rifled the 
Geraldine, and committed other acts of piracy, 
were chastised by an expedition under commodore 
sir Win. Hewett, 3- 1 1 Sept. 1875. Several villages 
and chiefs' houses were destroyed. 
For Mr. H. M. Stanley's expeditions in connection 
with the Belgian government, and his settle- 
ments, see Africa, 1876, et se.q. ' 
M. de Brazza's expedition ; his treaty with the 
king of Congo ratified by the French govern- 
ment . . .... 21 Nov 1882 

Colonies formed ; national jealousies excited ; regret 
of the disinterested king of the Belgians ; the 
British government partly recognize the rights of 
the Portuguese, Jan., with certain modifications 
(afterwards set aside) .... March, 1883. 

Sir F. Goldsmid, chief of an expedition connected 
with the International African Association fa- 
voured by Belgium, starts summer . . . ,,. 
The French seize fresh territories, 28 March, 1883 ; 

burn a village, March, et seq. 
Mr. Stanley had peaceably founded 12 stations and 
opened up 4500 miles of rivers to trade and civi- 
lization, reported 12 July ; he advocates a British 
protectorate, Sept. ; M. de Brazza's settlements 
reported unsuccessful .... Sept. ,,, 

Circular from the Portuguese government assert- 
ing rights over the mouth of the Congo, published 

in Times 5 Nov. ,, 

Sir F. Goldsmid ill ; returns to England ; reports ; 
Gen. (Chinese) Gordon appointed by the king of 
Belgium to act on behalf of the International 
African Association on the Congo for the sup- 
pression of slavery, and support of commerce, 
Jan. ; but is sent by the British government to 

the Soudan 18 Jan. 1882 

Mr. Stanlev returns to Stanley Pool . 21 Jan. „ 
British agreement with Congo, announced 5 Feb. „ 
British interest secured by treaty with Portugal ; 

signed ^ e b- >> 

The° International African Association (captain 
Strauch, president), aiming at the suppressionof 
slavery, has 30 stations, announced 9 April ; its 
flag recognized by United States, 22 April; it 
formulates itself as a federal state, and is said to 
enter into engagements with France, regarded as 
presumptuous, but justified by the Association, 

May-June, „ 
Recognized by Great Britain, Italy, and other 

powers, Dec. 1884, et seq. 
Colonel sir Francis de Winton appointed adminis- 
trator-general of the Congo territories June, „ 



CONGO EIVEE. 



310 



CONGO RIVER. 



Free trade in the Congo valley declared by the 

West African conference (which sec.) . Dec. 1884 
The Mouth of the Congo occupied by the Portuguese 

15 Jan. 1S85 
Treaty between the Association and France respect- 
ing the delimitation of territory, signed 5 Feb „ 
King Leopold II. takes the title of Independent 

Sovereign of the State about . . 30 April ,, 

Mr. H. M. Stanley's book " Congo, and the Found- 
ing of its Free State " published . . May ,, 
Conference at Berlin (which met 1884-5) ratifying 
the recognition of the Congo State by the Powers 

19 April, i386 

Stanley Falls Station evacuated . . . Dec. „ 

Leopoldville, at Stanley Pool, founded by Mr. H. 
M. Stanley in 1881 reported prosperous . . 1887 

Stanley Falls Station re-occupied . . 4 June, 1888 

The state appeals to Belgium for an annual subsidy 
of 1,500,000 francs for ten years about 12 Aug. 1889 

Prosperity of the country reported (Mr. Janssen 
governor-general) Sept. „ 

Supreme council of the Congo State, king Leopold 
president, held its first sitting at Brussels, 18 Dec. „ 

The Belgian government agree to lend to the Congo 
State 5,000,000 francs at once, and 2,000,000 francs 
annually for the next 10 years without interest, 
July ; the bill passed by the chamber, 11 July, 
by the senate 30 July, 1890 

The budget shows a deficit of 7,000,000 francs 

17 April, 1892 

The killing of M. de Poumayrac in debatable 
land causes a territory dispute between France 
and Belgium ; the Congo state declines responsi- 
bility ; arbitration proposed and deferred, July, 
Aug. ; the French demand indemnity and evacu- 
ation of the land, 7 Aug. ; the death of M. 
Poumayrac and some of his party, attributed to 
indiscreet dealings with the natives . Sept. ,, 

Rising of the Arabs in the Upper Congo, and 
massacre of Europeans, anti-slavery agents, &c, 
including M. Hodister, an able officer of the 
Katanga company about 15 May. (See Katanga.) ,, 

Major de Wahis appointed governor about 26 Aug. „ 

Exploring expedition of M. Van den Kerckhoven, a 
Belgian, with above 1,000 men, which started in 
1891, reported arrival at Wadelai . about 25 Aug. „ 

Lieut. Dhanis severely defeats the slave traders 
under Sefu, son of Tippoo Tib, and takes many 
prisoners 22 Nov. „ 

Expedition under lieut. Dhanis against the Arabs 
of Munie Moharra Jan. 1893 

Dynamite explosion on a railway between Emposi 
and Matadi, about 50 persons killed, reported, 

16 Jan. ,, 

Expedition for the relief of capt. Jacques [reported ,, 
safe, 25 Oct. 1892], engaged in the suppression of 
the slave trade, organized in Brussels . Feb. 

The Arabs defeated by lieut. Chaltin ; 80 slaves re- 
leased, reported 26 Feb. ,, 

Successful expedition of M. Delcommune up the 
Lukuga to the Congo ; important discoveries, 
about 29 Sept. 1892, at scq., reported . March, ,, 

Capt. Bia, who started on an expedition 19 Dec. 
1891, from Lupongo in the Lomami valley after 
exploring lakes Mweru and Bangeweolo, died, 30 
Aug. 1892 ; reported .... March, ,, 

Nyangwe taken by capt., aft. baron, Dhanis 

4 March, ,, 

Gradual suppression of the Arab slave-traders, and 
subjection of the country to the Congo Free 
State March, April, ,, 

Tin' Ponthier expedition leaves Antwerp, 6 March; 
reached Boina 30 March, „ 

M. van den Kerckhoven killed, reported 5 May, 
succeeded by capt. Delanghe, reported . Juiy ,, 

Defeat of Rumaliza at KassailgO by baron Dhanis 
with heavy loss, 20 Oct. ; capt. Ponthier dies of 
his wounds .'.... 25 Oct. ,, 

Said ben Abadi, the murderer of Eniiii Pasha, 
taken and shot, reported . . .16 Nov. „ 

Sefu killed in battle .... 17 Nov. „ 

Anew district constructed on the Upper Congo, the 
capital to be Nyangwe, reported . 28 Nov. ,, 

First section of the Congo railway (24 in.) opened 

4 Dec. ,, 

Gov.-gen. in Bonta, M. Wahis . . . Dec. ,, 

Friendly relations with natives, reported 12 Jan. 1894 



Rumaliza defeated by baron Dhanis and lieut. 

Lothaire, 14 Jan., reported . . March, 1894 

An attack of the Mahdists on Mundu, Upper Nile, 
repulsed by capt. Delanghe ; capt. Bonvalet and 
M. Devos killed .... 18 March, ,, 
Anglo-Belgian treaty settling the boundaries of the 
Congo State and the British possessions, signed 

at Brussels 12 May, 

French claims set forth, Times . . 19 June, 

A dispute with Germany settled by compromise 

22 June, 

Capt. Jacques, leader of the Anti-slavery com- 
mittee, warmly welcomed in Brussels . 23 June, 

Agreement with France signed . . 14 Aug. 

Baron Dhanis, commander of the expedition to 
Katanga, warmly received at Antwerp . 11 Oct. 

Annexation of the Congo State to Belgium proposed 
by the government at Brussels . . 4 Jan. 

Settlement between Belgium and France as to the 
right of pre-emption with regard to the Congo 
State 5 F e b - 

The debt of the State adopted by Belgium 27 June, 

Excitement respecting capt. Lothaire's execution of 
Mr. Stokes, ivory dealer, after a court martial (1 
Jan.), charged with selling arms, &c. . Aug. 

Capt. Lothaire summoned to give explanations to 
Col. Wahis, governor-gen. of the Congo . Sept. 

150,00b francs paid as indemnity to the British 
government for Mr. Stokes' family ; 100,000 francs 
to the German government; announced, 14 Nov. 

Complete defeat of the rebels at Luluaburg by maj. 
Lothaire 18 Oct. 

Zemio, on the Mbomu river, occupied by the 
French ; reported 2 Dec. 

Skirmish at Congo-ute, lieut. Liebrecht and M. de 
Valdere killed ; reported ... 5 Jan. 1S96 

Arrival of maj. Lothaire at Boma, 27 March ; his 
trial begun, 25 April ; acquitted, on the ground 
that Stokes was inciting to civil war by allying 
himself with Kibonge, a native chief, and placing 
himself at the head of an armed troop, 27 April ; 
Mr. Arthur, British consul at Boma, appeals 
against the finding of the court . . 15 May, ,, 

Maj. Lothaire arrives at Brussels, 5 June : second 
trial there, 3 Aug. ; acquitted, 6 Aug. (resigns, 
announced 6 Aug. 1897). 

Royal warrant withdrawing the proposal of annexa- 
tion of the State read in the chamber, Brussels 

10 June, ,, 

The Gennan government claims indemnity for 
robbery of traders ; reported . . 21 June, ,, 

First half of the Congo railway inaugurated 22 July, ,, 

Revolt of natives quelled at Trebu ; about 27 July, „ 

Successful expedition of baron Dhanis in the 
Upper Nile ; Lado occupied, and an alliance con- 
cluded with the natives ; reported . . 2 Sept. ,, 

Baron Dhanis appointed governor-gen. . 4 Sept. ,, 

A European committee for protection of natives 
appointed by the Belgian government, with regu- 
lations ; reported 20 Sept. ,, 

White population, 1,325 (899 Belgian), 1 Jan. 1896; 

A native educational military colony established 
and declared successful ; pacification of the river 
tribes and others ; reported . . . 21 May, ,, 

Mutinous native troops defeated at Kohoa, in 
Munsa, by capt. Miehaux ... n Nov. ,, 

Capt. Chaltin totally defeats the Mahdists and 
occupies Rejaf; lieut. Bardlea killed . 17 Feb. 1S97 

Mutiny of native troops at Ndirfa, commander 
Leroi and other officers killed ; reported, 4 March, ,, 

Baron Dhanis' Batetela soldiers mutiny on their 
way to put down the rebellion ; lieut. Jnlien and 
two officers killed ; mutiny suppressed and the 
country subjugated, reported . . Sept. ,, 

Col. Wahis, govemor-gen., arrives in Brussels, 27 
May ; justificatory letter in Times . 31 May, ,, 

Frequent raids ; British fort on Salt lake destroyed 

17 June, ,, 

Lado captured by capt. Chaltin ; reported. July, ,, 

Lieut. Henry totally defeats the Batetela rebels 
near Lake Albert Nyanza . . . 15 July, ,, 

Rebels totally defeated by lieut. Donne 23 March, iSoS 

Prosperity reported, May ; a loan to meet expenses 
fur public works concluded by the king, at 
Brussels June, ,, 

Lieut, t'liargois' column attacked by mutineers on 
Lake Tanganyika, and compelled to retreat, the 
enemy finally routed and 25 killed, end of April, ,, 



CONGREGATION. 



311 



CONQUEST. 



Lieut. Dubois' expedition of too men to occupy 
Lake Rivu, surprised by rebels and 31 killed, he 
himself deserted afterwards by his men and 
killed ; reported 7 July, 1898 

Dervish attack on Rejaf repulsed, MM. Desneux 
and Bartholi killed . . . 3, 4 June, ,, 

Lieut.GloriedefeatstheBatatelasatGives<5, 17 June, ,, 

The Batatelas defeat the Belgians, 3 officers and 
200 men killed at Sungula, 4 Nov. ; Kabambare 
captured, 5 whites killed, 14 Nov. ; Kabambare 
re-occupied by the troops after severe fighting, 
31 Dec. : rebels defeated by baron Dhanis, Feb. 1899 

The Budjas defeated by maj. Lothaire, reported, Feb. ,, 

Capt. Maurice Bell, in an expedition against the 
Aruwimis, killed by cannibals, Jan. ; 100 natives 
killed by a punitive expedition and many made 
prisoners May, ,, 

Baron Dhanis defeats the rebels near Sungula, 
much bloodshed, 20 July ; rebels again defeated, 

8-12 Oct. „ 

Alleged atrocities by the Zappo Zaps, villages 
burnt and natives massacred, reported early, 1000 

Lieut. Weylants and M. Rabe massacred by the 
Budjas near Zambeta . . .4 March, ,, 

Explorations in Katanga, down the Kasai to lake 
Dilolo under lieut. Lemaire, reported - 4 April, „ 

Provisional agreement between Germany and the 
Congo state regarding territory near lake Kivu, 
signed at Brussels . . . .10 April, ,, 

Revolt at Chinkakassa, fort seized by mutineers, 
17 April ; but recaptured by the Boma troops, 
rebels fled iq April, ,, 

Batatela mutiny ended, mutineers surrender, Oct. ,, 

Much slaughter of natives, villages burnt, for 
refusing to work rubber .... Nov. ,, 

Colonel Bartels appointed governor-general, re- 
ported 21 Dec. „ 

Lacroix and Mathys sentenced to 15 and 12 years' 
imprisonment for murdering natives in Katanga, 
Nov. ; confirmed Feb. 1901 

Rebellion in Kassai, Jan., suppressed . mid-Feb. „ 

Native rising in the Welle district, April ; revolt 
quelled mid- July, ,, 

Batatelas severely defeated, 35 Congo troops killed, 

Nov. , , 

Concession reported to be obtained for a railway be- 
tween the northern borders ofRhodesia across the 
Congo territory to lakeKasali, — Times . 22, 25April 1902 

Taxes on religious, charitable, and scientific insti- 
tutions lowered, by decree - . . 1 July, ,, 

Debate in the house of commons on the administra- 
tion of the Congo territory, and ill-treatment of 
the natives, 20 May ; correspondence of British 
government with Belgium respecting the ques- 
tion ; blue book published 1903 

CONGEEGATION of the Lord, a name 

taken by the Scotch reformers, headed by John 
Knox, about 1546. Their leaders (the earls of Glen- 
cairn, Argyle, Morton, and others) called "lords of 
the congregation," signed the first bond or covenant 
which united the protestants under one association, 
3 Dec. 1557. Tytler. 

CONGREGATIONALISTS, see Indepen- 
dents. 

S CONGRESS. An assembly of princes or minis- 
ters for the settlement of the affairs of nations or 
of a people. The following are the most remark- 
able congresses of Europe : — 

Minister 1643-8 

Nimeguen 1676-8 

Ryswick 1697 

Utrecht 1713 

Soissons 1728 

Antwerp . . . 8 April, 1793 

Rastadt ...... 9 Dec. 1797-9 

Chatillon 5 Feb. 1814 

Vienna 3 Nov. _ ,, 

Aix-la-Chapelle 9 Oct. 1818 

Carlsbad 1 Aug. 1819 

Troppau 20 Oct. 1820 

Laybach 6 May, 182 1 

Verona 25 Aug. 1822 

Paris 16 Jan.— 22 April, 1856 

Frankfort (see Germany) . . . 16-31 Aug. 1863 



Constantinople . . 23 Dec. 1876— 20 Jan. 1878 

Berlin .... 13 June— 13 July, ,, 

See Alliances, Church, Conventions, Peace, &c. 

The first general congress of the United States 
of America, preparatory to their declaration of 
independence, when strong resolutions were 
passed, also a petition to the king, and an address 
to the people of England, was held, 5 Sept. 1774. 
The second was held, 10 May, 1775 ; the third, 
when the independence was declared . 4 July, 1776 

The first federal American congress, under the con- 
stitution, was held at New York ; George Wash- 
ington, president March, 1789 

The first congress of the seceding southern states 
was held at Montgomery, Alabama, 4 Feb. ; it 
elected Jefferson Davis president of the con- 
federate states on 9 Feb. For political reasons it 
adjourned on 24 May, to meet at Richmond, in 
Virginia, on 20 July, 1861 

In 1863, the emperor Napoleon invited the sove- 
reigns of Europe to a congress ; which was de- 
clined by England 25 Nov., and only conditionally 
acceded to by other powers. He proposed a con- 
gress on the affairs of Italy and Rome in Nov. 1867, 
without effect. 

CONGREVE ROCKETS, see Rockets. 

CONIC SECTIONS. Their properties were 
probably known to the Greeks, four or five centuries 
before the Christian era, and their study was culti- 
vated in the time of Plato, 390 B.C. The earliest 
treatise on them was written by Aristseus, about 330 
B.C. Apollonius's eight books were written about 
240 B.C. The parabola was applied to projectiles 
by Galileo, the ellipse to the orbit of planets by 
Kepler, and to comets by Newton. 

CONJURATION, see Witchcraft. 

CONJURERS, see under Wizard. 

CONNAISSANCE DES TEMPS, the 

French nautical almanack, continuing Keeker's 
Ephemerides, was first published by Picard, 1679. 

CONNAUGHT, W. Ireland ; long a nominal 
kingdom, divided into counties, 1 590. Prince 
Arthur, third son of queen Victoria, horn 1 May, 
1850, was created duke of Connaught, 23 May, 
1874; being the first royal prince whose leading 
title was Irish. 

The Duke of Connaught's Establishment Act, passed 8 Aug., 
1878, made the same provision for the duke, as for his 
brother Alfred ; see Edinburgh. The duke was mar- 
ried to the princess Louise Margaret of Prussia, 13 
March, 1879. See England (Royal Family). 
The condition of the peasantry was greatly bene- 
fited by the construction of light railways, 
introduced by Mr. A. J. Balfour, the Irish chief 
secretary 1890 et seq. 

CONNECTICUT, a New En^and state of N. 
America. The settlements of 1635 and 1638 were 
united by charter in 1665. Capital Hartford. 
Population 1880,622,700; 1890, 746,258; 1900, 
908,424. 
Trestle bridge accident, car overturned, 36 deaths, 

reported 7 Aug. 1899 

Great fire at Waterbuiy, buildings destroyed, over 

3,000,000 dols. damage .... 2 Feb. 1902 

CONNOR, Ireland. The bishopric was united 
to that of Down, 1442. The first prelate, JSngus 
Macnisius, died 507. The united sees were added 
to Dromore on the death of its last bishop, 1842, in 
accordance with the Irish church temporalities act, 
I833- 

CONQUEST, the era in British history, when 
William duke of Normandy overcame Harold II. at 
the battle of Hastings, 14 Oct. 1066, and obtained 
the crown which he asserted had been bequeathed 
to him by Edward the Confessor (Edgar being the 



CONSCIENCE CLAUSE. 



512 



CONSEEVATOIRES. 



rightful heir) . William has been erroneously styled 
the Conqueror, for he succeeded to the crown of 
England by compact. He defeated Harold, who 
was himself a usurper, but a large portion of the 
kingdom afterwards held out against him ; and he, 
unlike a conqueror, took an oath to observe the 
laws and customs of the realm, in order to induce 
the submission of the people. Formerly our judges 
were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the 
bar who said casually William the Conqueror, 
instead of William I. Selden. Maclise exhibited 
forty-two drawings on the events of the Norman 
conquest, in May, 1857. E. A. Freeman's "History 
of the Norman Conquest," 6 vols, 1870-9, is valued. 
He died, aged 69, 16 March, 1892. 

CONSCIENCE CLAUSE, see Education, 
1863, 1902-3. 

CONSCIENCE, Courts of, or of Re- 
quests f°i* recovery of small debts, constituted by 
a stat. of Hen. VII. 1493, and re-organised by stat. 
9 Hen. VIII. 1517. These courts were improved 
and amended by various acts ; their jurisdiction in 
London reached to 5^. and (until superseded by 
county-courts) to 40s. in other towns. The practice 
was by summons, and if the party did not appear, 
the commissioners had power to apprehend and 
commit ; see County Courts. 

CONSCIENCE, Liberty of, a principle 

of genuine Christianity (1 Cor. x. 29) ; repudiated 
by Romanism, proclaimed by James II. for political 
purposes, 1687. 

CONSCRIPT FATHERS {patres con- 
scripti), the designation given to the Roman sena- 
tors, because their names were written in the regis- 
ters of the senate. 

CONSCRIPTION, a mode (derived from the 
Romans) adopted for recruiting armies on the 
continent. On 5 Sept. 1798, a military conscription 
was ordained in France, comprehending all the 
young men from 20 to 25 years of age: from whom 
selections were made. A conscription for 350,000 
men took place in Jan. 1813, after the disastrous 
Russian campaign, and in Dec. same year, another 
for 300,000 after the battle of Leipsic. Estimated 
conscription, 1 793-1813, 4, 103,000. The law of 1818 
(modified in 1824, 1832, and 1868) required a certain 
annual contingent for each department. The con- 
scription was enlarged and modified by the army 
bill which was enacted in Feb. 1868. The re- 
organisation of the army began in 1871, after the 
fatal war with Germany. Substitutes were allowed 
under certain conditions. Conscription for Great 
Britain was advocated and strongly opposed in 1875. 

CONSECRATION. Aaron and his sons were 
consecrated priests, 1490 B.C. {Lev. viii.) The 
Jewish tabernacle was dedicated, 1490 B.C., and 
Solomon's temple, 1004 B.C. (1 Kings viii.) The 
consecration of churches began in the 2nd century. 
Anciently the consecration of popes was deferred 
until the emperor had given his assent to their 
election. Gregory IV. desired to have his election 
confirmed by the emperor Louis, in 828. Heuault. 
The consecration of churches, places of burial, &c, 
is admitted in the reformed religion. An act re- 
lating to the consecration of churchyards, passed 
20 Aug. 1867, was amended in 1868. A form of 
consecration was adopted by convocation, hut not 
sanctioned by the crown, April, 1712. It is gene- 
rally used hut is not compulsory. — Burn. The form 
of consecrating bishops in the church of England 
is set forth in the prayer-book of 1549. — Slow. 



CONSERVATION OF FORCE. The doe- 
trine that no physical force can be created or de- 
stroyed, but may be transferred, maintained by 
Faraday, Grove, Helmholtz, Tyndall, and other 
scientists; see Correlation. 

CONSERVATIVES, a name said to have 
been invented by John Wilson Croker,* an earnest 
Tory, in 1830, assumed by a party, whose leading 
principle is the preservation of our national institu- 
tions. It was termed a new cant word by T. B. Mac- 
aulay in Edinburgh Review, July, 1832. Sir Robert 
Peel acknowledged himself a conservative when 
reproached by the Irish party in parliament with 
being an Orangeman ; but the party that afterwards 
separated from him called their principles conserva- 
tive in contradistinction to his, — his policy and 
measures being changed. — The Conservative Club 
was founded in 1840; see Protectionists and Clubs. 
The party in the north of the United States which 
supported the president in his conciliatory efforts to 
re-establish the Union, Jan. 1866, were tetmed 
" Conservatives." A greatmeeting of the National 
Union of Conservative Associations was held at the 
Crystal Palace, 24 June, 1872. The party in the 
minority at the elections in 1868 obtained a majority 
at those in Feb. 1874, and came into office. They 
were again in a minority at the general election, 
and resigned 22 April, 1880. The marquis of 
Salisbury was elected leader of the party, 9 May, 
1881, succeeding the earl of Beaconsfield, who died 
19 April previous. Constitutional club (central) 
formed in London, President, the late marquis of 
Salisbury. House opened 8 Aug. 1883. National 
Conservative Clubs, established in 1866. See Derby 
and Disraeli, Fourth Party, Liberals (1886), 
National Union.- Salisbury administrations, 1885, 
1886, 1895, 1900-02. Balfour administration, 1902. 

The national union of conservative associations 
met at Salisbury, 25 July, 1889 ; Liverpool, 1890 ; 
Birmingham, 24 Nov. 1891 ; Sheffield, 13 Dec. 
1892 ; Cardiff, 28 Nov. 1893 ; Newcastle-on-Tyne, 
13 Nov. 1894 ; Brighton, 18 Nov. 1895 ; Rochdale, 

17 Nov. 1896 ; London, 16 Nov. 1897 ; London, 

18 Dec 1900; Wolverhampton, 26 Nov. 1901 ; 
Manchester, 74 Oct. 1902 ; Sheffield . 1 Oct. 1903 

The marquis of Salisbury addresses 10,000 conser- 
vatives at Exeter 2 Feb. 1892 

Testimonial of 10,000?. presented by lord Salisbury 
from the conservative party to capt. Middleton, 
the chief conservative agent, at a meeting 

igMareh, 1896 

Great meeting at the Albert hall; speech by lord 
Salisbury j6 Nov. 1897 

The national union of conservative associations for 
Scotland, annual meetings ; Glasgow . 2 Dec. ,, 

Associated clubs, 936 ; 375,000 members . May, 1901 

Mr. Balfour opens a new club at Fulham 19 July, 1902 

Mr. Balfour expounds the fiscal policy of the govern- 
ment at great meeting of the National union at 
Sheffield, and pays a high tribute to Mr. 
Chamberlain 1 Oct. 1903 

Sir John Dorrington's resolution in support of Mr. 
Balfour's policy unanimously carried at con- 
ference 2 Oct. ,, 

CONSERVATOIRES, a name given to es- 
tablishments for the cultivation of music and the 
arts on the continent. One was established at 
Naples in 1537- The singing school at Paris, 
Founded in 1784, and closed in 1789, was re-opened 
in I 793 as the " Institut National do Musique," and 
after being reorganised, was re-named " Conserva- 
toire do Musique" in 179S, and flourished under 
Cherubini (1822-42). ''The Conservntoire des 
Arts et Metiers" was established in 17S4. It in- 
cludes a museum and library, and lectures are given 
to workmen there. 



* Quarterly Review, vol. xlii. p. 276, Jan. 1830. 



CONSERVATORS. 



313 



CONSTABULARY FORCE. 



CONSERVATORS of the Public Lib- 
erties. Officers chosen in England to inspect the 
treasury and correct abuses in administration, 
28 Hen. III. 1244. — Rapin. Conservators were 
appointed to see the king's peace kept. — Pardon. 
Conservators were formerly appointed in every sea- 
port to take cognisance of all offences committed 
against the peace upon the main sea out of the 
liberty of the Cinque Ports.— Bailey. 

CONSISTORIES for regulating ecclesiastical 
discipline and divine worship in the Lutheran 
church in Germany, were established at the refor- 
mation — the first at Wittenberg in 1542 ; other 
consistories were established after the peace of 
Augsburg in 1555. 

CONSISTORY COURT, anciently joined 
with the hundred court ; and its original, as divided 
therefrom, is found in a law of William I., 1079, 
quoted by lord justice Coko. The chief and most 
ancient consistory court of the kingdom belongs to 
the see of Canterbury, and is called the Court of 
Arches {which see) . 

CONSOLIDATED FUND was formed by 
combining the "aggregate," "general," and 
" South Sea funds," 1786. On 5 Jan. 1816, theex- 
chequers of Great Britain and Ireland, previously 
separate, were amalgamated, forming "the consoli- 
dated fund of the United Kingdom." Acts are 
passed annually for the appropriation of the fund. 

CONSOLS, see Stocks. 

CONSORZIO NAZIONALE, see Italy, 
1866. 

CONSPICUOUS SERVICE CROSS ; 

naval decoration, instituted, 28 June, 1901. 

CONSPIRACIES. Among the recorded con- 
spiracies, real or supposed, the following are the most 
remarkable : see Rebellions. 

Of tlie duke of Gloucester against Richard II. . 1397 
Of the earl of Cambridge and others against Hemy V. 1415 
Of Anthony Babington and others against Elizabeth. 

(See Babington) 1586 

Of Lopez, a Jew, and others . . . . . 1594 
Of Patrick York, an Irish fencing-master hired by 

the Spaniards to kill the queen . . . „ 

Of Walpole, a Jesuit, and Edward Squyer to poison 

the queen 1598 

Tyrone's insurrection in Ireland .... 1599 

The Gunpowder plot (ivhich see) 1605 

Tyrone's conspiracy to surprise the castle of Dublin. 1607 
Of Penruddock (1655) and of Syndercombe and 

others to assassinate Oliver Cromwell . Jan. 1657 
Insurrection of the Fifth-monarchy men against 

Charles II 1661 

Of Blood, who seized the duke of Onnond, wounded 

him, and would have hanged him, Dec. 1670 ; and 

who afterwards attempted to steal the regalia. 

9 May, 1671 
The pretended conspiracy of the French, Spanish, 

and English Jesuits to assassinate Charles II., 

revealed by the infamous Titus Oates, Dr. Tongue, 

and others . .... Aug. 1678 

The Meal-tub plot (which see) 1679 

The Rye-house plot to assassinate the king on his 

way to Newmarket. (See Rye-house Plot). . . 1683 
Of lord Preston, the bishop of Ely, and others to 

restore James II. .... Jan. 1691 

Of Granville, a French chevalier, to murder king 

William in Flanders 1692 

The Assassination plot (ivhich see) frustrated . . 1696 
Of Simon Fraser, lord Lovat, against queen Anne. 

(See Rebellions) 1703 

Of the marquis Guiscard . . . . March, 1711 

Of James Sheppard, an enthusiast, to assassinate 

George I . 1718 

Of counsellor Layer and others, to bring in the 

Pretender 1722 

Of the Corresponding Society, &c. (ivhich see) . 1706-8 



Of colonel Despard 1802 

Of Robert Emmett, in Dublin, when lord Kil- 

warden was killed .... 23 July, 1803 
Of Thistlewood and others, to assassinate the king's 

ministers. (See Cato-street) 1820 

Of the Sepoys in India. (See India) . 10 May, 1857 

Of the Fenians 1858-68 

Major Panitza against prince Ferdinand, see Bul- 
garia Feb. et seq. 1890 

Of Servian revolutionists against king Alexander of 
Servia and queen Draga (see Servia) . 9 June, 1903 
See Rebellions, Chartists, &c. 

CONSPIRACY AND PROTECTION 
TO PROPERTY ACT, passed 13 Aug. 1875 ; 
relates to trade disputes, breaches of contract, &c. 

CONSTABLE of England, Lord High. 

The seventh great officer of the crown, and, with the 
earl marshal, formerly a judge of the court of 
chivalry, called, in the time of Henry IV., curia 
militaris, and subsequently the court of honour. 
The power of this officer was so great, that in 1389 
a statute was passed for abridging it, and also the 
power of the earl marshal {which .see). The office 
existed before the conquest, after which it went by 
inheritance to the earls of Hereford and Essex, and 
next in the line of Stafford. In 1521 it was for- 
feited by Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, 
attainted for high treason, and has never since been 
granted to any person, otherwise than pro hue vice 
(for this occasion), to attend at a coronation or trial 
by combat. The only instance of a trial by combat 
being ordered since this office fell into the hands of 
the crown, was that commanded between lord Reay 
and Mr. David Ramsey, in Nov. 1631 ; but the king 
prevented it. 

LORD HIGH CONSTABLES AT CORONATIONS. 

Queen Anne, Wriothesly, duke of Bedford . . 1702 

George I. , John, Duke of Montague . . . . 1714 

George II. , Charles, duke of Richmond . . . 1727 

George III., John, duke of Bedford . . . . 1761 

George IV. ) ( 1821 

William IV. > Arthur, duke of Wellington . \ 1831 

Victoria . J ( 1838 

Edward VII., Alexander, duke of Fife . . . 1902 

a CONSTABLE of Scotland, Lord High. 

The office was instituted by David I. about 1147. 
The holder had the keeping of the king's sword, 
which the king, at his promotion, delivered to him 
naked (and hence the badge of t'e lord high con- 
stable is a naked sword) ; and the absolute com- 
mand of the king's armies while in the field, in the 
absence of the king. The office was conferred 
heritably in 1314 on sir Gilbert Hay by Robert 
Bruce. One of Hay's descendants was made Earl 
of Erroll, and with his family the office still re- 
mains, being expressly reserved by the treaty of 
union in 1 707. The present earl of Erroll is the 
twenty-third lord high constable (1892). 

CONSTABLES of Hundreds and Franchises, 
instituted in the reign of Edward I., 1285, are now 
called high constables. There are three kinds of 
constables, high, petty, and special ; the high con- 
stable' s j urisdiction extends to the whole hundred ; 
the petty constable's to the parish or liberty for 
which he is chosen ; and the special constable is 
appointed for particular emergencies (as in April, 
1848, on account of the Chartists). The general 
appointment of parish constables was made un- 
necessary by an act passed Aug. 1872. See Special 
Constables and Tower. 

CONSTABULARY FORCE. For that of 
London, see Police. The constabulary of Ireland 
act passed in 1823, when this species of force was 
embodied throughout the country. Several subse- 
quent acts were consolidated in 1836. 



CONSTANCE. 



314 CONTAGIOUS DISEASES ACT. 



CONSTANCE, a city in Baden (S. Germany). 
Here was held the seventeenth general council, 1414- 
18, which condemned John Huss; and here he was 
burnt, 6 July, 1415 ; see Hussites. 

CONSTANTINA, the ancient capital of 
Numidia, was taken hy the French, 13 Oct. 1837. 
During the assault on 12 Oct. the French general 
Damremont was killed. Achmet Bey retired with 
12,000 men, as the victors entered Constantina. 

CONSTANTINOPLE (formerly Byzantium) 
{which see), now iStamboul, derives its name from 
Constantine the Great, who removed the seat of the 
Eastern Empire here, dedicating it 11 May, 330. See 
Eastern Empire. Population, 1897, abt." 1,136,000. 

General ecclesiastical councils against heresy were held 
here in 381, 553, 680, and 869. 

Seized by Procopius 365 

The city suffered much from religious dissensions, 

and was burnt during the " Nika" conflicts . . 532 
Rebuilt by Justinian with great splendour . ,, 

St. Sophia dedicated 537 

Resisted the Saracens successfully . . 675, 718 

And the Russians .... 865, 904, 941, 1043 

Taken by the Latins 1203, 1204 

Recovered by tlie Greeks . . . . '. 1261 
Vainly besieged by Amurath the Ottoman, June — 

Aug. 1422 
Taken by Mahomet II. after 53 days' siege, 29 May, 1453 
Conference on Turkish Affairs ; representatives : 
Great Britain, marquis of Salisbury ; Russia, 
general Ignatieff; France, Chaudordy ; Austria., 
Zichy ; Germany, Von Werther ; Italy, Corti ; or- 
dinary meetings began . . . .23 Dec. 1876 
Turkey rejected the propositions and the confer- 
ence closed 20 Jan. 1877 

Treaty of peace with Russia: 12 articles : Turkey ac- 
cepted modifications of treaty of San Stefano 
(which see) ; an indemnity of about 802,500,000 
francs to be paid by Turkey (settlement deferred); 
Russian troops to quit within 40 days, &c. ; signed 

8 Feb. 1879 
By the failing down of a barracks at Beykoi about 

200 soldiers said to be killed, about . 9 Feb. 1880 
Conference of European powers respecting Egypt 

constituted (see Eyyyt.) . . . .23 June, 1882 
Great lire, thousands homeless . . .5 Oct. 1883 
Great fire, about 900 houses destroyed 12 July, 1890 

Grand opening of the new station of the Orient 

(European Turkish) railway . . . 4 Nov. „ 
Great fire at Cadikeui, aboul 3,000 persons home- 
less 22 Feb. 1893 

Collision of a palace steamer with an Admiralty 
steamer at Seraglio Point ; 54 persons drowned' 

2 April, ,, 
Representation of the city at Olym/pia, London, 

opened, 26 Dec. 1893, which see. 
Destructive earthquakes in the city and neighbour- 
hood, about 200 lives lost, 10, is, 19 July ; pub- 
lic subscriptions opened by the Sultan 16 July, 1894 
The German emperor's fountain (designed by him) 
unveiled by baron von Bieberstein . 27 Jan. 1901 
See Turkey, Germany, Oct. 1898. 
Era of Constantinople has the creation placed 5508 
years B.C. It was used by the Russians until the time 
of Peter the Great, and is still used in the Greek church. 
The civil year begins 1 Sept., and the ecclesiastical year 
in March ; the day is not exactly determined. To 
reduce it to our era, subtract 5508 years from January 
to August, and 5509 from Sept. to the end. Kicolas. 

CONSTELLATIONS. Areturus. Orion, the 
Pleiades, and Mazzaroth are mentioned in Job ix. 
9, and xxxviii. 31, about 1520 B.C. Homer and 
Hesiod notice constellations ; but our first direct 
knowledge was derived from Claudius Ptolennvms, 
about A. D. 140. Ilipparchus (about 147 B.C.) made a 
catalogue of forty-eight constellations, and others 
were added by Tyeho Brahe, Hevelius, Halley, and 
others. The number at present acknowledged is 29 
northern, 45 southern, and 12 zodiacal. 



CONSTITUENCIES, see Commons, House of. 
CONSTITUENT, see National Assembly. 
CONSTITUTION of England. It com- 

prehends the whole bod}' of laws by which the British 
people are governed, and to which it is presump- 
tively held that every individual has assented. 
Lord Somers. This assemblage of laws is distin- 
guished from the term government in this respect — 
that the constitution is the rule by which the sove- 
reign ought to govern at all times ; and government 
is that by which he does govern at any particular 
time. Lord Bolhu/broke. The king of England is 
not seated on a solitary eminence of power : on the 
contrary, he sees his equals in the co-existing 
branches of the legislatuie, and he recognises his 
superior in the law. Sheridan. Hallam's " Con- 
stitutional History of England" was first published 
in 1827; May's in 1861-3; Stubbs' in 1875; Sir 
William B. Anson's " Law and Custom of the 
Constitution," published 1886-92. 

CONSTITUTIONALIST PAETY, a name 
assumed by a combination of Conservatives and 
seceded Whigs, Aug. 1867, and used during the 
severely contested elections, Nov. 1868. The Con- 
stitutional Union held its first anniversary 20 June, 
1881. Dinner, 14 June, 1890. 
Constitutional Press Corporation. — An active conservative 

body, autumn, 1881. 
Constitutional Club established 18S3. 

CONSTITUTIONS of France, enacted 

1789-91, 1795, 1799, (charter) 1814, 1848, 1852, 
1875- 

CONSUBSTANTIATION, see Transubstan- 
tiation. 

CONSULS (meaning colleagues), Rohan* : at 
the expulsion of the Tarquins, a republic was esta- 
blished, to be ruled by two praetors or consuls 
elected annually : the first being Lucius Junius 
Brutus and Lucius Tarquinius Collatinus, husband 
of the injured Lucretia, 509 B.C. The consular 
power was in emergencies superseded by dictators 
and tribunes. 

Government of the Decemviri . . B.C. 451 — 449 
Three Military Tribunes with consular power . . 444 

A Plebeian elected consul 366 

[In the reign of Tiberius the consuls were nomi- 
nated by the senate, and the appointment be- 
came henceforth honorary.] 
The French consulate established when the direc- 
tory was abolished : Bonaparte, Sieves, and Roger 
Ducos made provisional consular commissioners, 
10 Nov. ; Bonaparte, Cambaoeres, and Lebrun 
made consuls .... 13 Dec. 1799 

Bonaparte was made first consul for 10 years, 6 Way, 

and for life, 2 Aug. 1802 ; emperor . 18 May, 1804 
Commercial agents were first distinguished by the 
name of consuls in Italy. Lorenzo Strozzi was ap- 
pointed by Richard III. 1485 

A British consul first appointed in Portugal . . 1633 
The Associations of Foreign Consuls in London held 
a banquet at the lintel Metropole, 22 Feb. 1890, 
and others since. Mr. Alfred C. de Rothschild 
elected president July, 1S94 

CONSUMPTION, see Tuberculosis. 

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES ACT for naval 
and military stations first passed in 1864; followed 
by others in [866, [868, and 1869. They gave rise 
to great opposition anil much agitation in the 
country. Their operation was suspended in con- 
sequence of a resolution of the house of commons, 
20 April, 1883, and they were repealed, 16 April, 
1880 ; see hiilin, 22 July, 1897. For contagious 
diseases of animals see Cattle. 



CONTEMPORARY REVIEW. 315 



CONVERSION. 



CONTEMPORARY REVIEW, first ap- 
peared Jan. 1866 ; editor Dean Alford. 

CONTINENTAL SYSTEM, the name given 
to Napoleon's plan to exclude the British merchan- 
dise from the entire continent. It began publicly 
with his Berlin decree, 20 Nov. 1806, confirmed by 
the Milan decree, 17 Dec. 1807. This led to the 
Orders in Council {which see). 

CONTINUITY. Mr. (after sir) W. K. Grove, in 
his address as president of the British Association, on 
22 Aug. 1866, at Nottingham, expounded the opinion 
held by many philosophers, that all the past changes 
in the world have been produced by the continuous 
action of the causes now in operation — that " con- 
tinuity is a law of nature, the true expression of the 
action of Almighty Power." 

Those who hold this opinion are termed Uniformita- 
rians ; their opponents are termed Citaelysmists, who 
attribute the changes to the violent action of lire and 
water. 

CONTRABAND OF War, a term said to 
have been first employed in the treaty of Southamp- 
ton between England and Spain in 162?. During 
the struggle between Spain and Holland, both 
powers acted with much rigour towards ships of 
neutrals conveying goods to the belligerents. This 
provoked the resistance of England. A milder policy 
was adopted by the treaty of Pyrenees, 1650 ; and 
by the declaration of Paris, 26 April, 1856. The 
subject was much discussed during the North Ameri- 
can conflict. 1861-4, and in April, 1898. 

CONTRACTING OUT, see Employer's 
Liability. 

CONTRACTORS with Government, disquali- 
fied from sitting in parliament, 1782. 

CONTRE-DANSE (English, country -dance), 
a dance, so called from the dancers being opposite 
each other, was introduced into France (probably 
from England) about 1715, et seq. 

CONTRIBUTIONS, Voluntary, to a vast 

amount have been several times made by the British 
people in aid of the government.. One, in 1798, to 
support the war against France, amounted to two 
millions and a half sterling. Several men of wealth, 
among others sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, 
subscribed each 10,000/. : and 200,006/. were trans- 
mitted from India in 1799; see Patriotic Fund. 
For India, §c, see Mansion House. 

CONTROL, BOARD OF. Mr. Pitt's bill, esta- 
blishing this board for the purpose of aiding and 
controlling the executive government of India, and 
of superintending the territorial concerns of the 
company, was passed 18 May, 1784. Act amended 
and the board remodelled, 1793. The president of 
the board was a chief minister of the crown, and 
necessarily one of the members of the cabinet. This 
board was abolished in 1858, when the government 
of India was transferred from the company to the 
crown ; see India Bills and India. 

CONTROL DEPARTMENT, in the British 
army, was divided into the commissariat and trans- 
port department, and the ordnance store depart- 
ment ; the old title was abolished ; order issued 
11 Dec. 1875. 

CONVALESCENT INSTITUTION (Me- 
tropolitan), at Walton-on-Thames, with children's 
branches at Hendon and Mitch am, was established 
in 1840 ; a branch at Bexhill, Sussex, was 
founded in 1880. A convalescent hospital for the 
east of London was founded at Snaresbrook in 1866, 



greatly due to Mr. and Mrs. Charlesworth and Mrs. 
Gladstone. Homes at Bamsgate, 1866; Waltham, 
1867 ; Margate, 1875, &c. See Bartholomeiv, St., 
1881. There were 42 such institutions in 1888. 
100,000/. for the establishment of a general hospital 
convalescent home offered by a secret benefactor 
(Peter Reid), himself, sir W. S. Savary, and W. H. 
Cross to be joint trustees, 30 Dec. 1889; 50,000/. 
more presented, announced 18 March, 1890. The 
Police Seaside Home, W. Brighton, patroness the 
countessof Chichester,established 1890. The Surrey 
Convalescent Home, erected through an anonymous 
gift of 25,000/., opened by the duke of Cambridge, 
27 July, 1891. Mr. Henry Harben gives 20,000/. to 
erect a home for working men at Littlehampton, 
April, 1895. Others established throughout the 
country. 

CONVENTICLES, private assemblies for 
religious worship, held by dissenters from the esta- 
blished church ; but first applied to the schools of 
Wicldift'e. 35 Elizabeth, c. 1 (1593) passed " to pre- 
vent and suppress seditious conventicles," was re- 
enacted bv [6 Charles II. c. 4 (1664) and by 22 
Charles II. c. 1 (1670). Persons attending them 
were liable to severe punishment. The statutes 
were repealed by the toleration act, 24 May, 1689. 

CONVENTION PARLIAMENTS,, as- 
sembled without the king's writ upon extraordinary 
occasions. One on 25 April, 1660, voted the restora- 
tion of Charles II. A second met 22 Jan. 1689 ; 
offered the crown to William and Mary 13 Feb.; and 
dissolved in Feb. 1690 ; see National Convention. 

CONVENTIONS, see Treaties. 

CONVENTS were first founded, according to 
some authorities, 270. The first in England was 
erected at Folkestone, by Eadbald, in 630. Camden. 
The first in Scotland was at Coldingham, where 
Ethelreda took the veil in 670. They were founded 
earlier in Ireland. They were suppressed in Eng- 
land in various reigns, particularly in that of Henry 
VIII. A very great number have been suppressed 
in Europe in the present century. The king of 
Prussia secularised all the convents in the duchy of 
Posen. Dom Pedro put down 300 convents in Por- 
tugal in 1834; and Spain abolished 1,800 convents. 
Many were abolished in Italy and Sicily in i860, 
1861J and 1866, and many in Russia 31 July, 1832, 
and Nov. 1864. 

In 1597 lady Mary Percy founded a convent at Brussels, 
which flourished there till 1794, when the nuns were 
compelled to remove to England. They were received 
by bishop Milner, and placed at Winchester, at which 
place they remained till their removal to East Berg- 
holt, in Suffolk, June, 1857. This was the first English 
conventual establishment founded on the continent 
after the Reformation. 

By the Emancipation act of 1829, 10 Geo. IV. , the 
establishment of convents and other religious 
communities in the United Kingdom was prohi- 
bited, butthis enactment has been a dead letter . 1829 

There were in 1832, 16 convents in England ; in 1870, 
233 ; and 70 monasteries in Great Britain. 

A select committee to investigate into the revenues 
of British convents appointed by the commons, 
10 May, 1870 ; reappointed . . . Feb. 1871 

The committee reported the evidence heard . June, „ 

Mr. Newdegate's motion for an inquiry respecting 
these institutions was negatived . . 12 June, 1874 

Large convent at Bournemouth, in connection 
with Church of England, opened . 3 Oct. 1875 

A Carmelite convent, specially patronised by the 
duke of Norfolk and family, at St. Charles's 
Square, Notting Hill, London, W., opened by 
Cardinal Manning .... 29 Sept. 1878 

Many convents in France abolished, by decree 

29 March, 1880 

CONVERSION, see National debt, 1888. 



CONVEYANCING ACT. 



316 



CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES. 



CONVEYANCING ACT (Scotland) passed 
7 Aug. 1874. The conveyancing and law of pro- 
perty act (England), 44 & 45 Vict. c. 41, passed 22 
Aug. 1881. 

CONVICTS, see Transportation. 

CONVOCATIONS ancientgeneralassembly 
of the clergy of the nation, convened by the sove- 
reign's writ, to consult on the affairs of the church; 
the writ is directed to the archbishop of each province 
requiring him to summon all the bishops, arch- 
deacons, &c. The convocation is divided into two 
houses, the upper, consistingof bishops ; and lower, 
of deans, prebendaries, archdeacons, and members 
(termed proctors) elected from the inferior clergy. 
The clergy were summoned to meet the king by 
writ, 23 Edw. I. 1294. The power of the convoca- 
tion was limited by a statute of Henry VIII., in 
whose reign the convocation was reorganised. The 
two houses of convocation were deprived of various 
privileges in 1718, and ceased to meet. The 
annual meetings of the clergy held during the 
sitting of parliament were revived in the province 
of Canterbury 1852, and York 1861, and fruitless 
attempts have been made to obtain the power of 
dealing summarily with ecclesiastical affairs ; but 
in Feb. 1872, convocation was authorised to delibe- 
rate respecting alterations in the Liturgy ; upon 
which it acted, 5 March; again in 1879. Petition 
to the queen for reform of convocation, Nov. 1882. 
Convocation relieved from the jurisdiction of the secular 
courts by Richard III., 1484. The Archbishop of 
York's claim for this in regard to elections (in the case 
of Canon Tristram) confirmed by the Queen's Bench 
Division, Nov. 1887. See Laymen, House of, which first 
met 16 Feb. 18S6. 

CONVOLVULUS. The Canary Convolvulus 
{Convolvulus canariemis) came to Englnnd from 
the Canary Isles, 1690. The Many-flowered, 1779. 

COOKERY, an art connected with civilised 
life. Animals granted as food to Noah, 2348 B.C., 
the eating of blood expressly forbidden (Gen. ix. 
3, 4). In 1898 B.C. a 'calf was cooked bj 
Abraham to entertain his guests (Gen. xviii. 7, 8j. 
" The Forme of Cury" (i.e. cookery) is dated 1390. 
An English cookery-book was printed 1498. " The 
art of cookery made plain and easy," by a lady 
(Hannah Glasse), 1st edition, 1747; see Cottager's 
Stove, Encyclopaedia of Practical Cookery, edited by 
T. F. Garrett, 1898 " Mrs. Breton's Book of 
Household Management," new edit. 1903. 
The Cooks' Company, London, chartered 1482, eeleorated 
the anniversary Aug. 1882. Since T887 the company 
have given instruction to girls, and prizes for profi- 
ciency. 
Military Cookery. Capt. Grant devise.] a system of cook- 
ing for Hi,' camp at Aldcrshot, which has continued in 
successful operation tor the service ot between 12,000 

■'"" l 'i.'«» 'ii. Krom April to August, in 1S57, the plan 

was subjected to the severe test of cooking for 02,000 
men, who marched in ami out of the encampment 
during thai period The consumption of fuel requisite 
for tins By8tem of en,, kin- was one hall pound of coal 

Per man per day, and ti fficiol report states the cost 

1,1 I " r halfpenny per man per week for the three 

daily als. 

Belf-supporting Cooking Dip6ts for the working classes 
were set up ai Glasgow (by Mr. Thomas Corbett), 21 
Sept. 1H00; and proved successful in Manchester 
London, ami other places Boon after, 

Three medals were awarded to the Norwegian Belf-acting 
cooking apparatus (8orenson'8 patent) at the Paris Ex- 

Wbl 1 I67, Cooking is effected by boiling water 

the heal of which is maintained by enclosing it in a 
non-conducting BUbstance. 

A Softool of Cookery was opened at the international 
exhibition, South Kensington, 14 April, 1873. 

A National Training School /„, Cookery, proposed 
17 July, 1S7J, was established in 1874. 



COOK'S EXCURSIONS. Mr. Thomas 
Cook in 1841 began his tourist system by arranging 
with the Midland railway company for the con- 
veyance of a partj r of 570 from Leicester to Lough- 
borough and back at is. a-head. 

He gradually extended his scheme through the United 
Kingdom, and thence to the continent. In 1856 he 
conducted his first touring party from Harwich to the 
Rhine, returning home vid Paris. Mr. Cook died iS 
July, T?g2, aged 83. 
Mr. J. M. Cook appointed government agent for pas- 
senger traffic on the Nile, 1870 ; his firm transported 
the British army to the second cataract during the 
campaign, 1884-5 ! entrusted with the arrangements 
for the German emperor's visit to Palestine, 1898. 
His system, applied to America, India, Egypt, and the 
Holy Land, has largely developed, and branch offices 
are now established in all parts of the world. A 
banking business, with numerous English and foreign 
branches, is in active operation, and special facilities 
are afforded for the conveyance of the luggage and 
goods of travellers. An extensive fleet of steamers is 
maintained on the Nile, together with a large engi- 
neering staff at Boulac. Mr. J. M. Cook died, aged 
65, 4 March, 1899. 

COOK ISLANDS, a group of seven islands 
in the S. Pacific, subject to New Zetland since 
1888 ; formally annexed by lord Ranfurly, governor 
of New Zealand, 8 Oct. 1900. Population, about 
7>300. 

COOK'S VOYAGES. James Cook, accom- 
panied by Mr. (afterwards sir) Joseph Banks, sailed 
from England in the Endeavour on his first voyage, 
30 July, 1768; and returned home after having 
circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Deal 12 June, 
1 77 1. The chief object of the expedition, at the 
request of the Royal Society, was the observation of 
the transit of Venus over the sun's disk, which was 
effected, 3 June, 1769. Captain Cook sailed to ex- 
plore the southern hemisphere, 13 July, 1772, and 
returned 30 July, 1775. In his last expedition 
(begun 12 July, 1776) he was killed by the savages 
of Owhyhee, 14 Feb. 1779. His ships, the Resolution 
and Discover 1/, arrived at Sheerness, 4 Oct. 1780. 
A literal transcription of capt. Cook's journal of his 
first voyage in the Endeavour, edited by capt. 
\V. J. L.Wharton, published by Elliot Stock in 1893. 
COOLIES, the hill tribes of India, have been 
recently much employed as labourers in Australia 
and California, especially since 1861 ; and about 
30,000 of them were conveyed by M. Kootmanschap, 
to assist in making the great Pacific railway. His 
proposal in 1869 to replace the negroes in the 
Southern States of North America for the cultiva- 
tion of cotton, was not accepted. " The Coolie, bis 
Rights and "Wrongs," by E. Jenkins, was published 
1871. Coolie emigration has been the subject of 
negotiation between the British and Chinese govern- 
ments since 1855. 

COOMASSIE, see Ashantee. 
COOPERAGE, an ancieut art, probably sug- 
gested for preserving wine. The coopers of London 
were incorporated in 1501. 

CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES are com- 
posed of working men, having for their object the 
sale of articles of daily consumption to the members 
at low prices. The Rochdale Equitable Pioneers 
Socielx began in 1844, with a capital of 28/. In 
i860, the business done amounted to 152,063/., the 
profits being 15,006/. These societies (332 in 1862) 
are registered pursuant to 13 & 14 Vict. c. 115 
(1849). On 31 Dec. 1866, 749 industrial, provident, 
and co-operative societies were registered; 1,273, 
1885; 1,683, 1892; 1,845, l8 97; "1,843, l8 99; in 
United Kingdom. By an act passed in 1867 they aie 
bound to make a return. The fourth congress 
of delegates from the Co-operative Societies of 



COORG. 



317 



COPPER. 



Great Britain and Ireland met at Bolton, April I, 
i8j2 ; fifth at Newcastle, 12 April, 1873; sixth at 
Halifax, 6 April, 1874; seventh in London, 29 
March, 1875; eighth at Glasgow, 17 April, 1876; 
ninth at Leicester, 2 April, 1877 ; twelfth, Newcastle, 
17 May, 1880; thirteenth, at Leeds, 6 June, 1881 ; 
fourteenth, Oxford, 29 May, 1882 ; fifteenth, Edin- 
burgh, 14 May, 1883 ; sixteenth. Derby (co-opera- 
tion in production proposed), 2 June, 1884; seven- 
teenth at Oldham, May, 1885 ; eighteentli at Ply- 
mouth, 14 June, 1886 ; at Carlisle, 28 May, 1887 ; 
at Dewsbury, 21 May, 1888 ; at Ipswich. 10 June, 
1889; at Glasgow, 26 May, 1890; at Lincoln, 18 
May, 1891 ; 24th at Rochdale, 4 June, 1892 ; at 
Bristol, 20 May, 1893 ; at Sunderland, 12 May, 
1894 : at Huddersfield, 1 June, 1895 ; Woolwich, 
exhibition of manufactures produced by co-opera- 
tion, 23 May, 1896; Perth, 5 June, 1897; Peter- 
borough, 30 May, 1898 ; Liverpool, 22 May, 1899 ; 
Cardiff, 4 June, 1900; Middlesbrough, 27 May, 
1901 ; Exeter, 19 May, 1902. A national trade 
society in opposition to co-operation was formed in 
1872. 

Co-operative production. The co-operative pro- 
ductive federation ; annual meeting at the Crystal 
palace, 20 Aug. 1897 ; 16 Aug. 1898 ; 14 Aug. 1900 ; 
16 Aug. 1901. 
Co-operative Cotton-mills in south Lancashire were 

reported successful in 1875. 
Ouseburn Co-operative Engineering Works, esta- 

hlished 1871, failed through want of capital : wound up 

1875- 

Much discontent among London tradesmen on account 
of the numerous co-operative stores, 1878 — 80. 

Co-operative farming begun in Northamptonshire, 1886. 

Establishment of a Co-operative Dwellings Association 
in London, proposed, 1887. 

The Tenant Co-operators (Limited) started Jan. 1888. 

The International Co-operative Congress opened at 
Bologna, 1 Oct. 1888 ; London, 19 Aug. 1895 ; and 
Paris, Oct. 1896 ; Delft, 1897 ; Paris, 1900 ; Man- 
chester, 21 July, 1902. 

The Co-operative Union included 1,500 societies 
with a share capital of 11,000,000?. . Nov. 1890 

National Co-operative Festival at the Crystal 
Palace, 15 Aug. 1891 ; 17 Aug. 1894 ; 18 Aug. 
1896 ; 17 Aug. 1897 ; 14 Aug. 1899 . 25 Aug, 1902 

COORG) a province, S. India. War broke out 
between the rajah and the East India Company 1832, 
which ended by col. Lindsay defeating and deposing 
the rajah, 10 April, 1834, and his territories were 
soon after annexed by the British. In 1853 the 
rajah brought his daughter to be educated in 
England, where she was baptized. She married a 
col. Campbell, and died a few years after. Chief 
commissioner, Col. P. D. Henderson, 1892. 

COPENHAGEN" (Denmark), built by Walde- 
mar I., 1 157, made the capital, 1443; the university 
founded 1479. In 1728, more than seventy of its 
streets and 3,785 houses were burnt. Its palace, 
valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, 
Feb. 1794, when 100 persons lost their lives. In a 
fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arsenal, 
admiralty, and fifty streets were destroyed, June, 
1795. A new national theatre was founded by the 
king, 18 Oct. 1872. — Copenhagen was bombarded by 
the English under lord Nelson and admiral Parker ; 
and in their engagement with the Danish fleet of 
twenty-three ships of the line, eighteen were taken 
or destroyed by the British, 2 April, 1801. Again, 
after a bombardment of three days, the city and 
Danish fleet surrendered to admiral Gambier and 
lord Cathcart, 7 Sept. 1807. The capture consisted 
of eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigB, 
and twenty-five gun-boats, and immense naval 
stores. Population, with suburbs, 1880, 273,727; 
1890,375,251; 1901,378,235. See Den mark. 



The czar and the kings of Denmark and Greece, and 
other royal persons, breakfast with Mr. Gladstone, 
Mr. Tennyson, and others on board the Pembroke Castle, 

18 Sept. 1883. 

The royal castle of Christiansborg, burnt ; Thorwaldsen's 

works saved, 3, 4 Oct. 1884. 
International Exhibition opened by the king, 18 May 1888. 
The "Marble Church," founded as a tercentenary 

memorial of the Danish-Norwegian dynasty, 30 Oct. 

1749; half finished till 1874 ; completed by M. C. F. 

Tietgen ; consecrated by the primate of the Danish 

church in the presence of the king and the royal family, 

19 Aug. 1894. 

New free port opened, 9 Nov. 1894. 

An international monument to Dr. Hans Meyer unveiled 

by sir Felix Semon, 25 Oct. 1898. 
M. Carl Jacobsen presents his art collection to the city, 

Jan. 1899. 
Explosion at the military laboratory at Refshalet, 8 

deaths, 23 May, 1899. 
National monument unveiled in commemoration of the 

Danish-German war, 1848-50 ; the king, king of 

Greece, the czar and czarina, the empress Alexander, 

the princess of Wales, present, 12 Sept. 1899. 
The 700th anniversary of bishop Absalon's death (founder 

of the city) celebrated, 21 March, 1901. 
Serum institute for study of bacteriology opened 9 Sept. 

1902. 

COPENHAGEN FIELDS (N. London). 
Here the Corresponding Society met on 26 Oct. 
1796 ; and the Trades' Union, 21 April, 1834. The 
fields are now chiefly occupied by the Metropolitan 
Cattle-market, opened 13 June, 1855- 

COPERNICAN SYSTEM, so called from 
its author Nicolas Copernicus, born at Thorn, 19 
Feb. 1473, died 24 May, 1543. A few days before 
his death the printing of his book on the " Revolu- 
tion of the Celestial Bodies" was completed. The 
system, which resembles that attributed to Pytha- 
goras, was condemned by a decree of pope Paul V. 
in 1616 ; not revoked till 1818 by Pius VII. 

COPLEY MEDAL, see Royal Society. 

COPOPHONE, a musical instrument, con- 
sisting of a series of glass tumblers, connected with 
a sounding board. The sounds are produced by 
moving wet fingers along the edge of the glasses. 
It was played on at parties in London in June, 
1875, by Chevalier Furtado Coelho, the inventor. 

COPPER. One of the six primitive metals, 
said to have been first discovered in Cyprus. Pliny. 
We read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine 
copper (or brass), " precious as gold," 457 B.C. 
{Ezra viii. 27). The mines of Fahlun, in Sweden, 
are most surprising excavations. In England, cop- 
per-mines were discovered in 1561, and there are 
upwards of fifty mines in Cornwall, where mining 
has been increasing since the reign of William III. 
In 1857, 75,832 tons of copper ore were imported, 
and 25,241 tons extracted. In 1865, 198,298 tons of 
copper ore were extracted from British mines, and 
1 1,888 tons smelted: 82,562 tons were imported. In 
1856, 24,257 tons of pure copper (worth 2,983,611/.); 
in 1869, 8291 tons (worth 644,065/.) ; in 1875, 4593 
tons (worth 413,284/.) ; in 1876, 4694 tons (worth 
391,130/.); in 1879, 3462 tons (worth 222,507/.); 
1883, 2,620 tons (worth 181,067/.) ; 1887, 889 tons 



value); I89S, 040 (,35,523^. vaiue;; ryuu, 765 
(59,995/. value) ; 1901 (37,661/. value), were pro- 
duced in the United Kingdom. The Burra-Burra 
copper-mines, in S. Australia, discovered 1842, 
brought great prosperity. 
Copper Money. The Romans, prior to the reign of Ser- 

vius Tullius, used rude pieces of copper for money ; see 

Coin. 



COPPERAS. 



318 



COPYRIGHT. 



In England copper money was made at the instance of 
sir Robert Cotton, in 1609 ; but was first really coined 
(when Miss Stewart sat for the figure of Britannia) 1665 

Its regular coinage began in 1672, and it was largely 
issued in 1689 

In Ireland, copper was coined as early as 1339 ; in 
Scotland in 1406 ; in France in ... . 1580 

Wood's coinage (which see) in Ireland commenced in 1723 

The copper coinage was largely manufactured at 
Birmingham, by Boulton and Watt, in . . . 1792 

Penny and two-penny pieces were extensively issued 1797 

The half-farthing was coined, but disused (see 
Farthing) . . 1843 

io,ooo£. voted towards replacing the copper coinage, 

July, 185s 

Bronze coinage (which see) issued . . . Dec. i860 

A French Syndicate formed to raise the price of 
copper by a monopoly. Price of copper recently 
very low . . Feb. 1888 ; continued March 1889 

Collapse and financial panic (see France) March ,, 

Copper-Plate Printing was first invented in Ger- 
many, about 1450; and rolling-presses for work- 
ing the plates, about 1545 

Messrs. Perkins, of Philadelphia, invented a mode 
of engraving on soft steel, which, when hardened, . 
will multiply copper-plates and fine impressions 
indefinitely (see Engraving) 1S19 

Copper Sheathing first applied to the bottom of 
H.M.S. Alarm, at Woolwich, 1761 ; all the navy 
copper-bottomed by 1780 

Electrotyping with copper printing types and casts 
from woodcuts, began . . ... about 1850 

Copper-zinc Couple, a Voltaic arrangement made by 
Dr. J. H. Gladstone and Mr. A. Tribe in 1872, in 
which a mixture of the two metals is finely sub- 
divided, with the points of junction exposed, so as to 
promote the decomposition of any binary liquid into 
which small pieces are immersed ; the resistance of 
the liquid being greatly reduced. The couple is 
formed by immersing zinc foil in a solution of sul- 
phate of copper ; the copper being deposited on the 
zinc in minute particles. By this couple impurities 
in water are readily detected, many peculiar analyses 
have been made, and new organic bodies formed. 

COPPERAS, a mineral composed of copper or 
iron combined with sulphuric acid (vitriol), found 
in copper-mines, commonly of a green or blue 
colour ; said to have been first produced in England 
by Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. 

COPPERHEADS, a name given about 1863 
to such members of the Democrat party in the 
United States as were in favour of peace with the 
South on any terms. — Copperhead is a poison- 
ous serpent, also named dumb-rattle snake, red 
viper, &c. 

COPTIC CALENDAR, see Diocletian. 

COPTIC PSALTER, see Psalms of David. 

COPTS, in Egypt, the supposed descendants of 
the ancient Egyptians, mingled with Greeks and 
Persians. The Catholic branch of the Copts 
number about 600,000, and belong chiefly to the 
Jacobite or monophysite sect. "The Ancient 
Coptic Churches <<f Egypt," by Alfred J. Butler, 
published [884. The Catholic patriarchate of 
Alexandria for Ihe Copts re-established by the 
pope, alter about 7 centuries' interruption"; bp. 
Kyrilloa Macarius appointed vicar Apostolic, Deo. 
1895; enthroned as Cyril the second, 21 July, 
iK<><). Two Coptic bishops for Upper and Lower 

Egypt consecrated at Cairo, 29 March, 1896. 

COPYHOLDERS, who hold an estate by a 
Copy of the rolls of a manor made by a steward of 

Che lord's court. They were enfranchised by s Viot. 
0.35) [841, By the" Reform act in 1832, copy- 
holders to the amount of 10/. became entitled to 
a vote lor the county. The copvhold acts were 
amended by 2r & 22 Vict. c. 04 '(1858) and 1S8-, 

consolidated, 1894. 



COPYING-MACHINES (for letters, &e| 
were invented by James Watt in 1778 ; patented in 
May, 1780; and 150 machines were sold before the!, 
end of the year. Wedgwood's "manifold writer '*'■ 
was patented in 1806; and in 1855 Terry patented, 
a copying machine to be combined with the cover! 1 
of a book. Other inventions patented since. 

COPYRIGHT. Decree of the Star-chamber! 
regarding it, 1556. Every book and publication' 
ordered to be licensed, 1585. 

Ordinance forbidding the printing of any work with- 
out the consent ol the owner .... 1649,1 

The first copyright act (for 14 years, and for the 
author's life if then living), 8 Anne . . . . 1709.J 

This act confirmed by a decision of the house of 
lords, and the claim of perpetual copyright over- 
ruled ...... 22 Feb. 7774 

Later acts extended the author's right to 28 years, 
and if living at the end of that time, then to the 
remainder of his life. 

Protection of copyright in prints and engravings, 
17 Geo. III. 1777 

Copyright protection act (for 28 years, and the re- 
mainder of the author's life if then living), 
54 Geo. Ill 1814 

Dramatic authors' protection act, 3 Will. IV. c. 15 . 1833 

Act for preventing the publication of lectures with- 
out consent, 6 Will. IV. c. 65 1835 

International copyright bill, 1 Vict. c. 59 . . 1S3S 

5 <fe 6 Vict. c. 45 (Talfourd's or lord Mahon's act), 
to amend the copyright act passed . . . . 1S4? 

(By this act, the right is to endure for the life of the 
author, and for seven years after his death ; but if 
that time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is 
still to endure for 42 years, for which term also any 
work published after the author's death is to con- 
tinue the property of the owners of the manu- 
script. ) 

The colonies' copyright act, 10 & 11 Vict. c. 95, 1847 

Canada copyright act, passed ... 2 Aug. 1875 

Royal commission on copyright nominated : earl 
Stanhope, chairman, 22 Sept., 1875 ; report 
(signed 24 May) issued . . . autumn, 187S 

Warne & Co. v. Seebohm ; verdict for the plaintiffs 
prohibiting printing and the representation of a 
dramatised form of "Little Lord Fauntleroy," a 
story by Mrs. F. Hodgson Burnett, . 10 May 188S 

Copyright (Musical Compositions) act . . 5 July ,, 

Copyright for articles in newspapers affirmed, see 
Trials, 2 June, 1892, and Aug., Nov. 1899. Copy- 
right (literary) bill (amended) text issued, Times, 

10 Aug. i3g9> 

Musical copyright (summary proceedings) act came 
into operation 1 Oct. 1902 

Springfield v. Evening Standard for alleged infringe- 
ment of copyright in a paragraph contributed by 
plaintiff to the Da il y Ma il ; nonsuited 27 July, 1903 

COPYRIGHT FOR DESIGNS, ETC. 

Protection granting security for two months to new 
designs applied by printing to linens, calicoes, 
and muslins, 1787 ; extended to three months . 1794 

A copyright of 14 years conferred on sculpture, 1708 

and 18 14 

The designs act of Geo. III. made to embrace printed 
designs on wool, silk, and hair ; and 12 months' 
copyright granted to designs applied to all tissues 
except laco and those already provided for; for 
the modelling, embossing, and engraving of any 
manufacture not being a tissue ; and for the shape 
or configuration of any article .... 1839 

By 5 & 6 Vict, c 100, all existing designs acts re- 
pealed (except that for sculpture), and provision 
made for including all ornamental designs under 
1 t classes, and conferring upon them terms 
of protection, varying from nine months to three 
years xg^ 

[Fees on registration vary from is. to i/.J 

The "non-ornamental designs act," securing the 

configuration of articles of utility (fee. ioZ.), 

passed in T s A3 

By the "designs act," the Board of Trade is em- 
powered to extend the copyright for an additional 
term of three years 1850 



CORBIESDALE. 



319 



COREA. 



Copyright of photographs secured by the act pro- 
tecting works of art, passed in . . July, 1862 

Another copyright of designs act passed 13 Aug. 1875 

Registration of designs and trade marks, amal- 
gamated with the patent office . . Sept. „ 

S. Franklin ordered to pay 23L in fines and costs 
for selling unauthorised reproductions of paint- 
ings by well-known artists . . -14 July, 1899 

Copyright (artistic) act passed . . 6 Aug. 1900 

INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. 

Acts passed to secure to authors, in certain cases, 
the benefits of international copyright (1 & 2 Vict. 
c. 59, and 15 Vict. c. 12), and conventions have, 
in consequence, been entered into with France, 
Prussia, &c 1838 and 1852 

The question of a foreigner possessing a copy- 
right in this country was finally decided in the 
negative by the house of lords, who reversed the 
decision of the court of exchequer, on an appeal 
by the defendant in the case of Boosey v. Jeffrey. 
(In 1831, Mr. Boosey purchased the copyright of 
Bellini's opera, La Sonnambula, from which Mr. 
Jeffrey published a cavatina. Six of the judges 
were for protecting foreign copyrights, and seven 
of a contrary opinion.) Aug. 1854 

International copyright bill introduced into Ameri- 
can house of representatives . . . 21 Feb. 1868 

In the case of Routledge v. Low, the house of lords 
on appeal decided in favour of the copyright of a 
foreign author 29 May, „ 

Copyright association of England, founded by enr- 
nent London booksellers . . 19 March, 1872 

The subject discussed at the literary congress, 
Paris, opened 18 June, 1878 

International copyright congress at Berne opened, 

8 Sept. 1884 

Another (artistic) Brussels, 29 Sept. 1884 ; again at 
Berne 1886 

International copyright act passed, 1886 ; modified, 
at Paris, 4 May, 1896 ; ratified . . 9 Sept. 1897 

International copyright convention signed at Berne 
9 Sept., 1886; ratified at Berne 5 Sept., 1887; 
by Great Britain, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, 
Belgium and Switzerland (not Austria), Holland, 
United States, by Denmark, 12 Dec. 1902. 

International copyright bill passed by the United 
States : by the house, 3 Dec. 1890 ; by the 
senate, 18 Feb. ; by the president . 4 March, 1891 

For books (which must be set up and printed in 
the United States), works of art, such as pictures, 
engravings, photographs, etchings, lithographs, 
&c, musical compositions, statuary, models, or 
designs: the act came into effect . 1 July, „ 

Convention with Great Britain adopted by the 
Austrian diet 9 Dec. 1893 

The house of lords on appeal decides that the— 
sketches in the Daily Graphic, of living pictures, 
produced at the Empire theatre, were not an in- 
fringement of copyright . . .17 Dec. 1894 

An act passed in Canada injurious to English copy- 
right ; protest of the incorporated society of 
authors ; Mr. Hall Caine visits Canada and pro- 
poses a modus operandi by licences, 25 Oct. 1895 ; 
he reports the prospect of a compromise, London 

2" Jan. 1896 

International congress on copyright met at Berne, 

22 Aug. ,, 
A service of plate, &c, presented by sir John Lub- 
bock, on behalf of the copyright association, to 
Mr. Daldy, in recognition of his services to the 
cause of copyright . . . . .9 Dec. 1897 
Anglo-German and Anglo-Prussian agreements de- 
clared null andvoid by the withdrawal of Germany 

16 Dec. ,, 
International literary and artistic copyright con- 
gress at Berne 8 Aug. 1901 

CORBIESDALE, Caithness (N. Scotland). 
Here, on 27 April, 1650, the gallant marquis of Mon- 
-trose was defeated by the covenanters. He was 
taken soon after, treated with great contumely, and 
hanged at Edinburgh, on 21 May. 

CORCYRA (now Corfu, chief of the Ionian 
Isles), a colony founded by the Corinthians about 
734 B.C. It had frequent wars with the mother 



country ; one about the possession of Epidamnus 
(431 B.C.) led to the Peloponnesian war. It was 
subdued by the Romans, 230. At the decline of the 
eastern empire it fell into the hands of the Vene- 
tians about a.d. 1386. The Turks attacked Corfu 
in 1 7 16, but were gallantly repulsed, and retired, 
18 Aug. 17 17. It was taken from the French by 
the allied Russian and Turkish fleets 3 March, 
1799, and formed (with the other isles) into the 
Ionian republic ; see Ionian Isles. 

CORDELIERS, Mars of the order of St. 
Francis d'Assisi (the Minorites), instituted about 
1223. They are clothed in coarse grey eloth, having 
a girdle of cord, hence the name, first given to 
them by St. Louis of France, about 1227. Several 
members of the French revolutionary party, termed 
"Cordeliers," established at Paris Dec. 1790 (He- 
bert, Cloots, &c), were executed 24 March, 1794. 

CORDITE, so named from its resemblance to 
cords; a smokeless explosive, invented 1889, by sir 
F. A. Abel (died 6 Sept. 1902) and prof. James 
Dewar, patented and assigned by them to the 
secretary of war, 1890. Several inventions were 
submitted to the explosives committee. Cordite was. 
chosen and reported successful in 1892. Sir F. Abel 
and Prof. Dewar exonerated from charges brought, 
forward in the commons, 11 Sept. 1893. 
An action was brought by the Nobel's explosives 
company against the government (represented by 
Dr. Wm. Anderson, head of the works at Wool- 
wich Arsenal) for infraction of Mr. Nobel's patent 
relating to ballistite (1888). The trial in the Chan- 
cery division before Mr. Justice Romer began 30 
Jan., verdict for the defendant, 14 Feb. 1894. 
Appeal to the lords dismissed . . 28 Feb. 1895 
Maxim-Nordenfelt guns and ammunition company 
and Hiram Stevens Maxim v. sir Wm. Anderson 
(died 11 Dec. 189S), for an alleged infringement of 
a smokeless powder patent (1889) in making 
cordite ; long trial ; judgment virtually for the 
defendant, 5 March, 1897; and again . 9 July, 1897 
See Gunpowder. 

CORDOVA, the Roman Corduba (S. Spain), 
founded about 152 B.C., taken by the Goths A.r>. 
572, and made the capital of an Arab kingdom by 
Abderahman in 756, who founded the great mosque 
(now the cathedral) 786. It was the birthplace of 
Seneca and Lucan, and of the Arabian physician 
Averrhoes. It was rescued from the Arabs by 
Ferdinand III. of Castile in 1236, was taken by 
the French under Dupont and disgracefully ravaged 
7-9 June, 1808 ; surrendered to Joseph Bonaparte 
Jan. 1810; abandoned by the French in 1813 ; 
plundered by the Carlists, Oct. 1836. Population, 
1887, 55,614; 1897, 57>3 r 3- Explosion in a mine 
at Belmez, 75 deaths, 18 March, 1898. 

CORE A, or KOREA, a peninsula, E. Asia, tri- 
butary to China, and from which foreigners were 
rigidly excluded till June, 1882, when four ports 
were opened to commerce by the agency of the 
United States of America and China by treaty. 
For the dispute with Americans see United States, 
June, 1871. King, Ti Huing, Jan. 1864; pro- 
claimed emperor, 3 Oct. 1897. Capital, Seoul. 
Population, 10,528,937 (last government census). 

Anti-foreign insurrection ; outrages, 11 of the Ja- 
panese legation killed, 23 July ; Japanese prepa- 
rations for war with Corea on account of 
injuries, announced .... Aug. 1882 

War averted by compensations, reparation, and 
peace Sept. ,, 

Treaty with Great Britain signed . 26 Nov. 1883 

Another insurrection; the king attacked in his 
palace, and his ministers massacred by Coreans 
and Chinese, 4-6 Dec. ; peace restored by inter- 
vention of Japanese . . . about 13 Dec. 1884 



COREA. 

Difficulty between Japan and China settled by 
European mediation, Jan. ; Japan predominant 

Feb. ; treaty 18 April, i 

British flag set up at Port Hamilton, as a station, 
announced 13 May 1885 ; decided to be kept, 

Nov. i 
Port Hamilton restored to Corea, subject to China 

Jan. i 
China reasserts by proclamation her suzerainty 

over Corea Dec. 

Corea endeavours to enter into independent diplo- 
matic relations with United States and European 

Powers May, : 

Treaty with Russia 8 Aug. 

The Rev. Charles James Corfe consecrated bishop 

of Corea 1 Nov. 

Rebellion, reported .... 5 June, : 
Suppressed by foreign assistance . . 14 June, 
Invasion of Japanese troops, Seoul occupied, 

25 June, 

China reinonstrates 27 June, 

The king renounces all subjection to China, and 

calls on the Japanese for help . . 30 June, 

Foreign intervention to stop the war unsuccessful, 

June, 

Japan demands extensive reforms, and claims 

observance of treaty of 1885 ; opposed by China, 

July, 
Hostilities begin between China and Japan ; the 
Kowshing, a British despatch boat (capt. Gals- 
worthy) conveying Chinese troops, attacked by 
Japanese warships and sunk off Asan, capt. Gals- 
worthy escaped to the Japanese : many killed, 

25 July, 
Japanese victories at Chan-hon and at Asan under 

gen. Oshima 29 July, 

Much conflicting intelligence . . . Aug. 

Chinese declaration of war . . .4 Aug. 

Japanese army increased, they hold Seoul and some 

provinces, guerilla warfare ; treaty of alliance 

between Japan and Corea signed at Seoul, 26 Aug. 

Asan recaptured 30 Aug. 

The emperor of China transmits a justificatory 
circular to the great powers, 23 Aug. ; reported, 

10 Sept. 

The Chinese surrounded and defeated with great 

loss at Ping-Yang, on the Tatong river ; gen. Tso 

(Chinese) killed .... 15, 16 Sept. 

Great naval battle at the mouth of the Yalu river ; 

much slaughter, 8 Chinese vessels destroyed, 

17 Sept. 
Disorganization of Chinese commissariat, &c, re- 
ported 1 Oct. 

Japanese occupy Wi-ju, without resistance, re- 
ported .... ... 9 Oct. 

The British proposals for mediation, considei'ed 
premature by the great powers, reported, 14 Oct. 
Indecisive battle near Wi-ju, great slaughter, 

22 Oct. 
The Japanese cross the Yalu and enter Manchuria ; 
Chinese fort taken after sharp fighting . 25 Oct. 
Kiu-lien-tcheng taken by marshal Yamagata, 

26 Oct, 

Gens. Ycli and Wei (Chinese) tried at Shanghai for 

cowardice, &C, at Ping-Yang, 15 Sept., and 

degraded 30 Oct. 

Tung-huan-tcheng surrenders . . . 31 Oct. 

Kinchou and Talienwan captured . . 6, 7 Nov. 

Prince Kung acknowledges I he defeat of China, 

and requests foreign intervention . 3 Nov. 

Chinese routed at the Namquan Pass . . g Nov. 

Port Arthur, a strong naval arsenal, taken by the 
Japanese under marshal Oyama by storm, 

20, 21 Nov. 

[Great massacre of Chinese after the battle, 

owing in their having killed some captive 

Japi Be, 21-26 Nov.] 

Vigorous attack ni Chinese on marshal Yamagata's 
army at the Fen-Shiu pass repulsed . 25 Nov. 
Corean insurgents severely defeated . 28 Nov. 
Kinchou re-occupied by marshal Oyania . 3 Dec. 
Fuchou taken without resistance . . 5 Dec. 
Chinese defeated at Kinknahu and Yih-man-shan, 

10, 14 Dec. 
Hai-tclicng taken by gen. Katsura . \ ; Pec. 

Chinese defeated under gen. Sung by gen. Katsura, 
1 near Hai-tcheng 19 Dec. 



320 



COREA. 



Rebellion of the Tonghaks : 3 towns burnt, rebels 
defeated, 23 Dec. ; again defeated . 8 Jan. 

Japan refuses an armistice . . 5 Jan. 

The independence of Corea proclaimed by the 
king at Seoul 7 Jan. 

Desolation in Manchuria ; Chinese routed at 
Kai-phing 10 Jan. 

Tung-chou bombarded and taken . 18, 19 Jan. 

Yung-tcheng and Ning-hai occupied . 20, 24 Jan. 

Bombardment of Wei-hai-wei and the island 
fortress Leu-kung-tau by adm. Ito and marshal 
Oyaina, began, 30 Jan. ; fierce fighting ; adm. 
Ting, gen. Chang, capt. Liu surrender ships and 
forts under honours of war, and commit suicide 
from grief and shame (great respect shown to 
their memory) 12 Feb. 

Adm. McClure accepts the Japanese conditions, 

13 Feb. 

Japanese successful advances . . . Feb. 

Niu-chuang and port of Ying-kow taken after fierce 
fighting by gen. Nodzu . . . 4, 6 March, 

Denshodai burnt by the Japanese ; much slaughter, 

9 March, 

Li Hung Chang, Chinese minister plenipotentiary, 
with Mr. Foster, American adviser, sent to treat 
for peace ; received by vise. Mutsu, Japanese 
minister, at Shimonoseki in Manchuria 19 March, 

Li Hung Chang fired at in the face by Koyama, a 
young Japanese, a lunatic . . .24 March, 

Haichow, on the Kiangsu coast taken 24 March, 

The Pescadores Islands taken . . 26-31 March, 

Armistice (21 days) proclaimed at Tokio 29 March, 
See Formosa, 31 March, 1895. 

Peace signed ; conditions : the independence of 
Corea ; Japan retains conquered places, the 
Pescadores and part of the Liao-tung peninsula, 
Liao, and Formosa : an indemnity of 200,000,000 
taels ; 4 new ports opened to commerce. Li 
Hung Chang departs . . . .17 April, 

The ministers of Russia, Germany, and France 
protest against the annexation of Chinese con- 
tinental territory to the Japanese empire by the 
treaty 23 April, 

Japan abandons the claim to the Liao-tung penin- 
sula, 6 May : ratifications of the treaty exchanged, 

8 May, 

Armistice prolonged for 5 days ; negotiations pro- 
ceeding May, 

Li Yo Shun, Corean minister, sentenced to penal 
servitude for life, and 5 officials to death, for 
murder and treason .... 13 May, 

Government unsettled . . . .21 May, 

Count Inouye employed by Japan to promote re- 
forms May et seq. 

Mutiny of Corean soldiers ; the palace invaded by 
an anti-reform mob ; the queen and 2 ladies 
murdered, reported 8 Oct. ; H.M.S. Edgar ordered 
to Chemulpho, 13 Oct. ; visct. Miura and other 
Japanese ministers and soldiers recalled from 
SeOul, reported 18 Oct. 

Evacuation of the Liao-tong peninsula by the 
Japanese 30 Nov. 

Withdrawal of Japanese troops completed ; re- 
ported 7 Jan. 

Insurrection at Seoul, the king and his son take 
refuge in the Russian legation ; Russian marines 
lauded at Chemulpho, march to Seoul, 10, 11 Feb. 

Two Corean ministers executed for treason ; anti- 
Japanese cabinet formed ; Russian influence 
predominant 14 Feb. 

Fighting between the Japanese and rebels near 
Fusan ; reported .... 23 March, 

Concession to work for gold granted to a Russian 
company ; reported . . . .17 May, 

Russian Blow policy reported successful . 7 Nov. 

The king leaves the Russian legation for the new 
palace 20 Feb. 

Treaty between Russia and Japan providing for the 
maintenance of the independence of Corea under 
their military protection ; text published, 24 Feb. 

Financial improvement under Mr. M'Leavy Brown, 
chief commissioner (in unison with M. Alexieff, 
Russian) ; more ports open to foreign trade ; re- 
organization of the army by the Russians, <fcc. ; 
reported 8 Oct. 

Solemn burial of the queen (see above, Oct. 1895), 
the emperor and others present . . 22 Nov. 



1895 



COEFU. 



321 



COEK. 



Six British warships arrive at Chemulpho to sup- 
port Mr. M'Leavy Brown . . .31 Dec. 18 

" Korea and her Neighbours," by Mrs. Bishop 
(Isabella L. Bird), published . . . .181 

M. Alexieff and Russian drill instructors recalled, 
with 3,300?. compensation . . 25 March, ,, 

Convention signed between Russia and Japan 
respecting Corea April, ,, 

Plot against the government discovered at Seoul, 
officials arrested, reported ... 11 July, ,, 

Attempt to poison the emperor and crown prince 
frustrated, reported, 16 Sept. 1898 ;Tim Khunyuk, 
interpreter at the Russian legation, executed on a 
false charge, his wife and others tortured, 10, 12 
Oct. ; the minister of justice dismissed, 13 Oct. ,, 

Political riot at Seoul, 23 deaths, reported, 23 Nov. ,. 

Seoul and Chemulpho railway taken over by Japan, 
Jan. 1899 (opened 5 July, 1900). 

Cabinet dismissed and 2 ministers banished on 
account of changes in provincial offices, March, 18 

Ports (3) on the B. coast leased to Russia for 12 
years May, ,. 

Japanese influence again paramount in Seoul, Aug. , 

Russia obtains an exclusive settlement at Masampho 
harbour, agreements signed . . 30 March, 19 

Two Corean officials, under Japanese protection, 
suspected of complicity in the murder of the 
queen (1895), tortured and put to death . May, , 

Judicial officials punished to appease Japan, 

mid-June, „ 

Disturbances in the north, reported . mid- Aug. ,, 

Railway loan with France concluded . 16 April, 1901 

Land at Masampho leased to Japan by govern- 
ment May, ,. 

Two missionaries and 6 converts murdered at 

Quelpart, reported 2 June, ,, 

[Three ringleaders sentenced to death, others im- 
prisoned, reported, 4 Dec] 

Japanese expansion and trade progressing, reported 

July, i) 

Anglo-Japanese agreement, the stafots quo and in- 
dependence of Corea to be maintained ; see 
China . - . . . . signed, 30 Jan. 1902 
Corea gives its adhesion to the Geneva convention, 

8 Jan. 1903 
Russian demand for concession to Russo-Chinese 

bank of the SeSul-Wi-ju railway rejected, 25 Feb. ,, 
Dispute with Japan (see Japan and Russia), 

June, et seq. ,, 

COEFU, see Corcijra. 

COEINTH (Greece), a city said to have been 
built 1520 B.C. and named Ephyra. It was de- 
fended by an elevated fortress called Acrocorinth, 
surrounded with strong walls, and Cicero named it 
the Eye of Greece. — For Corinth, in North America, 
see United States, 1862, 1863. 

The Isthmian games, traditionally said to have 
been instituted by Sisyphus, who founded a king- 
dom B.C. 1326 

Return of the Heraclidse, or Dorians . . . . 1107 
Their dynasty established by Aletes . . . 1074 

The Corinthians invent ships called triremes (with 

three benches of oars) .... 786 or 758 
Reign of Bacchis, 925 ; oligarchy of Bacchidas 747-657 
Thelestes deposed ; the government of Prytanes 

instituted ; Automenes, the first, . . about 745 
The Corinthian colonies of Syracuse and Corcyra 

founded about 734 

Revolt of the Corcyreans : they defeat the Corin- 
thians at sea 664 

Cypselus, a despot, sets aside the Prytanes . . 655 
His son Periander rules, and favours learning . 627-585 
Psammetichus deposed, and a republic formed . 580 
The Corinthians engaged in the Persian war . . 480 
Defeated in war with the Corcyreans . . .435 
The Corinthian war (which see) . . ... 395 
Timoleon kills his usurping brother Timophanes . 344 
Acrocorinth (citadel) taken by Aratus, and annexed 

to the Achsean League 243 

The Roman ambassadors first appear at Corinth 228 

Greeks defeated at Cynoscephala? . . . . 197 

Corinth sacked by Lucius Mummius, who sends to 
Italy the first fine paintings there seen (Livy) B.C. 146 



Rebuilt by Julius Ctesar 46 

Visited by St. Paul (Acts xviii.) . . . a.d. 54 
His two Epistles to the Corinthians . . about 59, 60 

Ravaged by Alaric 396 

Plundered by Normans from Sicily .... 1146 
Taken by Turks, 1446 ; by Venetians, 1687 ; by 
Turks, June, 1714 ; from whom it was finally 

taken by the Greeks in 1823 

Nearly destroyed by an earthquake . .21 Feb. 1858 
A. concession granted for 99 years to a French com- 
pany to cut the isthmus for a canal ; to be com- 
pleted in six years, by MM. E. G. Piat and Chollet, 
April, 1870 ; concession transferred to baron de 
Lesseps and gen. Turr . . . .28 May, 1881 
Cutting begun in presence of the king and queen 

5 May, 1882 
Work actively proceeding ; stopped through claims 

of a Paris company 1 April, 1889 
The company at Paris dissolved, 12 Feb., 1890 ; the 
scheme transferred to a Greek company, capital 
of 200,000?. ; agreement signed by M. Tricoupis, 
about 18 March ; the work resumed, 22 June, 
1890 ; the canal opened in the presence of the 
king and royal family, 6 Aug. 1893. The canal 
blocked through a landslip, 27 Nov. 1894 ; navi- 
gation restored 17 Dec. 1894 

COEINTHIAN OEDEE, the richest of the 
orders of ancient architecture, called by Scamozzi 
the virginal order, is attributed to Callimachus, 
540 b.c. ; see Abacus. 

COEINTHIAN WAE, began 395 b.c. ; re- 
ceived this name because mostly in the neighbour- 
hood of Corinth; waged by a confederacy of the 
Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, 
against the Lacedaemonians. It was closed by the 
peace of Antalcidas, 387 B.C. The most famous 
battles were at Coronea and Leuctra (which see) . 

COEIOLI, a Latin city, capital of the Vol- 
scians, taken by the Romans, 493 B.C. The exploits 
of Caius Marcius or Coriolanus against it are deemed 
mythical. 

COEK (S. Ireland), built in the 6th century. 
The principality of the M'Cartys was converted 
into a shire by king John, as lord of Ireland. The 
foundation of the see is ascribed to St. Barr, or 
FinbaiT, early in the 7th century. About 1431, 
this see and Cloyne were united ; but in 1678 they 
were separated, Ross having been added to Cork 
1582. Cork and Cloyne were reunited (by the act 
of 1833) 1835. Population of the city, 1881, 80,124; 
1891, 75,070 ; 1901, 75,978. 

Garrisoned by Henry II 1172 

First charter, from Henry II 1185 

Supported Perkin Warbeck, who landed here . . 1492 

A large part of the town burnt 1621 

Taken by Cromwell 1649 

Marlborough besieged and took Cork from king 
James, when the duke of Grafton, a son of 

Charles II. , was slain 1690 

The cathedral was rebuilt by the produce of a coal 

duty, between the years . . . 1725 & 1735 
Explosion of gunpowder here . . 10 Nov. 1810 

One of the three colleges, endowed by government 
pursuant to act 8 & 9 Vict. c. 66, passed 31 July, 
1845, was inaugurated in this city (see Queen's 

Colleges) 7 Nov - l8 49 

Railway to Dublin finished 1850 

Cork industrial exhibition opened, 10 June, and 

closed 11 Sept. 1852 

For a seditious speech in favour of the Fenians 
(which see), on 27 April, 1869, the mayor was com- 
pelled to resign (an act for his disability having 
been introduced into parliament) . n May, 1870 
Riots, partially connected with a strike, suppressed 

26, 28 June, ,, 
New protestant cathedral consecrated . 30 Nov. 
Industrial exhibition opened, 3 July ; closed 

13 Oct. 188 

Y 



COEK-TEEE. 



322 



COENWALL. 



Cork Defence Union, against National League 
formed Oct. 1885 

Strike of the employed, of the City of Cork Steam 
Packet Co. (14 weeks), ends with submission 

27 Jan. 1091 
Mr. Matthew Honan bequeaths 158,000?. to found a 

hospital in Cork for aged men, etc. . April, 1894 
Destructive floods, with loss of life . 24-27 Dec. 1895 
Visit of the lord-lieut. the earl of Cadogan . Sept. 1896 

Strike on the Cork, Bandon, and S. Coast railway 

Jan., Feb. 1898 
The title of lord bestowed on the mayor . April, 1900 

International exhibition (cost 30,000!.) opened by 
lord Bandon, street pageant, &c, the lord mayors 
and mayors of Ireland present . . 1 May, 1002 

The duke of Connaught opens a new bridge over the 
St. Hern branch of the Lee, 7 May ; the duke and 
prince Henry of Prussia visit the exhibition, 8 
May ; state visit of the lord-lieutenant and conn- 
tess Cadogan, 29 May ; international boatrace, 
Anglo-German, English won lord O'Brien's cup, 

23 July, ,, 

International exhibition opened by lord Dudley, 

28 May, 1903 
Visit of king and queen .... 1 Aug. „ ■ 
Exhibition, total visitors, 1,400,000, closed 1 Nov. ,, 

COEK-TEEE, Quercus suber, a species of the 
oak ; part of its bark used for stopping bottles. 
The Egyptians made coffins of cork. The tree 
grows in great abundance on the Pyrenean moun- 
tains, and in other parts of Spain, in France, and 
in the north of New England. It -was brought to 
England about 1690. A cork carpet company was 
formed in 1862. 

Life-preserving clothes made of cloth into which 
cork is interwoven, invented by Wm. Jackson, 
tried successfully on the Thames . . 3 Sept. 1886 

COEN. The origin of its cultivation is attri- 
buted to Ceres, who, having taught the art to the 
Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 B.C. Arun- 
delian Marbles. The art of husbandry, and the 
method of making bread from wheat, and wine 
from rice, i3 attributed by the Chinese to Ching 
Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch 
of China, 1998 B.C. Univ. Hist. Corn provided a 
common article of food from the earliest ages of the 
world, and baking bread was known in the patri- 
archal ages; see Exodus xii. 15. The first impor- 
tation of corn, of which we have a note, was in 
1347. A law restricting it was made in 1361, and 
similar legislation followed. Bounties were granted 
on its importation into England in 1689. See 
WJieat. 

CORN LAWS. 

The restrictions on the importation of corn felt, in 
consequence of the increase of manufactures, 
about 1770 ; relaxed 1773 

Mr. Robinson's act passed, permitting importation 
when wheat is 80s. a quarter i8i,s 

During the discussions on ibis bill, mobs assembled 
in London, and many of the bouses of its sup- 
porters were damaged, 28 Jan. ; and a riot in 
Westminster continued . . . 6-9 March, ,, 

A corn bill, after passing in the commons, defeated 
iii the lords, by a clause proposed by the duke of 
Wellington, carried by a majority of 4 . 1 June, 1827 

The act (called the sliding scale) whereby wheat was 
allowed to he imported on payment of a duty of 
il, 5s, id per quarter, whenever the .average price 
of all England was under 62s. : from 62s. to 63s., 
1/. 48, id. : and so gradually reduced to is., when 
the average price was 73s. and upwards, passed 

15 July, iSjS 

The act 5 Vict. c. tithes md "sliding scale act," 

regulating the dutj on wheal as billows, with 

sliding duties, also, on other articles of corn, 

passed 29 April, 1S4- 



Average per quarter. Duty. 
Shillings. Shillings. & s. d.. 
under 51 100 

51 and under 52 o 19 a 

52 and under 55 o 18 o- 

55 and under 56 o 17 o 

56 and under 57 o 16 o 

57 and under 58 . . . • . . o 15 o- 

58 and under 59 o 14 o 

59 and under 60 o 13 o 

60 and under 61 . . . • . o 12 o- 

61 and under 62 o 11 o 

62 and under 63 o 10 o 

63 and under 64 . . . . ..090 

64 and under 65 08a 

65 and under 66 070- 

66 and under 69 o 6 o^ 

69 and under 70 o 5 o< 

70 and under 71 040 

71 and under 72 030 

72 and under 73 020 

73 and upwards 010 

See Anti-Corn Law League. 

The Corn Importation Bill (introduced by sir, 
Robert Peel), 9 & 10 Vict. c. 22 (by which the duty 
on wheat was reduced to 4s. when imported at or 
above 53s., until 1st Feb. 1849 ; after which day 
the duty became is. per quarter only, on all kinds 
of grain imported into the United kingdom, at 
any prices), received the royal assent . 26 June, 184.6 1 

[Jubilee address to right hon. C. P. Villiers, an 
early earnest advocate for the repeal, 27 June, 
1896.] 

The is. duty repealed by act passed . 24 June, 1869 

Duty on imported corn, 3d. per cwt., and flour, 5^. 
per cwt., passed ; see Budget . . 4 July, 1902: . 

Duty remitted ; see Budget ... 22 June, 1905 j 

Corn Exchange, Mark-lane, London, erected at an 
expense of 90,000!. (replacing one established in 

1747), was opened 24 June, 182S 

Corn Exchange Benevolent Society, founded . . 1S64 
The Society of Arts gave a prize to Mr. W. A. Gibbs 
for his essay on harvesting corn in wet weather 

23 Nov. 1 863 

COENELL UNIVEESITY, Ithaca, New 
York : for the study of the applied sciences, agri- 
culture, engineering, &c. ; partially on a self-sup- 
porting system ; founded by Ezra Cornell in 1868, 
that " any person may find instruction in any study." 
He had risen from poverty to wealth by patenting 
his inventions. The university is well-appointed, 
includes Sage college for women, and has a staff of 
150 professors and tutors and about 1700 students. 

COENEE, a term applied in America to the- 
paralysis of trade and manufactures, produced by 
speculators purchasing in anticipation grain, petro- 
leum, cotton, &c. (termed futures). The eottot* 
corner sX Liverpool in Sept. 1881 led to the stopping 
of looms in Lancashire, &c, by way of counteraction. 
The corner ended 30 Sept. 1881. Mr. Morris Ranger t 
a great cotton speculator, failed 31 Oct. 1883, 
causing much disaster. 

Another "cotton corner" proposed in June 1SS7 was. 
resisted by the joint action of the manufacturers and 
operatives. A " cotton corner " in Liverpool was re- 
sisted and closed, 30 Sept. 1889. See Trusts. A 
"wheat corner" in Chicago since 1895, collapsed, 
June, 1898. "Cotton corner," New York, 1903. 

COENWALL, S. V7. extremity of England. 
On the retreat of the ancient Britons after the 
Saxon conquest, Cornwall is said to have been 
formed into a kingdom, and to have existed many 
years under different princes, among whom were 
Amlirosius Aurelius, and the celebrated Arthur. 
Cornwall is said to have been made an earldom by 
Alfred. The eldest son of the British sovereign is 
born duke of Cornwall. See Stannary Courts. 
Before the reform of 1832, Cornwall sent 44 
members to parliament, in 1886 it sent "• 



CORONATION. 



323 



CORPORATIONS. 



Bishopric of Cornwall, founded, 909 ; united to 

Devonshire, 1040 ; removed to Exeter . . . 1046 
Cornwall given by the conqueror to Robert de 

Mortein, his half-brother, 1068 ; killed . . . 1087 
William, his son, dispossessed by Henry T. . .1104 
Reginald de Dunstanville, natural son of Henry I. , 

earl 114° 

John Plantagenet, son of Henry II., earl, about . 1189 
Richard Fitz-Count, son of Reginald, earl, 1215 ; 

resigned . 1220 

Richard, son of king John, 1225 ; elected king of the 

Romans, 1256 ; died .... 2 April, 1272 
Edmund, son, earl, 1272 ; died without issue . . 1300 
Piers de Gaveston, earl, 1308 ; beheaded, 19 June, 1312 
John, son of Edward II., earl, 1330 ; died with issue 1336 
Cornwall made aduchy, by Edward III., for Edward 
his eldest son, afterwards created prince of Wales 

17 March, 1337 
Insurrection of Cornishmen under lord Audley, 
Thomas Plammock, and others, against taxes ; 
they march to London ; defeated at Blackheath 

22 June, 1497 
Insurrection in Devon and Cornwall against the 

Protestant liturgy, defeated by lord Russell, Aug. 1549 
Dolly Pentreatli, said to have been the last person 

who spoke Cornish, died aged 102 [contradicted] 1778 
Rev. R. Polwhele's "History of Cornwall "published 

1803-8 
Prince and princess of Wales visit Cornwall, July, i36s 
Stoppage of the Cornish Bank (Tweedy & Co.) es- 
tablished 1771 4 Jan- 1879 

Duchy of Cornwall Act passed 1893, amended . 1893 
A neolithic cemetery discovered during excava- 
tions at Harlyn bay ; see Athenceum . 22 Sept. 1900 
Receipts from the duchy, 1866, 77,7552. ; 1877, 
87,895?. ; 1887, 9931,5?. — paid to the prince of 
Wales, i860, 53,403?. ; 1877, 69,339?. > I 887, 60,290?. 
Receipts from the duchy in 1888, 107,572?. ; 
104,188?. for 1889 ; ico,68o?. for 1891 ; 131,081?. for 
igoi ; 130,206?. for 1902. 

CORONATION. Leo I., emperor of the East, 
was crowned by Anatolius, patriarch of Constan- 
tinople, being the first instance of a Christian 
sovereign receiving his crown from the hands of a 
priest, 457. Majorian, emperor of the West, is said 
to have been crowned in the same year in a similar 
manner. 

Charlemagne crowned emperor of the west by the 
pope Leo III. (using the words " coronato a Deo," 
■' crowned by God") .... 25 Dec. 800 
Edward I., son of Alfred, crowned . 16 May, 902 
William I. crowned at Westminster . . 25 Dec. 1066 
Anointing at coronations introduced into England 

872, and Scotland 1097 

Coronation of Henry III., in the first instance 
without a crown, at Gloucester. A plain circle 
was used on this occasion in lieu of the crown, 
which had been lost with the other jewels and 
baggage of king John, in passing the marshes of 
Lynn, or the Wash, near Wisbeach . 28 Oct. 1216 
Henry VII., 30 Oct. 1485; Henry VIII., 24 June 
1509 ; Edward VI. received asking, 28 Jan. 1547 ; 
Mary, 1 Oct. 1553; Elizabeth, 13 Jan. 1559; 
James I., 25 July, 1603 ; Charles I., 2 Feb. 1626 ; 
Charles II., 23 April, 1661 ; James II., 23 April 1685 
William and Mary crowned by Compton, bishop of 
London, as Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury, 
would not take the oaths, n April, 1689; Anne, 
23 April, 1702 ; George I., 20 Oct. 1714; George 
II. , 11 Oct. 1727 ; George III., 22 Sept. 1761 ; 
George IV., 19 July, 1821 ; William IV., 8 Sept. 
^831 ; Victoria, 28 June, 1838 ; Edward VII., 

9 Aug. 1902 
Coronation Chair. In the cathedral of Cashel, formerly 
the metropolis of the kings of Munster, was deposited 
the Lia Fail, or Fatal Stone, on which they were 
crowned. Tradition says, that in 513 Fergus, a prince 
of the royal line, having obtained the Scottish throne, 
procured the use of this stone for his coronation at 
Dunstafmage, where it continued until the time of 
Kenneth II., who removed it to Scone ; and in 1296 it 
was removed by Edward I. from Scone to West- 
minster ; the present chair being made to receive it. 
A Coronation Oath was administered by Dunstan, 
archbishop of Canterbury, to Ethelrcd II., in 978. An 



oath, nearly corresponding with that now in use, was 
administered in 1377. The oath prescribed by 1 Will. & 
Mary, c. 6 (1689) was modified in 1706, and again in 
1821 on account of the union of the Churches of England 
and Ireland. See Accession. 

CORONEA, Battles of. I. (orChseronea). 

The Athenians were defeated and their general 
Tolmides slain in a battle with the Boeotians at 
Coronea near Chseronea, 447 B.C. II. The Athe- 
nians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians having 
entered into a league, offensive and defensive, 
against Sparta, Agesilaus, after diffusing the terror 
of his arms, from his many victories, even unto 
Upper Asia, engaged the allies at Coronea, a town 
of Bceotia, and achieved a great victory over them, 
394 B-c 

CORONERS, officers of the realm, mentioned 
in a charter, 925. Coroners for every county in 
England were first appointed by statute of West- 
minster, 3 Edw. I. 1275. Stow. They are chosen 
for life by the freeholders, and their duty is to- 
inquire into the cause of unnatural death, upon, 
view of the body. By an act passed in 1843, 
coroners are enabled to appoint deputies to act for 
them in case of illness. The act amended 1887. 
Laws respecting coroners amended i860 and 1892 — 
20,315 coroners' inquests were held in England and 
Wales in 1859: — 



1867 



(i7» 

1870 
1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 
(18, 
1875 
1876 
1877 



21,038 
. . 20,591 

• • 22,757 

• • 24,787 
■ • 25,011 

24,926 
. . 24,648 

• • 24,774 

• • 24,709 
191 males.) 

• • 25,376 
25,898 
25.7°S 
26,427 
27,184 

875 males.) 

28,587 

26,845 

26,287 

27,628 



[879 . . 27,039 
(18,233 males.) 

[880 . . 26,569 
(18,131 males.) 

e88i . . 27,451 
(18,548 males.) 

1882 . . 27,502 
(18,673 males.) 

1883 . . 28,725 

1884 . . 28,603 
(19,280 males.) 

1885 . . 28,181 
(18,863 males.) 

1886 . . 28,940 
(19,329 males.) 

1887 . . 30,030 
(19,814 males.) 

1888 . . 29,057 
(19,120 males.) 

1889 . . 29,675 
(19,700 males.) 



1890 . . 32,027- 
(20,997 males.) 

1891 . . 32,816- 
(21,459 males.) 

1892 . . 32,254. 
(20,975 males.) 

1893 ■ • 33,227 
(21,575 males.) 

1894 . . 32,059. 
(21,029 males.) 

1895 . . 34,68s 
(22,139 males.) 

1897 . . 33,289. 
(21,476 males. 

1898 . . 34,541 
(22,256 males.) 

1899 . . 37,026. 
(24,036 males.) 

1900 . . 37,076. 
(24,089 males.) 



CORONETS, caps or infenoi crowns of the- 
nobility. The coronets for earls were first allowed 
by Henry III. ; for viscounts by Henry VIII. ; and 
for barons by Charles II. Baker. But authorities- 
conflict. Sir Bobert Cecil, earl of Salisbury, was 
the first of the degree of earl who wore a coronet, 
1604. It is uncertain when the coronets of dukes 
and marquises were settled. Beatson. 

CORPORATE REUNION. See Order. 

CORPORATIONS. Numa, in order to break 
the force of the two rival factions of Sabines and 
Romans, is said to have instituted separate 
societies of manual trades. Plutarch. — Municipal 
Corporations in England. Bodies politic, 
authorised by the king's charter to have a common 
seal, one head officer, or more, and members, who- 
are able, by their common consent, to grant or 
receive in law any matter within the compass of 
their charter. Cowell. Charters of rights were 
granted by the kings of England to various towns ; 
by Edward the Confessor, Henry I., and succeed- 
ing monarchs, subject to tests, oaths, and conditions. 
Blackstone. The Corporation and Test act, passed 
in 1661, was repealed in May, 1828. The Corpora- 
tion Reform act, for the regulation of municipal 
corporations (London not included) in England 
and Wales, 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 76 (1835), was 

y 2 



CORPULENCE. 



324 



COETES. 

corresponding with the French directory ; and James 
O'Coigley was executed as a traitor (protesting his 
innocence) on 7 June. 

COEEOSIYE SUBLIMATE, see Mercury. 

COEEUPT PEACTICES ACTS, respecting 
elections for members of parliament, were passed in 
1854, and continued in following years. An act 
relating to Scotland was passed in 1890. See 
Bribery at Elections and Corporations. 

By an act passed in 1881 elections at Boston, Can- 
terbury, Chester, Gloucester, Macclesfield, and 
Oxford, were temporarily suspended ; and 
Messrs. May and Main (Macclesfield), Mr. Edwards 
(Denl), Mr. Olds (Sandwich), and others were 
sentenced to imprisonment varying from 2 to 9 
months 29 Nov. 1881 

Petition for their release signed (in vain) by 43,841 
persons about, 23 Dec. „ 

The act 46 & 47 Vict. c. 51, passed 25 Aug. 1883, 
strictly prohibits hiring carriages and illegal 
payments ; amended 6 July, 1895. In 1880 the 
election by about 3,000,000 electors cost about 
3,ooo,oooZ. In 1885 the election by 5,670,000 
electors cost 780,000?. 

COESICA, an island in the Mediterranean Sea 
(called by the Greeks Cyrnos), held by the French. 
The ancient inhabitants had the character of 
robbers, liars, and atheists, according to Seneca. 
Corsica was colonised by Phocseans 564 B.C., and 
afterwards held by the Carthaginians, from whom 
it was taken by the Romans, 238 B.C. It has been 
held by Vandals, a.d. 456 ; by Saracens 852 ; by 
Pisans, 1077. It was dependent upon Genoa from 
1559 till 1768, when it was ceded to France. 
During a revolt erected into a kingdom under Theo- 
dore Neuhoff, its first and only king . . . 1736 
He came to England, was imprisoned in the 
King's Bench prison for debt, and long subsisted 
on private friends, but released ; he gave in his 
schedule the kingdom of Corsica to his creditors, 

and died in Soho 1756 

The earl of Orford wrote the following epitaph, for 
a tablet near his grave in St. Anne's church, 
Dean-street : — 

" The grave, great teacher ! to a level brings 
Heroes and beggars, galley-slaves and kings. 
But Theodore this moral learn'd ere dead ; 
Fate pour'd its lesson on his living head, 
Bestow'd a kingdom and denied him bread." 
Pascal Paoli chosen for their general by the Cor- 

sicans 1753 

Defeated by the count de Vaux, he fled to England 1769 
Napoleon Bonaparte born at Ajaccio (5 Feb. 1768, 

baptismal register ; doubtful) . . 15 Aug. ,, 
The people acknowledge George III. of England for 

king 17 June, 1794 

Sir Gilbert Eliott made viceroy, and opened a par- 
liament 1795 

A revolt suppressed, June ; the island relinquished 
by the British, 22 Oct. ; the people declare for the 

French 1796 

A statue to Napoleon I. inaugurated by prince 

Napoleon Jerome . . . , . 15 May, 1865 
Visit by the empress and imperial prince 4 Sept. 1869 
(Jon. Paoli's remains buried at Old St. Pancras 
cemetery, London, exhumed and transferred and 
re-interred in Corsica . . .31 Aug. et seq. 1889 

Corsica visited by president Carnot 21-23 April, 1890 
Election riots at Linguizzota, several deaths, 

20 Oct. 1901 

COETE NUO VA, near Milan, N. Italy. Here 
the emperor Frederic II. defeated the Milanese 
after a severe conflict. 27 Nov. 1237. 

COETES, the Spanish parliament, originating 
in the old Gothic councils. The cortes were as- 
sembled after a long interval of years, 24 Sept. 
1810; and settled the new constitution, 16 March, 
181 2, which was set aside by Ferdinand VII., who 



amended in 1869. The Irish Municipal Corpora- 
tion act, 4 Vict. c. 108, passed in 1840, was amended 
in 1861. The Corrupt Practices (Municipal Elec- 
tions) act, was passed 6 Aug. 1872. The law re- 
lating to municipal elections amended by act passed 
19 July, 1875. Municipal Elections, Corrupt and 
Illegal Practices act passed 14 Aug. 1884. Royal 
commission on 1 10 unreformed municipal corpora- 
tions appointed in 1876; report issued 17 Feb. 
1880. Bill for their reform introduced by sir 
■Charles Dilke, 21 Feb. 1883. A consolidation act 
passed 1882 ; amended 1893. Property qualification 
bill rejected in commons (173— 167), 2 April, 1879. 
The London Government act, 1899, constituted 28 
London boroughs; first elections of councillors to 
these held 1 Nov. 1900; second elect ons,2 Mov. 1903. 

Jubilee of the passing of the Act of 1835 celebrated 

9 Oct. 1885 

The association of municipal corporations met, 5 
Dec. 1884 ; it met at the Guildhall, London ; 219 
towns represented, 12 March, 1890; again, 13 
March, 1891 ; 10 March, 1892 ; 23 Feb. 1893 ; 10 
March, 1894 ; 21 March, 1895 ; 13 March, 1896 ; 
27 Feb. 1897 ; 26 March, 1898 ; 25 March, 1899 ; 
31 March, 1900 ; 22 March, iqoi ; 21 March, 1903. 

The municipal electrical association, first meeting 
at Whitehall 10 June, 1896 

COEPULENCE, Eemarkable In- 
stances of. 

Mr. Edward Rright, a tallow-chandler and grocer, 
of Maldon, in Essex, who died in his 29th year, 
is said to have weighed 616 pounds. Seven per- 
sons of the common size were with ease enclosed 
in his waistcoat ; buried at All Saints, Maldon 

12 Nov. 1750 

Daniel Lambert, supposed to have been the heaviest 
man that ever lived, died in his 40th year, at 
Stamford, in Lincolnshire, weighing 52 stone 
11 pounds; (10 atone 4 pounds more than Mr. 
Bright) 21 June, 1809 

James Mansfield, died at Debden, aged 82, weigh- 
ing 34 stone 9 Nov. 1856 

Mr. Wm. Banting published a letter on corpulence, 
recommending, from his own experience, as a 
remedy, great moderation in the use of sugar and 
starch in diet. 50,000 copies of this letter were 
speedily sold or given away 1863 

COEPUS CHEISTI (Fete Dien in France), 
a festival in the Roman church, in honour of the 
Lord's supper, kept on the Thursday after Trinity 
Sunday (which see). It was instituted by pope 
Urban' IV. between 1262 and 1264, and confirmed 
by the council of Vienne in 131 1. 

COEPUS JUEIS CIVILIS, see Justinian 
Code. 

" COEEELATION of the PHYSICAL 
FOECES," a book by Mr. (afterwards sir) W. R. 
Grove, F.R.S., who in" 1842 enunciated the theory 
of the correlation or mutual dependence and con- 
vertibility into each other of all the forces of nature 
(viz., heat, light, electricity, magnetism, chemical 
affinity, and motion). This theory has been fully 
established by experimental researches, see Heat, 
Electricity y &c. Sir W. R. Grove was present at 
the Faraday Centenary, which see, 17 June, 1891. 

COEEESPONDING SOCIETY op 

LONDON, was formed about 1 791 , to spread 
liberal opinions and chock the sorority of the 
British government, then much alarmed by the 
French revolution. Home Tooke ami other mem- 
bers were tried for treason and acquitted, Oct. 1794; 
see Trials, 1794. The meetings of the society at 
Copenhagen- fields and elsewhere, in 1795 and 1796, 
wore torn 1 01 1 treasonable. — On 21 April, 1 '/'iN, Messrs. 
O'Connor, O'Coiirloy, and others, were tried for 



CORUNNA. 



325 



COTTAGE HOSPITALS. 



banished many members of the assembly in May, 
1814. The cortes were reopened by him March, 

1820, dissolved Oct. 1823 ; again assembled April, 
1834, and have since been regularly convened. The 
cortes of Portugal assembled by virtue of Dom 
Pedro's charter, 30 Oct. 1826 ; they were sup- 
pressed by Dom Miguel in 1828, and restored in 1833. 

CORUNNA (N. W. Spain). The British army, 
about 15,000 men, under the command of sir John 
Moore, had just accomplished their retreat when 
they were attacked by the French, whose force ex- 
ceeded 20,000 : the enemy were completely re- 
pulsed. British loss estimated 800, French, 3,000, 
16 Jan. 1809. Sir John was struck by a cannon- 
ball, which carried away his left shoulder and 
part of the collar-bone, and he died universally 
lamented. The remains of the army embarked at 
Corunna, under sir David Baird, 17 Jan. 

COE.TJS (Corupedion, or Cyropedium), a plain 
in Phrygia, Asia Minor, where the aged Lysi- 
machus was defeated by Seleucus, and slain, 
281 B.C. These two were the only survivors of 
Alexander the Great's generals. 

CORVEE, forced labour and service under the 
feudal system in France, was partially reduced by 
Louis XVI., at the instigation of Turgot, 27 June, 
1787 ; by the constituent assembly, 18 March, 1790, 
and totally abolished by the convention, 17 July, 
1792. Forced labour of the peasantry (fellaheen) 
abolished in Egypt 17 Dee. 1889. 

CORYPHiEUS, the principal person of the 
chorus in ancient tragedy. The name is said to 
have been given to Tysias, or Stesichorus, who first 
instructed the chorus to dance to the lyre, 556 B.C. 

COSMOGRAPHY, see Astronomy and 
Geography . 

COSMO POLIS, an international review con- 
taining articles in English, French, and German 
by eminent writers. No. I., Jan. 1896, includes 
articles by R. L. Stevenson, Andrew Lang, Henry 
James, Edmund Gosse; MM. Paul Bourget, 
Jules Lemaitre; prof. Mommsen, F. Spielhagen, 
and others. 

COSPATRICK, emigrant vessel, burnt, see 
Wrecks, 1874. 

COSSACKS, warlike people inhabiting the 
confines of Poland, Russia, Tartary, and Turkey. 
They at first lived by plundering the Turkish 
galleys and the people of Anatolia ; but were formed 
into a regular army by Stephen Bathori, about 
K76, to defend the frontiers of Russia from the 
Tartars. They joined the Russians in 1654. and 
in the great war against France (1813-15) formed a 
valuable portion of the Russian army ; and also in 
the Russo-Turkish wars of 1853-56 ; 1877-79. 

COSSOVA, a plain in Servia. Here Amuiathl. 
totally defeated the Christian army (Servians, Hun- 
garians, &c), 15 June, 1389; but was himself killed 
by an expiring soldier. Here John Huniades was 
defeated by a Turkish army four times larger than 
his own, 17 Oct. 1448. 

COSTA RICA, a republic in Central America, 
part of Guatemala, declared independent 15 Sept. 

1 82 1. "With the other republics of Central America 
formed a single state 1 July, 1823; compact dis- 
solved 1840; constitution of 22 Dec. 1871 adopted 
26 April, 1882. It has been much disturbed by the 
American filibusters, see Nicaragua and America, 



Central. Population, 1892, 243,205. Capital, San 
Jose; population, 1892, 19,326. Constitution, 27 
Dec. 1859. On 14 Aug. 1859, the president Juan . 
Mora was suddenly deposed, and Dr. Jose Montea- 
alegre made president; Dr. J. Ximenes president 
3 April, 1863, was succeeded by Dr. Joseph Castro, 
8 May, 1866, deposed ; J.Jimenez, governor, Nov. 
1868 ; Vicente Quadra proclaimed president 12 
March, 1871 ; J. M. Guardia, 1871 for 1872-6 ; 
Aniceto Esquivel, 8 May, 1876 ; Vicente Herrera, 
31 July, 1876, resigned: succeeded by Thomas 
Guardia, Oct. 1877 ; died July, 1882, succeeded by 
Prospero Fernandez ; died March, 1885, succeeded 
by Bernardo Soto 12 March, 1885 ; by J. J. Rodri- 
guez, 8 May, 1890. Population, 1885, estimated, 
213,785 ; 1892, 243,205 ; 1901, 313,000. 
President Rodriguez declares himself dictator and 

arrests opponents 13 Sept. 1892 

Sen. Rafael Iglesias, elected president, 3 April, 
1894 ; attempted assassination of pres. Iglesias by 
Arava. an anarchist, who was arrested with 24 
accomplices, reported . . . .28 Sept. 1894 
Sen. Iglesias re-elected president . . 8 May, 1902 

COSTERMONGERS, itinerant dealers in 
fruit, vegetables, fish, &c, deriving their name, it 
is said, from costard, a favouiite apple. The Lon- 
don costermongers are useful in relieving the 
markets when glutted ; and it was said in i860, 
that 3,000,000^. passed through their hands an- 
nually. Previous to fasting and thanksgiving days, 
they sell the appointed forms of prayers in great 
numbers. On 22 Nov. i860, they held a meeting 
in order to represent to the city authorities the 
hardships they felt by the police restricting their 
means of livelihood ; and the Metropolitan Streets 
Act was modified, 7 Dec. 1867. 

Their moral and physical condition has been much im- 
proved of late years, greatly through the instrumen- 
tality of the earl of Shaftesbury, who constituted 
himself a eostermonger, and owned a barrow in 1874. 

Much agitation among the costermongers of south 
London by the prohibition against their trading 
in the London-road, Southwark . . June, 1903. 

COSTUME, see Dress. 

COTOPAXI, see Andes. 

COTTAGE. The term was originally applied 
to a small house without land, 4 Edw. I. 1275. 
" No man may build a cottage, except in towns r 
unless he lay four acres of land thereto," &c, 31 
Eliz. 1589. This statute was repealed, 15 Geo. III. 
1775. By returns to the tax office, in 1786, the 
number of cottages was 284,459. The number in 
1800 was 428,214; the number in 1840 was about 
770,000. In i860 the public attention was much 
drawn to the deplorable state of cottages in many 
parts of the country, and the law of settlement was 
altered in 1865. Mr. Disraeli (afterwards lord 
Beaconsfield) said that " every cottage should have 
a tank, an oven, and a porch." 

Cottage Improvement Society, founded 12 April, 1861, 
7, Adam-street, Strand. Some of the society's 
models appeared in the International Exhibitions 
— in London, 1862 ; in Paris .... 1867 

See Shaftesbury Park, 

The Cottager's Stove, designed by captain John Grant, 
registered and presented by him to the metropoli- 
tan association for improving the dwellings of the 
industrious classes Dec. 1849 

A Cottage Garden Society established about 1846 
still exists 1886 

COTTAGE HOSPITALS : much advocated 
by Dr. Horace Swete in 1870. Many since then 



COTTON. 



326 



COTTON. 



have been established : including one by the 
baroness Burdett-Coutts, 1878 ; one at Wood 
Green, erected by Mr. J. Passmore Edwards, opened 
15 June, 1895; one at Caterhaui, Queen Victoria 
memorial, 2 June, 1903. 

COTTON, a vegetable wool, the produce of the 
Go&sypium, a shrub indigenous to the tropical 
regions of India and America. Indian cotton cloth 
is mentioned by Herodotus, was known in Arabia 
in the time of Mahomet, 627, and was brought into 
Europe by his followers. It does not appear to 
have been in use among the Chinese till the 13th 
century ; to them we are indebted for the cotton 
fabric termed nankeen. Cotton was the material 
of the principal articles of clothing among the 
Americans when visited by Columbus. It was 
grown and manufactured in Spain in the 10th 
century; and in the 14th century was introduced 
into Italy. Indian muslins, chintzes, and cottons 
were so largely imported into England in the 17th 
century, that in 1700 an act of parliament was 
passed, prohibiting their introduction. Cotton 
became the staple commodity of England in the 
present century. About 1841 the "cotton" or 
"Manchester" interest began to obtain political 
influence, which led to the repeal of the corn laws 
in 1846. Failure of Mr. Morris Eanger, a great 
cotton speculator, and others at Liverpool announced 
31 Oct. 1883. Cotton manufacture introduced into 
Bombay about 1868 gradually becomes very suc- 
cessful, reported Dec. 1889. See Calico, Muslin, 
Corner, Strikes. 

Act for collection of cotton statistics passed 

25 June, 1868 

John Rylands, tin' head of the company of Rylands 
& Sons which employs 12,000 hands died aged 87 

11 Dec. 1888 
n Lancashire and Cheshire the mills put 011 half 
time, to limit the production and check specu- 
lations to raise the price of cotton, &e. 

about 15 July, 1SS9 

•Cotton mills fully engaged ... 5 Nov. ,, 

Strike and lock-out of cotton-spinners throughout 
Lancashire (not Manchester), 16 April ct seq. ; 
dispute settled by compromise . . 6 May, 1S92 

Depression in the cotton industry caused by the 
American cotton " corner " 1003 

Fust 'm 11 and J'rlrelceu made of cotton, aliout 1641. 

Calico slieeting, ,[,-. The fly-shuttle was invented by 
John Kay. of Bury, 1718 ; the drop-box by Robert Kay, 
1760 ; spinning by rollers (also attributed to John 
Wyatt) patented ley Louis Paul, i 73 8 ; the spinning- 
jenny. by Bargreaves, 1767: the water-frame, by Ark - 
wright, 1769; the powor-loom, by Rev. Dr. Edmund 
Cartwright, 1785: the dressing machine, by Johnson 

and RadclifTe, 1802-4 ;anoi,hcrpowcr-l 11, b\ [Iorrocks, 

1803-13. A 1 ibing maehine was patented by Joshua 

llciliiiaini. ill 1845. 

British muslin (totally siip.tsc.ijul; that of India) is due 
mainly to the invention of the Mii.f. (which see) by 
Samuel Crompton, 17740; and to the self-acting mule 
of Mr. It. .ben,. £825. 

Calico Printing commenced 1764. 

The Steam-Enguit Aral applied to the cotton manufacture 

(DJ Boultoil and Watt). 1785. 

Bleaching by means of chloride of lime Introduced by Mr 
Ti anant, of Glasgow, 1798. 

The stocking-frame was Invented by William 
Lee, In 1589. Cotton stockings were Brsl made by hand 
aboui [730; Jededialt Strutt obtained a patent for 
Derby ribbed stockings in 175 ; and Horton patented 
Ids knotter frame in ryj6 ; Cr pton's mule was em- 
ployed in making thread for the stoi king manufacture 
about 177... 

Cotton-Lace Bobbin net Hie stocking-frame of Lee was 

applied to It making bj Hammond, aboui . 768 tin 

process perfected by John Heathcoat, 1809. ' 
See Factory 



COTTON FIBRE IMPORTED INTO THE UNITED KINGDOM. 

lb. lb. 

1,976,359 1868 . . 1,328,761,616 

. . 715,008 1870 . . . 1,339,367,120 

1,545,472 1872 . . 1,408,837,472 
. . 3,870,392 1874 . . . 1,566,864,432 

. 11,828,039 1875 . . 1,492,351,168 
. 31,500,000 1876 . . . 1,487,858,848 
. 56,000,000 1877 • • I >355' 2 8i, 2 °o 
. 132,500,000 1879 . . . 1,469,358,464 

. 151,500,000 1881 . . 1,679.068,384 
. . 264,000,000 1883 . . . i,734,333,55 2 
592,500,000 1885 . . 1,425,816,336 
. 1,390,938,752 1887 . . . 1,791,437,312 

. 1,256,984,736 1889 . . 1,937,462,240 
• 523.973. 2 9 6 l8 9° • • • 1 >793.495>2oo 
670,084,128 1893 . . 1,416,780,064 
894,102,384 1900 . . . 1,760,206,672 
978,502,000 1901 . . 1,829,710,064 
1866 . . . 1,377,514,096 
American Cotton. Previous to 1795, our cotton fibre 
came from the East and West Indies, the Levant, and 
a little from the United States. About 1786, the growth 
of cotton began in Georgia. In 1793, Eli Whitney, an 
American, invented the saw-gin, a machine by which 
cottonwool is separated from the pod and cleaned with 
great ease and expedition.* This led to such increased 
cultivation that the United States soon exported 
1,500,000 lb. of cotton : — 

From the United States, N.A. 



1697. 

1710 

1730. 

1765 

1782. 

1790 

1800 . 

1810 

1820. 

1830 



1862 
1863 



1865 



J 79S 5,250,000th. 

1820 89,999,174 

1830 210,885,358 

1840 487,856,504 

1847 364,599,291 

1859 961,707,264 

i860 1,115,890,608 

1861 819,500,528 

1866 520,057,440 

1870 716,248,848 

1871 1,038,677,920 

1872 625,600,080 

1873 832,573,616 

1874 874,926,864 
Cotton imported from India : 

value, 3,572,329?. 



84i.333.472 lb. 
932,800,176 
912,244,592 
1,082,462,080 
1,210,980,288 
1,239,410,592 
1,050,546,000 
1,256,894,464 
1,423,811,872 
1,316,756.896 
1,405,528,208 

i>°55.855>3°° 

1,365,298,928 

1,480,785,936 

, 463,000 bales ; official 

66,520 bales ; value 



1875 
1876 
1877 
1S79 
1881 
1883 



1900 
1901 



25,025,8561. ;in 1866, 1,847,770 bales; value, 25,270.547..; 
in 1874, 412,025,0401b. ; in 1S76, 275,856,336 th. ; in 
1877, 193,856,320 lb. ; in 1879, 181,347,601 lb.; 1881, 
198,577,680 th.; 1883,260,698,4801b.; 1885,145,130,048th.; 
1887, 276,506,720 lb. ; 1888, 170,238,768 lb. ; 1889, 
273,810,880 lb.; 1890,238,746,704 th.; 1892,68,877,984 th.; 
1900, 36,832,320111. ; 1901, 37,740,970 tb. 

Australian Cotton said by Manchester manufacturers to 
be superior to the best American cotton, Jan. 1861. 

A company formed at Manchester to obtain cotton from 
India. Africa, and other places (arose out of the Cotton 
Supply Association, formed in 1S57), Sept. i860. 

Since 1861, the cultivation of cotton in India, Egypt, 
Italy, &e. has greatly increased. 

Cotton imported from Egypt in 1856, 34,399,008 tb. : in 
1870, 143,710,448 11). ; in 1876, 199,245,3121b. ; in 1S77, 
176,558,256 lb. ; in 1879, 158,232,032 lb. ; 1881, 
175,317,072th.; 18S3, 170,685,2001b. ; 1885,177,515:520 th.; 
1887, 176,608,096 lb. ; 1889, 191,750,720 tb. ; 1890, 
181,266,176 lb. ; 1892, 261,492,784 lb. ; 1900, 
;i .448,864 lb. ; 1901, 282,132,36s tb. 

Exhibition of cotton states, opened at Atlanta ; reported 
Sept. 1895. 



1 SPOB PS OF COTTON GOODS 


. YARN. & 


C, FROM UNITED 




KINGDOM. 






Official Value. 




Officinl Value. 


1697 . 


£5.9!5 


1862 . 


£36,750.971 


1 701 


• ■ 23.253 


1864 


. . 54,882.329 


1751 . 


45.986 


1866 . 


• 74.505.426 


1780 


. . 355.000 


1870 


. . 71,416,345 


1790 . 


1.662.369 


1874 . 


• 73.247.625 


1800 


5,406,501 


1876 . 


. . 67,641,280 


1820 . 


. 20,509,926 


1879 • 


. 63,974,053 


1847 . 


• • 23.333.225 


1881 


• • 72.744.531 


i860 . 


. 52,012,430 


1883 . 


• 76,445,757 


1861 


. . 46.872,489 


1885 


. . 66,976,887 



' A trial of various kinds of cotton gins, under the di- 
rection of Dr. Forbes Watson, to >k place at Manchester, 
28 Nov. -23 Dec. 1871. 



COTTON. 


3 


Official Value-. 




Official Value. 


1887 . . £70,959,766 


1890 


£62,089,442 


(including mixtures of 


1891 . 


. . 60,230,256 


cotton and wool.) 


1893 • 


54-699,367 


i888(cotton only)6o,329,o5i 


1900 . 


. . 62,009,150 


.1889 . . . 58,793,448 


1901 


65,708,582 



327 



COUNCILS. 



COTTON FAMINE. 

"The supply of cotton from North America nearly ceased, 
in consequence of the secession of the southern states 
from the union in 1860-61. In 1852, Mr. T. Bazley 
warned the country on the danger of trusting to this 
.source. In May, 1862, he stated that through its 
failure the loss of the labouring classes was 12,000,000?. 
sterling a year, and estimated the loss, including the 
employing classes, at nearly 40,000,000?. a year. 

At a meeting of noblemen and gentlemen, connected with 
the cotton manufacturing districts, at Bridgewater- 
house, St. James's, on 19 July, 1862, the earl of Derby 
in the chair, 10,000?. were subscribed to the Cotton 
District Relief Fund. The viceroy of Egypt, in London 
.at the time, gave 1000?. , and the queen gave 2000?. on 
24 July. Liberal subscriptions flowed in from all 
parts. On 28 Aug.. the lord mayor had received 
41,902?. 

in the Lancashire district (population about 4,000,000) 
there were receiving parish relief, Sept. 1861, 43,500 
persons ; in Sept. 1862, 163,498. Earl of Derby, 2 Dec. 
1862. 

in July, 1863, about the value of 700,000?. remained of 
the donations which had been received in money and 
goods, amounting to about 1,900,000? 

On 9 Feb., 1863, the "George Griswold" arrived, con- 
taining contributions of provisions, &c. , from North 
America, for the relief of the sufferers in Lancashire. 

The Union Relief Act (passed Aug. 1862, and continued 
in 1863) gave much relief by enabling overseers to 
borrow money to be expended in public works to be 
executed by the unemployed workmen. 

In Oct. 1864, much distress still existed, and fears were 
entertained for the approaching winter — 90,000 more 
paupers than ordinary in cotton districts. Times, 
18 Jan. 1865. 

In June, 1865, Mr. Farnall, the special commissioner, 
(appointed in May, 1862) was recalled by the poor-law 
Aboard and the famine was declared to be ended. 
1,000,000?. had been expended in two years. The 
•executive of the Central Relief Fund held their last 
meeting, 4 Dec. 1865. 

■" The Coal Question," by "Win. Stanley Jevons, published 
1865. 

'The account of the fund was made up in 1873. The 
balance, above 130,000?., was proposed to be appro- 
priated to the foundation of a convalescent hospital for 
Lancashire. 

A memorial window (the gift of the cotton operatives of 
Lancashire, who subscribed to commemorate the muni- 
ficence of the metropolis to them during the cotton 
famine, 1861-4) unveiled in Guildhall, 15 July, 1868. 

Cotton Factories regulated by acts of parliament passed 
in 1825, 1831, 1833, 1844, and 1889. The hours of 
labour were limited, and the employment of children 
under nine years of age prohibited. In 1846, 1724 
cotton mills employed 197,500 persons. In 1862, the 
persons employed were stated to be 451,000 ; 315,000 
' in Lancashire. Excitement through 5 per cent, re- 
duction of wages in Lancashire, <fec, Sept. 1883; 
strike; dispute settled, 27 Sept. 1883. Great strike of 
■about 4,400 cotton spinners in Lancashire against 
5 per cent, reduction of pay, 7 Nov. 1892 ; settlement ; 
reduction of wages 7c?. in the pound ; arrangement to 
avoid strikes and lock-outs, 24 March, 1893. 

■Great meeting in Manchester against the re-imposition 
of the Indian cotton duties, 8 Jan. 1895; 5 per cent, 
duties on Lancashire goods imported into India, 8 Jan. 
1895 ; another in London, 14 Feb. 1895. Lancashire's 
•case against the Indian import duties by Mr. Holt S. 
Hallett, published Feb. 1895. 

The masters' demand for a 5 per cent, reduction in wages 
referred .to arbitration, u Nov. 1897; arbitration re- 
fused by the men in Bolton district at meetings, 23, 
29 Nov. ; reduction of wages resisted by the men, 6 
Dec. ; abandoned by the masters, 7 Dec. 1897. 

Conference of cotton trade employers at Manchester, 
8 March, 1898 ; 2 meetings at Manchester, advance of j 
7c?. in the pound agreed to, 18 Feb. 1899. 



New system of quotation adopted at Liverpool, 
prices quoted in decimals without discount, 1 Oct. 1902. 
See India, 1894. 

COTTON OIL, largely manufactured from 
the seeds in the south of the United States. Im- 
ported to the United Kingdom 1900, 13,262 tons, 
value 290,197^*.; 1902, 12,360 tons, value 310,069?". 

COTTONIAN LIBBARY, formed by sir 
Robert Bruce Cotton, 1600, et seq. He died 6 May, 
1631. It was rescued from the republicans during 
the protectorate, 1649-60, and was secured to the 
public by a statute in 1 700. It was removed to 
Essex-house in 1712; in 1730 to Dean's-yard, 
Westminster (where on 23 Oct. 1731, a part of the 
books sustained damage by fire) ; to the British 
Museum in 1757. 

COTTON-WOOL, see Respiration. Dr. 
Percy, in 1874, applied cotton-wool to filter the 
air for ventilating the houses of parliament. 

COULMIEES, a village ten miles west of 
Orleans, central France. Here the Bavarians, 
under general Von der Tann, were defeated by the 
French army of the Loire, under general d'Aurelle 
de Paladines, who took about 2000 prisoners, 9 Nov. 
1870, and regained Orleans. 

COUNANI, a territory between Brazil and 
French Guiana. The ridiculous attempt to found 
an independent Republic failed here (M. Jules 
Gros, president), Aug. -Sept. 1887. An arrangement 
respecting this territory was made between France 
and Brazil in 1862, for police purposes. 

COUNCIL OF Judges. See Judges. 

COUNCIL OF OFFICEBS, of the army, 

constituted by Cromwell and termed " New Model" 
1642, abolished by Charles II. 1660. 

COUNCILS. King Alfred, in about 886, is 
said to have so arranged the business of the 
nation, that all resolutions passed through three 
councils. The first was a select council which con- 
sidered all affairs to be laid before the second council, 
bishops and nobles appointed by the king, like the 
present privy council. The third was a general 
assembly of the nation, called, in Saxon, Wittena- 
gemot, in which quality and offices gave a right to 
sit. In these three councils we behold the origin of 
the cabinet, privy councils, and parliaments; see 
Cabinet, Common and Privy Councils, &c. 

COUNCILS, French. The Council of 
Ancients, consisting of 250 members, together 
with the council of Five hundred, instituted at 
Paris, I Nov. 1795: the executive was a Directory 
of Five. Bonaparte dispersed the council of Five 
hundred at St. Cloud, 9 Nov. 1799, declaring him- 
self, Roger Ducos, and Sieyes, consuls provisoires ; 
see France. 

COUNCILS of the Church. The follow- 
ing are among the most memorable. Those num- 
bered are the (Ecumenical or General Councils. Sir 
Harris Nicolas in his "Chronology of History," 
enumerates 1604 councils, and gives an alphabetical 
list. 

Of the church at Jerusalem (Acts xv.) ... 50 
Of the western bishops at Aries, in France, to sup- 
press the Donatists ; three fathers of the English 

church attended 314 

I. First fficumenical or General, at Nice (Coustan- 
tine the Great presided), decreed the consubstan- 
tiality of the Son of God, condemned Arianism, 
and composed the Nicene creed .... 325 
At Tyre, against Athanasius 335 



COUNCILS. 



328 



COUNTY COUNCILS. 



431 



451 



553 



870 
1095 



The first at Constantinople, when the Arian heresy 
gained ground 

At Rome, in favour of Athanasius . . ' '. 

At Sardis : 370 bishops attended ; Arians con- 
demned 

At Rimini : 400 bisliops attended; Constantine 
obliged them to sign a new confession . 

II. Constantinople : oriental council; 150 orthodox 
bishops present when it met ; presided over 1st 
by Meletius, 2nd by Gregory Nazianzen, 3rd by 
Nectarms ; added to the Nicene ereed ; declared 
the bishop of Constantinople next in rank to 
Rome ; Constantinople being New Rome 

III. Ephesus : Cyril of Alexandria presided ; an- 
athematised and deposed Nestorius ; protested 
against any addition to the original Nicene creed 

IV. Chalcedon: 520 bishops present ; declared the 
two natures of Christ, Divine and Human, as de- 
fined by Leo of Rome; accepted and decreed 
the Constantinopolitan addition to the Nicene 
creed .... 

V. Constantinople : Eutyches," patriarch of Con- 
stantinople, presided; condemned the three 
chapters (written by Theodore of Mopsuestia, 
Theodoret, and others); Vigilius, bishop of Rome 
protested, but afterwards assented 

VI Constantinople : pope Agatho presided ; against 
Monothehtes 7 Nov. 68o, to 16 Sept. 

Authority of the six general councils re-established 
by Theodosius 

VII. Second Nicene : 350 bishops attended ; against 
Iconoclasts ... 24 Sept. to 23 Oct. 

VIII. Constantinople : the emperor Basil attended • 
against Iconoclasts and heresies 

, . _ 5 Oct. 869, to 28 Feb. 

At Clermont, convened by Urban II. to autho- 
rise the crusades : 310 bishops attended 

IX. First Lateran : right of investiture settled bv 
treaty between pope Calixtus II. and the emperor 
Henry V. . . . 18 March to 5 April, 1123 

A. Second Lateran : Innocent II. presided ; pre- 
servation of temporalities of ecclesiastics', the 
principal subject ; 1000 fathers of the church 
attended 20 April, 1 139 

Al. llnrd Lateran, against schismatics 

5 to 19 March, 1179 

XII. Fourth Lateran : 400 bishops and 1000 abbots 
attended ; Innocent III. presided ; against Albi- 
genses, &c. . . . . „ to 30 Nov. 1215 

XIII. Lyons; under pope Innocent IV. : emperor 
Frederick II. deposed . 28 June to 17 July, 1245 

XIV. Lyons; under Gregory X. : temporary union 

of Greek and Latin churches 7 May to 17 June, 1274 

XV. Vienne 111 Dauphine: Clement V. presided, and 
the kings of France and Aragon attended • order 
of Knights Templars suppressed 

Y , 7T „• „ l6 °°t- *3" : 3 April and 6 May, 1312 

XVI. Pisa : Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. de- 
posed ; Alexander elected 5 March to 7 Aug. 14 o 9 

XVII. Constance: Martin V. elected pope ; and 
John Huss and Jerome of Prague condemned to 

'"' '""I'l .... TArA T . T Q 

XVIIL Basel. ... lllilill 

XIX. Fifth Lateran: begun by Julius II. ' 1,12 

Continued under Leo X. for the suppression of the 

pragmatic sand f Prance, against the council 

"l Pisa, cVc, till 

.XX. Trent : held t mdemn the doctrines of the 

rdorineis, Luther, Zuinglius, and Calvin. (Sec 
'; r "!, ) • • • ■ '3 Dec. 154s. to 3 Dec. 1503 

xxi. Rome: summoned by an encyclical letter, 
' 8Se P t - 'f68;me1 , 8 Dec. 1869 

1 resenl 1 6 archbishop-princes, 49 cardinals, n 
patriarchs, 680 archbishops and bishops,' 28 
abbots, 29 generals of orders 803 in all 

There were held four public sessions, and between 
90 and 100 congregations. New canons were 
issued .-.| Apnl, 1870, and after much discussion 
and 11piios1tn.11, the infallibility of the pope 
as head of the Church was affirmed by S47 
placets against a non-placets, and promulgated, 

Many bishops withdrew from the discussion'. ' The 

■' iU then adjourned to 1 1 .\o\ (gee Rome ) 

sec under Church qf England, 1903. 

COUNCILS of Conciliation, to adjust 

OITerencoB between masters and workmen, e'sta- 



ib7o 



blished by licence of the secretary of state, by 
virtue of an act passed 15 Aug. 1867; and by the 
Arbitration (Masters and Workmen) act passed 
1872. Both these acts were repealed by the "Con- 
ciliation act" passed 7 Aug. 1896; in pursuance 
of which conciliation and arbitration boards may 
be constituted and registeied as such, by interven- 
tion of the board of trade. 

The labour conciliation board of the London cham- 
ber of commerce, constituted to promote amic- 
able methods of settling labour disputes, &c. 

6 Feb. 1890 
London conciliation board with separate com- 
mittees of delegates . . about 6 March „ 
Meeting of delegates of labour organisations at the 

offices of the chamber of commerce . 29 Oct. „ 
Successful conciliation conferences in Yorkshire 

mining districts Oct. ,, 

First meeting of the London board . 12 Dec. ,, 

Active in 1891. First annual report issued 16 Jan. i^z- 
Annual meetings ; from . . . .15 April, 1896 
See Coal, 1893-94 and Strikes. 

COUNSEL are supposed to be coeval with the 
curia regis. Advocates are referred to the time of 
Edward I., but are mentioned earlier. Counsel who 
were guilty of deceit or collusion were punishable 
by the statute of "Westminster, 13 Edw. I. 1285. 
Counsel were allowed to persons charged witn, 
treason by act 8 Will. III. 1696. An act to enable 
persons indicted for felony to make their defence 
bv counsel, passed Aug. 1836; see Barristers and 
King's Counsel. 

COUNTERPOINT (in music), the art of 
combining melodies in harmony. The earliest 
known specimen of contrapuntal writing is by 
Adam de la Halle in the 12th century. 

COUNTESS of HUNTINGDON'S Con- 
nexion; see Whitejieldites. 

COUNTIES or Shires. . The division of this 

kingdom into counties began, it is said, with king- 
Alfred ; but some counties bore their present names- 
above a century before. The division of Ireland into 
counties took place in 1562. Lord-lieutenants were 
appointed in 1549 in England, and in 1831 in Ireland. 
Counties first sent members to parliament, before 
which period knights met in their own counties, 
1285. Chantios Clause, Sect. 20 of the Reform 
net, 2 Will. IV. c. 45 (1832), inserted by the motion 
of the marquis of Chandos. By it occupiers as- 
tenants of land not situate in a borough, paying an 
annual rent of 50'., became entitled to a vote for 
the knight of the shire. It increased the number 
of ton voters, and in consequence several attempts 
were made to repeal it. It was superseded by the 
Reform act of 15 Aug. 1867. 

liy the Winter Assizes Act, 1876. certain counties were 
united (by order in council, first time, 23 Oct. 1876) 
to facilitate more speedy trials of prisoners. 
" The Victoria History oftheQounties of England,'' 
began 1900 

COUNTRY DANCE, see Contre-Dame. 

COUNTRY PARTY, see Court Part,). 

COUNTY CONVENTIONS, see Ireland 
[885. 

COUNTY COUNCILS, see local Govern- 
ment Act. At the first elections in Jan. 1889, a 
Large number of the nobility, gentry, and justices,. 
w ei c eleuti tl. 

The Councils assume their powers 1 April 1889 ; 
see l.imilnii Couiilji Councils. The time of elec- 
tion was changed from Jan. to March, by act 
passed 5 Aug. 1891. 

County CowncU Magatine started . . . Feb. 1889 



COUNTY-COURTS. 



329 



COURTS MARTL'L. 



County Councils Association held their first meet- 
ing at Westminster . . . 23 May, 1890 

Others since. 
COUNTY-COURTS or schyremotes, in the 

time of the Saxons, were important tribunals. 

Alfred is said to have divided England into coun- 
ties, and counties into hundreds ; but county-courts 

seem to have existed much earlier. 

County-Courts, for the recovery of debts under 20?. , 
superseding courts of requests, instituted by 9 & 
10 Vict. e. 95 26 Aug. 1846 

The counties of England and Wales are divided into 
sixty districts, each district having a county- 
court, with a barrister as judge, and juries when 
necessary. Their jurisdiction extended by 13 & 14 
Vict. c. 61, to sums not exceeding 50Z. . . 1850 

Their proceedings facilitated in 1852 and 1854 ; 
60 county-courts in England and Wales . . 1868-72 

In 1850 plaints entered at the courts of the sixty 
circuits w"ere 306,793, for 1,265,115^. ; in 1857, 
744,652 plaints for 1,937,745!. ; of the 217,173 
causes tried, 4297 were for sums between 20Z. 
and sol. 

From 1847 to 1858 judgment was obtained in these 
courts for 8,309,236?. 

Equity powers, like those of the court of chancery, 
in cases relating to sums under 500Z., conferred on 
these courts, to begin . . . . 1 Oct. 1865 

Their jurisdiction still further enlarged . 20 Aug. 1867 

Admiralty jurisdiction conferred on them by act 
passed July, 1868, amended . . . Aug. 1869 

County Court Acts amended by acts passed 2 Aug. 
1875 and 1887 

A County Boards Bill, withdrawn . . July, 1879 

New regulations, respecting procedure, &c, came 
into operation 28 April, 1886 

Amendment Act passed . . . .13 Aug. 1888 

Mr. Francis Bayley, judge at Westminster, 1849-93, 
died, aged 90 4 May, 1893 

Mr. Commissioner R. M. Kerr, judge of the City of 
London court, died, aged 83 . . 21 Nov. 1902 

COUNTY FRANCHISE, a bill for giving 
votes to labourers and others, annually brought in 
by Mr. (afterwards sir) G. 0. Trevely?n. The object 
was effected by the reform acts of 1884-5. See 
Household Suffrage. 

COUNTY OFFICERS AND COURTS, 

Ireland : an act to amend the law respecting them 
passed 14 Aug. 1877. 

COUP D'ETAT, in France (see France, 2 Dec. 
1851) ; Pronwtciamiento in Spain; changes in the 
government effected by force, either by the ruler, 
the army, or the populace. The Speaker's Coup 
d'etat, see Parliament, 2 Feb., 1881. See Brazil, 
Nov. 1889; Servia, April, 1893; and 10 June, 
1903. 

COURIERS. Xenophon attributes the first to 
Cyrus; and Herodotus says that they were common 
among the Persians; see Esther iii. 15, about 510 
B.C. The Greeks and Romans had no regular 
couriers till the time of Augustus, when they tra- 
velled in cars, about 24 B.C. Coimers or posts are 
said to have been instituted in France by Charle- 
magne about a.d. 800. Couriers for letters were 
employed by Louis XL of France, 1463. Henault. 
See Post-office. 

COURLAND, a duchy of Livonia, conquered 
by Danes, 1218; by Teutonic knights, 1239; sub- 
jected to Poland in 1561, conquered by Charles XII. 
of Sweden in 1701; Ernest Biren, duke, 1737; his 
son, Peter, 1769; annexed to Russia, March, 1795. 
Population, 1886, 682,792. Libau. on the Baltic, 
was constituted a military and commercial port ; 
the first stone was laid by the czar, 24 Aug. 1893. 

COURSING, see Dogs. 

COURT BARON, an ancient court which 
every lord of a manor may hold by prescription. In 



it duties, heriots, and customs are received, and 
estates and surrenders are passed. Its jurisdiction 
was restricted in 1747 and 1833. By the Small! 
Debts Act, 1856, lords of the manor may give up 
holding these courts. 

COURT CIRCULAR, conservative weekly 
paper; established 26 April, 1856. 

COURT DRESS, see Dress. 

COURT JOURNAL, fashionable journal, 
established 1829. 

COURT LEET, an ancient court of record, 
belonging to a hundred, instituted for punishing 
encroachments, nuisances, fraudulent weights and 
measures, &c. The steward is judge, and all re- 
siding within the hundred (peers, clergymen, &c, 
excepted) are obliged to do suit within this court. 

COURT OF HONOUR. In England the 
court of chivalry, of which the lord high constable 
was a judge, was called Curia Militaris, in the time 
ot Henry IV., and subsequently the Court of Honour. 
In Bavaria, to prevent duelling, a court of honour 
was instituted in April, 1819. Mr. Joseph Hamil- 
ton for many years ardently laboured to establish a 
similar institution in Britain. 

COURT OF JUSTICIARY, HIGH, in 

Scotland, constituted by a commission under the 
great seal, 1671, ratified 1672. The procedure in 
this court was amended by an act. passed in 1868. 
See Court of Session. 

COURT OF REQUESTS, see Conscience, 

COURT OF REVIEW, see Bankruptcy. 

COURT OF SESSION, the highest civil 
tribunal in Scotland, was instituted by James V. by 
statute, 17 May, 1532, its origin being ascribed to 
the regent, duke of Albany. It consisted of 14 
judges and a president, and replaced a committee 
of parliament. In 1830 the number of judges was 
reduced ; and the court now consists of the lord 
president (termed lord justice general), the lord 
justice-clerk, and 11 ordinary judges. In 1867 the 
necessity of renovating this court was asserted by 
high legal authority; and an act to amend its 
procedure was passed 31 July, 1868. The lord 
president, the right hon. John Inglis, appointed, 
Feb. 1867 ; died 20 Aug., succeeded by James P. 
B. Robertson, Sept. 1891 ; and subsequently by 
John Blair Balfour. 

COURT PARTY-COUNTRY PARTY, 

politicians in the parliaments of England, beginning 
about 1620. At the end of the 17th century the 
latter embodied toryism and high church principles, 
maintained the rights of "the land," as opposed 
to whiggism and the trading interests. Its most 
distinguished statesman was sir Thomas Hanmer 
(the Monlalto of Pope's Satires), who died in 1746. 
Ashe. 

COURTRAI (Belgium). Here Robert, count 
of Artois, who had defeated the Flemings in 1297, 
was defeated and slain by them, II July, 1302. The 
conflict was named the " Battle of Spurs," from the 
number of gilt spurs collected. 

COURT THEATRE, Sloane-square, Chelsea, 
opened 25 Jan. 1871 ; Miss Litton first manager. 

COURTS MARTIAL are regulated by the 
I Mutiny act, first passed in 1690. The powers of 
j these courts were much discussed in 1867, in conse- 
quence of the measures used to suppress the negro 
insurrection in Jamaica, Oct. 1866. See Army, 
1 Jan. 1887, 1893. 



COUETS OF JUSTICE. 



330 



CEACOW. 



COUETS OF JUSTICE were instituted at 
Athens, 1507 B.C. (see Areiopagus) ; by Moses, 1491 
B.C. (Exod. xviii. 25), and in Rome. For these 
realms, see Chancery* Common Pleas, Exchequer, 
King's Bench, &e. The citizens of London were 
privileged to plead their own cause in the courts of 
judicature, without employing lawyers, except in 
pleas of the crown, 41 Hen. III. 1257. Stow. The 
rights of the Irish courts were established by the 
British parliament in April, 1783. See Supreme 
Court. 

COUETS OF LAW FEES ACT, passed 20 
Aug. 1867, directs the application of surplus fees 
towards providing new courts of justice. Acts for 
building these courts were passed in 1865 and 1866. 
See Law Courts. 

COUETS OF SUEVEY, consisting of a 
judge and two assistants, for appeals respecting un- 
seaworthy ships, were directed to be appointed in 
■certain ports and districts by the Merchant Ship- 
ping Act, 39 & 40 Vict. c. 80 (15 Aug. 1876). They 
sat in 1877. 

^COUTEAS (S. W. France). Here Henry of 
Navarre totally defeated the due de Joyeuse and the 
royalists, 20 Oct. 1587. 

COVENANTEES, those persons who in the 
reign of Charles I. having signed the solemn league 
and covenant, engaged to stand by each other in 
opposition to the projects of the king in 1638. The 
covenant or league between England and Scotland 
(the preceding one modified), solemnly adopted by 
the parliament, 25 Sept. 1643 ; was accepted by 
Charles II. 16 Aug. 1650, but repudiated by him on 
his restoration in 1661, when it was declared to be 
illegal by parliament, and copies of it ordered to be 
burnt. See Cameronians and Bothwell Bridge. 
The covenant consisted of six articles : 
s. The preservation of the reformed church in Scotland 

and the reformation of religion in England and Ireland. 

2. The extirpation of popery, prelacy, schism, &c. 

3. The preservation of the liberties of parliament, and the 
king's person and authority. 

4. The discovery and punishment of all malignants, &c. 

5. The preservation of "a blessed peace between these 
kingdoms ; " 

6. The assisting all who enter into the covenant : 
" This will we do as in the sight of God." 

COVENT GAEDEN (London), corrupted 
from "Convent Garden," having been the garden 
of St. Peter's convent. The square was built about 
1633, and the piazza on the north side and the church 
were designed by Inigo Jones. The fruit and vege- 
table markets were rebuilt in 1829-30, from designs 
by Mr. Fowler (the ground belonging to the duke 
of Bedford). In the 17th century, Covent Garden 
was a very fashionable quarter of London. Fre- 
quent allusions are made at it by the playwriters 
of the lime of Charles II. ; and Dryden lays a 
scene of one of his plays here. It is depicted also 
by Hogarth. 

COVENT GAEDEN THEATEE sprang 
out of one in Lincoln' s-inn-fields, through a patent 
granted 14 Chas. IJ. 1662, to sir AVilliam Davenant, 
whose company was denominated the "duke's ser- 
vants," asa compliment to the duke of York, after- 
wards James II. ; sec under T/teatres. — The theatre 
was burnt down 5 March, 1856, during a bal masqu4 
held by Mr. Anderson, tin'" wizard of the north. 
The present theatre by E, Harry was opened 15 May, 
1858. The Floral Hall adjoining it was opened 7 
March, i860, with the volunteers' ball. 

COVENTEY ACT passed, to prevent malicious 
maiming and wounding, (> March, 1671, in conse- 



quence of sir John Coventry, K.B., M.P., being 
maimed in the streets of London, by sir Thomas 
Sandys and others, adherents of the duke of Mon 
mouth, 21 Dec. 1670. Repealed 1828. 

COVENTEY (Warwickshire). Leofric, earl! 
of Mercia, lord of Coventry, is said to have relieved' 
it from heavy taxes, at the intercession of his wife! 
Godiva, on condition of her riding naked through 
the streets, about 1057. Processions in her memory 
took place in 1851 ; 23 June, 1862; 4 June, i866;i 
20 June, 1870; 4 June, 1877; 6 Aug. 1883; and' 
2 Aug. 1892. The legend is probably fabulous. f 
A parliament was held here in the reign of!" 
Henry IV. called parliamentum indoctum, or 
the unlearned parliament, because lawyers were 
excluded, 1404; and in the reign of Henry VI. 
another met, called parliamentum diabolicum, from 
the acts of attainder passed against the duke of York 
and others, 20 Nov. 1459. The town was sur- 
rounded with strong walls, three miles in circum- 
ference, and twenty-six towers, which were de-l 
molished by order of Charles II. in 1662. Thei 
ribbon-makers here suffered much from want of 
work in the winter of 1809-10. Its chief manufac- 
tures are ribbons, watches and bicycles, of| 
which industry it is now the chief centre ; 1 
cotton, worsted, and woollen goods, silk I 
dyeing and art metalwork. The Bishopktc was' 
founded by Oswy, king of Mercia, 656, and had ! 
the double name of Coventry and Lichfield, : 
which was reversed by later bishops. It was j 
so wealthy, that king OrFa, b}' the favour of I 
pope Adrian, made it archiepiscopal ; but this title 
was laid aside on the death of that king. In 1075 
the see was removed to Chester ; in 1 102 to Coventry ; 
and afterwards to its original foundation, Lichfield, 
but with great opposition from the monks of Co- 
ventry. Coventry merged into the bishopric of 
Lichfield {which see). In 1888, under the Local 
Government act, Coventry was reconstituted a 
county, a privilege it pos-essed from 1451 to 1842. 
Population, 1881, 44,831; 1891, 52,720; 1901, 
69,877. 
Rioting on the levying of the "vicar's rate" 

11 Sept. 1S82 
Xcw park, gift of Mr. D. Spencer, opened n Oct. 1883 
Messrs. number's cycle manufactory burnt and 
adjoining houses damaged ; estimated loss, 
ioo,ooo£. ....... 17 July, 1896 

Premises of Mr. Hills, builder, and Messrs. Phillips 
ami Marriott, brewers, burnt, estimated damage, 
40,000?. ...... 15 Dec. 1899 

COW-POCK INOCULATION; see Small 
Vox and Vaccination. 

CEABS- The size at which they are to be sold 
is determined by the Fisheries Act, 1877. 

CEACOW, a city in Austrian Poland. The 
Poles elected Cracus for their duke, who built Cra- 
cow with the spoils taken from the Franks about 700. 
It was their capital, 1320- 1609. Cracow was taken 
by Charles XII. in 1 702, and taken and retaken 
several times by the Russians and other confede- 
rates. The sovereign was crowned at Cracow until 
1764. The Russians, who had taken it 1768, were 
expelled by Kosciusko, 24 March, 1794 ; but it sur- 
rendered to the Prussians, 15 June same year, and 
in 1795 was awarded to Austria. Cracow was formed 
into a republic, June, 1815. Occupied by 10,000 
Russians, who followed here the defeated Poles, 
Sept. 1S31. Its independence was extinguished: 
and it was seized by the emperor of Austria, and 
incorporated with his empire, 16 Nov. 1846, which 
was protested against by England, France, Sweden, 
and Turkey; see Poland. A dreadful fire laid the 



CRANES. 



331 



CREDIT MOBILIER. 



greater part of the city in ashes, 18 July, 1850. The 
discovery on 22 July, 1869, of Barbare Abryk, a nun, 
secluded for 21 years in a convent cell, led to violent 
rioting. Population, 1890, 76,025 ; 1900,73,168. 
New university (includes the Polish academy, 

founded 1872), a fine gothic building . . 1881-7 
The Catholic Bishop raised to the rank of prince of 

the Empire, and primate of Poland . . Jan. 1889 
The body of Adam Miekiewicz, the Polish poet, 

brought from France, re-interred here . 4 July, 1890 
Polish congress of natural science and medicine . 

about iq July, 1891 

CRANES are of very early date, for the engines 
of Archimedes maybe so called. In 1857 a crane 
had been erected at Glasgow capable of lifting 50 
tons. One in Woolwich arsenal in 1881 lifted 400 
tons. See Derricks. 

CRANIOLOGY (or Phrenology), the 

study of the external form of the human skull, as 
indicative of mental powers and moral qualities. 
Dr. Gall, the propounder, was a German physician, 
born March, 1758, and his first observations were 
among his schoolfellows. Afterwards he studied 
the heads of criminals and others, and eventually 
reduced his ideas to a system, marking out the skull 
like a map. His first lecture was given at Vienna 
in 1796; but in 1802 the Austrian government pro- 
hibited his teaching. In iSoohe was joined by Dr. 
Spurzheim ; who divided " the mental and moral 
faculties" of Gall into two orders, " feelings and 
intellect," and in 1810-12 they published at Paris 
their work on the " Anatomy and Physiology of the 
Nervous System, and of the Brain in particular." 
Gall died "in 1828. The researches of Gall and 
Spurzheim led to increased study of the brain. 
Combe's " Phrenology" was first published in 1819. 
Phrenological societies were formed early in London 
and Edinburgh; and in 1832, there were in exis- 
tence some 30 phrenological societies, and several 
journals devoted to the subject. Various modifica- 
tions in the localisation of the faculties were made 
by pupils of Gall, among them the American 
phrenologists, the Fowlers, and S. R. Wells. 
Phrenology was refuted by Lord Jeffrey in the Edinburgh 
Review, in 1826, and more recently by Dr. W. B. 
Carpenter. Professor David Ferrier reported the results 
of researches tending to prove localisation of certain 
faculties in the brain to the British Association, Sept. 
1873. He published his work " The Functions of the 
Brain," 1876 ; 2nd edition 1887. 
'Brain," a quarterly journal, began in 1878. 

CRANMER, Latimer, and Ridley, mar- 

'rdom of, see Protestants, note. 

" CRANNOGES, see Lake-dwellings. 

CRANNON or CrANON, Thessaly, N. Greece. 
Near here the Macedonians under Antipater and 
Craterus defeated the confederated Greeks, twice by 
sea, and once by land, 322 B.C. The Athenians de- 
manded peace, and Antipater put their orators to 
death, among whom was Hyperides, who, that he 
might not betray the secrets of his country when 
) under torture, cut out his tongue, and Demosthenes 
is said to have taken poison shortly after. 

CRANWORTH'S ACT, LORD, to simplify 
the practice of conveyancers, 23 & 24 Vict. c. 145 
(i860). 

CRAONNE (N. France). Here Victor and 
Ney defeated the Prussians under Bliicher after 
a severe contest, 7 March, 1814. 

CRAPE. It is said some crape was made by Ste. 
Badour, when queen of France, about 680. It is 
said to have been first made at Bologna. 

CRAY ANT, see Crevant. 



CRAYFORD (Kent). Hengist the Saxon is 
said to have defeated tbe Britons here, 457. 

CRAYONS, coloured substances made into 
paste, and dried into pencils, were .known in France 
about 1422 ; and improved by L'Oriot, 1748. 

CREASOTE, or KREASOTE (discovered by 
Reichenbach about 1833), a powerful antiseptic and 
coagulator of albuminous tissue, is obtained by the 
destructive distillation of wood and other organic 
matters. It has been used for the preservation of 
meat, timber, &e. 

CREATINE (from the Greek kreas, flesh), the 
chemical principle of flesh, was discovered in 1835 
by E. Chevreul, and has been investigated byLiebig, 
Gregory, and others. 

CREATION of the World. The date 

given by the English bible, and by Usher, Blair, 
and some others, is 4004 B.C. There are about 140 
different dates assigned to tbe Creation, varying 
from 3616 to 6984 B.C. Dr. Hales gives 541 1 ; see 
Eras. 

Haydn's Creation (oratorio), composed 1796—8; first 
performed (in London, at Co vent Garden Theatre), 
28 March, 1800 ; in Paris, 24 Dec. same year. 

CRECHES, establishments for temporarily re- 
ceiving the young children of working mothers 
begun at Paris, about 1844 ; in London (in Bath- 
bone-place, &c.) about 1863 ; others since. 

CRECY, or CRESSY (N. France), where Ed- 
ward III. and his son, Edward the Black Prince, 
and an army of about 36,800, obtained a great victory 
over Philip, king of France, with about 130,000, 26 
Aug. 1346. John, king of Bohemia (nearly blind) ; 
James, king of Majorca; Ralph, duke of Lorraine 
(sovereign princes) ; and a number of French nobles, 
together with 30,000 private men, were slain, while 
the loss of the English was very small. The crest 
of the king of Bohemia (three ostrich feathers, with 
the motto Ich dien—m English, " I serve") has 
since been adopted by princes of Wales. 

CREDIT FONCIER, &c. A plan of pro- 
viding loans to landowners was introduced by Frede- 
rick the Great of Prussia, in 1763, in some of the 
Prussian provinces, as the best method of alleviating 
the distresses of the landed interest caused by his 
wars. The system consists of lending money to 
landowners on the security of their estates, and pro- 
viding the loan capital by the issue of debentures 
charged upon the aggregate mortgaged estates. 
There are two modes of carrying out this scheme : 
(1) by means of an association of landowners; (2) 
by means of a proprietary public company. The 
former obtains in Eastern Prussia, but the latter is 
exclusively found in Western Europe. 
Credit Fonder companies have been founded in Hamburg 
(1782), Western Prussia (1787), Belgium (1841), France 
(1852) England (1863). Similar companies were formed 
in all the states of Europe, in India, and in our colonies 
and dependencies. A. G. Henriques. See France, 
May, 1890. 

CREDIT MOBILIER : a joint-stock com- 
pany with this name was established at Paris by 
Isaac and Emile Pereire, and others, 18 Nov. 1852. 
It took up or originated trading enterprises of all kinds, 
applying to them the principle of commandite, or 
limited liabilities ; and was authorised to supersede or 
buy in any other companies (replacing their shares or 
bonds with its own scrip), and also to carry on the ordi- 
nary business of banking. The funds were to be ob- 
tained by a paid-up capital of i% millions sterling, the 
issue of obligations at not less than 45 days' date or 
si°-ht and the receipt of money on deposit or current 
account. The society apparently prospered ; but was 



CREEDS. 



332 



CRICKET. 



considered by experienced persons a near approach to 
Law's bank of 1716. 

Several of the directors failed, Sept. 1857, no divi- 
dend paid May, 1858 

Many companies based on its principles established 
in London . .■ 1863 

Emile and Isaac Pereire withdrew from the manage- 
ment ; the company failed, and the capital was 
said to have disappeared .... Oct. 1867 

The high court of appeal decided that MM. Pereire 
and other directors were responsible for their acts, 
and that damages should be given to the share- 
holders 1 Aug. 1868 

Emile Pereire died 6 Jan., 1875 ; Isaac died 12 July, 1880 

CREEDS, see Confessions of Faith. J. E. 
Lumby's History of the Creeds appeared 1874. 

CREMATION, see Burning the Bead. Cre- 
matoria, or buildings for reducing the dead human 
body to ashes are now (1903) established at Woking, 
Solder's Green, Hcndon, Hull, Manchester, Liver- 
pool, Glasgow, and other places. On the continent 
there are crematoria at Kome, Milan, Cremona, 
Padua, and other cities. 

CREMERA, Battle of, see Fabii. 

CREMONA (N. Italy), a city founded by the 
Romans, 221 B.C. It became an independent re- 
public in 1 107, but was frequently subjugated by its 
neighbours, Milan and Venice, and partook of their 
fortunes. In Nov. 1859 it became part of the king- 
dom of Italy. Cremona was eminent for violin 
makers from about 1550 to 1 750. 

CREOSOTE, see Creosote. 

CRESCENT, a symbol of sovereignty among 
the Greeks and Romans, and the device of Byzan- 
tium, now Constantinople, whence the Turks 
adopted it. The Crescent has given name to three 
orders of knighthood ; founded by Charles I. of 
Naples, 1268; by Rene of Anjou, in 1448; by the 
sultan Selim, in 1801. 

CRESPY (N. Fiance). Here was signed a 
treaty between Charles V. of Germany and Francis 
I. of France, 18 Sept. 1544. The former renounced 
Burgundy, and the latter Italy. 

CRESTS are ascribed to the Carians. Richard 

I. (1189) had a crest on the helmet resembling a 
plume of leathers. The English kings had gene- 
rally crowns above their helmets; that of Richard 

II. 1377, was surmounted by a lion on a cap of dig- 
nity; see Crecy. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, 
bad a plume of feathers ; and the helmet of Robert 
I. was surmounted by a crown, 1306 ; and that of 
James I. by a lion. 1424. In the 15th and 16th 
centuries, the crest was described to be a figure 
placed upon a wreath, coronet, or cap of mainten- 
ance. Gwillim. Fait bairn's "Book of Crests," 
edited by A. C. Fox-Davies, published Nov. 1892. 
The badge of (he Red Dragon added to the prince 
of Wales's ciest, Dec. 1901. 

CRETAN DISTRESS FUND, founded in 
London hy the duke of Westminster and others. 
Times, 8 Feb. 1897. 

CRETE, see Candia. 

CREVANT-SUR-YONNE (N. Frame;, was 
besieged by John Btuart, carl df Buchan, with a 
French army, July, 1423, and relieved by the earloi 
Salisbury with an armyof English ami Burgundians. 
Alter a severe contest, the French were totally de- 
feated. 

CREVELDT, near Cleves (W. Prussia). Here 
on 23 June, 1758, prince Ferdinand of Brunswick 
defeated the French under the count of Clermont. 



CREWE, Cheshire, the site of a great junctioj- 
and works of the London and North-Western rail 
way since 1840. The company presented a beautify 
park to the town in 1887-88. Crewe was incorpojj 
pated in 1877. Great fire at the railway works!, 
estimated damage under 3,000^., 28 March, 1892 
Population, 1881, 24,385 ; 1891, 28,761 ; 1901, 
42,074. 

CRICKET, an ancient English game, said to bj 
identical with the "club ball" of the 14th century 
mentioned in 1598. Rules were laid down in 177J. 
by a committee of noblemen and gentlemen, int 
eluding the duke of Dorset and sir Horace Mann! 
In 1861 the Alt England Eleven gained and las 
games in Australia ; in Sept. 1868, they beat th/ 
New York Twenty-two. In 1873-4 they were beatei 
at Melbourne. 

Eleven Australians visited England, and after gain- 
ing ten games and losing five, gained one against 
" Players of All England," . . . 3 Sept. 187 

Thirteen Australians visited England in May 1880; 
they won 21 out of 37 matches, and lost 4 ; the 
others were drawn or indecisive ; they were vic- 
tors in a match with the " Players of England " 
at the Crystal Palace . . 27, 28, 29 Sept. 188 

The Australians, previously victorious, were de- 
feated at Manchester by N. England team 16 Sept. 188 

England beats Australia ... 23 July, 188 

Australia wins 12 out of 20 matches in . . . „ 

North of England beat Australians . . 3 Sept, 

English cricketers in Australia victorious . Jan, 

Frequent contests with the Australians with varied 
success 1885 

Lord Sheffield and his English eleven at Adelaide, 
in 26 matches, win 13, lose 2, 11 drawn . March, 1 

Suicide of Mr. Scotton, eminent cricketer, 9 July, 1 

A good cricket year through the long drought ; 
eighth visit of Australians, 36 matches, 18 won, 
10 lost, and 8 drawn . . . April— Sept. 

Victory of the English eleven over "All Aus- 
tralia" at Melbourne . . . 6 March, 1 

Dr. W. G. Grace, aged 46, completed his hundreth 
" hundred " score at Bristol, in a match between 
Gloucesteraud Somerset, mid-May, 1895 ; national 
testimonial subscribed for . . June et seq. 

3rd and last test match (England and Australia) at 
Kennington Oval, won by the English by 66 runs 

12 Aug. 

Australians generally victors in the counties 

Prince Ranjitsinhji, an eminent player, publishes 
" The Jubilee book on Cricket" . . Aug. 

First test match between England and Australia 
won by the English, at Sydney, 17 Dec. 1897 ; 
2nd by the Australians, 5 Jan. 189S ; 3rd by 
them, 19 Jan. ; 4th by them, 2 Feb. ; 5th by 
them, 2 March ; other matches played . . 189S 

George Giffen's " With Bat and Ball " published „ 

George Ulyett, famous player, born 1851, died 18 
June ; J. D. Walker, famous Harrow player, 
died (5 July . . ,, 

Strong team of Australians visit, England; 5 test 
matches : one won by the Australians at Lords 
by 10 wickets, 17 May ; the rest drawn, 

May-Sept. 1899 

Richard Halt, the famous Notts cricketer, died, 
aged 64 18 July, 1900 

Mr. Win. Yardley, tine batsman, and writer of 
burlesques, died 29 Oct. ,, 

George Lohmann, famous player, died, aged 36, 

1 Dec. 1901 

Australians win 3 out of 4 test matches against 
Mr. MacLaren's English eleven in Australia, Feb. 
1902 ; the English won the return match at Ade- 
laide !8 March, 1902 

First lest mat eh. at Birmingham, ends in a draw, 
31 May : •.•nd won by Australia, 10 June ; 3rd and 
. ( lli by them, Manchester, 5, 26 July; 5th by 
England at the Oval .... 13 Aug. ,, 

Meeting of M.C.C., proposal to widen the wicket 
carried, but not by the requisite two-thirds 
majority 6 April, 

Result of season's count, \ matches, 1903, Middlesex 
champion county. 



i88 5i 



1896' 
I 

1897!' 



!933 



CEIME. 



333 



CRIMINAL LAWS. 



CRIME. About 1856 it was computed that a 
fifteenth part of the population of the United King- 
dom lived by crime. The increase in education and 
manufactures is gradually reducing this proportion. 
From 1848 to 1865 there had been no commitment 
for political offences, such as treason or sedition. 
The returns of thirty-two years showed that crime 
absolutely and relatively diminished (Sept. 1866). 
"Judicial Statistics" for England and Wales, with 
abundant details, published by the government 



< 



annually, began with the year 1856 ; the new series 
(in two parts, civil and criminal, published sepa- 



rately) began in 1893 > comparative tables, 1857-96. 
See Murder, Executions, Trials, Poisoning, Pre- 
vention of Crime, Anthropology, &c. 

CONVICTIONS (BY TRIAL) IN ENGLAND AND WALES. 





Persons. 


Cap. Off. 


Persons. 


Cap. Off. 


1847. 


• 21,542 


— 


1875 • 


10,954 


33 


1849 


. 21,001 


66 


1876 . 


12,195 


32 


1850. 


• 2o,S37 


49 


1877 . 


11,942 


34 


1851 


• 21.579 


70 


1878 . 


12,473 


20 


1852 . 


. 21,304 


61 


1879 


12,525 


34 


1853 


. 20,756 


55 


1880. 


11,214 


28 


1854. 


• 23,047 


49 


1881 . 


n,353 


23 


1855 


■ i9,97i 


50 


1882 . 


11,699 


22 


1856. 


■ 14,734 


69 


1883 . 


n,347 


23 


1857 


■ 15,307 


54 


1884 . 


n,i34 


38 


1858. 


■ 13,24° 


53 


1885 . 


10,500 


25 


1859 


. . 12,470 


52 


1886. 


10,686 


35 


i860. 


. 12,068 


48 


1887 . 


10,338 


35 


1861 


13,879 


50 


1888 . 


10,561 


36 


1862. 


• i5,3 12 


29 


1889 . 


9>348 


20 


1863 


• • 15,799 


29 


1890 . 


9,242 


24 


1864. 


. 14,726 


32 


1891 . 


9,o55 


19 


1865 


. . 14,740 


20 


1892 . 


9,607 


22 


1866. 


• 14,254 


26 


1893 • 


9,694 


28 


1867 


. . 14,207 


27 


1894. 


• 9,5i8 


29 


1868. 


• 15,033 


21 


1895 . 


. 3,010 


19 


1869 


. . 14,340 


18 


1896 . 


3,972 


19 


1870. 


• 12,953 


15 


1898 . 


• 9, J 33 


27 


1871 


. . 11,946 


13 


1899. 


8,608 


29 


1872 . 


. 10,862 


30 


1900 


• 7,975 


20 


1873 


. 11,089 


18 


1901 . 


• 8,631 


28 


1874. 


• 11,509 


26 









See Executions. 

Act for improving the administration of criminal justice 
passed 7 Aug. 1851. 

The Criminal Justice Act authorises justices, with the 
consent of prisoners, to pass sentence for short periods, 
instead of committing them to trial, 1855. 

Cost of criminal prosecutions in England and Wales : 
1856, 194,912?.; 1878, 148,103?.; 1883, 144,026?. ; 1886, 
141,329?. ; year ending 31 March, 1890, 131,202?. Ticket- 
of-leave system instituted by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 99, 
passed in 1853; see Transportation. 2666 persons 
were liberated on tickets-of-leave in 1856. 

On 17 Feb. 1857, of 126 persons thus liberated, 58 were 
believed to be living honestly. 

In 1861, 1862, and 1863, the system was considered to 
have failed through the numerous crimes committed 
by ticket-of-leavers ; it was modified by the Penal Ser- 
vitude act, in 1864. 

Sentences to penal servitude, 1869, 2006; in 1870, 1788; 
1886, qio ; 1887, 948 ; 1890, 729 ; 1891, 751 ; 1892, 894 ; 
1893, 960 ; 1896, 255 ; 1898, 473 ; 1899, 736 i ^oO) 728. 

Criminal classes at large in England and Wales : esti- 
mated number, 1869-70, 45,800; 1878-9, 35,469; 1886-7, 
28,729 ; 1887-8, 28,103 > 1888-9, 27,136 ; 1889-90, 26,406 ; 
1890-1, 25,627 ; 1891-2, 25,220 ; i899(habitual criminals), 

, 5,749 5 19°°, 5,256- 

" Statistical Criminal Act " passed . . 11 Aug. 1869 

Prevention of crimes act passed (see Evidence) 

Aug. 1871 and 1898. 
Great decrease in crimes in relation to the increase 

of population 1861-1897 

Confirmed by lord Coleridge for 1874-84 19 Jan. 1885 
The number of female convicts fallen in ten years 

from 1477 to 706, announced . . .4 Nov. 1887 
Crime— International Congress for the prevention 

and repression of crime met in the Middle Temple, 

London 3 July, 1872 

Third international congress opened . 25 Aug. 1891 
Convict Supervision Office, good results reported 

by Mr. J. Monro 1886 



A committee on the identification of criminals ad- 
vocate the adoption of M. Bertillon's anthropo- 
metrical system and Mr. Francis Galton's method 
of classifying finger-prints, March ; adoption 
ordered Sept. 1894 

Internat. congress St. Petersburg, 17 Sept. ; 
Moscow, 23 Sept 1902 

Summary convictions in 1893 in England and 
Wales, 649,371 ; in igco, 760,704. Pardons granted, 
439 in 1893 ; 35,144 m I 9oo. 
CRIMES ACTS, see Prevention. 

CRIMEA, or CRIM TaetaRY, a peninsula in 
the Euxine or Black Sea, the ancient Taurica Cher- 
sonesus, colonised by the Greeks about 550 B.C. 
The Milesians founded the kingdom of Bosporus, 
now Kertch, which about 108 B.C. formed part of 
the dominion of Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose 
descendants continued to rule the country under 
Roman protection till the irruption of the Goths, 
Huns, &c. about a.d. 258. About 1237 it fell into 
the hands of the Mongols under Genghis Khan; 
soon after the Venetians established commercial 
stations, with a lucrative trade, but were supplanted 
by the Genoese, who were permitted to rebuild and 
fortify Kaffa, about 1261. In 1475 Mahomet II. 
expelled the Genoese, and subjected the peninsula 
to the Ottoman yoke ; permitting the government 
to remain in the hands of the native khans, but 
closing the Black Sea to Western Europe. In 1774, 
by the intervention of the empress Catherine II., 
the Crimea recovered its independence : but on the 
abdication of the khan in 1783, the Russians took 
possession of the country, after a war with Turkey, 
and retained it by the treaty of Jassy, 9 Jan. 1 792. 
The Crimea (now Taurida), was divided into eight 
governments in 1802. War having been declared 
against Russia by England and France, 28 March, 
1854, large masses of troops were sent to the East, 
which, after remaining some time at Gallipoli, and 
other places, sailed for Varna, where they disem- 
barked 29 May. An expedition against the Crimea 
having been determined on, the allied British, 
French, and Turkish forces, amounting to 58,000 
men (25,000 British), commanded by lord Raglan 
and marshal St. Arnaud, sailed from Varna, 3 Sept. 
and landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th, without 
opposition, at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 30 
miles from Sebastopol. On the 20th they att acked 
the Russians, between 40,000 and 50,000 strong 
(under prince Menschikoff) , entrenched on the 
heights of Alma, supposed to be unassailable After 
a sharp contest the Russians were totally routed. 
See Alma and Russo- Turkish War. Peace was 
proclaimed in April, 1856, and the allies quitted the 
Crimea 12 July following. 

CRIMINAL LAW PROCEDURE 
(IRELAND) ACT, (see Ireland) 50 & 51 Vict. 
c. 20, passed 19 July, 1887, provides for summary 
jurisdiction by magistrates, special juries, change 
of place of trial, proclamation of districts, prohibi- 
tion of dangerous associations, and continuance of 
44 & 45 Vict. c. 5, and 49 & 50 Vict. c. 24. 
Mr. Dillon's motion for 2nd reading of repeal bill 

rejected, 220-141, 19 April, 1899. 
Act for Scotland passed 16 Sept. 1887 to simplify and 

amend the Criminal Law of Scotland. 

CRIMINAL LAWS OF ENGLAND- Their 

great severity, pointed out by sir Samuel Romilly, 
sir James Mackintosh, and others, about 1818, was 
considerably mitigated by sir R. Peel's acts, passed 
1826-8. The criminal law acts were consolidated 
by 24 and 25 Vict. cc. 94-IOO, 1861. Some defects 
were amended by an act passed in 1867. The pun- 
ishment of death is now virtually restricted to 
treason and wilful murder. See Evidence. 



CRIMINOLOGY. 



334 



CROFTERS. 



.Sir J. F. Stephen's " Digest of the Criminal Laws " 
published, 1877 ; and "History of the Criminal 
Law of England," published 1883 

Bill for amending law relating to indictable offences 
(resembling a digest and code) brought in by sir 
.John Holker, attorney-general . . 14 May, 1878 

Referred to royal commission (justices Blackburn 
and Lush and sir James F. Stephen . 8 July, ,, 

The bill brought in and withdrawn .... 1879 

Criminal Law Amendment Act (relating to women) 
passed 14 Aug. 1885 

CRIMINOLOGY, as a branch of anthropology 
which treats of crime and criminals, is based on the 
researches of Dr. Lambroso, of Turin, the author 
of " L'Uomo Delinquente," published 1875 (several 
editions). In this work he expounds his theory 
of criminology, and indicates the physical and 
mental defects by which the habitual criminal is 
characterised. The treatment of criminals at 
Elmira, with the view to their reclamation, is based 
upon criminal anthropology. 

CRIMISUS, a river in Sicily, near which Ti- 
moleon defeated the Carthaginians, 339 B.C. 

CRIMPING-HOUSES were used to entrap 
persons into the army ; hence the name of " crimp 
sergeant." Some of them in London were destroyed 
by the populace, in consequence of a young man 
who had been enticed into one being killed in 
endeavouring to escape, 16 Sept. 1794. 

CRINAN CANAL, Argyleshire, cut through 
Kintyre peninsula, 1793-1801: flocks; saves about 
115 miles. 

CRINOLINE (a French word, meaning stuff 
made of crin, hair) is the modern name of the " far- 
dingale" of the time of queen Elizabeth, hoop-like 
petticoats made of whalebone, &c, revived in France 
and England since 1855. They have frequently 
occasioned loss of life, by coming in contact with 
fire and machinery. In No. 116 of the Tatler, pub- 
lished 5 Jan. 1 710, is an amusing trial of the hoop- 
petticoat then in fashion. 

A " No Crinoline League " was originated by "John 
Strange Winter " (Henrietta E. V. Stannard), a 
popular writer, in the view of a revival of crino- 
lines, and was well supported . . Jan. 1893 

CRIPPLEGATE (London), was so-called 
from the lame beggars who sat there, so early as the 
year 1010. The gate was new built by the brewers 
of London in 1244; and was pulled down and sold 
for 91/. in July, 1760. The poet Milton was buried 
in the church near it, 12 Nov. 1674. Cripplegate 
institute (founded by the duke of York, July, 1894) 
opened by the lord mayor, 4 Nov. 1896. See 
London and Fires, Nov. 1897. 

CRIPPLES' HOME, Marylebone-road, es- 
tablished 1S51, for crippled girls to be taught suit- 
able trades. The Cripples' Nursery, Old Quebec- 
Btreol and Margate, was established 1862. 

CRISPIN AND CltlSriANUS are said to have 
been two saints, born at Kome, from whence they 
travelled to Soissons, in France, to propagate the 
christian religion. They worked as shoemakers; 
hut tlic governor of the town discovering them to be 
Christians, ordered them to be beheaded, about 2S8. 
Their day is 25 Oct, 

CRITERION THEATRE, Regent's Circus, 
Piccadilly, opened by Spiers ami Fond, 21 March, 
1874. 

CRITH (from the Greek krithe, barleycorn or 
small weight), a term suggested by Dr. A. w. Hof* 
niniin (about iNiip to express the volume-weight of 
gases; n cube containing 1 litre of hydrogen (C0896 



gramme) to be the unit. Hydrogen being 1 critij : 
oxygen will be 16, nitrogen 14 criths. 

CRITICS- The first societ}' of them was forme 
276 B.C. Blair. Varro, Cicero, Apollonius, an' 
Aristarchus were ancient critics. In modern tim^ 
the Journal des Scavans was the earliest periodic! 
critical work. It was originated by Denis de SallJ 
ecclesiastical councillor in the parliament of Franc! 
and was first published at Paris, 30 May, 1655, an 
is still continued. Jean Le Clerc's " Ars Critical' 
published 1696, is said to be the earliest systemati 
treatise. The first work of this kind in Englanj 
was the Review of Daniel Defoe (the term bein! 
invented by himself), published in Feb. 1703. Tb 
Works of the Learned began 1 710, and the Ivaiesc, 
Literature in 1714; discontinued in 1722. Si' 
Reviews. 

The legality of fair criticism was established in the En; 
lish courts, in Feb. 1794, when an action that excifc 
great attention, brought by an author against a n 
viewer for a severe critique upon his work, was detei 
mined in favour of the defendant on the principle th; 
criticism is allowable, however sharp, if just, and n 
malicious. See Trials, 1875. 

CROATIA, conquered by Coloman, king 

Hungary, in 1102, was with that country united t' r 

Austria in 1526. 

The Croatian diet abolished . . . Nov. i8&, 

The Croats protest against incorporation with 
Hungary 25 May, 186 

Their diet (including Croatia and Sclavonia), at 
A gram dissolved .... 27 May, ,, | 

The union of Croatia with Hungary recognised by 
a Croatian deputation .... 27 May, 186. 

Croatian delegates enter the Hungarian diet 24 Nov. „ | 

The emperor and empress visit Agram 9-10 March, 181 

Riots in Agram and other places against the Jews, 
complicated with Sclavonic jealousy of Hungary, 
and desire for autonomy, Aug. ; the ban super- 
seded by gen. Kamberg, special commissioner 
about 6 Sept. 

Conflicts with the military, 8-10 Sept.; ten rioters 
killed .20 Sept. 

Agitation increasing ; demand for separation from 
Hungary about 22 Sept. 

38 rioters sentenced to imprisonment, &c. 30 Sept. 

Count KhUn-Hedervary, appointed ban 4 Dec. 

The diet opened at Agram— important meeting 

17 Dec. 

Continued political disagreements .... 

Diet dissolved 22 Jan. 

Again dissolved 27 Aug. 

The separatist movement said to be totally quelled 
by the ban after much resistance . . Nov. 

Visit of the emperor to Agram ; warmly received 

mid-Oct. 

Disturbances, agitation against the Magyars ; 3 
officials murdered by peasants in Lasinia, martial 
law, reported 29 Sept. 

Ferry-boat wrecked on the Kulpa river, 23 deaths ; 
reported 16 Sept. 1901; 

Riots in Agram, houses and shops wrecked, troops 
called out, over ico persons injured, 31 Aug., 
1 Sept. ; capt. -Wittas beaten by the mob, martial 
law proclaimed 3 Sept. 

Further rioting . 27-30 Mar. and later in July 1903 1 

CROCKERY- WARE see Pottery. 

CROFTERS and Cottars, the holders of small 
portions of land, and the labourers in the high-l 
lands and islands of Scotland. 
A royal commission appointed 22 March, 1883 
(Francis baron Napier and others), to inquire- 
into their condition, issue their report and 
describe their state as nol being worse than for- 
merly, but acknowledge the existence of many | 
startling grievances relating to the tenure of 
land, high veins, the deficiency of education, of ', 
postal communication, of roads, &c They 
recommend, among other remedies, the revival 
of the ancient highland townships with common 



1 



1895 



\ 
190^ 



CEOIX, ST. 



335 



CROWN. 



privileges, limiting the power of the superior 
lords, &c. 28 April, 18S4 

Highland Land Law Reform Association began to 
work .... ■ • March, 1883 

Agitation begun at Dingwall by the Highland Land 
Law Reform Association .... Sept. 1884 

Seditious circulars threatening violence ; troops 
conveyed to Skye ; tranquillity restored by free 
church ministers . . . . 15 ^ ov - >' 

Meeting at Inverness of chief landlords ; concilia- 
tory favourable, changes proposed . . 14 Jan. 1885 

Act giving crofters fixity of tenure ; enlargement of 
holdings, and state-aid to fisheries 25 June 1886 ; 
amended 1 888 

Riotous resistance to ejectments at Greenhill Farm, 
&c, Isle of Tiree, Hebrides; 50 police repulsed 
by 300 men ; marines sent to the Isle 25 July ; 
order restored ; six crofters apprehended up to 

8 Aug. sentenced to three months' imprisonment, 

14 Dec. 1886 
Raid of 2,000 cottars on Park and Aline deer forests 

in the Island of Lewis, 22 Nov. ; stopped 23 Nov. 1SS7 
Riots at Stornoway, Lewis ; the fences of the sheep 
farm of Mr. Samuel Newall destroyed and the 
sheep dispersed ; severe conflict between the 
crofters and the police and military ; many 
wounded ; the rioters dispersed with difficulty 

9 Jan. 1888, many arrested ; 16 sentenced to 
imprisonment 3 Feb. 1888 

Lewis reported quiet .... 28 Jan. ,, 

Crofters colonization commission appointed by 
Imperial and Canada governments . .28 Dec. ,, 

The Canadian settlements reported prosperous, 
March iSqi ; moderate report . . . Oct. 1896 

Royal commission to consider the means of enlarg- 
ing the crofters holdings appointed about 25 Nov. 
1892 ; report issued May, „ 

New crofters holding bill read 2nd time (commons) 

11 June, 1 595 

CROIX, ST., a W. India Island, purchased 
from the French by Christian VI. king of Denmark, 
in 1733 ; taken by sir Alexander Cochrane, 22 Dec. 
1807 ; restored in 1814. 

CROMLECHS, ancient monuments, formerly 
considered to be Druidical altars, but now believed 
to be connected with burials. One still exists in 
Anglesey : similar structures have been found in 
Ireland, India, Arabia, and other countries. 

CRONIN CASE. See United States, 1889. 

CRONSTADT, Russia, founded by Peter the 
Great, 17 10, and received its name (Crown-town) 
in 1 72 1. It was not attacked by the fleets in the 
war with Russia, 1854-5. Connected with St. Peters- 
burg since 1884 by the Cronstadt ship canal. 
Murder of the governor, rear-admiral Ragvozoff, 
and suicide of Peninsky, the murderer, a dis- 
charged official, 17 Aug^ 1894. 

CROOK, a bishop's pastoral staff or crook, dis- 
tinct from the crosier. Many pastoral staffs have 
been presented to English bishops from 1872-1903. 

CROPREDY BRIDGE, near Banbury, Ox- 
fordshire. Here the royalists defeated sir "William 
Waller and the army of the parliament, 29 June, 
1644. 

CROQUET. This game, which became common 
in Britain about 1 850, is said to be a revival of the 
old Fall Mall {which see). It was practically 
superseded by Lawn Tennis, 1877-97, but since the 
latter date has been much played. The hoops used 
iu the game as at present (1903) are much narrower 
than those formerly in use, and the game generally 
has been made more scientific. 

CROSIER, a staff surmounted by a cross, bome 
before an archbishop, was in use in the 4th century. 
The bearing a crosier before ecclesiastics is mentioned 
in the life of St. Ctesareus of Aries about 500. The 



term "crozier" is sometimes erroneously applied to 
the pastoral staff of a bishop, which terminates 
in au ornamental curve or crook. 

CROSS. That on which the Redeemer suf- 
fered on Mount Calvary, was said to have been, 
found at Jerusalem, with two others, deep in the 
ground, by the empress Helena, mother of C011- 
stantine I., 3 May, 326 (termed the Invention of 
the Cross); commemorated annually on that day. 
It was carried away by Chosroes, king of Persia, 
on the plundering of Jerusalem ; but was recovered 
by the emperor Heraclius (who defeated him in 
battle), 14 Sept. 615, and that day has since been 
commemorated as " the festival of the Exaltation 
of the Cross," established in 642. 

It is asserted by church writers that a great shining 
cross was seen in the heavens by Constantine, 
and that it led him to adopt it on his standard, 
with the inscription "In hoc signo vinces," 
"Under this sign thou shalt conquer." With 
this (Labarum) he advanced to Rome, where he- 
vanquished Maxentius, 27 Oct. 312. Lenglet. 

Signing with the Cross was first practised by Chris- 
tians to distinguish themselves from the Pagans, 

about 1 do' 

In the time of Tertullian, it was deemed efficacious 
against poison, witchcraft, &c. . . . . 260 

Crosses in churches and chambers were introduced 
about 431 ; and set up on steeples about . . 568 

12 crosses in honour of queen Eleanor were set up in 
the places where her hearse rested, between 1290 
(when she died) and 1307 ; repaired crosses remain 
at Teddington, Walthain, and Northampton . 1892- 

Crosses and idolatrous pictures were removed from 
churches, and crosses in the streets demolished 
by order of parliament . 164? 

Maids of the Cross were a community of young 
women who made vows of poverty, chastity, and 
obedience, instituted in 1625 

The order of Ladies of the Star of the Cross was 
instituted by the empress Eleonora di Gonzaga, 
wife of Leopold I. , iu i66S* 

CROSSED CHEQUES, see Drafts. 

CROTONA (S. Italy), a city founded by the 
Achaean Greeks about 710 B.C. Here Pythagoras- 
taught about 520. The Crotons destroyed Sybaris,. 
510. 

CROWN. An Amalekite brought Saul's crown, 
to David, 1056 B.C. (2 Sam. i.) The first Roman 
who wore a crown was Tarquin the Elder, 616 B.C. 
The crown was first a fillet tied round the head ;. 
afterwards it was formed of leaves and flowers, and 
also of stuffs adorned with jewels. See Tiara. 

The crown of Alfred had two little bells attached (872) - r 
it is said to have been long preserved at Westminster, 
and may have been that described in the parliamentary 
inventory taken in 1649. 

Athelstan's crown resembled an earl's coronet, 929. 

William I. wore his crown on a cap, adorned with points-,. 
1066. 

Richard III. introduced the crosses, 1483. 

Henry VII. introduced the arches, 1485. 

The crown and regalia of England were pledged to the- 
city of London by Richard II. for 2000;. in 1386 ; see 
the king's receipt on redeeming them. Ry-mer. 

The crown of Charles II., made in 1660, is the oldest ex- 
isting in England ; see Blood's Conspiracy. 

The Imperial State Crown of England was made by Run- 
dell and Bridges, in 1838, principally with jewels taken, 
from old crowns. It contains onp large ruby, 1 large 
sapphire, 16 sapphires, n emeralds, 4 rubies, 1363 
brilliants, 1273 rose diamonds, 147 table diamonds, 4; 
drop-shaped pearls, and 273 pearls. Professor Tennant. 

Mr. Cyril Davenport's "the English Regalia in the- 
Tower of London " published July, 1897, with photo- 
graphs, &c. 

Queen Alexandra's coronation crown of diamonds (3,68s),. 
22 oz. 15 dwt. in weight, designed and executed by 
Messrs. Carrington, 1902. 



CROWN OF INDIA. 



336 



CRYPTOGRAPH. 



CROWN OF INDIA, Imperial Order of, in- 
stituted by Queen Victoria (to commemorate the 
assumption of the title of empress, I Jan. 1877), for 
princesses of the royal family, distinguished Indian 
and British ladies, and wives of viceroys and go- 
vernors and secretaries of state for India; 31 Dec. 
1877. Twelve ladies (the late marchioness of 
Salisbury and others) invested, 29 April, 1878. 

CROWN LANDS. The revenue arising from 
those in England is now nearly all subject to par- 
liament, which annually provides for the support 
of the sovereign and government about 375,000/. 
The revenue of the duchy of Cornwall belongs 
to the prince of Wales even during his minority. 
Henry VII. (1485) resumed those lands which 
had been given to their followers by the sove- 
reigns of the house of York. The hereditary 
estates of the crown were largely bestowed on 
their courtiers by the sovereigns — especially by 
the Stuarts. The income of the crown, formerly 
derived from lands, royalties, &c, now belongs to 
the state exchequer, see Civil List. The crown 
lands act passed, 1894. In the year ending 31 March, 
1891, the receipts were 515, 737/. $s. iod., the ex- 
penditure 87,121/. 19s. bil. ; 1899,430,000/.; 1900, 
450,000/.; 1901,500,000/.; 1902, 455,000/.; 1903, 
435,000/. 

CROWNS in gold were coined by Henry VIII., 
1522. Crowns and half-crowns of silver were 
coined in England by Edward VI. in 1553. None 
were coined in 1861, and they were gradually with- 
drawn from circulation. The coinage of half-crowns 
was resumed in 1874, after an inquiry as to their 
utility. The coinage of silver crowns recommenced 
in 1887. 

CROWS. An act passed for their destruction 
in England, 24 Hen. VIII. 1532. Crows were 
anciently employed as letter-bearers, as carrier- 
pigeons are now. 

CROYDON, Surrey, granted to Lanfranc, 
archbishop of Canterbury, about 1070. Archbishop 
Whitgift's hospital was founded in 1596. The tine 
old parish church was burnt, 5, 6 Jan. 1867. Croy- 
don incorporated by charter, 15 Feb. 1883. Poly- 
technic institution opened by the archbishop of 
Canterbury, 22 Dec. 1891. New Grand theatre 
opened by Mr. Beerbohm Tree and company, 6 
April) 1896. Visit of the prince and princess of 
Wales; town hall, courts of justice, and free library 
opened, 19 May, 1896. Electric tramway opened, 
20 Sept. 1901. Population, 1881, 78,811; 1891, 
102,697 i i') 0I > J 33,885. 

CROYLAND or C Rowland, Lincolnshire. 

The foundation of an abbey here was ascribed to 
king Ethelbald, 716. Its history, by Ingulph, 
printed by Peter of Blois, 16&L, of which a transla- 
tion by II. T. Riley was published by Mr. Bohn, 
1854, is generally considered fabulous. 

CROZIER, see Crash ,-. 

CRUCIFIX, the cross with the figure of Christ 
attached to it, first known in the fourth, came into 
general use in the eighth century. 

CRUCIFIXION. A mode of execution com- 
mon among the Assyrians, Egyptians, Persians, 

Carthaginians, Greeks, and Romans. Ariarathcs, 
of Oappadooia, aged 80, vanquished by Per- 

diccas, and discovered among the prisoners, was 
(lax ed alive, ,i\\<\ nailed to a oross, with his principal 
officers, 322 b.o. Jesus Chrisl was crucified 3 April, 
a.d. u. Usher. (15 April, a.d. 29, Clinton ; 28 
March, a.d. 31, "Hales \ probably 7 April, a.d. 30. 



Lymi). Crucifixion was ordered to be discontinued 
by Constantine, 330. Lenglet. 

CRUELTY TO ANIMALS, see Animals, 

Children, and Vivisection. 

CRUSADES (French Croisades), wars under- 
taken to drive the infidels from Jerusalem and the 
"Holy Land." Peter Gautier, the Hermit, an 
officer of Amiens, on his return from pilgrimage in- 
cited pope Urban II. to expel infidels from the city 
where Christ had taught. Urban convened a 
council of 310 bishops at Clermont in France, at 
which the ambassadors of the chief Christian 
potentates assisted, and gave Peter the commission 
to summon Europe to a general war, 1094. The 
first crusade was published ; an army of 300,000 men 
was raised, of which Peter had the direction, and 
Godfrey de Bouillon the command, 1095. The 
warriors wore a red cross upon the right shoulder : 
and their motto was Volonte de Dieu, " God's will." 
— The French government have published some of 
the Historians of the Crusades (1844-86). 

I. Crusade (1095) ended by Jerusalem being taken by 
assault, 15 July, 1099, and Godfrey de Bouillon made 
king. 

II. Preached by St. Bernard in 1146, headed by emperor 
Conrad II., and Louis VII. of France. Crusaders de- 
feated ; Jerusalem lost in 1187. 

III. Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, <&c. , in 1 188, joined 
by Philip II, of France and Richard I. of England, in 
1 190. Glorious, but fruitless. 

IV. 1 195, by emperor Henry VI. : successful till his 
death in 1197. 

V. Proclaimed by Innocent III., 1198. Baldwin, count 
of Flanders, attacked the Greeks, and took Constanti- 
nople in 1203. His companions returned. 

VI. In 1216. In 1229, emperor Frederick II. obtained 
possession of Jerusalem on a truce for ten years. In 
1240, Richard, earl of Cornwall, arrived at Palestine, 
but soon departed. 

VII. By Louis IX. (St. Louis), 1248, who was defeated 
and taken prisoner at Mansourah, 5 April, 1250 ; re- 
leased by ransom ; truce of ten years. 

VIII. and last, in 1270, by the same prince, who died of 
a contagious disease, at Carthage, in Africa, 2 Aug. 
Prince Edward, afterwards Edward I. of England, was 
at Acre, 1271. In 1291, the soldan took Acre, and the 
Christians were driven out of Syria. 

CRUTCHED FRIARS, who bore the figure 
of the cross on their back and breast ; from which 
circumstance they r derived their name, a corruption 
of croisiers, "cross bearers,'' an order founded at 
Bologna about 1169. They are also called Trini- 
tarians. They had a monastery in London in a 
district still called Crutched Friars. 

CRUZ, see Santa Cruz. 

CRYOLITE, a Greenland mineral, a fluoride 
of aluminium and sodium, employed in procuring 
metallic aluminium in 1855. 

CRYOPHORUS, an instrument (invented by 
Dr. Wollaston about 1812) to demonstrate the re- 
lation between evaporation at low temperature s 
and the production of cold. 

CRYPTOGRAPH, an apparatus for writing 
in cipher, invented by sir Charles "Wheatstone, and 
made known in 1S68, in which different key-words 
may be employed, and it is said, absolute secrecy 
ensured. A cryptographic machine was patented, 
i860. See Cipher. 

A system of secret writing described in "Archiv 
der Mathematik " 

Professor J. P. Lorenz published a system at Mag- 
deburg 

Joseph Ludwig Kluber published " Kryptographik " 1809 

Messrs. Thos. De la Hue published Mr. Win. 
Henry Rochfort's system of secret writing 
termed "Arcanography," resembling Lorenz's . 1836 



1795 
1806 



CEYPTON. 



337 



CRYSTAL PALACE. 



Mr. A. L. Flamm patented an improvement upon 
this system about Oct. 1875 

Mr. Weir's cryptograph, in which type-writing is 
employed, exhibited London . . 19 Oct. 1889 

CEYPTON", a new gas discovered by prof. 
Ramsay by means of the spectroscope, reported, 
6 June, 1898. 

CEYSTALLOGEAPHY is the science re- 
lating to the symmetrical forms assumed by sub- 
stances passing from the liquid to the solid state. 
Rome de Lisle published his " Essai de Cristallo- 
graphie," in 1772; but Rene-Just Haiiy is regarded 
as the founder of the modern school of crystallo- 
graphy (1801). Whewell. Dana, Dufresnoy, and 
Miller, are eminent modern writers on this subject. 

CEYSTAL PALACE, Hyde Park, London ; 
see Exhibition of 1 851. 

CEYSTAL PALACE, Sydenham. The Ex- 
hibition building of 185 1 having been surrendered 
to Messrs. Fox and Henderson on 1 Dec. 185 1, the 
materials were sold for 70,000^. to a company, 
who soon after commenced re-erecting the Crystal 
Palace on its present site, near Sydenham in Kent, 
under the direction of sir Joseph Paxton, Owen 
Jones, Digby "Wyatt, and others. The proposed 
capital of 500,000^. (in 100,000 shares of <jl. each) 
was increased in Jan. 1853 to a million pounds. In 
Feb. 1887, it was stated that the total expenditure 
had been 3,004,737^. ; receipts, 4,409,969/!. ; paid 
for debentures, &c, 1,405,232^. ; number of visitors 
above 50,000,000. Bill for new financial arrange- 
ments passed. 

First column raised by S. Laing, M. P. . 5 Aug. 1852 

During the progress of the works as many as 6400 
men were engaged at one time. By the fall of 
scaffolding, 12 men were killed . . 15 Aug. 1853 
Dinner given to professor Owen and others in the 
interior of the model of the iguanodon, con- 
structed by Mr. Waterhouse Hawkins 31 Dec. ,, 
The palace opened by the queen . . 10 June, 1854 
Grand musical fete on behalf of the Patriotic Fund, 

28 Oct. „ 
The palace visited by the emperor and empress of 

the French, &c 20 April, 1855 

First grand display of the great fountains, before 

the queen and 20,000 spectators . 18 June, 1856 

The receipts were 115, 627?. ; the expenditure, 
87,872^., not including payments for preference 
shares, &c, in year ending . . . 30 April, 1857 
The preliminary Handel festivals (see Handel), 15, 

17, 19 June, 1857 ; and . . . .2 July, 1858 
On the Fast day (for the Indian mutiny) rev. C. 
Spurgeon preached here to 23,000 persons ; 476?. 
were collected, to which the C. P. company added 

200I 7 Oct. 1857 

Centenary of the birth of Robert Burns celebrated : 
the directors awarded 501!. to a prize poem on the 
subject, whicli was obtained by Miss Isa Craig, 

25 Jan. 1859 
The Handel festival . . .20, 22, 24 June, „ 
Festival kept in honour of Schiller, 10 Nov. 1859 ; 

of Mendelssohn 4 May, i860 

London charity children sing here . 6 June, ,, 
3000 Orpheonistes (French musical amateurs) per- 
form choral music, 25 June ; the Imperial band of 
Guides perform, 26 June ; both dine in the palace, 

30 June, ,, 
115 brass bands perform .... 10 July, ,, 

Annual rose show began 

North wing injured by a gale of wind, 20, 21 Feb. . 1861 
Haydn's " Creation" performed (Costa, conductor) 

1 May, ,, 
Blondin's performances on an elevated rope begin 
here (he plays on violin, cooks, simulates falling, 

&c.) .1 June, ,, 

Successful Handel festival : a new arched roof con- 
structed for the orchestra. : about 4000 vocal 
and instrumental performers . 23, 25, 27 June, 1862 
Successful Handel festival . . 26, 28, 30 June, 1865 



North wing, containing tropical department, the 
Alhambra, and other courts, destroyed by fire 
(about i5o,ooo£. damage) . 30 Dec. 1866 

Prince of Wales present at a grand concert to raise 
funds to restore the palace . . .26 June, 1867 

Visit of the viceroy of Egypt (gives 500?.), July ; of 
the sultan (gives ioooi.) . . . 16 July, ,, 

Conservative working men's demonstration 

11 Nov. ,, 

Meeting of shareholders decide by ballot that free 
tickets shall not be issued to admit non-share- 
holders on Sundays .... 31 Dec. ,, 

North wing restored and re-opened . 15 Feb. 1868 

An Aeronautical Exhibition opened . 25 June, ,, 

Protestant meeting to defend the Irish Church, 

17 Aug. ,, 

Reception of the vicomte de Lesseps . . July, 1870 
Death of Mr. Robert K. Bowley, fourteen years 

manager of the company . . . 25 Aug. ,, 
Successful Handel festival . . 19, 21, 23 June, 1871 
The grand duke Wladimir of Russia entertained 

here by the prince of Wales . . 26 June, ,, 
Cat show, native and foreign . . 13 July, 2 Dec. ,, 
Dividend on stock, ij per cent. . . . Dec. ,, 
Inauguration of the "great aquarium by professor 

Owen Jan. 1872 

Lecture by professor Flower . . .12 Jan. ,, 

Bird show opens 10 Feb. ,, 

Thanksgiving festival for the recovery of the prince 

of Wales 1 May, ,, 

Dog show opens 4 June, ,, 

Meeting of National Union of Conservative and Con- 
stitutional Associations . . . 24 June, ,. 
National music meetings ; competition and concerts, 

27 June — 6 July, ,, 
Scottish southern gathering, sports . 25 July, ,, 

National cat show .... 26 — 29 Oct. ,, 

Bird show 22 Feb. 1873 

Grand commemoration of the opening of the palace; 

the Paxton memorial unveiled . . 10 June, ,, 

Visits of the shah of Persia . 30 June, 3 July, ,, 

National music meetings . 3, 5, 8, 10, 12 July, ,, 

Resignation of Mr. (aft. sir) George Grove, many 

years secretary, announced Sept., succeeded by 

capt. (aft. major) Flood Page . . . Dec. ,, 

Visit of the czar 16 May, 1874 

Handel festival ; successful . . 22, 24, 26 June, ,, 
Visit of the sultan of Zanzibar . . .19 June, 1875 
National music meeting . . . i-ioJuly, ,, 

Visit of the king and queen of Greece and prince 

and princess of Wales .... 19 July, 1876 
Great clock completed ..... Nov. ,, 
Handel festival, 25, 27, 29 June, 1877; 21,23,25 June, 1880 
Great damage done by bursting of a water tank, no 

lives lost 3c Sept. „ 

International Woollen exhibition, opened by the 

duke of Connaught .... 2 June, 18S1 

Handel festivals, 15, 18, 20, 22 June, 1883 ; 19, 22, 
24, 26 June, 1885 ; 22, 25, 27, 29 June, 1888 ; 19, 
22, 24, 26 June, 1891 ; June, 1894 ; 1897 ; 1900. 
London International Universal Exhibition opened 

by the lord mayor .... 23 April 1884 
Insolvency of the Company ; the chairman ap- 
pointed receiver Feb. 18S7 

Jubilee fetes 22 June et seq. ,, 

Visit of the Shah of Persia . . . . 6 July, 1889 
Grand fete of the unionists of the metropolis ; Mr. 

Goschen, Mr. A. J. Balfour present 28 June, 1890 
International exhibition of mining and metallurgy 

28 July-11 Oct. ,, 
Visit of the German emperor and empress ; review 

of the fire-brigade (see Germany) . 11 July, 1891 

Tonic Sol-fa jubilee largely attended . 18 July ,, 
Electrical exhibition opened . . .9 Jan. 1892 
African exhibition opened . . 18 May et seq. 1895 
Visit of Li-Hung-Chang . . . 10 Aug. 1S96 

The Victorian exhibition opened by the princess 

Christian 6 May 1897 

National temperance fete and choral festival, about 

40,000 present 6 July, 1898 

Crystal Palace Act passed ... 23 July ,, 
English and foreign paintings, new collection, 

opened 11 May, 1899 

First pony show in England held here, 10-12 July, ,, 
Historical loan exhibition of musical instruments, 
&c, opened 7 July, 1900 



CTESIPHON. 



338 



CUBA. 



Commemoration concert of Sir Arthur Sullivan's 
works (see Music, igoo), conducted by Mr. Manns, 

8 Dec. 1900 
Bird show (42nd ; about 3,000 birds), opened, 8 Feb. 1901 
Lord .Roberts opens a naval and military exhibition, 

23 May, ,, 
National cat show, 1200 entries . . 29 Oct. ,, 

Motor-car exhibition opened ... 14 Feb. 1902 
American exhibition opened . . .31 May, „ 
Coronation gift (in aid of hospitals) ball, 2 July, ,, 
Peace festival: "British and American concert," 

5 July. „ 

Labour association co-operative exhibition, 20 Aug. ,, 
Visit of the shah of Persia . . -23 Aug. ,, 
Brass band contest, 1,000 g. cup awarded to Black 

Dyke from W. Yorkshire . . .27 Sept. „ 
Automobile show opened .... 30. Jan. 1903 
Report of directors for 1902 ; gross receipts, 
120, 795J. ; expenditure, 106,578/. ; total admissions, 
2,963,613, largest record since palace opened 1854 

Mar. ,, 
First meeting of the Aero club . . 25 April ,, 
Handel festival . . . 20, 22, 25, 27 June ,, 
Centenary celebration of Sunday School union 

8 July „ 
See Handel Festivals and Fireworks. 

CTESIPHON (afterwards Al Madayn), on the 

Tigris, the splendid capital of Parthia, was taken by 
Trajan in 116; and by Septimius Severus (who 
made 100,000 captives), 198. Its defences deterred 
Julian from the siege, 363. It was taken by 
Omar and the Saracens, 637, and utterly destroyed, 
and Cufa near it built with the remains. 

CUBA (its original name), an island (W. 

Indies) discovered by Columbus on his first voyage, 

28 (Jet. 1492, settled by Velasquez, 1511-12. 

Havana, the capital, settled 1519. Population, 

1880, 1,521,684; 1899, 1,572,000. 

The buueaueer Morgan took the Havannah ; see 
Buccaneers ......... 

A British expedition lands and remains, 20 July — 

20 Nov. 

The Havana taken by admiral Pococke and lord 
Albemarle, 1762 ; restored at the peace of Paris, 

10 Feb. 

Cuba opened to the trade of the world . . . 

" Lone Star " society (which see), for the acquisition 
01 Cuba, &c. formed 1848 

The president of the United States (Taylor) pub- 
lished a strong proclamation, denouncing the 
object of the invaders . . . 11 Aug. 1849 

Expedition of general Lopez and a large body of 
Americans, with the view of wresting this island 
from the dominion of Spain, landed at Cuba, (de- 
feated) 17 May, 1850 

Cuba again invaded by Lopez and others 13 Aug. 1851 

Tluy are defeated and taken ; 50 shot, and Lopez 
garoti 'i al Havannah .... 1 Sept. ,, 

The president of the United States again issued a 
proclamation against an intended expedition 
against Cuba ... . . 31 May, 1854 

Messrs. Buchanan, Mason, and Soule, United States 
envoys, met at Ostend and Aix-la-Chapelle, and 
reported, recommending the purchase of Cuba, 

Oct. „ 

The Spanish minister in cortes declared that the 
sale of Cuba would be "the sale of Spanish 
li" ir itself" 19 Dec. „ 

Iiisiii ivi'linii ol L'l'i'i ilcs, hcai led 1>> Callus Man 111 '1 de 

Cespedes, for expulsion of Spaniards after the 
revolution in Spam Volunteer force raised t<> aid 

Lei undi, 1 be gove 1 . . Sept. -Nov. 1S6S 

1. rs' ai tark on 1 luba repelled . 17 Maj , 1869 
The I uited States decide nol to recognise the in- 

1 tsaa belligerents .... June, 1870 
10 lives lust by a hurricane, about 1 1 Oct. ,. 
The ■ p I De Etodoa resigned, and lefj 

15 Dec. .. 

in 1 . ubdui d, bul endui ing ; the volunteers 

insubordinate 1 militai j despot Ism ; oci a 

■'i i'i ror ; massacres . Jan. Nov. 1S71 

I Oonza lo 1 lasti d murdi red bj Cubans ; his 

1, mill di secrated by medical Btudeuts, 

rigid tried and shol al Havana . . - Nov. 



1669 



1763 
1818 



Mr. F. Delano sent by the United States government 
to report on the state ofCuba . . 9 Dec. 1871 

The merciless war still continues ; no quarter given, 

Dec. „ 

Suspended hostilities through the establishment of 
the Spanish republic .... Feb. 1873 

Much fighting reported June, ,, 

The Virginiiis, American schooner, while conveying 
men and arms from New York to the insurgents 
in Cuba, is captured by the Spanish gun-boat 
Tornado, 31 Oct.; conveyed to Cuba; above 90 
insurgents and sailors (some British and Ameri- 
cans) tried ; many insurgents, and about 6 British 
and 30 Americans shot . . . 4-7 Nov. „ 

After much correspondence the Virginius was sur- 
rendered to the Americans, 19 Dec; she foun- 
dered on her way to New York . about 26 Dec. „ 

Bascones defeats the marquis Santa Lucia and 5000 
insurgents at Naranjo .... Feb. 1874 

Gen. Martinez Campos appointed governor, with 
plenary powers Oct. 1876 

The struggle going on, but more subdued, summer 1877 

A "Cuban league" in the United States, said to be 
formed to obtain recognition of the insurgents 
as belligerents, &c Sept. ,, 

Estrada, the Cuban president, said to be captured, 

Oct. „ 

Reported surrender of many insurgents 23, 24 Dec. ,, 

Surrender of the insurgent government ; end of 
the insurrection announced . . . 21 Feb. 1878 

Amnesty declared, with freedom to slaves present- 
ing themselves before 31 March (slavery to be 
abolished gradually) .... March, ,, 

Campos and Jovellar enter Havana triumphantly 

14 June, „ 

Insurrection, state of siege ; amnesty promised, 

19 Sept. 1879 

Insurgents totally defeated at Placeta ; announced 

3 Dec. ,, 

Bill for gradual emancipation of the slaves passed 
by the Spanish Senate, 21 Dec, 1879; by cham- 
bers of Deputies (230 — 10, 21 Jan.) ; promulgated 

18 Feb. 1880 

Cuba reported tranquil .... Sept. ,, 

Surrender of gen. Maceo and other insurgents to 
the Spaniards at Gibraltar (see Spain), Aug. and 

Dec. 1882, and March, 1883 

Aguerro calls on Cubans to revolt about 26 Sept. ,, 

Unsuccessful American filibustering expeditions 

Spring, 1884 

Gen. Aguereo at the head of forces in Cienfuegos 

April, „ 

Some insurgents defeated . . about 23 April. ,, 

Last vestige of slavery abolished by the queen's 
decree 6 Oct. 1886 

Destructive cyclone, with great loss of life by in- 
undations, &c ; about 1,000 lives lost . 4 Sept. 1888 

The governor-general Salamanca dies, succeeded by 
Gen. Rodriguez Arias .... Feb. 1890 

Cuba suffers much by the M'Kinley tariff bill, and 
appeals to the queen-regent, for help . 7 Jan. 1891 

Temporary insurrection near Holgium . May, 1893 

Gov. -gen. Calleja in 1894 

Insurrection in Santiago, reported Feb. ; frequent 
conflicts March, 1895 

Vinales captured by the rebels, reported 9 March, ,, 

The rebels defeated with great loss . 16 March, ,, 

Gen. Calleja resigns, reported . . 28 March, ,, 

Government troops defeated in Santa Clara, 

26, 2S March, ,, 

Rebels twice defeated ; Varona, a leader, killed, 

April, ,, 

Arrival of marshal Campos . . . 16 April, „ 

Insurgents defeated near Palmarito with heavy loss, 

12 April, ,, 

Gen. Salcedo defeats t he insurgents under gen. Maceo 
in Parra Hueco .... 28 April, ,, 

Spanish troops severely defeated . . 19 April, ,, 

Guerilla warfare; Spanish army inefficient; con- 
flicting reports May, ,, 

The insurgents defeated near Guantanamo after a 
■1 perate fight; the Spanish commander, lieu t.- 
col. Bosch, killed 13 May, ,, 

The insurgents capture Cristo . . 16 May, „ 

Qen. Salcedo defeats the insurgents in Puerto 
Principe ; their leader, .lose Marti, killed, 21 May, ,, 



CUBA. 



339 



CUBA. 



Extension of the insurrection, aided secretly by 
8. Americans and others .... June, 

Frequent indecisive conflicts . . June, July, 

Yellow fever epidemic, great mortality . July, 

Gen. Martinez Campos attacked by insurgents near 
Bayamo, gen. Santo Cildes, and other officers and 
men killed 12 July, 

Cuba demands autonomy under Spain . July, 

Guerrilla warfare and much disease . . Aug. 

Gen. Salcedo resigns ; leaves for Spain, 9 Aug. ; 
several towns taken by insurgents ; few authen- 
tic details received, Aug. ; the insurgent de- 
legates proclaim a federal republic, and the 
Autonomista party petition the Spanish govern- 
ment for a constitution resembling the Dominion 
of Canada Aug. 

Continued fighting : government reinforcements 
arrive, 16 Sept. ; the insurgent leader Cantero 
killed in a skirmish, reported 17 Sept. ; defeat of 
the insurgents, Mejon, their leader, killed at 
Limpias ; reported 1 Oct. 

Antonio Maceo defeated at Holguin, 30 Sept. ; 
violent storms and floods, with loss of life and 
property 6 Oct. 

Insurgents defeated ; 15, 20 Oct. ; 25, 29 Nov. 

11 Dec. 

Capt. Borrega's party (72) surprised by 800 insur- 
gents near Puerto Principe, lieut. Ardieta and 
29 Spaniards killed ; capt. Borrega and 4 men 
escaped, the rest taken prisoners . Dec. 

Insurgents under Gomez, severely defeated by gen. 
Campos at Coliseo ; 24 Dec. ; repulsed with heavy 
loss in several encounters ; reported . 31 Dec. 

Spaniards defeated near Colon ; Havana nearly 
surrounded by the insurgents, Fort Victoria sur- 
renders 4 Jan. 

Gen. Campos defeats the insurgents near Havana, 
6 Jan. ; guerilla warfare : with varying results 

14 Jan. 

Gen. Martinez Campos recalled (leaves Havana, 
21 Jan.) ; succeeded by gen. Weyler . 19 Jan. 

The Hawkins U.S. filibustering steamer from Phila- 
delphia wrecked, 75 miles off Long island, 10 
deaths ; reported ; 28 Jan. ; see United States, 

29 Jan. 

Main body of Gomez's army defeated with heavy 
loss, at St. Lucia ... .29 Jan. 

Fierce fight on the borders of Havana, the Spanish 
column, under gen. Canella saved by aid, many 
killed 1 Feb. 

Gen. Canella defeats the united bands of Maceo 
and others (6,000), near Candelaria ; reported, 
8 Feb 

Two Spanish forces mistake each other for in- 
surgents, many killed ... 24 March, 

The Spaniards entrapped and defeated by Maceo, 
near Lechuzo ; reported . . .4 April, 

U. S. filibustering schooner Competitor captured, 5 
men sentenced to death ; 8 May ; intervention of 
the U. S. government ... 10 May, 

Guerilla warfare : general ruin, trade and manu- 
factures stopped ; reported ... 15 May, 

Insurgents defeated by gen. Valdes near Con- 
solation ; 26 May ; again by gen. Castellano, near 
Puerto Principe ; 14 June ; desultory fighting ; 
Juan Zayas, insurgent leader, killed July, Aug. 

Reinforcements, 14,000, arrive . . 12 Sept. 

Business paralysed ; forced paper currency ; notes 
refused IO Sept. 

Indecisive engagements . . . 2-7 Oct. 

Fighting, with loss on both sides, at Soroa, Pinar 
del Rio, near Guanajay ; Reyes, the rebel leader, 
and other officers killed ; reported 27 Oct. 

Gnaimaro, in Puerto Principe, surrendered to the 
insurgents, under Calixto Garcia . 7 Nov. 

Insurgents defeated by gen. Castellano, at San 
Miguel and other places ; early Nov. ; again de- 
feated, and their leader, Francisco Abad, killed ; 
the town of Pagsanjuan captured by the 
Spaniards ; reported . . . .24 Nov. 

Col. A Idea defeats insurgents (300 killed) in Matan- 
zas ; reported 5 Dec. 

Antonio Maceo, insurgent leader, killed in a hot 
fight, and suicide of Francisco Gomez at San 
Pedro, in Havana .... 7 Dec. 

Convoy captured by insurgents under Calixto 
Garcia, 6 Spanish officers and 158 men killed, 
near Manzanillo ; reported . . 27 Dec. 



Filibustering expedition of the Three Friends failed, 
2 boats wrecked and 51 deaths ; reported, 1 Jan. 189 

Bainoa completely destroyed by the insurgents 4 Jan. ,, 

Bands of insurgents dispersed with heavy loss in 
Havana and Santa Clara ; Col. Luque defeats 
Maximo Gomez at Arroyo Blanco, 106 killed and 
205 submit ...... 5 Jan. ,, 

Reform scheme drawn up by sen. Canovas, signed 
by the queen-regent at Madrid, 4 Feb. 1897 (re- 
fused by the Cubans, who demand independence). 

Spaniards surprised by insurgents, 40 killed ; re- 
ported 22 Feb. ,, 

Insurgents' camps, &c. destroyed in Pinar del Rio, 
many killed ; reported . . . .7 March, ,, 

Lenient policy entered on, American prisoners re- 
leased ; reported .... 12 March, „ 

Gen. Rius Rivera, insurgent leader in the Ten years' 
war, wounded at Cabezadas and taken prisoner, 
with col. Bacallao ; reported . . 29 March, ,, 

Filibustering expedition under capt. Roloff landed 
by the Laurada at Banes . . , March, ,, 

Gen. Weyler's campaign destructive and indecisive, 
situation little changed since April, 1896 ; pacifi- 
cation of the west of the island . 29 April, ,,, 

Application of reforms by royal decree, published 
at Havana 6 June, ,,. 

Train blown up with dynamite by insurgents, about 
100 killed, near Havana ; reported . 10 June, „. 

Gen. Weyler proclaims an amnesty to all who sur- 
render 6 July, ,, 

Frequent conflicts, 225 rebels and 21 of the troops 
killed 1-10 July, ,, 

Desultory fighting, 202 insurgents killed, 700 sur- . 
render ; 20 Spanish killed ; reported . 16 Aug. „ 

Victoria de las Lunas besieged by the insurgents 
under Garcia, 14 Aug. ; captured . . 28 Aug. ,, 

Seil. Domingo Mendez Capote elected president of 
the Cuban Insurgent Republic at Havana ; an- 
nounced 12 Sept. ,, 

Gen. Weyler recalled, and succeeded by marshal 
Blanco 7 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Weyler signs a general amnesty ; reported 

11 Oct. „ 

The Triton, an overloaded steamer, wrecked off 
Pinar del Rio ; 181 deaths ... 16 Oct. ,, 

Frequent encounters, 101 insurgents killed ; 224 
submit to the authorities ; reported 26 Oct. ,, 

Decrees granting constitutional rights to Cubans, 
etc., approved by council; 6 Nov. ; published; 
27 Nov. ; at Havana .... 17 Dec. ,,, 

Guisa, in Santiago, captured by the insurgents 
(mostly escaped convicts), under Calixto Garcia ; 
great excesses committed ; Spanish loss heavy ; 
announced 2 Dec. „, 

Insurgents defeated near Manzanillo ; Maximo 
Gomez defeated in Santa Clara ; reported, 8 Dec. ,,, 

33 out of 60 filibustering expeditions frustrated by 
the United States during the rebellion ; reported, 

9 Dec. ,, 

Fort Guamo besieged by insurgents, under Rabi, 

11 days; siege raised on the arrival of Spanish 
column; loss on both sides; reported, u Dec. ,, 

Several engagements : 303 insurgents killed, 400 
captured, and 69 surrendered ; 3 Spanish officers 
and 23 soldiers killed (during 10 days) . Dec. ,, 

Col. Ruiz sent to Aranguren, rebel chief, to induce 
him to surrender and accept autonomy ; is 
executed by his orders ; reported . . 19 Dec. ,, 

Gen. Gonzalez Munoz appointed capt. -gen. of 
Puertorico 23 Dec. „ 

First cabinet under the autonomy scheme : sen. 
Jose M. Galvez, president; established, 1 Jan. 189; 

Lieut. -col. Soto, major Nunez, and other insurgent 
leaders, with their men, submit, declaring them- 
selves satisfied with the new autonomous regime ; 
reported . . .... 9 Jan! ,, 

The insurgent gen. P. Delgado killed by his own 
followers, and several leaders surrender . Jan. 

Gen. Masso, insurgent, with 11 officers and 100 men 
surrenders to gen. Aguirre in Santa Clara ; 115 
rebels killed, and 379 surrendered, 34 prisoners ; 

12 Spanish killed (in 2 weeks) ; reported, 21 Jan. „ 
Maximo Gomez's 2nd squadron surrenders ; re- 
ported . . . . . 23 Jan. „ 

Marshal Blanco publishes manifesto of the new 
autonomous government . . . .24 Jan. 

Aranguren, insurgent chief, and 4 men surprised 
and killed near Tapaste ; reported . 27 Jan. ,, 

z 2 



CUBIT. 



340 



CUMBERLAND. 



Real power still in the hands of the gov.-gen. ; 
eastern provinces still dominated by the insur- 
gents, Jan. ; they demand absolute independence 

of the island March, 

Train blown up by dynamite by insurgents in 

Santiago de Cuba, 5 deaths ; reported . 7 Feb. 

Desperate fighting at Najasa, Cartagena and 

Camagnez, Calixto Garcia defeated by gen. 

Lui[ue, March ; Garcia dies in Washington, 

11 Dec. 
An armistice granted ; see United States and Spain 

April, 
Gen. Lee, U. S. embassador, loaves Havana 10 April, 
Blockade of Cuba by the U.S. fleet ; ordered 

22 April, 
The first Cuban autonomous congress opened by 

gen. Blanco 4 May, 

Starvation round Havana, many deaths, Gen. 

Fernandez appointed acting governor . 13 May, 

Gen. Blanco issued a proclamation to loyal Cubans 

to hold out to the end ... 7 July, 

Gen. Blanco holds a meeting in Havana of generals 

and officers on the question of peace negotiations 

or extension of the war . . . .12 July, 

He issues a proclamation maintaining the Spanish 

army to be intact .... 22 July, 

Havana occupied by U. S. troops . . 7 Oct. 

Mutiny of Spanish troops at Havana!), order 

restored 14 Nov. 

Gen. Blanco leaves, succeeded by gen. Castellanos, 

30 Nov. 

The remains of Columbus exhumed and taken to 

Spain, see Havana . . . 26 Sept. -Dec. 

Gen. Brooke arrives in Havana (Cuba to be divided 

into 7 military departments), 27 Dec. ; American 

flag hoisted 1 Jan. 

New tariff, 6 per cent, average reduction, 1 Jan. 

Gen. Gomez, insurgent leader, accepts the U.S. 

terms ; 3,000,000 dol. to be distributed to 1he 

soldiers Feb. 

The* luban assembly votes disbandmentofthearmy 

and its own dissolution (21-1), reported, 1 April', 

President Me Kin ley issues a proclamation regarding 

a system of Cuban self-government, a census to 

be taken, &c. 17 Aug. 

Cuban constitutional convention opened, reported 

5 Nov. ; American terms accepted . . June, 

Sefis. Estrada Palma and Estevez chosen president 

and vice-president of the Cuban republic, about 

23 Feb. 1902 
Sefi. Talma's ministry formed, announced, 17 May, ,, 
Transfer of Cuba to the new republican government 
under American suzerainty; gen. Wood, retiring 
U. S. governor, and troops leave Havana, 20 May, ,, 
ISill passed for loan of 4,000,000 dol. at 5 per cent., 

hi^li duties on wine, coal, &c. . . 6 Aug. „ 
Commercial treaty with U.S.A. signed . 12 Dec. ,, 
Internet, chamber of commerce established Feb. 1903 
Treatywith U.S.ratified byCuban senate, 28 Mar. ,, 
Permanent treaty between Cuba and U.S. signed; 
secures the right of U.S. to intervene for the pre- 
servation of the independence of the republic, 

end of May ,, 
'I reaty providing for perpetual naval bases for U.S. 
and placing Isle of Pines under Cuban sovereignty 
signed .... reported mid- July ,, 

See also United States ; Spanish-American War. 
CUBIT, a measure by which the ark of Noah 
was measured (2448 B.C.). It was the distance 
from a man's elbow to ihe extremity of the middle 
linger. According to Arbuthnot, the Hebrew cubit 
was a little under 22 inches, the Roman cubit 17J 
inches, and the English < ubit i,s inches. 

CUCKING-STOOL (or Ducking-stool), 
tor shrews: one at lungston-on-'lhames was used 
in April, 1745 ; andanotheral Cambridge in 1780. 
Chambers, 

CUCUMBERS, noticed bj Virgil and other 
ancient poets, were brought to England from the 
Netherlands about 1538. 

CUDD \I.< >RE (India), on the coast of the 
Carnatio, was acquired b\ the linjrlish in [681. It 
\va> reduced h> the French. in i-^s, but recaptured 



1901 



in 1760 by sir Eyre Coote. Again lost in 1781.it 
underwent a destructive siege by the British under 
general Stuart, in 1783, which was continued until 
peace was signed, when it reverted to them, 1784. 

CUENCA, New Castile, Spain, 80 miles from 
Madrid, attacked by the Carlists 13 July, and 
captured 14 July, 1874. The garrison and the 
inhabitants were barbarously used. General Lopez 
Pinto rescued the prisoners, 19 July. 

CUIRASS, a part of Greek and Roman armour. 
The skins of beasts, and afterwards tanned leather, 
formed the cuirass of the Britons until the Anglo- 
Saxon era. It was afterwards made of iron and 
brass. The cuirass was worn by cavalry iu the 
reign of Henry III. 12 16 et seq. Napoleon had 
several regiments of cavalry wearing cuirasses ; and 
most European armies have picked corps of such. 
For bullet-proof cuirasses, see Bullets, 1894. 

CULDEES, said to derive their name from 
cultores Dei, worshippers of God, monks in Scotland 
and Ireland, who had their principal seat at St. 
Andrews. It is said that in 1 185 at Tipperary 
there was a Culdean abbey whose monks were "at- 
tached to simple truth and pure Christian worship, 
and had not yet conformed to the reigning super- 
stition." They were eventually subjected to the 
papal yoke. 

CULLEN'S-WOOD (Ireland). An English 
colony from Bristol inhabiting Dublin, went to 
divert themselves at Cullen's-wood, when the 
0' Byrnes and O'Tooles fell upon them, and 
destroyed 500 men, besides women and children, 
30 March, 1209 (on Easter, afterwards called Black, 
Monday) . 

CULLODEN, near Inverness, where the Eng- 
lish, under William, duke of Cumberland, defeated 
the Scottish headed by Charles Edward Stuart, the 
young Pretender, 16 April, 1746. The Scots lost 
2500 men killed upon the field, or in the slaughter 
which occurred in the cruel pursuit, while the loss 
of the English did not far exceed 200. Prince 
Charles, who wandered among the wilds of Scotland 
for six months, while 30,000/. were offered for 
taking him, at length escaped from Uist to Mor- 
tals, and died at Rome, 3 March, 1788. 

CULTURE, according to Mr. Matthew Arnold 
("The Apostle of Culture, 'sweetness and 
light,' and the opponent of Philistinism ") ; is the 
knowledge of "the best that has been thought and 
said in the world " (1880). The writings of John 
Ruskin and Matthew Arnold are said to have 
greatly promoted culture, and refinement in litera- 
ture and art among all classes in Great Britain. 

CULTCR-KAMPF, see Kultur-KampJ. 

CULYERIN, cannon so called from the French 
couleuvritie, said to have been introduced into 
England from a French model in 1534. It was 
originalh five indies and a quarter diameter in the 
bore, and carried a ball of eighteen pounds. Bailey. 

CUIOE (S. Italy), a Greek colony, said to 
have been founded 1050 13. c, probably 'too early, 
and to have been the residence of the ancient Sibyl. 
It was taken by the Saimiites 420 B.C., and was 
annexed by the Romans 338 n.c. 

OrMBKULAXD, a N.AV. county of England, 
was granted to .Malcolm I. of Scotland in 945, 
by king Edmund, " on condition that he should be 
has fellow-worker." It was seized by William I., 
but restored to Malcolm III., "who became his 
man," 1072 William the Lion, after his defeat at 
Alnwick, resigned Cumberland to Henrv II., and it 



CUMBERLAND. 



341 



CURRENCY ACTS. 



was finally annexed to England in 1237. Brandel- 
how park, Keswick, opened 16 Oct. 1902. 

DUKES. 

1726. William Augustus, second son of George II., died 

13 Oct. 1765. 
1766. Henry Frederic, son of Frederic, prince of Wales, 

died 18 Sept. 1790. 
1799. Ernest Augustus, fifth son of George III. ; became 
king of Hanover, 20 June, 1837 ; died 18 Nov. 
1851. 
5851. George V., the ex-king of Hanover ; died 12 June, 

1878. 
1878. Ernest Augustus, son ; born 2iSej)t. 1845, married 
princess Thyra of Denmark. 21 Dec, 1878. Issue, 
George William, born 28 Oct. 1880, and five other 
children. Prince Christian, born 4 July, 1885, 
died 3 Sept. 1901. 
A rescript from the emperor William II. was issued 12 
March, 1892, restoring the Guelph fund (the accumu- 
lated property of king George V.), which had been 
sequestrated in 2 March, 1868, to his son, the duke of 
Cumberland, on certain conditions, the duke having 
stated in a letter to the emperor, dated 10 March, 
"that he had no intention of engaging in any under- 
taking which would threaten the peace of the German 
Empire.' The Guelph Fund bill for making the 
necessary arrangements, was passed by the Prussian 
.diet, 31 March-6 April, 1892. 
The affair settled ; the duke retains the Guelph museum, 
library, and gardens for the benefit of the public, 

March, 1803. on • 7 

' VJ See Brunswick. 

CUMBERLAND, The, see Naval Battles, 
i8it. 

CUMULATIVE VOTE, in parliamentary 

elections, proposed by Mr. Robert Lowe,* 4 July, 
during the debates on the reform bill ; and rejected, 
5 July, 1867, by 314 to 173. By the act passed 15 
Aug. 1867 (30 & 31 Vict. c. 102), it was enacted 
that at a contested election for any county or 
borough represented by three members, no person 
shall vote for more than two candidates. The 
cumulative vote was used in the election of the 
London school board, 29 Nov. 1870. 

CUNAX A, in Mesopotamia, near the Euphrates, 
where Cyrus the younger was defeated and slain by 
his brother Artaxerxes II., against whom he had 
conspired (401 B.C.), narrated in Xenophon's 
Anabasis. His Greek auxiliaries were successful ; 
see Retreat of the Greeks. 

CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS (from 
cuneus, Latin for a wedge), in characters resembling 
arrow-heads, inscribed on bricks or clay-tablets, 
found at Babylon, Behistun, &c, have lately been 
deciphered by English and foreign scholars, who 
date some of them as far back as 2000 B.C. See 
Assyria, Babylon, Behistun. 

CUNNERSDORF (in Prussia). On 12 Aug. 
1759, Frederick II. king of Prussia, with 50,000 
men, attacked the Austrian and Russian army of 
90,000 in their camp near this place, and at first 
gained considerable advantages ; but pursuing them 
too far, the Austrians and Russians rallied, and 
gained a complete victory. The Prussians lost 200 
pieces of cannon and 30,000 men in killed and 
wounded. 

CUPOLA SHIPS, see Navy of England, 1861. 

CUPPING, a mode of blood-letting. The skin 
is scarified by lancets, and a glass cup in which the 
air has been rarified by heat, is immediately applied 
to it, when the blood usually flows into the cup. 

* " At any contested election for a county or borough 
represented by more than two members, and having 
more than one seat vacant, every voter shall be entitled 
to a number of votes equal to the number of vacant seats, 
and may give all such votes to one candidate, or may 
distribute them among the candidates as he tniuks fit.' 



This operation was well known to the ancients, and 
is described by Hippocrates (413 B.C.) and Celsus 
(20 B.C.). It was common in England about 1820. 

CURACOA (correctly, Curasao), an island in 
the Caribbean sea, settled by the Spaniards about 
1527, was seized by the Dutch in 1634. In 1800 
the French, settled on part of this island, quarrelled 
with the Dutch, who surrendered it to a British 
frigate. It was restored to the Dutch in 1802 ; 
taken from them bv the British in 1807, and again 
restored in 1814. The name of a well-known and 
esteemed liqueur manufactured chiefly in Holland 
from the dried peel of the cura^oa orange, by a 
process of maceration and distillation with spirit 
and water. A cheap imitation is made from whisky 
and the peel of bitter oranges. 

CURATES were of early appointment as coad- 
jutors in the Romish church, and are mentioned in 
England in the 7th century. Among the acts 
passed for the relief of this laborious class of the 
clergy are the 12th Anne, 1713, and 36th, 53d, and 
58th Geo. III., and especially the beneficent act, 2 
Will. IV. Oct. 1831. It appeared by parliamentary 
reports on ecclesiastical revenues, that there were 
in 1 83 1, 5230 curates in England and Wales, whose 
stipends amounted to 424,695^. The greatest num- 
ber of curates in one diocese was Lincoln, 629 ; and 
the smallest that of St. Asaph, 43. The Pastoral 
Aid Society was established in 1836; the Society 
for promoting the Employment of Additional 
Curates, in 1837 ; the Curates' Augmentation Fund, 
1866. The Curates' Alliance, a reforming body, 
issued its first annual report, Dec. 1882. 

CURFEW BELL (from the French couvre- 
fen), was revived or introduced in England by 
Will. I. 1068. _ On the ringing of the curfew at 
eight o'clock in the evening all fires and candles 
were to be extinguished under a severe penalty. 
Sap in. The curfew was modified 1 Hen. I. 1100. 
The practice has been continued to the present time 
at Sandwich in Kent, and some other places (1891).. 

CURIATII, see Rome, 669 b.c 

CURLING, a Scotch national game with stones- 
on the ice, said to have been introduced from the 
Low Countries in the 16th century. The Dudding- 
stone curling club was instituted 1795. The royal 
Caledonian curling club, founded in 1838, owns a 
large artificial pond at Strathallan, Perthshire. A 
party of Scottish curlers visited Nova Scotia, New- 
Brunswick, and Canada, and played a number of 
matches with colonial teams, Dec. 1902-Fcb. 1903. 

CURRAGH, see Kildare. 

CURRANTS, from Corinth, whence, probably, 
the tree was first brought to us about 1533. The 
name is also given to a small kind of dried grape, 
brought from the Levant and Zante. The duty 
on these currants (44s. \d. per cwt. in 1834) has 
been reduced to 7s. ; reduced to 25. 17 April, 1890. 
The hawthorn currant (Sibes Oxyacanthoides) came 
from Canada in 1 705, see Greece 1903. 

CURRENCY ACTS. See under Bank of 
England, 1797-1823, and Gold, 1816. Those of sir 
Robert Peel were passed in 1819 and in 1844. 
Royal commission appointed to inquire into the depre- 
ciation of silver, relative values of the precious metals, 
&c, Messrs. A. J. Balfour (chairman), (succeeded by 
lord Herschell), J. Chamberlain, L. Courtney, L. 
Cohen, W. H. Houldsworth, Sir John Lubbock, D. M. 
Barbour, J. W. Birch (Bank of England), Sir T. 
Farrer, C. W. Fremantle (deputy master of the mint) 
and J. R, Bullen Smith, about 7 Sept. 18S6. 
In their final report, issued 6 Nov. 1888, the commis- 



CURSITOR BARON. 



342 



CYCLE. 



; 



sioners were found to be greatly divided i7i opinion 

respecting bi-metallism, a paper currency, etc. 
Mr.TI. Chaplin advocates his "thirty shilling " theory 

Jan. 1889. 
Mr. W. A. Shaw publishes his "History of Currency 

(1252-1894)," Feb. 1895. 

CURSITOR BARON. This office, formerly 
attached to the court of exchequer, was abolished in 
1856, on the death of the right hon. George BaDkes. 

CURTATONE, near Mantua, N. Italy. Here 
the Austrians, under Radetzky, crossed the Mincio, 
and defeated the Italians after a severe conflict, 29 
May, 1848. 

CUSHEE PIECES, invented by Richard 
Leake, the master-gunner of the Royal Prince man- 
of-war, renowned for bravery shown in the engage- 
ment with the Dutch admiral Van Tromp, in 1673. 

CUSTOM is a law not written (lex non scripta)i 
established by long usage and consent, and is dis- 
tinguished from lex scripta, or the written law. It 
is the rule of law when it is derived from 1189 
downwards. Sixty years' custom is binding in the 
civil law, and forty years' in ecclesiastical cases. 

CUSTOMS were collected upon merchandise in 
England, under Ethelred II. in 979. The king's 
claim to them by grant of parliament was estab- 
lished 3 Edw. I. 1274. The customs were farmed 
to sir Thomas Smith for annual sums varying from 
14,000/. to 50,000/. in the reign of Elizabeth. Stow. 
They were farmed by Charles II. for 390,000/. in 
1660. Davenanf. In 1671 commissioners were 
appointed. The customs were consolidated by Mr. 
Pitt in 1787. Between 1820 and 1830 so many 
reductions and consolidations were made in the 
customs department, that above a quarter of a 
million was saved in salaries, though the work had 
enormously increased. — Acts consolidating the cus- 
toms duties were passed in 1853, 1854, and i860, 
whereby the number of articles in the tariff and the 
amount of the customs were greatly reduced. Many 
changes have been made since; by the Customs 
Act of 1890, the laws were amended and the duties 
modified; see Revenue. The disqualification of 
custom-house officers and officers of excise from 
voting for the election of members of parliament 
in 1782, was removed in 1867-8. 

The laws respecting the customs were amended by 
an act passed 21 Aug. 1871, and consolidated 
by acts passed. 24 July, 1876 ; amended, 1887 and 1898 



Customs in 




Customs 


in year ending 






3 1 


March. 


1580 . 


. £14,000 


1877 . 


. £19,896,386 


1592 


50,000 


1878 


20,043,180 


1614 


148,000 


1879 . 


20,348,064 


1622 


168,000 


1880 


19,169,605 


1642 


500,000 


1881 . 


19,210.466 


1684 


530,000 


1882 


19,275,668 


1720 


• i.555. 6 oo 


1883 . . 


19,682,671 


1748 


. 2,000,000 


1884 


19.653,352 


t8o8 . 


■ 9.973.240 


1885 . 


20,557,819 


1823 


11,498,762 


1886 


19,722,302 


1830 . 


17,540,323 


1887 . 


20,135,855 


183s 


18,612,906 


1888 


19.579.476 


1840 


19,915.296 


1889 . 


20,067,000 


184s 


20,196,856 


1890 


20,424,000 


1850 . 


20,442,170 


1891 . 


19,480,000 


1855 


21,630,081 


1892 


19.736,000 


i860 


24,391,084 


1893 • 


19.885,339 


1864 


23.234.356 


1894 . 


19,698,698 


1867 . 


22,299,306 


1895 • • 


20, 115,000 


1869 


22,434.737 


1896 


20,756,000 


1870 . 


n.449i 1 1 


1807 • 


21,254,000 


1871 


20,238,880 


1898 


21,798,000 


1872 . 


20,225,892 


1899 . 


20 850,000 


1873 


20,976,236 


tgoo 


23,800,000 


1874 • 


20.323.325 


1901 . 


26,270,959 


1875 


ig, 149.280 


1902 


31,046,869 


1876 . 


20,196,691 ' 


1903 • 


34,433,000 



1224 

1830 



1S14 
1817 



1833 



The customs in Ireland, a sack of wool, 3d. ; a last 
of hides, 6d. ; a barrel of wine, 2d. ... 

The Customs business of Ireland was transferred to 
the London board 6 Jan. 

Custom-house. A custom-house was erected in 
London on a large scale, 1304 ; and a yet larger in 
1559 ; burnt down in 1666 ; a new one, built by 
Charles II., burnt down in 1718, again rebuilt; 
and once more burnt down, and immense property 
and valuable records destroyed . . 12 Feb. 

The present edifice opened . . .12 May, 

Dublin Custom-house commenced in 1781 ; opened 
in 1791. The eastern wing of its warehouse was 
destroyed by fire, with property to the amount 
of 400,000?. ...... 9 Aug. 

International conference on customs tariffs at 
Brussels 1-5 July, 1890 

Changes in the duties made in .... 1894 

The customs duties are described in the Finance 
Act, passed annually. 

CUSTOMS PARLIAMENT, see Zollverein. 

CUSTOS ROTULORUM, keeper of the 
rolls or records of the sessions of the peace, pre- 
viously nominated by the lord chancellor, was in 
1545 directed to be appointed by a bill signed by the 
king. The act was confirmed in 1689. 

CUSTOZZA, near Verona, N. Italy. Here the 
Italians were defeated by marshal Radetzky, 23 
July, 1848; and here they were again defeated, 24 
June, 1866, after a series of desperate attacks on the 
Austrian army. The Italians were commanded by 
their king, Victor Emmanuel, and the Austrians by 
the archduke Albrecht. The Italian loss was com- 
puted to be 720 killed, 31 12 wounded, and 4315 
missing; the Austrian loss, 960 killed, 3690 
wounded, and nearly a thousand prisoners. The 
Italians soon recrossed the Mincio. 

CUTCH (Kachh), W. India, a principality 
under the government of Bombay. In consequence 
of the depredations of the natives, the East India 
government i - esorted to hostile measures, which 
resulted in a stringent treaty with the rao in Jan. 
r8i6. In 1819 he was deposed for misgovernment, 
and replaced by his infant son, supported by a 
British contingent. The traffic in children, detected 
in Dec. 1835, was suppressed by the British. Many 
persons perished by an earthquake in July, 18 19. 
Thornton. 

CUTLERY, see Steel. Cutlers' Feast, see 
Sheffield, 1889. 

CUTTACK (Katak), E. India, a British pro- 
vince ceded to theE. I. company in 1803. Cuttack, 
the capital, was taken by col. Harcourt, 14 Oct. 
same year. The Mahrattas conquered it in 1 750. 
Thornton. 

CUTTING-OUT MACHINES- Wearing 
apparel was first cut out by machinery in England 
by Messrs. Hyams in 1853. The machine, invented 
by Mr. Frederick Osbourn, consists of a recipro- 
cating vertical knife working through a slot in the 
table that supports the pile of cloth to be cut. The 
cloth being pressed up to the edge of the knife by 
tlic attendant, the knife will sever it in the direction 
of the lines marked on the upper layer. 

CUZCO, capital of Feru, was entered by Tizarro 
in Nov. 1533, and taken by him in Aug. 1536, after 
five months' siege. 

CYANOGEN, a colourless gas (composed of 
nitrogen and carbon), irritating to the nose and 
eyes, derived from Prussian blue, was first obtained 
in the free state by Gay Lussac in 1815, being the 
first instance of the isolation of a compound radical. 

CYCLE of the sun, a period of twenty-eight 
years, which having elapsed, the dominical or 



CYCLE. 



343 



CYPRUS. 



Sunday letters return to their former place, and 
proceed in the former order according to the Julian 
Calendar ; that of the moon is nineteen lunar years 
and seven intercalary months, or nineteen solar 
years. The cycle of Jupiter is sixty years. The 
Paschal cycle, or the time of keeping Easter, was first 
calculated for the period of 532 years by Victorius, 
463. Blair. See Metonic Cycle, Calippic Period. 

CYCLE AND CYCLING, see Velocipede. 

CYCLONE PULVERIZER, an apparatus 
invented by Messrs. Raymond, Bros., of America, 
in imitation of the violent action of air in cyclones, 
for pulverizing various substances. It is said to 
have been successfully applied in crushing gold 
quartz. Exhibited in London in May 1888. 

CYCLONES, circular whirlwinds, or hur- 
ricanes, common in the East and "West Indian and 
Chinese seas, varying from 200 to 500 miles in 
diameter. Many details respecting them will be 
found in Reid's "Law of Storms," published 1838. 
Great cyclone in India ; see Calcutta . 5 Oct. 1864 
Captain Watson, of the Clarence, observing the 
barometer falling, and foretelling the approach of 
the cyclone, saved his ship by steering out of its 

range ,, 

Great cyclone in the Bahamas, at Nassau, New 
Providence, above 600 houses and many churches 
and other buildings thrown down ; between 60 
and 70 persons killed, and a great many ships dis- 
mantled 1,2 Oct. 1866 

A cyclone desolated Antigua, St. Kitts, and other 
isles ; religious and manufacturing buildings de- 
stroyed, and thousands made homeless, 21 Aug. 1871 
Destructive cyclone near Madras ; ships lost, 1 May, 1872 
Destructive cyclone, S. E. Bengal ; Calcutta barely 

escaped ; about 215,000 persons perished, 31 Oct. 1876 
Destructive cyclone near Aden, about 50,000^. 

damages reported ; ships sunk, &c, . 3 June, 1885 
Destructive cyclone at Calcutta . 23 May et seq. 1887 
Destructive cyclone in W. Indies, 100 deaths at 
Montserrat, 1500 injured, total deaths 2000, 

7-12 Aug. 1899 
Cyclone in Huelva, Spain, much damage done, 

29 April 1900 
Destructive cyclone at Mafeking . . 29 Aug. ,, 
Destructive cyclone at Columbia, Tennessee 20 Nov. , , 
Destructive cyclone over south and west of United 

States, many deaths 10 Mar. 1901 

Cyclone at Leruka, Fiji Is. 13 Mar. ,, 

Cyclone in Majorca .... 27 Aug. 1902 
Destructive cyclone at Yokohama, 200 deaths, 

29 Sept. ,, 
Cyclone in Jamaica, much damage, 50,000^. granted 
by government for relief of planters . 10 Aug. 1903 
See Virgin Isles, Storms, which see, Bengal, 
Madrid, 1886 et seq. 

CYCLOPEDIA, see Encyclopedia. 

CYCLOPEAN MASONRY, a term given 
to very ancient buildings in Greece, Italy, and Asia 
Minor, probably the work of the Pelasgi, more than 
IOOO B.C. 

CYDER, see Cider. 

CYMBAL, the oldest known musical instru- 
ment, made of brass. C\ mbals were used by the 
ancient Egyptians, Assyrians, Hebrews and other 
nations, 2 Sam. vi. 5, B.C. 1047. 

CYMMRODORION SOCIETY was estab- 
lished in Sept., 175 1, to instruct the ignorant and 
relieve distressed Welsh. It was suspended in 
1781, and revived 24 June, 1820, for literary pur- 
poses. The society was re-established in 1877 for 
promotion of literature and the arts in Wales. 

CYMRI or KYMRI (hence Cambria) , the great 
Celtic family to which the Britons belonged, and 
which came from Asia and occupied a large part of 



Europe about 1500 B.C. About a.d. 640 Dyvnwal 
Moelmud reigned " King of the Cymry;" see Wales. 

CYNICS, a sect of philosophers founded by 
Antisthenes (about 396 B.C., Biog. Laert., Clinton). 
who professed to contemn all worldly things, even 
sciences, except morality ; and lived in public with 
little shame. Diogenes, the eminent cynic, died 

323 B.C. 

CYNOSCEPHAL^E (dogs' heads, so named, 
from the shape of the heights), in Thessaly, where 
Pelopidas and the Thebans defeated Alexander 
tyrant of Pherse and the Thessalians, 364 B.C. 
Pelopidas was slain. Here also the consul Flanii- 
nius totally defeated Philip V. of Macedon, 197 B.C., 
and ended the war. 

CYPRESS, Cupressus sempervirens, a tree 
found in the isle of Cyprus. The Athenians buried 
heroes in coffins made of this wood, of which 
Egyptian mummy-chests were also fabricated. The 
ancients planted it in cemeteries. The cypress was 
brought to England about 1441. The deciduous 
cypress, C. disticha, came from North America before 
1640. 

CYPRUS, a large island in the Mediterranean, 
near the coasts of Asia Minor and Syria ; present 
capital, Levkosia or Nikosia ; sea-ports, Larnaka and 
Famagosta. Here the ancients found copper (as 
Cyprium), silver, and precious stones. The country 
was fertile, and abounded with trees in ancient 
times : and under Venice its commerce was im- 
portant. Population in 1881, 186,173; 1891, 
209,291 ; 1901, 237,022. 

The Phoenician colonists introduced the worship of 
Ashtaroth (the Greek Astarte or Aphrodite, the 

Roman Venus) 

Conquered by Amasis, king of Egypt ; revolted at 
the invasion of Cambyses, and submitted to 

Persia B.C. 525 

Revolted, and subjected . . • 500-499 

Partly independent under Evagoras and Nicocles, 

kings of Salamis 387 et seq. 

Supported Alexander the Great .... 333 
Taken from Demetrius by Ptolemy of Egypt . . 295 

Became a Roman province 58 

Visited by Paul and Barnabas (Acts xiii.) . a.d. 45 

Great revolt of the Jews 117 

Seized by the Arabs, 646 ; recovered by Greeks . 648 

Isaac Comnenus, king 1184 

Seized by Richard I. of England, 1191 ; given by 

him to Guy de Lusignan, as king . . . 1192 

" Order of the Sword " established (ceased with 8th 

king) H9S 

Guy's descendant, Catherine de Cornaro, sold it to 

Venice 1487 

Cyprus conquered by the Turks with great barbarity 1570-1 
Insurrections suppressed, 1764; with massacre . 1823 
General di Cesnola, a Genoese, the American con- 
sul, by excavations, discovers many Babylonian, 
Egyptian, Phoenician, and Greek gold and silver 
ornaments, and other relics (sold to the New 

York museum) 1866 et seq. 

His work, "Cyprus: its Ancient Cities, Tombs, 

and Temples," published in London . Dec. 1877 
The island given up to Great Britain for administra- 
tion by the Anglo-Turkish convention 4 June, 1878 
Possession taken by admiral lord John Hay, 12 
July ; by sir Garnet J. Wolseley, as lord high 

commissioner 22 July, ,, 

Much sickness, with deaths, reported Aug. — Sept. ,, 
Orders for the government by a lord high commis- 
sioner, given at court . . . .14 Sept. ,, 
Sir G. J. Wolseley's decree for compulsory labour 

on public works, dated .... 16 Dec. ,, 
He is sent to S. Africa ; succeeded by sir Robert 

Biddulph June, 1879 

The British buy the Government lands, except the 

Sultan's estates, early in „ 

Increased general prosperity reported (in Blue 
Book) Aug. 1880 



CYE, ST. 344 



CZECHS. 



Sir R. Biddulph reports that the British govern- 
ment is popular, but the finances depressed, 
Aug. ; 78,000?. voted for Cyprus . . 28 Aug. 1881 

New pier at Liraasol opened by Sir R. Biddulph 

6 0et. „ 

New constitution announced . . 24 March, 1882 

Elective legislative council opened by sir R. Bid- 
dulph July, 1883 

Long continued destructive ravages of locusts, 
greatly checked by the skill and energy of Mr. S. 
Brown, reported Sept. 1884 

Sir R. Biddulph reports great jirosperity anc i m . 
creased revenue (194,051?., expenditure 111,685?.). 
General health good ... 31 March, ,, 

Sir H. E. Bulwer nominated as high commissioner, 
Aug. 1885 ; arrived .... 9 March, 1886 

Cyprus Society, London, formed for the establish- 
ment of a hospital at Kyrcnia and other objects, 

June, 1888 

Archaeological excavations ; discoveries on the site 
of the temple of Aphrodite, inscriptions, &c. ; 
reported Sept. ,, 

Long drought in 1887-8 ; bad harvest, great dis- 
tress, relieved by government . . July, 1889 

An excellent harvest, prosperity increasing, and re- 
duced taxation, reported by sir R. Biddulph 

18 Dec. ,, 

Sir Walter J. Sendall appointed high commissioner 

Feb. 1892 

Locust campaigns of 1891, 1892, reported success- 
ful, March, 1893-5 ; 4,802?. expended in 1894. 

Dr. Max Ohnefalsch-Richter reports the miscel- 
laneous results of excavations in various places 
since 1885 undertaken by direction of the German 
emperor (to be published in 1895) for the Berlin 
museum Nov. ,, 

Disastrous floods (22 deaths) at Limasol, 12 Nov. ; 
estimated loss, 50,000?., reported . 29 Nov. ,, 

Excavations at Amathus supported by the British 
museum 1893 et seq. 

Mass meetings demanding union with Greece and 
abolition of Turkish tribute ... 5 May, 1895 

Locust campaign 7,639'. expended ; reported, Oct. 1896 

Sir Wm. Haynes Smith appointed high commis- 
sioner, Nov. 1897 ; arrives ... 4 June, 1898 

Increase of revenue and prosperity . . Aug. 1900 

British annual grant of 30,000?. voted . 26 May, 1902 

Long drought May 1903 

CYR, St., near Versailles. Here a college for 
ladies was founded by madame De Maintenon in 



1686, and here she died, 15 April, 1719. It was 
made a military college in 1803 ; suppressed in 18861, 

CYRENAIC SECT, founded by Aristippua 
the Elder, 365 B.C. They taught that the supreme 
good of man is pleasure, particularly that of the 
senses; and that even virtue ought to be com- 
mended only because it gave pleasure. 

CYRENE (N. W. Africa), a Greek colony, 
founded by Battus about 630 B.C. Aristaeus, who 
was chief of the colonists here, gave the city his 
mother's name. It was also called Pentapolis, on 
account of its five towns ; namely, Cyrene, Ptole- 
mais, Berenice, Apollonia, and Arsinoe. It was 
conquered by Ptolemy Soter I., who placed many 
Jews here (286 B.C.). Cyrene was left by Ptolemy 
Apion to the Komans, 96 B.C. It is now a desert. 
Some Cyrenaic sculptures Avere placed in the 
British Museum in July, 1861. 

CYROPEDIUM, see Corns. 

CYZICUS (Asia Minor). In the Peloponnesian 
war, the Lacedaemonian fleet under the command 
of Mindarus, assisted by Pharnabazus, the Persian, 
was encountered by the Athenians under Alcibiades r 
and defeated with great slaughter, near Cyzicus ; 
Mindarus being slain : 410 B.C. Plutarch. 

CZAR, more properly tsar or tzar, the title of 
the emperor of Russia, probably derived from Ca?sar, 
a title said to have been assumed by Ivan Basi- 
lowitz after defeating the Tartars, about 1482. 
The empress is termed czarina or tsarina, and the 
eldest son cesarevitch or tsarevitch ; the spelling 
still varies. 

CZECHS, the most westerly branch of the 
Slavic family of nations, which about 480 migrated 
to Bohemia and Moravia {which see). The an- 
tagonism between the Germans and Czechs is milder 
in Moravia than in Bohemia. Their representa- 
tives entered the reichsrath at Vienra, 8 Oct., 
1879, sec Hungary 1903. 



DACCA. 



345 



DAHOMEY. 



D. 



DACCA, N. E. India, a province acquired by 
the East India Company in 1765, and ruled under 
them by a Nawab till its annexation in 1845. 
Thornton. 

DACIA, a Roman province (included Temeswar 
and parts of Hungary, Transylvania, Wallachia, 
Moldavia, and Galicia), after many contests, was 
subdued by Trajan, 106, when Decebalus, the 
JDacian leader, was killed. Dacia was abandoned 
to the Goths by Aurelian, in 270 ; subdued by the 
Huns, 376: by Scythians, 566; by Charlemagne, 
and by the Magyars, in the 9th century. 

DACOITS, hereditary robbers of North India, 
formerly employed in war by native sovereigns. 

It is stated that between 1818 and 1834, one tribe alone, 
in 118 " dacoitees," or expeditions, killed 172 persons, 
and obtained plunder valued at 115, oool. In 1838 lord 
Auckland did much to suppress the dacoits, and many 
settlements were broken up, but they are not quite 
extinct in Bengal and Burtnah. Several dacoitees were 
suppressed in 1879. Sec Biirmah. 

DAFOUE, see Soudan, 1884. 

DAGHESTAN (a mountain country S. W. 
Asia), was conquered by the czar Peter, 1723 ; re- 
stored to Persia, 1735 ; re-annexed to Russia by 
Alexander I., 18 13. 

DAGUEREEOTYPE PEOCESS, invented 
by Daguerre, and published 1838 ; see Photo- 
graphy. 

DAHLIA, a flower discovered in Mexico by 
Vincent Cervantes in 1784, and brought to Europe 
about 1787, and cultivated by the Swedish botanist, 
Dahl. About 1814 it was introduced into France 
and England; Andre Thouine suggested improve- 
ments in its culture, and it soon became a favourite. 
Georgi introduced it at St. Petersburg ; hence it is 
known in Germany as the Georgina. The National 
Dahlia Society, annual exhibition at the Crystal 
palace, 1 Sept. 1893. 

DAHOMEY, a negro kingdom, "West Africa, 
became known to Europeans early in the last 
century, when Trudo Andati or Guadjor Trudo, a 
man of energy and talent, was king. He died in 
1732, and was succeeded by a series of cruel tyrants, 
a large part of whose revenue was derived from the 
slave-trade. Abbeokuta, a robbers' haunt in 1825, 
has, since 1829, become a strong- walled town, inha- 
bited by free blacks ; and was consequently opposed 
by the king of Dahomey. His army has been 
severely defeated in its attacks on this place, and 
in one on 16 March, 1864, a great number of his 
Amazons (female celibates) were slain. Dahomey 
has been visited by captain Burton and other 
travellers, who have described the royal sanguinary 
customs. Capital of Dahomey, Abomey. 

Trade opened with Dahomey and settlements 
made by M. Regis, of Marseilles . . . 1840-50 

The king ordered to pay a line (for an outrage on 
Mr. Turnbull at Whydah, 23 Jan.) . March, 1876 

He refuses in insulting terms, April; the coast about 
to be blockaded July, „ 

The king threatens massacre of Europeans if at- 
tacked Aug. „ 



He makes concessions : blockade removed 12 May, 1877 
Renewed massacres of natives ("customs") and 
outrages on foreigners at Whydah ; reported 

26 Sept. 187& 

The king attacks Lagos, kills many and takes about 
1000 prisoners 10 May, 1885 

Dahomey placed under the protectorate of Portu- 
gal at "the request of the king . . 7 Oct. ,, 

The Dahomev troops repulsed in an attack upon 
the French settlements at Zebo, on Lake Den- „ 
ham, by commandant Ferrillon, 100 killed . 

reported 24 Feb. 1890 

The king after losing about 1,000, retires with his 

army reported 12 March „ 

Porto Novo and Kotonou well held by the French 

S April „ 

The Dahomey coast blockaded by the French 

from 4 April , r 

The French repulsed in a conflict with the king 

reported 22 April , r 

Theking'sarmynear Porto Novo ; French reinforce- 
ments from Senegal landed, April ; his troops re- 
treat after an engagement with severeloss 23 April „ 

The king in a letter to president Carnot justifies 
his retention of French merchants at Whydah for 
meddling with politics . received about 28 April ,, 

Whydah bombarded by the French vessel Kcrguelin 
29, 30 April ; Commander Fournier demands the 
surrender of 13 Frenchmen, in prison since Feb., 
3 May; they are surrendered, and Dahomeyan 
prisoners released 5 M R v , 7 

The new king Behanzin installed ; he writes to 
president Carnot desiring a just peace . 12 May ,, 

Peace with France concluded . reported 6 Oct. , r 

The king's continued aggressions and threats lead 
to war, April ; the French chamber votes 3,000,000 
francs for an expedition to protect Porto Novo 
and Kotonou, and avenge injuries . . 11 April, 1892; 

French reinforcements from Senegal arrive at 
Kotonou 20 April, „ 

Porto Novo and Kotonou besieged, reported 23 May, „ 

Col. Dodds (aft. Gen.) commander of the French 
expedition, arrives at Kotonou, 28 May ; Whydah 
occupied by 4,000 French troops, 11 June; the 
coast blockaded, 16 June ; several villages bom- 
barded, about 5 July ; the coast bombarded, 9 
Aug. et seq. ; Taku captured, 20 Aug. ; Katagu 
taken, 24 Aug. ; reinforcements from France 
arrive, 24 Aug. ; about 4,000 Dahomeyans de- 
feated with heavy loss in an attack on gen. 
Dodds' column at Dogba ; French loss slight ; 
commandant Faurax killed, 17 or ig Sept. ; 
Dahomeyans again defeated . . 4> *9 Oct. , r 

An attack of 4,000 Dahomeyans defeated with 
severe loss, by gen. Dodds, reported . 30 Sept. ,, 

The Dahomeyans, commanded by king Behanzin, 
routed near Poguessa ; capt. Falamine, lieut. 
Ainelot, and 7 French killed . . 4 Oct. (V) ,, 

Sabovi occupied by the French without resistance, 
10 Oct. ; successful advance of gen. Dodds, with 
loss on both sides .... i3- J 5 Oct. , r 

The Dahomeyans defeated with great loss, 

20, 21, 26 Oct. ,,. 

The fortress of Muates taken, 2 Nov. ; the Daho- 
meyan army disperse after 4 hours' fighting, 
3 Nov. ; Cana and Dioxoue taken . 4 Nov. ,,. 

French loss during the campaign, 215 men, re- 
ported 7 Nov - "- 

King Behanzin proposes inadmissible terms of 
peace, about 15 Nov. : he burns palaces, &c, 
and retires 16 Nov. ,,. 

Gen. Dodds occupies Abomey, 17 Nov., and pro- 
claims the deposition of Behanzin ; the chiefs 
and people submit .... 18 Nov. ,,. 

Gen. Dodds at Porto Novo . . . . 27 Nov. ,, 

Whydah and other towns occupied . 3-6 Dec. y 



DAHEA. 



346 



DAMAEALAND. 



Blockade of the coast raised . . . i 9 Dec. 1892 

Behanzin on the Mahi with 2,000 men about 9 Jan. 1893 

King Behanzin issues to all nations a justificatory 
manifesto, 2 March ; proffers submission to 
Prance under conditions . reported 2 May, , 

Gen. Dodds arrives at Marseilles . . n May, 

Message from king Behanzin to president Carnot 
charging the French with treachery . . June, ,, 

Gen. Dodds and 400 officers at Kotonou . 31 Aug. ,, 

Advance successfully into the interior 27 Oct. etseq. ,, 

Flight of Behanzin and submission of the chiefs ; 
gen. Dodds arrives at Youneton . 12 Nov. ,, 

Behanzin's envoys at Paris not received by pres. 
Carnot 12 Nov. „ 

1 he Dahomeyans defeated at Badagha . 4 Dec. „ 

Gouthili chosen as king of Allada, and recognised 
by gen. Dodds and the chiefs at Goho . 15 Jan. 1894 

Behanzin surrenders unconditionally, 25 Jan. ; sent 
to Martinique, Feb. ; arrives . . 30 March, ,, 

M. Ballot appointed civil governor . . 22 Feb. 

Gen. Dodds returns to France ; col. Dumas as- 
sumes command .... 24 April, 

M. Ballot well received on his tour through the 
country ; nominates a new station, Carnotville, 
reported 2 Oct, „ 

The Kotonou canal, between Porto Novo and 
Godomey, constructed by native labour, opened 

8 Jan. 1895 

Successful explorations by lieut. Baud, treaties 
signed with chiefs, reported ... 8 Aug. „ 

Convention for the delimitation of the French and 
German possessions in the Hinterland, signed at 
Paris • • ■ • ■ 23 July, 1897 

The Franco-German boundary commission opposed, 
natives defeated with heavy loss near Lama re- 
P° rted 21 Sept. 1899 

Behanzin's brother made king of Abomey, after- 
wards deposed aud imprisoned at Porto Novo 
reported 5 June, iqoo 

DAHEA (Algeria). On 18 June, 1845, above 
500 Kabyles at war with the French were suffo- 
cated in a cave, a fire having been kindled by order 
of general Pelissier, afterwards duke of Malakoff. 
They had fired on a messenger bearing an offer of 
a truce. The massacre was condemned by marshal 
Soult, but justified by marshal Bugeaud. 

DAILY CHEONICLE. Built up by Ed- 
ward Lloyd on the Clerkenwell News (founded 
1855), which he purchased in 1877. It is an active 
progressive liberal paper. In 1891 a ''literary 
page" was added. Since 1901 it has adopted a 
liber.il imperialistic policy. 

DAILY EXPEESS. Independent morning 
paper, price \d. Found.-d 1900. 

DAILY GEAPHIC Illustrated morning 
paper, price id. Founded I Jan. 1890. 

DAILY MAIL. The first halfpenny morning 
paper. It gives the latest news of the world in a 
condensed form. It claims a daily circulation of 
1,000,000. Founded 4 May, 1896. 

. DAILY MIRROR, a new morning paper 
intended as a journal lor women, but not for women 
exclusively. Up-to-date telegrams, and bright 
paragraphs of news of interest to women are among 
its special features. Founded 2 Nov. 1903. 

DAILY NEWS, liberal commercial news- 
paper, established 21 Jan. 1846. Price reduced to 
id. [868. During the Franco-Prussian war 1870 
rt seg., the circulation rose to 150,000 weekly. In I 
1870 it absorbed the Morniuy S~'<ir (founded' 1S5O). 
(Jharlcs Dickens was the first editor. From 1S0S 
the paper was under the management of Mr. (after- 
wards sir) John R. Robinson. He retired in 1901 j 
on the re-organisation of the newspaper under a I 
new proprietorship. 



DAILY TELEGRAPH, established 29 June, 
1855, as a 2d. paper, by colonel Sleigh. In Sept. 
it was bought by Mr. J. M. Levy, who on 17 
Sept. reduced the price to id. Under the manage- 
ment of Mr. (i art. 1892, Id. Burnham, 1903) Edw. 
Lawson, it has become one of the most influential of 
the London papers. Liberal till 1878, from 1886 it 
has been unionist. The Daily Telegraph in times 
of need raises large funds, which are distributed free 
of cost. Its "Shilling" fund for our soldiers' 
widows and orphans, 236,000^. collected up to 31 
Dec. 1900; over 7 million donors; see Mansion 
House War Fund. 

DAIEY FAEMEES' ASSOCIATION, 

British, established 24 Oct. 1876. No. 1 of a 
journal published Sept. 1877. Dairy Shows, 
exhibitions at Agricultural Hall, 1877 et seq. 
Establishment of dairy schools in Great Britain . 1888 

DAKOTA (North America), organised as a 
territory of the United States, 2 March, 1861. 
Capital Yankton . North and South Dakota were 
made States in 1889. 

About 100,000 persons destitute in North Dakota 
through failure of the crops . . . 30 Oct. 1889 

The Sioux reserves in S. Dakota, about 9,000,000 
acres, opened to settlers by proclamation ; imme- 
diately occupied Feb. 1890 

For the rising of the Sioux, see Indians, 1890-91. 

President Harrison proclaims the opening of 
1,600,000 acres in the Fort Berthold Indian Re- 
servation, North Dakota . . .21 May, 1891 

Great tire at Fargo, N. Dakota, many deaths, about 
2,000 homeless 7-8 June, 1893 

Mr. Taylor, state treasurer of S. Dakota, bankrupt, 
absconds ; the National bank stops payment, 
reported 10 Jan. 1895 

Population, 1890 : N. Dakota, 182,719 ; S. Dakota, 328,808; 
1900: N. Dakota, 319,146; S. Dakota, 401,570. 

DALECAELIANS (Sweden), revolted against - 
Christian of Denmark, 1521, and placed Gustavus 
Vasa on the throne of Sweden. 

I 

DALMATIA, an Austrian province, N. E. of i 
the Adriatic Sea, conquered and made a provim e | 
by the Romans, 34 B.C. The emperor Diocletian j 
erected his palace at Spalato (erroneously written 
Spalatro) , and retired there, a.d. 305. Dalmatia was | 
held in turns by the Goths, Hungarians, and Turks, 
till its cession to Venice in 1699. By the treaty of 
Campo Formio in 1797 it was given to Austria, but in , 
1805 it was incorporated with Italy, and gavethe title 
of duke to marshal Soult. In 1814 it reverted 10 | 
Austria. An insurrection opposed to the new mili- ' 
tary law broke out at Bocche di Cattaro, and a con- N 
diet with the troops at Dragali took place, 10 Oct. \ 
1869. Several regiments were sent there, but the 
insurgents obtained several successes during the I 
month. A deputation ottered submission, 2 Nov., 
and the operations against them were suspended | 
about the end of the month. Population, 1890, i 

527,420; 1MOO, 591,597. 

DAMAEALAND (S.W. Africa), a territory j 

rich in minerals and pasture, occupied by German j 

settlers and missionaries since 1840. The native 1 
population is estimated at 8o,0O0. 

During a German expedition Mr. Luderitz acquired 
lands at Angra Pequeua from the chiefs ; Dr. 
Curing, who also had obtained land, transferred 
his rights to Mr. Robert Lewis, a British subject, 
long known in the country, whose claims were 
set aside by the German colonial company of 
S.W. Africa, and lie and his party were expelled. 
His claims set forth at Berlin by the British 
government in 18S5, were disallowed, and the 
question was still und,er discussion .. autumn, 1892 [ 



DAMASCUS. 



347 



DANES. 



South- West Africa company formed in London to 
develop Damaraland .... Sept. 1892 

Agreement made between the German and English 
companies about 15 .Nov. ,, 

Capt. Frangois, with a German force of 200, storms 
Witbooi's stronghold, with much slaughter, in- 
cluding women and children . . 12 April, 1893 

Continual fighting with the natives, much blood- 
shed, reported Feb. 1894 

Natives subdued by lieut. Leutwein and a murderer 
shot, reported 9 April, ,, 

Hottentot rising : Germans repulsed, and 2 killed, 
near Coyamus, 5 July, 1897 ; rebels defeated, 
with great loss, lieut. Herzog and 2 others killed ; 
reported 10 Aug. 1897 

Revolt of several tribes, owing to the enforced 
stamping of guns, n Germans killed, reported 

1 Oct. 1898 

DAMASCUS (Syria), a city in the time of 
Abraham ; 191 3 b.c. {Gen. xiv.), now the capital 
of a Turkish pachalic. Population, 1885, 150,000; 
1901, about 140,487. 

Taken by David (1040 b.c), but retaken shortly 
after ; made the capital of Syria under Benhadad 

and his successors b.c. 930 

Recovered by Jeroboam II. about 822 

Taken by Tiglath-Pileser, king of Assyria . . 740 
From the Assyrians it passed to the Persians, and 
from them to the Greeks, under Alexander . 333 

To the Romans about 64 

Paul, converted, preaches here (Actsix.) . . a.d. 35 
Taken by the Saracens, 633 ; by the Turks in 1075 ; 
destroyed by Tamerlane .... Jan. 1401 

Taken by Ibrahim Pacha 1832 

The disappearance of a Greek priest, named father 
Tommaso, from here, 1 Feb. 1840, led to the 
torture of a number of Jews, suspected of his mur- 
der, and to a cruel persecution of that people, 
which caused remonstrances from many states of 

Europe ^40 

Damascus restored to Turkey 1841 

In consequence of a dispute between the Druses 
and Maronites, the Mahometans massacred 
above 3000 Christians and destroyed the houses, 
rendering vast numbers of persons homeless and 
destitute ; a large number were rescued by Abd- 
el-Kader, who held the citadel . 9, 10, 11 July, i860 
Justice executed for these crimes by Fuad Pacha : 
160 persons executed, including the Turkish gover- 
nor ; and 11,000 persons made soldiers, Aug. -Sept. „ 
The great Omeyyad mosque destroyed by fire, 

14 Oct. 1893. See Syria, 1895-6. 
Damascus-Hauran Railway opened, July, 1894; the 
Beirut-Damascus line opened, Aug. 1895 ; finan- 
cial failure, reported 1899 

Visit of the German emperor and empress, warm 
reception 7 Nov. 1898 

DAMASK L.INENS and SlLKS, first manu- 
factured at Damascus, have been beautifully imi- 
tated by the Dutch and Flemish. The manufacture 
was brought to England by artisans who fled from 
the persecutions of Alva, 1571-3. The Damask. 
Rose was brought here from the south of Europe 
by Dr. Linacre, physician to Henry VIII., about 
^540 

DAMIENS' ATTEMPT. Louis XV. of 
Prance was stabbed with a knife in the right side 
by Damiens, a native of Arras, 5 Jan. 1757. The 
culprit endured the most excruciating tortures, and 
was then broken on the wheel, 28 March. 

DAMIETTA (Lower Egypt) was taken by 
the crusaders, 5 Nov. 1219; lost 1221 ; retaken by 
Louis IX., 5 Juue, 1249; surrendered as his ran- 
Bom when a prisoner, 6 May, 1250. The present town 
was built soon after. See Egypt, Sept. 1882. Popu- 
lation, 1888,- 34,044. 

DAMON AND PYTHIAS (or Phintias), 
Pythagorean philosophers. Damon was con- 
demned to death by the tyrant Dionysius of Syra- 
cuse, about 387 b.c. He'obtained leave to go "and 



settle some domestic affairs, promising to return at 
the appointed time of execution, and Pythias be- 
came his surety. When Damon did not appear, 
Pythias surrendered, and was led to execution ; but 
at this critical moment Damon returned. Diony- 
sius remitted the sentence, and desired to share 
their friendship. 

DANAI : an ancient name of the Greeks de- 
rived from Danaus, king of Argos, 1474 B.C. 

DANCE OF DEATH. The triumph of death 
over all ranks of men was a favourite subject with 
the artists of the middle ages, and appears in rude 
carvings and pictures in various countries. 
The Chorea Machabceorum or Danse Macabre, the 
first printed representation, published by Guyot 
Marchand, a bookseller of Paris . . . . 1485 
Holbein's Dance of Death (concerning the author- 
ship of which there has been much controversy), 
printed at Lyons in 1538, and at Basil . . . 1594 
Many editions have since appeared ; one with an 
introduction and notes published by Mr. Russell 

Smith 1849 

The term Dance of Death was also applied to the 
frenzied movements of the Flagellants, who had 
sometimes skeletons depicted on their clothing, 
about the end of the 14th century. 
Dancing mania, accompanied by aberration of 
mind and distortions of the body, was very 
prevalent in Germany in 1374, and in the 16th 
century in Italy, where it was termed Tarantism, 
and erroneously supposed to be caused by the 
bite of the Tarantula spider. The music and 
songs employed for its cure are still preserved. 

DANCINGr was practised by the Curetes, 1534 
B.C. Eusebius. The Greeks combined the dance 
with their dramas, and pantomimic dances were 
introduced on the Roman stage, 22 B.C. Usher. 
Dancing by cinque paces was introduced into Eng- 
land from Italy, a.d. 1 541. In modern times the 
French introduced ballets analogues in their musical 
dramas. The country dance (contre- danse) is of 
French origin, but its date is not precisely known. 
Spelman. See Morice Dance, Quadrille, and 
Waltz. 

Establishment of a national training school for 
dancing, by Mr. Mapleson ; second annual dis- 
tribution of prizes, &c. . . . 21 Sept. 1878 

DANE-GELD, or DANEGELT, a tribute paid 
to the Danes to stop their ravages in England ; 
tirst raised by Ethelred II. in 991, and again in 
1003 ; and levied after the expulsion of the Danes 
to pay fleets for clearing the seas of them. The 
tax was suppressed by Edward the Confessor in 
105 1 ; revived by William I. T068; and formed 
part of the revenue of the crown, until abolished 
by Stephen, 1 136. Every hide of land, i.e. as much 
as one plough could plough, or as Bede says, as 
much as could maintain a family, was taxed at first 
is., afterwards as much as "js. Camden says that 
once 24,360^. was raised. 

DANES, or NORTHMEN ; see Denmark. 
During their attacks upon Britain and Ireland 
they made a descent on France, where, in 895, 
under Hollo, they received presents under the walls 
of Paris. They returned and ravaged the French 
territories as far as Ostend in 896. They attacked 
Italy in 903. Neustria was granted by the king of 
France to Rollo and his Normans (North-men), 
hence Normandy, in 91 1. The invasions of Eng- 
land and Ireland were as follows : — 
First hostile appearance of the Danes . . . 783 

They land near Purbeck, Dorset 787 

Descend in Northumberland : destroy the church 
at Lindisfarne ; are repelled, and perish by ship- 
wreck 8 Jan. 794 

They invade Scotland and Ireland .. .. 795, 796 



DANGEROUS ASSOCIATIONS. 318 DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES. 



They enter Dublin with a fleet of 60 sail, and pos- 
sess themselves of Dublin, Fingal, &e. . . 708 
They take the Isle of Sheppey . . . . 832 
Defeated at Hengeston, in Cornwall, by Egbert . 835 
They land in Kent from 350 vessels, and take Can- 
terbury and London 851 

They descend on the north, and take York . . 867 

They defeat the Saxons at Merton . . . . 871 

They take Wareham and Exeter .... 876 
They take Chippenham : but 120 of their ships are 

wrecked 8 77 

Defeated: Guthrum, their leader, becomes Chris- 
tian, and many settle in England . . " . . S78 
Alfred enters into a treaty with them . . . . 882 
Their fleet destroyed by Alfred at Appledore . . 804 
Defeated near Isle of Wight . . . . . . 897 

They invade and waste Wales ooo 

Defeated by Edward the Elder 922 

They defeat the people of Leinster . . . .956 

Ravage Cornwall, Devon, and Dorset . . . . 859 

And ravage Essex and Suffolk 990 

Said to assume the title lord dune about . . . 991 
Their fleet defeated after a breach of treaty, pur- 



Chased by monev 



1012 
4 
7 

1020 



Anlaf and Sweyn ravage Kent and the south (erro- 
neously said to have been paid 16,000;. for peace) 994 
A general massacre of the Danes, by order of 

Ethelred II. I3 Nov. 1002 

Sweyn revenges it, and receives 36,0002. (as an 

annual tribute) to depart IO o3 

Their fleet anchors at Isle of Wight .... 1006 
They make fresh inroads, and defeat the Saxons in 
Suffolk, 1010 ; sack Canterbury, and kill the in- 
habitants, ion ; receive 48,000^ as tribute, and 
murder Alphege, archbishop ... IOI 

Vanquished at Clontarf, Ireland (see Clontarf) '. 101 
Conquest of England completed ; Canute king . . 101 
They settle in Scotland . . . . 

They land again at Sandwich, carrying off much 

plunderto Flanders I047 

Defeated by Harold II. at Stamford-bridge, 25 Sept. 1066 
lliey burn York, and kill 3000 Normans . . .1069 
Once more invade England to aid a conspiracy ; 
but compelled to depart I074 

DANGEROUS ASSOCIATIONS (IRE- 
-LAJNU) BILL; see Roman Catholic Association. 

DANGEROUS GOODS : act regulating 
their deposit and carnage passed 6 Aug. 1866. 

DANGEROUS PERFORMANCES, see 
Ufiilaren. 

DANNEWERKE, oiDannawirke, a series 
oi earthworks, considered almost impregnable, 
stretching across the long narrow peninsula of 
Sehleswig, Holstcin, and Jutland— said to have 
been constructed during the "stone age," longbefore 
the art of metal-working. It was rebuilt in 937 
by Ihyra, queen of Gormo the Old, for which she 
was named " I hinnabod," the pride of the Danes. 
It was repaired by Olaf Tryggveson between 90c 
and tooo. Near here the Prussians, helping the 
duchies, defeated the Danes, 23 April, 1X48. The 
retreat of the Danes from it, 5 Feb. 1864, occa- 
sioned much dissatisfaction at Copenhagen. 

DANTE'S DIVINA COMMEDIA was 
hist printed in [472. lie was born 14 May, 1265, 
died at llavenna, 14 Sept. 1321. A festival* in his 
honour, at Florence, was opened by the king, 14 
.May, [865, when a large statue of Dante by Pazzi 
of Ravenna was uncovered. An exhibition of 
objects relating to Dante and his works collected 
by .Mr. I'. II. Wicksteed in Dr. Williams' library, 
Gordon-Bquare, London, April, 1893. Dante's 
complete works, published at Oxford, edited by 
Dr. E. Moore, 1804. Dante society founded, 
annual meetings, sir Theodore Martin, pres., in<i<i. 
.MM. Sanlou an. I Morreau's Daiiti prodi 1 at 

Drury-lane theatre .... ■., April ■ <„,; 



DANTZIC (N. Germany), a commercial city in 
997 ; according to some authorities, built " mil 
Waldemar I. in 1 165. Poland obtained the I 
sovereignty of it in 1454. It was seized by the 
king of Prussia, and annexed in 1793. It sur-^j 
rendered to the French, May, 1807 ; and by the 1 ' 
treaty of Tilsitwas restored to independence, under 
the protection of Prussia and Saxony, July, 1807.I 
Dantzic was besieged by the allies in 1812 ; and|; 
surrendered 1 Jan. 1814. By the treaty of Paris it'll 
reverted to the king of Prussia. By the Vistula! 
breaking through its dykes, 10,000 head of cattle j 
and 4000 houses were destroyed, and many lives 
lost, 9 April, 1829. Population, 1895, 125,6055 
1900, 140,539. 

DANUBE (German, Donau; anciently Ister! 
and Danuvius), the largest river in Europe, except!' 
the Volga, rises in the Black Forest and falls intoji 
the Black Sea. Trajan's bridge at Gladova was! 
destroyed by Adrian, to prevent the barbarians! 
entering Dacia. Steam navigation was projected' 1 
on this river by count Szechenyi, in 1830, and inr 
that year the first steam-boat was launched ati 
Vienna, and the Austrian company was formed t 
shortly after. The Bavarian company' was formed! 
1836. A canal between the Danube and the 
Maine was completed by Louis I. of Bavaria.) 
Charlemagne, in the 8th century, contemplated 1 
uniting the Danube and Rhine by a canal. At the'" 
peace of 30 March, 1856, the free navigation of the 
Danube was secured, and an independent European, 
commission appointed to make it navigable from! 
Isaktchi to the sea, which has worked with good!' 1 
effect. The British government, in 1868, lent! 
135,000/. to complete the works. The treaty re-J* 
specting the navigation of the Danube renewed foij 
twelve years, 13 March, 1871. The river suddenly 
took possession of a new bed near Vienna, 17 April, 
which was formally opened 30 -May-, 1875. 
In the Russo-Turkish war the Russians crossed the 
Danube and entered Bulgaria. (Sec Russo-Turkish 

War, II.) June, 187^ 

The navigation of the Danube was regulated by 
Articles 50 — 54 of Berlin treaty . . 13 July, 
A conference of the powers respecting the Danube 
held in London, 8 Feb. et. seq. ; treaty signed re- 
storing rights to Russia, 10 March : ratified 

15 Aug. 
Huge rocks in that portion of the Lower Danube 
called the "Iron Gates" blown up ; M. Baross, 
the Hungarian minister of communications, set 
tire to the first mine, 5 Sept., 1889 ; theexplosion 
of the rocks recommenced . . 15 Sept. 1890^ 
New canal being cut . . . June, 1893 ft seq 

Foundation of a great bridge at Tchernavoda; 
laid by Charles, king of Roumania, 21 Oct. 1890; 
work going on ....... 1S9: 

Inauguration of the great bridge at Tchernavoda, 
in presence of the kingof Roumania, royal family 

ami dignitaries 26 Sept. 

The Iron Gates Canal opened by the emperor, in 
presence of the kings of Roumania and Servia, at 
t M -.ox a, 27 Sept. 1896 ; opened for navigation, 

1 Oct. 

DANUBIAN PRINCIPALITIES; 

Wall.VCHIA and MOLDAVIA (capitals, Bucha 
rest and Jassy) were united and named RoUMAJNIA,i, 
1850. Population of the two, i860, 3,864,848; 1866,' 
4,424,961 ; 1SS7, 5.500,000; 1899, 5,912,520. These 
provinces formed part of the ancient Dacia (which 
see). 

Fart of Moldavia ceded to Russia . . . . 
The provinces having participated in the Greek in- 
surrection in 1821, were severely treated by the 
Turks; 1'iit by the treaty of Adrianople were 
placed under tiie protection of Russia . 
Thr Porte appointed as hospodars prince Stirbey 
for Wallachia, and prince Ghika for Moldavia, 

June, 184^ 



1813 

f 

1S29 



DAEDANELLES. 



349 



DATES. 



They retire from their governments when the Rus- 
sians enter Moldavia. See Busso-Turkish War. 

2 July, 1 8 S3 

The Russians quit the provinces and the Austrians 
enter, Sept. 1854 ; retire . . . March, 1857 

The government of the principalities finally settled 
at the Paris conference : (there were to be two 
hospodars, elected by elective assemblages, and 
the suzerainty of Turkey was to be preserved), 

19 Aug. 1858 

Alexander Covza elected hospodar of Moldavia, 
17 Jan. ; of Wallachia . - . - . 5 Feb. 1859 

The election acknowledged by the allies 6 Sept. ,, 

The definitive union of the provinces (under the 
name of Roumania) proclaimed and acknowledged 

by the Porte Dec. 1861 

[For continuation, see Roumania.] 

DAEDANELLES, the classic Hellespont, 
derives its name from Dardanus, an ancient city in 
the Troad, and called after the ancient Dardani. 
Two castles (Sestos, in Koumania, and Abydos, in 
Anatolia), built by the sultan Mahomet IV. in 1659, 
command the entrance of the strait of Gallipoli, and 
recall the story of Hero and Leander (see Helles- 
pont). — The passage of the strait was achieved by 
the British squadron under sir John Duckworth, 
19 Feb. 1807 ; but he repassed them with great 
loss, 3 March, the castles of Sestos and Abydos 
hurling down stone-shot upon the British ships. 
The allied English and French fleets passed the 
Dardanelles at the sultan's request, Oct. 1853 ; see 
Hellespont and Xerxes. 

DAEIC, a Persian gold coin, issued by Darius, 
hence its name, about 538 B.C. About 556 cents. 
Knowles. It weighed two grains more than the 
English guinea. Dr. Bernard. 

DAEIEN, ISTHMUS OF, central America, dis- 
covered by Columbus, 1494. In 1694, William 
Paterson, founder of the Bank of England, pub- 
lished his plan for colonising Darien. A company 
was formed in 1695, and in 1698-9, three expedi- 
tions sailed thither from Scotland, where 400,000/. 
had been raised. The first consisted of 1200 young 
men of all classes, besides women and children. 
The enterprise not having been recognised by the 
English government, the settlements were threat- 
ened by the Spaniards, to whom they were finally 
surrendered, 30 March, 1700. Paterson and a few 
survivors from famine and disease, had set off 
shortly before the arrival of the second expedition. 
Several years after, 398,085/. were voted by parlia- 
ment to the survivors as " Equivalent money." 
18,000/. were also voted to Paterson ; but the bill 
was rejected in the house of Lords. See Panama. 
The average breadth, 40 miles ; least breadth, 30 
miles 

DAEJEELINGr, a British district in the Him- 
alayas, ceded about 1824. The capital Darjeeling, 
is used as a sanitarium. The cultivation of tea is 
flourishing, and the population rapidly increasing 
{1889.) 

See Landslips, 1890. 

DAEK AGES, a term applied to the Middle 
Ages; according to Hallam, comprising about IOOO 
years — from the invasion of France by Clovis, 486, 
to that of Naples by Charles VIII., 1495. During 
this time learning was at a low ebb. Hallam's 
"View of Ihe State of Europe during the Middle 
Ages," published 1818. Supplemental Notes, 1848. 

DAELINGTON. An ancient town S. Dur- 
ham, chartered and made a parliamentary borough 
1867. The opening of the Stockton and Darlington 
railway 27 Sept. 1825, the first railway to convey 
passengers, gave the impulse to the prosperity of 



the borough. The handsome collegiate church of 
St. Cuthbert, founded 1160 by bishop Pudsey, and 
restored in J869 by sir Gilbert Scott, is a tine 
specimen of Early English architecture. To the 
free library, opened 1885, Mr. Edward Pease gave 
10,000/. The Eoyal Agricultural Society show 
was opened here, 22 June, 1895. Population 1871, 
21,730; 1881, 35,102; 1891, 38,060; 1901,45,000. 
See under Railways, 1825 and 1875. 

DAEMSTADT, capital of Hesse-Darmstadt, 
made a city 1330, became the residence of the 
landgraves, 1567. The ducal palace built 1568 et 
seq. Memorial to the grand duchess Alice, unveiled 
12 Sept. 1902. Population, 1890, 56,503; 1900, 
72,381 ; see Hesse, 1894. 

DAETFOED (Kent). Here commenced the 
insurrection of Wat Tyler, 1381. A convent of 
nuns, of the order of St. Augustin, endowed here 
by Edward III. 1355, was converted by Henry VIII. 
into a royal palace. The first paper-mill in Eng- 
land was erected at Dartford by sir John Spielman, 
a German, in 1590 {Stoiv), and about the same 
period was erected here the first mill for splitting 
iron bars. The powder-mills here were blown up 
four times between 1730 and 1738. Various ex- 
plosions have since occurred, in some cases with 
loss of life to many persons: 12 Oct. 1790; I Jan. 
1795 ; and others recently. Population, 1881, 
10,163; 1891, 11,962; 1901, 18,643. 

DAETMOOE, South Devon, a tract of land, 
20 miles long, 9 to 12 miles bruad, subject to the 
duchy of Cornwall. The Dartmoor Preservation 
Association hold their annual meeting at Plymouth, 
26 Oct. 1885.' Dartmoor Prison, founded Mar. 1806. 
Seven prisoners of war were shot 6 April, 1815, 
after an insurrection. The autumn military ma- 
noeuvres at Dartmoor, Aug. 1873, were unsuccessful. 

A mutiny here was checked with loss of life of one 
prisoner 12 Nov. 1880 

Wm. Carter, convict, shot dead while attempting 
to escape 24 Dec. 1896 

DAETMOUTH (Devon). Burnt by the 
French in the reigns of Richard I. and Henry IV. 
In a third attempt (1404), the invaders were de- 
feated by the inhabitants, assisted by the valour of 
the women. The French commander, Du Chastel, 
three lords, and thirty-two knights, were made 
prisoners. In the war of the parliament, Dart- 
mouth was taken after a siege of four weeks, by 
prince Maurice, who garrisoned the place for the 
king (1643) ; but it was retaken by general Fairfax 
in 1646. The duke and duchess of York visited the 
Britannia training ship (where the duke was a 
a naval cadet), 6 July, 1899. The king, accom- 
panied by the queen and princess Victoria, laid the 
stone for the new Britannia naval college, 7 March, 
1902. Population, 1881, 5,725 ; 1891, 6,038; 1901, 
6,037. 

DAEWINISM, see Devdopment and Species. 

DATES were affixed to grants and assignments 
18 Edw. I. 1290. Before this time it was usual at 
least to pass lands without dating the deed of con- 
veyance. I,ewis. Numei-ous instruments of assign- 
ment enrolled among our early records establish 
this fact. The date is determined by the names of 
the parties, particularly that of the grantor : the 
possession of land was proof of the title to it. 
Hardie. A useful glossary of the dates given in old 
charters and chronicles will be found in Nicolas's 
" Chronology of History." J. J. Bond's " Handy- 
Book for Verifying Dates," published 1866. 



DAUPHINE. 



350 



DEACONESSES. 



DAUPHINE,* S.E.France, successively held 
by the Allobroges, Burgundians, and Lombards ; 
was, about 732-4, delivered from the invading 
Saracens by Charles Martel. After forming part of 
the kingdom of Aries, it was much subdivided 
among counts. One of these, Humbert II., ceded 
Dauphin e and the Viennois to Philip VI., in 1343, 
for his eldest son, on the condition that the prince 
should be styled dauphin, which took effect in 
1349, when Humbert became a monk. Louis 
Antoine, duke of Angouleme, son of Charles X., 
the last dauphin who assumed the title at his 
father's accession, 16 Sept. 1824, died 3 June, 
1844. 

DAVENTRY, Northamptonshire, an old muni- 
cipal borough, situated at the sources of the Avon 
and Nene. Charles I. spent a few days at Daventry 
just before the battle of Naseby (14 June, 1645). 
Near here Lambert, having escaped from the Tower, 
was defeated and retaken, in his attempt to enkindle 
the war, by Monk, 21 April, 1660. Danes or 
Borough hill, near the town, is one of the largest 
Koman camps in England. The dissenting 
academy removed here from Northampton in 1752, 
was transferred to Wymondley in 1789, thence to 
London as Coward College, and finally united with 
Homerton and Highbury Colleges as New College, 
in 1850. 

DAVENPORT, see Plymouth. 

DAVID, the capital of Chiriqui in Panama, on 
the Rio David, a centre of stockraising and tobacco 
industries. Population 1901, 10,000 (about). 

DAVID'S, ST. (S. W. Wales),. the ancient 
Menapia, now a poor decayed place, but once the 
metropolitan see of Wales, and archiepiscopal. 
When Christianity was planted in Britain, three 
archbishops' seats were appointed, viz. London, 
York, and Caerleon upon Usk, in Monmouthshire. 
That at Caerleon being too near the dominions of 
the Saxons, was removed to Mynyw, and called 
St. David's, in honour of the archbishop who re- 
moved it, 522. St. Sampson was the last arch- 
bishop of the Welsh ; for he, withdrawing himself 
on account of a pestilence to Dole, in Brittany, 
carried the pall with him. In the reign of Henry I. 
the archbishops submitted to the see of Canterbury. 
Beatson. Present income 4^00/. 

BISHOPS. 

1800. Lord George Murray, died 3 June, 1803. 

1803. Thomas Burgess, trans, to Salisbury, June, 1825. 

1825. John Banks Jenkinson, died 7 July, 1840. 

1840. Connop Thirlwa ; resigned June, 1874 ; died 

27 July, 1875. 
1874. Win. Basil Jones, consecrated 24 Aug. ; died, 14 

Jan. 1897. 
1897. John Owen, Feb. ; consecrated 1 May. 

DAVID'S DAY, St., i March, is annually 
commemorated by the Welsh, in honour of St. 
David. Tradition states that on St. David's birth- 
day, 540, a great victory was obtained by the 
Welsh over their S;ix"ii invaders; and that the 
Welsh soldiers were distinguished, by order of St, 
David, by .i leek in their caps. 

DAVIS'S STRAIT (N. America), discovered 
by John Davis, 1 1 Aug. 1585, on his voyage to find 
a N. W. passage, [585-87. He made two mure 
voyages for the sum.- purpose, and five voyages 10 
the East [ndies, In the last he was killed by 

• i) Ml . of II"' counts of Vienne placed :i dolphin 
(dauphin) in his coat-of-arms, and assumed the title of 
dauphin. 



Japanese pirates, on the coast of Malacca, 27 or 29 
Dec. 160s. 

DAVY JONES, a familiar name by which 
seamen designate an evil spirit. Davy Jones' s$ 
locker is an equivalent phrase for the ocean. The !] 
name has been derived from Jonah the prophet, t 
and from daffy, a W. Indian negro spirit. 

"DAVY LAMP, &c., see Safety Lamp. 

DAVY MEDAL. Funds were furnished by 
the sale of sir Humphry Davy's plate. It was' 
first awarded by the Koyal Society to Professors 
Bunsen and Kirschhoff in 1877 for their discovery ] 
of spectrum analysis (which see). Davy-Faraday i 
Besearch Laboratory, see Royal Institution. 

DAVYUM. It is a metal of the platinum 
group, discovered by Sergius Kern, 28 June, 1877, 
in the residuum of platinum ore ; hard, infusible, 
and rather ductile. 

DAY. Day began at sunrise among most of the 
northern nations, at sunset among the Athenians 
and Jews ; and among the Romans at midnight as 
with us. The Italians in some places, reckon the 
day from sunset to sunset, making their clocks 
strike twenty-four hours round. The Chinese 
divide the day into twelve parts of two hours each. 
The astronomical day begins at noon, is divided 
into twenty-four hours (instead of two parts of 
twelve hours). Thus the astronomical day 

8 Dec. begins at noon of 8 Dec. and ends at noon 

9 Dec. At Greenwich, from 1 Jan. 1885, the day 
of 24 hours began at midnight ; the reckoning was 
recommended for railways, &c. A system of uni- 
versal time for all countries was put forth by Mr. 
Sandford Fleming, of Canada. The Washington 
Prime Meridian Conference adopted a resolution 
declaring the universal day to be the mean solar 
day, beginning, for all the world, at the moment of 
mean midnight of the initial meridian, coinciding 
with the beginning of the civil day, and that 
meridian to be counted from zero up to 24 hours, 
21 Oct. 1884. The scheme for universal time was 
advocated by Mr. W. H. M. Christie, the Astro- 
nomer Royal, at the Royal Institution, 19 March, 
1886. A lawful day is a day on which a writ may 
be executed ; Sundays, Christmas Day, and Good 
Fridaj are excepted. 

DEACONS (literally servants), an order of 
Christian ministers, began with the Apostles, about 
53. (Acts vi.) Their qualifications are given by 
St. Paul (65), 1st Timothy iii. 8— 14. Mr. John 
Andrews, master of Shrewsbury High School, was 
ordained at Lichfield Cathedral a permanent deacon 
in conformity with a resolution passed in the 
Upper House of Convocation, Feb. 1884; his duties 
being to assist the priest in the communion service, 
&c., 18 Dec. 1887. 

DEACONESSES, or ministering widows, have 
their qualifications given in 1 Tim. v. 9, 10 (65). 
Their duties were to visit the poor and sick, assist 
at the agapa? or love feasts, admonish the young 
women, &c. The office was discontinued in the 
Western church after the 6th century, and in the 
Greek church about the 12th. In 1836 a 
deacon* sses' house was founded by pastor Fliedner 
at Kaisersworth, near Diisseldorf; many since on 
the continent. The appointment of deaconesses, 
subject to the parochial clergy, was advocated by 
the bishop of Ely about 1853, and some were 
appointed. The Diocesan Deaconess Institution, 
London, was established in 1861. The office 
adopted by 1 he cl uirch of Scotland, 1887. 



DEAD. 



351 



DEATH. 



DEAD. Prayers for their benefit were pi - o- 
bably ottered up in the 2nd century, being referred 
to by Tertullian, who died 220. The practice was 
protested against by Aerius, and defended by Epi- 
phanius, who died 403. It is generally objected to 
by the church of England, but is not expressly for- 
bidden ; so decided by sir Herbert Jenner in the 
Court of Arches (Phillimore, Heel. Law, 1873-6). 

Book of the Dead, a collection of prayers and exorcisms 
written in Egyptian hieroglyphic or hieratic charac- 
ters, composed tor the benefit of the pilgrim soul in 
his journey through Amenti (the Egyptian Hades). 
Portions of these papyri were placed with the mummy 
in his tomb. They are said to form fully one half of 
the thousands which are extant. The " Book of the 
Dead " is dated from the 4th dynasty 3733-3566 b.c. 
After much toil a pure text with illustrations was 
published by M. Edouard Naville, 1886. Translations 
in several European languages have appeared. A 
facsimile ef the Papyrus of Ani in the British Museum 
was printed in 1890. Mr. E. A. Wallis Budge's editions, 
with translations, 1895, 1897, 1899, and 1901. 

DEAD WEIGHT LOAN acquired its name 
from its locking up the capital of the Bank of 
England, which in 1823 advanced 11, 000,000/. to 
the government (to construct new ordnance, &c). 
The latter engaged to give an annuity of 585,740/. 
for 44 years, which ceased in June, 1867. 

DEAF AND DUMB. The first systematic 
attempt to instruct the deaf and dumb was made 
by Pedro de Ponce, a Benedictine monk of Spain, 
on Jerome Cardan's system, about 1570. See Blind. 

Bonet, a monk, published a system at Madrid . . 1620 

Dr. Wallis published a work in England on the 
subject 1650 

The first regular academy for the deaf and dumb in 
Britain opened in Edinburgh 1773 

In modern times the abbe de l'Epee (1712-89), and 
his friend and pupil the abbe Sieard of Paris (1 742 — 
1822) ; the rev. Mr. Townsend and Mr. Baker, of 
London ; Mr. Thos. Braidwood of Edinburgh ; 
and surgeon Orpen of Dublin, have laboured with 
much success in promoting the instruction of the 
deaf and dumb. 

The asylum for deaf and dumb children, opened in 
London through the exertions of Mr. Townsend 
in 1792; one in Edinburgh by Mr. T. Braidwood, 
in 1810 ; and Birmingham by Mr. T. Braidwood . 1815 

The asylum at Claremont, Dublin, opened . . . 1816 

A college for the deaf and dumb established at 
Washington, U.S , under the presidency of Dr. 
E. M. Gallaudet, and empowered by government 
to grant degrees 1864 

A deaf and dumb debating club (Wallis club) closed 
its third session . : . . . . April, 1869 

The foundation stone of St. Saviour's church, near 
Oxford street, London, for the deaf and dumb, laid 
by the prince of Wales . . . 5 July, 1870 

In 1851, there were in Great Britain, 12,553 deaf and 
dumb out of a population of 20,959,477. 

Oral Teaching. — Mr. Win. Van Praagh introduced 
the so-called German system into this country in 
July, 1867 ! published his "Plan for the Estab- 
lishment of Day Schools [in preference to board- 
ing-houses] for the Deaf and Dumb " (in which 
they are to be taught by speech and lip teaching 
only; the finger alphabet and artificial signs 
being rigidly excluded), in 1871. By the help of 
the baroness Meyer de Rothschild and others, the 
" Association for the Oral Instruction of the Deaf 
and Dumb" was founded in 1871, and a day- 
school opened at 12, Fitzroy-square . 16 July, 1872 

Training college and school founded at Ealing . 1877 

The Royal Association for the Deaf and Dumb, 
London, founded in 1840, and re-organised 1854. 
It provides instruction and entertainment under 
clerical direction. 

Washington Deaf and Dumb college confer degree 
of LL.D. on prof. A. Graham Bell, the inventor 
of the telephone and influential advocate of the 
oral system j . . . . ] . .1880 



International congress at Milan ; great majority in 

favour of oral teaching of deaf-mutes . Sept. 1880 

International congress at Brussels. 13 Sept. et seq. 1883 

Teachers' college founded i&Z$ 

The rev. R. A. Pearce, a mute, was a clergyman at 

Winchester 1893 

Report of the royal commission on the education 

of the deaf and dumb issued .... 1899 

15,246 deaf and dumb in England and Wales, 

census igoi 

DEAL, a cinque port with Sandwich, 1229; a 
fishing village in the reign of Henry VIII. ; its 
strong castle built 1539 by Henry VIII. Deal was 
incorporated and made independent of Sandwich, 
1699. Iron promenade pier erected 1864. Victoria 
Hospital, new wing opened by lady George Hamil- 
ton, 28 July, 1899. Population, igoi, 10,427. 

DEAN, FOREST OP, Gloucestershire, an- 
ciently wooded quite through, and in the last 
century, though much curtailed, was twenty miles 
in length and ten in breadth. It was famous for its 
oaks, the material of our ships of war. Riots in 
this district, when more than 3000 persons as- 
sembled in the forest, and demolished upwards of 
fifty miles of wall and fence, throwing open 10,000 
acres of plantation, took place on 8 June, 183 1. 
The Dean forest (mines) act passed 16 Aug. 1871. 

DEAN (decanus), a name commonly given to 
the arch-presbyter, or eldest presbyter, in the 12th 
century; originally a military title, an officer over 
ten soldiers. In the church of England the dean 
and chapter of a cathedral nominally elect the 
bishop and form his council. By 13 & 14 Car. II. 
(1662), a dean must be in priest's orders; pre- 
viously the office had occasionally been held by a 
layman, with special dispensation. The ancient 
office of " rural dean" has been much revived since 
1850. The Deans' and Canons' resignation act 
passed 13 May, 1872. The Five Deans' memorial, 
and counter memorial, see Church of England, 1881. 
See Arches. 

DEATH, ordained as the punishment for mur- 
der, 2348 B.C. (Gen. ix. 6.) 
The Jews generally stoned their criminals (Lev. 

xx. 2) b.c. 1490 

Draco's code punished every offence with death . 621 
It was limited to murder by Solon .... 594 
Mithridates, a Persian soldier, who boasted that he 
had killed Cyrus the Younger, at the battle of 
Cunaxa, was by order of Artaxerxes exposed to 
the sun for eighteen days ... 

Maurice, the son of a nobleman, was hanged, drawn, 
and quartered for piracy, the first execution in 
that manner in England, 25 Hen. HI. . a.d. 1241 

The punishment of death was abolished in a great 
number of cases by sir Robert Peel's acts, 4 to 10 

Geo. IV 1824-9 

By the criminal law consolidation acts, death was 

confined to treason and wilful murder J • 1861 
The commission on capital punishment (appointed 
1864) issued their report (recommending that 
penal servitude be substituted for death in some 
cases where murder was unpremeditated, and 
that executions should not be public) . Dee. 1865 
Capital punishment restricted in Italy . April, ,, 
Proposed abolition in Belgium negatived, 18 Jan. 1867 
"Capital Punishment within Prisons Bill" passed 
May, 1868. First case, 13 Aug. 1868 : see Execu- 
tions 
Abolition of the punishment of death in Great 
Britain proposed by Mr. Gilpin in the commons ; 
negatived (127 to 23), 21 April, 1868 ; negatived 
(118 to 58), 29 July, 1869 ; negatived (167-54), 24 
July, 1872 ; (155-50;, 12 June, 1877 ; (26364), 13 
March, 1878 ; proposed by Mr. (aft. sir j.) Pease, 
negatived (175-79), 22 June, 1881; again 10 May, 
1882; again (117-62) .... 11 May, 1886 
Capital punishment abolished in Russia by Cathe- 
rine II., except for treason 1767 



DEATH DUTIES. 



352 



DECIMAL SYSTEM. 



Capital punishment abolished in Tuscany, 1859, 
Roumania, 1864; Portugal, 1867; Saxony, t April, 
1868 ; Holland, 1870. In 17 out of 21 cantons of 
Switzerland, 1874 ; Italy, i838 ; New York . _ . 1890 

Practically ceased in Belgium, Prussia, Bavaria, 
Denmark, and Sweden, though not abolished. 

In France 126 convictions for murder — 4 executed, 
in one year ; similar proportion in Italy. 

Abolished in some of United States. Maine, 1876 ; 
Rhode Island, Michigan, and Wisconsin, since ; 
in others, virtually ceased. 

Capital punishment by electricity (electrocution) 
ordered to be adopted by the State of New York 
from 1 Jan. 1889 

The execution of William Kemmler by electricity 
was ordered, but deferred, on appeal . n Oct. „ 

Execution by electricity declared constitutional by 
the court of appeals . . . 22 March, 1890 

Execution stopped by habeas corpus . 29 April ,, 

Effected with some difficulty . . . 6 Aug. ,, 

Pour men executed by electricity at Sing-Sing, N. Y. 
(others since) 7 July, 1891 

Three men electrocuted at Clinton prison, Dan- 
nemora, N.Y 1 Oct. 1903 

Modes of execution (1903) :— Austria, gallows, public ; 
Bavaria, guillotine, private ; Belgium, guillotine, 
public; Brunswick, axe, private; China, sword or 
cord, public ; Denmark, guillotine, public ; Ecuador, 
musket, public ; France, guillotine, public ; Great 
Britain, gallows, private; Hanover, guillotine, pri- 
'vate; Italy, capital punishment abolished; Nether- 
lands, galiows, public ; Oldenburg, musket, public ; 
Portugal, gallows, public ; Prussia, sword, private ; 
Russia, musket, gallows, or sword, public ; Saxony, 
guillotine, private ; Spain, garotte, public, till Dec. 
^.894; Switzerland, fifteen cantons, sword, public; 
two cantons, guillotine, public ; two cantons, guillo- 
tine, private ; United States (other than New York), 
gallows, mostly private. 

See Beheading, Bavaillac, Damiens, Boiling, Burn- 
ing, Hanging, Forgery, and Campbell's Acts. 

Medical certificates of death ; select committee of 
the commons, first meeting 14 April ; report 
issued, proving great laxity . . . 1 Sept. 1893 

Death penalty abolished for 55 out of 60 crimes in 
the Federal code 5 Jal1 - l8 97 

DEATH DUTIES, a name given to the 
estate duties (which see). 

DEATHS, EEGISTERS OF, sea Bills of Mor- 
tality, Public Health, and Registers. 

DEBATES IN PARLIAMENT. See 

Reporting. 

DEBATING SOCIETIES ; several formed 
in the last century. The celebrated Oxford Union 
Society was founded in 1823, and many orators 
have been trained by it. 

DEBT, NATIONAL. See National Debt. 

DEBTORS have been subjected to imprison- 
ment in almost all countries and times. In the 
eighteen months subsequent to the panic of Dec. 
1825, as many as 101,000 writs for debt were issued 
in England. In the year ending 5 Jan. 1830, there 
were 71 14 persons sent to the several prisons of 
London ; and on that day, 1547 of the number 
were yet confined. On the 1st of Jan. 1840, the 
number of prisoners foi debt in England and Wales 
•was 1732 ; in Ireland the number was under 1000 ; 
and in Scotland under 100. The operation of 
statutes of relief, and othei causes, considerably 
reduced the number of imprisoned debtors. When 
the new Bankruptcy act (abolishing imprisonment 
for debt except when fraudulently contracted) 
came into operation in Nov. t86l, a number of 
debtors who had been confined were released. 
Arrest of Absconding Debtors bill, 14 & 13 Vict. 
C. 52, 1852. In [863 nearly [8,000 persons were 
imprisoned by order of the county courts for con- 
tempt: average time, 13 days, amount of debt, 



2,1. 10s. Agitation against this imprisonment, Dee. 
1892 ; select committee of lords on the subject 
met May, 1893. By an act passed 9 Aug. 1869, 
the imprisonment of fraudulent debtors was ] 
abolished, with certain exceptions, and nearly a 
hundred debtors were released by a judge's order I 
in Jan. 1870. An act to facilitate the arrest of \ 
absconding debtors, passed 9 Aug. 1870. Im- 1 
prisonment for debt in Ireland was abolished by an 
act passed 6 Aug. 1872, and in Scotland (after 31 | 
Dec.) by Dr. Cameron's Act, passed 7 Sept. 1880. 
See Arrest, King's Bench, Bankrupts, Insolvents, \ 
Fleet, and National Debt. 

7978 persons were committed to gaol by the county 
courts in 1871 ; 4438 in 1874. Imprisonment for debt 
was virtually abolished by the Bankruptcy Act of 1883, 
which relieved small debtors ; 7,808 imprisoned in 1898 ; 
8,494 ' n 1902. 

DEBUSSCOPE, an instrument of French 
origin, somewhat similar to the kaleidoscope, said 
to be useful for devising patterns for calico-printers, 
&c, made its appearance in i860. 

DECAMERONE (10 days), see Boccaccio. 

DECAPITATION, see Beheading. 

DECALOGUE (Greek delca ten, and logos a 
word), the ten commandments (Ex. xx., Deut. v.), 
called by the Jews the "ten words" (Ex. xxxiv. 28). 
The division of the decalogue varies among the 
Jews and the Christian churches. 

DECCAN (Dekhan or Dakhan), S. India, was 
invaded by the Mahometans in 1294. The first 
independent sultan was Alaudin. The natives re- 
volted, and the d3Tiasty of Bahmani was founded 
by Hasan Ganga in 1347. About 1686-90, Aurung- 
zebe I. recovered the Deccan, but soon lost great 
part of it to the Mahrattas. The Nizam al Mulk, 
his viceroy, became independent in 171 7. A large 
part of the Deccan was ceded to the English in 
1818. 

DECEMBER (from decern, ten), the tenth 
month of the year of Eomulus, commencing in 
March. In 713 B.C. Numa introduced January 
and February before March, and thenceforward 
December became the twelfth of the year. In the 
reign of Commodus, a.d. 181 — 192, December was 
called, by way of flattery, Amazonius, in honour 
of a courtesan whom that prince had loved, and had 
had painted like an Amazon. The English eom- 
1 menced their year on the 25th December, until the 
reign of William I. ; see Year. For 2 Dec. revolu- 
tion see France, 1851. 

DECEMVIRI, or Ten Men, appointed to 
draw up a code of laws, to whom for a year the 
whole government of Borne was committed, 451 B.C. 
The laws they drew up were approved by the 
senate and general assembly of the people, written 
on ten metallic tables, and set up in the place where 
the people met (comitium). Two more tables were 
added by a second decemvirate, 450 B.C. The. 
tyrannical conduct of Appius Claudius, one of the 
Decemviri, towards Virginia, who was stabbed by 
her father Virginius to save her from slavery, led 
to a revolution, and the re-establishment of the 
consular government, 449 B.C. - 

DECENNALTA, festivals instituted by Au- 
gustus, 17 b.c, celebrated by the Boman emperors 

every tenth year of their reign, with sacrifices, 
games, and largesses. Livy. Celebrated by An- 
toninus Pius, A.D. I48. 

DECIMAL SYSTEM of Coinage, 
WEIGHTS, &c, see Metric System. 



DECIPIUM. 



353 



DEFAMATION. 



DECIPIUM, a metal found by M. Dela- 
fontaine in the same earth with Philippium {which 
see) ; announced Nov. 1878. 

DECLARATION, see Independence, Rights, 
and Accession. 

DECOEATED STYLE, see Gothic. 

DECOEATIVE ART. Its principles, enun- 
ciated by A. W. Pugin, in his " Designs," in 1835, 
have been advanced by Owen Jones, Redgrave, and 
others. Owen Jones's elaborate "Grammar of 
Ornament" was published in 1856. A Decorative 
Art society, founded in 1844, existed for a short 
time only. 

DE COUECY'S PEIVILEGE, that of 
standing covered before the king, granted by king 
John to John de Courcy, baron of Kingsale, and 
his successors, in 1203. He was the first Irish 
nobleman created by an English sovereign, 27 
Hen. II. 1 181, and was entrusted with the govern- 
ment of Ireland, 1 185. The privilege was allowed 
to the baron of Kingsale by Will. III., Geo. III., 
and by Geo. IV. at his court held in Dublin, in 
Aug. 1821. The present baron, Michael Constan- 
tine De Courcy, premier baron of Ireland, b. 1855, 
succeeded 1895, is the 33rd in succession. 

DECEETALS. They formed the second part 
of the canon law, or collection of the pope's edicts 
and decrees and the decrees of councils. The first 
acknowledged to be genuine is a letter of Siricius 
to Himerus, a bishop of Spain, written in the first 
year of his pontificate, 385. Howel. Certain false 
decretals were used by Gregory IV. in 837. The de- 
cretals of Gratian, a Benedictine (a collection of 
canons), were compiled in 1150. Senault. Five 
books were collected by Gregory IX. 1227 ; a sixth 
by Boniface VIII. 1297 ; the Clementines by Cle- 
ment V. in 1313; employed by John XXII. in 1317 ; 
the Extravagantes range from 1422 to 1483. 

DEDICATION of the Jewish tabernacle took 
place 1490 B.C. ; of the temple, 1004 B.C.; of the 
second temple, 515 B.C. The Christians under Con- 
stantine built new churches and dedicated them 
with great solemnity, in a.d. 331, et seq. The 
dedication of books (by authors to solicit patronage 
or testify respect) existed in the time of Maecenas, 
17 B.C., the Mend and counsellor of Augustus, and 
a patron of Horace {Ode I. 1). 

DEED, a written contract or agreement. The 
formula, " I deliver this as my act and deed," 
occurs in a charter of 933. Fosbrooke. Deeds in 
England were formerly written in Latin or French ; 
the earliest known instance in English is the in- 
denture between the abbot of Whitby and Robert 
Bustard, bTafed at York iu 1343 ; see English Lan- 
guage. 

DEEMSTEE, the name given to the two 
judges who, in the Lie of Man, act as chief justices 
of the island. One presides over the northern and 
the other over the southern division. Mr. Hall 
Caine's novel The Deemster gives much interesting 
information about this office. In Scotland, the 
deemster, dempster, or doomster, was the title of 
an official attached to the High Court of Justiciary, 
whose office it was to pronounce the sentence of 
death on condemned persons. The office was united 
to that of executioner. 

. DEEP-SEA SOUNDINGS. Much new and 
interesting information respecting the animal life 
and temperature of the deep sea was acquired 
by the dredgings on the coast of Norway by M. 



Sars, and by those of Dr. W. B. Carpenter and 
prof. (aft. sir) Wy ville Thomson on our own coasts, 
near the Faroe isles, in 1868 and 1869, and in the 
Mediterranean by Dr. Carpenter in 1870. Living 
animals have been found at a depth of three miles. 
On 21 Dec. 1872, Dr. Wyville Thomson and a party 
of scientific men sailed in H.M.S. Challenger 
(Capt. G. S. Nares), to examine into the physical 
chemical, geological, and biological condition of the 
great ocean basins and the direction of their cur- 
rents. Deepest sounding then known was taken in 
the Atlantic, north of St. Thomas's, 3875 fathoms 
(4 miles, 710 yards), 24 March, 1873. On 10 Dec. 
1874, capt. Thompson succeeded capt. Nares, who 
took the command of the new Arctic expedition. 
The Challenger returned, with valuable collections, 
25 May, 1876, after a voyage of above 80,000 miles. 
The" Voyage" was published by sir C. "Wyville 
Thomson in Dec. 1877 ; and fifty volumes of re- 
ports, with many illustrations, had been published, 
in 1895. The Challenger expedition was warmly 
promoted by Mr. Robert Lowe (afterwards lord 
Sherbrooke), chancellor of the exchequer, 1868-73. 
A Norwegian expedition explored the northern seas 
16 July — 18 Aug. 1877 ; an Italian expedition in 
the Mediterranean started 2 Aug. 1881. 

Explorations carried on in tlie eastern Mediterranean 
for the academy of Vienna ; the greatest depth, 
i\ miles, is between Molla and Cerigo . March, 1891 

The greatest known ocean depth was said to be 4,475 
fathoms south of the Ladrone Islands. 

Aclm. W. J. Wharton stated that the soundings 
taken by H.M.S. Penguin in the S. Pacific, Feb. 
1896, exceeded 5,000 fathoms ; Times 29 Feb. 1896 

Exploration by the Danish cruiser Ingolf round 
Iceland, 2 years 20 Aug. ,, 

Expedition under Mr. G. Murray in the Oceana to 
determine the vertical distribution of oceanic life 
off W. coast of Ireland . . 5 N0V.-2 Dec. 1898 

German government deep sea expedition in the 
Valdivia to the Canaries, Cape of Good Hope, and 
Antarctic, leaves Aug. 1898, returns . 30 April, „ 

Sir John Murray state's greatest depth to be 5,155 
fathoms, E. of Friendly isles, S. Pacific, 14 Sept. 1899 

Internat. conferences on sea exploration, at Stock- 
holm, 15-23 June, 1899 ; at Christiania, May, 1901 

The Albatross, prof. Agassiz's, explorations in the 
Pacific, deepest sounding 4,813 fathoms, lat. 16° 
38' N Aug. et seq. 1899 

The Slboga, Dutch expedition under Herr Max 
Weber, in the Indian archipelago, 3,560 fathoms 
taken .... 7 March, 1893-27 Feb. igoo 

The Nero, U.S. ship, in the N. Pacific, between 
Midway island and Gaam, made 2 soundings, 
5,160 and 5,269 fathoms, in ,, 

Annual deep sea explorations by the prince of 
Monaco. 4th cruise in the Princess Alice, AV. 
Mediterranean and Atlantic . 18 July-Sept. 1902 

See also N.E. and N. W. Passages, Jan. 1903. 

DEEE are mentioned in a will of one Athel- 
stan, dated 1045. Professor Owen thinks that fallow 
deer are not native, but were introduced here at an 
early period. There are now in England 334 deer 
parks, the oldest being probably lord Abergavenny's 
at Eridge, Sussex. See Evelyn Shirley's "Account 
of Deer Parks," July, 1867. Large numbers of 
deer are kept at the royal parks of Windsor and 
Hampton court. 

DEEEHOUND, an English yacht, while 
conveying arms to the Carlists, seized by the 
Spanish government vessel Buenaventura, off Biar- 
ritz, and captain and crew imprisoned, 13 Aug. ; 
released about 18 Sept. 1873. 

DEFAMATION is punishable by fine and 
imprisonment by statute of 1843. The jurisdiction 
of the ecclesiastical courts on this subject was 
abolished by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 41 (1855). See Libel. 



DEFENCE. 



354 



DELFT. 



DEFENCE, see Church Defence, National 
Defence, and Naval and Military achn. 1895. 

DEFENCE ACT, a complete conscription act, 
authorising a levy en masse, 1803, was unsuccessful; 
new measures were taken in 1807-8. The Defence 
of the Realm Act passed 28 Aug. i860, in conse- 
quence of the unsettled state of Europe, and the 
doubtful policy of the emperor Napoleon ; see For- 
tification, Colonies, and Imperial defence. Other 
defence acts passed 1865 and 1873 ; see also Naval 
Defence Acts. 

" DEFENCE GOVERNMENT " in France, 
formed on 4 Sept. 1870, when the emperor was 
deposed and a republic proclaimed, gen. Trochu 
president ; it included Gambetta, Simon, &c. It 
resigned, after Paris had capitulated, 5, 6 Feb. 
187 1. Bee France. 

DEFENDER OF THE FAITH (Fidei De- 
fensor), a title of the British sovereign, conferred 
by Leo. X. on Henry VIII. of England, 11 Oct. 
1 52 1, for the tract against Luther on behalf of the 
Church of Borne (then accounted Domicilium fidei 
CatholictB), 

DEFENDERS, a faction in Ireland, which 
arose out of a quarrel between two residents of 
Market-hill, 4 July, 1784. Each was soon aided 
hy a large body of friends, and many battles ensued. 
On Whit-Monday, 1785, an armed assemblage of 
one of the parties (700 men), called the Nappagh 
Fleet, prepared to encounter the Bawn Fleet, but 
the engagement was prevented. They subsequently 
became religious parties, Catholic and Presbyterian, 
distinguished as Defenders and Peep-o' -day-boys: 
the latter were so named because they usually visited 
the dwellings of the Defenders at daybreak in search 
of arms ; see Diamond. 

DEGREES. Eratosthenes attempted to deter- 
mine the length of a geographical degree about 250 
B.C. See Geodesy, Latitude, and Longitude. Col- 
legiate degrees are coeval with universities. Masters 
and doctors existed, 826. See Lambeth Degrees. 
Those in law are traced up to 1149; in medicine, 
to 1384; in music, to 1463. Middle class exami- 
nations for degrees were instituted at Oxford, 18 
June, 1857 ; at Cambridge, 24 Nov. 1857 ; girls 
were allowed to compete for degrees, Oct. 1863 ; 
other universities since. See Women, 1896-7 etseq. 

DEI GRATIA, see Grace of God. 
DEIRA, a part of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of 
Northumbria ; see under Britain. 

DEISM, Theism, or Monotheism (Latin, 

■deus ; Greek, theos, God), the belief in one God, in 
opposition to polytheism and to the doctrine of the 
Trinity. About the middle of the 16th century 
some gentlemen of France and Italy termed them- 
selves deists, to disguise their opposition to Chris- 
tianity by a more honourable appellation than that 
of Atheism (which see). The most distinguished 
deists were Herbert, baron of Cherbury, in 1624; 
Hobbes, Tindal, Morgan, lord Bolingbroke, Gibbon, 
Hume, Holcroft, Paine, and Godwin. 
A higli-caste Brahmin, R&inmohun Hoy, founded a 
Brahmin monotheistic church in 1830, termed the 
Brahmo Bomaj. He died at Bristol 27 Nov. 1833. 
His reforming work was revived in 1842 by 
Debendra Nath Tangore. In 185S Baloo Keshub 
Chunder Sen joined the Bociety, and became a 
most energetic propagandist, advocating also 
social reform; being much opposed, he [brmed 
the new Brahmo Somaj of India in . . . . 1866 
Krsliiib Chunder Ben n^is received al a public 
meeting in London as a rei <. ta April, and 

suliscquriil 1\ plvarhnl in a I nihil iail Chapel, 

Finsburj . London 187c 



1893* 



1 So, 



Schism in his church ; new church formed (Society 
of God) 

He died at Calcutta 8 Jan. 

Protap Chunder Mozoomdar, a leader of the 
Brahmo Somaj, visited Chicago, where he at- 
tended the world's parliament of religions, in 

See Unitarians and Voysey. 
DEITIES, see Mythology. 
DELAGOA BAY, S. E. Africa, claimed V 

Great Britain and Portugal. Having been referred; 

to arbitration, the southern portion was awarded t(; 

Portugal by marshal MacMahon, Aug. 1875- 

The importance of the port was greatly increased jj 
by the discovery of gold in the Transvaal dis- 
tricts. The South African Republic promoted I. 
a railway to be constructed by German and Dutch 
capitalists. The acquisition of the bay by Great Y 
Britain strongly advocated . . . Dec. i88f 

The Portuguese government on 14 Dec. 1883, 1: 
granted a concession to a Portuguese company for ; 
the construction of a railway from the bay to the L 
Transvaal territory. The prospectus of the East ! 
African railway company (capital 500,000?.) was 1 
issued 7 March, 1887. As the railway was not 
completed in the specified time, the works were 't 
confiscated by the Portuguese government, 25 
June, etseq., who cancelled the concession (see 'i 
Portugal) 26 June, 188c 

The British and United States governments re- 
monstrate with Portugal. . . . April, 189/' 
i The completed railway inaugurated . 28 April ,, ; C: 

The Portuguese government accepts the principle ; i 
of arbitration ; the governments request the jo 
Swiss government to appoint three jurists to form t 
a court of arbitration . . reported 2 May ,,-D 

The Portuguese government pays 28,000?. to the 
British government for the railway company '', 
provisionally reported July ,, I- 

The court of arbitration meets at Berne . 8 Aug, 

A notice of the facts sent to Berne, 12 Nov. 1802 
meetings in Feb. 1896 ; report issued . April 

Portuguese routed in the Bilem district ; reported 

30 July 

Plague epidemic, 49 deaths at Magude, reported, 

14 Sept. 189 1 ' 

The Delagoa railway award delivered at Berne : 
Portugal to pay Great Britain and United States 
governments 612, 560Z. at 5 per cent, simple inte- 
rest per ami. from 25 June, 1899, to the date of 
payment, total amounting to about 950,000/. ; 
costs of arbitration to be paid by the 3 govern- 
ments 29 March, 

See Lourenco Marques, 1894. 

Natural resources of Delagoa bay and harbour to be 
developed by Portuguese authorities, announced, 

Jan, 

DELAWARE, one of the United States <£ 
North America, named after lord de la Warre, go; 
vernor of Virginia, who entered the bay 1610. I; 
was settled by Swedes, sent there by Gustavus i, 
1627 ; acquired by the Dutch, 1655 I ceded to th 
English, 1664. Capital, Dover. Population, i88<[ 
146,608; 1890, 168,493; 1900, 184,735. 
By an explosion at Messrs. Dupont's powder mills 

near Wilmington 13 persons were killed, 7 Oct. 

1890 ; explosion in a pulp mill at Wilmington, 

13 deaths, 6 missing, reported . . 21 Aug. 19c 

DELEGATES, Court op- Appeals to th 

pope in ecclesiastical causes having been i'orbiddel 
(see Appeals'), such causes were for the future to q 
heard in this court, established bv Henry VIL 
1533. Stow. This court was abolished in 183:' 
and appeals now lie to the Judicial Committee ' 
the Privy Council, according to 3 & 4 Will. IV. «! 
41 (1833*) ; ando & 7 Viet. c. 38 (1843). SeeArchel 

DELEGATIONS, in the Austro-Hungaria, 
Monarchy, established in 1867, composed of (\ 
Austrian and 00 Hungarian members. 

DELFT (S. Holland), a town founded by God'; 
frey le Bossu, about 1074 ; famous for " Del 



toe 






19c 



,. 



DELHI. 



355 



DELUGE. 



earthenware ;" first manufactured here about 1310. 
The sale of delft greatly declined after the introduc- 
tion of potteries into Germany and England. Gro- 
tius, jurist, was born here, 16 April, 1583 ; tercen- 
tenary celebrated 10 April, 1883. His statue 
erected, 17 Sept. 1886. And here "William, the 
great prince of Orange, was assassinated by 
Gerard, 10 July, 1584 ; tercentenary celebrated 10 
July, 1884. Population, 1890, 29,022 ; 1900, 
31,878. 

DELHI, the once great capital of the Mogul 
empire, and chief seat of the Mahometan power in 
India ; it was taken by Timour in 1398. It is now 
in decay, but contained a million of inhabitants in 
1700. In 1739, when Nadir Shah invaded Hin- 
dustan, he entered Delhi ; 100,000 of the inhabitants 
perished by the sword, and plunder to the amount of 
62,000,000^. sterling is said to have been collected. 
Similar calamities were endured in 1761, on the 
invasion of Abdalla, king of Candahar. In 1803, 
the Mahrattas, aided by the French, took Delhi ; 
but were defeated by general Lake, II Sept., and 
the aged Shah Aulum, emperor of Hindostan, was 
restored to his throne with a pension ; see India, 
[803. On 10 May, 1857, a mutiny arose in the 
sepoy regiments at Meerut. It was soon checked ; 
but the fugitives fled to Delhi on 11 May, and, 
combined with other troops here, seized the citj r ; 
proclaimed a descendant of the Mogul king, and 
committed frightful atrocities. The rebels were 
anxious to possess the chief magazine, but after a 
gallant defence it was exploded by order of lieut. 
Willoughby, who died of his wounds shortly after. 
The other heroes of this exploit were lieutenants 
Forrest and Eayner, and the gunner's Buckley and 
Scully. Delhi was shortly after besieged by the 
British, but was not taken till 20 Sept. following. 
The final struggle began on the 14th ; brigadier 
(aft. sir) Archdale Wilson, the commander, much 
aided by col. E. Baird Smith. Much heroism 
was shown; the gallant death of Salkeld at the 
explosion of the Cashmere gate created much 
enthusiasm. The old king and his sons were 
captured soon after: the latter were shot, and 
the former after a trial was sent for life to Ran- 
goon, where he died n Nov. 1862. See India, 
1857. A camp formed at Delhi by the earl of Mayo, 
the viceroy, Dec. 187 1, was visited by the king of 
Siam, Jan. 1872. The prince! of Wales visited 
Delhi, n Jan. 1876. Queen Victoria was proclaimed 
empress of India here with much magnificence, many 
Indian princes being present, I' Jan. 1877. Great 
fire, 2000 houses burnt, 19 April, 1883. Pop. 1901, 
208,575. 

Foundation-stone^f Dufferin Hospital laid by lord 

Dufferin . >--— - -<" . . 2 Nov. 1885 
Riots by collisions at Hindoo and Mahommedan 

festivals quelled by the military 5 Oct. et seq. 1886 
Great fire, 300 houses destroyed . 11-12 May, 1889 
Fanatical riots quelled . . about 8 April, 1892 
Railway collision, 50 persons killed or injured ; re- 
ported 27 July, 1896 

Statue of queen Victoria unveiled . . 26 Dec. 1902 
Proclamation of Edward VII. king and emperor, 
see India, Jan. 1903. 

"DELICATE INVESTIGATION" into the 

conduct of the princess of Wales (afterwards queen 
of England, as consort of George IV.), was com- 
menced by a committee of the privy council, under 
a warrant of inquiry, dated 29 May, 1806. The 
members were lord Grenville, lord Erskine, earl 
Spencer, and lord Ellenborough. The inquiry, of 
which the countess of Jersey, sir J. and lady Doug- 
las, and other persons of rank, were the prompters, 
led to the 'publication called "The Book"; after- 



wards suppressed. The charges against the princess 
were disproved in 1807 and in 1813 ; but not being 
permitted to appear at court, she went on the conti- 
nent in 18 14 ; see Queen Caroline. 

DELIUM, Bceotia, N. Greece, the site of a 
celebrated temple of Apollo. Here, in a conflict 
between the Athenians and the Boeotians, in which 
fhe former were defeated, Socrates the philosopher 
is said to have saved the life of his pupil Xenophon, 
424 B.C. 

DELLA. CEUSCA ACADEMY of Florence 
merged into the Florentine in 1582. — The Della 
Crusca School, a term applied to some English 
residents at Florence, who printed inferior senti- 
mental poetry and prose in 1785. They came to 
England, where their works, popular for a short 
time, were severely satirised by Gifford in his 
"Baviad" and "Majviad" (1792-5). 

DELOS, a Greek isle in the iEgean sea. Heie 
the Greeks, during the Persian war, 477 B.C., estab- 
lished their common treasury, which was removed 
to Athens, 461. Excavations, resulting in inter- 
esting discoveries, were made in the island by the 
French in 1883. 

DELPHI (N. Greece), celebrated for its enig- 
matical oracles delivered by the Pythia or priestess 
in the temple of Apollo, which was built, some say, 
by the council of the Amphictyons, 1263 B.C. The 
Pythian games were first celebrated here 586 B.C. 
The temple was burnt by the Pisistratidae, 548 B.C. 
A new temple was raised by the Alcmseonidse. The 
Persians (480 B.C.) and the Gauls (279 B.C.) were 
deterred from plundering the temple by awful por- 
tents. It was, however, robbed and seized by the 
Phocians 357 B.C., which led to the sacred war, and 
Nero carried from it 300 costly statues, A.d. 67. 
The oracle was consulted by Julian, but silenced by 
Theodosius. 

An ancient hymn to Apollo, the words and musical 
notation, inscribed on two tablets, recently dis- 
covered, sung in the presence of the king and 
queen, &c, at Athens ... 29 March, 1894 
Excavations by the French school of archeology ; 
discoveries of the remains of the temple of 
Apollo, April, 1894 ; a great statue of Apollo 
and altar (date about 480 B.C.) . .' May, ,, 

DELPHIN CLASSICS, a collectionof thirty- 
nine Latin authors in sixty volumes, made for the 
use of the dauphin (in itsum Delphini), son of Louis 
XIV., and published in 1674-91. Ausonius was 
added in 1730. The due de Montausier, the young 
prince's governor, proposed the plan to Huet, bishop 
of Avranches, the dauphin's preceptor ; and he, with 
other learned persons, including Madame Dacier,* 
edited all the Latin classics except Lucan. Each 
author is illustrated by notes and an index of words. 
An edition of the Delphin classics, with additional 
notes, &c, was published by Mr. Valpy of London, 
1818, et seq. 

DELTA, the island formed by the alluvial de- 
posits between the mouths of the Nile, so named 
by the Greeks from its resemblance to their letter 
A (our D). 

Delta Metal, a modern bronze resembling gold, con- 
taining a small proportion of iron, invented by Mr. A. 
Dick : watch cases were made of it at Geneva in 1885. 

DELUGE, The, which was predicted by 
Noah, is described in Genesis vi. vii. viii. ; dated 
by Usher and the English Bible 2348 B.C. The 

* This beautiful and gifted woman translated Calli- 
maclius at the age of 23 ; and also A nacreon, Sappho, 
Plautus, Terence, and Homer. She died in 1720. 

A A 2 



DEMEEAEA. 



356 



DENMABK. 



following are the epochs of the deluge, according 
to Dr. Hales : — 



Septuagint . 


B.C. 3246 


Clinton . 


B.C. 2482 


Jackson 


• 317° 


Playfair 


• 2352 


Hales . . 


• • 3i55 


Marsham 


• • 2344 


Josephus . 


. 3146 


Petavius 


• 2329 


Persian . 


• • 3103 


Strauchius 


• • 2293 


Hindoo 


. 3102 


Hebrew 


. 2288 


Samaritan 


. . 299S 


Vulgar Jewish 


. 2104 


Howard 


. 2698 







Traditional deluges described in the classics : in Bceotia 
and Attica in the reign of Ogyges, 18th century B.C. ; 
in The.ssaly in the reign of Deucalion, 1503 B.C. ; the 
dates are conjectural. 

DEMEEAEA, Essequibo, and Berbice, 

colonies in .British Guiana, South America, founded 
by the Dutch, 1580, were taken by the British, under 
major-general VVhyte, 22 April, 1796, but were re- 
stored at the peace of Amiens, March, 1802. They 
again surrendered to the British under general 
Grinfield and commodore Hood, Sept. 1803, and 
became English colonies in 1814. See Guiana, 
British. 

Kiot of coolies, conflict with police, 6 killed, 7 
wounded 6 May, 1903 

DEMISE OF THE CBOWN Act, royal 
assent, 2 July, 1901, making fresh appointments to 
offices held under the crown unnecessary after the 
death of the sovereign. 

DEMOCEATIC FEDEEALS, a political 
party, proposed by Mr. Joseph Co wen, M.P. for 
Newcastle, opposed to the policy of the government 
of Mr. Gladstone, 5 April, 1881. 

DEMOCEATS, advocates for governmentby the 
people themselves {demos, people, and kratein, to 
govern), a term adopted by the French republicans 
in 1790 (who termed their opponents aristocrats, 
from aristos, bravest or best). The name Democrats 
was adopted by the pro-slavery party in N. America 
(the southern states), and the abolitionists were 
called Republicans. Into these two great parties a 
number of smaller ones were absorbed at the presi- 
dential election in 1856. In i860, the Bepublicans 
formed " Wide-awake" clubs for electioneering pur- 
poses, and succeeded in getting their candidate, 
Abraham Lincoln, elected president, 4 Nov., which 
led to civil var ; see United States, i860. 

In the autumn of 1874, the democrats, free-traders, 
and opponents of negro-rule, once more obtained the 
majority in the elections for the next congress ; a re- 
action in their favour against the republicans, protec- 
tionists, then powerful ; see United States, 1875-7. Go- 
vernor Grover Cleveland, democrat, elected president, 
4 Nov. 1884; not re-elected, being replaced by general 
Benjamin Harrison, republican . . .5 Nov. 1888 

Mr. Cleveland was re-elected president, 8 Nov. 1892, 
the democrats having obtained a majority in the new 
congress and the senate, the first time since i860. The 
democrat party was much disorganized by the election 
of Mr. M'Kinley, republican; see United States, Nov. 
1896 it seq. 

DEMOGEABHY. A modern term, signify- 
ing " the natural history of society." Qu< telet. 
See Hygiene. 

DEMONOLOGY, see Devil Worship. 

DENAIN (N. France). Here marshal Villars 
defeated tbe Imperialists, 24 July, 1712. 

DENABIUS, the chief silver coin among the 
Romans, weighing the seventh part of a Boman 
ounce, and value ~-\d. sterling, tirst coined about 
269 B.C., when it exchanged for ten ases (see As). 
In 2I(> B.C, it exchanged for sixteen ases. A DOlind 

weight of silver was coined into 100 denarii, vigby. 



A pound weight of gold was coined into twenty 
denarii aurei in 206 B.C. ; and in Nero's time in,ta> 
forty-five denarii aurei. Lempriere. 

DENHAM MTJEDEES, see Trials, 187a. 

DENIS, St., an ancient town of France, near 
Paris, famous for its abbey and church ; the former 
abolished at the revolution, the latter the place of 
sepulture of the French kings, from its foundation 
by Dagobert, about 630 ; the remains of the saint 
Denis were placed there in 636. On 6, 7, 8 Aug. 
1 793, the republicans demolished most of the royal 
tombs, and in Oct. following, the bodies were takem 
from coffins and cast into a pit ; the lead was melted, 
and the gold and jewels taken to Paris. By a de- 
cree of Bonaparte, dated 20 Feb. 1806, the church 
(which had been turned into a cattle-market) was 
ordered to be cleansed out and redecorated as "the 
future burial-place of the emperors of France." On 
the return of the Bourbons, more restorations were 
effected, and the due de Berri and Louis XVIII. 
were buried here. The damage sustained in the 
war of 1870-1 has been well repaired. Near St. 
Denis the Catholics defeated the Huguenots, but 
lost their leader, the constable Montmorency, 10 
Nov. 1567. 

DENISON'S ACT (18 & 19 Vict. e. 34), pro- 
vided ''for the education of the children of persons- 
in receipt of out-door relief: " passed 26 June, 1855. 

DENMAN'S Act, Lord, 6 & 7 Vict. c. 85 
(1843), related to juries and witnesses, permitting 
them to affirm instead of taking an oath. It is 
superseded by the oaths act 1888. 

DENMAEK (N. Europe). The most ancient 
inhabitants were Cimbri and Teutones, who were 
driven out by the Jutes or Goths. The Teutones 
settled in Germany and Gaul ; the Cimbrians in- 
vaded Italy, where they were defeated byMarius. 
The peninsula of Jutland obtained its name from 
the Jutes ; and the name of Denmark is supposed to 
be derived from Dan, the founder of the Danish 
monarchy, and mark, a German word signifying 
country. For their numerous invasions of Britain, 
&c, see Danes. Population of the kingdom of Den- 
mark in i860, 1,600,551 ; of the duchies of Schles- 
wig, Holstein, andLauenburg, 1,004,473; of the colo- 
nies, 120,283. By the treaty of peace, signed 30 
Oct. 1864, the duchies were taken from Denmark; 
Schleswig and Holstein were to be made indepen- 
dent, and Lauenburg was to be incoi-porated, by 
its desire, with Prussia. For the result, see Gastein 
and Prussia, 1866. Population of the monarchy, 
1870, 1,784,741; 1880, 1,969,039; of the colonies, 
1880, 127,200; 1900 (including Faroe Isles), 
2,185,335. llevenue, 1889-90,3,192,0091.; 1893-94, 
3,08^,0891. ; 1896-7, 3,624, 185?; 1901-2,5,379,5281. 
Imports, 1890, 17,057,0001.; 1892, 18,029,845; 1 90 1, 
22,101,7661.; exports, 1890, 12,990,000/.; 1892, 
14,017,696/. ; 1896, 15,771,053/.; 1901, 16,222,333/. 

[The early dates are doubtful.] 
Reign of Skiold, alleged first king . . b.c. 
The Danish chronicles mention 18 kings to the time 

of Ragnar Lodbrog, killed in an attempt to invade 

England a.d. 

Canute the Great conquers Norway . . 1016-28 

By the union of Cahnar, Denmark. Norway, and 

Sweden made une kingdom under Margaret, 

12 July, 1397 

Copenhagen made the capital 1440 

Accession of Christian t. (of Olderibv/rg), from whom 

the late royal family sprang . . ... 144S 
ClU'istian II. deposed; independence of Sweden 

under Gustavus Vasa acknowledged . . . 1523 
Lutheranism introduced in 1527; established by 

Christian III 1536 



60 



794 



DENMAEK. 



357 



DENMAEK. 



Danish East India Company established . . . 1612 
•Christian IV. chosen head of the Protestant league 

against the emperor 1629 

Charles Gustavus of Sweden invades Denmark, tie- 
sieges Copenhagen, and makes conquests . . 165S 
The crown made hereditary and absolute . . 1665 
Frederick IV. takes Holstein, Schleswig, Tonningen, 
and Stralsund ; reduces Weismar, and drives the 
Swedes from Norway .... 1716 et seq. 
Copenhagen nearly destroyed by tire . . . 1728 
The peaceful reign of Christian VI. . . 1730-46 
Plot of the queen dowager against the ministers ami 
Matilda (sister of our George III. and queen of 
Christian VII., a weak monarch). Matilda, en- 
trapped into a confession of criminality to save the 
life of her supposed lover, Struenzee, condemned 
to imprisonment for life in the castle of Zell, 

18 Jan. 1772 
Count Struenzee and Brandt beheaded 28 April, ,, 

Queen Matilda dies, aged 24 1775 

Christian VII. becomes deranged, and prince Frede- 
rick is appointed regent 1784 

One-fourth of Copenhagen burnt . . 9 June, 1795 
Admirals Nelson and Parker bombard Copenhagen 
(which see). (Confederacy of the North, see Armed 
Neutrality, dissolved.) ... 2 April, 1801 

Admiral Gambierand lord Cathcart bombard Copen- 
hagen ; the Danish fleet surrenders . 7 Sept. 1807 
Peace of Kiel : Pomerania and Biigen annexed to 

Denmark for Norway .... 14 Jan. 1814 
Pomerania and Rugen ceded to Prussia for Lauen- 

burg 1815 

Commercial treaty with England .... 1824 
Frederick VI. grants a new constitution . . . 1831 
Christian VIII. declares the right of the crown to 

Schleswig, Holstein, <fec. . . .11 July, 1846 
Accession of Frederick VII. 20 Jan. ; he proclaims 
a new constitution, uniting the duchies more 
closely with Denmark .... 28 Jan. 1848 
Insurrection in the duchies : a provisional govern- 
ment founded 23 March, ,, 

The rebels seize fortress of Rendsburg 24 March, „ 
They are defeated near Flensburg . 9 April, „ 

The Danes defeated by the Prussians (helping the 

duchies) near Dannawerke, Schleswig . 23 April, ,, 
The North sea blockaded by Denmark . 1 Aug. ,, 
Hostilities suspended : the European powers recom- 
mend peace 26 Aug. ,, 

Hostilities recommence ... 25 March, 1849 
Victory of the Danes over the Holsteiners and Ger- 
mans 10 April, ,, 

Several conflicts with varying success . June, ,, 
The king sanctions a new liberal constitution, 

\ 5 June, ,, 
Armistice renewed at Malmo . . . 10 July, ,, 
Separate peace with Prussia . . . , 2 July, 1850 
Integrity of Denmark guaranteed by England, France, 

Prussia, and Sweden . 4 July, „ 

Battle of Idstedt, and defeat of the Schleswig-Hol- 

steiners by the Danes .... 25 July, ,, 
Protocol signed in London by the ministers of all 

the great powers 23 Aug. ,, 

Bombardment of Friedriehstadt by the Holsteiners, 
and the town almost destroyed, but not taken, 

~- — -— -£9 Sept. to 6 Oct. „ 
Proclamation of the stadtholders of Schleswig-Hol- 
stein, placing the rights of the country under the 
protection of the Germanic confederation 10 Jan. 1851 
The integrity of the Danish monarchy and the inde- 
pendence of Schleswig and its old union with Hol- 
stein guaranteed by treaty . . . 18 Feb. 1852 
Austrians evacuate Holstein, &c. . . 2 March, ,, 
Treaty of European powers. [The succession in 
the line of Sonderburg-Gliicksburg settled, and 
the integrity of the Danish kingdom guaranteed. 
Christian, duke of Augustenburg-Holstein, re- 
nounced his rights for a compensation in money. ] 

8 May, „ 
The king promulgates a new constitution, 29 July, 

1854 ; adopted 1 Oct. 1855 

The sound dues abolished for a compensation (see 

Sound) 14 March, 1857 

Dissension between the government and the duchies, 

Oct. 1857-62 
Fortification of Copenhagen decreed 27 March, 1858 

New ministry appointed 3 Dec. 1859 ; resigns 9 Feb. ; 
bishop Monrad forms a ministry . . 24 Feb. i860 



The assembly of Schleswig complain that the pro- 
mise of equality of national rights in 1852 has not 
been kept, 11 Feb. ; protest against the annexa- 
tion to Denmark 1 March, i860 

The Prussian chamber of deputies receive a petition 
from Schleswig, and declare that they will aid the 
duchies, 4 May ; at which the Danish government 
protests 16 May, „ 

Correspondence ensues between the Prussian, 
Danish, and British governments ; the Danish 
government declare for war, if German forces 
enter the duchies Jan. 1861 

Warlike preparations in Denmark . . . Feb. ,, 

Decimal coinage adopted .... June, ,, 

Agitation in favour of union of Denmark with 
Sweden, June ; the king of Sweden visits Den- 
mark, and is warmly received . . . 17 July, 1862 

Earl Russell recommends the government to give 
to Holstein and Lauenburg all that the Germanic 
confederation desire for them, and to give self- 
government to Schleswig . . -24 Sept. „ 

M. Hall, the Danish minister, declines to accede : . 
stating that to do so would imperil the existence 
of the monarchy itself . . . . 20 Nov. ,, 

Princess Alexandra of Denmark married to the 
Prince of Wales at Windsor . . 10 March, 1863 

The king grants, by patent, independent rights to 
Holstein, but annexes Schleswig . 30 March, ,, 

Austria and Prussia protest against it . 17 April, ,, 

Further diplomatic correspondence . . May, ,, 

The king accepts the crown of Greece for his rela- 
tive, prince William-George, and gives him sound 
political advice 6 June, ,, 

Deatli of the crown prince Frederick-Ferdinand, 
the king's uncle 29 June, „ 

The German diet demands annulment of the patent 
of 30 March ; (Holstein and Schleswig to be united 
with the same right ; ) and threatens an army of 
occupation 9 July, ,, 

The king replies that he will consider occupation to 
be an act of war 27 Aug. ,, 

Vain efforts for alliance with Sweden . Aug. „ 

Extra levy for the army decreed . . 1 Aug. „ 

New constitution (uniting Schleswig with Denmark) 
proposed in the rigsraad . . . . 29 Sept. „ 

Death of Frederick VII. and accession of Christian 
IX is Nov. ,, 

Prince Frederick of Augustenburg claims the 
duchies of Schleswig and Holstein . . 16 Nov. ,, 

Great excitement in Holstein ; many officials refuse 
to take oath to Christian . 21 Nov. et seq. „ 

Saxony, Bavaria, Hesse, and other German powers 
resolve to support the prince of Augustenburg, 

26 Nov. et seq. „ 

New constitution affirmed by the rigsraad, 13 Nov. ; 
signed by king, 18 Nov. ; published, . 1, 2 Dec. ,, 

The Austrian and Prussian ministers say that they 
will quit Copenhagen if the constitution of 18 
Nov. is not annulled .... Dec. „ 

Great excitement in Norway : proposals to support 
Denmark Dec. „ 

Prince Frederick's letter to the emperor Napoleon, 
2 Dec. ; an ambiguous reply ... 10 Dec. ,, 

Denmark protests against federal occupation 

19 Dec. ,, 

900 representatives of different German states meet 
at Frankfort, and resolve to support prince Frede- 
rick as duke of Schleswig and Holstein, and the 
inseparable union of those duchies . . 21 Dec. ,, 

The federal execution takes place ; a Saxon regiment 
enters Altona, 24 Dec. ; and the federal commis- 
sioners assume administrative powers . 25 Dec. „ 

The Danes retire from Holstein, to avoid collision 
with federal troops . . .24 Dec. et seq. „ 

Prince Frederick enters Kiel, as duke of Schleswig 
and Holstein 3° Dec. »> 

The Danes evacuate Rendsburg . -31 Dec. „ 

Ministerial crisis : Hall retires, and bishop Monrad 
forms a cabinet 31 Dec. ,, 

Dissension among Germans : the Austro-Prussian 
proposition rejected by the diet . . 14 Ja Q - 1864 

Austria and Prussia demand abrogation of the con- 
stitution (of 18 Nov.) in two days, 16 Jan. ; the 
Danes require six weeks' time . . 18 Jan. ,, 

The German troops under marshal Wrangel enter 
Holstein 21 Jan. „ 

The Prussians enter Schleswig, and take Eckenforde, 

1 Feb. ,, 



DENMAKK. 



358 



DENMARK. 



They bombard Missunde, 2 Feb. ; which is burnt, 

3 Feb. 
The Danes abandon the Dannewerke to save their 
army, 5 Feb. ; great discontent in Copenhagen, 
' 6 Feb. 

The Danes defeated by Wrangel at Oever-see ; 
Schleswig taken ; pr. Frederick proclaimed, 6 Feb. 
The allies occupy Flensburg, 7 Feb. ; commence 
their attack on Diippel .... 13 Feb. 
The federal commissioners protest against the Prus- 
sian occupation of Altona . . . . 13 Feb. 
The Prussians enter Jutland ; take Kolding, 18 Feb. ; 
Danes fortify Alsen ... 18 Feb. et seq. 
A conference on - Danish affairs proposed by Eng- 
land ; agreed to by allies . . . . 23 Feb. 
A subscription for the wounded Danes begun in 

London 24 Feb. 

De Gertach, general of the Danes . . 1 Mar. 
Defeated at Sonderbygaard and Veil . 8 Mar. 
The rigsraad vote a firm address to the king, 26 

Feb. ; adjourned 22 Mar. 

The Prussians bombard and take the village of Diip- 
pel, or Dybbol, 16, 17 March, and bombard Fred- 
ericia, 20 March ; repulsed in an attack on the 

fortress 28 Mar. 

The opening of the conference adjourned from 12 

to 20 April, 
The Prussians take the fortress of Diippel, by assault, 
with much slaughter . ... 18 April, 

Meetings of the conference of London : result un- 
favourable to Denmark . . 25 April, et seq. 
The Danes retreat to Alsen ; evacuate Fredericia 

and fortresses of Jutland 29 April, 

Agreement for an armistice for one month from 12 

May 9 May, 

Jutland subjected to pillage for not paying a war 

contribution to Prussians . . 6 May, et seq. 

The Danes defeat the allies in a naval battle off 

Heligoland May, 

The armistice prolonged a fortnight . 9 June, 

Tae conference ends 22 June 

Hostilities resumed, 26 June ; the Prussians bom- 
bard Alsen ; take the batteries and 2400 prisoners, 

29 June, 
The Monrad ministry resigns ; count Moltke 
charged to form an administration . 8-10 July, 
Alsen taken ;— Jutland placed under Prussian ad- 
ministration ;— Prince John of Denmark sent to 
negotiate at Berlin .... 9 July, 
Formation of the Bluhme ministry . . 11 July' 
Armistice agreed to .... 18 Julj% 

Conference for peace at Vienna . . .26 Julj% 
Treaty of peace signed at Vienna ;— the king of Den- 
mark resigns the duchies to the disposal of the 
allies, and agrees to a rectification of his frontier, 
and to pay a large sum of money to defray the 
expenses of the war .... 30 Oct. 
Proclamation of the king to the inhabitants of the 
duchies, releasing them from their allegiance, 

16 Nov. 

Project of a new constitution presented to the 

chambers, 21 Dec. ; rejected . . 25 Feb 

New ministry formed under count Frijsoiiborg,' 

6 Nov. ; a new constitution proposed, 7 Nov. 1865- 

approved by the two chambers, 19 and 27 July : 

sanctioned by the king . . . 28 July 

Princess Dagmar married to prince Alexander of 

Russia Nov 

New rigsraad opened .... 12 Nov 

The king visited England . . . March 

The Danish West Indies, St. Thomas and St. John' 

proposed to be sold to the United States for 

1,500,000?. —proclamation in the islands dated 

25 Oct. 
I'niposed side of SI. Thomas's i<> the Cnited States 

approved by the assembly (not carried out), 

30. J an. 
Marriage of the crown prince Frederic to the prin- 
cess Louisa of Sweden . . 28 July 
New ministry formed by M. Holsteinborg, io May' 
Denmark remains neutral in the Franco-Prussian 
war; fruitless visit of the due de Cadore to 

Copenhagen ..„ A||i; 

Birth of a son to the crown prince . 27 Sept 

Destructive hurricane over the kingdom ■ loss of ufe 

and property ,,. , . N „ v . 



1865 



1S66 



1870 



Parliament opened 1 Oct. 1871 

War budget reduced .... 18 Dec. „ 

Meeting of the "International" (see Working Men) at 
Copenhagen forbidden ; chiefs arrested 5 May, 1872 

Industrial exhibition opened . . 13 June, „ 

Statue of Frederick VII., at Copenhagen, solemnly 

inaugurated 6 Oct. 1873. 

A communistic party in the assembly (folkething) 
defeat the ministry, 4 Dec. ; the king refuses to 
dismiss it . 6 Dec. „ j 

New ministry under Fonnesbeck . . 14 July, 1874 

The king visits Iceland {which see), July-Aug. ; 
Edinburgh 16 Aug. ,, 

Several ministerial changes 1875 

J. B. S. Estrup, president of the ministry, 11 June, „ 

The folkething, defeating the government on the 
question of fortifications, is dissolved 29 March, „ 

New assembly meets, 15 May ; votes no confidence 
in the ministry, 12 June ; is adjourned, 24 June, 1876 

Continued contest between the king and senate and 
the lower house Oct. ,, 

Crisis respecting the supplies .... Dec. ,, 

The session closed without settling the budget, 

4 April, 1877 

Provision made by the king for it in accordance 
with the constitution . . . .12 April, „ 

Political crisis ; an armistice agreed to . 8 Nov. ,, 

Marriage of princess Thyra with the duke of Cum- 
berland 11 Dec. 187S 

The lower house dismissed by the king as incapable 
and idle about 10 May, 1883. 

Anna Kristiane Ludvigsen, author of patriotic 
songs, dies, aged 90 .... 27 July, 1884 

Opposition of the lower house continues ; legisla- 
tion greatly stopped 1881-4 

Elections : lower house, 82 liberals (opposition) ; 
20 conservatives June, 1884 

The king recommends unity in providing national 
defence about 30 Oct. ,, 

The king refuses to dismiss his ministry, 21 March ; 
closes parliament ; decrees financial arrangement, 

1 April, 1885 

Importation and possession of arms and drill pro- 
hibited 5 May, ,, 

M. Estrup fired at by Julius Rasmussen 21 Oct. „ 

The parliament condemns the restrictive press laws 
by great majority 21 Dec. „ 

M. Berg, president of the assembly, sentenced to 
six months' imprisonment for obstructing the 
police at a meeting Jan. 1886 

Discord in parliament, which is closed . 8 Feb. ,, 

Fusion of two parties forming the left of the 
Diet about 26 Oct. ,, 

The folkething dissolved .... 8 Jan. 18S7 

Amnesty granted to political prisoners on the 
king's 70th birthday . . . . 8 April, 1888 

25th anniversary of the king's accession celebrated 

15th Nov. „ 

The Budget rejected 16 Oct. 1885; 26 Jan. 1886; 
1 April, 1887 ; t April, 1888 ; 1 April, 1889 ; 31 
March, 1890 ; 1 April, 1891 — the revenue collected 
by royal decree 1886-91 

Elections for the folkething ; the moderates suc- 
cessful 20 April, 1892 

National celebration of the king's golden wedding, 

26 May, , r 

New military bill introduced . . about 27 Oct. ,,. 

Death of Christian Kichardt, national poet, aged 61 

Dec. „ 

The king decrees a provisional budget for 1892-3, 
1 April, 1892 ; 1893-94 .... 1 April, 1893 

The king and queen visit England, June; present 
at the marriage of the duke and duchess of 
York, 6 July; visit the queen at Windsor, 
12 July ; leave England . . . 27 July, ,, 

Anarchist club discovered in Copenhagen ; some 
arrests 23 Feb. 1894 

The ministerial budget accepted by the parliament ; 
surplus, 2,830,000 kronen . . 30 March, ,, 

Messrs. Hunter & Erichsen, of Newcastle, v. M. 
Tietgen, in I'npenhngen (15 years' suit); 11.000?. 
claimed fur supplies for harbour works at Esbjcrg 
from 1868-71 ; verdict for the plaintiffs reversed 
by the supreme court .... 1 June, ,„ 
The_ crown prince visits England . . June, „ 

Resignation of M. Estrup, 19 years autocratic 
premier ; cabinet re-constructed, baron de 
Reed tz-Thott, premier .... 7 Aug. ,, 



DENMAEK. 



359 



DENMAEK. 



Death of M. Carl Plong, " Paul Rytter," poet and 

politician 27 Oct. 1894 

Loan of 25,000,000 kroner, at 3 percent., authorised 

4 Dec. ,, 
Electoral district (reform) bill passed . 20 Dec. ,, 
The budget passed, with a surplus . 16 March, 1895 
Parliamentary election ; small radical majority 

9 April, ,, 

Parliament opened 7 Oct. ,, 

Budget, with a surplus, passed . . 31 March, 1896 

Prince Charles, son of the crown prince, married to 
princess Maud of Wales at Buckingham palace 

22 July, ,, 

Count Frijs-Frijsenborg (premier 1865-70) died, 
aged 79 12 Oct. ,, 

Budget, with compromise ; reported . 23 April, 1897 

Cabinet crisis ; premier, M. de Reedtz-Thott, re- 
signs 11 May, ,, 

New ministry ; M. Horring, premier . 23 May, ,, 

Collision between a fast train and a standing excur- 
sion train at Gjentofte, near Copenhagen, 32 
deaths, 99 injured ; M. Hoist and many members 
ef associations killed . . . n July, ,, 

Debt conversion bill passed, authorizing a 3 per 
cent, state loan of 72,000,000 kroner . 26 Nov. ,, 

Elections (lower house) radical victory . 5 April, 1898 

Mr. E. Fane appointed British Minister (knt., 1899 ; 
died, 20 March, 1900) June ,, 

The queen dies, much lamented, 29 Sept. ; funeral at 
Copenhagen 15 Oct. ,, 

See Prussia, Oct. 1898. 

M. Bille, statesman and journalist, dies, aged 70, 

11 Nov. ,, 

Cabinet reconstructed, M. Bramsen (interior), col. 
von Schnack (war) .... 28 Aug. 1899 

General lock-out (40,000) in the building and engi- 
neering trades, 31 May, 1899 ; extended to other 
trades, Aug. ; closed in favour of the employers, 

5 Sept. ,, 
Budget for 1900: revenue, 72,900,000 kroner; 

expenditure, 72,000,000 kroner, introduced, 3 Oct. ,, 
Resignation of the Horring cabinet . 22 March, 1900 
The prince and princess of Wales arrive . 5 April, ,, 
M. Schested (conservative) forms a cabinet, 

27 April, ,, 
Committee elected to examine the taxation laws, 

government majority of 1 . . 5 Dec. ,, 

Sophus Schandorph, poet and novelist, born, 

8 May, 1837, died i Jan. 1901 

General election : utter defeat of the conservatives 

and the ministry, reported . . 4 April ,, 
Ministerial crisis, early May; M. Schested remains 

in office 22 May, ,, 

Constitutional day ; anti-ministerial demonstra- 
tions 5 June, ,, 

Cabinet resigns, 17 July ; prof. Deuntzer forms a 

radical ministry 23 July, ,, 

Radical deputation from all districts received by 

the king 1 Sept. „ 

Royal gathering at Fredensborg, Aug. ; joined by 
the czar and czarina, 2=To-SapL4-king Edward 
arrives, 7 Sept. ; he receives a deputation and an 
address in Copenhagen ; he and the queen visit 
prof. Finsen's Light institute (see Tuberculosis, 
1901), 13 Sept.; they leave . . 23 Sept. „ 
Great fire at Kallundborg, 30 houses burnt ; esti- 
mated damage, 2,000,000 kroner . 23, 24 Sept. ,, 
Parliament opened by the king . . 5 Oct. ,, 
Bill authorising a new state loan passed . 12 Oct. ,, 
Death of Mr. C. F. Tietgen, the great merchant, 

"the king of the Baltic," aged 72 . 19 Oct. ,, 
Tercentenary of Tycho Brahe's death celebrated at 
Copenhagen, Prague, and Lund, in Sweden, 

24 Oct. ,, 
Death of M. Sophus Hogsbro, aged 79 . 15 Jan. 1902 
Treaty for the sale of the Danish West Indies to 
the United States signed at Washington, 24 Jan.; 
rejected by the Landsthing . . 16 May, ,, 
President Loubet visits the king . . 25 May, ,, 
Danish West Indian company formed, prince 

Waldemar president .... 25 Oct. ,, 
Government bill, repealing existing land taxes, pro- 
viding a pro rata property tax, an income tax, a 
tax on capital, and the reform of commercial 
assessments adopted by large majority by the 
folkething May 1903 



A.D. SOVEREIGNS. 

794. Sigurd Snogoje. 
803. Hardicanute. 
850. Eric I. 
854. Eric II. 

883. Gormo, the Old ; reigned 53 years. 
941. Harold, surnamed Blue Tooth. 
991. Suenon, or Sweyn, the Forked-beard. 
1014. Canute II. the Great, king of Denmark and 

England. 
1035. Canute III., son (Hardicanute of England). 
1042. Magnus, surnamed the Good, of Norway. 
1047. Suenon, or Sweyn II. (Denmark only). 
1073. [Interregnum.] 
1076. Harold, called the Simple. 
1080. Canute IV. 
1086. Olaus IV. the Hungry. 
1095. Eric I. , styled the Good. 
1 103. [Interregnum.] 
1 105. Nicholas I. killed at Sleswick. 
1 135. Eric II., surnamed Harefoot. 
1137. Eric III. the Lamb. 

f Suenon, or Sweyn III. : beheaded. 
"47- I Canute V. until 1157 (civil war). 
1 157. Waldemar, styled the Great. 
1182. Canute VI., surnamed the Pious. 
1202. Waldemar II. the Victorious. 
1241. Eric IV. 
1250. Abel : assassinated his elder brother Eric ; killed 

in an expedition against the Frisons. 
1252. Christopher I. : poisoned. 
1259. Eric V. 
1286. Eric VI. 
1320. Christopher II. 
1334. [Interregnum of seven years.] 
1340. Waldemar III. 
!375- [Interregnum.] 
1376. Olaus V. 
1387. Margaret, styled the "Semiramis of the North," 

queen of Siveden, Norway, and Denmark. 
1397. Margaret and Eric VII. (Eric XIII. of Sweden.) 
1412. Eric VII. reigns alone ; obliged to resign both 

crowns. 
1438. [Interregnum.] 
1440. Christopher III. king of Siveden. 
1448. Christian I. count of Oldenburg ; elected king of 
Denmark, 1448 ; of Sweden, 1457 ; succeeded by 
his son. 
1481. John ; succeeded by his son, 

1513. Christian II. , called the Cruel, and the "Nero of 
the North ;" he caused all the Swedish nobility 
to be massacred : dethroned for his tyranny in 
1523 ; died in a dungeon in 1559. 
[Sweden separated from Denmark.] 

DENMARK AND NORWAY. 

1523. Frederick I. duke of Holstein, son of Christian I. ; 

a liberal ruler. 
1533. Christian III. son of Frederick ; established the 

Lutheran religion ; esteemed the " Father of his 

People." 
1559. Frederick II. son of Christian III. 
1588. Christian IV. son. 
1648. Frederick III. ; changed the constitution from an 

elective to an hereditary monarchy, vested in 

his own family, 1665. 
1670. Christian V., son of Frederick HI. ; succeeded by 

his son. 
1699. Frederick IV. ; leagued with the czar Peter and the 

king of Poland against Charles XII. of Sweden. 
1730. Christian VI. his son. 
1746. Frederick V. his son : married the princess Louisa 

of England, daughter of George II. 
1766. Christian VII. his son. 
1784. Prince Frederick declared regent, in consequence 

of the mental derangement of his father. 
1808. Frederick VI. previously regent, now king. 
1814. Norway annexed to Sweden, 14 Jan. 

DENMARK. 

1839. Christian VIII. (son of Frederick, brother of 
Christian VII.) 

1848. Frederick VII. son of Christian VIII. ; 20 Jan. ; 
born 6 Oct. 1808 ; separated from his first wife 
Sept. 1837 : from his second wife, Sept. 1846 ; 
married morganatically Louisa, countess of 
Danner, 7 Aug. 1850 ; died 15 Nov. 1863. 



DENNEWITZ. 



360 



DERBY ADMINISTRATIONS. 



63. Christian IX. son of William, duke of Sohleswig- 
Holstein-Sonderburg-Gliicksburg ; 15 Nov. suc- 
ceeded by virtue of the protocol of London, 8 
May, 1852, and of the law of the Danish succes- 
sion, 31 July, 1853. He was born 8 April, 1818 : 
married princess Louisa of Hesse-Cassel, 26 
May, 1842 (born 7 Sept. 1817; died 29 Sept. 
1898). [He is descended from Christian III. 
and she from Frederick V. ; both from George II. 
of England.] 
Heir : Frederick (his son), born 3 June, 1843 ; married 
princess Louisa of Sweden, 28 July, 1869. Sons : 
Christian, born 26 Sept., 1870 ; Charles, born 3 
Aug. 1872, married princess Maud of Wales, 
1896. 

DENNEWITZ (Prussia), here a victory was 
obtained by marshal Bernadotte (afterwards 
Charles XIV., king of Sweden), over marshal Ney, 
6 Sept. 1813. The loss of the French exceeded 
13.000 men, several eagles, and cannon; of the 
allies, 6,000. The defeat of Napoleon at Leipsic, on 
the 18th of October following, closed this disastrous 
campaign. 

DENOMINATIONS, The Three (pres- 

byterians, congregationalists or independents, and 
baptists), were organised in 1727 as an association, 
with the privilege of direct appeal to the reigning 
sovereign of Great Britain. 

_ DENTISTS, an act for regulating their educa- 
tion and registration, passed, 22 July, 1878. By 
this act "no one except qualified medical prac- 
titioners and those bona fide engaged in the practice 
of dentistry at the time of the act's passing can 
take or use the title ' dentist ' or any title signifying 
that he is registered, under a penalty of 20/., and in 
future any person desiring to become a dentist must 
undergo a course of study, and have taken a degree 
or licence." 

The Odontological Society (of Dentists), established 1856. 
The Dental Hospital of London, Leicester-square, was 

established 1858, rebuilt and opened 1902. See 

Odontology. 
Sir John Tomes, F.R.S., reformer of dental surgery, 

born 1815, died 29 July, 1895. 

DEODAND (Latin, " to be given to God") : 
formerly anything which had caused the death of 
a human being became forfeit to the sovereign or 
lord of the manor, and was to be sold for the benefit 
of the poor. The forfeiture was abolished by 9 & 
10 Vict. c. 62 (1846). 

D'EON, Chevalier, who had acted in a 

diplomatic capacity in several countries, and been 
minister plenipotentiary from France in London, 
was affirmed to be a, female, at a trial at the King's 
Bench in 1771, in an action to recover wagers as to 
his sex. He subsequently wore female attire ; but 
at his deatli he was proved to be a male. His " True 
story," published by Ernest Vizctelly, 1896. 

. DEONTOLOGY, the knowledge of what is 
right, or the science of duty (from the Greek to deon, 
that which is proper), an element of the Utilitarian 
philosophy propounded by Jeremy Bentham in his 
" Deontology," published by Dr. Bowring in 1834. 

DEPARTMENTS, sec France. 

DEPRESSION of Trade, see Trade, 1885. 

DEPTFORD (near London). The hospital 
here was incorporated bv Henry VIII. about 1512, 
and called the Trinity-house of Deptford Stroud ; 
the brethren of Trinity-house hold their corporate 
rights by this hospital. The dockyard, founded 
about 1513, was closed 31 March, 18(19, having been 
purchased by Mr. T. P. Austin for 70,000/. lie si. Id 
part of it to the corporation of London for 94,040/., 



for a market for foreign cattle, which was opened 
for use, 28 Dec. 1871. On 4 April, 1581, Queen 
Elizabeth dined at, Deptford on board the Golden 
Hind, the ship in which Drake had made his 
voyage round the globe. The Deptford victualling- 
ofiice was burnt 16 Jan. 1748-9; the store-house, 2 
Sept. 1758; the red-house, 26 Feb. 1761 ; and the 
king's-mill, 1 Dec. 1755. Peter the GreatofKussia 
lived at Evelyn's house, Say's-court, while learning 
ship-building, &c, in 1698. By the acts, 1884-5, 
Deptford returns one member to parliament, John 
Evelyn the first. Deptford park purchased from 
Mr. "W. J. Evelyn for 36,031/. by the London 
county council ; opened 7 June, 1897. Baths and 
washhouses opened by lord mayor, 20 April, 1898. 
Constituted a borough under the London Govern- 
ment act 1899. 

DEPUTIES, Chamber of, the title borne 

by the French legislative assembly, from the resto- 
ration of the Bourbons in 1814 till Jan. 1852, when 
it was named " Corps Legislatif." 

DERBY was made a royal burgh by Egbert 
(about 828) . Alfred expelled the Danes from it and 
planted a colony in 880. His heroic daughter, 
Ethelfleda, again expelled the Danes in 918. 
William I. gave Derby to his illegitimate son 
"William Peveril. Lombe's silk-throwing machine 
was set up in 1718 ; and in 1756, Jedediah Strutt 
invented the Derby ribbed stocking-frame. The 
young Pretender reached Derby, 3 Dec. 1745, and 
retreated thence soon after. The new town-hall was 
opened 29 May, 1866. The midland counties fine 
art exhibition was held here, and was opened by the 
duke of Devonshire, 5 May, 1870. Mr. M. T. Bass 
gives 25,000/. for a museum and library, and an en- 
dowment of 3000/. for an art gallery announced, Jan. 
1882. Art gallery, the gift of Mr. M. Bass and others, 
opened 4 Nov. 1882. Queen Victoria laid the founda- 
tion-stone of the Derbyshire Eoyal Infirmary, 21 
May, 1891. Population, 1881,81,168; 1891, 94,146; 
1901, 105,785. 

Derby Trials. Brandreth, Turner, Ludlam senior, 
Ludlam junior, Weightman, and others, Luddites, con- 
victed at a commission of high treason, 15 Oct. 1817 ; 
and Brandreth, Turner, and the elder Ludlam exe- 
cuted, 7 Nov. following. 23 others were tried. 
21 prisoners indicted at Derby for the murder of several 
miners in the Red-soil mine ; acquitted on the ground 
that the mischief was not wilful, 23 March, 1834. 
The new Grand Theatre burnt ; 3 deaths . 6 May, 1886. 
Mr. Ernest T. Hooley, sets aside 15,000?. per ami. 
for the poor of his district, to be distributed 
annually by local committees, in commemoration 
of the 60th year of the queen's reign . Jan. 1897 
New county court buildings opened by lord chan- 
cellor Halsbury 9 April, „ 

Municipal technical college opened by the duke of 

Devonshire 19 Jan. 1899 

Miss Eliz. Turner bequeaths bulk of her estate to 
establish almshouses and for other charitable 
objects of the city - . . . . Jan. 1903 

DERBY ADMINISTRATIONS : the first 
formed after the resignation of lord John Kussell, 
21 Feb. 1852 (facetiously termed the "who who 
administration,'' from the duke of Wellington's 
inquiry), 

FIRST ADMINISTRATION, 27 Feb. 1852. 

First ton! of the treasury, Edward, earl of Derby.* 

Lord chancellor , lord St. Leonards (previously sir Edward 

Sugden). 
President of tin- council, earl of Lonsdale. 

* Born 1799 ; M.P. for Stockbridge (as hon. E. G. S. 
Stanley) in 1S20; chief secretary for Ireland, 1830-33; 
secretary for the colonies. 1833-4, '"" 1 ,S 4 I "5 : termed the 
" Rupert of debate " by lord Lytton in"theNewTimon," 
1845 ; succeeded his father as earl of Derby, 30 June, 
1851 ; resigned 25 Feb. 1S68 ; died 23 Oct. 1869. 



DERBY DAY. 



361 



DERBY. 



Lord privy seal, marquis of Salisbury. 

Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries, Spencer Horatio 

Walpole, earl of Malmesbury, and sir John Pakington. 
Chancellor of the exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli. 
Board of control, John Charles Hemes. 
Board of trade, Joseph Warner Henley. 
Postmaster-general, earl of Hardwicke. 
Secretary-at-war, William Beresford. 
First commissioner of works and public buildings, lord 

John Manners. 
Robert Adam Christopher, lord Colchester, &c. 
[Defeated on the budget, 16 Dec. ; resigned 17 Dec. 1852 ; 

succeeded by the Aberdeen administration.] 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION, 25 Feb. 1858. 

First lord of the treasury, earl of Derby. 

Lord chancellor, lord Chelmsford (previously sir F. 
Thesiger). 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli. 

Secretaries— foreign, earl of Malmesbury ; home, Spencer 
H. Walpole (resigned March, 1859), T. Sotherou Est- 
court ; colonies, lord Stanley; in June, 1858, sir E. 
Buhver Lytton ; war, col. Jonathan Peel. 

Presidents — of the council, marquis of Salisbury ; of board 
of control (India), 1, earl of Ellenborough (who resigned 
in May, 1858 ; he had sent a letter, on his own autho- 
rity, censuring the proclamation of lord Canning to the 
Oude insurgents ; the government hardly escaped a 
vote of censure); 2, in June, 1858, lord Stanley; — 
board of trade, Mr. Joseph W. Henley (resigned in 
March, 1859) ; earl of Donoughmore ; — board of works, 
lord John Manners. 

Lord privy seal, earl of Hardwicke. 

First lord of the admiralty, sir John S. Pakington. 

Postmaster, lord Colchester. 

Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, duke of Montrose. 

[This ministry resigned in consequence of a vote of want 
of confidence, 11 June, 1850 ; it was succeeded by the 
Palmerston- Russell cabinet (which see).] 

THIRD ADMINISTRATION, CONSTITUTED 6 July. 1866. 

First lord of the treasury, Edward, earl of Derby. 

Lord chancellor, Frederick, lord Chelmsford. 

President of council, Richard, duke of Buckingham ; 
succeeded by John, duke of Marlborough, 8 March, 
1867. 

Lord privy seal, James, earl of Malmesbury. 

Secretaries — home, Spencer Horatio Walpole, resigned ; 
Gathorne Hardy, 17 May, 1867 -—foreign, Edward, lord 
Stanley ; — colonies, Henry, earl of Carnarvon, resigned ; 
Richard, duke^fTJctckhjgham and Chandos, 8 March, 
1867; — war, lieut.-gen. sir Jonathan Peel, resigned; 
sir John Somerset Pakington, 8 March, 1867 ; — India, 
Robert, lord Cranborne, resigned ; sir Stafford Henry 
Northcote, 8 March, 1867. 

ChoMcellor of the exchequer, Benjamin Disraeli. 

First lord of admiralty, sir John S. Pakington ; suc- 
ceeded by Henry Thomas Corry, 8 March, 1867. 

Chief commissioner of works, &c, lord John Manners. 

President of board of trade, sir Stafford Northcote ; suc- 
ceeded by Charles Henry, duke of RHimond, March, 
1867. 

Chief secretary for Ireland, Richard T l.ofd Naas (afterwards 
earl of Mayo) 

President of poor-law board, Gathorne Hardy ; succeeded 
by Wm. Reginald, earl of Devon (not in cabinet), 17 
May, 1867. 

Horatio Spencer Walpole, without office, died 1898. 
The above formed the cabinet, Feb. 1868. 

Postmaster-general, James, duke of Montrose. 

Lord chamberlain, Orlando, earl of Bradford. 

Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, William, earl of 
Devon ; succeeded by colonel John Wilson Patten, 
June, 1867. 

Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, James, earl (afterwards mar- 
quis) of Abercorn. 
The earl of Derby resigned through ill-health, 25 Feb. 
1868 ; and Mr. Disraeli reconstituted the ministry, 
see Disraeli.] 

DERBY DAY (see Maces), generally (not 
always) the Wednesday in the week preceding 
"Whitsunday, the second day of the grand spring 
meeting at Epsom. The Derby was won by prince 
Regent in 1816, and by the Duke of York in 1822. 
Mr. Henry Hall, who painted 43 consecutive win- 
ners of the Derby, died 22 April, 1882. 



RECENT WINNERS OF " THE DERBY" AT EPSOM. 



846. Pyrrhus. 

847. Cossack. 

848. Surplice. 

849. Flying Dutchman. 

850. Voltigeur. 

851. Teddington. 

852. Daniel O'Rourke. 

853. West Australian. 

854. Andover. 

855. Wild Dayrell. 

856. Ellington. 

857. Blink Bonny. 

858. Beadsman. 

859. Mus.jid. 

860. Thormanby. 

861. Kettledrum. 

862. Caraotacus. 

863. Macaroni. 

864. Blair Athol. 

865. Gladiateur, 31 May 
(a horse reared in France, 
the property of the comte 
de la Grange. He also 
won the St. Legerat Don- 
caster, 13 Sept.). 

1866. Lord Lyon (16 May). 

1867. Hermit (22 May). 

1868. Blue Gown (^7 May). 

1869. Pretender (26 May). 

1870. Kingcraft (1 June). 

1871. Favonius (24 May). 

1872. Cremorne (29 May). 

1873. Doncaster (28 May). 

1874. George Frederick 
(3 June). 

1875. Galopin (26 May). 

1876. Kisber, or Mineral 
Colt (Hungarian, owner, 
Alex. Baltazzi), 3r May. 

1877. Silvio (30 May). 

1878. Sefton (5 June). 

1879. Sir Bevys (baron 
Rothschild's), 28 May. 

1880. Bend Or (duke of 
Westminster's) May 26. 

1 881. Iroquois (Mr. Loril- 
lard's, an American), 1 
June. 

1882. Shotover (duke of 
Westminster's), 24 May. 



1883. St. Blaise (sir Fredk. 
Johnstone's), 23 May. 

1884. St. Gatien (J. Ham- 
mond's), and Harvester 
(sir J. Willoughby's), 28 
May. 

1885. Melton (Id. Hastings) 
3 June. 

1886. Ormonde (duke of 
Westminster), 26 May. 

1887. Merry Hampton (Mr. 
Abington), 25 May. 

1888. Ayrshire (duke of 
Portland), 30 May. 

1889. Donovan (duke of 
Portland), 5 June. 

1890. Sanfoin (sir James 
Miller), 4 June. 

1891. Common (sir F. John- 
stone), 27 May. 

1892. Sir Hugo (lord Brad- 
ford), 1 June. 

1893. Isinglass (Mr. H. 
M'Calinont), 31 May. 

1894. Ladas (lord Rose- 
bery), 6 June. 

1S95. Sir Visto (lord Rose- 
bery), 29 May. 

1896. Persimmon (prince of 
Wales, present at the 
race), 3 June. 

1897. Galtee More (Mr. J. 
Gubbins), 2 June. 

1898. Jeddah (Mr. J. W. 
Larnach), 25 May. 

1899. Flying Fox (duke of 
Westminster). 

1900. Diamond Jubilee 
(prince of Wales, present 
at the race), 30 May. 

1901. Volodyovski (Mr. 
W. C. Whitney, an Ame- 
rican), s June. 

1902. Ard Patrick (Mr. J. 
Gubbins), 4 June. 

1903. Rock Sand (sir Jas. 
Miller), 27 May. 



DERELICT LAND TRUST, formed by 
subscription to promote the cultivation of farms in 
Ireland from which the tenants have been evicted 
for non-payment of rent. "Plantations" in county 
Wexford were formed in 1889. 
A report of a committee respecting derelict vessels 
in the Atlantic recommend no definite action, 
except prompt reporting of such when dis- 
covered 30 Nov. 1894 

DERMATOLOGY, the science of the skin 
and its diseases. 
The International dermatological congress met at Paris 

in 1889 ; at Vienna, 5 Sept. 1892 ; in London, Aug. 

1896. 

DERRICKS are lofty, portable crane-like 
structures, used on land and water for lifting enor- 
mous loads, and in some cases depositing them at an 
elevation. They are extensively used in the United 
States, and were introduced into England as floating 
derricks for raising sunken vessels, by their inventor, 
A. D. Bishop, in 1857. 

DERRY (N. Ireland), a bishopric first at Ard- 
frath ; thence translated to Maghera ; and in 1158 
to Derry. The cathedral, built in 1164, becoming 
ruinous, was rebuilt by Londoners, who settled here 
in the reign of James I. The see is valued in the 
king's books at 250^. sterling ; but ithas been oneof 
the richest sees in Ireland. Beatson. The see was 
united to Derry, 1834 ; see Bishops; Londonderry. 



DERVISH. 



3G2 



DEVONSHIRE AND PITT. 



DERVISH. (Persian, signifying "poor.") 
The dervishes of the present time, fanatical enthu- 
siasts, unrecognized by orthodoxy, originated in 
Persia, whence they spread over the Mahommedan 
world. The khalifa Abdulla killed at Om Debrikat 
24 Nov. 1809. Dervish trophies and relics ex- 
hibited at Whitehall, 22 Nov. et seq. 1898. See 
Soudan. 

DESCENT OF MAN, see Development. 

"DESERTED VILLAGE," a poem, by Dr. 
Oliver Goldsmith, first published, May, 1770. 

DESICCATING APPARATUS, see under 
Hay. 

DESIGN, SCHOOLS OF, established by go- 
vernment, began at Somerset-house, London, 1 Jan. 
1837. In 1852 the head school was removed to 
Marlborough-house, and became eventually " the 
department of science and art," transferred to South 
Kensington in 1857. Itis under the direction of the 
committee of council on education and arts. See 
Copyright, Sept. 1896. 

DESPARD'S CONSPIRACY. Colonel Ed- 
ward Marcus Despard, a native of Ireland, Brough- 
ton, Francis, Graham, Macnamara, Wood, and 
Wratten conspired to kill the king, and establish a 
republic, on the day of opening parliament, 16 Nov. 
1802. Above 30 persons including soldiers were 
taken in custody ; of those tried, 20 Jan. 1803, 
Despard and six others were executed, 21 Feb. He 
had been a distinguished officer under Nelson. 

DESTITUTE CHILDREN'S DINNER 
SOCIETY, established in 1867, to give weekly 
meat dinners. 16,822 dinners given in 1869 ; 
147,858 dinners in 58 dining rooms in 1870 ; 1 14,000 
dinners in 42 dining rooms, year 1876-7; 170,000 
dinners in 49 rooms, 1878-9; now about 283,000 
annually. In 1890, the co-operation of several 
societies was effected. 

DESTRUCTIVE INSECTS (to crops), an 
act passed to prevent their introduction and spread- 
ing in Great Britain, 14 Aug. 1877. See Colorado. 

DETECTIVE POLICE, see Police, and 

Trials. 

DETROIT, Michigan, U.S.A., the oldest city in 
the west, was built by the French about 1610. It is 
eminent for large metal works. Population in 1880, 
116,340; 1890,205,876; 1900,285,704. 

DETTINGEN (Bavaria), BATTLE OF, r6 (or 
27 0. S.) June, 1743, between the British, Hano- 
verian, and Hessian army (52,000), commanded by 
king George II. of England and the earl of Stair, and 
the French army (60,000), under marshal Noailles 
and the due de Grammont. The French passed a 
defile, which they should have merely guarded. 
The due de Grammont with his cavalry charged the 
British foot with great fury, but was so received 
that he was obliged to give way, and to repass the 
Maine, losing 3000 men. Handel's " Dettingen Te 
Deum," first performed, 27 Nov 1743. 

DEUTERONOMY. See Bible, note. 

DEVELOPMENT (or Evolution). Wolff put 
forth a theory of epigenesis in 1759; Lamarck, the 
naturalist, in 1809, propounded a theory that all 
animals had been developed from "monads," Living 
minute particles ; sec Species and Vestiges. Button 
held a similar doctrine. In r827 Ernst von Baer of 
Konigsberg demonstrated that all mammals are de- 
veloped from a minute egg not a hundredth of an 
inch in diameter. Mr. ('. Darwin's views are given 
in his "Origin of Species," 1859; and "Descent 



of Man," 1871. He supposes that man was gradu- 
ally evolved from the lowest created form of animal 
life. Hasckel, his most advanced follower, pub- 
lished in German a "History of Creation," 1873; a 
translation in English, 1875. ^ r - Alfred Wallace 
published his work on Natural Selection in 1870. 
See Evolution. 

The theory of the development of living beings out of 
the substance of the earth was put forth by Lucretius 
in his " De Rerum Naturse," about 57 B.C. 
" We cannot teach, we cannot pronounce it to be a con- 
quest of science, that man descends from the ape or 
from any other animal. We can only indicate it as a 
hypothesis." — Professor Virchoiu, 1877. 
" The primitive monads were born by spontaneous 

generation in the sea." — Professor Hceckel, 1878. 
The Royal Society's Darwin medal was first awarded to 
Mr. Alfred Russel Wallace in i8qo. 

DEVIL WORSHIP. Devil, Greek, diabolos, 
false accuser; Hebrew, satan, an adversary; abad- 
don, destroyer, &c. The worship of devils is fre- 
quently mentioned in the Bible {Lev. xvii. 7 ; 
2 Chron. xi. 15; 1 Cor. x. 20; Rev. ix. 20, &c.) 
Mr. Layard describes the Tezidees as recognising 
one supreme being, yet reverencing the devil as a 
king or mighty angel, to be conciliated (1841). 
Mr. Moncure Conway's " Demonology and Devil-Lore," 

first published Dec. 1878. 

DEVIZES, a borough, Wiltshire; the castle 
here was founded by bp. Eoger, about 1107; and 
was for some time royal property until Cromwell 
besieged and ruiued it. The remains were sold by 
the executors of the last holder, Mr. R. V. Leach, 
for 8,000^. in August, 1888. At Koundway Down, 
near here, sir William Waller and the parliamenta- 
rians were defeated, 13 July, 1643. Population of 
the town 1901, 6,532; of the borough, 13,070. 
Visit of the prince of Wales ; centenary of the 

royal Wiltshire yeomanry . . -24 May, 1893 

DEVOLUTION, a term applied in 1886-8 to 
the transfer of business of minor importance in the 
parliament to grand or other committees (see Com- 
mittees) . 

DEVONPORT, see Dockyards and Plymouth. 

DEVONSHIRE, the country of the Dam- 
nonii or Dumnonii. Odun, earl of Devon, in 878, 
defeated the Danes, slew UbboorHubba their chief, 
and captured his magic standard. A bishopric of 
Devonshire was founded in 909; see Exeter. 
Richard de Redvers, first earl oi Devon, son of Baldwin, 

sheriff nf Devonshire, died 1137. 

William Courtenay, the present earl, is descended from 

Robert de Courtenay and Mary de Redvers, daughter 

of William de Redvers, earl of Devon in 1184. 

William Cavendish, created first earl of Devonshire, 1618. 

William Cavendish (his great grandson), created first duke 

of Devonshire, 1694. 
His descendant, William Cavendish, born 27 April, 
1808 ; became earl of Burlington, 1834 ; and 7th duke 
of Devonshire, 1858 ; chancellor of the university of 
London, 1836; of the university of Cambridge, 1861. 
See Barrow-in-Furness, Eastbourne, and Owens College. 
The duke died 21 Dec, 1891. Spencer C. Cavendish, 
the Sth duke, was born 23rd July, 1833. See Gladstone. 
Administrations tst and" 2nd; elected chancellor of 
Hie University of Cambridge, 4 Jan., 1892, see also 
Salisbury and Balfour. 

DEVONSHIRE AND PITT ADMINIS- 
TRATION, formed 16 Nov. 1756; dismissed 
5 April, 1757. 

First lord qftlu treasury, William, duke of Devonshire. 
Chancellor oftht exchequer, hon. Henry Bilson Legge. 
Lord prcsidt ut, earl Granville (lord Carteret). 
Privy seal, earl Gower. 
Secretaries of state, earl of Holdernesse and Wm. Pitt 

(afterwards earl of Chatham, the virtual premier). 



"DEVOUT LIFE." 



363 



DIAMONDS. 



George Grenville, earl of Halifax, dukes of Rutland and 
Grafton, earl of Rochfort, viscount Barrington, &c. 
- The great seal in commission. 

" DEVOUT LIFE." " Introduction a la Vie 
dp vote," written by St. Francois de Sales, and 
published 1608. He was bora 21 Aug. 1567; bishop 
of Geneva, 1602 ; died, 28 Dec. 1622. 

DEW, the modern theory respecting it was put 
forth by Dr. Wells in his book, 1814. 

' DEWANGIRI, see India, 1865. 

DIADEM, the band or fillet worn by the 
ancients instead of the crown, and consecrated to the 
gods. At first it was made of silk or wool, set with 
precious stones, and was tied round the temples and 
forehead, the two ends being knotted behind, and 
let fall on the neck. Aurelian was the first Roman 
emperor who wore a diadem, 272. Tillemont. 

DIALECTICAL SOCIETY, London, for 

the philosophical consideration of all subjects, with 
a view to the discovery and elucidation of truth, 
was established in 1866. The members at one time 
included profs. Huxley and W. K. Clifford, sir 
Andrew Clark, visct. Amberley, Mr. George Henry 
Lewes, "W. A. Hunter, Sir John Lubbock, Miss 
Frances Power Cobbe, and Dr. Alice Vickery. The 
report of their committee on spiritualism was pub- 
lished in Nov. 187 1. The Society ended 29 Sept. 
1894. See Wales, 1890. 

DIALECTS, see English Language and Wales, 
1890. 

DIALS. "The sun-dial of Ahaz," 713 B.C. 
(Isa. xxxviii. 8). A dial invented by Anaximander, 
S50 B.C. Pliny. The first dial of the sun seen at 
Rome was placed on the temple of Quirinus by L. 
Papirius Cursor, when time was divided into hours, 
293 B.C. Blair. Dials set up in churches about 
a.d. 613. Lenglet. Mrs. Alfred Gatty's " Book of 
Sun Dials " was published in 1872. 

DIALYSIS, an important method of chemical 
analysis, dependin^oiT~the different degrees of 
diffusibility of substances in liquids, was made 
known in 1861, by its discoverer, professor Thomas 
Graham, then master of the mint. 

DIA-MAGNETISM, the property possessed 
by nearly all bodies of behaving differently to iron, 
when placed between two magnets. The pheno- 
mena, previously little known, were reduced to a 
law by Faraday in 1845, and confirmed by Tyndall 
and others. 

DIAMOND, a hamlet, Armagh, N. Ireland, 
where was fought the " battieof the Diamond," 21 
Sept. 1795, between the " Peep-o'-day-boys" and 
the "Defenders," and many of the latter were killed. 
To commemorate this conflict the first Orange 
Lodge was formed immediately after. See De- 
fenders. 

DIAMOND JUBILEE, see Jubilee, 1897. 

DIAMONDS were first brought to Europe 
from the East, where the mine of Sumbulpoor was 
the first known. Golconda, in India, now in ruins, 
was a celebrated diamond mart. The mines ol 
Brazil were discovered in 1728. From these 
last a diamond, weighing 1680 carats, or fourteen 
ounces, was sent to the court of Portugal, and was 
valued by Mr. Romeo de l'lsle at 224 millions; 
by others at 56 millions, and at 3! millions ; its 
true value (not being brilliant) was 400,000^. 

The great Russian diamond weighs 193 carats, or 1 oz. 
12 dwts. 4 gr. troy. The empress Catherine II. offered 



for it 104,166?. 13s. 4CI. , besides an annuity for life to 
the owner of 1041?. 13s. 4c?., which was refused ; but it 
was afterwards sold to Catherine's favourite, count 
Orloff, for the first -mentioned sum, without the 
annuity, and was by him presented to the empress 
on her birthday, 1772 ; it is now in the sceptre of 
Russia. 
The Pitt (or Regent) diamond weighed 136 carats, and 
after cutting, 106 carats : it was sold to the king of 
France for 125,000?. in 1720. 
The Pigott diamond (bought by Mr. Pitt, grandfather 

of Win. Pitt) was sold for 9500 guineas, 10 May, 1802. 
The diamond called the Kohinoor, Koh-i-Nur, or 
Mountain of Light, has a legendary history, and 
is said to have belonged in turn to Shah Jehan, 
Aurungzebe, Nadir Shah, the Afghan rulers, and after- 
wards to the Sikh chief Runjeet Singh. Upon the ab- 
dication of Dlmleep Singh, the last ruler of the Pun- 
jab, and the annexation of his dominions to the British 
empire, in 1849, the Kohinoor was surrendered to the 
queen. It was accordingly brought over and presented 
to her, 3 July, T850. It was shown in the Great Exhi- 
bition, 1851. Its original weight was nearly 800 carats, 
but it was reduced by the unskilfnlness of the artist, 
Hortensio Borghese, a Venetian, to 279 carats. Its 
shape and size resembled the pointed half (rose cut) of 
a small hen's egg. The value is scarcely computable, 
though two millions sterling have been mentioned as a 
justifiable price, if calculated by the scale employed in 
the trade. This diamond was re-cut in 1852, and now 
weighs 102J carats. 
The Sanci diamond, which belonged to Charles the 
Bold, duke of Burgundy, was bought by sir C. 
Jejeebhoy from the Demidoff family for 20,000?. in 
Feb. 1865. 
Mr. Porter Rhodes's great diamond (weighing 150 carats ; 
alleged value 6o,ooo?.) found at Kimberley 12 Feb- 
1880, exhibited by Mr. Streeter, Bond-street, London, 
Nov. 1881. 
Ancient diamond said to have belonged to the Mogul 
emperors of India, date of engraved characters possibly 
1200, shown by Mr. Bryce Wright, Jan. 1882. 
A diamond, termed the Star of the South, was brought 
from Brazil in 1855, weighing 254^ carats, half of which 
was lost by cutting. 
Diamonds were discovered in Cape Colony, S. Africa, in 
March, 1867. A fine one, termed the "Star of South 
Africa," brought to England in 1869, was purchased by- 
Messrs. Hunt and Roskell. After cutting, it weighed 
46 j carats, and was valued at 25,000?., in June, 1870. 
Rich diamond fields discovered near the Vaal and 

Orange rivers, Sept. 1870. 
Great influx of diggers, and many fine diamonds found, 
Nov. Value of 141 diamonds found in 1869, 7405?. ; of 
5661 found in 1870, 124,910?. ; about 2,000,000?. said to 
be exported in 1877. See Griqua-lancl, West. 
The largest African diamond found, weighing 302- 
carats, at Kimberley, named " Victoria," 27 March, 
1884. 
Several magnificent South African diamonds have since- 
been discovered — one said to weigh 400 carats, reduced 
by cutting to 180. 1884-8. 
Estimated value of South African diamonds up to 1886, 

40,000,000?. 
By a fire and panic in De Beer's mine, Kimberley, about 

220 perish, 11 July, 1888. 
Diamonds discovered in British Guiana by Mr. Kaufmann, 

spring, 1891. 
A diamond weighing 655 carats found in the Jagersfon- 

tein mine in the Orange Free State, 26 Nov. 1895. 
Application of the mechanical or saving process to 
rough diamonds, by which parts from the rough stone 
can be cut to any size desired and converted into 
small brilliants, effects great change in diamond- 
workers' trade. See Animal report of Amsterdam- 
Chamber 0/ Commerce, issued Jan. 1903. 
Diamond Necklace Affair.- In 1785, Bcehmer, the 
court jeweller of France, ottered the queen Marie An- 
toinette, a diamond necklace, for 56,000?. The queen 
desired the necklace, but feared the expense. The- 
countess de la Motte (of the ancient house of Valois) 
forged the queen's signature, and by pretending that, 
the queen had an attachment for him, persuaded the 
cardinal de Rohan, the queen's almoner, to conclude a 
' bargain with the jeweller for the necklace for 56,000?. 
De la Motte thus'obtained the necklace and made away* 
with it. For this she was tried in 1786, and sentenced 
to be branded on the shoulders and imprisoned for life. 



DIANA. 



361 



DICTIONARY. 



She accused in vain the celebrated Italian adventurer, 
Cagliostro, of complicity in the affair, he being then 
intimate with the cardinal. She made her escape and 
■came to London, where she was killed by falling from 
a window-sill, in attempting to escape an arrest for 
debt. — De Rohan was tried and acquitted, 14 April, 
1786. The public in France at that time suspected the 
queen of being a party to the fraud. Talleyrand wrote 
at the time, that he should not be surprised if this 
miserable affair overturned the throne. 

Diamond Robbery. See Trials, 1871 ; Jeivels. 

Diamonds valued at 50,00c?. stolen from the post-office 
at Capetown about 20 March, 1880. 

Artificial Diamonds : those prepared by Mr. MacTear of 
Glasgow, examined by Mr. Story Maskelyne, and de- 
clared not to be diamonds, 30 Dec. 1879; acknowledged 
lay Mr. MacTear, Jan. 1880. 

Diamonds said to have been made by J. Ballantine 
Hannay at Glasgow, announced in Times, 20 Feb. 1880. 

Diamonds said to have been made at Paris, 1880. 

For the " imperial diamond " case, see Trials, Dec. 1891. 

Sir Wm. Crookes, who visited the Kimberley and other 
mines in 1896, in a lecture on "Diamonds" at the 
Royal institution, 11 June, 1897, explained M. 
Moissan's method of manufacturing artificial diamonds 
from molten iron in a carbon crucible, and exhibited 
specimens on the screen of others made by prof. 
Roberts-Austen and himself. See Royal Institution 
Proceedings, 1897. 

Mr. Justice Byrne stops the sale of the 44^ carat Taver- 
nier blue or Hope diamond, May ; his decision 
affirmed on appeal, 15 July, 1899. 

Inflammability of Diamonds. 

Boetius de Boot conjectured that the diamond was in- 
flammable, 1609. When exposed to a high temperature 
it gave an acrid vapour, in which a part of it was dis- 
sipated, 1673. Boyle. 

Sir Isaac Newton concluded from its great refracting 
power, that it must be combustible k i675. 

Averani demonstrated, by concentrating the rays of the 
sun upon it, that the diamond was exhaled in vapour, 
and entirely disappeared, while other precious stones 
merely grow softer, 1695. 

It has been ascertained by Guyton, Davy, and others, 
that diamonds contain nothing but pure charcoal, or 
carbon. Diamonds were charred by the intense heat 
of the voltaic battery— by M. Dumas, in Paris, and by 
professor Faraday, in London, in 1848. 

DIANA, TEMPLE OF (nt Ephesus), accounted 
one of the seven wonders of the world, was built at 
the common charge of all the Asiatic states, 552 
B.C.; the chief architect being Ctesiphon. PLuiy 
says that 22<> years were employed in completing it. 
It was 425 feet long, 225 broad, and was supported 
by 12" columns (60 feet high, each weighing 150 
tons of Parian marble), furnished by so many 
kings. It was set on lire, on the night of the birth 
of Alexander the Great, by Herostratus or Erato- 
stratus, who confessed thai, his sole motive was the 
desire of transmitting his name to future ages, 356 
B.C. 'I'Ih' temple was rebuilt, hut again burnt by 
the Gotlis, in their naval invasion, a.d. 2^601-262. 
In April, [869, Mr. .1.'!'. Wood discovered the site 
of the second temple; and since then sculptured 

marble columns have been removed to the liritish 
Museum. Diana was the Roman name of the 
Greek Artemis. 

DICE. 'I lie invention of dice is mythically 
ascribed to Palamede*, of Greece, about 1244 b.c. 
The game of tali and tessera among the Romans 
was played with dice. Stow mentions two enter- 
tainments given by the city of London, at which 
dice were played. Art 1,, regulute the licences of 
makers, ami the sale of dice, 9 Geo. IV. [828. 

DICKROOSCOPE, an optical apparatus, de- 
scribed by the inventor, professor Dove of Berlin, 
in [860, who intended it to represent interferences, 
spectra in coloured lights, polarisation of light, &c. 



DICTATORS were supreme and absolute 
magistrates of Home, appointed to act in critical 
times. Titus Lartius, the first dictator, was ap- 
pointed, 501 B.C. Caius Marcius Rutilus was the 
first plebeian dictator, 356 B.C. This office became 
odious by the usurpations of Sylla and Julius 
Caesar; and after the death of the latter, the Roman 
senate, on the motion of the consul Antony, passed 
a law forbidding a dictator to exist in Rome, 44 B.C. 
The dictator was also called master of the people, 
and had under him a master of the horse. 

DICTIONARY. A standard dictionary of the 
Chinese language, containing about 40,000 charac- 
ters, most of them hieroglyphic, or rude representa- 
tions, somewhat like our signs of the zodiac, was 
perfected by Pa-out-she, who lived about 1100 B.C. 
Morrison ; see Encyclopcedias, Music, &c. 
A Latin one was compiled by Varro, born . B.C. 116 
Varro's work " de Lingua Latina " ; he died . . 28 
The " Onomasticon," a collection of vocabularies 

in Greek, by Julius Pollux, was published about a.d. 177 
The " Catholicon," an attempt at a Latin Lexicon, 
by Friar Johannes Balbus Januensis, printed at 

Mentz 1460 

The first noted polyglot dictionary, perhaps the 
first, is by Ambrose Calepini, a Venetian friar, in 
Latin ; he wrote one in eight languages. Niceron. 

about 1500 
John E. Avenar's Dictionarium Hebraicum was pub- 
lished at Wittenberg in 1589. Buxtorf's great 
work, Lexicon, H ebraicum, &e. , appeared . . 1621 
The Lexicon Heptaglotton was published by Edmund 

Castell, in 1669 

The great English dictionary by Samuel Johnson 

appeared in 1755 

Francis Grose's Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue 

(or Slang) was compiled in ... '. 1768 

" Slang Dictionary," by Albert Barrere and 
Charles G. Leland, 2 vols., 1S89-90 ; new edition 

(reduced) published 1S97 

The following academies have published large dic- 
tionaries of their respective languages : the French 
academy, (the first, edited by Vaugelas,) 1694 ; 
new editions, 1718, 1740, 1762, 1835, and 1878 ; 
the Spanish, 1726 ; the Italian academy (della 
Crusca) 1729 ; and the Russian . . . 1789-94 
Sehwan's great German-French dictionary appeared 1782 
Richardson's English dictionary appeared . . 1836 
Lempriere's Classical Dictionary, which first ap- 
peared in 1788, is now superseded by Dr. W. 

Smith's classical series 1842-93 

The Philological Society of London issued pro- 
posals fora " New English dictionary," on the his- 
torical method, 1859 '• after some delay the work 
was vigorously revived ; editor, Dr. J. H. Murray 1879 
[About 5000 authors, dating from 1150 to 1SS3, have 
been read by about 13,000 persons (British and 
American), who made about 3,000,000 extracts. 
Part I., entitled "The Oxford English Dic- 
tionary," published Feb. 1884, was considered 
highly successful, and a specimen of the grandest 
lexicographical work ever produced. Vol. V. to 
K completed 1901. Instalments of Vols. VI., 
VII., and VIII., R— Reactive, July, 1903.] 
The great German dictionary, by Jacob and Wilhelm 
Grimm ....... 1854 ctseq. 

Mr. EJensleigh Wedgwood's Dictionary of English 

Etymology 1859-67 

Smith's Dictionary of the Bible was published . 1860-3 
The earliest known English-Latin dictionary is the 
Promptorium Parmilorum, compiled by Galfridus 
Grammaticus, a preaching friar of Norfolk, in 
[440; ami printed by Pynson, as Promptorius 
Puerorum, in 1400. A new edition, carefully 
edited by Mr. Albert Way. from MSS., was pub- 
lished by the Camden Society . . . 1843-65 
I.idilell and Scott Greek lexicon, founded on 

Passow, 1843; 7th edition 1S83 

Tin' great Frencb dictionary, by E. Littre, 1863-72 ; 

supplement 1877 

The "Bond Fide French and English Dictionary" 
Uh inches by 23, weight 4 OZ.), printed by Bellows, 

1873 et scq. 



DIDYMIUM. 



365 



DIOCESE. 



The Imperial Dictionary of the English language, 

by John Ogilvie. New edition by Charles An- 

nandale, 4 vols, published 1882 ; new edition . 1895 
Rev. W. W. Skeat's "Etymological Dictionary of 

the English language" published . . . 1882-4 
" The Century Dictionary : " an encyclopedic 

lexicon of the English language, edited by Prof. 

W. D. Whitney, 6 vols 1889-91 

The " Stanford Dictionary of Anglicised words and 

phrases," edited by C. A. M. Fennell . . 1S93 

A "Standard Dictionary of the English language." 

200 specialist authors ; chief editor, Dr. Isaac K. 

Punk ; 2 vols. New York . . . 1894-95 

The "Dictionary of National Biography" (see 

Biography) 1885-1900 

Chambers' '" Twentieth Century Dictionary of the 

English language," edited by the rev. Thomas 

Davidson, published .... Nov. 1901 

" Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology," 

edited by Jas. M. Baldwin, vol. I. . . early 1902 
The "English Dialect Dictionary," edited by Dr. 

Wright, Part XVIII. published . . early 1903 

DIDYMIUM, a rare metal, discovered by 
Mosander in 1841. It is found associated with 
lanthanum and cerium. Declared to be a compound 
by Mr. (aft. sir) W. Crookes in 1888. 

DIEPPE (N. France). This town was bom- 
barded by an English fleet, under admiral Kussell, 
and laid in ashes, July, 1694. It was again bom- 
barded in 1794 ; and again, together with the town 
of Granville, by the British, 14 Sept. 1803. 

"DIES IRM" ("Day of Wrath"), a Latin 
mediasval hymn on the day of judgment, is ascribed 
to various authors, amongst others to pope Gregory 
the Great (died about 604) ; St. Bernard (died 1 153) ; 
but is generally considered to have been composed 
by Thomas of Celano (died 1255), and to have been 
used in the Roman service of the mass before 1385. 

DIET of the German Empire (in which 

the supreme court of authority of the empire may 
be said to have existed) was composed of three 
colleges : one of electors, one of princes, and one of 
imperial towns, and commenced with the edict of 
Charles IV. 1356; see Golden Bull; Wiirzburg 
(1180) ; Nuremberg (1467) ; Worms (1521) ; Spires 
(1529) ; Augsburg (1530); Ratisbon (1541); Frank- 
fort (1806, et seq.) ; and Germany. 

DIETHEEOSCOPE, an apparatus for 
geodesy and teaching optics, constructed by G. 
LiVivini, of Tunis, and announced, April, 1876. 

" DIEU-DONNE," the name given in his in- 
fancy to Louis le Grand, king of France, the queen, 
his mother, having been barren for 23 years pre- 
viously, 1638. Also to thecomte de Chambord,son of 
the duchess of Berri,born 29 Septn820, died 24 Aug. 
1883. His father was assassinated, 14 Feb. 1820. One 
of the popes (672) was namedAdeodatus or God's gift. 

DIEU ET MON DEOIT ("God and my 
right"), the royal motto of England, was the parole 
of the day, given by Richard I. of England to his 
army at the battle of Gisors, in France, 20 Sept. 
1 198, when the French army was signally defeated. 
" Dieu et mon droit" appears to have been first 
assumed as a motto by Henry VI. (1422-1461) ; see 
Semper Fadem. 

DIFFERENTIAL ENGINE, see Calcu- 
lating Machine. 

DIFFUSION OP GASES. In 1825, Dobereiner 
observed the transmission of hydrogen gas through 
a crack in a glass vessel, and professor Thomas 
Graham discovered the passage of gases through 
porous porcelain, graphite, and other substances, 
and established laws in 1832, and to him we are 



indebted for the discovery of Atmolysis and Dia- 
lysis. He died 16 Sept. 1869. 

DIFFUSION of Useful Knowledge. 

SOCIETY, which published a number of books 
relating to history, science, and literature, and an 
atlas, in a cheap form, ridiculed as the "Sixpenny 
Sciences," was established by Lord Brougham, Mr. 
William Tooke, Mr. Charles Knight, and others. 
It published its "Library" 1827-48, and patronised 
the publication of the Penny Magazine and the 
Penny Cyclopaedia. Its proceedings were suspended 
in 1846. The Royal Institution of Great Britain 
was established in 1799, for "the Promotion, Dif- 
fusion, and Extension of Science and Useful Know- 
ledge." 

DIGEST. The first collection of Roman laws- 
under this title was prepared by Alfrenus Varus, the 
civilian, of Cremona, 66 b.c. Quintil. The "Di- 
gest," so called by way of eminence, was the 
collection made by order of the emperor Justinian,. 
529 : it made the first part of the Roman law and 
the first volume of the civil law. Quotations from it 
are marked with a ff. Fardon. The "Digest of 
Law " commissioners signed their first report 
13 May, 1867, recommending the immediate prepa- 
ration of a digest of the English common law, statute 
law, and judicial decisions. 

DIGITS {digitus, finger), any whole number 
under 10 : I, 2, &c, are the nine digits ; see Arith- 
metic. In astronomy, the digit is a measure used in 
the calculation of eclipses, and is the twelfth part of 
the luminary eclipsed; 

DIJON, E. France, the ancient capital of Bur- 
gundy, is said to have been founded by Julius 
Caesar, fortified by the emperor Marcus Aurelius, 
and named Divio, about 274. It has been several 
times captured in war ; and a castle was erected 
here by Louis XI. Dijon became the capital of the 
dukes of Burgundy about 1 180. It was attacked by 
the Germans, under general Beyer, 30 Oct. 1870. 
The heights, &c. were taken by prince William of 
Baden, and the town surrendered on 31 Oct. 
Memorial to pres. Carnot unveiled by pres. Loubet,. 
21 May, 1899. Population in 1901, 70,428. 

DILAPIDATIONS, see Ecclesiastical. 

DILETTANTI, Society of, established in 

1 734 by the viscount Harcourt, lord Middlesex, duke- 
of Dorset, and others who had travelled and who- 
were desirous of encouraging a taste for the fine arts 
in Great Britain. The society published, or aided in 
publishing, Stuart's Athens (1762-1816), Chandler's 
Travels (1775-6), and several other finely illustrated 
works. The members dine together from time to- 
time at the Thatched-house tavern, St. James's. 
Mr. R. P. Pullan, on behalf of this society, exca- 
vated the temple of Bacchus at Teos, of Apollo- 
Smintheus in the Troad, and of Minerva Polias at 
Priene, between 1861-70. Published "Antiquities 
of Ionia," 4 parts, 1769-1881. "History of the 
Society of Dilettanti," by Lionel Cust, published 
May, 1898. 

DINAS, see Accidents under Coal, and Mansion 
House. 

DINNERS, see Destitute and Jubilees. 

DIOCESE. The first division of the Roman 
empire into dioceses, at that period civil govern- 
ments, is ascribed to Constantine, 323 ; but Strabo 
remarks that the Romans had the departments 
called dioceses long before. In England the princi- 
pal dioceses are coeval with the establishment of 



DIOCLES' CODE. 



366 



"DISCIPLES OF CHRIST." 



Christianity ; of 28 dioceses, 20 are suffragan to the 
diocese of Canterbury, and six to that of York ; see 
Bishops, and the sees severally. Diocesan confer- 
ences of the clergy and laity now frequent. 

DIOCLES' CODE, drawn up by him for 
Syracuse, where he was a popular leader, 412 B.C. 
It was highly approved, and copied by other nations, 
and remained in force till superseded by the Eoman 
laws, after the conquest, 212 rs.c. 

DIOCLETIAN ERA (called also the era tf 
Martyrs, on account of the persecution in his reign) 
was used by Christian writers until the introduction 
of the Christian era in the 6th century, and is still 
employed by the Abyssinians and Copts. It dates 
from the day on which Diocletian was proclaimed 
emperor at Chalcedon, 29 Aug. 284. 

DIONYSUS, the Greek god of wine, poetry, 
and music, called Bacchus after the 5th century B.C. 
His worship was introduced from Greece iuto Home, 
and his festivals, termed Dionysiaand Bacchanalia, 
were finally suppressed by the senate on account of 
their dissolute character. The Greek drama is said 
to have arisen out of the Bacchic festivals, 168 B.C. 

DIOPTRIC SYSTEM (from the Greek, dia, 
through, and optomai, I see), an arrangement of 
lenses for refracting light in lighthouses, devised 
by Fresnel, about 1819, based on the discoveries of 
Buffon, Condorcet, Brewster, and others; see Light- 



DIORAMA. This admired exhibition was first 
opened by MM. Bouton and Daguerre in Paris, 
II July, 1822; in London, 29 Sept. 1823. It was 
not successful commerciallj' here, and was sold in 
1848. The building in Begent's-park was pur- 
chased by sir S. M. Peto, and opened on May 2, 
1855, as a Baptist chapel. 

DIPHTHERIA (from the Greek diphthera, 
leather), a disease resembling croup which has 
the essential character of developing a false mem- 
brane on the mucous membrane connected with the 
throat. It was named diphtheritis by Bretonneau 
of Tours in 1820. From its prevalence in Boulogne, 
it has been termed the Boulogne sore-throat ; many 
persons were affected with it in England at the be- 
ginning of 1858. The princess Alice, grand-duchess 
of Hesse-Darmstadt, died of this disease, 14 Dec. 
1878, after nursing her husband and children. 

Often epidemic in London, &c, 1891-1901 ; origin 
and propagation uncertain. 

Dr. Roux of Paris successfully applied the anti- 
toxin treatment of disease to diphtheria in 1894 
by injecting Into the pati< nt's blood the serum of 
tin' blood of a horse previously rendered immirne 
by a course of injections of the weak virus of 
diphl in 1 ia. 

The Treatment has been gradually developed from 
the discoveries of Loftier, Behring, Koch, and 
others in Germany. The Goldsmiths' company 
grant 1000?. for the prosecution of researches on 
the subject Nov. 1894 

Anti-iiixin successfully used . . . 1895 ctscq. 

Dr. Roux awarded the Prix Osiris of 100,00c/. by 
institute 1 >f France in recognition of his scientific 
labours in bacteriology .... April, 1903 

DIPLOMACY, the art of managing the rela- 
tions of foreign states by means of ambassadors, 
envoys, consuls, charges d'allaires, \-c.; see Ai/ibtis- 
eadorsaaA Consuls. New regulations for the British 
diplomatic service were Issued 5 Sept. 1862. 

DIPLOMAS. The wholesale fraudulent sale 
of diplomas of M.H., &c., for 10/., bv a Dr. 
Buchanan, dean of the American Universitj of 



Philadelphia, and others, was detected in 1880. He 
attempted escape by a sham suicide, but was cap- 
tured, prosecuted, and imprisoned. 

DIPLOMATICS, the foreign term for the 
science of palaeography or ancient writings. Valu- 
able works on this subject have been compiled bv 
Mabillon (1681), De Vaines (1774), Astle (1781), 
De Wailly (1838), and other antiquaries. 

DIPTYCH, a two-1-aved tablet of metal, 
ivory, or other material, used by the Greeks and 
Romans. In the Christian church in its early 
days it was customary to in-cribi the names of 
deceased bishops on diptychs. This practice was 
extended to include other distinguished persons 
who had deserved well of the church, and from it 
arose the calendars and martyrologies of a later 
period. The earliest dyptichs in existence belong 
to the 5th century. 

" DIRECTORY for the Public Worship 

OF God" was drawn up at the instance of the par- 
liament by an assembly of divines at Westminster 
in 1644, after the suppression of the Book of Common 
Prayer. The general hints given were to be man- 
aged with discretion ; for the Directory prescribed 
no form of prayer or manner of external worship, 
and enjoined the people to make no responses except 
Amen. It was adopted by the parliament of Scot- 
land in 1645, and many of its regulations are still 
observed \>y presbyterians. 

DIRECTORY, The 'French, established 
by the constitution of the 5th of Fructidor, an III. 
(22 Aug. 1795), and nominated 1 Nov., was com- 
posed of five members (MM. Lepeaux, Letourneur, 
Rewbel, Barras, and Carnot). On 18 Fructidor, 
4 Sep. 1797, two directors (Carnot and Barthelemy) 
were deposed, and afterwards, with other officials, 
transported to Cayenne for favouring royalty. The 
directory ruled in conjunction with two chambers, 
the Council of Ancients and Council of Five Hun- 
dred {which see), till the revolution of the 18th of 
Brumaire (9, 10 Nov. 1799). It was deposed by 
Bonaparte, who, with Cambaceres and Lebrun, 
assumed the government as three consuls, himself 
the first, 13 Dec. 1799; see Consuls. 

DIRECTORY, the first London, is said to 
have been printed in 1677. The "Post-office Direc- 
tory " first appeared in 1800. 

Directories of most of the English counties and of Scot- 
land now published at short intervals. 

Thorn's Otlicial Directory, Ireland, 60th year, 1903. 

Messrs. Kelly's "Directory of the Merchants, "Manu- 
facturers, and Shippers of the United Kingdom," 
was first published in 1877 ; at first triennially, now 
annually. 

DIRECTORS' LIABILITY ACT, relating 

to prospectuses, &c, of public companies, passed 
18 Aug. 1890. 

"DISCIPLES OF CHRIST" (also called 
CAMPBELLITES) profess adherence to pure Scrip- 
tural doctrine and practice, reject human creeds 
and formularies, and admit to their communion all 
who recognise Christ's obedience and death, as 
" the onl\ meritorious cause of the sinner's accept- 
ance with Cod;" and are baptized (by immersion) 
in his name. 

The term Campbellite originated through their first 
church ai Brush Run, in America, having been set up 

by a Scotch presliyloiinn preacher from Ireland, named 
Thomas Campbell, and his son Alexander. In 1812 they 
renounced infant baptism, and were rebaptized by im- 
mersion. Their number in America is said to be aboul 
600,000; and in the United Kingdom, where the move- 



DISCIPLINE. 



367 DISRAELI ADMINISTRATIONS. 



ment began independently and simultaneously, about 
.5000. They have also churches in the British colonies. 

DISCIPLINE, ecclesiastical, originally con- 
ducted spiritually according to the divine commands 
in Matt, xviii. 15, I Cor. v., 2 Thess. iii. 6, and 
other texts, was gradually changed to a temporal 
character, as it now appears in the Roman, Greek, 
■and other churches. The " First Book of Disci- 
pline" of the presbyterian church of Scotland was 
.drawn up by John Knox and four ministers in 
Jan. 1560-I. The more important " Second Book " 
was prepared with great care in 1578 by Andrew 
Melville and a committee of the leading members 
of the general assembly. It lays down a thoroughly 
presbyterian form of government, defines the posi- 
tion of the ecclesiastical and civil powers, &c. 

DISCOUNT, see under Bank of England. 

DISEASE, see Pathology and Cattle, and 
articles on several diseases. 

DISEASES OF ANIMALS IN GREAT 
BRITAIN. The following returns under the 
Diseases of Animals acts show the number of 
animals suffering from anthrax, glanders and 
rabies in Great Britain in the years respectively. 
Anthrax: outbreaks, 1894, 494; 1898, 556; 1902, 
687; animals affected 1894, i>ooo; 1898, 845; 
1902, 1,042. Glanders : outbreaks, 1894, 965 ; 
1898, 748 ; 1902, 1,162 ; animals affected, 1894, 
1,437 ; 1898, 1,385 ; 1902, 2,073. Rabies in dogs, 
cases reported, 1893, 93! 1898, 17; 1902, 13. 
Swine fever : outbreaks, 1894, 5,682; 1898, 2,514; 
1902, 1,688; swine slaughtered, 1894, 56,296; 
1898,43,756; 1902,8,263. The board of agricul- 
ture announced Jan. 1903, that no case of foot and 
mouth disease had been confirmed in the United 
Kingdom or Channel Islands since May, 1902, and 
that there was reason to believe that the disease 
had been stamped out. 

DISESTABLISHMENT. See Church of 
Ireland. 

DISPENSARIES, to supply the poor with 
medical advice and medicines, began in London. 
The Royal General Dispensary, London, was estab- 
lished in .St. Bartholomew's Close, in 1770. 
The Western Dispensary was founded 1789. 
There are now (1903) over IOO dispensaries in 
London, many of these are provident institutions. 
Garth's satiric poem, " The Dispensary," published 
1699. 

DISPENSATIONS, ecclesiastical^ were first 
granted by pope Innocent III. in 1200. These 
exemptions from the discipline of the church, with 
indulgences, absolutions, &c, led eventually to the 
Reformation in Germany in 15 17. 

DISPENSING POWER of the Crown 

(for setting aside laws or their power) asserted by 
some of our sovereigns, especially by Charles II. 
(in 1672 for the relief of nonconformists) and by 
James II. principally to enable Roman Catholics to 
hold civil and military offices, in 1686-8, was 
abolished by the bill of rights, 1689. It has been 
on certain occasions exercised, as in the case of 
embargoes upon ships, the Bank Charter act, &c. ; 
see Indemnity. 

DISRAELI ADMINISTRATIONS.* On 

the resignation of the earl of Derby through ill-health, 

* Benjamin Disraeli (son of Isaac Disraeli, authorof the 
"Curiosities of Literature," &c), born 21 Dec. 1805 
published "Vivian Grey," 1825; M. P. for Maidstone, 
1837-41 ; Shrewsbury, 1841-7 ; Bucks, 1847-76. Chancel- 
lor of Exchequer (see Derby administrations), Feb. 1852 ; 



25 Feb., 1868, Mr. Disraeli reconstituted the minis- 
try, 29 Feb. (see Derby Administrations , III.). As 
the elections gave a large majority to the liberal 
party, Mr. Disraeli's ministry resigned 2 Dec. He 
declined to take office with the then house of 
commons when Mr. Gladstone resigned, 12 March, 
1873, an( i the latter resumed office. 

FIRST ADMINISTRATION, 29 Feb. 1868. 

First lord of treasury, Benjamin Disraeli. 

Lord chancellor, Hugh MacCalmont, lord Cairns. 

Lord president of the council, John, duke of Marlborough. 

Lord privy seal, James, earl of Malmesbury. 

Secretaries— home, Gathorne Hardy; — foreign, Edward, 
lord Stanley ; — colonies, Richard, duke of Buckingham 
and Chandos ; — war, sir John S. Pakington ; — India, 
sir Stafford Henry Nortkcote. 

Chancellor of exchequer, George Ward Hunt. 

First lord of admiralty, Henry Thomas L. Corry. 

Chief commissioner of works, lord John Manners. 

President of board of trade, Charles Henry, duke of Rich- 
mond. 

Chief secretary for Ireland, Richard, earl of Mayo ; made 
viceroy of India, Oct. ; succeeded by col. J. Wilson 
Patten, 7 Nov. 1868. 

President of poor-law board, Wm. Reginald, earl of Devon. 
The above formed the Cabinet. 

Postmaster-general, James, duke of Montrose. 

Lord great chamberlain, Orlando, earl of Bradford. 

Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, col. John Wilson Patten ; 
succeeded by col. Thos. E. Taylor, 7 Nov. 1868. 

Lord lieutenant of Ireland, James, earl (afterwards mar- 
quis) of Abereom. 

Mr. Disraeli's Letter of 30 Oct. 1873, to lord Grey de 
Wilton, severely censuring the Gladstone ministry as 
having " harassed every trade, worried every profession, 
and assailed or menaced every class, institution, and 
species of property in the country ;" and also stating 
that the country has "made up its mind to close this 
career of plundering and blundering ;" was published 
7 Oct. 1873. (See Gladstone Administration.) 
second administration, received seals, 21 Feb. 1874. 

First lord of the treasury, Benjamin Disraeli (earl of 
Beaconsfleld, 16 Aug. 1876),— and lord privy seal, Aug., 
1876 to Jan. 1878). 

Lord chancellor, Hugh MacCalmont, lord Cairns. 

Lord president of the council, Charles Henry, duke of 
Richmond. 

Lord privy seal, James, earl of Malmesbury ; resigned, 
12 Aug. 1876; earl of Beaconsfleld, Aug. 1876; Alger- 
non, duke of Northumberland, 4 Feb. 1878. 

Secretary of state for foreign affairs, Edward, earl of 
Derby ; resigned ; — Robert, marquis of Salisbury, 28 
March, 1878. 

Secretary of state for India, Robert, marquis of Salis- 
bury ; — Gathorne Hardy, created viscount Cranbrook, 
2 April, 1878. 

Secretary of state for the colonies, Henry, earl of Carnar- 
von ; resigned, 24 Jan. 1878 ; sir Michael Hicks-Beach, 
4 Feb. 1878. 

Secretary of state for war, Gathorne Hardy ; col. Fred. 
Arthur Stanley, 2 April, 1878. 

Secretary of state for home department, Richard Assheton 
Cross. 

First lord of the admiralty, George Ward Hunt, died 
29 July, 1877 ; Wm. Henry Smith, 7 Aug. 1877. 

President of board of trade, sir Charles Adderley, re- 
signed, created baron Norton, April, 1878 ; — Dudley 
Ryder, viscount Sandon. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Sir Stafford Northcote. 

Postmaster-general, lord John Manners. 

(The above formed the Cabinet.) 

Feb. 1858 ; July, 1866 ; installed lord rector of Glasgow 
university, 19 Nov. 1873 ; created earl of Beaconsfleld, 
Aug. 1876 ; plenipotentiary at the Berlin Congress, 13 
June — 13 July, 1878; K.G. invested by the queen, 22 
July, 1878 ; received freedom of London, 3 Aug. 1878 ; 
("at the pinnacle of ministerial renown; the favourite 
of his sovereign, and the idol of society,"— Times, 8 Aug. 
1878); see People's Tribute; resigned (through liberal 
majority in elections), 22 April, 1880 ; published "Endy- 
mion," Dec, 1880; died 19 April, 1881, buried at Hugh- 
enden ; prince of Wales and many present, 26 April ; 
monument in Westminster abbey voted, 9 May, 1881. 
Mrs. Disraeli created viscountess Beaconsfleld, 28 Nov. 
1868 ; died 15 Dec. 1872. 



DISSECTION. 



368 



DIVING-BELL. 



Lord lieutenant of Ireland, James, duke of Abercorn. 
resigned Dec. 1876 ; John, duke of Marlborough, Dee. 
1876. 

Chief secretary for Ireland, sir Michael Edward Hicks- 
Beach (entered the cabinet, Nov. 1876) : succeeded by 
James Lowther, Feb. 1878. 

Vice-president of council (education), Dudley, viscount 
Saudon ; lord George Hamilton, April, 1878. 

Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, col. Thos. E. Taylor. 

Commissioner of ivootls and forests, lord Henry Lennox, 
resigned July, 1876 ; Gerard James Noel, 14 Aug. 1876. 

DISSECTION, see Anatomy. 

DISSENTERS. (For dates of foundation of 
various dissenting churches, see Nonconformists.) 
An association of baptist, independent, and presby- 
terian ministers styled " The general body of 
Protestant dissenting ministers resident in and 
about London and Westminster" was organised 
July 1727. This body has direct access to the 
throne, with kissing of hands. The secretary, 
1903, is the rev. W. II. King. " Dissenting 
deputies," laymen, founded Nov. 1732. Chair- 
man, 1903, "W. S. Came, M. F. The great act (9 Geo. 
IV. c. 17) for the relief of dissenters from civil and 
religious disabilities was passed 9 May, 1828. By 
this act, called the Corporation and Test Repeal act, 
so much of the several acts of preceding reigns as 
imposed the necessity of receiving the sacrament of 
the Lord's Supper as a qualification for certain 
offices, &c, was repealed. By 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 85 
(1836), dissenters acquired the right of solemnising 
marriages at their own chapels, or at a registry 
office. Another act passed in 1898, by which, 
under certain regulations, marriages may be 
solemnized in nonconformist places of worship if 
duly registered for that purpose, without the pre- 
sence of a registrar. The act does not apply to 
Scotland or Ireland, nor to marriages of the Society 
of Friends, or of Jews. See Worship in England 
and Independents. 

A Burials bill to permit the ministers of dissenters to 
officiate at funerals in churchyards several times re- 
jected ; in the commons 248 to 234, 21 April, 1875; 
279 to 248, 3 March, 1876 ; earl Granville's resolution 
ill the lords rejected 148 to 92, 15 May, 1876. 

Lord Harrowby's additional clause to the government 
burials bill (permitting dissenters to have religious 
services in churchyards), was supported by the arch- 
bishops, and carried against government, (127-111,) 
18 June ; the bill withdrawn, 25 June, 1877. 

Mr. Osborne Morgan's resolution for reforming burial 
laws (i.e. permitting other services), rejected (242-217), 
15 Feb. 1878. 

Act to amend the burial laws, permitting dissenters to 
have their own service or no service in churchyards ; 
passed commons (258-79), 13 Aug., royal assent, 7 
Sept. 1880. 

The Rev. W. H. Frcmantlo having proposed to preach 
.it I >r. Parker's city temple, and the bishop of London 
having disapproved, the opinion of two counsel 
(Messrs, Fit^ames Stephen and Benjamin Shaw) 

was taken. They declared it to be illegal for the 

clergy of the English church to take part in worship 
of dissenters, June, 1875. 

Eeveral episcopal clergymen take pari in the dedication 
services of Christ church (formerly Surrey chapel), 
Blockfrinrs, middle of July, 1876. 

Great dissatisfaction expressed bj nonconformists, and 
strenuous opposition to the Education bills of 1902 
and 1003! lee Education). Their cause championed by 
Dr. Clifford and others, March 1902, et seq. 

Many nonconformists refuse to pa} the Education rate, 
Llieir goods distrained upon. Passive resistance 
movement {which see) started, March 1903. 

DISSOLVING VIEWS. Henry Langdon 
Childe, the alleged iuventor, died 15 Oct. [874, 

aged i)2. 

DISTAFF (or Hock), the slat! to which (lax or 
any substance to be spun is fastened. The art of 



spinning with it at the small wheel, first taught te> 
English women by Anthony Bonavisa, an Italian. 
Stow. St. Distaff's or Rock day was formerly the 
first free day after the Epiphany (6th Jan.), because 
the Christmas holidays were over and women's work 
was resumed. 

DISTILLATION, and the various processes 
dependent on it, are believed to have been intro- 
duced into Em-ope by the Moors about 1150; see 
Alcohol, Brandy. The distillation of spirituous 
liquors was in practice in Great Britain in the 16th 
century. Barns. The processes were improved by 
Adam of Montpellier in 1801. M. Payen's work 
(1861) contains recent improvements. An act to 
prevent the use of stills by unlicensed persons 
was passed in 1846. 118 licences to distillers were 
granted in the year ending 31 March, 1858, for the 
United Kingdom. 
M. Raoul Pictet announces a method of distillation by 

use of ice made by the air-pump, April, 1881. 
System introduced in Russia rendering distillation a 

government monopoly, reported, April, 1901. 

DISTINGUISHED SERVICE ORDER, 

for army and navy officers established 9 Nov. ; hrst 
investiture, 17 Dec. 1886. 

DISTRICT AUDITORS ACT, 42 Vict. c. 
6 (28 March, 1879), regulated their appointment, 
duties, and payment. 

DISTRICT CHURCHES ACTS. By the 

one passed in 1865 certain new churches were con- 
stituted rectories, and by another act, passed in 1868 
(the Bishop of Oxford's act) the new parishes not 
rectories were ordered to be styled vicarages. See 
under Parishes. 

DITCH, see Expedition. 

"DIVERSIONS OF PURLEY" (" Epea 
Pteroenta," flying words) a collection of gramma- 
tical treatises by John Home Tooke, published in 
1786, named from the residence at Purley, near 
Wandsworth, Surrey. 

DIVIDENDS of Public Stocks. By an 

act passed 11 Aug. 1869, these may be paid by post 
if the recipients desire it, as railway dividends are. 

DIVINATION was forbidden to the Jews, 
B.C. 1451. (pent, xviii. 9.) It was common among 
their neighbours: and is described by Ezekiel 
(xxi. 21) 493 B.C. 

DIVINE RIGHT of Kings, the absolute 

and unqualified claim of hereditary sovereigns to the 
obedience of their subjects, a doctrine which is gene- 
rally considered to be foreign to the genius of the 1 
English constitution, was defended by many persons 
of otherwise opposite opinions, e.g., by James I., 
by llobbes the free-thinker (1642), by Salmasius 
(1640), by sir Robert Filmer (about 1653), in his 
Patriarcha, published in 1680, and by the High 
Church party generally about 1 7 14; but opposed by 
Milton (165O, Algernon Sydney, and others. The 
comte ilc Chambord, the last of "the elder branch of 
the BourbonSj and the last consistent holder of the 
divine right of kings, died 24 Aug. 1883. See 
France, 1872, it seq. 

DIVING-EELL (first mentioned, though ob- 
scurely, by Aristotle, about 325 n.c.) was used in 
Europe about a. l). 1509. Itls'said to have been 
used on the coast of Mull, in searching fcr the 
wreck of part of the Spanish Armada, before 1662. 
Halley (about 171(1) greatly improved this machine, 
and was, it is said, the first who, by means of & 



DIVINING BOD. 



369 



DOCKS 



diving-bell, set his foot on the ground at the bottom 
of the sea. Smeaton made use of the diving-bell 
in improving Ramsgate harbour, 1779-88. Mr. 
Spalding and his assistants going down in a diving- 
bell in Ireland were drowned, 1 June, 1783. The 
Royal George man-of-war, which was sunk off 
Portsmouth in 1782, was first surveyed by means of 
a diving-bell in May, 181 7. Latterly it has been 
employed in submarine surveys and harbour works. 
The " talpa marina," or sea-mole, a diving machine 
for laying down torpedoes, &c, being a cylinder 
provided with compressed air sufficient for two per- 
sons for 50 hours, was invented by Toselli, a 
Venetian, and was successfully tried in the bay of l 
Naples, 26 Aug. 1871. Diving Dress, a close dress 
made by Mr. Siebe 1839. M. Cabirol, maker of 
one, died Dec. 1874. 

Mr. Fleuss invented a helmet with a mouthpiece into 
which he introduced enough oxygen to last five hours, 
and thus was enabled to remain under water several 
hours. He exhibited his method at the Polytechnic 
Institution, London, Nov. 1879, and at the Society of 
Arts, 6 May, 1880. 

DIVINING- ROD (virgula divina, bacula- 
torius), formed of wood or metal, was formerly be- 
lieved, even by educated persons, tohavethe property 
of indicating the position of minerals and springs of 
water. Instance ' were alleged in 1851 by Dr. H. 
Mayo, in his work on " Popular Superstitions" ; 
and upheld by Mr. B. Tompkins, in his "Theory 
of "Water Finding by the Divining rod," published, 
1899. 

DIVINITY, see Theology and Mythology. 

DIVORCE was permitted by the law of Moses 
(Deut. xxiv. 1), 1451 B.C., but forbidden by Christ 
except for unchastity (Matt. v. 31, 32). It was put 
in practice by Spurius Carvilius Ruga at Rome, 
234 b.c. At this time morals were so debased that 
3000 prosecutions for adultery were enrolled. Di- 
vorces are of two kinds ; one, d vinculo matrimonii 
(total divorce) ; the other d mensa et thoro (from 
board and bed) . Divorces were attempted to be made 
of more easy obtainment in England in 1539. The 
Judicature act, 1873, constituted the probate, divorce, 
and admiralty division of the High Court of Justice, 
with two judges. See Supreme Court and Probate. 
Bill to prevent women marrying their seducers 

brought into parliament 1801 

The commissioners on the law of divorce issued 

their first report April, 1857 

In 1857 there had been in England, since the Re- 
formation, 317 divorces by act of parliament ; in y 
Scotland, by the law, 174 divorces since 1846. 
Prom the establishment of the divorce court, to 
March, 1859, 37 divorces had been granted out 
of 288 petitions ; from Nov. i860 to July, 1861, 164. 
By 20 & 21 Vict. c. 85, the jurisdiction of the eccle- 
siastical courts respecting divorce, &c, was 
abolished, and the Divorce and Matrimonial 
Causes court instituted, to consist of three 
judges, the judge of the Probate court to be one 

(if possible) ,, 

A full court sat — lord Campbell, chief baron Pollock, 
sir Cresswell Cresswell (judge of the Probate court) 
when five marriages were dissolved . 10 May, 1858 
The act, amended by acts passed in consequence of 

the increase of the business of the court . 1858-6 

An act respecting divorces in Scotland passed . . 1861 
Sir C. Cresswell died in July ; sir James P. Wilde 

(afterwards lord Penzance) successor . Sept. 1863 
Lord Penzance retired, Oct. ; succeeded by sir James 
Hannen, Nov. 1872 ; sir Francis H. Jeune, 

30 May, 1892 
See Appeal, Probate and Supreme Court. 
The Divorce Amendment act passed 21 July, 1868. 
Between 1856 and 1867 1279 dissolutions of mar- 
riage and 213 judicial separations were decreed. 



Divorces 1858-87, 7321. In 1858, 200; 1868, 200; 
1878, 403; 1887, 450; 1888-93 (inclusive), 2,094; 
188 judicial separations ; 1898, 5,949. 

On appeal, the House of Lords decide that proceed- 
ings may be taken fot divorce from a wife insane 
(see Mordaunt case, Trials, 1870) . 22 June, 1874 

Sebright case, 1886, see Trials. 

Divorce legalised by the French Republic ; about 
7000 divorces in Paris alone 1793-4 ; prohibited by 
the civil code, yet Napoleon I. divorced Josephine 
16 Dec. 1809 ; again prohibited 1816 ; ag%nn lega- 
lised (with conditions) by M.Naquet's bill, passed 
July ; many suits instituted, Aug. 1884 ; 7,051 
divorces in 1896 ; 9,053 in 1899 ; 2,254 judicial 
separations 1899 

Total up to end of 1889, 15,521. 

In the United States of N. A. in twenty years (1867- 
86), there were 328,716 divorces. To check 
divorce by reforming the law, the National 
Divorce League addressed congress . . . 1889 

Bills greatly facilitating divorce passed by the par- 
liaments of New South Wales and Victoria, 
vetoed by the colonial office .... 1888-9 

A divorce bill for Victoria, having received the 
assent of the home government, the bishops of 
Victoria forbid their clergy marrying divorced 
persons ... ... May, 1890 

See Church of England, 1903. 

D1ZIER, ST. (N.E. Prance). Here a siege 
was sustained for six weeks against the army of the 
emperor Charles V., 1544. The allies here defeated 
Napoleon, 27 Jan. and 26 March, 1814. 

DOBRUDSCHA, the N.E. corner of Bulgaria ; 
in 1854, the scene of the earlier incidents of the 
Russo-Turkish war {which see). At the close of the 
war of 1877-8 it was given to Roumania in ex- 
change for the part of Bessarabia restored to Russia, 
and occupied 26 Dec. 1878. 

DOCETiE, a sect of the 1st century, said to have 
held that Jesus Christ was God, but that his body 
was an appearance, not a reality. 

DOCKS OF ENGLAND. The following are 

the principal commercial docks : — 

Commercial Docks, Rotherhithe, originated about 1660. 
West India Docks commenced 3 Feb. 1800 ; opened 
27 Aug. 1802, when the " Henry Addington " West 
Indiaman, first entered them, decorated with the 
colours of the different nations of Europe. 

London Docks were commenced 26 June, 1802, and 
opened 20 Jan. 1805. 
J East India Docks commenced 1803 ; opened 4 Aug. 1806. 

St. Katharine's Docks began 3 May, 1827 ; and 2500 men 
were daily employed on them until they were opened, 
25 Oct. 1828. 

Royal Victoria Docks (in Plaistow marshes) completed 
and opened Nov. 1855 ; great enlargement proposed, 
July, 1876 ; completed and named Royal Albert Docks 
by the duke and duchess of Connaught, 24 June, 1880. 

Magnificent docks at Liverpool and Birkenhead erected 
1810-57. 

Millwall Doeks.near London, opened, 14 March, 1868. 

A great floating iron dry dock, which cost 250,000?. , was 
launched at North Woolwich, 3 Sept. 1868; and 
towed from the Med way by two ships of war, 23 June, 
and arrived at the Bermudas (in thirty-six days), 
30 July, 1869 ; another sent arrived 8 Aug. 1903. 

The construction for floating docks for repairing ships 
advocated by lord Brassey, Jan. 1887. 

Erection of docks at Tilbury determined on 30 Sept. 
1881 ; begun 8 July, i%&2 ; opened i 7 April, 1886. 

New Barry docks, 7 miles west of Cardill', Bristol channel 
(cost 850,000?.), opened iS July, 1889. 

For dock labourers' strike, see Strikes, Aug. -Sept. 1889. 

The wharfingers and other employers of labour resolve 
to form a union, 4 Feb. 1890. 

The Port of London Docks, &c, Association, &c, resolve 
to employ any men they please, 12 Feb. 1890. 

The dock companies employ free and union labour, with- 
out much resistance, 3 Nov. et seq. 1890. 

A co-operative system working well, Nov., Dec, 1890. 

Renewal of strikes ; the unionists opposing the engage- 
ment of federation men, see under Shipping, Feb.1891 



DOCTOE. 



370 



DOG. 



The fourth annual dockers congress held at Bristol ; 

Mr. Tom Mann president, 11-16 Sept. 1893 ; fifth 

congress at Grimsby, 24 May, 1894. 
Floating dock for Durban, launched, Wallsend-on-Tyne, 

8 Aug. 1903. 

EOYAL DOCK-YAEDS. 

Woolwich, an extensive one in 1509 ; closed 1 Oct. 1869. 

Deptford dock-yard founded about 1513, closed 31 March, 
1869. 

Chatham dock-yard was founded by queen Elizabeth. 
Three grand docks constructed at a cost of about 
2,000,000?. independent of cost of convict labour, 
1866-83. 

Portsmouth dock-yard established by Henry VIII. 

Plymouth dock, now Devonport, about 1689. Great fire 
here, by which the Talavera, of 74 guns, the Imogene 
frigate, of 28 guns, and immense stores, were de- 
stroyed ; the relics and figure-heads of the favourite 
ships of Boscawen, Rodney, Duncan, and other naval 
heroes, which were preserved in a naval museum, 
were also burnt : the loss was estimated at 200,000?. , 
27 Sept. 1840. Great fire, damage 20,000?. 8 Feb. 1882. 

Sheerness dock-yard was built by Charles II. after the 
insult of the Dutch, who burnt our men-of-war at 
Chatham in 1667. A lire occurred at Sheerness dock- 
yard, on board the Camperdown, 9 Oct. 1840. 

Milford-Haven dock-yard, 1790; removed to Pembroke 
in 1814. — See Hull. 

Southampton large graving dock, length 750 ft., width, 
quay level. 112 ft. 6 in., depth 35ft. ; opened by the 
prince of Wales, 3 Aug. 1895. 

See also St. Margaret's Hope. 

DOCTOE. Doctor of the Church was a title 
given to Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Mazianzen, 
and Chrysostom in the Greek church ; and to 
Jerome, Augustin, Ambrose, and Gregory the Great 
in the Latin church ; see Fathers. Afterwards the 
title of doctor only was conferred on certain persons 
with distinguishing epithets, viz. : Thomas Aquinas 
(Angelicus), Bonaventura (Seraphicus), Alexander 
de Hales (Irrefragabilis) , Duns Scotus (Subtilis), 
Boger Bacon (Mirabilis). William Occam (Singu- 
laris), Joseph Gerson (Christianissimus), Thomas 
Bradwardine (Profundus), and so on. Doctor of the 
Late, was a title of honour among the Jews. The 
degree of doctor was conferred in England, 8 John, 
1207. Spelman. Some give it an earlier date, 
referring it to the time of the Venerable Bede and 
John de Beverley, the former of whom, it is said, 
was the first that obtained the degree at Cam- 
bridge in the 8th century. 

DOCTOES' COMMONS, the college for the 
professors of civil and canon law in the 8th century. 
In February, 1568, Dr. Henry Hervie, dean of the 
arches and master of Trinity - hall (a seminary 
founded at Cambridge chiefly for the study of the 
civil and canon laws), procured from the dean and 
chapter of the diocese of London a lease of Montjoy- 
house and buildings in the parish of St. Benet, 
Paul's wharf, for the accommodation of the society. 
Other courts being held here, the whole place re- 
ceived the appellation of " Doctors' Commons." 
The original college was destroyed in the great 
fire of 1666; in 1O72 it was rebuilt on the old 
site. After the great lire, until 1672, the society 
held its COUl'ti) :it Exeter-house in the Strand. It 
was incorporated by charter m June, 17(18. Coote. 
The buildings of the College of Advocates, which 
included all the courts of Doctors' Commons, (arches, 
admiralty, consistory, &c.) were purchased by the 
Metropolitan Board of "Works, and were pulled down 
in April, 1:867, ''"' ""' new Queen Victoria Streel : 
some new buildings were erected. Till i8;j the 
causes taken cognizance of here were blasphemy, 
divorces, bastardy, adultery, penance, tithes, 
mortuaries, probate el' wills, «c. ; see Ecclesiastical 
< 'n/ir/s. ( 'ivil Lair, iKre. 
The wills were removed to Somerset-house, where the 

utfiee was opened ■ 1 1 let. 1^74. 



DOCTEINAIEES, a name given since 1814 
to a class of politicians in France (Guizot, Mole, 
the due de Broglie and others), who upheld con- 
stitutional principles, in opposition to arbitrary 
monarchical power. The party came into office in 
1830 under Louis-Philippe, and fell with him in 
1848. The term has been applied in this country 
to the writers in the " "Westminster Review " (1824, 
et seq.), Bentham, Molesworth, and others. 

DODONA, Epirus. The temple of Jupiter 
here, renowned for its ancient oracle, delivered by 
the sound of wind in a grove of trees, was destroyed 
by the ^Etolians, 219 B.C. The foundations of the 
temple, with other relics, were discovered in 1883, 
by the excavations of M. Carapanos. 

DODSON'S ACT (brought forward by Mr. 
John G. Dodson, and passed 1 Aug. 1861) provides 
that votes for electing members of parliament for 
the universities may be recorded by means of polling 
papers. The act was amended in 1868. 

DOG, the, was worshipped by the Egyptians and 

hated by the Hebrews. The greyhound and mastiff 

are represented in the Assyrian sculptures in the 

British Museum. V. Shaw's " Book of the Dog" 

(new edition), 1881 ; J. H. Walsh's "Dogs of the 

British Islands," (new edition), 1878. 

Statute against dog stealing, 10 Geo. III. . . 1770 

Dog-tax imposed, 1796 ; and again in 1808 ; 12s. ayear 
realised 219,313?., in 1866 

Assessed taxes on dogs repealed, 29 Mar. 1867 ; an 
annual excise duty of 5s. imposed on all dogs 
more than six months old, to begin on 5 April, 
1867; increased to 7s. 6d. . . - 1 June, 1878 

Employment of dogs in drawing carts, &c, abol- 
ished in London, 1839 : m the United Kingdom . 1854 

Several clubs have been formed to improve the 
breeds. 

Dog shows held in London in 1861 ; since 1S62 at 
the Agricultural Hall, the Crystal Palace, Koyal 
Aquarium, Westminster, and other places. Great 
show at Earl's Court, 15 Dec. 1897 > another 
under Kennel Club rules, Agricultural Hall, n 
Feb. 1903. 

" Dogs' temporary home " opened, Hollingsworth- 
street, London, N., 1861 ; removed to Battersea 
in 1871; about 2200 animals have been sheltered in 
a year ; adapted for cats, 1882. 22,000 dogs 
received in 1894; 28,937 in 1897 ; 21,391 in 1901; a 
ho ne at Hackbridge, Surrey, opened by the duke 
ot Portland, 29 Oct. 1808. 

Lethal chamber, invented by sir B. Ward Richard- 
son, used when death is required. 

As a nuisance, dogs at large unmuzzled in the 
metropolis were ordered to be seized by the 
police July to 27 Nov. 1868 

A new act, more stringent, passed . 24 July, 1871 

Coursing is the term applied to racing between 
hounds. Master MeGrath, an excessively fleet 
hound, the property of Lord Lurgan. thrice won 
the Waterloo cup ; was sent for the queen to see, 
1 Mar. , and died 24 Dec. ., 

" Help," the railway dog (a colley), by mute appeals, 
collected above 200?. lor the railway men's orphan 
fund Jan.— Sept. 18S4 

The muzzling of dogs in the metropolis ordered by 
the police ceased, 31 Dec. 18S6 ; a similar order 
made in iSSu : ceased, u Dec. 1890, rabies having 
greatly diminished. Increase of rallies reported 
in 1895-6. Muzzling ordered lor 17 Feb. ct seq. 
1896: ceased 2 Feb. 1S07 '• new order, with special 
urn; 16,6 April, 1897; ceased 27 Oct. 1899. Keport 
of committee of 30 April, 1S96, presented Feb. 
1897. 

" M s^ Scottie, an intelligent collie, exhibited at 
the Westminster aquarium . . 23 July, 1894. 

National canine defence League : Mr. 15. Bryan hoh. 

tec. in . . ,897 1 

Dcg regulation bill introduced . . .March, 1898 
ices (7s. 6d. each) issued in financial year 
1871-2. produced 270.425/.; in 1875-6, 343,257?.; 
in 1876-7, 349,6132. ; in 1S77-S, 372,699?. ; in'1881-2, 



DOG-DAYS. 



371 



DOMINICANS. 



342,836?.; 1887-8, 354,278?. ; 1893-4, 466,081?.; 
1894-5, 446,469?. ; 1901-2, 571,802?. 

Number of dogs licensed in United Kingdom : in 
1866, 445,656; in 1876, 1,362,176; 1900 (Gt. Bri- 
tain), 1,777,543- 

Babies reported extinct in England and Scotland in 1900 

New order regarding the muzzling and importation 
of dogs, issued 14 Dec. 1901 

"'Tim," the Paddington railway dog, collected over 
796?. 7s. 2d. since 1892 for railway servants' 
widows' and orphans' fund ; died of old age, 

8 Sept. 1902 

Waterloo cup, won by Messrs. Fawcett's "Father 
Flint " 20 Feb. 1903 

DOG-DAYS. The canicular or dog-days now 
•commence on 3 July and end II Aug ; other dates 
were formerly given. The rising and setting of 
Sirius or the dog-star with the sun has been 
erroneously regarded as the cause of excessive 
heat and of consequent calamities. 

DOGE or DuKE : Venice was first governed by 
a doge named Anafesto Paululio, or Paoluccio, 697 ; 
see Venice. The Genoese chose their first doge, 
Simone Boccanegra, in 1339. Muratori. 

DOGGER-BANK (German Ocean). Here a 
gallant but indecisive battle was fought between 
the British, under admiral sir Hyde Parker, and 
the Dutch, 5 Aug. 1781. 

DOGGETT'S COAT and BADGE. 

Thomas Doggett, an eminent actor of Drury-lane, 
at the first anniversary of the accession to the 
throne of George I., 1 Aug. 1 715, gave a water- 
man's coat and silver badge to be rowed for by six 
young watermen in honour of the day, and be- 
queathed at his death, in 1722, a sum of mone3 r to 
continue the custom. Bowed for 1 Aug. every year. 

DOIT. The ancient silver Scottish penny, of 
which twelve were equal to a penny sterling. 
The circulation of "doydekyns" (small Dutch 
coins) was prohibited by statute in 1415. 

DOLLAR, the German thaler. Stamped 
Spanish dollars (value 4s. gd.) were issued from 
the Mint in March, 1797, but called in Oct. fol- 
lowing. The dollar is the principal silver coin in 
the United States of North America, value about 
4s. British money. 

DOLLY'S BRAE, see Riots, 1849. 

DOM and DUOMO, see Cologne and Milan. 

DOM-BOC or DOOM-BOOK (Liber Judicialis), 
the code of law compiled by king Alfred from the 
West-Saxon collection of Ina and other sources. 
Alfred reigned from 871 to 901. 

DOMES'-DAY BOOK orDOOM'S-DAY 

[Domus Dei book, Stoiv] (Liber Censualis Anglice), 
a book of the general survey of England, com- 
menced in the reign of William I., 1080 (some say 
1085), and completed in 1086. It was intended to 
be a register to determine the right in the tenure 
of estates* ; and from it the question whether lands 
be ancient demesne or not, is sometimes still de- 
cided. The book, formerly kept in the Chapter- 
house of Westminster, is now in the Public Becord 
Office. It consists of two volumes, a greater and less, 
wherein all the counties of England, except North- 
umberland, Durham, Westmoreland, and Cumber- 
land, are surveyed. "This Dome' s-day book was 
the tax-book of kinge William." Camden. The 
taxes were levied according to this survey till 

*Sir Martin Wright says, "to discover the quantity of 
every mail's fee, and to fix his homage," i.e., the question 
of military aid he was bound to furnish. 



13 Hen. VIII., 1522, when a more accurate survey 
was taken, called by the people the New Doom's- 
Day-Book. Domes'-day Book was printed in 2 
vols., folio, and issued in 1783 ; 2 supplemental 
vols., including an introduction by sir Henry Ellis, 
were issued in 1816. Photo-zinco-graphic copies of 
various counties have been published since 1861. 
The eighth centenary of the completion of the 
original Dooir.sday Book, celebrated in London, 
25-29 Oct. 1886. In Sept. 1872, government ordered 
a return of all the owners of land in England and 
Wales — in fact, anew Domes' -Day-Book ; the work 
to be done by the Local Government Board. 
The return for Scotland 1872-3, was published by go- 
vernment, April, 1874 ; for "England and Wales (ex- 
clusive of the metropolis) in 1875 ; for Ireland, 1876. 
"Domesday Book," &c, by prof. F. W. Maitland, pub- 
lished Feb. 1897. 

DOMESTIC ECONOMY, or the study of 
food and clothing, was introduced into the govern- 
ment educational department in 1874; the congresses 
begun at Birmingham, 16 July, 1877 ; and others 
since. 

DOMINGO, St., see Hayti and Dominican 
Republic. 

DOMINICA (W. Indies), discovered by 
Columbus in his second voyage, on Sunday, 3 Nov. 

1493. It was taken by the British in 1761, and 
confirmed to them by the peace of Paris, Feb. 1763. 
The French took Dominica in 1778, but restored it 
at the subsequent peace in 1783. Their admiral 
Villeneuve ineffectually attacked it in 1805. It 
suffered great damage hy a hurricane in 1806, and 
also 4-5 Sept. 1883. Failing prosperity; changes 
in the administration to be made, reported 5 Oct. 
1894; imperial assistance accepted, July, 1898. 
Population, 1881, 28,211; 1891, 26,841; 1901, 
about 29,000. See Leeward Lsles. 

DOMINICAL LETTER, noting the Lord's 
day, or Sunday. The seven days of the week, 
reckoned as beginning on the I Jan., are desig- 
nated by the first seven letters of the alphabet, 
A (1 Jan.), B, C, D, E, F, G ; and the one of these 
which denotes Sunday is the Dominical letter. If 
the year begin on Sunday, A is the Dominical 
letter ; if on Monday, G ; on Tuesday, F ; and so 
on. Generally to find the Dominical letter call 
New "Sear's day A, the next B, and go on thus 
until you come to the first Sunday, and the letter 
that answers to it is the Dominical letter ; in leap 
years count two letters. The letters for 1893, A ; 
1894, G; 1895, F; 1896, E D; 1897, C; 1898, B; 
1899, A; 1900, G; 1901, F; 1902, E; 1903, D; 
1904, C B ; 1905, A. The letter or its number 
(figure of 1 for A, &c.) used in ancient charters. 

DOMINICALS. See Exeter. 

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC or San Domin- 
go, formerly the Spanish part of the island of 
Hayti, the oldest European settlement, founded in 

1494, D J Bartolomeo Columbus. The capital, San 
Domingo, contains the cathedral and Columbus's 
residence. See Hayti, 1844, et seq. Population, 
1887, 504,000; 1902 (estimated), 500,000. Presi- 
dent, Ulises Heureaux, 20 July, 1886-99; assassi- 
nated at Moca, 26 July, 1899; succeeded by sen. Juan 
Jimenez, Nov. 1899 ; short revolution, the presi- 
dent resigned ; succeeded by sen. Vasquez, 2 May, 
1902. 

DOMINICANS, formerly a powerful religious 
order (called in France, Jacobins, and in England, 
Black friars) , founded to put down the Albigenscs 
and other heretics by St. Dominic, approved by 

B B 2 



DOMINION. 



372 



DOVEE. 



Innocent III. in 1215, and confirmed by Honorius 
III. in 12 16, under St. Augustin's rules and the 
founder's particular constitution. In 1276 the 
corporation of London gave the Dominicans two 
streets near the Thames, where they erected a 
large convent, whence that part is "still called 
Blackfriars. A Dominican establishment at Haver- 
stock hill, near London, was consecrated 10 Oct. 
1867. 

DOMINION op Canada, see Canada. 

DOMINOES, " a sport imported from France 
a few years back." Strut? s Sports, 1801. Now 
very popular, much played in restaurants, clubs, &c. 

DONATISTS, an ancient strict sect, formed 
about 313-318, by an African bishop, Donatus, who 
was jealous of Caecilian, bishop of Carthage : it 
became extinct in the 7th century. The Donatists 
htld that the Father was above the Son, and the 
Son above the Holy Ghost. Their discipline was 
severe, and those who joined them were re- 
baptized. 

DONAUWEETH (Bavaria). Here the 
French and Bavarians were defeated by the duke of 
Marlborough, after a severe conflict, 2 July, 1704. 

DONCASTEE (Yorkshire), the Roman 
Danum, the Saxon Donne ceastre. The races here 
(held annually in September) began about 1703; 
see Races. Royal Agricultural Society met here 
22-26 June, 1891. Population, 1881, 21,139 ! 1891, 
25.936; 1901, 28,928. 

DONGrOLA, a town on the Nile, 750 miles S. 
of Cairo, subject to Egypt. See Soudan, 1883, 
1885, 1896. The town and province re-conquered 
for Egypt by sir H. H. Kitchener in the campaign 
of 1896. New Dongola rapidly built and fortified, 
reported 19 Nov. 1896; reported prosperous by sir 
H. H. Kitchener, 17 Jan. 1897. Government 
organized. Population, about 60, OOO. 

DONKEY SHOW. An exhibition of donkeys 
and mules belonging to the upper and lower classes 
took place at the Agricultural Hall, Islington, 9 
Aug. 1864; and since. 

DON QUIXOTE, by Saavedra Miguel de 
Cervantes (born 1547; died 1616). The first part 
of this work appeared in 1605, and the second part 
in 1608. It is said that upwards of 12,000 copies of 
the firs', part were circulated before the second was 
printed. Watts. First English translation, by 
Thos. Shclton, was published in 1612. 

DOOM'S-DAY BOOK, seeDome's-day Book 

DOEADO, see El Dorado. 

DOECHESTEE (Oxfordshire) was once a 
bishopric, founded about 636. The first bishop 
Birinus, the apostle of the "West Saxons (which see), 
was succeeded in 650 by Agilbcrt. In 659 the 
see was divided by the king. Dorchester remained 
with Agilbcrt, and Wina, established at Winchester, 
in 660 obtained the whole. The see of Dorchester 
was revived aboul 764. In 1072 the' bishop Remigius 
de Feschamp removed the sec to Lincoln. 

DOECHESTEE (Dorsetshire), the Roman 
Dwnovaria, the Saxon Dornceaster. Here are 
found remains of a Roman theatre and of a British 
oamp. Splendid specimen of villa pavement dis- 
covered, hig. [899. Here Jefferies held his 
"bloody assize" (after Monmouth's rebellion), 3 
Sept. [685. .Much excitement was caused by six 
Labourers of Dordhester being sentenced to trans- 
portation 17 March, [834, for administering illegal 



oaths. Population, 1881,7,567; 1891,7,946; 1901, 
10,000. 

DOEIANS, Greeks, who claimed descent from 
Dorus, son of Heilen ; see Greece. The return of 
the Dorians, named Heraclidae, to the Peloponnesus 
is dated 1104B. c. They sent out many colonies. 
To them we owe the Doric architecture, the second 
of the five orders. 

DOEKINGr, Surrey, an ancient town ; the 
manor having been given by the Conqueror to ear] 
Fitz warren. An imaginary battle of Dorking in which 
the German invaders totally defeat the British army 
is the subject of a clever article, attributed to 
gen. sirGeorge Chesney, in Blackwood'sMagazinefor 
May, 1871. It provoked much controversy, and 
caused the publication of several pamphlets. Popu- 
lation, 188 1, 6,328 ; 1891,7,132; 1901,7,670. 

DOEMANS (N. E. France). The Huguenots 
and their allies, under Montmorency, were here 
defeated by the duke of Guise, 10 Oct. 1575. 

DOET, or DORDRECHT, an ancient town in 
Holland. Here happened an inundation of the 
Meuse in 142 1, through the breaking down of the 
dykes. In the territory of Dordrecht 10,000 persons 
perished ; and more than 100,000 round Dollart, in 
Friesland, and in Zealand. The independence of 
the thirteen provinces was declared here in 1572, 
when William Prince of Orange was made stadt- 
holder. A Protestant synod sat at Dort 13 Nov. 
1618, to 25 May 1619; to which deputies were sent 
from England, and from the reformed churches in 
Europe, to settle the difference between the doctrines 
of Luther, Calvin, and Arminius, principally upon 
points of justification and grace. This synod con- 
demned the tenets of Arminius. Population, 1900, 
38,884. 

DOEYL^EUM (Phrygia). Soliman, the 
Turkish sultan of Iconium, having retired from the 
defence of Nicsea his capital, was here defeated with 
great loss b}' the crusaders 1 July, 1097. Michaud. 

DOTEEEL, H.M.S., destroyed by explosion, 
26 April, 1881. See under Navy. 

DOUAY (N. France), the Roman Duacum, was 
taken from the Flemings by Philip the Fair in 
1297; restored by Charles V. in 1368. It reverted 
tc Spain, from which it was taken by Louis XIV. in 
1667. It was captured by the duke of Marlborough 
in June, 1710; and retaken by the French 8 Sept. 
1712. This town gives its name to the Roman 
Catholic English version of the Bible authorised by 
the pope, the text being explained by notes of 
Roman divines. The Old Testament was published 
by the English college at Douay in 1609; the New 
had been published at Rheimsin 1582. The English 
college for Roman Catholics was founded in 1568 by 
William Allen, afterwards cardinal. Dodd. For 
335 J'^ars most English and Irish priests were 
trained here. The Benedictine monks, professors 
and students, were expelled from France 18 July, 
1903 ; the college transferred to St. Mary's Roman 
Catholic college at Wolverhampton. 

DOUEO, a river (separating Spain and Portu- 
gal), which, after a desperate struggle between 
Wellington's advanced guard under Hill, and the 
French under Soult, was successfully crossed by the 
former on 12 May, 1809. So sudden was the move- 
ment, that "Wellington at 4 o'clock sat down to the 
dinner prepared for the French general. Alison. 

DOYEE (Kent), the Roman Dubris. Near 
here Julius Coesar is said to have first landed in 



DOWEE. 



373 



DEAINAGE. 



England, 26 Aug., 55 B. c, and its original castle to 
have been built by him soon after; but this is 
disputed. The works were strengthened by Alfred 
and succeeding kings, and rebuilt by Henry II. 
The earliest named constable is Leopoldus de Bertie, 
in the reign of Ethelred II., followed by earl 
"Godwin, Odo the brother of William I., &c. In 
modern times, this office, and that of warden of the 
Cinque Ports, have been frequently conferred on 
the prime minister for the time being, — e.g., lord 
North, Mr. Pitt, lord Liverpool, and the duke of 
Wellington. The earl of Dalhousie, late governor- 
general for India, appointed in Jan. 1853, died 19 
Dec. i860. Lord Palmerston, appointed constable 
March, 1861, died 18 Oct. 1865. Earl Granville 
appointed Dec. 1865, died 31 March, 1891. W. H. 
Smith, appointed May, died 6 Oct. 1891. The 
marquis of Dufferin and Ava, about 4 Nov. 1891 
(died 12 Feb. 1902). Marquis of Salisbury appointed 
1895, died 22 Aug. 1903. See Tunnels. Popula- 
tion, 1901, 41,782. 
The priory was commenced by archbishop Corboyl, 

or Corbois, about 1130 

At Dover, king John resigned his kingdom to Pan- 

dolf, the pope's legate . . . 13 May, 12 13 

The pier projected by Henry VIII. . . . 1533 

Charles II. landed here from his exile 26 May, 1660 

Iniquitous secret treaty with France signed here 

May, 1670 
The foot barracks burnt by accident . 30 July, 1800 

Admiralty pier commenced 1844 

Railway to London opened ... 7 Feb. „ 
A submarine telegraph laid down between Dover 

and Calais by Brett . . . .28 Aug. 1850 
A telegraph between Dover and Calais opened, 

13 Nov. 1851 
Part of the cliff fell, 27 Nov. 1810 ; and 13 Jan. 1853 

Easter volunteer review here . . .22 April, 1867 
Suffragan bishop, Edward Parry, D.D. . . . 1870 
Dover College inaugurated by earl Granville 4 Oct. 1871 
Dover and Deal railway begun by earl Granville, 

29 June, 1878 ; opened .... June, 1881 
New municipal buildings and park opened 14 July, 1883 
Coal-field discovered under the cliffs, 15 Feb. 1890 ; 

the colliery flooded, 8 deaths . . 6 March, 1897 
Construction of a new harbour proposed by the 
admiralty, Oct. 1890 ; first stone of new works 
laid by the prince of Wales . . 20 July, 1893 
Discovery of closed-up caves and passages, under 

the east cliff ; closed up again . early March, 1891 
Mr. W. F. Smith presents to the nation the valu- 
able relics of William Pitt, the duke of Wellington, 
and other lord wardens, which had become the 
property of his late father, Mr. W. H. Smith, and 
which were preserved in Walmer Castle . April, 1892 

New pier opened 22 May, 1893 

. Discovery of great water springs . 11 Sept. 1896 

Parts of Shakespeare's cliff fell, 5, 6 Feb. 1897 ; 
coast-guard station removed, 8 Feb. ; more fell 

9 March, 1897 
Fire at the castle, one wing gutted . . 14 Dec. ,, 
Foundation stone of soldiers' Victoria hall and 
institute laid by lord Roberts, 8 Dec. 1898 ; opened 
by Mr. G. Wyndham ... 15 Sept. 1899 

British association meets here, 13-20 Sept.; 300 
members of the French association and others 
from Boulogne, received by sir Michael Foster, 

16 Sept. ,, 
Dover harbour works, first block laid by Messrs. 

Pearson 15 Dec. 

The shah of Persia arrives . . .17 Aug. 1902 
. German officers of the Stein training ship entertained 
by the mayor at a banquet . . 21 Aug. ,, 
Lord Roberts presented with the freedom, 28 Aug. ,, 
. Prince of Wales's pier, costing 600,000?., opened to 

publie 1 Jan. 1903 

Inauguration of Dover as port of call for Hamburg- 
American liners ; congratulatory telegram by 
Emperor of Germany ... . . 27 July ,, 

DOWER, the gifts of a husband to a wife before 
marriage (Genesis xxxiv. 12). The portion of 
a man's lands or tenements which his wife enjoys 
for life after her husband's death. By the law of 



king Edmund, a widow was entitled to a moiety of 
her husband's lands or tenements for her life, 941. 
The widows of traitors, but not those of felons, are 
debarred their dower by statute 5 Edw. VI. 1551. 
By the Dower act passed in 1833, the power of fhe 
wife over her dower was much diminished. 

DOWN (N. E. Ireland). An ancient see, first 
bishop St. Cailan, in 499. At the instance of 
John de Courcy, the conqueror of Ulster, the cathe- 
dral, consecrated to the Trinity, was re-dedicated to 
St. Patrick about 1 183. The sepulchre of St. Patrick 
(buried here in 493, in the abbey of Saul, founded 
by himself) brought this place into great repute. 
The see was united with that of Connor in 1441 
(see Connor) ; and the see of Dromore was united to 
both by the Irish Church Temporalities act, 3 & 4 
Will. IV. c. 37, Aug. 14, 1833. The cathedral of 
Downpatrick was destroyed by lord Grey, lord 
deputy of Ireland ; for this and other crimes he was 
impeached and beheaded in 1541. Beatson. 

DOWNS, see Naval Battles, 1652-3. 

DEACO'S LAWS (enacted by him when 
archon of Athens, 621 e. a), on account of their 
severity, were said to be written in blood. Idleness 
was punished as severely as murder. This code was 
set aside by Solon's, 594 B. c. 

DEAFTS (or cheques). In 1856, drafts crossed 
with a banker's name were made payable only to or 
through the same banker. This act was passed in 
consequence of a decision to the contrary in the 
case of Carlon v. Ireland, 12 Dec, 1855. In 1858 
the crossing was made a material part of a cheque, 
but bankers are not held responsible when the 
crossing does not plainly appear, and a penny stamp 
was ordered to be affixed to drafts on bankers, com- 
mencing 25 May . In the case of Simmonds v. Taylor, 
May, 1858, it had been decided that the crossing 
formed no part of the draft. The crossing had been 
erased, and the money paid to the holder of the 
draft, who had stolen it. 
The "Cheque-bank," established for issuing drafts for 

limited amounts, opened 23 July, 1873 ; after many 

years' successful working it failed owing to extensive 

forgeries ; still in liquidation, 1903. 
The payment of a stolen draft crossed on one banker 

and presented by another banker declared legal ; Smith 

v. Union Bank of London : verdict for defendants, 29 

Nov. 1875. 
Crossed Cheques act passed, Aug. 15, 1876. 

DEAGONNADES. The fierce persecution of 
the Protestants in the reign of Louis XIV. by 
dragoons, by the minister Louvois, 1684, was con- 
summated by the revocation of Henry IV.'s edict 
of Nantes, 22 Oct. 1685, which drove 50,000 families 
from France. Buruy. 

DEAGOON. A cavalry soldier with infantry 
arms ; the name is of doubtful origin, the Roman 
Braeonarii were horse soldiers, who bore dragons 
for ensigns. Charles de Cosse, Marshal of Brisac, 
instituted French dragoons about 1600. The oldest 
British regiment, the Scots Greys, was enrolled in 
1683. 

DEAINAGE OF Land, in England, is of 
early date — remains of British works being still 
extant in the Fens district. Cornelius Vermuyden, 
the Dutch engineer, was invited to England in 1621, 
and amidst much opposition, he and his successors 
drained the districts termed the Great Levels ; see 
Levels. In the present century great progress has 
been made in drainage. In 1 861 was passed "an 
act to amend the laws relative to the drainage of 
land for agricultural purposes;" see Sewers. 



DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. 374 



DRAMA. 



DRAKE'S CIRCUMNAVIGATION. Sir 

Francis Drake sailed from Falmouth 13 Dec. 1577, 
circumnavigated the globe, and returned to England 
after many perils, 3 Nov. 1580. He was vice-admiral 
under lord Howard, high admiral of England, in the 
conflict with the Spanish Armada, 19 July, 1588. 
He died at Panama, 28 Jan. 1596, during an 
expedition against the Spaniards. 

DRAMA, both tragedy and comedy, originated 
with the Greeks, rudimentary forms being gradu- 
ally combined with the periodical choral perform- 
ances in honour of the gods, the stories being 
derived from sacred legends. The early dates 
given below are doubtiul. See Theatre. 

The first comedy performed at Athens, by Susarion 
and Dolon, on a movable scaffold about b. c. 580 or 562 

The chorus introduced 556 

Tragedy first represented at Athens by Thespis, on 
a waggon (Arwndelian Marbles) . . . . 535 

Thespis of Icaria performed at Athens "Alcestis," 
and was rewarded with a goat (tragos). Pliny . ,, 

Greek Drama. — Tragedy: JEschylus, introduced 
trilogies (sets of 3 plays), with unity of time and 
place, several actors, scenery aucl other improve- 
ments ; wrote 70 tragedies, 7 extant : Persce, 
Agamemnon, Prometheus, &c. . . B.C. 525-456 

Sophocles, highly moral, wrote 113 tragedies ; 
about 81 represented, 7 extant : Antigone, 
(Edipiis Tyrannus, &c. . . . B.C. 495-406 

Euripides, lower moral tone and other changes ; 
wrote 75 or 92 plays ; 18 extant : Alcestis, Medea, 
Hecuba, Iphigenia, Orestes, &e. . . B.C. 480-400 

Comedy : Aristophanes, a strong conservative, ex- 
hibited the common life and politics of Athens, 
and satirized the sophists ; wrote 54 plays, 11 ex- 
tant : the Knights, Clouds, Wasps, Birds, Frogs, &c. 

B.C. about 444-380 

Cratinus : 21 comedies, only fragments extant 

B.C. 519-422 

Menander, Epicurean moralist ; above 100 come- 
dies, only fragments extant . . B.C. 342-291 

Anaxandrides, wrote many comedies approved by 

Aristotle ; died B.C. 340 

[Acted in Greek at Cambridge ; "Agamemnon " 
of iEschylus and " Ajax "of Sophocles, Nov. 1882 ; 
"Birds" of Aristophanes, 28 Nov. 1883. The 
" Eumenidcs " of yEsehylus 1 Dec. 1885; 
" CEdipus Tyrannus "of Sophocles, 22 Nov. 1887 ; 
" Ion " of Euripides, 25 Nov. 1890 ; " The Frogs " 
of Aristophanes at Oxford, about 24 Feb. 1892 ; 
"The Knights," 24 Feb. 1897; "Iphigenia in 
Tauris " of Euripides, at Cambridge, 30 Nov. -5 
Dec. 1894; "The Wasps" of Aristophanes, 19 
Nov. 1897; Mr. Todhunter's " Helena in Troas," 
written in English, and successfully performed in 
the Greek style at Hengler's circus near Oxford 
Street, W., 17 May, 1886.] 

Latin Drama, derived from the Greek. 

Livius Andronicus, a freed Greek slave of Taren- 
tum, wrote Latin dramas ; of 14 the titles and 
fragments have been preserved ; his first play 
acted at Home about .... B.C. 240 

T. Mucins Plautus wrote about 130 plays; 20 ex- 
tant : Miles, Trinummits, &c. ; very national and 

popular, about b.u. 254-184 

I'. Terentius or Terence, a freed slave, educated by 
Ids master, translated 108 of Menander's come- 
dies, ami imitated them; oof ins own comedies 
extant : Andria, Heeyra, Heauton-timoroumenos, 
(the Belf-tormentor) Euniichus, Phormio, Adelphi 

B.C. 195-159 

L. Annrcus Seneca, the philosopher, wrote 10 
tragedies: Hippolytus. Oedipus, Medea, Agamem- 
non, &c..; lulled by Nero . . . a.d. 65 

The high-class drama declined under the emperors 

till its extinction, when it, had degenerated into 

gross buffoonery 

A latin play Of Plant us or Terence is annually per- 
formed at Westminster school in conformity 
with the statute of queen Elizabeth. 

The MODERN DRAMA, ENGLISH, was gradually de- 
veloped from the services of the church in the 
12th and i;th centuries, and appeared in the 
form of a miracle or mystery plays, based upon the 



bible history and legends of the saints. They were 
originally performed in churches, and afterwards 
in market-places and open fields. The Coventry, 
Chester and other mysteries, published by the 
Shakspeare Society, in 1843-7. See Church of 
England, 1897. John Skelton and others wrote 
Moralities about 1500 ; Nicholas Udall, 1540; The 
tragedy of Gorboduc or Ferrex & Pbrrex by 
Thos. Sackville and Thos. Norton, interludes by 
John Heywood 16th century 

The drama patronized by queen Elizabeth and the 
Stuarts 1558 et se<j. 

See article Shdkspeare's Plays. 

Dramatists : Robert Greene, is6o(?)-92 ; Christo- 
pher Marlowe. 1564-93; Wra. Shakspeare, 1564- 
1616 ; Ben Jonson, 1574-1637 ; Francis Beau- 
mont, 1586-1616 ; John Fletcher, 1576-1625; 
Philip Massinger, 1584-1640; John Ford, 1586- 
1639 ; sir Wm. Davenant, 1603-68 ; John Milton, 
1608-74. 

The Puritans condemned the stage ; Wm. Prynne 
published his "Histrio-Mastix," the "Player's 
Scourge," 1633. The theatres closed during the 
commonwealth 1649-60 

Dramatists : JohnDryden, 1631-1701 ; sirG. Ether- 
ege, 1636-1689 ; Thos. Shadwell, 1640-92 ; W. 
Wycherley, 1640 (?)-i7is ; Thos. Otway, 1651-85; 
Nat. Lee, 1655-92 ; Thos. fcoutherne, 1659-1746 ; 
Mrs. Susannah Centlivre, 1667-1723 ; sir Wm. 
Congreve, 1670-1729 ; Colley Cibber, 1671-1757 ; 
sir John Vanbrugh, 1672 (?)-i726 ; Geo. Farquhar r 
1678-1707 ; Nicholas Rowe, 1687-T715. 

Bp. Jeremy Collier published his " Short view of 
the Immorality and Profaneness of the English 
Stage" 1697 

Dramatists: Henry Fielding, 1707-54; David Gar- 
rick, 1716-79; S. Foote, 1720CO-77 ; O. Gold- 
smith, 1728-74 ; Richard Cumberland, 1732-1811 ; 
R. B. Sheridan, 1751-1816 ; Joanna Baillie, 1762- 
1851 ; J. Sheridan Knowles, 1784-1862 ; Lord 
Byron, 1788-1824; Edward Bulwer, lord Lytton, 
1806-73 ; Alfred, lord Tennyson, 1S09-92 ; Francis 
Talfourd, 1827 (?)-62 ; T. W. Robertson, 1829-71 ; 
Oscar Wilde, 1856-1900; A. W. Pinero, b. 1855; 
Henry A. Jones, b. 1851 ; Stephen Phillips, b. 
1866 ; James M. Barrie, 6. i860 ; Sydney Grundy, 
b. 1848. 

Act for the revision of plays, and for licensing 
them previous to performance .... 1737 

Authors' Dramatic Copyright Protection act, 3 
WM. IV. c. 15 to June, 1833 ; extended to operas, 
1 July • . 1842 

School of dramatic art, Argyll-street, London, W., 

opened 4 Oct. 1882 

See Theatres, &c. 

French drama. — Adam de la Halle is said to have 
originated the comic opera in "Robin et Marion," 
and the modern comedy in " Adam " or "Jus de 
la Feuillie," 13th century 

Chronical plays and Moralities or Allegorical plays 

14th and 15th centuries 

At the Renaissance French tragedy copied Seneca 
rather than the Greek poets and was much 
influenced by the Italian and Spanish dramatists. 

Stephen Jodelle, 1532-73 ; Paul Scarron, i6io(?)-6o ; 
.1. B. Poquelin, aft. Moliere, 1662-73; P. J- de 
Crebillon, 1674-1762; Peter Corneille, 1606-84; 
.lean Racine, 1639-99; F. M. Arouet de Voltaire, 
1694-1778 ; Alfred de Musset, 1810-57; A. E. 
Scribe, 1791-1861 ; Alexandre Dumas, 1802-70; 
Victor Hugo, 1802-85; Alexandre Dumas (fils) T 
1824-95; Edouard Pailleron, 1S34-99; Edmond 
Rostand, b. 1868 ; Jules Barbier; Victorien Sar- 
dou, u. 1831 1825-1903 

Great influence of Romanticism . . 1830, etscq. 

Opera bouffe 1852, ctseq. 

ITALIAN Drama, began with the Renaissance. 

J. G. Trissino (imitated Seneca). 1478-1550; Nich. 
Machiavelli, 1469-1527 ; L. Ariosto, . 1474-1533 

Rise of the Opera ; P. Metastasio, 169S-1782 ; 
C. Goldoni, 1707-93; V. Altieri, 1749-1S03 ; 
C. Gozzi, 1772-1806; A. Manzoni . . 1784-1873 

SPANISH Drama. — National not classical. Popular 
Don Juan stories. 

Dramatists. — Lope de Vega, 1568-1635; Pedro- 
Calderon, 1601-87 ; much copied in England and 
France. 



DRAMATIC COLLEGE. 



375 



DRESS. 



The " Passion-play " is still performed. 

German Drama.— Sacred dramas and the passion 
play performed before 13 00 

The "Passion of Christ," a miracle-play, still fre- 
quently performed at Ober-Ammergau in Bavaria, 
is said to have had its origin after a pestilence in 1633 

This play was witnessed by the prince of Wales and 
other distinguished persons in the summer and 
autumn, 1871. 

Performances, 17-26 May, 25 Sept. 1880 ; and fre- 
quently since, 28 Sept. et seq. 1890 ; 20 May, 1900. 

Its proposed performance at the Westminster Aqua- 
rium, 4 Nov., was stopped by the disapprobation 
of many Oct. 1878 

Dramatists : Gotthold B. Lessing, 1729-81 ; J. C. P. 
von Schiller, 1759-1805 ; A. P. P. von Kotzebue, 
1761-1819; J. W. von Goethe, 1749-1832 ; A. W. 
I Aland 1759-1814 

Translation of Shakespeare by Ch. M. Wieland, 
published 1762-66, and by August W. von 
Schlegel and J. W. Tieck . . . 1797-1810 

Scandinavian Drama. — Drama'ists, Holberg, 
Heiberg, Ochlenschliiger, Ibsen, Bjornson. 

DRAMATIC COLLEGE, for the benefit of 
distressed actors and their children, was proposed 
21 July, 1858, at the Princess's theatre, by Messrs. 
C. Dickens, Thackeray, C. Kean, B. Webster, and 
others. Mr. Henry Dodd's offer of land and money, 
with certain stipulations, was declined Jan. 1859. 
. The first stone of the buildings at Maybury, near 
Woking-, was laid by the prince consort, 1 June, 
i860; and on 29 Sept. 1862, seven annuitants were 
installed. The central hall was opened by the 
prince of Wales, 5 June, 1865. The queen was the 
patron. The viceroy of Egypt was present at the 
annual fete at the Crystal Palace, July 1867, and 
gave 500^. to the college. The scheme was unsuc- 
cessful. On 12 Nov. 1877, it was determined to 
close the college, and provide for the inmates. 
The buildings were sold by private contract about 
23 July, 1880. 

DRAMATIC REFORM ASSOCIATION, 

started at Manchester, Jan. 1878. 

DRAPIER'S LETTERS, by dean Swift, 
published in 1 723-4 against Wood's Halfpence 
{which see). 

DRAUGHTS, a game resembling chess, 
played upon a checkered board divided in 64 black 
and white squares. Its origin is unknown. Strutt, 
in Sports and Pastimes, calls it a modern game, but 
it was played in Europe in the 16th century. Paul 
tie Mallet wrote a treatise on draughts, which was 
published in Paris 1668. A game resembling 
draughts is depicted on the Egyptian monuments, 
and the Greeks and Romans played a similar game. 
Checkers is the common name for draughts in 
America, and in France it is called jeu cles dames. 

DRAWING SOCIETY (made Royal, 1892) 
of Great Britain, formed in July, 1888, to promote 
the teaching of drawing in schools. There are 
annual exhibitions. 

DREADNOUGHT. In this ship, which was 
engaged in the battle of Trafalgar, 21 Oct. 1805, 
■was established a hospital for the seamen of all 
nations (whose sovereigns are subscribers) , by the 
Seamen's Hospital Society established 182 1. The 
old vessel was replaced by others. The removal of 
the men to Greenwich hospital was proposed in 
1867; effected, April, 1870. 

DREAMS are mentioned in Scripture, e. g., 
Joseph's and Pharaoh's, 1715 u. c. {Gen. xxxvii. 
and xli.), and Nebuchadnezzar's, 603 and 570 B. c. 
{Daniel ii. and iv.), and were regarded as direct 
messages from the spiritual world. The first 



attempt to interpret dreams and omens is ascribed 
to Amphictyon of Athens, 1497 B.C. 

DRED SCOTT CASE; see United States, 
1857. 
DREDGING ; see Beep Sea. 

DREPANUM (Sicily). Near this place the 
Carthaginian admiral Adherbal totally defeated the 
Roman fleet under Publius Claudius, 249 b. c. 

DRESDEN, termed the German Florence, 
became the capital of Saxony in 1548.* Population 
in 1885, 246,086; 1895, 336,440; 1900, 397,300. 
Alliance of Dresden between Saxony and Denmark 

and Russia 28 June, 1709 

Peace of Dresden between Hungary, Prussia, and 

Saxony 25 Dec. 1745 

Taken by Frederick of Prussia in 1756 ; by the 

Austrians *759 

Bombarded in vain by Frederick . . July, 1760 
Held by Austrians . . . June -July, 1809 

Severe contests between the allied army under the 
prince of Schwarzenberg, and the French com- 
manded by Napoleon . . 26, 27 Aug. 1813. 
The allies, 200,000 strong, attacked Napoleon in his 
position at Dresden, and the event had nearly 
proved fatal to them, but for an error in the con- 
duct of general Vandamme. They were defeated 
with dreadful loss, and were obliged to retreat 
into Bohemia ; but Vandamme pursuing them too 
far, his division was cut to pieces, and himself 
and all his staff made prisoners. In this battle, 
general Moreau received his mortal wound, while 
in conversation with the emperor of Russia 27 Aug. ,,. 
Marshal St. Cyr, and 25,000 French troops, sur- 
rendered Dresden to the allies . 11 Nov. ,, 
During a political commotion the king abdicated, 
and prince Frederick, his nephew, was declared 

regent 9 Sept. et seq. 1830- 

An insurrection 3 May ; suppressed . . 6 May, 1849. 

DRESS. The attire of the Hebrew women is 
censured in Isaiah iii., about 760 B.C. Excess in 
dress among the early Romans was restrained by 
sumptuary laws : and also in England by numerous 
statutes, in 1363, 1465, 1570, &c. (see Cap). Stow. 
F. W. Fairholt's "Costume in England'' (1846) 
contains a history of dress with numerous illustra- 
tions derived from MSS., the works of Strutt, &c. 
J. R. Planche's elaborate "Cyclopaedia of Costume " 
first appeared in 1876. A " dress-making com- 
pany " was established in London, 6 Feb. 1865', 
with the view of improving the condition of the 
workwomen. 

Sir Walter Raleigh wore a white satin-pinked vest, close- 
sleeved to the wrist, and over the body a doublet finely 
flowered, and embroidered with pearls, and in the 
feather of his hat a large ruby and pearl drop at the 
bottom of the sprig in place of a button. His breeches, 
with his stockings and ribbon garters, fringed at the 
end, all white ; and buff shoes, which, on great court 
days, were so gorgeously covered with precious stones 
as to have exceeded the value of 66ooi. ; and he had a 
suit of armour of solid silver, with sword and belt 
blazing with diamonds, rubies, and pearls. 
King James's favourite, the duke of Buckingham, had his 
diamonds tacked so loosely on, that when he chose to 
shake a few off on the ground, he obtained all the fame 
he desired from the pickers-up, who were generally Us 
Dames de la Cour. 
The court dress of civilians, previously that of the time of 
the Georges, was modified by the lord chamberlain, 
lord Sydney, in 1869. 
The Bloomer Costume, introduced into America in 1849, 
by Mrs. Amelia Jenks Bloomer, and worn there by many 
of the women. It resembled male attire, being an 

* Dresden china was invented by John Frederick 
Bottger (or Bottcher), an apothecary's boy, about 1709. 
He died 13 March, 1719. A costly service, each piece 
exquisitely painted, with battles. &c, was presented to 
the duke of Wellington by the king of Prussia, in 1816. 



DEEUX. 



376 



DEOGHEDA. 



open-fronted jacket and loose trowsers, the latter wide 
like those of the Turk, but gathered in at the ankles. 
The Bloomer dress was adopted by a few females in the 

, west of London, in August, 1851 ; but though recom- 
mended by some American ladies in popular lectures, 
it was soon totally discontinued. Mrs. Bloomer 
warmly advocated the enfranchisement of women and 
other important reforms. She was born at Homer, 
New York, in 1818, and died at Council Bluffs, Iowa, 
30 Dec. 1894. 

A dress exhibition opened in Piccadilly, London, 19 May, 
1883. 

Rational Dress Association active, May, 1883, et seq. 

Mr. Charles Worth, dressmaker, born at Bourne, Lincoln- 
shire, in 1825 ; at the age of 20 went to Paris, and 
there, by great energy and skill, established a business, 
employing latterly 1,200 hands ; greatly influencing 
fashion ; he is -(aid to have been very charitable ; he 
died 10 March, 1895. 

DEEUX (N. W. France). Here the Hugue- 
nots were defeated, and their general Cond6 taken 
prisoner ; and the catholic leader Montmorenci was 
captured by the protestants ; the slaughter was 
great on both sides, 19 Dec. 1562. Here is the 
burying-place of the Urleans family since 1816. 
The duke of Guise, aged 18, the last surviving 
child of the due d'Aumale, was buried here 27 
July, 1872. The bodies of king Louis Philippe 
and others of his family were brought here from 
England and buried, 9 June, 1876. 

DEEYFUS CASE: see France, 1804 et seq. 
Capt. Alfred Dreyfus was arrested 15 Oct.^ tried by 
court-martial in camera, convicted from the border- 
eau (secret documents from ihe war office) of high 
treason, and sentenced to life-imprisonment, 23 
Dec. 1894; publicly degraded, protesting his inno- 
cence, 5 Jan. 1895 5 sent first to the lie de lie, mid 
Jan., and to the lie du Diable, Feb. 1895. 
Col. Picquart, urging an inquiry into the case, Sept. , 

is dismissed from the war office and replaced by 

col. Henry l6 Nov. 1896 

M. Scheurer-Kestner (died 19 Sept. 1899), vice-pres. 

of the senate, intercedes for Dreyfus . Sept. 1897 
Maj. Esterhazy, charged with having written the 

bordereau, demands an inquiry . . 19 Nov. 
M. Meline, premier, declares in the senate, " II n'y " 

a pas d'affaire Dreyjus" . . . 7 Dec. 
Maj. Esterhazy is acquitted by court-martial, 
„,„.,, 11 Jan. 189S 

Col. Picquart (brought from Tunis to answer 

Esterhazy 's charges, Nov. 1899) is rearrested and 

sent to Mont Vale-rien ... 13 Jan. 
M. Zola's letter, J'accuse (defending Dreyfus and 

demanding a new trial), appears in the Aurore, 

^ , „• 13 J ;,n - •> 

Col. Picquart secretly examin d at Mont Valprien, 

1 Feb. ; and retired from the army . 25 Feb' 
Col. Henry confesses to forgery against Dreyfus, is " 

arrested, ami commits suicide in prison, 31 Auo- 
Esterhazy (lies from France ... 9 Sept " 
Col. du Paty de Clam placed on the retired list, 

13 Sept. ,, 
Col. Picquart liberated by the civil court, 21 Sept.- 

is rearrested by gen. Zurlinden's orders, 22 Sept. , 
The Dreyfus case submitted for revision to the 

court of cassation . . . 8 6 Sept. et seq. „ 
The secret dossier communicated to the court, 

27 Dec 
M. Quesnay de Beaurepaire, president, resigns, ' " 

Vote of confidence in the chamber for the ministry 
and the court of cassation , . ,i a ii 

Esterhazy, andera safe-conduct, gives evidence, m 
Jan. ; leaves Paris before concluding . l Feb 

Revision (adjunction) bill passed bj the senate " 
158-131 ' . -s Feb 

Ksterhazy confesses Hi.il he \w,,te (he Imrrcreau 

under col. Sandhei r's instructions ■ Ji 

The court orders a fresh I rial . . , J uue ' ' 

Col. Picquart is released, charges dismissi d, 

t\ r , , , , . o. 1 ; .1 line, „ 

Dreyfus brought back and taken to Rennes, 

I July, 



Esterhazy states that gens. Gonse, de Boisdeffre, 
and Billot knew the bordereau that condemned 
Dreyfus to be a forgery . . .13 July, 1899 

Court-martial at Rennes opens, 7 Aug. ; M. Labori, 
Dreyfus's counsel, shot at and wounded on his 
way to the court .... 14 Aug. ,, 

Major Hartmann's technical criticism of the bor- 
dereau and its ante-dating (the change in the date 
shown by M. Lamothe), conclusive in favour of 
prisoner's innocence .... 2 Sept. ., 

M. Labori's request for the evidence of military 
attaches refused 6 Sept. ,, 

The declarations of prince Munster (Dec. 1894 and 
Jan. 1895), and count von Bulow (24 Jan. 1898), 
that neither the German embassy in France nor 
any German agent had ever had relations of any 
kind with Dreyfus, published officially in the 
Imperial Gazette, Berlin ... 8 Sept. „ 

M. Demange maintains Dreyfus's innocence and 
Esterhazy's guilt in an eloquent speech, but the 
judges, after an hour and a-halfs absence, by a 
majority of 5-2, pronounce him guilty, with ex- 
tenuating circumstances, and sentence him to 10 
years' imprisonment . . . 8, 9 Sept. ,, 

Great indignation at the sentence and sympathy 
with the prisoner; meetings held in his favour in 
all parts of the world ; see Times, 9 Sept. et seq. ,, 

M. Zola's letter, "The Fifth Act," appears in the 
Aurore 12 Sept. ,, 

Capt. Dreyfus is pardoned by pres. Loubet, after a 
cabinet council, and released . 19, 20 Sept. ,, 

[Many books were written on the case. "Five 
Years of my Life," by Alfred Dreyfus, translated 
by James Mortimer, was published, April, 1901.] 

M. Jaures unsuccessfully urges in the chamber of 
deputies the re-opening of the Dreyfus case, 

6-7 April, 1903 

DEILL EEVIEW of children ; see Educa- 
tion, 1870. 

DEILLING-MACHINES, in agriculture. 
One was invented by Jethro Tull, early in the last 
century. 

DEINK, see Drunkards. 

DEINKING-FOTTNTAINS. Several were 
erected in Liverpool in 1857. The Metropolitan 
Drinking Fountain Association was formed in Lon- 
don in April, 1859, by lord John Russell, the earl 
of Carlisle, Mr. iS. Gurney, and others. The first 
of the numerous fountains since erected is that near 
St. Sepulchre's church, Skinner-street, 21 April, 
1859. The magnificent fountain in Victoria-park, 
London, was inaugurated by the donor, Miss (after- 
wards baroness) Burdett-Coutts, 28 June, 1862. A 
remarkable drinking-fountaiii (the gift of the maha- 
rajah of Vizianagram) was inaugurated in Hyde- 
park, 29 Feb. 1868 ; another in Kegent's-park," the 
gift of a Farsee, Aug. 1869. — 324 in the metropolis, 
June, 1877; 437 fountains, 438 troughs, July, 1880 ; 
672 drinking fountains, 726 .troughs, July, 1890; 
725 fountains, 729 troughs, June, 1963 ; 609 
fountains, 924 troughs. 
The fountain at the Royal Exchange, with the statue of 

t'hariU (cost, b\ subscription, 1500/.), finished Oct. 

1879 ; many fountains erected since. 

DEOGHEDA (Ireland, E.), formerly Tre- 
dflgh, a place of great importance, having the 
pri\ ilege of coining money. Here was passed 
Poynings' law {which see) in 1494. In the reign of 
Edward VI. an act was passed for the foundation 
of a university here. The town was besieged 
sc\ oral times in the contests between 1641 and 
1691, and Cromwell took it by storm, and put the 
governor, sir A. Aston, and the whole of the garri- 
son, to the sword, 12 Sept. 1649. More than 30CO 
men, most of them English, perished. It sur- 
rendered to William 111. in 1690. Population, 
7901, 12,765. 



DEOMOEE. 



377 



DEUNKAEDS. 



DEOMOEE, Bishopric of (N. E. Ireland), 

founded by St. Coleman, first bishop, about 556. 
By an extent returned 15 James I., this see was 
valued in the king's books at 50/. Jeremy Taylor 
was bishop of Down and Connor in 1660, and of 
this see in 1661. In 1842 Dromore was united to 
Down by the Irish Church Temporalities act of 
1833- 

DEONTHEIM, capital of Norway, founded by 
Olaf I. about gg8. 

DEOUGHT. The great suffering occasioned 
by drought, frequent in the eastern countries, is 
exemplified by Jeremiah, chap, xiv., about 601 B.C. 
Absolute droughts are rare in this country. Accord- 
ing to Mr. G. J. Symons, there was partial drought 
in London, 16 April-30 May and 9 Aug. -5 Sept. 
1880. " Of these long partial droughts I can trace 
only eight in the 93 years, viz. : — 1800, June 6 to 
Aug. 19 ; 1817, March 8 to May 13 ; 1835, June 27 
to Sept. 2 ; 1840, Feb. 5 to May 7 ; 1844, March 11 
to June 23 : 1852, Feh. 1 to April 28 ; 1854, Feb. 5 
to April 26; 1893, Feb. 28 to May 16." — Times, 
II May, 1893. Almost absolute drought in S.E. 
England, 1 March-18 June, 1893 ; storms and rain in 
various places, igjuue; vei ylii tie rain Jul\ -Sept. ; 
great scarcity of fodder, and failure of root crops. 
Drought in S. Italy, France and Spain, 1893. 
Very little rain from mid April-July, 1895. Great 
drought in Gt. Britain and the continent to mid 
Oct. 1898. Drought in England, common fires 
frequent, June- 28 Aug. 1899. See Madras, Heat, 
United States. 

DEOWNING, an ancient punishment. The 
ancient Britons are said to have inflicted death 
by drowning in a quagmhe. Stow. It is said to 
have been inflicted on eighty intractable bishops 
nearNicomedia, A.D.370; and to have been adopted 
as a punishment in France by Louis XL The 
wholesale drownings of the royalists in the Loire 
at Nantes, by command of the brutal Carrier, Nov. 

1793, were termed Noyades. 94 priests were drowned 
at one time. He was condemned to death in Dec. 

1794. Societies for the recovery of drowning persons 
were first instituted in Holland, in 1767. The second 
society is said to have been formed at Milan, in 
1768 ; the third in Hamburg, in 1771 ; the fourth 
at Paris, in 1772 ; and the fifth in London, in 1774. 
The motto of the Boyal Humane Society in England 
is: Lateat scintilhila forsan — "A small spark may 
perhaps lie hid." Francois Texier, of Dunkerque, 
after saving 50 lives at different times, was drowned 
in a storm, Oct. 1871. 

Drowned in inland waters in England and Wales, 1877, 
2662 ; found drowned in 1893, 1,114 i m J894, 1,149 > m 
1895 1,178. In United Kingdom in 1880, 4044. 

DEUGS, sales regulated by Sale of Food and 
Drugs Act, passed 11 Aug. 1875. See Pharmacy. 

DEUIDS. Priests, among the ancient Ger- 
mans, Gauls, and Britons, so named from their 
veneration for the oak (Brit. derw). They ad- 
ministered sacred things, were the interpreters of 
the gods, and supreme judges. They headed the 
Britons who opposed Caesar's first landing, 55 B.C., 
and were exterminated by the Boman governor, 
Suetonius Paulinus, a.d. 61. 

DETJM. It was used by the Egyptians and 
other ancient nations ; and brought by the Moors 
into Spain. The drum, or drum capstan, for 
weighing anchors, was invented by sir S^^Ioriand, 
in 1685. Anderson. 

DEUMCLOG (W. Scotland). Here the 
feovenanters defeated Graham of Claverhouse, on 



1 June, 1679. An account of the conflict is given 
by Walter Scott, in " Old Mortality." 

DEUMCONDEA, see Roman Catholic. 

DEUMMOND CASTLE, Castle Line 
steamer, Donald Currie co., from the Cape and Natal, 
struck on the Pierres Vertes, Molene island, off 
Ushant, abt. midnight, 16 June, 1896, Captain W. 
Pierce, 103 of the crew, and 147 passengers drowned. 
Perfect order and much heroism was displayed 
during this great calamity. Mr. Marquardt, pas- 
senger, and 2 sailors were saved by 3 Breton fisher- 
men. Much humanity was shown by the natives 
of Ushant, Molene and neighbourhood in regard to 
the burials and the relatives of the' Sufferers ; above 
9,387/. received for the relatives, 22 June ; total, 
25,409/., 3 May, 1897. Board of trade inquiry, 
calamity attributed to neglect of precautions, 27 
July. Waterworks to bj built in Molene, and a 
church clock and steeple at Ushant, with 1,600/. 
subscribed in England to commemorate French 
sympathy ; reported 24 Jan. 1897. Silver medals 
distributed by sir Edmund Monson and Mr. Gosselin 
to 247 persons at Brest, with a message from the 
queen, 27, 29 April; others awarded by her June, 
1897. 5,000 francs subscribed by the English for a 
harbour at Port Sail, Finistere : announced 13 
March, 1898. 

DEUMMOND LIGHT ; see Lime-light. 

DETJNKAEDS were to be excommunicated 
in the early church, 59 (1 Cor. v. 11). InEngland, 
a canon law forbade drunkenness in the clergy, 747. 
Constantine, king of Scots, punished it with death, 
870. By 21 James I., c. 7, 1623, a drunkard was 
liable to a penalty of live shillings, or six hours in 
the stocks. See Temperance and Tee-totaler. 
A commission to inquire into the prevalence of 
intemperance granted by the lords on the motion 
of the archbishop of Canterbury, 30 June, 1876; 
report neutral respecting alcohol, recommends 
trial of modified Gothenburg system (which see), 
issued .... .18 March, 1879 

A society for promoting legislation for the control 

and cure of habitual drunkards formed . 22 Sept. 1876 
The establishment of an industrial home for intem- 
perate females proposed at the Mansion house, 

London 29 Oct. 1877 

Habitual Drunkards (inebriates) bill, passed 30 July, 
1879 ! amended 1888 ; Habitual Inebriates Act, 
passed (reported successful, Oct. 1901) 12 Aug. 1898 
Society for the study and cure of Inebriates, esta- 
blished . ..... 25 April, 1884 

Drink Bill, Mr. Wm. Hoyle computes that the 
nation in i860 spent in intoxicating liquors, 
85,276,870?. ; in 1876, 147,288,760?. ; in 1879, 
128,143,863?. In 188c, for beer, 67,881,673?. ; 
British spirits, 28,457,486?.; foreign spirits, 
10,173,014?. ; wine, 14,287,102?. ; British wines, &c, 
estimated 1,500,000?. ; total, 122,299,275?. 
Total drink bill 1881, 127,074,460?.; 1884, 126,349,256?. ; 
1885, 123,268,906?. ; Dr. Dawson Burns com- 
putes in 1886, 122,389,045?. ; 1887, 124,347,369?. ; 
1888, 124,603,939?. ; 1889, about 132,103,000?. ; 
1890, 139,495,470?. ; 1891, 141,220,675?. ; 1892, 
140,886,262?. ; 1893, 138,854,829?. ; 1894, 
138,737,828?. ; 1895, 142,414,812?. ; 1896, 
148,972,230?. ; 1897, 152,281,723?. ; 1898, 
176,967,349?. ; 1899, 185,927,227?. ; 1900, 
184,881,196?. ; 1901, 181,738,245?., expenditure 
per head 4?. -js. Z^cl. ; 1902, 179,499,817?., expen- 
diture per head 4?. 5s. 6|d. 
A departmental committee, respecting habitual 
drunkards, which sat in 1892, presented its 
report, with recommendations, to the commons, 

8 May, 1893 
Royal Victoria Home for inebriate women, at 
Horfield, founded in 1895 ; Brentry reformatory 
and many others since ; reports on retreats and 
reformatories issued by Home office for 1899 
(22 institutions end of 1900) . . . Jan. 1901 



DEUEY-LANE THEATEE. 



378 



DUBLIN. 



Famfield reformatory for female drunkards opened, 
end of Aug. 1900 ; hopeful report issued . Aug. 1901 

152,200 prosecutions for drunkenness in England 
and Wales ,, 

France, a temperate nation, yet from statistics, 
stands as the greatest consumer of alcohol among 
European nations, Times, 19 Feb. 1902, also Dr. 
Hyslop, British Medical association . Aug. 1903 

Licensing act, 1902, came into force . 1 Jan. ,, 

See Black List. 

DEUEY-LANE THEATEE derives its 
origin from a cock-pit, which was converted into a 
theatre in the reign of James I. It was rebuilt 
and called the Phoenix ; and Charles II. granted an 
exclusive patent to Thomas Killigrew, 25 April, 
1662. The actors were called " the king's servants," 
and ten of them, called gentlemen of the great 
chamber, had an annual allowance of ten yards of 
scarlet cloth, with lace ; see under theatres. 
Drury-lane Theatrical Fund, established, 1766. 

DEUSES, a warlike people dwelling among the 
mountains of Lebanon, derive their origin from a 
fanatical Mahometan sect which arose in Egypt 
about 996, and fled to Palestine to avoid persecution. 
They now retain hardly any of the religion of their 
ancestors : they eat pork and drink wine, and do 
not practise circumcision, pray, or fast. In the 
middle of i860, in consequence of disputes (in 
which doubtless both parties were to blame), the 
Druses attacked their neighbours the Maronites 
{which see), whom they massacred, it was said, with- 
out regard to age or sex. Peace was made in July ; 
hut in the meantime a religious fury seized the 
Mahometan population of the neighbouring cities, 
and a general massacre of Christians ensued. Fuad 
Pacha with Turkish troops, and general Hautpoul 
with French auxiliaries, invaded Lebanon in Aug. 
and Sept. The Druses surrendered, giving up their 
chiefs, Jan. 1861. See Damascus and Syria. 

DEYING MACHINES, see under Ray. 

DUALIN, an explosive substance (said to be 
from four to ten times more powerful than gun- 
powder), composed of varying proportions of cellu- 
lose (woody fibre), nitro-starch, nitro-mannite, and 
mtro-eellulose ; invented by Carl Ditmar, a Prus- 
sian, and made known in 1870. This name is also 
given to another explosive compound, invented by 
Mr. Nobel, composed of ammonia and sawdust, acted 
on by nitro-sulphuric acid. 

DUALISM, a term applied to the equally- 
matched conflicting powers of good and evil 111 the 
Persian mythology, the Hormu/d and Ahriman 
of Zoroaster: is also applied to the principles 
of the advocates for a separate government of 
Hungary under the emperor of Austria ; effected in 
1867. 

DUBLIN", capital of Ireland, anciently .'ailed 
Ashcled, said to have been built 140. Auliana, 
daughter of Alpiuus, a lord or chief among the 
Irish, having' been drowned at the ford where now 
"Whit worth-bridge is built, he changed the name to 
Auliana, by Ptolemy called Kblana (afterwards cor- 
rupted into Dublana). Alpinus is said to have 
brought "the then rude hill into the form of a 
town," about [55; see I 'reland and Trinity Colleges. 
Dublin returns .) M . I'.'s by Act passed 25 June. 1SS5. 
Population in 1881, 249,602; in 1891, 254,709; 
1 90 1, 289,108. 

Christianity introduced by st. Patrick . . . 448 
Dublin environed with walls by the Danes . . 798 
Named by king Edgar in the preface i" his charter 

■• Nobilissi ni'i Civltas" 964 

Battle of Clontarf (which ace) . . . 23 April, 1014 



Dublin taken by Ramond le Gros, 1 1 70, for Henry II. 

who soon after arrives 1171 

Charter granted by this king 1173 

Christ church built by the Danes, 1038 ; rebuilt 

about 1 180 — 1225 

Slaughter of 500 British by the Irish citizens near 

Dublin (see Cullens Wood) 1209, 

Assemblage of Irish princes, who swear allegiance 

to king John 1210 

Foundation of Dublin castle laid by Henry de Loun- 

dres, 1205 ; finished 1213 

John de Decer first provost ; Richard de St. Olave 

and John Stakebold first bailiffs (see Mayor) . . 1308 

Thomas Cusack, first mayor 1409 

Besieged by the son of the earl of Kildare, lord 

deputy 150c 

Christ church made a deanery and chapter by 

Henry VIII. (see Christ Church) . . . .1541 
Bailiff changed to sheriffs ; John Ryan and Thomas 

Comyn, first 15.18 

Trinity college founded 1591-2 

Charter granted by James I. 1609 

Convocation which established the Thirty-nine 

articles of religion 1614 

Besieged by the marquis of Ormond, defeated at 

battle of Rathmines (which see) . . 2 Aug. 1649. 

Cromwell arrives in Dublin with 9000 foot and 400 

horse Aug. ,, 

Chief magistrate styled lord mayor . . . . 1665 
Blue coat hospital incorporated .... 1676 
Essex bridge built by sir H. Jervis . . . . 1670 
Royal hospital, Kilmainham, founded . . . 1683 
James II. arrives in Dublin, 24 March ; proclaimed 

4 May, 1689 

Great gunpowder explosion 1693 

Lamps first erected in the city .... 1698 

Infirmary, Jervis-street, founded 172S 

Parliament-house begun 1729 

Foundling hospital incorporated 1739 

St. Patrick's spire erected (see St. Patrick) . . 1749 
Royal Dublin Society originated, 1731 ; incorpd. . ,, 

Hibernian society 1765 

Marine society 1766 

Queen's bridge first erected, 1684 ; destroyed by a 

flood, 1763 ; rebuilt 1768 

Act for a general pavement of the city . . . 1773 
Royal exchange begun, 1769 ; opened . . . 1779 

Order of St. Patrick instituted 1783 

Bank of Ireland instituted (see Bank) . . .... 

Police established by statute 1786 

Royal academy incorporated ,, 

Custom house begun, 1781 ; opened . . . . 1791 

Dublin library instituted ,, 

Fire at the parliament house 1792 

Carlisle bridge erected 1794 

City armed association 1796 

New Four law courts opened „ 

The rebellion ; arrest of lord Edward Fitzgerald, in 

Thomas-street 19 May, 1798 

Union with England (see Union) . . 1 Jan. 1801 
Emmett's insurrection .... 23 July, 1803 

Hibernian Bible society ...... 1806 

Bank transferred to College-green . . . . 1808 

Dublin institution founded iSin 

Riot at the theatre . . . . .16 Dec. 1814 

Visit of George IV 12 Aug. 1821 

Theatre Royal opened ,, 

The "Bottle riot" 14 Dec. 1822 

Hibernian academy .... 16 Aug. 1823 

Dublin lighted with gas .... 5 Oct. 1825 
Great custom-house lire . . . .9 Aug. 1833 

Railroad to Kingstown 1834 

British Association meet hero . . .6 Aug. 1835 

Dublin new police act 4 July, 1836 

Cemetery. Mount Jerome, consecrated 19 Sept. 
Royal arcade burnt .... 25 April, 1837 
Poor-law bill passed .... 31 July, 1838 

Awful storm raged 6 Jan. 1839 

O'Connell's arrest (see Trials) . . . 14 Oct. 1843 
He is found guilty, u Feb. ; liberated in Sept. 1844 

His death at Genoa 15 May, 1847 

Arrest of Mitchell, of the "United Irishman'' 

newspaper 13 May, 1848 

Slate 1 rial of Will, Smith O'Brien and Meagher in 

Dublin 15 May, „ 

[These persons were afterwards tried at Clonmel, 

and round guilty.] 
Trial of Mitchell; guilty , . . . 26 May, „ 



DUBLIN. 



379 



DUBLIN. 



" Irish Felon " newspaper first published, i July, 1848 
" Nation " and " Irish Felon" suppressed, 29 July, ,, 
Conviction of O'Doherty . . . . 1 Nov. ,, 
The queen visits Dublin ... 6 Aug. 1849 
Royal exchange opened as a city hall . 30 Sept. 1852 
Dublin industrial exhibition, which owed its exis- 
tence to Mr Dargan who advanced 80.000Z. for 
the purpose, was erected by Mr. (afterwards sir) 
John Benson, in the Dublin society's grounds, 
near Merrion-square. It consisted of one large 
and two smaller halls, lighted from above. It 
was opened by earl St. Germains, the lord-lieu- 
tenant 12 May, 1853 

Visited by the queen and prince Albert, 30 Aug. ; 

and closed on 1 Nov. ,, 

Acts passed to establish a national gallery, 

museum, &c. . . 10 Aug. 1854 ; and 2 July, 1855 
British Association meet here (2nd time) . 26 Aug. 1857 
Arrival of lord Eglinton — disgraceful contest be- 
tween the Trinity college students and the police ; 
the latter severely blamed . . .12 March, 1858 
Fine art exhibition proposed, 20 July, i860 ; opened 
by the lord-lieutenant, the earl of Carlisle, 24 
May, 1 861 ; visited by the prince of Wales, 1 July ; 
and by the queen and prince consort . 22 Aug. 1861 
Nationalassociationforsocialsciencemet, 14-22 Aug. ,, 
Demonstration at the funeral of the rebel M'Manus, 

10-12 Nov. „ 
Lord Rosse installed as chancellor of the university, 

17 Feb. 1863 
Statue of Oliver Goldsmith inaugurated by the 
lord-lieutenant, 5 Jan. ; who opens the national 

gallery of Ireland 30 Jan. 1864 

New Richmond hospital, to be called the " Carmi- 
chael School of Medicine," founded by lord Car- 
lisle (Mr. Carmichael, the surgeon, bequeathed 

io,oooi. to it) 29 March, ,, 

Industrial exhibition opened by the lord chancellor, 

25 May, ,, 
The O'Connell monument founded . . 8 Aug. „ 
St. Patrick's cathedral restored by Mr. Benjamin 

L. Guinness ; re-opened ... 24 Feb. 1865 
The international exhibition opened by the prince 

of Wales . 9 May, ,, 

The newspaper " The Irish People " seized, and 
several Fenians taken in custody. (See Fenians, 

and Ireland.) 15 Sept. ,, 

International exhibition closed . . . 9 Nov. ,, 
Great fire : Mrs. Delany and five others burnt ; fire- 
brigade blamed 7 June, 1866 

Great banquet to John Bright . . .30 Oct. ,, 
Meeting of Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland, 

. 27 Aug. 1867 
Two policemen shot (probably by Fenians), 31 Oct. ,, 
Funeral demonstration for Allen, Gould, and Larkin, 

the Fenians 8 Dec. ,, 

Visit of prince of Wales (see Ireland) . 15 April, 1868 
Sir Benjamin L. Guinness, benefactor, died 19 May, ,, 
Church congress held . . 29 Sept. — 2 Oct. ,, 
Public entry of earl Spencer as lord-lieut. . 16 Jan. 1869 
Smith O'Brien's statue unveiled . . .26 Dec. 1870 
State funeral of lord mayor Bulfin (died in office), 

16 June, 1871 
Fine art and industrial exhibition opened by the 

duke of Edinburgh 5 June, 1872 

Closed by the lord-lieutenant, earl Spencer, 30 Nov. ,, 
Spencer dock inaugurated by the lord-lieutenant, 

15 April, 1873 
Great fire ; rioting suppressed by the military, 

7 June, ,, 
Conference on "Home Rule" in the Rotondo, 

18-21 Nov. ,, 
International Rifle Match Irish and Americans ; 

Americans won 29 June, 1875 

Statue of Henry Grattan unveiled . . 6 Jan. 1876 
Entry of the duke of Marlborough, new lord lieu- 
tenant 10 Jan. 1877 

Freedom of city given to Mr. W. E. Gladstone, 

7 Nov. „ 
Christ church cathedral thoroughly restored by Mr. 
G. E. Street, at the expense of Mr. Henry Roe 
(above.250.oooL), re-opened . . .1 May, 1878 
British Association meets here (3rd time) . 14 Aug. „ 
Death of cardinal Paul Cullen, r.c. abp. of Dublin 
(since 1851), 24 Oct. ; successor, monsignor 

McCabe, elected 28 Nov. „ 

Centenary of birth of Thomas Moore celebrated, 

28 May, 1879 



Theatre Royal burnt down, Mr. Egerton, the mana- 
ger, and 5 others, perish ... 9 Feb. 188b 
Great convention of the land league ; Mr. Parnell 

declares for abolition of landlordism 15 Sept. 1881 

Phoenix park murders (see Ireland) . . 6 May, 1882 

Statue of D. O'Connell unveiled, and the Exhibition 

of Irish Arts and Manufactures (not patronised 

by the queen and loyalists) opened by the lord 

mayor Dawson, 15 Aug. 1882, closed 6 Jan. 1883. 

Discovery of the assassination plot (sec Ireland) 

Feb. 1883: 
A futile attempt to blow up Ship-street barracks 

25 April, 18S4 
Visit of the duke of Edinburgh with the Channel 

fleet warmly received end of Aug. . . . . ,, 
Grand review of the troops in the Phoenix park by 

the duke of Cambridge .... 30 Sept. ,, 
Death of cardinal M'Cabe . . . 11 Feb. 1885 

The prince and princess of Wales enthusiastically 
received, 8 April ; he lays foundation of Museum 
of Science and Art, &c. . . . 10 April, , r 
Dr. Win. J. Walsh appointed R.C. archbishop by 

the pope June, ,,, 

Entry of the marquis of Londonderry, lord-lieut., 

18 Sept. 18S6 
Princes Albert Victor and George of Wales arrive at 
Dublin 27 June ; review in Phoenix Park 28 June ; 
received deputations, jubilee cathedral service 
and State banquet, &c, 29 June ; left 30 June, 1887 
The lord mayor, T.D. Sullivan, appears in full state 
at the police court to answer charge of offence 
against the Crimes Act by publication in his 
paper, the "Nation"; discharged through in- 
sutficient evidence 6 Oct. ; on appeal the objection 
set aside by the Exchequer Division 10 Nov. ; 
sentenced to two months' imprisonment as first- 
class misdemeanant 2 Dec. ,, 

Great Unionist meeting in Leinster Hall to receive 

lord Harrington and Mr. Goschen . 29 Nov. ,, 
Mr. T. Sexton, M.P., lord mayor . . 2 Jan. 1888 
Great meeting of Irish Nationalists to receive the 
marquis of Ripon and Mr. John Morley, M.P., 
amid great enthusiasm .... 2 Feb. ,, 
Dublin "barracks built about 1708; enteric fever 
long prevalent, greatly increased in 1888 ; govern- 
ment inspection, special inquiry by Mr. Rogers 
Field, aided by Drs. Dupre and Klein, ordered 
Nov. ; interim report with recommendations 
dated 25 Feb. ; issued .... April, 1889. 
The earl of Zetland sworn in lord lieut. . 5 Oct. ,, 
Mr. E. Kennedy, lord mayor . . .1 Jan. 1890 
Strike of servants of Great S. and W. railway com- 
pany at Dublin, 25 April; closed by the efforts 
■of Abp. Walsh and others . . . 3 May, , r 
The earl of Zetland opens the new museum of Science 

and Art and the National Library . . 29 Aug. ,, 
Mr. Joseph Meade, lord mayor . . 1 Jan. 1891 
Mr. C. S. Parnell dies at Brighton, 6 Oct., buried 

in Glasnevin cemetery ; solemn funeral 11 Oct. ,, 
Explosion at Dublin castle attributed to nitro- 
glycerine ; much destruction but no one injured 

31 Dec. ,, 
Mr. James Shanks, lord mayor . . 1 Jan. 1892 
Telephonic communication with Belfast opened 

5 April, ,, 
Great Unionist meeting . . . .23 June, ,, 
Tercentenary of the foundation of Trinity college 

celebrated 5-9 July, ,, 

New city market, shops, &c. destroyed by fire, 

very great loss, 27 Aug. ; public meeting to raise 

a fund for restoration ... 29 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Shanks, lord mayor .... Dec. „ 

Explosion outsidethe detective office, Dublin castle; 

Patrick Synnott, a detective, killed, and others 

injured, 11 p.m 24 Dec. ,, 

The lord mayor of London, Stuart Knill, R. C, 
visits Dublin, 31 Dec, and receives the freedom 
of the city, 2 Jan. ; leaves . . . 3 Jan. 1893 
See Ireland ... 15 March, and 8 April, „ 
Explosion of a bomb near the Four Courts ; win- 
dows broken 6 May, , T 

Mr. V. B. Dillon, lord mayor . . 1 Jan. 1894, iS'95 
Annual military tournament at Ballsbridge, 

8-15 June, ,, 
Entrance of earl Cadogan, lord lieut. . 22 Aug. ,, 
Mr. M'Coy elected lord mayor . . .2 Dec. 1896 
Mr. W. E. H. Lecky elected M.P. for Dublin uni- 
versity 6 Dec. j, 



DUBLIN, ARCHBISHOPBIC OF 380 



DUELLING. 



Great part of the college of St. Columba, Rathfarn- 
hani, destroyed by tire (re-opened 17 May, 1898) 

7 Dec. 1896 

State banquet at the castle inaugurating the 
queen's diamond jubilee . . 13 March, 1897 

Revival of the ancient musical festival held at Tara 
in the 12th century May, ,, 

Rioting of Parnellites on jubilee day, 22, 23 June, ,, 

Army manoeuvres: great review by lord Roberts 
in the Phoenix park .... 17 Aug. ,, 

Arrival of the duke and duchess of York, warm re- 
ception, 18 Aug. ; opened the Irish Textile exhi- 
bition, 19 Aug. ; received various honours, 20 
Aug. ; at the Dublin horse show, 25 Aug. ; left 
Dublin, 28 Aug. ; see Ireland, 1897. 

Mr. Tallon elected lord mayor .... Dec. ,, 

The Burlington hotel, St. Andrew-street, burnt, 
one death 1 Feb. 1898 

Sir John Arnott bequeaths 40,000^ to charities in 
Cork and Dublin April, ,, 

Sir Robert Sexton (Unionist) nominated lord mayor 

4 July, „ 
Messrs. Sealy & Co., government printers, burnt, 

state documents destroyed . . .12 Oct. ,, 

Lord Iveagh gives 250,000^ for the Bull-alley area 
(poor neighbourhood), his scheme embodied in 
•a bill, Times 23 Dec. ,, 

Dublin county council (see Ireland) .... 1899 

Alderman Tallon re-elected lord mayor. 23 Jan. ,, 

Duke and duchess of York visit the lord-lieut., 10- 
24 April ; well received at the Punchestown 
races 11 April, ,, 

Dr. Wm. Frazer, eminent physician and anti- 
quarian, born 1824, died 17 April, and Dr. Thomas 
Nedley, a great humourist, died, aged 80, 

25 April, ,, 

Third musical Feis Ceoil, concerts, exhibitions, &c, 

15-20 May, ,, 

High death-rate, city area, 42^4 per 1,000, week 
ending 9 Sept. ,, 

First stone of the Parnell monument laid, 8 Oct. „ 

Commission appointed to inquire into the public 
health of Dublin, death-rate (47"9), &c, 6 Jan., 
1890 ; meets 13 Feb. 1900 

The queen visits Dublin (see Ireland) 14-26 April, ,, 

Councillor Pile nominated lord mayor, 4 Sept. 
1899 > " ia de a baronet .... April, ,, 

Death of prof G. Fitzgerald, aged 50, eminent 
scientist 21 Feb. 1901 

Mr. T. C. Harrington, M.P., installed as lord 
mayor ; some hostilicy shown at Trinity college, 

18 March, ,, 

.Missis. Todd, Burns' drapers' premises in Mary- 
street burnt 1 Jan. 1902 

Mr. Timothy Harrington, M.P., re-elected lord 
mayor 23 Jan. ,, 

Messrs. J. Redmond, M.P., and P. A. M'Hugh, 
M.P. (see Ireland, 22 April, 1901), presented 
with the freedom 3 April ,, 

Prince Henry of Prussia, with naval squadron, 
visits Dublin 17 May ,, 

Lord Cadogan opens the Koberts-house for lions in 
the Zoological gardens .... 20 May, ,, 

Trinity college graduates' memorial (cost 25,000?.) 

opened by lord Cadogan . . . 30 May, ,, 

New organ given by lord [veagh dedicated in St. 

Patrick's cathedral . . . .18 June, ,, 
Mr. Edw. Martyu gives m.ooc/. to the choir at the 

pro-cathedral, Marlhorough-street . jjoJuly, ,, 
Lord and lady Cadogan leave amid great demon- 
strations of goodwill .... 12 Aug. ,, 
Lord Dudley installed lord-lieut. . . 16 Aug. ,, 
Horse slmw id. Uiillsliridge opened ; visited by 
Mr. Wyndham, chief sec, the duke and duchess 
of Connaught, Mr. Seddori and sir A. Dime, 
colonial pramiers . . . .26, 27, Aug. ., 
Crimes act extended to Dublin . . 31 Aug. ,, 
Mr. T. Harrington, M.I'., 3rd time lord mayor, 

■ ; Jan. 1903 
Destructive gale, 1 death, many injured . 26 Feb. ., 
Mi. Campbell elected M.P. for the university, 

5 March ,, 
The king and queen visit Dublin . . 21 July, ., 

DUBLIN, Archbishopric of. It is sup- 
posed that the bishopric of Dublin was founded by 
St. Patrick, in 448. Gregory, bishop in tl2i.be- 
fcame archbishop in 1152. It was united to Glan- 



dalagh in 12 14. George Browne, an Augustine friar 
of London (deprived by queen Mary in 1 554) , was 
the first Protestant archbishop. Dublin has two 
cathedrals, St. Patrick's, said to have been founded 
1 190, restored 1865; Christ Church, built about 
1038, made a cathedral in 1541. The revenue was 
valued, in the king's books, 30 Henry YI1L, at 
534/. 15*. 2d. Irish. Kildare, on its last avoidance, 
was annexed to Dublin, 1846; recent protestant 
archbishops: Richard Whately, 1831, dies 8 Oct. 
1863 ; Richard Chenevix Trench, Nov. 1863, resigns 
28 Nov. 1884 (dies 28 March, 1886) ; Wm. Conyng- 
ham, lord Plunket, 18 Dec. 1884, dies 1 April, 
1897; succeeded by Dr. J. F. Peacocke, 17 June, 
1897. See Bishops. For E.C. abps. see Dublin. 

DUBLIN UNIVEESITY, see Trinity Col- 
lege, Diiilin. 

DUCAT, a coin so called because struck by 
dukes. Johnson. First coined by Longinus, 
governor of Italy. Procopius. First struck in the 
duchy of Apulia, 1 140. Bu Cange. Coined by 
Robert, king of Sicily, in 1240. 

DUCKING-STOOL ; see Cucking-stool. 

DUDLEY GALLERY. The exhibition held 
since 1865 in the Egyptian Hall was removed to a 
new building in Piccadilly, under the direction of 
the Dudley Gallery Art Society, established in 
[883. 

DUELLING took its rise from the judicial 
combats of the Celtic nations. The first formal 
duel in England, between William count of Eu and 
Godfrey Baynard, took place 1096. Duelling in 
civil matters was forbidden in France, 1305. 
Francis I. challenged the emperor Charles V. 1528 
without effect. The fight with small swords was 
introduced into England, 1587. Proclamation that 
no person should be pardoned who killed another in 
a duel, 1679.* Duelling was checked in the army, 
1 792 ; and has been abolished in England, by the 
influence of public opinion, aided by the prince 
consort. A society " for the discouraging of duel- 
ling " was established in 1845. " The British Code 
of Duel," published in 1824, was approved by the 
duke of Wellington and others. See Battle, Wager 
of, Combat, and Jarnac. 

MEMORABLE DUELS. 

Between beau Fielding and sir Henry Dutton 
Colt, 14 Feb. 1695-96. The baronet was wounded, 
but disarmed his antagonist. Sir H. D. Colt was 
adjutant to prince Rupert, and M.P. for West- 
minster. Bridge water house stands on the site of 
the duel. 

Between the duke of Hamilton and lord Mohun, 
fought 15 Nov. 17 12 

[This duel was fought with small swords, in Hyde- 
park. Lord Mohun was killed upon the spot, 
and the duke expired of his wounds as he was 
being carried to his coach.] 

Capt. Peppard and Mr. Hayes ; latter killed 

Messrs. Hamilton and Morgan ; former killed 

S. Martin wounded Mr. Wilkes, M.P. . 16 Nov. 

Lord Byron killed Mr. Chaworth . . 26 Jan. 

Lord Townsend wounded lord Bellamont, 1 Feb. 

Comte d'Artois wounded by due de Bourbon, at 
Paris 21 March, 

Mr. Donovan and capt. Hanson; the latter killed, 

13 Nov. 1779 

Charles James Fox woundedby Mr. Adam, 30 Nov. ,, 

* " As many as 227 official and memorable duels were 
fought during my grand climacteric." — Sir J. Barrington. 
A single writer enumerates 172 duels, in which 63 indi- 
viduals were killed and q6 wounded ; in three of those 
cases both the combatants were killed, and 18 of the 
anrvivors suffered the sentence of the law. Hamilton. 



1728 
1748 
1763 
1765 
1773 

1778 



DUELLING. 



381 



DULCIGNO. 



1791 
1792 

1796 



1B01 
1802 



Col. Fullerton wounded lord Shelburne, 22 March, 1780 
Rev. Mr. Allen killed Lloyd Dulany . . 18 June, 1782 
Col. Thomas killed by col. Gordon . 4 Sept. 1783 

Lord Macartney wounded by major-general Stuart, 

8 June, 1786 
Mr. M'Keon killed George N. Reynolds, 1787 ; exe- 
cuted ... . . 16 Feb. 1788 

Mr. Purefoy killed col. Roper .... Dec. „ 
Duke of York and col. Lennox, aft. duke of Rich- 
mond (for an insignificant cause) . 26 May, 1789 
Sir George Ramsay and captain Macrea : sir George 

killed 1790 

Mr. Curran and major Hobart 1 April, ,, 

Mr. Macduff and Mr. Prince ; latter killed 4 June, „ 
Mr. Harvey Aston and lieut. Fitzgerald ; the former 

severely wounded .... 25 June, „ 
Mr. Anderson killed Mr. Stevens . . 20 Sept. ,, 
Mr. Julius killed Mr. Graham . . 19 July, 
Mr. John Kemble and Mr. Aiken ; no fatality, 

1 March, 
Earl of Lonsdale and captain Cuthbert ; no fatality 

9 June, 
M. de Chauvigny wounded Mr. Lameth . 8 Nov. 
ffm. Pitt and Geo. Tierney . . .27 May, 
Lord Valentia wounded by Mr. Gawler . 28 June, 
Mr. Carpenter killed by Mr. Pride . 20 Aug. 
Henry Grattan wounded Isaac Corry . 15 Jan. 
Lieut. Willis killed major Impey . . 26 Aug. 
George Ogle and Bernard Coyle ; no fatality . . 
Sir Richard Musgrave and Mr. Todd Jones ; sir 

Richard wounded .... 8 June, , , 
Capt. Mac Namara killed col. Montgomery, 6 April, 1803 
Gen. Hamilton and col. Aaron Burr (in America) ; 

the general killed 1804 

Capt. Best killed lord Camelford 6 (died 10) March, „ 
Surgeon Fisher killed lieut. Torrens . 22 March, 1806 
Baron Hompesch wounded Mr. Richardson, 21 Sept. ,, 
Sir Francis Burdett and Mr. Paull ; both wounded 

5 May, 1807 
Mr. Alcock killed Mr. Colclough ; and lost his reason 

8 June, „ 
M. de Granpre and M. Le Pique, in balloons, near 

Paris, and the latter killed ... 3 May, 1808 
Major Campbell and captain Boyd ; latter killed 

(former hanged, 2 Oct. 1808) . . 23 June, ,, 
Lord Paget and captain Cadogan ; neither wounded 

30 May, 1809 
Lord Castlereagh wounded Geo. Canning 21 Sept. 
Mr. Clarke killed George Payne . . .6 Sept. 
Ensign de Balton killed capt. Boardman, 4 March, 
Lieut. Stewart killed lieut. Bagnal . . 7 Oct. 
Mr. Edward Maguire killed lieut. Blundell, 9 July, 
Captain Stackpole (of " Statira " frigate) and lieut. 

Cecil ; the captain killed (arose on account of 
words spoken four years previously) . April, 

Mr. D. O'Connell killed Mr. D'Esterre . 31 Jan. 

Colonel Quentin and colonel Palmer . 7 Feb. 

Mr. O'Connell and Mr. Peel ; an affair, no meeting 

31 Aug. 
Major Greene and Mr. Price, in America ; the latter 

killed, greatly lamented 

Lieut. Conroy killed lieut. Hindes . 8 March, 
Major Lockyer killed Mr. John Sutton . 10 Dec. 
Mr. O'Callaghan killed lieut. Bayley . . 12 Jan. 
Mr. Grattan and the earl of Clare . . 7 June, 
Mr. Henshaw and Mr. Hartinger ; both desperately 

wounded 18 Sept. „ 

Mr. Christie killed Mr. Scott . . .16 Feb. 1821 
M. Manuel and Mr. Beaumont . . 9 April, ,, 
Mr. James Stuart killed sir Alexander Boswell, 

26 March, 1822 
The duke of Buckingham and the duke of Bedford ; 

no fatality 2 May, ,, 

Gen. Pepe wounded gen. Carascosa . 28 Feb. 1823 

Mr. Westall killed capt. Gourlay 1824 

Mr. Beaumont and Mr. Lambton : no result 1 July, 1826 
Mr. Hayes killed Mr. Brie ... 26 Dec. ,, 
Rev. Mr. Hodson wounded Mr. Grady . Aug. 1827 
Duke of Wellington and the earl of Winchelsea ; no 

injury 21 March, 1829 

Capt. Helsham killed lieut. Crowther . 1 April, ,, 
Mr. W. Lambrecht killed Mr. O. Clayton . 8 Jan. 1830 
Capt. Smith killed Mr. O'Grady . . 18 March, „ 
Mr. Storey wounded Mr. Matthias . 22 Jan. 1833 

Sir John W. Jeffcott and Dr. Hennis ; the latter- 
wounded, and died on the 18th . 10 May, „ 
Lord Alvanley and Mr. Morgan O'Connell 2 shots 
each 4 May, 1835 



1S10 
1811 
1812 
1813 



1S14 
1815 



1816 
1817 



IBIS 

1820 



Sir Colquhoun Grant and lord Seymour ; no fatality 

29 May, 1835 

Mr. Roebuck, M.P., and Mr. Black, editor of the 
" Morning Chronicle ;" 2 shots each . 19 Nov. „ 

Capt. Dickson wounded gen. Evans . . 8 April, 1836 

Mr. Ruthven and Mr. Scott ; and Mr. Ruthven and 
Mr. Close (Mr. Scott's second) ; the latter wounded 

23 May, „ 

Emile de Girardin killed Armand Carrel (both jour- 
nalists) 24 July, „ 

The earl of Cardigan and captain Tuckett ; 2 shots 
each; the latter wounded; (the earl was tried in the 
house of lords and acquitted, 16 Feb. 1841) 12 Sept. 1840 

Captain Boldero and hon. Craven Berkeley ; no 
fatality 15 July, 1842 

Lieut. Munroe killed col. Fawcett 1 (died 3) July, 1843 

Lieut. Hawkey killed lieut. Seton . 20 May, 1845 

Dae de Grammont Caderousse kills Mr. Dillon at 
Paris, for a newspaper attack . . . Oct. 1862 

Paul de Cassagnac and M. Lissagaray, journalists ; 
(latter run through) .... 4 Sept. 1868 

Don Enrique de Bourbon killed by the due de Mont- 
peusier, near Madrid, much provocation, 12 Mar. 1870 

Paul de Cassagnac (wounded) and M. Ranc, Paris, 

7 July, 1873 
Prince Soutza kills N. Ghika at Fontainebleau, 

27 Nov. ,, 
MM. Gambetta and De Fortou ; neither hit 

21 Nov. 1878 
Duels (often nominal) still frequent in France 1875-84 
Capt. Fournier and H. Rochefort, for attack in 

Intransigeant ; both slightly wonnded 10 Oct. 1884 
M. Habert killed M. Felix Dupuis (artist), who 

resented satirical verses, Paris . . 29 April, 1888 
Gen. Boulanger, seriously, and M. Floquet slightly 

wounded (see France) ... 13 July, ,, 
Capt.Mayer killed by marq. de Mores, Paris, 23 June, 1892 
M. Hippolyte Percher {Harry Alis) killed by M. le 

Chatelier, near Paris : see Egypt . 1 March, 1895 
Agitation against duelling, see Germany 

April, et seq.- 1896 
Sig. F. Cavalotti killed by sig. F. Macola, 6 March, 1898 
M. Marlier, a municipal councillor, killed by 

M. Ferrette, a deputy, Paris . . .4 Oct. 1900 
M. Max Regis slightly wounded by M. Laberdesque, 

8 June, 1901 
Duels still occur in Germany, lieut. Blaskowitz 

killed by lieut. Hildebrand . . 4 Nov. ,, 
An influential appeal against duelling, 300 sig- 
natures, published in Vienna . . .7 Dec. ,, 
Herr Falkenhagen mortally wounds Landrath von 
Bennigsen, 16 Jan., and is sentenced to 6 years' 
imprisonment 17 Feb. 1902 

DUFFEKIN FUND, LADY,seeiM««, 1887. 

DUKE, from Latin dux, a leader. In England, 
daring Saxon times, the commanders of armies 
were called dukes, duces. Camden. In Genesis 
xxxvi. some of Esau's descendants are termed 
dukes. Duke-duke was a title given to the house of 
Sylvia, in Spain, on account of its possessing many- 
duchies. 
Edward the Black Prince made duke of Cornwall 

17 March, 1337 
Robert de Vere was created marquis of Dublin and 

ditke of Ireland, 9 Rich. II 1385 

Robert III. created David, prince of Scotland, duke 

of Rothsay, a title which afterwards belonged to 

the king's eldest son, 1398, and is now borne by 

the prince of Wales. 
Cosmo de' Medici created grand-dulce of Tuscany, 

the first of the rank, by pope Pius V. . . . 1569 
The dukes of Buccleuch, Grafton, Richmond, and 

St. Albans are descendants of Charles II. 

DUKHOBOETSY, see Spiritual Combatants. 

DULCIGNO, a port in Albania on the Adri- 
atic. 

Taken by Turks 1571 

In the 17th century a den of pirates, and the resi- 
dence of Sabbatai Zewi, a Smyrnese Jew, who 
declared himself to be the Messiah, became Maho- 
metan ; and died 1676 

Taken by Venetians ; and held for a short time 1722 



DULWICH COLLEGE. 



382 



DUNDEE. 



! 



The Montenegrins take it by storm ; but giveit up 1878 
Assigned to them by the Berlin conference June, 1880 
July ; seized by 8000 Albanians, who expelled 
the Turks Sept. ; the Sultan signed the decree 
■for its cession to Montenegro, 12 Oct. ; after a 
slight conflict with Albanians, 22 Nov., occu- 
pied by Dervish Pasha, 24 Nov., and sur- 
rendered to the Montenegrins . 26, 27 Nov. ,, 

DULWICH COLLEGE (Surrey) called 
God's-gift college, founded by Edward Alleyn, an 
eminent comedian, was completed and solemnly 
opened 13 Sept. 1619. Alleyn was its first master, 
and died in 1626. In 1686 Wm. Cartwright, an 
actor, gave a library and some portraits, and on 
20 Dec. i8iosir Francis Bourgeois bequeathed his 
collection of pictures, the gallery for which was 
erected by sir John Soane, and opened in 1812. Sir 
Francis died 8 Jan. 1811. In 1857, an act was 
passed by which the college was reconstituted. Two 
6chools were established ; and the number of the 
almspeople increased. The annual income, about 
20,000/., is derived from Dulwich manor. The 
new school buildings, founded 26 June, 1866, 
were opened by the prince of Wales, 21 June, 
1870. The Endowed Schools Commissioners put 
forth a draft scheme for remodelling the charity 
about Oct. 1872 ; and another scheme was 
approved 18 Aug. 1882. Four parishes are bene- 
fited by the charity, St. Luke's, Middlesex ; St. 
Botolph's, Bishopsgate; St. Saviour's, Southwark; 
and St. Giles's, Camberwell. Dulwich Park, 72 
acres, presented to the public by the governors of 
the college, opened by the earl of Roscbcry, 26 June, 
1890. Mr. Wm. Young, governor and benefactor ; 
his history of the college, including many docu- 
ments, 2 vols. 4to, was published in 1800. Mr. 
Young, born 1815, died in New York, 10 May, 1896. 

DUM-DUM BULLETS, see Bullets. 

DUMB, see Deaf and Dumb. 

DUMBLANE or Dunblane (Perth), an 

ancient city, near which took place a conflict called 
the battle of Sherift'muir, between the royalist army 
under the duke of Argyll, and the Scots rebels 
under the earl of Mar, 13 Nov. 1715. Both claimed 
the victory. 

DUNBAR (Haddington). Here the Scottish 
army and king John Baliol were defeated by War- 
renne, earl of Surrey, 27 April, 1296, and Scotland 
was subdued. Near here also Cromwell obtained a 
signal victory over the Scots, in arms for Charles II. 
3 Sept. 1650. Population, 1901, 3.581. 

DUNCIAD, the celebrated satirical poem by 
Alexander Pope, was published in 1728. 

DUNCOMBE PARK, N. B. Yorkshire, the 
.magnificent mansion of the earl of Fcvershani, with 
valuable treasures (really a museum open to the 
public), was destroyed by fire, II Jan. 1879. 

DUNDALK (Louth, Ireland). On 5 Oct. 1318, 
at Foughard near this place, was defeated and slain 
Edward Bruce, who had invaded Ireland in 1315. 
The walls and fortifications of Dundalk were de- 
stroyed in [64I. It was taken by Cromwell in 
1640. The first cambric manufacture in Ireland 
was established in this town by artisans from 
France in 1727. Population, [901, [4,308. 

DUNDEE (E. Scotland), on the Tay. The 
site was given bj William the Lion (reigned 1165 — 

1214) to his lirother David, call of Huntingdon, 
who built or strengthened the ciistle, and everted a 
large church, the lower of which, [56 feet high, 
still remains. Charter granted by Robert 1. 1327. 



The town was taken by the English in 1385 ; 
pillaged by Monti ose, 1645; stormed by Monk in 
165 1 ; and visited by queen Victoria in 1844. It 
has thriven since 1815, through its extensive 
linen manufactories; at one of these (Edwards's) 
a steam explosion took place on 15 April, 1859, when 
twenty persons were killed. Claverhouse, viscount 
Dundee (killed 1689), had a house here. See 
Population. 

The Baxter park, the gift of sir David Baxter, 

opened by earl Russell .... 9 Sept. 1863 
The British association met here . . 4 Sept. 1867 
While preparing for building the great Tay bridge 
of the N. British railway six men were killed, 

27 Aug. 1873 
The Albert Institution opened by the earl of 

Dalhousie 1 Nov. ,, 

The Queen-street calendering works burnt, loss 

between 15,000?. and 20,000?. . . 20 Dec. ,, 
New wet dock (Victoria) opened by lord Strath- 
more 16 Aug. 1875 

The Tay bridge {which see) completed Aug. 1877 ; 
opened, 31 May, 1878 ; destroyed by a gale ; be- 
tween 80 and 90 lives lost, 7.15 p.m. 28 Dec. 1879 
Statue of Burns unveiled .... 16 Oct. 1880 
Armistead's flax warehouse burnt, loss about 

10,000? 16 Jan. 1883 

Great demonstration in favour of the government 

and franchise bill ... 20 Sept. 1884 

Mr. T. H. Cox gives 12,000?. for the establishment 
of a medical school in connection with the 

college 13 Dec. iS85 

Mr. J. M. Keiller gi\ r es 10,500?. for the free library, 
museum and picture gallery as a jubilee offering 

24 Dec. ,, 
The old theatre, newly renovated, burnt . 6 Oct. 1888 
! Rt. Hon. C. T. Ritchie, a native, president of the 
Local Government Board, made a burgess 13 Oct. ,, 
Dundee created a city .... Dec. ,, 

The Victoria art galleries, opened by the marquis 

of Lome 26 Oct. 18S9 

The freedom of the city given to Mr. H. M. Stanley 

14 June, 1890 
Rt. lion. E. Baxter, statesman and benefactor, dies 
aged 65 . . . . . . 10 Aug. „ 

The freedom of the city given to Mr. Gladstone 

29 Oct. ,, 
The provost ordered to be styled "lord provost" 

11 Feb. 1892 
Historical exhibition opened by the earl of Strath- 
more 23 Dec. ,, 

Strike of jute workpeople against reduction of 
wages ; 24,600 idle, 1 May, et seq. ; strike ended 
by a compromise .... 5 May, 1893 

Ernest Hassberger, merchant, charged with forgery 
to the amount of 112,821?. 12s. 6<?., 17 Aug. ; 
pleaded guilty, 24 Aug. ; sentenced to 8 years' 

penal servitude 28 Aug. 1S94 

University college founded by sir D. Baxter ; pro- 
fessor appointed Nov. 1882. Munificent addi- 
tions made to the funds by Miss Mary Ann 
Baxter, sister of sir David, 1882 [she died 19 Dec. 
1884]; college opened by earl of Dalhousie 5 Oct. 
1883. Mrs. Margaret Harris bequeaths 35,000?., 

reported Oct. ,, 

Strike of jute-workers, early Aug. ; about 30,000 

out, 23 Aug. ; end of the general strike 2 Sept. 1895 
Address to the czar on his way to Balmoral, 22 Sept. 1S96 
The university college united with the university 

of St. Andrew's ; announced . . . .Jan. 1897 
Proposed erection of hospitals to commemorate the 

queen's reign ; 13,000?. received . . 8 Feb. ,, 
Heath of Mr. Alex. Crawford Lamb, author of 

" Dundee and its Antiquities " . . 29 April, ,, 
Mr. John M. Keiller, benefactor, died, aged 48, 

2 Jan. 1S99 
Puke of Connaught inaugurates the Victoria 
hospital for incurables, and a statue of the queen 

in Albert-square 26 Aug. ,, 

Strike and lock-out in the jute trade . 8-23 Sept. ,, 
Mr. Balfour presented with the freedom 28 Sept. ,, 
Memorial to J. B. Lindsay, the pioneer in wireless 

telegraphy, unveiled by sir \v. Preece . 14 Sept. 1901 
Mr. Andrew Carnegie gives 11,000?. for a central 
library, and ;5,ooo?. to branch libraries 23 Oct. ,, 



DUN ECHT. 



383 



DUEHAM. 



Dundee sanatorium for consumptives (site pre- 
sented by the late lord Airlie) opened . 26 Sept. 1902 

DUN ECHT, Aberdeenshire, seat of the earl 
of Crawford, who erected an observatory here. In 
the autumn, 1888, he presented to the nation his 
valuable instruments, set up atthe new Royal Obser- 
vatory in Edinburgh, 1896. The earl issued the 
179th, and last, " Dun Echt Circular," Feb. 1890. 
On 3 Dec. 1881, it was discovered that the body 
of the late earl had been stolen from the mau- 
soleum in the grounds ; it was found near the 
spot, 18 July, 1S82, through information given 
l>y Chas. Soutar, who was convicted of stealing it, 

24 Oct. 1882 
DUNES, see Dunkirk. 

DUNGAN-HILL (Ireland). Here the Eng- 
lish army, commanded by colonel Jones, signally 
defeated the Irish, of whom 6000 arc said to have 
been slain, while the loss on the side of the English 
was inconsiderable, 8 Aug. 1647. 

DUNKELD (Perthshire) was made a bishopric 
by David I. in 1127; the ancient Culdee church, 
founded by king Constantine III., becoming the 
cathedral. The beautiful bridge over the Tay, 
erected by Thomas Telford, Avas opened in 1809. 

DUNKIRK (N. France), founded in the 7th 
century, was taken by the Spaniards, Sept. 1652, 
and retaken from them by the English and French 
after Turenne's victory over them under Conde on 
the dunes (or sands), 14 June, 1658, and put into 
the hands of the English, 25 June following. It 
was sold by Charles II. for 500,000/. to Louis XIV., 
17 Oct.; restored 1662, and was one of the best 
fortified ports in the kingdom ; but the works were 
demolished in conformity with the treaty of Utrecht 
in 1 7 13. The works were ordered to be demolished 
at the peace of 1763; but in 1783 they were again 
resumed. The English besiesed Dunkirk; the duke 
of York, defeated by Hoche, retired with loss, 
7 Sept. 1793. It was made a free port in 1816. 
Large dock works constructed in 7 years, inaugu- 
rated;. 13 Sept. 1896. Pres. Loubet opens a new 
town-ha'i, 17 Sept. 1901 ; receives the czar and 
czarina, 18 Sept. 1901. Dockers' and miners' strike, 
l-ioting 22, 23 Oct., 1902. 

DUNMOW (Essex), famous for the tenure of 
the manor (made by Eobert Fitz- Walter, 1244), 
" that whatever married couple will go to the 
priory and kneeling on two sharp-pointed stones, 
will swear that they have not quarrelled nor repented 
of their marriage within a year and a day after its 
■celebration, shall receive a flitch of bacon." 
The earliest recorded claim for the bacon was in 1445, 
since when to 1855 it is said to have been demanded 
only five times. 
The last claimants previous to 1855 were John Shake- 
shanks and his wife, 20 June, 1751 ; they made a large 
sum by selling slices of the flitch to witnesses of the 
ceremony (5000 persons). 
Flitches were awarded to Mr. and Mrs. Barlow, of Chip- 
ping-Ongar, and the Chevalier Chatelaine and his lady, 
19 July, 1855. 
The lord of the manor opposed the revival, but Mr. W. 
Harrison Ainsworth, the novelist, and some friends, 
defrayed the expense, and superintended the cere- 
monials. 
A flitch was awarded in i860 and 9 July, 1873; oni/July, 
1876, to James Henry and Mary Boosey ; to others 
23 July, 1877 ; to 3 couples, 3 Aug. 1896 ; to 2 couples, 
2 Aug. 1897 ; to 2 couples, 3 Aug. 1903. 

DUNSE (S. Scotland). Here on 18 June, 
1639, by treaty between the Scots commission and 
■Charles I., their demands were acceded to, and they 
agreed to disband their army. Disputes arose, and 
the treaty was not carried into effect. 



DUNSINANE (Perthshire) . On the hill was 
fought the battle between king Macbeth formerly the 
thane of Glammis, and Siward, earl of Northum- 
berland, 27 July, 1054. Edward the Confessor had 
sent Siward on behalf of Malcolm III., whose father 
Duncan, the usurper had murdered. Macbeth was 
defeated, and it was said was pursued to Lumpha- 
nan, in Aberdeenshire, and there slain, 105601- 1057. 

DUOMO, see Milan, Florence. 

DUPES (day of), 11 Nov. 1630, when Richelieu 
energetically and adroitly frustrated the plan for 
his ruin, formed by the queen Marie de Medicis and 
Gaston, duke of Orleans, and others, during the 
king's illness. 

DUPLEX TELEGBAPHY. See Electric 

Telegraph under Electricity . 

DUPPELorDYBOL. See un&evDenmark, 1864. 

DUPPLIN (Perthshire) . Here Edward Balliol 
and his English allies totally defeated the Scots 
under the earl of Mar, 1 1 Aug. 1332, and obtained 
the crown for three months. 

DUEBAN, the seaport of the colony of Natal, 
and during the S. African war of 1 899-1902 the port 
of entry for British troops and supplies. It was 
originally laid out by the Dutch, and since 1842, 
when the British took possession of the colony, has 
been greatly improved. The government railway 
runs to Pietermaritzburg, and an extension to 
Johannesburg and the Transvaal was completed in 
1895. The inner harbour of 4,700 acres has been 
made accessible to vessels of deep draught, by ex- 
tensive works carried out 1883-95. The bar which 
formerly prevented large vessels from entering the 
harbour is now (1903) in process of being removed. 
The principal residential part of Durban is the 
hilly district near the town called the Berea, with 
which it is connected by a series of tramways. 
Durban has numerous public buildings, including a 
town hall, museum, library, and theatre, and there 
are also public parks, and botanical and town 
gardens. New floating dock 1903. Population 
1900, 48,410. 

DUEBAE, an East Indian term for an audience- 
chamber or court. On 18 Oct. 1864. a durbar 
was held at Lahore by the viceroy of India, sir John 
Lawrence, at which 604 of the most illustrious 
princes and chieftains of the north-west province 
were present, magnificently clothed. Similar ones 
were held in 1866, 1867, 27 March, 1869, LTmballah. 
Imperial coronation durbar at Delhi, see India, 
Jan., 1903. 

Sir Seymour Fitzgerald, governor of Bombay, held 
a great durbar of the princes of Western India at 

Poona 6 Oct. 1868 

The earl of Mayo, the viceroy, held a solemn durbar 

at Ajmere in Bajpootana ... 22 Oct. 1870 
The marquis of Bipon's grand durbar (as viceroy) at 

Lahore (after Afghan war) . . . is Nov. 1880 
The earl of Dufferin, viceroy, held a grand durbar 
at Bawul Piiidi, at which the Aineerof Afghanis- 
tan and the Duke of Connaught were present, 

8 April, 1885 
Sir Auckland Colvin, lieut. -governor of the N. W. 

Provinces, held agrand durbar at Meerut 10 March, t88S 
A durbar at Quetta by the viceroy, the marquis of 

Lansdowne, 19 Nov. 1889 ; at Agra . 24 Nov. 1890 
At Lahore, by the viceroy, the earl of Elgin, 30 Nov. 1894 

DUEHAM, an ancient city, the Eunholme of 
the Saxons, and Dureme of the Normans. The 
bishopric was removed to Durham from Chester- 
le-street in 995; whither it had been transferred 
from Lindisfarne, or Holy Island, on the coast 



DURHAM LETTER. 



384 



DYEING. 



of Northumberland, in 875, in consequence of the 
invasion of the Dines. The bones of St. Cuth- 
bert, the sixth bishop, were brought from Lin- 
disfarne, and enshrined in a church erected by bp. 
Aldune in 995, on the site of which the present 
cathedral was begun by bp. Wm. Abbot of St. 
Carilef, about 1093, and the work was continued 
by his successors till 1500. This see, deemed the 
richest in England, was valued in the king's books 
at 2821/. Present income 8000^. Population, 1 881, 
14,932; 1891, 14,863; 1901, 14,659. 

College founded (abolished at the Reformation) . 1290 

Near Durham was fought the decisive battle of Ne- 
ville's cross (see Strikes) . . . . 17 Oct. 1346 

Durham ravaged by Malcolm of Scotland, 1070; 
occupied by the Northern rebels . . . . 1569 

By the Scots 1640 

Cromwell quartered his Scotch prisoners in the 
cathedral 1650 

Cromwell established a college, 1657 ; which was 
suppressed at the Restoration .... 1660 

The palatine privileges, granted to the bishop by 
the Danish Northumbrian prince Guthrum, taken 
by the crown June, 1836 

The University, located in the ancient castle, esta- 
blished in 1813, opened Oct. 1833 ; chartered June, 1837 

Certain new ordinances, recommended by a commis- 
sion, 1862, set aside 1863 

Cathedral renovated; re-opened . . 18 Oct. 1876 

See Coal (strike, 1892). 

During some excavations superintended by canon 
Greenwell interesting remains of the ancient 
cathedral were discovered in 1894-5 

Philosophical society founded about the end of . 1896 

Visit of the prince of Wales . . . 26 Nov. 1897 

RECENT BISHOPS. 

1791. Hon. Shute Barrington, died in 1826. 

1826. Wm. Van Mildert (the last prince bishoj>), died 21 
Feb. 1836. 

1836. Edward Maltby, resigned in 1856 ; died 3 July, 
1859, aged 90. 

1856. Charles Thomas Longley ; became archb. of York, 
May, i860. 

i860. Hon. H. Montagu Villiers (translated from Car- 
lisle) ; died 10 Aug. 1861. 

1861 Charles Baring, resigned 3 Feb., 1879 ; died 14 Sept. 
1879. 

1879. Joseph Barber Lightfoot, died 21 Dec. 1889. 

1890. Brooke Foss Westcott, D.D., March, consecrated 
1 May ; died 27 July, 1901. 

1901. C. Glyn Moule, elected 21 Sept. 

DURHAM LETTER, see Papal Aggression 

DUST. A controversy respecting the connec- 
tion between dust and disease originated with 
a lecture on the subject by professor Tyndall at 
the Royal Institution, 21 Jan. 1870, when he de- 
monstrated the presence of organic matters in the 
dust of the atmosphere in conformity with the ex- 
periments of Pasteur and other eminent philosophers. 
See Germ Theory and Vivisection. The agency of 
dust in promoting fires and explosions was asserted 
by Faraday in relation to coal mines in 1845, and 
by Rankine and Macadam in relation to flour mills 
in 1872. Professor F. A. Abel's discourse on Some 
of the Datigerqus Properties of Dusts, 28 April, 1882. 
Mr. Aitken's dust-counting apparatus was set up 
on Ben Nevis, Feb. 18)0. 

DUTCH CHURCH, see August in or A ustin 
Friars. 

DUTCH PLAYS, "Annie Mio," by Rosier 
Faassen,and others, were performed at the Imperial 
Theatre, Westminster, 7 Janeetseq., 1880. Madame 
Catherine Beersman's acting was much approved. 

DUTCH REPUBLIC, see Holland. 

DUTIES, see Customs, Excise, ij-c. 



DUTY, see Whole and Deontology. 

DUUMVIRI, two Roman patricians appointed 
by Tarquin the Proud 520 B.C. to take care of the 
books of t he Sibyls, which were supposed to contain 
the fate of the Roman empire. The books were 
placed in the Capitol, and secured in a chest under 
the ground. The number of keepers was increased 
to ten (the Decemviri) 365 B.C., afterwards to fifteen, 
the added five called quinque viri. 

DWARFS, OR PIGMIES, are described by 
several ancient classical writers. Herodotus gives 
an account of a race of pigmies living in Libya and 
the Syrtes, to whijh Aristotle and Pliny also refer. 
Mr. H. M. Stanley, in his journey across Africa 
in 1888, came upon a dwarfish race, which he 
thought might be descended from that men- 
tioned by Herodotus. Mr. Arthur B. Lloyd crosses 
the great pigmy forest and descends the Aruwimi 
to the Congo, "Sept.-Nov. 1898. " The Land of 
the Pigmies," by capt. Guv Burrows, published 
Jan. 1899. Philetas of Cos, distinguished about 
330 B.C., as a poet and grammarian, was jocularly 
said to have carried weights to prevent his being 
blown away. He was preceptor to Ptolemy Phila- 
delphus JElian. Julia, niece of Augustus, had 
a dwarf named Coropas, two feet and a hand's- 
breadth high ; and Andromeda, a f reed-mud of 
Julia's, was of the same height. Pliny. 
Modern Dwarfs. — John d'Estrix, of Mechlin, was 
brought to the duke of Parma, in 1592, when he was 
35 years of age, having a long beard. He was skilled 
in languages, and not more than three feet high. 
Geoffrey Hudson, an English dwarf, when a youth of 18 
inches high, was served up to table in a cold pie, before 
the king and queen, by the duchess of Buckingham, in 
1626. He challenged Mr. Crofts to fight a duel, but the 
latter came armed with a squirt. At another meeting 
the dwarf shot his antagonist dead, 1653. 
Count Borowlaski, a Polish gentleman, of great accom- 
plishments and elegant manners, well known in Eng- 
land, where he resided for many years, was born in 
Nov. 1739. His growth was at one year of age, 14 
inches ; at six, 17 inches ; at twenty, 33 inches ; and 
at thirty, 39. He had a sister, named Anastasia, seven 
years younger than himself, and so much shorter that 
she could stand under his arm. He visited many oi 
the courts of Europe, and died in England in 1837. 
Charles Hey wood Stratton (termed general Tom Thumb), 
an American, was exhibited in England, by Mr. P. T. 
Binmm, 1846. In Feb. 1863, in New York, when 25 
years old and 31 inches high, he married Lavinia 
Warren, aged 21, 32 inches high. He, his wife and 
child, and commodore Nutt, another dwarf, came to 
England in Dec. 1864, and remained here some time. 
Died 15 July, 1883. 
Mr. Collard, aged 22, smaller than Stratton, sang at con- 
certs in London, and was termed the "Pocket Sims 
Reeves," May, June, 1873. 
Si' vera 1 dwarfs (said to be smaller than the preceding) 

exhibited at the Westminster Aquarium, July, 1878. 
Che-mah, a Chinese, 42 years old, 25 inches high, exhi- 
bited at the Westminster Aquarium, 11 June, 1880. 
Lucia Zarate, born 2 Jan. 1863, in Mexico, weight 4$ 
lbs., and general Mite, Francis Joseph Flynn, born 2 
Oct. 1864, in New York State, height 21 inches, weight 
9 lbs., were both exhibited in Piccadilly. 22 Nov. 
1880, etseq. Milly Edwards exhibited in London, July, 
1882, is years of age, weighing 7 lbs. ; Miss Edwards 
and "general Mite" were married at Manchester. 
May, 1884. 
•• Princess Top ize," of French parentage, born at Buenos 
Ayres, stated to be 16 years old, to weigh 15 lbs., height 
20 inches, with symmetrical proportions, exhibited 
a1 the Westminster aquarium. 30 Jan. et seq. 1893. 
E. J. Wood's "Giants and Dwarfs'," 1868. 

DYEING is attributed to the Tyrians, about 
1500 B.C. The English are said to have sent fine 
goods to lie dyed in Holland, till the art was brought 
to them probably in 160S. "Two dyers of Exeter 
were flogged for teaching their art in't/icnorth" (of 



DYNAMICS. 



385 



DZOUNGAEIA. 



England), 1628. A statute against abuses in dyeing 
passed in 1783. The art has been greatly improved 
by chemical research. A discovery of Dr. Stenhouse 
in 1848 led to M. Mamas procuring mauve from 
lichens; and Dr. Hofmann's production of aniline 
from coal-tar, has led to the invention of a number 
of beautiful dyes (mauve, magenta, red, green, 
black, &c.) ; see Aniline. 

DYNAMICS is the science which treats of 
matter and motion recently substituted for " mecha- 
nics," which see. Professor "W. K. Clifford's " Ele- 
ments of Dynamics," 2 vols., 1878-87. 

DYNAMITE, a new explosive compound, con- 
sisting of 25 parts of silicious earth saturated with 
75 parts of nitro-glycerine {which see) . It is suitable 
for mining purposes, and was tried and approved 
at Merstham 14 July, 1868. It was invented by 
Alfred Nobel to obviate danger. Its manufacture 
is very dangerous. Mr. Nobel died, 10 Dec. 1896; 
and bequeathed a fund of about 434,093/. to 
promote science. A preparation called " Safety " 
Dynamite, invented by Herr von Dahmen, who by 
the addition of a simple substance renders dynamite 
uncongealable, thus avoiding the danger of thawing 
in cold weather, 1889. Dynamite which cannot be 
frozen, invented by Herr Edward Liebert, of 
Berlin (very important, many deaths having been 
caused by thawing frozen dynamite) ; reported 
Aug. 1890. See New York, 28 Dec. 1892 ; 
Cannon, 1891 ; and Nobel Bequest. 

Snyder dynamite projectile ; experiments at Aberdare, 
S. Wales ; British and foreign officers present ; 
reported fairly successful 5 Oct. 1891. 

Thirteen men killed by explosion of dynamite in a rail- 
way tunnel at Cynuner, S. Wales, 21 April. 1876. 

A man named Thomson, Thomassin, or Thomas, con- 
signed a cask of dynamite to Bremerhafen, to be con- 
veyed by the North German Lloyd steamer Mosel. 
With it he sent a clock-work machine, which would 
in eight days give the cask a blow powerful enough to 
explode the dynamite and destroy the ship. Prom 
some cause the machine went off and exploded in 
the dock, killing above 80 and wounding about 200 
persons, chiefly emigrants and their friends, 11 Dec. 
1875. Thomson committed suicide, dying 16 Dec. 
1875, after confessing his crime, his object being to 
obtain the paltry sum for which he had insured his 
goods. It appears that similar machines were known 
in 1873. 

Use of dynamite for killing oxen tried and advocated, 
summer, 1877. 

Its use in fisheries prohibited by parliament, 14 Aug. 
1877. 

A parcel containing 27 cartridges of dynamite placed on 
the London and N. W. Railway, between Bushey and 
Watford (perpetrators not discovered), night 12-13 
Sept. 1880. 

Failure of attempt at explosion at the Times office, 
IS Mar. 1883. 

Thomas Callan, alias Scott, of Lowell, Massachusetts, 
and Michael Harkins, of Philadelphia, both residing 
in Islington, charged with conspiring together to cause 
a dynamite explosion, a large quantity of dynamite 
having been found in their dwellings in Islington 21 
Nov. ; committed 19 Dec. (Cohen, a co-conspirator 
died 19 Oct.) 1887 ; as secondaries sentenced to fifteen 
years' penal servitude 1-3 Feb. 1888 ; Thomas Callan 
released, 20 Jan. 1893. 

Zalinski gun for the projection of dynamite adopted 
by the United States for coast defence Feb. 1889. 

Lieut. Graydon's safe dynamite for use in shells, &c, 
announced April, 1889. 

See Explosions and Glasgow, 1883. 



The violent Irish party in America termed Dynamitards, 
April, 1883. Many said to be settled in Paris. Report 
refers to two associations — one under O'Donovan 
Rossa (failing), another named Clan-na-gael — 2 men 
said to have been killed ; 25 convicted and imprisoned ; 
issued 1886. 

O'Donovan Rossa said to have been succeeded by Dr. 
Hamilton Williams at New York (see Fenians) 14 Dec. 
1887. 

Portmanteaus, containing dynamite, with clock-work of 
American make, which had failed, found at Charing- 
cross and Paddington stations, 28 Feb., and at Lud- 
gate-hill station, 1 March, 1884. 

FitzGerald arrested in London, 10 April, 1884. 

Denman, or Daley, with three infernal machines, arrested 
at Birkenhead. 

James Francis Egan and Patrick Hogan arrested at 
Birmingham, 11 April, 1884. 

[Treasonable papers about Irish republic, &c, dis- 
covered in Egan's garden.] 

Wm. M'Donnell arrested at Wednesbury, 1 May, 1884. 

Daly sentenced to penal servitude for life ; released, 
20 Aug. 1896 ; Egan to 20 years, for treason-felony ; 
M'Donnell discharged on recognizances, 1 Aug. 1884. 
[James F. Egan discharged, 21 Jan. 1893.] 

Explosion at Nobel's dynamite factory near Stevenston, 
Ayr ; ten lives lost, 8 May, 1884 ; again, 6 men killed, 
24 Feb. 1897. 

Explosion of a bomb at the house of the lion. Reginald 
Brett, M.P., 2, Tilney-street, Mayfair ; the door and. 
windows shattered, 4 Nov. 1894. 

Explosion of a large cargo of dynamite on board the- 
Elizabeth (capt. Reymers) at Salmorth, on the Rhine,... 
near Dusseldorf ; 13 lives lost ; the Hoop burnt and 
other boats sunk ; houses and property destroyed ,, 
19 March, 1895. 

Dynamo-machines, see Electricity, 1866. 

Release of dynamitards (see Trials, ir, 14 June, 1883),., 
Aug. 1896, and 1898. 

Dynamite plot organized in the United States, by Fenians . 
and others, against the queen and the czar in Gt. 
Britain. A bomb factory discovered at Antwerp^. 
P. J. Tynan, " No. L," arrested at Boulogne, 13 Sept.. 
1896 ; his extradition demanded by the British.^., 
government on the charge of the murder of Mr.. 
Burke (6 May, 1882), 24 Sept. ; extradition refused by 
the French government, 14 Oct. ; Tynan is released, 
15 Oct. ; returns to New York, 27 Oct. Kearney, alias - 
Wallace, and Haines, arrested at Rotterdam, 12, 13 
Sept. ; shipped to New York ; 5 Oct. Edward Bell, 
alias Ivory, arrested in Glasgow, 12 Sept. ; at Bow-st., 
17 Sept.; committed, 20 Nov. 1896; acquitted, 2a . 
Jan. 1897. 

Rolla Richards, sentenced to 7 years' imprisonment for • 
having caused a bomb explosion at a New-cross post-- 
office (Aug, 1894), 9 April, 1897. 

Explosion in a train at Aldersgate-station ; empty com- 
partment wrecked, 1 death, 26 April, 1897 

Dynamite explosion in the Eiger tunnel (Jungfrau rail- 
way), 6 deaths, 26 Feb. 1899. 

Dynamite explosions at the Avigliana factory near- 
Turin, 10 deaths, 30 injured, 16 Jan. 1900. 

Explosion at Nobel's dynamite works, Perranporth k . 
Cornwall, 3 deaths, others injured, 16 Jan. 1902. 
See Macedonia, 1903. 

DZOUNGAEIA, a region of Central Asia, N. 
of China, with about 2,000,000 inhabitants, fierce, 
warlike Mahometans. After being long tributary 
to China, they rebelled in 1864, massacred the 
Chinese residents, and set up their countryman 
Abel Oghlan as sultan. As he was unable to re- 
strain predatory attacks upon the Russians, tbo 
czar declared war in April, 1871. After a brief 
campaign in May and June, and several conflicts 
in which the Russians were victors, the sultan 
surrendered to general Kolpakoviski, 4 July r , and 
the country was annexed to the Russian empire. 



EAGLE. 



386 



EARTHQUAKES. 



E. 



EAGLE, an ancient coin of Ireland, made of a 
base metal, and current in the first years of Ed- 
ward I. about 1272, was so named from the figure 
impressed upon it. The American gold coinage of 
eagles, half eagles, and quarter eagles, began 6 Dec. 
1792; an eagle is of the value of 10 dollars, or about 
zl. is. — The standard of the eagle was borne by the 
Persians, at Cunaxa, 401 B.C. The Romans carried 
gold and silver eagles as ensigns, and sometimes 
represented them with a thunderbolt in their talons, 
on the point of a spear, 102 B.C. Charlemagne 
added the second head to the eagle for his arms, to 
denote that the empires of Borne and Germany 
were united in him, a.d. 802. The eagle was 
the standard of Napoleon I. and Napoleon III. ; 
as well as of Austria, Russia, and Prussia; see 
Knighthood. 

EARL (Latin, conies), introduced at the con- 
quest, superseded the Saxon ealdorman, and con- 
tinued the highest rank in England, until Ed- 
ward III. created dukes in 1337 and 13151, and 
Richard II. created marquises (1385), both above 
earls. Alfred used the title of earl as a substitute 
for king. William Fitz-Osborn was made earl of 
Hereford by William the Conqueror, 1066. Gil- 
christ was created earl of Angus, in Scotland, by 
king Malcolm III. in 1037, and sir John de Courcy 
created baron of Kingsale and earl of Ulster in Ire- 
land, by Henry II. 1181. 

Earl Maeshal of England, the eighth great officer of 
state. This office, until it was made hereditary, always 
passed by grant from the king. Gilbert de Clare was 
created lord marshal by king Stephen, 1135. The last 
lord marshal was John Fitz-Alan, lord Maltravers. 
Camden. Richard II. in 1397 granted letters patent to 
the earl of Nottingham by the style of earl marshal. In 
1672, Charles II. granted to Henry lord Howard the 
dignity of hereditary earl marshal. The earl marshal's 
court was abolished in 1641. (See Howard.) 
Eabl Marischal of Scotland was an officer who com- 
manded the cavalry, whereas the constable commanded 
the whole army ; but they seem to have had a joint 
command, as all orders were addressed to " our con- 
stable and marischal. " The office was never out of the 
Keith family. It was reserved at the Union, and when 
the heritable jurisdictions were bought, it reverted to 
the crown, being forfeited by the rebellion of George 
Keith, earl marischal, in 1715. 

EARL DE LA WARR'S ACT, see Chil- 
dren. 

EARLY CLOSING ASSOCIATION esta- 
blished 1842, to abridge the hours of labour, and to 
abolish Sunday trading. 

Frequent meetings. Congress Feb. 1888. 

Sir John Lubbock's Early Closing Bill for shops (8 p.m. 

and 10 p.ni on Saturdays) rejected by the commons 

(278-95), 2 May, 1888. 

EARLY ENGLISH TEXT SOCIETY 

began to publish in 1864. 

EARRINGS were worn by Jacob's family, 
1732 B.C. {Gen. xxxv. 4). 

EARTH, see Globe. " Earth to Earth " discus- 
sion in 1875; advocacy of cremation, see Burials. 

EARTHENWARE, see Tottery. 

EARTHQUAKES. Kircher, Des Cartes, and 
others supposed that there were many vast cavities 



under ground which have a communication with 
each other, some of which abound with water, 
others with exhalations, arising from inflammable 
substances, as nitre, bitumen, sulphur, &c. Dr. 
Stukeley and Dr. Priestley attributed earthquakes 
to electricity. They are probably due to steam 
generated by subterraneous heat. An elaborate 
Catalogue of earthquakes (from B.C. 1606 to a.d. 
1842), with commentaries on the phenomena, by R. 
and J. W. Mallet, was published by the British 
Association in 1858. In i860 the velocity of their 
propagation was estimated by Mr. J. Brown at 
between 470 and 530 feet per second.* Prof. 
John Milne, at the Royal Institution, London, 12 
Eeb. 1897, described his important researches in 
seismology, with special reference to Japan; his 
" Seismology " published Nov. 1898. See Seis- 
mometer. 

One which made Eubcea an island . . .B.C. 425 
Helice and Bura in Peloponnesus swallowed up . 373 
Duras, in Greece, buried with all its inhabitants ; 

and 12 cities in Campania also buried . . . 345 
Lysimachia and its inhabitants buried about . . 283 
Ephesus and other cities overturned . . a.d. 17 
One accompanied the eruption of Vesuvius when 

Pompeii and Herculaneum were buried . . 79 
Four cities in Asia, two in Greece, and two in Ga- 

latia Overturned 105 or 106 

Antioch destroyed 115 

Nicomedia, Csesarea, and Nicea overturned . . 126 

In Asia, Pontus, and Macedonia, 150 cities and 

towns damaged 157 

Nicomedia again demolished, and its inhabitants 

buried in its ruins 358 

One felt by nearly the whole world .... 543 
At Constantinople ; its edifices destroyed, and thou- 
sands perished 557 

In Africa ; many cities overturned .... 560 
Awful one in Syria, Palestine, and Asia ; more than 
500 towns were destroyed, and the loss of life sur- 
passed all calculation 742 

In France, Germany, and Italy .... 801 

Constantinople overturned ; all Greece shaken . . 936 

One felt throughout England 1089 

One at Antioch ; many towns destroyed . . .1114 
Catania, in Sicily, overturned, and 15,000 persons 

buried in the ruins 11 37 

One severely felt at Lincoln 1142 

In Syria, <fcc, 20,000 perished ^1158 

At Calabria ; one of its cities and all its inhabitants 
overwhelmed in the Adriatic sea . . Sept. 1186 

In Cilicia, 60,000 perished 1268 

One again felt throughout England ; Glastonbury 

destroyed '. 1274 

In England ; the greatest known there . 14 Nov. 13 18 
At Naples ; 40,000 persons perished . 5 Dec. 1456 
Constantinople ; thousands perished . . 14 Sept. 1509 
At Lisbon ; 1500 houses and 30,000 persons buried 
in the ruins ; several neighbouring towns engulfed, 

26 Feb. 1531 
One felt in London ; part of St. Paul's and the 

Temple churches fell . . . .6 April, 1580 
In Japan ; several cities made ruins, and thousands 

perish 2 July, 1596 

In Naples ; 30 towns or villages ruined ; 70,000 

lives lost 30 July, 1626 

Awful one at Calabria . . . .27 March, 1638 
Ragusa ruined ; 5000 perished . . 6 April, 1667 

At Schamaki, lasted 3 months ; So.ooo perished . „ 

* Mrs. Somerville states that about 255 earthquakes 
have occurred in the British Isles ; all slight. To avoid 
the effects of a shock predicted by a madman, for the 8th 
of April, 1750, thousands of persons, particularly those 
of rank and fortune, passed the night on the 7th in their 
carriages and in tents in Hyde-park. 



EAETHQUAKES. 



387 



EAETHQUAKES. 



At Rimini ; above 1500 perished . .14 April, 

One severely felt at Dublin, &c. . . .17 Oct. 

One at Jamaica, which totally destroyed Port Royal, 

. whose houses were engulfed 40 fathoms deep, and 

3000 perished 7 June, 

One in Sicily, which overturned 54 cities and towns, 
and 300 villages ; of Catania and its 18,000 inhabi- 
tants, not a trace remained ; more than 100,000 
lives were lost Sept. 

Aquila, iu Italy, ruined ; 5000 perished 2 Feb. 

Jeddo, Japan, ruined ; 200,000 perished . . . 

In the Abruzzi ; 15,000 perished . . 3 Nov. 

At Algiers ; 20,000 perished . May and June, 

Palermo nearly destroyed ; nearly 6000 lives lost 

1 Sept. 

Again in China ; and 100,000 people swallowed up 
at Pekin 30 Nov. 

In Naples, &e. ; 1940 perished . . .29 Nov. 

Lima and Callao demolished ; 18,000 persons buried 
in the ruins . . . . . . 28 Oct. 

In London, &c. , a slight shock . . . 19 Feb. 

Port-au-Prince, St. Domingo, ruined . 21 Nov. 

Adrianople nearly overwhelmed . . .29 July, 

At Grand Cairo ; half of the houses and 40,000 
persons swallowed up . . . ■ Sept. 

Quito destroyed April, 

Kaschan, N. Persia, destroyed ; 40,000 perished, 

7 June, 

Great earthquake at Lisbon. In about eight minutes 
most of the houses and upwards of 50,000 inhabi- 
tants were swallowed up, and whole streets 
buried. The cities of Coimbra, Oporto, and 
Braga, suffered dreadfully, and St. Ubes was 
wholly overturned. In Spain, a large part of 
Malaga became ruins. One half of Fez, in Mo- 
rocco, was destroyed, and more than 12,000 
Arabs perished there. The island of Madeira was 
affected ; and 2000 houses in the island of Mity- 
lene, in the Archipelago, were overthrown. This 
awful earthquake extended 5000 miles ; even to 
Scotland 1 Nov. 

In Syria, extended over 10,000 square miles ; Baalbec 
destroyed ; here 20,000 perished . 30 Oct. 

Comorn, Pesth, &c. , much damaged . 28 June, 

At Martinico ; 1600 persons perished . . Aug. 

At Guatemala ; Santiago, with its inhabitants, 
swallowed up 7 June, 

A destructive one at Smyrna . 3 July, 

At Tauris ; 15,000 houses thrown down, and multi- 
tudes buried 

Messina and other towns in Italy and Sicily over- 
thrown : thousands perished ... 5 Feb. 

Ezinghian, near Erzeroum, destroyed, and 5000 
persons buried in its ruins . . 23 July, 

St. Lucia, W. Indies ; 900 perished . . 12 Oct. 

At Borgo di San Sepolcro ; many houses aud 1000 
persons swallowed up 30 Sept. 

In Naples ; Vesuvius overwhelmed the city of 
Torre del Greco June, 

The whole country between Santa Fe and Panama 
destroyed, including Cuzco and Quito ; 40,000 
people buried in one second . . 4 Feb. 

Cumana, S. America, ruined . . .14 Dec. 

At Constantinople, which destroyed the royal palace, 
and many buildings . . . .26 Sept. 

From Cronstadt to Constantinople . 26 Oct. 

A violent one felt in Holland . . end of Jan. 

At Frosolone, Naples ; 6000 lives lost . 26 July, 

At the Azores ; a village of St. Michael's sunk, 
and a lake of boiling water appeared in its place, 

n Aug. 

Awful one at Caracas {which see) . 26 March, 

Several throughout India ; district of Kutch sunk ; 
2000 persons buried .... 16 June, 

Genoa, Palermo, Rome, and many other towns 
greatly damaged ; thousands perish 

Aleppo destroyed ; above 20,000 perish ; shocks on 
10 and 13 Aug., and 5 Sept. 

Coast of Chili permanently raised . 19 Nov. 

Very violent at Palermo and other parts of Sicily 

5 March, 

Violent shocks at Granada, in Spain ; buildings 
destroyed . . . . 15-17 May, 

Island of Ischia ; 28 men killed in Casamicciola ; 
many buildings destroyed 2 Feb. 



1672 
1690 



1693 
1703 

1706 
1716 

1726 

1731 
1732 

1746 
1750 
1751 
1752 

1754 

I75S 



1759 
1763 
1767 

1773 

1778 



1783 
1784 



1802 
1804 
1805 



1B10 
1812 



1823 
1826 



1829 
1830 



1839 
1840 



In Spain ; Murcia and numerous villages devastated ; 
6000 persons perish . . . .21 March, 

Canton and neighbourhood ; above 6000 perished, 

26, 27 May, 

In the duchy of Parma ; 40 shocks at Borgotaro ; and 
at Pontremoli many houses thrown down 14 Feb. 

Concepcion, &c, in Chili, destroyed . 20 Feb. 

In Calabria, Cosenza and villages destroyed ; 1000 
persons buried 29 April, 

In Calabria ; 100 perish at Castiglione . 12 Oct. 

At Martinique ; nearly half of Port Royal destroyed ; 
nearly 700 persons killed, and the whole island 
damaged n Jan. 

At Ternate ; the island made a waste, and thousands 
of lives lost 14 Feb. 

Awful and destructive earthquake at mount Ararat, 
in one of the districts of Armenia ; 3137 houses 
were overthrown, and several hundred persons 
perished 27 July, 

Great earthquake at Zante, where many persons 
perished 30 Oct. 

At Cape Haytien, St. Domingo, which destroyed 
nearly two-thirds of the town ; between 4000 
and 5000 lives were lost ... 7 May, 

At Point a Pitre, Guadaloupe, which was entirely 
destroyed 8 Feb. 

At Rhodes and Maori, when a mountain fell in at 
the latter place, crushing a village, and destroying 
600 persons .... 28 Feb. — 7 March, 

At Valparaiso, where more than 400 houses were 
destroyed 2 April, 

In South Italy ; Melfl almost laid in ruins ; 14,000 
lives lost 14 Aug. 

Philippine isles ; Manilla much injured 16-30 Sept. 

In N.W. of England, slight . . . 9 Nov. 

Thebes, in Greece, nearly destroyed . . 18 Aug. 

St. Salvador, S. America, destroyed . 16 April, 

Anasaca, in Japan, and Simoda, iu Niphon, de- 
stroyed ; Jeddo much injured . . .23 Dec. 

Broussa, in Turkey, nearly destroyed . 28 Feb. 

Several villages in Central Europe destroyed, 

25, 26 July, 

Jeddo, Japan, nearly destroyed . . n Nov. 

At the island of Great Sanger, one of the Moluccas, 
volcanic eruption and earthquake ; nearly 3000 
lives lost 2 March, 

In the Mediterranean : at Candia, 500 lives lost ; 
Rhodes, 100; and other islands, 150 . 12 Oct. 

In Calabria,* Montemurro and other towns de- 
stroyed, and about 10,000 lives lost . 16 Dec. 

Corinth nearly destroyed . . . .21 Feb. 

At Quito ; about 5000 persons killed, and an im- 
mense amount of property destroyed, 22 March, 

Erzeroum, Asia Minor ; thousands perished, 

2 June — 17 July, 

At San Salvador ; many buildings destroyed, no 
lives lost 8 Dec. 

In Cornwall, slight . . 21 Oct. 1859 ; 13 Jan. 

At Mendoza, South America ; about two-thirds of 
the city and 7000 lives lost . . 20 March, 

In Perugia, Italy ; several lives lost . 8 May, 

In Greece ; N. Morea, Corinth, and other places 
injured 26 Dec. 

Guatemala ; 150 buildings and 14 churches de- 
stroyed 19 Dec. 

Rhodes ; 13 villages destroyed, about 300 persons 
perished, and much cattle and property lost, 

22 April, 

Manilla, Philippine isles ; immense destruction of 
property ; about 1000 persons perish 2, 3 July, 

Central, west, and north-west of England, at 
3 h. 22 m. a.m. 6 Oct. 

At Macchia, Bendinella, &c, Sicily; 200 houses 
destroyed, 64 persons killed . . 18 July, 

Slight earthquake near Tours and Blois, in France. 

14 Sept. 

Argostoli, Cephalonia ; above 50 perished 4 Feb. 

At Mityiene ; about 1000 killed . 8, 9 March, 

Djocja, Java above 400 perished ; town destroyed, 

10 June, 

The cities of Arequipa, Iquique, Tacna, and Chencha, 
and many small towns in Peru and Ecuador 
destroyed ; about 25,000 lives lost, and 30,000 



* In the course of 75 years, from 1783 to 1857, tne 
kingdom of Naples lost, at least, 111,000 inhabitants by 
the effects of earthquakes, or more than 1500 per year, 
out of an average population of 6,000,000 ! — Lacalta. 

c c 2 



1842 
1843 

1851 



1852 



1853 
1854 



1855 



1856 



1859 



[862 



1865 

1866 
1867 



EAETHQUAKES. 



388 



EAETHQUAKES. 



rendered homeless ; loss of property estimated 

at 60,000,000?. .... 13-15 Aug. 1868 

[About 11,000?. collected in London to relieve the 
sufferers.] 

Slight earthquake in W. England and S. Wales ; 
felt at Bath, Swansea, &c. . . .30 Oct ,, 

In Santa Maura, an Ionian isle, the town Santa 
Maura destroyed; ahout 17 persons perished, 

28 Dec. 1869 

At Quebec, not much damage . . .20 Oct. 1870 

In Calabria; several villages destroyed, early in Oct. ,, 

N. W. England ; houses shaken, crockery broken, 
evening, 17 March; slight in Yorkshire, 22 March, 1871 

California ; several small towns destroyed ; about 
30 killed 26, 27 March, 1872 

Lehree, Eastern Catchi, Sind frontier, India, de- 
stroyed ; about 500 killed . . 14, 15 Dec. ,, 

San Salvador nearly destroyed ; about 50 killed ; the 
rest escaped through timely warning 19 March, 1873 

North of Italy : at Feletto, near Conegliano, Vene- 
tia, church destroyed ; about 50 killed ; lives 
lostatBelluno, &c. ; shock felt at Venice, Verona, 
&c 29 June, ,, 

Azagra, Spain : 200 killed by a landslip 22 July, 1874 

Antigua and other places in Guatemala destroyed ; 
great loss of life 3 Sept. „ 

Kara Hissar and other places in Asia Minor ; great 
destruction of life .... 3-5 May, 1875 

Smyrna, and neighbourhood ; many perish, 12 May, ,, 

San Jose 1 de Cucuta and other towns near San- 
tander on the boundary of Colombia, destroyed : 
about 14,000 lives said to be lost . 16-18 May ,, 

Lahore and vicinity, India ; several killed 12 Dec. ,, 

At Scheibs on the Danube, felt throughout Austrian 
empire 17 July, 1876 

Earthquake and great tidal wave near Callao ; went 
southward ; much shipping and several towns 
destroyed ; not much mortality . . 9, 10 May, 1877 

Cua, Venezuela, nearly destroyed, about 300 killed, 
loss about 30,000?. 14 April, 1878 

Shocks felt at Cologne and other parts of Germany ; 
and Holland ; houses much shaken ; bells rung, 
&C. q-11 A.M. 26 Aug. ,, 

Aci Reale, Catania, Sicily, 5 villages destroyed, 10 
persons killed 17 June, 1879 

Severe shock at Brieg in Switzerland, felt at Berne, 
Zurich, Geneva, <fec, several killed . 4 July, 1880 

Manilla, &c, Philippines, cathedral destroyed, seve- 
ral killed, many hurt . . . 18-24 Jnly, » 

Smyrna and neighbourhood, many houses destroyed , 
2 persons killed . . . .29, 30, July, ,, 

Valparaiso ; at Illapel, Chili, about 200 perish, 

13 Sept. ,, 

South Austria, much damage with loss of life, at 
Agram, <&c. . . . 10-16 Nov.— 8 Dee. ,, 

Slight shocks at Inverary and other places W. Scot- 
land 28 Nov. ,, 

Berne, and other places, Switzerland, houses split 
up, <fcc 27 Jan. and 3 March, 1881 

Severe shocks in South Italy, much destruction and 
loss of life at Casamiceiola, a town in the Isle of 
Ischia, 28q houses destroyed, 114 lives lost, about 
36,000?. loss, 4 March ; more destruction by 
another shock 15 March, ,, 

Scio — the town and several villages destroyed, about 
4000 perish, much destitution ensues, successive 
shocks, beginning 1.30 p.m. . . 3 April, ,, 

Panama; railway partially destroyed 7,9, 10 Sept. 1882 

A slight shock in Cornwall and Devon . 25 June, 1:383 

Casamiceiola, and several villages in the island of 
ischia, almost entirely destroyed, 1990 lives lost, 
28 July ; slight shocks since j one severe 3 Aug. „ 

[dieat exertions of the military; many remark- 
able preservations, I 

Anatolia, coast of Asia Minor ; Ischesne and about 

-o small towns and villages destroyed, about 100 
lives lost and 30,000 destitute ; Smyrna much 

shaken about 16 Oct. „ 

Shocks felt at Gibraltar . . 20 Oct. ctseq. ., 
Severe shocks in eastern counties of England, pro- 
ceeding from N.E. to S.W., centre Colchester, 
where the congregational church steeple fell; as 
weii as many chimneys; damages estimated at 
10,000?. ; much destruction in neighbouring vil- 
lages ; many Inhabitants rendered homeless; 
Langenhoe church wrecked ; much damage at 



Abberton ; a child killed at Rowhedge ;an invalid 
died ; the shock felt more or less distinctly at 
Coggeshall, Sudbury, Ipswich, Cambridge, 
Bishop's Stortford, Northampton, Leicester, 
Woolwich, Sheerness, different parts of London, 

Hampstead, A'c 22 April, i 

[See Mansion House Funds.] 

Severe shocks for several days on Asiatic shore of 
sea of Marmora ; about 20 deaths reported 

19 May, 

A violent shock on the Island of Kishm, near the 
mouth of the Persian Gulf ; 12 villages destroyed ; 
about 200 people killed . . 19-20 May, 

Slight shocks in the Alban hills, near Rome 7 Aug. 

Slight shocks throughout United States, from 
Washington to New York . . . 10, 1 1 Aug. 

At Genoa, 27 Nov. ; at Marseilles, Lyons, &c. 

29 Nov. 

Severe shocks in Andalusia, Malaga ; many houses 
destroyed, about 266 persons killed ; felt at Madrid 

25 Dec. 

Several towns destroyed : Albania, Granada, many 
killed ; Periana, about 900 killed . 26, 27 Dec. 

Shocks, intermitting .... 26-31 Dec. 

Slight shocks in Carinthia and Styria . 28 Dec. 

et seq. 

Shocks, 1-27 Jan., much camping out 

Slight shocks in Styria . . .27, 28 Jan. 

Slight shocks at Albania ... 12 Feb. 

Alarming shocks at Malaga and other towns, 

27 Feb. 

Stated number of victims in province of Granada, 
690 (see, Spain, 1884-5) . . . . 28 Feb. 

Slight shocks at Rome 9 April ; in Granada 11 April, 

Severe shock at Srinagur, Cashmere ; 87 killed 
30-31 May ; successive shocks, 3.081 deaths, 
70,000 dwellings destroyed, reported up to 20 
June ; slight shocks up to . . . 8 July, 

Sikuch, in the Caucasus, destroyed about 12 June, 

Shocks in Yorkshire . . . .18 June, 

Three shocks in Bengal ; a village near Nattore 
sunk ; announced 25 July, 

Shocks in Central Asia, Vernoe, Tashkend, &c, 
•above 54 killed .... about 2 Aug. 

Shocks in Algeria, about 30 killed at Msila 3-5 Dec. 

Shocks at Amatitlan, Guatemala . . 18 Dec. 

Severe shock at Granada, &c. . . 14 March, : 

Severe shocks in the Morea, Ionian Islands, Malta, 
and neighbourhood ; Filiatra, Gargaliano, and 
Pyrgos on the mainland destroyed ; 300 lives lost 

27 Aug. 

Shocks throughout United States, chiefly in South 
Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama ; three-fourths of 
Charleston destroyed, 96 persons perish ; Savan- 
nah, Washington ; 17 shocks at Charleston 31 
Aug. ; other shocks on Atlantic coast 2, 3 Sept. : 
slight shocks occasionally 3-14 Sept. and 22 Oct. 

Severe shocks from Corsica to Lyons and Geneva, 
and from Milan to beyond Marseilles ; centre point. 
Nice and neighbourhood ; buildings thrown 
down and much damage, 5.37 to 9 a.m. ; about 12 
deaths in French territory and 2,000 in Italy 23 
Feb. ; San Remo district 300 killed ; slight 
shocks . . .... 24 Feb. 

Slight shocks near Mentone . . n March, 

Violent shocks at. Montezuma. &C, San Francisco, 
about 170 perish ; announced . . 8 May. 

Violent long-continued earthquake at Tokio, Japan 

15 Jan. 

Earthquake at Vernoe and Almatensky, Turkestan ; 
about 140 perish ; announced . . 13 June, 

Earthquake shocks in Hawaii (Owhylmi); 167 persons 
perish • 5 May et seq. 

Violent earthquake shocks at Athens and neigh- 
bourhood 4 Oct. 

Destruction of Bisignano, Cosenza, Calabria, by 
earthquake, about 25 lives lost, about 4,000 
homeless 4 Dec. 

Slight shock all over Scotland . . 2 Feb. 

Earthquake at Yunnan, China, 4,000 persons killed 

March, 

Slight shocks in Aunamlale, Scotland . 19 July, 

Several severe shocks in New Zealand, without 
loss of life i Sept. 

Shocks at Vostitza, Greece, damage estimated at 
2,000.000 drachmas .... 10 Sept. 

Destructive shocks at Costa Rica, with loss of 
life, cathedral and palace destroyed 29, 30 Dec. 






EABTHQUAKES. 



389 



EABTHQUAKES. 



Slight earthquake at Edinburgh, little damage, 

1 8 Jan. : 
Earthquake in Asia Minor . . 17 Jan. 
Slight shock in East Lancashire . . to Feb. 
Shock at Djarkend, government of Semiretchinsk ; 

half the town destroyed . reported 12 July, 

Earthquakes in Japan, which see . . 28 July, 

Shocks at Inverness and Forres, buildings damaged 

15 Nov. 

The town of Joana, in Java, greatly injured, 12 lives 
lost 12 Dec. 

Algeria — Gouraya and Villebourg villages nearly 
destroyed, about 40 natives perish . 15 Jan. : 

Adil-Djevas in Van, Armenia ; 146 houses destroyed 

3 April, 

Violent shocks in Italy, especially in the province 
of Verona, where there is much damage and some 
loss of life, 7 June, et ssq. ; continued slighter 
shocks 11-14 June, 

San Salvador, which see, Central America, great de- 
struction of life and property . . 9 Sept. 

Very destructive earthquake in Japan, which see 

28 Oct. 

Shocks of earthquake in New South Wales, Victoria, 
and Tasmania .... about 27 Jan. : 

San Cristobal, Mexico, every building destroyed, 
thousands homeless . . . -30 July, 

Shocks in W. and S. W. England, from Swansea 
to Cornwall and Ireland; little damage; boats 
injured by tidal wave . . .17, 18 Aug. 

Many shocks in Eastern Europe ; slight damage ; 
14 Oct., near Naples .... 16 Nov. 

Violent shocks at Zante. See Ionian Islands, 

31 Jan. et seq. 

Destructive earthquake in Samothrace ; reported 

14 Feb. 

Shocks at New York, which see . .7 March, 

Severe shocks at the foot of Mount Etna 1 April, 

Destructive shocks in Servia, Bulgaria, and Hun- 
gary ; several villages destroyed . 8-10 April, 

Severe shocks at Thebes, which see end of May, 

Destructive shocks with loss of life at Mattinata, 
Italy, and in Stromboli, with a volcanic eruption, 

12 Aug. 

Slight shocks in S. Wales and N. Cornwall, and 
E. coast of Ireland .... 2 Nov. 

Destructive shocks in Kuchan (Persia) ; 12,000 
deaths reported, 17 Nov. ; and at Samarcand, 

19 Nov. 
Severe shock at Montreal, which see . . 27 Nov. 
Shocks in New York and Vermont . 27 Nov. 
Shock at Larissa ; considerable damage 19 March, 
Severe shocks throughout Greece ; which see 

20 April — 7 May, 
Shocks at Pontypridd, Cardiff, and other places, 

S. Wales 2 May, 

Shocks at Wellington, &c, New Zealand 21 May, 
Violent shocks at Constantinople, which see 

10-16 July, 
Shocks in Macedonia, Old Servia, E. Bulgaria, 

■with loss of life ; reported . . . 27 July, 
Severe shocks in Sicily ; 6 persons killed at Zafa- 

rana ; 4 at Aci San Antonio . . .8 Aug. 
Slight shock at Athens and other places, 26 Aug. ; 

and at Bucharest, &c, reported . 2 Sept. 

Severe shocks in Japan, which see . . 22 Oct. 
Shocks in Argentina, which see . . 27 Oct. 
Destructive shocks in S. Italy and Sicily, which 

see, 16 Nov., 1894 ; again, with loss of life, 

23 March, 
Shocks in Austria-Hungary and Italy; over 300 

miles' extent ; 2 deaths ; see Trieste and Laybach 

14, 17 April, 

Shocks in Florence, Bologna, Parma, Pisa, Siena, 

Placentia, and many villages, with loss of life, 

18 May ; other shocks . ... 6 June, 
Paramythia in Epirus, destroyed ; great loss of 

life ; reported . . . . 24 Mav, 

Earthquake at Briix, Bohemia, no deaths, 2,462 

persons homeless . . . . . 19 July, 
Severe shock at Laibach ... 19 Sept. 
Shocks at and near Rome . . . 1 Nov. 

Destructive shocks in Persia, which see, 2-5 Jan. 
Destructive shocks (seismic waves) in Japan, which 

see 15-17 June, 

Severe shocks in Iceland, which see, 

26, 27 Aug., and 5, 5 Sept. 



Shocks in many parts of England and Wales, felt 
in London, 5 a.m 17 Dec. : 

Severe shock in Kishim, Persian gulf, which see, 

10, 11 Jan. 

Severe shocks, with loss of life, in Guadeloupe, 
&c, W. Indies 29 April, 

Shocks in Calcutta, Assam, India, which see, 
Hughli, Dacca, and many other places, 5 p.m. 

12 June, 

See Philippines 1 July, 

Slight shocks in Italy, and other places . Sept. 

Shocks near Smyrna, with loss of life, 22 Dec. 

Destructive shocks at Balikesri, in Asia Minor, 
with loss of life 29 Jan. 

Severe shocks in Antigua, St. Kitts, Guadeloupe, 
and Montserrat 4 March, 

Shocks at Parma, and elsewhere, 4 March ; along 
the Antrodoco valley, in Italy, with loss of life 

27 June, 

Shocks in the Peloponnesus, much damage, 

21 Jan. 

Again, 5 villages destroyed in Kyparinia . 24 Jan. 

Shocks at Mexico, many injured, serious damage, 

24 Jan. 

At Yokohama, with loss of life . . . 7 Mar. 

45 shocks in 5 hours at Montserrat, great damage, 

17 May, 

Shocks in S.E. Austria and W. Hungary, n June ; 
and in Kohat, Allahabad, with some loss of life, 

1 2 June, 

Shocks in Westphalia, with damage . . 14 July, 

Rome, Frascati, Marino, and other towns on the 
Alban hills, buildings damaged, 19 July ; Lisbon, 
8-55 pm 13 Aug. 

Severe shocks at Aidin, 2 villages destroyed, Asia 
Minor, over 1600 deaths, many injured . 20 Sept. 

Frequent shocks at Yakutat in Alaska, 3-17 Sept. 
See Landslips, 24 Sept. 1899. 

Violent shocks in Ceram, Dutch E. Indies, many 
killed, reported 12 Oct. 

Six villages destroyed and 7 others damaged in the 
province of Tiflis, Russia, about 1,000 deaths, 

31 Dec. 

Sharp shock at Safed, in Syria . . 5, 6 Jan. 

Slight shock in Venetia . . . .4 Mar. 

Severe shock at Caracas, Guaronas destroyed, 25 
deaths 30 Oct. 

Further shocks and 3 villages destroyed 31 Oct. 

Shocks in S. Russia and Turkey, lighthouse de- 
stroyed at Cape Kaliakra, in the Black Sea 

31 Mar. 

Shocks in Scotland N. of the Forth, severe near 
the Grampians 18 Sept. 

Severe shocks at Kishnieff, in Bessarabia, 24 Sept. 

Shocks at Gallarate and elsewhere in Italy, 1 death, 

30 Oct. 

Shocks in Utah, U.S . . . . 13, 14 Nov. 

Severe shocks (50) in Erzerum, Armenia, buildings 
destroyed, 22 deaths .... 8-12 Nov. 

Severe shocks in the Cheviot district, New Zea- 
land, township destroyed, 1 death . 16-18 Nov. 

Severe shocks at Chilpancingo and Chilapa, Mexico, 
buildings wrecked, 17 deaths, many injured, 

16, 17 Jan. 

Schemacha and district in Transcaucasia, 2,000 
killed and injured, large numbers homeless (czar 
gave 150,000 roubles for relief) . 13-18 Feb. 

Kiangri, in Asia Minor, destroyed, 4 killed, 100 
injured 12 Mar. 

Shocks in Greece, reported ... 31 May, 

Shocks at Irkutsk and round lake Baikal, 12 April, 

Fearful shocks in Guatemala, Quezaltenango, and 
8 towns destroyed, and many other places ruined, 
about 900 deaths, 8.25 p.m. . . .18 April, 

Severe shock at Shemakha . . . .3 May, 

St. Pierre, in Martinique, suddenly destroyed, with 
30,000 inhabitants, by fearful eruption of the 
volcano Mont Pelee .... 8 May 

The Souffriere volcano, in St. Vincent, about the 
same time became active, 2,000 perished. 

Slight shock near Camborne, Cornwall . 4 June, 

Shocks in Syracuse and province, 14 June ; in Ca- 
labria, Italy . .... 22 June, 

Shocks iji Salonika and Adrianople . . 5 July, 

Mont Pelee again in violent eruption, earthquake 
shocks 8-1 1 July 

Severe shocks in St. Vincent, W. Indies, 

10, 17, 22 July, 



E. AFEICA PEOTECTOEATE. 



390 



EASTEEN EMPIEE. 



Destructive shocks at Bandar Abbas, India 9, 10, 

25 July, 1902 
Shocks in Nebraska, Iowa, S. Dakota . 28 July, ,, 
Severe shocks at Los Alamos, California, 

28, 31 July and 1 Aug. ,, 
Shocks at Leiria in Portugal, 3, 4 Aug. ; and at 

Carrara, Italy 4 Aug. ,, 

Severe shock at Skagway, New York . 10 Aug. ,, 
Shocks in Kashgar, July, 667 deaths, 1,000 injured 

22-23 Aug. >> 

Shocks in Mindanao, Philippines . about 26 Aug. ,, 

Shock at Carupano, Venezuela . . 30 Aug. ,, 

Shock at Pau, Pyrenees .... 8 Sept. ,, 

Shocks at Oran, Algeria, and at Oned Marsa 17 Nov. , , 
Severe shocks at Andijan, in Ferghana, Turkestan, 

10,000 deaths, 15,000 houses destroyed . 16 Dec. ,, 

Shock in Syracuse .... 28 Dec. ,, 

Shock in West Jamaica .... 5 Feb. 1903 

Shocks in Saxony and Bohemia . . 5, 6 March ,, 

Severe shocks in Dominica . . .7 March ,, 

Shocks in the Austrian Alps . .19, 20 March ,, 

And from Landau to Worth . . . 23 March ,, 
Shocks in Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Notts and E. 

Lanes., buildings, &c. damaged mid-day 24 March ,, 

Shock in Jerusalem ; slight damage . 30 March ,, 

Shocks in Catania 3 April ,, 

Shocks in Van, Armenia ; Melazgvird, and other 

villages destroyed, 785 deaths, many cattle and 

sheep killed 29 April „ 

Shocks in Derbyshire villages ... 3 May ,, 

Shocks at Carnarvon, Bangor and district 19 June ,, 
Violent shocks at Erlau, Hungary, mnch damage 

26 June ,, 

EAST AFEICA PEOTECTOEATE, 
Etc., see under Africa {British E.), Slave Trade, 
and Zanzibar, 

EAST ANGLES, the sixth kingdom of the 
Heptarchy, commenced by Uffa, 526 ; ended with 
Ethelbert in 792; see Britain. The bishop's see 
founded by St. Felix, who converted the East 
Angles in 630, was eventually settled at Norwich 
{which see) about 1094. 

EASTBOUENE, a town on the coast of 
Sussex. Eoman remains found here. Incoi-porated 
July, 1883. Many buildings have been erected 
by the duke of Devonshire, who died 21 Dec. 1891. 
Town hall opened 9 Oct. 1884. Population 1881, 
22,014; 1891, 34,977 ; 1901,44,000. 

The Sunday processions of the salvation army, for- 
bidden by a clause in the Eastbourne Improvement act 
of 1885, were continued 1 890-1. Elkanah Clarkson and 
8 others convicted of holding an unlawful assembly, 3 
Dec. 1891. The .judgment set aside, 23 Jan. 1892. 
An act to repeal the clause, passed June, 1892. 

The prince of Wales opens the Sussex agricultural show, 
17 July, 1899. 

Russian exhibition, held by the Russian reformation 
society, opened, 1 Sept. 1899. 

Lord Rosebery opens the Hampden park and king's 
drive, 12 Aug. iqo2. 

First stone of technical institute laid, 25 April, 1903. 

Visit of the king, n-13 July, 1903. 

EAST END JUVENILE MISSION esta- 
blished 1866, to reclaim destitute children, see 
Barnardo's Homes. 

EAST-END MUEDEES, see Whitechapel 

EASTEE, instituted about 68, the festival ob- 
served by the church in commemoration of Our 
Saviour's resurrection, so called in England from 
the Saxon goddess Eo.stre, whose festival was in 
April. After much contention between the eastern 
and western churches, it was ordained by the 
council of Nice, 325, to be observed on the same 
day throughout the whole Christian world. But 
the eastern and western churches generally differ; 
they coincided in 1882. " Easter-day is the 
Sunday following that fourteenth day of the 
calendar moon which happens upon or 'next after 
the 21st March : so that, if the said fourteenth 



day be a Sunday, Easter-day is not that Sunday 
but the next." Easter-day may be any day of 
the five weeks which commence with March 22 
and end with April 25. The dispute between the 
old British church and the new Anglo-Saxon 
church respecting Easter was settled about 664. — 
Easter Sunday, 1893, 2 -April; 1894, 25 Mar.; 189?, 
14 April; 1896,5 April; 1897, 18 April; 1898, 
10 April; 1899, 2 April; 1900, 15 April; 1901. 
7 April; 1902, 30 Mai-ch ; 1903, 1 2 April ; 1904, 
3 April ; 1905, 23 April. 

EASTEE ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, 
was discovered bj' Davis in 1686; it was visited by 
Roggewein, April 1722, and from him obtained the 
name it now bears ; it was visited by captain Cook, 
March 1774. At the south-east extremity is the 
crater of an extinguished volcano, about two miles 
in circuit and 800 feet deep. 

Prehistoric remains ; about 555 stone images were ex- 
amined by Mr. paymaster Thomson, of the U.S. navy, 
who gave a report to the national museum at Washing- 
ton, Sept. 1892. The decaying population was then 
about 155. 

EASTEEN (or GEEEK) Church, see 

Greek Church. 

EASTEEN EMPIEE. After the death of 
the emperor Jovian, in Feb. 364, the generals at 
Nice elected Valentinian as his successor, who, in 
June, made his brother Valens emperor of the west; 
the final division was in 395, between the sons of 
Theodosius. The eastern empire ended with the 
capture of Constantinople, and death of Constan- 
tine XIII., 29 May, 1453; see Turkey. 
Nestorius, the bishop, nominated the first patriarch 

of Constantinople .... 9 Jul}', 383 

Theodosius the Great succours Valentinian II., the 
western emperor, aud defeats the tyrant Maxi- 

mus, at Aquileia 388 

Valentinian II. slain by Arbogastes the Frank, who 

makes Eugenius emperor 

Eugenius defeated and slain by Theodosius, who 

re-unites the two empires ... 6 Sept. 

Death of Theodosius ; the empire finally divided 

between his sons — Arcadius receives the east, 

Honorius the west 17 Jan. 

Constantinople walled by Theodosius II. 
Alaric the Goth begins to ravage the empire 
Violent religious dissensions ; Theodosius II. estab- 
lishes schools, and revives learning 
The Theodosian code promulgated . . . . 
The councils of Ephesus, 431, 449 ; of Chaleedon . 
Frequent sanguinary conflicts between the Blues 
and Greens, circus factions at Constantinople, 498-520 

The Justinian code published 529 

War with Persia ; beginning of the victorious career 

of Belisarius, the imperial general . . 529-531 
He suppresses the "Nika" ("conquer") insurrec- 
tion of the circus factions ; 30,000 Greeks slain, 

and Constantinople burnt 532 

Dedication of St. Sophia 537 

Victories of Belisarius in Africa, Italy, and the East 

533-S4 1 
Recalled through Justinian's jealousy, 542 ; again, 
548 ; again, 549 ; disgraced ..... 
Beginning of the Turkish power in Asia . . . 

The Slavonians ravage Illyria 

Narses defeats Totila and the Goths near Rome . . 

Disaffection of Narses 

Death of Belisarius, aged 84 : of Justinian (83) 
Victories of Maurice and Narses in the East, 579 et seq. 
Severe contests with the Avars . . . .594-620 
N'.'irses burnt at Constantinople .... 606 
Theflight(Hejira)of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, 
where lie establishes himself as a prophet ami 

prince 16 July, 622 

Victorious career of Heraclius II. . . . 622 et seq. 

Be recovers lu's lost territories 627 

The Saracens invade the empire, 632 ; defeat Hera- 
clius at Aiznadin, 633 ; at Yerniuk, 636 ; take 
Alexandria. 640; and the Greek provinces in 
Africa 648 



39* 
394 



395 
413 



425 
438 
45' 



562 
S45 
55i 
552 
56! 
565 



EASTERN EMPIRE. 



391 



EASTERN EMPIRE. 



Constans purchases peace with them . . . . 660 | 518. 
They besiege Constantinople seven times . 672-677 527. 
The Bulgarians establish a kingdom in Mcesia (now j 565. 

Bulgaria), 678 ; they ravage the country up to ! 578. 

Constantinople 7 11 582. 

The Saracens vainly invest Constantinople, 716, 718 ; 

defeated 7 2 ° ' &oi. 

Leo III. the Isaurian, forbids the worship of 

images : (this leads to the Iconoclast contro- 
versy, and eventually to the separation of the 610. 

eastern and western churches) ..... 726 641. 
A great invading Arab force (90,000) defeated by 

Acronius 739 >> 

The monasteries dissolved 770 ! 668. 

Destruction of images throughout the empire de- 685. 

creed, 754 ; image-worship restored by the empress 

Irene (for which she was canonized) . . . 787 
The empire loses the exarchate of Italy, 752 ; Dal- 695 

matia, 825 ; Sicily and Crete S27 

Image-worship persecuted, 830 ; restored, 842 ; for- 
bidden at Constantinople by one council, 869 ; 

restored by another 879 

South Italy annexed to the empire . . . . 890 

Five emperors reigning at one time . . . . 928 711. 

Naples added to the empire 928 713. 

Basil subdues the Bulgarians .... 987, 1014 

Bulgaria annexed to the empire 1018 

The Turks invade Asia Minor 1068 716. 

The Normans conquer South Italy . . . . 1080 718. 
The first crusade ; Alexis I. recovers Asia . . 1097 
The Venetians victorious over the Greeks . . . J125 
The Hungarians repelled, 1152 ; peace made with 

the Normans in Sicily 1156 1 

Wars with the Turks and the Venetians . . . 1172 741. 

Cyprus lost to the empire 1190 

The fourth crusade begins 1202 : 775. 

Revolt of Alexis against his brother Isaac ; the 780. 

crusaders take Constantinople, and restore Isaac 790. 

and his son Alexis IV. ... 19 July, 1203 | 
Alexis Ducas murders Alexis IV. and usurps the 792. 

throne ; the crusaders take Constantinople, kill 

Alexis, and establish the Latin empire, under 

Baldwin, count of Flanders ... 9 May, 1204 802. 
Empire of Nice founded by Theodore Lascaris . ,. 811. 

Kingdom of Epirus and iEtolia established . . 1208 „ 
Constantinople recovered, and the empire re-estab- 
lished by Michael Palseologus . . 25 July, 1261 813. 
Establishment of the Turkish empire in Asia, under 

Othman 1 1299 

The Genoese trade in the Black sea .... 1303 820. 
The Turks ravage Mysia, &c, 1340 and 1345; and ,, 

settle in the coast of Thrace 1353 : 842. 

The sultan Amurath takes Adrianople, and makes 

it his capital, 1362 ; and, by treaty, greatly re- j 867. 

duces the emperor's territories .... 1373 886. 
All the Greek possessions in Asia lost . . . 1390 ; 911. 

Sultan Bajazet defeats the Christians under Sigis- 

mund of Hungary, at Nicopolis. . 28 Sept. 1396 
The emperor Manuel vainly solicits help from the 

western sovereigns 1400 

A Turkish pacha established at Athens . . . 1401 919. 
The Greek empire made tributary to Timour, 1402 ; 

who subjugates the Turkish sultan, and dismem- ! 920. 

bers his empire, 1403 ; death of Timour, on his \ 928. 

way to China 1405 

Dissension amongst the Turks defers the fall of 

Constantinople, 1403-12 ; Mahomet I. aided by 

the emperor Manuel, becomes sultan . . . 1413 J 
Amurath II. in vain besieges Constantinople, 1422 ; 945, 

peace made 1425 

John Palseologus visits Rome and other places, 959. 

soliciting help in vain 1437-40 

Accession of Constantine XIII., last emperor . 1448 963 

Accession of Mahomet II. 1451 ; begins the siege of 

Constantinople, 6 April ; takes it . 29 May, 1453 
(He granted the Christians personal security and 

free exercise of their religion.) See Turkey. 

EMPERORS OF THE EASTERN EMPIRE. 

364. Valens. 976. 

379. Theodosius I. the Great. 

395. Areadius, the son of Theodosius. 1028, 

408. Theodosius II. succeeded his father. 

450. Marcian, a Thracian of obscure family. i°34 

457. Leo I. the Thracian. 

474. Leo II. the Younger, died the same year. 1041 

,, Zeno, called the Isaurian. 
491. Anastasius I. an Illyrian, of mean birth. 



Justin I. originally a private soldier. 

Justinian I. founder of the Digest. 

Justin II. nephew of Justinian. 

Tiberius II. renowned for his virtues. 

Maurice, the Cappadocian : murdered with all his 
children, by his successor, 

Phocas, the Usurper, a centurion, whose crimes 
and cruelties led to his own assassination in 
610. 

Heraclius, by whom Phocas was dethroned. 

(Heracleonas) Constantine III. reigned a few 
months ; poisoned by his step-mother Martina. 

Constans II. : assassinated in a bath. 

Constantine III. (or IV.) Pogonatus. 

Justinian II. son of the preceding ; abhorred for 
his exactions, debaucheries^ and cruelties : de- 
throned and mutilated by his successor, 

Leontius : dethroned and mutilated by Tiberius 
Aspimar. 

Tiberius III. Aspimar. 

Justinian II. restored. Leontius and Tiberius 
degraded in the Hippodrome, and put to death. 
Justinian slain in 711. 

Philippicus-Bardanes : assassinated. 

Anastasius II. : fled on the election of Theodosius 
in 716 ; afterwards delivered up to Leo III. and 
put to death. 

Theodosius ITT. 

Leo III. the Isaurian. 

[In this reign (726) commences the great Icono- 
clastic controversy ; the alternate prohibition and 
restoration of images involves the peace of 
several reigns.] 

Constantine IV. (or V.) Copronymus, son of the 
preceding ; succeeded by his son. 

Leo IV. 

Constantine V. (or VI.) and his mother Irene. 

Constantine, alone, by the desire of the people, 
Irene having become unpopular. 

Irene again, jointly with her son, and afterwards 
alone, 797 ; deposed for her cruelties and mur- 
ders, and exiled. 

Nieephorus I. Logothetes : slain. 

Stauracius : reigns a few days only. 

Michael I. : defeated in battle, abdicates the 
throne, and retires to a monastery. 

Leo V. the Armenian : killed in the temple at Con- 
stantinople on Christmas-day, 820, by conspira- 
tors in the interest of his successor. 

Michael II. the Stammerer. 

Theophilus, son of Michael. 

Michael III. Porphyrogenitus, and the Sot, son of" 
the preceding ; murdered by his successor, 

Basil I. the Macedonian. 

Leo VI. the Philosopher. 

Alexander and Constantine VI. (or VII.) Porphy- 
rogenitus, brother and son of Leo, the latter- 
only six years of age ; the former dying in 912,. 
Zoe, mother of Constantine, assumes the re- 
gency. 

Romanus Lecapenus, usurper, associates with, 
him his sons : 

Christopher, and 

Stephen and Constantine VII. (or VIII.) 

[Five emperors now reign : Christopher dies,- 
931 ; Romanus exiled by his sons Constantine 
and Stephen, who are themselves banished the 
next year. ] 

Constantine VII. (or VIII.) reigns alone ; poisoned 
by his daughter-in-law, Theophania, 959. 

Romanus II. son of preceding: contrived his 
father's death ; banished his mother, Helena. 

Nieephorus II. Phocas : married Theophania, is- 
predecessor's consort, who has him assassi- 
nated. 

John I. Zimisces, celebrated general ; takes; 
Basil II. and Constantine VIII. (or IX.), sons of 
Romanus II. , as colleagues ; John dies, supposed 
by poison, and 

Basil II. and Constantine VIII. reign : the former 
dies in 1025 ; the latter in 1028. 

Romanus III. Argyropulus : poisoned by his pro- 
fligate consort Zoe, who raises 

Michael IV. the Paphlagouian, to the throne : on 
his death Zoe places 

Michael V. Calaphates, as his successor: Zoe 
dethrones him, has his eyes put out, and 
marries 



EASTERN QUESTION. 



392 ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSIONS. 



1042. Constantine IX. (or X.) Monomachus and Zoe 

reign jointly : Zoe dies, 1050. 
1054. Theodora, widow of Constantine. 

1056. Michael VI. Stratiotes, or Strato : deposed. 

1057. Isaac I. Comnenus : abdicates. 
1059. Constantine X. (or XI.) Ducas. 

1067. Eudocia, consort of the preceding, and Romanus 
IV. Diogenes, whom she marries, reign to the 
prejudice of Michael, Con'stantine's son. 

1071. Michael VII. Parapinaoes, recovers his throne, and 
reigns jointly with Constantine XI. (or XII.) 

1078. Nicephorus III. ; dethroned by 

1081. Alexis or Alexius I. Comnenus, succeeded by 

1 118. John Comnenus (Kalos), his son, died of a wound 
from a poisoned arrow. 

1 143. Manuel I. Comnenus, sou of John. 

1180. Alexis II. Comnenus, son of the preceding, under 
the regency of the empress Maria, his mother. 

1 183. Andronicus I. Comnenus, causes Alexis to be 
strangled, and seizes' the throne; put to 
death by 

1 185. Isaac II. Angelus-Comnenus, who is deposed, im- 
prisoned, and deprived of his eyes by his 
brother, 

1195. Alexis III. Angelus, the Tyrant: deposed, and his 
eyes put out ; died in a monastery. 

1203. Isaac II. again, with his son, Alexjs IV. ; deposed. 

1204. Alexis V. Ducas, murders Alexis IV. ; is killed by 

the crusaders. 

LATIN EMPERORS. 

1204. Baldwin I. earl of Flanders, on the capture of 
Constantinople by the Latins, elected emperor ; 
made a prisoner by the king of Bulgaria and 
never heard of afterwards. 

1206. Henry I. his brother: dies in 1217. 

1216. Peter de Cdurtenay, his brother-in-law. 

1221. Robert de Courtenay, his son. 

1228. Baldwin II. his brother, a minor, and John de 
Brienne, of Jerusalem, regent and associate 
emperor. 

1261. [Constantinople recovered, and the empire of the 
Franks or Latins terminates.] 

GREEK EMPERORS AT NICE. 

1204. Theodore Lasearis I. 

1222. John Ducas Vataces. 

1255. Theodore Lasearis II., his son. 
1259. John Lasearis, and (1260) Michael VIII. Palaeo- 
logus. 

GREEK EMPERORS AT CONSTANTINOPLE. 

1261. Michael VIII. now at Constantinople: puts out 
the eyes of John, and reigns alone. 

1282. Andronicus II. Palseologus the Elder, son of pre- 
ceding : deposed by 
Andronicus III. the Younger, his grandson. 
John Palajologus I. under the guardianship of 
John Cantacuzenus: the latter proclaimed em- 
peror at Adrianople. 

1347. John Cantacuzenus abdicates. 

J 355- John Palseologus I. restored. 

1391. Manuel II. Palieologus, his son: succeeded by his 
son and colleague. 

1425. John Palieologus II. The throne claimed by his 
three brothers. 

1448. Constantine Palieologus XII. (XIII. or XIV. some 
of the other emperors being called Constantine 
by some writers) killed, when Constantinople 
was taken, 29 May, 1453. 

EASTERN QUESTION. In the 19th 
century related especially to the affairs of the Turkish 
empire and its connection with its neighbours ; sec 
Turkey and Musso- Turkish terns. An Eastern 
Question association was formed in London, Dec. 
1876, the duke of "Westminster president. The 
eastern question became again prominent through 
the troubles in the Balkan, sec Bulgaria and 
Servia, 1889-92. Armenia and Turkey, 1893 et seg. 
Crete, 1896-97. Macedonia, 1903. 

EASTERN ROUMELIA, see Roumelia. 

EAST INDIA ASSOCIATION, for the 

advocacy of the interests of all the inhabitants of 
India, iounded 7 Nov. 1866. A journal is pub- 
lished and meetings held. The maharaja of 



1328 
1341 



Gwalior gives 1,000/. to the association, Aug. 
1902. 

EAST INDIA STOCK DIVIDEND RE- 
DEMPTION ACT passed 15 May, 1873. It finally 
abolished the company on 1 June, 1874, and made 
needful arrangements. 

EAST INDIES, see India. 

EAST LONDON MUSEUM, see Bethnal 
Green. 

EAST SAXONS, see under Britain. 

EBELIANS, a German revivalist sect, which 
began at Konigsberg in Prussia, about 1836, its 
leaders being archdeacon Ebel and Dr. Diestel, 
who were tried and condemned for unsound doc- 
trine and impure lives in 1839. The sentence was 
annulled in 1842, it is said by royal influence. The 
sect is popularly termed "Mucker," German for 
hypocrites. Their theory and practice of spiritual 
marriage is described by Mr. Hepworth Dixon in 
his " Spiritual Wives," 1868. 

EBIONITES, heretics, in the 1st century, a 
branch of the Nazarenes, were of two kinds : one 
believed that Our .Saviour was born of a virgin, 
observed all the precepts of the Christian religion, 
but added the ceremonies of the Jews ; the other 
believed that Christ was born after the manner of 
all mankind, and denied his divinity. Photinus 
revived the sect in 342. 

EBONITE (vulcanised india-rubber), see 
Caoutchouc. 

EBRO, a river in Spain — the scene of a signal 
defeat of the Spaniards by the French, under 
Lannes, near Tudela, 23 Nov. 1808 ; and also of 
several important movements of the allied British 
and Spanish armies during the Peninsular war 
(1809-1813). 

ECBATANA, capital of Media ; the date of 
foundation is unknown; Herodotus ascribes it to 
Deioces about 700 n.c. ; it was taken by Cyrus 549, 
and became the summer residence of himself and 
his successors. 

"ECCE HOMO," "Behold the man" 
(John xix. 5). A study of the human character 
of Jesus Christ (the supernatural element being 
excluded), a work of much spiritual reverence and 
literary excellence. It was published anonymously 
in 1865, and caused great excitement ; the author- 
ship was attributed to many eminent persons, but 
eventually assigned to prof. John Robert Seeley, 
without his contradiction. He was made Regius 
professor of modern history at Cambridge in 1869, 
and K.C.M.G. in 1894. He published " Natural 
Religion" in 1882, and the "Expansion of Eng- 
land " in 1883. He was born in 1S34, and died 
13 Jan. 189s. 

ECCLESIASTICAL ASSESSMENTS 
(Scotland) act passed, 1900. 

ECCLESIASTICAL COMMISSIONS: 
appointed by queen Elizabeth, 1559; by James I. 
in Scotland, 1(117; by the English parliament in 
1641 ; and by James II. to coerce the universities 
in 1687. A Church Inquiry Commission, appointed 
23 June, 1832, reported June, 1835. The present 
Ecclesiastical Commissioners (bishops, deans, and 
laymen) for the management of church property, 
were appointed in Feb. 1835; incorporated in 1836; 
and their proceedings regulated in 1840 and 1841. 
The law relating to them was amended in 1868; 



ECCLESIASTICAL COUKTS. 



393 



ECLIPSES. 



annual reports issued. Since 1840 (when the 
common fund was first created) the commissioners 
have augmented and endowed over 5,900 benefices 
by annual grants, capital sums, lands, &c, equiva- 
lent to a capital sum of about 32,188,000/. for year 
ended 31 Oct. 1902. 

ECCLESIASTICAL COUETS. .There 
existed no distinction between lay and ecclesiastical 
courts in England until 1085, after the Norman con- 
quest ; see Arches and Consistory Courts. Till the 
establishment of the Divorce and Probate courts 
(which see) in 1857, the following were the causes 
cognisable in ecclesiastical courts : blasphemy, 
apostasy from Christianity, heresy, schism, ordina- 
tions, institutions to benefices, matrimony, divorces, 
bastardy, tithes, incest, fornication, adultery, pro- 
bate of wills, administrations, &c. 
A royal commission of inquiry respecting these courts 

agreed to, house of lords ; 7 March, 1881, appointed. 

Eeport issued, Aug. 1883. 

ECCLESIASTICAL DILAPIDA- 
TIONS, law respecting, amended by acts passed 
in 1871 and 1872. 

ECCLESIASTICAL GAZETTE, Church 
of England semi-official journal ; sent gratuitously 
to all dignitaries and incumbents ; established 10 
July, 1838. 

ECCLESIASTICAL STATE, or States 
OF THE CHURCH, see Home, Modern. 

ECCLESIASTICAL TITLES ACT, 14 & 

15 Vict. c. 60(1851), repealed 24 July, 1871; see 
Papal Aggression. 

. ECCLESIOLOGICAL SOCIETY, formed 
in 1839, was originally the Cambridge Campden 
Society, mainly established by the 2nd earl of 
Gainsborough (Charles George Noel) for the proper 
a - estoration of ancient churches. 

ECHO. The time which elapses between the 
utterance of a sound and its return must be more 
than one-twelfth of a second, to form an echo. 
The whispering gallery of St. Paul's is a well- 
known example. The Echo, independent evening 
paper, price hcl, established Dec. 1868. 

ECKMUHL (Bavaria), the site of a battle 
between the main armies of France (75,000) and 
Austria (40,000) ; Napoleon and marshal Da» r oust 
(hence prince d'Eckmuhl) defeated the archduke 
Charles, 22 April, 1809. 

, ECLECTICS (from Greek, eklego, I choose), 
ancient philosophers (called Analogetici, and also 
Philalethes, the lovers of truth), who, without 
attaching themselves to any sect, chose what 
they judged good from each : of them was Potamon 
of Alexandria, about a.d. i. Also a Christian sect, 
who considered the doctrine of Plato conformable 
to the spirit of Christianity. 

ECLIPSE (the race-horse), see Paces. 

ECLIPSES. Their revolution was calculated 
by Calippus, the Athenian, 336 B.C. The Egyptians 
said they had accm-ately observed 373 eclipses of 
the sun, and 832 of the moon, in the period from 
Vulcan to Alexander, who died 323 B.C. The 
theory of eclipses is said to have been known to 
the Chinese before 120 B.C. ; they record an eclipse 
776 B.C. The first eclipse recorded in history hap- 
pened 19 March, 721 B.C., atSh. 40/w. p.m., according 
to Ptolemy; it was lunar, and was observed with 
accuracy at Babylon. See Sun. 



A list of eclipses to the year 2000 is given in " V Art de 

Verifier les Dates." 
The Royal Astronomical Society published a volume of 

" Observations made during total solar eclipses," 1880. 
" Recent and Coming Eclipses," by sir Norman Lockyer, 

published Oct. 1897. 
"Remarkable Eclipses," by W. T. Lynn, 6th edition, 

published Nov. 1902. 

ECLIPSES OF THE SUN. 

Eclipse recorded in the Assyrian tablets B.C. . . 661 

The Nineveh eclipse (recorded, according to sir 
Henry Rawlinson, on a Nineveh tablet in the 
British Museum) .... 15 June, B.C. 763 

That predicted by Thales ; see Halys (Pliny, lib. 

ii. 9), believed to have occurred . 28 May, 585 

[Sir G. B. Airy thinks the date should be 610 : 

others say 603 or 5843. c. It is the one recorded 

by Herodotus as interrupting a battle between 

the Medes and Lydians.] 

The alleged eclipse at the time of Xerxes' expedition 
against Greece, 480 B.C., is much disputed, and 
the darkness was probably meteorological. 

One at Athens (Thucydides, lib. iv.) . . B.C. 424 

Eclipse of Agathocles (Airy) . . . 15 Aug. 310 

Total one : three days' supplication decreed at 
Rome (Livy) 188 

One observed at Constantinople . . .a.d. 968 

At the battle of Sticklestadt . . 29 July, 1030 

Mythical reports : in France, when it was dark at 
noon-day (Du Fresnoy), 29 June, 1033 : in Eng- 
land a total darkness (IV.-Malmsb.), 20 Mar. 1140 ; 
again, the stars visible at ten in the morning 
(Camden) 23 June, 1191 

Total eclipse, visible in England ; the darkness so 
great that the stars shone, and the birds went to - 
roost at noon . •' 3 May, 1715 

Last total eclipse observed in England ; seen near 
Salisbury 22 May, 1724 

Remarkable one, central and annular in the interior 
of Europe . . - . . . . 7 Sept. 1802 

Total eclipses — 17 July, 1833; 8 July, 1842; 28 
July, 1851. 

An annular eclipse ; it was seen and photographed 
at Oundle ; but not seen well at other places 

15 March, 1858 

Total eclipse of the sun ; well seen by sir G. B. 
Airy, astronomer royal, and others in Spain ; 
Mr. Warren de la Rue took photographs, 18 July, i860 

Total eclipse of the sun of the longest possible dura- 
tion ; (the Royal Society provided means for its 
observation in India, by col. Walker, Mr. Hersehel, 
and others) . .... 18 Aug. 1868 

During the solar eclipse, 18 Aug. 1868, as observed 
in India, M. Janssen invented a method of study- 
ing the phenomena of the sun at any time, by 
employing several spectroscopes, whereby the 
spectrum is lengthened and the dazzling bril- 
liancy diminished. Mr. Joseph Norman Lockyer 
had suggested a similar method of observation 
in 1866, but did not use it till 20 Oct. 1868, being 
then not aware of M. Janssen's discovery. 

The solar eclipse well observed in North America, 

7 Aug. 1869 

Two expeditions to observe the solar eclipse of 
22 Dec. 1870, sent out by the British government, 
were not successful .... 22 Dec. 1870 

The solar eclipse well observed at Ceylon and in 
southern India, 12 Dec. 1871 ; and in North 
America, 29, 30 Jul}', 1878 ; and in Egypt 17 May, 1882 
[The same eclipses (about 70) recur in a period of 
18 years 10J days.] 

Except the total eclipse, 12 Aug. 1999, there can be 
no total eclipse of the sun visible in England for 
250 years : July, 1871. Hind. 

Grand eclipse, well seen by astronomers at Caroline 
island, &c, Pacific .... 6 May, 1883 

Eclipse of the sun well seen in North America, &c, 
16 March ; seen in New Zealand . . 8 Sept. 1885 

Solar eclipse 29 August, 1886 ; British expedition 
to island of Grenada (West Indies) authorized by 
Government April ; eclipse well observed and 
photographed at Grenada 1886 

Eclipse of 19 Aug. not well observed through 
unfavourable weather, except at Moscow and 
other places in Russia and Germany . . . 1887 
Solar eclipse observed in California . 1 Jan. 1889 



ECNOMUS. 



394 



EDDYSTONE. 



Eclipse Dec. 22 observed, Saint isle, near Deme- 
rara, by Father Stephen J. Perry, who died at 
sea 27 Dec. 1889 

Partial eclipse visible in N. America . 20 Oct. 1892 

Total eclipse, 15, 16 April, 1893, well observed ; 
British, prof. Thorpe at Fundium on the Salnm 
River, W. Africa ; Mr. Albert Taylor and Mr. 
Wm. Shackletonat ParaCura, Brazil ; American, 
prof. Pickering at Minas Aris, Brazil ; prof. 
Schaeberle at Valparaiso ; French, M. Bigourdan 
at Joal in Senegal ;, M. Deslandies and M. Colu- 
lesco, Senegal. 

Total eclipse ; visible in the Indian Ocean and E. 
Africa 29 Sept. 1894 

Total eclipse, 9 Aug. 1896 ; British expedition at 
Vadsri, Norway ; Dr. A. Common, sir Robert 
Ball, professor J. N. Lockyer, and others ; un- 
favourable weather, scientific results meagre. 

A party conveyed in sir George Baden-Powell's 
(he died 20 Nov. 1898) yacht Otaria, Dr. Stone 
(Radcliff observer), Mr. Shackleton, lieut. Ver- 
non Webb, and others, arrived at Karmakul, 
Novaya Zemlya, 72 23' N. lat. 3 Aug. ; suc- 
cessful observations, many photographs taken 

9 Aug. 1896 

Baron Kaulbars obtains excellent results atTornea, 
N. Finland ; successful observations also in 
Siberia. Nature, 13, 27 Aug. .... 3 Sept. ,, 

Expeditions to Yezo in Japan, unsuccessful . . ,, 

Total eclipse about 7 a.m., 22 Jan. 1898 ; well 
observed at six stations in India, at Viziadrug, 
by sir Norman Lockyer and others, totality 
lasted 1 min. 30 sees., magnificent results, pub- 
lished ; at Buxar, near Benares, the rev. J. M. 
Bacon, with apparatus supplied by Mr. Nevil 
Maskelyne, obtained what was said to be the first 
"animated photograph " of any celestial pheno- 
menon ; at Sahdol the astronomer royal, prof. 
Turner, and others ; 103 sees, of totality ; pro- 
gramme successfully carried out . 22 Jan. 1898 

Mr. Christie gave an illustrated discourse on the 
"Eclipse" at the Royal institution . 22 April, ,, 

Total eclipse over the S.E. of the United States, 
Portugal, and Spain to Algiers . . 28 May, 1900 

Valuable results obtained by Mr. Christie ai d 
others at Ovar, Portugal ; sir Norman Lockyer 
and party near Alicante ; prof. Turner, Messrs. 
Maunder, Wesley, and others at Algiers ; and 
prof. Todd at Tripoli ; and other parties in 
America ; 106 sees, of totality at Cape Henry, 
Virginia ; longest near the middle of the Atlantic. 

Total eclipse seen by Mr. Dyson in Sumatra, and 
by Mr. Maunder in Mauritius . . 18 May, 1901 

An annular solar eclipse well observed at Cairo, 

11 Nov. ,, 

Total eclipse over the region of the south pole, 

21 Sept. 1903 

OF THE MOON. 

The first, observed by the Chaldeans at Babylon 

(Ptolemy iv.) 'b.c. 721 

A total one observed at Sardis (Tlvucydides vii.) . 413 

Again, in Asia Minor (Polybius) 219 

One at Rome, predicted by Q. Sulpitius Gullus 

(Livy xliv.) ^8 

One terrified the Roman troops and quelled their 

revolt (Tacitus) a.d. 14 

Total eclipse, well observed at Greenwich, &c. 

11 March, 1895 
Total eclipse, well observed in Dublin . 28 Dec. 1898 
One well seen near London . . . 16 Dec. 1899 
Total eclipse at Cape Town and Berlin, partial in 

England ...... 22 April, 1902 

ECNOMUS, see Eimera. 

ECOLE rOLYTECPTNTQUE, a military 
academy at Paris, established in 1704, and reor- 
ganised and given ils present name on I Sept. 1795. 
The "Journal" (which began in 1795) contains pro- 
found mathematical papers. The school was reor- 
ganised 4 Sept. 1816. The pupils helped to defend 
Paris in 1814 and 1850. Centenary festival, 17, 18, 
19 May, 1894. 

ECONOMIC MUSEUM (or Museum of 
Domestic and Sanitary Economy), at Twickenham, 
open free, was established chiefly by the agency 



of Mr. Thos. Twining, in i860. It originated from 
the Paris exhibition of 1855. Economic Review, 
No. 1, published Jan. 1891. 

ECONOMIST, London weekly journal, de- 
voted to financial matters, first appeared 2 Sept. 
1843. 

ECONOMISTES, a philosophical sect, founded 
by Francois Quesnay (1694 — 1774), who exalted 
agriculture above all other arts ; he asserted that it 
gave two things, the support of the labourer and an 
excess of value which belonged to the proprietor of 
the land ("product net";, and which alone should 
be taxed. He also favoured great freedom for in- 
dustry and trade. His "Physiocratie" (1768) and 
other works were at the time very popular, even 
at court, and are said to have influenced Adam 
Smith, author of " The "Wealth of Nations." 

ECONOMY, see Political Economy and 
Societies, 1902. 

The British Association for the Advancement of 
Economic Knowledge was founded 20 Nov. Mr. 
(aft. visct.) G. J. Goschen elected first presi- 
dent, 23 Nov. 1890. A quarterly journal was 
founded 1893 

ECOECHEUES (Flayers), bands of armed 
adventurers who desolated France and Belgium 
during the 15th century, beginning about 1435. 
Amongst their leaders were Chabatmes, comte de 
Dammartin, the bastard of Armagnac, and Vil- 
landras; and they at one time numbered 100,000. 
They are said to have stripped their victims to their 
shirts, and Hayed the cattle. They were favoured 
by the English invasion and the civil wars. 

ECEASITE, an explosive invented by Siersch 
and Kubin, Austrian engineers, impervious to 
damp, shock, or tire, Oct. 1889. 

ECUADOE, see Equator. 

EDDAS (thought formerly to mean Ohhmoder, 
or "mother of mothers," \>y others, "art"), two 
books of songs and sagas (prose and verse) contain- 
ing the Scandinavian mythology (or history of Odin, 
Thor, Frea, &c), written by skalds or bards about 
the 10th, nth or 12th centuries. Translations have 
been made into French, English, &c. " The Prose, 
or Younger Edda," by George Dasent, was pub- 
lished in 1842. MSS. of the Eddas exist at Copen- 
hagen and Upsal. The "Saga Library," published 
by Mr. B. Quaritch, includes texts, with transla- 
tions by "Win. Morris, Eiriker Magnusson, and 
Snorri Sturluson, 1891 ct scq. 

EDDYSTONE (or Edystone) LIGHT- 
HOUSE, off the port of Plymouth, erected by 
the Trinity-house to enable ships to avoid the 
Eddystone rock. The first lighthouse was com- 
menced under Mr. Winstanley, in 1(396 ; finished 
in 1699; and destroyed in the dreadful tempest 
of 27 Nov. 1703, when Mr. Winstanley and others 
perished. A wooden one, by Rudyerd, was built by 
order of parliament, and all ships were ordered to 
pay one penny per ton inwards and outwards towards 
supporting it, 1708. This lighthouse was burnt 4 
Dec. 1755; and one on a better plan, erected by 
Mr. Smeaton, finished 9 Oct. 1759. The woodwork 
of this, burnt in 1770, was replaced by stone. 
The foundation having given way, a new one was de- 
signed by Mr. (aft. sir) .lames X. Douglass, engineer of 

the Trinity House. The foundation-stone was laid by 
the duke of Edinburgh in the presence of the prince of 
Wales, iq Aug. 1879. The comer-stone was placed by 
the duke on 1 June, 1881. Successfully lit, 3 Feb. 
1882 ; opened by the duke, is May, 1882. 



EDEN. 



395 



EDINBURGH. 



Smeaton's lighthouse memorial tower erected at Ply- 
mouth ; founded by duke of Edinburgh, 20 Oct. 1882 ; 
inaugurated, 24 Sept. 1884. 

EDEN", ship burnt ; see Wrecks, 1873. 

EDESSA (now Orfah), a town in Mesopo- 
tamia, said by some to have been built by Nimrod; 
by Appian , to have been built by Seleucus. It be- 
came famous for its schools of theology in the 5th 
century. It was made a principality by the crusa- 
ders, and was taken by the Saracens, 1145; by 
Nur-ed-deen, in 1144; and the Turks in 1184. Its 
ancient kings or rulers were named Abgarus and 
Mannus. 

EDGECOTE, see Banbury. 

EDGEHILL FIGHT (23 Oct. 1642), War- 
wickshire, between the royalists under prince Ru- 
pert and the parliament army under the earl of 
Essex, was the first important engagement in the 
civil war. Charles I. wa« present, and the earl of 
Lindsaj', who headed the royal foot, was mortally 
wounded. The king lost 5,000 dead. The action 
was indecisive, though the parliament claimed the 
victory. 

EDICT OF NANTES, by which Henry IV., of 
France granted toleration to his pro testant subjects 
13 April, 1598, was confirmed by Louis XIII. in 
1610, and by Louis XIV. in 1652. It was revoked 
by Louis XIV. 22 Oct. 1685. This act cost France 
50,000 Protestant families, and gave to England 
and Germany thousands of industrious artisans. 
It also caused a fierce insurrection in Languedoc. 
See Camisards. Some of the refugees settled in Spital- 
fields, where their descendants yet remain; others 
settled in Soho and St. Giles's, and pursued the art 
of making crystal glasses, and carried on the silk 
manufacture and jewellery, then little understood 
in England. 

EDICTS, public ordinances and decrees, 
usually set forth by sovereigns ; originated with 
the Eomans. The Perpetual Edict : Salvius 
Julianus, of Milan, a civilian at Eome (author of 
several treatises on public right), was employed by 
the emperor Adrian to draw up this body of laws 
for the praetors, promulgated 132. 

EDINBURGH, the metropolis of Scotland, 
derives its name — in ancient records Edinbure and 
Bun Edin, "the hill of Edin" — from its castle, 
founded or rebuilt by Edwin, king of Northum- 
bria, who, having greatly extended his dominions, 
erected it for the protection of his newly acquired 
territories from the incursions of the Scots and 
Picts, 626. But it is said the castle was first built 
by Camelon, king of the Picts, 330 B.C. It makes 
a conspicuous appearance, standing on a rock 300 
feet high at the west end of the old town, and, before 
the use of great guns, was a fortification of con- 
siderable strength. Edinburgh returns 4 M.P.'sby 
act passed 25 June, 1885. " Municipal Edinburgh" 
(historical and official), published June, 1895. See 
Population. 

Christianity introduced (reign of Donald I. ) . . 201 
City fortified, and castle rebuilt by Malcolm 

Canmore 1074 

St. Giles's church founded (845 ?) .... 1120 

Improved by David 1 1124 to 1153 

Holyrood abbey founded by David 1 1128 

Edinburgh constituted a burgh . . about ,, 

Castle held by England 1174-86 

A parliament held here under Alexander II. . . 1215 

City taken by the English 1296 

Grant of the town of Leith to Edinburgh . . 1329 

Surrenders to Edward III 1355 

St. Giles's church destroyed 1385 

Rebuilt 1387 



City burnt by Richard II., 1385 ; and by Henry IV. 
The parliament hall, Edinburgh castle, built by 

James I about 

James II. first king crowned here 

Execution af the earl of Athol .... 

Annual fair granted by James II. 
City strengthened by a wall . . 
Charter of James III. ..... 

Edinburgh made the metropolis by James III. 
Royal College of Surgeons incorporated 
Received charter from James IV. 

[The palace of Holyrood was built in the reign of 
James IV.] 

High school founded about 

A British force, landing from a fleet of 200 ships, 

burns both Edinburgh and Leith . . .May, 
Leith is again burnt, but Edinburgh is spared 

Tolbooth built 

Marriage of queen Mary and lord Daruley 

David Rizzio murdered 

Lord Darnley blown up in a private house by gun- 
powder 10 Feb. 

Mary marries James, earl of Bothwell . 15 May, 
Mary's forced resignation ; civil war 

Death of John Knox 

University chartered ; see Ed. University 14 April, 
Bothwell's attempt on Holyrood-house . 27 Dec. 
Riot in the city ; the mob attacks the king 
James VI. leaves Edinburgh as king of England, 

5 April, 1603 ; he revisits it 16 May, 

George Heriot's hospital founded by his will . 
Charles I. crowned at Edinburgh . . . June, 

Edinburgh made a bishopric 

Riots in Greyfriars church at the reading of the 

English Liturgy 23 July, 

Parliament house finished 

Charles again visits the city . .... 

The castle is surrendered to Cromwell . . Dec. 
"Mercuriiis Caledonius," first Edinburgh newspaper, 

appeared 

Coffee-houses first opened 

Merchants' company incorporated . . . . 
College of Physicians incorporated . . . . 
Earl of Argyll beheaded . . . .30 June, 
African and East India company incorporated 

Bank of Scotland founded 

Union of the kingdoms 

Royal bank founded 

Board of trustees of trade and manufactures 

appointed 

Royal Infirmary incorporated 

Affair of Captain Porteous (see Porteous) 7 Sept. 

Medical Society instituted 

The young Pretender occupies Holyrood 17 Sept. 
Battle of Preston Pans . . . .21 Sept. 
Modern improvements, "New town," commenced . 

Magistrates assigned gold chains 

Royal Exchange completed 

Foundation of the North Bridge, 21 Oct. 1763 ; 

completed . . 

Theatre Royal erected 

Great fire in the Lawn-market 

Register-office, Princes-street, commenced . . . 
Oalton-hill observatory founded . . 25 July. 
Great commotion against popery . . .2 Feb, 

Society of Antiquaries 

Royal Society of Edinburgh incorporated 
South Bridge commenced 
Royal College of Surgeons incorporated 
First stone of present university laid 
Robertson, the historian, dies here 
Bridewell, Calton-hill, erected 
Holyrood, an asylum to Louis XVIII. 

brothei-, afterwards Charles X. 
New Bank of Scotland commenced . 
" Edinburgh Review " first published 
New system of police established . . . . 

Alarming riots here 31 Dec. 

Nelson's monument completed 

Gas company incorporated 

Water company incorporated 

Professor Playfair dies .... 20 July, 
Society of Arts instituted ... ... 

Union Canal completed 

George IV. 's visit; foundation of the national 

monument 15-27 -A-Ug. 

Royal Institution erected 

Destructive fires .... June and Nov. 



1 Aug. 

16 Nov. 
11 June, 

and his 
179S to 

. 3 June, 
10 Oct. 



M34 
1437 

r 447 
1450 
*477 
1482 
iS°5 
1508 



1518 

1544 
J S47 
1561 
1565 
1566 

1567 

157c 
1572 
1582 

1591 
1596 

1617 
1624 
1G33 



1637 
1640 
1641 
1650 

1661 
1677 
1681 
1681 
1685 
1695 

1707 
1727 



1736 

1737 
1745 

1753 
1754 
1761 

1772 
1769 
1771 

1774 
1776 
1779 
1780 
1783 
1785 
1786 
1788 
1793 



1802 
1805 
1811 
1815 
1818 
1819 



182^ 
1824 



EDINBURGH. 



396 



EDINBURGH. 



Scottish Academy founded ..?... 1826 
Lord Melville's monument erected . . . . 1828 
Edinburgh and Dalkeith railway opened . July, 1831 

Statue of George IV. erected 1832 

Death of sir Walter Scott . . . 21 Sept. ,, 

Chambers's Edinburgh Journal published 

Association of the Fine Arts 1833 

The British Association meets here . . 8 Sept. 1834 
Edinburgh and Granton railway begun . . . 1836 

Art-union of Scotland 1837 

Monument to sir Walter Scott commenced . . . 1840 
Society of Arts, founded 1821 ; incorporated . . 1842 
Edinburgh and Glasgow railway opened . Feb. ,, 
Queen Victoriavisits Edinburgh, &c, 31 At.1g.-15 Sept. ,, 
Secession, and formation of the Free Church, 18 May, 1843 

New College instituted ,, 

North British railway commenced . . . . 1844 
The monument to the political martyrs of 1793-4 

laid by Mr. Hume 21 Aug. „ 

Granton pier, &c, constructed by the duke of Buc- 

cleuch 1835-44 

Sir Walter Scott's monument completed . . . 1845 
Edinburgh Philosophical Association (established 
1832) re-organised as the Edinburgh Philosophi- 
cal Society 1846 

N. British railway opened . . . 18 June, ,, 
British Association (2nd time) meets . 31 July, 1850 
The queen again visits Edinburgh . 29 Aug. „ 

Prince Albert lays the foundation-stone of the 

Scotch national gallery . . . .30 Aug. ,, 
Meeting to vindicate Scottish rights . 2 Nov. 1853 
Old buildings near Lawn-market burnt . 5 Aug. 1857 
Act passed for building new Post-office . . July, 1858 
National gallery opened ... 21 March, 1859 
Agitation against Ministers' annuity tax . Sept. ,, 
Lord Brougham elected chancellor of the university, 

Edinburgh 1 Nov. ,. 

Ministers' tax abolished, and other arrangements 
made which did not give satisfaction : riots 

ensued Nov. „ 

20,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen in Queen's 

Park 7 Aug. i860 

Industrial museum act passed . . . 28 Aug. ,, 
Edinburgh visited by empress Eugenie, 20 Nov. ,, 
The prince consort lays foundation of new Post- 
office and industrial museum . . .23 Oct. 1861 
Fall of a house in High-street, 35 persons killed, 

24 Nov. ,, 
Accident on Edinburgh and Glasgow railway — 17 

killed ; above 100 wounded ... 13 Oct. 1862 
Lord Palmerston's visit . 31 March — 4 April, 1864 
Theatre royal burnt : George Lorimer, dean of 
guild, and seven persons, killed by fall of wall, 
while endeavouring to extricate others, 13 Jan. 1865 
Statues of Allan Ramsay and John Wilson inaugu- 
rated 25 March, ,, 

New Post-office opened . . • . . 7 May, 1866 
National museum of science and art opened by 
prince Alfred (who is created duke of Edinburgh', 
&c, the first royal prince whose leading title was 

Scotch, 24 May) 19 May, ,, 

Great reform demonstration . . . 17 Nov. ,, 
Explosion in the Canongate, at Hammond's, a fire- 
work-maker's : 5 killed, many injured 9 Oct. 1867 
Visit of Mr. Disraeli, chancellor of the exchequer, 

conservative demonstration . . 29, 30 Oct. ,, 
Meeting to propose restoration of St. Giles's cathe- 
dral 1 Nov. ., 

Visit of John Bright, made freeman . 3 Nov. 1S6S 
The annuity tax abolition act passed . 9 Aug. 1870 
The prince of Walrs installed as patron of the 
Freemasons of Scotland, 12 Oct. ; laid the founda- 
tion of the new royal infirmary . . 13 Oct. 
Meeting of British Association (3rd) . . 2 Aug. 1S71 
Scott centenary celebrated . (9 for 15) Aug. 
Restoration of St. Giles's cathedral begun, 17 June, 1872 
Lady Burdett-Coutts made a burgess . 15 .Jan. 1873 
The earl of Derby elected lord rector of the uni- 
versity 14 Nov. 1S74 

Theatre Royal destroyed by fire . . 6 Feb. 1875 
Advocates' Library injured by Are . 3 March ,, 
Southminster theatre burnt . . . 14 March ,. 
Freedom of citygiventort. hon.W, E. Forster, 5 Nov. .', 
Earl of Derby's address as lord rector, . 17 Dec. 
Statue of Dr. Livingstone unveiled . . 15 Aug. 1876 
Albert Memorial inaugurated by the queen. 17 Aug. 
Fire at Leith Walk, 7 killed through fall of a house. 

20 Dec 1877 



Messrs. Nelson's i>rinting-office burnt ; great loss, 

10 April, 

Statue of Dr. Chalmers, by Steell, unveiled 27 July 

Marquis of Hartington installed lord rector, 31 Jan. 

New waterworks (Portmore reservoir at the Moor- 
foot Hills) opened by the lord provost 13 June, 

St. Mary's cathedral (episcopal) founded by the 
duke of Buccleuch, 1874; consecrated 30 Oct. 

New dock at Leith opened by the duke of Edinburgh 

26 July, 

About 40,000 Scottish volunteers reviewed in the 
queen's park by the queen ... 25 Aug. 

Fishery exhibition opened . . . n April, 

Academy of Music for Scotland (at Edinburgh) 
founded Sept. 

Freedom of the city given to the marquis of Salis- 
bury , . 27 Nov. 

A severe snowstorm ; locomotion stopped ; frost 

9-18 Dec. 

Death of William Chambers, bookseller, restorer 
of St. Giles's [which is reopened 23 May] 20 May, 

Sir Stafford Northcote lord rector of the university 

3 Nov. 

Theatre Royal again destroyed by fire . 30 June, 

Mass meeting to support the government and the 
franchise bill 12 July, 

Visit of the prince and princess and family 22 Aug. 

Demonstration in favour of the government; 
speeches of Mr. Gladstone . . 30 Aug. and 

1, 2 Sept. 

The ancient cross restored by Mr. W. E. Gladstone, 

Nov. 

International Industrial exhibition opened by 
prince Albert Victor, 6 May ; visited by the 
queen, grand civic demonstration 18 Aug. 1886 ; 
2,740,000 visitors ; closed ... 31 Oct. 

Jubilee gifts of Dr. R. H. Gunning for prizes, &c. 
to Royal Society of Edinburgh, Society of Anti- 
quaries of Scotland, University of Edinburgh, 
Royal Colleges of Physicians and Surgeons, Edin- 
burgh, Ben Nevis observatory , &e. announced July, 

The Heriot-Watt College inaugurated ; address by 
Sir F. Bramwell .... 10 Jan. 

Slight earthquake 18 Jan. 

Naval and Military exhibition opened 18 June, 

Freedom of the city presented to Mr. C. S. Parnell 
(18,000 municipal electors protest against it) 

20 July, 
[His name erased from the roll, 1891.] 

National Association for the advancement of Art 
congress meets ... 28 Oct. — 2 Nov. 

International Industrial exhibition, buildings 
erected at Merehiston and S.W. suburb ; nearly 
90 acres occupied ; the exhibition opened by the 
duke, and duchess of Edinburgh, the duke of 
Buccleuch, lord Kingsburgh, the provosts of 
Glasgow, Leith, Perth, Aberdeen, Dundee, and 
Manchester, and other eminent persons were pre- 
sent, 1 May; visited by the lord mayor of Lon- 
don in state, 20 June ; closed 31 Oct. 

The exhibition was not successful financially 13 Nov. 

The free public library (for which Mr. Andrew Car- 
negie gave 50,000?.) opened by the earl of Rose- 
bery 9 June, 

Mr. H. M. Stanley, the African explorer, receives 
the freedom of the city .... n June, 

The parliament Hall restored; sec Parliament of 
Scotland Feb. 

Statue of Wm. Chambers (subscribed for) in 
Chambers-street : unveiled . . .5 March 

Dr. James A. Russell elected lord provost 6 Nov. 

Banquet to Mr. G. J. Goschen . . .20 Nov. 

Fire at the house of Prof. Copeland, astronomer 
royal for Scotland, valuable instruments and 
books much damaged . . . S March, 

Meeting of British Association (4th) . 3 Aug. 

Mass meeting opposing the Irish home rule bill, 

17 March, 

Alexander Howland Smith sentenced to 12 months' 
imprisonment for forging literary documents of 
Burns and others 27 June. 

Wedding Of the duke and duchess of York ; festive 
demonstrations 6 July, 

Congress of the British Institute of Public Health; 
the lord provost and the lord mayors of London 
and Dublin present .... 27 July, 



1892 
1893 



EDINBURGH. 



397 



EDUCATION. 



Visit of the duke and duchess of York, 2 Oct ; he 
receives the freedom of the city and wedding 
gifts 3 Oct. 1893 

Great speech of the earl of Rosebery, the premier, 

17 March, 1894 

Death of John Stuart Blackie, prof, of Greek at the 
university ; aged 86, 2 Mar. ; public funeral 

6 March, 1895 

New royal observatory on Blackpool hill, with col- 
lection of instruments from the earl of Crawford's 
Dun Echt observatory, opened by lord Balfour 
of Burleigh, the earl of Crawford, sir Robert 
Ball, and others present . . .7 April, 1896 

Address to the czar on his way to Balmoral 

22 Sept. ,, 

Speech of lord Rosebery on the eastern question, 
and his resignation of leadership of the Liberals 

9 Oct. „ 

Lord Rosebery opens the first of four public halls 
and free libraries, erected by a bequest of Mr. 
Thomas Nelson, publisher . . . 10 May 1897 

The new North-bridge (steel) opened by the lord 
provost, sir A. M'Donakl . . .15 Sept. ,, 

The M'Ewan hall presented to the university of 
Edinburgh by Mr. W. M'Ewan, M.P. ; opened by 
Mr. A. J. Balfour 3 Dec. ,, 

Lords Wolseley and Lister presented with the Iree- 
dom of the city .... 15 June, 1898 

Mr. John Findlay, philanthropist, dies . 16 Oct. ,, 

Lords Dufferin and Kitchener presented with the 
freedom of the city 29 Nov. ,, 

The prince of Wales, the president, visits the High- 
land and agricultural society's show, and receives 
the freedom of the city . . . 5, 6 July, 1899 

Lord Dufferin elected lord rector of the university 

4 Nov. , , 

Mr. T. Aitken gives 40,000?. to the royal infirmary 

Jan. 1900 

Death of sir Thomas Grainger-Stewart, eminent 
physician, aged 63 3 Feb. ,, 

Princess Henry of Battenberg opens the new^^ 
pavilion of the royal infirmary . . . 26 Oct. ,, 

Prof. Peter G. Tait, an eminent scientist, dies, 
aged 70 4 July, 1901 

Physiological laboratory, in memory of prof. 
Hughes Bennett, at the university, opened, 

20 July ,, 

Lord Rosebery opens a horticultural show, 11 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Chamberlain in a speech upheld the conduct 
of the war in S. Africa, and protested against 
foreign slanders of the army . . . 25 Oct. ,, 

Mr. David McCosh bequeathed 50,000?. to the 
royal infirmary, and the rest of his estate to other 
charities ; Mr. J. Murdoch nearly 70,000/. to 
indigent bachelors and widowers . . Dec. ,, 

Mr. J. A. Molleson, bequeaths 17,500?. to charities, 
and the residue of his estate, valued 130,463?., 
after certain legacies, to the Edinburgh infirmary, 
reported 7 March, 1902 

Prof. Ivison Macadam and Mr. Jas. Forbes, student, 
shot by Daniel McClinton in the royal college of 
surgeons, 24 June ; McClinton found guilty of 
culpable homicide and sentenced to life imprison- 
ment 18 Sept. ,, 

Colonial premiers presented with the freedom of 
the city, &c 26 July „ 

Indian troops entertained by the city, 

30 July — 1 Aug. ,, 

Messrs. Dobson, Molle & Co., stationers and 
printers, premises burnt, a fireman killed, esti- 
mated damage 30,000? . . . .20 Aug. ,, 

The king and queen visit the city 11 May; hold a 
court at Holyrood, 12 May ; open the Colinton 
hospital 13 May, 1903 

EDINBURGH, Bishopric of, was created 

by Charles I. when in Scotland in 1633 ; and Wil- 
liam Forbes, minister of Edinburgh, first bishop. 
The king allotted the parishes of the shires of 
Edinburgh, Linlithgow, Haddington, and a part 
of Berwick and of Stirlingshire, to compose the see. 
The sixth and last prelate was Alexander Ross, who 
was ejected on the abolition of episcopacy, at the 
period of the revolution, in 1689. Edinburgh be- 
came a post-revolution bishopric in 1 720; see 
Bishops. 



EDINBURGH, DUKE OF, Alfred Ernest, 
second son of late queen Victoria, born 6 Aug. 1844, 
created duke of Edinburgh and earl of Kent 24 
May, 1866, with an annuity of 15,000^. ; this 
annuity he resigned on becoming grand duke of 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, announced Dec. 1893. 

The duke was married to Marie Alexandrovna, the granc? 
duchess of Russia, 23 Jan. 1874. [The queen was 
empowered by parliament, 5 Aug. 1873, to grant 
an additional annuity of 10,000?. to the duke on 
his marriage, and an annuity of 6,000?. to the grand 
duchess if she should survive the duke.] For bio- 
graphy and issue, see England. Royal Family ; and 
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 1893. He died 6 Feb. 1899. 

EDINBURGH REVIEW (by Francis Jef- 
frey, rev. Sydney Smith, Henry Brougham, and 
other whigs) published first on 10 Oct. 1802 ; 
editors : Sydney Smith (first three numbers) ; 
Jeffrey, 1803; Macvey Napier, 1829; Wm. Emp- 
son, 1847 ; sir George Cornewall Lewis, 1852 ; 
Henry Reeve, 1855; died, aged 82, 21 Oct. 1895; his 
"Life and Correspondence " published, Sept. 1898. 

EDINBURGH UNIVERSITY. A college 
was commenced by the town council of Edinburgh, 
in 1 581, for which queen Mary had given the site 
of ancient religious houses, and Robert Reid, bishop 
of Orkney, the funds in 1558. The university was 
chartered 14 April, 1582. On 24 Oct. 1582 the 
university was chartered by James VI., afterwards 
James I. of England. The first principal was ap- 
pointed in 1585. The foundation-stone of the new 
buildings was laid by Francis, lord Napier, grand- 
master of the masons of Scotland, 16 Nov. 1789. 
—The constitution of the university was modified 
by act of parliament in 1858. In 1845, the 
library contained upwards of 80,000 volumes, 
besides numerous curious and rare MSS. and 
documents. Dr. Lyon Playfair elected the first 
M.P. for Edinburgh and St. Andrew's univer- 
sities in conformity with the act of 1868, 4 Tec. 
i868._ Great movement to extend the university; 
meeting in London: large subscriptions, 7 Dec. 
1874. The tercentenary of the university was cele- 
brated by a distinguished assembly, 16-18 April, 
1884. Students' union formed to promote recrea- 
tion, discussion, comfort, &c. Fancy fair opened 
for its support by the marquis of Lome, 30 Nov. 
1886. Miss Jane Jeffrey, of Porto bello, bequeaths 
5,000^. for scholarships, announced Nov. 1887. 
University gathering to promote the University- 
extension scheme, 24 Sept. et seq. 1889. Mr. A. 
J. Balfour, M.P., elected chancellor of the university, 
30 Oct. 1 89 1. Mr. G. J. Goschen's address (on 
imagination) as lord rector, 19 Nov. 1891; lord 
Balfour of Burleigh elected lord rector; 7 Nov. 
1896; eir Robert Finlay, att.-gen., elected loid 
rector 1 Nov. 1902. 

Sir Wm. Fraser bequeaths 25,000?. to found a chair of 
Ancient History and Palaeography, and about 38,000?. 
for other purposes ; he died, 13 March, 1898. 

EDLINGHAM BURGLARY, see Trials, 

Nov. 1888. 

EDMUNDS' CASE, see under Patents. 

EDOM, see Idumcea. 

EDUCATION, the art of developing the 
physical, intellectual, and moral faculties of man, 
has occupied the greatest minds in all ages : Socrates, 
Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, Bacon, Milton, 
Locke, Rousseau, &c. In England the earliest 
schools for the lower classes were those attached to 
the monasteries ; for the higher classes halls and 
colleges were gradually founded; see Arts, Colleges, 



EDUCATION. 



398 



EDUCATION. 



J57 1 
1611 



1697 



8-1741 



1796 



Schools, Oxford, Cambridge, Endowed Schools, 
Ascham Society, Technical and Physical Education, 

William of Wykeham planted the scliool at Win- 
chester, whence arose his colleges at that place 
and Oxford : 373 

Eton college founded by Henry VI 1443 

After the reformation, education was greatly pro- 
moted, and many grammar schools were erected 
and endowed by Edward VI. and Elizabeth . 1535-65 

Christ's hospital, the bluecoat school, established 1553 

Westminster school founded by Elizabeth . . 1560 

Foundation of Rugby school by Lawrence Sheriff, 
1567 ; of Harrow school by John Lyon . . . 

The Charterhouse founded by Thomas Sutton 

Many charity schools founded in opposition to 
Romish ones about 

Parish schools appointed by the parliament ot Scot- 
land • • . : 

Queen Anne, a zealous friend of education, founded 
the Greycoat school, Westminster, and cordially 
supported parochial charity schools (one esta- 
blished at St. Margaret's, Westminster, 1688) 

Nearly 2,000 of these schools established in Great 
Britain and Ireland, principally by the instru- 
mentality of the Society for the Promotion of 
Christian Knowledge l6 98 

Robert Raikes set up Sunday schools . . about 178 1 

In 1833 there were 16,828 of these schools, with 
1,548,890 scholars. . 

Joseph Lancaster, a young Quaker, began to instruct 
the children of the poor . . . . ■ , • 

He had 90 pupils before he was 18 years old, and 
1000 pupils in . . • • ■ ■ ■ *■/»" 

National education greatly promoted 111 the trench 
empire by Napoleon, ably assisted by M. Cuvier, 
the eminent naturalist .... 1802 ct seq. 

Sunday School Union formed . . . . .• 1802 

To provide teachers, Lancaster invented the moni- 
torial system. In consequence of his exertions 
the present British and Foreign School Society 
was founded with the name of the " Royal 
Lancasterian Institution," &e. . . . 

This being unexclusive, was followed by the insti 
tution of the Church of England "National 
Society for Educating the Poor," on Dr. Bells 

wllfwhools began " . ' •.'•'• -. about 1815 
The Charity commission, appointed at the instance 
of Mr (afterwards lord) Brougham, published 
their reports on education, in 37 volumes folio, 1819-40 
Irish national school system (to accommodate both 
Roman Catholics and Protestants) organised 
mainly by archbishop Whately and the Roman 
Catholic archbishop Murray . . . ■ • 1831 
City of London School, Honey-lane, opened . . *» 
The Home and Colonial School Society was insti- 
tuted ' 

In 18^4 the government began annual grants (the 
first 20 oool..), which continued till the committee 
of the Privy Council on education was con- 
stituted for the distribution of the money . 1839 
The Voluntary School Society and the Congrega- 
tional Board of Education formed . . about 1843 
Ragged School Union established . . • • 1S44 
Educational Times, monthly, established . Oct. 1847 
Out of a population of 17,927,609, there were 

2,466,481 day scholars . . • • • • '851 
A area! educational eonlcrencc took place at 
Willis's rooms, the prince consort 111 the chair, 

22-24 June, 1857 

The Industrial Schools act passed in . . . ., 

Middle class examinations from the university ot 
Oxford began, June, 1858. The examiners granted 
the degree of A. A. to many persons at Liverpool, 
Leeds" ixc ; similar examinations from Cam- 
bridge took place in the autumn, and are to be 
continued . • ■ ■ ■ , • • 

Four establishments for international education 111 

England France, Germany, and Italy proposed ; 
the" idea is attributed to Mr. Colidcn and M. 
Michel Chevalier . • ■ ■ • • ■ 
Report of commissioners on popular education (ap- 
pointed 1858), published .8 March, 1861, led to 
the minute of the committee ot the Privy ( mined 
on education, establishing a revised code ol regu- 
lations ; Mr. Lowe's. adopted j , ,1 uly, i86i,toeome 



1805 



. 1811 



1834 
1836 



1858 



1862 



into operation, after 31 March, 1862. It decreed 
regular examinations of the pupils, payment by 
results, evening schools for adults, and other 
changes, which raised a storm of opposition from 
the clergy and school masters. The subject was 
much discussed in parliament (25, 28 March, 1862); 
but eventually a compromise was effected, 5 May, 1862 
Official instructions for the administration of the 

revised code issued Sept. ,, 

" Conscience clause," founded on the Endowed 
Schools act, March, i860, introduced by the com- 
mittee of Council on education for parishes where 
only one scliool is required. It provided for the 
admission of children of dissenters, and exempted 
them from religious teaching, and attendance at 

public worship Nov- 1863 

(Report. 10 June, 1865.) 
It has been much opposed by the clergy ever since, 

and created much controversy in . . 1866-7 

College and Public School Commission report, 

signed 16 Feb. 1864 

Royal Commission appointed, to inquire into the 
state of education in Scotland. First meeting at 

Edinburgh 14 Nov. „ 

Miss (aft. baroness) Burdett-Coutts proposes the 

establishment of small village-schools, to be 

taught by " ambulatory " teachers . . Jan. 1865 

Parliamentary committee appointed to inquire into 

the best mode of benefiting schools unassisted by 

the state 28 Feb. „ 

Training ship established for homeless boys of 
London ; 50 boys placed there by Boys' Refuge 
committee. See Chichester . . .18 Dec. 1866 
Foundation of the London College of the Inter- 
national Education Society laid by the prince of 

Wales 10 July, 1867 

Committee appointed at a meeting for establishment 
of higher schools for middle classes in London, by 
means of funds of lapsed charities, &c. , 7 Nov. ; 
nearly 28,000?. subscribed by end of Dec. 1865 ; 

51,349?. received Oct. 1866 

The subscribers incorporated by charter ; their first 
scliool opened by lord mayor and others in Bath- 
street, St. Luke's, 1866 ; great prosperity reported 
at the annual meeting . . . .18 March, 1867 
Resolutions moved in the lords by earl Russell (as- 
serting that every child has a right to education, 
and recommending appointment of a cabinet 
minister of education), withdrawn . . 2 Dec. ,, 
Important report of schools inquiry commissioners 

signed 2 Dec. ,, 

Conference at Manchester recommend compulsory 

education, to be paid for by rates . 15 Jan. 1868 
Public Schools bill brought into the commons 7 Feb. ,, 
Public Elementary Education bill brought into the 
lords by duke of Marlborough, 24 March ; with- 
drawn 18 May, ,, 

Mr. (aft. sir Joseph) Whitworth's offer to found 30 
scholarships of annual value of 100I. each, for in- 
struction of young men in mechanics, &c, 18 
March, accepted by the lords of the council 2 7 Mar- , , 
Foundation of the tirst new building for a middle 
class school in London laid by the lord mayor, 
Lawrence (very successful, 1873) . . 15 Dec. ,, 
Public Schools act (modifying the government of 
Eton, Winchester, Westminster, Charterhouse, 
Harrow, Rugby, and Shrewsbury schools) passed 
31 July, 186S ; amendment acts . 9 Aug. 1869-70-73 
New statutes for them issued . . Oct. — Nov. 1869 
National Education League (advocating compulsory 
secular education by the state), first met at Bir- 
mingham (see below, 1877) . . 12, 13 Oct. ,, 
National Education Union for supplementing the 
present denominational system, first met at 
Manchester ....'.. 3 Nov. ,, 

Conference at the Society of Arts to reconcile the 

League and the Union . . . .7 Feb. 1870 

Scientific instruction and advancement commission 

appointed 19 May, ,, 

First " drill-review " of London charity schools, and 

id hers, at the Crystal Palace . . 21 June, ,, 
Elementary Education bill introduced by Mr. W. E. 
Forster, 17 Feb. ; after much discussion, and op- 
position from secularists and some dissenters, it 
passed, and received the royal assent a Aug. ,, 

[Religious instruction with the parents' con- 
sent : reading in the Bible, without cate- 
chisms, or sectarian formularies, 1870.J 



EDUCATION. 



399 



EDUCATION. 



[By the compromise of 8 March, 1S71, the 
reading of the Bible, with instruction in the 
principles of religion and morality suitable 
to children, was permitted.] 
[The act was amended in 187?, 1873, and 1876.] 
[Mr. Forster died, aged 67, 5 April, 1886 ; his 
statue on the Victoria embankment unveiled 
1 Aug. 1890.] 
ro.oooL voted by the Christian Knowledge Society 

in aid of Church of England schools . 20 Oct. 1870 
First election of Metropolitan school-board (which 

see) (lord Lawrence, chairman) . . 29 Nov. ,, 
Regulations for school-boards issued . 21- Dec. ,, 
New revised code discussed . . . March, 1871 

London school-board education scheme proposed, 

23 June, „ 
At the London school-board, after sharp discussion, 
the religious difficulty respecting payment for 
poor children at denominational schools settled 

for a year 2 Nov. ,, 

Arrangements for erecting or adapting buildings for 

new schools made by London school-board, Dec. ,, 
Conference of masters of grammar schools at High- 
gate 28 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Dixon's and the nonconformists' censure on 
the Elementary Education act ; negatived in the 
commons, 355-94 .... 5 March, 1872 

Scientific instruction : royal commission appointed, 

May, 1870 ; reported . . April, 1871, April, ,, 
Education (Scotland) act passed . . 10 Aug. ,, 
The London school-board determine to open separate 

schools for dirty unruly children . . 20 Nov. ,, 
" Society for Organization of Academical Study," 
proposed by sir B. C. Brodie, Dr. Carpenter, 
Prof. Rolleston, and others at a meeting, 16 Nov. ,, 
[rish University bill introduced by Mr. Gladstone, 

13 Feb. 1873 
First London board-school (at Whitechapel) opened, 

12 July, ,, 
College for northern counties at Knutsford ; foun- 
dation laid 24 Sept. ,, 

College for higher education of women, opened at 

Girton, which see Oct. ,, 

Great meeting for religious denominational educa- 
tion at St. James's hall . . . . 6 Nov. ,, 
Second Metropolitan school-board elected ; religious 
party the strongest (Mr. (after, sir) Charles 
Reed, M.P. chairman) . . . 27 Nov. ,, 
The universities nominate a board for the examina- 
tion of pupils from public schools . . Dec. ,, 
Mr. Dixon's compulsory attendance bill rejected 

(320-156) 1 July, 1874 

Result of first university examination of 221 schools : 
Winchester, 34 certificates ; Manchester, 27 ; 
Marlborough, 15 ; Eton, 13 ; Sherborne, 11 ; Wel- 
lington college, 10 ; Rugby, 6, &e. ; Christ's Hos- 
pital and others, 1 ; published . . . Sept. ,, 
London school-board occupy their new building on 

Victoria Embankment . . . -3° Sept. „ 
Classes for cookery, laundry-work, and house- 
wifery introduced, into board schools . . . 1875 
New code of raised standards for schools issued, 

March, , , 
Newnham college at Cambridge for women opened, 

18 Oct. „ 
First annual conference of teachers . . 14 Jan. 1876 
Mr. Dixon's bill for universal school-boards and 
compulsory education rejected by the commons 

(281-260) April, ,, 

Another Elementary Education act introduced 
by lord Sandon, 18 May ; a clause permitting un- 
necessary school-boards to be suppressed, intro- 
duced by Mr. Pell, carried, 24 July ; 3rd reading 
(119-46), 5 Aug. (considered reactionary); royal 

assent 15 Aug. „ 

International congress on education at Philadelphia, 

July, „ 
Third Metropolitan school board elected ; majority 
against denominational school systems (sir Charles 
Reed, chairman) . . . . 30 Nov. „ 

National Education League dissolved . 28 March, 1877 
Election of school attendance committees under 

the new act April, ,, 

Intermediate Education act for Ireland passed 

16 Aug. 1878 
Education act (Scotland) amended . 16 Aug. ,, 
Revised code, 7 Feb. 1877; 2 April, 1878; April, 1879 



161st metropolitan board school opened by sir 
Charles Reed, at Portland-town . 23 June, 1879 

The Queen v. sir Charles Reed ; the Queen's bench 
decide that the school board has power to borrow 
money 27 June, ,, 

Fourth Metropolitan school board elected (sir 
Charles Reed, chairman) . . .27 Nov. ,, 

Ascham, Society (which see) formed . ... 1880 

Important decision respecting school fees and attend- 
ance, see Trials 27 June, 1881 

Death of sir Charles Reed, 25 March ; succeeded by 
Mr. Edward North Buxton . . . ,, 

Changes in the code ; circular issued . . Aug. 1882 

Education Society, formed in July, 1875, for ex- 
amining and propounding the principles upon 
which the practice of education should be founded, 
by professor Alexander Bain, Dr. J. H. Gladstone, 
and others. Branches have been formed in Dublin, 
and other places. 

Lord Aberdare Mr. W. E. Forster sir John Lub- 
bock, and others form a committee to instruct 
electors of school board . . . 23 Oct. ,, 

Fifth Metropolitan school board elected (old policy 
affirmed ; E. N. Buxton, chairman) . 24 Nov. ,, 

The Boys' Public Day school company founded, 
5 Dec. 1882 ; first school opened . 12 Sept. 1883 

Art for schools, proposed societies formed in 
London and the provinces ,, 

International Educational Conference at South 
Kensington opened .... 4 Aug. 1884 

New education code (much attacked) comes into 
operation, 3 April, 1884 ; revised instructions 
issued June, 1885 

Dr. (after sir) Crichton Browne's report on over- 
pressure in primary and secondary schools, with 
Mr. Fitch's memorandum against it published 
Sept. i884l~d© a ied after investigation report 

16 July, ,, 

H. T. Holland (after lord Knutsford) appointed 
vice-president of council . . about 25 Aug. „ 

Sixth Metropolitan school board elected, 2 Nov. 
(new economical policy), rev. J. R. Diggle 
elected chairman 3 Dec. „ 

New scheme for enforcing payment of fees stated 
to be inquisitorial and partially ineffectual Oct. 1886 

About 30,000 elementary scholars entertained in 
Hyde Park, see Jubilee ... 22 June, 1887 

Royal commission on elementary education in 
England and Wales, sir R. A. Cross (chairman), 
earl of Harrowby, Dr. Temple (bishop of 
London), cardinal Manning, Mr. A. J. Mundella, 
sir John Lubbock, sir F. Sandford, and others. 
First report issued 4 Sept. 1886. Final report 

Aug. 1888 

Majority report for aiding voluntary schools from 
the rates and development of moral and religious 
education, June ; opposite opinions reported by 
the minority July, ,, 

The government declines to interfere with the 
settlement of 1870 Nov. „ 

School accommodation in the eleven divisions re- 
ported sufficient Oct. , , 

Seventh Metropolitan school board elected, 26 Nov. ; 
rev. J. R. Diggle elected chairman . . 4 Dec. ,, 

New code introducing many changes brought for- 
ward IQ March 1889 

Committee on relieving children coming to school 
unfed, 2 Nov. : London Schools Dinner associa- 
tion formed, by combination of several societies, 

Dec. „ 

Bill for enforcing new education code, withdrawn, 
22 July, 1889 ; new code with important changes 
brought forward by sir William Hart-Dyke, 
March ; bill passed 25 July, 1890 

Number of voluntary schools largely increased 
since 1870 .... reported April, 1891 

Grant for free, or assisted education, 2,000,000^. 
annually, proposed by Mr. Goschen 23 April, „ 

A new Elementary Education act (reducing or 
abolishing school fees) passed 5 Aug., comes into 

operation x Sept. „ 

Eighth Metropolitan school board elected— 
moderates, 34 ; progressives, 193 . 26 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Joseph R. Diggle re-elected chairman 3 Dec. ,, 

Irish free education act passed . . 27 June, 1892 

The City of London school for girls, founded by 
Mr. Win. Ward's bequest of 20,000?., in 1881 ; 



EDUCATION. 



•100 



EDUCATION. 



buildings erected on the Victoria embankment ; 
first stone laid 30 Nov. 1892 

Departmental committee on secondary education 
appointed ; Mr. A. H. Dyke Acland, chairman, 

Jan. 1893 

Important circular respecting the school buildings 
regulating their area, ventilation, &c., issued 

21 Jan. ,, 

New education code issued . . 27 March, „ 

First meeting in the new board-room, Victoria 

embankment 28 Sept. ,, 

[Protest against government interference.] 

Important conference at Oxford to promote secon- 
dary education .... 10-11 Oct. ,, 

A majority of the committee recommends the ad- 
herence to biblical teaching ; " Christian religion 
and morality " Dec. ,, 

Royal commission on secondary education ap- 
pointed ; Mr. J. Bryce, M.P., chairman, sir J. T. 
Hibbert, M.P., prof. Jebb, M.P., lady Frederick 
Cavendish, E. C. Maclure, dean of Manchester, 
sir Henry Roscoe, M.P., Mrs. Henry Sidgwick 
and others .... about 1 March, 1894 

Association of school boards of England and 
Wales ; firstannualmeetingheld in London ; the 
rev. E. C. Maclure, dean of Manchester, presi- 
dent 3 April, „ 

School boards : England, 2,079 '> Wales, 313 ; April, ,, 

In consequence of charges against some teachers, 
a circular from the school board to teachers, 
respecting instruction in the Christian religion, 
with suggestions for maintaining the provisions 
of the education act of 1870, and the compromise 
of 1871, with indulgence to non-assenting 
teachers, was issued, 13 April ; much contro- 
versy followed .... April, et seq. ,, 

Ninth Metropolitan school board elected : 
moderates (Mr. Diggle's party), 29 ; progressives 
(various opinions), 26 . . . 22 Nov. ,, 

Annual report ; metropolitan school board ; 31 
March ; 430 schools ; 488,039 scholars ; 1,220 
head teachers, and 6,974 assistants; total ex- 
penditure, 2,033, 565/. ; reported . . Nov. ,, 

Lord George Hamilton elected chairman by the 
moderates, 6 Dec. ; resigned, 3 Oct. 1895 (suc- 
ceeded by the marquis of Londonderry, 31 Oct. 
1895). 

Death of Miss Frances Mary Buss, aged 67 ; pro- 
moter of female education . . . 24 Dec. ,, 

A committee to consider the condition of the 
voluntary schools appointed by the archbishops 
of Canterbury and York ; viscount Cross, chair- 
man, bishop of London, dean Gregory, and 
others, Nov., 1893 ; report issued ; complaint of 
pressure by the education department and the 
great need of money support . . . Jan. 1895 

(A similar appeal set forth by the R. C. clergy, 

Jan. ,, 

Death of Mr. Thos. Twining of Twickenham, 
eminent supporter of education, aged 88 16 Feb. ,, 

New revised code for schools, presented to parlia- 
ment ....... 27 Feb. ,, 

Disputes respecting religious teaching in the 
London school board .... Oct. „ 

Report of the commission on secondary education, 
witli recommendations issued . . 31 Oct. „ 

Sir John Gorst's education (England and Wales) 
bill read first time, 31 March, 1896 (decentraliz- 
ing) nonconformist manifesto against the bill, 
issued, 18 April ; 1,238 amendments having been 
proposed, the bill was withdrawn . 22 June 1896 

School boards in England and Wales, 2,487, 1 April ,, 

Estimated sum required for 1896-7, 1,800,926; 
rate, i2"3it/ 25 June, ,, 

Annual report: metropolitan school board (the 
number of committees and their members 
reduced) 44S schools ; 511,566 scholars; 10,703 
teachers; total expenditure, 2,337,156/. — re- 
ported, 'limes 2 Oct. ,, 

Voluntary schools (aid grant) bill (much opposed 
in the commons), royal assent . 8 April 1S97 

The Act of 1870 amended by act passed; 3 June, ., 

Vote of 7,306,010/. for public education (England 
ami Wales), an increase of 339,000/. on 1896, 
passed . .... 17 June, ,, 



Imperial education congress at the exhibition, 
Earl's Court, lord Loch, chairman 12-15 July J897 

Report of Messrs. Sadler and J. W. Edwards on 
elementary education (progress and results) since 
1833, issued, Aug. ,, 

Voluntary schools ssociations formed . Aug. ,, 

Annual report : metropolitan school board, 459 
schools ; 512,025 scholars ; 11,004 teachers ; 
grant 423,657/. — Times . . . 1 Sept. ,, 

Elementary education act, amendment of section 
97, passed 3 June ,, 

" Studies in board schools " by Chas. Morley, 
published, autumn .... ,. 

Tenth Metropolitan school board elected : 29 pro- 
gressives, 21 moderates, Mr. J. R. Diggle, not 
elected 25 Nov. ,, 

Lord Reay and Mr. Lyulph Stanley elected chair- 
man and vice-chairman ... 2 Dec. „ 

Revised education code, issued . . March, 189S 

School boards: England, 2,165; Wales, 337, 

April, ,, 

Vote of 8,520,1757. for public education (England 
and Wales) passed 17 June, ., 

London county council to be responsible for 
science and art in co. of London, announced 

17 Feb. 1S99 

Invalid and crippled children's schools started, 
one in Tavistock place, London, opened Feb. ,, 

New code of regulations issued . . . March ., 

Education of children (half-timers) act passed 

13 July ., 

Board of education act passed . . .9 Aug. , 

Elementary education (defective and epileptic 
children) act passed Aug. ,. 

Committee of council on education (England and 
Wales) issue their report for 1898-99 : see Times, 

31 Oct. , 7 

The proposal to provide meals for underfed children 
at the charge of the ratepayers rejected, 35-14, 

30 Nov. ,, 

English education exhibition at the imperial insti- 
tute opened by the prince of Wales, the duke 
of Devonshire presiding .... 5 Jan. 1900 

Report of the sub-committee (L.S.B.) on underfed 
children, their recommendations adopted 

1 March ,, 

New board of education, under the act of 1899, the 
duke of Devonshire appointed president, sir 
George Kekewich, secretary . . 3c March ,,. 

New education code issued .... May .. 

London school board : receipts for 1899-1900, 
2,795,000/. ; expenditure, 2,965,000/. ; estimated 
receipts for 1900-1901, 2,933,000/. ; expenditure, 
2,938,000/. 5 July ,. 

Education act and an elementary education act 
passed 8 Aug. ,. 

Education rate London 141?. in the pound, in 
creased expenditure Oct. .. 

Eleventh Metropolitan school board elected (28 pro- 
gressives, 25 moderates, and 2 Roman catholics) 

20 Nov. ,- 

Lord Reay and Mr. L. Stanley re-elected chairman 
ami vice-chairman 6 Dec. ._ 

"Regina V. Cockerton," Messrs. justices Wills and 
Kennedy declare it illegal for school boards to 
provide at the ratepayers' expense science and 
art classes, and the education of adults in even- 
ing continuation schools [appeal dismissed with 
costs, 1 April, 1901] . . . .20 Dec. ,. 

Reports issued by the board of education on conti- 
nental systems of technical and commercial 
education, 1899, see Times ... 25 Dec ,, 

School boards : England and Wales, in 1900, 5691. 

Revised education code, dealing with higher ele- 
mentary schools,' issued .... April, 19071 

Vote of 0,747,716/. for England and Wales passed 

30 July ,,. 

Education bill (No. 2) passed . . . 9 Aug. ... 

London evening continuation schools, 395 schools 
opened ; 146,971 pupils, 10th session, 1900-1901. 

sir John Gorst made president of the British asso- 
ciation's new section of educational science, 

early Sept. ,, 

Annual report, London school board (902,528 
scholars; 3,122,762/,) 1901-2, issued 16 Dec. 



EDUCATION. 



401 



EGYPT. 



Education bill, powers and duties of school boards 
and control of all secular instruction transferred 
to local authorities ; religious training to be 
according to a parent's faith ; read 2nd time, 
commons (402-165), 8 May ; and 7th clause re 
managers, &c, passed, after long debates (220-98), 

7 Aug. 1902 

Vote of 9.921, 852?. passed. 

-London school board: expenditure, 3,122,762, 
1900-1 ; 887,301 children ; estimated expendi- 
ture, 3,250,000?., 1902-03; reported . 12 June 

Miss Rosamund Davenport-Hill, 18 years on the 
London school board, died, aged 77 . 5 Aug. 

Vacation school at the Passmore Edwards settle- 
ment, London, very successful . . . Aug. 

London School board expenditure, 1901-2, 
3,118,500? 30 Oct. 

Education bill passed commons, 152 majority, 3 
Dec. ; royal assent .... 18 Dec. 

Agitation by nonconformists against payment of 
education rates; plan of "passive resistance" 
started, 1903. See Passive Resistance. 

Meeting of English Church union to discuss the 
Education act 20 Jan. 1903 

Carnegie trustees issue regulations for the endow- 
ment of post-graduate study and research by 
means of scholarships, fellowships, and grants, 

mid Feb. ,, 

Circular issued by Board of Education to local 
authorities to the effect that wherever possible 
April 1 be appointed as the day on which the 
new Education act comes into operation, 

early March, 

Report of the Royal Commission on University 
Education in Ireland issued . . n March, 

London Education bill, first reading (commons), 

7 April, 

Great demonstration in Hyde park against London 
Education bill 23 May, 

Another in St. James's hall, speech by sir H. 
Campbell-Bannerman ; letter from Mrs. Humphry 
Ward read, protesting against the bill . 11 June, 

Conference on matters of special interest to univer- 
sities throughout the empire held in London, 

10 July, 

Great Free Church meeting at the Royal Albert hall 
to protest against the bill . . . 11 July, 

Regulations for the instruction and training of 
pupil-teachers and students in training colleges ; 
practically a new scheme for training pupil- 
teachers, issued by Board of Education, 

mid- July, ,, 

Death of sir Joshua Fitch, eminent educationalist, 
31 years H.M. inspector of schools, aged 79, 

14 July, ,, 

London Education bill read the third time, 228 — 118, 
22 July ; royal assent .... 14 Aug. ,, 

London School board, expenditure 1902-3, 3,250,486?. 

The grant for Public Education in Great Britain, in 1851, 
was 150,000?. ; 1856, 451,213?. ; i860, 798,167?. ; 1861, 
803,794?. ; 1864, 705,404?. ; 1867, 705,865?. England, 
1872, 1^554,560?. ; 1877, 1,910,000?. ; 1882, 2,749,863?. : 
1884, 3,016,167?. For Ireland, i860, 270,722?. ; 1861, 
285,377?.; 1863,316,770?. From 1839 to i860, 3,655,067?. 
were granted for education. The grant for education, 
science, and art, in 1861, was 1,358,996?. ; for 1867-8, 
i>487>554^. ; 1874-5,2,228,470?., (in addition, 3,060,566?. , 
were locally raised) ; 1876-7, England, 707,055?. ; Scot- 
land, 438,227?. ; Ireland, 649,949?. ; for year 1876-7 
(United Kingdom), 3,349,397?. ; i879-8o(Great Britain), 
2,854,938?.; United Kingdom, 1880-1, 3,730,329?.; 1882-3, 
3,955>737 z - > 1884-5, 4!4i°»i95'- ', 1886-7, 4,780,945?. ; 
1888-9, 5,042,614?. ; 1889-90, 5,098,304?.. ; 1890-1, 
5,244,447?.; 1891-2, 6,216,956?.; 1892-3, 7,051,884?.; 
1893-4, 8,409,972?. ; 1896-7, 9,538,029?. ; 1898, 8,567,746?. ; 
1899, 8,753,986?. ; 1900, 9,747,716?. 

Primary schools in Great Britain : in 1854, 3825 ; in i860, 
7272 ; in 1870, 10,949 ; in 1877, 18,118 ; in 1879, 20,169 ! 
in 1880, 20,670; ini88i, 21,136; in 1882, 21,362; in 1883, 
21,630; 1884,21,892; 1885,21,976; 1886,22,114; l8 87, 
22,265; 1888, 22,326; 1889, 22,426; 1890, 22,495; J 893, 
22,58.1 ; 1896, 22,931 ; 1900, 23,204; 1901, 23,257. 



Annual grant for primary schools in Great Britain : in 
1861. 813,442?. ; in 1865, 636,806?. ; in 1870, 840,336?. ; 
in 1878, 2,463,283?. ; in 1879, 2,732,067?. ; in 1880, 
2,854,067?. ; 1881, 2,978,224?. ; 1882, 3,101,028?. ; 1883, 
3,247,725?.; 1884, 3,403,415?.; 1885, 3,664,174?.; 1886, 
3,802,009?.; 1887, 3,945,038?.; 1888, 4,011,464?.; 1889, 
4,167,884?.; 1890, 4,259,080?.; 1891, 4,392,126?.; 1894, 
7,368.056?. ; 1896-7, 8,406,997?. ; 1900, 10,049,398?. ; 1901, 
10,241,532?.; IQ ° 2 ; i°,55°>5 QI '- 

Metropolitan school board children on the rolls : 1871, 
1,117; 1873, 50,606; 1876, 146,031; 1878 (Christmas). 
207,289; 1883, 293,811; 1888,420,914; 1890, 443,143; 
1893, 477,689; 1894, 488,038; 1895, 832,966; 1896, 
839,737; I 897, 609,026; 3899, 888,466; 1902, 887,301. 

EGALITE {Equality), see Orleans. 

EGGS. The duty on imported eggs was re- 
pealed in i860, whereby the revenue lost about 
20,000^. a year. Number imported into Great 
Britain. Thousands, 1879, 766,433; 1887, 1,090,088; 
1890, 1,233,730; 1893, 1,322,102; 1898, 1,730,952; 
1900,2,025,849; 1901,2,048,612; 1902,18,966,795. 
Great quantities are now brought from Italy by the 
St. Gothard railway. 

EGLINTOUN TOURNAMENT, see Tour- 

nament. 

EGYPT,* N.E. Africa, the earliest known seat 
of civilization, the hieroglyphic and Coptic Kemi, 
Hebrew Mazor (Lower Egypt), Mizraim (Upper 
and Lower Egypt), Greek name Egypt, Arabic for 
all Egypt Misr or Masr. Population, 1882, 
about 6,806,381 ; 1897, about 9,700,000. 

For our present knowledge of the early history of Egypt 
we are almost wholly indebted to discoveries in the 
nineteenth century, and to the interpretation of monu- 
mental inscriptions, and the papyri found in the 
tombs. The most recent investigators are Brugsch, 
Maspero, Lepsius, De Rouge, Mariette, Cliabas, Lieb- 
lein, Birch, Naville, Le Page, Renouf, and Petrie, 
with some others ; A. Erman's " Egyptian Grammar," 
English translation, by J. H. Breasted, published 
about July, 1894; "History of Egypt," by W. M. 
Flinders Petrie, vol. I. 1894 ; E. A. Wallis Budge's 
" First steps in Egyptian for beginners," 1896 ; " His- 
tory of Egypt under Roman rule," by J. G. Milne, 
edited by prof. Flinders Petrie, vol. 5 pub. 1899 ; 
vol. 7, "Under the Ptolomies," by Dr. Mahaffy, pub. 
1899 ; see Egypt exploration Fund and Rosetta stone, &c. 

Manetho a high-priest of On or Heliopolis in the second 
century B.C., at the request of king Ptolemy Philadel- 
phus, w r rote a history of Egypt, divided into 30 dynas- 
ties from Menes to the Persian conquests ; of his work- 
lists only have been preserved, by Julius Africanus, a 
writer who lived about 300 a.d. Eusebius died about 
340, Georgius Syncellus, 800. 

The fabulous god kings, including the sun god, Osiris god 
of Hades, and Isis Ids wife, Typhon, Horus the last, 
were said to have reigned 13,900 years, the demi-gods 
and manes 4,000 years. See Pharaoh. 

The following table of Dynasties, including the more 
important kings, is derived from various sources, the 
names and dates vary. B. stands for Brugsch, and M. 
for Mariette. 

I. Thinite (from This, near Abydus) M. 5004 ; B. 4400B.C. 
Mena or Menes ; first known king and law-giver, founder 

ot Memphis. M. 5004 ; B. 4455. His tomb and re- 
mains, etc., discovered at N'gada by M. de Morgan in 
the spring of 1897, and placed in the museum at 
Gizeh. Tola or Athothis — Ouenephes I., conjectured 
to have built the Steppe pyramid of Sakkarah. 

II. Memphite. M. 4751 ; B. 4133. 

* Three magnificent works on Egypt have been pub- 
lished : in France (commenced by Napoleon, and the 
savans who accompanied him to Egypt), Description de 
I'Egypte, 1809-22 ; in Italy, Rosellini's Monumcnti dell' 
Etjiito, 1832-44 ; and in Prussia, K. R. Lepsius' DenkmaUr 
aus JEgypten, 1848-56. All these are in the Library of the 
Royal Institution of Great Britain, London. 



EGYPT. 



402 



EGYPT. 



Kakaoo or Kaiechos. The worship of Apis the bull 
established at Memphis. B. 4100. 

III. Memphite (monumental history properly begins). 
M. 4449 ; B. 3966. 

Seneferoo — soldier, architect and patron of literature and 
art. 

IV. Memphite. M. 4235 ; B. 3733. 

Shoofoo or Khufa, the Cheops of Herodotus, built the 
great pyramid of Geezeh. M. 4235 ; B. 3733. The 
great limestone rock at the foot of the Libyan moun- 
tains was converted into a man-headed lion, termed by 
the Greeks Sphinx. Khafra built the second Gizeh 
pyramid. B. 3666. Menkaura (Mycerinus III.). 
B. 3633. High state of civilization and art, and the 
vast cemetery of Memphis erected. The book or ritual 
of the dead (papyri) found in tombs. 

V. Memphite. M. 3951 ; B. 3566. 

Raencoser. B. 3433. Katkara. B. 3366. Unas trun- 
cated pyramid near Sakkarah built. B. 3333. 

VI. Memphite (history nearly a blank to the nth dy- 
nasty). M. 3703 ; B. 3300. 

Pepi I.— powerful — long reign. B. 3233. Romantic 
story of queen Nitocris in Herodotus. 

VII. Memphite. B. 3100. 
Petty kings. 

VIII. Memphite. 

IX. Heracleopolite. M. 3358. 

X. Heracleopolite. M. 3249. 

XI. Theban. M. 3064. 

Sankhkara, expedition to Ophir and Punt (S. Arabia?). 
B. 2500. 

XII. Theban (Egypt very prosperous). B. 2466. 
Amenemhat I. M. 3064 ; 13. 2466. 

Osirtasen I. (obelisk of On or Heliopolis erected). 
Osirtasen II. (memorial temple discovered in 1889). 
Osirtasen III., important national works, excavated the 

lake Moeris and made the labyrinth and the Kilometer. 

B. 2300. 

XIII. Theban. M. 2851 ; B. 2233. 
Sebekhotep, name of several kings. 

XIV. Xoite. M. 2398. 

XV. Hyksos or Shepherd kings. M. 2214. 

Invaders from Asia take Memphis and settle in Lower 
Egypt. 

XVI. Hyksos or Shepherd kings. 

XVII. Hyksos or Shepherd kings. 
Nub — arrival of Joseph. B. 1750. 

Dynasties XIII. — XVII. history very obscure ; probably 
Theban kings reigned in southern, while the Hyksos 
reigned in Lower Egypt. 

XVIII. Theban. M. 1703 ; B. 1700. 

Achmes I. conquers the Hyksos. M. 1703 ; B. 1700 
Amenhotep I. B. 1666. Thothmes I. B. 1633. 
Thothmes II. and Hatasoo, sister. B. 1600. Thoth- 
mes III., great king, victor in western Asia, &c, his 
exploits recorded in his temple at Karnak. B. 1600. 
Amenhotep II. B. 1566. Thothmes IV. B. 1533. 
Amenhotep III. victorious in Ethiopia ; the Colossi or 
vocal Memnon bear his name. B. 1500. Amenhotep 
IV. introduced Semetic worship. Two or three here- 
tical successors. Haremhebi or Horus restores the 
old worship. See Thebes, 1898. 

XIX. Theban. M. 1462; B. 1400. 

Rameses I. M. 1462 ; B. 1400. Seti or Sethos (Mene- 
tah I.) victorious in Asia ; made first canal from the 
Red sea to the Nile ; many monuments of him at 
Karnak, &c. B. 1333. Rameses II. son, the legendary 
Sesostris, took Salem, conquered Ethiopia, and set up 
a Beet, his epoch about 1322. Maneptah son, probably 
the Pharoah of the Exodus, 1300 ; Seli II. and two or 
three unimportant kings. 

XX. Theban. M. 1288; B. 1200. 

Rameses III. (Rhampsinitus of Herodotus) victorious, 
cultivated navigation ami commerce. M. 1288; 
B. 1200. Inglorious line of kings named Rameses. 

XXI. Tanite. M. mo; 13. noo. 

History obscure — Hirhor, high priest of Amen, probably 
first of priest, kings — Assyrian governors. 

XXII. Bubasite. M. 980; 13. 966. Shashank or Shes- 
honk I., Shishak, 1 Kings XIV., 25-28. 

XXIII. Tanite, probably onlj three petty kings. M. 810 ; 
IS. 766. 

XXIV. Saite. M. 721 ; B. 733 . 

Bo'cehoris (Bokenranef), taken prisoner by Sabaco, king 
of Ethiopia, and burnt alive. During the last three 
dynasties, the Ethiopians appear to have ruled in the 
south. 



XXV. Karnak. Ethiopian. M. 715 ; B. 700. 

Shabat or Sabaco. M. 715 ; B. 700. Takaraka or Tir- 
hakah (2 Kings XIX. 9). B. 693. Egypt frequently 
invaded by the Assyrians ; subdued and divided into 
12 governments. 

XXVI. Saite. M. 665 ; B. 666. 

Psammetichus I. (Greek), one of the governors under the 
Assyrians, restored the monarchy and revived art. 
M. 665 ; B. 666. Necho II. son, attempted the con- 
struction of a canal across the Isthmus of Suez, defeated 
Josiah king of Judali at Megiddo (II. Kings xxiii. 29); 
defeated by Nebuchadnezzar at Carchemish, 612. 
Psammetichus II. ; inglorious. B. 596. Uahbra or 
Hophra (Jer. xliv. 30) son ; went to help Zedekiah, 
but deserted him. B. 591. Apries loses the conquests 
and is strangled by Aniasis, who has a long prosperous 
reign and increased intercourse with the Greeks. 
B. 572. Psammetichus III. son (defeated by Cam- 
byses, son of Cyrus, king of Persia). B. 528. 

XXVII. Persian. M. 527 ; B. 527. 

Cambyses, conquers Egypt ; his army perished in an 
expedition against Ethiopia. M. 527 ; B. 527. Darius I. 
Hystaspes, greatly favoured Egypt, 521. Xerxes I. 
severe (Egyptian revolt subdued), 486. Artaxerxer. 1. 
Longimanus (another re volt),465. Darius II. Nothos,424. 
Egypt regained its independence by Annyrtaeus, 424. 

XXVIII. Saite. M. 406. 
Armyrteeus, 406. 

XXIX. Mendesian. M. 399 ; B. 399. 
Nepherches and Aehoris maintain Greek alliance. 

XXX. Sebennyte. M. 378 ; B. 378. 

Nectanebes I. Nectanebes II. conquered by Artaxerxes 
Oehus, king of Persia. 

XXXI. Persia 340. 

Darius III. Codomanus — defeated by Alexander 

the Great and killed. 
Alexander conquered Egypt and founded Alexandria, 332 
The empire divided, 323. One of Alexander's 
generals, Ptolemy I. (the son of Lag\is) Soter 
became king of Egypt.. 325. 
Ptolemy II. Philadetphus (with his father) 285 : 
alone [the museum of Alexandria founded : the 
Septuagint version of the Hebrew Scriptures 
made ; the Pharos completed] . . . 283-247 

Ambassadors first sent to Rome .... 269 
Ptolemy III. Euergetes, 247; overruns Syria, and 

returns laden with spoils 246 

Ptolemy IV. Philopator .... Nov. 222 
Battle of Raphia ; Ptolemy defeats Antiochus, king 

of Syria 217 

Ptolemy V. Epiphanes Nov. 205 

Embassy to Rome 200 

Ptolemy VI. Philometor .... Oct. 1S1 

At the death of Philometor, his brother Physeon 

(Ptolemy VII. Euergetes) marries his queen, and 

on the day of his nuptials murders the infant son 

of Philometor in its mother's arms . . Nov. 146 

His subjects, wearied by his cruelties and crimes, 

compel him to flee 130 

He defeats the Egyptians and recovers his throne, 

128 ; dies 117 

Ptolemy VIII. Soter II. and Cleopatra his mother, ,, 
Alexander I. and Cleopatra .... . 107 

Ptolemy VIII. restored 89 

Revolt in Upper Egypt : Thebes destroyed after a 
siege of three years (Diod. Siculns) . . . . 82 

Alexander II. and Cleopatra 1 8t 

Ptolemy IX. Auletes 80 

Berenice and Tryphsena 58 

Auletes restored', 55 : leaves his kingdom to Ptolemy 

and Cleopatra 51 

During a civil war between Ptolemy and Cleopa- 
tra II., Alexandria is besieged by i';esar, and the 
library nearly destroyed by "lire (Blair) . . . 47 
Ca'sar defeats the king, who. in crossing the Nile, 
is drowned ; and the younger Ptolemy and Cleo- 
patra reign . . 46 

Cleopatra poisons her brother, ami reigns alone . 43 

She appears before Mare Antony, to answer for this 
crime : fascinated by her beauty, he follows her 
into Egypt 41 

Cleopatra in Syria 36 

Antony defeated by OctaviUS Casar at the battle of 
Aetium (Blair) 2 Sept. 31 

Oetavius enters Egypt ; Antony and Cleopatra kill 
themselves ; and the kingdom becomes a Roman 
province Sept. 30 



EGYPT. 



403 



EGYPT. 



3°5 
389 
616 
638 
640 

■ 9 6 9 

1 163-91 

. 1250 

1567 



1801 
1811 



1817 



1S20 
183I 



Egypt visited by Adrian, 122 ; by Severus . a.d. 

Monachism begun in Egypt by Antony . 

Destruction of the temple and worship of Serapis, 

Egypt conquered by Chosroes II. of Persia. . . 

Invasion of the Saracens under Amrou . June, 

Conquest of Alexandria .... 22 Dec. 

Cairo founded by the Saracens 

Conquest by the Turks 

Government of the Mamelukes established 

Selim I., emperor of the Turks, conquers Egypt 

It is governed by beys till a great part of the 
country is conquered by the French, under Bona- 
parte (see Alexandria) ..... 1798-99 

The invaders dispossessed by the British, and the 
Turkish government restored .... 

Mehemet Ali massacres the Mamelukes, and obtains 
the supreme power . . . . 1 March, 

Arrival of Belzoni, 1815 ; he removes statue of Mem- 
non, 1816 ; explores temples, <fec. 

Formation" of the Mahmoud canal, connecting Alex- 
andria with the Nile 

Mehemet Pasha revolts and invades Syria 

His son Ibrahim takes Acre, 27 May; overruns 
Syria ; defeats the Turks at Konieh . 21 Dec. 1832 

He advances on Constantinople, which is entered 
by Russian auxiliaries, 3 April; war ends with 
convention of Kutayah ... 4 May, 1833 

Mehemet again revolts, claiming hereditary power; 
Ibrahim defeats the Turks at Nezib 24 June, 1839 

England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia undertake 
to expel Ibrahim from Syria ; Napier bombards 
Beyrout, 10 Oct. ; Acre taken by the British 
and Austrian fleets, under sir R. Stopford, 3 Nov. ; 
the Egyptians quit Syria . 21 Nov., et seq. 1840 

Peace restored by treaty ; Mehemet made hereditary 
viceroy of Egypt, but deprived of Syria 15 July, 1841 

Ibrahim Pacha dies (see Suez) . . 10 Nov. 1848 

The Suez canal begun 1858 

Commercial treaty with Great Britain signed 

19 April, 1861 

Hereditary succession and right of coining money 
granted ; but tribute raised from 400,000/. to 
750,000/. ...... 27 Ma}% ,, 

Malta and Alexandria telegraph opened . 1 Nov. „ 

The viceroy Said visits Italy, France, and England, 
May to Sept. ; returns to Alexandria . 1 Oct. 1862 

Sultan of Turkey visits Egypt . . 7 April, 1863 

Increased cultivation of cotton in Egypt . 1863-67 

At the demand of the sultan, the viceroy sends 
troops to repress the insurgents in Arabia, May, 1864 

Opening of part of the Suez canal (which see), 

iS Aug. 

Direct succession to the viceroyalty granted by the 
Porte 21 May, 1! 

Egyptian legislative chamber opened with a speech 
from the viceroy 27 Nov. , 

Viceroy invested with Order of the Bath (as G.C.B.) 
by lord Clarence Paget . . . .30 Jan. 1: 

Designated " sovereign " by the sultan 9 June, 

The viceroy visits Paris . . .16 June-5 July, 

He arrives in London 6 July ; received by the queen 
at Windsor, 8 ; by lord Derby, 10 ; by the lord 
mayor, n ; departs .... 18 July, 

The viceroy (now termed the Khedive) visited 
England 22 June, 1 

Present at the inauguration of the Suez canal, 

17 Nov. 

The differences between the sultan and himself 
respecting prerogatives arranged, the viceroy 
giving up the power of imposing taxes and of 
contracting loans Dec. 

Sir Samuel Baker appointed sole commander of a 
military expedition to suppress the slave-trade 
up the Nile, with absolute authority over the 
country south of Gondokoro (for four years from 
1 April, 1869) 10 May, 

Departure from Khartoum ... 8 Feb. 

Many delays and impediments ; proceeds to explore 
White Nile n Aug. 

Arrives at Gondokoro, 15 April ; names it Ismailia, 
and officially annexes it to Egypt . 26 May, 

War with the warlike and treacherous Baris of 
Belinian; beats them in several engagements, 

July-Sept. 

Supported by his model corps, "the forty thieves," 
he quells disaffection and mutiny in his troops, Oct. 



1865 



1870 



1871 



Sends vessels with women, children, and sick, to 
Khartoum 3 Nov. 1871 

Makes peace with the Baris, and returns to Gondo- 
koro 19 Nov. ,, 

Advances south ; suffers much by negro treachery, 
and inefficiency of his Egyptian troops : heroism 
of lady Baker Jan.-Feb. 1872 

Arrives at the African Paradise, Faliko ; meets 
there his enemy, Abou Saoud, the slave-dealer, 

6 March ; at Masindi, in Unyoro . 25 April, ,, 
Received by Kabba Rega, the young king, who 

attempts to poison Baker's party, and attacks 
them in the night ; he is defeated, and Masindi 
burnt 8 June, „ 

The khedive's son, prince Hassan, made D.C.L. at 
Oxford 13 June, „ 

The khedive visits the sultan; Constantinople 
rejoices . . ... . . .25 June, ,, 

Baker marches to Foweeiu ; received by Raongi, 
enemy of Kabba Rega, 18 July ; returns to Faliko, 
and suppresses an insurrection of slave-dealers, 
probably incited by Abou Saoud . . 2 Aug. ,, 

Slave-trade apparently subdued; "peace and pro- 
spect of prosperity " .... 31 Dec. ,, 

The sultan, by a firman, renders the khedive prac- 
tically independent ; (he must not coin money, 
make traaties, or build ironclads) . 8 Juiie, 1873 

First Egyptian budget produced ; asserted revenue, 
10,166,000/. ; expenditure, 9,040,000/. . Oct. ,, 

Baker returns to Gondokoro, 1 April; receives 
honours from the khedive at Cairo, 25 Aug. ; 
arrives in London 9 Oct. ,, 

Col. Gordon appointed his successor ; Abou Saoud 
his subordmate ,, 

Baker's work, " Ismailia," published . . Nov. 1874 

The first stone of the new port laid by the khedive, 

15 May, 1 87 1 

Mr. Acton and Mr. Pennell employed to arrange 
finances of Egypt . . . spring of 1875 

Intern ational court of j notice opened by the khedive, 

28 June „ 

The khedive's shares of Suez canal (whi-Jh see) pur- 
' chased by the British government; announced, ,, 

Nov. ,, 

Egyptian expedition into Abyssinia surprised and 
defeated with much slaughter . . 16 Oct. ,, 

Rt. hon. Stephen Cave sent on special mission to 
Egypt Dec. „ 

War with Abyssinia (which see) .... 1875-7 

New (Gregorian) style adopted ; mixed courts 
opened . 1 Jan. 1876 

Resignation of Nubar Pasha, able minister of com- 
merce, announced 4 Jan. ,, 

Mr. Cave's report — (refers to waste and extrava- 
gance ; great works undertaken with insufficient 
means ; loss by adventurers ; military expenditure ; 
and necessity for intervention of superior power 
to restore credit and restrain expenditure); sent 
13 March ; published in Times . 4 April, „ 

The khedive decrees consolidation of his debt, 
91,000,000/., at 7 iter cent., and a sinking fund, 

7 May ; decrees signed . . 14 and 25 May ,, 
His son Hassan reee'ved by the queen . 27 June, ,, 
Decisions of the international law court not ac- 
cepted by the government ; the court closed by 

M. Haakman ; he is superseded . . July, „ 

Mr. Goschen with M. Joubert (on behalf of the 
khedive's creditors), arrive at Cairo, 14 Oct. ; their 
scheme accepted (debt of about 91,000,000/. to be 
reduced to about 59,000,000/., interest of 7 per 
cent, to be reduced to about 6 per cent.) ; agree- 
ment signed about 10 Nov. announced (termed 
since, " Goschen decree ") . . . 18 Nov. „ 

Ismail Sadyk, autocratic finance minister, suspected 
of conspiracy ; resigns insolently ; seized and 
banished Nov. ,, 

Mr. Goschen's report approved by a meeting in 
London 28 Nov. ,, 

Col. Gordon, after successful administration, re- 
turns to England Feb. 1877 

Peace with Abyssinia negotiating by col. Gordon, 
June ; terms said to be accepted . . Oct. ,, 

Bad report respecting Egyptian finances, Feb. ; 
commission appointed .... March, 1878 

Egypt at peace ; all soldiers at home . 20 April, „ 

D l) 2 



EGYPT. 



404 



EGYPT. 



Confidence restored by decree for payment of 

official salaries 12 May, 

Nubar Pasha again minister . . .15 Aug! 

The khedive accepts the terms of the commission ; 
he and his family give up landed property to the 
state Aug. 

Mr. Rivers Wilson appointed finance minister ; and 
M. de Blignieres, minister of works, soon after, 

Sept. 

Attacks on them and Nubar Pasha by discontented 
officers at Cairo dispersed . . .18 Feb. 

Nubar Pasha resigns .... 19 Feb. 

Definitive peace between the khedive and Abys- 
sinia, announced Feb. 

Prince Tewfik, president of the council, and Nubar 
Pasha, foreign minister, about . . 5 March, 

Mr. Rivers Wilson and M. de Blignieres remonstrate 
with the khedive 6 April, 

He puts forth a new financial scheme ; Tewfik Pa- 
sha, Mr. Rivers Wilson, and M. de Blignieres, dis- 
missed ; new ministry under Cherif Pasha formed 
about 7 April, 

Col. Gordon's lieutenant, Gessi (Nov. 1878), com- 
pletely defeats the rebel slave-dealers in the 
Soudan, Central Africa .... 5 May, 

England and France in a note require the appoint- 
ment of European ministers, about . 5 May, 

England, France, Germany, Austria, and Italy, re- 
commend the khedive to abdicate, about 20 June, 

He refers to the sultan, who declines to interfere, 
the khedive offers to pay his debts in full 22 June 

The khedive deposed by the sultan, prince Tewfik, 
his son, proclaimed his successor . 26 June, 

The khedive leaves for Naples . . . 30 June, 

Tewfik succeeds as khedive ... 8 Aug. 

Mr. Baring and M. de Blignieres appointed comp- 
trollers-general ... 4 Sept. 

New ministry, Riaz Pasha, &c, announced 9 Sept. 

Col. Gordon negotiating with Abyssinia to prevent 
war, reported successful . . . Oct. 

He resigns governorship of the Soudan, Oct., 1879 ; 
accepted Jan. : 

Peace with Abyssinia announced . end of June, 

Public festivities at Cairo on anniversary of the 
khedive's accession . . about 26 June, 

International committee on the debt appointed, 
4 April ; issue a report, on which is based a law 
of liquidation in 99 articles, approved by the 
khedive I? July, 

New ministry appointed, the khedive president, 

18 Aug. 

General prosperity reported .... Oct. 

Military revolt(for pay) at Cairo vigorously checked 
by Mr. E. Malet (British minister 1879) and baron 
deRing 1 . II p e b. ; 

Decree for abolition of slavery . . end of July, 

Insurrection in the Soudan (which see) . . July, 

British pacific interference . . about 11 Aug. 

Ministerial crisis; the khedive calls for Riaz Pasha 

Aug. 

Ahmed Arabi Bey and about 4,000 soldiers surround 
the khedive's palace, demanding increased pay — 
agreed to ; Cherif Pasha made minister 9 Sept. 

Negotiations of Cherif and the consuls with the 
troops succeed ; tranquillity restored 11-13 Sept. 

Envoys from the sultan received by the khedive 

7 Oct. 

Jealousy of England and France, the envoys leave 
Cairo "18 Oct. 

Important letter from earl Granville tos Edwd. 
Malet 4 Nov. 

The khedive opens the chamber of delegates with 
excellent speech 26 Dec. 

Arabi Bey appointed under-secretary of war Jan. i 

English and French note in support of the khedive 

about 7 Jan. 

Deputies demand entire control of the ministry, 
about 19 Jan. ; dead lock . . .27 Jan. 

Resignation of Cherif Pasha, 2 Feb. ; new ministry 
under Mahmoud Pasha . . 3 Feb. ctscq. 

M. Blignieres resigns March 

Alleged conspiracy of Circassian officers to assas- 
sinate Arabi Pasha . . . about 10 April, 

43 persons convicted of conspiracy to kill Arabi 
Pasha, and dethrone the khedive : exiled 2S April ; 
sentence confirmed by khedive . . 9 May 



Political crisis continues, 9-13 May ; the khedive firm ; 
ministry submits, about 16 May ; English and 
French squadron arrive at Alexandria, 20 May ; 
Arabi Pasha refuses to resign, 23 May ; ultimatum 
of English and French consuls ; Arabi Pasha to 
retire ; khedive's authority to be restored, &c. 

25 May, 

Ministry resigns ; Cherif Pasha appointed, May 
the officers resist ; Arabi Pasha reinstated, 
27-28 May ; anarchy ; Europeans quitting the 
country, 29 May ; 6,000 Egyptian soldiers said 
to be massacred June, 

Dervish Pasha and others sent to Cairo by the 
sultan, 4 June ; well received at Cairo 8 June 

Commencement of a rebellion; riots at Alexandria ; 
Arabs attack Europeans ; quelled by Egyptian 
troops, with great loss of life (about 60 Euro- 
peans killed), town ravaged, and deserted 

ti June, 

Panic at Cairo and Alexandria; many arrests 

15, 16 June, 

About 37,000 Europeans in Egypt . . . . 

Ragheb Pasha forms a ministry; about 20,000 
Europeans said to be leaving Egypt. . June, 

The powers agree to a conference at Constantinople ; 
Turkey objects 19 June, 

Conference opened .... 24 June, 

Great emigration from Alexandria to Malta June, 

Dervish Pasha's favourable report . . 27 June, 

30,000 Arabs said to be starving at Alexandria 

29 June, 

Arabi Pasha decorated by the sultan . . about 

28 June, 

The English and French admirals protest against 
the fortifying of Alexandria . about 4 July, 

British subjects warned to quit Egypt . about 

6 July, 

Bombardment of forts of Alexandria threatened by 
adm. sir Beauchamp Seymour, if works threaten- 
ing the British fleet are not stopped . 9 July, 

Ships entering Suez canal cautioned by adm. Sey- 
mour 10 July, 

Bombardment begun by the Alexandra, 7.5 a.m.; 
vessels engaged : Monarch, Invincible, Penelope, 
Temeraire, and Inflexible ; gunboats, Condor, 
Cygnet, Bittern, Decoy, &.c, very effective ; forts 
Mexs, Marabout, &c, silenced; 10 sailors from 
Invincible land and spike guns of fort Mexs ; 
object of bombardment fully obtained ; the bom- 
bardment ceases 5.30 p.m. Egyptians fought 
well; heavy loss in forts and part of the town, 
British loss, 6 killed, including lieut. Jackson of 
the Inflexible, and 28 wounded . .11 July, 

Defiant letter of Arabi Pasha to Mr. Gladstone, 
2 July, received . . . about 12 July, 

The sultan protests against the bombardment ; 

Austria, Germany, and Russia said to approve 

about 12 July, 

1,000 marines sent from Malta to Alexandria 
about 12 July, 

Gaining time by a flag of truce, Arabi Pasha and 
pai't of his army abandon Alexandria and retreat 
into the interior; he releases convicts, who with 
the Arab mob plunder and set fire to the city, 
and massacre, it is said, many christians, 12 July, 

Conflagration increasing (about a mile long) ; about 
800 marines land to maintain order as police 

13 July, 

European portion entirely destroyed . 13 July, 

The khedive escapes assassination, and gains over 
part of Arabi Pasha's army; views the city 

12, 13 July, 

English marines active .... 14 July, 

Fire dying out; order restored; shops re-opened j 
foreign marines enter city . . 15 July, 

The khedive at his palace Ras-el-Tin guarded by 
British marines; degrades Arabi Pasha from his 
offices; sends for Cherif Pasha, Riaz Pasha, and 
others about 16 July, 

About 5,000 soldiers land at Alexandria . 17 July, 

Identical note from the six powers inviting the 
Porte to intervene to support the khedive and 
restore order 18 July, 

Arabi Pasha with his army said to be intrenched 
al K.it'i-I inuar 18 July, 



EGYPT. 

Arabi Pasha attempts to cut off water supply ; 

denounces the khedive, and calls on the people 
about 20-21 July, i 
Proclamation of the khedive declaring Arabi a 

rebel, &c. ; reported anarchy at Cairo . about 

23 July, , 
Skirmish with the Arabs by sir A. Alison ; he 

takes about 60 prisoners, and holds Ramleh 

24 July, , 
Arabi proclaims a Jihad or holy war, said to have 

30,000 men .... about 24 July, , 

British troops landed at Alexandria . 24 July, , 

Troops sent to Egypt from England and India 
about 25 July. 

Withdrawal of French fleet ordered . 31 July, , 

The duke of Connaught sails in the Orient for 
Egypt 3iJ ul y. . 

Indecisive skirmish of outposts . . . 2 Aug. . 

Sir Evelyn Wood sails for Egypt . . 3 Aug. , 

Town of Suez occupied by British marines 3 Aug. , 

Reconnaissance ; sharp skirmish near Malmioudieli 
canal ; Gen. Sir A. Alison commanding ; British 
success ; lieut. Howard Vyse and 3 others killed ; 
about 30 wounded ; Egyptian loss about 300 

5 A ug. 

Prof. Palmer, capt. Gill, and lieut. Charrington 
start from Suez to buy camels of the Bedouins, 
&e 7Aug. 

Arrival of duke of Connaught and officers at Alex- 
andria 10 Aug. 

The conference agrees to the international protec- 
tion of the Suez canal, and adjourns sine die, 

14 Aug. 

Sir Garnet Wolseley lands at Alexandria and as- 
sumes the command ; the khedive gives up power 
to the British commanders to establish order 

Troops, &c, under gen. Willis embark as if for 
Aboukir, but proceed eastward, and occupy Port 
Said, Ismailia, and Kantara ; thus command the 
canal, 19-20 Aug. ; skirmishes near Mahmoudieh 
canal, sir Evelyn Wood successful ; the enemy 
shelled out of Nefiehe . . . .20 Aug. 

Total British force in Egypt, 31,468 men of all 
ranks 20 Aug. 

Chaloux-el-Terraba captured by sailors, &c, great 
Egyptian loss 20 Aug. 

Twenty-six ironclads at Alexandria . 20 Aug. 

Successful skirmishes ; gen. Hamley, &c. , from 
Ramleh ; capt. Hastings and maj. Kelsey repel 
Egyptians, who suffer heavy loss, 20 Aug. ; sir 
G. Wolseley's proclamation to the Arabs 

21 Aug. 

Arrival of gen. Macpherson with the Indian troops 
at Suez 21 Aug. 

Advance from Ismailia of two squadrons of house- 
hold cavalry, with two guns, and detachment of 
19th hussars, mounted infantry, &c, on Nefiehe 
met by above 10,000 Egyptians with much 

. artillery 24 Aug. 

Cavalry and artillery engagement ; enemy routed ; 
capture of 5 Krupp guns, and train of ammunition 
and provisions, Egyptian camps at Tel-el-Mahuta 
and Mahsameh occupied ; British loss, 6 killed, 
30 wounded . . ... 25 Aug. 

Suez canal held by the British . . 26 Aug. 

Kassassin occupied by Gen. Graham with above 
2,000 infantry 26 Aug. 

Mustapha Fehmy, Arabi Pasha's second in com- 
mand, captured while reconnoitring (sent to the 
khedive) 27 Aug. 

Gen. Graham at Kassassin vigorously attacked by 
13,000 Egyjjtians ; signals for assistance, rendered 
by Gen. Drury Lowe with household cavalry ; 
brilliant charge and capture of 11 guns (after- 
wards lost), rout of the enemy ; disorderly flight ; 
British loss, 7 killed, 70 wounded . 28 Aug. 

Military convention with Turkey about to be 
signed 29 Aug. 

Arabi Pasha strengthening his intrenchments near 

Tel-el-Kebir (said to have about 28,000 men) 

about 31 Aug. 

Artillery duel at Ramleh, little result . 4 Sept. 

Arabi Pasha's estimated forces : infantry, 44,600 ; 
cavalry, 1802 ; guns, 143 ; Bedouins 30,500 

Vigorous attack on the British camp at Kassassin 
repelled with severe loss, 4 guns taken, 6 British 
killed 9 Sept. 



405 



EGYPT. 



Siege train sent in the Copia . . .9 Sept. 1882 
Capture of Tel-el-Kebir, which see; total defeat of 

the Egyptians ; flight of Arabi Pasha ; surrender 

of Zagazig with railway trains, &c. . 13 Sept. ,, 
The British enter Cairo ; Arabi Pasha and his 

officers surrender unconditionally ; about 10,000 

Egyptian soldiers lay down their arms 14 Sept. ,, 
Sir Garnet Wolseley and British troops enter Cairo; 

warmly received 15 Sept. ,, 

Surrender of Kafr Douar; about 500 Egyptians 

march to Damietta . . . 16, 17 Sept. ,, 
The khedive dissolves the Egyptian army 17 Sept. „ 
Surrender of Aboukir, 17 Sept. ; re-establishment 

of the khecfive's authority . . 19 Sept. ,, 

Abd-el-Al holding Damietta with about 7,000 men, 

21 Sept. ; British expedition sent against him, 

22 Sept. ; he surrenders to sir Evelyn Wood 

23 Sept. ,, 

Triumphal entry of the khedive into Cairo, 25 Sept. ,, 

Valentine Baker Pasha nominated commander of 
a new Egyptian army (10,900) . end of Sept. ,, 

Cairo railway station partly burned by explosion of 
shells, large amount of stores and ammunition 
destroyed ; 4 persons killed, about 15 wounded 

28 Sept. ,, 

18,000 British troops "march past" the khedive 
at the Abdin palace . . . . 30 Sept. ,, 

12,000 British to remain in Egypt, sir A. Alison 
commander 30 Sept. ,, 

Return of the troops ; warmly received in London 

21 Oct. et seq. ,, 

The prophet said to hold all the country south of 
Khartoum 25 Oct. ,, 

Murder of prof. Palmer, capt. Gill and lieut Char- 
rington . . about 10 Aug. announced 26 Oct. ,, 

Thanks of Parliament voted to army and navy : — 
Admiral sir Beauchamp Seymour (created lord 
Alcester) ; Adnrirak-Johii Miller Adye ; vice- 
admiral William Montagu. Dowell ; lieutenant- 
generals George Harry Smith Willis, sir Edward 
Bruce Hamley ; major-general sir Archibald 
Alison ; rear-admirals sir William Nathan Wrighte 
Hewett, sir Francis William Sullivan, Anthony 
Hiley Hoskins ; major-generals his royal highness 
Arthur duke of Connaught, William Earle, sir 
Henry Evelyn Wood, Gerald Graham, George 
Byng Harman, Drury Curzon Drury-Lowe, sir 
Herbert Taylor Macpherson . . . 26 Oct. ,, 

An amnesty of officers signed by the khedive 

24 Oct. ,, 

Lord Dufferin arrives at Cairo . . 7 Nov. ,, 

Anglo-French control abolished . . 9 Nov. ,, 

British troops from Egypt with Indian contingent 
reviewed by the queen at St. James's Park 

18 Nov. ,, 

Queen's thanks published 21 Nov. ; distributes 
medals, &c, at Windsor . . . 21 Nov. ,, 

Trial of Arabi Pasha ; secret examination of wit- 
nesses (his defence supported by Mr. Wilfrid 
Blunt) Nov. „ 

Pleads guilty of rebellion ; sentence of death com- 
muted to banishment for life . . 3 Dec. ,, 

General amnesty and release of political prisoners 

about 1 Dec. ,, 

Letter from Arabi Pasha to Mr. Wilfrid Blunt, ex- 
pressing gratitude to, and confidence in, England 

4 Dec. ; Times, 5 Dec. ,, 

Mahoud and other rebel leaders sentenced to 
banishment 7 Dec. ,, 

Riaz Pasha resigns ; succeeded by Nubar Pasha 

7, 8 Dec. , 

Arabi Pasha and others to be sent to Ceylon 9 Dec. ,, 

Sir Evelyn Wood, appointed commander of the new 
Egyptian army, arrives at Cairo . 22 Dec. ,, 

Nine of the murderers of professor Palmer and 
others captured . . . about 30 Dec. ,, 

Arabi and others sailed for Ceylon, 27 Dec. ; arrived 

10 Jan. 1883 

End of the dual control .... 11 Jan. ,, 

British circular to the powers laid before the 
Porte, &c. (the Suez Canal to be free, with 
restrictions in time of war ; formation of Egyptian 
army, &c.) . . . 11 Jan. et seq. „ 

All the powers accept proposals except France 
and Turkey .... about 27 Jan. „ 

Sir Auckland Colvin appointed financial adviser 

24 Jan. ,, 



EGYPT. 



406 



EGYPT. 



Trial of professor Palmer's murderers ; several 

confess ; 5 executed . . . .28 Feb. 1383 
Lord Dufferin's report on reorganization of Egypt 

published 20 March, ,, 

Constitution signed by the khedive, 30 April ; pro- 
mulgated 1 May, ,, 

Lieut. -gen. Alison replaced by gen. F. C. Stephenson 

May, „ 
Major Evelyn Baring nominated resident . May. „ 
Suleiman Sanii convicted of the firing, massacre, 
and plundering at Alexandria (11 June, 1882), 

hanged 9 June, ,, 

Greatly improved condition of the country. June, ,, 
The ex-khedive Ismail in London . . 28 June, „ 
Parliamentary grants to lord Alcester (Seymour), 

25,000?., lord Wolseley, 30,000?. . 29 June, ,, 
Eruption of cholera (see Cholera) . . . . ,, 
British force reduced to 6,763 . . . Aug. ,, 
Council of state nominated . . . 24 Sept. ,, 
The khedive grants a general amnesty, about 10 Oct. ,, 
New council of state opened by Cherif Pasha, 30 Oct. ,, 
Departure of part of the British troops counter- 
manded on account of the destruction of gen. 
Hicks' army (see Soudan) .... Nov. „ 
The khedive proposes reduction of his court ex- 
penses 1 Jan. 1884 

The British government require a limitation of the 

line of defence in regard to the Soudan 6 Jan. ,, 
Cherif Pasha and his ministry resign ; Nubar Pasha 
(an Armenian christian) becomes minister, 

about 7 Jan. ,, 
Loan of 950,000?. to the khedive by Messrs. Roth- 
schild about 30 Jan. „ 

Disorder in the government and finances reported, 

20 March, ,, 
British army: total killed, 255; July 18S2 to March, ,, 
Resignation of Nubar Pasha in opposition to Mr. 
Clifford Lloyd, 6 April ; both remain in office, 

11 April, ,, 
Chaos at Cairo ; sir Evelyn Baring comes to London ,, 
Conference of the powers, respecting Egyptian 
finance proposed by England accepted by Ger- 
many, Austria, Russia, Italy, France, and Turkey, 

May, ,, 
Need of loan of 8,000,000?. to meet several years' 
deficits, indemnification for damages at Alex- 
andria (3,950,000?.). c i y il an d Soudan war ex- 
penses, &o. May, ,, 

Proposed relaxation of the international law of 

liquidation May, ,, 

Mr. Clifford Lloyd leaves . . May and June, ,, 
Select committee by examination discovers serious 
defects in the commissariat and transport systems 
during the war of 1882, announced . . June, ,, 
Conference of six great powers on Egyptian affairs 

meets (see London Conferences) . . 28 June, ,, 
C( inference adjourns, without result, sine die, 2 Aug. , , 
Credit for 300,000?. voted to assist gen. Gordon, 

5 Aug. ,, 
Lord Northbrook, as high commissioner, and lord 
Wolseley as commander-in-chief, sail 31 Aug. 
arrive at Cairo . . ... 9 Sept. ,, 

Suspension of the international law of liquidation 
in regard to the sinking fund, from 18 Sept. to 
25 Oct. decreed, with consent of lord Northbrook 

20 Sept. ,, 

France, Germany, Austria, Russia, and Italy pro- 
test, 25 Sept. ct seq. but tacitly acquiesce Oct. ,, 

Lord John Hay and tin 1 licet arrive at Alexandria, 

24 Sept. ,, 
Egyptian army reduced to 4000 men, announced, 

24 Oct. ,, 
Lord Northbrook leaves Egypt . . 28 Oct. ,, 

Arrives in London 3K111, ,, 

British force in Egypt and Soudan, about i6,ooomen, 

Nov. „ 
Action of the roixxe (commission) of the public 
debt ngainsl the Egyptian government tor sus- 
pension of the sinking fund ; the court condemns 
it to refund, 9 Dec. ; the khedive appeals Dec. ,, 
Great improvements in irrigation, conducted by 

col. Scott Mourned' 1SS4-5 

Reply Of France and oilier powers to the British 
proposals respecting the financial condition of 
Egypt, 17 Jan. ; English reply . . 24. 1. in. 1SS5 
Prince Hassan, brother of the khedive, appointed 
high commissioner in the Soudan about 15 Feb. ,, 



Egyptian financial scheme ; convention agreed to 
by the Powers signed, 18 March [reduction of 
interest on debt, loan of 9,000,000?. on inter- 
national guarantee, &c] ; adopted by the Com- 
mons on Mr. Gladstone's resolution (294-246), 

27-28 March, 1S85 

Gen. Grenfell succeeds sir E. Wood as com- 
mander-in-chief . . . about 1 April, „ 

Bosphore Egyptien, a Cairo newspaper, suppressed 
by decree, 29 Feb. 1884 ; carried into effect, for 
publication of a proclamation of the Madhi, on 
9 April, 1885 ; the French government much 
offended by the manner of suppression ; the dis- 
pute settled by British intervention, announced, 
28 April, 1885 ; paper reappears, 20 May, 1885 ; 
stopped 5 Sept. r> 

Sir F. Stephenson, commander-in-chief of British 
army 6 July, ,, 

Lord Wolseley arrives in London . 13 July, ,, 

Payment of indemnity begins . . 16 Aug. ,, 

Telegraph system freed from Eastern company, 
through Mr. Floyer . . . about 12 Sept. ,, 

Turkish convention with sir H. D. Wolff on 
Egyptian affairs ; departure of the British de- 
ferred till their work be accomplished, signed 

24 Oct. ,, 

Sir H. D. Wolff arrives at Cairo on commission 

29 Oct. ,, 

High commissioners, Ghazi-Mukhtar Pasha and sir 
H. D. Wolff, Nov. ., 

British forces in Egypt, exclusive of Indians and 
Egyptians, 14,000 1 Dec. _., 

Mukhtar arrives at Cairo .... 27 Dec. ,, 

Immense increase in postal communications . . 1S80-6 

Ancient necropolis discovered at Assouan by 
general Grenfell Feb. 1886 

Discovery of petroleum at Jebel Zeit on the Red 
Sea, March ; probable success reported about 

24 April, „ 

Ismail Pasha claims 5,000,000?. arrears of annual 
payments for surrendered estates . . June ,, 

The khedive's two sons presented to the queen at 
Windsor 6 July, ,, 

Reduction of the British army begins . Jan. 1887 

Improvement in the state of the country reported 

Feb. „ 

Neutralisation of Egypt and defence of the Suez 
canal proposed to the sultan by sir H. Drum- 
mond Wolff (?) 9 Feb. ,, 

Anglo-Turkish convention respecting Egypt, signed 
at Constantinople ; (British troops to leave in 
three years ; Turkish troops to intervene or 
British to return ; Suez canal to be neutral, etc.,) 
28 May; ratified by queen Victoria, June ; not 
ratified by the Sultan ; sir H. D. Wolff leaves 
Constantinople 15 July, , T 

Sudden death of general Valentine Baker Pasha, 
aged 62 17 Nov. ., 

Major Dormer appointed commander of the British 
army Dec. ,, 

Ismail Pasha permitted to reside at Constantinople 

Dec. ,, 

General prosperity of the country ; surplus in the 
budget Jan. 188B 

The exorbitant claims of the ex-khedive on the 
Egyptian government reduced and liberally 
settled by the influence of sir Edgar Vincent 
and Mr. Marriott, Q.C., the judge advocate 
general ; he receives 100.000?. with much land 

.Ian. „ 

Death of prince Hassan . . . 22 March , v 

Mr. Limperopoulos's claim for 2,910? (Egyptian) on 
Gordon bonds said to have been issued at 
Khartoum, disallowed .... May, ,., 

Nubar Pasha dismissed; Riaz Pasha succeeds 
(srr Soudan) 8 June „ 

TheCaissede la Dette (general reserye fund) esta- 
blished 13 June, ., 

Sir Edgar Vincent's proposal to convert the Egyp- 
tian preference debt of 22,000,000?. at 5 per cent. 

to :i loan at 4 per cent, not accepted by the 

French government, unless a time be fixed for 
Hi,, evacuation of Egypt by the British 

27 June, et seq. 18S0 
Sir Edgar Vincent resigns the office of financial 
adviser to the khedive, ;i Aug. ; succeeded by 
Mr. Elwin Palmer, director-general of accounts . 

Sept. ,, 



1 



EGYPT. 



407 



EGYPT. 



The prince of Wales and prince George received by 
the khedive at Cairo, i Nov. ; review of the 
British and Egyptian armies ; the prince sud- 
denly takes the command of the British ; during 
the march past he salutes the Khedive, 2 Nov. ; 
leaves Egypt 5 Nov. 1889 

Mr. Palmer's budget, surplus 150,000?. after re- 
duced taxation, announced, . . .18 Nov. ,, 

The Equatorial province lost by the retirement of 
Emin Pasha, through the mutiny of his officers 

1888-89 

Abolition of forced labour {corvee) of the peasantry 
(fellaheen), atax proposed to the general assembly, 
15 Dec, bill passed 17 Dec. 1889 

Negotiations with France respecting the conversion 
scheme (see June, 1889), again fails . Jan. 1890 

New commercial treaty with Great Britain (signed 
29 Oct. 1889) from 1 Jan. ,, 

National accounts for 1889, declared surplus 
196,000?: 28 Jan. ,, 

Prince Albert Victor of Wales visits the Khedive 
at Cairo, reviews the army, &c. . 7-15 April ,, 

The French government assents to the conversion 
of the preference debt, under conditions which 
are accepted by the Egyptians reported 7 May ,, 

The first settlement was effected at Paris by 
Tigrane pasha, Mr. Elwin Palmer, and M. Ri- 
bot, 21 May ; the assent of the other great powers 
reported 2 June, the khedive's decree authorizing 
the conversion issued .... 7 June ,, 

Mr. Justice Scott's plan for the decentralization of 
justice and creation of local courts, adopted by 
decree reported 3 July ,, 

Annual meeting of the society (formed in 1888) for 
the preservation of the monuments of ancient 
Egypt ; London 9 July „ 

Death of Hussein Bey, son of Ismail Pasha, aged 50 

27 July ,, 

The corvee tax for 1S90 not to be collected 

reported 17 Aug. ,, 

Highly favourable report of the results of British 
occupation since 1882 . . . . Aug. ,, 

Much needed judicial reforms recommended by Mr. 
Justice Scott, of Bombay, Jan., opposed by a 
commission . . . . . .2 Feb. 1891 

Return of the khedive from a successful five weeks' 
tour (during which he visited Wady-Halfa) ; Cairo 
illuminated 8 Feb. ,, 

Discovery of the vast tomb of a high priest of Am- 
nion, W. of Thebes, see under Mummies 

announced Feb. ,, 

Sir Evelyn Baring recommends to the khedive the 
nomination of Mr. Justice Scott as judicial ad- 
viser and president of a judicial committee of 
three (one Italian and one Egyptian) for the 
supervision of the local tribunals, about 11 Feb. ,, 

The khedive assents ; officially announced 16 Feb. ,, 

Revenue returns for 1890, about 10,250,000?., said to 
be the largest ever received . . 18 Feb. ,, 

The judicial changes disapproved by France, about 

20 Feb. ,, 

Count dAubigny, the French minister, recalled, 
and disgraced, leaves . . . 1 March, ,, 

Resignation of Riaz Pasha, the premier,-for ill-health 

12 May ,, 

New ministry under Mustapha Fehmy Pasha (influ- 
ence of the khedive increased) . . 13 May „ 

Sir Colin Moncrieff reports the beneficial results of 
the great improvements in irrigation, 5 March ; 
published June, ,, 

The khedive's palace, the Abdin, greatly injured by 
fire, 22-23 July ; the British troops thanked for 
their help 24 July, ,, 

Great increase in the crops of cotton and cereals, 
and in railway receipts ; large surplus revenue ; 
proposed reduction of taxation . . end of Nov. ,, 

Sudden death of the khedive Tewfik ; much 
lamented 7 Jan. 1892 

His eldest son, Abbas, recognised by the Porte, 
8 Jan. ; state reception at Cairo . . 16 Jan. „ 

Reduction of the salt tax, 40 per cent., ordered 

about 28 Jan. ,, 

The khedive opened the general assembly with a 
cheerful speech 30 Jan. ,, 

Arrival of Ahmed Eyoub Pasha at Cairo with the 
sultan's firman for the investiture of the khedive 
4 April ; the reading delayed through proposed 



changes relating to Mount Sinai, which are settled 
satisfactorily through British influence ; the fir- 
man read in public .... 14 April, 1892 

New railway bridge over the Nile, opened by the 
khedive 5 May „ 

Justice Scott's judicial reforms, reported very 
successful 22 May ,, 

Sir Evelyn Baring created a peer (baron Cromer) . ,, 

Budget for 1893, estimated revenue, 10,267,000?. ; 
surplus, 472,000? 22 Nov. ,, 

The Khedive suddenly dismisses the premier, 
Mustapha Pasha Fehmy and his colleagues, sup- 
porters of the English reforms, and nominates 
Fakhri Pasha and others, anti-reformers, 15 Jan. ; 
Lord Cromer, for the British government pro- 
tests, 17 Jan. ; the Khedive expresses regret, 
and proposes the appointment of Riaz Pasha 
and others, which is accepted by lord Cromer, 

18 Jan. 1893 
Popular agitation, 22 Jan. ; the British army of 

occupation (about 3,000 under major-gen. Walker) 
increased ; end of the crisis . . . 27 Jan. 

The khedive opens the railway extension to Girgeh, 

5 Feb. 

Budget : surplus, 788,000?. ; taxation greatly^ re- 
duced under British management, about 13 Feb. 

A French squadron arrives at Alexandria ; the 
admiral received by the khedive . 15 April, 

The khedive visits the sultan at Constantinople ; 
receives honours .... 10-27 J lu y> 

Budget surplus, 740,000?., further reduction of 
taxation Dec. 

The khedive opens the steam tramway connecting 
Ismailia and Port Said (50 miles) . 2 Dec. 

The khedive reviews the troops at Wady Haifa, &c. , 

19 Jan. 1894- 
He retracts his censures-ijn the troops under 

British officers, declares his high approval, 
and dismisses Maher Pasha, war minister 

26 Jan. ,, 

Gen. Kitchener and Mr. John (justice) Scott made 
K.G.M.G , Feb. „ 

Resignation of Riaz Pasha ; new ministry formed 
by Nubar Pasha .... 14-16 April, „, 

The first national exhibition of art and industry, 
at Alexandria, opened by the khedive 22 April, ,, 

A strike of coal porters at Port Said, 21 May, 
closed 26 May, , r . 

The construction of a Nile reservoir at Assuan, 
ordered by the khedive and his council, 3 June ; 
sir Benjamin Baker appointed technical adviser, 

10 Dec. ,,, 

Tour of the khedive ; Nubar Pasha appointed re- 
gent 21 June, ,,. 

The khedive arrives at Constantinople, 25 June ; 
honoured by the sultan, July ; visits Italy and 
Switzerland, July ; at the Hague . 8 Aug. ,„ 

Death of prof. Heinrich Karl Brugsch Pasha, 
Egyptologist ; born 1827 ; died . . 9 Sept. ,,. 

Important reforms in the civil administration in- 
troduced by lord Cromer; Mr. J. L. Gorst, 
influential adviser .... 28 Oct. ,,. 

Gen. sir H. H. Kitchener starts for Wady Haifa on 
a tour of inspection ; reported . . . 1 Feb. 1895 

Government accounts for 1894 : revenue, 10,562,000?. ; 
expenditure, 9,756,000?. ; announced . 10 Feb. ,, 

Intrigues against the Nubar Pasha ministry ; 
serious disorders at Alexandria, which see Feb. ,, 

Contract of marriage with Ikbal Hanem signed by 
the khedive 19 Feb. ,, 

A decree creating a special tribunal to deal with 
offences against the British issued . 22 Feb. ,, 

Fall of 25 per cent, in the value of the cotton crop, 
&c 24 Feb. ,, 

Agreement with the khedive and lord Cromer 

25 Feb. ,, 

The khedive reviews the army of occupation at 
Cairo 27 Feb. ,, 

M. Hippolyte Percher, alias Harry Alis, French 
journalist in Egypt and France ; a sharp oppo- 
nent of lord Cromer and the British occupation ; 
killed in a duel near Paris by M. le Chatelier, 
whom he had attacked in the Debats 1 March, ,, 

Death of Ismail Pasha, ex-khedive at Constanti- 
nople, 2 March ; state funeral at Cairo 12 March, ,, 

Slatin Bey, an Austrian, 12 years prisoner of the 
Mahdi, escapes ; warmly received at Cairo ; made 
pasha 19- 21 March 



EGYPT. 



408 EGYPT EXPLOEATION FUND. 



Visit of the Mediterranean squadron, under sir 
Michael Culme-Seymour to Alexandria, warmly 
received, 26 May ; inspected by the khedive, 
27 May ; banquet given by the khedive 28 May, 

An Egyptian committee held at Paris, to effect the 
British evacuation and obtain equal rights for 
all nations ; president, M. Deluns-Montaud ; 
M. Deloncle an active member . . 18 June 

Resignation of Nubar Pasha, premier and great re- 
former ; Mustapha Fehmy Pasha, friend to the 
British, appointed president of the council and 
minister of the interior . . . . 11 Nov. 

A new Anglo-Egyptian anti-slavery convention 
sanctioned by the khedive . . .21 Nov. 
See Cholera, 1895 et seq. 

General improvement and tranquillity in the pro- 
vinces reported by sir Elwin Palmer (K.C.B. 
Jan. 1897) 9 Feb. 

The assembly opened by the khedive . 10 Feb. 

Government accounts for 1895 : revenue, 10,568,0002. ; 
expenditure, 9,480,000/. . . . 13 March, 

Advance of 9,000 troops under sir H. H. Kitchener 
up the Nile to Dongola, to check the dervishes 
and relieve Kassala (see Soudan), 19 March, et seq. 

Mr. John Morley's vote of censure on the govern- 
ment in the commons negatived, 288-145 

20 March, 

The cost of the Nile expedition (500,000/.) to be 
borne by the Caisse de la Dette (Egyptian reserve 
fund) ; opposed by France and Russia, 26 March ; 
money paid 1 April, 

The mixed tribunal (founded by Nubar pasha) 
gives judgment against the Egyptian govern- 
ment, 8 June ; the government appeals against 
the decision to the court of Alexandria, 8 foreign 
judges, 17 Nov. ; the money ordered to be re- 
funded to the Caisse de la Dette, with interest, 
6 Dec. 1896 [the money voted by British par- 
liament, 5 Feb. 1897]. 

Concession for light railways (70 yrs.) granted to an 
English company .... 26 March, 

The Beit-el-mal (native court) abolished, and other 
reforms made ; reported ... 15 May, 

Tour of the khedive in Switzerland, <fcc. ; Mustapha 
Fehmy pasha appointed regent . . 9 Aug. 

Return of lord Cromer and sir E. Palmer to Cairo 

23 Sept. 

Important legal reforms passed by the council 

22 Nov. 

Surplus revenue for 1896, 1,345,000/. reported 8 Feb. 

Decrease of crime in 1896, reported . . 28 Feb. 

Foundation stone of the new museum at Cairo 
laid by the khedive ... 5 April 

Medals presented at Cairo to British officers and 
men of the Dongola expedition . . 3 May, 

Sir Francis Grenfell takes command of the army 
of occupation, Cairo .... 7 Oct. 

Reform of' the native penal code . . Dec. 

Horticultural and agricultural exhibition opened 
by the khedive at Cairo ... 14 Jan. 

The Egyptian government sells to the firm of Allen', 
Alderson &co. 11 steamers, floating dock, &c., at 
Alexandria and Suez, for 150,000/. . 30 Jan. 

Contract (5 years) concluded with Messrs. John 
Aird & co. for the construction of dams across 
the Nile at Assuan and Assuit, about 20 Feb. 

Giants to the government from the general reserve 
fund of 922,000?. for public works . i March 

Receipts, 11,092,564/. ; expenditure, 10,559,257/., 
for year ending, ji Dec. 1897; . 6 March 

Foundation stone of the native palace of jusl ice at 
Cairo laid I7 March 

Sir J. Scott, judicial adviser 1890-8, decorated 
by the khedive, on his retirement 17 April, 

Intermit, comm. tod'SCUSS modifications in thecode 
of the mixed tribunals meets at Cairo 5 Dec. 

Princo Ahmed Safeddin sentenced to 7 years' im- 
prisonment for attempting to murder prince 
Fuad, 29 June ; reduced to 5 years . 14 Dec. 

Sir Edwin Palmer appointed governor of the 
national bank of Egypt (capital to be 1,000,000/.), 

1 1 July, 

An English board of education formed at Cairo, 
reported 1 Dec. 

Major-gen. the hon. R. A. J. Talbot commander 
of the British troops ; col; sir Francis Wingate, 
chief ofthe Egyptian army, appointed . Dec. 



Nubar Pasha, ex-premier, able reformer, see Capitu- 
lations, an Armenian Christian, born 1825, died 
in Paris, 14 Jan. 

1895 Soudan convention signed at Cairo . 19 Jan. ,, 
The duke of Con naught lays the foundation stone 

of the Nile reservoir dam at Assuan, 12 Feb. ; 
gives 25/. and lays first stone of the English 
church of St. Mark .... 27 Feb. ,, 
Decree signed reforming the court of appeal, May, ,, 
Reform of the Grand Cadi's court ; Mahomet 
Abdul, progressive and capable, appointed grand 

mufti 3 June, ,, 

" Sir W. E. Garstin's report suggesting improve- 
ment of the Nile channel, irrigation, and the 
management of forests on the Blue Nile and in 
the Bahr-el-Ghazal, issued . . 23 June, ,, 
International commission of judicial reform, 1898, 
see Times -17 July, ,, 

1896 y; r j q_ Rogers, head of the sanitary department, 
>> 1 successful in suppressing the plague in Egypt, 

resigns, and is succeeded by Pinching Bey, 
i! I end Oct. „ 

The khedive unveils statue of Ferdinand de 
Lesseps at Port Said (see Suez Canal) . 17 Nov. ,, 
jj Mixed tribunals prolonged 5 years ; decree signed, 

30 Jan. 1900 
Mutiny in Turah prison near Cairo repressed, 
» 4 March, ,, 

The khedive visits England (which see), 

27 June-4 July, ,, 
Revenue for igoo : surplus, 1,552,000/. ; reported, 
" 27 Feb. 1901 

The duke and duchess of Cornwall visit Port Said, 

30, 31 March, ,, 
Arabi Pasha released (exiled 1882), May ; returns a 

staunch friend to Britain, reported . 30 Sept. ,, 
The khedive's tour (see Soudan, Dec. 1901); views 
the great Nile dam at Assuan, sir Benjamin 
Baker and sir John Aird present . . 9 Dec. ,, 
Surplus revenue for 1901. 700,000/. . 12 April, 1902 
Saadeddin Pasha, governor of Gharbieh, charged 
with torturing natives, accused of stealing, dis- 
missed from service, 13, 14 April ; other officials 

punished 24 April, ,, 

Great fire at Mit Gamr, 1,000 houses, 200 shops 

destroyed, 50 deaths 1 May, ,, 

I Mr. Chamberlain received by the khedive 8 Dec ,, 
Nile dam at Assuan opened, see Nile . 10 Dec. ,, 
First Egyptian medical congress held . 19-24 Dec. ,, 
Zifteh barrage between Cairo and the sea opened 

7 March, 1903 
, Surplus for 1902, 716,000/. over expenditure, real 
surplus over 2,000,000/. reported . 13 April, ,. 
The khedive visits London . 24 June— 3 July, ,, 

KHEDIVES OR HEREDITARY VICEROYS 

(nearly independent). 

1806. Mehemet Ali Pasha; abdicated Sept. 1848; dies 
2 Aug. 1849. 

1848. Ibrahim (adopted son), Sept. ; dies 9 or 10 Nov. 1848. 
Abbas (his son), 10 Nov. ; dies 14 July, 1854. 

1854. Said (brother), 14 July ; dies iS Jan. 1863. 

1863. Ismail (nephew), 18 Jan. (born 31 Dec. 1830); de- 
posed by the sultan at the request of England, 
France and other powers, 26 June, 1879 ; died 
2 March, 1895. 

1879. MechmetTewlik, born Nov., 1852, invested with the 
star of India by the prince of Wales, 25 Oct. 1S75 ; 
proclaimed 26 June, invested 14 Aug.; died 7 
Jan. 1892. 

1892. Abbas Hilmi. born 14 July, 1874 ; heir, Abdul 
Mouneim Bey, born 20 Feb. 1899. 

EGYPT EXPLOEATION FUND, ori- 
ginated by Miss Amelia li. Edwards, and promoted 
by sir Erasmus Wilson, first president (died 8 Aug. 
1884), and Mr. R. S. Poole, secretary, 1881 ; hon. 
secretary, iS<)2 : died 8 Feb., 1895. Its object is 
to promote excavations in order to elucidate the 
history and arts of ancient Egypt and biblical 
history. Miss Edwards, a learned Egyptologist, 
lion, secretary, died 15 April, 1892. She bequeathed 
property to endow a professorship of Egyptology in 
University College, London. Annual meetings. 
Mr. W. M. Flinders Petrie was the first Edwards pro- 
fessor; first lecture given, 14 Jan. 1S93. 



EGYPT EXPLORATION FUND. 409 



EIGHT HOURS. 



M. Edouard Navflle's explorations began 19 Jan. 1883. The 
excavations conducted by M. Naville, 1883-4, l. ed to 
many important, discoveries, including the site of 
Goshen. Mr. W. M. F. Petrie examined more than 
twenty sites in 1884-5, alul made remarkable dis- 
coveries. Some of the results were given to British 
and foreign museums. Makes discoveries, including 
Naucratis, which was a flourishing Greek com- 
mercial and manufacturing city, on the Canopic arm 
of the Nile, about 550 B.C., and declined after the 
Persian invasion and the founding of Alexandria 
332 B.C. Explorations carried on by Mr. P. Llewellyn 
Griffith at Tanis, 1886 ; Mr. Petrie, in the mounds of 
Tel-Defenneh, discovered the remains of "Pharaoh's 
house in Tahpanhes " (588 B.C. ; Jeremiah xliii., 8-11), 
May, 1886. 

Mr. Ernest A. Gardner reported the results of his 
excavations in the spring at Naucratis, and exhibited 
relics with statuettes, pottery, &c, obtained from the 
sites of temples, cemeteries, &c, 6 July, 1886. M. 
Naville's explorations at the city of Onia and the 
"Mound of the Jews," continued spring 1887. He 
discovers the great temple of Bubastis (about B.C. 
1300), granite monolithic columns, sculpture, &c, 
April-June 1887; resumes his excavations March, 1888. 

Exhibition of Egyptian antiquities at the Egyptian 
Hall, Piccadilly ; by Mr. Flinders Petrie, of his 
excavations at Fayum, July, 1888. 

Mr. Petrie forces an entrance into the sepulchral chamber 
of the pyramid of Anenemhat III. at Hawara, Jan.; 
exhibits the results of his explorations, at the Oxford 
Mansions, London, mummies, ornaments, implements, 
<fec, Sept. 18S9 et seij. 

The archaeological survey of Egypt approved by 
the government ; began in 1890 

A monograph on the results of M. Naville s excava- 
tions at Bubastis in 1887-9, vvas published in the 
"Memoirs" . ... Feb. 1891 

Mr. Petrie discovers fragments of a lost play of 
Euripides, of the Phsedo of Plato and other 
writers, which have been published by Professor 
Mahaffy after study by himself and Professor 
Sayce, reported July, 1891. Mr. Petrie's "Ten Years' 
Digging in Egypt, 1881 to 1891," published . May 1892 

Mr. F. Petrie exhibits in London results of his 
latest researches . . . -17 Sept.-Oct. ,, 

Important discoveries by M. de Morgan in the 
brick pyramid of Dahsur ; reported . March, 1894 

" Atlas of Ancient Egypt," published . . June, ,, 

M. Naville reports the result of his recent labours 
at Tmei-el-Amdid, &c, near the site of Mendes, 
including Greek and Eoman remains, 14 Dec. ; 
again 8 July, 1895 

Results of Professor Flinders Petrie's explorations 
(n weeks in 1894), exhibited in University 
College, Gower St., July, 1894. At the royal 
society in Edinburgh he described the discovery 
(3c miles N. of Thebes, by excavations), of an 
entirely distinct race of men, which probably 
existed about 3000 b.c. ; possibly Amorites or 
Libyans, not negroes ; human remains found in 
the cemeteries; no mummies, writings, or hiero- 
glyphs ; the relics included good pottery, flint 
and metal implements, &c.,i7 April, 1895; fresh 
discoveries reported, April, 1896 ; exhibition at 
the British museum, Jul}', 1896 ; another of the 
joint work of Mr. Flinders Petrie and Mr. J. E. 
Qui bell ; the "Logia" of our Lord, and the 
oldest MS. of Thucydides, discovered by Messrs. 
Grenfell and Hunt at Oxyrhynchus (Behnesa), 
12 Jan., 18, iq March, 1897 ! antiquities and 
papyri from the Fayiini and Oxyrhynchus (Dec. 
1898), and others from Naucratis, found by Mr. 
Hogarth, exhibited at Burlington house (fresh 
papyri at Oxyrhynchus, 1903) . 5-12 July, 1899 
"The Temple of Mut in Asher," by the Misses 
Benson and Gourlay ; an account of its excava- 
tion, &c., 1894-97, published . . . . ,, 
Many discoveries, excavations carried on by six 
different, institutions, 1809-1900 ; first dynasty 
(Merneit), &c, royal tombs discovered by prof. 
Flinders Petrie at Abydos and others there of 
the 12th, 18th, and 3rd dynasties by Mr. Garstang 
(see Times, 24 April, 1900) ; important Ptolemaic 
papyri found by Messrs. Grenfell and Hunt at 
Umm-el-Baragat (Tebtunis), south of the Fayum, 
(part 1 pub. Jan. 1903) . . 3 Dec. 1899-Jan. 1900 



Mr. Garstang discovers the royal tomb of Neter- 
Kha in Upper Egypt, reported . . Feb. 1901 

Professor Flinders Petrie states the recent dis- 
coveries at Abydos to have settled the continuous 
order of 17 kings and the very foundations 
of Egyptian history, 7 Nov. 1902 ; exhibitions in 
Gower Street . July, 1901 ; July, 1902 ; July, 1903 

Professor Flinders Petrie's lecture on "The be- 
ginnings of the Egyptian Kingdom" at the 
British Association . . . .10 Sept. ,, 

EGYPTIAN EPA, &c. The old Egyptian 
year was identical with the era of Nabonassar, he- 
ginning 26 Feb. 747 B.C., and consisted of 365 days 
only. It was reformed 30 B.C., at which period 
the commencement of the year had arrived, by 
continually receding to the 29th Aug., which was 
determined to be in future the first day of the year. 
To reduce to the Christian era, subtract 746 years 
125 days. The canicular or heliacal period of the 
Egyptians and Ethiopians (1460 years) began when 
Sirius or the dog star emerged from the rays of the 
sun, on 20 July, 2785 B.C., and extended to 1325 
B.C. This year comprised 12 months of 30 days, 
with 5 supplementary days. 

EGYPTIAN HALL, Piccadilly, erected in 
i8i2byG. F. Robinson for Bullock's natural history 
collections, which were sold in 18 19 ; since used for 
exhibitions, concerts, &c. See Dudley Gallery. 

EHEENBEEITSTEIN (Honour's broad- 
stone), a strong Prussian fortress on the Rhine, 
formerly belonged to the electors of Treves. It 
was often besieged.-HEtTsurrerrdered to the French 
general Jourdain, 24 Jan. 1799. The fortifications 
were destroyed on its evacuation, 9 Feb. 1801, at 
the peace 6f Luneville. The works have been 
restored since 1814. 

EIDER, a river separating Schleswig from 
Ilolstein, was passed by the Austrians and Prussians, 
4 Feb. 1864. Eider, German steamer, see Wreck*, 
1892. 

EIDOGEAPH, see Pantograph. 

EIDOPHONE, see Addenda. 
EIFFEL TOWER, see Paris, 1889. Re- 
opened 30 March, 1890. 

EIGHT HOURS. In 1889-95 there was much 
agitation among the working classes in Britain and 
on the Continent, in favour of limiting the working 
day to eight hours. 1 his was one of the objects of 
the demonstrations in May, 1890-92, see Working 
• Men. 
The factories and shops act (an 8 hrs. working day 
for women), passed at Melbourne . . . 1890 

: The limitation adopted by some trades in England; 

by the bookbinders of London . . Nov. 1891 

Great meeting in Hyde park to support the move- 

ment . . 1 May, x8 9 2 

The marquis of Salisbury and Mr. A. J. Balfour 
receive a deputation of workmen ; they deprecate 
legislation as premature . . .11 May, ,, 
The eight hours' system opposed by the Durham 
miners (nearly 41, coo), reported 26 Oct. 1892 ; but 
approved by the annual conference at Birming- 
ham • • .. • Jan - l8 93 

The mines (eight hours) bill rejected by the com- 
mons (272-160), 23 March, 1892 ; 2nd reading, 

3 Ma y. » 
Mr W. Mather, M.P., of the Salford ironworks, 
f-ave a favourable report of the results of a year's 
trial of the 48 hours' week . . 28 March, 1894 

The adoption of the eight hours' system in some of 

the government works ; reported . .March, ,, 
A resolution for an eight hours' working day passed 
bv the international miners' congress at Berlin, 
17 May, 1894; again at Aix-la-Chapelle 25 May 1896 



EIGHTY CLUB. 



410 



ELECTOES OF GERMANY. 



Miner's eight hours bill, 25 April, withdrawn 
Aug. 1896 ; rejected . . . . ' 5 May, 1897 

Eight hours' day demanded by engineers ; tee 
Strikes 3 July, et s&j. ,, 

Resolution in favour of legislative limitation of 
labour hours to 8 per day, and making this a test 
question at all elections passed at Trades Union 
congress . . . . . . .10 Sept. 1903 

EIGHTY CLUB. Established in 1879 and 
1880, to promote political education and to stimulate 
liberal organisation by Mr. Albert Grey, Sir Henry 
James, and lord Richard Grosvenor. Mr. Glad- 
stone, president, 1887. The club adopted Home 
Rule, and 80 Liberal Unionists seceded, 18 May, 
1887. 

EIKON BASILIKE (" the Portraiture of 
His Sacred Majesty in his Solitudes and Suffer- 
ings"), a book of devotion formerly attributed to 
king Charles I., but now generally believed to 
have been written partially, if not wholly, by 
bishop Gauden, and possibly approved by the king : 
it was published in 1648-9, and 44 English editions 
and 10 in foreign languages, printed in 1649 ; 68 in 
all up to the present time. By direction of the 
parliament, Milton published a reply entitled 
"Iconoclastes," or Image-breaker. 

EIRENICON. Peace manifesto, see Russia, 
Aug. 1898; and Peace, 1898 etscq. 

EISENACH DECLARATION, see Ger- 
many, 1859. 

EISTEDDFOD, at Llanelly Aug. 4-8, 1903, 
see Bards. 

ELAM, see Persia. 

EL ARISCH, Egypt, captured by the French 
under Reynier, 18 Feb. 1799. A convention was 
signed here between the grand vizier and Kleber 
for the evacuation of Egypt by the French, 28 Jan. 
1800. He beat the Turks at Heliopolis on 20 March ; 
and was assassinated on 14 June following. 

ELBA, ISLE OF (on the coast of Tuscany), 
taken by admiral Nelson in 1796; but abandoned 
1797. _ Elba was conferred upon Napoleon (with 
the title of emperor) on his relinquishing the 
throne of France, 5 April, 1814. He secretly em- 
barked hence with about 1200 men in hired feluccas, 
on the night of 25 Feb. 1815, landed in Provence, 
I March, and soon after recovered the crown ; see 
France, 1815. Elba was resumed by the grand 
duke of Tuscany, July, 1815 ; was annexed to Sar- 
dinia, i860, and included in the kingdom of Italy in 
1870; population in 1893 about 24,000. 

ELBE, North German Lloyd Steamer, see 
Wrecks, 30 January, 1895, and 21 July, 1902. 

ELCHINGEN, Bavaria. Here Ney beat the 
Austrians, 14 Oct. 1805, and was made duke of 
Elehingen. 

ELCHO SHIELD, sec under Volunteers. 

ELDERS (in Greek, presiuteroi), in the early 
church equivalent with episcopal, or bishops (see 
l Tim. iii. and Titus i.), who afterwards became a 
distinct and superior order. Elders in the presby- 
terian churches are Laymen. 

Elders' Widows Fund, established bythe Easl India Com- 
pany, in i8ao, to provide for widows ami orphans of 

some of its servants, was closed in 1S60. 1 11 1878.111 

act was passed to transfer the surplus money to the 
provident fund, &e. 

ELDON'S ACT, see Bankrupts. 



EL DORADO (the " Gilded Man"). "When 
the Spaniards had conquered Mexico and Peru, 
they began to look for new sources of wealth, and 
having heard of a golden city ruled by a king or 
priest, smeared in oil and rolled in gold Sust (which 
report was founded on a merely annual custom of 
the Indians), they organised various expeditions 
into the interior of bouth America, which were 
accompanied with disasters and crimes, about 1560. 
Raleigh's expeditions in search of gold in 1596 and 
161 7 led to his fall. 

ELEASA, Palestine. Here Judas Maccabffius 
was defeated and slain by Bacchides and Alcimus, 
and the Syrians, about 161 B.C. (1 Mace, ix.) 

ELEATIC SECT, founded at Elea in Sicily, 
by Xenophanes, of Colophon, about 535 n.c, 
whither he had been banished on account of his 
wild theory of God and nature. He supposed that 
the stars were extinguished every morning and 
rekindled at night; tiiat eclipses were occasioned 
by a partial extinction of the sun ; that there were 
several suns and moons for the convenience of the 
different climates of the earth, &c. Strabo. Zeno 
(about 364) was an Eleatic. 

ELECTIONS PETITIONS. The laws 

respecting them were consolidated in 1828, 1839, 
and 1844. An act passed in 1848 was amended in 
1865. By the act of 1868, 3 new judges were ap- 
pointed, and three to be selected from all the judges 
to try election cases ; justices Willes and Blackburn, 
and baron Martin were first appointed, Nov. 1868. 

ELECTOR PALATINE, see Palatinate. 

ELECTORS for members of parliament for 
counties were obliged to have forty shillings a-year 
in land, 8 Hen. VI. 1429. Among the acts relating 
to electors are the following : Election Act for the 
City of London passed 1724; Act depriving excise 
and custom-house officers and contractors with 
government of their votes, 1782; sec Customs. Act to 
regulate polling, 1828. Great changes were made 
by the Reform Acts of 1832, 1867, 1868, and 1885. 
County elections act, 1836 ; see Bribery. The 
forty-shilling freeholders in Ireland lost their 
privilege in 1829. By Dodson's act, passed in 
1861, university electors are permitted to vote 
by sending balloting papers. Hours of polling in 
metropolitan boroughs extended (from 8 a.m. to 
8 p.m.) by act passed 25 Feb. 1878. 
Mr. Shaw Lefevre's Plural Voting (Abolition) bill, 
based on the principle, "one man, one vote," re- 
jected by the commons (243-196) . . iS May, 189a 
Mr. Stansfeld's Electors' Qualification and Regis- 
tration bill (removing certain vexatious clauses), 
read a slid time 25 May ,, 

ELECTORS of Germany. In the reign of 
Conrad I. king of Germany (912-918), the dukes 
and counts, from being merely officers, became 
gradually independent of the sovereign, and sub- 
sequently elected him. In 919 they confirmed the 
nomination of Henry I. duke of Saxony by Conrad 
as his successor. In the 13th century seven princes 
(the archbishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, 
the king of Bohemia, the electors of Brandenburg 
and Saxony, and the elector Palatine), assumed 
the exclusive privilege of nominating the em- 
peror. Robertson. An eighth elector (Bavaria) was 
made in 1 < 14S ; and a ninth (Hanover) in 1692. 
The number was reduced to eight in 1 777 (by the 
elector palatine acquiring Bavaria) and increased 
to ten at the peace of Luneville, in 1801. On the 
dissolution of the German empire, the crown of 
Austria was made hereditary, 1804- 1806; see Ger- 
many. 



ELECTRIC CLOCK. 



411 



ELECTRICITY. 



ELECTRIC CLOCK ; see Electricity, 1889. 

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERS, see under 
Telegraphs. 

ELECTRICITY, from the Greek elektros, 
electrum, amber. The electrical properties of rubbed 
amber are said to have been known to Thales, 600 
B.C.; and Plin}-, 70 a.d.; see Magnetism, Elec- 
trical transmission of force, p. 328, and Niagara. 
The Electrician first published, 1861. 
" The Intellectual Rise in Electricity : a History," by 
Dr. Park Benjamin, published, 1895. "Electric 
Movement in Air and Water," by lord Armstrong, 
published, June, 1897. 
Electrical measurements : the following terms (after 
great electricians, suggested by sirChas. Bright), 
were adopted by the electrical congress at Paris, 
22 Sept. -1881 : ohm, volt, ampere, coulomb, and 
farad. Important resolutions were passed by the 
international conference on electrical units at 
Paris (the "congress ohm" agreed to), 

April-May, 1884 

Capital punishment by electricity adopted by the 
state of New York , . . from 1 Jan. 1889 

An electrical standard committee (consisting of 
lord Raleigh, sir Win. Thomson and others) 
appointed, Dec. 1890; it was recommended that 
new denominations of standards be made, and - 
determined with reference to the centimetre, 
gramme, and second, of the Board of Trade ; the 
ohm to be the standard of resistance ; the 
ampere, the standard of electrical current ; the 
volt, the standard of electrical pressure ; all 
being scientifically defined . . .20 Feb. 1891 

The committee's report printed Aug., 1891, supple- 
mentary report . . 29 Nov. 1892 

Joint parliamentary committee on " Electrical 
Disturbances," viscount Cross, chairman June, 1893 

FRICTIONAL OR STATIC ELECTRICITY 

Gilbert records that other bodies besides amber 
generate electricity when rubbed, and that all 
substances may he attracted 

Otto von Guericke constructed the first electric 
machine (a globe of sulphur), about 

Boyle published his electrical experiments . . 

Stephen Gray, aided by Wheeler, discovered that 
the human body conducts electricity, that elec- 
tricity acts at a distance (motion in light bodies 
being produced by frictional electricity at a dis- 
tance of 666 feet), the fact of electric induction, 
and other phenomena 1720-36 

Dufay originated his dual theory of two electric 
fluids: one vitreous, from rubbed glass, &c. , the 
other resinous, from rubbed amber, resin, &c. ; 
and showed that two bodies similarly electrified 
repel each other, and attract bodies oppositely 
electrified, about 1733 

Desaguliers classified bodies as electrics and non- 
electrics 1742 

The Leyden jar (vial or bottle) discovered by Kleist, 
1745, and by Cunseus and Muschenbroek, of Ley- 
den: Winckler constructed the Leyden battery . 1746 

Important researches of Watson, Canton, Becearia 
and Nollet 1 740-7 

Franklin announced his theory of a single fluid, 
terming the vitreous electricity positive, and the 
resinous negative, 1747; and demonstrated the 
identity of the electric spark and lightning, 
drawing down electricity from a cloud by means 
of a kite June, 

At a pic-nic, he " killed a turkey by the electric 
spark, and roasted it by an electric jack before 
a fire kindled by the electric bottle " . . 

Professor Richman killed at St. Petersburg, 
while repeating Franklin's experiments Aug. 

Becearia published his researches on atmospheric 
electricity, 1758; and iEpinus his mathematical 
theory I759 

Electricity developed by fishes investigated by 
Ingenhousz, Cavendish, and others, about . . 1773 

Lichtenberg produced his electrical figures . . 1777 

Electro-Statics: Coulomb applied the torsion balance 
to the measurement of electric force . . . 1785 

Electro-Chemistry — water decomposed by Caven- 
dish, Fourcroy, and others .... 1787-90 



1600 



1647 
1676 



1752 



174S 



1753 



Discoveries of Galvani and Volta (see Voltaic Elec- 
tricity, below) 1791-3 

CErsted, of Copenhagen, discovered electro-mag- 
netic action (see Electro-Magnetism, next page) . 1819, 

Thermo - Electricity (currents produced by heat), 
discovered by Seebeck : it was produced by 
heating pieces of copper and bismuth soldered 
together, 1821; the Thermo-electrometer invented 
by sir Wm. Snow Harris, 1827; the Thermo- 
multiplier constructed by Melloni and Nobili, 
1831. [Marcus constructed a powerful thermo- 
electric battery in 1865.] 

Mr. C. V. Boys exhibits his very sensitive quartz- 
fibre thermopile at the Royal Institution, see 
Moon 14 June, 1889 

Dr. Giraud's thermo-electric stove reported suc- 
cessful in London and Paris . . . May, 1893 

Faraday produced a spark by the sudden separation 
of a coiled keeper from a permanent magnet (see 
Magneto-Electricity, next page) . . . . 1831 

Wheatstone calculated the velocity of electricity, 
on the double fluid theory, to be 288,000 miles 
a second ; on the single fluid theory, 576,000 miles 
a second 1834 

Mr. W. G. Armstrong (aft. lord, died 27 Dec. 1900), 
discovered, and Faraday explained, the electricity 
of high pressure steam, which produces the hydro- 
electric machine 1840 

Electric Machines. Otto von Guericke obtained 
sparks by rubbing a globe of sulphur, about 1647 ; 
Newton, Boyle, and others used glass, about 1675 ; 
Hawksbee improved the machine, about 1709 ; 
Bose introduced a metallic conductor, 1733 ; 
Winckler contrived the cushion for the rubber, 
1 74 1 ; Gordon employed a glass cylinder, 1742; 
for which a plate was substituted about 1770 ; 
Canton introduced amalgam for the rubber, 1751 ; 
Van Marum constructed an^eleetriajnachine at 
Haarlem, said to have been the most powerful 
ever made, 1785 ; the Rev. A. Bennet invented 
the "doubler of electricity," 1786; Carvallo 
discovers that metals when insulated, acquire 
slight charges of electricity, 1787 ; Nicholson 
constructs an influence machine, 1788 ; modified 
by Ronalds, 1823 ; Dr. H. M. Noad set up at the \ 
Panopticon, Leicester-square, London, a very 
powerful electric machine and Leyden battery [in 
possession of Mr. Edwin Clark, 1862] . . 1855 

The Hydro-Electric machine, by Armstrong, was 
constructed 1840 

Holtz's induction machine 1865 

The Electrophorus, a useful apparatus for ob- 
taining frictional electricity, was invented by 
Volta in 1775, and improved by him in . . 1827 

C. F. Varley's "reciprocal electrophorus" invented 

Sir William Thomson's "electric replenisher" de- 
scribed Jan. 1862 

The Carre machine invented 1868 

Mr. Apps's great inductorium, or induction coil, 
giving the largest sparks ever seen, exhibited at 
the Royal Polytechnic Institution . 29 March, 1869 

The Voss machine introduced 1880 

Mr. James Wimshurst invents a " continuous elec- 
trophorus " (very successful), and an "influence 
machine" 1882 

Electroscope and Electrometer, as the terms 
signify, are apparatus for ascertaining the presence 
and quantity of electrical excitation. Pith-balls 
were employed in various ways as electroscopes 
by Gilbert, Canton, and others. Dr. Milner in- 
vented an electrometer similar to Peltier's, 1783. 
The gold leaf electrometer was invented by rev. 
A. Bennet, 1789, and improved by Singer, about 
1810 ; Lane's discharging electrometer is dated 
1767: Henley's, 1772; Bohnenberger's electro- 
scope, 1820 : Peltier's induction electrometer, 
about 1848 ; sir Win. Thomson's quadrant elec- 
trometer about, 1857 

GALVANISM, OR VOLTAIC-ELECTRICITY, ELECTROLYSIS, 
AND ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. 

(See Electro-Physiology.) 
Sulzer noticed a peculiar sensation in the tongue 
when silver and lead were brought into contact 
with it and each other 176 2 



ELECTEICITY. 



412 



ELECTEICITY. 



Madame Galvani observed the convulsion in the 
muscles of frogs when brought into contact with 
two metals, in 1789 ; and M. Galvani, after study- 
ing the phenomena, laid the foundation of the 
_ galvanic battery 

Volta announced his discovery of the " Voltaic 
pile," composed of discs of zinc and silver, and 
moistened card 

Mr. W. Cruikshank's experiments . . . . 

By the voltaic pile, Nicholson and Carlisle decom- 
posed water, and Dr. Henry decomposed nitric 
acid, ammonia, &c 

Transfer of acids and alkalies by Hisinger and 
Berzelius 

Behrens formed a dry pile of 80 pairs of zinc, 
copper, and gilt paper 

By means of a large voltaic battery in the Royal 
Institution, Loudon, Davy decomposed the 
alkali potash, and evolved the metal potassium, 
(soda and other substances soon after) . 6 Oct. 

Zamboni constructed a dry pile of paper discs, 
coated with tin 011 one side ami peroxide of 
manganese on the other 

Children's battery fused platinum, &c. 

J. W Ritter constructed his "secondary pile" 

about 

Davy exhibited the voltaic arc 

Wollaston's thimble battery ignited platinum wire, 

Multipliers or rheometers, popularly termed " gal- 

• variometers," invented by Ampere and by 
Schweigger, 1820 : by dimming, 1821 ; De la 
Rive, 1824 ; Ritchie (torsion), 1830 ; Joule (mag- 
netic), 1843. Sir William Thomson has made 
many improvements since 1856 ; he described his 
reflecting galvanometer, and similar apparatus in 
the report of the British Association in 1867. 
Very large galvanometer made by prof. Win. A. 
Cornell, of New York .... Aug. 

Faraday described his discovery of electro-magnetic 
rotation j all 

Georg Simon Ohm enunciated his formulae relating 
to the galvanic current, 1827 ; proposed erection 
of a statue of Ohm, at Munich, on the centenary 
of his birth, 16 March, 1789 . . . Feb. 

Improvement in constructing the Voltaic battery 
made by Wollaston, 1815 ; Becquerel, 1829 ; Stur- 
geon, 1830 ; J. F. Daniell, 1836 ; Grove (nitric 
acid, &c), 1839 I Jacobi, 1840 ; Smee, 1840 ; Bunscu 
(carbon, &c), 1842 ; Grove (gas battery), t 842. 

Faraday read the first series of his " Experimental 
Researches on Electricity " at the Royal Society, 

.-ii-i 2r Nov. 

fcaraday demonstrated the nature of electro-chemi- 
cal decomposition, and the principle that the 
quantity and intensity of electric action of a gal- 
vanic battery depend on the size and number of 
plates employed 

Wheatstone invented his electro-magnetic chrono- 
scope 

Copper-Zinc Coxvple (which see) constructed by 
Dr. J. H. Gladstone and Mr. A. Tribe . 

Batteries ; Bichromate of potash battery ; a modifica- 
tion of Dr. Leeson's ; very powerful ; now much 
used. (Gaston Plante's lead battery, powerful, 
i860.) Chloride of silver battery (14,400 cells)— 
results of its discharge published by Drs. Warren 
de la Due and Hugo Milder. Powerful results 
exhibited at Royal Institution, London, 21 Jan , 

Dr. Byrne's pneumatic battery (air blown in), very 

effective, announced 

See under Electric liphl.int . 

Mr. Coad's primar) battery, put forth in ! 8S 4 , 
greatly improved, exhibited in Sohu square, 
London, \\\, Jan. ; Major Renard's primary bat- 
tery exhibited in London, Jan.; Mr. weymersch's 
primary battery exhibited . . . Feb, 

Continuous to alternating current transformer 

invented by sir David Salo s ami Mr. 1,.' 

Pyke ; exhibited , Dec." 

Electric Acci mi lator, or secondary battery, a 

' liflcation by M. Faure, of Gaston Plante's 

powerful Lead battery of ,So,,, was exhibitedal 
Paris, May. (881. In June a box, one cubic font 
in size, containing four cells, inclosing thin sheets 
ol lead surrounded with fell saturated with 
dilute acid, &c, was conveyed from Paris to 
London, sir Win, Thomson found it t<> possess 



1805 



1807 



1S12 

1813- 

1815 



1834 
1840 
1872 



1S90 



the electric energy of one million foot-pounds ; 
and said, in a letter to The Times of 9 June, 
1881 : "This solves the problem of storing elec- 
tricity in a manner and in a state useful for 
many important applications " . . 6 June, 1881 

Electro-Magnetism began with Oersted's discovery 
of the action of the electric current on the mag- 
netic needle, 1819 ; proved by Ampere; who 
exhibited the action of the voltaic pile upon the 
magnetic needle, and of terrestrial magnetism 
upon the voltaic current ; he also arranged the 
conducting wire in the form of a helix or spiral, 
invented a galvanometer, and imitated the mag- 
net by a spiral galvanic wire 1820 

Arago magnetised a needle by the electric current, 
and attracted iron filings by the connecting wire 

of a galvanic battery ,, 

The first electro-magnet 1825 

Induction of electric currents discovered by Faraday 
and announced 1831. (sir W. H. Preece made 
experiments, showing how induced currents 
(from wire to wire) might be utilized in electric 
telegraphy, Nov., 1892). 
Becquerel invented an electro-magnetic balance . 1831 
Faraday discovered the electro-magnetic rotative 
force developed in a magnet by voltaic electricity, 

1831 ; experiments on the induction of a voltaic 
current, &c 1834-5 

Sturgeon made a bar of soft iron magnetic by sur- 
rounding it with coils of wire, and sending an 
electric current through the wire .... 1837 

Induction coil made by Professor G. C. Page of 
Salem, Mass ,, 

Joseph Henry announced his discovery of secondary 
currents 2 Nov. 1838 

Breguet used electro-magnetic force to manufacture 
mathematical instruments, about . . . . 1S54 

Magneto-Electricity (the converse of CErsted's 
discovery of electro-magnetism), discovered by 
Faraday, who produced an electric spark by sud- 
denly separating a coiled keeper from a perma- 
nent magnet ; and found that an electric current 
existed in a copper disc rotated between the poles 
of a magnet (paper read to the Royal Society, 
24 Nov.) 183 1 

The Magneto-Electric machine arose out of Faraday's 
discovery, and was first made at Paris by Pixii, 

1832 ; and in London by Saxton . . . . 1S33 
Magneto-electricity applied to electro-plating by 

Woolwich 1S42 

Ruhmkorffs magneto-electric induction coil con- 
structed, about 1S50 

Siemens' armature produced 1854 

Principle of accumulation by successive action dis- 
covered by Wilde; 1865, by mutual action (by 
which permanent steel magnets are dispensed 
with), independently by Wheatstone and Siemens, 1S66 
Dr. H. Wilde's description of his machine (a power- 
ful generator of dynamic electricity, by means 
of permanent magnets) and the magneto-electric 
machine (constructed in 1865) sent to the 
Royal Society by professor Faraday and reported, 

26 April, ,, 

The light (resembling bright moon-light) exhibited 

mi the top of Burlington house . 2 March. 

Dynamo-magneto-electric machines, by Wheatstone 

and Siemens, described at the Royal Society. 

14 Feb. ; by Ladd . . . .14 March, 

•' Faraday as a Discoverer," by Professor Tyndall, 
published March, 

Trial of Siemens' dynamo-magneto electric light in 
llic torpedo service at Sheerness reported suc- 
cessful 18 Dec. 

Gramme's magneto-electric machine described 

Two of .Siemens' machines ordered for the Lizards, 
announced 

Mr W. Groves' electro-induction balance 

international Electrical Congress at Paris with 

exhibition 15 Aug.-i5 Nov. 1! 

[Medals ami other honours awarded to England.] 

Mr. E, .1. Atkins' method of separating metals from 
their alloys by electrolysis, announced . Nov. il 

Decomposition of common salt by electrolysis and 
the production thereby of alkali and bleaching 
powder very successful, discovered by H. Y. 
Castner(died Oct. 1899). 



1S67 



1871 
1875 



187S 
1879 



ELECTRICITY. 



413 



ELECTRICITY. 



applications — electric telegraph.* See Telegraph. 

The transmission of electricity by an insulated wire 
was shown by Watson and others . . . .1747 

Telegraphic arrangements were devised by Lesarge, 
1744 ; Betaneourt, 1787 ; Cavallo, 1795 ; Salva, 
1796 ; Soemmering, exhibited 29 Aug. 1809 ; 
Ronalds 1816 

Ampere invents his telegraphic arrangement, em- 
ploying the magnetic needle and coil, and the 
galvanic battery 1820 

F. (aft. sir Francis) Ronalds publishes an account 
of his electric telegraph (died, aged 85, 8 Aug. 
1873) 1823 

Professor Wheatstone constructs an electro-mag- 
netic apparatus, by which 30 signals are conveyed 
through nearly four miles of wire . . June, 1836 

Telegraphs invented by Schilling, Gauss, and Weber 
(magneto-electric), 1833 ; by Steinheil and by 
Masson, 1837 ; by Morse (died 1872). . . . 1837 

The magnetic needle telegraph patented by (aft. 
sir) Wm. F. Cooke and (aft. sir) Charles Wheat- 
stone. (The Society of Arts Albert gold medal 
was awarded to them in June, 1867) . 12 June, ,, 

Mr. Robert Stirling Newall, of Gateshead, patented 
his- wire rope used for submarine telegraphs . . 1840 

Mr. Cooke set up the telegraph line on the Great 
Western Railway, from Paddington to West 
Drayton, 1838-9 ; on the Blaekwall line, 1840 ; 
and in Glasgow . . . . . . . 1841 

Wheatstone's alphabetical printing telegraph 
patented ,, 

The first telegraph line in America set up from 
Washington to Baltimore 1844 

The murderer Tawell apprehended by means of the 
telegraph 1845 

The electric telegraph company established (having 
purchased Cooke and Wheatstone's telegraphic 
inventions) 1846 

Gutta-percha suggested as an insulator by Faraday 1847 

Professor Charles Wheatstone drew plans of a pro- 
jected submarine telegraph between Dover and 
Calais 1S40 

Mr. John Watkins Brett (on behalf of his brother, 
Jacob Brett, the inventor and patentee), submit- 
ted a similar plan to Louis Philippe without suc- 
cess 1847 

He obtained permission from Louis Napoleon to 
make a trial, 1847 ; took place . . 28 Aug. 1850 

The connecting wires (27 miles long) were placed 
on the government pier in Dover harbour, and in 
the Goliath steamer were coiled about 30 miles in 
length of telegraphic wire, enclosed in a covering 
of gutta-percha, half an inch in diameter. The 
Goliath started from Dover, unrolling the tele- 
graphic wire as it proceeded, and allowing it to 
drop to the bed of the sea. In the evening the 
steamer arrived on the French coast, and the wire 
was run up the cliff at cape Grisnez to its termi- 
nal station, and messages were sent to and fro 
between England and the French coast. But the 
wire, in settling into the sea-bottom, crossed a 
rocky ridge, and snapped in two, and thus the 
enterprise for that time failed. 

New arrangements were soon made, and on a scale 
of greater magnitude ; and the telegraph was 
opened ; the opening and closing prices of the 
funds in Paris were known on the London stock 
exchange within business hours, and guns were 
fired at Dover by communication from Calais ; 
this cable was laid by the late T. R. Crampton, 

13 Nov. 1851 

Duplex Telegraphy — two messages transmitted along 
a single wire at the same time in opposite direc- 
tions first accomplished by Dr. Gintl, Austrian, 
^53 ! hy Messrs. Siemens, 1857 ; in the same 
direction, by Stark, of Vienna, 1855 ; apparatus 
perfected by Stearns, an American, and also by 
Muirhead and Taylor for long cables ; applied to 
British telegraphs 1873 

* Sir W. H. Preece, F.R.S., president of the Institu- 
tion of Electrical Engineers, at a meeting on 26 Jan. 
1893, described the amazing progress of the applications 
of electricity since 1850, in telegraphy, railway signal- 
ing, telephony, lighting, chemistry, transmission of 
power, and traction. In 1 elation to our press, Sir Wm. 
Preece stated that in 1871, 21,701,968 words were trans- 
mitted by telegraph, and in 1891, 600,409,000. 



Quadruplex Telegraphy — four messages along one 
wire ; successful experiments between London 
and Liverpool 25 Sept. 1877 

Mr. T. A. Edison's quadruplex instrument, by 
which four messages, two from each end, may be 
transmitted upon one wire simultaneously, and 
professor Delaney's synchronous multiplex instru- 
ment by which six messages may be so trans- 
mitted on one wire, were exhibited at the Post 
Office Jubilee Fete 2 July, 1890 

Professor Elisha Gray's teleautograph exhibited 
at the Royal society . . . .13 June, 1894 

Prof. Hughes in 1879-80 and in 1888 telephoned 
messages across space. Capt. Jackson succeed- 
ing in getting Morse signals across the Air, Dec. 1895 

Wireless Telegraphy — Sir W. H. Preece, C.B., 
F.R.S., at the Royal Institution, 4 June, 1897, 
after some remarks on the propagation of waves 
in the ether ; described and illustrated his own 
method of "Signalling through Space without 
Wires," by means of electro-magnetic waves of 
low frequency and two parallel circuits, estab- 
lished on each bank of a river. This system was 
successfully used in 1895, to telegraph across the 
Sound of Mull, when the submarine cable had 
broken down. Sir Wm. Preece next exhibited and 
explained the apparatus by which Hertzian waves 
of high frequency are utilized in the new system 
invented by Mr. Marconi, a young Italian, who 
brought it to England, in July, 1896, and who 
assisted at the lecture. — Times, 7 June, 1897. 
By Marconi's system, signals had been trans- 
mitted across the Bristol Channel, between 
Penarth and Brian Down, about 9 miles. Sir Wm. 
Preece considered the invention valuable for 
shipping and lighthouse purposes. Further ex- 
periments by the Post Office authorities between 
Dover and Fort Burgoyne, 17 Sept., et seg. 1897 ; 
2nd by Prof. Slaby with balloons (i3|iiii.) March, 
1898. Very successful experiments between the 
S. Foreland lighthouse and the E. Goodwin 
lightship (12 mi.). Current not affected by 
stormy weather, mid Jan. 1899 ; again 30 Jan. ; 
the first Press message, by Marconi's system, 
from Wimreux, near Boulogne, to S. Foreland ; 
messages sent across the Channel in all weathers, 
28-31 March. Lord Rayleigh and members of 
trinity house inspect Sig. Marconi's system at S. 
Foreland, messages worked well, 6 April ; Mr. 
Ritchie (pres. Board of Trade) witnessed similar 
demonstrations, 15 April ; experiments in the pre- 
sence of a French commission between a moving 
ship and the land, messages sent between the 
French gunboat Isis, the S. Foreland, the E. Good- 
win lightship and Boulogne. It was clearly shown 
by a new device discovered by Sig. Marconi that 
not only can' moving ships communicate with 
each other at; sea, but that the messages can be 
concentrated on the point intended to be reached, 
24 April ; similar experiments carried on before 
the Chinese minister and others, 25 April ; the E. 
Goodwin lightship being run into and damaged by 
F. F. Matthews, steamer, a wireless message from 
the lightship to the S. Foreland procured 
assistance, 28 April ; again of practical use in an 
accident to a seaman, 18 May ; experiments by 
Prof. Tuma between 2 balloons at Vienna, fairly 
successful, 14 July ; messages sent from Dover 
town-hall to S. Foreland and E. Goodwin light- 
ship, 16 Aug. ; experiments with the Popoff 
system arranged under conditions of warfare, 
successfully carried on between the Black Sea 
fleet and the Crimean shore, reported, 25 Sept. ; 
rapid development, successful long - distance 
transmissions from the Poldhu station at the 
Lizard, Cornwall, to St. Catherine's, Isle of 
Wight, 22 Jan. 1901 ; across the Atlantic 
to St. John's, Newfoundland, 13, 14 Dec. ; 
and at night 2000 mi. to and from the ship 
Philadelphia, 25 Feb. 1902. Correspondence as 
to whether Prof. Oliver Lodge (in 1894) or Sig. 
Marconi (about June, 1902) was the first inventor, 
Times, 5 and 15 July, 1902. Messages sent from 
the Lizard received by the Carlo Alberto, Italian 
cruiser, at Kronstadt, 1,600 mi., 14 July, 1902 ; 
and from there to the Mediterranean, Aug. -Sept. 
Various patents taken out by sir O. Lodge, 



ELECTRICITY. 



414 



ELECTRICITY. 



M. Righi Branley, Popoff, Slaby, Arco, Braun, 
Solan, Guarini Cervera, Ducretet, Castelli, 
Rutherford, Jackson, and Willoughby Smith 

Messages (sent from Cape Breton to Poldhu, Corn- 
wall) exchanged between the king and lord Minto, 
gov. -gen. of Canada, and the king of Italy; also 
by the Canadian government to the Times, con- 
gratulating the British people on the accomplish- 
ment by Signor Marconi, of the greatest feat which 
modem science has as yet achieved, 21 Dec. 1902 ; 
used successfully between Aldershot and the 
Channel squadron off Portsmouth . 12 Jan. 

President Roosevelt sends a greeting to king 
Edward 19 Jan. 

Two telegrams from the United States received 
by " Marconigraph," Poldhu . 28, 29 March, 

25 stations now erected, 8 in England . April, 

Messrs. Taft and Williams's method of finding ore 
by electricity tried successfully at Prestatyn, 
N. "Wales. ..... 26 March, 

The Orling-Armstrong system shown at the 
Alexandra palace .... 2 April 

Application of X rays and Finsen or ultra-violet 
rays, reported beneficial in lupus, cancer, etc., 
Times . 19 May, 

Italian legation begin installation of Marconi system 
at Pekin to communicate direct with ships in the 
gulf of Pe-chi-li, reported. . . . 11 June, 

International conference on wireless telegraphy 
opened in Berlin 4 Aug. 

"History of Wireless Telegraphy," by J. J. Fahie, 
pub. 1899. 

Communications complete between Dover and Os- 
tend and between Portpatrick and Donaghadee, 
(laid by sir Chas. Bright), May, 1853. " l' ne ^ ate 
sir Charles Bright was the first to lay a cable in 
deep water," lord Kelvin, ... 30 Oct., 
Holyhead and Howth .... June, 

Paris and Bastia Nov. 

London and Constantinople . . . May, 

Cromer and Emden 

Aden and Suez May, 

Malta and Alexandria .... 28 Sept. 

England and Bombay, opened . . .1 March, 
Marsala, Sicily, and La Calle, Algeria. 21 June, 



1854 



1859 
1861 
1865 



Over-house electric telegraphs (first erected at Paris) 
set up between their premises in the City and 
West-end by Messrs. Waterlow, in 1857, extended 
throughout London 18; 

House's printing telegraph, 1846; Bain's electro- 
chemical telegraph, 1846 ; Hughes's system, 1855; 
the American combination system (of the pre- 
ceding), which can convey 2000 words an hour, 
adopted by the American telegraph company, Jan. 

Wheatstone's automatic printing telegraph pa- 
tented 

It was stated that there were in work 15,000 miles of 
electric telegraph wire in Great Britain ; 80,000011 
the continent of Europe ; and 48,000 in America ; 
and altogether about 150,000 miles laid down in 
the world July, 

Gondii's typo-electric telegraph, made known and 
company established, i860; and tried between 
Liverpool and Manchester, 1863 ; promised revival, 

June, 

An "electric telegraph" conference, at which 16 
stairs (mil (licit Britain) were represented, met 
at Paris, see Telegraph .... March, 

The Telegraph Ad (see Telegraph) passed 31 July, 

H enabled H.M.'s postmaster-general to acquire, 
wnik, ami maintain electric telegraphs; postal 
telegraphy began 5 Feb. 

Result of the " Derby" race sent to Calcutta in live 
minutes 24 May, 

Society of Telegraph Engineers established, :;S Feb. 

.Statue of Morse at New York uncovered 10 June, 

Messages rise from 6,000,000 to 20,000,000 a year . 

The " shilling telegraph" said not to pay . July, 

A new international telegraphic convention came 
into operation . 1 Jan. 

Direct line between New Zealand and London, 
completed 18 Feb. ; communication between lord 
mayor and mayors of Wellington and Dunedin, 

23 Feb. 



1859 
i860 



1865 

1 80S 



1872 



1871 
1S72 



1875 
1876 



Atlantic Telegraph. A plan to unite Europe 
and America by telegraph was entered at the 
government registration office in June, 1845, by 
Mr. J. Watkins Brett and Mr. Jacob Brett, who 
made proposals to the government, which were 
not accepted. This scheme was carried out by 
a company in 1858, with the concurrence of the 
British and American governments. 

2500 miles of wire were manufactured, and tested in 

March, 1857 

The laying it down commenced at Valentia, in 
Ireland on 5 Aug. ,, 

The vessels employed were the Niagara andSusque- 
hanna (American vessels), and the Leopard and 
Agamemnon (British vessels). After sailing a few 
miles the cable snapped. This was soon repaired ; 
but on 1 1 Aug. after 300 miles of wire had been 
paid cut, it snapped again (and the vessels 
returned to Plymouth) . . . 11 Aug. ,, 

A second attempt to lay the cable failed through a 
violent storm, .... 20-21 June, 1858 

The third voyage was successful. The junction 
between the two continents was completed by the 
laying down of 2050 miles of wire from Valentia, 
in Ireland, to Newfoundland ; the engineer, sir 
Chas. Bright was knighted, aged 26. The first 
two messages, on 5 Aug., were from the queen of 
England to the president of the United States 
and his reply 5 Aug. ,, 

This event caused great rejoicing in both countries ; 
but, unfortunately, the insulation of the wire 
gradually became more faulty, and after 271 
messages had been sent and received the power 
of transmitting intelligence utterly ceased owing 
to the employment of too high battery power, 

4 Sept. ,, 

A new company was formed i860 

First cable to India laid by sir Chas. Bright for the 
government in 1864 

The Great Eastern steamer, engaged to lay down 
2300 miles of wire, with 25,000 tons burden, sailed 
for Valentia, Ireland, from the Thames, sir 
Samuel Canning, engineer in charge for con- s 
tractors, sir C. Bright and Mr. Latimer Clark, 
consulting engineers to the company, accom- 
panied by professor Win. Thomson and Mr. 
Cromwell F. Varley, as electricians, 15 July, 1865 

After connecting the wire with the land, the Great 
Eastern sailed from Valentia . . 23 July, ,, 

Telegraphic communication with the vessel (inter- 
rupted by two faults, due to defective insulation, 
caused by pieces of metal pressed into the gutta- 
percha coating, which were immediately repaired) 
finally ceased on 2 Aug. The apparatus for 
raising the wire proving insufficient, the vessel 
returned, and arrived at the Medway 19 Aug. ,, 

Atlantic telegraph company reconstituted as the 
Anglo-American telegraph company limited, 

March, 1866 

The Great Eastern, with a new cable, sailed from 
the Medwp.y, 30 June ; the shore-end at Valentia 
was spliced with the main cable, and the Great 
Eastern sailed, 13 July ; 1200 miles of cable had 
been laid, 22 July ; the cable was completely laid 
at Heart's Content, Newfoundland, and a message 
sent to lord Stanley, 27 July ; message from the 
queen to president of the United States sent, 28 
July, " From the queen, Osborne, to the presi- 
dent of the United States, Washington. The 
queen congratulates the president on the success- 
ful completion of an undertaking which she hopes 
may serve as an additional bond of union between 
tlic United States and England." To which he 
replied . . ... 30 July, „ 

The lust cable of 1S65 recovered, 2 Sept. ; and its 
laying completed at Newfoundland . 3 Sept. ,, 

The Great Eastern arrived at Liverpool 19 Sept. „ 
Baronetcies conferred on Messrs. Curtis Lainpson, 
John Pender, Daniel Gooeh, R. R. Glass, 
Samuel Canning: prof. Win. Thomson and capt. 
James Anderson, chief promoters of the com- 
pany, were knighted .... Oct. ,, 

[It was stated (in Sept, 1S66) that the engineer of 
the cable passed signals through 3700 miles of 
wire by means of a battery formed in a lady's 
thimble.] 



ELECTRICITY. 



415 



ELECTEICITY. 



The U. S. congress voted a gold medal to Cyrus 
Field, for his exertions connected with Atlantic 
telegraphs 7 March, 1867 

At a dinner given to Cyrus Field at Willis's Rooms, 
London, telegraphic messages were exchanged 
between the company and lord Monck, viceroy. 
of Canada and president Johnson . 1 July, 1868 

French Atlantic Telegraph company formed ; French 
government grant concession for 20 years, from 
1 Sept. 1869, to baron (1871) Julius de Reuter and 
baron Emile d'Erlanger, see Reuter . 8 July, ,, 

Anglo-Danish telegraph (Newbiggin to Copenhagen) 
completed 31 Aug. „ 

European end of the French Atlantic cable laid at 
Brest, 17 June ; the American end at Duxbury, 
Massachusetts 23 July, 1869 

Reported union between the Anglo-American and 
French Atlantic telegraph companies . Jan. 1870 

Telegraph between Bombay and Suez completed . ,, 

Telegraph between Adelaide and Port Darwin, 
Australia, -completed . . . .22 Aug. 1872 

Message from the mayor of Adelaide received by 
the lord mayor of London, and replied to, 

21 Oct. „ 

The fourth Atlantic telegraph cable laid by the 
Great Eastern, from Valentia, Ireland, to Heart's 
Content, Newfoundland 8 June-3 July, 1873 

The Brazil telegraph cable completely laid, 22 Sept. ,, 

''Faraday," a great electric cable ship, built for 
Siemens Brothers, launched at Newcastle (see 
Steam), 17 Feb. ; sails to lay the "Direct United 
States Company's " cable, 16 May; laid shore-end 
in Nova Scotia, 31 May;. in New Hampshire, 
8 June ; connected with Newfoundland, July . 1874 

The sixth Anglo-American telegraph laid by the 
Great Eastern ..... Aug. -Sept. ,, 

E. A. Cowper's Writing telegraph: quick plain writ- 
ing (36 miles), exhibited at Royal Institution, <fec. 
[an improved one by J. Hart Robertson exhibited 
in London, 1887] May, 1879 

South African line laid between Mozambique and 
Natal, 23 Aug. ; connected with Capetown ; tele- 
grams sent by the queen to sir Bartle Frere and 
others, 25 Dec. ; opened to the public 29 Dec. ,, 

The new French Transatlantic Cable to be laid from 
Brest to St. Pierre by the Faraday, sailed June ; 
connected with Halifax, Oct. 1879 ; line from 
Paris to New York opened . . .1 June, 1880 

International Congress of Electricians opened at 
Paris,, 15 Sept. ; exhibition . n Aug. -20 Nov. 1881 

New Atlantic Cable laid by the Faraday 22 Aug. 

el seq. ,, 

Telegraph from England to Panama completed 

Sept. 1882 

Many submarine cables laid down . . et seq. ,, 

international Sub-marine Conference, Paris, 16 Oct. „ 

Cromwell Fleetwood Varley, electrical engineer, 
who patented many inventions, died . 2 Sept. 1883 

International Conference for protection of sub- 
marine cables, Paris, closed ; convention agreed 
to, 26 Oct. 1883 : signed at London, 14 March ; 
signed for 26 states at London, at Paris 26 March, 
1884 ; another conference . . . .1 Dec. 1886 

The Volta, an electric launch (37 feet long, 7 feet 
beam) built of steel, constructed by Messrs. 
Stephens, Smith & Co. of Millwall, designed by 
Mr. A. Reckenzaun, crossed from Dover to Calais 
and back by means of one charge of the accumu- 
lators ; about 4 hours crossing . . 13 Sept. ,, 

Electric boat for communicating light to powder 
houses, &c. ; invented . by Thomas Webb ; 
launched at Waltham Abbey . . . Aug. ,, 

Arrangements invented for transmitting telegraphic 
messages from railway trains in motion without 
contact with the ordinary wires .... 1887 

A central laboratory of electricity inaugurated at 
Crenelle, Paris, by the International society of 
electricians i3S8 

Sir Charles Bright, an eminent engineer, who laid 
many telegraph cables, died, . . 3 May, ,, 

Electric omnibus invented by Mr. Radcliffe Ward, 
running in London . . . Feb. i839 

Messrs. Moore & Wright announce their column 
printing telegraph in which messages are pro- 
duced resembling type writing . . . April „ 

The Metropolitan electric supply company pro- 
pose six central stations, W. & W.C. . April „ 



International Electro-Technical congress at Frank - 
fort-on-Maine, opened 8 Sept. 1891 

Electrical exhibition at the Crystal Palace, near 
London, opened 9 Jan. 1892 

Electrical Exhibition at St. Petersburg, opened 

23 Jan. „ 

Great progress made, messages and returns sent all 
round the world in a few minutes from New 
York, during an electrical exposition . June, 189 5 

Sir John Pender, an energetic promoter of sub- 
marine telegraphy, born 1815, died . 7 July, „ 

Meetings of sir J. Wolfe Barry, sir Robert Herbert, 
and Mr. Chas. Bright, committee of the Sub-marine 
Telegraph Memorial, to establish a memorial 
to sir John Pender and to promote an inter- 
national memorial recording the jubilee ot 
submarine-telegraphy in 1901 ; subscriptions 
invited . . . 30 Oct., 10, 27 Nov. ,, 

Submarine telegraph cable between Ernden and 
Vigo, opened, reported ... 24 Dec. ,, 

All British Pacific Cable scheme reported to the 
Colonial Office by Mr. Chas. Bright . May, 1897 

"Sub-marine Telegraphs," by Mr. Chas. Bright, 
published Nov. 1898 

New cable laid between Brest and England, 
reported ■ 3 Aug. 1899 

Successful experimen L ,s in rapid telegraphing in 
Buda Pesth and Berlin, 220 words sent in 10 sees. 

Sept. „ 

German-American Cable, between Einden and New 
York, opened 1 Sept. 1900 

Sub-marine cable between Cornwall and St. Vin- 
cent, Cape de Verd Islands, opened . 30 Jan. 1901 

Cable from S. Africa to W. Australia, opened, Oct. ,, 

Committee to consider the cable communications 
of the empire, presided over by lord Balfour, 
evidence given by sir B. A. Sassoon, sir J. D. 
Pender, sir Sandford Fleming, Mr. Chas. Bright, 
and others 1901-2 

Pacific Cable bill passed, 16 Aug. 1901 ; amend- 
ment bill passed 7 Aug. 1902 

All British Pacific Cable from Vancouver' to 
Queensland, connecting New Zealand, Norfolk 
Island, and Australia, first section completed at 
Doubtless Bay, 25 March, 1902 ; the king receives 
a message from Fiji, 10 April ; last link com- 
pleted at Suva, Fiji, 31 Oct. ; a telegraphic girdle 
round the world, touching foreign soil only at 
Madeira and St. Vincent ; a message travels the 
whole circuit in 30 minutes, Times . 1 Nov. ,, 

Elkctiuc Clock, &c. Professor Wheatstone in- 
vented an electro-magnetic telegraph clock in 
1840. Clocks worked by electricity, invented by " 
Mr. Alexander Bain, Mr. Shepherd, and others, 
appeared in the exhibition of 1851. An electric 
clock, with four dials, illuminated at night, was 
set up for some time in front of the office of the 
electric telegraph company, in the Strand, Lon- 
don, July, 1852. A time-ball was set up by Mr. 
French, 'in Cornhill, in 1856. In i860, Mr. C. V. 
Walker so connected the clock of the Greenwich 
observatory with that of the South-eastern station, 
London, that they could be controlled by elec- 
tricity. 

Lo wne's electric clock reported successful mid-May, 1903 

Electric Light. 

Humphry Davy produced electric light with carbon 
points 1800 

Apparatus for regulating the electric light were 
devised in 1846, and shown by W. Staite's patents, 
1846, 1849 ; Staite (at Sunderland, 25 Oct. 1847), 
and Petrie in 1848 ; by Foucault soon after. 

Jules Duboseq's Electric Lamp (the most perfect of 
the kind) appeared at the Paris exhibition in 
1855 ; and was first employed by professor Tyn- 
dall, at the Royal Institution, London, for illus- 
trating lectures on light and colours . . . 1856 

The works of new Westminster bridge were illumi- 
nated by Watson's electric light . . . • 1858 

The Magneto-Electric light (the most brilliant artifi- 
cial light yet producid), devised by Prof. Holmes, 
successfully tried at the South Foreland light- 
house, Dover 1858 and 1859 

The French government ordered eight lighthouses 
to be illuminated by electric light . . April, 1861 

M. Serrin, of Paris, exhibited his improved electric 
lamp 1862 



ELECTRICITY. 



416 



ELECTRICITY. 



Electric Candle, invented by Paul Jabloohkoff (an 
electric current passed through two carbons side 
by side with a slip of kaolin between them, pro- 
duces a steady, soft, noiseless light ; the carbons 
burn like wax) ; reported to the Academy of 
Sciences, Paris, by M. Denayrouze . . Oct. 

The electric light successfully employed for photo- 
graphy by Mr. H. Van der Weyde 

Head, Wrightson, & Co., of Stockton-on-Tees, use 
Siemens' electric light for bridge building . 

At the Magasin du Louvre, 8 electric lights replaced 
100 Carcel gas-burners ; as manageable as coal 
gas supply ; tried at West India docks 15 June, 

Tyndall's experiments at S. Foreland, demonstrate 

superiority of Siemens' dynamo-electric machine, 

Aug. 1 876- July, 

Gramme's machine (light equal to 758 candles) 

Serrin's and Jablochkoff's lights improved by 
Rapieff, a Russian ; taken up by Mr. E. J. Reed, 
M.P. ; a small magneto-electric machine, worked 
by steam ; conducting wires replace the gasworks 
and pipes July, 

Mr. Stayton reports, that the light is much dearer 
than gas, and not suitable for street lighting in 
London Sept. 

Electric light tried at Westminster palace, 28 March, 

Two of Siemens' dynamo-magneto-electric machines 
ordered for the Lizards lighthouses . . . 

The Gaiety theatre lit by light from Lontin's 
machine and modification of Jablochkoff's Aug. 

llippolyte Fontaine's treatise on Electric Lighting, 
1877 ; translated by Paget Higgs, published 

Mr. T. A. Edison announces at New York his dis- 
covery of a method of producing a great number 
of lights and much mechanical power from a 
Ritchie inductive coil, a dynamo-electric machine, 
which he terms "telemachon," which may be 
worked by water-power or steam ; this causes 
a panic among gas companies in London, and 
depression in value of shares . . Sept., Oct. 

Edison's plans of subdividing lights filed at patent 
office 23 Oct. 

National Electric Light company forming Nov. 

Richard Werdermann's electric light subdivided ; a 
number of jets lit simultaneously ; shown by 
British telegraph company . . .2 Nov. 

Electric light used for large workshops at Woolwich, 
&c, throughout the country . . . Nov. 

Times machine-room lit by six lights from one cur- 
rent ; Rapieff system . . . . Oct.-Nov. 

Three systems trying at New York by Edison, 
Sawyer, and Brush Nov. 

Wallace lamp (American), introduced by Mr. Ladd, 

autumn, 

Jablochkoff candle tried at Westgate-on-Sea, by 
Mr. E. F. Davis, 2-26 Dec. ; light successful ; 
difficulty in practice ; given up . . . Dee. 

Formation of nitric acid in the air by electric light ; 
announced by Mr. T. Wills, 13 Dec. 1878 ; of 
hydro-cyanic or prnssic acid by prof. J. Dewar, 

autumn, 

Machines of Farmer <fc Wallace, Lontin, De Meri- 
tens, Browning, Carre,- and others in use in 
London 

Light given up at Billingsgate market, about 30 Jan. 

Siemens' light successful at the Albert Hall, 13 Feb. 

Edison obtains beautiful light from platinum which 
fuses ; used 600-horse power to obtain 20,000 
lights at one station; failure announced, March ; 
his patent registered .... 23 April, 

Exhibition of lights at Royal Albert Hall opened 
by the prince of Wales . . . . 7 May, 

M. Jamins electric candle exhibited at Academy of 
Sciences, Paris . . . about 17 March, 

A continuous current dynamo • magneto-electric 
machine patented by lord Elphinstone and C. W. 
Vincent (since improved) 

A committee of the House of Commons appointed 
" to consider whether it is desirable to authorize 
municipal corporations or other local authorities 
to adopt any schemes for lighting by electricity" 
(Dr. Lyon Playfair, chairman), reports: "The 
energy of one-horse power may he converted into 
gaslight, and yields a Luminosity equal to ts-candle 
power, Bui the Bame amount of energy trans- 
formed into electric lighl produces [,600-oandle 
power. . . . Scientific witnesses considered thai 



in the future the electric current might be exten- 
sively used to transmit power as well as light to 
considerable distances, so that the power applied 
to mechanical purposes during the day might be 
made available for light during the night. . . . 

1876 There seems to be no reason to doubt that the 
electric light has established itself for lighthouse 

, , illumination, and is fitted to illumine large sym- 

metrical places, such as squares, public halls, 

,, railway stations, and workshops. . . . Compared 

with gas, the economy for equal illumination does 
not yet appear to be conclusively established. 

1877 . . . Gas companies, in the opinion of your com- 
mittee, have no special claims to be considered 
as the future distributors of electric light . . . 

„ Your committee, however, do not consider that 

,, the time has yet arrived to give general powers to 

private electric companies to break up the streets, 

unless by consent of the local authorities." — 

Times 19 June, 

Electric light placed on Thames Embankment, in 

1878 British Museum, at Victoria Station, &c. Dec. 
j System of C. F. Brush (American), exhibited in Lon- 
don, said to be simple and trustworthy 23 Dec. 

Dr. C. William Siemens reports to Royal Society, 
that electric light acts like solar light on vegeta- 
tion 2 March, 

Electric lights set up for trial on Thames Embank- 
ment, north side (Jablochkoff system), 13 Dec. 
1878; Waterloo Bridge, 10 Oct. 1879; continued, 

April, 

Mr. J. W. Swan exhibits his system of dividing light, 
&c, at Newcastle-on-Tyne (aft. in London) 20 Oct. 

Trial of three systems in London : Lontin's, South- 
wark bridge, &c; Brush, Blackfriars' bridge, &c; 
Siemens', Guildhall, &c. . . 31 March, 

Swan's incandescent lamp set up in Earnock 
colliery, Hamilton, Lanarkshire, 9 Aug. ; also in 
the Savoy Theatre, London, successfully, opened 

10 Oct. 

Junior Carlton Club first lit by the electric accu- 
mulator 16 Sept. 

Godalming lit by electric light produced by water 
wheels driven by the Wey, Sept. ; reported suc- 
cessful 15 Dec. 

New lamp (the sun) by Louis Clerc, a combination 
of the arc and incandescent systems . June, 

The electric " sun " lamp and power company was 
formed July, 

Electric lighting act passed . . . . 18 Aug. 

The Ferranti system of electric, lighting (invented 
bySir William Thomson, Mr. S. Ziani de Ferranti, 
and Mr. Alfred Thomson) successfully tried, Dec. 

International electrical and gaslight exhibition at 
the Crystal Palace opened . . -13 Dec. 

Electric light applied by Bell Brothers, Newcastle, 
to their mines Dec. 

Elphinstone and Vincent machine advertised for 
sale 

Mr. J. E. H. Gordon's great dynamo machine ex- 
hibited at Woolwich ... 25 Oct. 

Messrs. G. C. V. Holmes, F. E. Burke, and F. 
Cheesewright's invention for the use of the elec- 
tric light in railways tried on Great Northern line, 
reported successful .... 25 Oct. 

St. Matthew's Church, Brixton, lit by electricity 

28 Oct. 

Gaulard-Gibbs' system of secondary generators 
announced April ; inaugurated on the Metro- 
politan railway Nov. 

H. T. Bamett's secondary battery tried at the 
Great Western station . . . Oct. ct scq. 

Mr. O. C. D. Ross's improved galvanic, battery for 
light and motion 18. 

lioiuestfc electric lighting by the Beeman, Taylor 
and King system tried at Colchester n Juue, : 

Electric light employed in Liverpool and Man- 
chester trains Aug. 

Electric lighting successful at the Fisheries, 1883, 
and Health exhibitions 

Brighton successfully lit by the Hammond-Wright 
system ; described Nov. 

Up ward's primary battery (an advance); use of acid 
dispensed with .... July, 

The Edison & Swan united electric light company 
v. Woodhouse & Rawson for infringement of 
patent for carbon filaments ; verdict for plaintiffs 

20 May, 



SS2 



ELECTRICITY. 



417 



ELECTRICITY. 



Affirmed on appeal, judge Cotton dissentient 31 Jan. 1887 

Kensington & Knightsbridge electric lighting 
company's first station opened . Jan. „ 

Mr. Edison's " Pyro-Magnetic " dynamo, in which 
heat is directly transformed into electricity 
without the intervention of steam-engine or 
other machinery, announced to the American 
association Sept ,, 

Due de Feltre's suggestion for the employment of 
windmills to produce electric light by working 
dynamo machines ; experiments made at Cap de 
la Heve Sept. ,, 

Mr. Urquhart's new portable electric lamp, weighing 
4 lb. 2 oz., adapted for coal mines, &c. ; exhibited 
in London Dec. ,, 

Schanschieffs primary battery ; applicable to 
lighting, miners' lamps &c. . . autumn ,, 

Proposal to light part of the city by the Anglo- 
American Brush system submitted to the com- 
missioners of sewers, deferred . . 21 Feb. 1888 

Electric light only in theatres in Spain, ordered by 
royal decree . . . . ' . 31 March, ,, 

Erection by the London electric supply corporation 
of works at Deptfordto supply the metropolis 
with electric light, 

The Edison & Swan united electric light company 
v. Holland and others; 21 days' trial; divided 
verdict, Edison's patent of 1879 declared invalid. 
Cheeseborough patent of 1878 maintained 16 July, 
1888. Edison's patent declared valid on appeal, 

18 Feb. 1889 

The house-to-houseelectric supply company founded 
r888 ; the first station at West Brompton opened 
24 Jan., about nine stations established and 
others in preparation .... Feb. ,, 

The city of London from Fleet street to Aldgate 
about to be electrically lighted . . Feb. , , 

The electric light had been adopted at Milan, Rome, 
Paris, Tours, Marseilles, New York and other 
great cities up to June, 1890 

Fourteen companies have been established to 
supply electricity in the Metropolis alone up to . 

Feb. 1 89 1 

The first permanent electric lights in the city of 
London set up in Queen Victoria street from the 
Mansion-house to Blackfriars . . summer, ,, 

Electric light extension acts brought in, . . 1892 

Several explosions in St. Pancras and other places 
in the electrical supply street boxes, attributed 
to the presence of sodium and escaped coal-gas ; 
remedies suggested by the Board of Trade Feb. 1895 

Revised regulations respecting electric lighting 
issued by the Board of Trade, about, 5, Feb. 1896 

J. A. Berly's " Universal Electrical Directory," 
nearly 1,000 pages, price 6s., for • . . . ,, 

Prof. Nernst's new electric lamp described by Mr. 
Jas. Swinburne at the Society of Arts . 8 Feb. 1899 

Mr. Thos. Edison's machine for generating elec- 
tricity direct from coal without dynamos or 
engines, reported .... .1 Sept. 1900 

Electric Loom. M. Bonelli, of Turin, in 1854, de- 
vised a plan of employing magnets and electro- 
magnets in weaving, thereby superseding the 
tedious and costly Jacquard system of cards. 
His loom was set up in London in 1859, and lec- 
tured upon at the Royal Institution by professor 
Faraday 8 June, i860 

Electric Pen (for copying, <&c), invented by Mr. 
T. A. Edison ; an electric writing company was 
established ; active in 1877-8 

Lump-lighting by Electricity.— -Mr. St. George Lane 
Fox's invention tried at Fulham, and reported 
successful, autumn 1877 ; doubtful . . . 1879 

Electrophone, invented by Dr. Strethill Wright, 
for producing sound by electric currents of high 
tension : one laid before the Royal Scottish 
Society of.Arts. See Telephone . . 25 April, 1864 

Electro-Tint. Mr. Palmer, of Newgate-street, 
London, patented inventions by which engravings 
may be copied from engraved plates, and the 
engraving itself actually produced, by elec- 
trical agency, and one process he termed gly- 
phography !8 4 i 



Electro-Type or Deposit. Mr. W. Cruikshank's 
experiments, 1800 ; Mr. Spencer, in England, 
and professor Jacobi, in Russia, made the 
first successful experiments in this art in 1837 
and 1838. Since then, Mr. A. Smee and others 
have perfected the processes. In 1840, Mr. Rob. 
Murray applied black-lead to non-metallic bodies 
as a conducting surface. In 1840, Mr. Ruolz and 
Mr. Elkington applied it to gilding and silver 
plating. Since 1850, printing types and wood- 
cuts, and casts from them, have been electrotyped 
with copper, and the process is now largely 
adopted in the arts. 

Messrs. C. Wheatstone and F. A. Abel experiment on 
tho application of electricity to military purposes. 

An Electric safety lamp made by MM. Dumas and 
Benoit ; exhibited at Paris . . . 8 Sept. 

The Electro-block company established, i860 ; by 
their processes the enlargement and reduction of 
engravings, obtained by india-rubber, can be 
immediately transferred to a lithographic stone, 
and multiplied. Leech's engravings, so enlarged, 
were coloured by himself, and exhibited in 

Ozone, generated by a current produced by 
Wild's magneto-electric machine, employed to 
bleach sugar, at Whitechapel (Edward Beane's 
patent) Aug. 

Electric furnace, formed in the electric arc, by C. 
Win. Siemens, fuses platinum, iridium, etc., shown 
at Royal Institution . . . .12 March, 

Electric light applied by him to grow vegetables 
and fruit in greenhouses 

The electric welding syndicate exhibit at Hoxton, 
Professor Elihu Thomson's process of welding 
metals lay electricity (discovered in 1887, and 
shown in New York) . . . . . Jan. 

Machines at work at Crewe . . . April, 

Electric Railway by Werner Siemens and 
Halske, opened near Berlin . . 12 May, 

Siemens' motive machines 6 inches square, 2 inches 
deep ; Tissandier's electrically propelled balloon ; 
Menier's ploughing machine, 11 Aug. ; electric 
tramway set up in Paris . . . Aug- 

Siemens' new electric railway tried at Berlin 

about 7 Nov. 

International electrical exhibition, Crystal Palace, 
completed , inaugurated by the duke of Edinburgh , 
25 Feb. ; closed .... 3 June, : 

First electric tramway cars run at Leytonstone, 
Essex 4 March, 

New electric railway opened at Berlin . 1 May, 

Electric congress at Paris opened . . 11 Oct. 

A boat (" Electricity ") with screw-propeller moved 
by power, provided by electric accumulators 
(built by the Electrical Storage Company), sails 
from Miilwall to London Bridge . 28 Sept. 

Siemens' electrical tramway between Portrush and 
Giant's Causeway completed, Dec. 1882 ; opened 
by earl Spencer 28 Sept. j 

Electric tramcars first run from Kew to Hammer- 
smith . . . . ' . . 10 Mar. 

Electrical exhibition at Westminster Aquarium 
opened -14 Mar. 

International electric exhibition at Vienna 
16 Aug. -3 Nov. 

Electric exhibition at Philadelphia opened, 8 Sept. : 

Electrical transmission of force ; M. Marcel Deprez 
experiments at Creil (1876-86), supported by 
M. Rothschild, reported successful : — mechanical 
power transmitted 35 miles for industrial 
purposes 23 July, 1 

Elieson company's electric engines reported suc- 
cessful at Stratford ; tramcars driven five miles 

Oct. et seq. 

Electrical traction on tramways at Northfleet ; 
successful demonstration . . .14 March, 

Successful trial of an electric tramcar on a new 
principle, at Birmingham ... 23 Oct. i 

Mr. M. Immisch's electric motors' employed suc- 
cessfully in pumping and hauling at St. John's 
colliery, Normanton and other places . Nov. 

The City & South London electric railway opened 
by the prince of Wales 4 Nov., to the public, 

18 Dec. 

E B 



38o. 



ELECTEIC LIGHTING ACT. 



418 



ELEMENTS. 



Mr. Nikola Tesla, at the. Royal Institution, ex- 
hibited his alternate-current electric motor, by 
which currents are transformed by rapidly chang- 
ing their direction to and fro into mechanical 
power. It was stated that, with the increase ot 
physical power, the effect upon the human frame 
is diminished . . . . . 3, 4 Feb. i3g2 
[By means of Mr. Tesla's apparatus, the force of 
about 77 7 horse power was transmitted from the 
rapids of the Neckar to Frankfort-on-Maine, 1 10 
miles, Sept. 1891.] See Niagara. 

See Liverpool, 1893. 

M. Heilmann's electric, motor traction-engine on 
the Western railway in France, attained the 
speed of 65 miles an hour . . .9 May, 1894 

Trial trip from Paris to Mantes of an electric loco- 
motive devised by M. Heilmann . 12 Nov. 1897 

Central London electric railway (Bank to Shepherd's 
Bush) opened by the prince of Wales . 27 June, 1900 

Electrification of Mersey railway completed 1 May, 1903 

South London electric tramways system opened 
by prince of Wales .... 15 May, ,, 

Electro-Physiology. Aristotle and Pliny refer 
to the powers of the torpedo ; Walsh and 
Ingenhouss, the discoveries of Galvani in 1790, 
and the researches of Matteucci about 1830, have 
greatly advanced the science. 

Fowler experimented on animals with galvanism, 
1793 ; and Aldini, 1796, who produced muscular 
contractions in a criminal recently executed, 1803; 
Ure did the same 1818 

Du Bois Reymond lectured on animal electricity at 
the Royal Institution, and showed the existence 
of an electric current, developed by action of the 
human muscles, in May, 1855 

Dr. Burdon Sanderson (bart. 1899) announced his 
discovery of electricity in plants to the British 
Association at Bradford . . . Sept. 1873 

Executions by electricity, see under Death. 

ELECTEIC LIGHTING ACT, 45 & 46 
Vict. c. 56, passed 18 Aug. 1882. Amendment 
act passed 1888 (extending- the monopoly of electric 
light companies from 21 to 42 years). Regulations 
•of the Board of Trade published 18 May, 1889. 
Professor Fleming reported in 1894, that London 
was supplied by 13 companies, and about 700,000 
incandescent electric lamps were in use, and about 
425,000 lamps in the provinces. Electric lighting 
is now generally adopted throughout the civilised 
■world, 1903. 

ELECTEO-CHEMICAL SOCIETY, 

ounded in America, at Philadelphia, pres., prof. 
J. W. Richards, 3-5 April, 1902. Another in 
London. The "Faraday," Mr. Swan, pres., 1903. 

ELECTEOCUTION, a method of execution 
by means of electricity. See under Death. 

ELECTEOLYSIS, see Electricity, 1883. 

ELEGY. Elegiac verse (consisting of a hexa- 
meter and pentameter alternately) was the first 
variation from the hexameter or epic measure, used 
by Tyrtams and other early poets. The elegies of 
Ovid and Catullus are celebrated. Gray's "Elegy, 
written in a country churchyard," was published 
in 1749. 

ELEMENTAEY EDUCATION ACT, 
3} & 34 Vict. c. 75, passed 9 Aug. 1870 ; amended 
in 1872. Clause 25, which authorizes payments to 
support denominational schools, much objected to 
by dissenters; bill to repeal it rejected by the 
commons (373-128), 10 June, 1.S74.' Another act 
(for agricultural districts, &e.,) brought in by lord 
Sandon, 18 May, 1876; royal assent, 15 Aug. 1876. 
Another combining act passed 5 Aug. [891. Other 
acts passed, 8 Aug. 1900. See Education. 



ELEMENTS were formerly reckoned as four-: 
earth, air, fire and water. Lavoisier enunciated 
the principle that all bodies which cannot be 
proved to be compounded are elements, and to be 
treated as such. Mr. W. Crookes, (knt. 1897), 
F.R.S., in a lecture at the Royal Institution, Lon- 
don, by delicate experiments demonstrated that 
yttrium is a compound body, and expounded a 
theo-iy that all the elements have been evolved 
from what he termed Protyle, 18 Feb. 1887. Above 
twelve new elements said to have been discovered 
in rare earths by MM. Kriiss and Nilson by the 
spectroscope in 1887. Mr. Crookes declared Liidy- 
miuni to be a compound body. See Table, and 
separate articles. The chemical elements were 
stated to be about 54 in 1834, about 77 in 188 1, 
about 80, 1903.* 



LIST OF 63 ELEMENTS, 


1872 (Odling). 


Gold . . • . 


© 


— Silver .... 


D 


— Mercury 


5 


— Copper .... 


? 




6 


Tin .... 


% 




h 


1490. Antimony 


. B. Valentine. 


1530. Bismuth . 


. Agricola ? 


1541. Zinc .... 


. Paracelsus. 


— Carbon 




Sulphur .... 




1669. Phosphorus 


. Brandt. 


1 702. Borax, boron . 


. Homberg. 


1733. ( Arsenic | 
,, ( Cobalt ) ' 


. G. Brandt. 


1 741. Platinum 


. Woods. 


1751. Nickel 


. Cronstedt. 


/Soda -turn 


. "\ Duhamel. 


, I Potash 
I .736| L ime .... 
t0 R I Silex .... 
1758 Alumina 


' Marggraf. 


. / Bergmann, 


and 


( Magnesia . 


. J Scheele. 


1766. Hydrogen 


. Cavendish. 


1 771. Fluor -ine . 


. Scheele. 


1772. Nitrogen 


. Rutherford. 


I774 . Chlorine{ ^^ } Scheele. 


,, Oxygen .... 


. Priestley. 


„ /Manganese 


. \ Gahn. 


,, J Baryta -ium . 
1778. J Molybdenum 


' V Scheele. 


1 78 1. (Tungsten 


. ) Delhuart 


1782. Tellurium . 


. Midler. 


1789. ( Uranium 
„ ( Zirconia -ium . 


> Klaproth. 


1791. Titanium 


'. Gregor. 


1793. Strontia -ium 


. Hope. 


1794. Yttria -ium . 


Gadolin. 


1797. | Chromium. 
179S. | Glucina -11111 . 


[■ Vauquelin. 


1802. Tantalum . 


. Hatchett. 


1803. Cerium .... 


. Klaproth. 


„ ( Palladium . 
,, 1 Rhodium 


[■ Wollaston. 


,, ( Iridium 
,, t Osmium 


I Descotils &Smithson 


) Tenuant. 


1811. Iodine 


. Courtois. 


1817. Lithium 


Arrwedson. 


Selenium . 


Berzelius. 


1S18. Cadmium 


Stromevcr. 


1826. Bromine . 


Balard 


1828. Tliiirinum 


Berzelius. 


1S30. Vanadium . 


Sefstrom. 



' Mr. Joseph Norman Lockyer, in a paper read at' 1 
(lie Royal Society, 12 Dec. 1S78,' expressed doubts of ths I 
elementary character of some of the following substances 
based "ii his spectroscopic experiments. His views, 
were net supported by the researches of professors Dewa»v 
.111.1 l.iveing. 1S80-81. SeeChloriitc. Professor Mendeleef I 
classified the elements into 7 groups or families; eachj 
having special properties. His " Principles of Chemistry 
(iu English), published 1898. 



ELEPHANT. 



419 



ELLORA. 



r8 39 . 


( Lanthanum . 




■ ■ ) 


1841. 


-j Didymium 




. V Mosander. 


1843- 


( Erbium . 




• ■) 


ES44. 


Ruthenium 




. Glaus. 


CS46. 


Niobium 




. t . H. Rose. 


t8 5 9- 


J Caesium 
\ Rubidium 




" j-Bunsen. 


1861. 


Thallium . 




. Crookes. 


1863. 


Indium 




. . Reich and Richter. 


c8 7 5- 


Gallium 




. Lecoq de Boisbau- 
dran. 


t8 77 


Davyum 1?) . 




. . Kern. 




Neptunium 




. Hermann. 




Ilmenium (?) 






[878. 


Philippium 




. Delafontaine. 


[879. 


Norwegium 




. . Tellef Dahll. 


,, 


Mosandrum (?) 




. Lawrence Smith 


,, 


Deeipium (?) 




. . Delafontaine. 


,, 


Scandium (?) 






,, 


Ytterbium (?) 




. . Marignac. 


" 
" 


Holmium 
Thulium 




• J-Soret. 








Vesbium 




. . Scaochi. 


t886. 


Germanium 






Helium discovered, 


189s; 


Neon, Krypton, and Xenon 


!h 1898. Radium (which see) 


1903. 




See .4 


rgon and Air. 



ELEPHANT, in the earliest times trained to 
war. The history of the Maccabees informs us, 
mat " to every elephant they appointed IOOO men 
arme .1 with coats of mail, and 500 horse : and upon 
the elephants were strong towers of wood, &c." The 
elephants in the army of Antiochus were provoked 
to tight by showing them the " blood of grapes and 
mulberries." The first elephant said to have been 
seen in England was one of enormous size, presented 
by the king of France to our Henry III. in 1238. 
Baker's Ghron. Polyaenus states that Csesar 
brought one to Britain 54 B.C., which terrified the 
inhabitants greatly. See Knighthood. 13 elephants 
in lord mayor's procession, 9 Nov. 1876. 

Chunee, an elephant 13 feet high, in Cross's menagerie, 
Exeter Change, London, becoming dangerous, was 
shot, receiving 180 musket balls before he fell, 1 March, 
1826. 

A young elephant brought into Court of Exchequer to 
show his peaceful character, in a suit for damages for 
frightening a pony at the Alexandra Palace, 18 July, 
1879. 

Barnum, the American showman, bought, for 2,000?., 
the large male African elephant Jumbo, 6 tons weight, 
of the Zoological Society, Regent's Park, London. 
Jumbo refused to go 18 Feb. After much trouble he 
was removed in the night, 22-23 March, and placed in 
the Assyrian Monarch, 24 March ; arrived at New 
York, 9 April, 1882 ; killed on the railway, 15 Sept. 1885. 

A so-called white elephant (little differing from others), 
"Toung Taloung," bought from the king of Siam, 
shown at the Zoological gardens, London, 17 Jan. to 
12 March, 1884; burnt with Alice, "Jumbo's wife," 
and others at the destruction of Mr. Barnum's show 
and menagerie at Bridgeport, U.S., by fire, 20 Nov. 1887. 

"Jung Pasha" given to the "Zoo" by the Prince of 
Wales in 1876 ; died 8 March, 1896. 

"Jingo," the tallest elephant in England, sold by the 
Zoological Soc. to Mr. Bostock, of U.S.A.; pined away 
and died at sea, 12 Mar. 1903. 

" Lita," a pet elephant in the Dublin Zoological gardens, 
killed his keeper, and was shot, n June, 1903. 

ELEUSINIAN MYSTERIES- The insti- 
tution of these annual secret religious ceremonies 
in honour of Demeter (Ceres) at Athens, is tra- 
ditionally attributed to Cadmus, 1550; to Ereeh- 
theus, 1399; or to Eumolpus, 1356 B.C. If any one 
revealed them, he was to be put to death. They 
were introduced from Eleusis into Rome, lasted 
about 1800 years, and were abolished by Theodosius 
A.i). 389. The Iiws were — 1. To honour parents; 
2. To honour the gods with the fruits of the earth; 



3. Not to treat brutes with cruelty. Cicero makes 
the civilisation of mankind one of the beneficial 
effects of the Eleusiriian mysteries. During the 
excavations carried on by the Greek archse (logical 
society on the site of Eleusis in 1895, interesting 
ancient relics were discovered. 

ELGIN MARBLES, derived chiefly from the 
Parthenon, a temple of Minerva, on the Acropolis at 
Athens, of which they formed part of the frieze and 
pediment, the work of Phidias, under the govern- 
ment of Pericles, about 440 k.c. Thomas earl of Elgin 
began tne collection of these marbles during his 
mission to the Ottoman Porte, in 1802; and from him 
tbey were purchased by the British government for 
35,000^. and placed in the British Museum, in 1816. 
The ship conveying them was wrecked near Cerigo, 
and Mr. W. R. Hamilton, who was on board, re- 
mained several months at Cerigo, and recovered 
them from the sea. 

ELGUETA, N. Spain ; near here the Carlists 
defeated the republicans under gen. Soma, and 
took 600 prisoners, 5-6 Aug. 1873. 

ELINGA, W. Spain. Here P. Scipio Africanus 
totally defeateJ the Carthagenians under Hasdrubal 
Gisco, which led to their expulsion from the country, 
206 B.C. 

ELIS, a Greek state termed the " Holy Land," 
in the Peloponnesus, founded by the Heraclidae, 
1 103 B.C. Here Iphitus revived the Olympic games, 
884, which were regularly celebrated^ after Coroebus 
gained the prize in 776. Elis surrendered many 
towns to the Spartans in war, 400. After various 
changes, Elis joined the Achaean league, 274; and 
with the rest of Greece was subjugated by the 
Romans in 146. 

ELIZABETHAN SOCIETY. Lecture by 

the president, Mr. Sidney Lee, on " Thomas Nash," 
5 Dec. 1894. 

Elizabethan Stage Society, founded in 1895 to promote 
the performance of Shakespeare's plays in a manner 
resembling that of his time; "Twelfth Night" was 
so performed, under the direction of Mr. Win. Poel, at 
Burlington Hall, London, 21 June; "Comedy of 
Errors," at Gray's Inn, 6 Dec, 1895 ; Marlowe's 
" Faustus," July, 1896. Other plays since, " Tempest," 
at the Mansion House, 2 Nov. 1897 ; Ben Jonson's 
" Alchemist," 24 Feb. ; Mr. Algernon Swinburne's 
"Locrine," 20 March ; Edw. Fitzgerald's adaptation of 
Calderon's "LaVidaes Sueiio," 15 May, 1899; "Every- 
man," a fine 15th-century morality play (copied from 
the original MS. in the library of Lincoln cathedral), 
revived first in the Charterhouse, London, 13, 20, 27 
July, 1901, performed afterwards with great effect at 
Oxford, Brighton, Cheltenham, St. George's hall, and 
the Imperial theatre, closed, 9 July, 1902, and at the 
Coronet theatre, 5 Ap. 1903 ; a reprint issued with notes 
by Mr. Bullen, 1902. Marlowe's "Edw. II." performed 
at Oxford, 10 Aug. 1903. 

ELL (so named from ulna, the arm) was fixed at 
45 inches, by king Henry I. in noi. The old 
French ell, or aime, was 46790 inches. 

ELLISON GALLERY. In April, i860, 
Mrs. Elizabeth Ellison (in conformity with the wish 
of her deceased husband, Richard), presented to the 
South Kensington Museum a series of 50 original 
water-colour drawings, by the first masters. 

ELLORA or ELORA, Central India ; remark- 
able for its very ancient rock-cut temple ; excavated 
according to Hindoo legends nearly 7000 years ago ; 
but. more probably about 800 a.d. The town was 
ceded to the British by Holkar in 1818, and trans- 
ferred by them to the Nizam of the Deccan in 1822. 

e e 2 



ELMINA. 



420 



EMBARGO. 



ELMINA (originally named La Mina, from the 
gold found here), and Dutch Guinea, VV. Africa, 
were ceded by the Dutch government by treaty, 
signed Feb. 1872, and consolidated with the West 
African settlements ; first governor, Mr., after Sir 
John, Pope Hennessy, April, 1872. See Ashantees. 

EL-OBEID, Battle of, 3-5 Nov. 1884. See 
Soudan. 

ELOPEMENT. A wife who departs from her 
husband, loses her dower by the statute of Westm, 
1285 — unless her husband, without coercion of the 
church, be reconciled to her. Earlier laws punished 
elopement with death when adultery followed. 

ELPHIN (Ireland). St.Patrick founded acathe- 
dral near Elphin, in the 5th century, and placed over 
it St. Asicus, whom he created bishop, and who 
soon after filled it with monks. After many cen- 
turies, Roscommon, Ardcarn, Drumclive, and others 
of less note, were also annexed to Elphin, which 
became one of the richest sees in Ireland. It is 
valued in the king's books, by an extent returned 
28 Eliz., at 103/. 18s. sterling. The see was united 
to Kilmore in 1841, under the provisions of the 
Church Temporalities act, passed Aug. 1833. 

ELSINORE, Zealand, Denmark, formerly the 
station for receiving the Sound dues (which see). 
Population, 1890, 11,082. 

ELSWICK, a township of Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
the site of the great works of lord Armstrong & Co. 
The engineering department began about 1847, the 
ordnance works in 1857, see Cannon. Since then 
the naval construction has been largely carried on. 
About 14,000 workmen employed in 1888 and about 
19,000 in 1896. The works were visited by the 
Chinese grand secretary, Li Hung Chang, who 
specially examined the Esmeralda, 1st class cruiser, 
completed for the Chilian Republic, 20 Aug. 1896. 
Great fire atthe works, estimated damage, 150,000^., 
10 June, 1899. 

EL-TEB, Battle of, 29 Feb. 1884. See Soudan. 

ELY, an island in Cambridgeshire, on which a 
church was built about 673, by Etheldreda, queen 
of Egfrid, king of Northumberland ; she also founded 
a religious house, filled it with virgins, and became 
herself first abbess. The 1200th anniversary was 
celebrated 17-21 Oct. 1873; about 60,000/. had 
then been spent on the restoration of the cathedral. 
The Danes ruined the convent about 870 ; but a 
monastery was built in 879, on which king Edgar 
and succeeding monarchs bestowed great privileges 
and grants of land ; whereby it became the richest 
in England. Richard, the eleventh abbot, wishing 
to free himself from the bishop of Lincoln, made 
great interest with Henry I. to get Ely erected into 
a bishopric, 1108, and his successor Hervseus was 
the first prelate, 1109. It is valued in the king's 
books at 2134/. 18s. $d.; present stated income, 
5500/. Population in 1881, 8,171; 1891, 8,017; 
1901, 64,435. 

RECENT BISHOPS. 

17S1. James York, died 26 Aug. 1808. 

1808. Thomas Dampier, died 13 May, 1812. 

1812. Bowyer Edward Sparke, died 4 April, 1836. 

1836. Joseph Allen, died 20 March, 1845. 

1845. Thomas Turton, died 7 Jan. 1864. 

1864. Edward Harold Browne, translated to Winchester, 

Aug. 1873. 
1873. Janies Russell Woodford, Aug. ; died 24 Oct. 1SS5. 
1885. Lord Alwyne Compton. 

ELY CHAPEL, Holborn, London, erected in 
the 14th century, sold for 5250/., 29 Jan. 1874; 



acquired by the R. C. fathers of the order of Charity, 
1874 ; aQ d finely restored at the expense of the 
duke of Norfolk and others, opened as St. Ethel- 
dreda's chapel, 23 June, 1876. 

ELZEVIR, or ELSEVIER, a family of print- 
ers, in Holland, whose reputation is based on fine 
pocket editions of the classics. 

Louis, the founder, was born in 1540 ; began business at 
Leyden in 1580 ; he printed about 150 works, and died 
4 Feb. 1617. His sons (especially Bonaventure) and 
grandsons, were celebrated for their work. 

EMANCIPATION, see Roman Catholics and 
Slavery. The Emancipation Society for slaves^ 
lasted 1862-5. j 

EMANUEL HOSPITAL, Westminster, 
founded in 1594 by lady Anne Dacre for aged people? 
and children. Its original annual income had in-[ 
creased from 360/. to about 4000/. in 1870, wherJ 
changes in the disposition of the funds were pro- 
posed by the Charity Commissioners, and somei 
effected. Through reduction of income to aboud 
800/. the buildings decay, and the number ofc 
inmates decrease, reported Jan. 1890. The proposed^ 
change of site much opposed, 1892. 

. EMBALMING- The ancient Egyptians be^ 
lieving that their souls, after many thousand years] 
would reinhabit their bodies, if preserved entire, 
embalmed the dead. Some of the bodies, called] 
mummies, buried 3000 years ago, are still perfect Jii 
"The physicians embalmed Israel," 1689 b.jcJ 
Gen. 1. 2 ; see Mummies. Carbolic acid was suc-p 
cessfully employed by professor Seely in America 



The most perfect specimens of modern embalming are pre 
served in the museum of the royal college of surgeons 
one being the body of the wife of Van Butchell, pre 
served by John Hunter by injecting camphorated 
spirits of wine, &c. , into the arteries and veins ; andfc 
the other the body of a young woman, who died about 
1780 of consumption, in the Lock hospital. The method 
of embalming royal personages in modern times is fully, 
described in Hunter's " Posthumous Works." He dleaj 
in 1793. — During the American War (1861-5), manv 

soldipvx' lmdips wpvp PTnbfllTTieH mid split, lionie 



soldiers' bodies were embalmed and sent home 
Improvements in embalming made by Prof. Laskowsk] 
of Geneva, 1 " 



EMBANKMENTS of earth were erected b; 
the ancients for preservation from their encmie 
and the inundations of the tide. Those of tin 
Eg3 r ptians and Babylonians are described by Hero' 
dotus and Strabo. To the Romans are attribute^ 
the first dykes of Holland, and the embankments o' 
Romney Marsh, considered to be the oldest in Britain! 
In 1250 Henry III. issued a writ enforcing the supH 
port of these works ; and his successors followed h 
example. James I. greatly encouraged the cmbanl 
ment of the Thames. Sir W. Dugdale's " Histor 
of Embanking" first appeared in 1662 ; sec Drai>t\ 
age, Levels, and Thames. Since 1830, millions it 
pounds have been expended in enibankments fa, 
railways. r 

EMBAEGO, from the Spanish embargar, tii 
detain, applied to the restraining ships from sailing 
This power is vested in the crown, but is rarel 
exercised except in extreme cases, and sometimes f] 
a prelude to war. The most memorable instance 
of embargo were those for the prevention of coif 
going out of the kingdom in 1766 ; and for the di, 
tention of all Russian, Danish, and Swedisb shi] 1 
in the several ports of the kingdom, owing t 
the armed neutrality, 14 Jan. 1801 ; see Armi 
Neutrality. 



EMBEE WEEKS. 



421 



EMIGEATTON. 



EMBEE WEEKS, instituted, it is said, by 
pope Callixtus I. (219-223), to implore the blessing 
of God on the produce of the earth by prayer and 
fasting;, in which penitents used to sprinkle the 
ashes (embers) of humiliation on their heads. In 
the English church the Ember days are the Wed- 
nesday, Friday, and Saturday, after the following 
days — the first Sunday in Lent, Whit-sunday, 14 
Sept. (Holy Cross), and 13 Dec. (St. Lucia). 

EMBBOIDEBY is usually ascribed to the 
Phrygians ; but the Sidonians excelled in it, and it 
is mentioned in 1491 B.C. Exodus xxxv. 35 and 
xxxviii. 23. See Bayeux Tapestry. Embroidery is 
now done by machinery. The first embroidery ma- 
chine is said to have been invented by John Duncan 
of Glasgow in 1804. Heilman's embroidery machine 
was patented by Kochlin. Berlin Wool-work has 
been much improved of late years by the production 
of more elegant patterns, first published by Mr. 
Wittich in Berlin, about 1810. 

EMEEALD, a precious stone, of a green colour, 
found in the East and in Peru. It has been er- 
roneously alleged that there were no true emeralds 
in Europe before the conquest of Peru ; but there is 
one in the Paris Museum, taken from the mitre of 
pope Julius II. who died in 1513, and Peru was not 
conquered till 1545. It is stated that there were 
mines at Gebel Zabara worked by Egyptians, 1800 

B.C. 

EMEEGENCY MEN, a name given to the 
more energetic members of the Irish Defence As- 
sociation ; and especially to the men engaged in 
carrying out evictions in Ireland. See Mansion 
House Funds, 188 1. 

EMESA, now Hems, Syria, renowned for a 
temple of the sun, the priest of which, Bassianus, 
was proclaimed emperor with the name Heliogabalus 
or Elagabalus, 218. His atrocities led to his assas- 
sination, II March, 222. 

EMIGEAISTTS- The French aristocracy and 
clergy {emigres) began to leave their country in 
July, 1789, at the breaking out of the revolution: 
their estates were confiscated in Dec. A large num- 
ber returned in 1802, by an amnesty granted after 
the peace of Amiens. Many were indemnified after 
the restoration in 1815. 

EMIGrBATION. Phoenician and Greek emi- 
grants colonised the coasts of the Mediterranean and 
the Black Sea', s°e Magna Grcecia, Marseilles, kc. 
The discovery of America opened a vast field for 
emigration, which was restrained by Charles I. in 
1637. It has been greatly encouraged since 1819. 
Regulations for emigration were made in 1831, and 
in Jan. 1840, the Colonial Land and Emigration 
Board was established. Emigration much promoted 
through want of employment in London, 1869-70 ; 
from Ireland, by act passed, 1883. Much emigra- 
tion from Great Britain and Germany to America, 
1881-5. Fare of steerage passengers from Britain 
to America by steamers reduced to about aI. Jan. 
C883. 

The "Order of the Sons of St. George," at Phil- 
adelphia, which was established to succour emi- 
.grants, still exists. (See under George, St.) It 
published a letter dissuading unsuitable emigra- 
tion 31 July, 1874 

Meetings at the Mansion House to promote State- 
directed emigration of the unemployed 5 April, 1882 

A tax of 2S. per head levied in United States on 
immigrants ; act passed by congress in opposition 
t 4 the government and steamship companies 

Aug. ,. 



Association formed to promote State-directed emi- 
gration and colonization ... 10 Aug. 1883 

About 2,000 deserted children domesticated in 
Liverpool, and sent to Canada by the agency of 
Mr. Samuel Smith and Mrs. Birt, reported Dec. 1886 

Emigrants' Information Office, London, opened 7 
Oct. 1886; reported to be highly successful May, 1888 

The Self-Help Emigration Society, supported by 
the earls of Aberdeen and Roden, lords Monkswell - 
and Dorchester and other gentlemen, established 
in 1884. Up to 1898, aboiit 6,000 emigrants had 
been assisted by the society ; received the grant 
of 11,500 acres in Ontario and a section neir 
Winnipeg, announced ... 13 Jan. 1898 

Decrease of emigration, lowest in 1894 (35,959), 
since 1851 

Emigration from the United Kingdom, in 1815, 2081 ; in 
1820, 25,729 ; in 1830, 56,907 ; in 1840, 90,743 ; in 1850 
280,843 I hi i860, 128,469 ; in 1866, 204,882 ; in 1870, 
256,940; in 1871, 252,435 ; 1872,295,213; 1873,310,612 
1874, 241,014 ; 1875, 173,809. Of British origin only 
1876, 109,469 ; 1877, 95,195 ; 1878, 112,902 ; 1879 
161,274 ; 1880, 227,542 ; 1881, 243,002 ; 1882, 279,366 
1883, 320,118 ; 1884, 242,179 ; 1885, 207,644 ; 1886 
232,900 ; 1887, 281,487 ; 1888, 279,928 ; 1889, 253,795 
1890, 218,116; 1891, 218,507; 1892, 210,042; 1893, 
208,814 ; 1894, 156,030 ; 1895, 185,181 ; 1896, 161,925 
1897, 146,460; 1898, 140,644; 1899, 146,362; 1900 
168,825 ; 1901, 171,715 ; 1902, 205,910. See Immigration 
1846. 1851. 

From England .... 86,611 254,970 

,, Scotland 3,427 18,646 

,, Ireland 38,813 62,350 



128,851 335.Q66 

Emigration from the United Kingdom from 1815 to 
1897: to the United States, 9,892,597 ; to British N. 
America, 2,236,392 ; to Australasia, 1,777,876 ; to the 
Cape of Good Hope and Natal, 339,687 ; to all other 
places, 468,450. 

Emigration to North American colonies, West Indies, 
Cape of Good Hope, New South Wales, Swan River, 
VanDicmen's Land, <fce. , in 1820-30, 154,291 ; in 1830-40, 
277,695. 

To the Cape and Natal in 1897, 28,801; 1898, 19,756; 
1899, 14,432 ; 1900, 20,857 '' IQOI i 23,254 ; 1902, 43,224. 

To North American Colonies, in 1842, 54,123; in 1847, 
109,680 ; in 1856, 16,378 ; in 1861, 12,707 ; in 1863, 
18,083 ! ' n 1864, 12,721 ; in i860, 13,255 ; in 1867, 15,503 ; 
in 1868, 21,062 ; in 1869, 33,891 ; in 1870, 35,295 ; 1871, 
32,671 ; 1872, 32,205 ; 1873, 37,208 ; 1874, 25,450. Of 
British origin, 1876,9335; 1877, 7720; 1878, 10,652: 
1879, 17,952; 1880, 20,902 ; 1881, 23,912; 1882, 40,441 ; 
1883, 44,185 ; 1884, 31,134 ; 1885, 19,838 ; 1886, 24,745 ; 
1887,32,025; 1888,34,853; 1889, 28,269; 1890, 22,520; 
1892, 23,254; 1893, 24,732 ; 1897, 22,669; 1898, 17,640; 
1899, 16,410 ; 1900, 18,818 ; 1901, 15,868 ; 1902, 26,407, 

To United States, in 1842, 63,852 ; in 1847, 142,154 ; in 
1857, 126,905 ; in 1861, 49,764 ; in 1863, 146,813 ; in 
1864, 147,042 ; in 1866, 161,000 ; in 1867, 159,275 ; in 
1868, 155,532 ; in 1869, 203,001 ; in 1870, 196,075 ; 1871, 
198,843; 1872, 233,747; 1873, 233,073; 1874. 148,161. 
Of British origin, 1876, 54,554 ; 1S77, 45,481 ; 1878, 
54,694; 1879, 91,806; 1880, 116,570; 1881, 176,104; 

1882, 181,903; 1883, 191,573; 1884, 155,280; 1885, 
137,687; 1886, 152,710; 1887, 201,526; 1888, 195,986; 
1889, 168,771; 1890, 152,413; 1891, 156,395; 1892, 
150,039; 1893, 148,949; 1897, 132,048; 1898, 80,494; 
1899, 92,482 ; 1900, 102,955 ; 1901, 104,257 ; 1902, 108,501. 

To Australia and New Zealand, in 1842, 8534 ; in 1845, 
830 ; in 1850, 16,037 : in 1852 (gold discovery), 87,881 ; 
in 1853, 61,401 ; in 1854, 83,237 ; in 1855, 52,309 ; in 
1856, 44,584 ; in 1857, 61,248 ; in 1861, 23,738 ; in 1863, 
53,054 ; in 1864, 40,942 ; in 1866, 24,097 ; in 1867, 14,466 ; 
in 1868, 12,809 • hi 1869, 14.901 ; in 1870, 17,065; in 1871, 
12,227; !872, 15,876; 1873, 26,428; 1874, 53,958. Of 
British origin, 1876, 32,196; 1877,30,138; 1878,36,479; 
1879, 40,959 ; 1880, 24,184; 1881, 22,682 ; 1882, 37,289 ; 

1883, 71,264 ; 1884, 44,255 ; 1885, 39,395 ; 1886, 43,076 ; 
1887,34,183; 1888,31,127; 1889,28,294; 1S90, 21,179; 
1892, 15,950; 1893, 11,203; 1897, 12,396; 1898, 10,693; 
1899, 11,467; 1900, 16,001; rgoi, 15,376; 1902, 14,408. 

To other places, in 1854, 3366 ; in 1859, 12,427 ; in 1868 
6922; in 1870, 8505; 1871, 8694; 1872, 13,385; 1873' 



EMILY ST. PIERRE. 



422 



ENC^NIA. 



*3>9°3; ^74, 13,445; 3:875, 173,809. Of British origin, 
1876, 13,384; 1877, 11,856; 1878, 11,077; r 879, 13,557; 
1880, 15,886 ; 1881, 20,304 ; 1882, 19,733 i I 883, 13,096 ; 
1884, 11,510; 1885, 10,724; 1886, 12,369; 1887, 13,753; 
1888, 17,962 ; 1889, 28,461 ; 1890, 22,004 > ^gi, 20,987 ; 
1892, 20,799 ; 1893, 23,930 ; 1897, 17,366 ; 1898, 12,061 ; 
1899, 11,571 ; 1900, 11,848 ; 1901, 13,385 ; 1902, 13,370. 

EMILY ST. PIERRE, see United States, 
1862. 

EMINENCE, a title conferred upon cardinals 
by pope Urban VIII. Jan. 10, 1631, as more honour- 
able than " Excellency." Previously cardinals had 
the title of Illusirissimi. Ashe. The grand-master 
of Malta also obtained this title. Pardon. 

EMIN PASHA RELIEF. The committee 
for the purpose appointed, 1887. 
Sir William Mackinnon, chairman, lord Kinnaird, 

Mr. W. Burdett-Coutts and others. See Soudan 

1886-7, and Africa {German East). 
The German committee at Berlin, dissolved itself 

Dec. 1890 
Emm Pasha murdered Oct. 1892, reported, May — 

Sept. 1893 
" His Life and Work," by George Schweitzer, 

published Sept. 1898 

EMIR, a title of the caliphs among the Turks 
and Persians, first awarded to the descendants of 
Mahomet's daughter Fatima, about 650. To such 
only was originally given the privilege of wearing 
the green turban. 

EMISSION THEORY of Light (advo- 
cated by Newton, about 1672), supposes that indi- 
vidual particles pass from the luminous body to the 
eye, and that each ray of light passes from the sun 
to the earth. It is opposed to the Undidatory 
Theory {which see), now generally received. 

EMLY, an Irish see, said to have been founded 
by St. Patrick. Emly was called Imelaca-Ibair : 
St. Ailbe was the first bishop in 448. In 1568, the 
see was united to Cashel (which see). It is now an 
inconsiderable village. 

EMPALEMENT- This mode of executing 
criminals, mentioned by Juvenal, and often inflicted 
in Eome, is still used in Turkey and Arabia. In 
England the dead bodies of murderers were some- 
times staked in this manner, previously to being 
buried ; abolished, 182^. See Suicide. 

EMPEROR, from Imperator (ruler), a title 
conferred 011 victorious Roman generals. 

Augustus Caesar the first Roman emperor . b.c. 27 
Valentinian I. first emperor of the west, and Valens, 

first emperor of the east . . . a. d. 364 

Charlemagne lirst emperor of Germany, crowned by 

Leo. Ill 800 

Othnian I. founder of the Turkish empire, the lirst 

emperor of Turkey . 1299 

The Czar the first emperor of Russia . 22 Oct. 1721 
Napoleon Bonaparte Brs1 emperor of the French 1804 
Napoleon III., his nephew, founded the second 

French empire, Dec. 1852, deposed . 4 Sept. 1870 
Iturbide, emperor of Mexico, Feb. 1822: shot 

19 July, 1824 
Doin Pedro IV. of Portugal the first emperor of 

Brazil ^25 

Faustin I. the first emperor of Hayti, in 1S49 : de- 
posed ' . . . . 1859 

Maximilian I. emperor of Mexico, n> April, 1864; 

shot . i 9 June, 1867 

EMPEROR'S HYMN (of Austria), words by 
L. L. Hauschka, music by Joseph Haydn, first sung, 
12 Feb. 1797. 



EMPIRE. Empire City, a name given to 
New York. Empire Club, Constitutional, estab- 
lished 10 Oct. 1881, founded 1883- closed 1886. 
Empire Route to the east, by the Canadian Pacific 
Railway ; term applied 1887. 

EMPIRICS, a sect of physicians, formed in the 
3rd century before Christ, who contended that al! 
reasoning respecting the animal economy was use- 
less, and that experience and observation were the 
only foundations of medicine. The sect adopted 
the principles of Acron of Agrigentum, who flour- 
ished about 430 B.C. Empiricism, the name applied 
to a school in philosophy, which admits of nothing 
as true but what is the result of experience. 

EMPLOYERS OF LABOUR, National 
Federation of Associated, formed in London about 
10 Dec. 1873. The founders were said to employ 
about 2,000,000, principally in N.W. and N. Eng- 
land. Their object was to counteract the influence 
of trade unions. The first annual meeting held 
24 Feb. 1875. 

Iron trades employers' association issued a circular pro- 
posing increase in hours of labour, Dec. 1878. See 
Coal Strikes, 1890. 

EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY ACT (to j 
make compensation for personal injuries suffered by I 
workmen not by their own fault), passed for 7 years, 
7 Sept. 1880 ; effects neutral (1884). New act passed ! 
24 Dec. 1888. The stringent application of the 
spirit of these laws by the decision of the house of 
lords in the case of Smith v. Charles Baker & Sons ' 
on appeal was strongly enforced 21 July, 1891. 
New bill introduced, 20 Feb. 1893; re-introduced 
8 Nov. ; the commons reject a clause for enabling 
workmen to contract out of the act by arrange- 
ment with employers, 10 Nov. ; the clause main- 
tained by the lords, 29 Jan. ; the bill withdrawn 

20 Feb. 18941 
Workmen's Compensation Act passed, after much 
discussion 6 Aug. 1897 

EMPLOYERS AND WORKMEN ACT,| 

passed 13 Aug. 1875, elates to legal settlement of! 
disputes, &c. 

EMPLOYMENTS of the people as shown inl 
the census of 1891 ; blue book, published Nov. 1895. | 

EMPRESS OF INDIA (Imperatrix India?),! 
addition to the royal titles of the late Queen Vic- 
toria, proclaimed in London, 1 May, 1876. 

ENAMELLING was practised by the Egyp-I 
tians, Chinese, and other nations, and was known] 
in England in the time of the Saxons. At Oxford 1 
is an enamelled jewel, which belonged to Alfred,, 
and which, as appears by the inscription, was made 
by his order, in his reign, about 887. Limoges, 
enamelled ware was popular in the ibth century. 
Magnificent specimens by Lepec, Elkinglon, Eman-I 
uel, and others, appeared at the exhibition at Paris,? 
1867. See Mosaic. On 19 June, 1862, madame | 
Rachel (Levison or Leverson) sued captain Carnegie; 
for 928/. for enamelling his wife's face, and was! 
nonsuited ; see Trials, 1868. She was convicted! i 
of fraud in 1878; and died in prison 12 Oct. 1880.1 
See Trials. 

ENCAENIA, Creek festivals kept on days on i 1 
which cities were built and temples consecrated;'' 
and in later times, as at Oxford, at the celebration ' 
or commemoration of founders and benefactors., 1 
Oldisworth. The public commemoration at Oxfordj! 
suspended in 1875; restored, 21 June, 1876. They 
were the origin of church-wakes in England, about j 
600. They wore also leasts celebrated by the Jews!' 



ENCAUSTIC PAINTING. 



423 



ENGHIEN. 



on the 25th of the ninth month, in commemoration 
of the Maccabees cleansing the temple, which bad 
been polluted by Antiochus Epipbanes, 131 k.c. 

ENCAUSTIC PAINTING, enamelling by 
fire. Painting with burnt wax is said to have been 
known to Praxiteles about 360 B.C. This art was 
revived by M. Bachelier, 1749, by count Caylus, 
1765, and by Miss Greenland, 1785 and 1792. 

ENCLOSURE, see Inclosure. 

ENCEATITES, followers of Tatian, about 170, 
denounced marriage, and abstained from flesh, and 
from wine even at the Lord's supper. 

ENCUMBEEED ESTATES ACT, passed 
July 1849, to enable owners of land or leases in 
Ireland, subject to encumbrance, to apply to com- 
missioners appointed under it to direct a sale of such 
property. These commissioners held their first 
court in Dublin, 24 Oct. 1849, and their last 28 July, 
1858, a new court being established under the 
Landed Estates act. The number of estates sold, up 
to 1858, was 2380, producing twenty-two millions of 
pounds. In 1854 a similar act was passed for the 
West Indies. 

ENCYCLICAL Letter, see Rome, 1864 et 
seq. 

ENCYCLOPEDIA or Cyclopedia, a 

general dictionary of art, science, and literature. 
This name has been given to a work by Abulphara- 
gius in the 13th century. 

" De Proprietatibus Rerum," an encyclopaedic work in 
Latin, attributed to Bartholomeus Anglicus, a Fran- 
ciscan (proved to be incorrectly named Glanville), was 
written about 1248 and 1267, and translated into 
several languages. The first English version, by John 
of Trevisa, a Wycliffite, in 1397, was printed between 
1495-1582, and was doubtless the source from 
which Shakspeare, Spenser, and other writers derived 
much of their knowledge of natural history, &c, 
"Mediaeval lore: being classified Gleanings," from 
this work, edited by Robert Steele, published, 1893. 
Chinese cyclopaedia, 6109 vols, (all the valuable 
books then existing), printed by order of the 

emperor between 1661-1721 

A copy bought for British Museum .... 1877 

Alsted's Encyclopaedia 1620 

Louis Moreri's Dietionnaire Historique . . . 1673 
Hofmann's Lexicon Universale . . . . ' 1677 

Corneille's Dietionnaire des Arts 1694 

Bayle's Dietionnaire ' \dq(> 

Lexicon Technicum of John Harris (earliest English 
encyclopaedia) 1704 ; supplements . 1710, 1741 

Ephraim Chambers' Cyclopaedia 1728 

Zedler's Universal Lexicon .... 1732-50 
Encyclopedie (by Diderot and D'Alembert) . 1751-80 
[The contributors were termed Encycxopedistes^ 
and their daring writings are believed to have 
hastened the French revolution in 1789.] 
Encyclopaedia Britannica (1st edition by William 

Smellie) I77I 

[The 8th completed 1861 (sale 5,000) ; gth (sale 
50,000,) 1S75-89, reprint issued 1898 ; The Times 
supplement to the gth edition, edited by sir 
Donald Mackenzie Wallace, pres. Hadley, Yule 
university, Mr. Hugh Chisholm, and others, 35th 
vol. index vol. published April .... 1903 
Encyclopaedia Biblica, edited by the rev. T. K. 

Cheyne and J. Sutherland Black . . 1899-1903 
The Jewish Encyclopaedia (edited by Dr. Isidore 
Singer, over 400 writers engaged), vol. i. pub- 
lished, Aug. 1901 ; vol. vii . . ;- Sept. 
Encyclopedie Methodique (by Pancoucke) . 1782-1832 
Chambers' Cyclopaedia (edited by Rees) . . . 1785 
Rees' Cyclopaedia • . . . . 1802-19 

Brockhaus's Conversations Lexicon, 1st edition . 1818 

[New editions frequent.] 13th, 1883 et seq. 
Encyclopaedia Metropolitana .- . . . 1817-45 
Cabinet Cyclopaedia (a collection of treatise's) '. 1829-46 



Penny Cyclopaedia . 1833-46 

Knight's English Cyclopaedia (4 divisions) . 1853-61-70 
Chambers' Encyclopaedia, 1859-68 ; 1874-5 ; 1888-93 1 T 9 01 
Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyclopiidie, began 

1818 , 164 vols, published l . . 1889 

American cyclopaedia, by Geo. Ripley and Charles 
A. Dana, 17 vols. 1873-8, continued as "The An- 
nual Cyclopaedia " to last vol. . .... 1903 

Globe encyclopaedia, completed .... 1879 

Encyclopaedic Dictionary completed . . . . 1889 

Meyer's Konversations Lexicon, 1840 (latest edition) 1903 
The "Grande Encyclopedie " begun 1885, 31 vols. 
200,000 articles, 12 illustrations, 150 maps, com- 
pleted . . . . . . . June, 1903 

ENDERBY LAND, see Southern Continent. 

ENDOSMOSIS. M. Dutrochet, about 1826, 
found that if two fluids, gases or vapours, of unequal 
density, are separated by an animal or vegetable 
membrane, the denser will attract the less dense 
through the medium. This property he called 
endosmose, when the attraction is from the outside 
to the inside, and exosmtse when it operates from 
the inside to the outside. Many natural phenomena 
are thus more clearly understood. Brande. 

ENDOWED SCHOOL COMMISSION 

(consisting of lord Lyttelton, canon Robinson, and 
others), was appointed under the act 32-33 Vict. 
c. 50 (2 Aug. 1869). It threw open many endow- 
ments to the nation, and carried out reforms, being 
frequently much opposed. By an act passed 7 Aug. 
187a., its duties were transferred to the charity 
commissioners, two new commissioners (Mr. Long- 
ley, lord Clinton), and canon .Robinson being ap- 
pointed. The commissioners had dealt with 74 
schools; prepared schemes for 66; leaving about 
660 to be dealt with ; Aug. 1874. 

ENDOWED SCHOOLS ACT, containing: 
the "Conscience Clause," passed i860; another 
s ; milar act passed 2 Aug. 1869. A committee re- 
ported on the working of the act, June, 1887. 

ENEEGY. In an address to the British As- 
sociation at York, 1 Sept. 188 1, sir William Thom- 
son described the sources of all the energy in nature 
available to man for the production of mechanical 
effect, as tides, food, fuel, wind and rain, all except 
the tides derived from the sun. 

ENFIDA CASE, see Tunis. 

ENFIELD, N. Middlesex ; a manor belonging 
to the duchy of Lancaster, is mentioned in Domes- 
day, and was given to De Mandeville by William I. 
after 1066. After various changes it became the 
property of the crown by the marriage of Mary, 
heiress of the Bohuns, to Henry duke, of Lancaster, 
afterwards king Henry IV. 1399. Edward VI. gave 
it to his sister Elizabeth, who resided here in 15152, 
in a palace, part of which still remains. The 
grammar school was founded about 1586. The 
ancient chase was dischased and enclosed, after 
I Jan. 1779. Population, 1881, 18,944; 1891,. 
31,532; 1901,42,738. 

Sir Redvers Buller presented with an address and 
a silver inkstand by the Enfield ladies . 23 Sept. 1901 

ENFIELD MUSKET, see Fire-arms. 

ENGEN, Baden. Here Moreau defeated the- 
Austrians, 3 May, 1800. 

ENGHIEN or STEENKIRK (S. W. Belgium). 
Here the British under William III. were defeated 
by the French under marshal Luxemburg, 24 July, 
1692. — The due d'Enghien, a descendant of the 
great Conde, was seized in Baden by order of Bona- 
parte, conveyed to Vmcennes, and, after a -hasty 



ENGINEEES. 



424 



ENGLAND. 



trial, shot by torch-light, immediately after con- 
demnation, 21 March, 1804. The body was ex- 
humed, 20 March, 18 16. 

i ENGINEEES, Military, formerly called 
Trench-masters. Sir William Pelham officiated as 
trench-master in 1622 ; the chief engineer was 
called camp-master-general in 1634. Capt. Thomas 
Eudd had the rank of chief engineer to the king 
about 1650. The corps of engineers was formerly 
a civil corps, but was made a military force, and 
directed to rank with the artillery, 25 April, 1787. 
It has a colonel-in-chief, 16 colonels-commandant, 
and 16 colonels. Civil Engineering became im- 
portant in the middle of the last century, when 
Smeaton began the Eddystone lighthouse, and 
Brindley the Bridgewater canal. Since then the 
Kennies, Telford, the Stephensons and Brunels, 
Locke, and others have constructed breakwaters, 
docks, bridges, railways, tunnels, &c, which are 
the marvel of our age. 

" Engineering is the art of directing the great 
sources of power in nature for the use and con- 
venience of man." (Thos. Tredgold, died 1829.) 

The first society of Civil Engineers formed by Smea- 
ton and others, afterwards termed the Smeatonian 
Society of Civil Engineers 1793 

Institution of Civil Engineers established 2 Jan. 
1818 ; obtained a charter, 3 June, 1828 ; 5728 
members April, 1889 

institution of Mechanical Engineers, which had its 
head-quarters in Birmingham, moved to London, 
1877 ; annual meetings are held ; established . 1847 

The Society of Engineeraestablished for the advance 
of the science and practice of engineering, May 
1854 > John Corry Fell, president, 1899. Annual 
meetings held. 
'Civil and Mechanical Engineers' Society founded . 1859 

Isambard Kingdom Brunei, projector of the Great 
Eastern, aged 53, died 15 Sept. ; Robert Stephen- 
son, railway engineer, aged 59, died . 12 Oct. ,, 

■Engineers' Amalgamated Society, in 1867, consisted 
of above 30,000 members ; annual income, 86,oooZ. ; 
disbursed todisabled workmen, <fec, about 50,0001. , 
amassed capital, about 125,000?. 

Engineer, weekly journal, established . 4 Jan. 

Engineering, weekly journal, established . Jan. 
"Newcastle strike (see Newcastle) . May — Oct. 

Strike of engineers in London (18 firms) 7 Feb. — 

4 Oct. 

College of Practical Engineers, Muswell hill, near 
London, opened by sir Henry Bessemer, sir 
Joseph Whitworth, Dr. C. Wm. Siemens, and 
others Sept. 1881 

Engineering exhibition, Agricultural Hall, London 

5-21 July, 1883 

Sir Charles Bright, the pioneer of Atlantic cable- 
laying, born 1832, died 1888 

See Electricity. 

Mr. T. A. Walker, contractor for the Manchester 
ship canal and other great works, dies . 25 Nov. 1889 

Sir John Hawkshaw, engineer of the Severn tunnel, 
dies aged 80 2 June, 1S91 

Sir John Coode, eminent for breakwaters and other 
works born 1816, died . . .2 March, 189?. 

Mr. Thomas Hawksley, F.R.S., eminent through- 
out the world for waterworks, gasworks, sanita- 
tion, &c, died, aged 86 . . . - ^3 Sept. 1893 

Death of Mr. Edwin Clark, inventor of the railway 
block signalling system, hydraulic graving dock, 
&c, aged about 80 ... 22 Oct. 1894 

Death of Mr. James Henry Greathead, inventor 
of the Greathead shield, constructor of tunnels, 
&c. ...'... 2t Oct. 1S96 

Continued disputes between the Employers' 
national federation and the Amalgamated society 
of engineers, respecting hours of labour, <tc. Feb. 1897 

Circular issued by 7 societies demanding an 8 hours' 
day without reduction of pay . . . April, ,, 

See Strikes ... ■ . July, , 



1856 
i860 



1879 



Sir John Fowler, eminent railway engineer (born 
1817) died 20 Nov. 1898 

Sir Douglas Galton, eminent engineer (born 1822) 
and Mr. Jeremiah Head, mechanical and consult- 
ing engineer (born 1835) died 10 March . . . 1899 

Sir James Wright, late engineer-in-chief of the navy 
(under his regime great changes in the naval sti am 
machinery, etc., took place), died, aged 75, 

17 April, „ 

Mr. John Nixon, mining and civil engineer, success- 
ful in many enterprises in S. Wales, invented 
many machines, Billy Fairplay, etc. ; one of the 
founders of the sliding scale system, born 1815, 
died 3 June ,, 

Mr. Edw. Case, whose system of groyning for sea 
walls has been successful round the U.K. and at 
Ostend, died 23 Sept. ,, 

Internat. engineering congress meets in Glasgow, 

3 Sept. 1901 

Mr. Barlow, F.R.S., see Tay bridge, died 12 Nov. 1902 

ENGLAND (from Angles and lond, land), so 
named, it is said, by Egbert, first king of the 
English, in a general council held at Winchester, 
829; dr by Athelstan, 921;. See Anglo-Saxons. 
England was united to Wales, 1283; to Scotland in 
1603; they have had the same legislature since 1707, 
when the three were styled Great Britain. James I. 
first adopted the title of king of England, Scotland, 
afterwards Great Britain, France, and Ireland. 
After the treaty of Amiens, signed 27 March, 1802. 
France was omitted from the royal style. Ireland 
was incorporated with them, by the act of legis- 
lative union, 1 Jan. 1801, as the United Kingdom 
of Great Britain, France, and Ireland. The British 
empire is computed to contain about 1 1 , 500,000 square 
miles of territory, with 407,000,000 inhabitants in 
1 899. Statistical details are given under the respective 
headings, Army, Navy, Revenue, Population, &c. 
Population of England and Wales, 1891, 29,001,018. 
For previous history, see Britain, Histories of Eng- 
land, by Rapin (in English), 1 725-31; Thomas Carte, 
1747-55; David Hume, 1755-62; Tobias Smollett, 
1757-65; John Lingard, 1819-30; Charles Knight, 
1856-62; J. E. Green, 1874-80. Parts by T. B. 
Macanlay, Earl Stanhope, J. A. Froude. Miss H. 
Martineau, and others. " The Victoria History of 
the Counties of England," a national survey of 
England at the commencement of the 20th century, 
Mr. H. Arthur Doubleday and Mr. Laurence 
Gomme, joint editors, supported by a committee. 
the marqu. of Lome and many others, first series, 
illustrated, with maps, etc.. issued March, 1899. 
See Chronicles, Imperialism, and Style. 

Egbert, "king of the English," 828; defeats the 

Welsh, Danes. <fce. , at Hengestdown . . . S35 
Alfred, king, 871 ; after many vicissitudes, van- 
quishes the Danes 871-896 

He frames a code of laws, 890 ; forms a militia and 

navy, surveys and subdivides the country, and 

promotes education (many statements mythical). 

Athelstan's great victory over the Danes, Scots, fee, 

at Brunanburg 

Predominance <>f Dunstan : he promotes monachism 
and the. celibacy of the clergy, about . . . 
Ethelred compounds with the Danes for peace 

Causes their massacre 13 Nov. 1002 

Avenged by Swcvn, king of Denmark: Ethelred 

flees to Normandy . 1003 

Sweyn dies, and Ethelred returns, 1014 ; dies . . 1016 

Canute the Dane sole monarch 1017 

Edward the Confessor king; Saxon dynastyrestored I04^ 
Harold II. crowned, 6 Jan. : defeats the Norwegians, 
25 Sept : defeated and slain at Hastings by Wil- 
liam of Normandy 14 Oct 1066 

William I. crowned .... 25 Dec. 1066 
The northern counties rebel ; ravaged from the 
Humber to the Tyne . . . . 106970 



S06 



937 



952 
991 



ENGLAND. 



425 



ENGLAND. 



Introduction of the feudal system, about . . .,1070 
J ustices of peace appointed . . . . . 1076 
Domesday book compiled 1085-6 

William II. crowned . . . .26 Sept. 1087 
The crusades begin 1096 

Henry I. crowned, restores Saxon laws, <&c 

5 Aug. 1 100 
Defeats his brother Robert, and gains Normandy . 1106 
Prince William and nobles drowned . 25 Nov. 1120 

Stephen crowned .... 26 Dec. 1135 
Civil war between the empress Maud, Henry's 
daughter, and Stephen ; her friends the Scots de- 
feated at the battle of the Standard . 22 Aug. 1138 
She lands in England, and is successful . . . 1139 
Crowned at Winchester . . . 3 March, 1 141 

Defeated ; retires to France 1147 

Concludes a peace with Stephen 1153 

Henry II. crowned .... 19 Dec. 1154 
Constitutions of Clarendon enacted . . Jan. 1164 
Arrogance of Becket ; murdered . . 29 Dee. n 70 

Conquest of Ireland 1171,1172 

England divided into six circuits for the administra- 
tion of justice 1176 

English laws digested by Glanville, about . . 1181 

Richard I. crowned .... 3 Sept. 1189 

He joins the crusades 1191 

Defeats Saladin 1192 

Made prisoner by duke of Austria, and sold to 

Henry VI. of Germany .... Dec. ,, 
Ransomed for about 300,000? 1-194 

John crowned May, 1199 

Normandy lost to England 1204 

England put under an interdict 1208 

Magna Charta granted . . . .15 June, 1215 

Henry III. crowned ... 28 Oct. 1216 

The Barons' war (which see) .... 1262-8 

•Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, summoned 
two parliaments ; one including knights of the 
shire, 1264 (the other first including burgesses) ; 
the first regular parliament met . Jan. 1265 

Edward I. crowned . . . .20 Nov. 1272 
Wales subdued, united to England . . . . 1283 

Death of Roger Bacon 1292 

Scotland subdued, 1296 ; revolts 1297 

Edward II. crowned .... 8 July, 1307 
Defeated by Bruce at Bannockburn . 24 June, 1314 
Ensurrection of the barons against his favourites 1308, 

1315, 1325 

Edward III. crowned ... 25 Jan. 1327 
Defeat of the Scots at Hallidown-hill . . . . 1333 
Invades France ; victorious at Crecy . 26 Aug. 1346 

Takes Calais . I3 47 

Order of the Garter instituted 1349 

Victory at Poictiers .... 19 Sept. 1356 

Peace of Bretigny 8 May, 1360 

Law pleadings in English * . 1362 

Richard II. crowned . . . .22 June, 1377 
Insurrection of Wat Tyler suppressed . 15 June, 1381 
Death of Wickliffe I3 8 5 

Henry IV. crowned ... 30 Sept. 1399 
Order of the Bath instituted by Henry IV. . . ,, 
Insurrection of the Percies and the Welsh . . 1402-5 

Henry V. crowned . . .21 March, 1413 
France invaded by Henry V. who gains the battle of 

Agincourt 25 Oct. 141 5 

Treaty of Troyes ; the French crown gained . . 1420 

Henry VI. crowned at Paris . . . Dec. 1430 
Appearance of the maid of Orleans ; the Conquests in 
France lost, except Calais .... 1429-31 

Cade's insurrection June, 1450 

War of the Roses (see Roses and Battles) . . 1455-71 

Edward IV. deposes Henry VI. . 4 March, 1461 

Printing introduced by Caxton . . . . ". I 4 7I 

Edward V. accession . . . . 9 April, 1483 
Murdered in the Tower (soon after) . ,, 

Richard III. deposes Edward V. . 25 June, 1483 
Valuable statutes enacted I4 84 

Henry VII. accession; Richard defeated and- 
slain at Bosworth Field . . .22 Aug. 1485 
Yeomen of the guard, the first appearance of a - 
standing army in England instituted . . ,, 
Henry marries Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. . i486 
Insurrection of Lambert Simnel quelled . . 1486-7 
Court of Star-Chamber instituted . _ . . . 1487 
Insurrection of Perkin Warbeck quelled . . 1492-8 
Gardening introduced into England, principally from 
the Netherlands, about ^02 



Death of prince Arthur .... 2 April, 1502 
Henry VIII. accession . . .22 April, 1509 

Rise of Wolsey 1514 

Henry VIII. 's interview with Francis I. at Ardres 

(see " Field of the Cloth of Gold") . 4-25 June, 1520 
First map of England drawn by G. Lilly, about . ,, 
Henry VIII. becomes " Defender of the Faith " . . 1521 
Fall of Wolsey ; he dies . . . 29 Nov. 1530 

Henry VIII. marries Anne Boleyn privately, 14 Nov. 
1532 or January 1533 ; divorced from Catherine, 

23 May, 1533 
Henry VIII. styled " Head of the Church " . . 1534 
The. pope's authority in England is abolished . . ,, 
Sir Thomas More beheaded ... 6 July, 1535 
Queen Anne Boleyn beheaded . . 19 May, 1536 

Queen Jane Seymour dies ... 24 Oct. 1537 

Monasteries suppressed 1538 

Statute of Six Articles passed 1539 

Abbots of Glastonbury, Reading, <&c. executed . . ,, 
The first authorised edition of the Bible (Cranmer's) 

printed ,, 

Cromwell, lord Essex, beheaded . . ... 1540 
Anne of Cleves divorced .... 9 July, ,, 
Queen Catherine Howard beheaded . . . 1542 
The title of " king of Ireland" confirmed to the Eng- 
lish sovereigns 1543 

Henry marries Catherine Parr . . .12 July, ,, 
Edward VI. accession, 28 Jan. ; promotes the 
Reformation (Somerset, protector) . . . 1547 
Book of Common Prayer authorised . . . . 1548 
Somerset deprived of power, 1549 ; beheaded . . 1552 
Mary, accession, 6 July ; restores popery . . 1553 
Execution of lady Jane Grey and her friends . . 1554 
Mary marries Philip of Spain ; persecutes the Pro- 
testants ,, 

Ridley, Latimer, and Cranmer burnt . 1555 and 1556 

Calais re-taken by the French . . .7 Jan. 1558 

Elizabeth, accession ; the church of England 

. re-established 17 Nov. „ 

Mary, queen of Scots, lands in England, 1568 ; exe- 
cuted 8 Feb. 1587 

The Spanish armada repulsed . .- . . July, 1588 

Devereux, earl of Essex, beheaded . 25 Feb. 1601 

James I. accession ; union of the two crowns 

24 March, 1603 
Styled " king of Great Britain " . -24 Oct. 1604 

The Gunpowder Plot Nov. 1605 

The present translation of the Bible completed . . 161 1 

Baronets first created May, ? , 

The Overbury murder .... 15 Sept. 1613 

Shakespeare dies 23 April, ifii6 

Raleigh beheaded 29 Oct. 1618 

Book of Sports published . . . 24 May, /,, 
Charles I. accession . . . 27 March, 1625 

Death of lord Bacon 9 April, 1626 

Duke of Buckingham assassinated . 23 Aug. 1628 

Hampden's trial respecting " ship money " . . . 1637 
Contest between the king and parliament ; impeach- 
ment and execution of lord Strafford . . . 1641 
Attempted "arrest of the five members" (John 
Hampden, John Pym, Sir Arthur Hasilrigge, 
Denzil Holies, and Wm. Strode) . . 4 Jan. 1642 
Civil war begins ; see Battles . . . 23 Oct. ,, 
Archbishop Laud beheaded . . . .10 Jan. 1645 
Charles defeated at Naseby . . .14 June, „ ,, 
He flees to the Scotch, 5 May ; is given up, 21 Sept. 1646 

Execution of Charles 1 30 Jan. 1649 

Cromwell's victory at Worcester . . 3 Sept. 1651 
Oliver Cromwell protector of the Common- 
wealth 16 Dec. 1653 

Naval victories of Blake 1652-7 

Richard Cromwell, protector . . 3 Sept. 1658 
Richard resigns . - . . . . 25 May, 1659 
Charles II. : monarchy re-established princi- 
pally by gen. Monk ... 29 May, 1660 
Act of uniformity passed ; church of England re- 
stored 1662 

The great plague 1665 

The great fire of London .... 2, 3 Sept. 1666 
Disgrace of lord Clarendon .... Nov. 1667 
Secret treaty with France signed at Dover May, 1670 
Death of John Milton .... 8 Nov. 1674 
Oates's " popish plot " creates a panic . 13 Aug. 1678 
Sir Edmundbury Godfrey found murdered, 17 Oct. ,, 
Many Roman Catholics executed .... 1678-9 
The Habeas Corpus act, for protecting English 



ENGLAND. 



426 



ENGLAND. 



subjects against false arrest and imprisonment, 

passed 27 May, 1679 

Violent reaction, many protestants executed ; Lon- 
don humbled . 1681 

"Bye-house plot ;" William, lord Russell (executed 

21 July), and Algernon Sydney executed . . 1683 

James II. accession .... 6 Feb. 1685 
Duke of Monmouth's rebellion defeated at Sedge- 
moor, 6 July ; he is beheaded . 15 July, ,, 

Acquittal of the seven bishops . . 30 June, 1688 

Abdication of James II 11 Dec. ,, 

William III. and Mary proclaimed by the con- 
vention parliament ... 13 Feb. 1689 
National debt begins .... . . 1693 

Bank of England incorporated . . 27 July, 1694 
Death of the queen regnant, Mary . . 28 Dec. ,, 

Peace of Ryswick 1697 

Death of James II. in exile . . 6 (16) Sept. 1701 

Anne, accession . . . . 8 Maich, 1702 

Victory of Marlborough at Blenheim . 2 Aug. 1704 

Union of the two kingdoms .... 1 May, 1707 

Sacheverell riots 1710 

Treaty of Utrecht, advantageous to Great Britain 

11 April, 1713 

George I. of Hanover, accession . . 1 Aug. 1714 

The Scots' rebellion quelled 1715 

South-sea bubble 1720 

Death of the duke of Marlborough . . 16 June, 1722 

Order of the Bath revived (which see) . . . . 1725 

George II. accession . . . .11 June, 1727 

Death of Newton 20 March, ,, 

George II. at the victory of Dettingen . 16 June, 1743 
Second Scots' rebellion : prince Charles-Edward 
gains Edinburgh, 17 Sept. ; victor at Prestonpans, 

21 Sept. 1745 
Victory at Falkirk, 18 Jan. ; defeated totally at Cul- 

loden 16 April, 1746 

Death of prince Frederick Louis, son of George II. 

and father of George III. . . 20 March, 1751 

New style introduced into England, 3 Sept. (made 14) 1752 

Seven years' war begins .... May, 1756 

Conquest of India begins, under colonel (afterwards 

lord) Clive (see India) 1757 

Victory and death of general Wolfe (see Quebec) . 1759 

George III. accession ... 25 Oct. 1760 
His marriage with Charlotte Sophia, of Mecklen- 
burg Strelitz, 8 Sept. ; crowned . 22 Sept. 1761 
Peace of Paris ; Canada gained . . .10 Feb. 1763 
Isle of Man annexed to Great Britain . . 1765 
Death of the Old Pretender, the " chevalier de St. 

George" 30 Dec. ,, 

Royal marriage act passed 1772 

American war begins (see United States) . . . 1775 

Death of earl of Chatham . . . n May, 1778 

" No Popery " riots 2-7 June, 1780 

Separation of America from England . . 30 Nov. 1782 
Margaret Nicholson's attempt on the life of 

George III 2 Aug. 1786 

Trial of Warren Hastings begins . . 13 Feb. 1788 
Death of the Young Pretender, at Rome, 3 March, ,, 
The king's illness made known . . 12 Oct. ,, 
He recovers, and goes to St. Paul's to make thanks- 
giving 23 April, 1789 

First coalition against France . . 26 June, 1792 

Habeas Corpus act suspended . . .23 May, 1794 

Howe's victory 1 June, ,, 

Marriage of the prince of Wales with the princess 

Caroline of Brunswick .... 8 April, 1795 
Warren Hastings acquitted ... 23 April, 

Princess Charlotte of Wales born . . 7 Jan. 17,^6 

Cash payments suspended . . . 25 Feb. 1797 
Death of Edmund Burke . . . 9 July, ,, 

Irish rebellion May, 1798 

Habeas Corpus act again suspended. 

Battle of the Nile; Nelson victor. . . 1 Aug. 1798 

Hatfield's attempt on the king's life. . 15 May, 1S00 

Union of Great Britain with Ireland . . 1 Jan. 1801 
Nelson's victory at Copenhagen . . 2 April, 
Habeas Corpus act again suspended . 19 April, ,, 
Peace of Amiens concluded . . . 1 Oct. ,, 

War against France under Bonaparte . . 18 May, 1803 

Nelson's victory and death .'it Trafalgar . 21 Oct. 1S05 

Death of Mr. Pitt 23 Jan t 8o6 

"Delicate investigation" (which see) . .May, 
Lord Melvilleimpeachedj 20 A] nil; acquitted [2 June, ,. 
Death of Charles James Fox . . . 13 Sepfc ., 



Orders in council against Berlin decree . . 7 Jan. 

Abolition of the slave trade by parliament, 25 Mar. 

Victory and death of sir J. Moore. (See Corunna) 

16 Jan. 

Duke of York impeached by col. Wardle . Jan. 

Jubilee celebrating king's accession . . 25 Oct. 

Unfortunate Walcheren expedition . Aug. -Nov. 

Disappearance of Mr. Benjamin Bathurst, diplo- 
matist at Perleberg, N. Germany; suspected 
assassination by French . . .25 Nov. 

Sir Francis Burdett's arrest, and riots . 6 April, 

Death of princess Amelia ; king's malady returns, 

2 Nov. 

Great commercial embarrassment . . Dec. 
Regent — The prince of Wales . . 5 Feb. 

Luddite riots Nov. 

Assassination of Mr. Perceval, premier 11 May, 

Earl of Liverpool premier ... 9 June, 

War with America commenced . . . 18 June, 

Peace with France, &e 14 April, 

Visit of the emperor of Russia and king of Prussia 
to England 7 June, 

Centenary of the house of Hanover . . 1 Aug. 

Peace with America (treaty of Ghent) . 24 Dec. 

Battle of Waterloo (close of French war), 18 June, 

Princess Charlotte marries prince Leopold, of Saxe- 



1814 



1S15 
1816 



IBIS 
1819 



to 10 Nov. 




. 19 July, 


1821 


7 Aug. 


,, 


19 April, 


1824 


. 1 


82S-D 


. 5 Jan. 


1827 


8 Aug. 


,, 


. 20 Oct. 


,, 


13 April, 


1820 


Nov. 


,, 


26 June, 


1830 



Coburg 2 May, 

Death of R. B. Sheridan .... 9 July, 
Spa-fields meeting (which see) . . .2 Dec. 
Green-bag inquiry (which see) ... 2 Feb. 
Habeas Corpus act suspended . . .24 Feb. 
Cash payments resumed . . .22 Sept. 

Princess Charlotte dies in childbirth . . 6 Nov. 
Queen Charlotte dies at Kew ... 17 Nov. 
Queen Victoria born .... 24 May, 
Manchester reform meeting (Peterloo) . 16 Aug. 

Duke of Kent dies 23 Jan. 

George IV. accession ... 29 Jan. 

Cato-street conspirators arrested, 23 Feb. executed, 

1 May, 
Trial of queen Caroline . . 19 Auj 
Coronation of George IV. . 
Queen Caroline dies at Hammersmith 

Lord Byron dies 

Commercial panic . . 

Duke of York dies .... 

Mr. Canning, premier, 30 April ; dies 

Battle of Navarino 

Roman Catholic Relief bill passed . 

Political panic in London ; — riots 

Willtam IV. accession 

Mr. Huskisson killed at the opening of the Liver- 
pool and Manchester railway . . .15 Sept. 

Grey administration formed .... Nov. 

King opens new London bridge . . . Aug. 

The cholera morbus in England . . .26 Oct. 

Reform bill rejected by the lords. 7 Oct. ; fatal 
Bristol riots 29 Oct. 

English Reform act passed . . 7 June, 

Assault on William IV. by a discharged pensioner at 
Ascot 19 June, 

Sir Walter Scott dies .... 21 Sept. 

S. T. Coleridge dies .... 25 July, 

Slavery ceases in the colonies . . . 1 Aug. 

Corporation reform act passed . . . 9 Sept. 

Victoria, accession ; Hanover separated from 

Great Britain .... 20 June, 

Coronation of queen Victoria . . .28 June, 

Beginning of war with China . . . March, 

Penny postage begins .... 10 Jan. 

Marriage of the queen with prince Albert of Saxe- 
Coburg 10 Feb. 

Oxford's assault on the queen . . . 10 June, 

Prince of Wales born . . . . Nov. 

King of Prussia visits England . . 24 Jan. 

John Francis flres at the queen . . . 30 May. 

Bean presents a pistol at her ... 3 July. 

Income tax act passed .... Aug. 

Queen embarks I'm- Scotland (1st visit) . 29 Aug. 

Peace of Nankin (with China) . . . Dec. 

Death of duke of Susses . . . 21 April, 

Queen's \isit tO the Orleans family at Chateaud'En, 

2 Sept. 
Emperor of Russia visits England . . 1 June, 
King Louis Philippe's visit (see France) . 6 Oct. ,, 
Tractarian or. Puseyite controversy . . . 1844-5 
Anti-eorn-law agitation 1845 



1832 



1834 

1835 

1837 
1838 
1839 
1840 



1S41 
1842 



1843 



1844 



ENGLAND. 



427 



ENGLAND. 



Queen's visit to Germany . . . .9 Aug. 1845 

Peel's new tariff, 1845 ; railway mania . . Nov. ,, 

Commercial panic March, 1846 

Corn laws repealed . . .26 June, ,, 

Chartist demonstration in London . . 10 April, 1848 

Cholera re-appears in England in . . 1848 and 1849 

Queen embarks on her visit to Ireland . 1 Aug. ,, 

Adelaide, queen dowager, dies . . . 2 Dec. ,, 

" Exhibition of 1851 " announced . . 3 Jan. 1850 

Death of Wordsworth (aged 80) . . 23 April, ,, 

Pate's assault on the queen . . .27 June, ,, 

Death of Sir Robert Peel (aged 62) . . 2 July, ,, 

Duke of Cambridge dies .... 8 July, ,, 

Queen's visit to Belgium ... 21 Aug. ,, 
Great excitement occasioned by the pope's establish- 
ment of a Roman Catholic hierarchy in England, 

Nov. ,, 
Sixth census of United Kingdom (see Population) 

(27,637,761) 30 March, 1851 

The first " Great Exhibition " opened . 1 May, ,, 

Australian gold arrives .... Dec. ,, 

Death of the poet Thomas Moore . . 26 Feb. 1852 
John Camden Neild, an eccentric miser, bequeathed 

about 250,000/. to the queen ; he died 30 Aug. ,, 

Slight earthquake at Liverpool, &c. . . 9 Nov. ,, 
Death of Wellington (aged 83), Sept. 14 ; public 

funeral 18 Nov. ,, 

Camp at Chobham ... 14 June-19 Aug. 1853 
Death of sir Charles Napier, conqueror of Scinde, 

29 Aus\ ,, 

English and French fleets enter Bosphorus, 22 Oct. ,, 
Protocol signed between England, France, Austria, 
and Prussia, for re-establishment of peace between 

Russia and Turkey 5 Dec. ,, 

Many meetings on eastern question, favourable to 

Turkey .... Sept. to Dec. ,, 

Great strike at Preston ; 14,972 hands unemployed 

at one time . . .15 Oct. 1853, to 1 May, 1854 

Queen reviews Baltic fleet . . . n March, ,, 
Treaty of alliance between England, France, and 

Turkey signed 12 March, ,, 

War declared against Russia (see Russo-Turkish War) 

28 March, ,, 

Fast day on account of the war . . 26 April, ,, 

Marquis of Anglesey dies .... 28 May, ,, 

King of Portugal visits England . . . June, ,, 

Crystal Palace opened by the queen . 10 June, ,, 

Cholera prevails in the south and west of London, 

Aug. and Sept. ,, 

Thanksgiving for abundant harvest . . 1 Oct. ,, 
Great explosion and fire at Gateshead and Newcastle, 

6 Oct. „ 

Meeting of Parliament .... 12 Dec. ,, 

Resignation of Aberdeen ministry . . 29 Jan. 1855 

Formation of Palmerston ministry . . Feb. ,, 

Death of Joseph Hume (aged 78) . . 20 Feb. ,, 

Sebastopol inquiry committee named . 23 Feb. ,, 
Visit of emperor and empress of French, 

16 to 21 April, ,, 

Loan of 16 millions agreed to April, ,, 

Distribution of Crimean medals . . 18 May, ,, 

Metropolitan cattle market opened . . 13 June, ,, 
Agitation and rioting concerning Sunday trading 

bill, which is withdrawn ... 2 July, ,, 
The queen and prince visit Paris . . 18 Aug. ,, 
Peace with Russia proclaimed, 19 April ; thanks- 
giving day, 4 May ; illuminations, &c. 29 May, 1856 
War with China (lohich see) .... Oct. ,, 
War with Persia (which see) . . . Nov. „ 
Mutiny of Indian army begins (see India) . March, 1857 
Dissolution of parliament, 21 March ; new parlia- 
ment meets 30 April, ,, 

Death of duchess of Gloucester (aged 81), the last of 

George III. 's children . . . 30 April, ,, 
Opening of the Fine Arts exhibition at Manchester, 

5 May, ,, 
Educational conference in London, prince Albert in 

the chair 22 June, ,, 

Victoria crosses (which see) distributed by the queen 

in Hyde-park 26 June, ,, 

Meetings for relief of sufferers by the mutiny in 

India [by 15 Nov. 260,000?. raised] . 25 Aug. ,, 

Great commercial panic ; relieved by suspension of 

Bank Charter Act of 1844 . . .12 Nov. ,, 

Parliament meets 3 Dee, ,. 

Marriage of princess royal to prince Frederick-Wil- 
liam of Prussia . . . . .'25 Jan. 1858 



Excitement respecting attempted assassination of 
Louis Napoleon, 14 Jan. ; indiscreet addresses of 
French colonels, published . . -27 Jan. 

" Conspiracy to Minder " bill (introduced by lord 
Palmerston, 8 Feb.) rejected, 19 Feb. ; Palmerston 
ministry resigns 22 Feb. 

Derby-Disraeli administration formed . 26 Feb. 

Dr. Simon Bernard acquitted of conspiracy against 
the life of Louis Napoleon . . . 17 April, 

The Jewish Disabilities bill passed . . 23 July, 

The India bill passed .... 2 Aug. 

The queen visits Birmingham, 15 June ; Cherbourg, 
4, 5 Aug. ; the princess royal (at Potsdam), 12 
Aug. &c. ; and Leeds .... Sept. 

Excitement about the confessional ; public meet- 
ings held against it . .12 July and 18 Sept. 

The Association for the Promotion of Social Science 
meet at Liverpool 12 Oct. 

Excitement respecting the Italian war ; proclama- 
tion for manning the navy ... 30 April, 

Thanksgivingforsuppression of Indian mutiny, 1 May, 

Declaration of neutrality of England . . 12 May, 

Proclamation for the organisation of volunteer rifle 
corps : many formed .... May-Oct. 

The Derby ministry defeated on the Reform bill ; 
dissolve parliament, 23 April ; again defeated, 
they resign 11 June ; the Palmerston-Russell ad- 
ministration formed . . . .18 June. 

The Handel commemoration . . 20, 22, 24 June, 

The income-tax increased to provide for the defences 
of the country July, 

Lord Macaulay dies (aged 59) . . . 28 Dec. 

Commercial treaty with France, signed 23 Jan. ; 
approved by parliament .... March, 

Sir Charles Barry dies (aged 65) . . 12 May, 

The queen reviews 18,000 volunteers in Hyde-park, 

23 June, 

National rifle shooting match at Wimbledon (see 
Volunteers) 2-7 July, 

The earl of Derby reviews about 11,000 Lancashire 
volunteers at Knowsley . . . .1 Sept. 

The queen and prince visit their daughter in Prussia 

Sept. 

Peace with China signed . . . .24 Oct. 

Thos. Cochrane, earl of Dundonald, dies (aged 82) 

31 Oct. 

Prince of Wales visits Canada and United States, 
24 July-20 Oct. ; returns . . .15 Nov - 

Severe cold (see Cold) . . Dee. i860, and Jan. 

Charter granted for Exhibition of 1862 . 14 Feb. 

Death of duchess of Kent (aged 75) . 16 March, 

Excitement about '• assays and Reviews " 

Seventh cev?"s taken (,29, 192, 419) . . . 8 April, 

King of Sweden and his son visit London Aug. 

Great excile iifint through capt. Wilkes (of U.S. 
navy) forci 1 ny taking Messrs. Slidell and Mason 
from the Royal British Mail steamer Trent (see 
United States) 8 Nov. 

Death of the prince consort of "typhoid fever, 
duration 21 days," 14 Dec. ; buried (see Albert 
Memorial) 23 Dec. 

The United States' government release Messrs. 
Slidell and Mason 28 Dec. 

Second great International Exhibition opened by the 
duke of Cambridge 1 May. 

Inundations in Norfolk (see Levels) . . . May, 

Marriage of princess Alice to Louis of Hesse, 1 July, 

Prince Alfred declared king of Greece at Athens 
(throne declined) 23 Oct. 

Final closing of international exhibition . 15 Nov. 

Remains of the prince consort transferred to the 
mausoleum at Frogmore ... 18 Dec. 

Great distress in the cotton manufacturing districts 
begins. April : contributions received, central re- 
lief fund, 407,830/. ; Mansion-house fund, 236,926/. 

20 Dee. 

Rupture with Brazil Jan. 

Prince Alfred elected king of Greece . . 3 Feb. 

Princess Alexandra of Denmark enters London, 
7 March; married to the prince of Wales, 

10 March, 

The British, French, and Austrian governments re- 
monstrate with Russia on cruelties in Poland, 

7 April, 

Inauguration of the Great Exhibition memorial to 
the prince consort in the Horticultural gardens, 
London " J™e. 



1859 



ENGLAND. 



428 



ENGLAND. 



Arrival of captains Grant and Speke from exploring 

the source of the Nile .... June, 1863 
Great decrease of distress in cotton districts Oct. ,, 
Earthquake in central and N. W. England . 6 Oct. „ 
The government declines the French emperor's pro- 
posal for a congress of sovereigns . . Nov. ,, 
Death of William Thackeray (aged 52) . 24 Dec. ,, 
Birth of prince Albert-Victor of Wales . 8 Jan. 1864 
Final judgment of the judicial committee of the 
privy council that the government had no autho- 
rity to seize the Alexandra (Confederate) steamer 

8 Feb. ,, 
Garibaldi's visit to England . . . 3-27 April, ,, 
The Ionian isles made over to Greece . 1 June, ,, 
European conference at London on the Schleswig- 

Holstein question ; no result, 24 April — 25 June, ,, 
Great excitement through the murder of Mr. Briggs 
in a first-class carriage on the North-London rail- 
way 9 July, . . 

Great explosion of gunpowder at the Belvedere 

magazine, near Woolwich . . . . 1 Oct. ,, 
Death of John Leech (aged 47). . . 29 Oct. 
Death of Richard Cobden (aged 61) . 2 April, 1865 
Prince George of Wales born . . . 3 June, ,, 
Resignation of lord-chancellor Westbury . 4 July, ,, 
General election ; majority for Palmerston adminis- 
tration 10 July, &c. ,, 

Visit of Abd-el-Kader ; departs . . 6 Aug. ,, 
Prevalence of a cattle plague, June-Oct. ; royal 

commission appointed ; met . . .10 Oct. ,, 
English fleet visits Cherbourg, 15 Aug. ; French fleet 

visits Portsmouth . . . . 29, 30 Aug. ,, 
Fine art and industrial exhibitions opened in Lon- 
don and the provinces . . . July-Sept. ,, 
Death of lord Palmerston, 18 Oct. ; public funeral 

27 Oct. ,, 
Earl Russell premier .... 3 Nov. ,, 
Important commercial treaty with Austria signed 

16 Dec. „ 
New parliament opened by the queen . . 6 Feb. 1866 
New reform bill introduced by Mr. Gladstone, 

12 Mar. ,, 
Commercial panic in London . . 1 1 May et seq. ,, 
International botanical congress opened . 22 May, ,, 
Defeat of the government on the reform bill, 

18 June ; resignation of ministers . 26 June, ,, 
Marriage of princess Helena to prince Christian of 

Schleswig-Holstein .... 5 July, ,, 
The third Derby cabinet formed . . . 6 July, ,, 
The Atlantic telegraph completely laid, and mes- 
sages sent to lord Stanley ... 27 July, „ 
The cable of 1865 recovered, and communication 
established with Valentia, 2 Sept. ; and with New- 
foundland 8 Sept. ,, 

Projected attack of Fenians on Chester prevented 

by the authorities . . . .11, 12 Feb. 1867 
The queen laid foundation of the Albert hall of arts 

at S. Kensington 20 May, ,, 

Visit of the viceroy of Egypt . . . 6-18 July, ,, 
Visit of the Belgian volunteers (see Belgium), 

10-22 July, ,, 
Visit of the Sultan (see Turkey) . . 12-23 July, >. 
"Early Years of the Prince Consort," published 

end of July, ,, 

New Reform act passed (see Reform) . . 15 Aug. ,, 
Michael Faraday, natural philosopher (nearly 76), 

died 25 Aug. „ 

Preparations for the expedition to Abyssinia (see 

Abyssinia) Aug, ,, 

Fenian outrages ; rescue of prisoners at Manchester 
(see Fenians) . . . . . .18 Sep., ,, 

.Synod of bishops at Lambeth (see Pan-Anglican) 

24-27 Sept. ,, 
Meeting of parliament respecting Abyssinian war, 

19 Nov. ,, 
Fenian explosion at Clerkenwell prison, London, ,, 

13 Dec. ,, 
.Special constables called for ; 113,674 (in the U.K.) 

sworn in by 28 Jan. 186S 

" Leaves from our Journal in Scotland," &c, by the 

queen, published ..... Jan. „ 
Resignation Of earl of Derby, 25 Feb. ; the Disraeli 

ministry formed 29 Feb. „ 

The queen holds a drawing-room again 12 March, „ 
Mr. Gladstone's resolution for disestablishing the 

Irish church ; adopted by the commons, 30 April, ,, 
Death of lord Brougham, aged 89 . . 7 May, ,, 



Arrival of the duke of Edinburgh from Australia 

26 June, 

Irish and Scotch reform acts passed . 13 July, 

Nearly 21,000 extra deaths attributed to the hot 
summer (23 July said to be the hottest) 

1 July — 30 Sept. 

Parliament dissolved n Nov., new parliament meets 

10 Dee. 

Resignation of Disraeli ministry, 2 Dec. ; Gladstone 
ministry take office 9 Dec. 

Convention with the United States respecting the 
Alabama claim signed (afterwards rejected by the 
States) 14 Jan. 

New parliament meets for business . . 16 Feb. 

Irish Church bill introduced into the commons, 
1 March ; royal assent. ... 26 July, 

The earl of Derby dies (aged 70) . . . 23 Oct. 

Parliament meets 8 Feb. 

Charles Dickens dies (aged 58) . . .9 June, 

Earl of Clarendon dies (aged 70) . . 27 June, 

Irish land bill brought in, 15 Feb., received royal 
assent 8 July, 

Neutrality in Franco-Prussian war (which see) pro- 
claimed 19 July, 

2,ooo,ooo£. voted to increase the army by 20,000 men 

1 Aug. 

Foreign enlistment act passed, 1 Aug. ; stringent 
proclamation of neutrality issued . . 9 Aug. 

Parliament prorogued .... 10 Aug 

Treaty with Prussia and France for neutrality of 
Belgium signed . . . . 9, 11 Aug. 

Long drought : bad hay harvest : good wheat har- 
vest Mar. -Aug. 

Earl Granville repels the charge of violating neu- 
tralities made by the Prussian government, 

1-15 Sept. 

The queen's consent to the marriage of the princess 
Louise to the marquis of Lome announced 

24 Oct. 

Foot and mouth disease prevalent among cattle 

Aug. -Nov. 

Election of elementary school-boards . . Nov. 

Excitement through the Russian note respecting 
the Black sea (see Russia) . . . Nov. 

Foundation of new Post-office laid . 16 Dec. 

Resignation of Mr. Bright announced . 20 Dec. 

Parliament meets 9 Feb. 

Marriage of the princess Louise and the marquis of 
Lome 21 March, 

Royal Albert Hall, Kensington, opened by the queen 

29 March, 

Eighth census taken (31,817.108) . . 3 April, 

Death of sir John F. Herschel. astronomer and 
philosopher (aged 79) .... 11 May. 

Death of George Grote, historian of Greece (aged 77) 

18 June, 

First annual International Exhibition at South Ken- 
sington, opened 1 May, closed . . 30 Sept. 

Black Sea conference met 17 Jan., closed (neutrali- 
sation of Black Sea abrogated, &c.) . 13 March, 

Disestablishment of the Church of England bill re- 
jected in the commons (374 — 89), 1 May ; parlia- 
ment prorogued 21 Aug. 

Illness of the queen at Balmoral, 4 Sept. ; recovery 

13 Sept. 

Serious illness of the prince of Wales from typhoid 
fever, Dec. ; began to recover . . 14 Dec. 

Letter from the queen and princess to the people, 
thanking them for sympathy . . .26 Dec. 

Thanksgivings for recovery of prince of Wales 

21 Jan. 

Excitement respecting the American claims under 
the treaty of Washington .... Feb. 

Meeting of parliament 6 Feb. 

The queen, prince and princess of Wales, and court 
and parliament go in state to St. Paul's : national 
thanksgiving for recovery of the prince of Wales ; 
London decorated ; illuminations, &c ; a success- 
ful day 27 Feb. 

The queen i 1 ■ a public letter, gazetted 1 March, says, 
"words are too weak for the queen to say how 
very deeply touched and gratified she has been 
by the immense enthusiasm and affection ex- 
hibited towards her dear son and herself," dated 

29 Feb. 

The queen, while entering Buckingham Palace, 
threatened by Arthur O'Connor, aged about 18, 



1872 



ENGLAND. 



429 



ENGLAND. 



who presents an unloaded pistol, with a paper to 
be signed ; immediately apprehended . 29 Feb. 1872 
The queen sailed for German}', and stayed several 

weeks 23 March-7 April, ,, 

Strikes among agricultural labourers in Warwick- 
shire and other counties ; union formed, 29 March, ,, 
Arthur O'Connor pleads guilty (sentenced to im- 
prisonment and flogging) . . . .9 April, ,, 
Correspondence between the British and American 
governments respecting the claims for indirect 
losses, which the former rejects . 3 Feb. -May, ., 
Supplemental treaty proposed; accepted by U.S. 
senate, 25 May ; further discussion in parliament ; 
unsatisfactory correspondence ; the U. S. con- 
gress adjourns 10 June, ,, 

Strikes among builders and other trades .June, ,, 
Final meeting of arbitrators ; damages awarded ; 

see Alabama 14 Sept. ,, 

New commercial treaty with France signed at 

London 5 Nov. ,, 

Continued rain ; floods in Midland counties . Dec. ,, 
Death of Edward Bulwer Lord Lytton, orator, poet, 

and novelist, aged 66 . . . .18 Jan. 1873 
Strikes among colliers, Jan. ; great dearth of coal ; 

the best, 52s. a ton in London . . 15 Feb. ,, 

Resignation of Mr. Gladstone on account of a defeat 
in the Commons on the Dublin university bill 
(287 — 284), 13 March; resumes office, 17 March, ,, 
Visit of the shah of Persia . 18 June-5 July, ,, 
Proposed marriage of duke of Edinburgh to grand- 
duchess Marie of Russia announced by the queen, 
17 July ; Annuity bill for the duke passed, 5 Aug. ,, 

Judicature Act passed 5 Aug. ,, 

Severely contested elections : conservative, reaction, 

Sept. -Oct. „ 
Marriage of duke and duchess of Edinburgh, 23 Jan. 1874 

Parliament dissolved 26 Jan. ,, 

General election ; conservative majority about 50, 
Feb. ; Gladstone ministry resigns, 17 Feb. ; Dis- 
raeli ministry formed . . . . 21 Feb. ,, 
Close of the Tichborne trial (see Trials) . 28 Feb. ,, 
Meeting of parliament . . . 5 March, ,, 

The duke and duchess of Edinburgh enter London, 

12 March, ,, 
Sir Garnet Wolseley returns from his successful 

expedition against the Ashantees . 21 March, ,, 
Visit of the czar of Russia . . . 13-21 May, ,, 
Public worship regulation act passed . 7 Aug. ,, 
Fruitful season ; excellent corn crop . Aug. -Sept. „ 
The queen receives a testimonial of gratitude from 
the French nation for British assistance during 

the war (see France) 3 Dee. ,, 

Meeting of parliament 5 Feb. 1875 

Moody and Sankey, American revivalists, arrive in 
London, 9 March; sail from Liverpool (see Re- 
vivals) 4 Aug. ,, 

Parliament prorogued . . . .13 Aug. ,, 
Railway jubilee at Darlington . . 27 Sept. ,, 
Departure of the prince of Wales for India, n Oct. ,, 
The khedive's shares in the Suez canal bought by 
the British government (see Suez) 1 Nov., 

announced 25 Nov. „ 

Parliament opened by the queen in person, 8 Feb. 1876 
The queen sails for Germany (all her sons abroad), 

28 March ; returns . . . .22 April, ,, 
Royal titles bill received royal assent . 27 April, ,, 
The queen proclaimed "empress of India," 1 May, ,, 
Arrival of prince of Wales at Portsmouth, n May, ,, 

Parliament prorogued 15 Aug. ,, 

Great heat ; failure in fruit crops ; harvest beneath 

average middle Aug. ,, 

Great excitement and many public meetings respect- 
ing the Turkish atrocities in Bulgaria, Aug. -Oct. ,, 
Mr. Gladstone's " Horrors in Bulgaria " published, 

6 Sept. ,, 
National conference against war to defend Turkey, ,, 

St. James's hall 8 Dee. „ 

Parliament opened by the queen . . . 8 Feb. 1877 
Proclamation of neutrality in Russo-Turkish war, 

30 April, ,, 
Debate on Mr. Gladstone's resolutions : — 1st. That 
this house found much cause for dissatisfaction 
and complaint in the conduct of the Ottoman 
Porte, with regard to the despatch written by the 
earl of Derby, 21 Sept. 1876, and relating to the 
massacres in Bulgaria, (for the resolution, 225 ; 
against, 354) 7-14 May, „ 



Fleet sent to Besika bay .... 3 July, 1S77 

Statue of king Alfred by count Gleichen, at Wan- 
tage, unveiled by the prince of Wales, his de- 
scendant 14 July, ,, 

Early meeting of parliament on account of Russo- 
Turkish war 17 Jan. 187S 

Vote of 6,000,000?. asked for before entering into 
conference respecting eastern affairs, 24 Jan. ; 
debate 31 Jan. ,, 

Liberal amendment withdrawn on report of Russian 
advance on Constantinople, 7 Feb. ; vote passed 
(204-124) 8 Feb. ,;. 

Warlike policy of the ministry ; resignation of lord 
Carnarvon, 24 Jan. ; and earl of Derby (see D Israeli 
Administration) .... 28 March, ,, 

Message of the queen, respecting calling out the 
reserves, &c. , 2 April ; adopted by parliament, 

April, ,, 

Earl of Salisbury's circular, indicting the Treaty of 
San Stefano, 2 April ; moderate reply of Gort- 
schakoff, printed 10 April, ,, 

Indian troops ordered to Malta, about . 17 April, ,, 

Censured by the opposition ; debate in commons ; 
for government, 347 ; against, 226 . 20-23 May, ,, 

Earl Russell died, aged 85 . . . .28 May ,, 

The ministry announce the meeting of a European 
congress on the eastern question to meet on 13 
June ; the earl of Beaconsfield and the marquis 
of Salisbury to attend for England. (See Berlin), 

3 June, ,, 
Anglo-Turkish convention (see Turkey) signed, 

4 June, , 
The conference meets at Berlin (which see) 13 June ; 

treaty signed 13 July, , r 

10,000?. a year voted for the duke of Connaught for 
his proposed marriage with princess Louise Mar- 
garet of Prussia 25 July, ,, 

Debate on the Berlin treaty, in the commons ; 
great speech of Mr. Gladstone, 30 July ; majority 
for government (338 — 195) . 29 July-3 Aug. ,, 
Parliament prorogued .... 16 Aug. ,, 
Meeting of parliament on account of Afghan war, 

5 Dec. ,,, 
Majority for ministers on vote of censure, lords (201- 

65), 10 Dec; commons (328-227) . 13-14 Dec. ,, 

Death of princess Alice by diphtheria at Darmstadt, 
after attendance on her husband, the grand-duke, 
and children, 7.30 a.m. ... 14 Dec. , t 

Severe winter, many persons unemployed Dec. ,, 

Parliament adjourned (to 13 Feb. ) . . 17 Dec. ,„ 

The Queen in a letter thanks her subjects for their 
sympathy with her loss of a dear child, who 
was " a bright example of loving tenderness, cou- 
rageous devotion, and self-sacrifice toduty," dated 

26 Dec. , T 

Edward Byrne Madden (? lunatic) arrested for 
thraetening to attack the Queen in letter's to the 
Home Office, 12 Dec. 1878 ; judged insane, 

13 Jan. 1879 

1,500,000?. voted for Zulu war . . 27 Feb. „ 

Expedition sent (between 8,000 and 9,000 men, 1,800 
horses, &c), Feb.-March, „ 

Marriage of duke and duchess of Connaught at 
Windsor 13 March, ,„ 

The. Queen at Paris, 26 March, arrives at Baveno, 
on Lago Maggiore . . . .28 March, !T 

Proposed censure of government respecting Zulu 
war, &c, negatived, lords (156-61), 25 March; 
commons (306-246) . . 31 March-i April, „ 

Great depression of trade (attributed to bad har- 
vest, famine, pestilence, war, and over-trading) 1878-9. 

Commons debate on the budget, for government, 
303 ; against, 230 .... 28-29 April, ,, 

Cold and very wet summer, little sunshine, failure 
of corn and fruit crops . . . autumn, 1879, 

Severe weather, Nov. very cold, i-i2Dec. and Jan., 
much fog 1880 

Parliament opened by the Queen, 5 Feb., dissolved 

23 Feb. , r 

General election, great liberal majority, 30 March- 
16 April ; resignation of ministry . 22 April, ,„ 

Gladstone ministry formed . . -29 April, ,, 

New parliament meets 29th April, Bradlaugh diffi- 
culty (see Parliaments) . . 3 May et seq. „ 

Fine autumn, good average harvest, improved trade, 

Oct. ,, 

Early meeting of parliament on account of Ireland, 

6 Jan. 1881 



ENGLAND. 



430 



ENGLAND. 



Successful review of about 52,000 volunteers by the. 

queen at Windsor 9 July, it 

Parliament prorogued .... 27 Aug. , 
Wet autumn ; deficient harvest ; much depression 

Sept. , 
Court and general mourning for death of gen. 

Garfield, president of United States 21-27 Sept , 
Gradual revival of trade . . .1 July-30 Oct. , 
Great hurricane throughout England, causing de- 
struction of life, property, and shipping, 13-15 Oct. , 

Very mild winter Nov. -Feb. li 

Meeting of parliament .... 7 Feb. , 
The queen shot at, at Great Western railway station, 
Windsor, by Roderick Maclean, aged 27 ; 2nd 
March ; he is committed for trial for high treason 

10 March, 
The queen's letter of thanks for general sympathy 

dated 12 March, . , 

She sails for Mentone, 14 March ; arrives, 16 

March ; leaves it, 12 April ; at Windsor, 14 April, , 
The queen dedicates Epping Forest to the use of 

the people for all time .... 6 May, , 
Parliament adjourned, and meets on 24 Oct. ; pro- 
rogued 2 Dec. , 

New law courts, London, opened by the queen 4 Dec. , 
Great excitement through attempted explosion of 

Local Government office . . 15 March, iS 

Detection of secret manufacture of explosives at 
Birmingham, 4 April ; arrest of Alfred White- 
head, Thos. Gallagher, physician, Wm. Norman, 
H. H. Wilson, H. D. E. and Henry Dalton, other- 
wise John O'Connor . . . . 5-6 April, , 

Other arrests in Liverpool, Glasgow, and London 

about 6-7 April, , 
Parliament prorogued .... 25 Aug. , 

The queen publishes "More Leaves from my 

Journal in the Highlands " . . . 11 Feb. if: 
Egypt and the Soudan : censure of the government 
for its "vacillating and inconsistent policy," 
voted by the lords (181-81) 12 Feb. ; rejected by 
the commons (311-262) . . . 12-20 Feb. , 
Prince Leopold, duke of Albany, dies, aged nearly 

31, 28 March ; buried at Windsor . . 5 April, , 
The queen starts for Darmstadt . . 16 April, , 
The queen in a letter expresses her deep sense of 
the loving sympathy of her subjects in all parts 
of her empire and also of foreign countries with 
herself and the duchess of Albany . 14 April, , 
The queen present at the marriage of her grand- 
daughter princess Victoria of Hesse to prince 
Louis of Battenburg at Darmstadt, 30 April ; 
returned to Windsor . ... . .7 May, , 

Vote of censure of the government for not support- 
ing Gordon negatived in the commons (303-275) 

12-14 May, , 
Parliament prorogued .... 14 Aug. , 

Good harvest, continued fine weather . July, Aug. , 
Parliament meets ... 23 Oct. -6 Dec. , 
Franchise bill passed, see under Reform . 6 Dec. , 
Prince Albert Victor Edward of Wales comes of 

age 8 Jan. i2 

Parliament meets 19 Feb. . 

Ordered that the militia be embodied and soldiers 

stopped from entering the reserve . 18 Feb. , 
Vote of censure on the government respecting 
Egypt, passed by the lords (189-58); negatived by 
the commons (302-288) . . . 27, 28 Feb. , 
Day of mourning for general Gordon and the killed 

iii the Soudan 13 March, , 

Reserves to be called out in prospect of war witli 

Prussia . . • .27 March, , 

The queen visits Aix-les-Bains, &C. 1 April-2 May, , 

(See Ireland, Parliament, anil Heroine.) 
Redistribution of Seats Act (see under Reform) , 

passed 25 June, , 

Vigorous preparations for war: vote of credit for 
1 n,ooo,oooJ. passed by the commons (see Russia) 

27 April, , 
Resignation of the Gladstone ministry on account 

of minority on the Budget bill (264-252) 8-9 June, , 
Ministry of the marquis ol Salisbury formed 24 June, , 
Parliament prorogued .... 14 Aug. , 
Very dry summer, average harvest . . . . , 
Ihe earl of Shaftesbury, a great philanthropist, 
dies, aged 84 1 Oct. . 



Agitation forthedisestablishment of the Church, &c. 

autumn, 

Dissolution of parliament ... 18 Nov. 

Elections : about 333 Liberals, 251 Conservatives, 
86 Parnellites .... 23 N0V.-18 Dec. 

The new parliament meets 12 Jan. ; opened by the 
queen 21 Jan. 

Resignation of the Salisbury administration (which 
see) ........ 27 Jan. 

Gladstone's third administration formed 2-6 Feb. 

Long winter ; severe cold, Feb. ; heavy snowstorms 
in N.E. counties ; railway trains snowed up 
several days . . . . 1, 2, 3 March, 

Mr. Gladstone introduces his bill to " make better 
provision for the future government of Ireland " 

8 April, 

Colonial and Indian Exhibition (the first great 
national exhibition) opened at South Kensington 
by the queen 4 May, 

International exhibition of navigation, commerce, 
&c, at Liverpool opened by the queen 11 May, 

Queen Victoria's jubilee year begins . 20 June, 

Excessively cold spring and summer . 

Very hot part of June and July .... 

Parliamentary election on Mr. Gladstone's Irish 
policy (reported, 316 conservatives, 191 Glad- 
stonians, 78 unionists, 85 Parnellites) . July, 

The Gladstone administration resigns . 20 July, 

The second Salisbury administration (which see) 
formed 26 July ; the marquis of Hartington and 
friends decline to form a coalition ministry 

31 Dec. 

Revival of trade and commerce, last half of 

Meeting of parliament .... 28 Jan. 

The queen starts for the Riviera 29 March ; visits 
Cannes, Aix-les-Bains, &c. 1 April et seq. ; 
returns to England . . . .29 April, 

The queen attends the jubilee service at Westmin- 
ster Abbey (see Jubilee) 21 June; she issues a 
letter to the nation expressing her profound 
gratitude for the very kind reception by the vast 
multitude during her progress to, and return 
from the Abbey, and her high admiration for the 
excellent order preserved ... 24 June, 

Severe drought ; 35 rainless days in some parts 
(11 weeks) .... June-mid. Aug. 

Very early harvest .... summer, 

Parliament prorogued . . . .16 Sept. 

Amicable conventions respecting Suez canal and 
New Hebrides, signed at Paris . . 24 Oct. 

Meeting of parliament .... 9 Feb. 

The queen starts for Florence 21 March ; at 
Florence 24 March ; at Innsbruck 23 April ; at 
Berlin 24 April ; in London . . 27 April, 

Local Government Act (which sec) passed 13 Aug. 

Parliament, adjourns till 6 Nov. . . 13 Aug. 

The queen's visit to Glasgow . . 18, 19 Aug. 

Cold wet summer, very fine autumn 1888 ; very 
mild weather, London much warmer than at 
Constantinople, Paris, &c. . . .4 Dec. 

Parliament meets 6 Nov. ; adjourns . 24 Dec. 

Epidemic of measles throughout the country, 

winter, 18; 

Parliament meets 21 Feb. 

The queen started for Biarritz 5 March : meets the 
queen-regent of Spain at San Sebastiau 27 March ; 
returns 3 April, 

Death of Mr. John Bright, M.P. (aged 78), orator, 
"tribune of the people," free-trader (sec Anti- 
Corn Law League), fearless, honest, independent 
27 March ; " one of the noblest figures that we 
have ever known in Parliament" — Lord Har- 
tington 29 March, 

(ircat improvement in trade and revenue Jan. -April 

Warren ile la Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S., astronomer, 
chemist, and physicist, aged 74, died . 19 April, 

The queen visits the prince of Wales at Sandring- 
ham 23-27 April et seq. 

Parliament prorogued .... 30 Aug. 

The emperor William If. visits the queen, see 
tie/many 1-8 Aug. 

The queen visits Wales (which see) . 23 Aug. 

Fine summer and autumn ; excellent hay and 
moderate corn harvests and good wool season 

Envoys from the sultan of Zanzibar, received by 
the queen at Balmoral .... 29 Oct. 



ENGLAND. 



431 



ENGLAND. 



Many strikes, and much agitation respecting labour 

and wages in London and throughout the country 

Aug. -Dec. 1889 
Great revival in trade . . . June-Dec. ,, 
Epidemic of influenza (which see) . . . Jan. 1890 

Parliament meets 11 Feb. ,, 

The queen visits Aix-les-Bains 26 March-22 April ; 

at Darmstadt receives the empress Frederick, the 

emperor William II. and others of her family 

23-29 April, „ 

At Windsor 30 April, ,, 

The queen visits Aylesbury and baron Ferdinand 

de Rothschild at Waddesdon Manor . 14 May, ,, 
The ex-queen Isabella of Spain visits the queen at 

Windsor, and attends the state Ball, Buckingham 

Palace, 20 May ; leaves England . . 29 May, ,, 
Anglo-German Agreement (which see) respecting 

East Africa, signed at Berlin . . .1 July ,, 
Return of Mr. H. M. Stanley (see Soudan) 

26 April, 1887-90 
The queen inaugurates the Empress dock at South- 
hampton 26 July, 1890 

The emperor William II. visits the queen at 

Osborne, inspects the fleet, Sc. . 4-8 Aug. ,, 
Anglo-French Agreement (which see) respecting 

Africa, signed 5 Aug. ,, 

Parliament prorogued . . . . 18 Aug. ,, 
Anglo- Portuguese Agreement settled 20 Aug. ; not 

ratified (see Portugal) .... Nov. , , 
Meeting of parliament .... 25 Nov. . ,, 
Parliament meets after the recess . . 22 Jan. 1891 
The queen present at the launch of the Royal 

Sovereign, great battleship, and of the Royal. 

Arthur, first class cruiser ; Portsmouth 26 Feb. ,, 
The queen visits Grasse, a French town near Cannes, 

in the Alpes-Maritimes . 2s March-28 April, „ 
Destructive snow-storm in the S. and S.W. 

counties (see Storms) 9, 10 March ; close of nearly 

six months' winter (see Frosts) 25 March . ,, 

Death of earl Granville, eminent statesman, aged 75 

31 March, ,, 
The empress Frederick visits England 27 Feb.- 

8 April. ,, 
Visit of the German emperor and empress very 

successful (see Germany) . . 4-13 July, ,, 
Visit of the prince of Naples (see Italy) 22 July- Aug. ,, 
The queen receives Veldtman, a Fingoe chief, and 

his presents . . . . . . 7 Aug. ,, 

Visit of the French fleet to Portsmouth (see France) 

19 Aug. ,, 
Prince George of Wales attacked by typhoid fever, 

10 Nov., recovery 23 Dee. ,, 

The duke of Clarence and Avondale attacked with 

influenza and pneumonia, 10 Jan., died at Sand- 

ringham, 14 Jan. Universally lamented ; military 

funeral at Windsor .... 20 Jan. 1892 
Letter from the queen, to the empire 

(London Gazette, 2 Feb.) 

"Osborne, January 26, 1892. 

" I must once again give expression to my deep sense 
of the loyalty and affectionate sympathy evinced by 
my subjects in every part of my empire on an occasion 
more sad and tragical than any but one which has 
befallen me and mine, as well as the nation. The over- 
whelming misfortune of my dearly loved grandson having 
been thus suddenly cut off in the flower of his age, full 
of promise for the future, amiable and gentle, and en- 
dearing himself to all, renders it hard for his sorely 
stricken parents, his dear young bricje, and his fond 
grandmother to bow in submission to the inscrutable 
decrees of providence. 

"The sympathy of millions, which has been so 
touchingly and visibly expressed, is deeply gratifying at 
such a time, and I wish, both in my own name and that 
of my children, to express from my heart, my warm 
gratitude to all. 

" These testimonies of sympathy with us, and ap- 
preciation of my dear grandson, whom I loved as a son, 
and whose devotion to me was as great as that of a son, 
will be a help and consolation to me and mine in our 
affliction. 

" My bereavements during the last thirty years of my 
reign have indeed been heavy. Though the labours, 
anxieties, and responsibilities inseparable from my 
position have been great, yet it is my earnest prayer that 
God may continue to give me health and strength to 
work for the good and happiness of my dear Country 
and Empire while life lasts. " Victoria, R.I." 



The seventh session of the queen's twelfth parlia- 
ment opened 9 Feb. 1892 

The queen visits Costebelle, a suburb of Hyeres, an 
ancient town in Provence 13 miles from Toulon, 
21 March-25 April ; at Darmstadt, 26 April-2 May, ,, 

Dissolution of parliament, 28 June ; general elec- 
tion : conservatives, 268; liberal unionists, 47 
(315) ; liberals (Gladstonians), 270 ; Parnellites, 
9 ; auti-Parnellites, 72 ; labour members, 4(355) ; 

total 670 23 July, ,, 

See Commons. 

Death of Robert Lowe, viscount Sherbrooke, states- 
man, aged 80 27 July, „ 

Visit of the German emperor . . . 1-8 Aug. „ 

Meeting of parliament, 4 Aug. ; want of confidence 
in the Salisbury ministry voted (350 — 310), 11 
Aug. ; the ministry resigns . . 13 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Gladstone's ministry constituted . 18 Aug. et seq. 

Parliament prorogued . . . . ,, ,, 

See Gladstone. 

Death of Alfred, lord Tennyson, poet laureate, 
aged 83, 6 Oct. ; buried in Westminster Abbey, 

12 Oct. ,, 

Agricultural depression through bad harvest and 
low prices of corn and cattle . . . Oct. ,, 

Sir Richard Owen, naturalist, &c, aged 88 ; died, 

18 Dec. ,, 

Opening of parliament ; the queen's speech ; an- 
nounces the Irish home rule bill, 31 Jan. ; intro- 
duced .... 13 Feb. (see Ireland) 1893 

Meetings with eminent speakers against the home 
rule bill, throughout the country ; petitions and 
subscriptions .... March, April, ,, 

Visit of the empress Frederick . 1 Feb. -4 April, ,, 

Death of Edward Henry, earl of Derby, statesman, 
aged 66 21 April, ,, 

Great unionist meeting at the Albert-hall ; see 
Ireland 22 April, „ 

The queen visits Florence . 23 March-26 April, 

The Imperial institute, which see, inaugurated by 
the queen 10 May, „ 

Very dry season, see Rainfall . March-June, ,, 

M. Albert Decrais appointed French ambassador 
end of June, „ 

The queen unveils the statue of herself (as in 1837), 
by the princess Louise, in Kensington gardens, 

28 June, „ 

Marriage of the duke of York and the princess 
Victoria Maud (May) of Teck, at St. James's pal- 
ace, in the presence of the queen and royal family, 
the king and queen of Denmark, the cesarevitch, 
other royal persons, 4 Indian princes, and a ranee, 
ambassadors, foreign representatives, eminent 
official persons ; the duke and duchess of York 
drove through London from Buckingham palace 
to Liverpool St. station, and arrived at Sandring- 
ham in the evening .... fc July, .,, 

[Ode on the marriage by Lewis Morris] National 
fete 6-8 July, „ 

Message of thanks from the queen to the nation, 
for hearty sympathy in relation to her grandson's 
wedding, Windsor castle . . . 10 July, ,, 

Very early harvest in Mid., S. and E. counties, about 

15 July, „ 

Heat wave, especially in the south, see Heat, mid. 
August : open weather, moderate rains, favour- 
able to grass and roots . . . autumn, ,, 

Parliament adjourns, 22 Sept. ; meets again 2 Nov. ,, 

Death of professor John Tyndall, aged 73 . 4 Dec. ,, 
See Royal Institution. 

Manchester ship canal, public opening . 1 Jan. 1894 
; Visit of the empress Frederick to Osborne, 2 Feb.- 

19 March, ,, 

Resignation of Mr. Gladstone as premier, succeeded 
by the earl of Rosebery . . . 3 March, ,, 

Parliament prorogued , 5 March ; re-opened 1 2 March, , , 

The queen visits Florence . 16 March-16 April, ,, 

Death of eminent judges : lord Hannen, 29 March ; 
lord Bowen ro April, ,, 

The queen at Coburg, 17 April ; at Windsor 29 April, „ 

The queen inaugurates the Manchester ship canal, 

21 May, ,, 

Birth of prince Edward Albert Christian, <fec. of 
York 23 June, „ 

Parliament prorogued . ' . . .25 Aug. ,, 

Fairly good hay and corn harvest reported n Sept. ,, 

Henry, earl Grey, able statesman, born 28 Dec. 
1802, died g Oct. ,, 



ENGLAND. 



432 



ENGLAND. 



James Anthony Froude, historian, born 23 April, 
1818, died 20 Oct. 

Death of lord Randolph Churchill ; (born 13 Feb. 

1849) 24 Jan. 

See Salisbury culm., 1885-6. 

Meeting of parliament, .... 5 Feb. 

Intense cold, see Frost . . . Jan. -Feb. 

The queen at Nice, 15 March-23 April ; Darmstadt, 
23 April ; at Sheerness ... 30 April, 

The empress Frederick visits England, 7 Feb.- 

23 March, 

Gross revenue for 1894-5 : 941683,762?. ; (expendi- 
ture 16 March) 94,181,000/., reported . 1 April, 

"Apostolic letter of pope Leo XIII. to the Eng- 
lish people ; " see Pope ... 14 April, 

Visit of prince Nasrullah Khan ; see Afghanistan,, 

24 May 

Resignation of the Rosebery ministry . 22 June, 

New cabinet formed by the marquis of Salisbury, 
4th administration ... 25 June et seq. 

Parliament dissolved, 8 July ; meets (see Commons) 
12 Aug. -5 Sept 

Visit of the German emperor to the queen, the fleet 
at Cowes 5 Aug. 

Reassuring speech of the marquis of Salisbury at 
the lord mayor's banquet in reference to Turkey, 
&c, unity of the great powers, the sultan 
warned q Nov. 

Death of gen. the rt. lion, sir Henry Ponsonby, 
private secretary to the queen since 1870, 21 Nov. 

Visit of the king of the Belgians and princess 
Clementine to the queen . . . 3-9 Dec. 

For dispute with the United States, see Venezuela, 
1895. Falls on the Stock Exchange, London, 

17, 18 Dec. 

Revival of trade and increased revenue . Jan. 

General displeasure at the German emperor's 
message to pres. Kruger respecting the defeat of 
Dr. Jameson, see Transvaal . . . 4 Jan. 

Naval force ordered to Delagoa bay . . 7 Jan. 

The Australian and Tasmanian governments send a 
telegram to lord Salisbury approving the action 
of his government and promising cordial sup- 
port, 12 Jan. ; for which lord Salisbury returns 
his hearty thanks .... 14 Jan. 

The prince of Wales visits the colonial office and 
declares his support of Mr. Chamberlain, n Jan. 

Sir Frederick, lord Leighton, painter, sculptor and 
scholar, born, 3 Dec, 1830; died, 25 Jan., 1896; 
public funeral at St. Paul's . . 3 Feb. 

Death of prince Henry of Battenberg, 20 Jan., 
buried at Whippingham, see Ashantees 5 Feb. 

Letter from the queen thanking the nation for its 
sympathy 14 Feb. 

Dr. Jameson and his troopers (350 officers and 
men) arrive at Plymouth, 23 Feb.; at London, 
25 Feb. ; for trial, see Transvaal, 1896, footnote. 

The queen's visit to Nice, 11 March ; she receives 
the emperor and empress of Austria, 13 March ; 
leaves 29 April, 

Budget: revenue, 101,974,000/.; expenditure, 
97,764,000/ 16 April, 

Sir Hercules Robinson arrives in London, 7 June, 

Marriage of princess Maud of Wales and prince 
Charles of Denmark, at Buckingham palace, 

22 July, 

Visit of Li Hung Chang, see China 1 Aug. et seq. 

Lord Rosebery proposes non-party public meetings 
respecting the Armenian massacres, Times, 

14 Sept. 

He resigns the leadership of the Liberal party 
through differences with Mr. Gladstone anil 
others on the Eastern question . 6 Oct. 

Meetings held at London, Liverpool, Birmingham, 
and Manchester, urging the Government to take 
stronger measures 15 Sept. et seq. 

Congratulations received by the queen from Lon- 
don and other places on having reigned lunger 
than any British sovereign . . 23 Sept. 

Visit of the empress Frederick 31 Jan. -15 March, 

Lady Wallace bequeaths her husband's collection 
of pictures, &c, to the nation, conditionally, 
see Bethnal Green and Wallace Collection, an- 
nounced 25 Feb. 

Thi! queen leaves Windsor for Nice, 10 March ; inter- 
view with pres. Faure at Noisy-le-Sec, n Mar. ; 
arrives at Nice, 12 March ; returns to Windsor, 

jo April 



1806 
1S97 



Col. Hay, U.S. ambassador, and Mrs. Hay received 
by the queen 3 May 

Completion of the 60th year of the queen's reign, 
see Jubilees (Diamond) . . 20 June, et seq. 

Grand nav;d review at Spithead, see Navy, 26 June 

The queen returns her sincere thanks for all 
congratulations, 28 June and again . 15 July 

Death of princess Mary of Cambridge, duchess of 
Teck, active philanthropist, 27 Oct. ; funeral at 
Windsor 3 Nov. 

Close of the 7 months' engineering dispute, 28 Jan. 
See Strikes. 

Count de Rascon, Spanish ambassador, received by 
the queen iq Feb. 

The queen arrives at Nice, 10 March ; at Windsor, 

1 May, 

A lease of Wei-hai-wei granted by China to Great 
Britain 2 April, 

Death of Mr. Gladstone, see Gladstone adm. 19 May, 

Baron Francesco de Renzis appointed Italian 
ambassador, Sept. 1898 ; dies . . .28 Oct. 

M. Paul Cambon, French ambassador, received by 
the queen 9 Dec. 

Split in the liberal party, which see . . Dec. 

Mr. Joseph Choate appointed U.S. ambassador, 

11 Jan. 

Visit of the empress Frederick, Dec. 1898-14 Jan. 

The queen leaves Windsor for Ciinie/!, 11 \iarch ; 
returns 5 May ; see Kensington Palace and S. 
Kensington ; her 80th birthday celebrated 
throughout the empire and all parts of the 
world, 24 May ; her thanks for congratulations, 
&c 25 May, 

Tercentenary of the birth of Oliver Cromwell cele- 
brated, see Naseby .... 25 April, 

The queen's message to Parliament; vote of 30,000?. 
to lord Kitchener for services in the Sniidan, car- 
ried, with vote of thanks to the officers and men, 

5-S June, 

Transvaal crisis: parliament affirms the duty of 
the imperial power to protect the Uitlanders 
against oppression, and demands the minimum of 
reforms laid down by sir A. Milner, 28 .Lily ; 
parliament prorogued, 9 Aug.; mobilisation of 
troops, reserves called out, well responded to, 
7 Oct. et seq. ; steady growth of national pros- 
perity during 1898 99 ; meetings thioughout the- 
country and empire supporting the government's 
policy in S. Africa, 13 Oct. ; gen. sir Redvers 
Buller leaves to take command in S. Africa, 
14 Oct. ; parliament summoned, 17 Oct. ; great 
speech of Mr. Chamberlain, 19 Oct.; firm speech 
by lord Salisbury at the Guildhall, "his faith in 
the British soldier unbounded' . . 9 Nov. 

Tercentenary of Cromwell's birth, his statue in 
front of Westminster-hall unveiled ; large meet- 
ing in Queen's-hall, addresses by lord Rosebery 
and others 14 Nov. 

German emperor and empress and two sons visit 
the queen at Windsor . . . 20-25 Nov. 

The government's call for volunteers and yeomanry 
for S. Africa eagerly responded to, 17 Dec. et seq. 

Duke of Westminster dies, aged 74 — a "many-sided" 
man and a good landlord . . . 22 I >ec, 

Lord Roberts leaves to take command in S. Africa, 

23 Dec. 

Country prosperous and trade flourishing year 
ended 31 Dec. 

Death of the duke of Teck, aged 62 . 21 Jan. 

Fine speech of Mr. Chamberlain in the Comn ons, 

5 Feb. 

Budget, which sec, 1900-1901, deficit 53,207,^.00/., 
passed 9 April, 

Centenary of the death of the poet Cowper. cele- 
brated at Olney, Bucks . . . 25 April, 

The queen visits London "to see her people,'' 
7-10 March; leaves Windsor for Dublin, see 
Ireland, 2 April; returns to Windsor . 27 April, 

Attempt on the life of the prince of Wales at Brus- 
sels, see Wales, 4 April; his letter of thanks for 
world-wide sympathy, Ti)ncs . . 28 April, 

Unbounded rejoicings on the relief of Mafeking 
(17 May) .... . 18-21 May, 

Visit of the khedive. 21 June; received by th- duke 
of York in London, June 27; by the queen at 



1S98 



1S99 



ENGLAND. 



433 



ENGLAND, 



Windsor, 28, 29 June; entertained at the Guild- 
hall, the prince of Wales and lord Salisbury- 
present, 3 July; leaves ... 4 July, 

Prince Alfred (Duke of Edinburgh), duke of Saxe- 
Coburg and Gotha, dies, near Coburg, aged 55 
(see Admirals) 30 ■ uly, 

Death of lord Russell of Killowen, lord chief 
justice, aged 68 13 Aug., 

Letters from Mr. Labouchere, Mr. Ellis, Dr. 
Clark, and others to Boer officials found in 
S. Africa, published as a parliamentary paper, 
and greatly discussed . . 23 Aug. et seq. 

Gen. sir John Adye, who in 64 years had served in 
the Crimea, India, and Egypt, died, aged 81, 

26 Aug. 

Parliament prorogued, 8 Aug.; dissolved, 25 Sept.; 
4th Salisbury administration, cabinet recon- 
structed 12 Nov. 

Sir Arthur Sullivan, popular composer (see Savoy 
and Opera) dies, aged 58 . . . 22 Nov. 

New parliament meets (see Commons) . 3 Dec. 

The queen's message of gratitude to her soldiers in 
S. Africa, see Times, 19 Dec. 1900 ; lord Roberts 
received by the queen at Osborne, and created 
an earl and K.G. , 2 Jan.; by the prince and prin- 
cess of Wales and others at Paddington, and 
escorted to Buckingham palace . . 3 Jan. 

Death of the Queen at Osborne after a few days' 

illness, the German emperor, her children and 

grandchildren being with her 6.30 p.m., 22 Jan. 

[Universal sorrow and mourning throughout 

the world and empire.] 

Kino Edward VII. accession. The king holds a 
council at St. James's palace, and declares "that 
it will be his constant endeavour to walk in his 
mother's footsteps," . . . -23 Jan. 

Parliament meets ; many touching tributes to the 
late queen's memory by lord Salisbury, Mr. 
Balfour, and others .... 25 Jan. 

Funeral of Queen Victoria : the remains con- 
veyed on board the royal yacht Alberta from 
Cowes to Portsmouth, through a long line of 
British and foreign warships, on a calm sea and 
in a glorious sunset, 1 Feb. ; borne in stately 
procession, with an escort of kings and princes, 
through the west of London to Paddington, 
thence to Windsor, and after a service in St. 
George's Chapel, placed in the Albert Memorial 
Chapel, 2 Feb. ; removed with solemn ceremonial 
to the Royal Mausoleum at Frogmore . 4 Feb. 

Memorial services held throughout the world, 

3 Feb. 

The king's messages: "To my people," "To my 
people beyond the seas," and "To the people 
and princes of India," thanking them for th-ir 
loyalty and affection, which inspired him wit'), 
courage and hope solemnly to work for the prom - 
Hon and security of the great, empire over which he 
had been called to reign, issued . . 4 Feb. 

The German emperor (made a field-marshal in the 
army and the crown prince a K.G.) warmly 
greeted in London, leaves . . . 5 Feb. 

The king and queen open parliament in state, 

14 Feb. 

The king visits the empress Frederick in Germany, 
27 Feb. -3 March. 

Meeting at the Guildhall in aid of the "Queen Vic- 
toria Memorial," the mayors and provosts of the 
U.K. invited to join (see Mansion-house), 

7 March, 

Sig. Albert Pansa appointed Italian ambassador, 

March, 

The duke and duchess of Cornwall start on their 
colonial tour in the ss. Ophir . 16 March, 

Budget : revenue, 132,255,000?. ; expenditure, 
187,612, oool 18 April, 

Sir Alfred Milner, high commissioner of S. Africa, 
met by lord Salisbury and others at Waterloo, 
great demonstrations ; received by the king and 
made a peer 24 May, 

Lord Wantage, V.C., a great supporter of the 
volunteers and administrator of war relief funds, 
etc., dies, aged 69 .... 10 June, 

The king presents S. African war medals to lords 
Rober's and Milner and some 3,200 officers and 
men, London . . . . . t 2 June, 



TOOI 



Pro-Boer meeting in the Queen's hall, London (Mr. 
Labouchere, M. P., chairman), addressed by the 
Afrikander Bond delegates and others ; some 
disturbance in and outside . . 19 June, 

Mr. Asquith, in a firm speech to a liberal mee ing 
in London, lepudiates the resolutions and 
opinions of th • Pro-Boers . . . 20 June, „ 

Blue-book issued on S. African war, see Times, 
9 July, and London . . . . . 10 July, ,, 

Mass meeting at the Guildhall in favour of the 
government's S. African policy (similar meetings 
held throughout the country) . . 10 July, ,, 

Budget, which see : deficit about 55,347,000?., 
passed 25 July, ,,. 

Vote of 100,000?. to lord Roberts for his eminent 
services in S. Africa, passed . . 31 July, ,, 

Great unionist demonstration at Blenheim palace, 
speakers Mr. Chamberlain, Mr. Balfour and 
others 10 Aug. „ 

Parliament prorogued . . . .18 Aug. ,, 

King Alfred millenary, celebration (see Winchester), 

18 Sept. „ 

The dnke and duchess of Cornwall warmly wel- 
comed after their successful tour (40,000 mi.), at 
Portsmouth and London . . 1, 2 Nov. ,, 

Count Hatzfeldt, 16 years German ambassador, 
resigns, 30 Oct. ; died, aged 70, 22 Nov. ; suc- 
ceeded by count Wolff-Metternich . Nov. ,, 

Lord Rosebery at Chesterfield urges the liberals to 
throw off the : r own Toryism, and offers his ser- 
vices ; appealing solely to the tribunal of public 
opinion , 16 Dec. ,, 

The marquis Ito, eminent Japanese statesman, 
arrives, 24 Dec; received by the king . 27 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Chamberlain's frank, manly speech at Birm- 
ingham a check to Anglophobia (see Germany), 
20 Jan. 1902 ; highly approved . . n Jan. 1902 

Dutch government's proposals for negotiations 
with the Boers in S. Africa presented, 25 Jan.; 
firmly declined by the British Government 
29 Jan.; correspondence issued . . 4 Feb. 

Lord Salisbury unveils a statue of queen Victoria 
at the Jun. Constitutional club, and speaks 
nobly and forcibly as to the end of the war, 

5 Feb. 

Lord Dufferin, an eminent diplomatist and ad- 
ministrator (see Canada 1872 and India i884\ 
died, aged 75 I2 Feb. 

Mr. Chamberlain presented with an address, see 
London . . ... . . .13 Feb. 

Death of lord Kimberley, K.G. 1885, liberal states- 
man, 50 years in office, aged 76 . . 8 April, 

Budget {which see) : receipts, 147,785,000?. ; expendi- 
ture, 174,609,000?. . . . . 14 April, 

New loan oh consols, 320,000,000?.,. see Stocks, oyer 
subscribed .....' 16-18 April, 

Lord Pauncefote, great diplomatist (see United 
States 1889 et seq., and Peace), dies, aged 74, 

24 May, 

Peace signed at Pretoria, 31 May; universal 
rejoicings i, 2 June, 

Thanksgivings for the conclusion of peace, 8 June; 
Jewish sei vices . . . . . n June, 

Mr. Samuel Butler, author of "Erewhon," died, 
aged 66 18 June, 

Lord Acton, prof, of modern history, Cambridge, 
eminent scholar, dud, aged 68 . -19 June, 

The king and queen warmly welcomed in London, 

23 June, 

Grave illness of the king from perityphlitis ; " Will 
my people ever forgive me ? " were his first words 
on recovering consciousness after a critical opera- 
tion ; universal anxiety, sorrow and sympathy; 
coronation ceremonies (26 June) and niost other 
festivities postponed . . . .24 June, 

Bank holidays ; festivities of a modified kind held 
by the king's desire (chiefly in the provinces) 

26, 27 Jvne, 

The king made an admiral of the German navy, 

26 June, 

Intercessory services at St. Paul's and elsewhere, 

26-29, June, 

Coronation bonfires throughout the country, 

30 June, 

Grand colonial and Indian reviews (the duke of 
Connaught in command) held by the prince of 
Wales, the. queen, and many foreign princes and - 
distinguished guests present, London. 1. 2 July, 



ENGLAND. 



434 



ENGLAND. 



The king sends a kind message to his soldiers and 
people, "having heard the cheering with gratifi- 
cation in his sick-room " . . . 3 July, 1902 

Royal and other eminent foreign guests arrived in 
London, 23 June ; many left 28 June — 3 July, ,, 

The king pronounced out of danger ; his dinner to 
the poor of London, which see. . . 5 July, ,, 

Colonial reception held by the prince and princess 
of Wales at St. James's Palace . . 10 July, ,, 

Lord Kitchener welcomed from S. Africa (see 
London &m\ Southampton) . . . 12 July, ,, 

Lord Salisbury (see Salisbury administration), over 
13J years prime minister and lord privy seal, 4 
times foreign secretary, resigns . ti July, ,, 

Mr. Arthur J. Balfour (leader of the commons ana 
first lord of the treasury) made prime minister 
and lord privy seal . . . 12-14 July, ,, 

The king taken in his yacht to Cowes . 15 July, ,, 

Meeting at the Church-house, Westminster, in aid 
of the Cape Town Cathedral memorial fund (over 
r6,oooL received), princess Christian present, 
lord Roberts presided ... 17 July, „ 

Debate in the commons on the case of sir Redvsrs 
Buller, his message to sir George White at Lady- 
smith, Spion Kop, &c. ... 17 July, ,, 

Mr. Balfour's speech at Fulliam, warm tiibutes to 

lord Salisbury and Mr. Chamberlain . 19 July, ,, 
1 The king and queen heartily welcomed in London, 

6 Aug. ,, 

Letter from the king to his people : — 

" On the eve of my coronation, an event which T look 
upon as one of the most solemn and important in my 
life, I am anxious to express to my people at home, 
and in the colonies, and in India my heartfelt appre- 
ciation of the deep sympathy which they have mani- 
fested towards me during the time that my life was in 
.such imminent danger. 

"The postponement of the ceremony owing to my 
illness caused, I fear, much inconvenience and trouble 
to all those who intended to celebrate it; but their 
.disappointment was borne by them with admirable 
patience and temper. 

"The prayers of my people for my recovery were 
Jieard; and I now offer up my deepest gratitude to 
Divine Providence for having preserved my life and 
given me strength to fulfil the important duties which 
devolve upon me as the sovereign of this great empire. 
"Signed, Edward R. & I., 

"Buckingham Palace, 8th August, 1902." 

Ministerial changes: see Balfour administration, 

8 Aug. 1902 
Parliament adjourns .... 8 Aug. ,, 
.Coronation of king Edward VII. and queen Alexan- 
der at the abbey; many colonial statesmen and 
Indian princes present; great rejoicings and cele- 
brations throughout the empire and world, 

9 Aug. „ 
1 The king presents Osborne house, which see, to the 

nation 9 Aug. ,, 

Thanksgiving services held for the king's recovery, 

10 Aug. ,, 
The lord mayor, vise. Duncannon, and s'r Savile 
Crossley present to the king a coronation gift 
(ii5,oooZ.)from some ofhis subjects; see Hospitals, 

11 Aug. ,, 

'The queen presents S. African war medals to many 
(male and female) of the Imp. Yea Hospital 
staffs, at Devonshire house . . 11 Aug. ,, 

•The king receives the Indian princes and colonial 
premiers, 12 Aug., and holds investiture parades 
of the colonial and Indian troops, London, 

12, 13 Aug. ,, 

•The Indian princes, in a letter tn the lord mayor, 
express warm gratitude for the kindness received, 
and their loyalty and affection for the British 
nation, Times 15 Aug. ,, 

.Coronation naval review; over 100 vessels at Spit- 
head 16 Aug. ,, 

The Boer generals Botha, De Wet, and Delarey, 
received by lords Kitchener and Roberts and Mr. 
Chamberlain at Southampton, and by enthusias- 
tic crowds in London, 16 Aug.; by I lie king and 
queen at Cowes, 17 Aug.; they leave for the con- 
tinent 18 Aug. ,, 

Visit of the shah of Persia . . 17-25 Aug. „ 

The king inspects the Meet. • . . 18 Aug. ., 



Cruise of the king and queen ; Weymouth, Pem- 
broke, Isle of Man, Arran, Hebrides, Dunrobin, 
&c. 21 Aug. -8 Sept. 

Maj.-gen. sir J. M. Heriot-Maitland, who served in 
China, Egypt, Soudan, and India, died, aged 65, 

27 Aug. 

Sir Frederick Abel, eminent chemist, died, aged 75, 
and Philip J. Bailey, the author in 1839 of 
" Festus," died, aged 86 ... 6 Sept. 

Mr. Brodrick (war secretary), lord Roberts, gens. 
Kelly-Kenny and Ian Hamilton, visit Germany, 
which see 5 Sept. 

Baron de Staal, Russian ambassador, retires, Sept. 

Nceonformist agitation against the Education 
bill Aug. -Oct. 

Conference between Mr. Chamberlain and the Boer 
generals; the vereeniging terms signed (31 May) 
unalteied, 5 Sept.; parliamentary paper issued, 

10 Sept. 

Royal commission of inquiry into the conduct of 
the S. African war, which see Oct. 

Parliament meets 16 Oct. 

Royal progress through London, thanksgiving ser- 
vice at St. Paul's, and review of the Guards from 
S. Africa 25, 26. 27 Oct.. 

Liberal demonstration at the Alexandra palace, 
sir H. Cainpbell-Bannerman and Mr Asquith 
chief speakers, resolution passed against; the 
Education bill 1 Nov. 

Grant of 8,ooo,oooZ. voted for the Transvaal and 
Orange River Colony .... 5 Nov. 

Visit of the emperor of Germany . . 8-20 Nov. 

Death of prince Edward of Saxe-Weimar, G.C.B., 
aged 79 ; served in the Crimea, 1854-55 ; a general, 
1879; commander of forces in Ireland, 1885-90; 
field-marshal, 1897 16 Nov. 

Death of Mr. G. A. Henty, journalist and writer of 
boys' books, aged 69 16 Nov. 

Count Benckendorff appointed Russian ambassador, 

18 Nov. 

Mr. Chamberlain accompanied by Mrs. Chamber- 
lain, leaves on his mission to S. Africa, 25 Nov. 

Visit of the king of Portugal . 17 Nov. to 8 Dec. 

Great poverty and distress in London and other 
cities ; thousands unemployed ; funds started ; 
reported 13 Dec. 

Death of Dr. Temple, archbishop of Canterbury, 
aged 81 23 Dec. 

Queen's dinner, 629 widows and 836 children of 
soldiers who fell in S. African war . 27 Dec. 

Dr. Davidson, abp. of Canterbury . 12 Feb. : 

The king opens parliament, address agreed to 
(lords) 17 Feb. 

Death of It. -col. F. R. Henderson, author of 
" Stonewall Jackson," &c. aged 49 . 5 Mar. 

Inaug. meeting of the centenary of the British and 
Foreign Bible society held at mansion house, 
the lord mayor presiding; speeches by Mr. Bal- 
four, lord Northampton, and others . 6 March, 

Mr. and Mrs. Chamberlain welcomed home, 14 Mar. 

Naval estimates, " statement of First Lord of the 
Admiralty," 1903-04, 34,457,000?., those of 1903 
being 31,255,000/., also "statement of work, 
1902-03" with appendix, issued . . 9 March, 

Army estimates for 1903-04, including special 
expenditure for S. Africa, China and Somaliland, 
34,500,000?. 9 March, 

The queen presents sprays of shamrock to the Irish 
guards at the tower, St. Patrick's day, 17 March, 

Dr. Farrar, dean of Canterbury, died, aged 71, 

22 March, 

Maj.-gen. sir Hector Macdonald, " Fighting Mac," 
after brilliant services in Afghanistan, Egypt, 
the Soudan, and S. Africa, found dead in Paris, 

25 March, 

M. Curie's (and Mdme. Curie's) discovery of the 
remarkable properties of radium (see Radium), 
announced March, 

Mr. ('has. Booth's " Life and Labour of the People 

in London," third series, "Religious Influences," 

published mid April 

London Education bill first reading (house of 
commons) 7 April, 

Royal commission of inquiry re food imports, &c. 
during war ; lord Balfour of Burleigh, chairman, 
the prince of Wales, and others, appointed, April, 



ENGLAND. 



435 



ENGLAND. 



Budget statement, 1903-4, final surplus 316,000?., 

23 April, 1903 

Mr. Robert W. Hanbury, M.P., president of the 
board of agriculture, died . . . 28 April, ,, 

MM. Sardou and Morreau's new play Dante pro- 
duced at Drury lane theatre . . . 30 April, ,, 

Stockbrokers' walk to Brighton ; 87 competitors, 
won by E. P. Broad ; time 9 hrs. 30 min. 1 sec, 

1 May, ,, 

Sale of the Gambart collection of pictures, 
realized 31,014? 2-4 May, ,, 

King's tour to Lisbon, 7 Apr. ; Gibraltar, 8-13 Apr.; 
Malta, 16-21 Apr. ; Sicily, 21-22 Apr. ; Naples, 
.23 Apr. ; Rome, 27 Apr. ; visits the pope at the 
Vatican, 29 Apr. ; Paris, 1-4 May ; leaves Cher- 
bourg and arrives in London . . 5 May, ,, 

Transvaal loan, 35,000,000?., 3 per cent., issued ; 
well taken up 7 May, ,, 

living and queen visit Scotland . . n-15 May, „ 

Mr. Chamberlain's speech on preferential tariffs, 
at Birmingham 15 May, ,, 

Earl of Onslow appointed president of the board of 
agriculture .... about 19 May, ,, 

Mr. Chamberlain's inter-imperial tariff scheme 
much discussed in England and on the continent ; 
generally approved in the colonies (see under 
Preferential Tariffs) . . May-June, et seq. ,, 

Fatal fire at Eton college, 2 scholars burnt to 
death ; message of condolence from the king and 
queen 1 June, ,, 

Death of sir Edmund Du Cane, K.C.B., long 
director of prisons and chairman of prison com- 
missioners, aged 73 7 June ,, 

Lord Rosebery speaks at Liberal league dinner 
against the tariff scheme . . . 12 June, ,, 

The king receives Mr. Austen Chamberlain, M.P., 
and nearly 300 members of the international tele- 
graph convention, at Windsor . . 15 June, ,, 

Cardinal Vaughan, archbishop of Westminster, dies, 
aged 71 19 June, ,, 

Khedive visits England, arrives . . . 24 June, ,, 

British academy holds its first annual meeting at 
Burlington house . . . . .28 June, ,, 

Death of viscount Colville of Culross, lord cham- 
berlain to the queen, aged 84 . . .1 July ,, 

Centenary of the Sunday School union, great 
international bazaar, Portman rooms, opened by 
lady Aberdeen, 2 July ; speech by Mr. Choate, 
U.S. ambassador, at public meeting, 6 July ; 
festival at the Crystal palace . . .8 July ,, 

M. Loubet, president of the French republic, visits 
the king ; arrives at Dover 6 July ; reception and 
luncheon at the guildhall, presented with an 
address of welcome ; king and prince of Wales 
•dine with the president at the French embassy ; 
state performance at royal opera, 7 July ; present 
at review by the king of the first army corps, 
Aldershot, state ball at Buckingham palace, 
July ; returns 9 July, 

Death of Mr. Whistler, distinguished artist, 17 July, 

Visit of United States squadron to Portsmouth ; 
entertainments to adm. and officers 6-17 July, 

Tariff Reform league inaugurated . . 21 July, 
Irish Land bill passed the third reading by 317 

votes to 20 (see Addenda) . . . 21 July, 
Visit of the king and queen to Ireland 20-25 JulYi 
The duke of Marlborough appointed under-secretary 

for the colonies .... about 23 July, 
Royal naval college at Osborne, I. of W., opened 

by the king 4 Aug. 

Death of Mr. Phil May, clever caricaturist . 5 Aug. 
Lond. Education bill (see Addenda) royal assent 

14 Aug. 
Death of Lord Salisbury, aged 73 (see Salisbury 

Administration) 22 Aug. 

Royal Commission on S. Afric. war, report 25 Aug. 
Mr. Balfour's pamphlet, "Economic Notes on 

Insular Free Trade," published . 15 Sept. 

Resignation of Mr. Chamberlain, Mr. Ritchie, and 

lord Geo. Hamilton, announced . . 18 Sept. 
Death of the duke of Richmond and Gordon, aged 

85 27 Sept. 



Lord Milner arrives in England . . 28 Sept. 1903 

Death of sir Michael Herbert, British ambassador 
to the United States . . . . 30 Sept. ,, 

Letters of resignation of Mr. Ritchie and lord Geo. 
Hamilton published . . . . 1 Oct. ,, 

Meeting of the National Conservative association 
at Sheffield, great speech at public meeting by 
Mr. Balfour, who declares his policy on the 
fiscal question 1 Oct. ,, 

Duke of Devonshire's resignation, and new cabinet 
appointments announced (for names see under 
Balfoicr Administration in Addenda) . 6 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Chamberlain opens his "fiscal campaign" by 
a great speech on "Colonial Preference" at St. 
Andrew's hall, Glasgow, enthusiastic reception 
(60,000 applications made for tickets of admission), 

6 Oct. „ 
Mr. Chamberlain speaks at Greenock on "Retalia- 
tion " in British trade (see Preferential Tariffs), 

7 Oct. „ 
Dr. Knox, bishop suffragan of Coventry, appointed 

to see of Manchester, vacant Nov. 1 . 7 Oct. ,, 
Mr. John Morley's biography of Mr. Gladstone 

published 8 Oct. ,, 

Death of Mr. J. C. Horsley, R. A . 18 Oct. 

Death of Lord Rowton .... 9 Nov. , 

[For other events see Addenda.] 

KINGS AND QUEENS OF ENGLAND. 

BEFORE THE CONQUEST. 

Egbert, styled " king of England" in 828. 

Ethelwolf ; his son. 

Ethelbald ; his son. 

Ethelbert ; brother. 

Ethelred ; brother. 

Alfred the Great ; brother ; born 849 ; died 25 or 
26 Oct. 900 or 901 ; some say 899. 

Edward the Elder ; son ; died 925. 

Athelstan ; eldest son ; died 17 Oct. 940. 

Edmund I., fifth son of Edward the Elder; died 
from a wound received in an affray, 26 May, 946. 

Edred ; brother ; died 955. 

Edwy, eldest son of Edmund ; died of grief in 958. 

Edgar the Peaceable ; brother ; died 1 July, 975. 

Edward the Martyr, his son, stabbed at Corfe 
Castle, at the instance of his step-mother Elfrida, 
18 March, 979. 

Ethelred II. ; halfrbrother ; retired. 

Sweyn, proclaimed king ; died 3 Feb. 1014. 

Canute the Great ; his son. 

Ethelred restored in Canute's absence ; died 24 April, 
1016. 

Edmund Ironside, his son, divided the kingdom 
with Canute ; murdered at Oxford, 30 Nov. 1016 ; 
reigned seven months. 

Canute sole king ; married Emma, widow of Ethel- 
red ; died 12 Nov. 1035. 

Harold I. ; son ; died 17 Mar. 1040. 

Hardicanute, son of Canute and Emma ; died of re- 
pletion at a marriage feast, 8 June, 1042. 

Edward the Confessor, son of Ethelred and Emma ; 
died 5 Jan. 1066. 

Harold II., son of earl Godwin; reigned nine 
months ; killed near Hastings, 14 Oct. 1066. 

THE NORMANS.* 

1066. William the Conqueror ; crowned 25 Dec. : died at 
Rouen, 9 Sept. 1087. 

* The regnal dates are those given by sir H. Nicolas. 
The early Norman and Plantagenet kings reckoned their 
reigns from the day of their coronation ; the later Plan- 
tagenets from the day after the death of their prede- 
cessor. With Edward VI. began the present custom of 
beginning the reign on the day of the death of the pre- 
ceding sovereign. 

ROYAL ARMS OF ENGLAND. 

William I., William II., and Henry I.— two lions or 

leopards passant. 
Stephen— Sagittarius, the archer, one of the signs of the 

zodiac (traditional). 
Henry II. to Edward II. Three lions passant. 
Edward III. and his successors quartered the preceding 

with fleurs de lys, the arms of France. 

F F 1 



827. 
837. 

857- 
860. 
866. 
871. 

901. 
9 2 5- 
940. 



955- 
957- 
975- 



979- 
1013. 
1014. 
1014. 



101 



i°35- 
1039. 



1042. 
1066. 



ENGLAND. 



436 



ENGLAND. 



Queen, Matilda, daughter of Baldwin, earl of 
Flanders ; married in 1054 ; died in 1083. 
1087. "William II. Rufus ; reign began 26 Sept. ; killed l)y 

an arrow, 2 Aug. 1100. 
1 100. Henry I. Beauclerc, his brother ; reign began 
5 Aug. ; died of a surfeit, 1 Dee, 1135. 

Queens, Matilda, daughter of Malcolm III. king of 
Scotland ; married 11 Nov. 1100 ; died 1 May, 
1119. 2. Adelais, daughter of Godfrey, earl of 
Louvaine ; married 29 Jan. 1129 ; died 1151. 
1 135. Stephen, earl of Blois, nephew of Henry; reign 
began 26 Dec. ; died 25 Oct. 1154. 

Queen, Matilda, daughter of Eustace, count of 
Boulogne ; married in 1128 ; died 3 May, 1151. 

[Maud, daughter of Henry I. and rightful heir to 
the throne; born 1101 ; betrothed, in 1109, at 
eight years of age, to Henry V. emperor of Ger- 
many, who died 1125. She married, secondly, 
Geoffrey Plantagenet, earl of Anjou, 1130. Was 
set aside from the English succession by Stephen, 
1135 ; landed in England and claimed the crown, 
1 139. Crowned, but soon after defeated at Win- 
chester, 1 141 ; concluded a peace with Stephen, 
which secured the succession to her son Henry, 
1153 ; died 1165.] 

THE PLANTAGENETS. 

1 154. Henry II. Flantagenet, grandson of Henry I. and son 
of Maud; reign began 19 Dec, ; died 6 July, 1189. 
Queen, Eleanor, the repudiated queen of Louis VII. 
king of France, and heiress of Guienne and 
Poitou ; married to Henry, 1151 ; died 26 June, 
1202 ; see Rosamond. 
1 189. Richard I. Cceur de Lion, his son ; reign began 
3 Sept. ; died of a wound, 6 April, 1199. 
Queen, Berengaria, daughter of the king of Navarre ; 
married 12 May, 1191 ; survived the king. 
1199. John, the brother of Richard ; reign began 27 May ; 
died 19 Oct, 1216. 
Queens, Avisa, daughter of the earl of Gloucester ; 
married in 1189; divorced. 2. Isabella, daughter 
of the count of Angouleme : she was the young 
and virgin wife of the count de la Marche : 
married to John in 1200. Survived the king, on 
whose death she was re-married to the count de 
la Marche. 
1216. Henry III. son of John ; reign began 28 Oct. ; died 
16 Nov. 1272. 
Queen, Eleanor, daughter of the count de Pro- 
vence; married 14 Jan. 1236; survived the king; 
and died in 1291, in a monastery. 
1272. Edward I. son of Henry, surnamed Longshanks; 
reign began 20 Nov. ; died 7 July, 1307. 
Qu.eens, Eleanor of Castile ; married in 1253 ; died 
of a fever, on her journey to Scotland, at Grant- 
ham, in Lincolnshire, 1290. 2. Margaret, sister 
of the king of France; married 12 Sept. 1299, 
survived the king, dying in 1317. 
1307. Edward II. son of Edward I. ; reign began 8 July ; 
dethroned 20 Jan. 1327 ; murdered at Berkeley 
castle, 21 Sept. following. 
[An inscription in the castle of Melazzo, Piedmont, states 
that he escaped from Berkeley castle, was sheltered by 
Pope John XXII. at Avignon. After long wandering, 
resided secretly in this castle 1330-33. Reported by 
count Negra, Oct., 1890.] 

Queen, Isabella, daughter of the king of France ; 
married in 1308. On the death, by the gibbet, of 
her favourite Mortimer, she was confined for the 



Henry V. used only 3 fleurs de lys. 

Mary I. quartered the preceding with the arms of her 
husband Philip II. of Spain. 

UNITED KINGDOM. 

James I. and his successors combined the arms of Eng- 
land and France (1st and 4th quarter); 2nd, the lion 
rampant of Scotland; 3rd, the harp of Ireland. He 
introduced the unicorn as a supporter of the anus. 

Gtorgel., George II. and George III. introduced the arms 
of Brunswick. 

In 1801 the arms of France were omitted. In 1816 the 
arms were modified through Hanover being made a 
kingdom. 

Victoria. In 1837 the arms of Hanover were omitted. 
The arms are now : 1st. and 4th quarters, 3 lions passant 
for England ; 2nd, lion rampant for Scotland ; 3rd, harp 
for Ireland. Also Edward VII., 1901. 



rest of her life in her own house at Risings, near 
Lynn, and died in 1357. 

1327. Edward III. his son ; reign began 25 Jan. ; died 
21 June, 1377. 
Queen, Philippa, daughter of the count of Hainault; 
married in 1326 ; died 15 Aug. 1369. 

1377. Richard II. son of Edward the Black Prince, and 
grandson of Edward III. ; reign began 22 June; 
dethroned 29 Sept. 1399 ; said to have been mur- 
dered at Pomfret castle, 10 Feb. 1400. 
Queens, Anne of Bohemia, sister of the emperor 
Wenceslaus of Germany ; married in Jan. 1382 ; 
died 7 June, 1394. 2. Isabella, daughter of 
Charles VI. of France ; married when only seven 
years old, 1 Nov. 1396. On the deposition of her 
husband she returned to France ; married the 
duke of Orleans and died 13 Sept. 1409. 

HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 

1399. Hemy IV. cousin of Richard II. ; reign began 

30 Sept. ; died 20 March, 1413. 

Queens, Mary, daughter of the earl of Hereford ; 
she died before Henry obtained the crown, in 
1394. 2. Joan of Navarre, widow of the duke of 
Bretagne ; married 1403 ; survived the king ; 
died 1437. 
1413. Henry V. his son ; reign began 21 March ; died 

31 Aug. 1422. 

Queen, Catherine, daughter of the king of France ; 

married 30 May, 1420. She outlived Henry, and 

was married to Owen Tudor, grandfather of 

Henry VII., in 1423 ; died 1437. 
1422. Henry VI. his son ; reign began 1 Sept, ; deposed 

4 March, 1461 ; said to have been murdered by 

Richard, duke of Gloucester, in the Tower, 20 

June, 1471. 
Queen, Margaret, daughter of the duke of Anjou ; 

married 22 April, 1445 ; survived the king ; died 

25 Aug. 1481. 

HOUSE OF YORK. 

1461. Edward IV. ; died 9 April, 1483. 

Queen, Elizabeth, daughter of sir Richard Wood- 
ville, and widow of sir John Grey, of Groby; 
married 1463 or 1464. Suspected of favouring 
the insurrection of Lambert Simnel ; and closed 
her life in confinement, 8 June, 1492. 

1483. Edward V. his son ; deposed 25 June, 1483, and 
said to have been murdered in the Tower ; reigned 
two months and thirteen days. 
,, Richard III. brother of Edward IV. ; began to reign, 

26 June ; slain at Bosworth, 22 Aug. 1485. 
Queen, Anne, daughter of the earl of Warwick, and 

widow of Edward, prince of Wales, murdered 
1471. She is said to have been poisoned by 
Richard (having died suddenly, 16 March, 1485), 
to make way for his intended marriage with 
princess Elizabeth of York. 

HOUSE OF TUDOR. 

1485. Henry VII. (son of Edmund Tudor, earl of Rich- 
mond, and Margaret, daughter of John Beaufort, 
duke of Somerset, legitimated descendant of 
John of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster); began to 
reign 22 Aug. ; died 21 April, 1509. 
Queen, Elizabeth of York, princess of England, 
daughter of Edward IV. ; married 18 Jan. i486 ; 
died 11 Feb. 1503. 

1509. Henry VIII. his son ; began to reign, 22 April ; died 
28 Jan. 1547. 
Queens, Catherine of Aragon, widow of Henry's 
elder brother, Arthur, prince of Wales ; married 
11 June, 1509; mother of queen Mary ; repudi- 
ated, and afterwards formally divorced, 23 May, 
1533 ; died 7 Jan. 1536. 

2. Anne Boleyn, daughter of sir Thomas Boleyn, j 
and maid of honour to Catherine ; privately j 
married, before Catherine was divorced, 14 Nov. . 
1532, or Jan. 1533 ; mother of queen Elizabeth ; j 
beheaded at the Tower, 19 May, 1536. 

3. Jane Seymour, daughter of sir John Seymour, 
and maid of honour to Anne Boleyn ; married 
20 May, 1536, the day after Anne's execution ; 
mother of Edward VI. of whom she died in | 
childbirth, 24 Oct 1537. 

4. Anne of Cleves, sister of William, duke of 
Cleves ; married 6 Jan. 1540; divorced 10 July, , 
1540; died 1557. 



ENGLAND. 



437 



ENGLAND. 



5. Catherine Howard, niece of the duke of Nor- 
folk ; married 28 July, 1540 ; beheaded, 12 Feb. 

1542- 

6. Catherine Par or Parr, daughter of sir Thomas 
Parr, and widow of Nevili, lord Latimer ; married 
12 July, 154.3 ; survived the king, after whose death 
she married sir Thomas Seymour, created lord 
Sudley ; died 5 Sept. 1548. 

1547. Edward VI. son of Henry VIII. (by Jane Seymour), 
died 6 July, 1553. 

*553- Jane, daughter of the duke of Suffolk, and wife of 
lord Guildford Dudley ; proclaimed queen on the 
death of Edward ; ten days afterwards returned 
to private life ; was tried 13 Nov. 1553 ; beheaded 
12 Feb. 1554, when but 17 years of age. 

1553. Mary, daughter of Henry (by Catherine of Aragon), 
married Philip of Spain, 25 July, 1554 ; died 17 
Nov. 1558. 

1558. Elizabeth, daughter of Henry (by Anne Boleyn), 
died 24 March, 1603. 

HOUSE OF STUART. 

1603. James I. of England and VI. of Scotland, sen of 
Mary, queen of Scots ; died 27 March. 1625. 
Queen, Anne, princess of Denmark, daughter of 
Frederick II. ; married 20 Aug. 1590 ; died 
March, 1619. 

1625. Charles I. his son ; beheaded at Whitehall, 30 Jan. 
1649. 
Queen, Henrietta-Maria, daughter of Henry IV. 
king of France ; married 13 June, 1625 ; sur- 
vived the king ; died in France 10 Aug. 1669. 

1649. Commonwealth. Oliver Cromwell made pro- 
tector, 16 Dec. 1653 ; died 3 Sept. 1658 ; grant 
for the erection of his statue at Westminster 
voted by the commons, 14 June ; vote with- 
drawn, 17 June, 1895. See Naseby. 

1658. Richard Cromwell, his son, made protector, 4 
Sept. ; resigned 22 April, 1659. 

1660. Charles II. son of Charles I. ; died 6 Feb. 1685. 

Queen, Catherine of Braganza, infanta of Portugal, 
daughter of John IV. and sister of Alfonso VI.; 
married 21 May, 1662; survived the king; re- 
turned to Portugal ; died 21 Dec. 1705. 

1685. James II. his brother; abdicated by flight, 11 Dec. 
1688 ; died in exile, 6 (16) Sept. 1701. 
[1st Wife, Ann Hyde, daughter of Edward Hyde, 
earl of Clarendon ; married Sept. 1660 ; died 
1671 ; mother of queens Mary II. and Anne.] 
Queen, Mary Beatrice, princess of Modena, daughter 
of Alphonso d'Este, duke ; married 21 Nov. 
1673 ; in 1688 retired with James to France ; 
died at St. Germains, 1718. 

1689. William III. prince of Orange, king, and Mary, 
queen, daughter of James II. ; married 4 Nov. 
1677 ; began their reign, 13 Feb. 1689 ; Mary died 
28 Dec. 1694. 

1694. William III. ; died of a fall from his horse, 8 March, 
1702. 

1702. Anne, daughter of James II. ; married George, 
prince of Denmark, 28 July, 1683 ; succeeded to 
the throne, 8 March, 1702 : had seventeen children, 
all of whom died young (William, duke of Glou- 
cester, born 24 July, 16S9, died 30 July, 1700) ; 
lost her husband, 28 Oct. 1708 ; died 1 Aug. 1774. 

house of hanover. (See Brunswick and Este.) 
1714. George I. elector of Hanover and duke of Bruns- 
wick-Luneburg ; son of Sophia, who was daugh- 
ter of Elizabeth, the daughter of James I. ; died 
11 June, 1727. 
Queen, Sophia-Dorothea, daughter of the duke of 
Zell ; died in prison, 2 Nov. 1726. 
1727. George II. his son ; died 25 Oct. 1760. 

Queen, Wilhelmina Carolina Dorothea, of Branden- 
burg Anspach ; married 1705 ; died 20 Nov. 

J 737- 
1760. George III. grandson of George II. ; died 29 Jan. 

1820. 
Queen, Charlotte Sophia, daughter of the duke of 

Mecklenburg-Strelitz ; married 8 Sept. 1761 ; 

died 17 Nov. 1818. 
1820. George IV. his son ; died 26 June, 1830. 

Queen, Caroline Amelia Augusta, daughter of the 

duke of Brunswick ; married 8 April, 1795 ; died 

7 Aug. 1821 (see article Queen Caroline) 
1830. William IV. brother of George IV. ; died 20 June, 

1837. 



Queen, Adelaide Amelia Louisa Theresa Caroline, 
sister of the duke of Saxe-Meiningen ; married 
11 July, 18 18 ; died 2 Dec. 1849. 

1837. *Alexandrina Victoria, only daughter of Edward 
duke of Kent (fourth son of king George HI.),t 
bom 24 May, 1819 ; succeeded to the throne on the 
decease of her uncle, William IV. 20 June, 1837 : 
crowned at Westminster, 28 June, 1838 ; married 
(10 Feb., 1840) to her cousin, 

Francis-ALBERT-Augustus-Charles-Emmanuel, duke of 
Saxony, prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha ; born 26 
Aug. 1819, naturalized, 24 Jan. 1840; (ordered to be 
styled Prince Consort 25 June, 1857 ;) elected chan- 
cellor of the university of Cambridge, 28 Feb. 1847 ; 
died 14 Dec. 1861. 

ISSUE. 

1. ViCTORiA-Adelaide-Mary-Louisa, princess royal, born 

21 Nov. 1840 (she died 5 Aug. 1901) ; married to 
prince Frederick-William, of Prussia, 25 Jan. 1858 
(dowry 40,000?. and annuity of 8000?.) (he died 
15 June, 1888). Issue : William, born 27 Jan. 1859 ; 
and s other children living. 

2. Albert-Edward (now Edward VII.), prince of Wales, 

duke of Saxony, duke of Cornwall and Rothsay, earl 
of Chester, Carrick, and Dublin, baron of Renfrew, 
and lord of the Isles, born 9 Nov. 1841 ; married 
princess Alexandra of Denmark (born 1 Dec. 1844) 
10 March, 1863. Issue: Albert Victor, born 8 Jan. 
1864 ; died 14 Jan. 1892 ; George, born 3 June, 1865 
(married princess Victoria Mary (May) of Teck, 
6 July, 1893 ; see Wales. Louise, bom 20 Feb. 1867 ; 
Victoria, bom 6 July, 1868 ; Maud, 26 Nov. 1869 ; 
Alexander John, born 6 April, died 7 April, 1871. 
(See Wales.) 

3. AncE-Maud-Mary, born 25 April, 1843 ; married 

prince Louis (since grand duke) of Hesse-Darmstadt 
(which see), 1 July, 1862 (dowry 30,000?., annuity 
6000?.); d. of diphtheria, 14 Dec. 1878. Issue: Vic- 
toria, 5 April, 1863 ; and 6 other children. 

4. ALFRED-Ernest, born 6 Aug. 1844 ; entered the Eu- 

ryalus as midshipman, 31 Aug. 1858 ; created duke 
of Edinburgh, &c. 24 May, 1866 ; visited Cape of 
Good Hope, Aug. ; Australia, Nov. 1867 ; escaped 
assassination by a Fenian at Port Jackson, 12 
March, 1868 ; visited Japan, China, and India, 1869 ; 
married archduchess Marie of Russia (born 17 Oct. 
1853), 23 Jan. 1874 ; commander of the Channel fleet, 
Nov. 1883 ; of the Mediterranean fleet, Feb. 1886 ; 
at Davenport, Aug. 1890; he became duke of Saxe 
Coburg Gotha (which see) 22 Aug. 1893 ; died 
suddenly near Coburg, 30 July, 1900. Issue: Alfred,' 
born 15 Oct. 1874 ; died, 6 Feb. 1899 ; Mary, 29 Oct. 
1875 ; married to prince Ferdinand of Roumania 
(which see) 10 Jan. 1893 ; Victoria, 25 Nov. 1876 ; 
married to Ernest Louis, grand-duke of Hesse 
(which see) 19 April, 1894; Alexandrina, 1 Sept. 
1878 ; married to the prince of Hohenlohe-Langen- 
burg, 20 April, 1896 ; Beatrice, 20 April, 1884. 

5. Helena- Augusta- Victoria, born 25 May, 1846 ; married 

to prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein, 5 July, 
1866. Issue: Christian Victor, bom 14 April, 1867 ; 
died at Pretoria, 29 Oct. 1900 ; and 4 other children. 

6. LouisE-Carolina-Alberta, born 18 March, 1848 ; mar- 

ried to John, marquis of Lome (bom 6 Aug. 1845), 
21 March, 1871. 

* On 1 Nov. 1858, the queen was proclaimed through- 
out India as " Victoria, by the grace of God, of the united 
kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of the colonies 
and dependencies thereof, in Europe, Asia, Africa, 
America, and Australasia. Queen, defender oft he faith," 
Ase. "Empress of India" added to the royal style by 
proclamation, 28 April, 1876 (see Style, Royal). The 
colonial conference in May, 1887, recommended that the 
title of her majesty should, in recognition of the unity 
of the empire, be "Queen of the United Kingdom of 
Great Britain and Ireland, and of the Colonies and 
Dependencies thereof." She died 22 Jan. 1901. "The 
queen Victoria Memorial (8) volumes," compiled from 
the current records of the newspaper press, both illus- 
trated and non-illustrated, preface by sir George Bird- 
wood, issued Jan. 1902. A biography by Sidney Lee, 
Dec. 1902. 

t He was born 2 Nov. 1767 ; and died 23 Jan. 1820 ; 
he married Victoria-Maria-Louisa (widow of the prince of 
Leiningen, sister of Leopold, king of the Belgians, and 
aunt to the prince consort), 29 May, 1818. She was born 
17 Aug. 1786 ; and died 16 March 1861. 



ENGLAND. 



438 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



7. ARTHUR-William-Patrick-AVbert, bom 1 May, 1850 ; 

created duke of Connaught, earl of Sussex and 
Strathearn, 23 May, 1874 ; married 13 March, 
1879, princess Louise Margaret of Prussia {born 25 
July, i860). Issue : Margaret, bom, 15 Jan. 1882 ; 
Arthur Frederick, born 13 Jan.. 1883; Victoria 
Patritia, 17 March, 1886. Commander-in-chief at 
Bombay, 1886 et seq. ; commander of the S. Military 
District, Aug. 1890. 

8. LEOPOLD-George-Duncan- Albert, bom 7 April, 1853 : 

voted is.oooi. a year by parliament, 23 July, 1874; 
created baron Arklow, earl of Clarence, and duke of 
Albany, 24 May, 1881 ; married princess Helene, 
4th daughter of the prince of Waldeck-Pyrinont, 27 
April, 1882. io.ocoi. additional income granted, 21 
April, 1882; died at Cannes, 28 March, 1884. Issue: 
Alice Mary, born 25 Feb., 1883; Leopold Charles, 
bom 19 July, 1884. 

9. BEATRiCE-Mary-Victoria-Feodore, bom 14 April, 1857; 

married prince Henry Maurice of Battenberg (bom 
5 Oct. 1858)23, July, 1885 ; he died, see Ashantees, 20 
Jan. 1896. Issue: Alexander Albert, bom 23 Nov. 
1886 ; Victoria Eugenie, 1887 ; Leopold, 1889 ; and 
Maurice, 1891. 

First greatgrandchild; Feodore. bom 12 May, 1879; 
daughter of Charlotte, daughter of princess royal 
Victoria, and prince Bernard of Suxe-Meiningen. See 
Germany, children of William II. 

The Queen's Aunt and Cousins, Augusta, duchess 
widow 8 July 1850, of duke) of Cambridge, bom 25 
July, 1797 ; married 1 June, 1818 ; died 6 April, 1889. 
Her son, George, duke of Cambridge, commander-in- 
chief 1887-1895, bom 26 March, 1819 [wife Mrs. 
Fitz-George, died, aged 74, 12 Jan. iEqo]. 
Her daughters, Augusta, grand duchess of Mecklen- 
burg-Strelitz, born 19 July, 1822 ; mairied 28 June, 
i a 43 ; and the princess Mary of Cambridge, bom 27 
Niv. 1833 ; married to the prince Francis, now duke, 
of Teck, 12 June, 1866; died, 27 Oct. 1897 (he died 
21 Jan. igco). Issue: Adolphus, Francis and Alex- 
ander Gecrgi ; her daughter, Victoria Mary (May), 
married to the duke of York, see England, 6 July, 
1893. 

1901. Edward VII., the reigning king, whom God 
preserve. 

the present royal family of great britain. 
The King Albert Edward, eldest son of queen Victoria, 
born 9 Nov. 1841 ; married princess Alexandra of 
Denmark (bom 1 Dec. 1844), 10 March, 1863 ; succeeded 
to the throne on the death of his mother, queen 
Victoria, 22 Jan. 1901. 

ISSUE. 

1. Albert-Victor, bom 8 Jan. 1864; went to sea with 

his brother, prince George, in II. M.S. Bacchante, 
visited West Indies, &c, 1879-82; their diaries 
published, 1885 ; he receives the freedom of London, 
29 June, 1885; opens the new Alexandra docks at 
Belfast, 20 May, 1889 ; successful tour in India 
(which sec) 9 Nov. 1889 — 28 March, 1890; visits 
Egypt, 7-12 April ; in London, 2 May ; created 
duke of Clarence and Avondale, &c, 23 May, 1890 ; 
engaged to princess Victoria Mary (May) of Trek, 
announced, 5 Dec. 1891 ; died at Sandringlnun, 
14 Jan. 1892 ; military funeral at Windsor, 20 Jan. ; 
his 1 arents in a telegram express their deep grati- 
tude for the universal sympathy throughout the 
empire, 20 Jan. 1892. ".Memoir'' of the duke, by 
James Edmund Vincent, published by authority, 
5 Dec. 1893. See England, 26 Jan. 1892. 

2. Gkorot, Frederick, born 3 June, 1S65, created duke 

of York, earl of Inverness mill baron Killarney, 
24 May, 1892; married princess Victoria Mary (May) 
of Teck, 6 July, 1893; takes the title of duke of 
Cornwall, Jan. iqo- ; made prince of Wales and earl 
of Chester, 9 Nov. 1901. Isi-nc: Edward Albert 
Christian, born 23 June, 1S04 ! Albeit Frederick, 
bom 14 Dec. 1805 j Victoria Alexandra, bom 25 April, 
1897 ; Henry William, 60m 31 March, 1900 ; George, 
born 20 Dec. 1902. See Walts. 

3. Louise, princess royal, 60m. 20 Feb. 1867; married 

Alexander William George, duke of Fife, 27 July, 
1889. Issue: Alexandra, bom 17 May, 1S91 ; Maud. 
bom 3 April, 1893. 

4. Victoria, born 6 July, 1868. 



5. Maud, bom 26 Nov. 1869 ; married her cousin, prince- 

Charles, second son of the crown prince of Denmark, 
22 July, 1896 ; Alexander Edward, 60™ 2 July, 
1903. 

6. Alexander John, 60™ 6 April ; died 7 April, 1871. 

ENGLISH CHUECH UNION, established 
i860, when it consisted of 210 members ; there were 
22,100 in 1888. Its object is to defend the 
Church of England and its ancient constitution, 
doctrine and liturgy, and her right to regulate heir 
own affairs ; and has supported clergymen who have 
suffered for so doing. Annual meetings are held. 
The union earnestly protested against the "Welsh 
disestablishment bill, May, 1894. 

ENGLISH LANGUAGE is traced from the 
Frisian variety of the Teutonic or Germanic branch 
of the great Indo-European family. " The English 
tongue possesses a veritable power of expression, 
such as, perhaps, never stood at the command of 
any other language of man." Grimm. 
Celtic prevailed in England . . . a.d. l 

Latin introduced about j. 

Saxon prevails (Beowulf ; Ctedmon ; Alfred) 450-1066. 
Latin re-introduced by missionaries . . . 596 

Norman-French combining with English . 1066-1250 
William I. and his successors used English in their 
laws, &c. ; it was superseded by Latin in the 
reign of Henry II. Norman-French was not used 
in law-deeds till the reign of Henry III. 
Early English . .... 1250-1500- 

The present English settled in the 16th century. 
Law pleadings were made in English by order of 

Edward HI. instead of in French . . . . 136a 
The English tongue and English apparel were or- 
dered to be used in Ireland, 28 Hen. VIII. . . 1536 
The English language was ordered to be used in all 

law-suits, and the Latin disused . . May, 1733 
Percentage of Anglo-S\xon words in the English 
bible, 97 ; Swift, 89 ; Shakspeare and Thomson, 
85 ; Addison, 83 ; Spenser and Milton, 81 ; Locke, 
80 ; Young, 79 ; Pope, 76 ; Johnson, 75 ; Robert- 
son, 68 ; Hume, 65 ; Gibbon, 58. Marsh. 
Of 100,000 English words, 60,000 are of Teutonic 
origin ; 30,000 Greek and Latin ; and 10,000 from 
other sources. 
Early English Text Society began publishing . . iS6.> 
English Dialect Society, established to print old glos- 
saries, May, 1873 ; many publications, 1S93 : 77 
vols, up to 1896. The society much aided by tin- 
late prince LouisLucien Bonaparte, see Bonaparte. 
English greatly used in the East, Japan, China, cvc. 
Dr. S. A. Allibone's great " Critical Dictionary of 
English Literature," published in 1850 and 1871 ; 
he died 12 Sept., 1889, supplement by John F. 

Kirk 1S91 

The "English Dialect Dictionary," edited by Dr. 
Joseph Wright, aided by a government grant of 
600?. Part I. published July 1896 ; vol. I. pub- 
lished June, 189& 

"The Works of Geort'rev.Chaucer," edited by Alfred 
Pollard, Frank Heath, Mark Liddell, aiid W. S. 
Cormick, published 1899- 

PRINCIPAL BRITISH AND AMERICAN AUTHORS. 

d. dramatist ; c. essayist ; h. historian ; hum. humorist ; 
m. miscellaneous; n. novelist : nat. naturalist: p. poet ; 

t. theologian ; tr. traveller ; pol. political ; ph. philo- 
sopher. 

Born. Died. 

John Wickliffe, t 1324 13841 

Geoffrey Chaucer, p. . . . 1328 or 1340 1400 

John Gower, p. ... about 1320 1402 
Paston Letters, 1460-1482 

Win. Cnxton . . ... 1421 149L 

Sir Thomas More, h. p 1482 1535 

Sir Philip Sidney, 11. p 1554 1586 

Holinshed's Chronicles, 1586. 

John Fox, t. Ii 1517 1587 

Edmund Spenser, p. . . about 1553 1598 

Richard Hooker, t 1553 1600- 

Win. Shakspeare, d 1564 1616' 

Walter Raleigh, h. p 1552 161S 

Francis Bacon, ;i/i 1561 1626- 

George Herbert, p. . 1593 1633 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



439 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



Ben Jonson, d. 

Philip Massinger, d. 

Edmund Waller, p. . 

Jeremy Taylor, t. 

Abraham Cowley, p. 

John Milton, p. . 

Isaac Barrow, t. 

Thomas Hobbes, pliil. . 

Samuel Butler, p. 

John Bunyan, t. . 

John Dryden, p. 

John Locke, ph. . 

Joseph Addison, e. . 

Matthew Prior, p. 

Richard Steele, e. 

Daniel De Foe, n. pol. . 

John Gay, p. 

Alexander Pope, p. 

Jonathan Swift, n. p. 

James Thomson, p. 

Henry Fielding, n. d. 

Sam. Richardson, n. . 

Edward Young, p. . 

Laurence Sterne, n. 

Mark Akenside, p. . 

Thomas Gray, p. . 

Tobias Smollett, n. . 

Oliver Goldsmith, n. p. 

David Hume, h. ph. . 

Samuel Johnson, e. n. p. 

Benjamin Franklin, ph. pol 

William Robertson, h. 

Edward Gibbon, h. . 

Robert Burns, p. . 

Edmund Burke, pol. 

William Cowper, p. 

John Keats p. . 

Percy B. Shelley, p. 

George lord Byron, p. . 

George Crabbe, p. . 

Walter Scott, n. p. 

Samuel T. Coleridge, p. ph. 

Charles Lamb, e. . ' . 

William Cobbett, pol. e. . 

Robert Southey, p. h. . 

Thomas Arnold, h. . 

Thomas Campbell, p. . 

Sidney Smith, e. pol. 

Thomas Hood, hwn. . 

Fred, (capt.) Marryat 

Edgar Allan Poe, p. 

Maria Edgeworth, ■;•.. . 

Wm. Wordsworth, p. 

J. Fenimore Cooper, n 

Joanna Baillie, p. 

Thomas Moore, p. m. . 

John Wilson, p. e. . 

Samuel Rogers, p. 

Charlotte Bronte, n. 

E. T. Channing, m. . 

Henry Hallam, h. 

Thomas de Quincey, e. 

Leigh Hunt, e. 

William Prescott, h. 

Washington Irving, n. h. 

T. B. Macaulay, h. p. 

Eliz. (Barrett) Browning 

Sir Francis Palgrave, h. . 

Abp. Richd. Whately, ph. 

Wm. M. Thackeray, n. 

W. S. Landor, m. 

Nathl. Hawthorne, n. . 

W. Whewell, m. . 

Chas. F. Browne (" Artemus Ward 

Henry lord Brougham, pol. h. ' 

Charles Dickens, n. 

Sir J. Herschel, ph. . 

George Ticknor, h. 

G. Grote, h 

Edwd. Bulwer-Lytton, lord 

John Stuart Mill, ph. . 

Bryan W. Procter (" Barry 

Arthur Helps, e. . 

Charles Kingsley, m. 

Harriet Martineau, m. 

Marian Evans (" George Eliot") n. p. 

Benjamin Disraeli, lord Beaconsfield 



Lytton, p. n, 
Cornwall "), p. 



Bom. 

1574 
1584 
1605 
1613 
1618 
1608 
1630 
1588 
1612 
1628 
1631 
1632 
1672 
1664 
1671 
1663 



1667 
1700 
1707 



1713 
1721 
1716 
1720 
1728 
1711 
1709 
1706 
1721 
1737 
1759 
1729 

1731 

J795 
1792 
1788 
1754 
1771 
1772 
!77S 
1762 
r 774 
1795 
1777 
1771 
1799 
1792 
1809 
1769 
1770 
1798 
1763 
1780 
1785 
1763 
1816 
1790 
1778 
1786 
1784 
1796 

1783 
1800 
1809 
1788 
1787 



1778 
1812 
1792 
1 791 
1794 
1805 
1806 
1790 
1813 
1819 
1802 



Died. 
*637 



1667 
1667 
1674 
1677 
1679 
1680 
1688 
1700 
1704 
1719 
1721 
1729 
1731 
1732 
J 744 
I74S 
1748 
1754 
1761 
i7 6 5 
1768 
1770 
T 77i 
.*77 r 
1774 
1776 
1784 
1790 
1793 
1794 
1790 
1797 
1800 
1821 
1822 



1834 
1834 
1835 



1844 
1845 
1845 
1848 
1849 
1849 
1850 
1851 
1851 
1852 
1854 
185S 
1855 



i»o3 
1864 



1870 



1873 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1875 



Thomas Carlyle, h. e. 

H. W. Longfellow, p. 

Dante Gabriel Rossetti, p. 

Charles Darwin, nat. . 

Anthony Trollope, n. 

R. W. Emerson, e. p. 

Sir Henry Taylor, p.d. 

Matthew Arnold, p. m. 

W. G. Palgrave, tr. 

George Bancroft, h. 

W. E. Gladstone, m. 

O. W. Holmes, e. p. n. 

Alfred Tennyson (lord, 1883), p 

Thomas A. Trollope, n. . 

Robert Browning, p. . 

Sir Theodore Martin, h. p. m. . 

Mrs. M. Oliphant, n. . 

James Anthony Froude, h. m. 

J. R. Lowell, hum. p. pol. . 

John Ruskin, art critic . 

Herbert Spencer, ph. . 

John Tyndall, m. 

E. A. Freeman, h. 

Francis Turner Palgrave, p. 

T. H. Huxley, m. 

Lord Lytton, p. m. . 

Edwin Arnold (aft. sir), p. 

Wm. Morris p 

A. C. Swinburne p. 

Robert Buchanan, p. 

R. L. Stevenson, n. 

Wm. Wilkie Collins, n. . 

A. W. Kinglake, h. 

AValter Whitman, im, p. 

John Greenleaf Whittier, Am. p. 

John A. Symonds, h. 

Augusta Webster, p. . 

Baroness Tautphoeus (b Montgomery), n 

Francis Parkman, Am. h. . 

Charles Merivale, h. 

Henry Morley, prof. . 

George Meredith, p. n. 

Edmund Yates, n. 

Augusta de Grasse Stevens, Am. n 

Christina Georgina Rossetti, p. . 

Sir John Robert Seeley, h. ph. 

Joseph Henry Shorthouse, n. e., author 

of "John Inglesant" . 
Sir Walter Besant, n. . 
Sir Lewis Morris, p. . 
Mrs. Mary Anne Everett-Green (WoO' 
Alfred Austin, p. ■ . 
Harriet Beecher Stowe, n. 
Coventry Patmore, .p. 
Jean Ingelow, p. and n. 
Sir John Skelton (Shirley), h. e 
Francis Wm. Newman, e. 
James Payn, n. e. 
William Black, n. . 
Grant Allen, n. e. 
R. D. Blackmore, n. 
Sir William Hunter, h. 
H. D. Traill, e. 
Charlotte M. Yonge, n. 
William Stubbs, h. . 
Aubrey de Vere, p. 
S. R. Gardiner, h. . . 

Stephen Phillips, p. 
Arthur Conan Doyle, n. (knt. June 
Leslie Stephen, e. (K.C.B. June, 1902) 
Sir Gilbert Parker, p. (Canadian) 

Marie Corelli, n 

Rudyard Kipling, m. 

H. Rider Haggard, m. 

Mrs. Humphry Ward(Maiy A. Arnold), m. 

Thomas Hardy, n. p. 

George Gissing, n. 

H. G. Wells, n. c. . 

Robt. S. Hichens, e. n. 

Edward F. Benson, n. 

Henry W. Lucy ("Toby, M.P."), /( 

Andrew Lang, e. 

Stanley J. Weyman, n. 

Israel Zangwill, m. . 

Sabine Baring-Gould, n. 

James Matthew Barrie, it. d. . 

Chas. Dudley Warner, hum. <£ p. 



Born. 
!79S 



Died. 



about 



d), h 



1902) 



1815 
1803 



1822 
1826 



1810 
1812 
1816 



1819 
1819 
1820 
1820 
1823 
1824 
1825 
1831 
1832 
1834 
1837 
1841 
1850 
1824 
1812 
1819 
1807 
1840 
1840 

1823 
1808 
1822 
1828 
1831 
1865 
1830 
1834 



1832 
1818 
1835 
1812 
1823 



1805 
1830 



1825 
1840 
1842 
1823 
1825 
1814 
1829 



1832 



1840 



1867 
1845 
1844 
1855 
1864 

^834 
i860 
1829 



"ENGLISHMAN." 



440 



ENTOMOLOGY. 



Bom. 
■ 1839 



Died. 
1902 
1901 



Bret-Harte, hvm. and n. . 

Jolm Fiske, phil. and hist. 

Justin MacCarthy, h. n. pol. 

Samuel Clemens ('' Mark Twain") . . 1835 

Win. D. Howells, n 1837 

Henry James, n 1843 

F. Marion Crawford, n 1845 

Anthony Hope Hawkins (Ant. Hope) . 1863 

'■ENGLISHMAN," a newspaper edited by 
Dr. Kenealy, published in April, 1874, soon after the 
conviction of the claimant of the Tichborne estates 
(see Trials, 1873-4). For its libellous character, 
the editor was disbenched by the society of Gray's 
Inn, 1 Aug. 1874; ordered to give up his chambers 
by vice-chancellor, 29 June, 1876. He died 16 
April, 1880. 

ENGRAVING on signets is mentioned Exod. 
xxviii. 11 (b.c. 1491). Engraving on plates and 
wood began about the middle of the 15th century. 
Engraving on glass was perfected by Bourdier, of 
Paris, 1799. The copyright to engravings has been 
protected by several statutes ; among the principal 
are the acts 16 & 18 Geo. III. 1775 and l lll\ and 
the acts 7 & 8 Vict. 6 Aug. 1844, and *5 Vict. 28 
May, 1852. A process of enlarging and reducing 
engravings by means of sheets of vulcanised india- 
rubber, was shown by the electro-printing block 
company in i860 ; see Lithography and Photo - 
Galvanography_ In " Lyra Germaniea," published 
in 1 86 1, are illustrations engraved upon blocks 
photographed from negatives taken by John Leigh- 
ton, F.S.A. 

Engraving on Copper. Prints from engraved copper- 
plates made their appearance about 1450, and were 
first produced in Germany. Masso, surnamed Fini- 
guerra, is considered to have been the first Italian 
engraver, about 1440. (See Niello.) 
The earliest date known of a copper-plate engraving is 

1461. 
Rolling-presses for working the plates invented in 1545. 
Of the art of etching on copper by means of aqua-fortis, 
Francis Mazzuoli, or Parmegiano, is the reputed in- 
ventor, about 1532. Be Piles. 
Etching was practised by Albert Diirer, and most espe- 
cially by Rembrandt. Its revival began about i860. 
Eminent modern etchers :— Messrs Lalanne,- P. G. 
Hanierton, F. Seymour Haden, Bracquemond, Jacque- 
mart, Martial, and others. The Etching Club was 
established in 1838. 
Mr. Lunib Stocks, R.A., line engraver, born 1812, died 

April, 1892. 
Royal Society of Painter-etchers formed ; opened an exhi- 
bition, April, 1881 ; annual exhibitions, 27 Feb iScn 
ct seq. ' yj ' 

Engraving on Wood, long known in China, began in 
Europe with the brief-mahlers or manufacturers of 
playing-cards, about 1400 (see Printing). The art is 
referred by some to a Florentine, and by others to 
Reuss, a German.; it was greatly improved by Diirer 
(1471-1528) and Lucas van Leyden (1497). It was much 
improved 111 England by Bewick and his brother, and 
pupils, Nesbitt, Anderson, &e. 1789 ct sea 'The 
earliest wood engraving which has reached our times 
is one representing St. Christopher carrying the infant 
Jesus over the sea ; it bears date 1423. 
Mr. W. J. Linton's " Masters or Wood Engraving " with 

250 fine examples, published July, 1890. 
International society of wood engravers ; z nd annual 
dinner, 27 April, 1894. Mr. George Dalziel. eminent 
wood engraver, died, aged 86, 4 Aug. 1902. 
Engraving on Soft Steel, to be hardened afterwards 
was introduced into England by Messrs Perkins and 
Heath, of Philadelphia, 1819. 

olui Pye/* father of English landscape engraving "born 
1782; died 6 Feb. 1874. 
Mezzotinto is said to have been discovered by col von 
Siegen, who engraved n portrait of princess Amelia of 
Besse in mezzotint. > in 1645; it was improved by 
prince Rupert in 1648; and by Bir Christopher Wren 
about [662. See British Museum, 1902. 
Aquatinta, by which u soft and beautiful effect is pro- 



duced, was invented by the celebrated French artist. 
St. Non, about 1662 ; he communicated his invention, 
to Le Prince. ' Barabbe of Paris was distinguished for 
his improvements in this kind of engraving, 1763. 
Chiar'-oscuro engraving originated with the Germans, 
and was first practised by Mair, one. of whose prints 
bears date 1491 (see Zinc. &c. ). 

ENLISTMENT. No persons enlisting as 
soldiers or sailors are to be sworn in before a magis- 
trate iu less than twenty-four hours after, and they 
are then at liberty to withdraw upon their return- 
ing the enlistment or bounty money, and 21*. costs. 
Enlistment is now entirely voluntary. In 1847 the 
term of enlistment was limited to ten years for the 
infantry, and twelve years for the cavalry, artillery, 
and royal marines ; and in 1867, to twelve years ; 
gee Army, 1867 and 1879, and Foreign Enlistment. 

ENNISKILLEN (N. W. Ireland). This 
towu made an obstinate defence against the army of 
Elizabeth, 1595, and resisted James II., 1689. 1500 
Enniskilleners met his general M'Carthy at Newton 
Butler with 6000 men (of whom 3000 were slain, 
and nearly all the rest made prisoners), they losing 
but twenty men, 30 July, 1689. The dragoon regi- 
ment, the " Inniskillingers," was originally re- 
cruited here. 

ENOCH, BOOK OF, an apocryphal work, 
quoted by the fathers, disappeared about the 8th 
century. A MS. Ethiopic version was found in 
Abyssinia by Bruce, and brought to England in 
1773. Of this, archbishop Laurence published an 
English translation in 1821, and the Ethiopic text 
in 1838. Mr. E. H. Charles published in 1893 an 
emended English translation from prof. Dillmann's 
Ethiopic text, with introduction, notes, &c. 

ENSILAGE (from silo, a pit), a system of pre- 
serving corn and green fodder for cattle in pits 
made air and water tight, practised by French and 
other agriculturists ; described by M. Goffart and 
by professor Thorold Rogers, M.P., in his "Ensi- 
lage," published 1883. Ensilage reported successful 
at Peckforton, Cheshire, 27 Nov. 1883 ; commended 
by the prince of "Wales and others at a meeting of 
the Institute of Agriculture, 17 March, 1884; en- 
silage has been found successful in India, 1884. 
Favourable reports of a private practical and scien- 
tific commission issued, 5 Aug. 1885 ; and 14 May, 
1886 ; opinions differ as to economy. Ensilage 
with building silos practised in 1887. 

ENSISHEIM (E. France). Here Turenne 
defeated the Imperial army, and expelled it from 
Alsace, 4 Oct. 1674. 

ENTAIL of estates began with the statute of 
Westminster, 1285. Subsequent legislation broke 
the entail in cases of treason (1534), when the estate 
is to revert to the crown, and of bankruptcy (1833 
and 1849), when it is to be sold. The law of entail 
in Scotland was amended in 1875. 

ENTERTAINMENT of the People So- 
ciety, for the very poor, held first concert at the 
board school room, Saffron-hill, London, Saturday, 
[2 April, 1879. 

ENTOMOLOGY, the science of insects, now 
mainly based upon the arrangement of Linnaeus, 
1739. Kay's " Methodus Insectorum," 1705; " In- 
sectorum Historia," 17 10. The Entomological 
Society of London was instituted 3 May, 1833 ! was 
made Royal, Aug. 1885. Prof. John 0. West wood, 
one of the founders, died, aged 87, 2 Jan. 1893. A 
National Entomological Exhibition at the West- 
minster Aquarium was opened 9 March, 1878. 
Miss Ormerod, honorary consulting entomologist to 



ENVELOPES. 



441 



EP1STEMOLOGY. 



the Eoyal Agricultural Society, 1 882-1 892 ; her 
24th last annual report respecting insects issued 
March, 1901 (she died 19 July, 1901, aged 73). Prof. 
Charles Valentine Riley, eminent agricultural ento- 
mologist of the United States, born 1843, killed 
by an accident, 14 Sept. [89^. 

ENVELOPES for letters are mentioned by 
Swift, 1726. Stamped adhesive envelopes came 
into general use shortly after the establishment of 
the penny postal system, 10 Jan. 1840. Machinery 
for their manufacture was patented by Mr. George 
Wilson in 1844 ; and by Messrs. E. Hill and Warren 
de la Hue, 17 March, 1845. 

ENVOYS AT COURTS, in dignity below am- 
bassadors, .enjoy the protection, but not the cere- 
monies of ambassadors. Envoys extraordinary are 
of modern date. Wicquefort. 

EOZOON CANADENSE, asserted to be the 
earliest known form of life, and a species of foramini- 
fera, found by professor J. W. Dawson, of Montreal, 
in Laurentian limestone in 1858, see G'eologij. 

EPACT (Greek, added) is the excess of the 
solar month above the lunar synodical month, 
1 day, 11 hours, 15 minutes, 57 seconds, the lunar 
month being only 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3 
seconds ; and the excess of the solar year above the 
lunar synodical year (nearly 11 days), the lunar 
year being 354 days. The epact of any year in- 
dicates the moon's age on the 1st Jan. in that year. 
The number of the Gregorian epact for 1893, 12 ; 
1894, 23 ; 1895, 4 ; 1896, 15 ; 1897, 26 ; 1898, 7 ; 
1899, 18; 1906, o; 1901, 10; 1902, 21; 1903, 2; 
1904, 13; 1905, 24. 

EPERNAY (N.E. France), seat of the trade 
in champagne, was taken from the League by 
Henry IV., 26 July, 1592, when marshal Aruiand 
Biron was killed. 

EPHESUS (in Asia Minor), a city said to have 
been founded by the Carians and Leleges, burnt by 
the Amazons, rebuilt by the Ionians about 1043 B - c - 
It was subdued by Cyrus in 544 B.C. ; revolted 
from the Persians, 501 B.C. and was destroyed by 
an earthquake in a.d. 17. See Diana, Temple 
of, and Seven Churches. Paul preached here 
4- r> - 55) 56 {-Acts xviii. xix.) His epistle to 
the Ephesians is dated a.d. 64. The third general 

iouucil was held here in 431. After investi- 
ation, begun in 1863, Mr. J. T. Wood dis- 
overed the site of the temple of Diana in April, 
(870 ; and about 60 tons of marble were shipped at 
Smyrna for the British Museum, Jan. 1872, part of 
Jvhich arrived in the summer. Mr. Wood published 
(an illustrated account of his discoveries in 1876. 
The site of the temple was purchased for the British 
Museum. Mr. J. T. Wood resumed his excavations, 
summer, 1883. 

EPHORI, powerful magistrates of Sparta, five 
in number, said to have been first created by 
Theopompus to control the royal power, about 
757 B.C. 

EPIC POEMS (from Greek epos, a song), 
narratives in verse. Eminent examples : — 
Homer's " Iliad " and " Odyssey " (Greek), between 

8th and 10th century b. c. (see Homer). 
Maha-barhata, Sanscrit, very ancient ; by several 
_ authors ; 'the longest epic known (220,000 lines). 
Virgil's " iEneid " fibatin) about . . . b.c. 19 
Ovid's " Metamorphoses" (Latin), about . a.d. i 
Lucan's "Pharsalia" (Lat in), before . . . . 65 
Dante (died 1321), " Divina Commedia " (Italian) 

published . 1472 

Ariosto, " Orlando Furioso " (Italian) . . . 1516 

Camoens' " Lusiad " (Portuguese) . . . 1569 



Tasso, " Jerusalem Delivered " (Italian) 
Spenser's " Faery Queen" 



1590-6 



Milton's " Paradise Lost " 1667 

Voltaire, " Henriade " (French) .... 1728 
Walter Scott, "Lay of the Last Minstrel," 1805; 

"Marmion," 1808; " Lady of the Lake " . . 1810 
Byron, " Childe Harold," 1812; "Don Juan". 1818-23 
R.Browning, " Ring and the Book " . . . 1868-9 
A. Tennyson, " Idylls of the King " . . . 1859-85 

EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus 
of Gargettus, near Athens, about 306 B.C., taught 
that the greatest good consists in peace of mind 
springing from virtue, as tending to prevent dis- 
quiet : but the name epicurean is frequently given 
to those who derive happiness from sensual plea- 
sure. (See Atoms.) 

EPIDAURUS (Greece), celebrated for the 
temple of Asclepius, or JSsculapius, god of medicine, 
and enriched by gifts from persons healed. The 
Romans sent an embassy to seek the help of the 
god during a pestilence, and his worship was in- 
troduced at Rome, 293 B.C. The temple was visited 
by iEmilius Paulus, after his conquest of Mace- 
donia, 167 B.C. 

EPIDEMIC PREVENTION ACT, 46 & 

47 Vict. c. 59, passed 25 Aug. 1883. 

EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF 
LONDON, established in 1850 ; has done valu- 
able work Dr. Charles Creighton's " History of 
Epidemics in Britain," 3 vols. 1895. 

EPIGENESIS, see Spontaneous Generation. 

EPIGRAMS. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the 
Latin epigrammatist, who flourished about a.d. 83, 
is allowed to have excelled all others, ancient or 
modern. The following epigram on Christ's turning 
water into wine (John iii.) is an example :— " Vidit 
et erubuit lympha pudica Deum." " The modest 
water saw its God, and blushed." Crash aw (died 
1650). 
"The Epigrammatists," a collection by rev. H. P. Dodd, 

published 1870 and 1875. 

EPIPHANY (appearance), a feast (Jan. 6), 
termed Twelfth Day, celebrates the manifestation 
of the Saviour, by the appearance of the star which 
conducted the Magi to the place where he was to be 
found; early observed, but became a separate feast, 
813. Whaiely. 

EPIRUS (Northern Greece). Its early history 

is very obscure. 

The first Pyrrhus (Neoptolemus) settled in Epirus, 
after the Trojan war, 1 170 b.c, and was killed in 
the temple of Delphi .... about b.c. 1165 

Alexander the first king invades Italy to assist the 
Tarentines against the Lucanians, &c, is de- 
feated and slain at Pandosia . . . b.c. 326 

Pyrrhus the Great reigns, 295 ; he takes Macedon 
from Demetrius ; is compelled to yield to Lysi- 
maehus 287 

Invited by the Tarentines, invades Italy, see Rome, 

281-275 

Temporary success in Sicily .... 279 et seq. 

He takes Macedon from Antigonus . . . 273 

He unsuccessfully invades Sparta; enters Argos, and 
is killed by a tile, thrown by a woman . . 272 

Philip unites Epirus to Macedon . . . . 22c 

Its conquest by the Romans 167 



Epirus annexed to the Ottoman empire 

An insurrection against the Turks put down 



A.D. 1466 
• 1854 



EPISCOPACY, see Bishops. 

EPISTEMOLOGY. A science of the 
sciences. See " Groundwork of Science," by Dr. 
St. George Miyart, published 1899; he died, 
1 April, 1900. 



EPISTLES. 



442 



ERFURT. 



EPISTLES or Letters. An Fgyptian letter 
about 1300 B.C. is translated in " Records of the 
Past," vol. 6. A letter was sent to Joab by David 
by the hands of Uriah, about 1035 B.C. (2 Sam. xi. 
14) ; see under article Bible. Horace Walpole, re- 
nowned for his letters, was born 5 Oct. 17 17 ; died 
2 March, 1797. The collection entitled ''Elegant 
Epistles," commencing with Cicero, was published 
in 1790- It ends with an essay on letter writing by 
Dr. Johnson. Prof. Walter Raleigh in his lectures 
on " English Letter-Writers," at the Royal Insti- 
tution, March, 1898, referred to the Paston letters, I 
lady Mary Wortley Montagu, lord .Chesterfield, | 
Pope, Swift, Cowper, Byron and Keats. 

EPITAPHS were inscribed on tombs by the 
Egyptians, Jews, Greeks, and Romans. Mr.'T. J. 
Pettigrew published a collection entitled " Chroni- 
cles of the Tombs," in 1857. 

. EPITHALAMIUM, a nuptial song at mar- j 
riage. Tisias, the lyric poet, is said to have been ' 
the first writer of one. He received the name of 
Stesichorus, from the alterations made by him in 
music and dancing, about 536 B.C. Bossiiet. 

EPOCHS, points of time made remarkable 
by some event, from which subsequent years are 
reckoned by historians and chronologers ; see Eras. 
See Anno Domini, Ilegira, &c. 

EPPING FOREST, see Forests, note. 

EPSOM (Surrey). The mineral springs were 
discovered in 1618. The races began about 1711, 
and have been held annually since 1730. See 
Derby Day. Population, 1881, 6,916; 1891, 8,417; 
1901, 10,915. 

EQUALISATION of rates (London) act 
passed, 25 Aug. 1894. 

EQUATION OF TIME. See Geodesy. 

EQUATOR or ECUADOR, a South American 
republic, formerly Quito and other provinces, part 
of Columbia, 1821; independent in 1831, when the 
Columbian republic was divided into three; the 
other two being Venezuela and New Granada. The 
population of Equator in 1885, 1,004,651 ; 1897, 
about 1,270,000. 

Presidents: general Franco, 21 Aug. 1859 ; defeated 
in battle by general Flores, Aug. i860 ; G. G. 
Moreno, Jan. 1861 ; Geronimo Carrion, 4 Aug. 
1865 ; disputes with the chambers ; resigns Dec. 1867 
Dr. Xavier Espinosa was elected president, 13 Sept. ,, 
Dr. Gabriel'Garcia Moreno, president. . end of 1872 
President Moreno assassinated, 6 Aug. : state of 
siege proclaimed, Sept. 1875; Veintimillo, presi- 
dent ........ Sept. 1876 

Revolt; constitutionalarmyuiiclerAparicio defeated 

at Galte x 4 Dee. ,, 

Eruption of Cotopaxi .... 25 June, 1877 

Alfaro dictator Jan. 1883 

Jose Maria Placido Caamano, president 12 Feb. 1884 
Revolution at Esmeraldas under Eloy Alfaro 4 Nov. i836 
SeKor Antonio Flores, president, 30 June, 1888; 

Sen. Luis Cordero 30 June, tSqc 

The Sucre gunboat blown up at Guayaquil ; the 

commander and 14 men killed . .* 31 May, 1S05 
Insurrection under gen. Veniaza, reported 16 Aug. ,, 

Quito taken by gen. Klny Alfaro, made ilictator, 
rep. 28 Aug. 1895; elected president, reported, 

15 Jan. 1897 
Rebels routed at San Aneaja . . 24 Jan. 1S99 
Gen. Plaza succeeds gen. Alfaro as president, 

31 Aug. 1901 
See Earthquakes, 1S68. 

EQUATORIAL AFRICA. See Soudan. 

1886. 



EQUESTRIAN ORDER in Rome was estab- 
lished with Romulus, about 750 B.C. ; see Knight- 
hood. 

EQUINOX. When the sun in his progress 
passes through the equator in one of the equinoc- 
tial points, the day and night are equal all over 
the globe. This occurs twice in the year : about 
21 March, the vernal equinox, and 22 Sept., the 
autumnal equinox. The equinoctial points move 
backwards about 50 seconds yearly, requiring 25,000 
years to accomplish a complete revolution. This is 
called the precession of the equinoxes, which is 
said to have been observed by the ancient astrono- 
mers. 

EQUITY, COURTS OF, are those of the lord 
chancellor, the vice-chancellors, and the master of 
the rolls, their office being to correct the operations 
of the literal text of the law, and supply its defects 
by reasonable construction not admissible in a court 
of law. The supreme court of session in Scot- 
land combines the functions of law and equity. In 
1865 equity powers were conferred on the county 
courts for cases respecting sums under 500^. See 
Supreme Court, in which law and equity are 
combined. 

ERAS. The principal are more fully noticed 
in their alphabetical order. 
Common Era (English Bible, Usher, &c.) . B.C. 4004 

Era of the Jews 3761 

Era of Constantinople, 1 Sept. 5508 ; of Antioch, 

1 Sept. 5492 
Alexandrian or Mundane era . . 29 Aug. 5302 

■Julian era 1 Jan. 4713 

Era of Abraham 1 Oct. 2015 

Era of Nabonassar, after which the astronomical 

observations made at Babylon were reckoned, 

began 26 Feb. 747 
Era of the Seleucida: (used by the Maccabees), 

commenced 312 
The Olympiads belong to the Grecians, and date 

from 1 July, 776 b.c. 
The Romans reckoned from the founding of their 

city, A.U.C. (anno urbis conduce) .... 753 

Era of Tyre 19 Oct. 125 

Ccesarean era of Antioch . . . 1 Sept. 4S 

Spanish Era (of the conquest of Spain), the 16th year 

of the emperor Augustus (see Ccesars), long used 

by the Spaniards . . . . a.d. 1 Jan. 38 

'■Mian era b.c. 1 Jan. 30 

Pontifical or Eeclesiast ical lndietion, 25 Dee. or 1 Jan. 6 
Vulgar Christian era .... a.d. i Jan. j 
Era of Diocletian or Martyrs, began . . 29 Aug. 2S4 
The Mahometans began their era from the Hegira, 

or flight of their prophet from Mecca 16 July, cbr 

Armenian era a.d. 7 July, 55- 

Era of Yczdegird lit. or Persian era a.d. 16 June, 63-. 

Era of Vicramadityo, used in India, began b.c. . 57 

See Creation, Call Yuga, Anno Domini, Calendar. 

ERASTIANISM, the opinions of Thomas 
Lieber (latinised Erastus), a German physician 
(1524-83), who taught that the church had no 
right to exclude any person from church ordi- 
nances, to inflict excommunication, &c. Persons 
who acknowledge the jurisdiction of the civil power 
in spiritual matters and the law of patronage are 
now termed Erastians. 

ERASURES. By order of sir John Romilly, 
master of the rolls, in 1855, no document corrected 
by erasure with the knife was to be henceforth 
received in his court. The errors must be corrected 
with the pen. It is so in the army courts. 

ERDINGTON ORPHANAGE, &c ; see 

Orphans' -houses. 

ERFURT (Central Germany), was founded in 
47b ; and its university established about 1390. 



ERICSSON'S CALORIC ENGINE. 443 



ESTATE DUTY. 



Erfurt was ceded to Prussia in 1802. It capitu- 
lated to Murat, when 14,000 Prussian troops surren- 
dered, 16 Oct. 1806. In this city Napoleon and 
Alexander met, and offered peace to England, 27 
Sept. 1808. The French retreated to Eri'urt from 
Leipsic, 18 Oct. 1813. A German parliament met 
here in March and April, 1850. Population, 1890, 
72,371; 1900,85,100. 

ERICSSON'S CALORIC ENGINE, see 

Heat, note. 

ERIVAN (Armenia), in the 16th century the 
residence of the shahs of Persia, was taken by the 
Turks in 1553 and 1582 ; but recovered by Abbas 
the Great, 1604. After being several times cap- 
tured, it was ceded to Persia, 1769. It was taken 
by Paskiewitch in 1827, and annexed to Eussia by 
treaty in Feb. 1828. 

ERYTHREA, a new Italian colony on the Red 
Sea, established by royal decree, 2 Jan. 1890. Mili- 
tary occupation to be restricted to Massowah, 
announced, May, 1897 ; Sig. F. Martini appointed 
governor, 21 "Nov. 1897. See Massowah and 
Italy, 1898, and 26 Nov. 1901. 

ERZEROUM (Asiatic Turkey), a city built 
by Theodosius II., 415 ; taken by the Seljuk Turks 
in the 13th century, and by the Ottoman Turks in 
1517. It was captured by the Russian general 
Paskiewitch, June, 1829, but restored in 1830. Itwas 
almost totally destroyed by earthquakes, 2 June to 
17 July, 1859. Population in 1885, 60,000. 

ESCHEAT, the reverting of any land or tene- 
ments to the lord of the fee, or to the state, through 
failure of heirs ; formerly also through attainder of 
the tenant, which last was abolished by the Felony 
Act, 1870. 

ESCOMBRERA BAY, Battle of ; see 

Spain, 11 Oct. 1873. 

ESCURIAL, properly ESCORIAL (25 miles 
N.W. of Madrid), the magnificent palace of the 
sovereigns of Spain, termed the eighth wonder of 
the world, was commenced by Philip II. in 1563, 
and completed in 1586, at a cost of about 10,000,000/. 
It is built in the form of a gridiron in honour of 
St. Lawrence, on whose day (10 Aug. 1557) the 
Spaniards gained the victory of St. Quentin. Ac- 
cording to Francisco de los Santos the total length 
of all its rooms and apartments is above 120 English 
miles. The Escurial comprises a church, mauso- 
leum, monastery, palace, library, and museum. It 
was struck by lightning and caught fire 1 1. 30 p.m. 
I Oct. 1872, and was much damaged; but the 
grand library and other treasures were preserved. 

ESPARTO, from the Latin spartum, stipa 
tenacissima of Linnaeus, a Spanish grass used by 
Romans for whip-thongs, and now largely employed 
in paper-making. In 1856 about 50 tons, in 1870 
above 100,000 tons, and in 1902, 198,292 tons, were 
imported into Britain. The price has risen con- 
siderably in recent years. Living plants were 
received at Newcastle, July, 1867. 

ESPIERRES (Belgium). At Pont-a-Chin, 
near this village, the French, under Pichegru, 
attacked the allied English and Austrian army 
(100,000 nlen), commanded by the duke of York, 
and were repulsed after a long and desperate en- 
gagement, losing the advantages gained by the 
victory at Turcoing, 22 May, 1794. 

ESPRIT, SAINT (or Holy Ghost), the title of 
an order of knighthood, founded by Henry III. of 
France in 1578, and abolished in 1791. 



ESQUIRES, among the Greeks and Romans, 
were armour-bearers to, or attendants on a knight. 
Blount, In England the king created esquires by 
putting about their necks the collars of SS, and 
bestowing upon them a pair of silver spurs. John 
de Kingston was created a squire by patent, 13 
Richard II., 1389-90. There are now legally 
esquires by birth, by creation, and by holding some 
office, but "the title is very loosely given by courtesy. 

"ESSAYS AND REVIEWS," by six clergy- 
men and one layman of the church of England (the 
Rev. Drs. Fred. Temple and Rowland Williams, 
professor Baden Powell, H. B. "Wilson, Mark 
Pattison, and professor B. Jowett, and Mr. C. W. 
Goodwin) were published in an 8vo vol. in March, 
i860. The book did not excite much attention at 
first, but having been severely censured for hetero- 
dox views by nearly all the bishops and many of 
the clergy, it created much excitement in 1861, 
and was condemned by convocation 24 June, 1864. 
The ecclesiastical courts sentenced the revs. R. 
Williams and H. B. Wilson to suspension for one 
year, and costs, 15 Dec. 1862; but on appeal the 
sentence was reversed by the judicial committee of 
the privy council, 8 Feb. 1864. The most remark- 
able amongst the works put forth in opposition (in 
1862) are the "Aids to Faith," edited by the bishop 
of Gloucester (W. Thomson, aft. abp. of York), 
and "Replies to Essays and Reviews," edited by 
the bishop of Oxford (S. Wilberforce) . The elec- 
tion of Dr. Temple to the see of Exeter was much 
opposed on account of his essay in this collection ; 
see Church of England, 1869 and Broad Church. 

ESSENES, an ascetic Jewish sect at the time 
of Christ. 

ESSEN, a town in Rhenish Prussia, which 
began with the Benedictine nunnery, about 873. 
Among the iron and steel manufactories, the chief 
are those of Krupp, established 1810, in which were 
employed 74 men in 1848, and 46,000 in 1902, when 
the works contained 1,600 furnaces, 600 steam- 
hammers, 497 steam-engines, and other great 
apparatus. A Christian miners' congress held, 424 
delegates present ; opposed to the social democrats, 
26 Aug. 1894. See Cannon. Population, 1890, 
78,723; 1900, 118,863. See Westphalia, 1889. 

ESSEX, KINGDOM OF ; see under Britain. 

earls of essex (from Nicolas). 

Geoffrey de Mandeville, created earl of Essex by 

Matilda, was slain .... 14 Sept. 1144 
Humphrey de Bohun, succeeded by right of his mo- 
ther, Mary, sister of William, who died without heir 1182 
Humphrey de Bohun, died without heir . . 1376 
Thomas of Woodstock, son of Edward III. 1372 ; 

murdered . 1397 

Henry Bourchier (grandson) .... 1461 

Henry Bourchier, grandson ; died without heir 

(earldom extinct) 153 2 

Thomas Cromwell, 1539 ; beheaded . . . 1540 
William Parr, 1543 ; attainted .... 1543 

Walter Devereux, 1572 ; died .... 1576 
Robert Devereux, lord lieut. of Ireland, 1599; cen- 
sured for misgovernment ; conspired against the 
government ; beheaded, 25 Feb. . . . 1601 

Robert, son ; died without heir . . . 1646 

Arthur Capel, ancestor of the present earl . . 1661 
An industrial colony for loafers and tramps at 
Hadleigh (abt. 3,000 acres) founded by gen. Booth 
in 1890, reported very successful, Times, 22 Aug. 1899 

See Storms, June, 1897 ; Trials 1903. 

ESSLING, Battle of, see Aspeme. 

ESTATE DUTY, replacing the legacy, pro- 
bate and succession duty, was, by the finance act 
{which sec), passed 31 July, 1894, 1895 and 1896. 



ESTE. 



444 



ETNA. 



Rates on 100/.-500/ , 1 per cent.; 500/.-i,ooo/., 2 
per cent. ; 1,000/.- 10,000/., 3 per cent ; 10,000/.- 
25,000/., 4 percent. ; 25,ooo/.-50,ooo/.,4| percent.; 
50,ooo/.-75,ooo/., 5 per cent, &c. ; 1,000,000/., 8 
per cent. 

Estate duty, net receipts, year ending 31 March, 1896, 
11,600,000/. ; 1897, 10,830,000?. ; 1898, 11,100,000/. ; 1899, 
11,400,000/.; 1900, 14,020,000/.; 1901, 12,980,000/.; 
1902, 14,200,000/. ; 1903, 13,850,000/. 

ESTE, HOUSE OF. Boniface, count of Lucca 
and duke of Tuscany, about 811, is said to have 
descended from Odoacer, king of Italy. From 
Boniface sprang Albert Azzo II. marquis of Italy 
and lord of Este, born about 996, who married — 
first, Cunegonda of the house of Guelf, by whom he 
had Guelf, duke of Bavaria, the ancestor of the 
house of Brunswick (see Bavaria and Brunswick); 
and secondly, Gersonda, by whom he had Fulk, 
the ancestor of the Estes, dukes of Ferrara and 
Modena. 

ESTELLA, N. Spain. In a conflict at Pena 
Mura, near this place, 25-28 June, 1874, the repub- 
licans were repulsed, and their general, Manuel de 
Concha (aged 66), killed, by the Carlists, 27 June. 

ESTHONIA or E.EVEL, a Russian province, 
said to have been conquered by the Teutonic 
knights in the 12th century; after various changes 
it was ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Oliva, 3 
May, 1660, and finally to Russia by the peace of 
Nystadt, 30 Aug. 1721, having been conquered by 
Peter in 1710. Population, 1886,395,979; 1897, 
4I3,724- 

ETATS, see States. 

ETCHING, see Engraving. 

ETHER was known to the earliest chemists. 
Nitric ether was first discovered by Kunkel, in 
168 1 ; and muriatic ether, from the chloride of tin, 
by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was dis- 
covered by count Lauraguais, same year ; and 
hydriotic ether was first prepared b) r Gay-Lussac. 
The phosphoric ether was obtained by M. Boullay. 
The discovery that by inhaling ether the patient is 
rendered unconscious of pain, is due to Dr. C. 
T. Jackson, of Boston, U. S. Mr. Thomas Morton, 
of the same place, first introduced it into surgical 
practice, under Dr. Jackson's directions (1846) ; see 
Chloroform, and Amylcne. Tiie drinking of ether 
as an intoxicant greatly increased in the north of 
Ireland, was checked by the enforcement of the 
Poisons Act of 1870, in regard to its sale, Oct. 1891. 
The term ''ether" was applied to the transparent 
celestial space by the German astronomer Encke. 
about 1829, when studying the elements of Pons 
comet, discovered in 1818. Ether is now believed 
by scientists to be the medium by which heat, 
light, electricity, etc., arc transmitted through 
space. See Wireless Telegraphy under Electricity, 
1897 et seq. 

ETHICS (Greek term fur Morals). The works 
of Plato, Aristotle, and Confucius, contain heathen 
systems ; the New Testament is that of Christianity. 
Paley's Moral Philosophy appeared in 1785, and 
Whewell's Elements of Morality in 1845. An 
Ethical Society existed in London, 1890. Mr. 
Herbert Spencer's" Principles of Ethics," 2 vols., 
published in sections, uNji) 93. Mural instruction 
league funned in London, 7 Dec. 1897. The late 
Frof. Wallace's lectures and essays on Natural 
Theology and Ethics, published April, 1899 (edited 
by Master of Balliol). 

ETHIOPIA. The name was applied anciently 
rather vaguelv to countries the inhabitants of 



which liad sun-burnt complexions, in Asia and 
Africa ; but is now considered to apply properly to 
the modern Nubia, Sennaar, and Northern Abyssinia. 
Many pyramids exist at Napata, the capital of 
Meroe, the civilised part of ancient Ethiopia. 
The Ethiopians settle near Egypt . . B.C. 1615 

Zerah, the Ethiopian, defeated by Asa . . . 941 
A dynasty of Ethiopian kings reigned over Egypt 

765 to 715 
Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia, marches against Senna- 
cherib 710 

Unsuccessful invasion of Cambyses . . 525-522 

Ptolemy III. Euergetes extended his conquests in 

Ethiopia 225 

Candace, queen of Meroe, advancing against the 
. Roman settlement at Elephantine, defeated and 
subdued by Petronius . . . . a.d. 22-23 

ETHIOPIAN EQUATORIAL PRO- 
VINCES, M. Leontieff appointed gov.-gen. by the 
emperor Menelik, rep. Aug. 1897- 

ETHNIKE HETAIRIA, an enthusiastic 
Gre. k national society, founded Nov. 1894 : a 
revolutionary movement made by them in Mace- 
donia summer, 1896 ; their forces were reported 
to have begun the war with Turkey. See Greece, 
10 April, 1897, et seq. ; denied by them, Dec. 1897. 

ETHNOLOGY, a branch of Anthropology, is 
detined as the science "which determines the dis- 
tinctive characters of the persistent modifications of 
mankind, their distribution, and the causes of the 
modifications and distribution." The study of the 
relations of the different divisions of mankind to 
each other is of recent origin. Balbi's Ethnographic 
Atlas was published in 1826, and Dr. Prichard's 
great work, Researches on the Physical History of 
Mankind, 1841-7. The Ethnological Society, 
established in 1843, published transactions. On 17 
Jan. 1871, it was amalgamated with the Anthropo- 
logical Society, (which see) and named the Anthropo- 
logical Institute. Dr. R. G. Latham's works, on 
the Ethnology of the British Empire, appeared in 
1851-2. Professor T. H. Huxley gave lectures 
on Ethnology at the Royal Institution, London, 
in 1866-7. Annual reports of the Bureau of Ethno- 
logy, Washington, U.S., began to be published, 1879. 
I he International Congress of the Ethnographic 
Sciences met at Paris Sept. 30, 1889. 

ETHYL, a compound radicle, a colourless gas, 
with a slightly ethereal odour, a compound of 
carbon and hydrogen, first obtained in the free state 
by professor (aft. sir; died 9 Aug. 1899) Edw. 
1" rankland 1111849. Several of its compounds with 
metals take fire in the air. 

ETNA, MOUNT (Sh-ilj). Here were the fabled 
forges of the Cyclops : and it is called by Pindar 
the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by 
Diodorus Siculus as happening 1693 B.C., and 
Thucydides speaks of three eruptions as occurring 
734, 477, and 425 B.C. There were eruptions, 125, 
121, and 43 B.C. Lirg. 
Eruptions, a. d. 40, 254, and 420. Carrera. 
Due in ioi2. Geoffrey de Viterbo. 
One overwhelmed Catania, when 15.000 inhabitants 

perished in the burning ruins . ■ • 1169 

Eruptions. 1320, 140S, 1445, 1536, 1537, 1564, etseq. 
In ieoo, when tens of thousands of persons perished 

in the streams of lava which rolled over the whole 

country for forty days. 
Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, iSn, and in May, 

1830, when several villages were destroyed, and 

showers of lava reached near to Rome. 
The town of Bronte was destroyed . . 18 Nov. 1832 
Violent eruption occurred in . . Aug. and Sept. 1852 
An elliptical began on t Feb., and ceased in July TS65 
Violent eruptions began 28 Nov. 1868, and 29 Aug. 1874 
Violent eruption . . . 26 May— 7 June, 1870 



ETON COLLEGE. 



445 



EUPHKATES. 



Eruption 22 March — 4 April, 1883 

A violent eruption, with earthquakes ; . much 

damage 18 May — 4 June, 1886 

Destructive eruptions, with earthquake shocks, 

9 July-2 Sept. (variations) 1892 
Railway round Etna opened (about 62 m. long.) 

29 Sept. 1895 
Eruptions, the observatory damaged by falling 
debris 19, 25 July, 1899 

ETON COLLEGE (Buckinghamshire), 
founded by Henry VI. in 1440, and designed as a 
nursery to King's College, Cambridge. John 
Stanbery, confessor to Henry VI. (bishop of Bangor, 
in 1448), was nominated the first provost. One of 
the provosts, William Waynflete, (bishop of Win- 
chester, 1447) greatly promoted the erection of the 
buildings. Besides about three hundred noblemen's 
and gentlemen's sons, there were seventy king's 
scholars on the foundation, who, when properly 
qualified, were formerly elected, on the first Tuesday 
in August, to King's College, Cambridge, and re- 
moved there when there were vacancies, according 
to seniority. The establishment of the Montem is 
nearly coeval with, the college. It consisted in the 
procession of the scholars, arrayed in fancy dresses, 
to Salt-hill once in three years; the donations col- 
lected on the road (sometimes as much as 800^.) 
were given to the senior or best scholar, their captain , 
for his support while studying at Cambridge. The 
montem was discontinued in 1847. The college 
system was modified by the Public Schools act, 1868. 
In 1873 election Saturday ceased, the scholars to be 
students at Cambridge being chosen there. In 1880 
there were 853 students ; in 1891, 1,007. 
The birthday of George III. is annually celebrated 

4 June, 1738 
The Queen laid the corner stone of the new school 

buildings 18 May, 1889 

Ninth jubilee of the foundation of the college 

celebrated 24 June, 1891 

The statue of bishop Waynflete, first head master, 
unveiled by Dr. R. D. Durnford, bishop of 

Chichester 6 June, 1893 

Fatal fire resulting in the death of two scholars, 
the iron-barred windows of their bedroom prevent- 
ing their escape. The king and the queen sent 
messages of sympathy and condolence, 1 June, 1903 
Population of Eton in 1891, 2,409 ; 1901, 3,301. 

ETETJEIA (or TUSCIA, hence the modern 
name Tuscany), a province of Italy, whence the 
Romans, in a great measure, derived their laws, 
customs, and superstitions. Herodotus asserts that 
the country was conquered by a colony of Lydians. 
The subjugation of this country forms an important 
part of early Roman history. It was most powerful 
under Porsena of Clusium, who attempted to rein- 
state the Tarquins, 506 B.C. Veii was taken by 
Camillus, 396 B.C. A truce between the Romans 
and Etrurians for forty years was concluded, 351 B.C. 
The latter and their allies were defeated at the 
Vadimonian lake, 310, with the Boii their allies, 
283 B.C., and totally lost their independence about 
265 B.C. The vases and other works of the Etrus- 
cans still remaining show the degree of their 
civilisation. Napoleon I. established a kingdom of 
Etruria, 1801, and suppressed it 1807, see Tuscany. — 
"The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria," by George 
Dennis, published 1848 and 1878 (died, aged 83, 
18 Nov. 1898). Etruria, Staffordshire, the site of 
Josiah Wedgwood's porcelain works, &c, was 
founded in 1 771. 

EUBQ3A, the largest island in the iEgean sea. 
Two of its cities, Chalcis and Eretria, were very 
important, till the former was subdued by Athens, 
506 B.C. and the latter by the Persians, 490. After 
the Persian war, Eubcea became wholly subject to 
Athens, and was its most valuable possession. It 



revolted in 445, but was soon subdued by Pericles. 
After the battle of Chseronea, 338, it became subject 
to Macedon. It was made independent by the 
Romans in 194; but was afterwards incorporated in 
the province of Achaia. It now forms part of the 
kingdom of Greece. 

EUCALYPTUS GLOBULUS, or Blue 
Gum Tree, a very last growing Tasmanian ever- 
green, of the order Myrtacece. From the extraor- 
dinary power of its roots of absorbing moisture, and 
the salutary aromatic odour of its leaves, it has 
been found highly beneficial in counteracting the 
malaria of marshy districts of hot climates, and 
hence has been named the fever-destroying tree. 
M. Ramel first sent seeds from Melbourne to Paris 
in 1854, and subsequently seeds were distributed 
over the south of Europe, the north and south of 
Africa, and elsewhere. He died in 1881. 

So rapid is the growth of this tree, that a forest may 
be formed in twenty years. It sometimes reaches the 
height of 350 feet, with a circumference of 100 feet, 
rivalling Wellingtonia gigantea, which see. 

The timber, bark, and oils of the Eucalyptus are 
highly valuable, and professor Bentley says that the 
genus is one of the most important to man in the vege- 
table kingdom. In 1874 its medicinal value was said to 
have been exaggerated. 

EUCHARIST, thanksgiving, an early name 
for the Lord's Supper; see Sacrament. 

EUCLID'S ELEMENTS. Euclid, a native 
of Alexandria, flourished about 323-283 B.C. The 
Elements are not wholly his ; for many of the 
demonstrations were derived from Thales, Pytha- 
goras, Eudoxus, and others ; Euclid reduced them 
to order, and probably inserted many theorems of 
his own. The Elements were first printed at Basil 
by Simon Grynaeus, in 1533. Euclid is said to have 
told king Ptolemy that there was no royal road to 
geometry. 

EUDIOMETER, an apparatus to ascertain 
the purity of atmospheric air, or the quantity of 
oxygen gas or vital air contained in it ; one was 
invented by Marsilio Landriani, and described by 
him in his " Ricerche," 1775; Dr. Priestley is said 

I to have first used Fontana's eudiometer in 1770. 

j Gmelin. 

EUGENICS, see Heredity. 

EUGUBINE TABLES, seven tablets of 
brass, probable date about 400 B.C., (with inscrip- 
tions relating to sacrifices, &c, four in Umbrian, two 
Latin, and one partly in both dialects), were disco- 
vered in 1444 at Gubbio, the ancient Eugubium or 
Iguvium. The inscriptions are accurately given by 
Lepsius, in his " Iuscriptiones Umbricpe et Oscae," 
1841. 

EUNUCHS, first mentioned among the Egyp- 
tians and Assyrians, and said to have been first 
employed by Semiramis, queen of Ass}Tia, about 
2007 B.C. Eunuchs frequently attained to political 
power in the later Eastern empire. 

EUPATORIA (KOSLEFE), a sea-port on the 
west coast of the Crimea. After the allied French, 
English, and Turkish armies landed in the Crimea, 
14 Sept. 1854, a detachment under captain Brock 
occupied this place, which was afterwards reinforced 
by the Turks. It was attacked 17 Feb. 1855, by 
40,000 Russians under Liprandi. The latter were 
repulsed with the loss of 500 men by the Turks, 
whose loss was only 50, among which, however, 
was Selim Pasha, the commander of the Egyptian 
contingent. 

EUPHRATES, the largest river in Western 
Asia. It rises in Armenia, and has two branches. 



EUPHUISM. 



446 



EVIDENCE. 



On its banks are the remains of numerous ancient 
cities, such as Babylon and Birs Nimrud. The 
Euphrates Valley .Railway, as a speedy means of 
reaching India, has been much advocated, espe- 
cially by the late general Chesney, who published 
his survey of the Euphrates and Tigris in 1850. 
A parliamentary commission reported on it, Aug. 
1872, when it was also considered at the meeting of 
the British association at Brighton. The con- 
struction would cost from five to ten millions 
sterling, and its advantages are considered rather 
hypothetical by the best judges. 

EUPHUISM, an affected style of language, 
prevalent in the time of Elizabeth, arose from 
*' Euphues; the Anatomy of Wit," by John Lyly, 
published in 1 581. 

EURASIAN PLAIN, the great central plain 
of Europe and Asia, so named by ethnologists 
(1865). The offspring of a European father and an 
Asiatic mother is termed Eurasian. The degraded 
condition of the Eurasians, which has caused much 
anxiety, especially at Calcutta, was discussed early 
in 1 891. The Marchioness of Duff'erin was deeply 
interested in the matter about 1884. 

EUROPE, the smallest of the three divisions 
of the old continent, really an appendage of Asia ; 
area, nearly 3,800,000 square miles; population, 
301,700,000(1872); 310,675,966(1877) ; 330,321,680 
(1884) 333,054,908 (1888); 357,379,000 (1891); 
nearly 370,000,000 (1898). For the history, see 
Greece, Rome, and the modern kingdoms. 

EUROPEAN ASSURANCE Company, 

see Insurance. 

EURYDICE, H.M.S. frigate, foundered in a 
squall off Dunnose, near Ventnor, Isle of Wight, 
24 March, 1878 ; see Navy and Wrecks, 1878. 

EURYMEDON, a river in Pamphylia, near 
which Cimon, son of Miltiades, destroyed the fleet 
of the Persians at Cyprus, and defeated their land 
forces, 469 B.C. 

EUSTACE, ST. (Lower Canada). The rebels 
were defeated here, 14 Dec. 1837, and compelled 
to surrender their arms. Their chiefs tied. 

EUSTATIUS, ST., a "West India island, set- 
tled by the Dutch, 1632 ; taken by the French in 
1689; by the British in 1690; again by the British 
forces under Rodney and Vaughan, 3 Feb. 1781. 
It was recovered by the French under the marquis 
<le Bouille, 26 Nov. same year; captured by the 
British, 1801, 1810; restored to the Dutch, 1814. 

EUSTON SQUARE Mystery, see Trials, 

July, 1879. Euston hall, Suffolk (seat of the earl of 
•Grafton), almost entirely destroyed by fire, 5 April, 
1902. 

EUT AW SPRINGS (S . Carolina) . Here the 
Americans were defeated by the British under 
Arnold, 8 Sept. 1781. 

EUTYCHIANS, so called from Eutyches, an 
<ibbot of Constantinople, who asserted in 446 that 
there was but one nature in Christ, the Human 
having been absorbed in the divine. This doctrine 
was condemned by councils — at Constantinople in 
448, and at Chalcedon in 451. It has been also 
called Monophysite (of one nature), and Jacobite, 
from Jacobus Baradams, its zealous defender in the 
6th century. It is the form of Christianity now 
existing among the Copts and Armenians. 

EUXINE, see Black Sea. 



EVACUATION TREATY see France, 
Sept. 1871. 

EVANGELICAL, a term applied to a portion 
of the clerg}' of the church of England (also called 
the low church), who profess to preach the gospel 
more purely than their brethren termed the high 
church part} - ; see Church of England and Free 
Church. 

The Evangelical Alliance was founded by sir Culling 
Eardley Smith and others at Liverpool in 1845, with the 
view of promoting unity among all denominations of 
Protestant Christians against Romanism and infidelity. 

At a general meeting held in London 19 Aug. 1846, 921 
members were present from all parts of the world. 

Since 1845, annual meetings have been held in various 
towns in the United Kingdom. 

General international conferences have been held : 
London, 1851 ; Paris, 1855 ; Berlin (received by the 
king), Sept., 1857 ; Geneva, 1861 ; Amsterdam, 1867: 
New York, Oct., 1873 ; Basle, 1879 ; Copenhagen, 
1885 ; Florence, 4 April, 1891 ; Exeter-hall, London, 
29 June. 1896. 

A conference in connection with the Evangelical 
Alliance met at Washington, U.S. 9 Dec. 1887. 

The " Evangelical "Church" in Germany began with a 
fusion of the Lutherans and Calvinists in Nassau in 
1817: followed by similar movements in different parts 
of Germany, 1818-22. 

A conference termed Reunionvras held at Grindelwald, 
Switzerland, to promote a protestant union, July ; it 
closed 15 Sept. 1892 ; at Lucerne, Sept. 1893 ; when 
annual conferences were decided upon. 

EVANGELISTS, preachers of the "gospel," 
or good news; see Gospels. 

EVELINA HOSPITAL, Southwark, esta- 
blished in 1869 by baron Ferdinand de Rothschild, 
in memory of his wife. Renovated and enlarged 
1903. 

EVENING SCHOOLS for adults of the lower 
classes were strongly recommended by bishop Hinds 
in 1839, and by the committee of the Privy Council 
on Education in 1 861. One was set up at Bala in 
"Wales by the rev. T. Charles in 181 1. See under 
Recreation. 

EVESHAM (Worcestershire), where prince 
Edward, afterwards Edward I., defeated the barons 
headed by Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, 
4 Aug. 1265, when the earl, his son Henry, and 
most of his adherents were slain. Henry III. at 
one period of the battle was on the point of being 
cut down by a soldier who did not know him, but 
was saved by exclaiming, " Do not kill me, soldier; 
I am Henry of Winchester, thy king ! " This vic- 
tory broke up the combination of the barons. 

EVICTIONS (in Ireland), 482,000 persons 
evicted from 1849-82, 119,000 reinstated as care- 
takers, see Ireland, 1886 et seq. Many evicted 
tenants made terms with their landlords, and 
returned to their farms, i8qi-2. 
Eviction commission appointed, see Ireland, i40ct. 1892 
Report recommending reinstatement, &c. , pre- 
sented to the commons . . . .9 March, 1893 
24,000 evictions in Ireland from 1 Oct. 18S1, to 
30 Sept. 1887 ; 8,975 from 1 Oct. 1887, to 30 June, 

1894 ; about 4,000 Aug. 1894 

Bill for the compulsory reinstatement of evicted 
tenants in Ireland ; passed by the commons, 
7 Aug. ; rejected by the lords (249 — 30), 14 Aug., 
1894 ; by the commons, 26 Feb. iSqo ; again re- 
jected by the commons . . . .12 April, 1899 

EVIDENCE, LAW OF, regulated bv 14 & 15 

Vict., c. 99 (1851), 16 & 17 Vict., c. 83 (1853), 32 k 

33 Vict., c. 68 (1869). 

Mr. Ijiibouchere's application for a mandamus of 
the Court of Queen's Bench to compel sir Robert 
Carden to hear irrelevant evidence, refused 20 Nov. 1879 

Documentary Evidence Acts, passed . May 14 1895 



EVIL MAY-DAY. 



447 



EXCHEQUER. 



Prisoners in certain criminal cases were permitted 
for the first time in England to give evidence on 
their own behalf in 1872, and the practice has 
been legalised with good effect by 26 acts up to 
1897. 
The Evidence in Criminal Cases Act which makes 
this practice uniform in all cases, was passed 

12 Aug. 1898 
EVIL MAY-DAY (i May, 15 17), thus called 
on account of the violence of the apprentices and 
populace, directed against foreigners, particularly 
the French. The rioters were headed by one 
Lincoln, who, with 15 others, was hanged ; and 
400 more in their shirts, and bound with ropes, and 
halters about their necks, were carried to West- 
minster ; but they crying " Mercy, mercy ! " were all 
pardoned by the king, Henry VIII. 

EVOLUTION THEORY includes the 

nebular theory and Mr. Darwin's doctrine of natural 

selection ; see Development, and Progressionists. 

In 1877 three forms of evolution were discussed : — 

1. That of all animals gradually from the lowest form, 

the amoeba, up to man, in opposition to the Biblical 

account of the creation ; 2. that of every animal from 

protoplasm in a cell, or egg ; 3. that of all the parts 

of an animal from its blood. "Organic Evolution 

cross-examined, or some suggestions on the great 

secret of Biology," by the duke of Argyll, published 

April, 1890. 

Mi. Alfred Wallace's work on "Natural Selection," 

published 1870 ; he was awarded the first Darwin 

medal by the Royal society, 1890. 

EXALTATION, see Cross. 

EXAMINATIONS of candidates for employ- 
ment in the civil service has been enforced since 
1855. Mr. Gladstone in 1862 said that the present 
might be termed the "age of examinations;" see 
Civil Service. 
A strong protest against the system, fully signed, 

Nineteenth Century, Nov. 1888. 

EXAMINER, liberal weekly journal, estab- 
lished Jan. 1808; last number, 26 Feb. 1881. 

EXAMINER OF STAGE PLAYS, an 

office under the lord chamberlain, held by 
Mr. E. F. S. Pigott, appointed 25 Aug. 1874; 
died 23 Feb. ; succeeded by Mr. G. A. Bedford, 
March, 1895. His more recent predecessors were, 
George Colman, Chas. Kemble, John Mitchell 
Kemble, and Mr. fm. Bodham Donne (1857-74). 

EXARCHS, appointed by the Byzantine em- 
iperors of the East, to govern central Italy after its 
•conquest by Belisarius and Narses, 548-553. They 
rule Ravenna from 568 to 752, when Eutychus, the 
last, was overcome by Astolphus the Lombard. The 
Exarch in the church was next in dignity to the 
jpatriai-ch. 

EXCHANGE, formerly Bourse, the Eoyal 
Exchange being "Britain's Burse;" that at Paris 
as still named u La Bourse," from bursa, a purse. 
One called Collegium Mercatorum existed at Rome, 
493 B.C. The Exchange at Amsterdam was reck- 
•oned the finest structure of the kind in the world. 
See Royal Exchange, and Bills of Exchange. The 
new building of the Baltic Mercantile and Shipping 
Exchange, on the site of Jeffrey's square, St. Mary 
Axe, covering 27,500 sq. ft., opened by the lord 
■mayor 21 April, 1903. 

EXCHEQUER, an ancient institution, con- 
sisting of officers with financial and judicial func- 
tions : the chancellor of the exchequer, the financial 
■officer, formerly sat in the court of exchequer above 
the barons. The first chancellor was Eustace de 
Fauconbridge, bishop of London, in the reign of 
Henry III. about 1221. Sir Eobert "Walpole Avas 



the last chancellor of the exchequer who acted 
judicially (in 1735). The legal function of the 
chancellor was abolished by the Judicature act, 
Aug. 1873. Charles II. seized on the Goldsmiths* 
funds in the exchequer to prepare for war, 2 Jan. 
1672. The English and Irish exchequers were 
consolidated by parliament in 1817; see Chancel- 
lors of the Exchequers, and Tally Office. 

Exchequer Bills. The government securities, so called, 
said to have been invented by Montague, afterwards 
earl of Halifax, were first issued in'1697, aQ d first cir- 
culated by the bank in 1796. These bills, of which 
more than twenty millions sterling are often in circu- 
lation, are in effect accommodation notes of govern- 
ment, that are issued in anticipation of taxes, at daily 
interest ; and being received for taxes, and paid by the 
bank in lieu of taxes, in its dealings with the exchequer, 
they usually bear a premium. Amount in circulation, 
56,974, 780Z. in 1817; in 1854, 16,008, 700Z. 

Robert Aslett, a cashier of the bank of England, tried 
for embezzling exchequer bills, and found not guilty, 
on account of the invalidity of the bills, though the 
actual loss to the bank amounted to 342, 697Z., 18 July, 
1803. 

Mr Beaumont Smith tried for forging exchequer bills to 
the amount of 350,000?. ; pleaded guilty; sentenced to 
transportation, 4 Dee. 1841. 

Exchequer Bonds, a species of public securities, intro- 
duced by Mr. W. E. Gladstone, in 1853, have not been 
well received. 

Tellers of the Exchequer. Besides chamberlains of 
the exchequer, clerks of the pells, and auditor of the 
exchequer (offices which have all been discontinued 
since their last avoidance in Oct. 1826, or by surrender 
or abolition, in Oct, 1834), there were the four lucrative 
offices of tellers of the exchequer, also abolished, 10 
Oct. 1834. 

John Jeffreys Pratt, earl, afterwards marquis Camden, 
was appointed a teller of the exchequer, in 1780, and 
held the appointment until his death, in 1840. During 
nearly half of this long term he relinquished the income 
(amounting in the whole to upwards of a quarter of a 
million sterling) and placed it at the service of the state. 
as it annually accrued. 

Comptroller-General or the Exchequer. This office 
was created on the abolition of the offices of the auditor 
and the four tellers of the exchequer, and the clerk of 
the pells, mentioned in the preceding paragraph. The 
first comptroller-general^wits^gh- John Newport, ap- 
pointed 11 Oct. 1834. — 34,438/,^f>er annum have been 
saved to the state by the retrenchments in this depart- 
ment of the government. 

Court of Exchequer Chamber. Erected by Edward 
III. in 1357. It was remodelled by Elizabeth, in 1584. 
and then made to comprise the judges of all the courts. 
This court is for error from the judgments of the courts 
of queen's bench, common pleas, and exchequer of 
king's pleas in actions commenced therein. Re-modelled 
by act 2 Geo. IV. & 1 Will. IV. c. 70 (23 July, 1830). 

The Exchequer office, Westminster, was instituted by 
Henry IV. in 1399. 

"The Red Book of the Exchequer," an ancient record 
of feodaries, edited by Hubert Hall, 3 vols., published 
Oct. 1897. 



chancellors of the exchequer. 
Henry Addington (aft, lord Sidmouth) 21 March, 

Wm. Pitt (premier) j6 May, 

Lord Henry Petty (afterwards marquis of Lans- 

downe) IO Feb. 

Spencer Perceval .... 31 March, 

And premier 6 Dec 1809 (assassinated 11 May, 
Nicholas Vansittart (aft, lord Bexley) . 9 June, 
Fred. J. Robinson (afterwards lord Goderich and 

earl of Ripon) 3I j an . 

George Canning ('premier) .... April, 
John C. Hemes . . " . . . 17 Aug. 

Henry Goulburu 2 (, Jan. 

Viscount Althorp (aft. earl Spencer) . 22 Nov. 

Sir Robert Peel (premier) .... 10 Dec. 
Thos. Spring Rice (aft. lord Monteagle) 18 April, 
Francis T. Baring (afterwards baronet) . 26 Aug. 
Henry Goullmrn t, Sept. 



1801 
1804 



:8i2) 
1812 

1823 
1827 

1828 
1830 
1834 
1835 
1839 
1841 



i8 5 5 



1873 
1874 



1902 
1903 



EXCHEQUEE, COUET OF. 448 

Charles Wood (afterwards baronet, lord Halifax, 

1866) 6 July, 

Benjamin Disraeli . . . .21 Feb. 

William Ewart Gladstone . . . .28 Dee. 
Sir George Cornewall Lewis . . . 5 March, 
Benjamin Disraeli, again . . . .27 Feb. 
William Ewart Gladstone, again . . June, 

Benjamin Disraeli, again .... 6 July, 
George Ward Hunt .... 29 Feb. 

Robert Lowe . . . "' . . -9 Dec. 
William Ewart Gladstone (and premier) . Aug. 
Sir Stafford Northcote . . . .21 Feb. 
William Ewart Gladstone (and premier) 28 April, 
Hugh Culling Eardley Childers . . . Dec. 
Sir Michael Hicks-Beach ... 24 June, 
Sir William V. Harcourt . . . about 6 Feb. 
Lord Randolph Henry Churchill (resigned) 26 July, 
George Joachim Goschen . . . .3 Jan. 
Sir William V. Harcourt . . . .18 Aug. 
Sir Michael Hicks-Beach (resigned 1902) . July, 
Chas. T. Ritchie, resigned 18 Sept. 1903 . 8 Aug. 
J. Austen Chamberlain .... 9 Oct. 

EXCHEQUEE, Court of {Curia Regis), 
instituted by William I. on the model of the Trans- 
marine Exchequer of Normandy, in 1079; according 
to some authorities, by Henry I. It included the 
common pleas until they were separated, 16 John, 
1215. Coke's Reports. The exchequer is so named 
from a chequered cloth which anciently covered the 
table where the judges and chief officers sat.* Here 
are tried all causes relating to the king's revenue; 
such as are concerning accounts, disbursements, 
customs, and fines imposed, as well as all matters at 
common law between subject and subject. The 
judges are styled barons, first appointed 1234. There 
were a chief and four puisne barons : the fifth judge 
having been added 23 July, 1830. The office of 
Cursitor Baron was abolished in 1856. For changes, 
see Supreme Court. The ancient court sat for last 
time, 10 July, 1875. The Exchequer division was 
abolished in 1881 ; in Ireland in 1887. See Supreme 
Court Judicature Avt, passed 27 Aug. 1881. 

CHIEF BARONS. 

1689. Sir Robert Atkins. 10 April. 

1695. Sir Edward Ward. 10 June. 

1714. Sir Samuel Dodd. 22 Nov. 

1716. Sir Thomas Bury. 11 June. 

1722. Sir James Montagu. 9 May. 

1723. Sir Robert Eyre. 5 Dec. 

1725. Sir Geoffrey Gilbert. 1 June. 

1726. Sir Thomas Pengelly. 29 Oct. 
1730. Sir James Reynolds. 30 April. 
1738. Sir John Comyn. 7 July. 
1740. Sir Edmund Probyn. 24 Nov. 
1742. Sir Thomas Parker. 29 Nov. 
1772. Sir Sidney Stafford Smythe. 29 Oct. 
1777. Sir John Skynner. 17 Dee. 
1787. Sir James Eyre. 26 Jan. 
1793. Sir Archibald Macdonald 12 Feb. 

1813. Sir Vicary Gibbs. 8 Nov. 

1814. Sir Alexander Thomson. 24 Feb. 
1817. Sir Richard Richards. 22 April. 
1824. Sir William Alexander. 9 Jan. 
1831. John, lord Lyndhurst. 18 Jan. Previously lord 

chancellor ; again lord chancellor, 1834. 

1834. Sii'.biiii«'sS( , avlctt. l 24Dec. Lord Abinger,Jau. 1835. 

1844. ytr (Jonathan) Frederick Pollock. 15 April. 

i860. Sir FitzRoy Kelly. 16 July, [died 17 Sept. 1880.] 

The last of the chief barons. 

Sir Charles Edward Pollock, last of the barons, queen's 
remembrancer, born 1823, son of the chief baron, sir 
J. Frederick Pollock, died 21 Nov. 1897. Master George 
Pollock, senior master and king's remembrancer 
retires, succeeded by lord Dunboyne, Dec. 1901. 

* In process of time the court of exchequer became 

gradually enlarged in its jurisdiction, until at length it 1870 

was notmerely a revenue court ami one at common iaw 1 1871 

between subject and subject, but one in which suits in j 1872 

equity were also instituted. In fact, until the act 5 Vict. 1 1873 

c. 5 (1841), the court of exchequer possessed a triple ' 1874 

jurisdiction ; but by this statute its equity business was 1875 

transferred to the court of chancery. ■ 1876 



EXCISE. 



CHIEF BARONS OF EXCHEQUER IN IRELAND. 

1690. John Hely. 5 Dec. 

1695. Robert Doyne. 10 May. 

1703. Nehemiah Donnellan. 27 Dec. 

1706. Richard Freeman. 25 June. 

1707. Robert Rochfort. 12 June. 

1714. Joseph Deane. 14 Oct. 

1715. Jeffrey Gilbert. 16 June. 
1722. Bernard Hale. 9 June. 
1725. Thomas Dalton. 2 Sept. 
1730. Thomas Marlay. 29 Sept. 
1741. John Bowes. 21 Dec. 
1757. Edward Willis, u March. 
1766. Anthony Foster. 5 Sept. 
1777. James Dennis (aftds. baron Tracton). 3 July. 

1782. Walter Hussey Burgh. 2 July. 

1783. Barry Yelvertoii (afterwards viscount Avonmore). 
29 Nov. 

1805. Standish O'Grady (aft. viscount Guillamore) 5 Oct 

1 83 1. Henry Joy. 6 Jan. 

1838. Stephen Woulfe. 20 July. 

1840. Maziere Brady, n Feb. 

1846. David Richard Pigott; 1 Sept., died 22 Dec. 1873. 

1874. Christopher Palles. Jan. 

The last of the chief barons. 



EXCISE. The system was established in 
England by the Long Parliament in 1643, duties 
being levied on wines, beer, &c, and tobacco, to 
support, the army against Charles I. It was con- 
tinued under Charles II. Sir Eobert Walpole's 
plan for extending the excise and introducing the 
bonding system was withdrawn through vehement 
opposition in 1733. Farming the excise duties led 
to many evils, see Smugglers. Bonded in/rehouses 
for the temporary storage of exciseahle goods, 
authorised in 1802, were begun in 1823. The 
system was modified in 1882. Bonds for the p. iy 
ment of the duties are entered into by the importers. 
The old excise office was built on the site of Gies- 
ham college in 1774; the present is at Somerset- 
house. The officers of excise and customs were 
deprived of their votes for returning members to 
parliament in 1782; but received them again in 
1868. In 1849 the boards of excise, stamps and 
taxes, were united, as u the board of commissioners 
of inland revenue." Notwithstanding the abolition 
of the excise duty upon numerous articles, and the 
reduction of duty upon various others, of late years, 
the total excise revenue, so far from having de- 
creased, has progressively advanced (1847 and 1861 
excepted) in its aggregate annual amount. Addi- 
tional excise duties were charged by 17 & 18 Vict, 
c. 27, July 3, 1854. The excise duties were further 
modified in 1860-94; see Revenue. 

REVENUE FROM EXCISE. 

Great Britain. 
• .£3.754,072 1877 to Mar. 31. £27,681,523 



1744 

1786 . . . 

1808 . 

1820 . . . 

1827 (United 

Kingdom) 
1830. 

1834 . . . 
1837 

1840 . . . 
1S45. 

1847 • • • 
1848. 

1850 . . . 
1858 to Mar. 31. 
i860 „ „ 
1865 „ 



5,540,114 
19,867,914 
26,364,702 

20,995,324 
18,644,385 
16,877,292 
14,518,142 
12,607,766 
13.5S5.5S3 
12,883,678 
13,010,652 
15,27s, 208 
17,901,545 
20,240,467 
19,428,324 
20,190,338 
20,475,740 
21,879,238 
22,833,907 
23,386,064 
25,904,450 
27,115,969 
27- 2 54> I 32 
27.569,3 2 3 



18S0 
1S81 



1892 
i893 
1894 
1895 
1S96 
1807 
1S98 
1899 
1 900 
1901 
1902 
1903 



27,710,514 

27,186,021 
25,218,303 
25,372,183 
27,170,798 
26,982,916 
27,048,051 
26,501,612 
25,44 I >922 
25,212,883 
25,625,520 
24,160,000 
24,788,000 
25.717,425 
25,283,134 
25,246,861 
26,050,000 
26,800,000 
27,460,000 
28,300,000 
29,200,000 
32,100,000 
33,100,000 
31,600,000 
32,100,000 



EXCLUSION BILL. 



449 



EXECUTIONS. 



EXCLUSION BILL (to exclude the duke of 
York, afterwards James II., from the throne), was 
passed by the commons, but rejected by the lords in 
1680. The revival of the question led to the uisso- 
lution of parliament in 1681. 

EXCOMMUNICATION, or separation from 
Christian communion {Matt, xviii. 17; 1 Cor. v., 
&c), was instituted to preserve the purity of the 
church. The Roman church excommunicated by 
Bell, Book, and Candle {which see). See Interdict. 
Gregory VII. excommunicated the emperor 
Henry IV., and absolved his subjects from 
their allegiance . . . . . . . 1077 

Innocent III. excommunicated John of England, 

placing the country under an interdict . 1208-14 

Gregory IX. excommunicated the emperor 

Frederick II. four times between . . . 1228-45 
Louis XII. of France was excommunicated by 
Julius II. 1510 ; Luther by Leo X. 1521 ; Henry 
VIII. of England by Paul III. in 1535 ; and 

Elizabeth by Pius V 25 April, 1570 

The emperor of France, the king of Sardinia, and 
others, were virtually excommunicated (but not 
by name) on account of the annexation of the 
Romagna by Sardinia 20. March i860 

EXECUTIONS, see Crime. In the reign of 
Henry VIII. (38 years) it is said that no less a 
number than 72,000 criminals were executed. Stow. 
In the ten years between 1820 and 1830, there were 
executed in England alone 797 criminals ; but as our 
laws became less severe, the number of executions 
■decreased. In the three years ending 1820, the 
executions in England and Wales amounted to 
312; in the three years ending 1830, they were 
178 ; in the three years ending 1840, they were 62. 
The place of execution in London (formerly gene- 
rally at Tyburn) was in front of Newgate from 1783 
to 1868, when an act was passed directing execu- 
tions to take place within the walls of prisons. The 
dissection of the bodies of executed persons was 
abolished in 1832, see Death, 1868. 

John Calcraft, born 1800, executioner for London, 1828- 
, 1871, died 13 Dec. 1879 ; his successor, Wm. Marwood, 
died 4 Sept. 1883 ; he was succeeded by Berry ; said 
to have resigned March, 1892 ; Jas. Billington, in 1894; 
died 15 Dec. 1901 ; succeeded by his son. 

EXECUTIONS IN LONDON. 

1820, 43 ;— 1825, 17 ;— 1830, 6 ;— 1835, o ;— 1836, o ;— 
1837, 2 ; — 1838, o ;— 1839, 2 ;— 1840, 1 ;— 1842, 2 ;— 1843, o ; 
— 1844, 1 ; — 1845, 3 ; — 1846, 2. 



1847 



1853 
1854 
1855 
1856 
1857 
1858 
1859 
i860 
1861 
1862 



1870 



1872 
1873 



N ENGLAND. 




idon. 




England 


I 


1874 


. 22 


2 


1875 • 


. 18 


O 


1876 


. 22 


O 


1877 . 


■ 2 3 


O 


1878 


• • IS 


I 


1879 . 


• x 7 


I 


1880 


• • J 3 


O 


1881 . 


. 11 


2 


1882 


. . 11 


2 


1883 . 


• 14 


I 


1884 


. . 16 


I 


1885 . 


. 12 


I 


1886 


• IQ 


I 


1887 . 


. 2T 


I 


18SS 


. 16 


2 


1889 . 


14 


I 


1890 


. 16 


8 


1891 . 


. II 


2 


1892 


• 17 


1 


1893 . 


. l6 



899 . 


• is 


900 . 


• 13 


90I 


• 15 



London. 

5 

1 
6 
4 



EXECUTIONS OF REMARKABLE CRIMINALS.* 

Gunpowder plot conspirators, Digby, R. Winter, 
Grant, and Bates, 30 Jan. ; T. Winter, Bookwood, 
Keys, and Fawkes, 31 Jan. ; Henry Garnettjesuit ; 

at London 3 May, 1606 

John Felton, murder of duke of Buckingham ; 

Tyburn .... .28 Nov. 1628 

James, duke of Monmouth, treason ; Tower-hill,' 

15 July, 1685 
Charnock, King, and Keys, 18 March ; sir John 
Friend, and sir Wm. Perkins (" assassination 

plot ") 3 April, 1696 

Capt. Wm. Kidd and three others, piracy 23 May, 1701 
James, earl of Derwentwater, and William, earl of 

Kenmure, rebellion ; Tower-hill . . 24 Feb. 1716 
John Price, the hangman ; murder, Bunhifi-row, 

21 May, 1718 
Jack Sheppard, thief ; Tyburn . . 16 Nov. 1724 

Richard Turpin, highwayman ; York 7 or 10 April, 1739 
Lord Balmerino and others, rebellion ; Tower-hill, 

18 Aug. 1746 
Lord Lovat, rebellion ; Tower-hill . 9 April, 1747 

Richard Wm. Vaughan, first forger of Bank of Eng- ' 

land notes 11 May, 1758 

Eugene Aram, murder ; York . . .6 Aug. 1759 
Earl Ferrers, murder of his steward ; Tyburn, 5 May, 1760 
Theodore Gardelle, murder ; Haymarket 4 April, 1761 
John Perrott, fraudulent bankrupt ; Smithfleld, 

11 Nov. ,, 
John M'Naughten, esq., murder of Miss Knox; 

Strabane 13 Dec. „ 

Elizabeth Brownrigg, murder of her apprentice ; 

Tyburn 14 Sept. 1767 

Daniel and Robert Perreau, wine merchants, forgery ; 

Tyburn 17 Jan. 1776 

Rev. Dr. Dodd, found guilty of forging a bond, in 
the name of lord Chesterfield for 4200Z. ; the 
highest influence was exerted to save him, but 
when the case came before the council, the 
minister of the day said to George III., "If 
your majesty pardon Dr. Dodd, you will have 
murdered the Perreaus ;" Tyburn . 27 June, 1777 
Rev. Henry Hackman, murder of Miss Reay, mis- 
tress of earl of Sandwich ; Tyburn . 19 April, 1779 
Capt. John Donellan, murder of sir Theodosius 

Boughton ; Warwick . ."'..:. .2 April, 1781 
Christian Murphy (or Bowman), a woman ; strangled 

and burnt for coining ... 18 March, 1789 
Richard Parker and others, mutiny at the Nore, 

30 June, 1797 
Mrs. Phepoe, celebrated murderess ; Old Bailey, 

11 Dec. ,, 
Sir Edward Crosbie, high treason ; Ireland, 4 June, 1798 
Messrs. Sheares, high treason ; Dublin 12 July, 1799 
Galloping Dick, highwayman ; Aylesbury, 4 April, 1800 
Governor Joseph Wall, murder of serjeant Arm- 
strong ; Old Bailey .... 28 Jan. 1802 
Mr. Crawley, murder of two females ; Dublin, 

10 March, „ 
George Foster, murder of wife and child ; Old Bailey, 

18 Janl 1803 
Colonel Despard and others, high treason ; Horsef 

monger-lane 21 Feb. 

John Hatfield (a rank impostor, who married, by 
means of the most odious deceit, the celebrated 
"Beauty of Buttermere "), forgery; Carlisle, 

3 Sept. „ 
Robert Emmett, high treason ; Dublin 20 Sept. 
Richard Patch, murder of Mr. Bligh ; Horsemonger- 

lane 8 April, 180 

John Holloway, Owen Haggerty, murder of Mr. 
Steele ; Old Bailey (28 of the spectators of 
this execution were trodden to death, and num- 
bers were pressed, maimed and wounded), 23 Feb. 1807 
T. Simmons, the man of blood, murder ; Hertford, 

7 March, 1808 
Major Campbell, murder of capt. Boyd in a duel ; 

Armagh 2 Oct. ,, 

Capt. Sutherland, murder ; Execution dock, 

29 June, 1809 
Richard Armitage, forgery ; Old Bailey 24 June, 1811 
John Bellingham, murder ot Mr. Perceval ; Old 
Bailey ^ May, 1812 

* For some other executions, see England, 1535-6, 
1618-41-45-83 ; and Oates's Plot. 



EXECUTIONS. 



450 



EXECUTIONS. 



Philip Nicholson, murder of Mr. and Mrs. Bonar ; 
Pennenden-heath .... 23 Aug. 

Francis Tuite, murder of Mr. Goulding ; Dublin, 

9 Oct. 

Charles Callaghan, murder of Mr. Merry ; Horse- 
monger-lane 2 April, 

William Sawyer, murder of Jack Racket ; Old Bailey, 

15 May, 

Eliza Fenning, administering poison ; Old Bailey, 

26 July, 

[Universally believed to be innocent ; she denied 
her guilt on the scaffold ; and thousands accom- 
panied her funeral. In the "Annual Register" 
for 1857, p. 143, it is stated on the authority of 
Mr. Gurney, that she confessed the crime to Mr. 
James Upton, a baptist minister, shortly before 
her execution.] 

John Cashman, Spa-fields riots ; Skinner-street, 

12 March, 

Murderers of the Lynch family. Wild-goose Lodge 
affair ; Ireland 19 July, 

The three Ashcrofts, father and sons, murder ; 
Lancaster 8 Sept. 

Brandreth and others, high treason ; Derby, 7 Nov. 

Charles Hussey, murder of Mr. Bird and his house- 
keeper ; Pennenden-heath . . .3 Aug. 

John Scanlan, esq. , murder of Ellen Hanley ; Lime- 
rick 16 March, 

Arthur Thistlewood, John Brunt, James Ings, John 
Davidson, Richard Tidd (see Cato-street) ; Old 
Bailey 1 May, 

John Chennell, Thomas Calcraft, murder of Mr. 
Chennell, senr. ; Godalming . . 17 Aug. 

Josiah Cadman, forgery ; Old Bailey . 21 Nov. 

Samuel Greenwood, highway robbery ; Old Bailey, 

27 Dec. 

John Thurtell, murder of Mr. Weare ; Hertford, 

9 Jan. 

John Wayte, forgery ; Old Bailey . . 24 Feb. 

Henry Fauntleroy, banker, forgery ; Old Bailey, 

30 Nov. 

Win. Probert (an accomplice of Thurtell's in the 
murder of Mr. Weare ; he became approver), 
horse-stealing ; Old Bailey . . 20 June, 

Spitalfields' gang, highway robbery ; Old Bailey, 

29 Nov. 

Chas. Thos. White, arson ; Old Bailey . 2 Jan. 

Edward Lowe, coining (the last coiner drawn on a 
sledge to the scaffold) ; Old Bailey 22 Nov. 

Catherine Walsh, murder of her child ; Old Bailey, 

14 April, 

William Rea, highway robbery ; Old Bailey, 4 July, 

Captain Charles Montgomery was ordered for exe- 
cution this day for forgery ; but he took a dose (an 
ounce and a half) of prussic acid, to save himself 
from the ignominy of the gallows, and was found 
dead in his cell 4 July, 

William Corder, murder of Maria Marten ; Bury St. 
Edmunds n Aug. 

Joseph Hunton, quaker, forgery ; Old Bailey, 8 Dec. 

Wm. Burke, murderer (see Burking) ; Edinburgh, 



1821 
1822 
1824 



1825 

1826 
1827 



Anne Chapman, murder of her child 



28 Jan. 
Old Bailey, 
30 June, 
24 July, 



Stewart and wife, murder ; Glasgow 

Thomas Maynard, the last executed for forgery 
Old Bailey 31 Dec. 

Mr. Comyn, arson ; Ennis . . .18 March, 

John Any Bird Bell, a boy of 14 years of age, for 
the murder of Richard Taylor, aged 13, Maidstone 

1 Aug. 

John Bishop, Thomas Williams, murder of a poor 
Italian boy (see Burking) ; Old Bailey, 5 Dec. 

John Smith, James Pratt, unnatural crime ; Old 
Bailey 8 April, 

Maryanne Burdock, remarkable case of poisoning ; 
Bristol 15 April, 

John Pegsworth, murder ; Old Bailey 7 March, 

James Greenacre, murder of Hannah Brown ; Old 
Bailey 2 May, 

William Lees, murder of his wife ; Old Bailey, 

16 Dec. 

Francois Benj. Courvoisicr, murder of lord W. Rus- 
sell ; Old Bailey 6 July, 

Josiall Misters, wounding Mr. Mackreth ; Shrews- 
bury 3 April. 

Robert Blakesley, murder of Mr. Burdon; Old 
Bailey 15 Nov. 



1829 

1830 

1831 

183s 
1837 

1839 
1S40 
1841 



John Delahunt, murder of Thomas Maguire ; Dublin, 

5 Feb. 
Daniel Good, murder of Jane Jones ; Old Bailey, 

23 May, 

John Hulme, Samuel Bonsall, William Bland, 

murder of Miss Goddard ; Derby . 4 April, 

William Crouch, murder of his wife ; Old Bailey, 

27 May, 

James Tapping, murder of Emma Whiter ; Old 

Bailey .... .24 March, 

John Tawell, murder of Sarah Hart ; Aylesbury, 

28 March, 
Thomas Henry Hocker, murder of Mr. Delarue ; 

Old Bailey 28 April, 

Joseph Connor, murder of Mary Brothers ; Old 

Bailey 2 June, 

John Platts, murder of Collis ; Derby . 1 April, 
Catherine Foster, murder of her husband ; Bury St. 

Edmunds 17 April, 

James Bloomfield Rush, murder of Messrs. Jenny, 
sen. and jun. ; Norwich ... 21 April, 
Fred. George Manning, and his wife, Maria Manning, 
murder of O'Connor ; Horsemonger-lane, 

13 Nov. 

James Barbour, murder ; York . . 15 Jan. 
Hy. Horler, murder of wife ; Old Bailey . 15 Jan. 
Grant, Quiii, and Coomey, murder of Thomas Bate- 
son ; Monaghan 9 April, 

Emanuel Barthelemy, murder of Mr. Moore and 

C. Collard ; Old Bailey ... 22 Jan. 
William Bousfield, murder of his wife and three 

children ; Old Bailey ... 31 March, 
William Palmer (of Rugeley), murder of J. P. Cook 

by poison ; Stafford .... 14 June, 
William Dove, murder of his wife by poison ; York 

9 Aug. 
Joseph Jenkins, alias Robert Marley, murder of 

Cope, a shopman, in Westminster ; Old Bailey, 

15 Dec. 
William Jackson, murder of two children ; Chester, 

20 Dec. 
Lagava, Bartelano, and Pettrick, murder of two 

officers and piracy ; Winchester . 23 Dec. 

Dedea Redaines, murder of two girls at Dover ; 

Maidstone 1 Jan. 

Thomas Mansell (after seven months' respite), 

murder of a soldier ; Maidstone . 6 July, 

Capt. H. Rogers, murder of A. Rose, a black, with 

great cruelty ; Liverpool . . .11 Sept. 
Thomas Davis, murder of wife ; Old Bailey, 16 Nov. 
John William Beale, murder of Charlotte Pugsley, 

his sweetheart : Taunton . .12 Jan. 

John Thomson, alias Peter Walker, murder of Agnes 

Montgomery by poison — discovered by a child ; 

Paisley 14 Jan. 

Christian Sattler, a German, murder of inspector 

Thain ; Old Bailey .... 8 Feb. 
Giovanni Lani, murder of Heloi'se Thaubin ; Old 

Bailey ?6 April, 

John B. Bucknall, murder of his grandfather and 

grandmother ; Taunton ... 24 Aug. 
Wm. Burgess, murder of his daughter ; Taunton, 

4 Jan. 
Joseph Castle, murder of his wife ; Bedford, 

31 March, 
William Youngman, murder of sweetheart, Mary 

Streeter, and mother and two brothers, on Aug. 

16 ; Horsemonger-lane ... 4 Sept. 
James Mullins, murder of Mrs. Emsley, at Stepney ; 

Old Bailey 19 Nov. 

James Johnson, murder of two non-commissioned 

officers ; Winchester 1 Jan. 

Matthew and Charles Wedniore, murder of their 

aunt ; Taunton 5 April, 

Martin Doyle, barbarous attempted murder (last 

execution for this crime); Chester . 27 Aug. 
Wm. Cogail, murder of wife ; Old Bailey, 14 Oct. 
Thomas Jackson, a soldier, murder of sergeant 

John Dickson ; Winchester . . 27 Dec. 
Win. Charlton, engine-driver, murdered Jane Em- 

merson, to obtain the money she had saved for 

her funeral : Carlisle . . . 15 March, 
G. J. Gilbert, brutal murder of Miss M. S. Hall, on 

her way to church ; Winchester . . 4 Aug. 
William Taylor, murder of Mr. Metier from revenge : 

he previously killed his own children; Ivirkdale. 

13 Sept. 



1842 

1843 
1844 

1845 

1847 
1849 

185? 

1854 

"855 
1856 



1857 



1853 



1859 
1S60 



iS6j 



EXECUTIONS. 



451 



EXECUTIONS. 



Catherine Wilson, murder of Mrs. Soames by poison 

[and of several other persons] ; Old Bailey, 

20 Oct. 1862 
William Oekold (aged 70), murder of his wife, after 

50 years' marriage ; Worcester . . 2 Jan. 1863 
Noah Austen, murder of Mr. Allen ; Oxford, 

24 March, ,, 
Robert A. Burton, murder of a boy ; Maidstone, 

11 April, „ 
Edward Cooper, murder of his deformed son ; 

Shrewsbury 11 April, ,, 

Dennis Delane, hired Beckham and Walsh to mur- 
der his landlord, F. Fitzgerald . . 13 April, „ 
John Duoker, murder of Tye, a policeman ; Ipswich, 

14 April, „ 
Wm. Hope, violation and murder of Mary Corbett ; 

Hereford 15 April, ,, 

D. MacPhail and G. Woods, murder of Mrs. Walne ; 

Kirkdale 25 April, „ 

Joseph Brooks, murder of Davy, a policeman ; 

Old Bailey 27 April, ,, 

Joseph Kelly, murder of Fitzhenry, a schoolmaster ; 

Wexford 11 Aug. ,, 

Thomas, Alvarez, Hughes, and O'Brien, ferocious 

murderers ; Liverpool . . .11 Sept. „ 

Alice Holt, murder of her mother; Chester, 28 Dec. ,, 
Samuel Wright, murder of his paramour, 12 Jan. 1864 
John Lyons and four others (foreigners) ; murder 

and piracy ; Old Bailey ... 22 Feb. ,, 
Charles Brickuell, murder of his sweetheart, 

1 Aug. ,, 
Franz Miiller, murder of Mr. Briggs in a railway 

carriage (see Trials) ; Old Bailey . 14 Nov. „ 
Ferdinand Kohl, murder of M. Fuhrkop ; Chelms- 
ford 26 Jan. 1865 

Fdw. William Piitchard, M. D. , murder of wife 

and her mother ; Glasgow . . .28 July, „ 
John Currie, murder of major De Vere ; Maidstone, 

12 Oct. „ 
Stephen Forward, alias Ernest Southey, murder of 

wife and four children ; Maidstone . 11 Jan. 1866 
Mary Ashford, murder of husband ; Exeter, 

28 March, „ 
John Win. Leigh, murder of wife's sister ; Brighton, 

10 April, ,, 
Robert Coe, murder of a young man for his wages, 

30s. ; Swansea 12 April, „ 

John Grant, a soldier, murder of a boy ; Exeter, 

15 Aug. „ 
J. B. Jeffreys murder of his son (aged 7); Old Bailey, 

9 Oct. „ 
Jas. Langhurst, brutal murder of Harriet Sax 

(6 years old) 16 April, 1867 

Hubbard Lingley, murder of his uncle, Ben.j. Black ; 

Norwich 26 Aug. ,, 

George Britten, murder of his wife ; Taunton, 

29 Aug. „ 
John Wiggins, murder of his concubine, Agnes 

Oakes ; Old Bailey . . . .15 Oct. ,, 
Louis Bordier, murder of his concubine, Mary Ann 

Snow ; Horsemonger-lane . . .15 Oct. ,, 
Wm. O'Meara Allen, Wm. Gould (or O'Brien), and 

Michael Larkin, Fenians, for murder of Brett, a 

policeman ; Salford . . . -23 Nov. ,, 
Frederick Baker, murder of a little girl, whom he 

afterwards cut up ; Winchester . . 24 Dec. ,, 
Wm. Worsley, murder of Wm. Bradbury ; Bedford, 

31 March. 1868 
Frances Kidder, murder of her husband's child ; 

Maidstone 2 April, ,, 

Timothy Faherty, for murder of his sweetheart, 

Mary Hanmer (for rejecting him), and 
Miles Weatherill, murder of Rev. Mr. Plow, of Tod- 

morden, and his maid (for revenge); Manchester; 

4 April, 
Frederick Parker, murder of Daniel Driscoll ; York, 

4 April, 
John Mapp, murder of little girl ; Shrewsbury, 

9 April, 
O'Farrell, for attempting to assassinate the duke of 

Edinburgh ; Sydney, N.S. Wales . 21 April, 
Richard Bishop ; murder of Alfred Cartwright ; 

Maidstone 30 April, 

Michael Barrett, Fenian ; for Clerkenwell explosion ; 

THE LAST PUBLIC EXECUTION IN ENGLAND ; Old 

Bailey 26 May, 



Thomas Wells, murder of Mr. Walsh, station- 
master at Dover ; (the first private execution), 

13 Aug. 1868 

William Sherward, for murder of his wife, Norwich 
(see Norwich) 20 April, 1869 

Josiah Detheridge, murder of warder in Portland 
prison ; Dorchester 12 Aug. ,, 

Win. Taylor, soldier ; murder of his corporal ; Exeter, 

11 Oct. ,, 

Frederick Hinson, murder of his concubine, Maria 
Death, and of Wm. Douglas Boyd, her paramour, 
at Wood Green, Middlesex ; Old Bailey, 13 Dec. ,, 

Wm. Mobbs, purposeless murder of a child ; Ayles- 
bury 28 March, 1870 

Walter Millar, murder of Rev. Elias Huelin and 
Ann Boss (at Chelsea) ; Old Bailey . 1 Aug. ,, 

John Owen or Jones, for murder of a family (7 
persons) at Denham ; Aylesbury . . 8 Aug. ,, 

Thomas Rateliffe ; murder of a warder in Portland 
prison ; Dorchester . . . .15 Aug. 

Margaret Waters ; murder of infants ; baby-farming 
case ; Horsemonger-lane . . . n Oct. ,, 

Patrick Durr ; murder of his wife ; Manchester, 

26 Dec. ,, 

Wm. Bull ; brutal murder of an old woman ; Bed- 
ford 3 April, 1871 

Michael Campbell ; murder of Mr. Galloway at 
Stratford ; Springfield gaol, Essex . 24 April, ,, 

Richard Addington ; murder of wife ; Northampton, 

31 July, „ 

Frederic Jones ; murder of Emily Gardner, 
through jealousy ; Gloucester . . 8 Jan. 1872 

Edward Roberts ; murder of Ann Merrick, who re- 
fused to many him ; Oxford . . 18 March, ,, 

Wm. Fred. Horry ; murderof wife ; Lincoln, 1 April, ,. 

Charles Holmes ; murder of wife ; Worcester, 12 Aug. ,, 

Thomas Moore, murder of wife ; James Tooth, sol- 
dier, murder of drummer ; Francis Bradford, 
soldier, murder of comrade ; Maidstone, 13 Aug. ,, 

Christopher Edwards ; murder of wife ; Stafford, 

13 Aug. „ 

Wm. Lace ; murder of wife ; Taunton . 26 Aug. ,, 

Augustus Elliott ; murder of paramour ; Old Bailey, 

9 Dec. ,, 

Mich. Kennedy; murderof wife ; Manchester,3oDec. ,, 

Edwd. Handcock ; murder of wife ; Warwick, 7 Jan. 1873 

Richard Spencer ; murder of paramour ; Liverpool, 

8 Jan. „ 

Hugh Slane and John Hayes ; murder of Joseph 
Waine ; Durham 13 Jan. ,, 

Mary Ann Cotton ; murder of chilcL(see Poisoning) ; 
Durham ^^-^24 March, ,, 

Henry Evans, at Aylesbury ; and Benjamin Hud- 
son, at Derby, for murder of their wives 4 Aug. ,, 

Thos. Hartley Montgomery, murder of Mr. Glasse, „ 
Omagh 26 Aug. „ 

James Connor ; murder of James Gaffney ; Liver- 
pool 8 Sept. 

Charles Dawson, William Thompson, and Edward 
Gough ; murders ; Durham ; Thos. Corrigan ; m. 
of mother ; Liverpool .... 5 Jan 

Edward C. Butt ; murder of Miss Phipp, through 
jealousy ; Edwin Bailey and Ann Barry ; murder 
of child; Gloucester .... 12 Jan. ,, 

Thos. Chamberlain ; murder ; Northampton 

30 March, „ 

James Godwin ; murder of wife ; Newgate, 25 May, ,, 

Frances Stewart ; murder of grandchild ; Newgate, 

29 June, ,, 

Thos. Macdonald ; murder of paramour ; Exeter, 

10 Aug. ,, 

Wm. Jackson ; murder of sister ; York . 18 Aug. ,, 

James H. Gibbs ; murder of wife ; Usk . 24 Aug. ,, 

Henry Flanigan ; murder of aunt ; Mary Williams ; 
murder of Nicholas Manning ; Liverpool, 31 Aug. ,, 

John W. Coppen ; murder of wife ; Horsemonger- 
lane 13 Oct. ,, 

Private Thos. Smith, 20th Hussars ; murder of 
Capt. Bird, in revenge for slight punishment ; 
Winchester 16 Nov. ,, 

Robert Taylor ; m. of Mrs. Kidd ; Stafford 29 Dec. ,, 

James Cranwell ; murder of Emma Bellamy ; New- 
gate. Michael Mullen, John McCrave, and Wm. 
Worthington ; Liverpool .... 4 Jan. 1875 

Richard Coates ; murder of girl, 10 years old ; 

Chelmsford 29 March, ,, 

G G 2 



Y 

1874 



EXECUTIONS. 



452 



EXECUTIONS. 



John Morgan ; murder of comrade ; Maidstone ; 
John Stanton ; m. of uncle ; Stafford 30 March, 1875 

Alfred T. Heap, quack ; murder of Margaret 
MeKivett; Liverpool .... 19 April, ,, 

Wm. Hole ; murder of wife ; Bristol . 26 April, ,, 

Jeremiah Corkery ; murder of policeman ; Warwick, 

27 July, „ 

McHugli, Gilligan, and Pearson (woman) ; murders ; 
Durham 2 Aug. ,, 

Peter Blanchard ; murder of Louisa Hodgson; 
Lincolnshire ..... 9 Aug. ,, 

Philip Lebrun ; murder of sister ; Jersey, 12 Aug. „ 

Wm. McCullogh ; murder of Wm. Watson ; and 
Mark Fiddler ; murder of wife ; Lancaster, 16 Aug. ,, 

Wm. Baker and Edward Cooper ; murders ; Liver- 
pool 6 Sept. ,, 

Henry Wainwright ; murder of Harriet Lane, his 
mistress (see Whitechapel) ; Newgate, . 21 Dec. ,, 

Wm. Smedley ; murder of Elizabeth Firth, his 
mistress ; Armley, near Leeds . . 21 Dec. ,, 

John William Anderson ; murder of wife ; New- 
castle-on-Tyne 22 Dec. ,, 

Richard Charlton ; m. of wife; Morpeth 2.) Dec. ,, 

George Hunter ; murder of fellow-workman ; Mor- 
peth . . .... 28 March, 1876 

Thos. Fordred ; murder of Ann Bridger ; Maid- 
stone 4 April, ,, 

George Hill ; murder of his illegitimate child, and 
nearly of its mother ; Hertford . . 10 April, ,, 

Edward Deacon ; murder of wife ; Bristol, 24 April, ,, 

John Webber ; murder ; Cardiff . . 26 April, „ 

Henry Webster ; murder of wife ; Norwich, 1 May, ,, 

"Lennie" mutineers and murderers: Matteo Car- 
galis, Pascalis Caludis, George Kaida, and 
Giovanni Carcaris ; Newgate . . 23 May, ,, 

John Williams ; shot his brother-in-law ; Durham, 

26 July, ,, 

James Parris ; murder of a child ; Maidstone 1 Aug. ,, 

Wm. Fish ; murder of a child (see Trials) ; Richard 
Thompson, murder of J. H. Blundell ; Liverpool ; 

14 Aug. ,, 

C. E. Baumbos (see Mutinies) ; and Crowe (see 
Ireland) : Cork 25 Aug. „ 

John Ebelthrift ; murder of wife ; Newgate 26 Aug. ,, 

Charles O'Donnell ; murder of wife ; Newgate 1 1 Dec. ,, 

Robert Browning; murder of EmmaRolfe, aged 16 ; 
Cambridge 14 Dec. ., 

Silas Barlow ; murder of Ellen Sloper, paramour ; 
Horsemonger-lane ; James Dalgleish ; murder of 
Sarah Wright ; Carlisle .... 19 Dec. ,, 

John Thomas Green ; murder of wife ; Leicester, 

20 Dec. ,, 
Wm. Flanagan ; murder of paramour ; Manchester 

21 Dec. ,, 
Isaac Marks, Jew ; murder of Fredk. Barnard, for 

revenge ; (Newington murder) ; Horsemonger-lane 

2 Jan. 1877 

Henry & Francis George Tklbury ; murder of two 
policemen; Reading. . . 12 March, ,, 

Wm. Clark (or Slenderman) ; murder of Henry 
Walker, gamekeeper ; Lincoln . 26 March, ,, 

John McKenna ; murder of wife ; Manchester 

27 March, 

James Bannister ; murder of wife ; Chester 2 April, ,, 

John Henry Johnson; murder of Amos White; 
through jealousy ; 3 April, ,, 

Frederick Baker ; murder of Mary Saunders ; 
jealousy; Warwick .... 17 April, ,, 

John Henry Starkey ; murder of wife ; Leicester ; 
Henry Rogers ; murder of wife ; Stafford 31 July, ,, 

Henry Leigh ; murder of child ; Chester 13 Aug. ,, 

Caleb Smith ; murder of nominal wife (Eliza 
Osborne) ; Horsemonger-lane . . .14 Aug. „ 

John Colliding and Patrick McGovern ; murders ; 
Liverpool 21 Aug. „ 

John Lynch; murder of wife ; Newgate . 15 Oct. „ 

Thos. Pratt ; murder of paramour ; Newgate 12 Nov. „ 

Wm. Hussell ; murder of wife ; Exeter . 19 Nov. ,, 

Henry March ; murder of employer and fellow- 
workman ; Norwich .... 20 Nov. ,, 

Thos. Gray; murder of Ann Mellors, who refused 
him ; Nottingham 21 Nov. ,, 

Cadwallader Jones; murder of paramour ; Dolgelly, 

23 Nov. „ 

James Sachwell, John Upton, and John Wm. Swift ; 
brutal murder of an old man ; Leicester 27 Nov. „ 

Geo. Pigott ; murder Of Florence Galloway; Man- 
chester 4 Feb. 1S78 



James Caffyn ; murder of Maria Barber ; Winches- 
ter 11 Feb. 

James Trickett; murder of wife ; Liverpool 12 Feb. 

John Brooks ; murder of Caroline Woodhead; 
Nottingham 13 Feb. 

Harry Rowles ; murder of sweetheart ; Oxford 

1 April, 

Vincent Knowles Walker ; murder of woman; York, 

15 April, 

Charles J. Revell ; murder of wife ; Chelmsford, 

29 July, 

Robert Vest ; ship steward ; murder of Wm. Wal- 
lace, a pilot ; Durham ... 30 July, 

Thos. Cholerton ; murder of paramour ; Notting- 
ham 12 Aug. 

Selina Wadge ; murder of illegitimate child ; Bod- 
min 15 Aug. 

Thomas Smithers, murder of woman, Wandsworth, 

8 Oct. 

Patrick John Byrne ; murder of two brother ser- 
geants ; Northampton . . . .12 Nov. 

Joseph Garcia, Spanish sailor, murder of William 
Watkins and his wife and three children, Usk, 

18 Nov. 
James McGowan ; murder of wife ; Manchester ; 

19 Nov. 
Henry Gilbert ; murder of illegitimate child ; Hun- 
tingdon 25 Nov. 

Stephen Gambrill ; murder of Arthur Gillow while 
defending his machinery (Wednesborough) Maid- 
stone 4 Feb. 1879 

Enoch Whiston ; murder of Alfred Meredith ; Wor- 
cester 10 Feb. „ 

Wm. McGuiness ; murder of wife ; Lancaster 11 Feb. ,, 

Charles Peace ; murder of A. Dyson Leeds ; (see 
Trials, 1878-9) 25 Feb. „ 

James Simms ; American seaman ; murder of 
woman ; Newgate . . . 24 March ,, 

Edwd. Smart ; murder of woman ; Gloucester, 12 May „ 

Wm. Cooper; murder of Ellen Mather; Manchester, 

20 May, „ 
Catherine Churchill ; murder of husband ; Taunton, 

26 May, ,, 
John Darcy ; murder of Wm. Mitechalle ; York ; 

27 May, „ 
Thomas Johnson'; murder of Eliza Patten ; Liver- 
pool 28 May, „ 

Catherine Webster ; murder of Mrs. Julia Martha 
Thomas ; Wandsworth ; (see Richmond), 29 July, ,, 

Annie Took ; murder of nurse-child ; Exeter, n Aug. ,, 

James Dilley ; murder of illegitimate child ; New- 
gate 25 Aug. ,, 

John Ralph ; murder of Sarah Vernon ; Birming- 
ham 26 Aug. ,, 

Henry Bedingfleld ; murder of Eliza Rudd ; Ipswich, 

3 Dec. ,, 

Charles Shurety ; murder of child ; Newgate, 5 Jan. 1880 

Wm. Cassidy ; murder of wife; Manchester, 17 Feb. ,, 

Hugh Burns and Patrick Reams ; murder of 
Patrick Tracey at Widnes ; Liverpool 2 March, ,, 

John Wingfield ; murder of his wife ; Newgate, 

22 March, „ 

Wm. Dunibleton ; murder of John Edmunds ; 
Aylesbury 10 May, ,, 

John Henry Wood ; murder of John Coe ; York ; 

11 May, ,, 

John Wakefield ; murder of a child ; Derby 16 Aug. ,, 

Wm. Brownless ; murder of sweetheart ; Durham ; 

16 Nov. ,, 
Wm. J. Distin ; murder of paramour ; Bristol ; 

22 Nov. ,, 
Thos Wheeler ; murder of Edward Anstee, near St. 

Albans 29 Nov. ,, 

George Pavey : murder of Ada Shepherd, aged 11 ; 
and Wm. Herbert, murder of Jane Messenger, 
sister-in-law ; Newgate . . . .13 i>ec. ,, 
Wm. Stanway ; murder of Ann Mellor ; Chester ; 

21 Feb. 1881 
James Williams ; murder of Eliz. Bagnall ; Stafford ; 

22 Feb. ,, 
Albert Robinson ; murder of wife ; Derby 28 Feb. „ 
Albert Moore ; murder of old woman ; Maidstone ; 

17 May, ,, 
James Hall; murder of wife ; Leeds . 23 May, ,, 
Joseph P. McEntce ; murder of wife ; Liverpool ; 

31 May, .. 

Thos. Brown ; murder of Eliza Caldwell ; Notting- 
ham .... .15 Aug. „ 



EXECUTIONS. 



453 



EXECUTIONS. 



George Durling ; murder of Fanny Musson, Maid- 
stone 23 Aug. 18! 

John Aspinal Simpson ; murder of girl ; Man- 
chester . . . ■ . . .28 Nov. ,, 
Percy Lefroy Mapleton ; murder of F. T. Gold in a 

Brighton railway carriage ; Lewes . 29 Nov. ',, 
Alfred Gough ; murder of a little girl ; Derby ,, 
Robert Templeton ; murder of landlady ; Man- 
chester '13 Feb. 18 

Dr. G. H. Lamson ; murder of Percy M. John (see 

Wimbledon) ; Wandsworth . . 28 April, ,. 
Thos. Fury ; murder of Maria Fitzsimons in 1869 ; 

Sunderland 16 May, ,, 

Wm. Geo. Abigale ; murder of girl ; Norwich, 

22 May, ,. 
Osmond Otto Brand ; murder of apprentice at sea ; 

Leeds 23 May, , 

Charles Gerrish ; murder of fellow pauper ; Wilts , 
Wm. Turner ; murder of wife ; Liverpool, 21 Aug. , 
Wm. Meager Bartlett ; murder of infant ; Bodmin, 

13 Nov. , 
Edward Wheatflll ; cruel murder of Peter Hughes, 

aged 16 ; York 27 Nov. , 

Bernard Mullarkey ; murder of Thomas Cruise ; 

Liverpool 4 Dec. , 

Charles Taylor ; murder of wife ; Wandsworth, 

12 Dec. , 
Louisa Jane Taylor; murder of Mrs. Tregillis; 

Wandsworth 2 Jan. iS 

Abraham Thomas, a butler ; murder of Mrs. C. - 

Leigh ; Manchester . . . . 12 Feb. ,, 

James Anderson; murder of wife ; Lincoln, 19 Feb. „ 
Thomas Garry ; murder of John Newton ; Lincoln 

7 May ,, 
Patrick Carey, or John White ; murder of Thomas 

Eastam and Mary Moran ; Chester . 8 May ,, 
George White ; murder of wife ; and Joseph Wedlake, 

murder of Mark Cox ; Taunton . . 21 May, ,, 
James Burton ; murder of Elizabeth Sharpe ; 

Durham 6 Aug. ,, 

Henry Powell ; murder of master's son, J. H. D. 

Bruton ; Wandsworth . . . .6 Nov. ,, 
Thomas Lyons : murder of his child . 13 Nov. ,, 

Peter Bray ; murder of Thomas Pyle ; Durham, 

19 Nov. ,, 
Thomas Riley ; murder of Elizabeth Alston ; Man- 
chester 26 Nov. ,, 

Henry Dutton ; murder of Hannah Henshaw ; 

Liverpool ... . q Dec. ,, 

Patrick O'Donnell ; murder of James Carey, the 

informer ; Newgate ... 17 Dec. „ 

Charles Kite ; murder of Albert Miles ; Taunton, 

25 Feb. 1884 
Michael Maclean ; murder of Spanish sailor ; Liver- 
pool 10 March ,, 

Mary Leffley ; murder of husband; Lincoln, 

26 May, ,, 
Joseph Lawson ; murder of sergeant Smith ; Durham 

27 May, ,, 
Peter Cassidy ; murder of wife; Liverpool, 19 Aug. ,, 
Joseph I.aycock ; murder of wife and 4 children ; 

Leeds ....... 26 Aug. ,, 

Thos. Henry Orrock ; murder of policeman Cole ; 

Newgate 6 Oct. ,, 

Thomas Harris ; murder of wife ; Newgate 6 Oct. ,, 
Kay Howarth and Henry Hammond ; Swindell's 

murder; Manchester .... 24 Nov. ,, 
Ernest Ewerstadt and Arthur Shaw ; murder of 

women 8 Dec. 

Horace Robert Jay ; murder of a girl ; Wandsworth 

13 Jan. 1885 
Henry Kimberley ; murder of Mrs. Palmer ; Bir- 
mingham 17 March, ,, 

John Lee, murder of police-inspector Simmons 

Chelmsford 18 May, ,, 

Moses Shrimpton, murder of policeman ; Worcester, 

25 May, ,, 
Henry Alt, murder of C. Howard; Newgate, 13 July, ,, 
Joseph Tucker, murder of Elizabeth Williamson ; 

Nottingham 3 Aug. ,, 

Thomas Boulton, murder of niece ; Stafford, 17 Aug. ,, 
Henry Norman, murder of wife ; Newgate 5 Oct. ,, 
John Hill and John Williams, murder ol Ann 

Dickson ; Hereford . . . .23 Nov. ,, 
Robert Goodale, murder of wife ; head severed 

through long drop ; Norwich . . . 30 Nov. „ 
Daniel Minahan, murder of wife ; Newgate 7 Dec. ,, 
George Thomas, murder of woman ; Liverpool 8 Dec. ,, 



John Horton, murder of his father ; Devizes 1 Feb. 18 
Anthony Benjamin Rudge, John Martin, and James 

Baker, murder (see Trials) ; Carlisle 8 Feb. , 

Joseph Baines, murder of wife ; Lancaster 9 Feb. . 
John Thurston, murder of H. Springall ; Norwich 

10 Feb. , 
George Saunders, murder of wife ; Ipswich 16 Feb. 
Owen M'Gill, murder of wife ; Cheshire 22 Feb. 
Thomas Nash, murder of child ; Swansea March, 
David Roberts, murder of David Thomas ; Cardiff 

2 March, 

Albert Edward Brown, and James Whelan, for 

murders ; Winchester ... 31 May, 

Edward Hewitt, murder of wife ; Gloucester 

15 June, 
William Samuel, murder of Wm. Mabbott ; 

Shrewsbury 26 July, 

Mary Ann Britland, murder of Mrs. Dixon ; Man- 
chester 9 Aug. 

Patrick Judge, murder of wife ; Newcastle 16 Nov. 
James Murphy, poacher, murder ; York 29 Nov. 
James Banton, murder of police constable ; 

Leicester 30 Nov. 

George Harmer, murder of an old man; Norwich 

13 Dec. 
Thomas Leatherbarrow, murder of woman ; Man- 
chester 15 Feb. 1 

Thomas Bloxham, murder of wife ; Leicester 14 Feb. 
Edward- Pritchard, murder of Allen ; Gloucester 

17 Feb. 
Richard Insole, murder of wife ; Lincoln 21 Feb. 
Benjamin Terry, murder of wife ; Nottingham 

22 Feb. 
Elizabeth Berry, murder of daughter ; Liverpool 

14 March, 
Joseph King, murder of woman and child ; Newgate 

21 March, 

Thomas William Carroll, murder of Lydia Green 

(see Trials) ; Newgate ... 18 April, 

Charles Smith, murder of wife ; Cowley near 

Oxford 9 May, 

Henry William Young, murder of child; Dor- 
chester 16 May, 

Walter Wood, murder of wife ; Manchester 31 May, 
Alfred Sowery, murder of sweetheart ; Lancaster 

1 Aug. 
Israel Lipski, murder of woman ; Newgate 22 Aug. 
Henry Hobson, murder of Ada Stodhart ; Leeds 

22 Aug. 
Thomas H. Bevan, murder of woman ; Chester 

17 Aug. 
William Wilton, murder of wife ; Lewes 29 Aug. 
William Hunter, murder of a child-;-Carlisle 14 Nov. 
Joseph Walker, murder of wife ; Oxford "^ 15 Nov. 
Joseph Morley, murder of woman ; Chelmsford 

21 Nov. 
Enoch Wadley, murder of woman ; Gloucester 

28 Nov. 
Thomas Payne, murder of his sister-in-law ; 

Warwick 6 Dec. 

David Rees, murder of Thomas Davies ; Carmarthen 

13 March, 

Alfred Scandrett and James Jones, murder of 

Philip Ballard ; Hereford . . 20 March, 

George Clarke, murder of stepdaughter ; Winchester 

27 March, 
William Arrowsmith, murder of his uncle ; 

Shrewsbury. 28 March, 

John Alfred Gell, murder of Mrs. Mary Miller ; 

Manchester 15 May, 

James William Richardson, murder of Wm. 

Berridge ; Leeds 22 May, 

Robert Upton, murder of wife ; Oxford 17 July, 
Thomas Wyre, murder of son ; Worcester 18 July, 
John Jackson, murder of warder Webb ; Manchester, 

7 Aug. 
Arthur T. Delaney, murder of wife ; Derby 10 Aug. 
George Sargeant, murder of wife ; Chelmsford 

15 Aug. 
George N. Daniels and Harry B. Jones, murders ; 

Birmingham 28 Aug. 

Levi Richard Bartlett, murder of wife; Newgate 

13 Nov. 
Samuel Crowther, murder of John Willis ; Worcester 

11 Dec. 
William Waddell, murder of woman ; Durham 

18 Dec. 
Charles Bulmer, murder of wife ; Leeds . 1 J»rt 



EXECUTIONS. 



454 



EXECUTIONS. 



Thomas Clews, murder of woman ; Stafford i Jan. 

George Nicholson, murder of wife ; Warwick 8 Jan. 

William Gower, aged 18, and Charles Joseph 
Dobell, aged 19, confessed to murder of Bensley 
C. Lawrence, timekeeper at saw-mills at Tun- 
bridge Wells ; Maidstone ... .2 Jan. 

Ebenezer Samuel Jenkins, murder of his sweet- 
heart ; Wandsworth .... 6 March, 

Samuel Rylands, murder of little girl ; Shepton 
Mallet gaol 13 March, 

Thomas Allen, a Zulu ; murder of F. G. Kent ; 
Swansea . . . .' . .10 April, 

John Witney, murder of wife ; Bristol n April, 

George Horton, murder of little daughter ; Derby, 

21 Aug. 

Benjamin Purnell, murder of wife ; Devizes, 9 Dec. 

William Dukes, murder of Mr. Gordon ; Bury, 

24 Dec. 

Robert West and Frederick Brett, wife murder ; 
Leeds 31 Dec. 

William Thomas Hook, wife murder ; Maidstone, 

31 Dec. 

Charles Lister Higginbotham, murder of landlady, 

7 Jan. 

Joseph Boswell and Samuel Boswell, for murder 
of Frank Stephens, gamekeeper ; Worcester, 

n March, 

William Row, for the murder of Lily McClarence ; 
Newcastle-on-Tyne . . . .12 March, 

Thomas Neal, murder of wife ; Newgate, 26 March, 

Richard Davies, murder of father (see Trials), 
Knutsford, Cheshire .... 8 April, 

William Chadwick, murder of Walter Davies ; 
Liverpool 15 April, 

Daniel Stewart Gorrie, murder of fellow-workman ; 
Wandsworth 10 June, 

George Bowling, murder of Eliza Nightingale, with 
whom he lived, Wandsworth . . 29 July, 

Felix Spicer, murder of two children ; Knutsford, 

22 Aug. 
James Harrison, murder of wife ; Leeds 26 Aug. 
Frederick Davis, murder of wife ; Birmingham, 

26 Aug. 
Francois Manteau, murder of Francois De Grave ; 

Newgate 27 Aug. 

Mary Eleanor Wheeler, otherwise Pearcey, for 

murder of Mrs. Hogg (see Trials) ; Newgate, 

23 Dec. 
Thomas Macdonakl, murder of Miss Alice Holt, 

schoolmistress, near Bolton ; Liverpool ; Robert 
Kitching, murder of policeman Weedy ; York, 

30 Dec. 

Alfred Turner, murder of sweetheart, Mary Moran ; 
Manchester 19 May, 

Franz Joseph Munch, murder of James Hickey ; 
Wandsworth 21 July, 

Arthur Spencer, murder of Mary Ann Garner ; 
Lincoln 28 July, 

Walter Lewis Turner, murder of Barbara Water- 
house, 5 years old ; Leeds . . . 18 Aug. 

Thomas Sadler, murder of Wm. Wass ; Chelms- 
ford 18 Aug. 

Robert Bradshaw, murder of wife ; Wandsworth, 

19 Aug. 

John Conway, mimler of Nicholas Martin, a youth ; 
Liverpool 20 Aug. 

Edward H. F. Watts, murder of wife ; Winchester, 

26 Aug. 

Harry Dainton, murder of wife at Bath ; Shepton 
Mallett 15 Dec. 

John William Johnson, murder of Margaret Addi- 
son ; Durham 22 Dec. 

Charles Saunders, murder of child ; Hereford, 

23 Dec. 

James Stoekwell, murder of Catherine Dennis ; 
Armley, Yorkshire .... 5 Jan. 

James Muir, murder of Abigail Sullivan ; Newgate, 

1 March, 

Frederick Eggloton and Charles Rayner, poachers, 
murder of two gamekeepers, Joseph Crawley ami 
William Puddlepliat ; Oxford . i 7 March, 

Joseph Wilson, murder of Marion Greaves Cross- 
man ; Carlisle .... 22 March, 

John Noble, murder of woman ; London, 29 March, 

George H. Wood, murder of Edith Jeal ; Lewes, 

26 April, 

Harry Pickering, murder of wife ; Leeds 14 June, 



1892 



John Gurd, alias Louis Hamilton, murder of 
Henry Richards ; Devizes . . 26 July, 

John G. Wenzel, murder of Joseph Joyce, a police 
officer ; and James Taylor, murder of wife ; 
Newgate 16 Aug. 

Patrick Gibbons, murder of mother ; Liverpool 

17 Aug. 

Moses Cudworth, murder of wife ; Leeds 18 Aug. 

John J. Banbury, murder of Emma Oakley, 
Wandsworth 11 Oct. 

Thomas Neill, otherwise Cream (see Trials) ; 
Newgate 15 Nov. 

Joseph Mellor, murder of wife ; Manchester 20 Dec. 

Thomas Edwards, murder of Mary Conolly ; Usk 

22 Dec. 

Cross Duckworth, murder of Alice Barnes, a child ; 
Walton 3 Jan. 

Andrew G. M'Rae, murder of Annie Pritchard at 
Althorp ; Northampton ... 10 Jan. 

Albert Manning, murder of Jane E. Flew ; 
Gloucester 16 March, 

Edward Hemmings, murder of wife ; Leeds 

4 April, 

Richard Sabey, murder of Louisa Johnson ; North- 
ampton 18 July, 

Aime Meunier, (extradited) murder of an old 
woman ; Worcester . . . -19 July. 

George S. Cooke, police-constable, murder of Maud 
Merton ; Newgate .... 25 July, 

Charles Squires, murder of child ; Shepton Mallet, 

10 Aug. 

John T. Hewitt, murder of Wm. Masfen ; Stafford 

15 Aug. 

John Davis, murder of police-sergt. Eves ; Chelms- 
ford 16 Aug. 

Emanuel Hamar, murder of an old woman, 
Catherine Tyrer ; Manchester . . 28 Nov. 

John Carter, murder of wife ; Reading . 5 Dec. 

George Mason, murder of sergt. James Robinson ; 
Winchester 6 Dec. 

Henry Rumbold, murder of a woman named 
Rushby, at Lincoln .... 19 Dec. 

James Wyndham, murder of his father ; Gloucester 

21 Dec. 

William Harris, alias Haynes, murder of Florence 
Clifford ; Warwick . . . . 1 Jan. 

George Thomas, murder of Mary Jane Jones ; 
Carmarthen . . . . 13 Feb. 

Walter Smith, murder of Catherine Cross, hospital 
nurse ; Nottingham ... 27 March, 

Margaret Walber, murder of her husband, Liver- 
pool 2 April, 

Philip Garner, murder of wife ; Leeds . 3 April, 

Frederick W. Fenton, murder of Florence 
Elborough ; Birmingham . . .4 April, 

John Langford, murder of Elizabeth Steven ; 
Liverpool 22 May, 

Samuel Elkins ; Winchester . . . 18 July, 

William Crossley, murder of Mary Ann Allen ; 
Manchester 31 July, 

Paul Koczula (24), murder of Mrs. Rasch in 
Shaftesbury avenue ; Newgate . . 14 Aug. 

Alfred Dews, murder of infant son : Leeds 21 Aug. 

James Wilshaw Whitehead, murder of wife, Man- 
chester 27 Nov. 

Thomas Richards (sailor), murder of Mary Davies, 
at Borth, 21 Sept. ; Carmarthen . 29 Nov. 

James Canham Read, murderof Florence Dennis at 
Southend, June ; Chelmsford . . 4 Dec. 

John Wm. Newell, murderof wife in Aug. ; Leicester 

9 Dec. 

Samuel George Emery (20), soldier, murder of Mary 
Ann Marshall ; Newcastle-on-Tyne . n Dec. 

Cyrus Knight (45), murder of wife, and Wm. Rogers, 
murder of a woman ; Winchester . 12 Dec. 

Edmund Kesteven, murder of Sarah Ann Oldham ; 
Nottingham 26 March, 

Wm. Miller, murder of Edw. Moyse ; Liverpool 

4 June, 

Joseph Canning (32), murder of Jane Youell ; 
Wandsworth iS June, 

Henry Tickner (42), soldier, murder of wife, Wands- 
worth 2 July 

Robert Hudson, murder of wife and child, York, 

13 Aug. 

Thomas Bond, murder of Fredk. Bakewell and 
George Hackett, Stafford . . . 20 Aug. 



1893 



EXECUTIONS. 



455 



EXECUTIONS. 



Richard Wingrove, murder of Jane Eagle ; Newgate, 

19 Nov. 189 
Arthur Covington (27), murder of Effie Burgin (20), 

Bedford 3 Dec. ,, 

Elijah Winstanley, murder of detective Kidd 

(Wigan), Liverpool .... 17 Dec. ,. 
Henry Wright (35), murder of Mary E. Reynolds, 

her 2 sons and grandson, Nottingham 24 Dec. ,, 
Patrick Morley (38), murder of wife, Leeds 31 Dec. ,, 
Win. James Morgan, murder of wife ; Wandsworth, 

4 Feb. 189 
Alfred Chipperfleld (26), murder of wife ; Newgate, 

25 Feb. ,, 
Wm. Seaman, Albert Millsom and Henry Fowler, 

Newgate, 9 June ; see Trials, April, May, 1896. 
Amelia E. Dyer, Newgate, 10 June ; see Infanticide, 

May, 1896. 
Charles T. Woodridge, murder of wife ; Reading, 

7 J«iy» ,. 

Samuel E. Smith, murder of corporal Robert 

Payne; Winchester .... 21 July, ,, 
Philip Matthews, murder of his child; Winchester, 

21 July, ,, 
Frederick Burden, murder of Angelina Faithful ; 

Winchester 21 July, ,, 

Joseph Hirst, murder of child ; Manchester, 4 Aug. ,, 
Wm. Pugh (21), murder of Elizabeth Boot (19); 

Derby 5 Aug. ,, 

Samuel Wilkinson, murder of an old woman, named 
, jKaye ; John Rose, murder of wife ; Nottingham, 

11 Aug. ,, 
Joseph Robt. Ellis (22), murder of wife ; Leeds, 

25 Aug. ,, 
James Jones, murder of Edw. White ; Newgate, 

6 Oct. ,, 
Carlsen, Swedish sailor, murder of Julia Wood ; 

York 22 Dec. ,, 

Joseph Allcock (26), murder of wife ; Nottingham, 

23 Dec. ,, 
Henry Brown, murder of wife ; Wandsworth, 5 Jan. 189 
Robt. Hayman, murder of Esther Allchin ; Maid- 
stone ... ... 9 Feb. ,, 

•George Paterson, murder of a woman ; Glasgow, 

7 June, ,, 
Joseph Bowser, murder of wife ; Lincoln 27 July, ,, 
Joseph Robinson (33), murder of wife ; and Walter 

Robinson, murder of his cousin, Sarah Pickles ; 

Leeds 17 Aug. ,, 

Thomas Lloyd, murder of wife ; Liverpool, 18 Aug. ,, 
William Betts (47), murder of father ; Maidstone, 

16 Dec. ,, 
•George W. Howe (33), murder of Joseph K. Pickup ; 

Manchester 22 Feb. 189 

John Herdman, mur Jer of Jane Calder or Souter ; 

Edinburgh 14 March, ,, 

Charles Smith (33), murder of wife ; Durham, 

22 March, ,, 
Private Kenny (Wilfrid Kreutze), (27), a Prussian, 

murder of private Goodwin ; Clonmel gaol, 

5 April, ,, 
Walter Horsford (26), murder of Mrs. Annie Holmes, 

widow, Cambridge. See Poisons . . 28 June, ,, 
James Watt, murder of wife ; Norwich . 12 July, ,, 
William Wilkes, murder of wife ; Chelmsford, 

18 July, ,, 
Thomas Jones, murder of Mary Bruton ; Carnar- 
von 3 Aug. „ 

Joseph Lewis, murder of Robert Scott ; Swansea, 

30 Aug. ,, 
John Ryan, murder of police-constable James 

Baldwin ; Newgate .... 15 Nov. ,, 
Thomas Daley, murder of a woman named 

Penfold ; Maidstone . . . .13 Dec. ,, 
John Cotton, murder of wife ; Derby . 21 Dec. ,, 
Johann Schneider, alias Mandelkow, murder of 

Conrad Berndt ; Newgate . . . 3 Jan. 1S91 
Patrick Holmes, murder of Ellen Lawlor (70) ; 

Kilkenny 7 Jan. ,, 

Thomas Kelly (24), murder of his father ; Armagh 

10 Jan. ,, 
Philip King, murder of wife and mother-in-law ; 

Armagh 13 Jan. ,, 

George Robertson, murder of Mary Kenealey (4) : 

Newgate 28 Mar. ,, 

Frederick Andrews, murder of Frances Short ; 

Wandsworth 3 May, ,, 



Josiah Cornelius Parker, murder of Mary Elizabeth 
Meadows; Northampton . . . 11 July, 1899 

Charles Maidment (22), murder of Dorcas Houghton 
(18) ; Winchester 18 July, ,, 

Mary Ann Ansell (21), murder of sister, by sending 
her poisoned cake ; St. Albans . 19 July, ,, 

Edward Bell, murder of wife by strychnine ; 
Lincoln 25 July, „ 

Elias Torr, murder of daughter (26) ; Nottingham, 

9 Aug. ,, 

Frederick Preston (22), murder of Emily Mears, 

3 Oct. ,, 

Robert Ward (27), murder of 2 daughters, 4 Oct. ,, 

George Nunn (18), murder of Eliza Dixon ; Ipswich, 

21 Nov. ,, 

Charles Scott (28), murder of Eliza O'Shea ; Read- 
ing 28 Nov. ,, 

Samuel Crozier (55), murder of wife ; Chelmsford, 

5 Dec. „ 
Michael Dowdle, murder of wife ; Manchester, 

6 Dec. ,, 
Louise Masset, murder of son (35) ; Newgate. See 

Trials, Dec. ig3 9 Jan. 1900 

Ada Chard Williams (24), murder of a child ; New- 
gate 6 March, ,, 

Henry Grove (26), murder of Henry Smith (84) ; 

Newgate 22 May, ,, 

Alfred Highfleld (22), murder of Edith Poole, 

17 July, ,, 
Wm. James Irwin (61), murder of wife ; Newgate, 

14 Aug. ,, 
Mellor, murder of his 2 children, and Chas. Black- 
house (23), murder of a policeman ; Leeds, 

16 Aug. ,, 
William Lacey, a negro, murder of wife ; Cardiff, 

21 Aug. ,, 
Charles Blewitt, murder of wife ; Leeds, 28 Aug. ,, 
John Parr (19), murder of Sarah Willett ; Newgate, 

2 Oct. ,, 
Wm. Burrett, murder of wife ; Chelmsford, 3 Oct. ,, 
Joseph Holden (57), murder of grandson ; Man- 
chester 4 Dec. ,, 

John Bowes (50), murder of wife ; Durham, 

12 Dec. ,, 
James Bergin (28), murder of sweetheart, Margaret 

Morrison ; Liverpool .... 27 Dec. ,, 
Sampson S. Salmon (32), murder of cousin, Lucy 

Smith ; Newgate 19 Feb. 1901 

John Toole, murder of Lizzie Brennan ; Dublin, 

7 March, ,, 
George Henry Parker (23), murder of Mr. W. 

Pearson. See Railways, 17 Jan. 1901. 19 March, ,, 
Herbert John Bennett, murder of wife ; Norwich, 

21 March, ,, 
Joseph A. Shufflebotham, a miner, murder of wife ; 

Stafford 2 April, ,, 

Valeri Giovanni, seaman, murder of Victor Baileff 

on the high seas ; Bodmin . . .9 July, ,, 
Chas. T. R. Watkins, a pilot, murder of Fred. 

Hamerton ; Maidstone ... 30 July, ,, 
Ernest Wickham (30), clerk, murder of Amy 

Russell in the street at Brixton ; Wandsworth, 

13 Aug. ,, 
John Joyce, murder of an old man, John Nugent ; 

Birmingham 20 Aug. ,, 

Martial Faugeron (23), murder of Herman Jung ; 

Newgate 19 Nov. ,, 

Patrick M'Kenna, murder of wife ; Manchester, 

3 I> e c- » 
John and Robert Miller, uncle and nephew, murder 

of Joseph Ferguson ; Newcastle . . 7 Dec. ,, 
John G. Thompson, murder of Maggie Lieutand ; 

Durham 10 Dec. ,, 

Alick Claydon, murder of wife ; Northampton, 

13 Dec. ,, 
John Harrison (31), murder of a woman, Wright ; 

Liverpool 24 Dec. „ 

Harold Apted (20), murder of Frances Eliza 

O'Rourke ( 7 i) ; Maidstone ; and Richard Wigley 

(54), murder'of Mary E. Bowen ; Shrewsbury, 

18 March, 1902 
Arthur Richardson (26), murder of his aunt ; Hull, 

25 March, ,, 
Chas. Robert Earl (55), murder of Margaret 

Pamphilon ; Wandsworth . 29 April, ,, 



EXETER. 



456 



EXETER. 



George Woolfe (21), murder of Charlotte Cheese- 
man ; Newgate 6 May, 1902 

Thomas Marsland (21), murder of wife ; Liverpool, 

20 May, ,, 

Samuel Middleton, murder of wife ; Worcester, 

15 July, „ 

Wm. Churcher, murder of Sophia Hepworth ; 
Winchester 22 July, ,, 

John Bedford, murder of Nancy Price ; Derby, 

30 July, „ 

Wm. Lane, murder of a woman, Dyson ; Stafford, 

12 Aug. ,, 

George Hibbs, murder of a woman, Tye ; Wands- 
worth 13 Aug. ,, 

John McDonald (23), a hawker, murder of Henry 
Groves ; Pentonville . . . .30 Sept. ,, 

Henry Williams, murder of his child, Margaret 
Andrews ; Pentonville . . . .11 Nov. ,, 

Patrick Leggett, murder of his wife ; Glasgow, 

12 Nov. ,, 

Henry Mack, 29, murder of Esther Elizabeth 
Bedford ; Manchester ... 2 Dec. ,, 

William Chambers, 47, murder of his wife and 
mother-in-law ; Bedford .... 4 Dec. ,, 

Thomas F. Barrow, 49, murder of Emily Coates 
his stepdaughter ; Pentonville . . 9 Dec. ,, 

Jeremiah Callaghan, 42, murder of a woman ; Usk, 
Monmouthshire 12 Dec. ,, 

William Brown, 42, murder of his wife ; Wands- 
worth : Samuel Walton, 31, murder of his wife, 
mother-in-law, and infant daughter : Thomas 
Nicholson, 24, murder of a little girl ; Durham, 

16 Dec. ,, 

Wm. J. Bolton, 44, murder of Jane Allen ; Hull, 

23 Dec. ,, 

George Place, miner, murder of Elizabeth Chet- 
wynd, her mother, and infant child ; Warwick : 
James Doherty, farmer, murder of his son; Sligo, 

30 Dec. ,, 

Joseph Taylor, murder of John Daly ; Kilkenny : 
Mary Daly, his accomplice; Tullamore, 7, 9 Jan. 1903 

Annie Walters, 54, and Amelia Sach, 29, for baby- 
farming murders 3 Feb. ,, 

William Hughes, reservist, murder of his 'wife ; 
Ruthin, N. Wales 17 Feb. ,, 

Edgar Edwards, murder of the Darby family; 
Wandsworth 3 March, ,, 

Samuel H. Smith, murder of Lucy M. Lingard ; 
Lincoln 10 March, „ 

Severino Klosowski, alias Chapman, murder of 
Maud Marsh by antimonial poisoning; Wands- 
worth 7 April, ,, 

William G. Hudson, 26, soldier, murder of Harry 
Shoot, his comrade; Manchester . 12 May, ,, 

Gustav Ran and William Smith, alias Dirk Her- 
laar, Germans, murder of the captain and 6 of 
the crew of the Veronica ; Liverpool . 2 June, „ 

Samuel H. Dougal, ex-soldier, murder of Camille 
Cecile Holland (Moat farm, Clavering, Essex); 
Chelmsford 14 July, 

Wm. Joseph Tuffen, 23, murder of his wile Caro- 
line ; Wandsworth 11 Aw. 

See Addenda. 

EXETER (Devonshire), said to have been 
named Augusta from having been occupied by the 
second Augustan legion commanded b\ Vespasian: 
its present name is derived from Excestre. Ii was 
for b considerable time the capital ol the West 
Saxon kingdom. 'Die BISHOPKIC anciently com- 
prised two sees: Devonshire (founded about 909) 
and Cornwall. The church ol the former was at 
Cieditori, of the latter ai Bodmin, and afterwards at 
St. German' 8. About 1040 the sees were united. 
St. Petroc was the first bishop of Cornwall, before 
900; Eadulphus, the first bishop of Devonshire, 905 ; 
and Leofric, the first bishop of Exeter, in 1049'. 
The cathedral originally belonged to a monastery 
founded by Athelstan 1: Edward the Confessor re- 
moved the monks to his new abbey of Westminster, 
and gave their church for a cathedral to the united 



see, 1049 ; the see was valued in the king's books at 
500/. per annum. Present stated income, 4200^. 
Population, 1881, 37,665; 1891, 37,580; 1901, 
46,940. 

Alfred invested the city, held by the Danes, and 
compelled them to capitulate . . . 877 & 894 

Exeter sacked by Sweyn 1003 

Besieged by William the Conqueror . . . . 1067 
The castle surrendered to king Stephen . . . 1136 
The city first governed by a mayor . . . . 1200 
The celebrated nunnery founded .... 1236 

The ancient bridge built 1250 

Edward I. holds a parliament here .... 1286 

The Black Prince visits Exeter 1371 

The duchess of Clarence takes refuge in the city . 1469 
Besieged by sir William Courtenay . . . . ,, 
City assaulted by Perkin Warbeck .... 1497 
Exeter constituted a county of itself . . . . 1536 
Welsh, the vicar of St. Thomas's, hanged on the 

tower of his church, as a Cornish rebel . 2 July, 1549 
Annual festival established . . . .6 Aug. ,, 

The guildhall built 1593 

Prince Maurice takes Exeter for king Charles I. 

Sept. 1643 
It surrenders to the parliamentarians . April, 1646 

The canal to Topsham cut 1675 

A mint established by James II 1688 

Water-works erected .... . . 1694 

The sessions-house built 1773 

The new bridge built 1 77S 

The theatre erected 1783 

Lunatic asylum founded . ... 1795 

County gaol built 1796 

Devon and Exeter institution for the promotion 

of science established 1S03 

Subscription library founded 1807 

New city prison built 1818 

The last of the ancient gates removed . . . „ 

The subscription rooms opened 1820 

The public baths erected 1821 

Mechanics' institution opened 1825 

New cemetery commenced 1837 

Railway to Bristol opened . . . .1 May, 1844 
Great tire, 20 houses burnt ... 2 Aug. ,, 

Another great fire 26 April, 1847 

Inauguration of a statue of John Dinham, who 
died June, 1864, bequeathing 24,000^. to charities, 

26 March, 1866 
Bread and meat riots ; suppressed . 4-5 Nov. 1867 
Albert Memorial Museum given up to the town 

council 21 April, 1870 

A new reredos, by sir Gilbert Scott (see Reredos), 
set up in the cathedral (1873): ordered to be re- 
moved by decision of the bishop and justice 
Keating, 15 April; this decision reversed by 
the court ot arches (sir R. Philliniore), 6 Aug. 
1874 ; the privy council decided that the reredos 
should remain 24 Feb. 1875 

The church-tax " dominicals," or "sacrament- 
money," said to be of the nature of tithes ; dis- 
traints for payment ; much excitement . Oct. ,, 
Destructive fire on the quay, of warehouses, &c. 

22 Dec. 1882 
Theatre Royal burnt during first performance of 
Romany Rye ; panic and loss of about 127 lives; 
gallery exit insufficient 5 Sept. ; (Percy S. M. 
Gosset, M.A., assistant master of Bradford 
college, Berks, and Robert M. Tamplin, B.A., 
victims) the coroner's jury censure the licensing 
magistrates and Mr. Phipps the architect 21 Sept. 1887 
Captain Shaw agrees, and points out twelve serious 

defects in the construction, Times . 16 Nov. ,, 
A new theatre opened .... 7 Oct. 1889 
Visit of the marquis Of Salisbury; he addresses 
about 10,000 persons in a temporary building, 

2 Feb. 1892 
Church congress meets here ... 9 Oct. 1894 
The duke and duchess of York open a new wing 
of the Allien memorial museum and visit the 
cathedral and hospital .... 4 July, 1899 
Sir Eedvers Buller receives the freedom . 22N0V. 1900 
The lord mayor of London opens a manual school ; 
is entertained by the citizens at a banquet, 

12 Sept. 1902 



EXETER CHANGE. 



457 



EXHIBITION. 



RECENT BISHOPS. 

803. John Fisher, translated to Salisbury in 1807. 
807. Hon. George Pelham, trans, to Lincoln, Sept. 1820. 
820. William Carey, translated to St. Asaph, March, 1830. 
830. Christopher Bethell, translated to Bangor, 1830. 
830. Henry Philpotts, died 18 Sept. 1869. 
869. Frederick Temple, elected 1 1 Nov. , and enthroned 
(after much opposition from some of the clergy) 
29 Dec. 1869 ; translated to London, Jan. 1885. 
1885. E. H. Bickersteth, resigned Nov. 1900. 
1900. Herbert E. Ryle, 3 Dec. 1900, trans, to Winchester 

Feb. 1903. 
1903. Archibald Robertson, Feb. 1903. 

EXETEE CHANGE (London), was built 
about 1680, on part of the site of Exeter house, 
the palace of Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter 
and lord treasurer in 1319, beheaded by order of the 
queen-regent, Isabella, in 1326. It was entirely 
demolished at the period of the Strand improve- 
ments, in 1829. The new Exeter Change, built by 
the marquis of Exeter near its site, opened 111 1845, 
was pulled down in 1862, for the Strand Music-hall, 
now Gaiety theatre. 

EXETER COLLEGE (Oxford) was founded 
by Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter in 1314. The 
college buildings mainly consist of a quadrangle in 
the later Gothic style. 

EXETER HALL (Strand, London), erected 
in 1830- 1 for the meetings of religious and philan- 
thropic institutions, concerts, oratorios, and musical 
societies, a large and magnificent apartment with a 
splendid orchestra and organ, and having rooms 
attached for committees, &c, opened 29 March, 
1831. See under Music. Religious services were 
held here in 1856 by the Rev. C. Spurgeon, and 
in 1857 by ministers of the church of England, on 
Sundays. 

The Sacred Harmonic Society met here 1831-80 ; last 
concert, " Israel in Egypt," 30 April, 1880. 

The hall was purchased for the Young Men's Christian 
Association for 25,000?. July 1880 ; re-opened (jubilee), 
29 March, 1881. 

EXHIBITION OF 1851 (THE GREAT EX- 
HIBITION). The original idea of a National Ex- 
hibition* is attributed to Mr. E. Whishaw, secretary 
of the Society of Arts in 1844. It was not taken up 
till 1849, when prince Albert, president of the 
society, said, "Now is th^ time to prepare for a 
Great Exhibition, an exhibition worthy of the 
greatness of this country ; not merely national in its 
scope and benefits, but comprehensive of the whole 
world ; and I offer myself to the public as their 
leader, if they are willing to assist in the under- 
taking." 

Royal commission appointed . . .3 Jan. 1850 
A subscription list opened, headed by the queen for 

1000?. 
Civic banquets in support of the plan, at London, 

21-22 March ; and at York . . .25 Oct. ,, 
The building f commenced ... 26 Sept. ,, 

* Industrial exhibitions began with the French ; 
Expositions having been organised and opened at Paris 
in 1798, 1801, 1802, 1806, 1819, 1823, 1827, 1834, 1839, J 844> 
and 1849, the last, being the eleventh, exceeding all the 
preceding in extent and brilliancy. The first exhibition 
of the kind in this country was the National Repository, 
opened under royal patronage in 1828, near Charing- 
cross. It was not successful. Other exhibitions were 
opened at Manchester in 1837, at Leeds in 1839, and at 
Birmingham . in 1849. Exhibitions have since been held 
at Cork, Dublin, Manchester, New York, Paris, Montreal, 
Florence, Constantinople, Bayonne, Melbourne, Vienna,' 
Philad3tphia, and many other places (which see). 

t The palace, with the exception of the flooring and 
joists, was entirely of glass and iron. It was designed by 
Mr. (aft. sir Joseph) Paxton (who died 8 June, 1865), 



Many persons admitted into it in Jan. ; it is virtually 
transferred to the royal commissioners by the 
contractors, Messrs. Fox and Henderson, Feb. 1851- 

Reception of goods began 12 Feb., and the sale of 
season tickets 25 Feb. ,, 

The Exhibition opened by her majesty . 1 May, ,, 

The number of exhibitors exceeded 17,000, of whom 
2918 received prize medals and 170 council 
medals. The articles exhibited in arts, manufac- 
tures, and the various produce of countries, defied 
calculation. 

The palace continued open above 23 weeks, alto- 
gether 144 days (1 May to 15 Oct.) within which 
time it was visited by 6, 170,000 persons, averaging 
43,536 a day, whose admission at the respective 
pjrices of one pound, half-a-crown, and one shilling, 
amounted to 505, 107?. including season tickets, 
leaving a surplus, after payment of expenses, of 
about 150,000?.* ... . . . ,, 

The greatest number of visitors in one day was 
109,760 (8 Oct.) ; and at one time (2 o'clock, 7 Oct.) 
there were 93,000 ; these persons were assembled 
at one time, not in an open area, like a Roman 
amphitheatre, but within a windowed and floored 
and roofed building. There is no like vast assem- 
blage recorded in either ancient or modern annals, 
as having been gathered together, it may be said, 
in one room. 

The Exhibition was closed to the public . 11 Oct. „ 

A memorial statue of the prince consort by Joseph 
Durham, placed in the gardens of the Royal Hor- 
ticultural Society, uncovered in the presence of 
the prince and princess of W T ales . 10 June, 1863 

Prince of Wales elected president of the Royal 
Commission of 1851, in room of the king, who 
had held that office since 1870 . . 10 Feb. 1903 
See Crystal Palace. 

EXHIBITION OF 1862 (INTERNATIONAL). 
A proposal in 1858 for another great exhibition, to 
be held in 1861, was withdrawn in consequence of 
the war in Italy in 1859, &c. The scheme was re- 
vived in April i860, when the prince consort en- 
gaged to guarantee 10,000^. if 240,000^. should be 
subscribed for by other persons. 

A charter granted to the following commissioners: 
earl Granville, the marquis of Chandos, C. W. 
Dilke, jun., and Thomas Fairbairn . 22 Feb. 1861 

The guarantee fund amounted to 349,000?. in Nov. 
i860, and to 452,300?. . . . _ _■ 22 Aug. 1862 

The building, t erected at South Kensington, by 
Messrs. Kelk and Lucas, according to a design by 
capt. Fowke, made over to the commissioners, 

12 Feb. 1862 

and the contractors were Messrs. Fox and Henderson, to 
whom it was agreed to pay 79,800/. , or 150,000?. if the 
building were permanently retained. It costi 76,030?. 13s. 8c?. 
Its length was 1851 feet, corresponding with "the year ; 
the width 408 feet, with an additional projection on the 
north side, 936 feet long, by 48 wide. The central por- 
tion was 120 feet wide and 64 feet high, and the great 
avenues ran east and west through the building ; the 
transept near the centre was 72 feet wide and 108 feet 
high. The entire area was 772, 784 square feet, or about. 
19 acres. Four galleries ran lengthways, and others 
round the transept. The ground-floor and galleries con- 
tained 1,000,000 square feet of flooring. There were 
altogether 4000 tons of iron in the structure, and 17 acres 
of glass in the roof, besides about 1500 vertical glazed 
sashes. 

* This was placed in the hands of commissioners, who 
have promoted the South Kensington museum, and in 
1876 proposed the establishment of a science library. 

t The main building occupied about 16 acres of 
ground, and the annexes 7 acres. The south front was 
1 150 feet long and 55 feet high, and over the east ami 
west fronts rose the two domes 260 feet high. The inte- 
rior was decorated by Mr. John G. Crace. The building 
was given up to Messrs. Kelk and Lucas on 31 Dec. 1862, 
the house of commons having refused to purchase it for 
80,000?. 2 July, 1863 ; and the pulling down commenced 
on 6 July. The domes and other parts of the structure 
were purchased or erection in Alexandra-park Muswell- 
hill near London (north). 



EXHIBITIONS, INTERNATIONAL. 458 



EXPLOSIVES ACT. 



The Exhibition opened by the duke of Cambridge 
and royal commissioners . . . i May, 1862 

The fine arts department included a noble collec- 
tion of paintings and sculptures. 

The jurors' award of medals was announced in the 
building n July. ,, 

The Exhibition was closed 1 Nov., when the total 
number of visitors (exclusive of attendants) had 
been 6,117,450. 

The Exhibition reopened on 3 Nov. for the sale of 
goods exhibited ; was finally closed 15 Nov. „ 

The success of the Exhibition was much impaired 
by the decease of the prince consort, 14 Dec. 1861, 
and the breaking out of the civil war in the 
United States of America. The foreign exhibitors 
in 1851 were 6566 ; in 1862, 16,456. 

Exhibitors at London, in 1851, 14,000 ; at Paris, in 
1855, 24,000 ; at London, in 1862, 29,000 ; at Paris, 
in 1867, 50,000. See also Paris, i83g and 1900. 

EXHIBITIONS, INTERNATIONAL. A 

meeting was held 4 April, 1870, the prince of 
Wales in the chair, to promote annual international 
exhibitions at South Kensington, to commence 
l May, 1871. 

I. 1871. Fine arts, pottery, manufactures, &c. ; opened 
by the prince of Wales, 1 May ; closed 30 Oct. 

{34 countries contributed ; total number of visitors, 
1,142,154.] 

II. 1872. Pine arts, machinery ; and raw materials ; 
opened by the duke of Edinburgh, 1 May ; closed 19 
Oct. 

III. 1873. Pine arts ; manufactures (silk, steel, surgical 
instruments, &c. ; carriages for rails or tramways ; 
food); scientific inventions and new discoveries; 
opened 14 April ; closed 31 Oct. 

IV. Fine arts ; manufactures and raw materials, 
engineering, and recent scientific inventions ; opened, 
6 April ; closed, 31 Oct. 1874. 

{The annual exhibitions having proved unsuccessful, the 
building was appropriated by the East India Museum]. 

Exhibition of 1884, held at the Crystal Palace, opened 
on 23 April. 
See Fisheries, Forests, Sanitation, and Great Britain. 

International Health Exhibition, 8May-3oOct. 1884 

Exhibition of the products, manufactures and arts 
of India and the colonies at South Kensington 
(See under Colonic) . . .4 May-10 Nov. 1886 

EXODUS (Greek, teat/ out), a term applied to 
the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, 1491 B.C. ; 
and described in the book of Exodus. ' Chronologers 
vary in the date of this event : the LXX. give 1614; 
Hales, 1648; "Wilkinson, 1495; Bunsen, 1320 or 
»3*4- 

EX OFFICIO INFORMATIONS are 

those filed by the attorney-general, by virtue of his 
office, without applying to the court where they are 
tiled for leave, or giving the defendant an oppor- 
tunity of showing cause why they should not be 
riled. Cabinet Lawyer. They were used by the 
Liverpool administration about 1817-19. William 
Hone was tried on criminal information, 18-20 Dec, 
1817, and acquitted. The British bank directors 
were thus tried, 1857. 

EXPEDITIONS. Many are described under 
their respective beads. 

Expedition of "the Nations" or "the Ditch"; the 
third expedition of the Koreish {which see) against 
Mahomet, named from the nations who marched under 
their leader Aim Sophian, and from the ditch which was 
drawn before the city. They were principally vanquished 
by the fury of the elements. Gibbon. 625. 

Klin isn EXPEDITIONS. 

Prance, near Porl ['Orient 

Cherbourg 

St. Halo ; 4000 men losl . 
Qulberon Bay (French emigrant*) 
ostend (all made prisoners) 
Holder Poinl and Zuyder Zee 
Ferrol, in Spain .... 



1 Oct. 1746 

7 Aug. 1758 

Sept, ,, 

■ • »796 

May, 1798 

Sept. 1799 

Aug. 1800 



Egypt (Abererombie) March, 1801 

Copenhagen Sept. 1807 

Walcheren (unfortunate) .... July, 1809 
Bergen-op-Zoom . .... 8 March, 1814 

Crimea Sept. 1854 

Abyssinia Oct. 1867-April, 1868 

Against the Ashantees (which see) . . 12 Sept. 1873 
See Egypt, India,, Soudan. Niger, Somaliland, &e. 

EXPENDITURE, see under Revenue. 

EXPLOSIONS, see Boilers, Coal, and Gas. 

Criminal Explosions, close to the local government office, 
Charles Street, Westminster ; great damage, no loss 
of life ; 9 p.m. ; 15 March, 1883. 

Explosions (by nitro-glycerine?) 30 Oct. 1883, on Metro- 
politan District railway, between Charing Cross and 
Westminster stations ; some damage ; no persons 
injured. Metropolitan railway, near Praed Street 
Station ; two third class carriages shattered ; above 
62 persons injured, 8.13 p.m. Capt. Majendie and 
prof. Abel consider it to have been caused by 
dynamite thrown from a railway carriage. 

Victoria Station, Pimlico, building much injured, pro- 
perty destroyed, and two men hurt by an explosion 
in the cloak-room, 1.3 a.m., 27 Feb. 1884. 

9.20, 30 May, 1884. Detective department, Scotland 
Yard, Whitehall ; wall blown down, windows broken ; 
public house wrecked, many persons injured, two 
seriously. 9.20 p.m. Junior Carlton club house and 
Sir W. W. Wynn's, St. James's Square, much damage, 
some persons injured. 

Sixteen cakes of dynamite and fuse found at foot of 
Nelson's monument, Trafalgar Square, 30 May, 1884. 

Explosion at Genoa, 10 June ; at Madrid, 18 June, 1884. 

Failure of attempt to explode S.W. end of London 
Bridge, about 6 p.m., 13 Bee, 1884. 

Explosion in Metropolitan railway near Gower Street, 
(by a bomb shell), about 9 p.m., 2 Jan. 1885. 

Three explosions, see Parliament, Westminster Hall, and 
Tower, 24 July 1885. 

Mr. Richards, at Broadstairs, killed by explosives sent 
by parcels post, 22, 23 July, 1893. 

Kurtz's chemical works, St. Helens, Lancashire, de- 
stroyed by explosion of potassium chlorate ; 5 deaths, 
20 injured ; estimated damage, 100,000/., 12 May, 1899. 

Explosion at a hat factory, Denton, near Manchester, 
14 deaths, 14 Jan. 1901. 

Explosion at Chilworth gunpowder works, near Guild- 
ford, 6 deaths, 12 Feb. 1901. 

EXPLOSIVES : see Gunpowder, Gun Cotton, 
Nitro-Glycerine, Dynamite, Dualine, Lithofracteur, 
Glyoxiliue, Blasting, Gelatine, Bellite, Roburite, 
Helloffi lie, Mclcn ite , Silotvor, Cordite, Ballistite,§c. 
A committee to examine into the nature and pro- 
perties of various explosives suitable for artillery 
was appointed by government in 1871-88. Col. 
Vivian D. Majendie, chief inspector of explosives 
to the Koine' Office, 1871, died, 24 April, 1898; 
succeeded by Capt. M. B. Lloyd. Explosives have 
been much studied by sir F. A. Abel of Woolwich 
since 1881 (died 6 Sep't. 1902). 

Professor Osborne Reynolds produced a new explosive, 

75 parts chlorate of potash, 25 sulphuria, a product 

of coal gas ; the ingredients kept apart till required ; 

announced 1878. 

The manufacture and use of explosives greatly increased 

1685-6. 
Carbo-dynamite, a new explosive, invented by Mr. W. 
F. Reid and Mr. W. D. Borland ; announced April, 
1888. 
Schnebelite, a smokeless explosive (chlorate of potash, 
&c), invented by the Abbi! Schnebele, tried at Nun- 
head, Surrey, 21 Sept., 1893 ; at Argenteuil, 24 Jan., 
1S94 ; 29 smokeless powders known in 1895. 
Tonite, or cotton powder; by its misuse in blasting a 
wreck in the Solent, 7 men were killed, 19 July, 1894. 

EXPLOSIVES ACT, passed 14 June, 1875, 
amends the law with respect to the manufacturing, 
keeping, selling, carrying, and importing gun- 
powder, nitro-glycerine, and other explosive sub- 
stances. Amendment act nassed 1882. 



EXPOETS. 



459 



EIRE. 



A committee appointed in 1875 ; 20th annual report 
issued, 1895. 

In consequence of the attempt at explosion in London 
in March; a new act to watch over the manufacture of 
explosives and punish possessors for felonious purposes, 
&c, passed by both houses, 9 April ; royal assent, 
10 April, 1883. The authors of attempted explosions 
are punishable with penal servitude for life. 

EXPORTS. Edward III. by his encourage- 
ment of trade turned the scale so much in favour of 
English merchandise, that, by a balance taken in 
his time, the exported commodities amounted to 
294,000^. and the imported to only 38,000^. ; see 
Revenue. The declared value is of much less 
amount than the official. 



OFFICIAL 


VALUE OF EXPORTS FROM 


GREAT BRITAIN 




TO 


ALL PARTS OF THE WORLD, VIZ. : — 


17OO 




.£6,097,120 


1830 


• £66,735,445 


1750 . 




. 10,130,991 


1835 • 


• 78,376,732 


I77S 




16,326,363 


1840 


97,402,726 


1800 . 




. 38,120,120 


1845 . 


. 131,564,503 


l8lO 




45,869,839 


1850 


175,126,706 


1820 . 




• 5I,733.H3 


1851 . 


. 190,397,810 


DECLARED VALUE OF BRI 


riSH AND 


IRISH PRODUCE 






EXPO 


RTED. 




1851 . 




£74.448,722 


1879 . 


£191.53!. 758 


I8 S 3 




98,933,781 


1880 


223,060,449 


1855 • 




. 95,688,085 


1881 . 


.234,022.678 


1856 




115,826,948 


1882 


241,467,162 


1857 • 




. 122,155,237 


1883 . 


•239.799.473 


1859 




. 130,440,237 


1884 


. 233,025,242 


1S60 . 




. 135,891,227 


1885 . 


•2I3."5>"4 


1861 




125,102,814 


1886 


212,725,200 


1862 . 




. 123,992,264 


1887 . 


.221,913,910 


1863 




146,602,342 


1888 


• 234,534,912 


E865 . 




■ 165,835,725 


1889 . 


•24S.935.I95 


1866 




. 188,917,536 


1890 


• 263,530,585 


1867 . 




. 180,961,923 


1891 . 


•247.235,150 


1868 




179,677,812 


1892 


• 227,077,053 


iS6q . 




■ lSQ,953.957 


1893 . 


.218,094,865 


1870 




199,586,822 


1894 


. 216,005,639 


187s . 




223,465,963 


1895 . 


226,128,240 


1876 




200,639.204 


1896 


• 240,145,551 


1877 • 




198,893,065 


I90I . 


280,022,376 


1878 




192,848,914 


1902 


. 283,540,000 



Exports of all kinds to foreign countries, in 1875, 
I 5 2 . 373, 800?. ; in 1876, 135,779,980?. ; n 1877, 
128,969,715?. ; 1878, 126,611,428?. ; 1879, 130,529,647?. ; 
1880, 147,806,267?. ; 1881, 154,658,083?. ; 1882, 156,640,727?. ; 
1883, 156,321,921?.; 1884, 152,149,296?.; 1885, 135,120,194?. ; 
1886, 137,053,799?. ; 1887, 146,543,654?. ; to British posses- 
sions in 1875, 71,092,163?.; in 1876, 64,859,224?. ; in 1877, 
69,923,350?.; 1878, 66,237,486?.; 1879, 61,002,111?.; 1880, 
75,254,179?. ; 1881, 79,364,595?. ; 1882, 84,826,435?. ; 1883, 
83.477,552?. ; 1884, 80,875,946?. ; 1885, 77,929,626?. ; 1886, 
75,506,637?.; 1887, 75,135,849?.; 1888, 150,293,399?.; 
1890, 176,160,202?. 51891, 161,279,06??.; 1892, 152,446,884?.; 
1893,146,079,764?.; 1898,90,110,736?.; 1899,94,249,596?.; 
1900, 102,024,054?. ; 1901, 113,118,364?. ; 1902, 283,423,966?. 

EXTENSION, see University. 

EXTINCTEUR, see Fire-Annihilator. 

EXTRACT OF MEAT, obtained by Liebig 
in. 1847 ; a company was formed to manufacture it 
in South America in 1866. 

EXTRADITION TREATIES. The extra- 
dition cf criminals formed part of the Ashburton 
treaty {which see), 9 Aug. 1842. Between Great 
Britain and France, 1843. In Dec. 1865, the French 
government gave notice of withdrawing from it 
in six months. It was renewed, with modifica- 
tions, for six months, 21 May, 1866. A new act 
was passed, 9 Aug. 1870; amended in 1873. 
New act passed, 6 July, 1895. The treaty of Aug. 
1876, amended 13 Feb. 1896. Similar treaties 
have been concluded with other powers; with 
Austria, 3 Dec. 1873 (amended 1901) ; Switzerland, 
4 April, 1874; Holland, Aug. 1874; Wltn Spain, 
1878. Applications for extradition : 35 to England 
in 1896; 74 to, 8 by England, 1898; 51 to, 7 by 



England, 1899; 53 to, 20 by England, 1900; 63 to, 
20 by England, 1901. 

In 1866, M. Lamirand, charged with forgery and fraud 
against the Bank of France, tied to America. He was 
pursued, and was arrested at Montreal, on 1 Aug., under 
the governor-general's warrant. On 15 Aug. , while his 
examination was still pending, he petitioned the gover- 
nor-general not to warrant his surrender before he could 
apply for a writ of habeas corpus, and was assured on 17 
Aug. that ample time should be allowed for this purpose. 
On 22 Aug. he was finally committed ; and on 24 Aug. 
his petition for a writ of habeas corpus was presented to 
judge Drummond, twenty-four hours' notice having been 
given to the representatives of the crown and the Bank 
of France. After arguments had been heard and the case 
adjourned until the following day, he was surreptitiously 
carried off the same night by train to Quebec, and hurried 
on board a steamer bound for Europe, by virtue of an 
extradition warrant, purporting to be signed by the 
governor-general at Ottawa, on 23 Aug. He was con- 
veyed to France, and on 5 Dec. was tried, found guilty, 
and condemned to ten years' imprisonment. These cir- 
cumstances led to much discussion, and the Canadian 
authorities were censured for irregularity and want of 
discretion. The discussion ended by Lamirand declining- 
British intervention. 

Dispute with United States respecting the 
surrender of Ezra D. Winslow, a forger, by 
Great Britain, which is refused unless it is 
agreed that the prisoner shall only be tried for 
the offence for which he has been committed 
(according to the treaty) April, 1876 

Mr. Hamilton Fish, the American foreign secretary, 
stands on Ashburton treaty of 1842, wherein no 
stipulation is mentioned ; although it is found 
in other treaties with other governments. 
Winslow was discharged, 15 June; and Brent, 

another fugitive, a few days after . . ,, 

The British Government yield, 27 Oct. ; Brent recap- 
tured, Dec. 1876. Winslow, claimed by Swiss 
government, escapes through flaw in the treaty ; 
decision of queen's bench ... 2 Nov. 1877 
Stringent treaty, for anarchists and political 

offenders, between Russia and Prussia 13 Jan. 1885 
Similar treaty between Germany and Russia pro- 
posed 12 Feb. 1885 ; accepted . . April, „ 
Enlarged treaty between United States and Great 
Britain proposed 1886 ; deferred till Dec. 1888 ; 
rejected by the senate (38-15) . . . 1 Feb. 1889 
New treaty ratified by the senate, 18 Feb. 1890 ; it 
is an enlargement of the Ashburton treaty of 
1842, proclaimed at Washington and gazetted in 

London 25 March, 1890 

Extradition treaty between England and Russia 
April, 1887 ; with Portugal, 17 Oct. 1892 ; Rou- 
mania, 21 March, 1893 ; Argentine Republic, 7 Dec. 1893 
Extradition treaty between France and Holland 

ratified 26 Dec. 1895 

New treaty between United Kingdom and the 

Netherlands 26 Sept. 1898 

Extradition treaty between Spain and the U. S.N. A. , 
Aug. 1900 ; between Italy and Argentina ratified, 

ir Oct. 1900 
Extradition treaty between Great Britain and 
Servia 5 Feb. 1901 

EXTRAVAG ANTES, see Decretals. 

EXTREME UNCTION, see Anointing. 

EYLAU (Prussia), where, on 7-8 Feb. 1807, was 
fought between the French and Russians one of the 
most bloody contests of the war. Napoleon com- 
manded in person. Both armies b} r this and other 
battles were so much reduced, that the French 
retired to the Vistula, and the Russians on the 
Pregel. 

EYRE (old French for ire, to go on), the itine- 
rant court of justices, the justices in eyre, was in- 
stituted by Henry II. 1 176; and when the forest 
laws were in force, its chief-justice had great 
dignity. These justices were to go their circuit 
every third year, and punish all abuses committed 
in the king's forests. The last instance of a court 
being held in any of the forests is said to have been 
in 1671. Beatson. 



F'S. 



460 



FAIR TEADE LEAGUE. 



F. 



F'S, Three (that is, "fixity of tenure, fair rents, 
and free sale"), term much used respecting Irish 
land question in 1880-1. Sir Stafford Northcote 
termed rliem "fraud, force, and folly," and they 
were much opposed by lord Dufferin and others. 

FABII. A noble family at Eome, said to have 
derived their name from f aba, a bean, because some 
of their ancestors cultivated this pulse ; or to have 
descended from Fabius, a son of Hercules. Accord- 
ing to the legend, the whole family, on behalf of 
the state curried on the war against the Veientes. 
Duiing a march to Rome, they were surprised, and 
all the grown up males (306) were slain 477 B.C. 
From a boy detained at Rome, arose the noble Fabii 
of the following ages. Fabius C'unctator (the de- 
layer) kept Hannibal in check for some time with- 
out coming to an engagement, 217-216 B.C. 

FABLES. "Jotham's fable of the trees 
{Judges ix., about 1209 B.C.) is the oldest extant, 
and as beautiful as any made since." Addison. 
Nathan's fable of the poor man (2 Sam. xii., about 
1034 B.C.) is next in antiquity. The earliest collec- 
tion of fables extant is of eastern origin, and pre- 
served in the Sanscrit. The fables of Vishnu 
Sarma, or Pilpay, are the most beautiful, if not the 
most ancient in the world. Sir William Jones. 
Professor Max Mttller traced La Fontaine's fable of 
the Milkmaid to a very early Sanscrit collection. 
.35sop's fables {which see) supposed to have been 
written about £65 or 620 B.C., were versified by 
Babrius, a Grtek poet, about 130 B.C. {Corai/), and 
turned into prose by Maximus Planudes, a Greek 
monk, about 1320, who added other fables and ap- 
pended a worthless life of ^Esop. The fables of 
Phaedrus in elegant Latin-iambics (about a.d. 8), of 
La Fontaine (1700) and of (jay (1727) are justly 
celebrated. 

, FACIAL ANGLE (that contained by one 
line drawn horizontally from the middle of the ear 
to the edge of the nostrils, and another from the 
latter point to the ridge of the frontal bone) was in- 
vented by Peter Camper to measure the elevation 
of the forehead. In negroes this angle is about 70 ; 
in Europeans varies from 75 to 85°. Camper died 
7 April, 1789. His book on " Characteristic Marks 
of Countenance " was published in 1791. 

FACTIONS of the Circus among the Romans, 
were panics that fought on chariots in the circus, 
and who were distinguished by colours, as green, 
blue, red, and white; Domitian added gold and 
scarlet, about a.d. 90. 

Nika sedition.- In Jan. 532, a conflict took place at 

Constantinople lasting live days, when about 30,000 lives 

were lost, and Justinian was mainly indebted for his life 
and throne to the heroism of his empress Theodora The 
blues ami greens united for a day or two against, the em- 
peror, taking Nika I (overcome) for a -watchword. The 
blues soon turned, and massacred nearly all Hie greens 
The conlliet, was suppressed by Belisarius with difficulty. 

and the games were abolished for tune, 

FACTORY SYSTEM was gradually deve- 
loped by Arkwright and others, 1774, c< SC( l-i to 
carry on the cotton manufacture, which has been 
greatly increased by the invention of machinery. 
The work had been previously executed by working 



men in cottages by the hand or stock cards, loom, 
and spinning wheel. Factories have immensely in- 
creased in thiscountry since 1815. The Factory act, 
regulating the hours of labour, &c, was passed in 
1833 and amended 1834 an d 1844. Similar acts have 
been passed since; and an act for the extension of 
the principles of the Factory acts was passed in 
1867 in relation to women and children employed 
in manual labour; short time on Saturdays was 
enacted. Other acts were passed in 1870-1878. 
The Act of 1878 (like that of 14 July, 1874) relates to 
sanitary provisions, safety from machinery, hours of 
employment, meal hours, women and children, holi- 
days, education of children, accidents, &c, passed 27 
May, 1878. Consolidating act passed in 1883. 
The earl of Shaftesbury, the energetic promoter of this 

legislation, died 1 Oct. 1885, aged 84. 
Mew Factories and Workshops Act passed 5 Aug. 1891 ; 

amendment act passed, 6 July, 1895. 
Mr. Alexander Redgrave, chief inspector of factories in 
1851, retired, and was succeeded by Mr. F. H. 
Whymper, Sept. 1891. 
Factory and Workshop act (laundry clause omitted), royal 
assent, 17 Aug. 1901 ; amended by act passed 20 March, 
1902. 

FACULTIES, Court of, giving powers 

to the archbishops of Canterbury and York, 25 
Hen. VIII. cap. 21, 1534. Master lord Penzance, 
1876. 

FAENZA, central Italy, the ancient Faventia, 
submitted to the emperor Frederick I., 1162; was 
taken by Frederick II, 12 April, 1241 ; held by the 
pope, 1275; by the Bolognese, 1282; by Caesar 
Borgia, 1501 ; by Venice, 1504; by the papacy, 
1509; by the French, 1512. After various changes 
early in the 16th century it was acquired by the 
papacy and retained till the annexation by Sardinia, 
1859. Faience pottery owes its name to this place, 
where it was invented. 

" FAERIE QUEEN," by Edmund Spenser; 
a part was published in 1590; the whole, 1611. 

FAHRENHEIT, see Thermometer. 

FAINEANTS, see Mayors of the Palace. 

FAIRLOP OAK, with a trunk 48 feet in 
circumference, the growth of five centuries, in 
Hainault forest, Essex, was blown down in Feb. 1820. 
Beneath its branches an annual fair was long held 
on the first Friday in July, which originated with 
the eccentric Mr. Day, a pump and block maker of 
Wapping, who, having a small estate in the vicinity, 
annually repaired here with a party of friends, to 
dine on beans and bacon. 

FATBOAKS, near the Chickahominy, Virginia, 
the siteol two sanguinary indecisive battles between 
the Confederates, under general Joseph Johnson, 
and the Federal army of the Potomac, under general 
M'Ch'lhui, 31 May and 1 June, 1862. 

FAIR TRADE LEAGUE, National, 
founded by lord Dunraven, Mr. Sampson Lloyd, 
Mr. David Macliver, and others, agriculturists and 
merchants, who issued a circular in Aug. 1881. It 
is opposed to what it considers unfair free trade. 
They advocate recurrence to duties on foreign corn and 
manufactures, but not on raw materials. 



FAIES. 



461 



FAMINES. 



■Unsuccessful in the parliamentary election of 1885. 

Meeting of the league 28 April and 2 Nov. 1887. 
The National Association for the Preservation of 

Agriculture and other industries held a meeting in 

London 8 Dec. 1887. 

FAIES AND WAKES, of Saxon origin, were 
instituted in Italy, about 500; in England by Alfred, 
886. Spelman. Wakes were established by order 
of Gregory VII. in 1078, and termed Feriw, at 
which the monks celebrated the festival of their 
patron saint : the vast resort of people occasioned 
a great demand for goods, wares, &c. Fairs were 
established in France about 800 by Charlemagne, 
and encouraged in England about. 1071 by William 
the Conqueror. Many statutes were made for the 
regulation of fairs (1328 — 1868). The "Fairs Act," 
passed 25 May, 1871, provides for the abolition of 
fairs ; in 1872, Charlton and Blackheath fairs, and 
in 1873 Clapham fair, were abolished as nuisances. 
See Frosts. 
An "old English fair" was opened at the Royal Albert 

Hall "by princess Christian, to aid the Chelsea Hospital 

for Women, q June, 1881. See Markets. 

FAITH, see Defender. " Faith-healing," see 
Peculiar People. 

FALCK LAWS, see Prussia, 1873. 

FALCONEY or Hawking in England 

cannot be traced with certainty befoi'e the reign of 
king Ethelbert, the Saxon monarch, 858. Pennant. 
The grand seignior at one time kept six thousand 
falconers in his service. Juliana Berners' book on 
u Hawkynge and Huntynge " was printed in 1496 ; 
see Angling. Recent attempts have been made to 
revive falconry. Hawking was practised in Thrace. 
Aristotle. 

FALCZI, on the Pruth, Turkey. Here was 
concluded a Peace between Russia and Turkey, 
21 July, 171 1, the Russians giving up Azof, and all 
the possessions on the Black Sea to the Turks. The 
Russians were saved from imminent destruction hj 
the address of Catherine the empress. In 1712 the 
war was renewed, and terminated^ by the peace of 
Constantinople, 16 ApriLfT7i2. 

FALEEII, a city of the Falisci, an Etruscan 
people who joined the Veientes against Rome, and 
were beaten by Cornelius Cossus, 437 B.C. It is 
recorded that when the city was besieged by Ca- 
millus in 394, a schoolmaster offered to betray to 
him the children of the principal citizens. On his 
refusal, the citizens from gratitude surrendered. 
They opposed Rome during the first Punic war; 
and in 241 the city was taken and destroyed. 

FALEENIAN WINE, celebrated by Virgil 
and Horace, was the produce of Falernus, or, as 
called by Martial, Mons Massicus, in Campania. 
Horace in his Odes boasts of having drunk Falernian 
wine that had been, as it were, born with him, or 
which reckoned its age from the same consuls, 
14 B.C. 

FALKIEK (Stirlingshire, Scotland), the site 
of a victory by the English under Edward I. over 
the Scots, commanded by Wallace, part of whose 
forces deserted him. It is said from 20,000 to 40,000 
Scots were slain, 22 July, 1298. A battle wasfought 
at Falkirk Muir between the royal forces under 
Hawley, and prince Charles Edward Stuart, in which 
the former were defeated, 17 Jan. 1746. 

FALKLAND ISLANDS, a group in the 
South Atlantic, belonging to Great Britain, seen by 
Americus Vespucius, 1502, and visited by Davis, 
1592 ; explored by Hawkins, 1594 ; taken possession 
of by France, 1764. The French were expelled by 



the Spaniards ; and in 1771, Spain resigned them to 
England. Not having been colonised by us, the 
republic of Buenos Ayres assumed a right to these 
islands, and a colony from that country settled at 
Port Louis ; but owing to a dispute with America, 
the settlement was destroyed by the latter in 1831. 
In 1833 tne British flag was hoisted at Port Louis, 
and a British officer has since resided there. Popula- 
tion in 1888, 1,890. Governors, Wm. C. F. Robin- 
son, 1866; col. George A. K. D'Arcy, 1870; Thos. 
F. Callaghan, 1876; Thos. Kerr, 18*80; Sir Roger 
T. Goldsworthy, Feb. 1891 ; Mr. W. Grey-Wilson, 
Mirch, 1897. Falkland Islands created' a crown 
c dony, March, 1892. Population 1892, 1,789; 1901, 
2,043. 

FALLING STAES, see Meteors. 

FAMILISTEEE, see Fourierism. 

FAMILY COMPACT, see Bourbon. 

FAMILY OF LOVE, a society, called also 
Philadelphians, from the love they professed to bear 
to all men, assembled at Brew-house yard, Notting- 
ham. Their founder, David George, an Anabaptist 
of Holland, propagated his doctrines in Switzerland, 
where he died in 1556. The tenets of the society 
were declared impious, and George's body and books 
ordered to be burned by the hangman. In Eng- 
land a sect with a similar title was repressed 
by Elizabeth, 1580 ; but existed in the following 
century. See Agapemone. 

FAMINES. The famine of the seven years in 
Egypt began 1708 B.C. Usher; Blair. 
Famine at Rome, when thousands of people threw 
themselves into the Tiber . . . . b.c. 

Awful famine in Egypt a.d. 

At Rome, attended by plague 

In Britain ; people ate the bark of trees . 

In Scotland ; thousands died 

In England ; 40,000 perished 310 

Awful one in Phrygia . 370 

In Italy, when parents ate their children (Dufresnoy) 450 
In England, Wales, and Scotland . . . . 739 

Again, when thousands starve 823 

Again, which lasts four years . . . . 954 

Awful one throughout Europe 1016 

In England, 21 William 1 1087 

In England and Prance : this famine leads to a pes- 
tilential fever, which lasts from . . 1193 to 1195 
Another famine in England 
Again, so dreadful that the people devoured the flesh 

of horses, dogs, cats, and vermin . 
One occasioned by long rains 
One in England and France (Rapin) 
Again, one so great, that bread was made from fern 

roots (Stoiv) 

One throughout these islands 

Awful one in France (Voltaire) 

One general in these realms .... 

One which devastates Bengal . 

At Cape de Verde ; 16,000 persons perish . 

One grievously felt in France . 

One severely felt in England 

Again, throughout the kingdom 

At Drontheim, owing to Sweden intercepting the 

supplies 1813 

Scarcity of food severely felt by the Irish poor, 1814, 

1816, 1822, 1831, 1846, in consequence of the 

failure of the potato crop. Grants by parliament, 

to relieve the suffering of the people, were made 

in the session of 1847, the whole amounting to ten 

millions sterling. 

In N.W. India ; above 800,000 perish 

In N.W. India; thousands perish 

In Bengal and Orissa ; about 1,000,000 perish 

In Rajpootana, <fcc. ; about 1,500,000 perish 

In Persia very severe 

In Bengal, through drought. (See India) . 

In Asia Minor 

In Bombay, Madras, Mysore, <fec. ; about 5,000,000 
perish (see India and Mansion-house) . 



436 
42 
262 
272 
306 



1251 

1315 
1335 
1353 

1438 
J 56s 
1693 
1748 
770-1 
1775 
1789 
1795 



1837-8 
1860-1 
1865-6 
1868-9 
1871-2 
1874 
1874-5 



FAN. 



462 



FASTI CAPITOLJNI. 



In N. China; very severe ; 9,500,000 said to have 
perished (45, 503L collected in England for relief) 1877-8 

In Cashmere (which see) 1879 

Very severe in Tauris, &c, Asia Minor . July, 1880 

Asia Minor !887 

China (which see), 1887-9; since in Kwang-si . .1903 

In Madras 1889-92 

Montenegro ,1 

Japan 1890 ; 

Very severe throughout Russia .... 1891-2 
In Russia (which see) .... 1899, 1901-2 
India (which sec), Bombay, Rajputana, 1892; again 
(very severe), 1896-8 ; again . Sept. 1899— Jan. 1901 

FAN- Used by the ancients; Cape hoc flabei- 
lum, et venlulum hide sic facito, " Take this fan, 
and give her thus a little air." Terence's Funuchus, 
166 B.C.— Fans, together whn muff's, masks, and 
false hair, were first devised by the harlots in Italy, 
and were brought to England from France. Stow. 
In the British Museum are Egyptian fan-handles. 

Great competitive exhibition of fans at Drapers' 
hall, London, opened . . . 2 July, 1878 

" English Fans and Fan Leaves, collected and 
described," by lady Charlotte Schreiber ; a mag- 
nificent work was published by Mr. John Murray. 
It includes historical, allegorical and satirical 
pictures, Jan. 1889 ; her work on foreign fans was 
published April, 1891. Lady Schreiber was granted 
the freedom of the Fanmakers' Company, London 

17 Dec. 1891 

Exhibition of fans at Drapers' hall, London, opened 
8 May, 1889. Similar exhibitions . . iSqo et seq. 

FARADAY MEMORIALS, 4c. Professor 
Michael Faraday, natural philosopher and chemist 
(see Electricity), died 25 Aug. 1867. A public meet- 
ing was held at the Royal Institution, 21 June, 1869, 
the prince of Wales in the chair, to take measures to 
provide a public monument to him. A sufficient 
6um having been subscribed, the production of a 
statue was entrusted to Mr. Foley. The statue was 
placed at the Royal Institution. London, in 1876. 
.tfrom the same fund a marble bust was provided 
and placed in the National Portrait Gallery, 1886. 
The "Faraday Medal," to be given to distinguished 
foreign philosophers by the Chemical society, was 
awarded to M. Dumas, June, 1869; to professor 
Cannizzaro, May, 1872; to Dr. A. W. Ilofmann, 
March, 1875; to professor A. "Wurtz, and given to 
him after his lecture, 12 Nov. 1878; to professor 
H. Helmholtz, April, 1881 ; professor Demetri 
Alendeleef, June, 1889; lord Rayleigh, March, 1895, 
see Argon. For "Faraday" steamship, see Steam. 
The centenary of the birth of Michael Faraday (22 
Sept. 1 791) was celebrated at the Royal Institution 
on 17 June, 1891 ; the prince of Wales, vice-patron 
R. I., in the chair; discourse by professor lord 
Rayleigh ; on 26 June the duke of Northumberland, 
president, in the chair ; discourse by professor James 
Dewar. 

The " Michael Faraday " Board school, in Faraday- 
st., Walworth, opened by the marquis of London- 
derry, 13 May, 1897 ; the marble bust of Faraday 
in the boys' hall of the school is a copy of one by 
Matthew Noble, it was presented by the mana- 
gers of the Royal Institution of Gt. Britain, and 
was unveiled by their treasurer, sir James Crich- 
ton-Browne, M.D., F.R.S., at a public meeting, 
15 Nov. 1897, Gen. F. .1. Moberly, vice-chairman 
of the London school board in the chair ; died, 
26 Jan. i8q8. The "Michael Faraday " home of 
rest for the poor at Fast Dulwich (the house 
given by Miss Isabel Faraday), opened . 25 Oct. 1901 

FARADISATION, the medical application 
of the magneto-electric currents which Faraday 



discovered in 1837. Apparatus for this purpose was 
first made by M. Pixii, and employed by Dr. Ncef 
of Frankfort. " Farad" name taken for a unit of 
electric capacity, 1875. 



FARCE, a short comic drama, usually of one or 
two acts. One by Otway is dated 1677. The best 
English farces (by Foote, Garrick, Bickerstatf, &c.) 
appeared from about 1740 to 1780. This species 
of dramatic entertainment originated in the droll 
shows which were exhibited by charlatans and their 
buffoons in the open streets ; see Drama. 

FARMERS' ALLIANCE, an organization 
of agricultural reformers ; held a provisional meet- 
ing 27 May, and a conference 2 July, 1879. ^ was 
active during the elections of April, 1880. A 
Fanners' Alliance for Scotland was founded at 
Aberdeen, 1 Dec. 1881. TheFarmers'Allianceinthe 
United States, N.A., begun about 1873, became 
influential and elected about 23 representatives for 
Congress, Nov. 1890, see United States, Ff.A. 

The Farmers' Club was established in 1843 for discus- 
sions on agricultural subjects. 

"A Fanner's Year, 1898," by H. Rider Haggard, 
published 1899. 

FARMERS- GENERAL, see Fermiers. 

FARMERS' UNION, National, established 
at Leamington, by lord Walsingham and others, to 
oppose the Agricultural Labourers' Union, June, 
1874. 

FARNESE FAMILY became important 
through the elevation of Alexander Farnese to the 
papacy as Paul III. He gave his natural son Peter 
the duchy of Parma, and his descendants ruled till 
the death of Antony without issue in 1731. Alex- 
ander prince of Parma was governor of the Nether- 
lands in 1579. 

FARRIERS, see under Horse, Horseshoeing:. 

FARRINGDON-MARKET, erected by the 
corporation of London, near the abolished Fleet- 
market, was opened 20 Nov. 1829. After several 
changes it was re-opened as a Fish Market in 1882. 
The scheme was altogether unsuccessful, occasion- 
ing great loss to the corporation ; abandoned, 1892. 

FARTHING, an early English coin. Farth- 
ings in silver were coined by king John, in 
copper by James. I. and Charles I.; the Irish 
farthing of John's reign (1210) is rare. Farthings 
were coined in England in silver by Henry VIII. 
First coined in copper by Charles II. 1665 ; and 
again in 1672, when there was a large coinage of 
copper money. Half-farthings were first coined in 
184s; see Queen Anne's Farthings. A single copy 
of the " Penny-a-week Country Daily Newspaper" 
(conservative), No. 1, sold for \d., 25 June, 1873. 
The Farthings Act, 21, 22 Vict. c. 75, 1858, relates 
to the payment for portions of a mile travelled by 
third class railway trains. 

FARTHINGALE, see Crinoline. 

FASHODA, on the White Nile (Upper Nile 
valley), occupied by capt. (aft. major) Marchand, 
with 8 officers and 120 Sengalcse (who had 
crossed from the French Congo, overcoming great 
obstacles), 10 July, 1898; see Africa; Dervish 
attack repulsed, 25 Aug.; see Soudan, 19 Sept., 
1898. Diplomatic correspondence, blue book pub- 
lished. () Oct.; the Marchand mission recalled by 
the French government, 4 Nov.; they leave- 
Fashoda, 11 Dec. 1898. Lieut.-col. Jackson, 
appointed governor, 21 Jan. 1899. 

FASTI CAPITOLINI, marble tablets dug 
up in the forum at Rome, 1547, contain a list of ths 
consuls and other officers from the year of Rome 250 
to 7(15. Other fragments were found in 1817 and 
1818.' The "Fasti Consularcs," from 509 n.C. to 



FASTS. 



463 



FENIANS. 



A.D. 235, are given at the end of Smith's "Dictionary 
of Greek and Konian Antiquities." 

FASTS, observed by most nations from the re- 
motest antiquity ; by the Jews (2 Chron. xx. 3) ; 
by the Ninevites {Jonah iii.) ; see Isai. lviii. A 
fast was observed by the Jews on the great day of 
atonement. Lev. xxiii. 1490 B.C. Moses fasted 40 
days and nights on Sinai, Exod. xxiv. 1491 B.C. 
The first Christian ministers were ordained with 
fasting (a.d. 45) Acts xiii. 2. Annual fasts, as that 
I of Lent, and at other stated times, and on particular 
; occasions to appease the anger of God, began in the 
Christian church, in the second century, 138. The 
Mahometan fast is termed Ramadan {which see). 
1 Fast days are appointed by the Reformed churches 
in times of war and pestilence (as 21 March, 1855, 
for the Russian war, and 7 Oct. 1857, for the Indian 
mutiny). The Jeynes, which see, have religious 
fasts of 30 to 40 days' duration. See Abstinence. 

FATHERS of the CHURCH. The fol- 
lowing are the principal : — 
first century. Greek. 
Apostolical. 
Hennas 

Barnabas . . 
Clemens Romanus, d. 100 
Ignatius . . . d. 115 
Polycarp . d. abt. 



second century. Greek. 
Justin Martyr, d. abt. 166 
Irenasus . d. abt. 200 
Athe.nagoras. 



fourth and fifth cen- 
turies. Greek. 

Eusebius . d. abt. 340 

Athanasius . d. 373 

Ephrem Syrus, d. abt. 378 

Basil . . . d. 379 

169 ( Cyril of Jerusalem d. 386 

Gregory Nazianzen . d. 389 

Macarius . d. abt. 391 

Gregory Nyssen d. abt. 394 

Epiphanius . d. 403 

John Chrysostom . d. 407 



Cyril of Alexandria d. 


444 


Theodoret . . d. 


457 


Latin. 




Arnobius . . . ft. 


303 


Lactantius . d. abt. 


330 


Ambrose . . . d. 


3Q7 


Jerome . . . d. 


420 


Augustine . . d. 


43° 



third century. Greek. 
Clemens Alexan- 

drinus . d. abt. 217 

Hippolytus . . d. 230 

Origen . . d. abt. 253 

Latin. 

Tertullian . d. abt. 220 

Minutius Felix, ft. abt. 230 

Cyprian . . d. abt. 258 

FATIMITES, see AH and Mahometanism. 

FATS are oils solid at ordinary temperatures. 
The researches of Chevreul since 181 1 on their 
chemical nature are very important; see Candles. 

FAUGHARD, see Foughard. 

FAUSTUS, a professor of magic, renowned in 
chap books, flourished about the end of the 15th 
century. Christopher Marlowe's powerful tragedy 
"Dr. Faustus," was published in 1616. Goethe's 
dramatic poem, " Faust," appeared in 1790. 

FEASTS and Festivals. The " Feasts of 

the Lord," viz., those of the Passover, Pentecost, 
Trumpets, and Tabernacles, were instituted 1490 B.C. 
{Leviticus xxiii.) 

Feast of Tabernacles, celebrated upon the dedication of 
the Temple of Solomon, 1004 b.c. 

Hezekiah (726 b.c.) and Josiah (623) kept the feast of 
Passover in a most solemn manner. 

In the Christian Church the feasts of Christmas, Easter, 
Ascension, and the Pentecost or Whitsuntide {which 
see), are said to have been ordered to be observed by 
all Christians in the 1st century. 

Rogation days appointed 469. 

Jubilees in the Romish Church were instituted by Boni- 
face VIII. in 1300 ; see Jubilees. 

For fixed festivals observed in the Church of England, as 
settled at the Reformation, et seq., see Book of Common 
Prayer. 

Feasts of Charity ; see Agapce. 

.FEBRUARY (from Februus, an Italian di- 
vinity), the second month of the year, in which were 
celebrated Februa, feasts on behalf of the manes of 
deceased persons. This month, with January, was 
added to the year by Numa, about 713 b.c. The 



February of 1886, said to be the coldest for 27 years- 
— continued frost. February 24, 25 Constitution, see 
France, 1875. 

FECIALES or FETIALES, twenty in number, 
heralds of Rome, to denounce war or proclaim peace, 
appointed by Numa, about 712 B.C. 

FEDERAL STATES are those united by 
treaty as one state, without giving up self-govern- 
ment — as in Switzerland. The people of the- 
Northern United States of America during the great 
conflict in 1861-5 were styled Federals ; their oppo- 
nents Confederates. See Imperial Federation. 
Federal council of Australasia Act introduced by the 

earl of Derby 23 April, passed 14 Aug. 1885. 
See Australia, 1885 et seq., Argentine, Brazil, <£c. 

FEEJEE, see Fiji. 

FELIBRIGE. A literary septennial festival 
held in Provence bv felibres, writers in prose and 
verse in the langued'oc, founded in 1854, in honour 
of seven eminent troubadours. 

FELO DE SE, see Suicide. 

FELONY, in English law (says Blackstone, in 
1765)) comprises every species of crime which occa- 
sions the forfeiture of land and goods. An act to 
abolish forfeitures for treason and felony, and to- 
otherwise amend the law relating thereto, passed 4 
July, 1870. 

FEMALE MEDICAL SCHOOL, London, 
held its first session in 1865, when courses of lec- 
tures were given. Dr. Mary Walker attended Mid. 
dlesex hospital in 1866. She gave an autobio- 
graphical lecture at St. James's Hall, 20 Nov. 1866- 
In 1869 the decision that "ladies should be admitted 
to study medicine in the university of Edinburgh," 
led to disturbances. Schools of medicine for women 
have been since established in London, Edinburgh, 
Glasgow, Dundee, Dublin, Belfast and Cork. Many 
women now (1903) registered as practitioners ; 
many in India and other countries ; see Physic, 
1865, et seq. 

Female Orphan Asylum, Beddington, Surrey, esta- 
blished 1758- 

Female Orphans' Home, Hampton, Middlesex . . 1855 

Female Servants' Home Society 1836 

Female Aid Society 1836 

FEMALE SUFFRAGE, &c, see Women. 

FENCIBLE LIGHT DRAGOONS, a body 

of cavalry raised voluntarily in various counties of 
England and Scotland in 1794, to serve during the 
war in any part of Great Britain. This force (be- 
tween 14,000 and 15,000), which did its duty with 
much judgment during a period of intense popular 
excitement, was disbanded in 1800. 

FENCING was introduced into England from 
France, i'encing-schools having led to duelling in 
England, were prohibited in London by statute 13 
Edw. I. 1285. In 1859 there were eight teachers of 
fencing in London ; in 1872, ten. 

FENIANS (the name of ancient Irish national 
heroes, Fionna), a "brotherhood" in the United 
States and Ireland united to liberate Ireland and 
establish a republic* The agitation was begun, it 
is said, by Stephens in March, 1858, and in 1864 
enlistments and secret drillings took place. A con- 
vention was formed in 1863 in America. The 
movement is opposed by the Roman Catholic clergy. 
See Ireland. 

* Fenian oath. " I promise by the diviiu-. law of God 
to do all in my power to obey the laws of the society 
F. B. , and to free and regenerate Ireland from i lie yoke 
of England. So help ine God '" 



FENIANS. 



464 



FENIANS. 



Riot between the Fenians and their opponents at 
the Rotondo, Dublin . . . .22 Feb. 

25 persons arrested in Dublin, and the newspaper 
the Irish People (established Sept. 1S63) seized, 15 
Sept. ; others arrested at Cork, &c. 16-30 Sept. 

The Fenians in America publish an address-, stating 
that officers were going to Ireland to organise an 
army of 200,000 men .... Sept. 

Fenians arrested at Manchester . . 21 Sept. 

A ship with gunpowder seized at Liverpool Sept. 

Allocution of the pope, condemning secret societies 

30 Sept. 

Evidence that 5000Z. and 2000 pike-heads had been 
received from America in Sept. 

O'Donovan and c others committed for high treason 

2 Oct. 
33 Fenians committed for trial up to . 14 Oct. 
A Fenian provisional government at New York, and 

a congress of 600 members held at Philadelphia 

Oct. 

Fenians in United States said to have raised 200,000/. 

Oct: 

Capture of James Stephens, Irish head-centre, n 
Nov. ; lie escapes from gaol . . 24 Nov. 

Fierce disputes between the senate and O'Mahony, 
the head-centre, who is charged with corruption 
and deposed ; Mr. Roberts appointed his successor 

Dec. 

380,000 Fenians reported in the United States Jan. 

Habeas Corpus act suspended in Ireland ; about 250 
suspected persons arrested immediately 17 Feb. 

Great mass meeting at New York, threatening to 
invade Canada 4 March, 

Fenian schooner Friend captures British schooner 
Wentworth, and scuttles her near Eastport, N. A. 

1 May, 

James Stephens arrives at New York . 10 May, 

Col. O'Niel and Fenians cross the Niagara and enter 
Canada, 31 May ; a conflict ensued with the volun- 
teers, with bloodshed .... 2 June, 

The American generals Grant and Meade capture 
many retreating Fenians . . 2 June et seq. 

Sweeny and others arrested . . 6, 7 June, 

President Johnson's proclamation against the Fe- 
nians 7 June, 

Spear and others cross the boundary near Vermont, 
7 June ; the corps demoralised ; many return 

9 June, 

Much dissension among the Fenians, July, et seq. 

They exercise much influence in the elections in 
America in Oct. 

Trials in Canada.— Col. Lynch and Rev. John 
MacMahon (sentenced to be hanged on 13 Dec.) 
reprieved 24-26 Oct, 

James Stephens, " central organiser of the Irish 
republic," said to sail from America . 24 Nov. 

The British government offer 2000I. for his appre- 
hension Nov. 

Meaney, a delegate, arrested in London . 1 Dec. 

Arms and ammunition seized in Dublin, Cork, and 
Limerick ; many arrests .... Dec. 

Gen. Millen, head of the Fenian military depart- 
ment, denounces Stephens " as a cheat and a ras- 
cal," ami declares the cause for the present hope- 
less, but exhorts to watch l ulness for an opportunity 

3 Dec. 
Sweeny (released) rejoins the U.S. army . . Jan. 
22 convictions at Toronto .... Jan. 
67 Fenians from Liverpool arrested in Dublin 

12 Feb. 
Irruption of Fenians into Chester; compelled to 

retire 11, 12 Feb. 

Outbreak in Kerry ; Killarney threatened ; capt, 

Moriarty and others' captured . . .12 Feb. 
Attack mi coastguard station, Cahirciveen, 12 Feb. ; 

movement collapsed .... 16 Feb. 
Kilmallock police barrack defended for three hours 

by 14 constables, who drove off 200 armed Fenians, 

with loss, by a sally .... 5 March, 
General Massey captured . . 4 or 6 March, 

Rising at Mi'llctoii in Cork ; Daly, a leader, killed ; 

rails of South ami Midland railway taken up 

6 March, 
Proclamation of the Irish republic, sent to the Times 

and other papers . . . 6 March, 

Fenian rising near Dublin : telegraph destroyed ; 

attack on the police station at Tallaght repelled ; 



1867 



several shot, 208 prisoners taken into Dublin, 

7 March, iE 

1000 Fenians hold market-place at Drogheda, but 
retreat at the approach of police . 7 March, 

Capt. Maclure captured ... 31 March, 

Special commission to try 230 Fenians ; Whiteside, 
ch.-just. ; Deasy and Fitzgerald, begin (Massey, 
Keogh, Corydon, and McGough, approvers) 

9 April, et seq. 

Burke and Doran sentenced to death, 1 May ; re- 
prieved 26 May, 

Many convictions of treason (M'Afferty, M'Clure, 
and others) and treason-felony, and many dis- 
charged May, 

Trials at Limerick begin . . . 11 June, 

President Roberts retires ; the party in the United 
States said to be demoralised . . . July, 

Many Fenians tried and convicted July and Aug. 

Several imprisoned Fenians released and sent to 
America Aug. and Sept. 

Fenian congress at Cleveland, Ohio . . Sept, 

Kelly and Deasy, two Fenians, remanded for further 
examination, rescued from the prisoners' van, 
near Manchester ; and Brett, a policeman, shot 
for refusing to give up his keys . 18 Sept. 

Many persons taken up ; 23 committed on charge 
of murder — tried, 5 condemned to death (2 re- 
prieved) ; 7 sentenced to 7 years' imprisonment 
29 Oct. -12 Nov. 

Allen, Gould, and Larkin executed at Salford, 

23 Nov. 

Funeral demonstration in London . . 24 Nov. 

Trials of Halpin and others at Dublin, Oct. -Nov. 

Funeral demonstrations for Allen, &c, at Cork, 
1 Dec. ; Dublin and Limerick . . 8 Dee. 

Address of the president and senate of the Fenian 
brotherhood of America to the " liberty-losing 
people of England," dated New York, 12 Dec. 

Reunion of the Roberts and Stephens parties under 
a new president . . . about 20 Dec. 

Premeditated explosion of Clerkenwell house of 
detention, London, to release Burke and Casey, 
leading Fenians, at 3.45. (A cask of gunpowder 
was fired close to the. prison wall ; Timothy Des- 
mond, Jeremiah Allen, and Ann Justice captured 
on suspicion) 13 Dec. 

[Consequences of the explosion. — "Six persons were 
killed ' outright,' six more died from its effects, 
according to the coroner's inquests ; five, in 
addition, owed their deaths indirectly to this 
means ; one young woman is in a madhouse, 40 
mothers were prematurely confined, and 20 of 
their babes died from the effects of the explosion 
on the women ; others of the children are dwarfed 
and unhealthy. One mother is now a raving 
maniac ; 120 persons were wounded ; 50 went 
into St. Bartholomew's, Gray's Inn-lane, and 
King's College Hospitals ; 15 are permanently 
injured, with loss of eyes, legs, arms, &c. ; besides 
2o,oooJ. worth of damage to person and property. " 
— Times, 29 April, 1868.] 

Capt. Mackay and others rifle a Martello tower, 

27 Dec. , 
Audacious seizure of arms and ammunition in a 

gunsmith's shop in Cork . . . 30 Dec. 

12 suspected Fenians captured at Merthvr Tvdvil, 

31 Dec. 

Mullany, a prisoner, turns queen's evidence, and 
accuses Barrett or Jackson (captured at Glasgow, 
14 Jan.) of firing the barrel at Clerkenwell. 

28 Jan. il 
Attack on Martello tower near Waterford 28 Jan. 
Capt, Mackay arrested at Cork, 7 Feb. ; much riot- 
ing there . . . n, 12 Feb. 

Conviction of Patrick Lennou, a leader, 12 Feb. . 
Habeas corpus act susp. till 1 March, 1869 Feb. , 
Mullany and Thompson convicted as accessories in 

murder of Brett .... 18 March, 
Capt. Mackay convicted ; sentenced to 12 years' 

imprisonment 20 March, , 

O'FarreU, a Fenian, wounds the duke of Edinburgh 

at Fort Jackson, u March; sentenced to death. 

31 March, . 
Mr. DareyM'Gee, M.P., shotdead bya Fenian at 

Ottawa ' . 7 A] nil. 



FENIANS. 



465 



FEROZESHAH. 



Trial of Wm. and Timothy Desmond, Nicholas Eng- 
lish, John O'Keefe, Michael Barrett, and Ann 
Justice, for murder (Clerkenwell outrage) begun 
20 ; acquittal of Justice, 23 ; of O'Keefe, 24 ; and 
of the two Desmonds and English, 27. Conviction 

of Barrett 27 April, 1868 

( Richard Burke, a leader, eonvicted of treason-felony, 

30 April, „ 
.Michael Barrett (for causing the Clerkenwell ex- 
j plosion) executed .... 26 May, „ 

©'Donovan Rossa and others released, behave 
violently March, 1869 

The government declines to release others, 18 Oct. ,, 

Manifesto from John Savage, executive officer, Dec. ,, 

Fenian raid into Canada vigorously repelled by the 
militia, and their general, O'Neill, captured by the 
U. S. marshal 26 May, 1870 

Formation of the Clan-na-Gael (which see) . . ,, 

Michael Davitt and John Wilson convicted of 
treason-felony for endeavouring to transmit arms 
secretly to Ireland (detected March) . 18 July, ,, 

Captured Fenian generals (Thompson and Starr) in 
United States, sentenced to imprisonment for 
breach of neutrality laws . . . July, ,, 

President Grant's proclamation against Fenian raids 
into Canada 13 Oct. „ 

Letter from Mr. Gladstone announcing early release 
of Fenian convicts .... 15 Dec. ,, 

The convicts released Jan. 1871 

The released convicts welcomed in the United 
States . ....'.. Jan. ,, 

The Fenians favour the French in the war, 

Aug. 1870-Feb. ,, 

Fenian raid into Manitoba suppressed by United 
States troops, and general Neill arrested ; see 
Ireland about 12 Oct. „ 

•Sen. Cluseret (a short time in the service of the 
Fenians) publishes an account of them in Fraser's 
Magazine: he says, "Their insurrection was 
foolishly planned and still more foolishly exe- 
cuted," and strongly advises reconciliation with 
England July, 1872 

"Great demonstration near Drogheda . 20 Sept. 1874 

Escape of Fenian prisoners from West Australia 
in the Catalpa, American ship, 17 April ; arrived 
at New York 19 Aug. 1S76 

©Mahony, head-centre, dies at New York ; grand 
funeral service 6 Feb. 1877 

Bavitt and other Fenian convicts released Jan. to 

Sept. 1878 

Davitt prominent during the land league agitation, 1 880-8 1 

Arrested and committed to prison . 3, 4 Feb. 1881 

Elected M.P. for co. Meath, 22 Feb., election 
annulled ...... 28 Feb. 1882 

Seizure of arms and ammunition, St. John Street 
Road, Clerkenwell ; Thomas Walsh arrested 

17 June ,, 

•Committed for trial, 17 July ; sentenced to 7 years' 
penal servitude 9 Aug. ,, 

Detection of a murderous Fenian plot in Dublin, 
carried out by a band termed the " Irish Invinci- 
bles," said to be connected with the Land League 

19 Jan. — 17 Feb. 1883 

Plot to explode public buildings in England con- 
cocted in New York, by O'Donovan Rossa, a chief 
of The Fenian Brotherhood, Wm. J. Lynch (Nor- 
man) sent to England ; conveys explosives from 
Birmingham to London (see Birmingham), gives 
evidence at Bow-street . . 19 April, ,, 

Cl-reat convention at Philadelphia opened, 25 April ; 
denounced by O'Donovan Rossa, who revives the 
Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood . 6 May, „ 
See Dynamite and Explosions. 

Centre of Fenian organisation discovered at Paris ; 
Frederick Allen apprehended . . . Oct. „ 

Capt. Thos. Phelan stabbed (not killed) as a sus- 
pected traitor by Richard Short — in Rossa's 
house, in New York, 9 Jan. ; O'Donovan Rossa 
shot in the street by Lucilla Yseult Dudley, an 
English widow, 2 Feb. ; Phelan and he recover, 
in the same hospital, Feb. ; Short acquitted, 
6 May ; Mrs. Dudley declared insane . 30 June, 1885 

Threatening Fenian manifesto sent to Mr. Glad- 
stone and others from Paris . about 19 Feb. ,, 

Great Fenian congress held in Paris . 23 Feb. ,, 

■James Stephens expelled from France . March, ,, 

Fenianism becomes prominent in Ireland autumn 1887 



The brotherhood expels O'Donovan Rossa about 
8 Dec. 1886 ; said to be succeeded by Dr. Hamil- 
ton Williams at New York, having 200,000?. to 
be employed in war against England by means 
of dynamite explosions, &c. ; statement in Times 
14 Dec. ; stated to be absurd . . 14 Dec. 1887 

Meeting of the old Fenian Brotherhood at New 
York ; they decide to discard Mr. Parnell and all 
leaders, and to maintain only military organisation 

14 July, 1891 

Michael Davitt elected M.P. for N. Meath, July ; 
unseated, see Ireland, 23 Dec. 1892 ; elected for 
N.E. Cork, 8 Feb. 1893 ; retires . . 26 Oct. 1899 

See Dynamite, Sept. 1896. 

"Recollections of Fenians and Fenianism," by 
John O'Leary, published 1897 

James Stephens, founder of the conspiracy of the 
'Sixties, born 1824, died, near Dublin, 29 March, 1901 

James Cahill, one of the Fenian gang of 1867, died 
in Massachusetts .... 25 Aug. 1902 

FERECHAMPENOISE (France). Here 
the French array under Marmont, Mortier, and 
Arrighi, were surprised and defeated by the allies 
under the prince of Schwarzenberg, 25 March, 
1814, after a heroic resistance. Paris surrendered 
six days after. 

FERGHANA, see Khokand. 

FERI2E LATINiE, solemn Roman festivals, 
said to have been instituted by Tarquin the Proud, 
about 534 B.C. The principal magistrates of forty- 
seven towns of Latium assembled on a mount near 
Rome, and with the Roman authorities ottered a 
bull to Jupiter Latialis. 

FERKEH, in the Soudan. Here the army of 
the dervishes was skilfully surprised and totally 
defeated by gen. sir H. H. Kitchener, 7 June, 189b, 
when on his march toward Dongola. The battle 
lasted from 5 to 7 a.m. The enemy's loss was about 
1,000, including Hammuda, the commander, 
many emirs, and about 500 prisoners. Egyptian 
loss, 20 killed. The enemy fought with desperate 
valour. Early in the action about 300 dervishes 
were surrounded, and refusing to surrender were 
nearly all killed. 

FERMENTATION, termed by Gay-Lussac 
one of the most mysterious processes in nature : he 
showed that in the process, 45 lbs. of sugar are 
resolved into 23 of alcohol and 22 of carbonic acid. 
His memoir appeared in 1810. In 1861 Pasteur 
brought forward evidence to show that fermenta- 
tion depends on the presence of minute organisms 
in the fermenting fluid, and that the source of all 
such organisms is the atmosphere. For his re- 
searches he was awarded an annual pension of 
120,000 francs in 1874. 

FERMIERS GrENERAUX, officers who 
farmed the French revenues previous to 1789, fre- 
quently with much oppression. Lavoisier and 27 
of these were executed 8 May, 1794. 

FERNDALE COLLIERY EXPLO- 
SION; 8 JS'ov. 1867; about 178 lives lost. See 
under Coal. 

FERNS (Ireland), an ancient bishopric, once 
archi episcopal. St. Edam was seated here in 598. 
Leighlin and Ferns were united in 1600 ; and by 
the°Church Temporalities Act, passed Aug. 1833, 
both were united to the bishopric of Ossory. See 
Ossory. — Ferns, an order of cryptogamous plants, 
much cultivated in Wardian cases; which see, 
and also Nature-Printing. 

FEROZESHAH (India). The British, com- 
manded by sir Hugh Gough, attacked the en- 
trenchments of the Sikhs, and carried their first 



FEEEAEA. 



466 



FIELD- 



line of works, 21 Dec. 1845 ; but night coming on, 
the operations were suspended till daybreak, wher 
their second line was stormed by general Gilbert, 
and 74 guns captured. The Sikhs advanced to re- 
take their guns, but were repulsed with great loss, 
and retreated towards the Sutlej, 22 Dec. ; and re- 
crossed that river unmolested, 27 Dec. The British 
loss was reckoned at 2415. 

FEEEAEA, formerly part of the exarchate of 
.Ravenna, under the emperors of ihe East. It was 
subdued by the Lombards in the 8th century, and 
taken from them about 752 by Pepin, who gave it 
to pope Stephen II. About 1208 it fell into the 
hands of the house of Este {which see), and became 
the principal seat of the literature and fine arts 
in Italy. Pope Clement VIII. obtained the sove- 
reignty in 1598, on the death of the duke Alphonso 
II., the last legitimate male of the Este family. 
His illegitimate nephew, Caesar, became duke of 
Modena. The French under Massena took Ferrara 
in 1796; but it was restored to the pope in 1814. 
An Austrian garrison held it from 1849; it retired 
in June., 1859, and the people rose and declared for 
annexation to Sardinia, which was accomplished in 
March, i860. The centenary of the university, 
founded in 1392, celebrated 18 April, 1892. 

FEEEAES' AEEEST. In March, 1542, Mr. 
George Ferrars, a member of parliament, while in 
attendance on the house was taken in execution 
by a sheriff' s officer for debt, and committed to the 
Compter prison. The house despatched their Ser- 
jeant to require his release, which was resisted, 
and an affray taking place, his mace was broken. 
The house in a body repaired to the lords to com- 
plain, when the contempt was adjudged to be very 
great, and the punishment of the offenders was 
referred to the lower house. On another messenger 
being sent to the sheriffs by the commons, they 
delivered up the senator, and the civil magistrates 
and the creditor were committed to the Tower, the 
inferior officers to JN ewgate, and an act was passed 
releasing Mr. Ferrars from liability for the debt. 
The king, Henry VIII., highly approved of all 
these proceedings, and the transaction became the 
basis of that rule of parliament which exempts 
members from arrest. Holinshed. 

FEEEO, see Canary Isles. 

FEEEOL (N.W. Spain). Upwards of 10,000 
British landed near Ferrol under the command of 
sir James Pulteney, in Aug. 1800. They gained 
possession of the heights ; but, despairing of suc- 
cess, on account of the strength of the works, sir 
James re-embarked his Troops. His conduct was 
much condemned. Soult captured Ferrol, 27 Jan. 
1809. An insurrection of about 1500 men in the 
arsenal here broke out, headed by brigadier Pozas 
and capt. Montojo, who raised the red flag, 11 
Oct. ; they dispersed or surrendered when about to 
be attacked, 17 Oct. 1872. 

FESCENNINE VEESES were rude extem- 
porary dialogues, frequently licentious, in favour 
among the ancient Etruscans at weddings, and still 
popular in Italy. 

FESTIVALS, see under Feasts, Clergy, Music. 

FftTE DE DIEU, a feast of the Roman church 
in honour of the real presence in the Lord's Sup- 
per, kept on the Thursday after Trinity Sunday. 
See Corpus Christi. Berengarius, archbishop of 
Angers, opposed the doctrine of transubstantia- 
tion, and to atone for his crime a yearly pro- 
cession was made at Angers, called la fete de JJieu, 

101'). 



FfiTE DE VEETU, an annual assemblage, 
chiefly of young persons, to whom were adjudged 
rewards for industry and virtue. These fetes, held 
at Nuneham, in Oxfordshire, begun by lady Har- 
court in 1789, were continued till her death. 

FEUDAL LAWS. The tenure of land by 
suit and service to lord or owner, partly in use 
in England by ttie Saxons, was mainly esta- 
blished by William I. in 1066. The kingdom was 
divided into baronies, which were given on condition 
of the holders furnishing the king with men and 
money. The vassalage, limited by Henry VII.. 
1495, was abolished by statute, 1660. The feudal 
system was introduced into Scotland by Malcolm II. 
in 1008, and the hereditaiy jurisdictions were finally 
abolished in that kingdom, 1746-7. The feudal 
laws, established in France by Clovis I. about 486, 
were discountenanced by Louis XI. in 1470. 
"Feudal Aids, 1284-1431," vol. i., County returns, 
published by the Public Kecord Office. May, 1899. 

FEUILLANTS, a religious order founded by 
Jean de la Barriere in 1577 at the abbey of Feuil- 
lant, near Toulouse, and settled in Paris in 1587. 
The Feuillant club, formed in Paris by La Fayette 
and others in 1789, to counteract the intrigues of 
the Jacobins, was so named from the convent where 
they met. A body of Jacobins burst into their hall 
and obliged them to separate, 25 Dec. 1 791 ; and 
the club was broken up in 1792. 

FEVEE, see Scarlet Fever ; 11 fever hospitals 
in London and neighbourhood ; the Southern (for 
convalescents), at Carshalton, in course of construc- 
tion, 1903. 

FEZ (in the ancient Mauritania, Africa), 
founded by Edris, a descendant of Mahomet, ahout 
787, was long capital of the kingdom of Fez. 
After long-continued struggles, it was annexed to 
Morocco about 1550. Leo Africanus describes it as 
containing more than 700 temples, mosques, and 
other public edifices, in the 12th century. Jewish 
quarter burnt, many deaths, Sept. 1896. Prison 
reforms well carried out, many prisoners freed, &c, 
Nov. 1901 — Sept. 1902. See Morocco. 

FICTIONS, see Romances.— Fictions in Law 
were invented by the lawyers in the reign of 
Edward I. as a means of carrying cases from one 
court to another, whereby the courts became checks 
to each other. Hume. Lord Mansfield, in the court 
of King's Bench, emphatically declared that "no 
fiction of law shall ever so far prevail against the 
real truth, as to prevent the execution of justice : " 
31 May, 1784. They have been mostly abolished 
in the present century. 

"FIDELIO," Beethoven's single opera; com- 
posed in 1804, produced at Vienna, 20 Nov. 1805. 

FIDEN.ZE, a Sabine city, frequently at war 
with Rome. It was finally captured and the in- 
habitants enslaved, 426 B.C., by the Romans, whose 
ambassadors they had slain. 

FIEF, see Feudal Laws. 

FIELD. The country gentleman's weekly 
paper, devoted to natural history, sports, &c, first 
appeared I Jan. 1853. 

FIELD of March and May, see Champ.— 
Field or ihe Cloth of Gold, a plain near 
Ardr es, near Calais, in France, on which Henry 
VIII. mel Francis I. of France, 7-25 June, IS20. 
The nobility of both kingdoms displayed their 
magnificence, and many involved themselves in 
debt. Paintings of the embarcation and interview 
are at Windsor castle. 



FIELD-MARSHAL. 



467 



FINLAND. 



FIELD-MARSHAL, see Marshal. 

FIERY-CHAMBER, see Chambre Ardente. 

FIESCHI'S ATTEMPT on Louis-Phi- 
lippe, see France, 1835. 

FIFE. A maritime county E. Scotland, con- 
taining St. Andrews, Dunfermline, and other 
Jtowns with ruined abbeys. Alexander William 
jG-eorge Duff, born 10 Nov. 1849, created duke of 
{Fife, 1889, married princess Louise Victoria of 
jWales {which see), 27 July, 1889. Hishouse, Mar 
(Lodge, built about 1825, was destroyed by fire 14 
June, 1895. 

FIFTH-MONARCHY MEN, about 1645, 
supposed the period of the Millennium to be just 
at hand, when Jesus Christ should descend from 
neaveu, and erect the fifth universal monarchy. 
They proceeded so far as to elect him king at 
London. Cromwell dispersed them, 1653. Kearsley. 
Another rising with loss of life was suppressed, 
6 Jan. 1661. Thos. Venner, a cooper, their leader, 
and 16 ottiers, were executed soon after. 

FIFTH PARTY, a term applied to the ad- 
vocates of temperance in the House of Commons 
(about 60), Feb. 1884. 

FIG-TREE {Ficus carica) brought from the 
south of Europe, before 1548. The Botany-Bay 
fig, Ficus australis, brought from N. S. "Wales in 
1789. 

FIGURES, see Arithmetic. 

FIJI or VlTI ISLES, in the Pacific Ocean, 
about 1500 miles from Sydney. Discovered by 
Tasman, Dutch navigator, in 1643. There are above 
200 isles ; 80 inhabited ; the largest about 360 miles 
in circumference. Capital Suva. 
Population in 1887, 124,658 ; including 2, 105 Europeans ; 
1893, 122,712; 1901, 117,870. 1890, revenue, 66,8 1 7?. ; 
expenditure, 60,826?. ; imports, 206,757?. ; exports, 
364 531?. ; 1893, revenue, 76,774?. ; expenditure, 
85,982?. ; imports, 276,398?. ; exports, 355,631?. ; 1,424?. 
surplus March, 1898 ; revenue, 111,569?. ; expenditure, 
100,022?., 1900. 
The islands offered by the king, Thakombau, and 
chiefs to the British government, but not accepted 

July, 1859 
The house of commons granted 1680?. for expendi- 
ture in them ; and European settlements made . i860 
Annexation to Great Britain proposed in parlia- 
ment ; declined 25 June, 1872 ; but unconditional 
cession to the British government accepted by 
sir Hercules Robinson, July : and announced by 

him 25 Oct. 1874 

His club sent as a present to the queen by the king 

Thakombau 

Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon, first governor . . 1875 
About 50,000 deaths by epidemic measles early in ,, 
Outbreak of cannibal devil-worshippers suppressed 
by the military ; about 20 ringleaders executed 

about June, 1876 
Sir George Wm. Des Voeux, governor . . Oct. 1880 
King Thakombau died . .• . . Feb. 1883 
Sir Charles Bullen Hugh Mitchell, governor Sept. 1886 
Sir John Bates Thurston, high commissioner of 
the Western Pacific, Dec, i887,e?seg. ; died about 

8 Feb. 1897 
Rising of some of the tribes suppressed, reported 

9 July, 1894 
Shipping and buildings destroyed by a hurricane ; 

many lives lost 6 Jan. 1895 

Sir G. T. M. O'Brien appointed governor, March, 
1897 ; Sir H, M. Jackson . . . April, 1902 

FILES are mentioned (1 Sam. xiii. 21) 1093 B - c - 
The manufacture of them has attained to great per- 
fection, by means of file-cutting machinery. That 
set up by Mr. T. Greenwood of Leeds, in 1859, was 
invented by M. Bernot of Paris. It is said that 



the price of files made by it is reduced from 32^. to 
i\d. per dozen. 

FILIBUSTERS (properly Flibustiers), a 
name given to the freebooters who plundered the 
coasts or America in fhe 16th and 17th centuries; 
see Buccaneers and Nicaragua, Cuba, 1896-7. 

FILIOQUE, ("and from the Son"), inserted 
in the Nicene creed, in respect to the procession of 
the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son, by 
the second council at Constantinople, 381 ; was re- 
jected, by the Greek church, 431 ; accepted by the 
Spanish, 447, and by the Roman 883. The omission 
of the phrase was considered at the Old Catholic 
Conference at Bonn, Aug. 1875. See Athanasum 
Greed and Nice. 

FILTERERS. A plan for purifying corrupted 
water was patented by Wm. Woolcott in 1675. 
Other modes followed. James Peacock's method of 
filtration was patented in 1791 ; and many others 
since: Ransome's, 1856. 
Apparatus for freshening salt water, brought forward 

by Grant, 1849 ; by Macbride, 1849 ; Gravely, 1858. 

Dr. Normandy's greatly improved apparatus, 1859, 

much used in the royal navy. 

FINANCE ACTS passed 31 July, 1894; 
30 May, 1895; 7 Aug. 1896; 15 July, 1897; I July, 
1898 ; 20 June, 1899 ! 9 April, 1900. See Budget, 
Estate Duty, Customs, Excise, Income Tax. 

FINANCES of Great Britain, &c, see Revenue 
and other articles. 

A select committee of the commons, consisting of Mr. 
Goschen, chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. J. Morley, 
Mr. A. J. Balfour, Mr. Childers, lord R. Churchill 
and others, was appointed to consider the present 
Financial Relations between England, Scotland, and 
Ireland, 13 Aug. 1890. Returns presented for the 
years ending 31 March, 1890, 1891, 1892, 1893, et scq. 

Finance Act, the title given in 1894 to the act, granting 
certain duties of customs and inland revenue, &c. ; 
passed annually. 

The "Statistical Abstract," published annually by the 
government, contains much financial information. 

Royal commission to inquire into the financial relations 
of Gt. Britain and Ireland appointed 26 May, 1894 ; 
report, with recommendations signed, 24 June, 
1896. Final, report, 5 Sept., 1896. See Ireland, 
Dec. 1896, and July, 1898. 

FINE ARTS, see Arts, Paintings, Sculpture, 
Engraving, &c. 

FINES and Recoveries, conferring the 

power of breaking ancient entails and alienating 
estates, began in the reign of Edward IV., but was 
not, properly speaking, law, till Henry VII., by 
correcting some abuses that attended the practice, 
gave indirectly a sanction to it, 1487. Fines and 
recoveries were abolished in 1833. 

FINISTERRB, see Cape Finisterre. 

FINLAND, a Russian grand duchy, in the 
middle of the 12th century was conquered by 
Eric IX. of Sweden, who introduced Christianity. 
It was several times taken by the Russians (17 14, 
1742, and 1808), and restored (1721 and 1743) ! Dut 
in 1809 they retained it by treaty ; see Abo. Its 
political constitution was confirmed by the Czar in 
1800, 1825, and 1855. It was made nearly autono- 
mous in 1883. Population in 1862, 1,746,229; 
in 1867, 1,830,853; 1875, 1,912,647; 1889, 2,38,8,404; 
1897, about 2,572,801 ; 1902, abt. 2,700,000. During 
a dreadful famine, whole villages were starved. 
Elias Liinnrot, editor of the ancient national epic, 
"Kalevala" (1834-49), died 1884. Triennial Diet 
opened with constitutional speech sent by the Czar, 

:k tt 2 



FINNIAN. 



468 



FIRE-ARMS. 



19 Jan. 1885. The Czar warmly received at Hel- 
singfors, Aug. 1885. 

Discontent of the chambers and people at expected 

changes by the Russian government . . Jan. 1891 
Rescript of the czar to the governor-general, assur- 
ing the people of the maintenance of their ancient 
rights and privileges . . about 18 March, „ 
The czar visits Finland, coolly received . July, „ 
A new stringent press law enforced . 1 Oct. ,, 

Famine in N.W. Finland ; much suffering . Dec. ,, 
Statue of the czar Alexander II. unveiled at 

Helsingfors by count Heyden, gov.-gen. , 30 April, 1894 
Count Heyden resigns, reported . ■ 13 Jan. 1S97 
Triennial diet opened at Helsingfors, financial mea- 
sures adopted, imperial speech read by gov.-gen. 

Gontscharoff 25 Jan. ,, 

Zacharias Topelius, author and poet, born 14 Jan. 

1818 ; died 12 March 1898 

Agitat on against changes in the constitution, Oct. ,, 
Gen. Bobrikoff, gov.-gen , arrives . 12 Oct. ,, 

Diet opened with a speech from the throne, 24 Jan. 1899 
Russihcation of Finland, revision of laws, discussion 
in parliament restricted by imperial rescript, 

issued 3 Feb. ,, 

Political crisis continues .... March, „ 
Deputation of over 500 Finlanders petitioning for 
their constitutional rights, not received by the 
czar at St. Petersburg . . 16-18 March, ,, 
Army reform to be introduced during 10 years, 

reported May, ,, 

Diet closed by imperial edict . . .1 June, ,, 
Failure of crops and floods reported . June, ,, 
An international deputation petitioning the czar to 
spare the liberties of Finland (800 eminent signa- 
tories) not received, 1 July; warmly welcomed at 

Helsingfors 2 July, ,, 

An imperial (autocratic) rescript issued . 2 July, ,, 
M von Plehwe, a Russian, appointed secretary of 

state early Sept. ,, 

Mr. Eugene Wolff, 13 yrs. British vice consul at 
Viborg, resigns, owing to complaints from 
the Russian govmt. regarding his part in the 
political agitation, early Sept. (banished, April, 
1903) ; similar resignations in other parts ; officials 
from St. Petersburg appointed, Oct. ; press re- 
strictions . . May, 1899 — Jan. et seq. 1900 
Triennial diet opened at Helsingfors . 27 Jan. ,, 
Imperial rescript, to enforce the measures taken to 

solidity the empire and Finland, issued . 14 Feb. ,, 
Protest against the new military law, 1899, and 
infringement of constitutional rights, published 

in England April, ,, 

The Nya Pressen, newspaper, suppressed 29 June, „ 
Russian ordered to be the official language 26 June, ,, 
Petition of the diet regarding the present adminis- 
tration in Finland, 27 Aug. ; rejected by the 

czar early Sept. 1901 

Monster petition, 471,131 signatures, against the 
new army law of 12 July, and other edicts, 

issued 30 Sept. „ 

Disturbance during a levy of recruits at Helsing- 
fors ; repressed by Cossacks . . 18 April, 1902 
Emigration largely increasing . . . April, „ 
The senate placed under control of the gov. -gen. , and 

other restrictive laws published . end Sept. ,, 
Statue of Elias Lunnrot, patriot, unveiled at Hel- 
singfors :8 Oct. ,, 

Several judges and governors dismissed . Feb. 1903 
Famine, great distress, reported . 18 if arch, ,, 
Gen. Bobrikoff s power absolute. New rules signed 

by the czar 2 April, ,, 

Count Mamerheim, baron Horn and others ba- 
nished 27 April, ,, 

FINNIAN, see Fenians. 

FINSBURY PARK, London, N. In 1866, 
land was purchased, and preparations for the park 
began ; and it was opened 7 Aug. 1869. 

FIRE. Henicleitus about 596 b.c. maintained 
that the world was evolved from fire, which he 
deemed to be a god omnipotent. Fire was wor- 
shipped by the Persians and other ancient nations, 
fee Outsbre.s and 1'arsees. 



FIRE-ANNIHILATOR, an apparatus in- 
vented by Mr. T. Phillips, and made known by 
him in 1849. When put in action, steam and car- 
honic acid are formed, which extinguish flame. It 
was not successful commercially. U Extmcteur 
was invented by Dr. F. Carlier, and patented by 
A. Vignon in July, 1862. It is an iron cylinder 
filled with water and carbonic acid gas, generated 
by bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid. The 
apparatus was developed and improved by Mr. 
W. B. Dick, in his Manual and Chemical Fire- 
Engines, which give a continuous flow of water 
and gas, patented April, 1869. 

The "Mata Fuego," or "Fire-killer," of M. Banolas of 
Paris, was successfully exhibited at the Alexandra 
Palace, 16 Oct., 1880. Great bodies of flame were 
almost instantaneously extinguished. 

The Harden Grenade Fire Extinguisher tried success- 
fully near Farringdon-road, London, 24 July, 1884. 

The Draper-Hetherington sprinkler reported success- 
ful, Nov. 1888. 

Col. Imchessetsky's " Uralite " successfully tested, 
London, 15 Aug. 1902. 
See Antipyrogene and Asbestos. 

FIRE-ARMS, see Artillery, Cannon, Needle- 
gun, Chassepot, and Pistols. The first small tire- 
arms were a species of cannon, borne by two men. 
Fire-arms made at Perugia, in Italy . . . 1364 

Employed by the Burgundians at Arras . . . 1414 
Edward IV. , when he landed at Ravenspur, is said 
to have been accompanied by 300 Flemings, 

armed with hand-guns 1471 

At Morat, the Swiss are said to have had 10,000 

arquebusiers (men armed with tire-arms) . . 1476 
Fire-arms said to have been used at the siege of 

Berwick 1521 

The petronel (from po Urine, the chest) or arquebus 
came into use, 1480 ; and the musket employed 
in the armies of the emperor Charles V. about . ,, 
All these were of very rude construction, being 
first discharged by a lighted match, afterwards, 
about 1517, by a wheel-lock, then by the flint. 
The match-lock and wheel-lock superseded by the 

flint-lock, about 1692 

The rev. Mr. Forsythe patented the percussion 
principle of igniting gunpowder in muskets, by 
means of detonating powder . . April, 1807 
Percussion caps came into use between . 1820 & 1830 

Percussion musket ; pattern 1842 

Artillery carbine ; pattern ,. 

Regulation rifle musket ; pattern . . . 1851 

Application of machinery in small arms factory 
established at Enfield (the old musket Brown Bess 
superseded) ... ... Jan. 1857 

Mr. Jacob Snider's system of breech-loading in- 
vented in 1859 : presented to the British govern- 
ment ; finally adopted, 1866. He received 1000J. 

for expenses in June ; died 25 Oct 1866 

100,000 breech-loaders said to have been ordered by 

the British government .... July, 

New government advertises for propositions for 

conversion of Enfield rifles into breech-loaders, 

Aug. ,, 
" Chassepot " guns in use in France . 1 Oct. ,, 
War-office advertises for proposals for breeeh- 

Loading rifles, to replace those in use 22 Oct. ,, 

Nine systems selected for further trial ; 1000/. to be 

awarded to the best .... June, 1867 
Snider's rifle reported very successful at Wimbledon, 

July, „ 
61.682 new arms had been made at Enfield ; 175,550 

converted to Sniders, up to . . Dec. „ 

The "Money-Walker" rifle (patented by Mr. Mow- 
bray-Money and lieut.-col. Walker), tried and 

approved 18 June, 1868 

A report in favour of the Martini-Henry rifle 

issued [adopted] March, 1869 

An art to grant a dutj of excise on licences to use 

guns, passed . ' . . . . 9 Aug. 1870 
Complaints resp jcting the Martini-Henry rifle (for 

weight ami lxvoil) Aug. 1S74 

Magazine ritl<s came into use in Germany 1870-1 ; 
the Mauser titles used there in 1S87, which 



FIRE BRIGADE. 



469 



FIRE-SHIPS. 



contain enough ammunition for five or more 
almost simultaneous discharges, were coming into 
general adoption in Europe in . . . 1887 

An improved form (tiring from 6 to 9 shots succes- 
sively) determined upon by the small arms com- 
mittee, Dec. 1887 ; ordered to be made for general 
use, announced (name, Lee-Metford) . Nov. 1888 

This magazine rifle censured in the Times, defended 
by Mr. Stanhope and the War office . Times, 

15 Nov. 1890 

The merits of the Lee-Speed magazine rifle dis- 
cussed, Feb. ; and also the French Berthier maga- 
zine rifle Nov. 1891 

Herr von Mannlicher (Austrian) produces a new 
repeating rifle, said to be light and effective, Aug. 1892 

Wm. Ellis Metford, who developed the rifle to its 
present perfection by his discovery of the principle 
of shallow grooves, died . . . . 14 Oct. 1899 

The " Hylard " rifle, invented by Mr. Hylard, tried 
successfully at Runnymede . . n Nov. 1901 
See Mitrailleuse, '(fatting and Hyposcope. 

FIRE-BRIGADE. The " London Fire-en- 
gine Establishment," an amalgamation of the 
engines of the different companies, was established 
in London in 1832 by Mr. Charles Bell Ford, di- 
rector of the Sun Fire-office. Jt then had 80 men 
and 19 stations. In May, 1862, a commission 
recommended the establishment of a fire-brigade, 
which was effected by the Metropolitan Fire-brigade 
Act, in 1865. The establishment then gave up its 
plant to the Metropolitan Board of "Works, and was 
afterwards taken ovt r by the London County Council 
under the Local Government Act of 1888. The fire- 
brigade is supported by a rate, and by contributions 
from government and from the insurance offices. In 
1889, 591 me nand 55 land fire-engine stations ; 
1902, 985 officers and men and 78 (land) stations. 
Captain Eyre M. hhaw recommended a large in- 
crease of the establishment, April, 1889 ; which was 
carried into effect in 1890. Annual reviews. 

Capt. Eyre M. Shaw, c.b., appointed chief officer of 
metropolitan fire brigade in succession to Mr. 
James Braidwood (see Fires, 1861) . . . 1861 

Great fire-brigade exhibition at Oxford, with men 
and appliances representing the united kingdom 

31 May, 1887 

The success of a similar exhibition with the pre- 
sentation of medals by the prince and princess of 
Wales at the Horse Guards Parade, Westminster, 
was greatly marred by insufficient arrangements 
for the preservation of order . . . 27 May, 1889 

The London County Council orders the appoint- 
ment of 138 additional firemen and 4 new stations 
with the usual appliances . . . early Aug. ,, 

Keview of the brigade at Crystal Palace by the 
German Emperor .... n July, 1891 

Capt. Shaw announces his intention to resign 
26 June ; (made k.c.b.), 31 Oct. ; succeeded by 
capt. James S. Simonds (previously second in 
command), 22 Dec. 1891 ; requested to resign, 
16 J une, 1896 ; succeeded by commander L. de L. 
Wells 3 Nov. 1896 

French fire-brigades congress at Havre, about 160 
of the English fire-brigade present mid- Aug. 1892 

International fire tournament and exhibition in 
London, 12 June 1893 

Roll of honour of men killed while on duty 
(James Braidwood and others), unveiled 23 Oct. ,, 

The national fire-brigade union holds annual meet- 
ings ; 400 brigades and 30,000 men . 4 March, 1895 

International congress at Amsterdam . 24-28 Sept. ,, 

Tournament and exhibition, &c, at the Agricul- 
tural hall iq June, 1896 

Fire-brigades of the United Kingdom reviewed by 
the queen at Windsor . . . .25 June, 1897 

The London fire brigade to be recruited from any 
source, not only from sailors . 18 July, 1889 et seq. 

Internat. ccoeress opened ia Berlin . . 6 June, 1901 

Internat. fire exhibition opened, Earl's Court, 

6 May, 1903 

Capt. J. de Courcy Hamilton appointed chief officer 
on resignation of commander Wells . 28 July, ,, 



FIRE-DAMP INDICATOR, a small appa- 
ratus, about the size of a chronometer, invented by 
Mr. G. F. Ansell, and patented by him in 1865, by 
which the presence of very small quantities of fire- 
damp or light carburetted hydrogen gas may be 
detected in mines. It is an application of the law 
of the diffusion of gases. 

FIRE-DETECTOR and ALARUM, a me- 
chanical and chemical apparatus invented by prof. 
Greehi, which causes a bell to be rung and exhibits 
coloured light, when the temperature of a room is 
greatly increased. It was tried at the Inter- 
national exhibition, London, 4 June, 1873. 
Pearson's automatic fire-indicator, practically a 

Sixe's thermometer, reported successful, 'Times, 

7 Dec. 1897 

FIRE-ENGINES are said to have been in- 
vented by Ctesibius, 250 B.C. They are mentioned 
by Pliny, a. d. 70. A "water-bow" was patented 
by Thos. Grent in 1632, one was constructed by 
John Vander Heyden, about 1663. Bramah's engine 
was patented in 1793. Mr. John Braithwaite con- 
structed a steam fire-engine in 1830. A trial of 
steam fire-engines took place at the Crystal Palace, 
Sydenham, on 1, 2, 3 July, 1863, when prizes were 
awarded to a large one by Merryweather and a 
small one by Stand and Mason. 
W. Dennis's portable self-acting pneumatic fire- 
engine was tried successfully at gas-works near 
the Thames 30 Nov. 1876 

FIRE-ESCAPES were patented by David 
Marie (1766), and Joachim Smith (1773). The Royal 
Society for the Protection of Life from Fire was 
first established in 1836; its object was not fully 
attained till 1843, when it was re-organised, begin- 
ning with six escape stations in London ; in 1859 it 
possessed 67; in 1866, 85; in 1902, 192; 56 horsed 
escapes; 37 fire escape stations. In Aug. 1867,. 
the plant of the society was virtually presented to 
the Board of Works, in consequence of the passing 
of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act, 1865, and 
subsequently passed to the London County Council 
(see lire Brigade). The fatal fire in Queen Victoria- 
street, 9 June, 1902, occasioned an inquiry respect- 
ing the adequacy of the fire escapes in use. Vers- 
mann's composition for rendering washing dresses 
fire-proof was published about i860. The British* 
Fire Prevention Committee reported an incor- 
porated scientific society, under the Board of 
Trade, March, 1899. 

FIRE INSURANCE, see Insurance. 

FIREMAN'S RESPIRATOR, the inven- 
tion of Dr. Tyndall (1870-71), is a combination of 
his respirator of cotton- wool moistened with gly- 
cerine, and Dr. Stenhouse's charcoal respirator. 
Armed with this apparatus a man may remain a 
long time in the densest smoke. 
The Loeb respirator was tried in smoke and 
poisonous vapour, and was reported efficacious 
at Westminster July, 1888 

FIRE, ROYAL SOCIETY FOR PRO- 
TECTION FROM. See Fire- Escapes. 

FIRE-SALVAGE CORPS formed, in 1865, 
by the London Fire Insurance Offices. 

FIRE-SHIPS. Among the most formidable 
contrivances of this kind ever used, was an ex- 
plosion vessel to destroy a bridge of boats at the 
siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use of them in 
the British navy was by Charles lord Howard of 
Effingham, in the engagement with the Spanish 
Armada, July, 1588. Mapin, 



FIRE-WATCH. 



470 



FIRES. 



FIRE-WATCH or FlRE-GrUARD, of Lon- 
don, was instituted Nov. 1791. 

FIRE-WORKS are said to have been made 
by the Chinese in remote ages. They were invented 
in Europe at Florence about 1360; and were exhi- 
bited as a spectacle in 1 1^88. 
Macaulay states that the fire-works let off in England at 

the peaee of Ryswick, in 1697, cost 12,000?. 
Veiy grand lire-works were let off from a magnificent 
building erected in the Green-park, London, at the 
peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, Nov. 1748. 
Exhibition of fire-works in Paris, 31 May, 1770, in honour 
of the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI. ; 
nearly 1000 persons perished by pressure and drown- 
ing, through a panic. 
The display of lire-works, under sir Wm. Congreve, at 
the general peaee, and the centenary of the accession 
of the Brunswick family to the throne, 1 Aug. 1814 
Another at the coronation of William IV., 8 Sept. 1831. 
A grand display of this kind (at a cost of io,ooo?.)to cele- 
brate the peaee with Russia, 20 May, 1856. 
In consequence of explosions frequently occurring at 
(ire-work makers (particularly one on 12 July, 1858, at 
Mr. Bennett's in the Westminster-road, Lambeth, when 
five lives were lost, and about 300 persons seriously 
injured, and much property destroyed), it was deter- 
mined to enforce 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 7 (1697), an act to 
prevent the tlirowing and forming of squibs, serpents, 
and other fire-works. An act regulating the making ol 
fire-works was passed in i860. 
Ralph Fenwick, a maker, his wife, and six others, 
Broad-street, Lambeth, killed by explosion 4 Nov. 1873. 
Mr. C. T. Brock, the greatest pyrotechnist of the time, 
has a manufactory at Nunhead ; exhibits at the Crystal 
Palace, &c. , and abroad, 1871, et seq. 

FIRES IN LONDON. The conflagration of a 
city, with all its tumult of concomitant distress, is 
one of the most dreadful spectacles which this 
world can oiler to human eyes. Dr. Johnson. Fires 
(false alarms) act passed, 6 July, 1895. 

A great part of the city destroyed, including St. 
Paul's cathedral 962 & 1087 

One at London-bridge, began on the South wark 
side, and was communicated to the other side, 
and hemmed in a numerous crowd ; about 3000 
were drowned, and a grent part of the city, north 
and south, burned 1212 

The Great Fire, whose ruins covered 396 acres, ex- 
tended from the Tower to the Temple-church, and 
from the north-east gate t<> Holbom-bridge. It 
began in a baker's house in Pudding-lane, behind 
Monument-yard, and destroyed, in the. space of 
four days, 88 churches (including St. Paul's), the 
city gates; the Royal Exchange, the Custom- 
house, Guildhall, Sion college, and many other 

public buildings, besides 13,200 houses, laying 

waste 400 streets. About 200,0 ©persons encamped 
in Islington and Bighgate fields; only 8 deaths 

reported. (See Monument.) . . *2-6Sept. 1666 

tn Houthwark, 60 houses burnt .... 1676 

In Wapping, iso houses burnt, 50 lives lost . . 1715 

i lustom house burnt 1718 

ai Bhadwell, 50] aes burnt . . 10 Sept. 1736 

In 1 "in lull Ward, !00 houses I .urn I ; this lire began 

in Change-alley, and waa the most terrible since 
the great fire of 1666 . . . 25 March, 1748 



1759 
1761 

'774 
1775 
1779 



ai 1 ni eni Garden, 50 houses burnt 

In Smithfleld, ?s houses burnt .... 

ai - liadwell, |i 1 houses burnt 

In Throgmorton-street . •■■ houses .... 

At \\ apping, n 1 houses . . . , , _ 

At l lei mltage si airs, |i houses .... 

At Horaelydown, ;.. houses, besides many ware- 
bouses and ships . . 30 April, 1780 

New ,iie, \e., by the Gordon mob . . June, 

[n the Strand, 40 houses burnt 17S1 

in Udersgate-sireet, 40 houses ; the loss exceeding 
ioo.ooof 5 Nov. 1783 

The Opera-house 17 Jllllo. 17S0 

AI Hot nciliithr. ao llOUSes . . . I2<>et. 1700 

Again, when man; Bhips and 60 houses wer 1- 

tumed 14 Sept. 1701 

Pautheon, Oxford-street .. . . 14 June, 1792 



At Wapping, 630 houses, and an East India ware- 
house, in which 35,000 bags of saltpetre were 
stored : the loss 1,000,000?. (tents for the sufferers 
were lent by the government) . . 21 July, 

Astley's amphitheatre .... 17 Sept. 

St. Paul's church, Covent-garden . 11 Sept. 

At Shad well, 20 houses burnt . . 1 Nov. 

In the Minories, 30 houses ... 23 March, 

In the King's Bench, 50 residences . 14 July, 

Near the Customs, three West India warehouses ; 
loss 300,000? 11 Feb. 

At Wapping, 30 houses .... 6 Oct. 

In Store-street, Tottenham-court-road, immense 
property destroyed . . . . 27 Sept. 

The great tower over the choir of Westminster 
abbey burnt 9 July, 

Astley's again, and 40 houses . . 1 Sept. 

Frith-street, Soho, lasted several days, many houses 
destroyed 2 Dec. 

Surrey Theatre 12 Aug. 

Covent-garden Theatre . . . .20 Sept. 

Drury-lane Theatre 24 Feb. 

fn Conduit-street ; Mr. Windham, in aiding to save 
Mr. North's library, received an injury which 
caused his death 9 July, 

Bury-street, St. Mary-axe, great fire . 12 June, 

Custom-house : warehouses, and public records 
destroyed 12 Feb. 

At Rotherhithe, 60 houses and several ships de- 
stroyed ; loss 80,000? if March, 

At Mile-end ; loss 200,000?. . . .22 Jan. 

In Smithfield ; loss 100,000?. ... 14 Aug. 

Royalty Theatre, Wellelose-sq. , destroyed 11 April, 



In Red Lion-street, 15 houses 
Argyle rooms destroyed 
English opera-house, &c, burnt 
Houses of parliament consumed 
Fenning's-wharf, London-bridge, &c. 



6 June, 
. 5 Feb. 

16 Feb. 

. 16 Oct. 

loss 250,000?. 

30 Aug. 

10 Jan. 

16 June, 

7 Feb. 

. 8 June, 



The Royal Exchange destroyed 

At Wapping, 12 houses 

Camberwell church . 

Astley's theatre again . 

At the Tower ; the armoury and 280,000 stand of 

arms, &c. , destroyed .... 30 Oct. 
Raggett's hotel, Dover-street, Piccadilly ; several 

eminent persons perished . . .27 May, 
Several houses in New-square, Lincoln's inn, 

14 Jan. 

Olympic Theatre 29 March, 

One in St. Martin's-lane (at a publican's named Ben 

Caunt), three lives lost . . . .15 Jan. 
Fire at Duke-street, London-bridge ; property lost 

estimated at 60,000? 19 Feb. 

At the Rose and Crown, Love-lane, City, four lives 

lost 18 May, 

Foot of London-bridge, four large hop warehouses 

burnt ; loss 150,000? 23 June, 

Collard and Co. , pianoforte makers, Camden-town; 

loss 60,000/. 19 Dec 

The warehouses of Messrs. Pawson, St. Paul's 

churchyard, burnt 24 Feb. 

Works of Gutta Percha Company, near City-road; 

loss 100,000?. ..... 5 June, 

Kirknian's pianoforte manufactory . . 10 Aug. 
Messrs. Scott Russell and Co.'s works, Millwall ; 

loss 100.000?. ..... 10 Sept. 

Premises of Messrs. Savill and Edwards, printers, 

Chandos-strect. destroyed . . . 30 Sept. 
Premises of Townend and Co., Bread-street, de- 
stroyed: loss about 100,000?. .. . 31 Dec. 
Messrs. Cubitt's premises, Pimlieo . 17 Aug. 

Wljiitingtoii club-house . . . 3 Dec. 

Premises of Messrs. Routledge, Messrs. Rennie, 

vxc . Blackfriars-road ; loss, one life and 150,000?., 

16 Feb. 
of Etna steam battery at Messrs. Scott Russell's 

works ; loss about 120,000?. . . 3 May, 

Pavilion Theatre 13 Feb. 

Covent-garden Theatre . . . . 5 March, 
Messrs. Seott Russell's (third fire), much valuable 

machinery destroyed . . 12 March, 

Messrs. Dobbs' premises. Fleet-street . 1 April, 

shad Thames Hour-mill; loss about 100,000?., 

17 July, 
Messrs. Broadwood's, pianoforte makers, Westmin- 
ster 12 Aug. 



J 794 

1795 
1796 

1797 
1799 

1800 



1803 



1805 
1808 
1800 



1814 

1820 
1821 
1822 
1826 
1828 



1S36 



1840 
1841 



i353 



1854 



1856 



FIRES. 471 



FIRES. 



Premises of Messrs. Almond, army accoutrement 
makers, and others, in St. Martin's-lane ; esti- 
mated loss 20,000? 9 Nov. 1856 

Messrs. Pickford's premises, at Chalk Farm station, 

9 June, 1857 
Gilbert-street, Bloomsbury ; 15 lives lost, 28 March, 1858 
Fresh- wharf ; 25,000?. of silk . . 21 June, ,, 
London docks ; great explosion ; man killed by 

fright ; loss about 150,000?. . . 29 June, „ 
Limehouse ; Messrs. Forest, Dixon's, &c. , premises 
destroyed, and Blackwall railway arches ; insured, 

19-20 July, ,, 
Gt. James-st. , Marylebone ; six lives lost, 26 Feb. 1859 
Messrs. Hubbuck and Co. , Lime-street ; one life 

and a large amount of property . . 20 May, ,, 
[West Kent wharf and New Hibernia wharf; de- 
I stroyed property valued at 200,000?. ; fire lasted 
\ nearly a month ; commenced . . 17 Aug. 186c 
fet Martin's-hall, built for Mr. Hullah, and other 

I premises, destroyed 26 Aug. ,, 

•Thames iron- works, Blackwall . . 31 Aug. ,, 
Kilburn church, Maida-hill, destroyed 29 Nov. ,, 

Surrey music-hall destroyed . . 11 June, 1861 

!otton's wharf and depot and other wharves near 
'fooley-street, containing oil and other combust- 
ible substances, took fire about half-past i p.m., 
22 June, and continued burning for a month. 
(Several persons were killed, including James 
Braidwood, the able superintendent of the Lon- 
don fire-brigade ; the loss of property was esti- 
mated at 2,000,000?.) . . . . . . . ,, 

avis's wharf, Horselydown, burnt ; loss about 
15,000?. . . . . . . .1 Aug. ,, 

ear Paternoster-row ; Messrs. Longman's, book- 
sellers, Messrs. Knight's, tallow-melters, and 
others ; loss above 50,000?. ... 4 Sept. ,, 

r. Price's, Fountain-court, Strand, three lives lost, 

3 Jan. 1862 

At Campden-house, Kensington, pictures and other 
valuable property of Mr. Woolley destroyed (see 

Trials; 1863) 23 March, „ 

Mr. Dean's, Berkeley-street, Clerkenwell, three 

lives lost 5 May, 

Mr. Joel's, Fore-street, City, four lives lost, 21 May, 
Mr. Boor's, druggist, Bishopsgate-street ; explo- 
sion ; two lives lost .... 7 June, 
Great Cumberland-street, Hyde-park ; Mr. S. Bar- 
rett and two daughters burnt . 15 Aug. 
Messrs. Price's oil-mills, Blackfriars bridge, burnt ; 
great loss of property .... 20 Nov. 
Ancient Austin-friars church, City, partially de- 
stroyed 22 Nov. 

Mr. Chard's, Portland-street, Soho ; six lives lost, 

26 Dec. 
Messrs. Capel's, Seething-lane, City ; great destruc- 
tion of property . . . 18 April, 1863 
Warehouses of Messrs. Grant and others, between 
Wood-street and Milk-street ; property worth 
about 100,000?. destroyed ... 19 Dec. ,, 
Meriton's wharf, Dockhead ; immense loss of pro- 
perty 7 June, 1864 

Royal Savoy chapel, Strand, destroyed 7 July, ,, 

Haberdashers'-hall and Messrs. Tapli-.ig and others' 

warehouses 19 Sept. ,, 

Messrs. Barry, Sufferance wharves, Dockhead ; 

great loss 25, 26 Nov. ,, 

Surrey Theatre destroyed . . .30, 31 Jan. 1865 
Saville-house (where George III. was born), Leices- 
ter-square 28 Feb. ,, 

Poulterers' arms, Leadenhall market ; two lives 

lost 13 June, ,, 

Messrs. Meeking and Co. , Holborn ; damage 30,000?. 

24 June, ,, 
Messrs. Sotheby and Co. , auctioneers ; valuable 

library destroyed .... 29 June, ,, 
Great fire at Beale's wharf; about 18,000?. damage, 

30 Oct. ,, 
Immense fire at St. Katharine's-dooks . 1 Jan. 1866 
Holland and Hennen's premises, Duke-street, 

Bloomsbury, destroyed ... 26 Aug. ,, 
Great fire in Haydon-square, Minories ; depot of 
N. W. Railway company, and other warehouses ; 

great loss n Sept. ,, 

Standard Theatre, Shoreditch, burnt down, 21 Oct. ,, 
In Hampstead-road, thirteen lives lost . 5 Nov. ,, 
North wing of the Crystal palace destroyed, 30 Dec. ,, 
Quebec-street, Oxford-street ; six lives lost, 

11 March, 1867 



Rotherhithe, 16 or 17 houses burnt; about 100 
persons destitute .... 12 Sept. 1867 

Her Majesty's theatre, Royal opera-house, de- 
stroyed; see Opera .... 6 Dec. ,, 

Oxford music-hall, Oxford-street, partially de- 
stroyed 11 Feb. 1868 

Above 20 shops burnt in Portman-market, Maryle- 
bone 23 Feb. „ 

Hubbard and Stutters' hop-warehouses ; and many 
small houses destroyed . . . 10 Aug. ,, 

Northumberland house, Strand ; valuable pictures, 
&c. , injured 19 Aug. ,, 

Adelaide rooms, Strand, destroyed . 14 March, 1869 

All Saints church, Walworth, destroyed 27 April, „ 

Mrs. Jago's, Pentonville-hill ; 3 perish 5 June, „ 

Moscow-road, Bays water ; through explosion of 
fireworks ; 7 persons perish . . .1 Oct. „ 

Mr. McMicken's, Newington- butts ; 4 lost 10 Oct. „ 

Old Star and Garter hotel, Richmond ; Win. Lever, 
the manager, killed .... 12 Jan. 1870 

Mr. Hill's, upholsterer's, Waterloo-road ; 6 children 
suffocated 23 July, ,, 

Church-street, Rotherhithe ; 3 lives lost 23 Aug. „ 

Cecil-house, Cecil-street, Strand ; Mr. Forbes burnt; 
architectural books, &c. , of Mr. G. G. Scott de- 
stroyed 4 Sept „ 

Mr. Bush's, manufacturing chemist, Liverpool- 
street, Bishopsgate ; 4 lives lost . 27 Sept. ,, 

Chapel- street, Edgware-road, 4 lives lost ; Crouch- 
end, Hornsey, 3 lives lost . . .5 March, 1871 

Pavilion-road, Chelsea ; 5 deaths . 26 March, ,, 

Gray's-inn-road ; James Ford, a fireman, lost his 
life after saving 6 .... 7 Oct. ,, 

Thames-street ; Nicholson's and other warehouses 
destroyed ; great loss . . . .24 Oct. ,, 

Oxford music-hall ; quite destroyed . 1 Nov. 1872 

City flour-mills, Upper Thames-street ; 1 fireman 
killed 10, 11, 12 Nov. ,, 

Grosvenor-mews, Bond-street, 6 killed . 27 May, 1873 

Alexandra-palace, Muswell-hill, destroyed, 1 life 
lost ...... 9 June, ,, 

Silver-street, Stepney ; 2 killed . . 10 Sept. ,, 

Lloyd's newspaper printing-office, Whitefriars, 
destroyed .... 4 p.m. 29 Dec. ,, 

Pantechnicon (ivhieh see), Knightsbridge ; much 
valuable property destroyed . . 13, 14 Feb. 1874 

Carnaby-street, W. ; 2 lives lost . 15 Feb. „ 

Latta's great hop warehouse, Bermondsey, de- 
stroyed 28 Dec. ,, 

RimmeFs perfumery manufactory, Beaufort-house, 
Strand, destroyed .... 19 March, 1875 

W. Walker's cabinet manufactory, Bunhill-row, 
E.C., destroyed ; estimated loss 30,000?. 14 Sept. ,, 

Mr. H. A. Hankey's new mansion, near St. Anne's 
gate, St. James's park, destroyed ; about 60,000?. 
damage 7, 8 Oct. ,, 

East London Rice and Flour Mills, Devonshire- 
street ; and 18 other buildings . . 3 Jan. 1876 

Chick's Great Western Pantechnicon . 2 June, ,, 

Messrs. Warner's and other premises, Brook's-, 
wharf, Upper Thames-street . . 15-18 June, ,, 

Little Windmill-street, Haymarket ; about 80,000?. 
damage ; many poor sufferers . . 15 July, ,, 

Biidgman's saw-mills, St. Luke's, destroyed 

24-25 July, „ 

Grant & Co.'s printing-office, <fcc, Turn mill-street, 
Clerkenwell ; about 100,000?. loss . 10, 11 Aug. ,, 

Mill-street, Hanover-square, W., three lives lost 

18 Sept. ,, 

New wharf flour-mills, &c, Rotherhithe, de- 
stroyed ; above 80,000?. loss . . 8 Oct. ,, 

Near Old Kent-road, two lives lost ; suspected 
arson 2 Nov. ,, 

House of Correction, Clerkenwell, mill-house, &c; 
no prisoners injured or escaped . 24 March, 1877 

Charing-eross restaurant, oue life lost 21 May, ,, 

Little Britain, E.G., a paraffin lamp upset; four 
lives lost 9 July, „ 

250, Mile End-road, two lives lost . . 23 Oct. ,, 

Scottish Corporation hall, Crane-court, Fleet-street 
(built by Wren), burnt many valuable portraits, 
&c. 14 Nov - ». 

Watson's wharf, Wapping, lossabt. 30,000?. 31 Dec. ,, 

Manchester warehouses, Watling-street ; Crocker 

& Co. ; and others ; about 200,000?. loss 12 Jan. 1878 
Elephant and Castle theatre destroyed 26 March, ,, 
Price and Co., oil-merchants', &e. . . 3 Sept. ,, 



FIRES. 472 



FIRES. 



Messrs. Tylor's, brass-founders, <fcc, Newgate-street, 

great loss 2-3 Jan - l8 79 

New East London Theatre, Whitechapel-road, seve- 
ral houses injured .... 16 March, „ 
Wesley's chapel, City-road, nearly destroyed, caused 

by heating apparatus . . . . 7 Dec. „ 
Holborn, Roworth's printing office . . 19 April, 1880 
Messrs. Hodgkinson's, chemists, and others, four 

perish 30 April, „ 

The Duke's Theatre, Holborn, burnt. . 4 July, „ 
Whitechapel church, recently rebuilt, destroyed, 

26 Aug. , , 
Trinity-lane, Thames-street, large block of buildings, 

and much property destroyed . . 3 Feb- 1881 
Cooperative stores, Haymarket, destroyed ; loss 

about 20,000/ 23 April, ,, 

Mr. Allen's, stationer, 96, Walworth-road, 4 deaths, 

26 April, ,, 
422, Portobello-road,Notting-hill, 6 deaths, 16 May; 
(Win. Nash, shopkeeper, charged with arson and 
minder ; convicted, but reprieved) . 30 May, „ 
Messrs. T. Foster and Co.'s warehouses, Cheapside ; 
much property destroyed: checked by firemen 
and good building .... 1 Sept. ,, 
Dowgate dock warehouse; aid. Breffit's 3 Sept. ,, 
Park" theatre, Camden Town, destroyed 10 Sept ,, 
Morson and Son, chemical works, explosion; 2 killed 

17 Jan. 1882 
Philharmonic Theatre, Islington, interior destroyed 

6 Sept. „ 
Whiteley's great stores, Westbourne Grove, W., 

about 100,000/. damage ... 17 Nov. „ 

The Royal Alhambra Theatre destroyed ; 3 men 

killed 7 Doc. „ 

Wood-street, &c, premises of Foster, Porter, and 

Co., Rylands, Silber, and Fleming, and others. 

A large block of buildings destroyed, estimated 

loss nearly 2,000,000/. : 1 death . 8-10 Dec. ,, 

St. Ann's restaurant and warehouses in Cheapside 

destroyed 15 Dec. ,, 

St. John's Presbyterian church, Forest-hill, de- 
stroyed 17 Dec. ,, 

Another tire at Whiteley's ... 26 Dec. ,, 

Windsor-street, E.C., s deaths . . 16 Jan. 1883 
Ne wnhani- street, Edgeware - road, 5 deaths 

14 April, ,, 
Messrs. Kegati, Paul, and Co. s premises, and other 

buildings (16 firms), Paternoster-square 17 April, „ 
Freemason's-hall much injured . . 3 May, ,, 
Lunatic asylum, Southall-park, W., Dr. Boyd and 

5 others perish 14 Aug. ,, 

Hay warehouses at Foreign-cattle-market, Dcpt- 

ford ; damage, about 18,000/. . . 18 Sept. ,, 

Great fire at Haggerston, beginning at Messrs. 
Lines, timber merchants, saw mills and eleven 
small houses destroyed; 40 families homeless 

5-9 Nov. ,, 
Messrs. Silver and Co., premises near Cornhill 

17 Jan. 1884 
Premises of Messrs. Pardon, printers, &c, Messrs. 
Williams, Faudel, and Phillips, Smith Brothers, 
and others, LovelTs-court, Paternoster-row, de- 
stroyed, 7.30P.M. ; by great exertions fire quelled, 

1 1 P.M 2 April, ,, 

Bell hotel, Old Bailey ; three young women lament- 
ably perish, about 3.30 a.m. . . 23 April, ,, 
Another Ureal Whiteley's stores, loss about 150,000/. 

26 April, ,, 
East End Aquarium, menagerie, and waxwork, 
Ac . Bishopsgate, destroyed ; lioness, bear, mon- 
keys, and other annuals perish, 8.30 A.M. 

4 June, ., 
Wapping, Messrs. E. II. Cousens and Co., ware- 
houses ami others ; damage about 100,000/. 

19-20 July, , 
Mr. Abrahams, hatter, :; , Wilton-road, Pimlico, 

7.45 a.n , ., deaths .... 12 Aug. , 
Messrs. Hodgson's envelope manufactory, Little 
Trinity-lane, destroyed, about io,oooJ. loss, 9.45 

*.M. .is Aug. , 

Jones's wharl ; great destruetion oftimber 17 Dec. ,, 

Holies-street, Clare-market, 4 deaths . 31 Dec. ,, 
Mr. II. Chandler's, 104, union-st., Borough; 5 
lives lost, including Alice A] res. whocourageously 

saved | children 2-...., April, r88s 

Japanese \ Illage burnt ; 1 life lost . . 2 May, , 
Jackson and Graham's upholstery workshops, near 
Oxford-et ... . 6Mav, „ 



Messrs. Groom's wood-yard at Camberwell de- 
stroyed 9 Ma y. l88 5 

India Museum, South Kensington, much injured 

12 June, „ 
Mr. W. Whiteley's establishment, at Westbourne- 
grove, over 100,000/. damage, (? incendiary) 

17 Juue. , r 
St. John's-road, Hoxton ; 3 lives lost . 26 Aug. ,, 
Charterhouse buildings, &c, Clerkenwell ; 14 

houses destroyed ; loss 20,000/. . . 8 Oct. ,> 
Anton, Brenda & Co., Japanese merchants, Hounds- 
ditch ; damage 25,000/. ... 15 Feb. 1886 
" Three Compasses," Beak-street, W. ; 3 lives lost ; 

2.20 a.m 28 April, , t 

"Jacob's Well," Shoreditch ; 3 lives lost 12 May, ., 
Grandison-road, Battersea ; 2 lives lost 30 Nov. ,, 
Knightrider-street, city ; several houses and St. 

Mary Magdalene church destroyed . 2 Dec. ,, 
24, Grafton-street, W., and adjoining buildings 

18-19 Dec. ,, 
103, 104, Wood-street, city . . . 1 Jan 188? 
22, Newman-street, Oxford-street ; 4 lives lost 

26 June, ,, 
Mr. W. Whiteley's establishment and neighbouring 
houses destroyed by fire ; estimated damage 
500,000/. ; 3 lives lost ; 3,000/. reward for dis- 
covery of incendiary . . . . 6-9 Aug. , t 
Messrs. Kindon & Powell's oil-cloth manufactory 

burnt, loss about 50,000/. ... 6 Dec. ,„ 
Grand Theatre, Islington, totally destroyed in an 

hour, 12.55 a.m 29 Dec. ,, 

No. 274, Strand ; 2 boys perish ; Sunday, 18 Sept. ; 
Leon Serne, the father, and John Henry Gold- 
finch tried for murder, 13 Dec. ; acquitted 15 
Dec. 1887. Leon Serne sentenced to twenty- 
years' penal servitude ; Goldfinch acquitted 21 Jan. 1888 
Houndsditch, 4 persons (foreigners) perish, 20 Jan. ,, 
Bay-tree tavern, No. 5, St. Swithin's-lane 12 May, , y 
Messrs. Garrould's, drapers, &c, Edgware-road, 6 
women perish ; 6 a.m. 30 May ; jury censures the 
kitchen-maid for carelessness with a lucifer- 
match, and two fire-brigade men for neglect 

of duty 11 June, „ 

Messrs. Doulton's potteries, Lambeth ; great part 

of the works destroyed, damage 15,000/. 11 Dec. ,, 
Farringdon meat market, thirty shops destroyed 

6 Jan. 1889 
Ward's Wharf, Commercial-rd., Lambeth; damage 

about 20,000/ .7-8 Feb. ,, 

Messrs. W. & D. Gibb's great soap-works, Milton- 
street and surrounding premises destroyed, 
estimated damage 250,000/. ... 6 May, ,, 
Messrs. W. H. <fe F. Croker, builders, and Messrs. 
Bonsey, corn merchants, extensive buildings 
near Great Dover-street, Borough . . 7 July, ,, 
Messrs. Burroughs and Wellcome, manufacturing 
chemists. Bell-lane, Wandsworth, fireman Jacobs 
suffocated; (long inquest) . . .11 Oct. ,, 
The Salvation army offices, Queen Victoria-street, 

upper floors destroyed .... 3 Dec. ,„ 
Block of buildings 'in Charterhouse-square, W. 
Smithfield (Mr. Burgess, printer, Messrs. Rud- 
dinian, Johnston <fc Co. .publishers, & Mr. Ferranti, 
electrical engineers) ; great destruction . 25 Dec. , - 
Forest-gate District Industrial school, London, E., 
partly destroyed ; 26 boys, aged between 7 and 
12 years, suffocated ; many escaped through the 
energy of Mr. Charles Duncan, the supenntend- 
ant, and other officials, early 1 Jan.; inquest, 
verdict, accidental death with strong recommend- 
ations 20 Jan. 1890 

Premises of Messrs. James & Pike, mantle manu- 
facturers, back of the General Post-office, partly 
destroyed, estimated loss 40,000/. . . 3 Feb. „ 
Premises of Messrs. (lay. Armstrong & Co., skin 
merchant's, Westminster-bridge-road, 2 lives lost 

18 Feb. ,, 
Sir W. A. Rose & Co.'s great oil mills, Bankside, 
Southwark, destroyed ; London illuminated by 
the blazing oil ; no loss of life, two firemen in- 
jured, horses rescued . . . 24 April, ,, 
nM .Sun, coal wharf, Messrs. Ray, destroyed 

29 Aug. ,, 
Messrs. Rowley & Brock, hat-makers, premises in 
Cloth-lair destroyed, by the combustion of 
naphtha ; S deaths, 3 men and 5 women, about 

I P.M. 13 Oct. „ 



FIEES. 

.Messrs. Vogan & Co.'s granaries, &c, Mill-street, 

Dockhead, destroyed ; great fire . . 9 Nov. ic 
Wellington barracks, Westminster, much injured ; 
six persons hurt ; no deaths through the gallant 
and orderly conduct of the soldiers [two children 

died afterwards] 12 Nov. , 

Messrs. Lever, Wright & Co., furriers, Bunhill- 

row ; great loss 28 Nov. , 

Herbert-passage, Strand ; four lives lost 21 Dec. , 
Messrs. Davidson, paper manufacturers, Upper 
Thames-street, Queen Victoria-street, &c, Messrs. 
Frankau, fancy goods importers, Revillon Freres, 
furriers, and other firms in Upper Thames street, 
and Queen Victoria street ; a large block of build- 
ings wholly or partially destroyed, tenanted by 
Messrs. C. Davidson, paper-makers, Messrs. Revil- 
lon, furriers, and i6otherfirms ; St. Benet's church, 
damaged; estimated loss 500,000/. midday, 30 Dec. 
Hope's chemical works, Hackney-wick, destroyed . 

30 Dec. 
Messrs. Morgan & Company, carriage builders, 

Long-acre, and others ; loss about 50,000/. 13 Feb. 1! 
Messrs. J. Tylors, engineers, Newgate-street, and 
other premises, workshops destroyed ; serious loss 

to workmen 21 March, 

Messrs. Pay ton & Co., tea dealers. Tower-hill, and 
other premises, greatly damaged . 11 April, 
M. C. Duffy <fe Son, saw-mills, Stork's-road, Ber- 
mondsey, destroyed and about 24 private houses 
damaged ; inhabitants compelled to leave their' 
homes hastily; much suffering; 5 a.m. — 6 p.m. 
29 April, et acq. 
House of John, Lord Romilly, 38, Egerton-gardens, 
Brompton, W., through the upsetting of a large 
spirit-lamp ; his lordship and two servants suffo- 
cated and others injured . . . .23 May 
Mr. Louis Tussaud's waxwork exhibition, Regent- 
street, destroyed by fire .... 20 June, 
25, Duncan-square, Hackney ; 3 lives lost, 20 Aug. 
Tooley-street ; wharves, occupied by Messrs. Leach 
and others, and several warehouses destroyed, 
4-5 Oct., enormous loss ; fire still burning, 24 

Oct 

401, West Ferry-road, Millwall ; 5 deaths 16 Oct. 
Satchwell-rents, Bethnal-green-road ; Mr. J. D. 
Rawlins' timber yard and other premises de- 
stroyed 12 Nov. 

Premises of Messrs. Bverleigh and others in Fore- 
street, E.C 9, 10 Dec. 

Messrs. Rothschild and others, 11, Silk-street, 

Cripplegate, City, E.C 14 Dec. 

3, Cheyne-row, Chelsea, 2 lives lost . 15 Dec. 

Mr. Minnis and others, Lavender-hill, Battersea ; 

2 lives lost iq Dec 

Messrs. Shoolbred's workshops and other premises, 
Mitford-place, Tottenham-court -road . 22 Dec. 
Premises of Bottle Seal company, Eagle-wharf- 
road, N '.23 Dec. 

Premises of A. Wicklow and others, Bermondsey- 

street, S.E 2, Dec. 

Mumford's flour mills, Albert Embankment, near 

Vauxhall-bridge ; nearly destroyed . 27 Jan. : 
Premises of Messrs. Grindley & Co. and others, 
Upper North-street, Poplar * . . 27-29 Jan. 
J. Latham, timber-merchant, premises in Curtain- 
road, E.C, many houses destroyed or injured, 
causing much distress . . .8-11 March, 
House of Mr. Weston, butcher, 10, Lillie-road, 
Fulham ; his wife, 2 children and Miss Glover 

burnt to death 18 March, 

Mr. G. Odone's restaurant, 152, Victoria-street, 

Westminster, 3 lives lost . . 29 March, 

Messrs. Eyre k, Spottiswoode, the queen's printers, 

premises at Little New-street-hill, Fetter-lane, 

much injured and property destroyed (about 

15,000/.) 4 April, 

Premises of Page <fe Pratt and other firms, Great 
Saffron-hill, E.C, destroyed or much injured 

10 April, 
Scott's supper-rooms, Coventry-street, Haymarket, 

4 youths perish 9 May, 

Union-street, W.C., Mary Ann Flood perishes in 
vainly endeavouring to save a child . 7 May, 
Mr. S. Burrows' dancing academy, Hargrave-park- 
road, Upper Holloway ; Wm. Smart and Wm. 
Abernethy, firemen, killed . . 10 June, 
Jewin-street and crescent, Aldersgate-street, pre- 
mises belonging to the Goldsmiths' company, 



473 



FIEES. 



tenanted by the London Printing and Publishing 
Alliance, and others .... 29 Aug. 18 

Destruction of Messrs. Sheppard & Co.'s large 
warehouses on the New Sun wharf, and other 
premises, Narrow-street, Ratclifl'-highway 

24, 25 Oct. 

Great fire in the London and India docks, Wap- 
ping ; large warehouses destroyed . 25-28 Nov. 

23, Tower-street, Westminster-bridge-road ^deaths 

26 Jan. iS 

Messrs. Darell, timber merchants, Globe wharf, 
Mile-end-road; saw-mills, much timber, &c, 
destroyed 2-4 March, 

Premises of Messrs. Judd & Co., printers, and 
many others, St. Andrew's-hill, E.C, and Carter- 
lane ; much destruction ... 31 March, 

Messrs. Wm. Cubbitt's works, Gray's-inn-road ; 
estimated loss, nearly ioo,oooL . . 17 June, 

W. Brown & Co., wholesale stationers, and others, 
38-40, St. Mary-axe, E.G., and other places 

18 July, 

129, Whitechapel High-street, premises of Messrs. 
Brooke, Bond & Co., tea blenders, and others, 

18 July, 

Messrs. Beauchamp Bros.' general stores, Bromp- 
ton-road, S.W 18 July, 

62, Fulham Palace-road ; Mr. Wale (oilman) and 4 
children burnt 4 Sept. 

High-street, Whitechapel; Mr. Hermann (pastry 
cook) and 4 women burnt . . 19 Sept. 

Messrs. Thomson & Co., perfume manufacturers, 
&c, Old Bailey and adjoining buildings, Fleet- 
lane, &c. ; 1 fireman killed . . 15-16 Nov. 

British Xylonite company's premises, High-street, 
Homerton ; 1 death .... 29 Dec. 

Stacey-street, W.C. ; 2 women burnt . 30 Dec. 

11, Northampton-street, Clerkenwell, by the up- 
setting of a paraffin lamp ; 5 deaths 24 March, 1 

Great fire at the London docks . . 3-5 April, 

Tabernacle-street, Nos. 62-78; Messrs. Lebus, 
Harris & Co., cabinet-makers and others ; over 
30 buildings destroyed or seriously damaged, 

21-22 June, 

Minories; premises of the Terrabona (tea) com- 
pany, and Messrs. Martin, Pulvermann & Co. 
and others ; also at Messrs. T. J. Brodie, printers, 
Clerkenwell-road 10 Nov. 

At 8, Clegg-street, Wapping ; 3 deaths 24 Nov. 

Premises of Messrs. Harper, upholsterers, and 
others, Cygnet-street, E. . . . 3> 4 Dec- 
French laundry, Nos. 412, 414, Ed g ware-road ; 
totally destroyed ; Mdm. Martin, the proprietor, 
and 7 others per/shed ; 1-2 a.m. . • 2 Jan. : 

Fire at the S. W. India docks ; block of buildings 
destroyed 8-10 Feb. 

Destructive fires in Wood-street and Jewry-street 

9 March, 

In Hermit-road, Canning-town, through bursting 
of a lamp; 5 children suffocated . . 5 April, 

Messrs. Goode, printers, Clerken well-green, 30 Aug. 

Mr. A. Houston's house, 65, Queen's-cresc, N.W. ; 
3 deaths 12 Jan 

The Cambridge music-hall burnt down 28 Jan. 

7, Church-street, Soho (lodging-house), 3 a.m. ; 9 
lives lost 16 Feb - 

Messrs. Ashby & Horner, builders, Love-lane, 
Shadwell 24 Feb. 

Messrs. Clozenberg, cabinet-makers, Charlotte- 
street; warehouses in Pa vey-st., E.C. 10-12 June, 

Messrs. Davies & Evans, oil and colourmen, Mare- 
street, Hackney ; 4 deaths . . 17 June, 

Premises of Gt. Western R. Co., Paddington, 

22 June, 

Rudyard-place, Bermondsey ; 4 deaths . 10 July, 

Messrs. Street's cabinet factory, New-inn-yard, 
Shoreditch 10-11 Sept. 

Portman chapel, Baker-street, much injured by 
fire 25 Oct. 

8, Clarence-street, Bethnal-green, Eliza Hoilington, 
burnt to death 2 Nov. 

274, Caledonian-road, Islington, Mr. and Mrs. 

Jones, and 3 others, burnt ... 3 Nov. 
Messrs. Shand, Mason <fc Co., engineering works, 

Blackfriars, burnt, .... 7-9 Nov. 
The belfry tower of St. George's church, Hanover- 

s.uiare, burnt, through fusion of electric wires, 

18 Nov. 



FIRES. 



474 



FIRES. 



Lodging-house, 18, Dorset-street, W. ; 4 deatlis, 

23 Nov. 

28, Aintree-street, Fulliam ; 3 deaths . 30 Nov. 

Messrs. Moss & Co., timber merchants, Hoxton- 
street, Hoxton 4 Jan. 

60, Grosvenor-street, \V., the house of the dowager 
countess De La Warr, wlio narrowly escaped, 
burnt down; 1 death . . . 26 Jan. 

Messrs. Walker & Hall, silversmiths, &c, Shoe- 
lane, warehouse gutted . . . 1 Feb. 

Messrs. Maple & Co., Little Camden-street, Camden 
Town, warehouse (block E), destroyed, 6, 7 Feb. 

Explosion of gas and fire at a hop warehouse, etc., 
Chapel-street, Borough ; 2 deaths . 15 Feb. 

Wareham-street, Hoxton, caused by a lamp at a 
bedside ; 3 deaths .... 6 March, 

Messrs. Gleaney i Hay's printing premises, Gate- 
street, Lincoln's-hm-fields, burnt 26, 27 April, 

At a cotl'ee-house, Caledonian-road, Islington ; 2 
deaths 26 April, 

Destructive fire : Messrs. King, publishers ; Messrs. 
Plimpton, cabinet-makers ; and other warehouses 
burnt; Curtain-road, Shoreditch . . 13 June, 

196, Kegent's-park-road, Hannah Bush, burnt to 
death 7 July, 

113, Drury-lane, 2 persons burnt, and 1 killed by a 
fall 4 Aug. 

Fire in a stable, King Edward-street, Whitechapel ; 
4 horses burnt 7 Aug. 

Messrs. Carter, Paterson & Co., carriers, Goswell- 
road, buildings, &c, destroyed. . 31 Oct. 

City kire: over 4 acres, 2J acres burnt out, 
17 streets affected: began at Messrs. Waller & 
Brown, Well-street, Cripplegate, at 12.50 p.m., 
19, 20 Nov. ; no lives lost ; estimated loss, about 
2,ooo,ooo£. (insurance loss, 1,000,000/.); over 100 
warehouses destroyed ; 4,000 persons thrown out 
of work ; relief fund opened, 22 Nov. (795/. 
surplus given to the I ire brigade, 15 March, 
1898); inquest at the Guildhall, began 6 Dec.; 
verdicl : the fire attributed to the wilful ignition 
of goods by person or persons unknown, 12 Jan. 

Dixie-street, Bethnal-green, the Jarvis family 
(mother and 9 children), burnt . . 26 Dec. 

Morning-lane, 188, Hackney; 2 deaths 25 Jan. 

Destructive Are (druggists), High Hoi born, ioFeb. 

Sir Henry [rving's theatrical stores, Bear-lane 
Southwark, burnt .... 18 Feb. 

London Gen. Omnibus Co.'s stores, stables, <.tc, 
bund, Bell-lane, Spitalfields . . 2 March. 

Tic- Tabernacle (Spurgeon's), Newington Butts. 
burnt 20 April, 

Messrs. McDougall's premises, flour merchants, 
Milwall Docks, burnt . . . 19-21 Sept. 

Messrs. Hudden, iron and tin workers, warehouse, 
72, Clerken well-road, burnt ; 1 death . 14 Dec. 

Bedfordbury, Covent Garden ; 2 deaths . 5 Feb. 

Cork warehouse, 73, 74, 75 Minories ; much damage. 

Q fell. 

Messrs, Tucker, Johnson c\ Co., printers, premises 

burnt, Southwark t a Feb. 

I,. Sch'wabacher's premises, Bread-street, Cheap- 
Bide 20 ^b. 

Mi re, Keillor's .jam factory, Silvertown, 

3, 4 April, 
Destructive Ire, glass warehouse, &c, Farringdon- 

,"' Mi 13 April, 

Hyde Park-court, Aibort-gate, residential flats, 

MUlwall docks, large stores burn! . . -.-4 April. 

Donald Currie & Co.'s offices, &c, Orchard-place, 
Blackwall, B. ; much damage 12, 13 May! 

16 hies in London t3 M av 

M '-■ Spottisu le S Co., printers, 54, Grace- 
church si reel ; much damage . . 1 June 

\ Ictoria docks, Iron warehouse burnt dovi w] 
Banffshin s.s. and barges, &c. : much dam 

I ,| "' 111 ' 1, a June, 

Messrs. Young Bros., lornge merchants, Crinan- 

street, Kin| horses bunil . 1- June, 

Western Electrical Co,'s premises, V Woolwich; 

buildings deal royed ... 21 Julj 

W, Keen's chaii ractory, and 2 rows of cottages! 

I I li Wye imbi greal loss . . ... j u k 
Bull-stairs wharf, Messrs, Sadler* Co., Blackfriars! 

22 July, 

1 " lane, Bi rmondsey, Messrs. w. Clarke & 

1 lo. ; much loss ta July 



Messrs. A. McKenzie, coach builders, Walnut-tree- 
walk, Lambeth ; buildings destroyed . 4 Oct. 

Houndsditch, engineering workshop ; 1 death, 

7 Oct. 

West Ham technical institute, Stratford, burnt ; 
estimated damage, 80,000'. . . -.23 Oct. 

Willow-tree inn, Ball's-pond-road, Islington ; 5 little 
children burnt 13 Nov. 

Watson-street, Plaistow ; 4 young children killed, 

20 Nov. 

11 deaths 11-24 Nov. 

Messrs. E. Carr & Sons, sack manufacturers, 14 
to 20, The Grange, Bermondsey . . 22 Is o v. 

Messrs. Isbister & Co. and Ballantyne & Co., 
printers, an 1 other premises, Tavistock-street, 
Strand , . 8, 9 Dec. 

Great Are, Messrs. Haggis, timber yards, and 
Messrs. Mowlem, contractors, and dwelling- 
houses, Caledonian-road .... 9 Dec. 

Messrs. Weber, Wolf, boot factories ; Messrs. 
Lifttree, Emil <fe Co. ; great damage ; Banner- 
street, St. Luke's 10 Dec. 

147, St. George-street, E. , oilshop ; 5 children burnt 
to death 11 Dec. 

St. Paul's-road, Camden Town ; 2 ladies named 
Poole burnt 22 Dec. 

Business premises (Messrs. Lloyd and others), 
Featherstone-street, Old-street, City, destroyed, 

13 Jan. : 

Grand Theatre, Islington, much damaged by tire, 

26 Feb. 

Large timber yards and buildings, Millwall, burnt, 

26 March, 

Warehouses, Hay's wharf, Tooley-street, 

22, 23 April, 

St. Luke's mission church, the Board school, and 
Messrs. Kellett's premises, Willesden, burnt ; 
estimated damage, 30,000/. . . .26 April, 

Blyth's wharf, Limehouse, Mr. Richardson's 
premises, iron merchant (uninsured), destroyed, 

9, 10 June, 

Victoria docks, south jetty . . . 9, 10 Oct. 

6, Sturge-street, Southwark ; Mr. Poulton and 2 
sons killed 15 Oct. 

Model dwellings, Spitalfields ; 7 persons injured, 

6 Nov. 

Printer's premises, Colley's Patents (limited), and 
Cooke & Co., 147-150 Gt. Saffron-hill, burnt, 

24 Nov. 

Day's drug stores, Borough-road, Southwark, 

4 Dec. 

Chemical works at Blackwall, destroyed . 10 Feb. ] 

Fatal lire, 8 deaths . 14-17 Feb. 

A. C. Horsley's premises, Melior-street, Ber- 
mondsey, and other buildings, burnt, 

9, 10 March, 

11, Barnsbury-street ; Mr. Kelly, aged 80, burnt, 

23 March. 

Wandsworth and Putney gasworks, Wandsworth; 
1 death 1 April, 

363, Brixton-road, S.W. ; Fred. G. Baldock, a fire- 
man, aged 29, suffocated . . .15 April, 

8, Upper Bedford-place, Russell-square; 1 death: 
and 6q, St. John-street-road ; 2 deaths . 2 May, 

Naphtha fire in White-post-lane, Hackney-wick; 
3 deaths ; many injured . . . 27 July, 

L Ion docks fire 1, 2 Aug. 

Warehouse, 48, Fore-street, E.C. . . 13 Aug. 

Warehouse, Tower-hill, E.C. . . .17 Aug. 

Marmion Works, Lavender-hill, S.W., destroyed; 

other houses damaged .... 23 Aug. 
Warehouses, \os. 6 and 8, Royal Albert docks, 

gutted * -29 Aug. 

Messrs Lascelles' factory, and other premises. 

Bunhill-row, City, burnt . . . 8 Sept. 
Messrs. White. Tomkins & Courage's premises 

desi royed, Rotherhithe - street, Bermondsey ; 

estimated damage, 7o,ooo{. . . . 15 Sept. 
Globe Express Co., Errol-street, E.C; 4 horses 

burnt 1 Oct. 

Messrs. E. Can's factory, Bermondsey; Messrs. 

Emery's (draper's) premises, Bow-road, E., burnt 

Inu 11 ; 2 deaths 14 Oct. 

Oilshop gutted, Judd-street, King's-cross ; 3 

deaths 6 Nov. 

Blouse factory, 14. London-wall, gutted, 7, S Nov. 



FIRES. 



475 



FISH, FISHERIES. 



Great Fire in Gresham-street, City, the ware- 
houses of 53 firms affected ; over 50,000?. loss ; 1901 
11.22 p.m., 25 Nov. — 5 p.m. . ' . 26 Nov. ,, 
Leather Market, Bermondsey, Messrs. Marget- 
son's factory, &c, 24 Nov. ; Messrs. Strong & 
Rawle, fellmongers, 25 Nov. ; and Messrs. Tebbitt's 
premises destroyed ; Messrs. Christy's much 

damaged Nov. 30 

Messrs. J. Barringer's oil factory, Hackuey-wick, 

destroyed 30 Dec. 

Fatal fire, 24, Church-street, Plaistow ; 3 deaths, 

17 Jan. 1902 
Fatal fires in private houses ; 5 deaths . 1 Feb. 
Messrs. Valentine & Norrish's premises, Wands- 
worth-road, S.B., burnt ; 3 deaths . 4 March, 
Messrs. Rogers, 423, Hackney-road, E. ; 7 deaths, 

19 April, 

Barbican : about 40 buildings damaged, some 

totally destroyed ; estimated insurance loss, 

250,000?." ...... 21, 22 April, 

Lever-street, St. Luke's ; 2 deaths, 2 injured, 

30 April 

Henshaw-street, Walworth ; 3 deaths . 10 May, 

Welsbach Incandescent Light Co., Palmer-street, 

Westminster, great fire . . . .20 May, 

Messrs. N. Levy & Co.'s boot factory, burnt, 

High-street, Shoreditch ... 8 June, 

Electric Lighting Co., Queen Victoria-street, City; 

9 girls and a boy killed (C. J. Jayne's heroic 

efforts to save life fruitless) ; some injured, 9 June, 

Messrs. Olney, Amsden & Sons, haberdashery 

warehouse, Falcon-street, burnt out . 13 Aug. 

Messrs. Roperstone & Lehap's cabinet works, 

Vallance-road, Whitechapel, gutted . 30 Aug. 

Bermondsey, 78, Jamaica-road ; 1 death . 9 Sept. 

Messrs. Dixon & Hayne's furniture depository, 

Harrow-road, Paddington, gutted ; great loss, 

over 170,000?., tapestries, &c. (uninsured), 11 Sept. 

Gatesborough-street, Shoreditch, cabinet factory, 

14 Sept. 

Victoria dock, wharf, acme wood flooring premises, 

burnt out ; estimated damage, 30,000/. 18 Sept. 

Messrs. T. Smith & Co.'s warehouse, Finsbury- 

square, gutted 18 Sept. 

Messrs. Piggott & Co., Booth-street, Spitaltields, 
gutted ....... 3 Oct. 

Messrs. Redmayne & Co., silk mercers, 19, zo New 
Bond-street; estimated damage, 34,000?., 

26, 27 Oct. 
Royal Mint-street, Minories, 3 deaths . 22 Nov. 
Tarpaulin factory destroyed, 57 Glengal-road, S.E. 

24 Nov. 

[19 deaths from fires in London, in 7 days, Nov. 7-24] 

Ben Jonson-road, Stepney, draper's shop, Mrs. 

Schlesinger and 5 of her children burned to 

death 29 Dec. ,, 

Messrs. McMurray's paper mills, 8. Wandsworth, 

burned 17-18 Jan. 1903 

Colnev Hatch Asyl'm, wooden annexe destroyed 
in about an hour, 51 women killed, the rest saved 
with great difficulty .... 27 Jan. ,, 
Destitute poor asylum, Banner-street, St. Luke's, 

1 death 28 Feb. 

Civil Service stores, Haymarket . 13-14 March, 
9 Sumner-street, Clerkenwell, 2 deaths .9 April, 
Baltic-place, Golden-lane, 1 death . . 17 April, 
Battersea-rise, S.W. 1 death . . 19 May, 

Eton Collegk, at boarding-house of Mr. R. S. 
Kindersley, 2 scholars burned to death, iron- 
barred windows preventing their egress. Messa- 
ges of condolence from the king and queen, 

1 June, 

Destructive fire at goods warehouse of Midland 

railway co. in St. Pancras-road, Somers-town, 

28 June, 
Panton - street, Haymarket, at foreign produce 

importers i3 Aug. 

Corrugated iron buildings in Limehouse basin of 

the W. Indja docks 1 Sept. 

Charing Cross-road, builders' merchant, much 

damage to adjoining property . . 10 Sept. 

Furrier's warehouse, Queen - street, Cheapside, 

10 Sept. 
Confectionery factory at Camberwell, and adjoin- 
ing premises of the London Essence co. 26 Sept. 



There were 953 fires in 1854 ; 1113 in 1857 '• XII 4 m 
1858 (38 lives lost); 1183 in 1861. 1303 fires in 
1862 ; 1404 in 1863 ; and 1715 in 1864. In 1866, 
1338 fires (326 serious) ; in 1867, 1397 fires (245 
serious) ; in 1868, 1668 fires (235 serious) ; in 1869, 
1572 fires (199 serious) ; in 1870, 1946 fires (276 
serious) ; in 1871, 1842 (207 serious) ; in 1872, 
1494 (120 serious) ; in 1873, 1548 (166 serious : 35 
lives lost) ; in 1874, 1573 (154 serious : 23 lives 
lost) ; in 1875, 1529 (163 serious : 29 lives lost) ; 
in 1876, 1632 (166 serious : 35 lives lost) ; in 1877, 
1533 (159 serious: 29 lives lost); in 1878, 1659 
(170 serious); in 1879, 1718; 1880, 1871 (162 seri- 
ous; 33 lives lost) ; in 1881, 1991 (167 serious: 40 
lives lost) ; 1882, 1926 (164 serious : 36 lives 
lost); 1883, 2144 (184 serious: 39 lives lost) ; 1884, 
2,289 ( I 94 serious : 42 lives lost) ; 1885, 2,270 
(160 serious; 47 lives lost); 1886, 2,149 C^ 1 
serious ; 49 lives lost) ; 1887, 2,363 (175 serious ; 
55 lives lost); 1888, 1,884(121 serious; 48 lives 
lost). In but few cases were the premises totally 
destroyed. 1889, 2,338 (153 serious, 44 lives lost) ; 
1890, 2,555 (153 serious, 61 lives lost) ; 1891, 2,892 
(193 serious, 47 lives lost); 1892, 3,146(177 serious, 
64 lives lost) ; 1893, 3,410 (180 serious, 82 lives 
lost); 1894, 3,061 (151 serious, 82 lives lost) ; 1895, 
3,633 (142 serious, 91 lives lost); 1896, 3,616(122 
serious, 106 lives lost) ; 1897, 3,500 (168 serious, 
87 lives lost) ; 1899,3,846; 1900, 3,385(115 serious, 
74 lives lost) ; 1901, 3,684(99 serious, 97 lives lost); 
1902, 3,574 (76 serious, 116 lives lost). 

FIRST-FRUITS were offerings which made 
a large part of the revenues of the Hebrew priest- 
hood. First-fruits (called Annates, from annus, 
a year), in the Koman church, originally the profits 
of one year of every vacant bishopric, afterwards of 
every benefice, were first claimed hy pope Clement V. 
in 1306, and were collected in England in 1316 ; but 
chronologers differ on this point. In the 26th of 
Henry VIII. 1534, the first-fruits were assigned, by 
parliament, to the king and his successors. Mary 
gave the Annates to the popes (1555); but Eliza- 
beth resumed them (1559). They were granted, 
together with the tenths, to the poor clergy, by- 
queen Anne, in 1703. The offices of 1- irst- fruits, 
Tenths, and Queen Anne's Bounty were consoli- 
dated by 1 Vict. c. 20, 1838; see Augmentation oj 
Poor Livings. Annates « ere long resisted in France, 
but not totally suppressed till 1789. 

FIRST OFFENDERS' PROBATION 
ACT, permits the conditional release of First 
Offenders in certain cases, passed 8 Aug. 1887. 

FIRTH COLLEGE : see Sheffield, 1879. 

FISH, FISHERIES, &o. Laws for the pre- 
lection of fisheries were enacted bv Edward 1. in 
1284, and by his successors. The rights of the 
English and French fishermen were defined by treaty 
in 1839; see Ichthyoloiiy, Herring, Whale, New- 
foundland Fisheries, Oysters, Trawling. Theknown 
species of fish are about 8525. G tint her, 1880. 

Fishmongers' company of London (salt) 1433 ; 

(stock) 1509; united *53 6 

Fishing towns regulated by an act passed in . . 1542 
Fishing on our coast forbidden to strangers . . 1609 
The Dutch paid 30,000?. for permission to fish on 

the coasts of Britain i°3 6 

Corporation of Free British fisheries instituted . 1750 
Fish-machines, for conveying fish by land to Lon- 
don, set up in 1761 ; and supported by parlia- 
ment x 764 

The British Society of Fisheries established in 

London in 1786 

The Irish Fishery Company formed in . Dec. 1818 
In 1849, two peasants, Remy and Gehin, obtained 
medals for their exertions in cultivating fish in 
France, and the government set up an establish- 
ment for this purpose at Huningue, under M. 
Coumes. 



FISH, FISHERIES. 



476 



FIVE FORKS. 



In i860 great progress liad been made by M. Coste 
and others. 

Commission to examine into British fisheries was 
appointed in i860, and acts to amend the law re- 
lating to fisheries in Great Britain and Ireland 
were passed 1861-2-3-8-9 

In April, Mr. Ponders placed in the Thames 76,000 
young fish (salmon, trout, char, and grayling) ; 
and on 17 April, Mr. Frank Buckland demon- 
strated the importance of fish culture before the 
members of the Royal Institution, London . . 1863 

In 1853 Mr. Buist began the culture offish at Stor- 
montlield, Perthshire : reported highly successful, 

Sept. 1866 

Act for the protection of freshwater fish passed, 

8 Aug. 1878 

International fish and fishing exhibition at Berlin, 
opened by the Crown Prince . . . 20 April, 1880 

National fisheries exhibition at Norwich, opened 
by the prince of Wales . . . 18 — 30 April, 1881 

International exhibition at Edinburgh opened 

11 April, 1882 

National Fish Culture Association established . 1883 

London Central Fish Market, Smithfield, opened 

10 May, ,, 

International fisheries exhibition, South Kensing- 
ton, London, opened and closed by prince of 
Wales, 14 May — 31 Oct. 1883. 335 gold medals 
(160 to Great Britain) awarded, and other testi- 
monials. Receipts, 140,346^. 13s. ; surplus, 
15,243/. 2,703,051 persons admitted. 

Sea Fisheries Act, 46 & 47 Vict. c. 22, relates to 
international convention concerning fisheries in 
North Sea. Sea Fisheries (Ireland) Act also 
passed 2 Aug. ,, 

International fisheries, Vienna, opened 29 Sept. 1884 

Aquaculture. — Mr. W. Oldham Chambers (in Times, 
10 Nov.) advocated the formation of ponds in 
waste lands for the cultivation of carp and other 
fish. Sir Lyon Playfair recommends the scheme 
to be taken up by government Times, n Nov. ,, 

A convention with France respecting sea fisheries, 
signed at Paris, 11 Nov. 1867 ; ratified by the 
"Sea Fisheries Act," passed, 13 July, 1868; 
amended 1884 ; convention signed . 14 Nov. 1885 

Introduction of American salmon-trout tried at 
Burghley park in ,, 

Board of trade inquiry ordered concerning the in- 
juries done to British drift-net fishing by foreign 
trawlers in the north seas (see Trawling) Nov. 1886 

First stone of a new fish market laid, Farringdon- 
street, London 13 Dec. ,, 

Conference at Fishmongers' hall respecting railway 
charges, &c. 2 Feb. 1887 

Fishing school established at Baltimore (which see) 
Ireland 17 Aug. „ 

Many attacks on British fishermen by foreigners, 
Aug.; one by Belgians near Southwold 8 Sept. ,, 

Intervention of the king of the Belgians . Sept. ,, 

Conference on sea fisheries at Fishmongers' hall 
opened 20, 23 March, 1888 

New central fish market, Farringdon-street, opened 

7 Nov. ,, 

M r Francis 1 >ay, 1 lie author of important works on 
British and foreign fishes, died . 10 July, 1889 

'lie' Sen Fisheries of the United Kingdom, produce 
fish 1.:, 678,000 ewt., value 5,608,000/. . . ,, 

The Royal Provident Fund for Sea Fishermen, 
founded 1884, Incorporated .... 1891 

International declaration respecting the North Sea 
fisheries, ratified bj 'act passed . . 21 July, ,, 

Piscatorial exhibition al the Royal Aquarium, 
Westminster, middle Feb. et serj. (annual exhibi- 
tions) ^92 

1 lonfereni n Bea-fishing industry at Fishmongers' 

hall 22-24 March, 1803 

A select committee of the commons on sea fisheries, 

Mr. Marjoribanks chairman ; first meeting, 2 
May: report issued .... 17 Aug. ,, 
North Sea Fisheries Act passed ....,, 
The Sea Fisheries regulation (Scotland) bill passed 
by the commons, amendments by tn» lords, 10 
Feb. ; the lull dropped, ig Feb. 1894 ; act passed 

ft July, 1895 



International conference called by the National 
Sea Fisheries Protection Association opened at 
Fishmongers' hall, London, 1 July, 1890 ; annual 
meetings 21 March, 1894 et seq. 

Fishery board for Scotland established 1882 ; its 
powers were extended by an act passed 3 July, 1894 

Riotous opposition to Sunday fishing of the east 
coast boats ; boats boarded by the Newlyn fisher- 
men and their cargoes thrown into the sea, 
Mounts Bay, Cornwall ; troops sent by the 
admiralty and war office, 19 May ; at a mass 
meeting of W. Cornwall fishermen the matter re- 
ferred to government ... 21 May, 1896 

The successful Howietoun hatchery, Stirlingshire, 
was founded by sir James Gibson Maitland, 
about 1873 ; he died, aged 49 . .19 Nov. 1897 

Fisheries disaster, see Mansion hovse . April, 1899, 

International fisheries conference meets at Stock- 
holm, 15-23 June, 1899; Christiania, 6-11 May, 
1901 ; Copenhagen . . . .22 July, 1902 

Internat. fishery exhibition, Vienna . . 6 Sept. ,, 

Sea fisheries, United Kingdom, produce 17,902,000 
cwt. fish, value 9,296,000/ ,» 

Fisheries Disputes, &c The fisheries on the 
North American coast were settled by treaty, 
between Great Britain and the United States in 
1818, the privileges of the latter extended to 1866 
by treaty in 1854, and renewed for ten years, 
1871, and again to 1885. On the failure of 
negociations, the restrictions of 1818 were 
revived March, 1886. A joint commission was 
appointed, Rt. hon. J. Chamberlain (chief), lion, 
sir Lionel S. West afterwards lord Sackville, 
British minister, and sir Charles Tupper, Aug. 
1887, received at Washington 19 Nov., met 22 
Nov. et seq 1887 

Treaty (with a modus Vivendi till ratified) was 
signed at Washington, 15 Feb. 18C8 ; passed by 
Canadian parliament, 2 May ; royal assent, 16 
May ; United States senate refuse to ratify 

21 Aug. 1S88 

FISHGUARD (Pembroke). On 22 Feb. 1797, 
1400 Frenchmen landed in Cardigan Bay. On the 
24 Feb. they surrendered to lord Cawdor with the 
Castlemartin yeomanry, and some countrymen, 
armed with scythes and pitchforks, near fish- 
guard. 

FITZ WILLI AM MUSEUM (Cambridge), 
founded by Richard viscount r'itzwiiliam, who died 
in 1816, and bequeathed his collection of books, 
pictures. &c., to the university, with 100,000/. to 
erect a building to contain them. The building 
was begun by G. Basevi in 1837, and finished by 
Cockerell some years after. 

FIUME (meaning river), the port of the king- 
dom of Hungary, on the Adriatic : a very ancient 
town, built on the supposed site of Tersatica, de- 
stroyed by Charlemagne about 799. and afterwards 
known as Vitopolis, Civita Sancti Viti ad Flumen, 
and finally Flume. After being successively sub- 
jected to the Greeks, Romans, the eastern emperors, 
and the pope, it was transferred to the house of 
Austria. It was captured by the French early in j 
the century, from whom it was taken by the Eng- 
lish in 181 3, and given to Austria in 1814. It was I 
transferred to Hungary in 1822; to the Croats in i 
1848; restored to Hungary in 1868. A new port I 
and railways have been recently constructed (1877). \ 
Visit of the emperor of Austria, entertained by 
admiral Hoskins and the British fleet, 23 June ft seq. I 
1891. 
Great tire at the railway station; heavy loss; 13, 14! 

Aug. 1894- 
Disastrous floods, 1 death, 20 Oct. 1898. 

FIVE FORKS, near Richmond, Virginia. 
Qere general Sheridan turned the front of the Con- 
federates, and defeated them after a tierce struggle, 
I April, 1865. 



FIVE HUNDRED. 



477 



FLEETS. 



FIVE HUNDKED, Council of, esta- 
blished by the new French constitution, 22 Aug. 
1795, was unceremoniously dissolved by Napoleon 
Bonaparte, 10 Nov. 1799. 

FIVE MEMBERS, see under England, 4 
Jan. 1642. . 

FIVE MILE ACT, 17 Chas. II. c. 2 (Oct. 
1665), forbade Nonconformist teachers who refused 
to take the non-resistance oath, to come within five 
miles of any corporation where they had preached 
since the act of oblivion (unless they were travel- 
ling), under the penalty of 40^. They were relieved 
by Will. III. in 1689. 

FLADENHEIM, or FLATCHEIM, Saxony. 
Here Rodolph of Swabia defeated the emperor 
Henry IV., 27 Jan. 1080. 

FLAG. The flag acquired its present form in 
the 6th century, in Spain ; it was previously small 
and square. Ashe. It is said to have been intro- 
duced there by the Saracens, before whose time 
the ensigns of war were extended on cross pieces of 
wood; see Carrocium. The honour -of -the -flag 
salute at sea was exacted by England from very 
early times; but it was formally yielded by the 
Dutch in 1673, at which period they had been 
defeated in many actions. Louis XIV. obliged the 
Spaniards to lower their flag to the French, 1680. 
Renault. After an engagement of three hours 
between Tourville and the Spanish admiral Papa- 
ehin, the latter yielded by firing a salute of nine 
guns to the French flag, 2 June, 1688. Idem; see 
Salute at Sea, and Union Jack. 

The comte de Chambord definitively declined to give 
up the white flag for the tricolor (see France), 5 July, 
1871 and 27 Oct. 1873. 

FLAGELLANTS, at Perouse, about 1268, 
during a plague, the}' maintained there was no 
remission of sins without flagellation, and publicly 
lashed themselves. Clement VI. declared them 
heretics in 1349 : and 90 of them and their leader, 
Conrad Schmidt, were burnt, 1414. In 1574, 
Henry III. of France became a flagellant for a 
short time. 

FLAGEOLET, a musical instrument said to 
have been invented by Juvigny, about 1581 ; 
double flageolet patented by "W in. Bainbridge, 1803 ; 
improved 1809 and 1819. 

FLAMBEAUX, Feast OF, see Argos. 

FLAMINIAN WAY, the great road from 
Rome to Ariminum in Umbria, made under the di- 
rection of C. Flaminius, when censor in 221 B.C., 
when he also constructed the Flaminium circus. In 
217 he was defeated and killed at the battle of the 
Trasimene lake, when resisting the march of 
Hannibal. 

FLAMMOCKS REBELLION, see Rebel- 
lions, 1497. 

FLANDERS, the principal part of ancient 
Belgium, which was conquered by Julius Caesar, 151 
B.C. It became part of the kingdom of France, ajd. 
843, and was governed by counts subject to the 
king, from 862 till 1369, the first being Baldwin, 
Bras de Fer, who is said to have introduced the 
cloth manufacture. In 1204, Baldwin IX. became 
emperor at Constantinople. In 1369, Philip duke of 
Burgundy married Margaret, the heiress of count 
Louis II. After this, Flanders was subjected suc- 
cessively to Burgundy (1384), Austria (1477), and 
Spain (1555). In 1580 it declared its independence, 



but afterwards returned to its allegiance to the house 
of Austria. In 17 13 it was included in the empire 
of Germany. France obtained a part of Flanders 
by treaty in 1659 and 1679. See Burgundy and 
Belgium. 

FLANNEL, see Woollen. 

FLASHING SIGNALS, see under Fog. 

FLATBUSH, BATTLE OF, see Long Island. 

FLATTERY, CAPE (W. coast of North 
America), so named by captain Cook, because at a 
distance it had the deceptive appearance of a har- 
bour, 1778. 

FLAVIAN CAESARS, the Roman emperors 
Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian, 66-96. 

FLAX. The manufacture in Egypt in very 
early times was carried thence to Tyre about 588 
B.C., and to Gaul about 1 B.C. ; and' thus reached 
Britain. It was ordered to be grown in England, by 
statute, 24 Hen. VIII. 1533. For many ages the 
core was separated from the flax, the bark of the 
plant, by the hand. A mallet was next used ; but 
the old methods of breaking and scutching the flax 
yielded to a water-mill which was invented in 
Scotland about 1750 ; see Hemp. The duty imposed 
on imported flax, 1842, was repealed 1845. In 185 1 
chevalier Claussen patented a method of " cotton- 
ing" flax. 

FLAYERS, see Ecorcheurs. 

FLEECE, see Golden Fleece. 

FLEET, see Navy of England. 

FLEET PRISON, MARKET, &c. (London), 
were built over the small river Fleta, now used as a 
common sewer. In the reign of Henry VII. this 
river is said to have been navigable to Holborn- 
bridge. 

Fleet Prison was founded in the first year of 
Richard I. , and was allotted for debtors, 1640 ; and 
persons were committed here who had incurred 
the displeasure of the Star-Chamber, and for con- 
tempt of the court of Chancery. It was burnt 
during the Gordon riots, 7 June, 1780, and re- 
built 1781-2. It was pulled down in 1845 (and the 
debtors removed to the Queen's Bench prison). 
The site was sold to the London, Dover, and Chat- 
ham railway company for 6o,oooZ on 2 June, 1864. 
Last vestige removed .... Feb. 1868 

Fleet -market, originally formed in 1737, was re- 
moved, and the site named Farrmgdon-street in 
1829. A new (Farringdon) market was opened 20 
Nov. 1829. The granite obelisk in Fleet-street, to 
the memory of alderman Waithman was erected 

23 June, 1833 
Fleet Marriaoes. Between the 19th of October, 
1704, and 12 Feb. 1705, there were celebrated 295 
marriages in the Fleet without licence or certifi- 
cate of banns. 20 or 30 couples were sometimes 
joined in one day, and their names concealed by 
private marks, if they chose to pay an extra fee. 
Pennant says that in his youth he was often ac- 
costed with, " Sir, will you please to walk in and 
be married ? " Painted signs, of male and female 
hands conjoined, with the inscription, "Mar- 
riages performed within," were common alon^ 
the building. 
This abuse abolished by the Marriage Act . .1753 
FLEETS : Effective Fighting Strength, 



(24 b., 23 c.) ; United States, 35 (16 b., 19 c. 
Japan, 29 (8 b., 20 p.).— "The Naval Annual,' 5 
T. A. Brassey, April, 1902. 



FLEETWOOD. 



478 



FLORENCE. 



35 ships completed and passed into the British navy 
since April, 1901 ; 75 ships under construction (in- 
cluding 24 armoured cruisers and 14 battleships) dur- 
ing 1902 ; announced, 29 May, 1902. 

FLEETWOOD, see Ihjthe. 

FLENSBORG, N. Germany. Here the Danes 
defeated the Slesingers and Germans, 9 April, 1848. 
It was entered by the Germans, 7 Feb. 1864. 

FLETA, an ancient English law treatise, an 
abridgment of Bracton, dated about 1290, said to 
have been composed in FletA, in the Fleet prison, 
by some lawyer. 

FLEUR-DE-LIS, the emblem of France, said 
to have been brought from heaven by an angel to 
Clovis, he having made a vow that if he proved vic- 
torious in a pending battle with the Alemanni near 
Cologne, he would embrace Christianity, 496. It 
was the national emblem till the revolution in 1789, 
when the tricolor (white, red, and blue) was adopted. 
The eomte de Chambord declared his adherence to 
the old national dag, 5 July, 1871 and 27 Oct. 1873. 

FLEURUS (Belgium), the site of several 
battles. 

Between the Catholic league under Gonzales de Cor- 
dova, and the Protestant union (indecisive) 30 Aug. 1622 

The prince of Waldeck defeated by marshal Luxem- 
burg ....... 1 July, 1690 

The allies under the prince of Coburg, defeated by 
the French revolutionary army commanded by 
Jourdan, who was enabled to form a junction 
with the armies of the Moselle, the Ardennes, and 
the north. (The French used a balloon to recon- 
noitre the enemy's army, which, it is said, contri- 
buted to their success) . . . 26 June, 1794 

Here Napoleon defeated Blucher at the battle of 
Ligny {which see) 16 June, 181- 

FLIES- An extraordinary fall of these insects 
in London covered the clothes of passengers, 1707. 
Chamberlain. In the United States of America the 
Hessian fly, so called from the notion of its having 
been brought there by the Hessian troops in the 
service of England in the War of Independence, 
ravaged the wheat in 1777. Before and during the 
severe attack of cholera at Newcastle in Sept. 1853, 
the air was infested with small flies. 

FLINTS, see Man. 

FLOATING BATTERIES, see Batteries, 
and Gibraltar, 1781. 

FLOATING DOCKS, see Bocks. 

FLODDEN FIELD (Northumberland). The 
site of a battle on 9 Sept. 1513, between the English 
and Scots ; in consequence 01 James IV. of Scotland 
having taken part with Louis XII. of France against 
Henry VIII. of England. James, many of his 
nobles, ami upwards of 10,000 of his army, were 
slain ; while ihe English, who were commanded by 
the earl of Surrey, lost only persons of small note. 

FLOGGING by Ihe Jewish law was limited to 
forty stripe-., "lest thy brother should seem vile 

onto thee," 1451 B.C. 0eut. xxv. 3). Wm. Cobbett 

i 1, and John Drakard in iNii, were punished 

for publishing severe censures on flogging in the 

army, Flogging was made a punishment for at- 
tempts at garrotting in 18(13; ""' ''"' juvenile 

criminal-, |S|; and lS;o; for burglars carrying 

revolvers proposed; the hill enacting it was with- 
drawn 2 Aug 
1 ing m the army much diminished by orders 

9 Nov. 1859 



First-class seamen not to be flogged, except after a 
trial, Dec. 1859 > more diminished . March, 1867 

By an amendment on the clause in the mutiny bill, 
flogging abolished in the army in time of peace 

April, 1868 

New regulations for the navy issued . 18 Dec. 1871 

Proposed total abolition negatived in commons 
(120-60), 20 June, 1876 ; (164-122), 10 April, 1877; 
(239-56) 20 May, 1879 

By the Army Discipline Act (42 &, 43 Vict. c. 3^), 
'flogging reduced, and may be commuted by im- 
prisonment ,, 

Total abolition of flogging by Army Discipline Act 

April, 1881 

Substitutes for flogging (handcuffing, &c.) an- 
nounced . Oct. ,, 

21 soldiers flogged . 1869 I 41 soldiers flogged . 1878 

61 sailors ,, . ,, | 8 sailors ,, . ,, 

Flogging inflicted for cases of robbery with vio- 
lence, 65 cases in 1894 ; 75 in 1895. 

FLOODS, see Inundations. 

FLORAL HALL, adjoining Covent-garden 
theatre, is a large conservatory, 220 feet long, 75 
feet wide, and 55 feet high, designed by Mr. E. M. 
Barry, and was opened with the volunteers' ball, 7 
March, i860. It was used as a flower-market, 22 
May-Aug. 1861. Here was held the "West London 
industrial exhibition, 1 May to 2 Aug. 1865. 

FLORALIA, annual games at Rome in honour 
of Flora, early instituted but not celebrated with 
regularity till about 174 B.C. 

FLORENCE {Florentia), capital of Tuscany 
[which see), and from 1864 to 1871, of Italy, is said 
to have been founded by the soldiers of Sylla (80 
B.C.), and enlarged by the Roman triumviri. In 
its palaces, universities, academies, churches, and 
libraries, are to be found the rarest works of sculp- 
ture and painting in the world. The Florentine 
academy and Academia della Crusca (established 
1582) were instituted to enrich literature and im- 
prove the language of Tuscany ; the latter was so 
named, because it rejects like bran all words not 
purely Tuscan : both are now united under the 
former name. Population, 1890, 191,453 ; 1900, 
204,950. 

Destroyed by Totila .... about 541 

ltebuilt by Charlemagne .... about 800 
Becomes an independent republic . . about 1198 
Wars of the Guelphs and Ghibellines . 1215 et seq. 

Dante born here 14 May, 1265 

Arti or guilds established 1266 

Factions of the Bianchi and Neri 1300 

Great plague, the Black Death 1348 

The influence of the Medici begins with Cosmo de' 

Medici, "the father of his country" • about 1420 
Death of Lorenzo de* Medici . . . 8 April, 1492 
Republic proclaimed, 1493 ; Niccolo Machiavelli, 

chief secretary, 1498 till the fall .... 1512 
Savonarola strangled and burnt . . 23 May, 1498 

Appointment of Alexander de' Medici as perpetual 

governor 1530 

Cosmo de' Medici created grand-duke of Tuscany ; 

makes Florence his capital : see Tuscany . . 1569 
Revolution at Florence .... 27 April, 1859 
Annexation to Sardinia voted by people, n, 12 

March ; the king enters Florence . . 7 April, i860 
lie king opens the exhibition of the industrial 

products of Italy . . 15 Sept. 1861 
Florence decreed the capital of Italy till the acqui- 
sition of Koine 11 Dec. 1864 

The king and courl remove there . 13 May, 1S65 
The Dante festival (the 600th anniversary of his 

birth) opened bj the king. . . '14 May, ,, 
inauguration of a national ri tie-meeting ; the king 

tires tin Ursl sho1 .... 18 June, ,, 
First assembly of Italian parliament here 18 Nov. ,, 
The government removes to Rome as capital of Italy 

July, 1871 
Fourth centenary of Michel Angelo Buonarroti 

kept 12 Sept. 1875 



FLORES. 



479 



FLOWERS. 



Torchlight procession ; shell thrown among crowd ; 

5 killed ■ . 18 Nov. 1878 

The brick duomo, begun by Arnulfo, 1294 ; dedi- 
cated by pope Eugenius IV., 1436 ; was completed 
by Brunelleschi, 1447 ; the tagade was cased with 
marble by the Italian government and uncovered 
in presence of the king . . . 12 May, 1887 
Other renovations of public buildings carried on 1883-6 
Visit of Queen Victoria . . 24 Maich-22 April, 1888 
Equestrian statue of king Victor Emmanuel un- 
veiled 20 Sept. 1890 

Visit of queen Victoria, 23 March — 26 April, 1893 ; 

16 March — 16 April, 1894 ; visit of the king and 
queen of Italy 10 April, 1894 

The national museum and other buildings greatly 
damaged by an earthquake . . .18 May, 1895 

Fine arts exhibition opened by the king and queen 

iq Dec. 1896 

Fifth centenary of Amerigo Vespucci and Paolo Tos- 
canelli, who visited America in 1498, celebrated, 

17 April, et seg. . 1898 

FLORES, or Isle of Flowers (one of the Azores, 
1 which see), discovered by Vanderberg in 1439; and 
settled by the Portuguese in 1448. 

FLORIDA, a peninsula, one of the southern 
I states of North America, first discovered by Sebastian 
Cabot in 1497. It was visited by Juan Ponce de 
Leon, the Spanish navigator, April 4, 1512, in a 
voyage he had undertaken to discover a fountain 
whose waters had the property of restoring youth to 
the aged who tasted them ! Florida was conquered 
by the Spaniards under Ferdinand de Soto in 1539 ; 
but the settlement was not fully established until 
1565. It was plundered by sir Francis Drake in 
1585 ; and by Davis, a buccaneer, in 1665. It was 
invaded by the British, in 1702 ; and again by gen. 
Oglethorpe in 1740 ; ceded to the British crown in 
1763 ; taken by the Spaniards in 1781 ; and guaran- 
teed to them in 1783. Capital, Tallahassee. Popu- 
lation in 1880, 269,493 ; 1890, 391,422 ; 1900, 
528,542- 
The Americans purchase Louisiana from the French 

and claim West Florida • 1801 

The Spaniards compelled to cede all Florida to the 
United States ... .24 Oct. 1820 

Florida admitted as a state 1845 

Seceded from the Union, Dec. i860 ; readmitted 

(see United States) 1865 

A ship canal proposed ; company organised May 1883 
After long neglect, this beautiful and fertile wil- 
derness warmly taken up by British and Ameri- 
can capitalists 1883-4 

Yellow fever prevailed here, autumn of . . 1888 
Remains of pre-historic villages, pottery, &c, dis- 
covered on the east coast ; reported by Dr. De 

Witt Webb May, 1894 

Destructive cyclone, many deaths . 3-5 Aug. 1899 
Great fire in Jacksonville, 148 blocks burnt, several 
deaths .3 May, 1901 

FLORIN, a coin first made by the Florentines. 
A florin was issued by Edward III. which was cur- 
rent in England at the value of 6s. in 1337. Cam- 
den. This English coin was called floren after the 
Florentine coin, because the latter was of the best 
gold. Ashe. The florin of Germany is in value 
2s. $d. ; that of Spain, 4s. A%d. ; that of Palermo 
and Sicily, 2s. 6d. ; that of Holland, zs. Ayliffe. 
Silver florins (value 2s.) were issued in England in 
1849. 

FLOUR, COLONIAL and FOREIGN, 

see Food-stuffs. 

FLOWERS- Many of our present common 
flowers were introduced into England from the 
reign of Henry VII. to that of Elizabeth (1485- 
1603) The art of preserving flowers in sand was 
discovered in 1633. A mode of preserving them 
from the effects of frost in winter, and hastening 
their vegetation in summer, was invented in America, 



1567 
1818 
157° 
159° 
or 1790 
1779 
1816 
1791 



by Geo. Morris, in 1792. A very great number 

have been introduced from America, Australia, the 

Cape, &c, during the present century. Many of 

the dates in the following list, given in botanical 

works, are deubtfuL 

" Battle of Flowers," see Carnival. 

London Flower-girl Brigade formed by baroness 
Burdett-Coutts and others . . . autumn 1880 

Acacia, N. America, before 1640 

Allspice shrub, Carolina 1726 

Aniseed tree, Florida, about 1766 

Arbor Vitas, Canada, before 1596 

Arctopus, Cape of Good Hope 1774 

Auricula, Switzerland 1567 

Azarole, S. Europe, before 1640 

Bay, Royal, Madeira 1665 

Bay, sweet, Italy, before 1548 

Camellia, China 

Canary bell-flower, Canaries 

Canary Convolvulus, Canaries 

Carnation, Flanders . 

Ceanothus, blue, New Spain 

Chaste tree, Sicily, before . 

Christ's thorn, Africa, before 

Chrysanthemums, China .... 1763 

Convolvulus, many flowered 

Coral tree, Cape 

Coral tree, bell-flowered. Cape 

Coral tree, tremulous, Cape 

Creeper, Virginian, N. America . 

Dahlia, China .... 

Dryandria, New Holland 

Evergreen Thorn, Italy 

Everlasting, giant-flowered, Cape 

Everlasting, giant, Cape . 

Fernbush, sweet, N. America 

Fox-glove, Canaries . 

Fuchsia fulgens, Mexico, about . 

Geranium, Flanders . 

Gillyflower, Flanders . 

Gold-plant, Japan 

Golden-bell-flower, Madeira . 
Hawthorn, American, before 
Heaths, Cape .... 

Honeyflower, great, Cape . 

Honeysuckle, Chinese, China 

Honeysuckle, fly, Cape 

Honeysuckle, trumpet, N. America 

Hyssop, S. Europe, before 

Jasmine, Circassia, before . 

Jasmine, Catalonia, East Indies 

Judas tree, S. Europe, before 

Laburnum, Hungary 

Laurel, Alexandrian, Portugal, befor 

Laurustine, S. Europe, before . 

Lavender, S. Europe, before 

Lily, Italy, before 

Lily, gigantic, N. South Wales 

Lily, red. coloured, S. America . 

Loblolly bay, N. America, before 

Lupine tree, Cape, about . 

Magnolia (see Magnolia), N. America 

Magnolia, dwarf, China 

Magnolia, laurel-leaved, N. America 

Maiden-hair, Japan . 

Mignonette, Italy .... 

Milk-wort, giant-flowered, Cape 

Milk-wort, showy, Cape 

Mock orange, S. Europe, before 

Mountain tea, N. America, before 

Myrtle, eandleberry, N. America 

Myrtle, woolly-leaved, China 

Nettle tree, S. Europe, before . 

Oleander, red, S. Europe 

Olive, Cape, Cape 

Olive, sweet-scented, China . 

Paraguay tea, Carolina, before . 

Passion-flower, Brazil . 

Passion-flower, orange, Carolin 

Petunia, S. America 

Pigeon-berry, N. America . 

Pink, from Italy .... 

Ranunculus, Alps 

Roses, Netherlands 

Rose, China, China . 

Rose, damask, S. Europe, about ..... 1543 

Rose, the Japan, China . . . . . . 1793 



1629 



1629 
1781 
1793 
1714 
1698 
1835 
1534 
1567 
1783 
1777 
1683 



J 752 

1656 
1548 
1548 

1629 

1596 
1576 

I 7 I 3 

1596 
1568 
1460 
1800 
1623 
J 739 
*793 
1688 
1786 

*734 
1714 
1528 
1713 
1814 
1596 
1758 
1699 
1776 
1596 

!73° 
1771 
1724 
1692 
1792 
1823 
1736 
1567 
1528 
1522 



FLUORESCENCE. 



480 



FOG. 



Rose, the moss, before .... 

Hose, the musk, Italy . 

Rose, the Provence, Flanders 

Rose, sweet-scented guelder, from China 

Rose, tube, from Java and Ceylon 

Rose without thorns, N. America, before 

Rosemary, S. Europe 

Sage, African, Cape 



• 1724 

• I 5 22 

• 1567 
. 1821 
. 1629 1 
. 1726 j 

. 1548 ! 
. • 1731 1 

•Sage, Mexican, Mexico 1724 I 

St. Peter's wort, N. America 1730 | 

.Sassafras, X. America, before 1663 

.Savin, S. Europe, before 1584 j 

Snowdrop, Carolina 1756 j 

•Sorrel-tree, X. America, before 1752 | 

Sweet-bay, S. of Europe, before .... 1548 

Tamarisk plant, Germany 1560 

Tea tree, China, about 1768 

Tooth-ache tree, from Carolina, belore . . . 1739 

Trumpet-flower, X. America 1640 

Trumpet-flower, Cape 1823 

Tulip, Vienna 1578 

Verbena, 8, America 1827 

Victoria Regia, Guiana . .... 1838 

Virginian creeper, N. America 1629 

Virgin's bower, Japan 1776 

Wax-tree, China 1794 

Weeping willow, Levant, before .... 1692 

Winter-berry, Virginia 1736 

Youlan, China 1789 

FLUORESCENCE. When the invisible 
chemical rays of the blue end of the solar spectrum 
are sent through uranium glass or solutions of 
quinine, horse-chestnut bark, or stramonium datura, 
they become luminous. This phenomenon was 
termed "fluorescence" by its discoverer, professor 
Stokes, in 1852. By means of fluorescence l)rs. 
Bence Jones and Dupre detected the presence of 
quinoidine in animal tissues ; see Calorescence. 

FLUORINE, a gaseous element, obtained from 
fluor spar ; first collected over mercury by Priestley. 
Its property of corroding all vessels is so great that 
it is separated with great difficulty. It was named 
by Ampere in 1810. Its chemical history was 
further elucidated by Davy (1809), Berzelius (1824), 
and succeeding chemists. The corroding property 
of fluoric acid was employed in the arts in 1760, by 
Schwankhard of Nuremberg. Gmelin. 
Fluorine liquefied by M. Moissan and prof. Dewar 
at about 210c, May etseq., 1897; paper read at 
Paris, 21 Oct. 1897 ; solidified by them . early 1903 

FLUSHING, a seaport of the Netherlands, on 
the isle of Walcheren. For the siege, see Wal- 
cheren Expedition. It was fortified by Napoleon I., 
but the works were finally dismantled in 1867. The 
port improved, and new dock opened bv the king 
of Holland, 8 Sept. 1873. 

FLUTE- The transverse flute, incorrectly 
termed the "German" instead of the Swiss flute, 
was known to the ancients. It was described by 
Michael Pretorius, of Wolfenbuttel, in [620, and by 
Mersenne of Paris, in 1636. It was much improved 
by the French in the 17th century, by Quant*, 
Tacet, Florio, Potter, Miller, Nicholson, and others 
in the [8th. In the present century also the Nichol- 
sons, Boehra of Munich, Godfrey of Paris, Carter, 
Rockstro, and Rudall and Hose of London, have 
greatly contributed to the perfection of this instru- 
ment." See Flageolet. 
Mr, Benjamiu Wells, a great player, died, aged 73, 

O Sept. 1S99 

FLUXIONS, a branch of the higher mathe- 
matics, invented by Newton, [665, similar to the 
differential calculus described by Leibnitz, 1684. 
A tierce controversy ensued as to the priority of the 
discovery. The finest applications of the calculus 
arebj Newton, Euler, La Grange, and La Place. 
The firsl elementary work on fluxions in England 



is a tract of twenty-two pages in A New Short 
Treatise of Algebra, together with a Specimen of the 
Nature and Algorithm of Fluxions, by John Harris, 
M.A. London, 1702. 

FLYING, Artificial. In Greek mythology, 

Daedalus is said to have attached wings of wax to 
the body of his son Icarus, who, neglecting the 
advice of his father, flew so high that the sun 
melted his wings, and he fell into the Icarian sea. 
Archytas is said to have made a flying dove, about 
400 B.C. Friar Bacon maintained the possibility 
of the art of flying, and predicted it would be a 
general practice, 1273. Bishop Wilkins says (1651), 
it will yet be as usual to hear a man call for his 
wings when he is going on a journey, as it is now 
to hear him call for his boots ! Borelli (about 1670) 
showed the futility of these speculations. About 
1800 sir George Cayley experimented on the sub- 
ject, and in 1843 Mr. Henson invented a flying 
machine ; but nothing has been devised capable of 
serving a practical purpose. The motion of birds 
in relation to aeronautics was much discussed by 
scientific men in 1867-8. At a meeting of the 
Aeronautical society, 26 March, 1868, it was stated 
that a member had actually, by his muscular force, 
aided by apparatus, risen from the ground and 
flown horizontally. Dr. James Pettigrew published 
his elaborate researches on flying, 1867-71. M. 
Von Groof, a Belgian, "the flying-man," descended 
from a balloon by means of a parachute resembling 
wings, in 1874 : *> u t was killed by falling through 
failure of his apparatus at Chelsea, 9 July. 
Mr. Simmonds' flying-machine (combining an umbrella 
and kite), at Chatham, carried sand bags about 100 
feet high and fell, 15 Dec. 1875. 
Mr. H. C. Linfield tried his steam flying machine on the 

railway near West Drayton, 29 Aug. 1883. 

Mr. Horatio Phillips' aerial machine, weighing 330 lbs., 

to be sustained in its course by induced currents, 

tried at Harrow, May, 1893. 

A flying machine constructed by Mr. Maxim, tried at 

Bexley, Kent. It is reported to have conveyed him- 

self and two men with water and fuel a distance of 

about 500 ft., 31 July, 1894 '1 another trial, 5 July, 1895. 

Mr. Maxim, at the society of arts, described his exper-i- 

ments, 28 Nov. 1894. 
Herr Otto Lilienthal's experiments with his ma- 
chine, fairly successful, are described in 
" Nature," 30 Jan. 1896 ; he was killed by a fall 
while experimenting at Rhinow . . 9 Aug. 1896 
Experiments by prof. Langley and others, reported 

" jEronautical Annual, 1896." 
flying machines, etc., exhibited at the meeting of 

the iEronautical Society . . .16 Dec. 1897 
Mr. Percy Pilcher, inventor of a machine, after 4 
previous ascents, killed by a fall while experi- 
menting at Stamford hall, Market Harbro', 

30 Sept. 1899 
Prof. Langley's aerostat tested at Widewater, 
Virginia, U.S., after ascent of 60 ft. sank into the 
Potomac and was totally wrecked . 8 Oct. 1903 

FLY SHEETS, see under Wesleyans. 

FO, RELIGION OF, the form of Buddhism {which- 
sec) existing in China. 

FOG- In 1862 much attention was paid to the 
subject of fog signals by the Royal commission on 
Lighthouses, &c. The use of bells, steam-trumpets, 
a battery of whistles blown by steam, the trans- 
mission of sound through water, the siren, &c, 
were considered. A fog horn blown by steam is in 
use at Dungeness lighthouse (1869). For Dr. Tyn- 
dall's experiments, see Acoustics. 
Continued fogginess in London, Nov. 1879, to Feb. 

1880, caused much mortality ; very bad on 

25 Dec. 1879 
fatal fogs, Dec. 1881, Jan. 1SS2 ; Jan. 1888, general 

over the British Isles and X. \V. Europe. 
Mr. De Cordova's fog signals announced . March, 18S3 



FOIX. 



481 



FOOTBALL. 



Prof. Holmes' siren fog horn tried in the Zuyder 
Zee, reported successful . . . Sept. 1883 

Oapt. Barker's marine safety signal code for mer- 
chant vessels ; he indicates directions for sailing 
by combinations of short and long blasts of a fog 
horn 1879— 1884 

Improved fog signalling by sound, set up at Ailsa 
.Craig, mouth of the Clyde . . . 17 July, 1886 

Adm. Colomb's systems of signalling by Hashing 
lights at night, or by spurts of sound in fogs, in- 
vented 1858 et seq., adopted 1868 ; these are con- 
sidered highly valuable for manoeuvring squad- 
rons of ships, and also for the army . . . 1890 

Lord Middleton's application in the house of lords 
for the appointment of a royal commission re- 
specting London fogs negatived . .12 Feb. 1892 

Little fog in London, winter, 1891-2, except at 
Christmas ; very bad then throughout England. ,, 

.General fog in the United Kingdom . 10-12 Nov. ,, 

Bemarkable absence of fog in London . winter, 1893-4 

Mr. F. H. Berry's' automatic marine fog signal tried 
on the Dunera in the docks, 15 July, 1895 ; an 
improved form exhibited ... 5 Dec. 1897 

Dense fog, London, S. England, and Channel 

18 Dec. ,, 

Dense fog, London and elsewhere, several fatalities, 
4-6 Nov. ; in the Channel . . . 4-8 Nov. 1901 

FOIX (S. France), a county established 1050, 
and united with Beam, 1290. About 1494 Catherine 
de Foix, the heiress, married Jean d'Albret, whose 
descendant, Henry IV., as king of France, united 
Foix to the monarchy, 1589. 

FOLK LORE, a general name given by Mr. 
W. J. Thorns, in 1846, to popular legends, fairy tales, 
local traditions, old outdying customs, superstitions, 
and similar matters. The formation of the Folk-lore 
society was advocated by Mr. W. J. Thorns in 
" Notes and Queries," 1 Dec. 1877; established in 
1878. National congresses are held. See Music, 1899. 

FOLKMOTE, or Folkmoot, Anglo-Saxon, a 
general assembly of the people to deliberate on 
general matters relating to the commonwealth, 
resembling the public meetings of later times. From 
these meetings, parliaments and other elective 
assemblies were gradually developed. The . name 
was also given to local courts. 

FONTS. Fonts are said to have been set up in 
churches in the sixth century. 

FONTAINEBLEAU, near the Seine, France. 
The royal palace, founded by Robert le Pieux about 
999, enlarged and adorned hy successive kings, was 
completed by Louis Philippe, 1837-40. Fontaine- 
bleau was entered by the Austrians, 17 Feb. 18 14. 
Here Napoleon resigned his dignity, 4 April, and 
bade farewell to his army, 20 April, 1814. 

Peace between France, Denmark, <fcc. . 2 Sept. 1679 
Treaty between Germany and Holland . 8 Nov. 1785 
Treaty between Napoleon and Spain . 27 Oct. 1807 
The decree of Fontainebleau for the destruction of 

British merchandise issued . . 19 Oct. 1810 

Concordat between Napoleon and pope Pius VII. 

25 Jan. 1813 
80 acres of pines destroyed by fire . . 28 Sept. 1895 

FONTENAILLE, or Fontenay (Fonlanetum) , 
a village in Burgundy. Near here Charles the 
Bald and Louis the German totally defeated their 
brother the emperor Lothaire I. 25 June, 841. 
This victory, termed " the judgment of God," con- 
duced to the formation of the French monarchy. 

. FONTENOY, near Tournay, in Belgium, the 
site of an obstinate sanguinary battle on 30 April 
(II May, n.s.), 1745, between the French, com- 
manded by marshal Saxe, and the English, Hano- 
verians, Dutch, and Austrians, commanded by the 
duke of Cumberland. The king Louis XV. and the 



dauphin were present. The success of the British 
at the commencement is still quoted as an illustra- 
tion of the extraordinary power of a column ; and 
the advance of the Austrians during several hours 
at Marengo (14 June, 1800) was compared to it by 
Bonaparte. The allies lost 12,000 men, and the 
French nearly an equal number; but the allies 
were compelled to retire. Marshal Saxe (ill of the 
disorder of which he afterwards died) was carried 
about to all the posts in a litter, assuring his troops 
that the day would be their own. 

FONTHILL ABBEY, Wiltshire, founded in 
1796, the mansion of William Beckford, author of 
" Vathek," and son of Alderman Beckford. He 
died 2 May, 1844. Within this edifice (which alone 
cost 273,000^.) were collected costly articles of 
virtu and art, and the rarest works of the old 
masters. The sale of the abbey and its contents to 
Mr. Farquhar took place in 1822 ; 7,200 catalogues 
at a guinea each were sold in a few days. On 21 
Dec. 1825, the lofty tower fell, and in consequence 
the remaining buildings were sold. 

FOOD, see Provisions. A Food Journal pub- 
lished 1870 ; continued several years. Sale of Food 
and Drugs act passed 11 Aug. 1875; another passed 
9 Aug. 1899. Dr. Arthur Hill HassaU's " Food and 
its Adulterations" published 1854, and since. In- 
ternational food exhibition at Agricultural Hall, 
13-20 Oct. 1880. National food reform society 
advocates abstinence from animal food, 1883. 
"Foods: Composition and Analysis," by A. W. 
Blyth, published 1882. Food and Temperance 
Drink exhibition, "Westminster, opened 3 Dec. 1898. 
Food exhibition, Albert-hall, opened 21 April, 
1903. 

FOOD SUPPLY IN TIME OF WAR. 

The war in S. Africa and the important question 
of the security of the food supply ot the United 
Kingdom in the event of hostilities with any one 
or more of the great powers directed public atten- 
tion specially to this question. The subject was 
also brought forward in parliament and pressure 
was brought upon the government to institute. an 
inquiry by a parliamentary committee or royal 
commission. In furtherance of this object an 
influential meeting was held at Stafford-house, 
4 Feb. 1903, under the pre-idency of the duke of 
Sutherland, when The Association to Promote an 
Official Inquiry into the Security of our Food 
Supply in Time of War was formed. President, 
the duke of Sutherland ; vice - president, lord 
Strathcona. Offices, 35, Parliament-street, West- 
minster. 

Royal Commission appointed, prince of Wales president, 
lord Balfour of Burleigh chairman, April, 1903. 

FOOLS, FESTIVALS OF, were held at Paris on 
the 1st of January, when, we are told, all sorts of 
absurdities were committed, from 1198 to 1438. Fools 
or licensed jesters were kept at court in England up 
to the time of Charles I. 1625. 

FOOT AND MOUTH DISEASE, see 

Cattle. 

FOOTBALL, an old English game (is said to 
have originated with the Britons), popular 
in the middle ages, censured and opposed by 
Edward II., 1314, and Edward III., 1349. Its 
suppression was attempted by Henry IV., 1401, 
Henry VIII., and Elizabeth, but the playing of 
the game continued till about 1650. It was 
revived in various forms during the last century 
by public schools and clubs, such as Sheffield and 
Hallam, 1857, Blaekheath and Richmond, 1858. 

1 I 



FOOTPATH. 



482 



FORESTERS. 



The Football association was formed by the " drib- 
bling clubs" in 1858, followed by the Kugby Foot- 
ball union in 1871. The game is now played in our 
colonies and the United States; annual matches. 
The League championship (association rules) 1903, 
won by Sheffield Wednesday ; Southampton winning 
the Southern league competition, 1903. 

FOOTPATH (National) Preservation society, 
founded under the patronage of the duke of 
"Westminster and others, 1884. Annual meeting 
Jan. 1890. 

FORBES MACKENZIE'S ACT, see 

Scotland, 1853. 

FORCE, see Conservation and Con-elation. 

FOREIGN BOND-HOLDERS were in- 
corporated by licence of the Boaid of Trade as an 
association 1 Aug. 1873. A fund was created for 
the protection of the investing public. Reports 
issued 1895-96. Foreign consuls, see Consul, 1896. 

FOREIGN CATTLE MARKET. The city 
of London having been required to provide this 
market before I Jan. 1872, by the Contagious 
Diseases act (for Animals), 1869, the common 
council, 7 Nov. 1870, agreed to the expenditure of 
160,000^. for the purpose. The site chosen, Dept- 
ford dockyard, was much opposed. The requisite 
alterations were made by Mr. Horace Jones, and the 
market was formally opened bv the lord mayor, 28 
Dec. 1871 ; for use on 1 Jan. 1872. 

FOREIGN ENLISTMENT ACT, 59 Geo. 
III. c. 69 (1819), forbids British subjects to enter 
the service of a foreign state, without licence from 
the king or privy council, and prohibits the fitting 
out or equipping ships for any foreign power to be 
employed against any power with which our govern- 
ment is at peace; see Trials, 1862, 1863. In 1606, 
Englishmen were forbidden to enter foreign service, 
without taking an oath not to be reconciled to the 
pope. The act was suspended in 1835 on behalf of 
the British Legion {which see). The act passed 9 
Aug. 1870 relates to illegal enlisting, shipbuilding, 
and expeditions. 

FOREIGNERS, see Alien and Law. 
Foreigners in the United Kingdom : 1871, 113,779; 
in 18S1, 135,640; the Germans being about one- 
third. Foreign prison-made goods act passed (pro- 
hibitory), 1897. 

FOREIGN JURISDICTION ACTS, passed 
in 1843, 1865, and 1866, were extended and amended 
by 41 & 42 Vict. c. 67, passed 16 Aug. 1878 ; these 
acta were consolidated in 1 890. 

FOREIGN LEGION. Foreigners have fre- 
quently been employed as auxiliaries in the pay of 
the British government; see Hessians. An act 
(18 & 19 Vict. c. 2) for the formation of a foreign 
legion as a contingent in the Russian war (1855), 
was passed 23 Dec. 1854.* The queen and prince 
Albert reviewed 3500 soldiers, principally Swiss 
and Germans, at Shornclitre, 9 Aug. 1855. On the 
peace in 1856, many were scut to the Cape of Good 
Hope; but not prospering, returned. 

FOREIGN LOANS, see Loans. 

FOREIGN MISSIONS, see Missions. 

• The endeavour to enlist for this legion, in 185.1. i" the 
United stairs, gave great offence i" tin' American govern- 
ment. Mr. Crampton, our envoy, was dismissed, 28 May, 
1856, in Bpite of all the judicious pacific efforts oi 
lord Clarendon. Lord Napier was sent out as our repre- 
sentative in 1857. 



FOREIGN OFFICE was established at the 
re-arrangement of the duties of secretaries of state 
in 1782. It has the exclusive charge of British 
interests and subjects in foreign countries. The 
secretary for foreign affairs negotiates treaties, 
selects ambassadors, consuls, &c, for foreign 
countries, and grants passports. The new foreign 
office building in the Italian style (designed by- 
Sir Gilbert Scott) was begun in 1864. A portion of 
it was inaugurated by Mr. Disraeli's reception, 25 
March, and it was occupied by lord Stanley, 24 June, 
1868. See Administrations under separate heads, 
and Secretaries. 
Foreign Office Circular warning travellers and others 

that they will incur capture at their own risk Aug. i88j 
Important changes in the departments Feb. 1883 ; 
Sir Martin Gosselin made additional under secre- 
tary July, 189a 

FOREIGN ORDERS- No British subject is 
permitted to accept a foreign order from the sovereign 
of any foreign country, or wear the insignia thereof, 
without his majesty's consent, by orders issued in 
1812 and 1834; — regulations published in London 
Gazette, 10 May, 1855. 

FORESTALLING was forbidden by statutes 
(in 1350, 1552, &c), all repealed in 1844. 

FORESTS. There were in England, even in 
the last century, as many as 68 forests, 18 chases, 
and upwards of 780 parks. See New Forest* 
International Forestry exhibition at Edinburgh, re- 
commended by government, Nov. 1883 ; opened 
on 1 July ; closed .... 11 Oct. 1884 
" The Forester," by J. Brown ; new edition . . 1882 
Parliamentary committee on forestry appointed, 

May, 1885 Planting of trees increased . 1888 ct seq. 
Committee on British forestry. Report . Jan. 1903 
See Gardening, 1893. 

FORESTS, Charter, of the. Charta de- 

Foresla, grantedby Henry III. in 1217, was founded 
on Magna Charta, granted by king John, 15 June 
1215. It was confirmed in 1225 and 1297. See 
Woods. 

FORESTERS, Ancient Order of, a species of 
benefit society, founded on the principle that many 
can help one ; all religious and political discussions- 
are strictly avoided. The 54th High Court at Bead- 
ing ; number of members reported 690,000, 6 Aug. 
1888. At Bournemouth, 5 Aug. 1889. At Hull, 
4 Aug. 1890. At London, 1 Aug. 1891. Number of 
members reported Dec. 1891, 830,720; Dec. 1897, 



* The commissioners appointed to enquire into the 
state of the woods and forests, between 1787 and 1793, 
reported the following as belonging to the crown, viz. : — 
In Berkshire, Windsor Forest and Windsor Great and 
Little Park. In Dorset, Cranburn Chase. In Essex, 
Waltham or Epping and Hainault Forest. In Gloucester- 
shire, Dean Forest. In Hampshire, the New Forest, 
Alice Holt, Woohner Forest, and Bere Forest. In Kent, 
Greenwich Park. In Middlesex, St. James's, Hyde, 
Bushey, and Hampton-court Parks. In Northampton- 
shire, the forests of Whittlebury, Salcey, and Rockingham. 
In Nottingham, Sherwood Forest. In Oxford, Which- 
wood Forest. In Surrey, Richmond Park. Several of 
these have been disforested since 1851, viz. Hainault, 
Whichwood, and Whittlebury. A committee of the 
house of commons respecting forests sat in 1863. 
Motion in parliament to preserve Epping Forest adopted 
14 Feb. 1870 ; and the decision of the Master of the Rolls, 
10 Nov. 1874, stopped the enclosures by the lords of 
manors. The lord mayor Stone visited the forest in 
slate 14 Oct. 1S75. The commissioners' new scheme was 
published July, 1876. Memorial trees were planted by the 
duke and duchess of Connaught, i60ct. 1880. The forest 
was dedicated to the use of the people by queen Victoria, 
6 May, 1882. 28 acres of land at Yardley-hill, given by ■ 
Mr. E. X. Buxton to the forest, opened by the duke of j 
Connaught, 1 June, 1899. I 



FOEEST GATE. 



483 



FOEMOSA. 



895,769 ; Dec. 1901, 928,035 ; Dec. 1902, 932,827. 
Keported capital, 3,670,114/. 31 Dec. 1887; Dec. 
1897, 6,117,072/.; Dec. 1901, 7,172,833/.; Dec. 1902, 
7,437,444/. 

FOEEST GATE, Essex, see Fires, 1 Jan. 1890. 

FOEFAESHIEE STEAMEE, on its passage 
from Hull to Dundee, on 6 Sept. 1838, was wrecked 
in a violent gale, and thirty-eight persons out of 
fifty-three perished. The Outer-Fern Lighthouse 
keeper, James Darling, and his heroic daughter 
Grace, ventured out in a tremendous sea in a coble, 
and rescued several of the passengers. 
The "journal of William Darling" from 1795 to i860, 

published in 1S87, states that forty-three persons out 

of sixty -one perished. 

FOEGEEY of deeds, or giving forged deeds in 
evidence, was made punishable by tine, by standing 
in the pillory, having both ears cut off, the nostrils 
slit up and seared, the forfeiture of land, and per- 
petual imprisonment, 5 Eliz. 1562. Since the 
establishment of paper credit many statutes have 
been enacted ; the latest Forgery act passed 9 Aug. 
1870. The Forged Transfer acts were passed to pre- 
serve purchasers of stock from losses by forged 
transfers, 1891 and 1892. Convictions for forgery and 
offences against the currency, 1887-8, 652 ; 1893, 
440; 1894,355; l89S'34i; 1895,327; 1898,351; 
1899,311; 1900,255; 1901,282. 

Forgery first made punishable by death . . 1634 

Forging letters of attorney made capital . 1722 

Mr. Ward, M. P. , a man of wealth, expelled the house 
of commons for forgery, 16 May, 1726; and con- 
signed to the pillory ... 17 March, 1727 

The first forger on the bank of England was Richard 
William Vaughan, once a linen-draper of Stafford. 
He employed a number of artists on different 
parts of the notes fabricated. He filled up 
twenty of the notes and deposited them in the 
hands of a young lady whom he was on the point 
of marrying, as a proof of his being a man of sub- 
stance; no suspicion was entertained. One of 
the artists informed, and Vaughan was executed 
at Tyburn . . . . . .1 May, 1758 

Value of forged notes presented to the bank 1801-10 
nominally ioi,66iZ. 

The bank prosecuted 142 persons for forgery or the 
uttering of forged notes 1817 

Thos. Maynard, the last •person executed for forgery, 

31 Dec. 1829 

Statutes reducing into one act all such forgeries as 
shall henceforth be punished with death . . 1830 

The punishment of forgery with death ceases, except 
in cases of forging or altering wills or powers of 
attorney to transfer stock 1832 

These cases also reduced to transportable offences 1837 

A barrister, Jem Saward, and others, tried for 
forging numerous drafts on bankers 5 March, 1857 

The law respecting forgery amended in . 1861 and 1870 

For W. Roupell's case, see Trials . Aug. -Sept. 1862 

An elaborate system of bill forgery in London, dis- 
covered by the Bank of England . 1 March, 1873 

Ralph Cooper, " king of the forgers," sentenced to 
fifteen years for forging a cheque of 3,670^. on the 
London & Westminster bank . . 24 March, 1888 

Major W. E. Heath's forgery detector, " The 
Planet," described in the Times . . 1 Dec. 1896 

Devonport, Freeman, and Gibbons pleaded guilty 
to having in their possession 200 forged 5I. Bank 
of England notes, and to conspiring to forge and 
utter 213 such notes ; sentenced each to 14 yrs. , 
Brown to 8 yrs., two others to 3 yrs., and one to 
18 months' imprisonment, 16 May ; see Trials, Dec. 1902 
[See Execu t ions (for forgery), 1776, 1777, et seq.] 

Literary forgeries, see Formosa; Ireland's Forgeries; 
Edinburgh, 1893. Shipway pedigree case, see Trials, 
Nov. 1898 ; and Germany, Jan. 1899. 

FOEKS were in use on the Continent in the 13th 
and 14th centuries. Voltaire. This is reasonably 



disputed. In Fynes Moryson's Itinerary, reign of 
Elizabeth, he says, "At Venice each person was 
served (besides his knife and spoon) with a fork to 
hold the meat while he cuts it, for there they deem 
it ill manners that one should touch it with his 
hand." Thomas Coryate describes, with much 
solemnity, the manner of using forks in Italy, and 
adds, " I myself have thought it good to imitate the 
Italian fashion since I came home to England," 
1608. Two-pronged forks were made at Sheffield 
soon after. Three-pronged forks are more recent. 
Silver forks, previously only used by the highest 
classes, came into more general use in England 
about 1814. 

Mr. G. Smith found a bronze fork with two prongs at 

Kouyunjik, Assyria, 1873. 
A "flesh-hook of three teeth" mentioned 1 Sam. ii. 13, 

about 1165 b.c. 

_ FOEMA PAUPEEIS. A person having a 
just cause of suit, certified as such, yet so poor that 
he cannot meet the cost of maintaining it, has an 
attorney and counsel assigned him on his swearing 
that he is not worth 5/., by stat. 11 Hen. VII. 1495. 
— This act has been remodelled, and now any per- 
son may plead in forma pauperis in the courts of 
law. 

FOEMIC ACID, the acid of ants (formicce). 
Its artificial production by Pelouze in 1831 was 
considered an event in the progress of organic 
chemistry. 

FOEMIGNI (N.W. France). Here the con- 
stable de Eichemont defeated the English, 15 April, 
1450. 

FOEMOSA, an island in the Pacific, 90 miles 
from the Chinese coast. The early Spanish and 
Dutch settlers were expelled by Chinese colonists 
about 1661. Amoy is the chief port. Savages 
hold the mountains. Mixed population, above 
1,500,000. In May, 1874, the Japanese, with the 
consent of a Chinese mandarin, chastised the savage 
tribes here for massacring Japanese sailors on their 
proposed settlement on the isle. The Chinese 
threatened war if they did not quit within 90 days, 
18 Aug. 1874. By British interposition the Ja- 
panese withdrew, an indemnity having been agreed 
on ; treaty between Japan and China signed 31 Oct. 
1874. Formosa flourished under the rule of Ting ; 
removed in 1878. The plant of the Woosung 
railway brought here in 1878. George Psalmanazar 
published his fabricated description of Formosa in 
1704. See China, 1884-5. 

Severe fighting between the Chinese and the 

natives Dec. 1889 ; Feb. 1890 

Nearly 200 Chinese soldiers massacred by an 

ambush, reported . . . . 13 March, ,, 

General rebellion May, ,, 

Black flag outrages, British reinforcements sent ; 

18 Feb. 1895 
Tai-wan-Foo, the capital, bombarded by the 

Japanese 30 March, ,, 

Formosa ceded to Japan by the treaty of Shimo- 

noseki 17 April, ,, 

Sanguinary disturbances ... 22 April et seq. 
Adm. vise. Kabayama appointed governor by the 

Japanese 10 May, ,, 

A Chinese independent republic proclaimed ; gen. 

Tang as president ; reported 25 May ; collapsed ; 

gen. Tang escaped, early June ; Japanese land 

31 May, et seq. ; the port of Kelung captured 

3 June, „ 
100 Chinese killed by explosion of a powder mill, 

reported 6 June, ,, 
Japanese authority established at Taipehfu 7 June, ,, 
British marines landed at Anping, under capts. 

Shubrick and Brabazon ... 19 June ,, 

I I 2 



FORNOVO. 



484 



FORTY-SHILLINGS' DAY. 



British marines withdrawn, i July ; flight of 
foreigners ; Chinese attack on Japanese garrison 
defeated with great loss, reported n July ; 
Japanese attacked by the black flags about 

16 July 1895 

The island gradually subdued by the Japanese, 
reported Oct. „ 

Rising north-east of Tamsui, Tai-pei attacked by 
rebels .... 28 Dec. — 1 Jan. et seq. 1896 

Japanese atrocities in South Formosa . 18 July, ,, 

Rebels defeated and peace restored . . n Aug. ,. 

Bubonic plague, reported 1 Oct. 1897 

Government offices attacked and burnt by rebels, 
their villages afterwards burnt and great loss 
inflicted by the troops, reported . . 29 Sept. 1898 

Rebellion suppressed, many killed . April-May, 1902 

Insurgents' stronghold near Tai-nan captured, re- 
ported . . . . . . -?9 Aug. ,, 

Further conflicts .... 4 Oct.- 2 Dec. „ 

FORNOVO (Parma, Italy). Near here Charles 
VIII. of France defeated the Italians, 6 July, 
H95- 

FORSTER'S ACT, see Education, 1870. 

FORT DU QUESNE, N. America. Near 
here general Braddock was surprised by a party of 
French and Indians, his troops routed and himself 
killed, 9 July, 1755. The fort was named Fort 
Pitt after its capture by Forbes, 24 Nov. 1758. It 
is now Pittsburg. 

FORT ERIE (Upper Canada). This fortress 
was taken by the American general Browne, 3 June, 
1814. After several conflicts it was evacuated by 
the Americans, 5 Nov. 1814. 

FORT GEORGE, Inverness, N.W. Scotland, 
was erected in 1747, to restrain the Highlanders. — 
FORT WILLIAM, besieged by them in vain in 1746, 
is now in ruins. 

FORTH, a great river of Scotland, rising in 
Ben Lomond, and entering the North Sea as an 
estuary, termed the Firth of Forth. The Forth 
and Clyde Canal was commenced 10 July, 1768, 
under the direction of Mr. Smeaton, and opened 28 
July, 1790. A communication was thus formed 
between the eastern and western seas on the coast 
of Scotland. 

The Forth Railway-Bridge projected, and a raft 
launched in June, 1866. 

Mr. (afterwards sir T.) Bouch, of Edinburgh, was en- 
gaged tn prepare plans for a suspension-bridge, 1878. 

The Forth bridge company accepted tenders from Wm. 
Arrol & Co. (1,250,000/.) for constructing bridge and 
railway, Oct. 1879; through Tay-bridge disaster, &c, 
the scheme was suspended and eventually abandoned 
by the company, 13 Jan. 1881. 

The construction of the present Forth Bridge was 
undertaken by the company supported by the North 
British, North Eastern, Great Northern, and Midland 
railway companies; the act was passed, June, 1882; 
engineers, Mr. John Fowler and Mr. Benjamin Baker, 
whose plans were based on the cantilever or bracket 
principle ; Messrs. Win. Arrol & Co. were the con- 
tractors. The rocky islet of Inchgarvie was of great 
importance in the construction of the bridge; the 
works began by building the foundations, Jan. 1883. 

The last bolt was driven, 6 Nov. 1889; the strength of the 
bridge was listed by the passage of nearly 2,000 tons, 
strained l,al| way across. .• 1 Jan. ; and officially tested 
for the board of trade, 20 Feb. 1890. 

The tirst train which crossed tl nt.ire bridge was 

driven by the marchioness of T\v Male, carrying a 

distinguished company, in five minutes, 24 Jan. 1890. 

The prince of Wales after driving in the last rivet, in the 

presence of the duke oi Edinburgh, the duke of Fife, 
prince George of Wales, the marquis of Tweeddale, 
the earl or Rosebery, and other distinguished \ isitors, 
including M, Eiffel, and other eminent engineers, said. 
"Ladies and gentlemen, 1 nov declare the Forth 

bridge open," 1.30 P.M. 4 March, 1890. 



The ceremony was followed by a banquet in a hall 
adjoining the works. 

The length of the bridge (from North to South 
Queensferry), with the approaching viaducts, is 
one mile 1,005 yards ; the highest pari of the bridge 
is 361 feet ; the clear headway under the centre of 
the bridge is 152 feet above high water. The greatest 
number of men employed at one time was 5,000. 56 
lives were lost during the construction, in spite of 
great precautions. 

Estimated cost 1,600,000/., actual cost about 2,500,000?. 

Mr. Matthew William Thompson, chairman of the Forth 
bridge and Midland railway companies, and Mr. John 
Fowler (died 20 Nov. 1898), were created baronets, 
Mr. Benjamin Baker, was made K.C.M.G., and Mr. 
William Arrol was knighted, T890. 

The bridge was opened for the ordinary railway trains, 
2 June. 1890. 

The bridge slowly crossed by the queen coming south, 
19 June, 1891. 

By the fall of scaffolding through high wind, 3 painters 
killed, 29 Sept. 1891. 

The bridge firmly withstood a violent gale, 29 Jan. 1892. 

FORTIFICATION. The Phoenicians were 
the first people to fortify cities. Apollodorus says 
that Perseus fortified Mycenae, where statues were 
afterwards erected to him. The modern system 
was introduced about 1500. Albert Diirer w r rote on 
fortification in 1527 ; and great improvements were 
made by Vauban, who fortified many places in 
France; he died 1707. The new fortifications of 
Paris were completed in 1846 ; see Paris. In Aug. 
i860, the British parliament passed an act tor the 
expenditure of 2,000,000^. in one year upon the | 
fortifications of Portsmouth, Plymouth, Pembroke, : 
and Portland, the Thames, Medway, and Sheerness, 
Chatham, Dover, and Cork, and on the purchase of j 
a central arsenal establishment ; the estimated ex- 1 
pense being 9,500,000^. A committee to investigate l 
our fortifications was appointed, 16 April, 1868. | 

FORTIS, a powerful explosive invented in ' 
Belgium about 1887, said to be well adapted for j 
mining purposes. In May, 1890, it was manu- 
factured by the Fortis Powder and Explosives com- 
pany. Successful experiments at Liege, 8 Sept. 1 
1891. 

FORTNIGHTLY REVIEW, first published [ 
in 1865, edited by G. H. Lewes, succeeded by John 1 
Morley in 1867, and others. It was afterwards j 
published monthly. 

FORTUNATE ISLES, see Canaries. 

FORTUNE BAY AFFAIR, see Canada, 

1878, 1880-1, and Newfoundland. 

FORTUNE-TELLING is traced to the early 
astrologers, by whom the planets Jupiter and Venus 
were supposed to betoken happiness. The Sibyllae , 
were women said to be inspired by HeaA en ; see 
Sibyls and Gipsies. In England the laws against I 
fortune-telling were at one time very severe. A ! 
declaration was published in France, II Jan. 1680, ' 
of exceeding severity against fortune-tellers and j 
poisoners, under which several persons suffered ! 
death. Hctiaitlt. Fortune-tellers, although liable 1 
by the acts of 1743 and 1824 to be imprisoned asi 
rogues and vagabonds, still exist in England. See! 
Palmistry. \ 

FORTY-SHILLING FREEHOLDERS,. 

see Freeholders. 

FORTY-SHILLINGS' DAY, the name of 

a quaint custom annually kept up since 1 718 on 
the feast of the Purification (2 Feb.), at "Walton, in 
Surrey. William Glanville left 2I. each for 5 boys 
who should, placing then fingers upon his tomb in 



FOKUM. 



485 



FOX AND GEENVILLE. 



the churchyard, repeat the Creed, the Lord's Prayer, 
the Ten Commandments, and afterwards read 
I C >r. xt. and write out two verses of the chapter. 
The number of recipients has since been increased. 

FORUM, at Rome, originally a market-place, 
became about 472 B.C. the place of assembly of the 
people in their tribes (the Comitia), and was 
gradually adorned with temples and public build- 
ings. — Near Forum Trebronii, in Mcesia, the 
Romans were defeated by the Goths, Nov. 251. 
After a struggle in the morass, the emperor Deems 
and his son were slain and their bodies not re- 
covered. See Rome, 1885, 1899-1902. 

FOSSALTA, near Bologna, central Italy. 
Here Enzo or Enrico, titular king of Sardinia, 
natural son of the emperor Frederick II., was de- 
feated and made prisoner, 26 May, 1249, and re- 
tained. He was kept in honourable captivity till 
his death, 14 March, 1272. 

FOTHERINGHAY CASTLE (Northamp- 
tonshire), built about 1400. Here Richard III. of 
England was born in 1450 ; and here Mary queen 
of Scots was tried, 11- 14 Oct. 1586, and beheaded, 8 
Feb. 1587. It was demolished by her son, James I. 
of England, in 1604. 

FOUDROYANT, Nelson's flagship 1798 ; 
purchased by Mr. J. R. Cobb, F.S.A., of Brecon, 
from a German firm, and brought to the Thames, 
28 Nov. 1892 ; proposal to make her a Nelson 
museum unsuccessful, October, 1893. A company 
having failed, Mr. J. R. Cobb restored the vessel, 
1895-96 ; it was moored off Woolwich, and open 
to visitors, 19 June, 1896; wrecked in a gale at 
Blackpool, crew saved, 16 June, 1897 ; destroyed in 
a gale, 28 Nov 1897 \ Mr. Cobb died, 6 Dec. 1897. 

FOUG-HARD, near Dundalk, N. Ireland. 
Here Edward, brother of Robert Bruce, after 
invading Ireland in 1315, was defeated by sir John 
Bermingham, 5 Oct. 13 18. Bruce was killed by 
Roger de Maupis, a burgess of Dundalk. 

FOUNDLING- HOSPITALS are ancient. 
A species of foundling hospital was set up at Milan 
in 787, and in the middle ages most of the principal 
cities of the continent possessed one. The French 
government in 1 790 declared foundlings to be the 
" children of the state." 

No foundling hospital in England when Addison 

wrote in 1713 

London foundling hospital, projected by Thomas 
Coram, a sea-captain, incorporated, Oct. 1739 > 

opened 2 June, 1756 

Handel gave an organ ; opened it . .1 May, 1750 
It succours about 500 infant children ; Coram's 

. statue was put up in 1856 

Foundling hospital in Dublin instituted in 1704. 
Owing to great mortality, and from moral con- 
siderations, the internal department was closed 
by order of government . . 31 March, 1835 

Foundling hospital at Moscow, founded by Cathe- 
rine II. in 1772 ; about 12,000 children are re- 
ceived annually. 

FOUNTAINE COLLECTION of Renais- 
sance works, Faience, Limoges, Raffaelle, and 
Palissy- enamelled ware, &c. (unequalled) ; and 
also a fine collection of coins, medals, carved ivory 
work, &c, formed by sir Andrew Fountaine, in 
the reigns of Anne and George I. ; placed in 
Narford Hall, Norfolk, about 1730; sold by Christie 
and Manson for 91,112/., 16-19 June, 1884; by 



the sale of ancient drawings, on 1 1 July, the sum 
was raised to 96,278/. Sir Andrew Fountaine 
died in 1873. 

FOUNTAINS. The fountain of Hero of 
Alexandria was invented about 150 B.C. Among 
the remarkable fountains at Rome are the Fontana 
di Trevi, constructed for pope Clement XII. in 
1 735 ; the Fontana Paolina, erected for pope 
Paul V. in 1612 ; and Fontana dell' Acqua Felice, 
called also the Fountain of Moses. The fountains 
in the palace gardens at Versailles, made for 
Louis XIV., and the Grand Jet d'Eau, at St. Cloud, 
are exceedingly beautiful. There are above 100 
public fountains in Paris, the most striking being 
the Chateau d'Eau on the Boulevard St. Martin 
(by Girard, 1811) and that at the Palais Royal. 
London is not remarkable for fountains ; the 
largest are in Trafalgar-square, constructed in 
1845, after designs by sir Charles Barry. There 
are beautiful fountains at Chatsworth, in Derby- 
shire, the seat of the duke of Devonshire. The 
magnificent fountains at the Crystal Palace, Syden- 
ham, were first publicly exhibited on 18 June, 
1856, in the presence of the queen and 20,000 
spectators. 

The fountain at Park-lane, London, W., the gift of Mrs. 
Brown, was inaugurated and uncovered, 9 July, 1875. 
It has statues of Chaucer, Shakspeare, and Milton, the 
work of Mr. Thomas Croft, and cost 5000Z. 

FOURIERISM, a social system devised by 
M. Charles Fourier (who died in 1837). The 
Phalanstery (from phalanx), an association of 400 
families living in one edifice, was to be so arranged 
as to give the highest amount of happiness at the 
lowest cost. The system failed ; caused, it is said, 
by the smallness of the scale on which it was 
tried. 

The Familistere, a somewhat similar system, established 
by M. Godin, a manufacturer of stoves, &c, at Guise, 
N. France, was reported successful in Jan. 1886. 

"FOUR MASTERS," a name given to 
Michael, Conary, and Cucogry O'Clery, and Fer- 
feasa O'Mulconry, who compiled from originaL 
documents the annals of Ireland from 2242 B.C. to 
a.d. 1616. An edition of these "Annals," printed 
from autograph MSS., with a translation edited by 
Dr. John 0' Donovan, was published at Dublin in 
1 85 1. The " Four Masters " lived in the first half 
of the 17th century. 

FOURTH ESTATE. Thomas Carlyle states 
that this term was applied to the newspaper press 
by Edmund Burke when speaking in the Hou^e of 
Commons. Burke died 9 July, 1797. 

FOURTH PARTY, a name facetiously given to 
lord Randolph Churchill, sir Henry Drummond 
Wolff, Mr. (aft. sir) John Gorst, and a few other 
conservative members, active opponents of the gov- 
ernment, also termed "free lances." The other 
parties were liberals, conservatives, and home-rulers 
(1880-5). 

Lord Randolph Churchill and some of his friends 
desire to imitate radical organization (popular, 
responsible, and representative), advocating 

" tory democracy " May, 1884 

He and some others took office under the 
Salisbury administration . . . June, 1885 

FOX, see Reynard. 

FOX and GRENVILLE ADMINISTRA- 
TION, see Grenville Administration. 



FOX-GLOVE. 



436 



FRANCE. 



FOX-GLOVE (folks' or fairies* glove), a 
handsome indigenous flower. The canary fox-glove 
(Digitalis canariemis) came from the Canary 
islands, 1698. The Madeira fox-glove came here 
in 1777. The fox-grape shrub (vitus vulpina), 
from Virginia, before 1656. 

FOYERS, Falls of, "works, see Aluminium. 

FRAGA, N.E. Spain. Near here the Christians, 
under Alfonso I. of Aragon, were defeated by the 
Moors, 17 July, 1134. 

FRANC, the current silver French coin (value 
lod.), superseded the livrc tonrnois 1795. 

FRANCE, the Roman Gaul (which see). In 
the 5th century it was conquered by the Franks, a 
people of Germany, then inhabiting Franeonia, 
where they became known about 240. The country 
was gradually named Franken-ric, Franks' king- 
dom. For the dynastic changes, see list of sove- 
reigns, infra. Previous to the revolution, France 
was divided into 40 governments. In 1790 it was 
divided into 83 departments, and subsequently into 
130, including Corsica, Geneva, Savoy, and other 
places, chiefly conquests. In 1815 the departments 
were reduced to 86 ; in i860 they were raised to 89 
by the acquisition of Savoy and Nice,* re- 
duced to 86 by the loss of Alsace and Lorraine. The 
political constitution has been frequently changed 
since 1789. For details of more important events, 
see separate articles. The title of king of France, 
adopted by the English sovereigns from F.dwd. 3rd, 
1340, was given up by Geo. 3 in 1802. Colonies. 

The Franks settle in that part of Gaul, till late 
called Flanders about 418 

Clovis, 4S1 ; defeats Syagrius and the Gauls at 
Soissons, 486 ; and the Alemanni at Tolbiac, near 
Cologne ; and embraces Christianity . . . 496 

He kills Alaric the Goth at the battle of Vougle, 
near Poictiers, unites his conquests from the 
Loire to the Pyrenees, and makes Paris his 
capital 507 

He proclaims the Salique law ; and dies, leaving 
four sons j n 

Frequent invasions of the Avars and Lombards 562-584 

The mayors of the palace now assume almost sove- 
reign authority S 8 4 

Charles Martel becomes mayor of the palace, and 
rules with despotic sway 7I+ 

Invasion of the Saracens, 720 ; defeated by Charles 
Martel, near Tours .... 10 Oct. 732 

* Population 0/ France in 1700, 19,669,320 ; in 1762, 
21,769,163; in 1801, 27,349,003; in 1820, 30,451,187; in 
J 836. 33.540.910 : in 1846, 35,401,761 ; in 1856, 36,039,364; 
in 1861, including the new departments, 37,382,225 ; in 
1872 (after the war), 36,102,921. Population 31 Dec. 
1876, 36,905,788 ; 18 Dec. 1881, 37,672,048 ; 1891, 
38.343. IQ2 '. 1901, 38,961,945. Population of the 
colonies (1876) (in Asia, Pondieherry, &c ; Africa, 
Algeria, Madagascar, &c ; America, Martinique, 
Guadaloupe, \< . ; Oceania, the Marquesas, &c), in 
1858,3.641,226; in 1872, about 5,621,000 ; in 1877, about 
6,440,660; in 1901, about 44,360,000. [Alsace and 
Lorraine lost with population of 1.597,219 in 1871.] In 
May, 1862, the Moniteur asserted the effective army to 
be 447,000, with a reserve of 170,000; virtually raised to 
1,200,000 in 1868 ; disposable force in 1869, about 
1,350,000; in 1875, 1.750,000; in 1880, 8,423,164 men; 
effective army 1903, 1,000,000. Revenue, 1809-1, 
126,611,900/. ; 1891-2, 130,074,474*. ; 1902-3, 142,995,072/.'; 
expenditure, 1890-1,126,595,261/.; 1891-2, 130,060,963/.; 
1902-3,142,535,957/.; 1890, imports, 218,080,000/. ;i 1893, 
157,468,800/. ; 1896, 151,944,000/. ; 1900, 176,341,200/. ; 
1901, 174,600,000/. ; exports, 1890, 193,600,000/. ; 1893, 
128,384,760/.; 1896, 136,036,000/.; 190c, 163,121,280/.'; 
1901, 160,520,000/. 



Reign of Pepin the Short 752 

Charlemagne, king, 768 ; conquers Saxony and 

Lombardy, 773-4 crowned emperor of the West. 

25 Dec. 800 
The Normans invade Neustria, 876 ; part of which 

is granted Rollo, as Normandy, by Charles the 

Simple . . 911 

Reign of Hugh Capet . .... 987 

Paris made capital of all France ... . 996 

Letters of franchise granted to cities and towns by 

Louis VI. 1135 

Louis VII. .joins in the Crusades 1146 

Philip Augustus defeats the Germans at Bouvines . 1214 
Louis VIII., Cceur de Lion, frees his serfs . . . 1224 
Louis IX. conducts an army into Palestine ; takes 

Damietta, 1249 ; see Crusades; dies before Tunis, 

25 Aug. 1270 
Charles of Anjou conquers Naples and Sicily . 1266 
His tyranny leads to the massacre called the Sicilian 

Vespers (ivhich see) 1282 

Philip the Fair's quarrels with the Pope . . 1301-2 
Knights Templars suppressed .... 1307-8 

Union of France and Navarre 1314 

English invasion — Philip VI. defeated at Cressy, 

26 Aug. 1346 
Calais taken by Edward III. . . .3 Aug. 1347 

Dauphiny annexed to France 1349 

Battle of Poictiers (which see) ; king John taken 

(brought prisoner to England) . . 19 Sept. 1356 
France laid under an interdict by the pope . . 1407 
Battle of Agincourt (which see) . . .25 Oct. 1415 
Massacre of the Armagnacs by the Burgundians, 

June, 1418 
Henry V. of England acknowledged heir to the 

throne 1420 

Henry VI. crowned at Paris ; duke of Bedford re- 
gent . . 1422 

Siege of Orleans raised, by Joan of Arc, 8 May ; 

battle of Patay ; the English defeated 18 June, 1429 
Joan of Arc burnt at Rouen . . . 30 May, 143 1 
England lost all her possessions (but Calais) in 

France, between .... 1434 and 1450 
" League of the public good" against Louis XI. by 

the nobles Dec. 1464-Oct. 1465 

Edward IV. of England invades France . . . 1475 
Charles VIII. conquers Naples, 1494 ; loses it . . 1496 
League of Cambray against Venice .... 150S 
Pope Julius II. forms the Holy League against 

France 1511 

English invasion — battle of Spur . . 16 Aug. 1513 
Interview on the Field of the Cloth of Gold between 

Francis I. and Henry VIII. of England . . . 1520 
Francis I. defeated and taken at Pavia . 24 Feb. 1525 

Peace of Cambray 5 Aug. 1529 

Persecution of protestants begins .... 1530 
Royal printing press established, 1531 ; Robert 

Stephens prints his Latin Bible . . . . 1532 

Brittany annexed to France ,, 

League of England with the emperor Charles V. ; 

Henry VIII. invades France 1544 

Peace with England .... 7 June, 1546 

Successful defence of Metz by the duke of Guise . 1552 

Ho takes Calais (which see) 1558 

Religious wars ; massacre of protestants at Vassy, 

1 March, 1562 
Guise defeats the Huguenots at Dreux 19 Dec. ,, 

Guise killed at siege of Orleans, 18 Feb. ; temporary 

peace of Amboise .... 19 March, 1563 
Huguenots defeated at St. Denis . . 10 Nov. 1567 
At Jarnac 13 March ; at Moncontour . . 3 Oct. 1569 
Massacre of St. Bartholomew . . . 24 Aug. 1572 
" Holy Catholic League " established . . . . 1576 
Duke of Guise assassinated by king's order, 23 

Dec. ; and his brother, the cardinal . 24 Dec. 1588 
Henry III. stabbed by Jacques Clement, a friar, 

t Aug.; died 2 Aug. 1589 

Henry IV. defeats the league at Ivry 14 March, 1590 



FRANCE. 



487 



FRANCE. 



Henry IV. becomes a Roman Catholic 25 July, 1593 

The league leaders submit to him . . Jan. 1596 
He promulgates the edict of Nantes . 13 April, 159S 
Silk and other manufactures introduced by him and 

Sully 1606-1610 

Quebec in North America settled . . . . 1608 
Murder of Henry IV. by Ravaillac . . 14 May, 1610 

Regency of Mary de Medici 1610-14 

The states-general meet and complain of the 

management of the finances . . . 27 Oct. 1614 
Rise of the Concinis, 1610 ; their fall and death . 1617 

Navarre annexed to France 1620 

Vigorous and successful administration of Richelieu, 

begins with finance 1624 

Rochelle taken after a long siege . . . . 1628 
vt Day of Dupes ;" Richelieu's energy defeats the 

machinations of his enemies . . 11 Nov. 1630 
Richelieu organises the Academic de France . 1634-5 

His death (aged 58) 4 Dec. 1642 

Accession of Louis XIV. , aged four years (Anne of 

Austria, regent) 14 May, 1643 

Administration of Mazarin ; victories of Turenne, 

1643-6 
Civil wars of the Fronde .... 1648, &c. 
Death of Mazarin, 9 March ; Colbert financial 
minister .... .... 1661 

War with Holland, &c 1672 

Canal of Languedoc constructed . . . 1664-81 
Peace of Nimeguen .... 10 Aug. 1678 
Edict of Nantes revoked . . .22 Oct. 1685 

Louis marries Madame de Maintenon , 

War with William III. of England . . . 1689, &c. 

Peace of Ryswick 20 Sejit. 1697 

War of the Spanish succession . . Sept. 1701 
French defeated at Blenheim . . .2 Aug. 1704 

At Ramillies 23 May, 1706 

Peace of Utrecht (which see) . . n April, 1713 
Dissensions of Jesuits and Jansenists ; the bull 

Unigenitus Sept. ,, 

Accession of Louis XV. ; stormy regency of the duke 

of Orleans 1 Sept. 1715, &c. 

Law's bubble in France (see Law) . . . . 1716 
French defeated at Dettingen . . .16 June, 1743 
Successful cam paign of marshal Saxe . . . . 1746 
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle . . . . 18 Oct. 1748 
Seven years' war begun .... May, 1756 
Damiens' attempt on life of Louis XV. . 5 Jan. 1757 
Canada lost— battle of Quebec . . 13 Sept. 1759 

The Jesuits banished from France, and their effects 

confiscated 1762 

Peace of Paris ; Canada ceded to England, 10 Feb. 1763 
Louis XV. enslaved by madame du Barry . . . 1769 

Death of Louis XV 10 May, 1774 

Famine riots at Versailles .... May, 1775 
The minister Turgot dismissed . . May, 1776 

Ministry of Necker Nov. ,, 

Louis XVI. assists America to throw off its depen- 
dence on England, at first secretly . . . . 1778 
Torture abolished in French judicature . . . 1780 
Peace of Versailles with England . . 3 Sept. 1783 
The diamond-necklace affair (ivhich see) . . . 1785 
Meeting of the assembly of notables, 22 Feb. 1787 ; 

again 6 Nov. 1788 

Opening of states-general (308 ecclesiastics, 285 

nobles ; 621 deputies, tiers et-at) . 5 May, 1789 
The tiers etat constitute themselves the National 

Assembly 17 June, „ 

The French revolution commences with the de- 
struction of the Bastille (which see) . 14 July, „ 
The National Assembly decrees that the title of the 
" king of France " shall be changed to that of the 
" king of the French " .... 16 Oct. „ 
The property of the clergy confiscated . 2 Nov. „ 
Emigratipn of nobles . . . Oct. -Dec. ,, 

Confederation of the Champ de Mars ; France de- 
clared a limited monarchy ; ixmis XVI. swears 
to maintain the constitution . 14 July, 1790 

The silver plate used in the churches transferred to 

the mint and coined . . . 3 March, 1791 

Death of Mirabeau . . . 2 April, ,, 



The king, queen, and royal family arrested at 

Varennes, in their flight . . . .21 June, 1791 
Louis (a prisoner) sanctions the National Constitu- 
tion 15 Sept. „ 

War declared against the emperor . 20 April, 1792 
The Jacobin club declare their sittings permanent, 

18 June, „ 
The multitude, bearing the red bonnet of liberty, 
march to the Tuileries to make demands on the 

king . 20 June, „ 

First coalition against France ; commencement of 

the great French war .... June, „ 
[See Battles, 1792 to 1815.] 
The royal Swiss guards cut to pieces ; massacre of 

5000 persons J° Aug. ,, 

Revolutionary tribunal set up . . .19 Aug. „ 
Decree of the National Assembly against the priests ; 

40,000 exiled 26 Aug. „ 

Massacre in Paris ; the prisons broken open, and 

1200 persons (100 priests) slain . 2-5 Sept. „ 
Murder of the princess de Lamballe . 3 Sept. „ 
The National Convention opened . 17 Sept. „ 
Convention establishes a republic, 20 Sept. ; pro- 
claimed 22 Sept. ,, 

Duke of Brunswick defeated at Valmy 20 Sept. „ 
The French people declare their fraternity with 
all nations who desire to be free, and offer help, 

19 Nov. „ 

Flanders conquered Dec. ,, 

Decree for the perpetual banishment of the Bourbon 

family, those confined in the Temple excepted, 

20 Dec. ,, 
Louis imprisoned in the Temple distinct from the 

queen, and brought to trial, 19 Jan. ; condemned 
to death, 20 Jan. Beheaded in the Place de Louis 

Quinze, 21 Jan - T 793 

Committee of public safety established 21 Jan. ,, 
War with England and Holland declared 1 Feb. „ 

War in La Vendee March, „ 

Reign of terror— proscription of Girondists, 31 

May ; establishment of convention 23 June, „ 

Marat stabbed by Charlotte Corday . 13 July, „ 
The queen beheaded .... 16 Oct. „ 

Execution of the Girondists . . . 31 Oct. „ 
Philip Egalite, duke of Orleans, who had voted for 
the king's death, guillotined at Paris (see Orleans), 
6 Nov. ; and madame Roland . . 8 Nov. ,, 
Worship of goddess of reason . . 10 Nov. „ 
Adoption of new republican calendar . 24 Nov. „ 
Execution of Danton and others, 5 April ; of madame 

Elizabeth ... ... 12 May, 1794 

Robespierre president, 4 June ; he and 71 others 

guillotined 28 July, „ 

Abolition of the Revolutionary Tribunal 15 Dec. „ 

Peace with Prussia 5 Apnl, 1795 

Insurrection of the Faubourgs . . 20, 21 May, „ 
Louis XVII. dies in prison ... 8 June, „ 
French directory chosen . . • • 1 ^ov. „ 
Bonaparte's successful campaigns in Italy, 1796, &e. 
Babeuf's conspiracy suppressed . .12 May, „ 

Pichegru's conspiracy fails . . . May, 1797 

Expedition to Syria and Egypt (which see) July, 1798 

European coalition against France . . April, 1799 
Council of Five Hundred deposed by Bonaparte, 

who is declared First Consul . . 10 Nov. „ 

He defeats the Austrians at Marengo . 14 June, 1800 
His life attempted by the infernal machine, 24 Dec. ,, 
The bank of France founded by Napoleon, aided by 

count Mollien . . • • . • • • >> 
Peace of Amiens (with England, Spam, and Hol- 
land) signed .... 25-27 March, 1802 
Amnesty to the emigrants . . . A P n ' " 
Legion of Honour instituted . . .19 May, „ 
Bonaparte made consul for life . . 2 Aug. „ 
The bank of France established . . 14 April, 1803 
Declaration of war against England . 22 May, „ 
Conspiracy of Moreau and Pichegru against Bona- 
parte 15 Feb. ; Pichegru found strangled in prison 

(see Georges) 6 , Apr £' l8 ° 4 

Due d'Enghien executed . . . -21 March, „ 
France made an empire ; Napoleon proclaimed em- 
peror, 18 May ; crowned by the pope 2 Dec. ,, 

He is crowned king of Italy . . .26 May, 1805 
Another coalition against France . . . Aug. „ 
Napoleon defeats the allies at Austerlitz 2 Dec. ,, 

And the Prussians at Jena . . . ^Oct. 1806 

And the Russians at Eylau ... 8 Feb. 1807 



FEANCE. 



FEANCE. 



His interview with the czar at Tilsit, 26 June ; peace 

signed 7 July, 

flis Milan decree against British commerce, 

17 Dec. 
New nobility of France created . . 1 March, 
Abdication of Charles IV. of Spain and his son, in 

favour of Napoleon, 5 May ; insurrection in Spain, 

27 May, 
Commencement of the Peninsular war (see Spain), 

July, 
Alliance of England and Austria against France, 

April, 
Victories in Austria; Napoleon enters Vienna, May, 
Peace of Vienna . . : . . 14 Oct. 
Divorce of the emperor and empress Josephine 

decreed by the senate . . . .16 Dec. 
Marriage of Napoleon to Maria Louisa of Austria, 

1 April, 
Holland united to France ... 9 July, 
Birth of the king of Rome (since styled Napoleon II.), 

20 March, 
War with Russia declared . . .22 June, 

Victory at Borodino 7 Sept. 

Disastrous retreat ; French army nearly destroyed, 

Oct. 
Alliance of Austria, Russia, and Prussia against 

France March, 

The British enter France . . . .7 Oct. 
Surrender of Paris to the allies . .31 March, 
Abdication of Napoleon negotiated . 5 April, 
Bourbon dynasty restored, and Louis XVIII. arrives 

in Paris 3 May, 

Napoleon arrives at Elba 4 May, 

The Constitutional Charter decreed . 4-10 June, 
Quits Elba, and lands at Cannes . 1 March, 

Arrives at Fontainebleau (the 100 days) 20 March, 
Joined by all the army ... 22 March, 
The allies sign a treaty against him . March, 
He abolishes the slave trade . . 29 March, 
Leaves Paris for the army. ... 12 June, 
Defeated at Waterloo . . . .18 June, 

Returns to Paris, 20 June ; abdicates in favour of 

his infant son 22 June, 

Intending to embark for America, he arrives at 

Rochefort 3 July, 

Louis XVIII. enters Paris . . . .3 July, 
Napoleon surrenders to capt. Maitland, of the 

Bellerophon, at Rochefort . . -15 July, 
Transferred at Torbay to the Northumberland, and 

with admiral sir George Cockbum sails for St. 

Helena 8 Aug. 

Arrives at St. Helena to remain for life 15 Oct. 

Execution of marshal Ney ... 7 Dec. 
The family of Bonaparte excluded for ever from 

France by the law of amnesty 
Duke of Berry murdered 
Deatli of Napoleon I. (see Wills) 
Louis XVIII. dies ; Charles X. king . 
National Guard disbanded 
War with Algiers ; dey's fleet defeated 
Seventy-six new peers created 
Election riots at Paris ; barricades : several per- 
sons killed 19, 20 Nov. 

The Villele ministry replaced by the Martignac, 

4 Jan. 
Beranger imprisoned for political songs 10 Dec. 
Polignac administration formed . . 8 Aug. 
Chamber of deputies dissolved . . 16 May, 

Algiers taken 5 July, 

The obnoxious ordinances regarding the press, 

and reconstruction of the chamber of deputies, 

26 July, 
Revolution commences with barricades 27 July, 
Conflicts in Paris between the populace (ulti- 
mately aided by the national guard) and the army, 

28-30 July, 
Charles X. retires to R.tmbouillet ; flight of his 

ministry, 31 July ; heabdicates . . 2 Aug. 
The duke of Orleans accepts the crown as Louis- 

Philippe 1 7 Aug. 

The constitutional charter of Juiy published. 

14 Aug. 
Charles X. retires to England . . 17 Aug. 
Polignac and other ministers tried and sentenced to 

perpetual imprisonment • . 21 Dec. 

The abolition of the hereditary peerage decreed 

by both chambers ; the. peers (36 new peers being 



1807 



1S13 
1814 



12 Jan. 


1816 


13 Feb. 


1820 


5 May. 


1821 


16 Sept. 


1824 


30 April, 


1827 


4 Nov. 




5 Nov. 


,, 



1829 

1830 



created) concurring by a majority of 103 to 70, 

27 Dec. 1831 
The ABC (abaisses) insurrection in Paris sup- 
pressed s, 6 June, 1832 

Charles X. leaves Holyrood-house for the conti- 
nent 18 Sept. ,, 

Ministry of Soult, duke of Dalmatia . . 11 Oct. „ 
Bergeron and Benoit tried for an attempt on the 

life of Louis-Philippe ; acquitted . 18 March, 1833 
The duchess of Berry, who has been delivered of a 
female child, and asserts her secret marriage 
with an Italian nobleman, sent to Palermo, 9 June, ,, 
Death of La Fayette . . . .20 May, 1834 
Marshal Gerard takes office . . .15 July, „ 

M. Dupuytren dies 8 Feb. 1835 

Due de Broglie, minister .... Feb. ,, 
Fieschi attempts the king's life . . 28 July, „ 
[He fired an infernal machine as the king and his 
sons rode along the lines of the national guard, 
on the boulevard du Temple. The machine 
consisted of twenty-five barrels, charged with 
various missiles, and lighted simultaneously by a 
train of gunpowder. The king and his sons es- 
caped ; but marshal Mortier, duke of Treviso, 
was shot dead, many officers dangerously 
wounded, and upwards of forty persons killed 
or injured.] 

Fieschi executed 19 Feb. 1836 

Louis Alibaud fires at the king on his way from the 

Tuileries, 25 June ; guillotined . . 11 July, „ 
Ministry of count Mole, vice M. Thiers . 6 Sept. „ 

Death of Charles X 6 Nov. „ 

Attempted insurrection at Strasburg by Louis 
Napoleon (afterwards emperor), planned, it is 
said, by Filain de Persigny, 29-30 Oct. ; he is sent 

to America 13 Nov. ,, 

Prince Polignac and others set at liberty from Ham, 

and sent out of France . . . -23 Nov. ,, 
Meunier fires at the king on his way to open the 

French chambers . . . 27 Dec. „ 
Amnesty for political offences ... 8 May 1837 
" Idees Napoleoniennes," by prince Louis Napo- 
leon, published 1838 

Talleyrand dies 20 May, „ 

Marshal Soult at the coronation of the queen of 

England 28 June, ,, 

Birth of the count of Paris . . . 24 Aug. „ 
Death of the duchess of Wurtemberg (daughter of 

Louis Philippe), a good sculptor . . 2 Jan. 1839 
Insurrection of Barbes and Blanqui at Paris, 12 May, ,, 
M. Thiers, minister of foreign affairs . 1 March, 1840 
The chambers decree the removal of Napoleon's re- 
mains from St. Helena to France . . 12 May, „ 
[By the permission of the British government these 
were taken from the tomb at St. Helena (15 Oct. 
1840), and embarked on the next day on board 
the Belle Poule French frigate, under the com- 
mand of the prince de Joinville ; the vessel 
reached Cherbourg on 30 November ; and on 15 
December the body was deposited in the Hotel 
des Invalides. The ceremony was witnessed by 
1,000,000 of persons ; 150,000 soldiers assisted in 
the obsequies : and the royal family and all the 
high personages of the realm were present : all 
the relatives of the emperor were absent, l>eing 
proscribed, and in exile or in prison. The body- 
was finally placed in its crypt on 31 March, 
1861.] 
Descent of prince Louis Napoleon, general Montho- 
lon, and 50 followers, at Vimereux, near Bou- 
logne, 6 Aug. ; the prince sentenced to imprison- 
ment tor life 6 Oct. „ 

Darmes fires at the king ... 15 Oct. „ 

M. Guizot, minister of foreign affairs . 29 Oct. „ 
Project of law foran extraordinary creditof 140, 000, 006 
of francs, for erecting the fortifications of Paris, 

15 Dec. ,, 
The duration of copyright to 30 years alter the 

author's death, fixed .... 30 March, 1841 
Bronze statue ot Napoleon placed on the column 
* of the grande armee, Boulogne . . 15 Aug. „ 
Attempt to assassinate the duke of Aumale (king's 

son) on return from Africa . . 13 Sept. ,, 

The duke of Oilcans, heir to the throne, killed by a 

fall from his carriage .... 13 July, 1842 
Tin 1 queen of England visits the royal family at 

Chateau d'EU 2-7 Sept. 1843 

An extradition treaty with England signed . . „ 



FEANCE. 



489 



FEANCE. 



War with Morocco, May ; peace . . 10 Sept. 1844 
The king visits England ; received by the queen 6 

Oct. ; installed k.g. 9 Oct. ; departs . 13 Oct ,, 
Attempt of Leeompte to assassinate the king at 

Fontainebleau 16 April, 1846 

Louis Napoleon escapes from Ham . 25 May, ,, 
The seventh attempt on the life of the king : by 

Joseph Henri 29 July, ,, 

Spanish marriages : marriage of the queen of Spain 
with her cousin, and of the due de Montpensier 
with the infanta of Spain ... 10 Oct. ,, 

Disastrous inundations in the south . . 18 Oct. ,, 
The Praslin murder (see Praslin) . . 18 Aug. 1847 
Death of marshal Oudinot (duke of Reggio) at Paris, 
in his 91st year, 13 Sept. ; Soult made general of 
France, in his room .... 26 Sept. „ 

Jerome Bonaparte returns to France after an exile 
of 32 years 10 Oct. ,, 

Surrender of Abd-el-Kader . . . 23 Dec. ,, 

Death of the ex-empress, Maria Louisa, 18 Dec. ; 
and of madame Adelaide . . . .30 Dec. 

The grand reform banquet at Paris prohibited, 

21 Feb. 

Revolutionary tumult in consequence ; impeach- 
ment and resignation of Guizot, 22 Feb. ; barri- 
cades thrown up, the Tuileries ransacked, the 
prisons opened, and frightful disorders committed, 

23, 24 Feb. 

Louis Philippe abdicates in favour of his infant 
grandson, the comte de Paris, who is not ac- 
cepted ; the royal family and ministers escape, 

24 Feb. 

A republic proclaimed from the steps of the Hotel 
de Ville 26 Feb. 

The ex-king and queen arrive at Newhaven in Eng- 
land 3 March, 

Grand funeral procession in honour of the victims 
of the revolution 4 March, 

The provisional government resigns to an executive 
commission, elected by the national assembly of 
the French Republic . . . .7 May, 

[The members of this new g-overnment were : MM. 
Dupont de l'Eure, Arago, Gamier-Pages, Mane, 
Lamartine, Ledru-Rolliu, and Cremieux. The 
secretaries : Louis Blanc, Albert, Flocon, and 
Marrast. ] 

The people's attack on the assembly suppressed, 

15 May, 

Perpetual banishment of Louis Philippe and his 
family decreed 26 May, 

Election of Louis Napoleon (to the national as- 
sembly) for the department of the Seine and three 
other departments . . . -13 June, 

Rise of the red republicans : war against the troops 
and national guard ; more than 300 barricades 
thrown up, and firing continues in all parts of 
Paris during the night ... 23 June, 

The troops under Cavaignac and Lamoriciere, with 
immense loss, drive the insurgents from the left 
bank of the Seine 24 June, 

Paris declared in a state of siege . . 25 June, 

The faubourg du Temple carried with cannon, and 
the insurgents surrender . . .26 June, 

[The national losses caused by this outbreak esti- 
mated at 30,000,000 francs ; 16,000 persons killed 
and wounded, and 8000 prisoners were taken. The 
archbishop of Paris was killed while tending the 
dying, 26 June. ] 

Cavaignac, president of the council . . 28 June, 

Louis Napoleon takes his seat in the National As- 
sembly ■ . .26 Sept. 

Paris relieved from a state of siege, which had con- 
tinued four months .... 20 Oct. 

Solemn promulgation of the constitution of 4 Nov. , 
in front of the Tuileries . . . .12 Nov. 

Louis Napoleon elected president of the French 
republic, 11 Dec. ; proclaimed . . 20 Dec. 

[He had 5,587,759 votes ; Cavaignac, 1,474,687 ; Le- 
dru-Rollin, 381,026; Raspail, 37,121 ; Lamartine, 
21,032 : and Changarnier, 4,975. j 

Military demonstration to stifle an anticipated in- 
surrection of the reds . . . .29 Jan. 1849 

Death of king Louis Philippe, at Claremont, in 
England 2 6 Aug. 1850 

Liberty of the press restricted . . 26 Sept. ,, 

Gen. Changarnier deprived of the command of the 
national guard 10 Jan. 1851 



Death of the duchess of Angouleme, daughter of 

Louis XVI. , at Frohsdorf ... 19 Oct. 

Death of marshal Soult .... 26 Oct. 

Electric telegraph between England and France 

opened 13 Nov. 

Factious oppositions in the chamber ; alleged plots 

Nov. 
Coup d'etat planned by the prince-president, Per- 
signy, and De Morny ; carried out by C. de 
Maupas, minister of police, St. Arnaud, and 
others ; legislative assembly dissolved ; universal 
suffrage established, and Paris declared in a state 
of siege ; the election of a president for ten years 
proposed, and a second chamber or senate, 

2 Dec. 

MM. Thiers, Changarnier, Cavaignac, Bedeau, La- 
moriciere, and Charres arrested, and sent to the 
castle of Vincennes 2 Dec. 

About 180 members of the assembly, with M. Ber- 
ryer at their head, attempting to meet, are ar- 
rested, and Paris is occupied by troops. 

2 Dee. 

M. Charles Baudin, a deputy, shot dead while 
protesting against the violation of the law 2 Dec. 

Sanguinary conflicts in Paris ; the troops victorious, 

3, 4 Dec. 

Consultative commission founded . .12 Dec. 

Voting throughout France for the election of a 
president of the republic for ten years ; affirma- 
tive votes 7,473,431, negative votes 641,351. 

21, 22 Dec. 

Installation of the prince-president in the cathe- 
dral of Notre Dame ; the day observed as a 
national holiday at Paris, and Louis Napoleon 
takes up his residence at the Tuileries, 

1 Jan. 

Generals Changarnier, Lamoriciere, and others, 
conducted to the Belgian frontier . . 9 Jan. 

83 members of the legislative assembly banished ; 
575 persons arrested for resistance to the coup 
d'etat of 2 Dec, and conveyed to Havre for trans- 
portation to Cayenne .... 10 Jan. 

[The inscription " Liberty, Fraternity, Equality," 
ordered to be forthwith erased throughout France, 
and the old names of streets, public buildings, 
and places of resort to be restored. The trees 
of liberty are everywhere hewn down and 
burnt. ] 

The national guard disbanded, reorganised anew, 
and placed under the control of the executive ; 
the president appointing the officers . 10 Jan. 

A new constitution published . . 14 Jan. 

Decree obliging the Orleans family to sell all their 
real and personal property in France within a 
year ....... 22 Jan. 

Second decree, annulling the settlement made by 
Louis Philippe upon his family previous to his 
accession in 1830, and annexing the property to 
the domain of the state . . . .22 Jan. 

The birthday of Napoleon I. (15 Aug.) decreed to be 
the only national holiday . . -17 Feb. 

The departments of France released from a state of 
siege 27 March, 

Legislative chambers installed . . 29 March, 

A crystal palace authorised to be erected in the 
Champs Elysees at Paris . . -30 March, 

Plot to assassinate the prince-president discovered 
at Paris 1 July, 

President's visit to Strasburg . . 19 July, 

M. Thiers and others permitted to return to France, 

8 Aug. 

The French senate prays " the re-establishment of 
the hereditary sovereign power in the Bonaparte 
family " 13 Sept. 

Enthusiastic reception of the prince-president at 
Lyons 19 Sept. 

Infernal machine, to destroy the prince-president, 
seized at Marseilles .... 23 Sept. 

Prince-president visits Toulon, 27 Sept. ; and Bor- 
deaux, where he says " the empire is peace " 
(I 'empire e'est la paix) .... 7 Oct. 

He releases Abd-el-Kader (see Algiers) . 16 Oct. 

He convokes the senate for November to deliberate 
on a change of government, when a senatus consul- 
turn will be proposed for the ratification of the 
French people 19 Oct. 

Protest of comte de Chambord . . 25 Oct 



1851 



1852 



FRANCE. 



490 



FRANCE. 



In his message to the senate, the prince-president 
announces the contemplated restoration of the 
empire, and orders the people to be consulted 

upon this change 4 Nov. 1852 

Votes for the empire, 7,824,189 ; noes, 253,145 ; 

null, 63,326 21 Nov. „ 

The prince-president declared emperor ; assumes 

the title of Napoleon III. . . . 2 Dec. ,, 
His marriage with Eugenie de Montijo, countess of 

Teba, at Notre-Dame .... 29 Jan. 1853 
4312 political offenders pardoned . . .2 Feb. ,, 

Bread riots Sept. ,, 

Military camp at Satory, near Paris . . Sept. „ 
Emperor and empress visit the provinces (many 

political prisoners discharged) . . . Oct. „ 
Francis Arago, astronomer, <&c. , died . . 2 Oct. „ 
Attempted assassination of the emperor — ten per- 
sons transported for life .... Nov. „ 

Reconciliation of the two branches of the Bourbons 
at Frohsdorf . . . . . .20 Nov. ,, 

Marshal Ney's statue inaugurated exactly 38 years 
after his death on the spot where it occurred, 

7 Dec. ,, 
War declared against Russia (see Russo-Turkish War) 

27 March, 1854 
Visit of prince Albert at Boulogne . 5 Sept. „ 

Death of marshal St. Arnaud . . .29 Sept. ,, 
Emperor and empress visit London 16-21 April, 1855 
Industrial exhibition at Paris opened . 15 May, ,, 
Queen Victoria and prince Albert visit France, 

18-27 Aug. „ 
Attempted assassination of the emperor by Pianort, 
28 April ; by Bcllomarrc . . .8 Sept. ,, 

Death of count Mole 24 Nov. ,, 

Birth of the imperial prince ; amnesty granted to 

1000 political prisoners ... 16 March, 1856 
Peace with Russia signed . . 30 March, ,, 

Awful inundation in the south . . . June, ,, 
(Subscriptions in London to relieve the sufferers 
amounted to 43,000^. Sir Jamset.jee Jejeebhoy, 
of Bombay, gave 500Z. for the same purpose.] 
Distress in money market .... 6 Oct. ,, 
Sibour, archbishop of Paris, assassinated by Verger, 

a priest 3 Jan. 1857 

Elections (3,000,000 voters to elect 257 deputies) : 
gen. Cavaignac elected deputy, but declines to 

take the oath 21, 22 June, ,, 

Conspiracy to assassinate the emperor in Paris de- 
tected n July, ,, 

Death of Beranger, popular poet . . 16 July, ,, 
Longwood, the residence of Napoleon I. at St. 

Helena, bought for 180,000 francs . . . . „ 
The conspirators Grilli, Bartolotti, and Tibaldi, 
tried, convicted, and sentenced to transportation, 

&c 6, 7 Aug. „ 

Emperor and empress visit England . 6-10 Aug. „ 
The emperor meets the emperor of Russia at Stutt- 
gart 25 Sept. „ 

Death of Eugene Cavaignac (aged 55) . 28 Oct 

Death ofMdlle. Rachel (aged 38) . . 4 Jan. 1858 

Attempted assassination of the emperor by Orsini, 

Fieri, Rudio, Gomez, &c, by the explosion of 

three shells (two persons killed, many wounded) 

14 Jan. ,, 
(Felix Orsini, a man of talent and energy, earnest to 
obtain [talian independence, was born Dec. 1819; 
studied at Bologna in 1S37 ; joined a secret society 
in 1843 : was arrested ami condemned to the gal- 
leys I'm- lite in 1844 ; was released in 1846 ; took 
part in the Roman revolution in 1848, when he 
was elect i'. la member of the assembly; and on the 
fall of the republic, fled to Genoa in 1849, and 
came to England in 1853. Entering into fresh 
conspiracies, he was arrested in Hungary, Jan. 
1855, ami scut to Maui na ; heescaped thence and 
■came tn Kngland in iSs<>, where lie associated 
with Kossuth, Mazzini, &c, ; delivered lectures. 
and where he devised the plol for which he suf- 
fered, in his will he acknowledged the justice of 
his sentence, 1 
Public safety bill passed bold protest against it. by 

Ollivier l8 Feb. „ 

France divided into flve military departments: 
general Espinasse becomes minister of the interior, 

Feb. „ 

" Napoleon I If. ct T. I iiitlrh ,-}■'■" published n Mar 



Intemperate speeches in France against England — 
misconceptions between the two countries par- 
tially removed in March, 

Republican outbreak at Chalons suppressed 

9 March, 

Orsini and Pieri executed . . .13 March, 

Simon Bernard, tried in London, as their accomplice, 
acquitted 12-17 April, 

Marshal Pelissier, ambassador to London, 

15 April, 

Espinasse retires from ministry of the interior [he 
was killed at the battle of Magenta, 4 June, 1859] 

June, 

Queen of England meets the emperor ; visits Cher- 
bourg 4, 5 Aug. 

Conference at Paris respecting the Danubian prin- 
cipalities closes 19 Aug. 

Dispute with Portugal respecting the Charles et 
Georges (which see) settled ... 23 Oct. 

Trial of comte de Montalembert . . 25 Nov. 

[In Oct. 1858, the comte published a pamphlet en- 
titled " Un, Debat sur I'lnde," eulogising English 
institutions and depreciating those of France. 
He was sentenced to six months' imprisonment 
and a fine of 3000 francs, but was pardoned by the 
emperor, 2 Dec. The comte appealed against the 
sentence of the court, and was again condemned ; 
but acquitted of a part of the charge. The sen- 
tence was once more remitted by the emperor 
(21 Dec). In Oct. 1859, the comte published a 
pamphlet entitled " Pie IX. et la France en 1849 
et 1859," in which England is severely censured 
for opposition to popery.] 

Emperor's address to the Austrian ambassador (see 
Aiistria) 1 Jan. 

Marriage of prince Napoleon to princess Clotikle of 
Savoy 30 Jan. 

Publication of " Napoleon III. et Vltalie" . Feb. 

On the Austrians invading Sardinian territories, 
France declares war, and the French enter ; the 
empress appointed regent ; the emperor arrives at 
Genoa 12 May, 

Loan of 20,000,000 francs raised . . 21 May, 

Victories of the allies (French and Sardinians) at 
Montebello, 20 May ; Palestro, 30, 31 May ; Ma- 
genta, 4 June ; Melegnano (Marignano), 8 June ; 
Napoleon enters Milan, 8 June ; victory of allies 
at Solferino 24 June, 

Armistice agreed on 6 July, 

Meeting of emperors of France and Austria at Villa 
Franca 11 July, 

Peace agreed on 12 July, 

Louis Napoieon returns to Paris 17 July, 

The emperor addresses the senate, 19 July ; and the 
diplomatic body 21 July, 

Reduction of the army and navy ordered . Aug. 

Conference of Austrian and French envoys at Zurich 
(see Zurich) 8 Aug. -Nov. 

Amnesty to political offenders . 17, 18 Aug. 

Violent attacks of the French press on England re- 
pressed Nov. 

" Le Pape et le Congres " published ; 50,000 sold in a 
few days Dec. 

Count walewski, the foreign minister, resigns ; 
M. Thouvenel succeeds him , . . Jan. 

The emperor announces a free trade policy ; Mr. 
Cobden at Paris .... .5 Jan. 

Commercial treaty with England signed . 23 Jan. 

L'Univers suppressed for publishing the pope'sletter 
to the emperor 29 Jan. 

Treaty for the annexation of Savoy and Nice signed 

24 March, 

The press censured for attacking England, 

7 April, 

The emperor meets the German sovereigns at Baden 

15-17 June, 

Jerome Bonaparte, the emperor's uncle, dies 
(aged 76) 24 June, 

The emperor, in a letter to count Persigny, dis- 
claims hostility to England . . .25 July, 

The emperor and empress visit Savoy, Corsica, and 
Algiers 1-17 Sept. 

New tariff comes into operation ... 1 Oct. 

Public levying of Peter's pence forbidden, and free 
issue of pastoral letters checked . . . Nov. 

The empress visits London, Edinburgh, Glasgow, 
&c. , privately Nov.-Dec. 



iS 5 , ( 



FRANCE. 



491 



FRANCE. 



Important ministerial changes ; greater liberty of 
speech granted to the chambers ; two sets of 
ministers appointed — speakers and administra- 
tors ; Pelissier made governor of Algeria ; Per- 
signy, minister of the interior ; Flahault, English 
ambassador Nov. & Dec. : 

Passports for Englishmen to cease after i Jan. 1861 

16 Dec. 

Six bishoprics vacant Dec. 

Persigny relaxes the bondage of the press, Dec. 11 ; 
[but lor a short time] .... 20 Dec. 

The emperor advises the pope to surrender his re- 
volted provinces 31 Dec. 

"Borne et les Eveques " published. . . 6 Jan. 

Jerome (son of Jerome Bonaparte and Elizabeth 
Paterson, an American lady) claims his legitimate 
rights ; non-suited after a trial 25 Jan. -15 Feb. 

[The marriage took place in America, on 24 Dec. 
1803 ; but was annulled, and Jerome married the 
princess Catherine of Wurtemberg, 12 Aug. 1807 ; 
their children are the prince Napoleon and the 
princess Mathilde (see Bonaparte). J 

Purchase of the principality of Monaco for 4,000,000 
francs, Feb. 2 ; announced ... 5 Feb. 

Meeting of French chambers, 4 Feb. ; stormy de- 
bates in the chambers . . Feb. & March, 

"La France, Borne, et I'ltalie " published 15 Feb. 

Angry reply to it by the bishop of Poitiers, who 
compares the emperor to Pilate . . 27 Feb. 

Failure of Mires, a railway banker and loan con- 
tractor, &c. ; he is arrested . . .17 Feb. 

Many influential persons suspected of participating 
in his frauds ; the government promise strict 
justice Feb. & March, 

Eugene Scribe, dramatist, dies (aged 80) 20 Feb. 

Speech of prince Napoleon in favour of Italian 
unity, the English alliance, and against the pope's 
temporal government . . . 1 March, 

Strong advocacy of the temporal government of the 
pope in the chambers ; the French army stated to 
consist of 637,000 men . . . March, 

Circular forbiddingthe priests to meddle with politics 

11 April, 

Liberal commercial treaty with Belgium . 1 May, 

Publication in Paris of the due dAumale's severe 
letter to prince Napoleon, 13 April. Printer and 
publisher fined and imprisoned . . . May, 

Declaration of neutrality in the American conflict 

11 June, 

Official recognition of kingdom of Italy . 24 June, 

Visit of king of Sweden 6 Aug. 

Conflict between French and Swiss soldiers at Ville- 
la-Grande 18 Aug. 

Mires, the speculator, sentenced to five years' im- 
prisonment 29 Aug. 

Commercial treaty between France, Great Britain, 
and Belgium comes into operation . 1 Oct. 

Meeting of emperor and king of Prussia at Com- 
piegne, 6 Oct. ; and king of Holland . 12 Oct. 

French troops enter the valley of Dappes (Switzer- 
land) to prevent an arrest ... 27 Oct. 

Convention between France, Great Britain, and 
Spain, respecting intervention in Mexico, signed 
(see Mexico) 31 Oct. 

Embarrassment in the government finances ; Achille 
Fould becomes finance minister, 14 Nov. ; with 
enlarged powers 12 Dee. 

The emperor reminds the clergy of their duty " to- 
wards Caesar " . . . . . .1 Jan. 

French army lands at Vera Cruz . . .7 Jan. 

The French masters of the province of Bienhoa, in 

Annam 20 Jan. 

Fruitless meeting of French and Swiss commis- 
sioners respecting the Ville-la-Grande conflict 

3 Feb. 

Fould announces his finance scheme (reduction of 
4^ per cent, stock to 3 per cent. , and additional 
taxes and stamp duties) ... 24 Feb. 

Fierce debate in the legislative chamber, in which 
prince Napoleon takes part . . .27 Feb. 

French victories in Cochin-China (6 provinces ceded 
to France) 28 March, 

The Spanish and British plenipotentiaries decide to 
quit Mexico : the French declare war against the 
Mexican government (for the events see Mexico) 

16 April, 



860 



Sentence against Mires examined and reversed at 
Douai ; he is released . . . . 21 April, 1862 

Treaty of peace between France and Annam signed 

3 June, ,, 

Duke Pasquier dies (aged 96) . . 5 July, „ 

New commercial treaty with Prussia . 2 Aug. „ 

Newspaper La France, opposed to Italian unity, set 
up by Lagueronniere Aug. ,, 

Ship Prince Jerome, with reinforcements for Mexico, 
burnt near Gibraltar ; crew saved . . Aug. ,, 

Camp at Chalons formed on account of Garibaldi's 
movements in Sicily ; broken, when he is taken 
prisoner 29 Aug. ,, 

Great sympathy for him in France . . Sept. ,, 

Treaty of commerce with Madagascar . 12 Sept. ,, 

Drouyn de Lhuys made foreign minister in room of 
Thouvenel 15 Oct. ,, 

Baron Gros, ambassador at London in room of 
cornte de Flahault, resigned . . 18 Nov. ,, 

Serjeant Glover brings an action in the court of 
queen's bench against the comte de Persigny and 
M. Billault, claiming 14,000^. for subsidising the 
Morning Chronicle and other newspapers, 22 Nov. ,, 

The emperor inaugurates " Boulevard Prince Eu- 
gene," Paris 7 Dec. ,, 

Great distress in the manufacturing districts through 
the cotton famine and the civil war in America 

Dec. ,, 

Treaty of commerce with Italy signed . 17 Jan. 1863 

Revolt in Annam suppressed . . .26 Feb. ,, 

Convention regulating the French and Spanish fron- 
tiers concluded 27 Feb. ,, 

Resignation of Magne, the " speaking minister " in 
the assembly 1 April, ,, 

Dissolution of the chambers . . . 8 May, ,, 

Persigny issues arbitrary injunctions to electors 

May, ,, 

Thiers, Ollivier, Favre, and other opposition candi- 
dates elected m Pans . . 31 May-15 June, „ 

Changes in the ministry — resignation of Persigny, 
Walewski, and Rouland ... 23 June, ,, 

The empress visits queen of Spain at Madrid Oct. „ 

Baron Gros resigns, prince Tourd'Auvergne becomes 
ambassador at London . . . 14 Oct. „ 

Death of Billault (born 1805) " speaking minister" 
in legislative assembly, 13 Oct. ; succeeded by 
Rouher, as " minister of state " . . 18 Oct. „ 

The emperor proposes the convocation of a European 
congress, and invites the sovereigns or their de- 
puties by letter . ' . . . .4 Nov. ,, 

Thiers and his friends form a new opposition 

9 Nov. ,, 

The invitation to the congress declined by England 

25 Nov. „ 

Thiers speaks in the chamber . . 24 Dec. ,, 

Arrest of Grego and other conspirators against the 
emperor's life, 3 Jan. ; tried and sentenced to 
transportation and imprisonment . . 27 Feb. 1864 

Convention between France, Brazil, Italy, Portugal, 
and Hayti, for establishing a telegraphic line be- 
tween Europe and America . . 16 May, ,, 

Death of marshal Pelissier, duke of Malakoff, 
governor of Algeria (born 1794) . . 22 May, ,, 

Convention between France and Japan signed by 
Japanese ambassadors at Paris . . 20 June, ,, 

Convention of commerce, &c. , between France and 
Switzerland, signed . . . .30 June, „ 

Prince Napoleon Victor, son of prince Napoleon 
Jerome and princess Clotilde, born . 16 July, ,, 

Convention between France and Italy respecting 
evacuation of Rome, &c. . . -15 Sept. „ 

Garnier-Pages and 12 others who had met at his 
house for election purposes convicted as mem- 
bers of a society " of more than 20 members " 

7 Dec. ,, 

Death of the emx'eror's private secretary and old 
friend, Mocquard 9 Dec. ,, 

Death of Proudhon (born 1809), who said " la pro- 
priety e'est le vol " .... 19 Jan. 1865 

The clergy prohibited from reading the pope's ency- 
clical letter of 8 Dec. in churches ; much excite- 
ment ; the archbishop of Besangon and other 
prelates disobey 5 Jan. „ 

The prince Napoleon Jerome appointed vice-presi- 
dent of the privy council .... Jan. ,, 

Decree for an international exhibition of the products 
of agriculture and industry and of the fine arts, 
at Paris, on 1 May, 1867 . .1 Feb. ,, 



FEANCE. 



492 



FEANCE. 



Treaty with Sweden signed ... 14 Feb. 

The minister Duruy's plan of compulsory education 
rejected by the assembly . . 8 March, 

Death of the due de Morny, said to be half-brother 
of the emperor 10 March, 

" Loi des suspects " (or of public safety) suffered to 
expire 31 March, 

Attempted assassination of a secretary at the 
Russian embassy .... 24 April, 

The emperor visits Algeria . . . 3-27 May, 

Inauguration of the statue of Napoleon I. at 

Ajaccio, with an imprudent speech by prince 

Napoleon Jerome, 15 May ; censured by the 

emperor, 23 May ; the prince resigns his offices 

9 June, 

The English fleet entertained at Cherbourg and 
Brest, 15 Aug. et seq. ; review of the fleets 

15 & 21 Aug. 

The French fleet entertained at Portsmouth, 

29 Aug. -1 Sept. 

Protest of the United States against French inter- 
vention in Mexico — prolonged correspondence (see 
Mexico) .... Aug. 1865-Feb. 1866. 

Count Walewski nominated president of the corps 
legislatif 2 Sept. 

Death of general Lamoriciere . . . n Sept. 

The queen of Spain visits the emperor at Biarritz 

11 Sept. 

Notice given of the abrogation of the extradition 
treaty in six months 4 Dee. 

Riots of republican students at Paris (several ex- 
pelled from the Academy of Medicine) . 18 Dec. 

Emperor opens chambers with a pacific speech 

22 Jan. 

At Auxerre, Napoleon expresses his detestation of 
the treaties of 1815 6 May, 

In a letter says that in regard to the German war, 
"France will observe an attentive neutrality" 

11 June, 

The emperor of Austria cedes Venetia to France, and 
invites the emperor's intervention with Prussia 

4 July, 

Empress of Mexico arrives at Paris . . 8 Aug. 

Note to the Prussian government desiring rectifica- 
tion of the French frontier to what it was in 
1814 ; declared by Prussia to be inadmissible 

Aug. 

Resignation of M. Drouyn de Lhuys, foreign minis- 
ter (succeeded by the marquis de Moustier) 

2 Sept. 

Inundations in the south ; railways destroyed, 

Sept. 

Pacific circular of the emperor sent to foreign 
courts j6 sept. 

Death of M. Tliouvenel, formerly foreign minister, 

18 Oct. 

Commission appointed to inquire into the advisa- 
bility of modifying the organisation of the army ; 
the emperor president ; report . . ?o Oct. 

The French troops quit Rome . . 3-11 Dec. 

Publication of letter from the comte de Chambord 
to his adherents in favour of the pope's temporal 
power, dated 9 Dec. 

Commercial treaty with Austria signed . n Dec. 

General opposition to the army organisation plan 
published I2 Dec. 

Richelieu's head, after many removals, deposited in 
the Sorbonno I7 Dec. 

Imperial decree announcing political reforms ; 
interpellation in the chambers ; relaxation of the 
restriction on the press ... 19 Jan. 

Ministerial changes; Rouher becomes minister of 
finance; Niel, of war, &0. . . . Jan. 

The chambers opened by the emperor . 14 Feb. 

Emile Uirardiu lined for libel in La Liberie, 

7 March, 

Severe speech of Thiers on foreign policy, 18 March, 

International exhibition opened (see Paris), 

1 April, 

Resignation of Walewski, president i.r the chamber, 
29 Mar. ; succeeded i>y M. Schneider n April, 

Scheme lor organising the army rejected by com- 
mittee Jlav, 

Paris visited by the czar, 1-12 June ; and the king 
of Prussia 5-14 June, 

Three provinces in Annain annexed to the French 
empire 25 Ji me , 



1865 



1867 



International conference at Paris respecting mone- 
tary currency . . . 17 June-9 July, 

The emperor distributes the prizes of the inter- 
national exhibition . . • . . .1 July, 

Protectorate of France over Cambodia assured by 
treaty 15 July 

Law abolishing imprisonment for debt adopted by 
the senate 18 July, 

Meeting of the emperors of France and Austria at 
Salzburg 18-21 Aug. 

The emperor's letter recommending money to 
be expended in improving intercommunica- 
tion by means of railways, canals, and roads, 

15 Aug. 

Emperor of Austria visits Paris . 23 0ct.-2 Nov. 

French troops enter Rome (see Rome) . 30 Oct. 

Garibaldians defeated at Mentana . . 3 Nov. 

Lord Lyons received as British ambassador 9 Nov. 

Pacific and liberal speech of the emperor on open- 
ing the chambers .... 18 Nov. 

"Napoleon III. et V Europe en 1867," published, 

Nov. 

During a debate in the legislative assembly, Rouher, 
the minister, says, " We declare that Italy shall 
never seize upon Rome " (the government sup- 
ported by 238 votes to 17) . . .5 Dec. 

12 persons convicted for belonging to a secret 
seditious society .... about 24 Dec. 

Friendly reception of foreign ministers . 1 Jan. 

New army bill (allowing 100,000 men to be added 
to the army annually ; establishing a new national 
guard, &c. ; giving the empire virtually an army 
of 1,200,000 men), passed in the Corps legislatif 
(206 to 60) 1 Jan. 

Ten journals fined for printing comments on legis- 
lative debates end of Jan. 

M. Magne announces a deficiency in the budget ; 
and a loan for 17,600,000^. . . .29 Jan. 

The army bill passes the senate — 125 to 1 (Michel 
Chevalier, who spoke warmly against it), 30 Jan. ; 
becomes law 4 Feb. 

The "Arcadians" (new ultra-conservative party) 
oppose the new press law ; fierce debates on it, 

Feb. 

New press law passed in legislative chamber, 240 
to 1 (M. Berryer) March, 

"Les Titres de la Dynastie impbriale" appeared, 
about 20 March, 

Riotous opposition to enlistments for "garde 
mobile" (new national guard) at Bordeaux, 
Toulon, and other towns . 20 March et seq. 

Defeat of an attack on free trade in the chamber, 

May, 

New press law put in force ; increasing facility for 
publishing new journals . . . June, 

The assembly closes .... 30 July, 

Rochefort's weekly satirical pamphlet La Lanterne. 
suppressed ; he and his printer condemned to 
fine and imprisonment, escapes to Belgium, Aug. 

M. Berryer, the advocate (born 1790) died, 29 Nov. 

Ministerial changes ; marquis de la Valette, foreign 
minister, in room of De Moustier ; Forcade de la 
Roquette minister of the interior . . Dec. 

The Moniteur replaced by the Journal officiel, 

1 Jan. 

Meeting of the assembly . . . .18 Jan. 

De Moustier dies 5 Feb. 

Death of Lamartine (born Oct. 1792), 28 Feb. ; of 
Troplong, president of the senate . 1 March, 

Dissolution of the legislative assembly of 1863, 

26 April, 

Difference with Belgium respecting the Luxem- 
bourg railway settled ... 27 April, 

Fierce election riots at Paris, 9 June ; the emperor 
and empress ride boldly through the boulevards, 

11 June, 

The new legislative chamber meets ; the oppo- 
sition to the government more than trebled, 

26 June, 

Message from the emperor announcing important 
political changes ; introducing ministerial respon- 
sibility, &c. .read 12 July ; resignation of ministers, 

13 July, 

New ministry: Foreade de la Roquette (interior); La 
Tour d'Auvergne (foreign) ; Chasseloup-Laubat, 
president, &c 17 July, 

M. Houher made president of the senate 20 July, 

French Atlantic telegraph completely laid 23 July. 



1867 






FEANCE. 



493 



FEANCE. 



Marquis de la Valette appointed ambassador in 
London July, 

The political changes announced to the senate, 

5 Aug. 

Marshal Niel, war minister, aged 66 dies, 13 Aug. 

Centenary of the birth of Napoleon I. ; amnesty 
granted to political offenders ; increased pen- 
sions to survivors of the grand army ; troops re- 
viewed by the imperial prince (the emperor ill), 

15 Aug. 

Ultra-liberal speech of prince Napoleon Jerome in 
the senate 1 Sept. 

New constitution promulgated . . 10 Sept. 

Pere Hyacinthe (name Loyson), popular Carmelite 
preacher at Paris, protests against papal infalli- 
bility and encroachments, and resigns by letter, 

20 Sept. 

reat excitement at Paris through discovery of 

Tropmann's murder of the Kinck family at Pan tin, 

about 19 Sept. 

roposed meeting of republicans at Paris (did not 

take place) 26 Oct. 

citation against free trade . Oct. , Nov., Dec. 
ourney of the empress to the East ; arrival at 
Constantinople, 13 Oct. ; at Alexandria, 13 Nov. 

Firm and temperate manifesto of the left (ultra 
republican opposition) issued . about 16 Nov. 

Henri Rochefort (of La Lanterne) elected a deputy 
for Paris 22 Nov. 

The chambers opened by the emperor with a liberal 
speech 29 Nov. 

Resignation of ministers announced . 27 Dec. 

New liberal ministry formed by Emile 011ivier(jus- 
tice); Daru (foreign); Le Bceuf (war) . 3 Jan. 

Resignation of M. Haussmann — rebuilder of Paris — 
prefect of the Seine, - . . about 6 Jan. 

Victor Noir, a journalist, killed by Pierre Bona- 
parte during an interview at Auteuil respecting 
a challenge sent to M. Rochefort . 10 Jan. 

Tropmann, the murderer, executed . . 19 Jan. 

Great excitement amongst lower orders ; prosecu- 
tion of Rochefort for libel in his paper, the Mar- 
seillaise; he is sentenced to fine and imprison- 
ment 22 Jan. 

Barricades erected in Paris, and riots after the ap- 
prehension of Rochefort, 7 Feb.; soon quelled, 

8, 9 Feb. 

Jules Favre's attack »n the ministry in the cham- 
ber defeated (236 to 18) . . . 22 Feb. 

Charles, comte de Montalembert, eminent author, 
dies (see 1858) 13 March, 

Trial of Pierre Bonaparte at Tours ; acquitted 

(but ordered to pay 1000Z. to Noir's family) ; 

21-27 March, 

Emperor's letter to Ollivier, agreeing to modifica- 
tion of the constitution of the senate 22 March, 

Senatus consultum communicated to the senate, 
28 March ; adopted . . . .20 April, 

Ministerial crisis : resignation of Daru and other 
ministers opposing the proposed plebiscite, 

10 April, 

Proclamation of the emperor respecting changes in 
the constitution .... 24 April, 

Conspiracy against the emperor's life detected ; 
Baurie (aged 22) and others arrested, 

about 30 April, 

Plebiscite to ascertain whether the people approve 
of above changes,— yes, 7,527,379; 110, 1,530,909, 

8 May, 

Ollivier ministry reconstructed, 13 April ; due de 
Grammont foreign minister . about 15 May, 

Rioting and barricades in Paris, 9, 10 May ; about 
100 arrested, many sentenced to imprisonment, 

14 May, 

Speech by the emperor on receiving result of the 
plebiscite 23 May, 

The Orleans princes address the legislative assem- 
bly, demanding their return to France, 19 June ; 
opposed by 173 to 31 . . . .2 July, 

Discovery of a plot against the emperor's life, 

5 July. 

Great excitement through the nomination of prince 

Leopold of Hohenzollern Sigmaringen for the 

Spanish throne ; warlike speeches of the ministers, 

5, 6, 7 July, 

The prince Leopold withdraws from candidature 
guarantees required by France from Prussia re- 



1870 



fused ; France decides to declare war against 
Prussia, 15 July; declaration signed 17 July, 

[For events of the war, see Franco- Prussian War.] 

The empress appointed regent . . 23 July, 

The emperor joins the army . . . 28 July, 

Publication of the Marseillaise of Rochefort ceases, 

end of July, 

The government declare that they are only "at war 
with the policy of Bismarck " . . 2 Aug. 

Great excitement in Paris through the false an- 
nouncement of a great victory . . 6 Aug. 

State of siege proclaimed in Paris after the great 
defeat of MacMahon at Wcerth . . 7 Aug. 

Decrees for the enlargement of the national guard, 
appealing to patriotism and deprecating discord, 

7, 8 Aug. 

At Blois, the conspirators against the emperor's 
life sentenced to long imprisonments . 8 Auk. 

Energetic measures taken for the defence of Paris ; 
Changarnier offers his services to the emperor ; 
well received 8 Aug. 

The government appeals to France and Europe 
against Prussia 8 Aug. 

Stormy debate in the corps legislatif; (M. deKeratry 
called on the emperor to abdicate ; M. Guyot 
Montpeyroux said that the army were "lions led 
by asses ") ; resignation of Ollivier and his 
ministry 9 Aug 

New ministry formed : General Cousin-Montauban 
comte de Palikao (distinguished in the war with 
China), minister of war, chief : M. Chevreau, 
minister of the interior : M. Magne, minister of 
finance ; M. Clement Duvernois, minister of com- 
merce and agriculture ; admiral Rigault de 
Genouilly, minister of marine : baron Jerome 
David, minister of public works; prince de la 
Tour d'Auvergne, minister of foreign affairs ; and 
others 10 Aug. 

Decree for the great augmentation of the army 
during the war, and appointing a " defence com- 
mittee " for Paris .... 10 Aug. 

The Orleans princes (the due d'Aumale, prince de 
Joinville, and due de Charti'es) proffer their 
services in the army; declined . . Aug. 

Extraordinary sitting oi the corps legislatif Respect- 
ing the new levies . . Sunday, 14 Aug. 

Great disturbances at La Villette, a suburb of 
Paris : about 200 armed men attack the police, 
crying '-Vive, la republique ! " soon suppressed, 
and many arrested .... 14 Aug. 

The government declare against any negotiations 
for peace 14 Aug. 

Atrocious murder of M. Allain de Moneys, sus- 
pected of republicanism and Germanism ; he was 
half killed by blows and then burnt to death by 
infuriated peasants at Hautefaye, Dordogne, not 
far from Boixleaux . . . . 16 Aug. 

General Trochu (Orleanist), energetic and able 
author of "l'Armee francaise en 1867," appointed 
governor of Paris, 17 Aug. : issues a stirring pro- 
clamation 18 Aug. 

A loan of 750 million francs announced, 21 Aug. 

Frequent diplomatic conferences at the British 
embassy respecting mediation . about 22 Aug. 

Confident statement of the national position by 
the ministry 23 Aug. 

M. Thiers placed on the defence committee, 

about 26 Aug. 

Decree of gen. Trochu for the expulsion from Paris 
of all foreigners not naturalized . 28 Aug. 

Death of count Flahault de la Billarderie, chancellor 
of the legion of honour, aged 85 (served under 
Napoleon I., Louis Philippe, and Napoleon III.), 

31 Aug. 

Deputation from 10,000 persons call on Trochu 
to assume the government : he declines, 

8 p.m., 3 Sept. 

The news of the final defeat of MacMahon near 
Sedan, and the surrender of the emperor and the 
remainder of MacMahon's army (90,000) to the 
king of Prussia announced by comte de Palikao to 
the legislative assembly ! Jules Favre declares 
for defending France to the last gasp, attacks the 
imperial dynasty, and proposes concentration of 
all power in the hands of general Trochu, amid 
profound silence . . . 3.35 a. m. , 4 Sept. 

The ruin of MacMahon's army announced in the 
Journal officiel 4 Sept. 



1870 



FRANCE. 



49i 



FRANCE. 



On the proposition of Thiers the chamber appoints 
a commission of government and national de- 
fence, and orders the convocation of aconstituent 
assembly, and adjourns . 3.10 p.m., 4 Sept. 1870 
At the resumption of the sitting of the assembly it 
is invaded by the crowd, demanding a republic ; 
most of the deputies retire. Gambetta and other 
liberal members of the " left" proclaim the depo- 
sition of the imperial dynasty and the establish- 
ment of a republic . . 4. 15 p.m., 4 Sept. „ 
Last meeting of the senate ; it declares adhesion to 

the emperor 4 Sept. „ 

Proclamation of a " government of defence," gene- 
ral Trochu, president; MM. Leon Gambetta (inte- 
rior), Jules Simon (public instruction), Jules 
Favre (foreign), Cremieux (justice), Jules Picard 
(finance), general Le Flo (war), Fourichon (marine), 
Magnin (agriculture), Dorian (public works), 
Etienne Arago (mayor of Paris), Keratry (police). 

4 Sept. ,, 
An informal meeting of the legislative assembly 
held, M. Thiers, president. M. Jules Favre re- 
ports to it the formation of the provisional 
government ; some protest ; Thiers recommends 
moderation, and the meeting retires, 

evening 4 Sept. „ 
The empress, the comte de Palikao, and other minis- 
ters secretly leave Paris and enter Belgium, 

evening, 4 Sept. ,, 
Legislative chamber dissolved ; senate abolished ; 
regular troops and national guard fraternise ; 
" perfect order reigns " . . . 5 Sept. „ 
M. Favre calls on the United States of America 

for moral support 5 Sept. ,, 

The emperor Napoleon arrives at Wilhelmshohe, 

nenrCassel . . . 9-35 P- ™-> S Sept. „ 

The republican deputies in the Spanish cortes greet 

the republic 5 Sept. „ 

Henri Rochefort added to the government 5 Sept. „ 
Tile red republican nag raised at Lyons 5 Sept. „ 

Victor Hugo and Louis Blanc arrive in Paris, 6 Sept. „ 
Jules Favre, in a circular to French diplomatic 
representatives, while professing desire for peace, 
says, " We will not cede either an inch of our 
territories or a stone of our fortresses " 6 Sept. „ 
Proclamation of general Trochu, saying that the 

defence of the capital is assured . . 6 Sept. „ 
The police replaced by national guards . 6 Sept. ,, 
Proffered services of the Orleans princes again 

declined . . . 6 Sept. „ 

The imperial correspondence seized, about 7 Sept. ,, 
The government proclaim that to-day, as in 1792, 
Ihe republic signifies the hearty union of the army 
and people tor the defence of the country 7 Sept. ,, 
The republic recognised by the United States, 

8 Sept. „ 
The delence committee summon the king of Prussia 
to quit French territory without loss of time 

8 Sept. „ 
Reappearance of the Marseillaise: Rochefort resigns 
editorship, and disclaims connection on account 
of a violent article; the paper ceases to appear 

SOOD alter 8 Sept. „ 

Decree convoking the constituent assembly, to be 
composed of 750 members (to be elected on 16 

Oct.) 8 Sept. „ 

The imperial prince at Hustings, 7 Sept., joined by 

theempress 8 Sept. ,, 

Victor Hugo publishes an address to the Germans, 

appealing to their fraternal sentiments 9 Sept. ,, 
Cattle plague began in Alsace and Lorraine Sept. „ 
Tlic republic recognised by Spain, 8 Sept. ; by 
Switzerland . . . . . .9 Sept. 

M. Thiers arrives iii London on a mission from the 

government 13 Sept. ., 

Lyons Baid to be ruled by a "committee of safety ;" 

red flag raised ; reign of terror . . 13 Sept. 

Letter from M. Pietri, private secretary to the 

emperor, Btating thai "ins master has nut a 

centime in foreign funds " . . 15 Sept. 

Elections for constituent assembly ordered to take 

place on 1 Oct . • • ' . .16 Sept, .. 
The academies of the institute protesl against the 

bombardment of tin' numents, museums, &e., 

in PariB ...... 16 Sept, 

Diplomatic circular from M. .in Irs Favre 1 he admits 
lie has ii" claim mi Prussia i"i disinterestedness 1 
urges that Btatesmon should hesitate i" continue 



a war in which more than 200,000 men have 
already fallen ; announces that a freely elected 
assembly is summoned, and that the government 
will abide by its judgment, and that France, left 
to her free action, immediately asks the cessation 
of the war, but prefers its disasters a thousand 
times to dishonour. He admits that France has 
been wrong, and acknowledges its obligation to 
repair by a measure of justice the ill it has done 

17 Sept. 1870 

A government delegation at Tours under M. 
Cremieux, the minister of justice ; the foreign 
ambassadors proceed there . . 18 Sept. 

Manifesto of the red republicans signed by general 
Cluseret, placarded in Paris . . about 18 Sept. 

Bronze statues of Napoleon ordered to be made 
into cannon .... about 19 Sept. 

Stern proclamation of Trochu respecting the cowar- 
dice of the Zouaves on 19 Sept. . 20 Sept. 

M. Duruof in a post-balloon quits Paris with mail- 
bags, arrives at Evreux, and reaches Tours 

23 Sept. 
The Journal offlciel replaced by the Motiiteur 

universel as the organ of the government, 

about 23 Sept. 

Esquiros struggles to maintain order at Marseilles 

24 Sept. 
Failure of the negotiations for peace between count 

Bismarck and Jules Favre; manifesto of thegov em- 
inent at Tours, calling on the people to rise and 
either disavow the ministry or "fight to the 
bitter end ; " the elections for the assembly sus- 
pended Sept. 24 

All Frenchmen between 20 and 25 years of age pro- 
hibited leaving France . . about 26 Sept. 

Great enthusiasm in the provinces on the failure of 
the negotiations ; " war to the knife " and levee en 
masse proclaimed by the prefects ; efforts made to 
excite warlike ardour in Brittany by M. Cathe- 
lineau . . . . . 26, 27 Sept. 

The due d'Aumale consents to become a candidate 

for the representative assembly, and promises 

submission to the de facto government for defence 

about 27 Sept. 

Attempted insurrection of the red republicans at 
Lyons ; order restored by national guards ; general 
Cluseret disappears .... 28 Sept. 

Great order in Paris maintained tfy the national 
guard ; report from surgeon-major Wyatt, 

28 Sept. 

All between 21 and 40 to be organised as a national 
garde mobile ; all men in arms placed at the dis- 
posal of the minister of war . . 30 Sept. 

The empress and her son residing at Camden-house, 
Chislehurst, Kent .... Sept. 

The elections for the constituent assembly (753 
members) ordered by the delegates at Tours to 
take place on 16 Oct. . . 29 Sept. — 1 Oct. 

Proclamations of general Trochu for maintaining 
order in Paris .... about 1 Oct. 

Marseilles said to be unsettled : many arrested, 

1 Oct. 

The elections deferred till they can be carried out 
throughout the whole extent of the republic, by 
older of the government at Paris . 1 Oct. 

M. Cremieux becomes delegate minister of war at 
Tours in room of admiral Fourichon, still minister 
of marine 3 Oct. 

Gustave Flourens, heading live battalions of national 
guards, marches to the Hotel de Ville and 
demands chossepots (not to be had) . 5 Oct. 

Suppression of the schools of the "brethren of the 
Christian doctrine" by the republicans: much 
dissatisfaction 8 Oct. 

All Frenchmen under 60 years of age forbidden to 
quit France 8 Oct. 

M. Gambetta escapes from Paris in a balloon, 7 Oct. ; 
arrives at Rouen and declares for " a pact with 
victory or death," 8 Oct.; arrives at Tours and 
becomes minister of war as well as of the interior 

9 Oct. 

Address from the comte de Chambord, saying that 
his whole ambition is to found with the people a 
really national government . . 9 Oct. 

Battalions of ania/.nns said to be forming in Paris 

12 Oct. 

Blonqui, Gustave Flourens, Ledru-Rollin, Felix 
Pyat, and other red republicans defeated in their 



FRANCE. 



495 



FRANCE. 



attempts to establish the commune at Paris to 

. supersede the government, 10, n Oct. : reconcilia- 
tion effected by Rochefort . about 14 Oct. 1870 

Riots at Honfleur : the people oppose the embarka- 
tion of cattle to England, 12 Oct. ; similar riots at 
tit. Malo 15 Oct. „ 

M. Edmond Adam, prefect of police ; replacing 
M. de Keratry, sent on a foreign mission, 

about 16 Oct. „ 

M. de Keratry quits Paris in a balloon, 12 Oct. ; at 
Madrid fails in obtaining assistance from Prim 

19, 20 Oct. „ 

Marseilles disturbed by red republicans ; Esquiros 
still in office 19 Oct. „ 

Publication of the imperial correspondence seized 
in the Tuileries Oct. „ 

Decree for a loan of io,ooo,oooL issued on behalf of 
the French government ... 25 Oct. „ 

The imperial guard suppressed . . 26 Oct. ,, 

Circular of Gambetta stigmatising the surrender of 
Metz (on 27 Oct.) as a crime . . . 28 Oct. ,, 

Death of M. Baroche in Jersey . . 30 Oct. ,, 

M. Thiers arrives in Paris with news of the surrender 
of Metz and the proposals for an armistice, 30 Oct. ,, 

Eiots in Paris : general Trochu threatened ; the 
principal members of the defence government im- 
prisoned in the Hotel de Ville ; Ledru-Rollin, 
Victor Hugo, and Gustave Flourens, and others, 
established as a committee of public safety and 
of the commune of Paris, under the direction of 
M. Picard ; the national guard releases the 
government, and order is restored . 31 Oct. ,, 

General Boyer, replying to Gambetta, says, "We 
capitulated witli hunger " . . . 31 Oct. ,, 

The empress arrives at Wilhelmshohe ; interview of 
Bazaine with the emperor . . .31 Oct. „ 

Etienne Arago and other mayors of Paris resign, 
1 Nov. ; M. Jules Ferry, a member of the defence 
government, becomes mayor of Paris . Nov. „ 

Marshals Canrobertand Le Boeuf and many generals 
at Wilhelmshohe . . . . 1 Nov. ,, 

Proclamation of Gambetta calling on the army to 
avenge the dishonour at Metz . . 1 Nov. „ 

The government proclaim a plebiscite in Paris on 3 
Nov. to ascertain whether the people maintain 
the power of the government of national defence 

1 Nov. „ 

M. Rochefort, member of the defence government, 
resigns 2 Nov. ,, 

Result of the plebiscite: — for the defence govern- 
ment, 557,976 ; against, 62,638 . 3 Nov. ,, 

Resignation of M. Esquiros at Marseilles, succeeded 
by M. Alphonse Gent .... 3 Nov. ,, 

The ex-empress returned to Chiselhurst . 3 Nov. „ 

Mobilisation of all able-bodied men between 20 and 
40, ordered 4 Nov. „ 

Failure of the negotiations for an armistice 6 Nov. „ 

Felix Pyat and others arrested for the affair of 31 
Oct 6 Nov. „ 

" France can do nothing now but carry on with 
such courage and strength as remain to her a war 
a out ranee." — Guizot. .... 8 Nov. ,, 

Decree for melting some of the church-bells to make 
cannon 10 Nov. ,, 

Alexander Dumas, novelist and dramatist, dies 

10 Dec. ,. 

The delegate government removed from Tours to 
Bordeaux n Dec. „ 

Murder of lieut. Arnaud at Lyons by the people for 
resisting them 20 Dec. ,, 

Trial of 21 peasants for murder of M. Moneys (see 
16 Aug.): 4 condemned to death; others to im- 
prisonment .... about 23 Dec. „ 

Firm proclamation of Trochu at Paris . 30 Dec. „ 

Gambetta at Bordeaux declares that the govern- 
ment only holds office for defence of the country ; 
demonstration in honour of the republic 1 Jan. 1871 

Foreigners not permitted to leave Paris by the 
Germans 19 Jan. ,, 

Fierce speech of Gambetta at Lille, demanding con- 
tinuance of the war . . . .22 Jan. „ 

Disturbances at Paris suppressed by the army, 

23 Jan. „ 

Resignation of Trochu; Vinoy made governor of 
Paris 24 Jan. „ 

Capitulation of Paris ; armistice signed by Favre 
and Bismarck 28 Jan. „ 

Disavowed by Gambetta at Bordeaux . 31 Jan. „ 



Manifesto of the due d'Aumale in favour of a con- 
stitutional monarchy 1 Feb. 

Arrival of food from London to relieve Paris (see 
Mansion-house) 3 Feb. 

The defence government publish their reasons for 
capitulation (2,000,000 people in Paris with only 
ten days' provisions), 4 Feb. ; and annul Gam- 
betta's decree, 4 Feb.; he and his ministry resign, 

5, 6 Feb. 

Railway accident between Bandoz and St. Nizaire ; 
explosion of casks of gunpowder ; 60 killed ; 
about 100 wounded .... 5 Feb. 

Four murderers of M. Moneys (16 Aug. 1870) exe- 
cuted 8 Feb. 

Proclamation of Napoleon III. " Betrayed by 
fortune," he condemns the government of 4 Sept. ; 
states that his government was four times con- 
firmed in 20 years ; submits to the judgment of 
time; saying "that a nation cannot long obey 
those who have no right to command " 8 Feb. 

General election of a national assembly . 8 Feb. 

M. F. P. J. Grevy elected president . . Feb. 

First meeting of the new national assembly, 12 Feb. 

Supplementary armistice signed . . 15 Feb. 

Garibaldi resigns his election, 13 Feb. ; Grevy 
elected president by 519 out of 538 . 16 Feb. 

Termination of the war ; the Belfort garrison 
(12,000) marches out with military honours, 

16 Feb. 

" Pact of Bordeaux:" M. Thiers made chief of the 
executive power, by agreement of the different 
parties in the assembly, 17 Feb. ; voted 18 Feb. 

Thiers ministry ; Dufaure (justice) ; Jules Favre 
(foreign), Picard (interior), Jules Simon (public 
instruction), Lambrecht (commerce), gen. Leflo 
(war), admiral Pothuan (marine), De Larcy 
(public works) 17 Feb. 

The French government recognised by the great 
powers of Europe , . . . .18 Feb. 

The due de Broglie appointed French minister at 
London 21 Feb. 

Negotiations for peace between Thiers and Bis- 
marck 22, 23, 24 Feb. 

Preliminaries of a treaty of peace accepted by MM. 
Thiers and Favre, and 15 delegates of the national 
assembly at Versailles (cession of parts of Alsace 
and Lorraine, including Strasbourg and Metz, 
and payment of five milliards of francs — 
200,000,000?.), 25 Feb. ; signed . . 26 Feb. 

Intense excitement in Paris . . . 27 Feb. 

Preliminaries of the treaty accepted by the assembly 
(546 to 107) ; the fall of the empire unanimously 
confirmed ; and the emperor stigmatised 1 Mar. 

A strong party of the national guard seize some 
cannons and transport them to Montmartre and 
Belleville, to defend themselves against the 
Germans entering Paris . . .1 March, 

The emperor of Germany reviews about 100,000 of 
his troops at Longchamps near Paris, 1 March, 

About 30,000 Germans enter Paris, 1 March ; re- 
main 48 hours ; depart ... 3 March, 

Impeachment of the defence government demanded 
by the party of the left (Victor Hugo, Louis 
Blanc, Quinet, and others) . . 6 March, 

The ex-emperor protests against his deposition, 

6 March, 

The army of the north and other special army corps 
dissolved 7-10 March, 

Meeting of national guard in Paris quelled, 

10 March, 

The national assembly vote for removal to Ver- 
sailles (461-104) .... 10 March, 

Le Vengeur and four other violent journals sup- 
pressed in Paris by Vinoy . . 11 March, 

Blanqui, Flourens, and others condemned for 
insurrection of 31 Oct. 1870 . . 12 March, 

Central committee of republican confederation of 
national guards (termed " the government of the 
Buttes ") meet ; depose Vinoy and appoint Gari- 
baldi general-in-chief ... 15 March, 

Insurrection at Paris : the regular troops take 
possession of the Buttes Montmartre and Belle- 
ville, for the assembly ; tne national guard 
attempt to recover them ; after a brief conflict 
the troops fraternise with the insurgents, who 
capture and shoot generals Lecomte and Clement 
Thomas, and take possession of the Hotel de 
Ville ; barricades erected in Bells \ille and. 



187. 



FRANCE. 



496 



FRANCE. 



other plaoea ; general Vinoy with the gendarmerie 
retire across the .Seine . . . 18 March, 

The insurgents nominate a central committee of 
the national guard, headed by Assy, a workman, 
which takes possession of public offices ; Thiers 
issues a circular, enjoining obedience to the 
assembly 19 March, 

The central committee order communal election in 
Paris, 19 Blarch ; and liberate about 11,000 
political prisoners in Paris . . 20 March, 

The national assembly meet at Versailles ; propose 
conciliatory measures ; and appoint a committee 
to support the government . . 20 March, 

Napoleon I II arrives al Dover . 20 March, 

The Journal dee Dtbatsand other papers renounce 
the central committee . . . 20 March, 

The bank of Prance saved by the courage of the 
governor, marquis de Plceuc, and by the forbear- 
ance of citizen Beslay ... 20 March, 

The assembly appeal to the nation and the army, 

21 March, 

Requisitions levied on the Paris shop-keepers, 

21 March, 

Unarmed demonstration of the Friends of Order ; 
they are fired on by the insurgents ; 10 killed, 
20 wounded 22 March, 

Lullier arrested by the central committee, 22 March, 

Admiral Saisset appointed commander of the 
national guard for the assembly . . 23 March, 

The 69th regiment of the line retire to Versailles, 

23 March, 

The central committee appoint some of their dele- 
gal es generals . ... 24 March, 

The insurgents hold central Paris ; Saisset returns 
to Versailles 25 March, 

Municipal elections at Paris ; 200,000 out of 500,000 
vote ; majority of two-thirds in favour of the 
insurgents 26 March, 

Tie government of the commune proclaimed at the 
Hotel deVille 28 March, 

Meeting of the conference for the peace at Brussels, 

28 March, 

Gustave Flourens, Blanqui, and Felix Pyat now at 
the head of the movement: they propose revival 
of the system ofthe Italian republics of the middle 
ages 29 March, 

The remission of part of the rents due by tenants 
ordered; the standing army to be named the 
national guard .... 29 March, 

Reign of terror : " Paris has no longer liberty of the 
press, of public meeting, of conscience, or of 
person." — LeSoi/r 1 April, 

Military operations commence 9 a.m. ; action at 
Couroevoie ; flourens marches his troops to 
Versailles, via lined .... 2 April, 

Tl -|'s d'armee of general Bergeret at the Rond 

Point, near N.iiilly," stopped by the artillery of 
Mont Valerien ; exchange of shot between Fort 
Issy and Port Yanves, occupied by the insurgents, 
aiei Meudon 3 April, 

General Duval made prisoner in the engagement at 
Chatillon and shot ; deal h of Flourens at Chatou; 
Delescluze, Com ■net, and Vcnnorel succeed Ber- 
geret, Eludes, and Duval on the executive com- 
mission ; Cluseret, delegate of war, and Bergeret, 
commandant of Paris forces . . 4 April, 

Communist insurrection at Marseilles suppressed, 

4 April, 

General Cluserei mences active operations; 

military service compulsory for all citizens under 
40 : the archbishop of Paris arrested 5 April, 

Extension of actiontoNeuilly and Courbevoie : severe 

decree eoi ruing complicity With Versailles, and 

arrest ofhosl iges ; Dombrowskl succeeds Berge- 
ret as commandant of Paris ; the guillotine burnt 
on t he Placi \ oltaire .... 6 April, 
federals abandon Neuilly ; commission of barri- 
cade, created and presided over by Qaillard 

.•sener; military occupation of the railway ter- 
mini by the in IUt '"i . . . 8 April, 
Insurgents repulsed 111 mi attempt In take t'liafil- 

lon ; forts Vanves and Montrouge disabled; 
Monl Valerien ahells the Avenue des Ternes ; 

Bei erel an ted by order oi 11 ommune, 

\ pi ii, 

Marshal Mai Mahon, commander-in chief for the 

mblj . distributes his forces, and commences 

the investment of Fort Issy . . h April, 



1871 



Versailles batteries established on Chatillon : the 
Orleans railway and telegraph cut ; communica- 
tions of the insurgents with the south inter- 
cepted ; decree ordering the fall of the column 
Vendome 12 April, i£ 

Publication of the reports of the sittings of the 
commune 13 April, , 

The redoubt of Gennevilliers taken ; the troops of 
Versailles advance to the Chateau de Becon, a 
post of importance ; Assy at the bar of the 
commune 14 April, , 

The national assembly pass the new municipal bill 
(419-18) 14 April, , 

Complementary elections ; organisation of a court- 
martial under the presidence of Rossel, chief 
officer of the statf .... 16 April, , 

Capture and fortification of the Chateau de Becon 
by the Versailles troops . . -17 April, , 

Station and houses at Asnieres taken by the army 
of Versailles 18 April, , 

The communists appeal to the nation 19 April, , 

Bagneux occupied by the Versaillais ; reorganisa- 
tion of commissions ; Eudes appointed inspector- 
general of the southern forts ; transfers his quar- 
ters from Montrouge to the palace of the Legion 
of Honour 20 April, , 

The Versailles batteries at Breteuil, Brimborion, 
Meudon, and Moulin de Pierre trouble the federal 
fort Issy, and battery between Bagneux and 
Chatillon shells fort Vanves ; truce at Neuilly 
from 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. ; the inhabitants of 
Neuilly enter Paris by the Porte des Ternes, 

25 April, , 

Capture of Les Moulineaux, outpost of the insur- 
gents, by the troops, who strongly fortify them- 
selves on the 27th and 28th . . 26 April, , 

Cemetery and park of Issy taken by the Versaillais 
in the night ; freemasons make a new attempt at 
reconciliation ; the commune levies a sum of 
two millions of francs from the railway companies, 

29 April. , 

A flag of truce sent to fort Issy by the Versaillais, 
calling upon the federals to surrender ; general 
Eudes puts fresh troops in the fort, and takes 
the command ; Cluseret imprisoned at Mazas by 
order of the commune ; Rossel appointed provi- 
sional delegate of war . . . .30 April, , 

The Versaillais take the station of Clamart and the 
Chateau of Issy ; creation of the committee of 
public safety ; members : Antoine Arnauld, Leo 
Meillet, Ranvier, Felix Pyat, Charles Gerardin ; 
alleged massacre of communist prisoners, 1 May, , 

Lacretelle carries the redoubt of Moulin Saquet, 

3 -May, , 

Colonel Rossel appointed to the direction of 
military affairs, defines the military quarters of 
Dombrowski, La Cecilia, Wroblewski, Bergeret, 
and Eudes 5 May, 

Central committee of the national guard charged 
with administration of war ; the Chapelle expia- 
toire condemned to destruction — the materials to 
be sold by auction .... 5 May, , 

Concert at the Tuileries in aid of the ambulances. 
Suppression of newspapers . . .6 May, , 

Battery of Montretout (70 marine guns) opens fire ; 
Thiers exhorts the Parisians to rise against the 
commune 8 May, , 

Morning ; insurgents evacuate the fort Issy ; the 
committee of public safety renewed ; members : 
Ranvier, Antoine Arnauld, Gambon, Eudes, 
Delescluze ; Rossel resigns . . . 8 May, , 

Treaty of peace with Germany signed at Frankfort, 

10 May, , 

Cannon from the Tort Issy taken to Versailles ; 
decree for the demolition of M. Thiers' house; 
Delescluze appointed delegate of war 10 May, , 

Thiers opposed ; offers to resign ; the assembly vote 
confidence in him (495-10) . ' . . n May, , 

Troops take possession of the Convent des Oiseaux 
at Issy. and the Lyceum at Vanves ; Auber, the 
composer, dies, aged 89 . . . . 12 May, , 

Triumphal entry of the troops into Versailles with 
flags and cannon taken from the convent : evacua- 
tion of the village of lssv completed : fort Vanves 

taken by the troops .... 13 May, ,, 
Vigorous cannonade from the batteries of Courbe- 
voie, Becon, Asnieres, on Levallois and Cllchy, 



FEANCE. 



497 



FEANCE. 



both villages evacuated ; commencement of the 
demolition of house of M. Thiers . . 14 May, 

Report of the re-armament of Montmartre 15 May.. 

The column Vendome overthrown . . 16 May, 

Secession from the communist government ; a 
central club formed ; a battalion of women formed, 

17 May, 

Stringent conscription in Paris . about 17 May, 

Silver ornaments in churches seized ; explosion of 
a cartridge factory near the Champ de Mars ; 
above 100 killed 17 May, 

The assembly adopt the treaty of peace 18 May, 

Eochefort brought a prisoner to Versailles ; last 
sitting of the commune ... 21 May, 

Noon, explosion of the powder magazine of the 
Manege d'Etat-Major (staff riding-school) ; the 
hostages transferred from Mazas to La Roquette ; 
I Assy arrested in Paris by the Versaillais ; the 
assembly votes the re-erection of the column 
Vendome ; M. Ducatel, at the risk of his life, 
having signalled that the way was clear, the 
Versailles troops enter Paris by the gates of St. 
Cloud and Montrouge, 2 p.m., 21 May; take 
possession of the south and west, and about 
10,000 prisoners, after some conflicts . 22 May, 

Montmartre taken by Douai and Ladmirault : 
death of Dombrowski. Morning : Assy arrives 
at Versailles ; execution of gendarmes and Gus- 
tave Chaudey at the prison of Sainte-Pelagie. 
Night : the Tuileries set on fire ; Delescluze and 
the committee of public safety hold permanent 
sittings at the Hotel de Ville . . 23 May, 

Morning : Palais Royal, Ministry of Finance, 
Hotel de Ville, &c, set on fire. 1 p.m.. the 
powder magazine at the Palais du Luxembourg 
t)lown up ; the committee of public safety organ- 
ise detachments of fusee-bearers ; petroleum 
pumped into burning buildings ; Raoul Rigault 
shot in the afternoon by the soldiers. Evening : 
execution in the prison of La Roquette of the 
archbishop, abbe Deguerry, president Bonjean, 
and 64 others, hostages . . . .24 May, 

The forts Montrouge, Hautes-Bruyeres, Bicetre 
evacuated by the insurgents ; the death of Deles- 
cluze reported ; executions in the Avenue 
d'ltalie of the Peres Dominicans of Arcueil, 

25 May, 

c6 priests and 38 gendarmes shot at Belleville by 
the insurgents ; many women fighting, and east- 
ing petroleum into fires, shot . 26, 27 May, 

The Buttes Chaumont, the heights of Belleville, 
and the cemetery of Pere Lachaise carried by the 
troops ; taking of the prison of La Roquette by 
the marines ; deliverance of 169 hostages ; the 
investment of Belleville complete ; last position 
captured by MacMahon ; fighting ends, 

5 p. m. , 28 May, 

Federal garrison of Vincennes surrendered at dis- 
cretion 29 May, 

Reported results of seven days' fighting in Paris : 
regular troops, 877 killed, 645 wounded, 183 miss- 
ing ; insurgents, about 50,000 dead, 25,000 pri- 
soners ; nearly all the leaders killed or prisoners ; 
about a fourth part of Paris destroyed 22-27 May, 

Estimated loss of property through the insurrection, 
32,000,000? April, May, 

Thiers' decree for disarming Paris and abolishing 
the National Guard of the Seine . . 29 May, 

Victor Hugo expelled from Belgium . 30 May, 

Reported wholesale execution of prisoners by the 
marquis de Gallifet ; Paris put under martial law ; 
about 50,000 insurgents still at large . 30 May, 

Severe letter from prince Napoleon Jerome to Jules 
Favre, dated 31 May, 

Changes in the ministry ; resignation (and reappoint- 
ment of some) of those who had been members 
of the government of defence . . 6 June, 

Solemn funeral of Darboy, archbp. of Paris 7 June, 

Abrogation of the laws of proscription by the as- 
sembly (484—103) ; elections of the due d'Aumale 
and the prince de Joinville declared valid 

8 June, 

Important speech of Thiers for maintaining the re- 
public at present 8 June 

Imposition of new taxes (463,000,000 francs) and a 
loan proposed by M. Pouyer Quertier . 12 June 

Gen. Trochu's powerful speech defending the " go- 
vernment of national defence " . 13, 14 June, 



1871 



Army of reserve ordered to be dissolved 14 June, 

Financial measures of M. Pouyer-Quertier opposed 
by Dufaure and the free-traders about 14 June, 

Theatres and public places reopened in Paris about 

20 June, 

Letter from M. Guizot to M. Greyy recommending 
political moderation to all parties, and main- 
tenance of the present government, published 

22 June, 

The loan of 2 milliards francs (80,000,000?.) decreed 
26 June ; subscription opened, 27 June ; about 4 
milliards subscribed for in France alone 28 June 

132 members elected for the assembly ; includes 
Gambetta, and a few legitimists and Bonapart- 
ists ; the rest support the government . 2 July, 

Letter from the comte de Chambord at Chambord, 
professing devotion to France, and adhesion to 
modern policy and liberality ; but declining to 
give up the white flag of Henry IV. ; he retires to 
Germany to avoid all pretext for agitation, dated 

5 July, 
The government said to have 500 votes in the 

assembly; bill for new taxes passed (483 to 5) 

8 July, 

20,000,000?. part of the indemnity, paid to the Ger- 
mans about 14 July, 

Prince Napoleon Jerome expelled from France (at 
Havre) 15 July, 

M. Devienne, president of the court of cassation, 
acquitted of blame for settling disputes relative 
to an imperial scandal (in Nov. i860) . 21 July, 

Jules Favre, foreign minister, resigns about 23 July ; 
succeeded by Charles de Remusat about 3 Aug. 

Full compensation for losses claimed by the invaded 
provinces refused by Thiers, who acknowledges 
no debt, but proposes to act generously . Aug. 

Trial of communist prisoners at Paris, begun about 

8 Aug. 

Great dissensions in the assembly between the 
monarchists and republican parties ; resignation 
of Thiers not accepted, 24 Aug. ; prolongation of his 
power and the sovereign and constituent authority 
of the assembly voted (443 to 227) about 25 Aug. 

Thiers' powers prolonged, and nominated president 
of the French republic by the assembly ; to con- 
tinue till the assembly shall terminate its 
labours ; (the Rivet-Vitet proposition), 491-93 

31 Aug. 

French postage increased .... Sept. 

Societe de Prevoyance established to counteract the 
Internationale ; becomes permanent . Sept. 

Ferre and Lullier sentenced to death, others to 
transportation or imprisonment, 2 Sept. ; 3 women 
(petroleuses) sentenced to death for throwing 
petroleum on fires 5 Sept. 

Bill for making the whole nation bear the losses of 
the invaded provinces adopted by the assembly 

6 Sept. 
Rossel, communist general, sentenced to death 

8 Sept. 

Message from Thiers to the assembly ; consideration 
of the budget adjourned 12 Sept. ; read 13 Sept. 

Disarmament of the national guard begun at Lyons, 
&c 14 Sept. 

Bill introduced concerning treaty with Germany 
relating to tariff on goods from Alsace and Lor- 
raine, and the reducing German troops in France 
to 50,000 men, 14 Sept. ; adopted by the assembly 
(533-33) ; the session declared closed, 2 a.m. 

17 Sept. 

Courts-martial on communists go on . . Sept. 

" Permanent Committee" of 25 of different parties 
appointed by the assembly to watch over the 
course of the government during the recess (17 
Sept. -4 Dec.) 15 Sept. 

25,000 communists yet to be tried ; about half to be 
set free 15 Sept. 

Evacuation of Paris forts by the Germans begun 
about 20 Sept. 

Rochefort (of "LaLanterne" and " LeMotd'Ordre ") 
sentenced to life-imprisonment . . 21 Sept. 

Difficulty in settling the Alsace and Lorraine treaty 

21 Sept. 

M. Pouyer-Quertier, the French finance minister, 
arrives at Berlin 8 Oct. 

M. Lambrecht, minister of the interior, dies sud- 
denly, 8 Oct. ; succeeded by M. Casimir Perier 

10 Oct. 
K K. 



1871 



FRANCE. 



498 



FRANCE. 



Tranquil election of above 2000 general councillors 

Oct. 

Convention for evacuation of 6 departments, and 
finance convention of Alsace and Lorraine signed, 
12 and 13 Oct. ; exchanged . . .21 Oct. 
Count Benedetti publishes an apology, attacking the 
Prussian government ; count Bismarck replies (in 
"Official Journal") disproving his assertions 

22 Oct. 

Dispute with Tunis settled . . about 25 Oct. 

Prince Napoleon resigns his seat in the council- 
general of Corsica ; and denounces intimidation 

28 Oct. 
nsurreetion in Algeria ended . . . Nov. 

Eight of the murderers of generals Lecomte and 
Thomas condemned .... 18 Nov. 

Bossel, Ferre, and Bourgeois, communist leaders, 
shot at Satory in presence of 3000 soldiers 28 Nov. 

Gaston Cremieux executed at Marseilles . 30 Nov. 

Territory held by Germans put into state "of siege 

4 Dec. 

Meeting of the national assembly . . 4 Dec. 

Sixteen political parties said to exist . . Dec. 

Thiers reads his message to the assembly ; depre- 
cates free trade, but proposes moderate protec- 
tion of French manufactures . . 7 Dec. 

Sharp despatch from count Bismarck in reference 
to the acquittal of murderers of Germans at 
Melun and Paris 7 Dec. 

After some discussion with M. Thiers, the due 
d'Aumale and prince de Joinville take their seats 
in the assembly 19 Dec. 

A committee of the assembly decide against the 
assembly removing to Paris . . 22 Dec. 

Joseph Lemettre condemned to death for 27 crimes 
(chiefly atrocious murders) ... 23 Dec. 

Income-tax proposed and negatived . . 28 Dec. 

Vautram, a government candidate, elected deputy 
for Paris, and not Victor Hugo . . 7 Jan. 

The due de Persigny dies . . . 12 Jan. 

Long debate in the assembly ; opposition to the 
proposed taxes on raw materials ; government de- 
feated (377-307) 19 Jan. 

Resignation of Thiers and the ministry opposed by 
the assembly; M'Mahon writes that the army will 
respect the orders of a majority of the assembly, 
but not obey dictatorship ; Thiers resumes office 

20 Jan. 

Death of Aries Dufour, of Lyons, St. Simonian and 
free-trader about 22 Jan. 

The government taxes voted . . .22 Jan. 

Conviction of the assassins of archbishop Darboy 
and others (on 24 May, 1871), 1 to death 23 Jan. 

Manifesto of the comte de Chambord ; his mind un- 
changed ; he will not become a legitimate king by 
revolution 29 Jan. 

Abrogation of the commercial treaties with Great 
Britain and Belgium determined on . Feb. 

Sardou's play, " Rabagas," satirising the radicals ; 
causes much excitement . . . .1 Feb. 

Proposed return of the assembly to Palis negatived 
(377-318) : resignation of Casimir Perier, minister 
i'l' the interior . .... 2 Feb. 

League for commercial liberty formed . . Feb. 

Five communists .sentenced to death for murder of 
the Dominicans on 35 May . . . 17 Feb. 

Blanqul condemned to transportation toafortifled 
prison about 17 Feb. 

M. Etouher elected a member of the assembly about 

15 Feb. 

Universal subscription to pay the indemnity to the 
Germans begins Keb. 

Manifesto in favour of a constitutional monarchy 
signed bj aboul ■ the " Right,"abou1 21 Feb. 

Assassins of generals Lecomte and clement Thomas 
executed 22 Feb. 

Janvier dels Motte,n prefect prosecuted for forgery, 
&c . i'\ government, acquitted ; M. Pouyer-Quer- 
tier, who gives evidence in his favour, 'resigns, 

about 5 March, 

Jo 11 I'll Lemettre executed . . 5 March, 

The treats of commerce with Qreal Britain 1 

d (tn cease In 1 ■ months) . 15 March 



1871 



1872 



den 



\\ii budget of 27,000,000?. (formerly 10,000,000?.) 

proposed Man n, 

Publishers oi "Figaro" convicted of libel against 
1 " Ira ; moderate punishment .■ April, 



Abolition of passports for British subjects an- 
. nounced 10 April, 

Law against the International Society placarded 

23 April, 

In a letter, the ex-emperor takes upon himself the 
whole responsibility of the surrender at Sedan 

12 May, 

Rouher in the assembly repels the due d'Audiflfret 
Pasquier's severe attack on the empire 21 May, 

Three more condemned communists shot 25 May, 

The due d'Aumale speaks in the chamber in favour 
of the army organisation bill . . .28 May, 

Marshal Vaii'lant dies 4 June, 

Thiers threatens to resign at opposition in the 
chamber about 9 June, 

Interview of delegates of the majority (the right) in 
the assembly with Thiers (respecting his policy) ; 
much censured 20 June, 

Budget for 1873 ; deficiency, 4,800,000?. ; 8,ooo,oooi. 
to be raised ; Thiers advocates duty on raw mate- 
rials, and opposes income-tax 26 June, et seq. 

The majority in the assembly propose MacMahon as 
president in room of Thiers , . . Jul}', 

New convention between Germany and France re- 
specting speedy payment of the indemnity and 
evacuation of territory, signed . . 29 June, 

Anniversary of the destruction of the Bastille cele- 
brated by public dinners ; important moderate 
speech by Gambetta at Ferte-sous- Jouarre, 14 July, 

Announcement of a public loan of 120,000,000?. at 
6J per cent 26 July, 

Three communists (murderers of hostages) executed 
at Satory 25 July, 

The loan subscribed for, nearly 12 times the amount, 
chiefly in France July, 

Thiers' financial measures carried (taxes on raw 
materials, &c.) ; the session of the assembly closed 

3 Aug. 

Meeting of Guizot and Thiers at Val Richer n Sept. 

Three more communist murderers shot at Satory 

15 Sept. 

Arrest of Bdmond About at Saverne, by the Ger- 
mans, on account of a newspaper article (written 
Oct. 1871), 14 Sept. ; released . . 21 Sept. 

Attempted celebration of the anniversary of the 
establishment of the first French republic ; ban- 
quet at Chambery stopped . . .22 Sept. 

M. Thiers and the ministry in Paris . . Sept. 

Progress of Gambetta in the south ; violent speech 
at Grenoble against Thiers . . .27 Sept. 

Pilgrimage of about 20,000 persons to the grotto" of 
the Virgin Mary at Lourdes, on account of alleged 
miracles (the Virgin was said to have appeared to 
two girls, 14 Feb. 1858) .... 6 Oct. 

Report that the Russian minister remonstrated on 
Gambetta's speech at Grenoble . . Oct. 

The supreme council of war constituted ; includes 
MacMahon, Canrobert, due d'Aumale, and other 
eminent generals ; first meeting, Thiers present 

9 Oct. 

Prince Napoleon and princess Clothilde come to 
Paris ; expelled by order of the government (he 
protests) 12 Oct. 

Letter from the comte de Chambord to M. de la 
Rochette, protesting against a republic , and assert- 
ing that France can be saved by a monarchy 
alone ; that she is catholic and monarchical, and 
cannot, therefore, perish ; dated . . 15 Oct. 

Elections for vacancies in the assembly ; radical 
republicans mostly elected ... 20 Oct. 

The Germans evacuate Haute Marne and other de- 
partments Oct., Nov. 

Banquet of monarchical party at Bordeaux 31 Oct. 

New commercial treaty with Great Britain signed at 
London 5 Nov. 

lie assembling of the national assembly, 11 Nov. ; 
Thiers in his message declares that the republic is 
the legal government ; and that to exist it must 
be conservative; and proposes changes 12 Nov. 

Senile of prayer on behalf of the assembly 17 Nov. 

Fruitless attack of general Changaraier on Thiers' 
policj and i;ambetta's speech at Grenoble; mo- 
tion to pass to order of the day; majority for 
government, 150 ; (300 did not vote) . iS Nov. 

The result becomes the law of . . 19 Nov. 

M. Kerdrel proposes a commission to consider 
Thiers' proposals for changes ; adopted 19 Nov. 



FRANCE. 



499 



FRANCE. 



Thiers threatens to resign ; crisis . 19, 20 Nov. 

Beport of the commission read by M. Batbie, claim- 
ing the right of the assembly to frame a constitu- 
tion with a responsible ministry ; the president 
not to speak in the assembly, &c. ; he advocated 
" gouvernement de combat " . . 26 Nov. 

Amendment proposed by Dufaure, minister of jus- 
tice, accepting ministerial responsibility, rejected 
by the committee .... 28 Nov. 

M. Thiers addresses the assembly ; declares he pre- 
fers the English to the American system ; but 
that a monarchy in France is at present impos- 
sible ; that he is faithful to the republic ; and 
that he wishes to render it conservative ; and that 
he has for two years served his country with 
boundless devotion ; Dufaure's amendment car- 
ried by 370-334 (union of royalists with Bonapart- 
ists against the radicals) . . .29 Nov. 

Vote of censure on the home minister (Lanfranc) 
carried ,' 305-299 ; he resigns . . 30 Nov. 

Agitation respecting the appointment of the com- 
mission of 30, proposed by Dufaure ; it consists 
of 19 for the right, n for the government, 6 Dee. ; 
changes in the ministry announced . 8 Dec. 

Manifesto of the left, proposing a dissolution of the 
assembly by legal means ... 10 Dec. 

Negatived by the assembly (490-201) . 14 Dec. 

Powerful speech of Thiers to the commission of 30 

16 Dec. 

Execution of Poitevin, a traitor . . 23 Dec. 

Debt (before the war, about 460,500,000?.) — 
748,700,000?. Dec. 

Illness of the ex-emperor .... 4 Jan. 

Meeting of the national assembly . . 6 Jan. 

Death of Napoleon III. at Chislehurst . 9 Jan. 

Bonapartist manifesto ; " the emperor is dead, but 
the empire is living and indestructible " 15 Jan. 

The "30 committee" considering Tallon's project 
for a constitution Jan. 

Three communist murderers shot at Satory 22 Jan. 

Reported recognition of the comte de Chambord as 
king by the Orleans princes . . .26 Jan. 

Powerful speech of Thiers before the commission of 
30 against their proposed changes . . 2 Feb. 

The commission of 30 close their meetings 8 Feb. 

Letter of the comte de Chambord published ; destroys 
all hopes of the fusion of the Bourbons . Feb. 

Debate begins on the report of the commission, 
which reserves the legislative rights of the present 
assembly, and the adherence to the provisional 
state in accordance with the "pacte de Bor- 
deaux," 27 Feb. ; powerful speech of Thiers in 
favour of this "truce of parties," adopted (475- 
199) ■ ■ 4 March, 

Convention for the total evacuation of the depart- 
ments in Sept. on payment of indemnity, signed 
at Berlin i 5 March, 

Declaration in the assembly " that M. Thiers has de- 
served well of his country " . . 17 March, 

M. Grevy resigns the presidency on account of the 
conduct of the party of the right, 2 April; 
M. Buffet, a liberal Bonapartist, elected in oppo- 
sition toMartel, the government candidate, 4 April, 

M. Barodet, radical, ex-mayor of Lyons, elected 
member of the assembly for Paris by a large ma- 
jority over the minister de Remusat . 27 April, 

Changes in the ministry :— Casimir Perier, interior ; 
W. H. Waddington, of Cambridge, public in- 
struction (in room of De Goulard and Jules 
Simon) 18 Mav, 

Meeting of the national assembly, 19 May; the 
government introduce their constitutional bills, 
21 May ; the due de Broglie leads an attack on 
the government, 23 May ; speech of Thiers ; the 
government defeated (362-348) at a sitting, 2 p.m., 

24 May, 

Resignation of Thiers and his ministry accepted 
(368-339), 24 May ; marshal McMahon, due de 
Magenta (born 1808) elected president of the re- 
public by 390 votes (the left did not vote) ; he 
accepts the office, declaring his independence of 
party, 24 May ; in his message to the assembly 
he says, " The post in which you have placed me 
is that of a sentinel, who has to watch over the 
integrity of your sovereign power." . 26 May, 

The due de Broglie chief of the new ministry 

26 May, 



1872 



1873 



General Ladrnirault succeeds MacMahon in the 
command of the army of Versailles . 3 June, 1873 

Private circular of the minister to prefects re- 
questing them to sound newspapers of his de- 
partment ; censured in the assembly . 11 June, ,, 

The assembly (by a large majority) order the prose- 
cution of Ranc, formerly a communist, now 
deputy for Lyons .... 19 June, ,, 

Visit of the Shah 5 July, „ 

Grand review of the renovated army at Paris, and 
assembly prorogued . . . .10 July, „ 

Renewal of the Anglo-French treaty of 23 Jan. 
i860 (till 30 June, 1877) : signed 24 July ; ratified 

29 July, ,, 

Evacuation of all the French territories by the 
Germans, except Verdun, by . . .2 Aug. ,, 

Fusion of the Legitimists and Orleanists ; after an 
interview of the comte de Paris with the comte 
de Chambord ; the latter recognised as chief 

5 Aug. ,, 

Odilon-Barrot died 6 Aug. ,, 

The imperial prince Napoleon declares the policy 
of his family to be "Everything by the people 
for the people " 15 Aug. tt 

Last instalment of 10,000,000?. of the indemnity of 
200,000,000?. paid ..... 5 Sept. ,, 

About 2,700 communists yet to be disposed of 

Sept. „ 

Verdun quitted by the Germans . . 13 Sept. „ 

The last quitted the French territory . 16 Sept. ,, 

Due Decazes ambassador for London . . Oct. ,, 

Letter from comte de Chambord to the vicomte 
de Rodez-Benavent ; not explicit ; shows ten- 
dency to concession ; says, "I want the co-opera- 
tion of all, and all have need of me " dated 

19 Sept. „ 

Prince Napoleon Jerome joins the republican party, 

26 Sept. ,, 

Letter from Thiers to mayor of Nancy, censuring 
the fusionists, who "without the consent of 
France pretend to decide upon her destinies" 

29 Sept. ,, 

France divided into 18 new military regions ; 18 
generals appointed . . . -30 Sept. ,, 

Trial of marshal Bazaine, late commander of the army 
of the Rhine in 1870, for alleged treachery and 
misconduct at Metz ; due d'Aumale president of 
the court ; begins 6 Oct. ,, 

Changes in the ministry ; due Decazes foreign and 
Changarnier war minister . . .6 Oct. ,, 

Rouher's letter to the Bonapartists against the 
monarchists 9 Oct. ,, 

M. Remusat and 3 other republicans elected de- 
puties 12 Oct. ,, 

Ranc condemned to death in contumaciam 13 Oct. ,, 

M. Lemoinne (in the Journal des Debats) says "The 
partisans of an absolute monarchy make a tabula 
rasa of history ; for them nothing has occurred. 
If that be so, nothing will return " .15 Oct. ,, 

Manifesto of the monarchists proposing restoration 
of the monarchy, guaranteeing all necessary 
liberties, &c 18 Oct. „ 

M. Leon Say and the left centre decline negotia- 
tion with the monarchists ; who threaten absten- 
tion in the next elections, if successfully opposed 

23 Oct. ,, 

Letter from the comte de Chambord to M. 
Chesnelong ; he says, "I retract nothing, and 
curtail nothing of my previous declarations. I 
do not wish to begin a reign of reparation by an 
act of weakness ; if enfeebled to-day, I should 
be powerless to-morrow ; I am a necessary pilot ; 
the only one capable of guiding the ship to port, 
because I have for it a mission of authority." 
dated 27 Oct. ,, 

M. Leon Say and the left centre say the moment 
has arrived for the organisation of a conservative 
republic 30 Oct. ,, 

Meeting of national assembly ; message from mar- 
shal MacMahon, requesting increased and pro- 
longed x>ower (ten years) ; this referred to a com- 
mittee of 15 ; voted urgent (by 360 to 350) 5 Nov. ,, 

M. Buffet re-elected president . . 6 Nov. ,, ! 

Conspiracy at Autun to seize marchioness Mac- 
Mahon ; offenders convicted . . . 7 Nov. ,, 

Eight of the committee vote for prolongation of 
MacMahon's presidency foi five years after date 
of meeting of the next legislature, under existing 

K. K 2 



FRANCE. 

conditions till the passing of constitutional laws ; 
the others vote for ten years' prolongation with- 
out conditions '3 Nov - 

M. Laboulaye's report of the committee laid before 
the assembly; MacMalion's message suggesting 
7 years' prolongation of his powers . 17 Nov. 

Warm debate in the assembly ; majority of 68 for 
ministers, 18 Nov. ; 7 years' power voted to 
marshal MacMahon (383-317), 19 Nov. ; decree 

20 Nov. 

Incognito visit of the comte de Chambord to Paris 
about 20 Nov. 

Ministry resigns, 20 Nov. ; re-constituted ; due de 
Broglie, minister of interior ; due Decazes, 
foreign minister ; announced . . 26 Nov. 

Committee of 30 for constitutional changes, com- 
pleted 4 Dec. 

Holds its first meeting, Batbie, president 5 Dec. 

Embassy to London declined by Guizot ; accepted 
by the due de la Roehefoucauld-Bisaccia Dec. 

Bazaine's trial ends ; he is found guilty of capitu- 
lating with his army (of 170,000 men) in the open 
field ; of negotiating dishonourably with the 
enemy, and surrendering a fortified place ; sen- 
tence, death and degradation, 10 Dec. ; com- 
muted to 20 years' imprisonment . . 12 Dec. 

Peaceful republican demonstration in Paris at the 
funeral of Victor Hugo's second son, Francois, 

28 Dec. 

Meeting of the assembly ; majority against the 
nomination of mayors bill, through the legiti- 
mists (268-226), 8 Jan. ; the ministry resign, 9 
Jan. ; vote of confidence in the ministry (379 to 
329), 12 Jan. ; the ministers resume office 13 Jan. 

Vote for ministers on the nomination of mayors 
bill (341-336) 17 Jan. 

The Ultramontane newspaper, L'Univers (edited 
by M. L. Veuillot), suspended for 2 months for 
attacks on Italy and Germany, about 19 Jan. 

Nomination of mayors bill passed, 21 Jan. ; many 
mayors replaced Feb. 

A person calls himself comte Albert de Bourbon, 
and claims to be son of Louis XVII. ; his claim 
rejected 27 Feb. 

Ledru-Rollin and Lepetit elected members of 
the national assembly . . . .1 March, 

New electoral law presented by the committee ; 
about 3 millions disfranchised . 11 March, 

Demonstration at Chiselhurst on prince Louis 
Napoleon's coming of age (at 18) ; 6000 French- 
men present ; he says that he waits the result of 
the 8th plebiscite .... 16 March, 

Gabriel Hugelmann, political spy and swindler, 
convicted and sentenced to 5 years' imprison- 
ment 25 March, 

Ferrancl, contractor (made about 80,000?. during 
war), fined and imprisoned, about . 25 March, 

Proposal of Dahirel, legitimist, of a law enacting 
that on 1 June the assembly should vote for 
either a monarchy or republic, negatived (330- 
256) 27 March, 

Assembly adjourns to 12 May . . 28 March, 

Two republican deputies elected . 29 March, 

Reported escape of Rochefort, the communist, from 
new Caledonia . . announced 30 March, 

Death of Beule", ex-minister . . .4 April, 

Newspapers warned not to attack the septennate 

12 April, 

Clement Duvernois, ex-imperial minister, arrested 
for suspected fraud . . . . 14 April, 

The assembly meets, 12 May; the ministry de- 
reated on electoral law (381-317), resigns 16 May, 

M. Goulard railing to form a ministry, the presi- 
dent re-appoints the former without Broglie; 
nominal head, gen. DeCissey . . 22 May, 

Prince Hohenlohe, the new German ambassador, 
received by the president; mutual professions 
"f peace 23 May, 

Rochefort and other communists arrive at San 
Francisco . . . announced 21 May, 

Bom-going, a Bonapartlst, elected for Nievre (as- 
serted thai lie was devoted to the marshal) 

24 May. 

Thiers addresses Bome Qironde friends; refers ti- 
the failure of his op] ints; and recommends 

dissolution of the assembly . 24 May, 

IClcetoral hill ; assembh pass to second reading 
(.393-3 » 8 ) 1 June, 



500 



FRANCE. 



1873 



1874 



Ledru-Rollin's speech a failure . . 3 June, 1874 

Hot disputes between republicans and Bonapar- 
tists ; left centre demand the establishment of 
the republic, or dissolution of the assembly 

8, 9 June, „ 

Bonnard, communist, condemned for murder, 25 
Feb., shot 6 June, „ 

Electoral bill ; age of electors fixed at 21, not 25 
(defeat of ministry) . . - - 10 June, ,, 

Gambetta having called the Bonapartists "misera- 
bles," is struck at a railway station by comte de 
Sainte Croix, ti June, who is condemned to fine 
and imprisonment . . . -13 June, „ 

Casimir Perier (leader of left centre) moves for 
recognition of the republic ; MacMahon president 
till 20 Nov. 1880, and revision of the constitu- 
tion ; voted " urgent" (345-341) . 14, 15 June, ,, 

Due de Rochefoucauld-Bisaecia's motion for re- 
storation of the legitimate monarchy negatived ; 
he resigns British embassy . . . 15 June, ,, 

Rochefort in London .... 19 June, ,, 

The " fusion " between legitimists and Orleanists 
ended ; conflict now between republicans and 
Bonapartists June, ,, 

Grand review of 60,000 men at Longchamps, near 
Paris 28 June, ,, 

In his order of the day, marshal MacMahon de- 
clares that with the army he will maintain the 
authority of the land for the seven years 29 June, ,, 

Casimir Perier's motion negatived by commission 
of thirty 29 June, ,, 

Manifesto from comte de Chambord, saying, 
" France has need of monarchy. My birth has 
made me your king. . . The Christian and 
French monarchy is in its very essence limited 
(te.mprrie). It admits of the existence of two 
chambers : one nominated by the sovereign, the 
other by the nation. . I do not wish for 

those barren parliamentary struggles, whence 
the sovereign too frequently issues powerless 
and enfeebled. . . I reject the formula of 
foreign importation, which all our national tradi- 
tions repudiate, with its king who reigns and 
does not govern. " — Signed, Henri V. . 2 July, ,, 

" L'Union," legitimist paper, suspended for pub- 
lishing the above 4 July, ,, 

M. Goulard, ex-minister, dies . . 4 July, ,, 

Debate on the manifesto ; legitimists defeated ; 
ministers defeated on a motion in favour of the 
septennate, resign (368-331) ; their resignation 
not accepted by the marshal . . 8 July, ,, 

He states, in a message to the assembly, his deter- 
mination to maintain the law of 20 Nov. , and ex- 
horts them to pass the constitutional laws 

9 July, , , 

" Figaro" suspended for 15 days for attacking the 
assembly 11 July, ,, 

Reports of committee, by Ventavon (the bill pro- 
poses maintenance of the authority of the presi- 
dent of the republic ; ministerial responsibility ; 
two legislative assemblies ; dissolution of the 
chamber of deputies by the president ; &c), sus- 
pended 16 July, ,, 

Casimir Perier's motion for a republic rejected 

(375-333) 23 J" 1 )'. >■ 

Malleville's motion for dissolution of the assembly 

rejected (374-332) ,, 

The assembly adjourns (to 30 Nov.) . . 5 Aug. ,, 
Marshal Bazaine escapes from the isle of Ste. 
Marguerite (see Dec. 1873) 10 p.m. [His wife as- 
serted that he descended by an old gutter by 
means of a knotted rope ; was received into a 
boat by her and her nephew, Alvarez de Rul, 
and conveyed to the steamer Baron Ricasola, 
which landed him at Genoa] . . . q Aug. ,, 
Forcade de Roquette, a minister under the empire, 

dies, aged 53 16 Aug. ,, 

MacMalion's progress in the N.W. provinces ; well 

received 17 Aug. ,, 

Vendome column restored . . . 31 Aug. ,, 
Comte de Jarnac, minister at London, arrives there 

4 Sept. ,, 
Death of M. Guizo .... 12 Sept. „ 
Bazaine's defence sent by him to the New York 
Herald, dated 6 Sept., published in London 

14 Sept. ,, 



FRANCE. 



501 



FRANCE. 



Trials for complicity in Bazaine's escape ; col. 
Villette and others sentenced to imprisonment 

17 Sept. 

Thiers, at Vizille near Grenoble, in reply to an 
address, says, " Since you cannot establish the 
monarchy, establish the republic, and do it 
frankly and sincerely " . . . .27 Sept. 

Poirier executed at Chartres for 5 murders 29 Sept. 

Severe note from Spanish government complaining 
of French neglect in regard to the Carlists on 
the Spanish frontier .... early Oct. 

Clement Duvernois, ex-imperial minister, con- 
victed of fraud ; 2 years' imprisonment 25 Nov. 

Political parties : Extreme right. Legitimists : 
adherents of Henry V. Moderate right: mon- 
archists. Right centre : septennates, Imper- 
ialists or Bonapartists. Left centre : moderate 
republicans (chief, Thiers). Left : more pro- 
nounced. Extreme left : radicals (chief, Gam- 
betta) Nov. 

St. Genest's pamphlet, " L'Assembleeet la France," 
inciting to a coup d'etat . . . end of Nov. 

Comte de Chambord requests his friends not to 
vote so as to prevent or delay the restoration of 
the monarchy Nov. 

Four ornamented volumes of addresses from towns, 
&c, in France, conveying thanks for relief during 
the war 1870-1 (inscribed on the outside, "Bri- 
tannia} grata Gallia,") with about 12,000,000 
signatures, presented to the queen by M. D' Agiout 
and the comte de Serrurier [placed in the British 
Museum for inspection] .... 3 Dec. 

The assembly meets ; Arm moderate message from 
MacMahon 3 Dec. 

Sudden death of M. Ledru-Rollin . 31 Dec. 

President in his message having recommended the 
passing a bill for constituting a senate, motion 
against it passed (420 to 250), 6 Jan. ; ministers' 
resignation not accepted .... 7 Jan. 

Cost of the war (395,400,000'.) announced Jan. 

Emile Pereire, financier . . . died 6 Jan. 

A Bonapartist elected deputy for Hautes-Pyrenees 

17 Jan. 

Nine days' debate on the new army bill . Jan. 

Stormy debate on Ventavon's bill for organising 
MacMahon's powers, 1st reading passed (557 to 
146) 22 Jan. 

Laboulaye's amendment rejected (359-335) 29 Jan. 

Wallon's amendment (the president of the republic 
to be elected by absolute majority of the two 
chainbers for 7 years, and to be eligible for re- 
election ; the republic virtually established) ; 
passed 1 a.m. 31 Jan. 

Great satisfaction throughout the country Feb. 

Duprat's amendment carried (senate to be chosen 
by universal suffrage), 1 1 Feb. ; third reading of 
the constitutional bill rejected (357-345) ; pro- 
posed dissolution of the assembly negatived 
(407-266), 12 Feb. ; message from the marshal 
disapproving of last votes . . . 13 Feb. 

Senate bill (senate to consist of 300 ; 225 to be 
elected by the departments, 75 by national 
assembly) 22 Feb. 

Laws passed constituting French republic by union 
of moderate monarchists and republicans ; legiti- 
mists and Bonapartists defeated ; senate bill 
passed (448-244), 24 Feb. ; final vote for republic, 
constitutional laws passed (436-262) 

5 p.m. 25 Feb., published 1 March, 

New ministry under Buffet constituted ; Buffet, 
interior; Dufaure, justice; Leon Say, finance; 
Wallon, instruction ; De Meaux, agriculture and 
commerce ; Cissey war ; Decazes, foreign ; Mon- 
taignac, marine ; Caillaux, public works 

10 March, 

Due d'Audiffret Pasquier elected president of the 
assembly almost unanimously . . 15 March, 

Death of M. Jarnac-Chabot, ambassador at London 

22 March, 

Assembly adjourns to 11 May . . 20 March, 

Edgar Quinet, author of " Les Jesuites," a staunch 
republican, died . . . -27 March, 

Powerful speech of Gambetta at Belleville, de- 
fending the new constitution . . 23 April, 

Meeting of the assembly, 11 May ; the ministry 
propose to refer a bill to the committee of 30 ; 



1874 



1875 



defeated ; part of the committee resign, 18 May ; 
new committee elected (republican majority) 

26 May, 

Louis Blanc's speech against the conservative re- 
public, 21 June; self-denying resolution of the 
left party (to avoid delaying the dissolution by 
speaking, &c.) June, 

Destructive inundations at Toulouse ; about 1000 
lives lost, with much property . 23 June, 

Election of baron de Bourgoing, a Bonapartist, an- 
nulled by the assembly, 13 July ; warm defence 
of his party by Rouher (on the charge of there 
being a central committee of Bonapartists in 
Paris with branches in the provinces, actively 
endeavouring to overthrow the republic in 1874) 

14 July, 

Fierce debate in assembly ; Buffet defends the 
imperialistic prefects, and gains vote of con- 
fidence ; the left not voting . .15 July, 

H. Rochefort, after challenging Paul de Cassagnac, 
declines accepting the conditions of the combat 
at Geneva Aug. 

The assembly adjourns .... 4 Aug. 

Naquet, an "irreconcilable" republican, attacks 
Gambetta for his moderation . end of Aug. 

Plon having lost by publishing "Julius Caesar," 
by Napoleon III., sues the emperor's executors ; 
fails ; and is adjudged to pay costs . . Aug. 

L'Echo de Blois fined for libel on the due d'Aumale 

28 Aug. 

"Les Responsabilites," pamphlet recommending the 
comte de Chambord to resign his rights to the 
crown Aug. 

Belgian and German pilgrimage to Lourdes (see 
1872) Sept. 

Admiral De la Ronciere Noury superseded for 
writing a letter animadverting on the republic 
(2 Sept.) « Sept. 

Alleged adhesion of the Orleanist party to the 
reimblic about 10 Sept. 

Important speeches ; M. Thiers at Arcachon de- 
fending his policy ; advocating a conservative 
republic, and censuring delay ; M. Rouher at 
Ajaccio, advocating imperialism and universal 
suffrage, and asserting that the nation will not 
accept the republic as a definite government 

17 Oct. 

Important letter of Gambetta to his friends at 
Lyons (in favour of the conservative republic), 
said to be " too advanced for the moderate, and 
too moderate for the advanced." . . 25 Oct. 

Meeting of the assembly : due d'Audiffret re- 
elected president 4 Nov. 

The assembly virtually votes its dissolution before 
31 March, 1876 ; 6 months' residence in a com- 
mune to give right to vote, 9 Nov. , majority for 
ministers ; the scrutin d'arrondissement adopted 
instead of scrutin de Hate (357-326) ; able speech 
of Gambetta for the latter . . 11 Nov. 

New Catholic University opened . .17 Nov. 

Beginning of ballot for senators for life ; due 
d'Audiitret Pasquier elected ; the result dis- 
closes a breach between the legitimists and 
Orleanists ; government defeated . . 9 Dec. 

Committees on the bills relating to the press and 

the state of siege protest against them strongly 

about 13 Dec. 

Seventy-five senators for life (52 republicans) 
elected by the assembly . . 9 — 21 Dee. 

Powerful speech of Buffet in favour of rigid press 
law and state of siege, 23 Dec. ; much censured, 
but approved in a letter by MacMahon 24 Dec. 

Majority for ministers (376-303) . . 24 Dec. 

Solemn funerals of generals Clement Thomas and 
Lecomte, killed by the communists (18 March, 
1871) ; violent recrimination in the assembly 

27 Dec. 

Re-election to the assembly declined by the due 
d'Aumale, 27 Dec. ; by the prince de Joinville, 

29 Dec. 

New press law (abolishing interdiction) passed ; 
state of siege raised except in Paris, Versailles, 
Lyons, and Marseilles ; proposal to raise it at 
Paris negatived (369-279) ... 29 Dec. 

The assembly prorogued till 8 March, 1876 31 Dec. 

Powerful letter from Gambetta . . 31 Dec. 

Communist trials report: 9,596 convicted; no 
sentenced to death Dec. 



1S75 



FRANCE. 



502 



FRANCE. 



Ministerial crisis : difference between Buffet and 
Say respecting an electoral list ; resignation of 
Say ; withdrawn at MacMahon's request, 10 Jan. 
et seq.; the marshal issues a proclamation, coun- 
tersigned by Buffet ; he says, " I think that the 
constitution ought not to be revised before having 
been loyally worked. I shall fulfil to the end 
the mission entrusted to me." . . 13 Jan. 1876 

New Catholic university inaugurated at Paris by 
the archbishop 10 Jan. 

Commencement of election of senators in depart- 
ments 17 Jan. 

General prosperity ; revenue for 1875 estimated 
100,000,000/. , said to be the highest ever received 
by any government Jan. 

Election of senators ; mostly moderate republicans ; 
Thiers for Belfort nearly unanimous ; Buffet and 
Louis Blanc rejected ; Victor Hugo elected 30 Jan. 

Resignation of Leon Renault, prefect of police, 
opposed to Buffet .... 9 Feb. 

Election of deputies ; great majority of repub- 
licans, 20 Feb. — 5 March ; resignation of Buf- 
fet, about 22 Feb. ; Dufaure chief minister, with 
a modified cabinet 24 Feb. 

Estimated result of elections : moderate repub- 
licans, 270 ; radicals, 60 ; Bonapartists, 92 ; Or- 
leanists, 58; legitimists, 36 . .7 March, 

Dufaure's ministry complete (including Decazes, 
Say, Waddington, de Cissey, &c.) about 9 March, 

Senate and assembly meet, 8 March ; due d'Audif- 
fret Pasquier elected president of senate ; M. F. 
P. Jules Grevy, president of assembly 13 March, ,, 

Amnesty bill for communists introduced in the 
senate by Victor Hugo ; in the assembly by 
Raspail 21 March, „ 

Pro] losed international exhibition, Paris,for 1 May, 
1878 5 April, ,, 

Archbishop Guibert, of Paris, declines to give 
evidence concerning the election of comte de 
Mini as deputy April, ,, 

Gambetta president of budget committee for 1877 

about 19 April, ,, 

Queen Victoria in Paris ; received by the president, 

21 April, ,, 

Death of Ricard, popular liberal minister of the 
interior, aged 48, 12 May; succeeded by M. De 
Mercere, under-secretary . about 15 May, ,, 

Debate on the amnesty to communists, 14 May ; 
rejected (394-52), 17 May; Victor Hugo's speech 
in favour of amnesty ; proposal rejected almost 
unanimously 22 May, ,, 

Funeral procession of Michelet at Paris 18 May, „ 

M. Buffet, ex-minister, elected life-senator 16 June, „ 

87 communists pardoned . . .28 June, „ 

Casimir Pe"rier dies 6 July, ,, 

Nearly 2,000,000!. voted for public instruction 

31 July, ,, 

Chambers prorogued . . . .12 Aug. „ 

68 communists pardoned ... 17 Aug. ,, 

Observatory at Puy de D6me near Clermont in- 
augurated 22 Aug. ,, 

New fortifications round Paris nearly completed, 

Sept. , , 

The assembly reopened, 30 Oct. ; the due Decazes' 

firm pacific speech .... 3 Nov. ,, 
Prince Napoleon Jerome becomes prominent in the 

assembly Nov. ,, 

Resignation of Dufaure's ministry through defeats 

in the senate, &c 2 Dec. „ 

Pardons and commutations granted to many com- 
munist convicts . . . , .2 Dec. 
New ministry: Jules Simon, president of the 

1 Qcil and minister of interior; Martel, justice ; 

others remain . . . . 12, 13 Dec. „ 
Estimated revenue 109,000,000/. . . . Dec. ,, 

Chambers opened Q Jan. 1877 

Gambetta president of the budget . . a6Jan. ,, 
Above fifty prefects, hostile to the republic, re- 
moved ran. ,, 

Sen Changarnier died, aged 83 . . T4 k,i,. 

Paul de Cassagnac lined and imprisoned for libel 

against chamber ol deputies in the "Pays," 

5 April, „ 
Rochefort's " Lauteme " re-published . April, 
M. Jules Simon compelled to yield to Gambetta in 

the chambei 4 May, 

Peremptory Letter of censure from marshal Mac- 



Mahon to Jules Simon causes him and his 
ministry to resign 16 May, 1877 

The due de Broglie forms a ministry (royalist and 
imperial), De Fourtou, interior; Cailloux, finance; 
Paris, public works ; De Meaux, agriculture ; 
Brunet, public instruction ; (Decazes, foreign, 
and Berthaut, war, remain) . . 17 May, ,, 

Gambetta's resolution in chamber in favour of par- 
liamentary government carried, (355 - 154) 17 May ; 
protest of 363 liberal deputies signed . 18 May, ,, 

The marshal prorogues the chambers for a month ; 
a firm manifesto issued by the left . 18 May, ,, 

Many changes made in the prefects . 20 May, „ 

Thiers accepted as leader by the republicans ; 
Broglie's circular for repressing the press issued 

about 29 May, ,, 

Bonnet Duverdier, chief of municipality of Paris ; 
arrested for speaking against the marshal, 1 June ; 
sentenced to fine and imprisonment . 8 June, ,, 

Meeting of chambers ; stormy debate in. second 
chamber, 16 June ; vote against government 
carried (363-158) .... 19 June, „ 

The deputies vote the necessary supplies, but not 
direct taxes 21 June, ,, 

The senate votes dissolution of the chambers (150- 
130) 22 June ; decreed ... 25 June, ,, 

The marshal, in au order of the day, after a review 
at Longchamps, says : " 1 appeal to the army to 
defend the dearest interests of the country," 

2 July, ,, 

Quarrels among Bonapartists (Rouher against 
Cassagnac) July, Aug. ,, 

Repressive measures towards the press, &c. July, Aug. ,, 

Prosecution of Gambetta (and Murat, editor of the 
"Republique Frangaise," in which it appeared) 
for a speech at Lille (29 July) in which he said 
the marshal must, if the elections be against 
him, "submit or resign" (" se soumettre ou se 
demettre") about 25 Aug. ,, 

Thiers dies, aged 80 ; 3 Sept. public funeral ; no 
disorder 8 Sept. „ 

Gambetta and Murat convicted ; sentence 3 months 
imprisonment and fine of. 80/. 11 Sept. ; on appeal 
sentence affirmed .... 22 Sept. „ 

The marshal's excursions to various places ; recep- 
tion differs Aug. Sept. „ 

In his manifesto respecting the elections, he refers 
to his successful government, and says : " I 
cannot obey the injunctions of the demagogy ; 
I can neither become the instrument of radical- 
ism nor abandon the post in which the constitu- 
tion has placed me " . . . .19 Sept. ,, 

Thiers' manifesto to electors (an historical defence 
of the republic and late chamber) published 

24 Sept. ,, 

The clergy energetically support the government 

Sept. Oct. „ 

Temperate manifesto of the left, 4 Oct. ; of Grevy 
and Gambetta 7 Oct. ,, 

Justificatory manifesto of the marshal, appealing 
to voters n Oct. ,, 

Gambetta convicted for placarding his address ; 
fine 150/. and 3 months' imprisonment 12 Oct. ,, 

M. de fourtou interferes very energetically in 
elections; foreign papers stopped, Ac. . Oct. ,, 

General election ; quiet and dignified ; results : 
defeat of Bonapartist and clerical parties; (of 
506 official candidates about 199 elected ; re- 
publicans, 320) 14 Oct. ,, 

Final result: 325 republicans; 112 Bonapartists; 

06 monarchists 28 Oct. ,, 

Ministry hold office till successors appointed ; M. 

Pouyer-Quertier fails to form h ministry . Nov. ,, 
Election of departmental councils who elect sena- 
tors ; majority for republicans . . 4 Nov. ,, 
Meeting of chambers .... 7 Nov. ,, 

Census for 1876 announced ; 36,905,788 (increase of 
802,867 over 1872) 8 Nov. ,, 

The marshal determines not to resign ; his ministry 

agree to remain temporarily ; announced 8 Nov. ,, 
F. P. Jules Grevy re-elected president of the 

chamber of deputies now constituted . 10 Nov. „ 
Albert ('.levy's resolution for. the appointment of a 
commission of 33 to inquire into the conduct of 
the government respecting elections, 13 Nov.; 
carried after a warm debate (312-205) . 15 Nov. ,, 

• Debate in senate on M. Kerdrel's motion respecting 



FEANCE. 



503 



EEANCE. 



ministers ; vote in their favour indirectly reflect- 
ing on Grevy's resolution, &c. d 51-129) 19 Nov. 1877 

Resignation of ministers announced . .20 Nov. ,, 

New ministry formed under gen. Rochebouet, 
president ; no member of it in the senate or 
assembly ; termed " ministry of affairs " 23 Nov. „ 

No confidence in the new ministry voted in the 
second chamber (323-208) ... 24 Nov. „ 

Important meeting of commercial men at Paris ; 
petition to the marshal agreed on . . 2 Dec. ,, 

The chamber refuses to discuss the budget 4 Dec. ,, 

The ministry resign ; negotiations with Dufaure to 
form a parliamentary ministry fail ; Batbie (see 
26 Nov. 1872) also fails . . . 7-13 Dec. ,, 

The marshal submits unconditionally 13 Dec. A 
thorough republican ministry formed under M. 
Dufaure, president of the council and minister 
of justice ; De Marcere, interior ; Wadclington 
(protestant), foreign affairs ; Bardoux, public 
instruction ; general Borel, war ; vice-admiral 
Pothuaii, marine ; Le"on Say, finance ; Teisserenc 
de Bort, commerce ; De Freycinet, public works : 
announced ; the marshal in his message accepts 
the will of the country . . . 14 Dec. ,, 

Restrictions of the press removed ; many prefects 
resign and others are removed 15 Dec. et seq. ,, 

Death of gen. Aurelle de Paladines . . 17 Dec. ,, 

Budget voted ; chambers adjourn. . 18 Dec. ,, 

Limoges affair; gen. Rochebouet said to have 
issued orders to gen. de Bressoles for a military 
movement which he issued 12 Dec. ; major Labor- 
dere denounces the orders as illegal, 13 Dec. ; 
the orders nullified by the change of ministry, 
14 Dec. ; De Bressoles suspended for alleged 
mistake ; Labordere cashiered ; much excitement 
in Paris on account of suspected preparations for 
a coup d'etat Jan. 1878 

Legislative assembly meets ... 8 Jan. ,, 

Gen. Ducrot dismissed from command for suspected 
connection with projected coup d'etat 10, n Jan. ,, 

Committee of 18 liberal deputies (formed in May) 
virtually dissolve . . . . 13 Jan. „ 

Break up of combined reactionary parties ; the 
ministry generally successful . . March, ,, 

International exhibition at Paris opened by the 
marshal president (see Paris) . . 1 May, „ 

Joan of Arc and Voltaire centenaries celebrated, 

30 May, ,, 

M. Waddington, foreign minister, a plenipotentiary 
at the Berlin Conference . 13 June — 13 July ,, 

Temporary strikes of workmen . . July, Aug. ,, 

Republican success in electing departmental coun- 
cils Aug. „ 

Solemn commemoration of death of Thiers at Notre 
Dame, &c 3 Sept. „ 

Execution of Barre, stockbroker, and Lebiez, 
medical student, for murder of a milkwoman for 
her funded property .... 7 Sept. ,, 

Review of 55,000 soldiers at Vincennes . 15 Sept. „ 

Powerful speech of Gambetta at Romans (depart- 
ment Drome), proposing abolition ol the exemp- 
tion of theological students from military service, 
18 Sept., and at Grenoble . . . 10 Oct. „ 

Bupanloup, bishop of Orleans, dies suddenly, 11 Oct. ,, 

The assembly meets 28 Oct e ,, 

12,000 national lottery tickets of 1 franc sold (see 
Lotteries) up to Nov. ,, 

Energetic manifesto of united Legitimists, Orlean- 
ists, and Bonapartists against republicans re- 
specting election of senators . . 13 Nov. ,, 

Elections of Paul de Cassagnac (7 Nov.) and M. 
Portou invalidated by the Chamber, 18 Nov. ; of 
Deeazes 7 Dee. ,, 

Letter from comte de Chambord to M. de Mun 
maintaining his rights ; published . 25 Nov. ,, 

All foreign commercial treaties denounced in view 
of a new tariff 31 Dec. ,, 

Elections for Senate ; 64 republican, 16 opposition, 

5 Jan. 1879 

Compulsory resignation of gen. Borel, war minister, 
13 Jan.;. succeeded by gen. Gresley . 13 Jan. ,, 

Meeting of chambers ; M. Martel elected president 
of the senate 15 Jan. „ 

Confidence in the ministry voted in chamber of 
deputies (223-121) .... 20 Jan. ,, 

2,245 communists pardoned by decree, issued 17 Jan. ,, 

Ministerial programme : pardons to communists ; 



check of clerical influence upon education ; dis- 
missal of officials opposed to the republic, &c. 

16 Jan. 1 

Drawing of the national lottery begun . 26 Jan. 

Budget : revenue, about 110,242,812?.; expenditure, 
110,177,304?. ...... Jan. 

Marshal MacMahon refuses to supersede military 
officers, 28 Jan. resigns; F. P. Jules Grevy elected 
president by the senate, and deputies united as 
"The National Assembly" (536 for Gre>y ; 99 
for gen. Chanzy) 30 Jan. 

Gambetta elected president of the chamber, 31 Jan. 

Resignation of Dufaure ; 1 Feb. new ministry formed 
by M. Waddington ; changes (see Nov. 1877) ; M. 
le Royer (keeper of seals and justice), Jules Ferry 
(public instruction), M. Lepere (agriculture), adm. 
Jaureguiberry (marine) ... 4 Feb. 

Communist amnesty bill passed by chamber of depu- 
ties 21 Feb. 

Resignation of M. de Marcere, minister of the in- 
terior (police scandals), 3 March ; succeeded by 
M. Lepere . . ... 4 March, 

Admiral Pothuau, ambassador to England, March, 

Impeachment of De Broglie and Rochebouet (late 
ministers) recommended by a commission, 

8 March, 

Impeachment negatived by the chamber (317-159) ; 
vote of censure passed (240-154) . 13 March, 

Proposed return of the assemblies to Paris ; congress 
to be appointed (315-128) . . . 22 March, 

M. Ferry's education bills to check clerical influ- 
ences, abolishing Jesuit colleges, &c. March, 

Pardon of 252 communists signed . 8 April, 

Blanqui (a convict) elected for Bordeaux 20 April, 

Pardon of 400 communists signed . 24 May, 

Prince Louis Napoleon killed while reconnoitering 
in Zululand 1 June, 

Blanqui's election annulled by the chamber (372-33), 
4 June ; pardoned and released . 11 June, 

Pardon of 288 more communists signed . 5 June, 

Violent opposition of Paul de Cassagnac ; he is ex- 
pelled the house for 3 days for abusing govern- 
ment 16 June, 

Congress of senate and deputies vote for their 
return to Paris (526-249) ... 20 June, 

M. Ferry's law of superior public instruction passed 
by the deputies 9 July, 

President Grevy's first grand military review at 
Longchamps 13 July, 

Fete of the republic 14 July, 

Prince Napoleon Jerome coldly accepted as chief of 
the Bonapartists .... 20 July, 

Comte de Ohambord's letter : " With the co-opera- 
tion of all honest men, and with the grace of God, 
I may save France, and will " . . 26 July, 

Chambers prorogued .... 2 Aug. 

Treaties of commerce with England prolonged ; 
signed 10 Oct. 

Humbert, an amnestied communist, elected to the 
municipal council, Paris, 11 Oct.; imprisoned for 
seditious speeches, &c, 22 Oct. ; election an- 
nulled 4 Nov. 

About 60 mayors in La Vendee dismissed for cele- 
brating comte de Chambord's birthday . Nov. 

The senate and assembly meet again at Paris, 

27 Nov. 

Michel Chevalier, political economist, dies, 28 Nov. 

M. Waddington demands a vote of confidence, 2 Dec. 

[Republican sections : left centre, pure left, ad- 
vanced left, extreme left.] 

Ministerial majority (221-97); many abstainers, 4Dec. 

Resignation of Lepere and Le Royer, ministers, 

11, 12 Dec. 

Resignation of the Waddington ministry . 21 Dec. 

New ministry (more republican left) formed by 
M. de Freycinet ; includes Jules Ferry (public 
instruction) and Lepere (interior) ; not Wadding- 
ton or Leon Say . . . . 28, 29 Dec. 

Gen. Farre, new war minister, dismisses heads of 
departments in War office .... Jan. 

Meeting of the Chambers .... 13 Jan. 

M. de Freycinet's moderate programme 16 Jan. 

Death (ex-foreign ministers) : due de Gramont, 16 
Jan.; Jules Favre .... 20 Jan. 

Budget for 1881 announced : estimated revenue, 
110,935 ,oool. ; 960,000?. more than for 1880 ; sur- 
plus, 1 , 300,000? Feb. 

Death of M. Cremieux . .. . , ., ,io,Fe,b._ 



879 



PRANCE. 



504 



FRANCE. 



Plenary amnesty for communists rejected by the 
Chambers 12 Feb. : 

Debate in senate : 7th clause of Ferry's education 
bill (abolishing Jesuit schools, &c); Jules Simon 
speaks against it ; rejected (148-129) 9 March, 

Decree dissolving order of Jesuits and other orders 
in France 29 March, 

Letter from prince Napoleon Jerome in favour of 
the decree ; offends Bonapartists, about 5 April, 

Many bishops and others protest against the de- 
cree April, 

Pacific circular of M. de Freycinet respecting inter- 
national relations 16 April, 

Ministerial defeat on public meetings bill ; M. Le- 
pere resigns, 15 May ; M. Constans succeeds, 

18 May, 
General Martel, president of senate, resigns ; suc- 
ceeded by M. Leon Say ... 20 May, 

Amnesty bill for political offences, 19 June ; pre- 
sented by M. de Freycinet, 19 June ; passed by 
the chambers (333-140) . . . .21 June, 

Otaheite formally annexed to France . 29 June, 

Expulsion of religious orders (much officially op- 
posed) carried into effect with Jesuits 30 June, 

Amnesty bill passed for all, except incendiaries and 
assassins, by senate (143-138) . . 3 July, 

The president, Grevy, grants a general amnesty, 10 
July ; Rochefort warmly received in Paris, 12 July, 

First grand republican national fete . 14 July, 

Chambers prorogued 15 July, 

Elections of councils-general ; great majority for 
republicans (anti-clerical and anti-Bonapartist), 

1 Aug. 

MM. Grevy, Gambetta, and Leon Say, witness the 
launch of a man-of-war at Cherbourg, <fcc, 

8— 11 Aug. 

M. de Freycinet, in a speech at Montauban, ex- 
presses disagreement with his colleagues respect- 
ing decree against religious orders ; resigns, 

19 Sept. 
New ministry : Jules Ferry (premier and public 

instruction), adm. Clouet (marine), Sadi-Carnot 
(public works), Bartheleiny St. Hilaire (foreign) ; 
other offices unchanged . . .20 Sept. 

Two important letters from Guibert, abp. of Paris, 
to the president, recommending suspension of 
execution of the decree of 29 March against reli- 
gious orders, delivered . . . 6, 15 Sept. 

Felix Pyat, editor of the Commune, sentenced to im- 
prisonment and line for justifyingregicide,i9 Oct. 

Carmelites and other religious orders expelled, 

16 Oct.— Nov. 

Meeting of the assembly : majority against the 
ministry (who resign) (200-166) . . 9 Nov. 

The ministry withdraw their resignation on vote of 
confidence (240-149) . . . .12 Nov. 

M. Baudry d'Asson, deputy, excluded 9 Nov.; re- 
fuses to retire from the chamber ; forcibly ex- 
pelled 11 Nov. 

Violent attacks of Rochefort (in I'Intransigeant) on 
Gambetta; crushing replies . . . Dec. 

Municipal council elections strongly in favour of 
the government 9 Jan. 

Meeting of the chambers .... 20 Jan. 

Bill greatly freeing the press brought in 26 Jan. 

Projected loan of 40,000,000?. (public, debt, about 
i,.*oo,ooo?.) immediately taken up for 30 times the 
amount March, 

Discussion respecting the: scrutin de Uste (which 
see), advocated by Gambetta ; opposed by presi- 
dent Grevy; who yields . . .21, 22 March, 

Expedition in N. Africa tn chastise the Rroumirs ; 
invasion of Tunis . . . March, April, 

Treaty with the bey signed (see Tunis) 12 May, 

Excitement at Marseilles and in Italy (which see), 

13 May, et seq. 

M. Bardoux'a hill fur the scroti?! <h- liste adopted by 
the chamber of deputies (24.3-235) . 18 May, 

The Tunis treaty ratified by the chamber (453-1), * 

23 May, 

Warm reception of Gambetta nt Cahors and other 
places 25 May, 

Proposed revision of the constitution negatived in 

the chambers 31 May, 

The get "li n ili' liste rejected by the senate (148-114), 

9 June, 
Adjournment of the chambers . . . July, 



Election addresses. M. Rouher retires from poli- 
tical life (virtual end of Bonapartism), about 31 
July; prince Napoleon Jerome advocates pro- 
gress — "everything for and by the people" — 
about 31 July : speeches of M. Gambetta at 
Tours, Belleville, 12 Aug., advocating revision 
of the constitution, Aug. ; M. Jules Ferry at 
Nancy deprecates division . about 11 Aug. : 

Negotiations for treaty of commerce broken oft; 
announced 16 Aug. 

Elections ; triumph of Gambetta and moderate re- 
publicans ; gain of about 44 members ; hopeless 
minority of extremists of both kinds . 21 Aug. 

French treaty. French government propose meeting 
of the commissioners at Paris on 22 Aug.; England 
1 ecpuests 3 months' extension ot existing treaty ; 
France declines ; negotiations stopped ; an- 
nounced 18 Aug. 

Complications respecting Tripoli cleared up about 

18 Aug. 

General elections ; great republican majority; num- 
ber of extremists on both sides much reduced 
21 Aug. et seq. 

Negotiations respecting the commercial treaty re- 
sumed (France agrees to 3 months' extension of 
the treaty trom 8 Nov.) ... 19 Sept. 

Capuchins and other orders relieved from their 
monastic vows by the pope . . . Oct. 

Meeting of new chamber of deputies . 28 Oct. 

M. Brisson elected president ... 3 Nov. 

Treaty with the bey of Tunis confirmed by the 
chamber. Vote of censure on the Ferry ministry 
respecting Tunis war negatived by a great ma- 
jority, 9 Nov. ; the ministry resign . 10 Nov. 

New ministry gazetted ; M. Gambetta (minister of 
foreign affairs and premier), M. Cazot (justice), 
M. Waldeck-Rousseau (interior), M. Allain-Targe 
(linanee), general Campenon (war), M. Gougeard 
(marine), M. Paul Bert (education and worship), 
M. Raynal (public works), M. Rcuvier (com- 
merce and colonies), M. Cochery (posts and tele- 
graphs), M. Deves (agriculture), and M. Proust 
(Arts) 12 Nov. 

Moderate declaration of Gambetta to the chambers 
(everything to be for France) . . . 15 Nov. 

M. H. Rochefort acquitted of bitter libel against 
M. Roustan in I'Intransigeant ; a virtual censure 
ot the Tunis affair 15 Dec. 

Anglo-French treaty negotiations stop ; French 
concessions insufficient ... 30 Dec. 

Elections for senators ; republicans gain 27 ; now 
207 —93 ; opposition announced . . 9 Jan. 

Much speculation ; panic on the bourse, 19 Jan. ; 
checked by resolution 

The League of Patriots established to support the 
army by encouraging military spirit, and support 
M. Gambetta 

Defeat of the government ; rejection of the scrutin 
de liste (305 — 119) ; resignation of M. Gambetta, 

26 Jan. 

New ministry: M. de Freycinet (president of the 
council and minister for foreign affairs), M. Leon 
Say (finance), M. Jules Ferry (public instruction), 
M .Goblet (interior and public worship), M. Hum- 
bert (justice), general Billot (war), admiral Jau- 
regmberry (marine), M. Varrov (public works), 
M. Tirard (commerce), M. Mahy (agriculture), 
M. Cochery (posts and telegraphs) 30, 31 Jan. 

Failure of the Union Generale company"; continu- 
ance of panic 30 Jan. 

Arrest of Bontoux, president, and Feder, manager 

2 Feb. 

Proposed revision of constitution negatived, 287—66 

6 Feb. 

Anglo-French treaty renewed till 1 March, 6 Feb. ; 
till 15 May .'..... 27 Feb. 

M. Tissot ambassador at London . . March, 

New education bill passed; much government in- 
terference .... about 31 March, 

Commercial convention with Great Britain for ten 
years proposed April, 

Vote of confidence in the government (298 — 70) 

1 June, 

Crisis : confidence in the ministry respecting Egypt 
voted (286 — 105) .... 20 July, 

Vote of credit for protection of Suez canal negatived 
on motion of M. Clemenceau (416 — 75) ; resigna- 
tion of ministry . . . .2gJuty 



883 



FEANCE. 



505 



FEANCE. 



The New French ministry, composed as follows : 
M. Duclerc (president of the council and minister 
for foreign affairs), M. Tirard (finance), M. Deves 
(justice), M. Fallieres (interior), M. Pierre Legrand 
(commerce, and ad interim public works) , general 
Billot (war), admiral Jauregui berry (the navy), 
M. Cochery (post office and telegraphs), M. de 
Mahy (agriculture), M. Duvaux (public instruc- 
tion) i Aug. : 

Gambetta advocates activity in foreign affairs, and 
abstention in domestic ; Clemenceau the reverse, 
July — Aug. ; chambers prorogued . 9 Aug. 

Disturbance amongst the miners of the Saone and 
Loire about 17 Aug. 

The Bonapartists select prince Victor as their chief 
about 31 Aug. 

The compulsory education act comes into operation 

2 Oct. 

Discovery of an organisation of anarchists (alleged 
origin at. Geneva, and prince Krapotkine, mem- 
ber) ; tracts distributed by groups of young men 
throughout the country ; attempted insurrection 
at Montceau-les-Mines suppressed . Aug. 

Many arrested [9 convicted, 22 Dec] . 21 Oct. 

Place of trial changed ; dynamite explosions threa- 
tened about 26 Oct. 

Disturbances at Lyons ; anarchy and panic ; busi- 
ness and amusements suspended ; the town said 
to be held by the mob ... 27 Oct. 

Government official note promising public security 

27 Oct. 

Arrest connected with an explosion at a cafe (one 
man killed) on 23 Oct. ; railway station held by 
troops 28 Oct. 

Much dynamite seized 29 Oct. 

Great distress in Lyons Oct. 

Panic subsiding in Paris, &c. . . 8 Nov. 

Opening of the chambers .... 9 Nov. 

Crown jewels (value about 100,000?.) stolen from 
the cathedral of St. Denis . . .23 Nov. 

Treaty with the king of Congo negotiated by M. 
Brazza ratified 21 Nov. 

Death of Louis Blanc . . . . . 6 Dec. 

MM. Bontoux & Feder, directors of the " Union 
Generate " (a financial company established in 
1878, and patronised by the legitimists, clergy, 
and the middle classes), sentenced to imprison- 
ment and fines for gross frauds, which caused 
very great universal distress (it stopped 28 Jan.) 

20 Dec. 

Prince Krapotkine, anarchist, arrested about 21 Dec. 

Death of M. Gambetta, aged 44, after several weeks 
illness through an accidental wound, midnight, 

31 Dec. 

His grand state funeral at Paris . . 6 Jan. 

Death of gen. Chanzy, aged about 60 . . 5 Jan. 

Death of gen. Vinoy Jan. 

Trial of Krapotkine and about 50 anarchists begun 
at Lyons 8 Jan. 

He sentenced to 5 years' imprisonment and fine, 
others to imprisonment ... 19 Jan. 

Gambetta' s remains removed and re-buried at Nice 

13 Jan. 

Prince Napoleon publishes a manifesto against the 
government ; arrested ... 16 Jan. 

M. Floquet's bill for expulsion of Bourbons and 
Bonapartes 16 Jan. 

Government bill of M. de Fallieres for -power to 
expel the same 20 Jan. 

Ministerial crisis 23 Jan. 

Expulsion bill adopted by committee . 25 Jan. 

M. Duclerc's ministry resigned . . .28 Jan. 

Ministry re-constituted under M. Fallieres 29 Jan. 

M. Fabre's bill permitting princes to remain with 
deprival of civil rights, discussed, 29 Jan. ; passed 
by the chamber (343-163) . . . 1 Feb. 

Prince Napoleon's indictment quashed ; released, 

9 Feb. 

Expulsion bill rejected by the senate ; amendment 
of MM. Say and Waddington adopted (165-127) ; 
princes to be expelled only after trial . 12 Feb. 

Resignation of M. Fallieres and ministry 13 Feb. 

M. Barbey's bill empowering the president to expel 
princes when dangerous, adopted by the deputies, 
15 Feb. ; rejected by the senate . .17 Feb. 

M. Jules Ferry (opportunist) forms a ministry 
(Gambettist) ; M. Jules Ferry (premier and 
minister of public instruction), M. Challemel- 



Laeour (foreign affairs), M. Waldeck-Rousseau 
(interior), M. Martin Feuille (justice), General 
Thibaudin (war), M. Charles Brun (marine), 
M. Tirard (finance), M. Raynal (public works), 
M. Meline (agriculture), M. Cochery (posts and 
telegraphs), M. Herisson (commerce) . 21 Feb. 1883 

Decree for retirement of the Orleanist princes from 
the army in virtue of the law of 1834 (the due 
d'Aumale, the due de Chartres, and the due 
d'Alen§on), approved by the deputies (295-103), 

24 Feb. ,,. 

M. Clemenceau's motion for revision of the Consti- 
tution rejected by the deputies . 6 March, „ 

Open-air meeting of artisans out of work at Paris 
excited to violence by Louise Michel the anar- 
chist and others ; bakers' shops rifled ; checked 
by police, 9 March ; many arrested 10 Maich, ,, 

Louise Michel arrested . . . 30 March, ,„ 

Trial of madame Monasterio and others for putting 
her daughter Fidelia in a mad-house, and ill- 
usage ; case referred back to public prosecutor, 

March, ,, 

Death of Louis Veuillot, ultramontane, editor of 
VUnivers 8 April, ,„ 

Marshal Bazaine publishes his defence at Madrid. „ 

Conversion of Menies bill (5 to 4k) passed 27 April, ,, 

Museum of revolution established at Versailles, 

20 June, , y 

Louise Michel sentenced to 6 years' imprisonment, 
and others to different terms . . 23 June, ,,. 

National fete ; colossal statue of the Republic un- 
covered 14 July, ,, 

M. Waddington, ambassador in London, appointed 
about 16 July, arrives ... 23 July, ,, 

The chambers close 2 Aug. , t 

Tne inauguration of the monument (by M. Barrias) 
erected atCourbevoie to commemorate the defence 
of Paris in 1S70-1 .... 12 Aug. ,, 

Death of the comte de Chambord, aged nearly 63 

24 Am;. ,, 

Statue of Lafayette un veiled at Lepuy . 6 Sept. , r . 

Great royalist meeting at Paris ; little excitement, 

20 Sept. ,„ 

The king of Spain received by president Grevy at 
Paris ; hooted by the mob . . 29 Sept. ,, 

Gen. Thibaudin, minister of war, resigns, 5 Oct.; ,, 
succeeded by gen. Campenon . . 9 Oct. ,, 

M. Jules Ferry declares for a Republic of " common 
sense," and opposition to the extreme left at 
Rouen, 13 Oct. ; and at Havre . . 14 Oct. ,,, 

The government awards i,ooo?. to Mr. Shaw (see 
Madagascar, 1883) . . . about 15 Oct. ,, 

The chambers meet 23 Oct. ,, 

Correspondence between France and China respect- 
ing Tonquin published in Times; China firm in 
resisting French encroachments. . 29 Oct. ,,, 

Debate on Tonquin ; votes of confidence in minis- 
try (339-160) . . . 29-31 Oct.; 10, 18 Dec. ,, 

M. Ferry becomes foreign minister on the retire- 
ment of M. Challemel-Lacour ; other changes in 
the ministry . . . about 17-20 Nov. „, 

Government defeated on Algerian colonisation (249- 
211) 28 Dec. , r 

Death of M. Rouher, prime minister of Napoleon 
III 3 Feb. 1884 

Industrial crisis in Paris ; defeat of the government ; 
a committee of investigation into the condition of 
the working classes appointed (254-249) 4 Feb. ,, 

Proposals for loan of 14,000,000?. issued 12 Feb. ,, 

Government defeated on its seditious meetings bill, 

16 Feb. „ 

Death of Francois Mignet, French historian, aged 
aboat 87 " 24 March, ,, 

Statue of Gambetta (by Falquieres) at Cahors, un- 
veiled by M. Jules Ferry ... 14 April, „ 

Municipal elections : radicals rather more than 
opportunists ; few of oiner parties . May, ,,. 

Bill for revision of the Constitution (abolition of 
life senators, &c.) brought in by M. Jules Ferry, 

24 May, , t 

Prince Victor acknowledged chief of the Bona- 
partists ; his father publishes painful correspon- 
dence June, ,, 

Cholera prevalent in the south, &c. (see Cholera) 

June, et seq. ,,. 
Colossal statue of Liberty by Bartholde given to 
the United States of America unveiled by M. 
J ules Ferry at Paris . . . . 4 J uly,. 



FEANCE. 



506 



FEANCE. 



Revision bill, modified by the senate, accepted by 
the deputies 31 July, 1 

Congress of senate and deputies meet at Versailles, 
M. Le Royer, president ... 4 Aug. , 

The revision of the Constitution accepted by the 
congress, 509-172 .... 13 Aug. , 

Excitement about the price of bread at Paris and 
other places Oct., Dec. 

Wife of M. Clovis Hugues, a deputy, shoots Morin, 
a slanderous libeller, in the Palace of Justice ; he 
dies ; [she acquitted ! 8 Jan. 1885] . 27 Nov. 

Credit for Tonquin war adopted by the deputies, 
282-187, 28 Nov. ; by the senate . 11 Dec. 

Trade Unions legalized 

Resignation of gen. Campenon, war minister, 3 Jan. 
succeeded by gen. Lewal ... 5 Jan. 1 

Senatorial elections (67 republicans and 20 con- 
servatives returned; .... 25-26 Jan. 

The Chamber vote,-, for engagement of unemployed 
workmen on public works . . • 5 Feb. 

The Ferry ministry resign in consequence of defeat 
in the chamber 30 March, 

New ministry formed by M. Brisson . 6 April, 

Peace with China, announced . . 7 April, 

Duty on foreign corn voted by the senate 27 March, 

M. Ferry's ministry defeated on vote of credit for 
Chinese war (308-161) ; resigns . . 30 March, 

Vote of credit for 2,000,000/., 31 March ; for 
6,000,000/. ...... 7 April, 

New ministry ; H. Brisson (president and justice), 
D. E. Freycinet (foreign), Allain Targe (interior), 
Goblet (public instruction and worship), gen. 
Campenon (war), adm. Galiber (marine), Clama- 
geran, afterwards Sadi-Carnot(finance), and others 

6 April, 

Bosphore Egyptian Affair. See Egypt . May, 

Anarchist demonstration at Pere la Chaise ; many 
wounded by the police ... 24 May, 

Death of Victor Hugo, poet, dramatist and novelist, 
aged 83, 22 May ; buried in the Pantheon ; pro- 
cession 3 miles long, all Paris spectators 1 June, 

Scrutin da liste bill passed with the senate's amend- 
ments 8 June 

Death of admiral Courbet . . . 11 June, 

Great excitement in Paris about Olivier Pain (see 
Soudan) Aug. 

Chambers prorogued 6 Aug. ; parliamentary elec- 
tions, 200 conservatives, 230 moderates or oppor- 
tunists, 150 radicals .... 4 Oct. 

The ministers not re-elected resign . 6 Oct. 

M. de Freycinet shot at in the Place de la Concorde 

29 Oct. 

New chamber meets .... 10 Nov. 

Republican party disorganised . . 10 Nov. 

The ministry propose retrenchment in colonial war 
expenditure, and consideration of church dis- 
establishment 16 Nov. 

Report of committee on Tonquin recommends vote 
of 19,000,000 francs instead of 75,000,000 proposed 
by government 16 Dec. 

Great commercial depression, attributed to govern- 
ment prodigality, &c Dec 

Vote for government (274-270) . . 21-23 Dec. 

F. P. Jules Grevy elected president for seven years 
(457 for Grevy, 68 for M. Brisson) . 28 Dec. 

M. Brisson's ministry resigns . . -29 Dec. 

New ministry; M. de Freycinet (president and 
foreign affairs), M. Demdle (justice), M. Sarrien 
Anterior), M. Goblel (.ducat inn), M. Sadi-Carnot 
(finance), general Umilanger (war), admiral Aube 
(marine and colonies). M. Baihaut (public works), 
M. Develle (agriculture), M. Lockroy (commerce), 
M. Granet (posts and telegraphs) . . 7 Jan. 
Amnesty for political offenders granted . 14 Jan. 

Theprefecf ofEure(M. Barre ) assassinated in a 

railway carriage 13 Jan. 

Riotous strike of 3,000 miners at Decazevifle, in 
Aveyron, murder of M.Wal rin,manager,endofJan. 
New elections increase the Republican members to 
400, the Right 184 . . .about 1:6 Fob. 

M. Sadi-Carnot's budget ; proposed new loan of 
about 58,500,000/. (70,000,000/. really wanted) 1; 
March; the 1 titled loan immediately sub- 
scribed for, jo, .»>o.oo../. passed by the deputies 

21 April, 

Abp. Guibert of Paris, in a letter to president 

Grevy, protests against prohibiting monks and 

nuns to teach in schools . . about 1 April, 



M. Barthelemy's book, " Avant la Bataille," advo- 
cating the re-conquest of Alsace and Lorraine, 
published . ... . about 6 April, 1886 
Grand reception of the comte de Paris on account 
of the marriage of his daughter with the duke of 
Braganza 15 May ; causes republican jealousy 

May, „ 

Bills for giving discretionary power to expel the 
Orleans princes and prince Napoleon and son 
from France and confiscating their property, 
introduced in the chambers (M. Freycinet in- 
fluenced by M. Clemenceau) 27 May ; reported 
disagreement in the cabinet on the subject 2, 3 
June ; bill for immediate expulsion of heads of 
families and heirs of dynasties who have reigned 
in France passed by the chamber n June ; and 
by the senate (137-122) 22 June ; promulgated ; 
the Bonapartes quit France 23 dune ; the comte 
de Paris and family leave ; at Dover he issues a 
protest declaring monarchy to be the most 
suitable government for France, and places him- 
self as head of the royalists . . . 24 June, „ 

Death of Guibert, abp. of Paris . . . 8 July, „ 

The due d'Aumale remonstrates against the depri- 
vation of his rank in the army ; his expulsion 
from France voted 13 July ; rev. W. J. Drought, 
English chaplain at Chantilly, expelled from 
France for delivering an address of sympathy 
to the duke Aug. „ 

Session closed 15 July, „ 

Celebration of the 100th birthday of M. Chevreul, 
chemist and physicist . . . 31 Aug. ,, 

Education bill permitting lay teachers only passed 
by the chamber 28 Oct. ,, 

Ministry defeated in the chamber (by 13 majority), 
resigns 3 Dec. ,, 

New ministry : M. Goblet (president and interior), 
M. Flourens (foreign), M. Dauphin (finance), M. 
Berthelot (public instruction), M. Sarrien (justice), 
gen. Boulanger (war), adm. Aube (marine), M. 
Granet (posts and telegraphs), M. Lockroy 
(commerce), M. Millaud (public works), M. 
Develle (agriculture) .... Dec ,, 

Continued deficit ; budget rejected ; amended one 
accepted by government ... 22 Jan. 1887 

Panic on the bourse through war rumours 1 Feb. ,, 

Bill for increasing duty on foreign corn adopted by 
the chamber (318-248) 14 March; by the senate 
25 March ; duty on foreign cattle and meat, raised 

March ,, 

M. Schnaebell, commissary of police, arrested near 
Pagny-sur-Moselle, territory doubtful, and sent 
to Metz 20 April ; charged with treason 22 April ; 
statements contradictory ; released by order of 
the emperor William ... 29 April, ,, 

Sale of the crown jewels for 274,560/., diamonds 
289,000/. ; the diamonds distributed between the 
Louvre and other museums . . 12-23 ^I a Y) >> 

The Goblet ministry defeated on the budget bill 
(275-257) ; resigns 17 May, „ 

MM. Freycinet, Floquet, Deves and Duclerc fail 

May, ,, 

M. Rouvier forms a moderate ministry, consisting 
of M. Rouvier (finances, posts and telegraphs), 
M. Flourens (foreign affairs), M. Mazeau (justice), 
M. Falli res (interior), M. Spuller (public instruc- 
tion and worship), M. Barbey (marine and 
colonics), gen. Ferron (war), M. Dautresme (com- 
merce and public works), M. Barbe (agriculture) 

30 May, 
Gen. Boulanger, the late war minister, issues a 

monitory order to the army . . 30 May, 
Exemption of ecclesiastical students (seminarists) 

abolished in new army bill . . 25 June, 
Gen. Boulanger warmly received in his progress 

to Clermonl ion and' .... 9 July, 
Radical attack on the ministry defeated (382-120) 

1 1 July, 
Pranzini, a sordid profligate, convicted of the 

murder of Marie Regnault and two other women 

13 July; executed 31 Aug. 

Session closed 22 July, 

Gen. Boulanger challenges M. Ferry for remarks in 

a speech about 29 July ; seconds differ ; no result 

Aug. 
Mobilization of 17th army corps, near Toulouse 

31 Aug. 



FEANCE. 



507 



FEANCE. 



Manifesto of the comte de Paris calling for the re- 
establishment of a constitutional, monarchy by 
universal suffrage as specially needful for Prance 

14 Sept. 

M. Brignon killed, and M. Wangen de Girolseck 
(French sportsmen) wounded by Kaufmann, a 
German soldier and gamekeeper, near the boun- 
dary in the Vosges 24 Sept. ; German redress given, 
2,500^. presented to Mad. Brignon announced 7 Oct. 

Military scandal ; gen. Caffarel of the war office 
convicted by a military tribunal of dishonourable 
conduct in trafficking with decorations 13 Oct. 

Gen. Boulanger under arrest for thirty days for 
remarks respecting the scandal . . 14 Oct. 

Amicable conventions respecting Suez Canal and 
New Hebrides signed at Paris . . 24 Oct. 

Prince Victor Napoleon issues a Bonapartist 
manifesto 25 Oct. 

The chambers meet 27 Oct. 

Lord Lyons, British ambassador, retires (appointed 
in 1867) ; [died 5 Dec. ;] succeeded by the earl of 
Lytton Oct. 

Trial of gen. Caffarel and others ; discharged 7 Nov. 

Gen. count D'Andlau and Madame Rattazzi sen- 
tenced to imprisonment and fines for trafficking 
in decorations 14 Nov. 

M. Wilson, son-in-law of the president, implicated ; 
also charged with tampering with documents 

Nov. 

The old four-and-a-half per cent, rentes converted 
to three per cents, accepted '. . . Nov. 

M. Rouvier defeated in the chamber on a motion of 
M. Clemenceau (317-227) ; the ministry resigns ; 
M. Grevy refuses to resign 19 Nov. ; but is com- 
pelled by the combination of opposite parties ; 
the Rouvier ministry retains office ; on their 
announcing that M. Grevy defers his resignation 
the chamber immediately adjourns (531-3) 1 Dec. ; 
receives M. Grevy's resignation . . 2 Dec. 

National assembly at Versailles ; congress of' 
senators and deputies (833) ; M Sadi-Carnot 
(" moderate independent ") elected president 
(616) ; general Saussier, an unwilling candidate 
(148) ; (MM. Perry and de Preycinet withdrawn) 

3 Dec. 

M. Goblet fails to form a ministry 9 Dec. ; M. 
Pallieres fails 10 Dec. 

Attempted assassination of M. Perry by Aubertin, 
a lunatic, in the lobby of the chamber of deputies, 
a narrow escape 10 Dec. 

The tribunals find no case against M. Wilson 

13 Dec. 

New ministry : M. Tirard (finance and premier), 
M. Flourens (foreign affairs), M. Fallieres (justice), 
M. Sarrien (interior), M. Faye (education and 
worship), M. de Mahy, afterwards adm. Krantz, 
Jan. 1888 (marine and colonies) ; M. Loubet 
(public works), M. Dautresme (commerce), M. 
Viette (agriculture), gen. Logerot (war) 13 Dec. 

The session of the chambers closed ■ . 18 Dec. 

Mr. Archibald M'Neill, journalist, wounded and 
drowned (suspected murder) at Boulogne 20 Dee. 
1887 ; Vermersch arrested . . . Jan. 

Gen. Boulanger deprived of his command for in- 
subordination in visiting Paris against orders ; 
announced 15 March, 

Death of M. L. H. Carnot, father of the president, 
aged 86 16 March, 

Trial of M. Wilson for traffic in decorations ; 
sentenced to two years' imprisonment, loss of 
civil rights for five years, and fine of 3,000 francs, 
1 March ; sentence quashed by court of appeal 

26 March, 
Gen. Boulanger tried by court of five generals ; 

sentenced to retirement 26 March ; confirmed 

27 March, 
M. Tirard's ministry defeated when opposing 

urgency for revision of constitution (268-234), 

resigns 30 March, 

M. Floquet forms a ministry : M. Charles Floquet 
president of the council and minister of the 
interior), M. de Freycinet (war), M. Goblet 
foreign affairs), admiral Krantz (marine, and the 
colonies), M. Peytral (finance, posts, and tele- 
graphs), M. Bdouard Lockroy (public instruction, 
fine arts, and worship), M. Deluns Montaud 
(public works), M. Ferrouillat (justice), M. Pierre 



1887 



Legrand (commerce and industry), M. Viette 
(agriculture) 3 April, i 

Gen. Boulanger begins to form a party ; elected 
deputy for the Dordogne (59,500-35,750) 8 April ; 
for the Nord (172,528-75,901) . . 15 April, 

Rise of an anti-parliamentary party, a mixture of 
conservatives, radicals, &c. . . . April, 

After vote of confidence in the ministry (379-177), 
it is defeated on the revision question (340-215) 

19 April, 

A committee advises postponement of revision ; 
riots between students and Boulangists 20 April, 

Great circulation of gen. Boulanger's (alleged) 
" German Invasion, no. 1 " 8 May ; soon fell off 

18 May, 

Royalist banquet at the chateau de Mons, near St. 
Etienne ; powerful speech of general de Charette 

27 May, 

Gen. Boulanger's motion in the chamber for 
urgency in the revision of the constitution 
rejected (377-186) .... 4 June, 

The manifesto of the comte de Paris to the mayors 
of communes against the republic signed 6 July, 

Gen. Boulanger in the chamber demands dissolu- 
tion, firmly resisted by M. Floquet ; the general 
accuses M. Floquet of falsehood, resigns his seat, 
and leaves the House in great excitement, 12 
July ; duel, gen. Boulanger seriously, aud M. 
Floquet slightly wounded, 13 July ; gen. Boulan- 
ger reported convalescent . . .20 July, 

Unveiling of the Gambetta monument at Paris by 
president Carnot .... 13 July, 

National fete passes quietly . . .14 July, 

67,000,000 francs voted for the defence of Brest, 
Toulon and Cherbourg ... 17 July, 

Session of chambers closed . . .18 July, 

Gen. Boulanger defeated in elections for Ardeche &c. 

July, 

Funeral of Budes the communist ; rioting sup- 
pressed ; no deaths 8 Aug. 

Diplomatic dispute with Italy respecting Massowah 
(MM. Goblet and Crispi). . . . Aug. 

Gen. Boulanger elected for the Nord, Somme, and 
Charente 19 Aug. 

Death of marshal Bazaine, aged 77 . .23 Sept. 

Decree of president Carnot. and M. Floquet respect- 
ing resident foreigners and immigrants 2 Oct. ; 
registration causes much annoyance ; time pro- 
longed to 1 Jan. 1889 ... 28 Oct. 

The League of the Rose formed to promote the re- 
establishment of the monarchy . autumn, 

The chambers re-open ; M. Floquet introduces a 

bill for the revision of the constitution, which is 

declared urgent 15 Oct. ; much dissatisfaction 

16 Oct. et seq. 

Graduated tax on incomes above 2,000 francs pro- 
posed by M. Peytral .... 22 Oct. 

Increase of Boulangist demonstrations . Oct. 

Prado, alias count Linska de Castillon, and other 
names, a daring unprincipled adventurer, the 
husband and associate of many women, whom he 
had robbed of jewelry, &c, and some of whom 
he was strongly suspected to have murdered, is 
convicted of the murder and robbery of diamonds 
of Marie Aguetant, an unfortunate in Paris (14 
Jan. 1886) 14 Nov. 

M. Nuina Gilly tried for defamation against the 
budget committee ; acquitted for want of evidence 

17 Nov. 

Festival of the League of Patriots (Boulangists) 

25 Nov. 

Demonstration at Paris in honour of M. Baudin, a 
deputy killed on the barricades 2 Dec. 1851, 

2 Dec. 

Powerful speech of M. Challemel-Lacour on the 
demoralization of parliament by reckless faction 

19 Dec. 

Prado executed (see 14 Nov.) ... 28 Dec. 

Windfall of 1,218,000 francs to the government (see 
Tontine) Dec. 

Gen. Boulanger elected for the department of the 
Seine (244,000) ; M. Jacques, advanced republican, 
(162,000) 27 Jan. 

M. Floquet has majority of 62 in the chamber 

31 Jan. 

Bill for replacing the scrutin de liste by the scrutin 
d'arrondissement carried in the chamber (268-222) 
11 Feb. ; in the senate (228-54) . 13 Feb. 



FEANCE. 



508 



FEANCE. 



The ministerial scheme for the revision of the 
constitution rejected (307-218); they resign 

14 Feb. iE 

Dissension between the opportunists and the 
radicals ... ... Feb. , 

M. Meline fails to form an opportunist ministry 

18 Feb. , 

M. Tirard forms a mixed ministry, including several 
ex-premiers : M. Tirard (premier and minister of 
commerce), M. Constans (interior), M. Spuller 
(foreign), M. de Freycinet (war), M. Rouvier 
(finance), M. Thevenet (justice), adm. Jaures 
(died 13 March ; succeeded by admiral Krantz) 
(marine), M. Fallieres (education), M. YvesGuyot 
(public works), M. Faye (agriculture) 21, 22 Feb. , 

The League of Patriots, established in 1882, becoming 
seditious and connected with Boulangism, sup- 
pressed by the government 28 Feb. ; alleged 
number 240,000 ; protest about 2 March ; MM. 
Deroulede, Laguerre, and others, committee 
of the League, prosecuted ; trial 2 April ; each 
fined 100 fr 6 April, , 

Fall in the shares of the Comptoir d'Escompte de 
Paris through speculations in copper {which see), 
Feb. ; suicide of M. Denfert-llochereau, the mana- 
ger, 5 March ; panic ; checked by the intervention 
of government and bank of France, 9 March ; 
supported by Messrs. Rothschild and other 
bankers, March ; reconstituted successfully 

March-May, , 

Decree of expulsion of the due dAumale revoked 
7 March; the due received by M. Carnot, 12 March, , 

Manifesto of gen. Boulanger to the Nord against 
the government .... 18 March, , 

He escapes to Brussels 1, 2 April ; his trial for con- 
spiracy by the senate propose '.! ; issues manifesto 
5 April ; expects expulsion ; arrives in London 

24 April, , 

The senate meets as a high court for his trial 

12 April, , 

M. Chevreul, chemist, dies aged 102 . 9 April, , 

M. Carnot, the president, opens the " Revolution 
Exhibition " of relics, at Pari" . 18 April, , 

Great Royalist banquet at Paris . . 1 May, , 

Centenary celebration of the meeting of the States 
General (afterwards the Constituent Assembly) 
5 May, 1789 — president Carnot in the presence of 
a grand assembly in the " Hall of Mirrors," 
Versailles, delivers a eulogium on the revolution 

5 Ma y. 

[On his way to Versailles, the president's carriage 
was fired at by a semi-lunatic named Perrin — 
sentenced to four months' imprisonment 28 May] 

The Universal Exhibition opened by the president 
(see Paris) ... .6 May, 

New army bill reducing the term of service from 
five years with exemptions to three years, nomi- 
nally without exemptions, passed by the chamber 

July 9, 

M. Quesnay de Beaurepaire hands in the indictment 
against gen. Boulanger .... 7 July, 

Sale (at Paris) of the pictures, tapestries, china, 
&C, of M. Secretan (ruined by speculations in 
copper) ; enormous prices realised, 1-4 July ; 17 
of M. Secretin's pictures were sold by Messrs. 
Christie in London for 27,824!. 10s. . 13 July, 

Anniversary of the fall of the Bastille celebrated in 
France, the United States, &c. . 14 July, 

Hill prohibiting a man to be candidate for more 
than one place in the chamber passed by the 
senate 15 July, 

Cantonal elections: republicans, 752; conserva- 
tives, 497; gen. Boulanger, 12 . . 28 July, 

The chamber votes 2,400,000/. for the increase of 
the navy (3 ironclads, &c); the session closed 

15 J»'y> 

indictment against gen. Boulanger, charging him 
when director of infantry in 1882, with courting 
popularity by corruption, &c, and when minister 
of war in 1886 with malversation of public money, 

and plotting against the stale, wil li count Dillon, 

H.Rochefort and other confederates ;they are cited 

to appear before the High Court of Justice on 6 
Aug.; non-appearance to lie followed by loss of civil 

rights and sequestration of property 17, 28 July, 

(hm. Boulanger appeals to the people in reply to 

the indictment 6 Aug. 



The trial of gen. Boulanger, count Dillon, and H. 
Rochefort begins 8 Aug. 

Sentenced to deportation to a fortress, and payment 
of costs of the trial 14 Aug. 

The comte de Paris, prince Gerome Napoleon, his 
son Victor, and gen. Boulanger set forth their 
claims for political power . . . Aug. 

Elections of the chamber of Deputies ; decisive 
victory of the government 22 Sept. and 6 Oct. 
[112 Monarchists, 62 Bonapartists, 325 Re- 
publicans, 41 Boulangists, 32 uncertain Liberals. 
Gen. Boulanger's election was annulled.] 

The universal exhibition closed . . .6 Nov. 

The new chamber opened, 12 Nov. ; M. Floquet 



elected president 
Moderate statement by M. Tirard 
The Boulangist demonstration 



easily 



18 Nov. 

19 Nov. 
quelled 
12 Nov. 

6 Dec. 



Supreme naval council created by decree 

Gen. Boulanger's election, and that of several 
Boulangists, for Montmartre, annulled by the 
chamber (370 — 123) .... 9 Dee. 

Three Boulangist deputies expelled from the 
chamber for disorderly conduct . . 20 Jan. 

The duke of Orleans (aged 21) comes to Paris, and 
offers to enter the army; arrested, 7 Feb. ; sen- 
tenced to two years' imprisonment for breaking 
the exile law of 1886, 12 Feb. ; taken to Clairvaux 

25 Feb. 

Miners' strike at St. Etienne, 2,700 out . 20 Feb. 

Resignation of M. Constans, minister of the In- 
terior, succeeded by M. Leon Bourgeois 1 March, 

M. Tirard and his cabinet defeated in the senate, 
resign 14 March, 

New ministry, M. de Freycinet (premier and war 
minister), M. Rouvier (finance), M. Constans 
(interior), M. Bourgeois (public instruction), M. 
Ribot (foreign), M. Fallieres (justice and public 
worship), M. Jules Roche (commerce), M. Deville 
(agriculture), M. Barbey (marine), M. Guyot 
(public works) March, 

M. Carnot's tour in S. France, Corsica, &c. 16 — 27 

April 

The Boulangists totally defeated in the Paris muni- 
cipal elections 27 April, 

Suspected anarchist plot : the marquis de Mores, 

Louise Michel, and about 300 others arrested, 

28 April — 2 May ; the marquis and others liberated 

3 May, et scq. 

The labour day of the working classes passes oft' 
tranquilly at Paris, &c. 1 May, 

Strike of thousands of workmen at Croix, Roubaix 
and Tourcoing, in the Nord ; serious rioting sup- 
pressed by the military, 1, 2 May ; strikes sub- 
siding S May, 

War with Dahomey, which see . . Feb. , May, 

Trial of M. Secretan and 'other directors of the 

Comptoir d'Escompte for fraud, «6c, see above 

Feb. 1889— s May, 

M. Secretan sentenced to 6 months' imprisonment 
and fine of 10,000 francs ; the others received less 
sentences 28 May, 

Gen. Boulanger submits to the government ; the 
Boulangist committee dissolves . . 21 May 

17 Russian Anarchists or Nihilists, engaged in the 

manufacture of explosives at Raincy, arrested 

29 May, et seq. 

All discharged except 8 ... 25 June, 

The duke of Orleans pardoned and expelled from 
France 3 June, 

Revelations respecting the affairs of the Credit 
Foncier; investigation ordered by government, 

9 May, 

Explanations given by M. Christophle, May ; the 
inspectors' report stated that the establishment 
had departed from its original object and gone 
into banking, &c, without proper precautions, 
but that it is stable .... 21 June, 

Trial of 8 Russian Nihilists, 4 July ; 6 men con- 
\icled sentenced to 3 years' imprisonment; 
Landesen the instigator (absent) to 5 years' 
imprisonment, two women acquitted . 5 July, 

Close of the session .... 6 Aug. 

Anglo-French agreement (which sec) signed in 
London 5 Aug. 

Violent cyclone in the department of the Aude ; 
great destruction of vines, 15 Aug. also at 
Dreux 18 Aug. 



FRANCE. 



,509 



FRANCE. 



" Les Coulisses du Boulangisme," by M. Merraeix, 

published by him in the Figaro, describing an 

alleged conspiracy of Royalists, early Sept. ; 

causes much excitement and involves the author 

J in several duels, in one of which he is wounded 

IS Sept. 18 
Destructive storms and floods in the departments 
of Gard, Ardeche and Herault, with loss of life 

21 — 24 Sept. , 
Meeting of chamber of deputies . . 20 Oct. , 
The Union for the promotion of Free Trade in Raw 
i Materials, &c, formed in Paris . . Oct. , 
Assassination of gen. Michael Seliverskoff, aged 69, 
wealthy retired Russian general and formerly 
a minister of secret police, at the Hotel de Bade, 
Paris, 18 Nov. ; died .... 19 Nov. , 
Mine. Due Quercy, MM. Labruyere and Gregoire 
sentenced to imprisonment for aiding the escape 
of Padlewski, the suspected murderer of gen. 
Seliverskoff (19 Nov.) . . . . . 23 Dec. , 
The French Africa Committee formed ; expeditions 

proposed Nov. , 

The government defeated in the chambers on a 

financial question (303 — 248) . . 28 Nov. , 
Cardinal Lavigerie and other prelates declare their 
adhesion to the republic, with the approval of 

the pope Dec. , 

Parliamentary session opened . . . 13 Jan. 18 

Vote of censure on the ministry relative to the loan 

of gold by the Bank of France to the Bank of 

England, during the Baring crisis (see London, 

15 Nov. 1890), negatived (419 — 29) . 17 Jan. , 

Communication between Paris and London by 

telephone {which see) ... 18 March, , 
The performance of Sardou's new play Thermidor 
(which see), stopped by order of the ministry 

27 Jan. 
Michel Eyraud sentenced to death, and Gabrielle 
Bompard sentenced to 20 years' penal servitvide, 
for murder of Toussaint Gouffe, a process-server, 
whom they had inveigled to their rooms, about 
25 July, 1889. His decomposed body was found 
at Millery (Rhone;, 13 Aug., to which place it 
had been carried in a trunk. Gabrielle confessed 
to the police, Jan. 1890. Eventually, Eyraud 
was brought from the Havanah, Cuba, to Paris 
(Ave days' trial at Paris), 20 Dec. 1890 ; executed 

3 Feb. 
Royalist demonstration in Paris in honour of the 

duke of Orleans 7 Feb. 

The empress Frederick visits Paris, chiefly on be- 
half of the Berlin International Exhibition of 
Fine Arts ; many French works promised, after- 
wards withdrawn, through popular opposition, 
chiefly of the Boulangists and others 18 — 27 Feb. 
Financial panic in Paris, through embarrassment 
of the Societe des Depots et Comptes Courants, 
relieved by the Bank of France and others 

12 March, 
Death of prince Napoleon, son of Jerome (see 

Bonaparte) 17 March, 

Annual banquet of the Republican Association at 

the Elysee 21 March, 

Census of the population taken . . 12 April, 

■"Labour day" generally quiet; some excitement 

at Paris — dynamite explosion, little damage ; 

fighting at Lyons, Marseilles and other places 

1 May, 
Riots at Fourmies (Nord) suppressed by the mili- 
tary ; 14 persons killed and about 40 wounded 

1 May, 
Many strikes in the department of the Nord, about 

6 May, 
National fete celebrated . . . .14 July, 
A protectionist customs tariff adopted by the 
chamber (385— in) .... 18 July, 
A French naval squadron under admiral Gervais 
warmly received at Cronstadt . . 23 July, 
Visited by the Czar, 25 July. The French officers 
received at St. Petersburg, 28 July. The fleet 
leaves Cronstadt, 4 Aug. The fleet (Marengo flag- 
ship, with Adiriral Gervais), 6 other vessels, 
and 2 torpedo boats arrive in Osborne Bay, near 
Portsmouth, 5.30 p.m., 19 Aug. Admiral Gervais 
■and officers presented to the queen at Osborne, 
■and .dined with her, 20 Aug The fleet inspected 
•by the queen ; admiral Gervais and officers dine 



with admiral the earl of Clanwilliam and officers 

at Portsmouth 21 Aug. 1891 

Dinner with the duke of Connaught, 24 Aug. ; 

departure of the fleet . . . . 26 Aug. „ 
Death of ex-president M. Jules Grevy, aged about 84 

9 Sept. ,, 
Suicide of gen. Boulanger in a cemetery near 

Brussels* 30 Sept. ,, 

M. de Giers, the Russian foreign minister, visits M. 
Carnot, M. de Freycinet, and M. Ribot . 20, 

21 Nov. ,, 
Death of Robert, earl of Lytton, British ambas- 
sador, much regretted, at Paris . 24 Nov. ,, 
Xavier Gouthe Soulard, archbishop of Aix, sen- 
tenced to a fine of 3,000 francs, for writing an 
insulting protest against a circular of M. Fallieres 
the minister of public worship, respecting pil- 
grimages 24 Nov. ,, 

New customs bill issued ; it authorised the govern- 
ment to prolong or modify the treaties expiring 

15 Feb. 1892 3 Dec. ,, 

M. de Freycinet takes his seat as a member of the 

French Academy .... 10 Dec. ,, 
Stormy debate in the chamber on church and state ; 
the government support the concordat {which see) ; 
majority for government (243 — 223). 11-13 Dec. ,, 
The marquis of Dufferin and Ava appointed British 

ambassador at Paris, announced . 12 Dec. ,, 
Death of Mons. Freppel, bishop of Angers, power- 
ful champion of the French church . 22 Dec. ,, 
Walter Bedwell and John S. Cooper convicted of 
acting as British spies in relation to the arsenal 
at St. Etienne ; sentenced to fine and imprison- 
ment 26 Dec. „ 

The new tariff bill passed by the senate . 26 Dec. ,, 
Best vintage since 1884 ; reported . . Jan. 1892 

M. Constans, a minister, having been attacked by 
M. Laur, a Boulangist deputy, strikes him as he 
leaves the tribune ; his apology accepted by the 

chamber 19 Jan. ,, 

The new "minimum" tariff comes into operation 
with Great Britain and some other powers, 1 Feb. ; 
the "maximum" tariff to be enforced in Spain, 
Portugal, Italy, Roumania, and the United States 

Feb. „ 
The De Freycinet cabinet defeated in a debate on 
the Associations bill (relating to church and 

state), resign 18 Feb. „ 

Encyclical of the pope to the French bishops en- 
joining submission to the government of the 

republic 16 Feb. ,, 

76 French bishops accept the declaration of car- 
dinal Lavigerie and four other cardinals, Dec. 
1890, recognizing the republic 26 Jan — 19 Feb. ,, 
MM. Rouvier and Bourgeois successively fail to 

form a ministry 23-26 Feb. ,, 

New ministry: M. Loubet (premier and minister 
of interior), M. de Freycinet (war), M. Ribot 
(foreign atlairs), M. Rouvier (finance), M. Bour- 
geois (public instruction), M. Ricard (justice and 
public worship), M. Cavaignac (marine), M. De- 
velle (agriculture), M. Jules Roche (commerce), 
M. Viette (public works) ... 28 Feb. ,, 
The ministerial declaration accepted by the cham- 
ber (341 to 91) 3 March, ,, 

Death of Etienne Arago, statesman and dramatist 

(brother of the astronomer), aged 90 . 7 March, ,, 
Dynamite explosions in the Boulevard St. Ger- 
main, in Paris, attributed to the anarchists 

11 March et seq. „ 
Explosion at the Lobau barracks, buildings injured, 

15 March, ,, 
Bill incroduced to punish the authors of explosions 

with death, 15 March ; several arrests 17 March, ,, 
The marquis of Dufferin received as ambassador by 

president Carnot . . . .21 March, ,, 
A bomb factory in Paris discovered, 23 March ; 
other explosions at the houses of legal officials 
in Rue de Clichy, 6 injured . . 27 March, ,, 
Ravachol, otherwise Leon Leger (real name said to 
be Francis Konigstein), a notorious anarchist, 

* Georges Ernest J. M. Boulanger, born at Renues, 
29 April, 1837 ; entered the army 1856 ; served with dis- 
tinction in Algeria, Italy, Cochin China, and at Paris, 
1870-1 ; brigader-general, 18S0 ; sent on a mission to 
America, 1881 ; general of division at Tunis, 1884 : 
minister of war, 7 Jan. 1886 (sec above), 1887-1891. 



FRANCE. 



510 



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arrested in the Cafe Very in the Boulevard Ma- 
genta, through the agency of Lherot, a waiter, 

and M. Very 30 March, 18 

The anti-dynamite bill passed by the senate, 

31 March, , 
Louis Anastey, who murdered his benefactress, 
Madame Dellard, mother of baron Dellard, at 
Paris, 4 Dec. 1891, executed . . 9 April, , 
The chamber votes 300,000,000 francs for an expedi- 
tion against Dahomey . . . . 11 April, , 

Order for the prosecution of the archbishop of Avig- 
non and the bishops of Nimes, Montpellier, Va- 
lence, and Viviers, for their concerted addresses 
to the Catholic electors in opposition to the state, 

about 22 April, , 

Many anarchists arrested at Paris, Lyons, and other 
places, 51 in Paris, reported . . 22 April, , 

The restaurant of M. Very wrecked by explosion : 
he and 4 others seriously wounded (MM. Very 
and Hamonod died, May) . . .25 April, , 

Trial of anarchists; Ravachol and Simon sentenced 
to penal servitude for life, 3 others acquitted, 

26, 27 April, , 

" Labour day " at Paris, &c, very orderly through 
precautions 1 May, , 

The stipends of several bishops stopped on account 
of their pastorals, &c May, , 

Many suspected anarchists released 7 May, et seq. , 

Public funeral of M. Very ; the premier, M. Loubet, 
present 13 May, , 

The proceedings of the government approved by 
the chamber 21 May, , 

Tour of president Carnot ; present at the Nancy 
fetes 5, 6 June, 

The due de la Rochefoucauld's declaration of sub- 
mission to the pope in matters of the faith, but 
not in state affairs, signed by 40 of the 70 royalist 
deputies 9 June, , 

Ravachol, on his confession of robbing and murder- 
ing Jean Rivollier, an aged hermit at Varizelle, 
sentenced to death at Montbrison, 23 June ; 
executed 11 July, , 

M. Godefroy Cavaignac, minister of marine, resigns 
(censured in relation to Dahomey) ; succeeded 
by M. Burdeau 11 July, . 

M. Ressmann, new Italian ambassador, received 
by the president .... 11 July . 

Government protest against the presence of Pro- 
testant missionaries in Algeria, about . 5 July, 

Decree signed for the Universal exhibition, 5 May 
-31 Oct. 1900 13 July, 

Naval manoeuvres near Brest, &c. 24 July, el seq. 

Faugoux and three other anarchists, sentenced to 
penal servitude (for 20, 10, 6, 5 years) for stealing 
dynamite 28 July, 

Disputes between the coal mining company at Car- 
maux, in the department of Tarn, and their 
workmen respecting the dismissal of M. Calvig- 
nac, a socialist workman and secretary of the 
miners' union, who had been elected mayor, and 
consequently neglected his work ; a general 
strike with' much rioting ensues, Aug.-Sept. ; 
great meeting at Paris to support the strike 7 
Sept. ; strikers supported by deputies of the 
chamber, Sept. ; government intervention ineffec- 
tual 11, 12 Oct. 

Resignation of the marquis de Solages, manager of 
the Carmaux mines, reported . . 14 Oct. 

Attack on the government, respecting Carmaux, 
in the chamber, defeated, 18 Oct. ; arbitration 
accepted, 21 Oct. ; M. Loubet, the premier, the 
arbitrator, decides that M. Calviguac should be 
reinstated as a workman with leave of absence 
while mayor; that all the strikers, except those 
in prison for violence, should be taken back, 
and that the manager, M. Humblot, should be 
reinstated, 26 Oct. ; this award rejected by the 
miners, 26-27 Oct. ; work resumed byadvice3Nov. 

Con 1 1' nan <>f flic pre .da mat inn of the lirst republic 
celebrated l>,\ the people at I'm is, Lyons, and 
Other cities 22 Sept. 

Death of Erne, I Kenan, scholar and philosopher, 
aged 60, 2 Oct. ; state funeral . . 7 Oct. 

Bill regulating the Labour of women and children 

in factories (first introduced in 1S70. and much 

discussed), passed .... 29 Oct. 

A im'tal boiler 1 tabling dynamite found near the 

door of the ollices of the Carmaux mining com- 



pany, in the Avenue de l'Opera, Paris: when 
conveyed by the police to an adjoining station, 
explodes, killing 6 persons, 8 Nov. ; M. Loubet, 
the premier, speaks at their funeral . 11 Nov. 
Abolition of duty on wine, beer, cider, and other 
" hygienic " drinks, and an increase of the spirit 
dutiesadopted by the chamber [bill passed, 21 Dec. 
1892 ; by the senate, 26 June, 1893] . 15 Nov. 
Death of gen. de Failly, aged 8j , about . 15 Nov. 
Jean Pierre Francois, anarchist (a companion of 
Ravachol), in London, extradited to Paris 16 Nov. 
Press bill to check anarchical publications : confi- 
dence in the ministry voted, (329- -228), 18 Nov. ; 
the bill, much softened, passed . 19 Nov. 

Prosecution of the directors of the Panama canal 
company, which see . . . 25 Nov. et seq. 

Death of cardinal Lavigerie, aged 67, near Algiers, 

26 Nov. 

The Loubet ministry, opposing the exhumation of 
Baron Jacques Reinach, late director of the 
Panama company, defeated in the chamber (293- 
195), resigns 28 Nov. 

The ministry reconstituted by M. Ribot, 5 Dec. ; 
declaration and vote of con tidence (307-104), 8 Dec. 

The Panama committee invested with judicial 
powers 9 Dec. 

The body of baron Jacques Reinach exhumed for 
autopsy at Nivillers, 11 Dec. ; natural death re- 
ported 28 Dec. 

M. John Lemoinne, journalist, long connected 
with the Journal des Debats, aged 77, dies 15 Dec. 

Duel between M. Deroulede and M. Clemenceau, 
no injury 22 Dec. 

Tariff war with Switzerland, which see, 1 Jan. et seq. 

Reconstruction of the ministry by M. Ribot (M. de 
Freycinet not included) . . . 11 Jan. 

The Socialist union, which see, started at Paris 

14 Jan. 

The new president, M. Casimir-Perier, opens the 
chamber 12 Jan. 

Foreign journalists ordered to be expelled for 
writing against the Russian ambassador, &c. 

mid-Jan. 

Centenary ofthe execution of Louis XVI. celebrated 
by Royalists and Jacobins ... 21 Jan. 

Bill to protect savings banks against political 
alarms, passed 3 Feb. 

M. Cavaignac's motion for sustaining prosecution 
of official corruption, adopted by the chamber 
(446 (?H) 8 Feb. 

Treaty for reciprocal trade with Canada, signed at 
Paris 9 Feb. 

Attack on the ministry; confidence voted (315-186) 

16 Feb. 

A Panama procession at the carnival at Basle, 14 
Feb. ; gives offence in France, 21 Feb. ; apology 
made about 22 Feb. 

M. Jules Ferry elected president of the senate 24 
Feb. ; died, aged nearly 61, 17 March ; state 
funeral 22 March, 

Death of H. A. Taine, philosopher and historian, 
aged 64 5 March, 

Great public excitement at the disclosures 10, 11 
March ; the ministry supported by the chamber 
and senate (see under Panama) . 13, 14 March, 

Farewell dinner to M. Waddington at the Mansion 
house, London, 4 March ; his wife receives a 
memorial gold pendant with gems, 17 March ; 
they leave England .... 8 May, 

M. Challcmel-Lacourelected president ofthe senate, 

27 March, 
Manifesto of the comte de Paris attacking the Re- 
public in relation to the Panama affairs, 23 March, 

Herr Otto Brandes, a German journalist, expelled 
for libelling Ernest Carnot ; his family insulted 
by a mob (for which the government apologised), 

28 March, 
Resignation of the Ribot ministry through amend- 
ments of the budget . . . 30 March, 

HI. Melino fails to form a cabinet . 1, 2 April 
New ministry: premier and minister of interior, 
M. Dupuy; foreign affairs, M. Develle; finance, 
M. Peytral ; commerce, M. Terrier ; education, 
M. Point-arc ; justice, M. Guerin ; agriculture, 
M. Viger; public works, M. Viette ; war, gen- 
Loizillnn ; marine, adm. Rieunier ; colonies, M. 
Delcasse 3 April 



1893 



FKANCE. 



511 



FRANCE. 



M. Meissonier presents many of his paintings by 

his will to the state, reported . . . April i 
Arton, an anarchist, is sentenced to 20 years' hard 
labour and 400,000 francs line, for complicity in 
frauds and dynamite explosions . 23 May, 
Unveiling of the statue of Theophraste Renaudot, 
the first Freneh journalist, editor of the Gazette 
de France, 30 May, 1631 (still publishing), at 
Paris ....... 4 June, 

Statue of D. F. Arago, philosopher, at Paris, un- 
veiled 11 June, 

Severe drought, the crops surfer . . June, '. 
VI. Millevoye, a Boulangist, accuses M. Clemenceau 
and others of complicity in the publication in 
the Cocarde of forged documents alleged to have 
been stolen from the British embassy ; after a 
stormy debate, the chamber passes to the order 
of the day (389-4), 22 June ; Norton, for forgery, 
sentenced to 3 years' imprisonment ; Ducret to 

1 year 5, 6, Aug. . 

M. Albert Decrais appointed ambassador at St. 

James's end of June, , 

Death of Due d'Uzes, chief of an expedition in 

Portuguese Congo, reported . . 2 July, , 
M. Henri Guy de Maupassant, eminent novelist, 

■dies t July, , 

Dispute with Siam (which see) . . June, July, , 
The national fete passes quietly . . 13 July, , 
Letter from the pope to the catholics, severely 
censuring malcontents, 3 Aug. ; published, 

11 Aug. , 
Much suffering through wave of intense heat, 

mid-Aug. , 
Conflicts between French and Italian salt-workers 

at Aigues-Mortes ; see Italy, 16 Aug. et seq. 
Four French warships launched, at St. Nazaire, 

Nantes, Brest, Cherbourg . . end of Aug. , 
Destructive forest fires in the country round Mont 

de Marsan (Landes) .... 23-28 Aug. , 
General election ; for government, 292 ; socialists, 
187 ; " Rallied " (to republicanism), 35 ; monarch- 
ists, 58 ; M. Clemenceau and M. Floquet rejected ; 
many socialists, M. Rene Goblet, leader, elected 

for Paris 20 Aug.-3 Sept. , 

The coal-miners in the Pas de Calais, &c, demand 
increase of wages ; leads to a strike of about 

42,000 men 18 Sept. , 

Strike ends by submission ... 4 Nov. , 
Visit of the Russian fleet to Toulon, &c. ; see 

Russia 13-29 Oct. ,, 

Death of marshal MacMahon, aged 85 (honourable 

and brave), 17 Oct. ; state funeral at the In- 

valides ; large attendance of government officials, 

foreign ministers and troops . Sunday, 22 Oct. ,. 

The Jaureguiberry, battle-ship, launched at Toulon, 

27 Oct. ,. 
Death of M. Gounod, musical composer, 18 Oct. ; 

state funeral 27 Oct. ,, 

Death of M. Tirard, ex-premier, aged about 66, 

4 Nov. „ 
The new chamber opens ... 14 Nov. ,, 
Difference between M. Carnot and the ministry ; 

M. Dupuy resigns, after a crisis . . 26 Nov. , 
New ministry :— (premier and foreign office) M. 
Casimir-Perier, (finance) M. Burdeau, (interior) 
M. Raynal, (education and public worship) M. 
Spuller, (justice) M. Antonin Dubost, (war) gen. 
Mercier, (marine) vice-adm. Lefevre, (public 
works) M. Jonnart, (commerce) M. Marty, (agri- 
culture) M. Viger 3 Dec. 

M. Dupuy elected president of the chamber, 5 Dec. 
A bomb thrown at the president in the French 
chamber during the debate, by Auguste Vaillant, 
an anarchist, who was apprehended and con- 
fessed ; many injured, order maintained, 9 Dec. 
A restrictive press law in relation to anarchists 
passed by the chamber (413-63) . . n Dec. 
Sympathetic messages from the British and other 

governments received by M. Dupuy 
mi < <T , n I2 Dec. etseq. 

fhe Rallied" agree to call themselves "Inde- 
pendent republicans " . . about 13 Dec. 
Nearly 2,000 domiciliary visits on anarchists in 
Paris and provinces ; many arrests and seizure of 

explosives 1 Jan . etseq _ 1 

vaillant, when sentenced to death, cried out, 
Vive l'Anarchie," 10 Jan. ; executed 4 Feb 



Death of M. Win. Henry Waddington, aged 67, 

13 Jan. 1894. 
Bill for the conversion of the 4J per cent, rentes to 

3 J per cent, passed by the senate . . 17 Jan. „ 
M. Maurice Charnay sentenced to 6 years' im- 
prisonment for publishing " Le catechisme du 
soldat," inciting to mutiny . . 27 Jan. ,, 

Chanzy, armoured cruiser, launched at Bordeaux 

24 Jan. ,, 
Revue de Paris first publication ; editors, MM. 

Ganderax Long and Darmesteter . . 2 Feb. ,, 
Einile Henry, an anarchist, aged 20, throws a 
bomb into the cafe of the Terminus hotel ; many 

injured, 2 deaths 12 Feb. ,, 

Another bomb explosion in a private house ; 

several injured, and a woman killed . 19 Feb. ,, 
Increased pursuit and arrests of anarchists 

Feb., March, ,, 
M. Jean Grave sentenced to 2 years' imprisonment 
and a fine, for writing "La societe mourante" 
and " l'Anarchie " .... 24 Feb. ,, 
Duty on corn, 7 f. per quintal, passed by the 

senate 27 Feb. ,, 

Joseph Pauwels killed by his own bomb at the 

Madeleine 15 March, ,, 

The establishment of a colonial ministry passed by 
the senate (225-32) .... iq March, ,, 

M. Boulanger created colonial minister, 21 March, ,. 
An explosion of a bomb at the cafe Foyot in Paris ; 
several persons injured .... 4 April, ,, 

Budget introduced ; deficit, i39,ooo,ooof., met by 
conversion of the debt, increased taxation, &c. 

16 April, ,, 
Emile Henry, anarchist (see above, 12 Feb.) con- 

victel, 28 April ; executed . . . 21 May, ,, 
Navy estimates, 277,000,000 (issued;, increase, 
10,000,000 ...... 30 April, „ 

Fetes in honour of Joan of Arc at Orleans, Mar- 
seilles, &c 6-8 May, ,, 

Defeat of the ministry in the chamber by the 
radicals in relation to the restraining of work- 
men on state railways from attending a congress 
(251— 217); resigned .... 23 May, ,„ 
New ministry: premier, interior, and public wor- 
ship, M. Dupuy ; justice, M. Guerin ; finance, 
M. Poincare ; education, M. J. Leygues ; war, 
',en. Mercier; marine, M. Felix Faure ; colonies, 
M. Delcasse ; public works, M. Barthou ; com- 
merce, M. Lourties ; agriculture, M. Viger ; 
foreign, M. Hanotaux ... 29 May, 
The ministry declare a moderate policy - 31 May ,, 
M. Casimir-Perier elected president of the chamber 

2 June ., 
Discussion in the chamber on the Anglo-Belgian 

treaty .... . 7 June „ 
i,9oo,ooof. voted by the senate for African rein- 
forcements I2 j U ne, ,, 

President Carnot warmly received at Lyons ; 
stabbed in his carriage on his way to the theatre 
by Caserio Santo Hieronyino, 9.30 p.m., 24 June ; 

dies at 12.45 a.m 25 June, „ 

Profound emotion in the senate and the chamber 
at the announcement ... 26 June, 
Deep expressions of sympathy with the French 
government and nation from queen Victoria, the 
prince of Wales, and the parliament ; from the 
president of the United States, and the European 
powers, transmitted ... 25 June et seq. „ 
M. Casimir-Perier, president of the chamber, elected 
president of the republic by the senate and 

chamber 2y j unej 

National state funeral of M. Carnot at the Pantheon 
after service at Notre Dame. Present : president 
Casimir-Perier, the ministry, diplomatic body, 
the legislature, &c. ; memorial services held in 
the European capitals . . . 1 July, 
Requiem and mass at the French chapel, Leicester- 
square ; the prince of Wales, the Dukes of York, 
Saxe-Coburg, and Cambridge, the ministry and 
the diplomatic body, cardinal Vaughan and 

others, present 2 July, 

M. Dupuy and his cabinet agree to remain in office' 

1 July ; gazetted 2 July, 

M. Burdeau elected president of the chamber 

5 July, ,, 
374 pardons granted by president Casimir-Perier 

July, .., 



FRANCE. 



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\ 



New anti-anarchist bill passed by the chamber, 26 
July ; by the senate . . . .27 July, 1894 

Carnot ironclad launched at Toulon . 12 July, ,, 
Joseph Constant Meunier arrested in London ; ex- 
tradited to Paris, n May ; sentenced to 20 years 
penal servitude for complicity in blowing up the 
Very restaurant, 25 April, 1892, &e. 27 July, ,, 

Chamber prorogued 28 July, ,, 

Socialist- Radical manifesto . . 30 July, ,, 

Caserio condemned, 3 Aug. ; executed at Lyons 

16 Aug. ,, 

Three anarchists sentenced to imprisonment ; 22 
acquitted 11 Aug. ,, 

Execution of the abbe Bruneau at Laval for the 
murder of the abbe Fricot . . . 30 Aug. ,, 

Death of the comte de Paris at Stowe, Bucks 

8 Sept. „ 

Fire in the suburbs and adjoining forest near 
Cannes 10-12 Sept. ,, 

Baron de Courcel succeeds M. Decrais as ambassa- 
dor in London 30 Sept. „ 

<55,ooo,ooof. voted, &c, for the Madagascar ex- 
pedition (26 Nov.), by the senate . 6 Dec. ,, 

Ferdinand de Lesseps, born 19 Nov., 1805 ; died 

7 Dec. ,, 

Death of M. Auguste Burdeau ; aged 42 ; president 
of the chamber of deputies, of lowly origin, self- 
educated, an eminent professor, able statesman 
and a lover of England, 12 Dec. ; state funeral 
at Paris 16 Dec. ,, 

M. Brisson elected president of the chamber 

18 Dec. ,, 

Dreyfus Case (which see), 1894-1899. Capt. Alfred 
Dreyfus arrested 14 Oct (trial within closed 
doors), convicted of delivering to a foreign 
power in 1894 documents connected with the 
defence of France ; sentenced to perpetual im- 
prisonment in a fortress ... 23 Dec. ,, 

Resignation of M. Dupuy's ministry through an 
adverse vote in the chamber . . 14 Jan. 189= 

Resignation of president Casimir-Perier . 15 Jan. „ 
In his letter to the senate and deputies he com- 
plains of the opposition to law and order, and 
" campaign of slander and insult." 

His resignation generally censured . 16 Jan. ,, 

M. Felix Faure, minister of marine in the Dupuy 
cabinet, long deputy for Havre, a firm moderate ; 
elected president of the republic by 430 votes in 
the convention, against 361 for M. Brisson 

17 Jan. ,, 

M. Bourgeois fails to form a "concentration" 
cabinet 24 Jan. ,, 

A ministry formed by M. Ribot (finance) ; (interior) 
M. Leygues ; (justice) M. Trarieux ; (foreign 
affairs) M. Hauotaux ; (war) gen. Zurlinden ; 
(marine) M. Combes ; (public instruction) M. 
Poincare ; (public works) M. Dupuy-Dutemps ; 
(commerce) M. Andre Lebon ; (agriculture) M. 
Gadaud ; (colonies) M. Chautemps . 26 Jan. ,, 

The amnesty bill passed by the chamber . 28 Jan. ,, 

Death of marshal Canrobert, aged 86; much re- 
spected in England ; originally a private ; of 
great courage ; served in Algeria, Italy, Crimea, 
and the Franco-Prussian war, 28 Jan. ; buried in 
the Invalides 3 Feb. „ 

Return of Henri Rochefort ; six years an exile 

3 Feb. ,, 

Count Tornielli, Italian ambassador, well received 
ai Paris 18 Feb. „ 

M. Hippolyte Percher, " Hairy Alis," killed in a 
duel near Paris by M. le Chatelier, see Egypt 

1 March, ,, 

The army estimates voted . . . 9 March, ,, 

M. Hanotaux's moderate speech in tin' senate re- 
specting English influence in Africa . 5 April, „ 
Budget a tided by the senate passed 13 April, ,, 

Tour of president faun'; warmly received on 
boar.l II. M.S. Australia, 10 April; friendly .le- 
ministrations at Havre . . 19, 20 April, ,, 
Bursting of 11 dam on the Eastern canal at Bousey 
in the Vosges ; two villages, and bridges swept 
away, no deaths; estimated damage above 
50,000,000!'. 27 April, ,, 

Exhibition of memorials and relics of the revolu- 
tion and empire opened at Paris . . aoApril, ,, 

The abbe - Paul de Broglie, a benevolent priest . 
brother of the due de Broglie, murdered in Paris 
bj Maxence Amelot, a lunatic . . u May, ,. 



Public expenditure reduced by 12,000,00 if., 31 May, 

Pres. Faure decorated with the order of St. Andrew 
by order of the czar .... 17 June, 

An Egyptian committee formed, see Egypt, 18 June, 

Naval manoeuvres at Toulon . . 1 July et seq. 

Duties on hygienic drinks dropped, on alcohol 
increased 6 July, 

Massenet, first-class ironclad, launched at St. 
Nazaire 24 July, 

Meetings of the clergy against the monastic tax, 
declared illegal July 

Explosive letter sent to baron Alphonse de Roth- 
schild ; opened by his confidential clerk, M. Jod- 
kowitz, at the bank in Paris, who was much 
injured, 24 Aug. ; fruitless arrests . 26 Aug. 

Strike in the works of the Carmaux company's 
glassworks, July ; lock-out, 6 Aug. ; works re- 
opened to free hands, 26 Aug. ; arbitration re- 
fused by M. Resseguier, director of the firm, 

4 Nov. ; end of strike by surrender . 22 Nov. 
A bomb, which did not explode, thrown at the 

Rothschild bank at Paris by Leon Bouteilhe, an 
anarchist, 5 Sept. ; he is sentenced to 3 years' im- 
prisonment 26 Sept. 

Visit of the lord mayor to Paris, 6 Sept. ; received 
by president Faure . . . 7-16 Sept. 

M. Louis Pasteur, chemist, physicist, and biolo- 
gist, born 27 Dec. 1822 : died 28 Sept. ; state 
funeral '5 Oct. 

Charlemagne, battleship, launched at Brest, 

12 Oct. 

Treaty of peace with the Hovas, see Madagascar 

1 Oct. 

M. Edmond Magnier, senator of the Var depart- 
ment, sentenced to one year's imprisonment for 
corrupt official practices ... 19 Oct. 

Centenary of the establishment of the Institute of 
France ; meeting of the 5 academies at the Sor- 
bonne ; foreign savants present . . 24 Oct. 

Debate on the Carmaux strike in the chamber ; 
government majority . . . 24-26 Oct. 

Resignation of the Ribot ministry through a vote 
of censure relating to a railway scandal (311-210) 

28 Oct. 

The marquis de Nayve tried for the murder of his 
wife's illegitimate son, Hyppolyte Menaldo, aged 
14 (in 1885), 28 Oct. ; acquitted . . 4 Nov. 

Huahine and Bolabola, two islands in the S. Pacific, 
annexed by France Oct. 

New cabinet (radical but pacific): premier and 
minister of interior, M. Bourgeois; finance, M. 
Doumer ; justice, M. Rieard ; war, M. Cavaignac ; 
marine, M. Lockroy ; public instruction, M. 
Combes; public works, M. Guyot- Dessaigne ; 
commerce, M. Mesureur ; colonies, M. Paul 
Guieysse ; foreign affairs, M. Berthelot ; agricul- 
ture, M. Vigo 31 Oct. 

A panic on the Bourse in Paris, due to speculation, 
averted by M. M. Rothschild and others, 9 Nov. 

Emile Arton, alias Baron, sentenced (in absence) 
to 20 years' penal servitude in connection with 
the Panama scandals, <fee. ; arrested in London. 
16 Nov. ; extradition ordered, 6 Dec. ; sentenced 
to six years' imprisonment and fine, 10 
July, 1896 ; sentence quashed on technical 
grounds on appeal, 6 Aug. ; sentenced to 8 years' 
imprisonment, 6 Nov. 1896. 

M. Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire, statesman, philoso- 
pher and savant, born 19 Aug. 1805 ; died, 24 Nov. 

M. Alexandre Pumas (tils), dramatist and novelist, 
born 29 July, 1824 ; died ... 27 Nov. 

A moderate budget finally passed . . 28 Dec. 

Publication of No. 1 of the " Nineteen Hundred,'' 
a monthly journal in English promoting the 
coming exhibition of 1900 . . . 1 Jan. 

Sleeting of the senate and chamber . . 14 Jan. 

M. Loubet elected president of the senate 16 Jan. 

M. Floquet born 1828 ; died . . . iS Jan. 

The cabinet censured by a vote of the senate for 
an illegality of M. Rieard, n Feb. ; compromise 
by the chamber 13 Feb. 

M. Ambroise Thomas, musical composer, born 

5 Aug. 1S11 ; died 12 Feb. 1896. See Opera. 
Debate in the chamber, M. Bourgeois supports M. 

Rieard ; confidence in the ministry (309 — 185) 

voted 20 Feb. 

The senate, by a firm declaration, maintains its 
rights ami withdraws from the conflict 21 Feb. 



1895 



FEANCE. 



513 



FEANCE. 



M 



The government income-tax replacing the house- 
tax passed by the chamber (5 days debate) (286 
— 270) .... . . 26 March, 

(Resignation of M. Berthelot ; duties assumed by 
M. Bourgeois, 29 March ; M. Sarrien, minister of 
interior, 30 March ; confidence in the foreign 
policy voted in the chamber . . .2 April, 

The senate votes no confidence in the ministry 
(who determine to retain office), 3 April ; and re- 
fuses the vote on the Madagascar credits to the 
present ministry (171 — 90) . . .21 April, 

M. Jean Baptiste Leon Say, eminent political 
economist, born 1826 ; died 22 April ; public 
funeral . . . . . . 23 April, 

. Bourgeois and his ministry resign with a pro- 
test, 23 April ; the senate adopts the Madagas- 
car credits . . . . . .24 April, 

ew cabinet (moderate) : premier and minister of 
agriculture, M. Meline ; .justice, M. Darlan ; 
foreign "affairs, M. Hanotanx ; interior, M. Bar- 
thou ; finance, M. Georges Cochery ; war, gen. 
Billot ; marine, adm. Besnard ; public instruc- 
tion, M. A. Rambaud (resigned), M. Darlan, 
Sept. ; commerce, M. Henri Boucher ; colonies, 
M. Andre Lebon ; public works, M. Turrel 

29 April, 

Proposed revision of the constitution rejected by 
the chamber and senate . . .30 April, 

Differences between the duke of Orleans and the 
royalist committee, which disapproves of his 
proposed candidature for a seat in the chamber ; 
his letter, Times .... 19 May, 

Public demonstrations in honour of the czar's coro- 
nation . . . . . . 26, 27 May, 

Bill for the annexation of Madagascar and its de- 
pendent islands proposed by M. Hanotanx 

30 May, 

Lord Dufferin's brilliant fete to the government, 
3 June ; leaves Prance ... 29 June, 

Death of M. Jules Simon, philosopher and philan- 
thropist, aged 82, 8 June ; state funeral 13 June, 

The chamber prorogued . . . 1 1 July, 

National fete ; the president fired at by a lunatic 

14 July, 
Monument to pres. Carnot at Chalons-sur-Marne 

unveiled 16 Aug. 

Sir Edmund Monson appointed British minister ; 

about 18 August ; received ... 8 Dec. 
The Ernest Bazin new roller ship (see Steam), 

launched at St. Denis ... 19 Aug. 

The St. Louis battleship, launched at Lorient, 

8 Sept. 
<Gaulois battleship, launched at Brest Oct. 

■Great vintage, reported .... Sept. 
State visit of the czar and czarina ; he gives 

ioo,ooof. to charities ; 402 criminals released ; 

see Russia 5-9 Oct. 

Death of gen. Trochu, see above, 1870-1 7 Oct. 
The king of Greece received by M. Faure 13 Oct. 
Death of M. Challemel-Lacour, statesman and 

scholar, aged 69 26 Oct. 

The chamber and senate meet ... 27 Oct. 
Mdme. Furtado Heine, eminent philanthropist, 

born 1821, died 10 Dec. 

M. Loubet opens the senate, with an address, 

15 Jan. 1 
M. Brisson opens the chamber of deputies 16 Jan. 
Vote of confidence passed in the chamber ; rein- 
forcements sent to Crete . . 15 March, 

An MS. of Louis Philippe showing his great aver- 
sion to capital punishment (consequently seldom 
carried out), read to the French Academy by his 
son, the Due d'Aumale, 18 March ; died, [and 
bequeathed (dated 1889) to the Institut de France, 
in trust for the French nation, the chateau 
Chantilly, 24 mi. N. of Paris, with its large 
estate, Conde museum, and valuable art collec- 
tions] ; see Orleans .... 6 May, ,, 
Calamitous fire : see Paris . . . 4 May, „ 

M. Gerault Richard, socialist, expelled from the 

chamber for disorderly conduct . . 5 June, „ 
Pres. Faure invited by the czar to Russia, 27 June, ,, 
M. Henri Meilhac, popular dramatist, died, aged 

_ 6 7 6 July, ,, 

Duel between prince Henry of Orleans and the 

count of Turin ; see Italy . . . 15 Aug. ,, 
Pres. Faure received by the czar at Cronstadt, 



arrives at Peterhof, 23 Aug. ; leaves, 26 Aug. ; 
returns to Paris 31 Aug. 

Franco-Russian alliance confirmed . . Aug. 

The sovereigns of Belgium, Servia, Bulgaria, and 
Siam, at Paris 8 Oct. 

The chambers reassemble ... 19 Oct. 

Excitement about the case of capt. Dreyfus (see 
above, Dec. 1894) 

Government inquiry instituted . . 16 Nov. 

M. Darlan, minister of justice, resigns, in conse- 
quence of a qualified vote of censure, 1 Dec. ; 
succeeded by M. Millard . . .2 Dec. 

Duties on wine, beer, and cider reduced 3 Dec. 

Debates in the chamber 011 the Dreyfus affair, 

4, 7 Dec. 

Baron Mohrenheim, Russian ambassador, resigns, 
succeeded by prince Urussoff . . Dec. 

Criminal investigations bill, an important reform 
(passed by the senate, Nov. ) , becomes law 10 Dec. 

M. Alphonse Daudet, novelist, died, aged 57, 16 Dec. 

Collision between two express trains, nearPeage-de- 
Roussillon (Paris and Marseilles line), capt.. 
Lota, professor at St. Cyr, M. Athelin and capt. 
Blouet killed ; 15 injured ... 24 Dec. 

Count Bsterhazy tried by court martial for treason, 
10 Jan. , and acquitted . . . n Jan. 

Letter J'accuse to the president from M. Zola in the 
Aurore, denouncing the conviction of capt. 
Dreyfus on the strength of a single document 
which was kept secret, as illegal ; and bringing 
charges against gens. Mercier, Billot (minister of 
war), and others ; and asserting the Esterhazy 
court-martial to have knowingly acquitted a 
guilty man 13 Jan. 

Violent scene in the chamber on the discussion of 
the Dreyfus case, sitting closed . 22 Jan. 

Declarations of the government against further dis- 
cussion in the chamber, adopted, 376-133, 24 Jan. 

Herr von Bulow, foreign secretary, asserts in the 
reichstag at Berlin, that there never had been 
any relations between ex-capt. Dreyfus and any 
German representative, 24 Jan. ; Italy declares 
the same 31 Jan. 

Dr. Pean, eminent surgeon, founder of the Inter- 
national hospital, born, 1830, died . 29 Jan. 

M. Zola and M. Perreux (publisher of the Aurore), 
15 days' trial, for defamation, with reference to 
the Esterhazy court-martial (see above, 13 Jan.) ; 
sentence, maximum : M. Zola, 1 year, and M. 
Perreux, 4 months' imprisonment, and 3,ooof. 
fine each {Times, 24 Feb. 1898) . . 7-23 Feb. 

Interpellation in the chamber, government largely 
supported ; " Disciplinary measures " introduced 
by M. Meline 24 Feb. ; Col. Picquart and others 
punished for intervention . . .25 Feb. 
Flachat, French liner, lost 16 Feb. ; see Wrecks 
footnote ; La Bourgogne, French liner, lost, 

4 July, 

Prince Urussoff, Russian ambassador, received by 
the president 18 Feb. 

Lease of a bay S.E. coast, &c, granted by China 
5 April ; Kwang-chan-wan occupied . 22 April, 

M. Jules Marco, eminent geologist and explorer, 
died, aged 74 18 April, 

General elections ; government net majority (4); 
8 May ; the chamber meets 1 June ; M. Meline 
resigns 15 June ; M. Brisson forms a cabinet 
28 June ; the chambers meet . . 30 June, 

Anglo-French agreement (which see) . 14 June, 

Legal proceedings respecting M. Zola, 2 April ; he 
escapes to England . . . .18 July, 

Resignation of M. Meline's ministry, 15 June ; 
several failures to form a cabinet ; new ministry : 
premier and minister of the interior, M. Brisson ; 
foreign affairs, M. Delcasse' ; finance, M. Peytral ; 
justice, M. Sarrien ; education, M. Leon Bour- 
geois ; war, M. Cavaignac ; marine, M. Lockroy ; 
colonies, M. Trouillot ; commerce, M. Marue- 
jouls ; agriculture, M. Viger ; public works, M. 
Tillaye 28 June, 

Col. Picquart arrested for disclosing state papers, 
13 July ; his trial postponed . . 21 Sept. 

"A History of the Dreyfus Case," by capt. Paul 
Marin, issued July, 

Abyssinian envoys, with a letter and presents to 
pres. Faure, received by him at Paris . 8 July, 

Railway accident near Lisieux, Normandy, 10 
deaths 14 Aug. 

L L 



1897 



FEANCE. 



514 



FEANCE. 



Lieut. -col. Henry, chief of the Espitmnage depart- 
ment, after confessing to forgery of documents 
against Dreyfus, is arrested and commits suicide 

in prison 31 Aug. 

Proposed revision of the Dreyfus case agreed to ; 
M. Cavaignac, minister of war, resigns, 3 Sept. ; 
succeeded by gen. Zurlinden, 5 Sept. ; he and 
M. Tillaye, both against revision of the Dreyfus 
case, resign, succeeded by gen. Chanoine (war) 
and M. Godin (public works), 17 Sept. ; revision 
commission meets, 21 Sept. et seq. ; divided in 
opinion ; the Dreyfus case referred to the Cour 
de Cassation 27 Sept. 

Military manoeuvres, grand review at Moulins 
pres. Faure and the duke of Connaught present, 

16 Sept. 

The ministry, defeated by the anti-revisionists, 
resigns, 25 Oct. ; new conciliation ministry : 
premier and minister of interior, M. Dupuy ; 
foreign, M. Delcasse ; finance, M. Peytral ; war, 
M. de Freycinet ; marine, M. Lockroy 31 Oct. 

For Fashoda and Dreyfus Case, see separate articles. 

New commercial treaty with Italy, signed, 

21 Nov. 

Bill allowing aid of counsel to accused in courts- 
martials passed the senate, 1 Dec. (by the 
chamber, 8 June, 1899); one abolishing public 
executions, adopted by the senate . 5 Dec. 

Demonstration in Paris against col. Picquart and 
in honour of the army, a stormy scene in the 
chamber, 12 Dec. ; chambers closed . 24 Dec. 

"League de la Patrie Francaise" (anti-revision of 
the Dreyfus case) founded ; manifesto issued, 
1 Jan. ; L' Union Nationale, opposition league, 
started Jan. i 

M. Edouard Herv£, journalist, founder of the Soleil 
1873, died, aged 64 .... 4 Jan. 

The chambers opened, M. Deschanel elected presi- 
dent of the deputies ; M. Loubet re-elected 
president in the senate . . 10, 12 Jan. 

M. Adolphe Philippe Dennery, dramatist, born 
17 June, 181 1 ; bequeaths his Paris house and 
collections to the nation . . . Jan. 

French maritime league founded . . . Jan. 

Comte de Chambrun, benefactor, founder of the 
"Musee Social," 1894, dies, aged 78 . 7 Feb. 

Anarchist disorder in Paris suppressed . 10 Feb. 

Criminal procedure bill passed by the chamber, 
332-216 10 Feb. 

Sudden death of pres. Faure, 16 Feb ; public 
funeral, oration by M. Dupuy at Pere Lachaise ; 
MM. Deroulede (deputy) and Marcel-Habert 
arrested for inciting gen. Roget to a coup d'&tat 
(18 Feb.), 23 Feb. (acquitted, 31 May); M. Emile 
Loubet elected president of the republic at 
Versailles by 483 votes against 279 for M. Meline, 

18 Feb. 

M. Meline elected president of the chamber, 

25 Feb. 

M. Fallieres of the senate . . .3 March, 

Domiciliary visits to royalist houses, &c, 25-28 
J*eb. ; treasonable leagues dissolved and pro- 
secuted March-April, 

Army estimates and budget passed by the chamber, 

13 March, 

Comte de Chaudordy, diplomatist, born 1826, dies, 

26 March, 

M. Pailleron, eminent dramatist (le Monde oil Von 
s'ennuie, 1881), &c, born, 17 Sept. 1834; died 
about 20 April, 

Anglo-French convention (which see) signed in 
London, si March (1899), ratified . 30 May, 

M. de Freycinet (minister of war), after a stormy 
debate in the chamber, resigns, 5 May ; suc- 

<• led by M. Krantz; M. Monestier taking office 

of public works 6 May, 

M. Krancisque Sarcey, eminent, dramatic critic, 
&C., born 1828, died i(> May ; M. Henri Becque, 
dramatist ana journalist (Iss Corbeaux, La 
Parisienne, V Enfant Prodigxie, &C.), born, 9 
April, 1 837 ; died May, 

Major Marchand and force from Fashoda (whichsee) 
warmly received at Toulon ; Marseilles, 30, 31 
May ; and Paris 1 June, 

Anti-Dreyfus demonstration al the Auteuil races ; 

pres. l.ouhet assaulted, ringleaders arrested, 

4 June. 



Stormy debate in the chamber ; M. Largentaye, 
a royalist, suspended ; ministerial declarations 

carried, 513-32 5 June, 

Supplementary credit of 6i,6oo,ooof. for coast 
defences, France and colonies, voted . 9 June, 

Pres. Loubet well received at Longchamp races, 

11 June, 

Difference in the chamber respecting the conduct 
of the police at Longchamp, 1 1 June ; the 
ministry resigns .... 12 June, 

Baron F. de Christiani sentenced to 4 years' 
imprisonment for assaulting pres. Loubet at 
Auteuil, 7 others to fines and short imprison- 
ment 13, 16 June, 

Adm. de Cuverville superseded for criticising 
defects in the defences ; gen. de la Rocque 
removed from active service . 19, 22 June, 

New (concentration) cabinet : premier and minister 
of interior, M. Waldeck-Rousseau ; war, gen. de 
Gallirfet ; marine, M. de Lanessan ; justice, M. 
Monis ; foreign affairs, M. Delcasse ; commerce, 
M. Millerand ; finance, M. Caillaux ; education, 
M. Georges Leygues ; public works, M. Pierre 
Baudin ; colonies, M. Decrais ; agriculture, M. 
Jean Dupuy 22 June, 

Ministerial declaration approved in the chamber, 
263-237, and senate, 157-25 . . 26 June, 

Gen. Gilletta di San Giuseppe (Italian) charged 
with espionage, sentenced to 5 years' imprison- 
ment and a fine of 5,ooof. , at Nice, 26 June ; 
pardoned by pres. Loubet, 9 July ; placed on 
half-pay 16 July, 

Stormy debate in the chamber ; M. Deroulede's 
proposal for the revision of the constitution 
refused urgency, 379-70, 27 June ; chamber 
prorogued 4 July, 

Victor Cherbuliez, novelist and critic, "Comte 
Kostia," born at Geneva, 1829 ; died . 1 July, 

Gen. Zurlinden, military governor of Paris, super- 
seded by gen. Brugere ... 7 July, 

Suffren, ist-class battleship, launched at Brest, 
displacement, 12,728 tons . . 25 July, 

Gen. de Pellieux removed from the command of 
Paris (dies, aged 58, 15 July, 1900); gen. de 
Negrier dismissed from the supreme council of 
war for inciting to insubordination in the army, 
26 July ; succeeded by gen. Pierron . Aug. 

Pisson, tried in camera and condemned to 3 years' 
imprisonment and soof. fine, for attempting to 
sell to foreigners documents relating to national 
defences 12 Aug. 

M. Paul Deroulede and others arrested on a charge 
of plotting against the republic, 12 Aug. ; M. 
Jules Guerin, founder of the "Anti-Semitic 
league," resists arrest, and stands siege in the 
Rue de Chabrol, thoroughfare closed by police, 

13 Aug. 

Anarchist demonstration in Paris, rioting, 380 per- 
sons injured, 2 churches pillaged, many arrests, 

20 Aug. 

M. Jules Guerin surrenders in the Rue de 
Chabrol 20 Sept. 

Adm. Sallandrouze de Lamornaix, born, 1840, died 
suddenly on board the Formidable . 20 Sept. 

Strike at the Creuzot ironworks (20 days) ends 
with concessions to the men, by the arbitration 
of M. Waldeck-Rousseau (premier) . 7 Oct. 

Suppression of the embassy to the Vatican voted 
by the budget committee . . .30 Oct. 

Gen. de Gallitl'et's army reforms sanctioned by the 
cabinet and president, see Times . 31 Oct. 

Major Esterhazy (see Dreyfus Case) tried for em- 
bezzlement (sends written defence) ; lino soof. 
and sentenced to 3 years' imprisonment, 6 Nov. 

The chamber opens ; interpellations against the 
government and the minister of war, 14 Nov. ; 
vote of confidence, ministerial "acts of repub- 
lican defence" approved, 320-215 . 16 Nov. 

Chambers opened, M. Deschanel re-elected presi- 
dent of the chamber, 308-221 . . 9 Jan. 1 

The Aurora petition, demanding "justice for 
Dreyfus," 44,760 signatures, sent to the presi- 
dent 17 Jan. 

The superior and 11 monks of the Assumptionist 
fathers charged with belonging to an illegal asso- 
ciation and with issuing propaganda against the 
government, 22 Jan. ; the community dissolved ; 



FRANCE. 



515 



FEANCE. 



the superior and father Bailly, director of in Croix 
I newspaper, and 10 others, fined, 24 Jan. [sentence 

confirmed by the court of appeal, 6 March]. 
The stipends of several bishops suspended by 

government Jan. i 

Senatorial elections, republican victory (99 seats, 
92 gained by the government) ; nationalists : gen. 
Mercier and 2 others .... 28 Jan. 
Senate meets, 1 Feb. ; M. Fallieres re-elected 
president . . . . ' . . 5 Feb. 
MM. Buffet and Deroulede charged with con- 
spiracy against the state, 9 Nov. ; sentenced to 
10 years' banishment ; M. Jules Guerin to 
10 years' detention in a fortress, 4 Jan. ; M. 
Marcel Habert, banished for 5 years, 23 Feb. 
Death of count Benedetti, diplomatist (ambas- 
sador in Berlin, 1864-70), aged 83 . 28 March, 
Budget (good surplus) passed, 457-32 ; chambers 

adjourn 12 April, 

Paris (international) exhibition opened by pres. 

Loubet 14 April, 

Chamber meets, vote of confidence in the ministry 
carried, 286-237 ! amendment opposing a revival 
of the Dreyfus case carried, 457-78, 22 May ; 
noisy scene in the chamber, government majority 
47, 28 May ; gen. de Gallift'et (able war minister) 
in ill-health resigns, succeeded by gen. Andre, 
29 May ; amnesty bill (stopping further prosecu- 
tions connected with the Dreyfus case) passed 

by the senate 2 June, 

Navy bill agreed to by the chamber . 30 June, 

M. Berthelot's vote of censure regarding military 

operations in S. Algeria rejected by the chamber, 

458-60 2 July, 

Gen. Andre's firmness in maintaining discipline 
among the officers, supported by the chambers ; 
gen. Delanne, chief of the staff, and gen. Jamont, 
generalissimo, resign ; succeeded at once by gen. 
Pendezec and gen. Bragere . . 4 July, 

Chambers prorogued 10 July, 

Abyssinian envoys received by pres. Loubet, 

16 July, 
Grand naval review at Cherbourg, M. Loubet 

present 19 July, 

The shah of Persia visits Paris, 28 July-n Aug. 
[fired at by Salsou, an anarchist, 2 Aug. ; Salsou 
sentenced to life-imprisonment, 10 Nov. ; dies, 

Sept. 1901] 

The Framee, torpedo-boat destroyer, sunk in col- 
lision with the Brennus war-ship off Trafalgar, 
42 deaths, including all the officers . 11 Aug. 
Many strikes throughout France . . Aug. 
M. de Witte, Russian finance minister, arrives in 
Paris ; pres. Loubet invested with the Russian 
Order of St. Andrew .... 3 Sept. 
Army manoeuvres closed by a review before pres. 
Loubet at Chartres .... 20 Sept. 
Banquet to 22,000 mayors (23,000 guests) in the 
Tuileries gardens, fine speech by pres. Loubet, 

22 Sept. 
The chambers meet : M. Waldeck-Rousseau (in the 
deputies) announces the religious associations 
bill and other important measures ; vote of con- 
fidence passed, 316-237 . . . 6, 8 No\'. 
International exhibition in Paris {which see) closed, 

12 Nov. 
Popular ovations to Mr. Kruger, ex-president of 
the Transvaal, at Marseilles, 22 Nov. ; and Paris ; 
received by pres. Loubet . . .24 Nov. 
Prince Minister, German ambassador, resigns, Nov. 
Resolutions of sympathy to Mr. Kruger passed by 
the chamber and senate . . 29, 30 Nov. 
The chamber adopts a resolution, counting on the 
government to repress slavery and cruelty in 
the colonies (governme7it majority, 77) . 7 Dec. 
M. Zola's letter to pres. Loubet in the Aurore pro- 
tests against the amnesty bill as a denial of 

justice 22 Dec. 

Amnesty amendment bill, against a revival of the 
Dreyfus agitation and stopping prosecutions 
pending against M. Zola, col. Picquart and 
others, passed by the chamber, 155-2, after 
much debate, 19 Dec. ; by the senate . 24 Dec. 
Death of the prince de Joinville, son of Louis 

Philippe, aged 82 Dec. 

Paris municipality votes ioo,ooof. for the poor in 
celebration of the 20th century . . 1 Jan. 



Chambers meet ; MM. Deschanel and Fallieres re- 
elected presidents . . . . 8, 9 Jan. 1901 

M. Waldeck-Rousseau's declaration that the pope 
has no power to intervene in state affairs, carried 
by a large majority . . . . 14 J an - » 

M. Arthur Desjardins, eminent jurist and inter- 
national lawyer, dies, aged 65 . -15 J an - >j 

Death of the due de Broglie, historian, and 
statesman, aged 80 .... 19 Jan. ,, 

Army reorganisation, M. de Montebello's plan 
adopted by army committee . . early Feb. „ 

Prince Radolin, German minister, arrives in Paris, 

20 Feb. „ 

Budget passed 25 Feb. ,, 

M. de Rodays, editor of the Figaro, wounded in a 
duel with count Boni de Castellane, near Paris, 

16 March, „ 

M. Edmond Got, eminent actor, dies, aged 79, 

21 March, ,, 

The associations (21 clauses) bill (against un- 
authorized religious tutelage and communities) 
introduced 15 Jan., passed by the chamber after 
long debates, 303-224 . . .29 March, ,, 

Budget for 1902, deficit 8,ooo,ooof. . 29 March, „ 

Prof. Frangois Raoult, eminent chemist, born 
10 May, 1830, dies . . . . 1 April, „ 

Pres. Loubet visits Nice, and entertains the Italian 
fleet at Toulon . . . . . 8-10 April, „ 

Ex-queen Ranavolo, of Madagascar, visits Paris, 

30 May, ,, 

Eugene Manuel, inspector-gen. of education and 
popular poet, dies, aged 78 . . 2 June, ,, 

Scene in the chamber on Algerian affairs, M. Dru- 
mont, an anti-Semite, expelled . . 14 June, ,, 

Moorish mission arrives in Paris . . mid June, ,, 

Count de Lur-Saluces sentenced to 5 years' banish- 
ment for treason (with extenuating circum- 
stances) 6 June, „ 

Associations (religious) bill (amended by the senate) 
passed by the chamber, 313-149, 28 June ; pro- 
mulgated 1 July, ,, 

Prince Henry of Orleans, eminent explorer, dies at 
Saigon, aged 34 9 Aug. ,, 

M. Edmond Audran, popular composer (La Mascotte, 
etc.), died, aged 59 .... 18 Aug. „ 

Sugar bounties reduced by 55 per cent, to cover 
i4,ooo,ooof. deficit . . . .25 Au g- ,, 

Diplomatic rupture with Turkey, which see, Aug.- 

3 Sept. „ 

Pres. Loubet receives gen. Sakharoff and 6 Russian 
generals 12 Sept. ,, 

Meets the czar and czarina off Dunkirk ; naval 
review held 18 Sept. ,, 

The czar and czarina arrive at Compiegne ; view 
the manoeuvres at Rheims ; visit the cathedral 
and the H6tel de Ville, 18, 19 Sept. ; grand re- 
view (150,000 men)atBetheny; they leave 21 Sept. ,, 

8,800 R.C. religious establishments out of a total 
of 16,468 apply for authorisation under the new 
associations law; the Jesuits, Passionists,Assump- 
tionists, Benedictines and others leave France, 
many for England .... July— 3 Oct. „ 

MM. Tailhade & Grandidier sentenced to 12 and 
6 months' imprisonment respectively for inciting 
to murder by an anarchist propaganda in the 
journal Libertaire .... 10 Oct. ,, 

Chambers opened ; M. Basly's proposal for a mini- 
mum wage and an b hours' day for miners rejected, 
290-245 ; and a motion to repeal the law against 
anarchists defeated, 402-132 . . 22 Oct. ,. 

Debate on Franco-Turkish affairs, see Turkey, Aug. 
— Nov.; vote of confidence in the ministry, 
305-77 4 Nov. ,, 

M. de Lanessan (marine minister) abolishes com- 
pulsory attendance at mass, and prohibits the 
substitution of the religious service flag for the 
tricolour in the navy Nov. .,, 

Diplomatic relations with Turkey resumed n Nov. ., 

Railway bill (10 hours' day) passed by the cham- 
ber, 338-87 14 N ov. „ 

Jubilee of M. Berthelot, scientist, celebrated in 
theSorbonne 24 Nov. ,, 

M. Herv£, professor in the Sens university, dis- 
missed for anti-military newspaper articles ; 
debate in the chamber, M. Leygues' speech de- 
fending the action of the authorities ordered to 

L L 2 



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516 



FRANCE. 



be placarded, 13 Dec. ; M. Roger-Ballu, fine art 
professor, also dismissed for insulting the govern- 
ment ig Dec. 

Budget (amended), surplus i46,ooof. reported 

mid Dec. 
The 3 per cent, loan of 265,000,000^ in connection 
with the Chinese indemnity passed by the cham- 
ber, 335-213, 28 Nov. ; by the senate, 224-43, 
6 Dec. ; issued and subscribed about 25 times 

over 21, 22 Dec. 

M. Fouquier, brilliant journalist, died, aged 63, 

end Dec. 
M. Paul Deschanel again re-elected president of 

the chamber 14 Jan. : 

Miners (eight hours; bill passed by the chamber, 

5 Feb. 

Death of Mine. Clemence Royer, eminent savant 

and essayist, aged 72 .... 6 Feb. 

Abrogation of the Falloux law, guaranteeing liberty 

of instruction, voted in the chamber, 289-239, 

14 Feb. 
Centenary of Victor Hugo's birth celebrated in 
Paris, Brussels, and London . . .26 Feb. 
Future chambers to last 6 instead of 4 years, voted 
by the chamber, 298-237 . . 18 March, 
The chamber votes an amnesty for strikers, but re- 
jects that for anarchists. . . 21 March, 

Budget passed 29 March, 

Death of prof. Alfred Cornu, eminent scientist, 

aged 61 14 April, 

Humbert-Crawford case, extensive frauds carried 
on for 20 years ; sham litigation ; proceedings 
finally instituted ; M. and Mdme. Humbert 

escaped 8 May, 

Elections (ministerial majority, 88X27 April-i 1 May, 
Destruction of St. Pierre, 8 May ; see Martinique ; 
3 days' public mourning, general sympathy ; re- 
lief fund started 11 May, 

Death of M. Benjamin Constant, eminent painter, 

aged 55 26 May, 

Death of Mine. Durand, " Henry Greville,"novelist, 

aged about 60 26 May, 

Pies. Loubet warmly received in Russia and 
Copenhagen, 20-25 May ; holds a naval review at 
Dunkirk, 27 May ; 220 convicts pardoned, or 
their sentences reduced . . .30 May, 
M. Waldeck-Rousseau, premier (in need of rest)and 
his ministry resign .... 3 June 
M. Leon Bourgeois elected president of the cham- 
ber 6 June, 

New ministry : premier and minister of interior 
and public worship, M. Combes ; justice, M. 
VallO ; foreign, M. DelcassS; war, gen. Andre; 
public works, M. Maruejouls ; agriculture, M. 
Mougeot ; finance, M. Rouvier ; maiine, M. 
Pelletan ; education, M. Chaumie ; commerce, 
M. Trouillot ; colonies, M. Doumergue ; posts and 
telegraphs, M. Berard ... 7 June, 
M. Bourgeois opens the chamber of deputies, 

10 June, 

-Government policy, unsectarianism, fiscal reforms, 

&c. ; vote of confidence passed . . 12 June, 

Mine. Henry, widow of col. Henry (see Dreyfus) 

v. M. Reinach and the manager of the Steele, for 

libel, damages for plaintiff soof. . 12 June, 

Cabinet council decides that no official is to be 

appointed until questioned as to politics, 

20 June, 
The Humbert collection of pictures, Paris, realised 

i,i87,ooof. 20, 21 June, 

Budget —estimated deficit 180,000,000!'. ; supple- 
mentary credits voted . . . 26,27.111111'. 
Debate in tlie ( 'lumber on the Humbert-Crawford 
frauds ; vote of confidence in the government 
carried, 403-74, 27 June ; discussed in the senate, 

10 July, 

Debate in the chamber on the closing of R.C. 

schools for infringing the associations law ; vote 

cf confidence in the government carried, 333-206, 

4 July, 

Conversion of the three ■aiiil-a-half per cent, rentes 

into three per cents, iiiil passed by the senate 
and made law, 9, 10 July ; the closing of 2,500 
catholic schools denounced In the chamber, wild 

uproar 11 July, 

Prince Komntsu, Japan, the crown prince of Siam, 
and Has Makonnen, Abyssinian envoy, visit 
France ' July 



National fete, Paris illuminated . . 14 July, 
Naval manoeuvres in the Mediterranean, 

July— 8 Aug. 

Protests of the episcopate against the closing of 

conventual schools, July ; M. Combes' defence 

issued, 21 July ; hostile demonstrations in Paris 

and elsewhere ; M. Coppee, Lerolle, and Conti 

arrested 22, 23, 26 July, 

Col. Picqnart is awarded 2o,Doof. damages for the 

libel in the Eclw de Paris ... 31 July, 

Revenue 64,ooo,ooof. below the estimate, end July, 

Sir Wilfrid Laurier, Canadian premier, received by 

pres. Loubet, 26 Aug. ; entertained at a banquet 

(leaves 2 Oct.) 1 Sept. 

Visit of the shah of Persia, 25 Aug. ; and the 

Khedive 2 Sept. 

ftepublique battleship launched at Brest, 4 Sept. 
Lieut. -col. de Saint Remy arrested, 9 Aug., for 
refusing to assist at the closing of a conventual 
school as against his religious convictions, 
sentenced by court-martial to a day's imprison- 
ment, 5 Sept. ; placed on the retired list, 9 Sept. ; 
maj. Le Roy Ladurie also dismissed . 26 Sept. 
Army manoeuvres, the prince of the Asturias pre- 
sent, at Toulouse .... 3-10 Sept. 
M. Emile Zola, eminent writer and novelist (see 
Dreyfus case), found suffocated in his bedroom, 
from a foul chimney (Mme. Zola was also uncon- 
scious, but recovered), 29 Sept. ; imposing public 
funeral, Paris, ex-capt. Dreyfus present, 5 Oct. 
M. Rouvier's budget approved by the cabinet, 

30 Sept. 

Coal strike in the north .... 2 Oct. 

M. Combes calls on 22 bishops to renounce the 

employment of Lazarists and Marists . 3 Oct. 

Franco - Siamese treaty, ratification of frontier, 

signed 7 Oct. 

General coal strike declared (about 100,000 out), 
8, 9 Oct. ; riot at St. Etieune, 2 miners killed, 
11 Oct. ; Boer generals visit Paris, Oct. 13-15 ; 
chambers meet, budget estimates, large deficits 
for 1902 ; debate on the closing of conventual 
schools, 14, 16 Oct. ; resolution supporting the 
government passed, 329-233 . . 17 Oct. 
Committee appointed by the chamber to consider 
the question of separation of church and state, 

20 Oct. 

M. Clemenceau upholds the government and 

criticises the concordat ; resolution for the 

ministry carried, 163-90 ... 30 Oct. 

Vidal, the " woman-killer," sentenced to death, 

5 Nov. 
Navy estimates, 3o6,ooo,ooof. , issued . 10 Nov. 
Strike ends in the north, reported . . 14 Nov. 
Change in parliamentary procedure voted by the 
chamber, 361-179 .... 17 Nov. 
Col. Picqnart (charged with treason by the Jour) 

awarded io.ooof. 20 Nov. 

Petition of 74 bishops in favour of the religious 

orders declared illegal, reported . 28 Nov. 

Two years' military service bill to come into 

operation 1904 29 Nov. 

Brussels sugar convention ratified . . 5 Dec. 
Colliers' strike over, award accepted, about 4 Dec. 
Violent scenes in the chamber, on an interpellation 
re the escape of the Humberts (swindlers) ; vote 
of confidence carried, 338-133 . . 6 Dec. 
Visit of the king of Portugal, 18 OcL-16 Nov. ; 

again 8-10 Dec. 

Strike riots at Marseilles . . . 11 Dec. 
The Humbert family arrested in Madrid . 20 Dec. 

And brought to Paris 29 Dec. 

Report of new Panama canal company to sell con- 
cessions and property to the United States for 
40,000,000 dols. and to verification of company's 

title adopted (Paris) 30 Dec. 

Senatorial elections ; government gain 13 . 4 Jan. 1 

Chamber meets, M. Bourgeois re-elected president, 

and M. James, socialist leader, vice-president, 

13 Jan. 
Interpellation re religious orders, government acts 

approved, 313-21 1 15 Jan. 

Eight hours' day extended to naval establishments, 

18 Jan. 
Death of M. de Blowitz, 30 years Paris correspon- 
dent of The Times, aged 78 . . .18 Jan. 
Brussels sugar convention ratified . . 24 Jan. 



FRANCE. 



517 



FRANCE. 



The csar gives i,ooo£. to the Breton lishermen, 

24 Jan. 1903 

Dispute with the Vatican concerning vacant 
bishopric nominations .... Feb. „ 

Scene in the chamber regarding the Humbert 
swindle, interpellation postponed . 13 Feb. „ 

Death of M. Gaston, Paris, eminent scholar and 
writer 6 March ,, 

Debates on the religious orders, 54 refused authori- 
zation, ministerial vote carried . 12-18 March, ,, 

Death of M. Ernest Legouve, dramatist, aged 96, 

14 March, ,, 

Motion for the suppression of the budget of public 
worship rejected, M. Combes' declaration re 
church and state, approved . .21 March, ,, 

Budget passed with amendments . 31 March, ,, 

M. Jaures in the chamber urges the re-opening of 
the Dreyfus case in a long speech . 6-7 April, ,, 

Socialist congress at Bordeaux, M. Millerand, 
opportunist, remains a member by majority of 20, 

14 April, ,, 

President Loubet visits Algiers, confers honours 
on adm. Curzon-Howe, and other officers of the 
British squadron 15 April, „ 

At Tunis, 27 April ; returns to Paris . 30 April, ,, 

Government measures resisted by several bishops, 
and various religious associations ; expulsions of 
religious orders continue . . .29 April, ,, 

King Edward warmly welcomed, Paris en fete ; 
review of troops at Vincennes ; races held at 
Longchamps ; state banquet, &c. 1-2 May ; the 
king confers honours on MM. Combes, Delcasse, 
Cambon, sir E. Monson, and others, 3 May ; 
leaves 4 May, ,, 

Anti-clerical demonstrations held in various places 

17 May, ,, 

Debate in the chamber on the action of the 
government with regard to the religious bodies ; 
motion for the separation of church and state 
rejected, 278-247 ; order of the day the govern- 
ment's policy, and counting on its firmness to 
repress the encroachments of the clergy, and the 
maintenance of religious liberty, adopted, 20 May, ,, 

International exhibition, Limoges, May -Sept. 
opened May ,, 

" Max O'Rell," Paul Blouet, author, and Paris 
correspondent of the New York Journal, died, 
aged 55 24 May, ,, 

Yellow book on relation between France and the 
Vatican, May, 1899-July, 1902, issued 22 June, ,, 

Violent scene in the chamber during a debate on 
the religious question: expenditure of 256,ooo,ooof. 
on the improvement of French ports and canals 
approved by the senate . . . .23 June, ,, 

President Loubet, on his return, sends a message 
to king Edward VII. expressing his warm grati- 
tude for his re -eption in England : the king in 
reply expressed his ardent desire that the 
rapprochement between the two countries should 
be lasting . . - . . . . 9 Jul}-, ,, 

French senators and deputies received by the lord 
mayor and lady mayoress at the mansion house, 
23 July ; visit Windsor castle . . 24 July, ,, 

Trial of the Humbert family for fraud begins at 
Paris 8 Aug. „ 

Terrible fire and explosion on the Underground 
railway in Paris caused by the fusion of the 
electric light wires, 84 lives lost . . 10 Aug. ,, 

Customs' official statement shows imports for 1902, 
4, 594,109,0001'. ; exports, 4,252,181,000! mid Aug. ,, 

M. and Mme. Humbert found guilty of forgery and 
swindling, and the Dauriguacs for complicity in 
swindling ; the Humberts sentenced to 5 years' 
solitary confinement, Romain Daurignac to 3 
years', and Emile Daurignac to 2 years' inprison- 
ment 22 Aug. ,, 

Territory on the right bank of the Lower Senegal 
added to French colonial possessions, announced 

late Aug. ,, 

Statue of Ernest Benan unveiled by M. Combes at 
Treguier, Brittany 13 Sept. „ 

Outbreak of bubonic plague at Marseilles, mid Sept. ,, 

International Peace congress opened at Rouen, 

22 Sept. ,, 

[For other events see Addenda.] 



Sovereigns or France. 

MEROVINGIAN RACE. 

Pharamond (his existence doubtful). 
428. Clodion the Hairy ; his supposed son ; king of the" 

Salic Franks. 
447. Merova; is, or Merovee ; son-in-law of Clodion. 
458. Childeric ; son of Merovee. 

481. Clovis the Great, his son, real founder of the mo- 
narchy. His four sons divided the empire : 
511. Childebert ; Paris. 

,, Clodomir ; Orleans. 

,, Thierry; Metz ; and 

,, Clotaire ; Soissons. 

534. Theodebert ; Metz. 
548. Theodebald ; succeeded in Metz. 
558. Clotaire I. ; sole ruler. Upon his death the king- 
dom divided between four sons : viz. , 
561. Charibert, ruled at Paris. 
,, Gontram, in Orleans and Burgundy. 
,, Sigebert, at Metz, and ) Both assassinated by 
,, Chilperic, at Soissons. j Fredegond. 
575. Childebert II. 
584. Clotaire II. ; Soissons. 
596. Thierry II. , son of Childebert ; in Orleans. 
,, Theodebert II. ; Metz. 
613. Clotaire II. ; became sole king. 
628. Dagobert I. the Great, son of Clotaire II. ; divided 

the kingdom between his two sons : 
638. Clovis II. , Burgundy and Neustria. 
,, Sigebert II. , Austrasia. 
656. Clotaire III. , son of Clovis II. 
670. Childeric II.; sole king; assassinated, with his 
queen and his son Dagobert, in the forest of Livri. 
,, Thierry III. ; Burgundy and Neustria. 
674. Dagobert II., son of Sigebert, in Austrasia; assas- 
sinated 679. 
691. Clovis III. (Pepin, mayor of the palace, rules in his 

name ; succeeded by his brother). 
695. Childebert III., the Just ; Pepin supreme. 
711. Dagobert III., son of Childebert. 
715. Chilperic II., deposed by Charles Martel, mayor of 

the palace. 
717. Clotaire IV., of obscure origin, raised by Charles 
Martel to the throne ; dies soon after ; Chilperic 
is recalled from Aquitaine. 
720. Chilperic II. restored; shortly afterwards dies at 

Noyon ; succeeded by 
,, Thierry IV., son of Dagobert III., surnamed ale 
Chelles; died in 737. Charles Martel now reigns 
under the new title of "duke of the French." 
Renault. 
737. Interregnum, till the death of Charles Martel, in 741. 
742. Childeric III., son of Chilperic II., surnamed the 
Stupid. Carloman and Pepin, the sons of Charles 
Martel, share the government. 

THE CARLOV1NGIANS. 

752. Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel ; he is suc- 
ceeded by his two sons, 

768. Charles the Great (Charlemagne) and Carloman; 
Charles crowned Emperor of the West, by 
Leo III. , 800. Carloman reigned but three years. 

814. Louis I. le Debonnaire, Emperor; dethroned, but 
restored to his dominions. 

840. Charles, surnamed the Bald, King ; Emperor in 
875 ; poisoned by Zedechias, a Jewish physician. 

877. Louis II., the Stammerer, son of Charles the Bald, 
King. 

879. Louis III. and Carloman II. ; the former died in 
882, and Carloman reigned alone. 

884. Charles III. le Gros; a usurper, in prejudice to 
Charles the Simple. 

887. Eudes, or Hugh, count of Paris. 

898. Charles III. (or IV.), the Simple; deposed, and 
died in prison in 929 ; he married Edgiva, 
daughter of Edward the Elder, of England, by 
whom he had a son, King Louis IV. 

922. Robert, brother of Eudes ; crowned at Rheims ; 

Charles killed him in battle. Henault. 

923. Rudolf or Raoul, duke of Burgundy ; elected king, 

but never acknowledged by the southern pro- 
vinces. Henault. 

936. Louis IV. oVOutremer, or Transmarine (from having 
been conveyed by his mother into England), son 
ofCharlesIII. (or IV.); diedbyal'allfromhishorse. 

954. Lothaire,hisson; reigned jointly with his fatherfrom 
952, and succeeds him at 15 years of age, under 
the protection of Hugh the Great ; poisoned. 



FRANCE. 



518 



FRANCE. 



986. 



1223. 
1226, 



1322. 



1328. 



Louis V., the Indolent, son of Lothaire; also 
poisoned, it is supposed by his queen, Blanche ; 
last of the race of Charlemagne. 

THE CAPETS. 

987. Hugh Capet, the Great, count of Paris, &c, eldest 
son of Hugh the Abbot, 3 July; he seizes the 
crown, in prejudice to Charles of Lorraine, uncle 
of Louis Transmarine. From him this race of 
kings is called Capevingians and Capetians. He 
died 24 Oct. 
996. Robert II. , surnamed the Sage ; son; died lamented, 
20 July. 

1031. Henry I., son ; died 29 Aug. 

1060. Philip I. the Fair, I'Amourevx ; son ; succeeded at 
8 years of age ; ruled at 14 ; died 3 Aug. 

1 108. Louis VI. , surnamed the Lusty, or UGros; son; 
died 1 Aug. 

1137. Louis VII. ; son; surnamed the Young, to distin- 
guish him from his father, with whom he reigned 
for some years ; died 18 Sept. 

1180. Philip II. (Augustus); son; succeeds at 15; 
crowned at Rheims in his father's lifetime ; died 

14 July. 
Louis VIII., Occur de Lion; son ; died 8 Nov. 
Louis IX. ; son ; called St. Louis ; ascended the 

throne at 15, under the guardianship of his 

mother, who was also regent ; died in his camp 

before Tunis, 25 Aug. 
1270. Philip III., the Hardy; son; died at Perpignan, 

6 Oct. 
1285. Philip IV., the Fair; son; king in his 17th year ; 

died 29 Nov. 
1314. Louis X. ; son; surnamed Rutin, an old word for 

headstrong, or mutinous ; died 5 June. 
1316. John I., posthumous son of Louis X. ; born 

15 Nov. ; died 19 Nov. 

„ Philip V. the Long (on account of his stature) ; 
brother of Louis ; died 3 Jan. 
Charles IV., the Handsome ; brother ; died 31 Jan . 
1328. 

HOUSE OF VALOIS. 

Philip VI. , de Valois, the Fortunate ; grandson of 
Philip III. ; died 23 Aug. 

1350. John II. the Good ; son ; died suddenly in the Savoy 
in London, 8 April. 

1364. Charles V., the Wise ; son ; died 16 Sept. 

1380. Charles VI. the Beloved; son; died 21 Oct. 

1422. Charles VII., the Victorious; son; died 22 July. 

1461. Louis XI. ; son ; able but cruel : died 30 Aug. 

1483. Charles VIII., the Affable; son; died 7 April. 

1498. Louis XII., Duke of Orleans; the Father of his 
People ; great-grandsou of Charles V. ; died 1 Jan. 
Francis I. of Angouleme; called the Father of 
Letters ; great-great-grandson of Charles V. : 
died 31 March. 
Henry II ; son ; received a wound at a tourna- 
ment at the nuptials (by proxy) of his daughter 
Isabella with King Philip II. of Spain, acciden- 
tally inflicted by Montgomery, a Scotch noble- 
man in his service, 29 June; died 10 July, 1559. 
Francis II. ; son; married Mary Stuart, queen of 

Scots ; died 5 Dec. 
Charles IX. ; brother; Catherine de Medicis, his 
mother, regent; died 30 May. 

1574. Henry III.; brother; elected king of Poland; last 
of the house of Valois ; stabbed by Jacques 
Clement, a Dominican friar, 1 Aug. ; died 2 Aug. 
1589. 

HOUSE OF BOURBON. 

1589. Henry IV., the Great, of Bourbon, king of Navarre ; 
son-in-law of Henry II.: murdered by Francis 
Ravaillac, 14 May. 
1610. Louis X 1 1 1.. 1 1n- .lust ; son: died 14 May. 
1643. Iiouta .XIV., the Great, Diendonne; son; died 

1 Sept. 
1715. Louis XV., the Well-beloved ; great-grandson; died 

20 May, 

1774. Louis xvi., bis -rands. .11 ; ascended the throne in 

his 20th year: married flic archduchess Marie 

Antoinette, of Austria, May, 1770; dethroned, 

14 July, 1789; guillotined, 21 Jan 1793, and bis 

queen, 16 Oct, following, 

[Louis was executed Monday, 2i January, 1793, at 

eight o'clock a.m. on tlir scaffold he said. "French 

men, I die innocent of the offences imputed to me I 

pardon all my enemies, ami 1 implore of Heaven thai 

my beloved France ' At tins instanl Santerre 



1515- 



IS47- 



1559- 
1560- 



ordered the drums to beat, and the executioners to 

perform their office. When the guillotine descended, 

the priest exclaimed: "Son of St. Louis! ascend to 

heaven." The bleeding head was then held up, and a j 

few of the populace shouted, " Vive la Jlepublique ! " 

The body was interred in a grave that was immediately 

afterwards filled up with quick lime, and a strong 

guard was placed around until it should be consumed.] 

1793. Louis XVII. , son of Louis XVI. He never reigned ; 

and died in prison, supposed by poison, 8 June, 

1795, aged 10 years 2 months. It is believed 

by some that he escaped to England, and lived 

there some time as Augustus Meves.* In 1874 

a person calling himself Auguste de Bourbon 

claimed to be his son. In France also Albert de 

Bourbon, son of one Naundorff, claimed to be 

son of Louis XVII. At a trial in Paris, when 

Jules Favre was his counsel, the verdict was 

strongly against his claim, 27 Feb. 1874. 

THE FIRST REPUBLIC. 

1792. The National Convention (750 members), first 

sitting, 21 Sept. 
1795. The Directory (Lareveillere Lepaux, Letoumeur, 

Rewbell, Barras, and Carnot) nominated 1 Nov. ; 

abolished, and Bonaparte, Ducos, and Sieyes 

appointed an executive commission, Nov. 1799. 
1799. The Consulate. Napoleon Bonaparte, Camba- 

ceres, and Lebrun appointed consuls, 24 Dec. 

Napoleon appointed consul for 10 years, 6 May, 

1802 ; for life, 2 Aug. 1802. 

first empire. (See article Bonaparte Family.) 

[Established by the senate 18 May, 1804.] 

1804. Napoleon (Bonaparte) I. ; born 15 Aug. 1769. 

He married, 
1st, Josephine, widow of Alexis, vicomte de 

Beauharnais, 8 March, 1796 (who was divorced 

16 Dec, 1809, and died 29 May, 1814) ; 
2nd, Maria-Louisa of Austria, 2 April, 1810 (she 

died 17 Dec. 1847). Son, Napoleon Joseph, duke 

of Reichstadt, born 20 March, 181 1 ; died, 22 

July, 1832. 
He renounced the thrones of France and Italy, 

and accepted the isle of Elba for his retreat, 5 

April, 1814. 
Again appeared in France, 1 March, 1815. 
Was defeated at Waterloo, 18 June, 1815. 
Abdicated in favour of his infant son, 22 June, 

1815- 
Banished to St. Helena, where he dies, 5 May, 

1821. (See France, 1840.) 

bourbons restored. 

1814. Louis XVIII. (comte de Provence), brother of 
Louis XVI. ; born 17 Nov. 1755 ; married Marie- 
Josephine-Louise of Savoy ; entered Paris, and 
took possession of the throne, 3 May, 1814 ; 
obliged to flee, 20 March, 1815 ; returned 8 July, 
same year ; died without issue, 16 Sept. 1824. 

1824. Charles X. (comte d'A rtois), his brother ; bom 9 Oct. 
1757 ; married Marie-Therese of Savoy ; deposed 
30 July, 1830. He resided iu Britain till 1832, 
and died at Gratz, in Hungary, 6 Nov. 1835. 
[His grandson, Henry, due de Bordeaux, called 
comte de Chambord, son of the due de Berry ; 
born 29 Sept. 1S20 ; married princess Theresa of 
Modena, Nov. 1846 ; no issue ; styled himself 
Henri V. See France, 1870, et seq.] 

house of Orleans. (See Orleans.) 
1830. Louis-Philippe, son of Louis-Philippe, duke of 
Orleans, called Egaliti, descended from Philippe, 
duke of Orleans, son of Louis XIII, ; born 6 
Oct. 1773 ; married 25 Nov. 1809, Maria-Amelia, 
daughter of Ferdinand I. (IV.) king of the Two 
Sicilies ; (she died 24 March, i860). Raised to the 
throne as king of the French, 9 Aug. 1830 ; abdi- 
cated 24 Feb. 1848. Died in exile, in England. 
■(. Aug. 1S50. 
[Heir; Louis-Philippe, count of Paris; born 24 
Aug. 1838.] 

second republic, 1848. 
The revolution commenced in a popular insurrection at 
Paris, .?-• 1'Vb. 1S4S. The royal family escaped by 
flight t<> England, a provisional government was estab- 
lished, monarchy abolished, and France declared a 
republic. 

■ 1 [c died insane, Jan. 1880. 



; 



FRANCE. 



519 



FBANCO-PEUSSIAN WAE. 






Charles-Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, declared by the 
National Assembly (19 Dec.) president of the republic 
of France ; and proclaimed next day, 20 Dec. ; elected 

■ for ten years, 22 Dec. 1851. 

fbench empire revived. (See Bonaparte. ) 
[1821. Napoleon II. (decreed to be so termed by 
Napoleon III. on his accession). Napoleon, 
Joseph, son of Napoleon I. and Maria-Louisa, 
archduchess of Austria ; born 20 March, 181 1 : 
created king of Rome. On the abdication of his 
father he was made duke of Reichstadt, in 
Austria ; and died at the palace of Schoenbrunn, 
22 July, 1832, aged 21.] 
1852. Napoleon III. formerly president of the French 
republic, elected emperor, 21, 22 Nov. 1852 ; 
proclaimed, 2 Dec. 1852 ; surrendered himself a 
prisoner to the king of Prussia at Sedan, 2 Sept. 
1870 ; deposed at Paris, 4 Sept. ; arrives at Wil- 
helmshohe, near Cassel, 5 Sept. ; deposition con- 
firmed by the national assembly, 1 March ; he 
protested against it, 6 March, 1871 ; diedatChisle- 
hurst, England, 9 Jan. 1873 ; buried there 15 Jan. 

Empress : Eugenie-Marie (a Spaniard, countess of 
Teba), born 5 May, 1826 ; married 29 Jan. 1853. 

Heir: Napoleon- Eugene -Louis-Jean- Joseph, son ; 
styled Napoleon IV., born 16 March, 1856 ; killed 
in Zululand, 1 June, 1879 ; buried beside his 
father at Chislehurst (the prince of Wales and 
other princes present), 12 July, 1879 [both re- 
moved to mausoleum, Farnborough, 9 Jan. 
1888]. See Wills. 

At the celebration of the fete Napoleon, 15 Aug., 
1873, the prince declared the policy of his 
family to be " Everything by the people, for 
the people." 

[On 18 Dec. 1852, the succession, in default of issue 
from the emperor, was determined in favour of 
prince Jerome-Napoleon and his heirs male.] 

third republic. 

I. Louis Adolphe Thiers (born 16 April, 1797) appointed 
chief of the executive power, 17 Feb., and president 
of the French republic, by the national assembly, 31 
Aug. 1871 ; resigned, 24 May, 1873 ; died, 3 Sept. 1877. 

II. Marshal M. E. Patrice Maurice MacMahon, due de 
Magenta, elected president, 24 May ; nominated for 
seven years, 20 Nov. 1873, died 17th October, 1893. 

III. Frangois Paul Jules Grevy (born 15 Aug. 1813); 
elected 30 Jan. 1879 ; re-elected 28 Dec. 1885 ; re- 
signed 2 Dec. 1887. 

IV. Marie-FranQois Sadi-Carnot (born 11 Aug. 1837) ; 
elected 3 Dec. 1887 ; assassinated 24 — 25 June, 1894. 

V. Jean Pierre Paul Casimir-Perier, elected 27 June, 
1894; resigned 15 Jan. 1895. 

VI. Frangois Felix Faure (born 20 Jan. 1841) ; elected 
17 Jan. 1895; died, 16 Feb 1899. 

VII. Emile Loubet (born 31 Dec. 1838) ; elected 18 Feb. 



FEANCE, Isle OF, see Mauritius. 

FEANCHE COMTE, in upper Burgundy, E. 
France, was conquered by Julius Caesar, about 45 
B.C. ; by the Burgundians, early in the fifth century, 
A..D. ; and by the Franks about 534. It was made 
a county for Hugh the Black in 915, and received 
its name from having been taken from Renaud III. 
(1127-48), and restored to him. By marriage with 
the count's daughter, Beatrice, the emperor 
Frederick I. acquired the county, 1156. Their 
descendant, Mary of Burgundy, by marriage with 
the archduke Maximilian, conveyed it to the house 
of Austria, 1477. It was conquered by the French, 
1668 ; restored by the treaty of Aix la Chapelle, 
2 May, 1668 ; again conquered ; and finally annexed 
to France by treaty, 1678. 



FEANCHISE. A privilege or exemption 
from ordinary jurisdiction, and anciently an asylum 
or sanctuary where the person was secure. In 
Spain, churches and monasteries were, until lately, 
franchises for criminals, as formerly in England ; 
see Sanctuaries. In 1420,, the elective fran- 
chise for counties was restricted to persons having 



at least 40s. a year in land, and resident ; for recent 
changes, see Reform . 

FEANCIS' Assault on the Queen. 

John Francis, a youth, fired a pistol at queen Vic- 
toria as she was riding down Constitution-hill, in 
an open barouche, accompanied by prince Albert, 30 
May, 1842. The queen was uninjured. Previous 
intimation having reached the palace of the inten- 
tion of the criminal, her majesty had commanded 
that none of the ladies of her court should attend 
her. Francis was condemned to death, 17 June 
following, but was transported for life. He was 
liberated on ticket-of-leave in 1867. 

FEANCISCANS. Grey or Minor Friars, an 
order founded by St. Francis d'Assisi, about 1209. 
Their rules were chastity, poverty, obedience, and 
very austere regimen. About 1220 they appeared in 
England, where, at the time of the dissolution of 
monasteries by Henry VIII., they had fifty-five 
abbeys or other houses, 1536-38. 

FEANCISCO, SAN, the largest city in Cali- 
fornia, which see. The centenary of the foundation 
of the city by Franciscan monks, 8 Oct. 1776, was 
celebrated in 1876. The city suffered by earth- 
quakes in 1868 and 1872. Mr. William Coleman, an 
eminent maintainer of public order, died, aged about 
69, Dec. 1893. -M- rs - J ane L. Stanford's deed of gift, 
&c, equal to 25,000,000 dol., to the Leland Stan- 
ford Jun. University, signed, 9 Dec. 1901. Popula- 
tion, 1880, 233,959; 1890,298,997; 1900,360,000. 

FEANCONIA, or Frankenland (on the 
Maine), formerly a circle of the German empire, 
part of Thuringia, was conquered by Thierry, king 
of the Franks, 530, and colonized. Its count or duke, 
Conrad, was elected king of Germany, 8 Nov. 911 ; 
and his descendant was the emperor Conrad. III., 
elected 1 138, and another duke. Franconia was made 
a distinct circle from Thuringia in 1512. At its sub- 
division in 1806 various German princes obtained 
a part ; but in 1814 the largest share was awarded 
to Bavaria. 

FEANCO-PEUSSIAN WAE originated in 
the emperor of the French's jealousy of the greatly 
increased power of Prussia, through the successful 
issue of the war with Denmark in 1864, and with 
Austria in 1866. The German Confederation was 
thereby annulled, and the North German Con- 
federation established under the supremacy of 
the king of Prussia, to whose territories were 
further annexed Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nas- 
sau, Frankfort, and other provinces. This great 
augmentation of the power of Prussia was mainly 
due to the energetic policy of count Bismarck- 
Schonhausen, prime minister since Sept. 1862. 
In a draft treaty, secretly proposed to the Prussian 
government by the French emperor in 1866 : " 1. 
The emperor recognises the acquisitions which 
Prussia has made in the last war ; 2. The king of 
Prussia promises to facilitate the acquisition of 
Luxemburg by France ; 3. The emperor will not 
oppose a federal union of the northern and 
southern states of Germany, excluding Austria ; 
4. The king of Prussia, in case the emperor should 
enter or conquer Belgium, will support him in 
arms against any opposing power ; 5. They enter 
into an alliance offensive and defensive. " 
[This draft treaty was published in the Times, 25 
July, 1870. After some discussion, its authenti- 
city was admitted ; count Bismarck asserting 
that it emanated entirely from the French em- 
peror, and that the scheme had never been 
seriously entertained by himself.] 
In March, 1867, a dispute arose through the French 
emperor's proposal for purchasing Luxemburg 
from the king of Holland, which was strongly 



FEANCO-PEUSSIAN WAS, 



520 



FEANCO-PEUSSIAN WAE. 



opposed by Prussia, as that province had formed 
part of the dissolved Germanic Confederation ; 
and the affair was only settled by a conference of 
the representatives of the great powers in London, 
at which the perfect neutrality of Luxemburg 
was determined, together with the withdrawal of 
the Prussian garrison and the destruction of the 
fortifications 7-1 1 May, 1867 

Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (con- 
nected with the Prussian dynasty, and brother of 
Charles, prince of Roumania), consented to be- 
come a candidate for the throne of Spain, 4 July, 1870 

This was denounced by the French government. 
Threatening speeches were made in the French 
chamber by the due de Grammont, the foreign 
minister, and eventually, after some negotiation 
and the intervention of Great Britain, prince Leo- 
pold, with the consent of his sovereign, declined 
the proffered crown . . . .12 July, ,, 

The submission did not satisfy the French govern- 
ment and nation, and the demand for a guarantee 
against the repetition of such an acceptance 
irritated the Prussian government, and led to the 
termination of the negotiations, the king refusing 
to receive the count Benedetti, the French 
minister 13 July, ,, 

Energetic but fruitless efforts to avert the war were 
made by earl Granville, the British foreign 
minister about 15 July, „ 

War was announced by the emperor, with the 
hearty consent of the great majority of the 
chambers. The left or republican party opposed the 
war ; M. Thiers and a few others only protested 
against it as premature . . . .15 July, ,, 

[After his surrender on 2 Sept., the emperor told 
count Bismarck that he did not desire war, but 
was driven into it by public opinion. He appears 
to have been greatly deceived as to the numerical 
strength of his army, and its state of preparation.] 
The greatest national cj ime that we have had the 
pain of recording since the days of the first 
French revolution has been consummated. War 
is d(gjlared — an unjust but premeditated war." — 
Times, 16 July, 1870. 

(For details of the buttles see separate articles.) 

French Army, about 300,000 : — 

1st corps, under marshal MacMahon. 
2nd corps, under general Frossard. 
3rd corps, under marshal Bazaine. 
4th corps, under general Ladmirault. 
5th corps, under general De Failly. 
6th corps, under marshal Canrobert. 
Imperial guard, under general Bourbaki. 
Commander-in-chief, the emperor ; general Le Bceuf, 
second ; succeeded by marshal Bazaine. 

Prussian Army, about 640,000 : — 

1. Northern, under general Vogel von Falckenstein, 

about 220,000, defending the Elbe, Hanover, &c. 

2. Right, under prince Frederick Charles, about 

180,000. 

3. Centre, under generals Von Bittenfeld and Von 

Steinmetz, about 80,000. 

4. The left, under the crown prince of Prussia, about 

166,000. 
Commander-in-chief, king William ; second, general 
Helmuth Karl Bernhara von Moltke (born 26 Oct., 
1800; died 24 April, 1891). 

The North German army, at the beginning of August, 
consisted, firstly, of 550,000 line, with 1,200 guns and 
53,000 cavalry ; secondly, of 187,000 reserve, with 234 
guns and 18,000 cavalry ; and, thirdly, of 205,000 land- 
wchr or militia, with 10,000 cavalry, making a grand 
total of 944,000 men, with 1,680 mobilised guns and 
103,000 horses, 

To these must be added, firstly, the Bavarians, 69,000 
line, wiili 19a guns and 14,800 horses — 25,000 reserve 
with 2,400 horses, and 22,000 landwehr ; secondly, the 
Wlirtembergers — 22,000 line with 54 guns and 6,200 
horses, 6,500 reserve, and 6,000 landwehr ; and. thirdly, 
the Badenese— 16,000 line with 54 guns, 4,000 reserve, 
and 9,600 landwehr. 

All tin' Germain troops taken together as under arms at 
present, 1,124,000 men. Aug. 1870. 

lour weeks previously, on the peace footing, thev num- 
bered only 360,000. 



The French and Germans in this war were considered to 
be equally brave and efficient ; but the French generals 
appear to have acted greatly upon impulse. The Ger- 
mans seem to have been invariably guided bj\a well- 
matured plan, their tactics mainly consisting in bring- 
ing vast masses to bear on the point where they were 
anxious to prevail. From Saarbriick to Sedan, Moltke- 
appears to have left nothing to chance ; and all his ar- 
rangements were ably carried out. 

The causes of the early ruin of the French army were : 
" 1, the enormous superiority of the Germans in regard 
to numbers ; 2, the absolute unity of their command 
and concert of operation ; 3, their superior mechanism, 
in equipment and supplies ; 4, the superior intelli- 
gence, steadiness and discipline of the soldiers ; 5,. 
superior education of the officers, and the dash and 
intelligence of the cavalry. " — Quarterly Review. 

Estimated cost of the war to France, 395,400,000/., Jail. 
1875- 

War resolved on by the French government, 15 July ; 
declaration delivered at Berlin . . 19 July, 1870 

The north German parliament meet at Berlin, and 
engage to support Prussia in the war 19 July, ,, 

Wiirtemberg, Bavaria, Baden, and Hesse Darm- 
stadt declare war against France, and send con- 
tingents to the army . . . . 20 July, ,„ 

War proclamation of the emperor Napoleon, de- 
claring that the national honour, violently excited 
. . . alone takes in hand the destinies of the 
country 23 July, ,, 

Part of the bridge at Kehl blown up by the 
Prussians 23 July, ,,. 

Proclamation of the king that " love of the common 
fatherland, and the unanimous uprising of the 
German races, have conciliated all opinions, and 
dissipated all disagreements .... The war will 
procure for Germany a durable peace, and from 
this bloody seed will arise a harvest blessed by 
God — the liberty and unity of Germany," 25 July, ,,. 

Skirmish atNiederbronn ; a Bavarian officer killed, 

2 r 6 July, ,. 

Day of general prayer observed in Prussia, 27 July, ,, 

The emperor Napoleon joins the army ; at Metz as- 
sumes the chief command, and issues a proclama- 
tion declaring that the war will be long and severe, 

28, 29 July, ,, 

Repulse of a French attack at Saarbriick, 30 July, ,. 

20 Badenese enter France at Lauterburg ; Mr. 
Winsloe killed ; some captured ; others escape 
with valuable information . . . 31 July, ,, 

Proclamation of the king of Prussia to his people, 
granting an amnesty for political offences, and 
" resolving, like our forefathers, placing full 
trust in God, to accept the battle for the defence 
of the fatherland " . 31 July, ,, 

He leaves Berlin for the army, 1 Aug., and an- 
nounces that " all Germany stands united in arms" 

3 Aug. ,„ 

The French government announce that "they 
make war, not against Germany, but against 
Prussia, or rather against the policy of count 
Bismarck" 2 Aug. ,,. 

The French under Frossard bombard and take Saar- 
briick in the presence of the emperor and his 
son ; the Prussians, dislodged, retire with little 
los s 2 Aug ,_ 

The due de Grammont, French foreign minister, pub- 
lishes a circular replying to Bismarck's charges 
against France 3 Aug. „ 

The crown prince crosses the Lauter, the boundary 
of France, and defeats the French under Frossard, 
stunning the lines of Wissemborg andGeisberg; 
general Douay killed 4 Aug. „ 

Battle of Woerth : in a desperate, long-continued 
battle the crown prince defeats marshal MacMa- 
hon and the army of the Rhine ; they retire to 
Saverne to cover Nancy . . . . 6 Aug. , ; . 

Battle of Forbach : Saarbriick recaptured, and For- 
bach (in France) taken by generals Von Goeben 
and Von Steinmetz, after.a fierce contest ; all the 
French retreat 6 Aug. „ 

General Turr publishes, in a letter, statements of 
proposals by Bismarck for the annexation of Lux- 
emburg ami Belgium by Fiance, in 1866 and 
1867 . . . ■ *_ - . • 6 Aug: „ 



FEANCO-PEUSSIAN WAR. 



521 



FEANCO-PEUSSIAN WAE. 



The emperor, reporting these defeats, says, " Tout 
peut se retablir " 7 Aug. 

The Germans occupy Forbach, Haguenau, and Saar- 
guemines 7 Aug. 

Marshal Bazaine appointed to the chief command 
of the French army at Metz (about 130,000); 
MacMahon has about 50,000 near Saverne ; Can- 
robert about 50,000 near Nancy . . 8 Aug. 

Nine French iron-clads pass Dover for the Baltic, 

9 Aug. 

St. Avoid occupied by the Germans . 9 Aug. 

Marshal Bazaine takes command of the army at 
Metz - . .9 Aug. 

Phalsburg invested 9 Aug. 

Treaty with Great Britain guaranteeing the neu- 
trality of Belgium, signed on behalf of Prussia, 
9 Aug. ; of France . . . . 11 Aug. 

Forced resignation of the Ollivier ministry 9 Aug. 

New ministry constituted under general Cousin 
Montauban ; comte de Palikao, war minister, 

10 Aug. 
Strasburg invested by the Germans . 10 Aug. 
The king of Prussia, at Saarbriick, proclaims that 

"he makes war against soldiers, not against 
French citizens " .... 10 Aug. 

Lichtenburg capitulates to the Germans 10 Aug. 

MacMahon's army retreating upon the Moselle, 

11 Aug. 
The little fortress, " La Petite Pierre," evacuated, 

11 Aug. 
Communication with Strasburg cut off 11 Aug. 
Nancy occupied by the Germans without resistance, 

12 Aug. 
The Bavarians pass the Vosges . . .12 Aug. 
The king at St. Avoid forbids conscription for the 

French army in territories held by Germans, 

13 Aug. 
Marshal Bazaine made commander of the army of 

the Rhine 13 Aug. 

Bombardment of Strasburg begun . 14 Aug. 

The French government declare that " there can 

be, for a moment, no question of negotiation of 

peace" 14 Aug. 

Blockade of the German ports on the Baltic, from 

15 Aug., announced by the French admiral, 

14 Aug. 
Many French volunteer sharp-shooters (francs- 

tirenrs) take the field (not recognised as soldiers 
by the Germans) .... about 14 Aug. 

Toul refuses to surrender ... 14 Aug. 

The emperor retires to Verdun . . 14 Aug. 

Marshal Bazaine's army defeated in several long- 
continued sanguinary battles before Metz (see 
Metz) :— 

1. Battle of Courcelles (Pange or Longeville) 

gained by Von Steinmetz and the 1st army, 
.14 Aug. 

2. Battle of Vionville or Mars-la-Tour, gained 

by prince Frederick Charles and the 2nd 
army 16 Aug. 

3. Battles of Gravelotte and Kezonville, gained 

by the combined armies commanded by 
the king 18 Aug. 

French sortie from Strasburg repulsed; German 
attack on Phalsburg repulsed . . 16 Aug. 

MacMahon reaches Chalons, 16 Aug. ; joined by the 
emperor; his army between 130,000 and 150,000, 

20 Aug. 

The king appoints governors-general of Alsace and 
Lorraine 17 Aug. 

Energetic fortification of Paris by general Trochu, 
the governor, and the "defence committee" 

18 Aug. 

Estimated German losses : killed, wounded, and 
missing, 2088 officers, 46,480 men; up to 18 Aug. 

Severe bombardment of Strasburg . 19 Aug. 

MacMahon's army of the Rhine retreats as the 
Prussians under the king and crown prince 
advance ; prince Frederick Charles opposed to 
Bazaine at Metz ; [German armies in France about 
500,000 ; the French armies about 300,000 ; com- 
munications between marshals Bazaine and Mac- 
Mahon very difficult] . . . about 20 Aug. 

Lieut. Harth, a Prussian spy, tried and shot at 
Maris 20 Aug. 

MacMahon raises his camp at Chalons 20 Aug 



1870 



The troops extended along the line of the Marne, 

21 Aug. 1870. 
Exportation of food prohibited . . . 21 Aug. ,, 
Bazaine at Metz said to be completely isolated, 

22 Aug. ,, 
MacMahon at Rheims with his army, including the 

remains of the corps of Failly and Canrobert ; he 
marches in hope of joining Bazaine, 23 Aug. ; the 
crown-prince and prince of Saxony start in pur- 
suit, 23 Aug. ; march upon Chalons . 24 Aug. ,, 
Prussian royal head-quarters removed from Pont a 
Mousson to Bar-le-Duc (125 miles from Paris) 

24 Aug. , t 
The alleged violation of the neutrality of Belgium 

denied by its government . . . 25 Aug. ,, 
The Germans enter the arrondissement of Vassy, 

25 Aug ., 
Germans repulsed in an attack on Verdun, 25 Aug. ,, 
800 French national guards captured at St. Mene- 

hould 25 Aug. ,» 

Chalons occupied by the Germans . . 25 Aug. ,, 
Capitulation of Vitry, a small fortress . 25 Aug. „ 
Formation of three German armies of reserve in 
Germany, and a fourth army in the field, under 
the crown-prince of Saxony, to co-operate with 
the crown-prince of Prussia against Paris, 26 Aug. ,? 
Strasburg suffering much by bombardment, 

23-26 Aug. 
Powerful sortie of Bazaine from Metz repulsed, 

26 Aug. ,, 
Phalsburg heroically resisting . . 26 Aug. ,, 
Thionville invested by the Germans . 27 Aug. ,, 
Engagement at Busancy, between Vouziers and 

Stenay : a regiment of French chasseurs nearly 
annihilated 27 Aug. , T 

Two German armies (220,000) marching on Paris, 

28 Aug. ,, 

Continued retreat of MacMahon's army: severe 
fighting at Dun, Stenay, and Mouzon 28 Aug. ,, 

Nicholas Schull, a German spy, shot at Metz 28 Aug. ,, 

Vrizy, between Vouziers and Attigny, stormed by 
the Germans 29 Aug. ,, 

Municipal meetings at Berlin, Konigsberg, and 
other German cities, protest against foreign inter- 
vention for peace . . . 30, 31 Aug. , 

MacMahon's army, about 150,000, accompanied by 
the emperor, retreating northwards ; part of it, 
under De Failly, surprised and defeated near Beau- 
mont, between Mouzon and Moulins ; several other 
engagements, unfavourable to the French, oc- 
curred during the day . . . . 30 Aug. ,, 

Count Bismarck-Bohlen installed governor of Alsace 
at Haguenau 30 Aug. 

The Germans enter Carignan ; attack the French in 
the plain of Douzy ; the French, at first success- 
ful, are defeated, and retreat to Sedan 31 Aug. ,, 

A French army of old soldiers, about 100,000, are 
said to be forming near Lyons . . 31 Aug. ,, 

Bazaine defeated in his endeavour to escape from 
Metz ; after a fierce struggle, retreats into Metz, 

31 Aug. 1 Sept. , r 

Battle round Sedan: begun at 4 a.m. between 
Sedan and Douzy ; the French at first successful ; 
after a severe struggle and dreadful carnage, the 
Germans victorious; MacMahon wounded, 5.30 
p.m. ; general de Wimptfen refuses to accept the 
terms offered by the king of Prussia . 1 Sept. ,, 

Capitulation of Sedan and the remainder of Mac- 
Mahon's army ; the emperor surrenders to the 
king (see Sedan) ..... 2 Sept. ,, 

Vigorous artillery action at Strasburg ; a sortie 
repulsed 2 Sept. ,, 

Revolution at Paris after the declaration of the 
capture of MacMahon's army ; proclamation of a 
republic (see France) .... 4 Sept. ,, 

Rheims occupied by the Germans and the king, 

5 Sept, ,, 
Jules Favre, the French foreign minister, in a 

circular to the French diplomatic representa- 
tives, says, " We will not cede either an inch of 
our territories or a stone of our fortresses " 

6 Sept, „ 
General Vinoy and a corps sent too late to aid 

MacMahon ; retreat and arrive in Paris, 6, 7 Sept. ,, 
St. Dizier occupied by the Germans . . 7 Sept. ,. 
Strasburg invested by 60,000 men . . 8 Sept. ,, 
Verdun vigorously resisting . . . .8 Sept. ,, 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 



522 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 



The German army, in five corps, advancing on Paris, 

9 Sept. 1870 

Laon surrendered to save the town from destruc- 
tion ; by the accidental or treacherous explosion 
of a magazine some of the German staff and many 
French perish 9 Sept. 

Metz, Strasburg, Thionville, Phalsburg, Toul, 
Bitsehe, and other fortified places holding out, 

10 Sept. 

Messages between belligerents transmitted by lord 
Lyons (at Paris) and count Bernstorff (Prussian 
minister) in London .... 9-10 Sept. 

German attack on Toul repulsed . . 10 Sept. 

Bridge at Creil over the Oise blown up . 12 Sept. 

Seven German corps (about 300,000 men) approach- 
ing Paris, which is said to contain 300,000 com- 
batants 13 Sept. 

M. Thiers arrives in London on a mission from the 
government 13 Sept. 

Colmar occupied by the Germans . . 14 Sept. 

General Trochu reviews the troops in Paris, 13 Sept. ; 
delivers a stirring address ; the daily guard 
ordered to be 70.000 ... 14 Sept. 

Estimated German loss : 60,000 killed and wounded ; 
between 20,000 and 30,000 sick; about 1,000 
prisoners . . . .15 Sept. 

French prisoners in Germany : 62 generals, 4,800 
officers, 140,000 privates, about . 15 Sept. 

Correspondence between count Bernstorff and earl 
Granville respecting neutrality, said to have 
been broken ; denied by the earl 1-15 Sept. 

Siege of Paris begun ; ingress and egress prohibited 
without a permit .... 15 Sept. 

Blockade of the Elbe and Weser non - effective, 

15 Sept. 

Important circular of M. Favre, condemning the war 
and recognising the obligations of the country, 

17 Sept. 
Circular letters of count Bismarck, recounting the 

history of French aggressions on Germany, and 
asserting the necessity of obtaining material 
guarantees for the future safety of Germany, and 
removing the frontiers and point of attack further 

west 13, 16 Sept. 

Prussian head -quarters at Meux (20 miles from Paris) 

18 Sept. 
32 German merchant ships reported to have been 

captured by the French fleet up to . 18 Sept. 

Vessels sunk in the Seine and Marne, and other 
vigorous defensive measures adopted, 

18, 19 Sept. 

Paris said to be completely invested ; the fortifica- 
tions reconnoitred by the king, who has fixed his 
head-quarters at Baron Rothschild's chateau at 
Ferrieres, near Lagny ... 19 Sept. 

Three French divisions under general Vinoy attack 
the Germans on the heights of Sceaux ; repulsed 
with loss of 7 guns and 2500 prisoners : the defeat 
attributed to the disorder of the Zouaves : the 
national guard behave well . . -19 Sept. 

Count Bismarck consents to receive Jules Favre 
(about 16 Sept.); they meet at Chateau de la 
Haute Maison, 10 Sept. ; and at the king's head- 
quarters, Ferrieres, near Lagny . 20 Sept. 

Jules Favre reports to the government the result 
of his interviews with count Bismarck: Prussia 

demands tin ssion of the departments of the 

Upper and Lower Rhine and part of that of 

Moselle, with Met/, Chateau Salins and Soissons, 
and would agree to an armistice in order that a 
French constituent assembly might meet; the 
French to surrender Strasburg, 'foul ami Verdun 
(or Phalsburg according to favre). and Mont 
Valerien, if the assembly meet at Paris; these 
terms air positively rejected by the French 
government 21 Sept, 

Versailles and the troops there surrender, 10 Sept. : 
entered by the crown prince "f Prussia ■•.. Sept, 

A. lunette captured at Strasburg . . 20 Sept. 

General Von Steinmetz sent to Posen as governor- 
general ; prince Frederick ( lharlessol mmander 

before Metz 21 Sept. 

,s, \ res surrenders 22 Sept. 

The blockade of German ports raised; officially 
announced in London . . . .22 Sept. 

The French govern menl issue a circular expressing 
readiness to consent to an equitable peace, but 



refusing " to cede an inch of our territory or a 
stone of our fortresses " . . -23 Sept. 

Three conflicts before Paris : at Drancy, Pierrefitte, 
and Villejuif ; the two last reported favourable to 
the French 23 Sept. 

Toul surrenders after a most vigorous resistance, 

23 Sept. 

Levee en masse of men under 25 ordered by the 
French government .... 23 Sept. 

Germans repulsed in conflicts before Paris ; said by 
them to be unimportant ... 23 Sept. 

Verdun invested by the Germans . . 25 Sept. 

Desperate ineffective sallies from Metz, 

23, 24, 27 Sept. 

All the departments of the Seine and Marne occu- 
pied by Germans .... 26 Sept. 

The iron cross given by the crown prince of Prussia 
to above 30 soldiers beneath the statue of Louis 
XIV. at Versailles 26 Sept. 

Circular of Von Thile, Prussian foreign minister, 
stating that as the ruling powers in France 
decline an armistice, and as no recognised govern- 
ment exists in Paris (the government de facto 
being removed to Tours), all communications 
with and from Paris can only be carried on so far 
as the military events may permit . 27 Sept. 

Clermont occupied by the Germans after a brief 
vigorous resistance, overcome by artillery, 

27 Sept. 

Commencement of attack on Soissons . 28 Sept. 

Capitulation of Strasburg, 27 Sept. ; formally sur- 
rendered 28 Sept, 

Sortie of general Vinoy's army (at Paris) ; repulsed, 
after two hours' fighting, crown prince present ; 
above 200 prisoners taken ; general Giulham 
killed 30 Sept. 

Above 375,000 national guards said to be in Paris, 

30 Sept. 

Conflict near Rouen ; at first favourable to the 
French ; their loss 1,200 killed and wounded ; 300 
prisoners 30 Sept. 

Beauvais captured by the Germans . 30 Sept. 

Mantes occupied by the Germans . . 1 Oct. 

Circular from count Bismarck, disclaiming any in- 
tention of reducing France to a second-rate power, 

1 Oct. 

The American general Burnside visits M. Favre, 

1 Oct. 
Surgeon-major Wyatt writes that Paris is we.U- 

provisioned, and nearly inexpugnable . 1 Oct. 

M. Thiers' fruitless visit to Vienna, 23 Sept. ; to 

St. Petersburg, 27 Sept. ; dined with the czar, 

2 Oct. 
The grand duke of Mecklenburg at Rheims ap- 
pointed governor of the country conquered in ad- 
dition to Alsace and Lorraine . . .2 Oct. 

M. Favre, in the name of the diplomatic body, 
requests count Bismarck to give notice before 
bombarding Paris, and to allow a weekly courier ; 
the count declines both requests, but permits the 
passage of open letters ; reported . . 3 Oct. 

Count Bismarck in a circular corrects Favre's re- 
port of the negotiations, and accuses the French 
government of keeping up the difficulties opposed 
to a conclusion of peace ; reported . . 3 Oct. 

Epernon and La Ferte occupied by the Germans 
after an engagement .... 4 Oct. 

The king's head-quarters removed to Versailles ; 
arrival of the king, Bismarck. Moltke, and others, 

5 Oct. 

The Germans victors in several small engagements, 

2-6 Oct. 

General Treskow, in command of a German army. 
to advance into Southern France . . 5 Oct. 

Colmar occupied by the Prussians for an hour, 

5 Oct. 

Battle al Tlioury ; General Heyan, with the ad- 
vanced guard of the army of the Loire under 
general La Motte Rouge. 'defeats the Germans 
between t'haussy and Thorny, and captures some 
prisoners ami cattle .... 5 Oct. 

Fictitious manifesto of the emperor Napoleon III., 
entitled "Les Idies de VEm/perewr," advocating 
peace on moderate terms, dated 26 Sept., pub- 
lished in the imperialist journal in London, La 
Situation, and in Daily News, 4 Oct. ; disclaimed 
by the emperor 6 Oct. 



1870 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN,, WAR. 



523 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 



M. Thiers' mission to foreign courts reported to be 
quite abortive 6 Oct. 1870 

Part of the army of Lyons, under general Dupre, 
defeated by the Badenese under general Von 
Gegenfeld, near St. Remy; French loss, about 
i.soo, and 660 prisoners ; German loss, about 430, 

6 Oct. „ 

General Burnside leaves Paris in order to meet 
count Bismarck 7 Oct. ,, 

Great sortie from Metz ; the Germans surprised ; 
40,000 French engaged ; repulsed after severe con- 
flicts ; French loss, about 2,000 ; German, about 
600 7 Oct. „ 

Estimated number of French prisoners in Germany, 
3577 officers, and 123,700 men . . 8 Oct. ,, 

Neu Breisach bombarded . . . 8 Oct. „ 

Breton volunteers organising by M. Cathelineau ; 
volunteers in the west organising by general 
Charette (from Rome) .... 8 Oct. „ 

German attack on St. Quintin vigorously repulsed, 

8 Oct. „ 
Long despatch from count BernstorfF to earl Gran- 
ville, complaining of the British supplying arms 

to France 8 Oct. ,, 

M. Thiers again at Vienna ... 8 Oct. ,, 
Garibaldi arrives at Tours ; enthusiastically re- 
ceived ; reviews the national guard at Tours, 

9 Oct. „ 
Direct mediation declined by Russia, Great Britain, 

and Spain 10 Oct. ,, 

Prussian circular to the European powers, regret- 
ting the obstinate resistance of the French govern- 
ment to peace, and foretelling the consequences 
— social disorganisation and much starvation, 

10 Oct. ,, 
Ablis, near Paris, burnt for alleged treachery 

(killing sleeping soldiers) . . . . 10 Oct. ,, 
M. Gambetta escapes from Paris by a balloon, 7 
Oct. ; in his proclamation at Tours, states that 
Paris possesses 560,000 troops ; that cannon are 
cast daily, and that women are making cartridges ; 
he urges unanimous devoted co-operation in 
carrying on the war .... 10 Oct. „ 
Part of the army of the Loire defeated at Arthenay, 
near Orleans, by Bavarians under Von der Tann ; 
about 2,000 prisoners taken . . .10 Oct. ,, 
Prussian attack on Cherizy repulsed . 10 Oct. ,, 
French reply to Bismarck's circular on the negotia- 
tions 10 Oct. 

About 20 villages burnt, and 150 peasants shot for 

illicit warfare .... up to 11 Oct. ,, 
The French fleet appears off Heligoland . 11 Oct. ,, 
3,000 national guard mobilised at Rouen . 11 Oct. ,, 
Three first shots fired against Paris . . 11 Oct. „ 
Orleans captured by gen. Von der Tann after nine 
hours' fighting ; the army of the Loire defeated 
retires behind the Loire .... 11 Oct. ,, 
Stenay captured by a sortie from the French garri- 
son of Montmedy 11 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Bourbaki accepts the command at Tours ; 
gen. La Motte Rouge superseded in the command 
of the army of the Loire by gen. D'Aurelle de 

Paladines .12 Oct. ,, 

Battalions of Amazons said to be forming in Paris, 

12 Oct. „ 
Favourable intelligence from Paris by balloons re- 
ceived ....... 12 Oct. ,, 

Garibaldi appointed commander of the French 

irregulars 12 Oct. ,, 

Epinal captured by the Germans . . 12 Oct. ,, 
M. Aries Dufour of Lyons appeals to the people of 
Great Britain for active sympathy in endeavouring 

to obtain peace 12 Oct. ,, 

Breteuil occupied by the Germans after a sharp 

resistance 12 Oct. ,, 

Slight engagements (termed victories by the French) 

before Paris 13 Oct. ,, 

All the Vosges district in arms ; no regular army ; 

the denies occupied by the francs-tireurs, 13 Oct. „ 
Reported successful sorties ; Neu Breisach com- 
pletely invested 13 Oct. „ 

Reported French success at Bagneux, near Paris — 

the Prussians surprised . . . .13 Oct. ,, 
St. Cloud fired on by the French and burnt, 

13, 14 Oct. ,, 
Frequent sorties from Metz . about 14 Oct. ,, 



Sharp fight at Ecouis ; the French escape from 

being surrounded 14 Oct. 1870 

Gambetta announces that the Germans are dis- 
lodged from their innermost belt round Paris, 

14 Oct. ,, 
M. Thiers arrives at Florence ; Garibaldi at Besan- 

gon 14 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Boyer, aide-de-camp to marshal Bazaine, ar- 
rives at Versailles and meets count Bismarck, 14 Oct. , , 
Gen. Trochu's letter to the mayors of Paris, on re- 
organising the national guard and repressing the 
ardent desire for immediate action . 15 Oct. „ 
Soissons surrenders after three weeks' invtstment 

and four days' bombardment . . .16 Oct. ,, 
French successes before Paris denied by the Prus- 
sians, who hold the same position as on 19 Sept., 

16 Oct. „ 
M. Gambetta proceeds to the army of the Vosges ; 
gen. Bourbaki appointed commander of the army 
of the north ; gen. Maziere appointed to a com- 
mand in the army of the Loire . . 17 Oct. ,, 
Montdidier attacked by the Germans : 150 mobile 

guards captured 17 Oct. ,, 

The emperor Napoleon declares that " there can be 
no prospect of peace, near or remote, on the basis 
of ceding to Prussia a single foot of French 
territory ; and no government in France can 
attach its signature to such a treaty and remain 
in power a single day " . . . -17 Oct. „ 
4,000 French attacked and defeated near Chateaudun 
after ten hours' fighting and the barricaded town 

stormed 18 Oct. „ 

Circular of Jules Favre, asserting that Prussia 
" coldly and systematically pursues her task of 
annihilating us. France has now no illusions 
left. For her it is now a question of existence. 
. . . We prefer our present sufferings, our perils, 
and our sacrifices to the consequences of the 
inflexible and cruel ambition of our enemy. 
France needed, perhaps, to pass through a 
•sunreme trial — she will issue from it transfigured," 

18 Oct. ,, 
Asserted repulse of the Germans at Fort Issy before 

Paris .18 Oct. „ 

Despatch from earl Granville to count Bismarck 
urging the negotiations for peace on terms lenient 

to the French 20 Oct. „ 

Conclusive reply of earl Granville to count Bern- 

storff's charge of breach of neutrality . 21 Oct. .. „ 
Vigorous sortie from Mont Valerien against Ver- 
sailles ; an engagement at Malmaison ; the French 
retire after three hours' fighting, losing about 
400 killed and wounded and 100 prisoners ; Ger- 
man loss about 230 killed and wounded, 21 Oct. ,, 
Chartres occupied by the Germans under Wittich, 

21 Oct. „ 
Intervention of the British government (supported 
by the neutral powers) to obtain an armistice for 
the election of a national assembly . 21 Oct. „ 
Vesoul occupied by the Germans . . 21 Oct. ,, 
Many deserters from Metz . . 20—22 Oct. „ 

Sehelestadt bombarded vigorously . 22 Oct. „ 
Engagement near Evreux .... 22 Oct. „ 
Fighting at Vouray, Cussey, &c. , in the Vosges ; 

French " army of the east " defeated 22 Oct. ,, 

German attack on Chatillon le Due repulsed by gen. 

Cambriels 22 Oct. „ 

M. de Keratry assumes command of the army in 

Brittany 23 Oct. „ 

St. Quentin taken by the Germans after half-an- 
hour's cannonading, 21 Oct. ; evacuated by them, 

23 Oct. ,, 
Reported failure of the suggestions concerning an 

armistice, through Prussia demanding that 
France should consent to a cession of territory, 

24 Oct. „ 
Gambetta informs the mayors of towns that "re- 
sistance is more than ever the order of the day," 

24 Oct. ,, 
Reported negotiations for the surrender of Metz, 

24 Oct. ,, 
Thiers undertakes the mission to obtain an armistice, 

about 24 Oct. ,, 
Capitulation of Sehelestadt (2,400 prisoners and 120 

guns taken) 24 Oct. ,, 

A girl calling herself a successor of Jeanne d'Arc at 
Tours . . . . • . .24 Oct. 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 



524 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 



Marshal Bazaine surrenders Metz and his army, 
" conquered by famine " (see Me.tz and France, 
Oct. -Dec. 1873) 27 Oct. 1870 

The French defeated near Gray (Haute Saone) by 
Von Werder 27 Oct. ,, 

About 2000 sick and wounded of both nations in 
Versailles 27 Oct. „ 

Le Bourget, near Paris, recaptured by the French, 

28 Oct. ,, 

A safe-conduct given to M. Thiers to enter Paris for 
negotiation 28 Oct. ,, 

Despatch from count Bismarck to earl Granville, 
expressing desire for the meeting of a French 
national assembly to consider terms of peace ; but 
statingthat overtures must come from the French, 

28 Oct. „ 

Badenese troops defeated near Besangon ; Prussian 
attack on Formerie on the Oise repulsed 28 Oct. „ 

Gen. Von Moltke created a count on his 70th birth- 
day 28 Oct. ,, 

Vigorous proclamation of Bourbaki to the French 
army of the north 29 Oct. ,, 

The crown prince and prince Frederick Charles 
created field-marshals .... 29 Oct. ,, 

Dijon captured after bombardment . . 29 Oct. ,, 

The francs-tireurs defeated by the Wiirtembcrgers 
between Montereau and Nangis . . 29 Oct. ,, 

Estimated : 856,000 Germans in France ; French 
prisoners in Germany, 223,000 . . 29 Oct. „ 

Le Bourget retaken by the Germans ; heavy losses 
on both sides ; about 1200 French prisoners, 

30 Oct. „ 

Proclamation of Gambetta, accusing Bazaine of 
treason ; the war to go on . . . 30 Oct. „ 

M. Thiers enters Paris . . . .30 Oct. ,, 

Garibaldi defending Dole (Jura) with about 7500 
men 31 Oct. ,, 

M. Thiers receives powers from the French defence 
government to treat for an armistice, and has in- 
terviews with count Bismarck, 31 Oct. and 1 Nov. „ 

Gen. Bourbaki attempting to form an army of the 
north, near Lille .... Oct. — Nov. „ 

Thionville invested 1 Nov. „ 

The francs-tireurs dispersed in several slight en- 
gagements between Colmar and Belfort, 2, 3 Nov. ,, 

Letter from marshal Bazaine repelling the charge 
of treason 2 Nov. „ 

Count Bismarck offers an armistice of 25 days 
for the election of a French national assembly, 

3 Nov. „ 

Defeat of an attempted revolution in Paris : see 
France 3 Nov. ,, 

M. Favre declares to the national guard that the 
government has sworn not to yield an inch of 
territory, and will remain faithful to this engage- 
ment 3 Nov. „ 

Proclamation of Garibaldi to the army of the 
Vosges, and appealing to other nations, 

about 3 Nov. ,, 

" Campagne de 1S70 : par un Officier attachi a 
I'etat major-general" (a pamphlet ascribed to 
the emperor), appears in the Daily Telegraph, 

Nov. ., 

Failure of the negotiation, as count Bismarck will 
not permit food i<> enter Paris during the armis- 
tice witl t any military equivalent ; M.Thiers 

ordered to break oil' negotiation . . 6 Nov. ., 

Chateaudun recaptured by the French . 6 Nov. ., 

The Prussian semi-official journal says, "The 

French goven nt having refused to listen to 

reason tl annuo will be resented to for giving 

them a lesson " 7 Nov. ,, 

Bombardment of Thionville . . . 7 Nov. ,. 

Circulars on the armistice negotiations— of M. 
Favre, 7 Nov. ; of count Bismarck . 8 Nov. ,, 

The kings permission fortl lection of a French 

national assembly declined bj the French govern- 
ment 7 Nov. ,, 

Orders thai 1 ne shall enter or quit Paris, 7 Nov. ,, 

A Prussian column repulsed in an attack on the 

army of the Loire al Marchenoil' . 7 Nov. 

Capitulation of Verdun .... 8Nov. 

Seven persons, captured in balloons from Palis, sent 
to German fortresses to be tried l.y court martial. 

8 Nov. ,, 

The French fleet off Heligoland . . 8 Nov. 

German corps, under Manteuffel, advancing on 
Amiens and Rouen 8 Nov, 



Firm circular from M. Favre to French diplomatic 
representatives, about .... 8 Nov. 1870 

The Germans enter Montbeliard (Doubs) 9 Nov. ,, 

The Germans, under gen. Von der Tann, defeated 
between Couturiers and Baccon, near Orleans, 
retire to Thoury 9 Nov. „ 

M. Thiers' report of the unsuccessful negotiations 
for an armistice .... dated 9 Nov. ,, 

Reported naval victory of the Prussian steamer 
Meteor over the French steamer Boucet off 
Havannah 9 Nov. „ 

Continued fighting ; Orleans retaken by general 
D'Aurelle tie Paladines : French losses, 2000 ; 
Germans about 700, and 2000 prisoners 10 Nov. ,, 

Capitulation of Neu Breisach, 5000 prisoners and 
100 guns taken 10 Nov. ,. 

The French repulsed near Montbeliard on the Swiss 
frontier 10 Nov. ,, 

Von der Tann's army reinforced by 30,000, now 
70,000, the grand duke of Mecklenburg com- 
mander; the Loire army about 150,000, but only 
12,000 regulars .12 Nov. „ 

Bankers at Berlin and Frankfort arrested for deal- 
ing in French war loan . . . about 12 Nov. ,, 

Dole, near Dijon, occupied by the Germans, 

17 Nov. ., 

Calm, truthful proclamation of gen. Trochu, at 
Paris .14 Nov. ,, 

The armies in central France have been placed 
under prince Frederick Charles and the grand 
duke of Mecklenburg .... 14 Nov. „ 

Eleven French towns, 3653 guns, 155 mitrailleuses, 
nearly 500,000 chassepots, about 90 eagles and 
standards, and nearly 4,000,0002. in money, taken 
by the Germans . . . . up to 14 Nov. ,, 

Montmedy completely invested . . 15 Nov. ,, 

French sorties from Mezieres repulsed, 15 Nov. ; 
from Belfort repulsed . . . 16 Nov. ,, 

The grand duke of Mecklenburg repulses the army 
of the Loire near Dreux, which is captured by 
Von Treskow 17 Nov. ,, 

Successful French sortie from Mezieres, 500 Ger- 
mans said to be killed ... 17 Nov. ,, 

Germans victorious in an engagement near Cha- 
teaudun ; French claim the success 18 Nov. ,, 

Ricciotti Garibaldi said to have beaten 700 or 800 
men at Chatillon 19 Nov. ,, 

The national guard at Evreux repulse a German 
attack 19 Nov. ,, 

The German army under prince Frederick Charles 
and the grand duke of Mecklenburg (135,000) 
said to be retreating towards Paris . 19 Nov. ,, 

Paris engirdled with a second line of investment, 

20 Nov. ,, 
French attempt to release La Fere repulsed with 

heavy loss .20 Nov. ,, 

Several balloons from Paris captured about 20 Nov. ,, 
French mobile guard defeated at Bretoncelles, 

21 Nov. ,, 
Bombardment of Thionville begun . . 22 Nov. ,, 
Ham occupied by the Prussians . . .22 Nov. ,, 
Prince Frederick Charles takes up a position near 

Orleans ....... 24 Nov. ,, 

Thionville, in flames, capitulates, with about 2000 
prisoners 24 Nov. 

The Germans repulsed near Amiens and nearStagil, 

24 Nov. 

La Fere surrenders, after two days' bombardment, 
with about 70 guns and 2000 men . 27 Nov. ,, 

The Garibaldians defeated near Pasques (Cote d'Or) 
by Von 'Werder 27 Nov. ,. 

The French army of the north defeated by Man- 
teuffel between Villers Bretonneux and Soleur, 
near Amicus 27 Nov. ,, 

Amiens occupied by Von Goeben after a severe en- 
gagement 28 Nov. ,, 

Severe engagement near Beaunela Rolande (Loiret) 
between part of the army of the Loire under 
D'Aurelle de Paladines and the Germans under 
Voigts Rhetz : prince Frederick Charles ar- 
rives and turns the day; the French retire; 
heavy loss on both sides . . . .28 Nov. ,, 

M. de Kcralry resigns his command, accusing M. 
Gambetta of misconduct, 28 Nov. ; Bourbaki ap- 
pointed to command an army corps . 29 Nov. ., 

Fruitless endeavours of the army in Paris and the 
army of the Loire to unite . 29 Nov. — 4 Dec. „ 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 



525 



FRANCO-PRUSSIAN WAR. 



Sorties from various parts of Paris repulsed with 

loss 29 Nov. 

Great sortie of 120,000, under generals Trochu and 

IDuerot, who cross the Marne; severest conflict 
between Champigny-sur-Marne, Brie-sur-Marne, 
and Villiers-sur-Marne ; the French retain the 
taken possessions, but their advance is checked ; 
great loss on both sides (chiefly Saxons and Wiir- 
tembergers engaged) . . . -3° Nov. 
'he contest resumed at Avron ; the Germans retake 
Champigny and Brie ; the French retreat 2 Dec. 
The army of the Loire : Chanzy defeated by the 
grand duke of Mecklenburg at Bazoche des 
Hautes, 2 Dec. ; near Chevilly (the French report 
these engagements indecisive) . . .3 Dec. 
Prince Frederick Charles dislodges an encampment 
in the forest of Orleans. . . . 3 Dec. 
Ducrot bivouacks in the woods of Vincennes, 
3 Dec. ; . he issues a final order of the day, re- 
ferring to two days' glorious battles . 4 Dec. 
General D Aurelle de Paladines entrenched before 
Orleans ; proposes to retreat ; the government 
opposes him, but yields ; he determines to await 
the attack ; part of his army defeated by prince 
Frederick Charles, and the grand duke of Meck- 
lenburg ; he retreats with about 100,000 men : 
Orleans threatened with bombardment ; surrenders 

at midnight 4 Dec. 

The Germans said to be in pursuit of D'Aurelle de 
Paladines (superseded) ... 5 Dec. 
eo.ooo prisoners, 77 guns, and 4 gun-boats cap- 
tured at Orleans 5 Dec. 

Rouen occupied by Manteuffel . . 6 Dec. 

General order of the king of Prussia, "We enter 

on a new phase of the war . . . Every attempt to 

break through the investment or relieve Paris has 

failed " 6 Dec. 

The grand duke of Mecklenburg attacks gen. 
Chanzy and the army of the Loire near Beau- 
gency ; indecisive, 7 Dec. ; the Germans victo- 
rious, taking about 1 100 prisoners and six guns, 
and occujjymg Beaugency (severe loss to Germans), 

8 Dec. 
Gen. Manteuffel's army in two parts, one occupies 

Evreux, and marching to Cherbourg ; the other 
marching to Havre .... 8 Dec 

Continued severe engagements between the Ger- 
mans and the army of the Loire; the defeated 
French retreat (7 battles in 9 days) q, 10 Dec. 

Vigorous siege of Belfort ; obstinately defended, 

9 Dec. 
Pamphlet (attributed to the emperor Napoleon) 

published under the name of his friend, the mar- 
quis de Gri court, throwing the blame of the war 
upon the French nation . . early in Dec. 

Fighting along the whole line of the army of the 
Loire, under general Chanzy and others ; it re- 
treats, but obstinately resists . 5 — 10 Dec. 

Brilliant action by De Chanzy . . .11 Dec. 

The delegate government transferred from Tours to 
Bordeaux ; Gambetta remains with the army of 
the Loire n Dec. 

Dieppe occupied by the Germans . 12 Dec. 

La Fere threatened by Faidherbe, commander of 
the army of the north . . . 12 Dec. 

Phalsburg surrenders, subdued by famine ; com- 
mencement of bombardment of Montmedy, 

12 Dec. 

Evreux and Blois occupied by the Germans, 13 Dec. 

Montmedy surrenders .... 14 Dec. 

•Sharp engagement at Freteval ; which is taken and 
abandoned by the Germans . . 14 Dec. 

Nuits near Dijon captured by the Badenese under 
Von Werder, after a severe conflict . 18 Dec. 

The French government issue a circular against the 
propagation of false news . . . .20 Dec. 

Conflict at Monnaie: about 6000 French gardes 
mobiles driven back to Tours . . 20 Dec. 

Vigorous sortie from Paris repulsed — an artillery 
action 21 Dec. 

Tours partially shelled ; submits, but not occupied 
by Germans 21 Dec. 

Chanzy and part of the army of the Loire said to have 
reached Le Mans and joined the Bretons, about 

21 Dec. 



1870 



Seven hours' battle at Pont a Noyelles between 
Manteutfel and the army of the north under Faid- 
herbe : both claim the victory ; Faidherbe re- 
treats 23 Dec. 

Six English colliers, said to have had Prussian per- 
mits, after delivering coal at Rouen, are sunk in 
the Seine at Duclair near Havre by the Prussians 
for strategic reasons . . . . 21 Dec. 
Explanation given by Bismarck and compensation 
promised . . ■ . .26 Dec. 

Chanzy, in a letter to the German commandant at 
Vendonie, accuses the Germans of cruelly pillag- 
ing St. Calais, and, denying his defeat, says, "We 
have fought you and held you in check since 4 Dec." 

26 Dec. 
Trochu said to be making Mont Valerien a vast 

citadel 27 Dec. 

Mont Avron, an outlying fort near Paris, after a 
day's bombardment, abandoned and occupied by 

the Germans 29 Dec. 

Alleged defeat of the Germans by detachment of 

Chanzy's army near Montoire . . 27 Dec. 

Several small engagements in Normandy — reported 

successful to the French . . 28 — 31 Dec. 

Capitulation of Mezieres with 2000 men and 106 

guns 1, 2 Jan. 

Severe battles near Bapaume between the army of 
the North under Faidherbe and the Germans under 
Manteutfel and Von Goeben ; victory claimed by 
both, the French retreat . . . 2, 3 Jan. 
Indecisive conflict near Dijon le Mans : between 
general Chanzy and prince Frederick Charles, 

6 Jan. 

Daujoutin, S. of Belfort, stormed by Germans, 6 Jan. 

Bombardment of eastern front of Paris, and of the 

southern forts, 4 Jan. ; forts of Issy and Vanvres 

silenced 6 Ja i. 

Fortress of Rocroy taken by the Germans, 5, 6 Jan. 
General Roy defeated near Jumieges . 7 Jan 

Von Goeben in the north, Manteiiffel sent to the east 

about 7 Jan. 
Conflicts (in the east) between Von Werder and 
Bourbaki at Villarais, south of Vesoul 9, 10 Jan. 
Bombardment of Paris, many buildings injured, 
and people killed : the French government appeal 
to foreign powers . . . . 9, 10 Jan. 
Capitulation of Peronne with garrison . 9 Jan. 
Chanzy retreating ; defeated near Le Mans by prince 
Frederick Charles and the grand duke of Mecklen- 
burg 11 Jan. 

Prince Frederick Charles enters Le Mans ; after 6 

days' fighting, (about 20,000 French prisoners 

made ; German loss about 3400) . 12 Jan. 

Vigorous sorties from Paris repulsed . 13 Jan. 

Chanzy retreating, 14 Jan. ; defeated near Vosges, 

15, 16 Jan. 

Indecisive conflicts between Bourbaki and Von 

Werder, near Belfort ... 15, 16 Jan. 

St. Quentin recaptured by Isnard under Faidherbe, 

16 Jan. 
Bourbaki defeated near Belfort after thres days' 

fighting, 15 — 17 Jan. ; retreats south 18 Jan. 

The grand duke of Mecklenburg enters Alengon, 

17 Jan. 
Bombardment of Longwy begun . . 17 Jan. 
Faidherbe defeated near St. Quentin ; after seven 

hours' fighting ; by Von Goeben, 4000 prisoners 
taken 19 Jan. 

Great sortie from Paris of Trochu and 100,000 men 
repulsed with loss of about 1000 dead and 5000 
wounded 19 Jan. 

Bourbaki hard pressed by Von Werder 19 Jan. 

Armistice for two days at Paris refused 22 Jan. 

Bombardment of St Denis and Cambrai 22 Jan. 

Faidherbe asserts that the German successes are 
exaggerated 22 Jan. 

Resignation of Trochu ; Vinoy, governor of Paris, 

23, 24 Jan. 

Favre opens negotiations with Bismarck 24 Jan. 

Longwy capitulates ; 4000 prisoners, 200 guns, 

25 Jan. 

Letter from M. Guizot to Mr. Gladstone proposing 
the demolition of fortresses 011 both sides of the 
Rhine ; and the maintenance of the balance of 
power by congresses ; published . 26 Jan. 

Capitulation of Paris ; armistice for 21 days signed 
by count Bismarck and Jules Favre 28 Jan. 



1871 



FRANCO-SCOTTISH SOCIETY. 526 



FRANKLIN. 



The forts round Paris occupied by the Germans, 

2p Jan. 1 87 1 
Advance of German troops into France suspended, 

30 Jan. „ 
Bourbaki and his army, about 80,000, driven by 
Manteuffel into Switzerland near Pontarlier, about 
6000 having been captured . 30 Jan. . 1 Feb. ., 
French loss about 350,000 men, 800 guns up to Jan. ,, 
Dijon occupied by the Germans . 1 Feb. „ 

Belfort capitulates with military honours 13 Feb. ,, 
Negotiations for peace between Thiers and Bismarck 

22 — 24 Feb. „ 
Preliminaries of a treaty accepted by Thiers, Favre, 
and 15 delegates from the national assembly ; it 
includes cession of parts of Lorraine, including 
Metz and Thionville and Alsace less Belfort ; and 
payment of 5 milliards of francs, 200,000,000?., 
25 Feb. , signed 26 Feb. , accepted by the national 

assembly 1 March, ,, 

German loss in battles throughout the war ; killed 

or died soon after, 17,570 ; died of wounds 

eventually 10,707 ; total killed and wounded 

127,867. 

German troops enter Paris and remain 48 hours, 

1 — 3 March, ,, 

They quit Versailles . . ■ . .12 March, ,, 

Conference for peace open at Brussels, 28 March ,, 

Treaty of peace signed at Frankfort, 10 May ; ratified 

by the French national assembly . 18 May, „ 

FRANCO- SCOTTISH SOCIETY. The 

establishment of this society with a Scottish branch 
was proposed at a meeting in Edinburgh by lord 
Reay, lord Lothian, the duke of Fife, and others, 
to promote historical research in relation to the 
two countries and to assist students in their univer- 
sities. The purchase and endowment of the dis- 
used "College des Escossois " in Paris, proposed 
29 Oct. 1895. Inaugural meeting at Paris; lord 
Reay, sir Archibald Geikie, and others, received by 
M. Jules Simon : M. Berthelot, and others present, 
at the Sorbonne, 16-18 April, 1896; first annual 
meeting in Edinburgh, 1 1 Nov. Annual meetings 
held. 

FRANCS-TIRETJRS, free shooters, took an 
active part in the Franco-Prussian war from about 
14 Aug. 1870; and more especially after the sur- 
render of MacMahon's army at Sedan, 2 Sept. 
Their conduct was much censured. 

FRANKENHAUSEN, N. Germany: near 
this place Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and his allies 
defeated the insurgent peasantry headed by Munzer 
the anabaptist, 15 May, 1525. 

FRANKFORT-ON-THE-MAINE, central Ger- 
many, founded in the 5th century ; was the resi- 
dence of Charlemagne in 794 ; walled by Louis I. 
838; a capital city, 843; an mperial citv, 1245. 
Population in 1885, 154,513; in 1890, 179,850; 
1900, 288,489. See Germany. 

Union of Frankfort, : treaty between France, Sweden, 
Prussia, and other German states led to war with 
Austria 22 May, 1711 

Frankfort captured by the French by a surprise, 

2 Jan. 1759 

Captured by Custine, 28 Oct. ; retaken by the 
Prussians .... z Dec. 1792 

Bombarded by the French ; surrendered to Kleber, 

16 July, 1796 

Hade part of the confederation of the Rhine .' 1806 

A grand duchy under Carl von Dalberg . . 1S10 

Republic restored; appointed capital of the Ger- 
manic confederation 1S15 

Vain attempts at insurrection by students, April, 
1833 May, 1834 

The Frankfort diet publish a federative constitution, 

30 March, 1848 

The plenipotentiaries of Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, 
Hanover, Wurtemberg, Mecklenburg, <fec, here 
constitute themselves the council of the Germanic 
<liet 1 Sept. 1850 



The German sovereigns (excepting the king of 
Prussia) met at Frankfort (at the invitation of 
the emperor of Austria), to consider a plan of 
federal reform, 17 Aug. ; the plan was not 
accepted by Prussia .... 22 Sept. 1863 

Meeting of diet of Germanic confederation ; con- 
demn the treaty of Gastein . . 1 Oct. 1865 

The diet adopts the Austrian motion, that Prussia 
has broken the treaty ; the Prussian representative 
declares the confederation at an end, and proposes 
a new confederation .... 14 June, 1866 

Entered by the Prussians, who exact heavy supplies, 

16 July, ,, 

Annexed to Prussia by law of 20 Sept. ; promulgated 
at Frankfort; (the legislative corps and 15,000 
citizens protest against it) . . 8 Oct. „ 

Visited by the king of Prussia ; an ancient cathedral, 
St. Bartholomew (founded 1315, completed 1512), 
destroyed by fire . . . . 14, 15 Aug. 1867 

Frankfort supported Prussia in the war . July, 1870 

Treaty of peace between France and Ger man y, signed 
here 10 May, 1871 

Riots through rise in price of beer ; suppressed 
by N. German soldiers : 37 of the people killed ; 
about 100 wounded . . .21, 22 April, 1873 

International Electro-Technical congress opened 

8 Sept. et seq., 1891 

Goethe celebrations ; the empress Frederick and 
other royalties present . . . 27, 28 Aug. 1899 

Fire in an explosives factory at Griesheim ; over 
15 deaths, many injured . . 25 April, 1901 

FRANKFORT -ON -THE -ODER (N. Ger- 
many) ; a member of the Hanseatic league ; suffered 
much from marauders in the middle ages, and in 
the thirty years' war. The university was founded 
in 1506, and incorporated with that of Breslau in 
181 1. Near Frankfort, 12 Aug. 1759, Frederick of 
Prussia was defeated by the Russians and Austrians , 
see Cunnersdorf. Population, 1890, 55,724 ; 1900, 
61,835. 

FRANKING LETTERS, passing letters free 
of postage, was claimed by parliament about 1660. 
The privilege was restricted in 1839, and abolished 
after the introduction of the uniform penny postage, 
10 Jan. 1840. The queen was amongst the first 
to relinquish her privilege. 

FRANKLIN, the English freeholder in the 
middle ages; see "the Franklin's Tale," in 
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales (written about 1364). 

. FRANKLIN, SEARCH FOR. Sir John Frank- 
lin, with captains Crozier and Fitzjames, in H. M. 
ships Erebus and Terror (carrying in all 138 
persons), sailed on his third arctic expedition of 
discovery and survey, from Greenhithe, on 19 May, 
1845 ; see North-west Passage. Their last des- 
patches were from the "Whalefish islands, dated 12 
July, 1845. Their protracted absence caused intense 
anxiety, and several expeditions were sent from 
England and elsewhere in search of them, and 
coals, provisions, clothing, and other necessaries, 
were deposited in various places in the Arctic seas 
by our own and by the American government, by 
lady Franklin, and numerous private persons. The 
Truelove, captain Parker, which arrived at Hull, 
4 Oct. 1849, from Davis's Straits, brought intelli- 
gence (not afterwards confirmed) that the natives 
had seen sir John Franklin's ships in the previous 
March, frozen up by the ice in Prince Regent's 
inlet. Other accounts were equally illusory. Her 
majesty s government, on 7 March, 1850, offered a 
reward of 20,000/. to any party of any country, that 
should render efficient assistance to the crews of the 
missing ships. Sir John's first winter quarters were 
found at Beechy island by captains Ommanney and 
Penny. 

1. H.M.S. Plover, capt, Moore (afterwards under 
capt. Moguire), sailed from Sheemess to Behring's 
Straits, in search . . . . 1 Jan. 1848 



FRANKLIN. 



527 



FRANKLIN. 



2. Land expedition under sir John Richardson and 
Dr. John Rae, of the Hudson's Bay Company, left 
England , . 25 March, 1848 

[Sir John Richardson returned to England in 
1849, an( i Dr. Rae continued his search till 1851.] 

3. Sir James Ross, with the Enterprise and Investi- 
gator (12 June, 1848), having also sailed in search 
to Barrow's Straits, returned to England (Scar- 
borough) 3 Nov. 1849 

4. The Enterprise, capt. Collinson, and Investigator, 
commander M'Clure, sailed from Plymouth for 
Behring's Straits .... 20 Jan. 1850 

[Both ships proceeded through to the eastward. ] 

5. Capt. Austin's expedition, viz. : Resolute, capt. 
Austin, C. B. ; Assistance, capt. Ommanney ; 
Intrepid, lieut. Bertie Cator ; and Pioneer, lieut. 
Sherard Osborn, sailed from England for Barrow's 
Straits 25 April, ,, 

[Returned Sept. 1851.] 

6. The Lady Franklin, capt. Penny ; and Sophia, 
capt. Stewart, sailed from Aberdeen for Barrow's 
Straits 13 April, ,, 

[Returned home Sept. 1851.] 

7. The American expedition in the Advance and 
Resent, under lieut. De Haven and Dr. Kane (son 
of the judge), towards which Mr. Grinnell sub- 
scribed 30,000 dollars, sailed for Lancaster Sound 
and Barrow Straits ; after drifting in the pack 
down Baffin's Bay, the ships were released in 
1851 uninjured 25 May, ,, 

8. The Felix, sir John Ross, fitted out chiefly by the 
Hudson Bay Company, sailed to the same locality, 

22 May, ,, 
[Returned in 1851.] 

9. H.MS. North Star, commander Saunders, which 
had sailed from England in 1849, wintered in 
Wolstenholme Sound, and returned to Spithead, 

28 Sept „ 

10. H.M.S. Herald, captain Kellett, C.B., which 
had sailed in 1848, made three voyages to 
Behring's Straits, and returned in . . 1851 

Lieut Pim went to St. Petersburg with the intention 

of travelling through Siberia to the mouth of the 

river Kolyma ; but was dissuaded from proceeding 

by the Russian government . . 18 Nov. ,, 

[The Enterprise and Investigator (see No. 4 above) 

not having been heard of for two years. ] 

11. Sir Edward Belcher's expedition, consisting of 
— Assistance, sir Edward Belcher, C.B. ; Resolute, 
captain Kellett, C.B. ; North Star, capt. Pullen ; 
Intrepid, capt. M'Clintock ; and Pioneer, capt. 
Sherard Osborn, sailed from Woolwich 15 April, 1852 

[This expedition arrived at Beechy Island 14 
Aug. 1852. The .4ssisto7i.ce and Pioneer pro- 
ceeded through Wellington Channel, and the 
Resolute and Intrepid to Melville Island ; the 
North Star remaining at Beechy Island.] 

LADY FRANKLIN'S EQUIPMENTS. 

Lady Franklin, aided by a few friends (and by the 
"Tasmanian Tribute" of 1500Z.), equipped four 
expeditions (Nos. 12, 13, 14, 16). 

12. Prince Albert, capt. Forsyth, sailed from Aber- 
deen to Barrow Straits ... 5 June, 1850 

[Returned 1 Oct. 1850.] 

13. The Prince Albert, Mr. Kennedy, accompanied 
by lieut. Bellot, of the French navy, and John 
Hepburn, sailed from Stromness to Prince 
Regent's Inlet 4 June, 1851 

[Returned Oct. 1852.] 

14. The Isabel, commander Inglefield, sailed for the 
head of Baffin's Bay, Jones's Sound, and the 
Wellington Channel, 6 July ; and returned Nov. 1852 

15. Mr. Kennedy sailed again in the Isabel, on a 
renewed search to Behring's Straits . . 1853 

16. H.M.S. Rattlesnake, commander Trollope, des- 
patched to assist the Plover, capt. Maguire (who 
succeeded capt. Moore), at Point Barrow in April ; 
met with it Aug. ,, 

17. The second American expedition, the Advance, 
under Dr. Kane .... early in June, ,, 

18. The Phoznix (with the Breadalbane transport), 
commander Inglefield, accompanied by lieut. 
Bellot, sailed in May ; he returned, bringing des- 
patches from Sir E. Belcher, <&c. . . Oct. „ 

The Investigator and sir E. Belcher's squadron 
were safe ; but no traces of Franklin's party had 
been met with. Lieut. Bellot was unfortunately 



drowned in August while voluntarily conveying 
despatches for sir E. Belcher. Capt. M'Clure had 
left the Herald (10) at Cape Lisburne, 31 July, 
1850. On 8 Oct. the ship was frozen in, and so 
continued for nine months. On 26 Oct. 1850, 
while on an excursion party, the captain dis- 
covered an entrance into Barrow's Straits, and 
thus established the existence of a N.E. — N.W. 
passage. In Sept. 1851, the ship was again fixed 
in ice, and so remained till lieut. Pim and a party 
from capt. Kellett's ship, the Resolute (11), fell in 
with them in April, 1853. The position of the 
Enterprise (4) was still unknown. 

A monument to Bellot's memory was erected at 
Greenwich. His "Journal" was published in 1854 

Dr. Rae, in the spring of 1853, again proceeded 
towards the magnetic pole ; and in July, 1854, 
he reported to the Admiralty that he had pur- 
chased from a party of Esquimaux a number of 
articles which had belonged to sir J. Franklin 
and his party — namely, sir John's star or order, 
part of a watch, silver spoons, and forks with 
crests, <fec. He also reported the statement of 
the natives, that they had met with a party of 
white men about four winters previous, and had 
sold them a seal ; and that four months later, in 
the same season, they had found the bodies of 
thirty men (some buried), who had evidently 
perished by starvation ; the place appears, from 
the description, to have been in the neighbour- 
hood of the Great Fish river of Back. Dr. Rae 
arrived in England on 22 Oct. 1854, with the 
relics, which have since been deposited in Green- 
wich hospital. He and his companions were 
awarded io.oooZ. for their discovery. Dr. Rae, 
aged So, died 22 July, 1893 

19. The Phoenix, North Star, and Talbot, under the 
command of capt. Inglefield, sailed in May, and 
returned in Oct. 1854 

Sir E. Belcher (No. n), after mature deliberation, 
in April, 1854, determined to abandon his ships, 
and gave orders to that effect to all the captains 
under his command ; and capt. Kellett gave 
similar orders to capt. M'Clure, of the Investigator. 
The vessels had been abandoned 15 May* when 
the crews of the Phoenix and Talbot (under capt. 
Inglefield) arrived (19). On their return to 
England all the captains were tried by court 
martial and honourably acquitted 17-19 Oct. „ 

Capt. Collinson's fate was long uncertain, and 
another expedition was in contemplation, when 
intelligence came, in Feb. 1855, that he had met 
the Rattlesnake (16) at Fort Clarence on 21 Aug. 
1854, and had sailed immediately, in hopes of 
getting up with capt. Maguire in the Plover (1), 
which had sailed two days previously. Capt. 
Collinson having failed in getting through the ice 
in 1850 with capt. M'Clure, returned to Hong- 
Kong to winter. In 1851 he passed through 
Prince of Wales's Straits, and remained in the 
Arctic regions without obtaining any intelligence 
of Franklin till July, 1854, when, being once 
more released from the ice, he sailed for Fort 
Clarence, where he arrived as above mentioned. 
Captains Collinson and Maguire arrived in England 
in May, 1855 

20. The third American expedition in search of 
Dr Kane, in the Advance, consisted of the 
Release and the steamer Arctic, the barque Eringo, 
and another vessel under the command of lieut. 
H. J. Hartstene, accompanied by a brother of 
Dr. Kane as surgeon . . . 31 May, ,, 

[On 17 May, 1855, Dr. Kane and his party quitted 
the Advance, and journeyed over the ice, 1300 

* Capt. Kellett's ship, the Resolute, was found adrift 
1000 miles distant from where she was left, by a 
Mr. George Henry, commanding an American whaler, 
who brought her to New York. The British government 
having abandoned their claim on the vessel, it was 
bought by order of the American congress, thoroughly 
repaired and equipped, and entrusted to capt. H. J. 
Hartstene, to be presented to queen Victoria. It arrived 
at Southampton, 12 Dec. 1856 ; was visited by her majesty 
on the 16th ; and formallysurrendered on the 30th. When 
the ship was broken up a desk was made of the wood, 
and presented by queen Victoria to the president of the 
United States, 29 Nov. t88o. 



FRANKS. 



528 FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. 



miles, to the Danish settlement ; on their way 
home in a Danish vessel, they fell in with lieut. 
Hartstene, 18 Sept. ; and arrived with him at 
New York, n Oct. 1855. Dr. Kane visited 
England in 1856 ; he died in 1857.] 

The Hudson's Bay Company, under advice of Dr. Rae 
and sir G. Back, sent out an overland expedition, 
June 1855, which returned Sept. following. Some 
more remains of Franklin's party: were discovered 1855 

3i. The 18th British expedition (equipped by lady 
Franklin and her friends, the government having 
declined to fit out another) — the Fox, screw 
steamer, under capt. (since sir) F. L. M'Clintock, 
R.N. (see No. n) — sailed from Aberdeen 1 July, 
1857 : returned .... 22 Sept. 1859 

On 6 May, 1859, lieut. Hobson found at Point 
Victory, near Cape Victoria, besides a cairn, a tin . 
case, containing a paper, signed 25 April, 1848, 
by capt. Fitzjames, which certified that the ships 
Erebus and Terror, on 12 Sept. 1846, were beset in 
lat. 70 50' N. , and long. 98° 23' W. ; that sir John 
Franklin died 11 June, 1847; and that the ships 
were deserted 22 April, 1848. Captain M'Clintock 
continued the search, and discovered skeletons 
and other relics. His Journal was published in 
Dec. 1859 ! an d on 28 May, i860, gold medals 
were given to him and to lady Franklin by the 
Royal Geographical Society. 

Mr. Hall, the arctic explorer, reported, in Aug. 1865, 
circumstances that led him to hope that capt. 
Crozier and others were surviving. 

A national monument by Noble, set up in Waterloo- 
place, was inaugurated, 15 Nov. 1866. It is 
inscribed to " Franklin the great navigator and 
liis brave companions who sacrificed their lives 
in completing the discovery of the north-west 
passage, a.d. 1847-8." 

Sir John Franklin discovered the north-ivest passage 
by sailing down Peel and Victoria Straits, now 
named Franklin Straits. 

*' Franklin search expedition," under lieut. Schwatka, 
of U.S. navy, in an overland expedition in summer 
and autumn of 1879, discovers some human 
remains of the crews of the ships and other 
things ; he setup memorials, and brought away 
the remains of lieut. John Irving, of the Terror ; 
and returned to Massachusetts about 23 Sept. 1880 

Remains of lieut. John Irving buried at Edinburgh, 

7 Jan. 1881 

Lady Franklin, aged 83, died . . 18 July, 1875 

50th anniversary of the departure of sir John 
Franklin's expedition, celebrated by the Royal 
Geographical society . . 20 May, 1895 

Mr. H. D. Traill's " Life of sir John Franklin," 
published March, 1896 

FRANKS (or freemen), a name given to a com- 
bination of the North-western German tribes about 
240, which invaded Gaul and other parts of the 
empire with various success in the 5th century ; 
see Gaul and France ; see Franking. 

FRANZ JOSEF LAND, see K.-E. and W. 
Passages, 1871 and 1894. " A Thousand Days in 
the Arctic," 2 vols., by Fred. G. Jackson ; explo- 
rations and scientific work described, published, 
i8()<). Queen Victoria sea discovered, 1895. 

FRASER'S MAGAZINE, first appeared, 
Feb. 1830; discontinued Oct. 1882. 

FRATRICELLI (Little Brethren), a sect of 
the middle agea, originally strict Franciscan monks. 
Their numbers increased, and they were condemned 
by a papal bull in 1 3 1 7 ; and suffered persecution; 
but were not extinct till the i(>th century. They 
resembled the " Brethren of the Free Spirit." 

FRAUDS, Statute of. 29 Charles II., c. 3, 
1677. "An act for prevention of frauds and per- 
juryes." 

FRAUDULENT TRUSTEES ACT, 20 & 

21 Vict. c. 54, passed Aug. 1857, in consequence of 
the delinquencies of sir John 1). Paul, the British 
Hank frauds, &c. It was brought in by sir R. 



Bethell, then attorney-general (afterwards lord 
Westbury), and is very stringent. 

FRAUNHOFER'S LINES, see Spectrum. 

FREDERICKSBURG (Virginia,N. America). 
On 10 Dec. 1862, general Burnside and the federal 
army of the Potomac crossed the small deep river 
Rappahannock. On 11 Dec. Fredericksburg was 
bombarded by the federals and destroyed. On the 
13th commenced a series of desperate unsuccessful 
attacks on the confederate works, defended by 
genera!? Lee, Jackson, Longstreet, and others. 
General Hooker crossed the river with the reserves, 
and joined in the conflict, in vain. On 15 and 16 
Dec. the federal army recrossed the Rappahannock. 
The battle was one of the most severe in the war. 

FREDERICKSHALD (Norway). Charles 
XII. of Sweden was killed by a cannon-shot before 
its walls, while examining the works. His hand 
was on his s'word, and a prayer-book in his pocket, 
11 Dec. 1718. 

FREDERICTON, the capital of the province 
of New Brunswick, Canada, and the centre of a 
large lumber trade. Population 6,502 

FREE CHURCH COUNCIL, see 

National Free Church Council. 

FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND (Evan- 
gelical). An Episcopal Church founded in 1844, 
and enrolled in her majesty's High Court of Chan- 
cery in 1863. See Catechism, 1899. 
This church grew out of the Oxford tractarian move- 
ment of 1830. The first church was planted at Bridge- 
town, Devon, by the rev. James Shore, M.A., curate 
of the parish ; it was built by the duke of Somerset, 
and opened in 1844. Two other churches were esta- 
blished in the same year— one at Exeter, and the other at 
Ilfracombe. But it was not till 1849 that much progress 
was made, when an impetus was given to the movement 
by the late bishop of Exeter's (Philpott) prosecution 
of Mr. Shore, for preaching in his diocese without his 
licence. The work spread, and the organization was 
enrolled under a deed poll as an " Episcopal Church." 
But as " Consecration " could not be obtained a bishop 
president was elected till 1876, when the secession of 
the right rev. bishop Cummins from the "Protestant 
Episcopal Church of America " (the first bishops of 
which church were consecrated by the archbishop of 
Canterbury at Lambeth Palace chapel, in 1787), af- 
forded an opportunity, which was embraced, of 
obtaining episcopal consecration for the bishops of 
the Free Church of England in the Canterbury line of 
episcopal succession. 
The services of the F. C. E. are conducted exactly as 
those of the evangelical section of the national church, 
excepting the omission of some words in the offices 
which the F. C. E. consider express doctrines opposed 
to the Protestant Reformation. 
A Free Church congress met at Manchester, 10 Nov. 
1892 ; at Birmingham, 26 March, 1895 ; Nottingham, 
10 March, 1896 ; Bristol, 8 March, 1898. Nonconfor- 
mists, with the exception of Unitarians, are admitted 
to the congress. Annual meetings. 
National council of the Evangelical Free Church, 1st 
annual session, president, rev. Hugh Price Hughes, 
1806; 2nd annual session, president, rev. Monro 
Gibson, London .... 9 March, 1897 

FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND was 
formed by an act of secession of nearly half the body 
from the national church of Scotland, headed by Dr. 
Thos. Chalmersand other eminent ministers, 18 May, 
1843. The difference arose on the question of the 
right of patrons to nominate to livings; see Patron- 
age. The Free Cbureh claims for the parishioners 
tlie right of a veto. Much distress was endured the 
first year by the ministers of the new church, 
although 366,719/. 14s. $d. had been subscribed. 
In 1853 there were 850 congregations ; in 1873, 954. 
A large college was founded in 1846. In 1856 the 



FEEE CHURCH SOCIETY. 



529 



FEEE TRADE. 



sustentation fund amounted to 108,638/. from which 
was paid the sum of 138A each to 700 ministers. 

The Rev. Mr. Knight, censured for opinions re- 
specting prayer, seceded ... 22 Oct. 1873 

The Reformed Presbyterian Church (see Came- 
ronians), joined the Free Church . . 25 May, 1876 

Professor Robertson Smith, generally censured for 
his article "Bible, &c," in the " Encyclopaedia 
Britannica," 1875, after long consideration by the 
assembly, admonished only . . 27 May, 1880 

Professor Robertson Smith expelled from his pro- 
fessorship, but to retain salary, by the general 
assembly (394 — 231) . . . .26 May, 1881 

Jubilee celebrated 18 May, 1893 

Union of the Free and United Churches effected, 
under the title of the United Free Church of 
Scotland, at Edinburgh ... 31 Oct. 1900 

Mission of the United "Free Churches;" large 
meetings held in London . . end of Jan. 1901 

FREE CHURCH SOCIETY, or National 
Association for Freedom of Public Worship, esta- 
blished in 1857, to abolish the pew-rent system 
and revive the weekly offertory to defray the ex- 
penses of public worship. The Free and Open 
Church Association was formed in 1866. 

FREE COMPANIES and LANCES, see 
Gondot fieri. 

FREEDMEN'S BUREAUS, established in 
the Southern States of North America in March, 
1865, to protect the freed negroes. Having the 
support of martial law, these bureaus became very 
oppressive, and the act of congress making them 
permanent was vetoed by presidt-nt Johnson in 
Feb. 1866. 

FREE EDUCATION ACT. See under 
Education, 1891. 

FREE FOOD LEAGUE, see Preferential 
Tariffs. 

FREEHOLDERS. Those under forty shil- 
lings per annum were not qualified to vote for 
members of parliament by 8 Hen. VI. c. 7, 1429. 
Various acts have been passed for the regulation of 
the franchise at different periods. The more recent 
were, the act to regulate polling, 9 Geo. IV., 1828; 
act for the disqualification of freeholders in Ireland, 
which deprived those of forty shillings of this privi- 
lege, passed 13 April, 1829 ; Reform acts, 1832, 
1867, 1868. County elections act, 7 Will. IV., 1836. 
See Ghandos Clause. 

FREE HOSPITAL, ROYAL, Gray's Inn- 
road, founded in 1828 by Dr. William Marsden 
(born Aug. 1796), who actively superintended it till 
his death, 16 Jan. 1867. In 1851, he founded the 
Cancer Hospital (Brompton), which see. Patients 
admitted without letters. In 1878 Mr. Wm. Birks 
Rhodes, "the Hounslow miser," bequeathed to the 
hospital about 39,000/. 

FREE LABOUR REGISTRATION 
SOCIETY, established for the benefit of em- 
ployers and non-unionist workmen, in opposition 
to trades' unions, July, 1867. The struggle 
of free labour and the unions was very severe 1890 
et seq. See under Shipping, Strikes, §c. 1st con- 
gress of the national free labour association met in 
Clerkenwell, 31 Oct/1893; again, 30 Oct. 1894; at 
Newcastle - on - Tyne, 7 Oct. 1895; Manchester 
(150,000 members), 5 Oct. 1896; London, II Oct. 
1897; Manchester, 10 Oct. 1898; London, 9 Oct. 
1899; London, 14 Oct. 1901; Leeds, 20 Oct. 1902. 

FREE LAND LEAGUE, see Land. 

FREE LIBRARIES, see Libraries. 



FREEMASONRY. Writers on masonry, 
themselves masons, affirm that it has had a being 
"ever since symmetry began, and harmony dis- 
played her charms." It is traced by some to the 
building of Solomon's temple; and it is said the 
architects from the African coast, Mahometans, 
brought it into Spain, about the 9th century. A 
modern speculative cosmopolitan freemasonry with 
some analogies has essential differences from some 
early secret societies, and is not earlier than 
the seventeenth century. In 1 71 7, the grand lodge 
of England was established; that of Ireland in 
1730; and that of Scotland in 1736. Freemasons 
were excommunicated by the pope in 1738; again 
condemned, 30 Sept. 1865. Freemasons' Hall, 
Great Queen - street, London, built 1771; re- 
built, and consecrated 14 April, 1869. Partly 
burnt, 3 May, 1883. A portrait of George Wash- 
ington, gift of Mr. Wellcome, unveiled here by 
Mr. Choate, U.S. ambassador, 8 Aug. 1902. The 
charity instituted, 1788. The duke of Sussex and 
the earl of Zetland were each twenty-five years 
grand-master of England. Earl de Grey, after- 
wards marquis of Ripon, was installed grand-master 
of the English freemasons in room of the earl of 
Zetland, 14 -May, 1870. The marquis (on becoming 
a Romanist) resigned 1 Sept. 1874. He was suc- 
ceeded by the prince of Wales ; installed in the 
Royal Albert Hall, 28 April, 1875. The duke of 
Leinster, grand-master for Ireland for 60 years, 
died 10 Oct. 1874; succeeded by the duke of Aber- 
corn. The prince of Wales was installed at Edin- 
burgh as patron of the freemasons of Scotland, 
12 Oct. 1870. As grand-master past and present 
of the mark masons, London, 8 Dec. 1883. Installed 
as Grand Master of the Grand Lodge, 1 July, 1886 ; 
re-elected, March 2, 1898 ; again 25 April, 1900 ; 
resigns, entitled Protector of English Freemasons. 
The duke of Connaught graiid-master, 17 July, 
1901 ; installed grand-master of mark masons, 
3 June, 1902. Prince Leopold installed as master 
of the "lodge of antiquity" (atone time held by 
sir Christopher Wren), 25 June, 1879. 
Royal Masonic Institutions : for girls (Battersea), 
founded 1788; for boys (Wood Green), 1798; for 

the aged and widows 1842 

Gould's " History of Freemasonry " . . . . 1886 
Large representative gathering at the Albert hall, 
the prince of Wales present ; an address to the 

queen voted 14 June, 1897 

Mr. Henry Maudslay, an old and active member 
and philanthropist, dies . . .. 17 July, 1899 

FREE PORTS, see Eanse Towns. 

FREETHINKERS, professors of natural re- 
ligion ; see Deists. Mr. John M. Robertson, in his 
"Short History of Freethought," published 1899, 
defines " Freethought" " as a revision or rejection 
of current religious doctrines by more or less prac- 
tical people." 

FREE TRADE principles, advocated by Adam 
Smith in his "Wealth of Nations" (1776), tri- 
umphed in England when the corn laws were 
abolished in 1846, and the commercial treaty with 
France was adopted in i860. Richard Cobden, who 
was very instrumental in passing these measures, 
and termed "Apostle of Free Trade," died 2 April, 
1865. Since 1830 the exports have been tripled. 
See French Treaty. An agitation for free trade has 
begun in the United States. A reform league was 
formed at Boston, 20 April, 1869; and the move- 
ment became active in New York in Nov., and has 
since continued. A free-trade budget was brought 
in by the ministry in Sydney in 1873. A new free- 
trade league was inaugurated in London in Dec. 
1873 ; and one at Melbourne, Australia, Sept. 1876. 

M M 



FREEZING. 



530 



FRENCH LANGUAGE. 



Free trade warmly advocated in New South "Wales, 

supported in New Zealand ; opposed in Canada and 

in Victoria, Australia, 1877-80. Much agitation 

against free-trade in 1880-2 and in 1903. See Anti- 
Corn Law League, Fair Trade, and Preferential 

Tariffs. American Free Trade League formed at 

Detroit, June, 1883. Protection, whichsee, dominant 

in Europe, Feb. 1885 et seq. 

President Cleveland's message strongly urges fiscal 
reform, large reduction of protective duties and other 
taxation 6 Dec. 1887. 

Reform club at New York to support tariff reform ; first 
banquet 21 Jan. t888. 

Powerful speech of M. Leon Say on behalf of free trade 
in the chamber of deputies, pointing out the dangers 
of retrogression 9 and n May, 1891. 

The marquis of Salisbury, in a speech at Hastings, advo- 
cates duties on foreign luxuries, 18 May, 1892. 

Mr. Grover Cleveland, a free-trader, re-elected presi- 
dent of the United States, N.A., 8 Nov. 1892 ; he 
condemned protection, 4 March, 1893. See United 
States, Aug. 1894. 

Important speech of Mr. Chamberlain at Birming- 
ham on trade preference and reciprocity with 
the colonies, holding that the fiscal relations of 
the country had wholly changed since the days 
of Cobden and Bright, and advocating retaliation 
with foreign nations, if necessary, when the 
interests of England and her colonies were 
threatened, and proposes a tax on imported corn, 

15 May, 1903 

Mr. Chamberlain's proposals much discussed in 
England, the Colonies, the United States, and on 
the Continent .... mid May, et seq. „ 

Lord Rosebery on Mr. Chamberlain's proposed 
fiscal changes 19 May, ,, 

Debate in the commons on Mr. Chamberlain's new 
policy 28 May, ,, 

Tariff Reform league formed to promote Mr. Cham- 
berlain's fiscal policy, and Free Trade union to 
resist that policy .... mid July, ,, 

Great issue of fiscal literature, pro and coil, Aug. „ 

Mr. Balfour's pamphlet, "Insular Free Trade," 
issued 15 Sept. ,, 

Resignation of Mr. Chamberlain, Mr. Ritchie, and 
lord George Hamilton, announced . 18 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Balfour addresses a great meeting at Sheffield ; 
a tax on food was not within practical politics, 
but the country ought to have the power of 
negotiating 1 Oct. ,, 

Duke of Devonshire resigns (for Cabinet changes 
see Balfour Administration in Addenda) . 6 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Chamberlain opens his fiscal campaign at 
Glasgow 6 Oct. ,, 

Speech of lord Rosebery at Sheffield in defence of 
free trade 13 Oct. ,, 

Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman speaks at Bolton in 
favour of free trade .... 16 Oct. ,, 

Mr. John Morley upholds the doctrine of Cobden 
and Bright in opposition to Mr. Chamberlain's 
scheme, Manchester .... 18 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Chamberlain speaks at Newcastle . 20 Oct. ,, 

National conference of miners' delegates at West- 
minster palace hotel pass a resolution in favour 
of free trade 22 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Asquith speaks at Newcastle and opposes Mr. 
Chamberlain's policy . . . -24 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Chamberlain addresses a great meeting, at 
which some 4,000 working men are present, at 
the Hippodrome, Liverpool . . .27 Oct. ,, 
I See further iu Athtnula. | 

FREEZING, see Congelation and Ice. 

"FREIHELT," German newspaper. See 
Trials, 1881. 

FRENCH ASIA, see Indo-Chim. 

FRENCH ASSOCIATION for the ad- 
vancement OF THE SCIENCES was established I 
by the general assembly, 22 April, 1872, its chief 
founders being MM. Iialard, Claude Bernard, De- 
launay, Dumas, Pasteur, Berthelot, Wiirtz, and 1 
others. It held its first meeting at Hordeaux, 
5 Sept. 1872, when many foreign scientific men 



were present, M. De Quatrefages, president ; second, 
Lyons, 21 Aug. 1873; third, Lille, 20 Aug. 1874; 
fourth, Nantes, 19 Aug. 1875 » fifth, Clermont 
Ferrand, 19 Aug. 1876; sixth, Havre, 30 Aug. 1877; 
seventh, Paris, 22 Aug. 1878 ; eighth, Montpellier, 
28 Aug. 1879; ninth, Rheims, 11 Aug. 1880; 
tenth, Algiers, 14 April. 1881 ; La Rochelle, 23 
Aug. 1882; Rouen, 17 Aug. 1883; Blois, 3 Sept. 
1884; Grenoble, 12 Aug. 1885; Nancy, 12 Aug. 
1886 ; Toulouse, 22 Sept. 1887 ; Oran, Algeria, 2Q 
March, 1888; Paris, 8-14 Aug. 1889; Limoges, 
7-14 Aug. 1890; Marseilles, 17 Sept. 1891 ; 
Pau, 1892; Besancon, 3 Aug. 1893; Caen, 9 Aug. 
1894 ; Bordeaux, 4-9 Aug. 1895 ; Tunis, 1 April, 
1896; St. Etienne, 5-15 Aug. 1897; Nantes, 4 Aug. 
1898 ; Boulogne, mid Sept. 1899 ; Paris, 2-9 Aug. 
1900 ; Montauban, 4-9 Aug. 1902 ; Angiers, early 
Aug. 1903. 

FRENCH CHURCH, see Church of France. 

FRENCH CONGO, sje French West Africa. 

FRENCH EXHIBITION, at Earl's Court, 
West Brompton, London, W.', was opened by the 
lord mayor Isaacs, 17 May, closed 1 Nov. 1890. 
The exhibition principally consisted of objects which 
appeared in the Universal Exhibition at Paris, 1889. 
It included works of art, manufactures, books, pano- 
ramas of parts of Paris, and a hippodrome. In the 
" Wild East grounds " appeared Algerian Arabs, with 
their families and steeds ; a chariot drawn by three 
African lions was driven round the arena. 

FRENCH GUINEA constituted a eolony, 
March, 1893. M. Ballay, governor. Successful 
fighting with the natives reported, 29 March, 1894- 

FRENCH LANGUAGE is mainly based on 
the rude Latin of the western nations subjugated 
by the Romans. German was introduced by the 
Franks in the 8th century. In the 9th the Gallo- 
Romanic dialect became divided into the Langue 
d'oc of the south and the Langue d' oil of the north. 
The dialect of the Isle of France became predomi- 
nant in the 12th century. The French language as 
written by Froissart assimilates more to the modem 
French, and its development was almost completed 
when the Academie Franchise (established by Riche- 
lieu in 1634) published a dictionary of the language 
in 1674. The French language, laws, and customs 
were introduced into England by William I., 1066. 
Law pleadings were changed from French to English 
in the reign of Edward III., 1362. Stow. See 
Drama. 

PRINCIPAL FRENCH AUTHORS. 





Born, 


Died 




Bom 


Died 


Chanson de 






La Rochefou- 






Roland 


nth century. 


cauld . 


1613 


1680 


Roman d' 






Corneille . . 


1606 


1684 


Alexandre 


12th century. 


La Fontaine 


1621 


1695 


R. Wace Ro- 






Mad. deSevigne 1 


1626 


1696 


man de Brut 


12th century. 


La Bruyere 


1645 


1696 


Roman de la 






Racine . . . 


1639 


1699 


Hose 


12th century. 


Bossuet . 


1627 


1704 


Villehardouin 


. 1 160 


1213 


Bourdaloue . . 


1632 


1704 


Joinville . 


. 1223 


*3!9 


Bayle 


1647 


1706 


Froissart 


• 1333 


1410 


Flechier . . 


1632 


1710 


Monstrelet about 1390 


1453 


Boileau . 


1636 


1711 


Comines . 


• I44S 


1509 


Fenelon . . 


1651 


1715 


Marot . 


■ M95 


1544 


Vertot 


1655 


1735 


Rabelais . 


• M83 


1553 


Rollin . . . 


1661 


1741 


Ronsard 


• 1524 


1585 


Massillon . 


1663 


1742 


Montaigne 


■ 1533 


1592 


Le Sage . . 


1668 


1747 


Be/a . 


• i5'9 


1 605 


Montesquieu . 


1689 


1755 


Malherbe . 


• 1555 


1628 


Voltaire . 


1694 


177S 


Des Cartes . 


■ iS9 6 


1650 


J. J. Rousseau. 


1712 


1778 


Paul Scarron 


. 1610 


1660 


D'Alembert 


1717 


1783 


Pascal 


. 1623 


1662 


Diderot 


1713 


1784 


Moliere 


. 1622 


1673 • 


Button . 


1707 


1788 



FEENCH NATIONAL SOCIETY. 531 FEENCH WEST AFRICA. 





Born 


Died 


Beaumarchais . 


J 73 2 


1799 


Marmontel 


1723 


1799 


Mad. Cottin 


1773 


1807 


Delille . . . 


173S 


1813 


St. Pierre . 


1737 


1814 


De Stael . . 


1766 


1817 


De Genlis . 


1746 


1830 


Sismondi . . 


1773 


1842 


C. Delavigiie . 


!793 


1843 


Chateaubriand. 


1768 


1848 


Balzac 


1799 


i8so 


D. F. Arago 


1786 


i8^3 


Augustin 






Thierry . . 


1795 


1856 


Beranger . 


1780 


I8.S7 


Eugene Sue . . 


1804 


I8S7 


Alfred deMusset 1810 


18^7 


A. Eugene 






Scribe 


1 791 


1861 


A. de Vigny 


1797 


1863 


A. G. De Ba- 






rante . . 


1782 


1866 


A. F. Villemain 


1790 


1867 


Victor Cousin . 


1792 


1867 


A De la Martine 


1790 


1869 


Sainte Beuve . 


1804 


1869 


Alexandre 






Dumas . . 


1803 


1870 


Hegesippe Mo- 






reau . . . 


1810 


18:58 


C. F. Montalem 






bert 


1810 


1870 



Bom Died 
1803 1870 



1872 
1873 
1874 
1874 
1875 
1877 

1877 



P. Merimee 
Theophile 

Gautier . 181 1 
Amedee Thierry 1797 
F. Guizot . . 1787 
Jules Michelet . 1798 
E. Quinet . . 1803 
L. A. Thiers . 1797 
Lanfrey . . 1828 
Louis Blanc . 1811 
L. H. Martin, 

hist.. . . 1810 1883 
Victor Hugo . 1802 1885 
George Sand . 1804 1876 
E. About . . 1828 1885 
E. Renan . . 1823 1892 
H. A. Taine . 1828 1893 
Erckmann . 1822 1899 
Chatrian . . 1826 1890 
Alphonse Karr. 1808 1890 
Octave Feuillet 1812 1891 
Henry Guy de 

Maupassant . 1850 1893 
Alexandre 

Dumas fils . 1824 1895 
Victor Cherbu- 

liez .... 1829 1899 
Emile Zola . 1840 1902 
Alphonse 

Daudet . . 1840 1897 



FEENCH NATIONAL SOCIETY, for 

social, commercial, and artistic purposes, founded 
in London 15 Jan. 1881. 

FEENCH NAVY, see Navy and Fleets, 

FEENCH PEOTESTANT HOSPITAL, 

founded in 1 708 to maintain poor descendants of 
French protestant refugees, 40 females, 20 males. 

FEENCH BELIEF FUND, see Mansion- 
house Fund. The French peasant relief fund, 
originated by the Daily News, in Sept. 1S70, was 
closed April, 1871. 

FEENCH EEVOLUTIONAEY CA- 
LENDAE. In 1792, the French nation adopted 
a calendar professedly founded on philosophical 
principles. The first year of the era of the republic 
began at midnight, between 21 and 22 Sept. 1792 ; 
but its establishment was not decreed until the 
4th Frimaire of the year II., 24 Nov. 1793. The 
calendar existed until the 10th Nivose, year of the 
republic XIV., 31 Dec. 1805, when the Gregorian 
mode of calculation was restored by Napoleon I. 
1800 was not a leap year. 

AUTUMN. 

Vendemiaire . . Vintage month, 22 Sept. to 21 Oct. 
Brumaire . . . Fog month . . 22 Oct. to 20 Nov. 
Frimaire . . . Sleet month . 21 Nov. to 20 Dec. 

WINTER. 

Nivose . . . . Snow month . 21 Dec. to 19 Jan. 
Pluviose . . . Rain month . 20 Jan. to 18 Feb. 
Ventose . . . Wind month . 19 Feb. to 20 Mar. 

SPRING. 

Germinal . . . Sprouts' month, 21 Mar. to 19 April. 
Floreal . . . . Flowers' month, 20 April to 19 May. 
Prairial . . . Pasture month, 20 May to 18 June. 

SUMMER. 

Messidor . . . Harvestmonth, 19 June to 18 July. 
Fervidor, or 

Thermidor . . Hot month . . 19 July to 17 Aug. 

Fructidor . . Fruit month . 18 Aug. to 16 Sept. 

SANSCULOTIDES, OR FEASTS DEDICATED TO 

Les Vertus .... The Virtues . .17 Sept. 
Le Genie . . . . Genius . . . 18 Sept. 

Le Travail .... Labour . . .19 Sept. 
L'Opinion . . . . Opinion . . . 20 Sept. 

Les Recompenses . . Rewards . .21 Sept. 

FEENCH EEVOLUTIONS, see France. 



FEENCHTOWN (Canada), was taken from 
the British by the American general Winchester, 
22 Jan. 1813, during the second war with the 
United States of America. It was retaken by the 
British forces under general Proctor, 24 Jan., and 
the American commander and his troops were made 
prisoners. 

FEENCH TEEATY, the term given to the 
treaty of commerce between Great Britain and 
France, signed 23 Jan. i860, at Paris, by_ lord 
Cowley and Richard Cobden and by the ministers 
MM. Baroche and Rouher. The beneficial results 
of this treaty compensated for the depression of 
trade occasioned by the civil war in North America 
(1861-5). The French assembly determined that 
on 15 March, 1871, this treaty should cease in 12 
months from that date. A fresh treaty was signed 
at Paris 29 Jan. 1873. Free trade was somewhat 
restricted, but the new French navigation law was 
relaxed. Negotiations for a new treaty began in 
London, 26 May, 1881. See France, 1881-2; see 
also Anglo-French Treaty under France in 
Addenda. 

FEENCH WEST AFEICA includes Sene- 
gal, the Soudan, French Guinea, French Congo, 
Ivory Coast, and Dahomey ; M. Chaudie appointed 
gov.-gen., and col. Boileve commander of the troops, 
16 June, 1895; M. Bourne appointed gov.-gen., 
Jan. 1902. See French Africa under Africa. 

Lieut. Voulet concludes treaties with the chiefs of 
the Nabas, Gurunsi, and Sati ; reported, 15 Jan. 1897 

Lieut. Hourst and members of the expedition from 
Timbuktu down the Niger (in 1896), received in 
Paris ....... is Jan. „. 

Successful operations of two missions : the 
"Guma" district placed under French protec- 
tion, contact established between Dahomey and 
the French Sudan ; announced . 25 March, „. 

Franco-German convention, settling the Niger 
frontier 23 July, „ 

A French column takes possession of Say, on the 
Middle Niger ; reported . ... 4 Aug. „. 

Treacherous attack on a detachment, by Samory's 
bands ; 2 officers and others killed . 21 Aug. „, 

Bontuku occupied by the French, by arrangement 
with the British .... 5 Dec. ,, 

Neutral territory of Salaza and Yendi occupied by 
the British ; reported .... Jan. 189S: 

French punitive expedition from Bammako cap- 
tures Sikasso, the capital of Kenedugu, king 
Babemba and many of his men killed, May ; 
lieut. Woelfel totally defeats the Sofas at Ca- 
valry 9 Sept. „ 

Samory captured with all his Sofas by capt 
Gourand, reported .... 13 Oct. ,, 

M. Legeal, geologist of the Trentinig mission, killed 
in a fight with the Tuaregs, in the French Sudan, 

7 March, 1899 

Rising in the Cavally region, Blidura captured, 
reported 7 April, „ 

An expedition to Lake Chad, under capts. Voulet 
and Chanoine, leaves Say, Jan. 1899; col. Klobb, 
sent to inquire into reported cruelty to the 
natives, overtakes capt. Voulet near Sinder, on 
the Niger, who deliberately fires on the party 
approaching ; col. Klobb and 6 men killed, the 
rest, some mortally wounded, fled, 14 July; 
Voulet and Chanoine were afterwaids themselves 
killed by their black troops . . . Oct. „ 

The French Sudan divided between Senegal, 
Guinea, Ivory coast, and Dahomey, by decree 
signed 17 Oct 

Lieut. Bretonnet's mission to lake Chad, to ex- 
tend French interests into Wadai, end of 1898 ; 
massar-red near the Bagirmi by Rabah, the 
usurper, of Bornou's m^n, July ; M. Behagle, the 
explorer, also killed by Rabah, reported, 3 Nov. 

The Foureau-Lamy's mission to cr ss the Sahara 
to lake Chad left Biskra Sept. 1898, reached Air 
mid Aug. 1899 ; Sinder, 2 Nov. ; .joins the Gentil 
and other expeditious at Kusuri, on the Shari, 



FRESCO PAINTINGS. 



532 



FROH-DORF. 



and together defeat and kill Rabah at Kusli, 
major Lamy and 19 French killed, 22 April, 1900; 
the rest of Rabah's bands routed, 2, 7 May, 1900; 
M. Foureau reached Brazzaville . 11 July, 1899 

MM. Fourneau and Koudere's expedition left France 
Sept. 1898; explored the. Sangha river in French 
Congo to Wesso and the Ogowe valley, &c. , to 
the Gabun; reported successful . autumn, 1900 

Col. Pt roz appointed commander of the new terri- 
tory betwren the Niger and lake Chad . Dec. ,, 

Capt. Robillot defeats Rabah's sons S.W. of 
Tonjba, reported .... 10 Feb. 1901 

Tuaregs repulsed at Bir Alabi, near lake Chad, 

1 June, 1902 

Fighting in Ngouint 1 , French Congo, 17 towns and 
plantations destroyed by the French, reported, 
30 Aug. ; expedition against the Fan tribe, 
reported unsuccessful . . . 30 Oct. ,, 

FRESCO PAINTINGS are executed on 
plaster while fresh. Very ancient ones exist in 
Egypt, Italy, and England, and modern ones in the 
British houseR of parliament, at Berlin, and other 
places. The fresco paintings by Giotto and others 
at the Campo Santo, a cemetery at Pisa, executed 
in the 13th century, are justly celebrated. See 
Siereochromy . 

FRESHWATER FISH, see Fish. 

FRETEVAL (Central France). Here Richard 
I. of England defeated Philip II. of France, and 
captured his royal seal, archives, &c, 15 July, 
1 194. Freteval was taken by the Germans, 14 Dec, 
1870, and soon abandoned. 

FRIARS (fvom the French frere, a brother) ; 
see Minorites, Carmelites, Dominicans, Franciscans, 
Crutched Friars, and other orders. 

FRIDAY, the sixth day of the week ; so called 
from Friga, or Frea, the Scandinavian Venus, the 
wife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility, and 
riches, who with Thor and Odin composed the 
supreme council of the gods. See Good Friday and 
Black Friday. 

FRIEDLAND (Prussia). Here the allied 
Russians and Prussians were beaten by the French, 
commanded by Napoleon, on 14 June, 1807. The 
allies lost eighty pieces of cannon and about 18,000 
men ; the French about 10,000 men. The peace of 
Tilsit followed, by which Prussia was obliged to 
surrender nearly half her dominions. 

FRIENDLY ISLES, in the Southern Pacific, 
consist of a group of more than 180 islands, the 
largest of which is Tonga-taboo, the sacred isle, 
130 sq. m. These islands were discovered by Tas- 
man, in 1643 ; visited by Wallis, who called them 
Keppel Isles, 1767 ; and by captain Cook, who 
named them on account of the then friendly dis- 
position of the natives, 1777. Pop. 1901, 20,672. 
The isles were visited by missionaries in 1797 ; of whom 
the Wesleyana were most successful in conversions, 
1820, et seq. 
Many chiefs submitted to king George I. in 1845. He 
set up a constitution and summoned a parliament of 
40 members in 1862. He concluded a treaty with 
Germany, 1 Nov. 1876 ; and with Great Britain, 29 
Nov. 1879. His chief adviser, the rev. Shirley Baker, 
who had, it is stilted, usurped and abused much 
power, was expelled by sir John B. Thurston, the 
British high commissioner of Fiji, and replaced by 
Mr. Basil Thomson, who published an account of the 
affair in 1P95. 
King George I. died, aged upwards of 90, 19 Feb. 1893; 
and was succeeded by his great-grandson, .Jioaji 
Tubou II., born 18 June, 1874. 
The declining population, reported under 20,000 in 1894. 

German claims renounced, reported, S Nov. 1899. 

British protectorate proclaimed at Tonga, iq May, 1900. 
Death of the queen of the Tonga islands. 30 April, 1902. 



FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, which originated 
in the clubs of the industrious classes, were sub- 
jected to slight control in 1793, and have been 
regulated by various enactments. Other acts were 
passed in 18^, 1858 and i860; important ones, 
1875, 1876, 1882. 1887, 1893 ana 1895. Law ; con- 
solidated in 1896. In London, the Defoe Friendly 
Society dates from 1687; the Norman, 1 703; the 
Lintot, 1708. 

An example of fraud, credulity, and mismanagement was 
given on investigation by the registrar-general into the 
affairs of the " Independent Mutual Brethren Friendly 
Society," founded in 1873, and broken up in 1886. 
Members, 2,225,000 ; capital, about 16,000.000?.. ; re- 
turn, July, 1891 ; 3,587,513 members, capital over 
20,000,000?., in Sept. 1901. 
Report on friendly societies in England and Wales pub- 
lished as a blue book (1856-80), Nov. 1896. 
Conference of 30 friendly societies, capital, over 

20,000,000?., 19 March, 1897. 
Conference on the subject of old-age pensions ; com- 
mittee appointed 1 1 prepare a scheme, 2 Oct. 1901. 

FRIENDS, see Quakers, and under Clergy. 

FRIENDS OF THE PEOPLE, an association 
formed in London to obtain parliamentary reform, 
1792. 

FRIESLAND : EAST (N. Germany), the 
ancient Frisia, formerly governed by its own counts. 
On the death of its prince Charles Edward, in 1744, 
it became subject to the king of Prussia; Hanover 
disputed its possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was 
annexed to Holland by Bonaparte, in 1806, to the 
French empire, 1810 ; and awarded to Hanover in 
1815. The English language is said to be mainly 
derived from the old Frisian dialect. — Fhiesland, 
West, in Holland, was part of Charlemagne's 
empire in 800. It passed under the counts of 
Holland about 936, and was one of the seven pro- 
vinces which renounced the Spanish yoke in 1580. 
The term Chevaux de Frise (or Cheval de Frise, a 
Friesland Horse) is derived from Friesland, where 
it was invented. 

FRIULI (Venetia), made a duchy by Alboin 
the Lombard, when he established his kingdom 
about 570. It was conquered by Charlemagne. 
Henri, a Frenchman, made duke, was assassinated 
in 799, which was the fate of duke Berengarius 
king of Italy and emperor, in 924. The emperol 
Conrad gave the duchy to his chancellor Poppo, 
patriarch of Aquileia, in the 1 1 th century; it was 
conquered by Venice in 1420; annexed to Austria, 
1797; France, 1805 ; Austria, 1814; Italy, 1866. 

. FROBISHERS STRAITS, discovered by 
sir Martin Frobisher, who tried to find a north- 
west passage to China, and after exploring the coast 
of New Greenland, entered this strait, 11 Aug. 
1576. He returned to England, bringing with him 
a quantity of black ore, supposed to contain gold, 
which induced queen Elizabeth to patronise a second 
voyage. This led to a third fruitless expedition. 
He was mortally wounded at Brest, Nov. [ 594. 

FR03BEL SOCIETY, see under Kinder- 
garten. 

FROGMORE, near Windsor, Berks. A house 
here, built by Nash, was purchased by queen 
Charlotte 1800, and afterwards became a residence of 
the duchess of Kent. Here is situated the mausoleum 
of the late prince consort whose remains were 
transferred to it 1862. See Albert. Queen 
Victoria was buried here 4 Feb. 1901. 

FROHSDORF, a village 30 miles south of 
Vienna on the river Leitha, with a magnificent 



FROISSART'S CHRONICLE. 



533 



FRUITS. 



castle, which from 1844 to 1883 was the head- 
quarters of the elder Bourbon party. The late 
comte de Chambord, who chiefly resided here, 
improved and beautified the interior of the cststle. 

FROISS ART'S CHRONICLE, a history 
of the period between 1326 and 1400, treating 
chiefly of contemporary events in France, England, 
Scotland and Flanders, which are described in a 
vivid and interesting manner, with valuable in- 
formation also on Spain, Italy and Germany. The 
first part <of the Chronicle, the period 1326-56, 
is based on the writings of Jean le Bel, canon of 
Liege. Froissart (1327-1410), whose life was one 
of travel and adventure, was educated for and took 
orders in the church, but his inclination for poetry 
and gallantry led him to a roving life. He visited 
England in 1360, where his reputation of being a 
gay poet and narrator of chivalric deeds had pre- 
ceded him, and became secretary to queen Philippa 
of Hainault, wife of Edward III., a post he held for 
,-ome yearo; he revisited England in 1395, and 
spent some time at the court of Richard II. 
Among I lis various patrons was VTencelas duke of 
Brabant, whose poems, with certain pieces of his 
own, Froissart collected under the title of 
" Meliador, or the Knight of the Golden Sun ; " 
this work whs discovered in 1894. On the death of 
his patron, he entered the service of Guy, count of 
Blois, who presented him with the canonry of 
Chimay. About 1388 Froissart visited the comte 
(le Foix, of whose court he gives a delightful 
descripti >n. He died at Chimay 1410. The 
earliest translation of the Chronicle is that of sir 
John Bourchier, lord Berners, 1525 ; Buchon 
edited the Chionicle, 1824-26; Johnes, 1 803-5 ; and 
Luce 1869-88. 

FRONDE, CIVIL WARS OF THE, in France, 
in the minority of Louis XIV. (1648-52), during 
the government of queen Anne of Austria and 
cardinal Mazarin, between the followers of the 
court and the nobility, and the parliament and 
the citizens. The latter were called Frondenrs 
(sling em), it is said, from an incident in a street 
quarrel. In a riot on 27 Aug. 1648, barricades were 
erected in Paris. 

FROSTS. The following are some of the most 
remarkable recorded : (see Cold.) 
The Euxine Sea frozen over for 20 days . . . 
A frost at Constantinople, when the two seas there 

were frozen a hundred miles from tlie shore, 

Oct. 763— Feb. 

A frost in England on Midsummer-day is said to 

have destroyed the. fruits of the earth 

Thames frozen for 14 weeks 

Dreadful frosts in England from Nov. to April 

The Cattegat entirely frozen 

Baltic passable to travellers for six weeks 

The Baltic frozen from Pomerania to Denmark 

In England, when all the small birds perished 

The ice bore riding upon it from Lubeck to Prussia, 1426 

Severe frost , when large fowl of the air sought 

shelter in the towns of Germany . . . . 1433 
The river frozen below London-bridge to Gravesend, 

from 24 Nov. to Feb. 10 1434 

The Baltic frozen, and horse passengers crossed 

from Denmark to Sweden 1460 

The winter so severe in Flanders that the wine 

distributed was cut by hatchets .... 1^68 
Carriages passed over from Lambeth to Westminster 1515 
Wine in Flanders frozen into solid lumps . . . 1544 
Sledges drawn by oxen travelled on the sea from 

Rostock to Denmark 1548 

Diversions on the Thames . . .21 Dec. &c. 1564 
The Scheldt frozen so hard as to sustain loaded 

waggons 1565 

The Rhine, Scheldt, and sea at Venice frozen . . 1594 
Fires and diversions' on the Thames. . . . 1607-8 



401 



760 

i°35 
1063 
1076 
1294 

1323 
1402 

1407-8 



The rivers of Europe and the Zuyder Zee frozen ; 

ice covers the Hellespont 

Charles X. of Sweden crossed the Little-Belt over 
the ice from Holstein to Denmark, with his whole 

army 

The forest trees, and even the oaks in England 

split by the frost ; most of the hollies were killed ; 

the Thames covered with ice eleven inches thick ; 

and nearly all the birds perished, Dec. 1683— Feb. 

" The people kept trades on the Thames as in a 

fair, till 4 Feb. 1684. About forty coaches daily 

plied on the Thames as on drye land. Bought 

this book at a shop upon the ice in the middle of 

the Thames." Entry in the memoranda of a 

Citizen. ■ ■ 

The wolves, driven by the cold, entered Vienna, 

and attacked cattle and men . ... ■ • 

Three months' frost, with heavy snow, from Dec. 

to March 
A fair held on the Thames, and oxen roasted ; frost 

continued 24 Nov. to 9 Feb. 

One lasted 9 weeks, when coaches plied tipon the 
Thames, and festivities and diversions of all 
kinds were enjoyed upon the ice. (The "hard 

winter ") 

From 25 Dec. to 16 Jan. and from 18 to 22 Jan. ; 

most terrible 

One general throughout Europe ; the Thames pass- 
able opposite the Custom House Nov. to Jan. . 
One from 24 Dec. 1794, to 14 Feb. 1795, with the 
intermission of one day's thaw . . 23 Jan. 
Intense frosts . . . . all Dec. 

Severe frost in Russia . 

Very destructive to the French army in its retreat 
from Moscow. Napoleon commenced his retreat 
on the 9th Nov. The men perished in battalions, 
and the horses fell by hundreds on the roads. 
France lost in the campaign of this year more 
than 400,000 men. 
Booths erected on the Thames ; the winter very 

severe in Ireland l8 

Severe frost (Thames blocked) . 7 Jan. -Feb., 

The frosts so intense in parts of Norway, that 

quicksilver freezes, and persons exposed to the 

atmosphere lose their breath . . 2 Jan. 

Very severe frost in London, 14 Jan. to 24 Feb. ; 

and very cold weather up to 26 June . . . 

On 22 Feb. fires were made on the Serpentine, 

Hyde Park. A traffic on the ice of 35 miles long, 

was established in Lincolnshire 

Very severe frost, 20 Dec. i860 ; to . 5 Jan. 

Very severe frosts Dec. 

Long frost, with thaws .. . 22 Nov. 1879-2 Feb. 
Very severe frost in Britain, begun 18 Jan. lasted 

about 14 days 

Fairs on the Thames recorded, 1564, 1607-8, 1620, 
1^83-4 (special), 1688-9,1715-16, 1739-40, i7 88 ~9> 
1813-14. 
A frost in Britain began 25 Nov. 1890, and con- 
tinued with intermissions till . . 22 Jan. 
A trap with a tandem team driven across the Serpen- 
tine ...... *6 Jan. 

Frost, 24 Dec' 1892—8' Jan. 1893 : severe frost in 
Britain and the Continent, many deaths reported ; 

1-8 Jan. 

Severe frost in Britain and on the Continent ; cold 

began, 30 Dec. 1894 (mild, 14-21 Jan.)— 5 March, 

1895, many deaths. (Loughboro', i°F. ; London, 

13 F., 9 Feb.), see Thames . ... 

Severe 3 weeks' frost in Britain ; Braemar, 0° F. ; 
London, 15-8'; Greenwich, 14 -3° . 14-16 Feb. 



1622 
1658 



1691 
1709 
1716 

1740 
1766 



1795 
1796 
1812 



13-M 



1855. 



1861 
1874 



1895. 
1902 



FROST'S INSURRECTION, see Newport- 

FRUCTIDOR CONSTITUTION; that 

promulgated in France on the 5th Fructidor, 
year 3, or 22 Aug. 1795. See Directory for 
changes. 

FRUITS. Several varieties introduced into 
Italy, 70 B.C. et seq. Many exotic fruits and flowers, 
previously unknown in England, were brought 
thither between 1500 and 1578, and very many in 
the present century See Gardening, and Flowers. 
A conference of British fruit-growers was held at 
the Crvstal Palace, London, 7 Sept. ; association 



FUCHSIA. 



534 



FUNERALS. 



formed 11 Oct. 1888. Many donations were made 
to the fund for the encouragement of fruit-culture, 
founded by the lord mayor and the Fruiterers' 
Company, autumn, 1889. Successful fruit-growing 
reported, Dec. 1890. Experimental fruit farm at 
Woburn, founded by the duke of Bedford and Mr. 
Spencer Pickering, F.R.S., was inspected by a 
scientific party, and reported very successful ; 12 
June, 1895. Many of the following dates are 
uncertain: — 

Almond-tree, Barbary, about 1548 

Apples, Syria 1522 

Apple, custard, N. America 1736 

Apple, osage, ditto i8j8 

Apricots, Epirus 1540 

Cherry-trees, Pontus 100 

Cherries, Flanders 1540 

Cornelian cherry, Austria 1596 

Currant, the hawthorn, Canada 1705 

Fig-tree, S. Europe, before 1548 

Gooseberries, Flanders, before 1540 

Grapes, Portugal 1528 

Lemons, Spain 1554 

Limes, Portugal, about 1554 

Limes, American, before 1752 

Melons, before 1540 

Mulberry, Italy 1520 

Mulberry, white, China, about .... 1596 

Mulberry, the red, N. America, before . . . 1629 
Mulberry, paper, Japan, before .... 1754 

Nectarine, Persia 1652 

Olive, Cape 1730 

Olive, the sweet-scented China 1771 

Oranges 1595 

Peaches, Persia 1562 

Pears, uncertain * * 

Pine-apple, Brazils 1568 

Pippins, Netherlands 1525 

Plums, Italy 1522 

Pomegranate, Spain, before 1548 

Quince, Austria 1573 

Quince, Japan 1796 

Raspberry, the Virginian, before 1696 

Strawberry, Flanders 1530 

•Strawberry, the Oriental, Levant . . . . 1724 

Walnut, the black, N. America, before . . . 1629 

FUCHSIA, an American plant named after the 
German botanist Leonard Fuchs, about 1542. The 
Fuchsia fulgens, the most beautiful vai'iety, was 
introduced from Mexico, about 1830. In S. 
America a black dye is obtained from the wood of 
some species. 

FUEL, see Coal, Bogs. In the autumn of 
1873, ^ was announced that Louis Rayneckers, a 
French peasant, had discovered that earth mixed 
with coal and a little soda made good fuel. 

FUENTES DE ONORO (central Spain). 
On 2 .May, 181 1, Massena crossed the Agueda with 
40,000 infantry, 5000 horse, and about 30 pieces of 
artillery, to relievo Almeida. He expected every 
day to be superseded in his command, and wished 
to make a last effort for his own military character. 
Wellington could muster no more than 32,000 men, 
of which only 1200 were cavalry. He however de- 
termined to tight rather than give up the blockade 
of Almeida. After much fighting, on 3 May, night 
came on and stopped the conflict. Next day Mas- 
sena was joined by Bessieres with a body of the 
Imperial guard ; and on 5 May, made his grand 
attack. In all the war there was not a more dan- 
gerous hour for England. The fight lasted until 
evening, when the Lower part of the town was 
abandoned by both parties — the British maintaining 
the chapel and crags, and the French retiring a 
cannon-shot from the stream. Napier. 

FUESSEN, Bavaria. By a treaty signed here, 
22 April, 1745, peace was made between Maria 



Theresa, queen of Hungary, and the elector of 
Bavaria, the latter renouncing his claim to the 
imperial crown and recovering his lost territories. 

FUGGER, an illustrious German family (the 
present head, prince Leopold Fugger Babenhausen, 
since 28 May, 1836), derives its origin from John 
Fugger, a master weaver in Augsburg in 1370 ; 
and its wealth by trade, and by money-lending to 
monarchs, especially the emperors. 

FUGITIVE OFFENDERS ACT passed, 
27 Aug. 1881. 

FUGITIVE SLAVE BILL passed by the 
American legislature in 1850. It imposed a fine of 
1000 dollars and six months' imprisonment on any 
person harbouring fugitive slaves or aiding in their 
escape. This law was declared to be unconstitu- 
tional by the judges of the superior court on 3 Feb. 
1855, was carried into effect with great diffi- 
culty, and was not received by Massachusetts. 
It was repealed 13 June, 1864 ; see Slavery in 
America. 

FUGITIVE SLAVE CIRCULARS, see 

Slavery. 

FUGUE in Music (in which one part seems to 
chase another), is described in Morley's " Introduc- 
tion toPracticall Musicke," 1597. Sebastian Bach 
and Handel were eminent fugue-writers. 

FULDA (W. Germany), the seat of an abbey, 
founded by St. Boniface, the apostle of Germany, 
in 744. It was made a bishopric in 1752, and a 
principality in 1803. Napoleon incorporated it with 
Frankfort in 1810; but in 1815 it was ceded to 
Hesse-Cassel. 

FULFORD, Yorkshire. Here Harold Har- 
drada of Norway, and Tostig, brother of Harold of 
England, defeated the earls Edwin and Morcar, 
20 Sept. 1066 ; and the people near York submitted 
to them ; see Stamford-bridge. 

FULHAM PALACE, the official residence 
of the bishops of London since 1141. The present 
building is comparatively modem. Many of the 
bishops are interred in the church. 

FULLER CASE, see India, 1876. 

FUMIGATION. Acron, a physician of Agri- 
gentum, is said to have first caused great fires to 
be lighted and aromatics to be thrown into them 
to purify the air, and thus to have stopped the 
plague at Athens and other places in Greece, about 
473 B - c - 

FUNDS, see Stocks, and Sinking Fund and 
Foreign Bondholders. 

FUNERALS. David lamented over Saul and 
Jonathan, 1056 B.C., and over Abner, 1048 B.C. 
2 Sam. i. and iii. In Greece, Solon was the first 
who pronounced a funeral oration, according to 
Herodotus, 580 B.C. The Komans pronounced 
harangues over their illustrious dead. Tlieopompus 
obtained a prize for the best Funeral Oration in 
praise of Mausolus, 353 B.C. Popilia was the first 
Roman lady who had an oration pronounced at her 
funeral, which was done by her son, Crassus ; and 
it is observed by Cicero that Julius Caesar did the 
like for his aunt Julia and his wife Cornelia. — 
Funeral Games, among the Greeks and Romans 
included horse-races, dramatic representations, pro- 
cessions, and mortal combats of gladiators. These 
games were abolished by the emperor Claudius, 






FURNACE. 



535 



FUTTEHGHUR. 



a.d. 47. A tax was laid on funerals in England, 
1793- 

Cremation society founded 1874 

Church of England Funeral and Mourning Reform 
Association, founded at Sheffield, by earl Nelson 

and others 5 Oct. 1878 

Foundation-stone of first crematorium within a 
cemetery in the United Kingdom laid at Ilford, 

14 Oct. 1903 
See Burials and Windsor. 

Public Funerals voted by parliament : — 

Duke of Rutland, in Ireland . . .17 Nov. 1787 

Lord Nelson (see Nelson) . . . .9 Jan. 1806 

Wm. Pitt 22 Feb. ,, 

Chas. Jas. Fox 10 Oct. „ 

Richard Brinsley Sheridan . . .13 July, 181 6 

George Canning 16 Aug. 1827 

Duke of Wellington 18 Nov. 1852 

Viscount Palmerston (at her majesty's request), 

27 Oct. 1865 

Lord Napier of Magdala (by order) . 21 Jan. 1890 

Queen Victoria 4 Feb. 1901 

FURNACE, see Blowing-machines, Iron. 

FURNITURE. Specimens of Egyptian fur- 
miture, represented on the interior walls of the 
pyramids, appear in Eosellini's " Monumenti delV 
Egitto," 1832-44, Vol. II. Mr. J. G. Pollen's 
" Ancient and Modern Furniture and Woodwork " 
in the South Kensington museum, 1874, illus- 
trated by photographs and engravings, was pub- 
lished, July, 1874. Many interesting examples 
will be found in Fosbroke's " Encyclopedia of 
Antiquities" Vol. I. 1825. 

FURRUCKABAD (N. Indiana province ac- 
quired by the East India company, in June, 1802. 
Near the capital of the same name, 17 Nov. 1804, 
iord Lake defeated the Mahratta chief flolkar, and 



about 60,000 cavalry, himself losing 2 killed and 
about 20 wounded. 

FURS were worn by Henry I. about 1125. 
Edward III. enacted that all persons who could not 
spend \ool. a year should be prohibited this species 
of finery, 28 March, 1336-7. Furs of various kinds 
are now extensively worn. The chief supplies 
come from Siberia and N. America, chinchillas 
(the finest and most delicate of all furs) from S. 
America, opossum and kangaroo from Australia, 
and leopard skins from Africa. Europe produces 
large quantities of common furs, as those of the 
fox, hare, and rabbit. The principal fur com- 
panies are the Hudson Bay co., founded 1670, and 
the N. America Fur-sealing co., established 1890. 
Formei'ly the Skinners' company, one of the city 
guilds, possessed many privileges and rights con- 
nected with the trade in fur. These ancient rights 
are now in abeyance. Great fur sales are held 
periodically at Leipsig, and at Nijni Novgorod. 

FUSILIERS. Foot soldiers, formerly armed 
with fusees with slings to sling them. The 7th 
regiment (or Royal English Fusiliers) was raised, 
II June, 1685; the 21st (or Royal North British), 
23 Sept. 1679 ; the 23rd (or Royal Welsh), 17 March, 
1688. Grose. 

FUSION of the French legitimists and Or- 
leanists into one monarchical party, 5 Aug. 1873. 
See France. 

FUTTEHGHUR (India). Here Nana Sahib 
massacred both the English defenders of the fort and 
their Sepoy assailants, July, 1857; and here the 
Sepoy rebels were defeated by sir Colin Campbell, 
2 Jan. i8q8. 



GABELLE. 



636 



GALILEE. 



G. 



GABELLE (from Gabe, a gift), a term applied 
to various taxes, but afterwards restricted to the 
duty upon salt, first imposed by Philip the Fair on 
the French in 1286. Durity. Our Edward III. 
termed Philip of Valois, who exacted the tax 
rigorously, the author of the Salic law (from sal, 
salt), 1340. The assessments were unequal, being 
very heavy in some provinces and light in others ; 
owing to exemptions purchased from the sovereigns. 
The tax produced 38 millions of francs in the reign 
of Louis XVI. It was a grievous burden, and 
tended to hasten the revolution, during which it 
was abolished (1790). 

GALES, S.W. Spain, an ancient town suc- 
cessively subjected by the Phoenicians, Carthagi- 
nians, and Romans ; see Cadiz. 

GAELIC, the northern branch of the Celtic 
languages, Irish, Erse or Highland Scottish, and 
Manx. The "Dean of Lismore's book" (written 
151 1 -5 1) contains Gaelic poetry; specimens were 
published, with translations, in 1862, by rev. T. 
M'Lachlan. See CelU, Clan-na-gael. 
Gaelic Society of London, founded 1777. 
Gaelic speaking population of Scotland, 1881, 231,602. 
The Gaelic Union, organised in Ireland, proposed the 

publication ot a monthly journal, to be devoted to 

Irish literature, 1 Nov. 1882. 
A Gaelic athletic association existing in Ireland ; 

said to be infected with fenianism . . Dec. 1887 

GAETA (the ancient Cajeta), a fortified Nea- 
politan^ seaport, has undergone several remarkable 
sieges.' It was taken by the French, 4 Jan. 1799; 
by the English, 31 Oct. 1799; by the French, 
18 July, 1806; and by the Austrians in 1815 and 
182 1. Here pope Pius IX. took refuge, 24 Nov. 
1848, and resided more than a year. Here also 
Francis II. of Naples, with his queen and court, 
fled, when Garibaldi entered Naples, 7 Sept. i860 ; 
and here he remained till the city was taken by 
the Sardinian general Cialdini, 13 Feb. 1861, after 
a severe siege, uselessly prolonged by a French fleet 
remaining in the harbour. Cialdini was created 
duke of Gaeta. 

GAGGING ACT, properly so called, meant 
to protect the king and government from the 
harangues of seditious meetings, was enacted 8 Dec. 
179^, when the popular mind was much excited. 
In Djc. 1819, soon after the Manchester affray, an 
act was parsed for restraining public meetings and 
cheap periodical publications; itwaspopularly called 
"gagging bill." See Six Acts. Statutes coerc- 
ing popular assemblies, particularly in Ireland, have 
been also so designated. Sec Germany, 1879. The 
terms "gagging" and " guillotining"' were applied 
to Mr. Gladstone's resolutions for restricting (by 
the closure) the discussion on the Irish Homo Rule 
bill, 30 June, 21 Aug. 1893. Mr. W. H. Smith, 
leader of the house, 1887-91, was said to "pounce" 
whenever he moved the closure. 

GAIETY THEATRE; Strand, opened 21 Dec. 
j868, Mr. John Eollingsheau, manager, closed, last 
performance, "The Linkman," 4 July, 11)03; new 
Gaiety Theatre opened _'| Oct, [903, with " The 
Orchid." 



GAIKAS AND GadekAS, see Eaffraria. 

GALAPAGOS, islands ceded to the United 
States by Ecuador, 3 Nov. 1854, the British, French, 
and other powers protesting against it. 

GALATIA, a province of Asia Minor. In the 
3rd century B.C. the Gauls under Brennus invaded 
Greece, crossed the Hellespont, and conquered the 
Troas, 278 ; were checked by Attalus I. in a battle 
about 241 ; and then settled in what was called 
afterwards Gallogrsecia and Galatia. The country 
was ravaged by Cneius Manlius, 189 B.C., and was 
finally annexed to the Koman empire, 25 B.C., on 
the death of the king Amyntas. St. Paul's Epistle 
to the Galatians was probably written a.d. 58. 

GALATZ (Moravia). The preliminaries of 
peace between Russia and Turkey signed here, 
II Aug. 1791, led to the treaty of Jassy, 9 Jan. 
1792. The site of several conflicts, in which the 
Russians defeated the Turks, Nov. 1769; 10 May, 
1828. 

GALAXY, see Milky Way. 

GALICIA, a province, N.W. Spain, was con- 
quered by D. Junius Brutus, 136 B.C. and by the 
Vandals a.d. 419; and was subdued by successive 
invaders. In 1065, on the death of Ferdinand I. 
king of Castile and Leon, when his dominions were 
divided, his son Garcia became king of Ualicia. 
Ruling tyrannically, he was expelled by his brother 
Sancho ; returned at his death in 1072 ; was again 
expelled by his brother Alfonso, 1073 ! al1 ^ died ^ n 
prison in 1091. Alfonso, son of Urraca, queen of 
Castile, was made king of Galicia by her in 1109. 
He defended his mother, a dissolute woman, against 
her husband, Alfonso VII., and at her death in 
1 126, acquired Castile, and once more re-united the 
kingdoms. 

GALICIA, Tvld//d. East Galicia was acquired 
by the emperor of Germany at the partition 
in 1772; and "West Galicia at that of 1795. 
The latter was ceded to the grand duchy of Warsaw 
in 1809; bat recovered by Austria in 1815. The 
appointment of count Goluekowski, a Pole, as 
governor, in Oct. 1866, gave much satisfaction to 
the Poles, about 2,000,000 in this province ; see 
Poland, note. Pop., 1900, 7,395,538. 
Stry, a prosperous town, destroyed by fire ; great priva- 
tion ; over 100 deaths, 18-22 April, 1886. 
Lisko (about 7,000 inhabitants) burnt, 27-28 April, 1886. 
For emigration frauds, see Austria, March, 1890. 
Great ftres in the petroleum works at Boryslaw, 35 
houses burnt, some deaths, 24 Nov. 1902 ; and at 
Kilty, 370 houses and other buildings burnt, 8 Feb. 
1903. 

GALIGNANIS WEEKLY MESSEN- 
GER, English newspaper, published in Paris ; 
began in 1814, at the restoration. William Galig- 
uaui died Dec. 1882, aged 84. Galignani home, 
for decayed printers and booksellers, founded at 
Neuilly, 1889. 

GALILEE, one of the four Roman divisions of 
Palestine, including in the time of Christ the 
northern district of Palestine from the Mediterra- 
nean to the .Ionian, and divided into upper and 



GALILEE. 



537 



GAME LAWS. 



lower Galilee. Its chief towns were Tiberias and 
Sepphoris; Nazareth, Capernaum, Cana, and Nain 
are mentioned in the Gospels. It now is part of 
the pashalic of Damascus, under Tui kish rule. 

GALILEE, the porch or small chapel annexed 
to a church, in which public penitents stood, dead 
bodies were placed preparatory to interment, and 
religious processions formed. Here, in certain 
religious nouses, the women were only allowed to 
worship, or, if relatives of the monks, to converse 
with them, a practice based on the words of St. 
Matt, xxviii. 7, "He goeth before you into Galilee; 
there shall ye see Him " Galilees ai-e attached to 
Durham, Ely, and Lincoln cathedrals. 

GALL, ST. (in Switzerland). The abbey, 
founded in the 7th century, was surrounded by a 
town in the 10th. St. Gall became a canton of the 
confederation in 1815. 

GALLERIES, see National, Louvre, and 
Versailles. 

GALLEYS, long boats, sometimes with sails, 
with seats for rowers, varying in number, much 
employed by the Venetians and Genoese till the 
16th century. "Galley slaves" were condemned 
criminals employed in navigation. In France they 
had a general of galleys, of whom the baron de la 
Garde was the first, 1544. The punishment of the 
galleys {galeres) was superseded by the " travaux 
forces," forced labour, regulated by a law of 1854, 
the men being called "formats. " 

GALLIC AN CHURCH, see Church of 

France. 

A building for the Catholic Gallican church was opened 
by father Hyacinthe Loyson, 9 Feb. 1879. 

GALLIPOLI, the ancient Callipolis, a sea- 
port in Turkey in Europe, 128 miles west of Con- 
stantinople. It was taken by the Turks in 1357, 
and fortified by Bajazet I. The first division of the 
French and English armies proceeding against the 
Russians landed here in March and April, 1854. 

GALLIUM, an elementary metal, discovered 
by Lecoq de Boisbaudran, by means of the spectro- 
scope : reported to French academy of sciences, 
20 Sept., and 6 Dec. 1875. 

GALOCHES, French for overshoes, formerly 
of leather ; but since 1843 made of vulcanised India 
rubber. The importation of Galoshes was prohibited 
by 3 Edw. IV. c. 4 (1463). 

GALVANISM and GALVANO-PLAS- 
TICS, see under Electricity . 

GALWAY (W. Ireland). The ancient settlers 

here were divided into thirteen tribes, a distinction 

not yet forgotten. It was conquered by Richard de 

Burgh in 1232. In 1690 Galway city declared for 

king James, but was taken by general Ginckel soon 

after the decisive battle of Aughrim, 12 July, 1691. 

It is the seat of a R.C. see. Queen's college was 

endowed by government, pursuant to act 8 & 9 

Vict. c. 66 (1845), inaugurated, 30 Oct. 1849; see 

Colleges and Ireland, 1872-3. Pop., 1901, 13,414. 

In 1858 the sailing of mail steam packets from Galway to 

America began ; but the subsidy ceased in May, 1861, 

through the company's breach of contract, which 

occasioned much discussion in parliament. In July, 

1863, the contract for the conveyance of mails from 

Galway to America was renewed, and 75,000?. voted for 

the purpose. The scheme was not successful. On 9 

Nov. the steamer Anglia struck on the Black rock, and 

the mails were taken to Dublin. The last packet sailed 

in Feb. 1864. 



The Duke of Edinburgh warmly received here, middle 

of Aug. 1884. 
Visit of the king and queen, 30 July, 1903. 

GAMBIA, West Africa. The proposed ces- 
sion of Gambia to France in exchange for other 
territories was opposed in Jan. 1876, and eventually 
given up. Administrator, Sir Robert Llewelyn, 
1891 ; Sir G. Denton, Jan. iqoi. 

Gambia separated from Sierra Leone and made an 
independent colony, 22 Dec. 1888. 

Chief town, Bathurst. Some villages of a marauding 
chief punished for aggressions, about 7 Jan. 1892. 

Toniataba destroyed after a battle ; capt. A. S. Roberts 
killed, 28 April ; successful British expedition, re- 
ported 11 May, 1892. 

An expedition of 200 men of the naval brigade under 
capt. Gamble, from H.M.S. Raleigh and others, against 
Fodi-Silah, a slave-raiding chief, destroy 2 villages, a 
division is surprised by an ambush while returning to 
their boats, and 15 men, including lieuts. W. H. 
Arnold, Francis W. Hervey, sub-lieut. Francis W. 
Meister are killed at Medina Creek, 23 Feb. 1894. 

An attack of about 2,000 natives repulsed by lieut.-col. 
Corbet and about 100 men of the West India regiment, 
on the British Combo river, 26 Feb. 1894. 

Reinforcements arrive at Bathurst, commanded by 
major S. G. Fairtlough, 1 March ; (he died at Sierra 
Leone, May, 1894). 

Busamballa occupied by the West India column under 
major Madden, an attack of the natives repulsed, 3 
March ; continued lighting, enemy's loss reported 
heavy, 6 March ; Birkama taken after a hot fight, 7 
March ; Gonjur bombarded by rear-admiral Bed- 
ford. 7 March ; Fodi-Silah's force broken, reported 

10 March ; he surrendered to the French in Senegal, 

11 March; died 19 Sept. 1894; peace restored, re- 
ported, 21 March, 1894. 

Messrs. Sitwell and Silva and 6 constables killed at 
Sannkandi, June, 1900; Anglo-French punitive opera- 
tions ; col. Brake captures Dumbutu, 6 chiefs and ?oo 
men, 11 Jan. 1901. 

Sallikeni buint ; 6 ringleaders captured, 16, 17 Jan. 
1901. 

Medina taken by the French; the hostile chief Fodi 
Kabba and 150 others killed, 23 March, 1901. 

Successful punitive expedition against the Yolahs, May, 
1902. 

Population : colony, 13,456 ; protectorate, about 90,000, 



GAMBOGE, a medicine and pigment, brought 
from India by the Dutch, about 1600. Hermann 
in 1677 announced that it was derived from two 
trees of Ceylon, since ascertained to belong to the 
order Guttifera. 

GAME LAWS are a remnant of the forest 
laws imposed by William the Conqueror, who, to 
preserve his game, made it forfeiture of property 
to disable a wild beast, and loss of eyes, for a stag, 
buck, or boar. The clergy protested against amelio- 
rations of these laws, under Henry 111. The first 
game act passed in 1496. Game certificates were 
first granted with a duty in 1784. The Game act 
(1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 32), greatly modifying all pre- 
vious laws, was passed in 183 1. By it the sale of 
game is legalised at certain seasons. By the Game 
Poaching Preventive act, passed in 1862, greatly 
increased powers were given to the county 
police. Licences to kill game (3/. a year) granted 
for the year 1856-7, 28,950; for 1865-6 43,231; 
for 1869, 54,203 ; 1902, 76,807 ; received for 
licences, 1877-8, 196,352/. ; 1883-4, 177,834/. ; 
1887-8, 179,143/.; 1902, 209,680/. 

Motions for abolition made annually in commons 
by Mr. P. Taylor, lost (160-87) • • 2 March, 1880 

The Ground Game act, to protect farmers from in- 
jury to crops, 43 & 44 Vict. c. 47, passed 7 Sept. ,, 

Proposed reduction of licence to shoot game to xl. 
for short periods April, 1883 

A game act relating to hares was passed in . . 1892 



GAMES. 



538 



GAROTTE. 



Intemat. conference for the perservation of big 
game in Africa meets in London, 24 April ; 
report issued, with recommendations . 30 May, 1900 

See Africa, 1900. 

GAMES. Candidates for athletic games in 
Greece were dieted on new cheese, dried figs, and 
boiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. The 
eports were leaping, foot-races, quoits, wrestling, 
and boxing ; see Capitoline, Isthmian, Olympic, 
Pythian, Secular Games, American Baseball, &c. 

Gaming was introduced into England by the Saxons ; 
the loser was often made a slave to the winner, and 
sold in traffic like other merchandise. Camden. 

Act prohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and inter- 
dicting tennis, cards, dice, bowls, &c, to inferior 
people, except at Christmas time) . . . 1541 

■Gaming-houses licensed in London . . . . 1620 

Any person losing, by betting or playing, more than 
iooi. at any one time, not compellable to pay the 
same, 16 Chas. II 1663 

Bonds or other securities given for money won at 
play not recoverable ; and any person losing more 
than 10/. may sue the winner to recover it back, 
9 Anne, c. 14 1710 

Act to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, 
when all private lotteries and the games of faro, 
basset, and hazard were suppressed . . . 1739 

The profits of a gaming-house in London for one 
season have been estimated at 150,000?. In one 
night a million of money is said to have changed 
hands at this place. Leigh. A bankrupt was 
refused his certificate because he had lost 5/. at 
one time in gaming .... 17 July, 1788 

Three ladies of quality convicted in penalties of 
50Z. each for playing at faro . . March n, 1797 

Gaming-houses were licensed in Paris until . . 1838 

Amended laws respecting games and wagers, 8 & 9 
Vict. c. 109 (1845); by 3 Geo. IV. c. 114 (1822), a 
gaming-house keeper is to be imprisoned with 
hard labour ; and by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 47, gaming- 
houses may be entered by the police, and all per- 
sons present taken into custody . . . . 1839 

Betting-houses suppressed 1853 

Public gaming-tables totally suppressed at Wies- 
baden, Homburg, &c. See Monaco . 31 Dec. 1872 

Mr. Jenks, proprietor of the Park Club house, and 
others, heavily fined for gambling, 7 Feb. ; sen- 
tence confirmed .... 24 June, 1884 

The clock tower club and institute, Newington 
Butts, a bad gambling house suppressed ; John 
James Hunt, the proprietor, sentenced to six 
years' penal servitude ... 23 Sept. 1887 

The proprietors of the Field Club (Mr. Seaton) and 
of the Adelphi Club (Mr. S. C. Cohen) fined each 
500?. for keeping a gambling house, London, W., 
the subordinates fined ; the players discharged 

20 & 23 May, 1889 

Similar prosecutions and penalties . . 1889-1903 

National anti-gambling league begins work in 
Glasgow, April, 1891 ; a large meeting in London. 
See Sports I2 June, 1894 

New gaming act passed ... 20 May, 1892 

"The History of Gambling in England," by John 
Ashton, Athciiiriim 26 Nov. 1898 

Pari, committee appointed 1901, on the initiative of 
the bp. of Hereford, "to inquire into the in- 
crease nl' betting among all classes, and whether 
any legislative measures are possible and expe- 
dient for checking the abuses occasioned 
thereby," issued its report ^02 

Lord Davey's Betting bill rejected in the house of 
birds, 48— 39 18 May, 1903 

GAMUT. The scale of musical intervals (com- j 
monly termed do or ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, to which ' 
si was added afterwards), for which the first seven i 
letters of the alphabet arc now employed, is men- 
tioned by Guido Aretino, a Tuscan 'monk, about 
1025. 

GANDAMAK (orGlTNDAMTJK),N. India. A 
treaty with Yakoob Khan, ameer ot Afghanistan, 
was signed here by major Cavagnari, 26 May, 1871), 
principal articles, British to hold Khyber Pass, Kc. 



a British Resident to be at Cabul, annual subsidy 
of 60,000/. to the ameer, &c. The treaty was not 
carried out, see Afghanistan, Sept. 1879. 

GANESA, the special deity of Prudence, in 
the worship of the Hindus, whose favour is invoked 
at the beginning of any enterprise ; every book is 
inscribed with the name Ganecaya, "honour to 
Ganesa." The god is represented with the head 
of an elephant, and riding upon a rat. 

GANGES, the great sacred river of N. India, 
which rises in the S. Himalayas, receives several 
great rivers, divides into several branches, ending in 
the Bay of Bengal. The Ganges Canal, for irrigating 
the country between the Ganges and the Jumna. 
The main line (525 miles long) was opened 8 April, 
1854. The immense difficulties in its execution 
were overcome by the skill and perseverance of its 
engineer, sir Proby Cautley. The lower Ganges 
canal, an extension of the above, commenced 1873. 

GANGS, see Agricultural Gangs and Hooli- 
ganism. 

GANJA, a preparation of the leaves, flowers 
and stem of the hemp plant (cultivated in Lower 
Bengal), largely consumed like opium; reported 
autumn, 1892. 

GAOL DISTEMPER, see Old Bailey. 

GAOLS, see Prisons. 

GARDENERS' CHRONICLE, a weekly 

paper, long edited by Dr. John Lindle}', first ap- 
peared, 2 Jan. 1841. 

GARDENING. The first garden, Eden, 
planted by God. Gen. ii. The Scriptures abound 
with allusions to gardens, particularly the Song of 
Solomon and the prophets ; and Christ's agony took 
place in a garden. Xenophon describes the gardens 
at Sardis; and Epicurus and Plato taught in gardens. 
Theophrastus's History of Plants was written about 
322 B.C. Horace, Virgil, and Ovid derive many 
images from the garden (50 B.C. to a.d. 50) ; and 
Pliny's Tusculan villa is circumstantially described 
(about a. r>. 100). The Romans introduced garden- 
ing into Britain, the religious orders maintained it, 
and its cultivation increased in the 16th century, 
when many Flemings came here to escape the per- 
secutions of Philip II. Miller's dictionary was pub- 
lished in 1724; the Horticultural Society (which 
see) was established in 1804; Loudon's Encyclo- 
paedia of Gardening was first published in 1822, and 
his Encyclopaedia of Plants in 1829; an act for the 
protection of gardens and ornamental grounds in 
cities was passed in 1863. See Botany, Flowers, 
Fruits. Gardeners' Royal Benevolent Institution, 
founded 1838. Schools of practical gardening 
for women are in successful operation at Swanley, 
Kent, and elsewhere. Exhibition of Gardening and 
Forestry at Earl's-court, Kensington, opened by 
the Duke of York, 13 May, closed, 14 Oct. 1893. 
School of practical gardening for bo_\s established 
by the Technical Education board at the Royal 
Botanic Society, Regent's Park, early 1901. 

GARENGANZE. See Katanga. 

GARIGLIANO, a river (S. W. Italy). After 
long waiting and refusing to recede a step, the great 
captain Gonsalvo de Cordova made a bridge over 
this river, 27 Dec. 1503, and surprised and totally 
defeated the French army. Gaeta surrendered a 
few days after. 

GAROTTE, a machine for strangling criminals, 
used in Spain. After five } ears' interval, a young 



GAETEE, OEDEE OF THE. 



539 



GAS. 



woman, her lover, and an accomplice thus executed 
in Madrid for murder, n April, 1888. Many at- 
tempts to strangle made oy thieves (termed 
"garotters") in the winter of 1862-3, led to the 
passing of an act in July, 1863, termed the "Ga- 
rotting Act," to punish these acts by liogging. 

GAETEE, Order of the. Edward III., 
when at war with France and eager to draw the 
best soldiers of Europe into his interest, projected the 
revival of king Arthur's round table, and proclaimed 
a solemn tilting On New Year's day 1343-4, he 
published letters of protection for the safe coming 
and returning of such foreign knights as would 
venture their reputation at the jousts and tourna- 
ments about to be held. These took place 23rd 
April, 1344. A table was erected in Windsor castle 
of 200 feet diameter, and the knights were enter- 
tained at the king's expense. In 1346 Edward gave 
his garter for the signal of a battle that had been 
crowned with success (supposed to be Cressy) , and 
being victorious on sea and land, and having David, 
king of Scotland, a prisoner, he, in memory of these 
exploits, is said to have instituted this order, 23 
April, 134Q. See below. 

Edward III. gave the garter pre-eminence among 
the ensigns of the order ; it is of blue velvet bor- 
dered with gold, with the inscription in old 
French — " Honi soit qui mal y -pense " (Evil be to 
him who evil thinks). The knights are installed 
at Windsor, and styled Equites aurece Periscelidis, 
knights of the golden garter. Beatson. 

The order until king Edward VI. 's time was called 
the order of St. George, the patron saint of 
England. His figure on horseback, presented as 
holding a spear, and killing the dragon, was first 
worn by the knights of the institution. It is sus- 
pended by a blue ribbon across the body from the 
shoulder. 

tnstituted, according to Selden, 23 April, 1344 ; 
according to Nicolas, 1347 ; to Ashmole . . . 1349 

The office of " Garter king of arms of Englishmen" 
instituted . . . between May and July, 1417 

Additions to the statutes decreed . . . 1421, 1423 

Order of the Garter in Ireland instituted by 
Edward IV. , 1466; abolished 1494 

Collar and George of the order instituted by 
Henry VII about 1497 

The statutes reformed by order, 28 May, 1519; 
issued 23 April, 1522 

The ceremonies altered in consequence of the 
reformation 20 April, 1548 

Revision of the statutes 1560 

The annual feast of St. George discontinued . . 1567 

The escocheon converted into a star . . . 1629 

The number of knights increased by seven . . 1786 

The order reconstituted ; to consist of the sovereign, 
the prince of Wales, 25 knights companions, and 
lineal descendants of George III., when elected, 

17 Jan. 1805 

Several European sovereigns elected . . . 1813-14 

Abdul Aziz, sultan of Turkey, invested with the 
garter by the queen on board her yacht at the 
naval review 17 July, 1867 

The shah of Persia invested by the queen at Wind- 
sor 20 June, 1873 

Alphonso XII. of Spain invested with the order at 
Madrid 11 Oct. 1881 

There were 54 knights in ... . Jan. 1895 

William, crown prince of Germany, invested with 
the order at Osborne by Edward VII. . 28 Jan. 1901 

Special statute issued by the king for conferring on 
the queen the title of a Lady of the order, 

12 Feb. „ 

Alphonso XIII. of Spain invested with the order 
at Madrid 16 May, 1902 

Six royal princes invested with the order, 

June, July ,, 

Dukes of Wellington and Sutherland . 26 June ,, 

ORIGINAL KNIGHTS. 

King Edward III., sovereign. 

Edward, prince of Wales (called the Black Prince). \ 



Henry, duke of Lancaster. 

Thomas, earl of Warwick. 

John, captal de Buch. 

Ralph, earl of Stafford. 

William, earl of Salisbury. 

Roger, earl of Mortimer. 

Sir John Lisle. 

Bartholomew, lord Burghershe. 

John, lord Beauchamp. 

John, lord Mohun, of Dunster. 

Sir Hugh Courtenay. 

Thomas, earl of Kent. 

John, lord Grey, of Rotherfield. 

Sir Richard Fitz-Simon. 

Sir Miles Stapleton. 

Sir Thomas Wale. 

Sir Hugh Wrottesley. 

Sir Nele Loryng. 

Sir John Chandos. 

Sir James Audelev. 

Sir Otho Holand.' 

Sir Henry Earn. 

Sir Sanchet dAbrichecourt. 

Sir Walter Pavelev. 

GAS, in. chemistry, a permanently elastic aeri- 
form tiuid; see Oxygen, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Chlo- 
rine, Argon, Crypton, &c. 

It is stated that Monge and Clouet condensed sul- 
phurous acid before 1800, and Northmore lique- 
fied chlorine 1S05 

Faraday determined a gas to be the vapour of a 
volatile liquid existing at a temperature consider- 
ably above the boiling point of the liquid ; and 
that the condensing points of different gases are 
merely the boiling points of the liquids producing 
them ; he by pressure condeused chlorine gas into 
a liquid 1823 

Other gases liquefied by intense cold and great 
pressure (as indicated by Faraday) ; oxygen by 
Cailletet, at Paris, 2 Dec, and independently by 
Raoul Pictet at Geneva . . . .22 Dec. 1877 

Nitrogen and atmospheric air, liquefied by 
Cailletet, soon after 1877-8 

The process exhibited at the Royal Institution, 
London, by prof. James Dewar . 14 June, 1878 

Ozone liquefied by Hautefeuille andChappuis, Oct. 1880 

Liquefied gases used by Krupp in casting guns, &c. 1884 

The researches of the Polish profs. Wroblewski and 
Olszewski on the liquefaction of gases much aided 
by their production of extreme cold, 1884 et seq ; 
for prof. Dewar's liquefaction and solidification 
of gases at low temperatures in 1884 et seq., see 
Cold and Air, footnote, Hydrogen and Fluorine. 

See Giffard's gun, in article Cannon. 

Prof. Thos. Graham's paper on the law of the 
diffusion of gases appeared, 1834 ; he showed that 
platinum and other metals can absorb gases . . 1866 

Furnaces in which gases are used as fuel invented by 
C. W. Siemens, and employed in glass works, &c. 1861 

Gas e>igines. Barnett patented a plan for em- 
ploying heated gas as a motive power . . . 1838 

Lenoir's gas-engine, in which the motive power is 
obtained by the ignition of combined gases by 
electricity 1861 

143 of these engines had been working in Paris ; 
and introduced into England . . . Dec. 1864 

Pierre Hugon's gas-engine (said to be superior to 
Lenoir's, 1871) exhibited 1867 

The Otto-Langen gas engine, exhibited in 1876, has 
been superseded by the Otto Silent Gas Engine. 

Gas engines have been greatly improved by Messrs. 
Crossley Bros., and are now so largely employed 
that sir F. Bramwell foretold their eventually 
superssling steam engines ... 5 Sept. 1888 

Mr. Purlieu's gas engine, of simple construction, 
driven by a mixture of gas and air, exhibited at 
Webber Street, S.E Jan. 1890 

Natural gas rising from the ground largely em- 
ployed as fuel at Fittsburg, U.S. &c., 1884 et seq., 
long known to the Persians, Chinese, and others. 

Natural gas, from the Kimmeridge clay, discovered 
at Heathfield, Sussex, while boring for water in 
1895; candle-power of 12 to 14 candles, used for 
lighting; boring,&c, rapidly proceeding . Sept. 1902 
See Tram-nais, 1894. 



GASCONY. 



540 



GATESHEAD. 



1792 



1805 



1812 
18-13 

1825 



1865 



GASCONY (S. W. France), a duchy, part of 
Aquitaine {which see). 

GAS INSTITUTE. The name assumed, 16 
June, 1881, by the British Association of Gas 
Managers, founded in 1863 for the advancing of gas 
engineering. 

GAS-LIGHTS ; the inflammable aeriform fluid, 

carburetted hydrogen, evolved by the combustion of 

coal, was described by Di. Clapton in 1739. 

Application of coal gas to the purposes of illumina- 
tion tried by Mr. Murdoch, in Cornwall . 

Gaslight introduced at Boulton and Watt's foundry 
in Birmingham ....... 

Lyceum Theatre lit with gas as an experiment by 
Mr. Winsor 

Permanently used at the cotton-mills of Phillips 
and Lee, Manchester (1000 burners lighted) 

Introduced in London, at Golden-lane, 16 Aug. 
1807; Pall Mall, 1809 ; generally through Londoni8i4-2o 

Mr. David Pollock, father of the late chief baron, 
was governor of the first " chartered" gas com- 
pany which began in 1810 (called " the gas light 
and coke company ") 

Westminster bridge lighted with gas 

Gas first used in Dublin, 1818 ; the streets generally 
lighted Oct. 

Gas engine, ty Lenoir, by explosive mixture of gas 
and air, i860 ; Otto's gas engine .... 1876 

Later improvements : Robson's, Andrew's, the 
Griffin engines, etc., also in use. 

Gas-lighting introduced in Paris, 1819 ; ten gas 
companies in Paris .... July, 

Sydney, in Australia, was lit with gas 25 May, 

The sale of gas is regulated by acts passed in . 

The gas-pipes in and round London extend upwards 
of 2000 miles, and are daily increasing. It was 
said in i860, that of the gas supply of London a 
leakage of 9 per cent, took place through the 
faulty joints of the pipes. 

Processes to obtain illuminating gas from, water 
have been patented byCruickshanks(i839), White 
(1849), and others. Water-gas made by Puck's 
process mixed with ordinary gas tried and re- 
ported successful at Chichester, Aug. 1873 ; at 
Harrogate (it is extensively used in United 
States) Aug. 

Water-gas employed in metallurgy by Mr. Samson 
Fox at Leeds, reported .... Sept. 

A combination of various processes set up by Mr. 
Samson Fox at the Leeds forge works 29 Sept. 
1887, and reported successful . . . Jan. 

Gas-meters patented by John Malam (1820), sir W. 
Congreve (1824), Samuel Clegg (1830), Nathan 
Defries (1838), and others. 

Explosion of a large gasometer at the London Gas- 
light Company's works at Nine-elms ; 10 persons 
killed, and many injured (first accident of the 
kind) 31 Oct. 

Moscow first lit with gas ... 27 Dec. 

An economical gas produced from bitumen at 
Woolwich arsenal Jan. 

Central Gas Company, London, established . . 

Gas successfully tried as fuel for the generation of 
steam by Jackson's patent . . . April, 

The Central Gas company robbed of about 70,000?. 
by Benjamin lliggs, a clerk ; discovered, April, 

Gas-light tried at Bowth lighthouse, near Dublin, 

July, 

Gasworks clauses act passed . . . 13 July, 

By the London gas act, passed 13 July, 1868, ordi- 
nary gas charged 3s. gd. the 1000 cubic feet, after 
1 Jan. 1870. The charges raised on account of 
dearness of coal and labour, Jan. 1S74. 

Strike of London gas stokers, .7400 out, 2 Dec. ; the 
inconvenience met by great exertion, 2-6 Dec. ; 

several tried and imprisoned . . Dee. 1872 

Gas supply of London : receipts 1872, 2,133,000/. ; 
1873, 2,544,000'. 

Street gas lit by electricity, by Air. St. G. Lane 
Kox's method ; a trial, partially successful, fall 
Mail, &c 13 April, 1878 

Capital of metropolitan companies, 12,681,818/. 
("Chartered Company," 0,0110,771/.); total annual 
income, 3,926,769/. (average profit, gl. 3.1. $d. per 
cent.) 1S79 



1865 



.871 






i8 95 |- 

(J 
1899 



Depression in gas companies through prospects of 
electric light, Oct. 1878 ; recovery . . . 1879-80! 

Explosions of gas-mains near Bedford-street, Totten- 
ham-court-road, London ; 2 killed ; others in- 
jured ; much property destroyed . . 5 July, 18 

"Koh-i-noor Gas," produced from shale oil by 
Messrs. Rogers, of Watford, (said to be pure 
and cheap) 1881 

Mr. West's and Mr. Cooper's inventions for the 
economical production of pure coal gas, with 
reduction of human labour, at Tunbridge wells 
gas works Jan. et seq. 18 

The Bower-lamp, a combination of the Grimstone 
patents on the regenerative principle, (the pro- 
ducts of combustion being burned), invented by 
Messrs. G. Bovver and son, St. Neots, Hunts . 18 

Mr. Lawrence's gas economizer, stated to 
increase light and diminish expense, exhibited 
by a company 29 Nov. 18 

Strikes of gas-stokers in South wark and Manchester 
successfully resisted . . . .12 Dec. 18 
See Strikes, Feb. 1890. 

The London Gas Light and Coke Company (which 
illuminates the metropolis the north of the 
Thames) makes great preparations against a pos- 
sible strike. A conference with the Union ; no 
strike or lockout ensues .... 3 Oct. 18 

Acetylene Gas {which see) produced by Wohler, 1S62 ; 
made on a commercial scale as an illuminant 

Water-gas committee appointed 9 Feb. 1898 ; report 
issued, with recommendations . mid Feb. 

A conference on the present increase in the price 
of gas at the Guildhall, Mr. A C. Morton in the 
chair; resolutions carried against the giant mono- 
poly created by the Gas acts of i847and i860, &c, 

31 Oct. 1900; 

Great advance in the development of light by 
incandescent gas burners since sir Edw. Frank- 
land's double-chimney argand, 1852; regenerative 
burners perfected by Siemens, 1879 etseq. 

New gas invented by Dr. l.udwig Mond furnishes 
power and heat at about 2^. per 1,000 cubic feet; 
reported May, 1901 

Mond gas bill passed 1 Aug. „ 

GAS MUSIC, see Pyrophone. 

GASTEIN (Salzburg, Austria). The long dis- 
cussion between Austria and Prussia respecting the 
disposal of the duchies conquered from Denmark, 
was closed by a provisional convention signed here 
by their ministers (Blum for Austria and Bismarck- 
for Prussia) 14 Aug. 1865. This convention was] 
severely censured by the other powers and abrogated. - 
in 1866. 
Austria was to have the temporary government of Hol-lj 

stein, and Prussia that of Sleswig ; the establishment! 

of a German fleet was proposed, with Kiel as a Federals 

narbour, held by Prussia ; Lauenburg was absolutely ' 

ceded to Prussia, and the king was to pay Austria as a 

compensation 2,500,000 Danish dollars. 
Emperors of Austria and Germany met at Gastein I 

Aug. 1886 ' 

GATE-MEETINGS, see Races. 

GATES, see Tolls. 

GATESHEAD, a borough in Durham, on the; 
Tvne, opposite Newcastle. At Gateshead-fcll, 1 
William I. defeated Edgar Athelrcg and his Scotch ' 
auxiliaries in 1068. Gateshead was made a par- ' 
liamentary borough by the reform act in 1832. Re- ! 
turns one member " (1885). Population, l88l,| 
65,803; 1891,85,709; 1901,109,887. 
Between twelve and one o'clock, 5, 6 Oct. 1854, a the 
broke out in a worsted manufactory here, which set | 
lire to a bond warehouse containing a great quantity of 
nitre, sulphur, &e. , causing a terrific explosion, felt at 1 
nearly twenty miles' distance, and totally destroying 
many buildings, and burying many persons in the, 
ruins. At the moment of the explosion, large masses 
ol" blazing materials tlew overt-he Tyne and set fire tol 
many warehouses in Newcastle. About fifty lives were | ; 
lost, ami very many persons were seriously wounded, f 
The damage was estimated at about a million pounds. 



GATLING GUN. 



541 



GENEALOGY. 



Collapse of chemical condensers through fire at the Friar 

Goose chemical works, on the Tyne, near Gateshead ; 

seven men killed, 26 July, 1891. Estimated loss 

about io,oooL 
At the Theatre Royal, by a panic caused by an alarm of 

Are, 11 persons, chiefly young, are crushed to death ; 

the exit from the gallery was insufficient, 26 Dec. 1891. 

GATLING GUN or BATTEEY. In- 
vented by Mr. It. J. Gatling, an American, in 1862 
(he died 26 Feb. 1903). It was intended to discharge 
at once a number of projectiles smaller than the 
shells of field guns, and it had as many locks as 
barrels. Tried at Shoeburyness and rejected as 
inferior to a field gun firing shrapnel. A powder to 
be used in the Gatling, invented by M. Pertuiset, 
was tried in London, Aug. 1870. 

GAUGAMELA, see Arbela. 

GAUGES (in railways). Much discussion 
(termed "the battle of the gauges") began among 
engineers about 1833. Mr. I. M. Brunei approved 
of the broad gauge, adopted on the Great Western 
Railway ; and Mr. R. Stephenson, Joseph Locke, 
and others, chose the narrow. A 2 foot gauge 
was recommended in Feb. 1870, having been 
successful on the Festiniog railway, Wales ; 
with Robt. Fairlie's ''bogie" engine was much 
adopted at home and abroad. About 200 miles of 
the S.W. lines of the Great Western were altered 
from the broad to the narrow gauge in a few days, 
June, 1874, and on 20-23 ^ a y> l &9 2 i tne broad 
gauge was totally superseded on the Great Western. 

GAUGING, measuring the contents of any 
vessel of capacity, with respect to wine and other 
liquids, was established by a law, 27 Edw. III. 1352. 

GAUL AJSTD GAULS. Gallia, the ancient 
name of France and Belgium. The Gauls termed 
by the Greeks Galatpe, by the Romans, Galli or 
Celtse, came originally from Asia, and invading 
Eastern Europe, were driven westward, and settled 
in Spain (in Galicia) , North Italy (Gallia Cisalpina), 
France and Belgium (Gallia Transalpina), and the 
British isles (the lands of the Cymry or Gaels). 

B.C. 

The Phoeaeans found Massilia, now Marseilles . 600 

The Galli Senones under Brennus defeat the Romans 

at the river Allia, and sack Rome, but are repulsed 

from the Capitol, accept a ransom and retire ; a 

fabulous legend asserts that they were defeated 

and expelled by Camillus 390 

Defeated 360 

The Gauls defeated by the Romans at Sentinum . 295 
The Senones defeat the Romans at Arretium ; 

nearly exterminated by Dolabella . . . . 283 
The Gauls overrun Northern Greece, 280 B.C. ; are 
beaten at Delphi, 279 ; and by Antigonus, king of 

Macedon 273 

The Gauls defeated with great slaughter near Pisa. 225 
The Insubres totally overthrown by Marcellus, and 

their king Viridomarus slain 222 

They assist Hannibal 218, &c. 

The Romans conquer Gallia Cisalpina, 220 ; invade 

Gallia Transalpina, with varied success. . 121-58 
They colonise Aix, 123 B.C. ; and Narbonne . . 118 

Julius Csesar subdues Gaul in 8 campaigns . . 58-50 
Lyons (Lugdunum) founded . . . . 41 

A.D. 

Druids' religion proscribed by Claudius ... 43 
Adrian visits and favours Gaul, hence called Re- 
storer of the Gauls 120 

Introduction of Christianity 160 

Christians persecuted . . 177, 202, 257, 286, 288 
The Franks and others defeated by Aurelian . . 241 
And by Probus, 275, 277 ; who introduces the cul- 
ture of the vine 280 

Maximian defeats the Franks ... . . .281 

Oonstantine proclaimed emperor of Gaul . . . 306 
Julian arrives to relieve Gaul, desolated by bar- 
barians ; defeats the Alemanni at Strasburg . 357 



Julian proclaimed emperor at Paris, 360 ; dies . . 363 
Gaul harassed by the Alemanni . . . 365-377 
Invasion and settlement of the Burgundians, 

Franks, Visigoths, &c 378-450 

Clodion, chief of the Salian Franks, invades Gaul ; 

is defeated by Aetius 447 

The Huns under Attila defeated by Aetius near 

Chalons 451 

iEgidius, the Roman commander, murdered . . 464 
Childeric the Frank takes Paris ....,, 
All Gaul, west of the Rhone, ceded to the Visi- 
goths 475 

End of the Roman empire of the West, and estab- 
lishment of the kingdom of the Franks . 476 
(See France. ) 

GAUNTLET, an iron glove, first introduced in 
the 13th century, perhaps about 1225. It was 
commonly thrown down as a challenge to an 
adversary. 

GAUZE, a fabric much prized among the 
Roman people. " Brocades and damasks and tab- 
bies and gauzes have been lately brought over " (to 
Ireland). Dean Swift, in 1698. The manufacture 

01 gauze and articles of a light fabric at Paisley, in 
Scotland, began about 1759. 

GAVEL-KIND ([derived from the Saxon gif 
eal cyn, "give all suitably;" or ft-orn gafolcynd, 
and yielding rent), the custom in Kent of dividing 
paternal estates in land, the wives to have half, the 
rest equally among male children, without any dis- 
tinction, 550. By the Irish law of gavel-kind, even 
bastards inherited. Davies. Not only the lands of 
the father were equally divided among all his sons, 
but the lands of the brother also among all his 
brethren, if he had no issue of his own. Law Diet. 

GAZA, a city of the Philistines, of which Sam- 
son carried off the gates about 1 120 u.c. {Judges 
xvi.) It was taken by Alexander after a long siege, 
332; and near to it Ptolemy defeated Demetrius 
Poliorcetes, 312 B.C. It was taken by Saladin a.d. 
1 1 70; by Bonaparte, March, 1799; and by the 
Egyptians under Ibrahim Pacha in 1831. 

GAZETTES, see Newspapers. 

GELHEIM, near Worms, central Germany. 
Here the emperor Adolphus of Nassau was de- 
feated and slain by his rival Albert I. of Austria, 

2 July, 1298. 

GEMAEA or GHEMAEA, see Talmud. 

GEMS. The Greeks excelled in cutting precious 
stones, and many ancient specimens remain. The 
art was revived in Italy in the 15th century. In 
Feb. i860, Herz's collection of gems was sold for 
10,000^. Rev. C. King's "Antique Gems" ap- 
peared in i860, and bis "Natural History of Pre- 
cious Stones and Gems" in 1865. Dr. A. Billing's 
" Science of Gems," 1868. Artificial gems have 
been produced by chemists (Ebelmen, Deville, 
Wohler, and others), 1858-65. 

The duke of Marlborough's collection, valued at 
6o,oool., sold by auction for 36,750^., 28 June, 
1875 ; again sold for 34,827?. 7s. 6d. . 29 June, 1899 

A pearl necklace (Got don-Lennox jewels), realized 
22,500?. ...... .1 May, 1903 

GENEALOGY, from the Greek genea, birth, 
descent. The earliest pedigrees are contained in 
the 5th, 10th, and nth chapters of Genesis. The 
first book of Chronicles contains many genealogies. 
The pedigree of Christ is given in Matt. i. and 
Luke iii. Many books on the subject have been 
published in all European countries ; one at Magde- 
burg, Theatrum Genealogicum, by Henninges, in 
1598. Anderson, Royal Genealogies, London, 1732. 



GENEEAL ASSEMBLY. 



542 



GENOA. 



! 



Sims' Manual for the Genealogist, &c, 1888, will 
be found a useful guide. The works of Collins 
(1756 et seq.), Edmondson (1764-84), Nicolas (1825 
and 1857), Debrett, and Burke, on the British 
peerage, are highly esteemed. The Genealogical 
society, London, established in 1853. " The 
Genealogist," published quarterly, began 1875. 
"The Genealogist's Guide to Printed Pedigrees," 
by George W. Marshall, published in 1879. 

GENERAL ASSEMBLY, see Church of 
Scotland. 

GENEEAL COUNCILS, WARRANTS, 

see Councils, Warrants. 

GENEEALS. Matthew de Montmorency 
was the first general of the French armies, 1203. 
Henault. Balzac states that cardinal Richelieu 
coined the word Generalissimo, upon his taking the 
supreme command of the French armies in Italy, 
in 1629. Ulysses Grant was the first general of the 
army of the United States of America, so styled iu 
1866; see Commanders-in-Chief. 

GENEEATION (in Chronology), the interval 
of time between the birth of a father and the birth 
of his child: 33 years are allowed for the average 
length of a generation. Harvey's thesis " Omne 
vivum ex ovo" (Every living being springs from an 
egg), has been disproved by the researches of Von 
Sebold and others. See Spontaneous. 

GENEVA, a town of the Allobroges, a Gallic 
tribe, 58 B.C. ; became part of the empire of Charle- 
magne, about a.d. 800; and capital of the kingdom 
of Burgundy, 426. 

The Republic founded in 151 2 

Emancipated from Savoy 15^6 

Calvin settled here, and obtaining much influence, 
Geneva was termed the "Rome of Calvinism " 

about 1536 
Through him Servetus burnt for heresy, 27 Oct. 1553 
Geneva allied to the Swiss Cantons . . . . 1584 
Insurrection, Feb. 1781 ; about 1000 Genevese, in 
consequence, applied, in 1782, to earl Temple, 
lord-lieutenant of Ireland, for permission to settle 
In that country: the Irish parliament voted 
50,000?. to defray the expenses of their journey, 
and to purchase them lands near Waterford. 
Many of the fugitives came to Ireland in July, 
1783: but they soon after abandoned it; many 

Genevese settled in England 1784 

A revolution ; executions aud imprisonments, 

July, 1794 
Geneva incorporated with France . 26 April, 1798 
Admitted into the Swiss Confederation, 30 Dec. 1813 
The constitution made more democratic . . . 1846 
Revolution, through an endeavour of the Catholic 
cantons to introduce Jesuits as teachers ; a pro- 
visional government set up ... 7 Oct. 1848 
[The scheme was withdrawn.] 
About 50 persons from Geneva land at Tlionon and 
Evian, to set up the Swiss Hag; but are brought 
back by Swiss troops .... 30 Mar. 1S60 
Election riots, with loss of life, through the indis- 
cretion of M. Fazy .... 22 Aug. 1864 
49th annual meeting of the Helvetic Society of 

National Sciences held . . . 21-23 Aug. I 86s 
Violent peace congress — Garibaldi present, 

12 Sept. 1S67 
The Alabama arbitration commission met : received 

the cases and adjourned to 15 June. 1872, 18 Dec. 1871 
Formal meeting of the commission (sec Alabama), 

15 June, 1872 

Monsignor Mermillod, nominated bishop of Geneva 

(in the diocese of the bishop of Lausanne), and 

vicar apostolic; his arrest proposed, 2 Feb.; 

ordered to quit, if he will QOl submit to the civil 

government by 15 Feb. he is expelled 17 Feb. „ 
Geneva visited by the shah . . . July, 1S73 
The ex-duke of Brunswick dies here and bequeaths 

his vast property (above 764,000/.) to the eityi8 Aug. ,, 



Violent hail storm ; great destruction of glass and 

crops 7, 8 July, 1875 

Rousseau centenary celebrated . . 2 July, 1878 
The duke of Brunswick's remains placed in the 

grand mausoleum .... 7 Sept. 1879. 1 

Riots through Salvation army . Jan. -Sept. 18 

Collision of steam boats on the lake, 20 persons 

drowned 23 Nov. ,, 

Explosion of a boiler on the steamer Mont Blanc 

on the lake ; 26 persons perish . . 9 July, 1892 
Swiss national exhibition opened . . 1 May, 1896 
Bomb outrage at the entrance to the cathedral, 

windows in the square shattered . . 24 Dec. 1902 
Population, 1888 : Canton, 105,509 ; City, &c, 71,807 ; 

1901, 105,139. 

GENEVA CONVENTION, for the succour 
of the wounded in time of active warfare. Having 
been a witness of the horrors of the battle-field of 
Solferino, 24 June, 1859, M. Henri Dunant, a 
Swiss, published his experiences, which induced 
the Societe Ge'ne'voise d' Utilite Publiquem. P'eb. 
1863 to discuss the question whether relief societies 
might not be formed in time of peace to help the 
wounded in time of war by means of qualified volun- 
teers. At an international conference held 26 Oct. 
1863, fourteen governments, including Great Britain, 
France, Austria, Prussia, Italy, and Kussia, were 
represented by delegates. The propositions then 
drawn up were accepted as an international code by 
a congress which met at Geneva, 8 Aug. 1864, and 
on 22 Aug. a convention was signed by twelve of 
the delegates, and it was eventually adopted by all 
civilised powers except the United States. Inter- 
national conferences were held at Paris in 1867 and 
at Berlin in 1869 for further developing in a practi- 
cal manner the objects of the Geneva conference. 
The International Society (termed " the Red Cross 
Society"), established in consequence of these pro- 
ceedings was very energetic in relieving the wounded 
and sick during the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, 
its flag being recognised as neutral. See Aid to 
Sick and Wounded. Above 13,000 volunteers said 
to be employed in attending the sick and wounded, 
Sept. — Dec, 1870. Additional articles applying to 
naval warfare adopted during the Spanish- American 
war, 1898. 

GENOA, the ancient Genua (N. Italy). Its- 
inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the 
Romans, 115 B.C. It partook of the revolutions of 
the Roman empire. Population, 1890, 206,485 ; 
1901, 234,800. 
Genoa becomes a free commercial state . about 1000 

Frequent wars with Pisa 1070-1284 

Frederick II. captures 22 galleys, and vainly be- 
sieges Genoa 1243 

The families of Doria and Spinola obtain ascendency, 

about 1270 
The Genoese destroy the naval power of Pisa at 

Melora (which see) .... 6 Aug. 12S4 
Frequent wars with Venice . . 1218-32 ; 1293-99) 
Rafaele Doria and Galeotto Spinola appointed 

captains 1335 

Simon Boccanegra made the first doge, 1339: set 

aside by the nobles, 1344; re-appointed . . . 1356 
Great discord ; many doges appointed . . . 139* 
Genoa successively under protection of France, 
1396 ; of Naples, 1410 ; of Milan, 1419 ; losing and 
regaining 1'reedom .... 1421-1512? 

Sacked by the Spaniards and Italians under Prosper 

Colonna 1522 

Andrew Doria deserts the French service, and 

restores the independence of his country . . 152S 
Genoa bombarded by the French . . May, 16S4 

By the British Sept. 1745 

Taken by the imperialists, who are soon after ex- 
pelled Sept. 1746 

Another siege raised .... 10 June, 1747 
The celebrated bank failed ..... 1750 

Genoa made the Ligurian republic . . May, 1797 



GENS-D'ARMES. 



543 



GEOLOGY. 



The city, blockaded by a British fleet and Austrian 
army, until literally starved, evacuated by capitu- 
lation, 5 June ; it was surrendered to the French 
soon after their victory at Marengo . 14 June, 1800 
Genoa annexed to the French empire . 4 June, 1805 

Surrenders to the English and Sicilians 18 April, 1814 
United to the kingdom of Sardinia . . . Dec. ,, 
The city seized by insurgents, who, after a murder- 
ous struggle, drove out the garrison and pro- 
claimed the Ligurian republic, 3 April ; but sur- 
rendered to general La Marmora . . ii April, 1849 
Columbus's first voyage, 1492, celebrated, the king 
and queen present, and many foreign warships 

8 Sept. et seq. 1892 

GENS-D'ARMES were anciently the king's 
horse-guards only, but afterwards the king's gardes- 
du-corps; the musqueteers and light horse were 
reckoned among them. There was also a company 
of gentlemen (whose number was about 250) bearing 
this name. Scots guards were about the persons of 
the kings of France from the time of St. Louis, 
who reigned in 1226. They were organised as a 
royal corps by Charles VII. about 1441 ; the younger 
sons of Scottish nobles being usually the captains. 
The name gens-d'armes was afterwards given to the 
police ; but becoming obnoxious, was changed to 
" municipal guard " in 1830. 

GENTLEMAN (from gentilis, of a gens, a race 
or clan). The (iauls observing that during the 
empire of the Romans, the scutarii and gentiles had 
the best appointments of all the soldiers, applied to 
them the terms ecuyers and gentllsho mines. This 
distinction of gentlemen was much in use in Eng- 
land, and was given to the well-descended about 
1430. Sidney. Gentlemen by blood were those 
who could show four descents from a gentleman 
who had been created by the king by letters patent. 

GENTLEMEN-AT-ARMS (formerly styled 
the Band of Gentlemen Pensioners) is the oldest 
corps in England, with the exception of the Yeomen 
of the Guard. The band was instituted by Henry 
VIII. in 1509, and was originally composed entirely 
of gentlemen of noble blood, whom he named his 
pensioners or spears. William IV. commanded 
that it should be called his majesty's honour- 
able corps of gentlemen-at-arms, 7 March, 1834. 

GENTLEWOMEN'S SELF-HELP IN- 
STITUTION, London, established by the earl of 
Shaftesbury, duchess of Sutherland, and others, 
May, 1870. 

GEODESY (from daio, I divide), the art of 
measuring the surface and determining the figure 
of the earth, &c. Col. A. Clarke's "Geodesy," 
published 1880. See Latitude. 

The 7th international Geodetic congress met at 
Rome 15-24 Oct. 1883. It recommended the 
international unification of the hour, and longi- 
tude with Greenwich. An international con- 
ference of 40 delegates met at Washington, 1 Oct., 
president Adm. Rogers, agree to recommend 
Greenwich as prime meridian ; France and Brazil 
abstain, 13 Oct. 1884 ; the terms of a universal 
day also agreed to, 1 Nov. 1884 ; at Berlin, 27 
Oct. 1886 ; at Salzburg, 17 Sept. 1888 ; at Paris, 
3 Oct. 1889 ; at Berlin, 30 Sept. 1895 ; Stuttgart, 
3 Oct. 1898 ; Copenhagen, 4 Aug. 1903. 

The internat. geographical congress at London 
declare for Greenwich as prime meridian . July, 1895 

Dr. Rubin leaves Cape Town to measure an arc of 
meridian 28 April, 1903 

GEOGRAPHY. The first geographical re- 
cords are in the Pentateuch, and in the book of 
Joshua. Homer describes the shield of Achilles as 
representing the earth surrounded by the sea, and 
also the countries of Greece, islands of the Archi- 
pelago, and site of Troy. Iliad. The priests taught 



that the temple of Apollo at Delphos was the centre 
of the world. Anaximander of Miletus was the 
inventor of geographical maps, about 568 B.C. 
Hipparchus attempted to reduce geography to a 
mathematical basis, about 135 B.C. Strabo, the 
great Greek geographer, lived 71-14 B.C. Ptolemy 
flourished about 139 a.d. The science was brought 
to Europe by the Moors of Barbary and Spain 7 
about 1240. Lenglet. Maps and charts were intro- 
duced into England by Bartholomew Columbus to 
illustrate his brother's theory respecting a western 
continent, 1489. Geography is now divided into- 
mathematieal, physical, and political, and its study 
has been greatly promoted during the present 
century by expeditions at the expense of variou* 
governments and societies. The Royal Geographical 
Society of London was established in 1830; thSl of 
Paris in 1821. The Geographical Society's exhi- 
bition opened by the marquis of Lome, 9 Dec. 1885. 
The society issued a circular for promoting a more 
uniform spelling of geographical names, Dec. 1891. 
The society instituted courses of lectures, Nov. 
1892. Proposal that ladies be admitted as fellows - T 
approved by letter-votes, 30 June ; rejected by 
special meeting (172-158), 3 July, 1893. See 
Africa, North-East and West Passage, §c. 

Major James Rennell, an eminent geographer, born 
3 Dec. 1742 ; died .... 29 March, 1830. 

An international congress of geographers held at 
Antwerp in 1871 ; 2. at Paris, 3 Aug. 1875 ; 3. at 
Venice, 15 Sept. 1881 ; 4. Paris, 6-1 1 Aug. 1889 ; 
5. Berne, 10-14 Aug. 1891 ; Imperial institute, 
London, opened by the duke of York ; president, 
Mr. (aft. sir) Clements Markham, May, 1896 ; 
7. Berlin . , . . 28 Sept. -4 Oct. 1S95. 

Dr. August Heinrich Petermann, founder and edi- 
tor of the celebrated " Mittheilungen liber wich- 
tige neue Erforschungen auf der Gesammtgebiete 
der Geographie" in 1855, and an eminent carto- 
grapher, died 26 Sept. 1878 

Congress on commercial geography at Brussels, Oct. 1879, 

Mr. (aft. sir) E. IT. Bunbury's " History of Ancient 
Geography among the Greeks and Romans," pub- 
lished 1879. (He died, 5 March, 1895.) He refers 
especially to Heeatseus, Herodotus, Hanno, 
Pytheas (discoverer of Britain) ; Eratosthenes 
(born B.C. 276) made a map ; and to Ptolemy, 
about a.d. 139. 

E. A. Freeman's "Historical Geography of Europe," 1881 

65 geographical societies in the world . . Jan. ,, 

British Commercial Geographical Society ; founded 
at the mansion house, London, 15 July, met 

27 Oct. 1884 

Scottish Geographical Society, Edinburgh, inaugu- 
rated 3 Dec. ,, 

Manchester Geographical Society established Jan. 1885 

Sudden death of the great Russian explorer, gen. 
Prjevalsky at Vernoje in Asia, announced 2 Nov. 188S' 

Death of Henry Seebohm, naturalist, etc. 26 Nov. 1895 

Prof. Kiepert, a distinguished geographer and 
cartographer (born 1S18), died . . 21 April, 1899 

"The International Geography," by 70 authors, 
edited by Dr. H. R. Mill, published . Sept. ,, 

Elizabethan tercentenary celebrated by Royal Geo- 
graphical Society . . . .23 March 1903 

Discovery of two early maps in the library of 
Waldburg, at Wolfegg, Wurtemberg, drawn by 
the German geographer, Waldseemuller ; the 
earlier, probable date cir. 1507, gives the name of 
America to the New World. Another map, 
probably by the same cartographer, discovered 
by Mr. H. N. Stevens, and considered by him to 
be of still earlier date than the map mentioned 
above, is thought to be the first map on which 
the name America appears. IVhitaker . . ,, 

Visit of French geographers to London . 9 Aug. ,, 



GEOK TEPE, a strong 
see Russia, 1879-81. 



Turkoman fortress ; 



GEOLOGY, the science of the earth, is said 
to have been cultivated in China before the 



GEOLOGY. 



544 



GEOLOGY. 



Christian era, and occupied the attention of Aristotle, 

Theophrastus, Pliny, Avicenna, and the Arabian 

writers. 

In 1574 Mercati wrote concerning the fossils in the pope's j 
museum : Cesalpino Majoli, and others (1597), Steno I 
(1669), Scilla (1670), Quirini (1676), Plot and Lister j 
(1678), Leibnitz (1680) recorded observations, and put 
forth theories on the various changes in the crust of ■ 
the earth. 

Hooke (1668), in his work on Earthquakes, said that | 
fossils, " as monuments of nature, were more certain 
tokens of antiquity than coins or medals, and though 1 
difficult, it would not be impossible to raise a ch/rono- 1 
logy out of them." 

Burnet's " Theory of the Earth " appeared 1690, Wins- 
ton's 1696 ; Hiitton's "Theory of the Earth " 1795. 

Ruffon's geological views (1749) were censured by the 
Sorbonne in 1751, and recanted in consequence. The 
pruRiple he renounced was that the present condition 
of the earth is due to secondary causes, and that these 
same causes will produce further changes. His more 
eminent fellow-labourers and successors were Gesner 
(1758), Michell (1760), Raspe (1762-73), Pallas and 
Horace B. de Saussure (1793-1800). 

Werner (1775) ascribed all rocks to an aqueous origin, 
and even denied the existence of volcanoes in primitive 
geological times, and had many followers, Kirwan, De 
Luc, &c— James Hutton (1788) supported by Playfair 
(1801) warmly opposed Werner's views, and asserted 
that the principal changes in the earth's crust are due 
to the energy of fire. The rival parties were hence 
termed Neptunists and Vulcanists. 

Mr. (aft. sir) A. Geikie and other eminent modem 
geologists, ascribed the origin of the landscape features 
of the earth chiefly to denudation by the action of 
wivr 1865 et seq. Sir A. Geikie's "Founders of 
Geology " [Jean Ktienne Guettard, Desmaret, and 
others in the 18th century], published 1897. 

William Smith, the father of British geology (who had 
walked over a large part of England) drew up a Tabular 
View of British Strata, in 1799, and published it and 
his Geological Map of England and Wales, 1812-15 ; 
died 28 Aug. 1839. The Rev. Adam Sedgwick, another 
father, died 27 Jan. 1873, aged 87. Sir Charles Lyell, 
died 22 Feb. 1875. 

The rev. Wm. Buckland, D.D., born 1784. Reader in 
geology, Oxford, 1818 ; published "Reliquiae Dilu- 
vanaj," the results of his examination of the fossil 
bones of large mammals, elephants, tigers, hyenas, 
&c, discovered in the Kirkdale cave, Pickering, 
Yorkshire, in 1821. "Geology and Mineralogy," in 
relation to natural Theology (Bridgewater Treatise), 
1836. Dean of Westminster, 1846 ; died Aug. 1856. 

In 1803 the Royal Institution possessed the best geologi- 
cal collection in London, collected by H. Davy, C. 
Hatchett, and others ; the proposal of sir John St. 
Aubyn, sir Abraham Hume, and the right hon. C. F. 
Greville, to aid the government in establishing a school 
of mines (here in 1804-7, was declined, 13 Nov. 1807. 

In 1807 the Geological Society of London was established. 
Bj collecting a great mass of new facts, it greatly 
tended to check the disposition to theorise, and led to 
the introduction of views midway between those of 
Werner and Button. 

The Geological Society of Dublin, 1832 : of Edinburgh, 
1834: of France, 1830; of Germany, 1848. 

In 1835 Mr, (afterwards sir Henry) De la Beche suggested 
the establishment of the present Museum of Geology, 

Which began at Craig's court, ami which was removed 

tods ]. resent position ill Jennyn-street. To him are 
also due the valuable geological maps formed on the 
ordnance survey. The building was erected by Mr. 
Pennethorne, and formally opened by the prince con- 
iort, 1 1 May, 1851 attached to the Museum are the 
Mining Records office, a lecture theatre, laboratories, 
.\e. 811 H, De la Beche, the first director, died 13 
April, 1855 : succeeded bj sir Roderick Murchison, 

who clie.l ■■ Oct, 1 -' 7 1 ; Succeeded by professor (after- 
wards sir) A. C. Ramsay, March, 1872, died 9 Dec. 
1891; by Archibald Geikie, 1881, knt, iSqi. A similar 
institution Founded at Calcutta in 1840. 
A great many maps have ben published, with memoirs 
The survey of Bngland on the scale of an inch to a 

mile, wan completed in Jan. 1884. Some maps have 

bei n made on a scale ot six inches 1,1 a mile. The 

Burveys of Scotland ami Ireland are in progress. 



New geological map of England and Wales, 4 miles to 
the inch, published by government, 1898. 

International geological congress originated at the 
Buffalo meeting of the American association for the 
advancement of science in 1876; met at Paris 1878; 
Bologna, 26 Sept. 1881 ; Berlin, 29 Sept. 1885 ; London, 
17 Sept. 1888 ; Washington, 1891 ; Zurich, 29 Aug. 
1894 ; St. Petersburg, 1897 ; Paris, Aug. 1900; Vienna, 
20 Aug. 1903. 

The English standard works on geology at the present 
time are those of Lyell, Murchison, Phillips, De la 
Beche, Mantell, Ansted, Geikie, and Nicholson. 

Cuvier and Brongniart's work on Geology of Paris, 1808 
et seq. 

Sir Wm. Dawson, eminent geologist, born 1820, died 
19 Nov. 1899. 

L. Agassiz, " Poissons Fossiles," 1833-45. 

The strata composing the earth's crust may be divided 
into two great classes : 

I. Those generally attributed to the agency of water ; 

II. To the action of (ire : which may be subdivided as 

follows : — 
Aqueous formations, stratified, rarely crystalline : — 

Sedimentary or fossiliferous rooks. 

Metamorphic or unfossiliferous. 
Igneous formations, unstratifled, crystalline : — 

Volcanic, as basalt, &c. 

Plutonic, as granite, &c. 
Fossiliferous, or Sedimentary, rocks are divided into three 

great series : — 
The Palaeozoic (most ancient forms of life) or 

Primary. 
The Mesozoic (middle life period), or Secondary. 
The Neozoic or Cainozoic (more recent forms of life), 

or Tertiary. 

Table of Strata (chiefly from, Lyell). 
NEOZOIC : 
I. Post-Tertiary : 

A. Post-Pliocene : 

1. Recent: Marine strata; with human re- 

mains; Danish peat; kitchen middens; 
bronze and stone implements ; Swiss lake- 
dwellings ; temple of Serapis at Puzzuoli. 

2. Post-Pliocene : Brixham cave, with flint 

knives, and bones of living and extinct 
quadrupeds ; ancient valley gravels ; glacia 
drift ; ancient Nile mud ; post-glacial N. 
American deposits : remains of mastodon ; 
Australian breccias. 

II. Tertiary or Cainozoic Series : 

B. Pliocene : 

3. Newer Pliocene (or Pleistocene) Mammalian 

beds, Norwich Crag. [Marine Shells.] 

4. Older Pliocene: Red and Coralline Crag 

(Suffolk, Antwerp). 

C. 5, 6. Miocene: Upper and Lower; Bordeaux; 

Virginia sands and Tour .ine beds ; Pikerme 
deposits near Athens -J volcanic tuff and 
limestone of the Azores, &c. ; brown coal of 
Germany, &c. [Mastodon, Gigantic 
Elk, S a I a m ander, &c] 

D. 7, 8, 9. Eocene : Upper, Kiddle, and Lower ; 

Freshwater and Marine beds ; Barton Clays ; 
Brackleshain Sands ; Paris Gypsum ; Lon- 
don Plastic, and Thanet Clays. [Palms, 
Birds, &c] 

III. Secondary or Mesozoic Series: 

E. 10. Cretaceous: Upper ; British Chalk ; Maestricht 

beds. — Chalk with and without Flints, 
Chalk Marl, Upper Green Sand, Gault, 
Lower Green Sand. [Mesosavrus ; Fish, 
Mollusks, &c] 

11. Lower (or Neocomian or U'rnldcn) ; Kentish 
rag ; Weald Clay ; Hastings Sand. 1 1 gun no- 
don, Hyla;osaurus, &c.J 

F. 12. Oolite: Upper; Purbeck beds, Portland Stone 

and Sand, Kimmeridge Clay ; Lithographic 
Stone of Solenhofen with Archaovtervx, 
[Fish.) 



GEOMETEY. 



545 



GEORGIA. 



13. Middle : Calcareous Grit, Coral Rag, Oxford 

Clay, Kelloway Rock. [Belemnites and 
Ammonites. ] 

14. Lower : Cornbrash, Forest Marble, Bradford 

Clay, Great Oolite, Stonesfield Slate, Fuller's 
Earth, Inferior Oolite. [Ichthyosaurus, 
Plesiosaurus, Pterodactyl.] 

G. 15. Lias: Lias Clay and Marl Stone. [Ammo- 

nites, Equisetum, Amphibia, Laby- 
rinthodon. ] 

H. 16. Trias : Upper ; White Lias, Red Clay, with 
Salt in Cheshire, Coal Fields in Virginia, 
N.A. [Fish, Dromalherium.] 

17. Middle or Muschelkalk (wanting in England). 

[Encrinus; Placodus gigas.] 

18. Lower : New Red Sandstone of Lancashire 

and Cheshire. [Labyrinthodon, Foot- 
prints of Birds and Reptiles.] 

IV. Primary or Paleozoic Series : 

I. 19. Permian: Magnesian Limestone, Marl Slates, 

Red Sandstone and Shale, Dolomite : Kup- 
ferschiefer. [Firs, Fishes, Amphibia.] 

K. 20, 21. Carboniferous, Upper and Lower: Coal 

Measures, Millstone Grit, Mountain Lime- 
stone. [Ferns, Calamites, Coal.] 

h. 22, 23, 24. Devonian, Upper, Middle, and Lower : 

Tilestones, Cornstones, and Marls, Quartz- 
ose, Conglomerates. [Shells, Fish, Tri- 
lobites. ] 

M. 25, 26, 27. Silurian, Upper, Middle, and Lower : 

Ludlow Shales, Aymestry Limestone, Wen- 
lock Limestone, Wenlock Shale, Caradoc 
Sandstone, Llandeilo Flags ; Niagara Lime- 
stone. [Sponges, Corals, Trilobites, 
Shells. ] 

N. 28, 29. Cambrian, Upper and Lower : Bala 

Limestone, Festiniog Slates, Bangor Slates 
and Grits, Wicklow Rock, Hasleets Grits, 
Huronian Series of Canada. [Zoophytes, 
Lingvla, Ferns. Sigillaria, Stig- 
maria, Calamites, and Cryptogamia.] 

0. 30. *Laurentian, Upper Gneiss of the Heb- 

rides (?) : Labradorite Series, N. of the St. 
Lawrence ; Adirondack Mountains, New 
York. 
31. *Lower : Gneiss and Quartzites, with Inter- 
stratified Limestones, in one of which, 1000 
feet thick, occurs a foraminifer, Eozobn 
Canadense, the oldest known fossil, 
according to Dr. Dawson and others ; by 
some geologists regarded as ophicalcite, a 
mineral structure. 

GEOMETRY, so termed from its original ap- 
plication to measuring -the earth, is ascribed to the 
Egyptians; the annual inundations of the Nile 
having given rise to it by carrying away the land- 
marks and boundaries. 

Thales introduced geometry into Greece, about 600 B.C. 

Pythagoras cultivated the science about 580. 

The doctrine of curves originally attracted the attention 

of geometricians from the conic sections, which were 

introduced by Plato, about 390 b. c. 
Euclid's Elements compiled about 300 B.C. 
Archimedes, a discoverer in geometry, 287-212 B.C. 
The conchoid curve invented by Nicomedes, 220 b. c. 
Ptolemy, the astronomer, 2nd century a. d. 
Geometry taught in Europe in the 13th centiuy. 
Books on geometry and astronomy were destroyed in 

England as infected with magic, 7 Edw. VI., 1552. 

Stoiv. 
Descartes published his Analytical Geometry, 1627. 
Sir Isaac Newton {Arithmetica Universalis, &c), 1642- 

1727. 
Simson's edition of Euclid, first appeared, 1756. 
La Place's Mecanigue Celeste, 1799-1805. 

GEORGE. A gold coin current at 6s. 8d. in 
the reign of Henry VIII. Leake. 

GEORGE, ST., the tutelary saint of England, 
and adopted as patron of the order of the garter by 

* Included in the Archcean system, the basement 
division of the stratified rocks. 



Edward III. His day is 23 April. Special cele- 
bration in honour of the English soldiers in London 
and other parts of England, 1900. See Garter, 
and Knighthood. 

St. George was a tribune in the reign of Diocletian, and 
being a man of great courage, was a favourite ;, but 
complaining to the emperor of his severities towards 
the Christians, and arguing in their defence, he was 
put in prison, and beheaded, 23 April, 290. — On that 
day, in 1192, Richard I. defeated Saladin. 
St. George's, Hanover-square, returns one M.P., by act 
passed 1885. Population (pari, constit.), 1891, 78,364 ; 
1901, 76,734 ; see Fires, 18 Nov. 1896. 
St. George's in the East returns 1 member] by the act 
of 1885. Population, 1891, 47,918; 1901, 51,193; see 
Trials, April, 1896. 
The Order of the Sons of St. George, established at 
Philadelphia as a society to succour emigrants (see 
under Emigration). It gradually acquired political 
influence, and many branches were formed in order 
to counteract the dominant aggressive policy of the 
Irish party. It works in unison with the " British 
American association," which was formed to promi te 
naturalization — its organ being the British American, 
a weekly newspaper, Dec. 1887. 

GEORGES' CONSPIRACY, in France. 
General Moreau, general Pichegru, Georges Cadou- 
dal, who was commonly known by the name of 
Georges, and others, were arrested at Paris, charged 
with a conspiracy against the life of Bonaparte, and 
for the restoration of Louis XVIII. , Feb. 1804. 
Pichegru was found strangled in prison, 6 April. 
Twelve of the conspirators, including Georges, were 
executed 25 June,- and others imprisoned. Moreau 
was exiled, and went to America. In 1813 he was 
killed before Dresden (which see). 

GEORGIA, the ancient Iberia, now a province 
of S. Russia, near the Caucasus, submitted to Alex- 
ander about 331 B.C., but threw off the yoke of his 
successors. It was subjugated to Rome by Pompey, 
65 B.C., but retained its own sovereigns. Chris- 
tianity was introduced into it in the 3rd century. 
In the 8th century, after a severe struggle, Georgia 
was subdued by the Arab caliphs ; by the Turkish 
sultan Alp-Arslan, 1068 ; and by the Tartar hordes, 
1235. From the 14th to the 18th centuries, Georgia 
was successively held by the Persian and Turkish 
monarehs. In 1740 Nadir Shah established part of 
Georgia as a principality, of which the last ruler 
Heraclius, surrendered his territories to the czar in 
1799; and in 1802 Georgia was declared to be a 
Russian province. — Georgia, in North America, 
was settled by gen. Oglethorpe, in 1732. Separating 
from the congress of America, it surrendered to the 
British, Dec. 1778; and its possession was of vast 
importance to the royalists in the war. Count 
d'Estaing joined the American general Lincoln, and 
made a desperate attack on Georgia, which failed, 
and the French fleet returned home; the colony 
was given up to the Union by the British in 1783 
It seceded from the Union, by ordinance, 18 Jan 
1 861, and was conquered by Sherman in 1864-5, an & 
readmitted as a state Jan. 1868. A ridiculous negro 
insurrection suppressed Aug. 1875. Fatal fight 
with negroes at Pittsburg, 7 deaths and a block of 
buildings burnt, 17 May, 1902. Population in 
1880, 1,542,180; 1890, 1,837,353; 1900, 2,216,331 ; 
Atlanta, 65,533; Savannah, 43,189. See United 
States. 
Riots at Jessop : fight between whites and negroes ; 

22 negroes killed and 2 whites . 25, 26 Dec. 1889 
Destructive cyclone with loss of life in many places, 

6 Jan. 1892 ; 4 March, 1893 ; and on 28-29 Aug. 

1893, when Savannah was nearly destroyed, and 

above 50 persons killed. 
Sanguinary disputes between the whites and 

blacks Dec. 1894 

N N 



GEOEGIUM SIDUS. 



546 



GERMAN LANGUAGE. 



Tornado at Gainesville; 64 deaths, 1,000 people 

destitute, loss of property 300,000 dols. 1 June, 1903 
Georgia, in the Pacific, was visited by capt. Cook in 1775 

GEOEGIUM SIDUS, the first name of the 
planet Uranus {which see), discovered 13 March, 
1781. 

GEEBEEOI (Normandy, N. France). Here 
William the Conqueror was wounded in battle by 
his son Robert, who had joined the French king 
Philip I., 1078. 

GERM THEOEY OF DISEASE sup- 
poses " that many diseases are due to the presence 
and propagation in the animal system of minute 
organisms [termed microbes] having no part or 
share in its normal economy." Maclagan, 1876. 
See Animalcules and Bacteria. Dr. Cohn, of 
Breslau, whose work was published in 1872, 
classifies bacteria as — I. Sphcero or micrococci; II. 
Micro-bacteria, orbacteria proper (rod-shaped) ; III. 
Desmo-bacteria, the same but longer; IV. Spiro- 
bacteria, spiral-shaped or curly. Translation of 
his work, 1881. See Cholera. 

The doctrine of contagium animatum was held in the 
middle ages and put forth in the 16th century, but 
contagious organisms were not discovered till the 10th 
by professors Pasteur, Tyndall, Dr. Win. Budd, and 
others, 1875 et seq. At the British Association, 14 
Sept. 1870, professor Huxley expressed his concur- 
rence with the "germ theory." See under Lust and 
Vivisection, 1882. 

Dr. Robert Koch is said to have identified the micro- 
scopical germs of cattle disease, of consumption, of 
cholera, and other diseases, 1879 et seq., discredited in 
England, May, June, 1885. See Tuberculosis. 

Dr. E. Klein, Feb. 1885, reported his investigations on 
the relation of bacteria to cholera. At the Royal 
Institution, May 27, 1887, he demonstrated the pro- 
pagation of scarlet fever by microbes in cow's milk. 

Numerous specimens of these germs were exhibited at the 
Royal Institution in illustration of professor Tyndall's 
discourse on " Living contagia," 16 Jan. 1885. 

By taking means to exclude these germs from wounds, 
&c, sir Joseph Lister (baron 1897) introduced anti- 
septic surgery with great success, in which carbolic 
acid is largely used, 1864 et seq. ; the protection of 
wounds from air is not now considered necessary. 

" Louis Pasteur," by M. Kadot, his son-in-law, gives an 
account of Pasteur's success in mitigating the virulence 
of some diseases by inoculation. A translation by lady 
Claud Hamilton was published in Feb. 1885. M. Pas- 
teur's 70th birthday celebrated in Paris, &c. 27 Dec. 
1892. lie died, 28 Sept. 1895 ; see Hydrophobia. 

M. Encelmann denionstratedthe action of microbes in 
the development 'if vegetable cells from carbonic acid 
and moisture in the atmosphere. 

Profs. Behring and Kisasato of Berlin announce their 
method of treating tetanus and diphtheria, Jan. 1891. 

Discovery or the influenza bacillus by Dr. Richard 
1'1'eiller, announced Jan. 1S92 ; yellow fever bacillus, 
by prof. (i. Sanarelli, Jan. 1897. 

Maj. If. Ross's paper at Hie Royal Colonial Institute on 
"Malaria and its treatment," with special reference to 
the microbe Anopheles, a genus of mosquito, 10 Nov. 
1903. 

Other bacilli under investigation, 1903. 

GEEMAIN, ST., near Paris. The palace 
line was begun by Louis the Fat, 1 1 24, and en- 
larged ami embellished by bis successors, especially 
by Framis [., Henry IV*., and Louis XIV. Here 

.lames II. of England resided in state after his 
Abdication, in [689, and here lie died, i6Scpt. 1701; 
See Treaties. 

GEEMAN ASSOCIATION, see German 

I lllo/l. 

GEEMAN COLON! ZAT I ( >X SOCIETY, 
constituted at Frankfort, 6 Dec. (882. A Charter 

was granted by the emperor to Dr. Carl Peters 



and others, whereby this society was authorised 
to acquire Fsagara, N'Gury, and other territories 
west of Zanzibar, 27 Feb. 1885. Increase of 
members, less than 18,000 in 1896, over 30,000 
28 May, 1899. 

GEEMAN CONFEDEEATION, North, 

established in room of the Germanic Confederation 
(which see) : population 1867, estimated 29,906,092. 
The confederation ceased on the re-establishmenti 
of the German empire, 1 Jan. 1871. 
The king of Prussia invites the states of North 

Germany to form a new confederation 16 July, i8fc'6 
Treaty of alliance, offensive and defensive, between 
Prussia and the following states : — Saxe-Weimar, 
Oldenburg, Brunswick, Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha, Anhalt, two Schwarzburgs, Wal- 
deck, the younger Reuss, two Lippes, Liibeck, 
Bremen, and Hamburg, signed . . 18 Aug. ,, 
And two Mecklenburgs .... 21 Aug. ,, 
And Hesse (for country north of the Maine), 3 Sept. ,, 
And the elder Reuss .... 26 Sept. ,, 

And Saxe-Meiningen 8 Oct. ,, 

And Saxony 21 Oct. ,, 

Meeting of North German Parliament (295 deputies 
from the 22 states) at Berlin . . .24 Feb. 1867 
See Germany. 

GEEMAN EAST AFEICA, see under 
Africa. 

GEEMAN EXHIBITION at Earl's Court, 
"West Brompton, London, "W. Hon. president, 
duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha; hon. president of 
committee in German)', prince Blucher von "Wahl- 
statt ; director-general, John J. E.Whitley, assisted 
by lieut. F. Jaffe. Opened by the lord mayor, 
Mr. Joseph Savory, in the presence of the marquis 
of Lome, and many eminent persons, 9 May ; closed 
10 Oct. 1891. Total number of visitors, 1,377,908. 
The galleries contained specimens of arts classified! 
in nine groups ; 300 artists were represented by 700 
pictures, and a gigantic trophy of Germania and 
many interesting models. 

GEEMAN HOSPITAL, Dalston, founded 
1845, for Germans, and English in cases of accident. 
German Society of Benevolence and Concord, esta- 
blished 18 1 7. 

GEEMAN LANGUAGE has two great 
branches : hoch and platt Dentsch, high and low 
German. The former became the literary language, 
principally through its use by Luther in his trans- 
lation of the Bible and in other works, 1522-34. 
The latter is that spoken by the lower classes-. 
There are many dialects : the satirical epic in low 
German, "Reineke Fuchs," appeared in 1498; see 
Reynard, and Drama. 

PRINCIPAL GERMAN AUTHORS. 

Born. Died. 
Ullilas (Gothic Bible) about a.d. 360 

Martin Luther (German Bible, &c. 1522-34). 1483 1546 

Hans Sachs 1494 157S 

Godf. Leibnitz 1646 1716 

G. F. Gellert 1715 1760 

G. E. Lessing 1729 1781 

G. A. Burger 1748 1794 

J. 0. von Herder 3744 180^ 

Fred. T. Klopstock 1724 1803 

Im. Kant 1724 1804 

J. C. Fred, von Schiller .... 1759 1805 

I'h. M. Wieland 1733 1813 

C. T. Korner 1791 1S13 

Jean Paul Richter 1763 1825 

•i. II. Voss 1751 1826 

P. Schlegel 1772 1829 

G. W. F. Hegel I770 1831 

B. G. Xicbubr 1776 1831 

J. \v. von Goethe 1749 1832 

Win. von Humboldt . ... 1767 1835 

A. Win. Schlegel 1767 1845 

L. Ticck ... .... 1773 1853 



GEEMAN NAVY LEAGUE. 547 



GEEMANY. 



Bom 

H. Heine 1797 

Alex, von Humboldt 1769 

Ernst M. Arndt 1769 

Clir. CarlJ. Bunsen 1791 

F. C. Schlosser 1776 

J. Hillebrand 1788 

G. G. Gervinus 1805 

E. H. Fiehte i 797 

Leopold Ranke 1795 

Theod. Mommsen 1817 

Leopold von Sacher-Masoch , . . 1836 

Gustav Freytag 1816 

Heinricli von Sybel 1817 

Heinrich von Treitsehke . . . . 1834 
Ernst Curtius .... 
Friedrich Emil Rittershaus . 



Died 



1814 



9°3 
895 
895 
895 
896 
896 
1897 

GEEMAN NAVY LEAGUE, founded by 
44 gentlemen in Berlin on the invitation of the 
prince "of Wied, May, 1898. 47 branch societies ; 
total members, 114,345, reported 9 May, 1899; 
599,141 members, 1010 branches, 24 Jan. 1901. 

GEEMAN OCEAN, see Nor th Sea. 

GEEMAN SILVEE, an alloy of nickel, 
copper, and zinc, first made at Hildburghausen in 
Germany. There are many patents; Cutler's, 
1838, Parkes', 1844, &c. 

GEEMAN UNION of Natural Phi- 
losophers, the forerunner of the British Asso- 
ciation, was founded by Oken, at Leipsic, in 1822 ; 
partly to promote political unity in Germany. It 
has met annually, except in troubled years, such as 
1848, 1866, and 1870; 50th time, 17 Sept. 1877; 
at Uantzic, 18 Sept. 1880; Salzburg, 18 Sept. 1881; 
Eisenach, 18 Sept. 1882; Freiburg, 17 Sept. 1883; 
Magdeburg, 18 Oct. 1884: Strasburg, 17 Sept. 1885 ; 
Berlin, 16 Sept. 1886; Wiesbaden, 18 Sept. 1887; 
Cologne, 18 Sept. 1888; Heidelberg, 1889; Bremen, 
Sept. 1890; Halle, Sept. 1891 ; Vienna, 24 Sept. 
1894; Liibeck, 16 Sept. 1895; Frankfort-011-the- 
Main, 21 Sept. 1896; Brunswick, 20 Sept. 1897; 
Diisseldorf, 19 Sept. 1898; Munich, 17 Sept. 1899; 
Aachen, 17 Sept. 1900; Hamburg, 22 Sept. 1901 ; 
Carlsbad, 21 Sept. 1902. The Union is now 
termed the "German Association of Naturalists." 

GEEMANIA, colossal statue, see Germany, 
Sept. 1883. J ' 

GEEMANIC CONFEDEEATION, 

superseding the confederation of the Rhine {which 
see), was constituted 8 June, 1815 ; held its first 
diet at Frankfort, 16 Nov. 1816, and its last, 24 Aug. 
1866. See next article. It comprised — 

1 Austria ; 2. Prussia ; 3. Bavaria ; 4. Saxony ; 

5. Hanover ; 6. Wtirtemberg ; 
7. Baden; 8, 9. Hesse (electorate and grand duchy); 

10. Denmark (for Holstein and Lauenburg) ; 

11. Netherlands (for Luxemburg) ; 

12. Saxe-Weimar, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen, 

and Saxe-Altenburg ; 

13. Brunswick and Nassau ; 

14. Mecklenburg- Sch werin, and Mecklenburg- , 

Strelitz ; ° 

15- Oldenburg, three Anhalts, and two Schwarz- 
burgs ; 

16. Two Hohenzollerns, Liechtenstein, two Reuss, 

Sohaumburg-Lippe, Lippe, and Waldeck ; 

17. Free cities :— Liibeck, Frankfort, Bremen, and 

Hamburg. 

The diet declares for a constituent assembly, 30 
March, which met .... 18 May, 184S 

The diet remits its functions to the archduke John, 
vicar of the empire (see Germany) . . 12 July, „ 

The diet re-established, meets . . 30 May, 1851 

The emperor of Austria proposes a reform of the 
confederation, 17 Aug. ; accepted by the diet, 
1 Sept. ; rejected by Prussia . . 22 Sept. 1863 



The diet celebrates the fiftieth anniversary of its 
establishment 8 June, 1865 

Vote of the majority of the diet supports Austria in 
the dispute respecting Sehleswig and Holstein ; 
Prussia announces her withdrawal from the con- 
federation, and its dissolution ; the diet declares 
itself indissoluble, continues its functions, and 
protests 14 June, 1866 

The diet removes to Augsburg during the war, 

14 July, „ 

The confederation renounced by Austria at Nikols- 
burg .26 July, „ 

The diet holds its last sitting . . 24 Aug. , , 

GEEMANITES, a name given to a sect, of 
which members appeared in the British Mediter- 
ranean fleet in 1867. They called themselves "non- 
fighting men," and hold no communion with other 
religious bodies. 

GEEMANIUM, a metal discovered by Dr. 
"Winkler early in 1886. 

GEEMANS, ST., was made the seat of the 
bishopric of Cornwall for a short time, about 905. 

GEEMANY (Germania, Alemania), anciently, 
as now, divided into independent states. The Ger- 
mans long withstood the attempts of the Romans to 
subdue them ; and although that people conquered 
some parts of the country, they were expelled before 
the close of the 3rd century. In the 5th century 
the Huns and other tribes prevailed over the greater 
portion of Germany. In the latter part of the 8th 
century, Charlemagne subdued the Saxons and 
other tribes, and was crowned emperor at Rome, 
25 Dec. 800. A list of his successors is given in 
another page. At the extinction of his family, the 
empire became elective, 911, and was subsequently 
obtained by members of the house of Hapsburg 
(from 1437 till 1804). Germany was divided into 
circles, 1501-12. The confederation of the Rhine- 
was formed 12 July, 1806; the Germanic confede- 
ration, 8 June, 1815 ; and the North German con- 
federation, 18 Aug. 1866 ; the treaty ratified, 8 Sept. 
1866. The present German empire was established 
in 1871. The emperor is styled " German em- 
peror.'' (See that date below.) See Franco- 
Prussian War, i8~0-yi. Population of the German 
empire 1880, 45,234,061; in 1885, 46,855,7041 
1890,49,421,803; 1 Dec. 1900, 56,367,178; total 
fighting strength about 8,000,000 men in 1901. 

The empire of Germany was established Jan. 1, 1871, 
founded upon treaties concluded between the North 
German confederation (which see) and, 1. the grand 
duchies of Baden and Hesse, 15 Nov. 1870; 2. the 
kingdom of Bavaria, 23 Nov. 1870 ; 3. the kingdom of 
Wtirtemberg, 25 Nov. 1870; ratified, 29 Jan. 1871. 
William I. , king of Prussia, was proclaimed German 
emperor at Versailles, 18 Jan. 1871. 

Population in 1871 (including Alsace-Lorraine, con- 
quered, 1870), 41,069,846. The parliament (reichstag) 
is elected by manhood suffrage and ballot. 

The first chancellor of the empire, prince Otho von 
Bismarck, May, 1871 ; resigned 18 March, 1890. 



The Teutones, united with the Cymry, defeat the 

Romans at Noreia b.c. 113 

After varying success are defeated by Marius . 102 

Drusus invaded Germany 12-3 

Battle of Teutoburg ; Hermann or Arminius de- 
stroys the Romans under Varus . a. d. 9 

Hermann assassinated 19 

The Franks invade Gaul 238 

Great irruption of Germanic tribes into Gaul 450 et se<i. 
Charlemagne after a long contest subdues the 

Saxons, who become Christians . . . 772-785 
He is crowned emperor of the West at Rome by the 

pope 25 Dec. 800 

He adds a second head to the eagle, to denote that 

the empires of Rome and Germany are united . 802 

S N 2 



GERMANY. 



548 



GERMANY. 



Louis (le Debonnaire) separates Germany from 

France 839-840 

The Germans under Arnold take Rome . . . 896 
The German princes assert their independence, and 

Conrad I. of Franeonia reigns . . 8 Nov. 911 
[The electorate began about this time. See Electors.] 
Reign of Henry I. [king], surnamed the Fowler ; 

he vanquishes the Huns, Danes, Vandals, and 

Bohemians 918-934 

Otho I. extends his dominions, and is crowned 

emperor by the pope 962 

Otho II. conquers Lorraine 978 

Henry III. conquers Bohemia 1042 

Contest between Henry IV. and Gregory VII. (Hilde- 

brand) 1075 

Henry's humiliation at Canossa (which see) . . 1077 
He takes Rome 1084 ; and Gregory dies in exile at 

Salerno 1085 

Disputes with the pope relating to ecclesiastical 

investitures ...... 1073-1123 

The Guelph and the Ghibeline feuds begin . . 1140 

Conrad III. leads an army to the holy wars ; it was 

destroyed by Greek treachery . . . .1147 
Frederick Barbarossa emperor, 1152 ; wars in Italy, 

H54-77 

He destroys Milan 1162 

Ruins Henry the Lion (see Bavaria) . . . 1180 

Is drowned during the crusade in Syria, 10 June, 1190 

Teutonic order of knighthood ,, 

Hanseatic league established . . . about 1245 
Reign of Rodolph, count of Hapsburg, chosen by 

the electors 1273 

The edict, called the Golden Bull, by Charles IV. . 1356 

The Tyrol acquired . 1363 

Sigismund, king of Bohemia, elected emperor. He 
betrays John Huss and Jerome of Prague, who 
are burned alive (see Bohemia) . . . 1414-16 
Sigismund driven from the throne, Albert II., duke 

of Austria, succeeds 1437 

The pragmatic sanction confining the empire to the 

house of Austria 1439 

Peasants' wars 1502, 1514, 1524 

Bra of the Reformation (see Lutheranism) . . . 1517 
German Bible and liturgy published by Luther, 

1522-46 
Luther excommunicated by the diet at "Worms, 

17 April, 1521 
War with the pope— the Germans storm Rome . 1527 
Diet at Spires ; Protestants condemned, 13 March, 1529 
Confession of Augsburg published . . 25 Jan. 1530 
Protestant League of Smalcalde . . . 31 Dec. 1531 
The anabaptists seize Munster, 24 June, 1535; de- 
feated, and John of Leyden slain .... 1536 

Death of Luther 18 Feb. 1546 

War with the protestants . . .26 June, „ 
Who are helped by Henry II. of France- -Peace of 

religion at Passau 31 July, 1552 

Abdication of Charles V. announced . 25 Oct. 1555 

Hungary joined to the empire 1570 

The Thirty years' war begins between the evangelic 
union under tin' elector palatine, and the catholic 

league under the duke of Bavaria . . . . 1618 
liattlr of Prague, which ruined the elector palatine, 

8 Nov. 1620 
Qustavus-Adolphus of Sweden invades Germany, 

June, 1630 
Qustavus-Adolphus, victor, killed at Lutzen, 

16 Nov. 1632 

Treason of Walh-nstcin ; he is assassinated, 25 Feb. 1634 
End of the Thirty years' war : treaty of Westphalia, 

establishing religious toleration . . 24 Oct. 1648 

War with Prance 1674 

John Bobleski, king of Poland, after defeating the 
Turks, obliges them to raise the siege of Vienna, 

12 Sept. 1683 

Peace of Ryswick (with France) . . aoSept 1607 

The peace of I 'arlowitz (with the Turks) 26 Jan. 1699 

War with France, &c, 6 Oct, 1703; Marlborough's 
vietoiy al Blenheim .... 13 Aug. 1704 

lVac f Utrecht nApril, 1713 

The pragmatic sanction (which su) . . . . 1722 
Francis [., duke of Lorraine, marries the heiress of 
Austria, Maria-Theresa (1736) ; she succeeds her 
father, and becomes queen of Hungary, 20 Oct 1740 
rhe elector of Bavaria elected emperor as Charles 

VII 22 Jan. 1742 

Hi' dies Jan. 20; Francis [., duke of Lorraine, 
elected em] ■ 15 Sept. 1743 



The Seven years' war between Austria and Prussia 
and their respective allies begins Aug. 1756 ; ends 
with the peace of Hubertsburg . . 15 Feb. 

Lorraine ceded to France 

Joseph II. extends his dominions by the dismem- 
berment of Poland, 1772 ; many civil reforms and 
liberal changes 

War with Turkey 

Victory of the Austrians and Russians at Rimnik, 

22 Sept. 

J. G. Basedow, educational reformer, dies 25 July, 

The Rhenish provinces revolt 

Francis I. joins in the second partition of Poland, 

In the ruinous wars between Germany and France, 
the emperor loses the Netherlands, all his terri- 
tories west of the Rhine, and his states in Italy, 

1793- 

Cessions of territory to France by the treaty of 
Luneville 9 Feb. 

Francis II. assumes the title of Francis I., emperor 
of Austria n Aug. 

Napoleon establishes the kingdoms of Bavaria and 
Wurtemberg, 1805 ; and of Westphalia, 1807 ; 
dissolution of the German empire ; formation of 
the confederation of the Rhine . . 12 July, 

North Germany annexed to France . 13 Dec. 1! 

Commencement of the war of independence : the 
order of the iro n cross instituted . . March. 

Final defeat of the French at Leipsic 16-19 Oct. 

Congress of Vienna . . 1 Nov. 1814 & 25 May, 

The Germanic confederation (which see) formed 

8 June, 

The Zollverein (which see) formed .... 

" Society for promoting the knowledge of ancient 
German history," founded by Stein 

A German scientific association formed, "Naturfor- 
scher Vereine " (see German Union) . . Sept. 

General depression in trade 

Death of J. H. Voss, poet, &c . 29 March, 

Revolution at Brunswick (flight of the duke) 7 Sept. 

In Saxony (abdication of the king) . 13 Sept. 

Death of Goethe, poet, novelist, and philosopher, 

22 March, 

Becker's song about the free German Rhine ; and 
Alfred de Musset's song in reply, " Le Rhin 
Allemand" (see Rhi ne) appear . . . . 

Excitement about Ronge, the catholic reformer, 
and the holy coat of Treves 

Insurrection at Vienna and throughout Germany 
(see Austria, Hungary, &c.) 

Revolt in Schleswig and Holstein (see Denmark) 

March, 

The king of Prussia takes the lead as an agitator, 
to promote the reconsolidation of the German 
empire, by a proclamation . . 27 March, 

German national assembly meet at Frankfort (see 
Germanic confederation) iS May, 

Archduke John of Austria elected vicar of the em- 
pire 12 July, 

The national assembly elects the king of Prussia 
emperor, 28 March ; he declines . 3 April, 

He recalls the Prussian members of the assembly, 

14 May, 

The Frankfort assembly transfers its sittings to 
Stuttgardt 3c May. 

Treaty of Vienna between Austria and Prussia for 
the formation of a new central power for a 
limited time ; appeal to be made to the govern- 
ments of Germany .... 30 Sept. 

Protest of Austria against the alliance of Prussia 
with the smaller German states . 12 Nov. 

Treaty of Munich between Bavaria, Saxony, and 
Wurtemberg, for a revision of the German con- 
federation 27 Feb. 

Parliament meets at Erfurt . . . March, 

The king of Wurtemberg denounces the insidious 
ambition of the king of Prussia . 15 March, 

German diet meets at Frankfort . . 10 May, 

Hesse-Cassel semis no representative to Erfurt, 7 
.lune ; Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the 
Prussian league .... 20 June, 

Austria calls an assembly of the German confedera- 
tion, 19 July ; which meets at Frankfort, 2 Sept. 

Austrian". Bavarian, and Prussian forces enter 
Hesse-Cassel (see .Hesse-Cosset) . . 12 Nov. 

Conferences on German affairs at Dresden, 

23 Dec. 1850, to 15 May, 



1763 
1766 



1782 



1790 
1793 
J 795 



iio-i 
1813 
1815 



1S19 

1822 
1824 
1826 
1830 



1841 
1844 



1S49 



1S50 



GERMANY. 



549 



GERMANY. 



Max Schneckenburger, author of the song " Die 

Waclit am Rhein," died 1851 

Re-establishment of the diet of the Germanic con- 
federation at Frankfort ... 30 May, ,, 
Conference at Nuremberg relative to a general code 

of commerce 15 Jan. 1857 

Great excitement in Germany at the French suc- 
cesses in Lombardy : warlike preparations in 
Bavaria,&c. .... May and June, 1859 

Meetings of new liberal party in Eisenach, Saxe 
Weimar, 1.7 July ; seven resolutions put forth 
recommending that the imperfect federal consti- 
tution be changed ; that the German diet be re- 
placed by a strong central government ; that a 
national assembly be summoned; and that Prus- 
sia be invited to take the initiative 14 Aug. „ 
This proposal not accepted by Prussia, and warmly 

opposed by Hanover .... Sept. ,, 

The Austrian minister, Rechberg, severely censur- 
ing the duke of Saxe-Gotha, for a liberal speech, 
4 Sept. ; and accusing the Prussian government 
of favouring the liberals, meets with cutting 

retorts Sept. „ 

Death of Ernst Moritz Arndt, patriot and poet, 

29 Jan. i860 
The federal diet maintains the Hesse-Cassel consti- 
tution of 1852 against Prussia . 24 March, ,, 
Meeting of the French emperor and the German 
sovereigns at Baden, 16, 17 June ; and of the czar 
and the emperor of Austria and the regent of 
Prussia at Toplitz . . . .26 July, &o. ,, 
Meeting at Coburg in favour of German unity 

against French aggression ... 5 Sept. ,, 
Dispute with Denmark respecting the rights of 

Holstein and Schleswig .... Nov. „ 
First meeting of a German national shooting match 

at Gotha 8-1 1 July, 1861 

Meeting of German national association at Heidel- 
berg ; decides to form a fleet . . 23 Aug. ,, 
Subseriptians received for fleet . Sept. and Oct. ., 
The national association meet at Berlin ; they re- 
commend the formation of a united federal 
government with a central executive, under the 
leadership of Prussia . . . .13 March, 1862 
Meetings of plenipotentiaries from German states 

on federal reform . . .8 July — 10 Aug. ,, 
Deputies from German states meet at "Weimar, and 
declare that Germany wants formation into one 

federal state 28, 29 Sept. „ 

Congress of deputies from German states declare 

in favour of unity .... 21 Aug. 1863 
The emperor of Austria invites the German 
sovereigns to a congress at Frankfort, 31 July ; 
king of Prussia declines, 4 Aug. ; nearly all the 
sovereigns meet, 16, 17 Aug. ; they approve the 
Austrian plan of federal reform, 1 Sept. ; which 
is rejected by Prussia . . . .22 Sept. ,, 
The diet determines to have recourse to federal exe- 
cution in Holstein if Denmark does not fulfil her 

obligations 1 Oct. ,, 

50th anniversary of the battle of Leipsic celebrated 

18 Oct. „ 
Death of Frederick VII. of Denmark . 15 Nov. ,, 
German troops enter Holstein for " federal execu- 
tion" (see Denmark for events) . . 23 Dec. ,, 
Death of Maximilian II. of Bavaria . 10 March, 1864 
Prussia retains the duchies ; discussion between 
Austria and Prussia ; the diet adopt the resolu- 
tion of Bavaria and Saxony, requesting Austria 
and Prussia to give up Holstein to the duke of 
Augustenburg ; rejected ... 6 April, 1865 
50th anniversary of the establishment of the Ger- 
manic confederation .... 8 June, ,, 
The Gastein convention (which see) . . 14 Aug. ,, 
Condemned by the diet at Frankfort . . 1 Oct. ,, 
The diet calls on Austria and Prussia to disarm, 

19 May, 1866 
Meeting of deputies from smaller German states 

condemn the impending war . . .20 May, ,, 
Austria declares that Prussia has broken the treaty 
by invading Holstein, 11 June; the diet adopts 
this by 9 votes ; the Prussian representative de- 
clares the Germanic confederation at an end, and 
invites the members to form a new one, excluding 

Austria i 4 June, ,, 

The Prussians enter Saxony, and the war begins, 

15 June, ,, 



The diet determines for war, 16 June ; proclaims 
prince Charles of Bavaria general of the confedera- 
tion troops 27 June, 1866 

[For the war and its consequences, see Prussia, 
and German Confederation, North.] 
Treaty of alliance between Prussia and the northern 

states ; ratified 8 Sept. „ 

Continued disputes between the diet and Austria 
and Prussia respecting Schleswig-Holstein, 

Oct. and Nov. ,, 
Draft of new constitution for North Germany 

settled 9 Feb. 1867 

Elections commence .... 12 Feb. ,, 
North German parliament opened at Berlin by the 
king of Prussia, 24 Feb. ; Dr. Simson elected 

president 2 March, ,, 

The federal constitution adopted (printed in 
Almanach tie Gotha, 1868) ; the parliament closed, 

17 April ,, 
The constitution put in action 1 July, , ? 

Meeting of 50 deputies from parliaments of Bavaria, 
Wiirtemberg, Baden, and Hesse - Darmstadt, 
declare necessity of union with North Germany, 

Aug. ,„ 
Luxemburg evacuated by the Prussian garrison, 

9 Sept. ,, 
New North German parliament meets, 10 Sept. ; 

closed 26 Oct. „ 

Opened by king of Prussia, 23 March ; closed, 

20 June, 1868. 
Delegates from the Zoilverein meet, April ; close 

23 May, ,, 
Inauguration of the Luther monument at Worms 

by the king of Prussia . . . .25 June, ,, . 
German rifle association meeting at Vienna, 26 
July ; addressed by Von Beust at the close, giving 
as toast, " Peace and Reconciliation " . 6 Aug. ,,_ 
After negotiations between Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, - 
and Baden, July, a South German military com- 
mission appointed ..... Oct. t> 
Wilhelmshafen . at Hippens, bay of Jahde, Olden- 
burg, the first German military port, inaugurated 
by the king of Prussia .... 17 June, 1869 , 
Centenary of the birth of Alexander von Humboldt 

celebrated 14 Sept. ,, 

Count Arnim, German representative at Rome, 
protests against the doctrine of papal infallibility 

May, 1870 
German parliament opened by the king, 14 Feb. ; 

closed 26 May, ,, 

Count Bismarck announces the declaration of war 
by France, and terms it groundless and presump- 
tuous 19 July, „ 

Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Hesse - Darmstadt, and 
Baden, support Prussia in the war declared by 
France. (See Franco-Prussian War). 15 July, „.. 
Munich, Stuttgart, and other cities, declare for 

union with North Germany . . about 6 Sept. „. 
Socialists declare against annexation of Alsace, &c. 

Sept. -Nov. „_ 
Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt join the North German 
Confederation by treaty, about 15 Nov ; also 
Wiirtemberg, 25 Nov. ; and Bavaria, 23 Nov. ; re- 
taining certain powers in military and diplomatic 

affairs Nov. 

The North German parliament opened at Berlin by 

Dr. Simson on behalf of the king . . 24 Nov. 

The parliament vote 100,000,000 thalers to continue 

the war 2 S Nov. , t . 

The king of Bavaria, in a letter to the king of 

Saxony, proposes the king of Prussia to be 

nominated emperor of Germany about 4 Dec. „ 

The parliament in an address request the king 

to become emperor (votes for, 188 ; against, 6), 

10 Dec. „ 
The address solemnly presented to the king in an 

assembly of princes by Dr. Simson . . 18 Dec. ,, 
Re-establishment of the German empire, 1 Jan. ; 
William I. of Prussia proclaimed emperor at Ver- 
sailles ^ Jan. 1871 

Mr. Odo Russell (aft. Id. Ampthill) appointed am- 
bassador at Berlin 

Several German bankers condemned to imprison- 
ment for subscribing to the French loan 3 Jan. „ 
Preliminaries of peace with France signed at Ver- 
sailles . 26 Feb. 



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The emperor reviews part of his army at Long- 
champs, near Paris i Mar. 1871 

First reichstag or imperial parliament opened at 

Berlin by the emperor, 397 members . 21 Mar. ,, 
The new constitution of the empire comes into 

force 4 May. „ 

Chancery of the empire : prince Bismarck, chan- 
cellor 12 May, ,, 

The treaty of peace ratified . . . 16 May, „ 

l>r. Dollinger, of Munich, excommunicated for 

opposing the dogma of papal infallibility, 18 

April; made D.C.L. of Oxford . . June, „ 

Triumphal entry of the German armies into Berlin ; 

statue of Frederick William IV. inaugurated, 

16 June, „ 
Dr. Bollinger elected rector of the university at 

Munich 29 June, „ 

The emperors of Austria and Germany meet at 

Salzburg, Bismarck and Beust present 6-8 Sept. ,, 
The Bavarian minister of public worship declares 
against the dogma of papal infallibility in a letter 
to the archbishop of Munich . . 27 Sept. ,, 
The German parliament opened by the emperor; 
who expresses his conviction " that the new Ger- 
man empire will be a reliable shield of peace," 

16 Oct. „ 
Reform in the coinage : introduction of a gold coin 

approved by the federal council about 6 Nov. „ 
Law forbidding the clergy to meddle with politics 

in the pulpit .... about 26 Nov. „ 

Triennial war budget voted . . . 1 Dec. „ 

Sharp despatch from count Bismarck to the Ger- 
man ambassador at Paris respecting the acquittal 
of murderers of Germans at Melun and Paris, 

7 Dec. „ 
Ultramontane agitation against the government; 
excitement amongst the Polish Romanists ; count 
Bismarck carries his school inspection bill against 
the Roman catholic clergy .... Mar. 187a 
The empress-queen visits England . . May, ,, 
Bismarck reports to the parliament the pope's 
refusal to receive cardinal Hohenlohe as ambas- 
sador • . 14 May, „ 

JBill for the expulsion of the Jesuits passed in the 
German parliament (131-93); end of session, 
19 June ; the law published . . .5 July, 
Inauguration of a memorial to Von Stein, the pa- 
triotic statesman at Nassau, by the emperor 

9 July, ,, 
Imperial congress: the czar arrives at Berlin, 
5 Sept. ; the emperor of Austria, 6 Sept. ; both 
leave ; prince Bismarck declares the meeting to 
be merely an act of friendship ; "prince Gortseha- 
koff thankful that nothing was written," about 

6 Sept. „ 
Great emigration of young men to America to avoid 

the conscription ; forbidden by government. Sept. „ 
The German parliament opened . I2 Mar 1873 
Treaty with France settling the total evacuation of 
the departments held by German troops on pay- 
ment of the indemnity in Sept. signed 15 Mar. 
The emperor William warmly received at St. Peters- 
burg 27 April— 11 May, „ 

I lie monetary reform law passed, 23 June ; the par- 
liament closed 2^ June 

Last payment of French war indemnity . 5 Sept! 
The emperor's visit to Vienna . . 17 Oct. " 
Elections for the parliamenfr-(307 members ; about ' 
two-thirds nationalist liberals; about 100 ultra- 

raontanists) 10 Jan. 1874 

Parliament opened s Feb. 

Letter from earl Russell in the emperor, expressing 
sympathy of himself and others with the struggle 
against tin- pope, 28 Jan. ; the emperor replies 

18 Feb. „ 

Bismarck confined by illness . March, April 
Constitutional struggle in the parliament re- ' 

spectillg the army bill . . _ March 

The governmenl require 401,659 men (instead of 

360,000) permanently:—* promise; the army 

to. be settled for seven years . about io April, 

The parliament session rinsed by the emperor with 
a pacific speech . . , 2 g April 

German liberal association, formed againsl par- 
ticularists and ultramontauists . about June, 



Count Harry Arnim, formerly ambassador at Rome 

and Paris, suddenly arrested and imprisoned in 

Berlin : ostensibly for refusing to give up official 

papers, 4 Oct. ; released on bail . . 28 Oct. 1874 

Parliament opened by the emperor ; declaration of 

firm legislative and defensive policy . 29 Oct. ,, 

Bismarck resigns the chancellorship after an ad- 
verse vote in the parliament, 16 Dec, on a vote 
of confidence (199-71) retains it . .18 Dec. ,, 
Important registration law for births, deaths, and 

marriages }>assed Jan. 1875 

Civil marriage bill passed ... 25 Jan. ,, 

International rifle meeting at Stuttgart . 1 Aug. „ 
Statue of Hermann (or Arminius), by Von Bandel, 
at Detmold, uncovered by the emperor William 

16 Aug. „ 
Parliament meets ; pacific speech of the emperor 

read 27 Oct. ., 

The imperial bank of Germany opens . 1 Jan. 1876 

Proposal for purchase of all the railways by the 
imperial government (opposed in the south) 

20 March, ,, 
The czar at Berlin .... n May, ,, 

Parliament opened with a royal pacific speech, 

30 Oct. ,, 
Elections: liberal majority; socialist democrats 

elected for Berlin .... 10, 11 Jan. 1877 
Parliament opened by the emperor : he hopes for 

peace in the east 22 Feb. „ 

Supreme court for Germany settled to be at Leipsic 

by parliament 21 March, ,, 

New code of laws enacted „ 

Resignation of Bismarck as chancellor, 3 April ; 

withdrawn 8 April, ,, 

Exportation of horses forbidden . . 7 July, „ 
Parliament re-opened .... 6 Feb. 187S 
In consequence of the attempted assassination of 
the emperor by Hbdel, 11 May, a stringent bill 
to repress socialism is brought into the parlia- 
ment, and rejected (251— 57) . . 24, 25 May, „ 
Grosser Kurfiirst, ironclad, sunk by collision with 
Kbnig Wilhelm off Folkestone, about 300 lost 

3 1 May, .. 
The emperor fired at and wounded by Dr. Karl 

Edouard Nobiling, a professor of philology and 

socialist, at Berlin 2 June, ,, 

The crown-prince authorised to direct public affairs, 

4, 5 June, ,, 
Parliament dissolved . . . .12 June, ,, 

Death of king George of Hanover . . 12 June, „ 
Emil Heinrich Max Hbdel condemned 10 July, ,, 
Elections held (severe struggle) . . 30 July, „ 
The Berlin conference (which see) 13 June — 13 July, ,, 
Hbdel executed at Berlin ... 16 Aug. „ 
New parliament opened : national liberals, 123 : 119 
imperialists and conservatives ; 105 centre (Ro- 
man catholics, &c.) .... 9 Sept. ,, 
Dr. Nobiling dies of self-inflicted wounds, 10 Sept. ,, 
The emperor quite recovered ; announced 14 Sept. „ 
The repressive socialist bill passed (72 majority) 

19 Oct. ,, 
Decree for expulsion of socialists and others, issued 

Nov. „ 
The emperor returns to Berlin and resumes govern- 
ment 5 Dec. „ 

174 clubs, 44 newspapers, and 157 other papers 

suppressed by injunctions up to . . Dec. „ 

Parliamentary discipline bill (to "muzzle" 
speakers); a "gagging bill" introduced about 

9 Jan. 1879 
Bismarck's negotiations with the Roman curia re- 

spectingthe Falk laws (Cidturkampf) fruitless Jan. „ 
"gagging" bill rejected by the parliament 7 March, ,, 
Prince Bismarck's protectionist tariff bill virtually 

passed, about 9 May, „ 

Resignation of Von Forckenbeck (liberal), presi- 
dent of the parliament, 20 May; election of an 
ultramontane, about . . . .22 May, ,, 
The emperor's golden wedding kept . n June, „ 
Resignation of Falk and other ministers ; an- 
nounced 30 June, ,, 

Bismarck in the parliament disclaims connection 

with the liberal party .... 9 July, ,, 
The customs bill finally passed (217-117) ; session 

closed 12 July, „ 

Ministry reconstituted about . . . 14 July, ,, 



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551 



GERMANY. 



Adra. Batsch tried and sentenced to 6 months' im- 
prisonment for loss of Grosser Kurfurst (see 31 
May, 1878) July, 1879 

Grand military manoeuvres at Konigsberg 5-9 Sept. ,, 

Meeting of Bismarck and Jacobini, papal nuncio, at 
Gastein, about 16 Sept. „ 

Bismarck visits Vienna ; renews friendship with 
Andrassy, 21-24 Sept. ; supreme court for all 
Germany, opened at Leipsic . . . 1 Oct. ,, 

New eode of laws made in 1877 come into operation, 

Nov. ,, 

Bill for enlargement of the army (by 27,000 men), 
proposed Jan. 1880 

German parliament opened ; pacific speech from the 
emperor 12 Feb. ,, 

In the federal council 22 small states out-vote 
Prussia, Saxony, and Bavaria, respecting new 
stamp duties 3 April, ,, 

Bismarck's resignation not accepted by the em- 
peror ; the states give in . . . . April, ,, 

The new army bill passed (186-96) . . 9 April, ,, 

The parliament prorogued ... 10 May, ,, 

" New liberal " party formed by secession from the 
reactionary " national liberals " . . . Aug. ,, 

Grand army manoeuvres in a plain 10 miles south 
of Berlin 10 Sept. et seq. ,, 

German parliament opened . . .16 Feb. 1881 

German army manoeuvres near Hanover 30 Aug. 

and Sept. „ 

General elections ; large liberal majority . 28 Oct. ,, 

The parliament opened by Prince Bismarck with 
pacific message from the emperor . 17 Nov. ,, 

Bismarck says Germany is not to be ruled after 
English fashion 29 Nov. ,, 

He is defeated in a financial question 169-83 1 Dec. ,, 

Imperial rescript against parliamentary government 
published 7 Jan. 1882 

Violent debates in the parliament . 24 Jan. et seq. ,, 

Bismarck's tobacco tax bill rejected by his economic 
council 21 March ; rejected by Parliament 276-43 

14 June, „ 

Important autumn manoeuvres near Brcslau 

6 Sept. ,, 

German Colonization society constituted at Frank- 
fort 6 Dec. ,, 

The budget rejected by the chambers . n Dec. ,, 

Death of Prince Charles, brother of the Emperor 

21 Jan. 1883 

Enthusiastic commemoration of Luther's birth (see 
Lutheranism) Aug. -Sept. 

Autumn manoeuvres at Merseburg, 15 Sept., at ,, 
Homburg 20 Sept. ,, 

•Germaniu, a colossal statue, &c, by Prof. Schilling, 
a national memorial of German unity and victories 
of 1870-1 set up in the Niederwald at Rudesheim 
on the Rhine, uncovered by the emperor William 
in the presence of German sovereigns and 5,000 
spectators ; Von Moltke there but not Bismarck 

28 Sept. „ 

{[Plot to blow up the monument by dynamite and 
destroy the royal and eminent persons present 
this day, frustrated by bad weather ; discovered 
in 1884]. 

The fourth centenary of Luther's birth (10 Nov. 
1483) celebrated at Erfurt, Halle, &c. 31 Oct. et seq. „ 

Successful visit of the Crown Prince to Spain and 
Italy 23 Nov. — 22 Dec. ,, 

Prince Bismarck refuses to present to the chamber 
a letter of condolence from the United States on 
the death of the eloquent Dr. Lasker, formerly 
his supporter, afterwards his opponent . Feb. 1S84 

German parliament opened ; disputes respecting 
the Lasker affair .... 6, 7 Mar. „ 

Mr. Sargent, the obnoxious U.S. minister, settled 
to be removed to St. Petersburg, 26 Mar. ; de- 
clined 27 Mar. „ 

Anti-socialist law prolonged for two years (189-157), 
10 May; trial of Kraszewski, Polish poet and 
novelist, and captain Hentsch, ex-telegraph 
-official, at Leipsic, for high treason in military 
communications to Austrian, French, and other 
governments in 1866-71 ; Kraszewski sentenced to 
3^ years' imprisonment [released on bail Nov. 1885]; 
Hentsch to 9 years' penal servitude . 12-19 May, >> 
Foundation of the new German parliament-house 

at Berlin laid by the emperor . . .8 June „ 
Autumn manoeuvres at Diisseldorf, 15 Sept. et seq. ,, 



German colony founded at Cameroons, and 
Bimbia, west coast of Africa, by HerrNachtigall ; 

Aug. 18 

Death of Lord Ampthill, British ambassador, Aug. ; 
succeeded by Sir Edward Malet . . Sept. ,, 

Elections for the parliament ; number of liberals 
diminished, social democrats increased 28 Oct. ,, 

Parliament opened by the emperor . 20 Nov. ,, 

Bismarck defeated ; votes for payment of members, 
180-99, 26 Nov. ; parts of May ecclesiastical laws 
repealed (217-93) 3 Dec. ,, 

Eight dynamitards, Friedrich A. Reinsdorf and 
others, for attempting to kill the emperor, 28 Sept. 
1883 (see above) : tried at Leipsic ; F. A. Reins- 
dorf, Rupsch, and Kuchler sentenced to death ; 
two to imprisonment ; three acquitted 15-22 Dec. , 

German flag said to be hoisted on N. coast of New 
Guinea, New Britain, and other islands, Dec. , 

Great increase of emigration (fivefold) . . 1879-1E 

"Germany does not want colonies "—Bismarck, 
1871 — 180,000 marks voted for protection of 
colonies 10 Jan. iS 

Speech of Prince Bismarck attacking the Gladstone 
cabinet 2 Mar. , 

Dispute said to be settled . 9 Mar. , 

Lieske convicted of murder of Rumpff at Frankfort 

1 July, 

Parliament opened .... 19 Nov, 

Prince Bismarck's "Schnapps" (dram of spirits) 
monopoly bill introduced 11 Jan. ; rejected by 
committee 12 March if 

Sarauw sentenced to 12 years' penal servitude for 
high treason (giving information respecting 
fortresses to the French government) . 11 Feb. 

Prince Bismarck reproves parliament for opposing 
government bills .... 26 March, 

The " Schnapps " bill rejected (181-3) 27 March, 

Socialist law prolonged for two years 31 March, 

Leopold von Ranke, the historian, died (aged 90) 

23 May, 

Autumn manoeuvres at Strasburg ; the army 
reported to be perfect . . about 15 Sept. 

Parliament opened 25 Nov. 

Bill for increase of the army (41,000) for seven 
years brought in 3 Dec. ; much opposed by 
clericals, socialists, and others ; adjourned to 
Jan. 1887, 17 Dec. 1886 ; amendment limiting 
increase to three years carried (183-154) ; parlia- 
ment immediately dissolved . . 4 Jan. il 

Elections : (efforts to make the army parliamentary 
instead of imperLU) ; majority for the govern- 
ment 21 Feb. 

Parliament opened .... 3 March, 

Army bill passed (227-31) . . . 11 March, 

Treaty of alliance with Austria and Italy signed 

13 March, 

The emperor's 90th birthday royally celebrated at 
Berlin 22 March, 

Arrest of M. Schnsebell (see under France) 

20-22 April, 

Foundation stone of opening lock of a canal from 
the Baltic to the North Sea, 61 miles long, laid 
at Holtenau near Kiel by the emperor; (esti- 
mated cost 7,800,000?.) ... 3 June, 

Eight Alsatians, members of the " Ligue des 
Patriotes " formed for the reunion of Alsace- 
Lorraine to France (advocated by M. Deroulede, 
a fiery poet of "La Revanche "), tried at Leipsic 
for high treason, 13 June ; four sentenced to one 
to two years' imprisonment ; four acquitted 18 
June ; Klein and Grebert sentenced to six and five 
years' respectively .... 8 July, 

Parliament closed 18 June, 

The emperor present at military manoeuvres at 
Stettin 12 Sept. 

Celebration of 25th anniversary of Prince Bis- 
marck's premiership of Prussia . 23 Sept. 

Border disputes (see France) .... 

Signor Crispi, Italian premier, visits prince Bis- 
marck 2, 3 Oct. 

The czar formally received in Berlin . 18 Nov. 

Meeting of the parliament ... 24 Nov. 

Statement in the Cologne Gazette of the existence of 
letters, &c, purporting to come from prince Bis- 
marck sent to the czar tending to create dis- 
affection ; asserted to be forged ; attributed to 
Orleanists, especially princess Clementine of 
Coburg, daughter of king Louis Philippe . Nov. 



GERMANY. 



GERMANY. 



Cabannes sentenced to ten years' penal servitude for 
selling military secrets to the French government 

19 Dec. 

Indisposition of the crown prince (since termed 
perichondritis), winters in Italy and S. France 
under the care of sir Morell Mackenzie, 1887 ; 
stated to be malignant growth in the larynx ; 
tracheotomy performed (the German doctors and 
sir Morell Mackenzie differ) . . . Feb. 

Herr von Puttkainer's more stringent anti-socialist 
bill opposed by all parties ; revelations of govern- 
ment detectives inciting socialists to violence in 
Zurich : the bill committed 30 Jan. 1888 ; passed 

17 Feb. 

Defensive treaty with Austria against Russian or 
other aggression, 7 Oct. 1879 ; first published 

3 Feb. 

Powerful speech of prince Bismarck, alike for peace 
and preparation for war . . . 6 Feb. 

Serious illness of the emperor ; prince William 
(grandson) entrusted with official powers, 17 Nov. 
1887 ; this publicly announced . 8 March, 

" The great emperor who founded Germany's unity 
is dead." — Prince Bismarck . . 9 March, 

The emperor Frederick III. arrives at Berlin 

11 March, 

Solemn German national funeral of the emperor at 
Berlin ; present the kings of Belgium, Saxony, 
and Roumania, the prince of Wales and the duke 
of Cambridge, the crown princes of Austria, 
Russia, Denmark, and other princes and nobles 
(not the emperor Frederick, prince Bismarck, 
and count Moltke) .... 16 March, 

Parliament prorogued . . . .20 March, 

Rescript empowering the crown prince to act for 
the emperor in state affairs when required 

21 March, 

Visit of the queen of England. . 24-26 April, 

Continued improvement of the emperor's health 

15 May, 

The emperor becomes much worse n, 12 June ; dies 
(of cancer of the larynx) . . . 15 June, 

Simple, impressive funeral at Potsdam 18 June, 

The imperial parliament opened by the emperor 
with much pomp ; many princes present ; in his 
speech the emperor said " I will follow the same 
path by which my deceased grandfather won the 
confidence of his allies, the love of the German 
people, and the goodwill of foreign countries," 
25 June. The house adjourns after voting a 
cordial address 26 June, 

Herr Dietz, a former railway official in Alsace- 
Lorraine, his wife, and Appel convicted of treason 
and giving railway information to the French 
government, 5 July; Dietz sentenced to ten 
years' penal servitude, his wife to four years, 
and Appel to ten years' confinement . 9 July, 

The emperor's visit to the czar at Peterhbf, 19-23 
July ; visited Stockholm and Copenhagen July, 

The emperor arrives at Vienna, 3 Oct. ; at Rome, 
11 Oct. ; at Naples .... 16 Oct. 

Sir M..11II Mackenzie publishes "The Fatal Illness 
of Frederick the Noble"; its sale temporarily 
prohibited in Germany; he stops the sale in 
England <>r the German surgeon's report of the 
case ; statements differ . . about 15 Oct. 

Opening of parliament bytheemperor . 22 Nov. 

The East African bill passed, granting money for 
the defence of German interests and the suppres- 
sion of the slave trade, 30 Jan. ; adopted l>> the 
federal council (see Africa, German liast Africa), 

, Feb. 

The empress Frederick and her daughters visit 
England . . . .19 Nov. 1888— 26 Feb. 

Three German war vessels lbs! : nine officers and 
87 men drowned, in a storm off Samoa (which 

See) ,6 March. 

Great Bfcrike of coal miners in Westphalia (which 
see) May, 

The king of Italy, his son, and Signor Crispi 
warmlj received at Berlin . . 2i-~> Maj . 

33 silesian miners engaged in the strikes; sen- 
tenced to various terms of penal servitude (En- 
kel, the ringleader, to 7 years for riotous con- 
duel ) -.4 July, 

Prince Bismarck's bill to compel the working 
class, with tie assistance ol the state and 



their employes, to provide for sickness (passed 

1883), for accidents (passed 1884), for old age and 

infirmity, passed .... 24 May, 

The emperor with a fleet arrives at Spithead, 

1 Aug., and proceeds to the queen at Osborne, 

2 Aug. ; created a British admiral ; present at 
the grand naval review, 5 Aug., and at a sham 
fight at Aldershot, 7 Aug. ; queen Victoria made 
colonel of a German regiment to be called " the 
Queen of England's own,' about 3 Aug. ; the 
emperor leaves England .... 8 Aug. 

The emperor of Austria and his heir at Berlin, 

12-15 Aug. 

The emperor visits Strasburg, well received, 20 
Aug. ; at Metz 24 Aug. 

The emperor present at the autumn army man- 
oeuvres near Hanover .... Sept. 

Prince Bismarck declines to give state support to 
the German colonial company in S.W.Africa, Sept. 

The czar visits Berlin .... 11-13 Oct. 

The imperial parliament opened with a pacific 
speech 22 Oct. 

Bill for amending the socialist law of 1878, pro- 
longing it indefinitely, introduced . . Oct. 

The emperor and empress present at the marriage 
of his sister to the duke of Sparta, 27 Oct. ; warmly 
received by saltan at Constantinople . 2-6 Nov. 

Visit Venice 12 Nov. 

The Austrian and German emperors meet at Inns- 
bruck 14 Nov. 

91 socialists, members of a secret society, tried at 
Elberfeld for illegally promoting socialism, 20 
Nov. et seq. ; 47 acquitted, the rest sentenced to 
imprisonment (terms 18 months to 14 days) 30 Dec. 

The stringent anti-socialist bill rejected (169-98), 
the parliament closed with a moderate speech by 
the emperor 25 Jan. 

Two rescripts issued by the emperor, urgently re- 
commending action for the improvement of the 
condition of the working classes, and suggesting 
the co-operation of France, England, Belgium, 
and Switzerland. See Berlin . . 4 Feb. 

Elections for the new parliament, increased num- 
ber of socialists elected. See Cartel. 20 Feb. et seq. 

Resignation of prince Bismarck, chancellor of the 
empire [his political maxim was said to be Dj ut 
cles (Grotius ?)— I give that thou mayest give] 

iS March, 

He declines being created duke of Lauenburg, 

about 23 March, 

He is succeeded by gen. George von Caprivi de Ca- 
prera de Montecuceuli . . about 20 March, 

Count Herbert Bismarck, secretary for foreign 
affairs, resigns, succeeded by baron Marschall von 
Biederstein about 1 April, 

New colonial department formed, reported 16 April, 

About 25,000 workmen on strike in Germany re- 
ported 30 April, 

The demonstration in favour of an eight hours' 
working day passes off tranquilly . 1 May, 

The new parliament opened by the emperor ; in his 
speech, while professing ardent desire for peace, 
he required supplies for the increase of the army 
(iS,ooo,ooo marks) 6 May, 

Vote of 4,590,000 marks, and an annual subsidy of 
350,000 marks, for the suppression of slavery, 
and protection of German interests in East Africa, 
proposed by gen. von Caprivi . . 12 May, 

First German national horse show (at Berlin) 
12 June 1 • seq. 

The new army bill passed by the parliament 

28 June, 

Ajiglo-German convention (which see) respecting 
East Africa, signed at Berlin . . 1 July, 

Newly created colonial department subjected to the 
chancellor in 'uly, 

The emperor visits queen Victoria at Osborne 
4-8 Aug. ; visits Heligoland (which see) 10 Aug. 

The emperor visits Russia : met by the czar at 
Nawa, 17 Aug. ; at Peterhof; left " . 23 Aug. 

Naval review at Kiel 3~Sept. 

Military manoeuvres in Silesia . . . Sept. 

Cordial meeting of the German emperor and the 
emperor of Austria at Rlionstock in Silesia 
17-20 Sept. ; at Vienna. Arc. . . 1-8 Oct. 

The socialist (or " muzzling ") law of 1878 expires ; 
great demonstration . . .30 Sept. 



GERMANY. 



553 



GERMANY. 



International socialist congress at Halle, Prussian 
Saxony 12-18 Oct. 

Establishment of a colonial council decreed 15 Oct. 

Birthday of field- marshal count Hellmuth Moltke 
(born 26 Oct., 1800) celebrated at Berlin; the 
emperor, the king of Saxony, and other German 
sovereigns and the count himself present 26 Oct. 

Marriage of the princess Victoria, daughter of the 
empress Frederick II., to prince Adolphus of 
Schaumburg-Lippe, at Berlin . . 19 Nov. 

The parliament (adjourned in July) meets 2 Dec. 

The emperor, at a conference in Berlin, strongly 
advocates reform in public education 4-17 Dec. 

Sudden death of field-marshal von Moltke, aged 90, 
24 April ; grand military funeral, accompanied by 
the emperor, German sovereigns, state officers, 
ambassadors and a great multitude, Berlin 
28 April ; quiet interment at Kreisau in Silesia 

29 April, 

Prince Bismarck elected deputy for the parliament 
at Geestemunde 1 May, 

The parliament adjourns (the important Trades 
law amendment act passed) . . .9 May, 

The triple alliance renewed . . 28 June, 

Tour of the emperor and empress ; they land at 
Heligoland, 30 June ; arrive at Amsterdam (in 
the HohenzolUm) ; warmly received by the queens, 
1 July ; at the Hague and Rotterdam, 3 July ; re- 
ceived at Port Victoria by a British squadron ; 
arrive at Windsor (which see), 4 July ; at Bucking- 
ham palace ; receptions and opera at Covent 
Garden, 8 July ; garden party at Marlborough 
house ; state concert at Albert hall, 9 July ; visit 
the naval exhibition ; state entry into the city ; 
banquet at Guildhall ; speech of the emperor 
(" My aim is above all the maintenance of peace ") 
10 July ; he reviews about 25,000 volunteers at 
Wimbledon ; at Crystal palace ; review of National 
fire brigade ; concerts ; dinner by the prince of 
Wales; grand fireworks, n July; at St. Paul's; 
visit to Hatfield (marquis of Salisbury), 12 July ; 
banquet at Hatfield ; farewell to the queen at 
Windsor ; the empress goes to her five sons at 
Felixstowe, Suffolk, 13 July; the emperorproceeds 
from London to Leith ; embarks on the Hohen- 
zollern, sails up the Forth to view the bridge, and 
then proceeds to the coast of Norway, 13, 14 July; 
lands at various places, 18 July et seq. ; at North 
Cape, 21 July ; leaves Bergen, 4 Aug. ; arrives at 
Kiel, 8 Aug. ; the empress and the princes leave 
Felixstowe 6 Aug. 

Great rise in the price of grain, especially rye, 
through the jirohibition of exportation by the 
czar Aug. 

Socialist congress at Erfurt closed . . 21 Oct. 

Strike of journeymen printers throughout Germany 
for a 9 hours' day begun at Berlin about 2 Nov. 

The Weissenburg, ironclad named by the emperor at 
Stettin 14 Dec. 

New commercial treaty with Austria, Italy, and 
Belgium, adopted by the parliament . Dec. 

Gen. von Caprivi made a count . . .18 Dec. 

The printers' strike supported by above 3,000?. sent 
by English trade unions, 2 Jan. ; collapse of the 
strike reported . . . , .15 Jan. 

The emperor's speech at Brandenburg, in which he 
severely censures the opponents of his political 
policy, styling them "grumblers," causes great 
sensation among all parties . 24 Feb. et seq. 

Several newspapers at Berlin confiscated for re- 
printing the Times leader on the emperor's speech 

3 March, 

Rioting at Berlin, Hanover, Dantzig, and other 
places through distress . 25 Feb. et seq. 

Ministerial crisis in Prussia (which see) 22 March, 

The government defeated in the parliament ; the 
vote for an imperial corvette negatived 29 Masch, 

The parliament prorogued . . 31 March, 

The government warns its representatives abroad 
against prince Bismarck's strictures on its policy 

May-July, 

Prince Bismarck visits Jena ; makes defensive 
speeches 30, 31 July, 

The emperor visits England . . .1-8 Aug. 

The armour-clad Hildebrand, and the iron-clad 
Worth, launched at Kiel ... 7 Aug. 

" Long-distance ride " of Germans and Austrians, 

, see Riding 7 Oct. 



The emperor, the duke of York, with representa- 
tives of the protestant sovereigns of Europe and 
Germany, present at the dedication of the re- 
stored Castle-church of Wittenberg, which see 

31 Oct. 

The parliament opened by the emperor . 22 Nov. 

The army bills introduced by count von Caprivi 

23 Nov. 

German conservative congress in Berlin opened 

8 Dec. 

Herr Ahlwardt, a member of the chamber, anti- 
Semitic agitator, sentenced to five months' im- 
prisonment for libels against Lowe & Co., Jewish 
rifle manufacturers .... 9 Dec. 

A new " National party" advocating bi-metallism, 
anti-semitism, colonization, &c, reported, 22 Dec. 

Very severe winter, Dec. 1892 . . . Jan. 

Meeting at Berlin to establish a German agrarian 
league to oppose the importation of foreign grain, 
18 Feb. ; agitation throughout the empire Feb. 

Navy estimates : increase of the navy, &c. stopped 
by parliament 8 March, 

The emperor and empress present at the silver 
wedding of the king and queen of Italy, Rome, 
22 April ; they visit the pope, 23 April ; received 
at Naples, 27 April ; at Lucerne, 2 May ; at 
Berlin 4 May, 

Official examination into Ahlwardt's anti-semitic 
charges, 27 April ; declared unfounded, 29 April ; 
he withdraws them, and is censured by vote of 
the committee 2 May, 

The parliament finally rejects the army bills (210- 
162) and is dissolved . . . . 6 May, 

Monument to the memory of William I. at Gbrlitz, 
unveiled by the emperor . . . 18 May, 

General election, small majority for the Govern- 
ment June, 

The parliament opened by the emperor with a con- 
ciliatory speech 4 July, 

The army bills read a first time, 8 July ; passed 
(201-185) ! the session closed . . 15 July, 

Seven weeks' drought closed by a violent storm 

11 July, 

The emperor visits the queen at Osborne 

29 July — 7 Aug. 

Russian duty on German imports raised 50 per cent. ; 
German reprisals ... 2 Aug. et seq 

Explosion on the Baden warship in the Baltic ; 9 
men killed 2 Aug. 

Army banquet at Coblentz ; speech by the emperor ; 
crown prince of Italy present . . 1 Sept. 

Manoeuvres begin 4 Sept. 

The emperor and empress entertained by the king 
of Wurtemberg at Stuttgart . . 15 Sept. 

The army bill comes into force . . . 1 Oct. 

Two years' service substituted for three ; the peace 

footing of the army is fixed at 479,229 men, 

from 1 October to 31 March, 1899, being an 

increase of 70,000. 

50th anniversary of the doctorate of prof. Momm- 
sen, the historian of Rome, &c, archaeologist, 
and jurist, celebrated .... 8 Nov. 

The parliament opened by the emperor . 16 Nov. 

Anti-Jesuit law of 4 July, 1872 ; bill for its repeal 
introduced ; passed (173-136) . . 1 Dec. 

Degony and Delguey-Malvas arrested as French 
spies at Kiel, 28 Aug. ; Degony sentenced to 6 
years', Delguey-Malvas to 4 years' imprisonment 

16 Dec. 

Reconciliation between the emperor and prince 
Bismarck : the prince warmly and honourably 
received by the emperor ; popular demonstrations 
on the road and in Berlin . . 26 Jan. 

Commercial treaty with Russia for 10 years, signed 
10 Feb. ; comes into force . . 20 March, 

By the bursting of several steam-pipes on board 
the Brandenburg, 1st class battleship, 42 men 
were killed 16 Feb. 

The parliament closed .... 19 April, 

A deputation of British officers of the 1st royal 
dragoons received by the emperor (their newly 
appointed colonel-in-chief) at Berlin . 7 June, 

Two French officers, see above, Aug. 1893, released 
by the emperor 1 July, 

The emperor visits the queen at Osborne, &c. 

6-14 Aug. 

Death of Hermann von Helmholtz, eminent phy- 
siologist and physicist, aged 73 . . 8 Sept. 



GERMANY. 



o54 



GERMANY. 



Dedication of 132 new standards presented to the 
new fourth battalions by the emperor 18 Oct. 1894 

Resignation of the chancellor, count von Caprivi, 
26 Oct. ; received the Older of the black eagle, 
with brilliants 29 Oct. ,, 

Prince Clovis von Hohenlohe appointed chancellor 
and president of the Prussian ministry 29 Oct. ,, 

Death of princess Bismarck, aged 70 ; a devoted 
wife 27 Nov. ,, 

The new parliament-house opened by the emperor, 
at Berlin 5 Dec. ,, 

Imperial finance (reform) bill introduced 27 Jan. 1895 

Heavy snowfall throughout the country ; railways 
and roads blocked . . . 30 Jan. — 1 Feb. ,, 

Agrarian congress meets ; an address presented to 
the emperor, well received ... 18 Feb. ,, 

The emperor presents to prince Bismarck a sword 
of honour for his 80th birthday (1 April) at Fried- 
richsruh 26 March, ,, 

The day celebrated in Germany, in London, and 
other places 1 April, „ 

Aegir, new ironclad launched by the emperor at 
Kiel 3 April, ,, 

An association formed at Berlin to maintain the 
existing gold currency ... 3 April, ,, 

Gustav Freytag, author of " Soil und Haben," &c, 
born, 1816; died .... 30 April, ,, 

The anti-revolutionary bills rejected by the parlia- 
ment 11 May, „ 

Tobacco-taxation bill rejected . . .13 May, ,, 

Session of parliament closed . . 24 May, ,, 

Herr Mellage acquitted of libelling the catholic 
private asylum at Mariaberg, near Aix-la-Chapelle, 
his accusations of cruelty having been proved, 
9 June ; the asylum closed by order . June ,, 

Prince Bismarck presented with a silver shield by 
the German agrarian league . . 9 June, ,, 

The North sea and Baltic canal opened by the 
emperor William II., see Kiel . . 20 June, ,, 

Prof. Rudolf von Gneist, jurist and statesman, born 
13 Aug. 1816 ; died . . . .21 July, ,, 

Christian Bernhard Tauchnitz, eminent publisher, 
born 25 Aug. 1816 ; died . . .13 Aug. „ 

See Prussia. 

Sir Frank Lascelles (G.C.B. Jan. 1897) appointed 
British ambassador in Berlin . . 11 Sept. ,, 

Collapse of a factory at Bocholt, near Wesel, with 
great loss of life 9 Oct. ,, 

Several editors of the social democratic press im- 
prisoned for lese-majeste . . . Oct.-Dec. „ 

Parliament opened 3 Dec. ,, 

The emperor intervenes in the Transvaal difficulty 
[which see) . . . . . . .2 Jan. 1896 

Celebration of the 25th anniversary of the founda- 
tion of the German empire, which the emperor 
terms a " world empire " . . . 18 Jan. ,, 

New civil code for the empire, based on the report 
of commissions in 1874 and 1890, submitted to 
parliament Jan. ,, 

The emperor and empress visit Venice, 11 April; 
Vienna, 14 April ; return to Berlin . 29 April, ,, 

Baron von Schrader killed in a duel with Herr von 
Kotze, much scandal ; semi-public funeral, 15 
April ; Herr von Kotze sentenced to 2 years' im- 
prisonment 18 May, „ 

The reichstag request the government to endeavour 
to suppress duelling, 20, 21 April; again with 
little 1 •licet Nov. ,, 

Beinrich von Treitschke, historian and poet, born 
15 Sept. 1834 ; died . . . . 28 April, „ 

Prosecution of 47 social democrats at Berlin; 32 
acquitted and the rest lined . 15-18 May, „ 

.Air. Stern, an American, heavily fined for resenting 
regulations and scale of fees on foreign visitors; 
1 nited States government protests, but the 
Gen nan government justifies the sentence: re- 
ported 21 May, ,, 

Monumental statue of tl inperor William I., a 

memorial of united Germany, sel up on the 
Kyfthauser hill in Thurmgia ; unveiled by Wil- 
liam 11. is June, ,, 

The new civil code (to come into force 1 Jan. 1900) 
passed 1 July, 

The Kaiser Friedrich 111. launched by the emperor 

1 July, ,. 

The imperial diet prorogued till 10 Nov. . 2 July, 



litis, gunboat, foundered off the Shan-tung pro- 
montory, 57 deaths . . . -23 July, 1896 
Army manoeuvres in Silesia . . 8-12 Sept. „ 
Resignation of Dr. Kayser, colonial secretary, 

announced 15 Oct. ,, 

Baron Ehrhardt and 6 others sentenced at Dussel- 
dorf to various terms of imprisonment for insult- 
ing a court of honour respecting duels . 20 Oct. ,, 
Discussion in the reichsrath respecting the so- 
called Bismarckian "revelations" on a Russo- 
German treaty of William I. and the Triple 
alliance; atlair closed . . . 11-16N0V. ,, 
Herr Leckert and Herr von Liitzow, journalists, 
sentenced to 18 months' imprisonment for libel 
against baron Marschall, foreign minister, and 
count von Eulenburg, court marshal, in connec- 
tion with the report of the czar's speech at Bres- 

lau, others fined 7 Dec. ,, 

New stock and produce regulations come into 
force, 1 Jan. ; much opposed ; business tran- 
sacted under the auspices of the new " Free com- 
mercial union" 2 Jan. 1897 

Imperial cabinet order restricting duelling in the 

army, announced , . . . .5 Jan ,, 
Centenary of the birth of the emperor William I. ; 
the national monument to him at Berlin un- 
veiled by William II. with great pomp and re- 
joicing 22 March, ,, 

New commercial code passed ... 7 April, ,, 
Koschemann, a young anarchist, sentenced to 10 
years' imprisonment for sending an infernal 
machine through the post . . . 15 April, ,, 
The Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, of the N. German 
Lloyd steamship company, launched, the em- 
peror present, at Stettin . . .4 May, ,, 
Emergency bill declaring that associations of every 
kind may enter into union, and repealing all pro- 
visions to the contrary in the laws of the other 
states, passed in the reichstag (207-53) . 20 May, ,, 
Von Tausch, political detective, acquitted of per- 
jury (about 14 days' trial) . . 4 June, ,, 
Denunciation of the Anglo-German treaty of com- 
merce (30 May, 1865) by the British government, 

30 July, ,, 
Autumn manoeuvres begin atCoblenz, the emperor 
present, 30 Aug. ; collapse of a bridge at Weiinar, 
many soldiers killed .... 3 Sept. „ 

Visit of the king and queen of Italy ; received by 

the emperor at Hamburg . . 3 Sept. et seq. „ 
Kaiser Wilhelm II. launched at Stettin . 14 Sept. ,, 
Prince Bismarck, cruiser, launched at Kiel 25 Sept. „ 
Parliament opened by the emperor . 30 Nov. ,, 
Squadron, under the command of prince Henry, 
leaves Kiel for the east . . . .16 Dec. ,, 

New coinage completed Dec. ,, 

Budget presented by Dr. von Miquel . 12 Jan. 1898 
Herr Johannes Trojan, editor of the comic paper, 
Kladderadutsch, sentenced to 2 months' imprison- 
ment in a fortress for lese-majeste . 25 Jan. ,, 
Kiao-chau treaty with China {which set 1 ) ratified, 6 
March ; capt. Rosendahl appointed governor at 
Kiao-chau, 7 March ; prince Henry arrives there, 

1 June, ,, 
Bill for the reform of military judicial procedure, 
civil code and navy act passed, 28 March ; reich- 
stag closed by the emperor . . . 6 May, ,, 
General elections .... 16-29 June, ,, 
Outrage at the German embassy, London (see Trial ) 

June, ,, 
Death of prince Bismarck (b. 1 April, 1S15), 30 July, „ 
his connection with Dr. Moritz Busch, editor of 
his diary ; his "Autobiography" published, see 

'Unas 1 Oct., 29 Nov. ,, 

The emperor and empress leave Berlin for a tour in 
the east, n Oct.; received by king Humbert at 
Venice, 13 Oct.; by the sultan at Constantinople, 
18 Oct. ; present at a review of troops, 21 Oct. ; 
they leave, with gifts, 22 Oct.; land at Haifa, 
Palestine, 25 Oct.; Jaffa, 27 Oct.; Jerusalem 
(which see), 29 Oct.; Beirut, 5 Nov.: Damascus, 
7 Nov. ; monument erected by the sultan un- 
veiled by the emperor at Baalbek, 10 Nov.; 
leave Beirut to visit harbours, 12 Nov.; return to 

Potsdam 26 Nov. ,, 

See Lippe-Dctmold and Bavaria, 189S. 
State entry of the emperor and empress into Berlin, 

1 Dec. ,. 






GERMANY. 



GERMANY. 



Reichstag opened by the emperor . . 6 Dec. iS 
Imperial bank-notes forged by Granenthal, manager 
of the Imperial Printing Office (who committed 
suicide in prison) ; 483,000 marks loss made up, 
reported . . . . . . .19 Jan. 18 

Gen. count von Caprivi, chancellor 1890-94, born 

24 Feb. 1831, died 6 Feb. , 

New German imperial 3 per cent, loan, and the new 

Prussian 3 per cent, consols, well taken up, Feb. , 
Mr. Cecil Rhodes received by the emperor ; success- 
ful negotiations respecting the Trans-African 

telegraph 11-16 March, , 

Ludwig Bamberger, political author (born 1823), 
and Prof. Heymann Steinthal, philologist and 
author (born 1823), died . . 14 March, , 

Army bill, amended by the budget committee, 

adopted 16 March, , 

Prof. Hans Delbruck fined 500 marks for censuring 
the government for the expulsion of Danes from 
Schleswig-Holstein ... 25 March, , 
Imperial penny postage (letters) to colonies ajid 

protectorates started . . . .1 May, , 
Dr. Martin Eduard von Simson, ex-president of the 
reichstag, and of the supreme court of the empire, 

■&c, died, aged 88 2 May, , 

Nat. male choirs' competition at Kassel, the em- 
peror present, his prize won by Cologne, 26 May, , 
Kaiser Wilhelm der Grosse, battleship, 393 ft. long, 
68 ft. broad, launched, at Kiel, by the emperor, 

1 June, 
Death of prof. Klaus Groth (Plattdeutsch), poet, 

about 2 June, 
Bill prolonging the most-favoured-nation treatment 
to the commerce of the British empire (except 
Canada), and one ratifying treaty with Spain, 
which see, for the acquisition of the Caroline 
islands, passed ; penal servitude (labour strikes) 
bill rejected by a large .majority in the diet, 

21, 22 June, 

Dr. Quarck, socialist editor, sentenced to 4 months' 

imprisonment for lese-majeste . mid June, 

Strike-riot of colliers at Heme, near Bochum, 5 

deaths ; troops called out . . 27-29 June, 

The emperor visits the French training ship 

Iphigenie at Bergen ; cordial messages exchanged 

between his majesty and pres. Loubet . 6 July, 

Great meeting of the union of German co-operative 

associations, Berlin ; statue of Schulze-Uelitzsch, 

founder of the Nat. Union, 1859, unveiled in 

Berlin 1,4 Aug. 

Count Minister, ambassador in Paris, made a prince 

for his services at the peace conference . 8 Aug. 

The Dortmund-Ems canal opened by the emperor 

at Dortmund 11 Aug. 

Demonstrations in the provinces in honour of the 
deposed Landrathe ; see Prussia . . Sept. 
Army manoeuvres, Black Forest district, 

early Sept. 
<Jueen of Holland and her mother visit Potsdam, 

7-1 1 Oct. 
Kaiser Kai'l der Grosse battleship launched at 
Hamburg by the emperor . _ . . 18 Oct. 
The czar and czarina visit Potsdam . 8 Nov. 
Reichstag meets, 14 Nov.; labour (penal servitude) 
bill again rejected .... 20 Nov. 
The emperor and empress visit the queen, 20 Nov. ; 
return to Potsdam . . . .30 Nov. 

Debate in the reichstag on the proposed increase of 
the navy; able speech of Herr Richter, leader of 
the opposition . . . . n, 14 Dec. 
Herzog and liundesratk, German vessels, seized by 
English cruisers on suspicion of carrying contra- 
band of war, end of 1899 ; some controversy 
ensued. 
The emperor's speech in favour of the navy bill, 

Berlin 7 Jan. : 

Diet opened, see Prussia .... 9 Jan. 
Death of the duchess Frederick of Augustenburg, 
mother of the empress ... 25 Jan. 
Navy (increase) bill introduced . . 8 Feb. 
Prince Henry of Prussia warmly received in Berlin 
after 2 years' naval duty in the Far East, 13 Feb. 

Reichstag meets 24 April, 

The coming of age of the crown prince celebrated 
in Berlin, the emperor Francis Joseph, duke of 
York, and other royal guests present . 4-6 May, 



Anti -Semitic riot in Konitz, W. Prussia ; "state of 

siege" proclaimed .... 10 June, 1900 

Navy bill passed, 201-103 ; the reichstag adjourns, 

12 June, ,, 
North German Lloyd disaster ; see New York, 

30 June, ,, 
Circular note on the Chinese crisis to the federated 

States issued, reported ... 12 July, ,, 
Treasury bonds (80,000,000 mks.) placed in the 

United States, announced . . 14 Sept. ,, 

Max Harden, writer and editor, sentenced to 6 
months' imprisonment for lese-majeste ; 4 other 

trials 8 Oct. „ 

Foundation-stone of the Imperial "Limes" mu- 
seum, in the fcaalburg, near Homburg, laid by 

the emperor n Oct. ,, 

Prince Hohenlohe, imperial chancellor, aged 8i, 
resigns, 16 Oct.; succeeded by count von Btilow, 

18 Oct. „ 
Baron von Richthofen appointed foreign secretary, 

24 Oct. ,, 
Reichstag opened with a firm speech by the em- 
peror 14 Nov. „ 

Debate on the Chinese estimates . . 19 Nov. ,, 
The emperor declines to receive Mr. Kruger, 
ex-president of the Transvaal, 1 Uee. ; see Holland, 

6 Dec. ,. 
Imperial edict granting reforms in secondary 

schools, issued 2 Dec. ,, 

Count von Btilow announces German intervention 

in S. Africa to be impossible . . 10 Dec. ,, 
Sternberg, a banker in Berlin, sentenced to 2^ 
years' imprisonment for offences against the law 
for the protection of girls (corruption in the 
police force revealed during the trial) . 21 Dec. ,, 
Failure of the "Spielhagen banks," 4 directors 

arrested, reported .... 21 Dee. ,, 
Imperial loan, 15,000,000^, at 3 per cent., success- 
ful, reported 4 April ,, 

Field-marshal count von Blumenthal dies, aged 90, 

21 Dec. ,, 
Count von Biilow presented with the order of the 

Black Eagle mid Dec. ,, 

Grand duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, wise and 
beneficent patron of art and literature, dies, aged 

86 s Jan. 1901 

Reichstag opened by count von 1 ulow, 8 Jan. ; 
interpellation on duelling, gen. von Gossler's 
statement unsatisfactory ... 15 Jan. ,, 
The emperor present at the queen's death, see 
England, 22 Jan. ; made field-marshal, the crown 
prince KG., 27, 28 Jan. ; returns about 7 Feb. ,, 
Police-commissary Thiel sentenced to 3 years' 
imprisonment for taking bribes, &c, in the 
Sternberg case . . . . . 15 Feb. ,, 
King Edward visits the empress Frederick at 

Kronberg .... 25 Feb. — 2 March, ,, 
Tariff bill, introduced by count von Bulow, early 

Dec. ; first reading carried . . . 26 Feb. ,, 
The emperor wounded in the face, while driving in 

Bremen, by Wieland, an epileptic . 6 March, ,, 
Baron von Stumm, ironmaster and a leader of the 

free conservatives, died ... 8 March, ,, 
The reichstag adjourns till 26 Nov. . 15 May, ,, 
The queen of Holland and her consort visit Berlin, 

30 May — 1 June, ,, 
Warships : Wettin, launched at Danzig ; ZHhringen, 

at Kiel 6, 12 June, ,, 

Stoppage of banks at Leipzig and Dresden, 25 June, ,, 
Industrial crisis through speculation and over- 
production early July, , s 

Death of prince Hohenlohe, ex-chancellor, aged 82, 

6 July, ,, 
Declaration against duelling signed by 104 German 

nobles, issued 12 July, ,, 

Death of the empress Frederick (the princess Royal 
of Great Britain and Ireland), a noble and gifted 
woman, aged 60, 5 Aug.; funeral at Potsdam, 

13 Aug. „ 
Marten, a non-commissioned officer, sentenced to 
death by court-martial for the murder of capt. 
von Krosigk; evidence inconclusive; great indig- 
nation at the sentence ... 20 Aug. , 
Prince Chun, Chinese envoy, presents a letter to 
the emperor from the Chinese emperor, and ex- 
presses regret for the revolutionary events of 
1900, and particularly for the death of baron von 
Ketteler 4 Sept. „ 



GERMANY. 



556 



GERMANY. 



The czar and empeior meet at Danzig ; view the 
German naval manoeuvres . . n, 12 Sept. 

Prince Henry of Prussia made full admiral of the 
fleet mid Sept. 

Celebrations in honour of prof. Virchow's 80th 
birthday ; he receives the gold medal for science 
from the emperor, and gilts from the king of 
Italy ; lord Lister and many foreign scientists 
present 12 Oct. 

Dr. Georg von Siemens, eminent business man and 
promoter of railways in Asia Minor, died, aged 62, 

23 Oct. 

The emperor receives Dr. Benzler, the P. C. bp. of 
Metz, in state 24 Oct. 

Lieut. Blaskowitz killed by lieut. Hildebrand in a 
duel at Insterburg, forced on him by a court of 
honour, Nov. 4 ; col. von Reisswitz, who could 
have prevented the disaster, suspended by 
imperial order and cashiered ; lieut. Hildebrand 
sentenced to 2 years' imprisonment (but released 
May, 1902) Nov. 

Mecklenburg battleship launched at Stettin, 9 Nov. 

Dr. Leyds, Transvaal envoy, arrives in Berlin, 

11 Nov. 

Anti-British agitation ; Mr. Chamberlain's speech 
at Edinburgh (which see, 25 Oct.) misinterpreted 
and denounced; meetings held . mid Nov. 

Count Hatzfeldt, 16 years ambassador in London, 
dies, aged 70 22 Nov. 

The reichstag re-opens : an interpellation on the 
Insterburg duel .... 26, 27 Nov. 

Visit of the marquis Ito from Japan . 5 Dec. 

New customs tariff bill debated . 2-12 Dec. 

Visit of the grand duke Michael, heir-presumptive 
of Russia ; he receives the order of the black 
Eagle 15 Dec. 

The reichstag meets : economic depression, re- 
ported 8 Jan. 

Adverse speeches by count von Biilow and others 
in the reichstag on England and the war, 10 Jan. 

Mr. Chamberlain's firm British speech at Birming- 
ham effective on the continent . . 11 Jan. 

Socialist interpellation in the reichstag on the 
industrial crisis and the unemployed . 17 Jan. 

Imperial and Prussian 3 per cent, loans (115 and 
185 million marks) subscribed 61 and 43 times 
over 23 Jan. 

The prince of Wales visits the emperor; made colonel 
of a Cuirassier regiment . . 25-29 Jan. 

Navy estimates adopted .... 7 Feb. 

Agrarian league meets in Berlin ; protests against 
the tariff bill 10 Feb. 

Navy league ; annual congress held at Berlin, 

20 Feb. 

Prince Henry of Prussia visits America, 

23 Feb. — 11 March, 

Prince Minister, formerly ambassador in I oudon 
and Paris, dies, aged 81 . . .28 March, 

Sergeants Marten and Hickel charged with being 
concerned in the murder of capt. von Krosigk, in 
custody since early 1901, tried for the third time 
and acquitted, 30 April; see above, 20 Aug. 1901. 

Commercial losses in consequence of German 
Anglophobia, reported 7 May, 

Mass meeting against tin' tariff bill, Berlin, 12 May, 

Visit of the shah and crown prince of Siam, 29 .May, 

Sugar bill passed; reichstag adjourns . 11 June, 

Jubilee <>( tin' Germanic museum at Nuremberg, 
t in' emperor present .... 16 June, 

King Albert of Saxony, emineni commander in the 
war of 1870, died, aged 74 . . 19 June, 

Torpedo-boat sunk in collision with thess. Firsby, 
oil ( Inxhaven, 6 deaths, sir 1 dw. Birkbeck and ; 

other Bngli in red, 24 June; messagi of 

sympathy frornjring Edward . . 28 June, 

The triple alliance renewed . . 2S June, 

Budget: deficit i" . 10,000,000 mks. . 29 June, 

Bank trial (s weeks) in com tion with the Spiel- 

hagen failure, Dec, ig >: Eduard Sanden ami 3 

other direct o\ ■ :ed to various terms of 

Imprisonment and fines, 1 July; Leipzig bank 
trial, refaUure, •inn.'. [901; Exnerand Gentsch, 
managers, sentenced to , and 1 years' imprison- 
ment ; 6 membei s of t he board 1 1 . • ; Julj . 

ih \ on Bennig len, itatesman, died ed 

about 8 Aug. 



The emperor and the czar meet at Reval, 6 8 Aug. 

101st sitting of the reichstag tariff committee, 
tariff bill, 946 clauses, read first time . n Aug. 

The emperor's telegram to the prince-regent of 
Bavaria, criticising the diet's rejection of a vote 
for art, severely commented on . 13 Aug. 

Revenue deficit 48,000,000 marks for 1901, reported, 

19 Aug. 

The emperor unveils a statue of the late empress 
Frederick at Homburg ... 19 Aug. 

Visit of the king of Italy . . . 27-31 Aug. 

Prof. Rudolf Virchow, the great scientist and poli- 
tician (published his " Cellular Pathology" 1856), 
died, aged 81, 5 Sept. ; public funeral, Berlin, 

9 Sept. 
Mr. Brodrick (war sec), lord Roberts, gens. Kelly- 
Kenny, French, Ian Hamilton, and other foreign 
guests of the emperor, present at the army parade 
near Frankfort, 6 Sept. ; state dinner, Potsdam, 
8 Sept. ; and army manoeuvres at Frankfort, 

, 9-12 Sept. 

Visit of the king of Saxony ... 13 Sept. 
Congress of German bankers, Frankfort ; resolu- 
tions against existing Bourse laws and increased 
taxation, passed . . . . 19, 20 Sept. 
New articles of war promulgated by the emperor, 

Sept. 
Congress on German colonial enterprise, Berlin, 

10 Oct. 
Konitz murder case (that of a schoolboy, Ernst 

Winter) ends, after many trials and sentences for 
perjury, in the acquittal of Levy and his son 
from complicity 11 Oct. 

Reichstag meets, 14 Oct. ; deadlock on the tariff 
bill 20 Oct. 

Visit of the crown prince of Denmark . 27 Oct. 

Four Italians sentenced from 8 to 3 years' impri- 
sonment, &c. , for betrayal of military secrets to 
France . . . . . . . 8 -Nov. 

The emperor visits England . . 8-10 Nov. 

New rule of procedure in the reichstag ; vote by 
ballot instead of roll-call, adopted . 14 Nov. 

Death of Friedrich Alfred Krupp (see Cannon, 
Steel, Essen), aged 48, 22 Nov. ; funeral at Essen, 
the emperor present (Fran Krupp gives 150,000?. 
to workmen's benefit funds) . . 26 Nov. 

Parliamentary crisis : indignation at an attempt to 
pass the new tariff en bloc, angry scenes, 27-29 
Nov., 1, 3 Dec; Herr Singer suspended, sitting 
adjourns, 4, 5 Dec. ; changes in the rule of proce- 
dure passed, 206-92, 9 Dec. ; tariff bill read 2nd 
time en bloc, 183-136, n Dec. ; passed 14 Dec. 

Count von Biilow and others decorated . 15 Dec. 

Brauwsclvweig battleship, launched at Kiel, 20 Dec. 

Estimated total deficit for 1903, 5,937,500?., 10 Jan. 

Reichstag meets 12 Jan. 

Budget introduced . . ... 19 Jan. 

Adverse criticism on the emperor's political 
speeches stopped by the president of the reich- 
stag, count Ballestrem, 20 Jan. ; resigns, 23 Jan. ; 
re-elected 29 Jan. 

Dr. Rudolph von Delbriick, eminent statesman, 
died, aged 85 1 Feb. 

Agrarian league meets in Berlin, protests against 
the new tariff 9 Feb. 

Hugo Wolf, musician and songwriter, dies, aged 43, 

22 Feb. 

Herr Bebel, the social democratic leader, calls 
attention to duelling in the army, and the ill- 
treatment of soldiers by non - commissioned 
officers March, 

I. ;nu.' reductions made in the budget . 10 March, 

General order on subject of the maltreatment of 
private soldiers by their superiors issued, 

early April, 

New 3 percent, loan of 14,500,000?. issued, 17 April, 

The emperor visits Rome "... 2-6 May, 

Naval ensign Hiissner degraded and sentenced to 
4 years' imprisonment" for fatally stabbing 
Hartmann, a marine . . . .26 May, 

Etsass, battleship, launched at Danzig . 26 May, 

General elections 16-27 June, 

Emperor present at tin 1 unveiling of a memorial to 
emperor William 1. at Hamburg; in a speech he 
said. " In future centuries tin' venerable form of 
his grandfather would occupy the same prominent 
position in the Imagination of the German people 
as the figure of Frederick Barbarossa" 20 June 



GERMANY. 



557 



GERMANY. 



814. 



855- 
875- 

8^i. 



Second ballots show the composition of the 
new reichstag to be : clericals 99, social 
democrats 83, national liberals 47, conservatives 
67, radical left 25, moderate radicals 10, other 
groups 37 25 June, 1903 

Court at Leipzig decides that Tolstoy's pamphlet, 
" Thou shalt not kill," amounts to Use-majeste ; 
all unsold copies to be destroyed . 12 Aug. ,, 

Memorial tablet to late empress Frederick in 
English church at Hamburg, unveiled 15 Aug. ,, 

Railway accident between Rothenkirchen and 
Oberkrinitz, 3 killed, 20 seriously injured, 

about 14 Aug. ,, 

Trust of sugar refiners formed with reference to the 
situation created by the Brussels convention, 

mid Aug. ,, 

Final accounts for the financial year 1902 show a 
deficit of about 1,536, 120I. . . end Aug. ,, 

Socialist congress opened at Dresden . 13 Sept. ,, 

Emperor unveils a monument to memory of 
William I. at Danzig . . . .- 21 Sept. ,, 

Launch of battleship Hesse, 19 Sept., and cruiser 
Berlin 21 Sept. ,, 

Trial at Berlin of Karl Leid and Julius Kaliski, 
social democrat journalists, for Use-majeste and 

libel 25 Sept. „ 

[For later events see Addenda.] 

Emperors of Rome and Kings of Germany, 
carlovingian race. 
800. Charles I. , the Great, or Charlemagne. 
Louis I. , U Debonnaire, king of France. 
Lothaire I. , or Lother, son of Louis ; died in a 

monastery at Treves, Sept. 855. 
Louis II., son of Lothaire. 
Charles II., the Bald, king of France ; died 877 
Charles III. , the Fat, crowned king of Italy ; 
deposed ; succeeded by 
887. Arnvdf or Arnoul ; crowned emperor at Rome, 896. 
899. Louis III., the Blind. 
,, Louis IV., the Child, son of Arnulf ; the last of the 
Carlovingian race in Germany. 

SAXON DYNASTY. 

911. Otho, duke of Saxony; refuses the dignity on 

account of his age. 
,, Conrad I., duke of Franconia, king. 
918. Henry I., the Fowler, son of Otho, duke of Saxony, 

king. 
936. Otho I. , the Great, son of Heniy, crowned by pope 

John XII. , 2 Feb. 962, the beginning of the holy 

Roman empire. 
973. Otho II., the Bloody; massacred his chief nobility 

at an entertainment, 981 ; wounded by a poisoned 

arrow. 
983. Otho III. , the Red, his son, yet in his minority, 

poisoned. 
1002. Henry II., duke of Bavaria, surnamed the Holy 

and the Lame. 

HOUSE OF FRANCONIA. 

1024. Conrad II. , surnamed the Salique. 

1039. Henry III., the Black, son. 

1056. Henry IV. , son ; a minor ; Agnes, regent ; deposed 

by his son and successor ; Rudolph (1077) and 

Herman (1082) nominated by the pope ; and 

Conrad (1087). 
1106. Henry V. ; married Maud or Matilda, daughter of 

Henry I. of England. 
1125. Lothaire II., surnamed the Saxon. 

HOUSE OF HOHENSTAUFEN, OR OF SUAB1A. 

1138. Conrad III., duke of Franconia. 

1152. Frederick I., Barbarossa; drowned by his horse 
throwing him into river Saleph, 10 June, 1190. 

1190. Henry VI. , son, surnamed Asper, or Sharp ; detained 
Richard I. of England a prisoner ; died 1 197. 
[Interregnum and contest for the throne between 
Philip of Suabia and Otho of Brunswick.] 

1 198. Philip, brother to Henry; assassinated at Bam- 
berg by Otto of Wittelsbach. 

1208. Otho IV. , surnamed the Superb ; excommunicated 
and deposed; died 1218. 

1215. Frederick II., king of Sicily, son of Henry VI. : 
deposed by his subjects, who elected Henry, 
landgrave of Thuringia, 1246 ; Frederick died in 
1250, naming his son Conrad his successor; but 
the pope gave the imperial title to 



1247. William, earl of Holland (nominal). 

1250. Conrad IV., son of Frederick. 
[His son Conradin was proclaimed king of Sicily, 
. which was, however, surrendered to his uncle 
Manfred, 1254, on whose death it was given by the 
pope to Charles of Anjou in 1263. Conradin, on the 
invitation of the Ghibeline party, entered Italy with 
a large army, was defeated at Tagliacozzo, 23 Aug. 
1268, and beheaded at Naples 29 Oct., thus ending 
the Hohenstaufen family.] 

1256. [Interregnum.] 

1257. Richard, earl of Cornwall, and Alphonso, of Castile, 

merely nominated. 

HOUSES OF HAPSBURG, LUXEMBURG, BAVARIA, ETC. 

1273. Rudolph, count of Hapsburg. 

1291. [Interregnum.] 

1292. Adolphus, count of Nassau, to the exclusion of 

Albert, son of Rodolph : deposed ; slain at the 

battle of Gelheim, 2 July, 1298, by 
1298. Albert I., duke of Austria, Rodolph's son; killed 

by his nephew at Rheinfels, 1 May, 1308. 
1308. Henry VII. of Luxemburg. 

1313. [Interregnum.] 

1314. Louis IV. of Bavaria, and Frederick III. of Austria, 

son of Albert, rival emperors ; Frederick died in 

i33°- 
1330. Louis reigns alone. 
1347. Charles IV. of Luxemburg. (At Nuremberg, in 

1356, the Golden Bull became the fundamental 

law of the German empire. ) 
1378. Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, son, twice impri- 
soned ; forced to resign ; but continued to reign 

in Bohemia. 
1400. Frederick III., duke of Brunswick; assassinated 

immediately after his election, and seldom placed 

in the list of emperors. 
1400. Rupert, count palatine of the Rhine ; crowned at 

Cologne ; died 1410. 
1410. Jossus, marquess of Moravia; chosen by a party of 

the electors ; died next year. 
,, Sigismund, king of Hungary; elected by another 

party, on the death of Jossus recognised by all ; 

king of Bohemia in 1419. 

HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 

1438. Albert II., the Great, duke of Austria, and king of 

Hungary and Bohemia; died 27 Oct. 1439. 

1439. [Interregnum.] 

1440. Frederick IV. (or III.), surnamed the Pacific; 

elected emperor 2 Feb. , but not crowned unti 

June, 1442. 
1493. Maximilian I., son; died in 1519. In 1477. 

married Mary of Burgundy. 
Francis I. of France and Charles I. of Spain be- 
came competitors for the empire. 
1519. Charles V. (I. of Spain) son of Joan of Castile and 

Philip of Austria, elected ; resigned both crowns, 

1556; retired to a monastery, where he died 

21 Sept. 1558. 
1556. Ferdinand I., brother; succeeded by his son 
1564. Maximilian II. , king of Hungary and Bohemia. 
1576. Rodolph II., son. 
x6i2. Matthias, brother. 
1619. Ferdinand II. , cousin, king of Hungary, 
1637. Ferdinand III., son. 
1658. Leopold I., son. 
1705. Joseph I., son. 
1711. Charles VI., brother. 
1740. Maria-Theresa, daughter, queen of Hungary and 

Bohemia ; her right sustained by England. 
1742. Charles VII., elector of Bavaria, rival emperor, 

whose claim was supported by France. 
[This competition gave rise to a general war. 

Charles VII. died Jan. 1745.] 
1745. Francis I. of Lorraine, grand-duke of Tuscany, 

consort of Maria-Theresa. 
1765. Joseph II., son. 
1790. Leopold II., brother. 
1792. Francis II., son, became emperor of Austria only, 

as Francis I., 1804. 

See Austria. 

HOUSE OF HOHENZOLLERN (see PrltSSid). 

1871. William I. king of Prussia, 18 Jan. (born 22 
March, 1797 ; died 9 March, 1888 ; empress, 
'Augusta, born 30 Sept. 1811, died 7 Jan. 1890). 



GEEMINAL INSURRECTION. 



558 



GIANTS. 



1888. Frederick (William) III. "the Noble," son; born 
18 Oct. 1831 ; died 15 June, 1888 (married 
princess Victoria, princess royal of England 
(born 21 Nov. 1840) 25 Jan. 1858, died 5 Aug. 
1901). 
,, William II., son, born 27 Jan. 1859 (married 
princess Auguste Victoria (born 22 Oct. 1858), 
27 Feb. 1881. 
Heir : William, born 6 May, 1882 ; other children. 
Princess Victoria Louise, born 13 Sept. 1892. 
See Prussia. 

GERMINAL INSURRECTION, in the 

faubourgs of Paris, suppressed on 12th Germinal, 
year III. (1 April, 1795). 

GERONA (N.E. Spain), an ancient eitj', fre- 
quently besieged and taken. In June, 1808, it 
successfully resisted the French ; but after suffer- 
ing much by famine, surrendered 12 Dec. 1809. 

GERRYMANDERING, an American slang 
term, signifying the arranging the political divisions 
of a state, so that the minority may get the advan- 
tage over the majority. The name is derived from 
the action of Elbridge Gerry, governor of Massa- 
chusetts, in 181 1. The Irish Party causelessly 
applied the term to earl Spencer, lord-lieutenant of 
Ireland, in regard to electoral boundaries in 1885. 

GERSAIT, a Swiss valley, near the Rigi, 
about 4 miles by 3, the site of a miniature republic, 
which bought its independence in 1359, maintained 
it till 1798, and still, every May, elects government 
officers. 

GESTA ROMANORUM ; a collection of 
popular tales derived from Oriental and classical 
sources, written in Latin by an unknown author, 
about the middle of the 14th century, and one of 
the first books printed in the 15th. These tales 
have been largely used by our early poets and 
dramatists, including Shakspeare. The English 
translation, by the Rev. C. Swan (from an edition 
printed at Hagenau, 1508), appeared 1824. 

GETTYSBURG (Pennsylvania). Here severe 
fighting took place 1-3 July, 1863, between the in- 
vading confederate arm j' under generals Lee, Long- 
street, and Ewell, and the federals under general 
George Meade. The confederates were long suc- 
cessful, but eventually were compelled to retire 
from Pennsylvania and Maryland. The killed and 
wounded on each side estimated at about 15,000. 

Grand national and military demonstration held here, 
1-3 July, 1888. 

GHEMARA, see Talmud. 

GHENT (Belgium), an ancient city, built about 
the 7th century, during the middle-ages became 
very rich. John, third son of Edward III. of Eng- 
land, is said to have been born here in 1340 (hence 
named John of daunt) during the revolt under 
Jacob Van Artevelde, a brewer, whose son Philip 
revived the insurrection against Louis, count of 
Flanders, [379-82. Population in 1887, 147,912 ; 
in 1890, 153,740; 1900, 160,949. 

Ghent rebelled against Philip of Burgundy, 1451 ; against 
the emperor Charles v., 1539; severely punished, 1540. 

"Pacification of Ghent" (when the north and smith pro- 
vinces of tin' Netherlands united against Spain) pro- 
claimed 8 Nov. 157(1. broken up 1579. I'' 10 300th anni- 
versary celebrated 3-10 Sept. 1876. 

Ghent taken by Louis X 1 v. of France, 9 March, 1678 ; and 
by the duke of Marlborough, 1706. 

Ghent seized bj the French, 170.?; annexed to the 
Netherlands, 1814; made part of Belgium, 1830. 

Peace <>f Ghent, between Great Britain and America, 
Bigned ?4 Dec. 1814. 

New ilurl.-M opened at Ghent by the king, Sept. 1881. 



GHIBELINES, see Guelphs. 

GHIZNEE, or Ghuznee (East Persia), the J 
seat of the Gaznevides, who founded the city, 969. I 
They were expelled by the Seljuk Tartars in 1038. 
The British under sir John Keane attacked the | 
strong citadel of Ghiznee at 2 a.m. 23 July, 1839. 
At 3 o'clock the gates were blown in by the artillery, 1 
and under cover of a heavy fire the infantry forced 
their way into the place, and at 5 fixed the British 
colours on its towers. — It capitulated to the j 
Afghans, 1 March, 1842, who were defeated 6 Sept. I 
and general Nott re-entered Ghiznee 7 Sept. same j 
year. Seized for Musa Khan by Mahomed Jan in 1 
Jan., retaken after a conflict, 19-20 April, 1880. 

GHOORKAS, see Goorkhas. 

GHOSTS, produced by optical science. Mr. 
Dircks described his method at the British Associa- 
tion meeting in 1858. Dr. John Taylor produced 
ghosts scientifically in March ; and Mr. Pepper ex- 
hibited the ghost illusion at the Royal Polytechnic 
institution, July, 1863. See Cock-lane Ghost. 

Many letters appeared in the Times, June et seq. 1897, 
respecting mysterious sounds heard at Ballechin, a 
country house in Perthshire, attributed by scientists 
to slight earthquake shocks. See Times, 2 Nov. 1897. 

GIANTS are mentioned in Gen. vi. 4. The 
bones of reputed giants, 17, 18, 20, and 30 feet high, 
have been proved to be remains of animals. — The 
battle of Marignano (151c) has been termed the 
" battle of the Giants." See Dwarfs. 

Og, king of Bashan, of the remnant of the giants : his 

bedstead was 9 cubits long (about 16^ feet), 1451 b.c. 

(Dent. iii. 11.) 
Goliath of Gath's "height was 6 cubits and a span." 

Killed by David about 1063 B.C. (1 Sam. xvii. 4.) 
Four giants, sons of Goliath," killed (2 Sam. xxi. 15-22) 

about 1018. 
The emperor Maximin (a.d. 235) was 8| feet in height, 

and of great bulk. Some say between 7 and 8 feet ; 

others above 8. 
" The tallest man that hath been seen in our age was 

one named Gabara, who in the days of Claudius, the 

late emperor, was brought out of Arabia. He was 

9 feet 9 inches high." Pliny. 
John Middleton (born 1578), commonly called the child 

of Hale (Lancashire), whose hand, from the carpus to 

the end of his middle finger, was 17 inches long; his 

palm 8i inches broad ; his whole height 9 feet 3 inches. 

Plot, Nat. Hist, of Staffordshire, p. 295. 
Patrick Cotter, Irish giant, born in 1761, was 8 feet 

7 inches in height ; his hand, from the commencement 

of the palm to the extremity of the middle finger, 

measured 12 inches, and his shoe was 17 inches long; 

died Sept. 1806. 
Charles Byrne, called O'Brien, 8 feet 4 inches high ; died 

1783 ; his skeleton is in the museum, Royal College of 

Surgeons. 
Big Sam, porter of the prince of Wales, at Carlton-palace, 

near 8 feet high, performed as a giant in " Cymon," 

at the Opera-house, 1809. 
M. Brice, a native of the Vosges, 7 feet 6 inches high. 

He exhibited himself in London, Sept. 1862, and Nov. 

1863. 
Robert Hales, the Norfolk giant, died at Great Yarmouth, 

22 Nov. 1S63 (aged 43). He was 7 feet 6 inches high, 

and weighed 452 lbs. 
Chang- Woo-Gow, a Chinese, aged 19, 7 feet S inches 

high, exhibited himself in London in Sept., &c, 

1865. Grown to S feet, exhibited at Westminster 

Aquarium; with him Brustav, a Norwegian, 7 feet 9 

inches, aged 35, n June, 1880. 
Capt Martin Van Buren Bates, of Kentucky, and Miss 

Ann llanen Swann, of Nova Scotia, both about 7 feet 

high: exhibited themselves in London, in May; and 

married at St. Maitin's-in-the-fields, 17 June, 1871. 
Marian, the aniazon queen, 8 feet 2 inches high ; born 

at Benkendorf, Thuringia, 21 Jan. 1866 ; exhibited in 

London, July, 18S2. 



GIAOUE. 



559 



GILDING. 



Josef Winkelmaier, an Austrian, 8 ft. 9 in. (born, 1865), 

healthy, exhibited in London, 10 Jan. 1887 ; died at 

Lengau, 24 Aug. 1887. 
Elizabeth Lyska, Russian, aged 12, height 6 ft. 8 in., 

exhibited at the Royal Aquarium, London, Nov. 1889 ; 

again, 30 Jan. 1893. 

GIAOUE, Turkish for infidel, a term applied 
to all who do not believe in Mahomedanism.— 
Byron's poem, " The Giaour," was published in 
1813. 

GIBBON COMMEMOEATION, proposed 
by Mr. Frederic Harrison and carried out by the 
Eoval Historical society, included an exhibition of 
MSS., portraits and relics, chiefly lent by lord 
Sheffield, at the British museum, 12 Nov. et seq., 
and a discourse by Air. Harrison at the Museum 
of Geology, 15 Nov. 1894. 

Edward Gibbon (born 27 April, 1737 ; died 16 Jan. 
1794), resolved at Rome to write the " History of the 
Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," 15 Oct. 1764 ; 
completed, 27 June, 1787 ; published in 6 vols., 4to, 
1776-88 : the edition by Dr. Win. Smith, including 
the notes of dean Milman and M. Guizot, published, 
1854-5. 

GIBEALTAE. The ancient Calpe (which, 
with Abyla, on the opposite shore of Africa, ob- 
tained the name of the Pillars of Hercules), a town 
on a rock in South Spain, on which is placed a 
British fortress, considered impregnabie._ The 
height of the rock, according to Cuvier, is 1437 
English feet. It was taken by the Saracens under 
Tarik, whence its present name (derived from Gibel- 
el-Tarik), in 711. Population, 1891, civilians, 
19,100; troops, 5,896; 1901, civilians, 20,355, 
troops, 6,475 ; port, 630. 

Taken from the Moors, 1309 ; surrendered to them, 
1333; finally taken from them by Henry IV., of 
Castile, 1462 ; strengthened by Charles V. . . 1552 

Attacked by the British under sir George Rooke, 
the prince of Hesse-Darmstadt, sir John Leake, 
and admiral Byng, 21 July ; taken . 24 July, 1704 

Besieged by the Spanish and French ; they lose 
10,000 men ; the victorious English but 400, 

11 Oct. „ 

Sir John Leake captured several ships, and raised 
the siege 10 March, 1705 

Ceded to England by treaty of Utrecht 11 April, 1713 

The Spaniards in an attack repulsed with great 
loss 1720 

They again attack it with a force of 20,000 men, 
and lose 5000; English loss, 300 . . 22 Feb. 1727 

Siege by the Spaniards and French, whose arma- 
ments (the greatest brought against a fortress) 
wholly overthrown .... 16 July, 1779 

In one night their floating batteries were destroyed 
with red-hot balls, and their whole line of works 
annihilated by a sortie commanded by general 
Eliott; the enemy's loss in munitions of war, on 
this night, was estimated at upwards of2,ooo,oooZ. 
sterling; the army amounted to 40,000 men, 

27 Nov. 1781 

Grand defeat by a garrison of only 7000 British, 

13 Sept. 1782 

The duke of Crillon commanded 12,000 of the best 
troops of France. 1000 pieces of artillery were 
brought to bear against the fortress, besides 
which there were 47 sail of the line, all three- 
deckers ; 10 great floating batteries, esteemed 
invincible, carrying 2 12 guns; innumerable frigates, 
xebeques, bomb-ketches, cutters, and gun and 
mortar-boats ; while small craft for disembarking 
the forces covered the bay. For weeks together 
6000 shells were daily thrown into the town. 

Blockade ceased .... 5 Feb. 1783 

Royal battery destroyed by fire . . . Nov. 1800 

Engagement between the French and English fleets 
in the bay; H.M.S. Hannibal, 74 guns, lost, 

6 July, 1801 

The Royal Carlos and St. Hcrmenigildo,Spa,msh ships, 
each of 112 guns, blew up, with their crews, at 
night-time, in the straits here, and all on board 
perished 12 July, ,, 



A malignant disease caused great mortality Sept. 1804. 

A dreadful plague raged 1805 

A malignant fever raged .... Aug. 1814 

Again: courts of justice and places of worship 

closed by proclamation ... 5 Sept. 1828 

The fatal epidemic ceased . . . .12 Jan. 1829. 

Destructive storm 17 Nov. 1834. 

Bishopric of Gibraltar established . . . 1842: 
Gen. sir Richard Airey appointed governor Sept. 1865 
Popular discussion respecting its exchange for 

Ceuta Dec. 1868— Jan. 1869, 

Destructive fire 28 June, 1874. 

Gen. sir Fenwick Williams of Kars, governor, 

Aug. 1870 — Nov. 1875 

1876 



Destructive storm and floods 

Lord Napier of Magdala, governor . 

Visit of prince of Wales 

Sir John Miller Adye, governor 

General sir Arthur Hardinge, governor 

Gen. hon. sir Leicester Smyth, Aug. 

Gen. sir Lothian Nicholson, April, 1891 



23-24 Nov. 

. Jan. 

15 April, 

1 Jan. 1883 

Nov. 1886 

1890 ; died 

27 Jan. i8gr 
; died 

27 June, 1893 

For the loss of Utopia steamer(see Wrecks) 17 March, 1891. 
Gen. sir Robt. Biddulph appointed governor, July, 
1893 ; leaves . . . . . .12 July, 1900- 

Inspecting visit of the duke of Cambridge, early 

March, 1894. 
Tourmaline case, see Morocco, 1898-99. 
Mass meeting held in the theatre to raise a volun- 
teer battalion for local defence (700 offered to 
serve) ....... 30 Jan. 1900 

Sir George White, governor, arrives . mid July, ,, 
The duke and duchess of Cornwall on tour, wel- 
comed 20-22 March, 1901 

Labour troubles, shipping coal supplies stopped, 

19 May ; employers' terms accepted . 16 July, 1902 
Fatal riot at the Spanish lines, martial law, 

9-10 Oct. ,, 
Visit of king Edward VII. . . 8-13 April, 1903 

GIBSON GALLEEY, see Royal Academy. 

GIFFOED LECTTJBESHIPS, on Natural 

Theology in its widest sense without reference to 
creeds, founded in the universities of Edinburgh, 
G^sgow, Aberdeen, and St. Andrews, by bequesK 
of 80,000?., by Adam Lord Gifford, a Scotch judge, 
21 Aug. 1885. 

GILBEET CLUB was established 28 Nov. 
1889, by sir Wm, Thomson (lord Kelvin in Feb, 
1892), president, sir F. Bramwell, professors D. E. 
Hughes, G. Forbes, Silvanus Thompson, and other 
physicists, to celebrate the tercentenary of William 
Gilbert and his work, and to publish translations of 
his "De Magnete," and other works connected 
with magnetism and electricity. 

GILBEETINES, an order of canons and) 
nuns established at Sempringham, Lincolnshire, 
by Gilbert of that place, 1131-1148. At the disso- 
lution there were 25 houses of the order in England 
and Wales. 

GILBEET ISLANDS, one of the Pacific 
groups, annexed by the British in 1822. Placed! 
under the jurisdiction of the high commissioner for 
the Western Pacific, 1893, with a deputy com- 
missioner for the Gilbert and Ellice Islands. Pop. 
of these groups, about 35,000. 

GILCHEIST TEUST. A fund of between 
3000/. and 4000?., left by Dr. John Gilchrist in 
1841 to promote education. The interest is applied 
to the support of scholarships for young men 
and women after a competitive examination. 
Scientific lectures are delivered under the auspices 
of the trust. Office, 1, Plowden-bldgs., Temple. 

GILDING on wood formed part of the decora- 
tions of the Jewish tabernacle, 1490 B.C. (Exod. 



GIN. 



560 GLADSTONE ADMINISTRATIONS. 



xxv. n); was practised at Eome, about 145 B.C. 
The capitol was the first building on which this 
enrichment was bestowed. Pliny. Of gold leaf for 
gilding the Romans made but 750 leaves, four 
fingers square, out of a whole ounce. Pliny. Gild- 
ing with leaf gold on bole ammoniac was first intro- 
duced by Margaritone in 1273. See Electrotype. 

GIN, ardent spirit, flavoured with the essential 
oil of the juniper berry. The "gin act," 1735, 
laying an excise of 5s. per gallon upon it, passed 
14 July, 1736. In London alone 7044 houses sold 
gin by retail ; and a man could intoxicate himself 
for one penny. Salmon. About 1700 gin-shops 
were suppressed in London in 1750. Clarke. 

GIN (contracted from engine), a machine for 
separating cotton wool from the seed ; see under 
Cotton. 

GINGER, the root of the Amomum Zinziber, 
a native of the East Indies and China, now culti- 
vated in the West Indies. In 1842 the duty was 
reduced from 53s. to 10s. per cwt. of foreign ginger, 
and from us. to 5*. per cwt. of that from British 
colonies. 

GIPSIES, see Gypsies. 

GIRAFFE or Camelopard, a native of the 
interior of Africa, was well known to the ancients. 
In 1827 one was brought to England for the first 
time as a present to George IV. It died in 1829. 
On 25 May, 1835, four giraffes, obtained by M. 
Thibaut, were introduced into the Zoological gar- 
dens, Regent' s-park, where a young one was born 
in 1839. The last giraffe living at the Zoological 
gardens died 28 March, 1892. A young female 
was purchased by the society in 1895 ; a male, 18ft. 
high, presented to the queen, arrived 19 Sept., 
died soon after, Sept. 1897. Another male died 
Aug. 1898. A young male arrived from the Cape, 
9 April, 1899. Specimens of a five-horned giraffe, 
N.E. Uganda, discovered by Sir H. H. Johnson, 
Messrs. Karl Ericsson and Doggett, May, 1901. 

GIRLS, charities for. 

Girls' Industrial Home, Stockwell, established . . 1857 

Girls' Home, 22, Charlotte-street, Portland-place, 
established 1867 

Girls' Friendly Society, to provide homes, <fcc, for 
working girls, supported by the archbishops and 
bishops, founded 1878 

In 1902 the G.F.S. in the dioceses of England and 
Wales numbered 1,359 branches in 6,670 parishes, 
with 17,321 working associates, 14,887 hon. 
associates, 149,939 members and 61,486 candi- 
dates. Branches 'exist in Scotland, Ireland, the 
colonics, and India, In the United States the 
G.F.S. numbers 25,399. 

GIRONDISTS, an important party during the 
French revolution, principally composed of deputies 
from the Gironde. They were ardent republicans, 
but afterthe cruelties ofAug, and Sept. 1 792, laboured 
in vain to restrain the cruelties of Robespierre and 
the Mountain party, and their leaders, Brissot, 
Vergniand, and many others, were guillotined 
31 Oct. 1793. Lam ar tine' B " llistoirc des Giron- 
dins," published in 1S47, tended to hasten the 
revolution of 1848. 

GIRTON. COLLEGE, Cambridge, for the 
higher education. of women, li began at Hitchin, 

t.X(n); removed hire, and was opened Oct. 1S73. 
Ni'wnhaiu college, Cambridge, in connection with 

it, was opened 18 Oct. 1875. Miss Anne Clough, 
who ably managed the little hall from which the 



college rose in 1871, died 27 Feb. 1892; succeeded 
by Mrs. Henry Sidgwick. Prof. Henry Sidgwick, 
a great promoter of the college and women's educa- 
tion, died, Sept. 1900. 

Miss Charlotte Angas Scott, aged about 22, attained the 

position of " wrangler" (for mathematics), Jan. 1880. 
Lady Margaret and Somerville halls, similar institutions, 

established at Oxford, 1884. 
Miss Agneta Frances Ramsay, of Girton, and Miss B. 

M. Hervey, of Newnhain, obtained the highest honours. 

See Cambridge, 18 June, 1887. 

GISORS, BATTLE OF (France), on 20 Sept. 
or 10 Oct. 1 198, when Richard I. of England defeated 
the French. His parole for the day, " Dien et 
mon droit" — "God and my right" — afterwards 
became the motto to the arms of England. 

GITSCHIN (Bohemia), was captured by the 
Prussians after a severe conflict with the Austrians, 
29 June, 1866. Near Gitschin, the same evening, 
the crown prince of Prussia was victor in another 
engagement. 

GIURGEVO (Wallachia). Here the Russians 
were defeated by the Turks, aided by some English 
officers, 7 July, and repulsed in an attack, 23 July, 



GLACIARITJM, at King's-road, Chelsea; 
containing a surface of artificially made ice for 
linking, constructed by Dr. John Gamgee, and 
opened March, 1876. The freezing was accomplished 
by Raoul Pictet's process, and W. E. Ludlow's 
rotary engine and pump were employed. Dr. 
M'Leod's newly invented skating surface, success- 
fully tried at Lillie Bridge, 10 May, 1884. 

GLADIATORS were originally malefactors, 
who fought for their lives, or captives who fought 
for freedom. They were first exhibited at the 
funeral ceremonies of the Romans, 263 B.C., and 
afterwards at festivals, about 215 B.C. Their revolt 
under Spartacus, 73 B.C., was quelled by Crassus, 
71. When Dacia was reduced by Trajan, 1000 
gladiators fought at Rome in celebration of his 
triumph, for 123 days, a.d. 103. These combats 
were suppressed in the East by Constantine the 
Great, 325, and in the West by Theodoric in 500. 

GLADSMUIR, see Preston Pans. 

GLADSTONE ADMINISTRATIONS. * 

Mr. Disraeli resigned 2 Dec. and was succeeded by 
Mr. Gladstone, whose ministry received the seals 
9 Dec. 1868. In consequence of a majority of three 
against the Irish University bill, early on 12 March, 
1873, Mr. Gladstone tendered his resignation, but 
withdrew it a few days after, as Mr. Disraeli de- 
clined office with the existing house of commons. 



* William Ewnrt Gladstone, born 29 Dec. 1809; master 
of the mint, Sept. 1841; president of the board of trade, 
May, 1843 — Feb. 1845 ; secretary for colonies, Deo. 1845 
—July, 1846; chancellor of the exchequer, Jan. 1853 — 
Feb. 1855, June, 1859 — June, 1866; lord high com- 
missioner extraordinary to the Ionian Isles, Nov. 1858 ; 
M.l\ for Newark, 13 Dec. 1832-46; for Oxford, 1847-65; 
for South Lancashire, 1865-8; for Greenwich, Nov. 1S6S ; 
announced the dissolution of parliament, 23 Jan. 1S74; 
resigned, 17 Feb. 1S74; temporarily resigned leadership of 
liberal party, 13 Jan. 1875; elected M.P. for Mid-Lothian 
(1579-1368), 5 April, 1880; his ministry resigned on 
account of minority on the budget bill (264-252) 
June, 1885 ; he declines an earldom, 16 June, 1885. 

Among the measures carried by the Gladstone ministries 
arc :— The Irish church act, the Irish land act of 1S70, 
the education act, the ballot act, the Irish land law act 



GLADSTONE. 



561 



GLADSTONE. 



Changes were made Aug.-Sept. 1873 ; the ministry 
resigned 17 Feb. 1874. 

FIRST ADMINISTRATION (1868-74). 

First lord of the treasury, Wm. Ewart Gladstone (and 

chancellor of exchequer, Aug. 1873). 
Lord chancellor, sir Wm. Page Wood, baron Hatherley, 

resigned; sir Koundell Palmer, baron Selborne, 

Oct 1872. 
Lord president of the council, Geo. Fred. Samuel Robinson, 

earl de Grey and Bipon (marquis of Ripon, 1871); 

succeeded by Mr. Austin Bruce, made lord Aberdare, 

Aug. 1873. 
Lord privy seal, John Wodehouse, earl of Kimberley ; 

succeeded by viscount Halifax, July, 1870. 
Chancellor of the exchequer, Bobert Lowe ; succeeded by 

Mr. Gladstone, Aug. 1873. 
Secretaries — home, Henry Austin Bruce ; succeeded by 

Mr. Lowe, Aug. 1873 ; foreign, Geo. Wm. Fred. Villiers, 

earl of Clarendon (died 27 June, 1870); succeeded by 

earl Granville ; colonics, Granville Geo. Leveson-Gower, 

earl Granville ; succeeded by earl of Kimberley, July. 

1870; war, Edward Cardwell; India, George Douglas 

Campbell, duke of Argyll. 
Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, Frederick, lord Dufferin, 

appointed governor-general of Canada ; succeeded by 

H. E. Childers, Aug. 1872; by John Bright, Sept. 1873. 
First lord of admiralty, Hugh Culling Eardley Childers ; 

succeeded by G. Joachim Goschen, 9 March, 1871. 



of 1881, the employers' liability act, the agricultural 
holdings act, the burials act, the ground game act, the 
franchise act. 

He introduces his Irish bill, see Ireland, 8 April ; 
rejected (343-313), 7-8 June ; minority in general 
election ; resigns 20 July, 1886 ; opposes the government 
crimes bill unsuccessfully Feb. -July, 1887 ; receives 
silver trophy from Americans, 9 July, 1887. 

The term " grand old man" is said to have been first 
applied to Mr. Gladstone by Mr. Henry Labouchere, M. P. , 
about April, 1881 ; he turned the first sod of the Wirral 
railway connecting Wales and Lancashire, 21 Oct., and 
■delivered the first Bomanes lecture at Oxford, 24 Oct. ; 
received the freedom of Liverpool, 3 Dec. 1892 ; his 
second home rule bill, see Ireland, Sept. 1893 ; great 
speech at Edinburgh, 28 Sept. ; his declaration in the 
commons against the house of lords, 1 March, 1894 ; 
resignation as premier, 3 March, 1894 ; letter to sir John 
Cowan, farewell to his party and constituents, 17 March ; 
successful operation for cataract, 24 May ; he declines 
re-election for Mid-Lothian or elsewhere, June ; at 
Hamburg, Copenhagen, and Kiel, June, 1895 ; much ex- 
cited by the Armenian massacres ; great speech at Liver- 
pool, 24 Sept., 1896; pamphlet published in favour of 
Greece, 13 March, 1897 ; he died at Hawarden, 19 May ; 
universally lamented and honoured ; laid in state, 23- 
■25 May, at Westminster, 26, 27 May ; buried in the 
Abbey, the lords and commons present, 28 May, 1898. 
Mr. John Morley's "Life of Gladstone," published, 
S Oct. 1903. 

Gladstone National Memorial. — Meeting at Gros- 
venor house, executive committee formed, 21 June; 
another meeting, the prince of Wales president, the 
duke of Westminster chairman, the earl of Crewe hon. 
treasurer, and captain John Sinclair hon. sec. of the 
general committee, 1 July, 1898 : Monuments |to be 
erected in London, Edinburgh, Dublin, and a new 
library at Hawarden, an appeal to the public decided 
on, 21 July; total 13,633/. 19s., end of Aug. 1898; 
foundation stone of a new church in the Hawarden 
district, to which Mr. Gladstone had subscribed 1,000/., 
laid by Mrs. Gladstone, 14 Sept. 1898; a bust of Mr. 
Gladstone in the National Wallace monument unveiled 
by lord Aberdeen, 22 Aug. 1900 ; Gladstone memorial 
meeting at Grosvenor house, prince of Wales present, 
t6 Feb. 1899 ; 1,000/. from Mr. Andrew Carnegie, total 
32,oool., July, 1899 ; death of Mrs Gladstone, aged 88, 
14 June, 1900 ; Gladstone park, Dollis-hill, Willesden, 
bought for the public and laid out, total cost, 56,683?. ; 
opened by lord Aberdeen, 25 May, 1901. 

Gladstone Day commemorated in Edinburgh, 17 May, 
1902. 

St. Deiniol's library, at Hawarden (Gladstone me- 
morial, cost 10,000/., (first stone laid by the late duke 
of Westminster, 5 Oct. 1899) ; opened by lord Spencer, 
14 Oct. 1902. 



Chief secretary for Ireland, Chichester S. Fortescue ; 

succeeded by the marquis of Hartington, 1 Jan. 1871. 
President of board of trade, John Bright ; succeeded by 

Chichester S. Fortescue, Dec. 1870. 
President of poor law (now local government) hoard, 

George Joachim Goschen ; succeeded by James Stans- 

feld, 9 March, 1871. 
Wm. Edward Forster, vice-president of the committee 

of council on education; admitted to the cabinet, 

July, 1870. 

The above formed the cabinet. 

Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, John Poyntz, earl Spencer. 
Office of works, Austen Layard ; succeeded by Acton S. 

Ayrton, Nov. 1869 ; by Wm. Patrick Adam, Aug. 1873. 
Postmaster-general, Spencer C. Cavendish, marquis of 

Hartington; succeeded by Wm. Monsell (not in the 

cabinet), Jan. 1871 ; by Dr. Lyon Playfair, Nov. 1873. 

This ministry carried — the disestablishment of the 
Irish church in 1869; the Irish tenant act in 1870; ".vas 
censured in the house of lords for advising the royal 
warrant abolishing purchase in the army (162 — 82), 
1 Aug. 1871 ; carried the ballot in 1872. See letter in 
note, Disraeli Administration. 

second administration (28 April, 1880 — 9 June, 1885). 
See under England and Parliament. 

First lord of the treasury (and chancellor of the exchequer 
till 16 Dec. 1882), Wm. Ewart Gladstone. 

Lord chancellor, Boundell Palmer, baron Selborne. 

Lord president of the council, John Poyntz, earl Spencer; 
succeeded by Chichester S. Fortescue, lord Carlmgford, 
9 March, 1883. 

Lord privy seal, George Douglas Campbell, duke of Ar- 
gyll; resigned; succeeded by lord Carlingford, April, 
1 88 1 ; Archibald Philip Primrose, earl of Bosebery, 
11 Feb. 1885. 

Secretaries —home, sir Wm. Harcourt; foreign affairs, 
George Leveson-Gower, earl Granville ; the colonies, 
John Wodehouse, earl of Kimberley, succeeded by 
Edward, earl of Derby, 16 Dec. 1882 ; India, Spencer 
C. Cavendish, marquis of Hartington, succeeded by 
John Wodehouse, earl of Kimberley, 16 Dec. 1882 ; 
war, Hugh C. E. Childers, succeeded by marquis of 
Hartington, 16 Dec. 1882. 

First, lord of the admiralty, Thos. Geo. Baring, earl of 
Northbrook. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Hugh C. E. Childers, 16 Dec. 
1882. 

Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, John Poyntz, earl Spencer 
May, 1882. 

Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, John Bright ; resigns 
about 15 July, 1882 ; earl of Kimberley, 25 July; John 
George Dodson (afterwards lord Monk Bretton), 28 
Dec. 1882 ; George O. Trevelyan, about 20 Oct. 1884. 

President of local government board, John George Dodson, 
succeeded by sir Charles Wentworth Dilke, 28 Dec. 
1882. 

President of board of trade, Joseph Chamberlain. 

Postmaster-general, George Shaw Lefevre, entered the 
cabinet, n Feb. 1885. 

The above formed the cabinet. 

Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, Francis Thomas de Grey, 
earl Cowper ; resigned, May, 1882 ; earl Spencer (see 
above) . 

Postmaster-general, Henry Fawcett, died 6 Nov. 1884 ; 
George Shaw Lefevre, 18 Nov. 1884. 

Chief secretary for Ireland, W. E. Forster; resigned about 
2 May, 1882 ; lord Frederick Cavendish, 4 May ; assas- 
sinated, 6 May ; G. O. Trevelyan, 9 May, 1882 ; Henry 
Campbell Bannerman about 20 Oct. 1884. 

Chief commissioner of works, W. P. Adam, succeeded by 
G. Shaw Lefevre till Nov. 1884. 

Attorney -general, sir Henry James. 

Solicitor-general, sir Farrer Herschell. 

Governor-general of India, Geo. Fred. Samuel Bobinson, 
marquis of Ripon ; succeeded by Frederick Temple 
Hamilton-Blackwood, earl of Dufferin, Nov. 1884. 

Chairman of ways and means, Dr. Lyon Playfair. 

third administration (2-6 Feb. resigned 20 July, 1886). 

See under England and Parliament. 
First lord of the treasury, Wm. Ewart Gladstone. 
Lord chancellor, sir Farrer Herschell (lord Herschell). 
Lord president of the council, John Poyntz, earl Spencer. 

o o 



GLADSTONIANS. 



562 



GLASGOW. 



Secretaries— home, Hugh C. E. Childers ; foreign, 
Archibald Philip Primrose, earl of Kosebery ; colonial, 
George Leveson-Gower, earl Granville ; India, John 
Wodehouse, earl of Kimberley ; war, Henry Campbell- 
Bannerman. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, sir William George Granville 
Vernon-Harcourt. 

First lord of the admiralty, George Frederick Samuel 
Robinson, marquis of Bipon. 

President of the local government board, Joseph Chamber- 
lain, succeeded by James Stansfeld, 27 March, 1886. 

Secretary for Scotland, George Otto Trevelyan ; suc- 
ceeded by John William Ramsay, earl of Dalhousie ; 
(not in the cabinet), 27 March, 1886. 

President of the board of trade, Anthony John Mundella. 

Chief secretary for Ireland, John Morley. 

The above formed the cabinet. 

Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, John Campbell Hamilton- 
Gordon, earl of Aberdeen. 

Postmaster-general, George Grenfell Glyn, lord. Wolverton. 

First commissioner of works, Albert Edmund Parker, earl 
of Morley ; succeeded by Victor Alexander Bruce, earl 
of Elgin, 13 April. 

Attorney-general, sir Charles Russell, Q.C. 

Solicitor-general, sir Horace Davey, Q.C. 

Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, Edward Heneage ; suc- 
ceeded by sir U.' Kay-Shuttleworth, 10 April, 1886. 

FOCRTH ADMINISTRATION. 

(Succeeded the second Salisbury Administration, 

which see, 18 Aug. et seq., 18Q2). 

First lord of the treasury and lord privy seal, Wm. Ewart 

Gladstone. 
Lord high chancellor, Lord Herschell. 
Lord president of the council and secretary of state for 

India, Earl of Kimberley. 
Secretaries— home, Herbert Henry Asquith; foreign, 

Archibald Philip Primrose, earl of Rosebery ; colonial, 

George Frederick Samuel Robinson, marquis of Ripon ; 

War, Henry Campbell-Bannerman. 
First lord of the admiralty, John Poyntz, earl Spencer. 
Chancellor of the exchequer, sir William George Granville 

Vernon-Harcourt. 
Chief secretary for Ireland, John Morley. 
Secretary for Scotland, sir George Trevelyan. 
President oj the board of trade, Anthony John Mundella. 
President of the local goocrnment board, Henry H. Fowler. 
First commissioner of works, George John Shaw-Lefevre. 
Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster, James Bryce. 
Postmaster-general, Arnold Morley. 
Vice-president of the committee of council on education, 

Arthur Acland. 

The above form the cabinet. 
Lord-lieutenant of Ireland, Robert O. A. Milnes, baron 

Houghton. 
Financial secretary to the treasury, Mr. Hibbert (after, sir). 
Attorney-general, sir Charles Russell. 
Solicitor-general, John Rigby (after, sir). 
Lord advocate for Scotland, J. B. Balfour. 
Attorney-general for Ireland, The MaeDermot. 
Lord chancellor of I relamd, Samuel Walker. 
President of the bmiril of agriculture, Herbert Gardner. 
Secretary to Ihe admiralty, sirTJghtred Kay-Shuttleworth. 
Secretary to the local government board, sir W. Foster. 

GLADSTONIANS. A name given to the ad- 
herents of Air. Gladstone in his Irish policy ; they 
included earl Granville, earl Spencer, marquis of 
Ripon. earl of Rosebery, sir W. Vernon ITarcourt, 
Mi. John Morley, and other liberals, 1886; see 
l.ihiriils. 'Hie supporters of the earl of ltosebery's 
cabinet were termed " Ministerialists," March, 1894. 

GLASGOW (Lanarkshire), the largest city in 
Scotland. Lts prosperity greatly increased after the 
union in 17071 in consequence of its obtaining some 
of tin' American trade. Glasgow returns seven 
M.P.sby Act passed 25 June, 1885. SooFopiifutiou. 
Ihe cathedral ur high church, dedicated to St. 

Konttgem or Mungo, began about . . . 1136 

Erected Into a burgh 1190 

Charter was obtained from James II. . . . 1451 

1 m\ . isity founded 1 • v l'npe Nicholas V. and bishop 

Tumbull 1450 

Made a royal burgh by James VI i6n 

Town wasted by a great Are 1652 



Charter of William and Mary 1690 

Glasgow Courant, the first newspaper published . 1715 
First vessel sailed to America for its still great 

import, tobacco 1718 

Great Shawfield riot 1725 

Calico printing begun, about 1742 

Plundered by rebels 1745 

Theatre opened 1764 

Power-loom introduced 1773 

Theatre burnt ; Glasgoiv Herald published . . . 1782 

Chamber of commerce formed 1783 

Trades' hall built 1791 

Walter Stirling's public library founded, by will . ,, 
Spinning machinery by steam introduced . . 1795 
Anderson's university founded . . 7 May, „ 

New College buildings erected 1811 

Great popular commotion . . . April, ,, 

Trials for treason followed . . . July, ,, 

Theatre again burnt Jan. 1820 

The royal exchange opened ... 3 Sept. ,, 

Great fire, loss 150,000? 14 Jan. 1832 

The Glasgow lotteries, the last drawn in Britain, 
were granted by licence of parliament to the 
commissioners for the improvement of Glasgow. 
The third and final Glasgow lottery was drawn in 
London, at Coopers' Hail, 28 Aug. 1834. Their 
repetition was forbidden by 4 Will. IV., c. 37 . 1834 
British Association meet here . . .24 Sept. 1840 
Wellington's statue erected .... 8 Oct. 1844 
False alarm of fire at the theatre, when 70 persons 

are crashed to death .... 17 Feb. 1849 
Visit of the queen and prince Albert . . 14 Aug. „ 
British Association meet (2nd time) 12 Sept. 1855 

Failure of Western Bank of Scotland, and City of 

Glasgow bank, and other firms . . Nov. 1857 
In which great frauds were discovered . . Oct. 1858 
New water- works at Loch Katrine opened by the 

queen 14 Oct. 1859 

[Supplies 25,000,000 gallons daily, can supply 
50.000,000 ; engineer, J. F. Bateman ; cost about 
918.000?. independent of price paid for old works.] 
Self-supporting cooking establishments for work- 
ing classes begun by Mr. Thos. Corbett, 21 Sept. i860 
Glasgow visited by the empress of the French, 

27 Nov. 

Theatre burnt again 31 Jan. 1863 

Visited by lord Palmerston ; installed lord rector, 

29 March, ,, 
Industrial exhibition opened . . 12 Dec. 1865 

Fine stained glass windows, by German artists, put 

up in the cathedral by private munificence . 1859-66 
Site of the old university sold to railway company; 

new buildings to be erected near Western-park . 1866 
Great reform demonstration ; visit of John Bright, 

16 Oct. ,, 
The duke of Edinburgh inaugurates the statue of 

the prince consort, in George's-square 18 Oct. ,, 
Glasgow and Aberdeen universities to elect one 
M.P. , and Glasgow to elect three instead of two 
M.P.'s, by the Scotch reform act, passed 13 July, 1868 
Foundation of the new university buildings laid by 

the prince of Wales .... 8 Oct. ,, 
Foundation of Albert bridge laid . 3 June, 1870 

The new university buildings opened . 7 Nov. ,, 
[The spire completed 14 Oct. 1887.] 

Technical college established about , 

Scott centenary celebrated . . . .9 Aug. 1871 

Fraser and Maclaren's warehouse, Buchanan-street, 

burnt ; about 100,000?. lost . . 27 March, 1872 
Explosion at Tradeston flour mills ; about 14 killed ; 
loss -0,000?. ...... 9 July, ,, 

Mr. Disraeli installed lord rector . . 19 Nov. 1873 
Mr. Stephen .Mitchell bequeaths 70,000?. to found a 

free library, <xc spring, 1874 

Great fli'e in Buchanan-street . . 22 April, 1876 
British Association meeting (3rd) . . . . „ 
Rt. hon. R. A. Cross receives freedom of the city 

2 Oct. ,, 
Foundation of new post-office laid by the prince of 

Wales 17 Oct. „ 

Statue of Burns in George's square uncovered by 
lord Houghton . . . . . . 25 Jan. 1S77 

New stock exchange opened . . .3 April, ,, 
Weaving school opened .... 3 Sept. ,, 

Freedom of city presented to gen. U. Grant, ex- 
president. U.S 13 Sept. ,, 

New Queen s dock opened . . . 18 Sept ,, 



GLASGOW. 



563 



GLASGOW. 



Freedom of city presented to the marquis of 
Hartington 5 Nov. 1877 

Statue of Thos. Campbell, iu George's square, un- 
covered 28 Dec. ,, 

Apothecaries' hall burnt, loss about 30,000?. 9 June, 1878 

Stoppage of "City of Glasgow" bank, with many 
branches, total ruin to many, see Banks 2 Oct. ,, 

National fund formed to relieve sufferers, 9 Nov. ; 
amount received, about 118,000?. . . 12 Nov. „ 

Glasgow relief bank founded, 321,423?. received, 

13 Dec. ,, 
" City of Glasgow" bank : Stronach and some direc- 
tors sentenced to 18 months' imprisonment, others 

to 8 months, see Trials 1 Feb. 1879 

Theatre Royal burnt .... 2 Feb. ,, 

Boiler explosion, Glasgow ironworks, 23 killed, 

5 March, ,, 
Statue of Livingstone, George's-square, unveiled, 

19 March, „ 
Sir Wm. Harcourt, home secretary, receives freedom 

of the city 25 Oct. 1881 

Mr. Maedonald, M.P., bequeaths a mining library 

and 1000?. to the university . . . Nov. ,, 
Black and Wingate's weaving mills burnt 3 Dec. ,, 
Great fires : Anchor line engine works on the Clyde 

and Barker's soap works ; damage, about 50,000?. 1882 
Destructive Are in the Trongate, 15,000?. estimated 

damage 17 Aug. „ 

The duke of Albany receives the freedom of the city 

14 Oct. ,, 
Galbraith's spinning mill burnt . . .14 Oct. ,, 
Bt. hon. W. E. Forster receives the freedom of the 

city 18 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Bright installed as lord rector . 22 March, 1883 
The Daphne steamer, during launch in the Clyde, 

heels over; 124 perish . . . . 3 July, ,, 
Wylie and Lochhead's premises, near Buchanan- 
street, burnt ; loss about 200,000?. . . 3 Nov. ,, 
"John Elder" professorship of naval architecture 
at the university endowed by Mrs. Elder, 12,500?. 

announced Nov. ,, 
Mr. Fawcett, M.F., elected lord rector . 15 Nov. ,, 
Trial of Terence M'Dermott and nine other ribbon- 
men at Edinburgh for conspiracy to blow up 
buildings in Glasgow ; M'Dermott and four sen- 
tenced to penal servitude for life, five others to 

seven years 17-21 Dec. ,, 

Through Glasgow Improvement Act, great numbers 
of horrible rookeries removed, 1866, and whole- 
some houses erected . . . announced ,, 
Great popular demonstration in favour of the 
government and the Franchise bill ; Mr.Trevelyan 

there 6 Sept. , , 

Visit of the marquis of Salisbury ; great conser- 
vative demonstration . . .50 Sept. et seq. ,, 
Star theatre : 15 persons killed through false panic 

of fire 1 Nov. 1884 

The Elderslie rock in the Clyde near Renfrew 

removed by dynamite ; cost about 40,000?. . 1880-6 
Templeton's carpet manufactory burnt, about 

30,000?. damages 28 Jan. 18S6 

Underground railway opened . . 15 March, ,, 
Bailie Young, Councillor Duncan and five other 
persons killed and many injured by poisonous 
gases of ignited gunpowder rushing into the 
vacancy occasioned by the blasting of an 
enormous mass of rock near Loch Fyne 25 Sept. „ 
Glasgow blind asylum burned down . 3 Dec. ,, 
Jubilee fete of 30,000 school children . 10 Sept. 1887 
Great international exhibition, the largest in the 
empire since that in London in 1862 ; patron, the 
queen ; the buildings in the west end park 
occupied about 16 acres, cost about 70,000?. ; 
opened by the prince and princess of Wales ; the 
route of the procession was five miles (fine day) 8 
May ; visit of the queen, magnificent reception, 
new municipal buildings, George's-square, inaugu- 
rated ; the exhibition publicly visited 22 Aug. ; she 
visited Paisley 23 Aug., privately, the exhibition, 
the university, and queen Margaret's college, 
24 Aug. The queen was the guest of sir 
Archibald Campbell of Blytheswood 22-24 -Aug- > 
exhibition closed, 10 Nov. 1888 ; reported number 
of visitors, 5,748,37.9, surplus 40,000?. 
Destructive thunderstorm with loss of life 19 May, 18S8 
Fire in Buchanan-street, 155,000?. damages 14 Oct. ,, 



Destructive storm, the exhibition and other 

buildings much injured, and loss of life 16 Nov. 

Mr. Wm. Stirling bequeaths 20,000?. to Glasgow 

charities ; he died Sept. 

The magnificent municipal buildings in George's- 
square, architect Mr. Wm. Young; cost about 
550,000?., opened by the lord provost, sir James 
King 7 Oct. 

Mr. R. Ramsay's hide and wool mart burnt ; esti- 
mated loss, 30,000?. ... 27 Oct. 

Messrs. Templeton's carpet-weaving mill, in the 
course of erection at Greenhead, during a gale 
falls on the sheds where about 140 girls were at 
work, about 29 killed . . . . 1 Nov. 

Co-operative societies of the United Kingdom 22nd 

annual congress (the earl of Rosebery president), 

26 May et seq. 

The freedom of the city given to Mr. H. M. Stanley, 

12 June, 

Meeting of miners' delegates from all parts of Scot- 
land demanding increase of wages, &c, 

15 Sept. et seq. 

Strike and lock-out in the iron-works, respecting 
wages 4 Oct. 

The earl of Rosebery receives the freedom of the 
city . 10 Oct. 

Great meeling of Scotch railway men ; a general 
strike resolved on ; see under Raihoays 21 Dec. 

Eastern-end Industrial Exhibition opened by the 
marquis of Lothian . . . .23 Dec. 

Freedom of the city presented to the marquis of 
Salisbury 20 May, 

Great strike of shipwrights on the Clyde, 5 July ; 
ended 20 Aug. 

Visit of the lord mayor of London and sheriffs, 

17-22 Aug. 

Mr. A. J. Balfour, lord rector of the university, 
delivers his address on " Progress" 26 Nov. 

Messrs. Wm. Primrose's flour mills burnt ; loss 
about 10,000?. ...... 27 Feb. 

Erection of a new fine art gallery at the west-end 
proposed by a committee ... 13 April, 

Proposed reduction of wages of seamen and fire- 
men ; great meeting of the men, 28 April ; strike 
begins .4 May, 

Queen Margaret college, incorporated with the 
university Nov. 

The trustees of the Bellahouston fund (500,000?.), 
the bequest of the Misses Steven, of Bellahouston, 
to Glasgow, decide to commence distribution in 
May, 1893, about .... 21 Dec. 

William M'Keown executed for the murder and 
mutilation of Elizabeth O'Connor at Pollok- 
shields (11 Oct.) 18 Jan. 

Visit of Mr. Goschen ; speech against Irish home 
rule bill 4 April, 

Sir J. Gorst elected lord rector of the university, 
15 Nov. 1893 ; installed ... 2 Nov. 

Theatre Royal, Hope-street, burnt . 1 March, 

Disastrous fire at Messrs. Samuel Higginbotham & 
Co., calico printers, South-side, several deaths, 

n Oct. 

Eastern portion of the Central railway opened, 

1 Nov. 

Jubilee celebration of lord Kelvin as professor of 
Nat. Phil, in the university ; banquet by the 
corporation, many foreign delegates present, 

15, 16 June, 

Burns exhibition opened {centenary of death), 15 
July ; celebration at Dumfries, and throughout 
the country 21 July, 

Visit of Li Hung-Chang ; grand secretary 18 Aug. 

Mr. Joseph Chamberlain, elected lord rector of the 
university 31 Oct. 

Indian famine fund, large sums remitted 2 Feb. 

Destructive fire at the Fairfield Shipbuilding yard, 
estimated damage 50,000?. ... 4 Feb. 

Royal Glasgow Art institute, annual exhibitions 
opened 8 Feb. 

Passengers from the Glasgow steamer Victoria, 
force a landing at Dunoon ; barriers broken : 
Sundays 18 & 25 July, 

Destructive fire and explosion at Broxburn Oil 
works ; 1 death .... 19 Aug. 

Visit of the duke and duchess of York 10 Sept. 

Mr. Chamberlain installed lord rector of the uni- 
versity : address on " Patriotism," 3 Nov. ; re- 
ceived the freedom of the city . . 8 Nov. 

2 



1893 



1897 



GLASGOW. 



564 



GLASS. 



Fire at Messrs. W. & R. Hatrick & Co., wholesale 
chemists, Ren field-street ; 4 firemen killed by an 

exp'osion 7 Jan. 1898 

People's Palace and Winter garden, erected on 
Glasgow-green (public subscription); opened by 
the earl of Rosebery .... 22 Jan. ,, 
Mr. Wm. Houldsworth gives 5,600?. for scientific 

research to the university . . . 1 April, „ 
Mr. Adam Teacher bequeaths 50,000/. to charities, 
and all his pictures, etc., to the city of Glasgow, 

April, ,, 
Explosion at the Scottish Cold Storage and Ice Co., 

3 deaths 17 Sept. ,, 

Mr. James Orr bequeaths over 50,009/. and Mr. 
James Brown Thomson, 80,000/., to Glasgow 
educational and benevolent institutions, 

March and Aug. 1899 
Dr. James Colquhoun, solicitor and ex-treasurer 
of the city, charged with embezzling over 50,000/., 
pleaded guilty, and was sentenced to 5 years' 
penal servitude by lord Trayner at Edinburgh, 

4 Oct. ,, 
Lord Rosebery elected lord rector . 28 Oct. ,, 
Socialist and labour conference, many city im- 
provements, reported . . . mid April, 1900 
Messrs. Hopkins & Co. 's offices, &c, Robertson-st., 

burnt down, estimated damage, 65,000/., 2 June, ,, 
Princess Christian opens the new Ruchill hospital, 

13 June, ,, 
Slight outbreak of plague, about 7 deaths, inocula- 
tion successful ... 27 Aug.-i4 Nov. „ 
Lord Rosebery, lord rector, delivers his address 

on "Imperialism" .... 16 Nov. ,, 
Epidemic of smallpox, 228 deaths, April, 1900 ; 

city free 30 April, 1901 

Grand internat. exhibition in the Kelvingrove park 
opened by the duke and duchess of Fife (they 
were afterwards presented with the freedom of 
the city), 2 May ; fire in the tea-rooms, over 
3,000/. damage, 8 July ; state visit of the lord 
mayor and sheriff's of London, 9 Aug. ; exhibition 
closed, total attendance, 11,496,220 ; estimated 

profit, 80,000/ 9 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Andrew Carnegie provides 100,000/. for libraries, 

May, ,, 
Jubilee (oth) of the university celebrated, 12 June, ,, 
New supply tunnel opened at Loch Katrine water- 
works, doubling city water supply . 21 June, ,, 
Mr. R. W. Han bury, M.P. , who promoted municipal 
telephones in the city, presented with the free- 
dom, 29 Aug. ; also lord Balfour of Burleigh and 
Mr. Andrew Carnegie . . . .10 Sept. ,, 
'The British Association meets; address by the, 

president, prof. Riicker, 11 Sept. ; closed, 18 Sept. ,, 
Lord Rosebery opens an exhibition, &c, to do with 

the Scottish Home Industries association, 22 Oct. ,, 
Mr. James Dick, benefactor, dies, leaving 100,000/. 
to his employes and the bulk of his fortune to 

charities 7 March, 1902 

Lord Rosebery addresses a large liberal meeting, 

10 March, ,, 
disaster at a football match through the collapse 
of a terraced stand, 25 deaths, over 500 injured, 

5 April, ,, 
Visit of the colonial premiers . . 28 July, ,, 
lit. rev, )>r. Maguire appointed B.C. archbp. . Aug. ,, 
Statue of Mr. Gladstone in George-square unveiled 

by lord Rosebery .... n Oct. ,, 
Mr. George Wyndham (see Ireland) elected lord 

rector of the university . . . 25 Oct. ,, 
Glasgow art galleries and museum, Kelvin-grove, 

cost r: ..,/., opened . . . . 2s Oct. ,, 

Dr. J. Stevenson bequeaths 50,000/. to the United 

Free church and (1,400/. to charities, etc. . Jan. 1903 
Carnegie trustees make grant of 55,000/. to 

Glasgow university Mar. ,, 

Visit of the king and quern, stone laid for Technical 

college 14 May, ,, 

First Atlantic turbine-driven liner (for the Liver- 
pool-Canada service) to lie const met ed by a 
Glasgow Arm, announced . . t Oct. ,, 

Mr. Chamberlain opens his "fiscal campaign" 
with a greats] ch at st. Andrew's-hall .6 Oct. ., 

GLASGOW, Bishopric of. Kennet, in his 
Antiquities, says it was founded by St. Kentigem, 
alias Mungo, in 560; Dr. Heylin, speaking of the 

see of St. Asaph, in Wales, says that that see was 



founded by St. Kentigem, a Scot, then bishop of 
Glasgow, in 583 . This prelacy became archiepiscopal 
in 14QI, ceased at the Revolution, and is now a 
post-revolution bishopric. The cathedral, com- 
menced in 1 121, has a noble crypt; see Bishops. 

GLASITES (in Scotland) and SANDEMANIANS 
(in England). In 1727, John Glas, a minister of 
the church of Scotland, published "The Testimony 
of the King of Martyrs, concerning his Kingdom 
{John xviii. 36)," in which he opposed national 
churches, and described the original constitution of 
the Christian church, its doctrines, ordinances, 
officers, and discipline, as given in the New Testa- 
ment. Having been deposed in 1728, he and others 
established several churches formed upon the pri- 
mitive models. The publication of a series of letters 
on Hervey's " Theron and Aspasio," by Kobert 
Sandeman, in 1757, led to the establishment of 
churches in London and other places in England, 
and also in North America. 

GLASS. The Egyptians are said to have 
known the art of making glass 11 50 B.C. The 
discovery of glass took place in Syria. Pliny. 
Glass-houses were erected in Tyre. It was in use 
in the time of Tiberius ; glass windows were used 
in Pompeii, Gregory of Tours speaks of church 
windows of coloured glass. 
Glass is said to have been brought to England by 

Benedict Biscop, abbot of Wearmouth, in . . 674 
The glass manufacture established in England at 

Crutched-friars, and in the Savoy {Stow) . .1557 
Great improvements have been made in the manu- 
facture, through the immense increase of chemical 
knowledge in the present century. Professor 
Faraday published his researches ob the manu- 
facture of glass for optical purposes in . . 1830 
The duties on glass, first imposed 1695 ; repealed, 

1698; re-enacted, 1745 ; finally remitted, 24 April, 1845 
Glass-Painting was known to the ancient Egyp- 
tians. It was revived about the 10th century, 
and is described in the treatise by the monk 
Theophilus ; was practised at Marseilles in a 
beautiful style, about 1500, and attained great 
perfection about 1530. Specimens of the 13th 
century exist in England ; C. Winston's work is 
the best on the subject, 1846, new edition . . 1868 
" Stained Glass Windows," by Lewis F. Day, pub- 
lished Nov. 1897 

Glass -Plate, for coach-windows, mirrors, <fec. , 
made at Lambeth by Venetian artists, under the 
patronage of Villiers, duke of Buckingham . . 1673 
The manufacture was improved by the French, 
who made very large plates ; and further im- 
provements in it were made in Lancashire, when 
the British Plate Glass company was established 1773 
Manufacture of British sheet glass introduced by 

Messrs. Chance, of Birmingham, about . . . 1832 
Tempered or Toughened glass: M. De la Bastie's pro- 
cess (plunging heated glass into a hot bath of 
oleaginous or alkaline compounds) announced, 
April, 1875 ; largely manufactured in France, and 

sold cheap in London 1876 

Mr. Frederick Siemens described his process for pro- 
ducing strong homogeneous tempered glass at the 
Society of Arts . 1 ... 26 Feb. 18S5 
The application of glass for rails proposed by Mr. 
H. Lindsay-Bucknalland for railway sleepers pro- 
posed by Mr. F. Siemens, 1885-6. This glass 
asserted to be much stronger than iron. 
The manufacture of Venetian glass probably intro- 
duced from Constantinople and perfected in the 
15th and following centuries. Venetian glass is 
now manufactured at Venice and in England 
(1892) by Dr. Salviati ; he presented a splendid 
glass vase to the queen on the anniversary of her 
coronation day, 28 June, 1892, see Mosaics. 
Depression of English glass manufacture through 
the action of the trade union and foreign com- 
petition ; reported, Times ... 31 Aug. 1896 J 
Long-continued strike of glassmakers in the Stour- 
brldge district ... . 1002-03 



GLASTONBURY. 



565 



GLOUCESTER. 



GLASTONBURY (Somerset), traditionally 
said to have been the residence of Joseph of 
Arimathea, and the site of the first Christian church 
in Britain, about 60. A church was built here 
by Ina about 708. The town and abbey were 
burnt, 1 184, and an earthquake did great damage 
in 1275. Richard Whiting, the last abbot, who 
had 100 monks and 400 domestics, was hanged on 
Tor-hill in his pontificals for refusing to take the 
oath of supremacy to Henry VIII., 14 Nov. 1539. 
The monastery was suppressed 1 540. Visit of pan- 
anglican bishops, 3 Aug. 1897. See Lake Dwel- 
lings, 1892. 

GLEBE (gleba, a clod), the land belonging to a 
parish church, or ecclesiastical benefice. 
An act to facilitate the sale of glebe land was passed in 

1888.. 

GLEE, a piece of unaccompanied vocal music, 
in at least three parts. Their composition began 
early in the 18th century. Eminent composers, 
Samuel Webbe (1740-1816), Stevens, Callcott, Hors- 
ley, Danby, Paxton, Lord Mornington, Spoftbrth, 
&c. The Glee Club, founded by Dr. J. W. Callcott, 
Dr. Arnold, and others, 178". 

GLENALMOND, Perthshire. Trinity 
College here, projected in 1841, was opened in 
1847. It was founded principally by the exertions 
of Mr. W. E. Gladstone and Mr. Hope Scott, aided 
by dean Eamsay, the duke of Buccleuch, the 
marquis of Lothian, and other gentlemen, to sup- 
port the Scottish episcopal church. The site was 
given by Mr. George Patton, afterwards lord Glen- 
almond, 1846. The foundation-stone of a new 
wing was laid by Mr. W. E. Gladstone, I Oct. 1891. 

Trinity college much injured by fire ; damage about 
5,oooL, 10, again 18 Oct. 1894 ; Alan W. J. Fergus- 
son, a pupil (mentally weak), charged with arson 
27 Oct ; confessed ; sentence of 12 months' im- 
prisonment 24 Nov. 1894 

GLENCOE MASSACRE of the Macdonalds, 
a Jacobite clan, for not surrendering before 1 Jan. 
1692, the time stated in king William's proelama- 
tion. Sir John Dalrymple, master (afterwards 
earl) of Stair, their enemy, obtained a decree "to 
extirpate that set of thieves," which the king is 
said to have signed without perusing. Every man 
under 70 was to be slain. This mandate was trea- 
cherously executed by 120 soldiers of a Campbell 
regiment, hospitably received by the Highlanders, 
13 Feb. 1692. About 60 men were slain ; and many 
women and children, turned out naked in a freez- 
ing night, perished. This excited great indigna- 
tion ; and an inquiry was set on foot, May, 1695, 
but no capital punishment followed. 

GLENDALOUGH, or " Seven Churches," an 
ancient Irish bishopric, said to have been founded 
by St. Keven in 498 ; united with Dublin, 1214. 

GLOBE. The globular form of the. earth, the 
five zones, some of the principal circles of the 
sphere, the opacity of the moon, and the true causes 
of lunar eclipses, were taught, and an eclipse pre- 
dicted, by Thales of Miletus, about 640 B.C. Pytha- 
goras demonstrated, from the varying altitudes of 
the stars by change of place, that the earth must 
be round ; that there might be antipodes on the 
opposite part of the globe ; that Venus was the 
morning and evening star ; that the universe con- 
sisted of twelve spheres — the sphere of the earth, 
the sphere of the water, the sphere of the air, the 
sphere of fire, the spheres of tbo moon, the sun ; 
Venus, Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the 
spheres of the stars ; about 506 B.C. — Aristarchus 



of Samos maintained that the earth turned on its 
own axis, and revolved about the sun, which doc- 
trine was held by his contemporaries as so absurd 
that the philosopher nearly lost his life, 280 B.C. ; 
see Circumnavigators. 

To determine the figure of the earth, a degree of latitude 

has been measured in different parts of the world ; by 

Bouguer and La Condamine in Peru, and by Mauper- 

tuis and others in Lapland, 1735. 

Estimated density 5 '6 that of water; weight, 6,000,000 

060,000,000,000,000 tons. — Proctor, 1875. 
France and Spain measured by Mechain, Delambre, 

Biot, and Arago, between 1792 and 1821. 
Measurements made in India by col. (afterwards sir 

George) Everest, published in 1830. 
Experiments made by pendulums to demonstrate the 
rotation of the earth by Foueault in 185 1 ; and to 
determine its density by Maskelyne, Bailly, and 
others ; and in 1826, 1828, and 1854, by Mr. (aft. sir) 
G. B. Airy, the astronomer-royal. 
Artificial Globes. It is said that a celestial globe was 
brought to Greece from Egypt, 368 B.C., and that 
Archimedes constructed a planetarium about 212 B.C. 
The globe of Gottorp, a concave sphere, eleven feet in 
diameter, containing a table and seats for twelve per- 
sons, and the inside representing the visible surface 
of the heavens, the stars and constellations, all dis- 
tinguished according to their respective magnitudes, 
and being turned by means of curious mechanism, 
their true position, rising and setting, are shown. 
The outside is a terrestrial globe. The machine, called 
the globe of Gottorp, from the original one of that 
name, which, at the expense of Frederick II. duke of 
Holstein, was erected at Gottorp, under the direction 
of Adam Olearius, and was planned after a design found 
among the papers of the celebrated Tycho Brahe. 
Frederick IV. of Denmark presented it to Peter the 
Great in 1713. It was nearly destroyed by fire in 
1757 ; but it was afterwards reconstructed. Coxe. 
The globe at Pembroke-hall, Cambridge, erected by Dr. 

Long (master, 1733), eighteen feet in diameter. 
In 1851 Mr. Abrahams erected in Leicester-square, for 
Mr. Wyld, a globe 60 feet 4 inches in diameter, lit 
from the centre by day, and by gas at night. It was 
closed in July, 1861 ; the models were sold, and the 
building eventually taken down. 
Mi. James Wyld, geographer to the queen, died 17 April, 
1887. 

GLOBE THEATRE, Bankside (London), 
was built by agreement dated 22nd Nov. 1593, 
and licensed to Shakespeare and others ; see 
Theatres, and Shakespeare' s Theatre.— The Globe 
" Theatre," erected on the site of Lyon's-inn, 
Strand, was opened 28 Nov. 1868, Mr. Sefton Parry, 
manager ; closed 1903. — The Globe evening news- 
paper; formerly whig, now conservative ; estab- 
lished 1803. Special centenary number issued 
8 Jan. 1903. 

GLOIRE, French steam frigate, see Navy, 
French. 

GLORY, the nimbus drawn by painters round 
the heads of saints, angels, and holy men, and the 
circle of ravs on images, adopted from the Caesars 
and their flatterers, were used in the 1st century. 
The doxology, " Gloria Patri," is very ancient, 
and originally without the clause "as it was in 
the beginning," &c. In the Greek it began with 
" doxa," glory. 

GLOUCESTER (Roman Glevum), submitted 
to the Romans about 45, and to the Saxons 577. 
The statutes of Gloucester, passed at a parlia- 
ment held by Edward I. 1278, relate to actions at 
law. This city was incorporated by Henry III. ; 
and was fortified by a strong wall, which was de- 
molished after the Restoration, in 1660, by order of 
Charles II., as a punishment for the successful 
resistance of the city to Charles I., under col- 
Massey, Aug., Sept. 1643. The Gloucester ana 
Berkeley canal was completed in April, 1827. 



GLOVES. 



566 



"GOD SAVE THE KING." 



Gross bribery took place here at the election for the 
parliament in 1859. — The Bishopkic was one of 
the six erected by Henry VIII. in 1541, and was 
formerly part of Worcester. It was united to 
Bristol in 1836, but in 1884 an act was passed to 
provide for their again becoming separate bishoprics. 
The bishopric of Bristol reconstituted 7 July, 1897. 
The church, which belonged to the abbey, and its 
revenues, were appropriated to the maintenance of 
the see. The abbey, which was founded by king 
Wulphere about 700, was burnt in 1102, and again 
in 1 122. In it are the tombs of Robert, duke of 
Normandy, and Edward II. In the king's books, this 
bishopric is valued at 315/. 17*. 2d. per annum. 
Present income, 5000/. An act was passed in 1884 
to provide for the disunion of the sees of Gloucester 
and Bristol. Restoration of the cathedral proceed- 
ing, 1893-7; the lady chapel reopened 29 Sept. 1897. 
Population, 1881, 36,542; 1891, 39,444; 1901, 
47,944- 
Epidemic of smallpox Jan. -July, 1896 (434 deaths), 

stamped out by the vaccination committee, 27 April, 

et seq. 1806-07. 
Public library opened (7,000 books) by lord Avebury, 

31 May, 1900. 
Mr. John Bellows, philanthropist and archaeologist, 

died, aged 72, 5 May, 1902. 

RECENT BISHOPS OF GLOUCESTER AND BRISTOL. 

1802. George Isaac Huutingford, translated to Hereford, 

June, 1815. 
1815. Hon. Hen. Ryder, translated to Lichfield, 1824. 
1824. Christopher Bethell, translated to Exeter, 1830. 
1830. James Henry Monk, died. 
1856. Charles Baring, translated to Durham, Sept. 1861. 

1861. Wm. Thomson, translated to York, 1862. 

1862. Charles John Ellicott (present bishop). 

GLOVES. Woodstock and Worcester leather 
gloves are of ancient celebrity. In the middle 
ages, the giving a glove was a ceremony of inves- 
titure in bestowing lands and dignities ; and two 
bishops were put in possession of their sees by each 
receiving a glove, 1002. In England, in the reign 
of Edward II. the deprivation of gloves was a 
ceremony of degradation. The Glovers' company 
of London was incorporated in 1556. Embroidered 
gloves are presented to judges at maiden assizes. 
The importation of foreign gloves was not permitted 
till 1825. "Gloves and their Annals," by S. W. 
Beck, published in 1883. 

GLUCINUM (from glukus, sweet). In 1798 
Vauquelin discovered the earth glucina (so termed 
from the sweet taste of its salts). It is found in 
the beryl and other crystals. From glucina Wohler 
and Bussy obtained the rare metal glucinum in 
1828. Gmelin. 

GLUCOSE, see Sugar. 

GLUTEN, an ingredient of grain, particularly 
wheat, termed the vegeto-animal principle (con- 
taining nitrogen). Its discovery is attributed to 
Beccaria in the 18th century. 

GLYCERINE, discovered by Scheele, about 
1779, and termed by him the "sweet principle of 
fat-*," and further studied liy Chevreul, termed the 
"father of the fatty acids." It is obtained pure 
■by saponifying olive oil or animal fat with oxide of 
lead, or litharge. (Ilycenne is 111 mil employed ill 
medicine and the arts, and in the manufacture of 
nitro-glyoerine (which see J, and other explosives. 

GLYOXYLINE (invented by Mr. (aft. sir) F. 
'A. Abel, the chemisl of the war depart men t, in 18(17). 

an explosive mixture of gun-cotton, pulp and 
saltpetre saturated with nitro-glycerine. It was 
abandoned for compressed gun-cotton. 



GNEISENAU, German training - ship, 
wrecked off' Malaga, 38 deaths, 16 Dec. 1900. 

GNOMIUM, a new element discovered by Ger- 
hard, Kruss, and F. W. Schmidt in 1889. 

GNOSTICS (from the Greek gnosis, know- 
ledge), a sect who, soon after the preaching of 
Christianity, endeavoured to combine its principles 
with the Greek philosophy. Among their teachers 
were Saturnius, in; Basilides, 134; and Valentine, 
140. Priscillian, a Spaniard, was burnt at Treves 
as a heretic, in 384, for endeavouring to revive 
Gnosticism. 

GO A (S.W. Hindostan), was taken by the Por- 
tuguese under Albuquerque in 1510, and made their 
Indian capital. It was visited by the prince of 
Wales, 27 Nov. 1875. New harbour and railway- 
works inaugurated, 31 Oct. 1882. 

Election riots, conflict with the police and mili- 
tary, 17 persons shot dead, accounts conflicting, 

22, 23 Sept. 1890 

Order restored 26 Sept. ,, 

Treaty with Great Britain (1878) respecting customs 
duty, and an annual payment to Portugal of 2 
lakhs of rupees, suffered to expire through dis- 
agreement 14 Jan. 1892 

Mutiny of Portuguese troops ordered to Africa, re- 
garding their pay, etc. . . 14 Sept.-i Dec. 1895 

A detachment of soldiers made prisoners by rebels 
after a sharp fight, reported . . 13 Oct. „ 

Alphonso, duke of Oporto, appointed commander 
of the expedition against the rebels, arrives 

12 Nov. ,, 

Rehels defeated at Satary, reported . .17 Dec. ,, 

Insurrection attributed to maladministration ; 
prince Alphonso appointed gov-gen. ; amnesty 
promised without effect, 23 March, 1896 ; the 
prince leaves, reported .... June 1896 

Renewed disturbances, the Ranes attack Pernem 
and burn the treasury ; rebels dispersed, re- 
ported 17 Dec. ,, 

Lord Curzon, viceroy of India, received by the 
governor-general .... 13 Nov. 1900 

GOAT SHOW at Alexandra palace, 16-22 
Sept. 1880, supported by the British Goat Society, 
recently established. A goat farm for the supply of 
milk established near Dorking, 1882. 

Annual shows of the British goat society have been 
held ; one opened 8 June, 1886. 

GOBELIN-TAPESTRV, so called from a 
house at Paris, formerly possessed by wool-dyers, 
whereof the chief (Jehan Gobelin), in the reign of 
Francis I., is said to have found the secret of dyeing 
scarlet. This house was purchased by Louis XIV. 
about 1662, for a manufactory of works for adorn- 
ing palaces (under the direction of Colbert), espe- 
cially tapestry, designs for which were drawn by Le 
Brun, about 1666. Establishment (1878) cost about 
80OO/. a year. 

" GOD SAVE THE KING." This melody 
is said to have been composed by John Bull, 
Mus.D., in 1606, for a dinner given to James I. at 
Merchant Taylors' Hall; others ascribe it to Henry 
Carey, author of " Sally in our alley," who died, 
4 Oct. 1743. It was much sung 1745-6. It has been 
claimed by the French. The controversy on the 
subject is summed up in Chappell's " Popular Music 
of the Olden Times" (1S59). The melody has been 
adopted for the German national anthem ("Heil dir 
im Siegerkranz !"), and also for the Danish. 
" God save the king," revised version, 1902. 

'I'll.' words translated in 15 East Indian dialects . 1S82 
Meoting at tic .Mansion-house to promote their 
adoption 2 Nov. ,, 



GODERICH ADMINISTRATION. 567 



GOLD. 



GODEEICH ADMINISTRATION. Vis- 
count Goderich * (afterwards earl of Ripon) became 
first minister on the death of Mr. Canning, 8 Aug. 
{827 ; he resigned 8 Jan. 1828. 
Viscount Goderich, first lord of the treasury. 
Duke of Portland, -president of the council. 
Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 
Earl of Carlisle, lord privy seal. 
Viscount Dudley, Mr. Huskisson, and the marquis of 

Lansdowne, foreign, colonial, o.iul home secretaries. 
Lord Palmerston, secretary-at-war. 
Mr. C. W. Wynn, president of the India board. 
Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards lord Glenelg), board of trade. 
Mr. Hemes, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Mr. Tierney, master of the mint, &c. 

GODFATHERS and Godmothees, or 

sponsors. The Jews are said to have had them at 
circumcision ; but there is no mention of them in 
scripture^ Tradition says that sponsors were first 
appointed by Hyginus, a Roman bishop, about 154, 
during a time of persecution. In Roman Catholic 
countries bells have godfathers and godmothers at 
their baptism. 

GODOLPHIN ADMINISTRATIONS 

(see Administrations), 1684 and 1690. Lord 
Godolphin became prime minister to queen Anne, 
8 May, 1702. The cabinet was notified in 1704. 
The earl resigned 8 Aug. 1710, and died 1712. 

Sidney, lord (afterwards earl) Godolphin, treasury. 

Sir Nathan Wright, lord keeper. 

Thomas, earl of Pembroke and Montgomery, lord pre- 
sident. 

John Sheffield, marquis of Normanby (afterwards duke 
of Normanby and Buckingham), privy seal. 

Hon. Henry Boyle, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Sir Charles Hedges and the earl of Nottingham (the latter 
succeeded by Robert Harley, created earl of Oxford in 
1704), secretaries of state. 

GODS, Greek and Roman ; see under Mythology. 

GODWIN SANDS, sand-banks off the east 
coast of Kent, occupy land which belonged to 
Godwin, earl of Kent, the father of king Harold II. 
Earl Godwin is said to have died suddenly, 15 April, 
1053. This ground was afterwards given to the 
monastery of St. Augustine at Canterbury; but 
the abbot neglecting to keep in repair the wall that 
defended it from the sea, the tract was submerged 
about 1 100, leaving these sands, upon which many 
ships have been wrecked. Salmon. 

GOETHE SOCIETY (ENGLISH), 

founded in February, 1886, for making known and 
illustrating German literature. Professor Max 
Miiller, president. Inaugural meeting, 28 May. 

GOG AND MAGOG, see Guildhall. 

GOLD (mentioned Gen. ii. 11), the purest, and 
most ductile of all the metals, for which reason it 
has been considered by almost all nations as the 
most valuable. It is too soft to be used pure, and 
to harden it it is alloyed with copper or silver : our 
coin consists of twenty-two carats of pure gold, and 
two of copper. By 17 & 18 Vict. e. 96 (1854), gold 
wares are allowed to be manufactured at a lower 
standard than formerly ; — wedding rings excepted, 
by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 60 (1855). The present stated 
price is 3^. 17s. \o\d. per oz. ; see Coin of England, 
and Guineas. In 1816, it was enacted by 56 Geo. Ill, 
c. 68, that " gold coins only should be legal tender 

* Born 1782 ; held various inferior appointments from 
1809 to 1818, when he became president of the board of 
trade ; was chancellor of the exchequer from 1818 to 
April, 1827, when he became colonial secretary, which 
office he held in the Grey cabinet, Nov. 1830 ; created earl 
of Ripon, 1833 : died 28 Jan. 7859. 



in all payments of more than 40s.," the tender of 
silver being previously unlimited. 

Eitimated amount of gold in the world; value, 1848, 

55o,ooo,ooo£. ; 1875, 1,000,000,000?. 
The value of gold compared with silver is said to have 
been estimated in the time of Herodotus, b.c. 450, 
about 10 to 1 ; of Plato, b.c. 38, 12 to 1 ; a.d. 1876, 
more than 15 to 1. See Silver. 
The weight of the maharajah of Travancore in gold 

given in charity (an old custom), May, 1885. 
The Amalgamation of Gold is described by Pliny (about 
77) and Vitruvius (about 27 B.C.). The alchemist Basil 
Valentine (in the 15th century) was acquainted with 
the solution of the chloride of gold and fulminating 
gold. Andreas Cassius, in 1685, described the pre- 
paration of gold purple, which was then adapted by 
Kunkel to make red glass, and to other purposes. 
Gmelin. Gold has been subjected to the researches of 
eminent chemists, such as Berzelius and Faraday. 
Mr. Rowland Jordan, of London devised a new and 
successful method of preventing waste, in separating 
gold from its ore, announced Oct. 1884. 
H. R. Cassel's process for extraction of chlorine used in 

London, 1885. 
Mr. B. C. Molloy's hydrogen-amalgam process for ex- 
tracting gold from the ores exhibited by Messrs. 
Johnson of Finsbury, London, Aug. 1887. 
Mr. T. Rowland Jordan's method of extracting gold, 

exhibited in George Street, London, E.C., Oct. i88g._ 
Gold Mines. Gold was found most abundantly in 
Africa, Japan, and South America. In the last it 
was discovered by the Spaniards in 1492, from which 
time to 1 73 1 they imported into Europe 6000 millions 
of pieces of eight, in register gold and silver, exclu- 
sively of what were unregistered. 

Peter the Great re-opened ancient gold mines in 
Russia, 1699. 

The Ural or Oural mountains of Russia long pro- 
duced gold in large quantity. 

A piece of gold weighing ninety marks, equal to 
sixty pounds troy (the mark being eight ounces), was 
found near La Paz, a town of Peru, 1730. 

Gold discovered in Malacca in 1731 ; in New Anda- 
lusia in 1785; in Ceylon, 1800; 2887 oz. of gold, value 
9991?. , obtained from mines in Britain and Ireland in 
1864 ; it has been found in Cornwall, and in the county 
of Wicklow in Ireland (1797). 

Gold discovered in California, Sept. 1847; and in 
Australia, 1851. On 28 April, 1858, a nugget, said to 
weigh 146 pounds, was shown to the queen. It is 
estimated that between 1851 and 1859 g°ld to the value 
of 88,889,435?. was exported from Victoria alone (see 
California and Australia severally). 

Gold discovered in what is now termed New Columbia 
in 1856 : much emigration there in 1858. 

Gold discovered in New Zealand, and in Nova Scotia 
in 1861. 

Gold discovered in South Africa (Transvaal republic, 
&c), discovered in Sutherlandshire ; much excite- 
ment, Oct. 1868 ; in West Australia, reported Sept. 1870 ; 
in the Bendigo fields, Victoria, Nov. 1871 ; in Land 
of Midian, by capt. R. Burton, announced, May, 1877. 
The district of Witwatersrand, S. Africa, declared a 
public goldfield 20 Sept. 1886. 

The prosperous town of Johannesburg erected, 
March 1887. 

Productive gold fields discovered in the valley of 
the Djolgute river, opposite Ignachino on the Amoor, 
May, 1884 ; a Russian colony with foreign adventurers 
formed, January, 1885. 

Great discovery of auriferous quartz, E. of the 
Transvaal, 1886. 

Discovery of alluvial gold at Waukaranga, South 
Australia, Oct. 1886. 

Alleged discovery of gold at mount Lyell in Tasmania, 
July, 1886. 

"Midas" gold nugget named "lady Loch," weight 617 
ozs. ; value 2,537?. J found in the Midas gold company's 
claim, 3 Aug. 1887 ; exhibited with other nuggets by 
Miss Alice Cornwall at Queen Victoria -street, London, 
28 Oct. 1887. 

Discovery of gold in large quantities in Mr. Pritchard 
Morgan's Gwynfynydd mines. Mawddach valley, 
Merionethshire, Wales, announced, Times, 7 Dec. 1887 ; 
great success reported ; the crown claims heavy royal- 
ties, April, but makes concessions, May, 1888 ; work 
going on, April, 1889-90. Yield of gold valued at 



GOLD COAST. 



563 



GOLDEN HOEDE. 



50,000?. , royalty paid to the state, reported March, 
1890 ; legal decision by Mr. Justice North that the 
mine is royal property ; working restrained till the 
royalties are paid to the state, 6 Aug. 1890 ; the mine 
transferred to a company, which obtained a licence, 
and paid royalties. 

Mr. Morgan's appeal against the decision of Aug. 6, dis- 
allowed, 21 .Jan. 1891 ; his estate seized by the govern- 
ment for the royalties due, 22 March ; the bailitl's 
withdrawn, pending an arrangement ; work resumed, 
early April, 1892. 

Important gold discoveries in Queensland, which sec 
1882-9. 

In Malay Peninsula, announced Aug. 1889. 

Gold mining greatly developed in the Transvaal district, 
especially at Levdenberg, 1872 et sen. ; also in Utah, 
U.S.A., Dec. 1892. 

Gold found in Western Australia, July, 1891 ; in New 
South Wales, March, 1894. Total output of gold from 
the 7 Australian colonies, 2,899,650 oz. in 1897 ; 
4,462,488 oz. in 1899. 

Gold discovered in E. Siberia, reported, 17 Sept. 1896; 
and in Canada on the Yukon, reported, 4 April, 1S97 ; 
and on the Klondyke, N.W. Canada, and British 
Columbia, 1896-97 ; again, on the Stewart river and 
the Yukon, Nov. 1898. 

Gold mining successtully carried on in Nova Scotia; 
gold found in large quantities at Whycoccmagh : re- 
ported, 15 Feb. 1898. 

Gold obtained in United Kingdom ; value in 1861, 
10,816^. ; in 1862, 20,390?. ; in 1863, 1747?. ; in 1864, 
9991?. : in 1865, 5894Z. ; in 1868, 3522?. ; in 1876, 1138?. ; 
in 1878, 2848?. ; in 1880, 38?. ; in 1882, 863?. ; in 18S7, 210?. ; 
in 1888, 29,9822. ; in 1889, 13,227?. ; in 1890, 675? ; 1891, 
13,700?. ; 1892, 10,511?. ; 1893, 869T?. ; 1894, 14,811! ; 
1895, 18,520?. ; 1896, 5,035?. 

Estimated value of annual production of gold throughout 
the world, 1887, 21,765,000?. ; 1892,30,207,000?.; 1897, 
49,061,000?.; 1901, 54,428,000?. 

The Transvaal output of gold valued at 16,273,000?. in 
1899. 

Gold discovered in S. Australia, early 1903. 

Gold Wire was first made in Italy about 1350. An 
ounce of gold is sufficient to gild a silver wire above 
1300 miles in length ; and such is its tenacity that a 
wire the one-eighteenth part of an inch will bear the 
weight of 500 lb. without breaking. Fourcroy. 

Gold Leaf. A single grain of gold may be extended 
into a leaf of fifty-six square inches, and gold leaf can 
be reduced to the 300,000th part of an inch, and gilding 
to the ten-millionth part. Kelly's Cambist. 

Gold Robbery. Three boxes, hooped and sealed, con- 
taining gold in bars and coin to the value of between 
18,000?. and 20,000?. were sent from London, 15 May, 
1855. On their arrival in Paris, it was found that 
ingots to the value of 12,000?. had been abstracted, 
and shot substituted, although the boxes bore no 
marks of violence. Many persons were apprehended 
on suspicion; but the police obtained no trace till 
Nov. 1856. Three men named Pierce, Burgess, and 
Tester, were tried and convicted 13-15 Jan. 1857, ° 11 
the evidence of Edward Agar, an accomplice. They 
had been preparing for the robbery for eighteen month? 
piv\ ions to ils perpetration. 

GOLD COAST, West Africa, see Guinea; 
settlements made by the Dutch; transferred to Great 
Britain by treaty, signed 2 Feb. 1872 ; joined with 
Lagos to form the " Ciold Coast Colony','' governor, 
capt. Geo. Cuminc Stralian, appointed 1874; Lagos 
separated in [886; Sandford Freeling, 1871.; Her- 
bert Taylor Ussher, 1879; Bir Samuel Rowe, 25 Jan. 
188 1 ; William A. G. Young, died 25 April, i88t:; 
sir W. Brandford Griffith, [886 ; sir W. E. Max- 
well, Jan. [805; dies at sea, Dec. [897; Mr. (alt. 
sir) P. M. Hodgson, March, [898; major Matthew 
Nathan (aft. Bir), Oct. [900; Mr. 3. P. Rodger, 
Oct. 1903. Population of the colony and protec- 
torate, estimated al 2,000,000. [902. "Chief towns 
Accra, f'apo Coasl Castle, and Elmiua. 
British mission (,,..). under lieut. Urn,],. i- ,,,1. at- 
tacked al Dawkite by Sofas, 28 March; fought 
its way to Wa. 3 April ; .Mr. George E^rgusson, 
British native commissioner, killed, hi the 
ligliting: , March, 1897 



Lieut. Henderson goes alone to arrange peace with 
Saniory, and is kept a prisoner, April ; but re- 
leased 4 May, 189-71 

Settlement of peace with Samory made by sir 
Wm. Maxwell .... Aug. ,„ 

Bontuku in the Hinterland occupied by a British 
force, under capt. Mitchell ; the Sofas retired,. 
20 Sept. 1897 ; Bontuku included in the French 
sphere - Feb. rSgq> 

Buna and Wa occupied by a British force, Jan. ; 
French force also established there ; announced, 

Feb. 1898. 

Punitive expedition, under lieut.-col. Northcott, 
made C.B. July, 1898, and others ; enemy driven 
off, and their town occupied . . 19 April, ,„ 

Appeal to government against the house-tax at 

Accra 25 April, , r . 

See French West Africa, Oct. 1898. 

Mr. P. A. McCann takes 1,200 photographs during 
a 4 years' expedition in the Hinterland, visits 
unexplored country about the Gaboon and 
Blobey rivers, and collects valuable data, 
returns Feb. 1899 

Col. H. P. Northcott's Gambaga expedition very 
successful, British post established, order re- 
stored, March ; col. Northcott appointed adminis- 
trator of the Northern Territories, Aug. (killed 
at Modder river, see S. African War) . 28 Nov. ,., 

Frontier in the Hinterland of German Togoland, 
agreed to, announced . . . .8 Nov. ,,, 

Sir Fred. Hodgson entertains the loyal kings and 
chiefs of Ashanti who escaped with him from 
Kumassi (see Ashantees, 1900), at Accra, 6 Aug. 1900 

Anglo-French boundary-line completed, Jan. 1901-1902 

Col. Morris, chief commissioner of the Northern 
Territories ; British post established at Salaga, 
great progress and loyalty, reported, mid Aug. „ 

Railway completed from Sekondi to Akropong, 

9 Oct. „ 

GOLD FISH (the golden carp, cyprinus. 
auratus), brought to England from China in 1691 - r 
but not common till about 1723. 

GOLDEN BULLS, EOSE, see Bulls, Rose 7 
note. 

GOLDEN FLEECE (see Argonauts). Philip 
the Good, duke of Burgundy, in 1429, at his mar- 
riage, instituted the military order of " Toison d'or" 
or ''golden fleece;" it was said on account of the 
profit he made by wool. The number of knights 
was thirty-one. The king of Spain, as duke of 
Burgundy, afterwards became grand master of the 
order. The knights wore a scarlet cloak lined with 
ermine, with a collar opened, and the duke's cipher, 
in the form of a B, to signify Burgundy, togethe? 
with flints striking tire, with the motto "'Ants 
ferit, qua m flamma micat." At the end of the 
collar hung a golden fleece, with this device, 
"JPretium non vile laborum." The order afterwards 
oceanic common to all the princes of the house of 
Austria, as descendants of Marv, daughter of 
Charles the Bold, last duke of Burgundy, who 
married Maximilian of Austria in 1477, and now 
belongs to both Austria and Spain, in conformity 
with a treaty made 30 April, 172^. The prince of 
Wales, the duke of York and other royal princes 
are knights ( 1S95) ; president Faure," 1898 ; the 
duke of Connaught, 16 May, 1902 ; the shah of 
Persia, 6 Sept. i<)02. For the legend of the Golden 
Fleece, see Argonauts, 

GOLDEN HOEDE, a name given to the 
Mongolian Tartars, who established an empire in 
Kaptchak (or Kibzak), now S.E. Russia, about 
1224, their ruler being Batou, grandson of Gengis 
Khan. They invaded Russia, and made Alexander 
Newski grand-duke, 1252. At the battle of Biela- 
wisch, in 1481, they were crushed by Ivan III. and 
the Nogai Tartars. 



GOLDEN LEGEND. 



569 



GOODWOOD RACES. 



GOLDEN LEGEND, "Legenda Aurea." 
A name given to a collection of the lives of our 
Lord, the Old Testament worthies, and many 
Christian saints, with mnch Bible narrative, 
compiled by Giacomo Varragio, or Jacobus de 
Voragine, a Dominican monk, archbishop of Genoa 3 
1292-8. The work, which is of a very varied 
character, has afforded many subjects for poets and 
painters. A translation of" The Golden Legend," 
by William Caxton was printed by him in 1483, 
and became very popular. Of this, an edition iu 
3 vols., 4to, edited by William Morris and F. E. 
.Ellis, was published by Bernard Quaritch early in 
1893. 

GOLDEN NUMBER, the cycle of nineteen 
years, or the number that shows the years of the 
moon's cycle; its invention is ascribed to Meton, of 
Athens, about 432 B.C. Pliny. To find the golden 
number or year of the lunar cycle, add one to the 
date, and divide by 19; the quotient is the number 
of cycles since Christ, and the remainder the golden 
number. The golden number for 1893, r 3 ! x 894, 14; 
1805,15; 1896, 16; 1897, 17; 1898,18'; 1899, 19; 
1900, 1; 1901, 2; 1902, 3; 1903, 4; 1904, 5; 
1905, 6. 

GOLDEN WEDDING, see Wedding. 

GOLDSMID FAMILY. Aaron Goldsmid, 

a native of Holland, settled in London in 1763, and 

brought with him wealth and important commercial 

influence. His son Asher joined in establishing 

the firm of Mocatta and Goldsmid, bullion brokers 

to the Bank of England. The Goldsmids became at 

the end of the 18th and the beginning of the 19th 

century most distinguished financiers of the realm. 

Isaac Lyon, the son of Asher Goldsmid, was conspicuous 

in the formation of the London Institution, the 

building of the London Docks, the earliest attempts 

in the introduction of railways, the improvement of 

prisons, the establishment of the Society for the 

Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, and the founding of 

the London University (afterwards called University 

College). In his numerous national and philanthropic 

works he was aided by his sons, Francis Henry, and 

Frederick David. In 1844 the queen of Portugal 

conferred on him the title of Baron da Palmeira, in 

recognition of his services in regulating the debt due 

by Brazil to Portugal. Regarding him and his son 

Francis, see also " Jews." 

GOLDSMITHS' COMPANY (London) 
began about 1327, and incorporated 16 .Rich. II., 
1392. The old hall was taken down in 1829, and 
the present magnificent edifice by Philip Hard wick, 
was opened 15 J uly, 1835 ; see Assay, and Standard. 
The first bankers were goldsmiths. 

Goldsmiths' hall marks on gold and silver plate are five : — 
1. The sovereign's head (after 1784) ; 2, lion passant (the 
standard mark), probably introduced between 1538 and 
!558 ; 3, the standard mark, fixed 8 & 9 Will. III. 
1696-7 ; 4, leopard's head, the hall mark ; 5, the 
maker's mark (an old custom). 

[The date-letter is one of an alphabet of 20 letters ; A to 
U or V, J being omitted. The letter is changed on 30 
May annually, and the shape of the letter every 20 years| 
thus 1716, A, &c. ; 1736, a, &c. ; 1756, % &c. ; 1776, 
a, &c. ; 1796-1816, A, &c. ; 1816-36, a, <fec. ; 1836-56, 3, 
&c. ; 1856-76, a, &c. ; 1876-1896, A, <fec. The earliest 
known alphabetical series began 1438-9.] 

A parliamentary commission on hall marking reported 
in favour of its continuance with modifications, May, 
1879. 

The company offer about 85, oool. for the establishment of 
the goldsmiths company's polytechnic institute, New 
Cross, Surrey, Oct. 1888 ; accepted by the Charity 
Commissioners, 1889. See Polytechnic Institutions. 

Goldsmiths' exhibition at Vienna opened, 22 April, 1889. 

Mr. Chaffer's " Hall-marks on gold and silver plate," 
published 1863, 8th edition, with essay by C. A. 
Markham, illustrated, 1897. 



GOLF or GOFF, an ancient Scottish game 
in which the rival players drive hard white balls 
with clubs into holes placed at certain distances 
in the turf, according to rules laid down by the St. 
Andrews golf club, established 1754. The game 
was checked by the Scottish parliament, 1457 and 
1491, but it continued and was played at Leith in 
1516-75. The existing English golf club at Black- 
heath was founded by James I., 1608, but the game 
did not become popular till recent years. Golf clubs 
have been formed in the United Kingdom, colonies 
and abroad, 1893 et seq. Works on golf have been 
published oy Mr. Robert Clark, 1876 ; Messrs. W. 
& R. Chambers, 1887, and others. 

Winners of the Open Championship : 1896, H. 

Vardon, score, 316 ; 1897, H. H. Hilton, 314 ; 

1898, H. Vardon, 307 ; 1899, H. Vardon, 310 ; 

1900, J. H. Taylor, 309 ; 1901, J. Braid, 309 ; 

1902, A. Herd, 307 ; 1903, H. Vardon, 300. 
Mr. N. J. Travis, at Gordon city links, N. York, 

drove his ball 382 yds. ; claimed to be a world's 

record 22 Jan. 1903 

GOLIATH, training-ship, burnt, 22 Dec. 1875 ; 
see under Wrecks. 

GOMARISTS, see Arminians. 

GOMEL, Russia, anti-Semitic outrages on 
Jews, 11 Sept. 1903. See Russia. 

GONFALONIER, or Standard Bearer 

OF JUSTICE, originally a subordinate officer in 
Florence; instituted 1292; became paramount in 
the 15th century, and was suppressed, 27 April, 
1532, when the constitution was changed and Alex- 
ander de Medicis made duke. 

GONIOMETER. An instrument for measur- 
ing solid angles, used in crystallography. The 
contact goniometer of Carangeau is generally em- 
ployed. By the reflecting goniometer of Dr. Wm. 
Hyde Wollaston (who died in 1828) very minute 
crystals may be measured. Modifications of this 
instrument are now employed. 

GOOD FRIDAY (probably God's Friday), 
the Friday before Easter day, on which a solemn 
fast has long been held, in remembrance of the 
crucifixion of Christ on Friday, 3 April, 33, or 
15 April, 29. Its appellation of good appears to be 
peculiar to the church of England ; our Saxon fore- 
fathers denominated it Long Friday, on account of 
the length of the offices and fastings enjoined on 
this day. See Easter. 

GOODMAN'S FIELDS THEATRE, 

London, opened 1729. Here David Garrick made 
his debut as Richard III., 19 Oct. 1741. The new 
theatre erected about 1746, was burnt down, June, 
1802. The Garrick Theatre here was opened in 
1830; burnt, 4 Nov. 1846; and since rebuilt. 

GOOD TEMPLARS (first lodges formed in 
America, 185 1), pledge themselves not to make, 
buy, sell, furnish, or cause to be furnished, intoxi- 
cating liquors to others as a beverage. The first 
English lodge was formed by Joseph Malins at 
Birmingham in May, 1868. Grand lodge of 
England instituted by him, 1870. There were 
1,400 lodges, and 111,000 members of the Grand 
lodge in 1902. Annual sessions of the Grand 
lodge of England are held. Triennial congress 
held at Stockholm, mid July, 1902. The Grand 
lodge of Scotland has 1,171 lodges, and 96,000 
members. 500 lodges in Ireland and Wales. 

GOODWIN, see Godwin. 

GOODWOOD RACES, see Races. 



GOOJERAT. 



570 



GOSPELS. 



GOOJERAT (N. India), see Guzeral. 

GOORKHAS, a warlike tribe of Nepaul, 
became prominent in the 17th century. Their in- 
vasions were defeated about 1 791 by the Chinese, 
whose vassals they became. In a war with the 
British in 1814 they were at first successful, but 
were eventually subdued, and a treaty of peace was 
signed in Feb. 1816. Since 1841 the native regi- 
ments have been largely recruited by Goorkhas, 
who have rendered valuable service in nearly all 
our Indian wars, and in Afghanistan, 1878-9. 

GOOSE, see Michaelmas. 

GORDIAN KNOT, is said to have been made 
of the thongs that served as harness to the waggon 
of Gordius, a husbandman, afterwards king of 
Phrygia. Whosoever loosed this knot, the ends of 
which were not discoverable, the oracle declared 
should be ruler of Persia. Alexander the Gnat cut 
away the knot with his sword until he found the 
ends of it, and thus, in a military sense at least, 
interpreted the oracle, 330 B.C. 

GORDON MEMORIAL ; proposed by lady 
Burdett-Coutts in the Times, 24 Feb. 1885. See 
Khartoum and Mansion House. 

Committee formed : the prince of Wales, duke of Cam- 
bridge, archbishop of Canterbury, Mr. Gladstone, 
marquis of Salisbury, cardinal Maiming, Chinese 
minister, marquis of Lome, earl Granville and other 
persons, 24 Feb. et seq. 1885. 

Proposed grant of 20,000/. to the Gordon family, March. 
1885. 

Gordon Memorial Hospital at Port Said proposed at 
Mansion House, London, 14 March, 1885. 

Subscriptions 20,320/,. 19 Oct. i38s ; given to trustees of 
Gordon boys' home. Port Said hospital scheme given 
up, 30 May, 1885. 

Opening of penny subscription to establish a Gordon 
camp at Aldershot for the military training of 
destitute boys ; originated by Mr. Hallani Tennyson, 
May, 1885. 

Gordon league to provide entertainment for the very 
poor, instituted by the princess Louise and others, 19 
May, 1885 ; first meeting 18 Oct. 1885. 

A Gordon, memorial boys' home proposed 1 July, united 
with memorial fund, 20 July, opened at Fareham near 
Portsmouth, 1 Oct. 1885 Wulcing : 239 boys in the 
home, 31 Dec. 1902. Of 98 who left 32 joined the 
army and 3 the navy, making a total of 499 who have 
joined these two services direct from the home since 
1885. Enlisted after leaving the home, 80. income, 
1902, 9,185/. 

A statue proposed by government, about 14 July, 1S85. 

Statue by Mr. Bamo Thornycroft set up in Trafalgar- 
square, 25 Sept. ; uncovered by Mr. D. K. Plunket, 16 
Oct. 1888. 

Another statue, by Mr. Onslow Ford, at the school of 
military engineering, Chatham, uncovered by the 
prince of Wales, 19 May, 1890; and one at Gravesend, 

unveiled l.\ I he mayor, Mr.'G. M. Arnold, 4 Oct. 1893. 

Gordon memorial college at Khartoum, proposed 
by lord Kitchener, supported bj themarquisof 
Salisbury, 23 Nov. 1898. Opened . 7 Nov. 1902 

GORDON'S "NO POPERY" RIOTS, 
occasioned by the zeal of lord George Gordon, 
June 2-9, 1 780. 

On 4 Jan. 1780, he tendered the petition of the Protestant 
Association to lord North. 

On Friday, 3 •' 1, be beaded the mob of 40,000 pei sons 

who assembled in St t leorge's I'm 'Ms. under the 11a 

of the Protestant Association, to cany up a petition to 
parliament for the repeal of the act whirl, granted 
certain indulgences to the Roman Catholics, The mob 
proceeded to pillage, burn, and pull down the chapels 
and houses of the Roman Catholics Qrst, but after- 
wards of other persons, for nearlj six days, The Bank 
was attempted, the gaols opened (the King's Bench, 
Newgate, Fleet, and Bridewell prisons). On the 7th, 
thiity-six (ires were seen blazing at one time. At 
length i..\ the aid of ani ed associations of the citi ens, 



the horse and foot guards, and the militia of several 

counties, then embodied and marched to London, the 

riot was quelled on the 8th. 
210 rioters were killed and 248 wounded, of whom 75 

died afterwards in the hospitals, and many were tried, 

convicted and executed. 
The loss of property was estimated at i8o,oooZ. 
Lord George was tried for high treason and acquitted, 

5 Feb. 1781. He died a prisoner for iibel, 1 Nov. 1793. 
Alderman Kennett was found guilty of a dereliction of 

duty, 10 March, 1781. 

GOREE, a station near Cape Verd, W. coast 
of Africa, planted by the Dutch, 1617. It was 
taken by the English admiral Holmes in 1663 ; 
seized by the French, 1677 ; and ceded to them by 
the treaty of Nimeguen in 1678 ; taken by the 
British in 1758, 1779, 1800, and 1804; ceded to 
France, 1814. Governor Wall was hanged in Lon- 
don, 28 Jan. 1802, for the murder of sergeant Arm- 
strong, committed while governor at Goreein 1782. 

GOREY (S.E. Ireland). Near here the king's 
troops under colonel Walpole were defeated, and 
their leader slain, by the Irish rebels, 4 June, 1798. 

GORGET, the ancient breast-plate, was very 
large, varying in size and weight. The present 
diminutive breast-plate came into use about 1660, 
see Armour. 

GORHAM CASE, see Trials, 1849-50. 

GORILLA, a powerful ape of W. Africa, about 
5 feet 7 inches high. It is a match for the lion, 
and attacks the elephant with a club. It is 
considered to be identical with the hairy people 
called Gorullai by the navigator Hanno, in his 
Periplus, about 400 B.C. In 1847 a sketch of a 
gorilla's cranium was sent to professor Owen by Dr. 
Savage, then at the Gaboon river, and preserved 
specimens have been brought to Europe, and a 
living one died on its voyage to France. In 1851 
professor Owen described specimens to the Zoolo- 
gical Society ; in 1859 he gave a summary of our 
knowledge of this creature at the Royal Institution, 
London ; and in 1861 several skins and skulls were 
there exhibited by M. Du Chaillu (died 29 April, 
1903), who stated that he killed 21 of them in his 
travels in Central Africa. The gorilla was not 
known to Cuvier. 

A young gorilla landed at Liverpool, 21 June, 1876 ; went 
to Berlin ; was exhibited at Westminster aquarium, 
23 July ; died at Berlin, 13 Nov. 1877 ; another brought 
to the Crystal palace, England, soou died, Aug. 1879. 

An African gorilla landed at Liverpool, Sept. 1881. 

Another Sept. 1885. 

One placed in the zoological gardens, London, Oct. ; 
died 9 Dec. 1887. 

A large one brought from the French Congo to the gar- 
dens, 6 March, 1896. 

Johanna, the " educated " gorilla, performs at Olympia, 
27 Dec. 1897. 

GOSPELLERS, a name given to the followers 
of Wickliffe, who attacked the errors of popery, 
about 1377. Wickliffe opposed the authority of the 
pope, the temporal jurisdiction of bishops, &c, and 
is called the father of the Reformation. 

GOSPELS (Saxon god-spell, good story). Mat- 
thew's and Mark's are conjectured to have been 
written between a. D. 38 and 65 ; Luke's 55 or 65 ; 
John's, about 97. Irenseus in the 2nd century 
refers to each of the gospels by name. Dr. Robert 
Bray was one of the authors of the Society for the 
Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Countries, 
incorporated in 1701. A body termed "Bray's 
Associates," still exists; its object being to assist in 
forming and supporting clerical 1 aroehial libraries. 



GOSPOET. 



571 



GEACE. 



GOSPOET (Hampshire), contains the Royal 
Clarence victualling yard. The great Haslar hos- 
pital, near Gosport, was built in 1762. 

GOTHA, capital of the duchy of Saxe Coburg- 
Gotha. Here is published the celebrated Almanack 
de Gotha, which first appeared in 1764, in German. 
Population, 1890, 29,134; 1900, 34,651. 

GOTHAED, see Gotthard and Alps. 

GOTHENBUEG SYSTEM (in Sweden 
and Norway, about 1871). By this alcoholic 
drinks are dispensed by persons deriving no profit 
from the sale. It was advocated in England by 
Mr. Chamberlain, M.P., and much discussed, 
1876-7. The bishop of Chester introduced a bill 
for establishing the system, read first time, 2 
March, 1893; rejected by the lords, 6 June, 1893. 
The system advocated at a meeting at the Duke 
of "Westminster's, 6 July, 1894. Much controversy 
ensued, 1894-95. See the bishop's letter, in 
Times, 15 Jan. 1895, and " Sober by Act of Parlia- 
ment," by E. Goadby. 

GOTHIC AECHITECTUEE began about 
the 9th century after Christ, and spread ever Europe. 
Its great feature is the pointed arch ; hence it ha 
been suggested to callit the iminted style. " Gothic" 
was originally a term of reproach given to this style 
by the renaissance architects of the 16th century. 
Its invention has been claimed for several nations, 
particularly for the Saracens. The following list is 
from Godwin's Chronological Table of English 
Architecture : — 
Anglo-Roman— b. c. 55 to about a.d. 250— St. Martin's 

church, Canterbury. 
Anglo-Saxon — a.d. 800 to 1066 — Earl's Barton church ; 

St. Peter's, Lincolnshire. 
Gothic Anglo- Roman — a.d. 1066 to 1135 — Rochester 
cathedral nave ; St. Bartholomew's, Smithfleld ; St. 
Cross, Hants, <fce. 
Early English, or Pointed — a.d. 1135 to 1272 — Temple 
church, London ; parts of Winchester, Wells, Salis- 
bury, and Durham cathedrals, and Westminster Abbey. 
Pointed, called Pure Gothic— a.d. 1272 to 1377— Exeter 
cathedral, Waltham Cross, <&c, St. Stephen's, West- 
minster. 
Florid Pointed— a. d. 1377 to 1509— Westminster Hall ; 
King's College, Cambridge ; St. George's Chapel, Wind- 
sor ; Henry VII. 's Chapel, Westminster. 
Elizabethan- -a.d. 1509 to 1625-^Northumberland 
House, Strand, pulled clown 1874 ; part of Windsor 
Castle : Hatfield House, Schools at Oxford. 
Revival of Grecian architecture about 1625. Banqueting 

House, Whitehall, <fce. 
The revival of Gothic architecture commenced about 
1825, mainly through the exertions of A. W. Pugin. 
The controversy as to its expediency was rife in 1860-1. 

GOTHLAND, an isle in the Baltic sea, was 
conquered by the Teutonic knights, 1397-8 ; given 
up to the Danes, 1524; to Sweden, 1645; conquered 
by the Danes, 1677, and restored to Sweden, 1679. 
Mariestad almost entirely destroyed by fire, 5 Dec. 
1895. 

GOTHS, a warlike nation that inhabited the 
country between the Caspian, Pontus, Euxine, and 
Baltic seas. They entered Mcesia, took Philippo- 
polis, massacring thousands of its inhabitants ; de- 
feated and killed the emperor Decius, 251 ; but were 
defeated at Naissus by Claudius, hence surnamed 
Gothicus, 320,000 being slain, 269. Aurelian ceded 
Dacia to them in 272 ; but they long troubled the 
empire.*- After the destruction of the Roman western 
empire by the Heruli, the Ostrogoths, under Theo- 
deric, became masters of the greater part of Italy, 
where they retained their dominion till 553, when 
they were finally conquered bv IS!" arses, Justinian's 
general. y The Visigoths settled in Spain, and 



founded a kingdom, which continued until the 
country was subdued by the Saracens. 

GOTTHAED, ST., near the river Raab, Hun- 
gary. Here the Turks, under the grand vizier 
Kupriuli, were totally defeated by the Imperialists 
and their allies, commanded by Montecucnli, 1 Aug. 
1664. Peace followed this great victory. St. Gott- 
hard tunnel, opened 1882. See Alps. 

GOTTINGEN (Hanover), a member of the 
Hanseatic league about 1360. The university 
" Georgia Augusta," founded by George II. of 
England in 1734, was opened 1737. It was seized 
by the Trench, 1760, and held till 1762. In 1837 
several of the most able professors were dismissed 
for their political opinions. Population, 1890, 
23,693 ; 1900, 30,234. 

GOVEBNESSES' BENEVOLENT IN- 
STITUTION, was established in 1843, and incor- 
porated in 1848. It affords to aged governesses 
annuities and an asylum ; and to governesses in 
distress a temporary home and assistance. 

GOVEENMENT Annuities Act, see An- 
nuities. The building of the new Government 
Offices began in 1861. 

GOVEENMENT CONTEACTS, select 
committee (fair wages resolution of 13 Feb. 1891), 
appointed 1896-7 ; report issued 21 July, 1897. 
See Siveating. 

GOVEENMENT OF IEELAND BILLS, 

see Ireland, 1886, 1893. 

" GOVEENOUE, THE," a moral and educa- 
tional work, full of anecdotes, by sir Thomas Elyot, 
first published in 1531 ; an annotated edition with 
a glossary by Mr. H. H. S. Croft was published in 
1880. 

GOWEIE CONSPIEACY. John Ruthven, 
earl of Gowrie, in 1600, reckoning on the support of 
the burghs and the kirk, conspired to dethrone James 
VI. of Scotland, and seize the government. For 
tbis purpose the king was decoyed into Gowrie's 
house in Perth, on 5 Aug. 1600. The plct was frus- 
trated, and the earl and his brother, Alexander, 
were slain on the spot. At the time, many persons 
believed that the young men were rather the victims 
than the authors of a plot. Their father, William, 
was treacherously executed in 1584 for his share in 
the raid of Ruthven, in 1582; and he and his father, 
Patrick, were among the assassins of Rizzio, 9 
March, 1566. 

GEAAL, HOLY (Sangreal). The publication 
of Tennyson's poem '" Holy Grail," Dec. 1869, led 
to much discussion. Tennyson treats it as the cup 
in which Christ drank at the Last Supper. The 
mediaeval romances treat it as the dish which held 
the paschal-lamb. The word is probably old French, 
gre'al, from the old Latin gradalis, a dish. 

GEACE, a title assumed by Henry IV. of Eng- 
land, on his accession, in 1399. Excellent Grace 
was assumed by Henry VI. about 1425. Till the 
time of James I. 1603, the king was addressed by 
that title, but afterwards by the title of Majesty 
only. " Your Grace " is the manner of addressing 
an archbishop and a duke in this realm. — The term 
'■'■Grace of God" is said to have been taken by 
bishops at Ephesus, 431 (probably from 1 Cor. xv. 
10), by the Carlovingian princes in the 9th century, 
by popes in the 13th century; and about 1440 it was 
assumed b} r kings as signifying their divine right. 
"Dei gratia " was put on his great seal by 



GRACE AT MEAT. 



572 



GRAND PENSIONARY. 



William II. of England, and on his gold coin by 
Edward III. The king of Prussia's saying, that 
he would reign " by the grace of God," gave much 
offence, 18 Oct. 1861. 

GRACE AT MEAT- The ancient Greeks 
would not partake of any meat until they had first 
offered part of it, as the firstfruits, to their gods. 
The short prayer said before, and by some persons 
after, meat in Christian countries is in conformity 
with Christ's example, John vi. 11, &c. 

GRJECIA MAGNA, colonies planted by the 
Greeks, 974-748 b.c. ; see Italy. 

GRAFFITI, a term given to the scribblings 
found on the walls of Pompeii and other Eoman 
ruins ; selections were published by Wordsworth in 
1837, and by Garrucci in 1856. 

GRAFTON ADMINISTRATION, suc- 
ceeded that of lord Chatham, Dec. 1767. The duke 
resigned, and lord North became prime minister, 
Jan. 1770; see North' s Administration. 
Augustus Henry, duke of Grafton, first lord of the trea- 
sury [born, 1735 ; died 181 1]. 
Frederick, lord North, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Earl Gower, lord president. 
Earl of Chatham, lord privy seed. 
Earl of Shelburne aud Viscount Weymouth, secretaries of 

state. 
Sir Edward Hnwke, first lord of the admiralty. 
Marquis of Granby, master-general of the ordnance. 
Lords Sandwich and Le Despencer, joint postmasters- 
general. 
Lords Hertford, duke of Ancaster, Thomas Townshend, 

&c. 
Lord Camden, lord chancellor, succeeded by Charles 
Yorke (created lord Morden), died (it is said by his own 
hand) 20 Jan. 1770. 

GRAHAM'S DIKE (Scotland), a wallbuiltin 
209 by Severus Septimus, the lioman emperor, or, 
as others say, by Antoninus Pius. It reached from 
the Firth of Forth to the Clyde. Buchanan relates 
that there were considerable remains of this wall in 
his time, and vestiges of it are still to be seen. 

GRAIN. Henry III. is said to have ordered a 
grain of wheat gathered from the middle of the ear 
to be the original standard of weight : 12 grains to 
be a pennyweight; 12 pennyweights one ounce, and 
12 ounces a pound Troy. Lawson. 

An act for the safe carriage of grain (43 & 44 Vict. c. 43), 
passed 7 Sept. 1880. 

GRAMMARIANS. A society of grammarians 
was formed at Pome so early as 276 B.C. Blair. 
Apollodorus of Athens, Varro, Cicero, Messala, 
Julius Caesar, Nioias, ^Elius Donatus, Pemmius, 
Palcmon,Tyrannionof Pontus, Athenauis, and other 
distinguished men, were of this class. A Greek 
grammar was printed at Milan in 1476 ; Lily's 
Latin grammar (Brevis Institutio), 1513; Lindley 
Murray's English Grammar, 1795; Cobbett's English 
Grammar, 1818. — Harris's Hermes was published in 
1750, Home Tooke's "Epea Pteroenta," or the 
"Diversions of I'urley," in 1786, treatises on the 
philosophy of language and grammar. Cobbett 
declared Mr. Canning to have been the only purely 
grammatical orator of his time ; aud Dr. Parr, 
Bpeakingof a speech of Mr. Pitt's, said, " We threw 
our whole grammatical mind upon it, and could not 
discover one error." The science of grammar has 
been recently much studied with excellent results. 

GRAMMAR SCHOOLS, see Education. 

GRAMME, see Metrical System. Gramme 
machine, see under Electricity, 



GRAMMOPHONE and Graphophone, 
see under Phonograph. 

GRAMPIAN HILLS (central Scotland). At 
Ardoch, near Mons Grampius of Tacitus, the Scots 
and Picts under Galgacus were defeated by the 
Romans under Agricola, 84 or 85. 

GRAMPOUND (Cornwall) was disfranchised 
in 1821, for bribery and corrupt practices in 1819. 
Sir Manasseh Lopez was sentenced by the court of 
king's bench to a tine of 10,000^. and two years' 
imprisonment- 

GRAN (Hungary). Here the Hungarians 
defeated the Austrians, 27 Feb. 1849. 

GRANADA, a city, S. Spain, was founded by 
the Moors in the 8th century, and formed at first 
part of the kingdom of Cordova. In 1236, Mo- 
hammed-al-Hamar made it the capital of Ms new 
kingdom of Granada, which was highly prosperous 
till its subjugation by the " great captain," Gonsalvo 
de Cordova, 2 Jan. 1492, who is interred in the 
monastery of St. Geronimo. In 1609 and 1610 the 
industrious Moors were expelled from Spain, by the 
bigoted Philip III., to the lasting injury of his 
country. Granada was taken by marshal Soult in 
1810, and held till 1812. See New Granada. 
Granada is the seat of an archbishopric. The 
cathedral, begun in 1529, contains the tombs of 
Ferdinand and Isabella, and of Philip I. and his 
consort Juana. The university was founded 1531. 
Population, 1887: province, 484,638; city, 73,006; 
1897, province, 477,768 ; city, 75,054. 

In the province of Granada, five towns were destroyed, 
914 persons killed, with an immense loss of property, 
through the earthquakes of 25 Dec. ct seq. 1884. 

GRANARIES were formed by Joseph in 
Egypt, 1715 b. c. (Genesis xli. 48.) There were 
three hundred and twenty-seven granaries in Eome. 
Univ. Hist. Twelve new granaries were built at 
Bridewell to hold 6000 quarters of corn, and two 
store houses for sea-coal to hold 4000 loads, thereby 
to prevent the sudden dearness of these articles by 
great increase of inhabitants, 7 James I. 1610. 
Stow. 

GRAND ALLIANCE between the emperor 
and the Dutch States- General (principally to 
prevent the union of the French and Spanish 
monarchies in one person), signed at Vienna, 12 
May, 1689, to which England, Spain, and the duke 
of Savoy afterwards acceded. 

GRAND COMMITTEES, see Committees. 

GRAND-DUKE, see Duke. 

GRANDEES, see Spanish Grandees. 

GRAND JUNCTION CANAL (central 
England), joins several others, and forms a water 
communication between London, Liverpool, Bristol, 
and Hull. The canal commences at Braunston, on 
the west borders of Northamptonshire, and enters 
the Thames near Loudon. Executed 1793-1805. 

GRAND JURIES, see Juries. 

GRANDMONTINES, a monasticorder estab- 
lished in Limousin, in France, by Stephen, a 
gentleman of Auvergne, about 1076. They came to 
England in the reign of Henry I. (1 100-35). 
Tanner. 

GRAND PENSIONARY, a chief state 
functionary in Holland, in the 16th century. In 
the Constitution given by France to the Ba'tavian 



GEAND BEMONSTEANCE. 



573 



GEEAT EXHIBITION. 



republic, previously to the erection of the kingdom 
of Holland, the title was revived and given to the 
head of the government, 29 April, 1805, Rutger 
Jan Schimmelpenninck being made the grand 
pensionary ; see Holland. 

GEAND EEMONSTEANCE, see Remon- 
strance. 

GEANICUS (a river N.W. Asia Minor), near 
which, on 22 May, 334 B.C., Alexander the Great 
signally defeated the Persians. The Macedonian 
troops (30,000 foot and 5000 horse) crossed the 
Granicus in the face of the Persian army (600,000 
foot and 20,000 horse). Justin. The victors lost 
fifty-five foot soldier's and sixty horse. Sardis 
capitulated, Miletus and Halicarnassus were taken 
by storm, and other great towns submitted to the 
conqueror. 

GBANSON, near the lake of Neufchatel, 
Switzerland, where Charles the Bold, duke of 
Burgundy, was defeated by the Swiss, 3 March, 
1476. 

GEANTON PIEE, breakwater, &c. forming 
a harbour, on the Forth, three miles from Edin- 
burgh, were constructed by Messrs. Stevenson, at 
the cost of about 500,000^., given by Walter, duke 
of Buccleuch, 1835-44. 

GEAPES. Previously to the reign of Edward 
VI. grapes were brought to England in large quan- 
tities from t landers, where they were first cultivated 
about 1276. The vine was introduced into England 
in 1552 ; being first planted at Bloxhall, in Suffolk. 
In the gardens of Hampton-court palace is a vine, 
stated to surpass any in Europe ; it is 72 feet by 20, 
and has in one season produced 2272 bunches of 
grapes, weighing 18 cwt. ; the stem is 13 inches in 
girth; it was planted in 1769. Leigh. 

GEAPHIC, illustrated weekly journal, estab- 
lished 4 Dec. 1869. The Daily Graphic first 
appeared 4 Jan. 1890. 

GBAPHITE (from the Greek graphein, to 
write), a peculiar form of mineral carbon, with a 
trace of iron, improperly termed black lead and 
plumbago. In 1809 sir Humphry Davy investi- 
gated into the relations of three forms of carbon, 
the diamond, graphite, and charcoal. A rude kind 
of black-lead pencil is mentioned by Gesner in 1565. 
Interesting results of sir B. C. Brodie's researches 
on graphite appeared in the International Exhi- 
bition of 1862. Fresh discoveries were made in the 
nearly exhausted Borrowdale mines, Cumberland, 
in 1875. 

GEAPHOSCOPE, an optical apparatus for 
magnifying and giving fine effects to engravings, 
photographs, &c, invented by C. J. Rowsell; ex- 
hibited in 1871. 

GEAPHOTYPE, a new process for obtaining 
blocks for surface-printing, the invention of Mr. De 
Witt Clinton Hitchcock in i860. It was described 
by Mr. Fitz-Cook at the Society of Arts, 6 Dec. 
£865. Drawings were made on blocks of chalk with 
a silicious ink ; when dried, the soft parts were 
brushed away, and the drawing remained in relief ; 
stereotypes were then taken from the block. Now 
superseded by the zinco-type and other processes. 

GEATES. The Anglo-Saxons had arched 
hearths, and chafing-dishes were in use until the 
introduction of chimneys about 1200 ; see Chimneys, 
and Stoves. 



GEATTAN'S PAELIAMENT, a name 
popularly given to the Irish parliament, after it 
had been declared independent, mainly by the exer- 
tions of Henry Grattan, by an act passed in Eng- 
land, May, 1782. It came to an end by the passing 
of the Act of Union, 2 July, 1800. In 1806, Grattan 
said of his parliament " I have a parental recollec- 
tion. I sat by her cradle ; I followed her hearse." 
Grattan strongly urged the passing of an act for 
Catholic emancipation till his death 4 June, 1820. 

GEAVELINES (N. France). Here the 
Spaniards, aided by an English fleet, defeated the 
French on 13 July, 1558. 

GEAVELOTTE, Battle of, 18 Aug. 1870. 

See Metz. 

GEAVESEND, Kent (Domesday Graveshaf), 
on the Thames ; burned by the French, 1380 ; 
chartered by Elizabeth, 1562 ; fortified, 1588 ; de- 
structive fire, 24 Aug. 1727 ; another in 1850; has 
one M.P. by act of 1867. Population, 1881, 23,302 ; 
1891,24,067; 1901,27,175. 

GEAVITATION, as a supposed innate power, 
was noticed by the Greeks, and also by Seneca, who 
speaks of the moon attracting the waters, about 38. 
Kepler investigated the subject about 1615 , and 
Hooke devised a system of gravitation about 1674. 
The principles of gravity were demonstrated by 
Galileo at Florence, about 1633 ; but the great law 
on this subject, laid down by Newton in his 
" Principia," in 1687, is said to have been proved by 
him in 1670. The fall of an apple from a tree in 1666 
is said to have directed his attention to the subject, 

Newton says, " I do not anywhere take on me to define 
the kind or manner of any action, the causes or physi- 
cal reasons thereof, or attribute forces in a true and 
physical sense to certain centres, when I speak of 
them as attracting, or endued with attractive powers." 

On 15 July, 1867, M. Chasles laid before the Paris 
Academy of Sciences some letters alleged to be from 
Newton to Pascal and others tending to show that to 
Pascal was due the theory of gravitation. The authen- 
ticity of these letters was authoritatively denied, and 
their forgery and his own delusion were acknowledged 
by M. Chasles before the academy 13 Sept. 1869. 

GEEAT BETHEL, see Big Bethel. 

GEEAT BEITAIN, the name given in 1604 
to England, Wales, and Scotland {which see). 
King James I. styled himself king of Great Britain, 
1604. See Population. " Greater Britain," the title 
of sir Charles Dilke's book, describing his travels in 
the British colonies, published in 1868 ; 8th edition, 
June 1885. See British Empire. 

" Greater Britain " exhibition at Earl's court, 
Kensington, opened by the duke of Cambridge, 
8 May, 1899. 

GEEAT BEITAIN, EASTEEN, &c, see 
under Steam. — The Eastern Counties Railway 
assumed the name of Great Eastern in 1862, 
when it was incorporated. The Great Northern 
Railway Company, an amalgamation, ,was incor- 
porated in 1846. Their station at King's-cross, 
London, was opened in Oct. 1852. Grinling's 
" History " published, March, 1898. — The Great 
Western Railway opened as far as Maidenhead, 
4 June, 1838; as Twyford, 1 July, 1839; between 
London and Bristol, 30 June, 1841 ; was re-modelled 
by acts of 1867 and 1869.— Great Central name 
given to the Manchester, Sheffield and Lincoln- 
shire railway in 1897 on its extension to London 
terminus, Marylebone-road. 

GEEAT EXHIBITION, see Exhibition. 



GEE AT PAUL. 



574 



GEEECE. 



GEEAT PAUL, see Bells. 

GEEAT SEAL of ENGLAND. The first 
seal used by Edward the Confessor was called the 
broad seal, and affixed to the grants of the crown, 
IO48. Baker's Chron. The most ancient seal with 
arms on it is that of Richard I. James II., when 
fleeing from London in 1688, dropped the great seal 
in the Thames. The great seal of England was 
stolen from the house of lord chancellor Thurlow, 
in Great Ormond-street, and carried away, with 
other property, 24 March, 1784, a day before the 
dissolution of parliament ; it was never recovered, 
and was replaced the next day. A new seal was 
brought into use on the union with Ireland, 1 Jan. 
1801 . A new seal for Ireland was brought into use 
and the old one defaced, 21 Jan. 1832. The Great 
Seal Offices Act, passed 7 Aug. 1874, abolished 
certain offices, transferred duties, &c. The Great 
Seal Act passed, 2 Aug. 1880, relates to appoint- 
ment of judges, patents, &c. A new great seal for 
the United Kingdon, designed by Mr. De Saulles, 
to replace that of 1878, reported, 19 July, 1900. 

GEECO-TUEKISH WAE. 

Bands of Greek irregulars of the " Ethnike Hetai- 
ria," a national society, cross the frontier at 
Krania ; 12 hours fighting near Kalambaka, 9 
April ; Bettino and Bozovo taken by the Greeks, 

10 April, 1897 

Frontier raids by Greeks repulsed, 12 April ; severe 
conflict at Analipsis, Turks repulsed and their 
outposts captured, 16-18 April ; Turkish forts 
in the Ambracian gulf destroyed ; Prevesa bom- 
barded, 18-20 April ; desperate battle in the 
Maluna pass, Hafiz pasha (80), a hero in the 
Russo-Turkish war, killed ; Greek blockhouses 
carried by assault, 17-19 April ; severe lighting 
near Arta in Epirus, Bonghazi and Fort Vigla 
captured by the Greeks, 19 April ; Filippiada 
and Strevina burnt and abandoned by the Turks, 

21 April, ,, 

Greek fleet bombards Platamona and other places 
in the gulf of Salonika, 2 Turkish ships cap- 
tured 21-23 April, „ 

Severe battle at Mati on the road to Larissa, crown 
prince and prince Nicholas present ; Greeks de- 
feated 22, 23 April, ,, 

Greeks severely defeated at Reveni and Turnavo, 
on the plain of Larissa . . . 20-23 April, ,, 

Larissa, Turnova, and Reveni abandoned by the 
Greeks ; panic and stampede of men, women, 
and children, about 500 or 600 killed ; retreat of 
the Greeks to Phersala (Pharsalia), the crown 
prince the last to leave Larissa . 23-25 April ,, 

Gen. lticciotti Garibaldi arrives at Athens with 
volunteers 24 April, „ 

Nicopolis and other places bombarded by the 
Greeks, 23, 24 April ; the Turks recapture fort 
Pentepigadia, after severe lighting . 24 April, ,, 

Fight (7 hours) at Kumutzades ; Greek flight 

25 April, ,, 

Greek army (30,000) at Phersala, col. Smolensk] 
appointed chief commander, 29 April; Turks 
repulsed with loss by col. Smolensky's brigade at 
Velestino 3° April, ,, 

Battle of Pentepigadia, 28, 29 April ; panic ami 
flight 11I' llir Creeks . . 30 April, 1 May, ,, 

Phersala and Velestino attacked simultaneously 
by the Turku; creeks outnumbered and over- 
powered after desperate lighting and much 
slaughter; retreat to Domoko . . 5 May, ,, 

Vnl.i tie ■u].ie.l by llakki pasha, 8 May; Creek 
force routed and Ivauieriiiauccupicd by theTurks, 

8 May, ,, 

Col. Vassns ami the Greek army recalled from 
Crete -9 May, ,, 

Medial inn of the powers accepted; armistice pro- 
posed; Cretan autonomy agreed to bj Greece, 
1 1 M:.\ ; submitted to Turkej ta Maj ; Turkish 
conditions: 10,000,000!. T. indemnity, annexation 
of Thessaly. revision of treaties affording ex- 
territorial privileges; a cartel of extradition, to 
precede an armistice, presented . 15 May, ,, 



Severe fighting on the Imaret Heights 12-14 May, 1897 

Nicopolis and Prevesa besieged by the Greeks, 

13-15 May, „ 

Fierce battle near Gribovo, much slaughter, 

14 May, ,, 

The powers intervene, 16 May ; by request of the 
czar, the sultan orders suspension of hostilities, 

17 May, „ 

Desperate battle at Domoko, nearly 3,000 Turks 
killed ; Greeks retreat ; capt. Baratassi, in com- 
mand of foreign legion, killed, 17 May ; Domoko 
occupied, and the Phourka pass taken by the 
Turks, 18 May ; the Greeks fall back on Thermo- 
pylae, 19 May ; armistice : end of the war ; nego- 
tiations between the ambassadors and the porte, 
at Constantinople ; announced . . 20 May, ,, 

Collective note of the powers to the porte on the 
conditions of peace . . . .25 May, ,, 

The "Ethnike Hetairia" volunteers, disarmed; 
ordered 26 May, ,, 

Greece entrusts her cause to the powers 1 June, ,, 

Peace negotiations at Constantinople : the powers 
resist the demands of the porte as to the annex- 
ation of Thessaly, the capitulations, and the war ' 
indemnity 3 June et seq. „ 

Armistice till the close of the negotiations, signed 
at Lamia 3 June, ,, 

Greece protests to the powers of the infraction of 
the armistice by the Turks . . .18 June, „ 

The sultan refuses to accept the views of the 
powers on the boundary question . 7 July, „ 

The powers demand the cessation ol obstruction to 
peace negotiations . . . . 3, 8 July, ,, 

Turkish atrocities in Epirus and Thessaly ; re- 
ported July, „ 

Draft treaty of peace presented by the porte, 18 
July ; not accepted by the ambassadors, 19 July ; 
an irade promulgated accepting the frontier, 
with reservations, 21 July. See Greece, 18 Sept. 
1897; Turkey, 4 Dec. 1897. 

Full report of the war by the crown prince, issued, 

14 Jan. 1890 

GEEECE, anciently termed Hellas. The 
name of Graecia first occurs in the writings of Aris- 
totle (b.c. 384-322). Greece was so called from an 
ancient king, Grsecus, and Hellas from another king, 
Hellen, the son of Deucalion. From Hellen's sons, 
Dorus and JSolus, came the Dorians and ^Eolians ; 
another son Xuthus was father of Achaeus and Ion, 
the progenitors of the Achaeans and Ionians. 
Homer calls the inhabitants indifferently Myrmi- 
dons, Hellenes, and Achaians. They wei - e also 
termed Danai, from Dauaus, king of Argos, 1474 B.C. 
Greece anciently consisted of the peninsula of the 
Peloponnesus, Greece outside of the Peloponnesus, 
Thessaly, and the islands. The principal states of 
Greece were Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes, 
Arcadia, and afterwards Macedon (all which see). 
The limits of Modern Greece are much more con- 
fined. Greece became subject to the Turkish empire 
in the 15th century. The population of the kingdom, 
established in 1829, 96,810; in 1861, 1,096,810, with 
the Ionian isles (added in 1864), about 1,348, S22 
in 1870, 1,457,894; in 1879, 1,979,147; in 1889, 
2,187,208; 1896 2,433,806. The early history is 
mythic, and the dates purely conjectural. 

Sicyon founded (Eusebvus) .... b.c. 2089 

Uranus arrives in Greece (Lenglet) .... 2042 

Revolt ot the Titans ; War of the Giants . . . * * 

lnachus king of the Argives 1910 

Kingdom of Argos begun by lnachus (Euscbius) . 1856 

Reign of Ogyges in Bceotia (Eusebius) . . . . 1796 

Sacrifices to the gods introduced by Phoroneus . 1773 

Sicyon now begun (Lenglet) , 

1 k'iuge nl' ( >g\ ges (1 ■Inch sec) 1764 

A colony of Arcadians emigrate to Italy under 

CEnotrus : the country first called Qinotria, 

afterwards Magna Grcecia (Eusebius) . . . 1710 
The Pelasgi hold the Peloponnesus 1700-1550; suc- 

ceeded bj the Hellenes .... 1550-1300 
Chronology of the Arundelian marbles commences 

(Eusebius) 1582 

Cecrops arrives from Egypt . . . about 1550 



GEEECE. 



575 



GEEECE. 



The Areopagus established 1504 

Deluge of Deucalion (Eusebius) .... 1503 

Panathensean games instituted 1495 

Cadmus with the Phoenician letters settles in Boeotia, 

and founds Thebes about 1493 

Lelex, first king of Laconia, afterwards called 

Sparta 1490 

Danaus said to have brought the first ship into 
Greece, and to have introduced pumps (see Argos) 1485 

Reign of Hellen (Eusebius) 1459 

First Olympic games at Elis, by the Idcei Dactyli . 1453 
Who are said to have discovered iron . . . 1406 

Corinth re-built and so named 1384 

Eleusinian mysteries instituted by Eumolpus (1356) 

and Isthmian games 1326 

Kingdom of Mycente created out of Argos . . . 1313 
Pelops, from Lydia, settles in south Greece, 

(Peloponnesus) about 1283 

Argonautic expedition (which see) . . . . 1263 

The Pythian games begun by Adrastus . . „ 

War of the seven Greek captains against Thebes . 1225 

The Amazonian war 1213 

Rape of Helen by Theseus , 

Rape of Helen by Paris 1198 

Commencement of the Trojan war . . . . 1193 
Troy taken on the night of the 7th of the month 

Thargelion (27th of May, or nth June) (see Troy) 1184 
iEneas said to arrive in Italy . . . about 1182 
Migration of iEolians who build Smyrna, &c. . .1123 
Return of the Heraclidee .... about 1103 
Settlement of the Ionians in Asia Minor . . 1044 

The Rhodians begin navigation laws . . . . 916 

Lycurgus flourishes 884 

Olympic games revived at Elis, 884 ; the first 

Olympiad 776 

The Messenian wars 743-669 

Sea-fight, the first on record, between the Corin- 
thians and the inhabitants of Corcyra . . . 664 

Byzantium built 657 

Seven sages of Greece (Solon, Periander, Pittacus, 
Chilo, Thales, Cleobulus, and Bias) flourish, about 590 

Persian conquests in Ionia 544 

Sybaris in Magna Graecia destroyed : 100,000 Cro- 

tonians under Milo defeat 300,000 Sybarites . . 508 
Sardis burnt by the Greeks, which occasions the 
Persian invasion, 504 ; Thrace and Macedonia 

conquered 496 

Athens and Sparta resist the demands of the king 

of Persia 491 

The Persians defeated at Marathon . 28 Sept. 490 
Xerxes invades Greece, but is checked at Thermo- 
pylae by Leonidas Aug. 480 

Battle of Salamis (which see) ... 20 Oct. „ 
Mardonius defeated and slain at Platasa ; Persian 

fleet destroyed at Mycale ... 22 Sept. 479 
Battle of Eurymedon (end of Persian war) . . . 469 
Athens begins to tyrannise over Greece . . . 459 

The sacred war begun 448 

War between Corinth and its colony Corcyra . . 435 
Leads to the Peloponnesian war .... 431-404 
Disastrous Athenian expedition to Syracuse 415-413 

Retreat of the 10,000 under Xenophon . . . 400 

Death of Socrates 399 

The sea-fight at Cnidus 394 

The peace of Antalcidas 387 

Rise and fall of the Theban power in Greece . 370-360 
Battle of Mantinea ; death of Epaminondas . . 362 
Ambitious designs of Philip of Macedon . . . 353 
Sacred wars ended by Philip, who takes all the 

cities of the Phoceans 346 

Athens and allies declare war against Philip, 340 ; 

who totally defeats them at Chasronea (which see) 338 
Philip assassinated by Pausanias . . . . 336 
Alexander, his son, subdues the Athenians, and 

destroys Thebes , ,, 

Alexander conquers the Persian empire, 334-331 ; 

dies 323 

Greece harassed by his successors ; the iEtolian and 

Achaian leagues revived 284-280 

Greece invaded by the Gauls, 280 ; they are defeated 

at Delphi, 279 ; and expelled .... 277 
Dissensions' lead to Roman intervention . . . 200 
Macedon made a Roman province, after the defeat 

of the last king, Perseus, at Pydna . . . . 168 
Greece conquered by Mummius and made a Roman 
province 147-146 



Greece visited and favoured by Augustus, 21 b.c. ; 

and by Hadrian a. d. 122-133 

Invaded by Alarie 3g 6 

Plundered by the Normans of Sicily . . . . n 4 6 
Conquered by the Latins, and subdivided into 

small governments I2 o4 

The Turks under Mahomet II. conquer Athens and 

part of Greece 1456 

The Venetians hold Athens and the Morea . . 1466 
Greece mainly subject to the Turks . . . . 1540 
The Morea held by Venice, 1687 ; till taken by the 

Turks i 7I5 

Great struggle for independence with Russian help ; 

1770 et seq. , fruitless insurrection of the Suliotes 1803 
Secret Society, the Hetairia, established . . .1815 
Insurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia, in which 

the Greeks join, suppressed 1823 

Proclamation of prince Alexander to shake off the 
Turkish yoke, March, 1821 ; he raised the stan- 
dard of the cross against the crescent and the 
war of independence began . . 6 April, ,, 
The Greek patriarch put to death at Constantinople 

23 April, „ 
The Morea gained by the Greeks . . June, ,, 
Missolonghi taken by Greeks . . . . Nov! ,, 
Independence of Greece proclaimed . . 27 Jan. 1822 
Siege of Corinth by the Turks . . . Jan. „ 
Bombardment of Scio ; its capture ; most horrible 
massacre recorded in modern history (see Chios) 

n April, ,, 
The Greeks victors at Thermopylae, &e. 13 July, „ 

Massacre at Cyprus July, 

Corinth taken z q Sept! 

National congress at Argos . . .10 April, 1823 
Victories of Marco Botzaris, June ; killed 10 Aug.' 
Lord Byron lands in Greece to devote himself to its 

cause Aug. 

First Greek loan p e b! 1824 

Death of lord Byron at Missolonghi . . 19 April, 
Defeat of the capitan pacha, at Samos . 16 Aug! ',' 
Provisional government of Greece set up 12 Oct. ,, 
Ibrahim Pacha lands, 25 Feb. ; takes Navarino, 23 

May; Tripolitza 30 June, 1825 

The Greek fleet defeats the capitan pacha June, 
The provisional government invite the protection 

of England July, 

Ibrahim Pacha takes Missolonghi by assault, after a 

long and heroic defence . . . . 23 April, 1826 
70,000^. raised in Europe for the Greeks . 
Rescind Pacha takes Athens . . .2 June, 1827 
Egypto-Turkish fleet destroyed at Navarino, 20 Oct! 
Treaty of London, between Great Britain, Russia, 
and France, on behalf of Greece, signed 6 July, 
Count Capo d'Istria president of Greece 18 Jan! 1828 
The Panhellenion or Grand Council of State estab- 
lished 2 Feb. 

National bank founded . . . . I4 Feb. 

Convention of the viceroy of Egypt with sir Edward 

Codrington, for the evacuation of the Morea, and 

delivery of captives .... 6 Auo-. 

Patras, Navarino, and Modon surrender to the 

French 6 Oct. 

The Turks evacuate the Morea . . . Oct. 
Missolonghi surrendered to Greece . . 16 May! 18*29 
Greek National Assembly commences its sittings 

at Argos 23 July, „ 

The Porte acknowledges the independence of 
Greece by the treaty of Adrianople . 14 Sept. 
Prince Leopold declines the sovereignty 21 May, i8"o 
Count Capo d'Istria, president of Greece, assas- J 
sinated by the brother and son of Mavromichaelis, 
a Mainote chief whom he had imprisoned, 9 Oct! 1831 
The assassins immured within close brick walls, 
built around them up to their chins, and sup- 
plied with food until they died . . 29 Oct. 
Otho of Bavaria made king of Greece by a conven- 
tion signed 7 May, 1832 

Colocotroni's conspiracy .... Sept. 

He is condemned but spared . . .7 June, 1834 
Otho I. assumes the government . . 1 June! 1835 
University at Athens established, 1837 ; building 

commenced ° x 3,q 

A bloodless revolution at Athens is consummated', 
establishing a new constitution, enforcing minis- 
terial responsibility and national representation, 

14 Sept. 1843 
The king accepts the new constitution 16 March, 1844 



GREECE. 



576 



GREECE. 



Admiral Parker, in command of the British Medi- 
terranean fleet, blockades the harbour of the 
Pirseus, the Greek government having refused the 
payment of moneys due to British subjects, and 
to surrender the islands of Sapienza and Caprera, 

1 8 Jan. 1 8. so 
France interposes her good offices, and the blockade 

is discontinued i March, „ 

Negotiations terminate, and the blockade of Athens 

is renewed 25 April, „ 

Dispute with France accommodated . 21 June. „ 

Insurrections against Turkey in Thessaly and Epi- 
rus, favoured by the Greek court, Jan. and Feb. ; 
lead to a rupture between Greece and Turkey, 

28 March, 1854 

After many remonstrances, the English and French 

governments send troops which arrive at the 

Piraeus ; change of ministry ensues, and the king 

promises to observe a strict neutrality, 25, 26 May, „ 

A newspaper in the modern Greek language printed 

in London, beginning .... 9 July, i860 
Great Britain, France, and Russia remonstrate 
with the Greek government respecting its debts, 

18 Oct. „ 
Agitation in the Ionian isles for annexation to 

Greece ; the parliament prorogued . . March, 1861 
The king retires to Bavaria .... July, ,, 
Attempted assassination of the queen by Darios, an 

insane student 18 Sept. ,, 

Great earthquake in the Peloponnesus . 26 Dec. ,, 
(Leopold of Bavaria proposed as heir to the throne, 

Jan. 1862 
Military revolt begins at Nauplia . . 13 Feb. „ 
Blockade of the coast decreed . . 9 March, „ 
The insurgents demand reforms and a new succes- 
sion to the throne April, ,, 

The royal troops enter the citadel of Nauplia ; in- 
surgents removed .... 25 April, „ 
Change of ministry : Colocotroni becomes premier, 

7 June, ,, 
Insurrection begins at Patras and Missolonghi, 17 
Oct. ; a provisional government, established at 
Athens, deposes the king, 23 Oct. ; he and the 
■queen flee ; arrive at Corfu, 27 Oct. ; the Euro- 
pean powers neutral ; general submission to pro- 
visional government .... 31 Oct. „ 
Great demonstrations in favour of prince Alfred of 
Great Britain, who is proclaimed king at Lamia 
in Phthiotis, 22 Nov. ; great excitement in his 

favour at Athens 23 Nov. „ 

The provisional government establish universal 

suffrage 4 Dec. „ 

The national assembly meets at Athens . 22 Dec. ,, 
The national assembly elects M. Balbis president, 
29 Jan. ; and declares prince Alfred king of 
Greece by 230,016 out of 241,202 votes . 3 Feb. 1863 
Military revolt of lieut. Canaris against Bulgaris 
and others, who resign, 20 Feb. ; a new ministry 
appointed under Balbis . . . .23 Feb. „ 
The assembly decides to offer the crown to prince 
William of Schleswig-Holstein, 18 March ; pro- 
claim him as king George I. . .30 March, „ 
Protocol between the three protecting powers, 
France, England, and Russia, signed at London, 
consenting to the utter of the crown on condition 
of the annexation of the Ionian isles to Greece, 

5 June, ,, 

The king of Denmark accepts from the aged admiral 

Canaris the Greek crown for prince William, 

whom he advises to adhere to the constitution 

and gain the love of his people . . 6 June, „ 

Military revolt at Athens, suppressed 30 June — 

9J ,l 'y. »> 
The king arrives at Athens, 30 Oct. ; takes the oath 

to the constitution 31 Oct. „ 

The Balbis ministry formed . . 28 April, 1864 

Protocol annexing the Ionian isles to Greece, signed 
by M. Zaftnis and sir ll. Storks, 28 May; the 
Greek troops occupy Corfu, 2 June; the king 

arrives there 6 June, ,, 

New ministry under Canaris formed . 7 Aug. „ 

The assembly recognises the debt of 1824 5 Sept. ,, 

After much delay, and a remonst ranee from the king, 

19 Oct. a new constitution (with no upper-house) 

is passed by the assembly, 1 Nov. ; and accopted 

by the king 28 Nov. „ 



New ministry under Coumoundouros 29 March, 1864 
The anniversary of the beginning of the war of inde- 
pendence (6 April, 1821) kept with enthusiasm, 

6 April, „ 
The king visits the eastern provinces; general 

tranquillity 20 April, „ 

The king opens chamber of deputies . 9 June, ,, 
Death of Alexander Mavrocordato, one of the early 

patriots 18 Aug. „ 

The king gives up one-third of his civil list to re- 
lieve the treasury 25 Sept. „ 

An economical financial policy proposed ; a new 

ministry formed Nov. „ 

Brigandage prevails ; frequent ministerial changes 
under Deligeorges, Coumoundouros, Bulgaris, and 

Koufos Oct. 1865— June, 1866 

New ministry under Bulgaris and Boufos, 23 Jan. „ 
Chambers vote payments to themselves ; suddenly 

dissolved by the king .... 3 Feb. „ 
Great agitation in favour of the Cretan insurrection 

(see Candid) Aug. -Dec. ,, 

New ministry headed by Coumoundouros . Jan. 1867 
Manifesto of the so-named "Greek nation," issued 

at Paris 19 A P ril > » 

Great sympathy with the insurrection in Candia ; 
the blockade ran by Greek vessels with volun- 
teers, arms, and provisions . . April et seq. ,, 
Marriage of the king with the grandduchess Olga 

of Russia 27 Oct. „ 

Their cordial reception at Athens . . 24 Nov. ,, 
New ministry under Moraitinis, 1 Jan. ; under Bul- 
garis Feb. 1868 

Constantine, duke of Sparta, heir to the crown, 

born 2 Aug. ,, 

Greek vessel Enosis fires on Turkish vessels and 

enters port of Syra .... 14 Dec. „ 
Rupture between Turkey and Greece in conse- 
quence of Greek armed intervention in Candia 

(which see) Dec. „ 

After a conference of representatives of the Western 

powers at Paris, Jan., their requisitions were 

accepted, and diplomatic relations between 

Turkey and Greece resumed . . .26 Feb. 1869 

Prince and princess of Wales visit Athens, 19 April, „ 

Law authorising the cutting the isthmus of Corinth 

passed 7 Nov. ,, 

New ministry under M. Zai'mis ... 9 Jan. 1870 
Concession to cut a canal through the isthmus of 

Corinth granted to a French company . April, „ 
Lord and lady Muncaster and a party of English 
travellers seized by brigands at Oropos, near 
Marathon ; lord Muncaster and the ladies sent to 
treat ; 25,000^. demanded as ransom, with free 

pardon 11 April, ,, 

The brigands retreating, and surrounded by troops, 
kill Mr. Vyner, Mr. Lloyd, Mr. Herbert, and the 

count de Boyl 21 April, „ 

Great excitement ; the king shows great liberality ; 
but many influential persons are charged with 
connivance at brigandage . . May, June, „ 

Several brigands killed ; seven captured, tried and 

condemned, 23 May ; five executed . 20 June, ,, 
A new ministry under M. Deligeorges . 19 July, ,, 
Greek college opened at Bayswater, London, W. iOct. ,, 
Decree for suppression of brigandage issued Oct. „ 
Two gentlemen carried off .... 11 Oct. ,, 
A new ministry under M. Coumoundouros 22 Dec. ,, 
Coumoundouros ministry resigns . . 6 Nov. 1871 

Succeeded by Zaimis 8 Nov. ,, 

Bulgaris minister, 7 Jan. ; resigns ; Deligeorges 

again minister ..... 26 July, 1S72 
The Laurium mines of lead, zinc, &c. , were pur- 
chased by MM. Roux and Serpieri and a company, 
1863; and worked profitably; roads being made 
and a village built. The mines having been heavily 
taxed and scoria.' claimed by the government, 
loss ensued ; the company's offer to sell the mines 
to the government was accepted, but payment 
evaded by the legislature. Hence arose disputes 
witli France and Italy, and ministerial changes 

in Greece autumn, ,, 

Speech of the king to the legislature, announcing 
formation of roads and other improvements. 
[The Laurium mines had been purchased by M. 
Syngros, a Greek capitalist, supported by the 
bauksj 25 Feb. 1873 



GREECE. 



577 



GREECE. 



52nd anniversary of Greek independence kept in 

London 5 April, 1873 

The university at Athens closed, through insubor- 
dination of the students . . . . Dec. ,, 
New cabinet under Bulgaris, 22 Feb. ; resigns, 27 

April ; resumes office . . . 7 May, 1874 

Tricoupi minister, 8 May ; dissolves chambers, 31 

May ; meet Aug. 1875 

Greece neutral in regard to insurrection in the 

Herzegovina .... July — Sept. „ 
The prince of Wales warmly received at Athens, 

18 Oct. „ 
New ministry under Coumoundouros, about 27 Oct. ,, 
Several ex-ministers fined for extortionfrom bishops 

and others on appointment . . . April, 1876 
The king and queen travelling in England in July ; 

at the Crystal palace .... 19 July, „ 
Greece neutral in the Servian war . . July, „ 
Deligeorges forms a ministry, 8 Dec. ; replaced by 

Zaimis and Coumoundouros . . 10 Dec. ,, 
Deligeorges prime minister, 10 March — 28 May ; 
succeeded by a coalition ministry, 29 May ; re- 
formed under the aged Canaris . . 3 June, 1877 
National excitement for war allayed by the king, 

29 May, ,, 

Discovery of relics at Spata near Athens ; tombs 

containing bones, precious metal ornaments, &c. 

(removed to Athens byM. Stamataki) about 1 July, ,, 

Revival of the Theban " sacred band," instituted 

by Epaminondas (to be 1000 instead of 300) about 

July, „ 
Death of the aged Canaris, 14 Sept. ; the king takes 

his place as president . . . 14 Sept. ,, 
British and Turkish governments remonstrate with 
Greece for apparently arming against Turkey, ■ 

Sept., Oct. ,, 
Death of Bulgaris, statesman, about . 10 Jan. 1878 
New ministry under Coumoundouros . . 23 Jan. ,, 
Insurrection in Thessaly against Turks, 28 Jan. ; 
10,000 Greeks enter the country, retire at the 

armistice early in Feb. „ 

Insurrection struggling ; battles at Macrinitza, 28, 29 
March ; Mr. C. Ogle, Times correspondent, killed 
by Turks (investigation led to no result) 29 March, ,, 
Insurrection closed through British intervention ; 

announced 6 May, ,, 

Greece disappointed by the Berlin treaty, 13 July : 
rectification of the frontiers by the sultan, pro- 
posed about 24 July, ,, 

Safvet Pacha's despatch resisting the claims for 

Greece 8 Aug. ,, 

New ministry under Tricoupi . . -31 Oct. „ 
Defeated in assembly, 4 Nov. ; Coumoundouros 

forms a ministry 7-10 Nov. „ 

Recruiting law for the army (all men between 21 

and 40 liable) Nov. ,, 

Death of Deligeorges, late minister . . 26 May, 1879 
Monument of Mr. Ogle set up at Athens . Aug. ,, 
Recruiting law came into force . . .1 Jan. 1880 
Crisis ; Coumoundouros remains . . 28 Jan. ,, 
Tricoupis ministry formed . . 22 March, „ 

Berlin conference to propose settlement of the 

Turkish and Greek frontiers, meets . 16 June, ,, 
The king visits England ; receives freedom of Lon- 
don, 16 June ; leaves . 5 July, ,, 
Order for mobilisation of the army signed, 5 Aug. ,, 
The king and queen arrive at Athens after a long 
European tour ; national feeling warlike ; Thes- 
saly and Epirus demanded . . .17 Oct. ,, 
King's speech opening parliament ; moderate and 

firm 21 Oct. ,, 

Tricoupis ministry defeated ; resigns . 22 Oct. ,, 
Coumoundouros forms a ministry . . 25 Oct. ,, 
Much discussion with negotiations respecting 
Greek and Turkish frontiers, (see Turkey), 

Oct. 1880— May, 1881 
Convention between Turkey and Greece agreed to 
at Constantinople ; Thessaly ceded to Greece, 

24 May ; signed 2 July, ,, 

Carried into effect ; Greek flag raised in Arta, 6 July, , , 
The parliament dissolved by the king . 4 Nov. ,, 
New ministry under Tricoupi . . 15 March, 1882 
Cutting of the Isthmus of Corinth begun (see 

Corinth) . 5 May, ,, 

Frontier disputes in Thessaly, between Greeks and 
Turks, at Navantyk, near Derbend, Bosnia, 

about 26 Aug , 



Settlement . . . . . .9 Nov. 

Death of the statesman Coumoundouros, much 
lamented 9 March, 

Improved finances ; good budget, announced March, 

Tricoupis ministry resigns, 17 Feb. ; M. Delyannis 
unsuccessful ; M. Tricoupi resumes office 

21 Feb. 

Chamber dissolved 23 Feb. 

Railway between Athens and Corinth opened 

15 April, 

Tricoupis ministry resigns through minority in 
elections about 20 April ; Delyannis ministry 
formed 1 May, 

Enthusiastic military movements consequent upon 
the coup d'etat in Roumelia . . . Oct. 

Vote for loan of 1,200,000?. ... 7 Nov. 

Increased warlike demonstration ; British inter- 
vention supported by the great powers, about 
23 Jan. ; foreign ironclads sent to Suda bay, 
Crete 30 Jan. et seq. 

Great discovery of statuary, &c, near the Acropolis, 
Athens 

National fete to commemorate declaration of inde- 
pendence in 1821, 6 April, 1884, and . 6 April, 

Proposed loan of about 8oo,oooL to raise the army 
from 85,000 to 110,000, about 14 April ; and calling 
out of reserves 19 April, 

Ultimatum of the powers calling upon Greece to 
disarm, delivered 26 April ; special intervention 
of the French minister, about 26 April ; inadequate 
reply of Greece 30 April, 

The British, Austrian, German, and Italian 
ambassadors leave Athens ... 7 May, 

Greek troops sent to the front . . 7, 8 May, 

Blockade of Greek ports notified and enforced, 

8 May, 

Resignation of M. Delyannis, 9 May ; M. Tricoupis 
declines to form a ministry, 10 May ; M. 
Papamichalopoulos also declines, 11 May ; pro- 
visional one formed by M. Valvis, 12 May ; 
succeeded by M. Tricoupi . . 20 May, 

The king signs a decree for disarmament, 24 May, 
announced to the powers . . . 1 June 

Fighting at the outposts near Nezeres ; the origin 
uncertain ; 20, 21 May ; about 200 killed and 
wounded ; armistice agreed on, 24 May ; formal 
declaration of the raising of the blockade, 7 June, 

Great electoral reform bill passed . 17 June, 

New chamber opened .... 3 Feb. 

The 100th anniversary of the birth of Lord Byron, 
celebrated at the Greek church, Bayswater, 
London, W 22 Jan. 

The king returns to Athens after a foreign tour 

" 8 Oct. 

Celebration of the 25th anniversary of the king's 
accession 31 Oct. 

National industrial exhibition at Athens opened by 
the king 1 Nov. 

Marriage of the princess Alexandra and the arch- 
duke Paul of Russia . . . . 17 June, 

The king visits Paris . . . .22 July, 

Marriage of the duke of Sparta and the princess 
Sophie of Prussia, at Athens, in the presence of 
the empress Frederick (her mother), the king 
and queen of Greece (his parents) ; the king and 
queen of Denmark, the German emperor and 
empress, the prince and princess of Wales, the 
czarewitch of Russia, and other relatives, 27 Oct. 

Prince Albert Victor of Wales at Athens, 

17 April et seq. 

Formation of a " Young Greek party " at Athens, 
leader M. Ralli Aug. 

Statues, &c, supposed to be the work of Phidias, 
at Rhamnus in Attica ; discovered during ex- 
cavations made for the Archasological school of 
Athens ; reported ..... Oct. 

Elections ; great majority for the opposition, 

26 Oct. 

M. Tricoupi resigns, 28 Oct. ; M. Delyannis forms 
a ministry, 3 Nov. ; the new chamber opened by 
the king .10 Nov. 

Loan from C. J. Hambro & Son .... 

By an avalanche near Trikkala, 25 persons are 
killed . . 29 Jan. : 

Seventieth anniversary of Greek independence, 
celebrated 6 April, 

Death of the grandduchess Paul (see above, 1889), 

25 Sept. 
P P 



886 



GEEECE. 



578 



GEEECE. 



A commission exonerates M. Tricoupi from charges 

against him, about .... 27 Dec. : 

Mr. Egerton, appointed British minister at Athens, 
in succession to tlie hon. sir Edmund J. Monson, 
about 21 Jan. : 

A fanatical mob attack and destroy the new Pro- 
testant church at the Pirans and ill-use the 
ministers and congregation ; the riots suppressed 
by the military 14 Feb. 

The proposed impeachment of M. Tricoupi 
dropped by the government . . .22 Feb. 

The king, for financial reasons, dismisses M. Del- 
yannis ; a new ministry formed by M. Constan- 
topoulo, 1 March ; the king is supported by the 
parliament, large retrenchments to be made, 

5 March, 

Dissolution of the chamber, 25 March ; new 
chamber elected; majority for M. Tricoupi, is 
May ; he forms a new ministry . 22 June, 

Dispute respecting Greek schools in Bulgaria (which 
see) 1 Oct. et seq. 

Dispute with Rouniania respecting a legacy to sup- 
port Greek institutions, from Constantine Zappa 
and his brother, residents, declared illegal by 
Rouniania ; ineffectual negotiations ; diplomatic 
rupture about 15 Oct. 

[The Roumanian courts adjudge the property to the 
heirs, 16 March, 1893. Diplomatic relations re- 
newed, July, 1896.] 

Parliament opened, 10 Nov. ; budget introduced ; 
improved financial prospects, 30 Nov. i 9 Q2; 
report by major Fitzgerald Law, a British agent 

March, 1 

Visit of the princess of Wales, the dukeof York, and 
her daughters ... 10 April— 2 May, 

Dr. C. Waldstein conducts explorations at the 
Herajum or temple of Hera, between Argos and 
Mycense April, 

Failure of attempts to procure a loan ; the ministry 
resigns, 10 May ; new ministry under M. Sotiro- 
poulos 14 May, 

Convention for a loan of 4,000,000/. at 5 per cent, 
from Messrs. Hambro, of London, &c, signed, 

11 Jur.e, 

Explosion of powder and dynamite magazines at 
Scarainanga, near Salamis ; 16 deaths . 16 June, 

The Corinth canal opened (see Corinth, 1882 etseq.) 

6 Aug. 

The chamber opened by the king ; the convention 
for a loan from London reported unsuccessful, 

8 Nov. 

Resignation of M. Sotiropoulos ; succeeded by M. 
Tricoupi 11 Nov. 

Great financial embarrassment . . . . Nov. 

Bill annulling the funding loan and authorizing 
reduction of interest on foreign loans, passed 

16 Dec. 

Bill for the readjustment of the Greek debt signed 

by the king, reported . . . . 24 Dec. 

Introduction of budget; sanguine promises 2 Jan. 

The Russian fleet in the Piraeus ; left . 21 Jan. 

The government financial measures passed after 
much discussion, 20 March; the chamber pro- 
rogued ! April, 

Destructive earthquakes at Thebes (n-lilrh sir), 
Livadia, Atalanti, Chalcis, and many villages; 
slight shucks at Athens; 207 deaths reported, 
20 April - 7 May; royal decree lor a grant to 
relieve the sufferers, 29 April ; much assistance 
given by Russian and British ships (see Mansion 
House fmiii) May, 

A military commission appointed to reconstruct 
villages, &c, May ; 400 deaths reported up to 

1 May, 

Negotiations between tin- government and foreign 
bondholders rune, 

M. Tricoupi's proposals accepted by the French 
"iily 23 July, 

increase of brigandage ; a judge and officer killed; 
a band of brigands exterminated ail it a Hghf with 
the military, near Lamia, reported . .'.iSepl. 

Mr, •im- ol il Iiamber . . . .8 Nov. 

Much opposition to proposed taxation; military 
called o:it to suppress rioting . . 17. Ian. 

Resignation of the ministrj (owing to the crown 
prince's interference t" stopa conflict between 
the military and tin' ]"• >ple on 10 Jan.) ■ • ' in. 



New ministry formed by M. Nikolaos Delyanni, 

24 Jan. 

Elections ; government majority . 29 April, 

A pension awarded to M. Tricoupi . . May, 

A large capture of brigands at Kravasara and 
Tsuka 4, 21 June, 

M. Zaiinis elected president of the chamber ; 
ministry resigns ; a cabinet formed by M. Theo- 
dore Delyanni 11 June, 

Great distress ; opposition to the currant tax, 

July, 

Budget passed, and parliament prorogued 1 Aug. 

Statue 01 lord Byron, the poet, with the inscrip- 
tion, "Hellas to Byron," at Athens, unveiled by 
the king 2 March, 

Budget passed by the chamber, 28 hours' debate 

28 March, 

Revival of the Olympic games (which see) 6 April 

Death of M. Charilaos Tricoupi (born, 1832) at 
Cannes, 11 April; funeral at Athens, the king 
and royal family and about 50,000 persons 
present . 23 April, 

Cretan refugees (9000) arrive at the Piraeus, 2 Aug. 

Public meeting at Athens expressing gratitude to 
the powers for their intervention in Crete, 5 Sept. 

75 brigands and others executed at Athens, n Sept. 

The chamber opened .... 5 Nov. 

The king issues a rescript for the increase and 
maintenance of the army ; reported . 6 Dec. 
See Inundations, 23 Dec. 1896. 

The queen lays the foundation stone for a new 
hostelry for students at Athens . . 14 Jan. 

Flotilla under prince George, sanctioned by parlia- 
ment, sails for Crete .... 10 Feb. 

The government appeals to the powers . n Feb. 

Departure of troops for Crete from the Piraeus, 

14 Feb. 

Collective identical note from the powers received 
by the government, see Crete 23 heb., 2 March. 

Col. Smolenitz, war minister, resigns, succeeded 
by col. Metaxas .... 3 March, 

Concentration of troops in Thessaly . 7 March, 

All night sitting of the cabinet . 7, 8, March, 

Greek army estimated (80,000, with reserves), 10 
March; mobilized . 15 March, 

The crown prince arrives and takes the command 
at Larissa 29 March, 

Turkish army under Edhem pasha (estimated at 
150,000 men). 

The powers declare that the aggressor on the Greek 
frontier in case of conflict shall be held respon- 
sible and derive 110 benefit ... 5 April, 

Independence day celebrated at Athens and by the 
army at Larissa .... 6 April, 

The porte protests to the powers against Greek 
aggression ..... 10 April, 

Memorial of 100 liberal British M.P.'s expressing 
sympathy with Greece .... April 

War declared by Turkey, with immediate action, 
17 April ; see Greco-Turkish war. 

Great excitement and disorder at Athens, 27 April, 

The Delyanni ministry dismissed . . 2S April, 

M. Ralli forms a cabinet; chiefly followers of the 

late M. Tricoupi, M. Skouloudi, foreign minister, 

29, 30 April, 

Great distress, destitution, and mortality amongst 
the refugees throughout Greece ; much relief 
afforded by sir Edwin and lady Egerton, Mr. Noel, 
and others .... June, July ,et seq. 

Patriotic fund for the payment of the war indem- 
nity started, the bp. of Zante gives his jewelled 
mitre and 150/., many others subscribe ; an- 
nounced . .... 30 July. 

Fence negotiations: difficulties; lord Salisbury s 
proposals, Aug. ; accepted ... 6 Sept. 

Peace preliminaries signed at Constantinople, i3 
Sept.; presented to fiie government . 27 Sept. 

Vote of confidence in the government rejected $r, 
Sept. ; ministry resigns, 1 Oct. ; M Zaimis, pre- 
sident of the chamber, forms a cabinet 3 Oct. 

Sir Edgar Vincent arrives, with financial proposals, 
Athens 7 Oct. 

Chamber opened, 11 Nov. ; M. Roma elected pre- 
sident 16 Nov. 

Great distress and destitution amongst the refugees 
in Eubreaand elsewhere; much relief sent from 
England : reported . . . Nov. 



1897 



GEEECE. 



579 



GEEEK CHUECH. 



•Committee appointed to investigate the conduct of 

officers during the war, and the origin of the 

war, 24 Nov. ; officers suspended . Dec. 1897 

Treaty of peace signed at Constantinople, 4 Dec. ; 

passed by the Greek chamber, 17 Dec. ; ratified, 

19 Dec. ,, 
Draft of the law respecting the indemnity loan, 
6,850,000^, &c, signed by the foreign minister 
and the delegates of the three powers, England, 
France, and Russia, 12 Jan. ; negotiations closed 
satisfactorily, 24 Feb. : bill passed 2 April ; final 
payment ot the war indemnity . . 10 July, 1898 
Rifaat Bey, Turkish minister, received by the king, 

3 *'eb. „ 
Deaths from exposure, (fee. , of about 20,000 peasants 

in Thessaly during the last 6 months . 3 Feb. ,, 
King George h'red at by 2 men while driving near 

Athens with his daughter, princess Marie, 26 Feb. „ 
Karditzi, aged 35, member of an anti-dynastic 
society, formerly a soldier, gave himself up, and 
confessed his guilt, 28 Feb. ; John Kyriakos, 
accomplice (22), arrested, 1 March ; both executed, 

9 Ma y. » 
ffntsrnational control (finances) bill, passed, 7 

March ; royal assent . . . .9 March, ,, 
Famine and disease among the Cretan refugees in 

the Piraeus; many deaths reported . n March, ,, 
Withdrawal of Turkish troops from Thessaly, 

14 May — 6 June, ,, 
International finance commission of control, Mr. 
(afterwards sir Edward) Law, chairman, meets, 
15 May; succeeded by Mr. Vincent Corbett, 

30 Dec. ,, 
Tour of the king and quern in the Peloponnesus; 
warmly received at Patras, open an industrial 
exhibition, 21 May ; return to Athens . 5 June, ,, 
The forest of Zona, between Patras and (Eigium, 

burnt, enormous damage ... 23 July ,, 
Tlw cabinet resigns ; reconstructed ; the chamber 

dissolved 7-10 Nov. ,, 

Settlement of Crete: see Candia . . 26 Nov. ,, 
General election, 19 Feb. ; the chamber opened by 

the king 16 March, 1899 

Death of M. Andreas Syngros, philanthropist ; 
bequeaths the bulk of his fortune to national 
objects, 25 Feb. ; see Athens . . March, ,, 
M. Tsamados (Tricoupist) elected president of the 

chamber; the Zainsis' ministry resigns, 12 April, ,, 
M. Theotokis' cabinet formed ; M. Simopoulos 

(finance), 14 April ; chamber meets . 24 May, ,, 
The government scheme of reforms in internal 
administration .opposed in Thebes and else- 
where June, ,, 

Suppression of the military police and other 

important reforms voted ; session ends, 27 July, ,, 
The king visits Paris .... 26 Oct. ,, 
The chamber meets ; budget (igoo) and other 

measures passed 11 Dec. ,, 

Sympathy towards England, relating to Africa ; 
stirring speeches of MM. Theotokis and Delyanni 
in the chamber, reported . . .12 Jan. 1900 
The queen's thanks expressed by sir E. Egerton, 

British minister 5 Feb. ,, 

Army reorganisation (by foreign officers) bill 

passed by the chamber ... 24 March, ,, 
The crown prince appointed commander-in-chief, 

21 Sept. ,, 
Navy increase bill passed by the chamber, 22 Dec. ,, 
Commercial convention with Roumania concluded, 

early Jan. 1901 

Budget passed after some days' and two nights' 

debate 13 Jan. ,, 

Greek bronze statues discovered by divers near 

Cerigo (Cythera) Jan. ,, 

Failure of currant and olive crops, great distress 

in W. Greece ..'... April, ,, 
Stormy debate in the chamber ; cabinet vote, 
109-87 ; the ministry resigns, see Athens ; M. 
Zaimis forms a cabinet, 24 Nov. ; the chamber 
adjourns . . . . 26 Nov. ,, 

Vote of confidence in the ministry carried 7 Feb. 1902 
International financial commission's 4th annual 

report, issued .... about 14 April, ,, 
Budget passed, after an all-night sitting ; session 

closed 18, 21 April, ,, 

M. Karapanos presents his collection of antiquities 
to the nation, reported . . . . 1 July, ,, 



Revival of brigandage, popular sympathy with the 

outlaws, reported .... 23 July, 1902 
Excavations near Andritizsenas, a small temple of 

Pan discovered, reported . . . n Aug. ,, 
Currant crop injured by storms and rains . Aug. ,, 
Exportation of arms forbidden by decree, n Sept. ,, 
Chamber dissolved by royal decree . . 3 Oct. ,, 
Forest fires, suspected incendiarism, early Sept. ; 

again at Pikermi, great damage . 9, 10 Oct. ,, 
The king received by M. Lou bet in Paris . 16 Oct. ,, 
General election, ministry defeated . 30 Nov. ,, 
New cabinet ; M. Delyanni, premier and finance 

minister, justice ad interim . . 6 Dec. ,, 

The king opens the chamber . . .22 Dec. ,, 
Prince Mavrocordato, ex-minister, dies . 13 Feb. 1903 
M. Ralli elected president of the chamber. 18 Feb. ,, 
Budget : reduction of 9,000,000 drachmas in expen- 
diture proposed by economies in departments of 

the public service 20 Feb. ,, 

Conflict between the ministry and the court by in- 
troduction of army bills . . . mid March, ,, 
Ministerial crisis, col. Lambritis resigns, 3 April, ,, 
Convention granting monopoly of the currant trade 
for 20 years to an English syndicate, signed 

25 May, ,, 
International exhibition opened at Athens 3 June, ,, 
Agitation over the subject of the currant monopoly, 

June et seq. ,, 
The ministry defeated on a vote of confidence, 

114-95, resigns 25 June, ,, 

M. Theotokis forms a cabinet . . 27 June, ,, 

Delyannist cabinet formed with M. Ralli as prime 

minister ; vote of confidence passed by the 

chamber ; bill reducing the Lumber of deputies 

from 234 to 198 passed . . . .13 July, ,, 

Earthquake shocks in Athens and throughout 

Greece n Aug. „ 

Popular excitement ovt r municipal elections ; 
riotous demonstration and fighting at Athens, 14 
persons killed and wounded . . . 13 Sept. ,, 
The old British cemeteiy at Corfu, by arrange- 
ments between the British and Greek govern- 
ments in 1900, to come under the municipality 

of Corfu in Oct. ,, 

Prince Andrew of Greece married to princess Alice 
of Batten berg, at Darmstadt, by rites of both the 
Lutheran and Greek churches . . 7 Oct. ,, 

KINGS OF GREECE. 

1832. Otho I., prince of Bavaria; born, 1 June, 1815 ; 
elected king, 7 May, 1832 ; under a regency till 
1 June, 1835 ; married, 22 Nov. 1836, to Maria 
Frederica, daughter of the grand-duke of Olden- 
burg ; deposed, 23 Oct. 1862; died in Bavaria, 26 
July, 1867. 

1863. George I. (son of Christian IX. of Denmark), king 

of the Hellenes ; born 24 Dec. 1845 ; made king 5 

June, takes the oath 31 Oct. 1863 ; declared of age, 

27 June, 1863 ; married grand-duchess Olga of 

Russia, 27 Oet. 1867. 

Heir: Constantine. duke of Sparta, born 2 Aug. 1868 ; 

married to the princess Sophie of Prussia, 27 Oct., 1889. 

Issue, George, born 19 July, 1890; Alexander, 

1 Aug. 1893. 

George, born 24 June, 1869 ; Nicolas, torn 21 Jan. 

1872; married the grand duchess Helene Vladimirovna, 

29 Aug. 1902; Marie-Madeleine, born 3 March, 1876; 

Andre, born 1 Feb. 1882 ; Christophe, born 10 Aug. 1888. 

GEEEK AECHITECTUEE, see Architec- 
ture. 

GEEEK CHUECH, or Eastern church, 
established in .Russia and Greece, disowns the 
supremacy of the pope, and is strongly opposed to 
many of the doctrines and practices of the Koman 
church. The Greek orthodox, confession of faith 
appeared in 1643 ; see Fathers of the Church. This 
church, in 1876, had 279 dignitaries, under the 
patriarch of Constantinople ; 136 bishops, 66 in 
Russia, 24 in Greece, 15 in Jerusalem, 11 in 
Austria, &c. Russian church, 1895 > 61 bishops, 
including; metropolitans (St. Petersburg, Moscow, 
and Kieff), 15 archbishops, 38 vicar and 5 monastery 
bishops. In Russia, 73,000,000 Greek Catholics 
(1903:. 

p p 2 



GREEK EMPIEE. 



580 



GREEN CLOTH, BOARD OF. 



Catechetical school at Alexandria (Origen, Clemens, 

<&c.) . . 180-254 

Rise of monachism . . . . . about 300 
Foundation of the churches of Armenia, about 300 ; 

of Georgia or Iberia 318 

First council of Nice (see Councils) .... 325 
Rivalry between Rome and Constantinople begins 

about 340 
Ulplulas preaches to the Goths . . . about 376 
Nestorius condemned at the council of Ephesus . 431 
Monophysite controversy ; churches of Egypt, 
Syria, and Armenia separate from the church of 

Constantinople 461 

Close of the school of Athens ; extinction of the 

Platonic theology 529 

The Jacobite sect established in Syria by Jacobus 

Baradajus 541 

The struggle with the Mahometans begins . . 634 
The Maronite sect begins to prevail . about 676 
The Paulicians severely persecuted . . . . 690 
Iconoclastic controversy begins . . about 726 

Pope Gregory II. excommunicates the emperor Leo, 
which leads to the separation of the Eastern 
(Greek) and Western (Roman) churches . . . 729 

Image worship condemned 734 

Foundation of the church in Russia : conversion of 

princess Olga, 955 ; of Vladimir . . . . 988 
The Maronites, join the Roman church . . . 1182 
Re-union of Eastern and Western churches at the 

council of Lyons, 1274 ; again separated . . . 1277 
Proposed union with the Church of England . . 1723 
The patriarchate of Moscow established, 1582 ; sup- 
pressed in 1762 

Successful drainage of lake Topolias (the ancient 
Cephissis and Copais), much land reclaimed and 
disease prevented .... 1881 et seq. 
The archimandrite Nilos, representing Constanti- 
nople and 4 patriarchates, visits London on be- 
half of the Greek clergy in the Danubian princi- 
palities 1863 

The pope's invitation to an oecumenical council, 8 
Dee. 1869, firmly declined by the patriarch of 

Constantinople about 3 Oct. t868 

Letter from the patriarch Gregory to the archbishop 
of Canterbury acknowledging receipt of English 
prayer-book, and objecting to some of "39 
Articles" . . . . . dated 8 Oct. 1869 
Greek church at Liverpool consecrated by an arch- 
bishop 16 Jan. 1870 

A new church of S. Sophia consecrated by the arch- 
bishop of Corfu S Feb. 1882 

Political reforms in Turkey affect privileges of the 
Greek church; see Turkey, 1883; new patriarch, 
Joachim IV. (archbishop of Dercos), not elected 
till 13 Oct.; ratified by the Porte 18 Oct. 1884 ; 

resigns Nov. 1886 

Dionysius, bishop of Adrianople, elected patriarch 

4 Feb. 1887 
II ■ resigns through disapproval of the appointment 
of Bulgarian bishops in Macedonia by the 
Turkish government, about 5 Aug. ; after fruit- 
less negotiations, the (Ecumenical synod orders 

the cl of all the orthodox churches in 

Turkey, 15 Oct. ; thesultan renews and deiines 
former rights and privileges granted to the 
church, about 25 Oct. ; this not accepted by 
the synod, 27 Oct.; churches generally con- 
tinued closed Nov. 1890 

Dec! i 1 bhe Turkish government respecting 

various disputed points, issued 2 Dec. 1890; 
the disputes ended ; the patriarch remains, the 
churches re-opened .... 6 Jan. 1891 
Neophytes, archbishop of Nikopolis, elected pa- 
triarch in succession to Dionysius v. 8 Now 
See art Icle Pope, 1894. 
Di ensions between the (Ecumenical patriarch 

and the holy synod . . . Jan.-Feb. 1897 
Mgr. Constantino V. elected (Ecumenical patriarch, 

Head oi 1 lie church . . . about is April, ,, 
i lounl Leo Tolstoi, see S n I mm unicated ; 

see Tinu . eg March . . . . 9 Apt 

■ Sei tphim ol the Saroff monastery (died 
1833), canonised by the holy synod as a new 
Mart 

GREEK EMPIRE, see Eastern /•:,.,.- 



GREEK FIRE, a combustible composition 
(now unknown, but thought to have been princi- 
pally naphtha), thrown from engines, said to have 
been invented by Callinicus, an engineer of Helio- 
polis, in Syria, in the 7th century, to destroy the 
Saracens' ships, which was effected by the general 
of the fleet of Constantine Pogonatus, and 30,000 
men were killed. A so-called "Greek fire, pro- 
bably a solution of phosphorus in bi-sulphide of 
carbon, was employed at the siege of Charleston, 
U.S., in Sept. 1863. 

. GREEK LANGUAGE. The study was re- 
vived in western Europe about 1450; in France, 
1473; William Grocyn, or Grokeyn, an English 
professor of this language, introduced it at Oxford, 
about 1491, where he taught Erasmus, who himself 
taught it at Cambridge in 1510. Wood's Athen. 
Oxon. England has produced many eminent Greek 
scholars, of whom may be mentioned Kichard Bent- 
ley, died 1742 ; professor Kichard Porson, died 1808; 
Dr. Samuel Parr, died 1825 ; and Dr. Charles 
Burney, died 1817. " Society for promoting Helle- 
nic Studies,'' formed 16 June, 1879. Modem Greek 
literature is now cultivated. See Aristotelian and 
Egyptian Exploration. 

Homer flourished .... about b.c. 962-927 

Hesiod . about 850 

jEsop ....... . 572 

Anacreon about 559 

iEschylus S25-456 

Herodotus about. 443 

Pindar . 522-439 

Bacchylides about b.c. 470 

Aristophanes 427 

Euripides 480-406 

Sophocles 495-405 

Thucydides 470-404 

Xenophon 443-359 

Plato 429-347 

Isoerates ... 436-338 

Aristotle 384-322 

Demosthenes 382-322 

Menander about 32T 

/Esehines . . 389-314 

Theocritus about 272 

Epicurus . 342-270 

Tiieophrastus . . 287 

Archimedes 287-212 

Polybius 207-122 

Diodoras B.C. 50 — a.d. 13 

Strabo 10 

Dionysius Halicamassus .... about 30 

Plutarch about 96 

Epictetus about 118 

Appian about 147 

Arriau about 148 

Athenreus ... , about 194 

Lucian . .... about 120-200 

Herodian about 204 

Longinus dies 273 

Julian, emperor 331-363 

(See Fathers, and Philosophy.) 

GREENBACKS, a name given, from the 
predominating colour of the ink, to notes, for a 
dollar and upwards, first issued by the United 
States government, in 1862. Notes for lower sums 
(even 3 cents) were termed "fractional currency." 
For Grecnbackers see United States, 1878. 

GREEN-BAG INQUIRY took its name 
from a Green Bag, full of documents of alleged 
seditions, laid before parliament by lord Sidmouth, 
s; Feb. 1817. Secret committees presented their 
reports, 19 Feb. ; and bills were brought in on the 
2isl to suspend the Habeas Corpus act, and prohibit 
Beditious meetings, then frequent. 

GREEN CLOTH, Board of, in the depart- 
incut of the lord-steward of the household, included 



GEEENLAND. 



581 



GEENWICH OBSEEVATOEY. 



an ancient court (abolished in 1849), with jurisdiction 
of all offences committed in the verge of the court. 

GEEENLAND, an extensive Danish colony 
in North America, discovered by Icelanders, under 
Eric Raude, about 980, and named from its verdure. 
It was visited by Frobisher in 1576, and by John 
Davis, 1585. The first ship from England to Green- 
land was sent for the whale-fishery by the Muscovy 
company, 2 James I. 1604. In a voyage performed 
in 1630, eight men were left behind by accident, 
who suffered incredible hardships till the following 
year, when the company's ships brought them home. 
Tindal. The Greenland Fishing company was in- 
corporated in 1693. — Hans Egede, a Danish mission- 
ary, founded a new colony, called Godhaab, or Good 
Hope, in 1720-3 ; and other missionary stations have 
been since established. Scoresby surveyed Greenland 
in 182 1 ; and captain Graah, by order of the king of 
Denmark, in 1829-30. Population in 1878, about 
9408 ; in 1888, 10,221 ; 1901, 10,516. Nordenskjold 
and others advanced into the interior, and found 
nothing but mountainous ice and snow, July-Sept. 
1883. 

Dr. Pridtjof Nansen, Mr. Sverdrup, and two other 
Norwegians and two Lapps wearing snow shoes crossed 
Greenland from E. to W., amid great hardships, 17 July 
et seq. 1888, and arrived at Copenhagen, 21 May, 1889. 
Dr. Nansen described his journey across Greenland at a 
meeting of the Royal Geographical soc. 24 June, 1889. 
His first crossing of Greenland published Dec. 1890. 
Lieut. Peary reports at Philadelphia the results of his 
exploration of N. Greenland, 1 Nov. 1892 ; his book 
published, Nov. 1893 ; other explorations and dis- 
coveries in 1893, 1895, and 1896. 
Lieut. Amdrup explores the east coast up to 67° 22' N. ; 
new islets discovered ; traces of extinct Eskimo tribes 
found and scientific collections made, &c. ; expedi- 
tion returns to Copenhagen, 12 Sept. 1899 ; explores 
and maps out hitherto unknown land from Cape 
Dalton, 69° 28', to Aggas island, 67° 22', 18 July — 
2 Sept. igoo ; returns to Copenhagen, 4 Oct. 1900. 
Paper, "Four years Arctic Exploration, 1898-1902," 
read by com. Peary before the Royal Geographical 
soc. 10 Nov. 1903. 

GEEENOCK (W. Scotland). Charters were 
granted in 1635 to John Shaw, and 1670 to his 
son sir John, of trie barony of Greenock. It was a 
fishing station till 1697, when the Scottish Indian 
and African company resolved to erect salt-works 
in the Firth, and thus drew the attention oi sir 
John Shaw, its superior, to its maritime advan- 
tages. It was made a burgh of barony in 1757, 
and a parliamentary burgh in 1832. The erection 
of the new quay was entrusted, about 1773, to James 
Watt, who was born here in 1736. The East India 
harbour was built 1805-19, and Victoria harbour 
1846-50. James Watt docks opened by provost 
Shankland, 5 Aug. 1886. End of strike of iron 
shipbuilders (8 weeks), 24 Aug. 1891. The Globe 
sugar refinery burnt, damage about 25,000/., 14 
Oct. 1896. Mr. Chamberlain speaks at town hall, 
7 Oct. 1903. Population, 1891,63,498; 1901, 67,645. 
Dock fire, estimated damage 20,000^. . . 1 June, 1903 

GEEEN PAEK (near Buckingham palace, 
London) forms a part of the ground enclosed by 
Henry VIII. in 1530, and is united to St. James's 
and Hyde-parks by the road named Constitution- 
hill. Over the arch at the entrance, the Wellington 
statue was placed in 1846. On the north side was 
a reservoir of the Chelsea water-works, filled up in 
1856. 

GEEENWICH (Kent), anciently Gvenawic, 
an ancient manor, near which the Danes murdertd 
the archbishop Elphege, 1012. The Hospital 
stands on the site of a royal residence erected in the 



reign of Edward I. and much enlarged by his suc- 
cessors. Here were born Henry VIII. , Mary and 
Elizabeth, and here Edward VI. died. Charles II. 
intended to build a new palace here, but erected 
one wing only. Returns one M.P. by act of 1885. 
Made a municipal borough by the act of 1899 (5 
aldermen, 30 councillors). Pop. 1901, 185,149. 

William III. and Mary converted the palace into a 
Royal hospital for seamen, 1694, and added new 
buildings, erected by Wren . . . 

100 disabled seamen admitted . . . ". 1750 

The estates of the attainted earl of Derwentwater 
(beheaded in 1716) bestowed upon it . . . 1735 

A charter granted to the commissioners 6 Dec. 1775 

The chapel, the great dining-hall, and a large portion 
of the buildings appropriated to the pensioners, 
destroyed by fire 2 Jan. 1779 

The chapel rebuilt 1789 

Sixpence per month to be contributed by every sea- 
man ; the payment advanced to is. from . June, 1797 

The payment abolished in 1829, and that of "the 
merchant seamen's " sixpence also in . . . 1834 

The hospital had lodging for 2710 seamen and a 
revenue of about 150,000?. per annum . . . 1853 

(Greenwich Fair was discontinued . . April, 1857) 

The office of the commissioners was abolished . . 1865 

Reported annual income, 155, 532Z. , 1867; income, 
168,305?., 1887-8 ; 199,000?., 1901 ; estimated 
197, 140?., 1902. 

Bj r an act of parliament, about 900 indoor jiensioners 
received additions to their pensions, quitted the 
hospital, 1 Oct. 1865 ; henceforth to be used as an 
infirmary. All the remaining inmates, except 31 
bedridden persons, had left the place . 1 Oct. 1869 

The patients of the Dreadnought seamen's hospital 
removed here 13 April, 1870 

Acts for the application of the revenues were passed 
in 1869-1872 ; amended by act passed . . . 1883 

A part of the buildings appropriated for a naval col- 
lege, opened .... .1 Feb. 1873 

Greenwich Royal Hospital Schools (on the industrial 
plan), opened under the auspices of Mr. Childers, 1870 

Construction of great steamship ferry (on the 
American system) over the Thames, authorised 
by the commons ; formally opened, 13 Feb. 1888 ; 
soon closed ; re-opened middle of 1892 

Stone monument in memory of about 20,000 officers 
and men of the navy and marines, formerly in- 
mates of the hospital, interred in the old burial 
ground, 1749-1869 ; unveiled by earl Spencer, 

17 Feb. 1893 

Bi-centenary of the hospital ; 1,000 boys of the 
hospital schools reviewed by queen Victoria at 

Windsor 3 July, 1894 

Choleraic epidemic in the workhouse ; 8 deaths, 

16 Oct. ,, 
Martial Bourdin, a Frenchman, killed by an ex- 
plosive in his pocket through falling, near the 
Observatory, 15 Feb. ; funeral at Finchley ; 
anarchists protected from the mob . 23 Feb. ,, 
Greenwich hospital act passed, 25 July, 1890; 

amended 1898 

Remains of a Roman villa, &c, discovered in the 
park, reported 19 March, 1902 

GEEENWICH OBSEEVATOEY, built at 
the solicitation of sir Jona* Moore and sir Christo- 
pher Wren, by Charles II., on the summit of Flam- 
steed-hill, so "called from the first astronomer-royal. 
The building was founded, 10 Aug. 1675, and Flam- 
steed commenced his residence, 10 July, 1676. In 
1852, an electric telegraph signal ball in the Strand 
was completed, and put in connection with Green- 
wich observatory. Greenwich recommended as the 
universal meridian by the Geodetic congress at 
Rome, Oct. 1883, and at an international conference 
at Washington, 13 Oct. 1884. Telegraphic com- 
munication completed between Greenwich and 
M'Gill college observatory, Montreal, 1890. 

A new refracting telescope, 28 in. in aperture and 
28 ft. long, erected, and enlargement of the new 
physical observatory 1S93-94 



GREGORIAN CALENDAR. 



582 



GREY ADMINISTRATION. 



Sir Henry Thompson offers 5000?. to provide a large 
photographic telescope, 26 in. in aperture and 
22J ft. focal length, March, 1894 ; the telescope, 
or, rather, a combination of telescopes, the 
largest hitherto possessed, erected . April, 1897 

New observatory building, completed March, 
opened officially . . , . 3 June, 1899 

ASTRONOMERS- ROYAL. 

John Flamsteed 1675 

Edmund Halley 1719 

James Bradley 1742 

Nathaniel Bliss . . 1762 

Nevil Maskelync 1765 

John Pond 18 tT 

George Biddell Airy (knt. 1872) .... 1835 

(Under whose superintendence the apparatus was 
greatly increased and improved ; lie died, 2 Jan. 1892.) 
Wm. Henry Mahoney Christie (K.C.B. 1897) Aug. 1881 

GREGORIAN CALENDAR, see Calendar, 
and New Style. — Gregorian Chant received its 
name from pope Gregory I., who is said to have 
improved the Ambrosian chant, about 590. See 
Chanting. 

Gregorian Modes:, musical scales as set in order by pope 
Gregory the Great about 590. On these the ritual 
music of the western churches is founded. 

GRENADA, a West India island, discovered 
by Columbus in 1498 ; settled by the French, 1650; 
captured by the British, 5 April, 1762 ; re-taken by 
the French, July, 1779 ; given up by them by treaty 
of Versaillas, 3 Sept. 1783. Population in 1891, 
53,209; 1901, 63,438 ; revenue 1901-02 70,OOq/. 
expenditure 65,490/. See Granada, New Granada, 
and Windward Isles. 

GRENADE, an explosive missile, so named 
from granada, Spanish, invented in 1594. It is a 
small hollow globe, or ball, of iron, about two 
inches in diameter, which is tilled with fine powder, 
and set on fire by a fusee at a touchhole. 

GRENADIERS. The Grenadier corps was a 
company armed with a pouch of hand-grenades, 
established in France in 1667 ; and in England in 
1685. Brown. See Guards and Army, 1890. 

GRENELLE, see Artesian Wells. 

GRENOBLE (the Roman Gratianopolis), 
S.E. France. Here Napoleon was received on his 
return from Elba, 8 March, 1815, and here he issued 
three decrees. Population in 1901, 68,052. 

GRENVILLE ADMINISTRATIONS. 

The first succeeded the Bute administration, 8 April, 
1763 ; and resigned in July, 1765. 

George Grenville (born 1712, died 1770), first lord of the 

treasury and ch inceVor of the exchequer. 

Earl Granville (succeeded by the duke of Bedford} lord 

president. 
Duke of Marlborough, privy seal. 
Earls of Halifax and Sandwich, secretaries of state. 
Karl Qower, lord chamberlain. 
Earl of Egmont, admiralty. 
Marquis (if I iranby, ordnance. 
Lord Holland (late Mr, Fox), paymaster 
Wrli». it Kllis. secretary at war. ' 
Viacounl Barrmgton, treasurer of the nan/. 
Lord Hillsborough, first lord of trade. 
Lord Henlej (afterwards earl of Northington), lord cfcan- 

cellor. 
Duke of Rutland, lords North, Trovor, Hyde, &c. 

Second Grenville administration, formed after the 
death of Mr. Pitt, on 23 Jan. 1806. From the ability 
of many of Us members, their friends anid il contained 
•• all ih,- talents, wisdom, and ability of the counti y," a 
term applied to it derisivelj bj its opponents. The 
death of Mr. Fox, 13 Sept. 1806, led to changes, and 
eventually the cabinet resigned, 25 March, 1807 :— 



Lord Grenville, first lord of the treasury. 

Lord Henry Petty (afterwards marquis of Lansdowne), 

chancellor of the exchequer. 
Earl Fitzwilliam, lord president. 
Viscount Sidmouth (late Mr. Addington), privy seal. 
Charles James Fox, foreign secretary. 
Earl Spencer, home secretary. 
William Windham, colonial secretary. 
Lord Erskine, lord chancellor. 
Sir Charles Grey (afterwards viscount Howick and earl 

Grey), admiralty. 
Lord Minto, boa.rd of control. 
Lord Auckland, board of trade. 
Lord Moira, master general of the ordnance. 
R. B. Sheridan, treasurer of the navy. 
Richard Fitzpatrick, <fee. 
Lord Ellenborough ( lord chief justice) had a seat in tha 

cabinet. 

GRESHAM COLLEGE (London), esta- 
blished by sir Thomas Gresham in 1575, founder of 
the Royal Exchange. He left a portion of his pro- 
pert)' in trust to the city and the Mercers' company 
to endow this college for lectures in divinity, astro- 
nomy, music, geometry, civil law, physic, and 
rhetoric ; he died 21 Nov. 1579. The lectures- 
commenced in Gresham's house, near Broad-street, 
June, 1597 (where the founders of the Royal Society 
first met in 1645). The buildings were pulled down 
in 1768, and the Excise office erected on its site,, 
the property having been acquired by the crown 
for an annuity of 500/. The lectures were then 
read in a room over the Royal Exchange for many 
years. On the rebuilding of the exchange, the 
Gresham committee erected the present building in 
Basinghall-street, which was designed by G. JSmith, 
and opened for lectures, 2 Nov. 1843. It cost above 
7000/. In 187 1 the college acquired a valuable col- 
lection of books and pictures, bequeathed by Mrs. 
Hollier. Changes respecting the lectures were 
advocated in 1875, and some made in 1876. 

The amalgamation of the university teaching ex- 
tension society advocated by Mr. Goschen, 15 Oct. 188S 

The proposal to make the college a teaching uni- 
versity for London was referred to a royal com- 
mission, March. Earl Cowper, chairman ; first 
meeting, see London University, 1894 . 30 June, xSg^ 

GRETNA GREEN (Dumfries, S. Scotland, 
near the border). Here runaway marriages were 
contracted for many years, as Scotch law ruled that 
an acknowledgment before witnesses made a legal 
marriage. John Paisley, a tobacconist, and termed 
a blacksmith, who officiated from 1760, died in 1814. 
His first residence was at Megg's hill, on the com- 
mon or green betwixt Gretna and Springfield, to 
the last of which villages he removed in 1 782. A man 
named Elliot was afterwards the principal officiating 
1 person. The general assembly, in 1826, in vain 
attempted to suppress this system ; but an act of 
parliament, passed in 1856, made these marriages, 
illegal after that year, unless one of the person* 
married had lived in Scotland 21 days. 

GREY ADMINISTRATION. succeeded the 
Wellington administration, which resigned 16 Nov. 
1830. It carried the Parliamentary and Corporation 
Reform acts (which see), and terminated 9 July, 
1834. 

Earl Grey,* first lord of the treasury. 
Lord Brougham, lord chancellor. 
Viscount AJthorpe, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Marquis of Lansdowne, president of the council. 
Earl of Durham, privy si al. 

Viscounts Melbourne, Palmerston, and Goderich, home, 
foreign, and colonial secretaries. 



* Born 13 March, 1764 : M.r. , as Charles Grey, in 1786 ; 
first lord of the admiralty and afterwards foreign secre- 
tary in 1806 : resigned in 1806 on account of liis favouring 
Roman catholic emancipation ; died 17 July, 1845. 



GEEY COAT HOSPITAL. 



533 



GEOSVENOE GALLEEY. 



Sir James Graham, admiralty. 

Lord Auckland and Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards, 183c, 

lord Glenelg), hoards of trade and control. 
Lord Holland, chancellor of duchy of Lancaster. 
Lord John Russell, paymaster of the forces. 
Duke of Richmond, earl of Carlisle, Mr. Wynne, &c. 
E. G. Stanley (afterwards earl of Derby), chief secretary 

for Ireland, became colonial secretary, March, 1833. 

GEEY COAT HOSPITAL, Westminster, 
founded (for girls) 1698 ; reconstituted 1873. 

GEEY FEIAES, see Christ's Hospital. 

GEEYLADIES, a sisterhood, so named 
from the distinctive colour of their costume. Its 
members are self-supporting, pay their living- 
expenses, and give their services to the dioc ese of 
Rochester, working chiefly in the parishes of the 
south of London." The " Greyladies" are not 
attached to any party in the English church. The 
bishop of Southwark founded the sisterhood, and 
their first house was dedicated by Dr. Randall 
Davidson, then bishop of Rochester, 2 Feb. 1893. 
At the present time (1903) the " Greyladies " have 
5 houses with 41 members. 

GEEYTOWN, see Mosquito Coast. 

GEIFFITH'S VALUATION of land in 
Ireland ; that calculated by Mr. afterwards sir 
Richard Griffith (appointed commissioner in 1828) 
and published about 1850 ; 4th edition, 1855 ; 
much discussed, 1880- 1. 

GEIMM'S LAW of the transmutation of 
consonants in the Aryan family of languages ; pro- 
pounded by Jacob L. Grimm in his " History of 
the German Languages," in 1848. 

Labials. 
Greek, Latin, Sanskrit p b f 
Gothic . . . . / . p 
Old High German . . b (v) f p 

Examples : Sanskrit, pitri ; Greek and Latin, pater ; 
Italian, padre; Spanish, padre; French, pere; Gothic, 
fadrein (pi.) ; Old High German, vatar ; English, father. 

GEIMSBY or Great Grimsby, a seaport 

of Lincolnshire, on the Humber, the largest fishing 
port in the kingdom. The docks (about 350 acres) 
were constructed by the Manchester, Sheffield and 
Lincolnshire Railway Co., 1849-58. The church, 
in the Early English style, was restored in 1859. 
Population, 1851,12,263; 1881,45,351; 1901,63,138. 
A statue of the prince consort unveiled, 1879, an d 

a public park opened in 1883 

Trawlers' dispute re the employers' proposals to 
introduce a profit-sharing system with a guaran- 
teed minimum rate of wage, opposed by the men, 

1 July et seq. 1901 
Riot at the docks ; the offices of the Fishing 
Owners' federation sacked and set fire to by a 
mob of about 5000 men, 18 Sept. 1901 ; further 
rioting, troops called in, 19 Sept. ; lord Yar- 
borough's intervention partially successful, 27 
Sept. ; joint committee appointed, resumption of 
work on the owners' terms, pending the result of 
arbitration, agreed to, 2 Oct. ; the ships go to sea, 
7 Oct.; sir Edw. Fry's award issued, see 'Times, 
24 Dec. 1901 ; further disputes, Sept.-Dec. 1902 ; 
officially closed . . . . "12 Jan. 1903 

GEIQU ALAND, West and East, two dis- 
tricts in British South Africa, containing diamond 
fields. The tirst diamond was discovered in West 
Griqualand in March, 1867, and caused a great in- 
flux of immigrants from all nations, and the forma- 
tion of many settlements. Diamonds value 
12, 000,000/.found there between 1871 and 1880; about 
15,000,000/. between 1883 and 1887 ; 3,365,994/. in 
1902. The district annexed to Cape Colony 27 
Oct. 1871, incorporated with it in 1880. Kimberley, 



Dentals. 


Gutturals 


t d th 


k g ch 


th t d 


k 


d z t 


g ch k 



the capital, was founded and named after lord 
Kimberley (then col. sec, died 8 April, 1902) in 
1 87 1 ; for its fine defence against the Boers, 
15 Oct. 1899-15 Feb. 1900, see South African 
War. Population in 1890, about 6,000 Europeans 
and 10,000 natives. Guiqualaxd East, between 
the Kaffir border and Southern Natal, was annexed 
to Cape Colony in 1875 ; population in 1888, 98,000. 

By a tremendous explosion of stored dynamite near 
Kimberley, only two men were killed . Jan. 1884 

Kimberley was the site of the South African and 
J nternational exhibition, opened bv sir H. B. 
Loch, 8 Sept., not financially successful; closed 

8 Dec. 1892 

Col. Kekewich, the defender of Kimberley, 15 Oct. 
1899-15 Feb. 1900, presented with a sword of 
honour, &c, 10 July, 1902 ; visit of Mr. Chamber- 
lain 29-31 J an - 19C3 

GEISONS, a Swiss canton ; see Caddee. It 
was overrun by the French in 1798 and 1799. The 
ancient league was abolished, and the Orisons be- 
came a member of the Helvetic confederation, 19 
Feb. 1803. 

GEISSELL CASE, see Parliament, 1879-80. 

GEIST-TAX [imposta sul macinato). Prin- 
ciple of the tax adopted by the Italian parliament, 
I April, 1868. 

GEO AT, from the Dutch groat, value of four- 
pence, was the largest silver coin in England until 
after 135 1. Fourpenny pieces were coined in 1836 
to the value of 70,884/. ; in 1837, 16,038/.; discon- 
tinued since 1856. 

GEOCEES anciently meant " ingrossers or 
monopolisers," as appears by a statute 37 Edw. III. 
1363 : " Les marchauntz nomez engrossent totes 
maners de merchandises vendables." The Grocers' 
company, one of the twelve chief companies of 
London, was established in 1345, and incorporated 
in 1429. 

The Grocers' and Shopkeepers' Licensing acts, passed 
in i860 and 1861, authorise the sale by them of wine, 
spirits, and beer, in bottles ; (No. 2 Ireland) act passed, 
30 July, 1900. 

GEOCHOW, near Praga, a suburb of Warsaw. 
Here took place a desperate conflict between the 
Poles and Russians, 19, 20 Feb. 183 1, the Poles re- 
maining masters of the field of battle. The Rus- 
sians shortly after retreated, having been foiled in 
their attempt to take Warsaw. They are said to 
have lost 7000 men, and the Poles 2000 ; see also 
Poland, 1 861. 

GEOG, sea term for rum and water, derived its 
name from admiral Edw. Vernon, who wore grogram 
breeches, and was hence called " Old Grog." About 
1 745, he ordered his sailors to dilute their rum with 
water.* 

GEOSSEE KUEFUEST, see Wrecks, 1878. 

GEOSVENOE GALLEEY, &c, Bond- 
street, London, W., for the exhibition of modern 
pictures, erected by sir Coutts Lindsay, at a cost 
of about 100,000/., supported by eminent artists, 
Aug. 1876; opened 1 May, 1877. The last regular 
exhibition in the Grosvenor gallery was that of the 
society of British Pastellists, opened 18 Oct. 1890; 
the building was afterwards solely occupied by the 

* He did great service in the West Indies, by taking 
Portobello, Chagre, &c. ; but by his disagreement with 
the commander of the land forces, the expedition against 
Carthagena, in 1741, is said to have failed. He was dis- 
missed the service for writing two pamphlets attacking 
the admiralty ; he died 30 Oct. 1757. 



GEOSYENOE GALLEEY. 



584 



GUEBEES. 



Grosvenor club, by whom pictures for sale were 
from time to time exhibited. 

Differences in regard to management having arisen, 
a secession of subscribers ensued, who, headed 
by Messrs. Halle and Comyns Carr, opened "the 
New Gallery," {which see) Regent Street 9 May, 1888 

GEOSVENOE GALLEEY LIBEAEY, 

opened 25 March, 1880. 

GEOUND GAME, see Game. 

GUADALOUPE, a West India Island, dis- 
covered by Columbus in 1493. The French took 
possession of it in 1635, and colonised it in 1664. 
Taken by the English in 1759, and restored in 1763. 
Again taken by the English in 1779, 1794, and 1810. 
The allies, in order to allure the Swedes into the 
coalition against France, gave them this island. 
It was, however, by the consent of Sweden, restored 
to France at the peace in 1814. It was again taken 
by the British, 10 Aug. 1815, and restored to the 
French, July, 1816. Hum. reds of houses burnt 
down, no loss of life, at Point- a-Pitre, 18 April, 
1899 (attributed to incendiarism). Heavy fall of 
ashes here ; see Martinique, 30, 31 Aug. 1902. 

GUAD-EL-EAS (N.W. Africa). Here the 
Spaniards signally defeated the Moors, 23 March, 
i860, after a severe conflict : general Prim mani- 
fested great bravery, for which he was ennobled. 
The preliminaries of peace were signed on the 25th. 

GUANO or HuANO (the Peruvian term for 
manure), the exciement of sea-birds that swarm on 
the coasts of Peru and Bolivia, and of Africa and 
Australia, it is mentioned by Herrera in 1601, and 
Garcilasso stated that the birds were protected by 
the incas. Humboldt was one of the first by whom 
it was brought to Europe, in order to ascertain its 
value in agriculture. The importation of guano 
into the United Kingdom appears to have commenced 
in 1839. 283,000 tons were imported in 1845 (of 
which 207,679 tons came from the western coast of 
Africa); 243,016 tons in 1851 (of which 6522 tons 
came from Western Australia) ; 131,358 tons in 
1864; 237,393 tons in 1865; 135,697 tons in 1866; 
280,311 in 1870; 114,454111 1875; 152,989111 1877; 
177,793 m 1878 ; £4,221 in 1883; 21,175 "* l %°7 \ 
1888, 24,432; 1889, 28,604; 1090, 27,095; 1893, 
18,311 ; 1896, 20,214; 1( ) 00 > 331636; 1901,22,830. 

GUAEANTEES. The " Guarantee by Com- 
panies act," relating to the security by means of 
sureties required for persons employed in the public 
service, was passed 20 Aug. 1867 (30 & 31 Vict. 
c. 108). 

GUAEDIAN, a moderate high-church weekly 
journal, first published 21 Jan. 1846. 

GUARDS. The custom of having guards is 
said to have been introduced by Saul, 1093 n.c. 

Bod; guards were appointed to attend the kings of Eng- 
land, 1 Henry VII. 1485. 

Horse Guards were raised .t Edw. VI. 1550. 

Tin' royal regiment 0/ guards was Qrsl raised by Charles 
II. in Flanders in 1656, colonel, lord Wentworth ; 
another regimenl was raised by colonel John Russell, 
1660, under whom they were combined in 1665. The 
Coldstream Guards, raised by genera) Monk, were con- 
stituted the 2nd regimenl in 1661 ; see Coldstream. 
These guards were the beginning of our standing army. 

Gen, sir F. Wm. Hamilton s " History of the Grenadier 
Guards," an elaborate work, appeared 1S74. 

Tin' Borse Grenadier guards in -1 troop, raised in 1693, 
was ('i)iiiinaii(k'd by general Cholmondeley ; the second 
troop was raised In 170a, and was commanded by lord 

Forbes hla corps was redu I in 1783, the officers 

retiring full pay, Si le .1/ my, 1890. 



Guakds' Institute, Francis-street, Vauxhall-bridge road ; 

reading and lecture rooms, <fcc, for all officers and 

soldiers in the metropolis ; inaugurated by the duke of 

Cambridge, 11 July, 1867. 
See Horse Guards, Yeomen, National, and Imperial 

Guards. 

GUASTALLA, N. Italy, a city, near which 
the imperial army, commanded by the king of 
Sardinia, was defeated by the French, 19 Sept. 
1734. The ancient duchy, long held by the dukes 
of Mantua, was seized by the emperor of Germany, 
1746, and ceded to Parma, 1748. After having 
been comprised in the Italian republic, 1796, and 
subjected to other changes, it was annexed to 
Parma, 1815, and to Modena, 1847. 

GUATEMALA. A republic in Central Ame- 
rica, revolted from Spain, 1821, and declared inde- 
pendent, 21 March, 1847. Constitution settled, 

2 Oct. 1859. President (1862), general Baphael 
Carrera, elected 1851 ; appointed for life, 1854; 
died 14 April, 1865 ; succeeded by Vincent Cerna, 

3 May, 1865-9. Manuel Garcia Granedos, Dec. 
1872 ; Pi. Barrios, 9 May, 1873 ; General Barillas, 
Jan. 1886. A war between Guatemala and San 
Salvador broke out in Jan. 1863 ; and on 16 June 
the troops of the latter were totally defeated. An 
insurrection becameformidable, July, 1871. Alliance 
with Honduras against San Salvador, March, 1872. 
Population, 1887, 1,394,233; 1892, 1,510,000; 
1900, 1,574,33?- Capital, New Guatemala. 

Col. Gonzales, commandant of San Jose' de Guatemala, 

imprisoned, flogged, and nearly killed Mr. JohnMagee, 

the British consul, who was rescued by capt. Morse, 

of the Pacific Mail Company's steamer, Arizona, about 

24 April, 1874. 
Announced, that Gonzales had been sentenced to five 

years' imprisonment, and that Mr. Magee had received 

io,oooZ. as compensation, Oct. 1874. 
Plot to kill the president and his ministry ; conspirators 

shot, 7 Nov. 1877. 
General Barrios's proposal to re-unite the States of Central 

America under himself, as dictator, March ; resisted ; 

defeated and killed in a severe battle at Chalchuapa, 

2 April, 1885 ; succeeded by Barillas ; peace signed 

16 April, 1885. M. L. Barillas, president, 15 March, 

1886. 
War with San Salvador, which see, July — 27 Aug. 1890. 
Revolt against president Barillas, suppressed, July- 

Aug. 1890. 
The insurgent general and ex-minister Bunundia shot 

while resisting arrest on board the U.S. steamer 

Acapulco, 28 Aug. ; his young daughter fails in her 

attempt to shoot the U.S. minister, Mizner, 1 Sept. 

1890. 
Peace with San Salvador signed . . 17 Nov. 1890 
Gen. Reina Barrios assumes office as president, 

10 March, 1892 ; re-elected . . . Sept. 1897 
Revolution in the west; insurgents in possession 

of Plaza San Marcos, reported . . 10 Sept. „ 
Government victories in various places, reported 

6 Oct. ; order restored . ... 19 Oct. ,, 
Pies. R. Barrios assassinated by Oscar Solinger, 

who is afterwards killed . . . 8 Feb. 1898 

Seilor Morales, vice-president, succeeds, 9 Feb. 

1898 ; his death reported . . . Aug. „ 
New ministry formed, reported . 12 Feb. ,, 

Dun Manuel Estrada Cabrera proclaimed president 

for the term 1S99-1905 ... 25 Sept. ,, 
Fearful earthquake, Quezaltenango and 8 towns 

destioyed ; great loss of life . . . 18 April, 1902 
Nat. relief fund started, pres. Cabrera, 20,000 doL 

reported 27 May, ,, 

Vulcanic eruptions near Quezaltenango, 24, 25 Oct. ,, 
Dispute with San Salvador settled . 30 March, 1903 

GUEBEES (from the Arabic Kafir, unbeliever), 
a name given to the desi endants of the fire- worship- 
pers of Persia by their Arab conqueiors, in the 7th 
century. They are now represented by the Parsees 
of Bombay, whither they migrated, see Parsees. 



GUELPHIC ORDER. 



585 



GUILDHALL. 



GUELPHIC ORDER of knighthood was 
instituted for Hanover by the prince regent, after- 
wards George IV., 12 Aug. 181 5. 

GUELPHS and GHIBELINES, names 
given to the papal and imperial factions who de- 
stroyed the peace of Italy from the 12th to the end 
of the 15th century (the invasion of Charles VIII. 
of France in 1495). The origin of the names is 
ascribed to the contest for the imperial crown 
between Conrad of Hohenstaufen, duke of Swabia, 
lord of Wiblingen (hence Ghibelin), and Henr\ , 
nephew of Welf, or Guelf, duke of Bavaria, in 1 138. 
The former was successful; but the popes and 
several Italian cities took the side of his rival. Hie 
Guelf and Hie Gibelin are said to have been used 
as war-cries in 1 140, at a battle before Weinsberg, 
in Wiirteniberg, when Guelf of Bavaria was defeated 
by the emperor Conrad IV., who came to help the 
rival duke Leopold.* The Ghibelines were almost 
totally expelled from Italy in 1267, when Conradin, 
the last of the Hohenstaufens, was beheaded by 
Charles of Anjou. Guelph (of uncertain origin) 
is the popular name of the present royal family of 
England; see Brunswick. 

The Guelph Exhibition of pictures and objects of 
interest connected with the Eoyal House of Guelph, was 
opened in the New Gallery, Regent street, 31 Dec. 1890 ; 
closed, 9 April, 1891. The queen contributed greatly to 
the exhibition, and gave it its name. 

Guelph Fund, see under Cumberland. 

GUERNSEY, see Jersey. Major-gen. sir 
Edward Bulwer appointed lieut. -governor of 
Guernsey in succession to It. -gen. Elkington, 1889 ; 
It. -gen. N. Stevenson, 1894; maj.-geu. Saward, 
1900; maj.-gen. B. Campbell, 1903. 

Mrs. Neve, the king's oldest subject in the islands, 
died, aged in years . . . 4 April, 1903 

GUERRILLA, Spanish, "a little war"; a 
term applied to the armed peasants who worried 
the French armies during the Peninsular war, 
1808-14. The resistance of the dacoits to the 
British in Burmah was of guerrilla character. 

GUEUX (beggars), a name given by the comte 
de Barlaimont to the 300 protectant deputies from j 
the Low Countries, headed by Henri of Brederode 
and Louis of Nassau, who petitioned Margaret, 
governess of the Low Countries, to abolish the 
inquisition, 5 April, 1566. The deputies at once 
assumed the name as honourable, and iinmediatel)- 1 
organised armed resistance to the government ; see I 
Holland. 

GUIANA (N.E. coast of South America), dis- | 
covered by Columbus in 1498, visited by the 
Spaniards in the 16th century ; and explored by sir 
Walter Baleigh in 1596 and 161 7. The French 
settlements here were formed in 1626-43 ! (P r0 " 
teeted posts established under officers, 1895 >) an d the 
Dutch, 1627-67. Dernerara, Essequibo, and Berbice 
were ceded to Great Britain in 1814 ; see Dernerara. 
Governor of British Guiana, John Scott, 1868 ; 
James Eobert Longden, 1874 ; C. H. Kortright, 1876; 
sir Henry T. Irving, 1882; Viscount Gormanstown, 
Dec. 1887; sir C. Cameron Lees, April, 1893; s i- r 
Augustus W. L. Hemming, Dec. 1895; sir Walter 
J. Sendall, Nov. 1897 ; sir J. A. Swettenham, Sept. 
1 901. See Venezuela, 1895 ; Brazil, 1899. 
Mr. Kaufmaim discovered in the gold fields 633 valuable 

diamonds early in 1891. 

* It is stated, traditionally, that the emperor con- 
demned all the men to death, but permitted the women 
to bring out whatever they most valued ; on which they 
carried out their husbands on their shoulders. 



Revolt in Dutch Guiana of the lower against the upper 
classes ; much alarm, 13 May, 1891. 

Goldflelds industry increasingly prosperous; revenue 
of the colony, 555, 774L ; expenditure, 599,6162. ; im- 
ports, 1,341,7092. ; exports, 1,899,4572. ; population 
(estimated), 1900, 294,943. 

Centenary of capture 01 colony from the Dutch, cele- 
brated, Sept. 1903. 

GUIDE-BOOKS for travellers are an English 
invention. Paterson's "British Itinerary," ap- 
peared in 1776; the last edition in 1840; when it 
was superseded by railway guides. Galignani's 
" Picture of Paris/' 1814. Murray's " Handbook 
for Travellers on the Continent," the parent of the 
series, appeared in 1836. The publication of Carl and 
Fritz Baedeker's foreign guide-books began in 1828 
with a handbook for the Bhine in German-French. 
This was followed by German handbooks for other 
parts of the continent, which owed much to Murray's 
handbooks, and included much original matter. 
The first English editions appeared in i860. New 
editions of the illustrated guide-books, price Is. 
each, published by Messrs. "Ward, Lock, and 
Co., were issued 1894 et seq. See Murray. 

GUIDES, a corps in the French army, espe- 
cially charged with the protection of the person of 
the general, was formed by Bessieres, under the 
direction of Bonaparte, who had been nearly 
carried off by the enemy, 30 May, 1796. Several 
squadrons or "guides" were formed in 1848, to 
guard the ministers. They formed a portion of 
the imperial guard till Sept. 1870. 

GUIENNE, a French province, was part of 
the dominions of Henry II. in right of his wife 
Eleanor, 1152. Philip of France seized it in 1293, 
which led to war. It was alternately held by 
England and France till 1453, when John Talbot, 
earl of Shrewsbury, in vain attempted to retake it 
from the latter. 

GUILDHALL (London) was built in 141 1. 
When it was rebuilt (in 1669), after the great fire 
of 1666, no part of the ancient building remained, 
except the interior of the porch and the walls of 
the hall. The front was erected in 1789; and a 
new roof built, 1864-5. Beneath the west window 
are the colossal figures of Gog and Magog, said to 
represent a Saxon and an ancient Briton ; replaced 
older ones, 1708; renewed, 1837. The hall can con- 
tain 7000 persons. Here were entertained the allied 
sovereigns in 1814, and Napoleon III., 19 April, 
1855 ; and here the city industrial exhibition was 
held, 6 March, 1866, and the International Botanical 
banquet, 22 May, 1866. A memorial window, the 
gift of the cotton workers of Lancashire, to com- 
memorate the munificence of the metropolis towards 
them in the famine of 1862-4, was uncovered, 
15 July, 1868. The prince consort memorial window 
was unveiled in the presence of prince Arthur, 
3 Nov. 1870. A library existed in the Guildhall in 
1426, from which books were taken by the protector 
Somerset in the reign of Edward VI. A new 
library was founded, 2 June, 1824. This library is 
open to the public. The new handsome building by 
Horace Jones was opened by the lord chancellor 
Selborne, 5 Nov. 1872 ; seeLondon. The law sittings 
which had. been removed to the Royal law courts^ 
were resumed in the Guildhall, 28 Oct. 1891, when 
the lord chief j ustice was received by the lord mayor ; 
discontinued, Dec. 1894. 
Art gallery opened 24 June, 1886. 

Magnificent memorials by J. B. Price published, 1886. 
Guildhall School of Music founded (62 pupils) 1880 ; 3600 
pupils, 189S ; new building on the Thames Embank- 
ment, 9 Dec. 1886 ; theatre, &c, opened by the lord 
mayor, n July, 1898. 



GUILDS. 



586 



GUN-COTTON. 



Visit of the German emperor and empress, 10 July, 1891. 

Exhibition of pictures by British artists of the Victorian 
era, 1837 et seq., opened 6 April, 1897 ; loan exhibition 
of French pictures, opened 4 June, 1898 ; Turner exhi- 
bition and his contemporaries, opened by the lord 
mayor, 10 April, 1899. 

Over 1200 poor children entertained at dinner. 4000 
hampers, &c, distributed, 3 Jan. 1899. 

A picture of the Queen's visit to St. Paul's, 22 June, 
1897, by A C. Gow, R.A., gift of Mr. H. Clarke, un- 
veiled by the lord mayor, 18 Oct. 1899. 

Exhibition of pictures for the Artist's war fund, opened 
by the marchioness of Lome, 22 Jan. 1900. Another 
of works of living British artists, 9 April — 14 July ; 
Spanish collection, 29 April — 28 Aug. 1901; French and 
English, 18th century, 21 April — 26 Juiy, 1902 ; Dutch, 
27 April, 1903. 

Ex-pres. Kruger's state ox-wagon and a Boer "Long 
Tom " gun, from lord Kitchener, accepted, 2 Oct. 1902. 

Mr. Chas. Gassiot's bequest of 112 English pictures, 
exhibition opened by the lord mayor, 1 Dec. 1902. 

GUILDS. Associations of men of the same 
class or trade, formed for mutual aid and pi-oteclion ; 
in England, of Saxon origin, about the 8th century. 
In the middle ages th^re were religious, social, 
mercantile, and craft guilds. Some of the London 
livery companies were formed out of the merchant 
and craft guilds in the 13th century. See Companies. 

The guild of Corpus Christi, York, had 14,800 members 
when a return respecting these guilds was ordered to 
be made, 138S. 

The Early English Text society published the "Ordi- 
nances " of more than 100 guilds, 1870. 

"The Gild Merchant," by Charles Gross, Ph.D., pub- 
lished in 1891, is a valuable work. 

The "Guild of Literature and Art" (including sir E. B. 
Lytton, C. Dickens, and others) founded an institu- 
tion (on ground given by sir E. B. Lytton, at Stevenage, 
consisting of thirteen dwellings, retreats for artists 
scholars, and men of letters, which were completed 
and inaugurated, 29 July, 1865. 

The revival of religious guilds began in 1851, with 
that of St. Alban, which held its 21st anniversary 
20 June, 1872. 

Guilds Inquiry Commission, see Companies. 

GUILLOTINE, an instrument for causing 
immediate and painless death, named after its sup- 
posed inventor, a physician named Joseph Ignatius 
Guillotin. In 1866 M. Dubois, of Amiens, stated 
that the idea only was due to Guillotin, who at a 
meeting of the legislative assembly in 1789 ex- 
pressed an opinion that capital punishment should 
be the same for all classes. Accordingly, at the 
request of the assembly, M. Louis, secretary of the 
"Acadcmie de Chirurgie," submitted to it on 
20 March, 1792, a mode of capital punishment, "sure, 
quick, and uniform," which he had invented. The 
hirst person executed by it was a highway robber 
named Pelletier, on 25 April ; and Dangremont was 
its first political victim, 21 Aug. following. Guillotin 
died in 1814. The guillotine at Paris was burnt 
by the communist insurgents, 7 April, 1871. A 
similar instrument (called the Mannaia) is said to 
have been used in Italy, at. Halifax in England 
(see Halifax), and in Scotland, there called the 
Maiden and the Widow. See Gagging. 

GUINEA (S. \Y. coast of Africa), said to have 
been visited by the Genoese about [291, and by the 
French in [364. 
Portuguese settlements founded by prince Henry of 

Portugal; much gold found, T4R1 etseq. 
Other European traders arrive; successfully repelled, 

with cruelly, by the Portuguese till the arrival of the 
Dutch, 1 sos- 
Sir John Hawkins, with adventurers, visits Guinea, 

carries off 300 negroes, whom lie sells at BQspaniola, 
anil returns home with a profitable cargo, 1503 

Cape Coast Castle (which 8(c) Settled, 1610. 



Slave trade with America carried on by English com-) 
panies, 1618, et seq. 

The Portuguese expelled by the Dutch, 1640. 

Cape Coast Castle seized by the Dutch ; recovered byi 
adm. Holmes, who takes the Dutch settlements, which] 
are retaken by Ruyter, who captures all the English 
settlements except Cape Coast Castle, 1663-5. 

The Dutch settlements declined during the war with 
Napoleon ; all ceded to Great Britain ; signed by treaty J 
Feb. 1872. 

War with Ashantees (which see), 1824 et seq. 

Gold Coast colony (which see), formed 1874. 

French Guinea constituted a colony, 17 March, 1893. 

GUINEAS, English gold coin, so named from! 
having been first coined of gold brought by the* 
African company from the coast of Guinea in 1663, 
valued then at 20s. ; but worth 30*. in 1695. Rel 
duced at various times; in 1717 to 21s. In l8ld 
guineas were sold for 22s. 6d. ; in 1816, for 27*. In 
181 1 an act was passed foi bidding their exportation,' 
and their sale at a price above the current value, 2IsJ 
The first guineas bore the impression of an elephant, 1 
having been coined of this African gold. Since thej 
issue of sovereigns, 1 July, 1817, guineas have nol) 
been coined. 

GUINEGATE, Battles of, ii July, 1302, 

and 16 Aug. 1513. See /Spurs. 

GUINNESS TRUST, see Artisans. 

I 

GUISE, a French ducal family : — 
Claude of Lorraine, first duke, a brave warrior, 

favoured by Francis I. ; died . . . April, 153d 
Francis, the great general, born, 1519 ; assassinated, 

24 Feb. 156^ 
Henry, head of the Catholic league ; horn 1550 ; 

revenged his father's death ; assassinated by order 

or Henry Hi. . ... 23 Dec. 1588 

Charles, first opposed, and then submitted to, 

Henry IV. ; died 164C 

Henry died without issue .... . 1664! 

GULLIVER'S TRAVELS, by Dean Swift] 

first published 1726-7. 

GUN, see Artillery, Cannon, Fire-arms. — GuXi, 
CLUB, for pigeon-shooting, founded by sir Gilbert 
East, in 1862, had 200 members, noblemen and 
gentlemen, in July, 1867. 

1, 
GUN-COTTON, a highly explosive substance | 
invented by professor Schonbein, of Basel, and 
made known in 1846. It is purified cotton, steeped) 
in a mixture of equal parts of nitric acid and sul-|- 
phuric acid, and afterwards dried, retaining tha 
appearance of cotton wool. See Collodion. Its nature; 
was known to Bracounot and Pelouze. 
The diet of Frankfort voted, 3 Oct. 1846, a recompense; 
of 100,000 florins to professor Schonbein and Dr., 
Boettger, as the inventors of the cotton powder, pro- 
vided the authorities of Mayence, after seeing it tried]; 
pronounced it superior to gunpowder as an explosive, 
Improvements were made in the manufacture of gun-' 
cotton by an Austrian officer, Baron von Lenk, about), 
1852, and it was tried by a part of the Austrian army 
in 1855, hut did not obtain favour. 
In 1862 details of the manufacture were communicated] 
by the Austrian government to our own government.) 
and Mr. late sir Frederick) Abel, our war-office 
chemist, was directed to experiment on the eonstitu-j 

tion and desirability Of gun-COtton. The British Asso- 
ciation also appointed a scientific committee to consider 

its merits. A complete decision was not arrived at. !'' 
Thf first trial of English-made gun-cotton was made in" 

the spring of 1864. at the manufactory at Stowmarket, 

Suffolk, by Messrs. Prentice. 
There was manufactured, by a company, the "patent safety 

gun-cotton," according to Mr. Abel's patent (including.] 

the pulping, compressing, and wet processes), based 
on researches commenced in 1866. The cotton was, 
said to be explosive by detonation, and not by' 
ignition. A great explosion took place at Stowmarket 



GUNDAMUK. 



587 



GUNPOWDER PLOT. 



24 persons were killed (including A. E. H. anil W. R. 
Prentice, managers) ; about 6c were dreadfully wounded, 
and nearly the whole town was destroyed as if by a 
bombardment, 11 Aug. 1871. 

The verdict at the inquest attributed the explosion to 
the culpable "addition of sulphuric acid to the gun- 
cotton subsequent to its passing the tests required by 
government," 6 Sept. 1871. 

A government commission, appointed in Sept. to con- 
sider the manufacture and use of gun-cotton, reported 
in favour of both, with special regard to compressed 
gun-cotton, 13 Dec. 1871. 

Another report recommended this gun-cotton to be 
stored wet, with drying apparatus near; and to be 
kept in slighter boxes, 25 July, 1872. 

Mr. E. O. Brown, of the war department, Woolwich, dis- 
covers that wet gun-cotton can be exploded by con- 
cussion by a detonating fuse, about Nov. 1872. 

It is used as an explosive agent in mining, &c. 

Gun-Cloth, made on a similar principle, was patented 
by Mr. W. A. Dixon, about 1866. 

Cotton-Gunpowder, patented by Mr. R. Punshon, 1871. 

A modified form was tried and reported successful, near 
Faversham, 3 Feb. 1875. See Ivory. 

Fire at the Cotton. powder works near Faversham ; esti- 
mated damage, 6000J. 1 March, 1896. 

GUNDAMUK, see Gandamuk. 

GUN LICENCE ACT, .passed 9 Aug. 1870 ; 
annual licence, 10s. Licences issued : year 1876-7, 
77,068; 1877-8, 75,571; 1880-1, 72,834; 1901-2, 
76,807. See under Game Laics, 1883. 

GUNPOWDER. The invention of gunpowder 
is generally ascribed to Bertholdus or Michael 
Schwartz, a Cordelier monk of Goslar, south of 
Brunswick, in Germany, about 1320. But many 
writers maintain that it was known much earlier 
in various parts of the world. Some say that the 
Chinese and Hindoos possessed it centuries before. 
Its composition, moreover, is expressly mentioned 
by Boger Bacon, in his treatise l)e Nullitate 
Magice. He died in 1292 or 1294. Various sub- 
stitutes for gunpowder have been recently invented, 
such as the white gunpowder of Mr. Horsley and 
Dr. Ehrhardt, and gun-paper by Mr. Hochstodten. 
A new gunpowder by M. Newmayer, of Toya, near 
Leipsic, was discussed in Nov. 1866. " Pellet gun- 
powder" was ordered to be used in gun-charges in 
the army, March, 1868. An act to amend the law 
concerning the making, keeping, and carriage of 
gunpowder, &c. was passed 28 Aug. i860, and other 
acts since. See Birmingham, 1870. In May, 1872, 
a company was formed to manufacture Mr. B. 
Punshon's patent cotton -gunpowder, asserted to be 
very safe and controllable. The manufacture of the 
German " brown " or "cocoa" powder was set up 
at Chil worth in Surrey, 1886. See Chronoscope. 

The use of gunpowder was denounced by Ariosto, 1516 ; 
by Jean Marot, 1532 ; by Cervantes, 1604 ; termed 
"villanous salt-petre " by Shakspeare, about 1598. 

English War Gunpowder : 75 parts nitrate of potash 
(saltpetre); 10 sulphur ; 15 carbon. These proportions 
may be slightly varied. 

W. Hunter, after a careful examination of the question, 
in 1847, thus states the result: — "July and August, 
1346, may be safely assumed to be the time when the 
explosive force of gunpowder was first brought to bear 
on the military operations of the English nation." 

Above 11 tons of gunpowder on board the Lottie Sleigh, 
in the Mersey, exploded ; much damage done in Liver- 
pool and Birkenhead, but no lives lost, 16 Jan. 1864. 

About 104,000 lbs. of gunpowder exploded at the Belve- 
dere powder magazines of Messrs. Hall & Co., at 
Plumstead, near Woolwich ; 13 persons perished, and 
the shock was felt at 50 miles' distance, 1 Oct. 1864. 
Searching inquiries were made into the circumstances, 
and new regulations for the keeping and transmission 
of powder issued in November ; see Dartford. 



Mr. Gale, a blind gentleman of Plymouth, on 22 June,. 
1865, patented his method of rendering gunpowder- 
uninflammable by combining with it finely powdered 
glass, which can be readily separated by a sieve wheiiu 
the powder is required for use. Successful public- 
experiments were made. 

Mr. Gale exhibited his process before the queen at 
Windsor, 10 Nov. 1865, and it was severely tested at a 
martello tower, near Hastings, 20 June, 1866. The 
attainment of perfect security was still doubtful. 
Gale's Protected Gunpowder company was formed,. 
Oct. 1865, and wound up, March, 1867. 

Great explosion at Messrs. Hall's powder-mills, iseau- 
Faversham ; n men killed, much damage done ; shock 
felt at Canterbury, 10 miles off, 28 Dec. 1867. Another- 
explosion about 21 Dec. 1868. 

Dixon & Beck's works blown up ; 9 lives lost, 25 July, 
1868. 

Explosion at Hounslow mills, 3 lives lost. 6 Sept. 1872 ;, 
again one life lost and great destruction of property ,. 
3 May, 1887. 

Milner's powder-magazines placed in fire at Woolwich 
arsenal and found secure, 8, 9 Oct. 1872. 

About 5 tons of gunpowder in barrels exploded in the- 
barge Tilbury, on the Regent's canal, near the North 
Bridge-gate, Regent's-park, nearly 5 a.m. 2 Oct. 1874. 
Three men on the barge killed ; sh ock felt about 30 miles- 
off ; destruction extended over about a square mile ; 
some houses thrown down ; very many windows blown 
in ; the house of Mr. Alma-Tadema, the artist, mucb 
injured. 

The powder was sent by Pigou and Wilks to Derbyshire' 
for blasting purposes ; — order of the barges : Ready 1, 
tug steamer; Jane, Dee, Tilbury, Limehouse, and 
Hawlcesbury. 

6333^. had been subscribed for the sufferers up to 1 May, 
1875. 

Verdict of Inquest — Explosion caused by ignition of 
vapour from benzoline by a fire or light in the cabin 
of the Tilbury. The Junction Canal company guilty 
of gross negligence, and the present laws inadequate- 
tor public safety, 19 Oct. 1874. 

The company declared responsible on trial (by Capt. 
Jackson), 14 May, 1875. 

One thousand and fifty-four claims had been settled for 
63,660?. , June, 1876. 

Recently smokeless gunpowder has been produced ; the- 
Duttenhofer, the Stein, the Pallina, the Schultz and 
Hengst, Chilworth and Lebel powders give very little- 
smoke, 1888-9. 

The smokeless gunpowder of Herr Falkenstein triedl 
at Berlin, reported efficient, Aug. 1889. 

Sir F. A. Abel, in a discnurse at the Royal Institution,, 
31 Jan. 1890 (Proceedings, vol. XIII.), explained and 
illustrated the merits and demerits of " smokeless 
explosives." Smokeless gunpowder much used in the- 
autumn manoeuvres, 1890. 
See Rome, 23 April, 1891. 

M. St. Marc's smokeless gunpowder tried at the Arm- 
strong artillery range, Silloth, Cumberland ; reported 
successful, about 14 Dec. 1892. 

Explosion at Waltham abbey ; 9 men killed and others- 
injured, 13 Dec. 1893 ; inquest, open verdict, 11 Jan. 
1894 ; a committee of inquiry censured some of the- 
arrangements, and recommended additional precau- 
tions, 25 April ; further changes recommended by a. 
committee, reported 10 Sept. 1894 ; 4 men killed 
by an explosion in the nitro-glycerine factory for 
cordite, 7 May, 1894 ; 3 men killed there, and 2 killed 
in the cordite factory at ClirTe, Kent, 15 Dec. 1902. 

Gunpowder exported : 1876, 14,268,672 lbs. ; 1880, 
14,927, 500 lbs. ; 1890, io,33o,4oolbs.; 1896, 8,089, ooolbs.;. 
1900, 7,047,200 lbs. ; 1901, 6,865,712 lbs. 

GUNPOWDER PLOT, for springing a 
mine under the houses of parliament, and de- 
stroying the king, lords, and commons there 
assembled, was discovered on 4 Nov. 1605. It 
was projected by Robert Catesby early in 1604, and 
several Roman catholics of rank were in the plot- 
Guy Faux was detected in the vaults under the- 
house of lords, hired for the purpose, preparing 
the train for being fired on the next day. Catesby 



GUNTER'S CHAIN. 



588 



GYPSIES. 



and Percy (of the family of Northumberland) were 
killed at Holbeach house, whither they had fled, 
8 Nov. ; and Guy Faux, sir Everard Digby, Rook- 
wood, Winter, and others, were executed, 30, 31 Jan. 
1606. Henry Garnet, a Jesuit, suffered as an 
accomplice, 3 May following'. An anonymous letter 
sent to lord Monteagle led to the discovery. It 
contained the following words, " Though there be 
no appearance of any stir, yet I say they shall 
receive a terrible blow this parliament, and yet 
they shall not see who hurts them." The vault 
called Guy Faux cellar, in which the conspirators 
lodged the barrels of gunpowder, remained till 
1825, when it was converted into offices. " What 
Gunpowder plot really was,'' an answer to Father 
Gerard (who expressed his belief that the story of 
the plot was fabricated by lord Salisbury, the 
minister of James I., for his own purposes), by 
prof. S. K. Gardiner, published, July, 1897. 

GUNTER'S CHAIN, used in measuring land, 
invented by Edmund Gunter, in 1606. 

GURNEY'S ACT, 31 & 32 Vict., c. 116 
(1868), amends the law relating to larceny and 
embezzlement. 

GUTTA PERCHA is procured from the sap 
of the Isonandra Gutta, a large forest tree, growing 
in the Malayan peninsula and on the islands near 
it. It was made known in England by Drs. De 
Almeida and Montgomery, at the Society of Arts, 
in 1843. As a non-conductor of electricity it is in- 
valuable in constructing submarine telegraphs, an 
application suggested by Faraday and Werner Sie- 
mens independently, 1847. 70,176 ewts. were im- 
ported into the United Kingdom in 1890; 40,490 cwts. 
1893; 126,0159 cwts. 1900; 1901, 88,438 cwts. 

GUY'S HOSPITAL (London). Thomas Guy, 
a wealthy bookseller, after bestowing large sums on 
St. Thomas's, determined to found a new hospital. 
At the age of seventy-six, in 1721, he commenced 
the present building, and lived to see it nearly 
completed. It cost him 18,793*., and , in addition, 
he endowed it with 219,499*. In 1829, 196,115*. 
were bequeathed to this hospital by Mr. Hunt, to 
provide accommodation for 100 additional patients. 

Income much reduced by agricultural depression ; 

100,000/. proposed to be raised ; Mansion House, 

17,000/. received 20 Dec. 1886 el seq. 
New laboratories and dental school buildings opened by 

sir John Lubbock, 17 July, 1893. 
Reduced income ; 1000/. donation from Mr. A. L. Cohen, 

Nov. 1895 ; 151,000/. received up to June, 1896 ; 1000/. 

from the baroness de Ilirsch, April, 1897; other 

donations ; see Hospitals, Prince of Wales' Fund. 
M '- n - !'• Raphael gives 20,000/. to build a "Nurses' 

Home," Jan. i8qS (he died n May, 1899). 
.Special appeal for iSo.ooo/., 12 Nov. 1901 ; meeting at 

the mansion house (64,000/. received), 15 Jan. 1902; 

Mr. (i. A. King bequeaths 30,000/., 28 Feb. 1902; 

100,000/. received (-,000/. from His Majesty's theatre), 

8 June, 1903. 
S. African war memorial unveiled, and the Wills' library 

(the gift mi sir P. Wills) opened, 3 July, 1903. 

Gl'ZKllAT, a stale in India, founded by Mah- 
moud the Gazne vide, about 1020, conquered by Akbar 
in 1572; became subject to the Mairattaa 1732 or 
1752. At the battle of Guzerat, near the Chenab, 
in the Punjab, 21 Feb. 1849, lord Gough totally 
defeated the Sikhs and captured the town of Guzerat. 

GWALIOK, an anoienl Btate in Central India, 
occupied by the Mahrattas ; since [803, under British 
protection. Scindiah, the maharajah, remained 

faithful during the revolt of 1857'; visit of the 



prince of Wales, 31 Jan. 1876. His present c 
carved stone work of a gate, arrived in London i 
the autumn of 1884. Population, 1881,1,115,857 
i89l,3»378,774; 1901,2,933,000. 

The ancient citadel was taken by major Popliam in tr. 
Mahratta war in T780 ; seized by the rebels durin 
the Indian mutiny, 13 June ; and retaken by sir Hug 
Rose, 19 June, 1858. Surrendered to the maharaja 
by lord Dufferin, the viceroy, 2 Dec. 1885, for 15 lakl 
of rupees ; actually surrendered, 10 March, 1886. Tlj 
maharajah Bhajeerut Rao Scindiah, aged 51, die 
21 June, 1886. Succeeded by his son, a boy, with, 
regency. Investiture of the young maharajah wit 
full powers, 15 Dec. 1894. 

Gwalior visited by the marquis of Lansdowne, warmj 
received, 18 Nov. 1891. 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaught, Jan. 190! 

GYMNASIUM, a place where the Greej 
performed public exercises, and where philosopher 
poets, and rhetoricians repeated their composition 
In wrestling and boxing the athletes were ofte 1 
naked (gymnos), whence the name. A Londq 
gymnastic society, formed in 1826, did not flouris] 
In 1862, M. Eavenstein set up another gymnast 
association. The German Gymnastic Institutio' 
in St. Pancras-road, London, was opened on 29 Ja 
1865, and a large and perfect gymnasium at Live! 
pool was inaugurated by lord Stanley, 6 Nov. i8q 
A London athletic club existed in Nov. 1866. Sin, 
then gymnastics have been much cultivated. A 
international athletic congress opened in Pari 
16 June, 1894. 

GYMNOSOPHIST.E, a set of naked phU 
sophers in India. Alexander (about 324 B.C.) w^ 
astonished at the sight of men who seemed j 
despise bodily pain, and endured tortures withoj 
a groan. Pliny. 

GYPSIES, Gipsies, or Egyptiaij 

(French, Bohemiens ; Italian, Zingari; Spanis 
Gitanos ; German, Zigeuner) ; vagrants, supposj 
to be descendants of low-caste Hindoos expelled 1 
Timour, about 1399. They appeared in Germaj 
and Italy early in the 15th century, and at Paris; 
1427. In England an act was made against tin' 
itinerancy, in 1530; and in the reign of Charles 1 
thirteen persons were executed at one assizes 1 
having associated with gypsies for about a montj 
The gypsy settlement at Norwood was broken u 
and they were treated as vagrants, May, 170 
There were in Spain alone, previously to l8cj 
more than 120,000 gypsies, and many oommunitj 
of them yet exist in England. Notwithstaudil 
their intercourse with other nations, their manns 
customs, visage, and appearance are almost who! ! 
unchanged, and their pretended knowledge 1 
futurity gives them power over the superstition 
Esther Faa was crowned queen of the gypsies ' 
Blyth, on 18 Nov. i860. The Bible has been traij 
lated into gypsy dialects. Gypsy parliaments 
occasionally held. George Smith, king of 
gypsies, Falcoln hull, Edinburgh, protested agaii; 
the Movable Dwellings bill, 10 Jan. 1891." 1] 
Gypsy Lore society, founded in 1888, had 70 mei 
bers in 1891, and published a journal. 

Georok Borrow fraternised with the gypsies, and wr l 
several works describing his adventures, especia 
"TheZineali" (1841); "The Bible in Spain " (184! 
" Lavengro" (1850); and a " Dictionary of the Gyi 
Language " (1874). He was born in 1803, and died 
Aug. 1 88 1. 

A band of 89 gypsies from Corfu, with 500/. bound 
America, landed at Millwall docks, July; pass; 
refused them at Liverpool ; connection disclaimed) 
the Greek government; some remain at • Live™ 



GYEOSCOPE. 



589 



GYROSCOPE. 



and others at Hull, Aug.-Sept. 1886. Wandering in 
England, Oct. 1886; at Sunderland, April, 1887. 
Some of them conveyed to King's Cross station, 
London, 16 April, 1887 ; at Chester, April, 1887. 
Matilda II. crownea queen of the American gypsies near 
Dayton, Ohio, Nov. 1888. 

GYEOSCOPE (from gyrere, to revolve), the 
name of a rotatory apparatus invented by Fessel of 



Cologne (1852), and improved by professor Wheat- 
stone and M. Foucault of Paris. It is similar in 
principle to the rotatory apparatus of Bohnen- 
berger of Tubingen (born 1765, died 1831). — The 
gyi-oscope, by exhibiting the combined effects of the 
centrifugal and centripetal forces, and of the 
cessation of either, illustrates the great law of 
gravitation. 



HAARLEM. 



090 



HAGUE. 



H. 



HAARLEM, an ancient town in Holland, once 
the residence of the counts, was taken by the duke 
of Alva, in July, 1573, after a siege of seven 
months. He violated the capitulation by butcher- 
ing half the inhabitants. The lake was drained, 
1839-51. Population, 1890, 51,626; 1900,65,189. 

HABEAS CORPUS. The subjects' Writ of 
Eight, passej " for the better securing the liberty 
of the subject," 31 Charles II. c. 2, 27 May, 1679. 
If any person be imprisoned by the order of any 
court, or of the queen herself, he may have a writ 
of habeas corpus, to bring him before the court of 
queen's bench or common pleas, which shall deter- 
mine whether his committal be just. This act 
{founded on the old common law) is next in im- 
portance to Magna Charta. The Habeas Corpus act 
•can be suspended by parliament for a specified time 
when the emergency is extreme. In suca a ease 
the nation pans with a portion of its liberty to 
secure its own permanent welfare, and suspected 
persons may then be arrested without cause or 
purpose being assigned. Blackstone. 

Act suspended for a short time in . 1689, 1696, 1708 
Suspended for Scots' rebellion . . . 1715-6 
Suspended for twelve months .... 1722 
Suspended for Scots' rebellion in . . 1745-6 
Suspended for American war .... 1777-9 
Again by Mr. Pitt, owing to French revolution . 1794 
.Suspended in Ireland, on account of the great re- 
bellion 1798 

■Suspended in England, 28 Aug. 1799 ; and 

14 April, 1801 
Again, on account of Irish insurrection . . . 1803 
Again, owing to alleged secret meetings (see Green 

Bag) 21 Feb. 1817 

Bill to restore the Habeas Corpus brought into par- 
liament 28 Jan. 1818 

Suspended in Ireland (insurrection) . 24 July, 1848 

Restored there 1 March, 1849 

Suspended again (see Fenians), 17 Feb. 1S66 ; 
26 Feb. and 31 May, 1867; and 28 Feb. 1868 till 

25 March, 1869, and virtually in 18S1 
The constitution of the United States provides that 
"the privilege of habeas corpus shall not be sus- 
pended, unless when, in cases of rebellion or 
invasion, the public safety may require it ;" but 
dues not specify the department of the govern- 
ment having the power nl' suspension. A series 
of contests mi this subject between the legal 
and military authorities began in Maryland, 

May. iS6i 
In consequence of the affair nl' John Anderson (see 
Slavery in England, note), an act was passed in 
1862, enacl ingthai no wrii of Habeas ( 'orpus should 
issue mil nf England into any colony, &c, 
having a courl with authority to grant such 
writ. 

HABITUAL CRIMINALS ACT, for the 
more effectual prevention of crime, giving powers 
for the apprehension of habitual criminals on sus- 
picion, passed 11 Aug. 1869; 117,508 reported in 
the metropolis, 1*73- 
A Mack book, printed al Brixton prison, contained the 

names ami aliases of 12,164 criminals, selected from 

179,601 entered on (he register, 1869-76. 

HABITUAL DRUNKARDS, see 
Drunkards. 

HABSBURG, see llo^burg. 



HACKNEY, a parish N.E. of London ; by 
the division of the Tower Hamlets, was made a 
metropolitan borough by the lieform act, 15 Aug., 
1867. Two members were elected. The election 
4 Feb. 1876, void, through neglect of officers, lie- 
turns three members by the act of 1885. Consii- 
tuted a municipal borough ot London government 
act i{;99 (10 aldermen, 60 councillors). Popula- 
tion, 1881,186,462; 1891,229,531; 1901,220,000. 

HACKNEY COACHES, probably from the 
French eoche-d-haquenie, a vehicle with a hired 
horse, haquenee. Tneir supposed origin in Hackney, 
near London, is a vulgar error; see Cabriolets, and 
Omnibuses. 

Four were set up in London by a capt. Bailey; 

their number soon increased .... 1625 

They were limited by the star-chamber in 1635; 

restricted in 1637 and in 1652 

The number was raised to 400, in 1662 ; to 700, in 

1694 ; to 800, in 1715 ; to 1000, in 1771 ; to 1100, in 

1814 ; and finally, to 1300, in .... 1815 

One-horse hackney carriages (afterwards cabriolets) 

permitted to be licensed ,, 

All restriction as to number ceased, by 2 Will. IV. 

(the original fare was is. a mile) .... 1831 
Two hundred hackney chairs were licensed . . 1711 
Office removed to Somerset-house . . . . 17S2 
Coach-makers made subject to a licence . . . 1785 
Lost and found office for the recovery of property 

left in hackney coaches, established by act 55 

Geo. Ill 1815 

All public vehicles to be regulated by the act 16 & 

17 Vict. cc. 33, 127, by which they are placed 

under the control of the commissioners of police, 

June and Aug. 1853 
By the Metropolitan Carriages act, passed 12 Aug. 

1869, various restrictions respecting the amount 

of fare, &c., were removed, commencing 1 Jan. 1870 
Further regulations for cabs issued by the home 

secretary 10 March, 187 1 

"Hackney carriages, tables of distances,' published 1901 

HAFSFIORD (Norway). Here Harold H ar- 
fager, in a sea-fight, finally defeated his enemies, 
and consolidated his kingdom, 872. A millenary 
festival was held throughout .Norway, and a monu- 
ment to his memory at Hangesund, inaugurated by 
prince Oscar of Sweden, 18 July, 1872. 

HAGUE, capital of the kingdom of Holland, 
once called the finest village in Europe ; the place 
of meeting of the states-general, and residence of 
the former carls of Holland since 1250, when 
William II. built the palace here. Population in 
1887, 149,447 ; in 1890, 160,531 ; in 1897, K? 1 ^.} ; 
iyoo, 212,211. 
Here the states abjured the authority of Philip II. 

of Spain 15S0 

A conference upon the five articles of the remon- 
strants, which occasioned the synod of Dort . . 1610 
Treatj of the Hague (to preserve the equilibrium 
of the North), signed by England, France, ami 

Holland 21 May, 1659 

The De Witts torn in pieees here . . .4 Aug. 1672 
The French, favoured by a hard frost, took posses- 
sion of the Hague; the inhabitants and troops 

declared in their favour; general revolution en- 
sued, and the stadtholdcr and his family tied to 

England 19 Jan. 1795 

The Hague evacuated by the French . . Nov. 1813 
The staillholder returned . . . Dec. „ 



IIAILEYEURY COLLEGE. 



on 



HAM. 



Peace conference (which see) met, 18 May, 1899 ; 
Hague arbitration court constituted early April, 
1901 ; lirst case settled (see Mexico) . . Oct. 1902 

HAILEYBUEY COLLEGE (Herts), 
wherein students were prepared for service in India ; 
it was founded by the East India company in 1806 
in Hertford castle ; the new building opened in 
E809; was closed in 1858. The present college 
founded 1862 ; royal charter, 1864. 
In the case of " Hutt and another v. the Governors of 
the college and others," Mr. Robertson, the head- 
master, and Mr. Fenning, assistant, were exonerated 
from the charges of unlawfully expelling Henry Hutt, 
aged 15, on suspicion of stealing money ; and the boy 
was declared innocent by the Queen's Bench division, 
19 June ; 100I. awarded to the plaintiffs, 27 June, 1888. 
" Memorials of Old Haileybury College," published 1894. 

HAINAULT, a province in Belgium, anciently 
governed by counts, hereditary after llegnier I., 
who died in 916. The count John d'Arsenes became 
count of Holland in 1299. Hainault henceforth 
partook of the fortunes of Flanders. 

HAINAULT FOREST (Essex), disafforested 

ia 1851. Here stood the Fairlop oak (which see). 

HAIR. In Gaul, hair was much esteemed, 
hence the appellation Gallia comata ; cutting off 
the hair was a punishment. The royal family of 
France held it as a privilege to wear long hair art- 
fully dressed and curled. " The clerical tonsure is of 
apostolic institution !" Isidorus Hispalensis. Pope 
Anicetus forbade the clergy to wear long hair, 155. 
Long hair was out of fashion during the pro- 
tectorate of Cromwell, and hence the term Bound- 
heads; in 1795; and also 1801. — Hair-powder came 
into use in 1590 ; and in 1795 a tax °f a guinea was 
Said upon persons using it, which yielded atone time 
20,000/. per annum. The tax was repealed 24 June, 
1869, when it yielded about 1000/. a year. See Beard. 
Some members of a Burmese family totally covered with 

hair were exhibited in London in July, 1886. 

HAITI, see Hayti. 

HAKLUYT SOCIETY, established for the 
publication of rare voyages and travels, 15 Dec. 
1846, was named after Richard Hakluyt, who pub- 
lished his " Principal Navigations, Voyages, and 
Discoveries made by the English Nation," in 1589; 
and died 23 Nov. 1616. Mr. Win. Foster's 
" Embassy of sir Thos. Roe," published 1899. 

HALF CROWNS, see under Coinage and 
Crowns. 

HALIARTUS, a town in Bceotia, near which 
Lysander the Spartan general was killed in battle 
with the Thebans, 395 B.C. 

HALICARNASSUS, Caria (Asia Minor); the 
reputed birth-place of Herodotus, 484 B.C. ; the site 
of the tomb of Mausolus, erected 352; was taken by 
Alexander, 334 ; see Mausoleum. 

HALIDON HILL, near Berwick, where, on 
19 July, 1333, the English defeated the Scots, the 
tatter losing upwards of 14,000 slain, among whom 
were the regent Douglas and a large number of the 
nobility ; a comparatively small number of the 
English suffered. Edward Balliol thus became king 
of Scotland for a short time. 

HALIFAX (Yorkshire). The woollen manu- 
factory was successfully established here in the 
15th century. The power of the town to punish 
capitally (by a peculiar engine resembling the 
guillotine) any criminal convicted of stealing to 
the value of upwards of thirteen pence halfpenny, 
was used as late as 1650. In 1857, Mr. J. Cross- 



ley announced his intention ot founding a college 
here, and Mr. F. Crossley presented the town with 
a beautiful park. Boiler explosion at Batme and 
Pritchard's ; Mr. Pritchard and 5 men killed, 9 Oct. 
1879. Public demonstration for the franchise 
bill, 9 Sept. 1884. Population, 1881, 73,630; 1891, 
82,864 ; 1901, 104,933. 

Halifax, the capital of Nova Scotia, was founded 
in 1749 by the lion. Edwd. Cornwallis, and named 
after the earl of Halifax. Population, 1881, 36,100; 
1891, 38,556. About 31 were burnt to death in 
an almshouse hospital here . . . Nov. 1882 
Large graving dock opened . . .20 Sept. 1889 

Great fire, 10 wharves and 35 warehouses destroyed 

1 Oct. 1891 
Tablet in honour of Sebastian Cabot unveiled by 

the earl of Aberdeen . . . .24 June, 1897 
Visit of the duke and duchess of Cornwall and York, 

19 Oct. 1901 
Memorial to soldiers who fell in the S. African war, 
unveiled 26 June, 1902 

HALIFAX ADMINISTRATION. 

Charles, earl of Halifax, was appointed first lord of 
the treasury, 5 Oct. 1714. He died 19 May, 1715? 
and was succeeded by Charles, earl of Carlisle, on 10 
Oct. following ; and Robert Walpole became premier. 

Charles, earl of Halifax, first lord of the treasury. 

William, lord Cowper, aft. earl, lord chancellor. 

Daniel, earl of Nottingham, lord president. 

Thomas, earl of Wharton, privy seal. 

Edward, earl of Oxford, admiralty. 

James Stanhope, afterwards earl Stanhope, and Charles, 

viscount Townshend, secretaries of state. 
Sir Richard Onslow, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Dukes of Montrose and Marlborough, lord Berkeley, 

Robt. Walpole, Mr. Pulteney, &c. 

HALIFAX AWARD, see Canada, 1877. 

HALL, principal apartment in mediaeval man- 
sions. Westminster and Elthain halls are fine 
examples ; see Westminster Hall. 

HALL MARK, see Goldsmiths and Standard. 

HALLE (Saxony, N. German y), first men- 
tioned in 801, was made a city by the emperor 
Otho II. in 981. The orphan-house here was estab- 
lished by August Francke, 1698-9. Halle suffered 
much by the Thirty years' and Seven years' wars. 
It was stormed by the French, 17 Oct. 1806, and 
added to the kingdom of Westphalia ; but given up 
to Prussia in 1814. Population, 1891, 101,401 ; 
1900, 156,611. 

HALLELUJAH and AMEN (Praise the 
Lord, and So be it), expressions used in the 
Hebrew hymns ; said to have been introduced by 
Haggai, the prophet, about 520 B.C. Their intro- 
duction into Christian worship is ascribed to St. 
Jerome, about a.d. 390. 

HALLS in London, see Agricultural, Egyptian, 
Exeter, Floral, Freemasons' , Independents, James's 
(St.), Music and Westminster. 

HALYS, a river (Asia Minor), near which a 
battle was fought between the Lydiaus and Medes. 
It was interrupted by an almost total eclipse of the 
sun, which led to peace, 28 May, 585 B.C. (the 
fourth year of the 48th Olympiad). Flin. Nat. 
Hist. ii. Others give as the date 584, 603, and 
610 B.C. This eclipse is said to have been predicted 
many years before by Thales of Miletus. Hero- 
dotus, 1. 75. 

HAM, on the Somme, N. France. The castle 
was built in 1470 by the constable Louis of Luxem- 
bourg, comte de St. Pol, beheaded by Louis XI. 
19 Dec. 1475. Here were imprisoned the ex- 
ministers of Charles X., 1830 ; and Louis Napoleon 
Bonaparte after his attempt at Boulogne, from Oct. 
1840 till 25 May, 1846, when he escaped. 



HAMBUKG. 



592 



HANAPER OFFICE. 



1813 
1814 



1855 



1890 



HAMBURG, formerly a free city, N.W. 
Germany, founded by Charlemagne, about 809. It 
joined the Hanseatic league in the 13th century, 
and became a flourishing commercial city. Popu- 
lation, 1875, 388,618 ; in 1880, 453,869; in 1885, 
518,620; 1890, 622,530; 1894, 647,479; WOO, 
768,349. Hamburg Massacre; see Massacres, 1876. 
A free imperial city by permission of the dukes of 
Holstein, 1296 ; subject to them till 1618 ; pur- 
chased its total exemption from their claims . 1768 
French declared war upon Hamburg for its 
treachery in giving up Napper Tandy ; see Tandy, 

Oct. 1799 
British property sequestrated . . March, 1801 
Hamburg taken by the French after the battle of 

Jena, in 1806 

Incorporated with France 1810 

Evacuated by the French on the advance of the 

Russians into Germany 

Restored to independence by the allies . May, 
Awful fire here, which destroyed numerous churches 
and public buildings, and 2000 houses ; it con- 
tinued for three days .... 4 May, 
Half the city inundated by the Elbe . 1 Jan. 
New constitution granted by the senate, July, i860; 

the new assembly (of 191 members) first met, 6 Dec 1 
The constitution began 1 Jan. 1 

Hamburg joined the N. German confederation, 1 

21 Aug. 1 
Joined the German empire, Jan. ; its privileges as a 
free port confirmed 16 April, 1871 ; these were 
given up, and Hamburg joined the Zollverein, 
being the last of the German free ports . 15 Oct. 1 
The emperor William II. with a hammer completes 
the new great harbour works . . 29 Oct. 

Exhibition of Trade and Industry . 15 May— 7 Oct. 1 
Strike of gas-workers, city some time in darkness ; 
violent rioting, checked by armed police, with 
bloodshed .... about 13-15 May, 

Visitation of cholera (which see) . . Aug.-Nov. 1892 
Arrival of the emperor and other distinguished per- 
sons, en route for the opening of the North sea 
canal ; grand banquet in the new town hall, 

19 June, 1895 
Strike of dockers and others . . . .20 Nov. 1896 
Mr. Tom Mann expelled ... 26 Nov. „ 
Foreign labour engaged ; general strike of workers 

in the harbour 4 Dec - » 

Destructive rioting in the docks, reported 16 Dec. „ 
Strike organised and maintained by the social 
democrats ; ends by the surrender of the men ; 
some disturbances between strikers and blacklegs, 

50 arrests 6 Feb. 1897 

Cabdrivers' strike, motor-cars much used . Aug. 1902 

HAMILTON, Ontario, founded in 1 8 13. Popu- 
lation in 1861, 19,096; 1891,48,959; 1901, 52,634. 

HAMILTON PALACE SALE. The total 
Bum realised by the sale of the vast collection of 
pictures and other works of art, cabinets, crystals, 
&c. amounted to 397,562/. 20 July, 1882. Wm. 
Alexander, the 12th duke of Hamilton, born 12 
March, 1845; died, 16 May, 1895. 
The MSN. purchasi'd by the Orman government; 
reported price about 70,000/., Oct. 1882. Part 
resold to the British Museum, soon alter. The 
greater pari returned bo London for sale ; the 
British Museum boughl the most valuable part 

for 15,189?. 15s. 6d May, 1889 

S;dc or ihc 1 1 hi t ■•• 1 isrrki'nrd nnd Hamilton libraries 
realised 86.444/ 1883-4 

HAMMERSMITH, a parish in S.Middlesex, 
made h parliamentary borough in 1885, returning 
one member. A suspension bridge was erected 
1825-7; a urn one was opened by Prince Albert 
Victor, 18 June, [887; population, 1901, 112,233. 

HAMPDEN CLUBS, see Radicals, and 
Chalgrove. 

HAMPSTEAD, N.W. of London; originally 
1 chapelry of Hendon, was made a parish after the 
Reformation. The anoienl chapel was taken down 



1745 ; and a church was consecrated, 8 Oct. 1747. 
An act authorising the Metropolitan Board of Works 
to purchase the heath from sir John Maryon 
Wilson, bart., passed 29 June, 1871, and the heath 
was formally taken possession of by the Metropo- 
litan Board of Works, 13 Jan. 1872, 45,000^. being 
paid. Hampstead made a municipal borough (7 
aldermen, 42 councillors) by London government 
act, 1899. Hampstead returns one M.t\ by act of 
1885. Population, 1881, 45,452 ; 1891, 68,425 ; 
1901, 81,942. 

Temporary small-pox hospital established . . 1871 
Charges of mismanagement against the officers ; 
official inquiry (33 meetings, from 23 Sept. to 
3 Nov.) ; inquiry respecting disappearance of a 
child, Elizabeth Bellue ; medical officers exone- 
rated from blame Dec. ,, 

A small-pox hospital erected here by Metropolitan 
District Asylum Board was much opposed, and 
led to litigation, see Trials, 1878 ; the house of 
lords on appeal decided against the inhabitants 

7 March, 1881 
Finally the board agreed to buy the property 

affected for 20,000/. Dec. 1883 

The Board of Works voted 152,500/. towards the 
purchase of " Parliament Hill" fields, about 261 
acres, as an addition to the heath ; the parishes of 
Hampstead and St. Pancras having voted 50,000/. 

14 Oct. 1887 
50,000/. given by the Charity Commissioners and 
above 46,000/. subscribed by the public ; final 
meeting of the Hampstead Heath Extension 
committee, 23 March, 1889. The duke of West- 
minster, chairman, and Mr. Shaw Lefevre, vice- 
chairman. 
For Hampstead, or rather Kentish town murder, 

see Trials Dec. 1890 

On Easter Monday, above 100,000 persons were on 

the heath ; 2 women and 6 boys were suffocated 

by the dense crowd descending the stairs at the 

railway station, 6 p.m. ... 18 April, 1892 

The mound on Parliament hill examined ; reported 

probably ancient burial place . . . Nov. 1894 
Public library founded by Mr. Henry Harben and 

sir Spencer Wilson .... 10 Nov. 1896 

The late sir Thos. Spencer Wells' Golders'-hill 
estate opened to the public (total cost, 42,000/.), 

1 Dec. 1898 
The baroness de Hirsch gave 70,000/. to endow 
Tudor house as a convalescent home ; she died 

2 April, 1899 
Princess Christian lays the first stone of new 
hospital buildings .... 21 Oct. 1902 

HAMPTON COURT PALACE (Middle- 
sex), built by cardinal Wolsey on the site of the 
manor-house of the knights-hospitallers, and in 
1525 presented to Henry VIII. ; perhaps the most 
splendid offering ever made by a subject to a 
sovereign. Here Edward VI. was born, 12 Oct. 
1537 ; here his mother, Jane Seymour, died, 24 Oct. 
following ; and here Mary, Elizabeth, Charles, and 
others of our sovereigns resided. Much was pulled 
down, and the grand inner court built by William 
III. in 1694, when the gardens, occupying 40 acres, 
were laid out. The vine was planted 1769. Here 
was held, 14, 16, 18 Jan. 1604, the Conference 
between the Puritans and the Established church 
clergy, which led to a new translation of the Bible ; 
see Conference. An alarming tire in apartments 
over the picture gallery extinguished ; one woman 
suffocated, 14 Dec. 1882. 
By another Bre many apartments destroyed and injured, 

to Nov. iS v. ; rsliiuated damage, 20,000/. 
Alterations and changes in the palace ; pictures removed 

to Kensington palace; Queen Anne's drawing-room 

"1" ' to the public, 1- July, 1899; Indian trOOpS 

encamped here, summer, left 15 Aug. 1902. 

HANAPER OFFICE (of the court of chan- 
cery), where writs relating to the business of the 
subject, and their returns, were anciently kept in 
Itcuiapcrio (in a wicker hamper) ; and those relating 



HANAU. 



593 



HANOVER. 



to the crown, in parva baga (a little bag). Hence 
the names Hanaper and Petty Sag Office. The 
office was abolished in 1842. 

HANAU (Hesse-Cassel), incorporated 1303. 
Here a division of the combined armies of Austria 
and Bavaria, of 30,000 men, under general Wrede, 
encountered the French, 70,000 strong, under Na- 
poleon I., on their retreat from Leipsic, 30 Oct. 
1813. Both armies suffered severely, but the allies 
most, and were compelled to retire. The county of 
Hanau was made a principality in 1803 ; seized by 
the French in 1806 ; incorporated with the duchy 
of Frankfort in 1809; restored to Hesse in 1813 ; 
which was annexed to Prussia in 1866. 

HANDEL'S COMMEMORATIONS. 

The first was held in Westminster abbey, 26 May, 
1784; king George III. and queen Charlotte, and 
above 3000 persons being present. The band con- 
tained 268 vocal and 245 instrumental performers, 
and the receipts of three successive days were 
12,746/. These concerts were repeated in 1785, 
1786, 1787, and 1 79 1. 

Second great commemoration, in the presence of king 
William IV. and queen Adelaide, when there were 644 
performers, 24, 26, 28 June, and 1 July, 1834. 
Great Handel festival (at the Crystal Palace) on the 
centenary of his death, projected by the Sacred 
Harmonic Society. Grand Rehearsal at the Crystal 
Palace, 15, 17, 19 June, 1857, and 2 July, 1858. 
Performances : Messiah, 20 June ; Selections, 22 June ; Is- 
rael in Egypt, 24 June, 1859, when the prince consort, the 
king of the Belgians, and 26,827 persons were present. 
There were 2765 vocal and 393 instrumental performers, 
and the performance was highly successful. The re- 
ceipts amounted to about 33,000?. , from which there 
were deducted i8,oooZ. for expenses ; of the residue 
(15,000?.), two parts accrued to the Crystal Palace Com- 
pany, and one part to the Sacred Harmonic Society. 
Handel's harpsichord, original scores of his oratorios, 
and other interesting relics, were exhibited. 
Handel festivals (at the Crystal Palace) : 4000 performers ; 
highly successful ; 23, 25, 27 June, 1862 ; again, 26, 28, 
30 June, 1865 ; again, 15, 17, 19 June, 1868 (about 
25,000 present) ; also, 19, 21, 23 June, 1871 (about 
84,000 persons subscribed) ; also, 22, 24, 26 June, 1874 
(total present, 78,839) ; also, 25, 27, 29 June, 1877 
(present, 74,124) ; 18, 21, 23, 25 June, 1880 (present, 
79,643) ; 15, 18, 20, 22 June, 1883 (present, 87,769) ; 
(centenary) 22, 24, 26 June, 1885 (present, 85,437) ! 2 5> 
27, 29 June, 1888, chorus above 3,000 (present 86,337) '• 
19, 22, 24, 26 June, 1891 ; 25, 27, 29 June, 1894; 11, 
14, 16, 18 June, 1897 ; 19, 21, 23 June, 1900; 20,23, 2 5; 
27 June, 1903. 

HANDEL SOCIETIES ; for publication of 

Handel's works : — 

Founded in London, 1843 ! first volume issued, 1843-4; 
society dissolved, 1848 ; work continued by Cramer & 
Co. completed, 1855. 

Founded at Leipsic, in 1856 ; publications began, 1858. 

Handel and Haydn Society, Boston, U.S. for perfor- 
mances only ; founded 1815. 

HANDKERCHIEFS, wrought and edged 
with gold, used to be worn in England by gentle- 
men in their hats, as favours from young ladies, 
the value of them being from five to twelve pence 
for each in the reign of Elizabeth, 1558. Stow' s 
Ghron. Paisley handkerchiefs were first made in 
1/43- 

HANDS, imposition of, was performed by Moses 
in setting apart his successor Joshua {Num. xxvii. 
23); in reception into the church, and in ordination, 
by the apostles {Acts viii. 17 ; 1 Tim. iv. 14). 

HANGING-, Drawing, and Quarter- 
ing, said to have been first intiicted upon William 
Marise, a pirate, a nobleman's son, 25 Hen. III., 
1241. Five gentlemen attached to the duke of 
Gloucester were arraigned and condemned for trea- 
son, anl at the place of execution were hanged, cut 



down alive instantly, stripped naked, and their 
bodies marked for quartering, and then pardoned,. 
25 Hen. IV. 1447. Stow. The Cato-street con- 
spirators {which see) were beheaded after death by 
hanging, 1 May, 1820. Hanging in chains (pirates,, 
murderers, and others), an old custom, was 
abolished in 1834; see Death. 

HANGO BAY (Finland). On 5 June, 1855,. 
a boat commanded by lieut. Geneste left the 
British steamer Cossack with a flag of truce tc- 
land some Russian prisoners. They were fired on 
by a body of riflemen, and five were killed, several 
wounded, and the rest made prisoners. The Rus- 
sian account, asserting the irregularity to have 
been on the side of the English, was not sub- 
stantiated. 

HANOVEE (N. W. Germany), successively an 
electorate, and a kingdom, chiefly composed of 
territories which once belonged to the dukes of 
Brunswick {which see). Population of the province 
in 1859, 1,850,000; in 1875, 2 >oi/,393; in 188c, 
2,172,702; 1890, 2,230,491; 1900, 2,590,939; cf 
the city, 1885, 139,731; 1890, 165,499; 190c, 
235,666. It was annexed to Prussia, which see, at 
the close of the war, 20 Sept. 1866 ; see Guelph. 
Hanover became the ninth electorate . . 19 Dec. 1692 
Suffered much during the seven years' war . 1756-63 
Seized by Prussia .... 3 April, i£c'i 

Occupied and hardly used by the French, 5 June, 1803 

Delivered to Prussia in 1805 

Retaken by the French 1807 

Part of it annexed to Westphalia . . . . 1810 

Regained for England by Bernadotte . 6 Nov. 1813 
Erected into a kingdom . . . .12 Oct. 1814 
The duke of Cambridge appointed viceroy, 
and a representative government established, 

Nov. 1816 

Visited by George IV Oct. 1821 

Ernest, duke of Cumberland, king . 20 June, 1837 
He granted a constitution with electoral rights, 
1848; which was annulled in obedience to the 
decree of the federal diet . . . 12 April, 1855 
The king claims from England crown jewels, which 
belonged to George III. (value about 120,0c ol.\ 
±857 ; by arbitration, the jewels given up . Jan. 1858 
Stade dues given up for compensation, 12 June, 1861 
In the war the king takes the side of Austria ; and 
the Prussians enter and occupy Hanover, 

13 June, et seq. 1866 
The Hanoverians defeat the Prussians at Langen- 
salza, 27 June ; but are compelled to surrender, 

29 June, „ 
Hanover annexed to Prussia by law, 20 Sept. : pro- 
mulgated 6 Oct. „ 

Protest of the king of Hanover addressed to Europe 

23 Sept. ,, 
Arrangement with Prussia by a treaty ratified 

18 Oct. 18 J7 
The king celebrates hi* " silver wedding " at Hiet- 
zing, near Vienna, expressing hopes of recovering 

his kingdom, &c 18 Feb. 1868 

Part of his property sequestrated by Prussia, 

March, ,, 
Still further, in consequence of his maintaining a 
Hanoverian legion (the kiug protested against it), 

Feb. 1869 
The emperor William II. warmly received at Hanover, 
during the autumn manoeuvres, n Sept. 1889; 
again reviews the garrison, 24 Jan. 1899 ; cor- 
dially welcomed 16 June „ 

ELECTORS. 

1692. Ernest- Augustus, youngest son of George, that son 
of William, duke of Brunswick-Luneburg, who 
obtained by lot the right to marry (see Bruns- 
wick). He became bishop of Osnaburg in 16 52, 
and in 1679 inherited the possessions of his 
uncle John, duke of Calenberg ; created Elector 
of Hanover in 1692. 
[He married, in 1659, the princess Sophia, daugh- 
ter of Frederick, elector }ialatine, and of Eliza- 
beth, the daughter of James I. of England. In 
1701, Sophia was declared next heir to the British 

Q Q 



HANOVER SQUARE. 



594 



HARMONIUM. 



crown, after William III., Anne, and their de- 
scendants.] 

1698. George-Lewis, son of the preceding ; married his 
cousin Sophia, the heiress of the duke of Bruns- 
wick-Zell ; became king of Great Britain, 1 Aug. 
1714, as George I. 

1727. George-Augustus, his son (George II. of England), 

11 June. 

1760. George-William-Frederick, his grandson (George 
III. of England), 25 Oct. 

KINGS. 

1814. George-William-Frederick(theprecedingsovereign), 
first king of Hanover, 12 Oct. 

1820. George-Augustus-Frederick, his son (George IV. 
of England), 29 Jan. 

1830. William-Henry, his brother (William IV. of Eng- 
land), 26 June ; died, 20 June, 1837. 
[Hanover separated from the crown of Great 
Britain.] 

1837. Ernest-Augustus, duke of Cumberland, brother to 
William IV. of England, on whose death he 
succeeded (as a distinct inheritance) to the 
throne of Hanover, 20 June. 

1851. George V. (born 27 May, 1819), son of Ernest ; 
ascended the throne on the death of his father, 
18 Nov. His states annexed to Prussia, 20 Sept. 
1866; visited England, May, June, 1876; died, 

12 June, 1878. 

1878- Ernest-Augustus II., son, born 21 Sept. 1845 ; 
maintained his claims in a circular to the 
sovereigns of Europe, dated n July, 1878 ; 
married princess Thyra of Denmark, 21 Dec. 
1878. See Cumberland. 

HANOVER SQUARE, built about 1718; 
the concert rooms opened by John Gallini, 1 Feb. 
1775; the house taken for a club, Dec. 1874; re- 
built, 1875. 

HANSARD'S DEBATES and Union, see 
Reporting. 

HANSE TOWNS. The Hanseatic league 
(from hansa, association), formed by port towns in 
Germany against the piracies of the Swedes and 
Danes : began about 1140; the league signed 1241. 
At first it consisted only of towns situate on the 
coasts of the Baltic sea, but in 1370 it was composed 
of sixty-six cities and forty-four confederates. The 
league proclaimed war against Waldemar, king of 
Denmark, about the year 1348, and against Eric in 
1428, with forty ships and 12,000 regular troops, 
besides seamen. On this several princes ordered 
the merchants of their respective kingdoms to with- 
draw their effects. The Thirty Tears' War in Ger- 
many (1618-48) broke up the strength of the asso- 
ciation, and in 1630 the only towns retaining the 
name were Liibeck, Hamburg, and Bremen. The 
league suffered also by the rise of the commerce of 
the Low Countries in the 15th century. Their 
privileges by treaty in England were abolished by 
Elizabeth in 1 578. 

HANSOM, see Cabriolets. 

HANWELL LUNATIC ASYLUM, for 
Middlesex, established 1831. 

HAPSBURG (Hadsbuhg or Habichts- 

BURG), HOUSE OF, the family from which the 
imperial house of Austria sprang in the nth cen- 
tury, Werner being the first named count of Habs- 
burg, 1096. Hapsburg was an ancient castle of 
Switzerland, on a lolly eminence near Schintznaoh. 
Kodolph, count of Bapsburg, became archduke of 
Austria, and emperor of Germany, 1273 ; see 
Austria, and Germany, 

HARBOU US. England has many fine natural 
harbours; the Thames (harbour, dock, and dcpOt), 
Portsmouth. Plymouth, &c. Acts for the improve- 
ment of harbours, &o., were passed in 1847, 1861, 



and 1862. Harbours, docks and piers association, 
12th annual meeting, 5 June, 1894. 

HARES AND RABBITS ACT. See 

Game. 

HARFLEUR, seaport, N.W. France, taken 
by Henry V., 22 Sept.1415. 

HARLAW (Aberdeenshire), the site of a 
desperate indecisive battle between the earl of 
Mar, with the royal army, and Donald, the lord of 
the Isles, who aimed at independence, 24 July, 141 1. 
This conflict was very disastrous to the nobility, 
some houses losing all their males. 

HARLEIAN LIBRARY, containing 7000 
manuscripts, besides rare printed books, collected by 
Robert Harley, afterwards earl of Oxford and 
Mortimer, 1705, et seq., is now in the British 
Museum. A large portion of his life and wealth 
was spent on the collection. He died 21 May, 
1724. The Harleian Miscellany, a selection from 
the MSS. and Tracts of his library, was published 
in 1744 and 1808. 
Harleian Society, founded in 1869 for the publication 

of heraldic visitations, &c. 

HARLEY ADMINISTRATION, see Ox- 
ford. 

HARLEY STREET, London, W. At No. 
139, the house inhabited by Mr. Henriques, the de- 
composed body of a woman, stabbed in the breast 
and covered with chloride of lime, was found 3 
June ; verdict of coroner's inquest, wilful murder 
by person unknown, 14 June, 1880. 

HARMONICA, or musical glasses (tuned by 
regulating the amount of water, and played by a 
moistened finger on the rim), were played on by 
Gluck in London, 23 April, 1746 ; "arranged" by 
Puckeridge and Delaval, and improved by Dr. 
Franklin in 1760; Mozart, Beethoven, and others 
composed for this instrument ; see Copophone. 
"Harmonicon," an excellent musical periodical, 
edited by W. Ayrton, Jan. 1823— Sept. 1833. 

HARMONICHORD, a keyed instrument, in 
which sounds are produced by friction, invented by 
Th. Kauffmann in 1810. 

HARMONISTS, a sect, founded in Wiirtem- 
berg by George and Frederick Rapp, about 1780. 
Not much is known of their tenets, but they held 
their property in common, and considered marriage 
a civil contract. They emigrated to America, and 
built New Harmony in Indiana in 181;. Robert 
Owen purchased ttiis town about 1823 ; but failed 
in his scheme at establishing a "social" community 
and returned to England: see Socialists. The 
Harmonists removed to Pittsburg in Pennsylvania 
in 1822. 

HARMONIUM, a keyed instrument, resem- 
bling the accordion, the tones being generated by 
the action of wind upon metallic reeds. The 
Chinese were well acquainted with the effects pro- 
duced by vibrating tongues of metal. M. Biot 
stated, in 18 10, that they were used musically by 
M. Grenie; and in 1827-29, free reed stops were 
employed in organs at Beauvais and Paris. The 
best known harmoniums in England are those of 
Alexandre and Debain, the latter claiming to be the 
original maker of the French instrument. In 1841, 
Mr. W. E. Evans, of Cheltenham, pi-odueed his 
English harmonium, then termed the Organ-Har- 
monica, and by successive improvements he produced 
a fine instrument, with diapason quality, and great 
rapidity of speech, without loss of power. Dawes' 
melody attachment patented 1864. 



HARMONY. 



595 



HARVARD COLLEGE. 



HARMONY, the combination of musical notes 
of different pitch, appears not to have been practised 
by the Greeks. 
Hucbald, a Flemish monk, published combinations in 

his " Enchiridion Musicaj," 9th century. 
Harmony greatly promoted by Palestrina, and especially 

by Monteverde. 
Jean de Muris .wrote "Ars Contrapuncti " in 14th 

century. 
Francis of Cologne described "descant," 1600. 
Beethoven greatly enlarged the range of harmonic bases. 

HARNESS, chariots and the leathern dress- 
ings used for horses to draw them, are said to have 
been the invention of Erichthonius of Athens, who 
was made a constellation after his death, under the 
name of Bootes (Greek for ploughman), about 
1487 B.C. 

HARO, Cry OF (Clameur de Hard), tradition- 
ally derived from Raoul, or Kollo, of Normandy, 
ancestor of our Norman princes of England. Hollo 
administered justice so well, that injured persons 
uttered the cry " Ha Ron ! Ha Ron ! A mon aide, 
mon prince, on me fait tort." The cry was raised 
in a church in Jersey in 1859. 

HARP. Invented by Jubal, 3875 B.C. (Gen. iv. 

21). David played the harp before Saul, 1063 B.C. 

(1 Sam. xvi. 23.) The Cimbri, or English Saxons, 

had this instrument. The celebrated "Welsh harp 

was strung with gut ; and the Irish harp, like the 

more ancient harps, with wire. Erard's improved 

harps were first patented in 1795. 

One of the most ancient harps existing is that of Brian 

Boroimhe, monarch of Ireland : it was given by his 

son Donagh to pope John XVIII. , together with the 

crown and other regalia of his father, in order to obtain 

absolution for the murder of his brother Teig. Adrian 

IV. alleged this as being one of his principal titles to 

the kingdom of Ireland in his bull transferring it to 

Henry II. This harp was given by Leo X. to 

Henry VIII., who presented it to the first earl of 

Clanricarde : it then came into possession of the family 

1 of De Burgh ; next into that of MacMahon of Clenagh, 

county of Clare ; afterwards into that of MacNamara 

of Limerick ; and was at length deposited by the right 

hon. William Conyngham in the College Museum, 

Dublin, in 1782. 

The claviliarp, fitted like the pianoforte with a keyboard, 

and played like the pianoforte, was introduced into 

Brussels and Antwerp by Mdlle. Dratz, and played on 

by her at Prince's Hall, London, 13 March, 1888. 

HARPER'S FERRY (Virginia), see United 
States, 1859-62. 

HARPSICHORD, see Pianoforte, note. 

HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE, made by 
John Harrison, of Foulby, near Pontefract. In 
1 7 14, the government offered rewards for methods 
of determining the longitude at sea ; to obviate the 
irregularities in the rate of clocks by variations of 
temperature, Harrison invented the method of 
compensation, before 1720. He came to London, 
and produced his first time-piece in 1735 ; his 
second in 1739; his third in 1758; and his fourth, 
which procured him the reward of 20,000/. offered 
by the Board of longitude, a few years after. He 
obtained 10,000/. of his reward in 1764, and other 
sums, more than 24,000/. in all, for further im- 
provements in following years. He was born, May, 
1693, and died in 1776. 

In the patent museum at South Kensington is an eight- 
day clock' made by Harrison in 1715. It strikes the 
hour, indicates the day of the month, and with one 
exception (the escapement) its wheels are entirely 
made of wood. The clock was going in 1871. 

HARROGATE (Yorkshire). The first or old 
spa in Knaresborough forest was discovered by capt. 



Slingsby in 1571 : a dome was erected over the well 
by lord Rosslyn in 1786. Two other chalybeate 
springs are the Alum well and the Towit spa. 
Sulphureous well discovered 1783. Theatre was 
erected 1788. Bath hospital erected by subscription 
1825.^ Kursaal (cost 40,000/.) opened 27 May, 1903. 
Pop.,*i90i, 28,423. 

HARROW - ON - THE - HILL SCHOOL 

(Middlesex), founded and endowed by John Lynn 
in 1 57 1. To encourage archery, the founder in- 
stituted a prize of a silver arrow to be shot for 
annually on the 4th of August ; but the custom has 
been abolished. Lord Palmerston, sir R. Peel, the 
statesman, and lord Byron, the poet, were educated 
here. The school building suffered by fire, 22 Oct. 
1838. The school arrangements were modified by 
the public schools act, 1868. Visit of the prince 
and princess of Wales, speech day, 7 July, 1894. 
Charles II. called Harrow church " the visible 
church." Fire, 8, 9 Feb. 1896. 

HARTLEPOOL, E. Durham, an ancient sea- 
port, said to have been burnt by the Danes, 800, 
fortified by the Braces and others, and chartered by 
John. The foundation of West Hartlepool, with 
its harbour, docks, churches, &c, is due to the 
sagacity, skill, and energy of Mr. Ralph Ward 
Jackson. The work began in 1844, and the harbour 
was opened I June, 1847. The population, about 
400 in 1840, was 16,998 in 1881 ; and 21,521 in 
1 89 1 ; 1901,22,723. West Hartlepool, 1881,29,448; 
1891, 42,492; 1901, 62,614. Mr. R. "W. Jackson, 
first M.P. for "The Hartlepools" in 1868-74, died 
6 Aug. 1880, much honoured at home and abroad. 

HARTLEY COAL MINE (Northumber- 
land), On 16 Jan. 1862, one of the iron beams, 
about 20 tons weight, at the mouth of the ventilating 
shaft, broke and fell, destroyed the brattice, divided 
the shaft, and carried down sufficient timber to kill 
five men who were ascending the shaft, and buried 
alive 202 persons, men and boys. Several days 
elapsed before the bodies could be removed. Much 
sympathy was shown by the queen and the publie, 
and about 70,000/. were collected for the bereaved 
families. The coroner's verdict asserted the neces- 
sity of two shafts to coal mines, and recommended 
that the beams of colliery engines should be of 
malleable instead of cast iron. 

HARTWELL (Buckinghamshire), the retreat 
of Louis XVIII. , king of France, 1807-14. He 
landed in England at Yarmouth, 6 Oct. 1807, took 
up his residence at Gosfield-hall, in Essex, and 
afterwards came to Hartwell, as the count de Lille. 
His consort died here in 1810. On his restoration, 
he embarked at Dover for France, 24 April, 1814. 
See France. 

HARUSPICES, priests or soothsayers, of 
Etruscan origin, who foretold events from observ- 
ing entrails of animals. They were introduced to 
Rome by Romulus (about 750 B.C.), and abolished 
by Constantine, a.d. 337, at which time they were 
seventy in number. 

HARVARD COLLEGE, Cambridge (Mas- 
sachusetts, North America), was founded by. the 
general court at Boston, on 28 Oct. 1636. It derived 
its name from John Harvard, of Emmanuel College, 
Cambridge, who bequeathed to it his library and 
779/. in 1638. Present annual income now (, 1903) 
over $1,000,000, chiefly under the management of 
the state until 1865, when the government was 
vested in a board of 30 overseers. Among the 
university buildings are the Agassi/ museum ,of 
comparative zoology, the Peabody museum of 

Q Q 2 



HAEVEIAN ORATION. 



596 



HAWKING. 



American archeology, the memorial hall erected in 
honour of the alumni who fell in the Civil war, and 
the theatre. 250th anniversary of its foundation 
kept 6-8 Nov. 1886. $50,000 given for the founda- 
tion of a museum of Semitic antiquities, 1900. 

HAEVEIAN OEATION. William Harvey 
hequeathed his property to the Eoyal College of 
Physicians. The annual delivery of the oration 
hegan in 1656. See under Blood. 

HAEWICH, a sea-port, Essex, a Roman 
station, and the Saxon Harewic ; chartered by 
Edwd. 2nd; absorbed into Essex, 1885. 

Near here Alfred defeated the Danish fleet. 
Parkeston, the new port near Harwich, was constructed 
in 1882. 

HASTINGS, a cinque-port, Sussex ; said to 
owe its name to the Danish pirate Hastinge, who 
built forts here, about 893 ; but Mr. Kemble thinks 
it was the seat of a Saxon tribe named Hastingas. 
At Senlac, now Battle, near Hastings, more than 
30,000 were slain in the conflict between Harold II. 
of England and William duke of Normandy, the 
former losing his life and kingdom, 14 Oct. 1066, 
his birthday. He and his two brothers were interred 
at Waltham abbey, Essex. The new town, St. 
Leonard' s-on-sea, was begun in 1828. A new pier 
here was inaugurated by earl Granville, 5 Aug. 
1872. New town-hall opened by the mayor, 7 
Sept. 1881. Convalescent home and Alexandra 
Tark opened by the prince of Wales, 26 June, 1882 
Marine parade much damaged by high tide, 24 
Nov. 1882. Great conservative meeting, powerful 
speech of the marquis of Salisbury, 18 May, 1892. 
Foundation of a new harbour, laid by the marquis 
of Duflerin, 16 June. 1897. Population, 1881, 
42,258; 1891,52,340; 1901,65,528. 

HASTINGS' TEIAL. Wan-en Hastings, 
governor-general of India, was tried by the peers of 
Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanours. 
Among other charges was his acceptance of a present 
of 100,000^. from the nabob of Oude; see Chunar, 
Treaty of. The trial occupied 145 days, and lasted 
seven years and three months ; commencing 13 
Feb. 1788, terminating in his acquittal, 23 April, 
1795. Mr. Sheridan's speech on the impeachment 
excited great admiration. 

Hastings was born in 1732 ; went to India as a writer in 
1750; became governor-general of Bengal in 1772 ; of 
India, 1773 ; governed ably, but, it is said, unscrupu- 
lously and tyrannically, till he resigned in 1785. The 
expenses of his trial (70,000^) were paid by the East 
India Company ; and ;i pension was granted to him. 
lie died a privy-councillor in 181S. 

HATELEY FIELD, see Shrewsbury. 

HATFIELD'S ATTEMPT. On 15 May, 
1800, during a review in Hyde-park, a shot from an 
undiscovered hand was tired, which wounded a 
young gentleman who stood near king Geo. III. In 
the evening, when his majesty was at Drury-lane 
theatre, Hatfield fired a pistol at him. Hatfield 
was confined as a lunatic till his death, 23 Jan. 1841, 
aged 69 years. 

HATHEELEY'S ACT, see Bankrupt. 

HATS, first made by a Swiss at Paris, 1404. 
When Charles VII. made bis triumphal entry into 
Bouen, in 144'). he wore a hat lined with red velvet, 
and surmounted with B rich plume of feathers. 

Henceforward, hats end caps, at least in France, 
began to take the place of chaperons and hoods. 
lli'iinult. Hats were first manufactured in England 



by Spaniards in 15 10. Stow. Very high-crowned 
hats were worn by queen Elizabeth s courtiers ; anci 
high crowns were again introduced in 1783. A 
stamp-duty laid upon hats in 1784, and in 1796, 
was repealed in 1811. Silk hats began to supersede 1 
beaver about 1820. 

None allowed to sell any hat for above 20c?. nor cap for 
above 2s. 8c?., 5 Henry VII. 1489. Every person above 
seven years of age to wear on Sundays and holidays, a 
cap of wool, knit, made, thickened, and dressed in 
England by some of the trade of cappers, under the 
forfeiture of three farthings for every day's neglect, 
1571. Excepted : maids, ladies, and gentlewomen, and 
every lord, knight, and gentleman, of twenty marks of 
land, and their heirs, and such as had borne office oJ 
worship, in any city, town, or place, and the wardens 
of London companies, 1571. 

HATTEEAS EXPEDITION, see United 
States, Aug. 1861. 

HATTON GAEDEN, now covered by a mass 
of houses, was formerly the garden of a palace of 
the bishop of Ely, demised to the crown ancJ 
given by queen Elizabeth to sir Christopher Hatton T 
the lord keeper, who died 20 Nov. 1591. See- 
Jewel Bobberies. 

HAU-HAU FANATICS, see New Zealand, 
1865. 

HAUSA ASSOCIATION, established to 
improve the condition of the Hausas, a people 
dwelling near the basin of the Niger. The study 
of their language and translations, advocated by 
the abp. of Canterbury, lord Aberdare, prof. Max 
Muller, and others in 1892. The work was begun 
by the late rev. J. A. Bobinson, member of the 
Church Missionary Societ". Annual meetings'. 
held. " Hausaland. or fifteen hundred miles 
through the central Soudan," by C. H. Bobinson, 
published Feb. 1896. 

HAVANA, capital of Cuba, West Indies, 
founded by Velasquez, 1511-19 ; taken by lord Albe- 
marle, 14 Aug. 1762; restored, 1763; the remains- 
of Columbus were brought from St. Domingo and 
deposited in the Cathedral here, 1795; exhumed, 
in the presence of gen. Blanco and others, 26 Sept. ; 
taken to Seville, mid Dec. 1898; deposited in a 
special mausoleum, 17 Nov. 1902. By an ex- 
plosion of gunpowder here, 34 persons were killed, 
and about 100 injured, 17 May, 1890. American 
cruiser Maine {which see) blown up, 15 Feb. 1898. 

HAVEE-DE-GEACE (N. W. France) was 
defended for the Huguenots by the English in 1562 ; 
who, however, were expelled in 1563. It was bom- 
barded byBodney, 6 to 9 July, 1759; bysirBichard 
Strachan, 25 May, 1798; and blockaded, 6 Sept. 
1803. The' attempts of the British to burn the 
shipping here failed, 7 Aug. 1804. The Inter- 
national Maritime Exhibition here opened, 1 June, 
1868 another exhibition, 7 May, 1887. The volun- 
teers visited Havre : began to shoot, 26 May ; 50 
British received prizes, 29 June, 1874. The French 
Association for Science met hei-e, 30 Aug. 1877. 
Population, 1891, 109,541 ; 1901, 129,044. 

HAWAII, see Owhyhcc, and Sandicich Isles. 

, HAWKEES AND PEDLARS were first 
Licensed in 1(198. Licensing commissioners were 
appointed in 1810. The expense of licensing was 
reduced in 1861, and regulated by the Pedlai - s' Act, 
1871. Exemptions from charges on licences, 
granted by flic Hawkers Act, 1888. 

HAWKING, sec Falconry. 



HAY. 



597 



HAYTI. 



HAY, average value of the produce of the United 
Kingdom in 1874, 48,000,000?. Hay-making ma- 
chinery exhibited at Taunton, July, 1875. Mr. 
Wm. A. Gibbs's apparatus, with artificial heat for 
drying hay, corn, &c. : tried atGilwell Park, Ching- 
ford, Essex, reported successful, 3 July, 1875 ; at other 
places in July, 1880. His drying machines used 
for other purposes, such as gunpowder works (1885). 
See Ensilage. 

HAYMAN CASE, see Rugby. 

HAYMARKET (Westminster), opened in 
11664, was removed to Cumberland-market, I Jan. 
2831. The Hay market theatre was opened in 1 702; 
see Theatres. 
History, of the Haymarket theatre, by Mr. Cyril 

Maude, published Oct. 1903 

HAYTI or HAITI, Indian name of a "West 
Indian island, discovered by Columbus in Dec. 
1492, and named Hispaniola, and afterwards St. 
Domingo. Before the Spaniards fully conquered 
it, they are said to have destroyed, in battle or cold 
blood, three million of its inhabitants, including 
women and children, 1495. The island now com- 
prises the Dominican republic {which see) in the 
■east, and the republic of Hayti in the west. The 
population of Hayti iu 1887 was about 550,000 ; 
1894, about 1,000,000; capital, Port-au-Prince, 
1894, about 34,000. 

Hayti seized by the filibusters and French bucca- 
neers 1630 

The French government took possession of the 
whole colony ....... 1677 

The negroes revolt against France . . 23 Aug. 1791 
And massacre nearly all the whites 21-23 June, 1793 
The French directory recognise Toussaint l'Oiiver- 

ture as general-in-chief 1794 

The eastern part of the island ceded to France by 

Spain 1795 

Toussaint establishes an independent republic in 

St. Domingo 9 May, 1801 

He surrenders to the French ... 7 May, 1802 
Is conducted to France, where he dies . . .1803 
A new insurrection, under the command of Dessa- 

lines ; the French quit the island . Nov. ,, 

Dessalines proclaims the massacre of all the whites, 
29 March ; crowned emperor of Hayti, as Jacques I. , 

Oct. 1804 
He is assassinated, and the isle divided 17 Oct. 1806 
Henry Christophe, a man of colour, president in 
Feb. 1807 ; crowned emperor by the title of Henry 
I., while Pethion rules as president at Port-au- 
Prince March, 1811 

Numerous black nobility and prelates created . ,, 
Pethion dies ; Boyer elected president . May, 1818 
Christophe commits suicide, Oct. 1820; the two 
states united under Boyer as regent for life, Nov. 
1820; who is recognised by France . . . 1825 

Revolution : Boyer deposed 1843 

fit. Domingo and the eastern part of Hayti pro- 
claim the "Dominican republic," Feb. 1844 ; recog- 
nised by France, 1848 ; Buenoventura Baez, 

president 1849-53 

Hayti proclaimed an empire under its late president 
SSolouque, who takes the title of Faustin I., 
26 Aug. 1849 ; crowned ... 18 April, 1852 
Santana, president of the Dominican republic, 

1853-6; succeeded by B. Baez . . . 1856-8 

Faustin attacking the republic of St. Domingo, 

repulsed 1 Feb. 1856 

Jose Valverde elected president of the republic of 

St. Domingo, or Dominican republic . March, 1858 
Revolution in Hayti: general Fabre Geffrard pro- 
claims the republic of Hayti . . 22 Dec. ,, 

Faustin abdicates 15 Jan. 1859 

Ge^rard takes oath as president of Hayti 23 Jan. ,, 
Sixteen persons executed for a conspiracy against 

Geffrard Oct. „ 

Spanish emigrants land : a declaration for reunion 
with Spain signed 18 March, decreed by the 

queen 20 May, 7.861 

insurrection against Spain in St. Domingo, 18 Aug. 1863 



A Spanish force sent; the insurgents generally 

defeatel 1864 

Great firj at Port-au-Prince ; 600 houses destroyed, 

23 Feb. 1865 
St. Domingo renounced by Spain . . 5 May, ,, 
Military insurrection under Salnave against Gef- 
frard, 7 May ; Cape Hayti seized . . 9 May, „ 
Cabral provisional president of St. Domingo, Sept. 

1865 ; B. Baez proclaimed president . 14 Nov. ,, 
Valdrogue, a rebel vessel, fires into British Jamaica 
packet, near Acul, St. Domingo, 22 Oct.; Capt. 
Wake, H. M. S. Bulldog, threatens Valdrogue; 
Salnave orders the removal of refugees from 
British consulate at Cape Hayti, shoots them, 
and destroys the building. The Bulldog, failing 
to obtain satisfaction, shells the fort, sinks the 
Valdrogue, but gets on a reef ; the crew is taken 
out, and she is blown up. H.M.S. Galatea and 
Lily take the other forts and give them up to 
Geffrard ; the rebels flee inland . . 9 Nov. ,, 
Capt. Wake censured by court-martial for losing 

his ship Jan. 1866 

Hayti— another revolt against Geffrard suppressed, 

5-1 1 July, „ 
Revolution ; Geffrard flies ; banished for ever ; 
Salnave president of Hayti . . 27 March, 1867 

New constitution June, „ 

Revolution caused by Pimentel ; Baez flies ; Cabral 

becomes president of St. Domingo . . June, ,, 
Revolt against Salnave .... Sept. ,, 

The ex-emperor Faustin (born a slave, 1791), died 

Aug. ,, 
City of San Domingo nearly destroyed by the 

hurricane 30 Oct. ,, 

B. Baez, president of Dominican republic, March, 1868 
Insurrection against Salnave, 10 May; said to be 
successful, 26 May; English consul protecting 

foreigners June, ,, 

Salnave defeats insurgents, and kills his prisoners, 

3 June, ,, 
Salnave proclaims himself emperor, Aug. ; offers an 

amnesty Oct. ,, 

Civil war continued: Saget and Dominguez pro- 
claimed president by their respective followers, 

Oct. „ 
Salnave, finally defeated, flies to the woods. 18 Dec. 

1868 ; captured, tried, and shot . . 15 Jan. 1870 
Sale of Samana bay to the United States discussed, 

Jan. ,, 
Gen. Nissage Saget elected president of Hayti for 

four years (from 15 May) . . 19 March, „ 

Baez supports an insurrection against Hayti Aug. 1871 
Tranquillity of Hayti reporte 1 by Saget . 9 May, 1872 
Gen. Ganier d'Aton, president of St. Domingo, 

Oct. 1873 
Michel Dominguez elected president of Hayti (from 

15 May) 14 June, 1874 

Insurrection in St. Domingo in favour of Baez, 

30 A.ug. 1875 
Insurrection headed by Louis Tanis about 7 March, 1876 
Cruel executions of suspected persons by presi- 
dent Domingue .... 20 March „ 
Insurrection successful, Dominguez flies to St. 

Thomas's middle of April ,, 

Election of Boisrond Canal as president of Hayti, 

19 July, ,, 
Peaceful revolution in St. Domingo ; president 

Espaillat replaced by Gonzales . . . Oct. „ 
Insurrection in St. Domingo ; city surrounded by 
Guillermo and Bellini ; Baez almost powerless, 

about 22 Feb. 1877 
Guillermo declared president . . March, ,, 

Revolution ; hard fighting : Boisrond Canal resigns ; 

about 17 July, 1879 
Gen. Salomon elected president of Hayti 22 Oct. ,, 

[re-elected 14 July, 1886] 
Hayti reported tranquil . . . .1 Jan. 1880 
Don Fernando Arturo da Marino, a priest, president 
of San Domingo, Oct. 1880 ; said to become dic- 
tator June, 1881 

Revolution broke out March 25, and government 

troops defeated .... 31 March, 1883 

Bridge exploded by rebels, about 2000 kille I May, ,, 
Insurrection nearly quelled; amnesty pioclaimed 

end of June ,, 

Fresh insurrection ; battle at Jacmel indecisive 

3 Aug. ,, 



HAYTI. 



HEAT. 



Kegro insurrection at Port-au-Prince, suppressed 
after damage to persons and property 22 Sept. 

Alp, British steamer, fired on by thegoverrimentOet. 

Death of the rebel leader Bazelais ; surrender of 
rebel town Jeremie, announced 26 Dec. ; collapse 
of the insurrection . . . about 10 Jan. 

Gen. F. Bellini proclaimed president of San Domingo 

11 Aug. 

Sir Spencer St. John in his Black Republic describes 
the degraded, profligate, cruelly savage condition 
ofHayti 

General Ulises Henreaux elected president of San 
Domingo for 1886-8 . . . 28 June, 

Insurrection ; rebels defeated : reported 14 Aug. 

National bank of Hayti ; mysterious disappearance 
of bonds and cheques ; M. Vouillon, the director, 
charges Mr. D'Almena (American), sub-manager, 
and Mr. Coles (British), accountant, with theft, 
and others with receiving, summer 1884; prisoners 
tried, at first acquitted, afterwards illegally 
convicted and imprisoned ; the American, French, 
and British governments protest ; British squad- 
ron at Port-au-Prince ; prisoners released li 

Revolution in Hayti ; gen. Salomon deposed ; arrives 
in Cuba 16 Aug. ; dies at Paris . . 19 Oct. 

Insurrection of gen. Telemaque ; in an attack on 
the Palais National at Port-au-Prince killed with 
300 of his followers 29 Sept. civil war between 
north and south Hayti Oct. 

Gen. Legitime elected president . 22 Oct. 

Cape Haytien bombarded .... 7 Dec. 

Indecisive conflict between gens Hippolyte and 
Legitime 21 Dec. 

Gen. Hippolyte installed president at Haytien ; 
announced . . . . . . * 1 Jan. 

General Legitime recognised as president by Great 
Britain and France Feb. 

President Legitime defeated by gen. Hippolyte ; 
reported 29 Jan. 

Gen. Hippolyte defeated about . 20 Feb. 

I lessalines captured ; announced . 16 April, 

Reported advance of Gen. Hippolyte on Port-au- 
Prince ' 28 May 

The blockade of Haytian ports, of November last 
declared to be non-effective, and he ports to be 
open ; London Gazette ... 12 July, 

Unsuccessful attacks of gen. Hippolyte on Port-au- 
Prince . . ii, 12, and about 25 July 

Port-au-Prince surrendered to gen Hippolyte by 
gen. Legitime (who goes to France) . 24 Aug. 

Gen. Hippolyte elected president . 16 Oct. 

Gen. Hippolyte continued as president . 15 May, 

A.1 1 empted revolution at Port-au-Prince suppressed 
with bloodshed, about 30 killed . . 28 May, 

M. Rigaud, French citizen, shot ; 80,000 francs paid 
to his widow by the Haytian government . 

reported 20 July, 

The ministry censured by the chamber, then re- 
signs 15 Aug. 

New cabinet formed .... 17 Aug. 

I'.\ an overflow of the river St. Marc, about So lives 
lost 14 Aug. 

An amnesty proclaimed .... 10 Dec. 

den. Ulises Heureaux re-elected president of San 
Doming 16 Dec. 

Rupture between France and San Domingo in rela- 
tion to a petty bank dispute . . 18 April, 

San Domingo, pl"i against the government dis- 
oovered ; gen. I in bad ilia ordered to be shot. 

27 July, 

Dispute with France settled ; indemnities to be 
paid, reported .... 10 March. 

Three French war-ships warmly received in Sau 
Domingo ... , April, 

Death of gen. Hippolyte, president, announced 

25 March 

Qeh. Theresias Augustin Simon Sam elected 

;i March 

Diplomatic rupture relating to the shorl imprison- 
meiii of 1 lerr LUders in 1 lei . : indemnit \ refused, 
Nov. 1897; 1 German cruisers arrive at Port-au- 
Prince; ultimatum, payment in 8 hours de- 
manded, and sum paid ... 1. Dec. 

Martial law; new ministry formed . . t ■ I 

deal lire at I'm I -an- I'rince, 8. >i buildings burnt. 

3000 person- homeless, 28 Dec, and earthquake 
■hocks aq Dec. 



1090 
1891 



1892 



1895 



1897 



Gen. Heureaux, ex-president, assassinated at Moca, 
and an old man standing beside him also killed, 
by Ramon Caceres .... 26 July, 1899 

(2 other assassins captured and shot, reported 2 Aug.) 

Gen. Figuereo, vice-pres., accepts the presidency of 
San Domingo . . ... . .30 July, ,, 

Revolutionary movement successful ; government 
forces defeated with loss near Monte Chiisto, 
12-24 Aug. ; Puerto Plato and other towns 
occupied by the revolutionists ; the president 
resigns ; provisional government formed ; Monte 

♦ Christo surrenders, reported . . .5 Sept. ,, 

Sen. Jimenez, president .... Nov. ,, 

Barahona captured by revolutionists, but bombarded 
and retaken by a government gunboat ; martial 
law proclaimed, reported, 31 March, 1902 ; rebel- 
lion reported crushed ... 10 April, 1902 

Gen. Tiresias Simon Sam, president, resigns, re- 
ported 9 May, ,, 

Provisional government formed, M. B. Canal 
president, about .... 27 May, „ 

Revolutionary outbreak in favour of M. Firmin, 
much fighting .... 27-29 June, ,, 1 

M. Firmin proclaimed president in Artabonite, 
reported 21 July, ,, 

Civil war declared ; provisional government dis- 
solved, reported 26 July, ,, 

Petit Goare burnt down, many deaths-, 4000 home- 
less, reported, 11 Aug.; severe fighting near Cap 
Haitien, 28 Aug. ; troops defeated near Limbe, 3, 
4 Sept.; Haytian gunboat sunk for piracy by a Ger- • 
man gunboat, adm. Killick and 3 others perished, 
reported 7 Sept. ; gen. Nord defeated at Limbe, 
17 Sept. ; troops again severely defeated at Mon- 
trouis, 11 Oct.; insurrection suppressed, flight of 
gen. Firmin, reported . . . .17 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Nord declared president by the troops, 
17 Dec. ; elected 22 Dec. ,, 

Port de Paix destroyed by fire, loss of shipping 

26 Feb. 1903 ■ 

Alleged fraudulent issue of government securities, 
the ministers resign, war minister excepted, 
reported 26 May, ,, 

State of siege proclaimed at Port au Prince and 
national guard summoned to arms, reported mid 

July, „ 
HEAD ACT, see Ireland, 1465. 

HEAD MASTERS, incorporated association 
of, founded 1S91. Annual meeting, Guildhall, 
g Jan. 1901. 

HEALTH, General Board of, was 

appointed by the act for the promotion of the 
public health, passed in 1848. This board was 
reconstructed in Aug. 1854, and sir Benjamin 
Hall was placed at its head, with a salary of 
2000^. ; succeeded by W. F. Cowper, Aug. 1855, 
and by Ch. B. Adderley in 1858. In 1858 this board 
was incorporated into the privy council establish- 
ment; Dr. Simon being retained as medical officer. 
See Hygiene, Hygeiopolis, Sanitation, Exhibitions. 
Public Health, &c. 

HEARTH, or Chimney, Tax., on every 

fire-place or hearth in England, was imposed by 
Charles II. in 1662, when it produced about 
2OO,O00<!. a year. It was abolished by William and 
Mary at the Revolution in 1689; imposed again, 
:ni(l again abolished. 

HEAT (called by French chemists Caloric). 
Little progress had been made in the study of the 
phenomena of heat till about 1757, when Joseph 
Black put forward his theory of latent heat (heat, 
he said, being absorbed by melting ice), and of 
specific heat. Cavendish. 'Lavoisier, and others, 
continued Black's researches. Sir John Leslie put 
forth his views on radiant heat in 1804. Count 
Kumford put forth the theory that heat consists in 
motion among the particles of matter, which view 
he supported by experiments on friction (recorded 
in 1802). This theory (now called the dynamical 
or mechanical theory of heat, and used to explain 



HEAT. 



599 



HEIDELBERG. 



all the phenomena of physics and chemistry) has 
been further substantiated by the independent re- 
searches of Dr. J. Meyer of Heilbronn and of Mr. 
James P. Joule of Manchester, who assert that 
heat is the equivalent of work done. Mr. Joule, 
in his papers published 1841-2, laid the foundation 
of the science of thermo-dvnamics, on which he 
worked till his death, 11 Oct. 1889. The Joule 
Memorial fund proposed, 30 Nov. 1889, was insti- 
tuted by the Koyal Society, Jan. 1890. In 1854, 
Sir William Thomson (aft. lord Kelvin), of Glasgow, 
published his researches on the dynamical power of 
the sun's rays. Thermo-electricity, produced by 
heating pieces of copper and bismuth soldered to- 
gether, was discovered by Seebeck in 1823. A 
powerful thermo-electric battery was constructed 
by Marcus of Vienna, in 1865. Professor Tyndall's 
"Heat,a Mode of Motion," first published Feb. 1863, 
third edition, 1868, sixth edition, 1880. The re- 
researches of philosophers are still devoted to this 
subject; see Boiling and Calorescence. Greatest 
heat in the hot summer of 1868 : at Nottingham, 
in sun, 122-4; in shade, 92-2, 22 July, I p.m.: 
14 Aug. 1876, 957 in the shade; 147 in sun; 
26 June, 1878, 95 in the shade. 

Sir George Cayley invented a heated-air engine in 1807, 
and Mr. Stirling applied it to raising water in Ayr- 
shire in 1818. One invented by Mr. Wenham was 
described in 1873. Improvements have been made by 
C. Wm. Siemens. Coal gas is generally employed. — 
See Gas Engines. 

Captain JohnEricssonconstructeda ship, in which caloric, 
or heat, was the motive power. Oilman. 1853, itsailed 
down the bay of New York, at the rate of 14 miles an 
hour, it is said at a cost of 80 per cent, less than steam. 
Although caloric engines were not successful, capt. 
Ericsson continued his experiments, and patented an 
improved engine in 1856. In 1868 he proposed con- 
densation of the sun's rays, and their employment as 
a motive power ; in March, 1889, he exhibited his 
apparatus in New York shortly before his death, 
aged 86. 

A portable heat radiator, a small vessel containing burnt 
charcoal, used by the peasantry of Kashmir ; adopted 
by lord Dundonald in his " Instra," and recom- 
mended by him for the troops (Times), and developed, 
13 Dec. 1897. 

Dr. Hans Goldschmidt's process of producing high 
temperatures by the combustion of aluminium and 
oxide of iron (the mixture termed "thermite") shown 
in London, 1 May, 1901. 

Mr. C. Prince states that on 14 July, 1847, the temperature 
was 98° in the shade at Uckfield, Sussex. In London, 
94°'i in the shade, 15 July, 1881. In London, W. 
11 Aug. 1884, in the shade, 92'6. In Princetown, 
Dartmoor, 94 in the shade, 24 July, 1885. London, 
91° in the shade, 31 Aug. 1885. See United States, 1892. 

A wave of intense heat passed over Europe, causing 
many deaths, 19-22 Aug. 1892. Temperature in the 
shade, Paris, 96 - 8°, 19 Aug. ; Trieste, no , 21 Aug. ; 
Vienna, 107 , 18 Aug. ; 102 , 21 Aug. ; Berlin, 95 , 20 
Aug. ; Madrid, 106 , 17 Aug. ; Seville, 120°, 15 Aug. 



Maximum Tei 


tlPERATURES 


OF 90 


OR UPWARDS, 


IN 




Shade, 


AT CAMDE> 


-square, London. 








Deg. 






Deg. 


1858. 


June 16 . 


. 92 '6 


1876. 


Aug. 13 . 


9 2 '3 


1859. 


July 12 


• • 91 "9 


,, 


Aug. 14 . . 


92*1 


,, 


July 13 . 


90' 1 


1881. 


July 5 . 


92-7 


,, 


July 18 


. . 90-4 


,, 


July 15 . . 


94 6 


1868. 


July 16 . 


9i'o 


1884. 


Aug. 11 . 


92 


,, 


July 21 


• • 93"3 


1885. 


July 26 . . 


90-4 


,, 


July 22 . 


• 93 "2 


1893. 


June 19 . 


9°'4 


,, 


July 27 


. . 90-4 


,, 


Aug. 16 . . 


9°'7 


,, 


Sept. 7 . 


. 9i"o 


,, 


Aug. 17 . 


92-7 


1869. 


July 22 


. . 91 - o 


,, 


Aug. 18 . . 


93 "6 


1870. 


June 22 . 


. 91*2 


,, 


Aug. 21 . 


72- 


,, 


July 22 


. . 90-8 


,, 


Aug. 23 .. . 


6o- 


1871 


Aug. 13 . 


90 'o 


1898. 


Aug. 22 . 


89- 


1872. 


July 25 


• • 9 2 '3 


1900. 


July 16 . . 


95'2 


1873- 


July 22 . 


. 90' 1 


1901. 


May 29 . 


88 


1874. 


July 9 


. . 90-4 


1902. 


July 14 


86-i 


1874. 


July 20 


. 90-8 


G. 


J. Symons, P.R.S. (he 


1876. 


July 15 


. . 92'6 


died 


to March, 1900 


)■ 



Madrid, 15 Aug., 112°, 1893. 

Heatwave in U.S.N. A.., New York, 105 , 31 July. 1894; 
London, 86'2, 30 May, 1895. High temperature in 
Sept., London, 86°, 24, 25 Sept. 1895. London, 87°, 
14 July, 1896; New York, 97° F., 11 Aug 1896 (many 
deaths); Chicago, 51 deaths, 10 Aug. 1896. See New 
South Wales, Jan. 1896. 

Heat wave averaging 107 in the shade in S. Australia, 
Victoria, and New South "Wales, 26 Dec. et seq. 1897. 

London, 92-1°, 8 Sept. 1898. Heat wave in England, 
22 Aug., London, 90 , 25 Aug. 1899. Adelaide, it.2"2°, 
1 Jan. 1900. Heat wave in U.S.N. A; many deaths, 
New York, 106° F. , 28 June, 1901. 

HEBREWS; see Jews. The Epistle to the 
Hebrews ascribed to St. Paul is dated 64. The 
chief classic authors of all nations, except Greece, 
have been translated into Hebrew. 

HEBRIDES (the Ebudee of Ptolemy and the 
Hebucles of Pliny) , western isles of Scotland, long 
subject to Norway ; ceded to Scotland in 1264 ; and 
annexed to the Scottish crown in 1540 by James V. 
The heritable jurisdictions were abolished in 
1747- 

HEBRON (in Palestine) . Here Abraham re- 
sided, i860 B.C. ; and here David was made king of 
Judah, 1048 B.C. On 7 April, 1862, the prince of 
Wales visited the reputed cave of Machpelah, near 
Hebron, said to contain the remains of Abraham 
and his descendants. 

HECATOMB, an ancient sacrifice of a hundred 
oxen, particularly observed by the Lacedaemonians 
when they possessed a hundred cities. The sacrifice 
was subsequently reduced to twenty -three oxen, and 
goats and lambs were substituted. 

HECLA ; MOUNT (Iceland). Its first re- 
corded eruption is 1004. About twenty-two erup- 
tions have taken place, according to Olasson and 
Paulson. Great convulsions of this mountain oc- 
curred in 1766, since when a visit to the top in 
summer is not attended with great difficulty. Per- 
haps the most awful volcanic eruption on record 
took place in 1784-5, when rivers were dried up, 
and many villages overwhelmed or destroyed. The 
mount was in a state of violent eruption from 2 Sept. 
1845, to April, 1846. Three new craters were 
formed, from which pillars of fire rose to the height 
of 14,000 English feet. The lava formed several 
hills, and pieces of pumice stone and scorise of 2. 
cwt. were thrown to a distance of a league and a half j 
the ice and snow which had covered the mountain 
for centuries melted into prodigious floods. 

HEGIRA, Era OF THE, dates from the flight 
(Arabic hejra) of Mahomet, from Mecca to Medina, 
on the night of Thursday, 15 July, 622. The era 
commences on the 16th. Some compute this era 
from the 15th, hut Cantemir proves that the 16th 
was the first day. 33 of its lunar years are equal to 
32 of those of the vulgar era. 

HEIDELBERG- (Germany) was the capital! 
of the Palatinate, 1362-1719. The protestant elec- 
toral house becoming extinct in 1693, a war ensued, 
in which the castle was ruined, and the elector 
removed his residence to Mannheim. It was an- 
nexed to Baden in 1802. Here was the celebrated 
tun, constructed in 1343, when it contained twenty- 
one pipes of wine. Another was made in 1664, 
which held 600 hogsheads. It was destroyed by the 
French in 1688; but a larger one, fabricated in 
1 75 1, which held 800 hogsheads, and was formerly 
kept full of the best Rhenish wine, is said to be 
mouldering in a damp vault, empty, since 1769. 
Population, 1890, 31,737; 1900, 40,119. 



HELDER POINT. 



600 



HELMETS. 



The anniversary of the foundation of the university in 
1386 was enthusiastically celebrated early in August, 
1886. 

HELDER POINT (Holland). The fort and 
the Dutch fleet lying in the Texel surrendered to 
the British under the duke of York and sir Ralph 
Abercromby, for the prince of Orange, after a con- 
flict. 540 British were killed, 30 Aug. 1799. The 
place was left in Oct. ; see Bergen. 

HELENA, 8T., an island in the South Atlantic 
Ocean, discovered by the Portuguese under Juan de 
Nova Castilla, on St. Helena's day, 21 May, 1502. 
The Dutch afterwards held it until 1600, when they 
were expelled by the English. The British East 
India Company settled here in 1651 ; and the 
island was alternately possessed by the English and 
Dutch until 1673, when Charles II., on 12 Dec., 
assigned it to the company once moie. St. Helena 
was the place of Napoleon's captivity, 16 Oct. 18 15 ; 
•.rid here he died, 5 May, 182 1. His remains were 
removed in 1840, and interred at the Hotel des In- 
valides, Paris ; see France, 1840. The house and 
tomb have been purchased by the French govern- 
ment. The bishopric was founded in 1859. 
Governor, adm. sir Chas. Elliot, 1863-9 > adm. 
Charles George Edward Patey, 1869 ; Hudson Ralph 
.Tanisch, 1873, died April, 1884 ; col. Grant Blunt ; 
hon. Wm. Grey Wilson, 1889 ; K. A. fctemdale, 
March, 1897, died 3 Oct. 1902 ; col. H. L. Gallwey, 
Nov. 1902. Population, 1871, 6241; in 1883, 
5,085; 1891, 4,116; 1901, 3,342. Revenue, 1900, 
15,391/.; expenditure, 12,603/. 
No crime, debt or disease reported by the governor, 

spring, 1890 
By the fall of a rock near Jamestown, 9 persons 

'killed 1 May, ,, 

Gen. Cronje and other Boer prisoners arrive here, 

14 April, 1900. Gen. Ben Viljoen and 38 others 

arrive, 25 Feb. 1902. See South African War. 
" St. Helena," by E. L. Jackson, pub. June, 1903. 

HELENS, ST., Lancashire, originally a 
village, now the centre of a large manufacturing 
district; constituted a municipal borough, 1868, a 
parliamentary borough, one member, 1885. The 
town-hall with a public library was opened 1876. 
Col. Gamble lays foundation stone of a public 
library, technical school, &c. He gives the site, 
and 30,000/. for the building, 2 Oct. 1894 ; the in- 
stitute opened by the earl of Derby, 5 Nov. 1896. 
The Theatre Royal (built 1890) burnt down, 13 
Oct. 1899. Mr. J. Seddon, premier of New Zealand, 
receives the freedom, 5 July, J902. Population, 
1871,45,134; 1891,71,288; 1901,84,410. 

HELIGOLAND, an island in the North Sea, 
formerly ;i dependence of the duchy of Holstein, 
subject to Denmark, was taken from the Danes by 
the British, 5 Sept. 1807; made a depot for British 
merchandise ; continued to England by the treaty 
of Kiel, 14 Jan. 1814. In a naval engagement oil' 
Heligoland, between the Danes and the Austrians 
and Prussians, the allies were compelled to retire, 

9 May, 1864. A fashionable bathing place for 
Germans. Governor, col. Henry F. B. Maxse, 
1863; lt.-col. J. T. N. O'Brien, 1881 ; Mr. A. C. 
S. Barkley. Nov. [888. Heligoland was ceded to 
Germany by the Anglo-German agreement, 18 
June ; given up bj Mr. Barkley to the new ('< en nan 
governor, () .\ul'. ; visited by the emperor 
William II., and proclaimed part of the empire, 

10 Aug. 1890. Population, 1881, about 2000. 

HELIOGRAPH Y (from helios, the sun). 
,\ system of telegraphing by mirrors Hashing the rays of 
the sun, said to have been employed by the ancients 
in bhe tin 1 Alexander, aboul 333 B.C. 



A portable heliograph, invented by Mr. H. Mance, of the 
Persian telegraph department, was announced in 1875. 
It was employed in India, 1877-78 ; in the Afghan and 
Zulu campaigns, 1879-80, and S. African war, 1899- 
1902. See also Photography. 

HELIOMETER, an instrument for measur- 
ing the diameters of the sun, moon, planets, and 
stars, invented by Savary, in 1743; applied by M. 
Bouguer, in 1744. A fine heliometer, by Repsold 
of Hamburg, was set up at the Radclifl'e observatory, 
Oct. 1849. 

HELIOPOLIS; see Baalbec (in Syria). The 
name was also given to a city in Lower Egypt (the 
biblical On or Bethshemesh) in the earliest known 
times, a chief seat of the worship of the sun. It 
suffered much by the Persian invasion, 525 B.C., 
and was in ruins in the time of Strabo, who died 
about a.d. 24. 

HELIOSCOPE (a peculiar sort of telescope, 
prepared for observing the sun so as not to affect 
the eye), was invented by Christopher Scheiner in 
1625. 

HELIOSTAT, an instrument invented to make 
a sunbeam stationary, or apparently stationary, in- 
vented by s'Gravesande about 17 19, and greatly 
improved by Malus and others. One constructed 
by MM. Foucault and Duboscq was exhibited at 
Paris in Oct. 1862. 

HELIUM, a gas discovered by prof. Ramsay 
with argon in the mineral cleveite, 1895. See 
Hydrogen, 1898. 

HELLAS, in Thessaly, the home of the Hel- 
lenes and the Greek race, which supplanted the 
Pelasgians from the 15th to the nth century B.C., 
derived its name from Hellen, king of Phthiotis, 
about 1600 B.C. The Hellenes separated into the 
Dorians, _33olians, Ionians, and Achaians. The 
present king of Greece is called "king of the 
Hellenes :" see Greece. 

HELLENIC SOCIETY, to promote Hellenic 
studies, formed at a meeting, 16 June, 1879, by Mr. 
C. T. Newton and others. Journal published 1881, 
et seq. 

HELLESPONT (now the Strait of the Darda- 
nelles) was named after Helle, daughter of Atha- 
mas, king of Thebes, who was drowned here. 
According to the legendary story of the loves of 
Hero of Sestus, and Leander of Abydos, Leander 
was drowned in a tempestuous night as he was 
swimming across the Hellespont (about one mile), 
and Hero, in despair, threw herself into the sea, 
dated seventh century B.C. Lord Byron and Lieut. 
Ekenhead also swam across, 3 May, 1810. See 
Xerxes. 

HELL-FIRE CLUBS- Three of these as- 
sociations were suppressed, 1721. They met at 
Somerset-house, and at houses in Westminster and 
in Conduit-street. 

HELLHOFFITE, a new, powerful and safe 
explosive, composed of nitrates, &c., invented by 
llellholt and Gruson of St. Petersburg, announced 
August, 1885. 

HELMETS, among the Romans, were pro- 
vided with a vizor of grated burs, to raise above the 
eyes, and beaver to lower for eating; the Greek 
helmet was round, the Roman square. Richard I. 
of England won' a plain round helmet; but most 
of the English kings had crowns above their hel- 
mets. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had a 
flat helmet, with a square grated vizor, and the 
helmet of Robert I. was surmounted by a crown, 
1306. Gwillim, 



HELOTS. 



601 



HERCULANEUM. 



HELOTS, captives, derived by some from the 
Greek kelein, to take ; by others from Helos, a city 
which the Spartans hated for refusing to pay tri- 
bute. The Spartans, it is said, ruined the city, 
reduced the Helots to slavery, and called all their 
slaves and prisoners of war Helotce, 700 B.C. The 
number of the Helots was much enlarged by the 
conquest of Messenia, 668 B.C. ; and is considered 
to have formed four-fifths of the inhabitants of 
Sparta. In the Peloponnesian war the Helots be - 
haved with uncommon bravery, and were rewarded 
with liberty, 431 B.C.; but the sudden disappear- 
ance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attributed to 
Lacedaemonian treachery. Herodotus. The con- 
nection between the Helots and Helos, is now con- 
sidered mythical. 

HELVETIAN REPUBLIG Switzerland 
having been conquered by the French in 1797, a 
republic was established April, 1798, with this title; 
see Switzerland. 

HELVETIC, a Celto-Germanic people, who 
inhabited part of what is now called Switzerland. 
They joined the Cimbri, were with them when the 
Romans were defeated near Geneva, and the consul 
Longinus killed, 107 B.C., and when they them- 
selves were defeated by Marius and Catulus, 101. 
Invading Gaul, 61 B.C., they were defeated and 
massacred \*y Julius Caesar, 58 B.C., near Geneva. 

HEMEL HEMPSTEAD, Hertfordshire. 
The office of high bailiff dates from Henry VIII. 
Charter of incorporation granted, Dec. 1897. Popu- 
lation, 1891,9,064; 1901, 11,244. 

HEMP AND Flax. Flax was first planted in 
England, when it was directed to be sown for fish- 
ing-nets, 1532-3. " Bounties wore paid to encourage 
its cultivation in 1783; and every exertion should 
be made by the government and legislature to ac- 
complish such a national good. In 1785 there were 
imported from Russia, in British ships, 17,695 tons 
of hemp and flax." Sir John Sinclair. The im- 
portation of hemp and Max in 1870, was 3,510,178 
cwt. ; 1879, 2,943,738 cwt. ; 1883, 3,082,109 cwt.; 
1887, 3,105,169 cwt.; 1890,3,777,364 cwt.; 1900, 
3,302,280 cwt. , 1 901, 3,887,140 cwt. The cultiva- 
tion of flax was revived at the dearth of cotton 
during the American civil war, 1861-4. 

HENGESTDOWN (Cornwall). Here Egbert 
is said to have defeated the Danes and West 
Britons, 835. 

HENOTICOJST (from the Greek henotes, unity) , 
an edict of union for reconciling the Eutychians with 
the church, issued by the emperor Zeno at the in- 
stance of Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, 482. 
It was zealously opposed by the popes of Borne, and 
was annulled by Justin I. in 518. The orthodox 
party triumphed, and many heretic bishops were 
expelled from their sees. 

HEPTARCHY (or government of seven rulers) 
in England was gradually formed from 455, when 
Hengist became king of Kent. It terminated in 
828, when Egbert became sole monarch of England. 
There were at first nine or ten Saxon kingdoms, but 
Middlesex soon ceased to exist, and Bernicia and 
Keira were generally governed by one ruler, as 
.Northumbria : see Britain. 

HERACLEA, see Pandosia. 

HERACLID2E, descendants of Hercules, who 
were expelled from the Peloponnesus about 1200 
B.C., but reconquered it in 1048, 1103-4 or 1109 B.C., 



a noted epoch in chronology, all the history pre- 
ceding being accounted fabulous. 

HERALDRY. Marks of honour were used in 
the first ages. Nisbet. The Phrygians had a sow ; 
the Thracians, Mars; the Romans, an eagle; the 
Goths, a bear; the Flemings, a bull; the Saxons, 
a horse ; and the ancient French a lion, and after- 
wards the fleur-de-lis {which see). Heraldry, as an 
art, is ascribed first to Charlemagne, about 800 ; and 
next to Frederick Barbarossa, about 1152; it began 
aud grew with the feudal law. Mackenzie. The great 
English works on Heraldry are those of Barcham 
or Barkham, published by Gwillim (1610), Edmond- 
son (1780), and Burke's "Armory" (1842; new 
ed. 1883, contains a history and the arms of above 
66,000 British families, &c). See Blazonry, Cresls, 
and Armorial Bearings. 

Edward III. appointed two heraldic kings-at-arms 
for the south and north (Surroy, Norroy) . . 1340 

Richard III. incorporated and endowed the 
Heralds' College 14S3-4 

Philip and Mary enlarged its privileges, and con- 
firmed them by letters patent . . is July, 1554 

Formerly, in many ceremonies, the herald repre- 
sented the king's person, and therefore wore a 
crown, and was always a knight. 

The college has an earl marshal, 3 kings of arms 
(Garter, Clarencieux, and Norroy), 6 heralds 
(Richmond, Lancaster, Chester, Windsor, Somer- 
set, and York), 4 pursuivants, and 2 extra heralds; 
see Earl Marshal, and Kings-of-Arms. 

The building in Doctors' Commons, London, was 
erected by sir Christopher Wren (after the great 
fire in 1666), 1683 ; buildings now in Queen Vic- 
toria Street, E.C. 

Heralds' Visitations were occasionally held in 
former times, at which the landed gentry were 
required to attend to prove their pedigrees, which 
were then entered in a book. The last is said to 
have been held in 1687. Some of the records have 
been printed. 

A heraldic exhibition to which the queen contri- 
buted was opened in Edinburgh, July — August, 
1891. The Treatise by the Rev. J. Woodward and 
the late G. Burnett was completed in two vols. . 1892 

Committee appointed by the treasury to inquire 
into the constitution, duties, and administration 
of the Heralds college, the courts of Lyon and 
Ulster kings at arms, and the chanceries of the 
various orders of knighthood . . . Jan. 1903 

HERAT, on the confines of Khorasan, a strong 
city, called the key of Afghanistan. It was con- 
quered by Persia, early in the 16th century ; by the 
Afghans, in 17 15 ; by Nadir Shah, 1731 ; recovered 
bv the Afghans, 1749. The Persians, baffled in an 
attempt in 1838 ; took it 25 Oct. 1856, in violation 
of the treaty of 1853 ; and war ensued between 
Great Britain and Persia. Peace was made in April, 
1857 ; and Herat was restored 27 July following. 
i It was seized again by Dost Mahommed, 26 May, 
1863; taken by Yakoob Khan, rebelling against his 
father, 6 May, 187 1. Yakoob, reconciled to his 
father, was made governor, 16 Sept. 1871. 

I Avoub governor for his brother Yakoob, ameer at 

Cabul May, 1879 

Mutiny, many officials killed . . . 5 Sept. „ 
Ayoub invades Candahar (which see); defeated, 
1 Sept. ; returns to Herat .... Sept. 1880 
I His troops defeated in several conflicts ; Ayoub 
flees to Persia ; and the Ameer's general enters 

Herat Oct. 1881 

For following events, see Afghanistan. 

HERBERT HOSPITAL for Soldiers, Wool- 
wich, erected 1866. 

HERClTLANEUM,.an ancient city of Cam- 
pania, overwhelmed, together with Pompeii, by an 
eruption of lava from Vesuvius, 23 or 24 Aug. 79. 



HEREDITY. 



602 



HERRING-FISHERY. 



Successive eruptions laid them still deeper under 
the surface, and all traces of them were lost until 
excavations began in 1711 ; andin 1713 many anti- 
quities were found. In 1738 excavations were re- 
sumed, and works of art, monuments, and memorials 
of civilized life were discovered. 150 rolls of 
MSS. papyri were found in a chest, in 1754 ; and 
many antiquities were purchased by sir William 
Hamilton, and sold to the British Museum, where 
they are deposited ; but the principal relics are 
preserved in the museum of Portici. The " Anti- 
chita, di Ercolano," 8 vols, folio, were published by 
the Neapolitan government, 1757-92. 

HEREDITY. The transmission of qualities 
of like kind of those of the parents has been 
specially studied by Mr. Francis Galton, F.R.S. 
who published " Hereditary Genius," 1869, and 
" .Records of Family Faculties," containing tabular 
forms to be rilled up, in order to obtain authentic 
data for his new science of "Eugenics." Money 
prizes, 5/. and upwards, were offered for the best 
records. His "Inquiries into Human Faculty" 
was published in 1883, and "Natural Inheritance" 
in 1889. Works also by Haeckel, Hertwig, Nageli, 
Herbert Spencer, Virchow, Guyau, and others. 

Dr. August Weismann, in his " Studies in the Theory of 
Descent," English translation, 1882, and in his " Essays 
on Heredity," &c, 1889, set forth his reasons for op- 
posing the theory, and referred to his researches on 
the lowest forms of animal life, protozoa, &c, and to 
Darwin's principle of natural selection, which he 
considers as the only possible theory for explaining 
the difficulties connected with metamorphoses of 
species. Much controversy ensued, in which the late 
prof. G. J. Romanes took a leading part. 

HEREFORD was made the seat of a bishopric 
about 676, Putta being first bishop. The cathedral 
was founded by a nobleman named Milfride, in 
honour of Etheibert king of the East Saxons, who 
was treacherously slain by his intended mother-in- 
law, the queen of Mercia. The tower fell in 1786, 
and was rebuilt by Mr. Wyatt. The cathedral was 
re-opened after very extensive repairs, on 30 June, 
1863. The see is valued in the king's books at 768^. 
per annum. Present income, 4,200/. St. Nicholas's 
church, the cathedral, and other buildings damaged 
by earthquake, 5 a.m. 17 Dec. 1896. St. James's 
church, built about 187 1, burnt 23 Dec. 1901. 
Princess Henry of Battenberg unveils a memorial 
window in the cathedral and lays the first stone of 
new lnuniiipalbuildings, 13 May, 1902. Populatiou, 
1881,19,821; 1891,20,267; 1901,21,832. 

BISHOPS. 

1803. Folliott H. W. Cornwall, translated to Worcester, 

1808. 
1808. John Luxruoore, translated to St. Asaph, 1815. 
1815. George Isaac I liuit ingl'ord, died 29 April, 1832. 
1832. Hon. Edward Grey, died 24 June, 1837. 
1837. Thomas Musgrave, trans, to Fork, Dec. 1847. 
1847. Renn 1). Hampden (election much opposed on 

account of his opinions), died 23 April, 1868. 
1868. James At lay ; consecrated 24 June ; died 24 Dec. 

1894, aged 77. 
1895. John IVrcival ; consecrated 25 March. 

HERETICS (from the Greek ha tresis, choice). 
Paul Bays, " Alter the way the] call heresy, so wor- 
ship I the God of my fathers," 60 {Acts xxiv. 14). 
Heresy was unknown to the Greek and Roman 
religions. Simon Magus is said to have broached 
the Gnostic heresy :i1>.)iit 4 1 . This was followed by 
the Manichees, Nestorians, Arians, &c. ; see In- 
quisition. It is stated thai the promulgation of 
laws for prosecuting heretics was begun by the 
emperor Frederick II. in [220; and immediately 
adopted by pope Honorius III. 



Epiphanius ehosen bishop of Constantius in Cyprus, 
367, wrote "Panarium," a discourse against here- 
sies, died 4 02 

Thirty heretics came from Germany to England to 
propagate their opinions, and were branded in 
the forehead, whipped, and thrust naked into the 
streets in the depth of winter, where, none daring 
to relieve them, they died of hunger and cold 
(Speed) 1160 

Laws against heretics repealed, 25 Henry VIII. 1534-5 , 

The last person executed for heresy in Britain was 
Thomas Aikenhead, at Edinburgh . . . 1696 

|The orthodox Mahommedans are Somiites ; the 
heretics — Shiites, Druses, &c] 

HERITABLE JURISDICTIONS (*. •., 

feudal rights) in Scotland, valued at 164,232/., were 
abolished by the act 20 Geo. II. c. 43 (1747), and 
restored to the crown for money compensation after 
25 March, 1748. Heritable and Movable Rights, in 
the Scottish law, denote what in England is meant by 
real and personal property : real property in Eng- 
land answering nearly to heritable rights in Scot- 
land, and personal property to the movable rights. 

HERMANDAD, SANTA (Spanish for holy 
brotherhood), associations of cities of Castile and 
Arragon to defend their liberties, began about 
the middle of the 13th century. The brotherhood 
was disorganised in 1498, order having been firmly 
established. It is said to have been continued as a 
species of voluntary police. 

HERMAS, author of "the Shepherd," a 
Christian apocryphal book, supposed to have been 
written about 131. Some believe Hermas to be 
mentioned in Romans xvi. 14. 

HERMETIC BOOKS, the name of forty-two 
books forming the sacred canon of the ancient 
Egyptians, and constituting a synopsis of Egyptian 
wisdom. The name is derived from Hermes 
Trismegistus, the Greek name of Thoth, the 
Egyptian god of wisdom. 

HERMETIC SOCIETY, a mystical, spi- 
ritual philanthropic association, based upon Chris- 
tianity, founded by Dr. Anna Kingsford, early in 
1884, ' presumed author of "The Perfect Way" 
(lectures delivered in 1881, and since published). 

Mrs. Anna Kingsford died 22 Feb. 1S88. See under 
Theosoph ists. 

HERMITS, see Monachism. 

HERNE BAY, Kent, a watering-place, begun 
1830; the pier, five-eighths of a mile long, having 
decayed, a new one was opened, 27 Aug. 1873, by 
lord mayor Waterlow ; pier lengthened in 1898. 
The Passniore Edwards convalescent home (rail- 
way men) opened 8 June, 1901. Population, 1881, 
2,8'i6; 1891,3,829; 1901,6,688. 

HERO, British Majst-of-War, see Wrecks, 
1811. 

HERRERA (Arragon). Here don Carlos, of 
Spain, in his struggle for Ids hereditary right to 
the throne, at the head of 12,000 men, encountered 
and defeated general Buerens, who had not much 
above half that number of the queen of Spain's 
troops. Buerens lost about IOOO in killed and 
wounded, 24 Aug. 1837. 

HERRING- FISHERY was largely en- 
couraged by the English and Scotch in very early 
times. The "statute of herrings," passed in 
1357, placed the trade under government control. 
The mode of preserving herrings by pickling was 
discovered about 1397. Anderson. The British 
Herring-Fishery company was instituted 2 Sept. 



HEEEINGS. 



603 



HESSE. 



1750. A scientific commission in relation to the 
fishery was appointed in 1862. 

HERRINGS, Battle of the, fought 

12 Feb. 1429, obtained its name from the due de 
Bourbon being defeated while attempting to inter- 
cept a convoy of salt fish, on the road to the English 
besieging Orleans. 

HEEENHUTEES, see Moravians. 

HEESCHEL TELESCOPE, see Telescopes. 

HEETFOED, Hertfordshire, a Saxon town. 
Castles were erected here by Alfred and by Edward 
the Elder. Charters were .granted in 1588 and 
1680. All Saints' church burnt, 21 Dec. 1891. 
Lord Cranborne receives the freedom, 4 July, 1902. 
Population, 1881,7,747; ^i, 7,232 ; 1901,9,322. 

HEETFOED COLLEGE, Oxford; founded 
in 1312 ; dissolved, 1805 ; revived, and Magdalen 
hall incorporated with it, 1874. 

HEEULI, a German tribe, which ravaged 
Greece and Asia Minor in the 3rd century after 
Christ. Odoacer, their leader, overwhelmed the 
western empire and became king of Italy, 476. He 
was defeated and put to death by Theodoric the 
Ostrogoth, 491-3. 

HEEVEY ISLANDS (Pacific Ocean), 
Rarotonga, &c. British protectorate proclaimed, 20 
Sept. 1888. 

HERZEGOVINA or HEETSEK (European 
Turkey), originally a part of Croatia, was united 
with Bosnia in 1326, and made the duchy of St. 
Saba by the emperor Frederic III. in the following 
century. It was ceded to Turkey in 1699 at the 
peace of Carlowitz. In Dec. 1861 an insurrection 
against the Turks broke out, fostered by the prince 
of Montenegro. It was subdued; and on 23 Sept. 
1862, Vucatovitch, chief of the insurgents, surren- 
dered on behalf of his countrymen to Kurschid 
Pasha, and an amnesty was granted. 

Insurrection against the Turks ; conflicts with 

varying results 1 July, 1875 

The European Powers counsel to send a commis- 
sion to redress grievances ... 22 Aug. ,, 
Server Pacha unsuccessful ; Turkish victories Aug. ,, 
The insurgents in a document describe their suffer- 
ings, as Christians ; demand full and real free- 
dom, and declare that they will not be subject 
to the Turks again . ... 12 Sept. ,, 

Futile intervention of foreign consuls . Sept. ,, 
Sanguinary engagements ; various results; 29 Sept., 

13 Oct. n-14 Nov. ,. 
Insurgents defeated near Trebinje ; Baeevics, a 

leader, killed 18-20 Jan. 1876 

Negotiations of the Austrian gen. Rodich fail ; 

the insurgents ask too much . . . April ,, 
Mukhtar Pasha said to have defeated insurgents, 

and revictualled Niksichs besieged . 2g April ,, 
Other engagements reported . . May, June, ,, 
The new Sultan, Murad, grants an armistice for 

negotiation June „ 

All intelligence very uncertain. July, 1875-July, ,, 

See Turkey. 
Herzegovina was occupied by the Austrians in 
Aug. 1878, in conformity with the treaty of 

Berlin 13 July, 1878 

Fighting at Mostar, the capital . . .4 Aug. ,, 
Novi-Bazar quietly occupied by Austrians, 8 Sept. 1879 
Insurrection (see Austria) .... Jan. 1882 
Civilisation and prosperity, reported . . . i8q8 
Baron S. Burian appointed administrator of Bosnia 
and Herzegovina July, 1903 

HESSE (W. Germany), the seat of the Catti, 
formed part of the empire of Charlemagne; from 
the rulers of it in his time, the present are de- 
scended. It was joined to Thuringia till about 



1263, when Henry I. (son of a duke of Brabant and 
Sophia, daughter of the landgrave of Thuringia) 
became landgrave of Hesse. The most remarkable 
of his successors was Philip the Magnanimous 
(1509), an eminent warrior and energetic supporter 
of the Reformation, who signed the Augsburg Con- 
fession in 1530 and the League of Smalcald in 1531. 
At his death, in 1567, Hesse was divided into 
Hesse-Cassel and Hesse-Darmstadt, under his 
sons William and George, and their descendants 
played an eminent part in the convulsions of Ger- 
many during the 17th and 18th centuries.* In 1803 
Hesse-Cassel became an electorate, and in 1806 
Hesse-Darmstadt a grand duchy ; which titles were 
retained in 1814. In 1807 Hesse-Cassel was incor- 
porated with the kingdom of Westphalia, but in 
1813 the electorate was re-established. Capital, 
Darmstadt. Population (1875), grand duchy, 
884,218; (1885), 956,611; (1890), 993,659; 1900, 
1,120,135. 

Hesse-Cassel (made an electorate, 1803 ; incor- 
porated with Westphalia, 1807; restored, 1813). 



1803. William I. ; born 3 June, 1743 ; succeeded as land- 
grave, 1785 ; made elector, 1803 ; deprived of his 
states, 1806 ; restored, 1813 ; died 27 Feb. 1821. 
1821. William II. ; born 28 July, 1777 ; died 20 Nov. 1847 
1847. Frederic William ; born 20 Aug. 1802. 

The elector, in 1850, remodelled the constitution 
given in 183 1 (by which the chamber had the 
exclusive right of voting the taxes), and did not 
convene the chamber until the usual time for 
closing the session had arrived, when his de- 
mand for money for 1851 was laid before it. The 
chamber called for a regular budget, that it 
might discuss its items. The elector dissolved 
the chamber, and declared his dominions in a 
state of siege, 7 Sept. 1850. 

He fled to Hanover, and subsequently to Frank- 
fort; and on 14 Oct. he formally applied to the 
Frankfort diet for assistance to re-establish his 
authority in Hesse. On 6 Nov. an Austro- 
Bavarian force of 10,000 men entered Hesse- 
Cassel, under the command of Prince Thurn- 
und-Taxis, who fixed his head-quarters in Hanau ; 
and on the next day a Prussian force entered 
Cassel. The elector returned to his capital, the 
taxes having been collected under threats of 
imprisonment, 27 Dec. 1850. 

The constitution of 1831 was abolished, and a new 
one established, 1852. 

The conflict was soon resumed, and continued 
till, by law of 20 Sept. 1866, Hesse-Cassel was- 
annexed to Prussia, 8 Oct. 1866. 

The ex-elector's property sequestrated for intriguing 
against Prussia, 2 Nov. 1868 and Feb. 1869. He 
died 6 Jan. 1875. 

The landgrave of Hesse mysteriously drowned 
near Batavia, 14 Oct. 1888. 

Hesse-Darmstadt. (Population, 1900, 1,119,093.) 

Visit of queen Victoria, 23-29 April, 1895. 

The town of Brotterode almost destroyed by fire, 

2 deaths, 10 July, 1895. 
Visit of the czar and czarina to Darmstadt, 10 

Oct. 1896. 
Death of prince Henry of Hesse, eminent in the 

army, aged 62, 16 Sept. 1900. 

GRAND-DUKES. 

1806. Louis I. ; born 14 June, 1753 ; died 6 April, 1830. 
1830. Louis II. ; born 26 Dec. 1777; died 16 June, 1848. 



* Six thousand Hessian troops arrived in England, in 
consequence of an invasion being expected in 1756. The 
sum of 471,000/. three per cent, stock was transferred to 
the landgrave of Hesse, for Hessian auxiliaries lost in 
the American war, at 30/. per man, Nov. 1786. The 
Hessian soldiers were again brought to this realm at the 
close of the last century, and served in Ireland during 
the rebellion in 1798. 



HESSIAN FLY. 



604 



HIGHER CRITICISM. 



1848. Louis III. ; born 9 June, 1806. By treaty with 
Prussia, 15 Sept. 1866, lie ceded the northern 
part of Hesse-Darmstadt, and paid a war con- 
tribution ; supported Prussia in the Franco- 
Prussian war, Aug. 1870 ; died 13 June, 1877. 
1877. Louis IV., nephew, born 12 Sept. 1837 ; married 
princess Alice of Great Britain (born 25 April, 
1843), 1 July, 1862 ; died of diphtheria after 
nursing her husband and children, 14 Dec. 1878. 
The grand-duke died 13 March, 1892. 
Issue: Ernest Louis ; Frederick-William, 2nd son, 
killed by a fall, 29 May, 1873; and 5 other 
children. 

[Sisters married : Victoria to prince Louis of 
Battenberg, 30 April; Elizabeth to Grand 
duke Sergius of Russia, 15 June, 1884; 
Irene, married to prince Henry of Prussia, 
24 May, 1888 ; Alix, born 6 June, 1872 ; 
married Nicholas II., czar of Russia, 26 
Nov. 1894.] 
1892. Ernest Louis ; born 25 Nov. 1868 ; married at 
Goburg to his cousin, princess Victoria Melita, 
daughter of the duke of Goburg, in the presence 
of their grandmother, queen Victoria, the 
emperor William, the prince of Wales, the 
eesarewitch, and other royal persons ; 19 April, 
1894. The marriage dissolved by mutual con- 
sent, 21 Dec. 1901. 
Issue: Elizabeth, born 11 March, 1895. 
'Hesse-Homburg, a landgraviate, established by 
Frederic, son of George of Hesse-Darmstadt, 
in 1596. His descendant, Augustus-Frederic, 
married 7 May, 18 18, Elizabeth, daughter of 
George HI. of England, who had no issue. 
The landgraviate was absorbed into the grand 
duchy of Hesse in 1806, but re-established in 
1,815 with additional territories. The landgrave 
Ferdinand succeeded his brother, 8 Sept. 1848, 
and died 24 March, 1866. 
Hesse-Homburg annexed to Prussia, 8 Oct. 1866. 

HESSIAN FLY (Cecidomyia destructor), the 
American wheat midge, very "destructive to the 
-corn in the United States in 1786, whither it is 
said to_ have been brought by the Hessian soldiers 
in British pay — hence its name. 

The crops suffered severely in New York state in 1846 
and 1886. It appeared in England in 1788, and was 
described by sir Joseph Banks. Its appearance herein 
1887 occasioned much alarm throughout the country. 

Its action said to be checked by a parasite— Saw-fly 
(i 'tin iih nni destructor) — W. Fream, Aug. 1887. Very 
prevalent in eastern coast of Britain, not much inland. 
Ormerod, Aug. 1887. 

fn twenty English and ten Scotch counties ; the alarm 
considered to be exaggerated. Pari. Riji. Sept. 1837. 

Presence of the insect reported in Lincoln, Suffolk, 
Berts, Perthshire 28 July, 1890 

HETEROGENY, see Spontaneous Genera- 
tion. 

HEWLEY'S CHARITY, see Unitarians. 

HEXAMETER, the most ancient form of 
Greek verse, six measures or feet, each containing 
two long syllables (a spondee), or a Ion- one and 
two short (a dactyl), the form of verse in which 
Homer wrote his Iliad and Odyssey, and Virgil the 
yEneid. 

HEXHAM or Hagulstad, Northumberland. 

The sit of Hexham was founded about (178; it had 
ten bishops successively, but by reason of (he rapine 
of the Danes it was discontinued; the Last prelate 
appointed 810. At the Battle of Hexham the 
Yorkist army of lidward IV. obtained a complete 
victory over the Lancastrian army of Henry VI., 
15 May, 14(14. Population, 1881, 5,919; 1891, 
5.945! 19011 7.0/1. 

HEXTIIORFE. Yorkshire, see Itailway . /, 
eidents, 16 Sej 1. 1887. 



HIBBERT FUND. Robert Hibbert on 19 
July, 1847, established a trust fund " for the pro- 
motion of comprehensive learning and thorough 
research in relation to religion as it appeai-s to the 
eye of tDe scholar and- philosopher, and wholly apart 
from the interest of any particular church or 
system." 

Hibbert lectures; first course of, seven by prof. 
Max Mtiller (given at Westminster) "on the 
Oiigin and Growth of Religion, as illustrated by 
the Religions of India" . 25 April — 30 May, 1878 

Since given by M. Renouf, in 1879 ; M. Ernest Renan, 
6-14 April, 1880 ; by Mr. T. W. Rhys Davids, 
26 April-24 May, 1881 ; by professor Kuenen, 
25 April-May, 1882 ; by Mr. C. Beard, 1883 ; by 
professor Albert Reville, 21 April et seij. 1884 ; by 
Professor O. Pfleiderer, 1885 ; Mr. J. Rhys, 1886'; 
by professor A. Sayce .... April, 1887 

HIBERNIA, Ibernia, Ivernia, and Ierne, a 
name given to Ireland by ancient writers (Aristotle, 
Ptolemy, &c.) ; see Ireland, and Wrecks, 1833. 

HICKS' S HALL, Clerken well, London. The 
sessions-house of the justices of Middlesex was 
long so named on account of its having been erected 
for them by sir Baptist Hicks, at his own expense, 
1611-12. 

HIEROGLYPHICS, literally sacred sculp- 
tures or engravings, the representation of objects to 
express language, used by the ancient Egyptians, 
Mexicans, and other nations. The Egyptians used 
about 1700 hieroglyphs, engraved on stone, painted 
on wood, and written on papyri. They were either 
phonetic or ideographic. Their invention is 
mythically ascribed to Athotes. See " Book of the 
Dead," in article Death. Young, Champollion, 
Rosellini, Lepsius, Brugsch, Mariette, Chabas, 
Birch, and others (in the present century) have 
much elucidated Egyptian hieroglyphics ; see 
Rosetta Stone. A. Erman's "Egyptian Grammar," 
English translation by J. H. Breasted, published 
about July, 1894. 

HIGH and LOW CHURCH, sections hi 
the Church of England became prominent in the 
reign of Elizabeth. High church principles were 
maintained by Abp. Whitgift, and set forth by 
Richard Hooker " the judicious" in his Ecclesias- 
tical Polity, 1593-7. They were opposed by the 
Puritans. The contest, hot iu the reign of Anne, 
has continued since. Dr. Sacheverell, preacher at St. 
Saviour's, Southwark, was prosecuted for two sedi- 
tious sermons preached (14 Aug. and 9 Nov. 1709) 
to create apprehension for the safety of the church, 
and to excite hostility against dissenters. His 
friends were called High Church and his opponents 
Low Church, or moderate men, 1720. The queen 
favoured Sacheverell, and presented him with the 
rectory of St. Andrew's, Holborn. He died in 1724. 

HIGH COMMISSION, Court of, an 

ecclesiastical court, erected by I Eliz. c. I, 1559, 
by which all spiritual jurisdiction was vested in 
the crown. It originally had no power to fine or 
imprison ; but under Charles I. and archbishop 
Laud it assumed illegal powers, was complained of 
by the parliament, and abolished in 1641. 

HIGH CONSTABLE, see Constable. 

HIGH COURT OF JUSTICE, see Supreme 

Court. 

I HIGH COURT OF JUSTICIARY, see 
Supreme Court and Law. 

HIGHER CRITICISM, see Rationalism. 



HIGHGATE ARCHWAY. 



605 



HIPPOPOTAMUS. 



HIGHGATE ARCHWAY, over a road made 
to avoid the hill ; first stone laid by Edward Smith, 
31 Oct. 1812 ; toll through ceased, 1 May, 1876. 
Rebuilding proposed, 1893 ; completed, 1900. See 
London, Nov. i88g. 

HIGHGATE COLLEGE, founded by sir 
Roger Cholmeley, 1565. 

HIGHLANDS (of Scotland), long held by 
semi-barbarous clans, were greatly improved by the 
construction of military roads by general Wade, 
about 1725-6; by the abolition of heritable juris- 
diction of feudal rights in 1747, and by the esta- 
blishment of the Highland and Agricultural Society 
in 1784; centenary celebrated at Edinburgh, July, 
1884. See Regiments, Crofters. 

Highland. Society of London, founded 28 May, 1778. 
Highland Land League held fifth annual conference at 
Oban, 15 Sept. 1887 ; Glasgow, Sept. 1893. 

HIGHNESS. The title of Highness was given 
to Henry VII.; and this, and sometimes Your 
Grace, was the manner of addressing Henry VIII. ; 
but about the close of the reign of the latter, the 
titles of "Highness" and "Your Grace" were 
absorbed in that of " Majesty." Louis XIII. of 
France gave the title of Highness to the prince of 
Orange, in 1644; this prince had previously only 
the distinction of Excellency. Louis XIV. gave 
the princes of Orange the title of High and Mighty 
Lords, 1644. Henault. 

HIGH PRIEST, see Priest. 

HIGH TREASON. To regulate the trials 
for this crime the statute, so favourable to liberty, 
the 25th of Edward III., 1352, was enacted, by 
which two living witnesses are required. By an act 
passed 19 April, 1821, this provision was extended 
to Ireland, parliament having refused to sanction 
the sentence of death against the duke of Somerset. 
In 1800 it was enacted that when the overt act was 
a direct attempt on the life of the sovereign, the 
trial should be conducted in the same manner as in 
the case of an indictment for murder. The trial of 
John Home Tooke and others for constructive high 
treason failed, see Home Tooke, Nov., Dec. 1794. 
See Treason. 

The last two cases of execution for high treason : — 
T. William Cundell alias Connell, and John Smith ; 
tried on a special commission, 6 Feb. 1812, being two of 
fourteen British subjects taken in the enemy's service in 
the isles of France and Bourbon. Mr. Abbot, afterwards 
lord Tenterden and chief justice, and sir Vicary Gibbs, 
attorney-general, conducted the prosecution, and Mr. 
Brougham, aft. lord Brougham, defended the prisoners. 
The defence was, that they had assumed the French 
uniform to aid their escape to England. They were 
hanged and beheaded on the lodge of Horsemonger-lane 
gaol on 16 March, 1812. 

All the other convicts were pardoned, upon condition 
of serving in colonies beyond the seas. 

II. The CoAo-street Conspirators (which see), executed 
1 May. 1820. 

"Colonel" Lynch, membei'-elect for Galway, who 
fought on the side of the Boers in the S. African war, 
prosecuted by the crown on the charge of high treason, 
and tried at the king's bench before the lord chief 
justice, Mr. justice Wills, and Mr. justice Channell, 
and sentenced to death 23 Jan. 1903. The lord chief 
justice laid down, "that if a subject, in time of war, 
joined the king's enemies, for whatever purpose, that 
was an act of treason." Sentence afterwards com- 
muted to penal servitude for life. 

HIGHWAYS, see Roads. 

HILL, ROWLAND, Memobial Fund, 
see Mansion House. 



HILLSBOROUGH (Down, N.E. Ireland), 
founded by sir A. Hill, in the reign of Charles t. 
Here were held two great protestant meetings in 
favour of the Irish church: (1.) on 30 Oct. 1834, 
to protest against the "appropriation clause;" 
(2.) 30 Oct. 1867, in consequence of a commission of 
inquiry into the Irish church establishment, and the 
agitation consequent thereon. 

HIMALAYA, a range of mountains between 

India and Tibet. Its loftiest peak is Mount Everest, 

height 29,002 ft., the highest known in the world. 

Mr. W. W. Graham, with two Swiss guides, ascended 
Mount Kabru (height 24,000 feet) and three otheii 
mountains over 19,000 feet in the Sikkim group witb 
much difficulty, Nov. 1883. 

Dr. Karl Diener explores the Central Himalayas to the- 
height of 19,000 ft., April-July, 1892. 

Mr. (aft. sir) Win, Martin Conway's "Climbing in the- 
Karakoram-Himalayas," published 1894 ; he ascended 
great glacier heights. 

On 6 Sept. 1893, near Gohna, in the district of Garhwal, 
Bengal, nearly the whole of the hill Maithana fell into 
the river Birahi Ganga, a tributary of the Alaknanda, 
damming it up and forming a long deep lake, which 
gradually increased in size, and eventually overflowed 
and burst its banks, causing great destruction of 
buildings, bridges, &c, at Gohna and Hardwar, &c, 
26-27 Aug. 1894. This event was anticipated by 
geologists, and through scientific precautions no loss 
of life ensued. 

Whilst exploring the Nanga Parbat region, Mr. A. F, 
Mummery and 2 Gurkhas were killed by an avalanche, 
mid. Aug. 1895. 

An international expedition begins to ascend Broad 
Peak, 30 June, 1902. 

HIMERA (Sicily). Here (in 480 B.C.) Gelon 
of Syracuse and Theron of Agrigentum defeated 
the Carthaginians; and at Ecnomus, near here, 
the latter defeated Agathocles of Syracuse, 3 10 B.C. 

HINDOO ERA (see Cali-guga)hegnn^ioi B.C., 
or 756 before the Deluge, in 2348. The Hindoos 
count their months by the progress of the sun 
through the zodiac. The Samoat era begins 56 B.C. ; 
the Saca era a.d. 79. 

HINDOSTAN, see India. 

HIPPODROME, a circus for horse-riding, 
One opened by Mr. John Whyte, near Notting-hill, 
London, on 29 May, 1837, was closed in 1841 by the 
Kensington vestry. See under Agricultural Hall. 
London Hippodrome, Leicester -square, originally 
styled "The Boyal Hippodrome," was opened by 
Moss' Empires, Ltd., 15 Jan. 190c, with a spectacular 
aquatic carnival " Giddy Ostend," by H. Chance, with 
music composed by M. G. Jacobi ; " Little Tich," and 
Herr Julius Seth, the lion-tamer, with 21 forest-bred 
lions, took part in the performances. Among the 
artistes who have appeared at the Hippodrome, are R. 
Cottrell and the Misses Powell, equestrians, and Herr 
Sawade, with his wild-beast show. Sensational water- 
dramas have been a feature, and include "Siberia," 
" Tally Ho," and "The Redskins;" the pantomimes. 
"Cinderella," "Aladdin," and " Dick Whittington " 
have also been produced at the Hippodrome. Two 
performances are given daily. 

HIPPOPHAGY, see Horse. 

HIPPOPOTAMUS (Greek, river-horse), a 
native of Africa, known to, but incorrectly described 
by, ancient writers. Hippopotami were exhibited 
at Rome by Antoninus, Commodus, and others, 
about 138, 180, and 218. The first brought to 
England arrived 25 May, 1850, and was placed in 
the Zoological Gardens, Regent' s-park, London ; 
(died, II March, 1878;) another, a female, four 
months old, was placed there in 1854 (died, Dec. 
1882). One born here, 21 Feb. 1871, and another born 
I Jan. 1872, lived a few days only ; another born 



HISPANIA. 



606 



HOLBOEN. 



5 Nov. 1872. Two young ones born at Paris in May, 
1858, and June, 1859, were killed by their mother. 
One born at Amsterdam, 29 July, 1865. 

HISPANIA, Latin name of Spain. 

HISPANIOLA, see Hayti. 

HISTOLOGY (from histos, a web), the science 
which treats of the tissues which enter into the 
formation of animals and vegetables ; mainly prose- 
cuted by the aid of the microscope. Schwann, 
Valentin, Kolliker, Quekett, and Robin are cele- 
brated for their researches. Professor Quekett 's 
"Lectures on Histology" were published in 1852 
and 1854. Important "Atlas of Histology," by 
Drs. E. Klein and E. N. Smith, published iu 1880'; 
" Elements of Histology," by Dr. E. Klein, third 
edition published in 1884. 

HISTOEY. The Bible, the Parian Chronicle, 
the histories of Herodotus, " the father of history," 
and Ctesias, and the poems of Homer, are the 
foundations of early ancient history. Later ancient 
history is considered as ending with the destruction 
of the Roman empire in Italy, 476. Modem history 
dates from the age of Charlemagne, about 800. 
There was not a professorship of modern history in 
either of our universities until the years 1724 and 
1736, when Regius professorships were established 
by George I. and George II. At Oxford pro- 
fessor E. A. Freeman, appointed 1884, died 16 March, 
1892, succeeded by Mr. J. A. Froude, April, 1892 ; 
died, 20 Oct. 1894 ; succeeded by Mr. F. York 
Powell, Dec. 1894. At Cambridge professor sir J. 
R. Seeley, 1869-95 ! W1 'd Acton, R. C, Feb. 1895. 
— Royal Historical Society, London, established 

1868, Earl Russell president, 1872, incorporated \ 
by charter, Aug. 1889; amalgamated with the 
Camden society 30 Oct. 1897. Historical MSS. I 
Commission, a commission was appointed 31 Aug. 

1869, to examine historical MSS. in the possession [ 
of institutions and private families, and to publish ! 
any considered desirable. It has issued several re- 
ports, 1870, et seq. New commission appointed, 18" 
June, 1883; many volumes of calendars since 
issued. New commission appointed, 20 Dec. 1897 > 
the Stuart papers, vol. i., issued, 1902. 

HITTITES, descendants of Heth, second son 
of Canaan, a commercial tribe, from whom Abraham 
bought a grave for his wife i860 B.C. Gen. xxiii. 
They opposed Joshua, B.C. 1451 ; and the Egyp- 
tians, about 1340 B.C. 

The castle of Jerablus, a mound and ruins, 20 miles 
below Beredjik on the Kuphrates ; was visited by Henry 
Maundi'i'll, 1699; by l.)r. I'ococke, 1745; and by J. II. 
Skene and Mr. Geo. Smith (died 1876), who agreed in 
considering the remains to be those of Carchemish, the 
ancient capital of the llittites, ruptured and annexed 
by Sargon, king of Assyria (about 721 b.c.) when the 
nation was thoroughly subdued. The site had been 
held successive!} h.v llittites, Assyrians, Babylonians, 
Greeks, Romans, and Arabs. 

A rich harvest may be expected from its exploration. 

Captain C. U. Conder's discovery of a key to the 
language of Sittite inscriptions on bas-reliefs, gems, 
&c, sonic of which were discovered by Burckhardt, 
1808, and re-discovered by Mr. Palmer in 1870, an- 
nounced 26 Feb. 1887; they consist, of invocations, 
hymns, &C to the sun. &c. I lis "Altaic Hieroglyphs 
and Bittite Inscriptions " published 1887. 

Prof. A. Sayce, in 1879, considered the llittites to have 
been in very early times the predominant power in 

Asia Minor and N. Syria, The Investigations of 
Messrs. Ramsay, Bogarthand Eeadlam, in 1890, sup- 
ported by the English Asia Minor Exploration Fund, 
led to many discoveries which arc described in the 
Times of 25 July, 1891. Investigations proceeding, 
1903. New discoveries by the French expedition or 



1893-94, and by M. E. Chantre, in Cappadocia, in 
1898 ; see capt. Conder's letter, Times, 10 Oct. 1899. 
3rd and enlarged edition of " The Hittites," by prof. 
Sayce, 1903, describes his partially successful efforts 
in interpreting the cuneiform Hittite inscriptions. 

HOBAET TOWN or Hobart, a sea-port 
and capital of Van Diemen's Land, was founded in 
1804 by col. Collins, the first lieutenant-governor, 
who died here in 1810. Population in 1881, 21,118 ; 
in 1891, 24,905 ; 1894, 35,073 ; 1901, 34,604. 

HOBHOUSE'S ACT, 1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 60, 
1831, relates to vestries and charities. 

HOCHKIECHEN (Saxony). Here, on 14 
Oct. 1758, the Prussian army, commanded by 
Frederick II., was surprised and defeated by the 
Austrians commanded by count Daun. Marshal 
Keith, a Scotsman in the Prussian service, was 
killed. The Austrian generals shed tears, and 
ordered his interment with military honours. A 
conflict between the Russians and Prussians and the 
French, in which the last were victorious, took 
place 21 May, 1813. 

HOCHSTADT, a city on the Danube, in 
Bavaria, near which several important battles have 
been fought: (1.) 20 Sept. 1703, when the Im- 
perialists were defeated by the French and Bavarians, 
under marshal Villars and the elector of Bavaria. 
(2.) 2 (N. S. 13) Aug. 1704, called the battle of 
Blenheim (which see). (3.) 19 June, 1800, when 
Moreau totally defeated the Austrians, and avenged 
the defeat of the French at Blenheim. 

HOFWYL, see Pestalozzian System. 

HOGABTH CLUB, 36 Dover-st., closed; 
sale, 20 Jan. 1897. Hogarth's house at' Chiswick 
sold to lieut.-col. Shipway for 1,500?., 25 Nov. 
1901. 

HOGUE, see La Hogue. 

HOHENLINDEN (Bavaria). Here the 
Austrians, commanded by archduke John, were 
beaten by the French and Bavarians, commanded 
by Moreau, 3 Dec. 1800. The peace of Luneville 
followed. 

HOHENSTAUFEN, see Germany, and 
Guelphs. 

HOHENZOLLEEN, the reigning family in 
Prussia. Its origin is referred to Thassilo, about 
800, whobuilt the castle of Hohenzollern. In 
141 7, Frederick of Nuremburg, his descendant, was 
made elector of Brandenburg. The princes of 
Hohenzollern- Hechiugen and Hohenzollern- Sig~ 
maringen abdicated in favour of the king of Prussia, 
7 Dec. 1849. Charles, son of Charles Anthony, 
the prince of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, was 
elected prince of Roumania, 20 April, 1866 (see 
Banubian Principalities). His brother Leopold, 
nominated candidate for the throne of Spain, with- 
drew July, 1870 ; their father Charles Anthony 
died 2 June, 1885. See Brandenburg, and Prussia. 

, HOLBEIN SOCIETY, for obtaining photo- 
lithographic representations of ancient wood en- 
gravings, established in 1868, sir William Stirling 
Maxwell president. 

HOLBOEN (Holeborne, in Doomsday book), 
said to be identical with the river Fleet. Holborn- 
hill, in the time of Stow, 1600, was termed " heavy- 
hill." Gerard, the herbalist, speaks of his "house 
in Uolborne," 1597. The Holborn-thcatrc was 
opened by Mr. Sefton Parry, 6 Oct. 1866, with 
" Flying Scud," a new piece, by Mr. Dion 



HOLIDAYS. 



607 



HOLLAND. 



Boucicault. The Holbom amphitheatre was opened 
25 Mav, 1867. The Holbom valley viaduct, founded 
by Mr. F. H. Fry, 3 June, 1867 (Mr. William 
Haywood, chief engineer), was opened for foot- 
passengers 14 Oct., and inaugurated by the queen, 
6 Nov. 1869. "Middle-row" was pulled down in 
1867. Western Approach-street opened 25 June, 1868. 
The statue of prince Albert uncovered by the prince 
of Wales, 9 Jan. 1874. Holborn town-hall opened 
by the lord mayor, 18 Dec. 1879. Constituted a 
municipal borough by London Government act, 
1899 (7 aldermen, 42 councillors). New roadwav 
(Kingsway and Aldwych) connecting Holbom with 
the Strand in progress 1903. 

HOLIDAYS, see Bank Holidays. 

HOLLAND {Hollow land, or, some say, 
Wooded" land), a kingdom, N.W. Europe, the chief 
part of the northern Netherlands, composed of land 
rescued from the sea, and defended by immense 
dykes. It was inhabited by the Batavi in the time 
of Caesar, who made a league with them. It became 
part of Gallia Belgica, and afterwards of the kingdom 
of Austrasia. From the 10th to the 15th century it 
was governed by counts under the German emperors. 
In 1861, the population of the kingdom in Europe 
■was 3,521,416; of the colonies, 18,175,910; of both 
in 1863, 21,805,607; 1876, 3,865,456 ; colonies, 
about 25,110,000; 1879, kingdom, 4,012,693 ; 1887, 
4,450,870; 31 Dec. 1893, 4,732,912; 31 Dec. 
1900, 5,179,138 (colonies about 35,194,200). 
Kevenue, 1889, 10,184,158/.; 1893, 10,562,366/.; 
expenditure, 1889, 11,256,249/.; 1893, 10,862,475/.; 
revenue, 1901-02, 12,833,520/.; expenditure, 
13,935,265/. 

The parties termed Hooks, (followers of Margaret, 

countess of Holland,) and Cod-fish, (supporters of 

• her son William, who endeavoured to supplant 

her,) create a civil war, which lasts many years . 1347 
Holland united to Hainault, 1299 ; and Brabant . 1416 
Annexed to Burgundy by duke Philip, who wrests 
it from his niece Jaqueline, of Holland, daughter 

of the last count 1436 

Annexed to Austria through marriage of Mary of 

Burgundy with archduke Maximilian . . . 1477 
Government of Philip of Austria . ... 1495 

Of Margaret of Austria and Charles V. 1506 

Of Philip II 1555 

Philip II. establishes the Inquisition ; the Hol- 
landers having zealously embraced the reformed 
doctrines ; severe persecution ; about 100,000 
persons said to have perished 1555 et seq. ; the 
Confederacy of Gueux (Beggars) formed by the 

nobles 1566 

Compromise of Breda presented . . . Jan. ,, 
Commencement of the revolt under William, prince 

of Orange 1572 

Elizabeth of England.declines the offered sovereignty, 

but promises help 1575 

The pacification of Ghent — union of the North and 

south provinces 1576 

The seven northern provinces contract the league of 

Utrecht 1579 

And declare their independence . . 25 July, 1581 
Assassination of William of Orange . 10 July, 1584 
The ten southern provinces conquered by the prince 

of Parma 1585 

The provinces solicit help from England and France ; 
expedition of the earl of Leicester ; English and 

Dutch disagree 1 585-7 

Battle of Zutphen— sir Philip Sidney mortally 

wounded 22 Sept. 1586 

Prince Maurice appointed stadtholder . . . 1587 
Death of Philip II. His son Philip III. cedes the 
Netherlands to Albert of Austria, and the mfanta, 

Isabella ■ 1598 

Campaigns of Maurice and Spinola . . . 1599-1604 
Maurice defeats the archduke at Nieuport 2 July, 1600 
The independence of the United Provinces recog- 
nised ; truce of Antwerp for twelve years, 

9 April (30 March), 1609 



Batavia in Java built 1610 

Pierce religious dissensions between the Arminians 

and Gomarists 16 10-19 

Maurice favours the latter and intrigues for royal 

power 1616 

Synod of Dort ; persecution of the Arminians T618-19 
Execution of the illustrious Barneveldt 14 May, 1619 
Renewal of the war ; Maurice saves Bergen-op-Zoom 1622 
His tyrannical government : plot against him, and 

sixteen persons executed 1623 

His death ; his brother Frederick succeeds him, and 

annuls the persecution 1625 

Manhattan, now New York, North America, founded ; 

massacre of English at Amboyna, East Indies 1624 

Victories of Van Tromp, who takes two Spanish fleets 

off the downs . . 16 Sept. and 21 Oct. 1639 

Peace of Westphalia, the republic recognised by 

Europe 1648 

War with England — naval actions— Blake defeats 
De Ruyter, 22 Oct. ; but is surprised by Van 
Tromp, who takes some English ships, and sails 
through the channel with a broom at his mast- 
head 29 Nov. 1652 

Indecisive sea-fights, 12-14 June ; death of Van 
Tromp, 21 July ; peace follows .... 1653 

Victorious war with Sweden 1659 

Another war with England 1665 

Indecisive sea-fights, 1-4 June ; victory of Monk 

over De Ruyter 25 July, 1666 

Triple alliance of England, Holland, and Sweden 

against France 1668 

Charles II. deserts Holland ; joins France . . 1670 

The French overran Holland 1671 

Desperate condition of the States — the populace 
massacre the De Witts — William III. made stadt- 
holder 1672 

The French repelled by the sluices being opened ,, 

Indecisive fampaisms 1673-7 

William marries princess Mary of England . 1677 

Peace with France (Nimeguen) .... 1678 
William becomes king of England . . . 1689 

Sanguinary war with France . . . 1689-96 

Peace of Ryswick signed ... 20 Sept. 1697 

Death of William . .... 8 March, 1702 

No stadtholder appointed — administration of 

Heinsius ,, 

War against France and Spain ; campaigns of Marl- 
borough 1702-13 

Peace of Utrecht .... n April, 1713 

Holland supports the empress Maria-Theresa . 1743-8 
William Henry hereditary stadtholder . . . 1747 
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle . . . 18 Oct. 1748 

War with England for naval supremacy — Holland 

loses colonies 1781-3 

Civil wars in the Low Countries . . . 1787-9 

The French republicans march into Holland ; the 

people declare in their favour .... 1793 
Unsuccessful campaign of the duke of York . 1794 

The Batavian republic established in alliance with 

France 1795 

Battle of Camperdown, Duncan signally defeats the 

Dutch 11 Oct. 1797 

The Texel fleet, of twelve ships of the line, with 
thirteen Indiamen, surrenders to the British 
admiral, without firing a gun . . 30 Aug. 1799 

A new constitution is given to the Batavian republic ; 
the chief officer (R. J. Schimmelpenninck) takes 
the title of grand pensionary . . 26 April, 1805 
Holland erected into a kingdom , and Louis Bonaparte, 

father of Napoleon III. , declared king . 5 June, 1806 
The ill-fated Walcheren expedition . July, Sept. 1809 

Louis abdicates 1 July, 1810 

Holland united to France .... 9 July, „ 
Restored to the house of Orange, and Belgium 

annexed to its dominions . . -17 Nov. 1813 
The prince of Orange proclaimed sovereign prince of 

the united Netherlands ... 6 Dec. ,, 

Religious discord between Holland and the southern 

provinces 1817, <&c. 

The revolution in Belgium ... 25 Aug. 1830 

Belgium separated from Holland . . 12 July, 1831 
Holland makes war against Belgium . . 3 Aug. ,, 
Treaty between Holland and Belgium, signed in 

London 19 April, 1839 

Abdication of William 1 7-10 Oct. 1840 

Death of the ex-king William I. . . 12 Dec. 1843 

Louis Bonaparte, count de St. Leu, ex-king of 
Holland, dies of apoplexy at Leghorn . 25 July, 1846 



HOLLAND. 



608 



HOLLAND. 



The king agrees to political reform, March ; a new 

constitution granted . . . 17 April, 1848 

Death of William II. . . . 17 March, 1849 

Re-establishment of a Roman Catholic hierarchy 

announced 12 March, 1853 

General van den Bosch's scheme carried out by the 

society of beneficence of home colonization in east 

Holland for destitute persons of all sorts, started 

about 1815, having failed is modified ; free and 

penal colonies constituted ; (generally successful) 1859 
Inundations : 40,000 acres submerged ; nearly 

30,000 villagers made destitute Jan. and Feb. 1861 
Great fire at Endsehede, the Manchester of Holland, 

loss about a million pounds . . 7 May, 1862 

The states-general pass a law for the abolition of 

slave) y in the Dutch West Indies [after 1 July, 

1863] .6 Aug. ,, 

Treaty for capitalising Scheldt dues signed 12 May, 1863 
Slavery ceases in the Dutch West Indies 1 July, ,, 
50th anniversary of deliverance from France, 17 Nov. ,, 
Commencement of canal to connect Amsterdam with 

the North sea 8 March, 1865 

The government undertake a canal to connect 

Rotterdam with the sea . . . March, ,, 

Commercial treaty with France . . 7 July, ,, 
New ministry (protectionist) . . .1 June, 1866 
Correspondence with Prussia respecting the 

Prussian garrison in Luxemburg . July-Aug. „ 
The lower chamber barely passes a vote of censure 

on the ministry respecting government of Java, 

&c. ; the king dissolves the chamber . 10 Oct. ,, 
Alleged treaty with France respecting cession of 

Luxemburg (which see) . . . 22 March, 1867 
The fortifications of Luxemburg razed . May, 1868 
Long struggle between the ministry and the cham- 
bers, Nov. 1867-May, 1868, the ministry resign; a 

new ministry formed by M. de Thorbecke, June, „ 
International exhibition opened at Amsterdam by 

prince Henry 15 July, 1869 

Meeting of the chambers ; strict neutrality in the 

Franco- Prussian war to be maintained 19 Sept. 1870 
Cession of Dutch possessions in Guinea to Great 

Britain, voted 7 July, 1871 

Tercentenary celebration of the commencement of 

Dutch independence by the capture of Briel, 

1 April, 1872 
Death of de Thorbecke, a great statesman 4 June, ,, 
A new ministry formed by Devries . . 29 June, ,, 
Discussions respecting the war against the Sultan 

of Achin in Sumatra (which see) . . April, 1873 
New port at Flushing opened by the king . S Sept. ,, 
Expedition against the Achinese (see Sumatra) 

embarks Dec. ,, 

New ministry, under Dr. Heemskirk . 28 July, 1874 

New penal code issued Aug. 1875 

Tercentenary of Paciiication of Ghent celebrated, 

Sept. 1876 
Canal between North sea and Amsterdam, passed 

by a monitor (see 1865) 4 Oct. ; inaugurated by 

the king 1 Nov. „ 

New ministry ; president, baron Kappeijne van de 

Coppello 3 Nov. 1S77 

Marriage of prince Henry, the king's brother, to 

princess Marie Elizabeth of Prussia . 24 Aug. 1878 
Death of prince Henry, the king's brother, aged 58: 

13 Jan. 1879 
New cabinet, under M. Van Lynden . 19 Aug. „ 
The king and queen visit Kngiand . . 26 April, 1882 
Commercial treaty with France rejected by the 

chamber ; the ministry resign . . 9 May, ,, 
Resignation of baron van Lynden and his cabinet 

1 March, 1883 
New ministry under Dr. Heemskork (interior) 

23 April, ,, 
International exhibition al Amsterdam opened by 

the king 1 May, ,, 

Committee for revision of the constitution appointed 

12 May, „ 
The king and queen of Belgium warmly received at 

Amsterdam, .V'- iS Oct. et .-v.,. ,, 

The king and queen warmly received a1 Brussels 

20-22 May, 1884 
Death of the prince of Orange . . 21 June, „ 
The queen appointed by a congress to be regent if 



necessary 



. 1 Aug. 



Resignation of the ministry, 13 April ; declined by 

the king 22 April, 1886 

The king's assent given to bill for revision of 
constitution, 8 Nov. ; the revised constitution 

promulgated • 30 Nov. 1887 

New ministry ; interior baron Mackay 17 April, 188S 
Continued illness of the-king ; the queen nominated 
regent, and the duke of Nassau regent of Luxem- 
burg, April ; the king suddenly recovers ; regency 
deferred, April ; the king resumes government 

May, 1889. 
Celebration of the 40th anniversary of the king's 

accession 12 May, ,, 

The parliament declares the king incapable of 
ruling ; the council of state to govern for a month 

29 Oct. 1S90 
The queen appointed regent at a sitting of the two 

chambers, 13 Nov. ; takes the oath 20 Nov. ,, 

Death of King William III., a real constitutional 
ruler ; accession of his daughter Wilhelmina, 23 
Nov. ; grand public funeral . . .4 Dec. ,, 
See Luxeviburg. 
Visit of the German emperor and empress, see 

Germany 1-3 July, 

Resignation of the ministry, 8 July ; new ministry 1S93 
formed by M. Vantienhoven, 5 Aug. ; he becomes 
foreign minister, and M. Tak van Poortvliet 

premier n Aug. „ 

New Parliament opened by the queen-regent 

15 Sept. 

A section of the Merwede canal, from Amsterdam 

to the north of the Leek, opened in presence of 

the queen and queen-regent . . 4 Aug. 1892; 

The new ironclad, Koningin Wilhelmina, launched 

at Amsterdam ; the queen present . 22 Oct. „ 
Labour riots in various parts, about . 31 Dec. „ 
The budget for 1894 shows a deficit of 3 million 

florins .... 22 Sept. 1893 
An electoral reform bill withdrawn on an amend- 
ment being carried in the 2nd chamber 9 March. 1894 
The parliament dissolved . . .20 March, 
Elections ; majority for the opposition . 26 April, 
J. P. R. Tak Van Poortvliet and his ministry re- 
sign 28 April, 

New ministry formed under Jonkheer Roell, 

premier 9 May, 

The parliament opened . . . .16 May, 
Insurrection in the Dutch East Indies ; the Dutch 
are surprised by an ambush at Tjakra-Negara, 
near Mataram, in the island of Lombok ; de- 
feated with heavy loss ; gen. Van Ham, 8 officers, 
and 200 men killed . . . 25-27 Aug. , ? 
The Dutch men-of-war bombard Mataram, Kani- 

pong and Tanabat, reported . . 30 Aug. ,, 
Reinforcements arrive .... 4 Sept-. ,, 

Arveng captured 6 Sept. ,, 

Mataram taken after severe fighting . 29 Sept. ,, 
Tjakra-Negara attacked . . . 18 Nov. ,, 

The rajah surrenders . . . .21 Nov. ,, 

General submission, reported . . 26 Nov. ,, 
The parliament re-opened . . . . 18 Sept. ,, 
The queen and queen-regent visit England ; received 
by the prince of Wales, 27 April ; by the queen, 

3 May; left 9 May, 1895 

Parliament opened by the queen-regent 17 Sept. „ 
Strike of diamond-cutters in Amsterdam ; riotous 

demonstrations 5 Oct. ,, 

Conversion of the national debt from 3J to 3 per 

cent., bill submitted .... 2 Dec. ,, 

Rising in the E. Indies: desultory fighting in 
Sumatra, headed by the Achinese chief Toekoe 
Djohan ; 2 forts relieved, and rebel intrench- 
ments captured by the Dutch, 8, 12 April, 1896; 

4 Achinese forts evacuated by the Dutch, after 
heavy fighting, iS April; Tokoe Omar's capital 
Lampisang taken, May ; Hutch successes, 
and Right of rebels; Loempong bombarded, 14 
June ; enemy routed at Blaug-Bitang ; Tokoe Raid 
rebel chief surrenders ; gen. Moulin dies, while 
trying to cross a morass in Atjeh, Aug. ; desul- 
tory lighting, Sept. ; lieut.-col. Van Vliet ap- 
pointed governor of Atjeh, 20 Oct. ; the sultan, 
of Pazir overthrown, and banished, Oct. ; Tokoe 
Omar captured alter a hot tight, near Poeding, 
much slaughter, Jan. 1S07; rebels defeated with 
heavy loss, reported, 26 Jan. ; Indrapaori occupied 
bj tli' 1 Dutch, 1; Feb. ; Dutch successes, March, 



HOLLAND. 



609 



HOLLAND. 



June ; Kainpong taken by the Dutch ; deadly 
fight near Indrapura, Aug. ; desultory fighting, 
Sept. 18Q7 ; expedition to Pedir attacked by 
-A Chinese, enemy repulsed, and no killed; 30 
June, 1898, the Achinese again defeited, 80 
killed, near Edi ; quiet restored, flight of the 
enemy, 18 July, 1895 ; further resistance in 
Matangkoli, Oct. 1898 ; Tokoe Oemar surprised 
by an ambuscade and mortally wounded ; his 
troops dispersed, 10 Feb. 1899 ; sharp fighting, 
many Achinese killed, early March and mid 
April, 1901 ; Dutch punitive expedition in 
Djambi repulsed, 7 killed, reported 23 Nov. ; 
Dutch bivouac surprised, 12 killed, enemy 24, 
reported, 19 July, the sultan surrendered end, 
Dec. 1902. 
Suffrage extension bill passed . . .6 Sept. 1896 
States-general opened by the queen-regent, 15 Sept. ,, 
Budget for 1897, deficit, 3,330,000/?. . 17 Sept. ,, 
Mr. Henry Howard appointed British minister at 

the Hague ; announced . . . 21 Sept. ,, 

Sugar (bounties) bill passed . . 23 Dec. ,, 

Claim of capt. J. C. Carpenter, of the Costa Rica 
(Australian whaler), for compensation for ill- 
usage and imprisonment by the Dutch author- 
ities in the Moluccas (Nov. 1891), referred to 
Russian arbitration, Sept. 1895 ; 8,550?. awarded 

him 1 March, 1897 

New liberal cabinet : Dr. Pierson premier and 

minister of finance .... 20 July, ,, 
States-general opened by the queen-regent, the 

queen present 21 Sept. ,, 

Budget for 1898 : deficit, 6,300,000,/?. . 24 Sept. „ 
C. W. M. Van de Velde, distinguished traveller, 
artist, and cartographer, born, 1818 ; died, 

20 March, 1898 
The queen and her mother visit Paris . April, ,, 
East Indian loan of 55,000,000/?. agreed to, 16 June, ,, 
Obligatory personal military service, bill passed 

Coronation of the queen at Amsterdam, great re- 
joicings 6 Sept. „ 

Coronation festivities, grand historical procession, 
illuminations, &c, 7 Sept. ; Rembrandt exhibi- 
tion opened by the queen, 8 Sept. ; royal entry 
into The Hague, 9 Sept. ; states-general opened 
by the queen with a speech from the throne, 

20 Sept. ,, 

Imperial penny postage started . . 1 Jan. 1899 

Dutch physical and medical congress (7th) held at 
Haarlem 7 Aug. ,, 

Riots at Hilversum, martial law proclaimed, 1 
death 22, 23 Aug. ,, 

Parliament opened by the queen . . 19 Sept. ,, 

The queen and her mother visit the German em- 
peror 7 Oct. „ 

The queen reviews the Dutch fishing fleet (about 
2000) on the Zuyder Zee ... 3 Aug. „ 

The states-general opened by the queen . 18 Sept. ,, 

Budget for 1901 : deficit, 5,250,000!!. . 20 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Kruger, ex-president of the Transvaal, warmly 
received at the Hague, 6 Dec. ; by the queen for 
a few mi intes, 8 Dec. ; at Amsterdam . 19 Dec. „ 

Marriage of queen Wilhelmina to duke Henry of 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin at the Hague, 7 Feb. ; 
state entry into Amsterdam, 5 March, 1901 ; they 
visit Berlin .... 30 May-i June, 1901 

Elections : Catholic majority, mid June; the cabi- 
net resigns 28 June, ., 

M. de Kuyper forms a ministry (3 R.C. members 
out of 8) 27 July, ,, 

Parliament opened by the queen . . 17 Sept. ,, 

Death of prof. C. P. Tiele, theologian and historian, 
aged 70 n Jan. 1902 

Illness of the queen from typhoid fever, announced, 
18 April ; recovery reported, 31 May ; her letter 
of thanks to the nation for sympathy, pub- 
lished 10 June, ,, 

Conventions regarding European marriage and 
divorce laws drawn up at the Hague, 1900 ; 
signed 12 June, ,, 

Mr. Kruger visits Mr. Steyn at Scheveningen, 

6 Aug. ,, 

The Boer generals visit Mr. Kruger at Utrecht, 20 
Aug. ; conference held with Dr. Leyds and others 

at the Hague 21 Aug. „ 

Increase of nat. debt 1890-1900 owing to costly rail- 
way and canal construction ; new elementary 



education and military laws, budget, 1902 ; actual 

deficit, about 83,000?. , reported . . 9 Sept. 1902 

States-general opened by the queen . 16 Sept. ,, 

Boer generals appeal for relief funds . 22 Sept. ,, 

Brussels sugar convention ratified . . 2 Dec. „ 

Strikes in Amsterdam Feb. 1903 

Railway and dock strikes . . 6-13 April, ,, 
Anti-strike bills passed . . . n April, ,, 
Gift of $1,500,000 by Mr. A. Carnegie for a temple 
of peace for the Permanent Court of Arbitration 
at the Hague, reported . . . .25 April, ,, 
Queen opens parliament, refers in her speech to 
the labour troubles in the spring, announces 
various legislative measures of social reform, 

15 Sept. „ 
Budget for 1904 presented, estimated revenues, 
164,000,000/?. ; expenditure, 176,000,000/?. ; cost of 
military operations during the strike in April 
stated to be 1,100,0007?. ... 22 Sept. ,, 

princes of orange (see Orange), stadtholders. 
1502. Philibert de Chalons. 
1530. Rene de Nassau, his nephew. 

1544. William of Nassau, styled the Great, cousin to 
Rene, recovers the principality of Orange in 1559. 
Nominated stadtholder, 1579 '• killed by an assas- 
sin hired by Philip II. of Spain, 10 July, 1584. 
1584. Philip William, his son ; stolen away from the 
university of Louvain ; the Dutch would never 
suffer him to reside in their provinces : died 1618. 
1618. Maurice, the renowned general ; became stadt- 
holder in 1584 ; he was a younger son of Wil- 
liam by a second marriage. 
1625. Frederick Henry (brother) stadtholder. 
1647. William II., stadtholder: married Mary, daugh- 
ter of Charles I. of England, by whom he had a 
son, who succeeded in 1672. 
1650-72. John De Witt, grand pensioner ; no stadtholder. 
1660. William-Henry : stadtholder in 1672 ; married 
Mary, eldest daughter of James II. of England, 
1677. 
1702-47. No stadtholder. 

1702. John- William, nephew of William III., loses the 
principality of Orange, which is annexed to 
France. 
1747. William-Henry becomes hereditary stadtholder; 
married princess Anne of England : succeeded 
by his son. 
1751. William IV. ; retired on the invasion of the French 

in 1795 ; died in 1806. 
1795. [Holland and Belgium united to the French re- 
public. ] 

KINGS AND QUEEN. 

1806. Louis Bonaparte made king of Holland by his 
brother Napoleon, 5 June, 1806 ; abdicated, 31 
July, 1810. 

1810. [Holland again united to France.] 

1813. House of Orange restored. William-Frederick, 
prince of Orange (born 1772), proclaimed 6 Dec. 
1813 ; took the oath of fidelity as sovereign 
prince, 30 March, 1814 ; assumed the style of 
king of the Netherlands, 16 March, 1815 ; for- 
mally abdicated in favour of his son, 7 Oct. 1840 : 
died 12 Dec. 1843. 

1840. William II. born 6 Dec. 1792 ; succeeded on his 
father's abdication ; died 17 March, 1849, suc- 
ceeded by 

1849. William III., son; born 19 Feb. 1817; married 
Sophia of Wurtemberg, 18 June, 1839. ( She 
died, 3 June 1877.) Issue: William, prince of 
Orange, born 4 Sept. 1840; died 11 June, 1879 ; 
Alexander (philosopher), born 25 Aug. 1851 ; 
died 21 June, 1884. Married Emma of Waldeck- 
Pyrmont, 7 Jan. 1879; issue: Wilhelmina, born 
31 Aug. 1880. The king died 23 Nov. 1890. 

1890. Wilhelmina (the queen-mother regent), daughter ; 
crowned, 6 Sept., 1898 ; married duke Henry of 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 7 Feb. 1901. 

Language and Literature. — Dutch is an essential link 
in the chain of Teutonic languages. Old English has 
been said to be Dutch. A knowledge of Dutch is 
necessary to understand the historical development of 
English. — Chambers. The principal Dutch writers 

B, R 



HOLLAND, NEW. 



610 



HOLY PLACES. 



were Hoort, p. and (/., 1581-1647 ; Vonrlel, a great 
]ioet, i^87-i67q; Jacob Cats, 7). and comedian, 1577- 
1660; Vander Goes, p., 1647-84; Oudaen, ji. and rf., 
1628-92; U. Huyghens, ph., 1629-1603 ; Erasmus, 
theo. and sat.; 1467-1536 ; Itoerhaave, physician, 1668- 
1738 ; Grotius, hist, and the"., 1583-1645 ; Spinoza, 
jili., 1632-1677 ; wrote in Latin] ; Keith, p., 1753-1824; 
Bilderdi.jk, p., 1756-1831 ; Tollens, p., 1780-1856 ; 
Beets, styled the Charles Dickens of the Dutch, born 
1814-1903 ; Hofdijk, p. and hist., died 1888; K. 
Fruin, hist., 1824-99 ; many others of high excellence. 

HOLLAND, NEW, see Australia and Aus- 
tralasia. 

HOLLOWAY HOSPITALS and COL- 
LELrE. Tbos. Holloway, proprietor of the popu- 
lar ointment, &c, ottered the government 250,000/. 
to erect, for the use of the middle classes, a Sana- 
torium or asylum for the insane, and hospitals for 
incurables and convalescents. The asylum was 
erected at St. Anne's Hill, Egham, near Virginia 
Water, 1873 et seq. Opened by the prince of 
Wales 16 June, 1885. 

Royal Holloway College for the Higher Educa- 
tion of Women, Egliain. First brick laid, 12 Sept. 
1879. Opened by the queen, 30 June, 1886. It in- 
cludes library, reading-room, museum, and picture 
gallery. The princely buildings are in the French I 
renaissance style, temp. Francis I. (1515-1 547) ; archi- 
tect, W. Crossland. There is good accommodation 
fur 250 students. The session opened 4 Oct. 1887. 1 
Mr. Holloway gave 250,000/., and promised 100,000/. [ 
additional for endowment. He died 26 Dec, 1883, 
aged 83, leaving an immense fortune, although lie was 
exceedingly generous during his lifetime ; he is said to 
have expended 45,000/. a year in advertisements. 

HOLMFIRTH FLOOD. On 5 Feb. 1852, 
the Bilberry reservoir above Holmfirth, near Hud- 
dersfield, Yorkshire, burst its banks, and levelled 
four mills and many ranges of other buildings, 
killing more than 90 persons, and devastating pro- 
perty estimated at above half a million. 

HOLOPHOTE, a form of lamp in which the 
light is converged and diiected to a particular spot 
to prevent collisions at sea, &c. Different kiuds 
have been invented by Stevenson, Macdonald, 
Preece and others. 

HOLSTEIN axd SCHLESWIG (N.W. 

Germany), duchies once belonging to l>ei:mnrk. 
The country, inhabited by Saxons, was subdued by 
Charlemagne in the beginning of the 9th century, 
and afterwards formed part of the duchy of Saxony. 
In 1106 or mo, Adolphus of Schauenberg became 
count of Holstein : his descendants ruled till 1459, 
when Adolphus VII. died without issue, and the 
states of Holstein and Schleswig elected Christian, 
king of Denmark, bis nephew, as their duke, through 
fear of his anus. In 1544, his grandson, Christian 
II., divided his states amongst his brothers, with 
the condition that the duchies should remain subject 
to Denmark. Theeldest branch of the family reigned 
in Denmark till the decease of Frederick VII., 
1 ^ Nov., [863. From a younger branch (the dukes 
of Holstein-Gottorp) descended through marriage, 
the kings of Sweden from 1751-1818, and the 
reigning family in Russia since 1762, when the 
duke, as the husband of An lie, became czar. In 
1773, Catherine 11. of Russia ceded Holstein-Got- 
torp to Denmark in exchange for Oldenburg, &c. 
The duchies were occupied by the Swedes in 1813, 
but restored to Denmark iu 1814, and on 28 May, 
1831, constituent assemblies wen' granted to them. 
Since 1844 disputes have been rife between the 
duchies anu Denmark, and in 184S the states-general 
of the duehics voted their annexation In the German 
confederacy, in which (hey were supported by 



Prussia; war ensued, which lasted till 1850, when 
they submitted to Denmark. The agitation in the 
duchies, encouraged by Prussia, revived in 1857. 
The Germans in Schleswig desired it to be made a 
member of the German confederation, like Holstein ; 
but both duchies demanded a local government more 
independent of Denmark, which changes were re- 
sisted by that power. For the events of the war of 
1864, see Denmark. By the convention signed at 
Gastein {which see), 14 Aug. 1865, the government 
of Holstein was left with Austria, and that of 
Schleswig with Prussia. The whole of Holstein 
and part of Schleswig were ceded to Prussia by the 
treaty of Prague, signed 23 Aug. 1866. Population 
in i860, 1,004,473. The 5th clause, directing North 
Schle-wig to be given to Denmark if the people 
voted for it, was not acted on, although claimed ; 
and was abrogated, Feb. 1879. Expulsion of 
Danes, see Prussia, Oct. 1^98. 

HOLY ALLIANCE was ratified at Paris, 26 
Sept. 1815, between the emperors of Russia (its 
originator) and Austria, and the king of Prussia, by 
which they ostensibly bound themselves, among 
other things, to be governed by Christian principles 
in all their political transactions, with a view to 
perpetuating the peace they had achieved. The 
compact was severely censured in this country as 
opposed to rational liberty. 

HOLY BROTHERHOOD, see Sermandad 

HOLY CROSS, Society of, formed in 1855, 
by several clergymen of the Church of England, 
"for deepening spiritual life in their brethren;" 
president, the Rev. A. H. Mackonochie. It favours 
auricular confession and other Romanist practices. 
One of its books " The Priest in Absolution," was 
censured by the bishops in convocation, 6 July, 
1877, and caused much public excitement. See 
under Winchester. 

HOLYDAYS ACT, see Bank Holidays. 

HOLY GHOST, see Esprit. 

HOLYHEAD, W. Anglesea. A college was 
established here in the 12th century. The harbour 
was improved by JRenriie, and Holyhead was made 
the chief jacket station for Ireland. The break- 
water, erected by Rendel and llawkshaw (1846 et 
seq.) was inaugurated by the prince of Wales, 19 
Aug. 1873 ; and a new harbour and railway exten- 
sion inaugurated by the prince, 17 June, 1880. 
Population, 1881,8,680; 1891,8,726. 

HOLY ISLAND, see Zindisfame. 

HOLY LEAGUE, see Leases. 

HOLY MAID OF KeXT. Elizabeth Barton 
was incited by the Roman Catholic party to oppose 
the Reformation by pretending to inspirations from 
heaven. She foretold the speedy and violent death 
of Henry VIII. if he divorced Catherine of Spain, 
and married Anne Boleyn, and direful calamities to 
the nation. She and her confederates were executed 
at Tyburn, 5 May, 1534. 

HOLYOKE, Massachusetts, U.S. A Roman 
Catholic church here took tire: a panic ensued; and 
about 80 were burnt or trampled to death, 26, 27 
May, 1875. 

HOLY PLACES in Palestine. These 

places have been a source of contention between the 
Greek and Latin churches for several centuries. In 
the reign of Francis I. they were placed under Latin 
monks, protected by the French government; but 



HOLY KOMAN EMPIEE. 



611 



HOME EULE. 



the Greeks from time to time obtained firmans from 
the Porte invalidating the rights of the Latins, who 
were at last (in 1757) expelled from the sacred 
buildings, which were committed to the care of the 
■Greeks by a hatti-soheriff, or imperial ordinance. 
The lioly sepulchre partially destroyed by fire and 
rebuilt by the Greeks, who claim additional privi- 
leges, and cause fresh dissensions . . . 1800 
The Russian and French governments sent envoys 
(M. Dashkoffand M. Marcellus) to adjust the dis- 
pute ; an arrangement prevented by the Greek 
revolution . . . 1821 
The subject again agitated, and the Porte proposed 
that a mixed commission should adjudicate on the 
rival claims. M. Titoff, the Russian envoy, acting 
on behalf of the Greeks, and M. Lavalette, the 
French envoy, on that of the Latins, took up the 

question very warmly 1850 

A firman issued by the Porte, confirming and con- 
solidating the rights previously granted to the 
Greek Christians, and declaring that the Latins 
hud no right to claim exclusive possession of cer- 
tain holy places specified, but permitting them to 
possess a key of the church at Bethlehem, &c, as 

in former times 9 March, 1852 

The French government acquiesced with much dis- 
satisfaction ; but the Russian envoy still desired 
the key to be withheld from the Latin monks. 
M. D'Ozeroff made a formal declaration of the 
right of Russia to protect the orthodox in virtue 
of the treaty of Kainardji in 1774, and demanded 
that the firman of 9 March, 1852, should be read 
at Jerusalem, although it militated against his 
pretensions, which was accordingly done. The 
dispute still continued, the Porte being exposed 
to the attacks of both the Russian and French 

governments March, 1853 

Prince Menschikoff arrives at Constantinople as 
envoy extraordinary, and in addition to the claims 
respecting the holy places, made demands respect- 
ing the protection of the Greek Christians in 
Turkey which led to the war of 1854-6. (See Russo- 
Turkish War) 28 Feb. ,, 

HOLY EOMAN EMPIEE. The German 
empire received this title under the emperor Otho I. 
the great, crowned at Home by pope John XII., 2 
Feb. 962. See Rome, and Germany. 

HOLY EOOD or CROSS. A festival insti- 
tuted on account of the recovery of a large piece of 
the cross by the emperor Ileraclius, after it had 
been taken away, on the plundering of Jerusalem, 
about 615. The feast of the invention (or finding) 
of the Cross is on 3 May ; that of the exaltation of 
the Cross, 14 Sept. At Boxley abbey, in Kent, was 
a crucifix, called the Rood of Grace ; at the dissolu- 
tion it was broken in pieces as an imposture by 
Hilsey, bishop of Rochester, at St. Paul's cross, 
London, 1536. 

HOLYEOOD PALACE (Edinburgh), for- 
merly an abbey, was for several centuries the resi- 
dence of the monarchs of Scotland. The abbey, of 
which some vestiges remain, was founded by David 
I. in 1128, and in the burial-place within its walls 
are interred several of his successors. The palace 
Is a large quadrangular edifice of hewn stone, with 
a court within surrounded by piazzas. In the 
north- we?t tower is the bed-chamber which was 
occupied by queen Mary ; and from an adjoining 
•cabinet to it David Rizzio, her favourite, was dragged 
forth and murdered, 9 March, 1566. The north- 
west towers were built by James V., and the re- 
maining part of the palace was added during the 
s-eign of Charles II. The p-ilace was burnt in 1650, 
and rebuilt in 1659. Great improvements were 
made in 1857. Queen Victoria held a court here, 
30 Aug. 1850; King Edward VII., 12 May, 1903. 

HOLY SEPULCHEE, a Byzantine church 
in modern Jerusalem. Eergusson, Robinson, and 



others, consider the true site of the holy sepulchre 
to be the mosque of Omar, the "dome of the Rock." 
The question is still undecided. The order of the 
Holy Sepulchre was founded by Godfrey of Bouillon, 
1099J; revived by pope Alexander AT. "1496; re-or- 
ganised, 1847 and 1868. 

HOLY WAES, see Crusades. 

HOLY WATEE is said to have been used in 
churches as early as a.d. 120. Ashe. 

HOLY WEEK, orthe "Week of Indulgences," 
is the week before Easter. "Holy Year," 190c, 
inaugurated at Rom", see Pope, 24 Dec. 189c. 
See Passion TFeek. 

HOME AND COLONIAL SCHOOL 
SOCIETY, Gray's Inn Road; founded 1836. 
Governesses and teachers are trained. 

HOME HOSPITALS' ASSOCIATION" 
for Paying Patients, founded in July, 1877. 

The first home hospital, in Fitzroy-square, London, 
was opened 28 June, 1880. Supported by queen 
Victoria 1884. 

HOME MISSIONAEY SOCIETY, 

founded 1819. In 1878 it had 192 stations, and 
employed 187 agents and 243 lay preachers. 

HOME-EEADING UNION, see National 
j Home-Reading Union. 

HOME ETJLE. The Home Government As- 
sociation (for Home Rule), established in Dublin 

in 1870; held its first anniversary meeting, 26 June, 

1871. It includes both catholics and protestants 

amongst its members. 

Mr. Isaac Butt, a leader of the movement, elected 
M. P. for Limerick .... 20 Sept. 1871 

Home • rule advocated by archbishop McHale and 
others of the Romanist clergy in Ireland . . 1873 

The programme of the party requiring an Irish par- 
liament of queen, lords, and commons, and other 
powers, published .... 25 Oct. ,, 

A conference at the Rotondo, Dublin, reported a 
failure 18 — 21 Nov. ,, 

A motion in the commons in favour of home rule 
defeated (314 to 52) .... 20 March, 1874 

Mr. I. Butt's motion for a committee on the sub- 
ject, 30 June ; was negatived (458 to 61), 2, 3 July, 1875 
again (291 to 61), 30 June, 1 July, 1876; again (417 
to 67) 24 April, 1877 

Stormy convention at Dublin, Mr. Butt, chairman, 

21, 22 Aug. „ 

The home rule party in the house of commons very 
obstructive (see Parliament) . . . . ,, 

Meeting of home rule M.P.'s at Dublin ; Mr. Butt 
still leader ■ 9 Oct. ,, 

He virtually gives in to the obstructionists, Jan. ; 
resigns April, 1878 

Meeting at Dublin, 14 Oct. : continued dissensions 
between moderate party (Mr. Butt and others) 
and obstructives (Mr. Charles Stewart Parnell 
and others) . ... Oct. — Nov. ,, 

Death of Mr. Butt, 5 May ; succeeded as leader by 
Mr. Wm. Shaw ^79 

Mr. Parnell proposes election of a convention to 
meet at Dublin, n Sept. ; this is opposed by 
Mr. W. Shaw, Mitchell Henry, and others Sept. ,, 

Meeting at Dublin ; pronounced opposition to 
British government . . . . 20, 21 Jan. 1880 

About 65 home rulers in the new parliament, under 
Mr. Shaw and Mr. Parnell . . . April, ,, 

Mr. Parnell chosen by 45 as parliamentary chair- 
man 17 May, ,, 

31 home rulers voted with the government ; 16 with 
Mr. Parnell 13 July, ,, 

Home rule convention at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 9 Aug. ,, 

Meeting at Dublin ; Mr. Justin McCarthy appointed 
vice-president; resolution to resist coercion in 
Ireland adopted 27 Dec. ., 

R E 2 



HOME SECRETARY. 



612 



HONDURAS. 



Trial of Mr. Parnell and others at Dublin (see 
'Irials) .... 28 Dec. 1880-25 Jan. J 88i 

Strong manifesto of Mr. Parnell ; a counter one by 
Mr. Shaw Feb. ,, 

Home rule agitation revived ; meeting at Dublin 

8 Nov. „ 

Mr. Shaw, opposed to the separatists, secedes from 
the party about 3 Dec , , 

Home rule movement in Scotland; first annual meet- 
ing of the burgh convention at Edinburgh 
propose a representative assembly to legislate on 
Scotch affairs, subject to the approval of parlia- 
ment 4 April, 1882 

Proposal for Scotch home rule rejected by the 
commons 20 Feb. 1890 

Again (no house) 6 March, 1891 

Home rule conference at Dundee, 25 Sept. 188a ; at 
Edinburgh, 24 Sept. 1890 ; again at Edinburgh, 

12 March, 1892 

The home rule league (closing meeting, 24 Nov. 
1882) merged into Irish national league; first 
meeting 7 Feb. 1883 

Mr. A. M. Sullivan, an eminent nationalist 

died 17 Oct. 1884 

Mr. Parnell and 85 followers elected for parliament 
Dec. 1885, again, July 1886 ; and . 13 Feb 1893 

For Mr. Gladstone's Irish government (Home 
Rule) bill see Ireland .... 8 April, 1886 

British home rule association started in London, 
10 Feb. ; United kingdom home rule league formed 
23 July ; these two combined as the home rule 
union about 1 Dec. ,, 

Annual meetings held 1891 

It publishes a new Home Rule bill differing from 
Mr. Gladstone's Aug. ,, 

Dr. Clark's resolution for giving home rule 
separately to England, Scotland, Ireland, "Wales, 
rejected by the commons, 29 April, 1892 ; 

23 June, 1893 

Irish home rule bill in parliament, see Ireland, 

Feb.-Sept. ,, 

Mr. Dalziel's resolution for establishing local legis- 
lative assemblies (home rule) throughout the 
United Kingdom adopted by the commons (128- 

102) 29 March, 1895 

(See Ireland, Parliament, and Pamellites.) 

HOME SECRETARY, see Secretaries, and 
all the administrations under the name of their 
premier. New Home Office, "Westminster, occupied 
6 Aug. 1875. 

" HOME, Sweet Home." The words are 

attributed to John Howard Payne, an American 
actor, who died in 1852 ; the music is said to be 
Sicilian, but it is probably by sir Henry Bishop, 
who introduced the song into Clari, or the Maid of 
Milan, in 1823. 

HOMER'S ILIAD and ODYSSEY, the 

earliest and most perfect epic poems in the world. 
The first begins with the wrath of Achilles, and 
ends with the funeral of Him tor; the second re- 
counts the voyages and adventures of Odusses or 
Ulysses, after the destruction of Troy. Various 
dates are assigned to these works, from 962 to 915B.C. 
F. A. Wolf, in his Prolegomena, in 1795, argued that the 
Homeric poems were composed of independent epic 
songs, collected and arranged by Peisistratus about 
550 B.C. This theory occasioned much controversy 
between scholars ami poets; Mr. Andrew Lang, in 
" Homer and bhe Epic," vigorously defends "the one 
author theory," March, 1893. 
The first English version of the Iliad, by Arthur Hall, 
appeared in 1581. Thepresenl testis attributed to the 
time of Pericles, who died b.c. 429. The most cele- 
brated versions of Homer's works are Chapman's, 1616; 
Hobbes', 1675: Pope's, 1715-25 : Cowper's, 1791. ,The 
translation of I lie Hind l>j the earl of Dcrlij (1S64) is 
much commended. 

IIOMICI DE is said to have been tried at Athens 
by the Areopagites. Among the Jews, wilful 
murder was capital; but for chance-medley the 



offender was to flee to one of tbe cities of refuge, and 
there continue till the death of the high-priest, 
1451 B.C. (Num. xxxv.). 9 Geo. IV. c. 31 (1828), 
distinguishes between justifiable homicide and 
homicide in its various degrees of guilt, and cir- 
cumstances of provocation and wilfulness ; see 
Murder. 

Animals have been tried and punished for killing 
human beings. A bull was hanged for homicide 
near the abbey of Beaupres . . . May, 1499 

HOMILDON HILL (Northumberland), where 
the Scots, headed by the earl of Douglas, were de- 
feated by the Percies (among them Hotspur), 14 
Sept. 1402. Douglas and the earls of Angus, Mur- 
ray, Orkney, and the earl of Fife, son of the duke 
of Albany, and nephew of the Scottish king, with 
many of the nobility and gentry, were taken pri- 
soners. 

HOMILIES in early Christian times were dis- 
courses delivered by the bishop or presbyter, in a 
homely manner, for the common people. Charle- 
magne's "Homilarium" was issued 809. The Book 
of Homilies drawn up by abp. Cranmer, and pub- 
lished 1547, and another prepared by an order of 
convocation, 1563, were ordered to be read in those 
churches that had. not a minister able to compose 
proper discourses. 

HOMCEOPATHY, a hypothesis promulgated 
in his " Organ on of Medicine," 1810, and in other 
works, by Dr. Samuel Hahnemann, of Leipsic (died 
2 July, 1843), according to which every medicine 
has a specific power of inducing a certain diseased 
state of the system (similia similibus curantur, likes 
are cured by likes) ; and if such medicine be given 
to a person suffering under the disease which it has 
a tendency to induce, such disease disappears, be- 
cause two similar diseased actions cannot simul- 
taneously subsist in the same organ. Brande. 
Infinitesimal doses of medicine, such as the mil- 
lionth of a grain of aloes, have been employed, it is 
said, with efficacy. The system requires the patient 
to regulate his diet and habits carefully. It has 
led to a more accurate study of the materia medica. 
Introduced into England, 1827. The Hahnemann 
hospital was opened inBloomsbury-square, 16 Sept. 
1850. " The World's Convention of Homoeopathic 
Physicians" opened at Philadelphia, 26 June, 1876, 
London School of Homoeopathy, founded 15 Dee. 
1876. Congress, Liverpool, 14 Sept. 1877 ; South- 
port, 22 Sept. 1892 ; London, 3 June, 1898 ; 
London, 11 July, 1902. Fifth quinquennial inter- 
national congress at Queen's hall London, 4 Aug, 
1896. Under the heading Odium Medicum, many 
controversial letters from allopaths and homoeo- 
paths appeared in the Times, Jan. 1888. 

HOMOUSION and HOMOIOUSION 

(Greek, same essence, and similar essence or being), 
terms employed with respect to the nature of the 
Father and the Son in the Trinity. The orthodox 
party adopted the former term as a party cry at the 
council of Nice, 325 ; the Arians adopted the latter 
at Seleucia, 359. 

HOMS, Syria. Here Ibrahim Pacha and tbe 
Egyptians severely defeated the Turks, 8 July, 1832. 

HONDURAS, discovered by Columbus in 
1502, and conquered by the Spaniards 1523, is 
one of the republics of Central America ; see 
America. Great Britain ceded the Bay Islands 
to Honduras, 28 Nov. 1859. President, general 
J. M. Medina, elected 1 Feb. 1864, and in 1869. 
Provisional president, C. Arias (Dec. 1872). P. 
Leiva,l875; M.A.Soto, 29 May, 1877; general Louis 



HONG-KONG. 



613 



HOPS. 



Bogran, 27 Nov. 1883 ; re-elected, 1887. Gen. 
Pariano Leista elected 10 Nov ; 1891. War with 
San Salvador, May, 1871, and May, 1872. The 
town of Omoa, Spanish Honduras, was bombarded 
by H.M.S. Niobe, to obtain redress for injuries to 
British subjects, 19 Aug. 1873. Population, 1889, 
431,917; 1900, 587,500; capital, Tegucigalpa, 
population, 1894, 15,000; 1900, 12,600. 
Insurrection ; Tegucigalpa besieged ; the president, 
gen. Bogran, surrounded ; reported 11 Nov. ; he 
escapes, gen. Sanchez holds the capital, 12 Nov. ; 
gen. Bogran recovers the capital ; gen. Sanchez 

commits suicide 15 Nov. 1890 

Insurrection, headed by sen. L. Sierra, reported 
12 Dec. ; sen. Policarpo Bonilla proclaimed 

president 12 Dec, 1891 

Civil war begins, May, 1892 ; severe defeat to rebel 
forces at El Corpus, 12 Sept. ; gen. Nucilla, 
insurgent leader, tried and shot at Truxillo ; 

reported 18 Sept. 1892 

Insurrection in S. Honduras, headed by gen. 
Matute, about 5 March ; reported successful ; 
gen. Bogran and president Leiva escape to British 
Honduras ; reported ... 18 April, 1893 
Gen. Vasquez elected president . . 20 Sept. ,, 
War with Nicaragua, Honduras insurgents, assisted 
by Nicaragua, invade Honduras and take Corpus 
Yuscoran ; reported 30 Dec. 1893 ; many con- 
flicts 1 Jan. et seq. 1894 

Gen. Bonilla, leader of the Honduras insurgents, 

assumes the presidency and forms a cabinet,5 Jan. , , 
Indecisive engagement at Tegucigalpa with heavy 

loss, 23 Jan. ; continued fighting . 27 Jan. ,, 

Gen. Vasquez repulses the insurgents . 10 Feb. ,, 
End of the war ; reported . . . 25 Feb. ,, 
Martial law proclaimed . ... 12 March, 1896 
Insurrection again breaks out . . April-May, 1897 
Gen. Sierra elected president . . .1 Feb. 1899 
Dr. Bonilla elected president .... Jan. 1903 
Dr. Bonilla defeats gen. Sierra, 22 Feb.; captures 
Santa Barbara, reported 19 Mar. ; occupies 

Tegucigalpa 13 April, ,, 

Dr. Arias, appointed president by gen. Sierra, 
surrendersto president-elect, Dr. Bon ilia, 14 April, ,, 

British Hondukas, Central America, was 
settled by English from Jamaica soon after a treaty 
with Spain in 1667. They were often disturbed by 
the Spaniards, and sometimes expelled, till 1783. 
Balize or Belize, the capital, is a great seat of the 
mahogany trade. In 1861, the population was 
25,635; 111 18S1, 27,452; 1891, 31,471; 1901, 
37,479. Governor, James II. Longden, 1867; Wm. 
W. Cairns, 1870 ; major Robeit Miller Mundv, 
1874; h\ P. Baiiee, 1877 ; Roger Tuckfield Gulds- 
worthy, 1884; sir Cornelius Alfred Moloney, Feb. 
1891 ; col. (aft. sir) D. Wilson, Jan. 1897. 

HONG-KONG, an island off the coast of 
China, was taken by capt. Elliott, 23 Aug. 1839, 
and ceded to Great Britain, 20 Jan. 1841. lis 
«hief town is Victoria, built in 1842, and erected 
into a bishopric in 1849. Sir John Bowring, gover- 
nor from 1854 to 1859, was succeeded by sir Hercules 
Robinson: Governors, sir Rich. G. MacUonnell, 
1865 ; sir Arthur Edward Kennedy, 1872 ; John 
Pope Hennessy, Nov. 1876; sir G. F. Bowen, Dec. 
1882 ; sir G. C. Strahan, appointed Jan. 1887 ; 
died 17 Feb. 1887; sir George William des Vceux, 
1887 ; sir Wm. Robinson, July, 1891 ; sir Henry 
A. Blake, Nov. 189S; sir M. "Nathan, Oct. 1903. 
Population 200,990 (1886) ; 238,724 (1893) i 2 S4>5 00 
(1898). 
The queen's jubilee warmly celebrated by the British 

and Chinese, 9, 10 Nov. 1887. 
The governor, sir Geo. W. des Vceux, reports the flourish- 
ing state of the colony, Nov. 1889. 
Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaught, 1-4 April, 

1890. 
Attack of bubonic plague ; great mortality of Chinese, 
5 May, 1894, et seq. ; general exodus of the natives ; 
2,442 deaths ; reported 19 July ; total mortality, 



2,560; reported 29 Aug. ; the port declared free, 

3 Sept. 1894; reappears, Feb. (many deaths) 1896; 

subdued, led to great improvements, in 1897 ; re- 
appears, April, subsides, July, 1898. 
Petition of the colony to parliament for a change in 

their constitution presented, 21 March, 1895. 
The value of the trade, small before the cession, had 

risen to 133,217,855 taels (tael, nominal value, 6s. 6|d., 

really much less), 1894 ; reported, 1896. 
Territories and the island of Lan-tao opposite Hong-kong 

leased to England for 99 years by convention, signed 

9 June, 1898. 
Lord Charles Beresford arrives, 25 Dec. 1898. 
Large Chinese meetiug in favour of the "open door" 

and reorganisation of the army and navy under 

British officers, 22 Jan. 1899. 
Delimitation of the Kau-lung extension, March ; British 

troops attacked, Chinese driven off, 14, 15 April, 1899. 
British flag hoisted at Kau-lung, 17 April, 1899. 
Rebels driven out of the extension, order restored, 21-28 

April, 1899. 
Sam-chun occupied 6 months without resistance, 16 May, 

1899. 
Sir H. Blake receives 300 elders at Taipo-hui, who vow 

allegiance, 2 Aug. 1899. 
Territory divided into districts under native committee- 
men ; good report issued 20 Nov. 1900. 
Stone laid of the naval yard extension, 15 Jan. 1902. 
Duke of Connaught's statue unveiled, 5 July, 1902. 

HONI SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE, "Evil 

be to him who evil thinks." It is mythically said 
that the countess of Salisbury, at a ball at court, 
happening to drop her garter, the king, Edward III., 
took it up, and presented it to her, with these words, 
which afterwards became the motto of the order of 
the garter; see Garter. 

HONOUR. Temples were erected to Honour by 
Seipio Africanus, about 197 B.C.; and by C. Marius, 
about 102 B.C. — The Legion of Honour was created 
by Bonaparte in 1802. 

HONVEDS, the militia of HuDgary. They 
supported the rebellion against the emperor in 1849, 
but on the completion of the changes whereby the 
independence of Hungary was secured, in 1868, 
they offered a loyal address to the emperor-king. 

HOOKS AND CODFISH, party names, see 

Holland, 1347. 

HOOLIGANISM, a termed derived from 
Hooley gang, used in 1900 et seq. for street 
ruffianism and rowdyism, chiefly in the East- 
end of London. Conferences held at sir Henry 
Hurdett's, mid Oct., and at the Hotel Metropole; 
jnnior clubs, lads' brigades, and cadet corps to 
be founded and encouraged ; a committee formed, 
Mr. "W. H. Dickinson, L.C.C., chairman, Mr. 
Chas. Booth, sir Samuel Hoare, the lord mayor, 
and others, 30 Oct. 1900. See Trials, 5 Feb. 
1901 ; 3 July, 1902. 

HOOP-PETTICOAT, see Crinoline. 

HOPS are said to have been introduced into 
England from Flanders in the early part of the 
1 6th century, and to have been much cultivated in 
Kent by Reginald Scot iu the 16th century. In 
the year ending 5 Jan. 1853, there wei-e 46,157! 
acres under hops in England and Wales, chiefly in 
Herefordshire, Kent, and Worcestershire, which 
paid 447,144^. duty; the quantity yielded was 
51, 102, 494lbs., whereof 955,855 lbs. were exported; 
average acreage in England, 59,833, 1885-96 ; 
4^,024 in 1902. The duty on hops was repealed in 
1862, after many applications. An act for prevent- 
ing fraud in the trade was passed in June, 1866. — 
The hop and malt exchange, Southwark, was 
opened in Oct. 1867. 



HORATII AND CUEATII. 



614 



HORSE. 



HORATII AND CURIATII, see Some, 

669 B.C. 

HORN BOOKS used in education in Eng- 
land from early times to the 18th century, were 
tablets on which were inscribed the alphabet, the 
nine digits, etc., protected by a thin plate of trans- j 
parent born. Great variety of form*, now very j 
rare. Four were exhibited at the Caxton exhi- \ 
bition, 1877, and nine at tbe loan exhibition of 
the Horner's company, 1882. Mr. Andrew Tuer's j 
handsome and exhaustive "History of the Horn I 
book," dedicated to queen Victoria by command, 
was published, May, 1896. 

HORN ; HORNPIPE. .The horn is thought 
to be, next to the reed, the earliest wind instrument, 
and has been found among most savage nations. It 
■was first made of horn, hence the name ; afterwards 
of brass, with keys, for the semi-tones, in the last 
century. — The dance called the Hornpipe is sup- 
posed to be so named from its having been per- 
formed to the Welsh pib-eorn, that is hornpipe, 
about 1300. Spencer. Many hornpipes were com- 
posed in the 18th century. The" College hornpipe" 
was very popular. 

HORNE TOOKE, &c. The trial of Messrs. 
Hardy, Tooke, Joyce, Thelwall, and others, on a 
charge of constructive high treason, caused a great 
sensation. They were taken into custody on 20 May, 
1794. Mr. Hardy was tried 29 Oct., and, after a 
trial of eight days, was honourably acquitted. John 
Home Tooke was tried and acquitted, 20 Nov. ; 
and Mr. Thelwall was acquitted, 5 Dec; the others 
were discharged. Acts were passed to prohibit Mr. 
Thelwall's political lectures in 1795. 

HORNIMAN MUSEUM, library and gar- 
dens, at Forest-hill, London, the gift of Mr. F. J. 
Horniman (cost over 40,000/ ), opened by the duke 
of Fife, 29 June, 1901. 

HOROLOGY, see Clocks. The British Horo- 
logical institute, Clerkenwell, London, established 
in 1858, for the benefit of watchmakers, publishes a 
monthly journal. 

HORSE. The people of Thessaly were excel- 
lent equestrians, and probably first among the 
Greeks who broke them in for service in war ; 
whence probably arose the fable that Thessaly was 
originally inhabited by centaurs. "Solomon had 
40,000 stalls of horses for his chariots, and 12,000 
horsemen," 1014 B.C. I Kings iv. 26. The Greeks 
and llomans had some covering to secure their 
horses' hoofs from injury. "The Horse," by "W. 
Youatt, new edition, 1880. See Races and Car- 
riages, 1896. 

J'.i •itish horses. Their great strength is described by 
Julius Caisar about 54 b.c. fienry VIII. estab- 
lished a royal stud, and enacted laws to promote 
the breed of si rong horses in certain shires, hence 
the term shire horses; these afterwards became 
draught or earl horses. 

The horse-tax was imposed in 1784. Its operation 
was extended, anil its amount increased, in 1796 ; 

and again in 1808. The existing duty upon 
"horses for riding" only, in England, amounts to 
aboul 350,0002, per year 1S62 

Annual licence duly on horses and mules, ios. 6d. 
each; horse-dealers' Licence, 12& ios. (act passed 
1869) 1870 

Mr. J. S. Rarey, an American, made a great sensa- 
tion in London by taming vicious and wild horses, 
and even a zebra from the Zoological Gardens. 
11 is system is rounded on a profound study of the 

disposition Of the animal, and on kindness. He 
initiated many illustrious persons in his method 

(on 20 March, lord Palmerston and twenty others) 



binding them to secrecy ; from which they were 
released in June, when his book was reprinted in 
England without his consent . . 1858, 1859 

He was engaged to instruct cavalry officers and 
riding masters of the army . . . July, 1859, 

He gave a lecture to the London cabmen, 12 Jan. 
i860 ; and in the same year he received a present 
of 20 guineas from the Society for the Prevention 
of Cruelty to Animals .... May, i860, 

Mr. Sydney Galvayne, Australian horse-trainer, 
exhibited and taught his method of training 
at the Wellington Riding School, London, June, 
1890 ; his patrons included the queen witli many 
peers and military officers. 

Great annual horse-shows held at the Agricultural 
Hall, Islington, began .... July, 1864 

Horse-flesh. An establishment for the sale of it as 
human food was opened at Paris on 9 July, 1866, 
with success, and its use as food strongly advo- 
cated. About 150 persons (including sir Henry 
Thompson and sir John Lubbock) dined on horse- 
flesh at the 'Lnngham hotel, London . 6 Feb. 1868 

A great Franco-Anglo-American horse, mule, and 
donkey banquet was held at Paris . . 3 April, 1875 

The sale of horse-flesh, &c, regulation act, passed 

24 June, 1889. 

Subscriptions (of 106I. each person for five years) 
to improve the breed of horses, proposed by earl 
Calthorpe, headed by the prince of Wales, many 
nobles and gentlemen, the London General Omni- 
bus Company, and others . . . June, 1875 

Horse-shoeing is very ancient. It is represented on 
a coin of Tarentum, S. Italy, probably about 300 
b.c. Iron and bronze horse shoes have been found 
in ancient tumuli in France, Germany, Belgium 
and Britain. " The smith of the court" was an 
officer under the early princes of Wales, and the 
farrier's art was much honoured in mediaeval 
times. — G. Fleming. 

Goodenough's American horse-shoes, made by 
machinery, put on cold (patented i860), were 
usedby the London General Omnibus Company, 
Oct. -Dec. 1868. The international horse-shoe 
company for adopting the patent was established 
early in 1870 

Horse epidemic (" epizootic "), from Canada, at New 
York, Boston, &c, caused much inconvenience, 

Oct. 1872- 

Scarcity of horses in Britain ; a commission of in- 
quiry appointed, Feb. , reported (no result) Aug. 1873 

[Another commission issued its report Dec. 1887. 
The queen's plate for races in Great Britain 
abolished, and the money to be devoted to the 
improvement of the breed of horses.] 

Stud Company, to improve the breed of horses, 
held first annual meeting . . .20 Sept. ,, 

Horse duty taken off . . . . . . . 1874 

British Empire Horse-supply Association, esta- 
blished Spring 187S. 

English Cart-horse Society (since named the Shire 
Horse Society), established, earl of Ellesmere, 
president, 3 June, 1878. Annual shows are held 
at the Agricultural hall ; and annual cart horse- 
parades in Regent's-park, 819 horses and 666- 
drivers were entered, 30 May. 1898. 

The queen and some of the royal family, present at 
the show of the Hunter and Hackney Horse Show 
at the Agricultural hall . . . 5 March, 1893 
The English Horse Society's first show at Olympia, 

■\V. Kensington . 15 May, 1889 ; at Islington, 29 May, ,, 
Royal commission on horse-breeding met in 
London, May, 1S93 et seq., recommendations 
approved, reported . . . . 1 Jan. 1897- 

Strike of London farriers for increase of wages, 24 

May, 1897 ; ended by compromise . 28 May, ,, 
Horse show at the Crystal palace, opened 5 June, ,, 
Home of rest for horses, Friar's-place, Acton ; New 

year's dinner given to the animals . . 1 Jan. 189S 
Export of infirm horses prohibited . mid Nov. „ 
Horse show at Weinbly park, opened, 7 June, 1899; 

annual horse and hound show at Peterborough, 

4 -'"ly, 
International horse show at the Paris exhibition, 

total 1 71 8 ; closed .... 10 Sept. 190c. 
Horses imported 1S62-1872, 79,000; 1873-1882, 

197,000; ill 1900, 51,786. Horses exported, 1890, 

12,192 j 1900, 30,038 ; 1901, 27,612 ; 1902, 30,085* 



HORSE GUARDS. 



615 



HOSPITAL SUNDAYS. 



Mr. T. Jennings, senior, famous trainer, died, 
aged 77, 12 Dec. 1900 ; and Air. J. Dawson, aged 
74, died 13 May, i9°3 

24th annual Shire horse show at the Agricultural 
hall 24 Feb. „ 

HORSE GUARDS. The regiment is saidto 
have been instituted in the reign of Edward VI. 
1550, and revived by Charles II. 1661. The first 
troop of Horse Grenadier Guards was raised in 1693, 
and was commanded by general Cholmondeley; and 
the second troop, commanded by lord Forbes, was 
raised in 1702. There was a reduction of the Horse 
and Grenadier Guards, and Life Guards, as now 
established, were raised in their room, 26 May, 
1788. Philips. The present edifice called the 
Horse Guards was erected abjut 1758. In the front 
are two small arches, where horse-soldiers, in full 
uniform, daily mount guard. In the building was 
formerly the office of the commander-in-chief, now 
in Pall "Mall. 

HORSE-RACING, see Races. 

HORTENSIAN LAW, passed by Q. Hor- 
tensius, dictator, 286 B.C., after the secession of the 
plebeians to the Janiculum, affirmed the legislative 
power granted them by previous laws in 446 and 
336 H. c. 

HORTICULTURE (from /tortus and eultura), 

the art of cultivating gardens ; see Gardening. 

Horticultural societies established at Edinburgh, 
1809 ; at Dubl.n 1S17 

The (now royal) Horticultural society of London 
founded by sir Joseph Banks and others in 1804 ; 
incorporated, 17 April, 1809; transactions first 
published 1812 

Planting the garden at Chiswiek begun . . . 1822 

Annual exhibitions 1831 

The library sold 1859 

Proposal for laying out a garden for the society on 
the Brompton estate, belonging to the Crystal 
Palace Commissioners, July, 1859 ; received the 
support of the queen, nobility, <&c, and Mr. 
Nesfield's design was adopted, May, i860 ; the 
new gardens opened by the prince consort, who 
planted a Wellingtonia gigantea {which see) 5 June. 
The queen planted one . . . .24 July, 1861 

The Albert memorial uncovered in the presence of 
the prince and princess of Wales . . 10 June, 1863 

Dr. John Lindley (who "raised horticulture from 
an empirical art to a developed science") secre- 
tary, 1822-62 died 1 Nov. 1865 

An international horticultural exhibition was 
opened in the gardens. . . . 23-31 May, 1866 

International horticultural exhibition opened 

24 Aug. 1881 

The society compelled to quit South Kensington, 
the greater part of the ground being required for 
the imperial institute. The council of the 
society proposes important alterations and 
appeals for support, 9 Dec. 1887. At the 
annual meeting, 14 Feb. 1888, arrangements 
were made for the maintenance of the society. 
Shows to be held at the drill hall of the London 
Scottish volunteers, James-street, Westminster; 
first opened 27 March, 1888. The revival of the 
society reported at the meeting . . 12 Feb. 1889 

International horticultural exhibition at EarFs 
court, Kensington, with extra attractions (in- 
cluding "the Wild West," by col. Cody), opened 
by the duke of Connaught, 7 May ; closed 15 Oct. 1892 

International horticultural congress opened at 
Paris, 24 May, 1895 ; at Dresden . . 2 May 1896 

Dr. Robt. Hogg, eminent horticulturist, born, 1818, 
died 14 March, 1897 

The king gives ioogs. towards a new hall for the 
Roy. Horticultural soc, . . .30 Sept. 1902 

Sir Thos. Hanbury presents the fine garden and 
estate of the late G. F. Wilson, f.r.s., Wislcy, 
near Woking, to the society, announced, 10 Aug. 1903 

HOSIERY, sec Stockings, and Cotton. 



1874. 
1875- 
1870. 



1877. 



HOSPITALLERS, see Malta. 

HOSPITAL SUNDAYS are said to have 
begun at Birmingham, 13 Nov. 1859. Glasgow 
began hospital Sundays about 1844. It is said the 
present system of hospital Sunday began at Man- 
chester in 1870. Near the end of [872, it was pro- 
posed that collections for the benefit of hospitals and 
dispensaries in London should be annually made on 
one Sunday in the year at all places of worship. 
A committee for effecting this met at the Mansion- 
house, 31 Jan. 1873; an( l soon a fter, 15 June was 
appointed as the day for the collection. 

Hospital Sundays in London : 
187;',. 15 June. About 25,511!., received on the day 

from about 1200 places of worship, including 

Jews ; 1859?. received afterwards (July). 

24,571!. awarded to 54 hospitals ; 2185!. to 

53 dispensaries. 
14 June. About 29,8171. received. 

13 June. About 26,703/ received. 
18 June. About 27,042! received. 

(23,943!. awarded to 73 hospitals; 2,336!. to 

45 dispensaries, 9 Aug. 1876.) 
17 June. 26,083!, received ; 25,870!. distributed. 
30 June. About 24,904!. received, 25 July. 

1879. 15 June. 26,501!. received ; 24,961!. distributed. 

1880. 13 June. 12,000!. received, 16 June; 29,000!., 

5 July; 30,000!., 12 July; 30,411!., 31 Oct. ; 
30,423!., Nov. 

1881. 19 June; received up to 29 June, 25,000!. ; Nov. 

31,85s'- 

1882. 11 June ; total receipts (9 Dec.) 34,146!. 

1883. 10 June ; 26,000!. ; 19 June ; total, 33,935!. ; 1 Dec. 

39,329*- 

1884. 15 June ; 11 July ; 32,000!. 

1885. 14 June ; total receipts, 34,320!. ; Dec. 

1886. 27 June ; total receipts, 40,399!. ; 30 Nov. 

1887. 19 June ; total receipts, 40,607!. ; 30 Nov. 

1888. 10 June ; total receipts, 40,379!. ; 10 Dec. 

1889. 23 June ; amount received up to 29 July, 41,107!. ;. 

up to 31 Oct. 41,744!. 

1890. 8 June; amount received up to 11 June, about 

15,000!. ; 28 Nov. 42,814!. 

1 89 1. 7 June ; amount received up to 2 July, 39,000!. ;: 

24 Nov. 45,330!. (5,000!. from the duke of 
Cleveland and 1,000!. from sir Savile- 
Crossley). 

1892. 19 June ; received, 29 July (sir Savile Crossley, 

1,000!., 24 June ; Miss Anderdon, 100!.),. 
41,512!., 25 Nov. 

1893. 11 June ; 39,200!. up to 31 Oct. 

1894. 10 June ; 43,600!., 17 Dec. 

1895. 16 June ; 25,000!. ; 44,410!. 29 July; 3,400!. from 

Stock Exchange ; 904!. bequest of Mr. W. A. 
Guesdon ; total, 60,360!., 25 Nov. 

14 June ; 41,600!., 9 July ; total, 46,035!., 15 Dec. 
20 June ; total, 43,485!. up to Dec. 
12 June ; 40,397!. 2s. lod. , Nov. 
11 June ; 53,504!. 

1900. 24 June ; 51,903!. 

1901. 16 June (4,000'!. from sir F. Cook), total 54,731? , 

16 Dec. 

1902. 15 June ; Mr. George Herring gives over 40,000!. 

in 4 years (10,000?. from Mr. Lucas Tooth, of 
Australia, to the king, presented by him to 
the fund, July) ; 62,669!. received in the year 
ending 31 Oct. 

1903. 14 June ; collected St. Paul's cathedral, King 

and royal family present, 5,000!., 7 June; 

60,700!. up to 31 Oct. (12,312?. from Mr. 

Herring). 
Hospital Saturdays in London for work- 
men, began 17 Oct. 1874, the movement being 
greatly promoted by capt. Charles Merrier and loid 
Brabazon; 6,1411?. collected: 



1875 



1879 



4 Sept. . . 6,604?. 

3 Sept. . . 8,372?. 

2 Sept. . . 8,861?. 

1 Sept. . . 9,497?. 

6 Sept. . . 10,173?. 

total receipts, 11,192!. 8s. ioid. ; 3 t Dec. 
total receipts, 12,213!. ; 31 Dec. 
11 June ; total receipts, 11,300!. ; Dec. 
14 July ; receipts, 9,069?. ; 11,426!. Dec : 



31 July 
2 Sept. 
1 Sept. 
7 Sept. 
6 Sept. 
18 July 
17 July 



5,343?- 
5,5^5?- 
4,500?. 
6,528!. 
6,152!. 



HOSPITALS. 



616 



HOSPITALS 



1889. 13 July ; outdoor receipts, 4,644?. ; workshop 

collections, 8,800?. ; total, 14,090?. 

1890. 12 July; outdoor receipts, 5,096?.; -workshop 

collections, nearly 15,000?. ; total receipts, 
Jan. 1891, 20,333?. 

1891. 18 July ; receipts up to 4 Jan. 1892, 19,646?. 

1892. 16 July ; receipts up to Feb. 1893, 20,309?. 

1893. 15 July; 19,544?. 

1894. 7 July ; over 20,000?. ; Dec. 

1895. 13 July ; 11,000?. ; Aug. 

1896. July, 20,000?., reported 16 Jan. 1897. 

1897. (Street collection abolished) July, 19,945?., 

reported, Dec. 

1898. July ; total leceipts, 19,338?. 8s. 4c?., reported, 

21 Jan. 1899. 

1899. Total receipts, 20,023?., reported, 27 Jan. 1900. 

1900. 13 Oct. ; 20,187?., reported, Jan. 1901. 

1901. 12 Oct. ; 21,547?., reported, April, 1902. 

1902. 11 Oct. ; 22,964?., reported, 4 April, 1903. 

HOSPITALS, originally Hospitia for the 
reception of travellers. That at Jerusalem, built 
by the knights of St. John, 1112, was capable of 
receiving 2000 guests, and included an infirmary 
for the sick. The "five royal hospitals" under 
"the pious care of the lord-mayor of London," are 
St. Bartholomew's, St. Thomas's, Bridewell, Beth- 
lehem, and Christ's ; see Infirmaries, and Dispen- 
saries. Benjamin Attwood, who gave anonymously 
about 250,000/. in cheques of 1000/. to hospitals, 
&c, died in 1874. In April, 1890, the house of lords 
appointed a select committee to enquire into the 
management of metropolitan hospitals and similar 
institutions, first sitting 5 May. Beports issued-, 
1890, 1891, 1892. The Hospital, a weekly periodical, 
first appeared, 1886. 

In 1888 there were in the metropolis 24 general and 
no special hospitals ; described in Low's hand- 
book to the charities of London. 
Royal Commission respecting hospitals for in- 
fectious diseases (lord Blachford, sir James 
Paget, and others) appointed . . Nov. 1881 

The Hospitals Association for the consideration and 
discussion of hospital management, &c, origin- 
ated in the National Social Science Association, 

1881 et >eq. ; founded ^84 

About 7,100?. was given to London hospitals by 

baron Hirsch Jan. 1893 

Mr. Henry C. Burdett's "Hospitals and Asylums 
of the World," 4 vols., with plans, &c, com- 
pleted Jan. „ 

Act for establishing isolation hospitals, passed . ,, 
Central hospital board proposed by the Charity 
Organisation Society ; committee appointed 

25 Jan. 1897 
Sir J. Blundell Maple gives 100,000?. to rebuild 

the University hospital, announced . 25 Feb. „ 
Mr. James Toleman, London, bequeaths 1,000?. 

each to 8 hospitals, announced . 22 April, ,, 

Foundation stone of the new University College 
Hospital, to be erected at the cost of sir J. 
Blundell Maple, laid by the prince of Wales, 

21 June, 1898 
"The prince of Wales's hospital fund for London," 
to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the' 
queen's reign, inviting subscriptions of is. per 
annum or more, lord Rothschild treasurer, the 
prince of Wales president of the general council, 
announced (he subscribes annually 105?.), 5 Feb. 1897 
Fund largely responded to during the year; meet- 
ing at Marlborough house; total in hand, 
187,000?. : 22,050?. annual subscriptions; 99,000?. 
invested; 122,000?. divisible, 2C Dec. ; 60,000?. tc 
be distributed, e.g., Middlesex hospital, received 
2,925?.; University college, 2,581?. 5s., 30 Dec. ; 
London, 3,937?. 10s. and 5,000?. per ami., 3 Jan. ; 
Guy's, 7,912?. ioS., Jan. 1898; 1st annual meeting 
at Marlborough house, 3 Feb.; total paid to fund 
during n months ending 31 Doc. 1897, 227,553?. 
12s. 5f?. ; receipts for 1898, 39,270?., Feb. 1899; 
receipts for 1899, 47,808?., Dec. 1899 ; receipts for 
1000, 43,468?., and 6,000?. from the League of 
Mercy, Dec. 1900, styled "King Edward's Hos- 
pital Fund," the prince of Wales president, 1 Jan. 
1902 154?. from the prince of Wales and family, 



5 Jan. 1902 ; Mr. E. Speyer, 25,000?. , Jan. 1902 ; 
Mrs. S. Lewis, 10,000?. (annually) ; coronation 
gift, 115,000?. from all classes, presented to the 
king, 11 Aug. 1902; liberal gift from the mahara- 
jah of Jaipur, and 10,000?. from the maharajah 
Sindhia of Gwalior, presented by the king, Aug. ; 
an endowment producing 16,000?. per ann. from 
lords Mount-Stephen and Strathcona, 2 Sept. ; re- 
ceipts in 1902, 604,803?. reported 14 Feb. 1903. 

Alexandra (children's), new buildings, Queen's-sq., 
Bloomsbury, opened by the prince and princess 
of Wales 20 July, 1899 

Mr. Wm. Vokins bequeaths 49,000?. to London 
hospitals Jan. ,, 

Miss E. Flemming bequeaths over 28,000 to London 
hospitals April, ,, 

Prof. David Hughes, the eminent electrician (see 
Microphone), bequeaths over 300,000?. as a trust 
fund to London hospitals . . .22 Jan. 1900 

The N. London Consumptive hospital receives 
over 100,000?. . . . . . July, 1901 

Isolation hospitals (No. 2) act passed . 26 July, ,, 

The Portland hospital, equipped by the duke of 
Portland and family, did good work at the front, 
in the S. African war, see Athenceum . 24 Aug. „ 

Mr. M. Whiting bequeaths 120,000?. to London 
hospitals, reported .... 6 Nov. ,, 

Mr. A. O. Crooke bequeaths 20,000?. in trust for 
London and Surrey hospitals ; 15,000?. from 
capt. Tumor Jan. 1902 

Mr. W. W. Ash r gives 50,000?. to the Children's 
hospital, Great Ormond-street, for new out- 
patient department, announced . 25 Dee. ,, 

Mr. Robt. Storks bequeathed in all about 60,000?. 
co King's College hospital, reported . 29 Jan. 1903 

Stock Exchange collection for the London hospital 
realized 13,800?., reported . . early Feb. ,, 

Annual meeting of the council of King Kdward's 
Hospital fund for London, report total receipts, 
1902, 604,803/. ; 101,000?. distributed to hospitals, 

14 Feb. ,, 

Metropolitan Asylums board reported cost of 
small-pox epidemic to the board, 491,159?., 21 Feb. ,, 

King and queen open the new wing of the London 
hospital 11 June, ,, 

Princess Louise, duchess of Argyll, opens the new 
building's for the Hospital for Epilepsy and 
Paralysis, Maida-vale ... 13 June, „ 

Report of the Mansion-house committee, pro- 
nounces strongly in favour of the maintenance of 
St. Bartholomew's hospital on its present site, 
issued 27 July ,, 

Mr. W. W. Aslor gives 20,000?. to the Cancer 
Research fund ; announced . . mid Sept. ,, 

Decision of the council of King's College hospital 
to remove the hospital to a site in S. London, 
announced Oct. ,, 

Bethlehem (oldest lunatic asylum in Europe except 
one at Granada) founded 1547 

Cancer, Brompton ... 1S41 

Charing-cross, founded 1818 ; new hospital built, 
1831 ; duke of Connaught lays the stone for the 
new building 20 June, 1902 

Consumption, Brompton 1S41 

Dental (new buildings, Leicester-square, 1902) . . 185S 

Dreadnought ship (seaman's) 1S21 

Evelina (baron Rothschild's) 1869 

Fever 1802 

Free, Royal, Gray's Inn-road 1828 

Friedenheim (home of peace for the dying, founded 
by Miss V. M. Davidson, at Mildmay, 1885), 
Upper Avenue-road, S. Hampstead ; opened by 
the duchess of Teck .... 7 Nov. 1892 

German, Dalston 1845 

Great Northern, 1S56; New Central at Holloway . 1888 

Guy'S (see (lull's) 1721 

Hahnemann (homoeopathic) 1850 

Idiots' 1847 

Incurables 1850 

Jews' 1747 

King's College 1839 

Lock • 1746 

London ... 1740 

London Ophthalmic, Royal, Finsbury, 1804 ; new 

buildings opened by the duke of York, 27 June, C899 
London. Ophthalmic, Central, Gray's Inn-road . . 1843 



HOSPITAL SHOPPING DAY. 



617 



HOWARD FAMILY. 



Lying-in, British . ...... . . . 1749 

,, City of London 1750 

„ General, Lambeth 1765 

„ Queen Charlotte's 1752 

„ Queen Adelaide's 1824 

Middlesex (see Middlesex) 174S 

National Dental, Gt. Portland-street . . . 1861 
North-west London hospital, Kentish-town-road . 1878 
City Orthopaedic, founded in 1851 ; rebuilt in 
i Hatton-garden, opened by the duke of Cam- 
bridge .5 J ul y. i8 99 

Paddington Green (children's) 1883 

Samaritan Free, for women and children . 1847 and 1889 

Small Pox 174 6 

St. Bartholomew's (see Bartholomew, St.) . 1102, 1546 

St. George's 1733 

St. John's, Leicester Square (skin) .... 1803 

St. Luke's (lunatics) 175 1 

St. Mark's T835 

St. Mary-le-bone . 18 71 

St. Mary's, Paddington 1843 

St. Thomas's (removed 1862 and 1871) . . . . 1553 
Sick Children, 1852 ; new building opened . Nov. 1875 
Temperance Hospital, opened . . . Oct. 1873 
Throat, Golden-square, founded by Dr. (after sir) 

Morell Mackenzie, 1863 ; memorial wing . June, 1899 
Throat and Ear diseases, Gray's Inn-road March, 1874 

University College 1833 

Victoria, Kingston-on-Thames (memorial of the 

queen's reign), opened ... 12 Dec. 1898 

Westminster 1719 

Westminster Ophthalmic, Royal 1816 

Women's, Soho-square 1842 

Women and Children (superintended by women), 

Crawford-street 1866 

Women's hospital in Marylebone, 1871 ; Buston- 

road (superintended by women) . . 7 May, 1889 

HOSPITAL SHOPPING DAY. A scheme 
organised, Sept. 1903, by a committee, with lord 
Dun raven as chairman, to augment King Edward's 
Hospital fund ; the king and the prince of Wales 
as patron and president signifying their approval. 
Shopkeepers of all classes, to the number of 
33,000, were invited to give a certain percentage, 
according to individual choice, of their takings on 
a specified day to the fund, and a special appeal 
was made to the public to make extra purchases t<> 
aid the object in view. A large number of firms in 
the West- end and in other parts of London 
responded favourably to the proposal. The first 
" Hospital Shopping Day" took place, 3 Nov. 1903. 
Receipts to 17 Nov. 1,027/. 

HOST, Elevation of the, introduced into 

Roman Catholic worship, and prostration, said to 
have been enjoined about 1201. Pope Gregory IX. 
was the first pontiff who decreed a bell to be rung as 
a signal for the people to adore the host, 1228. Mees. 

HOT BLAST, see Blowing Machine. 

HOTEL DE VILLE, Paris, the residence 
of the chief magistrate, the prefect of the Seine, was 
begun in 1533, and completed, after his own design, 
by Dominico da Cortona, 1628. Here La Fayette 
introduced Louis- Philippe, the citizen-king, to the 
people, Aug. 1830; and here the republic was pro- 
claimed, 26 Feb. 1848. The communists, who had 
established themselves here, set fire to the building, 
24 May, 1871, after their total defeat. The Hotel 
was reopened 13 July, 1882. 

HOTEL DIEU, see Paris, 656, 1877. 

HOTEL. METROPOLE, Northumberland 
Avenue, London, an enormous building with highly 
decorated suites of rooms, designed by F. & H.Francis, 
F F. Sanders and others, completed May, 1885. 

HOUR. The early Egyptians divided the day 
and night each into twelve hours, a custom adopted 



by Jews or Greeks probably from the Babylonians. 
The day is said to have been first divided into hours 
from 293 B.C. wlien L. Papirius Cursor erected a 
sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus at Rome. Pre- 
viously to the invention of water-clocks {which see) 
158 B.C., the time was called at Rome by public 
criers. In England, the measurement of time was, 
in early days, uncertain; one expedient was by 
wax candles) three inches burning an hour, and six 
wax candles burning twenty-four hours, said to 
have been invented by Alfred, a.d 886 ; see Bay. 
For Hours of Prayer, Horce. see Breviary. The 
Hour, daily conservative newspaper, first ap- 
peared, 24 March, 1873 ; last time, II Aug. 1876. 

HOUSE DUTY was imposed in 1695. Its 
rate was frequently changed till its repeal. It was 
re-iinposed as a substitute for the window-tax, in 
1851. The duty was reduced for houses rented at 
from 20/. to 40/. to 2rf.,and for those rented at from 
40/. to 60/. to 4&'. and bd., 17 April, 1890. In the 
year 1872-3 it produced 1,243,818/. ; in 1875-6, 
1,421,052/.; 1880, 1,623,000/.; 1885, 1,885,000/.; 
1891, 1,570,000/. ; 1893-4, 1425,000/. ; 1898-9, 
1,570,000/. ; 1899 - 1900, 1,670,000/. ; 1900 - 1, 
1,720,000/. ; 1901-2, 1,775,000/. See Taxes. House 
League, see Ireland, 1886. 

HOUSEHOLD SUFFRAGE, after one 
year's residence, was introduced into parliamentary 
elections for boroughs, by the reform act passed 15 
Aug. 1867. Attempts have been frequently made 
to extend household suffrage to counties, and have 
failed; Mr. (afterwards sir) G. 0. Trevelyan's pro- 
posal lost in the commons (287 to 173), 13 May, 
1874; (268 to 166), 7 July, 1875; (264 to 165), 30 
Ma]', 1876; (276 to 220), 29 June, 1877; (271 to 
219), 22-23 FeD - 1878; (291 to 226), 4 March, 
1879. The object was effected by the act of 1884-5. 

HOUSELESS POOR ACT (Metropolitan) 
passed, 1864 ; made perpetual, 1865. See Poor and 
Artisans. 

HOUSE op Commons, Lords, &e., see 

Parliament, Lords, and Commons. 

HOUSING OF THE POOR ACT, passed 
14 Aug. 1885; another important act passed, 18 
Aug. 1890; see under Artisans. Small houses 
(acquisition of ownership) act passed, 9 Aug. 1899 ; 
report of joint select parliamentary committee on 
housing, issued, Aug. 1902. 

HOVAS, see Madagascar. 

HOWARD ASSOCIATION, instituted in 
1866, under the patronage of the late lord Brougham, 
for the improvement of prison discipline and pre- 
vention of crime. See Prisons, Bedford. _ Mr. H. 
Gurney, chairman of the committee, visited the 
sultan of Morocco, early in 1902, with reference_ to 
the carrying out of reforms in prison administration 
in that country (see Tim s, 27 Sept. 1902). Mr. 
Tallack, secretary of the society for many years, 
retired in 1902, succeeded by Mr. K. Grubb. Office : 
Devonshire-chambers, Bish ipsgate-street. 

HOWARD FAMILY. John Howard, son 
of Margaret, the heiress of the Mowbrays, was 
created earl marshal and the 7th duke of Norfolk in 
1483. He was slain with his master, Richard III., 
at Bosworth, 22 Aug. 1485. His son was restored 
to the earldom of Surrey in 1489 ; in reward for 
having gained the victory of Flodden, 9 Sept. 1513, 
he was created the 8th duke of Norfolk, in 1514. 
Thomas, the 10th duke, was beheaded for conspiracy 
against queen I'.lizabeth on behalf of Mary, queen 



HOWARD MEDAL. 



618 



HULSE'S FOUNDATIONS. 



of Scots, in 1572. Henry Fitzalan Howard, now 
the 21st duke of Norfolk, and the 15th of the 
Howard family, premier duke and earl of England 
and hereditary earl marshal, was born in 1847. 

HOWARD MEDAL. One was awarded by 
the Statistical Society to the best essay " On the 
Improvements in Education during the 18th and 
19th centuries," in Nov. 1879. 

HOWE DISASTER, see Kavy of England, 
1892-3. 

HOWITZER, a German piece of ordnance, 
ranking between a cannon and a mortar, came into 
use early in the 18th century. 

HUASCAR, see Peru, 1877 and 1879. 

HUBERTSBURG (Saxony). The treaty 
between the empress, the king of Prussia, and the 
elector of Bavaria, signed here, 15 Feb. 1763, ended 
the Seven Years' War, whereby Prussia gained 
Silesia. 

HUDDERSFIELD, a manufacturing town, 
"W R. Yorkshire, chiefly the property of the Kams- 
den family. Sir John Eamsden built the town- 
hall, 1765. The theatre was burnt, 15th Feb. 1880; 
the new market hall opened, 31 March, 1880. Popu- 
lation, 1881, 86,502 ; 1891,95,422; 1901,95,00s. 

First Musical Festival . . . 20-22 Oct. 1881 
Fine art and industrial exhibition opened 1 July, 1883 
Beaumont park opened by the duke of Albany 

13 Oct. ,, 

HUDIBRAS. The first three cantos of this 
political satire, by Samuel Butler, appeared in 
1663 ; the other parts in i664and 1678. 

HUDSON'S BAY, discovered by Sebastian 
Cabot, 1512, and re-discovered by captain Henry 
Hudson, when in search of a north-west passage to 
the Pacific Ocean, 1610, had been visited by 
Frobisher. The "governor and company of adven- 
turers of England trading to Hudson's Bay," obtained 
a charter from Charles II. in 1670. The ''fertile 
belt" was settled by lord Selkirk in 1812. For 
these territories the bishopric of Rupert's Land 
was founded, 1849. The charter having expired, 
the chief part of the company's territories, on the 
proposition of earl Granville, the colonial secretary 
(9 March, 1869), were transferred to the Dominion 
of Canada for 300,000/!. , and a right to claim a cer- 
tain portion of land within fifty years, and other 
privileges ; the company having consented to this, 
9 April, 1869. A portion of the people resisted the 
annexation, and gen. Louis Kiel proclaimed inde- 
pendence and seized the company's treasury, Jan. 
1870. On 3 or 4 March he tried and shot Thomas 
Scott, a Canadian, who had escaped from his cus- 
tody. Col. (afterwards lord) Wolseley con- 
ducted a Canadian expedition to the territories (now 
named Manitoba), and issued a proclamation to the 
loyal inhabitants, 23 July, saying "our mission 
is one of peace." Kiel was unsupported and offered 
no resistance. The lieut. -governor, Adams George 
Archibald, arrived 3 Sept. The Company had a 
large sale of furs in 1888. Annual meetings are 
held (1893). Extensive explorations by Mr. 
Tyrell, Dr. Bell, and Mr. Henry O'Sullivan, 
1893 et seq. See Manitoba ami Western Terri- 
tories. 

HUE, sec Ton qiiin, 1883. 

HUE AND CRY, the old common-law pro- 
cess of pursuing " with horn and with voice," from 



hundred to hundred, and county to county, all 
robbers and felons. Formerly, the hundred was 
bound to make good all loss occasioned by the rob- 
beries therein committed, unless the felon were 
taken ; but by subsequent laws it is made answer- , 
able only for damage committed by riotous 
assemblies. The pursuit of a felon was aided 
by a description of him in the Hue and Cry, a 
gazette established for advertising felons in 1710. 
Ashe. 

HUGSTETTEN, Baden; see Railway Acci- 
dents, 1882. 

HUGUENOT SOCIETY of London, estab- 
lished by sir II. Austen Layard and other descend- 
ants of Huguenots, about 15 April, 1885. The 
society publishes historical works, 1888. 

HUGUENOTS, a term (derived by some from 
the German Eidgenosscn, confederates ; by others 
from Hugues, a Genevese Calvinist) applied to the 
Reformed party in France, followers of Calvin. 
They took up arms against their persecutors in 
1561. After a delusive edict of toleration, a great 
number were massacred at Vassy, I March, 1562, 
when the civil wars began, which lasted with some 
intermission till the edict of Nantes in 1598 (re- 
voked in 1685). The massacre of St. Bartholomew's 
day, 24 Aug. 1572, occurred during a truce ; see 
Calvinuts, Protestants, Bartholomew, Edict, and 
Camisard. S. Smiles's '' History of the Huguenots," 
appeared in 1867. The crypt in Canterbury cathe- 
dral, assigned to French protestants in 1550, is 
still used by them for divine worship. 

HULL (E. Yorkshire), a rising commercial 
place in 1200, was named Kingston-upon-Hull in 
1296 by Edward I., who purchased the town, 
formed the port, and granted a charter. Great fire ; 
damage about 100,0001"., 15 Aug. 1864. Royal 
Albert dock opened by the prince of Wales, 22 
July, 1869. Inauguration of the Alexandra dock, 
and* the Hull and Barnsley railway, 23 Jan. 1883. 
Fire at Messrs. Stead's crushing mills, about 
80,000/. damage, 16 March, 1885. Hull returns 
three M.l'.s by act passed 25 June, 1885 ; made a 
city, June, 1897. See under Population. Serious- 
dispute between the Shipping Federation and the 
Dockers' Union closed 31 Dec. 1890. 

Serious disputes between Messrs. Thomas 'Wilson <fc 
Co. (who had left the Federation) and the local 
Dockers' Union ; opposition to free labour, early 
April ; ships blocked and work stopped ; work 
resumed by free labour, much resisted, 11 April 
et seq. ; rioting checked by police and military ; 
end of the strike by compromises . 19 May, 1893 
I Intervention of the union leaders in London, 
&C, May.] 

Great lives (incendiarism suspected) at Messrs. 
Wade's timber-yards, 30 April et seq. ; at Messrs. 
Simpson's saw-mills, lie . . 2-3 May, ,, 

Opening of the Hymer's college (founded by the 
gift (50,000/.) of Mr. Robt. Hymer) by lord 
Herschell 30 Oct. ., 

One hundred and six Hull fishermen lost in the 
gales Dec. 1894, and Jan. 1895 

Explosion at Messrs. Major and Co. 's distillery, 5 
deaths 21 Dec. 

Great fire, grain warehouse, &c, destroyed, esti- 
mated damage, 90,000/. . . . 29 July, 1899 

Mr. Walter Long, M. P. , opens a new street and 
is presented with the freedom . . 15 Oct. 1901 

I.iikI Avebury opens the new Central Free library, 
cost about 20,000/ 6 Nov ,, 

Visit of the prince and princess of Wales, 12 May, 1903 

HULSE'S FOUNDATIONS. The rev. 
John Hulse, who died in 1790, bequeathed his 



1897 



HUMAITA. 



619 



HUNGARY. 



estates in Cheshire to the university of Cambridge 
for the advancement of religious learning : — by the 
maintenance of two scholars ; the payment of a 
prize of 40/. annually for a theological dissertation ; 
the establishment of the office of Christian advocate 
(made a professorship of divinity, 1 Aug. i860) ; and 
the payment of a lecturer, to be chosen annually. 
The first Hulsean lectures were given by the rev. 
Christopher Benson, in 1820. 

HUMAITA, a strong post on the river Para- 
guay, fortified at a great cost with a battery of 
300 cannon, by Lopez, the president of Paraguay, 
and believed to be impregnable, was passed by the 
Brazilian ironclads, 17 Feb. 1868. On the 19th, 
Caxias, the Brazilian general, stormed a work to 
the north of Humaita, and captured many stores. 
Humaita itself, after a severe siege, was abandoned, 
'24 July, 1868. 

HUMAN LEOPARD SOCIETY, see 

Sierra Leone, 1895. 

HUMANE SOCIETY, ROYAL (London), 
for the recovery of persons apparently drowned, 
was founded in 1774, by Drs. Goldsmith, Heberden, 
Towers, Lettsom, Hawes, and Cogan, but princi- 
pally by the last three. The society has above 280 
depots supplied with apparatus. The principal one 
was erected in 1794, on a spot of ground given by 
George III. on the north side of the Serpentine 
river, Hyde-park. The motto of this society is 
appropriate — '' Latent sciutillula forsan" — "a 
small spark may perhaps lie hid." Nearly 500 
persons were relieved in 1887; 544 in 1890; 536 
persons rewarded for bravery. 580 lives saved in 
1894; 527 rewards; 812 lives saved in 1895, 800 
rewards; 650 lives saved, 716 rewards in 1897. 
Leonard H. Webber, aged 5 years, received the 
society's award for saving his baby-brother from 
drowning at "Wiilthamstow, 31 Aug. 1899; 7 J 5 lives 
saved, 791 rewards in 1901 ; 708 saved, 782 rewards 
in 1902. See Droivning, and Lisbon, Dec. 1890. 

HUMANISM, a name given to the philoso- 
phical study of man's personality as distinguished 
from a class, especially advanced by Petrarch and 
other energetic advocates of the revival of the study 
of ancient classic literature, termed the " new 
learning," and ('' Kterce humaniores ") the age of 
the renaissance, in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centu- 
ries, whereby freedom of thought and language 
was greatly promoted. 

HUMANITARIANS, a small sect in London, 
founded by Mr. lvaspary, a German Jew. Their 
moral principles are set forth in "The Fifteen Doc- 
trines of the Religion of God," written in 1866. 
These include pantheism and transmigration of souls. 
Meetings of the Humanitarian league held in Lon- 
don, 1895 ei ' SC Q- Their monthly organ is termed 
"Humanity." See Positive Philosophy. 

HUMANITY, Religion of, see Positive 

Philosojjhy, and Secularism. 
HUMBERT TRIAL, see France, 1903. 

HUMILIATI, a congregation of monks, said 
to have been formed by some Milanese nobles, who 
had been imprisoned by Frederick I. 1162. The 
order had more than ninety monasteries ; but 
was abolished for luxury and cruelty by pope 
Pius V., and the houses were given to the 
Dominicans, Cordeliers, and other communities in 
1570. 

HUMMING BIRDS. Mr. Gould's beautiful 
collection of the skins of these birds exhibited at 
the Zoological Gardens, Loudon, in 1851, was bought 



with other birds for the British museum for 300o/. r 
April, 1881. His elaborate work on them in five 
folio volumes, with richly coloured plates, was com- 
pleted in 1862. 

HUNDRED, a Danish institution, was a part, 
of a shire, so called, as is supposed, from its having 
been composed of a hundred families, at the time 
the counties were originally divided, about 897. 
The hundred-court is a court-baron held for all the 
inhabitants of a hundred instead of a manor. 
Hundred days ; a term given to Napoleon's resto- 
ration, dating from his arrival in Paris, 20 March, 
to his departure on . . . -29 June, 1815, 
Hundred years' war, in French history, com- 
menced with the English invasion in 1337. 

HUNGARY, part of the ancient Pannonia and 
Dacia, was subjected to the Romans about 106, and 
retained by them till the 3rd century, when it was- 
seized by the Goths, who were expelled about 376- 
by the Huns. See Huns, and Aitila. After Attila's 
death, in 453, the Gepidse, and in 500 the Lombards- 
held the country. It was acquired by the Avars 
about 568, and retained by them till their destruc- 
tion by Charlemagne in 799. About 890 the 
country was settled by a Scythian tribe, named 
Vingours or Ungri (whence the German name 
Ungarn) and the Magyars of Finnish origin. The 
chief of the latter, Arpad (889), was the ancestor of 
a line of kings (see below). The progress of the 
Magyars westward was checked by their defeat by 
the emperor Henry the Fowler, 934. Population! 
of the kingdom, including Transylvania, Fiume, 
Croatia, and Slavonia, 31 Dec. 1887, 16,901,023; 
in 1890, 17,463,791 : 1900, 19,203.531 ; Revenue, 
1890, 355,307,060 florins; expenditure 355, 815,000 
riorins. 1893, income, 36,395,166/.: expenditure, 
34,802,833/. 1895, income, 42,640,226/. ; expenditure, 
41,261,224/.; 1900. revenue, 49,876,500/. ; expendi- 
ture, 45,146,708/.; 1901, revenue, 43,810,833/.; 
expenditure, 45,909,708/. See Austria. 

Stephen, founder of the monarchy of Hungary, em- 
braces and establishes Christianity and subdues 
the Slaves, &c. , receives the title of the Apostolic 
king from the pope 956 

The Poles overrun Hungary 1061 

Bela III. introduces the Greek civilisation 1174, &c_ 

Golden Bull of Andrew II. granting personal 
rights 1222? 

Ravages of the Tartars under the sons of Genghis 
Khan, throughoutHungary, Bohemia, and Russia, 

1241 et sea.. 

Death of Andrew III., end of the Arpad dynasty . 1301 

Victories of Louis the Great in Bulgaria, Servia. 
and Dalmatia 1344-82: 

He marches into Italy and avenges the murder of 
his brother, Andrew, king of Naples . . . 1348. 

Sanguinary anarchy : Elizabeth, queen of Louis, 
is drowned: and King Mary, the daughter, mar- 
ries Sigismond, of Brandenburg ; they govern with 
great severity 1382 

[The Hungarians had an aversion to the name of 
queen; and whenever a female succeeded to the 
throne, she was termed Icing.] 

Sigismond's atrocious cruelties compel his subjects 
to invite the assistance of the Turks . . . 1393- 

Battle of Nieopolis : Bajazet vanquishes Sigismond 
and a large army 28 Sept. 1356 

Sigismond obtains the crown of Bohemia, and is 
elected emperor of Germany . . . . . 1410. 

Albert of Austria succeeds to the throne of 
Hungary 1437 

Victories of the great John Hunniades (reputed 
illegitimate son of Sigismond) over the Turks 1442-4. 

Who obtain a truce of ten years 1444 

Broken by Ladislas, king of Hungary (at the pope's 
instigation) ; he is defeated and slain, with the 
papal legate, at Varna .... 10 Nov. ,, 

John Hunniades escapes ; becomes regent . . 1444-55 

Raises siege of Belgrade, 14 July ; dies 10 Sept. . 1456 



HUNGAEY. 



620 



HUNGAEY. 



Hungarians insult Turkish ambassadors ; war en- 
sues : Solyman II. takes Buda .... 1526 
Disastrous battle of Mohatz (which see) 29 Aug. ,, 

Hungary subject to Austria 

Peace of Vienna, granting toleration to Protestants, 

23 June, i6c6 
John Sobieski defeats the Turks in several battles, 

and raises the siege of Vienna . . 12 Nov. 1683 
The duke of Lorraine retakes Buda (which see) 2 Sept. 1686 
Prince Louis of Baden defeats the Turks at Salenc- 

kemen 19 Aug. 1691 

Prince Eugene defeats them at Zenta 11 Sept. 1697 

Peace of Carlowitz . . . . 26 J an. 1699 

Pragmatic sanction, authorising female succession 

to the throne 1722-3 

Servia and Wallachia ceded to Turkey at the peace 

of Belgrade 1739 

The Hungarians enthusiastically support Maria- 
Theresa against France and Bavaria . . . 1740 
The protestants permitted to have churches . 1784 
Independence of Hungary guaranteed . . . 1790 
The diet meets ; Hungarian academy established . 1825 
The people, long discontented with the Austrian 

rule, break out into rebellion . . 11 Sept. 1848 
Murder of the military governor, count Lamberg, 
by a mob at Pesth ; the Hungarian diet appoint 
a provisional government under Kossuth and 
Louis Batthyany, 28 Sept. ; Hungarians defeat 

the ban of Croatia 29 Sept. ,, 

The diet denounces as traitors all who acknowledge 
the emperor of Austria as king of Hungary, 

8 Dec. „ 
The insurgents defeated by the Austrians at 
Szaikszo, 21 Dec. ; at Mohr by the ban Jellachich, 

29 Dec. ,, 
Buda-Pesth taken by Windischgratz . 5 Jan. 1849 
Bern defeats the Austrians at Hennannstadt, 

21 Jan. ,, 
Hungary declares itself a free state, Kossuth 

supreme governor .... 14 April, „ 
The Hungarians defeat the Imperialists before Gran, 

18 April, „ 
March of the Russian army through Gallicia to 

assist the Austrians 1 May, ,, 

The Austro-Russian troops defeat the Hungarians 

at Pered 20 June, „ 

Battles of Acs between the Hungarians and Aus- 
trians; former retire . . . . 2, 10 July, ,, 
Hungarians defeat Jellachich . . -14 July, ,, 
The Hungarians defeated by the Russians : Gorgey 

retreats after three days' battle . . j 5 July, ,, 
Battle before Komorn, between the insurgents and 

the Austro-Russian army . . . 16 July, „ 

Insurgents under Bern enter Moldavia, 23 July ; 

defeated by the Russians at Schassberg 31 July, ,, 
Utter defeat ot the Hungarian army before Temes- 

war, by gen. Haynau .... 10 Aug. ,, 
Gorgey and his army surrender to the Russians, 

13 Aug. „ 
Kossuth, Andrassy, Bern, &c. , escape to the Turkish 
frontiers, and are placed under protection at 
New Orsova (see Turkey) . . . 21 Aug. ,, 
Komorn surrenders to the Austrians ; close of the 

war. 27 Sept. „ 

Louis Batthyany tried at Pesth, and shot; many 

othei insurgent chiefs put to death at Arad 6 Oct. „ 
Amnesty granted to the Hungarian insurgents, who 

return home 16 Oct. ,, 

Bern di'-s at Aleppo .... 10 Dec. 1850 

Count Tuiins Andrassy, in exile, sentenced to death, 

astivit.or; announced . . . 23 Feb. 1851 
The country remains in an unsettled state; many 

executions 1853-5 

Crown of St. Stephen and royal insignia discovered 

and sent to Vienna .... 8 Sept. 1853 

Amnesty for political offenders of 1848-9 12 July, 1856 
The emperor and empress visit Buda . 4 May, 1857 
During the Italian war in 1859, an insurrection in 
Hungary was in contemplation, and communica- 
tions took place between Louis Napoleon and 

Kossuth; which circumstances it is said led the 
emperor of Austria to accede to the peace of Villa- 
franca so suddenly, and shortly afterwards to 
promise many reforms and to grant more liberty 
to the protestants in Hungary . Aug. -Oct. 1859 
Recall of archduke Albeit; general Benedek ap- 
pointed governor April, i860 



Demand for restoration of the old constitution ; re- 
union of the Banat and Voivodina with Hungary, 
Ac ' Oct. i860 

Restoration of old constitution promised 20 Oct. „ 

Schmerling appointed minister . . 13 Dec. ,, 

National conference at Gran . . . Dec. ,, 

Demand for the constitution of 1848 . Jan. 1861 

The emperor promulgates a new liberal constitu- 
tion for the empire 26 Feb. ,, 

Which does not satisfy the Hungarians March, ,, 

Hungarian diet opened .... 6 April, ,, 

Meeting of the Reichsrath at Vienna: no deputies 
present from Hungary or Croatia . 29 April, ,, 

Count Teleki (see Austria, i860) found dead in his 
bed at Pesth : intense excitement . 8 May, „ 

The diet votes an address to the emperor, desiring 
restoration of the old constitution . . 5 July, „ 

The military begin to levy the taxes . .July, ,, 

Imperial rescript refusing the entire independence 
of Hungary, 21 July: the diet protests, 20 Aug. ; 
and is dissolved . . . . 21 Aug. ,, 

The archbishop of Gran, the primate, indignantly 
protests against the act of the imperial govern- 
ment Sept. -Oct. „ 

Summoned to Vienna ; he stands firm . 25 Oct. ,, 

The magistrates in the comitat of Pesth resign; 
military government established; passive resist- 
ance of the nobility Dec. ,, 

Amnesty declared for political offences, and cessa- 
tion of prosecutions . . . .18 Nov. 1862 

Newspapers confiscated for publishing seditious 
speeches 29 March, 1863 

The emperor visits Buda-Pesth ; well received ; 
inauguration of a new policy ; the rights of Hun- 
gary to be restored .... 6-9 June, 1865 

Imperial rescript, abolishing the representative con- 
stitution of the empire, with the view of restoring 
independence of Hungary, &c. . . 21 Sept. ,, 

The Deak or moderate party demand restoration of 
the monarchy, with a responsible government, 

11 Nov. ,, 

The emperor visits Pesth ; the diet opened, 14 Dec. ; 
Carl Szentivanyi elected president . 20 Dec. ,, 

Emperor and empress arrive at Pesth . 29 Jan. 1866 

Hungarian legions join the Prussian army, June : 
(after the peace, they were allowed to return to 
their allegiance) Oct. ,, 

Prolonged political negotiations for autonomy ; 
Deak and national party wearied, threaten to 
break off . . .... Oct. „ 

Hungarian diet opened by a conciliatory rescript, 

19 Nov. ,, - 

Deck's address in reply, demanding the restoration 
of the constitution, adopted by the diet with a 
large majority 15 Dec ,, 

Much opposition to the convocation of the Reichs- 
rath Jan. 1867 

Restoration of the constitution of 1848 ; an inde- 
pendent ministry appointed, headed by count 
Julius Andrassy 17 Feb. ,, 

[Andrassy carries freedom of the press, removal of 
Jewish disabilities and promotes railways, &C, 
1867 et seq.] 

The Croats protest against incorporation with 
Hungary 25 May, ,, 

The emperor and empress crowned at Buda with 
the ancient ceremonies . . . . S June. 

Amnesty granted for all political offences 9 June, ,, 

The coronation gift to the emperor of 50,000 ducats 
bestowed on orphans and invalids . 10 June, 

Discussion between the Austrians and Hungarians 
respecting the division of the liability lor the 
national debt Aug.-Sept. 

A. financial convention signed by deputations, 

23 Sept. ,, 

Kossuth's letter to his constituents at Waitzen, 
censuring Deak and the moderate party . Oct. ,, 

Deak joined by Klapka and other liberals . Nov. ,, 

The " Nazarenes," a set resembling Quakers, be- 
come prominent Nov. ,, 

Bills for financial arrangement with Austria, and 
for Jewish emancipation, received royal assent, 

29 Dec. 
First trial by jury of pivss offences; (tine and im- 
prisonment inflicted for publishing a letter of 
Kossuth) 27 Feb. 1868 



HUNGAEY. 



621 



HUNGAEY. 



Kossuth (elected a member of the legislature) ■ 

resigns liy letter 14 April, 1868 

A Croatian deputation accepts union with Hungary, 

27 May, ,, 
Prince Napoleon Jerome's visit ; warmly received, 

June, ,, 
Dispute respecting the apportionment of the army 

settled 5 Dec. ,, 

The diet of 1865 closed with an address from the 

emperor 10 Dec. ,, 

Congress of Hungarian Jews opened ; Joseph Eotvos 

minister .14 Dec. „ 

Powerful counter-addresses from Andrassy and 

Kossuth published Jan. 1869 

Royal Hungarian guard organised . . 9 Feb. ,, 
Chamber of deputies meet ... 22 April, „ 
Remains of Louis Batthyany (executed and pri- 
vately buried, Oct. 1849), re-interred solemnly in 
the public cemetery, Pesth . . .9 June, 1870 
Count Andrassy promotes the neutrality of Austria 

in the Franco-German war . . . July, ,, 
Joseph Eotvos, author, patriot, and minister, died, 

deeply lamented, aged 58 . . .3 Feb. 1871 
Autumn military manceu vres, near Waitzen, 22 Sept. 

et seq. „ 
Andrassy succeeds count von Beust as foreign minis- 
ter at Vienna ; count Lonyay, Hungarian premier, 

14 Nov. ,, 
The diet, after sitting three years, dissolved, 

16 April, 1872 
Elections; increased majority of the Deak or con-, 

stitutional party, July ; diet opened 4 Sept. ,, 

Resignation of the count Lonyay ministry, 2 Dee. ; 

Szlavy forms a ministry .... Dec. ,, 
The Fiume railway partly opened . . 24 June, 1873 
Buda- Pesth formally constituted the capital, Nov. ,, 
Ministry resigns ; crisis ; Bitto forms a cabinet, 

20 March, 1874 

Parliament closes 14 Aug. ,, 

Ministry resigns, 11 Feb. ; coalition ministry under 

baron von Wenckheim formed, 26 Feb. — 1 March, 1875 
Elections ; greatly in favour of government July, ,, 
Koloman Tisza, chief of the ministry . 20 Oct. ,, 
Death of the constitutional patriot, Francis Deak, 

28 Jan., state funeral .... 3 Feb. 1876 
Ministerial crisis ; Tisza resigns ; remains in office 

Feb. 1877 
Projected raid into Roumania to favour the Turks 

checked; censured by Klapka . end of Sept. ,, 
Miskolcz nearly destroyed by a waterspout, 30 Aug. 1878 
Resignation of Szell, finance minister, 26 Sept. ; 

followed by that of the Tisza ministry . 4 Oct. ,, 
Tisza ministry retained modified . . 5 Dec. ,, 
Distressing inundation at Szegedin ; great loss of 
life and much property (see Inundations), 

12, 13, March, and 12 Dec. 1879 
Murder of lord chief justice George von Majlath 

von Szekhely, about .... 29 Mar. 1883 
Joseph Scharf and nine other Jews tried at Nyireghy- 
haza for alleged murder of a Christian maid, 
Esther Solymosi (on 1 April, 1882) . June, ., 

Acquitted 3 Aug. „ 

Violent anti-jewish riots Pesth, Zala, Egersseg, &c. 

July, Aug. ; martial law proclaimed 29-30 Aug. „ 
Three men convicted of the murder of the chief 

justice 6 Oct. „ 

Thirty -six Socialists arrested at Pesth ; many ex- 
pelled about 13 Mar. 1884 

Liberal majority in the elections, about 13 June, „ 
National exhibition at Buda-Pesth opened by the 

emperor 2 May ; closed .... 4 Nov. 1885 
Bi-centenary of the recapture of Buda from the 

Turks celebrated 2 Sept 1886 

Panic in the Franciscan church in Radna through 
ignition of the altar cloth ; 15 persons crushed to 

death 12 Sept. ,, 

M. Tisza declares for maintenance of the treaty of 

Berlin and Bulgarian independence . 30 Sept. ,, 
Increased army estimates voted . . 5 March, 1887 
Accident through explosion of dynamite at Jasz 

Bereny near Pesth ; 27 persons killed 5 July, ,, 
Bronze statue of Francis Deak unveiled by the 

emperor 29 Sept. ,, 

Great opposition to M. Tisza's army bill ; demon- 
stration in Buda-Pesth .... Feb. 1889 
The small town of Paks totally destroyed by fire 

20 July, ,, 



The army ordered to be styled "Imperial and Royal " 

by desire of the Hungarian ministry . 19 Oct. 18 
Count Julius Andrassy dies in Istria, 18 Feb. ; 
funeral service at Buda-Pesth ; the emperor and 
ministry present, 21 Feb. ; buried in family vault 

at Terebes 22 Feb. 18 

M. Tisza, the premier, an earnest liberal, resigns, 
through opposition of his colleagues, 7 March, 
succeeded by count Julius Szapary 13 March, , 
The town of Moar burnt, estimated damage 2,000,000 

florins ' . . 7 Aug. , 

Unveiling at Arad of the national monument of the 

13 generals executed 6 Oct. 1849 . . 6 Oct. , 
At Bistritz on the Waag, about 30 persons were 

drowned by the upsetting of a ferry-boat, 10 Nov. , 
Death of cardinal John Simor, archbishop of Gran, 
primate of Hungary, who crowned the king and 
queen in 1867, 23 Jan. ; succeeded by arch-abbot 

Claude Vaszara 1 Nov. 18 

Currency reform bills (gold to be the basis) intro- 
duced into the diet 14 May, 18 

Death of gen. Klapka, the hero of Komorn [buried 

at Buda-Pesth] . . . about 17 May, , 

The 25th anniversary of the coronation of the em- 
peror as king celebrated ... 8 June, , 
Destructive inundations near Komorn, &c, about 

15 June, , 
Celebration of the 90th birthday of L. Kossuth (see 
above, 1849) ; present to him of a sum of money, 

19 Sept. , 
The currency refonn bill passed, 19 July ; first new 

gold coin presented to the emperor . 19 Oct. , 
Resignation of count Szapary, 9 Nov. ; a new 

cabinet formed by Dr. Wekerle . 16 Nov. , 

Conference of the bishops, supported by the pope, 
opposing obligatory civil marriages, &c, as pro- 
posed by the government, 15 Dec. 1892 — 5 March, iE 
Disastrous floods in various parts through over- 
flowing of the Danube, reported . 28 Feb. , 
Riot at Szoboszlo, near Debreczin, against market 

tolls ; suppressed with bloodshed . 1 March, , 
The Ultramontane minority in the chamber active 
in opposition ; the government policy supported 
by the municipalities .... March, , 
Coolness between the government and the Vatican 

in relation to Italy . . . March — April, , 
Attempt on the life of cardinal Vaszary, the pri- 
mate, by a former servant ; the defending secre- 
tary seriously wounded . . .10 April, 
The author and publisher of the pamphlet 
"Replica," for attacking the government, fined 

and imprisoned 31 Aug. , 

A Pan-Roumanian agitation for a formation ot a 
Roumanian state denounced by the Hungarian 

minister 7 Oct. 

A royal ordinance, superseding the Austrian court 
functionaries by Hungarians at Budapest, issued 

26 Nov. , 
Jubilee of the literary career of Moritz Jokai, 

eminent writer ; 100 vols. ; born in 1825, 6-8 Jan. ii 
Banquet of Hungarians in London . 9 Jan. . 

"Louis Kossuth's Library," purchased by a com- 
mittee, to be kept intact in the national museum 

at Budapest March, 

Louis Kossuth born 16 Sept. 1802, in Monok, co. 

Zemplin ; died at Turin . . 20 March, 

Funeral service at Turin ; public demonstrations of 

respect 28 March, . 

Public funeral at Budapest, after lying-in-state ; 
immense concourse of people ; oration by M. 

Moritz Jokai 1 April, 

Trial of the Pan-Roumanian party (20 members) for 
illegality, 7 May ; sentenced to terms of imprison- 
ment, varying from 8 months to 5 years, 25 May, 
The civil marriage bill rejected by the magnates, 

10 May, 
Resignation of the Wekerle ministry, about 1 June ; 

re-constructed 10 June, 

The civil marriage bill passed by the magnates, 

21 June, 

Messrs. Wolfner & Co. J s tanning works burnt, at 

Neupest, near Budapest, with loss of life ; 

1,000,000 fl. damage . . . . 1 July, 

The magnates and lower house pass 3 bills granting 

freedom of religious worship, and recognizing the 

Jewish religion . . . „ . 29 Oct. 

Royal assent ..••■> 10 Dec. 



HUNGAKY. 



622 



HUNGAKY. 



M. Francis Kossuth takes the oath of allegiance to 
the king 26 Nov. 

Resignation of Dr. Wekerle's (liberal) ministry, 

21 Dec. 

Ministry formed by baron Banffy ; gazetted, 

16 Jan. 

The Ultramontane party styled the "people's 
party," issue a programme demanding reforms, 
preservation of the R. C. faith, free education, 
&c Jan. 

General opposition and rejection of the clause for 
the reception of the Jewish faith in the freedom 
■of worship bill due to the papal allocution, 
March ; operation of the law delayed, April ; the 
house again sends the bill unchanged to the 
magnates, 28 April ; the mutilated bill returned 
to the lower house .... 15 May, 

A protest respecting the conduct of the papal 
nuncio, Mgr. Agliardi, prepared by baron Banffy 
for transmission to Rome is delayed by count 
Kalnoky, 3 May ; the two ministers agree to the 
transmission of the remonstrance to the Vatican, 
S May ; resignation of count Kalnoky, 16 May ; 
differences with the Vatican amicably settled, May , 

Royal assent to the new ecclesiastical bills, 1 July, 

Special act of parliament in commemoration of the 
foundation of the monarchy, passed . 21 April, 

Millennial exhibition at Budapest, opened by the 
emperor-king; address by M. Daniel, minister 
of commerce, 2 May ; closed . . 3 Nov. 

Grand Te D'lim at the cathedral . . 3 May, 

Congratulations to the emperor-king from queen 
Victoria and the other powers . . . May, 

The Hungarian parliament occupies its new house, 
speech by the emperor-king . . .8 June, 

Fire, causing explosion at the town-hall, Fiinf- 
kirchen ; many persons killed . . 30 July, 

Parliament dissolved, with a cheerful speech ; re- 
ported 5 Oct. 

Elections, 28 Oct ; great liberal majority 30 Oct. 

Stephen von Papay, eminent statesman, court 
councillor, born 1827, died . . .6 Jan. 

■Conflict between the police and miners at Temesvar, 
q persons killed ; mines held by the troops ; re- 
ported 21 Jan- 
Election riots, at Bosnyaizi, 14 persons killed by 
the troops ; reported .... 23 May, 

Long conflict in the diet respecting the jury bill ; 
ended by compromise .... 30 July, 

M. Francis Pulszky, eminent patriot and scholar, 
friend of Kossuth, died, aged 83 . 9 Sept. 

German Emperor present at the army manoeuvres 
at Totis, 15 Sept. ; at Budapest . . 20 Sept. 

The erection of 10 historical monuments at Buda- 
pest, ordered by the emperor-king at his own 
cost ; much popular enthusiasm . 26 Sept. 

Bill for the provisional extension of the Avsglcich 
(customs and commercial treaty) with Austria, 
introduced by the diet, 21 Oct. ; great speech of 
count Albert Apponyi in favour of the bill, 17 
Dec. ; passed by the lower house, 4 Jan. 1898 ; 
passed by the diet 8 Jan. 

Discontent at recent special legislation ignoring 
the just claims of the peasantry . . Feb. 

Agrarian socialist rioting, in the Szabolcs district; 
2 deaths, 13 Feb. ; again 4 deaths . 31 March, 

Loyal address to the emperor king on the 50th anni- 
versary of the constitution of 1848 . 11 April, 

Conference respecting the Ausgleich . 24-30 Aug. 

Plot against the emperor, 3 men sentenced to 
various terms of imprisonment at Budapest, 30 
Sept. ; and 32 socialists likewise . 4 Nov. 

Increasing revolt, mainly agrarian, against clerical 
interference in secular affairs . . Nov. 

Stormy scenes in parliament respecting the re- 
moval ul' the Uentzi monument, some arrests, 

21, 23 Nov. 

Organised obstruction in the chamber; parliament 
prorogued, 10 Dec; see Austria, 31 Dec. 1S9S 
it seq. 

Great tumult in the chamber of deputies, 30 Dec. 
1898; prolonged crisis Ian. 

Duel between baron Banffy and M. Horansky, 

leader of the national party, neither hurt, 3 Jan. 

Riot in Arad district over the election of a judge, 

4 deaths mid. Jan. 



Banffy cabinet resigns; M. Koloman Szell forms a 

1894 i coalition ministry, 24 Feb. ; Ausgleich prolonged 

provisionally, 10 March; conference of pr miers 

respecting it at Budapest successful, due to the 

emperor, 9 May; bills embodying the Ausgleich 

jg Q - compromise passed by the reichsrath, 14 June ; 

reichsrath prorogued ... 12 July, 1899 

The llentzi memorial inaugurated on its new site 
at Budapest, the archduke Joseph present, 

12 Aug. „ 
M. Szilagyi, eminent statesman, died 31 July 1901 

Parliament dissolved, 9 Sept. ; elections . 2 Oct. ,, 
Diet opened by the emperor-king . . 28 Oct. ,, 
Agrarian riot at Also-Idecs, 10 deaths, many 

wounded, reported .... 19 Jan. 1902 
M. Koloman Tisza, eminent statesman, born 10 Dec. 

1830, died 23 March, ,, 

Centenary of Louis Kossuth, patriot 19 Sept. ,, 

British arts and crafts exhibition in Budapest, 

opened 28 Sept. ,, 

Count Apponyi, pres. of the reichstag, issues a mani- 
festo against the nationality agitation, 3 Nov. ,, 
The Ausgleich renewed on revised terms, 31 Dec. ,, 
Parliament opened, Jan. 9 ; army bills opposed, 

17 Feb. 1903 ! 
Demonstration against the bills, Budapest, 7 Mar. ; 

deadlock continues .... April, May, ,, 

Popular excitement among peasants in Croatia ; 
demand for financial separation for Hungary ; 
count Hedervary, the Banus of Croatia, restores 
order with troops 12 May, ,, 

Violent disturbances between soldiers and peasantry 
in Agram ; incidents provocative of discord be- 
tween Austria and Italy occur at Innsbruck and 
Trieste 20 May, ,, 

Renewed disturbances at Agram . 31 May-i June, ,, 

Resignation of the Szell ministry . . 16 June, ., 

Violent earthquake at Erlau, causes much damage 

26 June ,, 

Count Stephen Tirza failing to construct a cabinet, 
count Khuen Hedervary forms a new ministry, 
with himself as premier and minister of the in- 
terior 28 June, ,, 

Count Pejacsevich appointed Banus of Croatia in 
succession to count Hedervary . . mid July, ,, 

Continued disorder in Croatia, 2 dynamite explo- 
sions in Agram, reported ... 14 July, ,, 

Strained relations between Hungary and Austria on 
the subject of the sugar allotment system, 

about 30 July, ,, 

Resignation of count Hedervary and cabinet, 

10 Aug. ,, 

Croatian riots at Zapresic in connection with the 
celebration of the emperor's 73rd birthday, 3 
persons killed and many wounded by gendarmes, 

18 Aug. ,. 
Count Hedervary formally reinstated as premier ; 

an order of the day, issued by the emperor, 
declaring that he will hold fast to the existing 
common and military organisation of the army, 
and never relinquish his rights and privileges as 
its head ; hostile attitude of the Hungarian and 
the Magyar press ; manifesto of conciliation to 
the Hungarian nation issued by the emperor ami 
countersigned by count Hedervary ; it is favour- 
ably received by the liberal party . mid Sept. ,, 
Resignation of count Hedervary, 30 Sept. ; new 
cabinet formed by count Stephen Tisza 26 Oct. ,, 

SOVEREIGNS. 

997. St. Stephen, duke of Hungary (son of Geisa) ; es- 
tablished the Roman catholic religion (1000), 
and received from the pope the title of Apostolic 
King, still borne by the emperor of Austria, as 
king of Hungary. 

1038. refer, the German ; deposed. 

1041. Aba or Owen. 

1044. Peter, again : deposed ; and his eyes put out. 

1047. Andrew I.: deposed. 

1061. Bela I. : killed by the fall of a ruinous tower. 

1064. Salamon, son of Andrew. 

1075. Geisa I. son of Bela. 

1077. Ladislas I. the Pious. 

1005. Colonian, son of Geisa. 

1 1 14. Stephen II. named Thunder. 

1131. Bela If: had his eyes put out. 
1 141. Geisa ll.: succeeded by his son, 

1161. Stephen 111.: and Stephen IV. (anarchy) 



HUNGERFORD BRIDGE. 



62;j 



HUSTINGS. 



I 1 173. Belalll. : succeeded by his son, 

1 196. Emeric: succeeded by his son, 

E204. Ladislas II. ; reigned six months only. 

1205. Andrew II. son of Bela III. 

1235. Bela IV. 

1270. Stephen IV. (or V.) his son. 

1272. Ladislas III. : killed. 

1290. Andrew III. surnamed the Venetian, son-in-law of 
Rodolph of Hapsbnrg, emperor of Germany (last 
of the house of Arpad), died 1301. 

1301. Wenceslas of Bohemia, and (1305) Otho of Bavaria, 
who gave way to 

1309. Charobert, or Charles Robert of Anjon. 

1342. Louis I. the Great; elected king of Poland, 1370. 

1382. Mary, called King Mary, daughter of Louis. 

1385-6. Charles Durazzo. 

1387. Mary and her consort Sigismond: the latter be- 
came king of Bohemia, and was elected emperor 
in 1410. 

1392. Sigismond alone (on the death of Mary). 

1437. Albert, dukeof Austria, married Elizabeth, daughter 
of Sigismond, and obtains the thrones of Hun- 
gary, Bohemia, and Germany ; dies suddenly. 

1439. Elizabeth alone : she marries 

1440. Ladislas IV. king of Poland, of which kingdom he 

was Ladislas VI. : slain at Varna. 

1444. [Interregnum.] 

1445. John Hunniades, regent. 

1458. Ladislas V. posthumous son of Albert: poisoned. 
,, Matthias-Corvinus, son of Hunniades. 

1490. Ladislas VI. king of Bohemia: the emperor Maxi- 
milian laid claim to both kingdoms. 

1516. Louis II. of Hungary (I. of Bohemia) : loses his 
life at the battle of Mohatz. 

John Zapolski, waivode of Transylvania, elected 
by the Hungarians, and supported by the sul- 
tan Solymau ; by treaty with Ferdinand, he 

1526. ■( founds the principality of Transylvania, 
1536. 
Ferdinand I. king of Bohemia, brother to the 
emperor Charles V. ; rival kings. 

1540. Ferdinand alone : elected emperor, 1558. 

1563. Maximilian, son ; emperor in 1564. 

1572. Rodolph, son ; emperor in 1576. 

1608. Matthias II. brother; emperor in 1612. 

1618. Ferdinand II. cousin, emperor. 

1625. Ferdinand III. son; emperor, 1637. 

1647. Ferdinand IV. son ; died in 1654, three years before 
his father. 

1655. Leopold I. brother: emperor, 1657. 

1687. Joseph I. son: emperor in 1705. 

1 712. Charles VI. (of Germany), brother, and nominal 
king of Spain. 

E741. Maria-Theresa, daughter; empress; survived her 
consort, emperor Francis I., from 1765 until 
1780; see Germany. 

E780. Joseph II. son, emperor in 1765: succeeded to 
Hungary on the death of his mother. 

1790. Leopold II. brother; emperor; succeeded by his 
son, 

1792. Francis I. son (Francis II. as emperor of Ger- 
many): in 1804 he became emperor of Austria 
only. 

^835. Ferdinand V. son: Ferdinand I. as emperor of 
Austria. 

1848. Francis-Joseph, emperor of Austria, nephew ; suc- 
ceeded on the abdication of his uncle, 2 Dec. 
1848 ; crowned king of Hungary, 8 June, 1867. 
See Austria. 

Principal Hun'oaria'S' Authors. — Alexander Kisfa- 
ludy, p., 1772-1844 ; Charles Kisialud'y, d., 1788-1830 ; 
Sandor Petofi, p., 1823-49; Voi'osmarty, p., 1800-55; 
Janos Arany, p., 1817-82 ; Baron Nicholas Josika, ;/.., 
1794-65 ; Baron Joseph Eotvos, n., 1813-71 ; Maurice 
Jokai, ii., born 1825 ; Alex. S^ilagyi, /its.'., 1828-99. 

HUNGERFORD BRIDGE, over the 
Thames from Hungerford-stairs to the Belvedere- 
i'oad, Lambeth, opened 1 May, 1845, was taken 
•down in July, 1862, to make way for the Charing- 
cross railway-bridge, and transferred to Clifton 
(ivhich see): The market (opened in July, 1833), 
■was removed at the same time. 

HUNS, a race of warlike Asiatics, said to have 
conquered China, about 210 B.C., and to have been 



expelled therefrom about a.d. 90. They invaded 
Hungary, about 376, and drove out the Goths. 
Marching westward, under Attila, they were tho- 
roughly beaten at Chalons by the consul Ae'tius, 
451 ; see Attila. 

HUNTERIAN ORATION, annually at the 
Eoyal College of Surgeons, London, founded 1813. 

HUNTERIAN SOCIETY (surgical) esta- 
blished Feb. 1819 ; first president, sir Wm. Blizard. 

See Surgeons, College of. 

HUNTING- an ancient pastime. The " Bokys 
of Hawking and Huntyng," by Dame Julvaha 
Barnes, was printed at St. Alba'n's, 1486. "The 
Kings of the Hurting Field," by Thormanby, 
published 1899. 

HUNTINGDON, Huntingdonshire ; a Saxon 
town ; a royal castle was erected here by Edward 
the Elder, 917 , the town was incorporated in 1189. 
Oliver Cromwell, the protector, was born here 
25 April, 1599 ; his statue unveiled at St. Ives, 
23 Oct. 1901. Population, 1881, 4,228; 1891, 
4,349; 1,901,4,346. 

HUNTINGDON CONNECTION, see 

Whitejiddites. 

HURRICANES, see Cyclones and Storms. 

HUSSARS, Hungarian militia, provided by 
the landholders; instituted by Matthias Corvinus, 
about 1359. (Hussar is derived from husz, 20 ; and 
ar, price ) The British Hussars were enrolled in 
U59- 

HUSSITES. After the death of IIuss,* many 
of his followers took up arms, in 1419, and formed a 
political party under John Ziska, and built the 
city of Tabor. He defeated the emperor Sigismond, 
II July, 1420, and a short truce followed. Ziska, 
blinded at the siege of Rabi, beat all the armies 
sent against him. He died of the plague, 18 Oct. 
1424, and is said to have ordered a drum to be made 
of his skin to terrify his enemies even after death. 
Two Hussite generals, named Procopius, defeated 
the imperialists in 143 1 ; and a temporary peace 
ensued. Divisions took place anions the Hussites, 
and on 30 May, 1434, they were defeated, and Pro- 
copius the elder slain at Boinischbrod or Lippau. 
Toleration was granted by the treaty of Iglau, and 
Sigismond entered Prague 23 Aug. 1436. The Hus- 
sites opposed his successor, Albert of Austria, and 
called Casimir of Poland to the throne ; but wore 
defeated in 1438. A portion of the Hussites existed 
in the time of Luther, and were called "Bohemian 
brethren." 

HUSTINGS (said to be derived from house 
court, an assembly among the Anglo-Saxons), an 
ancient court of London, being its supreme court of 
judicature, as the court of common council is of 
legislature. The court of hmtyngs was granted to 
the city of London, to be holden and kept weekly, 

* The clergy having instigated the pope to issue a brill 
against heretics, John Huss (born in Bohemia in 1373), a 
zealous preacher of the Reformation, was cited to appear 
before a council of divines at Constance, the emperor 
Sigismond sending him a safe-conduct. He presented 
himself accordingly, but was thrown into prison, and 
after some mouths' confinement was adjudged to be 
burned alive, which he endured witli resignation, 6 or 7 
July, 1415. Jerome of Prague, his intimate friend, who 
came to this council to support and second him, also 
suffered death by fire, 30 May, 1416, although he also had 
a safe-conduct. 



HUTCHINSONIANS. 



624 



HYDE-PARK. 



by Edward the Confessor. 1052. One was held to out- 
law defaulters, Guildhall, London, 6 Dec. 1870 ; 
others in 1882 and 7 July, 1896. Above 4,000 wills 
are on the roll of the court, commencing with the 
43rd year of king Henry III. Winchester, Lincoln, 
York, &c, were also granted hustings courts. 

HUTCHINSONIANS included many emi- 
nent clergy, who did not form any sect, but held 
the opinions of John Hutchinson, of Yorkshire 
(1674-1737) ; they rejected the Newtonian system, 
and contended that the scriptures contain a complete 
system of natural philosophy. His work, u Moses' 
Principia," was published in 1724. He derived all 
things from the air, whence, he said, proceeded fire, 
light, and spirit, types of the Trinity. In 17 12 he 
invented a time-piece for finding the longitude. He. 
died in 1737. 

HUXLEY MEMORIAL. Great meeting 
of general committee at Jermyn street, London. 
Kesolved that a statue by Mr. Onslow Ford be set 
up in the Natural History Museum, S. Kensington, 
medals, &c, 27 Nov. 1895. 

First Huxley lecture in London by prof. Michael Foster' 
5 Oct. 1896 ; 2nd by prof. Rudolf Virchow, 3 Oct- 
1898 ; 3rd by prof. Cunningham, F.R.S., 21 Oct. 1902- 
His "Scientific Memoirs," vol. i., edited by profs- 
M. Foster and E. Ray Lankester, published Oct- 
1898; his "Life," by his son Leonard Huxley, pub- 
lished 1900. 

HYDASPES, a river in India, where Alex- 
ander the Great defeated Porus, after a severely 
contested engagement; 327 B.C. 

HYDE-PARK (London, W., 352 acres), the 
ancient manor of Hyde, belonging to the abbey 
of "Westminster, became crown property at the 
dissolution, 1535. It was sold by parliament in 
1652 ; but was resumed by the king at the re- 
storation in 1660. The Serpentine was formed 
1730-33. "Hyde Park," by John Ashton, published 
1896. 

Colossal statue of Achilles, cast from cannon taken 
in the battles of Salamanca, Vittoria, Toulouse, 
and Waterloo, and inscribed to "Arthur, Duke of 
Wellington, and his brave companions in arms, by 
their countrywomen," erected on . .18 June, 1822 
Hyde Park corner entrance erected . . . . 1828 
Marble arch from Buckingham Palace set up at 

Cumberland Gate .... 29 March, 1850 
Crystal palace erected for the great exhibition. . 1851 
Disturbances in consequence of a Sunday bill hav- 
ing been brought before parliament by lord Robert 
Grosvenor, which was eventually withdrawn, 

Sundays, 24 June, and 1 and 8 July, 1855 
Riotous meetings held here, on account of the high 

price of bread . . Sundays 14, 21, 28 Oct. ,, 
Democratic meetings on the reform question, March, 1859 
The queen reviewed 18,450 volunteers . 23 June, i860 
Great meeting of admirers of Garibaldi, 28 Sept. ; who 
are violently attacked by the Irish ; many persons 

wounded 5 Oct. 1862 

Public meetings in the park prohibited . 9 Oct. „ 
20,000 volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales, 

28 May, 1864 
Proposed reform meeting in the park opposed ; 
great rioting ; the palings broken down, and much 
damage done ; fierce conflicts with the police, and 

many hurt 23, 24 July, 1S66 

See Times Le idei , 4 .lime, 1898. 
Peaceful reform demonstrations in the park, 

6 May and 5 Aug. 1867 
Regulations with restrictions on public meeting in 

the parks issued (afterwards modified) . Oct. 1872 
Meeting (if Fenian sympathisers in Hyde park con- 
trary I." the regulations .... 3 Nov. „ 
Odger and others prosecuted and fined . . Nov. ,, 
The convictions confirmed i>y the .judges on appeal 

22 Jan. 1873 



Great meeting on behalf of the Tichborne claimant, 
Dr. Kenealy and Mr. Guildford Onslow present, 

Easter Monday, 29 March, 1875 
Great meetings for and against government policy 
on the eastern question 

Sundays 24 Feb. and 10 March, 1878 
Great orderly meeting to protest against arrest of 
Irish agitators (Kirien, Daly, and Davitt) 

30 Nov. 1879 
About 40,000 persons meet to protest against 
arrest of Mr. Parnell and others ; Mr. O'Donnell 
chief speaker ; little sympathy . 23 Oct. 1881 

Mass meeting to support the London government 

bill 13 July, 1884 

Great demonstration ; seven meetings of trade dele- 
gates, political clubs, &c, about 40,000, to pro- 
test against the peers' rejection of the franchise 
bill and to support the Gladstone Ministry 

21 July, „ 
Demonstration for abolition of house of lords ; nine 

meetings, Sunday 26 Oct. ,, 

Great meeting of the social democratic federation, 

Sunday 21 Feb. 1886 

Great demonstration against the Irish coercion 

bill 11 April, 1887 

Jubilee entertainment of about 30,000 children of 

elementary schools, see Jubilee . . 22 June „ 
Meeting of the unemployed ; dispersed by the 
police after a fight, 18-19 Oct. 1887 ; orderly 
meetings . . 23 Oct., and 15, 20, 27 Nov. ,, 

Orderly demonstration to meet the released Irish 
M.P.'s, Mr. T. D. Sullivan and Mr. E. Harrington, 

13 Feb. 1888 
Demonstration against proposed compensation to 
publicans dispossessed by local government bill, 

2 June, ,, 
Meetings to protest against the treatment of Mr. 
W. O'Brien, M.P., and others in prison (see 

Ireland) ; 10 Feb. 1889 

See Strikes, 1889. 
Meeting of Postmen's union . . . 20 Oct. ,, 
Demonstrations in relation to the proposed bakers' 

strike and the Silverton strike . . 10 Nov. ,, 
Great meeting of men employed on railways 

15 Dec. ,, 
Meeting of trades unions to support the gas-stokers' 

union 19 Jan. 1890 

"Labour Day " demonstrations, see Working-men 

1, 4 May, „ 
Greatmeetingof railway workers and others, 11 May, ,, 
Demonstration against government proposal to 
compensate publicans and others for loss of 

drink licences 7 June, ,, 

' Labour Day " demonstrations, orderly ; foreign 
anarchists, 1 May ; building trade unions, 2 May ; 
combined trades unions, in favour of an eight 
hours working day; present, Mr. Cunninghame 
Graham, M.P., Messrs. John Burns, Ben Tillet, 
Tom Mann, and Dr. Aveling . . 3 May, 1891 
Mass meeting to supportthe omnibus strike, 7 June, ,, 
Great demonstration of the building trades in 

favour of an eight hours' day . . 27 Sept. ,, 
Great meeting of the Salvation Army to welcome 
gen. Booth on his return from his long tour in 
Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australia . 13 Feb. 1892 
Mass meeting of London anarchists . 10 April, ,, 
Mass meeting of members of the National Union of 

Clerks 24 April ,, 

" Labour Day ; " great orderly meeting to support 
and promote an international 8 hours working 

day 1 May, ,, 

Labour demonstration for eight hours day, 7 May, 1893 
Irish home rule demonstration . . 21 May, ,, 
Demonstration in favour of the direct veto bill ; sir 

Wilfrid La wson present . ■ . . 10 June, ,, 
Labour demonstration for the fund for the collier 

strikers 15 Oct. ,, 

Demonstration in favour of an eight hours' working 
day ; John Burns, M.P., present, 6 May, 1894, and 

5 May, 1895 
Cab strike demonstrations . . 20, 27 May, 1894 
International peace demonstration and socialist 
congress, etc.; proceedings stopped by a thun- 
derstorm 26 July, 1S96 

Iti'iiinnstration in favour of Cretans and sym- 
pathy with Greece .... 7 March, 1897 
Farriers (London) strike for increase of wages; 
demonstrations, 16, 23 May. see Horse. . 1 ,, 



HYDERABAD. 



625 



HYDEOPATHY. 



May-day demonstrations, 1897, 1898, 1899. 

Memorial service to Mr. Gladstone, large assemblage 

5 June, 1897 

Labour demonstration in favour of a national old- 
age pension scheme and the better housing of 
the working classes .... 20 Aug. 1899 

Demonstration in favour of and in sympathy with 
capt. and madame Dreyfus . . . 16 Sept. ,, 

Demonstration in sympathy with gen. Buller, "the 
saviour of Natal " 1 Dec. 1901 

National democratic league convenes a meeting 
against the corn duty . . . 11 May, 1902 

Demonstration, protesting against recent House of 
Lords' decisions in trade union cases, demanding 
a bill for protection against legal persecution, &c. , 

31 Aug. ,, 

Demonstration of reserve and time-expired men to 
protest against their treatment by the War Office, 

ig Oct. , , 

Demonstration against the London Education Bill, 

23 May, 1903 

HYDERABAD (S. India), the territory of the 
Nizam (the greatest niahometan potentate in 
India), who derives his authority from Azof Jah, 
a chief under Aurungzebe, who made him viceroy as 
Nizam-ool-Moolk, regulator of the state. He died 
in 1748. Pop. 1881,9,845,594; 1891,11,537,000; 
1901, 11,141,142; city and suburbs, 448,460. 

Civil war between his descendants ensues . 1748-65 

Nizam Ali dethroned his brother, 1761 ; ravaged 
the Carnatic, 1765 ; made a treaty with the East 
India Company, 1766 ; he joined Hyder Ali ; left 
him, 1768; acquired part of Tippoo Sultan's terri- 
tories ; and became feudatory of the British 
empire, 1799 et scq. ; died 1802 

One of his successors, Secunder Jah, ruled feebly ; 
died, succeeded by an illegitimate son . . 1829 

The nizam died, leaving his young son in charge 
of Salar Jung (or Jang) ; enjoining him to sup- 
port the British during the mutiny, which he 
did faithfully 1857-8 

Sir Salar Jung made K. C.S.I. ; visits Europe ; pre- 
sented to the Queen, 29 June ; returned to Bom- 
bay, 24 Aug. 1876 ; died .... 8 Feb. 18S3 

The young nizam Mir Mahbub Ali (aged 18) 
installed at Hyderabad by the viceroy of India, 
the marquis of Ripon .... 5 Feb. 1884 

The nizam in a letter to lord Dufferin, the viceroy, 
makes an offer to present 20 lakhs of rupees 
for three years, total 6oo,ooo(., for the defence of 
the N.W. Indian territories, Sept. ; acknowledged 
with thanks by the viceroy, annomiced 10 Oct. ; 
and by the queen, about 26 Oct. 1887 ; the offer 
with others declined (see India) . 18 Nov. 1888 

The long-standing disputes between the Nizam's 
government and the Deccan company, settled on 
terms approved by the India office, signed at 

Hyderabad 2 Jan. 1890 

See Chloroform, 1889-90. 

For the "imperial diamond " case, see Trials, Deo. 1891. 

Visit of the viceroy, lord Lansdowne, 3 Nov. et serj. 1892 

HYDRAULIC PRESS, see under Hydro- 
statics. 

HYDROCHLORIC ACID or Chlorhyd- 
RIC ACID, the only known compound of chlorine 
and hydrogen, was discovered by Dr. Priestley, 1772 ; 
its constitution determined by Davy, 1810. It is 
also called muriatic acid and spirit of salt ; see 
under Alkalies. 

HYDROGEN" (from hydor, water). Paracelsus 
observed a gas rise from a solution of iron in oil of 
vitriol, about 1 500; Turquet de Mayeme discovered 
its inflammability, 1656 ; as did Boyle, 1672 ; Le- 
mery noticed its detonating power, 1700. In 1766 
Cavendish proved it to be an elementary body; and 
in 1781, he and Watt first showed that in the com- 
bination of this gas with oxygen, which takes place 
when it is burnt, water is produced ; subsequently 



Lavoisier decomposed water into its elements, and 
gave hydrogen its present name instead of "inflam- 
mable air." One volume of oxygen combines with 
two volumes of hydrogen to form water. Hydrogen 
is never found in the free state. 

In 1877, Cailletet and Wroblewski obtained by rapid 
expansion of the compressed gas, a condensation or 
mist, which was supposed to be produced by the 
liquefaction of hydrogen. Olszewski had seen a few 
drops of an unknown liquid falling in a glass tube and 
remainingfor a few instants unevaporated, subsequently 
proved to be due to impurities. Prof. Dewar's paper 
on "The Density of Hydrogen in Palladium," was 
published in 1873 ; "The Absorption of Hydrogen by 
Palladium at high temperatures, pressures, etc.," was 
published in 1897. On 10 May, 1S98, at the Royal 
Institution, he produced half a wine-glassful of lique- 
fied hydrogen at 240 deg. centigrade (below zero) in 
5 min.. and on the 12th he doubled the quantity. On 
the 12th he reported it to the Royal Society, and on 
the 1 6th to the French Academy. By means of this 
liquid he also, on the 10th, liquefied a mixture of 
helium and other gas or gases. 

Lecture on liquid hydrogen at the Royal Institution, 
20 Jan. 1899 ; further researches ; boiling point by 
exhaustion, 15° of absolute temperature ; liquid hy- 
drogen exhibited boiling in a vacuum tube immersed 
in liquid air, 21° absolute temperature ; and experi- 
ments with liquid hydrogen and the vitality of seeds ; 
see Athenaeum, 16 Dec. 1899; hydrogen obtained in 
the solid state by prof Dewar, 16° absolute scale, 
reported, Jan. 1900. 

HYDROGENTUM, a hypothetical metal. 
In a paper read before the Royal Society, 7 Jan. 
1869, Mr. Thomas Graham, master of the Mint, 
suggested that a piece of the metal palladium, into 
which hydrogen had been pressed, became an " alloy 
of the volatile metal hydrogenium." 

HYDROGRAPH, an apparatus invented by 
capt. Neale, for transmitting sound by water, for 
the purpose of signalling between ships, lighthouses, 
&c. ; it consists of a transmitter, a receiver, and 
electric recorder ; experiments were made on the 
Solent under the auspices of the Trinity Board. — ■ 
Times, 19 Oct. 1893. 

HYDROGRAPHY is the description of the 
surface waters of the earth. The first sea-chart is 
attributed to Henry the Navigator, in the 16th cen- 
tury. There is a hydrographic department in the 
British admiralty, by which a series of charts has 
been issued. International Hydrographic and 
Biological congress meets at Stockholm, 15 June, 
1899. See China, May, 1903. 

HYDROMETER, the instrument by which 
is pleasured the gravity, density, and other pro- 
perties of liquids. The oldest mention of the 
hydrometer occurs in ihe 5th century, and may be 
found in the letters of Synesius to Hypatia ; but it 
is not improbable that Archimedes was the inventor 
of it, though no proof's of it are to be found. Beck- 
mann. Archimedes was killed in 212 B.C., and 
Hypatia was torn to pieces at Alexandria, a.d. 415. 
" Hypatia," by the rev. Charles Kingsley, appeared 
in 1853. Robert Boyle described a hydrometer in 
1675 : Baume's (1762) and Sykes', about 1818, have 
been much employed. Modifications of the appar- 
atus have been invented. 

HYDROPATHY, a term applied to the treat- 
ment of diseases by cold water, practiced by Hippo- 
crates in the 4th century B.C., by the Arabs in the 
loth century a.d., and revived by Dr. Currie in 
1797. A system was suggested in 1825 by Vincenz 
Priessnitz, of Grafenberg, in Austrian Silesia. The 
rational part of the doctrine was understood and 

s 



HYDEOPHOBIA. 



626 



HYPOSCOPE. 



maintained by Dr. Sydenham, before 1689. Priess- 
nitz died 26 Nov. 1851. 

A grand hydropathic establishment at Bushey. Herts, 
opened, 13 Feb. 1883. Many others exist throughout 
the kingdom. 

HYDROPHOBIA, in man, rabies in animals, 
M. Pasteur announced his discovery of a method of 
checking this disease, analogous to vaccination, the 
system afterwards applied to various diseases. 

He operates on monkeys and other animals suc- 
cessfully, May, on dogs, Aug. 1884 ; on 40 persons 
14 Dec. 1885. An international hospital, after- 
wards termed the Pasteur institute, founded 
(4o,oooLsubscribed)May,i886; opened by president 
Carnot, 14 Nov. 1888. Out of 726 cases treated, 4 
deaths reported 12 April, 1886 ; 1673 persons 
treated, 1 May, 1888, to 1 May, 1889. The prin- 
ciple much opposed 1886-7. A British commis- 
sion for inquiry (sir James Paget, Dr. Burdon 
Sanderson, and others) appointed 12 April, 1886 ; 
visits Paris, and reports confidence in M. Pas- 
teur's treatment, 27 June, 1887. M. Pasteur pro- 
poses and verifies other applications of his prin- 
ciples, 1887-8. The book, "M. Pasteur, Histoire 
d'un Savant," was published in 1883 ; and an 
Buglish translation by lady Claud Hamilton in . 1885 

Reported number of patients by M. Pasteur (he died 
28 Sept. 1895) since 1885, 6,950, to 28 June, 1889 ; 
1,830 patients, 7 deaths in 1889; 1,520 patients, 
5 deaths, in 1895 ; 1,308 patients, 4deaths in 1896 ; 
1,521 patients, 6 deaths in 1897 > I >6 1 4 patients, 
4 deaths in 1899 ; 1,321 patients, 8 deaths in 1901 ; 
1,105 patients, 2 deaths in I 9° 2 

The 8th institute in Prance opened at Lyons, 1 Jan. 
1900 ; many in other countries ; one at Kasauli, 
India, opened 1900, reported very successful, 

9 Aug- » 

50,000 rupees and 10,000 rupees from sir Chas. 
Rivas to the Indian Pasteur institute at Kasauli ; 
also Drumbar house from the Punjaub govern- 
ment, and other grants, reported . . Sept. ,, 

Meeting at the mansion house, London, to support 
the Pasteur institute, 1 July ; above 2,oool. sub- 
scribed, 2 Oct. 1889 ; Mdme. Hirsch presents 
2,000,000 francs, Jan. 1897 (died 2 April, 1899). 

Rabies stamped out by isolation and quarantine of 
dogs from abroad. Preventive measures, 1895 
et seq. Hydrophobia microbe discovered by prof. 

Sormani Jan. 1903 

See Mansion House Funds. 

HYDROPHONE, an electrical, telephonic 
apparatus for coast defence by secret communication 
between ships and the shore, of the approach of a 
torpedo-boat, invented by capt. M'Evoy; an- 
nounced, Nov. 1892. 

HYDROSTATICS, &c, were probably first 
studied in the Alexandrian school about 300 B.C. 

Pressure of fluids discovered by Archimedes, 

about b. c. 250 
The forcing pump and air fountain invented by Hero 

about 120 
Water mills were known . . . about a. d. r 
The science revived by Galileo, Castellio, Torricelli, 
and Pascal (who suggested the principle of the 
hydraulic press) .... 17th century 
The theory of rivers scientifically understood in '. 1697 
The correct theory of fluids and oscillation of waves 

explained by Newton 1714 

A scientific form was given to hydro-dynamics, by 

Bernouilli 1738 

Joseph Bramah's hydrostatic or hydraulic press pa- 
tented first in 1785 

Sir Win. Armstrong's hydraulic crane patented . 1846 

John Crowther's 1825 

Dr. Eniil Fleischer's Hydromotor successfully ap- 
plied to the propulsion of ships on the Elbe, 
near Dresden 11 Oct. 1883 

HYGEIOPOLIS (city of health), planned by 



Dr. B. "Ward Richardson, in 1875. A company was 
proposed for its erection, Jan. 1877. No result. 

HYGIENE (Hygeia, goddess of health), see 

'Sanitation. 

International congresses on Hygiene and Demo- 
graphy : i. # Brussels, 27 Sept. 1876; 2. Paris, 1 
Aug. 1878 ; 3. Turin, Aug. 1880 ; 4. Geneva, 4 
Sept. 1882 ; 5. Hague, 21 Aug. 1884 ; 6. Vienna, 
26 Sept. 1887 ; 7. London, the queen patron, the 
prince of Wales president, 10-17 Aug. 1891 ; 
8. Budapest, 2 Sept. 1894 ; 9. Paris, 27 June, 
1895 ; Madrid, 10 April, 1898 ; 10 Aug. 1900 ; 
Brussels 2 Sept. 1903 

HYGROMETER, an instrument for measur- 
ing the moisture in the atmosphere. That by 
Saussure (who died in 1799) is most employed. It 
consists of a human hair boiled in caustic lye, and 
acts on the principle of absorption. Brande. 
Daniell's hygrometer (1820) is much esteemed. M. 
Crova's new hygrometer, said to be very accurate, 
described, June, 1882. 

HYKSOS, a race, probably of Tatar origin, 
who overthrew the dynasty of lower Egypt, cap- 
tured Memphis, and made Avaris (Tanis) the seat 
of their kingdom. Joseph i-> supposed to have been 
vizier to Apepi, one of the Hyksos, or "Shepherd 
Kings," as thev are also called. They were over- 
thrown by Aahmes I. of the 18th dynasty, eir. 
1700 b.c. See Egypt. XV. Dynasty, et seq. 

HYMNS- The song of Moses is the most an- 
cient, 1491 B.C. (Exod. xv.) The Psalms date 
from about 1060 B.C. to about 444 B.C. (from David 
to Ezra) . The hymns of the Jews were frequently 
accompanied by instrumental music. Paul (a.d. 
64) speaks of Christians admonishing one another 
" in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs" {Col. 
iii. 16.) The composition of hymns for the 
Christian church is verv ancient. The hvmns 
of Dr. Watts (died 1784), of John Wesley "(died 
1791), and of his brother Charles (died 1788), 
are used by English churchmen and dissenters. 
"Hymns, Ancient and Modem," edited by rev. sir 
Henry Baker, first appeared in i860. "A Dic- 
tionary of Hymnology," edited by the rev. John 
Julian, D.D., was published Jan. 1892. 

HYPNOTISM (Greek hijpnos, sleep) or ner- 
vous sleep, terms given by Mr. Braid (in 1843) to a 
sleep-like condition, produced in a person by steadily 
fixing his mind on one particular object. Minor 
surgical operations have, it is said, been performed 
without pain on persons in this state. The lecture 
by R. Heidenhain, at Breslau 19 Jan. 1880, on 
"Hypnotism or Animal Magnetism" was trans- 
lated by L. C. Wooldridge; and published in 1888. 
See also " Suggestive Therapeutics," by Bernhtim, 
translated by Herter, 1889 ; Bjomstrom, on Hypno- 
tism, 1889, and " Psycho - therapeutics," by 
Tuckey, 1891. See Mesmerism — Trials (Addenda) 
1898. 

"The use of hypnotical suggestion" (the entire 
concentration of the mind on one subject caused 
by the suggestion of another person) in medical 
practice, has been advocated by Bernheim, 
Beaunis and other foreign physicians, Oct. 1889 ; 
but strongly opposed by other eminent physi- 
ologists, especially Du Bois Reymond . Oct. 1890 

The first meeting of the International Congress on 
Hypnotism took place at Paris, Aug. 1889 ; 2nd, 

12-16 Aug. 1900 

Prof. Germane's experiments were exhibited at the 
Aquarium, Westminster .... Nov. 1891 

HYPOSCOPE, an instrument for aiming 
guns under cover, by moans of mirrors, invented 
by Mr. W. Youltcn ;' tried at Bisley, July, 1902. 



HYPOTHEC. 



627 



HYTHE. 



HYPOTHEC, LAW OF, in Scotland gives 
landlords a preferential right to levy for rent and 
follow and seize crops and cattle. A bill for its 
abolition was brought in annually since 1874. One 
was read a second time 19 March, 1879, but did not 
pass till 24 March, 1880 (43 Vict. c. 12) ; which 
came into operation 11 Nov. 188 1. 

HYPSOMETEK, a thermometrical barometer 
for measuring altitudes, invented by F. J. Wol- 
laston in 1817, much improved by Regnault, about 
1847. 



HYECANIA, Asia, near the Caspian, a pro- 
vince subject to Persia, I3.c. 334; held by Par- 
thians, 244. It is now Mazenderan, a Persian 
province. 

HYTHE, Kent, a cinque-port. The haven has 
been choked up with sand since the end of the 
1 6th century. A school of musketry was established 
here in 1854, under the charge of major-gen. 
Charles Crawford Hay. He resigned in 1867. 
Railway to Sandgate opened, 9 Oct. 1874. Popula- 
tion, 1881,4,173; l89l,4,3Si; I90l,5,557- 



s s 2 



IAMBIC VERSE. 



628 



ICONOCLASTS. 



I. 



IAMBIC VEBSE, mythically named from 
the poetical effusions of Iambe, an attendant of 
Metanira, wife of Celeus, king of Sparta. Archi- 
lochus is said to have been the first who wrote 
satirical iambic verses B.C. 700. 

IBERIA, see Georgia, and Spain. 

IBERUS, a river in N.E. Spain, now called 
Ebro, which see. It was very important during the 
second Punic war, 218 — 201 B.C. 

ICE. Galileo observed ice to be lighter than 
water, about 1597. See Congelation, where is a 
notice of the ice-making machines of Harrison and 
of Siebe. In 1841 there were sixteen companies in 
Boston, U.S., engaged in exporting ice, brought 
from Wenham lake and Fresh and Spy Ponds, 
about 18 miles from that city. The trade was begun 
by Mr. Tudor in 1806. 156,540 tons were sent 
from Boston alone in 1854. In New York, in 1855, 
305, 000 tons were stored up, of which 20,000 were for 
exportation. The Wenham lake company import ice 
largely from their ponds near Christiania, Norway, 
from whence 43,359 tons were shipped to Great 
Britain in 1865. 

Begelation and other properties, exhibited by professor 
Faraday, in 1850, became the subject of investigation 
by eminent physicists of the day, especially J. D. Forbes, 
Dr. Tyndall, and sir William Thomson. 

" ley night " or " silver thaw " in London, 22 Jan. 1867. 
After a severe frost came rain freezing as it fell. Many 
accidents occurred in consequence of the glassy pave- 
ments and roads. 

Powerful boat icebreakers employed in the Baltic and 
Russian ports ; reported, 1897 ; one built by Messrs. 
Armstrong & Co., launched on the Tyne, 29 Oct. 
1898 ; and another, the Yermak, used successfully 
in the Finnish Gulf, March-April, 1899. 

ICELAND (North Sea), discovered by Norwe- 
gian chiefs, about 861 ; according to some accounts, 
it had been previously visited by a Scandinavian 
pirate. Population, 1888, 69,224 ; 1898, about 
76,237. 

Colonised by Norwegians 874 

Christianity introduced .... about 1000 
The annual general assembly was termed Althing : 
there were four great schools, like universities, 
founded in the nth century ; and education was 

general 

The great warrior, statesman, and poet, Snorri Stur- 

luson, was murdered . . . .22 Sept. 1241 
Had a republican government, and a flourishing 
literature, till it was subjected to Hakon, king of 

Norway 1264 

Protestantism introduced about .... 1551 
Thousands perished by famine through failure of 

the crops 1753-4 

Cleasby's great Icelandic-English Dictionary, pub- 
lished in England 1869-73 

A new constitution signed by the king, 5 Jan., 
came into operation 1 Aug., when king Christian 
of Denmark visited Iceland, and the thousandth 
anniversary of the colonisation was celebrated at 
the capital, Reykjavik .... 1 Aug. 1874 
Iceland has suffered much by volcanic eruptions, 
especially in 1783; and on 29 March, 1875, whole 
districts (if pasture land were devastated. 
A reported severe famine (see Mansivn House funds). 

Summer, 18S2 
Relief was given by prof. Magnusson to many 

sufferers Oct. ,, 

A large emigration of Icelanders to west Canada. 
187.: et seq>. 



Agitation for home-rule ; resisted by Denmark, 
Nov. 1885 ; demanded by the diet . July-Aug. 1886 

Death of Dr. Vigfusson, great Icelandic scholar, 

Feb. 1889. 

Exhibition of Icelandic handicraft at Kensington 

_May, ,, 

Mr. Frederick W. W. Howell ascended the Onefa 
Jokull (about 6,550 feet) . . .17 Aug. 189B 

See Eddas and Hecla. 

Helgi Halfdanorson, the Icelandic poet, born 
18 Aug. 1826; dies at Reykjavik . . Jan. 1894 

The hot springs, Geysir and Strokkur, bought by 
Mr. James Craig, of Belfast . . . May, „ 

Destructive earthquake : churches, farms, etc., 
destroyed 26, 27 Aug. 1896' 

Fresh shocks in the south-west, 3 deaths, 5, 6 Sept. ,, 

Coal discovered at Nordfjord, on the east coast, 

April, 19011 

Boating disaster near 'Westman islands, 27 deaths, 

21 May, ,, 

Constitutional (by which an independent and re- 
sponsible minister shall reside in Reykjavik) and 
other bills adopted ; session closed . 26 Aug. 1902 

The Althing accepts the bill of the Danish govern- 
ment amending the constitution of the island, 
reported mid Aug. 1903 

ICENI, a British tribe which inhabited chiefly 
Suffolk and Norfolk. In 61, while Suetonius Pau- 
linus was reducing Mona (Anglesey) they marched 
southwards and destroyed Verulam, London, and 
other places, with great slaughter of the Romans ; 
but were defeated by Suetonius near London, and 
their heroic queen Boadicea or Boudicca died or 
committed suicide. 

" ICH DIEN," I serve, the motto under the 
plume of ostrich feathers found in the helmet of 
the king of Bohemia slain at the battle of Cressy, at 
which he served as a volunteer in the French army, 
26 Aug. 1346. Edward the Black Prince, in respect 
to his father, Edward III., who commanded that 
day, though the prince won the battle, adopted the 
motto, which has since been borne with the feathers, 
by the heirs to the crown of England. 

ICHNOLOGY, the science of footprints, treats 
of the impression made in mud or sand by the 
animals of former ages. Dr. Duncan discovered the 
footprints of a tortoise in the sandstone of Annan- 
dale, in 1828 ; since then numerous discoveries 
have been made by Owen, Lyell, Huxley, and 
others. 

ICHTHYOLOGY, the science of fish. 
Eminent authors are Aristotle (384 — 322 B.C.), 
Willoughby, Ray, Valenciennes, Cuvier, Owen, 
Agassiz. &c. Yarrell's " British Fishes" (1836-59) 
is a classical work ; sec Fish. 

ICONIUM (Syria). Here Paul and Barnabas 
preached, 38. Soliman the Seljuk founded a king- 
dom here m 1074, which lasted till 1307, when it 
was conquered by the Turks. It had been subdued 
by the Crusaders in 1097 an ^ II 9° ! see Fonieh. 

ICONOCLASTS (image-breakers). The con- 
troversy respecting images (which had been intro- 
duced into churches for popular instruction about 
300) was begun about 726, and occasioned much 
disturbance and loss of life in the Eastern Empire. 
Leo Isauricus published two edicts for demolishing 
images in churches in that year, and enforced them 
with great rigour ill 736. The defenders of images 



IDAHO. 



629 



ILLYEIA. 



were again persecuted in 752 and 761, when Con- 
stantine forbade his subjects becoming monks. The 
worship of images was restored by Irene in 780. 
This schism was the occasion of the second council 
«of Nice, 787. Theophilus banished all the painters 
and statuaries from the Eastern Empire, 832. The 
Iconoclasts were finally excommunicated at the 
8th general council at Constantinople, 869-870. 
This controversy led to the separation of the Greek 
and Latin churches. Many images in churches 
were destroyed in Scotland and the Netherlands in 
the 16th century, and in England during the 
(Reformation and the civil war, 164 1 -8. 

IDAHO, a northern "territory" of the United 
States of North America, was organised in 1863 ; 
as a state, 1890. Capital Boisee. Conflicts among 
the miners at Cceur d'Alene; 4 non-union men 
killed, 1 1 July ; union men victors, state of rebel- 
lion declared ; several soldiers and unionists killed ; 
martial law; railway bridges blown up to stop 
troops coming, 14, 15 July ; insurrection suppressed 
by president Harrison's proclamation, 15-18 July, 
1892. Great fire at Wardner ; hundreds homeless, 
21 April, 1893. Population in 1880, 32,610; 1890, 
8 4>385; 1900, 161,772. 

IDEALISM, see Philosophy No. of "Nature," 
29 Sept. 1898. 

IDENTISCOPE, an optical apparatus for 
combining two photograph portraits into one, sold 
in 1884. See Composite Portraits. 

IDES (Latin Idus), were eight days in the 
Roman and church calendar, following the Nones. 
They were reckoned backward. In March, May, 
July, and October, the 8th Idus was on the 8th of 
the month, the 7th on the 9th, &c, the first, or Ide, 
being the 15th. In the other months the 8th Ide fell 
on the 6th, and the first on the 13th. On the Idus 
of March (the 15th) 44 B.C., Julius Caesar was as- 
sassinated. 

IDIOTS. About 1855 there were in England, 
■exclusive of lunatics, pauper idiots, or idiots pro- 
tected in national institutions, males, 3372 ; females, 
3893; total, 7265 ; see Lunacy. The Idiot Asylum 
at Earlswood, near Reigate, Surrey, began in 1847 ; 
was chartei-ed, 1862 ; additional buildings were 
founded by the prince of Wales, 28 June, 1869. 
The foundation of the Imbecile Asylum, Caterham, 
was Lad by Dr. Brewer, M.P., 17 April, 1869. 
Idiots Act passed, 1886. 

IDOLS. Images are mentioned in Gen. xxxi. 
19, 30, 1739 B.C. The Jews frequently deserted the 
worship of God for idols till their captivity, 588 B.C. 
Edict of Theodosius for the suppression of idolatry, 
392. Idolatry was revived in Britain by the Saxons 
about 473, but it gave way in Britain, after the 
coming of Augustin, about 597. See Iconoclasts, 
Week. 

IDSTEDT (N. Germany). Here the insurgent 
army of Holstein and Schleswig, commanded by 
Willisen, was defeated by the Danes, 25 July, 1850. 

IDUMiEA, the country of the Edomites, the 

descendants of Esau, the brother of Jacob : see Gen. 

xxxvi., Josh. xxiv. 4. 

The Edomites prevent the Israelites from passing 
through their country B.C. 1453 

They are subjugated by David 1040 

They revolt against Ahaziah, 892 ; and are severely 
defeated by Amaziah . . ... . . 827 

They join the Chaldeans against Judah, and are 
anathematised in Psalm cxxxvii. . . about 570 

John Hyreanus, the Maccabee, subjugates and en- 
deavours to incorporate them with the Jews . . 125 



Herod the Great, son of Antipater an Idumsean, 
king of Judaea 40 

IEBNE, see Ireland. 

IGLAU, see Hussites. 

ILBEET BILL, see India, 1883. 

ILDEFONSO, ST., Spain. Here was signed a 
treaty between France and Spain, 19 Aug. 1796; 
and another by which France regained Louisiana, 
1 Oct. 1800. 

ILIUM (Asia Minor), see Troy. 

ILLINOIS, a western state of North America, 
was settled by the French in 1 749 ; acquired by 
the British, 1763 ; made a territory, 1809 ; and ad- 
mitted into the Union as a state, 3 Dec. 1818. 
Capital, Springfield. Population, 1880, 3,077,871; 
1890, 3,826,351 ; 1900, 4,821,550. See Railway 
Accidents, 11 Aug. 1887. 

By flooding of a coal mine 75 men drowned 16 Feb. 1883 

Convent and school at Belleville burnt, about 
27 young persons perish . . .5-6 Jan. 1884 

Cyclone ; two churches and other buildings de- 
stroyed at Redbud . . . . 17 Nov. 1892 

Great fire at Keillor's flour mills at Litchfield, 
estimated loss, 1,000,000 dollars . 21 March, 1893 

Riotous strike at Lauiont, in the drainage works ; 
checked by police and military . . 9 June, ,, 

Shawneetown destroyed by a flood, 100 deaths 

3 April, 1898 

Fatal strike, riot at Virden, troops sent, 12 Oct. ,, 

Sudden death of ex-governor Altgeld at Joliet, 
at end of a violent anti-British speech, 

12 March, 1902 

ILLUMINATED BOOKS. The practice 
of adopting ornaments, drawings, and emblematical 
figures, and even portraits, to enrich MSS., is of 
great antiquity. Varro wrote the lives of 700 
illustrious Romans, which he embellished with 
their portraits, about 70 B.C. Plin. Nat. Hist. 
Some beautiful missals and other works were 
printed in the 15th and 16th centuries et seq., and 
fine imitations have lately appeared. 

ILLUMINATI, heretics who sprang up in 
Spain, where they were called Alombrados, about 
1575. After their suppression in Spain, they ap- 
peared in France. One of their leaders was friar 
Anthony Buchet. They professed to obtain grace 
and perfection by their sublime manner of prayer. 
A secret society bearing this name, opposed to 
tyranny and priestcraft, was founded at Ingoldstadt, 
Bavaria, by Dr. Adam Weishaupt, in May, 1776, 
and was suppressed in 1784-5. 

ILLUSTEATED LONDON NEWS, the 

earliest publication of the kind, established by Mr. 
Herbert Ingram, M.P., first appeared on 14 May, 
1842. Jubilee number published, 14 May, 1892 ; 
Coronation number issued, 7 June, 1902. 

He purchased the Illustrated Times, first published 
9 June, 1855, and incorporated it with the Penny 
Illustrated Paper, established by the Ingrain 
family ; first number 12 Oct. 1861 

Mr. Ingram and his eldest son were accidentally 
drowned in the Lady Elgin in Lake Michigan, 

(see Wrecks) 8 Sept. i860 

Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News, begun . 1874 

Enqlish Illustrated Magazine begun by Macmillan 

Oct. 1883 

Illustrated Scientific News, monthly, begun . Oct. 1902 

ILLYBIA (now Dalmatia, Croatia, and Bosnia), 
after several wars (from 230 B.C.) was made a 
Roman province, 167 B.C. In 1809 Napoleon I. 
gave the name of Illyrian provinces to Carniola, 
Dalmatia, and other provinces, then part of the 
French empire, now Carinthia, Carniola, &c. 



ILMENIUM. 



630 



IMPERIAL INSTITUTE. 



. ILMENIUM, a metal of the tantalum group, 
discovered by R. Herrmann, about 1847, but re- 
jected by chemists; its claims were reasserted by 
lum in 1867. 

IMAGE WORSHIP, see Iconoclasts. 

"IMITATION OF JESUS CHRIST" 
(De Imitatione Christi). The author of this devo- 
tional work is unknown. It has been attributed to 
an abbot Gersen (whose very existence is doubtful) ; 
to Jean Gerson, the celebrated chancellor of Paris, 
who died in 1429 ; and to Thomas a Kempis, said 
to have been merely a compiler and editor, who died 
25 July, 147 1. 

IMMACULATE CONCEPTION, see Con- 

ception. 

IMMIGRATION into the United Kingdom 
first estimated in the Emigration Eeport for 187c 
In 1870, 49,157 ; in 1874, 118,129 5 in 1877, 81,848 ; 
1879, 53,973 5 1881, 77,105; 188 
123,466; 1885, 113,549; 1886, 
1J 9,oi3 (33,538 foreigners); 188; 

1890, i55>9io; 1891, 

1893, 141,054; 1894, 

1896, 159,913; 1897, 

1899, 162,111; 1900, 



100,503 ; 1 
108,879 ; 1 
1 128,879; 

151,369; 

i%,799 : 

i55,H4; 
175,747 



1889, 
1892, 

isqI: 



1902, 170,874. See also Emigration. 



1901, 



147,398 
143,747 
175,074 
139,340 
165,018 

IMMORTALS (Greek, athanatoi), the flower 
of the Persian army, limited to 10,000 in number, 
and recruited from the nobility alone, about 500 
B.C. The name was also given to the body-guard of 
the emperors at Constantinople in the 4th and 5th 
centuries. 

IMPEACHMENT. The first impeachment 
by the commons house of parliament, and the first 
of a lord chancellor, Michael de la Pole, earl of 
Suffolk, was in 1386. By statute 12 & 13 Will. 
& Mary, 1700, it was enacted that no pardon under 
the great seal shall be pleaded to an impeachment 
by the commons in parliament. 

Impeachment of Warren Hastings, 13 Feb. 1788 to zk 
April, 1795 ; acquittal. 

Impeachment of lord Melville, 9 April ; acquittal 12 
June, 1806. 

Inquiry into the charges of colonel Wardle against the 
duke of York, 27 Jan. to 20 March, 1809 ; acquittal 

Trial of Caroline, queen of George IV., by bill of pains 
and penalties, before the house of lords, commenced 
16 Aug. ; Mr. Brougham entered on her majesty's de- 
fence, 3 Oct. ; and the last debate on the bill took place 
10 Nov. 1820 ; see Queen Caroline. 

Impeachment of the president ; see United States, 1868. 

IMPERIAL CHAMBER, see Aulic Council. 

IMPERIAL DEFENCE : an act for de- 
fraying the expenses of carrying into effect an 
agreement for naval defence with the Australasian 
colonies, and providing for the defence of certain 
ports and coaling stations, and for making further 
provision for imperial defence, passed 13 Aug 
1888. Changes made by the Finance Act of July 
1894. See Colonies. J ' 

IMPERIAL FEDERATION of Great Bri- 
tain and her colonies (for defence, &c), the principle 
was affirmed, and a provisional committee of an 
association constituted at a great meeting of emi- 
nent politicians of all parties, and representatives 
of the colonies, held at Westminster Palace hotel 
Mr. "W. E. Forstcr, M.P. in the chair, 29 July'; 
a league constituted 18 Nov. 1884. The electric tele- 
irraph has now brought the colonies into closer com- 
munication than Exeternnd Newcastle were formerly. 



In 1885 many of the colonies offered military assist- 
ance in the Soudan, and gave assistance, 1899- 
1902, during the war in S. Africa. 

Conference at the Colonial and Indian Exhibition, 
London ; earl Eosebery, president, 1 July, 1886 ; 
rt. hon. Edward Stanhope, Sept. 1892. The report of 
sir RawsonRawson discloses great difficulties through 
opposing tariffs, March, 1888. 

Fourth annual meeting of the League held in London 23 
May, 1889 ; meeting at the Mansion House 15 Nov. 
1889 ; meeting at Edinburgh 12 Feb. ; at People's 
Palace, E. London, duke of Cambridge in the chair, 
28 April, 1890 ; at Westminster, 18 June, 1891. 

Funds much wanted ; reported July, 1893 ; the league, 
having become defunct, was succeeded by the British 
empire league (which see), and by the Imperial federa- 
tion (defence) committee, about 1893. 

Queen's proclamation of the Commonwealth of 
Australia as from 1 Jan. 1901 ; issued . 18 Sept. 1900 

Commonwealth inaugurated at Sydney by lord 
Hopetoun, who reads a message from the queen, 

1 Jan. 1901 

First parliament of the Commonwealth opened by 
the duke of Cornwall and York at Melbourne, 

9 May, ,, 
See Australia. 

Conferences held between colonial premiers and 
Mr. Chamberlain at colonial office, various points 
agreed upon for the strengthening and defence of 
the empire .... June, July, Aug. 1902 

IMPERIAL GUARD of France, was created 
by Napoleon from the guard of the convention, the 
directory, and the consulate, when he became 
emperor in 1804. It consisted at first of 9775 men, 
but was afterwards enlarged. It was subdivided in 
1809 into the old and young guard. In Jan 1814, 
it numbered 102,706. It was dissolved by 
Louis XVIII. in 1815 ; revived by Napoleon III. in 
1854. It surrendered with Metz to the Germans 
27 Oct. 1870; and was abolished by government 
soon after. It took part in the Crimean war in 1855. 

IMPERIAL INSTITUTE of the Colo- 
nies AND INDIA, to represent arts, manufac- 
tures, and commerce : established as a memorial of 
the queen's jubilee, proposed by the prince of 
Wales in a letter to the lord mayor of London, it. 
Sept. 1886. 

Preliminary meeting at the Mansion House, 27 Sept. 
prince of Wales's committee meet 10 Nov. 1886. 
sir Frederick Abel (died 6 Sept. 1902), organizing 
secretary Nov. 1886 

Issue of report recommending the constitution of 
the Institute at South Kensington, consisting of 
two sections ; I. to illustrate the commercial and 
natural resources of the Colonies and India ; II. 
the condition of the natural products and manu- 
factures of the United Kingdom ; with suitable 
accompaniments .... 23-24 Dec. „ 

Meetings at St. James's Palace and Mansion House 

12 Jan. 1887 

Sir F. Abel expounded the objects of the Institute 
at the Royal Institution with the approbation of 
the prince of Wales, who was in the chair 22 April, „ 
25,000/. awarded to the Institute out of the sur- 
plus of the Colonial Exhibition of 1886, 30 April, ,, 

Architect. Mr. 'I'. E. Colcutt ; contractors, John 
Mowlem and Co. 

Munificent donations from Indian princes; the 
maharajah of Jodhpore gave 10,000/. June, 1887 ; 
nialiarajah Holkar of hulore, 100,000 rupees, Feb. 

1889 ; the maharajah of Jeypore, 20,000/. Nov. 

1890 ; the Indian government grant 1,000/. annu- 
ally for the museum . . beginning Nov. 1891 

Foundation stone laid by the queen (ode by Mr. 
Lewis Morris, music by sir Arthur Sullivan, 

sung; addresses) 4 July, 1887 

20,000/. received from Canada . . 24 Aug. ,, 
Amount received or definitely promised, 400,000/. 

Oct. „ 



IMPEEIAL INSTITUTE. 



631 



IMPOSTORS. 



Receipt of 310,000?. exclusive of the Indian eontri- 
1 . button, reported . . . ■ .2 July, 

See Oriental studies, 1890. 
The premiers of the Australasian colonies, announce 
their hearty co-operation in the work of the Insti- 
tute, June, 1890; the constitution of the Imperial 
Institute, published in the London Gazette, 28 
April, 1 891 ; the prince of Wales nominated first 
president ; governing body 18 governors, 12 nomi- 
nated by the queen, 6 by the president, and 8 
ex-officio officers, abp. of Canterbury, lord chan- 
cellor, and others. First meeting of the per- 
manent governing body, Lord Herschell (died 
1 March, 1899) elected chairman, and the execu- 
tive council constituted . . .23 July, 

The Institute was partly opened to the Fellows and 
public 22 June, 

Imperial institute year-book published . summer, 

First annual meeting; the prince of Wales in the 
chair ; above 3,500 members, reported . 26 Nov. 

A peal of 10 bells, the " Alexandra," set up in the 
" Queen's " tower ; ordered by Elizabeth Millar, 
an aged Australian lady, to be made by Messrs. 
John Taylor & Co., of Loughborough, as a gift to 
the prince of Wales, reported 19 Oct. 1892 ; first 
rung 10 May, 

London jubilee fund (5,700?.) transferred to the 
institute May, 

The institute was inaugurated by the queen. 

After an address to the queen from the executive 
body, read by the prince of Wales, describing 
the objects of the institute, the queen in her 
reply declared the institute to be now open, 
and concluded with an earnest prayer " that it 
may never cease to flourish as a lasting emblem 
of the unity and loyalty of her empire." The 
ceremony was closed by a benediction from the 
archbishop of Canterbury. 

The royal procession proceeded from Buckingham 
palace to the institute, both sides of the route 
being lined by military and a vast concourse of 
people of all ranks. Among the military en- 
gaged during the day were contingents from 
Canada, Australia and India. 

The beautiful key used by the queen in opening 
the institute was composed of gold and other 
metals brought from the colonies, and was 
made by Messrs. Chubb . . .10 May, 

Grand reception by the prince of Wales, of the royal 
family, the ministry, eminent officials, foreign 
princes, and others ; about 20,000 persons, 

17 May, 

The institute opened to the public, under regula- 
tions 18 May et seq. 

Lectures on the relations between the United King- 
dom and her colonies ; opening address by Mr. 
W. H. Lecky 20 Nov. 

Donation of i,oooZ. from the Goldsmiths company, 

Apiil, 

Imperial Institute Journal; monthly ; No. 1 . Jan. 

International railway congress ; opened by the 
prince of Wales 26 June, 

International geographical congress ; opened by the 
duke of York 26 July, 

Scientific department completed, reported . Oct. 

Yachting and fisheries exhibition opened by the 
prince and princess of Wales . . 17 May, 

"Dominion-day" celebrated at the institute, an 
" at home " by sir Donald Smith . 1 July 

Exhibition of the City and Guilds institute (by 
candidates at the examinations) opened by the 
duke of Devonshire .... 9 June, 

Ecclesiastical art exhibition opened . . 7 Oct. 

English education exhibition opened by the prince 
of Wales (about 180 delegates) . . 5 Jan. 

Exhibition of gifts, &c, to the prince and princess 
of Wales on their colonial tour, opened, 15 May, 

Lord Northbrook receives princes . . 24 June, 

Imperial institute (placed under the Board of 
Trade) act, royal assent ... 22 July, 

Prof. Wyndham Dunston appointed director, Jan. 

Prince of Wales visits Exhibition of Irish minerals 
and building stones .... 27 Feb. 



1897 



1900 
1902 



IMPEEIAL PARLIAMENT, see Commons, 
Lords, Parliament, and Reform. 

IMPERIAL SERVICE ORLV.R, The, 
instituted by the king 26 June, 1902, as a decora- 
tion for members of the Imperial Civil Service, and 
conferred for long and meritorious service. The 
order consists of the sovereign, the prince of Wales, 
and companions appointed by the sovereign. It is 
limited to members of the administrative or clerical 
branches of the service, the number of which must 
not exceed 425, the home civil service 250, the 
civil services of the colonies and protectorates 175- 
Appointments are made on the recommendation of 
the secretary of state or for "eminently meri- 
torious service.'' 

IMPERIAL WAR FUND, The, was 

founded in 1882. 

IMPERIALISM. The term introduced by 
lord Beaconsfield in 1878, to signify that which 
related to the welfare of the British empire asa 
whole, in contradistinction to that of Great Britain 
itself or any other separate part of the empire. 

IMPI, or Imbizo, see Mashonaland. 

IMPORTS of Merchandise. . The vast 

progressive increase of our commercial intercourse 
with other countries is shown by our imports and 
exports {which see) : — 

VALUE OF IMPORTS INTO GREAT BRITAIN, FROM ALL. 
PARTS OF THE WORLD. 

In 1710 . . £4,753.777 I ]1 l8 7 6 • £375>i54>7°3- 

1750 . . 7,289,582 1877 . . 394,419,682- 

1775 . . 14,815,855 1878 . . 368,770,742 

1800 . . 30,570,605 1879 • • 362,991,875 

1810 . . 41,136,135 1880 . . 411,229,565 

1820 . . 36,514,564 1881 . . 397,022,489 • 

1830 . . 46,245,241 1882 . . 413,019,608 

1840 . . 62,004,000 1883 . . 426,891,579 

1845 . . 85,281,958 1884 . . 390,018,569 

1850 . . 95,252,084 1885 . . 370,967,955 

1851 . . 103,579,582 1886 . . 349,863,472 

1856 . . 172,544,154 1887 . . 362,227,564 

1857 • ■ 187,844,441 1888 . . 387.635.743 
1859 . . 179,182,355 1889 . . 4 2 7> 6 37,595 
1861 . ■ . 217,485,024 1890 . . 420,691,997 

1864 . . 274,952,172 1891 . . 435,441,264 

1865 . . 271,072,285 1892 . . 423,793,882 

1866 . . 295,290,274 1893 . . 404,688,178 

1867 . . 275,183,137 1894 . . 408,344,81a 

1868 . . 294,693,608 1895 . . 416,689,658. 

1869 . . 295,460,214 1896 . . 441,808,904.. 

1870 . . 3o3.257.493 l8 97 . . 451,238,683.. 

1871 . . 331,015,480 1901 . . 521,990,198 
1875 • • 373.939.577 J 9° 2 ■ • 797>ooo,ooo. 

From foreign countries. Exports to. 

1871 1875 1877 J 1877 

£258,071,062 £289,515,606 £304,865,684 I £176,593,870 • 
From British possessions. 
£72,944,418 84,423,971 89,553,998 I 75,752,150 

IMPOSTORS. The following are among the 

most extraordinary : — 

Aldebert, a Gaul, in 743, pretended he had a letter from 
the Redeemer, which fell from heaven at Jerusalem ; 
he seduced multitudes to follow him into woods and 
forests, and to live in imitation of John the Baptist, 
He was condemned by a council at Rome in 745. 

Gonzalvo Martin, a Spaniard, pretended to be the angel 
Michael in 1359: he was burnt by the inquisition in 
Spain in 1360. 

George David, son of a waterman at Ghent, styled him-, 
self the son of God, sent into the world to adopt 
children worthy of heaven : he denied the resurrection, 
preached in favour of a community of women, and 
taught that the body only could be defiled by sin ; he 
had many followers ; died at Basle, 1556, promising to 
rise again in three years. 



IMPOSTOES. 



632 



INCOME TAX. 



Otrefief, a monk, pretended to be Demetrius the son of 
Ivan, czar of Muscovy, whom the usurper Boris had 
put to death ; he maintained that another child had 
been substituted in his place : he was supported by- 
Poland ; his success led the Russians to invite him to 
the throne, and deliver into his hands, Feodor, the 
reigning czar, and all his family : his imposition dis- 
covered he was assassinated in his palace, 1606. 

Sabbata Levi, a Jew of Smyrna, amused the Jews and 
Turks a long time at Constantinople and other places, 
by personating our Saviour, 1666. 

Joseph Smith, see Mormonites. 

Apparition of our Lady of Salette ; the imposture ex- 
posed and several persons prosecuted, April, 1846. 
The superstition revived and flourishing, Aug. 1872. 

Pilgrimage of about 20,000 persons to Lourdes, in the 
Pyrenees, on account of alleged miracles (the virgin 
was said to have appeared to two girls, n Feb. 1858), 
6 Oct. 1872 ; see France. 

Insurrection of the Mahdi, see Soudan 1881 et seq. 

An adventurer, who named himself " Comte Blanco," 
and "prince Louis Marie Cesar of Bourbon, grandson 
of Ferdinand VII. of Spain," was recognised at Paris 
in 1869 by queen Isabella and others. Detected by a 
photographer as his son-in-law. Supported by a rich 
English widow. Kept a small court at Jurangon near 
Pau, as a king. Deposed and expelled by the police, 
he went to Holland and England, and died in London. 

John Smith Piggott, leader of the Agapemone 
(which see), claimed to be the Messiah; riotous 
scenes at Clapton Sept. 1902 

Dr. Dowie, head of the Zionists (ivMch see), pro- 
fesses to be the " Second Elijah," see Zion liesto- 
ration Host, conducts campaign in New York, 

Oct. 1903 
[See Abstinence and Sugar.'] 

IN BRITISH HISTORY. 

A mp.n pretending to be the Messiah, and a woman as- 
suming to be the Virgin Mary, were burnt, 1222. 

Jack Cade assumed the name of Mortimer ; see Cade, 1450. 

In 1487, Lambert Simnel, tutored by Richard Simon, a 
priest, supported by the duke of Burgundy, personated 
the earl of Warwick. Sinmel's army was defeated by 
Henry VII. , and he was made a scuilion in the king's 
kitchen. 

For Warbeck's imposture in 1492, see Warbeck. 

Elizabeth Barton, styled the Holy Maid of Kent, spirited 
up to hinder the Reformation by pretending to inspira- 
tions from heaven, foretelling that the king would 
have an early and violent death if he divorced Cathe- 
rine of Spain and married Anne Boleyn. She and 
her confederates were executed at Tyburn, 21 April, 1534. 

In 1553 (first year of Mary's reign, after her marriage with 
Philip of Spain), Elizabeth Croft, a girl 18 years of age, 
was secreted in a wall, and with a whistle made for the 
purpose, uttered many seditious speeches against the 
queen and the prince, and also against the mass and 
confession, for which she did penance. 

William Hacket, a fanatic, personated our Saviour, and 
was executed for blasphemy, "1591. 

Valentine Greatrix, an Irish impostor, who pretended to 
cure nil diseases by stroking the patient : his imposture 
deceived the credulous, and occasioned very warm dis- 
putes in Ireland and England about 1666. ' Bnvle and 
Flamsteed believed in him. 

Dr. Titus Oates, see Oates. 

Robert Young, a prisoner in Newgate, forged the hands 
of the earls of Marlborough, Salisbury, and other 
nobility, to a pretended association for restoring king 
James: the lords were imprisoned, but the imposture 
being detected, Young was fined 1000/., and put in the 
pillory, 1692. lb' was afterwards hanged for coining. 

Three French refugees pretend to be prophets, and raise 
tumults ; convicted as impostors, Nov. 1707. 

Mary Tofts of Godalming, bypretending she bred rabbits 
within her, so imposed upon many persons (among 

others, Mr. St. Andre, snrg to the king), that they 

espoused her cause, 1726. 

The Cock lane ghost impostures by William Parsons, his 
wife, and daughter, [762 : See Cock-lane Ghost. 

Johanna Southcote, who proclaimed her conception of 
the Messiah, and had a multitude 01' followers ■ she 
died 27 Dec. 1814. 

W. Thorn, see TllOmites. 

Louis XVII., see I-'runre, list of sovereigns. 



IMPRESSIONISTES, a name given to 
artists who aim at producing rapid unstudied 
effects independent of the canons of art, such, as 
Manet, Duez, and others in France. In England 
Mr. Whistler exhibited such pictures in 1877, ^ n " 
eluding moonlight scenes, &c, painted in two days, 
showing great sense of colour. For Mr. Buskin's 
criticisms see Trials, 1878. The Impressionistes 
are also characterized as illustrators of their own 
times by pure art ; MM. Manet, Durand, Ruel, 
Degas, and Renoir, are French examples; they 
exhibited in London in June, 1882 and since, 
especially in April, 1889. 

IMPRESSMENT of Seamen, affirmed by 
sir M. Foster to be of ancient practice. The stat. 
2 Rich. II. speaks of impressment as a matter well 
known, 1378. The first commission for it was 
issued 29 Edw. III. 1355. Pressing, either for the 
sea or land service, declared to be illegal by the 
parliament, Dec. 1641, but practised till present 
times. Impressment was not resorted to in the 
Russian war, 1854-5. 

IMPRISONMENT for DEBT, see Arrests, 
Debtors, and Ferrars' Arrest. 

IMPROPRIATION (applying ecclesiastical 
property to lay purposes). On the suppression of 
abbeys in 1539, their incomes from the great tithes 
were distributed among his courtiers by Henry 
VIII.; and their successors constitute 7597 lay 
impropriators. 

INCAS, see Peru. 

INCENDIARIES. See Arson. 

INCEST. Marriage with very near relations, 
almost universally forbidden, took place in Egypt, 
Persia, and Greece. For recent cases see Portugal, 
1760, 1777, and 1826; Italy, 1888. The table of 
kindred in the book of common prayer was set forth 
in 1563. For the Hebrew law see Leviticus, chap. 
xviii. 1490 E.G. 

INCH. It was defined in 1S24 by act of par- 
liament, that 39' 13929 inches is the length of a 
seconds pendulum in the latitude of London, vi- 
brating in vacuo at the sea level, at the temperature 
of 62 Fahrenheit ; see Candle, and Standard. 

INCHCAPE BELL, see Bell Rock. 

INCLOSTJRE ACT, to facilitate the inclo- 
sure and improvement of commons, appointing 
commissioners, etc., 8 & 9 Vict. c. 118, passed 
8 Aug. 1845; another act passed in 1876; see 
Commons. 

INCOME TAX. In 1512, parliament granted 
a subsidy of two-fifteenths from the commons, and 
two-tenths from the clergy, to enable the king to 
enter on a war witli Frame. In Doc. 1798, Mr. 
Pitt proposed and carried, amid great opposition, 
resolutions for increased taxes " as an aid for the 
prosecution of the war" with France. 

Graduated duties on income imposed, beginning with 

60/. per annum, by the act passed 9 Jan. 1799. 
The " property tax " passed which levied a rate of 5 per 

cent, on all incomes above 150/. and lower rates 011 

smaller incomes. 11 Aug. 1803. 
Increased to 6j per cent. 1805 : 10 per cent., embracing 

the dividends at the bank, 1S06. 
In 1800 the tax produced 5,716.572/. : in 1804, 4,650,000/. : 

in 1806, 11,500,000/. : in 1808, 16,548,985/. ; in 1815, 

14,978,557/ ; 1900, 18,750,000. 



INCOME TAX. 



633 



INCOME TAX. 



The tax produced from lands, houses, rentages, <fec. , 
8,657,937/. ; from funded and stock properties, 
2,885,505?. ; the profits and gains of trade, 3,831,088/.. ; 
and salaries and pensions, 1,174,456/. Repealed 18 
March, 18 16, on motion of H. Brougham. 

Sir Robert Peel's bill imposing a tax at a rate of yd. in 
the pound (2?. 18s. 4<7. per cent.) on annual incomes of 
150Z. and upwards (ior three years) passed 22 June, 1842. 

It produced about 5,350,000/. a-year; and led to repeal of 
about 12,000,000/. indirect taxes. 

Renewed for three years, 1845 ; and 1848. 

Large meetings assembled in Trafalgar-square, London 
(for the ostensible purpose of opposing the income tax) ; 
rioting ensued, which was soon quelled, 6, 7 March, 
1848. 

Tax continued for one year in 1851 and 1852. 

The tax of yd. limited to seven years (till i860) ; to be 
gradually reduced in amount ; but all incomes from 
100/. to -150/. made liable to 51Z. in the pound for all 
that period : the tax also extended to Ireland, June, 
1853- 

Crimean war: rates doubled, 14c/., 1854. 

2d. (making i6d.) added to the tax on incomes above 
150/., and i^d on those between 100/. and 150/. ; the 
former being is. 4c/. , the latter 1 1 %d. in the pound, 1855. 

The former assessment reduced to yd. , the latter to 5c/. , 
1857. Both became $d. , 1858. 

The former raised to qd. , the latter to 6JcZ. ; and the tax 
on incomes, derived from lands, tenements, &c. , raised 
from 3%d. to 5^/. for England, and from 2%d. to 4c/. for 
Scotland and Ireland, July, 1859. 

The assessment on incomes raised — on those above 100/. 
to yd. ; on those above 150/. to zod. 

[The object of the increase was to provide for a deficiency 
occasioned by extra expenditure for defending the 
country, April, i860.] 

A committee to inquire into the working of the income 
tax appointed, 14 Feb. 1861. 

Reduction of the last assessment from yd. to 6d., and 
from zod. to gd. for three-quarters of the financial year 
1861-62. 

The rates of 6d. and qd. to continue, April, 1862. 

The rate of yd. on all chargeable incomes ; j^d. on 
farms, &c. , in England ; and i\d. in Scotland and Ire- 
land. Incomes under 100/. a-year exempted ; those 
above 100/. and under 200/. allowed an abatement on 
60/. , 8 June, 1863. 

The rate of 6c/. on chargeable incomes, with some exemp- 
tions and abatement, 13 May, 1864. 

The rate of \d. on chargeable incomes, with same exemp- 
tions and abatement, May, 1865-7. 

Raised to 5c/. (for year ending 1 April, 1868), to provide 
for Abyssinian war, Nov. 1867. 

Raised to 6(1 (for 1868-9), May, 1868. 

Reduced to 51Z. in the pound, April, 1869 ; to 4c/., April, 
1870. Raised to 6d. on account of re-organisation of 
army, abolishing purchase, 1871. Reduced to 4c/., 
April, 1872. 

Renewed agitation against the tax ; conference at Bir- 
mingham, 22 May ; at the Mansion-house, London, 
proposed formation of a National Anti-Incoms Tax 
League, 13 Dec. 1872. 

Reduced to 3d from 6 April, 1873 ; to 2d. , 23 April, 1874. 

Mr. C. Lewis's motion for reducing or abolishing the 
tax defeated (139-38), 3 July, 1874. 

Raised to 3c/. ; incomes under 150/. to be exempt ; 
120/. of incomes under 400/. exempt, April, 1876. 



Raised to bd. (through preparations for war), April, 1878. 

Raised to 6d. by Mr. Gladstone, June ; act passed, 12 
Aug. 1880. 

Reduced to 5c/. by Mr. Gladstone ; budget 4 April, 1881. 

Raise I to 6%d. for the year (in consequence of the 
Egyptian expedition), Aug. 1882 ; reduced to 5c/. April 
1883 ; raised to 6d. 1 Dec. 1884 ; to 8rf. 30 April, 1885 
continued, April, i386 ; reduced to yd. April, 1887 
land, &c, England 3M. ; Scotland and Ireland, ?kl 
(act 23 May, 1887) ; reduced to 6<Z. 16 May, 1888 ; con 
tinuecl April, 1889-92 ; raised to yd., 12 May, 1893 
to 8fZ., 31 July, 1894; to is. 9 April, 1900; to i^d 
26 July, 1901 ; to 15(1. 4 July, 1902; reduced to uri! 
23 April, 1903. 

Mr. Bartley's motion for a committee to enquire into 
the working and incidence of the income-tax negatived 
by the commons (161-106), 24 Feb. 1891. 

The house of lords decides on appeal that religious and 
charitable societies are exempt from income-tax 20 
July, 1891. 

In 1898, incomes up to 160/. exempt; 160/. to 400/., 
160/. abatement; 400/. to 500/., 150/. abatement.; 
500/. to 600/., 120/. abatement; 600/. to 700/., 70/. 
abatement ; above 700/., no abatement. 



842 



PRODUCE OF THE INCOME TAX. 

. £571,055 1 1877 (3 1 March) £5 



b 44 • • • 5> IOI >597 

846 . . . 5.395.39 1 

852 . . . 5, 509.637 

855 (31 March). 10,642,621 



856 

857 
858 
859 



870 
871 
872 
873 
874 
875 



1900 



1902 



15,070,958 
16,089,933 
11,586,115 

6,683,587 

9,596,106 
10,923,186 
10,365,000 
10,567,000 

9,084,000 

7,958,000 

6,390,000 

5,700,000 

6,177,000 

8,618,000 
10,044,000 

6,350,000 

9,084,000 

7,403,736 

5,641,791 

4,3i5.i3 2 

4,109,000 

(Estimated that id. in the pound yields 772 
year, 1842; 1,727,000/. 1876; 1,900,000/., 1878; 
1,980,000, 1885; 1899-1900, 2,364:000.) 

TOTAL ANNUAL VALUE OF PROPERTY AND PROFITS 
ASSESSED, UNITED KINGDOM. 

1868 £430,368,976 

1873 513,807,284 

1878 578,294,971 

1882 ......... 601,450,977 

1887 ... .... 629,397,962 

1888 ......... 636,154,693 

1889 645,158,689 

^90 . 669,358,613 

1891 698,407,549 

^92 710,752,684 

1893 ........ 712,181,099 

1896 ......... 709,651,556 

1S98 ........ 729,328,295 

758,571.709 
788,023,603 



284,091 
,820,000 
,710,000 
,230,000 
,650,000 
,945,000 
,900,000 
,718,000 
,000,000 
,160,000 
,900,000 
,440,000 
,700,000 
,770,000 
,250,000 
,431,000 
,417,000 
,600,000 
,600,000 
,100,000 
,650,000 
,250,000 
,000,000 
,750,000 
,920,000 
, 800,000 
,000/. a- 



1900 



ESTIMATED ANNUAL INCOME. 





England and Wales. 


Scotland. 


Ireland. 




1814 


1893 


1814 


1893 

19,991,006 
35,435,412 

55,426,418 


1854 


1891 


Real property, land, &c. . . 
Professions, trades, &c. . 


53,495,000 
34,288,000 


169,107,193 
313,407,425 


6,643,000 
2,771,000 


11,892,000 
4,780,000 

16,672,000 


13,612,019 
11,461,198 




87,783,000 


482,514,618 


9,414,000 


25,073,217 



INCOEPOEATED. 



634 



INDEXES. 



INCOEPOEATED, see Authors, Law. 

INCUMBENTS' EESIGNATION ACT, 

with provision for pensions, passed 13 July, 1871, 
amended 1887. 

INCUMBEEED ESTATES, see Encum- 
bered Estates. 

INCTJBABLES. The royal hospital for in- 
curables, founded by Dr. Andrew Keed, at Car- 
shalton in Surrey, in 1850, has since been removed 
to Putney. 

British Home for Incurables, Clapham-rise, esta- 
blished ^61 

National Hospital for Incurables, Oxford . . . 1874 
Home for Incurable Children, Maida-vale . . 1875 

INDEMNITY BILL, by which the minister 
of the crown or the government is relieved from 
the responsibility of measures adopted in extreme 
and urgent cases, without the previous sanction of 
parliament. One was passed 19 April, 1801 ; an- 
other to indemnify ministers against their acts 
during the suspension of the Habeas Corpus act, 
was carried in the commons (principal divisions, 
190 to 64) ; and in the lords (93 to 27), 10 March, 
1818. In 1848 and 1857, bills of indemnity were 
passed for the suspension of the Bank Charter act 
by the ministry; see Oblivion. An indemnity bill 
is passed at the end of every session of parliament 
for persons who transgress through ignorance of the 
law. The practice began in 1715. 

INDEPENDENCE, DECLAEATION 

OF, by United States of North America, 4 July, 
1776, is annually eel brated on Independence Bay. 

" INDEPENDENT THEATEE," a name 
assumed by a society conducted by Mr. J. T. 
Grein at the Royalty Theatre, providing entertain- 
ments resembling those of the Theatre-Libre of 
M. Antoine, to include the plays of Ibsen and 
Tolstoi which could not be licensed in this country. 
As the theatre is supported by subscription, and no 
money taken at the doors, it is considered inde- 
pendent of the lord chamberlain's censorship in 
regard to the plays performed. Ibsen's "Rorners- 
holm" was performed 23 Feb., and his " Ghosts" 
13 March, 1891. Other performances were given 
at the private theatre in the club-house erected on 
the site of Evans' hotel, Covent Garden, 22 May, 
1891 et seq. An English version of Zola's "Therese 
Raquin" given at the Royalty, 9 Oct. 1891. Other 
pieces licensed by the lord chamberlain, 4 March, 
1892. The censorship accepted, July, 1892. 

The "Duchess of Main," at the Opera Comique 

21 Oct. 1892 

Mr. Bernard .Shaw's "Widower's Houses" at the 
Royalty q Dec. „ 

Ibsen's strange new play, "The Master Builder," 
performed at the Trafalgar-square theatre 

20 Feb. 1893 

Mr. George Moore's "Strike at Arlingford " per- 
formed at the Opera Comique . . 21 Feb. ,, 

Other pieces performed at different theatres, 1893-1903 

INDEPENDENTS or Congregational- 
ISTS, hold that each church or congregation is 
independent of all others in religious matters ; that 
there is no absolute occasion for synods or councils, 
whose resolutions may be taken for advice, but not 
as decisions to be peremptorily obeyed ; and that one 
church may advise or reprove another, but has 
no authority to excommunicate. Robert Brown 
preached these doctrines about 1585, but, after 32 



imprisonments, he eventually conformed to the. 
established church. A church was formed in Lon- 
don in 1593, when there were 20,000 independents 
They were driven by persecution to Holland, where 
they formed several churches ; that at Leyden was 
under Mr. Robinson, - often regarded as the author 
of Independency. In 1616 Henry Jacobs returned 
to England and founded a meeting-house. Crom- 
well, himself an independent, obtained them tole- 
ration, in opposition to the Presbyterians. The 
independents published an epitome of their 
faith, drawn up at a conference at the Savoy, in 
1658 ; and the congregational union of England 
ana Wales formed in 1831, publisher their "de- 
claration of faith, order, and discipline," in 1833. 
In 1851 they had 3244 chapels for 1,067,760 per- 
sons in England and Wales ; in 1902 United King- 
dom, 4,873 churches; 3,121 ministers; 1,743,583 
sittings, 431,517 church members, 1902. Annual 
meetings of the union are held ; see Worship. The 
first independents in Scotland were the Glasites 
{which see). The first independent church in 
America was founded by the followers of John 
Robinson, at Plymouth, New England, in 1620. 

Congregational Fund Board to assist poor minis- 
ters, established 1695 

Congregational Board of Education, Homerton . 1S43 

Nonconformist Bicentenary fund begun . . 1862 

The Congregationalist Memorial-hall, Farringdon- 
street, London, erected in memory of the minis- 
ters ejected in 1662, as a home for religious 
societies, was subscribed for and opened 19 Jan. 1875 

An important congregationalist synod, held in 
London early in Oct. „ 

Rev. John Waddington's "Congregational History, 
1200-1854," published .... 1869-78 

Samuel Morley, a wealthy London merchant, a 
liberal supporter of the independent churches, 
and general philanthropist, died . . 5 Sept. i386 

James Spicer, a man of similar character, died 

23 Jan. 1888 

The first International Council of Congregational- 
ists held at Memorial-hall, London, rev. R. W. 
Dale, of Birmingham, presiding . 13-24 July, 1891 

Rev. John Stoughton, D. D., eminent scholar, 
active minister, born 18 Nov. 1807 ; died 24 Oct. 1897 

Rev. Chas. A. Berry, D.D., eminent minister, born 
1852, died suddenly in the pulpit, 31 Jan. 1899 ; 
principal Cave, eminent scholar and minister, 
d., aged 53, 19 Dec. 1900; rev. dr. Newman 
Hall, eminent Nonconformist, d., aged 85, 18 Feb. 
1902 ; dr. Joseph Parker, d., aged 72 . 28 Nov. 1902 

Report of general committee on Congregational 
Union appointed May, 1902, "to prepare a scheme 
which may serve to unite Congregational 
Churches more closely for common purposes," 
published April, 1903 

INDEXES OF PEOHIBITED BOOKS. 

The Index by which the reading of the Scriptures 

was forbidden (with certain exceptions) to the laity, 

was confirmed by a bull of pope Clement VIII. in 

1595- 

The council of Nice (325) forbade magical books. 

Pope Paul IV., 1555, began the "Index" published by 
Pius IV., 1559. The Talmud and heretical books were 
especially prohibited, causing much dissatisfaction. 
Tlic Inquisition was engaged in the work, which was 
organized by the Council of Trent. The Congregation 
of the Index was instituted and rules laid down. 

The Indexes are— 1. Prohibitorius, of books absolutely 
forbidden to be read; 2. fixpurgatorius, ol books not 
to be licensed till purged from error. 

Many of the works of the great authors of France, 
Spain, Germany, ami England, are thus prohibited. 
On 25 June, 1S64, Hugo's " Les Miserables" and 
other books were added to the number, and many 
others since. 



INDEX SOCIETY. 



635 



INDIA. 



Religions : the pre-historic Hindu or Vedic system was 
reformed, and superseded by Buddhism about b.c. 
500. The reformed and modified Vedic system, since 
termed Brahmanism, was restored about a.d. 500, and 
prevailed till the introduction of Mahometanism, early 
in the nth century ; see Population in foot-note, 
below. 

Provinces, Bengal, Bombay, Madras, Punjaub, N.W. 
and Central provinces, Assam, and Burinah. 

Northern India is said to have been invaded and con- 
quered by an Arian race from central Asia, between 
b.c. 1500 and 1000. 

Invasion of Alexander the great ; king Porus is de- 
feated, submits and retains his kingdom . . 327 

Irruptions of the Mahometans, under Mahmud 
Ghuzni, 1001-24. He captured Somnath . . a. d. 1024 

Extinction of the house of Ghuzni, 1186 ; rule of the 
slave-kings of Delhi, 1206-1288 ; of the Kilghis and 
house of Toghlak, 1288-1412 ; of the Syuds, 1412-50; 
of the house of Lodi 1450-1526 

Pathan, or Afghan empire, founded . . . . 1205 

Mogul invasion under Genghis Khan, 1219 ; he died, 1227 

The Mogul Tartars, under the conduct of Timour, 
or Tamerlane, invade Hindostan, and take Delhi ; 
defeat the Indian army, 1307 ; conquer Hindostan, 
and butcher 100,000 of its people . . . 1398-9 

* British India extends from 8° to 34° N. lat. and from 
70° to 90° E. long, (exclusive of the Burmese additions), 
about 1,500,000 square miles. The population in all 
India, 1881, 252,541,210 ; 1891, 289,187,316 ; British India, 
221,356,187; Native States, 66,803,485. (Hindoos, 
207,654,407; Mussulmans, 57,365,204; Christians, 
2,284,191 ; Jains, 1,416,109 ; Sikhs, 1,907,836 ; Buddhists, 
7,101,057; Parsees, 89,887; Jews, 17,180; forest tribes, 
animal worshippers, 9,302,083). i9oi(revised)294,266,7oi; 
British India, 231,085,000; Native States, 63,i8 t ,ooo 
(Hindoos, 207,075,000 ; Mussulmans, 62,458,000 ; Chris- 
tians, 2,923,000; Jains, 1,334,000; Sikhs, 2,195,000; 
Buddhists, 9,184,000; Parsees, 94,200; Jews, 18,228; 
animal worshippers, 8,584,000). Cotton was planted in 
1839, and the tea-plant in 1834. Railways (8545 miles in 
1879) ana the electric telegraph are being rapidly con- 
structed, and canals for irrigation ; see Ganges Canal ; 
railways in 1890-1, 16,996 miles open ; 1902, 26,561 miles 
open. The Indian revenue in 1854-5 was 20,371,450/. 
The expenditure, 22,915,160/. In 1858-9: revenue, 
36,060,788/. ; expenditure, 49,642,350/. In 1869-70 : 
revenue, 52,942,482/. ; expenditure, 56,184,4891. In 
1875-6, revenue, 52,515,788/.; expenditure, 55,117,536/. 
In 1877-8, revenue, 58,969,301/. ; expenditure, 66,917,000/. ; 
1881-2, revenue, 73,606,000/. ; expenditure, 71,113,000?. ; 
1883-4, revenue, 67,274,000/. ; expenditure, 66,617,000/. ; 
1886-7, revenue, 77,337,i34Rx. (ten rupees) ; expendi- 
ture, 7/,i58,7o7Rx. ; 1889-90, revenue, 85,085, 203RX. ; 
expenditure, 82,473, 170RX. ; i89i,reveriue, 8s,74i,649Rx. ; 
expenditure, 82,053,478 Rx. ; 1892, revenue, 89,143, 283RX. ; 
expenditure, 88,675,748Rx. ; 1893-4, rev., 90,005, 700RX.; 
expenditure, 9i,6oo,8ooRx. ; 1894-5, rev., 95,i87,42gRx. ; 
expenditure, 94,494,3igRx. (additional expenditure, 
4,446,23iRx.) ; 1896-7 (deficit owing to famine and 
plague); 1900-03, surplus, 8,300,000/., 10 Nov. 1902. 
Exports and imports, 1837, about 21,000,000/. ; 1856, 
53,000,000/.; 1885-6, 156,000,000/. ; 1888-9, about 
8o,ooo,oooRx. ; 1890-1, i96,26o,382Rx. Exports, 1897- 
98, 104,671, 442RX. ; imports, 89,896,4o6Rx., trade in- 
creased by 5,050,100/., 1902-03. 



INDEX SOCIETY, established by the libra- 
rians of various London scientific and literary 
institutions and societies, and literary men, to form 
a library of indexes, and to make indexes to rare 
serial works, important books, &c. 1 7 Dec. 1877. 

INDIA or HINDOSTAN. The Hindoo his- 
tories ascribe their origin to a period ages before j 
the ordinary chronologies. The Tyrians, Egyptians, ! 
and Komans carried on commerce with India. 

The expansion, consolidation, and conciliation of | 
India were greatly effected during the reign of ' 
queen Victoria, 1837 et seq. 117 native states 1888.* I 
" The Golden Book of India," by sir Roper Leth- 
bridge, first published Feb. 1893 ; sir Wm, Hunter's 
" History of British India," vol. I., published, March, 



The Cape route to India discovered by Vasco da 
Gama ; he left Lisbon, 8 July, 1497, arrived at 
Calicut, 20 May, 1498, and returned to Lisbon, 

Aug. or Sept. 1499 
The first European settlement (Portuguese) estab- 
lished by him at Cochin (S. Coast) . . . . 1502 
Albuquerque governor-general, 1508; dies at Goa, 1514 
Conquest of India completed by the sultan Baber, 

founder of the Mogul empire .... 1519-26 
Reign of his son Humayun .... 1531-56 
Reign of Akbar, greatest sovereign of Hindostan 

1556-1605 
The Portuguese introduce tobacco . . . . 1600 
The Dutch first visit India, 1601 ; establish a United 

East India Company 1602 

Tranquebar granted to the Danes . . . . 1619 

Reign of Jehanghir 1605-27 

Reign of Shah Jehan ; golden ago of the Moguls, 1627-58 
Aurungzebe dethrones his father and murders his 

brothers, 1658 ; reigns .... 1658-1707 
French East India Company established . . . 1664 
Rise of the Mahratta power under Sevajee, 1659; he 

assumes royalty, 1674 ; dies 1680 

Aurungzebe conquers Golconda, &c. . . . 1687 

His prosperity wanes, 1702 ; dies . . . 22 Feb. 1707 
Bahadoor Shah succeeds, 1707; dies . . . 1712 
Jehander Shah, 1713 ; dethroned and killed . . 1718 

Accession of Mahomed Shah 1719 

Independence of the Nizam of the Deccan . . . 1723 
Rise of the Mahratta families, Holkar and Scindiah 1730 
Invasion of the Persian Nadir Shah or Kouli Khan: 
at Delhi he orders a general massacre, and 150,000 
persons perish ; carries away treasure amounting 

to 125,000,000/. sterling 1739 

Mahomed Shah dies 1748 

[The Mogul empire now became merely nominal, in- 
dependent sovereignties being formed by petty 
princes. In 1761, Shah Alum II. attacking the 
English was defeated at Patna, 15 Jan. In 1764, 
after the battle of Buxar, he was thrown upon the 
protection of the English, who established him at 
Allahabad. After the victory at Delhi in 1803, 
gen. Lake restored the aged monarch to a nominal 
sovereignty, which descended at his death to his 
son, Akbar Shah. Akbar died in 1837, and was 
succeeded by the last king of Delhi (his son), who 
received a pension of about 125,000/. per annum. 
[He joined the mutiny in 1857 ; was tried in 1858, 
and transported to Rangoon; died there, n Nov. 
1862.I 

BRITISH POWER IN INDIA. 

Attempt made to reach India by the north-east and 

north-west passages 1528 

Sir Francis Drake's expedition 1579 

Levant company's land expedition .... 1589 
First commercial adventure from England . . . 1593 
First charter to the London company of merchants 

(see India Company) 1600 

Factories established at Surat, &c 1612 

Sir Thos. Roe, first English ambassador . . . 1615 
Madras founded, 1640 ; made a presidency . . . 1652 
Bombay ceded to England as part of dowry of 

Catherine, queen of Charles II 1662 

French company established .... 1664 

They settle at Pondicherry 1668 

Calcutta purchased 1698 

War between the English and French in India i74 6 "9 

English besiege Pondicherry, the seat of the French 

government, without success .... 1748 

Clive takes Arcot 17S 1 

Peace made J 7S4 

Severndroog and other strongholds of the pirate 

Angria taken n Feb. 1755-6 

Capture of Calcutta by Surajah Dowla ; suffocation 

of English in the Black hole (which see) 20 June, „ 
Calcutta retaken by Clive, 2 Jan. ; he defeats the 

Soubah at Plassey .... 23 June, 1757 
Fort William, the strongest fort in India, built . „ 

French successful under Lally 1758 

But lose nearly all their power .... 1759 

The French under Lally defeated by sir Eyre Coote 

near Wandewash .... 2 July, 1760 

Hyder Ali usurps tl.c sovereignty of Mysore . 1763-4 
Conquest of Patna .... 6 Nov. 1763 

Battle of Buxar (witch see) . . _ . 23 Oct. 1764 

The nabob becomes subject to the English . . 1765 



INDIA. 



636 



INDIA. 



Lord Clive obtains the Dewanny by an imperial 
grant, which constitutes the company the receivers 
of the revenue of Bengal, Bahar, and Orissa, and 
gives the British the virtual sovereignty of these 

countries 12 Aug 1765 

Treaty with Nizam Ali : the English obtain the 

Northern Circars . . . . 12 Nov. 1766 

Hyder Ali ravages the Carnatic . . Jan. 1769 

'Frightful famine in Bengal 1770-1 

Warren Hastings governor of Bengal ■ 13 April, 1772 
India Bill ; supreme court established (see India 

Bills) 1773 

Treaty with Bhootan 1774 

Death of Clive ; ungratefully treated . . . . ,, 
Accusations commence against Warren Hastings ; 
accused of taking a bribe from a concubine of 
Meer Jaflier (see Hastings) . . 30 May, 1775 

Nuncomar, a Brahmin, accuses Warren Hastings of 

receiving bribes . . . . 11 March, 1776 
'Is hanged for forgery .... 5 Aug. ,, 
[Sir Elijah Impey, the .judge, was censured at the 
time, but afterwards vindicated] 

Pondicherry taken 11 Oct. 1778 

Fortress of Gwalior taken by Pophara . 4 Aug. „ 
Hyder Ali overruns the Carnatic, and defeats the 

British, 10 Sept. ; takes Arcot . . 31 Oct. 1780 

Hyder Ali defeated by sir Eyre Coote . 1 July, 1781 
Warren Hastings accused of taking more bribes (see 

Chunar) 19 Sept. ,, 

Bussy lands with a French detachment March, 1782 

War with Hyder Ali aided by the French . ,, 

Hyder Ali overthrown by Coote . . 2 June, ,, 
Death of Hyder, and accession of his son, Tippoo 

Sahib Dec. ,, 

'Tippoo, who had taken Cuddalore, now takes 

Bednore April, 1783 

Pondicherry restored to the French, and Trin- 
comalee to the Dutch . . . . . . ,, 

Fox's India bill thrown out ,, 

Pitt's India bill establishing the board of control 

{which sec) 1784 

Ignoble peace with Tippoo . . .11 March, ,, 
■Charges against Warren Hastings .... 1786 

His trial begun 13 Feb. 1788 

War with Tippoo renewed 1790 

Bangalore taken (see Bangalore) . . 21 March, 1791 
Cornwallis defeats Tippoo at Arikera . 15 May, ,, 
Fortress of Savandroog taken . . . 21 Dec. ,, 
Definitive treaty with Tippoo ; his two sons hostages 

19 March, 1792 
Civil and criminal courts erected .... 1793 

Pondicherry again taken ,, 

Tippoo's sons restored ... 29 March, 1794 
First dispute with the Burmese ; adjusted by 

general Erskine . 1795 

Warren Hastings acquitted . . 23 April, ,, 

Deatli of Christian V. Schwartz, 50 years missionary 
and philanthropist, "the apostle of India," aged 

71 13 Feb. 1798 

■Government of lord Mornington, afterwards mar- 
quis Wellesley 17 May, ,, 

Seringapatam stormed by gen. Baird ; Tippoo Sahib 

killed, 4 May ; Mysore divided . . 22 June, 1799 
Victories of the British ; the Carnatic. conquered 1S00 
The nabob of Furruckabad cedes his territories to 

the English for a pension . . .4 June, 1802 
Important treaty ol Bassein (with Mahrattas) 

31 Dee. „ 
Mahratta war. Victories of sir Arthur Wellesley 

and general Lake 1803 

Welleslcy's great victory .'it Assaye . . 23 Sept. ,, 
Pondicherry (restored 1801) retaken . . Dec. ,, 

War with Holkar 1804-5 

■Capture of Bhurtpore . . . 2 April, 1805 
Lord Wellesley superseded by the marquis Corn- 
wallis. wild (lies 5 Oct. „ 

The Mahratta chief, Scindiah, defeated by the 

British: treaty of peace . . . 23 Nov. ,, 
Treaty of peace with Holkar . . . 24 Dec. ,, 
Sepoy mutiny at Vellore ; 800 executed . July, 1806 
Cumoona surrenders .... 21 Nov. 1S07 
Mutiny at Seringapatam quelled . . 23 Aug. 1809 
Act opening the trade to India . . . July, 1813 

War with Nepaul 1814-15 

Holkar defeated by sir T. Hislop . . 21 Dec. 1817 
Pindaree war. English successful . . . 1S17-18 
Peace with Holkar 6 Jan. 1818 



Burmese war. The British take Rangoon 5 May, 1824 
Lord Combermere commands in India . . . ,, 

Malacca ceded, and Singapore purchased . . ,, 

Barrackpore mutiny, many sepoys killed . Nov. „ 
General Campbell defeats the Burmese near Prome, 

25 Dec. 1825 
Bhurtpore stormed by Combermere . . 18 Jan. 1826 
Peace with the Burmese ... 24 Feb. ,, 

[They pay i,ooo,oooZ. sterling, and cede a great 

extent of territory.] 
Abolition of suttees, or the burning of widows (see 
Suttee) ....... 7 Dee. 1829 

Act opening the trade to India, and tea trade, &c, 
to China, forming a new era in British com- 
merce 28 Aug. 1833 

Coorg annexed ; Rajah deposed . . 10 April, 1834 
The natives admitted to the magistracy 1 May, ,, 

The Nawab Shumsoodden put to death for the 
murder of Mr. Frazer, British resident 8 Oct. 1835 

Severe famine 1837-8 

Postal service begun 1837 

Slavery abolished 1 Aug. 1838 

Afghan war. Proclamation against Dost Mahomed 

1 Oct. „ 
The British occupy Candahar . . 21 April, 1839 

Battle of Ghiznee ; victory of sir John (afterwards 

lord) Keane (see Ghiznee) . . . 23 July, ,, 
Wade forces the Khyber pass 26 July, ,, 

English defeat Dost Mahomed . . .18 Oct. 1840 
Kurrock Singh, king of Lahore, dies ; at his funeral 
his successor is killed by accident, and Dost 
Mahomed, next heir, surrenders to England 5 Nov. ,, 
Rising against the British at Cabul ; sir Alex. 

Burnes and others murdered . . 2 Nov. 1841 
Sir fm. Macnaghteil assassinated . . 23 Dec ,, 
Jellalabad held by sir R. Sale .... 1841-2 
The British under a convention evacuate Cabul, 
placing lady Sale, &c, as hostages with Akbar 
Khan ; a massacre ensues of about 16,000 men, 
women, and children . . . 6-13 Jan. 
The British evacuate Ghiznee . . .1 March, ,, 
Sortie from Jellalabad ; general Pollock forces the 

Khyber pass 5 April, ,, 

Ghiznee retaken by general Nott . . 6 Sept. ,, 
General Pollock enters Cabul . . 16 Sept. ,, 
Lady Sale and other prisoners rescued by sir R. 

Shakspeare ; arrive at gen. Pollock's camp 21 Sept. ,, 
Cabul evacuated after destroying the fortifications 

12 Oct. „ 
Scincle tear. Ameers defeated by sir Charles Napier 

at Meanee 17 Feb. 1843 

Scinde annexed to the British empire ; sir Charles 

Napier governor June, „ 

Gwalior war. Battles of Maharaj poor and Punniar : 
the strong fort of Gwalior, the " Gibraltar of the 

East," taken 29 Dec. ,, 

Danish possessions in India purchased . . 1845 

Sikh war.* The Sikhs cross the Sutlej river and 

attack the British at Ferozepore . 14 Dee. 1845 

Sir H. Hardinge, after a long rapid march, reaches 
Moodkce ; the Sikhs (20,000) make an attack ; 
after a hard contest they retire, abandoning their 
guns (see Moodkee) .... 18 Dec. ,, 
Battle of Ferozeshah {which sec) . 21, 22 Dec. ,, 
Battle of Aliwal ; the Sikhs defeated (see Aliwal 

ami Sutlej) 2S Jul 1S46 

Cieat battle of Sobraon ; the enemy defeated with 

immense loss (sec Sobraon) . . 10 Feb. ,, 
Citadel of Lahore occupied by sir Hugh Gough, and 

the war terminates . . . .20 Feb. ,, 

Sir R. Sale dies of his wounds received at Moodkee 

(iS Dee. 1S45) 23 Feb. ,, 

The governor-general and sir Hugh Gough raised to 
the peerage, as viscount Hardinge and baron 
Cough ; receive the thanks of parliament and of 
the E. I. company .... 2, 6 March, „ 



1842 



* Runjeet Singh, long the ruler of the Sikhs and tho| 
Punjal In- :1 m amity with the Entish. After hm deith, 
27 June, 1839, several of his successors (children and 
grandchildren) were in turn assassinated. During the 
I minority of his son Dhuleep Singh, the favourite nf 
the Maharanee, Lall Singh, ruled; and finding the. 
army ungovernable, sanctioned the unprovoked attack 
on the British, as given above. 



INDIA. 



o:J7 



INDIA. 



treaty of Lahore signed .... 9 March, 1846 
Vizier Lall Singh deposed . . . 13 Jan. 1847 

Mr. Vans Agnew and lieut. Anderson killed by 

the troops of the dewan Moolraj . 21 April, 1848 
Lieut. Edwardes joins general Courtland, and most 
gallantly engages the army of Moolraj, which he 
defeats after a sanguinary battle of nine hours, at 

Kennyree 18 June, ,, 

General Whish raises the siege of Mooltan through 

the desertion of Shere Singh . . 22 Sept. ,, 
Cavalry skirmish at Ramnuggur . . 22 Nov. ,, 
Shere Singh, entrenched ou the right bank of the 
Chenab, with 40,000 men and 28 pieces of artil- 
lery ; gen. Thackwell crosses the river with 8 
infantry regiments, with cavalry and cannon, 1 
Dec. , and attacks his left flank at Sadoolapore, 

3 Wee. ,, 
Lord Gough attacks the enemy's advanced position; 

victory of Chillianwallah (which see) . 13 Jan. 1849 
Unconditional surrender of the citadel of Mooltan 

by Moolraj (see Mooltan) ... 22 Jan. ,, 
Victory of Guzerat (which see) . . 21 Feb. ,, 

Sir Chas. Napier appointed coram, -in-chief, 

7 March, ,, 
The Sikhs surrender unconditionally 14 March, „ 
Formal annexation of the Punjab to the British 
dominions ; Dhuleep Singh obtains a pension of 

40,000? 29 March, ,, 

Moolraj sentenced to death for the murder of Mr. 
Agnew and lieut. Anderson, Aug. ; commuted to 
transportation for life .... Sept. ,, 

Sir Charles Napier disbands the 66th Bengal native 

infantry, for mutiny . . . .27 Feb. 1850 

Dr. Healy, of the Bengal army, and his attendants, 

murdered by the Affreedis . . . 20 March. ,, 
Embassy from the king of Nepaul to the queen 
of Great Britain arrives in England (see Nepaul) 

25 May, ,, 
Resignation of his command in India by sir Charles 

Napier 2 July, ,, 

His farewell address to the Indian army 15 Dec. ,, 
Burmese war. Death of Bajee Rao, ex-peishwa of 
the Mahrattas. [His nephew Nana Sahib's claim 
for continuance of the pension (80,000?.) refused.] 

28 Jan. 1851 
A British naval force arrives before Rangoon, in 
the Burman empire, and commodore Lambert 
allows the viceroy thirty-five days to obtain in- 
structions from Ava .... 29 Oct. ,, 
The viceroy of Rangoon interdicts communication 
between the shore and the British ships of war : 
and erects batteries to prevent their departure, 

4 Jan. 1852 

[Commodore Lambert blockades the Irawaddy ; 

the Fox, Hermes, &c. , attacked by the batteries, 

destroy the fortifications, and kill nearly 300 of 

the enemy.] 

Martaban (5 April), Rangoon (14 April), and Bassein 

stormed by the British . . . 19 May, ,, 
Pegu captured, afterwards abandoned . 4 June, ,, 
Prome captured by general Godwin . 9 July, ,, 

Pegu recaptured by general Godwin . 21 Nov. ,, 

Pegu annexed to our Indian empire by proclama- 
tion of the governor-general . . 20 Dec. ,, 
Revolution at Ava ; the king of Ava deposed by his 

younger brother Jan. 1853 

Rangoon devastated by Are ... 14 Feb. ,, 
Capt. Lock and many men killed in an attack on the 
stronghold of a robber chief, 3 Feb. ; which is 
taken by sir J. Cheape . . -19 March, ,, 
First Indian railway opened (from Bombay to 

Tannah) 16 April, „ 

Termination of the war «, June, ,, 

New India bill passed .... 20 Aug. ,, 
Death of general Godwin .... 26 Oct. ,, 
Assassination of capt. Latter . . 8 Dec. ,, 

Rajah of Nagpoor dies, and his territories fall to 

the E. I. Company 11 Dec. ,, 

Opening of Ganges canal 1854 

First Indian postage stamp struck in - . . ,, 
Opening of the Calcutta railway . . 3 Feb. 1855 

Treaty of friendship with Dost Mahomed of Cabul 

30 March, „ 
Insurrection of the Sonthals (which see) . July, ,, 
Which is only linally suppressed . . May, 1856 

Oude annexed (see dude) .... 7 Feb. ,, 



MUTINY OP THE NATIVE ARMY. 

Mutinies in the Bengal army: at Barrackporo, &c, 
several regiments disbanded . . . March, 1857 

"India is quiet throughout." — Bombay Gazette. 

1 May, „ 

Mutiny at Meerut* (near Delhi) 10 May. The 
mutineers seize Delhi, commit dreadful out- 
rages, and proclaim the king of Delhi emperor, 

11-12 May, &c. ,,. 

Three native regiments disbanded at Lahore by 
the energy of Mr. Montgomery and brigadier 
Corbett, who save the Punjab . .12 May, ,,. 

Martial law proclaimed by the British lieut. -gover- 
nor, J. R. Colvin May, ,,. 

British troops under general Anson advance on 
Delhi: his death 27 May, , r 

Mutineers often defeated . . 30 May-23 June, ,,. 

Mutiny at Lucknow 30 May, , r 

Neill suppresses the mutiny at Benares, 3 June ; 
and recovers Allahabad . . . .4 June, ,, 

Mutiny spreads throughout Bengal : fearful atroci- 
ties committed t . . ....,, 

Native troops disbanded at Mooltan, which is 
saved 11 June, ,, 

Ex-king of Oude arrested ... 14 June, „. 

Siege of the residency at Lucknow by the rebels, 
commences 1 July, , T 

Sir H. Lawrence dies of his wounds at Lucknow, 

4 July, ,, 

The liberty of the press restricted . . 4 July, ,, 

Sir H. Barnard, commanding before Delhi, dies of 
cholera, succeeded by general Reed . 5 July, ,, 

General Nicholson destroys a large body of rebels 
at Sealcote 12 July, ,,. 

Cawnpore surrenders to Nana Sahib, who kills the 
garrison, &c, 28 June ; he is defeated by general 
Havelock, 16 July : who re-captures Cawnpore 
(see Cawnpore) 17 July, , r 

Mutinies suppressed at Hyderabad, 18 July ; and at 
Lahore 20 July, ,? 

General Reed retires, and sir Archdale Wilson takes 
the command before Delhi . . . 22 July, ,, 

Revolt at Dinapore : the British repulsed with 

severe loss at Arrah .... 25 July, ,,. 
Heroic exertions and numerous victories of general 
Havelock and his army, although suffering from 
disease ..... 29 July — 16 Aug. , r 
Lord Canning's so-called " clemency " proclama- 
tion 31 July, ,,. 

Victory of Neill at Pandoo Nuddee . . 15 Aug. ,, 

General Nicholson's victory at Nujuffghur [he dies 
23 Sept.] 25 Aug. „ 

* On the introduction of the improved (Enfield) mus- 
ket in the Indian army, greased cartridges had been: 
brought from England. These were objected to by the 
native soldiers, and the issue of them was immediately 
discontinued by orders in Jan. 1857. A mutinous spirit 
however gradually arose in the Bengal native army. 
In March several regiments were disbanded, followed by 
others, till in June the army had lost by disbandment 
and desertion, about 30,000 men. On 5 April, a sepoy, 
and on 20 April, a jemadar, or native lieutenant, were- 
executed. At the end of May 34 regiments were lost- 
In April, 85 of the 3rd Bengal native cavalry at Meerut 
refused to use their cartridges. On 9 May they were 
committed to gaol. On Sunday, the iotli, a mutiny in 
the native troops broke out ; they fired on their officers, 
killing col. Finnis and others. They then released their 
comrades, massacred many Europeans, and fired the- 
public buildings. The European troops rallied and drove 
them from their cantonments. The mutineers then fled 
to Delhi (which see). 

t At the end of June the native troops at the follow- 
ing places were in open mutiny : Meerut, Delhi, Feroze- 
pore, Allyghur, Roorkee, Murdaun, Lucknow, Cawnpore? 
Nussecrabad, Neemuch, Hansi, Hissar, Jhansi, Mehidpore, 
Jallundur, Azimghur, Futtehghur, Jaunpore, Bareilly, 
Shahjehanpore, A llahabad. At the stations printed in 
italics, European women and children were massacred. 
— The Belief Fund for the sufferers in India was com- 
menced 25 Aug. 1857. The Queen, the emperor Napo- 
leon, and the Sultan, gave each 1000?. In Nov. 1857, 
280,749?. had been collected ; in Nov. 1858, 433,620?. In 
Dec. 1861, 140,000?. had been distributed to sufferers in 
India ; and 100,000?. to those at home ; 246,069?. re- 
mained for the benefit of widows and orphans. A fast 
was observed on 7 Oct. 



INDIA. 



638 



INDIA. 



Assault of Delhi, 14 Sept. ; taken, 20 Sept. ; the 
king captured, 21 Sept. ; his son and grandson 
slain by colonel Hodson ... 22 Sept. 1857 

Sir James Outrani joins Haveloek and serves under 
him 16 Sept. „ 

Haveloek marches to Lucknow and relieves the be- 
sieged residency ; retires and leaves Outrani in 
command ; Neill killed . . 25, 26 Sept. ,, 

Colonel Greathed defeats the rebels at Bolundsho- 
hur, 27 Sept. ; destroys a fort at Molaghur, 29 
Sept. ; takes Allyghur, 5 Oct. ; and defeats rebels 
at Agra 10 Oct. ,, 

Sir Colin Campbell (afters, lord Clyde) appointed 
commander-in-chief, 11 July ; arrives at Cawnpore 

3 Nov. „ 

Marches to Alumbagh, near Lucknow, 9 Nov. ; and 
takes Secunderabagh . . . . 16 Nov. ,. 

Joined by Haveloek, he attacks the rebels and 
rescues the besieged in the residency, 18-25 Nov. „ 

Haveloek * dies of dysentery at Alumbagh, 24 Nov. „ 

General Windham (at Cawnpore) repulsed with 
loss in an attack on the Gwalior contingent, who 
take part of Cawnpore .... 27 Nov. ,, 

Sir C. Campbell arrives at Cawnpore, which he re- 
takes. 28 Nov. ; and defeats the Gwalior rebels, 

6 Dec. ,, 

The rebels defeated by Seaton, 14, 17, and 27 Dec. ; 
at Goruckpore by Rowcroft, 27 Dec. ; and at Fut- 
tehghur by sir C. Campbell . . . 2 Jan. 1858 

Lucknow strongly fortified by the rebels . Jan. ,, 

Generals Rose, Roberts, Inglis, and Grant, victo- 
rious in many encounters . . Jan. and Feb. ,, 

Trial of king of Delhi ; sentenced to transportation 

27 Jan. to 9 March, ,, 

Sir C. Campbell marches to Lucknow, 11 Feb. ; the 
siege commences, 8 March ; taken by successive 
assaults ; the enemy retreat ; Hodson killed, 

14-19 March, „ 

Severe proclamation of the governor-general in 
Oude+ 14 March, „ 

General Roberts takes Kotah . . 30 March, ,, 

Sir Hugh Rose beats the enemy severely, and takes 
Jhansi 4 April, ,, 

General Whitelock takes Budaon . . 19 April, ,, 

Death of capt. sir W. Peel, of small-pox, at Cawn- 
pore 27 April, ,, 

General Penny killed in Rohilcund . . 4 May, „ 

Bareilly recaptured 7 May, ,, 

Sir Hugh Rose defeats the rebels several times — at 
Kooneh, May n, and near Calpee, which he re- 
takes 23 May, „ 

Victory of sir E. Lugard at Jugdespore 29 May, „ 

The rebels seize Gwalior, the capital of Scindiah, 
who escajies to Agra . . . .13 June, ,. 

The rebels defeated by sir H. Rose (the heroic 
Ranee of Jhansi killed), 17 June ; Gwalior retaken 
and Scindiah reinstated ... 19 June, ,, 

Tantia Topee heads a division of the rebels . . ,, 

Rajahs of Jeypore, &c, surrender; Rohilcund and 
other provinces tranquillised . . July, ,, 

General Roberts destroys the remains of the 
Gwalior rebels 14 Aug. „ 

Many Oude chiefs surrender . . . Aug ,, 

An attempt of disbanded regiments to retake their 
arms at Mooltan, suppressed by major Hamilton 
(300 killed on the spot, and 800 slain or captured 
afterwards) 3 1 Au S- .. 

The government of the East India Company ceases, 

1 Sept. ,, 

General Mitchell defeats Tantia Topee, near Raj- 
ghur 15 Sept. ,, 

The queen proclaimed throughout India — lord Can- 
ning to be the iirst viceroy . . . 1 Nov. ,, 

Campaign in Oude begins ; several chiefs submit, 
others subdued 1-30 Nov. ,, 

At Dhooden Khera lord Clyde (formerly sir C. Camp- 
bell) defeats Belli Mahdo . . . 24 Nov. ,, 

* Bom 5 April, 170s ; educated at the Charterhouse, 
London, where he was called " uhl PhlOS ;" went to India, 
1823 : served in the Burmese war, 1824 ; and in the 
Sikh war, 1845. He was a Baptist. 

+ Lord KUenborotigh, the minister for India, sent, un- 
known to bis colleagues, a despatch severely censuring 
this proclamation. This despatch became public and 
led to bis resignation and very nearly to the defeat of 
the ministry, a vote of censure being moved for in both 
nouses of parliament, but not carried. 



Flight of Tantia Topee — he is beaten in Guzerat by 
major Sutherland .... 25 Nov. 1858 

The ex-king of Delhi sails for the Cape of Good 
Hope, 4-1 1 Dec. ; the colonists refuse to receive 
him ; he is sent to Rangoon ,, 

Brigadier John Jacob dies at Jacobabad (greatly 
lamented) ....... 6 Dec. „ 

Indecisive skirmishes with Ferozeshah Dec. ,, 

Who joins Tantia Topee : they are defeated in 
several small engagements . . . Jan. 1859 

Enforcement of the Disarming Act in the north- 
west provinces Jan. ,, 

The Punjab made a distinct presidency 1 Jan. ,, 

Rebels completely expelled from Oude ; enter Ne- 
paul Jan. „ 

Guerilla warfare continues in Rohilcund . Feb. ,, 

Tantia Topee hemmed in ; deserted by his troops, 

about 25 Feb. ,, 

Defeat of the Begum of Oude and Nana Sahib by 
general Horsford .... 10 Feb. „ 

The new Indian tariff creates much dissatisfaction, 

March, ,, 

Maun Singh surrenders .... 2 April, ,, 

Tantia Topee taken, 7 April ; hanged . 18 April. „ 

Thanksgiving in England for pacification of India 

1 May, ,, 

Mutinous conduct of British troops lately in the 
company's service at Meerut and other places, on 
account of their transfer to the queen's service 
without bounty 5 May, ,, 

Sir Hope Grant defeats Nana Sahib in the Jorwah 
pass 23 May, ,, 

A court of inquiry appointed . . . June, ,, 

Sir Chas. Wood becomes sec. for India . 22 June, ,, 

Dissatisfaction among the troops at their transfer 
from the service of the company to that of the 
crown, without a bounty, settled by discharge 
offered to them, which about 10,000 accept July, „ 

Thanksgiving day 1 observed in India . . 28 July, , 

An income tax bill (called " the Trades' and Pro- 
fessions' Licensing Bill ") passes the legislative 
council ; great meetings at Calcutta and Madras 
protesting against it Sept. „ 

Rajah Jey-loll Singh hanged . . . 1 Oct. ,, 

Nana Sahib, in force, in Nepaul on the frontiers of 
Oude Oct. „ 

Insurgents in Nepaul dispersed . . 24 Dec. ,, 

Important financial changes made by Mr. James 
Wilson, new finance secretary . . . Feb. i860 

Company formed to obtain cotton, flax, &c. , from 
India . March, ,, 

Paper currency determined on . . March, ,, 

Bahadoor Khan, ex-king of Bareilly, hanged for 
murders caused by him . . . .2 March, ,, 

Sir Chas. Trevelyan recalled from Madras, for pub- 
lishing a government minute against Mr. Wilson's 
commercial scheme May, ,, 

Sir Hugh Rose takes command of the Indian army, 
amalgamated with the British . . July, ,, 

Lord Clyde arrives in London . . 18 July, ,, 

Lord Canning's recommendation that the adopted 
successors of Indian princes should be recognised 
agreed to by the home government . 21 July, ,, 

Death of sir H. Ward, new governor at Madras, 
3 Aug. ; and of Mr. James Wilson . .11 Aug. ,, 

Nana Sahib, supposed to have died of jungle fever 
in Aug. 1858, is said to be living in Tibet . Dec. ,, 

Mutiny of 5th European regiment at Dinapore, sup- 
pressed ; breaks out again, 5 Oct. ; is again sup- 
pressed, fm. Johnson shot, and the regiment dis- 
banded 13 Nov. ,, 

British troops repulsed in Sikkim . . Nov. ,, 

Agitation against the income tax suppressed at 
Bombay and other places .... Dec. ,, 

Excitement against sir Chas. Wood's grant of 
520,000?. to descendants of Tippoo Sahib . Dec. ,, 

Mr. Samuel Laing, successor to Mr. James Wilson, 
arrives . 10 Jan. 1861 

Awful famine in N.W. provinces through failure 
of the crops : immense exertions of the govern- 
ment ami others to relieve the sufferers, 

Jan. -June, ,, 

Expedition marches against Sikkim ; natives retire 

Feb. „ 

Disturbances in the indigo districts . . March, ,, 

Kootoob-ood-deen, grandson of Tippoo Sahib, mur- 
dered by his servants . . . . 31 March, ,, 



INDIA. 



639 



INDIA. 



British subscriptions for relief of the famine com- 
mence at the Mansion-house, London, with 4000?. , 
28 March ; 52,000?. subscribed 20 April ; closes 
with 114,807? Nov. 

Order of the " Star of India" {which see) constituted 

25 June, 

Excitement through the printing and circulation of 
" Nil Darpan," a Hindu drama libelling the indigo 
planters June, 

The rev. James Long, the translator, sentenced to 
fine and imprisonment Aug. 

New Indian council and new high court of judicature 
established Aug. 

Mr. J. P. Grant, lieut. -governor of Bengal (who had 
authorised the translation of " Nil Darpan ") and 
Mr. Seton Kerr, his secretary (who had, without 
authority, distributed copies) are censured and 
resign Sept. 

Law of property in India altered ; sale of waste 
lands authorised Oct. 

Lords Harris and Clyde, sir J. Lawrence, Dhuleep 
Singh, and others invested with the Star of India 
by the queen 1 Nov. 

Reported prosperity of Indian finances ; licence tax 
not to be reimposed 31 Dec. 

First meeting of new legislative council ; includes 
several Indian princes . . . .18 Jan. 

Lord Elgin, new governor-general, installed at Cal- 
cutta 12 March, 

Lord Canning arrives at Southampton, 26 April ; 
dies . . . . - . . .17 June, 

Mr. S. Laing returns to England through ill health ; 
censured by sir C. Wood ; he justifies himself and 
resigns July, 

High court of judicature at Bengal inaugurated 

12 July, 

Reported suspension of sale of waste lands Aug. 

Rao Sahib hanged for murders during the revolt 

8 Sept. 

Great increase in the cultivation of cotton in India, 
reported Oct. 

Sir Charles Trevelyan, new finance minister, arrives 

8 Jan. 

First agricultural exhibition at Calcutta 19-30 Jan. 

Rise of Ram Singh, a fanatic, in N. W. provinces Oct. 

War with warlike hill-tribes on the N.W. frontiers, 
Oct. ; severe conflict, gen. Chamberlain wounded, 
20 Nov. ; command assumed by major-gen. John 
Garvock, who totally defeated the enemy (about 
15,000) in Chamta pass, 15, 16 Dec. ; war ended 

29 Dec. 

The Hindu religion deprived of government support 

Dec. 

Death of the viceroy, lord Elgin . . 20 Nov 

Sir John Lawrence, his successor, assumes office 

12 Jan. 

Excitement amongst the Hindoos on account of go- 
vernment suppressing funeral rites on sanitary 
grounds March. 

Prosperous financial statement of sir Charles Tre- 
velyan April, 

Mr. Ashley Eden, envoy at Bhootan, seized and 
compelled to sign a treaty giving up Assam 

about April, 

Gold currency (a sovereign = 10 rupees) ordered to 
be introduced at Christinas . . . July, 

Terrific cyclone— immense loss of life, property, and 
ships at Calcutta and elsewhere . . .5 Oct. 

Grand durbar, held by sir John Lawrence, at La- 
hore ; 604 native princes present . . 18 Oct. 

War with the Bhootanese- -fortress of Dhalimcote 
taken 12 Dec. 

Much commercial speculation at Bombay Dec. 

The Bhootanese attack on Dewangiri repulsed 
with severe loss, 29 Jan. , evacuated by the British 

Feb. 

Opening of the Indo-European telegraph — a tele- 
gram from Kurrachee received . . 1 March, 

W. Massey succeeds sir C. Trevelyan as finance 

minister; he arrives at Calcutta . 31 March, 

Sir Charles Trevelyan declares a large deficit in the 

revenue 1 April, 

Dewangiri recaptured by gen. Tombs . 2 April, 

Sir Hugh Rose retires from command of the army ; 

which is assumed by sirWm. Mansfield, 23 April, 

Sir Charles Trevelyan's plans reversed by sir C. 

Wood . . . . . . May, 



1863 



Death of the able and beneficent hon. Juggonath 
Sunkersett, the recognised representative of the 1865 
Hindoo community . . . 31 July, 

Negotiation with the Bhootanese . . July', 

Shipwreck of the Eagle Speed near Calcutta ; 265 
coolies perish through neglect . . 24 Aug. 

Peace with the Bhootanese signed . . 13 Nov. 

Much dissatisfaction at mildewed cotton goods 
being received from England . . July-Oct. ,, 

Settlement of the question respecting marriage of 
Hindoo converts April, 1866 

"Simla Scandal." Trial of capt. E. Jervis ; ac- 
quitted on charge of peculation of stores belong- 
ing to sir W. Mansfield, commander-in-chief, but 
condemned for insubordination ; sentence (dis- 
missal from the service) approved by sir W. 
Mansfield I? Sept. ,, 

Awful famine in Orissa, Bengal ; about 1,500,000 
perished Aug. -Nov. „ 

Relief by Government Oct. 

Dr. Cotton, bishop of Calcutta, accidentally drowned 

6 Oct. „ 

Famine abating ; official inquiry ordered . Nov. 

Great durbar held at Agra, by sir J. Lawrence 

10-20 Nov. ,, 

Simla case ; sentence against capt. Jervis confirmed, 
and sir W. Mansfield censured by the duke of 
Cambridge, by letter dated ... 17 Jan. 1867 

Deficiencies in the revenue ; Massey's proposed new- 
licence tax much opposed . . April & May, 

False rumour of mutiny at Meerut . . 20 May] 

Report on Orissa famine ; authorities blamed, June' 

Deficiency in revenue for 1867, 2,400,000?. reported 

Aug. 

Massacre of Hindoo chiefs by the nawab of Tonk 
(for which he was deposed) . . . T Aug. 

Grand durbar at Lucknow . . . - I7 Nov! " 

The fierce Wagheers of Katty war, in a night attack] 
are nearly exterminated ; capts. Hibbert and La 
Touche killed 2 g Dec. 

Mr. Massey's budget ; surplus of 800,000?. ; licence " 
tax abolished, tax on trades, <&c. , substituted ; ex- 
penditure of 1,700,000?. on public works proposed 

14 March, 1868 

War on the N.W. frontier; the Bazotees, fanatical 
Mahometans, defeated by general Wilde; 30 killed 
and wounded ; all dispersed, 4 Oct. ; villages burnt 
as punishment for outrages . . . Oct. 

Death of the begum of Bhopal, who helped the 
British during the mutiny . . .30 Aug. 

The duke of Argyll secretary for India . 9 Dec. 

Arrival of the earl of Mayo, the new viceroy, at ' 
Calcutta I2 j an- l86g 

Severe famine 1868-g 

Sir R. Temple's budget; deficiency of about 
2,750,000?. ; a 1 per cent, income tax put on 
(excessively opposed) .... March, 1869 

Meeting of the viceroy and Shere Ah, the Afghan 
sovereign, who receives a subsidy and presents 

27 March, „ 

New divorce act in operation . . . r April, 

Rise of a body of Indian religious reformers termed 
the Brahmo Somaj (see Deism) . . . Aug. 

Act for the better governing India and defining the 
governor-general's powers passed . x 1 Aug. 

India visited by the duke of Edinburgh, Dec. 1869- ' 

April, 1870 

Railway between Calcutta and Bombay completed 

March, 

Announced deficiency in the revenue; increased 
taxation proposed; much opposition to the in- 
come tax .... . May, 

Grand durbar at Bhurtpore . . .10 Oct.' 

Indian coinage act passed 

Lamented death of sir H. Durand, from fall from an. " 
elephant z Jan . l8 

Sir Proby Cautley, designed Ganges canal works, 
&c, died, aged 68 25 Jan. 

Volunteer system proposed for India . . Jan! " 
Indian finance committee appointed . . Feb. 

Sir R. Temple's budget .... 9 March] 

Moulvi Liakat Ali, a cruel rebel who in 1857 ruled 

as viceroy at Allahabad, apprehended . 5 July, 

Indian civil engineering college, Cooper's-hill, opened 

by the duke of Argyll, secretary for India, 5 Aug. „ 
Justice Norman stabbed at Calcutta, 20 Sept. ; dies 
21 Sept. ; assassin convicted, 28 Sept. ; executed 

4 Nov. „ 



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640 



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Much corrupt opposition to the income tax reported 

Nov. 1 871 

Lord Mayo visits Palumpore fair, and holds a rural 
durbar 6 Nov. ,, 

Military expedition under generals Nutthall and 
Bourchier, aided by the rajan of Munnipore, against 
the Looshais, about 13 Nov. ; skirmishes, 1 Dec. „ 

Death of the earl of Ellenborough, a late governor- 
general (see Somnath) .... 22 Dec. „ 

Skirmishes with the Looshais, 21, 23 Dec. ; they 
sue for peace 29 Dec. ,, 

The king of Siam visits Calcutta . . 7-12 Jan. 1872 

Outbreak of the Kookas, near Loodiana, severely 
suppressed by commissioners Cowan and Forsyth 
(see Kookas) 15-17 Jan. „ 

Camp at Delhi ; military manoeuvres, by sir H. 
Tombs and others .... 13-23 Jan. ,, 

Looshais repulsed and strongholds taken 28 Jan. „ 

The viceroy arrives at Rangoon, 28 Jan. ; on his 
return he visits the convict establishment in the 
Andaman Islands, and is assassinated at Port 
Blair by Shere Ali, a convict, while about to 
embark in the Glasgow ... 8 Feb. ,, 

Lord Napier acts as viceroy . . .23 Feb. ,, 

Looshais surrender unconditionally ; army returning 

28 Feb. „ 

The Kamous tribe, while carrying off Looshai cap- 
tives, defeated, and captives rescued ; British re- 
turning to Calcutta .... 7 March, ,, 

Shere Ali hanged, without confessing associates, 

12 March, ,, 

Annual pension from Indian government to lady 
Mayo, 1000?. ; grant of 20,000?. for children, 

March, ,, 

Sir Richard Temple's budget favourable ; income 
tax to be reduced April, ,, 

Lord North brook sworn in as viceroy . 3 May, ,, 

Liakat Ali, on confession, condemned to transporta- 
tion for life .... 27 July „ 

Christian marriage bill passed . . . July, ,, 

The begum of Bhopal made a knight of the Star of 
India at Bombay . . . . 16 Nov. ,, 

Changes in criminal procedure ; compromise in ,, 

The income tax not renewed . . . 21 March, 1873 

Riots of the Moplahs, Mahometan fanatics, on 
coast of Malabar, suppressed by military ; about 

13, 14 Sept. „ 

New tax (road cess) reported successful . Oct. ,, 

Messrs. Bernard, Gedttes, and Robinson appointed 
commissioners in anticipation of famine in 
Bengal Nov. ,, 

Sir R. Temple appointed superintendent of relief 
in Behar Jan. 1874 

15 districts (25,000,000 inhabitants) much dis- 
tressed; 11 districts (14,000,000) affected 

middle of Jan. ,, 

Subscriptions at Mansion-house (which see), London 

begun 24 Jan ,, 

1,000?. given by the Queen .... 4 Feb. ,, 

Tliemarquis of Salisbury secretary for India, 21 Feb. ,, 

Report from Calcutta: " people well employed on 
public works ; no adult should die now from 
starvation" 25 March, ,, 

A loan, not exceeding 10,000,000?. for India Govern- 
ment authorised by parliament . . 30 March, „ 

Sir R. Temple installed lieut.-gov. of Bengal iu 
room of sir George Campbell : about 500 deaths 
from disease and hunger reported, about 8 April, ,, 

The famine kept under ; estimated net expendi- 
ture on relief, 6,500,002/. (see Mansion-house) May, „ 

Crisis of famine past; reported declining; much 
rain ; good prospects .... June, ,, 

Only 24 deaths from famine alone ; 125,000?. raised 
for relief in London .... 27 July, ,, 

Abundance of rain Sept. ,, 

Sadun K ban, a cruel leader in the mutiny, sen- 
tenced to death Sept. „ 

A person said to be Nana Saliib captured at Gwalior 
by the Maharajah Scindia (identity since ^dis- 
proved) 



Oct. 



Attempts to poison col. Phayre, resident at Baroda, 

Nov. ; he is replaced by col. Pelly . . Dec. 

Outrages of Dufflatribes on X. W. frontier (trouble- 

-9; 1852; Feb. 1873); expedition against 



them 



lire 



Mulhar Rao, gaekwar of Baroda, carried to Calcutta 
for trial for attempting to poison col. Phayre ; 
his child recognised as his successor, provision- 
ally 14 Jan. 

The Duffta tribes surrender and pay tine . 29 Jan. 

The gaekwar's trial begins, 3 native judges (Scin- 

diah, the maharajah of Jeypore, and one other) 

and 3 British 23 Feb. 

Lieut. Holcombe and a surveying party (about 70) 

in Assam, massacred by Naga natives 

about 24 Feb. 
Close of inquiry into the conduct of the gaekwar 
of Baroda ; verdict of 3 British judges, guilty ; ot 
3 natives, not proved ; 30 March ; he is deposed 
for misgovernment by the viceroy, and ordered 
to live in British India with suitable provision ; 
proclamation that a successor be appointed 

23 April, 
Naga tribes chastised severely ; the objects of the 
expedition accomplished . . 15-25 March, 
Eldest son of the gaekwar appointed successor 

22 May, 
Difficulties with Burmah .... May, 
Mission of sir Douglas Forsyth to Mandalay (see 

Burmah) June, 

New gaekwar of Baroda installed . . 3 June, 
Establishment of a new Mahometan college for the 
N. W. provinces (chiefly by Ahmed Khan) ; an- 
nounced July, 

Dispatch from marquis of Salisbury on repeal of 

cotton duties . . ... Sept. 

The Prince of Wales sails for India, 11 Oct., arrives 

at Bombay, 8 Nov. ; warmly received at Baroda, 

9 Nov. ; at Goa, 27 Nov. ; in Ceylon, 1-8 Dec. ; 

at Madras, 13 Dec. ; at Calcutta, 23 Dec. ; grand 

reception of Indian potentates . . 24 Dec. 

Unveiled statue of Lord Mayo at Calcutta . 1 Jan. 

At Benares, Lucknow, <fec, 5 Jan. et seq.; in Nepaul, 

12 Feb. ; sails from Bombay . . 13 March, 

Lord Lytton, new viceroy, takes oath at Calcutta. 

12 April, 
The Queen proclaimed Empress of India in London 

1 May, 
Indian finances : deficiency through depreciation 
of silver currency; loss about 2,300,000/. , pro- 
posed loan of 4,000,000?. . . . 11 Aug. 
Vice-regal proclamation of the Queen's title, 
" Empress of India ; " (to be proclaimed at Delhi, 

1 Jan., 1S77) 19 Aug. 

Sir John Strachey appointed financial minister, 
about 17 Oct. ; governor of N.W. Provinces, Nov. 
At Agra Mr. Fuller slapped for neglect a native 
servant, 31 Oct. 1875, who died soon after; he 
was fined by a magistrate ; sentence considered 
too light by the high court ; the viceroy in a 
minute censured all ; this caused much dissatis- 
faction (lord Salisbury supported the viceroy, 

1877) July, 

Famine in Bombay, Madras, &c. . Nov., Dec. 
Proclamation of the queen as empress of India 
with much magnificence at Delhi, by the viceroy; 
also at Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay 1 Jan. 
Creation of the " Order of the Empire of India" an- 
nounced 1 Jan. 

Sir R. Temple removed from Bengal to Bombay 

19 Jan. 
Relief works organizing, favourable reports an- 
nounced 29 April, 

The raids of the Affreedis on N.W. frontiers sup- 
pressed ; announced . . end of April, 
Famine formidable, but energetically met June, 
Misery increasing; establishment of "Mansion- 
house relief fund " (which see) . 12 Aug. 
The secretary for India authorised by parliament 
to raise a loan for 5,000,000?. . . 14 Aug. 
919,771 employed by government ; 1,326,971 relieved 
gratuitously ; reported ... 29 Aug. 
Disturbances on N.W. frontier; raids of the Jawa- 
kies, or Jowakies, an Affreedi tribe ; chastised 
by expedition under sir Rd. Pollock, 29, 30 Aug. ; 
again by gen. Keyes .... Nov. 
Copious rain ill the south reported; greatly im- 
proved (■inspects . . . Sept., Oct. 

Formation of a new X.W. government proposed 

Oct., Nov. 

Mansion-house Indian fund closed, by request of 

the duke of Buckingham. (by telegram) 5 Nov. 



1S77 



INDIA. 



641 



INDIA. 



■Jummu, the Jawakies' stronghold, taken ; they 
are defeated and dispersed . Nov., Dec. 1877 

•Sir John Strachey's budget; 1.500,000/. to be 
raised annually for famines (they cost 16,000,000/. 
in live years) ; taxation raised ; trade licences, 
&c. Dec. ,, 

*" Imperial Order of the Crown of India," for ladies ; 
instituted 31 Dec. ,, 

The Jawakies defeated by cavalry, 15 Feb. ; sur- 
render unconditionally ; announced 22 Feb. 1878 

Bill to restrain licence of the native press, passed 
by the council at Calcutta . . 14 March, „ 

The Indian press commission to help and control 
the press, established ,, 

Budget; cost of famine about 3,450,000/. March, ,, 

Native Indian troops sent to Malta, April; com- 
mended by the duke of Cambridge, June ; re- 
moved to Cyprus .... Aug. ,, 

War with Afghanistan (which see) . . Sept. ,, 

England now holds the passes through which India 
is accessible by land .... Feb. 1879 

Revenue— Gross receipts, 65,207,694?. . . . 1878-9 
Expenditure, 67,545,201/. . . . ,, 

S545 miles of railways opened (expenditure about 
120,000,000/.) up to . . . .31 March, 1879 

Treaty of peace signed at Gandamuk (which see), 

26 May, ,, 

Indian railways guarantee act passed . 11 Aug. „ 

Loan of sum under 5,000,000/. for India ; authorized 
by act 15 Aug. ,, 

Disaffection and plundering of the Eumpa hill tribes, 
Aug. ; subdued Oct-. ,, 

Mutiny and massacres at Cabul (see Afghanistan), 

Sept. „ 

Murder of Mr. Damant, commissioner, in Naga 
hills by natives, during an outbreak . 14 Oct. ,, 

New stringent rules for newspaper correspondents 
with army ; issued Oct. „ 

Lord Lytton fired at by Busa, a half-mad, intoxi- 
cated East Indian ; no injury . . 12 Dec. ,, 

Rumpa rebellion in Central India dying out ; several 
defeats of rebels ,, 

Naga raids and murders .... Jan. 1880 

Indian budget, by sir John Strachey, surplus of 
119,000/. reported 24 Feb. ,, 

Marquis of Ripon, new viceroy, arrives at Calcutta ; 
col. Gordon, his secretary ,, 

Errors in the budget, through mistakes in esti- 
mating Afghan war expenses ; large deficiency ; 
announced May ; sir John Strachey resigns (suc- 
ceeded by major Baring) . . . June, ,, 

Deficiency stated to be about 900,000/. by marquis 
of Hartington 5 July, ,, 

By a landslip the hill station Nynee Tal or Naini 
Tal, in the Himalayas, destroyed ; many lives lost 
(see Landslips) 18 Sept. „ 

Sir Donald Stewart appointed commander-in-chief 
of the Indian army .... Jan. 1881 

Death of Gholam Hussein Khan, able and faithful 
friend to the British .... March, ,, 

War declared against the Wazaris, 12 April ; ends 
with their submission . . . about 8 May, ,, 

Proposals for loan of 3,000,000/. , issued, 27 June, „ 

Budget introduced by the marquis of Hartington ; 
revenue, 68,484,666/. ; expenditure, 69,667,615/. ; 
deficit, 1,182,949/ 22 Aug. „ 

The budget for 1882-3 — Revenue, 66,439,000/. 9 Mar. 1882 
Expenditure, 66,174,000/. . ,, 

The Indian contingent distinguished in Egyptian 
war Aug.— Sept. ,, 

Officers visit London .... Nov. ,, 

The Sirhind canal (502 miles, for irrigation) opened 
by the viceroy 24 Nov. ,, 

Mr. llbert's Criminal Procedure Amendment bill 
strongly opposed by all the non-official Europeans \ 
and the army throughout India ; very great 
meeting at Calcutta .... 28 Feb. 1883 

European and Anglo-Indian defence association, 
Calcutta, formed ; first meeting . 29 March, „ 

An Anglo-Indian association for the natives formed 
in London April, „ 

Mr. Banerjee, editor of the Bengalee, sentenced to 
two months' imprisonment for gross libel against 
judge Norris ; great excitement of Hindoos, 
monster meeting at Calcutta [appeal refused in 
England, July] . . . about 11 May, ,, 

Dreadful inundation in Cachar, N.E. Calcutta, caus- 
ing great distress ; prompt British help 16 May, „ 



Major Baring succeeded by sir Auckland Colvin as 
finance minister July, 1883 

High courts of Bombay and Madras favour, that of 
Calcutta opposes, the Ilbert bill . July — Aug. „ 

Abundant food supply and great prosperity Oct. „ 

Ilbert bill : compromise announced ; Europeans 
allowed to claim a jury wholly or partly European 

21 Dec. ,, 
Akha raids into Assam ; major Beresford's forces 

repulsed 24 Dec. ,, 

Budget — revenue 71,727,000/ 1883-4 

expenditure, 70,340,000/ „ 

The Akhas dispersed by gen. Hill . . 8 Jan. 1884 

He returns Jan. „ 

Ilbert bill amended and passed . . 25 Jan. ,, 
Great increase of cultivation and exports through 

railways since 1848. 
Exports : 25,000,000/. raised to 147,837,920/. in 1883 

announced ,, 
Indian budget: finances sound and improving, 8 Aug. „ 
Expedition to the Zhob valley to punish the Kakar 

Pathans for their raids into British territory 

about 22 Sept. ,, 
They are defeated by gen. Tanner ; 56 killed 23 Oct. ,, 
No resistance reported, 6 Nov.; troops return 

22 Nov. ,, 
Up wards of 1000 addresses from natives to the 

marquis of Ripon on his leaving India . Nov. „ 

Earl of Dufferin installed viceroy at Calcutta 13 Dec. ,, 

Budget — revenue, 70,690,681/ 1884-5 

expenditure, 71,077,127/ ,, 

Important Bengal tenancy bill passed 11 March, 1885 

Sir A. Colvin's budget ; combined surplus of 3 years 
(1882-5), 1,378,000/. ; lessened by depreciation of 
silver currency ; revenue for 1885-6, 73,508,100/. ; 
expenditure, 1885-6, 76,488,960/. . . 17 March, „ 

Sir Donald Stewart, with 50,000 men, ordered to 
advance to Quetta March, ,, 

Meeting of the Ameer of Afghanistan and the viceroy 
at Rawul Pindi conference and durbar 2-12 April, ,, 

The nawab of Moorshedabad and other princes offer 
to sell their jewels, &c, to provide money to aid 
the British government in India against Russia 

April-May, ,, 

Thorough defence of India determined on by the 
British government, declared . . 12 May, ,, 

Proposed loan of 10,000,000/. 21 May et seq. ; act 
passed 22 July, „ 

The formation of native volunteer corps under the 
commander-in-chief .... May, ,, 

Lord Randolph Churchill appointed secretary for 
India 24 June, ,, 

Sir Frederick Roberts appointed commander-in- 
chief ; announced 30 July, ,, 

National congress of 71 delegates (principally law- 
yers, schoolmasters, and editors, not Mahometans) 
meet at Bombay, express great loyalty to the 
queen, and pass nine resolutions to endeavour 
to obtain a royal commission of inquiry and 
increased political power . . end of Dec. ,, 

Grand military review at Delhi held by the viceroy 
(35,000 troops, 709 officers, &c.) . . 19 Jan. 1886 

Lady Dufferin's fund for providing female medical 
practitioners for the natives of India, highly 
successful 1885-6 

Upper Burmah annexed by proclamation of the 
viceroy, lord Dufferin . . . .1 Jan. 1886 

Powerful speech of lord Dufferin ; deficit of about 
2,000,000/. through war preparations, &c. ; pro- 
posed increase of income-tax . . 4 Jan. ,, 

Income-tax bill passed .... 29 Jan. ,, 

Earl of Kimberley appointed secretary for India, 

about 6 Feb. ,, 

Sir A. Colvin's budget, 1886-7 ! revenue, 75,793,700/. ; 
expenditure 7^,616,500/. ... 24 March, ,, 

Sir Richard, aft. viscount Cross, appointed secretary 
for India July, ,, 

National Indian congress at Calcutta, 400 delegates 
(Hindoos) to promote native advancement, 28 
Dec. 1886 ; and again early in ... . 1887 

The queen's jubilee celebrated with great magnifi- 
cence ; honours distributed ; 25,000 prisoners of 
good character released . . 16 Feb. et seq. „ 

Maharajah of Indore and many Indian princes 
present at the jubilee celebration in Westminster 
Abbey 21 June, ,, 

13,390 miles of railway in India ; reported . . . ,, 

T T 



INDIA. 



642 



INDIA. 



The nizam of Hyderabad in a letter to lord Dufferin 
the viceroy, offers to present 20 lakhs of 
rupees for three years, total 6oo,oooZ., for the 
defence of the N.W territories, Sept. ; acknow- 
ledged with thanks ; announced . 10 Oct. 1 

The rajah of Kaparthala offers his army and five 
lakhs of rupees for the defence of India ; 
announced 31 Oct. 

Four lakhs offered by rajah of Nabha . . Nov. 

Similar offers by other princes . . . Nov. 

Subscriptions to lady Dufferin's jubilee fund in 
support of the national association for supplying 
female medical aid amounts to 478,465 rupees in 
India, and 1,770^. in England 15 Oct.; amount 
received 50,000^ 25 Oct. 

Districts in Beloochistan annexed (which see) 
announced Nov. 

India 4 per cent, stock converted into 3J per cent, 
by act 23 May, 

The maharajah of Darbhanga in Bengal, establishes 
a female medical hospital in aid of lady Dufferin's 
fund autumn, 

Military demonstration against Sikkim (which see) 
ordered 24. Jan. 1 

Budget 1887-8 ; great deficit ; tax on petroleum 
and increase of salt duty proposed Jan. ; passed 

10 Feb. 

Lord Dufferin, the viceroy, announces his i ntention 
of resigning, for private reasons . . 9 Feb. 

Moderate National Indian Congress at Madras 
recommends representative institutions, &c. Feb. 

Major L. R. Battye and captain H. B. Urmiston 
and five Sepoys killed by the Akozais during an 
exploration on British territory near Black 
Mountain, N.W. frontier . . . iq June, 

Black Mountain expedition, or " The Hazara 
Field Force " under general McQueen to avenge 
the outrage of 19 June ; organised Sept. ; advance, 
seizure of Manakadana 4 Oct. ; the enemy defeated 
with the loss of 200 men by gen. Galbraith ; 
guerrilla warfare ; British success at Kotkai with 
slight loss 5 Oct. ; villages burnt, enemy retiring ; 
British casualties, 59 killed and wounded 9 Oct. ; 
gen. McQueen advances 18 Oct. ; more villages 
burnt ; col. Crookshank dies of wounds 24 Oct. ; 
the tribes submit and pay fines 21-30 Oct. ; 
Gorapher peak of the Chaila mountains, 9, 500 feet, 
taken by gen Channel' 2 Nov. ; return com- 
menced s Nov. ; final submission announced 

18 Nov. , 

Lord Dufferin at a durbar at Patiala announces 
the decision of the government to decline the 
acceptance of money from the princes ; but 
recommends to raise the character of their armies 
and so to fit them to combine with the British 
for defence of India .... 18 Nov. 

Farewell address of 700 native ladies presented to 
lady Dufferin privately ... 4 Dee. 

Installation of the marquis of Lansdowne as 
viceroy ; departure of lord Dufferin . 10 Dec. 

Raid of Lushais on the Chittagong boi'derannounced 

23 Dec. 

Native Indian congress at Allahabad (moderate 
and illogical) opened . . . .26 Dec. 

Fortress of Quetta, a bulwark of India, finished 

Jan. 1 

Raid of Chittagong hill tribes on British territory 
near Tipperah, 24 villages destroyed, above 100 
British subjects killed and 91 carried off' prisoners, 
announced 28 Jan. 

Sukkur bridge opened . . . .27 March, 

Mr. Arthur Travel's Crawford, an able commissioner 
for 34 years in Bombay, after a long investiga- 
tion, was acquitted of serious charges of financial 
misconduct, but was for indiscreet borrowing 
dismissed the service. After some correspondence 
the sentence was confirmed by lord Cross, secre- 
tary for India, in a despatch . . 29 March, 

Military expedition sent to chastise the hill tribes 
for their raids and the murder of lieut. Steward ; 
object effected ; reported . . . April, 

Proposal for a new 4 per cent, loan (20,000,000 

rupee's) issued 1 July, 

Subscription list closed .... 30 July, , 



Lord Reay's condoning the native Bombay officials, 
who confessed themselves guilty of bribery and 
corruption in relation to the Crawford case, much 
censured, but eventually approved by the govern- 
ment Sept. 1889 

Tantia Bheel, robber chief of the central provinces, 
a kind of Robin Hood, -in the Holkar territory 
began his career about 1874 ; robbed the rich and 
helped the poor ; lately suffered much, captured 
about 18 Aug., convicted of murder (in 1879), 
about 20 Oct., executed at Jubbulpore . 4 Dec. ,, 
Tour of the viceroy in the N.W. provinces, Oct. ; 

a durbar held at Quetta . . . .19 Nov. ,, 
5th native Indian Congress meets at Bombay (Mr. 

Bradlaugh present) . . . 26 Dec. et seq. ,, 
Military expedition of sir R. O. Sandeman to pro- 
mote commerce by opening a road through the 
Zhob districts, N.W. frontier, reported success- 
ful without bloodshed .... 2 Feb. 1890 
Treaty with China respecting Sikkim, which see, 

signed 17 March, ,, 

Sir David Barbour's budget presented ; a large 

surplus 21 March, ,, 

Prince Albert Victor of Wales received at Bombay 
by the duke of Connaught and lord Reay ; Hy- 
derabad, 15 Nov. ; Madras, 19 Nov. ; Mysore, 23 
Nov. ; Rangoon, 20 Dec. ; Mandalay, 24 Dec, 
1889 ; Calcutta, received by the viceroy, 3 Jan. 
1890; Benares, 14 Jan.; Lucknow, 18 Jan.; 
N.W. provinces, 20 Jan. et seq. ; Lahore, 25 Jan. ; 
Khyber pass, 31 Jan. ; Delhi, 9 Feb. ; Bombay, 
22 March ; embarked for home . 28 March, ,, 
Expeditions (organised by gen. Gordon) to chas- 
tise the Chins and Lushais for their raids, and to 
form a road connecting Upper Burmah and Lower 
Bengal ; gen. Symons proceeds from the east, 
gen. Tregear from the west, to form a junction, 
Jan. ; the resistance generally feeble ; the troops 
at times suffered much by disease ; the Yokwa 
Chins submit to gen. Symons, 10 Jan. : peaceful 
surrender of Mongpunga or Lienpunga, a Lushai 
chief ; construction of road proceeding ; recon- 
naissances and skirmishes ; 200 Hakas submit, 
two villages burnt ; health of troops improved ; 
junction of the two parties reported, Feb. . . ,, 
Guerilla warfare ; Haka chiefs submit . about 

22 March, ,, 
The Tashon chiefs submit to gen. Symons and pay 
fine and tribute . . reported 24 March, 
Major Gordon-Cumming on convoy duty, shot 

dead, from an ambuscade . about 24 March, , 
Ten days' reconnaissance of gen. Symons south- 
ward ; col. Tregear at Haka . 13-16 April, ,, 
The. new road to Haka completed connecting Bur- 
mah and India ; Haka and other posts garrisoned 

reported 20 April, „ 
Gen. Symons and the expedition return to India . 

1 May etseq. ,, 
Submission of Malliam-pai chiefs to gen. Tregear; 

raiding to cease, roads to be made, &c. 20 May, ,, 
Increased agitation in India and England against 

Hindoo child marriages .... Aug. ,, 
Revolution at Manipur . . . . 21 Sept. ,, 
Insurrection in Cambay with bloodshed, the nawab 
appeals to the British for help : they restore 

order reported 23 Sept. ,, 

[Major Kennedy, a political officer, was autho- 
rised to redress grievances, reform the finances, 
&c, Jan. 1891.] 

Insurrection in Manipur in N.E. state; the Maha- 
rajah abdicates in favour of his brother, who had 
seized the palace, ifae. . . . 21-24 Sept. ,, 
Eruption of the Lushais near Dalleswary river ; 
capt. Herbert Browne killed, reinforcements sent 

reported 12 Sept. ,, 
Lieut. Swinton killed in an attack . . 2 Oct. ,, 
The Black Mountain Expedition under gen. sir J. 

jr. M'Queen starts, 22 (let. ; returns . 3 Nov. ,, 
The Zhob valley expedition under gen. White arrives 

at Port Sandeman 30 Oct. ,, 

Ultimatum sent ; skirmish ... 30 Oct. ,, 

Tin' tribes submit . . . reported 12 Nov. ,, 

The Lushai party under capt. Shakespear and 

Mr. Pughe advance to Jadunas village, 34 miles 

W. of Port White, 6 Nov. ; returns successful . 

20 Nov. ,, 



INDIA. 



643 



INDIA. 



Tour of the viceroy in the N.W., he visits Delhi, 
&c, Nov. ; holds a durbar at Agra, 24 Nov. ; 
Benares 4 Dec. 1890 

Indian Factory commission ; report with recom- 
mendations issued .... early Dec. ,, 

The principal Lushai chiefs surrender uncondi- 
tionally 9 Dec. ,, 

The 6th National Congress of mixed character, no 
government officials present, 26-30 Dec. 1890 ; 
sir A. Scoble introduces a bill into the legislative 
council to raise the age of consent to marriage by 
girls from 10 to 12 9 Jan. 1891 

Capt. Rundall with 200 rifles marches to Lushailand 

about 22 Jan. ,, 

A strong force marches against the marauding 
tribes of the Miranzai valley on the N. W. frontier 

about 30 Jan. „ 

Several tribes submit . about 16 Feb. ct seq. ,, 

Mukkmudin, principal chief of the Rubbia Kheyl 
tribe, surrenders, reported 19 Feb. ; the force re- 
turns - about 24 Feb. ,, 

The important factory bill for the protection of 
women and children passed . . 19 March, ,, 

After much public discussion, the " age of consent 
to marriage bill" is passed by the legislative 
council 19 March, ,, 

Disastrous expedition to Manipur, which see 

March, ,, 

Sir D. Barbour's financial statement ; reported sur- 
plus, 20 March ; he recommends a commission to 
consider the currency and the introduction of a 
gold standard, &e March, ,, 

Black Mountain Expedition, N.W., undergen. Elles, 
two columns under col. Williamson and col. 
Hammond, starts about 15 Jan., crosses the 
frontier about 15 March, ,, 

The Ghazis attack the Pioneers, slight loss, 19 
March ; successful movement forward 26 March, ,, 

Sharp engagement, 9 soldiers killed . 5 April, ,, 

Road-making party attacked, 14 sepoys killed 

reported 7 April, ,, 

Bridge of boats over the Indus, broken up 

about 20 April, ,, 

The party ascend the Machai peak, 9,800 feet high, 
a few shots exchanged, 18 April ; difficult travel- 
ling, severe weather, April ; huts to be con- 
structed for the troops .... May, ,, 

The country evacuated by the British . . Dec. ,, 

Miranzai Valley Expedition. — Sir W. Lockhartwith 
7,000 men at Kohat preparing to resist the Orak- 
zais and other tribes (Pathans and Afreedes) ; 
sudden attack of the tribes repulsed by the Pun- 
jaub infantry, reported 12 April ; the Samana 
heights held by Syed Mir Basha, a fanatical 
priest ; the Mollahs preaching a jihad, which see 

reported 12 April, ,, 

Sir W. Lockhart with three columns captures some 
outposts, and clears the Samana ridge, col. 
Cramer and major Egerton severely wounded, 17, 
18, April ; successful righting ; the enemy dis- 
persed and villages burnt, 19, 20 April ; about 
300 Orakzais killed, they disperse, and other 
tribes retreat ... 21 April et seq. 

Sir W. Lockhart advances against the very aggres- 
sive Akhel tribe ; severe fighting, several villages 
destroyed 22 April, 

Samana range occupied ; several tribes submit 

April, May, 

Sir W. Lockhart advances to punish the Shekhans, 
29 April, their towers blown up ; various tribes 
submit, accepting conditions . . .3 May, 

The tribes restore stolen property, and seek for 
peace ; all opposition ceases, reported 12 May ; 
the troops ordered to return . . .17 May, 

A representative meeting of delegates agrees to re- 
solution to be sent to the viceroy condemning 
sir Joseph Pease's resolution respecting opium, 
adopted by the commons, 12 April (see Opium) 

12 May, 

Alarming deficiency of rain, especially in Madras, 

Rajputana, the Punjaub, and the south, middle 

of July ; supply of rain in north and north-west 

about 2 Aug. 

Trial of the Bangabasi newspaper for sedition con- 
cluded ; jury disagree ; no verdict, 24 Aug. , the 
defendants submit and apologise . . 23 Sept. 



A good supply of rain in Malabar and other places 
about 27 Sept. ] 

The N.W. provinces relieved . . . Sept. 

The Hunza and Nagar tribes oppose British road- 
making ; fighting ensues near Gilgil, N. of Cash- 
mere ; a fort of Nilt, taken by lieut.-col. Durand 
who is wounded ; several sepoys killed . 2 Dec- 
Further successes of capt. Colin Mackenzie, liev.t. 
Manners Smith and others near Nilt ; about 70 
natives killed ; other places occupied ; Jafar 
Khan of Nagar submits ; end of the war 

20-22 Dec. 

Seventh Indian National congress opened at Nag- 
pur with strong professions of loyalty 2S-30 Dec. 

Gen. sir Frederick Sleigh Roberts created a peer as 
Baron Roberts of Candahar . . . Feb. i 

M. Clement Thomas, governor-general of French 
India, received by the viceroy at Calcutta 

8 Jan. et seq. 

General mourning throughout India at the death of 
the duke of Clarence and Avondale . 14 Jan. 

Death of col. sir Robert Groves Sandeman, 29 Jan. ; 
eulogised by the viceroy in council (see Beloo- 
chistan) Feb. 

Increased gloom in the districts threatened by 
famine through want of rain . Feb., March, 

Total employed on relief works, 32,855 

early March, 

Sir Juland Danvers, able government director of 
Indian guaranteed railway companies for fifty 
years, retires 23 March, 

Famine relief works ; persons employed ; Madras, 
48,000 ; Bombay 2,000 ; Bengal, 17,000 ; Burma, 
28,000 ; Mysore, 13,000 ; Rajputana, 33,000 

reported 2 April, 

The Hunza-Nagar rising suppressed, and order re- 
stored .... reported 25 March, 

Desultory war with the Lushai tribes, the British 
under Mr. M'Cabe generally successful 

March, April, 

The Lushais attack the tea-estate at Boorooncherra 
and kill 52 coolies . . reported 4 April, 

Advance of capt. Shakespeare . . .April, 

Death of gen. sir Lewis Pelly, M.P., an able official, 
aged 67 22 April, 

Report of the Public service commission ; import- 
ant changes recommended . about 24 April, 

Extensive rising of the Lushai tribes ; several con- 
flicts, villages destroyed, about 24 April ; several 
chiefs surrender to Mr. M'Cabe, about 26 April ; 
tranquillity gradually restored . . 3-29 May, 

Rain in Bengal . . . end of April, May, 

71,000 total on relief works . . . 12 May, 

Themaharajah of Ulwar, enlightened and loyal, dies 

22 May, 

His heir 10 years old ; his minister assassinated 

reported 26 May, 

Indian Currency Association formed to promote 
the abolition of silver as the sole standard in 
India May, 

The maharajah gaekwar of Baroda dines with the 
queen at Windsor (see above, 1874-5) . 4 July, 

Good monsoon ; famine averted ; relief works 
diminished July, 

Value of the rupee reduced to is. 3d. ; great anxiety, 

Aug. 

Petition of the Currency Association to parlia- 
ment respecting the depreciation of the rupee ; 
largely signed at Calcutta, Bombay, Madras, &c, 

Aug. 

Earl of Kimberley appointed secretary for India, 

18 Aug. 

Expedition of 5,000 men (the Isazai field force) 

against the Black Mountain tribes ; organized 

under col. sir W. Lockhart marches . 1 Oct. 

Sir W. Lockhart occupies and destroys Baio, 5 Oct. ; 

the force returns, reported ... 8 Oct. 

The Indian Currency committee (lord chancellor 

Herschell, Mr. Leonard Courtney, sir Thomas 

Farrer, and others) meets ... 27 Oct. 

Opposition of natives in Bengal against restriction 

of the jury system ; ordered . . 10 Nov. 

Tour of the viceroy ; he visits Hyderabad, Mysore, 

Madras Nov. 

Fighting on the N. W. frontier ; tribes repulsed, 

Nov. 

T T 2 



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644 



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Major-general sir George Stewart White appointed 
commander-in-chief in succession to lord Roberts, 

Dec. iE 

Calcutta : visit of the maharajah of Mysore, 26 Dec. , 

The jury question referred to the home govern- 
ment, about 27 Dec. , 

[A commission appointed, Feb. 1893.] 

Eighth Indian National congress meets at Allaha- 
bad ; claims increased representation, &c, 

30, 31 Dec. , 

Col. Turner occupies Bulandkhel on the Afghan 
borders 6 Jan. 18 

British intervention in Chitral (which see) . Jan. , 

Farewell of gen. lord Roberts to deputations at 
Lahore 9 Jan. , 

Deputation of officials, respecting the depreciation 
of the rupee, received by the viceroy . 31 Jan. , 

Sir William Hunter, at the Society of Arts, describes 
the great progress of India since 1858 under the 
government by the crown, in relation to territory, 
army, credit, native government and law, com- 
merce, morals, education and literature, 16 Feb. , 

Farewell dinner to lord Roberts at Calcutta ; large 
subscriptions for an equestrian statue, 11 March ; 
leaves Bombay 8 April, ,. 

The tribes defeated in an attack on Chilas, a N. W. 
fort, with above 150 killed ; major Averell 
Daniell and 22 others killed, 4 March; major 
Twigg in command of the garrison . July, ,. 

Sir David Barbour's budget, 1893-4 ; expected 
deficit, about 1,595,100 rupees ; presented 

23 March, ,. 

The Bengal jury commission in their report approve 
of the old system, and recommend the removal of 
the restrictions, with some amendments (this is 
adopted by government) . . 28 March et seq. ,, 

Gen. sir George White arrives at Bombay, 2 April, ,] 

Disturbances at Keunjhar, in Orissa . 10 May, ,, 

The sultan of Johore and other princes were present 
at the inauguration of the Imperial institute, 
10 May ; and at the duke of York's wedding, 

6 July, ,, 

The re-arming of the troops proceeding . July, ,, 

Indian currency committee report received at Cal- 
cutta ; sir D. Barbour introduces a bill adopting 
its recommendations, suspending free coinage of 
silver, to accept gold for silver at the rate of i6d. 
for the rupee ; a gold standard to be established ; 
bill passed, well received . . 26 June, „ 

Abdication of the khan of Khelat ; succeeded by 
his son, Mir Mahmud, reported . . 15 Aug. „ 

Scheme for compensation to government servants 
for loss by the rate of exchange for the rupee, 
announced 20 Aug. ,, 

Sir Henry Norman declines the appointment as 
viceroy in succession to lord Lansdowne . Sept. ,, 

The earl of Elgin appointed viceroy, about n Oct. ,, 

The East India loan bill (10,000,000?.) passed, 

21 Dec. ,. 

The 9th Indian national congress meets at Lahore ; 
1,000 delegates present; Mr. Naoroji, M.P., 
president 27 Dec. , 

Skirmish with the Abor tribesmen on the border 
of Assam ; 7 of the military police killed at 
Barajur 2 Jan. 18 

Duinbak and Silluk captured by capt. Maxwell's 
force Jan. , 

The earl of Elgin arrives at Calcutta . . 25 Jan. , 

Departure of lord and lady Lansdowne (greatly 
regretted) from Calcutta ... 27 Jan. , 

James Fairbairn Finlay, finance minister . Jan. , 

Nine of the Bengal infantry, 6 police, and 8 fol- 
lowers, killed by the Abors at Bordak, and 19 
prisoners carried off from Duffla . . 27 Feb. , 

Villages burnt by capt. Maxwell's force, reported 

8 March, , 

Safe arrival of capt. Maxwell's punitive expedition 
••it Sadiya 16 March, , 

Revenue, 1893-4 : improvement in land and rail- 
ways ; loss in opium ami sail, reported, 21 March, , 

The Lansdowne hospital at Udaipur, constructed 
by the maharana of the Rajput states, opened, 

March, , 
Failure of the wheat harvest in the N. central pro- 
* ii s, reported .... 12 April, , 

Destructive storm in X. W. India, with loss of life, 
raid railways blocked, reported . . 23 July, , 
See Himalayas. 



The interest on loans, &c, converted from 4 to 3! 
percent. ; above 91 J millions had been converted, 

Nov. 1894 

An attack of 2,000 Mahsud Waziris on col. A. H. 
Turner's delimitation party (Afghan frontier) de- 
feated at Wano ; 350 killed ; British loss, lieut. 
P. J. F. Macaulay and 44 men . . 3 Nov. ,, 

Punitive expedition under sir Win. Lockhart into 
Waziristan against the Mahsuds, and to carry out 
the demarcation 17 Dec. ,, 

Makin destroyed ; desultory fighting . 21, 22 Dec. ,, 

First medical congress at Calcutta ; opened by the 
viceroy ; great improvement in public health 
through sanitation since 1868, reported, 

24-29 Dec. „ 

Tenth Indian national congress opened at Madras ; 
1,150 delegates ; Mr. Webb, M.P., president, 

26 Dec. ,, 

A customs duty of 5 per cent, (abolished in 1882) 
on imported cotton goods, and a countervailing 
excise duty of 5 per cent, on certain classes of 
cotton goods manufactured in India, imposed by 
the legislative council to increase the revenue 
suffering by the depreciation of the rupee ; bills 
passed about 27 Dec. ,, 

Public debt, 116,000,000?. ; assets (railways, irriga- 
tion works, canals, &c), 185,500,000?. ; un- 
covered debt, 35,750,000?. ; interest reduced 
from 4 to 3! per cent. ; deficit caused by deprecia- 
tion of the rupee ; Mr. H. Fowler . 29 Jan. 1895 

Sir Henry James's motion in the commons against 
the cotton duty negatived, 304 — 109 . 21 Feb. ,, 

A gathering of about 700 tribesmen (Waziristan) 
surrenders to col. Egerton ... 8 Jan. ,, 

Sir Win. Lockhart issues an ultimatum to the 
Mahsud chiefs at Wano, 21 Jan. ; his terms 
accepted 5 March, ,, 

Delimitation concluded of the southern border, 

12 Feb. ,, 

Col. sir Henry Creswicke Rawlinson, diplomatist 
and Oriental scholar ; born n April, 1810 ; died, 

5 March, ,, 

Gen. sir George T. Chesney, M.P., statesman and 
military expert ; author of "Indian Polity," 1868, 
the source of many reforms ; born 1830 ; died, 

31 March, ,, 

E. India railway, from Tarakeswar to Magra (the 
first constructed by native capital and engineers), 
opened by the lieut. -gov. of Bengal, sir Chas. 
Elliott 2 April, ,, 

A royal commission appointed to inquire into the 
administration and expenditure of the Indian 
army ; lord Welby, chairman . about 11 May, ,, 

Secretary of state, lord George Hamilton, 25 June, ,, 

Sir Jaswant Singh Bahadur, maharajah of Jodhpur, 
an able ruler, much lamented, died . . Oct. ,, 

Punitive expedition against Kairunia, a hostile 
chief, in the N. Lushai hills . . . Dec. ,, 

The 1 ith Indian national congress opened at Poona ; 
1,600 delegates, Surendra Nath Bannerji, pre- 
sident 27 Dec. ,, 

Bills for the revision of the cotton duties intro- 
duced by sir James Westland, 23 Jan. ; passed, 

3 Feb. 1896 

Death of the maharajah of Bhownugger, aged 38, a 
wise, enlightened ruler ... 29 Jan. ,, 

Great distress through want of winter rains in N. W. 
and Central provinces, Rajputana, etc. ; 296,000 
employed on relief works . . March-May, ,, 

Sir James Westland's budget, improved revenue 
prospects ; annual famine grant to be renewed, 

iS, 19 March, .. 

Royal commission appointed, 19 May ; sea Indian 
Expenditure 19 May, „ 

The home government decides that the Indian 
government shall partly support the Indian 
troops-sent to Suakin, 30 June ; India protests. 
Times 3 July, ,, 

Death of lieut.-gen. sir W. K. Files, an eminent 
officer, at Naiui Tal, N.W.P. . . 5 Aug. ,, 

Indian budget passed by the British parliament : 
prosperity and solvency ; reported . Aug. , 

Sanari station, Quetta railway, attacked byMarris, 
massacre of the stall and men on the line; troops 
called out ; reported .... 17 Oct. , 

Death of Mr. M. Ghose, first native barrister, 

9 Nov. , 



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645 



INDIA. 



The legislative council pass a bill raising the paper 

currency from 8 to i o crores of rupees 17 Dec. 18 
12th Indian national congress opened at Calcutta, 

700 delegates 28 Dec. , 

[Indian famine: 

Famine prospect through failure of rains, in Oudh, 
Punjab, N.W. and Central provinces, relief 
works, construction of wells, railways, etc., 
opened ; 66,900 employed ... 8 Nov. , 
Irrigation of the Punjab, reported, successful ; 
some relief by storms and rains in Madras, Bom- 
bay, Bengal, and Behar . . . Nov., Dec. , 
Appeal from the Indian government to Great 

Britain for aid 23 Dec. , 

New relief works opened ; energetic official action ; 
total on relief, 404,200, 21 Dec. ; 2,000,000, 29 
Jan. ; 4,500,000, June ; 3,303,968, 13 July, 1897. 
National fund opened at the Mansion house (ivhich 
see), 8 Jan. et seq. 1897 ; relief committees founded 
in Russia, Canada, Glasgow, Singapore, and other 
places. 
Famine relief fund organised at Calcutta, the 
queen-empress, patroness, the viceroy, president, 

13 Jan. 18 
Great meeting at the Mansion house, London, duke 
of Connaughtand lord George Hamilton, present ; 
report; famine affected area, 164,000 sq. mi., 
population, 36,000,000; area of scarcity, 121,000 
sq. mi. ; population, 44,000,000 ; the government 
spending 100,000 rupees daily on relief 16 Jan. , 
Blue book issued relating to famine . iq Jan. , 
Fnergetic action of sir Anthony Macdonnell in N.W. 
Provinces and Oudh, one-and-a-half million on 
relief or public works (18 distressed districts), 

Feb. , 

Many deaths in the central native states and Bun- 

delkhand district ; famine severe in S. Punjab, 

government works efficient . . . Feb. , 

Monsoon and general rains reported in all affected 

districts, 28 June ; good crops expected ; famine 

ceasing Aug., Sept. ,, 

Total relief fund from all sources estimated, 
1,500,000?. ; 4,500,000 persons relieved in June : 
total cost to the Indian government, estimated 
10,000,000?. sterling ; reported at the Mansion 

house 7 Oct. , 

A letter of thanks from sir Francis Maclean, chief 

justice of India, Times, 10 Nov ,, 

Contributions, including 773,000?. British, and 
1,000?. from the queen, about 1,750,000?., re- 
ported 30 Dec. [final report, and thanks from 
the viceroy, received 15th July, 1898] . . „ 
[Famine relief cost : 5,390,000 Rx. ; against a budget 
estimate of 3,640,000 Rx. ; for 1897-8 ; reported, 
20 March, 1898.] 
Death of Mr. James Talboys Wheeler, historian of 

India n Jan. „ 

Death of gen. sir Robt. Phayre, aged 77 28 Jan. ,, 
Indian plague bill passed at Calcutta . 4 Feb. ,, 
Epidemic diseases act, passed . . . Feb. „ 
A loan authorised by the government for improving 

docks, etc., at Kidderour ... 8 Feb. „ 
Plague localized in Bombay and Lower Scinde ; 
decreasing, 9 March ; see Bombay and Plague, 
1896-7. 
Thanks of native membersin the legislative council, 
for liberal aid, from England and other countries, 
during the famine . . . .26 March, ,, 
Irrigation of 3,000,000 acres by canals in N.W. 

Provinces, announced .... April, ,, 
Mahomed Afzul, Afghan by birth, eminent general 
and diplomatist in the British service ; born, 

1834, died April, ,, 

General warm expression of loyalty to the queen- 
empress throughout India . . . April, ,, 
Treacherous attack of Waziris on Mr. Gee, political 
officer, and his escort, at Maizar, in the Tochi 
valley, N.W. frontier ; lieut.-col. A. C. Bunny, 
capt. J. F. Browne, lieuts. H. A. Cruickshank 
and Higginson, and 22 others killed ; escort re- 
tired under 4 hrs. sharp fighting to Dattakhel ; 
50 Waziris killed .... 10 June. „ 

Tochi punitive expedition : 6,000 men under major- 
gen. Corrie Bird, col. Egerton, and col. Symons ; 
proclamation issued ; 50 tribesmen captured, 3 
July ; British sentinels killed, 6 July ; Maizar 
found deserted, 20 July ; Sadda Khan and other 
chiefs, surrender conditionally, 1-14 Nov. . . „ 



Extensive shocks of earthquake : widespread ruin ; 
Calcutta and Assam (which see), 1897 ; over 1,542 
deaths 12-18 June, 18 

Diamond jubilee celebrated throughout India, re- 
lease of prisoners, durbahs, etc. . 22 June, , 

Contagious diseases bill passed legislative council, 

22 July, , 

[Frontier war ; Fanatical rising of the "mullah's 
followers " in the Swat valley, night attack on 
Malakand, repulsed ; major Taylor, lieut.-col. 
John Lamb, lieut. Manley, and 13 men killed, 26 
J uly ; severe fighting, rapid march of the Guides 
from Maidan, 27 July ; enemy repulsed with 
heavy loss 29 July, , 

Field force (8,000) organised, under major-gen. sir 
Bindon Blood and others . . .30 July, , 

Rebels driven with great loss from the hills about 
Malakand . .... 31 July, , 

Chakdara fort besieged, 26 July, by Pathans, over 
3,000 killed ; gallant defence (7 men killed during 
the siege), relieved by gen. Meiklejohn 2 Aug. , 

Shabkadr fort attacked by 6,000 Afghans and 
Mohmands, 7 Aug. ; enemy routed, after a sharp 
tight, and brilliant cavalry charge, by gen. Elles : 
lieut.-col. Wood, and 3 British killed . 9 Aug. , 

Government friendly remonstrance, heartily ac- 
cepted by the ameer . . . . 16 Aug. , 

Landikai occupied, after a desperate fight with. 
3,000 tribesmen ; great heroism ; lieuts. Greaves 
and Maclean killed . . . .17 Aug. , 

Surrender of tribes in the Upper Swat valley, 
arms brought in Aug. , 

Fort Maude and other outposts in the Khyber pass, 
captured by the Afridis, 23 Aug. ; the Afridis 
shelled and dispersed by gen. Westmacott's force, 

24, 25 Aug. , 

Landi Kotal, and other small native forts, raided 
by Afridis, in the Khyber pass . . 25 Aug. , 

Small police posts burnt by Orakzais, E. and W. of 
the Samana range, 26 Aug. ; severe fighting in 
the Ublan pass, great heroism of medical officers 
and others 27 Aug. , 

Four disturbed areas : Quetta, Kuram pass, the 
Orakzai, Afridi, and Mohmand hills, and the 
Swat valley ; fines paid, and arms surrendered at 
Uch, and Swat valley . . . Aug.-i Sept. , 

Enemy repulsed by gen. Yeatman-Biggs, with 
heavy loss, in the Samana hills 2, 3, 11 Sept. , 

Native states offer support to thegovernment 5 Sept. ,. 

Saraghari post on the Samana taken by the enemy 
(180 killed) ; the garrison, 21 Sikhs, died fighting 
to the last, 12 Sept. ; post re-captured by gen. 
Yeatman-Biggs, forts Gulistan and Lockhart 
also relieved, large forces of the enemy driven 
back . . ... 14 Sept. , 

Night attack on gen. Jeffrey's brigade in the Ram- 
bat pass ; lieuts. Win. E. Tompkins, A. W. 
Bailey, H. A. Harrington killed, 14 Sept ; enemy 
(6,000) routed after a severe fight, lieuts. Hughes 
and A. T. Crawford killed ; total loss, 144, 16 Sept. ,. 

Gundab fort occupied, without opposition, by gen. 
Elles, after a trying march into the Mohmand 
country 15 Sept. „ 

Gen. sir Wm. Lockhart appointed commander in 
succession to sir George White . . 17 Sept. ,, 

Gen. Jeffrey drives the enemy from Damodota ; 
Umra Khan's fort blown up, towers, etc. des- 
troyed 18 Sept. ,, 

Message from the queen expressing sympathy with 
the troops 19 Sept. ,, 

Attacks by about 4,000 of Hadda Mullah's force 
on sir B. Blood's camp at Nawagai, repulsed, 

19, 20 Sept. „ 

Gen. Elles drives the Mohmands from the Bad- 
manai pass and captures the heights . 23 Sept. „ 

The enemy completely dispersed, flight of the 2 

Mullahs 24 Sept. ,, 

Jarobi and forts, etc., destroyed by gen. West- 
macott's brigade 25 Sept. ,, 

Submission of tribes in the Swat valley, 

25 Sept.-2 Oct. ,, 
The ameer refuses help asked by the Afridis and 

others Sept. „ 

Punitive operations: 15 towers, etc., destroyed, 

29 Sept. „ 



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646 



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Agrah and Gat taken alter a severe fight ; enemy 
2,000 strong ; lieut.-col. O'Bryen and lieut. 
Browne-Clayton and others, killed . 30 Sept. 1897 
Badelai in the Mohmand valley stormed., all the 

fortifications, etc. destroyed . . 3 Oct. ,, 
Mohmand campaign (3 weeks) ended ; 72 towers, 
40 forts destroyed, arms captured, and tines paid. 

Oct. ,, 
Gen. sir Win. Lockhart arrives at Samana to com- 
mand the Tirah expedition against the Afridis and 
Orakzais for breaking the treaty of 1 88 1 10 Oct. ,, 
Capt. Fred. Newcome Jones and corporal John 

Walton killed on patrol . . . .10 Oct. ,, 
Settlement with the Mohmands completed, arms 

surrendered Oct. „ 

Sir A. Palmer drives the enemy (about 8,000) from 
Chagra defile and Dargai heights with severe 
loss; major Jennings-Bramly killed . 18 Oct. „ 
The enemy re-occupied Dargai and Chagru on the 
withdrawal of the troops, and were again driven 
from the ridge with great loss, after a desperate 
fight, great heroism shown, the heights won in 
40 minutes by a gallant dash of the Gordon High- 
landers under lieut.-col. Mathias, and others, 
through a murderous fire ; major C. B. Judge, 
capts. J. G. Robinson and W. E. Smith, lieut. 
A.L. Laniont and 33 men killed . . 20 Oct. ,, 
Re-opening of the Indian mint for silver recom- 
mended by U.S.A. and French governments, 

July; declined Oct. ,, 

The difficult and strongly-defended Sampagha pass 
captured, capt. De Butts and 4 others killed, 
29 Oct. ; the Arhanga pass taken . . 30 Oct. ,, 
Guerilla fighting; Tirah, Maidan occupied, Afridis 

dispersed 5 Nov. ,, 

Firing into camp, lieut. Giflard and capt. B. Y. 

Watson (entomologist) killed . . . 6 Nov. ,, 
Picket of one native officer and 35 Sikhs massacred 
in the Karmana defile, their retreat was cut off 
by a jungle fire . 7 Nov. ,, 

Sixty hamlets and towers destroyed, severe loss 

nflicted on the enemy in the Arhanga pass, 8 Nov. ,, 
Saran Sar occupied with slight resistance, but on 
retiring, sir Wm. Lockhart's and gen. Westma- 
cott's brigades were fiercely attacked, the 
Northamptons and Sikhs bravely covering the 
■withdrawal ; lieuts. A. H. Macintire, J. T. Wad- 
dell and 18 men killed, enemy's loss severe, 9 
Nov. ; successful reconnoissance, villages des- 
troyed 11 Nov. ,, 

The Orakzai and Afridi jirgahs received by sir 
Wm. Lockhart at Maidan, terms of submission 
announced . . . 12 and 21 Nov. ,, 

General Kempster's force attacked by Zakka-khels 
and Akakhels in the Tseri-Kandao pass, capt. N. 
A. Lewarne, lieuts. R. E. A. Hales, G. D. Crooke, 
G M. Wylie and 25 men killed . . 16 Nov. ,, 
Northamptons, Dorsets, Sikhs and Gurkhas highly 

commended . . .17 Nov. ,, 

March of gen. Westmacott's force to Datoi, 3 days' 
fighting, etc., lieut. D. E. O. Jones killed 

22-24 Nov. „ 
Lozaka pass cleared after a sharp fight by gen. 

Gaselee's brigade, 5 killed . . 26, 27 Nov. ,, 
Col. Spurgin's rearguard encounters heavy fighting 

over the Kotal hills, 4 killed . . .29 Nov. ,, 
Chamkanni valley taken, villages burnt, lieut. R. 

M. Battye killed, enemy routed . .1,2 Dec. „ 
The Afridis' towers, etc. destroyed in' the Waran and 

Rajgul valleys . . . . 8, 9. Dec. „ 

Gen. Lockhart's proclamation to the Afridis issued, 

11 Dec. ,, 
■Severe attacks on gen. Kempster's rearguard, 9 

killed ; lieut. West killed at Mamani, 11, 13 Dec. „ 
Operations over in the Tirah district, forces with- 
drawn 19 Dec. „ 

The heights from Fort Maude to Ali Mesjid occu- 
pied by the British .... 23 Dec. ,, 
Gen. Lockhart moves up the Khyber pass without 
opposition, 24 Dec. ; defeats the Madda-khels in 
the Alachi pass; enemy repulsed with heavy loss 
in the Bazar valley; Land) Kotal fort destroyed 
by gen. Hammond's column . . 27 Dec. ,, 
The 13th Indian national congress meets at Am- 
rati ; Mr. Sankaran Nayar president ; frontier 
policy condemned ; thanks for famine relief, etc. 

27-29 Dec. ,, 



Sir Henry Ha velock- Allen, M.P., aged 67, son of 
gen. Havelock, left his escort near the Khyber 
pass, killed by Afridis . . . .30 Dec. 1897 
Zakka-khel villages, etc. destroyed by gen. Ham- 
mond's force ; hard fight in the Khyber pass, 3 

men killed 30, 31 Dec. ,, 

Major D. W. Hickman killed while out on convoy 

duty . . . ' . . . .3 Jan. 1898 
Death, from exposure, of gen. Yeatman-Biggs, 

aged 54, at Peshawar .... Jan. „ 

The enemy surprised and the Persai pass taken by 

col. Adams 6 Jan. ,, 

The Tanga pass taken and 2 standards of the 

enemy, by gen. sir B. Blood . . 7 Jan. ,, 
Large investiture of honours, speech by the vice- 
roy, at Calcutta 13 Jan. ,, 

Gen. Jeffreys receives the full submission of the 

Chamlawals at the Ambela pass . . 17 Jan. „ 
Guerilla warfare carried on by the Zakka-khels in 

the Khyber pass Jan. „ 

Government terms complied with by the Afridis 
and the Bonerwals ; gen. Blood's force with- 
draws from Boner .... 19 Jan. „ 
Sir J. Westland's currency bill (notes against 

gold), with a proviso, passed . . 21 Jan. ,, 
Successful advance of 3 columns to clear the 
Kajurai plain; the 4th from Mamani, attacked 
by Afridis in the Shin Kamar pass, Bazar valley, 
lieut.-col. J. Haughton, lieuts. Turing, Dowdall, 
Hughes, Walker, 28 Yorkshires and 2 Sikhs 
killed; enemy's loss, 30 . . . .29 Jan. ,, 
Sir Win. Lockhart at Calcutta eulogises the con- 
duct of the army during the late difficult com- 

paign 31 Jan. ,. 

Operations in Mekran ; enemy completely routed, 
at Gok Parosh, by a small force under lieut.-col. 
Mayne . . .... mid-Feb. ,, 

Tochi expedition : 3 British officers, over 100 
soldiers, 50 natives, and others, died from sick- 
ness ; troops highly commended for their en- 
durance, etc 11 Feb. ,. 

[Losses on the frontier : 684 British, including 43 

officers, killed : 90 wounded, 12 men missing, 

and 1,233 native troops killed, from 10 June, 

1897-7 Feb. 1898.] 

Sedition (press law) amendment act passed, 18 Feb. „ 

Indian postal system greatly extended in the' late 

12 years, reported . . 25 Feb. ,, 
Sir Wm. Lockhart's despatches on the Tirah cam- 
paign published 4 March, ,, 

The Khyber pass reported peaceful ; pass to be 

open from n March „ 

Sir W. Lockhart gives a jirgah of all sections of the 

tribes their final choice of peace or war, 12 March, „ 
Criminal procedure bill passed by the legislative 

council 12 March, ,, 

The Ranjar dacoity gang (about 2 years' trial) finally 

convicted ; 70 transported for life . 16 March, ,, 
Sir J. Westland's budget statement, 21 March ; 
he declares a silver "standard, or the re-opening 
of the mints impossible ; the viceroy refers the 
question to London, and defends the Indian 
government and army, 28 March ; a departmental 
committee of inquiry into the monetary system 
of India agreed to in the commons . 29 March, ,, 
Payment of fines and surrender of rifles by the 

Afridis, completed . . . . 1 April, ,, 
Sir Wm. Lockhart's friendly farewell of the Afridis, 

4 April, „ 
Sir Saiyid Ahmad, social reformer, eminent Maho- 
metan friend of England, born 1817 ; K. C.S.I. 

1888 , died April, ,, 

Indian currency committee appointed, sir Henry 

Fowler, chairman 29 April, ,, 

Great fire at Peshawar (25 hrs.), 4,000 houses burnt, 

_;i Mayi „ 
Act passed for a loan of 10,000,000?. to meet losses by 

famine, plague, earthquakes, and war . 1 July, ,, 
Budget estimate, 1898-9, revenue, 99,085,400 Rx. ; 
expenditure, 98,194,000 Rx. ; Mr. F. S. Wilde, 
engineer, murdered by Pathans in the N. Cachar 

hills 12 July, „ 

Fighting between the tribal forces of the Nawab 
of Dirand the Bajauris in the Jhandol valley ; 
136 Bajauris and 31 of the Dir forces killed, 24 
July ; quiet reported . . . 16 Aug. ,, 
Indian currency commission : evidence issued as a 
blue book 25 Aug. „ 



INDIA. 



647 



INDIA. 



Inland postage to be reduced from . i Oct. 

Sir Wm. Lockhart appointed commander-in-chief, 

Oct. 

Outbreak of plague in Madras and Mysore, see 
Serinc/apatam 18 Nov. 

Indian plague commission, Dr. Thos. Fraser, F.R.S., 
president, arrives at Bombay . . 26 Nov. 

The Hadda Mullah crosses the Swat river ; serious 
fighting with native forces, losses 0'i both side?, 
25, 26 Nov. ; British reinforcemen's sent to 
Hiakdara and Malakand, 1 Dec. ; the Mullah's 
force defeated by native forces, 1-7 Dec; he is 
finally expelled from the Swat valley, and re- 
treats into Kokistan .... 10 Dec. 

Royal Indian famine commission's report, with 
recommendations, issued . . early Dec. 

Maharajah of Darbhangah, loyal benefactor, born 
1856, died 16 Dec. 

Jirgahs of all the Swat clans swear to major Deane 
at Thana not to assist the Mullah in any rising, 

17 Dec. 

Indian national coDgress meets at Madras, 28 Dec. 

Mr. J. M. Tata offers property worth 200,000?. on 
trust, to found an Indian university of i\ search, 
and also to endow it with an annual income of 
125,000 rx. ; other subscriptions promised, 31 
Dec. 1878 ; bill drafted .... Jan. 

Lord Curzon appointed viceroy Aug. 1S98 ; wel- 
comed at Calcutta .... 3 Jan. 

Gomatti, a village, seized and 7 outlaws captured ; 
6 British killed; towers, &c, destroyed, 5, 8 Feb. 

Punitive expedition against the Chamkanni tribe 
for raids ; 9 villages destroyed, 100 prisoners 
taken 1 March, 

Countervailing duties on imported bounty-fed 
sugar, passed by the council, comes into opera- 
tion 20 March, 

Col. sir R. Warburton, born 1842, distinguished for 
his able management of the Afridis and security 
of the Khyber pass, 1879-97, served in the Tirah 
expedition 1897-8, died ... 22 April, 

Dacoit raids frequent: confereuce at Agra . July, 

Indian currency commission, Aug. 1898; their re- 
port in favour of a gold standard, the sovereign 
to be legal tender, legal rate for the rupee to be 
is. 4(1., adopted by government . 25 July, 

New frontier policy, tribal militias substituted for 
regulars at frontier garrisons . . Aug. 

Peaceful settlement arranged at a meeting between 
the khan of Nawagai and the Nawab of Dir, after 
some conflicts .... early Aug. 

Lord George Hamilton's financial statement ; large 
surplus for 1898-99, 4,759,000 rx., due to reduced 
expenditure, &c 8 Aug. 

Currency conversion act (gold made a legal tender, 
the rupee fixed at i6d.) passed (made permanent 
1900) 15 Sept. 

See Landslips Sept. 

Raid of Bhils near Khergaum, severe fighting, 
many killed, reported ... 29 Sept. 

Thanks from the home government for prompt 
dispatch of troops to S. Africa . early Oct. 

The viceroy holds a durbar at Lucknow . 13 Dec. 

15th Indian national congress opened at Lucknow, 

27 Dec. 

The queen thanks her Indian subjects for their 
loyalty Dec. 

{Indian famine through drought (1899-1901): severe 
in Bombay, central Provinces, Punjaub, and 
elsewhere, began Sept. 1899 ; the government and 
its officers prompt and energetic in relieving dis- 
tress and saving life ; total on relief works, &c. , 
3,563,000, Jan. 1900; famine area, 420,000 sq. mi. ; 
population, 62,000,000; reliei fund started; 
465,000 rx. subscribed at a meeting in Calcutta, 
the viceroy presiding, 16 Feb. ; see Mansion house, 
1900 ; central relief committee received about 
1,000,000?. sterling ; liberal gifts from abroad, 
about 25,000?. raised on the emperor's initiative in 
Germany, May; total on relief, 6,356,000, 7 Aug. ; 
declining, Sept. ; 2,292,000, 16 Oct. ; India sub- 
scribes 32 lakhs, reported. 19 Oct.] 

Loyal meeting of Hindus and Mahometans at Cal- 
cutta ; fine speech by the maharajah of Darb- 
hanga, 63,000 rs. subscribed to the Transvaal 
war fund 27 Jan. 

Lumsden's Horse (volunteers) leaves Calcutta for 
S. Africa 26 Feb. 



Indian plague commission reports favourably on 
Mr. Haffkine's inoculation system, thousands 
inoculated, Times .... 5 March,' 1 

1 eath of sir Wm. Lockhart, able commander-in- 
chief, aged 59 18 March, 

The maharajah of Jaipur presents 15 lakhs, in trust, 
towards the famine fund, to be permanent, an- 
nounced 19 March, 

Legislative council opened by the viceroy ; Mr. 
Clinton Dawkins, able finance minister, reports 
increase of trade, &c. ; budget for 1898-99, 
2,641,000?. surplus .... 21 March, 

Report of the royal commission (1895) on Indian 
expenditure, proposed grant of 50,000?. a year to 
the India office, issued ... 9 April, 

Lord Curzon holds a durbar at Quetta; exhorts the 
chiefs to settle feuds and to stop murderous 
Ghazi raids, &c 12 April, 

Plague rio's in Cawnpore, the segregation camp 
destroyed by the mob, 5 constables killed, troops 
called out, 10 deaths, 11 April ; plague regula- 
tions modified .... mid April, 

Famine expenditure by Indian government, 
13,000,000?. ann. .... 26 July, 

The viceroy visits the famine centres and relief 
works in Gujarat) .... 2-4 Aug. 

Government committee re the proposed sugar 
industry in Behar meets in Calcutta . 15 Oct. 

Punjab land alienation act, to prevent land passing 
into the hands of non-agriculturalists, passed, 

19 Oct. 

Mahsud Wazari raids on N. W. frontier frequent ; 
lieut. Hennessey killed ... 23 Oct. 

Death of the maharajah of Patiala . . 7 Nov. 

The viceroy's tour round India, about 6,000 mi., 
very successful . . . mid Oct.-i7 Dec. 

Blockade against the Mahsuds in Waziristan, 

1 Dec. et seq. 

Universal mourning on the death of the queen- 
empress Victoria ... 22 Jan. -2 Feb. i 

The king-emperor thanks the princes and people 
of India for loyalty and assistance in the S. 
African war 4 Feb. 

Lord Curzon proposes a memorial to queen Victoria 
at a meeting in Calcutta, large donations received, 

6 Feb. 

New North-west Frontier province, see Punjaub, 

Feb. -Nov. 

Budget: 1899-1900, surplus, 2,774,623?. ; 1900-1901, 
surplus, 1,670,000?. ... 20 March, 

Gen. sir A. Palmer appointed commander-in-chief, 

March, 

The mines bill (1899), modified, passed . 22 March, 

Indian Famine 1899-1900 : commission appointed, 
sir Anthony Macdonnell and others, Dec. 1900, 
report issued ; great mortality in Gujarat and 
Bombay province, estimated deaths, 1,250,000; 
the great filture problem being to relieve the 
pressure of the population on the soil; 509,559,000 
gratuitously relieved ; 625,794,000 on relief works, 

8 May, 

Indian Famine Union, to investigate cause and 
means of prevention, meets in London, 7 June, 

Scheme for an imperial cadet corps of the sons of 
Indian princes and nobles ; royal assent, re- 
ported 18 July, 

Kashmir Kar, British post in the Gomal Pass, 
raided by Mahsud Waziris, 7 men killed, 6 Aug. 

Lord G. Hamilton's financial statement; estimated 
loss in W. India by 3 years' drought, 50,000,000?. ; 
relief expenditure, 15,000,000?. , met without addi- 
tional taxation 16 Aug. 

Cooper's Hill college controversy, compensation 
claimed by civil engineers ; parliamentary paper 
published, see Times .... 7 Sept. 

Jhelam irrigation canal at Rasul opened, 29 Oct. 

Sepoys ambushed by Waziri Mahsuds near the 
Gomal Pass, 24 and 6 other persons killed. 3 Nov. 

Sir Antony Macdonnell retires from India after 
36 years' eminent service . . .14 Nov. 

Scientific plague commission commenced local 
investigation, 29 Nov. 1898 ; full report issued, 
with recommendations, Times . . 13 Nov. 

Punative operations against the Mahsuds in 
Waziristan, 192 prisoners taken, villages, &e. 
destroyed, 25-27 Nov. ; further fighting, 7 villages 
and towers destroyed . . . 5, 6 Dec, 



INDIA. 



648 



INDIA. 



The viceroy tours through the North-Eastern pro- 
vinces, early Nov. ; welcomed at Manipur, 15 
Nov. ; holds durbars at Mandalay, 27 Nov. ; 
Rangoon 9 Dec. 

Nodiz fort in Mekran seized by Persian raiders, re- 
captured by the British ; Mahomet Ali, the leader, 
and others, killed, 63 captured, the rest dispersed, 

20 Dec. 

Indian National congress (over 5,000 present) held 
at Calcutta 26-28 Dec. 

Indian mines act (government inspection, &c.) 
passed 

Commission to report on the work of the univer- 
sities and colleges, appointed . . . Jan. 

Mahsud Waziris submit, British lost 31 killed, 
blockade withdrawn . . . early March, 

Budget: surplus for 1901-02, 4, 900,000?. . April, 

British force ambushed by outlaws on the Mahsud 
frontier, 8 killed, reported ... 8 April, 

The Berar question settled, the nizam of Haidara- 
bad cedes all territorial claims and receives 30 
lakhs rupees annually, reported . 17 April, 

The rajah of Panria deposed and imprisoned for 
inciting to poison his uncle, the late rajah (June, 
1901), reported 22 April, 

Lord Curzon holds a durbar at Peshawar and 
explains the government policy towards the 
frontier tribes 26 April, 

Sugar duties bill (German and Austrian) passed, 

6 June, 

Reforms and progress in India ; generous govern- 
ment grants, reported .... June, 

Swami Vivekananda, a religious reformer and 
denouncer of the caste system, died, aged 36, 

4 J ul > r , 
Loan of 150 lakhs of rupees subscribed 3 times over, 

9 July. 

Commission of inquiry into police reform, ap- 
pointed about 6 July, 

Blue-book report of the famine and relief opera- 
tions, 1900-1902 ; excess mortality during 12 
months' drought, 750,000, including 230,000 
deaths from cholera and smallpox, issued, 6 Aug. 

Indian princes received by the king and queen, 
London 12 Aug. 

Blue-book, loans to native rulers during famine 
1899-1900, 2,333,00®?., reported . . 23 Aug. 

The queen wrote 10 lady Curzon: — "The Indian 
coronation robes you so kindly designed are 
perfect, and make the most brilliant effect. I 
am so proud at wearing an Indian dress on this 
great occasion. I hope you will make this 
known in India " — Times ... 2 Sept. 

Good rains, 21 Aug. ; crop reports favourable, Sept. 

Number on famine relief, 5,660,000, 29 Aug. ; 58,000, 

13 Nov. 

Mr. Nowrojee M. Wadia offers about a million 
sterling to a trust for the relief of those deprived 
of subsistence by any sudden calamity, reported, 

23 Scpi 

The viceroy's tour in Central India ends ; lie visits 
Rajputana 7 Nov. 

Lord George Hamilton's good budget; estimated 
surplus for 1902-3, 1,700,000?. . . 10 Nov. 

Punitive Kabul-Khel Waziri expedition for raids, 
&c. ; prisoners captured, Gumati fort stormed 
and destroyed ; capt. White killed, col. Ton- 
nochy mortally wounded, 4 Sepoys killed, 17, 18 
Nov. ; operations closed successfully, 59 towers, 
&c. , destroyed 29 Nov. 

Lord Kitchener, commander-in-chief, arrives ; 
army manoeuvres at Delhi, . 28 Nov. -Dec. 

Death of the rajah of Mandi . . . 10 Dec. 

Decennial missionary conference for India, Ceylon, 
Burma and Arabia held at Madras . n Dec. 

Death of the Haddah Mullah, N.W. frontier 22 Dec. 

Indian national congress meets in Bombay 24 Dec. 

State Entry of the viceroy, the duke and duchess 
of Connaughb into Delhi, 50 native princes and 
chiefs 29 Dec. 

Indian art exhibition opened by the viceroy, 30 Dec. 

Coronation Durbar, King Edward VII. proclaimed 
emperor at Delhi (and throughout India) with 
great splendour and rejoicings ; over 100 Indian 
rulers, about 600 .1/ iiliiiy veterans, and a vast and 
brilliant assemblage present ; investiture of 



honours, the Nizam of Haidara bad made aG.CB., 
lord Geo. Hamilton, and the rajah of Cochin, 
G.C.S.I., the rajahs of Travancore and Nabha, 
G.C.I.E., and 8 knighted; 16,188 prisoners re- 
leased, and many others in native states 1 Jan. 

Durbar closed 9 Jan. 

The duke and duchess of Connaught visit Peshawar, 
Meerut, 11 Jan. ; otlrer places, 18-19 J an - '< 
Bombay 19-23 Jan. 

Increased military expenditure, 17, 100,000?. reported 

26 Feb. 

Surplus for 1902-03, 2,738,500?. ; budget for 1903-4, 
surplus after reduction of the salt-tax, and in- 
come-tax exemptions, 948,700/. . . 25 March, 

Mr. Henry Phipps gives a total of 30,000?. for 
scientific research, agricultural education, and a 
Pasteur institute, reported . . early April 

The viceroy's tour ends in Gwalior . 23 April 

Order issued to army by lord Kitchener calling 
attention to assaults on natives by British soldiers 
and intimating his determination to punish 
severely such conduct . . . mid June 

Lord Curzon announces his decision to accept the 
offer of the home government for an extension of 
his term of office 4 Aug. 

Lord Curzon addresses strong protest to lord Geo. 
Hamilton against the government proposal to 
charge India with the cost of the increased 
garrison in S. Africa .... early Aug. 

The viceroy reports prospects of crops generally 
good . . . . . . .12 Aug. 

Annual review of the trade of India, 1902-3, by 
director general of statistics, gives total 
imports, Rs. 104,04,36,358 ; exports, 1902-3, 
Rs.137,62,63,756, issued .... Aug. 

Report issued by the Irrigation commission pro- 
posing an outlay of 44 crores of rupees extending 
over 20 years on protective works . mid Aug. 

GOVERNORS-GENERAL OF INDIA, &C* 

Warren Hastings assumes the govt. . . 13 April, 1773 

Sir John Macpherson 1 Feb. 1785 

Lord Cornwallis 12 Sept. 1786 

Sir John Shore (afterwards lord Teignmouth) 28 Oct. 1793 
Lord (afterwards marquis) Cornwallis again : he 
relinquished the appointment. 

Sir Alured Clarke 6 April, 179S 

Lord Mornington (afterwards Marquis Wellesley) 

17 May, ,, 
Marquis Cornwallis again . . . -30 July, 1805 
Sir George Hilaro Barlow . . . .10 Oct. ,, 

Lord Minto 31 July, 1807 

Earl ofMoira, afterwards marquis of Hastings, 4 Oct. 1813 

Hon. John Adam 13 Jan. 1823 

George Canning, relinquished the appointment . „ 
William, Lord (afterwards earl) Amherst . 1 Aug. ,, 
Hon. W. Butterworth Bayley . . 13 March, 1828 
Lord Wm. Cavendish Bentinek . . 4 July, ,, 
[This nobleman became the first governor-general 
of India, under the act 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 85 : 
Aug 28, 1833.] 
Sir Charles Theophilus Metcalfe (afterwards lord 

Metcalfe) 20 March, 1835 

William, lord Heytesbury ; did not proceed . . ,] 
George, lord Auckland (afterwards earl of Auckland) 

4 March, 1836 
Edward, lord Ellenborough ... 28 Feb. 1842 
William Wilberforce Bird ... 15 June, 1844 
Sir Henry (afterwards viscount) Hardinge, 23 July, ,, 
James-Andrew, earl (afterwards marquis) of Dal- 

housie 12 Jan. 1848 

Charles John, viscount Canning, appointed, July, 1855 
Proclaimed the first viceroy throughout India, 1 Nov. 1858 
James, earl of Elgin, appointed, Aug. 1861 ; died 

20 Nov. 1863 
Sir John Lawrence appointed . . . Dec. ,, 
Richard Southwell, earl of Mayo (sec Mayo) ap- 
pointed. [Assassinated 8 Feb.* 1872.] . ' Oct. r868> 
Thomas George Baring, lord Northbrook . Feb. 1872 

Edward Robert Bulwer Lytton, lord Lytton, took 
oath at Calcutta 12 April, 1876' 



* Several of these appointments were provisional, as, 
for instance, sir Alured Clarke, sir George Hilaro Barlow, 
hon. William Butterworth Bayley, William Wilberforce- 
Bird, &v. The appointments of governors-general were, 
of course of earlier date than their assumption of office-. 



INDIA COMPANY. 



649 



INDIAN HEROES' FUND. 



George Frederick Samuel Kobinson, marquis of 
Ripon May, 1880 

Frederick Temple Hamilton-Blackwood, earl of 
Dufferin, Sept. 1884 ; created marquis of Dufferin 
and Ava 12 Nov. 1888 

Henry Charles Keith Fitz-maurice, marquis of 
Lansdowne, installed . . . .10 Dec. ,, 

Victor Alexander Bruce, earl of Elgin (K.G. Jan. 
1899), appointed . . . about 10 Oct. 1893 

George N. Curzon (baron, Sept. 1898), appointed, 

Aug. 1898 

INDIA COMPANY, EAST. The first com- 
mercial intercourse of the English with the East 
Indies was a private adventure of three ships fitted 
out in 1591. Only one of them reached India; and, 
after a voyage of three years, the commander, cap- 
tain Lancaster, was brought home in another ship, 
the sailors having seized his own ; but his in- 
formation gave rise to a mercantile voyage, and the 
establishment of a company, whose first charter, in 
Dec. 1600, was renewed in 1609, 1657, 1661, 1693, 
and 1744. Its stock in 1600 consisted of 72,000/., 
when it fitted out four ships. Meeting with success, 
continued to trade, and India stock sold at 500/. 
*r a share of 100/. in 1683. East India, Vols. I. 
nd II. 1898. 

1. new company (the "English") was chartered 5 
Sept. 1698, and the old (the "London") suspended 
from trading for three years ; the two were united 1702 
New East India company established . . . . 1708 
Privileges of the company continued till 1783 . . 1744 
Affairs of the company were brought before parlia- 
ment, and a committee exposed a series of in- 
trigues and crime Aug. 1772 

As remedial measures two acts passed, (one autho- 
rised a loan of i,ooo,oooZ. to the company; the 
other celebrated as the India bill) effected most 
important changes in the constitution of the 
company and its relations to India. A governor- 
general was appointed to reside in Bengal, to 
which the other presidencies were then made 
subordinate ; a supreme court of judicature was 
instituted at Calcutta : the salary of the governor 
was fixed at 25,000?. per year ; that of the council 
at io.oooZ. each ; and of the chief judge at 8000J. ; 
the affairs of the company were controlled ; all the 
departments were re-organised, and all the terri- 
torial correspondence was henceforth to be laid 
before the British ministry . . . June, 1773 

Mr. Pitt's bill appointing the Board of Control 

(which see), passed 18 May, 1784 

The company's charter was renewed for 20 years . 1793 

Trade with India thrown open 18 13 

Trade to China opened ; Charter renewed till 1854 ■ 1833 
The government of India was continued in the 
hands of the company till parliament should 

otherwise provide 1853 

In consequence of the mutiny of 1857, and the dis- 
appearance of the company's army, the govern- 
ment of India was transferred to the crown, the 
Board of Control was abolished, and a Council of 
State for India instituted by the act 21 & 22 Vict, 
c. 106, which received the royal assent, 2 Aug. * 1858 
The company's political power ceased on 1 Sept., 
and the queen was proclaimed as Queen of Great 
Britain and the Colonies, &c, in the principal 
places in India, amid much enthusiasm 1 Nov. „ 
The company to be dissolved, 1 June, 1874, and 
dividends redeemed, by the " East India Stock 
Dividend Redemption Act," passed . 15 May, 1873 
The East India-House built 1726; enlarged and a 
new front erected, 1799 ; sold with the furniture, 
1861 ; pulled down in Sept. and Oct. . . . 1862 

* Lord Palmers ton brought in a bill for the purpose on 
12 Feb., which was accepted by the house on 18 Feb. 
He resigned on the following day, and the bill dropped. 
A similar bill was introduced by Mr. Disraeli on 12 March ; 
but many of its details being objected to, it was with- 
drawn. On lord John Russell's proposition, the house 
proceeded to consider the matter by way of resolutions ; 
on 17 June, lord Stanley brought in the above mentioned 
bill, being the third on the subject introduced during the 
session. 



INDIA, COUNCIL OF, established by act of 
parliament, 2 Aug. 1858, in the place of the board 
of control (which see). It consists of 15 members 
(salary 1200/. a year), eight of whom were appointed 
by the queen, and seven elected by the directors of 
the East India company. The members may not 
sit in parliament. The council met first on 3 Sept. 
1858, when lord Stanley, secretary of state for India,, 
presided. The members of the first council are 
recorded below. Members were added to the 
council by an act, passed 20 June, 1892. 



Charles Mills. 
John Shepherd. 
Ross D. Mangles. 
William J. Eastwick. 



ELECTED. 

Sir J. Weir Hogg. 
Elliot Macnaghtera. 
Henry T. Prinsep. 



APPOINTED. 



Sir Frederick Currie. 
Sir Henry Rawlinson. 
Sir R. Hussey Vivian. 
J. Pollard Willoughby. 



Sir John Lawrence. 
Sir Henry Montgomery. 
Sir Proby Cautley, and 
Wm. Arbuthnot. 



INDIA, EMPRESS OF; queen Victoria so pro- 
claimed in London, 1 May, 1876, in India, 1 Jan. 
1877; king Edward proclaimed Emperor 1 Jan. 
1903. See India. Order of the Indian Empire 
instituted, I Jan. 1878. Enlarged, 15 Feb. 1887. 

INDIA MUSEUM, THE, was proposed by 
sir Charles Wilkins and approved by the East India 
company in 1798. The valuable collections were 
removed from Leadenhall- street to Fife house, 
behind the chapel royal, Whitehall, and opened 
24 July, 1861 ; removed to the East India 
museum, which was opened to the public May, 
1869 ; removed to South Kensington, opened June, 
1875 ; closed 25 Oct. 1879, and the collections re- 
moved to Kew Gardens Museum, there re-opened 
17 May, 1880. Indian Empire Exhibition at Earl's 
Court, opened by the duke of Cambridge, 27 May, 
1895. 

INDIAN ASSOCIATION (Constitutional), 
to promote social progress and education in India, 
was established under the patronage of the princess 
of Wales in 1870. Annual meetings are held. 

INDIANA, a western state of North America. 
It was included in Ohio till 1801 ; was constituted 
a territory in 1809, and admitted into the Union 
II Dec. 1816. Capital, Indianapolis; population, 
1890, 105,436; 1900, 169,164. Population, 1880, 
1,978,301; 1890.2,192,404; 1900,2,516,462. 

Great Are at Indianapolis about 13 firemen were 

killed and 19 injured— loss 200,000 dols. 17 March, 1890 
Burning of a hospital at Indianapolis, 19 persons 

perish ™ J an - 1892 

Collapse of the large span of the nearly completed 

bridge over the Ohio ; 40 persons killed, 15 Dec. 1893 
Lynching riot at Evansville, mob dispersed by 

troops, 10 killed .... early July, 1903 

INDIAN CIVIL SERVICE COLLEGE, 

established at Cooper's hill, Surrey, 1870. 

INDIAN EXPENDITURE. Royal com- 
mission of inquiry appointed, lord Welby chair- 
man, sir Donald Stewart, sir William Wedderburn, 
and others, 19 May, 1896; meetings in 1896-7: 
report issued, proposed grant of 50,000/. a year to 
the India office, see Times, 10 April, 1900. 

INDIAN HEROES' FUND approved by 
the prince of Wales and lord George Hamilton, 
Indian secretary ; lord Roberts, president of the 
committee. £5,564 13s. -,d. received, July, et seq. 
(452 gs. from the queen and royal family; £100 
from lord Curzon, 24 Oct.) 1898; 78,96211s. received, 
Nov. 1899. See India, 1897. 



INDIAN INSTITUTE. 



650 



INDIANS. 



INDIAN INSTITUTE, Oxford; promoted 
by professor (afterwards sir) Monier Williams, 
1875 et se 1- > established 1878 ; first stone of the 
building laid, 2 May, 1883; opened, 14 Oct. 1884. 

The Institute has received liberal donations from 
Indian princes ; reported .... Dec. 1891 

Additional buildings opened . . 2 June, 1894 

Rev. Solomon C*sar Malan, who presented to the 
institute his valuable library and MSS., &C, died 
at Bournemouth, aged 82 . .25 Nov. ,, 

The completed buildings opened by lord George 
Hamilton, secretary for India, 1 July, 1896. The 
institute has been supported by liberal dona- 
tions 1875-1903 

INDIAN NATIONAL CONGEESS, ad- 
vocating legislative and administrative changes in 
favour of the natives, met at Bombay, end of Dec. 
188s, and annually since. Not favoui - ed by Ma- 
hometans. See India, 1885 et seq. 

INDIANS occupying the south-western parts 
of the United States, termed Indian territory, in 
direct connexion with the government, were num- 
bered at 239,506 in 1861 ; 261,912 in 1881 ; 249,253 
in 1900. The larger tribes are the Cherokees(22,ooo), 
the Choctaws (18,000), the Creeks (13,550), and 
the Chickasaws (5000); the Sioux (30,600). A 
large proportion are in comfortable circum- 
stances, and have schools and churches ; other tribes 
are the Delawares, Sacs, Foxes, Shawnees, Sioux, 
and Ioways. During the American civil war in 1861, 
the Choctaws joined the confederates, who per- 
mitted two Choctaw delegates to sit in congress ; 
the first being Sampson Folsom and Eastman Lo- 
man ; but the principal chief of the Cherokees, on 
4 May, 1861, issued a proclamation of neutrality, 
which was maintained with great difficulty. In a war 
provoked by outrages general Sheridan defeated the 
Indians, and they surrendered unconditionally Dec. 
e868. Negotiations undertaken by the Quakers had 
no effect, and the war was renewed June, 1869. 
As a chastisement for murders and other outrages 
major Baker killed 173 Indians, including women 
and children, Jan. 1870. In June following a 
deputation of eminent chiefs was received by the 
president at Washington, and promises and presents 
were made to them. On 1 Oct. 1869 prince Arthur 
visited the villages of the Canadian Indians, and 
was made a chief of the " Six Nations." A depu- 
tation of Indian chiefs were well received by the 
president at Washington, Jan. 1870. A meeting of 
delegates from various tribes met at Ocmulgee, 5-17 
June, 1871, and agreed to a constitution for the 
common government by means of a senate and par- 
liament representing 17 tribes of 60,000 people; see 
Modoc. 

Professor Marsh reports to the president of the 
United States the corruption and fraudulent 
conduct of the "Indian Ring," the officials em- 
ployed to ]>ay compensation, and deal with the 
Indians (this said to cause war of 1876) ; cor- 
roborated by gen. Custer .... July, 1875 

(Bishop Butler, an American, said that if the In- 
dians were treated as fairly as they are in Canada 
there would be no wars, 1878.I 

Thirteen Iroquois and [4 Canadians performed the 
Canadian national game " La Crosse," before the 
Queen at Windsor ... 27 June, 1876 

Gen. Geo. A. Custer, a brave, able officer, attacks 
about 2,500 Sioux Indians, led by Sitting Bull, an 
able chief, on Little Born river, Montana, in a 
ravine ; he and his family and nearly all his 
force destroyed (275 killed, 60 wounded) 25 .June, ,, 

Urgent measures taken bythe United States govern- 
ment, Sheridan put in command . . July, ,, 

Sheridan unsuccessful ; commissioners arrange a 
treaty with the Sioux Indians to remove for self. 
sustentation 7-27 Oct. ,. 



War going on ; gen. Howard opposed to an able 
chief, Joseph July, 1877 

The tribe "Nez Perces" defeat the U.S. troops in 
Idaho, and kill about 33, during and after the 
battle about 14 Sept. ,, 

Great conference of Indian chiefs with president 
Hayes, at Washington ; they accept terms 

end of Sept. ,, 

"Sitting Bull" and Sioux Indians defeated in a 
raid retire to Canada [when pardoned returned 
to his tribes] July, 1879 

Fighting with Indians at Mill creek, near Rawlins, 
in Colorado ; 17 whites and major Thombury 
killed, 29 Sept. ; gen. Merritt entrenched ; said 
to be surrounded ; reinforced ; Indians retreat 

14 Oct. ,, 

200 Apache Indians turn and kill 32 of the pursuing 
whites .... . . 9 Nov. ,, 

Indians in Canada. In 1883, 110,505 ; in 1892, 
121,638 ; numbers increasing ; condition im- 
proving and prosperous 1892 

The Sioux sell to the United States 11,000,000 acres, 
part of their Dakota reservation, for 14,000,000 
dollars ; the Chippewa agree to sell 4,000,000 
acres of their lands .... Aug. 1889 

A rising of the Sioux Indians, about 25,000, in Bad- 
lands (the Mauvaises Terres of the French pio- 
neers), in South Dakota, stated to be suflering by 
want, in consequence of the reduced government 
rations ; they are incited by their fanatical medi- 
cine men, who predict the coming of a conquer- 
ing Messiah, and begin their ghost war-dances ; 
they attack the outlying white settlers and 
friendly Indians ; marauding and outrages ensue, 
causing great alarm ; troops and supplies of food 
sent to the Dakota frontier ; the Sioux are soon 
joined by other tribes, Nov. ; col. Win. F. Cody, 
" Buffalo Bill " (see American Exhibition), sent to 
the front . . . . . .23 Nov. 1890 

Gen. Miles, chief, commanding in Dakota aided by 
gen. Brook ; the troops in Missouri, Nebraska, 
Kansas, Dakota. Montana, and Wyoming, ordered 
for active service 25 Nov. ,, 

Rapid advance of troops and cannon into the reser- 
vations ; Little Wound and other Sioux chiefs 
tender submission 26 Nov. ,, 

Father Jule, a missionary, visits the Indian forti- 
fied camp, to dissuade them from war ; the older 
chiefs inclined to yield, the younger determined ; 
he returned 6 Dec. ,, 

The hostile Indians said to be demoralised by a 
display of troops and cannon . . . 12 Dec. ,, 

The old Sioux chief Sitting Bull (see above, 187-67) 
captured by the police, 14 Dec, and in an 
attempt to rescue him, his son Crow Foot and 
himself are killed with others, and his camp is 
occupied by the troops . . . .15 Dec. „ 

Gen. Miles' head-quarters at Rapid city . 18 Dec. ,, 

Red Cloud, at a great council, recommends sur- 
render, and warns resisters . . 19 Dec. ,, 
Battle of Wounded. Knee Creek. 

Desiring to revenge Sitting Bull's death, the re- 
mains of his band join Big Foot's band on Chey- 
enne River ; they start ior Badlands, and are 
joined by other Indians, making about 160 war- 
riors in all ; they are met by the 7th cavalry 
under lieut. Hawthorne, and artillery under 
major Whiteside, and made to surrender, 28 Dec. ; 
in the evening major Forsyth with other troops 
arrives. While pretending to surrender their 
arms, at the command of major Whiteside, the 
Indians suddenly attack the dismounted troopers, 
and a murderous hand-to-hand tight ensues; the 
Indians are joined by others, and additional 
troops arrive, the Indians ftee to the ravines, are 
pursued by the artillery, much slaughter ensues ; 
during the confused fight, Big Foot and his 
band were nearly exterminated, together with 
many women and children (about 200). Capt. 
Wallace, lieu', s. Casey and Mann, and several 
non-commissioned officers and privates were 

killed . 29 Dec. ,, 

Vigorous attack on the Pine Ridge Agency, re- 
pulsed, 29 Dec. et seq. ; sharp skirmish in which 
nearly 3,000 Indians are dispersed by major 
Forsyth 29, 30 Dec ,, 



INDIA RUBBER. 



651 



INDUSTRIAL PROPERTY. 



The great body of 3,000 Indians near Pine Ridge 
Agency, gradually surrounded by the 2nd In- 
fantry regiment under gen. Brook 2 Jan. et seq. 

A sharp Indian attack on supply waggons repulsed 

5 Jan. 

Kansas and other states called on to supply troops 

7 Jan. 

Gen. Miles receives the submission of the rebel 
chiefs of the Brules ; provisions sent to the 
Indians 14 Jan. 

About 4,000 Indians, nearly surrounded by the 
troops, come in and surrender their arms 

15 Jan. et seq. 

Gen. Miles, in an address, commends his troops, 
and declares the war at an end . . 19 Jan. 

He takes 40 Indians and also some friendly chiefs to 
Washington, Feb. ; they have a conference with 
Mr. Noble, secretary of the Interior, 7 Feb., and 
president Harrison . . . .12 F%b. 

Proposed enlistment of about 2,000 young Indians, 
as separate companies in the army about 10 Feb. 

The delegates return to Pine Ridge from Washing- 
ton, much dissatisfied with their reception ; their 
loyal chief " American Horse," complains bitterly 
of the injustice and harshness of the government 
and the officials, but speaks well of gen. Miles 

23 Feb. ,, 

Revolt of the Chippewa and other Indians in Min- 
nesota and Arizona, reported 12 July ; defensive 
measures ordered by government . July, ,, 

Great mining explosion at Krebs, in the Indian 
territory ; about 70 men killed . . 7 Jan. 1892 

Rising of the Navajo Indians near S. Colorado, 
reported 30 April, 1893 

Mr. G. B. Grinnell's "Pawnee Hero Stories" and 
" Blackfoot Lodge Tales " published . . . ,, 

INDIA RUBBER, see Caoutchouc. 

INDICTION, a Roman term originally applied 
to a tribute of corn, paid every fifteen years, and to 
the time at which it was paid. The first examples 
in the Theodosian code are of the reign of Con- 
stantius II., who died 361. — In memory of the great 
victory obtained by Constantine over Maxentius, 
8 Cal. Oct. 312, the council of Nice ordained that 
the accounts of years should be no longer kept by 
the Olympiads, but by the Indiction, which has its 
epocha 1 Jan. 313. It was first used by the Latin 
church in 342. 

INDIGO, the dye obtained from the woad 
plant, isatis iinctoria, was used by the Egyptians, 
and other ancient nations ; and the processes are 
described by Pliny. After the passage of the Cape of 
Good Hope, in 1497, it was gradually superseded by 
the eastern indigo, got from the indigofera. The 
mention of indigo occurs in English statutes in 1581. 
Its cultivation was begun in Carolina in 1747. The 
quantity imported into Great Britain in 1840 was 
5,831,269 lbs.; in 1850, 70,482 cwt. ; in 1861, 
83,109 cwt.; in 1871, 106,307 cwt.; in 1881, 
81,088 cwt. ; in 1890, 81,854 cwt.; 1893, 66,981 
cwt.; 1900, 33,877 cwt.; 1901, 51,359 cwt. 
After long-continued experiments, especially by 
prof. A. Baeyer, the dye has been prepared artifi- 
cially from its chemical elements in coal tar 1869-80 
Professor H. E. Roscoe, at the Royal Institution, 
proved that the properties of the artificial and 
natural indigo were identical . . 27 May, 1881 

INDIRECT CLAIMS, see Alabama, Wash- 
ington. 

INDIUM, a metal discovered in the arsenical 
pyrites of Freiberg by F. Reich and T. Richter in 
1863. Its name is due to its giving an indigo blue 
ray m its spectrum. 

INDIVIDUALISM, the principal main- 
tained by Herbert Spenser and others in opposition 
to too much state control and socialism. "The 



coming individualism," by A. Egmont Hake and 
0. E. Wesslau, published Jan. 1896. 

INDO-CHINA, a name given to central Asia. 
The countries under French government or protec- 
tion are Annam, Cochin China, Cambodia, and 
Tonquin. Burmah is subject to Great Britain, and 
Siam is independent, 1893. M. de Lannessan 
appointed gov. -general (actively aggressive), super- 
seded by M. Armand Rousseau, 29 Dec. 1894 ; he 
died, Dec. 1896; succeeded by M. Doumer, Dec. 
1896; succeeded by M. Beau, July, 1902. 

INDORE, a province of British India; the 
principal native rulers have been the Mahratta 
chiefs, named Holkar, rivals of the Scindiahs at 
Gwalior. Rao Holkar received a grant of territory 
from the Biitish in 1733. After severe conflicts the 
Mahratta chiefs were finally quelled in 1818. The 
town of Indore, founded in 1767, was destroyed by 
Scindiah after a battle on 14 Oct. 1801. The 
maharajah Shivaja Rao Holkar died 17 June, 1886. 
Succeeded by his son, Tuckaji Rao Holkar, who was 
present at the queen's jubilee in London in 1887. 
Indore was visited by the viceroy, the marquis of 
Lansdowne, 24 Nov. 1891. The maharajah 
Shivaji Rao Holkar iu ill-health, abdicated in 
favour of his son, Tukoji Rao, aged 12, 31 Jan. 1903. 
Population, 1881, 1,055,217; 1891, 1,091,689; 1901. 
850,690. 

INDUCTION of electric currents, discovered 
by Faraday, and announced in his "Experimental 
Researches," published in 1831-2. Ruhmkorff's 
magneto-electric induction coil was constructed in 
1850. See under Electricity. 

INDUCTIVE PHILOSOPHY, based on 
the results of observations and experiments, really 
common sense, is especially expounded by Bacon in 
the second book of his " Novum Organon," pub- 
lished 1620. fm. Harvey (1578- 1657) endeavoured 
"to search out the secrets of nature by the way of 
experiment." See Blood. 

INDULGENCES in the early church were 
the moderation of ecclesiastical punishment. The 
papal system for the absolute pardon of sin, com- 
menced by Leo. III. about 800, were granted in 
the nth century by Gregory VII., and by Urban 
II., and by others, in the 12th century as rewards 
to the crusaders. Clement V. was the first pope 
who made public sale of indulgences, 1313. In 
1517, Leo X. published general indulgences 
throughout Europe, and the resistance to them led 
to the Reformation. 

INDUSTRIAL DWELLINGS, see 

Artisans. 

INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITIONS, in Great 
Britain, are now frequent. One for South London 
was opened at Lambeth, 1 March, 1864; for North 
London, by earl Russell, at the Agricultural hall, 
Islington, 17 Oct. 1864; for West London, at the 
Floral hall, Covent-garden, 1 May, 1865; for the 
city of London, at Guildhall, 6 March, 1866; one 
was opened at York, 24 July, 1866; and several 
since. The "Workmen's International Exhibition, 
Agricultural Hall, London, was opened 16 July ; 
closed, 31 Oct. 1870; one by the Article club at 
the Crystal palace opened by the duke of Con- 
naught, 30 May, 1899; others since. 

INDUSTRIAL PROPERTY; an inter- 
national conference for its protection was opened at 
Paris, 6 March, 1883; Rome, 30 April, 1886; 



INDUSTEIAL CONFEBENCES. 652 



INFLUENZA. 



Madrid, 1890; London, 1 June, 189S; Turin, 16 
Sept. 1902. 

INDUSTEIAL EEMUNEEATION 
CONFEEENCES, at Prince's Hall, Piccadilly, 
London, held 28-30 Jan. 1885. Papers read on the 
relation between Capital and Labour, &c. by lord 
Bramwell, sir Thomas Brassey, and others. 

INDUSTEIAL AND PEOVIDENT 
SOCIETIES ACTS, 1852 and 1862, were 
amended by acts passed 1867, 1871, and 1876. Acts 
consolidated in 1893 ; amended, 1895. 

INDUSTEIAL SCHOOLS ACT, 21 & 22 
Vict. c. 48 (1857) was enacted to make better pro- 
vision for the care and education of vagrant, desti- 
tute, and disorderly children. Another act was 
passed, 1861. These acts were consolidated by an 
act passed in Aug. 1866; amended 1894. Forty- 
seven of these schools had been certified under 
these acts up to 29 Sept. 1864. The act was 
extended to Ireland, 1868. England and Wales, 
1872, 71 schools (4870 boys, 1516 girls); in 1890, 
133 schools; in 1892, 138 schools; 1901,223 schools. 

INDUSTEIAL SOCIETIES, see Co-opera- 
tive Societies. 

INDUSTEIAL VILLAGES, the formation 
of these by the removal of workmen from towns, 
was proposed at a meeting of the Society of Arts, 
26 June, 1885. Annual meeting, 26 July, 1888. 

INDUSTEY, see Scientific. A conference for 
the christian organisation of industry met in 
Holborn town hall, 29 Nov. 1893. 

INEBEIATES, see Drunkards. 

INFALLIBILITY OF THE POPE, in 

regard to faith and morals, was decreed by the Va- 
tican Council, and promulgated, 18 July, 1870. The 
doctrine was much opposed in Germany, and led to 
the constitution of the church named " Old Ca- 
tholics," which see. Mr. Gladstone's pamphlets, 
"The Vatican Decrees in their bearing on Civil 
Allegiance," published Nov. 1874, and "Vati- 
canism," in Feb. 1875. 

INFANTICIDE, especially female, was very 
prevalent in barbarous countries. Lord Macartney 
stated that 20,000 infants were killed annually; it 
is now gradually decreasing in India. On 12 Nov. 
1851, Mr. Raikes induced the Chohan chiefs to 
agree to resolutions against it, and a great meeting 
in the Punjab was held for the same purpose, 
14 Nov. 1853. Much suspicion was caused in Lon- 
don in 1867 through the deaths of children farmed 
out to improper persons. The agitation revived, 
June, 1870. Margaret Waters was convicted of the 
murder of John Cowen, an illegitimate infant, by 
poison and neglect, 23 Sept. 1870. She had adopted 
about 40 children, receiving a few pounds as pre- 
mium; in four years, many had died. John and 
Catherine Barns, of Tranmere, near Birkenhead, 
convicted of manslaughter (see Trials), 29 Oct. 
1879. r ^ ne Infant Life Protection act passed 25 
July, 1872 ; amended, 1897. Female infanticide 
prohibited in China about June, 1873. Amelia 
E. Dyer, a baby farmer, convicted of the murder 
of infant children, the bodies having been thrown 
into the Thames at Reading, 22 May ; executed, 
10 June, 1896. Two women "baby-farmers" 
executed at Holloway, 3 Feb. 1903. 

INFANTEY, foot soldiers ; their organisation 
much improved during the wars of Charles V. and 



Francis I., in the 16th century. The British army 
comprised 99 regiments of regular infantry in 1858, 
when the Canadians raised a regiment termed the 
100th. The number 109, beside the rifle biigade 
until 188 1 included the nine regiments formerly 
in the pay of the East India company, and several 
colonial corps. In 1871 the principle of localisa- 
tion, the linking of battalions, and short service, 
came into operation, in 1881 the existing 109 
regiments and the rifle brigade were reorganised 
forming 71 territorial regiments of the line, each 
regiment comprising usually 2 battalions of its own 
and linked battalions of the militia and volunteers. 
The army scheme of reorganisation introduced by 
Mr. Brodrick, March 1901, increases the strength 
of the infantry and raises the number of militia. 
Marshal Soult (or marshal Bugeaud) said, "The 
British infantry is the finest in the world : happily 
there is not much of it." In 1902, 178,361. 
Mounted infantry were largely and successfully 
employed in the operations of the war in S. 
Africa, 1899- 1902. 

INFANTS' EELIEF ACT, passed 7 Aug. 
1874, to amend the law relating to contracts made 
by persons under age. 

The powers of wives and widows in respect to the care 
and training of their children, were somewhat en- 
larged in 1839, more so in 1873, and very much more 
by a bill brought in by Mr. James Bryce, read a second 
time 26 March, 1884. 

Guardianship of Infants Act passed, 1886. 

INFANT SCHOOLS began in New Lanark, 
Scotland, in 1815 ; in London in 1818. 

INFECTIOUS DISEASES. By an act 
passed 30 Aug. 1889, notification of any person 
suffering from infectious disease is required to bo 
given by the nearest relative or any person in 
charge, and also by the medical attendant to the 
medical efficer of health of the district; extension 
of same act passed, 20 June, 1899. An act to 
prevent the spread of infectious disease was passed 
4 Aug. 1890. 

INFEENAL MACHINES, see France, 1800, 

1835, and 1858; Baltic, note; Dynamite; Russia, 
1880- 1 ; Liverpool, 1881 ; Explosives. 

INFIEMAEIES. Ancient Rome had no 
houses for the cure of the sick ; diseased persons 
were carried to the temple of yEsculapius for cure. 
Institutions for the accommodation of travellers, 
the indigent, and sick were founded by the em- 
peior Julian about 362 ; and infirmaries or hospitals 
were frequently built to cathedrals and monas- 
teries. The emperor Louis II. caused infirmaries 
situated on mountains to be visited, 855. In Jeru- 
salem the knights and brothers attended on the 
sick. There were hospitals for the sick at Constan- 
tinople, in the nth century. The oldest mention 
of physicians and surgeons established in infirm- 
aries occurs in 1437. Bcckinann ; see Hospitals. 
Parish workhouse infirmaries established, 1867. 

INFLUENZA, a name given in Italy about 

1741 to an epidemic febrile catarrh with variations, 

probably known to the ancient*. 

It prevailed in Europe in 1510, and has since frequently 

appeared, generally commencing in Russia and 

thence spreading over the continent. It appeared in 

Britain in 1762 and frequently since, especially in 

1830-1, 1833, 1836-7, and 1847. It appeared at Paris in 

c866 7, and at Berlin, 1874-5. In Oct. 1889, it was 

severe in St. lVtersburg, and thence spread over 

Europe, reaching Great Britain, Canada and the 

United states N.A., Jan. 1S90, causing indirectly the 

deaths of several eminent persons. In the spring, the 



INFOEMEES. 



653 



INQUISITION. 



disease was severe in India and Australia. In 1891 
the disease was severe in the west of the United States 
N.A., and in London and other parts of England, and 
also on the Continent. The disease reappeared in Jan. 
1892, in much the same localities. In London the 
general mortality was much increased, all classes 
being attacked. The death of the duke of Clarence 
and Avondale, 14 Jan. 1892, was attributed to pneu- 
monia following influenza. Keports of the epidemic 
of 1889-90, by Dr. Parsons, issued by government, 
1891-3. Moderate outbreak in London, Feb. 1893, 
chiefly among the upper and middle classes, the mar- 
quis of Salisbury, duke of Abercorn, marquis of 
Londonderry and others, March ; many cases autumn 
"and winter, 1893-94 ! epidemic in London ; prevalent 
in United Kingdom and on the continent, many 
deaths, Feb.- April, 1895. Epidemic in St. Petersburg 
and S. Russia, March, 1895. Epidemic in London and 
home counties, Jan., Feb. 1898 ; again rife in London 
and Paris, spring, 1899 ; again in London and other 
parts, Jan. 1900. 

INFOEMEES, "pon penal statutes, com- 
pounding with defendants without leave of the 
court, were punishable with fine and pillory, by 
18 Eliz. c. 5 (1576). Their share of a penalty was 
regulated by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 71 (1839). 

INFUSOEIA, see Animalcules. 

INGESTEE HALL, Staffordshire, destroyed 
by fire 12 Oct. 1882. It was built in 1676. Many 
valuable portraits, &c. were destroyed. 

INGOUB, a river rising in the Caucasus and 
falling into the Black Sea. Omar Pasha, marching 
to the relief of Kars, crossed this river on 6 Nov. 
1855, with 10,000 men, and attacked the Russians, 
T 2,000 strong, who, after a struggle, retreated with 
the loss of 400 men. The Turks had 68 killed and 
242 wounded. Kars, however, was not saved. 

INK. The ancient black inks were composed of 
soot and ivory black, and Vitruvius and Pliny men- 
tion lamp-black; but they had ink of various 
colours, as red, gold, silver, and purple. Eed ink 
was made of vermilion and gum. Indian ink was 
brought from China, and must have been in use by 
the people of the east from the earliest ages. Invis- 
ible, or Sympathetic Inks, were known at early 
periods. Ovid (a.d. 2) teaches young women to 
write with new milk. Receipts for preparing in- 
visible ink were given by Peter Borel, in 1653, and 
by Le Mort, in 1669. Beckmann. 

INKEEMANN (Crimea). The Russian army 
(about 40,000) having received reinforcements, and 
being encouraged by the presence of the granddukes 
Michael and Nicholas, attacked the British (8000) 
near the old fort of Inkermann, before daybreak, 
5 Nov. 1854. They were kept at bay for six hours 
till the arrival of 6000 French. The Russians were 
then repulsed, leaving 9000 killed and wounded. 
The loss of the allies was 462 killed, 1952 wounded, 
and 191 missing. Sir George Cathcart, and generals 
Strangways, Goldie, and Torrens, were among the 
slain. On 15 Nov. 1855, an explosion of about 
100,000 lbs. of gunpowder occurred near Inker- 
mann, and caused great loss of life. 

INLAND NAVIGATION, see Canals. 

INLAND EEVENUE BOAED was con- 
stituted in Feb. 1849. It comprises the boards of 
Excise, Stamps, and Taxes {which see). The law 
respecting the inland revenue amended 1871. Total 
inland revenue, 1896, 64,360,000/. up to 31 March; 
1897, 64,720,000/.; 1900, 75,830,000/.; IQOI, 
83,300,000/. ; 1902, 90,900,000/. 



INNOCENTS' DAY, 28 Dec. in the western 
church ; 29 Dec. in the Greek or eastern church ; 
see Childermas. 

INNS at Rome were regulated by laws ; and 
Edward III. enacted that they should be subjected 
to inquiry, 1353. See Taverns, and Victuallers. 

INNS OF COUET (London) were established 
at different periods, in some degree as colleges for 
teaching the law. Annual revenue in 1872 said to 
be about 25,000/. See Barristers. 

The Temple founded, and the church built by 

Knights Templars H85 

The Inner and Middle Temple made inns of law 

about 1340 ; the Outer about {Stow) . . . 1560 

Barnard's Inn, an inn of Chancery (on sale, 49,400?. 
refused 20 June, 1888, let to Art Workers' Guild, 
Oct. 1888) ... .... 1445 

Clement's Inn . .... before 1478 

Clifford's Inn, 20 Edw. Ill 1345 

Furnival's Inn, 5 Eliz. . ^63 

Gray's Inn, 32 Edw. Ill 1357 

Lincoln's Inn, 4 Edw. II 1310 or 1312 

Lyon's Inn z j 2 o 

New Inn, 1 Hen. VII 3:485 

Serjeants' Inn, Fleet Street 1429 

Serjeants' Inn, Chancery-lane (sold for 57,000?. 23 

Feb. 1877) 1666 

Staples Inn, 4 Hen. V I4I5 

Thavies' Inn, 10 Hen. VIII. i 5I0 

Staple Inn sold, Dec. 1884 ; Clifford's Inn sold for 
100,000? 14 May, 1903 

INNSBEUCK, capital of the Tyrol, captured 
by Maurice of Saxony in 1552 ; by the Bavarians 
in 1703; by the French and Bavarians, 1805. 
Much fighting took place in 1809, and Innsbruck 
changed masters several times, being finally taken 
by the Austrians, 12 Aug. The emperor Francis 
Joseph met queen Victoria here, 23 April, 1888. 

INOCULATION, see Small Fox. Lady Mary 
"VVortley Montagu introduced inoculation from 
smallpox to England from Turkey. In 1718 she 
had her son inoculated at Adrianople with success. 
She was allowed to have it first tried in England on 
seven condemned criminals, 1721 ; and in 1722 two 
of the royal family were inoculated. The practice 
was preached against by many of the bishops and 
clergy until 1760. Dr. Mead practised inoculation 
very successfully up to 1754, and Dr. Dimsdale of 
London, inoculated Catherine II., empress of 
Russia, in 1768. ■ Of 5964 who were inoculated in 
1797-99, only three died. An inoculation hospital 
was established in 1 746. Vaccine inoculation was 
introduced by Dr. Jenner, 21 Jan. 1799; he had 
discovered its virtue in 1 796, and had been making 
experiments during the intermediate three years. 
Inoculation was forbidden by law in 1840. Dr. 
A. E. "Wright's typhoid vaccine elaborated in 
1896, introduced in the army, leported, June, 1899 ; 
satisfactory results obtained at Ladysmith, 1899- 
1900, reported, 5 Sept. 1902 ; M. Haffkine's system 
of inoculation against cholera and plague used suc- 
cessfully in India, see Bombay. Dr. Kitasato's 
method of treating dysentery hy serum inoculation 
very successful, 1895-99. See Vaccination, Sheep, 
Hydrophobia, and Biphtheria. 

INQUESTS, see Coroner. 

.INQUISITION or Holy Office. Pre- 
vious to Constantine (306), heresy and spiritual 
offences were punished by excommunication only ; 
but shortly after his death capital punishments 
were added, and inquisitors were appointed by 
Theodosius, 382. Priscillian was put to death in 384 
by the emperor Maximus. Justinian decreed the 
doctrine of the four holy synods as to the holy scrip- 



INSANITY. 



654 



INSUBANCE. 



tures and their canons to be observed as laws, 529 ; 
hence the penal code against heretics. About 800 
the power of the western bishops was enlarged, and 
courts were established for trying and punishing spi- 
ritual offenders,even with death; the punishment be- 
ing termed in Spain auto-da-fe, " an act of faith." 
In the 12th century many heresies arose, and during 
the crusades against the Albigenses, Gregory IX.. 
in 1233, established by rules the inquisitorial 
missions sent out by Innocent III., 1210-15, and 
committed them to the Dominicans. Pietro da 
Verona (styled Peter Martyr), the first inquisitor 
who burnt heretics, assassinated by an accused gon- 
falonier, 6 April, 1252, was canonized. 

Pierre de Castelnau sent against the Albigenses, 
1210 ; St. Dominic made the first inquisitor- 
general 1215 

The Inquisition constituted by Gregory IX., 1233 ; 
established in Aragon, 1233 ; Venice, 1249 ; 

France, 1255 ; Castile 1290 

The Inquisition revived by a bull . . 1 Nov. 1478 
The Holy Office was reinstituted in Spain by Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella ; Toiquemada inquisitor- 
general 1480 

Nearly 3000 persons burnt in Andalusia, and 17,000 

sutler other penalties .... . 1481 

" Instructions " of the new tribunal promulgated, 

29 Nov. 1484 
New articles were added . . . 1488 & 1498 

Established in Portugal 1526 

The establishment resisted in Naples, and only 
introduced into other parts of Italy with jealous 
limitations by the temporal power . . 1546-7 
New ordinances in 81 articles compiled by the 

inquisitor-general Valdez 1561 

Suppressed in France by edict of Nantes . . ■ 1 598 
Carnesecchi executed at Rome, 1567, and Galileo 

compelled to abjure his philosophical opinions . 1633 
Louis XIV. revoked the edict of Nantes, but re- 
fused to introduce the Inquisition . . . . 1685 
20 persons perish at an auto-da-fe at Goa . . 1717 

Gabriel Malagrida, a Jesuit, burnt at Lisbon . . 1761 
A woman accused of making a contract with the 

devil burnt at Seville .... 7 Nov. 1781 
The tribunal abolished in Tuscany and Lombardy . 1787 
Suppressed in Spain by Napoleon, 4 Dec. 1808 and 

by the Cortes . . . .12 Feb. 1813 

Restored by Ferdinand VII. . . 21 July, 1814 

Finally abolished by the Cortes .... 1820 
[Llorente states that in 236 years the total number 
of persons put to death in Spain by the Inquisi- 
tion was about 32,000 ; 291,000 were subjected to 
other punishments. 1 

INSANITY, see Lunatics. 

INSECTS. About 200,000 species known, Jan. 
1877. An exhibition of these creatures, illustrat- 
ing their structure, food, and habits, was opened 
in the gardens of the Tuileries, at Paris, 7 Sept., 
1874 ; at the Westminster Aquarium, 9 March, 1878 ; 
and in the Zoological gardens, Regent's park, 1881. 
About 8,000 new species of insects named annually ; 
total estimated 10,000,000 forms, 1902. See 
Entomology. 

INSOLVENCY. The first insolvent act was 
passed in 1649, but it was of limited operation ; a 
number of acts of more extensive operation were 
passed at various periods, and particularly in the 
reign of George III. The benefit of the act known 
as the Great Insolvent Act, was taken in England by 
50,733 insolvents from the time of its passing in 
1814, to March, 1827, a period of thirteen years. 
Since then the acts relating to insolvency have 
been several times amended. Persons not traders, 
or being traders whoso debts are less than 300/., 
might petition the court of bankruptcy, and pro- 
pose compositions, and have pro tern, protection 
from ali process against their persons and property, 
by 6 Vict. c. 116 (1842). In 1861, by a new bank- 
ruptcy act, the business of the insolvent debtors' 



c.iiirt was transferred to the court of bankruptcy; 
and a number of imprisoned debtors were released 
in Nov. 1861. See Bankrupts. 

INSTITUTE OF FRANCE, see Academies 
(Paris). On 22 Aug. and 25 Oct. 1795, all the 
Academies (formerly Koyal), viz., the French 
academy, the academy of inscriptions and belles 
lettres, that of the mathematical and physical 
sciences, of the fine arts, and of the moral and 
political sciences, were combined in one body, 
under the title of "Institut National," afterwards 
Royal, Imperial, and ayain National. Centenary 
celebrated, 23 Oct. et seq. 1895. 

INSTITUTES, see Code, Actuaries, Agricvl- 
ture, Architects, Chemical, Inventors, $c. 



see Royal, London, Civil 



INSTITUTION, 

Engineers, &c. 

INSURANCE on Ships and Merchan- 
dise. Suetonius conjectures that Claudius was 
the first contriver of the insurance of ships 
a.d. 43. 

Insurance in general use in Italy, 1194, and in 
England 1560 

Insurance policies first used in Florence . . . 1523 

The first law relating to insurance was enacted . 1601 

Insurance 01 houses and goods against Fire, in 
London, began the year following the Great Fire 
of London 1667 

An office set up for insuring houses and buildings, 
chiefly on the plan of Dr. Barton, one of the first 
and most considerable builders of London . . ,, 

The first regular office set up in London was the 
Hand-in-Hand, 1696 ; bi-centenary celebrated, 

12 Nov. 1896 

First Life Insurance Office (the Amicable), esta- 
blished 1706 

Sim fire-office established 1710 

The Sun introduces the double option system (in- 
vented by Mr. Harris Saunders) combining two 
forms of assurance against death and old age, 
announced 1830 

The first Marine Insurance was the Royal Exchange 
Insurance, and the London Insurance . . . 1721 

Duty first laid on insurances of is. 6d. per 100?. in- 
sured, 1782 ; duty increased 1707 

In 1857, 1,451,110?. were paid as duty for fire insur- 
ances on property amounting to 72,136,585?. 

A new Commercial Union fire insurance, founded 
in consequence of the increased charges of the 
companies Sept. 1861 

Rate of tax on insurance, reduced from 3s. i,o is. 6d. 
per cent, on stock in trade, from 13 May, 1864 ; 
on household goods 1865 

Sea insurance duties reduced . . -31 May, 1S67 

Policies of Assurance act (enabling assignees of 
assurances to sue in their own names for policy 
monies), passed .... 20 Aug. 

Fire insurance duties totally repealed . 24 June, 1869 

Albert Assurance Company fail for about 8.000,000?. 

Aug. ., 

Acts amending the law respecting life assurai 

companies passed 1870- 1-2 

The " People's Provident Assurance Society," established 
2 Sept. 1854; named European Assurance Society, 1869: 
said to have absorbed 44 other societies ; brought 
into chancery, 1871 ; subjected to arbitration by act 
of parliament, 1872; first meeting before lord West- 
Dttiy, 22 Oct. 1872; Successive arbitrators, lord 
Rnmilly, sir Win. James; Mr. Francis Reilly (last); 
final award signed 2 Sept. 1879. Immense loss to 
shareholders. 

A scheme for the insurance of the lives of its 
sailors, and others, proposed by the Shipping 
Federation, see under Shipping . . April, 1S91 

AMOUNT INSURED. 

I782 £130,000,000 

1802. ..... . 220,000,000 

1822. ...... 399,000,000 

1842 652,000,000 

1862. • . . . . . 1,007,000,000 



, 



INSURRECTIONS- 



600 



INUNDATIONS. 



Sum insured in 125 offices, about 338,000,000^. ; ac- 
cumulated life-funds, 94,000,000?. ; premium income 
nearly n,ooo,oooZ. — Board of Trade Report, 1874. 

INSURRECTIONS, see Conspiracies, Mas- 
sacres, Rebellions, Riots, &c. 

INTELLIGENCE DEPARTMENTS, 

Military, see under Army, 1 April, 1873 ; Naval, 
see under Navy, 1 Feb. 1887. 

INTENDMENT of Crimes, in cases of 

treason, wounding, burglary, &c, intention proved 
was made as punishable as crime completed, by 7 
Geo. II. 1734. The rigour was modified by sir 
Robert Peel's revision of the statutes, 4-10 Geo. IV. 
1823-29. 

INTERDICT or Ecclesiastical Cen- 
sure, seldom decreed in Europe till the time of 
Gregory VII. 1073, but often afterwards. When a 
prince was excommunicated, all his subjects re- 
taining their allegiance were excommunicated also, 
and the clergy were forbidden to perform any part 
of divine service, or any clerical duties, save the 
baptism of infants, and taking the confessions of 
dying penitents. In 11 70, pope Alexander put all 
England under an interdict; and when king John 
was excommunicated in 1208, the kingdom lay 
under a papal interdict for six years. England was 
put under an interdict, on Henry VIII. shaking off 
the pope's supremacy, 1535; and pope Sixtus V. 
published a crusade against queen Elizabeth of 
England in 1588; see Excommunication. 

INTEREST, see Usury. The word interest 
was first used in an act of parliament of the 21st 
James I. 1623, wherein it was made to signify a 
lawful increase by way of compensation for the use 
of money lent. The rate fixed by the act was 81. 
for the use of 100/. for a year, in place of usury at 
lOl. before taken. The Commonwealth lowered the 
rate to 61. in 1651'; confirmed in 1660; and by an 
act of the 13th of queen Anne, 1713, it was reduced 
to 5^. The restraint being found prejudicial to 
commerce was somewhat relaxed in 1839, and was 
totally removed by 17 & 18 Vict. c. 90 (1854). 

INTERIM OF AUGSBURG, a decree issued 
by the emperor Charles V. in 1548, with the view 
of attempting to reconcile the Catholics and Pro- 
testants, in which it entirely failed. It was revoked 
in 1552. The term Interim has been applied to 
other decrees and treaties. 

INTERMEDIATE EDUCATION ACT 

for Ireland, passed 16 Aug. 1878; another act 
passed, 6 Aug. 1900. 

INTERMEZZI, light dramatic entertain- 
ments, introduced between the acts of a tragedy, 
comedy, or grand opera ; of very ancient origin. 
They became more important in the 16th century. 
Those connected with Bardi's " Amico Fido," 
1589, were very fine. 

INTERMITTENT FILTRATION of 

Sewage, a process much advocated by Professor E. 
Frankland and others, in 1875, and stated to have 
been successful at Merthyr Tydvil since 1872. 

INTERNATIONAL AFRICAN ASSO- 
CIATION, see Congo. 

INTERNATIONAL Association of 

ACADEMIES proposed at Gottingen in 1898 ; 
met in Paris 16-20 April, 1901 ; 18 constituent 
bodies represented (British delegates, Sir Michael 



Foster, Sir Archibald Geikie, sir Norman Lockyer, 
prof. Hay Lankester, and others) ; M. Darboux pre- 
sident (M. Berthelot, M. Gaston Bossier, sir Michael 
Foster, M. de Goeje, and Dr. Mommsen, hon. 
presidents). The association includes 2 divisions, 
letters and science, which meet separately, the 
general assembly afterwards sitting in congress to 
discuss and act on their decisions ; the council met 
in London, June, 1903 ; the next triennial meeting 
to be in London, 1904. 

INTERNATIONAL, see Chess, Cholera, 
Copyright, Cosmopolis, Education, Electricity, 
Exhibitions, Geneva, Havre, Horticulture, Literary, 
Statistics, Scientific, Working-men, Game, &c. 

INTERNATIONAL LAW- See Neutral 
Powers. 

The professorship of international law, at Cambridge, 
endowed by bequest of Dr. Win. Whewell, master of 
Trinity College, 1867. 

The Association for the Reform and Codification of the 
Law of Nations first met at Brussels, 10 Oct. 1873 ; 
Geneva, 2-5 Sept. 1874 ; The Hague, Sept. 1875 ; 
Bremen, 1876 ; Antwerp, 30 Aug. — 3 Sept. 1877 ; 
Frankfort, about 20 Aug. 1878 ; London, 11 Aug. 1879; 
Berne, 24 Aug. 1880; Cologne, 16-19 Au S- *88i ; Liver- 
pool, about 15 Aug. 1882 ; Turin, n Sept. 1882; Milan, 
11 Sept. 1883 ; London, July, 1887 ; Liverpool, Aug. 
1890 ; London, Oct. 1893 ; Brussels, 1 Oct. 1895. 

The Institute of International Law was organised at 
Ghent by Dr. Lieber, M. Jaquerayns, and M. Moy- 
nier, in 1873. It has since met at Geneva, 1874 ; 
the Hague, 1875 ; Zurich, 1876 ; Paris, 1878 ; Brus- 
sels, Sept. 1879; Oxford, 6-10 Sept. 1880; Turin, 1882; 
Munich, 4 Sept. 1883 ; Hamburg, 9 Aug. 1885 ; Heidel- 
berg, 5 Sept. 1887 ; Lausanne, 8 Sept. 1888; Hamburg, 
7 Sept. 1891 ; Geneva, 6 Sept. 1802 ; Paris, 27 March, 
1894 ; Cambridge, 9 Aug. 1895 ; Venice, 24 Sept. 1896 ; 
Copenhagen, 26 Aug. 1897 ; The Hague, Aug. 1898 ; 
Buffalo, 31 Aug. 1899 ; Glasgow, 20 Aug. 1901 ; 
Brussels, 18 Sept. 1902. 

See under Peace. 

INTEROCEANIC CANAL between the 
Atlantic and Pacific. See Panama. 

INTER-PARLIAMENTARY CON- 
FERENCES, held by members of different legis- 
latures, when not in session, see under Peace. 

INTERPRETATION ACT, "for consoli- 
dating enactments relating to the construction of 
acts of parliament and for further shortening the 
language used in acts of parliament " was passed 
30 Aug. 1889. 

INTERREGNUM, see Commonwealth. 

INTESTATE. A person who dies without 
leaving a will. Intestates' Estates act passed, 25 
July, 1890. 

INTRANSIGENTES, or Irreconcileables, a 

party of extreme republicans in Spain, who with- 
drew from the Cortes and became very troublesome, 
1 July, 1873; joined by communists they held Car- 
thagena from August to 12 Jan. 1874. 

INUNDATIONS. The following are among 
the most remarkable : — 

An inundation of the sea in Lincolnshire laid under 

water many thousand acres. Camden . a. d. 245 
Another in Cheshire, by which 3000 persons and 

an innumerable quantity of cattle perished . 353 

An inundation at Glasgow, which drowned more 

than 400 families. Fordun 758 

The Tweed overflowed its banks, and laid waste 

the country for 30 miles round . . . . 836 

An inundation on the English coasts, demolished a 

number of sea-port towns 1014 



INUNDATIONS. 



656 



INUNDATIONS. 



Earl Godwin's lands, exceeding 4000 acres, over- 
flowed by the sea, and an immense sand-bank 
formed on the coast of Kent, now known by the 
name of the Godwin sands. Camden. . . . hoc 
Flanders inundated by the sea, and the town and 

harbour of Ostend totally immersed . . . 1108 
More than 300 houses overwhelmed at Winchelsea 

by an inundation of the sea 1280 

At the Texel, which first raised the commerce of 

Amsterdam • M 00 

The sea broke in at Dort, and drowned 72 villages, 

and 100,000 people (see Dort) . . 17 April, 1421 
The Severn overflowed during ten days, and carried 
away men, women, and children, in their beds, 
and covered the tops of many hills ; the waters 
.settled upon the lands, and were called the 
Great Waters for 100 years after, 1 Richard III. 

Hollinshed J 483 

A general inundation by the failure of the dikes in 
Holland ; the number of drowned said to have 

been 400,000 I 53° 

The waters rose above the tops of the houses, and 
above 100 persons perished in Somersetshire and 

Gloucestershire . .• J 6°7 

At Catalonia, where 50,000 persons perished . . 1617 
An inundation in Yorkshire, when a rock opened, 
and poured out water to the height of a church 

steeple. Vide Phil. Trans 1686 

Part of Zealand overflowed, 1300 inhabitants were 
drowned, and incredible damage was done at Ham- 
burg 17*7 

At Madrid, several of the Spanish nobility and 

other persons of distinction perished . . . 1723 
In Yorkshire, a dreadful inundation, called Ripon 

Flood • • i77 T 

In Navarre, where 2000 persons lost their lives by 

the torrents from the mountains . . Sept. 1787 

Inundation of the Liffey, which did immense 

damage in Dublin, 12 Nov. 1787 ; again, 2-3 Dec. 1802 
Lorca, a city of Murcia, in Spain, destroyed by the 
bursting of a reservoir, which inundated more 
than 20 leagues, and killed 1000 persons, besides 

cattle 14 April, „ 

At Pesth, near Presburg, the overflow of the 
Danube, by which 24 villages and their inhabi- 
tants were swept away . . . . April, 181 1 
In the vicinity of Salop, by the bursting of a cloud 
during a storm, many persons and much stock 

perished May, „ 

Dreadful inundation in Hungary, Austria, and 

Poland, in the summer of 1813 

■Overflow of the Danube ; a Turkish corps of 2000 
men, on a small island near Widdin, surprised, 
and met instant death . . . 14 Sept. ,, 

In Silesia, 6000 inhabitants perished, and the ruin 
of the French army under Macdonald was accele- 
rated by the floods ; also in Poland 4000 lives 

were supposed to have been lost 

At Strabane, Ireland, by the melting of the snow 
on the surrounding mountains, most destructive 
floods were occasioned . . . .2 Jan. 1816 
In Germany, the Vistula overflowed ; many villages 
were laid under water, and great loss of life and 
property was sustained . . .21 March, ., 
In England, 5000 acres were deluged in the Fen 

countries June, 1819 

Inundation at Dantzic, occasioned by the Vistula 
breaking through some of its dikes, by which 
10,000 head of cattle and 4000 houses were de- 
stroyed, and numerous lives lost . . 9 April, 1829 
The "Moray Floods," caused by rainfall, when the 
Spey and Findhorn rose in some places 50 feet 
above their ordinary level, and caused great de- 
struction of property. Many lives were lost, and 
whole families who took refuge on elevated places 
were with difficulty rescued. Sir T. Dick Lauder. 

3, 4, 27 Aug. ,, 
At Vienna, the dwellings of 50,000 of its inhabitants 

laid under water Feb. 1830 

00,000 nouses swept away, and about 1000 persons 
perished, at Canton, in China, in consequence of 
an inundation, occasioned by incessant rains. 
Equal or greater calamity was produced by the 
•same cause in other ports of China . Oct. 1833 

Awful inundation in France : the Saone poured its 
waters into the Rhone, broke through its banks, 
and covered 60,000 acres : Lyons was inundated ; 
in Avignon 100 houses were swept away; 218 



houses were carried away at La Guillotiere ; and 
upwards of 300 at Vaise, Marseilles, and Nismes ; 
the Saone had not attained such a height for 238 

years 31 Oct. to 4 Nov. 1840 

Lamentable inundation at Brentford and the sur- 
rounding country ; several lives lost, and im- 
mense property destroyed . . . 16 Jan. 1841 
Disastrous inundation' in the centre, west, and 
south-west of France ; numerous bridges, with 
the Orleans and Vierzon viaduct, swept away ; 
the latter had cost 6,000,000 of francs. The 
damage done exceeded 4,000,000?. sterling. The 
Loire rose twenty feet in one night . 22 Oct. 1846 
Lamentable catastrophe at Holmtirth (see Holm- 
firth Flood) 4 Feb- 1852 

Inundation of the valleys of the Severn and Teme 

after a violent thunderstorm . . 5 Sept. ,, 
Inundations of the basins of the Rhine and the 
Rhone, overflowing the country to a great extent, 

19 Sept. ,, * 
Hamburg half-flooded by the Elbe . . 1 Jan. 1855 
Inundations in south of France, with immense 

damage (see France) . . May and June, 1856 
In Holland, nearly 40,000 acres submerged, Jan. 1861 
Great inundation through the bursting of the out- 
fall sluice at St. Germain's, near King's Lynn 

(see Levels) 4-15 May, 1862 

Another marshland sluice bursts ; many acres- 
inundated 4 Oct. ,, 

Bursting of the Bradfleld reservoir (see Sheffield) ; 

about 250 persons drowned . . 11 March, 1864 
Great inundations in France . . 26 Sept. et seq. 1866 
Great floods in north of England, immense damage 
in Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Derbyshire ; farms 
destroyed, mines flooded, mills thrown down, 
railways stopped ; and much suffering at Leeds 
(about 20 drowned), Manchester, Preston, Wake- 
field, &c 16-17 Nov. ,, 

Inundations at Cork, Dublin, and other places, 

about 30 Jan. 1869 
Inundation at Rome, . causing great distress ; re- 
lieved by the king . . . 28, 29 Dec. ,, 
Great inundations from the mountains in N. Italy ; 
the Po and other rivers overflow ; thousands of 
people unhoused ; Mantua, Ferrara, &c. , suffer 

much latter part of Oct. 1872 

Floods on banks of the Thames through very high 

tide 20 March, 1874 

Mill River Valley, near Northampton, Massa- 
chusetts, U. S., several villages destroyed 
through the bursting of a reservoir, badly dam- 
med ; above 144 perished . . . 16 May, ,, 
Eureka, Nevada ; through rain and a waterspout ; 

between 20 and 30 persons perish . 24 July ,, 
Pittsburg and Alleghany, W. Pennsylvania ; storm 
of rain ; the rivers overflow ; about 220 persons 

drowned 26 July, „ 

A large part of Toulouse destroyed by the rising of 
the Garonne ; about 1000 lives lost and much 
property (St. Cyprien quarter, a sepulchre) 

June, 1875 
Heavy rains cause inundations in West of England 
and Wales ; destruction and loss of life at New- 
port and Monmouth, 15-16 July ; in the midland 
and western counties, especially near Notting- 
ham, about 17-23 Oct. ; again . . 13-16 Nov. ,, 
Great storms in India ; Ahmedabad inundated ; 

about 20,000 homeless . . . 22-24 Sept. ,, 
Severe inundations in Holland and France Mar. 1876 
Severe floods in England through heavy rain, 

25-31 Dec. ,, 
Piers at Folkestone, Dover, and Hastings much in- 
jured 1 Jan. 1877 

Much damage through floods on banks of the 
Thames, and throughout the country, middle of 

June, ,, 
Inundations in London through heavy rain, 

to, 11 April, 1878 
Szegedin, Hungary: through storms and rain, the 
dams of the river Theiss gave way ; the town was 
nearly destroyed ; out of 6566 houses, only 331 
stood ; many persons drowned ; thousands home- 
less, 12-13 March, '879- [Another inundation here 
not quite so disastrous, about 3 June, 18S7 ; again 
March, 1888]. 
North Italy ; much damage through overflowing 
of the Po and Mincio .... June, ,, 



INUNDATIONS. 



657 



INUNDATIONS. 



Inundations inMurcia, Spain, through heavy rains ; 
provinces of Andalusia, Alicante, Almeria, and 
Malaga ; about 1000 lives lost ; much damage to 
property ; about 2000 houses destroyed, 

16, 17 Oct. 

Again in Hungary .... about 10 Dec. 

Midland counties of England ; much damage, 

about 8-11 Oct. 

Much rain; floods in Cheshire, Lancashire, &c. 

Aug. 

Great inundations in S.B. Europe through rains 

Oct. 

Inundations by the rising of the Lossie and Spey, 
N. Scotland ; bridge is broken and other damage 

mid. Sept. 

Inundations in the Tyrol ; much damage with loss 
of life in north Italy and Hungary, and south of 
•France Sept. 

In Germany : great rise of the Rhine and Danube, 
Nov. — Dec. ; destruction of five villages with 
above 250 houses, near Wiesbaden . . Dec. 

Great floods in the Thames valley and midland 
counties of England Dec. 

Much destruction near Worms ; about 60 drowned 

early in Jan. 

Raab in Hungary partly submerged . . 10 Jan. 

In Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Cincinnati . . Feb. 

Cachar in India in great distress . . 16 May, 

In Silesia, the river Neisse rises ; much damage 
about 21 June, 

In Thames valley, Ontario, Canada, much destruc- 
tion of property, about 30 lives lost 

about 11-12 July, 

Overflow of the river Peneus, Thessaly, Greece ; 
much damage .... announced 29 Oct. 

Great inundations in Ohio, Pennsylvania, &c. ; 
about 15 deaths and 5000 homeless about 7 Feb. 

Disastrous floods in E. Spain . end of May, 

Floods in Galicia ; new railway bridge over the 
• Vistula destroyed ; 20 lives lost about 23 June, 

Great inundation through heavy rains in eastern 
Spain ; much distress in Alicante, Almeria aud 
Valencia . .... Nov. 

Great inundation of lower town of Montreal ; 
about 500,000^. damage; much privation 

17-18 April, 

Great inundation at Mandalay, Burmah . 18 Aug. 

Great floods in S. United States . . . July, 

Great overflow of the Hoang-Ho or Yellow River 
(see China), Sept. -Oct. 1887, and Sept. 1889. 

Overflow of the Elbe ; about 100 villages sub- 
merged ; loss of life and destruction of property, 
about 26 March ; also of the Vistula, about 77 
villages submerged . . . about 27 March, 

Great flood in the Canton river ; 3,000 people said 
to be drowned, announced ... 8 May, 

Destructive freshet in the Mississippi ; Illinois 
coast ; Quincy, Hannibal, Alexandria and other 
towns overflowed . . . . 17 May, 

Inundations in Mexico through heavy rains ; great 
loss of life 17-20 June, 

Heavy rains caused the rising of rivers in Essex 
and Kent ; form lakes navigable by boats ; stop 
railways ; sweep away the crops from the soil, 
creating much calamity 30-31 July, 1 Aug. 

Great floods also in Germany, July, Aug. ; France 
and Switzerland Oct. 

Destructive floods in the midland and S.W. 
England ; Leicester, Bristol, Taunton and other 
places suffer much . . . .8,9 March, 

Conemaugh Valley, &c. See Pennsylvania and United 
States May, 

Destructive floods in China and Japan (ivhich see) 
July, Aug. 1889 ; and China . . . . Aug. 

Disastrous floods on the upper Severn ; much 
suffering . . . . . early Feb. 

Destructive floods through heavy rains in the Mis- 
sissippi valley and Southern States, U.S.A. (see 
Mississippi) . ... .' about 13 March 

Destructive floods in Austria, Bohemia, central 
Europe and France See New South Wales 

Aug. —Sept. 



Overflow of the Orinoco and tributaries, S. America, 
causing great destruction . . 16, 17 Sept. 

Destructive inundations caused by violent gales 
throughout Europe, especially in Germany, 
Austria, Mecklenburg, Baltic coast, Belgium, and 
Denmark ... . 23-25 Nov. 

Serious floods in Kent, &c. , through the thaw, after 
the long frost ; also in many places on the Con- 
tinent Jan. 

Destructive inundations in W. Virginia, Ohio, Alle- 
ghany, &c, about 17 Feb. ; in Arizona {which 
see) reported 2 March ; in Tennessee and Missis- 
sippi about 8 March 

Destructive floods by the rising of the Yang-tse- 
Kiang ; great loss of life at Foochoo about 2 1 July 

Great floods in Posen, loss of life and destruction 
of property about 26 July 

Heavy rains and destructive floods in E. Lancashire 

13, 14 Aug. 

Heavy rains and destructive inundations in Spain 
(which see) 13 Sept. et seq. 

Disastrous floods in Spain, France, Italy, and 
England (especially S. and W.) about 22 Oct. etseq. 

Collapse of buildings through floods at Limoux, 
France ; about 20 persons killed, about 25 Oct. 

Great floods in Somersetshire, with destruction of 
buildings and crops ; travelling impeded, much 
distress Nov. 

Disastrous floods in Andalusia, Murcia, and Estre- 
madura, about 12 March, et seq., and in upper 
Italy ; railway communications stop 

about 31 March, 

Rise of the rivers in Illinois ; 15 towns flooded (see 
Mississippi and Iowa) . . about 6 May, 

Great floods in Italy, near Genoa; bridges, &c, 
destroyed ; several deaths ; lake Como overflows, 
about 13 Oct. ; railway communication between 
Rome and Genoa stopped . 15 Oct. et seq. 

Great floods through heavy rains in N. E. York- 
shire ; much damage in York, Leeds, and other 
places ; several persons, and cattle and sheep 
drowned 13-15 Oct. 

Destructive floods in Derbyshire and Wales, 

13 Oct. et seq. 

Disastrous floods in Sardinia and Venezuela (which 
see) Oct. 

Destructive floods in Queensland, 5 Feb. et seq. ; in 
Hungary, 28 Feb. et seq. ; N. S. Wales, 9 March 
(all which see) ........ 

Inundations in Roumania ; railways stopped and 
villages destroyed May, 

Destructive floods in upper Hungary ; more than 
30 lives lost, reported ... 14 Aug. 

Destructive inundations in Spain (ivhich see), about 
15 Sept. ; in Naples and in N. Italy, through 
heavy rains 1-2 Oct. 

Overflow of the river Noir, near Quebec, caused by 
a landslide ; about 20 deaths, much live-stock 
and property destroyed . . .28 April, 

Destructive floods in Wisconsin, U.S.A., and other 
places ; bridges destroyed and railway traffic 
stopped, 15-17 May ; receding . . 22 May, 

Destructive floods in the Punjaub, May (which see), 
and in Hungary June, 

Floods at Lucknow ; houses submerged, reported, 

13 Sept. 

Floods in France and Belgium ; about 100,000 hands 
out of work, reported . . . .31 Oct. 

Heavy rains ; overflow of the Avon at Bath ; much 
damage 12-13 Nov. 

Overflow of the Thames from Windsor to Oxford ; 
railway stopped and much damage . 15 Nov. 

Destructive floods in the Thames valley, S. W. 
counties and Wales . .21 Jan. et seq. 

Floods on the lower Danube ; villages submerged ; 
much suffering ; some deaths, reported, 21 April, 

Bursting of a reservoir in the Vosges, see France, 

27 April, 

Great loss of life aud destruction of property 
through the overflow of the Tigris, in Mesopo- 
tamia ; reported 2 March, 

Floods in many parts of Switzerland, through snow 
and heavy rains March, 

U V 



1896 



INVALIDES. 



658 



IODINE. 



Great floods, accompanied by a heavy gale, in N. 
Wales, railway traffic suspended ; houses flooded ; 
much suffering at Llanelly, estimated damage 
over ioOjOooZ. .6-8 Oct. 1896 

Destructive floods through heavy rains in Italy and 
France 20 Oct. „ 

Destructive floods, with loss of life, in Sao Miguel, 
Azores .... .4 Nov. „ 

Great floods, with loss of life, in N. Greece, 23 
Dec. ; increasing, villages submerged 31 Dec. ,, 

Floods in Spain through the rising of the Guadal- 
quiver 9 Jan. 1897 

Extensive floods through heavy rains and snow, 
in S. midlands and eastern counties early Feb. ,, 

Destructive floods, with loss of life, in the Miss- 
issippi valley 20 March, „ 

Destructive floods in Silesia and Saxony, great loss 
of life 30 July-i Aug. ,, 

Destructive floods and tidal wave, Kentish coast, 
estimated damage, 30,000?. . . 28-30 Nov. ,, 

Destructive floods in Shan-Tung . early Nov. 1898 

Overflow of the Brazos, in Texas (over 100 deaths), 
ivhich see early July, 1899 

Serious floods in Silicia, Galicia, and N.W. Hun- 
gary, crops destroyed, much damage, leported, 

11 July, ,, 

Destructive floods in Chubat, Argentina 10 Aug. „ 

Floods in Austria, 19 lives lost by the collapse of a 
bridge over the Traun . . . 15 Sspt. ,, 

Destructive floods, villages, &c, swept away, 
40 deaths, in Salem, 7, 8 Oct. 1899 . April, 1900 

Floods in various parts of Japan, 200 deaths re- 
ported 15 Aug. ,, 

Floods in Calcutta and Delhi, with loss of life, 
reported 22 Sept. ,, 

Heavy floods in the Midlands and W. of England, 

30, 31 Dec. ,, 

Fatal floods in Italy, at Padua, Veneta, and else- 
where ...... 20 March, 1901 

Destructive floods in Canada and Quebec, towns 
submerged early April, ,, 

Floods on the Yang-tsze river, near Han-kan; great 
loss of life and property . . 15-24 July, ,, 

Floods in Japan, many deaths . . mid July, ,, 

Floods in Zaragoza, Spain, tome deaths . 24 Aug. ,, 

Floods in Scotland, Wales, and Derbyshire, 

31 Dec. 1901-Jan. 1902 

Floods in S. Bengal, 25 villages and 2 bridges 
swept away, 6,000 homeless, reported . 15 Sept. ,, 

Destructive floods, Clydesdale, Glasgow 9 Feb. 1903 

Floods in Canada and Pennsylvania 2-25 March, ,, 

Destructive floods at St. Louis, U.S. 

end May, early June, ,, 

Disastrous floods in the Thames and Lea valleys, 
Bucks, and elsewhere, caused by heavy rainfall : 
much damage to fruit and crops . 8-19 June, ,, 

Torrential rainfall, the heaviest in records of 
Weather Bureau, and floods, N. York and middle 
Atlantic States, and eastern coastboard, cities 
under water, lives lost, thousands homeless, 
great damage to property, reported . 11 Oct. ,, 
See Mansion House Fluids. 

INVALIDES, HOTEL DES, Paris, founded 
in 167 1 by Louis XIV. Its chapel contains the 
body of Napoleon I., deposited there 15 Dec. 1840. 

INVASIONS of the British Islands, 

see Britain, and Danes. From the death of Edward 
the Confessor, only the following invasions marked 
(«) have been successful: — • 
William of Normandy (s.) . . . . 29 Sept. 1066 

The Irish 1069 

The Scots, 1091 ; king Malcolm killed . . . 1091 

Robert of Normandy 1103 

The Scots 1136 

The empress Maud 1139 

Ireland, by Fitz-Stephen (s.) 1169 

Ireland, by Edward Bruce 1315 

Isabel, queen of Edward II. (s.) .... 1326 



Duke of Lancaster (s.) 1399, 

Queen of Henry VI 1462 

Earl of Warwick (s.) 1470. 

Edward IV. (s.) 1471 

Queen of Henry VI 1471 

Earl of Richmond (s.) 1485 

Lambert Simnel . ' 1487 

Perkin Warbeck 1495 

Spaniards and Italians, Ireland ' . . . . 1580 

Ireland, Spaniards i6ob 

Duke of Monmouth 1685 

William of Orange (s.) 168S 

James II., Ireland 1689 

Old Pretender 170a 

Pretender again 1715 

Young Pretender 1745 

Ireland (see Thurot) 1760 

Wales, the French 1797 

Ireland : the French land at Killala (ivhich see) . . 179S- 

INVENTION. See Cross, Patents, Tools. An 
international exhibition of inventions and music at 
South Kensington in 1885; proposed, Aug. 1884; 
opened by the prince of Wales, 4 May, 1885; chair- 
man, sir F. J. Bramwell; closed 9 Nov. 1885; 
3,760,581 persons admitted. The receipts were 
214,403^. See Colonies. 

INVENTORS' INSTITUTE, established in 
May, 1862 ; first president, sir David Brewster. 

INVEEAEAY, Argyllshire, made a royal 
burgh, 1648. The duke of Argyll's castle, rebuilt by 
Adam, 1745-8, was greatly injured by fire, 12 Oct. 

1877. 

INVERNESS (N.W. Scotland), a city of the 
Picts up to 843. It was taken by Edward I. ; re- 
taken by Bruce, 1313; burnt by the lord of the 
isles, 141 1 ; taken by Cromwell, 1649; and by- 
prince Charles Edward in 1746. He was totally 
defeated at Culloden, about five miles from Inver- 
ness, 16 April, 1746. Population, 1881, 17,365; 
1891, 19,214; 1901, 21,193. 

INVESTIGATION. See Delicate. 

INVESTITURE of Ecclesiastics, was a 

cause of discord between the pope and temporal 
sovereigns in the middle ages ; and led to actual 
war between Gregory VII. and the emperor Henry j 
IV. 1075-1085. The pope endeavoured to deprive 1 
the sovereign of the right of nominating bishops 
and abbots, and of investing them with the cross 
and ring. Henry V. gave up the right, by treaty, ( 
Feb. 1 1 1 1 ; but other sovereigns resolutely refused | 
to concede it. 

INVINCIBLE ARMADA or Spanish' 
ARMADA, see Armada. 

INVINCIBLES, IRISH, see Irisn Invin-\ 

cibles, Fenians and Ireland, 1882-3. 

INVOCATION of the Virgin and) 

SAINTS to intercede with God. This practice of 
the Koniish church has been traced to the time 
of Gregory the Great, 593. The Eastern church 
began (in the 5th century) by calling upon the! 
dead, and demanding their suffrage as present in 
the divine offices. 

IODINE (from the Greek iodes, violet-like), 
was discovered by M. De Courtois, a manufacturer! 
of saltpetre at Paris in 1812, and investigated by] 
M. Clement, 1813. On the application of heat it' 
rises in the form of a dense violet-coloured vapour,, 
easily evaporates, and melts at 220 degrees : it'. 
changes vegetable blues to yellow, and a seven- 1 
thousandth part converts water to a deep yellow 
colour, and starch into a purple. 



IONA. 



659 



IRELAND. 



IONA, ICOLMKILL, or Hn, one of the 
Hebrides. About 565 St. Columba founded a 
monastery here, which flourished till the 8th and 
9th centuries, when it was frequently ravaged by 
the Norsemen. Other religious bodies afterwards 
were formed here, and the isle was long esteemed 
sacred. 

IONIA (Asia Minor). About 1040 B.C. the 
Iones, a Pelasgic race, emigrated from Greece, and 
settled here and on the adjoining islands. They built 
Ephesus, Smyrna, and other noble cities. They 
were conquered by the great Cyrus about 548 B.C. ; 
revolted 504, but were again subdued. After the 
victories of Cimon, Ionia became independent and 
remained so till 387, when it was once more sub- 
jected to Persia. It formed part of the dominions 
of Alexander and his successors ; was annexed to 
the Roman empire, 133, and conquered by the 
Turks. — Ionia was renowned for poets, historians, 
and philosophers. The "Antiquities of Ionia" 
were published by Chandler, Revett, and Pars, 
1 769-1840, and the Dilettanti Society, 1840-1881. 

IONIAN ISLANDS (on Vf . coast of Greece) . 
Corfu, the capital, Cephalonia, Zante, Ithaca, Santa 
Maura, Cerigo, and Paxo. They were colonised by 
the Iones, and partook of the fortunes of the Greek 
people ; were subject to Naples in the 13th cen- 
tur}', and in the 14th to Venice. 

The islands ceded to France by the treaty of Campo 

Formio 17 Oct. 1797 

Formed into the republic of the seven islands under 

Eussia and Turkey ... 21 March, 1800 

Restored to France by treaty of Tilsit . 7 July, 1807 
Taken by the English . . . . 3-1 a Oct. 1809 
Formed into an independent state under the protec- 
tion of Great Britain (sir Thomas Maitland, lord 

high commissioner) 5 Nov. 1815 

A constitution ratified . . . .11 July, 1817 
A university established at Corfu . . . . 1823 
The constitution liberalised during the government 

oflordSeatou 1848-9 

In consequence of complaints, Mr. W. E. Gladstone 

went out on a commission of inquiry, &c. .Nov. 1858 
Sir H. Storks, lord high commissioner . Feb. 1859 
The parliament declare for annexation to Greece, 

March, 1861, and April, 1862 
The islands annexed to Greece, 28 May ; the British 
troops retired, 2 June, and king George I. arrived 
at Corfu (see Greece) .... 6 June, 1864 
Zante suffered greatly by earthquakes, beginning 
with a violent shock, 31 Jan., followed by other 
shocks in the town of Zante and the neighbour- 
hood ; several thousands were rendered homeless 
and endured many privations, which were much 
relieved by the officers of H.M.S. Camperdown 
and other foreign vessels. It is stated that only 
6 persons were killed by the shocks. The island 
was visited by the king and queen of Greece, by 
whom means of relief were organized, 6-8 Feb. ; 
estimated damage, over 6oo,oool. Subscriptions 
received in Greece, London, &c, Feb. ; frequent 
shocks, Feb., March ; violent shocks in the town 
of Zante, the church and other buildings de- 
stroyed ; 17 deaths ; shocks, with many deaths, in 
other parts of the island, 17 April ; much help 
given by Greek and French ironclads and H.M.S. 
Inflexible, 17, 18 April ; more shocks . 21 April, 1893 

IONIC ORDER of Architecture, an 

improvement on the Doric, was invented by the 
Ionians about 1350 B.C. Vitruvius. Its distinguish- 
ing characters are the slenderness and flutings of 
its columns, and the volutes of rams' horns that 
adorn the capital. 

IONIC SECT of Philosophers, founded 
by Thales of Miletus about 600 B.C., distinguished 



for its abstruse speculations under his successors 
and pupils, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxa- 
goras, and Archelaus, the master of Socrates. They 
held that the world is a living being, and that water 
is the origin of all things. 

IOWA, a western state of North America, was 
organised as a territory 12 June, 1838 ; and ad- 
mitted into the Union, 28 Dec. 1846. Capital, Des 
Moines. Population, 1880, 1,624,615; 1890, 
1,911,896; 1900,2,231,853. 

Sioux City suffered much by inundations, causing 

great loss of life . . . about 18 May, 1892 
Hotel burnt at Cedar Rapids ; 10 deaths 20 Feb. 1903 
Inundations caused by heavy rains occasion great 
damage end of May, ,, 

IPSUS (Phrygia), BATTLE OF, Aug. 301 B.C., 
when Seleucus was confirmed in his kingdom of 
Syria by the defeat and death of Antigonus, king 
of Asia. The latter led into the field an army of 
about 70,000 foot and 10,000 horse, with 75 ele- 
phants. The former had 64,000 infantry, besides 
10,500 horse, 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. 
Plutarch. 

IPSWICH (Suffolk), the Saxon Gippeswic, 
was ravaged by the Danes, 991 and 1000. Wolsey 
was born here, 147 1 ; and founded a school in 1525. 
The port was greatly improved by the erection of 
wet docks, 1837-42. The railway to London was 
opened 25 June, 1846; and the new town-hall, 
29 Jan. 1868. New corn exchange opened, 26 July,. 
1882. The British Association met here in 1851 
and 1895. Lord Kitchener presented with the 
freedom, 22 Sept. 1902. Victoria Nursing Insti- 
tute opened by Princess Christian 9 May, 1903,. 
Pop. 190 1, 66,622. 

IQUIQUE, see Chili, 1879. 

IRELAND, anciently named Eri or Erin, 
Ierne and Hibernia, is said to have been first 
colonised by Phoenicians. The early mythical, 
history has many beautiful legends. The Irish 
language is a branch of the Gaelic. See Church 
of Ireland, and Population, 1891, 4,706,162 ; 1901,. 
4,456,546. "The Annals of the Four Masters," 
edited by O'Donovan, were published in Irish and 
English, 1848. J. T. Gilbert's "History of the- 
Viceroys of Ireland," published 1865. Dr. Hyde's 
"Literary History of Ireland," published 1899; 
Torus Feasa ar Jiirinn, "The History of Ireland," 
by Geoffrey Keating, edited, with translation and 
notes, by David Comyn ; Vol. I. published 1902. 

A.D. 

A rrival of St. Patrick . . probably 4th or 5th century 
Christianity established .... about 44S 
The Danes and Normans, known by the name of 

Easterlings, or Ostmen, invade Ireland . . 795 
They build Dublin and other cities . . . about 800 
Brian Boroimhe totally defeats the Danes at Clon- 

tarf ; and is killed .... 23 April, 1014 
Magnus III., king of Norway, defeated and slain 

during an invasion 1 103 

[In the 12th century Ireland is divided into five 
kingdoms, viz. : Ulster, Leinster, Meath, Con- 
naught, and Munster, besides a number of petty 
principalities, whose sovereigns continually warred 
with each other. ] 
Adrian IV. permitted Henry II. to invade Ireland, 
on condition that he compelled every Irish family 
to pay a carolus to the holy see, and held it as a 

fief of the Church 115s 

Dermot MacMurrough, king of Leinste:-, driven from 
his throne for his oppression 1166 

V U 2 



IRELAND. 



660 



IRELAND. 



Flees to England, where he takes an oath of fidelity 

to Henry II. who promises to restore him . . u68 
Invasion of the English under Fitz-Stephen . . 1169 
Landing of Strongbow at Waterford . . . „ 

Dennot dies 1171 

Henry II. lands near Waterford, and receives the 
submission of the princes of the country, settles 
the government, and makes his son John lord of 

Ireland May, n 77 

Invasion of king John, English laws, &c, intro- 
duced 

Invasion of Edward Bruce, 1315 ; crowned king 
Defeated and slain at Foughart, near Dundalk 
Lionel, duke of Clarence, third son of Edward III., 

marries Elizabeth de Burgh, heiress of Ulster 
Statute of Kilkenny passed by him (which see) 
Richard II. lands at Waterford with a train of nobles, 
4000 men-at-arms, and 30,000 archers ; gains the 
affection of the people by his munificence, and 
confers the honour of knighthood on their chiefs 
Richard again lands in Ireland .... 

The sanguinary Head act passed at Trim, by the 
earl of Desmond, deputy, to suppress robbery. 
Much slaughter is said to have ensued . . . 
Apparel and surname act (the Irish to dress like the 
English, and to adopt surnames) .... 
Sir Edward Poynings sent to punish the Anglo- 
Irish for supporting Perkin Warbeck ; he enacts 
a law, subjecting the Irish parliament to the 

English council 

Great rebellion of the Fitzgeralds, or Geraldines 

subdued 

Henry VIII. assumes the title of king, instead of 
lord of Ireland ... . 



1210 
1316 

1318 

1361 
1367 



1394 
1399 



146s 



1494 



1534 



Linen manufacture encouraged .... 1696 

Popery act passed . 1704 

Excitement against Wood's halfpence (which see) . 1724 

Thurot's invasion (see Thurot) 1760 

Indulgences granted to the catholics by the relief 



bill 



1778 
1779 



1542 



1547 



1567 
1569 



i57i 



1599 



The reformed religion embraced by some of the Eng- 
lish settlers in the reign of Edward VI. 

Insurrection of Shan O'Neill, earl of Tyrone, 1561 ; 
pardoned and received in London, 1562 ; rebels 
and becomes dominant in Ulster, 1564 ; assassi- 
nated 2 June, 

Ireland finally divided into shires . . . . 

Printing in Irish characters introduced by N. Walsh, 
chancellor of St. Patrick's 

Great expedition of Walter Devereux, earl of Essex, 
to put down the O'Neills, sanguinary, but un- 
successful 1573 e t 

700 Italians, headed by Fitzmaurice, land in Kerry ; 
they are treacherously butchered by the earl of 
Ormond ] 

Hugh or Shan O'Neill, who had been brought up 
at the court of Elizabeth, returns to Ireland as 
earl of Tyrone ; revolts, 1597 ; defeats the English 
at Blackwater (which see) . . 14 Aug. j 

Unsuccessful expedition of Robert, earl of Essex 

■O'Neill invites over the Spaniards, and settles them 
in Kinsale ; defeated by the lord deputy Mountjoy 

1601-2 

Flight of the earls of Tyrone, Tyrconnel, and others, 
to join the Spaniards ^06 

In consequence of repeated rebellions and for- 
feitures, 511,465 acres of land in the province of 
Ulster became vested in the crown, and James I. 
after removing the Irish from their hills and fast- 
nesses, divides the land among such of his English 
and Scottish protestant subjects as choose to 
settle there. (See Irish Society) . . , 1609-12 

■Ulster civil war : More and Maguire's rebellion : the 
catholics said to conspire to expel the English, 
and massacre the protestant settlers in Ulster, 
commenced on St. Ignatius' day [some doubt the 

massacre] . . • 23 Oct. 

■O'Neill defeats the English under Monroe at Ben- 
burb 5 June, 

Massacre and capture of Drogheda by Cromwell 

12 Sept. 
•Cromwell and Ireton reduce the whole island and 



1783 



1791 
J795 



1823 
1826 



1843 



164 1 
1646 
1649 



redivide it 

Landing of James II. 
3000 protestants attainted 
William III. lands at Carrickfergus 
Battle of the Boyne ; James defeated 
Treaty of Limerick (see Limerick) 



■ 1649-1659 

12 March, 1689 

July, „ 

14 June, 1690 

■ ' ''iily, „ 

. 3 Oct. 1691 



Ireland admitted to a-free trade .... 

Henry Grattan claims independence for the Irish 

parliament in speeches delivered 19 April, 1780, 

and 16 April, 

The Irish parliament declared independent by an 

act passed in the English parliament, May 1782 ; 

confirmed by another act passed .... 

Genevese refugees received in Waterford . 

Order of St. Patrick established 

Society of United Irishmen founded 

Orange clubs, &c, formed (see Diamond) , . . 

Irish rebellion commenced 4 May, 1798 ; cost 150,000 

Irish lives, 20.000 English ; gradually suppressed 1799 
Legislative Union of Great Britain and Ireland iJan. 1801 
Emmett's insurrection .... 23 July, 1803 

English and Irish exchequers consolidated 5 Jan. 1817 
Visit to Ireland of George IV. . n Aug.-i6 Sept. 1821 
The Catholic Association organised by Daniel 

O'Connell and others (see Roman Catholics) 
The currency assimilated . . . . 1 Jan. 
Daniel O'Connell is elected M.P. for Clare, but does 

not sit 5 July, 

Roman catholic emancipation act passed 13 April, 
Customs consolidated .... 6 Jan. 

Dr. Whately, supporter of Irish National School 
system, becomes abp. of Dublin .... 
Irish reform act passed ... 7 Aug. 

Poor laws introduced : act passed . .31 July, 
" Young Ireland " (which see) party formed . . 

Population by census, 8,196,597 .... 
Great Repeal movement, lead by O'Connell ; meet 
ing at Trim (see Repeal) . . .16 March, 
Molly Maguire, a secret society, formed . . . ,, 
O'Connell's trial (for political conspiracy), found 

guilty (see Trials) ... 15 Jan.-i2 Feb. 1844 
Appointment of new commissioners of charitable 
bequests (rank of the R. C. bishops recognised) 

18 Dec. „ 
Irish National Education Board incorporated 

23 Sept. 1845 
Committal of William Smith O'Brien to the custody 
of the serjeant-at-arms, for contempt in not obey- 
ing an order of the house of commons to attend a 

committee 30 April, 1846 

Failure of the potato crop throughout Ireland ; 

sufferers relieved by parliament . . . ,, 
William Smith O'Brien and the " Young Ireland, "or 
physical force party, secede from the Repeal Asso- 
ciation 29 July, ,, 

O'Connell's last speech in the commons 8 Feb. 1847 

Grants from Parliament amounting to 10,000,000?. 
to relieve the people suffering from famine and 

disease ,, 

Death of O'Connell at Geuoa, on his way to Rome, 
in his 73rd year ; he bequeathed his heart to Rome 

15 May, „ 
Deputation from the Irish people (?)— Smith O'Brien, 
Meagher, O'Gorman, &c. — to Lamartine and 
others, members of the. provisional government at 

Paris 3 April, 1848 

Great meeting of "Young Irelanders" at Dublin 

4 April, ,, 
Arrest of Mitchell, editor of the United Irishman 

13th May, „ 
State trials in the Irish queen's bench 15-27 May, ,, 
Mitchell found guilty and sentenced to transporta- 
tion for 14 years 26 May, ,, 

Arrest of Gavan Dllfly, Martin, Meagher, Doheny, 
<fce. , for felonious writings, speeches, &c. 



Confederate clubs prohibited 
The Habeas Corpus act suspended 
O'Brien's rebellion suppressed . 



8 July, 
26 July, 
26 July, 
29 July, 



IRELAND. 



661 



IRELAND. 



Arrest of Smith O'Brien at Thurles ; he is conveyed 
to Kilmainham gaol, Dublin . . 5 Aug. 
Arrest of Meagher, O'Donoghue, &e. . .12 Aug. 
Martin sentenced to transportation . 14 Aug. 
Encumbered estates act passed . . Sept. 

Smith O'Brien, Meagher, and the other confederates 
tried and sentenced to death ... 9 Oct. 
The Irish court of queen's bench gives judgment 
on writs of error sued out by the prisoners con- 
victed of high treason, and confirms the judgment 
of the court below 16 Jan. 

O'Brien, Meagher, McManus, and O'Donoghue trans- 
ported 9 July, 

Orange and catholic affray at Dolly's Brae ; several 
lives lost 12 July, 

Her majesty visits Ireland, and holds her court at 
Dublin castle 5 Aug. 

First court under the encumbered estates act {which 
see) held in Dublin .... 24 Oct. 

Queen's university in Ireland established 15 Aug. 

Synod of Thurles condemns queen's colleges 22 Aug. 

Census taken ; population, 6,574,278 . 30 March, 

Roman catholic university originated, and large 
sums subscribed 5 May, 

Death of R. Lalor Sheil, at Florence . 25 May, 

McManus escapes from transportation, and arrives 
at San Francisco, in California . . 5 June, 

The Irish Tenant League hold a meeting on the site 
of the battle of the Boyne ... 14 July 

First meeting of the " Catholic Defence Association" 

17 Oct. 

Meagher escapes from Van Diemen's Land and ar- 
rives at New York 24 May, 

Cork National Exhibition opened . 10 June, 

Irish Industrial Exhibition set on foot ; Mr. Dargan, 
a railway contractor, contributes towards it 26, oool. 

24 June, 

" Tenant Right " demonstration at Warrenstown 
dispersed by the magistrates . . 3 July, 

Fierce religious riots at Belfast . . 14 July, 

Fatal election riot at Six-Mile Bridge . 22 July, 

Irish members of parliament found a "Religious 
Equality Association "... 10 Sept. 

Cork Industrial Exhibition closed . .11 Sept. 

Income tax extended to Ireland . . . June, 

Mitchell escapes from Hobart Town . 9 June, 

Dublin Exhibition opens . . . .12 May, 

Queen visits Ireland .... 29 Aug. 

Tenant Right League conference . . 4 Oct. 

Dreadful railway accident near Dublin . 5 Oct. 

Dublin Exhibition closed . . . 1 Nov. 

Train wilfully upset after an Orange demonstration 
at Londonderry, one person killed and many hurt 

15 Sept. 

A pardon granted to O'Brien ; he shortly after re- 
turned to Ireland 3 May, 

Religious riots at Belfast .... Sept. 

Progress of cardinal Wiseman in Ireland Sept. 

A packet from Galway reaches N. America in six 
days . Sept. 

Proclamation against secret societies . Nov. 

Arrests of members of Phcenix Society . Dec. 

Proposed demonstration of landlords (headed by 
marquis of Downshire) given up . .27 Jan. 

National Gallery founded .... Feb. 

Agitation against the Irish National School system, 

Sept. 

Religious revival movement in the north, particu- 
larly at Belfast Oct. 

Great emigration to America in the spring 

Many Irishmen enlist in the service of the pope, 
May, June ; many return dissatisfied . July, 

The remainder taken prisoners by the Sardinians are 
released, and return to Dublin, where they receive 
an ovation Nov. 

Attempted revival of Repeal agitation . . Dec. 

Agrarian outrages ; alderman Sheehy murdered, 

23 Oct. 

Census taken ; population, 5,798,967 . 8 April, 

Suspension of packet service between Galway and 
Ameri sa through the company's breach of contract, 

23 May, 

Visit of the prince of "Wales, 29 June ; and the queen 
and prince consort . ' . 24-31 Aug. 

Irish Law Court commission appointed 13 Dec. 

Numerous agrarian murders ; Gustav Thiebault, 28 



1850 
1851 



1853 



1854 

1856 
1857 



April ; Francis Fitzgerald, 16 May (and others) ; 
Michael Hayes shoots Mr. John Braddell, 

30 July, 

The primate, J. G. Beresford, abp. of Armagh, dies, 
aged 89 19 July, 

Building for the catholic university founded, 

20 July, 

An Orange demonstration at Belfast leads to de- 
structive riots 17 Sept. 

Great agricultural distress ; many murders and out- 
rages, end of 1862, beginning of . 

Galway packet service restored by subsidy of 70,000^. 
(see Galway) Aug. 

Insignificant " Nationalist " meeting . 15 Aug. 

Death of archbishop Whately . . .8 Oct. 

Great emigration of able-bodied labourers in . 

Appearance of the Fenians (ivhich see) . . Jan. 

Death of Smith O'Brien, descendant of king Brian 
Boroimhe . . . . . .16 June, 

Address of the " National Association " to liberate 
tenant capital, recover the property of the Catho- 
lic church, &c 12 Jan. 

Opening of the International Exhibition at Dublin 
by the prince of Wales . . . . g May, 

General election favourable to the government and 
liberal party July, 

Importation of cattle from England prohibited on 
account of the plague . . . 25 Aug. 

Seizure of the newspaper Irish People and 30 
Fenians (see Fenians) . 15-17 Sept. , 14 Oct. 

International Exhibition closed . . 9 Nov. 

Stephens escapes from gaol . . . 24-25 Nov. 

Fenian trials began at Dublin, 27 Nov. ; Thomas 
Clarke Luby convicted of treason felony ; sen- 
tenced to 20 years' penal servitude . 1 Dec. 

O'Leary and others convicted, Dee. ; O'Donovan 
Rossa sentenced to imprisonment for life, 

13 Dec. 

More Fenians arrested and convicted at Cork and 
Dublin Jan. , Feb. 

Discovery of an arms manufactory at Dublin ; the 
city and county proclaimed as put under the pro- 
visions of the Peace Preservation act, 11 Jan. 

Habeas Corpus act suspended ; many Fenians flee 

17 Feb. 

Agitation respecting Irish church ; debates in par- 
liament April, 

Lord Abercorn made lord-lieutenant . July, 

About 320 suspected Fenians remain in prison, 

1 Sept. 

Great seizure of fire-arms . . . .15 Dec. 

Clare and other counties proclaimed under Peace 
Preservation act Dec. 

Election riots at Dungarvan ; eapt. Barthol-Kelly 
killed 28 Dec. 

Death of Wm. Dargan, promoter of Irish Exhibition, 

7 Feb. 

Irish college of science established atDublin early in 

Another Fenian outbreak (see Fenians), 5-13 March, 

Appointment of commission respecting church of 
Ireland agreed to .... 24 June, 

Chancery and Common-law Offices act passed, 20 Aug. 

Irish church commission appointed, earl Stanhope 
chairman 30 Oct. 

More trials of Fenians .... Nov. 

Execution of Fenians (Allen, Gould, and Larkin) 
for murder of Brett, a policeman, at Manchester, 

23 Nov. 

Funeral demonstrations for them at Cork, 24 Nov. ; 
Dublin and Limerick . . . . 1 Dec. 

Party funeral processions prohibited . .12 Dec. 

Protest of Irish noblemen and gentlemen against 
Irish church establishment signed, about 12 Dec. 

Declaration of many Roman catholic clergy profes- 
sing loyalty, but claiming self-government for 
Ireland 23 Dec. 

Bp. Moriarty, of Kerry, publishes acircular censur- 
ing the funeral processions for Fenians 30 Dec. 

Prosecution of the Irishman newspaper for sedi- 
tion . . . . . . . .10 Jan. 

Arrest of Geo. Francis Train on his arrival from 
America, on suspicion of Fenianism ; soon dis- 
charged (claimed io,oooi.) ... 18 Jan. 

Publication of facts proving the increased pro- 
sperity of the country . . . .28 Jan. 

Great protestant defence meeting at Dublin, many 
peers present. . . . . . 6 Feb. 



1865 



1867 



IRELAND. 



662 



IRELAND. 



Habeas Corpus act suspended till i March, 1869 (83 
persons detained on suspicion) . . . Feb. 

Messrs. Sullivan and Pigott, convicted of seditious 
libels in their newspapers (the Weekly News 
and Irishman), sentenced to imprisonment and 
fine 18, 19 Feb. 

Mr. Johnston, grand master of an Orange lodge, im- 
prisoned for infraction of Party Processions act, 

March, 

Train arrested for debt .... 3 March, 

Four nights' debate on Ireland in the Commons 
ended (Mr. Gladstone declared for disestablish- 
ment of the Irish protestant church) 16 March, 

Irish reform bill introduced into the Commons, 

19 March. 

Debate on Mr. Gladstone's proposal for a committee 
on his resolutions for the disestablishment of the 
church (carried by 328 to 272), 30 March to early 
morning of 4 April, 

Mr. Featherstonehaugh, J. P. , a deputy-lieut. , shot 
dead while returning from Dublin (he had re- 
cently raised the rent of his tenants) . 15 April, 

Visit of prince and princess of Wales ; arrive at 
Dublin ; intense enthusiasm . . 15 April, 

The prince and princess at Punchestown races, 

16 April, 

The prince installed as a knight of St. Patrick, 

18 April, 

The prince and princess at review in Phoenix-park, 
20 April ; leave Dublin ... 24 April, 

Increased emigration to United States . April, 

Mr. Gladstone's first resolution passed in the com- 
mons (by 330 to 265) early on 1 May ; second and 
third resolutions passed ... 7 May, 

Irish archbishops and bishops present address to 
the queen at Windsor, on behalf of the Irish 
Church establishment . . . .14 May, 

Irish Church commission recommend consolidation 
of dioceses and other reforms (1st report), 27 July, 

Earl Spencer lord lieutenant . . . Dec. 

Visit of prince Arthur . . .5 April et sea. 

Many murders : Mr. Anketell, 3 March ; Mr. Brad- 
shaw, J. P., 24 April ; Capt. Tarleton 28 April, 

Mayor of Cork, for a speech eulogizing Fenians, 27 
April compelled to resign . . . n May, 

Address of archbishop Leahy condemning agrarian 
murders 16 May, 

Irish Church bill introduced into the commons, 1 
March ; after much opposition passed, 26 July, 

Irish mixed schools denounced by abp. Cullen ; 
support for a Catholic university demanded in a 
circular dated 18 Aug. 

Great agitation for amnesty to the Fenian convicts, 

Oct. 

Tenant-right agitation ; a conference at Cork, 10 
Sept. ; county meeting at Kilkenny . 18 Oct. 

Jeremiah O'Donovan Rossa, a Fenian convict, 
elected M. P. for Tipperary . 25 Nov. 

Many agrarian outrages . . . Jan. , Feb. 

O'Donovan Rossa's election annulled . 10 Feb. 

Irish Church convention met . about 21 Feb. 

Irish Land bill, read a second time in commons 
(44; against 11), 1 a.m., 12 March; read second 
time in the lords I7 June, 

New "Irish Peace Preservation act" passed, 

4 April, 

Eight counties placed under this act . 29 April, 

Reported growth of a " Nationality " party among 
the Protestants July, 

Irish Land act passed . . . . 1 Aug. 

The " Home Government Association," to include 
all parties, meet at Dublin . . . 1 Sept. 

Aggressive outrages and murders . . Nov. 

Some Fenian convicts released from prison, Jan. 

John Martin, a nationalist, elected M.P.,for Meath, 

5 Jan. 

Census taken ; population, 5,402,759 . 3 April, 

Bill fur protection of life and property in West- 
meath brought in (a ml passed 16 June) on account 
of ribandism 2 May, 

Chief constable Talbot shot, night of 11 July ; died 

15 July, 

Visit of the prince of Wales to open the Royal 
Agricultural exhibition . . . . 1 Aug. 

Riot through attempted repression of Fenian 
sympathisers ; several killed . . 7 Aug. 



1870 



French deputation (comte de Flavigny and others) 
to thank the Irish for the assistance of the Irish 
ambulance during the war; warmly received, 
with seditious demonstrations against England, 

16-28 Aug 1871 

Mr. Isaac Butt, leader of Home-rule movement, 
elected M. P. for Limerick . . . 20 Sept. ,, 

The R. C. bishop of Deny, the O'Donoghue, and 
orliers, declare against the movement, Jan. ; 
members in its favour elected for Galway and 
Kerry Feb. 1872 

Peaceful state of the south ; few prisoners for trial, 

March, ., 

Mrs. Neill murdered at her own door near Dublin, 

27 May, „ 

Capt. Nolan, M.P. for Galway, unseated for intimi- 
dation by his agents ; the R. C. bishops and 
clergy severely censured by justice Keogh in 
giving sentence .... about 27 May, ,, 

O'Byrne v. Marquis of Harrington, and others 
(polk-e) for exceeding duty in suppressing a 
meeting in Phcenix-park, Dublin, in Aug. 1871 ; 
verdict for plaintiff, 25I. damages . 11 July, ,, 

Fathers Loftus and Quain tried for undue interfer- 
ence in Galway election ;jury disagreed, 10-14 Feb. 1874 

Mr. Gladstone brings into the commons the Irish 
University bill (rejected and withdrawn) 13 Feb. ,, 

The R. C. bishop of Clonfert, Dr. Duggan, tried 
and acquitted (see Dublin) . . 15-19 Feb. ,, 

Trial: O'Keeffe v. Cardinal Cullen ; begins (see Trials) 

12 May, ,, 

Home rule and amnesty associations active, Oct. „ 

Motions in favour of Home-rule (which see) defeated 
in parliament . . . 20 March & 3 July, ,, 

Ireland reported very prosperous . . Aug. ,, 

John Mitchell (see above, 1848, 1853), elected M.P. 
for Tipperary, 16 Feb. ; election declared null by 
the Commons ; he died 20 March ; his friends, 
John Martin, M.P., died 29 March ; and sir John 
Gray, M.P. died 9 April, 1875 

Mitchell's election declared void . . 26 May, „ 

Peace Preservation Act renewed . . 28 May, „ 

Centenary of the birth of Daniel O'Coniiell cele- 
brated at Dubliu, many foreign R. C. dignitaries 
present ; much dissension at the banquet between 
the Clerical and Home-rule parties . . 6 Aug. ,, 

Mr. McSwiney, lord mayor of Dublin, endeavours 
to form a new party for " faith anil fatherland," 
opposed to Home-rule . . . Aug. -Sept. ,, 

Catholic synod at Maynooth ; mixed education 
censured Sept. ,, 

Riots at Callan, Mr. O'Keeffe's chapel and house 
attacked (28 men committed for trial) . 11 Oct. ,, 

Dissension between members of O'Connell cen- 
tenary committee, which is dissolved . 26 Nov. ,, 

Agrarian outrage, Mr. Bridges and party fired on in 
daylight, the coachman killed ; several wounded 
at Mitchelstown, Cork (Crowe convicted of mur- 
der 25 July, executed 25 Aug.) . . 30 March, 1S76 

O'Keetl'e (see above, May, 1874) submits to cardinal 
Cullen for compensation .... May, ,, 

An Irish university bill introduced by Mr. Butt 
(withdrawn) 16 May, ,, 

County officers and courts act passed . 14 Aiig. 1877 

Supreme court of judicature act for Ireland, passed 

14 Aug. „ 
Temporary strike of men on Great Southern and 

Western railway, about . . . 14-22 Sept. ,, 
Dr. Moriarty, R. C. bp. of Kerry, patriotic, judi- 
cious died 1 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Gladstone's private visit . 17 Oct. el seq. ,, 
The judicature act comes into operation . 1 Jan. 187S 
The earl of Leitrim (eccentric), his clerk, and driver 
shot dead near his lodge, Manor Yaughan, Done- 
gal 2 April, ,, 

Bill for reducing Irish borough suffrage to il. re- 
jected in the commons (232-26) . . 15 May, ,, 
Irish Sunday closing (public houses) bill, mueh op- 
posed : passed 16 Aug. „ 

Irish intermediate education act passed . 16 Aug. ,, 
Irish volunteer bill lost .... 7 Aug. 1879 
Bill to abolish the Queen's University, and to 
establish a new university (for Roman catholics), 
introduced by lord chancellor Cairns, 30 June; 
carried in commons (257-90), 25 July ; passed 

15 Aug. „ 
Prevention of crime act passed . . 15 Aug. ,, 



IEELAND. 



663 



IEELAND. 



An Trish national convention to meet at Dublin, 
proposed by Mr. Charles Stewart Parnell (see 
Home Rule) 1 1 Sept. 

Progresses of Mr. Parnell ; much anti-rent agitation 

autumn, 

Appeal for the Irish national land league by Mr. 
Parnell, soliciting subscriptions to buy the land 
for the tenants 9 Oct. 

Exciting speeches of Mr. Parnell at Navan 

11, 13 Oct. 

James Bryce Killen, barrister, J. W. Daly, pro- 
prietor of " Connaught Telegraph," and Michael 
Davitt (ex-Fenian, on ticket of leave) arrested at 
Dublin for sedition (at anti-rent meeting at 
Gurteen, Sligo, 2 Nov.) ; [prosecution lapsed,] 

19 Nov. 

"Great orderly meetings held at Dublin, Balla, &c. 

21 Nov. et seq. 

Government arrangements for relieving distress 
published in Dublin .... 22 Nov. 

Pastoral "by abp. McOabe against the agitation ; 
read 23 Nov. 

Thos. Brennan arrested for seditious speech (at 
Balla, on 22 Nov.) 5 Dec. 

The duchess of Marlborough (the viceroy's wife) 
appeals for help for distress in the west {Times). 
(See under Mansion House, 1879) . 18 Dec. 

Mr. Parnell arrives at New York to agitate for help 
to relieve Ireland politically and pecuniarily 2 Jan. 

Riots at Carraroe, Connemara, and other places in 
Galway, in consequence of notices of eviction 

2 Jan. et seq. 

Contributions to the famine funds arrive from 
Canada, Australia, India, United States, <fec. 

Jan. Feb. 

Mr. Parnell's agitation said to be a dead failure Feb. 

20,000?. received from lord mayor of London ; 
(Dublin co. returns, 82,422?.) . . 28 Feb. 

Seed supply act passed . . . 1 March, 

Relief of distress (Ireland) act passed 15 March, 

Belief fund : 129,000?. received up to 25 March ; 
141,562? up to 17 April, 

Charter for new Irish university signed by the queen 

19 April, 

Relief for Irish distress brought in the Constellation 
from United States ; arrives at Cork 20 April, 

Received for Irish distress, 177,401?. ; distributed, 
170.357^ up to 23 July, 

"Compensation for Disturbance bill (to check evic- 
tions, restrain landlords, and benefit tenants), 
2nd reading in commons (295-217), 5-6 July ; 
passed in commons (303-237), 27 July ; rejected 
by the lords (282-51) .... 3 Aug. 

Mr. Thos. Boyd, crown solicitor, and sons fired at 
and wounded, Charles killed, at Shanlough, near 
New Ross .... Sunday, Aug. 8, 

40 cases of arms (960 weapons), stolen from the 
Juno, a Norwegian vessel, in the docks at Cork, 
11 Aug. ; some found concealed . 13 Aug. 

Rioting at Dungannon, Belfast . 15-18 Aug. 

Violent speech of Mr. Dillon, M.P., at Kildare, in 
favour of the land league, 15 Aug. ; termed 
" wicked and cowardly " by Mr. W. E Forster, 
who justifies the terms in parliament 23 Aug. 

Mr. Parnell proposes that tenant should become 
owner of land after paying 35 years' just rent Sept. 

The duchess of Marlborough's relief fund ; total re- 
ceived from all parts 135,245?., and 119?. interest 
from the Bank of Ireland ; reported 19 Sept. 

(Lord Mountmorres shot at Rutheen near Clonbar, 
Galway, about 8 p.m. ... 25 Sept. 

Progress of agitation ; exciting speeches of Messrs. 
Parnell, Redpath, Dillon, and others advocating 
the principle of " boycotting " . Sept., Oct. 

C05 leading landowners with agents wait on the 
lord-lieutenant at Dublin, describing the terrorist 
state of the south and west of the country and 
need of protection . ... 7 Oct. 

R. C. abp. McCabe's pastoral against agitation and 
murders ; read in chapels . . .10 Oct. 

Agrarian outrages ; John Downing, a driver, killed 
by a shoi aimed at his employer, Mr. Samuel 
Hutchins, near Drimoleague, Cork . 16 Oct. 

Arrest of Timothy M. Healy, Mr. Parnell's secre- 
tary, and Mr. Walsh, for intimidation of Mr. 
Manning (on 16 Oct.) . - . 26, 27 Oct. 



1879 



Messrs. Parnell and others arrested for conspiracy 
and intimidation to prevent tenants paying rent, 
<fec. (19 counts) ; notices served 3 Nov. et seq. : 

Mr. Boycott of Lough Mask farm, near Ballinrobe, 
Mayo, besieged ; his labourers threatened ; his 
tradesmen refuse to supply him ; — his crops 
gathered by immigrant labourers, protected by 
military, &c 11, 12 Nov. 

Mr. Henry Wheeler, land agent, murdered 12 Nov. 

Mr. Forster, Irish Secretary, sends a circular to the 
magistrates reminding them of their statutory 
powers about 8 Dec. 

Mr. W. Bence Jones of Ballinascorthy, treated like 
Mr. Boycott Dec. 

Three judges (Fitzgerald, Barry, and Dowse), de- 
liver alarming charges on state of country Dec. 

Trial of Mr. Parnell and others for conspiracy, 
begins (see Trials) 28 Dec. 

Jury disagree ; discharged ... 25 Jan. : 

About 25,000 soldiers in Ireland . . Jan. 

Report of Agricultural Commission (for Ireland) 
issued ; great distress, 1877-9 ! good harvest, 
1880 ; it opposes the three F's. ; recommends emi- 
gration in some districts .... Jan. 

Bill for protection of life and property (termed 
coercion bill) brought in by Mr. Forster, 24 Jan. ; 
long debates ; much obstruction (see Parliament) ; 
passed commons, (281-36), 25, 26 Feb. ; passed 
lords, 1-3 March ; royal assent . . 3 March, 

Peace preservation bill (arms bill) ; introduced 1 
March ; passed commons, 11,12 March ; passed 
lords, 18 March ; royal assent . . 21 March, 

Many agitators arrested ; 23 in Kilmainham gaol, 

10 March, 

" Clan-Na-Gael " secret society to replace Fenians 
said to be formed March, 

Irish land bill (" legalized confiscation "—Beacons- 
field) introduced into the commons by Mr. Glad- 
stone 7 A P ril > 

More arrests (total about 40) . up to 20 April, 

Cruel outrages in different places ; Dublin city pro- 
claimed under coercion act, 1 May ; John Dillon, 
M.P. arrested [released Aug.] . . 2 May, 

Division in Irish parliamentary party ; Mr. Parnell 
and others oppose the land bill, about . 5 May, 

Increase in amount of crime . . April, May, 

Total arrests, 54 ; increase of evictions . May, 

Irish land bill read 2nd time (352-176) ; Mr. Parnell 
and about 20 retire, 19, 20 May ; 3rd time (220-14) 

29 July, 

Agrarian outrages, 439, Jan. ; 170, Feb. ; 146, 
March ; 296, April ; 238 in three weeks . May, 

Riots connected with evictions at Scareff, co. Clare ; 
some persons killed ; many injured . 2 June, 

Rioting at various places in co. Cork., &c, 

5, 6, 7 June, 

Population diminished one-ninth in ten years (by 
census) June, 

First publication of United Ireland . . July, 

Land bill in house of lords ; read 2nd time, 2, 3 
Aug. ; 3rd time (with amendments), 8 Aug. ; the 
commons reject some of the amendments, 12 
Aug. ; the lords resist, 13 Aug. ; the commons 
modify the amendments, 15 Aug. ; the lords 
yield, 16 Aug. ; royal assent . . 22 Aug. 

Increased boycotting of shop-keepers and others, 
and much cruelty Sept. 

Great meeting of delegates from the Land League, 
denouncing the land act as a sham ; Mr. Parnell 
present 17-19 Se Pt- 

Mr. Parnell arrested on charge of inciting to in- 
timidation and for urging non-payment of rent ; 
put into Kilmainham gaol, Dublin {which see) 
1 13 Oct. 

This arrest "legal, merited, and expedient," Times 

15 Oct. 

Arrest of Messrs. Sexton, O'Kelly, J. P. Quinn, 
secretary of Land League, Dillon, O'Brien, and 
others 14-16 Oct. 

Violent rioting at Dublin and Limerick ; about 
2000?. damage ; soon suppressed ; more arrests 

15-18 Oct. 

More troops sent to Ireland from Chatham, &c. ; 
manifesto of the Land League denouncing the 
government, and ordering non-payment of rent 
& 18 Oct. 

This manifesto censured by archbishop Croke 

19 Oct. 



IRELAND. 



664 



IRELAND. 



First meeting of the Irish Land Commission court ; 
addressed by justice O'Hagan . . 20 Oct. 

Great calm at Dublin and Limerick 20 Oct. et seq. 

The lord lieutenant on the responsibility of Mr. 
W. B. Forster proclaims the suppression of 
the Land League as an illegal and criminal 
organization, 20 Oct. ; the leaders declare for 
passive resistance ; archbishop M'Cabe's pastoral 
against the Land League manifesto read in R. C. 
churches in Dublin 30 Oct. 

Important decisions in favour of tenants by sub- 
commissions at Belfast, &c. . . . Nov. 

2448 persons in prison; more arrests ; some released 
announced 5 Nov. 

Home rule meeting at Dublin . . .8 Nov. 

Death of Dr. M'Hale, archbishop of Tuam, " Lion 
of the fold of Judah " . . . .8 Nov. 

Above 4o,coo applications to the land courts 

12 Nov. 

Continuance of agrarian murders and outrages Nov. 

Strike against payment of rent in Limerick ; evic- 
tions ordered 30 Nov. 

Irish Property Defence association (formed Nov. 
1880) active and successful (see Mansion-house 
Fund) Nov. — Dec. 

Great increase of crime in Munster announced Dec. 

An association formed to support the law 

about 20 Dec. 

Proclamation against possession of arms in Dublin, 
<&c. . 27 Dec. 

Appointment of five special magistrates, with extra 
powers, in disturbed districts ; 4430 agrarian 
outrages in the year . . . about 30 Dec. 

Several lady land leaguers arrested 2 Jan. et seq. 

Day of humiliation for Protestants . . 13 Jan. 

About 40 suspects arrested . . 28 Jan. 

Frequent murders reported .... Feb. 

Committee to enquire into working of land act 
voted by lords (96 — 53, 17 Feb.), earl Cairns- 
chairman 23 Feb. 

Michael Davitt, convict, elected M.P. for co. 
Meath, 22 Feb. ; annulled by the commons (see 
Fenians) 28 Feb. 

Bailey, an informer against Land League, murdered 
at Dublin 25 Feb. 

Mr. Gladstone's resolution against the lords' com- 
mittee, 27 Feb. ; carried (303 — 235) 9-10 March, 

The lords' committee sit ... . March, 

Continuance of murderous outrages . . March, 

Archbishop M'Cabe created cardinal 27 March, 

Mr. Forster confesses failure of government policy 
through influence of secret societies 27 March, 

511 suspects in prison 1 April, 

Mr. Parnell released en parole for ten days, 

10 April 

New government policy ; resignation of Mr. W. E. 
Forster [Mr. Forster narrowly escaped assassin- 
ation several times]; release of Mr. Parnelland 
other suspects; earl Spencer appointed lord lieu- 
tenant about 2 May, 1882 ; release of Michael 
Davitt 6 May, 

Lord Frederick Cavendish, new chief secretary, 
and Mr. T. H. Burke, permanent under-secre- 
tary, assassinated by stabbing, by four men 
(" Invincibles ") about 7 p.m., in Phoenix-park, 
Dublin, 6 May; manifesto expressing abhorrence 
of the deed signed by C. S. Parnell, J. Dillon, 
and M. Davitt 7 May, 

Government offers 10,000?. reward for discoveries 
of the murderers; Mr. G. O. Trevelyan appointed 
chief secretary 9 May, 

Bill for the prevention of crime in Ireland intro- 
duced by sir W. V. Harcourt (new tribunal of 
three judges without jury for special occasions; 
powers of police increased ; alien act to be 
revived ; supervision of newspapers and of assem- 
blies, iii:), 11 May, 1882 ; second reading 
(3 8 3—4S) 19' 20 May, 

Many arrests . . . .12 May et seq. 

Alleged agreement of the government with Mr. Par- 
nell and party, early May, 1 882, sarcastically termed 
the treaty 0/ Kilmainham; arrears of rent bill, 
second reading (269— 157) . . 23-24 May, 

Mr. Walter Bourke and corporal 'Wallace, hiscscort, 

shot dead by five men near Gort, Galway s June, 

Mr. John Henry Blake, agent to the marquis of 

Clanriearde, and his steward, Mr. Kane, shot 

dead near Loughrea 29 June, 



A long discussion in the commons on the preven- 
tion of crime bill ; 23 Irish members suspended, 
30 June — 1 July, 1 

Mr. Parnell and home rulers withdraw, July, 1882; 
22 arrests at Loughrea, 4 July ; government de- 
feated in an amendment checking domiciliary 
visits of suspected persons at night, 207 — 194 ; 
prevention of crime bill read third time, 7-8 July ; 
passed by the lords, n July ; royal assent, 

12 July, 

17 counties proclaimed . . . about 13 July, 

170 suspects in custody . . . .2 Aug. 

The Lords' committee on the land act adjourns, 

15 Aug. 

Mr. Edmund Dwyer Gray, M.P., high sheriff of 
Dublin, ex-lord mayor, sentenced to three months' 
imprisonment and a fine of 500Z. for contempt of 
court in articles in Freeman's Journal attacking 
the. jury on trial of Francis Hynes . 16 Aug. 

Arrears bill passed in the commons (285 — 177), 21 
July ; by the lords, with injurious amendments 
(169 — 981, 31 July; which are modified or nega- 
tived by the commons, 8, 9 Aug. ; the revision 
accepted by the lords, 10 Aug. ; royal assent, 

18 Aug. 

50 suspects released . . . .about 18 Aug. 

John Joyce and his wife, sou and daughter, shot 
dead by band of men near Maamtrasma, in 
Clonder district, Galway, for giving information 
to the police 17-18 Aug. 

John Leahy, aged farmer, of Scarteen, Killarney, 
murdered by a moonlight party . . 20 Aug. 

Discontent and insubordination of the constabulary 

at Dublin, Cork, and especially at Limerick, 

settled by firmness and judicious concessions 

end of Aug. 

Dismissal of some police for holding a public meet- 
ing in Dublin ; all the police of the city resign ; 
order maintained by the military, who charge on 
rioters in the evening, 1 Sept. ; special constables 
sworn in 2 Sept. ; resignation withdrawn peni- 
tently with respectful petition 3 Sept. ; 208 re- 
instated 6-7 Sept. 

Execution of Francis Hynes (for murder of John 
Doloughty)at Limerick, 11 Sept. ;of Patrick Walsh, 
for murder of Martin Lyden, at Galway, 22 Sept. 

Successful progress of the lord lieutenant, earl 
Spencer, in the west . . . middle Sept. 

Conviction of Michael Walsh, for murder of Kava- 
nagh, a policeman, 29 Sept. ; penal servitude for 
life 19 Oct. 

Mr. E. D. Gray released . . . .30 Sept. 

Expiration of coercion act ; all suspects released 

30 Sept. 

Land league fund in North America closed 6 Oct. 

Nationalistic conference at Dublin constitutes a 
new Irish National League (ultra) to obtain self- 
government and land-law reform, 5!r. C. Parnell 
president 17 Oct. 

Diminution of agrarian crime . . April — Nov. 

Murderous assault on justice Lawson at Dublin by 
Patrick Delany, a returned convict . n Nov. 

Irish land commission report issued about 13 Nov. 

The land corporation of Ireland dissolved Nov. 

Conviction of murderers of Joyce family ; Patrick 
Joyce, 15 Nov. ; Patrick Casey, 17 Nov. ; Myles 
Joyce, 18 Nov. [all executed, 15 Dec] ; Michael 
Casey, Thomas Joyce, John Casey, and Martin 
Joyce, confess ; sentence commuted ; Thomas 
Casey and Philbyn, approvers . . 21 Nov. 

Murderous assault on detectives in Dublin ; Cox 
killed ; his murderer, Dowling, severely wounded 

25 Nov. 

Mr. Field, a juryman, stabbed, 27 Nov. ; reward of 
5000?. for assassin ; Dublin proclaimed under 
martial law 28 Nov. 

Patrick and Thomas Higgins convicted of murder 
of Haddys at Lough Mask [executed 15-17 Jan. 
1883I 13 and 16 Dec. 

Also Michael Flyn 20 Dec. 

Sylvester Poff, James Barrett, convicted of murder, 
at Cork 22 Dec. 

Emigration from Ireland, 89,566 in the year . . 

Great distress in Donegal in the north-west ; 3433 
agrarian outrages in the year . . Dec. 1882— iS 

Arrest in Dublin of 21 persons, suspected of con- 
spiracy to murder . . 12, 13 Jan. , 



IRELAND. 



(365 



IRELAND. 



Robert Farrell, approver, reveals plot for assassi- 
nation of the government ... 19 Jan. 18 
The pope's letter to archbishop McCabe, exhorting 

the elergyagainstsecretsoeieties,&c. about 20 Jan. , 
Execution of Sylvester Poff and James Barrett, at 

Tralee, for murder 23 Jan. , 

M. Davitt, Thos. Healy, M.P., and P. Quinn bound 
over for seditious speeches, 24 Jan. ; elect to be 
imprisoned, 6 Feb. ; imprisoned . . 8 Feb. , 
Eight men charged with complicity in murder of 

lord Frederick Cavendish and Mr. Burke 3 Feb. , 
Irish national league, first meeting . . 7 Feb. , 
Revelations of James Carey, approver, implicating 
the Land League (Thos. Brennan, sec, and P. J. 
Sheridan) ; statement respecting the Irish Invin- 
cibles ; arrest of Mrs. F. Byrne, charged with trans- 
mitting arms, &c , 17 Feb. ; discharged 20 Feb. , 
Accused prisoners committed for trial . 20 Feb. , 
Mr. W. E. Forster's defence in the commons, and 
eharges against Mr. Parnell ; Mr. O'Kelly sus- 
pended-fora week, for givinghim the lie 22-23 Feb. > 
Mr. Parnell's unsatisfactory reply . 23 Feb. , 

Arrest of Mr. Byrne at Paris, 27 Feb. ; released. 

about 9 March, , 
Flight of Patrick Egan, treasurer of the Land 
League, from Dublin, 1 March; in New York, 

12 March, , 
Many thousand young forest trees for planting- 
given by English, Scotch, and Irish nurserymen 

spring, , 
R. C. bishops advocate government relief for dis- 
tress in Connaught, Jan. ; refused, poor-law relief 

reckoned sufficient March, , 

Twelve members of the "Patriotic Brotherhood" 
(established at Crossmaglen, 1881) sentenced to 
penal servitude for conspiracy to murder land- 
lords 28 March, , 

Phoenix-park murders ; Robt. Farrell, Jas. Carey, 
and others, approvers ; trial of Joseph Brady, 
convicted, n-13 April ; Timothy Kelly, third 
trial, 7-9 May ; Thomas Catfrey pleads guilty, 
2 May ; Patrick Delany and Daniel Curley, 16-18 
April ; Michael Fagan . . . 25-27 April, , 
Irish convention at Philadelphia ; Parnell's policy 

adopted ; dynamiters defeated . 25-27 April, ,. 
Detection of conspiracy of the "Vigilance" murder 
organization at Dublin; prisoners examined, 

May, ,, 
Powerful circular from the pope, strictly enjoining 
the bishops to abstain from favouring disaffection 
to the government, not to subscribe to testimo- 
nial:',, &c. [archbishop Croke, of Cashel, had given 
50?. to the Parnell testimonial, &c] . 11 May, 
James FitzHarris and others convicted of con- 
spiracy to murder ; sentenced to penal servitude 

16 May et seq. ,. 
Messrs. Davitt, Healy, and Quinn released '4 June, ,. 
Executed : Joseph Brady (actual murderer;, 14 
May ; Daniel Curley, 18 May ; Michael Fagan, 28 
May ; Thomas Caffrey, 2 June ; Timothy Kelly, 

9 June, ,, 
Irish lace exhibition at the Mansion-house, London 

25 June — 7 July, ,, 
James Carey, the approver, shot dead by Patrick 
O'Donnell, 29 July, on board the Melrose Castle, 
near Port Elizabeth, South Africa . 29 July, ,, 

Loans amounting to 4,600,000?. for public works 
authorised by parliament ... 25 Aug. 
National League invade Ulster, strongly resisted 
by the Orangemen at Auchnacloy, fiungannon, 
and other places .... end of Sept. „ 
Sir Stafford Northcote warmly received at Belfast, 

Londonderry, &c 3 Oct. 

Meeting of National League at Ennis prohibited 

5 Oct. „ 
Meetings of Orangemen and National Leaguers at 
Garrison, Fermanagh, prohibited . . 13 Nov. 
Patrick O'Donnell convicted . . .1 Dec. „ 
Mr. Trevelyan reports great diminution in agrarian 

outrage .... Oct.— Dec. ,, 

38,000?. presented to Mr. Parnell ("as a national 
tribute " from the Irish people) at a banquet at 
the Rotunda, Dublin . . . n Dec. 

Execution of Patrick O'Donnell (see 29 July), at 
Newgate, 17 Dec. ; of James Poole, at Dublin, 
for murder of John Kenny, informer . 18 Dec. 



A Parnellite land law amendment bill rejected by 
the commons (as tending to confiscation), by 

2 35— 7 2 5 March, 

Earl Spencer warmly received at Belfast 18 June, 
Serious libellous charges against Mr. Bolton, crown 
solicitor ; subornation of witnesses, &c. 

July, Aug. 
Charges disproved ; letter from earl Spencer "23 Aug. 
Irish National League convention at Dublin, Mr. 
P. O'Connor in the chair ; urges revival of agita- 
tion against the government ... 6 Sept. 
Death of Mr. A. M. Sullivan, eminent Nationalist 

17 Oct. 
Mr. H. Campbell-Bannerman, chief secretary, 

sworn in 24 Oct. 

Maamtrasma trial impugned ; their verdict sup- 
ported by the commons (219—48) . 28 Oct. 
Attempted explosion of Edinburn -house (Samuel 
Hussey, land agent) by dynamite, near Tralee, 
Kerry ; no deaths .... 28 Nov. 
Death of cardinal McCabe, pacific and loyal 1 1 Feb. 
Parnellite manifesto directing Nationalist corpora- 
tions to maintain an attitude of reserve during the 
prince of Wales' visit in April, issued about 16 Mar. 
The prince of Wales arrives at Dublin, 8 April ; 
sails from Larne .... 27 April, 
The Irish R. C. bishops summoned to Rome ; 
arrive 21 April ; rebuked by the pope for 
disloyalty, &c, in separate interviews, 27 April- 
15 May ; bishop Nulty's pastoral, foretelling 
secession of Ireland from Rome, causes great 
displeasure ; the bishops oppose projected reforms 
at Maynooth, but are said to submit, announced 
19 May ; dismissed about ... 25 May, 
The earl of Carnarvon, lord lieutenant, arrives in 

Dublin 30 June, 

Sir William Hart-Dyke appointed chief Secretary 

June 

Stoppage of the Munster bank for about 70,000?. ; 

fraud disclosed July- Aug. 1885; reconstituted; 

opened 19 Oct. 

Lord Ashbourne's act, granting 5,000,000?. for the 
purchase of land by tenant to be paid by instal- 
ments, passed 14 Aug. 

Progress of the earl of Carnarvon, lord lieut. in the 

west ; well received . . . 17 Aug. et seq. 

Mr. Parnell's resolute declaration to the nationalists 

at Dublin 25 Aug. 

Prevention of crime act expires ; revival of boy- 
cotting and outrages .... Sept. 
Thefirstcounty convention, forcontrollingelections, 
held at Wicklow under Mr. Parnell . 5 Oct. 
Cork defence union formed (the earl of Bandon 
president) against the tyranny of the national 

league Oct. 

The Cork steam packet company threatened with 
boycotting by the league ; the company deter- 
mined on resistance .... 10 Oct. 
Aghadoe house, Killarney (Mr. Hussey's), attacked 
by " moonlighters " and defended with fire-arms 

11 Oct. 
Manifesto of Mr. Parnell claiming "home rule" 

&c, published n Nov. 

Castle farm, Molahiffe, in Kerry, attacked for arms 
by moonlighters ; Mr. John O'Connell Curtain 
killed, while his sons and daughters bravely 
resist ; one assailant killed . . 13 Nov. 
[S. Cassey and D. Daly convicted of burglary, 
&c. 21 Dec] 
Elections : home-rule manifesto issued 21 Nov. 
Irish defence union formed to support local defence 

unions 

Irish loyal and patriotic union (southern), after- 
wards Irish unionist association, formed . . 
Mr. W. H. Smith, M.P., chief secretary for a short 

time Jan. 

The earl of Aberdeen, as lord lieut., and John 

Morley, as chief secretary, sworn in . 10 Feb. 

Irish loyal union, report to Mr. Gladstone, the 

systematic cruel oppression of the national 

league 27 March, 

Mr. Gladstone in a long speech introduces a bill 
" to make better provision for the future govern- 
ment of Ireland " ; it proposes to establish a 
legislative body to sit in Dublin, to consist of 
two orders each with a veto ; I. twenty-eight 
representative peers and seventy-five members 
elected for ten years ; II. the present 103 Irish 



1384 



1885 



IRELAND. 



666 



IRELAND. 



members, and 101 additional : the lord -lieutenant 
with a privy council to be independent of Great 
Britain ; the new body empowered to enact laws 
and to impose and collect taxes, except the 
customs, but not to interfere with the army and 
navy, or foreign and colonial affairs, and not to 
enact any religious endowment ; present legal 
and police arrangements to remain temporarily 
subject to the crown ; no Irish members to sit at 
Westminster, 8-9 April ; read first time, 13-14 
April ; second reading rejected (343 [250 conser- 
vatives, 93 liberals]- 3 i 3 ) ... 7-8 June, 1 

The loyal and patriotic union formed May, 1885 ; 
great meeting at H. M.'s theatre, London, earl 
Oowper in the chair, the marquises of Salisbury 
and Hartington, and many leading conservative 
and liberal leaders present. Resolutions con- 
demning Mr. Gladstone's Irish government bill 
passed ; petitions to be presented to parliament 

14 April, 

Sale and purchase of land bill introduced by Mr. 
Gladstone ; (proposed creation of 50,000,000^ 3 
per cent, stock from 1887-90) read 1st time 

16 April, 

944 agrarian offences in 1885, reported . April, 

Archbishop Croke and his clergy express warm 
gratitude to Mr. Gladstone . about 30 April , 

Important meetings of liberals and conservatives 
against Mr. Gladstone's policy . 14-15 May, 

Intimidation practised by the "house league" 
upon owners of houses in Kerry, &c, to procure 
reduction of rent May, 

Riots at Belfast (which see) . 9, 10 June et seq'. 

Armagh and Tyrone proclaimed under peace, preser- 
vation act 18 June, 

Dissolution of parliament ; Mr. Gladstone being in 
a minority, resigns 20 July ; Marquis of Salisbury 
supported by unionists, resumes office 26 July, 

The marquis of Londonderry as lord-lieut., and 
sir Michael Hicks-Beach as chief secretary, 
appointed . ... 26 July, 

Convention of about 1,000 delegates of Irish 
national league of America meet at Chicago ; 
John Fitzgerald elected president 19-22 Aug. 

Gen. sir Redvers Buller with civil plenary powers 
appointed to command in Kerry, Clare, and Cork ; 
arrives at Killarney .... 30 Aug. 

Mr. Parnell's amendment on the address negatived 
(304-181) 27j 2 8 Aug. 

Mr. Parnell introduces tenants' relief bill, n Sept. ; 
rejected (297-202) .... 21-22 Sept. 

Capture of moonlighters and arms at Castleisland, 
Kerry 2 6 Sept. 

Two women shot by moonlighters for refusing to 
give up arms at a farm near Williamstown, Cork, 

4 Oct. 

Plans of organization (termed plan of campaign) of 
teiiantiy in each estate against the landlords 
with stringent measures proposed (probably 
by Mr. John Dillon, leader of the national 
party, and Mr. William O'Brien) in United 
Ireland, organ of the national league (the tenant 
was to pay his rent to the league, and be sup- 
ported by it if evicted) .... 21 Oct. 

Sir Robert Hamilton, under secretary (said to be 
borne ruler)resigns ; (sir Redvers Buller temporary 
successor) ; col. Turner acts in Kerry 30 Nov. 

Increased agrarian agitation . . . Nov. 

Offices 1 ipened lor the receipt of rents at Charleston, 
Mayo (lord Dillon's estate), many deposits 2 Dec. 

Prosecution of Mr. Dillon ; the attorney-general 
terms Hie "plan of campaign " a combination of 
debtors to ( roe creditors 11 Dee. ; court of 

queen's bench requires Mr. Dillon to find securi- 
ties for good behaviour, or be imprisoned for si\ 
months M rj ee . 

Messrs. Dill. 111, Win. O'Brien, Matthew Harris, and 
Sheehy arrested whilst receiving rents on lord 
Clanricarde'S estate, the books and money seized 

16 Dec. 

Proclamation against "plan of campaign" iS Dec. 

Rents Still illegally received by several M.l'.'s 

about 18 Dec. et seq. 

The seat of prosecution removed from Loughrea to 

Dublin 20 |),.,.. 

Mr. Parnell states that ho defers his opinion on the 
, plan of campaign . . . about 18 Dee 



Chief Baron Palles in sentencing 36 Irish rioters, 
censures the "dispensing power" of the executive 
and the abstention of the police during riots at 
evictions 5 Jan. i£ 

Prosecution of Mr. Dillon, five other M.P.s, and 
Mr. O'Brien (editor of United Ireland) begun at 
Dublin, 23 Dec. ; committed and bailed n Jan. . 

Mr. Parnell's amendment on the address relating to 
Irish affairs negatived (352 [68 liberals]-246) 

11, 12 Feb. , 

Evictions resisted by armed men ; an " emergency " 
man dies of wounds at Ballycar . 14, 15 Feb. , 

Resignation of sir M. Hicks-Beach, chief secretaiy. 
for ill-health ; succeeded by Mr. Arthur J. 
Balfour 5 March, , 

Riots at Youghal with bloodshed . 8 March, , 

Justice O'Brien at Kerry says : " Law is at an end. 
There is a state of war with authority." 10 March, 

" Parnellism and crime" (which see) published in 
the Times 7 March et seq. , 

Arrest of father Keller (supported by abp. Walsh) for 
contempt of court in refusing to give evidence 
(as a confessor) in a bankruptcy case, 18 March ; 
committed to prison 19 March ; father Ryan 
committed for same cause . . 29 March, , 

Increase of crime and lawlessness in south and 
west . March, , 

Trial of Messrs. Dillon and others, 14 Feb. ; jury 
disagreeing, discharged 24 Feb. ; proceedings 
withdrawn 1 April, . 

Fathers Keller and Ryan and others released 

21-24 May, , 

Liberal unionist organization begins in Ireland 

24 May, , 

New criminal law procedure bill introduced by Mr. 
Balfour, 28 March ; much opposition, Irish 
members and others retire 17-30 June, read 3rd 
time 8-9 July, passed by the lords 18 July ; 
royal assent * 19 July, , 

Evictions at Bodyke in Clare, on property of 
colonel O'Callaghan ; violently resisted early June, 

Labourer shot by a gang near Killarney 13 June, , 

Prince Albert Victor and George of Wales visit 
Ireland 27 June, , 

Jubilee address of unionist Roman catholics to the 
queen 29 June, , 

Great meeting at Cork to resist the operation of the 
crimes act 19 July, , 

Eighteen counties proclaimed under the crimes act ; 
twelve counties partly proclaimed, together with 
Dublin and nine other cities . . 23 July, , 

Monsignor Persico visits Ireland on behalf of the 
pope July, , 

New Irish land bill (favourable to the tenant) 
passed ; royal assent .... 23 Aug. , 

The national league proclaimed as a "dangerous 
association " 19 Aug. ; Mr. Gladstone's motion for 
an address to the queen against the proclamation 
negatived (272-194) . . . 25-26 Aug. , 

Nationalist meeting at Ballycoree in Clare pro- 
claimed 31 Aug. ; attempted meeting dispersed 

4 Sept. , 

Meeting in support of Mr. W. O'Brien, M.P., 
and Mr. Mandeville, who refuse to obey the 
magistrates' summons respecting speeches at 
Mitchelstown on 9, 10 Aug. ; about 150 horse- 
men and crowd, about 3,000, armed with 



* Members of parliament sentenced to imprisonment 
under the new act. 1887. Mr. W. O'Brien 31 Oct. ; Mr. 
E. Harrington 1 Dec. ; Mr. T. Harrington 19 Dec. ; 
Mr. Hooper 19 Dec. ; Mr. Sheehy 21 Dec. 

i883. Mr. J. R. Cox 25 Jan. ; Mr. P. O'Brien S Feb. ; 
Mr. Pyne 15 Feb. ; Mr. Flyn 25 Feb. ; Mr. Gilhooly 5 
March ; Mr. W. O'Brien 3 May, 20 June : Mr. Condon 27 
May ; Mr. Dillon 20 June; Mr. James O'Kelly 10 Aug. ; 
Mr. Redmond 26 Sept. 

1889. Mr. John O'Connor 31 Jan. ; Mr D. Sheehy 1 
Feb. ; Mr. J. R. Cox 2 Feb. : Mr. T. Condon 7 Feb. ; Mr. 
Kilbride S Feb.; Mr. W. O'Brien 19 Feb. ; Mr. Care w 
21 Feb.; Dr. Tanner 7 March ; Mr. Condon, Mr Connor, 
and Dr. Tanner 1 May ; Mr. Conybeare 3 May : Mr. W. 
O'Brien and Mr. Gilhooly 25 Aiig. ; Mr. Redmond 22 
Sept. 

1890. Messrs. ITm. and Patrick O'Brien and John 
Dillon 10 Nov. 

1891. Mr W. O'Brien ami J. Dillon, 13 Feb.— 31 July. 



IEELAND. 



667 



IEELAND. 



bludgeons and stones ; Messrs. Labouchere, 
Dillon, Brunner and other M.P's. present; the 
police with the government reporter (Concleron) 
attacked with stones and bludgeons, retreat to 
barracks ; return reinforced ; compelled to tire ; 
Michael Lonergan and John Shinnery killed 
and many wounded ; town quieted by military 

9 Sept. iS 

Constable Whelehan killed and three others 
wounded in defending T. Sexton's house near 
Lisdoonvarna against moonlighters . n Sept. 

[Leary and four others sentenced to penal servitude 
10 Dec] 

The national league in Clare and several baronies 
(200 brandies) suppressed by proclamation 20 Sept. , 

Mr. O'Brien and Mr. Mandeville sentenced to three 
months' imprisonment ... 24 Sept. , 

The lord mayor of Dublin (Mr. T. D. Sullivan) 
charged with offence against the crimes act (see 
Dublin) 6 Oct. , 

Many meetings of suppressed branches of the 
national league ..... 9 Oct. . 

Mr. Joseph Chamberlain, M.P., warmly received at 
Belfast and other places in Ulster by the liberal 
unionists and others . . . 11 Oct. et seq. , 

Verdict of coroner's jury on deaths at Mitchelstown ; 
wilful murder against county inspector Brown- 
rigg, sergeants Ryder and Kirwan, and con- 
stables Gavan, Brennan, and Doran . 12 Oct. . 

[Verdict quashed by the queen's bench, Dublin, 
10 Feb. 1888.] 

Col. sir Joseph West Ridgeway succeeds sir 
Redvers Buller as under-secretary for Ireland 

about 15 Oct. , 

Midnight meeting at Woodford ; Mr. O'Brien 
present 16 Oct. , 

Cork county and city placed under the crimes act 

24 Oct. , 

At a riotous meeting at Woodford which had been 
proclaimed, Mr. Wilfrid Blunt, the chairman, 
and others arrested, and the meeting dispersed, 
23 Oct; Mr. Blunt sentenced to two months' 
imprisonment ; appeals ... 27 Oct. , 

("Sentence confirmed 7 Jan. i388.] 

Many evictions violently resisted, autumn . . , 

Mr. W. O'Brien withdraws his appeal ; after 
resistance sent to prison for three months ; 
sentence confirmed against Mr. Mandeville, two 
months' imprisonment, 31 Oct. ; removed from 
Cork to Tullamore gaol, King's county 2 Nov. , 

Other arrests and imprisonments . . Nov. , 

Limerick city proclaimed . . about 14 Nov. , 

The national league suppressed in Kerry 22 Nov. , 

Serious riots at Limerick through attempted 
meeting to inaugurate a memorial of the so- 
called martyrs executed at Manchester (which 
see) in 1867 27 Nov. , 

Great unionist meeting at Leinster hall, Dublin, to 
receive lord Hartington and Mr. Goschen ; the 
most eminent persons in professions, learning, 
commerce, &c. present ... 29 Nov. , 

Death of Dr. Daniel M'Gettigan, R. C. archbishop 
of Armagh ; judicious, tolerant, and amiable 

3 Dec. , 

Convention of Irish landlords in Dublin to consider 
their prospects and conduct, 15 Sept. ; require 
legislation 13-15 Dec. , 

Father Matthew Ryan, R. O, sentenced to one 
month's imprisonment for sedition . 22 Dec. , 

Large reductions of rents ordered by the land 
commission 27 Dec. . 

Many arrests under the crimes act, and imprison- 
ments Dec. 1887-Jan. iE 

Visit of the marquis of Ripon and Mr. John 
Morley, M.P., to Dublin . . 1-3 Feb. , 

Mr. Parnell's amendment on the address attacking 
the government Irish policy moved, 13 Feb. ; 
negatived (317-229) . . . . 17 Feb. , 

Mr. Parnell's land law amendment bill dealing with 
arrears rejected (328-243) . . 21 March, , 

Attempted proclaimed meetings dispersed by the 
police and military at Loughrea, Ennis (by col. 
Turner), and other places ... 8 April, . 

The plan of campaign and boycotting condemned 
by the pope on moral grounds, 18 April ; rescript 
issued 20 April, , 

Mr. Carew's county government bill rejected 
(282-195) ...... 25 April, , 



Execution of Daniel Hayes and Daniel Moriarty for 
the murder of James Fitzmaurice, a farmer (on 
31 Jan.) 28 April, i£ 

Execution of James Kirby at Tralee gaol for the 
murder of Patrick Quirke at Liscahane, Kerry, 
(8 Nov. 1887) 7 May, , 

The exchequer division affirms right of county 
court to increase sentences on appeal 17 May, . 

Meeting of catholic M.P.s in Dublin, who 
resist the pope's interference in political affairs, 
17 May ; of others in Phoenix park . 20 May, , 

The R. C. bishops accept the papal rescript May, 

Mr. John Morley's motion for vote of censure of the 
government for its Irish policy negatived (366- 
273) 25-27 June, . 

The duke of Argyll's resolution in the lords 
warmly commending the government's Irish 
policy accepted nem. con. ... 12 July, . 

Evictions on the Vandeleur estate violently but 
unsuccessfully resisted . . 19, 20, 24 July, 

Coroner's inquiry into the death of Mr. John 
Mandeville (imprisoned Nov. 1887) ; 19 July ; 
[suicide of Dr. Ridley of Tullamore gaol, 20 July ; 
1888] verdict— disease caused by ill-usage in 
prison 28 July, 

Mr. Parnell in the house of commons asserts the 
letters attributed to him in Parnellism and crime 
to be forgeries, and the charges against him to be 
false, 6 July ; Mr. Parnell's request for a select com- 
mittee to investigate the charges in the Times 
refused by the government, 9 July ; Mr. W. H. 
Smith proposes the appointment of a royal 
commission of judges to examine these charges, 
12 July ; bill read first time, 16-17 July ; names 
mentioned, sir James Hannen, president, Mr. 
Justice Day, and Mr. Justice A. L. Smith ; act 
passed 1-3 Aug. . 

Great diminution of crime ; boycotting reduced by 
three-fourths in twelve months . . Aug. . 

Mr. Parnell proceeds against the Times in the 

Scotch courts Aug. 

See Parnellite commission. 

Nonconformist ministers of Ireland present an 
address to the marquises of Salisbury and 
Hartington, protesting against the separatist 
policy 14 Nov. 

Mr. E. Harrington fined 500?. for contempt of 
court in his paper, the Kerry Sentinel . Nov. 

Renewal of lord Ashbourne's act of 1885, granting 
5,000,000?. proposed Nov. ; Mr. Gladstone's 
amendment rejected (330-246), 20 Nov. ; 2nd read- 
ing carried (299-224), 22 Nov. ; passed 24 Dec. 

Verdict for Mr. Joyce against lord Clanricarde for 
libel on appeal Dec. 

Letter from pope to Irish people expressing 
sympathy and advice and gifts to the Irish 
churches 1 Jan. ii 

Mr. Wm. O'Brien, M.P., sentenced to four months' 
imprisonment, 25 Jan. ; (escaped), arrested at a 
meeting at Manchester .... 29 Jan. 

Deputy inspector Wm. Limerick Martin killed 
while attempting to arrest father McFadden, P. P. , 
at Gweedore, Donegal .... 3 Feb. 

The court of session, Edinburgh, dismisses Mr. 
Parnell's action against the Times with costs 

5 Feb. 

Mr. Dillon, sir Thomas Esmonde, and Mr. Deasy, 
M.P.'s, Home Rule delegates to Australia, &c, 
arrive at Adelaide . . . . n April, 

Mr. Parnell moves for a trial against the Times in 
the exchequer division, Dublin 11 Feb. ; finally 
stopped April, 

Great decrease of agrarian outrages (1881, 4,439 ; 
1888, 660) announced .... 21 Feb. 

Liberal subscription to support Mr. Olphert of 
Gweedore, Donegal, in his conflict with the 
national league and the plan of campaign May, 

The negotiations between Mr. T. W. Russell and Mr. 
Shaw to settle the dispute fail . . May, 

Resisted evictions on the Vandeleur, Lansdowne, 
Smith-Barry, Ponsonby, and other estates 

May-July, 

Mr. A. J. Balfour explains his bills for the improve- 
ment of Ireland (drainage of the Bann, Barrow, 
and Shannon, by grants of 383,0002., and the con- 
struction of light railways was also proposed) 

31 May, 



IKELAND. 



668 



IEELAND. 



Mr. William O'Brien arrested for speech at Clona- 
kilty 30 June, 1 

Mr. W. O'Brien and Mr. Parnell announce the 
formation of a New Tenants' Defence League, 
(which see) 10, 11 July, 

Dr. Tanner sentenced to one month's imprisonment 
for an assault, and to three months' for contempt 
of court 29 July, 

The light railways bill read scond time 19 July, 

The mission of Mr. Dillon and other delegates to 
Australia to obtain support for home rule, reported 
unsuccessful ; meetings at Sydney, Melbourne, 
and Brisbane, protest against them . . July, 

The Suck drainage bill and the light railways bill 
passed 30 Aug. 

Mr. William O'Brien sentenced to two months' im- 
prisonment and Mr. James Gilhooly to six weeks 

25 Aug. 
Father O'Dwyerand 9 of his parishioners sentenced 

to 5 months and other terms of imprisonment for 
intimidation and conspiracy . . middle Sept. 

The earlof Zetland sworn in aslord-lieutenant 5 Oct. 

National league proclaimed in Dnngarvan district 
7 Oct., and in places in county Tipperary, n Oct. 

Mr. Justice Gibson at Maryborough tries persons 
implicated in the murder of deputy-inspector 
Martin at Gweedore (3 Feb.) 17 Oct. Sentences 
for manslaughter Wm. Coll, 10 years' penal servi- 
tude :— pleaded guilty, Patrick Roartyand Domi- 
nick Rogers, 7 years' ; Connell M'Gee, 5 years' ; 3 
others, 6 months' imprisonment with hard labour ; 
father M'Fadden reprimanded . . 30 Oct. 

Meeting of the Tenants' Defence Association at 
Thurles 28 Oct. 

The mission of Mr. Dillon and other M.P.'s to 
Australia, said to have received 27,000/.; proceeds 
to New Zealand .... about 31 Oct. 

The tenants on the Ponsonby estate, who have paid 
no rent and refused very liberal terms, appeal 
against ejectment 5 Nov. 

Failure of Plan of Campaign through combination of 
landlords ; the tenants of the Olphert estate 
pay the rent due Nov. 

Mr. Parnell speaks at Nottingham 17, 18 Dec. ; 
visits Mr. Gladstone at Hawarden, 18 Dec. ; at 
Liverpool 19 Den. 

First meeting of the Landlords' convention at 
Dublin :e8 Dec. 

Proclamations relaxing the stringency of the Crimes 
act in some counties . . . 24 Jan., 16 Feb. 1 

The Irish Democratic Labour Association started 
at Cork by Michael Davitt . . .21 Jan. 

Mr. Parnell's censure of the government policy in 
Ireland (negatived 307-240) . . 14-18 Feb. 

Mr. Joseph Gillis Biggar, M.P., eminent Parnellite, 
dies suddenly 19 Feb. 

New Land Purchase bill introduced by Mr. A. J. 
Balfour 24 March, read 2nd time, 348-286 1 May, 

The new Land Purchase bill re-introduced by Mr. 
A. J. Balfour 28 Nov. 

Ponsonby estate, Cork (237 tenants), plan of cam- 
paign adopted, Nov. 1886; evicted, 1887, 10; 
1888, 3 ; 1889, 32 ; the remainder without resist- 
ances I7 - 3 o April, 

Nationalist meeting at New Tipperary, held though 
proclaimed ; Messrs. Dillon, W. O'Brien, J. 
O'Connor, and others present . . . 25 May, 

General Viscount Wolseley appointed commander- 
in-chief in [reland (beginning Oct., succeeding 
prince Edward of Saxe-Weimar) . . July, 

Thomas Walsh and two others sentenced to sever 
years' penal servitude for moonlight outrages 

26 July, 
The National League issues a circular to its branches 

urging exertions to obtain subscriptions, &c, 
announced 7 Aug. 

Strikes in Dublin, Belfast, ami other places 

July, et $eq. 

Tour of Messrs. John Dillon and William O'Brien 
in Tipperary, &C. ; arrested with three M.P.'sand 
seven others, mi charge of conspiring to induce 
Mr. Smith Barry's tenants no1 to pax rent, and 
to intimidate them; hailed, iS Sept.; proseeu 
tion begun at Tipperary before Mr. ,1. |J. Irwin 
and Mr. G. R. Shannon . . . 25 Sept. 

[Mr. W. O'Brien and Mr. Dillon do not appear, 
10 Oct. : at Paris, 16 Oct. ; sail for America, 25 
Oct. ; at New York, 2 Nov.] 



Sentences: W. O'Brien, M. P., John Dillon, M. P., 
Patrick O'Brien, M.P., and John Cullinane, 6 
months' imprisonment ; Michael O'Brien, Dalton, 
Patrick Mockler, and Thos. Walsh, 4 months' 

19 Nov. : 

Mr. A. J. Balfour visits Mayo and other western 
districts threatened with famine ; warmly re- 
ceived 24-30 Oct. 

Bridget Flanagan, daughter of Patrick, shot dead 

in her bed by moonlighters, probably in mistake 

for her father, who had taken a derelict farm 

about 28 Oct. 

Mr. Balfour visits Donegal, &c. . . 4-7 Nov. 

Extensive evictions on the Olphert's estate at Fal- 
carragh 12 Nov. et seq. 

Intervention of the R. C. bishop of Raphoe, Dr. 
O'Donnell : Mr. Olphert requires the total aban- 
donment of the "plan of campaign " on the 
estate ; no agreement 12 Nov. ; evictions proceed 

15 Nov. 

The National League suppressed in townlands in 
Fermanagh, Monaghan and Waterford . 14 Nov. 

Mr. Balfour introduces new Land Purchase and 
Congested Districts bills, 27 Nov. ; and a bill to 
relieve the congested districts by providing seed 
potatoes, and by the construction of railways, 
roads, &c, 4 Dec. ; royal assent given to the bills 

9 Dec. 

For the division in the Irish Home Rule party see 
Parnellites Dec. 

Mr. Parnell warmly received at Dublin, Cork, &c. 

10 Dec. et .teg. 

He forcibly occupies the office of United Ireland at 
Dublin, 9, 10 Dec. ; two rival editions issued 

12 Dec. 

Moonlighters of Clare and Leitrim, convicted of 
outrages, at Sligo : sentenced to penal servitude : 
Timothy Lalor for life ; seven others for 20 years ; 
four for two years, and two for 1 year . 19 Dec. 

North Kilkenny election ; Mr. Vincent Scully, Par- 
nellite, opposed by sir J. Pope Hennessy, anti- 
Parnellite ; fierce conflicts ; Hennessy elected. 

23 Dec. 

The construction of the light railways begun at, 
Valencia ; road-making begun . . . Dec. 

The anti- Parnellite newspaper named Insuppresnible 

about 24 Dec. 

The earl of Zetland, lord lieutenant, and Mr. A. J. 
Balfour appeal to the public for assistance in the 
relief of the distress in the congested districts 
of the western coast, 3 Jan. (see Irish Distress 
Fund), published 5 Jan. 

Relief works actively progressing ; several thou- 
sands employed — men, women, and children Jan. 

The Insuppressible stopped . . . . 24 Jan. 

Mr. Shaw-Lefevre's resolution for the application 
of arbitration in disputes between landlord and 
tenant, negatived (213-152) . . . 30 Jan. 

Bartholomew Sullivan executed at Tralee for the 
murder of Patrick Flahive (30 Aug. 1886), who 
had taken an evicted farm . . . . 2 Feb. 

Men employed on light railways, 281 ; unskilled, 
7,412 2 Feb. 

Mr. Parnell refuses to resign his leadership ; dis- 
ruption of the party, 11 Feb. ; Messrs. W. O'Brien 
and J. Dillon, after fruitless conferences with Mr. 
Parnell at Boulogne, come to Folkestone, are 
arrested and conveyed to Clonme.l gaol, 13 Feb. ; 
to Gal way 19 Feb. 

Mr. John Morley's resolution, condemning the 
Tipperary prosecutions, negatived by the com- 
mons (320-245) 16-17 Feb. 

Mr. Parnell commences a long scries of public meet- 
ings on Sundays ; at Roscommon and other places 

22 Feb. 

The National Press, anti-Parnellite paper, first pub- 
lished 7 March, 

National Federation (which see), anti-rarnellite, 
inaugurated at Dublin . . . . 10 March, 

Mr. A. J. Balfour reports to the commons the suc- 
cessful results of the efforts made to relieve Irish 
distress ; 55,831?. voted for relief works, &c. ; 
136,200?. for construction of light railways (7,392 
persons employed on 28 Feb.) . . 12 March, 

Great decrease of crime in the south, reported by 
justice Monroe x s March, 

The countess of Zetland, Miss Bal bur, and others 



IRELAND. 



669 



IRELAND. 



visit the relieved districts ; warmly received 

6-1 1 April, 

The lord lieutenant visits counties Cork, Kerry, 
Clare, and Galway ; warmly received 5-14 May, 

Explosion of a powder magazine by dynamite at 
Donaghadee, co. Down . . . -13 May, 

The crimes act suspended throughout Ireland, 
except in co. Clare and a few baronies . 13 June, 

Mr. A. J. Balfour in the commons reports the com- 
plete success of his remedial measures . 22 July, 

Mr. W. O'Brien and Mr. Dillon liberated from gaol ; 
declare their opposition to Mr. Parnell . 31 July, 

Purchase of Land and Congested Districts act 
passed . 5 Aug. 

The Freeman's Journal proprietors determine to 
support the anti-Parnellites . . .28 Aug. 

Visit of the duke of Cambridge to inspect the forces ; 
arrives in Dublin 26 Sept. 

National League convention at Limerick . Oct. 

Mr. Parnell delivers an address at Greggs, Galway, 
27 Sept. ; dies of rheumatic fever near Brighton, 
6 Oct. ; public Nationalist funeral at Dublin, 
orderly and impressive .... 11 Oct. 

Mr. Wm. L. Jackson becomes chief secretary 

9 Nov. 

Belief works closed as not required . . Nov. 

The Independent, new Parnellite journal, published 

18 Dec. 

Mr. J. E. Redmond, Parnellite, elected M.P. for 
Waterford, in opposition to Mr. Michael Davitt, 
the clerical candidate . . . -23 Dec. 

The corporation of London, the Irish Society, and 
43 London companies, summoned to appear in 
Dublin to answer charges respecting the manage- 
ment of their Irish estates . . .2 Jan. 

Landowners' convention, annual meeting 3, 4 Feb. 

Mr. Justin M'Carthy elected by the anti-Parnellites 
sessional chairman 5 Feb. 

Above 150 tenants on the Ponsonby estate sign 
agreements to purchase their holdings under the 
Ashbourne act Feb. 

Irish Education bill introduced by Mr. Wm. L. 
Jackson, 22 Feb., much opposed by the R. C. 
clergy early March, 

Evicted Tenants' (relief) bill rejected by the com- 
mons (229-174) 2 March, 

The National Press amalgamated with the Freeman's 
Journal (litigation ensued) . about 25 March, 

Meeting of Ulster men at Belfast to form a conven- 
tion to oppose Home Rule (to be on 17 June) 

8 April, 

Meeting of Irish unionist alliance at Dublin 

28 April, 

Local Government bill (which see) introduced by 
Mr. Balfour, 18 Feb., read 2nd time, 24 May; 
withdrawn 13 June, 

The education bill passed . . -27 June, 

Ulster convention (which see) at Belfast . 17 June, 

Great unionist meetings at Dublin . . 23 June, 

Elections : Parnellites, 9 ; anti-Parnellites, 72, July, 

Lord Houghton appointed lord - lieutenant, Mr. 
John Morley chief secretary . . 18 Aug. 

Operation of the Crimes act in county Mayo and 
other formerly disturbed counties suspended, 
12 Aug. ; in all Ireland, and the National League 
declared legal 13 Sept. 

Outrages by "moonlighters " near Macroom, Cork. 

16 Sept. 

Appointment of a commission to inquire into the 
position of evicted tenants ; sir James C. Mathew, 
judge Queen's Bench, England, and others, about 
14 Oct. ; first sitting, 7 Nov. ; the landlords 
decline to appear Nov. 

Savage assault on district-inspector Lilly, near 
Ballivor, Meath, 11 Oct. ; 5 men arrested, 19 Oct. 

Dismissal of col. Turner, divisional commander and 
magistrate in Munster . . about 17 Oct. 

Proposal by abp. Croke respecting the Irish fund 
at Paris accepted by the Parnellites and anti- 
Parnellites 29 Oct. 

Evietion at a farm at Abbeyfeale, Limerick, effected 
with difficulty, 10 Nov. ; another near Kanturk, 
Cork, 17 Nov 17 Nov. 

Inundations in co. Cork, causing much damage, 
with loss of life ... 20 Nov. et sea. 

Mr. Patrick Fullam, M.P. for S. Meath, unseated 
on account of illegal R. C. clerical influence ; 
powerful address by Mr. justice O'Brien, 30 Nov. 



Moonlight outrage at Reomare, Kerry ; John 
Greaney nearly killed .... 6 Dec. 1 

Mr. Michael Davitt, M.P. for N. Meath, unseated 
on account of R. C. priestly influence . 23 Dec. 

Explosions at Dublin castle (which see), 31 Dec. 
1891, and 24 Dec. 

The Gweedore convicts (see above, Feb.-Oct. 1889) 
released 23 Dec. 

Meeting at Cork, held by the mayor, demanding the 
release of the dynamite prisoners . 15 Jan. 1 

Evictions on Bodyke, property of col. O'Callaghan ; 
much resisted .... middle Jan. 

Meetings in Ulster, opposing home rule; Belfast 
and Armagh, 17 Jan. ; Dungannon, 20 Jan. ; 
Omagh, 21 Jan. ; Derry, 23 Jan. ; Ballymena, 
24 Jan. ; Newry '25 Jan. 

Great Unionist meetings in Ulster (which see), Bel- 
fast, &c, 17 Jan. et seq. ; Dublin . 26 Jan. 

Mr. Gladstone introduces a new Home Rule bill 
(" to amend the provision for the government of 
Ireland ") ; chief features, viceroy (non-political) 
for a fixed term ; two chambers ; legislative 
council, 48 members to be elected by 20I. voters ; 
legislative assembly, 103 members, 80 members 
to sit at Westminster, as now . . 13 Feb. 

Bill read 1st time, 18 Feb.; 2nd time (347—304), 21-22 
April ; committee, 8 May— 28 July ; the bill much 
changed ; many amendments not considered ; 3rd 
reading, 30 Aug.— 2 Sept. (301-267) ; lords : read 
1st time, 1-2 Sept. ; on 2nd reading rejected (419- 
41) s, 8, 9 Sept. 

The Queen's Bench Division decide that the police 
authorities have no right to refuse protection to 
the sheriffs on duty in the night-time ; appeal of 
the crown disallowed ... 16 Feb. 

Irish Agricultural Association, ostensibly for the 
benefit of landlords, tenants and labourers ; in- 
augural meeting at Dublin . . 21 Feb. 

Agrarian outrages: 1 July — 30 Sept., 94 (63 in 
Munster) ; 1 Oct.— 31 Dec, 80, reported, 24 Feb. 

The Irish National League of America condemns the 
new home rule bill in a manifesto . 25 Feb. 

Fall in bank and railway stocks . Feb. — March, 

Many meetings and petitions against the home rule 
bill Feb.— March, 

Mr. justice O'Brien's severe remarks at Ennis on 
the lawlessness of co. Clare, 27 Feb. ; warmly 
discussed by the commons, 2 March ; by the 
lords 3 March, 

Anti-Parnellite convention at Dublin adopts the 
home rule bill 8 March, 

Report of the Evicted Tenants commission, with 
recommendations, presented to the commons, 

9 March, 

A Parnellite convention at Dublin, Mr. John Red- 
mond in the chair, declares for present neutrality 
respecting the home rule bill . . 9 March 

Deputation of above 50 Unionists (commercial, &c.) 
from Leinster, Munster and Connaught, received 
by the marquis of Salisbury, Mr. A. J. Balfour, 
Mr. Goschen, and lord Randolph Churchill ; and 
by the duke of Devonshire, Mr. Chamberlain, and 
sir Henry James .... 10 March, 

Disagreement among directors of the Freeman's 
Journal company ; opposition of abp. Walsh and 
Mr. T. Healy . . about 13 March et seq. 

Manifesto of R. C. laity against the home rule bill, 
with petition to parliament . about 14 March, 

Synod of the Protestant church at Dublin ; protests 
against the home rule bill . . 14 March, 

Great Unionist meeting of all creeds and classes in 
Leinster hall, Dublin ; lord Iveagh in the chair, 

15 March, 

The General Assembly of the Presbyterian church 
of Ireland at Belfast protests against the home 
rule bill IS March, 

The Irish Unionist Alliance appeals for funds, 

18 March, 

Roman Catholic Unionist Association formed at 
Limerick ^ March, 

Piotest of Society of Friends, N. Ireland, against 
the home rule bill . . about 22 March, 

Mr. A. J. Balfour's resolution in the commons, 
censuring the Irish executive for releasing con- 
victs, negatived (319—272) . . 27 March, 

R. C. petition against the home rule bill . April, 

Great Unionist meeting at Albert hall, London ; 
the duke of Abercorn in the chair about 10,000 



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670 



IRELAND. 



persons present, including 1,200 delegates from 
Ireland 22 April, 

The Irish delegates entertained at St. James's hall 
and other places, 22 April ; by the marquis of 
Salisbury at Hatfield ; about 1,600 delegates 
present ; addresses by the Unionist leaders, 

24 April, 

Revival of moonlighting outrages in Kerry, Kil- 
kenny, Limerick and Clare . . April, May, 

Visits to Ulster (which see) ; Mr. A. J. Balfour, 
3, 4 April ; the marquis of Salisbury . 23 May, 

A petition to the queen against home rule, signed 
by 103,000 Irish women of all classes and creeds ; 
presented . .• . . . .12 Aug. 

James Donovan, caretaker of an evicted farm at 
Glenhara, owned by the earl of Cork, murdered, 

21 April, 

By the upsetting of an overcrowded boat, near 
Westport quay, about 33 harvesters, chiefly 
women and girls, were drowned ; about 75 lives 
saved by the crew of the Elm, under capt. Cars- 
well (the people of Achill island were going to 
England and Scotland to earn money to repay 
the government loan incurred in 1891) . 14 June, 

Increase of outrages, cattle poisoning, &c, co. 
Limerick ; moonlighting, &c, co. Cork, reported 

July, 

Mr. Gladstone and lord Tweedmouth each give 100/. 
to the Irish parliamentary fund (see Parnellites), 

Aug. 

Severe storm in co. Kerry and other parts, with 
loss of life . . 24 Oct. 

Diminution of crime in 1894 reported in the queen's 
speech 5 Feb. 

John Twiss executed for murder of Jas. Donovan, 
a caretaker, at Cork .... 9 Feb. 

Inaugural banquet of the Iiish Loyalist club in 
London ; speech of the marquis of Salisbury, 

16 Feb. 

Death of the earl of Bessborough, a popular land- 
lord, aged 79 12 March, 

Boards of guardians (Ireland) bill ; 2nd reading, 

13 March, 

Outrage on a tenant of an evicted farm at Abbey- 
feal, Cork . .13 March, 

The seed potatoes supply bill passed . 14 March, 

Land bill, commons read 2nd time . . 5 April, 
See Witchcraft, 1895. 

Bill virtually repealing the Crimes act (1887) read 
2nd time in commons .... 8 May, 

Irish Agricultural Organization society ; flrst 
annual meeting at Dublin ; the lion. Horace 
Plunkett, M.P., president . . .8 May, 

Decrease of crime reported . . .10 June, 

New ministry : lord-lieut. earl Cadogan ; lord chan- 
cellor, lord Ashbourne ; chief secretary, Gerald 
Balfour 25 June ct seq. 

Municipal franchise bill withdrawn, in the lords, 

5 July. 

Dissension between Mr. Justin M'Carthy, Mr.Healy, 
and others Aug. 

Irish national convention at Chicago (see United 
States) Sept.-Oct. 

Field-marshal lord Roberts of Kandahar as com- 
mander-in-chief arrives in Dublin . . 1 Oct. 

Expulsion of Mr. T. M. Healy and 3 others from 
the Irish National Federation, 14 Nov. ; Mr. 
John Dillon elected chairman, 7 Feb. 1896. 

Death of James Hack Take, aged 76, philanthro- 
pist, active in relief of the famines, 1846-7 and 
1880-86 13 Jan. 

Mr. Harrington's amendment for the release of the 
Irish political prisoners (dynamiters), rejected ; 
majority, 162 17 Feb. 

Disputes on the Ponsonby estates, co. Cork, and 
the Smith-Barry estate, Tlpperary, amicably 
settled March, 

Lord-lieut. earl Cadogan hospitable and popular ; 
brilliant season in Dublin . . . March, 

Mr. Gerald Balfour's Land bill rather favourably 
received 14 April, 

271 agrarian offences in 1895 ; reported . May, 

Hybrid recess committee respecting Irish affairs, 
formed by Mr. H. Plunkett, M.l\, autumn, 1895; 
report issued 4 Aug. 

Local taxation ; act passed . . .14 Aug. 

Land law act introduced by Mr. Gerald Balfour, 13 
April, based on the act of 1881 ; passed 14 Aug. 



1893 



"Convention of the Irish race" (organized by Mr. 
Dillon), 2,000 delegates from all parts of the 
world ; Dr. O'Donnell, R.C. bishop of Raphoe, 
president ; message from the pope read, reso- 
lutions for unity, &c, passed; appeals for unity 
and money support .... 1-3 Sept. 

Arrest of P. J. Tynan, "No. 1,' accused of the 
Phoenix Park murders' (see above, 6 May, 1882), 
at Boulogne, 13 Sept. ; extradition refused by 
the French government on legal grounds, 14 
Oct. ; released 15 Oct. 

Mixed political meetings at Dublin ; a resolution 
passed affirming the excessive imperial taxation 
of Ireland, 2,500,000?. too much, as disclosed by 
the report of the Financial Relations commission, 
and demanding restitution for the past and re- 
duction in future (see Finance) . 14, 28 Dec. 

Irish landowners' convention meets at Dublin, 
the new land act (see above, 14 Aug. 1896), cen- 
sured, 27, 28 Jan. 1897 ; also by tenants and 
landlords, March ; a great meeting at Dublin, 
duke of Abercorn, lord Londonderry, lord 
Dufferin, and others present, compensation, &c, 
demanded, 30 April 

In the commons Mr. Biake moves a resolution, that 
the report of the royal commission proves the 
necessity for remedial legislation, 29, 30 March ; 
negatived, 317 — 157 . . . -31 March, 

An Independent Nationalist association (Parnel- 
lites), Mr. J. Redmond, president; inaugurated, 

20 April, 

An Irish Financial reform league formed in Dublin, 
(annual meetings) . . . 22 April, 

Mr. A. J. Balfour's statement of bills proposed 
for the benefit of Ireland ... 21 May, 

Royal commission on the Irish land acts, chairman, 
sir Edward Fry, Messrs. Robt. Vigers, George 
Gordon, Dr. Traill, and others, reported, 9 July ; 
sat in Dublin, 22 Sept. 1897 ; last sitting at 
Belfast, 15 Oct. ; Cork, 19 Oct. ; report issued, 
Feb. 1898. 

The Shannon route opened up for tourists 2 Aug. 

Judicature (Ireland) acts 1877 to 1888 (amendment), 
bill passed 6 Aug. 

Failure of the potato and other crops in Cork, 
Kerry, and Clare, reported . . .3 Sept. 

The duke and duchess of York arrive at Kingstown 
(see Dublin), 18 Aug. ; visit Killarney, &c, 28 
Aug. ; Londonderry, 4 Sept.; Belfast, 8, 9 Sept. 

Thanks for recaption from tne queen and the duke, 

8 Sept. 

Application to the High court by the earl of Gos- 
ford for a mandamus compelling the land com- 
mission to rehear applications made by his 
tenants for the fixing of fair rents ; discharged 
without costs . . . . .29 Nov. 

Lord Clarina (Eyre Massey), popular landowner in 
Limerick (conservative) ; born, 1830, died 16 Dec. 

Lord Carlingford, chief secretary for Ireland, 1865, 
died 30 Jan. 

Mr. Gerald Balfour's Irish local government bill 
passed 12 Aug. 

Appeal from Dublin to the British empire for the 
relief of distress in the south and west of Ire- 
land, 31 March ; again . . . .27 April, 

Sir John Gilbert, eminent Irish historian, born 
1829, died 25 May, 

Resolution alleging Ireland to be unfairly treated 
in her financial relations rejected in the commons, 
286-144 5 July, 

Seed supply and Potato Spraying Act passed, 

12 Aug. 

Annual Parnellite convention, Mr. J. Redmond, 
president, held in Dublin . . . 10 Oct. 

Country tranquil and prosperous, reported, 9 Jan. 

Appeal commission, under the local government 
act, Sir John Colomb. chairman, meets . 10 Jan. 

Lord Cadogan appoints a commission of inquiry 
into the intermediate system of education ; 
witnesses examined . . . .11 Jan. 

Local government elections begin ; many ladies 
vote, 16 Jan. 1899 ; victory of the labour party 
in Dublin, Cork, and Limerick. 

The it. lion. C. Talbot Redington, vice-chancellor 
Of the Royal University, born 1847 ; died 5 Feb. 
(lord Harris elected' . . . July, 



1897 



IEELAND. 



671 



IEELAND. 



The Irish landowners' convention, annual meeting, 
Dublin ; resolution adopted to carry out the 
recommendations of the Fry commission, 

22 Feb. : 

Parliamentary grant for national education, 
1,097,546/., year ending . . -31 March, 

Irish congested districts' board ; good report of 
sea-fisheries and development of other industries 
in the west, issued for year ending . 31 March, 

A "unity conference!" of Nationalist parties, except 
Parnellites, held in Dublin . . .4 April, 

County council elections : 546 Nationalists, 113 
Unionists, announced . . . .12 April, 

Lady Betty Balfour cuts the first sod of a "Balfour 
line " at Carndonagh, co. Donegal . 23 May, 

Mr. Henniker Heaton and other M.P.'s visit 
Killarney and other places . . . May, 

Field manoeuvres at Curragh, duke and duchess of 
Connaught present .... 3-5 July, 

Military manoeuvres, under lord Roberts, closed 
by a review, at Abbeyleix . . . 9-16 Aug. 

Agriculture and technical instruction (Ireland) act 
passed 9 Aug. 

Primrose league fete at Clontarf, Dublin . 2 Sept. 

Mr. Wm. Talbot Crosbie, a beneficent landowner 
in Kerry, dies, aged 82 ... 4 Sept. 

Mr. Michael Davitt, M.P. for S. Mayo, opposed to 
the government's policy in the Transvaal, &c. ; 
resigns his seat 26 Oct. 

Lifeboat Saturday first held in Dublin . 28 Oct. 

Sir Thos. Deane, eminent architect, dies, aged 71, 

8 Nov. 

Irish Nationalist conference to promote unity ; 
committee appointed to confer with the Red- 
mondites 23 Nov. 

Killarney (the Muckross estate) bought by lord 
Ardilaun for about 50,000/. . . .27 Nov. 

Mr. Justice O'Brien, an eloquent, fearless and 
impartial judge (see above, 1887), dies, aged 66, 

5 Dec. 

Mr. Chamberlain visits Dublin ; made LL.D. of 
Trinity college, and warmly received, 16-18 Dec. 

Lord Roberts appointed commander-in-chief in 
South Africa (his only surviving son, lieut. F. 
Roberts, killed at Magersfontein, 11 Dec); 
leaves Dublin mid Dec. 

The duke of Connaught appointed commander-in- 
chief ; welcomed in Dublin . . . 9 Jan. 

Mr. John Redmond, M.P., chairman of the re- 
united Irish party, issues a manifesto . 10 Feb. 

The queen, with princess Christian and princess 
Henry of Batten berg, warmly welcomed at 
Kingstown, 3 April ; the lord mayor at Dublin 
presents her with the keys of the city and the 
civic sword, &c. ; received by lord and lady 
Cadogan at the Viceregal lodge amid great 
rejoicings, 4 April ; reviews about 52,000 children 
from all parts of Ireland in Phoenix park, and 
1,000 more at the Viceregal lodge, 7, 12 April ; 
visits Kilmainham hospital, 14 April ; reviews 
6,400 troops under the duke of Connaught, 
21 April ; receives many addresses and visits 
many institutions ; expresses to her Irish people, 
in a letter to the lord-lieutenant, "how very 
much she has been gratified and how deeply 
touched by her reception ; after the lapse of 39 
years her reception has equalled that of previous 
visits, and she carries away with her a most 
pleasant and affectionate memory of the time 
she has spent in Ireland, having been received 
by all ranks and creeds with an enthusiasm and 
an affection which cannot be suipassed " ; gives 
1000/. to the poor of Dublin, and leaves, 25, 26 
April ; sent 25/. to the royal zoological society, 

29 April, 

Sir Peter O'Brien, lord chief justice, made a peer, 

May, 

Education grant of 1,292.069/. voted . 20 July, 

Irish intermediate education bill and the Irish 
tithe-rent-charge amendment bill passed, 8 Aug. 

Sir Wm. Stokes, eminent surgeon, on hospital 
service, dies suddenly in Natal, aged 61, 18 Aug. 

Irish latid commission's report, 1 April, 1899-31 
March, 1900, issued as a blue-book, about 22 Aug. 

Nationalist demonstration in Phoenix park, Dublin ; 
programme of the Irish National League adopted, 

2 Sept. 



General election ; great victory of Mr. W. M. 
O'Brien's United Irish League . . Nov. ] 

Nationalist convention at Dublin, president, Mr. 
J. Redmond ; exclusion of Mr. T. Healy from 
the party, carried . . . . n Dec. 

Mr. Vere Foster, a promoter of social and educa- 
tional work and emigration, dies at Belfast, 
aged 81 21 Dec. 

Mr. George Wyndham, chief secretary, 12 Nov. ; 
tours through the western districts, Nov. ; and 
through Connemara ; receives many addresses, 
and returns to Dublin .... 8 Feb. ■ 

"King v. M'Hugh," Mr. P. A. M'Hugh, M.P., 
proprietor of the Sllgo Champion, sentenced to 
o months' imprisonment for threatening jurors, 
Dublin 22 April, 

Queen Victoria memorial fund started in Dublin, 

end April, 

The Irish People, Mr. Wm. O'Brien's Dublin weekly 
paper, seized for a gross libel on the king, 9 May, 

Mrs. Smyly, an eminent philanthropist, dies, 
aged 87 16 May, 

Sir Robert Sexton, a prominent Dublin citizen, 
dies, aged 87 27 June, 

Dr. Walsh, R. C. abp. of Dublin, resigns his seat 
on the Board of nat. education . . 29 June, 

Education grant, 1,300,771/., voted . 12 July, 

Congested districts board, satisfactory reports for 
year ending 31 March, issued. . . Aug. 

Decrease of crime, reported .... Aug. 

Purchase of land (No. 2) bill, passed . 15 Aug. 

Local govmt. (Ireland) and Congested districts 
board (amendment) bills (grant of 66,182/.), 
passed 16 Aug. 

Military manoeuvres, fruitful in tactical lessons, 
etc. , closed 16 Aug. 

Pan-Celtic congress {which see) held in Dublin, 

19-23 Aug. 

Mr. justice Murphy, eminent and popular judge, 
died, aged 74 j Sept. 

Lord Morris and Killanin, late lord chief justice of 
Ireland, common pleas and appeal, died, aged 73, 

8 Sept. 

Demonstration in support of the compulsory land 
sale movement held in Londonderry . 2 Oct. 

The United Irish league powerful in Leitrim and 
the west ; much intimidation and boycotting, 

Nov. 

" No-rent " campaign on lord de Freyne's and other 
western estates Dec. 

Four M. P. 's and other agitators for non-payment of 
rent,&c. , sentenced to a few weeks' imprisonment, 

18-24 Dec. 

United Irish league convention held in Dublin, Mr. 
J. Redmond, M.P., chairman ; 1,230 branches in 
Ireland 8 Jan. 

Coercive measures of the league in the west in- 
creasing ; boycotting in Sligo . Jan. -March, 

Roy. commission on university education in Ire- 
land, lord Robertson chairman, appointed, June, 
1901 ; first meeting, Belfast . . .2 April, 

Irish unionist alliance meets in Dublin, strong pro- 
test against the United Irish league . 10 April, 

Mr. Jasper Tully, M.P., placed in gaol (14 days) for 
illegal assembly .... 14 April, 

Certain districts placed under sections 2, 3, 4, re- 
lating to boycotting, ,of the crimes act (1887), 

16 April, 

Agrarian outrages co. Gal way . 16, 17 April, 

Prince Henry of Prussia, with German naval 
squadron, visits Dublin . . . 17-23 May, 

United Irish league's annual meeting held in Man- 
chester 1 7 May, 

Mr. P. A. M'Hugh, M.P., sentenced to three 
months' for contempt of court . . 18 June, 

Agricultural and technical instruction act, royal 
assent, 23 June (No. 2 bill, royal assent, 
18 Dec.) ; pauper children bill passed, 26 June, 

Mr. A. Smith-Barry, eminent Irish landlord, 
created baron Barrymore, co. Cork ; Mr. A M. 
Porter, master of the rolls, a baronet . 26 June, 

Evictions continue on lord de Freyne's estate, 

8-23 July, 

Lord Roberts entertained in London, and presented 
with a silver cup by the graduates of the Dublin, 
Queen's and Royal universities ■ ,8 July, 



IRELAND. 



672 



IRELAND. 



Debate in the commons on the case of ex-sergeant 
Sheridan (by whose false accusations men had 
been imprisoned, one of whom had died, Jan.); 
Mr. Dillon's motion to reduce the vote for the 
constabulary by 500,000/. rejected, 195-102, 

10 July, 1902 

Lord Cadogan, lord-lieut. , resigns . . 17 July, ,, 

Dr. Croke, abp. of Cashel, died, aged 78 . 22 July, ,, 

Angry debates in the commons ; reduction of the 
vote for the chief secretary, rejected, 196-135 ; 
motion to remove alleged overtaxation, rejected, 
168-117 23, 24, 25 July, „ 

Mr. W. R. Fenton, crown solicitor for Sligo, v. Mr. 
P. A. M'Hugh, M.P., proprietor of the Sligo 
Champion, for libel and conspiracy ; verdict for 
plaintiff, 3,500?. damages . . .28 July, ,, 

Public libraries (Ireland) act passed . 31 July, ,, 

Great fire in Dunluce-street, Larne, co. Antrim, 
buildings gutted ; estimated loss, 28,000?. 4 Aug. ,, 

Blue-book, land commissioners' report, 1 April, 
1901-31 March, 1902 .... 4 Aug. ,, 

Balfour ministry : lord-lieut. , earl Dudley ; lord 
chancellor, lord Ashbourne ; chief secretary, 
George Wyndham .... 8 Aug. ,, 

Meeting of the Irish parliamentary party, city hall, 
Dublin 9 Aug. „ 

Lord and lady Cadogan leave amid hearty demon- 
strations . . ' • • • • 12 Aug. ,, 

Evictions resumed on lord de Freyne's Frenchpark 
estate 13. 1 4 Au S- >> 

The duke of Abercorn presides at the Irish land- 
owners' convention ; resolutions carried in favour 
of Mr. Wyndham's land bill ; the newly-formed 
Irish land trust, and for a royal commission of 
inquiry into landlords' losses . . 29 Aug. ,, 

Crimes act extended to Dublin, Limerick and seven 
counties. 31 Aug. et seq. 

Several Irish M.P.'s imprisoned for intimidation, 
& C- 1 Sept. -Oct. ,, 

Roy. commission on university education in Ire- 
land (July, 1901), 3rd report issued . 9 Sept. „ 

Indignation meetings at the mansion house and 
city hall and Phcenix park, Dublin, 5, 12, 13 Sept. „ 

State entry of lord Dudley, lord-lieut., into Dublin, 

25 Sept. ,, 

Samuel Harris, secretary to the (E. Limerick) 
United Irish league, sentenced to nine months' 
imprisonment for intimidation ; Mr. McCarthy, 
editor of the Irish People, sentenced to two 
months' imprisonment for intimidation, 27, 29 
Sept. (confirmed on appeal, 20 Dec.) . . . ,, 

Meeting at the mansion house, Dublin; "nat. 
defence fund " started to resist prosecutions under 
the crimes act ; 300/. subscribed . . 3 Oct. ,, 

Irish landowners' convention met, Dublin ; motion 
for a conference between representatives of land- 
lords and tenants, rejected, 77-14 • IO Oct. ,, 

Mr. P. A. M'Hugh, M. P., sentenced to two months' 
for conspiracy and intimidation . . 16 Oct. „ 

United Irish league accused of tyranny, &c. 17 Oct. ,, 

Martin, Patrick and Thos. Joyce (see above, Nov. 
1882) released 24 Oct. „ 

Large consignment of arms and ammunition from 
Birmingham, reported . . . .27 Oct. „ 

Mr. W. Redmond, M.P., arrested and taken to Kil- 
mainham gaol 4 Nov. „ 

Tallow conspiracy case (5th trial) settled by chief 
baron Palles and special jury ; verdict, 5,500/. 
damages for plaintiff, David O'Keeffe, small 
trader, who had been boycotted by the 10 de- 
fendants, members of the United Irish league, 

13 Nov. ,, 

Split between the R.C. hierarchy and the leaders 
of the United Irish league . . . . Nov. ,, 

Lord and lady Dudley visit Connemara, 19 Oct. ; 
Belfast and Colcraiue ... 24, 28 Nov. ,, 

Minister assizes, Cork ; the grand jury threw out 
the bills in the case against major Studdert and 
others charged with conspiracy in connection 
with the purchase of remounts . . 4 Dec. ,, 

The earl of Meath appointed chancellor of the 
royal university Dec. ,, 

Mr. Denis Kilbride, an ex-M.P., sentenced to eight 
months' imprisonment for inciting to murder (in 
a speech at a united Irish league meeting), 10 Dec. ,, 



Local government bill (No. 2), royal assent, 18 Dec. 

Lord Dunraven's land conference (fivehrs.), 22 Dec. 

Lord Dunraven's land conference (22 Dec, 1902) 
issues report, 3 Jan. 1903 ; formally received by 
the landlords' convention ... 7 Jan. 

Mr. T. Harrington, M.P., re-elected for the third 
time lord mayor of Dublin . . .23 Jan. 

Summary jurisdiction clauses of crimes act, 1887, 
revoked in Dublin and many other urban and rural 
districts, several prisoners released . 2 Feb. 

Sir Chas. Uavan Duffy, eminent Irishman (see 
Ireland, Young, and Victoria) died aged 87,9 Feb. 

Mc Tierney, auctioneer v. the Clareman Newspaper 
co., libel action (the plaintiff 's trade had suffered, 
his horses had been maimed, and his customers' 
houses tired at) : verdict for plaintiff with 600I. 
damages -13 Feb. 

Irish University commission's report, scheme for a 
R.C. college in Dublin ; issued . .11 March 

Education estimates 1903-4, 1,347,101?., issued 

14 March, 

Andrew Moore sentenced to death for the murder 
of the rev. Wm. Bell, rector of Kilmeen, Cork 
(22 Nov. 1902) .... 21 March, 

Bank holidays (Ireland) bill, constituting St. 
Patrick's day a bank holiday, passed . 23 March 

Irish land bill, first reading (commons) . 25 March, 

Conference held to promote the establishment of a 
commercial and industrial institute and an inter- 
national exhibition in Dublin . 15 April, 

Nationalist convention on the land bill held at 
Dublin ; special resolution for Home rule, and 
amendment to the bill carried . 16-17 April, 

International motor-car race ... 2 July 

Disorderly scenes at meeting of the Dublin cor- 
poration, on motion of moderate section of 
members to present the king with a municipal 
address on the occasion of his visit to Dublin ; 
meeting broken up by disorderly crowd in the 
gallery of the hall .... 3 July 

Royal visit to Ireland, the king and queen arrive 
at Kingstown and Dublin, 21 July ; enthusiasti- 
cally greeted by large crowds ; they drive in 
state to Dublin castle ; the queen presents 
badges to Jubilee nurses, and the king replies 
to various addresses presented ; holds a levee 
and visits Trinity college, sends message of deep 
regret and condolence for news of the pope's death 
to the Sacred college by cardinal Logue, 22 July : 
presents colours to the Royal Hibernian military 
school ; holds a review in Phcenix park, and 
attends race meeting, dines with the duke of Con- 
naught, and holds a court at the castle, 23 July ; 
visits various places of interest in Dublin, and 
Maynooth college ; receives an address in the 
names of the bishops and college authorities, 
24 July, at Mount Stewart, seat of Lord Lon- 
donderry, 25 July ; visit to Belfast, where the 
king unveils a statue of Queen Victoria and opens 
the new Victoria hospital, 26 July ; at London- 
derry 27 July; motor car excursion through 
villages in Connemara, 29 July ; at Kenmare and 
Derreen and visits lord Lansdowne, 31 July ; 
visits Cork and presents colours to the 2nd batts. 
Royal Irish reg. and Royal Minister Fusiliers ; 
and issues an address to "My Irish People," in 
which he says "he has been deeply touched by 
their kindness and goodwill. He eagerly awaits 
the fulfilment of the hope that a brighter day is 
dawning upon Ireland, its realization largely 
depending on the development of self-reliance 
and co-operation, better education, the growth 
of industrial and commercial enterprise, and the 
increase of mutual respect and toleration;" 
honours conferred : privy councillors in Ireland, 
sir John C. Colonic, K.C.M.G., M. P., Mr. Thos. 
Andrews ; 6 baronetcies, including the lord 
mayor of Dublin, and the lord mayor of Cork; 
o knights bachelors ; the rt. lion. H. Plunkett 
made a K.C.V.O., 1 Aug. ; lord Iveagh gives 
50,000/. to the king for distribution among the 
Dublin hospitals in commemoration of the royal 
visit to Ireland ; king returns to Cowes . 2 Aug. 

Centenary of execution of Robt. Emmet observed 
by a memorial procession through the streets of 
Dublin 20 Sept. 

Irish Land Purchase bill; royal assent . 14 Aug. 

Conference of Ulster tenants at Belfast to consider 



IEELAND. 



673 



IRELAND. 



action to be taken in connection with the new 

Land act 9 Oct. 1903 

For other events see Addenda. 

KINGS AND GOVERNORS OF IRELAND.* 
KINGS. 

979 or 980. Maol Ceachlin II. (Malachi) deposed. 

1001 or 1002. Brian Baromy or Boroimhe, king of Mini- 
ster, slain after totally defeating the Danes at 
Clontarf, 23 April, 1014. 

1014. Maol Ceachlin II. restored ; dies 1022 or 1023. 
[Disputed succession.] 

1058. Donough, or Denis, O'Brian, son. 

1072. Tirloch, or Turlough, nephew ; dies 1086. 

1086-1 132. The kingdom divided ; fierce contests for it. 

1 132. Tordel Vach ; killed in battle. 

1 166. Roderic, or Roger, O'Connor. 

1 1 72. Henry II. king of England. 

[The English monarehs were styled "Lords of 
Ireland" until the reign of Henry VIII., who 
first styled himself king. ] 

governors of Ireland (with various titles. ) t 

1172. Hugues de Lasci. 1 173, Rich. Fitz-Gislebert, earl of 
Pembroke. 1 176, Raymond leGros. 1177, prince 
John (afterwards king), made lord of Ireland. 

1184 et seq. Justiciars. The changes were so frequent 
that the more important officers only are given. 
See "Gilbert's History of the Viceroys," 1865. 

1189, 1203, 1205. Hugues de Lasci. 

1199, 1204. Meiller Fitz-Henri (son of Henry II.) 

1215, 1226. Geoffrey de Marreis. 

1229-32-33. Maurice Fitzgerald. 

1308. Piers Gaveston, earl of Cornwall. 1312, Edmund 
le Botiller. 1316, Roger de Mortimer. 1320, 
Thomas Fitzgerald. 1321, John de Bermingham. 
1327, earl of Kildare. 1328 and 1340, Prior 
Roger Utlagh. 1332, sir John dArcy. 1337, 
sir John de Cherlton. 1344, sir Raoul d'Ufford. 
1346, sir Roger d'Arcy ; sir John Moriz. 1348, 
Walter de Bermingham. 1355, Maurice, earl of 
Desmond. 1356, Thomas de Rokeby. 1357, 
Almeric de St. Amand. 1359, James, earl of 
Ormond. 1361, Lionel, duke of Clarence. 1367, 
Gerald, earl of Desmond. 1369 and 1374, Wil- 
liam de Windsor. 1376, Maurice, earl of Kildare, 
and James, earl of Ormond. 1380, Edmund Mor- 
timer, earl of March. 1385, Robert de Vere, 
earl of Oxford. 1389 and 1398, sir John Stanley. 
1391, James, earl of Ormond. 1393, Thomas, 
duke of Gloucester. 1395, Roger de Mortimer, 
earl of March, killed. 1398, Reginald Grey and 
Thomas de Holland. 

1401 and 1408, Thomas, earl of Lancaster. 1413, sir John 
Stanley and sir John Talbot. 1420, James, earl 
of Ormond. 1423, Edmund de Mortimer, earl of 
March. 1425, sir John Talbot. 1427, sir John 
de Grey. 1428, sir John Sutton, lord Dudley. 
1431 and 1435, sir Thomas Stanley. 1438, Leon, 
lord de Welles. 1446, John, earl of Shrewsbury. 
1449, Richard, duke of York. 1461, George, 
duke of Clarence. 1470, earl of Worcester. 1478, 
John de la Pole, earl of Suffolk. 1481, Richard, 
earl of Kildare. 1483, Gerald, earl of Kildare. 
1484, John de la Pole, earl of Lincoln. 1485, 
Jasper, duke of Bedford. 1494, Henry, duke of 
York, afterwards Henry VIII. (his deputy, sir 
E. Poynings). 1496, Gerald, earl of Kildare, 

* The list of Irish sovereigns, printed in previous edi- 
tions, has been omitted. The Irish writers cany their 
succession of kings very high. The learned antiquary, 
Thomas Innes, of the Scots' College of Paris, expressed 
his wonder that "the learned men of the Irish nation 
have not, like those of other nations, yet published the 
valuable remains of their ancient history whole and en- 
tire, with just translations, in order to separate what is 
fabulous, and only grounded on the traditions of their 
poets and bards, from what is certain history." "O'Fla- 
herty, Keating, Toland, Kennedy, and other modern 
Irish historians, have rendered all uncertain, by deducing 
their history from the Deluge with as much assurance as 
they deliver the transactions of Ireland from St. Patrick's 
time. " — Anderson. 

+ Lords justices and deputies, and latterly Lords 
Lieutenant. It has been several times proposed to 
abolish the viceroyalty of Ireland, but without success. 
The last time 25 March, 1858. 



and in 1504, 1513. 1521, Thomas Howard, earl 
of Surrey. 1529, Henry, duke of Richmond. 
Gerald, his son, 1556-61. Thomas, earl of 
Sussex. [Among the lord deputies, 1560, &c, 
sir Wm. Fitz William. 15S4, sir John Perrotj. 
.1599, Robert, earl of Essex. 

1603. Sir Charles Blount, lord Mountjoy, made earl of 
Devonshire. 1640, Thos. . viscount Wentworth, 
earl of Strafford. 1643 and 1648, James, marquis 
of Ormond. 1647, Philip, lord Lisle. 1649, Oliver 
Cromwell. 1657, Henry Cromwell. 1662, James 
Butler, duke of Ormond. 1669, John Roberts, 
lord Roberts. 1670, John, lord Berkeley. 1672, 
Arthur Capel, earl of Essex. 1677, James Butler, 
duke of Ormond. 1685, Henry Hyde, earl of 
Clarendon. 1687, Richard Talbot, earl of Tyr- 
connel. 1690, Henry Sydney, lord Sydney. 1695, 
Henry Capel, lord Capel. 

1700. Laurence Hyde, earl of Rochester. 1703, James 
Butler, duke of Ormond. 1707, Thomas, earl of 
Pembroke. 1709, Thomas, earl of Wharton. 
1710, James, duke of Ormond, again. 1713, 
Charles, duke of Shrewsbury. 1717, Charles, 
duke of Bolton. 1721, Charles, duke of Grafton. 
1724, John, lord Carteret. 1731, Lionel, duke of 
Dorset. 1737, William, duke of Devonshire. 
1745, Philip, earl of Chesterfield. 1747, William, 
earl of Harrington. 1751, Lionel, duke of Dor- 
set, again. 1755, William, duke of Devonshire, 
1757, John, duke of Bedford. 1761, George, earl 
of Halifax. 1763, Hugh, earl of Northumberland. 
1765, Francis, earl of Hertford. 

1767. George, viscount Townshend, 14 Oct. 

1772. Simon, earl of Harcourt, 30 Nov. 

1777. John, earl of Buckinghamshire, 25 Jan. 

1780. Fred., earl of Carlisle, 23 Dec. 

1782. Wm. Henry, duke of Portland, 14 April. 
,, George, earl Temple, 15 Sept. 

1783. Robert, earl of Northington, 3 June. 

1784. Charles, duke of Rutland, 24 Feb.; died 24 Oct. 

1787. 
1787. George, marquis of Buckingham (late earl Temple), 

again, 2 Nov. 
1790. John, earl of Westmorland, 5 Jan. 
1794. William, earl Fitzwilliam, 10 Dec. 

,, John, earl Camden, n March. 
1798. Charles, marquis Cornwallis, 13 June. 
1801. Philip, earl of Hardwicke, 25 May. 

1806. John, duke of Bedford, 18 March. 

1807. Charles, duke of Richmond, 19 April. 
1813. Charles, earl Whitworth, 26 Aug. 
1817. Charles, earl Talbot, 9 Oct. 

1821. Richard, marquis Wellesley, 29 Dec. 

1828. Henry, marquis of Anglesey, 1 March. 

1829. Hugh, duke of Northumberland, 6 March. 

1830. Henry, marquis of Anglesey, again, 23 Dec. 

1833. Marquis Wellesley, again, 26 Sept. 

1834. Thomas, earl of Haddington, 29 Dec. 

1835. Henry, marquis of Normanby, 23 April. 

1839. Hugh, viscount Ebrington, afterwards earl For- 

tescue, 3 April. 
1841. Thomas Philip, earl de Grey, 15 Sept. 
1844. William, lord Heytesbury, 12 July. 

1846. John William, earl of Bessborough, 9 July ; died 

16 May, 1847. 

1847. George William Frederick, earl of Clarendon, 26 May. 

1852. Archibald William, earl of Eglinton, 28 Feb. 

1853. Edward Granville, earl of St. Germans, Jan. 
1855. George, earl of Carlisle, March. 

1858. Archibald, earl of Eglinton, again, Feb., resigned. 

1859. George, earl of Carlisle, again, June; died 5 Dec. 1864. 
1864. John, lord Wodehouse, aft. earl of Kimberley, 1 Nov. 
1866. James, marquis of Abercorn, July ; made duke, 

6 Aug. 1868. 
1868. John, earl Spencer, Dec. 

1874. James, duke of Abercorn, Feb. ; died 31 Oct. 1885. 
1876. John, duke of Marlborough, 28 Nov. 
1880. Francis T. de Grey, earl Cowper, 5 May. Resigned 

April, 1882. 
1882. John Poyntz, earl Spencer, May. 

1885. Henry Howard Molyneux Herbert, earl of Car- 

narvon, 24 June, resigned Jan. 1886. 

1886. John Campbell Hamilton Gordon, earl of Aber- 

deen, about 5 Feb. 
1886. Charles Stewart Vane -Tempest-Stewart, marquis of 
Londonderry, Aug. 

X X 



IRELAND FORGERIES. 



674 



IRISH SOCIETY. 



1889. Lawrence Dundas, Earl of Zetland, 29 May ; mar- 
quis, Aug. 1892. 
1892. Robert O. A. Milnes, baron Houghton, 18 Aug. 
1895. George Heury, earl Cadogan, June. 

IRELAND FORGERIES. In 1786 W. H. 
Ireland made public the Shakspeare manuscripts 
which he had forged, and deceived many critics. 
The play, "Vortigern," was performed at Drury- 
lane theatre on 2 April, 1796. He shortly after ac- 
knowledged the forgery, and published his "Con- 
fessions" in 1805. He died in 18} v 

IRELAND, YOUNG, a party (or rather 
"school"), formed for the regeneration of the 
country, founded byThos. Osborne, Charles Gavan 
Duffy ( who established and conducted " The 
Nation ,5 from 1842 to 1855), Smith O'Brien and 
others in 1840. Some of their proceedings led to the 
state trials of 1843 and 1848. Mr. Duffy (afterwards 
premier of Victoria, Australia, and K.C.M.G., died 
9 Feb. 1903) published " Young Ireland, a Fragment 
of Irish History, 1840-50," in 1880. The formation 
of a "Young Ireland league," was proposed at a 
meeting in Dublin, 17 Sept. 1891. 

IRIDIUM AND OSMIUM. In i804Tennant 
discovered these two rare metals in the ore of 
platinum, in which, in 1845, Claus discovered a 
third, Ruthenium. Iridium is said to be the 
heaviest known metal, 1878. See Weights. 

IRISH CHURCH; see Church of Ireland. 
The Irish Presbyterian Church act, passed 16 June, 
1871, regulates the management of certain trust 
properties for that church. 

IRISH DISTRESS FUND, to relieve the 
sufferers by the failure of the potato crop in the 
western coasts of Ireland, was started in Dublin by 
the lord lieutenant, the earl of Zetland, and Mr. 
A. J. Balfour, the chief secretary, 3 Jan. 1891. 
Received, up to 26 Jan. 39,000/. ; up to 9 April, 
49,067/. The queen gave 20G/. ; the mayor of Bel- 
fast 2000/. ; sir Edward C. Guinness (lord Iveagh) 
2,000/. Large donations of clothing were also re- 
ceived. 

^ IRISH EXHIBITION, in the Olympia, W. 
Kensington, opened by the Lord Mayors of London 
(De Keyser), and Dublin (Sexton), 4 June, 1888. 

Jt included natural products, manufactures of all 
kinds, valuable antiquities, fine works of art, 
facsimiles of a castle, round towers, a village &c, 
horses and cows. The amusements comprised 
theatrical performances, concerts, races, &c. 
Lord Arthur Hill, honorary secretary; among 
r,he patrons were the duke of Westminster, lord 
Leitrim, lord Charles Beresibrd, sir John 
Lubbock, archbishop of Canterbury, cardinal 
Manning, lord Hartington. The exhibition was 
closed Oct. 1888 

The exhibition was financially unsuccessful, and 
an indemnity fund was started in . . July, 1891 

IRISH HOME RULE BILL. See Ire- 
land, Feb. -Sept., 1893. 

IRISH INVINCIBLES, a secret society 
established in Dublin Nov., i88r, said by James 
Carey, a member, to have been formed by one Walsh 
and others, from England, to "make history" by 
killing tyrants. Each member was bound to obey 
orders, under pain of death. By some of its 
members the life of judge Lawson was attempted, 
and lord Frederick Cavendish and Mr. Burke 
murdered, 6 May, 1882. Mr. \V. E. Forster was 
frequently watched with a similar intention. See 
under Fenians, Ireland, 18S2-3. In Feb. 1883 



there were said to be 250 members in Great Britain 
and Ireland. "The general No. 1," was said to be 
a wealthy man. "Murder leagues," and "assas- 
sination circles" were mentioned. 

IRISH LAND BILLS, see Ireland, 1870, 
1880-81, 1887, 1890, 1903. 

IRISH LAND LAW ACT (44 & 45 Vict. 
c. 49, passed 22 Aug. 1881. See Ireland, April- 
Aug. 1881). It settles the rights of landlords and 
tenants ; establishes a court of commission, which 
first met, 20 Oct. 1881, to try differences between 
them, and determines the conditions by which 
tenants may become proprietors ; it affirms the 
virtual ownership of tenants with the power of 
selling their rights, securing the payment of a just 
rent to the landlords to be settled by the court, and 
restricting evictions. First court of commission, 
sergeant O'Hagan, Edward Falconer Litton, and 
John Edward Vernon. Royal Assent, 22 Aug. 
1881. 

Important decisions in favour of tenants by the 
sub-commissions at Belfast, &c. . . Nov. 1881 

Above 2500 applications to the land courts up to 

11 Nov. :> 

Bill for amending purchase clauses of land act ; 
means of purchase greatly facilitated : not above 
5,000,000!. to be advanced by the state in one 
year, and not more than 20,000,000?. in all ; bill 
introduced by Mr. Trevelyan, 27 May, withdrawn 

10 July, 1S84 

Bill extending the powers of the act of 1881, intro- 
duced by Mr. Gerald Balfour, 13 April, 1896; 
royal assent 14 Aug. 1896 

See also Land Bill Ireland, 1903. 

IRISH LANGUAGE, a branch of the Celtic 
or Gaelic, of which much literature exists in books 
and MSS. of early date. The New Testament was 
published in Irish in 1603, and the Old in 1685. A 
society for the preservation of the Irish language 
has been formed ; in its annual report for 1890, it 
was f-tated that Irish is taught in 45 national 
schools. At a meeting of the Irish literary society 
held at the Society of Arts, London, lord Russell of 
Killowen, president, in the chair, a lecture was 
delivered by Mr. Douglas Hyde, on " Gaelic 
literature," 31 Oct. 1894 ; 435 members in 1896. 
Irish Literary Theatre founded 1898, 3rd annual 
series of performances, The Twisting of the Rope, 
by Dr. Douglas Hyde, the first play in Irish pro- 
duced in a Dublin theatre ; and Diarmid and 
Grania, by "W. B. Yeats and George Moore, 21 
Oct. 1901. 

IRISH LOYAL AND PATRIOTIC 
UNION, see Ireland, 1886. Annual meetings. 

IRISH MOSS, see Carrageen. 

IRISH NATIONAL LEAGUE. See/>-e- 
land, 17 Oct. 1882; annual meetings. 

IRISH PROPERTY DEFENCE ASSO- 
CIATION, formed by landlords, Nov. 1880. 

IRISH REPUBLIC. Treasonable plans for 
its establishment dated 1869, were discovered in 
James F. Egan's garden in Birmingham, April, 
1884. 

IRISH SOCIETY, The Honourable, 

the name given to a committee of citizens of twelve 
London companies invited by king James I. to 
colonize the confiscated lands in the north of 
Ireland, termed the Ulster plantations, including 
Londonderry and Colerainc, 1609. The committee 
received a charter, 1613, which was taken away in 
IO37, and restored after various changes 1670. The 



IRISH UNIVERSITY BILL. 



67-5 



IRON CROWN. 



affairs of this company and its methods of business 

were discussed in parliament in 1868 and 1869. 

The sale of the companies' estatesunder lord Ashbourne's 
act began in 1887. Receipts from the estates in 1887, 
9,061?. besides receipts for fisheries and other rents. 

The select committee respecting the Irish Society 
(sir Wm. T. Marriott, Mr. John Morley, sir 
Richard Temple, and others), first met, 17 July, 
1889; met again 9 June et seq., 1890. Three 
reports adopted, 4 May, 1891 ; see Ireland, Jan. 1892 

Income, 34,767?. in 1896. 

IRISH UNIVERSITY BILL (to com 

bine Trinity College and the Catholic College), in- 
troduced by Mr. I. Butt, 16 May, 1876; withdrawn. 

IRISH UNIVERSITY COMMISSION, 

see Education and Ireland. 

IRON- The Greeks ascribed the discovery of 
iron to themselves, and referred glass to the Phoe- 
nicians. Moses relates that iron was wrought by 
Tubal-Cain (Gen. iv. 22). Swedish iron is very 
celebrated, and Dannemora is the greatest mine of 
Sweden — The weekly publication "Iron," which 
began 18 Jan. 1873, was a continuation of the 
"Mechanics' Magazine' 1 '' (started 1823), and was 
combined with "Industries," in 1893. See Steel. 

Belgium, an early seat of the iron manufacture ; coal said 
to have been employed at Marche-les-dames, 1340. 

British iron cast by Ralph Page and Peter Baucle, in 
Sussex, 1543. Rymer's Fcedera. 

Iron-mills used for slitting iron into bars for smiths, by 
Godfrey Boehs, 1590. 

Tinning of iron introduced from Bohemia, 1681. Till 
about 1730 iron ores were smelted entirely with wood 
charcoal, which did not wholly give way to coal and 
coke till 1788. 

The Carron iron works in Stirlingshire, where there is 
much ironstone and coal, were established mainly by 
the exertions of dr. John Roebuck, 1759-60; this was 
the beginning of the great Scotch iron-works. 

The operation termed puddling, and other very great 
improvements in the manufacture, invented by Mr. 
Henry Cort, about 1781, who did not reap the due re- 
ward of his ingenuity. He died in 1800. 

Mr. James B. Neilson, of Glasgow, patented his hot air 
blast in 1828 ; see under blowing machines. 

Mr. (after sir) Henry Bessemer patented his method of 
manufacturing iron and steel, 17 Oct., 5 Dec, 1855; 
12 Feb. 1856. 

Strike of the puddlers and lock-out of the masters in 
Staffordshire, Northumberland, <fcc. , lasted during 
March, April, and May, 1865. 

Ironworkers of Great Britain determine to form one 
trades' union, with one executive, Oct. 1866. 

Strike of ironworkers in the north over, 31 Dec. 1866. 

Mr. Wm. Robinson announced a method of making 
wrought iron from cast iron by means of magnetism, 
July, 1867. 

Mr. John Heaton's process for making steel announced 
about Nov. 1867, discussed Oct. 1868. 

One of the finest, thickest, and heaviest armour-plates 
ever rolled in the world was pressed into the very per- 
fection of a manufactured armour-plate at the great 
Atlas Ironworks of sir John Brown and Co. , Sheffield. 
The size of it when in the furnace was a little over 20 
feet long by about 4 feet broad and 21 inches thick. 
Its rough weight was over 21 tons. It was built up in 
the furnace before being rolled by five mould plates, 
each 3 inches thick, and one solid plate of 6 inches. 
This mass when reduced by intense heat to the con- 
sistency of dough, was withdrawn from the furnace, 
and in the course of less than a quarter of an hour was 
passed between the enormous rollers many times, was 
reduced to a compact slab of iron of a uniform thick- 
ness of 15 inches, and then passed onto its bed to cool 
till fit for having its rough edges planed down to the 
proper dimensions, 6 Sept. 1867. Armour-plate 24 
inches thick rolled at same works, Oct. 1876. 

Iron forts (cost about 1,000,000?. made by Whitworth & 
Co. at Manchester) put up at Spithead early in 1872. 

Mr. Crampton's iroa furnace, in which definite propor- 
tions of coal dust and air are introduced under pressure, 
was tried at Woolwich and was reported successful, 
May, 1873. 



1788 


• 77 


1796 . 


. 121 


1802 


. 168 


1806 . 


. 227 


1820 


. 260 


1825 . 


• 374 


1840 


. 402 


1848 . 


. 623 


1852 


• 655 



Ironstone miners in Yorkshire : great strike through 
reduction in wages, May, 1874. 

Iron trades, see Employers. 

Iron merchant vessels built in i860, 181 ; in 1877, 545- 

Alfred Newman, an eminent art iron-worker ; of the 
"smithy," Haymarket, London, dies aged 35, Jan. 
1887. 

Iron Manufacture : between 1865-75 the capital invested 
rose from 7,000,000?. to 29,000,000?. Number of pud- 
dling furnaces rose from 3462 to 7159 ; also great 
increase in blast furnaces. 

Great depression since 1876 ; due to excessive production 
and increased and cheap manufacture of steel ; revival 
1889 et seq. 

Iron and Steel congress at New York . Sept.-Oct. 1890 

Strike or lock-out in the Scotch iron trade respect- 
ing wages 4 Oct. 

The Bessemer medal for 1899 accepted by the queen 
in commemoration of the progress made in the 
iron and steel industries during her reign, 4 May, 1899 

Great veins of iron discovered at Vadso, Norway, 
reported ...... 25 Aug. 1902 

IRON PRODUCED IN GREAT BRITAIN. 

1740 . . 59 furnaces . . 17,350 tons. 

61,920 ,, 

124,789 „ 

227,000 ,, 

250,000 ,, 

. . 400,000 ,, 

• 581,367 „ 
. . 1,396,400 ,, 

• 1,998,558 ,, 
. 2,701,000 ,, 

In 1855, 3,217,154 tons of pig iron were produced ; in 

1857, 3,659,447 tons ; in 1865, 4,819,254 tons ; in 1869, 

5,445,757 tons; in 1873, 6,566,451 tons ; in 1876,6,555,997 

tons ; in 1879, 5,995,337 tons ; in 1882, pig, 8,586,680 

tons; in 1884, 7,811,727 tons; in 1886, 7,009,754 tons ; 

in 1887, 7,559,518 tons ; in 1888, 7,998,969 tons ; in 1889, 

8,322,824 tons ; in 1890, 7,904,214 tons ; 1893, 6,976,990 

tons; i8q6, 8,659,681 tons; 1897, 8,796,465 tons; 1899, 

9,421,435 tons ; 1900, 8,959,691 tons ; 1901, 7,928,647 tons. 

Exports of Iron and Steel, from United Kingdom. 

i860, 1,502,500 tons ; 1865, 1,687,071 tons ; 1870, 

2.825,575, tons ; 1875, 2,457,306 tons; 1879, 2.883,48^ 

tons ; 1883, 4,043,308 tons ; 1885, 3,130,682 tons ; 1887, 

4,143,028 tons; 1889, 4,186,182 tons; 1890, 4,001,430 

tons; 1891, 3,240,146 tons ; 1893, 2,856,574 tons ; 1890, 

3,550,398 tons; 1898, 3,244,350 tons; 1900, 3,540,689 

tons; 1901, 2,897,719 tons. 

IRON and STEEL INSTITUTE, the duke 
of Devonshire, president, held its first meeting in 
London 22 June, 1869, first provincial meeting at 
Merthyr-Tydvil,6Sept. 1870; first foreign meeting at 
Liege, 18 Aug. 1873; second at Paris, 16 Sept. 1878. 
Frequently at other places (Vienna, 19 Sept. 1882) ; 
at New York, Sept., Oct., at Ottawa, Nov. 1890; 
London, 1893; Brussels, 21 Aug. 1894; Bilbao, 
1 Sept. 1896; Stockholm, 26 Aug. 1898 ; Paris, 
18 Sept. 1900 (Mr. Andrew Carnegie presents 
13,000^. to the Institute, May, 1901) ; Diisseldorf, 
3 Sept. 1902. 

IRONCLADS, see Circular, Navy, and United 
States, 1862; Germany, 1878. 

IRON CROSS, an order of knighthood esta- 
blished by Frederick "William III. of Prussia, 
10 March, 1813, to honour patriotic bravery in the 
war against France; was revived by William I. in 
the Franco-Prussian war, and awarded by him to 
his son for his victory at Wissembourg, 4 Aug. 
1870. About 40,000 persons were decorated in 
1870-71. 

. IRON CROWN (of Italy), of gold and pre- 
cious stones, set in a thin ring of iron, said to have 
been forged from a nail of Christ's cross, was made 
by order of Theudelinde for her husband, Agilulf, 
king of the Longobards, 591. She presented it (10 



IRON-MASK. 



676 



ISLINGTON. 



be kept) to the church at Monza. Charlemagne 
was crowned with this crown, and after him all 
the emperors who were kings of Lombardy ; 
Napoleon I. at Milan, on 26 May, 1805, put it on 
his head, saying, " Bieu me I' a donnee ; gave u qui 
y touchera." (God has given it to me; woe to 
him who touches it.) The crown was removed from 
Monza to Mantua by the Austrians, on 23 April, 
1859. After the peace of Vienna in 1866, the 
crown was given up to general Menabrea on 
II Oct., and presented to king Victor Emmanuel, 
at Turin, on 4 Nov. The order of the " Iron 
Crowa of Italy ; " instituted by Napoleon 26 May, 
1805, was abolished in 1814, but revived by the 
emperor of Austria 12 Feb. 1816; see Gotha. The 
order of the Crown of Italy was instituted by king 
Victor Emmanuel 20 Feb. 1868. 

IRON-MASK, the Man with the.* A 
mysterious prisoner in France, wearing a mask and 
closely confined under M. de St. Mars, at Pignerol 
(1679), Exilles(i68l), Sainte Marguerite (1687), and 
at the Bastille (1698), where he died 19 Nov. 1703. 
He was of noble mien, and was treated with pro- 
found respect ; but his keepers had orders to de- 
spatch him if he uncovered. M. de St. Mars himself 
always placed the dishes on his table, and stood in 
his presence. 

IRON-PLATED SHIPS, see Ironclads. 

IRREDENTISTS, see Italia Irredenta. 

IRRIGATION, practised in the east and in 
Egypt from the most remote ages. It was strenu- 
ously advocated for India by sir A. Cotton and 
others at the Social Science Congress at Manchester, 
Oct. 1866. In 1865 acts were passed for utilising 
London sewage in the irrigation of grass land, and 
the results are said to be generally favourable. The 
subject was much discussed, Aug. 1873. A method 
of producing artificial rain from ponds by means of 
6team-power, patented by Isaac Brown, of Edin- 
burgh, was tried by Mr. Coleman, at Stoke Park, 
and reported successful ; see Sewage, and Inter- 
mittent Filtration, Madras (1895), Egypt, Nile. 

IRUN (a frontier village of Spain). On l6May, 
1837, the British auxiliary legion under general 
Evans, marched from St. Sebastian to attack Irun 
(held by the Carlists), which after a desperate re- 
sistance was earned by assault, 17 May. 

IRVINGITES, followers of Edward Irving, f 
now called the " Holy Catholic Apostolic Church." 



* The following conjectures have been made as to his 
identity : — An Armenian patriarch forcibly carried from 
Constantinople (who died ten years before the mask) ; 
the duo de Vermandois, son of Louis XIV. , reported to 
have perished in the camp before Dixmude ; the due de 
Beaufort, whose head is reported to have been taken oft 
before Candia ; James, duke of Monmouth, executed on 
Tower-hill ; a son of Anne of Austria, queen of Louis 
XIII., eithei by cardinal Mazarin, or by the duke of 
Buckingham ; the twin brother of Louis XIV. (a conjec- 
ture received by Voltaire and others); Fouequct, an 
eminent statesman in the time of Louis XIV. ; and a 
count Matthioli, secretary of state to Charles III., duke 
of Mantua. M. Delort and the right hon. Agar Ellis 
(afterwards lord Dover) endeavoured to prove Matthioli 
to have been the person. The mask, it seems, was not 
made of iron ; but of black velvet, strengthened with 
whalebone, and fastened behind the head with a padlock. 

+ Edward living was born 15 Aug. 1792, and was en- 
gaged as assistant to Dr. Chalmers, at Glasgow, in 
1819. In 1823 he attracted immense crowds of distin- 
guished persons to his sermons at the Scotch church, 
Hatton-garden. A new church w;is built for him in 
Regent-square in 1827. Soon after, he propounded new 



They use a liturgy (framed in 1842, and enlarged 
1853), and have church officers named apostles, 
angels, prophets, &c. In 1852 lighted candles were 
placed on the magnificent altar, and burning of 
incense during prayers was prescribed. The Gothic 
church in Gordon-square was solemnly opened 
I Jan. 1854. It is said that all who join the church 
offer it a tenth of their income. They had 30 
chapels in England in 1851. 

ISANDULA, Isandlana, or Isandlwana, termed 
the "English Cremera"; see Zululand, 22 Jan. 
1879. 

ISAURIA (a province in Asia Minor), con- 
quered by the Romans B.C. 78, by the Saracens 
a.d. 650; was retaken by the emperor Leo III., 
who founded the Isaurian dynasty, 718, which 
ended with Constantine VI. in 797. Isauria was 
incorporated with Turkey 1387. 

ISCHIA, see Earthquakes, 1883. 

ISERNIA (S. Italy). Here the Sardinian 
general Cialdini defeated the Neapolitans, 17 Oct. 
i860. 

ISLAM, or ESLAM, submission to God, the 
name given to Mahometanism {which see) . 

ISLE OF FRANCE, Man, &c, see Mauri- 
tius, Man, &c. 

ISLES, BISHOPRIC OF. This see contained 
not only the Hebrides, or Western Isles, but the 
Isle of Man, which for nearly 400 years had been a 
separate bishopric. The first bishop oi the Isles 
was Amphibalus, 360 ; see lona. Since the revo- 
lution (when this bishopric was discontinued) the 
Isles have been joined to Moray and Ross, or to 
Ross alone. In 1847, however, Argyll and the Isles 
were made a seventh post -revolution and distinct 
bishopric ; see Bishops. 

ISLINGTON (anciently Isendone, Iseldone, 
and "Merrie"), a large suburban parish in N. 
London, still containing Roman and mediaeval 
lemains, and old buildings, all gradually disap- 
pearing. Four members returned by the Act of 
1885. Made a municipal borough by the London 
Government Act, 1899 (ioaldermen, 60 councillors). 
Population, 1801, 10,121; 1881, 282,865; 1891, 
3 I 9»433 5 1901,334.928. 
The great northern central hospital, Holloway-road, 

opened by the prince of Wales . . 17 July, 1888 
Union Chapel, Compton-terrace, erected in 1802 
by a union of Episcopalians and Nonconformists ; 
rebuilt, opened 5 Dec. 1877 ; completed and sur- 
mounted by a tower, Oct. 1889. The rev. dr. 
Henry Allon, at first co-pastof (1843) with the 
first minister, the rev. Thomas Lewis, and after- 
wards sole pastor, an accomplished writer and 
active administrator of schools, &e., died, aged 
73 (colleague and successor, the rev. W. Harwood) 

16 April, 1892 
Public baths and wash-houses opened by lord 

mayor Evans . . , 21 May and 26 July, „ 
Public electric lighting inaugurated by lord mayor 

sir W. Wilkin, cost 80,090?. . . .4 March, 1896 
The rev. Chas. H. Turner made suffragan bishop of 
Islington 10 May, 1898 

doctrines on the human nature of Christ: and the " Ut- 
terances of Unknown Tongues," which began in his con- 
gregation with a Miss Hall and Mr. Taplin, 16 Oct. 1831, 
were countenanced by him, as of divine inspiration. He 
was expelled from the Scotch church, 15 March, 1833. 
His church. " reconstituted with the threefold cord of a 
sevenfold ministry," was removed to Newman-street, 
lb' died 8 Dec. 1834. 



ISLY. 



677 



ITALIAN EEPUBLIC. 



ISLY (N.W. Africa). Here Abd-el-Kader, the 
Arab chief, was totally defeated by the French, 
under Bugeaud, 14 Aug. 1844. 

ISMAIL (Bessarabia) was taken by the Rus- 
sians, 6 Aug. 1770, after a long siege, when the 
Russians lost 20,000 men ; the town was taken by 
storm, 22 Dec. 1790 ; when Suwarrow, the most 
merciless warrior of modern times, put the brave 
Turkish garrison (30,000 men) to the sword and 
delivered up Ismail to pillage, and ordered the 
massacre of 6000 women. It was again captured 
by the Russians 26 Sept. 1809, and retained till 
the treaty of Paris in 1856, when it was ceded to 
Moldavia. 

ISMAILIA, the half-way station on the Suez 
Canal. . It is supposed to occupy nearly the site of 
Rameses. Sir Samuel Baker named it Ismailia in- 
stead of Gondokoro, May, 1869. The rebel Egyp- 
tian army was defeated near here by the British, 25 
Aug. 1882. See Egypt. 

ISPAHAN was made the capital of Persia by 
Abbas the Great, in 1 590. It lost its supremacy in 
1796, when Teheran became the capital. 

ISRAEL, KINGDOM OF, see Jews.— Handel's 
oratorio, " Israel in Egypt," first performed 4 April, 
1739. 

ISSUS (Asia Minor), the site of Alexander's 
second great battle with Darius, whose queen and 
family were captured, Oct. 333 B.C. The Persian 
army, according to Justin, consisted of 400,000 
foot and 100,000 horse; 61,000 of the former and 
10,000 of the latter were left dead on the spot, 
and 40,000 were taken prisoners. Here the emperor 
Septimius defeated his rival Niger, a.d. 194. 

ISTAMBOUL, see Constantinople. 

ISTEE, see Danube. 

ISTHMIAN GAMES received, their name 
from the isthmus of Corinth, where they were ob- 
served : their institution is mythically attributed 
to Sisyphus of Corinth, 1326 B.C., and to Theseus 
in honour of Neptune about 1234. The games, 
which were solemnly kept every third year, were 
discontinued at the destruction of Corinth by Lucius 
Mummius, 146 B.C. The games were revived by 
Julius Caesar, 60 B.C. ; and by the emperor Julian, 
a.d. 362, and ceased in 396, when Corinth was 
sacked by the Goths. 

ISTBJA was finally subdued by the Romans, 
177 B.C. After various changes it came under the 
rule of Venice in 1378, and was annexed 1420. It 
was obtained by Austria 1796; by France 1806 ; 
by Austria 1814. Population in 1890, 317,610; 
1900, 344,173- 

ITALIA IRREDENTA (" unredeemed 
Italy"), a secret society which first appeared in 
Italy Nov. 1877, and said to have 200 committees, 
the chief at Naples. Its professed object is to add 
to the Italian kingdom Trieste, the Tyrol, and other 
Austrian provinces on the Adriatic. 

Cry for Italia Irredenta : meetings at Borne, &c. 

21 July, 1878 
In 1879, col. Haymerle, an Austrian military resident 
at Rome, published "Res Italiece," freely discussing the 
subject. The Italians were much annoyed, and the pub- 
lication was disavowed by the Austrian government. 
Sig. Crispi, in a speech at Florence, strongly de- 
clares against the Irredentists . . . 80ct. 1800 



see Massowah and 



ITALIAN AFRICA, 

Zanzibar, 1893-5. 

ITALIAN ASSOCIATION FOR THE 

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, first met at 
Pisa, under the patronage of the grand duke of 
Tuscany, in 1837. It met in Rome, 20 Oct. 1873, 
and at other places since. 

ITALIAN BENEVOLENT SOCIETY, 

London, founded by the king of Italy and others, 
1861. 

ITALIAN CATHOLIC CHURCH (be- 
tween two and three thousand persons) ; first 
bishop, Domenico Panelli ; a synod met at Naples 
in 1875. Great progress reported Feb. 1888. 

Its statute (of 62 articles) asserts that the Catholic 
church is nothing but the society of all believers in 
Jesus Christ, and that he only is its supreme head and 
pastor ; rejects all miracles since the death of the 
Apostles ; declares that the Catholic faith is only that 
revealed in the Holy Scriptures, &c. The congregation 
of St. Paul, of the Italian Catholic church headed by 
Mons. Savarese, declared heretical, Oct. 1884. 

ITALIAN EXHIBITION, West Brompton, 
London, opened by the Lord Mayor, 12 May, 1888. 

It comprised models of the Roman forum, coliseum &c. f 
diorama of the bay of Naples, &c. , paintings, sculpture, 
manufactures and natural products of Italy. The 
celebrated sculptor, signor Focardi, had a studio, 
there and did work. Closed 31 Oct. 1888. 

ITALIAN LANGUAGE, based on Latin, is. 
said by Dante to be formed of a selection of the 
best portions of the different dialects. Pure, ele- 
gant poetry was written by Guido Cavalcanti, who 
died 1301 ; and good prose by Malespini, about 1250. 
See Drama. 

PRINCIPAL ITALIAN AUTHORS. 





Bom 


Died 




Born 


Died 


Dante . 


1265 


1321 


Monti . . 


1754 


1828 


Petrarca . . 


1304 


1374 


Leopardi 


1798 


1837 


Boccaccio . 


1313 


J 375 


Gioberti 


1801 


1852 


Boiardo 


1434 


1494 


Nicolini . . 


1782 


1861 


Machiavelli . 


1469 


1527 


Manzoni 


1784 


1873 


Ariosto 


1474 


!533 


Amari . . 


1806 


1889 


Guiceiardini 


1482 


1540 


Romagnosi . 


1761 


1835 


Tasso . . 


J 544 


I 595 


Massimo 


1798 


J 1866 
( or 5 


Galileo 


IS64 


1642 


d'Azeglio 


Metastasio . 
Goldoni 


1698 
1707 


1782 
I 795 


Niccolo 
Tommaseo 


|l802 


1874 


Parini . . 


1729 


1799 


Guerazzi . . 


1804 


1874 


Alfieri . 


1749 


1803 


Mazzini . . 


1 80s 


1872 


Volta . . 


I74S 


1826 


Carducci . . 


1836 


— 



The following terms are often used with reference to 
certain periods in the history of Italian literature and' 
art. 

1. Trecento (three hundred), from the birth of Dante 
(1265) to the death of Boccaccio (1375), which two, 
with Petrarca, are styled " the triumvirate of the ■• 
Trecento." 

2. Quattrocento (four hundred), from 1375 to the revival! 
of Italian literature by Lorenzo de' Medici in the 15th 
century. During this period Latin was revived, to the- 
prejudice of Italian. 

3. Cinquecento (five hundred), from about 1480 to 1590. 
A sensuous style of art, founded on the heathen my- 
thology, began to prevail. 

4. Seicento (six hundred), from 1590 to 1700. The bad 
taste which prevailed during this period is ascribed to 
the influence of the Spaniards and the Jesuits through- 
out Italy. Seicentisti is a term of reproach. 

The Trecento and Cinquecento were the most flourishing 
periods. 

ITALIAN REPUBLIC was the name given 
to the remodelled Cisalpine republic. Napoleon 
Bonaparte, president, Jan. 1802. 



ITALY. 



678 



ITALY. 



ITALY, a name mythically derived either from 
Italus, an early king, or italus, a bull calf. The 
invading Pelasgians from Greece, and the Abori- 
gines (Umbrians, Oseans, and Etruscans), com- 
bined, form the Latin race, still possessing the 
southern part of Europe. The history cf Italy is 
soon absorbed into that of Rome, founded 753 B.C. 
In the middle ages it was desolated by intestine 
wars and the interference of the German emperors ; 
since then, Spain, France, and Germany struggled 
for the possession of the country, which has 
been divided among them several times. Spain, 
which predominated in Italy during the 16th and 
17th centuries, yielded to the house of Austria at 
the beginning of the 18th. The victories of Bona- 
parte in 1797-8 changed the government of Italy; 
but the Austrian rule was re-established at the 
peace in 1814. In 1848 the Milanese and Venetians 
revolted and joined Piedmont, but were subdued by 
Radetzky ; see below. The hostile feeling between 
Austria and Piedmont gradually increased till war 
broke out in April, 1859. The Austrians were 
defeated, and the kingdom of Italy, comprising 
Piedmont, Sardinia, Lombardy, Tuscany, Modena, 
Parma, the Romagna, Naples, and Sicily was re- 
established, 17 March, 1861, by the Italian parlia- 
ment (consisting of 443 deputies from 59 provinces). 
On 29 Oct., 1861, the internal government was re- 
organized ; the 59 provinces were placed under pre- 
fects, subject to four directors-general. War with 
Austria was declared 18 June, 1866; and on 3 Oct., 
peace was signed at Vienna, and Vcnetia was ceded 
to Italy ; see below for the events. The settlement 
of the kingdom of Italy was consummated by the 
occupation of Home as the capital, 1870. Esti- 
mated population of the kingdom, 1862, 25,003,635 
(Rome was added in 1870). 1878, 28,209,620; 
Jan. 1882, 28,452,639; 9 Feb. 1901, 32,449,754. 
1890-91, revenue, 78,129,383/. ; 1893, 69,368,397/. ; 
expenditure, 81,850,050/. ; 1893, 71,699,867/. ; im- 
ports, 71,905,383/. ; exports, 51,171,079/.; 1901-2, 
revenue, 72,883,756/. expenditure, 71,927.780/.; 
imports, 70,228,758/.; exports, 56,651,951/. For 
other details see Home and the various Italian 
cities throughout the volume. 

Early history mythical ; Italy (Saturnia) fabled to 
have been ruled by Saturn during the golden age 

B.C. 2450 
Arrival of CEnotrus from Arcadia, 1710 ; and of 

Evander ; reign of Lathrus . . . about 1240 
./Eneas the Trojan said to land in Italy, defeat and 
kill Turnus, marry Lavinia, daughter of king 
Lathrus, and found Lavinium, in South Italy, 1182, &c. 
Greek colonies (see Magna Grcecia) founded . . 974-443 

Romulus builds Rome 753 

[For subsequent history, see Home.] 
Odoacer, leader of the Heruli, establishes the king- a.d. 

limn of Italy 449 

The Ostrogoths invade Italy, 489, and retain it till 761 
They arc expelled by the Imperial generals Narses 
ami Belisarius ....... 525 

[See Kings of Italy, andiron Crown.] 
Narses, governor of Italy, invites the Lombards 

from Germany, 568 ; who overrun Italy . . . 596 
Invasion and defeat of Cons tans 11. . . . 662 

Venice first governed by a doge ... , . 697 
Pepin gives Ravenna to the pope .... 754 

Charlemagne invades Italy, 774 ; overcomes the Lom- 
bards ; crowned emperor of the west at Rome by 

pope I' 1 '" ll1 25 Dee. £00 

The Saracens invade Italy and settle at Bari . . 842 
Invasion of Otho I. 051 ; crowned emperor, 2 Fet. 962 

Genoa becomes important 1000 

The Saracens expelled by the Normans . 1016-17 

The Normans acquire Naples from the pope . . 1051 
Pope Gregory VII., Hildebrond, pretends to uni- 
versal sovereignty, in which he is assisted by 

Matilda, mtess of Tuscany, mistress of the 

greater part of Italy .... 1073-85 



Disputes between the popes and emperors, relative 
to ecclesiastical investitures, begin (and long agi- 
tate Italy and Germany) .... about 1073 
Rise of the Lombard cities .... about 1120 

Who war with each other 1144 

The Venetians obtain •many victories over the 

Eastern emperors 1125 

Wars of the Guelphs and Ghibelines (which see) begin 

about 1 16 1 
Frederic I. (Barbarossa) interferes : his wars 1154-75 

Lombard league formed 1167 

His defeat at Legnano .... 29 May, 1176 

Peace of Constance 1183 

Civil wars again I:t 99> & c - 

Rise of the Medici at Florence . . . about 1251 
Wars of Frederick II. and the Lombard league, 1236-50 
His natural son, Manfred, king of Sicily, defeated 
and killed at the battle of Benevento, by Charles 

of Anjou 26 Feb. 1266 

Who defeats Conradin, at Tagliacozzo . 23 Aug. 1268 

The Visconti rule at Milan 1277 

The Sicilian vespers ; massacre of the French, who 

are expelled from Sicily . . 30 March, 1282 
Clement V. (pope, 1305), fixes his residence at Avig- 
non in France 1309 

Louis Gonzaga makes himself master of Mantua, 
with the title of imperial vicar .... 1328 

First doge of Genoa appointed 1339 

Lucca independent 1370 

Rome again the seat of the pope 1377 

Charles VIII. of France invades Italy, 1494, and 

conquers Naples, 1495 ; loses it in ... 1496 
Louis XII. joins Venice and conquers Milan (soon 

lost) . . . . 1499 

League of Cam bray (1508) against Venice, which is 

despoiled of its Italian possessions . . . 1509 
Leo X. pope, patron of literature and ait . . 1513-22 
Wars of Charles V. and Francis I. 1515-21 

Francis defeated and prisoner at Pavia 24 Feb. 1525 

Parma and Placentia made a duchy for his family 
by pope Paul III. (Alexander Farnese) . . . 1545 

Peace of Cateau-Cambresis : 1559 

War of the Mantuan succession . . . 1627-31 
Catinat and the French defeat the duke of Savoy 

at Marsaglia 4 Oct. 1693 

War of Spanish succession commences in Italy . 1701 

Battle of Turin 7 Sept. 1706 

Division of Italy at the peace of Utrecht, 11 April, 1713 
The duke of Savoy becomes king of Sardinia . . 1720 
Successful French campaign in Italy . . . . 1745 
Milan, &c, obtained by the house of Austria, 1706 ; 

confirmed by treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle . . . 174S 
Italy overrun by the French . . . May— Dec. 1796 
Division of the Venetian states by France and 
Austria by the treaty of Campo Formio ; Cisal- 
pine republic founded .... 17 Oct. 1797 
Pius VI. deposed by Bonaparte . . . Feb. 1798 
The Russians, under Suwarrow, defeat the French 

at Trebia, &c 1799 

Bonaparte crosses the Alps, 16-20 May ; defeats the 

Austrians at Marengo . . . -14 June, 1S00 
The Cisalpine becomes the Italian republic (Bona- 
parte, president) Jan. 1802 

Napoleon crowned king of Italy . . 26 May, 1805 
Eugene Beauharnais made viceroy of Italy . . . ,, 
Austria loses her Italian possessions by the treaty 

of Presburg ; ratified .... 1 Jan. 1806 
The kingdom ceases on the overthrow of Napoleon, 
1814 ; the Lombardo- Venetian kingdom esta- 
blished for Austria 7 April, 1815 

Formation 01 the young Italy party by Mazzini ; in- 
surrections 1831-33 

Italian Association for Science first met (at Pisa) . 1S37 
Insurrection in Lombardy and Venice, March ; sup- 
ported by the king of Sardinia and by the pope. 

April, 184S 
The king defeated at Novara, abdicates, 23 March ; 
ami Lombardy reverts to Austria . . May, 1S4Q 

I See Sardinia and Austria.] 

" Napoleon III. et l'ltalie " published . . Feb. 1859 

The Austrian ultimatum, rejected by Sardinia, 

26 April, ,. 
The Austrians cross the Ticino. ?j April ; and the 

French enter Genoa ..... 3 May, 
Peaceful revolution at Florence, 27 April ; Parma, 

May 3: Modena 15 June, ,, 



ITALY. 

The Austrians defeated at Montebello, 20 May ; 
Palestro, 30-31 May ; Magenta, 4 June ; Marig- 
nano, 8 June ; Solferino {which see) . 24 June, 

Provisional governments established at Florence, 
27 April ; Parma, May ; and Moclena [the sove- 
reigns retire] i 5 June, 

Insurrection in the papal states ; Bologna, Fer- 
rara, &c i 3 - I5 June, 

Massacre of the insurgents at Perugia by the Swiss 
troops . .... 20 June, 

The allies cross the Mincio . . . 1 July, 

Armistice between Austria and France 8 July, 

Preliminaries of peace signed at Villafranea ; Lom- 
bardy surrendered to Sardinia . .11 July, 

Italy dismayed at the peace ; agitation at Milan, 
Florence, Modena, Parma, &c. ; resignation of 
count Cavour as minister . . . July, 

The pope appeals to Europe against the king of 
Sardinia 12 July, 

Garibaldi exhorts the Italians to arm . 19 July, 

Grand duke of Tuscany abdicates . 21 July, 

Constitutional assemblies meet at Florence, 1 1 Aug. ; 
and at Modena . . . . . 16 Aug. 

Tuscany, Modena, Parma, and the Romagna enter 
into a defensive alliance, and declare for annexa- 
tion to Piedmont, 20 Aug. -10 Sept. ; fiscal restric- 
tions between them and Piedmont abolished, 

10 Oct. 

Assassination of col. Anviti at Parma . 5 Oct. 

Garibaldi appeals to the Neapolitans ; subscriptions 
in Italy and elsewhere to supply arms for the 
Italians Oct. 

Tuscany, &c. , choose the prince Eugene of Carignan- 
Savoy, as regent of central Italy, 5 Nov. ; the king 
of Sardinia refusing his consent, the prince de- 
clines the office, but recommends the chevalier 
Buoncampagni 14 Nov. 

Treaty of Zurich (establishing Italian confederacy, 
&c. ), signed 10 Nov. 

Garibaldi retires from Sardinian service . 18 Nov. 

New Sardinian constitution proclaimed 7 Dec. 

The pope condemns the pamphlet " Le Pape et le 
Congres" ... 31 Dec. 

The emperor Napoleon recommends the pope to 
give up the legations . . . .31 Dec. 

The pope refuses and denounces the emperor, 

8 Jan. 

Count Cavour charged with the formation of a 
ministry 16 Jan. 

Annexation to Sardinia voted for (by universal suf- 
frage) in Parma, Modena, and the Romagna, 13 
March ; Tuscany, 16 March ; accepted by the king, 
18-22 March, 

Treaty ceding Savoy and Nice to France signed, 24 
March ; approved by the Sardinian parliament, 

29 May, 
The. French troops retire from Italy . . May, 
Vain insurrections in Sicily . 4 April ; 2 May, 
Garibaldi lands at Marsala in Sicily, n May; as- 
sumes the office of dictator, 14 May ; defeats 
the Neapolitans at Calatifimi, 15 May ; and 
at Melazzo, 20 July ; by a convention the 
Neapolitans agree to evacuate Sicily (see Sicily), 

30 July, 
Garibaldi lands at Reggio in Calabria, 18 Aug. ; 

enters Naples ; king Francis retires . 7 Sept. 

Insurrection in Papal States, 8 Sept. ; the Sardi- 
nians enter, n Sept. ; defeat the papal troops 
at Castel-fidardo, 18 Sept. ; take Ancona, 

17-29 Sept. 

Victor-Emmanuel takes the command of his army, 

4 Oct. 

'The Sardinians enter kingdom of Naples, 15 Oct. ; 
defeat Neapolitans at Isernia . . 17 Oct. 

Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans attheVolturno, iOct. 
1860 : meets Victor-Emmanuel, and says, "King 
of Italy ! " the latter replies, " I thank you ! " 

26 Oct. 

By universal suffrage (plebiscitum), Sicily and 
Naples vote for annexation to Sardinia 21 Oct. 

Capua bombarded ; the Neapolitans retire, 2 Nov. ; 
and are defeated at the Garigliano . . 3 Nov. 

Victor-Emmanuel enters Naples as king, 7 Nov. ; 
Garibaldi resigns the dictatorship and retires to 
Caprera o Nov. 



679 



ITALY. 



1859 



Victor-Emmanuel receives homage from the Neapo- 
litan clergy, &c. ; gives money to encourage educa- 
tion ; appoints a ministry, including Poerio, &c. , 

Nov. 

Siege of Gaeta commences ; attack by sea pre- 
vented by the presence of the French fleet, 

3 Nov. &c. 

Treaty of Zurich signed (see Zurich) . 10 Nov. 

Decree in honour of Garibaldi's army . 16 Nov. 

Reactionary movements suppressed . Nov. -Dec. 

Prince of Carignan-Savoy appointed lieutenant of 
Naples Jan. : 

The French fleet retires from Gaeta, 19 Jan. ; after 
severe bombardment it surrenders ; Francis II. 
retires to Rome 13 Feb. 

Monastic establishments in Naples abolished, with 
compensation to the inmates ; schools established, 

Feb. 

Assembly of the first Italian parliament, 18 Feb., 

which decrees Victor-Emmanuel king of Italy, 

26 Feb. and 14 March, 

Naples unsettled through reactionary intrigues of 
the papal party . . . March and April, 

Italy recognised by Great Britain . 31 March, 

Order for the levy of 70,000 soldiers . April, 

Cavour forms a new ministry, including members 
from all parts of Italy .... April, 

The pope protests against the kingdom, 15 April, 

Altercation in parliament between Cavour and 
Garibaldi, 18 April ; reconciled . 25 April, 

Bourbonist bands defeated . . 7 May, &c. 

Prince of Carignan resigns ; San Martino appointed 
lieutenant at Naples ... 13 May, 

Death of count Cavour, aged 52 .6 June, 

Ricasoli forms a ministry to continue Cavour's policy, 

11 June, 

The kingdom recognised by France . 24 June, 

San Martino resigns the government of Naples ; 
active measures taken against the insurgents and 
brigands by Cialdini, his successor, appointed, 

16 July, 

The king opens the exhibition of Italian industry 
at Florence 14 Sept. 

The kingdom recognised by Portugal and Belgium, 
1 Oct. ; divided into fifty-nine prefectures, &c. , 

13 Oct. 

Skirmishes in the south with brigands and foreign 
emissaries in the cause of Francis II. . . Oct. 

Cialdini retires, and La Marmora becomes lieu- 
tenant-general of Naples ... 2 Nov. 

Brigandage still prevailing in the south, aided by 
the king of Naples ; insurgents defeated ; and 
many killed 19 Nov. 

Jose Borges, a Spaniard, lands in Calabria, 15 
Sept. ; calls on the people to rise for Francis II. , 
Sept. ; taken and shot .... 8 Dec. 

The reactionist warfare continues ; cruelties of 
the brigands lead to reprisals, 

Dec. 1 86 1, Jan. and Feb. 

Ricasoli compelled to resign by court influence, 
1 March ; Rattazzi forms an administration, 

3 March, 

The kingdom recognised by Prussia . 1 March, 

Surrender of Civatella del Tronto, the last Bourbon 
fortress in Sicily .... 14 March, 

Triumphant progress of Garibaldi through Italy, 
establishing rifle clubs . March and April, 

Mr. J. F. Bishop, an active English Bourbonist 
propagandist, captured . . . .2 April, 

Conspiracy among the Neapolitan soldiers at Milan 
suppressed 19 April, 

The king received at Naples with great enthusiasm, 

28 April, 

The French general Guy on aids in the suppression 
of the Bourbonist brigands . . . April, 

The kingdom recognised by Russia . . 3 July, 

Garibaldi proceeds to Sicily ; at Marsala he calls 
for volunteers, giving as his watchword, " Rome 
or death ! " 19 July, 

Calls on the Hungarians to rise . . 26 July, 

The king issues a proclamation against his proceed- 
ings, as tending to rebellion ... 3 Aug. 
Garibaldi enters Catania, and organises a provisional 

government 19 Aug. 

Sicily proclaimed to be in a state of siege, 21 Aug. ; 
and put under general Cialdini 22 Aug. 



860 



ITALY. 680 



ITALY. 



Garibaldi issues his last proclamation ; embarks at 
Catania ; lands at Melito, in Calabria, and marches 
towards Reggio, 25 Aug. ; La Marmora proclaims 
a state of siege, 26 Aug. ; Garibaldi and his fol- 
lowers fail in with the royalists under Pallavicini, 
at Aspromonte, where, after a short skirmish, he 
is wounded and taken prisoner, 29 Aug. ; removed 
to Varignano, near Spezzia . . .1 Sept. 
Mr. J. F. Bishop sentenced to 10 years' imprison- 
ment 6 Sept. 

General Durando issues a diplomatic circular con- 
demning Garibaldi's proceedings, yet asserting 
the necessity of the Italian government possess- 
ing Rome . .... 10 Sept. 
A subscription in England enables professor Part- 
ridge, of King's College, London, to go to Garibaldi, 

19 Sept. 

Princess Maria Pia married by proxy to the king of 

Portugal . .... 27 Sept. 

Garibaldi issues a rhetorical appeal to the English 

nation, urging its intervention for the cause of 

liberty 2 g Sept. 

Inflammatory manifesto addressed to the people of 

Italy by Joseph Mazzini .... Sept. 

Amnesty granted to Garibaldi and his followers, 

5 Oct. 
Sharp reply of M. Drouyn de Lhuys to Durando's 

note 8 Oct. 

End of state of siege in Naples and Sicily . 17 Oct. 

Disorderly encounter between Italians and Austrians 

on the banks of the Po . . . .1 Nov. 

Father Passaglia and 10,000 (out of 80,000) Italian 

priests sign a declaration against the temporal 

authority of the pope Nov. 

Garibaldi removed to Pisa, 9 Nov. ; ball extracted 

from his foot by Zanetti . . . .23 Nov. 

Meeting of parliament ; determined opposition to 

Rattazzi, 18 Nov. ; he resigns . . 30 Nov. 

New ministry formed by Farina . . 9 Dec'. 

It declines further negotiations with France on the 

Roman question . . 18 Dec. 

Commercial treaty with France signed . 17 Jan! 

Farina resigns ; Minghetti succeeds . 24 March, 

Grand Cavour canal for irrigation of Piedmont 

opened x j une , 

Income tax bill passed July, 

Tristany and other bandits captured . . July', 
Commercial treaty with Great Britain signed, 

6 Aug. 

Death of Farina 5 Sept. 

Several bandits captured on board the French ship 
Aunis ; given up to France, July ; restored to Italy, 

12 Sept. 

The army of Piedmont (50,000) consolidated by La 

Marmora and expanded into the "army of Italy" 

(250,000) Oct. 

The king visits Naples ; reviews National Guard, &c. 

u-17 Nov. 

Mr. (after sir) James Hudson, British minister, 

greatly assisted Cavour in the unification of 

ltal .y 1852-63 

General election ; triumph of the moderate party, 

Jan. 1864 
Garibaldi's visit to England amidst much enthusiasm, 

April, ,, 
Franco-Italian convention signed (French troops to 
quit Rome in two years [from 6 Feb. 1865], 
Florence to be the capital of Italy, &c), 

15 Sept. ,, 
Riots at Turin in consequence ; many persons killed 

by the military 2I - 22 Sept. „ 

Minghetti and his colleagues blamed ; resigned ; a 

ministry formed by La Marmora . . 24 Sept. 

Garibaldi denounces the convention . 10 Oct. ,',' 

Desperate state of (In- linanecs announced by Sella, 

the minister; he proposes stringent remedies, 

Nov. ,, 
Railway from Turin to Florence opened . 4 Nov. 
The convention approved by the chamber of depu- 
ties, 19 Nov. ; by the senate (after an able speech 

by Cialdini, 6 Dec.) 9 O ec . 

Decree for transfer (if the capital published, 11 Dec' ,',' 

Prince Humbert resides at Naples . . . Dec. 

Stated that 346 brigands had been killed in action'; 

453 taken in action, and 132 surrendered ; about 

300 remain to be tracked; many pretend to lie 

subjects of the ex-king Francis II. of Naples 

Dee. ,, 



Demonstration against the king at Turin, 30 Jan. ; 

he goes to Florence 3 Feb. 1865 

Amnesty for politicaloffenees published ; brigandage 
in the Neapolitan and Roman states increasing, 

March, ,, 
Fruitless negotiations with the pope by Vegezzi 

respecting the position of bishops, April to July, ,, 
The king and court proceed to Florence, 13 May ; 
he opens the Dante festival, the 600th anniversary 

of the poet's birth 14 May, „ 

Mr. Moens, a British subject, seized and retained 

by brigands 15 May, „ 

45 monks and others arrested at Salerno on charge 

of a Bourbonist conspiracy . . .12 June, ,, 
Inauguration of a national rifle meeting at Florence ; 

the king fires the first shot . . 18 June, ,, 
Numerous atrocities committed by brigands ; Giar- 

dullo and 8 brigands captured . . 19 June, ,, 
The kingdom recognised by Spain . . June, ,. 
Mr. Moens released after a ransom of 5000Z. had 

been paid 26 Aug. „ 

Bank of Italy established . . . .7 Nov. „ 
French troops leaving Italy ; general election, the 

moderate party predominate . . . Nov. ,, 

The new parliament meets at Florence . 18 Nov. „ 
Serious financial deficiency ; heavy taxation pro- 
posed, 13 Dec. ; much dissatisfaction ; the minis- 
ters resign, 21 Dec. ; a new ministry formed under 

La Marmora 31 Dec. ,, 

Death of the patriot and soldier, Massimo D'Azeglio, 

15 Jan. 1866 
Formation of the "Consorzio Nazionale," a public 
subscription for reducing the national debt, 

27 Feb. ,, 
Massacre of Protestants at Barletta, Naples ; attri- 
buted to priests .... 19 March, ,, 
Alliance with Prussia .... 12 May, ,, 
Volunteers numerously enlisted . 7 June, et seq. „ 
War declared against Austria 18 June, ,, 
New ministry formed under Ricasoli . 20 June, ,, 
Royal manifesto to the people . . 20 June, „ 
The army, headed by the king, crosses the Mincio, 

23 June ; defeated at Custozza . . 24 June, „ 
Venetia ceded to France by the emperor of Austria, 

3 Jul)'. » 

Fruitless conflicts ; the volunteers under Gari- 
baldi defeated at Monte Suello . . 4 July, „ 

Bill for suppression of monasteries and confiscation 
of property passed .... 7 July, ,, 

Cialdini crosses the Po, and enters A r enetia, 8 July, ,, 

Naval battle near Lissa ; Italians defeated by Aus- 
trians (Me d' Italia and Palestro blown up), 20 July, ,, 

The Italians beaten at Versa ; the last conflict, 

26 July, ,, 

Armistice for four weeks signed . . .12 Aug. „ 

Volunteers disbanded ; Garibaldi retires to Caprera, 

15 Aug. „ 

Treaty of peace with Austria signed at Vienna, 
3 Oct. ; ratified 12 Oct. ,, 

Court constituted at Florence to try admiral Persano 
for neglect of duty at battle of Lissa . 11 Oct. ,, 

The Austrians retire from Peschiera, 9 Oct. ; 
Mantua, 10 Oct. ; Verona, 16 Oct. ; Venice, 

17 Oct. „ 

General Menabrea pays to count Mensdorff a sum 
of money, and receives the iron crown of Italv, 

u Oct. „ 

National loan freely subscribed . . Oct. ,, 

Plebiscitum in Venetia ; for annexation with Italy, 
641,758 ; against, 69 . . . . 21 Oct. „ 

This result reported, and the iron crown presented 
to the king at Turin .... 4 Nov. „ 

The. king enters Venice, 7 Nov. ; visits Verona, 
Mantua, &c. No\. „ 

Circular of Hicasoli to the prefects, recommending 
industrial development and commerce, forbidding 
agitation, and enjoining neutrality regarding Rome, 

15 Nov. ,, 

Litter from Ricasoli to the clergy recommending a 
free church in a free state . . .26 Nov. ,, 

Persano committed for trial ; examination begins, 

1 Dec. „ 

Parliament opened by the king, who declares that 

" Italy is now restored to herself" . 15 Dec. ,, 

Sig, Tonello received by the pope, 15 Dec. ; many 

bishops return to their dioceses . . Dec. ,, 
Persano acquitted of cowardice at Lissa . 30 Jan. 1867 



ITALY. 

Government proposal for investing part of the 
property of the religions bodies for support of 
clergy (" Free Church and Ecclesiastical Liquida- 
tion bill ") brought forward . . . Jan. 1 
Great reduction in the army (to 146,000) ordered, 

Jan. 

Defeat of the ministry on question of the right of 

public meetings in Venetia, 11 Feb. ; parliament 

dissolved 13 Feb. 

Ricasoli reconstructs his ministry . 17 Feb. 

The pope accepts Italian help to suppress brigandage, 

March, 
Elections give a majority for government March, 
Resignation of Ricasoli, 5 April ; a ministry formed 

by Rattazzi 8 April, 

Persano condemned ; degraded and dismissed the 
service for disobedience, incapacity, and negli- 
gence 15 April, 

Treaty of commerce with Austria signed at Florence, 

23 April, 

Public funeral of the patriot Carlo Poerio 1 May, 

Italy joins in the conference at London respecting 

the Luxemburg question . . 7-1 1 May, 

National financial embarrassments ; the king 

gives up part of his civil list ; proposed sale 

of church lands, and reduction of expenditure, 

May, et seq. 
17,200,000^. advanced for church lands by Fould 

and others of Paris May, 

Church property bill passed . . . Aug. 

Garibaldi, about to enter the Roman territory with 

volunteers, captured by Italian government at 

Sinalunga (or Asinalunga)and sent to Alessandria, 

23 Sept. 
Sent to Caprera, 27 Sept. ; escapes to Leghorn, 

and is sent back 2 Oct. 

Bands of Garibaldians invade Roman territories, 

Sept. -Oct. 

Garibaldi escapes from Caprera . . 15 Oct. 

Embarkation of French troops at Toulon, suspended 

by the resignation of Rattazzi and his ministry, 

20 Oct. 
Cialdini tries to form a ministry in vain, 21-25 Oct. 
Garibaldi at Florence announces an expedition 

against Rome 22 Oct. 

The French minister Moustier's circular against 

the invasion 25 Oct. 

Garibaldians defeated at Viterbo . . 25 Oct. 
Enter Roman territories ; defeat papal troops, and 
take Monte Rotondo . . .26, 27 Oct. 
Menabrea's ministry formed ; proclamation of Vic- 
tor-Emmanuel against the Garibaldian invasion, 

27 Oct. 
Riots at Naples, Turin, Pavia, and other places, 
suppressed .... 26-28 Oct. et seq 
French army arrives at Civita Vecchia, 28 Oct. ; two 
brigades enter Rome .... 30 Oct 
Royal Italian troops enter papal territory ; Mena- 
brea's justificatory circular ; suppression of insur- 
rectional committees in Italy . . 30 Oct. 
De Moustier's reply ... 1 Nov. 

Garibaldi defeated at Mentana, 3 Nov. ; retreats into 
Italy with his son ; captured and sent to Var- 
ignano, gulf of Spezzia .... 4 Nov. 
Fiery manifesto of Mazzini ... 8 Nov. 
Garibaldi sent to Caprera . . . .25 Nov. 
French proposal of a European conference on 
Roman question discussed . . 9 Nov. -Dec. 
French troops left Rome for Civita Vecchia, 3 Dec! 
Meeting of parliament ; judicious firmness ; an 
amnesty for Garibaldians proclaimed . 5 Dec. 
Long army debate ; vote against the ministry (201 
to 109) ; Menabrea resigns . . .22 Dee. 
His ministry reconstituted ... 5 Jan. 

M. Cambray Digny's financial statement : great 
deficit ; a grist tax proposed . . .21 Jan. 
Exculpatory letter of La Marmora issued . Feb. 
Government financial measures announced Feb. 
New order of knighthood, the "Crown of Italy," 

constituted 20 Feb. 

Grist tax adopted after 21 days' debate . 1 April, 
Enthusiastic reception of the crown prince of Prussia', 

20, 21 April, 

Marriage of prince Humbert to his cousin Mar- 

gherita at Turin ... 22 April, 



681 



ITALY. 



Frightful atrocities committed by brigands in 

south Italy . . . . . April, May, 1868 
Grist tax adopted by the senate . . June, „ 
Arrangement made for debt of the late papal pro- 
vinces 30 July, „ 

Governmenttobacco monopoly ordered to be farmed ; 
resignation of the ministers, Lanza and Sella, 

8 Aug. ' „ 
Long-continued rain ; dreadful inundations in the 

Alpine regions ; great storm . . 27 Sept. „ 
Meeting of chamber of deputies ; Garibaldi with- 
draws 24 Nov. „ 

Ministerial victory respecting the grist tax in the 

chambers 26 Jan. 1869 

Thomas, duke of Genoa, entered a pupil at Harrow 

(see Spain, 1870) April, „ 

Circular of Menabrea against the council at Rome, 

5 Oct. „ 
Victor-Emmanuel Ferdinand, son of prince Hum- 
bert, born at Naples . . . .11 Nov. „ 

Serious illness and recovery of the king, 6-20 Nov. ,, 

Offered resignation of Menabrea, about 19 Nov. ; ,, 

Cialdini and Sella unable to form a ministry, 10 

Dee. ; Lanza and Sella succeed . 13 Dec. ,, 

GEcumenical council at Rome (see Rome, Councils) 

opened .... . . 8 Dec. ,, 

Republican risings in Pavia and other places quelled, 

about 24 March, 1870 
Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war announced, 

18 July, additional armaments ordered . 4 Aug. ,, 
Mazzini arrested at Palermo and sent to Gaeta, 

14 Aug. „ 
Fruitless mission of prince Napoleon to obtain help 

for France 21-25 Aug. ,, 

Circular note from the government recounting the 
failure of all attempts to conciliate the pope since 
i860 ; and proposing favourable terms 29 Aug. ,, 
French vessel Orenoquc placed at Civita Vecchia on 

behalf of the pope . . . . Aug. „ 

Respectful letter from the king to the pope, 
announcing the occupation of Rome necessary to 

order 8 Sept. ,, 

The Italian troops enter the papal territories (see 

Rome); occupy Viterbo and other places, 12 Sept. ,, 
General Bixio marches towards Rome, 18, 19 Sept. ,, 
After a short resistance, the Italians under General 

Cadorna enter Rome. fFordetailsseeRome.]2oSept. „ 
Plebiscite in papal territories : for union with the 
kingdom of Italy (out of 167,548 voters) 133,681 ; 

against 1507 2 Oct. „ 

The king receives the result of the plebiscite, 8 Oct. ,, 
Rome incorporated with Italy by royal decree, 

general La Marmora governor . . 9 Oct. ,, 
Arrival of La Marmora at Rome as viceroy ; reported 
agitation in Nice for reunion with Italy or 

autonomy Oct. „ 

Capture and death of Pilone, a great Bourbonist 

brigand chief 14 Oct. „ 

Mazzini arrives at Florence . . . 15 Oct. ,, 
Amnesty to political offenders proclaimed, 10 Oct. ; 

including Mazzini .... 16 Oct. „ 
Diplomatic circular announcing the occupation of 

Rome as the capital of Italy . . .18 Oct. „ 
Roman provinces united into one, with five sub- 
prefectures 19 Oct. ,, ' 

Ministerial changes completed . . . 30 Oct. ,„ 
Ricasoli retires into private life ; about 14 Nov. „ 
Amadeus, duke of Aosta, the king's second son, 

elected king by the Spanish cortes . 16 Nov. ,, 
Elections favourable to the government ; all the 

ministers elected . . . about 28 Nov. ,, 
Parliament meets ; the king declares Rome to be 

the capital of Italy .... 5 Dec. „ 

Bills introduced for the transfer of the capital and 
the preservation of the pope's rights, about 

10 Dec. ,, 
The Cenis tunnel completed . . .25 Dec. ,, 
Great inundation ; the king visits Rome 31 Dec. ,, 
The senate vote the transfer of the capital from 

Florence to Rome (94—39) . .26 Jan. 187] 
The king and ministers remove to Rome, 1, 2 July, 

which is inaugurated as the capital . 3 July, ,, 
The parliament opened there by the king 27 Nov. „ 
Telegraphic conference at Rome . . 18 Dec. „ 

Joseph Mazzini dies at Pisa . . 10 March, 1872 

Elections favourable to the liberals . . Aug. 



ITALY. 



682 



ITALY. 



Great inundations in tlie valley of the Po, &c, loss 
of life anil of much property ; much saved by the 
exertions of the military . . . Oct. 

Opposition to the income-tax in the assembly ; 
majority for government (144— 116) . . Dec. 

Great sorrow at the death of Napoleon III., 9 Jan. 
proposals for monument in Milan . . Jan. 

Bill dealing with the religious establishments at 
Rome introduced April, 

The Lanza-Sella ministry resign ; but resume office at 
the request of the king . . about 4 May, 

Death of Alessandro Manzoni . . .22 May, 

Death of Urbano Rattazzi . . .5 June, 

Law for expulsion of Jesuits passed . 25 June, 
See Jesuits. 

Lanza and Sella resign, 26 June ; a ministry formed 
by Minghetti . . . . . 10 July, 

The king's visit to Vienna, 17 Sept. ; to Berlin, 

22-26 Sept. 

Monuments to Cavour at Turin inaugurated by the 
king 8 Nov. 

The king opens parliament with congratulatory 
speech 15 Nov. 

Academy of San Luca replaced by a new academy, 

Jan. 

National festival on the 25th anniversary of the 
king's accession 23 March, 

Minghetti ministry defeated on a finance bill ; their 
resignation not accepted by the king . 24 May, 

Accoltellatori (secrjt assassinating societies) re- 
ported in Ravenna and other places, Sept.-Oct. 

About 80 secret extortioners (see Camorra) in 
Naples seized and transported . . Sept.-Oct. 

Teodali, a papal chamberlain, seized by brigands, 
ransomed for 2000?. . , . about 8, 9 Oct. 

The Orenorpie (French) sails from Civita Vecchia 

13 Oct. 

Jesuits ordered to quit their establishments 

15 Oct, 

Result of elections in support of government, Nov. 

The Camorra, Maffei, and Brigantaggio (terrorist 
secret societies) prevalent in south Italy 

Garibaldi declines a sum of money (3500L) voted to 
him -31 Dec. 

He enters Rome amid great excitement, takes his 
seat in the chamber of deputies, and takes the 
oath to the king 24 Jan. 

Accepts the sum voted and devotes it to improve- 
ment of the Tiber, &c 12 Feb. 

The emperor of Austria and king of Italy meet at 
Venice s - 7 April, 

Treaty of commerce with Great Britain, to expire 
26 June, 1876, announced . . . June, 

Synod of Italian Catholic church {which sec) held 
at Naples Aug. 

Elections of parish priests declared valid in opposi- 
tion to the bishops .... July-Aug. 

Michel-Angelo fete at Florence . . I2 Sept. 

Italian Catholic congress, blessed by the pope, 
meets at Florence; scanty attendance, 22-25 Sept. 

Visit of the emperor of Germany to Milan ; warmly 
received by the king and people . . 18-23 Oct. 

Minghetti ministry defeated on the budget, 18 Mar. : 
resign I9 March, 

Agostino Depretis forms n cabinet . . March, 

The Duilio, great iron-clad, launched at Castella- 
mare, in presence of the king . . . s May, 

Discovery of a " black book " in the home-office, re- 
cording misdeeds of many officials, &C. ; gives 
much offence June, 

Italian geographical society's expedition in Africa ; 
ill-treated at Zeila ; the khedive informed July, 

Marchcsc Mantegazza died for forging the signa- 
tures of the king anil prince Euinbert on bills 
and letters to obtain money ; confessed, bul re- 
fused to disclose name of associate or instigator, 
18 Aug. ; sentence, s years' penal servitude 

31 Aug. 

Elections; great majority I'm' Depretis ministry, 

about 6 Nov. 

Maria Vittoria, duchess <>( Aosta, ex-queen of Spain, 
aged 28, dies, greatly lamented . . 8 Nov. 

Parliament opened by the king . . 20 Nov. 

Discovery near Verona of above 50,000 coins of Gal- 
lienus and others, chiefh bronze . . Jan. 



1873 



1874 



1876 



1S77 



Bill for repressing clerical abuses adopted by the 
deputies ; the pope expresses great displeasure in 
his circular to foreign powers, 21 March ; the 
bill rejected by the senate . . 7 May, 1877 

Autonelli Case — Countess Loreta Lambertini claims 
property of her alleged father, cardinal Autonelli ; 
resisted by his brothers, 30 June ; trial ; her case 
not proved 6 Dec. ,, 

Ministerial changes . . . about 12 Nov. ,, 

Monument at Mentana (which see) inaugurated, 

25 Nov. ,, 

Resignation of the ministry, 15 Dec. ; Depretis 
re-forms his ministry (Nicotera replaced by 
Crispi) 16-26 Dec. ,, 

Father Curci (see Jesuits) publishes " Dissidio Mo- 
derno fra la Chiesa e 1'Italia," against the pope's 
temporal power Dec. ,, 

Death of La Marmora, aged 74, 5 Jan. ; death of 
king Victor Emmanuel II., 9 Jan. ; his funeral ; 
procession 2 miles long ; buried in the Pantheon, 
Rome 17 Jan. 1878 

Death of pope Pius IX. 7 Feb. ; election of Leo 
XIII 20 Feb. „ 

Antonelli Case — the countess permitted to appear in 
court: the case deferred . . . . Feb. ,, 

Resignation of the Depretis ministry . 10 March, ,, 

Cairoli forms a liberal ministry, Corti foreign mi- 
nister ; new men . . . .23 March, ,, 

Seismet Doda, finance minister, announces probable 
surplus June, ,, 

Dandole, largest Italian ironclad, launched at 
Spezzia, in presence of the king . . 10 July, ,, 

Popular discontent at the Berlin treaty ; desire for 
acquiring Trent and Trieste ; cry of " Italia irre- 
denta !" (which see) meetings at Rome, <fcc. 

about 21 July, ,, 

Death of Giorgio Pallavicino, senator, patriot, friend 
of Cavour, aged 84 3 Aug. „ 

David Lazzaretti, " the saint," a peasant, aged 48, 
founderof a religious socialistic sect in 1S68, with 
12 apostles, &c, and creed somewhat protestant ; 
proposed to erect seven hermitages ; inarched to- 
wards Arcidosso, in Tuscany, with between two 
and three thousand followers ; David, clad in a 
lialf-regal, half-pontifical costume, proclaiming 
the Christian republic, resisted dispersion by the 
police, who, when fired on. fired and killed David 
and one of his followers ; these retired, carrying 
off David's body 18 Aug. ,, 

Ministerial crisis ; resignation of Corti and others, 
19 Oct. ; of all the Cairoli ministry . 22 Oct. ,, 

Sig. Cairoli reconstitutes the ministry . 25 Oct. ,, 

Attempted assassination of the king at Naples by 
Giovanni Passanante, an internationalist, aged 29 ; 
the king and Cairoli, the minister, slightly 
wounded 17 Nov. ,, 

" Pietro Barsanti" Clubs (in memory of a sergeant 
executed for gross insubordination a few years 
ago) become prominent ; oppose ministry, autumn, „ 

The Cairoli ministry defeated on vote of confidence 
(263-189), 11 Dec. ; resign . . .12 Dec. ,, 

Sig. Depretis's ministry takes office . 19 Dee. ,, 

Passanante condemned to death at Naples, 7 March ; 
to perpetual imprisonment (by t lie king), 29 March, 1879 

Antonelli Case — the countess Lambertini's appeal 
rejected 3 July, ,, 

Government defeated on the grist bill (251-159); re- 
signs 3 July, ,, 

Sig. Cairoli forms a ministry . . 8-12 July, „ 

New clerical conservative party issues a manifesto, 

12 Aug. 

" Res Ihtliar" pamphlet (see Italia Irredenta), Aug. „ 

The followers of Lazzaretti tried and acquitted, 

12 Nov. ,, 

Cairoli ministry reconstructed . 1S-24 Nov. ,, 

First publication of "Aurora," a papal daily news- 
paper, at Home 1 Jan. iSSo 

Parliament opened by the king ; relief of taxation 
promised 17 Feb. ,, 

Majority in chamber against ministers, 17 Feb.; its 
resignation not accepted by the king, 29 April ; 
dissolution of the chamber . . 2 May, ,, 

I 1: ctions ibsolnt.' mi] nt\ for the Cairoli minis 
try ; parliament meets .... 26 May, „ 

(' irdigliani, a half-mad tailor, condemned to im- 
prisonment for throwing paving-stones at a group 
of deputies (25 June) . . . . 26 Aug. ,, 



ITALY. 



683 



ITALY. 



Celebration of capture of Rome by Italians in 1870, 

20 Sept. 1 8 8- 
Italia, great ironclad, launched at Castellamare, 

29 Sept. ,, 
Garibaldi (and his sou Menotti) resign as deputies 

on account of the imprisonment of his son-in-law, 
gen. Canzio, for republican manifestations, 27 
Sept. ; Garibaldi goes to Genoa, Oct.; Canzio re- 
leased 10 Oct. ,, 

Col. John Whitehead, " Garibaldi's Englishman," 
dies, aged 69 21 Nov. ,, 

Resignation of Cairoli and his cabinet, 3 April ; re- 
turn to office ; censured on account of the Tunis 
affair 18 April, 188 

The Cairoli ministry again resign . 14 May, „ 

M. Depretis forms a ministry . . 28 May, ,, 

Father Curci publishes ' ' New Italy and Old Zealots," 

June, ,, 

The king and queen warmly received at Vienna, 

28-31 Oct. ,, 

The government complain of Vatican intrigues 

about 28 Dee. ,, 

Death of Lanza, General Medici patriot, died 9 Mar. ,, 

Opening of St. Gothard railway from Lucerne to 
Milan 20, 21 May, i83 

Death of Garibaldi at Caprera, deeply lamented 

2 June, ,, 

Buried there in the presence of thousands 8 June, ,, 

Parliament dissolved .... 4 Oct. , . 

Destructive floods in North Italy . Sept., Oct. „ 

Elections in favour of the ministry about 28 Oct. - „ 

First reform parliament opened by King Humbert 

22 Nov. , 

Death of the duke of Sermoneta . . . 12 Dec. ,, 

Demonstrations against Austria on account of 
execution of Oberdank for threatening the 
mperor's life .... 20-22 Dec. ,, 

International fine art exhibition opened at Rome 

21 Jan. 188 

Specie payments resumed . . . 12 April, ,, 

Lepanto, Italian built iron-clad launched at Leg- 
horn; the king present . . . . 17 Mar. ,, 

The four-hundredth anniversary of Raphael's birth 
celebrated at Rome .... 28 Mar. „ 

Confidence in the Depretis ministry voted (348-29) ; 
it resigns, and returns . . 25, 26 May, „ 

New important treaty with Great Britain signed, 

15 June, ,, 

About 50 persons perish by Are in a theatre at 
Dervio, near Como . . . 24 June, ,, 

King Victor Emmanuel's body removed to the Pan 
theon 5 Jan. ; thousands of pilgrims visit his tomb 
up to 21 Jan. 18!: 

Death of Sig. Sella, great financial minister, 14 Mar. ,, 

Resignation of the Depretis ministry, 20 Mar. ; 
reconstituted ... 22 Mar.-io April, ,, 

Discussion respecting the sale of the Propaganda 
property at Rome April, ,, 

National exhibition at Turin opened, by the king, 
26 April, closed 20 Nov. ,, 

Fifth ironclad launched at Castellamare . . . ,, 

Twenty-one new members added to the Senate 

28 Nov. ,, 

Total number of soldiers in the army, 2,113,969 

1 Jan. 18E 

Navy consisted of 112 vessels afloat or building 

1 Jan. ,, 

Heavy snowstorms in Piedmont, near Mont Cenis ; 
many avalanches ; many villages destroyed; very 
great loss of life .... 16-28 Jan. ,, 

Expedition to Assab to avenge the massacre of 
Uuiletti and Bianchi ,, 

Ironclad Castelfidardo arrived at Beilul . 25 Jan. ,, 

The ministry determine to assist Great Britain in 
the Soudan 6 Feb. ,, 

Italian flag hoisted at Massowah (which see) 6 Feb. ,, 

Resignation of the Depretis ministry on account of 
Mancini's foreign policy, 18 June ; reconstituted 

about 24 June, ,, 

Ironclad Francisco Morosini launched at Venice, 

30 July, „ 
Elections : ministerial majority about 55, about 

24 May, iS£ 
Death of Marco Minghetti (prime minister in 1864 

et seq.), aged 70 10 Dec. ,, 

Depretis ministry resigns ... 8 Feb. 18E 
Destructive earthquakes (which see) 23, 24 Feb. „ 



Several statesmen having declined office, the 
Depretis ministry resumes office . 5 March, ii 

Defensive treaty of alliance with Austria-Hungary 
and Germany signed . . . 13 March, 

Coalition cabinet formed, Depretis, foreign minister, 
premier 3 April, 

Depretis dies, aged 74, 29 July ; M. Crispi becomes 
premier Aug. 

Francesco Crispi visits prince Bismarck . 2, 3 Oct. 

Signor Crispi at Turin declares his policy to be 
thorough peace 25 Oct. 

Parliament opened 16 Nov. 

Increased formation of workman, socialistic, and 
republican leagues 1882- 

Duke Torlonia, syndic of Rome, dismissed for 
congratulating the pope on his jubilee 2 Jan. 1 

The progress of the Italian catholic church 
opposed to the papacy, reported . . Feb. 

Fall of vast avalanches in north Italy ; 23 persons 
killed at Valtorta, 23 Feb. ; 30 persons killed at 
Sparone, 29 Feb. 1888 ; above 200 persons 
said to have perished in the Alps Feb.-March 

Italian exhibition (which see), London, 12 May,- 

31 Oct. 

The abolition of capital punishment passed by the 
chambers June, 

Cheap popular edition of the Italian bible (with 
Cassefl's illustrations) issued by signor Sonzogno, 
editor of the Secolo, Milan . . . July, 

For war with Abyssinia, see Massowah . . 1887 

Marriage of the duke of Aosta, ex-king of Spain, 
with his niece princess Lcetitia, daughter of his 
sister ClotMe and prince Napoleon Jerome, 

11 Sept. 1 

The emperor William II. warmly received at Rome, 
11 Oct. ; 32,000 troops reviewed at Centocelle, 13 
Oct. at Naples ; (launch of the great ironclad 
Re Umberto at Castellamare) . . 16 Oct. 

Landslip between Salandra and Graseano ; de- 
struction of an excursion train, about 22 persons 
killed . 20 Oct. 

Marquis of Dufferin, British ambassador, received 
by the king 7 Jan. 

Death of Father Gavazzi, church reformer, aged 80 

9 Jan. 

Opening of parliament by the king . 28 Jan. 

Signor Crispi resigns 28 Feb. but reconstitutes his 
ministry 7 March, 

The king, his son and Signor Crispi warmly re- 
ceived at Berlin . . 21-26 Mar. 1 

Death of Benedetto Cairoli, aged 63, patriot and 
statesman, associated with Victor Emanuel, 
Cavour and Garibaldi, in the unification of Italy, 
deeply lamented 8 Aug. 

Sig. Crispi injured by a stone thrown at him during 
a carriage drive by Emilio Caporali, a silly youth 

13 Sept. 

The king ratifies treatv of 2 May with Abyssinia . 

2 Oct, 

Italian protectorate over Abyssinia announced 

14 Oct. 

The parliament opened with a cheerful speech by 
the king 25 Nov. 

Death of the duke of Aosta, aged 44 . 18 Jan. 1 

Ministry defeated in the senate on a minor ques- 
tion, 5 May ; the crisis passes over 9 May, et seq. 

Democratic congress at Rome, 470 associations re- 
presented 11 May, et seq. 

Riots at Conselice, in the Romagna, 3 or 4 rioters 
killed by the military . . . about 24 May 

Confidence in Signor Crispi's ministry voted (329-61) 

31 May, 
The prince of Naples visits St. Petersburg, Berlin 

May, June, 

Major Gaetani Casati returns from his expedition 

to Emm pasha (see Africa) ; received at Rome, 14 

July; by the king 17 July, 

Sig. Filonardi becomes director of the Italian East 
Africa company . . . announced 12 Aug. 

Anglo-Italian steamer line (Naples, Palermo, and 

London), inaugurated ... 22 Aug. 

Destructive cyclone— San Marino, Turin, Como, 

Naples, Sardinia, &c. ... 26 Aug. 

Great ironclad, Sardegna, launched at Spezzia 

20 Sept. 



ITALY. 



684 



ITALY. 



Conference at Naples, of representatives of Great 
Britain and Italy, respecting the limits of the 
territories in East Africa ; sig. Crispi and lord 
Dufferin present ; disagreement respecting 
Kassala, &c. ; the conference closes without 
result 4-10 Oct. 

The parliament dissolved ... 24 Oct. 

Parliamentary elections held, great majority for 
the government 23 Nov. 

Ministerial changes .... 8-9 Dec. 

Parliament opened 10 Dec. ; confidence in the 
ministry voted 19 Dec. 

Signor Crispi defeated on a financial question (186- 
123), and resigns 31 Jan. 

New Ministry ; marquis di Rudini (president and 
foreign minister), and others, 6 Feb. et seq. ; they 
propose maintenance of peace, and reduced ex- 
penditure, &c. 11 Feb. 

Vote of confidence in the ministry adopted . 

21 March, 

Treaty for the delimitation of the British and 
Italian spheres of influence in East Africa, signed 
at Rome 15 April 

Financial difficulties ; opposition to reduction of 
the army expenditure . . about 31 March 

Trial of 179 persons connected with the Mala Vita 
conspiracy at Bari, see Camorra . . April 

The triple alliance renewed ... 28 June, 

Tour of the prince of Naples ; arrives in London, 
received by the prince of Wales, 22 July ; dined 
with the queen at Osborne, 24 July ; visited the 
marquis of Salisbury at Hatfield, 25 July ; other 
visits ; with lord Mayor, 28 July ; made K.G. at 
Osborne, 3 Aug. ; visits Edinburgh and other 
places in Scotland, 7 Aug. et seq. ; at Newcastle, 
14 Aug. ; leaves for Bergen, (fee. . 15 Aug. 

The mail steamer Taormina sunk by collision with 
the Greek steamer Thessalia, off Cape Sunium, 
about 60 lives lost, 2 a.m. . . .12 Sept. 

The Russian foreign minister, M. de Giers, meets 
the Marquis di Rudini, the Italian premier, at 
Milan, 12 Oct. ; they visit the king at Monza (no 
political results) . . .13 and 17 Oct. 

Trial of 60 anarchists .... 14 Oct. 

New commercial treaty with Austria and Germany 
signed at Rome 16 Dec. 

Lord Vivian succeeds lord Dufferin as British 
minister about 22 Jan. 

Death of count de Launay, ministei at Berlin suc- 
cessively for Sardinia and Italy for 37 years 

7 Feb. 

Signor Crispi retires from public affairs . Feb. 

Cipriani Palla and other anarchists sentenced to 
different terms of imprisonment . 24 March 

Resignation of the cabinet through differences re- 
specting finance, 14 April ; most of the resigna- 
tions withdrawn .... 21 April, 

Difficulty with the United States settled, see New 
Orleans about 14 April, 

Anarchist leaders arrested in Rome and other 
places, 25 April, et seq. ; 48 arrested up to 29 
April ; 42 arrests on 30 April, 

The Rudini ministry, defeated in the Chamber 
(193-185), resign 5 May, 

A new ministry formed by sig. Giolitti 11-15 May, 

Resignation of the ministry not accepted by the 
king 27 May, 

Ministerial victory in the chambers (majority, 194), 

11 June, 

The king and queen received at Potsdam by the 
German emperor .... 20-24 June, 

Death of general Cialdini, duke of Gaeta, eminent 
patriot and soldier, aged 81 . . 8 Sept. 

Increase of brigandage ; many arrests . Oct. 

The chamber dissolved .... 10 Oct. 

Destructive floods in the north (see Inundations), 

13 Oct. et seq. 

General election ; great government majority, 

6 Nov. 

Parliament opened by the king . . 23 Nov. 

Death of admiral Pacoret de Saint-Bon, chief of the 
navy ... . 26 Nov. 

The chamber votos confidence in the ministry 
(296—82) 16 Dec. 

Arrest of signor Cuciniello, manager of the Rome 
branch of the bank of Naples, 22 Jan. ; report of 
government committee presented . 20 March, 



1890 



The pope's jubilee at Rome (see Pope) . Feb. 

Bill to make civil marriage obligatory introduced, 

8 March, 

Establishment of the " Bank of Italy " proposed, 
about 29 March 

Mr. Harry Ogilvie, engineer, murdered at Civita 
Vecchia 5 April, 

The silver wedding of the king and queen celebrated 
at Rome with great festivities ; the German 
emperor and empress, and the duke of York 
present, 22 April ; historical tournament, 25 
April ; celebrated at Naples . . 28 April, 

Resignation of signor Giolitti and his ministry, 

20 May ; reconstituted ... 24 May, 
Signor Cuciniello sentenced to 10 years' imprison- 
ment ; signor Dalesandro, cashier, to 6 years' im- 
prisonment, for embezzlement . 13 June, 

New bank law passed by the senate . 9 Aug. 

Conflicts, with bloodshed, between the French and 
Italian salt-workers at Aigues-Mortes, on the 
Mediterranean littoral, 16 Aug. ; lead to demon- 
strations against the French at Rome, Naples, 
Turin, and Milan, &c. ; many rioters arrested, 
18-21 Aug. ; rioters acquitted . . 30 Dec. 

Visit of British squadron, under adm. sir Michael 
Culme-Seymour, at Taranto, 16 Oct. ; warmly 
received at Spezzia .... 23-29 Oct. 

Death of lord Vivian, British ambassador, aged 59, 

21 Oct. ; public funeral ; the prince of Naples, 
adm. Seymour, the diplomatic corps, and many 
officials present ; buried in the English cemetery 
at Testaccio Oct. 

Sir Clare Ford appointed British ambassador, Nov. 

Opening of the chambers . . 23 Nov. 

Investigations into the affairs of the banks ; signor 
Giolitti censured ; he and his ministry resign, 

24 Nov. 

New ministry formed by signor Crispi . n-15 Dec. 

Seizure of revolutionary manifestoes in Rome, 

9 Jan. 

Riots in Carrara (which see) 

Indemnity (420,000 f.) paid by France to the rela- 
tives of the Italians killed at Aigues-Mortes (see 
above, 16 Aug., 1893) .... 25 Jan. 

Thirty thousand francs paid by the Italian govern- 
ment to France to compensate the sufferers by 
the riots, 16 Aug. 1893, in Rome, Naples, &c. 

28 Jan. 

Budget introduced ; deficit, 130,000,000 lire, 4 Feb. 

Signor Sonnino's financial scheme ; new duties on 
corn, &c, and increased taxation . 21 Feb. 

Vote of confidence in signor Crispi . 3 March, 

Bomb explosion outside the Chamber of Deputies 
in Rome ; 2 deaths .... 8 March, 

Signor Crispi applies for extraordinary powers, 
executive and financial, for himself, aided by a 
committee ... .16 April, 

Trial of signor Talongo, ex-governor, and officials 
of the Banca Romana, 2 May ; acquitted, 28 July, 

The military budget passed . . . May, 

Resignation of signor Crispi and ministry 5 June 

The Crispi ministry re-constructed . 14 June, 

Signor Crispi shot at, whilst driving, by Carlo 
Lega, an Anarchist, 16 June; much sympathy ex- 
pressed ; Lega sentenced to 20 years' imprison- 
ment 19 July, 

The government financial proposals adopted by the 
chamber (180 — 74) .... 29 June, 

Signor Bandi, a newspaper director at Leghorn, who 
had published articles against the anarchists, 
assassinated, 1 July. (Rosolini Romiti, the 
murderer, sentenced to life imprisonment, and 
two others to 30 years, 22 May, 1895.) 

Murders by anarchists at Pisa and Enipoli, 4 July, 

Two hundred and fifty anarchists under arrest in 
Rome, and about 2,208 among the prisons in 
other towns, reported ... 9 July, 

Anti-anarchist bill passed by the chamber, u July, 

Decree issued dissolving all revolutionary socialistic 
societies ...... 22 Oct. 

Destructive earthquakes in Reggio, Calabria, and 
Sicily ; many deaths . . 16-21 Nov. 

Parliament opened by the king . . 3 Dec. 

Baron Sonnino's financial statement ; deficit re- 
duced ; additional taxation proposed ; well re- 
ceived ; announced .... 10 Dec. 



1893 



ITALY. 

The deputies, Giolitti (ex-premier), Mazzino and 
Martuscelli, charged with forgery of documents 
relating to the Banca Romana, damaging the 
character of signor Crispi and others ; prosecution 
ordered and parliament adjourned . . Dec. iS 

Sir Giacomo Filippo Lacaita, K.C.M.G., patriotand 
scholar, born at Manduria in Lecce, 1813 ; took 
part in the movement of 1848 (see Naples) ; sent 
by the temporary liberal government as secretary 
of legation to London ; remains there, and is 
naturalised ; lectured at the Royal institution on 
Italian Literature and History, 1855-8 ; accom- 
panied Mr. W. B. Gladstone in his mission to the 
Ionian isles, Nov. 1858 ; returns to Italy after its 
liberation in i860 ; elected a member of the 
chamber of deputies, and in 1876 made a senator ; 
loved England, and visited it annually ; died at 
Naples 5 Jan. xl 

Severe winter ; increased state expenditure for the 
poor Feb. , 

The proceedings against sig. Giolitti quashed by 
the court of cassation on his appeal . 24 April, , 

Tri-centenary of the death of Tasso celebrated ; an 
exhibition of MSS., pictures, and other relics, at 
Rome, opened by the king . . 25 April, , 

Chamber dissolved through oj>position . 8 May, , 

Shocks of earthquake {which see) in Central Italy, 

18 May, , 
Parliamentary elections ; large majority for sig. 

Crispi 27 May, , 

Attempted assassination of signor Ferrari, a deputy, 
at Rimini, 3 June ; died . . .10 June, , 

The king opens parliament, strongly recommend- 
ing further financial reform . . 10 June, , 

Strong opposition to signor Villa, president of the 
chamber 13 June, , 

Budget introduced ; retrenchment and some addi- 
tional taxation required . . . .13 June, , 

Defeat of the opposition ; riotous scene in the 
chamber 17, 19 June, , 

Marriage of the duke of Aosta and princess Helene 
of Orleans at Kingston-on-Thames . 25 June, , 

Visit of the fleet under adm. the duke of Genoa to 
Portsmouth, the duke and officers received by 
adm. sir No well Salmon, on Nelson's ship Victory ; 
banquet, the duke of York, Mr. Goschen, and 
others present, 9 July ; received by the queen 
at Windsor, 12 July ; illumination of combined 
fleets, &c. , left 18 July, ,. 

Financial bills passed 7 Aug. ,, 

National fetes (see Eovie) .... 20 Sept. ,. 

Budget, 1895-96 ; financial improvement reported 

25 Nov. ,, 

Documents relating to M. Giolitti presented to par- 
liament, Nov. ; case shelved by vote . 13 Dec. ,. 

War in Abyssinia, see Massowah, 1895. 

Debate in the chamber, government majority 

19 Dec. ,, 
Resignation of the Crispi ministry ; European (ex- 
cept Russian) sympathy with Italy 4 March, 18 

Great excitement in the chamber and throughout 
the country ; impeachment of the ministry pro- 
posed ; gen Baratieri, by decree, placed on half- 
pay list ; popular desire for the abandonment of 
Erythrea expressed at Milan and other places, 

5 March, ,, 

Socialist manifesto against the war . 7 March, ,, 

New ministry formed by the marquis di Rudini ; 
gen. Ricotti, war, duke of Sermoneta, foreign 
ministers 9, 10 March, ,. 

Decree of amnesty to political offenders, 14 March, ,, 

Declaration of the marquis di Rudini in the cham- 
ber expressing admiration of the army ; negotia- 
tions for peace authorised . . 17 March. „ 

The African credits adopted by the chamber, 20 
March ; and senate . . . .25 March, ,, 

Budget for 1895-6, deficit, through the African war, 
2,828,000 lire; for 1896-7, a deficit of 1,197,713 
lire anticipated 5 May, ,, 

The government policy adopted by the chamber 
(278-133) 9 May, ,, 

Gen. Baratieri tried by court martial at Asmara for 
misconduct as general ; acquitted 5-13 June „ 

The British squadron, under sirM. Culme-Seymour, 
visits Rome, the officers and men warmly re- 
ceived by the government and the pope, 14 June, ,, 



685 



ITALY. 



Resignation of the ministry, n July; re-formed by 
the marquis di Rudini . . . .14 July, 

The Doelwyk, Dutch steamer, containing arms, 
captured by the Etna, Italian cruiser, in Italian 
waters 8 Aug. 

Treaty between France and Italy respecting Tunis, 
signed 30 Sept. 

Montenegrin princely family visit Rome, 22-29 Oct. 

Marriage of the prince of Naples to princess Helen 
of Montenegro in the Quirinal ; grand banquet, 
general amnesty decreed, 24 Oct. ; review of 20,000 
troops 27 Oct. 

Peace with Abyssinia signed, 26 Oct., ratified, 

16 Nov. 

Debate in the chamber on the colony of Erythrea, 
30 Nov. ; victory of the government on the home 
policy, 9 Dec. ; see Somaliland, 2 Dec. 1896. 

General elections ; the Crispi party much reduced, 

21 March, 

Parliament opened by the king . .5 April, 

Attempt to stab the king while driving to the races 
by Pietro Acciarito, fanatic (sentenced to penal 
servitude for life, 29 May), at Rome 22 April, 

Vote of confidence in the government and its 
African policy, 148 majority . . 22 May, 

Commercial treaty with Abyssinia and frontier, 
negotiated by major Nerazzini, accepted, 30 Aug. 

The count of Turin challenges prince Henry of 
Orleans, for libels against Italian officers, prince 
Henry wounded by him in a duel, near Paris, 

15 Aug. 

Visit of the king and queen to Germany (which see), 

3 Sept. et seq. 

Bank scandals, 20 persons convicted, at Como ; 
appeals Sept. 

The Garibaldi, armoured cruiser, launched at 
Genoa, 27 Sept. ; the Emmanuele Filiberto, 1st 
class battleship, launched at Castellmare, 30 Sept, 

A popular demonstration in Rome against the 
scheme of taxation on incomes and personal pro- 
perty came into conflict with the troops, 1 death, 

11 Oct. 

Discontent allayed by a pacific circular . 15 Oct. 

All proceedings against signor Crispi stopped on 
his appeal 8 Nov. 

Dr. Giuseppe Bottero, 50 years editor of the Gazette 
del Popolo, born 1816 ; died . . 16 Nov. 

Speech of sig. Crispi desiring an impartial inquiry 
with regard to his relations with the bank of 
Naples, 2 Dec. ; neutral commission of inquiry ap- 
pointed, 3 Dec. 1897 ; no ground for impeachment, 
but censured politically in its report, 19 March : ; 
adopted by the chamber (207 — 7), 23 March ; sig. 
Crispi resigns as deputy, 24 March ; re-elected, 

17 April, 

Debate on the military promotion bill ; gen. Pel- 
loux, minister of war resigns, 3, 4 Dec. ; the 
ministry resigns, 6 Dec. ; re-formed by the mar- 
quis di Rudini, marquis Visconti Venosta, 
foreign, sig. Zanardelli, justice, 14 Dec. ; vote 
of want of confidence rejected, 20 Dec. 1897 ; ad- 
journs, 21 Dec. till .... 25 Jan. 

Jubilee of the anniversary of the Italian constitu- 
tion (1848) celebrated at Rome (see Turin) 4 Mar. 

Sig. Felice Cavallotti, radical leader, killed in a 
duel by sig. F. Maccola, conservative deputy, 
6 March (Maccola sentenced to 13 months' im- 
prisonment, 21 Oct. ; reduced to 7, March, 1899) 

Bread riots owing to rise in prices at Bari and 
Faenza, buildings sacked and burnt by the mob, 
27, 28 April ; council of ministers order remedies 
for the distressed, 30 April ; further rioting, con- 
flicts with troops at Milan, Florence, Leghorn, 
Pisa, Pa via, and other places, 82 killed, 3-8 May ; 
price, of bi ead reduced, 9 May ; state of siege at 
Naples, 10 May ; quiet restored, chambers pro- 
rogued i 4 May, 

Army fund for the families of the poorer soldiers, 
100,000 lire by the king and royal family, 18 May, 

Sig. Brin, minister of marine, eminent naval archi- 
tect and politician, died ... 24 May, 

The ministry resigns, 28 May ; reconstructed by 
the marquis di Rudini . . . 1 June, 

Sir Philip Currie (made a peer, Jan. 1899) appointed 
ambassador, arrives at Rome . . 2 June, 



ITALY. 



C86 



ITALY. 



The chamber of deputies meets, baron Sonnino, 
leader of the opposition, severely criticises the 
policy of the marquis di Rudini, a want of con- 
fidence in the new ministry voted, 16 June ; the 
marquis resigned, and the house adjourned 
sine die 18 June, 189S 

Gen. Pelloux forms a cabinet, a ministry of the 
left, foreign sec. adm. Canevaro, 29 June ; the 
chamber meets, pacific policy announced, 4 July ; 
vote of confidence in the government 11 July; 
bill passed for the preservation of public order, 
and the chamber adjourned . . 12 July, ,, 
See Columbia, 1898. 

Arbitration treaty between Italy and Argentina 

23 July, ,, 

Railway collision near Ponte Decimo, n killed, 

11 Aug. ,, 

Giovanni Battista Ortelli, Italian philanthropist, in 
London, died, aged 67 . . . .1 Nov. ,, 

Parliament opened by the king . . 16 Nov. ,, 

New commercial treaty with France, signed, 

21 Nov. ,, 

Budget statement, large deficit . . .3 Nov. ,, 

Tax riot at Picerno, one death . . 27 Nov. ,, 

Anglo-Italian (commercial) convention, delimiting 
boundaries north of Erythrea, signed at Asmara, 

7 Dec. ,, 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaught ; re- 
ceived by the pope, 28 Jan., and by the king, 

29 Jan. ; they leave . . . -31 Jan. 1899 
Bill adopted, withdrawing the i-lira and 2-lire 

notes, equivalent to the abolition of forced cur- 
rency 31 Jan. ,, 

Anti-fiscal demonstrations in N. Italy, and a meet- 
ing at Naples 5 Feb. ,. 

The king and queen arrive at Cagliari, Sardinia 
(lohich f-ee) 12 April, ,, 

The chamber meets, 25 April ; foreign policy of the 
government, China, etc., strongly opposed in the 
chamber, 1, 2 May ; gen. Pelloux and his cabinet 
resign, 3 May ; he forms a new (conservative) 
ministry ; foreign minister, marqu. Visconti 
Venosta, 14 May ; the chamber meets, govern- 
ment statement with regard to China ; sig. 
Zanardelli resigns presidency of the deputies, 
25 May ; government majority 81-327 ; violent 
scenes 26, 27 May, ,, 

Sig. Chinaglia elected president of the chamber, 

30 May ; fine speech on the public safety bill, 
Chinese policy, government majority 99, 31 May, ,, 

Financial statement, surplus about 120,000?., 

8 June, ,, 

Festival of the Italian constitution . . 4 June, ,, 

Vote of confidence in the cabinet, 203-85, 14 June, ,, 

Stormy scenes and socialist obstruction to the 
public safety bill (relative to strikes, meetings, 
press offences), 20, 21 June ; the bill promulgated 
by royal decree, 22 June ; violent scene, free 
fight in the chamber ; session closed by royal 
decree 30 June, ,, 

Internat. (silk and industrial) and Volta centenary 
exhibition at Como opened by the king, 20 May ; 
burnt down, estimated damage 500,00c?., the 
Volta relics destroyed . . . . 8 July, ,, 

Volta centenary conferences at Como and Milan, 
June ; his statue unveiled, and a national electri- 
cal congress (opened by the king and queen) held, 

18-23 Sept. ,, 

See Earthquakes, July 1899 ; demonstrations in 
honour of sig. Crispi, aged 80 ; see Sicily, 4 Oct. ,, 

Destructive Hoods with loss of life in the province 
of Salerno 7, 8 Oct. ,, 

The king opens parliament, his speech well re- 
ceived 14 Nov. ,, 

Sig. Boselli's budget, 15,000,000 lire surplus, 
1898-99 28 Nov. ,, 

Amnesty to political offenders and others (see 
above, May, 1889), signed . . .51 Deo. ., 

Gen. Mii'ri, minister of war, resigns . . 4 .Ian. 1900 

Growth and progress of the politico-catholic move- 
ment 1870-1900 

I'niturul delimiting Dalian and French possessions 

in the Red Sea littoral, signed . . 24 Jan. ,, 
Sec Turkey, 30 Jan. 1900. 



Sig. Visconti Venosta, in the chamber of deputies, 
avows Italy's sympathy with England in S. 
Africa ; and gen. Ricciotti Garibaldi offers to 
raise volunteers for England. . about 10 Feb. 1900 
Stormy debates on the public safety bill, 1-28 
March ; political crisis, reform of the standing 
orders and withdrawal of the public safety bill 
proposed ; wild uproar in the chamber ; sig. 
Colombo resigns with the entire bureau, 29, 30 
March ; is re-elected (265-158), and the govern- 
ment's proposals carried amid great tumult ; the 
amendments to the standing orders to overcome 
obstruction adopted ; the chamber adjourns, 

2, 3 April, ,, 
The chamber meets, the new rules carried by the 
majority ; sitting closed amidst uproar, 15 May ; 
parliament prorogued sine die, 16 May ; dissolved, 

18 May, ., 
General election : ministerialists, about 300 ; con- 
stitutional opposition, about no; extreme left, 
94 ...... . early June ,, 

New parliament opened by the king ; sig. Gallo 
elected president of the deputies ; fruitless nego- 
tiations, the cabinet resigns, 16, 18 June ; new 
one formed by sig. Saracco, the marqu. Visconti 
Venosta, foreign minister, 24 June ; sig. Villa 
elected president of the chamber ; new standing 
orders ratified, 28, 29 June ; chamber adjourns, 
supplies granted, collapse of the deadlock, 

10 July, „ 
King Humbert fatally shot by Gaetano Bresci, an 
anarchist, at Monza .... 29 July, ., 

Intense sorrow throughout Italy ; general sym- 
pathy 30 July, ,, 

Proclamation, moderate in tone, issued by king 

Victor Emmanuel III 3 Aug. ,, 

Violent scene, due to the socialists, in the chamber, 

6 Aug. ,, 
Many anarchists arrested, 31 July ; 50 arrested in 

Rome 7 Aug. ,, 

The king's funeral, long procession to the Pantheon, 

9 Aug. ,. 
The king's speech, on taking the oath of fealty to 
the constitution, in the senate well received, 

n Aug. ,. 
Bresci, the regicide, tried at Milan and sentenced 
to life imprisonment, 29 Aug. (committed suicide, 
22 May, 1901) ; Padre Volponi, vicar of St. 
Sebastian, sentenced to 8 months' imprisonment 
for stating that regicide was sometimes justifi- 
able 29 Aug. .. 

Baron F. de Renzis, ambassador to Gt. Britain, 

dies, aged 64 28 Oct. ,, 

Chamber grants an appanage of 40,000?. a year for 

queen Margherita, 218-42 . . . 30 Nov. , r 
Sig. Rubini's budget : 200,00c?. surplus, 1899-1900, 
30 June ; he resigns office, 21 Dec. ; succeeded 

by sig. Finali 7 Jan. 1901 

Sig. Verdi, the composer (see Opera), dies, aged 87 
(bequeaths a large sum to the "Home for Indi- 
gent Musicians," founded recently by him, at 
Milan, at a cost of 20,000?. ) . . 27 Jan. ,. 

The Saracco cabinet defeated for its vacillating 
policy on the labour question, 318-102, after con- 
fused debate, 6 Feb. ; the ministry resigns, 

7 Feb. .. 
Sig. Zanardelli forms a cabinet, sig. Giolitti (in- 
terior), sig. Prinetti (foreign) . . 14 Feb. .. 
Dockers' strike at Palermo, spreads to other 

classes, riots suppressed by troops, 1, 2 March, ., 
Fatal Hoods at Padua, Mantua and elsewhere, 

20 March. .. 
The chamber adopts the war estimates and ad- 
journs 30 March, ,, 

Bridget adopted, 10 May ; large surplus, 

year ending 30 June, ,, 
National pilgrimage to the Pantheon, in memory 

of king Humbert .... 29 July. , r 
Agrarian disorders in Lombardy, arson, &c, 

early Aug. .,. 
Sig. Crispi, a great statesman, died, aged 81. 11 

Aug. ; an impressive funeral . . 14 Aug. ,. 
The king and queen open large electric works at 

Vizzola q Oct. ,. 

Benedetto firin battleship, launched at Castel- 

lamare 7 Nov. ., 

Parliament meets 27 Nov. ,, 



ITALY. 

Anglo-Italian agreement relating to the frontier 
between the Soudan and Erythrea, signed, 

26 Nov. 

Government bills reducing local duties on bread 

and flour, &c, adopted by the senate, 20 Jan. 

Parliament opened by the king ; government de- 
feated in the election of a president to the 
chamber ; cabinet resigns . . 20, 21 Feb. 

General railway strike averted by prompt action 
of the government, armistice, 24 Feb.-io March ; 
concessions to the men granted . 8 March, 

Vote of confidence in the Zanardelli cabinet, 
majority, 92 15 March, 

Diplomatic rupture with Switzerland, due to 
excesses of the anarchist press in 1901, 10 April ; 
conciliatory tone of the Swiss nat. council, 

22 April, 

New 3y per cent, loan, total amount, 100,000,000 
lire, reported 16 June, 

The triple alliance renewed . . .28 June, 

Many bills passed, chamber adjourns . 1 July, 

The king visits Russia . . -. 13-17 July, 

Dispute with Switzerland settled through Ger- 
many 30 July, 

Mafia (which see) murders trial at Bologna, Paliz- 
zolo, ex-deputy, Trapani and Fontona, sentenced 
to 30 years' imprisonment for the murder of 
signori Miceli (July, 1892) and Notobartolo (Feb. 
1893), (10 months' trial) ... 30 July, 

Death of gen. Ferrero, Italian ambassador in 
London, 1895-8 7 Aug. 

The king visits Germany . . . 27-31 Aug. 

Anniversary of the entry of Italian troops into 
Rome, celebrated .... 20 Sept. 

Distress in the south, reforms urged by baron 
Sonnino 9 Nov. 

Chambers meet 26 Nov. 

Severe earthquake shock at Syracuse . 28 Dec. 

Austrian ambassador officially denounces the com- 
mercial treaty between Austria-Hungary and 
Italy, which therefore lapses 31 Dec. 1903 29 Dec. 

Lord Currie, British ambassador, resigns from ill- 
health , Dec. 1902 ; succeeded by sir Francis 
Bertie . Jan. 

Court of Cassation in Rome quashes sentence passed 
upon Palizzolo, for the murder of signor Miceli 
and Notobartolo, by the assize court of Bologna ; 
orders a new trial in Florence . . end Jan. 

Budget, 1903-4, for Eritrea presented to Chamber 
of Deputies ; revenue, 9,600,000 lire (7,000,000 lire 
subsidies from the state); expenditure, 9,000,000 
lire early Feb. 

Papal jubilee, 25th anniversary of the elevation 
of pope Leo XIII. to the pontificate celebrated 
in the Vatican, 70,000 persons present, many 
gifts presented, including a papal tiara of gold 
offered by cardinal Respighi in the name of all 
catholics in the world .... 20 Feb. 

25th anniversary of pope's coronation held at St. 
Peter's, 70,000 people present . . .3 Mar. 

Imports for 1902, 1,774,240,561 lire ; exports, 
1,472,408,198 lire, increase over 1901 of 55,751,973 
lire and 97,950,308 lire respectively, early March, 

Strike of students in secondary schools in all parts 
of Italy in consequence of circular issued by 
signor Nasi, minister of education, March 1, 
making new regulations for the final examina- 
tions mid March, 

Bill for construction of a powerful radiographic 
station on the Marconi system for communica- 
tion between Italy and Argentina approved by 
the Senate end March, 

Historical congress established by king at Rome 

5 April, 

International congress of agriculture opened at 
Rome, king, and queen present . . 13 April, 

Centenary celebration of the French academy in 
the Villa Medici, attended by king and queen 

18 April, 

Resignation of signor Prinetti, minister for foreign 
affairs ; succeeded by admiral Morin 20-22 April, 



687 



ITALY. 



1 901 
1902 



First stone of the new Campanile at Venice laid 

25 April, 1903 
Visit of king Edward VII. to Italy : Naples, 23 

April ; Rome, 27 April, enthusiastic greeting ; 

visits Pantheon, the Coliseum and the Forum, 

28 April ; present at review of 21,000 troops ; 

visits pope at the Vatican, 29 April ; leaves 

Rome 30 April, „ 

German emperor visits Rome, meets with hearty 

reception 2 May, 

Freedom of Rome conferred on signor Marconi 

7 May, „ 
Army estimates passed, 125-88 . . 23 May, 
Resignation of Zanardelli ministry, signor 

Zanardelli, premier, forms a new cabinet 13 June, ,, 
Parliament reassembles, 25 June, the premier 

defends the ministry and the work of the session, 

vote of confidence carried, 257-71 . 26 June „ 

Illness of the pope reported . . . 3 July, ,, 

Death of pope Leo XIII 20 July, „ 

Cardinal Sarto elected pope ; takes the title of 

Pius X 4 Aug. „ 

Coronation of Pius X. in St. Peter's . . 9 Aug. ,, 
Earthquake shocks at Naples, Catania, and 

Syracuse It Aug. „ 

Violent hurricane over the Venetian provinces, 

much injury to crops, and great damage done at 

Vincenza 13 Sept. ,, 

King and queen visit Paris . . 14-19 Oct. , T 
Resignation of sig. Zanardelli, 21 Oct. ; new cabinet 

sig. Giolitti, premier . . . . 1 Nov. ,, 
Suicide of sig. Rosano, minister of finance, 9 Nov. , r 
Visit of king and queen to England . 17-21 Nov. ,, 

KINGS OF ITALY. 

476. Odoacer, king of the Heruli, invades Italy, and 
becomes king, conquered and slain by 

493. Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, an able prince-. 
He put to death the philosophers Boethius and 
Symmaehus, falsely accused, about 525. 

526. Athalaric, his grandson, dies of the plague. 

534. Theodatus elected ; assassinated. 

536. Vitiges elected. 

540. Theodebald (Hildibald) elected ; assassinated. 

541. Totila, or Badiula, a great prince ; killed in battle 

against the imperial army under Narses. 

552. Theias falls in battle. 

Italy subject to the eastern empire till 

568. Alboin, king of the Lombards, with a huge mixed 
army, conquers Italy ; poisoned by his wife 
Rosamond, for compelling her to drink wine out 
of a cup formed of her father's skull. 

573. Cleoph ; assassinated. 

575. Autharis ; poisoned. 

591. Agilulph. 

615. Adaloald ; poisoned. 

625. Arioald. 

636. Rotharis ; married the widow of Arioald pub* 
lished a code of laws. 

652. Rodoald (son); assassinated. 

653. Aribert I. (uncle) 

661. Bertharit and Godebert (sons) ; dethroned by 

662. Grimoald, duke of Ber.ov'cnto. 
671. Bertharit re-established. 

636. Cunibert (son). 
; ». Luitbert ; dethroned 1. 7 
701. Ragimbert. 
,, Aribert II. (son). 
712. Ansprand elected. 
,, Luitprand (son), a great prince, and a favourite of 

the church. 
744. Hildebrand (nephew) ; deposed. 
,, Rachis, duke of Friuli, elected ; became a monk. 
749. Astolph (brother). 
756. Desiderius (Didier), quarrelled with the pope 

Adrian, who invited Charlemagne into Italy, bv 

whom Desiderius was deposed, and an end put 

to the Lombard kingdom. 
781. Pepin or Carloman (son of Charlemagne). 
812. Bernard. 
820. Lothaire (son of Louis le DeTwrniaire). 



ITHACA. 



EMPEKORS. 

875. Charles the Bald. 

877. Carloman. 

879. Charles the Fat. 

888. Berenger I 

889. ,, and Guy. 
894. ,, and Lambert. 

921. ,, and Rudolph of Burgundy. 

926. Hugh of Provence. 

945. Lothaire II. 

950. Berenger II. and Adalbert his son ; deposed in 961 

by the emperor Otho the Great, who added Italy 

to the German empire. 

MODERN KINGS OV ITALY. 

1805. Napoleon I. proclaimed king of Italy, 18 March ; 
crowned at Milan, 26 May ; abdicated, 1814. 

1861. Victor-Emmanuel II. (of Sardinia, which see), born 
14 March, 1820 ; declared king of Italy by the 
parliament, 17 March, 1861 ; died 9 Jan. 1878. 

1878. Humbert (son), born 14 March, 1844; married his 
cousin Margherita (born 20 Nov. 1851), 22 April, 
i858 ; assassinated, 29 July, 1900. 

1900. Victor- Emmanuel (son), prince of Naples, born 
11 Nov. 1869 ; married, Helen, princess of 
Montenegro, 24 Oct. 1896 ; Yolanda Margherita, 
born 1 June, 1901 ; Mafalda, born 19 Nov. 1902. 

ITHACA, kingdom of Ulysses, see Ionian 
Isles. It was explored by Dr. Schliemann,in 1878 ; 
few discoveries being made. 

ITINERARIES. The Koman Itinerarium 
was a table of the stages between important places. 
The "Itineraria Antonini," embracing the whole 
Roman empire, usually ascribed to the emperor 
Aurelius Antonius, and his successors, a.d. 138-180, 
was probably based upon the survey made by order 
of Julius Caesar, 44 B.C. The "Itinerarium 



8 IVRY. 

Hierosolvmitanum " was drawn up for the use of 
the pilgrims about a.d. 333. 

IVORY was brought to Solomon from Tarshish, 
about 992 B.C. (1 Kings x. 22). The colossal statues 
of Jupiter, Minerva, &c, by Phidias, were formed 
of ivory and gold, 444 B.C. Ivory tusk, 7 feet long, 
sent by the Zulu king Cetywayo to lord Chelms- 
ford, as a token of peace, summer, 1879- Celluloid, 
an imitation of ivory, tortoiseshell, etc., composed 
of guncotton and camphor is used for the manu- 
facture of buttons, billiard balls, and various 
ornaments ; it is inflammable at low temperatures. 

IVORY COAST, W. Africa, a French colony 
constituted 17 March, 1893. M. Binger, governor. 
Successful expedition to Indenia, hostile villages 
burnt, reported, 29 March, 1894. 

Grand Bassam destroyed by an explosion of gun- 
powder caused by a fire at a factory, several per- 
sons injured .... about 1 Feb. 1897 

Massacre of a French force under major Caudrelier 
in the Lobi region by Samory's troops (Sofas) 

20 Aug. ,, 

Punitive expedition against the Bourbouris for the 
murder of Mr. Eade and M. Levras, Aug. ; severe 
fighting, towns destroyed, French loss heavy, 
they retire to Dabon, Nov. 1898 ; epidemic of 
fever at Grand Bassam, May-Sept. 1899; severe 
fighting with the Tepos Marsh ; Grabo occupied, 
natives submit June, 1899 

The Hostains-d'Ollone mission left Bereby, 14 Feb. 
1899 ; reached Beyla (route opened to the Sudan), 

14 Dec. ,, 

Yellow fever outbreak at Grand Bassam, 

July-mid Sept. 1902 

IVRY (near Evreux, N.W. France). Here 
Henry IV. totally defeated the due de Mayenne, 
and the League army, 14 March, 1590. 



JACOBINS. 



689 



JAMAICA. 



J. 



J was distinguished from I by the Dutch scholars 
of the 16th century, and introduced into the alphabet 
by Giles Beys, printer, of Paris, 1550. Dufresnoy. 

JACOBINS, a name given to the Dominicans 
in .France, because their first convent was the 
hospital of the pilgrims of St. James (Jacobus), 
at Paris, at the request of pope Honorius III. 
(1216-27.). The Jacobin club (first called "club 
Breton ") consisted of about forty gentlemen 
and men of letters, who met in the hall of the 
Jacobin friars, at Paris, in Oct. 1789, to discuss 
political and other questions. Similar societies 
were instituted in all the principal towns of the 
kingdom. The club was closed 11 Nov. 1794. 

JACOBITES, a Christian sect, so called from 
Jacob Baradseus, a Syrian, about 541; see Euty- 
chians. — The partisans of James II. (Latin, 
Jacobus II.) were so named after his expulsion from 
England in 1688-9. 

A sentimental revival of Jacobitism appeared in Eng- 
land in 1891, the " White Rose League" having been 
formed. The marquis de Ruvigny and other members 
of the " Legitimist Jacobite League " were stopped in 
their attempt to place a large floral wreath on the 
tomb of Mary, queen of Scots, in Westminster Abbey, 
& Feb. 1892. 

JACOBUS, a gold coin, so called from king 
James I. of England, in whose reign it was struck, 
1603-25. 

JACQUARD LOOM, for figured fabrics, in- 
vented by Joseph Marie Jaequard, of Lyons, and 
patented 23 Dec. 1801. 

JACQUERIE, a term applied to bands of 
revolted peasants (headed by one Caillot, called 
Jacques Bonhomme), who ravaged France during 
the captivity of king John in 1358, and were quelled 
with much bloodshed. Similar insurrections oc- 
curred in Germany. One was termed the Biwdschit/t, 
from the large shoe especially worn by peasants, in 
1502 ; and another termed the Bund (or league) of 
the Poor Conrad, 1514 and 1524, which also cost 
about 100,000 lives, and led to the insurrection of 
the anabaptists. 

JAFFA, a seaport of Syria, celebrated in scrip- 
ture as Joppa, whence Jonah embarked (about 862 
B.C.), and where Peter raised Tabitha from the dead 
(a.d. 38) ; in mythology the place whence Perseus 
delivered Andromeda. Jaffa was taken by the 
caliph Omar, in 636 ; by the Crusaders, 1099 ; by 
Saladin, 1193; byLouisIX., 1252; and by Bonaparte, 
7 March, 1 799 ; the French were driven out by the 
British in June the same year. Here, according to 
sir Bobert Wilson, were massacred 3800 prisoners 
by Bonaparte ; but this is doubted. Jaffa suffered 
by an earthquake in Jan. 1837, when it is said that 
13,000 persons were killed. 

JAGELLONS, a dynasty which at times reigned 
over Lithuania, Poland, Hungary, and Bohemia, 
beginning . with Jagellon, duke of Lithuania 
(husband of Hedwig, daughter of Louis of Hungary, 
1384), who became king. of Poland as Ladislas III. 
or V. in 1399, and ending with Sigismund II., who 
died in 1572. 

JAINS, see Jeynes, 



JAMAICA, a W. India island, discovered by 
Columbus, 3 May, 1494, and named St. Jago. Its 
aboriginal name was Xaymaca, or " land of wood 
and water." It was conquered from the Spaniards 
by admiral Penn, with land forces commanded by 
Venables, 3 May, 1655, and settled soon after. Popu- 
lation in 1861. 13,816 whites; 81,074 coloured; 
346,374 blacks; in 1871, 506,154; whites, 13,101 ; 
coloured, 100,346; blacks, 392,707; in 1881, 
585,582; 1891,639,491; 1901,745,104. Revenue, 
1890-1,764,045/.; 1893-4,863,644/.; expenditure, 
1890-1, 510,058/.; 1893-4, 800,418/. ; revenue, 
1895-6,646,103/.; expenditure, 626,934/.; revenue, 
1906-1, 760,187/. ; expenditure, 763,869/.; 1993, 
surplus 15,000/. The government of Jamaica 
includes Turk's and Caicos islands. Population, 
1902 (estimated) 770,242. 

An awful earthquake here . . .2 June, 1692 

The Maroons (runaway slaves) permitted to settle 

in the north of the island 173 s 

Desolating hurricanes in . . . 1722, 1734. & 1751 
In June, 1795, the Maroons rose against the English, 

and were not quelled till .... March, 1796 
Many transported to Sierra Leone .... 1800 

Slave trade abolished 1 May, 1807 

Tremendous hurricane, by which the whole island 
was deluged, hundreds of houses washed away, 
vessels wrecked, and 1000 persons drowned, Oct. 1815 
Bishopric established .... . 1S2+ 

Insurrection of the negro slaves ; numerous planta- 
tions burnt ; the governor, lord Belmore, declared 

martial law 22 Dec. 1E31 

Emancipation of the slaves . . . 1 Aug. 1834 
About 50,000 die of cholera in . . . _ . 1850 

In May, 1853, the dissension between the colonial 
legislature and sir Charles Grey, the goveiror, 
occasioned his recall ; his successor, sir H. BarkJy, 

arrived Oci. 1853 

Bishopric of Kingston established . . . . 1856 
Charles Henry Darling appointed governor . . 1857 
Edward John Eyre appointed governor . July, 1864 
Negro insurrection begins at Morant-bay, by resist- 
ing the capture of a negro criminal, 7 Oct. ; the 
court-house fired on ; baron Ketelholdt, rev. V. 
Herschell, and others cruelly murdered, and many 

wounded 11 Oct. 1865 

Rebellion spreads, and many atrocities are com- 
mitted ; it is suppressed by the energy of the 
governor, the military and naval officers, volun- 
teers, the Maroons, and loyal negro< s, 13-24 Oct. ,, 
George Win. Gordon, a c doured member of the 
legislature, convicted of encouraging the rebel- 
lion, 21 Oct. ; executed . . . .23 Oct. 

Paul Bogle executed 24 Oct. ,, 

Numerous executions .... Oct. & Nov. ,, 
Sir Henry Storks summoned from Malta, and sent 
to Jamaica, with Messrs. Russell Gurney and John 
B. Maule, as commissioners, to inquire respecting 
the disturbances, and the measures taken in sup- 
pressing them .... 11 Dec. et suf. ,, 
Governor Eyre temporarily suspended ; sir Henry 

Storks arrives in Jamaica ... .6 Jan. 1866 
The legislative assembly of Jamaica dissolves itself, 
and abrogates the constitution (which had existed 

200 years) 17 Jan. ,, 

i6ooi. subscribed at Jamaica for defence of gov. 

Eyre Feb. ,, 

Commission opened 23 Jan. ; closed . 21 March, „ 
They receive evidence of the existence of widely 
spread discontent during 1865; they reported that 
439 persons had suffered by martial law ; that about 
1000 dwellings had been burnt ; that about 600 
(many women) had been flogged ; that they con- 
sidered the punishments inflicted excessive, the 

Y Y 



JAMAICA. 



690 



JANISSARIES. 



executions unnecessarily frequent, the burning 
the houses wanton ; and that they saw no proof 
of Gordon's complicity in the outbreak, or in 
an organised conspiracy against government, 

9 April, 1866 

The " Jamaica Government act " passed in England 

23 March, „ 

Sir J. P. Grant gazetted governor in room of governor 
Eyre 16 July, „ 

A " Jamaica Committee," J. S. Mill, chairman, pro- 
pose prosecution of governor Eyre . . 27 July, ,, 

He arrives at Southampton, 12 Aug. ; welcomed by 
a banquet . . . . . .21 Aug. „ 

A committee for his defence formed . . Sept. ',' 

The governor, sir J. P. Grant, promulgates the new 
constitution ; opening of the legislative council 
(consisting of the governor and six members), 

16 Oct. „ 

G. D. Kamsay, accused of murder, discharged by 
grand jury . . . ... . z s Oct. „ 

Warrants issued against gov. Eyre, col. Nelson, and 
lieut. Brand, Feb. ; the grand jury discharges 
the bills against Eyre, 29 March, and the others, 

11 April, 1867 

A bill of indictment, for misdemeanour against 
governor Eyre brought in, 15 May ; discharged by 
grand jury 2 June, 1868 

Chief-justice Cockburn disclaimed agreement with 
part of justice Blackburn's charge on the occasion ; 
an almost unexampled ease ... 8 June, „ 

Trial of Phillips v. Eyre (for beating and imprison- 
ment during the rebellion of 1866) ; Eyre pleaded 
act of indemnity ; verdict for defendant 29 Jan. 1869 

Episcopal church disestablished . . . 31 Dec. ;, - 

Appeals in England for its support . . July, 1870 

Legal expenses of Mr. Eyre ordered to be paid, after 
discussion in the commons . . .8 July, 1872 

Many estates in Jamaica offered for sale in the 
London papers July, ,, 

Returning prosperity reported . . . May, 1873 

Sir Win. Grey appointed governor . March, 1874 

Sir Anthony Musgrave,. appointed governor . Nov. 1876 

Edward Everard Rush worth, governor, April, 1877 ; 
gen. sir Henry Wylie Norman . . . Oct. 1883 

Destructive fire at Port Antonio . .18 Oct. „ 

Introduction of representative government pro- 
posed ; Sir Henry W. Norman arrives 21 Dec. „ . 

Great public dissatisfaction at the proposals, Feb. 1884 

The legislature rejects proposed confederation 
with Canada . .-.■-". . n Nov. ,, 

Sir Henry Arthur Blake appointed governor Dec. 1888 

Rioting of the 1st West India regiment at the races 
at Kingston ; severe conflict with the police, 
who are badly injured ; the rioting quelled by 
pickets from the camp . reported 28 Jan. 1891 

The International exhibition at Kingston was sug- 
gested by Mr. Wm. Fawcett, director of public 
gardens, 9 July 1889 ; 15,000?. subscribed by the 
public, and 15,000?. given by the government ; the 
exhibition was opened by prince George of Wales, 
who was in the harbour with a squadron, 27 Jan., 
and closed by the governor . . 2 May, ,, 

Jamaica made the head-quarters of the Imperial 
forces in the West Indies, announced . March, ,, 

Sir Augustus Hemming appointed governor, Nov. 
1897 ; arrived at Kingston . . .11 Feb. 1898 

The council grants 7,000?. annually for increased 
militia force 18 May ,, 

The railway taken over by the government, 23 Jan. 1899 

Deadlock in the council, tariff bill passed by aid 
of additional members, 5 April ; crisis, extra 
members withdrawn ... n April, „ 

Sir David Barbour's report, suggesting an income 
tax, increased laud tax, stamp duties, and an im- 
perial loan, issued .... 26 July, ,, 

Destructive storm and floods, with loss of life, 

27-30 Oct. „ 

The subsidy of 49,000?. a year for the development 
of the fruit trade, granted 1900 

The Port Morcmt, Brat ship of the imperial direct 
service from Bristol, arrives at Kingston, 

1 March, 1901 

Legislative council meets, decrease of revenue, 
eported 4 Feb. 1902 

i;i'>i.n .". ;ii Mont ego bay, suppressed . 5, 6 April, ,, 

Beautiful sunsets due to volcanic dusl in the air, 

. I'incaU Maj . .. 



Surplus 115,000 dol. for year ended June, stated, 

4 July, 1902 

Large financial assistance granted to sugar estates, 

4 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Chamberlain's fntit trade policy very success- 
ful early Nov. ,, 

Report on Jamaica 1901-02 issued by Colonial 
office : value of exports increasing 1,823,684?., 
fruit representing 50 per cent, of total exports, 
11,003,840 bunches of bananas valued at 825,288?. 

3 Jan. 1903 

Legislative council pass resolution to place 2,500?. 
at • disposal- of government to encourage steam 
communication between Jamaica and Canada ; 
estimates show surplus of 15,000?. . mid Feb. „ 

Great hurricane causing much damage to crops, 

10 Aug. ,, 

Port Antonio in ruins ,, 

Government grant 50,000?. for the relief of the 
planters end Aug. „ 

JAMESON "RAID," see Transvaal, Dec. 
1895-July, 1896, and Rhodesia, Aug. 1896, and 30 
Jan. et seq. 1897. Dr. Jameson, in the Cape 
assembly, alluded to the "Raid" as a bad business, 
for which penance had been done, 28 Aug. 1902. 

JAMES'S GAZETTE, ST., anti-radical 
evening paper, first appeared, 31 May, 1880. 
Price 2d. , reduced to id. 2 Jan. 1882. 

JAMES'S HALL, ST., near Piccadilly, 
erected for public meetings, &c, was opened on 
25 March, 1858, with a concert for the benefit of 
the Middlesex hospital. Mr. Owen Jones was the 
architect. The "Popular Monday Concerts" es- 
tablished by Mr. Thos. Chappell here began 14 Feb. 
1859. 

The Moore and Burgess (" Christy ") Minstrels began 
regular performances here 1865. 

JAMES'S PALACE, ST., &c, London, was 
built by Henry VIII. on the site of an hospital of 
the same name, 1530-6. It has been the official 
town-residence of the English court since the fire at 
Whitehall in 1698, and many royal births, deaths, 
and marriages have here taken place. " Memorials 
of the Palace," by the rev. Edgar Sheppard, pub- 
lished, April, 1895. Ancient relics found during 
excavations in the palace courtyard, Feb. 1902. 

The Park, 91 acres, a marsh till Henry VIII. 
enclosed and laid it out in walks .... 1530 

Much improved by Charles II. , who employed Le 
N6tre to plant lime-trees, and to layout "the 
mall," for the purpose of playing a game with a 
ball called a mall 1668 

William III. granted a passage into it from Spring- 
gardens 1699 

A grand display of fireworks took place here at the 
peace, when the pagoda bridge erected here by 
sir W. Congreve was burnt 1 Aug. 1814 

The park improved by Geo. IV. . . . 1827 et scq. 

The enclosure first opened to the public in Jan. 
1829 : the opening by Carlton-steps in . . . 1831 

The marble arch at Buckingham-palace removed 
to Cumberland-gate, Hyde-park . 29 March, 1851 

An iron bridge over the ornamental water con- 
structed 1857 

JAMES'S THEATRE, ST., erected by 
Beazlcy lor John Braham, the singer; opened 
14 Dec". 1835. See Theatres. 

JANINA, sec Albania. 

JANISSARIES (Turkish itni tcheri. new 
soldiers), an order of infantry in the Turkish army; 
originally, young prisoners trained to arms; were 
first organised by Orcan, about 1330, and remodelled 
by his son Amurath I. 1 360; their numbers being 
increased by following sultans. In later days they 
degenerated from their strict discipline, and "several 



JANSENISTS. 



691 



JAPAN. 



times deposed and killed the sultans. During an 
insurrection;* lif- 1 5 June,i826, -when ^nearly 3000 of 
them were killed, the Ottoman army was re-orga- 
nised by Mahmud It. and a firman was issued on 
17 June, abolishing the Janissaries. - 

JANSENISTS,- persons who embraced the 
doctrines of Cornelius Jan sen, bishop of Ypres, who 
died in 1638. The publication of his ' ' Augustinus," 
1640, in which he maintained the doctrine of free 
grace, kindled a ; fierce controversy, and was con- 
demned by a bull of pope Urban VIII. in 1642. 
Through the Jesuits, Jansenism. was condemned by 
Innocent X. in 1653, and by Clement XI., in 1713, 
by the ■ bull Unigenitus. This bull the French 
church rejected. Jansenism still exists at Utrecht 
and Haarlem ; see Port Royalists. Loos, abp. of 
Utrecht," died, June, 1873. 

JANUARY derives its name from Janus, an 
early Roman divinity. January was added to the 
Roman calendar by Numa, 713 B.C. He placed it 
about the' winter solstice, and made it the first 
month, because Janus was supposed to pi-eside over 
the beginning of all business.. In 1751 the legal 
year in England was ordered to begin on 1 Jan,, in- 
stead of 25 March. Mild Januaries in England, 1804* 
mean temperature, 43 "2 ; 1834, 444; 1846, 43*7 ; 
1875, 43-4; 1884, 43-9; 1890, 43-5 (on 18 days 
above 50). 

JANUS, TEMPLE OF, at Rome, was erected 
by C. Duilius in 3rd century B.C., kept open in time 
of war, and closed in time of peace. It was shut 
at the dose of the first Punic war, 235 B.C.; and under 
Augustus, 29, 25, and 5 B.C. 

JAPAN, an Asiatic empire, comprehends four 
large islands, Niphon or Nippon, Shikoku, Kyushu, 
and Yezo and about 3,850 small ones. In 1869 
Tokio, previously called Jedo, was declared the 
eastern capital, the ancient Kyoto becoming the 
western. Population, 1892, 41,089,940 ; 1900, 
43.759,577- 

The early history is legendary till a. d. 506. Jimmu Tenno, 

the founder of the present dynasty, is said to have 

reigned b.c. 665. 
The empress Jingo is said to have conquered Corea 

201 A.D. 
Corean civilization introduced 285. 
Introduction of Buddhism from Corea about 552. 
Its hierarchy established, 624. 
Yoritomo, Shogun or generalissimo, since called by the 

Chinese 7tycocm,.usurps supreme power, the Mikado or 

emperor becoming the spiritual emperor, 1192 et seq. 
Sanguinary wars among the chiefs during four centuries. 
Japan visited by Marco Polo, a Venetian, about 1275-95. 

[His " Maravigliose Cose " printed 1496.] 
Weak rival dynasties in the north and south, 1333-92. 
Japan visited by Mendez Pinto, a Portuguese, about 

I537-S8. 
Tyeyasu, victorious over southern barons, establishes a 

strictly conservative government at Jedo, 1600. 

[His dynasty lasted till 1868.] 
The Portuguese establish trading settlements about. 1543, 

and introduce Jesuit missionaries who make many 

converts; by a fierce persecution beginning 1590, the 

Portuguese and their missionaries are expelled, and 

their converts massacred, 1637-42. 
The Dutch settlements under severe restrictions, suffered 

to remain for a time, 1600 et Seqi 
The learned Engelbert Ksempfer visits Japan about 1690. 

[All foreigners rigidly excluded from Japan till 1853.] 
An American expedition, under commodore Parry, 

reaches Jedo, and is favourably received ; but 

remains only a few days ... 8 July, 1853 
A treaty of commercial alliance concluded between 

the two countries . . . .31 March, 1854 
A similar treaty with Great Britain V 14 Oct. ,, 



With Russia 26 Jan. 1855 

Destructive earthquake ; Anasaca and Simoda de- -. 

stroyed, Jedo much injured . '. f -. 23 Dec. .18541 
Nagasaki and Hakodadi opened to European com- . 

merce . ,. .. ," y' . . . .'1856 

Commercial treaty with Russia . . 19 Aug. 1858 

Lord Elgin visits Japan, with a present of a steamer 
for the emperor, and is honourably received, 
July; obtains the treaty of Jedo, opening 
Japan to British commerce '. . 26 Aug. ,, 

The secular emperor dies (aged 36) . 16 Sept. ,, 
Mr. (afterwards sir) Rutherford Alcock appointed 
consul-general, Dec. 1858 ; envoy extraordinary, 

Nov. 1859 
A Japanese embassy visits Washington, New York, 

<fec, United States . . : 14 May— 30 June, i860 
Attack on the British embassy at Jedo ; some 

persons wounded . . . ' .' 5 July, 1861 
Embassy received at Paris, 13 April ; London, June ; 

in Holland, Prussia, <fcc. . . July— Sept. 1862 
Foreign ministers transfer the residence from Jedo 
to Yokohama . . . . 27 June, . „ 

Mr. Richardson murdered and his companions 
cruelly assailed by a Japanese noble and his suite, 

14 Sept. ,, 

[Monument erected by Mr. Kurokawa, a Japanese 

gentleman, in honour of Mr. Richardson, 1884.] 

The batteries and vessels of the prince of : 

Nagato fire on an English and a French vessel 

at the entrance of the straits of Simonpsaki, 

15, 19 Nov. , „ 
Some English, French, and American vessels bom- . . 

bard his. forts and his vessels . . 15-19 July, 1863. 
Reparation demanded ; ioo,ooo£. paid by the govern- 
ment ; the prince of Satsuma resists jiayment of 
25,000?. , his portion; admiral Super enters the 
bay of Kagosima, and is fired upon ; whereupon he 
bombards the town and burns the prince's 
steamers . . . . . . 15 Aug. ;, 

The Japanese minister announces that the ports 
opened by virtue of the treaties will be closed, 

24 June, .,, 
The prince of Satsuma pays the 25,000?.. 11 Dee. ,', 
The Japanese government refuse to abide by the 
treaties ; a combined fleet enters the straits of 
Simonosaki, 4 Sept. ; and attacks and destroys 
the Japanese batteries . . . 5, 6 Sept. 1864 
Major Baldwin and lieut. Bird murdered, 20 Nov. ; 
two assassins executed .... Dec. „ 

Sir Harry Parkes appointed to succeed sir R. 

Alcock as envoy April, 1865 

Treaties with England, France, &c. , ratified, 25 Nov. ,, 

Two more ports opened Jan. 1866 

Death of the tycoon : his successor said to be 

favourable to foreigners . . . Sept. „ 

Town of Yokohama and third part of European 

settlement destroyed by fire . . 26 Nov. ,, 
Jedo and other places opened to trade, by the 

government .25 April, 1867 

Visit of sir Harry Parkes to the tycoon, StotsBashi, 

1 May, ,, 
Prince Minbontaiypu, brother of the tycoon, ar- 
rives at Dover, 2 Dec. ; presented to the queen, 

4 Dec. ,, 
Osaka and Niogo opened to European commerce, 

1 Jan. 1868 
Insurrection of the Daimios ; rivalry between the 
mikado and tycoon, Dee. ; foreigners neutral, 

27 Jan.— Feb. 3, 
Japanese outrages on French sailors ; culprits exe- 
cuted, 16 March; further outrages punished, 

23 March, ',, 
The mikado's troops defeat the tycoon's, who flies, 
26-30 Jan. ; the mikado's defeated near Jeddo, 

10-17 May, „ 
After long war and varying success the rebellion 

ends j-.the mikado re-established . . July, ,, 
Majority. of the mikado proclaimed . . Nov. 
His marriage, 9 Feb. ; another rebellion of the 

tycoon's partisans . . - . . . Feb. 1869 
Visit of the duke of Edinburgh, 29 Aug. ; received 

by the mikado 22 Sept. 

The tycoon submits to the mikado . . D.ea 
Great progress of internal improvement's, and 
assimilation to European civilisation ; proposed 
establishment of railways, telegraphs, &c. . 1870-71 

y ? 2 



JAPAN. 



G92 



JAPAN. 



Industrial exhibition opened at Kioto 10 April, 1872 
Destructive fire at Jedo .... May, ,, 
Embassy of distinguished Japanese arrives at 

Washington, 4 March : in London . .17 Aug. ,, 
Pacific mail screw steamer America burnt at Yoko- 
hama ; about 40 killed ... 24 Aug. ,, 
First railway (from Yokohama to Shinagawa) 
opened, 12 June, to Jedo ; opened by the mikado, 

Oct. „ 
Japanese ambassadors received by queen Victoria, 

5 Dec. ,, 
English proposed as the national tongue . Dec. ,, 
Public library at Tokio established ....,, 
Insurrection, through desire for war with Corea ; 

soon suppressed .... Feb. -April, 1S74 
A successful expedition against Formosa to chas- 
tise savage tribes for massacring Japanese sailors, 
May ; Chinese protest, Aug. ; Japanese withdraw 
(see Formosa), announced .... Nov. ,, 
Mr. L. Haber, German consul, murdered at Hako- 

dadi, by a fanatic, 8 Aug. ; executed . 26 Sept. ,, 
The Japanese minister received by queen Victoria, 

3 Mar. 1S75 
The mikado decrees a new constitution ; 2 cham- 
bers, &c. 14 April, ,, 

The mikado opens a parliament of officials, nomi- 
nated by himself, in Jedo . . . 20 June, ,, 

Industrial exhibition 1876 

Insurrection of Satsuma and other clans specially 
against the ministry, Feb. ; suppression an- 
nounced Sept. 1877 

" Foo Son," iron-clad man-of-war, launched at Pop- 
lar, London, Chinese ambassador present, 

i 4 Apl. „ 
Insurrection suppressed ; power of the Daiinios 
virtually suppressed; principals only punished; ' 

announced 13 Oct. „ 

Progress in Japan : 3744 X'ost-oftices ; 22,053,430 

letters, and 7,372,566 domestic newspapers sent 

by post ; 2 railways in operation ; 34 lighthouses ; 

ample religious freedom and virtual free trade . ,, 

Okuto, able reforming minister of the interior, 

killed by six men (political motives) . 14 May, 187S 
Scientific works in English, published by Tokio 

university 1879-80 

Imperial decree convoking a national assembly in 

1890 12 Oct. 1881 

Entirely new criminal code enforced . . . „ 
53,760 primary schools and compulsory education 

established autumn, 1882 

The Japanese commander in chief with presents 

received by the queen at Windsor . 25 Nov. „ 
Rev. Arthur W. Poole, consecrated Anglican bishop 

of Japan 18 Oct. 1883 

All Japan to be thrown open to foreign trade, with 

mixed tribunals . . . announced Nov. „ 
Death of the last tycoon .... April, 1884 
A new orderof hereditary nobility instituted Sept. „ 
The national religion disestablished and freedom 

given to other religions . . 11 Aug. „ 

A Japanese village exhibited in London, 1885 ; 

burnt 2 May ; re-opened . . 2 Dec. 1885 

A Japanese dictionary printed in Roman characters, 

completed summer, ,, 

Amicable correspondence between the mikado and 

the pope Oct. „ 

Bishop Poole died 9 July; succeeded by rev. E. 

13ickerstcl.li Nov. „ 

Gradual adoption of alphabetical in place of ideo- 
graphic writing by agency of the Roma-ji-Uai, or 
Roman Alphabet Association . . . . ,, 

Decree giving enlarged power to the prime minister 

solely responsible to the mikado . . t Dec. ,, 
Prince Koinatsu arrives in London to confer on the 
prince of Wales (lie order of the chrysanthemum 
20 Nov. ; received by the queen at Windsor 

22 Nov. 1886 
Japanese commission to examine the fine arts in 
Europe and America ; reports in favour of Japan ; 
"pure art is asleep in Japan, but dead in 

Europe " 1886-7 

Count fto, the prime minister, energetically intro- 
duces western dress and habits . . spring, 1S87 
Death of Shiinadju Saburo, ex-prince of Satsuma 

6 Dee. ,, 
Japanese Fine Art Exhibitions opened in I Inn 1887-S 



Completion of the translation of the Bible into 

Japanese celebrated .... 3 Feb. i8c8 
Volcanic eruption at Sho-Bandai-San ; reported 400 

persons killed 15-18 July, 

New constitution promulgated by the mikado at 
Tokio ; the houses of lords and commons esta- 
blished ; religious liberty and general freedom 

granted n Feb. 1839 

The government desires new commercial treaties 
with the European powers ; they hesitate ; one 
with the United States promptly signed, Feb. ; 
with Russia 8 Aug. ; with Italy, with Germany, 

with France ,, 

Destructive storms and inundations in Yezo, &c , 

April, ,, 
On west coasts, 1,200 houses destroyed . June, ,, 
Volcanic eruption on Ishiina Island, 300 houses 

destroyed ; 170 persons killed . 13, 14 April ,, 
Earthquakes at Kumamoto, 19 persons perish 

28 July-3 Aug. ,, 
The southern island of Kiushiu, embankments, &c, 
destroyed, July; S.E. Japan the Chikugo river 
rose 28A feet above its usual level twice, 73,694 
persons made destitute .... Aug. ,, 
Japanese commission of enquiry respecting parlia- 
mentary procedure in Europe, arrives in London 

early in Oct. ,, 

Japanese national banks reported highlv prosperous, 

Oct. ,, 
Nine non-treaty ports opened to commerce, early 

Oct. ,, 
Several changes in the ministry . Oct. -Dee. ,, 
N. Japan, destructive gales, 11 Sept., total loss 12 
prefectures devastated ; 2,419 persons killed, 
above 90,^00 destitute, 50,000 houses swept away ; 
150,000 acres of crops destroyed, 6,000 bridges 
destroyed, reported . . about 18 Nov. ,. 

Volcanic eruption of the Zoo, Bingo district, 

Fukuvama buried, inhabitants escaped 16 Jan. 1890 
Violent cyclone on the coast ; 900 fishing boats 

wrecked, great loss of life . . . 24 Jan. ,, 
The pope proposes to appoint a metropolitan, and 

four bishops for Japan . . . 12 March ,, 
National Industrial and Fine Art Exhibition opened 

at Tokio by the mikado ... 27 March, ,, 
New civil code promulgated ... 21 April, ,, 
The duke and duchess of Connaught visit Yoko- 
hama 15-22 April, 

The mikado institutes a new order of knighthood, 
"the Golden Falcon," to •commemorate the 
2,555th anniversary of the coronation of Jimmu 
Tenno, the semi-mythical first sovereign of Japan, 

reported 12 May, ,, 

First parliamentary election 1 July, 

The Japanese mail steamer, Musha Morn, founders 
in a gale off the Japanese coast, losing nearly all 
her crew, reported .... 18 Sept. 
The first Japanese parliament opened by the 
emperor, with great rejoicing . . 29 Now 
The parliament house (wood) burnt down 15 Jan. 1391 
The Japanese commodore, Canaka, warmly re- 
ceived by the sultan at Constantinople, and 
thanked for help given to the wrecked Ertogrul 

(iS Sept. 1890) 8 Feb. ,, 

Death of' prince Sanjo, prime minister since 1S68, 

highly honoured 18 Feb. 

The czarewitch travels in Japan ; wounded by a 
fanatic at Otsa, n May, visited bv the mikado, 

13 May, „ 
Collision between the Taniaye and the lifiyoshi 
(racing in Suirakami Bay, off the coast of Yezo), 
about 260 lives lost .... 12 July. ,, 

Typhoon at Kobe, ELM S. gunboat Tweed and many 
other vessels sunk with great loss of life 16 Aug. 
Very destructive earthquake on the Niphon islands ; 
about ,°4,ooo houses and railways, bridges, &c , 
destroyed ; about 10,000 persons killed and 
300,000 homeless; minor shocks follow; esti- 
mated loss 2,000,000/. ... 28 Oct. ,, 

The parliament, opposing the government, dis- 
solved ....... 25 Dec. ,, 

Government ordinance to provide for the relief of 

the sufferers by the earthquake . 29 Dec. 

Violent election riots with loss of 22 lives 15 Feb. 1892 

The establishment of a Roman Catholic hierarchy 

authorized, reported . . . .15 March, 

The Japanese parliament opened bv the mikado, 

May, „ 



JAPAN. 



693 



JAPAN. 



New cabinet formed by count Tto . . 29 Aug. 1892 
Hurricane in Tokushima district ; about 300 killed, 

reported 17 Sept. ,, 

The Chishima, cruiser, sunk by collision with the 
Peninsular and Oriental company's steamship 
Ravenna, off Iyo ; 75 lives lost; 20 saved, re- 
ported, 1 Dec. 1892 ; the P. & O. company agree 
to pay by compromise, 10,000?., announced, Dec. 

1895. See Wrecks Dec. ,, 

Parliament opened by the emperor, 29 Nov. ; in- 
crease of national defences proposed . 1 Dec. ,, 
YosMno, large protected Japanese cruiser, launched 

at the Elswick works, Newcastle . 20 Dec. ,, 
Great fire at Osaka ; 275 buildings destroyed ; 125 

persons perish . . . . .20 Dec. ,, 
Continued opposition to the ministry ; parliament 
prorogued, 3 Feb. ; deadlock closed by compro- 
mise, 17 Feb. ; diet closed . . March, 1893 
Increase of the navy agreed on . about 3 March, ,, 
Death of count Terashima, eminent statesman, aged 

60 6 June, ,, 

Fire at Hachiogii ; about 5,000 houses destroyed, 

reported 25 Aug. ,, 

Destructive floods and a landslip in the Gifu 

district ; great loss of life, reported . 15 Sept. ,, 
The officers of the new Japanese ironclad YosMno 

dined with the lord mayor of London . 7 Nov. ,, 
Destructive floods, with great loss of life, re- 
ported 13 Nov. ,, 

Parliament opened, 28 Nov. ; great disorder ; parlia- 
ment dissolved, 30 Dec. 1893 ; general election ; 

liberal victory 1 March, 1894 

Disastrous floods throughout the country . May, ,, 
Death of Mr. Hugh Fraser, British minister, at 

Yokohama 4 June, ,, 

Parliament dissolved, after much dissension, re- 
ported 4 June, ,, 

Fire at Yamagata ; over 1,200 houses destroyed ; 

13 deaths, reported . . . . 1 June, ,, 
Destructive fire and earthquake at Yokohama, with 

loss of life 20 June, ,, 

Mr. P. le Poer Trench appointed British minister 

at Tokio July, ,, 

War with China (see Corea) . . . July, ,, 
Loan of 50,000,000 dollars authorized, 17 Aug. ; 

the nobles subscribe 80,000,000 dollars, 22 Aug. „ 
Anglo-Japanese treaty signed, 16 July ; ratified; 
the tariff modified and the foreign jurisdiction at 
the treaty ports to be abolished ; British residents 
equalised with the Japanese ; treaty to come into 
force in 5 years .... 25 Aug. ,, 

General prosperity and loyalty ; the government, 
aided by a military party, actively promote the 

war with China Aug. ,, 

Parliament opened by the mikado with a firm 
speech against China ; a large loan authorized, 
17 Oct. ; other bills passed by the parliament ; 
with thanks to the army and navy ; session 

closed 22 Oct. ,, 

Earthquake in Yamagata and Akita ; the town of 
Sakata nearly destroyed, with great loss of life, 

22 Oct. ,, 
Treaty with United States N. A. signed . 23 Nov. ,, 
Parliament opened ; cheerful speech from the 
throne ; progress of parliamentary government, 

24 Dec. ,, 
Treaty of peace with China ; concluded 17 April 

(see Corea) ; ratifications exchanged . 8 May, 1895 
Sir Ernest Satow appointed minister at Tokio, 

26 June, ,, 
Train on a sea-wall wrecked during a gale, 140 

soldiers killed 27 July, ,, 

Counts Ito, Yamagata, Oyama created marquises ; 

others raised to dignity .... Aug. ,, 
Parliament opened by the emperor . . 28 Dec. ,, 
YasMma, warship, launched on the Tyne at Els- 
wick 28 Feb. 1896 

Fuji, warship, launched on the Thames, 31 March, ,, 
Treaty of commerce, etc., with Germany, signed 

at Berlin 4 April, ,, 

Kamaishi, in N. Japan, almost completely des- 
troyed by earthquakes, about 1,000 lives lost, 150 
shocks in 20 hrs. ; about 20,000 persons drowned 
by a seismic wave, and many towns destroyed, 
15-17 June; Times, 3 Aug. ; see Mansion house, 
Nov. 1896 



Resignation of the marquis Ito and ministry, Aug. 
Earthquake in N.E. province, Rokugo destroyed, 

many deaths 31 Aug. 

Count Matsukata appointed premier and minister 
of finance ; count Okuma, foreign minister ; 

announced 18 Sept. 

Great development of trade, new lines of steamers, 

docks, etc., constructed; reported . 27 Nov. 

Parliament opened, 25 Dec. ; closed 24 March, 

Typhoon at Yokohama, with loss of life . 9 Sept. 

Parliament opened, with a cheerful speech from 

the throne, 21 Dec. ; the ministry resigns, 27 

Dec. ; an independent ministry formed by the 

marquis Ito, 12 Jan. ; he resigns ; succeeded by 

count Okuma . ... 28 June, 

The Vara transport vessel wrecked on her way to 

the Pescadores, 85 deaths ; reported 16 Jan. 

Chinese war indemnity paid, 11,008,857?. . 7 May, 

Terrible gale on N.E. coast, 1,500 fishermen 

drowned 11 May, 

New commercial and civil code comes into 

operation 16 July, 

Catalogue of more than 5,000 Japanese books in 
the British Museum, by prof. Douglas, reported, 

Sept. 
Count Okuma's cabinet resigns, 31 Oct. ; the mar- 
quis Yamagata forms one . . .6 Nov. 
Shi.kisMma battleship launched at Blackwall 

(Thames) 1 Nov. 

Parliament opened with an imperial message, 

3 Dec. 

Lord Charles Beresford visits Yokohama ; urges an 

alliance between Great Britain, Japan, Germany, 

and U.S.N. A., to prevent war in the Far East ; 

leaves 25 Jan. 

Severe earthquake in Niphon, loss of life and pro- 
perty 7 March, 

Asaki battleship launched at Glasgow, 13 March, 
Increased expenditure on the amiy and navy, 
taxes raised, expansion of commerce, &c, re- 
ported April, 

Loan of 10,000,000?. issued in London . June, 
New press law (1897), free press restrictions 

removed 1 July, 

Imperial rescript issued, 30 June ; foreign treaties 

revised ; Japan open to Europeans ; consular 

jurisdiction abolished, 17 July ; ratified, 15 Aug. 

Chinese mission to treat for a treaty of alliance 

fails mid Aug. 

Copper mine flooded at Besshi Ihikoku, 600 deaths, 
reported . . . . . . 1 Sept. 

Vaccination made compulsory . . . summer, 
House-tax becomes due, foreigners protest as 

exempt by treaty Oct. 

Government earthquake investigation committee 
appointed, 1893 ; catalogue issued by prof. Oman, 

Jan. ] 
Grand naval review (30 warships) off Kobe, the 
emperor present .... 30 April, 
Mobilisation of 20,000 troops ordered, owing to 

Chinese crisis 26 June, 

Eruption of Mount Adsuma, near Bandai San, 200 

persons reported killed or injured . 17 July, 

Yamagata's ministry resigns, succeeded by the 

marquis Ito 29 Sept. 

Mikasa warship, largest afloat, launched at Barrow, 

8 Nov. 

Dr. Kitasato's new method of treating dysentery by 

inoculation very successful . . 1895-Nov. 

Political crisis, early March ; taxation bills passed 

by the peers 16 March, i 

Bill recognising the titles of foreign landholders, 

passed March, 

Budget passed 22 March, 

Financial panic, 20 banks suspend payment, re- 
ported 25 April, 

Crisis ; cabinet resigns, 3 May ; visct. Katsura 

forms a ministry 3 June, 

M. Hoshi Toru, liberal leader, assassinated by Iba 
Sotaro (sentenced to life-imprisonment, 10 Sept.) 
in the Tokio city council . . .21 June, 
Baron Iwasaki buys and presents prof. Max 
Miiller's library (about 13,000 vols, and 81 Sans- 
crit MSS.) to Tokio university . . July, 
Surplus for 1900, 3,000,000 yen, reported, 10 Sept. 
The Chinese emperor's letter apologising for the 
murder of M. Sugiyama in Pekin (11 June, 1900) 



JAPAN. 



694 



JAVA. 



'and expressing his gratitude to the Japanese for 
their' "beneficent influence" and moderation, 
accepted by the emperor, who hopes that reforms 
in China may soon be in progress by means of 
which "permanent peace in Asia" will be se- 
cured . ........... Sept. 1901 

Sir Claude MacDonald, British minister, arrives, 

22 Oct. 
The emperor opens parliament . . 10 Dec! " 
Budget presented, 23 Dec. ; withdrawn, 26 Dec. ,, 
Marquis Ito leaves for U.S.N. A., mid Sept. ; visits 
Paris, St. Petersburg, Berlin, Brussels, arrives 
in London,' 24 Dec; received by the king, 
27 Dec. ; entertained at the Mansion house, 
3 Jan. 1902; made G.C.B. ; in Paris, 9 Jan.; 
Rome (decorated by the king) . 15-20 Jan. 1902 
Mikasd battleship launched at Barrow-in-Furness, 

satisfactorily tried Jan. 1902 

Infantry detachment (210) lost in the snow, only 

13 survived . . . .23 Jan.- 2 Feb. „ 
Anglo-Japanese tieaty of alliance signed, London 
(well received by France and Russia, March), 

30 Jan. ,, 
Large financial improvement, reported . 6 Feb. 
Baron Hayashi, minister to Qt. Britain, created a " 

yiscount ; others decorated . . . Feb. 
Marquis Ito received by the emperor, reported, 

9 March, ,, 
Parliament (16th session) closed . . 10 March, ,, 
Issues of bonds, over 7 J million yen, for railways 
and public works . . . .29 March, 
Great, fire at Fukui, reported . . 31 March' 
An association similar to Lloyds, formed, princes 
Arisugawa and Konoye pres. and vice-pres., 

reported 29 April, „ 

Herring fleet lost in a gale off Yezo, 250 deaths, 

30 April, ,, 
British naval squadron feted at Tokio . 26 May, 
Prince Komatsu and visct. Hayashi entertained by 
the lord mayor, in London . . 23 June 
Russian grand duke Boris visits Tokio, 2-12 July' " 
Insurgents defeated in S. Formosa . 26 July, 
Tori Shima, a small island, overwhelmed by a 
volcanic eruption, the inhabitants (over ito) 
kiUfld • ■ • ■ ■ • • 13-15 Aug. „ 
General election ; new system, reported satisfac- 
tory 22 Aug. „ 

House-tax (on foreigners) dispute, referred to 

arbitration 2 g Au^. 

Typhoon at Yokohama, great loss of life," Odawara 

swept by a wave, about 200 drowned, 29 Sept. ,, 
Japanese loan of 5,000,000?, issued London, 7 Oct. ,, 
Naval expansion scheme, budget, 3,700,000/., 1901- 

02, settled ear ] y Oct. ,, 

Parliament opened by the emperor . 9 Dec. 

The government's financial proposals opposed ; 

parliament dissolved on rejecting compromise, 

16, 28 Dec. ; general elections to be held, 1 March 

1903. 

Visit of the crown prince of Siam . . mid Dec 

Miniature of king Edward VII. set in diamonds, with 

autograph letter in terms of cordial friendship as 

a mark of goodwill, presented to the mikado by 

British minister .... early Feb. 1903 

During fetes celebrating accession of first Japanese 

emperor and promulgation of the constitution, 

British minister gives a banquet to 30 Japanese 

graduates of Oxford and Cambridge . u Feb. ,, 

Death of pri 11 ce Komatsu , aged 6 1 , the represen tati ve 

of Japan at the coronation of king Edward VII., 

chief of the Japanese guards in the Satsuma 

rebellion 1877, field-marshal of Japanese forces in 

the Chinese war of 1894-95, and distinguished 

statesman t 3 p^ 

General election . March 

Consent of Corean government to grant to Japanese 
subjects equal whaling privileges on the eastern 
coast as have been granted to Russian govern- 
ment since 1899, including 3 stations on shore, 

early May, „ 
Emperor opens the diet, 12 May, financial measures 
passed ; the Formosan camphor monopoly ex- 
tended to the whole empire ; diet closed 4 June, ,, 
Increasing excitement over the Manchuria ques- 
tion in Japan, reported .... June 



Dispute between' Japan and Corea respecting the 
opening of Wi-ju, for which Japan presses and 
CDrea refuses on ground of Russian objection, 

early July, 1903 

Cabinet changes, the marquis Ito closes his con- 
nection with the Seiyu-Kai, and accepts office 
of president of privy council, which will in future 
assume great importance in state affairs ; the 
marquis Yamagata and count Matsugata ap- 
pointed privy councillors ; the premier resumes 
office ; end of crisis . . . .13 July, ,, 

Pressure put upon Corea for the opening of Wi-ju, 
plea that Russia objects regarded by Japan as 
irrelevant .... about 10 July, „ 

Strained relations caused by rivalry of Russia and 
Japan in Corea in consequence of Russian activity 
having secured a position on the Corean side of 
the Ya-lu and Tuman rivers. Russia seeks for 
the right to assist in the construction of a rail- 
way through Wi-ju to Seoul ; Japanese proposal 
for a modus vivendi regarding Russian policy in 
Corea and Manchuria presented at St. Peters- 
burg . ... . . . 12 Aug. ,, 

Trade increasing, total value of exports and imports, 
54,107,552/. in 1902, reported . . .25 Aug. ,, 

M. Hakano, baron Kioura, and M. Kaiboba, 
appointed respectively ministers of justice, 
agriculture and commerce, and education and 
communication .... 23 Sept. ,, 

Strained relations between Japan and Russia on 
the question of the non-evacuation of Manchuria 
by the latter by 8 Sept. according to the terms 
of the convention, and Japanese interests in Corea, 

Oct.-Nov. ,, 

REIGNING EMPEROR OR MIKADO. 

Mutsu Hito, born 3 Nov., 1852 ; succeeded his 
father, Komei Tenuo, 1867. . . 13 Jan. 1867 
Heir apparent, prince Yoshi Hito, born 31 Aug. 
1879, installed 3 Nov. 1889 ; married princess 
Sada, 10 May, 1900 ; son born . 29 April, 1901 

JAPAN SOCIETY, London, was founded by 
lord de Saumarez, Mr. Arthur Diosy, professors W. 
Anderson, Church, and others, to promote the 
study of Japanese art, science, finance, commerce, 
language, literature, etc. ; instituted Jan. ; in- 
augural meeting, 29 April, 1892. The mikado of 
Japan presented 105/. to the society, Nov. 1892. 

JAPGrONIUM, a new metal discovered by 
professor A. Church in combination with the zircon 
of Ceylon. The spectrum was shown by Mr. H. 
Sorby, 6 March, 1869. 

JAENAC (W. France). On 13 March, 1569, 
the duke of Anjou, afterwards Henry III. of France, 
here defeated the Huguenots under Louis, prince of 
Conde, who was killed in cold blood by Montesquieu. 
The victor (seventeen years of age), on account of 
bis success here and at Moncontour, was chosen 
king of Poland. 

A Jarnac Stroke ; a term of opprobrium, is derived 
from the Seigneur de Jarnac, who, in a duel with 
La Chataigneraye, for a great insult, disabled 
his antagonist by an unexpected wound in the 
ham 1547 

JASMINE or Jessamine (Jasminum offici- 
nale), native, of Persia, &c, was brought hither from 
Circassia, before 1548. The Catalonian jasmine came 
from the Fast Indies, in 1629, and the yellow Indian 
jasmine in 1656 

JASSY, the capital of Moldavia, frequently 
occupied by the Russians ; taken by them in 1739, 
1769, and 1828. A treaty between them and the 
Turks was signed here, 9 Jan. 1792. Population, 
1885,90,000; 1899,78,067. 

JAYA, a large island in the Eastern Archi- 
pelago, is said to have been reached by the Portu- 
guese in 1511, and by the Dutch in 1595. The 
fatter, who now possess it, built. Batavia, the 



JAWAKIES. 



695 



jeesey; 



capital; about l6lQ ; see Batavia. '.The atrocious 
massacre of 20,000 of the unarmed natives by the 
Dutch, sparing neither women nor children, to 
possess their effects, took place in 1 740. The 
island capitulated to the British', 18 Sept. 1811. 
The sultan was dethroned by the English, and the 
hereditary prince raised to the throne, in June, 

1813. Java was restored to Holland by treaty in 

1814, and given up in 1816. The English promoted 
free labour instead of forced; but the Dutch re- 
verted to the old system, and in 1830 abolished 
free labour, introducing the "culture system," by 
which the government controls the cultivation of 
the land and buys the produce at its own price. In 
Aug. i860, the Swiss soldiers here, aided by the 
natives, mutinied, but were soon reduced, and many 
suffered death. The diminished prosperity of Java 
led to warm discussions in the Dutch chamber in 
1866. 

The valuable "History of Java," by sir T. Stamford 
Raffles (successful governor .1811-16 ; his life by Mr. 
Demetrius Boulger, published 1898), was published 
1817. 
Java has a great many volcanoes, and has frequently 
been devastated by eruptions and earthquakes ; those 
of s Jan. 1699, 31 Oct. 1876, and. 10 June, 1877, were 
very destructive. 
Java and neighbouring isles desolated by a series of 
violent eruptions from about two-thirds of its 46 vol- 
canoes, beginning with Krakatoa, casting up immense 
quantities of lava, mud, ashes, and fragments of rocks, 
darkening the air for about 50 square miles. Moun- 
tains were split up, some disappeared, and many new 
craters were formed. Rumbling noises heard 25 Aug., 
violent eruptions of Krakatoa 26 Aug. There was 
much submarine disturbance, and an immense " tidal 
wave" destroyed Anjer and other places, 27 Aug. 
The lighthouses in the straits of Sunda were swallowed 
up, and new volcanic peaks appeared, rendering navi- 
gation highly dangerous. Loss of life estimated at 
35,000, 25-28 Aug. Great atmospheric, oceanic, and 
electrical disturbances for thousands of square miles. 
See under Sun, 1883. 

A committee of the Royal Society issued a report on the 
eruption, Oct. 1888. 

Serious volcanic outbreaks ; great destruction ; about 
500 persons perish, early May, 1885. 

Insurrection of the natives at Anjer ; some Europeans 
and natives killed ; the revolt checked by the police 
and settled, 16 July, 1888. 

By a great eruption of the volcano of Galoenggoen in 
1822 114 villages were destroyed, and over 4,000 lives 
lost ; several villages destroyed by another eruption, 
reported, 20 Oct. 1894. 

Eruption of Keloet, 181 deaths, about 23 May, 1901. 

JAWAKIES, see India, 1877-8. 

JEAN DE LUZ, ST. (S._ France, near the 
Pyrenees). Soult's strong position here was taken 
by general Hill and marshal Beresford. 10 Nov. 1813. 

JEDDA, the port of Mecca, Arabia. On 15 June, 
1858, the fanatic Mahometans massacred twenty-six 
of the Christian inhabitants, among them the Eng- 
lish and French consuls and part of their families; 
but many fled to the shipping. On the delay of 
justice, commodore Pullen, with the Ci/clops, bom- 
barded the town, 25, 26 July. On 6 Aug. eleven 
of the assassins wei - e executed ; the ringleaders 
afterwards. 

Murderous attack on foreign consuls, for their sani- 
tary regulations, by Bedouin ; 1 man killed, 
30 May ; immediate punishment ordered by the 
sultan, as demanded by the powers, 1 June, 1895 
[indemnity paid, 20 May, 1896.] 
Cholera hospital destroyed by the Bedouin, reported, 

5 June, 1895 
.Order restored, reported . . . 15 June, ,, 
Outbreak of plague . . . . Feb.-Maich, 1899 
Great distress due to influx of pilgrims from Mecca, 
see Cholera March, 1902 



JEDO 01; Yedo (the name, was changed to 
Tokio about 1869I, the eastern capital of Japan, on 
the island of Niphon. Here was signed the treaty 
with Great Britain, 26 Aug. 1858; see Japan. 5000 
houses destroyed by fire, 8 Dec. 1873, and 2,547, 
March, 1890, see Tokio. ,- 

I JEHAD , see Jihad. 

JELLALABAD, Afghanistan, defended by sir 
Robert Sale from 8 Jan. to 5 April, 1842, when the 
siege was' raised by general G. Pollock, who de- 
stroyed the fortifications. 

JE MAINTIENDEAI, "I will maintain," 
the motto of the house of Nassau. When William 
[II. came to the throne of England, he continued 
this, but added "the liberties of. England and the 
Protestant religion," at the same time ordering 
that the old motto of the royal arms, " Dieu et mon 
droit," should be retained on the great seal, 1689. 

JEMAPPES (N.W. Belgium), the site of the 
first pitched battle gained by the French republicans 
(under Dumouriez), in which 40,000 French troops 
drove out 19,000 Austrians, who were entrenched 
in woods and mountains, defended by redoubts and 
many cannon, 6 Nov. 1792. The number killed on 
each side was reckoned at 5000. 

JENA and AUERSTADT (Central Germany), 
where two battles were fought, 14 Oct. 1806, be- 
tween the French and Prussians. The French were 
commanded at Jena by Napoleon, and at Auerstadt 
by Davoust : the Prussians by prince Hohenlohe at 
the former place, and the king of Prussia at the 
latter. The Prussians were defeated, losing nearly 
20,000 killed and wounded, and nearly as many 
prisoners, and 200 field pieces ; the French lost 
14,000 men. Napoleon advanced to Berlin, and 
issued the Berlin decree {which see). 

JENKINS' EAR. In 1731, an English mer- 
chant-vessel was boarded by a Spanish giuirdship, 
and the captain, Robert Jenkins, cruelly used, his 
wounded ear being torn off. He obtained no 
redress by appeal to his government. He appeared 
before parliament in 1738, when the convention of 
the Pardo was severely discussed, and war ensued. 
Jenkins' story was verified by Admiralty Records 
in 1889 

JENNEEIAN INSTITUTION, founded 
1803 ; Jenner society established at Gloucester 
(which see),. 1896. Jenner celebration in Russia 
Dec. 1896, see Vaccination and Preventive 
Medicine. 

JEPHTHAH delivered Israel from the Ammo- 
nites B.C. 1 143, Judges xi. " Jephthah," Handel's 
last oratorio ; composed 21 Jan. — 30 Aug. 1751 ; per- 
formed 26 Feb. 1752. 

JEESEY. The chief island of the Channel 
archipelago (which includes Guernsey, Sark, Alder- 
ney, &c), formerly held by the Romans in the 3rd 
and 4th centuries after Christ — Jersey being termed 
Cffisarea. The isles were captured by Rollo, and 
thus became an appanage of the duchy of Nor- 
mandy, and were united to the crown of England 
by his descendant, William the Conqueror. The 
inhabitants of the Channel Islands preferred to re- 
main subjects of king John, at the period of the 
conquest of Normandy by Philip Augustus, and 
while retaining the laws, customs, and (until lately) 
the language of their continental ancestors, have 
always remained firm in their allegiance to Eng- 
land. Almost everv war with France has been 



JERSEY CITY. 



696 



JESUITS. 



characterised by an attack on Jersey, the most for- 
midable of which, under the baron de Ilullecour, 
was defeated by the English garrison and Jersey 
militia, commanded by major Pierson, 6 Jan. 1781. 
Mr. J. Bertrand Payne, in his " Armorial of Jersey," 
and his " Gossiping Guide," has exhaustively treated 
the general and familj history of the island. Jersey 
became a place of refuge for MM. Rouher, Baroche, 
Drouyn de Lhuys, and other distinguished French 
imperialists, Sept. 1870. Some of the Trappists 
and other monks expelled from France, settle in 
Jersey, 1880-1. Philip Gosset, sentenced to 5 years' 
imprisonment for fraud against the state (£27,000), 
and a banking company, 8 May, 1886. Dissensions 
in regard to the exclusion of the English language 
in the legislative assemblies of the islands, etc. 
Feb. 1896. Lieut.-gov., gen. C. B. Ewart, 1887; 
lieut.-gen. Edward Markham, 1892 ; major-gen. 
Edw. Hopton 1895 (died 8 Au*. 1903) ; major- 
gen. H. R. Abadie, 1900. The population of the 
channel isles in 1861 was 90,978 ; in 1871, 90,563; 
1111881,87,702; 1891,92,272; 1901,95,841. 

The Theatre Royal and 2 houses burnt, 29 March, 1S99 
Town militia arsenal burnt flown; heavy loss, 

23 Jan. 1900 
Sir Wilfrid (Canadian premier) and lady Laurier 
-warmly welcomed .... 13 Aug. 1902 

JERSEY CITY, U.S.A., population 1880, 
120,722; 1890, 163,003; 1900, 206,433. See New 
Jersey. 

JERUSALEM, called also SALEM, 1913 B.C. 
{Gen. xiv. 18). Its king was slain by Joshua, 145 1 
B.C. It was taken by David, 1048 B.C., who dwelt 
in the fort, calling it the city of David ; see Jeivs, 
and Holy Places. Population about 1887, 43,000. 

The first temple founded by Solomon, 1012 B.C. ; and 

solemnly dedicated on Friday . . 30 Oct. 1004 
Jerusalem taken by Chosroes the Persian, a.d. 
614 ; retaken by the emperor Heraclius, 628 ; by 
the Saracens, 637 ; and by the Crusaders, when 
70,000 infidels were put to the sword ; a new 
kingdom founded .... 15 July, 1099 
The "assize of Jerusalem," a code of laws, estab- 
lished by Godfrey of Bouillon, king . . . i IO o 
King Guy defeated at Tiberias, and Jerusalem taken 

bySaladin 2 Oct. 1187 

By the Turks, who drive away the Saracens, 1217 <fc 1239 
Surrendered to the emperor Frederick II. by treaty, 1228 

Surrendered to the Crusaders ^43 

Taken by Carizmians \ I2 , . 

Taken from the Christians I2QI 

Taken by the Turks ' 15I (j 

Held by the French under Bonaparte . Feb. 1799 

Jerusalem visited by the prince of Wales, &&', 

31 March, 1862 
Convention for the preservation of the holy sepul- 
chre, signed on behalf of Russia, France, and 

Turkey 5 Sept. „ 

Jerusalem and the neighbourhood surveyed by a 

party of royal engineers since . . Sept. 1864 

German colony founded ;it Haifa .... ^68 
Visited by the prince of Prussia, 4 Nov. ; by the 

emperor of Austria .... 9 Nov 1869 
Greatly benefited by sir Moses Montefiore, who 

visited it for the seventh time, when aged 90 . 1875 
Discovery of pavement attributed to Constantine 

Nov. 1887 
Ibrahim Hakki pasha appointed governor, 10 Nov. 1890 
Mr. Carl Froscll's cycloramic painting of Jerusalem', 
a.d. 33, was exhibited in York-street, Westminster 

Dec. „ 
A panorama of Jerusalem, &c, exhibited in Vic- 
toria-street, Westminster . . .18 April iSo^ 
A railway from Jerusalem to Jaffa constructed by 
a French company ; opened . . .13 Sent. 
The purchase of the reputed garden tomb of Christ' 
outside the Damascus gate, proposed by Mr! 
Henry A. Campbell, Mr. John Murray, the abp! 
of Canterbury, the bishop of Cashel, Dr. Dyce 



Brown, and others ; much discussed, Oct. ; sub- 
scriptions were received, Nov., Dec. 1892 ; the 
purchase, with adjoining land, effected for 2,000/., 
about 1,300/. subscribed .... June, 1894 
Tewfik bey appointed governor . . 26 Oct. 1897 
Visit of the German emperor ; dedication of the 
Church of the Redeemer ; the site of the house 
of the Virgin Mary on Mt. Zion given by the 
emperor to German Catholics . . 31 Oct. 1898; 
Djevad Bey appointed governor . . n June, 1901 
Conflict in the church of the Holy Sepulchre 

between Latins and Greeks ... 4 Nov. ,, 
34 Greeks, including 12 priests, sentenced from 1 
week to 9 months' imprisonment . 9 July, 1902 

CHRISTIAN KINGS. 

Godfrey of Bouillon (styled himself " baron of the 

holy sepulchre ") 1099 

Baldwin 1 11 00 

Baldwin II 1118. 

FulkofAn.jou 1131 

Baldwin III H44, 

Amauri (or Almeric) 1162. 

Baldwin IV., 1173, a leper, set aside; his sister 
Sybilla, his heiress, 1185, on the suspicious death 
of her child, Baldwin V., crowned her second 

husband, Guy de Lusignan, in n86 

Henry of Champagne 1192: 

Amauri de Lusignan 1197 

Jeanne de Brienne 1210 

Emperor Frederick II 1229-391 

Protestant Bishopric of Jerusalem erected by treaty 
7 Sept. 1841, under the protection of Great Britain 
and Prussia : 
S. M. S. Alexander consecrated bishop . 7 Nov. 1841 
Samuel Gobat, bishop, 1846 ; died n May . . 1879 
Joseph Barclay, LL.D., consecrated 25 July, 1879; 
died ....... '22 Oct. 1881 

[No successor appointed ; the compact dissolved 
June, 1886; formally announced, 18 Aug. 1887. 
An exclusively Anglican bishop was proposed by 
the archbishop of Canterbury ; subscriptions in- 
vited, Feb. 1887. Dean G. F. P. Blyth, April, 
1887, was appointed bishop.] 
The Jerusalem, Cowper's Court, Cornhill, originally 
a coffee-house, opened early in the 17th century ; 
burnt in the great fire 1666, and again in 1748, 
last rebuilt in 1880. It is supported by a com- 
pany and subscribers, and forms a rendezvous for 
ship-owners, brokers, and others closely con- 
nected with shipping and commerce with the 
East, Australasia and the Cape. 

' ' JERUSALEM DELIVERED , " the grea* 
Italian epic, by Tasso, was published in 1580. 

JERVIS'S ACTS, 11 & 12 Vict., cc. 42, 43 
(1848), relate to legal proceedings against criminals. 

JESTER is described as "a witty and jocose- 
person, kept by princes to inform them of their 
faults, and of those of others, under the disguise of 
a waggish story." Several of our kings, particu- 
larly the Tuuors, kept jesters. Rahere, the 
founder of St. Bartholomew's priory, "West Smith- 
field, London, 1 133, is said to have been a court 
jester and minstrel. There was a jester at court in 
the reigns of James I. and Charles I., but we hear 
of no licensed jester afterwards. 

JESUITS. The society or company of Jesus, was 
founded by Ignatius Loyola, a page to Ferdinand V. 
of Spain, subsequently an officer in his army, and 
afterwards canonised. Having been wounded in 
both legs at the siege of Pampeluna, in 1 521, he 
devoted himself to theology, and renounced the 
military for the ecclesiastical profession. He dedi- 
cated liis life to the Blessed Virgin as her knight ; 
made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and on his 
return laid the foundation of his society at Paris, 
16 Aug. 1534. He presented his institutes, in 
1539, to pope Paul III., who made many objec- 
tions ; but Ignatius adding to the vows of chastity, 
poverty, and obedience, a fourth of implicit sub- 



JESUITS BARK. 



697 



JEWEL ROBBERIES. 



mission to the holy see, the institution was con- 
firmed by a hull, 27 Sept. 1 540. The number of 
members was not to exceed sixty, but that restric- 
tion was taken off by another bull, 14 March, 1^43 ; 
and popes Julius III., Pius V., and Gregory XIII. 
granted many privileges. Loyola died 31 July, 
1556. Francis Xavier, and other missionaries, the 
first brethren, carried the order to the extremities 
of the habitable globe, but it met with great opposi- 
tion in Europe, particularly in Paris : see Paraguay 
and Jansenists. The order still exists in many 
European states contrary to the laws. 

The society condemned by the Sovbonne, Paris, 
1554 ; expelled from France, 1594 ; re-admitted, 
1604; but after several decrees is totally sup- 
pressed in France and its property confiscated . 1764 
Ordered by parliament to be expelled from Eng- 
land, 1579, 1581, 1586, 1602; and by the Catholic 

relief act in 1829 

Expelled from — Venice, 1607; Holland, 1708; Por- 
tugal, 1759; Spain 1767 

Abolished by Clement XIV. ... 21 July, 1773 

Restored by Pius VI 7 Aug. 1814 

Father Pierre J. Beckx, elected general 1853 ! active 

and successful ; retired, 1883 [died 4 March, 1887]. 

Expelled from — Belgium, 1818 ; Russia, 1820; Spain, 

1820, 1835; France, 1831, 1845; Portugal, 1834 ; 

Sardinia, Austria, and other states, 1848 ; Italy 

and Sicily i860 

The chief of the order appeals to the king of Sar- 
dinia for redress of grievances . . 24 Oct. „ 
Report of the order ; total number of Jesuits, 8167 : 

in France, 2422, in 1866; 12,947 reported Jan. 1892 
In consequence of the activity of the order on be- 
half of the papal supremacy, a bill for its expul- 
sion from Germany passed by the parliament at 
Berlin (131-93), 19 June; promulgated. 5 July, 1872 
The head-quarters of the order proposed to be re- 
moved from Rome to Malta .... Oct. 1873 
Expulsion of the Jesuits from Italy, decreed 25 June ; 

carried into execution, 20 Oct. —2 Nov. . . . ,, 
Father Curci, orthodox and eloquent, resigned (vir- 
tually expelled) for recommending the pope to 
submit to loss of temporal power, Oct. 1877 ; 
publishes "II Moderno Dissidio fra la Chiesa e 

l'ltalia." Dec. 1877 

Submits to the Pope in a humble letter; received 

into favour .... about 16 Oct. 1884 
27 Jesuits' colleges in France ; 848 teachers . . 1879 
The order in France dissolved by decree, 30 March, 1880 
Decree for expulsion of Jesuits and other orders 

from France, 30 March ; carried out . 30 June, ,, 
A large gathering of Jesuits of all countries at Rome ; 
Father Anderledy appointed Vicar-General Sept. 

1883; dies 20 Jan. 1892 

Father Martin elected general of the Jesuits at the 

monastery of Loyola, in Guipuzcoa . 1 Oct. „ 
The Jesuits leave France owing to the new associa- 
tions law July-Oct. 1901 

JESUIT'S BARK, called hy the Spaniards 
fever-wood, from the cinchona or chinchona tree, 
discovered, it is said, by a Jesuit, about 1535 (and 
used by the order). Its virtues were not generally 
known till 1633, or 1638, when it cured of fever 
the wife of the viceroy (Chinchona) at Peru, hence 
termed pulvis comitissce. It was sold at one period 
for its weight in silver, and was introduced into 
France in 1649; and is said to have cured Louis 
XIV. of fever when he was dauphin. It came into 
general use in 1680, and sir Hans Sloane intro- 
duced it here about 1700. The cinchona plant, 
largely planted in the Neilgherry hills, India, in 
1861, is said to he thriving greatly, and also in 
Ceylon ; see Quinine. 

JESUS CHRIST, the Saviour of the 

WORLD. I Tim. iii. 16. The following dates 
given in the English bible have been much contro- 
verted, and others have been proposed by eminent 
chronologers, such as Hales and Clinton, see 
Nativity and Crucifixion, The birth of Christ is 



dated, 4 B.C. ; his baptism and first ministry, 
27 a.d. ; his crucifixion, resurrection, and ascen- 
sion, 11 A.D. 

The divinity of Christ, denied by the Arians, was 
affirmed bv the council of Nice .... 325, 

Drawings illustrating the life of Christ by M. 
Tissot (died 8 Aug. 1902) exhibited in Bond- 
street, London March, 189& 

JEU DE PAUME (the tennis court). The- 
king having closed the hall of the assembly at Ver- 
sailles, the third estate (tiers-etat) met here, 
and swore not to dissolve till a constitution was 
established, 20 June, 1789. (It is the subject of 
a painting by David.) Commemorated 20 June, 
1883. 

JEWELLERY was received by Rebekah as a 
marriage gift, 1857 B.C. {Gen. xxiv. 53). Pliny the- 
elder says he saw Lollia Paulina (wife of Caius 
Caesar, and afterwards Caligula) wearing ornaments 
valued at a sum equal to 322,916^ sterling. Jewels- 
were worn in France by Agnes Sorel in 1434, and 
encouraged in England about 1685. The standard, 
of gold for jewellery, except wedding rings, was- 
lowered by parliament in 1854. See Gems. 

JEWEL ROBBERIES, see Trials, 1871, 
1873, Dec. 1891, and Nov. 1903. 

The countess of Dudley's jewels (value 15,000/.) 

stolen at Great Western Railway Station 12 Dec. 1874 
Messrs. Williams, of Hatton Garden, London, 

robbed of 25,000?. worth . . .25 March, 1876 
Duchess of Cleveland, at Battle Abbey, Sussex, 
robbed of between 5000/. and 10,000?. worth, 

early in Feb. 1877 
Countess of Aberdeen's (value above 5000/.) stolen, 

Halstead Place, Sevenoaks. Kent. . 19 Nov. „ 
Hatton Garden Post-Office, London ; gas suddenly 
extinguished at 5 p.m., two mail bags stolen, one 
containing diamonds, and other jewels, watches, 
&c, in registered letters; value above 15,000?. 

16 Nov. 1882 
Lord Arthur Hill Trevor's house, Bryn-Kinalet, near 
Chirk, Wales, robbed of jewels valued 6o,ooo?. 

Sunday, 4 Dec. „ 
Lady Miles's jewels (value 30,000?.), at Leigh court, 

near Bristol, stolen, Sunday . . 18 Dec. 1892 
Baroness Schroeder's jewels (value 3,000?.), at 

Worleston, Cheshire . . . 16 March, 1893 
Countess Wilton's jewels at the Hatch, near 

Maidenhead 1 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Spyzer, of Antwerp, overpowered by chloroform 
at 70 Hatton garden, and robbed of diamonds, 
<fec. (value 20,000?.) .... 13 Sept. 1894 
Mrs. Langtry v. the Union bank, Sloane-street, to 
recover 35,000?., the value of jewels deposited by 
her at the bank and delivered up to an unautho- 
rised person bearing a forged order, 24 Aug. 1895; 
verdict for the defendants without costs, they 
agreeing to pay Mrs. Langtry 10,000?. . 5 May, 1896 
At the Diamond Merchants' Alliance, Piccadilly, 
jewel robbery, estimated value, 15,000?. 

30 or 31 Oct. 1897 

The dowager-duchess of Sutherland's jewels (value 
about 25,000?.) stolen at the Nord railway station, 
Paris, 17 Oct. 1898 ; Wm. Johnson pleads guilty 
to the possession of about 5,000?. worth, sent- 
enced to 7 years' imprisonment . 18 Jan. 1899 

The princess I einingen's jewels (many heirlooms), 
estimated value 6,000?., stolen from an hotel at 
Liverpool 3° April, 1900. 

Lord Angle-sea's jewels, valued over 30,000?., stolen 
from an hotel in Piccadilly, 10 Sept. 1901; Julian 
Gault, 23, valet, pleads guilty, sentenced to 5 
years' imprisonment .... 22 Oct. 1901 

Lady Carnarvon's jewel-case extracted from a dress- 
ing case on journey from Paris to London (value 
considerable, amount not stated) . . • "9° 2 

Lady Bowyer's valuables stolen from her railway 
compartment at the Gare de Lyon, Paris (value 
3,000/.) 5 Oct. 1903 



JEWISH COLONIZATION. 



(398 



JEWISH ERA. 



Messrs. Knight, Frank and Rutley, of Conduit- 
street, premises entered prior to sale (value 
8,000/.) 15 Oct. 1903 

JEWISH COLONIZATION ASSOCI- 
ATION, registered as a C'mpany by the Hoard of 
Trade, Sept. 1891. Nominal capital, 2,000,000^. ; 
promoted by lord Rothschild, sir Julian (ioldsmid, 
and other gentlemen to carry out baron Hirsch's 
scheme for the emigration of distressed Jews from 
Europe and Asia to N. or S. America. Baron 
Maurice de Hirsch, born 1831 ; died in Hungary, 
21 April, 1896. 

First general meeting; amount subscribed 39,826/. 
(Messrs. N. M. Rothschild, 10,000/. ; Messrs. R. 
Raphael, 4,000/. ; sir Julian Goldsmid, 3,000/. ; 
Messrs. S. Montagu, Mrs. Nathaniel Montefiore, 
E. L. Raphael, and Messrs. Stern, 2,000/. each), 
14 Oct. 1891 ; 89,463/. received up to . 29 Dec. 1891 
Negotiations with the Argentine republic for settle- 
ments. The arrangements placed under the com- 
mand of lieut. -col. Albert Goldsmid . . Dec. ,, 
" Colony Hirsch" formed in N. W. Canada in . 1892 
Early disorders composed ; good report by lieut.- 

col. Goldsmid 11 June, 1893 

The society's first annual report issued . . Jan. ,, 
Four colonies in the Argentine republic . Jan. 1894 
Council appointed for the direction of affairs, M. S. 

H. Goldschmidt president . . . May, 1896 
Successful progress reported . . April, 1898 

JEWISH DISABILITIES, see under Jews, 
1269- 1867. 

JEWISH ERA and Calendar. The Jews 
usually employed the era of the Seleucidse until the 
15th century, when a new mode of computing was 
adopted. They date from the creation, which they 
consider to have been 3760 years and 3 months 
before the commencement of our era. lo reduce 
Jewish time to ours, subtract 3761 years. The Jewish 
year consists of either twelve or thirteen months, of 
29 or 30 days. The civil year commences with the 
month Tisri, immediately after the new moon fol- 
lowing the autumnal equinox ; the ecclesiastical 
year begins with Nisan. 

Civil year, 5662-63. 

Sebat 9 Jan. 1902 

Adar . . 8 Feb. ; Ve-Adar or 2nd Adar * „ 

Nisan or Abib 8 April, ,, 

Ijar ........ 8 May, „ 

Sivan ... 6 June, ,, 

Thammuz . . . 6 July, ,, 

Ab 4 Aug. „ 

Elul 3 Sept. ,, 

Tisri (first day of new year, 5663) . 2 Oct. ,, 

Marches van 1 Nov. ,, 

Chislev 1 Dec. ,, 

Thebet 31 Dec. ,, 

The Jewish calendar is given annually in the best 
almanacks. 

JEWS, successively called Hebrews, Israelites, 
and Jews, the descendants of Abraham, with whom 
God made a covenant, 1898 B.C. Gen. xvii. See 
Jerusalem. Computed number of Jews in the 
world May 1889, 6,300,000 (Europe 5,400,000, 
Africa 350,000, America, 250,000; 360,000 in New 
York in 1902). The following dates are generally 
those by Usher given in the English Bible ; differ- 
ing dates are given by Hales, Clinton, and other 
•chronologers. 

Call of Abram to enter Canaan 
Isaac born to Abraham 

Birth of Esau and Jacob 1837 

Death of Abraham 1822 

Joseph sold into Egypt 1729 

* Intercalated every third year, to supply the defi- 
ciency <jf the Jewish year of 354 days. 



The male children of the Israelites thrown into the 

Nile; Moses bom . . .'" . . . 157 1 

The Passover instituted ) the Israelites go out of 
. Egypt, and cross the Red Sea ■ . . . . 149 1 
The law promulgated from 'Mount Sinai . . . ,, 
The Tabernacle set up '.-:'... .,s. . ■ 1490 
: Death of Moses ; Joshua leads the Israelites into 

Canaan and conquers it . ... 145 1 

The first bondage (Othniel, judge, 1405) . . . 1413 

1 The second bondage (Ehud, 1325) . ... 1343 

' The third bondage (Deborah and Barak, 1285) . 1305 

The fourth bondage (Gideon, 1245) . . . . 1252 

The fifth bondage (Jephthah, 1187) . . . .1206 

i The sixth bondage ....... 1157 

1 Samson slays the Philistines 1136 

1 Samuel governs as judge, about ..... 1120 
I Samson pulls down the temple of Dagou . . .1117 

I Saul made king 1095 

David slays Goliath, about . . . . . 1063 
I Death of Saul; David made king . . . . 1055 

1 David besieges and takes Jerusalem, and makes it 

his capital . . . . ■ . . . . 1048 
I Solomon king, 1015 ; lays the foundation of the 

temple, 1012 ; which is dedicated . . . 1004 

Death of Solomon ; the kingdom divided . . . 975 

KINGDOM OF ISRAEL. 

Jeroboam establishes idolatry 975 

Bethel taken from Jeroboam ; 500,000 Israelites 

slam 957 

Israel afflicted with the famine predicted by Elijah 906 

j The Syrians besiege Samaria 901 

Elijah translated to heaven 896 

Miracles of Elisha the prophet 895 

The Assyrian invasion under Phul . . . .771 

Pekah besieges Jerusalem 741 

Samaria taken by the king of Assyria : the ten tribes 
are carried into captivity, and an end is put to the 

kingdom of Israel 721 

KINGDOM OF JUDAH. 

Shishak, king of Egypt, takes Jerusalem, and pil- 
lages the temple 971 

Abijah defeats the king of Israel, 500,000 men are 

slain in battle 957 

Asa defeats the Ethiopians ; abolishes idolatry . 941 
Jehoshaphat orders the law to be taught 912; defeats 
the Ammonites, <fec. . . . . . ■ 896 

Usurpation and death of Athaliah . . . . 884 

Hazael desolates Judah . . ... . . 857 

Pekah, king of Israel, lays siege to Jerusalem ; 

120,000 of the men of Judah are slain in one day. 741 
Hezekiah abolishes idolatry ... • 726 

Sennacherib invades Judea, but the destroying angel 
enters the camp of the Assyrians, and in one night 

destroys 185,000 of them 710 

Holofernes said to have been killed at the siege of 

Bethulia by Judith . .... 656 

In repairing the temple, Hilkiah discovers the book 

of the law, and Josiah keeps a solemn Passover . 624 

Nebuchadnezzar subjugates Judea .... 605 

He takes Jerusalem after a long siege . . . . 588 

Jerusalem fired, the temple burnt, the walls razed 

to the ground 587 

KINGS. PROPHETS. 

Saul began to reign . . .B.C. 1095 Samuel. 
David, king of Judah, 1055 ; of all Israel, 1048 Nathan. 
Solomon ,, .... 1015 

B.C. Kings of Judah. Kings of Israel. 
975. Rehoboani . . Jeroboam I. 



B.C. 1921 



958. Abijah 
955. Asa . 

953- .. 

930. „ 

929. ,, 

025 

918. ., 

914. Jehoshaphat 

897. 



. Nadab ( 954 ) 
. Baasha ,, . 
. Elah „ 
. Zimri . 
. Oinri 
. Ahab . 

. Ahaziah 



896 Jehoram or Joram 

S8y Jthoram . . ., ,, 

885. Ahaziah . . ,, „ 

SS4 Athaliah . . Jehu. 

87S JoashorJehoahaz ,. 

8=7. .. „ . Jehoaha: 

839. Ainaziah . . Jihoash (841) 



. Abijah. 

Azariah. 
Hamuli. 

Jehu. 



Elijah. 



Elisha. 
Jahaziel 



JEWS. 



699 



JEWS. 



B.C. 

825. 



Kings of Judah. Kings of Israel. 
Amaziah . . Jeroboam II. . 



810. UzziahorAzariah 

784- ' .. ' 

773- 



772- . .. 

761. „ 

759- 

758. Jotham 



742. 

73°- 
726. 



643- 
641. 

610. -J 



Ahaz . 

Hezekiah . 
Manasseh. 
Anion 
Josiah 
( Jelioaliaz 

(Sliallum). 
^ Jelioiakim. 
Jehoiachin 
(Coniah), 
Zedekiah 



Anarchy 
Zeehariah 
I Shallum. 
\ Menahem. 
Pekahiah. 
Pekah. 



Hoshea. 
[Captivity. 721.] 



PROPHETS, 

Jonah. 
J Hosea 
( Amos. 

■ Joel 



I Isaiah & 
"( Micah. 

Nahum. 

Jeremiah. 
Zephaniah 



Daniel. 
Ezekiel. 



BABYLONISH CAPTIVITY. 



Daniel prophesies at Babylon . . . . b.c. 603 
Shadraeh, Meshach, and Abed-nego, refusing to wor- 
ship the golden image, are cast into a fiery fur- 
nace, but are delivered by the angel . . . 587 

Obadiah prophesies ,, 

Daniel declares the meaning of the handwriting 
against Belshazzar ; cast into the lions' den ; pro- ' 
phesies the return from captivity, and the coining 
of the Messiah 538 

RETURN FROM CAPTIVITY. 

Cyrus, sovereign of all Asia, publishes an edict for 
the return of the Jews and rebuilding of the 

temple 536 

Haggai and Zeehariah prophets .... 520 
The second temple finished . . 10 March, 515 

The Jews delivered from Hainan by Esther . . 510 
Ezra, the priest, arrives in Jerusalem to reform 

abuses 458 

Here begin the 70 weeks of years predicted by 
Daniel, being 490 years before the crucifixion of 

the Redeemer . . 457 

The walls of Jerusalem built by Nehemiah . . 445 

Malachi the prophet 415 

[The Scripture history of the Jews ends, according 
to Eusebius, in 442 b. c. ; and from this time Jo- 
sephus and the Roman historians give the best 
account of the .Tews.l 
Alexander the Great marches against Jerusalem to 
besiege it, but, it is said, on seeing Jaddus, the 
high-priest, clad in his robes, he declares he had 
seen such a figure in Macedonia, inviting him to 
Asia, and promising to deliver the Persian empire 
into his hands ; he goes -to the temple, and offers 
sacrifices to the God of the Jews . . . 332 

Jerusalem taken by Ptolemy Soter . . . . 320 
Ptolemy Philadelphus said to employ 72 Jews to 
translate the Scriptures . . . about 285 

The Sadducee sect formed 250 

Jews massacred at Alexandria . . . . . 216 
Antiochus takes Jerusalem, pillages the temple, and 

slays 40,000 of the inhabitants . . . . 170 
Government of the Maccabees begins . . . . 166 
Treaty with the Romans ; the first on record -With 

the Jews . . 161 

Judas Hyrcanus Aristobulus assumes the title of 

" king of the Jews " , . 107 

Alexander Janmeus suppresses a rebellion of Phari- 
sees cruelly . . . . . ... 86 

Jerusalem taken by the Roman legions' under 

Pompey . .63 

The temple plundered by Crassus . . . . 54 
Antipater made intendant of Judiea by Julius 

Csesar 49 

Herod, son of Antipater, marries Mariamne, grand- 
daughter of the high priest 42 

Invasion of the Parthians 40 

Herod employs the aid of the senate ; they decree 
him to be the king . . . . . . . ,, 

Jerusalem taken by Herod and the Roman general 
Sosius 37 



29-18 
4 
26 



33 



69 



70 
100 



130 



138 



353 
415 
600 



Herod kills Mariamne, 29 ; rebuilds the temple 
Jesus Christ born . ' .'.■.. 
Pontius Pilate is made procurator of Judea 
John tlie Baptist begins to preaclr .. . ■• • . 
Christ's ministry and miraeles, 27-33 ; ms cruci- 
fixion and resurrection . ... 
The Jews persecuted for refusing to worship Cali 

gula . ..••... 

Receive the right of Roman citizenship 
Claudius banishes Jews from Rome 

Invasion of Vespasian 

Jews settle at Merida, Spain 

Titus takes Jerusalem ; the city and temple sacked 
and burnt, and 1,100,000 of the Jews.perish, 8 Sept. 
Targum of Onkelos written about 
Adrian rebuilds Jerusalem (calling it iElia Capito 

lina), and erects a temple to Jupiter 
Rebellion of Bar-cochba ;, takes Jerusalem 132 
killed in war with Julius Severus, 135 ; desola- 
tion of Judea iSS -1 ^ 

More than 580,000 of the Jews are slain by the 
Romans ....... -,'...,. . . ■ • „ 

Jews favoured by Antoninus Pius ; college of Jam- 
ilia opened . ... . . ... ... 

The Misehna (see Taj/mud) compiled by Rabbi Judah, 
the prince . . . ."•.-'-.. . before 

The Jews favoured by Severus, 196 ; by Constan- 

tine, 310 ; by Julian, 363 ; persecuted by Constans 

Jews massacred at Alexandria . . ... 

The Babylonian Talmud completed . . about 
Jerusalem taken by Omar . . . ' . . . 655 
Jews first mentioned in English chronicles . . 740 
Formation of the sect termed Karaites {which See) 

by Anan, about 754 

Jewish college founded at Cordova . . . . 948 

Talmud translated into Arabic 1006 

Jews said to be banished from England by Canute 1020 
Polygamy in, Christian countries prohibited by the 

Jewish synod at Worms 1030 

Jews return to England 1066 

.[Chiefly settled in London and Lincoln.] 
The Jews- massacred in London, on the coronation 

day of Richard I. , at the instigation of the priests 1189 
500 Jews besieged in York castle by the mob, cut 

each other's throats to avoid their fury . . 1190 
Jews of both sexes imprisoned.; their eyes or teeth 
plucked out, and numbers inhumanly butchered, 

by king John 1204 

The Rabbi Moses Maimonides died „ 

700 Jews are slain in London, a Jew having forced a 

Christian to pay him more -than 2s. per week as 

interest on a loan of 20s. (Stow.) ... ■ . . . 

Statute that no Jew should enjoy a freehold . 

Every Jew lending money on interest compelled to 

wear a plate on his breast, signifying that he was 

a usurer, or to quit the realm. (Stow.) . ._ . 

267 Jews hanged and quartered, accused of clipping 

coin 

All Jews (16,511) banished from England. (Eapin.) 
Much pillaged and persecuted in France during the 

14th and 15th centuries. : 
A fatal distemper raging in Europe, they are sus- 
pected of having poisoned the springs, and num- 
bers are massacred. (Lenglet.) . . . . 
Several hundred thousand Jews banished from 

Spain, Portugal, and France . . . 1492-94 
Edicts against Jews rescinded by pope Sixtus V. . 1585 
Jews favoured in Holland . . . . . 1603 

After having been banished England 370 years, they 
are permitted to return by Cromwell . . . 
Who grants a pension to Manasseh Ben Israel 
First Portuguese synagogue, King-street, Duke's- 

place, erected 1656 

Statute to compel them to maintain their protestant 

children enacted 1702 

Jews acquire right to possess land in England . . 1723 
Bill to naturalise the professors of the Jewish reli- 
gion in Ireland (where 200 Jews then resided) 

refused the royal assent 1746 

Statute to naturalise them in England passed . . 1753 
Repealed on the petition of all the cities . . . 1754 
The Jews of Spain, Portugal, and Avignon are de- 
clared to be citizens of France 1790 

The synagogue, Duke's-place, London, E., conse- 
crated 26 March „ 

The Jews in France emancipated . . 27 Sept. 1791 



1262 
1269 



1274 

1278 
1290 



1348 



1650 
1655 



JEWS. 



700 



JEWS. 



The Denmark-court ( Strand ) synagogue consti- 
tuted, 1797 > centenary celebrated . 21 Nov. 1897 

Sitting of the great Sanhedrim of Paris convened by 
the emperor Napoleon . . . .18 Sept. 1806 

Jews' hospital, London, founded ,, 

London society for promoting Christianity among 
the Jews established 1808 

Jews' free school, Spitalfields, London, established 1817 

Alexander of Russia grants land on the sea of Azoph 
to converted Jews .... 1 Sept. 1820 

The brothers Rothschild made barons of the Aus- 
trian empire 1822 

Jews' orphan asylum founded 1831 

Mr. (aft. sir) Francis H. Goldsmid, the first Jew 
called to the British bar 1833 

51 r. David Salomons elected sheriff of London (the 
first Jewish one) ; an- act passed to enable him to 
act 24 June, 1835 

Bill for Jewish emancipation in England lost on the 
second reading by a majority in the commons, 228 
against 165 17 May, 1836 

Moses Montefiore, esq., elected sheriff of London, 
and knighted by the queen, being the first Jew on 
whom that honour has been conferred . 9 Nov. 1837 

Ukase of the emperor of Russia, permitting the title 
of citizen of the first class to be held by any Jew 
who renders himself worthy of it . . . . 1839 

Owing to the disappearance of a Greek priest, a per- 
secution of the Jews began at Damascus (see 
Damascus) 1 Feb. 1840 

Jewish mission to the East under sir Moses Monte- 
fiore ,, 

Congregation of British Jews formed (see below) 1840-1 

Sir F.H. Goldsmid founded the Jewish Infant school 1841 

Sir Isaac Lyon Goldsmid, the first Jew made a 
Baronet „ 

Dr. Nathan M. Adler installed chief rabbi of the 
Jews in the empire, London . . 9 July, 1845 

Act to relieve Jews elected to municipal offices from 
taking oaths, <fcc, 9 Vict 1846 

Baron Lionel de Rothschild returned to Parliament 
for the city of London by a majority of 6619 votes ; 
his opponent, lord John Manners, polling only 
3104 3 July, 1849 

Alderman Salomons elected member for Greenwich, 

28 June, 1851 

Neither permitted to sit ,, 

The Jews' Oaths of Abjuration bill passed the house 
of commons 3 July, ,, 

Baron Rothschild again returned for the city of 
London at the general elections, July, 1852 ; 
March, 1857 ! July, 1857 : a,K l July. 1865. 

Violent outbreak against the Jews in Stockholm, 

3 Sept. 1852 

The Jewish Oath bill passed in commons, 15 April ; 
thrown out in the lords ... 29 April, 1853 

Alderman Salomons the first Jewish lord mayor of 
London 9 Nov. 1855 

The Jewish Oath bill several times passed in the 
commons and thrown out in the lords . .• 1854-7 

Edgar Mortara, a Jewish child, forcibly taken from 
his parents by order of the archbishop of Bologna, 
on the plea of having been baptized when an in- 
fant by a Roman Catholic maid-servant 

24 June, 1858 

Sir F. H. Goldsmid, the first Jew made Q.C. . . ,. 

An act passed enabling Jews to sit in parliament by 
resolution of the house .... Ju!y, „ 

Baroil Lionel de Rothschild takes his seat as M.P. 
for London . . . 26 July, ,, 

To commemorate this event he endowed a scholar- 
ship in the City of London School . . . . ,, 

The French government having in vain urged Mor- 

tara's restoration to his parents, sir Moses Monte- 
fiore proceeds to Rome (but obtains 110 redress), 

22 Dee. ,, 

Alderman Salomons elected M.P. for Greenwich 
(died 18 July, 1873); baron Meyer de Rothschild 
for Hythe , 5 Feb. 1859 

Protest respecting the seizure of the boy Mortara 
signed at London by the abp. of Canterbury, and 
bishops, noblemen, and gentlemen, sent to the 

French ambassador, Oct. ; and presented by lord 

John Russell ' Nov. ,, 

Board of guardians for the relief of the Jewish 
poor, one of the grand institutions of (lie Jews in 
London, founded in 



Oppressive laws against the Jews in the Austrian 
empire annulled 6, 10 Jan. i860 

Act passed permitting Jewish M.P. 's to omit from 
the oath the words " on the faith of a Christian," 

6 Aug. ,, 
Additional political privileges granted to the Jews 
in Russia, 26 Jan. ; and in Poland . June 1862 

Jews persecuted at Rome .... Dec. 1864 

Alderman Benjamin Samuel Phillips, second Jewish 
lord mayor . . . . . .9 Nov. 1865 

Persecution of Jews at Bucharest reported, July, 1866 

A synagogue at Berlin, said to be the largest and 
most beautiful in the world, consecrated, 5 Sept. ,, 

Jewish emancipation bill, Hungary, received royal 
assent 29 Dec. 1867 

Benjamin Disraeli, of Jewish extraction, premier of 
England 29 Feb. 1868 

Jews' synagogue at Barnsbury, London, N., founded 
by baron F. Rothschild, 24 Dec. 1867, consecrated 

29 March, „ 

Jews permitted to return to Spain . . . Oct. ,, 

Jewish congress at Pesth opened by the minister of 
public worship, Eotvos ... 14 Dec. ,, 

It closes and presents the new statutes to the 
ministers 25 Feb. 1869 

Jewish reform convention at Philadelphia, U.S., 
alterations in rituals, &c, resolved on . Oct. ,, 

Alfred Davis, a Jew, a munificent benefactor of 
education, Jewish and Christian, died 7 Jan. 1870 

New central synagogue in Great Portland-st. , W., 
founded by baron Rothschild, 18 March, 1869 ; 
consecrated 7 April, ,, 

" Hebrew Literature Society " established in London 

29 June, ,, 

Anglo- Jewish Association constituted for the moral, 
social, and intellectual progress of Jews (in con- 
nection with the Universal Israelitish Alliance, 
in Paris'). First president, the late Mr. Jacob 
Waley, M.A 2 July, „ 

The emperor of Brazil attended worship at the 
West Central London synagogue . . 8 July, ,, 

Jews permitted to work on Sundays by a Workshops 
Act „ 

Society formed at Birmingham to resist proselytism ,, 

A Jew made M.A. at Oxford (after the abolition of 
tests) 22 June, 1871 

Sir. George Jessel, a Jew, solicitor-general, Nov. 
1871 ; master of the rolls . . . 29 Aug. 1875 

Estimated number of Jews in Great Britain, 51,520 ; 
in London, 39,833 1S76 

New synagogue founded at Bayswater . 7 June, 1877 

Movement against the Jews in Berlin, &c, (Juden- 
hetze); opposed by Mommsen, Virehow, and others: 
censured by the crown prince ; debate in the cham- 
bers ; no vote, 22 Nov. Many Jews leave Berlin, 

Dec. 1880 

Anti-Semitic league formed ; presents a petition to 
Bismarck to restrict the liberty of the Prussian 
Jews 13 April, 1SS1 

Jews severely persecuted at Kietf and other places 
in South Russia May, ... 

About 60,000 Russian Jews request permission to 
return to Spain, granted . . . June, ., 

Persecution going on in Prussia, the emperor 
interfering to stop it ... . Aug. ,, 

Severe restrictive edict against the Jews in Russia 
issued, but not fully carried out, increasing civil 
disabilities . . . . May et seq. 1882 

Committees formed at Berlin and London to receive 
money to help Jewish emigration, April; 108,759?. 
received in London .... 25 Oct. ,, 

New synagogue at Abbey-road, London, N\V. 
consecrated 30 July, ,, 

The Jews violently attacked at Presburg, Hun- 
gary; martial law proclaimed . . 29 Sept. ,, 

Trial of Jews (see Hungary) 1883 

Violent attacks on .lews at St. Petersburg, Pesth, 
Zala Egcrszeg, Are. . . . July, Aug. ,, 

Death of Charlotte, Baroness de Rothschild, great 
benefactress 13 Mar. 1SS4 

.lews still persecuted in Russia . Aug. et Seq. ,, 
Commission to enquire into the condition and 

rights of the Jews Oct. ,, 

The .lews enjoy at present full citizenship in Europe 
(with the exception of Portugal, Houmania, 
liussia and Spain) ; also in the United States . 1884 






JEWS. 



701 



JIHAD. 



Sir Moses Montefiore completes Ins iooth year, 
celebrated by Jews all over the world as a 
very great benefactor (27 Oct. Jewish Calendar) 
25-26 Oct. 1884 ; died ... 28 July, 

Sir Nathaniel de Rothschild, son of Lionel, created 
a peer ; takes his seat 9 July, 1885 ; made lord- 
lieut. of Buckinghamshire . . . May, 

Estimated population of the Jews in the world, 
6,377,602 ......... 

Exhibition of Anglo-Jewish antiquities at the Royal 
Albert Hall opened .... 4 April, 

Expulsion of Jews from Odessa and Finland 
decreed April, 

Henry Aaron Isaacs, 3rd Jewish lord mayor 

Nov. 

Dr. Nathan Adler, chief rabbi, London, dies 

21 Jan. 

Enforcement of the severe edict of May, 1882, 
against the Jews in Russia, about 2,000,000 said 
to be ordered, July ; officially contradicted' at 
St. Petersburg, 6 Aug. ; many Jews expelled from 
Russia Dec. 

At a great meeting in the Guildhall, London, an 
appeal to the Czar to mitigate the laws against 
the Jews agreed to (see under London, Feb. 1891 

10 Dec. 

Dr. Hermann Adler chosen chief rabbi by dele- 
gates . . ... 4 June, 

Expulsion of Jews from 8. Russia ordered 

about 29 May 

Relaxation of the persecution ; enforcement of the 
decree of expulsion from St. Petersburg ad- 
journed about 18 July 

3,000 acres of land at Hulberton, Cumberland 
county, New Jersey, purchased by Mr. Leon 
Lait, a Russian, for a Hebrew colony 

about 20 July 

The Jewish Colonization Association, ivhich see, 
founded about 11 Sept. 

Anti-Jewish riots at Starodoub and other districts 
in Russia, about 30 deaths ; order restored by 
the military, 170 arrests . . n Oct. et se<j. 

New synagogue at Dublin consecrated by the chief 
rabbi Adler 4 Dec. 

Large expulsion of Jews from Russia ordered 
before 1 Nov., 10 Feb. ; execution of the order 
suspended, reported ... 4 March, 

Mr. Jacob Montefiore, philanthropist, died, aged 
95 3 N ov. 

Sir Julian Goldsmid, M.P., born 1838 ; died 7 Jan. 

Baron de Hirseh died ; many bequests to Jewish 
and other charities .... 21 April, 

Foreign Jews permitted to enter Russia . 28 June, 

Meeting of the Jewish historical society of England 
to commemorate the re-settlemeut of the Jews 
(see above), 1650 ; Dr. Adler presided, Maccabean 
rooms, Piccadilly 7 Feb. 

Death of the grand rabbi Lazare Wogue at Paris, 
reported 15 April, 

Zionist congress (which see) . . .29 Aug. 

New synagogue in Mare-street, S. Hackney, opened 
by the hon. Walter Rothschild . 19 Sept. 

Passport laws regarding Jews in the medical pro- 
fession repealed by the czar ... 8 Dec. 

Fifth annual " Hanuca" military service for Jewish 
marines and soldiers at the Hampstead syna- 
gogue 19 Dec. 

Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild, popular landlord, 
patron of art, born 1839, died (bequeaths over 
127,000?. to charities) . . . .17 Dec. 

Baroness de Hirseh, philanthropist, died, 2 April, 

Death of Dr. Israel Hildesheimer, an eminent 
rabbi, aged 79, reported ... 17 June, 

Lady Simon (Miss Rachel Salaman), author of 
"Records and Reflections" and "By the Still 
Waters," born 1823, died ... 7 July 

Dr. David Kauimann, a remarkable cosmopolitan 
writer, died, aged 47 . . . mid July, 

Large influx of foreign Jews during . . 

Persecution of Jews in Russia, May, 1899 ; hun- 
dreds refused at the universities . . Sept. 

Conference of Jewish literary societies meets, 
Bloomsbury ... . . . 29 June, 

Lord Meath issues a list of restrictive laws against 
the Jews in Roumania, Aug. 22 ; which see Sept. 



1887 



1897 



1S99 



1 900 

1 901 
1902 



Sir Marcus Samuel, 4th Jewish lord mayor, Nov. 1902 

Death of sir Joseph Sebag Montefiore, pres. of 
Board of Elders of the Ancient Congregation 
of Spanish and Portuguese Jews, generous bene- 
factor to Jewish charities and institutions, 18 Jan. 1903 

Jewish conference at Manchester on the Kishineff 
massacres 14 June, , 

Jewish Colonization Association act, royal assent, 

21 July, ,, 
Zionist Congress at Basel opens, . . 23 Aug. „ 

See Russia, 19 April, 1903, et seq. 

Reformed or British Jews. In 1840 and 1841 a 
congregation was formed by Spanish and German 
Jews, for simplifying the ritual observances. 
Their West London Synagogue in Burton-street, 
opened 1 Jan. 1842 ; removed to Margaret-street, 
Regent-street, 1849; succeeded by a magnificent 
synagogue, in Upper Berkeley-street, consecrated 

22 Sept. 1870 
The Reformed Jews recognise the authority of the 

Old Testament or written law ordy, and reject 
the oral law embodied in the Talmud, which is 
accepted by the Orthodox or Rabbinical Jews. 

JEWISH REFORM UNIOX, to provide 
services in English for Jews to whom the ordinary 
synagogue service does not appeal, formed 1901. 

JEW'S HARP (probably Jaws' harp), an 
ancient instrument. Charles Eulenstein produced 
remarkable effects with Jews' harps at the Royal 
Institution, London, 15 Feb. 1828. 

JEYNES or JAINS, a sect of Buddhists, in 
India, dating from the 9th century. They do not 
recognise a creator, but believe matter to be eternal, 
and refrain from destroying life, considering animals 
to be sacred. 

Their discipline is very strict ; a trial for defama- 
tion of character by a libel, accusing certain 
members of breaking the laws of caste, lasted 34 
days at Moorshedabad, and cost above 100,000 
rupees. The verdict was for the defendants 

March, 1891 

JEYPOOR, one of the four principal Rajpoot 
states of India, tributary to the British. The 
new capital, Jeypoor, termed the Paris of India, 
was built in the last century. The Maharajah, 
friendly to the British, by whom he was supported, 
died in Sept. 1880 ; he nominated a successor, in- 
stalled 30 Sept. 1880. Pop. 1901, 159,550. 

JEZREELITES, New and Latter House of 
Israel, was founded by James Jershom Jezreel 
(James. White), who died 1885. They asserted that 
the Gospel is sufficient for the salvation of the soul, 
but for the salvation of the body the Law must be 
added. Jezreel's widow, " Queen Esther," died in 
1888; since then the sect has become almost 
extinct. Their headquarters were at Gilliugham, 
near Chatham. 

JIDDAH. See Jedda. 

JIHAD, or religious warfare against unbelievers, 
although inculcated in the Mohammedan law, was 
prohibited by the Sheeahs, and only permitted by 
the Sonnites in some cases; certainly not with 
any nation with whom they had made a treaty of 
peace. The Jihad was preached by fanatics in India 
in 1871, and prohibited by government. 

A jihad against the Russians was announced by the 
sheikh-ul-Islam, at Constantinople, about 28 May, 1877 

A jihad against the British in Afghanistan, pro- 
posed by Shere Ali Oct. 1878 

A jihad against the British was proclaimed by 
Arabi Pasha .... about 24 July, 18S2 

A copy of the Ameer's book on Jihad reported in 
England,- Times ..... 11 Sept. ii<j 
See Egy-i t. 



JINGO PARTY. 



702 



JOHORE. 



JINGO PARTY, a name given (in 1878) to 
persons who preferred war with Russia to submis- 
sion to her aggressive policy. A popular song said — 
" We don't want to tight, but, by jingo if we do, 

We've got the ships, we've got the men, and we've got 
the money too." 
" By jingo " occurs in Jarvis's " Don Quixote," and the 

" Vicar of Wakefield." 

JOAN OF AEC, the maid of Orleans, born at 
Domremy, imagined that she had a divine com- 
mission to expel the English, who under the earl of 
Salisbury were besieging Orleans. Charles VII. 
entrusted her with the command of some French 
troops, and she raised the siege, and entered Orleans 
with supplies, - 29 April, 1429; and the English, 
who were before the place from 12 Oct. preceding, 
abandoned the enterprise 8 May following. She 
captured several towns in the possession of the 
English, whom she defeated in a battle near Pataj 7 , 
18 June, 1429. She was wounded several times 
herself, but never shed any blood with her own 
hand. She was taken at the siege of Compiegne, 
25 May, 1430 ; and, after a trial, burnt for a witch 
at Rouen, 30 May, 143 1. A statue of Joan of Arc} 
the work of the late princess Marie of France, was 
inaugurated at Orleans, 13 Sept. 1851, and the 
435th anniversary of the deliverance of the city 
was celebrated there on 14 May, 1865. The anni- 
versary of her death celebrated, 30 May, 1878. See 
Patay. Her statue at Beaurevoir unveiled 9 Aug.; 
at Domremy 26 Aug. 1891 ; at Chinon, 14 Aug. 
1893; at Rheims, 15 July, 1896; at St. Piene-le- 
Moutier, 24 Aug. 1902. Her beatification approved 
by the pope, 27 Jan. 1894. Her canonization pro- 
posed, Feo. 1903. 

JOCKEY CLUB. See Paces. 

JOHANNESBURG, see Transvaal, 1887 et 
seq. Population 80,000, reported, July, 1 902. . 

JOHN BULL, a nickname given to English- 
men, is said to be derived from Dr. Arbuthnot's 
satire "John Bull," published 1712. — Brewer. 
" John Bull," a comedy, by George Colman the 
younger, was performed 1805. The " John Bull," 
a Tory newspaper, supported by Theodore Hook, 
was first published 1820. Its publication ceased in 
1892. 

"JOHN COMPANY," a name formerly 
given to the East India company, was sometimes 
given to the South Africa company, 1891. See 
Zambesi. 

JOHN DOE AND Richard Eoe, names 
well known, as standing pledges for the prosecution 
of suits. In early times real and substantial per- 
sons were required to pledge themselves to answer 
to the crown for an amercement or fine set upon 
the plaintiff, for raising a false accusation, if he 
brought an action without cause, or failed in it; 
and in 1285, 13 Edw. I. sheriffs and bailiffs were, 
before they made deliverance of the distress, to re- 
ceive pledges for pursuing the suit, and for the 
return of the property, if return were awarded. 
But this becoming a matter of form, the fictitious 
names of Doe and Roe were used until the form was 
declared to be no longer necessary by the Common 
Law Procedure Act, 1852. 

JOHN O'GEOAT'S HOUSE, an ancient 
house formerly situated on Duncan's Bay Head, 
the most northerly point of Great Britain, deriving 
its name from John of Groat, or Groot, and his 
brothers, originally from Holland, said to have 
settled here about 148Q. 



The house was of an octagon shape, being one room, with 
eight windows and eight idoors, to admit eight mem- 
bers of the family, the heads of different branches of it, 
to prevent their quarrels for precedence at table. Each 
came in by this contrivance at his own door, and sat 
at an octagon table, at which, of course, there was no 
chief place or head. . . , .. 

JOHN, ST., see Newfoundland^ Cambridge, 

New Brunswick, and Oxford. 

St. John's Night, or Midsummer 'eve, 23 June : bonfires 
are still made in Ireland, and in some pans of Eng- 
land, and thought to be the relic of a pagan custom- 
resembling the Phoenician worship of Baal. 

JOHN, ST., Knights of, see Malta. 

The Knights or St. John (Johanniter Mtter), a Luthe- 
ran order of high rank, formed by Frederick Wil- 
liam. III. of Prussia, 23 May, 1812,-, and reorganised 
1 5 Oct. 1852. These knights co-operated with the knights 
of St. John of Malta and various other bodies in 
rendering energetic assistance to' the wounded during 
the Franco-Prussian war, in 1870-1 ; the chief office 
being at the ancient gate, of the priory of St. John, 
Clerkenwell, London, E.C. ; the prince of Wales a 
prior of the order, 1892. 

The Russian and English orders claim connection with 
the original institution at Malta as two of its langues. 

The St. John Ambulance Association, founded and estab- 
lished by the Order of St. John of Jerusalem in 1877 : 
its objects are — 1, The dissemination of instruction 
in "first aid," i.e., the preliminary treatment of the 
sick and injured pending the doctor's arrival; .2, 
lectures to women on home nursing and hygiene ; 
3, the deposit in appropriate localities of material 
(such as stretchers, hampers, splints, bandages, &c.) 
for use in case- of accident ; 4, the development of 
ambulance corps for the transport of the sick and 
injured. Upwards of 250 administrative "centres" 
and some thousands of "detached classes " have been 
formed in all parts of the United Kingdom, India, the 
colonies, and elsewhere abroad, and over 100,000 
certificates of proficiency have been awarded. Sir 
Edmund A. H. Lechmere, bart., M.P., chairman ; 
John Furley, esq., honorary director of stores and 
manager of transport department ; major sir Herbert 
C. Perrott, bart., chief secretary. The prince of 
Wales installed at St. John's Gate as Grand Prior of 
the Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jeru- 
salem in England incorporated by Royal Charter, 
18 July, 1888. The prince of Wales (Grand Prior) 
unveils a memorial tablet in St. John's church to the 
members of the brigade who died on service in 
S. Africa, 11 June; presents medals, &c. , 14 July, 
1902. New hall and ambulance rooms at St. John s 
gate opened by prince of Wales, 9 July, 1903. 

JOHN'S GATE, ST. (St. John's Square, 
Clerkenwell, London), a fine vestige of monastic 
building, was the gate of the priory of St. John of 
Jerusalem (suppressed in 1 540), and was the place 
where the Gentleman's Magazine was first pub- 
lished, 6 March, 1731. The house was often visited 
by Dr. Johnson, Garrick, and their friends. The 
gate was purchased for the Order of the Knights of 
St. John, by Sir Edmund A. H. Lechmere, bart., 
secretary of the English league. The first meeting 
held here 24 June, 1874. 

JOHNSON'S CLUB, see Literary Club. A 
society for the study of Dr. Johnson's works, &<>; 
(was founded at Pembroke college (his own college) 
at Oxford) in 1871. 

JOHNSTOWN INUNDATION, see under 
Pennsylvania, 18S9. 

JOHORE. A state and town in the Malay 
Peninsula. The sultan received by the queen, at 
Windsor, 21 Feb. 1891. During his visit, some 
territorial arrangements were made. He left 
England IS March. 1S91. In the case of Miss 
Jenny Mighell v. the sultan of Johore for breach of 



JOINT STOCK COMPANIES. 



703 



JUBILEES. 



promise of marriage, made under an assumed name 
in England, queen's bench division, verdict for the 
defendant, as an independent sovereign, 4 Nov; 
1893 ; he died in London, 4 June, 1895 ; succeeded 
by his son, Ibrahim, crowned 2 Nov. 1895. 

JOINT STOCK COMPANIES (good and 
bad) were very numerous during the nineteenth 
century (especially in 1825, 1846, 1866, and 18-72). 
Many acts haVe been passed for their regulation; 
the most important in 1844, 1855, 1857, and 1858. 
An important act for the incorporation, regulation, 
and winding-up of trading companies and other 
associations passed in 1862, was amended in 1867 
and 1900; see Companies, and Limited Liability. 
1,632 new companies were registered in 1881-2 ; in 
1885, 1,482 ; 1888, 2,550 ; 1891, 2,686 ; 1896, 
4,735 5 1S97, 5,229 ; 1898,5,182; 1899, 4,975 ; 1900, 
4,967. 

JONATHAN, BEOTHEB. This national 
name for America is attributed to Washington's 
reliance for advice and support on Jonathan Trum- 
bull, governor of Connecticut, whom he termed 
"the first of patriots" (Trumbull died 9 Aug. 
1 785) . — Brewer. 

JOPPA, see Jaffa. 

JOBDAN, a river of Palestine, crossed by 
the Israelites B.C. 1451, when they entered 
Canaan. A plan for forming a canal from the 
Mediterranean to the gulf of Akabah was discussed 
at the British Association, Sept. 1883. 

JOSHUA., successor of Moses, led the Israelites 
into Canaan, B.C. 1451. (See Bible.) Handel's 
14th oratorio "Joshua" was finished 19 Aug. 
1747 ; produced 9 March, 1748. It contained " See 
the Conquering Hero comes," afterwards trans- 
ferred to "Judas Maccabeeus." 

JOUENAL DES SAVANTS, see Reviews. 

JOUENALISTS, National Associa- 
tion OF, established at Birmingham, 1884. 
The annual meeting at London was largely at-. 

tended, 18 Dec. 1887 ; at Newcastle . Feb. 1888 
Institute of Journalists, London, inaugurated 9 Mar. 

1889 ; incorporated . . . .8 Feb. 1890 
Firstannnal conference held at Birmingham 27 Sept. 

1890 ; in London, M. Zola present, supports 

anonymity, 21 Sept. 1893 ; at Plymouth, 2 Sept. 

1895; Belfast. 1 Sept. 1896; Cardiff, 30 Aug. 1897; 

Leeds, 26 Aug. 1901 ; Birmingham, 1 Sept. 1902 ; 

Bristol . • . . . ... .1 Sept. 1903 

JOURNALS, see Newspapers. 
JOUENALS of the House of Commons, 

commenced in 1547, first ordered to be printed in 
1752, when 5000/. were allowed to Mr. Hardinge 
for the execution of the work. The journals of the 
House of Peeks (commencing 1509) were ordered 
to be printed in 1767. 

JOWAKIES, see India, 1877-8. 

JUAN FEENANDEZ, an island in the 
Pacific, named from its discoverer in 1567. Alexan- 
der Selkirk, a native of Scotland, left on shore here 
by his captain in Nov. 1704, and lived alone till he 
was discovered by captain Kogers in 1709. He died 
lieutenant of H.M.S. Weymouth, 17 '23. A monu- 
ment to his memory was erected on the island in 
1868, then colonised by Germans. From his nar- 
rative De Foe is said to have derived his Adventures 
of Robinson Crusoe, first published in 17 19. The 
present governor, Eodt, a Swiss adventurer, settled 
on the island about 1874. 



JUAN, SAN, a small island, near Vancouver's 
island. Thepossession of this island, on account of its- 
commandingthestraitsbetween British Columbia and 
the United States territories, led to disputes between 
the two countries, owing to the doubtful interpre- 
tation of the treaty of Washington respecting the 
boundaries, 12 June, 1846. See United 'States, 1859 
and i860. The matter (by the treaty of Washing- 
ton, 8 May, 1871) was referred for arbitration to 
the emperor of Germany, who decided in favour 
of the United States, Oct. 1872. The isle was 
evacuated by the British 22 Nov. following. 

JUBILEES (Heb. yobSl, the sound of a 
trumpet). The Jews were commanded to cele- 
brate a jubilee every fifty years, 1491 'b.c. 
(Lev. xxv. 8.) Among the Christians a jubilee 
every century was instituted by pope Boniface VIII. 
in the year 1 300. It was ordered to be celebrated 
every fifty years by pope Clement VI. ; and by 
Urban VI. every thirty-third year; and by Six- 
tus V. every twenty-fifth year. Leo XIII. cele- 
brated his pontifical jubilee, Feb. 1933, see Pope: 
National jubilee in England on account of, George 

III. entering the 50th year of his reign 25 Oct. 1809 
Jubilee in celebration of the general peace, and of 
the centenary of the accession of the Brunswick 
family ■ . . ...-,.. r Aug. 1814 

Shakspeare's Jubilee,, projected by David Garrick, 
was celebrated at Shakspeare's birth-place, 
Stratford-on-Avon ... / ,, , , 6, 7, 8, Sept. 1769 
A Shakspeare festival at Stratford . . , . 23 April, 1836 
A Shakspeare festival at Stratford .. 23 April, 1865 
The Scott centenary celebrated (he was born 15 Aug. 
1771). .... . . . . . 9 Aug. 1871 

International musical jubilee at Boston, U.S. (see 

Boston) , 17 June— 4 July, 1872 

Queen Victoria's Jubilee, 1887 (accession 20 June, 
1837). Grand procession witnessed' by many 
thousands ; solemn thanksgiving service in 
Westminster Abbey, in the presence of the queen, 
the royal family, the kings of Denmark, Belgium, 
Greece, and Saxony ; the crown princes of Ger- 
many, Austria, Portugal, and Sweden ; the grand 
duke Sergius of Russia, Amadeus, duke of Aosta, 
prince Ludwig of Bavaria, the maharajah Holkar 
and many Indian princes, the queen of Hawaii, 
also the dignitaries of the empire, and many 
persons eminent in science^ art, and literature 

21 June, 1887 
By her majesty's command, a picture representing 
the scene, was painted by Mr. W. E. Lockhart, 
K.S.A., and by her permission was exhibited at ' 
Waterloo House, Pall Mall (engravings were sold 
by Messrs. Doig & Co.) . . . 
Magnificent illuminations throughout the metro- 
polis ; two deaths recorded, and not many 
personal injuries . : - ■-. . . 21 June, „ 
Jubilee beacon fires throughout England and Wales, 
started on the Malvern Hills 10 p.m., and seen 
from Cottington Hill, Hants ; over 80 fires seen 

21 June, ,, 
About 26,000 elementary school children entertained 
in Hyde Park at the instance of Mr. Lawson of 
the Daily Telegraph. The queen presents a 
memorial cup to Florence Dunn, aged 12, of St. 
Mary's, Westminster ; the prince of Wales and 
many of the nobility present . . 22 June, ,, 
Grand fete in Pontypool park, Monmouthshire, or- 
ganized by captain Gus. Bevan (who was thanked 
by the queen); about 80,000 persons present;' 
great Eisteddfod ; a prize of 2ocl. awarded to 
Dowlais choir ; fireworks, &c. ". . n April, 
Jubilee celebrated in India and all the colonies, 
and throughout the civilized world, June ; envoys 
from the p'ope(Mons. RuffoScilla), Japanand Siam ,, 
Citizens' thanksgiving service at St. Paul's, after 

formal procession from Guildhall 23 June, ,, 

The queen issues a letter to the nation, expressing 
her profound gratitude for the very kind reception 
of the vast multitude during her'progress to and 
return from Westminster Abbey, and her high 
admiration for the excellent order preserved 

24 June, ,, 



JUBILEES. 



(04 



JUBILEES. 



Jubilee yaclit race round the island (see Yachts) 

14-27 June, 

28,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at Bucking- 
ham Palace, 2 July 

The queen lays foundation-stone of the Imperial 
Institute .4 July, 

The queen reviews about 60,000 men at Aldershot 

July, 

Grand naval review by the queen (see Navy of 
England) 23 July, 

The presents given to the queen exhibited at St. 
James's Palace, rich, beautiful, and eccentric, 

12 Sept- 
Medals presented to the metropolitan police for 
their conduct during the jubilee celebration 
ordered 3 Sept. 

The queen expresses her thanks for .jubilee addresses 
from all parts of the empire . . 14 Sept. 

Great number of addresses from municipal corpo- 
rations, scientific societies, and other bodies 

27 June, 

East India chiefs received and decorated at Winds< >r, 

30 June, 

The queen thanks the mayors and municipal bodies 
for their presents ; London Gazette . . 4 Nov. 

Long official account of the jubilee proceedings, 
London Gazette 3 Jan. 

Jubilee offering of the xvomen of the British Em- 
pire (from id. to 1?.) ; 75,000?. presented to 
the queen 22 June ; her letter of thanks published 
2 July, 1887 ; sum increased to 84,116?. in March, 

The queen approved the application of about 
70,000?. for the sick poor, and the benefit of 
nurses and nursing institutions. About 10,000?. 
was set apart for a colossal statue of the prince 
consort, and about 4,116?. fora personal ornament 
to be worn by the queen ; reported 20 April, 

Statue of the queen by sir J. B. Boehm, subscribed 
for by the graduates, unveiled by the prince of 
Wales at the University of London, Burlington- 
gardens, 8 May ; one by L. J. Williamson, at the 
College of Physicians, Thames embankment 
unveiled 24 May, 

Picture of the emperor William I. and his family, 
painted by Anton von Werner, presented to the 
queen by the Germans residing in England . . 

16 May, 

Royal Victoria [Jubilee] Hospital, Bournemouth, 
cost 8,000?., opened by the prince of Wales 

16 Jan. 

Tlie Jubilee offering of the officers of the British 
army. — A silver gilt centre piece, representing 
the greatness of the empire, designed by Mr. 
Alfred Gilbert, R. A., presented to the queen at 
Buckingham palace by the duke of Cambridge 
and a deputation 10 May 

The bronze equestrian statue, by sir J. B. Boehm, 
was set up near Virginia water, Windsor great 
park, and was uncovered by the queen . 12 May, 

Jubilee statue of the queen (as in 1837), by the 
princess Louise, in Kensington-gardens, unveiled 
by the queen 28 June, 

[Queen's Commemoration Fund, for the Jubilee in- 
stitute for nurses: 12,500?. from lord Iveagh ; 
total, 156,000?. in 1897 ; 45,000?. reported, 12 
June, 1Q02.] 

Diamond Jubilee : March of colonial troops from 
Victoria park to the Mansion house . id June, 

The queen's 60th regnal year completed. Solemn 
thanksgiving day (the bp. of Wakefield's hymn, 
music by sir A. Sullivan, sung by request of the 
queen) at St. Paul's, London, Westminster 
abbey, and all places of worship throughout the 
empire, Sunday ..... 20 June, 

Diamond .Jubilee odes by the poet-laureate, and 
Others, Times 21, 22 June, 

State banquet, foreign princes, envoys, and others 
received by the queen . . . .21 June, 

Commemoration day: 22 June: route of pro- 
cession : Buckingham palace, Constitution-hill, 
Piccadilly, St. James'-street, Pall-mall, Strand, 
Fleet-street, St. Paul's, Cheapside, Mansion 
house, King William-street, London bridge, 
Southwark, Westminster bridge, Whitehall, the 

Mall, and back again to the palace. Thecolonial, 
Asiatic, and African contingents led by lord 
Roberts, accompanied by the colonial premiers, 



1893 



left Buckingham palace, about 9 a.m. The royal 
procession started 11.15 A - M - ! the queen on 
leaving the palace sent this telegram to all her 
subjects : " From my heart, I thank my beloved 
subjects : may God- bless them." 

The procession included the naval and military 
forces, foreign envoys, Indian imperial escort, 
Britisli and foreign princes, the empress Fre- 
derick, the princesses and children ; commander- 
in-chief lord Wolseley: the queen, princess of 
Wales, and princess Christian, prince of Wales, 
dukes of Edinburgh, connaught, and Cambridge ; 
troops, and the Royal Irish constabulary. 

The queen on the site of Temple Bar, received the 
city sword from the lord mayor, and returned it. 

At St. Paul's Cathedral, west front : Thanksgiving 
choral service, was held by the abps. of Can- 
terbury and York, and other bishops. 

Reception at the Mansion house ; the queen re- 
turned to Buckingham palace at 1.45 p.m. 

Jubilee honours, announced, Times . 22 June, 

Illuminations and festivities throughout the British 
empire, and foreign states . 19-26 June, 

Over 2,500 beacon fires from Cornwall to Caithness, 
1,981 in England 22 June, 

Colonial and foreign congratulatory addresses to 
the queen and the British nation . 22 June, 

The queen received the mayors and provosts of 
Great Britain and Ireland, and others ; the house 
of lords and house of commons ; reviews 10,000 
school children in the Green park, who received 
medals and refreshments ; she received addresses 
from their representatives, lord Londonderry, 
the bp. of London, card. Vaughan, and others ; 
arrived at Windsor, reviews the Eton boys, and 
received addresses . . . .23 June, 

Lords of the admiralty and foreign admirals re- 
ceived by the queen at Windsor, the castle illu- 
minated . . ... 24 June, 

State banquet by the prince of Wales at Buck- 
ingham palace, to foreign pjrinces and envoys, 

24 June, 

Jubilee dinners to 330,000 metropolitan poor, in 56 
districts, initiated by the princess of Wales (see 
Mansion house), April ; some dinners visited by 
the prince and princess of Wales 24 <fc 30 June, 

The queen inspects about 6,000 school children in 
Windsor park, and reviews the fire-brigades from 
all parts of the country, under the duke of 
Marlborough ; sir Eyre Shaw, and others present - 
torchlight procession of the Eton boys, 25 June, 

Trince and princess of Wales, the royal family, 
foreign princes and en\ oys, and others enter- 
tained at the Mansion house . . 25 June, 

Grand naval review at Spithead (see Navy), 

26 June, 

The queen visits Kensington, receives addresses, 
and gives a state garden-party at Buckingham 
palace ; about 6,000 present . . 28 June, 

Grand army review at Aldershot (wh ich see), 1 July, 

Fancy-dress ball illustrating the court dress, &c, 
of the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, given by 
the duke and duchess of Devonshire at Devon- 
shire house, the prince and princess of Wales and 
the royal family present ... 2 July, 

The house of commons ami ladies received by the 
queen at a garden party at Windsor castle, 

3 J«iy, 

The queen decorates the Indian officers at Windsor, 

5 -July, 

400 soldiers and sailors who had fought in battle 
between 1837-97, inspected by the prince of 
Wales, lords Wolseley and Roberts, and others, 

5 J»iy, 

Letter of thanks from the queen to her people, 

15 July ; Times, 17 July ; gazetted . 16 .inly, 
The Diamond jubilee presents exhibited at the 

Imperial institute . . . iS Oct. et seq. 
Princess Christian opens the (Diamond Jubilee) 

Victoria recreation ground, over 17 acres, 

10 May, 
New (Diamond Jubilee) hospital at East Ham 

(5,000?. from Mr. Passinore Ed wards) opened by 

the countess of Warwick . . . 12 June, 



1897 



JUDAH. 



705 



JULY. 



The Diamond jubilee described in the London 
Gazette Extraordinary, published 14 March, 1898, 
price is. 

See Church House, Imperial Institute, Nurses, 
and Hospitals. 

JUDAH, see Jews. 

JUDAS MACCABtEUS, Handel's I2th ora- 
torio, composed 9 July — 11 Aug. 1746; produced 1 
April, 1747. See Maccabees. 

JUDGE ADVOCATE GENERAL, and 

judge martial of all the forces, an ancient office, 
held by patent from the crown. He is the legal 
adviser of the commander-in-chief in military cases, 
and by his authority all general courts martial are 
held. An advocate-general accompanied the army 
to France in 1625, and the office was constituted 
soon after the restoration. Dr. Samuel Barrowe 
was appointed 1666. 

John R. Davison appointed Dec. 1870; died 15 Apr. 1871 
Sir Robert Phillimore (admiralty judge) acted pro- 
visionally 1871-3 

Acton S. Ayrton ... 21 Aug. 1873 — Feb. 1874 
Stephen Cave .... Feb. 1874 — Nov. 1875 
Geo. A. F. Cavendish Bentinck, 25 Nov. 1875 — May, 1880 
George Osborne Morgan .... May, ,, 
William T. Marriott . . . . " . June, 1885 

John Wm. Mellor 15 Feb. 1886 

William T. Marriott, July, 1886-92 ; knighted April, 1888 
Sir Francis H. Jeune . . . about 24 Dec. 1892 

JUDGES appointed by God, when the Israelites 
were in bondage, ruled from 1402 B.C. till the elec- 
tion of Saul as king, 1095 ; see Jews, Chancellors, 
Justices, Circuits, Lords Justices, Vice- Chancellors, 
Privy Councils, and Supreme Court. 

J udges punished for bribery and Thomas de Wey- 
land banished 1289 

William de Thorp hanged for bribery . . .1351 

John de Cavendish beheaded by the Suffolk rebels, 1381 

Tresylian, chief justice, executed for favouring 
despotism, and other judges condemned . . . 1388 

The prince of Wales said to have been committed 
by judge Gascoigne for assaulting him on the 
bench 1412 

Sir Thos. More, late lord chancellor, beheaded, 

6 July, 1533 

Judges threatened with impeachment, and Berkeley 
taken off the bench and committed by the com- 
mons, on a charge of treason . . 13 Feb. 1641 

Three judges impeached for favouring the levying 
ship-money 1680 

Judge Jefferies committed by the lord mayor to the 
Tower, where he died 1689 

The judge's office made tenable for life (during good 
behaviour) instead of during the pleasure of the 
crown by 13 Will. III. c. 2 1702 

Their commissions made permanent, notwith- 
standing the demise of the crown (by 1 Geo III.) 1761 

Three additional judges appointed, one to each law 
court, 1784 ; and again in 1830 

A new judge took his seat as vice-chancellor, 5 May, 1813 

Two new vice-chancellors appointed . . . 1841 

A third vice-chancellor and two new chancery 
judges (styled lords-justices) appointed . . . 1851 

A council of judges, was by the judicature act of 
1873, ordered to be held at least once every year, 
on such day as should be fixed by the lord chan- 
cellor and lord chief justice, to consider the 
operation of the act, and such councils were held 
17, 21, 23 June, 1892. In their report issued 6 
Aug. , they propose many important legal reforms. 

The report was referred to a committee of the bar 
for consideration (the Incorporated Law society 
and others Nov. et seq 1892 

A bill adopting the recommendations of the com- 
mittee read 2nd time in the lords . 26 June, 1893 

New resolutions issued .... 2 June, 1894 



In the case of Mr. Buckley, attorney-general of 
New Zealand, v. Mr. Worley B. Edwards, a puisne 
judge, the judicial committee of the privy council 
decided that the appointment of a judge is not 
valid unless the payment of his salary is pre- 
viously secured by statute . . .21 May, 

An additional judge (chancery) appointed, 1899 ; 
including lords of appeal, there were 33 judges, 
total about 464 in the United Kingdom 



1902 



JUDICATURE, see law; Supreme Court. 

JUDICIAL COMMITTEE of the Privy 

COUNCIL, see Privy Council. 

JUDICIAL SEPARATION of married per- 
sons may now be decreed by the Divorce Court, 
established by act of parliament in 1857. The 
persons separated may not marry again. 

JUDICIAL STATISTICS for England 

AND WALES began with the year (1856) in 1857. 
See under Crime. The new series beginning with 
the year 1893, included many changes, and criminal 
statistics of some foreign countries. 

JUGGERNAUT, correctly Jagannath, or 
" Lord of the World," one of the incarnations of 
Krishna, is an idol formed of an irregular pyramidal 
black stone, with two rich diamonds to represent 
eyes; the nose and mouth are painted vermilion. 
The number of pilgrims that visit the god is stated 
at 1,200,000 annually. Formerly some were crushed 
by the wheels of the car (so lately as Aug. 1864) ; a 
great many never returned, and, to the distance of 
fifty miles, the way was strewed with human bones. 
The temple of Juggernaut has existed about 800 
years. The state allowance to the temple was sus- 
pended by the Indian government in June, 1851. 
The festival was kept, June, 1872. Twelve persons 
were said to be killed by accident, Aug. 1873. The 
festival of 1878 reported a failure. 

JUGURTHINE WAR. Jugurtha murdered 
his cousin, Hiempsal, king of Numidia, and usurped 
his throne, 1 18 B.C. He gave Adherbal a share in the 
government, but killed him in 112. He then pro- 
voked the Romans to war. Caeeilius Metellus was 
first sent against him, and defeated him in two bat- 
tles; and Marius brought him in chains to Eome to 
adorn his triumph, 106 B.C., where he was put to 
death in 104. This war has been celebrated by 
the pen of Sallust. 

JULIAN ERA and YEAR, see Calendar. 
Julian period (by Joseph Scaliger, about 1583), a 
term of years produced by the multiplication of 
the lunar cycle 19, solar cycle 28, and Roman 
indiction 15. It consists of 7980 years, and began 
4713 years before our era. It has been employed in 
computing time to avoid the ambiguity attendant 
on reckoning any period antecedent to our era, an 
advantage in common with the mundane eras used 
at different times. By subtracting 4713 from the 
Julian period, our era is found ; if before Christ, 
subtract the Julian period from 4714- 

JULIERS, a Prussian province ; made a duchy 
in 1356; became the subject of contention on the 
extinction of the ruling family in 1609 ; was allotted 
to Neuburg in 1659 ; seized by the French in 1794; 
and ceded to Prussia in 181 5. 

JULY, the seventh, originally fifth, Roman 
month, named by Marc Antony from Julius Cissar, 
the dictator of Rome, who was born in it. 
The early part of July, 1888, was very cold ; many 

thunderstorms, followed by destructive floods in the 

latter part. See Inundations. 
July Revolution. See France, 1830. 

z z 



JUNE. 



70G 



JUSTICES. 



JUNE, originally the fourth, now the sixth 
month, owes its name to Junius, which some derive 
from Juno, and others from Juniores, this being the 
month for the young, as May was for aged persons. 
Ovid, in his Fasti, introduces Juno as claiming this 
month. " Glorious 1st of June ; " see Ushant. 

JUNG RIVER, west Africa. Natives chas- 
tised for outrage on Mr. Laborde, envoy, and others, 
by gen. Havelock, governor of Sierra Leone, May, 
1882. 

JUNIUS' S LETTERS began in the Public 
Advertiser, 21 Jan. 1769. 

They have been ascribed to Mr. Win. Burke, Mr. William 
Gerard Hamilton, commonly called Single-speech Hamil- 
ton, John Wilkes, Mr. Dunning (afterwards lord Ash- 
burton), Serjeant Adair, the rev. J. Rosen hagen, John 
Roberts, Charles Lloyd, Samuel Dyer, general Lee, the 
duke of Portland, Hugh Boyd, lord George Saekville, 
earl Temple, and sir Philip Francis. The last-named is 
generally considered to have been the author. Junius 
said, " I am the depositary of my own secret, and it 
shall perish with me." The work of Mr. Chabot and 
hon. E. T. B. Twisleton was considered decisive of sir 
Philip Francis being Junius, May, 1871. "Junius is as 
much unknown as ever." — Athencev/m, 8 Sept. 1888. 
Sale of manuscript papers of sir Philip Francis, re- 
ported to be inconclusive respecting " Junius," 
June, 1892; the sir Philip Francis correspon- 
dence sold for 430?. 2s 27 Nov. 1897 

Mr. Charles Knight in his description of the letters in 
his " Popular History of England," i860, asserts that 
they abound in gross exaggeration and venomous 
abuse. Mr. H. R. Francis, in his "Junius" Revealed, 
published March, i8r4, maintains that his grandfather 
(Sir Philip) was Junius. The Athcnwum (17, 24 March, 
1894, and Mr. Fraser Rae, in 6 papers, 19 Feb. 1898) 
considers the book unsatisfactory. Mr. Fraser Rae's 
paper, "New Light on Junius," and facsimiles of 
handwriting, appeared, Atherueum, 8, 15 April, 6 May, 
1899. 

JUNKER PARTY {Junker, German for 
young noble), a term applied to the aristocratic 
party in Prussia, which came into power under 
Otho von Bismarck-Schonhausen, appointed prime 
minister, 9 Oct. 1862. Their political organ is the 
Ivreuz-Zeitung. 

JUNO, the planet discovered by M. Harding, of 
Lilienthal near Bremen, 1 Sept. 1804. Its distance 
from the sun is 254 millions of miles, and it ac- 
complishes its revolution in four years and 128 
days, at the rate of nearly 42,000 miles an hour. 

JUNONIA, festivals in honour of Juno (the 
Greek Htra, or Here) at Home, andinstituted43iB.C. 

JUNTA. The Spanish provincial juntas or 
councils declared against the French in 1808, and 
incited the people to insurrection. 

JUNTO, a name given to the leaders of the 
whig party in the reigns of William III. and Anne 
(1689-1714.) ; the chiefs were admiral Edward 
Russell, John Summers, Charles Montague, and 
Thomas Warton. 

JUPITER, known as a planet to the Chaldeans. 
The discovery of the satellites, incorrectly attributed 
to Simon Mayr (Marius) in 1609, was made by 
Galileo on 8 Jan. 1610; see Planets. Jupiter's 
moons were all invisible on 21 Aug. 1867; a very 
rare occurrence. A fifth very small satellite was 
discovered by Mr. Barnard at the Lick obser- 
vatory, 9 Sept. 1892. Dark spots observed, 1901-2. 
— Jupiter Ammon's temple in Libya was visited 
by Alexander, 332 B.C. Cambyses' army sent 
against it perished miserably, "525 B.C. The 
Greek Zeus was the Roman Jupiter, contracted 
from Diovis pater, the father of Heaven. 



JURIDICAL SOCIETY was established in 
Feb. 1855, all d opened with an address by sir R. 
Bethell on 12 May following. 

JURIES. Trial by jury was introduced into 
England during the Saxon heptarchy, mention 
being made of six Welsh and six Anglo-Saxon 
freemen appointed to try causes between the English 
and Welsh men of property, and made responsible, 
with their whole estates real and personal, for false 
verdicts. Lambard. By most authorities their 
institution is ascribed to Alfred about 886, which 
is not historical. In Magna Charta, juries are 
insisted on as the great bulwark of the people's 
liberty. When either party is an alien born, 
the jury shall be one half denizens, and the 
other half aliens, stat. 28 Edw. III. 1353. By 
the common law a prisoner upon indictment or 
appeal might challenge peremptorily thirty-five, 
being under three juries ; but a lord of parlia- 
ment, and a peer of the realm, who is to be 
tried by his peers, cannot challenge any of his 
peers. An act for the trial by jury in civil cases in 
Scotland was passed in 1815. An act to consolidate 
and amend the laws relating to juries in Ireland 
was passed 4 Will. IV. 1833. A new act respecting 
juries, regulating their payment, &c, was passed 
9 Aug. 1870. The clause respecting their payment 
was rescinded by act passed 28 Feb. 187 1. Laws 
respecting juries in Ireland amended, 14 Aug, 
1871. New Juries bill brought in by the attorney- 
general, sir John Coleridge, Feb. 1873. Special 
juries bill passed, May, 1898. Juries are sum- 
moned to assist the coroner in investigating the 
causes of sudden or violent death. — Grand Juries 
(of not less than 12 or more than 23 persons), decide 
whether sufficient evidence is adduced to put the 
accused on trial. — The constitution of 1791 esta- 
blished the trial by jury in France. — An imperial 
decree abolished trial by jury throughout the Aus- 
trian empire, 15 Jan. 1852. — Trial by jury began 
in Russia, 8 Aug. 1866; in Spain, 1889' — A true bill 
for libel granted against alderman sir F. Truscott in 
his absence, who was honourably acquitted, 18 Sept. 
1879. 

Coercion of Juries. — It is said that in early 
times the suitors used to feed the jury empanelled in 
their action, and hence arose the common law of denying 
sustenance to a jury after the hearing of the evidence. 
A jury may be detained during the pleasure of the judge 
if they cannot agree upon a verdict ; and may be con^ 
fined without meat, drink, or fire, candle light excepted, 
till they are unanimous. — Some jurors have been lined 
for having fruit in their pockets, when they were with- 
drawn to consider of their verdict, though they did not 
eat it. Leon Dyer, 137. A jury at Sudbury not being 
able to agree, and having been some time under duress, 
forcibly broke from the court where they were locked up, 
and went home, 9 Oct. 1791. Phillips. In Scotland, 
Guernsey, Jersey, and France, juries decide by a ma- 
jority ; in France, since 1831, a majority of two-thirds is 
required. 

[' JUSTE MILIEU" (moderation and con- 
ciliation to parties), according to Louis-Philippe (in 
1830), is the only principle of government which 
can secure the welfare of France. 

JUSTICE GENERAL, Lord, Scotland, see 
Court of Session. 

JUSTICES OF THE PEACE are unpaid local 
magistrates, invested with extensive powers in 
minor cases, but subject to supersession and punish- 
ment by the King's Bench for an abuse of their 
authority. They were first nominated by Wil- 
liam I. in 1076. Stow. Persons termed conserva- 
tors of the peace in each county were appointed by 



JUSTICES, LOEDS. 



707 



JUVENILE OFFENDERS. 



I Edw. III. c. 2, 1327 ; and their duties were 
denned in 1360. The form of a commission of the 
peace settled by the judges, 23 Eliz. 1580. Haw- 
kins ; see Eyre. 

JUSTICES, LOEDS, were appointed by 
English sovereigns to govern during their absence ; 
especially by William III., George I. and George II. 
(1695- 1760). George III. never left England. In 
Sept. 182 1, when George IV. went to Hanover, 
lords justices were appointed, the duke of York 
being the first. No such appointment was made 
during the reign of queen Victoria, it having been 
decided by the law authorities in 1843 to be un- 
necessary when the queen went to France. Ireland 
is always ruled by lords justices when the lord- 
lieutenant is out of the country, or his office is 
vacant.— Two lords justices of the court of appeal in 
chancery, having rank next after the chief baron 
of the exchequer, were appointed from 1 Oct. 1851, 
salary 6000/. For recent changes see Appeal and 
King's Bench. 

1851. Sir James L. Knight-Bruce, resigned Oct., died 
7 Nov. 1866. 
,, Bobert lord Cranworth (afterwards lord chan- 
cellor). 
1853. Sir George Jas. Turner, Jan., died, 9 July, 1867. 

1866. Sir Hugh M. Cairns, 29 Oct., became lord-chan- 

cellor, 29 Feb. 1868. 

1867. Sir John Bolt, July ; resigned Feb. 1868. 

1868. Sir Charles Jasper Selwyn, 8 Feb., died n Aug. 

1869. 
,, Sir William Page Wood, March ; lord-chancellor, 
2 Nov. 

1869. Sir George M. Giffard, Dec, died 13 July, 1870. 

1870. Sir George Mellish, July; died 15 June, 1877. 
1875. Sir Bichard Baggallay, resigned 1885. 

1882. Sir Charles S. C. Bowen. 

1883. Sir Edward Fry, 9 April, resigned 1892. 

1893. Sir Horace Davey, Sept., lord of appeal, Aug. 

1894. 

Present Lords Justices. 
1881. Sir Nathaniel Lindley, made master of the rolls, 

Oct. 1897 ; lord of appeal, May, 1900. 
1885. Sir Henry Charles Lopes, Dec, made baron 

Ludlow 21 June, 1897, resigned 23 Oct. 1897 ; 

died, 25 Dec. 1899. 
1890. Sir Edwd. E. Kay, Nov. ; resigned, Jan. 1897 ; 

died, 16 March, 1897. 
1892. Sir Archibald Levin Smith, June ; made master of 

the rolls, Oct. 1900 ; resigned mid, died, 20 Oct. 

1901. 

1894. Sir John Bigby, Oct. ; resigned, Oct. 1901 ; died 

26 July, 1903. 
1897. Sir Joseph Chitty, Jan. ; died, 15 Feb. 1899. 
,, Sir Bichard Henn Collins, Oct. ; made master of 

the rolls, Oct. 1901. 
,, Sir fioland Vaughan Williams, Oct. 

1899. Sir Bobert Bomer, Feb. 

1900. Sir James Stirling, Oct. 

1901. Sir James Charles Mathew, Oct. 
,, Sir H. H. Cozens-Hardy, Oct. 

JUSTICIARS. In ancient times the kings of 
England used to hear and determine causes ; but it I 



is declared by law that if the king cannot deter- 
mine every controversy, he, to ease himself, may 
divide the labour among persons, men of wisdom 
and fearing God, and out of such to appoint judges. 
The Saxon kings of England appointed a judge 
after this manner, who was, in fact, the king^s 
deputy. After the Norman conquest, the person 
invested with that power had the style of Capitalis 
Justicice, or Justiciar ius Anglia. These jud"-es 
continued until the erection of the courts of king's 
bench and the common pleas. The first justiciars 
of England were Odo, bishop of Bayeux, and 
William Fitz-Osborne, in 1067 ; and the last was 
Philip Basset, in 1261, or Hugh le Despencer, 1263 
(Henry III). Authorities vary. 

JUSTICIAEY, COUBT OF, see Court of. 
Justiciary . 

JUSTINIAN CODE compiled by a commis- 
sion appointed by the emperor Justinian I. Feb. 528, 
wherein was written what may be termed the 
statute law (scattered through 2000 volumes re- 
duced to fifty). It was promulgated, April, 529. 
To this code Justinian added the Digest or Pan- 
dects, the Institutes, and Novels, promulgated 
16 Nov. 534. These compilations have since been 
called, collectively, the body of civil law {Corpus 
Juris Civilis). 

JUTE, the fibres of two plants, the chonch and 
isbund {Corchorus olitorius and Corchorus cap- 
sular is), since 1830 extensively cultivated in 
Bengal for making gunnycloth, &c. Jute has been 
much manufactured at Dundee as a substitute for 
flax, tow, &c, and in July, 1862, assertions were 
made that it could be employed as a substitute for 
cotton. In 1853, 275,578 cwt. ; in 1861, 904,092 
cwt. ; in 1871, 3,454,120 cwt. ; in 1874,4,270,164 
cwt. ; in 1875, 3,416,617 cwt. ; in 1877, 3,649,877 
cwt.; in 1879, 4,759,363 cwt.; in i88r, 4,928,805 cwt.; 
in 1883, 7,385,028 cwt. ; in 1885, 285,674 tons : in 
1887, 327,221 tons, of undressed jute were im- 
ported into the United Kingdom ; in 1888, 313,828 
tons ; in 1890, 369,958 tons ; 1893, 278,634 tons ; 
1896, 340,649 ; 1900, 280,919 tons ; 1901, 321,331. 

JUTLAND (Denmark), the home of the Jutes 
who settled in our southern counties. South Jut- 
land was taken by the allies in 1813, and restored 
in 1 8 14. Great fire at Aarhuus, estimated loss 
2,000,000 kroner, 18 Aug. 1899. 

JUVENILE OFFENDERS. In 1838, an 
act was passed for instituting a prison for instruct- 
ing and correcting juvenile offenders, and the mili- 
tary hospital at Parkhurst in the Isle of Wight was 
appropriated for this purpose. An act for their 
committal to reformatories was passed in 1854. 
Another act passed, 1901. 



z z 2 



KAABA. 



708 



KANSAS. 



K. 



KAABA, see Caaba. 
KABBALA, see Cabbala. 
KABYLES, see Algiers. 
KADSEAH, see Parsees. 

KAFFBABIA, a country in S. Africa, extend- 
ing from the north of Cape Colony to the Orange 
river. Our war with the natives began in 1798. 
The Kaffirs, headed by Mokanna, a prophet, attack 
Grahamstown ; repulsed with much slaughter . 1819 

Again defeated, 1828, 1831 1834 

The Kaffirs rise ; sir Harry Smith, the governor, pro- 
claims martial law, and orders the inhabitants 
to rise en masse to defend the frontier 31 Dec. 1850 
Disastrous operations against the Kaffirs in the 
Waterkloeff follow ; colonel Fordyce and several 
officers and men of the 74th regiment killed 6 Nov. 1851 
Wreck of the Birkenhead with reinforcements from 

England (see Birkenhead) ... 26 Feb. 1852 
The hostilities of the Kaffirs having assumed all 
the features of regular warfare, the governor- 
general, Cathcart, attacked and defeated them, 

20 Dec. ,, 
The conditions offered by Cathcart accepted, and 

peace restored 9 March, 1853 

Death of Makomo, an eminent chief . n Sept. 1873 
Insurrection of Langalibalele, suppressed ; see 

Natal 
Kreli, a Galeka chief in the Transkei territory at- 
tacks the Fingoes and their British protectors ; 
repulsed at Ibeka . . .24 and 29 Sept. 1877 
Sir Bartle Frere, the governor general, with officers 
and volunteers proceeds to the spot ; Kreli de- 
feated by commandant Griffith, his kraal burnt, 
9 Oct. ; deposed and his lands annexed . Oct. „ 
■Galekas defeated and expelled from their territories 

2 Dec. „ 
Rise of the Gaikas under Sandilli, an old chief 
(who after education relapsed into barbarism), 

about 30 Dec. „ 

Oetywayo, king of the Zulus, troublesome ; sir B. 
Frere requests help ; 90th regiment and a battery 
of artillery sent from England . . . Jan. 1878 
British advance ; rebels defeated, 24, 26 Jan. ; at 
Quintana, 7 Feb., by gen. Thesiger (about 400 
Kaffirs killed; Sandilli escapes,) 18, 19 March; 
again (capt. Donovan, lieut. Ward, and capt. 
Shawe killed,) about 21 March ; continued fight- 
ing, sometimes severe . . . March — May, ,, 
Sandilli and other chiefs reported dead ; his sons 

captured; Kaffir refugees in dreadful condition June, ,, 
Amnesty proclaimed to all surrendering rebels, 

about 2 July, ,, 

Thanksgiving day for restoration of peace . 1 Aug. ,, 
War still lingered on the borders during Aug. ,, 
Tini Maeomo and Gangubele condemned to death as 
traitors intercession for them in London ; re- 
prieved Sept. ,, 

For the war, see also Bo.suto Land, Transvaal, and 
Zululand. 

KAGOSIMA, see Japan, 1863. 

KAINABDJI (Bulgaria). Here a treaty was 
signed, July, 1774, between theTurksand Eussians, 
which opened the Black Sea, and gave the Crimea 
to the hitter. 

KALAFAT, on the Danube, opposite the 
fortress of Widden. This place was fortified by the 
Turks under Omar Pacha when they crossed the 
river, 28 Oct. 1853. In December, prince Gort- 
sehakoft", with the Russian army, determined to 
storm their intrenchments. The conflict lasted from 
31 Dec. to 9 Jan. 1854, when the Russians were 



compelled to retire. Among these conflicts one 
occurred at Citate, 6 Jan. ; see Citate. Kalafat 
was invested 28 Jan. and general Schilders attacked 
it vigorously on 19 April, without success, and the 
blockade was raised 21 April. 

KALAKH, ancient capital of middle Assyria ; 
where many discoveries have been made by Layard 
and others. See Assyria. 

KALEIDOSCOPE, an optical instrument, 
which, by an arrangement of mirrors, produces a 
symmetrical reflection of various transparent sub- 
stances placed between, was invented by Dr. (after- 
wards sir David) Brewster, of Edinburgh ; it was 
suggested in 1814, and perfected in 1817; see 
Debusscope. 

KALEVALA, epic poem, see Finland. 

KALENDS, see Calends. 

KALI YUGH, see Call Yugh. 

KALITSCH (Poland). Here the Russians 

defeated the Swedes, 19 Nov. 1706, and here the 

Saxons, under the French general, Reynier, were 
beaten by the Russians under W inzingerode, 
13 Feb. 1813. 

KALMAB, see Calmar. 

KALMUCK, see Tartar. 

KALUNGA FOBT (E. Indies), attacked un- 
successfully by the British forces, and general 
Gillespie killed, 31 Oct. 1814; and again unsuccess- 
fully, 25 Nov. It was evacuated by the Nepaulese, 
30 Nov. same year. 

KAMPTULICON, a substance used for floor- 
ing, patented by Elijah Galloway in 1843, and 
manufactured since 1851, by Messrs. Tayler, 
Harvey, and Co. It is composed of India-rubber 
and cork, combined by masticating machines. 

KAMTSCHATKA, a peninsula, E. coast of 
Asia, was discovered by Morosco, a Cossack chief, 
1690; taken possession of by Russia in 1697; and 
proved to be a peninsula by Bearing in 1728. Four 
months, commencing at our midsummer, may be 
considered as the spring, summer, and autumn 
here, the rest of the year being winter. The 
amiable captain Clarke, a companion of captain 
Cook, died in sight of Kamtschatka, 22 Aug. 1779, 
and was buried in the town of St. Peter and Paul, 
in the peninsula. Eruption of the Avachinsky 
volcano, 20 July-4 Aug. 1901. 

KANDAHAB, see Candahar. 

KANDY, see Candy. 

KANGABOOS, animals indigenous to Aus- 
tralia (first seen by captain Cook, 22 June, 1770), 
were bred at San Donate, the estate of prince 
Demidoff, in 1853, and since. 

KANO EXPEDITION, see Nigeria. 

KANSAS, a western state in N. America, 
organised as a territory, 30 May, 1854 ; admitted 
into the union, 29 Jan. 1861 ; and left open to 
slavery, contrary to the Missouri Compromise; see 
Slavery in America. During 18S5-8 this state was 
a scene of anarchy and bloodshed through fruitless 



KAPUNDA. 



709 



KEEPEE. 



efforts to make it a slave state. Capital, Leaven- 
worth ; population, 1880, 996,096; 1890, 1,427,096; 

cit y> 132,716 ; 1900, 1,470,495 ; cit y> 163,752. 

Uniontown destroyed by the bursting of a dam 
caused by heavy rains, several lives lost, re- 
ported 17 June 1889 

Destructive cyclone at Wellington and other places 
with loss of life 27 May 1892 

Violent disputes at Topeka between the republicans 
and populists in the lower house of the legisla- 
ture ; checked by the militia, about 15 Feb. ; the 
populists subdued Feb. 1893 

Destructive cyclone over Williamstown ; about 
20 deaths 21 June, ,, 

Collision on the Santa Fe" railway near Emporia, 
12 deaths 8 Sept. 1897 

KAPUNDA, see under Wrecks, 1887 

KARACHI, a flourishing port inN. "W. India, 
capital of Sind, was taken by the British, 3 Feb. 
1839. Outbreak of bubonic plague, remedial 
measures adopted ; deaths from Dec. 1896, up to 
July, 3,402 ; reappears, Sept. 1897-8, and in 1903. 

KARAITES (or Readers), the protestants of 
Judaism, a remnant of the Sadducees, formed into 
a sect by Anan-ben-David, in the 8th century. They 
profess adherence to the Scriptures alone, and re- 
ject the Talmud and Rabbinical traditions. They 
still exist in Turkey, Poland, the Crimea, and other 
parts of the East. Their name is of uncertain 
origin. 

KARRACK, see Carrack. 

KARS, a town in Asiatic Turkey, captured by 
the Russians under Paskiewich, 15 July, 1828, 
after three days' conflict. In 1855 it was de- 
fended by general Fenwick Williams, with 15,000 
men, and with three months' provisions and three 
days' ammunition, against the Russian general 
Mouravieff, with an army of 40,000 infantry and 
10,000 cavalry. The siege lasted from 18 June to 
28 Nov. 1855. The sufferings of the garrison were 
very great from cholera and want of food. The 
Russians made a grand assault on 29 Sept. but were 
repulsed with the loss of above 6000 men, and the 
garrison were overcome by famine alone. Sand- 
with. Kars was restored to Turkey, Aug. 1856. 

On accepting general Williams' proposal for surrender- 
ing, general Mouravieff said : — "General Williams, you 
have made yourself a name in history ; and posterity 
will stand amazed at the endurance, the courage, and 
the discipline which this siege has called forth in the 
remains of an army. Let us arrange a capitulation that 
will satisfy the demands of war, without disgracing 
humanity." In 1856 the general was made a baronet, 
with the title of sir William Fenwick Williams of Kars, 
and granted a pension ; he died 26 July, 1883. 
The Russians besieging Kars, compelled to retire 

by Mukhtar Pacha, . . . about 13 July, 1877 
Under the grand duke Michael and Loris Melikoff, 

defeated 2, 4 Oct. ; defeat the Turks at Aladja 

Dagh (which see) . . . . 14, 15 Oct. ,, 
Kars taken, after 12 hours' fighting, by surprise 

(it is said by treachery) . 17, 18 Nov. ,, 

[Killed and wounded : Russian, about 2500; Turkish, 

5000 ; with loss of 10,000 prisoners, 100 guns, &c] 
Kars ceded to Russia by the Berlin treaty 13 July, 1878 

KASHGARIA, eastern Turkestan, central 
Asia ; subdued by China ; annexed by Keen Lung, 
1760; insurrections subdued, 1826 et seq. Ma- 
homed Yakoob Beg, during an insurrection of the 
Tungani, made himself ruler of Kashgaria, 1866, 
and sent envoys to London, &c, 1867. He was at 
length attacked by the Chinese, totally defeated, 
and said to have been assassinated, 1 May, 1877. 
The capital, Kashgar, was taken, and the country 
regained by China, Nov. ; and the war closed, Dec. 



1877. Dr. Stein's excavations (1899, 1900) very 
successful, stucco sculptures, Buddhist shrines, 
MSS., &c, discovered, 1901. Severe earthquake, 
villages wrecked 3,000 deaths, 22 Aug. 1902. 

KASHMIR, see Cashmere. 

KASSALA, capital of the Egyptian province 
of Taka, near Abyssinia, captured by the Italians 
from the dervishes, see Massowah, 17 July, 1894, 
1895-6. 

Taken by Osman Digna, chief of the dervish army, 
after two years siege .... July, 1885 

Abandonment of Kassala by the Italians, an- 
nounced 20 May, 1897 

Col. Parsons, the governor, arrives, 18 Dec. ; with- 
drawal of the Italian troops, fort occupied by 
Egyptian government force . ■ . 25 Dec. ,, 

Col. Parsons, with 600 native levies, attacks and 
defeats the dervishes on the Atbara ; El Fasher 
taken, 19 dervishes killed, 22 Dec. ; fort Osobri 
taken after a desperate fight . . .28 Dec. ,, 

Reinforcements under capt. M'Kerrell and Sidi Ali, 
Morgani chief, arrive .... 4 Jan. 1898 

See Egypt. 
KASSASSIN (4 battles) ; see Egypt, 28 Aug. 

and 9 Sept. 1882. 

.KATANGA or GARENGANZE, a native 

kingdom near the head stream of the Congo, in 

central Africa. 

The Katanga company was constituted at Brussels 
to develop the country and promote free trade, 

15 ADril, 1891 

A settlement was formed subject to the Congo Free 
State ; reported prosperous . . . Feb. 1892 

Capt. W. Grant Stairs, who conducted an expedi- 
tion successfully for the company, died when 
returning . . . . . . 9 June, ,, 

M. Hodister, an able officer of the company, and 
others, killed by the natives . about 15 May, ,, 

Capt. Cameron reported at a meeting of the com- 
pany at Brussels that he had established a trans- 
port company in S. E. Africa . . 12 Nov. ,, 
See Congo. 

KATHARINE'S HOSPITAL, ST.,founded 
about 1 148, by Matilda, queen of Stephen, and re- 
founded by Eleanor, queen of Henry III., 1273. 
The hospital was removed to Regent's Park in 1827, 
the site having been bought for 163,000/. by the 
St. Katharine' s docks company. The brethren are in 
orders, and not restricted from marriage ; the sisters- 
are unmarried or widows. A school, attached in 1829, 
was enlarged in 1849. 

Order of St. Katharine for nurses instituted by the- 
queen ; annual payment 50I. for 3 years, badge 
for life ; first investiture ... 4 June, 1879. 

KATSBACH (Prussia) ; near this river the 
Prussian general Bliicher defeated the French 
under MacDonald 26 Aug. 1813. He received/ 
the title of prince of Wahlstatt, the name of a 
neighbouring village. 

KEATING S ACT, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 67 (1855) 
relates to bills of exchange. 

KEBLE COLLEGE (Oxford), founded in 
memory of the rev. John Keble, author of the 
" Christian Tear," born 25 April, 1792, died 
29 March, 1866. The first stone of the building 
was laid by the archbishop of Canterbury, 25 April, 
1868 ; the building was dedicated, 23 June, 1870 ; 
the chapel, the gift of William Gibbs, was dedicated, 
and the library opened, 25 April, 1876. 

KEEPER of the King's Conscience. 

The early chancellors were priests, and out of their 
supposed moral control of the king's mind grew 
the idea of an equity court in contradistinction, to 
the law courts. A bill in chancery is a petition 



KEEPEE (LORD). 



710 



KEW. 



through the lord chancellor to the king's conscience 
for remedy in matters for which the king's common 
law courts afford no redress. The keeper of the 
king's conscience is therefore now the officer who 
presides in the court of chancery ; see Chancellor 
and Lord Keeper. 

KEEPEE (LOED) of the Great Seal 
OF ENGLAND differed only from the lord chan- 
cellor in that the latter had letters patent, whereas 
the lord keeper had none. Richard, a chaplain, 
is said to have been the first keeper under Ranulph, 
in 1116. Foss says that the distinction between the 
two offices was made 1232 The two offices were 
made one by 5 Eliz. 1563. Cow ell ; see Chancellor. 
The office of lord keeper of the great seal of 
Scotland was established in 1708, after the union. 

KELTS, see Celts and Gauls. 

KENILWOBTH CASTLE (Warwickshire), 
was built about 1120, by Geoffrey de Clinton, whose 
grandson sold it to Heury III. It was enlarged 
and fortified by Simon de Montfort, to whom Henry 
gave it as a marriage portion with his sister Eleanor, 
Queen Elizabeth conferred it on her favourite, 
Dudley, earl of Leicester. His entertainment of 
the queen commenced 19 July, 1575, and cost the 
earl daily 1000I. 

After the battle of Evesham and defeat and death of 
Simon de Montfort, by Prince Edward (afterwards 
Edward I.) 1265, Montfort's younger son, Simon, shut 
himself up in Kenilworth castle, which sustained a siege 
for six months against the royal forces of Henry III., to 
whom it at length surrendered. Upon this occasion was 
issued the " Dictum de Kenilworth," or "ban of Kenil- 
worth," enacting that all who had borne arms against 
the king should pay him the value of their lands for 
periods varying from 7 years to 6 months. 

KENNINGTON COMMON (Surrey). The 
Chartist demonstration, 10 April, 1848, took place 
on the common. It was directed to be laid out as a 
public pleasure-ground in 1852. 

KENSAL GBEEN, see Cemeteries. 

KENSINGTON : the palace was purchased 
by William III., from lord chancellor Finch, who 
made the road through its park. The gardens were 
improved by queens Mary, Anne, and Caroline, who 
died here. Here died George, prince of Denmark, 
and George II. ; and here queen Victoria was born, 
24 May, 1819. The state rooms restored at na- 
tional expense ; visited by queen Victoria, 15 May ; 
opened to the public, 24*May, 1899. Kensington 
returns two M.P.'s by Act of 1885 ; a royal borough, 
18 Nov. 1901 (10 aldermen, 60 councillors). 
By permission of the government, a military band 

played in Kensington gardens on Sundays, Aug. 1855 
Objected to ; discontinued . . . ... ^56 

New parish church erected by sir Gilbert G. Scott 

was consecrated .... 14 May, 1872- 

New town-hall by R. Walker opened by the duchess 

of Teck 7 Aug. 1S80 

Free central public library opened by the princess 

Louise . . . . . . ' . 29 Nov. 1889 

Queen Victoria unveils the statue of herself (as in 

l8 37). by the princess Louise, near the palace 

(subscribed for) .... 28 June, 1893 

Population, 1881, 163,151; 1891, 166,321; 1901, 176,623. 
See South Kensington. 

1 KENT, see Britain and Holy Maid. Odo, 
bishop of Bayeux, brother of William the Con- 
queror, was made earl of Kent, 1067; and Henry 
Grey was made duke of Kent in 1710 ; he died with- 
out male heirs in 1740. Edward, son of George III., 
was created duke of Kent in 1799, was father of 
queen Victoria, and died 23 Jan. 1820; see England, 



KENT, anEastlndiaman, of 1350 tons burthen, 
left the Downs, 19 Feb. 1825, bound for Bombay. 
In the Bay of Biscay she encountered a dreadful 
storm, 28 Feb. On the next day she accidentally 
took fire, and all were in expectation of perish- 
ing, either by the tempest or the flames. The 
Cambria, captain Cook, bound to Vera Cruz, provi- 
dentially hove in sight, and nearly all on board 
were saved. The Kent blew up, 2 March. 

KENTISH FIEE, a term given to the con- 
tinuous cheering common at the protestant meetings 
held in Kent, 1828 and 1829, with the view of 
preventing the passing of the Catholic Belief 
bill. — Kentish Petition to the house of commons, 
censuring its proceedings, was signed at Maidstone, 
29 April, 1 701. It gave much offence. 

KENTISH TOWN, N.W. London, an old 
manor, church property, originally formed part of 
the great forest of Middlesex. Since 1855 building 
has very greatly increased. New baths and wash- 
houses in Prime of Wales-rd. (total cost, 93,000/.) 
opened by sir J. Blundell Maple, 9 Oct. 1901. 

KENTUCKY, a western state of N. America, 
admitted into the union 1792. It declared for strict 
neutrality in the conflict between the North and 
South in April, 1861, but was invaded by the 
Southern troops in August. On their refusal to 
retire, after much correspondence, the legislature 
of Kentucky gave in its adhesion to the union, 
27 Nov. 1861. In the campaign that ensued sharp 
skirmishes took place, and on 19 Jan. 1862, the 
confederates under Zollicoffer were defeated and 
himself killed at Mill Spring, and in March no con- 
federate soldiers remained in Kentucky ; capital, 
Frankfort. Population, 1880, 1,648,690 ; 1890, 
1,858,635; 1900,2,147,174. See United States. 
Murderous ten years' feud or vendetta at Moreliead, 
Rowan county, chiefly between Holbrooks and 
Underwoods, beginning with a charge of horse- 
stealing against John Martin, sometimes rising 
to actual war. Closed by the sheriff killing 
Craig Tolliver and his gang . . 22 June, 1887 
By the fall of a new bridge between Covington and 
Newport, about 30 workmen perished 15 June, 1892 

KEEBEKAN, Battle of, see Soudan, 10 

Feb. 1885. 

KEEMADEC ISLANDS, north of New 
Zealand, annexed by the British Government, May, 
1886. 

KEEOSELENE, an anaesthetic, derived from 
the distillation of coal-tar by Mr. W. B. Merrill, 
of Boston, U.S., was made known early in 1S61. 

KEETCH, formerly Panticapamm, capital of 
the ancient kingdom of Bosporus, late a flourishing 
town on the straits of Yenikale, sea of Azof. It 
was entered by the allies (English and French) 
24 May, 1855 ; the Russians retired after destroying 
stores, &c. The place was dismantled by* the 
allies, and most of the inhabitants removed. 

KETS EEBELLION: a revolt ill July, 
1549, instigated by William Ket, a tanner ; of 
\V ymondham, Norfolk. He demanded the abolition 
of inclosures and the dismissal of evil counsellors. 
The insurgents amounted to 20,000 men, but were 
quickly defeated by the earl of Warwick. More 
than 2000 fell; Ket and others were tried 26 Nov., 
and hanged soon after. 

KEW (Surrey). The palace was successively 
occupied by the Capel family and Mr. Molyneux"; 
by Frederick, prince of Wales, 1730, and George III. 
Queen Charlotte died here, 4 Nov. 1818. The 
old palace ordered by the queen to be opened as a 



KEYS. 



711 



KHOKAND. 



public museum, the grounds being annexed to Kew 
gardens, Jan., opened 21 May, 1898. A new 
palace erected by George III., under the direction 
of Mr. Wyatt, was pulled down in 1827. The gar- 
dens contained a fine collection of plants, and were 
decorated with ornamental buildings, most of them 
erected by sir William Chambers, about 1760. 

BOTANIC GARDENS. 

Mr. Aiton retired from his office of director, after 
fifty years' service 1841 

Succeeded by sir William Hooker, 1 April, 1841, at 
whose recommendation the gardens were opened 
to the public daily. The royal kitchen and forcing 
gardens incorporated with the botanic gardens . 1847 

Collections in the museum of Economic Botany 
began with tne private collection of sir William 
Hooker, given by him in , , 

Under his charge the gardens were greatly im- 
proved, and magnificent conservatories erected. 

He died 12 Aug. 1865, and was succeeded by his 
son, Dr. (now sir Joseph) D. Hooker, 1865, who 
resigned (succeeded by Mr. W. T. Thiselton Dyer, 
K.C.M.G. 30 Jan. 1899) . . . 30 Nov. 1885 

"687,972 (great increase) visitors in . . . . 1877 

The Meteorological Observatory presented to the 
British Association, 1842 ; purchased by J. P. 
Gassiot for io,oool., and presented to the Royal 
Society 1871 

<Great damage done to conservatories and plants 
by storm (cost about 2000?.) . . .23 Aug. 1879 

Miss Marianne North's present of a collection of pic- 
tures of fruit and flowers of all nations,painted by 
herself, and placed in a building erected at her ex- 
pense, opened to the public . . summer, 1882 

JShe died, Sept. 1890. Her "Recollections of a 

Happy Life," were published early in 1892.] 
. (Gardens first opened at noon . . . 1 April, 1883 

The valuable bulletins first issued .... 1887 

■* ' Index Kewensis plantarum phanerogamarum 
nomina et synonyma " (the Kew index of plant- 
names), 2 vols. 1893-4. This work, suggested by 
Mr. C. R. Darwin, who bequeathed money for 
its publication, was executed, under sir Joseph 
Hooker, by Mr. Daydon Jackson and the staff of 
the gardens. 

The gardens enlarged by a gift from the queen, 

April, 1895, and May, 1898 

New bridge over the Thames opened by the king, 

20 May, 1903 
KEYS- See locks, Man, Isle of. 

KHARTOUM, capital of Nubia, at the con- 
fluence of the Blue and White Nile, built by Mo- 
hamed Ali, 1 820. Its prosperity was destroyed by 
the rapacity of the governors. Population in 1877 
-only about 15,000. 

After successful administration col. Charles George 
Gordon compelled to leave Khartoum, and re- 
turned to England . . ... 1877 
£n his defence of Khartoum agamst the Mahdi (from 
Feb. 1884) he was greatly aided by colonel Hamill 
Stewart and Mr. Frank Power, correspondent of 
the Ti?»es(whowere both massacred during an ex- 
pedition, near Berber, Sept. 1884). He manifested 
much military skill, political sagacity, tender 
humanity, and marvellous power in inducing his 
followers to overcome serious difficulties and 
patiently endure great sufferings and privations. 
Khartoum was surrendered, and Gordon and his 
faithful followers killed, early on 26 Jan. 1885. 
See under Soudan. 
The British and Egyptian flags hoisted on Sunday, 

4 Sept. 1898 
■Gordon Memorial College (undenominational) 
at Khartoum (proposed by lord Kitchener), 
patrons the queen and prince of Wales, warmly 
supported by lord Salisbury and others, 30 Nov. 
1898. Meeting at the Mansion house, lord 
Kitchener present, 50,000?. received for the 
■"Sirdar's Fund," 1 Dec. ; see Mansion House, 
Dec. 1898 ; 100L from the khedive, 15 Dec. ; 
100 gs. from the Aga Khan, 2 Jan. 1899. Founda- 
tion stone laid by lord Cromer, 5 Jan. ; a "Hamill 
.Stewart" scholarship started by him, Jan. ; the 
.general council meets at the Bank of England, 
lord Salisbury present, liberal subscriptions, 18 



Jan. ; over 1040L from Canada, June, 1899 ; total, 
123,015?., 31 Dec. 1901. Many gifts presented, Mr. 
H. S. Wellcome a scientific laboratory ; education 
steadily progressing, 4 schools started . . 1900-01 
The khedive visits Khartoum, 3 Dec. ; holds a re- 
view and opens the new mosque . . 5, 6 Dec. 1901 
First stone of the new markets laid . 17 March, 1902 
Lord Kitchener, warmly welcomed, opens the 
Gordon College 7 Nov. ,, 

KHEDIVE, or Kedervi, king or lord, a title 
given to the viceroy of Egypt, instead of vali or 
viceroj r , 14 May, 1867. 

KHELAT, see Beloochistan. 

KHERSON, an ancient Dorian colony (deriving 
its name from Chersonesus, a penins ila), came 
under the sway of the great Mithridates about 120 
B.C.; and afterwards under that of Home, A. D. 30. It 
continued important, and its possession was long 
disputed by the Russians and Greeks. Justinian II. 
cruelly treated it. It was taken by Vladimir, grand- 
duke of Russia in 988, when he and his army received 
Christian baptism, and he married the emperor's 
sister Anne, who obtained Kherson as her dowry. 
The city was destroyed by the Lithuanians ; and the 
Turks found it deserted when they took possession 
of the Crimea in 1475. What ancient remains the 
Turks and Tartars had spared, the Russians con- 
veyed away for the construction of Sebastopol. 

KHERSON, a Russian city on the Dnieper, 
founded 1778. Fotemkin, the favourite of Catherine, 
who died at Jassy in 1791, is buried here, and John 
Howard, the English philanthropist, who died here, 
20 Jan. 1 790, is buried about three miles from the 
town, where an obelisk has been erected to his 
memory, by the czar Alexander I. New port opem d 
here, 27 July, 1901. 

KHIVA (formerly Carasmia), in Turkestan, 
Asia, successively formed part of the territories of 
the Seleucidas, Bactria, Parthia, Persia, and the 
Califate, till about 1092, when it was subjugated by 
the Seljuk Tartars, by the Moguls in 1221, and by 
Timour the Tartar in 1370, whose descendants 
ruled till 151 1, when they were expelled by the 
Uzbegs, a Turkish tribe who still inhabit the 
country. An expedition sent against it by the 
emperor Nicholas of Russia in 1839 perished through 
the rigour of the climate in 1840. In 1875, colonel 
F. A. Burnaby reached Khiva, after a perilous ride, 
when his progress was stopped by Russian jealousy. 
Population, about 700,000 (1894). 
To obtain redress for many outrages, a Russian 

expedition sent to Khiva .... Feb. 1873 
After several defeats the town, Khiva, surrendered 

unconditionally .... 10 June, ,, 
The khan fled, but returned, and became a vassal 

of the czar 5 July, ,, 

An insurrection against the Russians repressed 

Aug. ; part of Khiva annexed . . 15 Oct. „ 

The country disturbed by revolts . . . 1873-4 
The khan, Syed Mohamed Rahim, received at St. 

Petersburg Jan. 1893 

KHOKAND, a khanate in central Asia, sub- 
ject to China about 1760; rebelled and became 
tributary only, 1812. A rebellion, which broke out 
in Sept. was suppressed Oct. 1874. 
War with Russia ; gen. Kaufmann defeats about 
30,000 men, 4 Sept. ; entered Khokand without 
resistance, and the khanate subdued . 16 Sept. 1875 
He defeats 5000 more .... 21 Sept. ,, 
The people expel the new khan . . 21 Oct. ,, 
Part of Khokand annexed by Russia . . Oct. ,, 
Russian garrison massacred by natives . Nov. ,, 

Rebels totally defeated at Assake . . 30 Jan. 1876 
Khokand formally annexed as Ferghana . 2q Feb. , 



KHUSCHK-I-NAKHUD. 



712 



KILIMA-NJARO. 



Fanatical rising, Russian force (300) surprised, and 
22 killed at Andijan ; rebels finally repulsed, 11 
killed and their leader captured, 1 June ; officials 
dismissed, 3 — 9 June, 1898 ; 24 rebels hanged, 
362 banished to Siberia, announced . Oct. 1898 

KHUSCHK-I-NAKHUD, see Maiwand. 

KHYBER PASS (the principal northern 
entrance into Afghanistan from India). It is ten 
miles west of Peshawur, extending about thirty- 
three miles towards Jellalabad ; lying between lofty 
slate cliffs, varying from 600 to 1000 feet in height; 
held by Afridis and other warlike tribes, to whom 
Dost Mahomed formerly paid subsidies, which 
were discontinued by his son Shere Ali, ameer of 
Afghanistan. 

The pass forced by col. Wade, 26 July, and gen. 
sir John Keane retired through it after his vic- 
torious campaign 1839 

Again forced by general (aft. sir George) Pollock, 
on his way to chastise Cabul for the massacres in 
the previous winter . . . 5-14 April, 1842 
At Ali Musjid, a fort in the pass, the further ad- 
vance of sir Neville Chamberlain on a mission 
from the viceroy to the ameer was forbidden, 
with threats of violence . . . 22 Sept. 1878 
The pass held by the British . . till March, 1881 
The viceroy, the marquis of Lansdowne, rode 

through the pass .... 30 Oct. 1889 

The pass opened to trade under the Indian govern- 
ment, Landi Kotal to be fortified, terms accepted 
by the Afridis .... 28 Oct. -4 Nov. 1899 
The regular troops withdrawn . . .20 Dec. ,, 
Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaught, 13 Jan. 1903 
See Afghanistan, India, 1897-8. 

KIDDERMINSTER (Worcestershire), re- 
nowned for its carpet manufactures, established 
about 1735. Ik was made a parliamentary borough 
again in 1832. The statue of Richard Baxter, He 
nonconformist, was unveiled by Mrs. Phil potts, 
wife of the bishop of Worcester, 28 July, 1875 ; an 
address was delivered by dean Stanley. Fierce 
rioting through carpet trade disputes quelled, 4-8 
April, 1884. Typhoid fever prevalent, Sept. to 
Oct. 1884, 87 deaths. Population, 1881, 24,270; 
1891, 24,803 ; 1901, 24,692. 

KIDNAPPING ACTS (1872 and 1875). 
passed to prevent and punish criminal outrages 
upon natives of the islands in the Pacific Ocean ; 
see Slavery, Queensland, and Melanesia. 

KIEFF (Kiov or Kiow), chief town of a province 
of the same name in European Russia, made a 
principality 1 137, annexed to Poland 1386, and 
after several changes was ceded to Russia 1686. 
Population of the province, 1886, 3,026,036. 

The cathedral of St. Sophia was founded in 1037, 

the Greek academy 1588, the university in . . 1834 
Visit of the czar ; consecration of a new cathedral 

of St. Vladimir; statueof'the emperor Nicholas I. 

unveiled 2 Sept. 1896 

Student troubles, see Russia . . . April, 1899 
Jewish synagogues and schools ordered to be closed 

in Berditchetf Sept. „ 

Destructive hurricane and rainstorm, 23 deaths, 

20 July, 1902 
Strikes and serious riots . . . 5-7 Aug. 1903 

KIEL, a seaport of Schlcswig-Holstein, and a 
member of the Hanseatic league in 1300. The 
university was founded in 1665. By a treaty 
between Great Britain, Sweden, and Denmark, 
signed here 14 Jan. 1814, Norway was ceded to 
Sweden ; see Norway. An extraordinary assembly 
of the revolted provinces, Schleswig and Holstein, 
met here 9 Sept. 1850. By the convention of 
Gastein between Austria and Prussia, 14 Aug. 1865, 
the former was to govern Holstein, but Kiel to be 



held by Prussia as a German federal port. This 
was annulled in 1866 by the issue of the war. Popu- 
lation, 1890, 69,214; 1900, 121,790. 

Foundation stone of opening lock of the canal 
from the Baltic to the North Sea laid by the 
emperor William 1 3 June, 1887 

The canal was opened with great ceremony, 
20 June, 1895. The emperor William II., with 
his sons, in the imperial yacht Hohenzollern, fol- 
lowed by 23 other vessels, German and foreign, 
passed the huge water-gates and entered the 
canal at Brunsbiittel on the North sea at 4 a.m. , 
and arrived at Holtenau, on the Baltic, a distance 
of 61 miles, at 12.45 p.m., being received with 
many salutes and other demonstrations from the 
foreign war-ships assembled in Kiel harbour.* 

The emperor dined on board lord Walter Kerr's 
flagship, the Royal Sovereign, 24 June ; on adm. 
Kirkland s flagship, the Neiv York . 26 June, 1895 

Explosion on board a German pinnace, 5 deaths, 

28 July, „ 

Braunschweig, battleship, launched . . 20 Dec. 1902 

Visit of American squadron, emperor visits adm. 
Cotton on board the U.S. battleship Kearsage, 25 
June ; banquet and speech by emperor, 26 June, 1903; 

KILCULLEN (Kildare). Here a large body 
of the insurgent Irish defeated the British forces 
commanded by general Dundas, 23 May, 1798. The 
general in a subsequent engagement overthrew the 
rebels near Kilcullen-bridge, when 300 were slain, 

KILDA, ST. An island in the Atlantic, 52 m. 
W. of Harris, one of the Hebrides. Population ? 
76, 31 March, 1901. 

KILDARE (E. Ireland). The Curragh or 
raoe-course here was once a forest of oaks. Here 
was the nunnery of St. Bridget, said to have been 
founded by her in the 5th century, and here was 
a building called the fire-house, where, it is sup- 
posed, the nuns kept the inextinguishable fire 
which existed till the reformation. The see was 
one of the earliest episcopal foundations in Ire- 
land ; St. Conlaeth, who died 519, the first prelate. 
The first Protestant bishop was Thomas Lancaster,, 
in 1550. The see is valued, by an extent returned 
39 Hen. VIII., at 69/. lis. qd. Irish per year. 
Kildare was united to Dublin in 1846; see Dublin. 
The insurrection in Kildare, which swelled into 
the rebellion, commenced, 23 May, 1798. On 
that night, lieut. Gifford of Dublin and a number 
of other gentlemen were murdered by insurgents. 
This rebellion was quelled in 1799. The Curragh 
is now a military camp. St. Brigid's cathedral re- 
opened, the archbishops of Canterbury, Armagh,, 
and Dublin present, 22 Sept. 1896. 

KILFENORA (Clare), a bishopric, said to 
have been founded by St. Fachnan. Cardinal 
Paparo, in 1152, rendered it a suffragan see to 
Cashel; but in 1660 it was annexed to Tuam, and 
to Killaloe in 1752. 

KILIMA-NJARO, a lofty volcanic mountain. 
in E. Equatorial Africa, discovered by Rebmann in 
1848. 
Mr. H. H. Johnston ascended 16,200 feet from the 

summit of Kibo Nov. 18841 

* The key-stone of the works at Holtenau was solemnly 
laid by the emperor William, and the canal was named 
by him, in memory cf his grandfather, the Kaiser 
Wilhilm canal. Kiel was for several days the scene of ' 
great festivities. The flags of 14 nations were floating in 
the harbour on upwards of 80 sea-going men-of-war, 
and over 300 yachts and steamers of various nationalities; 
were present. Dr. von Boetticher, president of the com- 
mittee of commerce, received much honour from the- 
emperor for his great services in relation to this national 
work. 



KILKENNY. 



F13 



KINEMATOGEAPH. 



Dr. Hans Meyer (unsuccessful 1887 and 1888), with 
HerrPurtschellerand one native, climbed up the 
icy steeps to the highest pinnacle of the ridges of 
the volcanic crater about 19,700 feet high, which 
he named " Kaiser Wilhelm's Peak," after having 
planted on it the German flag, 6 Oct. ; they left 
the mountain 30 Oct. 1889 

Dr. Meyer gave an account of his travels to the 
Royal Geographical Society, London . 14 April, 1890 

Major von Wissmann establishes a fortified station 
at Kilima-Njaro, in charge of lieutenant Witzleben 
15 Feb. 1891 ; Germans defeated ; fort, abandoned 
10 June ; re-occupied without fighting, 29 July, 
1892; limits defined by convention . . July, 1893 

Dr. Lent, botanist, and Dr. Kretzschmar, zoologist, 
and several of their followers, killed, reported, 

26 Oct. 1894 

KILKENNY (S. E. Ireiand), an English 
settlement about 1 1 70. The castle was built 1 195, 
by Wm. Marshall, earl of Pembroke. At the par- 
liament held here by Lionel duke of Clarence 1367, 
the statute of Kilkenny was passed.* After a siege 
the town surrendered to Cromwell, 28 March, 1650, 
on honourable terms. The duke and duchess of 
York well received, 19 April et seq., 1899. Popula- 
tion, 1901, 12,000. 

KILLALA (Mayo) Avas invaded by a French 
force landing from three frigates, under general 
Humbert, 22 Aug. 1798. The invaders were joined 
by the Irish insurgents, and the battles of Castlebar 
and Colooney followed ; and the French were de- 
feated at Ballynamuck, 8 Sept. same year. 

KILLALA (Sligo), an early see. The author 
of the Tripartite life of St. Patrick, says, "that in 
434 he came to a pleasant place where the river 
Muadas (Moy) empties itself into the ocean ; and 
on the south banks of the said river he built a noble 
church called Kil-Aladh, of which he made one of 
his disciples, Muredach, the first bishop." The see 
of Achonry was united to Killala in the 1 7th century ; 
and both were united to Tuam in 1839 ; see 
Tuam and Bishops. 

KILLALOE (Clare), a see supposed to have 
been founded by St. Molua, whose disciple, St. 
Flannan, son to king Theodoric, consecrated at 
Rome by John IV. in 639, was also bishop. At the 
close of the 12th century, Roscrea was annexed to 
Killaloe, and Kilfenora has been held with it. 
Clonfert and Kilmacduach were added in 1836. 

KILLIECEANKIE (a defile in Perthshire). 
Here the forces of William III. commanded by 
general Mackay were defeated by the adherents of 
James II. under Graham of Claverhouse, viscount 
Dundee, who fell in the moment of victory, 17 
or 27 July, 1689. 

KILMACDUACH (Gal way). This see was 
held with Clonfert, from 1602. St. Coleman was its 
first bishop, in the 7th century. It was valued, 29 
Eliz. 1586, at 13^. 6s. Sd. per annum. It is united 
to Killaloe. 

KILMAINHAM HOSPITAL (Dublin), 
the noble asylum of aged and disabled soldiers in 
Ireland, built by Wren, was founded by Arthur, 
earl of Granard, marshal-general of the army in 

* It enacted among other things, "that the alliance 
of the English by marriage with any Irish, the nurture of 
infantes, and gossipred with the Irish, be deemed high 
treason." And again, "if anie man of English race use 
an Irish name, Irish apparell, or anie other guize or 
fashion of the Irish, his lands shall be seized, and his 
body imprisoned, till he shall conform to English modes 
and customs." Said never to have been enforced. It 
abolished the Brehon laws. 



Ireland, 1675 ; and the duke of Ormond perfected 
the plan in 1679. 

The term Treaty of Kilmainham was applied to an 
alleged agreement between Mr. Gladstone's government 
and Mr. Parnell and other land-leaguers imprisoned in 
the Kilmainham gaol on 13 Oct. 1881. The government 
is said to have entered into a negi itiation with them while 
there, May, 1882. See Mr. J. Morley's " Life of Glad- 
stone," 1903. 

KILMALLOCK (Limerick). An abbey was 
founded here by St. Mochoallog or Molach about 
645, and an abbe}' of Dominicans was built in the 
13th century. Ware. A charter was granted to< 
Kilmallock by Edward VI., and another by Eliza- 
beth in 1584. The town was invested by the Irish 
forces in 1598, but the siege was raised by the earl 
of Ormond. There was much fighting here in 1641 
and 1642 ; see Fenians, March, 1867. 

KILMOEE (Armagh), an ancient town, whose 
bishops were sometimes ealled Brefinienses, from 
Brefney, and sometimes Triburnenses, from 
Triburna, a village; but in 1454, the bishop of 
Triburna, by assent of pope Nicholas V., erected 
the parish church of St. Fedlemid into a cathedral. 
Florence O'Connacty, the first bishop, died in 1231. 
Valued, 15 Jas. I. with Ardagh, at 100?. per annum. 
The joint see of Elphin and Ardagh was united to 
it in 1841. 

KILSYTH (central Scotland). Here Montrose 
defeated the Covenanters, 15 Aug. 1645, and 
threatened Glasgow. 

KIMBEELEY, see under Griqtialand, 

Kimberley' 's Act, see under Crime. 

KIMMEEIDGE CLAY: Rev. H. Moule 
announced his successful use of this clay for fuel 
and gas-making, March, 1874 ; practicability 
doubted. 

KINBUEN, a fort, at the confluence of the 
rivers Bug and Dnieper. Here Suwarrow defeated) 
the Turks, 28 June. 1788. Kinburn was taken by 
the English and French, 17 Oct. 1855. Three 
floating French batteries, said to be the invention 
of the emperor, on the principle of horizontal shell- 
firing, was very effective. On the 18th the 
Russians blew up Oczakoft', a fort opposite. 

KINDEE-GAETEN (children's garden), a 
system of education devised by Frcebel, but prac- 
tically carried out by Mr. and Mrs. Ronge, im 
Germany, in 1849, and in England in 1851. The 
system, founded mainly on self-tuition, and en- 
livened by toys, games, and singing, is set forth in 
Ronge's " Kinder-garten," published in 1858; and 
has been largely adopted in English schools. The 
Frcebel Society established 1874. 

KINDEED TABLE OF, in the Book of Com- 
mon Prayer, was set forth in 1563, see Leviticus, 
chap, xviii., B.C. 1490. 

KINEMATICS (Greek kineo, I move), the 
science of motion. Reuleaux's " Kinematics of Ma- 
chinery," translated by A. B. W. Kennedy; pub- 
lished, June, 1876. " Kinematism " is a method of 
treating certain diseases by movement. Prof. 
Rankine's "Machinery and Millwork " first ap- 
peared, 1809; new ed. 1876; see Motion. 

KINEMATOGEAPH or Cinemato- 
graph, a machine invented by Mr. Thomas A. 
Edison, combining electricity with photography, by 
means of which the movements of the actors in a 
scene at the theatre (accompanied by their voices 



KINETOSCOPE. 



714 



KING'S BENCH. 



and the music) are reproduced upon a screen. The 
kinematograph was described by Mr. Edison at New 
York 28 May, and in the Times, 29 May, 1891 ; 
see Paris, 4 May, 1897. 
M. M. A. and L. Lumiere's Cinematograph (living 

photos) exhibited in London . . March, 1896 

Cinematograph pictures of the Jubilee procession, 

22 June (exhibited before the queen at Windsor, 

23 Nov. 1897), much in vogue, 1903. 

KINETOSCOPE. An apparatus invented 
by Mr. Edison, for the continuous photography of 
objects in motion, the first series of photographs 
were of the strong man Sandow, reported, New 
York, 7 March, 1894. 
Various scenes exhibited in London : blacksmiths 

at work, dancers, &c. . . 17 Oct. et seq. 1894 
By the theatrograph, invented by Mr. Robt. W. 
Paul, kinetoscopic pictures projected on a full- 
sized lantern screen, were exhibited at the Royal 
Institution, 28 Feb. 1896. A ship in motion, 
with spectators walking on the shore, and other 
scenes were represented. 

KING: German Konig, equivalent in mean- 
ing to the Latin Rex, Scythian Rets, Spanish Bey, 
Italian He, French Roy : Hebrew Rosch. Rex is 
thought to be connected with the Hindu rajah, de- 
rived from the Sanscrit rag an, the root of which is 
arg, ar garni, to possess. Rex therefore means 
possessor. Nimrod was the first founder of a 
kingdom, about 2245 B.C. The "manner of the 
king" is set forth in 1 Samuel viii., 11 12 b.c 
Saul was the first king of Israel, 1095 B.C. Most 
of the Grecian states were originally governed by 
kings; and kings were the first rulers in Rome. 

King of England. — The style was used by Egbert, 
828 ; but the title Rex gentis Anglorum, king of 
the English nation, existed during the Heptarchy ; 
see Britain. 

The plural phraseology, we, us, our, was first adopted 
among English kings by John .... 1199 

Pope Leo X. conferred the title of " Defender of the 
Faith" on Henry VIII. . . . n Oct. 

Henry VIII. changed lord of Ireland into king. 

The style " Great Britain " was adopted at the union 
of England and Scotland, 6 Anne . . . . 

That of the " United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland" at the union, when the royal style and 
title was appointed to run thus: — "Georgvus 
Tertius, Dei Gratia, Britanniarum Bex, Fidei 
Defensor," "George the Third, by the grace of 
God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and 
Ireland, king, Defender of the Faith" (France 
being omitted) 1 Jan. 

Hanover omitted in the queen's style 21 June, 1837 

The queen was proclaimed in all the important 
places in India, as "Victoria, by the Grace of 
God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain 
and Ireland, and the colonies and dependencies 
thereof in Europe, Asia, Africa, America, and 
Australia, queen," <&c. (see Empress). 1 Nov. 1858 

The national assembly decreed that the title of 
Louis XVI. " king of France," should be changed 
to "king of the French" . . . 16 Oct. 1789 

The royal title in France abolished .... 1792 

Louis XVIII. styled " by the grace of God king of 
France and Navarre " 1:814 

Louis-Philippe I. was invited to the monarchy under 
the style of the " king of the French " . 9 Aug. 1830 

The emperors of Germany, in order that their 
eldest sons might be chosen their successors 
in their own life-time, politically obtained them 
the title of "king of tin' Romans." The first 
emperor so elected was Henry IV. . . . 1055 

Richard, brother of Henry III. of England, was 
induced to go to Germany, where he disbursed vast 
sums under the promise of being elected next 
emperor; he was elected "king of the Romans" 
(but failed in succeeding in the imperial crown) 

The title of "king of France" assumed, and the 
French arms quartered, by Edward III., in right 
of his mother, 1340; discontinued by Geo. III. 



1521 
1542 



1801 



1256 



The style " king of Rome " was revived by 
Napoleon I. for his son, born . .20 March, 1811 

The title ' ' king of Italy " conferred on Victor Emma- 
nuel II. of Sardinia by Italian parliament 17 March, 1861 

Edward VII., by the Grace of God of the United 
Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland and of 
the British dominions beyond the seas, king, de- 
fender of the Faith, emperor of India, pro- 
claimed . . . . . . 4 Nov. 1901 

KING-OF-ARMS: three for England,— 
Garter, Clarencieux, andNorroy ; Lyonking-at-arms 
for Scotland, and Ulster for Ireland. These offices 
are very ancient : Clarencieux is so named from 
Lionel, third son of Edward III., the sovereign who 
founded the order of the Garter ; see Garter. 
Lionel having by his wife the honour of Clare, was 
made duke of Clarence ; which dukedom afterwards 
escheating to Edward IV., he revived the office of 
Clarence king-at-arms. The office of Bath king-of- 
arms, created in 1725, was changed to Gloucester 
king-of-arms, 14 June, 1726. Ulster was substi- 
tuted, it is said, in lieu of Ireland king-of-arms, by 
Edward VI., 1553 ; but the monarch himself named 
it as a new institution. 

KING'S ADVOCATE, a title of the Lord 
Advocate for Scotland. First appointed by James 
III. about 1480. King's Advocate was first entitled 
Lord Advocate in 1598. S_ j e under Advocate. 

KING'S BENCH, or Queen's Bench, 

COURT OF, obtained its name from the king 
sometimes sitting here on a high bench, and ti.e 
judges, to whom the judicature belongs in bis 
absence, on a low bench at his feet. This court in 
ancient times was called Curia Do'.nini Regis. The 
court of queen's bench sat for the last time, July, 
1875, {see Supreme Court). Chief justice Cockburn 
received the freedom of London, 9 March, 1876 ; 
said to be the first case of the kind. The Queen's 
Bench Division of the high court of justice till 1881 
consisted of the chief justice of England and four 
judges. The chief justice of the king's bench 
division is now chief justice of England ; the ex- 
chequer and common pleas division were abolished 
in 1881. 

FROM HENRY VIII. 

Sir George Jefferies, 
aft. lord Jefferies 
and lord chanc. 

Sir Edward Herbert. 

Sir Robert Wright. 

Sir John Holt. 

Sir Thomas Parker, 
aft. lord Parker, 
earl of Macclesfield, 
and lord chanc. 

Sir John Piatt. 

Sir Robert Raymond, 
aft. lord Raymond. 

Sir Philip Yorke, aft. 
Id. Hardwicke and 
lord chanc. 

Sir William Lee. 

Sir Dudley Ryder. 

Win. Murray, lord, aft. 
earl of Mansfield. 

Lloyd, lord Kenyon, 
9 June. 

Sir Edward Law, 12 
April ; aft. lord 
Ellenborough. 

Sir Charles Abbott, 
4 Nov. ; aft. lord 
Tenterden. 

Sir Thomas Denman, 7 
Nov. ; aft. lord Den- 
man : resigned. 

John, lord Campbell, 
March : aft. lord 
chancellor. 



CHIEF JUSTICES IN ENGLAND 
1683, 



1509. John Fineux. 

1526. John Fitz James. 

1539. Sir Edward Montagu. 

1546. Sir Richard Lyster. 

1552. Sir Roger Cholmely. 

1553. Sir Thomas Bromley. 

1554. Sir William Portman. 
1556. Sir Edward Saunders. 
1559. Sir Robert Catlyn. 
1573. Sir Christopher Wray. 
1591. Sir John Popham. 
1607 Sir Thomas Fleming. 
1613. Sir Edward Coke. 
1616. Sir Henry Montagu. 
1620. Sir James Ley. 
1624. Sir Ranulph Crewe. 
1626. Sir Nicholas Hyde. 
1631. Sir Thomas Richard- 
son 

1635. Sir John Brampston. 

1643. Sir Robert Heath. 

1648. Henry Rolle. 

1655. John Glyn. 

1659. Sir Rd. Newdigate. 
,, Robert Nicholas. 

1660. Sir Robert Foster. 
1663. Sir Robert Hyde. 
1665. Sir John Kclyng. 
1671. Sir Matthew Hale. 
1676. Sir Richard Ravns- 

ford. 

167S. Sir William Scroggs. 

1681. SirFraneisPemhertnii 

1683. SirEdrad. Saunders. 



16S5. 
1687 
1689, 
1709 



1718. 
1725- 



1737 
1754 
1756. 

1788, 



1850. 



KINGS BENCH PEISON. 



715 



KINGSTOWN. 



1859. Sir Alexander Cock- 
burn, June ; (died 
20 Nov. 1880). 

1880. John Duke, lord Cole- 
ridge, 26 Nov. ; 
(died 14 June, 1894). 



1894. Charles, lord Russell 
of Killowen, 30 
June ; died, aged 
68, 10 Aug. 1900. 

1900. Sir Richard E. Web- 
ster, lord Alver- 
stone, July. 



chief justices IN Ireland (see Supreme Court). 



1690. 

1695. 

1709. 

1711. 

1714. 
1727. 
1741. 

i75i- 

1760. 

1764. 

1784. 



Sir Richard Reynell, 

6 Dec. 

Sir Richard Pyne, 

7 June. 

Allan Brodrick, 24 
Dec. 

Sir Richard Cox, 5 
July. 

W. Whitshed, 14 Oct. 

John Rogerson, 3 Apr. 

Thomas Marlay, 29 
Dec. 

St. George Caulfield, 
27 Aug. 

Warden Flood, 31 
July. 

John Gore, 24 Aug. ; 
aft. earl Annaly. 

John Scott, 29 April ; 
aft. earl of Clonmel. 

Arthur Wolfe, 13 
June ; aft. lord Kil- 
warden (killed in 
Emmet's insurrec- 
tion, 23 July, 1803). 



1846. 



1877. 



William Downes, 12 
Sept. ; aft. lord 
Downes. 

Chas. Kendal Bushe, 
14 February. 

Edward Pennefather, 
10 November. 

Francis Blackburne, 
23 Jan. 

Thos. Lefroy, March. 

James Whiteside, 
July ; died 25 Nov. 
1876. 

George Augustus Chi- 
chester May, 9 Feb. 

Sir Michasl Morris, 
Jan. ; made lord of 
appeal as lord 
Morris, Dec. 1889 ; 
died, 8 Sept. 1901. 

Sir Peter O'Brien, 
Dec. ; made a peer, 
May, 1900. 



KING'S BENCH PRISON (Southwark), 
near the site of one of the oldest prisons of London, 
long used for the confinement of debtors. Here, it 
is said, prince Henry (afterwards Henry V.) was 
committed by Justice Gascoigne. The prison was 
burnt down by the London rioters, 7 June, 1780; 
see Gordon's No-Popery Riots. It was rebuilt in 
1 78 1, and contained about 230 rooms. Formerly, 
the debtors were allowed to purchase the liberties, 
to enable them to bave houses or lodgings wdthout 
the walls, or to purchase day-rules, to go out of 
the prison under certain regulations. The rules 
included St. George's Fields, &c. A consequence 
of the bankruptcy act, 1861, was the release of 
many insolvent debtors ; and an act was passed 
in 1862 " for discontinuing the queen's prison 
and removal of the prisoners to Whitecross-street 
prison." The buildings, used as a military prison, 
were pulled down and the site sold, 1879-80. 

KING'S BOOK, or "Valor Eeclesiasticus 
temp. Henrici VIII." the return of the commis- 
sioners appointed in 1534 to value the first fruits 
and tenths granted to the king. An edition by 
John Bacon ("Liber Eegis") was published in 
1780, and it was printed for the Record Commission, 
1810-25. 

KING'S BOUNTY, an annual grant of 
IOOO/. for the Maunday royal alms distributed by 
the lord high almoner, began early in the reign of 
George III. and continued till 10 George IV. 1829. 
See Maunday. 

KING'S COLLEGES, see Aberdeen and 
Cambridge. King's College, London, incorporated 
14 Aug. 1829, and opened 8 Oct. 1831. It was 
incorporated witn the university of London in 1837. 
The hospital was founded in 1839. The dining- 
hall and kitchen fell in, through drainage, 8 a.m., 
6 Dec. 1869; no lives were lost. In consequence 
of the withdrawal of the government grant, on 
account of denominational tests, the council of the 
college issues an appeal to the public for additional 
funds (50,000/.), 24 Jan. 1891 : new buildings 
of the school at Wimbledon opened by the duke 



of Cambridge, 6 July, 1899. The Christian 
Knowledge Society votes 5,00b/., payable in instal- 
ments, 4 Dec. 1894. The government annual grant 
of 1,700/. was restored irrespective of tests, 1 April, 
1896. New laboratories opened by lord Lister, 
30 Oct. 1900. The council passes a resolution 
(22-2) abolishing religious tests, theology excepted, 
13 June, 1902 ; an appeal for endowment issued at 
a meeting. 19 Nov. 1902. Rev. A. C. Headlam, 
principal (April 1903), in succession to Dr. Robert- 
son, consecrated bp. of Exeter. 

KING'S COUNSEL, the first under the 
degree of Serjeant was sir Francis Bacon, made 
so, honoris causa, without patent or fee, in 1604, 
by James I. The first modern king's counsel was 
sir Francis North, afterwards lord keeper, in 1663. 

KING'S COUNTY (Ireland), formed out of 
confiscated property, and so named from Philip, king 
of Spain, the husband of queen Mary of England, 
in 1556. 

KING'S CROSS MARKET, N. London, 
opened 7 Aug. 1868 ; did not succeed. 

KINGSDOWN'S ACT, 24 & 25 Vict. c. 114 
(1861) relates to wills. 

KING'S EVIL (scrofula), formerly supposed 
to be cured by the king's touch ; the first being 
Edward the Confessor, in 1058. In the reign of 
Charles II. 92,107 persons were touched ; and, ac- 
cording to Wiseman, the king's physician, they 
were nearly all cured ! Queen Anne officially an- 
nounced in the London Gazette, 12 March, 1 712, her 
intention to touch publicly. The custom was 
dropped by George I., 17 14. 

KING'S LYNN, see Lynn Regis. 

KING'S PROCTOR, the name formerly 
given to a class of practitioners in the Admiralty 
and Ecclesiastical courts. The king's proctor is the 
official, now the solicitor to the treasury, who 
intervenes to oppose a petition for divorce if collu- 
sion or fraud are suspected. 

KING'S REMEMBRANCER, see Exchc- 
quer, Court of. 

KING'S SPEECH. The first from the throne 
is said to have been by Henry I., 1107. 

KING'S THEATRE, see Opera-house. 

KINGSTON, see Hull. -KINGSTON, Ja- 
maica, was founded in 1693, after the great earth- 
quake in 1692 which destroyed Port Royal ; it was 
constituted a city, 1802. An awful fire here 
ravaged a vast portion of the town, and consumed 
500,000/. of property, 8 Feb. 1782 ; another fire in 
1843; another great fire; town nearly destroyed; 
estimated loss about 3,000,000/., 5 deaths an- 
nounced, 11 Dec. 1882. See M ansion House. The 
bishopric was established in 1856; see Jamaica. 

KINGSTON . TRIAL. The duchess of 
Kingston was arraigned before the lords in West- 
minster-hall, on a charge of bigamy, having 
married first, capt. Hervey, earl of Bristol, and 
next, during his lifetime, Eveyln Pierrepont, duke 
of Kingston, 15-22 April, 1776. She was found 
guilty, but, on pleading the privilege of peerage, 
the punishment of burning in the hand was re- 
mitted, and she was discharged on paying the fees. 

KINGSTOWN (Dublin). The harbour here 
was commenced in June, 1817. The name was 



KIOTO. 



716 



KNIGHTS. 



changed from Dunleary in compliment to George 
IV., who here embarked for England at the close 
of his visit to Ireland, 3 Sept. 1821. Kingstown 
railway from Dublin opened 17 Dec. 1834. 

KIOTO, see Kyoto. 

KIEBEKAN, Battle OF, see Soudan, 10 
Feb. 1885. 

KIEKDALE CAVE, see Geology (Buck- 
land). 

KISHINEFF MASSACEES, see Russia, 
19, 20 April, 1903. 

KISSING the hands of great men was a Grecian 
custom. Kissing was a mode of salutation among 
the Jews, 1 Samuel x. I, &c. The " kiss of 
charity," or " holy kiss," commanded in the Scrip- 
tures {Romans xvi. 16, &c), was observed by the 
early Christians, and is still recognised by the 
Greek church and some others. Kissing the pope's 
foot (or the cross on his slipper) began with Adrian 
I. or Leo III. at the close of the 8th century. 

K1T-KAT CLUB, of above thirty noblemen 
and gentlemen, instituted in 1703, to promote the 
Protestant succession. The duke of Marlborough, 
sir E. Walpole, Addison, Steele, and Dr. Garth 
were members. It took its name from its dining at 
the house of Christopher Kat, a pastry-cook in 
King-street, Westminster. 

KITT'S, see Christopher's, St. 

KLADDEEADATSCH, the German 
" Punch," first published in Berlin, by Albert 
Hoffmann, the proprietor, originally a bookseller's 
assistant. He amassed a fortune, and died 10 Aug. 
1880, aged 62. 

KLONDIKE GOLDFIELDS, see Canada, 
1897 et seq. Dawson City, the business centre, 
population, 1901, 4,500. 

KNEELING. The knee was ordered to be 
bent at the name of Jesus (see PhiUppians ii. 10), 
about the year 1275, by the order of the pope. The 
ceremony of a vassal kneeling to his lord is said to 
have begun in the 8th century. 

KNIGHTS. The word knight is derived from 
the Saxon Cniht, a servant {i.e., servant to the 
king, &c). The institution of the Roman knights 
{Equites or horsemen, from equus, a horse), is 
ascribed to Romulus, about 750 B.C., when the 
curiae elected 300. Knighthood was conferred in 
England by the priest at the altar, after confession 
and consecration of the sword, during the Saxon 
heptarchy. The first knight made by the sovereign 
with the sword of state was Athelstane, by Alfred, 
A.I). 900. Spelman. The custom of ecclesiastics 
conferring the honour of knighthood was sup- 
pressed in a synod held at Westminster in 
1 100. Ashmole's Institutes. Salmon. On the 
decline of the empire of Charlemagne, all Europe 
being reduced to a state of anarchy, the proprietor 
of every manor became a petty sovereign ; his 
mansion was fortified by a moat, and defended by a 
guard, and called a castle. Excursions were made 
by one petty lord against another, and the women 
and treasure were carried oil' by the conqueror. At 
length the owners of rich fiefs associated to repress 
these marauders, to make property secure, and to 
protect the ladies ; binding themselves to these 
duties by a solemn vow, and the sanction of a 
religious ceremony. Cervantes' " Don Quixote," a 
satire on knight-errantry, was published in 1605 ; 



see Banneret, Chivalry, Tournaments, Holy Sepul- 
chre, John, and Michael. 

PRINCIPAL MILITARY, RELIGIOUS, AND HONORARY 
ORDERS. OF KNIGHTHOOD.* 

African star, Congo state 1888 

Albert the Bear, Anhalt 1836 

Albert, Saxony 1850 

Alcantara, instituted about 1156 

Alexander Nevskoi, St. , Russia .... 1722 

Amaranta, Sweden (female) 1645 

Andrew, St., Russia 1698 

Andrew, St. , Scotland (see Thistle) . 787, 1540, 1687 

Angelic Knights, Greece 337, 1191 

Anne, St. , Holstein, now Russia 1735 

Annonciada, Savoy, about 1360 

Annunciada, Mantua i6i3 

Anthony, St., Hainault .1382 

Anthony, St., Bavaria 13S2 

Avis, Portugal, about 1162 

Bannerets. See Bannerets. 

Bath, England, 1399. Revived (see Bath) . . . 1725 

Bear, Switzerland 1213 

Bee, France (female) 1703 

Bento d Avis, St. , Portugal 1162 

Black Eagle, Prussia 1 701 

Blaise, St., Armenia, 12th century. 

Blood of Christ, Mantua 160S 

Bridget, St., Sweden 1366 

Broomfiowers, France 1234 

Brotherly (or Neighbourly) Love, Austria (female) . 1708 
Calatrava, Castile, instituted by Sancho III. . . 115S 

Catherine, St., Palestine 1063 

Catherine, St. , Russia (female) .... 1714 

Charles, St. , Wiirtemberg 1759 

Charles III. (or the Immaculate Conception), Spain 1771 

Charles XIII. , Sweden 181 1 

Chase, Wiirtemberg 1702 

Christ, Livonia 1203 

Christ, Portugal and Rome 131 7 

Christian Charity, France 1558 

Cincinnati, America (soon dissolved) . . . 1783 
Compostello (see St. James). 

Conception of the Virgin 161S 

Concord, Prussia 1660 

Constantine, St., Constantinople, about 313 ; by 
emperor Isaac, 1190 ; Parma, 1699; since removed 
to Naples. 
Crescent, Naples, 1268. Revived . . . . 1464 

Crescent, Turkey 1S02 

Cross of Christ 1217 

Cross of the South, Brazil 1S22 

Crown of Italy 186S 

Crown of India (female) ... 31 Dec. 1877 

Crown of Oak, Netherlands 1841 

Crown, Prussia 1S61 

Crown Royal, France (Friesland) .... 802 

Crown, Wiirtemberg 1S1S 

Danebrog, Denmark, instituted by Waldemai' II.. 

1219 ; revived by Christian V 1671 

Death's Head (female), by the widow Louisa Eliza- 
beth of Saxe Masburg 1709 

Denis, St., France 1267 

Distinguished service, British army . . . 18S6 

Dog and Cock, France 500 

Dove of Castile 1379 

Dragon, Hungary 1430 

Dragon Overthrown, German 141S 

Eagle (see Bfack, Mexican, Hoi. White). 
Ear of Corn and Ermine, Brittany, about . . . 1442 
Elephant, Denmark (about 1190), by Christian I. . 1462 
Elizabeth, St., Portugal and Brazil (female) . . 1801 
Elizabeth Theresa, Austria (female) . . . . 1750 

Empire of India 1S77 

Esprit, St., France 1579 

Ferdinand, St., Naples 1S00 

Ferdinand, St., Spain iSm 

Fidelity, Baden 1715 

Fidelity. Denmark 1732 

Fools, Cleves 1380 

Francis I., Two Sicilies 1829 

Francis Joseph, Austria 1849 

Frederick, Wiirtemberg 1830 

* Enlarged and corrected from Edmondson, Carlisle, 
and the " Almanach de Gothn : " the early dates are 
doubtful. Many orders were instituted after the settle- 
ment of Europe, in iSis. 



KNIGHTS. 



717 



KNIGHTS. 



Friesland (or Crown Royal), France . . . 802 

Garter (vjhich see), England 1349 

Generosity, Brandenburg 1685 

Genet, France 726 

George, St., and the Reunion, Naples 1800 and 18 19 

George, St., Angelic Knights 1191 

George, St. , Austria 1470, 1+94 

George, St., Defender of the Immaculate Concep- 
tion, Bavaria 1729 

George, St. , England (see Garter) . . . . 1349 

George, St., Genoa 1472 

George, St., Hanover 1839 

George, St., Ionian Isles 18 18 

George, St., Rome 1492 

George, St., Russia ■ . . 1769 

George, St. , Spain ' 1317 

George, St., Venice 1200 

Gerion, St. , Germany 119a 

Glaive, Sweden 1522 

Glory, Turkey 1837 

Golden Angel (afterwards St. George), . about 312 
Golden Falcon, Japan (which see) .... 1890 
Golden Fleece, instituted at Bruges by Philip the 

Good, Austria and Spain . . . .10 Jan. 1429 

Golden Lion, Hesse Cassel 1770 

Golden Lion, Nassau, and Holland . . . . 1858 
Golden Shield and Thistle, France .... 1370 

Golden Spur, by Pius IV 1559 

Golden Stole, Venice, before . ... . . 737 

Gregory, St., Rome 1831 

Guelphic, Hanover ....... 7815 

Henry, St., Saxony 1736 

Henry the Lion, Brunswick 1834 

Hermengilde, St., Spain 1814 

Hohenzollern, Prussia 1851 

Holy Ghost, France 1579 

Holy Sepulchre (-which see) . . . 1099, 1496 

Holy Vial (St. Remi), France 499 

Hospitallers (tuhich see), 1099 ; of Rhodes, 1308 ; of 

Malta 1521 

Hubert, St. , Germany (by the duke of Juliers and 

Cleves), Bavaria 1444 

Imperial Service, British Empire . 26 June, 1902 

Imtiaz (Turkey) Nov. 1879 

Iron Cross, Prussia 1813 

Iron Crown, Lombardy, 1805 ; revived . . . 1816 

Iron Helmet, Hesse Cassel 1814 

Isabella, St. , Spain, 1804; Portugal (female) . . 1801 

Isabella the Catholic, Spain 1815 

James, St., Holland 1290 

James, St. , Portugal 1310 

James, St. , of the Sword, Santiago, n 75; Spain 

and Portugal 1177 

Januarius, St., Naples 1738 

Jerusalem (see Malta) 1048 

Jesus Christ, Rome, instituted by John XXII., 

1320. Reformed as Jesus and Mary, by Paul V. . 1615 

Joachim, St. , Germany 1755 

John of Aeon, St. , after 1377 

John of Jerusalem, St. (see Hospitallers), Rome . 1048 

John, St., Prussia 1812 

Joseph, St. , Tuscany 1807 

Julian of Alcantara, St. 1156 

Katherine, St. , England (female nurses) . . . 1879 

Knot. Naples 1352 

La CaJza, Venice, about 737 

Lamb of God, Sweden 1564 

Lazarus, St., France, before 1154 ; united with that 

of St. Maurice, Savoy 1572 

Legion of Honour, France 1802 

Leopold, Austria . . , 1808 

Leopold, Belgium 1862 

Lily of Aragon 1410 

Lily of Navarre, about 1043 

Lion, Holland 1815 

Lion (see Sun) 1808 

Lion of Zahringen, Baden 1812 

Lioness, Naples, about 1399 

Loretto, Lady of 1587 

Louis, Bavaria 1827 

Louis, Hesse Darmstadt 1807 

Louis, St. , France 1693 

Louisa Prussia (female) 18 14 

Malta (see Hospitallers). 

Maria de Merced, St. , Spain 1218 

Maria Louisa, Spain (female) 1792 

Maria Theresa, Austria 1757 

Mark, St. , Venice, about 828. Renewed . . . 1562 



Martyrs, Palestine IOI+ 

Maurice, St. , Savoy I434 

Maximilian Joseph, Bavaria ..... 1.806 

Medjidie, Turkey ^52 

Merit, Bavaria j.8o8, 1866 

Merit, Belgium ^Qj 

Merit, Hesse Cassel I7 69 

Merit, Oldenburg 1.838 

Merit, Prussia I740 

Merit, Saxony i q i $ 

Merit, Wiirtemberg 1.859 

Merit, Military, Baden . 7.807 

Merit, England 26 June, 1902 

Mexican Eagle 1865 

Michael, St. , Bavaria 1693 

Michael, St., France 1469 

Michael, St. , Germany 1618 

Michael and George, Sts. ,1818; re-organised, March, 1869 

Montjoie, Jerusalem, before 1180 

Neighbourly Love, Austria (female) .... 1708 
Nicholas, St. (Argonauts of), Naples . . . . 1382 

Noble Passion, Saxony 1704 

Oak of Navarre, Spain 722 

Olaf, St. , Sweden 1847 

Osmanie, Turkey 1861 

Our Lady of Montesa i 3I 6 

Our Lady of the Conception of Villa Vigosa . . 181S 

Our Lady of the Lily, Navarre 1043 

Palatine Lion j.768 

Palm and Alligator, Africa, granted to Gov. Camp- 
bell in 1^37 

Passion of Jesus Christ, France .... 1384 

Patrick, St. , Ireland 1783 

Paul, St., Rome 1540 

Pedro I., Brazil T 8 2 6 

Peter, Frederick Lewis, Oldenburg . . . 1838 

Peter, St., Rome 1530 

Philip, Hesse Darmstadt 1840 

Pius, founded by Pius IV 1559 

Pius IX., Rome 1847 

Polar Star, Sweden. Revived 1748 

Porcupine, France ....... 1393 

Reale, Naples, about . 1393 

Red Eagle, Prussia, 1705, 1712, 1734. Revived . 1792 

Redeemer (or Saviour), Greece 1833 

Remi, St. (or Holy Vial), about .... 499 

Rosary, Spain 1212 

Rose, Brazil 1820 

Round Table, England, by Alfred (see Garter), 516 or 528 
Royal Red Cross (female) ... 23 April, 1883 
Royal Victorian, England . . .23 April, 1896 

Rue Crown, Saxony 1807 

Rupert, St., Germany 1701 

Saviour, Aragon m8 

Saviour, or Redeemer, Greece 1833 

Saviour of the World, Sweden 1561 

Savoy, Italy 1815 

Scale, Castile, about 1316 

Scarf, Castile, 1330. Revived 1700 

Sepulchre, Holy, Palestine 1099 

Seraphim, Sweden 1260 or 1265 

Ship and Crescent, France 1 269 

Slaves of Virtue, Germany (female) .... 1662 

Stanislas, St. . Poland 1765 

Star, France 1022 

Star, Sicily 1351 

Star of India, British 1861 

Star of the Cross (female), Austria . . . . 166S 

Star of the North, Sweden 1748 

Stephen, St., Hungary 1764 

Stephen, St., Tuscany 1561 

Sun and Lion, Persia 1808 

Swan , Flanders, about 500 

Swan, Prussia (female) 1440, 1843 

Sword (or Silence), Cyprus, 1195 

Sword, Sweden, 1525. Revived 1748 

Templars (see Templars) 11 19 

Teste Morte (Death's Head), Wiirtemberg (female) . 1652 
Teutonic, Austria, about 1190; abolished, 1809, 

1522 ; re-organised 1840, 1865 

Thistle of Bourbon 1370 

Thistle, Scotland, 809. Revived . . 1540. 1687 

Thomas of Aeon, St. , after 1377 

Toison d'Or (Golden Fleece) 1429 

Tower and Sword, Portugal, 1459. Revived . . 1808 
Tusin, or Hungarian Knights, about . . . 1562 

Two Sicilies 1808 

Vasa, Sweden 1772 



KNIVES. 



-18 



KOOKAS. 



Victoria and Albert, India (female) . . . . 1862 
Vigilance, or White Falcon, Saxe-Weimar . . . 1732 

Virgin Mary, Italy 1233 

Virgin of Mount Carmel, France 1607 

Wends, Mecklenburg 1864 

White Cross, Tuscany 1814 

White Eagle, Poland, .about 1325 Revived . . 1705 

White Falcon, Saxe- Weimar 1732 

Wilhelm, Holland . . . . . . . 1815 

Wing of St. Michael, Portugal 11 72 

Wladimir, St., Russia 1782 

Female Knights. It is said that the first were the 
women who preserved Tortosafrom the Moors in 1149, 
by their stout resistance. Large immunities were 
granted to the women and their descendants. Several 
female orders appear in the preceding list. Ladies 
have been admitted to several male orders. 

Knights of Glyn and Kerry in Ireland. The heads 
of two branches of the family of Fitzgerald, who still 
enjoy the distinctions bestowed on their ancestors by 
sovereigns in the 13th century. The 19th knight of 
Kerry died 6th Aug. 1880. 

Knights of the Shire, or of Parliament; summoned 
by the king's writ and chosen by the freeholders, first 
summoned by Simon de Montfort, in 1258, and in a 
more formal manner, 20 Jan. 1265. There are writs 
extant as far back as 11 Edward I., 1283. The knights 
are still girded with a sword when elected, as the writ 
prescribes. 

Knights of Labour. A large secret trade union in the 
United States, said to have been originated by a man 
named Uriah Stevens in Philadelphia in 1869, for pro- 
tection of workmen against capitalists. They were 
energetic in the promotion of railway and other 
strikes, especially in Missouri in March, 1886. Head 
quarters at Philadelphia, number about 400,000, May, 
1886. The society is condemned by the pope. Decline 
of the order reported Aug. 1888 ; active in Aug. 1890. 
Knights of Industry active in regard to strikes, 1893. 

KNIVES. In England, Hallamshire (the 
country round Sheffield) has been renowned for its 
cutlery for five centuries; Chaucer speaks of the 
" Sheffield thwytel." Stow says that Richard 
Mathews on the Fleet-bridge was the first English- 
man who made fine knives, &c. ; and that he ob- 
tained a prohibition of foreign ones, 1563. Clasp 
or spring knives became common about 1650 ; com- 
ing originally from Flanders. — Knife -cleaning ma- 
chines were patented by Mr. George Kent in 1844 
and 1852 ; others have been invented, by Masters, 
Price, &c. ; see Forks. 

KNOW-NOTHINGS, a society which arose 
in 1853, in the United States of N. America. Their 
principles were embodied in the following proposi- 
tions (at New York, 1855). They possessed several 
newspapers and bad much political influence : — 

1. The Americans shall rule America. 

2. The Union of these States. 

3. No North, no South, no East, no West. 

4. The United States of America — as they are — one and 

inseparable. 

5. No sectarian interferences in our legislation or in the 

administration of American law. 

6. Hostility to the assumption of the pope, through the 

bishops, &c. , in a republic sanctilied by Protestant 
blood. 

7. Thorough reform in the naturalisation laws. 

8. Free and liberal educational institutions for all sects 

and classes, with the Bible, God's holy word, as a 

universal text-book. 
A society was formed in 1855 in opposition to the above, 
called Know-Somethings. Both bodies were absorbed 
into the two parties. Democrats and Republicans, at 
the presidential election in Nov. 1856. 

KNUTSFOKD, Cheshire. The foundation 
stone of St. Paul's college for the northern counties 
here was laid, 24 Sept. 1873. 

KOH-I-NOOR, or "Mountain of Light," the 
East India diamond ; see Diamonds. 



KOLA, a West African nut, from which is ob- 
tained, by grinding, a stimulating and sustaining* 
drug, much used by the natives in long journeys, 
enabling them to endure thirst and hunger, 1892. 

KOLIN or KOLLIN (Bohemia). Here the 
Austrian general Daun gained a signal victory over 
Frederick the Great of Prussia, 18 June, 1757. In 
commemoration, the military order of Maria Theresa 
was instituted by the empress-queen. 

KOLN, see Cologne. 

KOMOEN or COMORN (Hungary), an ancient 
fortress town, often taken and retaken during the 
wars with Turkey. Near it the Hungarians, under 
gen. Klapka, defeated the Austrians, II July, 1849, 
but surrendered the town 1 Oct. 

K O N I E H (formerly Iconium) . Here the 
Turkish army was defeated by the pasha of Egypt, 
after a long sanguinary fight, 21 Dec. 1832. The 
grand vizier was taken prisoner. 

KONIGGEATZ (Eohemia). Near here -was 
fought the decisive battle between the Austrians 
commanded by marshal Benedek, and the Prussians 
commanded by their king William I., 3 July, 1866. 
Prince Frederick Charles halted at Kammeniz on 
Monday, 2 July, his troops commenced their march 
at midnight, and the first shot was fired about 730 
a.m. 3 July. The attack began at Sadowa (after 



which the battle is also named) about 10 o'clock, 
and a desperate struggle ensued, the result ap- 
pearing uncertain, till the army of the crown prince 
of Prussia arrived about I2'30. When Chlum, 
which hud been taken and lost seven times by the 
Prussians, was taken for the eighth time, the fate 
of the day was decided ; and the retreat of the Aus- 
trians, at first orderly, became a hasty disastrous 
flight. About 400,000 men were engaged in this 
battle, one of the greatest in modern times. The 
'■ Austrians are said to have lost 174 guns, about 40,000 
killed and wounded, and 20,000 prisoners. The 
1 Prussians lost about 10,000 men. The victory gave 
I the supremacy in Germany to Prussia, unity to- 
North Germany, and Venetia to Italy ; and led to 
the legislative independence of Hungary. 

KONIGSBEEG, the capital of east Prussia, 
was founded by the Teutonic knights in 1255, and 
became the residence of the grand master in 1457. 
J It joined the Hanseatic league in 1365. Uuiversity 
: founded, 1544. It was ceded to the elector of 
Brandenburg in 1657, and here Frederick III. was 
crowned the first king of Prussia in 1701. It was 
held by the Russians 1758-64, and by the French 
in 1807. Here king William I. and his queen were 
crowned, 18 Oct., 1861 ; his monument unveiled by 
the emperor, 4 Sept. ; the emperor at a banquet 
censures the nobles for opposing his plans, promises 
additional grants to the province, and declares that 
he reigns by Divine right, 6 Sept. 1894. Popula- 
tion, in 1885, 151,151; 1890, 161,528; 1900, 
187,897. 

KONIGSTEIN TUN (Nassau, Germany), 
most capacious, was built by Frederick Augustus, 
king of Poland, in 1725. It was made to hold 
233,667 gallons of wine ; and on the top, which was 
railed in, was accommodation for twenty persons to 
regale themselves. The famous tun of St. Bernard's 
was said to hold 800 tons ; see Heidelberg Tun. 

KOOKAS, a warlike reforming sect in N. W. 
India, founded by Baluk Ram about 1845, and after 
his death, about 1855, headed by Ram Singh, who 
preached the restoration of the old Sikh religion, 



KORAN. 



719 



KYELE SOCIETY. 



which venerated cattle and punished their slaugh- 
terer. After several outmges against the Mahome- 
tans, an outbreak of the Kookas took place near 
Loodiana, which was vigorously suppressed, 15 
Jan. 1872, by commissioner Cowan, who ordered 
49 prisoners to be blown from cannon, 17 Jan. 
Several others were tried and executed by com- 
missioner Forsyth soon after. For this severity 
Mr. Cowan was ordered to be dismissed, and Mr. 
Forsyth removed to another station, April, 1872. 
The Kooka leaders claim 800,000 followers ; but 
the probable number is about one-tenth. 

KORAN or Alcoran (Al Kuran), the 

sacred book of the Mahometans, was written about 
610, by Mahomet (who asserted that it had been 
revealed to him by the angel Gabriel in twenty- 
three years), and published by Abu-bekr about 635. 
Its general aim was to unite the professors of idolatry 
and the Jews and Christians in the worship of one 
God (whose unity was the chief point inculcated), 
under certain laws and ceremonies, exacting obe- 
dience to Mahomet as the prophet. The leading ar- 
ticle of faith preached is compounded of an eternal 
truth and a necessary fiction, namely, that there is 
only one God, and that Mahomet is the apostle of God. 
Gibbon. The Koran was translated into Latin in 
1143; into French, 1647; into English by Sale, 
1734; and into other European languages, 1763 
et seq. It is a rhapsody of 6000 verses, divided 
into 114 sections; see Mahomet amis in, &c. 

KOREA, see Corea. 

KOREISH, an Arab tribe which had the charge 
of the Caaba, or shrine of the sacred stone of Mecca, 
and strenuously opposed the pretensions of Maho- 
met. It was defeated by him and his adherents, 
623-30. 

KOSSOVA, see Cossova. 

KOSZTA AFFAIR. Martin Koszta, a Hunga- 
rian refugee, when in the United States in 1850, 
declared his intention of becoming an American 
citizen, and went through the preliminary forms. 
In 1853 he visited Smyrna, and on 21 June was 
seized by a boat's crew of the Austrian brig Huzzar. 
By direction of the American minister at Constan- 
tinople, captain Ingraham, of the American sloop St. 
Louis, demanded his release ; but having heard that 
the prisoner was to be clandestinely transported 
to Trieste, he demanded his surrender by a certain 
time, and prepared to attack the Austrian vessel on 
2 July; Koszta was then given up. On 1 Aug., the 
Austrian government protested against these pro- 
ceedings in a circular addressed to the European 
courts, but eventually a compromise was effected, 
and Koszta returned to the United States. 

KOYUNJIK, the site of the ancient Nineveh 
{which see). 

KRAAL, a Dutch name for a South African 
village. See Zululand. "Women visitors excluded 
from the Kaffir kraal in the Savage South African 
exhibition, Earl's Court (opened May, 1899), 28 
Aug. ; the action upheld by Mr. Justice Cozens- 
Hardy, 8 Sept. 1899. 

KRAKATOA, see Java, 1883. 

KRAO. A hairy female Burmese child exhi- 
bited at the Westminster Aquarium, Jan. 1883 ; 
thought incorrectly by some to be a specimen of 
the missing link between man and the anthropoid 
apes. 

KRASNOI (central Russia). Here the French 
defeated the Russians, 15 Aug. 1812 ; and here they 
were themselves defeated after a series of conflicts, 
14-18 Nov. following. 

KREASOTE, see Creasote. 



KREMLIN, a palace at Moscow, built by De- 
metri, grand-duke of Russia, about 1376. It was 
burnt down in Sept. 1812, and rebuilt in 1816 ; 
partly burnt about 23 July, 1879. 

KRIEGSPIEL, see War Game. 

KROMSCHRODER GAS, a new hydro- 
carbon (ah- saturated with petroleum spirit), was 
tried _ in May, 1873, at Great Mario w, for street 
lighting, and reported successful. The gas was 
said to be cheap and quickly generated, the com- 
bustion giving a brilliant white smokeless light, 

KROUMIRS, see Tunis. 

KRUPP'S CAST STEEL Factory, see Essen. 

KRYPTOGRAPH, see Cryptograph. 

KRYPTON, a new gas discovered by prof. 
Ramsay by means of the spectroscope, reported 6 
June, and exhibited at the Royal society, 8 June, 
1898. 

KU KUX KLAN, the name of a secret society 
in the southern states of the Union, principally in 
Tennessee in North America, bitterly opposed to the 
ruling men. Early in 1868, this society issued lists 
of proscribed persons, who, if they did not quit the 
country after warning, becameliable to assassination. 
General Grant endeavoured to suppress this society 
in April. Its repression by the militia in Arkansas 
was ordered, Nov. 1868, and it became the subject 
of legislation at Washington, June, 1871. 

KULD JA, a revolted province of China ; was 
seized by Russia in 1871, and restored by treaty 
in 1879. 

KULTUR-KAMPF, the conflict in Prussia 
respecting worship, see Prussia, 1873, et seq. 

KITNNERSDORF, Battle of, see Cun- 

nersdorf. 

KUNOBITZA, in the Balkan. Here John 
Hunniades, the Hungarian, defeated the Turks, 24 
Dec. 1443. 

KURDISTAN, Western Asia (the ancient 
Assyria), subject partly to Turkey and Persia. In 
Oct. 1880, the Kurds, warlike and agricultural tribes 
nominal Mahometans, invaded and ravaged Persia 
and were subdued after fierce conflicts with their chief. 
Obeid-ullah, a Turkish sheikh, Nov.-Dec. 1880 
In 1881 he went to Constantinople and was well re 
ceived, but kept in a kind of honourable restraint. 
Sept 1881. In Sept. 1882 he escaped to Kurdistan 
and incited the Kurds to revolt against Persia 
captured by the Turks ; rescued by his son, Nov 
1882 ; said to have died at Mecca in 1883. See 
Armenia, 1892, et seq. 

KUSHK-I-NAKHUD, see Maiwand. 

KUSTRIN or ClTSTRIN (Prussia), a fortified 
town, besieged and burnt by the Russians, 22 Aug. 
17158 ; taken by the French in 1806 ; given up, 1814. 

KYOTO or MlAKO, for over r,ooo years the 
capital of Japan, with many fine Buddhist temples, 
lies about 26 miles inland from Ozaka. The sing- 
ing girls of this city are famed for their graceful 
dances ; and the pottery, porcelain, brocades, 
enamels, bronze work, &c, are greatly admired. 
Chambers. 

KYRLE SOCIETY (named after John Kyrle, 
who died 1724, extolled by Pope as the Man of 
Ross), started by Misses Miranda and Octavia Hill 
in 1875, and founded in 1877 by prince Leopold, 
princess Louise, the duke of Westminster, and 
others, with the object of "bringing beauty home 
to the people," by means of decorative art, gar- 
dening, music, &c. First public meeting held 
27 Jan. 1881. 



L. *. d. 



no 



LACE. 



L. 



L. s. d. see Coin. 
LABARUM, see Standards. 



LABORATORY. The Royal Institution labo- 
ratory, the first of any importance in London, was 
established in 1800, and rebuilt, 1872. In it were 
made the discoveries of Davy, Faraday, Tyndall, 
Frankland, Dewar, and Rayleigh ; see Royal Insti- 
tution. The Royal Laboratory, Woolwich Arsenal, 
was re-organised in 1855. First state laboratory 
to detect adulteration in commerce, etc., near 
King's college hospital, 38 rooms, erected under sir 
John Taylor, of the office of works, reported 5 Oct. 
1897 ; see Chemical. Blue-book issued, report of 
the government laboratory, Times, 25 Aug. 1902 
and 13 Aug. 1903. 

LABOUR COMMISSION. The relations 
between capital and labour having been greatly 
disturbed in recent years, especially since 1888, 
leading to many strikes, the government were in- 
duced to appoint a royal commission "to inquire 
into the relations between employers and employed, 
and to report whether legislation can with advan- 
tage be directed to remedy any evils that may be 
disclosed," &c. 

Among the persons nominated, 10 April, 1891, were 
the following : the marquis of Hartington (duke 
of Devonshire, 21 Dec. 1891) chairman, the earl of 
Derby, s:.r M. Hicks-Beach, Mr. Mundella, Mr. 
Courtney, Mr. Jesse Collings, Mr. Burt, sir F. 
Pollock, Mr. Tom Mann, Mr. Plimsoll, with 
several chairmen of public companies and em- 
ployers of labour. Secretaries, Mr. John Burnett 
and Mr. Geoffrey Drage. Miss Orme, Miss Abra- 
hams, Miss Collett and Miss Irwin were appointed 
lady sub-commissioners .... March 1892 

First meeting, the marquis of Hartington in the 
chair z May 1891 

The first report laid before parliament . 1 April 1892 

Meetings continued, 1892. Evidence closed, 2 Feb. 
1893. Adjournment, sine die, 14 Feb. 1894. The 
cautious report, issued 20 April, 1894, is the 
result of profound study of the abundant evi- 
dence ; the recommendations are negative or 
neutral in regard to legislature respecting the 
time of labour and the settlement of disputes by 
conciliation or arbitration. Various remedial 
proposals were dismissed. 

LABOUR QUESTION. The relations be- 
tween capital and labour have been much discussed 
in recent years. See Germany, 1889-90; Berlin, 
Strikes, Trades Union, Shipping, Gas Light, 
Working-men, (Labour Day), 1 May, 1890-3, 
United Stales, 1 Sept. 1890-3, Unemployed. 
The " Independent Labour party "held their first 
annual conference at Bradford; 115 delegates of 
various opinions ; Mr. J. Keir Hardie, M.P., 
elected president, 13 Jan. ; a revolutionary pro- 
gramme adopted, 14 Jan. 1893; at Manchester, 
3 Feb. 1894; Newcastle, Mr. Keir Hardie, M.P., 
president, 15 April, 1895 ; Nottingham, 6 April, 
1896; London, 19 April, 1S97 ; Birmingham, 11 
April, 1898 ; Leeds, 3 April, 1899 ; Leicester, 
8 April, 1901 ; Liverpool, 31 March, 1902 ; York, 

3 April, 1903 
Labour Department (under the Board of Trade), 
constituted under Mr. Robert Giffen : Mr. 
Llewellyn Smith, commissioner for labour, and 
25 correspondents Jan. 1893 



" Labour Statistics," a blue-book by Mr. Burnett, 
(published annually) .... May, 1893 

The " Labour Gazette," No. 1, published . 15 May, ,, 

The Labour Disputes bill introduced by govern- 
ment ; withdrawn . . Sept. ,, 

Mr. Chas. Booth's ' ' Life and Labour of the People 
in London" ; 9 vols. ; (5 vols., completion, 1903), 

June, 1897 

Mr. Tom Mann, about to attend a labour meeting, 
expelled from Paris 14 May, ,, 

Report of the Mosely Industrial Commission to 
the United States issued . . .18 April, 1903 

LABOURERS, Statute of, regulating 

wages, enacted 1349, 1357. A conference of philan- 
thropists on the condition of agricultural labourers 
was held at Willis's rooms, Westminster, 28 March, 
1868. Labouring Classes Dwelling House Acts, 
passed, 1855, May, 1866, Aug. 1903. Labourers' 
(Ireland) Act passed 1886. See Agriculture, 
Artisans, and Working-men. 
A labourers' league was established to assist the 
labourers in the exercise of the rights given 
them by the Local Government Act . May, 1888 

LABRADOR (North America), a dependeney 
of Newfoundland, discovered by Sebastian Cabot, 
1497; visited by Corte Real in 1500; made a 
Moravian missionary station in 1 771. Much dis- 
tress through famine reported Sept. 1884. Failure 
of the fisheries, reported 2 Oct. 1896; and again 
Sept. 1897. 

LABUAN", an Asiatic island, N. W. Borneo; 
ceded to the British in 1846, and given up to sir 
James Brooke in 1848. The bishopric was founded 
1855. Governor, John Pope Hennessy, 1867, sir H. 
E. Bulwer, 1871 ; Herbert Taylor Usher, 1875; 
Chas. Cameron Lees, 1879; P. Leys, 1884; C. Van- 
deleur Creagh, Nov. 1889; L. Paul Beaufort, 1895 ; 
Hugh C. Clifford, Dec. 1899; E. W. Birch, 1901. 
Labium was given up to the North Borneo com- 
pany in 1889. Successful progress reported Nov. 
1890; see Borneo. 

LABURNUM, Cytisus Laburnum, called also 
the golden chain, was brought to these countries 
from Hungary, Austria, &c, about 1576. Ashe. 

LABYRINTHS. Four are mentioned: the 
first, said to have been built by Dsedalus, in the 
island of Crete, to secure the Minotaur; the 
second, of Arsinoe, in Egypt, in the isle of 
Mceris, by Psammeticus, king of that place, about 
665 B.C. ; the third, at Lemnos, remarkable for its 
sumptuous pillars, which seems to have been a sta- 
lactite grotto ; and the fourth, at Clusium, in Italy, 
erected by Porsenna, king of Etruria, about 520 B.C. 
Pliny. The labyrinth of Woodstock is connected 
with the story of Fair Rosamond ; see Rosamond. 
The Maze at Hampton Court was formed by 
William III. in the 17th century. 

LACE is said to have been made in the 14th 
century in France and Flanders. Its importation 
into England was prohibited in 1483 ; but it was used 
in the court costume of Elizabeth's reign. Dresden, 
Valenciennes, Mechlin, and Brussels, have long been 
famous for their fine lace. An ounce weight of 
Flanders thread has been frequently sold for four 



LACED^iVlON. 



,21 



LAGOS. 



pounds in London ; and its value, when manufac- 
tured, has been increased to forty pounds, ten times 
the price of standard gold. A framework knitter of 
Nottingham, named Hammond, is said to have in- 
vented a mode of applying his stocking-frame to the 
manufacture of lace from studying the lace on his 
wife's cap, about 1768. Macculloch. So many 
improvements have been made in this manufacture, 
particularly by Heathcote (1809, 1817, &c), Morley 
and Leaver (181 1, &c), that a piece of lace which 
about 1809 cost l"]l. may now be had for 75. (1853). 
Tire. The process of "gassing" by which cotton 
lace is said to be made equal to fine linen lace, was 
invented by Samuel Hall of Basford, near Notting- 
ham. He died in Nov. 1862. Seguin's "La Den- 
telle; Histoire," &c, published, 1874. Irish lace 
exhibition at the Mansion House, London, 25 June- 
7 July, 1883. Scheme for encouraging the Irish 
lace manufacture supported by the government, 
June, 1884. Mrs. Bury Palliser's " History of 
Lace," 3rd edition, 1875. 

LACED.33MON or LACONIA (Tzakonia), see 
Sparta. 

LA CROSSE. A game of ball, with running, 
among the Red Indians of Canada ; adopted succes- 
sively by the French and English settlers, and 
transmitted to the United States and to the United 
Kingdom. Its rules were systematised by Dr. Beers 
in i860. Many clubs have been formed. Cana- 
dians beat the duke of Argyll's team, n goals to 3, 
at Lords; the king and other royalties present, 
26 April, 1902. 

LACTEALS (absorbent vessels connected with 
digestion), were discovered in a dog by Jasper 
Asellius of Cremona, 1622, and their termination in 
the thoracic duct by Pecquet, 165 1 ; see Lymphatics. 

LADIES' COLLEGES, see under GlRTON 
College. 

LADIES' NATIONAL AID ASSOCIA- 
TION, formed to contribute to the relief of the 
sick and wounded in the Soudan and Egypt. Ori- 
ginated by the duchesses of Buccleuch, St. Albans, 
and Marlborough, the marchioness of Salisbury and 
others, Feb. 1885. See Aid. 

LADOCEA, in Arcadia. Here Cleomeues III. 
king of Sparta, defeated the Achaean league, 226 B.C. 

LADEONE ISLES (N.Pacific), belonging to 
Spain, discovered by Magellan in 1520. He first 
touched at the island of Guam. The natives having 
stolen some of his goods, he named the islands the 
Ladrones, or Thieves. In the 17th century they 
obtained the name of Marianna islands from the 
queen of Spain. See Spanish-American War. 

LADY, The masters and mistresses of manor- 
houses, in former times, served out bread to the poor 
weekly ; and were therefore called Lafords and Lef- 
days — signifying bread givers (from hlaf, a loaf) : 
hence Lords and Ladies. Wedgewood considers this 
fanciful, and derives the words from the Anglo- 
Saxon, laford, lord, and hlafdig, lady. — Lady day 
(March 25), a festival instituted about 350, according 
to some authorities, and not before the 7th century 
according to others ; see Annunciation. The year, 
which previously began on this day, was ordered to 
begin on Jan. i,in France in 1564; and in Scotland, 
by proclamation, on 17 Dec. 1599; but not in Eng- 
land till 3 Sept. 1752, when the style was altered. 

LADY-BIRDS. About 18th August, 1869, 
great flights of these insects alighted on the S.E. 



coasts of England, and arrived as far as London ; a 
similar event occurred in 1867. 

LADYSMITH, a town in Natal, about 90 
miles by rail N. W. Pietermaritzburg. It derives 
its name from the wife of a former governor. It 
came into prominent notice 1899-1900, during the 
South African war, when Ladysmith was isolated 
and besieged by the Boers (2 Nov. 1899). Gen. sir 
George White and his forces, and the naval brigade 
under capt. (now rear-adm.) Lambton, whose naval 
guns rendered great service, were shut up (but 
making gallant sorties during the interval) until 
relieved, 28 Feb. 1900, by the Natal Carbineers and 
Imperial horse, under lord Dundonald, see South 
African War. Visited by Mr. Chamberlain during 
his tour in S. Africa, 1 Jan. 1903. 

LAFFELDT, Holland. Here marshal Saxe 
defeated the English, Dutch, and Austrians, 2 July, 
1747. 

LAGOS, an island in the Bight of Benin 
( Atrica) , was assaulted and taken by the boats of a 
British squadron, under commodore Bruce, 26, 27 
Dec. 1851. This affair arose out of breaches of a 
treaty for tbe suppression of the slave-trade. In 
1861, the place was ceded to the British govern- 
ment, and created a settlement : Henry Stanhope 
Freeman, first governor. Lagos was constituted a 
distinct colony in 1886, see Gold Coast Colony. 

Governor, sir Cornelius A. Moloney in 1889 ; 
Gilbert T. Carter (aft. sir), in Feb. 1891 ; resigns, 
succeeded by major H. E. M'Callum, Jan. 1897 ; 
Sir Wm. MacGregor Jan. 1899 

Treaty with the king of Jebu securing freedom of 
roads, signed at Lagos by delegates . 21 Jan. 1892 

The Jebus and Egbas threaten Lagos and the Gold 
Coast ; checked by the arrival of troops under 
major Madden and col. Scott, April ; the Jebus 
repulsed in their attack on Col. Scott's expedition 
and their villages taken . . 12 May et seq. ,, 

Total defeat of the Jebus, surrender of the king, 
Jebu Ode occupied, army dispersed . 17-20 May ,, 

Opposition again subdued . . Sept., Oct. ,, 

Abeokuta, the Egba capital, visited by sir G. T. 
Carter, reported 12 Jan. 1893 

Informal treaty with the Egbas, about 3 Feb. ; con- 
firmed 15 Aug. „ 

Treaty of the governor with the chiefs at Jebu 
Remo to abolish human sacrifice, slave dealing, 
&c 4 -Aug- 1894 

Further annexations, reported . . . Nov. ,, 

Destructive effects of the increased importation of 
cheap spirituous liquors, reported . . June, 1895 

Native rising in the Hinterland, capt. Bower de- 
feats the king of Yoruba, and bombards Oyo, 12 
Nov. 1895 ; the king murdered, about 20 Nov. ; 
2,000 Ilorins attack the British, and are repulsed, 
31 March, 1896 ; defeated again with loss at Odo 
Otin, April ; totally defeated, their chief Adamu 
killed early March, 1897 

Great loyal meeting of chiefs and natives 21 Aug. ,, 

Various posts on the N.W. frontier occupied by the 
British ; the French retire to Boussa : a British 
force mistaken for French is attacked by Baribas, 
who are repulsed (about 300 killed) by capt. 
Homfrey, reported . . . . 15 Oct. „ 

French encroachments : Said and Hassi in Yoruba 
occupied by them, Nov. ; they retire on the 
arrival of a British force ; Ilesha and Bere occu- 
pied by the British .... 29 Dec. ,, 

The French advance to Borea, and order the 
Haussa officer to haul down the British flag, 
demand refused ; the French retired 9 Feb. 1898 

Lt.-col. M'Callum (made K.C.M.G. July, 1898), re- 
ceives the envoys of the kings of Borgu and 
Yoruba at Saki ; settlement of the feud ; treaties 
made, 28 Feb. ; he is well received at Ilesha by 
the king and chiefs of Bariba ; Wori Yaro made 
king of Borgu, 9 March ; arrives at Okuina 11 
March (see Newfoundland, 1899) • » 

3 A 



LAGOS BAY. 



722 



LAMPS. 



Col. Allan holds a palaver with the king and chiefs 
and hoists the British flag at Bode, treaties 
signed; reported .... March, 1898 

Kishi (Hinterland) evacuated by the French, occu- 
pied by the British .... May, ,, 

The French evacuate Boussa and occupy Bona and 
Lobi, reported 10 Oct. ,, 

Capt. Denton opens the railway from Lagos to 
Abbeokuta ; a durbah held, etc. . 21, 22 April, 1899 

Sir Wm. MacGregor opens the Lagos-Ibadan rail- 
way, amid great rejoicings, 5 March, 1901 ; a 
branch from Aro to Abbeokuta . . 14 Dec. 1901 

LAGOS BAY (Portugal). Here was fought a 
battle between admiral Boscawen and the French 
admiral De la Clue, who lost both his legs in the 
engagement, and died next day, 17, 18 Aug. 1759. 
The Centaur and Modeste were taken, and the He- 
doubtable and Ocean run on shore and burnt : the 
scattered remains of the French fleet got into Cadiz. 

LAHOGUE (correctly Hague) (N.W.France), 
Battle of, 19 May, 1692, when the English and 
Dutch fleets under admirals Russell and ltooke, 
defeated the French fleet commanded by admiral 
Tourville. The English burnt thirteen of the 
enemy's ships, and destroyed eight more, thus pre- 
venting a descent upon England. 

LAHORE (N. W. India), was taken by Baber 
about 1520, and was long the capital of the Mongol 
empire. It fell into the power of the Sikhs in 1798. 
It was occupied by sir Hugh Gough, 22 Feb. 1846, 
who in March concluded a treaty of peace. See 
Durbar. Visit of the prince of Wales, 18 Jan. 1876, 
and of his son prince Albert Victor, who laid the 
foundation stone of the "Jubilee Museum and 
Technical Institute of the Punjab," 2-5 Feb. 1890. 
a statue of queen Victoria erected by public sub- 
scription, unveiled, 1 Jan. 1902. Population in 
1891, 176,854; 1901, 120,058. 

LAING'S NEK, see Transvaal, 1881. 

LAKE DWELLINGS contain' relics of the 
stone, iron, and bronze ages. Herodotus (about 450 
B.C.) described the Pteonians as living on platforms 
in Lake Prasias. In 1855, Dr. Keller discovered 
the remains of lake habitations whichhadbeen sup- 
ported on piles in several Swiss lakes ages ago. His 
book was published in England in 1866. Similar 
relics discovered in lake Constance, March, 1882 ; 
they have also been discovered in Britain and 
various parts of Europe, Africa, and South America; 
they are now considered to be evidence of a stage in 
human progress. The artificial fortified islands 
termed "Crannoges" discovered in some Irish lakes 
are attributed to the 9th and 10th centuries. They 
have been frequently used as places of refuge. 
Artificial lake, see under Liverpool, 1881 et seq. 
Mr. Arthur Bulleid, in the spring of 1892, dis- 
covered, by excavation, near Glastonbury, in 
Somersetshire, remains of a pro-historic lake- 
village, in about 60 low mounds, enclosing 
wooden structures, many of which had been pro- 
bably workshops. The many interesting relics 
of bronze, iron, bone, &c, with fragments of 
pottery, were deposited in the Glastonbury 
museum; R. Muiuo, M.D., "Lake Dwellings of 
Europe," Sept. iSy- I excavations continued . 1897 

LAKE POETS, a term applied to "Wordsworth 
(1770-1850), Coleridge (1772-1834), and Soutbey 
(1774-1843), from their residence m the neighbour- 
hood of the lakes of Westmoreland. 

LAKE REGILLUS (Italy), where, tradition 
states, the Itomans defeated the Latin auxiliaries of 
the expelled Tarquins, about 498 B.C. 



LAKES CHAMPLAIN, ERIE, and ON- 
TARIO were the scenes of many actions between 
the British and Americans in the war of indepen- 
dence (about 1776 and 1777), and in the war of 
1813-14. 

LAMAISM, the religion of Mongolia and Thibet 
dating about 1357), is a corrupt form of Buddhism 
which see) . 

LAMBETH, parish, N. E. Surrey, became the 
seat of the abps. of Canterbury, 1197. Lambeth 
returns four members by act of 1885 ; municipal 
borough by London government act, 1899 (10 
aldermen, 60 councillors). Population, 1891, 
279,202 ; 1901, 30i,895- 
Lambeth public library, at Brixton-oval (cost 

15,000/.) ; the gift of Mr. Henry Tate (bart. 

1898); was opened by the prince of Wales, 4 Mar., 1893, 

Lambeth Palace. A considerable portion was 
built in the 13th century, by Hubert Walter, 
archbishop of Canterbury. The tower of the 
church was erected about 1375 ; and other parts of 
the edifice in the 15th century. Simon of Sudbury, 
archbishop of Canterbury, was killed here by the 
followers of Wat Tyler, who attacked the palace, 
burnt the furniture and books, and destroyed the 
registers and public papers, 14 June, 1381. The 
domestic portion of the palace was greatly enlarged 
for archbishop Howley (who died 1848), by Mr. 
Blore, at an expense of 52,000/. The palace was 
reopened after restoration, Oct. 1873 > see Canter- 
bury, Articles. For Lambeth Conferences see Pan- 
Anglican Synods. Lambeth bridge was freed from 
toll 24 May, 1879. 

Lambeth degrees are those conferred by the archbishop of 
Canterbury by virtue of 25 Henry VIII., c. 21., 1533-4- 
Arclibishop's park (over 9 acres), given to the public 
by the abp. of Canterbury (laid out by the London 
County Council at cost 4,600/.), opened by the abp. 
24 Oct. 1901 ; a drinking fountain presented by Miss- 
Du Bois, end Oct. 1901. 

LAMIAN WAR, 323 B.C. (excited by Demos- 
thenes, the orator), between Athens and her allies 
and Antipater, governor of Macedon. Antipater 
fled to Lamia, in Thessaly, and was there besieged. 
He escaped thence and defeated his adversaries at 
Cranon, 322 B.C. 

LAMMAS-DAY, the 1st of August, one of our 
four cross quarter-days of the year. Whitsuntide 
was the first, Lammas the second, Martinmas the 
third, and Candlemas the last; and such partition 
of the year was once equally common with the pre- 
sent divisions of Ladyday, Midsummer, Michaelmas, 
and Christmas. Some rents are yet payable at each 
of these quarterly days in England, and very gene- 
rally in Scotland. Lammas probably comes from 
the Saxon hlammccsse, loaf mass, because formerly 
upon that day our ancestors offered bread made of 
new wheat. Anciently, those tenants that held lands 
of the cathedral church of York were by tenure to 
bring a lamb alive into church at high mass. 

LAMPETER COLLEGE (Cardiganshire), 
was founded by bishop Burgess in 1822, and 
incorporated 1828. Henry James Prince, founder 
of the Agapemone {which see), was one of the 
revivalist Lampeter brotherhood, instituted among 
the students here about 1836. 

LAMPS. The earthen lamp of Epictetus the 
philosopher sold after his death for 3000 drachmas. 
Lamps with horn sides said to be the invention of 
Alfred. London streets were first lighted with oil- 
lamps in 1681, and with gas-lamps in 1814. A 
lamp "constructed to produce neither smoke nor 
smell, and to give considerably more light than any 



LANARK. 



723 



LAND. 



lamp hitherto known," was patented by M. Aime 
Argand in 1 784, and was brought into general use 
in England early in the nineteenth century. On his 
principle are founded the lamps invented by Carcel 
about 1803, and since 1825, the moderator lamps of 
Levavasseur, Hadrot, and Neuburger. See Safety 
Lamp. Paraffin oil and naphtha spirit are now 
much used in lamps. The Water Safety Lamp in- 
vented by Mr. JJevoll, was tried and approved 
2 June, 1S90. The flame is extinguished by the 
water if the lamp is overturned. The Kitson oil 
lamp, in which petroleum is burnt as gas, used suc- 
cessfully in Portland-place, May, 1901. See 
Petroleum. 

LANARK (W. Scotland), was a Koman station, 
and made a royal burgh 1103. 

LANCASHIRE was created a county palatine 
by Edward III. for his son John of Gaunt, who had 
married the daughter of Henry first duke of Lan- 
caster, in 1359, and succeeded him in 1362. The 
court of the duchy chamber of Lancaster was 
instituted in 1376. On the accession of Henry IV. 
in 1399 the duchy merged into the crown. Net 
revenue to the queen in 1888, 50,000/. ; total 
receipts, 86,284/.; total receipts in 1893, 81,747/., 
net revenue, 13,080/. For chancellors, see Grey 
and other administrations. See Cotton. 

LANCASTER, supposed to have been the 
Ad Alaunam of the Romans. Lancaster was 
granted by William I. or II. to Roger de Poitou, 
who erected a castle upon its hill. It was taken 
by the Jacobites, Nov. 1715 and Nov. 1745. It was 
disfranchised for bribery by the Reform act of 
1867. The public park, value about 23,000/., was 
presented by Mr. Jas. Williamson, of Rylands, 21 
Nov. 1881. The Storey Institute (technical), 
founded by sir Thomas Storey (died, aged 73, 
13 Dec. 1898), bv a gift of 20,000/., in memory 
of the queen's jubilee in 1887, when he was 
mayor, opened by the marquis of Hartington, 
23 Oct. 1891. A new infirmary opened by the 
duke and duchess of York, 24 March, 1896. Popu- 
lation, 1881, 24,239; 1891,31,038; 1901,40,329. 

LANCASTERIAN SCHOOLS, based on a 
system of education by means of mutual instruction, 
devised by Joseph Lancaster about 1796, were not 
much patronised till about 1808. The system led 
to the formation of the British and Foreign School 
society, in 1805, whose schools are unsectarian, and 
iise the Bible as the only means of religious instruc- 
tion. Lancaster was accidentally killed at New 
York in 1838. 

LANCASTRIANS, see Hoses. 

LANCERS, see Regiments. 

LANCET, a weekly medical journal, established 
and edited by Thomas Wakley, surgeon (after- 
wards coroner for Middlesex and M.P.for Finsbury), 
first published 3 Oct. 1823. An injunction obtained 
by Mr. Abernethy against the publication of his 
lectures in the "Lancet," was dissolved by the lord 
chancellor in 1825. Mr. Wakley, born 1795, died 16 
May, 1862. The proprietors of the " Lancet" have 
at various times employed medical men as commis- 
sioners of enquiry. The reports of the Analytical 
Sanitary Commission of the " Lancet" in 1851-54, 
were published by Dr. A. H. Hassall, as " Food and 
its Adulterations," in 1855. The "Lancet" com- 
missioners (three physicians) enquired into the 
state of workhouse infirmaries iu London, 1865, and 
in the country, 1867. 



LAND is said to have been let generally in 
England for is. per acre, 36 Hen. VIII. 1544. The 
whole rental of the kingdom was about 6,000,000/. 
in 1600 ; about 14,000,000/. in 1688. In 1798 Mr. 
Pitt proposed his income tax of 10 per cent, on an 
estimate of 100 millions, taking the rent of land at 
50 millions, that of houses at 10 millions, and the 
profits of trade at 40 millions ; but in his estimate 
were exempted much land, and the inferior class of 
houses. The rental of the United Kingdom was 
estimated at 59,500,000/. in 1851. The rateable 
value of land in England was 39,835,000/. in 1870 ; 
33,654,000/. in 1894. An act for rendering the 
transfer of land more easy was passed in 1862 ; see 
Agriculture, Domesday, old and new. 

A species of Land-tax was exacted in England in the 
10th century, which produced 82,000?. (see Dane- 
gelt) in 1018 

Land Banks were proposed by Yarranton in . . 1648 

The Land-tax grew out of a subsidy scheme of 4s. in 
the pound (which produced 500,000?. in 1692), im- 
posed 1699 

Ministers were left in a minority in the house of 
commons on the land-tax bill in 1767 ; it being 
the first instance of the kind on a money bill 
since the revolution. Its rate varied in different 
years from is. to 4s. in the pound. 

Mr. Pitt made the tax perpetual at 4s. in the pound, 
but introduced his plan for its redemption, 

2 April, 1798 

The tax in 1810 produced 1,418,337?. ; in 1820, 
1,338,420?. ; in 1830, 1,423,618?. ; in 1840, 1,298,622?. ; 
in 1852, 1,151,613?. ; in year 1872-3, 1,108 7?$L 
in 1875-6, 1,090,177?.; 1880, 1,047,000?. ; 1885, 
1,065,000?. ; 1891, 1,030,000?. From the revolu- 
tion to the year 1800, the land-tax had yielded 
227,000,000?. 

Land-tax and house-duty (to 31 March), in 1875, 
2,440,000?. ; 1876, 2,496,000?. ; 1877, 2,532 oooi. ; 
1878, 2,670,000?. ; 1879, 1,075,511?. (land tax only). 
Changes made in the land-tax by the Finance 
Act, 1896. 1897, land-tax, 920,000?. ; house 
duty, 1,510,000?. ; land tax and house duty, 1900, 
2,460,000?. ; 1901, 2,475,000?. ; 1902, 2,500,000?. ; 
1903, 2,550,000?. 

Land Allotments. Lord Braybrooke's successful 
experiment in Essex, of allotting small portions 
of land to poor families, to assist them and relieve 
the parish poor-rates 1819 

[The little colony was first called Pauper Gardens, 
but afterwards New Village, and it is calculated 
that 200?. per annum were saved to the parish. ] 

Landed Estates Court, established to "facilitate the 
sale and transfer of land in Ireland " (see Encum- 
bered Estates Act) 1858 

The Land Registry office for transfer of land opened 
m 1862 ; reported to be a failure by a commission, 

March, 1870 

Land Tenure Reform League held its first 
meeting, John Stuart Mill in the chair, 15 May, 1871 

Bill to facilitate sale and transfer of land by means 
of registration brought in by lord chancellor Sel- 
borne, 29 April, 1873 ; by lord chancellor Cairns, 

26 March, 1874 

The transfer of land in Scotland facilitated by the 
conveyancing act passed . . .7 Aug. ,, 

Agricultural holding act and land transfer act for 
England passed 13 Aug. 1875 

4 bills respecting land introduced by lord chancellor 
Cairns 23 Feb. 1880 

Owners of Land in England and Wales (exclusive of 
the metropolis), of less than one acre, 703,289; 
one acre and more, 269,547. Estimated value, 
124,000,000?. ; tithes — estimated, 5,000,000?. 

Important land act passed (see Ireland) 22 Aug. 1881 

Settled Land Act passed 1882 

[Tenants for life acquire power to sell or lease and 
use the proceeds.] 

A new land commission unites in one body the En- 
closure, Copyhold, and Tithes commissions . . „ 

New Agricultural Holdings Act passed . . . ,, 

Nationalization of the land advocated by the Trade 
Union Congress, 1882 ; negatived by the same at 
Nottingham (90-34) .... 14 Sept. 1883 
3 A 2 



LAND CREDIT COMPANY. 



724 



LANDWEHE. 



The National Land Company founded by the 
dukes of Argyll and Westminster, the earl of 
Ripon, and others, for the object of buying land 
to be sold in small portions to be farmed, 24 April, 1885 

Purchase of land (Ireland) act passed, 14 Aug. 
1885 ; said to have worked well ; another act 
passed, see Ireland .... 24 Dec. 1888 

Allotments and small holdings association founded 
to carry out the allotments act of 1882, 1883-4 > 
second annual meeting ... 11 Jan. 1886 

The political cry "Three acres and a cow" much 
used during the elections of Nov.-Dec. 1885 (said 
to have originated in a handbill printed at Bir- 
mingham), and to have been acted upon by lord 
Tollemache in regard to his labourers. He died 
9 Dec. 1890, aged 85. 

Free land league formed, supported by Mr. Arthur 
Arnold and others ; it proposes nationalization 
of the land and changes in tenure and transfer 1885-93 

Irish land commission ; earl Cowper, lord Miltown, 
sir J. Caird and others, announced 21 Sept. 1886 ; 
report presented 24 Feb. 1887 

Land transfer bill (England) read second time in 
the lords, 25 April, 1887 [dropped]. 

New Irish land bill passed ... 23 Aug. 1886 

Allotments in England and Wales, 643,3isexistingin ,, 

Allotments act enabHng sanitary authorities to 
acquire land, make arrangements, &c, passed 

16 Sept. 1887 

Welsh land league formed (see under Wales) . ,, 

Large reduction of rents ordered by the land com- 
mission 27 Oct. ,, 

Lord Ashbourne's purchase of land act passed (see 
Ireland) 14 Aug. 1885 ; another act passed 24 
Dec. 1888 ; great success reported Nov. 1889. 
Land had been sold amounting in value to 
3,792,532?. up to 31 Dec. 1888 

The lord chancellor's land transfer bill dropped, 
S July, 1889 ; passed by the lords, 1893 ; again 
by the lords, 3 April, 1895; land transfer bill 
(tentative) passed 6 Aug. 1897 

New allotment act passed 1890 

New purchase of land bill introduced by Mr. A. J. 
Balfour (see Ireland), 24 March, 1890 ; dropped, 
14 July, 1890 ; re-introduced in two parts, 27 Nov.; 
2nd reading, 3 Dec. 1890 ; passed . . 5 Aug. 1891 

.'[This act provides further funds for the purchase of 
land in Ireland, and makes permanent the Land 
Commission, it also creates a Congested Districts 
Board.] 

Select committee on the Irish land acts, &c, ap- 
pointed, 16 April ; report issued . . Aug. 1894 

Mr. J. Morley's Irish land bill read 2nd time, 

5 April, 1895 

Land law (Ireland) act passed . . 14 Aug. 1896 

Land Charges act passed ... 30 July, 1900 

Lands Valuation Amendment act (Scotland) passed, 

13 June, 1902 

Land Purchase (Ireland) Act, royal assent 14 Aug. 1903 

LAND CREDIT COMPANY (for Silesia), 
established by Frederick the Great ; see Credits 
Ponders, 1763. 

LAND LAW ACT, see Irish Zand law Act. 

. LANDED INTEREST, a term given by 
sir James Caird, agriculturist, born 18 16, died 1892, 
to all persons deriving profits from land, much 
depressed in the latter half of the 19th century. 

LANDEN or NeEPWINDEN (Belgium). 
Near here the French under marshal Luxembourg 
defeated the allies, commanded by William III. of 
England, chiefly through the cowardice of the 
Dutch, 19 July (N.S. 29), 1693. The duke of Ber- 
wick, illegitimate son of James II., fighting on the 
side of France, was taken prisoner. 

LANDGRAVE (from land and graf, a 
count), a German title, which commenced in 1130 
with Louis III. of Thuringia, and became the title 
of the house of Hesse about 1263. 

LAND LEAGUE, see under Leagues and 
Ireland, 1879. 



LANDLORD, see Bent and Ireland, 1887, et 
seq. 

LANDLORD AND TENANT ACT (Ire- 
land), passed 1 Aug. 1870. 

LAND NATIONALIZATION SO- 
CIETY, formed at Westminster 16 Jan. 1882. The 
object has been warmly advocated by Mr. Henry 
George in his "Progress and Poverty," published 
Feb. 1881, and since. He condemns compensation. 
He met about 2,000 men at the Boyal Exchange, 
London, 17 Jan. 1885. Annual meetings held. 

LANDSHUT (Silesia), where the Prussians 
were defeated by the Austrians under marshal 
Laudohn, 23 June, 1760. 

LANDSLIPS- Landslips are due to decay of 
the rocks or excessive saturation of the soil by 
rain. 

Rossberg mountain behind the Rigi slipped down, 
burying villages and hamlets with above 800 in- 
habitants 1806 

Lyme Regis, Dorset, a strip of chalk cliff three- 
fourths of a mile long, between 100 and 150 feet 
high, undermined by rain, slid forward on the 
beach, carrying fields, houses, and trees 

24 -27 Dec. 1839 

Naini or Nynee Tal, a sanitary hill-station in the 
Himalayas, India, was destroyed by the descent 
of the mountain ; about 30 valuable British lives 
(including major Martin Morphy, col. Fred. Sher- 
. wood Taylor, and capts. F. T. Goodeve, H. S. F. 
Haynes, and A. Balderston) and 200 natives 
perished 18 Sept. 1880 

Near Northwich, Cheshire, salt works stepped 

6 Dec. et seq. ,, 

Elm, Glarus Canton; fall of about 30 houses; above 
150 persons perished . ... 11 Sept. 1881 

Subsidence on the Furness railway, near Lindal ; 
an engine buried ; no deaths . . 22 Sept. 1892 

By subsidences in the western part of Sandgate 
(3 miles) many houses were shattered and families 
rendered homeless ; damage to property, about 
5000J. ; much assistance was given by the mili- 
tary at Shorncliffe, the coastguard and police, and 
relief was promptly sent from Folkestone and 
Hythe, 4-5 March ; the subsidences were attri- 
buted to the subsoil being saturated by heavy 
rains, or by the scouring action of the sea ; liberal 
subscriptions in London and throughout the 
country (about 6,000?.) . . .20 March, 1893 

Landslip at Vaerdalen, in N. Trondhjem ; over 
30 buildings destroyed ; about 113 deaths, 

iS May, ,, 

A train of railway workmen buried by a landslip, 
about 48 persons perish, between Mac,onand Aix- 
les-Bains 17 Oct. 1S96 

Serious landslip in the " Warren," between Folke- 
stone and Dover . . . early Nov ,, 

Destructive ^landslip near Bantry, co. Cork, re- 
ported . . .... 31 Dec. ,, 

Landslip from the Sasso Rosso, at Airolo; houses 
destroyed, 3 deaths .... 27 Dec. 1898 

Landslips at Darjeling, India, owing to a storm 
and other causes; 10 European children and about 
300 other lives lost, 23, 24 Sept. 1899 ; the queen 
sends her deep sympathy ... 28 Sept. 1899 

Amalfii, Italy, a mass of rocks above the town 
swept down towards the sea, hotels and other 
houses buried ; much damage in the harbour ; 10 
deaths 22 Dec. ,, 

Whitby, landslip owing to heavy rains ; 2 houses 
destroyed and 3 lives lost . . . 10 Jan. 1900 

Great landslip in Barbados, plantations wrecked 
and S5 houses swept into the sea, reported, 

19 Oct. 1901 

Landslips and floods; several hundred deaths re- 
ported 19 Aug. 1902 

Landslip at Frank, Canada, estimated deaths 95, 

25 April, 1903 
See Quebec, 1889, Himalaya, 1894, Bogs, 1896. 

LANDWEHR (German, land-defence). A 
force so named was raised in Austria in 1805, and in 



LANGD ALE'S ACT. 



725 



LAON. 



Prussia in 1813, against the French. This force, 
the militia of Germany, especially of Prussia, 
was very effective in the war with Austria in 1866, 
and in that with France in 1870. No ranks in life 
are exempt from this service, and many persons in 
foreign countries returned to serve in 1870. 

LANGD ALE'S ACT, Lord, 7 Will. IV. & 

I Vict. c. 26 (1837), relates to copyholds, &c. 

LANGENSALZA (N. Germany). Here the 
Hanoverian army on its way to join the Bavarians 
was attacked by the Prussians, who were defeated 
with the loss of about a thousand killed and 
wounded, and 912 prisoners, 27 June, 1866. The 
victory was of little avail, for the Hanoverians 
were soon surrounded by Falckenstein, and com- 
pelled to capitulate on honourable terms on 29 
June. 

LANGOBARDI, see Lombards. 

LANGSIDE (S. Scotland), where the forces 
of the regent of Scotland, the earl of Murray, de- 
feated the army of Mary queen of Scots, 13 May, 
1568. Mary fled to England and crossed the Solway 
Frith, landing at Workington, in Cumberland, 16 
May. Soon afterwards she was imprisoned by 
Elizabeth. 

LANGUAGE must either have been revealed 
originally from heaven, or the fruit of human 
invention. The latter opinion is embraced by 
Horace, Lucretius, Cicero, and most of the Greek 
and Roman writers ; the former by the Jews and 
Christians, and many modern philosophers. Some 
suppose Hebrew to have been the language spoken 
by Adam ; others say that the Hebrew, Chaldee, 
and Arabic are only dialects of the original tongue. 
" And the whole earth was of one language and of 
one speech" {Genesis xi. 1).* George I. in 1724, and 
George II. in 1736, appointed regius professors of 
modern languages and of history to each of the 
universities of England. 

The original European languages were thirteen, viz. : 
Greek, Latin, German, Sclavonian, spoken in the east ; 
Welsh ; Biscayan, spoken in Spain ; Irish ; Albanian, 
in the mountains of Epirus ; Tartarian ; the old 
Illyrian ; the Jazygian, remaining yet in Liburnia ; the 
Chaucin, in the north of Hungary ; and the Finnic, in 
east Friesland. 

From the Latin sprang the Italian, French, Spanish, and 
Portuguese. 

The Turkish is a mixed dialect of the Tartarian. 

From the Teutonic sprang the present German, Danish, 
Swedish, Norwegian, English, Scotch, &c. 

There are 3424 known languages, or rather dialects, in 
the world. Of these, 937 are Asiatic ; 587 European ; 
276 African ; and 1624 American languages and dialects. 
Adelung. 

In 1861 and 1862 professor Max Miiller lectured on the 
"Science of Language" at the Royal Institution, 
London. He divides languages into three families : — 

I. Aeyan (in Sanskrit, noble). 

Southern Division. India (Prakrit, and Pali ; Sanskrit ; 
dialects of India ; Gipsy). 

Iranic (Parsi ; Armenian, &c). 

Northern Division. Celtic (Cymric : Cornish, "Welsh, 
Manx, Gaelic, Breton, &c). 

Italic (Oscan ; Latin ; Umbrian ; — Italian, Spanish, Por- 
tuguese, French, &c.). 

* Eminent Linguists. — Anas Montanus, editor of the 
Antwerp Polyglott Bible (1527-98) ; sir Wm. Jones 
(1746-94) ; Cardinal Giuseppe Mezzofanti (1774-1849) is 
said to have known 114 languages or dialects, and 50 
well ; and Niebuhr (1776-1831) knew 20 languages in 
1807, and more afterwards ; Hans Conon von der Gabe- 
lentz knew many languages critically : he died 3 Sept. 
1874, aged nearly 67. Solomon Caesar Malan (1812-94), 
eminent in Oriental languages, see Indian Institute. 



Illyric (Albanian). 

Hellenic (Greek, and its dialects). 

Wendic (Lettic : Old Prussian ; Slavonic dialects,— 
Bohemian, Russian, Polish, Lithuanian, &c.). 

Teutonic (High German : Modern German ; Low German : 
Gothic ; Anglo-Saxon ; Dutch ; Frisian ; English. 
Scandinavian: Old Norse, Danish, Swedish, Nor- 
wegian, Icelandic). 

II. Semitic : Southern. Arabic (including Ethiopia 
and Amharic). Middle. Hebraic (Hebrew, Samaritan, 
Phoenician inscriptions). Northern. Aramaic (Chaldee, 
Syriac, Cuneiform inscriptions of Babylon and 
Nineveh). 

III. Turanian (from Tura, swiftness). 

Nortliem Division. Tungusic (Chinese, &c. ) ; Mongolic ; 
Turkic ; Samoyedic, and Finnic. 

Southern Division. Taic (Siamese, &c.) ; (Himalayas); 
Malayic (Polynesia, &c); Gangetic ; Lonitic (Bur- 
mese, &c); Munda ; Tamulic. 

" The Speech of Monkeys," by R. L. Garner, Sept. 1892. 

Modem Language Association, founded in 1890; first 
president, prof. Max Miiller ; annual meetings held. 

LANGUE D'OC, see Troubadours. 

LANGUEDOC (a province, S. France), 
formed part of the Roman Gallia Narbonensis ; was 
named Gothia, as having been held by the Visi- 
goths 409, who were expelled by the Saracens, in 
turn driven out by Charles Martel in the 8th cen- 
tury. In the dark ages the country was named 
Septimania (probably from its containing seven 
important towns) : afterwards Languedoc (from its 
dialect, see Troubadours), about 1270, when an- 
nexed to the monarchy. It suffered during the 
persecutions of the Albigenses and Huguenots. 

LAN SI) OWN, near Bath (Somersetshire). 
The parliamentary army under sir Wm. Waller was 
here defeated, 5 July, 1*643. 

LANTERNS of scraped horn were invented in 
England, it is said, by Alfred ; and it is supposed 
that horn was used for window lights also, as glass 
was not generally known, 872-901. Stow. London 
was lighted by suspended lanterns with glass sides, 
I4I5- 

LANTHANUM, a rare metal discovered in 
the oxide of cerium, by Mosander in 1839. 

LAOCOON, an exquisite work of Grecian art,, 
in marble, modelled by Agesander, Athenodorus, 
and Polydorus, all of Rhodes, and other eminent; 
statuaries (about a.d. 70) ; it represents the death 
of the Trojan hero, Laocoon, priest of Neptune,, 
and his two sons, as described by Virgil. ^Eneis,. 
ii. 200. It was discovered in 1506 in the Sette 
Salle near Rome, and purchased by pope Julius II. 
It is now in the Vatican. 

LAODICEA, see Seven Churches. 

LAON (N. France). A succession of actions 
between the allies (chiefly the Prussians) and the 
French, was fought under the walls of the town, 
which ended in the defeat of the latter with great 
loss, 9-10 March, 1814. Laon surrendered to the 
Germans 9 Sept. 1870. As the last man of the 
garde mobile left the citadel, a French soldier, in 
contravention of the capitulation, blew up the 
powder magazine, causing great destruction to the 
town and fortress. The grand-duke William of 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin was bruised, and 95 German 
riflemen and 300 French gardes mobiles were killed 
or wounded ; general Theremin Du Hame, the com- 
mander, was wounded. The French attributed the 
explosion to accident. 



LA PEROUSE'S VOYAGE. 



726 



LATITUDINARIANS. 



LA PEROUSE'S VOYAGE. In 1785 La 
Perouse sailed from France for the Pacific, with 
the Boussole and Astrolabe under his command, 
and was last heard of from Botany Bay, in March, 
1788. Several expeditions were subsequently de- 
spatched in search of I'erouse; but no certain in- 
formation was obtained until captain Dillon, of the 
East India ship Research, ascertained that the 
French ships had been cast away 011 the New 
Hebrides, authenticated by articles which he 
brought to Calcutta, g April, 1828. 

LAPLAND or SAMELAJSTD (N. Europe), 
nominally subject to Norway in the 13th century, 
and now to Sweden and Russia. Several Lap- 
landers were exhibited at the Westminster Aqua- 
rium, Nov. 1877. 

LA PLATA, the capital of the Argentine 
province of Buenos Ayres, which see, was founded 
in 1882. Population in 1888, 65,000 , 1895, 45,410. 
See Wrecks, 1874. 

LARCENY, French, larcen ; Latin, latro- 
cinium ; see Theft. 

LARENTALIA, see Laurentalia. 

LARGS (Ayrshire, S. Scotland). Here the 
great expedition of Haco of Norway was finally 
defeated by Alexander III. after a succession of 
skirmishes, 3 Oct. 1263. 

LA ROTHIERE (France). Here the French, 
commanded by Napoleon, defeated the Prussian 
and Russian armies, with great loss, after a despe- 
rate engagement, 1 Feb. 1814. This was one of 
Napoleon's last victories. 

LARYNGOSCOPE, an instrument consist- 
ing of a concave mirror, by which light is thrown 
upon a small plane mirror placed in the pos- 
terior part of the cavity of the mouth. By its 
means the vocal chords" of the interior of the 
larynx, &c, are exhibited, and have been photo- 
graphed. It was invented by Mr. Manuel Garcia, 
and reported to the lloval Society 24 May, 1855. 
One constructed by Dr. Turck was greatly modified, 
in 1857, by Dr. Czermak, who exhibited its suc- 
cessful action in London in 1862. A similar appa- 
ratus is said to have been constructed by Mr. John 
Avery, a surgeon in London, in 1846. The British 
Laryngological and Rhinological Association was 
founded in 1888. 

LA SALETTE, see Pilgrimages. 

LATERAN, a church at Rome, dedicated to 
St. John, "the mother of all the churches," was 
originally a palace of the Laterani, a Roman family, 
and was given to the bishops of Rome by Constan- 
tine, and inhabited by them till their removal to 
the Vatican in 1377. Eleven councils have been 
held there. 

LATHE. The invention is ascribed to Talus, 
a grandson of Dsedalus, about 1240 B.C. Pliny 
ascribes it to Theodore of Samos, about 600 B.C. 
Great improvements have been made in recent 
times. 

LATHOM-HOUSE (Lancashire), was 
heroically defended for three months against the 
parliamentarians, by Charlotte, countess of Derby. 
She was relieved by prince Rupert, 27 May, 1644. 
The house was, however, surrendered 4 Dec. 1645, 
and dismantled. 



LATIN KINGDOM, Empire, &c, see La- 
Hum, Eastern Empire 1204, and Jerusalem. 

LATIN LANGUAGE, a member of the 
Aryan family, and one' of the original languages 
of Europe, from which sprang the Italian, 
French, and Spanish ; see Latium. A large por- 
tion of our language is derived from the Latin. 
It ceased to be spoken in Italy about 581 ; and was 
first taught in England by Adelmus, brother of 
Ina, in the 7th century. The use of Latin in law 
deeds in England gave way to the common tongue 
about 1000 ; was revived in the reign of Henry II. ; 
and again was replaced by English in the reign of 
Henry III. It was finally discontinued in religious 
worship in 1558, and in conveyancing and in courts 
of law in 1731 (by 4 Geo. II. c. 25). A corrupt 
Latin is still spoken in Roumelia. The foreign pro- 
nunciation of Latin {a, ah; e, a; i, e, &c.) was 
adopted in English universities and many schools 
about 1875-6. For "Latin name," see Latium. 



PRINCIPAL LATIN WRITERS. 


Died Died 


Plautus . . B.C. 


184 


Lucan . . . -65 


Ennius 


169 


Seneca . . . . 65 


Terence . (flourished) 


166 


Pliny the Elder . . 79 


Cato the Elder 


149 


Quintilian (flourished) 80 


Lucilius 


103 


Valerius Flaccus ,, . 81 


Lucretius . . . 


52 


Pliny the Younger ,, . 100 


Julius Caesar 


44 


Statius . . (about) 100 


Cicero . . . . 


43 


Tacitus . (flourished) 100 


Catullus 


40 


Silius Italicus . . 101 


Sallust .... 


34 


Martial . (flourished) 104 


Vitruvius (flourished) 


27 


Suetonius . (about) 120 


Propertius . . . 


26 


Juvenal . . . . 128 


Virgil .... 


1 9 


Aulus Gellius 


Tibullus .... 


18 


(flourished) iCg 


Horace 


8 


Apuleius . . . 174 


Celsus (flourished) a.d. 


*7 


Amniianus Marcellinus 390 


Livy .... 


18 


Claudian . . . . 408 


Ovid .... 


18 


Macrobius . . .415 


Paterculus . 


3 1 


Boethius . . . . 524 


Persius . . . . 


62 




(See Fathers of the Church.) 



LATIN UNION (Monetary), that of France, 
Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland, to maintain the 
use of the same coinage, from 1865 et seq. ; re-con- 
stituted in 1885 ; arranged to be continued from 
year to year, autumn 1889; renewed till 31 Dec. 
1893, Oct. 1891 ; conference at Paris, 9 Oct. 1893. 

LATITAT, an ancient writ, directing the 
sheriff to apprehend persons to be brought beloie 
the king's bench court, had its name trom its being 
supposed that the person was lying 1 id, and could 
not be found in the county to be taken by bill. 
The writ was abolished by the Uniformity of Pro- 
cess act, 23 May, 1832. 

LATITUDE. First determined by Hippar- 
chus of Nice, about 162 B.C. It is the extent of 
the earth or the heavens, reckoned from the equa- 
tor to either pole. Maupertuis, in 1737, in latitude 
66 - 20 measured a degree of latitude, and made it 
( '9'493 miles. Swanherg, in 1803, made it 69"292. 
At the equator, in 1744, four astronomers made it 
68732; and Lambton, in latitude 12, made it 68"743. 
Mudge, in England, made it 09' 148. Cassini, in 
France, in 1718 and 1740, made it 69 - l2; and Biot, 
68*769 ; while a recent measurement in Spain makes 
it but 68-63 — l° ss than at the equator, and contra- 
dicts all others, proving the earth to be an oblate 
spheroid (which was the opinion of Cassini, Ber- 
noulli i, Euler, and others), instead of a prolate 
spheroid ; see Longitude. 

LATITUDINARIANS, a name given to 
certain theologians who endeavoured to reconcile 



LAT1UM. 



<27 



LAW. 



the church and nonconformists in the 17th cen- 
tury, such as Hales, Chillingworth, Tillotson, and 
Burnet. 

LATIUM, now CAMPANIA (Italy), the coun- 
try of the Latini and their mythical king, Latinus, 
popular date, 1240 B.C. Laurentum was the capi- 
tal of the country in the reign of Latinus, Lavi- 
nium in that of JEneas, and Alba in that of Asca- 
nius ; see Italy, and Rome. 

The Latins ally with Rome . . . (about) b. c. 520 
Join Porsenna to restore Tarquin II. 508 

Defeated by Romans near Lake Regillus . 498 or 496 
League with the Romans, 463 ; desert them in 

trouble, 388 ; union restored .... 359 
Defeated in war ; (before the great victory, near 
monrit Vesuvius, the consul, P. Decius Mus, de- 
voted himself to death, 340), 339 ; subdued and 
incorporated with Rome ..... 338 

Obtain Roman citizenship 90 

The "Latin nime" in the 3rd century, B.C., in- 
cluded the colonies in Italy founded by the 
Romans in their conquered territories, as well as 
those founded by the Latins. 

LA TRAPPE, see Trappists. 

LATTER-DAY SAINTS, see Mormonites. 

LAUDANUM, see Opium. 

LAUDERDALE EARLDOM, &c. (dated 
from 1590). Major Frederick Henry Maitland's 
■claim to it established before the House of Lords, 
22 July, 1885. A romantic storyi 

LAUENBURGr, a duchy, N. Germany ; was 
•conquered from the Wends by Henry the Lion of 
Saxony, about 1 152; ceded to Hanover, 1689; in- 
corporated with the French empire, 1810 ; ceded to 
Denmark, 1815 ; annexed by Prussia, 14 Aug. 1865 ; 
possession taken 15 Sept. following; see Gastein. 

LAUFACBZ, Bavaria (S. W. Germany), was 
taken by the Prussians under Wrangel, on 13 July, 
a866, after a sharp action, in which the Hessians 
were defeated, the Prussian needle-gun being very 
■efficacious. 

LAUNCESTON, Cornwall. The granite 
■church was erected in 1511 ; the new town-hall 
in 1887. Population, 1881, 3,808 ; 1891, 4,345. 
LAUNCESTON, Tasmania, was founded 1804 ; in- 
■corporated 1858 ; made a city 1889. Population, 
11881,12,753; i89l»8,937; I90I,7,79S- 

LAUNDRY, London and Provincial Steam 
ILaundry, Battersea, erected by a company ; opened 
in 1880 ; and others since. 

LAUREATE, see Poet Laureate. 

LAUREL was sacred to Apollo, god of poetry ; 
and from the earliest times the poets, and generals 
■of armies, when victors, were crowned with laurel. 
Petrarch was crowned with laurel, 8 April, 1341. — 
The Primus lauroc.erasus was brought to Britain 
from the Levant, before 1629 ; the Portugal laurel, 
Prunus lusitanica, before 1648 ; the royal bay, 
Laurus indica, from Madeira, 1665 ; the "Alexan- 
drian laurel, Ruscus racemosus, from Spain, before 
1713; the glaucous laurel, Laurus aggregata, from 
'China, 1806 or 182 1. 

LAURENTALIA were festivals celebrated at 
Some in honour of Acca Laurentia, or Larentia, 
said to have been either the nurse of Komulus and 
llemus, or a rich dissolute woman, who bequeathed 
■her property to the Roman people. The festival 
■ifiommeneed about 621 B.C., and was held on; he 
last day of April and the 23rd of December. 



LAURIUM MINES, see Greece, 1872. 

LAURUSTINUS, Viburnum Tinus, an ever- 
green shrub, was brought to England from he 
south of Europe, before 1596. 

LAUSANNE, capital of the canton of Vaud, 
Switzerland, originally a Roman station. The 
cathedral was consecrated in 1275, and the univer- 
sity founded 1535. Here Gibbon completed his 
" Decline and Fall," 27 June, 1787. The Inter- 
national Workmen's congress assembled here Sept. 
1867. Population, 1888, 33,340 ; 1901,47,039. 

LA VALETTA, see Malta. 

LAV ALETTE'S ESCAPE. Count Lava- 
lette, for joining the emperor Napoleon on his 
return in 1815, was condemned to death, but escaped 
from prison in the clothes of his wife, 20 Dec. 1815. 
Sir Robert Wilson, Mr. Michael Bruce, and captain 
J. H. Hutchinson, aiding the escape, were sen- 
tenced to three months' imprisonment in the 
French capital, 24 April, 1816. Lavalette was per- 
mitted to return to France in 1820, and died in 
retirement in 1830. 

LA VENDEE (W. France). The French 
royalists of La Vendee took arms in March, 1793, 
and were successful in a number of hard-fought 
battles with the republicans, between 12 July, 
1793, and 1 Jan. 1794, when they experienced a 
severe reverse. Their leader, Henri comte de La- 
rochejaquelin, was killed, 4 March, 1794. A short 
peace was made at La Jaunay, 17 Feb. 1795. The 
war was terminated by gen. Hoche in 1796, and a 
treaty of peace was signed at Luqon, 17 Jan. 1800 ; 
see Chouans. 

LAVENDER, Lavandula spica, brought from 
the south of Europe, before 1568. 

LAW, see Canons, Codes, Common Law, Civil 
Law, Crime, Digest, Siqjreme Court. The Jewish 
law was given by God, and promulgated by Moses, 
1491 B.C. 

The laws attributed to Phoroneus, in the kingdom 
of Argos were reduced to a system by Draco, for 
the Athenians, 623 b. c. ; whose code was super- 
seded by that of Solon, 594 B. c. 

The Spartan laws of Lycurgus were made about 
844 b.c. ; they remained in full force for about 
700 years, and formed a race totally different from 
all others living in civilised society. 

The Roman laws of Servius Tullius 566 B.C. were 
amended by the Twelve Tables published in 449 
B.C., and remained in force till Justinian, nearly 
a thousand years. 

BRITISH LAWS. 

The British laws of earliest date were translated 

into the Saxon in a.d. S9° 

Saxon laws of Ina published about . . . . 690 
Alfred's code of laws, the foundation of the common 
law of England, is said to have been arranged 

about 886 
Edward the Confessor collected the laws . 1050-1065 
Stephen's charter of general liberties . . . 1136 
Henry II. 's confirmation of it . . 1154 and 1175 
The maritime laws of Richard I. (see Oleron) . . 1195 
Magna Charta, by king John, 1215 ; confirmed by 
Henry III. 1216 et seq. (see Magna Charta, and 
Forests Charter). 
Lord Mansfield, lord chief justice of the king's 
bench, declared, "That no fiction of law shall 
ever so far prevail against the real truth of the 
fact, as to prevent the execution of justice," 

21 May, 1784 
Many legal technicalities were got rid of by 14 & 15 
Vict. c. 100. The act for the improvement of the 
administration of criminal justice, passed 7 Aug. 1851 



LAW. 



728 



LAYER'S CONSPIRACY. 



i goo 
1855 
1843 



LAWYERS. 

Pleaders of the bar, or barristers, are said to have 
been first appointed by Edward 1 1291 

" No man of the law " to sit in parliament, by stat. 
of 46 Edward III. and 6 Hen. IV. . . . 1372 

This prohibition was declared to be invalid by Coke 
and unconstitutional by Blackstone; attention was 
drawn to it in July, 1871 ; and the statutes were 
repealed 11871 

Serjeants, the highest members of the bar, were alone 
permitted to plead in the court of common pleas. 
The first king's counsel under the degree of Ser- 
jeant was sir Francis Bacon, in .... 1604 

Law Association charity for widows founded in . 1817 

Incorporated Law Society of solicitors formed in 
1823 ; plan enlarged, 1825 : a charter obtained, 
1831 ; renewed, 1845 ; new charter, 1872. The 
building in Chancery-lane, from the designs of 
Vulliamy, was commenced in 1829 ; provincial 
meetings are held, Manchester, Oct. 1893 ; con- 
troversy respecting the malpractices of certain 
solicitors : report of the committee ; see Times 
leader, 25 June, 1900 ; Trials, Jan. 1901 ; 31 
solicitors struck off the rolls in . 

Juridical Society established in ... . 

Law Times, established .... 8 April, 

Law Journal Jan. 1866 

The establishment of a legal university strongly 
advocated by the lord chancellor and others, Jan. 1871 

The council of legal education put forth a scheme 
involving many changes, Nov. 1872 ; another 
scheme, Dec. 1891. 

Legal Practitioners' Society, established . Nov. 1873 
See Barrister, Counsel. 

LAW REFORM. 

Law Amendment Society, founded in 1843. It holds 
meetings during the session of parliament, and pub- 
lishes a journal and reports. Its first chairman was 
lord Brougham, who introduced the subject of Law 
Reform by a most eloquent speech in the house of 
commons, on 7 Feb. 1828. Many acts for Law Beform 
have been passed since, and vigorous measures pro 
posed. 

Boyal commission to inquire into the operation and con- 
stitution of the English courts of law, &c, issued 18 
Sept. 1867. 

The Judicature Commission (appointed 1867) recom- 
mended the consolidation of all the superior courts 
into one supreme court divided into chambers, April, 
1869. It issued its fifth and last report, Sept. 1874. 

The High Court of Justice Bill introduced into the house 
of lords, 18 March, 1870, was dropped near the end of 
the session. 

Royal Commission on the administrative departments ot 
Courts of Justice (Lord Lisgar and others) appointed, 

4 Oct., 1873. 

Supreme Court of Judicature Bill introduced by lord 
chancellor Selborne for establishing a High Court of 
Justice, and a High Court of Appeal 13 Feb., passed 

5 Aug. 1873. 

Its operation deferred from 2 Nov.. 1874 to 1 Nov., 1875 

The abolition of the house of lords as an Appeal 
Court rescinded 1875 

Commission on Legal Procedure ; report, recom- 
mending simplifying changes, published 8 Oct. 1881 

New rules issued July, 1883 

International commission on judicial reform recom- 
mends the establishment of an international 
tribunal for dealing with foreigners, except in 

capital cases May, 1884 

See Supreme Court for details. 

Scheme of law reform issued by the bar council, 

Aug. 1897 

La.w-Oot/bts. — Commissioners appointed in 1859 reported 
in favour of the concentration of the law-courts in 
London, on a site near Carey-street, Chancery-lane, 
about 7 acres, on which stood about 400 houses. 
The estimated expense was about 1,500,000^., which it. 
was recommended to take from the accumulated 
Chancery fund, termed " Suitors' fund." Acts of par- 
liament to carry out the plan were passed in 1865 and 
1866. 

Competitive designs were invited, and after much dis- 
cussion (public and professional), Mr. Street's design 
was selected, 30 May, 186S ; much attacked, but ap- 
proved by the commission, Aug. 1870; contracts signed 



17 Feb. 1874, and the works were begun immediately 

by Bull and Son, to be finished in 1881. 
There were to be 18 courts, varying in size; a central hall, 

231 feet long, 48 feet wide, 30 feet high ; principal 

entrance in the Strand. 
Offices in Eastern Block occupied 21 April, 1879. 
Buildings completed, Oct. 1882. 
Opened by the queen, 4 Dee. 1882. 
All the buildings constitute by statute the Falace of 

Justice. 
The Courts occupied Hilary sittings, 11 Jan. 1883 

Law Reports : A new and more economical plan 0* 
preparing and publishing law reports was finally 
adopted by a committee of barristers on n March, 1865 
(see Year-books). 

Law Terms, see Terms, abolished by Supreme Court of 
Judicature Act, 5 Aug. 1873. 

International Law, see Neutral Poivers and International 
Law. 

Expenditure for law and justice from the public purse ex- 
clusive of county rates, in the year 1865-6, 2,344,540!. 

Courts of Justice : salaries, &c, one year (to 31 March, 
1877), 631,701/. 

Encyclopedia of the laws of England, edited by 
Mr. Wood-Renton, vol. i. .... 1897 

Cyclopaedia of Scotch law .... 1895-6 

LAW'S BUBBLE. John Law, of Edinburgh 
(born 1681), was made comptroller-seneral of the 
finances of France, upon the strength of a scheme 
for establishing a bank, and an East India and a 
Mississippi company, by the profits of which the 
national debt of France was to be paid off. See 
Mississippi. He first offered his plan to Victos- 
Aniadeus, king of Sardinia, who told him he wax 
not powerful enough to ruin himself. The French 
ministry accepted it; and in 1716, he opened a 
bank in his own name, under the protection of the 
duke of Orleans, regent of France, and the de- 
luded rich subscribed for shares both in the bank 
and the companies. In 1718 Law's was declared 
a royal bank, and the shares rose to upwards of 
twenty-fold the original value; so that, in 1719, 
they were worth more than eighty times the amount 
of all the current specie in France. In 1720 this- 
fabric of false credit fell to the ground, spreading 
ruin throughout the country. Law died in poverty 
at Venice in 1729. — Tne South Sea Bubble in Eng- 
land occurred in 1720; see South Sea. 

LAWN TENNIS, see Tennis. 

LAYAMON'S BRUT, or Chronicle of Britain, 
a poetical semi-Saxon paraphrase of the Brut of 
Wace, made between 1100 and 1230, was published 
with a literal translation by sir Frederick Madden, 
in 1847. 

LAYBACH (near Trieste, in Iilyria). A con- 
gress met here in Jan. 1821, and was attended by 
the sovereigns of Austria, Russia, Prussia, and 
Naples. It broke up in May, after having issued 
two circulars, stating it to "be their resolution to- 
occupy Naples with Austrian troops, and put down 
popular insurrections. 

The town suffered much by an earthquake, with 
loss of life, 14, 15 April ; relief sent by the 
emperor 18 April, 1895 

LAYER'S CONSPIRACY. Christopher 
Layer, a barrister, conspired with other persons to- 
seize George I., the prince of Wales, lord Cadogan, 
and the principal officers of state, to seize the tower r 
to plunder the bank, and bring in the Pretender. 
Layer was hanged, 17 May, 172?. He vas hanged 
for enlisting soldiers for the Pretender. Bishop 
Atterbury was accused of complicity and attainted, 
but permitted to quit the country. 



LAY BROTHERHOOD. 



729 



LEAGUES. 



LAY BROTHERHOOD of St. Paul, 

for the diocese of London, was formed by the 
bishop of Marlborough, with the sanction of the 
bishop of London in 1 89 1. 

LAY HELPERS, to hold a position between 
the clergy and laity, proposed by the archbishop of 
Canterbury, and others, Oct. 188 1. The association 
of Lay Helpers for London began in 1865. 

LAYMEN, HOUSE OF, composed of 102 
members elected in the dioceses, as a purely 
consultative body to assist the Convocation of the 
clergy, its main object being the promotion of 
church reform. It first met with Convocation at 
Westminster, 16 Feb. 1886. Lord Selborne, chair- 
man ; Mr. G. A. Spottiswoode, vice-chairman. 
They met in the Church house, 12 Feb. 1890. 

LAZARISTS (the Priests of the Mission), a 
congregation devoted to education, founded by St. 
Vincent de Paul, 1625, were so named from their 
first establishment in a house which once belonged 
to the military order of St. Lazarus. They are also 
called Vincentines. See France, Oct. 1902. 

LAZARO, ST. (N. Italy). Here the king of 
Sardinia and the Imperialists defeated the French 
and Spaniards after a long ana severe conflict, 4 
June, 1746. 

LAZISTAN, a Turkish province in the pacha- 
lik of Trebizond, on the Black sea. Batoum, its 
seaport, was ceded to Russia by the treaty of Berlin, 
13 July, 1878. The inhabitants at first resisted the 
change, but submitted on persuasion, many emi- 
grating. 

LAZZARITES, see Italy, 1878. 

LAZZARONI (from lazzdro, Spanish for a 
pauper or leper), a term applied by the Spanish 
viceroys to the degraded beings in Naples, half- 
clothed and houseless. No man was born a lazzaro ; 
and he who turned to a trade ceased to be one. The 
viceroy permitted the lazzaroni to elect a chief with 
whom he conferred respecting the imposts on the 
goods brought to the markets. In 1647, Masanielln 
held the office, and made an insurrection ; see 
Naples. In 1793, Ferdinand IV. enrolled several 
thousands of lazzaroni as pikemen (spontoneers), 
who generally favoured the court party; on 15 
May, 1848, they were permitted, on the king's 
behalf, to commit fearful ravages on the ill-fated 
city. — Colletta. 

LEAD is found in various countries, and is 
abundant in various parts of Britain, and in some 
places richly mixed with silver ore. The famous 
Clydesdale mines were discovered in 1513. Pattin- 
son's valuable method for extracting the silver was 
made known in 1829. The lead-mines of Cumber- 
land and Derbyshire yield about 15,000 tons per 
annum. British mines produced 65,529 tons of 
lead in 1855 ; 69,266 in 1857 ; 67, 181 in 1865 ; 73,420 
in 1870; 58,777 in 1875; 58,667 in 1876; 51,635 in 
1879 ; 50,328 in 1882 ; 40,075 in 1884 ; 37,890 in 
1887; in 1888, 37,578; 1889,35,604; 1890,33,590; 
1893, 2 9,698 ; 1896, 30,818 ; 1898, 25,355 ; i"899, 
23,552 ! ^oo, 24,364 ; 1901, 20,034. 

Leaden pipes for the conveyance of water were 
brought into use in 1236 

In 1859, 23,696 tons of pig and sheet lead were 
imported, and 18,414 tons exported ; in 1866, 36,946 
tons imported ; 27,383 tons exported ; in 1875, 
79,825 tons imported, 35,398 tons exported ; in 
1883, 101,715 tons imported, 39,315 tons exported ; 
in 1887, 114,493 tons imported, 44,301 tons ex- 



ported ; in 1888, 132,880 tons imported, 48,616 
tons exported ; in 1889, 145,203 tons imported, 
52,040 tons exported ; in 1890, 158,649 tons im- 
ported, 55,557 tons exported ; 1901, 218,060 tons 
imported, 37,575 tons exported. 

By an explosion caused through ignited gas at the 
Mill Close lead mine, Derbyshire, five men were 
killed, 3 Nov. 1887. Explosions in lead mines 
are very rare. 

The deadly manufacture of white lead greatly 
ameliorated by the sublimation process invented 
in America and adopted by John Hall & Sons of 
Bristol in 1886 

Professor Mac Ivor's new process was reported 
cheap, quick and safe ; works, Clapham, 
London, S.W July, 1890 

Mr. J. B. Hannay's process of manufacturing sul- 
phate of lead reported innocuous . . Jan. 1893, 

In a lead mine at Mazarron, Murcia, 27 men were 
suffocated, reported .... 17 Feb. „ 

The report of a committee of experts referred to the 
serious dangers connected with the use of white 
lead in various manufactures, Dec. 1893; further 
investigations, 1898 ; report issued, with recom- 
mendations and restrictions . . March, i8yg> 

Seven men killed while descending a lead mine, 
near Shrewsbury, by the breaking of a rope, 

6 March, 1895 

LEAD, BLACK, see Graphite. 

LEADENHALL MARKET, London, 
founded by sir Richard Whittington, in 1408, and 
presented to the city. A granary was added by Simon 
Eyre, 1419. The" demolition of the old market 
began in Sept. 1880 ; first stone of new one laid 28 
June ; opened by the lord mayor, 15 Dec. 1881 ; 
cost 47,500^. 

LEADVILLE. A high mining district m 
Colorado ; highly successful results of excavations 
for the precious metals, 1878 et seq. 

LEAGUES. Four kings combined to make 
war against five, about 1913 B.C. {Gen. xiv.) 'lhe 
kings of Canaan combined against the invasion 
of the Isi-aelites, 1451 B.C. The more emi- 
nent Greek leagues were the iEtolian, powerful 
about 320 B.C., which lasted till 189 B.C., and the 
Achaean, revived 280 B.C., which was broken up by 
the conquest of Greece by the Romans, 146 b c. 
The fall of these leagues was hastened by dissension. 

Hanseatic league 1140 

Lombard leagues against the emperors (see Lom- 
barcly) 1167 and 1226 

Caddee league {which see) about 1396 et seq. 

League of the Public Good was formed in Dec. 1464, 
by the dukes of Calabria, Brittany, and Bourbon, 
and other princes against Louis XL of France, 
under pretext of reforming abuses ; an indecisive 
battle was fought at Monthleri, 16 July ; and a 
treaty was signed 25 Oct. 1465 

League of Cambray against Venice .... 150S 

Holy League (the pope, Venice, &c), against 
Louis XII 1510 

League of Smalcald JSSO 

League of the Beggars {Queux) ; the protestants so 
called (though Roman Catholics joined the league) 
to oppose the institution of the Incmisition in 
Flanders 1566 

The Holy League, to prevent the accession of 
Henry IV. of France, who was then of the re- 
formed religion, was formed at Peronne and lasted 
till Henry embraced Romanism . . . 1576-93 

League of Wurtzburg, by Catholics ; of Halle, by 
Protestants 1610 

League against the emperor 1626 

Solemn League and Covenant in Scotland, against 
the episcopal government of the Church (see 
Covenant) 1638 

League of Augsburg against France .... 1686 

League of St. Sebastian instituted to promote the 
restoration of his temporal dominions to the 
pope, about 1870; held 9th annual meeting in 
London 20 Jan. 1879 



LEAP-YEAR. 



730 



LEEDS. 



League in aid of Chrisl ians in Turkey formed ; earl 
of Shaftesbury, chairman, . . -27 July, 1876 

National Irish Land League ostensibly formed to 
buy up farms for the tenants ; supported by Mr. 
Parnell and others, 1879 ; its enforcement 
stringent rules against landlords and loyal tenants 
created a reign of terror ; led to legislation. See 
Ireland 1880-1 

Charged with complicity and outrages ; dissolved 
by government 20 Oct. 1881 

New Irish National league formed (see Ireland, 
1882 et seq.) (Organ United Ireland, 1886). 17 Oct. 1882 
See Home Ride, 1890, and National Federation. 

Free land league, see Land. 

Annual convention of the Irish National League of 
Great Britain met at Cardiff, 29 Oct. 1887, at 
Birmingham, 29 Sept. 1888 ; Manchester, Sept. 
1889; Edinburgh, 27 Sept. 1890 ; London 12 Dec. 
1891 ; at other places since, Liverpool, 12 May, 
1894 ; Leeds 1895 

Several other leagues formed to obtain home rule 

1879 el seq. 

" National Land League of Great Britain " formed ; 
Mr. Justin McCarthy, president, 26 March ; met 
at Newcastle-on-Tyne, 29 Aug. 1881, and at other 
places since. 

National league fortheunificationand consolidation 
of the empire, met at Westminster ; strongly op- 
posed to unfair free trade . . 8 Sept. et seq. ,, 

League of Mercy, to help the London hospitals ; 
preliminary meeting at Marlborough house, the 
prince and princess of Wales present, leport 
adopted, 18 Dec. 1899. See Mercy. 

Twentieth Century league, to promote healthy 
amusement for boys and girls in and about 
London, by means of clubs and institutes ; first 
meeting at London house, St. James's-sq. , 21 
Nov. 1901 ; Victoria league to promote closer 
union throughout the empire, 1901 ; annual meet- 
ing 2 July, 1903 

LEAP-YEAR or Bissextile, originated 

with the astronomers of Julius Caesar, 46 B.C. They 
fixed the solar year at 365 days, 6 hours, compris- 
ing, as they thought, the period from one vernal 
equinox to another ; the six hours were set aside, 
and at the end of four years, forming a day, the 
fourth year was made to consist of 366 days. The 
day thus added was called intercalary, and was 
placed a day before the 24th of February, the sixth 
of the calends, which was reckoned twice, hence 
called bissextile or twice sixth. This added day 
with us is Feb. 29th ; see Calendar. This arrange- 
ment makes the year nearly three minutes longer 
than the astronomical year: to obviate this, 1700, 
t8co, and 1900 were not leap-years, but 2000 will 
be one; see Calendar and Year. 

LEARNING and the Arts flourished 

among the Greeks, under Pisistratus, 537 B.C., 
and especially under Fericles, 444 B.C. ; and with 
the llomans at the commencement of the Christian 
era, under Augustus. The Greek refugees caused 
their revival in Italy, particularly after the takingof 
Constantinople by the Turks in 1453, and the inven- 
tion of printing shortly before, — the period of the Re- 
naissance. Leo X.and his family (the Medici) greatly 
promoted learning in Italy, in the 16th century ; 
when literature revived in France, Germany, and 
England ; sec Literature, and authors under Greek, 
Latin. English, and other languages. 

LEASE (from the French laisser, to let), a kind 
of conveyance invented by Serjeant Moore, soon 
after the statute of uses, 27 Henry VIII. 1535. 
Acts relating to leases were passed in 1856 and 
1858. Forged Leases case, see Trials, Jan. 1878. 

LEATHER was very early known in Fgypt 
and Greece, and the thongs of manufactured hides 
were used for ropes, harness, &c, by all ancient 
nations. The Gordian knot was made of leather 



thongs, 330 B.C. A leather cannon was proved at 
Edinburgh, fired three times, and found to answer, 
23 Oct. 1778. Phillips. The duty on leather im- 
posed 1697, produced annually in England, 
450,000^. and in Ireland about 50,000/. It was 
abolished, 29 May, 1830. Manj r bankruptcies were 
declared in the leather trade, in the autumn of i860 
in England. In the case of Lawrence, Mortimore, 
and Co., enormous fraudulent dealings in bills were 
disclosed. A plan fur making artificial leather out 
of cuttings, &c, was made known in i860. — 
Leather cloth (invented by Messrs. J. R. & C. P. 
Crockett, of Newark, U.S., and patented in 1849) is 
r.nbleached cotton coated with a mixture of boiled 
linseed oil and turpentine, and coloured. The Lea- 
ther-cloth company, London, successors to Messrs. 
Crockett, was established, 1859. An exhibition of 
leather manufactures at Northampton in 1873 5 a ^ 
the Agricultural Hall, London, 15-23 Sept. 1880 ; 
26 Sept. 1881 ; and 15 Sept. 1882. Internat. assoc. 
of leather trade chemists, 6th annual conference, 
Leeds, 3 Sept. 1902. 

LEBANON {white mountain), the mountain 
range between Syria and North Palestine, assigned 
to Israel, but never conquered, and long attached 
to Syria. Special ordinance for preservation of the 
ancient cedar forest, Sept. 1881. The governor- 
general since 1861 has been appointed by Turkey, 
subject to the assent of the great powers. Governors, 
1873, Rustem Pasha ; 1883, Wassa Pasha, died 29 
June, 1892 ; successor Naoum Effendi ; Muzaffer 
Pasha, 27 Sept. 1902; see Assassins, Druses, Maro- 
nites, and Syria. 

LECH, a river, S. Germany, near which at a 
village named Rain the cruel imperialist general 
Tilly was defeated by the Swedes, under Gustavus 
Adolphus, 5 April, 1632, and died of his wounds. 

LECTIONARY, the name given to the Aug- 
lican table of scripture lessons; changes in 
calendar of lessons, made 1871, by sanction of 
parliament ; see Common Prayer. 

LECTURES. Those on Physic were instituted 
by Dr. Thomas Linacre, of the College of Physicians 
(founded by Henry VIII.) about 1502. Clinical 
lectures, at the bed-side of the patients in hospitals 
are said to have been given (by Dr. John Ruther- 
ford) in Edinburgh, about 1748 ; in Dublin, about 
1785; in London, by sir B. C. Brodie (1813-17). 
Mr. G. Macilwain, about 1824, gave surgical clin- 
ical lectures in connection with a dispensary. 
The political lectures of Thelwall, commenced in 
Jan. 1795, were interdicted by an act of parliament. 
In the autumn of 1857 and since, many distinguished 
noblemen and gentlemen lectured at mechanics' 
institutes. An act passed in 1835 prohibited the 
publication of lectures without the consent of the 
lecturers. See Gresham College, Boyle's Lectures, 
Royal and London Institutions, Trials, 1887, &c. 

LEEDS (Yorkshire), the Saxon Loidis, once a 
Roman station, received a charter in 1627. See 
Population. 

Leeds bridge built 1327 

Shenlield's grammar school founde 1 . . . 1552 

Coloured Cloth hall built 1758 ; White Cloth hall . 1775 
Literary and Philosophical society established . 1820 
Enfranchised by the Reform act (-_• members) . . 1832 
Magnificent new town-hall opened by the queen, 

the mayor, Peter Fairbairn, knighted 7 Sept. 1858 
Musical festivals begun . . . 7-10 Sept. ,, 

British Association met here . . . Sept. ,, 
Great Reform meeting ; Mr. Bright there 8 Oct 1866 
An additional M.P. given to Leeds by Reform act, 

15 Aug. 1867 



LEEK. 



731 



LEGION. 



Exhibition of art treasures, opened by the prince 
of Wales, 19 May, closed . .31 Oct. 1868 

Roundhay-park inaugurated as a public park by 
prince Arthur, and new exchange founded, 

19, 20 Sept. 1872 

Church congress met .... 8-11 Oct. ,, 

New bridge opened .... 9 July, 1873 

Musical festival 14-17 Oct. 1874 

Yorkshire college of science opened 26 Oct. 1874 ; 
new buildings opened by the prince of Wales 

15 July, 1885 

Yorkshire exhibition of arts and manufactures 
opened by the duke of Edinburgh . . 13 May, 1875 

Theatre Royal burnt 28 May, ,, 

New exchange opened . . . . 31 Aug. ,, 

Great amphitheatre burnt ; loss, about 30,000?. 

2 March, 1876 

Musical festival 19-22 Sept. 1877 

New munici])al offices and public free library opened 

17 April, 1884 

Leeds returns five M. P. 's by act passed 25 June, 1885 

Fine art gallery and museum cost 10,000?. opened 

3 Oct. 1888 

Col. J. T. North presents Kirkstall Abbey and 
grounds to the corporation . . . Jan. 1889 

Sir Edward Baines, chief proprietor of the Leeds 
Mercury, M. P. for Leeds 1859-74 ; knighted 1880, 
liberal nonconformist ; died, aged 89 2 March, 1890 

Strike of gas-stokers ; the town in darkness ; above 
15,000 rioters attacking the gasworks, repulsed 
after fighting ; many persons severely injured, 
police reinforced from neighbouring towns, and 
by the military, 30 June ; strike ends by con- 
cession to strikers .... 3 July, „ 

Meeting of British association . . .2 Sept. „ 

At a church bazaar, Oldfield, Wortley, 11 out of 15 
children dressed in cotton wool, with Chinese 
lanterns, perished through fire . 31 Dec. et seq. „ 

The dispute between the corporation and the gas- 
stokers amicably settled ... 26 Feb. „ 

Great fire in the stores under the railway arches ; 
estimated loss, about 200,000?. . . 13 Jan. 1892 

Leeds constituted a city, the mayor to be styled 
lord . . 1893 

The electric lighting works opened by alderman 
Ward, the lord mayor .... to May, ,, 

Great tire in the central market ; reported loss, 
80,000?. 2t Sept. ,, 

Visit of the duke and duchess of York ; new school 
of medicine, &c, opened . . . 5 Oct. 1894 

Destructive fire at Messrs. Hepworth & Co. , Clay- 
pit-lane ; about 1000 out of work . . 28 Dec. 1895 

Death of col. J. T. North, benefactor, the "nitrate 
king" 5 May, 1896 

Strike in the building trade begins May ; ends (Ad. 
per hour conceded to the men) . . 19 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Robt. Arthington gives over 50,000?. to 
charities May et seq. 1900 

New park of Potter Newton opened by the lord 
mayor 12 Sept. 1901 

Demonstration against the Education bill, as sup- 
porting sectarian dogmas, clerical management, 
&c 20 Sept. 1902 

Lieut, -gen. sir J. French receives the freedom, 

6 Nov. „ 

Col. Harding, ex-lord mayor, presents city with 
handsome statuary for city square ; and receives 
freedom of city 16 Sept. 1903 

LEEK, the Welsh emblem, worn on St. David's 
day, 1 March. The custom is traditionally as- 
signed to a command from Dewi or David, after- 
wards archbishop of St. David's, in 519. The 
Britons are said to have worn a leek in iheir caps 
when Cadwallader defeated the Saxons, 540. 

LEESBUEG HEIGHTS, see Ball's Bluff. 

LEEWARD ISLES, West Indies : Antigua 
(made a crown colony, 1898), Barbuda, Mont- 
serrat, St. Christophers, Nevis, Anguilla, 
Virgin Isles, and Dominica (ivhich see). An 
act for their federation passed 21 Aug. 1871. 
Governor-general of the British Isles, col. Stephen 
John Hill, 1863 ; sir B. C. C. Pine, 1869; sir H. 
Turner Irving, 1873 ; hon. Geo. Berkeley, 1874; sir 



J. H. Glover, Dec. 1881 ; sir Chas. Cameron Lees, 
1883 ; Viscount Gormanston, Aug. 1885 ; sir Charles 
Bul'len Hugh Mitchell, Dec. 1887 ; sir W. F. H. 
Smith, Nov. 1888 ; sir Francis Fleming, Jan. 1895; 
sir Henry M. Jackson, June, 1901 ; sir Gerald 
Strickland, April, 1902. Total population of the 
isles in 1891, 127,723. Disastrous floods, with loss 
of life, at Montserrat, reported 13 Jan. 1897. 

Terrific hurricane, Montserrat devastated, great loss of 
life, see West Indies, 7 Aug. 1899; relief works opened, 
Aug. 

LEGACIES. In 1780 receipts for legacies 

were subjected to a stamp duty, and in 1796 the 

legacy duty was imposed. The impost was increased 

several times subsequently, particularly in 1805, 

1808, and 1845. In 1853 the legacy duty was 

extended to landed or real property. Further 

changes were made in 1881, 1888, 1889; the duty 

was replaced in 1894 by the " r'state duty," which 

see, also Succession Duty Act, and Wills. John 

Camden Neild, an eccentric miser, died 30 Aug. 

1852, bequeathing about 250,000^. to the queen. 

Received for legacy and succession duty in years ending 

31 March: 1880, 3,700,606?. ; 1881, 3,592,777?. ; 1882, 

3,540,585?.; 1883, 3,536,538?. ; 1884, 3,335,817?. ; 1885, 

3,741,609.. ; 1886, 3,332,963?. ; 1887, 3,375,488?.; 1888, 

3,645,062?. ; 1889, 3,736,847?. ; 1890, 3,789,055?. ; 1891, 

3,835,243?. ; 1892, 4,028,509?. ; 1893, 4,697,897?. ; 1894, 

3,983,509?- 

LEGAL PRACTITIONERS' SOCIETY. 

for reforming abuses, &c, established Nov. 1873. 

LEGATES (legatus). Eoman ambassadors; 
and also governors of the provinces into which 
Augustus divided the empire, 27 B.C. Legates are 
also ambassadors from the pope. The legate's 
court in England, erected in 1516 by cardinal 
Wolsey, to prove wills, and for the trial of offences 
against the spiritual laws, was soon discontinued. 

LEGATIONS were the twenty administrative 
divisions in the states of the church, governed by 
legates. They rebelled in 1859-60, and are now 
included in the kingdom of Italy ; see Rome. 

LEGHORN, Livomo, Tuscany, a mere village 
in the 15th century, owes its prosperity to the 
Medici family. It suffered dreadfully by an 
earthquake in"l74i ; and was entered by the French 
army, 27 July, 1796, but the British property had 
been removed. It was held by the French 1796-9 
and retaken, 1800. It was unsuccessfully attacked 
by the British and Italian forces in Dec. 1813. 
The Austrians took this city from, the insurgents, 
12, 13 May, 1849, and quelled a slight insurrection, 
July 6, 1857. In June, 1857, above 60 persons 
were killed at the theatre, through an alarm of fire ; 
see Tuscany and Italy. Population, 1890, 104,960; 
1901, 98,505. 

LEGION, a corps of soldiers in the Roman 
armies, said to have been formed by Romulus, when 
it consisted of 3000 foot and 300 horse, about 720 B.C. 
When Hannibal was in Italy, 216 B.C., the legion 
consisted of 5200 soldiers ; and under Marius, in 
88 B.C., it was 6200 soldiers besides 700 horse. 
There were ten, and sometimes as many as eighteen, 
legions kept at Rome. Augustus had a standing 
army of 45 legions, together with 25,000 horse and 
37,000 light-armed troops, about 5 B.C. ; and the 
peace establishment of Adrian was thirty of these 
formidable brigades. A legion was divided into ten 
cohorts, and every cohort into six centuries, with a 
vexillum, or standard, guarded by ten men. The 
peace of Britain was protected by three legions. 
See Thundering Legion. 



LEGION OF HONOUE. 



732 



LEITH. 



LEGION OF HONOUR, a French order 
embracing the army, civil officers, and other indi- 
viduals distinguished for services to the state ; 
instituted by Napoleon Bonaparte, when first consul, 
19 May, 1802, to replace the old suppressed orders of 
knighthood, &c. The order was confirmed by Louis 
XVIII. in 1815, and its constitution modified in 
1816 and 185 1. The honour was conferred on many 
British subjects who distinguished themselves in 
the Russian war, 1854-6, and in the Paris exhibitions 
of 1855, 1867, 1878 and 1889. The palace and offices 
were burnt by the communalists, 23 May, 1871. The 
Legion comprised upwards of 54,000 members in 
1887. The alleged traffic in decorations caused 
much excitement, Oct. 1887 ; council censured by 
the chamber, resigns, 16 July; plans for re-organi- 
sation proposed, Oct. ; gen. JJavout made grand 
chancellor of the reconstituted council, Dec. 1895 ; 
great outcry on his removal and the appointment 
of gen. Florentin, end Nov. 1901. See France. 

LEGITIMISTS, a term (since 1814) applied 
to those who support the claims of the elder branch 
of the Bourbon family to the throne of France, 
whose representative, Henry, ducde Bordeaux, called 
cointe de Chambord, bora 29 Sept. i820,died 24 Aug. 
1883. They held a congress at Lucerne on 24-29 
June, 1862, and agreed to continue a pacific policy. 
The party was active in Feb 187 1-5. Their efforts to 
recover power have proved ineffectual ; see France. 

LEGNAGO,.a fortress on the Adige, N. Italy, 
one of the Quadrilateral. It was captured by the 
French in 1796; but reverted to the Austrians in 
1815. It was surrendered to the Italians in Oct. 
1866. 

LEGNANO, Lombardy. Here the emperor 

Frederick Barbarossa was defeated by the Milanese 
and their allies, 29 May, 1176, and the treaty of 
Constance ensued in 1 183. 

LEICESTEE (central England), a bishopric 
for a short time in the 8th century, returned two 
members to parliament in the reign of Edward I. 
Here Richard III. was buried, 25 Aug. 1485; and 
here cardinal "Wolsey died, 29 Nov. 1530. During 
the civil war, Leicester was taken by Charles I. 31 
May, and by Fairfax, 17 June, 1645. The stocking 
manufacture was introduced in 1680. New town- 
hall opened, 8 Aug. 1876. New Abbey park opened 
by the prince of Wales, 29 May, 1882. Population, 
1881, 122,376; 1891, 142,051; 1901, 211,581. 

Riot occasioned by a strike, quelled by the police, 

11-12 Feb. ; end of strike . . . 19 Feb. 1886 
Great opposition to vaccination 1 883 c* seq. ; sanitary 

precautions strictly enforced, see Vaccination, 

1885-1887 
Messrs. Bradshaw & Payne's shoe factory burnt, 

loss above 15,000?. 29 Oct. 1889 

Water famine through long drought, Sept., Oct. ; 

relieved by great exertions and heavy rains, Nov. 1894 
Royal agricultural society's show held here in 186S ; 

again 23 Jan. 1896 

New reservoir and waterworks opened at Cham- 
wood Forest 10 Sept. „ 

New art and technical schools opened by the bishop 

of London S Oct. 1897 

" Records of the Borough of Leicester, 1103-1327," 

by Mary Bateson, published .... 1899 

Fine speech of Mr. Chamberlain on the S. African 

war 29 Nov. „ 

The late Miss Emily Dal ton loaves about 18,000/. 

to Leicester charities and 23,000?. to other 

charities, reported . . . . . 9. Inly, 1900 
Mr. Andrew Carnegie's gift of 12,000?. for a public 

library, accepted .... 30 Juno, 1902 
New wing (memorial to queen Victoria) to the 

infirmary, opened 24 July, „ 



Canon Clayton appointed bp. suffragan of Leicester, 

Jan. 1903 
Trade union congress held here 1877 ; again 7 Sept. „ 

LEICESTEE 'SQTJAEE, London. See 
Globe. The square, after remaining some time in a 
disreputable state, was renovated by Mr Albert 
Grant (died, aged 68, 30 Aug. 1898), who bought 
up the enclosure, and presented it to the Metropo- 
litan Board of Works, 2 July, 1874. 

LEIGHLIN (W. Carlow), a see founded by 
St. Laserian, about 628. Burchard, the Norwegian, 
the son of Garmond, founded or endowed the priory 
of St. Stephen of Leighlin. Bishop Doran, appointed 
in 1523, was murdered by his archdeacon, Maurice 
Cavenagh, who was hanged on the spot where the 
crime was committed. Beatson. In 1600 Leighlin 
was united to Ferns ; the combined see united to 
Ossory in 1835 ; see Ferns and Bishops. 

LEININGEN (or Linange), a principality 
partly in Bavaria, Baden, and Hesse, mediatised in 
1806. The present prince Ernest, born 9 Nov. 1830, 
a captain in the British navy, is the son of prince 
Charles, the half-brother of queen Victoria. Feodore, 
dowager princess of Hohenlohe Langenburg, the 
queen's half-sister, died 23 Sept. 1872, aged nearly 
65. Her son, count Gleichen, afterwards prince 
Victor of Hohenlohe, bora 1833, died 31 Dec. 1891. 
He entered the British navy in Sept. 1848, and was 
long in active service, especially in the Crimean 
war. He was also an eminent sculptor. The first 
husband of the duchess of Kent, prince Emich of 
Leiningen, died 4 July, 1814. 

LEINSTEE, a kingdom in 1167, now one of 
the four provinces of Ireland. The abduction of 
Devorgilla, wife of O'Ruarc, a lord of Connaught, 
by Dermot king of Leinster in 1152, is asserted to 
have led to the landing of the English and the 
subsequent conquest. The province of Leinster gave 
the title of duke to Schomberg's son in 1 690. The 
title became extinct in 17 19, and was conferred on 
the family of Fitzgerald in 1 766. 

LEIPSIC (Saxony), an ancient city, famous 
for its university (founded 1409) and its fair (1458). 
At Breitenfeld, near here, Gustavus Adolphus, king 
of Sweden, defeated the Imperialists, under Tilly, 
7 Sept. 1631 ; and the Imperialists were again 
defeated here by the Swedes, under Torstensen, 23 
Oct. 1642. Here took plnce, on 16, 18. 19 Oct. 1813, 
"the battle of the nations," between the French 
army and its allies, commanded by Napoleon 
(160,000), and the Austrian, Russian, and Prussian 
armies (240,000 strong). The French were beaten 
chiefly owing to 1 7 Saxon battalions, their allies, 
turning upon them in the heat of the engagement. 
8o,000 men perished on the field, of whom more 
than 40,000 were French, who also lost 65 pieces of 
artillery, and many standards. The victory was 
followed by the capture of Leipsic, of the rear 
guard of the French army, and of the king of Saxony 
and his family. The 50th anniversary was cele- 
brated 18 Oct. 1863. The Leipsic book fair began 
1545. The new Supreme Court for all Germany, 
opened here I Sept. 1879. Population in 1885, 
170,340; in 1890,353,272; 1900, 455,120. 

LEITH, the port of Edinburgh, was burnt by 
the earl of Hertford in 1544. It was fortified by the 
French partisans of queen Mary in 1560, and 
surrendered to the English. The " Agreement of 
Leith" between the superintendents and ministers 
was made, Jan. 1572. The docks were begun 
1720. Leith was made a burgh in 1833. Popu- 
lation, 1891, 69,696; 1901, 76,667. 



LEITHA. 



733 



LETTEES DE CACHET. 



LEITHA, a river dividing the Austrian terri- 
tories; see Austria. 

LEITH HILL, near Dorking, Surrey, said to 
have been a Roman station, and has a view of 
eleven counties, being about 1000 feet above the 
sea level. The lofty tower on its summit was 
erected in 1766 by Mr. Richard Hull the then owner 
of Leith Hill Place, he died 18 Jan. 1772 and was 
buried within the tower. 

LELEGES, a Pelasgic tribe which inhabited 
Laconia about 1490 B.C., and after many contests 
merged into the Hellenes , see Hellas. 

LE MANS, a French city, department of the 
Sarthe. Here the retreating French general Chanzy 
was overtaken and defeated by the Germans under 
prince Frederick Charles and the grand-duke of 
Mecklenburg, after some conflicts : 10, 1 1 Jan. 1871. 
Le Mans was entered 12 Jan. In six days' fighting 
about 22,000 French made prisoners. 

LEMURES- The ancients supposed that the 
soul, after death, wandered over the world, and 
disturbed the peace of the living. The happy 
spirits were called Lares familiar -es, and the 
unhappy, Lemures. The Roman festival, Lemu- 
ralia, kept on 9, II, 13 May, is mythically said to 
have been instituted by Romulus about 747 B.C., 
to propitiate the spirit of the slaughtered Remus. 

LENNIE MUTINY. See Mutinies, 1875. 

LENT (from the Saxon, lencten, spring). The 
forty days' fast observed in the Greek, Roman catho- 
lic, English, and other churches from Ash-Wednesday 
to Easter-day. The commencement of Lent varied, 
but in the 8th or 9th century Ash "Wednesday 
became the first day. Lent was first observed in 
England by command of Ercombert, king of Kent, 
in 640 or 641. Baker's Ghron. Flesh was prohibited 
during Lent ; but Henry VIII. permitted the use of 
white meats by a proclamation in 1543, which con- 
tinued in force until, by proclamation of James I., 
in 1619 and 1625, and by Charles I., in 1627 and 
1631, flesh was again wholly forbidden; see Ash- 
TV ednesday. Quadragesima. 

LEON, Kingdom OF, see under Spain. 

LEONARDS' ACTS, Lord St., 22 & 23 

Vict. c. 35 ; 23 & 24 Vict. c. 38 (1859-60), relate to 
legal proceedings. 

LEONINE CITY (Citta Leonina or Borgo) , 
formerly a suburb, now included in the city of 
Rome, was founded by Leo IV., pope 847-55, and 
named Leopolis. It comprehends the castle of St. 
Angelo, the hospital of San Spirito, the Vatican 
palace and gardens, and St. Peter's. Its possession 
was allotted to pope Pius IX. when the Italian royal 
troops entered Rome, 20 Sept. 1870. About 1500 
inhabitants of the Leonine city voted for union 'with 
the kingdom of Italy, 2 Oct. 1870. 

LEONINES, hexameter and pentameter verses, 
rhyming at the middle and the end, are said to have 
been first made by Leoninus, a canon, about the 
middle of the I2th century, or by pope Leo II. 
about 682. 

LEOPOLD'S, PRINCE, ANNUITY 

ACT (passed 7 Aug. 1874), provided for him 
15,000^. a year, from 7 April, 1874, when he came 
of age. 

LEPANTO (near Corinth), Battle of, 7 Oct. 
1571: when the combined fleets of Spain, Venice, 
Genoa, Malta, and Pius V., commanded by don 



John of Austria, defeated the whole maritime force 
of the Turks,and completely checked their progress. 

LEPROSY, a skin disease described in Leviticus 
xiii. (b.c. 1490), which prevailed in ancient times 
throughout Asia. It has now almost disappeared 
from Europe. It chiefly affected the lower classes, 
yet occasionally proved fatal to the very highest 
personages. Robert Bruce of Scotland died of leprosy 
in 1329. A hospital for lepers was founded at 
Granada, by queen Isabella of Castile, about 1 504, 
and a large number of leper houses were founded in 
Britain. Dr. Edmondson met with u case in Edin- 
burgh in 1809. 

The great increase of leprosy in the Sandwich Islands 
compelled the government to isolate the lepers, and 
large numbers were transported to Molokai, where 
they endured much suffering. Since 1873 Father 
Joseph Damien (de Venster), R. C. Belgian mission- 
ary, devoted his whole life most successfully to their 
general relief, and finally died of their disease, aged 49, 
10 April, 1889 (succeeded by Father Wendolin). 
Other missionaries, male and female, are continuing 
his labours. 
The Father Damien Memorial Fund, under the auspices 
of the prince of Wales, was founded about 18 June, 
1889 ; and on 29 June it was determined to set up a 
memorial statue of Father Damien at Kalawao, and to 
establish a fund for the medical treatment of the 
disease in the United Kingdom, and for the promotion 
of the study of it at home and abroad especially in 
India. 
Sir Henry B. Loch founds a hospital at Robben 

island, Cape Colony .... 8 April, 1890 
National Leprosy Fund ; subscription dinner at the 
Hotel Metropole, the prince of Wales in the chair, 

13 Jan. ,, 
The Albert Victor leprosy hospital at Calcutta 

founded Jan. ,, 

The hon. sir Dinshaw Manockjee Petit presents 
100,000 rupeesto found a leper hospital at Bombay, 

announced 7 Feb. „ 

The British leprosy commission arrived at Calcutta, 
Nov. 1890 ; they report that there are about 
110,000 lepers in India and Burmah ; that leprosy 
is not increasing, and may probably be reduced 
by sanitation ; that it is not generally hereditary 
or contagious, and originates chiefly in dirt ; they 
recommend judicious isolation . . April, 1893 
Miss Kate Marsden honoured by the queen for her 
exertions among the Siberian lepers, about 24 Oct. 
1892 ; her book published .... Jan. ,, 
International congress at Berlin, prof. Virchow, 
discoverer of the leprous cells, president, n 
Oct. ; commission appointed . . 14 Oct. 1897 
Segregation of lepers reported successful in India, 

April, 1899 
Dr. Armaner Hanson, the discoverer of the bacillus 

of leprosy, his bust unveiled at Bergen, 10 Aug. 1901 
Mr. J. Hutchinson reports, from investigation, the 
primary cause of the disease in S. Africa the 
eating of badly-cured salt fish . . March, 1902 
Dr. Razlag's cure successful in the Philippines, 
reported 6 Oct. ,, 

LERIDA, the ancient Ilerda, E. Spain, founded 
by the Carthaginians. ' Near it Julius Cassar de- 
feated Pompey's lieutenants, 49 b.c. It was made 
the residence of the kings of Aragon, 1 149. It was 
captured for Philip V. by the French under the duke 
ofOrleans, 13 Oct. 1707, and bySuchet,i3 May,i8io. 

LESE-MAJESTE, or leze-majesty, any crime 
committed against sovereign power, see Germany. 

LESSONS, see Common Prayer. 

LETTERS, see Alphabet, Anonymous, Belles 
Lettres, Copying Machine, Epistles, Literature, 
Marque, and Privateers. 

LETTRES DE CACHET, sealed letters 
issued by the kings of France since about 1670, by 
virtue of which those persons against whom they 



LETTUCE. 



734 



LIBEL. 



were directed were thrown into prison or exiled. 
The National Assembly decreed their abolition, I 
Nov. 1789. 

LETTUCE, introduced into England from 
Flanders about 1520. It is said that when queen 
Catherine wished for a salad, she had to send to 
Holland or Flanders for lettuce. 

LEUCTRA, in Bceotia, N. Greece, where the 
Thebans under Epaminondas defeated the superior 
force of Cleombrotus, king of Sparta, 8 July, 371 B.C. 
4000 Spartans, with their king, were slain. The 
Spartans gradually lost their preponderance in 
Greece. 

LEUDES, from the German, Zeute, people. 
Native feudal vassals, faithful to the German and 
French sovereigns in the 6th and 7th centuries. 

LEUTHEN (S. Prussia) ; see Lissa. 

LEVANT (the East), a term applied to Greece, 
Turkey, Asia Minor, &c. Levant companies, in 
London, were established in 1581, 1593, and 1605. 

LEVELLERS, a fanatical party in Germany, 
headed by Muncer and Storck in the 16th century, 
who taught that all distinctions of rank were usurpa- 
tions on the rights of mankind. At the head of 
40,000 men, Muncer commanded the sovereign 
princes of Germany and the magistrates of cities to 
resign their authority ; and on his march his followers 
ravaged the country. The landgrave of Hesse at 
length defeated him at Frankenhausen, 15 May, 
1525 ; 7000 of the enthusiasts fell in the battle, and 
the rest fled; their leader was taken and beheaded 
at Mulhausen. The English " Levellers," powerful 
in parliament in 1647, were put down by Cromwell 
in 1649, and their leader Lilburn was tried and 
acquitted. At the period of the French revolution 
some Levellers appeared in England. A " Loyal 
Association " was formed against them by John 
Eeeves, Nov. 1792. 

LEVELS. The great Level of the Fens is a 
low-lying district of about 2000 square miles, in 
Lincolnshire, Huntingdonshire, Cambridgeshire, and 
Norfolk, said to have been overflown by the sea 
during an earthquake, 368. It was long afterwards 
an inland sea in winter, and a noxious swamp in 
summer, and was gradually drained — by the Romans, 
the Saxons, and especially by the monks during the 
reigns of the Plantagenet kings. One of the first 
works on a large scale was earned out by Morton, 
bishop of Ely, in the reign of Henry VII. A general 
drainage act was passed by the advice of lord Burgh- 
ley, in 1601, but little work was done till the reign 
of James I., who, in 162 1, invited over the great 
Dutch engineer, Cornelius Vermuyden, to assist in 
the general drainage of the country. After complet- 
ing several great works, Vermuyden agreed (in 1629) 
to drain the " Great Level." He was at first 
prevented from proceeding with his undertaking 
through a popular outcry against foreigners ; but 
eventually, aided by Francis, earl of Bedford, in 
spite of the great opposition of the people, for whose 
benefit he was labouring, he declared his great work 
complete in 1652. He also reclaimed much valuable 
land at Axholiue, in Lincolnshire, 1626-30, and 
many Dutch and French protestants settled here 
about 1634; and a few of their descendants still 
remain. — There are the Middle, Bedford, South, 
and North Levels. 
The drainage of the Great Level employed the 

talents 0? Rennie (about 1807), and of Telford 

(1822), and of other eminent engineers. 



The Middle Level commission cut through certain, 
barrier banks, and replaced them by other works 1844 

These were reported unsound in March, and the 
outfall sluice at St. Germains, near King's Lynn, 
gave way 4 May, 1862 

High tides ensuing, about 6000 acres of fertile land 
were inundated, causing a loss of about 25,000?. 
After unwearied, and, for a while, unsuccessful 
efforts, a new coffer dam was constructed under 
the superintendence of Mr. Hawkshaw, which was 
reported sound July, „ 

Another inundation, begun through the bursting 
of a marshland sluice, near Lynn, was checked 

4 Oct. ,, 

New outfall sluice opened ... 26 Nov. 1877 

LEVERIAN MUSEUM, formed by sir Ash- 
ton Lever, exhibited to the public at Leicester- 
house, London ; it was offered to the public, in 
1785, by the chance of a guinea lottery, and won by 
Mr. Parkinson, in 1785, who sold it by auction, in 
lots, May-July, 1806. 

LEVIATHAN, see Steam Navigation. 

LEWES (Sussex), where Henry III., king of 
England, was defeated by Montfort, earl of Leicester, 
and the barons, 14 May, 1264. Blaauw. The 
king, his brother Richard, king of the Romans, and 
his son Edward, afterwards Edward I., were taken 
prisoners. One division of Montfort' s army, a body 
of Londoners, gave way to the furious attack of 
prince Edward, who, pursuing the fugitives too far, 
caused the battle to be lost; see Evesham. Popu- 
lation, 1881, 11,199; 1891, 10,997; 1901, 11,249. 

LEXICON, see Dictionaries. 

LEXINGTON (Massachusetts), Battle of, at 
the beginning of the war of independence. The 
British obtained the advantage, and destroyed the 
stores of the revolted colonists, but lost in the battle 
273 men, killed and wounded, 19 April, 1775. The 
hostilities thus commenced continued to 1783. — 
Lexington, a town in Missouri, U.S., fortified by 
the Federals, was attacked by the confederate general 
Price, on 29 Aug., and after a gallant resistance by 
colonel Mulligan, surrendered on 21 Sept. 1861. 

LEYDEN (Holland), Lugdunum Batavorum, 
important in the 13th century. Between 31 Oct. 
1573, and30ct. 1574, whenitwasrelieved, itendured 
two sieges by the armies of Spain, during which 6000 
of the inhabitants died of famine and pestilence. In 
commemoration the university was founded, 1575- 
In 1699 two-thirds of the population perished by a 
fever, which, it was said, was aggravated by its 
improper treatment by professor De la Boe. The 
university was almost destroyed by a vessel laden 
with 10,000 lbs. weight of gunpowder blowing up 
and demolishing a large part of the town, and killing 
numbers of people, 12 Jan. 1807. The Lcydcn jar 
was invented about 1745, by Kleist, Muschenbroek, 
and others ; see Electricity. Population, 1890, 
43,510; 1900,54,421. 

The third centenary of the foundation of the univer- 
sity celebrated joyfully .... 8 Feb. 1875 
The Spinoza museum opened at Rhynsburg, 

24 March, 1899 

LIBEL. By the Roman laws of the Twelve 
Tables, libels which affected the reputation of another 
were made capital offences. In the British law, 
whatever renders a man ridiculous, or lowers a man 
in the opinion and esteem of the world, is deemed a 
libel. " The greater the truth the greater the libel," 
the well-known law maxim of a high authority, is 
now disputed ; see Trials, 1788, 1790, 1792, 1803, 
1808 el s'q., 1863, 1882 ct scq.\ and (note) Patents 
and Times. 



LIBERALS. 



735 



LIBERALS. 



Dispersing slanderous libels made felony . . 1545 

Wm. Prynne, a puritan lawyer, fined 5000I. , placed 
in the pillory, where his ears were cut off, and 
imprisoned, for writing " Histriomastix," a con- 
demnation of stage plays : which was considered 
to be a libel on the queen, who favoured them, 
1633 ; he was tried and further punished for his 
satirical writings in 1637 

Fox's libel bill, which enlarged the discretionary 
power of juries in cases of libel, thrown out by the 
lords in 1791 ; passed in 1792 

Blasphemous and seditious libels, on the second 
oftence, made punishable with transportation . 1819 

An action for libel was brought in the court of 
King's Bench by a bookseller named Stockdale, 
against Messrs. Hansard, the printers to the house 
of commons ; this action related to an opinion 
expressed in a parliamentary report of a book 
published by Stockdale, 7 Nov. 1836. Lord Den- 
man, in .giving judgment, said he was not aware 
that the authority of the house of commons could 
justify the publication of a libel— an opinion 
which led to some proceedings on the part of the 
house, and to other actions by Stockdale . 1837-39 

Verdicts were given in his favour, and in Nov. 1839, 
the sheriffs took possession of Hansard's premises. 
This caused much excitement in parliament, and 
they were ordered to appear at the bar of the 
house of commons, and were formally committed 
to the custody of the serjeant-at-arms, 21 Jan., 
but immediately discharged : the conflict was 
maintained by the law officers and the commons 
till May, 1S40 

A law was passed giving summary protection to 
persons employed by parliament in the publication 
of its reports and papers . . .14 April, ,, 

The severity of the law in respect to newspapers 
relaxed by lord Campbell's act, 6 <fe 7 Vict. c. 96 . 1843 

A bill relieving newspapers from actions for libel m 
reporting speeches at lawful public meetings, read 
third time in the commons, Aug. 1867, but 
dropped ; read 2nd time 1 April ; and withdrawn, 

1 July, 1868 

Wason v. Walter (" Times ") ; parliamentary reports 
and fair comments, declared no libel . 25 Nov. ,, 

Newspaper Libel Act passed . . 27 Aug. 1881 

New Libel Law passed .... 24 Dec. 1888 

LIBERALS, a name given to the more ad- 
vanced Whigs and reformers since 1828. The party 
held office under Earl Grey, Viscount Melbourne, 
Earl Russell, Viscount Palmerston, Mr. W. E. 
Gladstone, and the earl of Rosebery. See Ad- 
ministrations. 

The Liberal, a paper begun by Byron, Shelley and 
Leigh Hunt, 4 numbers only published . . 1822 

New city liberal club ; earl Granville, president ; 
organised May, 1874 

New liberal club for west end, founded . June, ,, 

A new liberal cry proposed " Free church, schools, 
and land " (Mr. Chamberlain) . . autumn, ,, 

Mr. Gladstone resigned the leadership of the party 
in the commons, 13 Jan. ; his successor, the 
marquis of Hartington .... 13 Jan. 1875 

Associations composed of elected delegates to or- 
ganise liberal voters, have been formed in Bir- 
mingham, Southwark, Bradford, and other bo- 
roughs 1876 et seq. 

Mr. W. E. Forster refused to submit to the dicta- 
tion of the committee of the Bradford associa- 
tion in respect to his voting . . . Aug. 1878 
See Caucus. 

National Liberal Federation ; constituted at Bir- 
mingham, 31 May, 1877 ; first annual meeting (at 
Leeds), 22 Jan. 1879. Great liberal conference at 
Leeds, 17 Oct. 1883. At the meeting at Notting- 
ham, i3 Oct. 1887, Mr. Gladstone severely con- 
demned the government Irish policy and action ; 
also at Birmingham, 5 Nov. 1888. Meetings held, 
1889 et seq-. ; Liverpool, Jan. 1893 ; Leeds, May, 
1894 ! Cardiff, earl of Rosebery declares his 
programme, 18 Jan. 1895 ; Huddersfield, 26 March, 
1896 ; Norwich, 17 March, 1897 ; Leicester, 22 

■ March, 1898 ; Hull, 7 March, 1899 ; Nottingham, 
27 March, 1900; Bradford, 14 May, 1901; Bristol, 
13, 14 May, 1902 ; Scarborough, 14 May, 1903. 



National liberal club, Westminster, founded Nov. 
1882 ; inaugural banquet, 2 May, 1883 ; founda- 
tion of house at Whitehall laid by Mr. Gladstone, 

4 Nov. 

The liberal majority in 1885, 82 (exclusive of 86 
Parnellites) 

Many secessions (lord Hartington, lord Selborne, 
earl Derby, Mr. John Bright, Mr. Goschen, Mr. 
Chamberlain, sir John Lubbock, sir H. James, 
and others) against Mr. Gladstone's Irish policy 
(termed unionist or dissentient liberals), Jan.- 
May ; at a conference they resolve to support 
the Salisbury government ... 7 Dec. 

Inaugural meeting of the London Liberal and Radical 
Union n Jan. 

"Round Table " conference at sir Wm. Harcourt's, 
for re-union of unionists and Gladstonians ; 
reported unsuccessful . . 13 Jan. et seq. 

The Liberal Unionist, a new review published 

30 March, 

Lord Hartington and a great many liberal unionists 
retire from the National Liberal Club . . Dec. 

The National Radical Union becomes the National 
Liberal (see Radical) . . . .24 April, 

The Women's Liberal Confederation (Gladstonian) 
consists of 33,500 members . . . May, 

A great Liberal Unionist banquet at the Crystal 
palace, in honour of the marquis of Hartington, 

13 May, 

National Liberal Unionist conference at Manchester ; 
sir Henry James chairman, the marquis of Hart- 
ington (duke of Devonshire in 1891) and the duke 
of Argyll present 10 Nov. 

Mr. W. E. Gladstone premier, Aug. 1892 ; suc- 
ceeded by the earl of Rosebery, 

March, 1894-June, 

Great majority for conservatives and unionists 
in the elections July, 

New Radical committee, 19 M.P.'s (Mr. Labouchere, 
sir Wm. Wedderburn, Mr. Dalziel, and others) 
propose to form a "distinctive advanced radical 
section " in parliament, and to carry on an active 
campaign in the country in favour of democracy, 
Times 20 May, 

The earl of Rosebery resigns the leadership ; see 
Rosebery, 6 Oct. 1896 ; lord Kimberley leader in 
the lords, sir Wm. Vernon Harcourt leader in 
the commons, Jan. 1897. 

The "Liberal Forward" party formed by the 
"Armenian Cave" in the liberal party, Mr. 
George Russell's committee, reported 7 Dec. 

Protest against coercion of Greece in Crete, meet- 
ings held 5, 27 March, 

Strong speech of sir Wm. V. Harcourt in W. Mon- 
mouth, 27 April, 1897, and 27 July, 1898 ; letter 
(8 Dec.) to Mr. John Morley resigning the leader- 
ship, Times 14 Dec. 

Nat. liberal association, meeting at Derby, new 
programme proposed .... 7 Dec. 

Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman accepts the leader- 
ship, 6 Feb. 1899 : many divisions on the S. 
African war, great disorganisation, 1900-1901. 

Mr. Thomas E. Ellis, the liberal whip and leader 
of the "Young Wales" party, born 1859, died, 

5 April, 

Imperial liberal council formed to advance impe- 
rialism, &c., lord Brassey, president, meetings 
held in London ... 31 Jan. -12 Feb. 

The League of Liberals against aggression and 
militarism ; first annual meeting held in London, 

24 April, 

Inaugural meeting of the London Liberal federation 
in St. James's hall, sir H. Campbell-Bannerman 
chairman 13 Jan. 

Lord Rosebery's stirring speech at Chesterfield, 
16 Dec. 1901; issued under the title of "National 
Policy," 1 Jan. 1902 ; at Liverpool he exhorts the 
libeials to clean their slate of the Irish question 
&c. , and start afresh, 14 Feb.; sir H. Campbell- 
Bannerman adheres to Home Rule, &c. , 19 Feb. ; 
lord Rosebery's letter announcing his definite 
separation from the party, Times, 

21 Feb. and 13 Oct. 

Liberal league of imperialists and unionists formed 
by lord Rosebery, Mr. Asquith, sir H. Fowler, 
sir Edw. Grey, and others . . . Feb. 

Sir Wm. V. Harcourt declined a peerage . June, 



1897 



LIBERATION OF RELIGION. 



736 



LIBRARIES. 



LIBERATION OF RELIGION from 
State Patronage and Control. Society 

for, was established by eminent political dissenters, 
May, 1844. 16th triennial conference opened, 
3 May, 1892. Jubilee celebrated, 30 April, 1894. 
Conferences, I May, 18915; 2 May, 1898; 3 May, 
1899 ; 30 April, 1 901. 

" LIBERATOR," a name popularly given to 
Mr. Daniel O'Connell, for his successful exertions 
relating to Eoman Catholic emancipation, com- 
pleted by Parliament in 1829. " Liberator " was 
the name of an American anti-slavery journal 
founded by Wm. Lloyd Garrison, Jan. 1831, and 
edited by him till 1866 He was aided by Mr. 
John G. Whittier. See Building Societies, 1892. 

LIBERIA, the republic of freed and indigenous 
negroes on the coast of Upper Guinea, West Africa, 
was founded in 1820 by the American Colonisation 
Society, which was established by Henry Clay in 
1816 : capital, Monrovia. The independence of Li- 
beria was proclaimed, 24 Aug. 1847 ; recognised by 
Europe in 1848, by America, in 1862. Presidents: 
J. J. Roberts, an able statesman, 1847; Daniel B. 
Warner, elected 1864; James Spriggs Payne, in- 
stalled 6 Jan. 1868 ;' E. J. Roy, president, Jan. 
1870, was deposed, Oct. 1871 ; escaped from prison; 
drowned, Feb. 1872. J. J. Roberts re-elected Jan. 
1872 and 1874 ; died 25 Feb. ; J. Spriggs Payne, 
elected 3 June, 1876; A. W. Gardner, 1878; A. J. 
Russell, 1883; H. R. W. Johnson, 7 Jan. 1884; 
J. J. Cheesman, 4 Jan. 1892 ; died II Nov. Wm. 
David Coleman, 13 Nov. 1896 (resigns n Dec); 
G. W. Gibson, 20 Dec. 1906. Population, about 
30,000 Liberians and 1,500,000 natives, 1902. 

The territories largely increased by annexations, 
1847 et seq., and by the adhesion of Maryland, a 
negro republic (founded 1821-54) . . . . 1857 
The president Roberts, visits London . . . 1862 
The aborigines defeated at Cape Palmas . 17 Sept. 187s 

Peace concluded March, 1876 

Kingdom of Medina (w7i ich see) annexed . Feb. 1880 
Martha Anna Ricks, a freed negress, aged 76, from 
Liberia, received by the queen at Windsor 

16 July, 1892 
War with cape Palmas native chiefs at Rock Town ; 

the Liberians defeated about . . 23 Feb. 1893 
Limitation convention respecting the French terri- 
tories, signed at Paris, 8 Dec. 1892, ratified at 
Monrovia, reported . . . .21 Jan. 1894 
French encroachments on the territory . Feb. ,, 
Limitation treaty signed .... 10 Aug. „ 
Several ports blockaded for tribal disturbances, 

Oct. 1895 
Col. Cardew, governor of Sierra Leone, in H.M.S. 
Alecto, arrives at Monrovia, to protect British 
subjects, 28 Oct. ; indemnity paid, at Grand 

Bassa early Nov. 1896 

Native towns burnt by Liberian troops . Feb. 1897 
Treaty of extradition with France, signed at Paris, 

5 July, ,, 
Sub-lieut. Baily Foreliere and M. Pauly, French 
explorers, murdered at Zoulon, N. Liberia, re- 
ported 5 June, 1898 

Chief Kafra invades British territory, is defeated, 
and 4 towns captured by capts. Atkins and 
Blakeney, reported .... 2 Feb. 1899 
Electioneering riots, houses and churches burnt, 

reported 4 June, ,, 

Big town raided by the Gebroes, reported, 23 Aug. ,, 

LIBERTINES (signifying freedmen and their 
sons), was a sect headed by Quintin and Corin, 
about 1525, who held monstrous o\ inions. 

LIBERTY, see Press and Trees. A colossal 
statue of Liberty, 150 feet high by M. Bartholdi, 
French sculptor, presented to the United States of 
N. America, was set up at New York Harbour and 
was publicly dedicated 28 Oct. 1886. 



LIBERTY AND PROPERTY DE- 
FENCE LEAGUE, formed by lords Elcho 
(since eaii of Wernyss), Bramwell, and others, to 
obviate the effects of legislation since 1871. First 
meeting 5 July ; first general meeting 29 Nov. 1882 ; 
annual meetings are held. The league has many 
affiliated societies. At the general meeting on 
1 July, 1886, M. Leon Say was president. 

LIBRARIES-* Accadianor Chaldean libraries 
are said to have been formed 1700 B.C. The remains 
of those formed by Assyrian monarchs (744 et seq.) 
at Nineveh, &c, consisting of tablets of bat, ,d clay, 
were discovered by Botta, Layard, and others, 1843 
et seq.; see Nineveh. Diodorus Siculus describes a 
library 7 in the tomb of Osy r mandyas, king of Egypt. 
A public library was founded at Athens by Pisis- 
tratus, about 540 B.C. Another was founded by 
Ptolemy Philadelphus, 284 B.C. It was partially de- 
stroyed when Julius Caesar set fire to Alexandria 47 
B.C. 400,000 valuable books in MS. are said to 
have been lost by this catastrophe. Blair. 

The first private library was Aristotle's. Strabo. B.C. 334 

The first library at Rome brought from Macedonia 167 

According to Plutarch, the library at Pergamos con- 
tained 200,000 books. It came into the posses- 
sion of the Romans at the death of Attalus III., 
who bequeathed his kingdom to the Roman people 133 

The library of Appellicon, sent to Rome from 
Athens, by Sylla 86 

Library founded at Constantinople by Constantine, a.d. 

about 35s 

Library at St. Mark's, Venice, begun, by gifts from 
Petrarch, 1352 : enlarged by cardinal Bessarion . 1468 

Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, collected a 
library of nearly 500,000 volumes at Buda ; died . 1490 

The first public library in Italy founded at Florence 
by Niccolo Niccoli, one of the great restorers of 
learning. At his death he left his library to the 
public, 1436. Cosmo de' Medici enriched it with 
the invaluable Greek and Hebrew MSS. about 1560 

The Vatican Library at Rome, founded by pope 
Nicholas V. in 1447, and improved by Sixtus V., 
(contained about 150,000 volumes and 40,000 
MSS., 1868). . 1588 

Imperial Library of Vienna, founded by Frederick 
III. in 1440, and by Maximilian 1 1500 

Royal Library of Paris, founded by John 1350, en- 
larged by Charles V., 1364 ; said to contain 815,000 
volumes and 84,000 MSS. in i860 ; 1,700,000 vols, 
in 1876. A new reading-room has been built. 

Royal Libraries founded at Copenhagen by Christian 
III. about 1533 : at Stockholm, by Gustavus Vasa, 
about 1540 ; at Munich, by Albert III. . about 1550 

Escurial at Madrid, commenced with the foundation 
of the palace, by Philip II 1557 

Harvard University Library (see Harvard), Massa- 
chusetts, U.S., founded 1632, endowed . . 1638 

Imperial Library at St. Petersburg (principally the 
spoils of Poland), founded . . . . . 1714 

Astor Free Public Library, New York, founded by 
John Jacob Astor, by gift of 80,000?., 1S39 ; he 
died in 1848, and the library has since been 
warmly supported by his wealthy son, Wm. 
Blockhouse Astor (died 1875), and his grandson, 
John Jacob Astor (died 1S90). 

Sen. Canovas bequeathed 3,000 books to the Na- 
tional library 8 Aug. 1897 

LIBRARIES IN GREAT BRITAIN. 

Richard de Bury, chancellor and high treasurer of 
England, purchased thirty or forty volumes of the 
abbot of St. Alban's for fifty pounds' weight of 

silver . 1341 

University Library, St. Andrews, founded . . 1411 
Glasgow University Library, founded about . . 1473 
Lambeth palace Library founded by abp. Bancroft, 

about 1610 
Sion College Library, founded 1630 

' A Con for nee of British and foreign librarian..*, met at 
the Loudon Institution, 2 Oct. 1877 ; again at the Guild- 
hall, sir John Lubbock president, 13 July, 1897. It 
founded the Library Association of the United Kingdom. 



LIBBAEIEiS. 



737 



LICENCES. 



Royal Society Library, founded 1667 

Harleian Library (which see) begun .... 1705 

University Library, Cambridge, founded 1475 ; Geo. 
I. gave 6000 guineas to purchase Dr. Moore's col- 
lection 1715 

Bodleian Library at Oxford, founded 1598 ; opened 
8 Nov. 1602. See Bodleian. 

Cottonian Library, founded by Sir Robert Cotton 
about 1588 ; appropriated to tbe public, 1701 ; 
partly destroyed by fire, 1731 ; removed to the 
British Museum (which see) 1755 

Dr. Daniel Williams's Public Library. He died 
1716 ; bequeathed his library and money for a 
building, which was opened at 49, Redcross-street, 
City, 'n 1729 ; it was successively removed to 
Queen s-square, Bloomsbury, 1864, and to Graf- 
ton-street East, and opened Sept. 1873 ; to 
Gordon-square, Gower-street .... 189c 

R-adcliffe Library at Oxford, founded by the will of 
Dr. Radeliffe, 1714; opened 1749 

The LibraTies of the Royal Institution (founded 
1803), the London Institution (1805), and the 
Royal College of Surgeons (1786), have classified 
catalogues. 

Library of the University of Dublin (1601), and the 
Advocates' Library in Edinburgh (1680), are ex- 
tensive and valuable. 

Library of East India Company, founded . . 1800 

Royal Libraries in England : that of Edward IV. , 
mentioned 1480, increased in the reigns of Edw. 
VI. and James I. ; much enlarged by Richard 
Bentiey, while librarian, 1 694-1 735 ; added to the 
British Museum by Geo. II., 1759 ; rich library of 
Geo. III., presented to the nation, 1823 ; deposited 
in the British Museum 1829 

In 1609 the Stationers' Company agreed to give a 
copy of every book published to the Bodleian 
Library, Oxford. By 14 Charles II. c. 33 (1662), 
three copies were required to be given to certain 
public libraries ; by 8 Anne, c. 19 (1709), the num- 
ber was increased to nine ; by 41 Geo. III. c. 107, 
to eleven ; which number was reduced to five by 
5 & 6 Will. IV. e. no (1835) : the British Museum, 
the Bodleian, Oxford, the Public Library, Cam- 
bridge, the Advocates' Library, Edinburgh, and 
Trinity College, Dublin. 

Free Libraries successfully established, since 1850, 
at Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, <fec. Many 
others formed under acts passed in 1845, 1850 et seq. 

Notting-hill free library, maintained by Mr. Jas. 
Haywood, died Oct. 1897 

On 5 Nov. 1855, a proposal to establish a Free Li- 
brary in the city of London was negatived, and 
in 1857 that in Marylebone was closed for want of 
support, but was re-opened 1 May, 1890. 

The new city library, Guildhall (free) was opened 

5 Nov. 1872 

Metropolitan Free Library Association formed, 

4 April, 1879 

The great library collected by Charles Spencer, 3rd 
earl of Sunderland, the property of the duke of 
Marlborough, partly sold by auction (under the 
Blenheim Settled Estates Act of 1880) 1-12 Dec. 1881 

Library of sir Francis Drake and family sold, Mar. 1883 

United Hamilton and Beckford libraries sold for 
86,444; 1883-4 

The Syston Park library (sir John Hay ford Thorold), 
including a Mazarin bible, early, printed classics, 
&c, sold for about 28,000?. . . 12-20 Dec. 1884 

The library of Michael Wodhull, collected in the 
last century, realized by 10 days' sale 1 1,973?. 4s. 6d. 

21 Jan. 1886 

133 free libraries established up to 1887. [Many 
since founded and presented by Mr. Passmore 
Edwards.] 

Lord Aylesford's library realised, 10,754?. March, 18S8 

The magnificent Althorp library, collected by 
George John, earl Spencer, was described and 
illustrated by Dr. T. F. Dibdin in his ' ' Bibliotheca 
Spenceriana," 7 vols., published 1814-23. Itwas 
privately sold by the present earl to Mrs. Rylands, 
widow of John Rylands, a cotton manufacturer, 
and added to a public library, founded by her in 
Manchester as a memorial of her husband, 
Aug. 1892 ; opened .... 6 Oct. 1899 

The library of lord Orford realized 2, 609?. n June, 1895 



The library of the late sir Thomas Phillipps, bart., 
an eminent collector, was sold by Messrs. Sotheby 
& Co., for a large sum. Selections from the MSS. 
(many transcripts) realized, 33,873?., 1895-1898 ; 
a further sale (6 days) realized 3,784?. 19s. 6c?., 

10 June, 1899 

Ashburnham library, 20 days' sale, 62,712?. 7s. 6d., 
closed, 14 May, 1898; MSS. "Appendix" realised 
8,595?., J M ;l y ! 1899; the splendid MS. of the 
"Evangelia Quatuor" sold for 10,000?. , byprivate 
treaty, mid Jan. 1901 ; the "Barrois" MSS., in- 
cluding a 14th-century MS. of "San Graal et 
Lancelot du Lac," 1,80c?. . . -14 June, 1901 

Libraries Offences act passed . . 12 Aug. 1898 

The library of Mr. Augustin Daly realised 34,500?., 

mid March, 1900 

Prof. Foxwell's library of Economic Literature, 
30,000 vols., bought by the Goldsmiths' Company 
for 10,000? end June, 1901 

Lord Crawford's collection of illuminated and other 
MSS. sold to Mrs. Rylands, of Manchester, 
reported 3 Sept. ,, 

Monument to Edward Edwards, born 14 Dec. 1812, 
died 7 Feb. 1886, pioneer of the public library 
movement, inaugurated at Niton, Isle of Wight, 

7 Feb. 1902 

Mr. Andrew Carnegie makes large grants to aid 
and found free libraries, 13,000?. to Finsbury, 
reported, 17 July 1902 ; he purchasesthe late lord 
Acton's library (about 70,000 vols.), and presents 
it to Mr. John Morley, announced, 31 July, Mr. 
Morley presented it afterwards to Cambridge, 

20 Oct. ,, 

Viscount Goschen presides at a conference on free 
libraries and higher education, Oxford . 12 Aug. 1903 
See Breviary, Caxton's, in article Printing, and 
Circulating Library. 

LIBRARY ASSOCIATION of the 

UNITED KINGDOM, founded at a conference of 
librarians at the London Institution, 2 Oct. 1877. 
It met at Oxford, I -3 Oct. 1878 ; at Manchester, 23 
Sept. 1879; Edinburgh, 5 Oct. 1880; London, 1881 ; 
Cambridge, 5 Sept. 1882; Liverpool, 11 Sept. 1883; 
Dublin, 30 Sept. 1884 ; Plymouth, 15 Sept. 1885 ; 
London, 28 Sept. 1886; Birmingham, 20 Sept. 
1887 ; Glasgow, 4 Sept. 1888 ; London (Gray's Inn), 
2 Oct. 1889; Beading, 16 Sept. 1890; .Nottingham, 
16 Sept. 189 1 ; Paris, 12 Sept. 1892; Aberdeen, 5 
Sept. 1893; Belfast, 4 Sept. 1894; Cardiff, 10 
Sept. 1895; Buxton, 3 Sept. 1896; London, 20 
Oct. 1897; Southport, 23 Aug. 1898; Manchester, 
4 Sept. 1899; Bristol, 25 Sept. 1900; Plymouth, 
27 Aug. 1901 ; Birmingham, 23 Sept. 1902 ; Leeds, 
8 Sept. 1903. 

LIBEO D'OEO (Book of Gold). The title of 
an ancient register of 24 ruling Venetian families 
before 813 ; and also of another book, dated 1506, 
recording the genealogies of the noble houses who 
ruled Venice till the fall of the republic in 1797. 

LIBYA, Greek name for all Africa, but specially 
for the interior as distinguished from the north ; it 
is mentioned by Homer and described by Herodotus. 
It was temporarily subdued by Cambyses, king of 
Persia, about 525 B.C. The country was explored 
for trade purposes by Ptolemy II., III., and IV. 

LICENCES. This mode of levying money was 
introduced by Bichard 1. about 1190 ; but was then 
confined to such of the nobility as desired to enter 
the lists at tournaments. See Press and Liquor. 

Games and gaming-houses licensed in London . 1620 
Licence system for excisable articles enforced in 

various reigns, from the 12th Charles II. . . 1660 

Lottery office-keepers to take out licences, and pay 

50?. for each. This reduced the number from 400 

to 51 Aug. 1778 

General licensing act, 9 Geo. IV. c. 61 . . _ . 1828 
Licences for public-houses granted in 1551, and for 

refreshment-houses, with wine licences . . . i860 

3 B 



LICHFIELD. 



738 



LIEUTENANTS, LORD. 



In the case of ,S7iar;i v. Wakefield, the house of lords, 
on appeal, decided that the licensing justices have 
the power of refusing to renew a licence to 
publicans, when they think fit . 20 March, 1891 

The licensing system was applied to India as a kind 
of income-tax, 1859 ; ceased in .... 1861 

Licences for the sale of tea, coffee, chocolate, and 
pepper were abolished and other licences modified 
by acts passed in 1869-70 

Licensing Reform Agitation .... 1870-71 

Acts for licensing plays and playhouses by the lord 
chamberlain, were passed in 1736 (10 Geo. II. 
c. 28) ; and in 1843 (6 & 7 Vict. c. 68) ; and for 
music and dancing in public-houses, in 1752 (25 
Geo. II. c. 36). 

New licensing act, regulating the sale of intoxicating 
liquors ; very much opposed ; passed and came 
into operation 10 Aug. 1872 

Another licensing act passed . . -30 July, 1874 

The licensing clauses of the local taxation bill 
(much opposed), dropped by the government, 

24 June, 1890 

A meeting on licensing reform on the lines of lord 
Peel's report, resolution carried, Queen's hall, 

21 Nov. 1899 

Three bills on liquor law reform drafted by a com- 
mittee of abps. and bps. approved at a conference 
of magistrates and others, text published, Tiroes, 

16 Aug. 1900 

216 liquor licences refused renewal in England and 
Wales in ,, 

National temperance conference held at Manches- 
ter; recommendations of lord Peel's licensing 
report carried 12 Feb. 1901 

A stringent licensing act passed . . 31 July, 1902 

Superfluous licences refused at Farnham, Surrey ; 
6 appeals dismissed ; 2 licences renewed under 
conditions; Times . . . 4 Oct. ,, 

Meeting on the licensing question, see Liverpool . 1903 

Amount received for licences for the sale of spirits, 
in 1893-94 15,189,345?. ; beer, 9,536,948?. 

LICHFIELD (Staffordshire). The see of 
Mercia (at Lichfield) was founded about 656 ; re- 
moved to Chester, 1075 ; to Coventry, 1102. in 1121 
Robert Peche was consecrated bishop of Lichfield 
and Coventry. By an order in council, Jan. 1837, 
the archdeaconry of Coventry was added to the see 
of Worcester, and Dr. Samuel Butler became bishop 
of Lichfield. This see has given three saints to the 
Romish church ; and to the British nation one lord 
chancellor and three lord treasurers. It is valued 
in the king's books at 559^. 18s. 2d. Present income, 
4,200^. Population, 1881,8,349; 1891,7,864; 1901, 
-,902. 

Lichfield cathedral was first built about 656 ; the pre- 
sent structure was founded by Roger de Clinton, the 
37th bishop, in 1148. Walter de Langton (bishop in 
1296), built the chapel of St. Mary, now taken into the 
choir, and under bishop Heyworth (1420) the cathedral 
was perfected. The building was despoiled at the 
Reformation, and was scandalously injured in the par- 
liamentary war (when its monuments, its fine sculp- 
tures, and beautifully painted windows, were demo- 
lished). It was repaired at the restoration, 1660; in 
1788 ; and by Gilbert G. Scott, 1860-63 and 1884. 

In Lichfield castle, king Richard II. kept his Christmas 
festival, 1397, when 200 tuns of wine and 2000 oxen 
were consumed. A charter was granted to Lichfield, 
constituting it a city, by Edward VI., 1549. It was 
absorbed into the county in 1885. 

Visit of the prince of Wales, 29 May, 1894. 

BISHOPS OF LICHFIELD AND COVENTRY. 

1781. James, carl of Cornwallis, died 1824. 
1824. Hon. Henry Ryder, died 31 March, 1836. 

BISHOPS OF LICHFIELD. 

1836. Samuel Butler, died 4 Dec. 1839. 
1830. James Bowstead, died 11 Oct. 1843. 
1843. John Lonsdale, died 19 Oct. 1867. 



1867. Geo. Aug. Selwyn, late bishop of New Zealand',, 

died 11 April, 1878. 
1878. William Dalrymple Maclagan, consecrated 24 June, 

translated to York, May, 1891. 
1891. Hon. Augustus Legge, June. 

LICHFIELD HOUSE COMPACT, said 
to have been made between the Whig government 
and Daniel O'Connell in 1835 at Lichfi eld-house,, 
13, St. James's-square. 

LICINIAN LAWS. In 375 B.C., C. Lieinius- 
Stolo and L. Sextius, tribunes of the people, pro- 
mulgated various rogationes or laws to weaken the 
power of the patricians and benefit the plebeians : 
one was to relieve the plebeians from their debts ; 
another enacted that no person should possess more- 
than 500 jugera of the public land, or more than 
100 head of large cattle, or 500 of small, in the 
Roman states; and the third, that one of the con- 
suls should be a plebeian. After much opposition 
these were carried, and L. Sextius became the first 
plebeian consul, 366. Another law, 56 B.C., of this 
name, imposed a severe penalty on party clubs, or 
societies assembled for election purposes; and 1 
another, about 103 B.C. (brought forward by P. 
Lieinius Crassus), limited the expenses of the table. 

LICK OBSERVATORY, see Observatory. 

LIEBENAU (Bohemia). Here was fought 
the first action of the seven weeks' war, 26 June r 
1866; when the Austrians were compelled to 
retreat by the Prussians under general Von Horn. 

LIEBIG, an extract of beef, named after the 
inventor of the process ; Lemco. a name given to it. 
1902, the initials of the Liebig Extract of Meat Co. 

LIECHTENSTEIN, a principality, S. Ger- 
many. Population, in 1880, 9,124; 1891,9,434. 
Constitutional charter, 26 Sept. 1862. Prince John 
II., born 5 Oct. 1840, succeeded his father Alois- 
Joseph, 12 Nov 1858. 

LIEGE (Belgium), a bishopric, under the Ger- 
man empire, from the 8th century till 1795. Liege 
frequently revolted against its prince-bishops. 
After a severe contest, the citizens were beaten at 
Brusthem, 28 Oct. 1467, and Liege taken by Charles 
the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who treated theniwitb 
great severity. In 1482 Liege fell into the power 
of De la Marck, the Boar of Ardennes, who killed 1 
the bishop, Louis of Bourbon, and was himself 
defeated and killed. Liege was taken by the duke 
of Marlborough, 23 Oct. 1 702 ; and by the French 
and others, at various times, up to 1796, when it 
was annexed to France. It was incorporated with 
the Netherlands in 1814, and with Belgium in 1830. 
Iron-works were established at Liege in the roth 
century, and have been greatly enlarged by the 
Cockerills in the 19th, see Seraing. An inter- 
national volunteer shooting contest held here, Sept. 
1869. The Iron and Steel Institute met here 18 
Aug. 1873. Dynamite explosions ; the church of 
St. Martin much injured, 1,2 May ; nine anarchists- 
convicted ; sentences, penal servitude, one, 25 
years; two, 20 years; four, 15 years ; one, 10 years ; 
one, 3 years ; trial, 18-26 July, 1892. Population, 
in 1896, 149,789; 1900, 173,706. 

LIEGNITZ, seePfaffendorf. 

LIEUTENANTS, Lord, for counties, were 
instituted in England, 3 Edw. VI., 1549, and in 
Ireland in 1831. Their military jurisdiction abo- 
lished by Army Regulation Act/1871. Forthe lords 
lieutenant of Ireland, see Ireland. 



LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANIES. 739 



LIFE-BOAT. 



LIFE ASSURANCE COMPANIES ACT, 

passed 9 Aug. 1870, requires the companies to pub- 
lish annual returns of receipts, expenditure, &c. 

LIFE-BOAT, &c, see Wrecks. 

Patent granted to Mr. Lionel Lukin for a life-boat. 1785 
A reward, offered by a committee in South Shields 
for a life-boat, 1788, obtained by Mr. Henry Great- 
head, of that town (he received 1200?. from parlia- 
ment), 1789 ; it first put to sea . . 30 Jan. 1790 
Another life-boat was invented by William Would - 
have. His name was inscribed on a memorial 
erected in honour of Henry Greathead on the 
pier at South Shields, uncovered . 25 June, 1890 
31 life-boats built, and 300 lives saved up to . . 1804 
The duke of Northumberland offered a reward of 
105?. for a life-boat, 1850 ; obtained by Mr. James 

Beeching, of Yarmouth 1851 

The tubular life-boat of Mr. H. Richardson, the 
Challenger, patented in Jan. ; a cruise was made 
by him from Liverpool to London in it . . 1852 
The National Life-boat Institution, founded in 1824 ; 
made Royal i8q8 ; its journal first published, 1852; 
the duke of Northumberland president from 
1866, died 2 Jan. 1899. In 1856 it received 
a bequest of 10,000?. from Hamilton Fitzgerald, 
esq., and of 39,000?. from Mr. AVm. Birks Rhodes, 
" the Hounslow miser," in 1878. 
185 life-boats in the United Kingdom, 1865 ; 284, 1884 
293, 1888; 303, 1891 ; 3b4, 1892; 303, 1893; 308, 1894 
303, 1895; 296, 1896; 295, 1897; 296, 1898; 287, 1901 
288, 1902. 
Lives saved by the Institution's life-boats, dx., 1824-1902, 
40,474 :— 

1121 1892 . . 1,056 

884 1893 . . 598 

955 1894 • • 79° 

792 1895 . . 709 

555 1896 . . 461 

761 1S97 . . 659 

572 1898 . . 756 

617 1899 . . 676 

627 1900 . . 865 

555 1901 • • 490 

736 1902 . . 455 



1824 . 


. 124 


1834 . 


214 


1844 . 


■ 193 


1854 


355 


1864 . 


. 698 


1874 


743 


1875 . 


. 921 


1876 


. 600 


1877 . 


1048 


1878 


. 616 


1879 . 


8S5 


1880 


• 697 



1887 



Hans Busk Life-ship Institute founded . Oct. 

The American Life-raft, composed of cylinders 
lashed together, sailed from New York, 4 June, 
1867, navigated by three men, capt John Mikes 
and Messrs. Miller and Mullane, and arrived at 
Southampton, 25 July following. 

Life-Preserver, the apparatus of capt. Manby 
(brought into use in Feb. 1808), effects a com- 
munication with the distressed vessel by a rope, 
thrown by a shot from a mortar, with a line 
attached to it. For the night, a night-ball is 
provided with a hollow case of thick pasteboard, 
and a fuse and quick match, and charged with 
fifty balls, and a sufficiency of powder to inflame 
them. The fuse is so graduated that the shell 
shall explode at the height of 300 yards. The 
balls spread a brilliant light for nearly a minute, 
and give a clear view of every surrounding object. 
In 20 years, 58 vessels and 410 of their crews and 
passengers had been saved. Capt. Manby {lied 
18 Nov. 1854, aged 89. See Rockets. 

The Boat-Lowering Apparatus, in consequence 
of many being lost when boats were lowered from 
the Amazon in 1852, invented by Mr. Charles 
Clifford, of London, in 1856, has been much ap- 
proved of, and has been generally adopted in the 
royal navy. 

Capt. Kynaston's hooks were approved by admiral 
sir Baldwin Walker in 1862, and by a committee 
on the subject in 1872. 

Exhibition of life-boats, life-rafts, &c, at the 
London Tavern opened 15 April, 1873. 

Hicks' Life-raft, reported good on trial in East India 
docks 1 Oct. 

Capt Boyton's Life preserving dress (of india-rubber), 
with means for signalling at sea, tried by him on 
the Thames successfully, 23 Jan. and 6 March, 
at Covves, before the queen, while in the water 



1874 



he fired rockets, caught fish, &c, 5 April ; nearly 
crossed the channel from Dover (paddled two 
miles an hour) ; stopped by the French pilot 

April, 1875 

Captain Boyton crossed the Channel from Grisnez 
to the South Foreland in 23J hours . 28-29 May, . „ 

Christie's Life-saving raft tried on the Thame's, 
could not be sunk . . . . 17 March, ,, 

Edmund Thompson's Life-raft, partially successful off 
Poplar 22 April, „ 

Boyton race on the Thames by six young men, three 
prizes awarded by the duchess of Teek . 10 Aug. „ 

Rev. E. L. Berthon's Collapsible Life-boat taken out by 
the Essequibo, and proved to be successful Sept. 1882 

Gold medal given to vice-admiral Ward, chief inspec- 
tor of life-boats for 32 years . . . Aug. 1883 

Much assistance rendered by life-boats during a 
severe gale . . 14-16 Oct. and 8, 9 Dec. 1886 

The Mexico wrecked near Southport ; the Lytham 
lifeboat saves 12 lives ; the Southport and St. 
Anne's lifeboats capsized without righting them- 
selves ; 27 of the crews perish . . 9 Dec. ,, 

Adequate subscriptions for their wives and families 
and nucleus of a permanent fund formed Dec. ,, 

The Storm King patent life-boat 30 feet long, with 
its inventor, capt. Joergensen and a man named 
Nelsen, left London 12 Sept. 1889, encountered 
heavy gales ; arrived at Cape Town . 2 March, 1890 

Death of Joaquin Lopez, boatman, aged 92, who 
had saved many lives from drowning and received 
foreign honours 22 Dec. 

The Duke of Northumberland, a new fast steel 
hydraulic steam life-boat, with 15 water-tight com- 
partments, designed by Messrs. R. and H. Green, 
to be stationed at Harwich, tried on the Thames 
near Blackwall, 24 July, and since brought into 
service ....,, 

About 714 lives saved by lifeboats, during the great 
gale 6, 7 Nov. ,, 

The queen presents the Albert medal to Laurence 
Hennessy, seaman, for having saved the lives of 
31 men during ship-wrecks ... 18 Feb. 1892 

Life-boat Saturday in about 90 principal towns of 
Great Britain set apart to collect funds for the 
institution, 1891 et seq. ; the first in London, a 
demonstration in the grounds of the Imperial 
institute, 16 May, 1896 ; again, 15 May, 1897 ; 
16,206?. collected in 1896 ; 25,890?. 18s. in 1901 ; 
London, 10 May, 1902. 

44 life-boats launched, 99 lives saved, during the 
great gale of 22, 23 Dec. 1894 

54 lives saved by lifeboats in the gale . 2, 3 Oct. 1895 

24 lives saved by lifeboats, 25 Sept., and 24 in a 
gale 8 Oct. 1896 

Select committee of the commons appointed to in- 
quire into the Lifeboat institution, 17 March, 
1897 ; report favourable . . .14 July, 1897 

The Margate lifeboat, Friend of all Nations, upset 
in a gale, 9 men drowned (over 8,000?. subscribed 
for the widows and children), 2 Dec. 1897 ; 
again wrecked, but the crew saved . 1 Dec. 1898 

Mr. Fred. Cruden Baines bequeaths 10,000?. to the 
Roy. JSat. Lifeboat institution, and 2,048?. 
14s. iid. received from the Civil Service lifeboat 
fund during 1898, announced Jan. 1899 (i,oooZ. 
from Mr. J. Busk) ; Mr. F. Freeman bequeaths 
2,000?. 3 Feb. 1902 ; Mrs. Moore bequeaths 1,050!. 
Dec. 1902 ; Miss A. Miles gives 1,200?. March, 1903. 

Total amount (including the Lifeboat Saturday 
fund, founded 1891), received in 1900, 69,693?. ; 
in 1902, 72,138?. 

The Aldeburgh lifeboat capsized in a gale, 6 deaths, 

7 Dec. ,, 

Steam lifeboat, the James Stevens, capsized in a gale 
off Padstow, Cornwall ; 7 deaths and 4 fishermen 
drowned also n April, 1900 

New lifeboat or raft for merchant ships invented 
by M. Von Andrep; successfully used at Copen- 
hagen Sept. ,, 

The Caister lifeboat Bcauchamp, near Yarmouth, 
capsized in a gale, 9 deaths . . .14 Nov. igoi 

German emperor sends 45?. to the West Hartlepool 
crew (who rescued the crew of a German vessel, 

Dec. 1901) 12 July, iqo2 

3 n 1 



LIFE-GUAEDS. 



740 



LIGHTHOUSE. 



65 lives saved by lifeboats in the gale 15, 17 Oct. 1902 
Capt. Doenvig'o life-saving globe successfully tried 
in Norway, 15 Sept. ; again in the English 

Channel 18 .Nov. ,, 

Electrical communication between stations, light- 
houses, &c, started 1893, see Wireless Telegraphy, 
1903. 
Mumbles life-boat capsized . . . 1 Feb. 1903 
New lifeboats ; one at Aldeburgh from Winchester, 
and one at Caistor from Mr. W. H. Lucy, 23 July, ,, 

LIFE-GUAEDS, see Guards. 

LIFE INSURANCE, see Insurance and 
Annuities. 

LIFE-PEEEAGES. A bill for creating them 
was read a second time in the lords, 27 April, 1869, 
but afterwards rejected. Two peers for life created 
to act as appeal judges, 5 Oct. 1876. See Lords. 

LIFE. PEESEEVATION OF. See Sani- 
tation. The Life Saving society was founded in 
1 89 1, for the promotion of technical education in 
swimming, life-saving, and the resuscitation of 
the apparently drowned, etc. ; 400 organizations, 
at home and abroad, in 1896. International con- 
gress at Nantes, ends, 2 Aug. 1902. 

LIFE-SHIPS. To promote the construction 
and use of these the Hans Busk Life-Ship Institute 
was founded, Oct. 1869. The life-ship, Peronelle, 
was launched at Southampton, 25 Aug. 1873. 

LIGHT. The law of refraction discovered by 

Snellius, about 1624. The motion and velocity of 
light discovered by Reaumur, and after him by 
Cassini, and calculated by llcemer (1676) and 
Bradley (1720). Its velocity ascertained to be about 
190,000,000 of miles in sixteen minutes, or nearly 
200,000 miles in a second, which is a million of 
times swifter than the velocity of a cannon ball, 
about 1667. The light of the sun takes eight 
minutes and eight seconds for its transmission 
through space to the earth. See Emission Theory. 
The undulatory theory of light, its polarisation, and 
its chemical action, were all made known in the nine- 
teenth century by Or. Thos. Young, "Weber, Fresnel, 
Malus, Arago, Biot, Brewster, Wheatstone, Bitter, 
Niepce, Daguerre, Talbot, Stokes, Tyndall, Ray- 
leigh, Dewar, Urookes, &c. ; see Optics, Photo- 
graphy, Calorescence, Fluorescence, Bdntyen Rays, 
Radium. 

Velocity of Light. Direct determination by the 
toothed-wheel method by Fizeau agreed with 

the astronomical result 1 849 

Fouoault, with the revolving mirror, gave 298,000 

kilometres in a second of mean time . . . 1865 
Cornu's improved tooth-wheel apparatus gave 

300,400 kilometres in a second of mean time . . 1874 
Professor Simon Newcomb, of Washington, with 
his " phototachometer " (completed in May, 1880) 
gave 299,860 kilometres in a second of mean time, 1886 
Mr. aft. sir Wm. Crookes, F.R.S., considered that he had 
demonstrated the mechanical action of light by experi- 
ments with delicate balances in the highest procurable 
vacuum, and calculated the force of the sun's rays upon 
the earth to be 2^3 tons to the square mile, 1873-6. 
His apparatus was termed Radiomt ter (wh ich see). After 
much investigation, Mr. Crookes admitted that the ac- 
tion was not due to radiation, but to difference of heat- 
absorption and the reaction of residual air. 

Mr. Crookes at the Royal Society announces experi- 
ments respecting an ultra-gaseous state of matter, sup- 
porting the emission theory ... 5 Dec. 1878 
Dr. C. Wm. Siemens reported to the Royal Society 
that the electric light acts on vegetation like 
solar light 4 Dec. 1880 

LIGHT BEIGADE. See Balaklava. 

LIGHTHOUSE, called Pharos (now phare, 
French ; faro, Italian), from one erected at Pharos, 
(which see) near Alexandria, Egypt, 550 feet high, 



said to have been visible forty-two miles, about 283 
B.C. There was one at Messina, at Rhodes, &c. 
The light was obtained by fires. A coal-fire light 
was exhibited at Tynemouth castle, Northumber- 
land, about 1638. The first true lighthouse erected 
in England was the Eddystone lighthou-e {which 
see) in 1758-60. Lights were exhibited in various 
places by the corporation of the Trinity-house e'arly 
in the 16th century. 2814 lighthouses in the world 
(1867). 

BRITISH LIGHTHOUSES. 

The lighthouse (40 years old, height 80 feet, weight 300 
tons) on the pier at Sunderland, Durham, was moved 
forward 500 feet without stopping the illumination, 
under the superintendence of Mr. John Murray, 
October, 1841. 

The Commissioners on Lights, &c. (1861), report 171 
shorelights in England, 113 in Scotland, and 73 in 
Ireland (total, 357) ; and 47 floating-lights. 

6 lighthouses building, April, 1867. 

The French have 224 lighthouses on shore. 

The source of light in our lighthouses is principally 
oil ; but in harbour lights gas has been successfully 
used. Glass reflectors were used in 1780, and copper 
ones in 1807. A common coal-fire light was discon- 
tinued at St. Bees so recently as 1822. Fresnel's 
Dioptric system (which see), devised about 1819, was 
adopted forthe first time in England by Messrs. Wilkins, 
at the direction of the corporation of the Trinity-house, 
1 July, 1836. 

The most brilliant artificial light ever produced — derived 
from magneto-electricity by a machine devised by 
professor Holmes — was first employed at the South 
Foreland lighthouse, near Dover, on 8 Dec. 1858 ; and 
at Dengeness (or Dungeness) in 1862. Mr. Holmes' 
arrangement, and a similar one constructed by 
M. Serin, were shown at the International exhibition, 
London, in 1862. 

Mr. H. Wilde's apparatus for producing a most powerful 
magneto-eleetric iight, on trial in northern light- 
houses, Oct. 1866. 

Lime-light (which see) employed at the S. Foreland light- 
house in 1861. 

Gas light tried successfully at Howth Bailey lighthouse, 
Dublin Bay, July, 1869. 

Mr. Wigham's triform light : glass belt round the gas- 
light, prisms below the belt, and prisms forming a 
cupola : tried near Dublin ; approved by Dr. Tyndall, 
July, 1873 ; further improvements by Mr. J. R. 
Wigham, shown, Dec. 1894. 

C. Wm. Siemens' magneto-electric light used at the 
Lizards, 29 March, 1878. 

The cost of erecting the three great British lighthouses 
— viz., the Skerry-Vore (west coast), 158 feet high, 
83,126?. ; the Bishop Roek, Scilly Isles, 145 feet high, 
36,559?. ; and the Bell Rock, Scotland, 117 feet high, 
61,331?. 

Return to inquiries respecting officials, their duties, 
salaries, &c. issued early in Dec. 1883. 

Important experiments at South Foreland on electricity, 
gas, and oil as illuminauts, June, 18S4. Report 
adopted by Trinity House : electric light brightest, 
but most expensive ; gas and oil nearly equal ; oil re- 
commended for practical purposes ; electricity for 
special use on headlands, &c, about 25 Aug. 1885. 

Royal commission respecting telegraph communication 
between lighthouses met, 18 June, 1892. First report 
issued recommending electric communication between 
2; lighthouses (adopted), 1 Feb. 1893 ; final report 
issued, 15 Oct. 1897. 

Retirement of sir James Douglass, born, 16 Oct., 1826 ; 
constructor of the present Eddystone, Wolf Rock, and 
other lighthouses, Nov. 1S92 ; died, io June, 1898. 

Telegraphic and telephonic communication established 
between life-boat stations in Liverpool bay, light- 
houses, &c. ; also between other stations on the Welsh 
coast, reported, Jan. 1895. 

New lighthouse on the Admiralty pier, Dover, com- 
pleted, announced 25 Dec. 1895. 

New lighthouse on Lundy island, Devon, opened 18 
Nov. 1897. 

Little Crosby lighthouse on the Mersey destroyed by 
lire during a gale, 3 deaths, 2 Feb. 1898. 



LIGHTING UP. 



741 



LIMERICK. 



New lighthouse at Cape Giisnez, N. France, opened, 

15 Feb. 1899. 
Donaghadee lighthouse burnt down, 12 May, 1900. 
New lighthouse at Pendeen, Cornwall, opened 26 Sept. 

1900 ; and another on the Foreland, Bristol channel, 

28 Sept. 1900 ; new one on Beachy Head, 142 feet high, 

opened, 2 Oct. 1902. 
Lizard lighthouse illuminated with a single electric light, 

said to be the most powerful in the world, Oct., 1903. 

LIGHTING UP (Towns, &c), see London, 
1684,1694; Gas and Electric Light. 

LIGHTNING-CONDUCTORS were first 
set up for the protection of buildings by Franklin 
shortly after 1752, when he brought down electricity 
from a thunder-cloud. Bichmann, of St. Peters- 
burg, was killed while repeating these experiments, 
Aug. 1752. The first conductor in England was set 
up at Payne's Hill, by Dr. Watson. In 1766 one 
was placed on the tower of St. Mark, at Venice, 
which has since escaped injury, although frequently 
injured by lightning previously. A powder maga- 
zine at Glogau, in Silesia, was saved by a conductor 
in 1782 ; and, from the want of one, a quantity of 
gunpowder was ignited at Brescia in 1767, and above 
3000 persons perished. In 1762, Dr. Watson 
recommended conductors to be used in the navy : 
and they were employed for a short time, but soon 
fell into disuse from want of skill and attention. 
Mr. (afterwards sir William) Snow Harris devoted 
his attention to the subject from 1820 to 1854, and 
published a work, in 1843, detailing his experiments. 
In 1830, above thirty ships were fitted up with his 
conductors, and in 1842 his plans were adopted, and 
his conductors are now manufactured in the royal 
dockyards. In 1854 parliament granted him 
5000^. A lightning research committee formed, 
Jan. 1901, with a view to the better protection of 
buildings, 200 observers in the United Kingdom, and 
others abroad. 713 deaths by lightning in the 
United States in 1900 (291 in the open, 57 under 
trees, 158 in houses). 

LIGHT RAILWAYS, see Railways, 1894, 
et seq. 

LIGNY (near Fleurus, Belgium), where Napo- 
leon defeated the Prussian army under Blucher, 
16 June, 1815 ; see Waterloo. 

LIGUORIANS, or Redemptorists, a 

Roman catholic order, established in 1732 by Alfonso 
de Liguori, approved by pope Benedict XIV., 1749. 

LIGURIANS, a Celtic tribe, N. Italy, invaded 
the Roman territory, and were defeated 238 B.C. 
They were not subjugated till 172 b.c. — The Ligu- 
hian Republic, founded in May, 1797, on the ruin 
of Genoa, was incorporated with France in 1805, 
and then merged into the kingdom of Italy. 

LILAC TREE, Syringa. The Persian lilac 
from Persia was cultivated in England about 1638 ; 
the common lilac by Mr. John Gerard about 1597. 

LILLE, see Lisle. 

LILLI-BURLERO, part of the refrain of a 
popular song ridiculing the Irish papists, 1688. 
The words are attributed to lord Wharton, the 
music to Henry Purcell. 

LILY, a native of Persia, Syria, and Italy, was 
brought to' England before 1460; the martagon 
from Germany, 1596. 

LILYBiEUM, a strong maritime fortress of 
Sicily, besieged by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 276 B.C., 
and relieved by the Carthaginians 275 B.C. It was 



taken by the Romans, 241 B.C., after a siege of 
nine years, which led to the end of the second 
Punic war. 

LIMA (Peru). In 1534, Pizarro, marching 
through Peru, was struck with the beauty of the 
valley of Rimac, and there he founded this city, and 
gave it the name of Giuclad de los Reyes, or city of 
the kings, 1535. Here he was assassinated, 26 June, 
1541. Awful earthquakes occurred here, 1586, 1630, 
1687, and 28 Oct. 1746. In 1854-5, thousands 
perished by yellow fever. Mr. Sullivan, the British 
consul, was assassinated at Lima, 11 Aug. 1857; see 
Peru, 1872, 1881-3. Buildings injured by an 
earthquake, 20 Sept. 1897. The church of San 
Francisco, founded by Pizarro, 1535, burnt, 20 
Sept. 1899. Population, 1900, 105,000. 

LIMBURG (Netherlands), a duchy in the 10th 
century ; acquired by the dukes of Brabant about 
1288 ; added to Burgundy about 1429 ; passed to 
the house of Austria in 1477 ; became one of the 
United Provinces, 1609; conquered and annexed to 
the French republic, 1795; restored to the Nether- 
lands, 1814 ; divided between Holland and Belgium,. 
1830; completely separated from the German con- 
federation by treat}', 11 May, 1867. 

LIME or LINDEN TREE, probably introduced 
in the 16th century. The iimes in St. James's- 
park are said to have been planted at the suggestion 
of Evelyn, who recommended multiplying odorifer- 
ous trees, in his <l Fumifugiuin " (1661). A lime- 
tree planted in Switzerland in 1410, existed in 
1720, the trunk being thirty-six feet in circum- 
ference. 

LIME-LIGHT, produced by the combustion, 
of oxygen and hydrogen or carburetted hydrogen on 
a surface of lime. This light evolves little heat and 
does not vitiate the air. It is also called Drummond 
Light, after its inventor, lieut. Thomas Drummond^ 
who successfully produced it as a first-class light in 
1826, and employed it on the ordnance survey. It 
is said to have been seen at a distance of 112 miles. 
It was tried at the South Foreland lighthouse in 
1861. Lieut. Drummond was born, 1797, died 
15 April, 1840. To him is attributed the maxim 
that " property has its duties as well as its rights." 

LIMERICK, anciently Lumneach (S. W. Ire- 
land). About 550, St. Munchin is said to have 
founded a bishopric and built a church here, which 
latter was destroyed by the Danes in 853. Donald 
O'Brien, king of Limerick, founded the cathedral 
about 1200. Limerick obtained its charter in 1 195, 
when John Stafford was made first provost ; and its 
first mayor was Adam Servant, in 1 198. It was 
taken by Ireton after six months' siege in 1650. In 
Aug. 1690 it was invested by the English and 
Dutch, and surrendered on most honourable terms, 
3 Oct. 1691.* An awful explosion of 218 barrels of 
gunpowder greatly shattered the town, killing 100 
persons, 1 Feb. 1694. Another explosion of gun- 
powder here killed many persons, 2 Jan. 1837. 
Awful and destructive tempest, 6-7 Jan. 1839. A 

* By the treaty it was agreed that all arms, property 
and estates should be restored ; all attainders annulled, 
and all outlawries reversed ; and that no oath but that 
of allegiance should be required of high or low ; the free- 
dom of the Catholic religion was secured ; relief from 
pecuniary claims incurred by hostilities was guaranteed ; 
permission to leave the kingdom was extended to all who 
desired it ; and a general pardon proclaimed to all then 
in arms. Burns. This treaty was annulled by the Irish 
parliament, 1695. Limerick is still called " the city of 
the broken treaty." 



LIMITATIONS, STATUTE OF. 742 



LINEN. 



new graving-dock was opened by the lord-lieutenant, 
earl Spencer, 13 May, 1873. A new E. C. cathedral, 
St. John's, consecrated, 21 June, 1894. Mr. Michael 
Hogan, "The bard of Thomond," died, aged 66, 
19 April, 1899. The right rev. Dr. Graves, bp. of 
Limerick, an antiquarian, dies, 17 July, 1899, suc- 
ceeded by Dr. T. Bunbury, 6 Oct. Population, 
1881, 38,555; 1891,37,072; 1901,38,085. 

LIMITATIONS, Statute of, 21 James I. 

c. 16, 1623. By it actions for trespass or debt, or 
simple contract, must be commenced within six 
years after the cause of action, and actions for 
assault, menace, or imprisonment within four years. 
The Real Actions Limitation act, 1874, came into 
operation 1 Jan. 1879. 

LIMITED LIABILITY. An act for limit- 
ing the liability of joint stock companies, 18 & 19 
Vict. c. 133 (passed 1855), was several times 
amended 1856-7-8. On 31 May, 1864, "3830 joint 
stock companies had been formed and registered on 
the limited liability principle, and 938 had ceased 
to exist." Much calamity in 1866 was occasioned 
by the abuse of the system. The Companies act of 
1862 was amended in 1867. 1241 registered in 1874 ; 
1,791 registered in 1886; total 1862-86, 25,042. 
The principle adopted by some joint stock banks 
in 1879-80. New companies act passed, 8 Aug. 

1900. See under Banks. 

LIMOGES AEFAIR, see France, Dec. 1877. 

LIMOURS MURDERS, N.-central France. 
Several barbarous murders, especially of aged 
people, took place here, Jan., Sept., Nov., 1873, 
and Jan. 1874 ; several persons denounced, proved 
innocence. In June, 1874, one Poirier confessed to 
similar murders at Nogent and other places, in 
Nov. 1873 and Jan. 1874. Executed at. Chartres, 
29 Sept. 1874. 

LINCELLES (N. France), where the allied 
English and Dutch armies defeated the French, 
18 Aug. 1793. General Lake commanded three 
battalions of foot-guards. 

LINCOLN, the Roman Lindum Colonia, and 
at the period of the conquest rich and populous. It 
was taken several times by Saxons and Danes. The 
castle was built by William I. in 1086. Without 
Newport-gate upon Lincoln plain was fought the 
battle between the partisans of the empress Maud, 
commanded by the earl of Gloucester, and the army 
of Stephen, in which the king was defeated and 
taken prisoner, 2 Feb. 1141. Louis, dauphin of 
France, invited over by the discontented barons in 
the last year of king John's reign, was acknowledged 
by them as king of England here; but the nobility, 
summoned by the earl of Pembroke to Gloucester 
to crown Henry III., marched against Louis and 
the barons, and defeated them in a most sanguinary 
fight (called the Fair of Lincoln), 20 Ma)', 1217; 
and Louis withdrew. Theatre Royal burnt, 26 Nov. 
1892. Population, 1881, 37,313'; 1891, 41,491 ; 

1901, 48,783- 

LINCOLN, Bishopric of. Sidnacester or 
Lindisse and Dorchester, two distinct sees in Mercia, 
wjre united about 1078, and the see was removed 
to Lincoln by bishop Remigius de Feschamp, who 
built a cathedral (1086), afterwards destroyed by 
fire, but rebuilt by bishop Alexander (1127) anil 
bishop Hugh of Burgundy. The diocese is very 
large, although the dioceses of Ely (1109), Oxford", 
and Peterborough (1541 ) were formed from it, and 
were further enlarged in 1837. The see was valued 



at the dissolution of monasteries at 2065/. per 
annum ; and after many of its manors had been 
seized upon, it was rated in the king's books at 
894?. io.s. id. Present income, 4500/. It has given 
three saints to the church of Rome, and to the civil 
state of England six lord chancellors. The great 
bell of the cathedral, called Great Tom of Lincoln, 
weighs four tons eight pounds. 

EECENT BISHOPS. 

1787. George Pretyman (afterwards Tomline), translated 
to Winchester, 1820. 

1820. Hon. George Pelham, died 1 Feb. 1827. 

1827. John Kaye, died 19 Feb. 1852. 

1852. John Jackson, translated to London, 1869. 

1869. Christopher Wordsworth, consecrated 24 Feb. ; re- 
signs Dec. 1884; died 21 March, 1885. 

1885. Edward King, Feb. For his trial for ritualistic 
practices, see under Canterbury. 

LINCOLN' S-INN (London), derives its name 
from Henry de Lacy, earl of Lincoln, who erected a 
mansion on this spot in the reign of Edward I., 
which had been the bishop of Chichester's palace. 
It became an inn of court, 1310. The gardens of 
Lincoln' s-inn-fields were laid out by Inigo Jones, 
about 1620, and erroneously said to occupy the same 
space as the largest pyramid of Egypt, which is 
764 feet square ; Lincoln' s-inn square being82i feet 
by 625 feet 6 inches. William lord Russell was 
beheaded in Lincoln' s-iun-fields, 21 July, 1683. 
The square (formed in 1618) was enclosed with iron 
railings about 1737. The new hall and other build- 
ings were opened, 30 Oct. 1845, and the square 
planted. The theatre in Lincoln' s-inn-fields was 
built in 1695 ; rebuilt in 1714; made a barrack in 
1756, and pulled down in 1848. The fields (enclosed 
in 1735) opened to the public (cost 12,000/.) by sir 
John Hutton, L.C.C., 23 Feb. 1895. 

LINCOLN TOWER, Westminster Bridge 
Road, was erected, by the united subscriptions of 
Britons and Americans, as a memorial of the aboli- 
tion of slavery, and of Abraham Lincoln, president. 
The foundation-stone was laid by general Schenk, 
then American minister here, 9 July, 1874; and the 
head stone was placed by the Rev. Newman Hall, 
minister of Surrey chapel, 28 Sept. 1875. The 
tower, which is 220 feet high, cost about 7000/. 
The church, named Christ church (to replace 
Surrey chapel), and schools adjoining (cost about 
60,006/.), were dedicated, 4 July, et seq. 1876. The 
rev. Rowland Hill's body was removed from Surrey 
chapel and placed here, 14 April, 1881. 

LINDISFARNE, or Holy Island, on the 

coast of Northumberland, became a bishop's see, 
635. It was ravaged by the Danes under Regnar 
Lodbrok in 793, and the monastery destroyed by 
them in 875. The bones of the bishop, St. Cuth- 
bert, who died in 6S7, were conveyed, among other 
places, to Chester-le-strcet, S83, and to Ripon, 995, 
and finally to Durham, which see. 

LINEN. Pharaoh arrayed Joseph in vestures 
of tine linen, 1716 B.C. {Gen. xli. 42.) 

First manufactured in England by Flemish weavers, 

under the protection of Henry III. . . . 1253 
A company of linen weavers established in London 136S 
The art of staining linen known . . . about 1579 
A colony of Scots in the reign of James I. , and other 
Presbyterians who tied from persecution in suc- 
ceeding reigns, planted themselves in the north- 
east part of Ireland, and there established the 
linen manufacture, which was liberally en- 
couraged by the lord deputy Wentworth in 1634 ; 

by William III • . . 169S 

Hemp, tl.ix, linen, thread, and yarn, from Ireland, 
permitted to be exported duty free . . . . 1696 



LINGAM. 



743 



LISLE. 



Irish linen board established in 1711 ; the Linen- 
hall, Dublin, opened 1728 ; the board abolished . 1828 

A board of trustees to superintend the Scotch linen 
manufacture established 1727 

Outy on linen taken off i860 

An "all pure" linen ball to stimulate and increase 
the demand for pure linen, held under distin- 
guished patronage at the Ulster-hall, Belfast, 

27 March, 1903 

Dunfermline in Fifeshire, Dundee in Forfarshire, 
Leeds and Barnsley in Yorkshire and Belfast in 
Ireland are chief seats of our linen manufacture. 

LINGAM, an ancient Hindoo god (much 
worshipped by women), who had many temples in 
Delhi, before the Mahometan conquest. One of 
Ms idols set in gold, diamonds, and other precious 
stones, was sold by Messrs. Phillips of Bond Street, 
Xondon, for 2,450/., 5 Dec. 1888. 

LINLITHGOW - BEIDGE (near Edin- 
burgh), near which the forces of the earl of Angus, 
who held James V. in their power, defeated the 
forces of the earl of Lennox, who, after receiving 
promise of quarter, was killed by sir James Hamil- 
ton, 1526. Mary, queen of Scots, was born in the 
palace of Linlithgow, 8 Dec. 1542, James V., her 
father, dying of a broken heart, 14 Dec, in conse- 
quence of his defeat by the English at Solway 
Moss, 25 Nov. previous." 

LINN^EAN SYSTEM of botany, arranged 
by Linne or Linnaeus, a Swede, 1725-30. He 
■classed the plants according to the number and 
situation of the sexual parts, and made the flower 
and fruit the test of his various genera. Linnaeus 
lived from 1707 to 1778. His library and herbarium 
•were purchased by sir James E. (then Dr.) Smith, 
-and given to the Linnean Society in London, which 
•was instituted in 1788, and incorporated 26 March, 
1802 ; at Milan, about 20 Sept. 1892. 

The centenary of the foundation of the Linnean Society 
celebrated ; gold medals were presented to sir Joseph 
Booker, and sir Richard Owen, 24 May, 1888. 

LINOTYPE. See under Printing. 

LION AND UNICORN, the former English, 
ithe latter Scottish, became the supporters of the 
royal arms on the accession of James I. in 1603. 
The lions in Trafalgar-square, designed by sir Edwin 
JLandseer, were uncovered, 31 Jan. 1867. 
JLion. True lions belong to the old world exclu- 
sively. They existed in Europe, Egypt, and 
Palestine, but have long disappeared from those 
countries ; their present country being Africa. A 
lion named Pompey died in the Tower of London 
in 1760, after 70 years' confinement. 
Mr. Gordon dimming, the lion-slayer, published 

his "Sporting Adventures in South Africa " in . 1850 
Van Amburgh was very successful in taming lions ; 
but many have perished through rashness. The 
Lion-queen was killed at Chatham, 1850 ; and 
Massarti (John McCarthy) was killed by a lion, 

3 Jan. 1872 
£ion Sermon preached annually on 16 Oct. at St. 
Katherine Cree church, London, in memory of 
.the escape of sir John Gayer from a lion in Arabia 

16 Oct. 1630 

LIPPAU, see Hussites. 

LIPPE, a constitutional principality (N.W. 
'Germany). Population, 1885, 123,212; 1900, 
140,000. Prince Leopold, born 1 Sept. 1821 ; 
.succeeded his father, Leopold, 1 Jan. 185 1 ; 
died 8 Dec. 1875 — his brother "VValdemar, born 
18 April, 1824, succeeded ; died 20 March, 1895 ; 
Alexander (deranged), brother, succeeded; disputed 
succession; count Ernst nominated regent and suc- 
cessor by a tribunal, July, 1897. Lippe became a 



member of the North German confederation, 18 Aug. 
1866. The federal princes memorialised by the 
count regent on a difference with the emperor re- 
garding a point of military etiquette, see Bavaria, 
1898, Times, 12 Nov. 1898. Settlement of the con- 
troversv, disputed succession, &c. postponed, 5 Jan. 
1899. 

LIPPSTADT, see Liitzen. 

LIQUEFACTION. See Gases, Cold, Air, 
Hydrogen and Fluorine. 

LIQUOE TEAFFIC, rojal commission, 
lord Peel chairman, sir Charles Cameron, the earl 
of Jersey, the bishop of London, sir William Houlds- 
worth, and 19 others ; hon. Sidney (aft. lord) Peel, 
sec, 31 March; tirst meeting, 19 May, 1896. Two 
reports, one by lord Peel, chairman ; he resigned 
to sir Algernon West, 1899 i much contradictory 
evidence, Times, 1 May, 1899; final report issued, 
4 July, 1899. See Licences. Internat. conference 
on West African liquor traffic, duty increased, con- 
vention signed at Brussels, June, 1899. Sale of 
intoxicating liquors to children acts passed, 1886, 
6 Aug. 1900 and 1901. 

LISBON (Olisippo, and Felicitas Julia, of the 
ancients) was taken by the Arabs about 716, and 
became important under the Moorish kings, from 
whom it was captured by Alfonso I. of Portugal in 
1 147. It was made the capital of Portugal by 
Emanuel, 1506. Lisbon has suffered much by 
earthquakes, and was almost destroyed by one, 
I Nov. 1755; in Great Britain about 100,000V. was 
subscribed for the sufferers ; see Earthquakes. The 
court fled to the Brazils, 10 Nov. 1807, and on 30 
Nov. the French, under Junot, entered Lisbon, and 
held it until the battle of Vimeira, in which they 
were defeated by r the British, under sir Arthur 
Welleslev, 21 Aug. 1808. A military insurrection 
at Lisbon, 21 Aug. 1831, was soon suppressed, and 
many soldiers were executed ; see Portugal. Popu- 
lation in 1885, 243,010: 1900,357,000. 

A pleasure boat on the Tagus upset, about 6a 
drowned 26 May, 1875 

Lisbon Steam Tramway Company, favoured by duke 
of Saldanha, ambassador in London ; company 
promoted by baron Albert Grant and others ; 
tramway could not be made ; see Trials . July, 1876 

Great fire at the dockyard . . 17-18 Dec. 1883 

Great excitement through the British ultimatum 
respecting East Africa (see Portugal) . Jan. 1890 

Strike of bakers ; 6,000 encamped outside the city, 
soldiers employed as bakers . . 19 June, 1894 

The chamber of deputies destroyed by fire, 17 June, 1895 

Explosion at a house next the Opera-house, 4 Feb. ; 
arrest of 60 anarchists ... 5 Feb. 1896 

Repressive legislation introduced . . 9 Feb. ,, 

Sen. Domingor killed by dynamite at Alhandra, 

18 April, „ 

Strike of gas workers against employment of 
foreigners ; city in darkness ; ended by conces- 
sion i-ii Aug. ,, 

The 400th anniversary of Vasco da Gama's first 
arrival in India, celebrated . . 15-21 May, 189S 

Dr. Pestana, director of the Bacteriological insti- 
tute, dies of plague contracted during his re- 
searches at Oporto . . . .15 Nov. 1899 

Excavations, chapel and tombs, &c, dating before 
755, discovered .... end Aug. 1902 

LISLE (now Lille), N. France, has a strong 
citadel by Vauban. It was besieged by the duke 
of Marlborough and the allies ; and, though deemed 
impregnable, was taken after a three months' siege 
in 1708. It was restored by the treaty of Utrecht, 
in 1 7 13, in consideration of the demolition of the 
fortifications of Dunkirk. Lisle sustained a severe 



LISMORE. 



744 



LITHOGRAPHY. 



bombardment from the Austrians, who were obliged 
to raise the siege, 7 Oct. 1792. Population, 1886, 
188,272; 1891,200,935; 1901,215,431. 

The French Association for the Advancement of 
Science met here 20 Aug. 1874 

Industrial exhibition here visited by sir Wilfrid 
Laurier and other colonial premiers . 27 Aug. 1902 

LISMORE (S. Ireland.) St. Cartbagh, first 
bishop, 636, says : " Lismore is a famous and holy 
city, of which nearly one-half is an asylum where 
no'woman dare enter." The castle (built by king 
John when earl cf Moreton, 1185), burnt in 1645, 
was rebuilt with great magnificence bv the duke of 
Devonshire. Tbe cathedral, built 636, was re- 
paired by Cormac, son of Muretus, king of Muns- 
ter, about 1 130. The bishopric was united to that 
of Waterford, about 1363; and both to Cashel in 
1839. 

LISSA (or Leuthen, Silesia). Here the king 
of Prussia vanquished Charles of Lorraine ; 6000 
Austrians were slain, 5 Dec. 1757- — Lissa, in 
Poland, was laid in ruins by the .Russian army in 
the campaign of 1707. — Lissa, an island in the 
Adriatic. Near here the Italian fleet, commanded by 
Persano, was defeated with severe loss by the A us- 
trian fleet, commanded by Tegethoff, 20 July, 1866. 

The Italians had 23 vessels, 11 of which were iron- 
clads, and the Austrians had 23 vessels, 7 only 
being ironclads. 

Persano, when in sight of the enemy, quitted his 
ship, the Re d'ltaUa, and hoisted his flag on the 
Affondatore. His ironclads did not keep well 
together. 

During the action, the ironclad Palestro took Are 
and exploded, and all on board perished (except 
19 out of 200 men), exclaiming, Viva il Re! Viva 
Italia! The Re a" Italia was surrounded and sunk 
by the Austrians. The Re di Portobello disabled 
the Austrian line-of-battle ship Kaiser, and com- 
pelled her to run ashore. Both parties soon after 
retired from the conflict, which had lasted four 
hours. 

.Admiral Persano was tried for misconduct and 
dismissed the service (see Italy) . 15 April, 1867 

Battle off Lissa. 

Capt. Wm. Hoste in the Amphion, with two other 
frigates ; the Active, Capt. J. A. Gordon ; the ■ 
Cerberus, Capt. H. Whitby ; and the Volage, 
22-gun ship, Capt. P. Hornby, defeated a Franco- 
Venetian squadron which attacked him ; he 
captured two vessels, the Corona and Bellona; 
he was badly wounded . . .13 March, 1811 

LITANIES (Greek Mtaneia, supplication), were 
first used in processions, it is said, about 469 ; others 
say about 400. Litanies to the Virgin Mary were 
first introduced by pope Gregory I. about 595. 
The first English litany was commanded to be used 
in the Reformed churches by Henry VIII. in 1544. 

LITERARY CLUB (at first called "The 
Club" and "Johnson's Club"), founded by Dr. 
Johnson and sir Joshua Reynolds, in 1764. Haw- 
kins, Topham Beauclerk, Goldsmith, Burke, and 
Bennet Langton, were among the first members. 
The opinion formed of a new work by the club was 
speedily known all over London, and had great in- 
fluence. Many eminent men have been members 
of the Club, including Hallam, Maeanlay, the 
marquis of Lani-downe, and bishop Blomtield ; 
Dr. Milman, dean of St. Paul's, was in the chair at 
the centenary dinner, on 7 June, 1864. 

LITERARY AND ARTISTIC CON- 
GRESS, International, met at Paris (Victor Hugo 
president), 17 June; and founded "International 



Literary Association, ".28 June, 1878 ; met in Lon- 
don, 9-14 June, 1879; a t Lisbon, 20 Sept. 1880; at 
Vienna, 20-29 Sept. 188 1; at Berne, 10 Sept. 1883; 
at Brussels, 27 Sept. 1884 ; at Berne, 7 Sept. 1885 ; 
at Madrid, 8 Oct. 1887 ; at Venice, 19 Sept. 1888 ;. 
at Paris, 20 June, 1889; at Berne, 5 Oct. 1889; 
in London, 4 Oct. 1890; at Neufchatel, 26 Sept. 
1891 ; at Milan, about 20 Sept. 1892. Literary- 
conference at Chicago, 10-15 July, 1893. 

LITERARY FUND, Royal, was founded 

in 1790, to relieve literary men of all nations, by 
David Williams,* the friend of Benjamin Franklin,, 
and incorporated in 1818. The king of the Belgians 
presided at the annual dinner, 8 May, 1872 ; the 
prince of Wales at the centenary dinner, 14 May, 
1890 ; the duke of York, when chairman, 8 May, 
1895, stated that among his predecessors were his- 
great-grandfather, the duke of Kent, 1815, and his 
grandfather, the prince consort. The permanent 
fund in 1897 was 15,091.?. 19s. yl. ; 15,591^., 1898; 
57,769?., 1902; 56,410/. 

LITERARY PROPERTY, SOCIETIES, 

&c., see Authors, Copyright, Societies, &e. 

"Literary Production Committee " of authors ; proposed 
formation, with the object of obtaining a good price- 
for their works, July, 1878. 

LITERATURE, see letters, English, French , 
German, Greek, Italian, Latin, and Spanish 
Language ; comprehends eloquence, poetry, history, 
language, and their subdivisions. Literature, a 
weekly critical journal, edited by H. D. Traill 
(died, aged 58, 21 Feb. 1900), issued at the Tinier 
office, but independent, price sixpence, 23 Oct. 
1897. " Short, histories of the literatures of the- 
world," Japan, by W. G. Aston, May, 1899. 

LITHIUM, the lightest metal known (specific- 
gravity C59 : atomic weight 7), is obtained from arj 
alkaline substance termed lithia ; discovered by M. 
Arfwedson, a Swede, in 1817. 

LITHOFRACTEUR,. or "Stone- 
Breaker," an explosive material, a modification of 
dynamite (composed of gun-cotton, nitro-glyeerine, 
with the constituents of gunpowder, and other sub- 
stances), invented by professor Engels of Cologne, 
and made by Krebs, in 1869. It was occasionally 
used by the Germans in the war 1870-1, and was 
tried and well reported of for power and safety at 
Nant Mawy quarries, near Shrewsbury, 9, 10 May, 
1871, and again on 20 Feb. 1872, before the govern- 
ment explosive committee, with similar results. 

LITHOGRAPHY (drawing on stone). The 
invention is ascribed to Alois Senefelder, about 
1 796 ; and shortly afterwards the art was announced 
in Germany, and was known as polyautography. It 
became partially known in England in 1S01 ei seq. T 
but its general introduction is referred to Mr. 
Acker mann, of London, about 181 7. Senefelder 
died in 1841. Improvements have been made by 

* Floyer Sydenham, an eminent Greek scholar, of 
Wadham college, Oxford, and translator of some of fire- 
works of Plato, was arrested and thrown into prison foi 
a trifling debt due for his frugal meals, and there, in 
178S, died of a broken heart in" want and misery, when 
nearly eighty years of age. The sympathy excited gave 
rise to tins institution, since well supported. Williams 
was in early life a dissenting minister, and wrote on 
education, lie was consulted by the early revolutionary 
party in France as to the form of a constitution for that 
country; he. Dr. Priestley, sir James Mackintosh, and 
ether distinguished Englishmen, having been previously 
declared French citizens. He died 2g June, 1816. 



LITHOSCOPE. 



?45 



LIVERPOOL. 



Engelmann and many others ; see Printing in 
Colours. Exhibition of lithographs (2000) at S. 
Kensington, opened, 21 Nov. 1898. " Wharf- 
litho," Mr. G. fi. Hildyard's new process, 1899. 

LITHOSCOPE. An instrument for distin- 
guishing precious stones, invented by sir David 
Brewster ; described by him Jan. 1864. 

LITHOTOMY. The surgical operation of 
cutting for the stone, it is said, was performed by 
Ammonius, about 240 B.C. The ''small apparatus," 
so called from the few instruments used in the 
operation, was practised by Celsus, about a.d. 17. 
The " high apparatus " was practised (on a criminal 
at Paris) by Colot, 1475; by Franco, on a child, 
about 1566 ; and in England, by Dr. Douglass, 
about 1519. The "lateral operation," invented by 
Franco, much performed in Paris by Freie Jacques, 
in 1697, has been greatly improved. The "great 
apparatus" was invented bv John de Roroanis, and 
described by his pupil Maiianus Sanetus, 1524. 

LITHOTEITY (or bruising the stone). The 
apparatus produced by M. Leroy d'Etiolles in 1822 
has since been improved. 

Prizes of 6000 and 10,000 francs were awarded M. Jean 
Civiale for his method of operation, 1827 & 1829. 

LITHUANIA, formerly a grand-duchy, N. E. 
of Prussia. The natives (belonging to the Slavonic 
race) long maintained their independence against 
the Russians and Poles. In 1386, their grand-duke 
Jagellon became king of Poland and was baptized : 
Lithuania was not incorporated with Poland till 
1501, when another duke Casimir, became king of 
that country. The countries were formally united 
in 1569. The larger part of Lithuania now belongs 
to Russia, the remainder to Prussia Great fire 
at Grodno, buildings destroyed, reported, 3 Aug. 
1899. 

LITTLE ENGLANDISM, a term defined 
by sir Edward Grey as an aimless antipathy to the 
British Empire, Times, 18 July, 1901. 

LITURGIES (from the Greek leitos, public, 
and ergon, work). The Greek and Roman liturgies 
are very ancient, having been committed to writing 
about the 4th and 5th centuries. The Romish church 
recognises four: the Roman or Gregorian, the Am- 
brosial], the Gallican, and the Spanish or Mosarabic. 
The Greek church has two principal liturgies : St. 
Chrysostom's and St. Basil's, and several smaller 
ones. Parts of these liturgies are attributed to the 
Apostles, to St. Ignatius, 250, to St. Ambrose (died 
397), and to St. Jerome (died 420). 

The present English Liturgy was first composed, 
and was approved and confirmed by parliament, 
in 1547-8. The offices for morning and evening 
prayer were then put into nearly the same form 
in which we now have them, and published 1549 
and 1552. 

At the solicitation of Calvin and others, the liturgy 
was reviewed and altered 1551 

It was first read in Ireland, in the English lan- 
guage, in 1550, and in Scotland, where it occa- 
sioned a tumult, in 1637, and was withdrawn . 1638 

The liturgy was revised by Whitehead, formerly 
chaplain to Anne Boleyn, and by bishops Parker, 
Grindall, Cox, and Pilkington, dean May, and 
secretary Smith. 

John Knox is said to have used a liturgy for several 
years. The rev. Robert Lee, of Edinburgh, intro- 
duced a form of prayer in public worship, but 
gave it up when ordered to discontinue it in May, 
1859 1 ne soon after resumed it, and the discussion 
on the subject ceased only at his death, 14 March, 1868 
See Common Prayer. 



LIVERIES OF THE CITY OF LON- 
DON. The term is derived from the custom of the 
retainers of the lord mayor and sheriffs wearing 
clothes of the form and colour displayed by those 
functionaries. Liveries were regulated by statute 
in 1392, and frequently since. The nobility gave 
liveries to their retainers. See Companies. 

LIVERPOOL (W. Lancashire), is supposed to- 
be noticed in Domesday-book under the name Esme- 
dune, or Smedune* Soon after the conquest, 
William granted that part of the country situated 
between the rivers Mersey and Ribble to Roger of 
Poitiers, who, according to Camden, built a castle 
here, about the year 1089. It afterwards was held 
by the earls of Chester and dukes of Lancaster. 
Liverpool is the second city of the Empire. The 
income of the estates of the Corporation 13/. in 
1672, now about 12,500,000/. (1888), from renewal 
fines, &c. Changes in the leases, &c, proposed by 
the Corpoi-ation postponed, Jan. 1888. Garston ? 
1649 acres and 17,288 inhabitants, included within 
the city boundaries, Oct. 1901. See under Popula- 
tion. 

Liverpool made a free borough by Henry III. . 1225 

Made an independent port 1338 

Liverpool " a paved town " (Leland) . . . . 1559 
" The people of her majesty's decayed town of 
Liverpool " petition Elizabeth to be relieved from 

a subsidy 1571 

Separated from the duchy of Lancaster . . . 1628 
Town rated for ship-money in only 26I. by Charles I. 1634 
Besieged and taken by prince Rupert 26 June, 1644 

Made a separate parish 1698 

The old dock constructed, 1699 ; the first ship, the 
Marlborough, entered .... 8 June, 1700 

Blue-coat hospital founded 1709. 

The town vigorously opposes the Young Pretender 1745 

Town- hall commenced . 1749. 

Infirmary established . . '. . ,, 

Seamen's hospital founded 1752 

Salthouse dock opened 1753 

Liverpool library founded 1757 

A most destructive fire 1762 

House of industry founded !77o- 

Theatre licensed, 1771 ; opened .... 1772 
Liverpool equips, at the commencement of the war 
against France, 120 privateers, carrying 1986 guns, 

and 8754 seamen 1787 

First musical festival 1785 

King's clock constructed 1784 

[The Queen's dock was also constructed about the 
same time. ] 

Memorable storm raged 1789 

The exchange burnt 1795 

The town-hall destroyed by fire ,, 

The Athemeum opened. .... 1 Jan. 1799 

Union news-room erected 1800 

The Lyceum erected 1802 

Awful fire ; loss exceeded i,ooo,ooo£. - 14 Sept. ,, 

Corn exchange opened .... 4 Aug. 1808 

Royal Exchange completed 1809 

Statue of George III. commenced . . 25 Oct. „ 
Fall of St. Nicholas' tower, 28 killed . 11 Feb. 1810 

Royal Institution founded 1814 

Wellington-rooms built 1815 

Royal Institution opened by Mr. Roscoe 2 Nov. 1818 

American seamen's hospital 1820 

Prince's dock opened . . . -19 July, 1821 
St. John's market-place .... Feb. 1822 
Royal Institution incorporated ....,, 

Marine Humane Society formed 182-3 

New house of industry erected 1824 

Liver theatre opened 1825 

* In other ancient records its appellations are Lithcrpui 
•m&Lyrpui, signifying probably in the ancient dialect, the 
lower pool; though some have deduced its etymology 
from a pool frequented by an aquatic fowl, called the 
" Liver," or from a sea-weed of that name : and others,, 
from its having belonged to a family of the name of 
Lever, whose antiquity is not sufficiently established to 
justify their conclusion. 



LIVERPOOL. 



746 



LIVERPOOL. 



Old dock closed 1826 

Foundation of new custom-house laid . 12 Aug. 1828 

Blackrock lighthouse built, and light first shown, 

1 March, 1830 
Lunatic asylum founded, 1792 ; new buildings 

erected ,> 

•Clarence dock completed .... Sept. „ 
Liverpool and Manchester railway opened* 15 Sept. ,, 

.Zoological gardens opened 1833 

■Great lire ; 300, oool. property destroyed . 1 Jan. ,, 
Lock hospital and "Waterloo dock opened . . 1834 
"Victoria and Trafalgar docks opened . 8 Sept. 1836 

British Association meet here, 1st time . Sept. 1837 

Mechanics' institute opened ,, 

New fish-market opened .... 8 Feb. ,, 

Apothecaries' company formed , 

Liverpool and Birmingham (Grand Junction) rail- 
way opened 4 July, „ 

Railway to London (now the North- Western) opened 

its entire length 17 Sept. 1838 

Statistical society and Polytechnic society founded ,, 
'The Liverpool steamer, of 461-horse power, sails for 

New York 28 Oct. „ 

Awful storm raged 6 Jan. 1839 

Foundation of the collegiate institution laid by lord 

Stanley 1840 

Liverpool Philharmonic society founded . . ,, 

Foundation of St. George's hall and courts laid . . 1841 
Immense fire ; property worth more than half'-a- 

million sterling destroyed ... 25 Sept 1842 
Mr. Huskisson's statue erected . . . Oct. 1847 

Procession of Orangemen ; fatal riot . 14 July, 1851 
The queen visits Liverpool ... 9 Oct. ,, 
British Association meet here, 2nd time . Sept. 1854 
St. George's hall opened . . . .18 Sept. ,, 
Bread riots (150,000 persons out of employ through 

the frost) 19 Feb. 1855 

Great landing stage for large steamers opened, 1 Sept. 1857 
Many commercial failures . . Sept. to Nov. ,, 

Association for Social Science meets • . Oct. 1858 
Bailors' home (cost 30,000?.) burnt . . 29 April, i860 
Free library, &c, founded by Mr. (afterwards sir) 
W. Brown, M. P. for S. Lancashire, 15 April, 1857 ; 
free library, <fcc. opened . . . .11 Oct. ,, 

Free Museum opened 17 Oct. 1801 

Brownlow Hill church and workhouse school burnt, 

and 23 lives lost (20 children) . . 8 Sept. 1862 
Explosion of n£ tons of gunpowder in the Lottie 

Sleigh, in the Mersey, great damage . 16 Jan. 1864 
Death of sir Win. Brown, a great benefactor to Liver- 
pool 3 March, ,. 

Additional M.P. (now 3) by Reform act, 15 Aug. 1867 
Royal bank of Liverpool stopped . . 21 Uct. „ 
Greek steamer (Bubulma) in the Mersey exploded ; 

about 19 lives lost .... 29 Nov. ,, 

Reverdy Johnson, the United States' minister 

warmly received 22 Oct. 1868 

A Greek church consecrated by the Greek arch- 
bishop of Syra 16 Jan. 1869 

Panic through false alarm of fire at St. Joseph's 

Catholic chapel, 15 lives lost . . 23 Jan. 1870 
Stanley park, 100 acres (cost 42,000?.) opened 7 May, ,, 
Stanley hospital ; foundation laid by the earl of 

Derby 6 June, ,, 

British Association meets here third time 14 Sept. ,, 
Equestrian statue of the queen unveiled 3 Nov. ,, 

Seamen's Orphan Institution founded . 11 Sept. 1871 
Sefton park opened by prince Arthur . 20 May, 1872 
Great landing-stage burnt; loss abt. 150,000?. 28July, 1874 
Duke of Edinburgh lays foundation of the Art 
Gallery, 29 Sept. ; and opens the Seamen's 

Orphanage 30 Sept. ,, 

About 325,000/. bequeathed to charities by R. L. 
Jones, a timber merchant .... Jan. 1S75 

* The first grand work of the kind, about 31 miles long. 
The first shaft was commenced in Oct. 1S26, and the ex- 
cavation of the tunnel, one mile and a quarter long, Jan. 
1827 ; the tunnel was completed in Sept. 1828, and opened 
30 July, 1829. At the opening Of the railroad, tin- dike 
of Wellington and other illustrious persons were prcsenl ; 
and Mr. Huskisson who alighted during a stoppage of 
the engines, was knocked down by one of them, which 
went over his thigh and caused \.U death. 15 Sept. i8-*o. 



Visit of M. Michel Chevalier, free-trader 21 April, 

Statue of Wm. Bathbone, eminent merchant, un- 
veiled 1 Jan. 

Rotunda theatre burnt .... 9 July, 

Walker Art Gallery (gift of the mayor, Andrew 
Walker), cost above 30,000?., opened by the earl 
of Derby 6 Sept. 

Bishoprics Act, permitting the erection of a see at 
Liverpool, passed .... 16 Aug. 

Panic through false alarm of fire at Colosseum 
theatre ; 37 persons crushed to death n Oct. 

Strike of dock labourers and sailors ; riots sup- 
pressed, 7 Feb. ; strike ends . about 25 Feb. 

Mysterious disappearance of Miss Edwards, 3 Sept. ; 
found in London 21 Oct. 

Bishopric established . . . .24 March, 

Liverpool nominated a city . . . April, 

Foundation of University college ; about 88,000?. 
subscribed Oct. 

New water works in the valley of the river Vyrnwy, 
25 miles from Oswestry, begun, 14 July, 1881 ; 
inaugurated by the duke of Connaught starting a 
fountain at Liverpool . . . .14 July, 
[Lake 4 miles long formed, A mile to 200 yds. wide, 
Llanwddyn village covered, 68 miles of aque- 
ducts, tunnels, pipes, &c. The undertaking was 
projected in 1879 by Mr. G. F. Deacon, aided 
by Mr. C. Hawksley and Mr. J. Bateinau, and 
carried out by Mr. Deacon as chief engineer. ] 

Discovery of infernal machines in steamers Malta 
and Bavarian announced . . .24 July, 

Plot to blow up the town-hall discovered ; bag of 
explosives found at door ; 2 Fenians apprehended 
10 June ; convicted, sentenced to penal servitude, 
James MeGrath for life ; James McKnivett, 
1 5 years 2 Aug. 

Dock space in 1810, 26 acres for ships, 704,000 tons ; 
in 1857, 2 °9 acres > tonnage, 4,320,000. 

New Langton dock opened by the prince and prin- 
cess of Wales, and named Alexandra. . 8 Oct. 

University College inaugurated by the earl of Derby, 

14 Jan. 

New court-house founded . . .1 June, 

Home for ancient mariners opened by the duke of 
Edinburgh 16 Dee. 

Lancelot's hay warehouse burnt (damage about 
100,000?.) 21 April, 

Mersey tunnel, opened (see under Tunnels) 13 Feb. 

Liverpool returns nine M.P.'s by act passed 25 June, 

International Exhibition of Navigation, Commerce, 
&c. ; proposed by alderman David Radcliffe ; 
adopted by the earl of Derby ; 60,000?. subscribed ; 
site granted by the corporation 1885 ; opened by 
the queen ; alderman Radcliffe, the mayor, 
knighted 11 May; the queen leaves 13 May; 
2,468,098 visitors ; reported receipts 131,032?. ; 
expenditure 150,167?. ; closed . . 8 Nov. 

Riots ; socialist, orangemen, &c. . 19 Sept. 

Messrs. Lewis's premises with a clock-tower burnt ; 
estimated loss 250,000?. ... 24 Dec. 

Royal Jubilee Exhibition opened by the princess 
Louise 16 May, 

First meeting of the National Association for the 
Advancement of Art .... 3-7 Dec. 

Strike of sailors and firemen end of May ; ended 

12 July, 

Frequent dock strikes, met by a supply of men, 

Feb., March, 

About 20,000 men on strike, reported 7 March ; 
soldiers frum Fresvon arrive, 18 March ; dispute 
settled 31 March, 

The duke of Clarence and Avondale opens the new 
Royal Infirmary 29 Oct. 

Mr. George Holt presents 10,000?. to endow a chair 
of physiology in University College . 3 June, 

Naval exhibition opened by lord George Hamilton, 

1 Feb. 

Great cotton lire at Bramley Moor Dock ; estimated 
loss, about 100,000' 15 Feb. 

Mr. John llartnup killed by falling from the top of 
the Liverpool observatory, Birkenhead, of which 
he was director 21 April, 

Mr. W. B. Levy ami Mr. G. J. Cohen, resident 
legatees of Mr. David Lewis, merchant, in accor- 
dance with his wishes, present about 350,000?. to 
the working classes of Liverpool and Manchester ; 
announced . . ... June, 



187S 
1877 



1S79 



1S92 



18S2 



LIVERPOOL. 



747 



LLANDAFF. 



St. Peter's hall burnt .... 27 Nov. 
Mr. W. E. Gladstone receives the freedom of the 

city 3 Dec. 

New Victoria buildings of the university college, 
to which the queen had given 4,000?., opened by 

earl Spencer 13 Dec. 

Great tire in Juniper-street, 2 firemen killed ; esti- 
mated loss, 150,000? 5, 6 Jan. 

The overhead electrical railway at the docks, about 
7 miles long, begun in 1889, inaugurated by the 
marquis of Salisbury ... .4 Feb. 
Death of the earl of Derby ; he bequeaths 2,000?. for 
the purchase of pictures, his cabinet of antiqui- 
ties, to the city, and 2,000?. to found a scholarship 
or prize 21 April, 

The title of " lord " granted to the mayor 15 June, 

Fire at Hornby dock ; damage about 30,000?., 24 

July ; fire at Canada clock, estimated damage 

100,000?. ...... 5 Aug. 

Death of Mr. Charles Edward Horsfall, who 
bequeaths 14,700?. to charities . . 21 Aug. 

Mr. George Holt presents 10,000?. to endow a chair 
of pathology at the University college and 5,000?. 
for the laboratory and staff . . . April, 

Visit of the duke and duchess of York ; foundation 
stone of new post office laid and wedding gift 
received 10 Sept. 

Death of Mr. George Holt ... 3 April, 

British association meets here fourth time, 

16-23 Sept. 

The foundation of the "David Lewis" northern 
hospital laid by the countess of Derby (lady 
mayoress) 19 Oct. 

The earl of Derby elected lord mayor, Nov. 1895 ; 
returns his allowance of 2000?. . . 22 Oct. 

Rt. hon. sir Arthur B. Forwood, M.P., active mayor 
in 1877, bart. 1895, died . . .28 Sept. 

New laboratories, the gift of the rev. S. A. Thomp- 
son- Yates to the university college, opened by 
Lord Lister (15,000?. subscribed to them by Mrs. 
G. Holt and daughter, reported 14 Oct. 1899) 

8 Oct. 

The earl of Derby and Mr. Sutton Timms subscribe 
1,000?. each to the Liverpool church house, Jan. 
1899 ; foundation stone laid by the countess of 
Derby 1 Aug. 

School of tropical diseases (University college and 
Roy. Southern hospital), suggested 12 Nov. 1898 ; 
Mr. A L. Jones subscribes annually 350?. ; a 
ward opened at the Roy. Southern hospital by 
lord Lister, 22 April ; see Sierra Leone. 

The duke of York opens the new general post-office 
and visits the Conway training ship . 19 July, 

Mr. T. H. Ismay, shipowner and great organiser 
(White star co.), donor of 20,000?. towards a pen- 
sion fund for Liverpool sailors (1887), dies, aged 6t, 

23 Nov. 

Sir Henry Tate, a liberal benefactor to the city (see 
National Gallery), dies, aged 80 (gave 42,000?. to 
University college) 5 Dec. 

Church house (total cost 65,000?.), first section 
opened by abp. of York ... 18 May, 

The duke of Devonshire opens a new central tech- 
nical school 26 Oct. 

Fire at the exchange, estimated damage 10,000?. 

6 Dec. 

Fire at Dingle station (see Railways), six deaths, 

23 Dec. 

Lord Derby's motion in favour of a university for 
the city, adopted ; 80,000?. promised at a meeting 
held 27 Jan. i 

Lord Rosebery exhorts the liberals to wipe their 
slate clean and make a fresh start . . 14 Feb. 

Liverpool bank frauds ; see Trials . . 17, 22 Feb. 

Mr. Wm. Rathbone, philanthropist, 12 yrs. M.P. 
for Liverpool, dies, aged 83 . . .6 March, 

Mr. Wm. Johnston gives 25,000?. for medical 
research in' the new university, announced, 

7 March, 

Princess Louise, duchess of Argyll, opens a navy 
league exhibition, a church pupil teachers' col- 
lege, and the David Lewis northern hospital, 

t2, 13 March, 



New botanical laboratories presented by Mr. W. P. 

Hartley, opened by sir Wm. Thiselton Dyer, 

10 May, 1902 
Sir W. Laurier, Canadian premier, opens the new 

produce exchange 7 Oct. ,, 

Lords Roberts and Kitchener presented with the 

freedom n Oct. „ 

Mr. A. Carnegie opens a new library (cost 12,000?.), 

15 Oct. „ 
Mr. Chamberlain speaks at the Hippodrome on 

Preferential tariffs .... 27 Oct. 1903 

LIVEEPOOL ADMINISTRATION. 

Shortly after the assassination of Mr. Perceval 
(11 May, 1812), the earl of Liverpool became first 
minister.* His administration terminated when he 
was attacked by apoplexy, 17 Feb. 1827, and Mr. 
Canning succeeded as prime minister, 10 April. 

Earl of Liverpool, first lord of the treasury. 

Earl of Eldon, lord chancellor. 

Earl of Harrowby, lord president of the council. 

Earl of Westmorland, lord privy seal. 

N. Vansittart, chancellor of the exchequer (succeeded by 

F. J. Robinson, 1823). 

Viscount Sidmouth, home secretary (succeeded by Robert 

Peel, 1822). 
Viscount Castlereagh, aft. marquis of Londondeny, 
foreign secretary (succeeded by George Canning, 1822). 
Earl Bathurst, colonial secretary. 
Viscount Melville, first lord of admiralty. 
Earl of Buckinghamshire, board 0] control (succeeded by 

G. Canning, 1816 ; C. Bathurst, 1820 ; C. Wynne, 1822). 
Charles Bathurst (1813), chancellor of duchy of Lancaster 

(succeeded by N. Vansittart, lord Bexley, 1823). 

Wellesley Pole, afterwards lord Maryborough, 1815, 
master of the mint. 

F. J. Robinson, 1818 ; W. Huskisson, 1823, board of trade. 

Earl of Mulgrave, ordnance (succeeded by duke of Wel- 
lington, 1819). 

LIVERPOOL Bishopric established by 

order of the privy council, 24 March, 1880 ; St. 
Peter's church to be the cathedral^ first bishop, 
John Charles Eyle, D.D. (died 10 June, 1900) ; 
Fras. Jas. Chavasse, consecrated 25 April, 1900. 

LIVINGSTONE, see under Africa, 1856 et 
seq. Livingstone College, Leyton, incorporated 
1900, to train missionaries in the elements ot medi- 
cine and surgery ; also a medical mission dis- 
pensary, a travellers' health bureau, and Climate, 
an illustrated quarterly journal of health and travel, 
published by the bureau. Knott' s-green house, 
Leyton, acquired by the college to form a memorial 
to Dr. Livingstone, total fund, 4,500/., reported at 
a meeting in Whitehall, 4 Bee. 1900. King 
Lewanika of Barotseland received here, 11 July, 
1902. Livingstone exhibition opened at West- 
minster, 18 June, 1901. 

LIVONIA, a Russian province on the Baltic 
sea, first visited by some Bremen merchants about 
1 158. It has belonged successively to Denmark, 
Sweden, Poland, and Russia. It was finally ceded 
to Peter the Great in 1 72 1. Population in 1886, 
1,239,728 ; 1897, 1,300,640. 

LIVRET D'OUVRIER, a species of work- 
man's passport, introduced into France by Turgot 
about 1781 ; abolished 23 March, 1869. 

LLANDAFF (S. Wales). The first known 
bishop was St. Dubritius, said to have died in 612. 

* Robert Jenkinson, born 7 Jan. 1770, entered the house 
of commons under Mr. Pitt ; opposed the abolition of the 
slave trade in 1792 ; became lord Hawkesbury in 1796 ; 
became foreign minister under Mr. Addington in 1801 ; 
succeeded his father as earl of Liverpool in 1808 : died 4 
Dec. 1828. 



LLERENA 



748 LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACT. 



The see is valued in the king's books at 154?. 14*. id. 
per annum. Present income 4,200^. 

RECENT BISHOPS. 

782. Richard Watson ; died 4 July, 1816. 
1816. Herbert Marsh ; trans, to Peterborough, 1819. 
1819. Wm. Van Mildert ; translated to Durham, 1826. 

1826. Charles Richard Sumner ; translated to Win- 

chester, 1827. 

1827. Edward Copleston ; died 14 Oct. 1849. 
1849. Alfred Ollivant, died 16 Dec. 1882. 

1883. Richard Lewis, consecrated 25 April, 1883. 

LLERENA, see Villa Franca. 

" LLEWELLYN GIFT," over 20,000^., be- 
queathed by Mr. Evan Llewellyn as a fund in trust 
to the magistrates of the metropolitan police courts 
for the poor, announced, 25 Jan. 1899. 

LLOYD'S (London), at the Royal Exchange 
about 1692. A coffee-house, kept by Edwd. Lloyd, 
Abchurch-lane, became a place of meeting of mer- 
chants. After several removals it was established 
finally at the Royal Exchange in 1774, and re- 
mained there till the fire in 1838, when it was 
removed till the present building was completed in 
1844. Here resort eminent merchants and ship- 
owners, and here are effected insurances on ships and 
merchandise. A Register of ships began about 
1764; and the terms Ai, &c. were used about 
1775. Two societies (underwriters and merchants) 
were united, and one register issued, Oct. 1834. 
Jubilee celebrated, 31 Oct. 1884. Lloyd's is sup- 
ported by subscribers who now pay annually 5^. 5*., 
formerly 4/. 4*. The books kept here contain an 
account of the arrival and sailing of vessels, and 
are remarkable for their early intelligence of 
maritime affairs. Many new signalling stations 
established, 1882-3. First annual issue of the 
" Universal Shipping Register," published here, 
May, 1886. In 1 803, the subscribers instituted 
the Patriotic Fund {which see). The Austrian 
Lloyd's, an association for general, commercial, 
and industrial purposes, was founded at Trieste, by 
Baron Bruck, in 1833. It has established regular 
communication between Trieste and the Levant, 
by means of a fleet of steamers carrying the mails, 
and publishes a journal. Colonial premiers enter- 
tained at the new premises, Fench.urch.-st., 14 July, 
1902. 

LOADSTONE, see Magnetism. 

LOAN EXHIBITIONS, see Exhibitions, 

National Portraits, Scientific Apparatus, §c. 

LOANO, Piedmont (N. Italy). Here the Aus- 
trians and Sardinians were defeated by the French, 
under Massena, 23, 24 Nov. 1795. 

LOANS for the public service were raised by 
Wolsey in 1522 and 1525. In 1559 Elizabeth 
borrowed 200,000^. of the city of Antwerp, to en- 
able her to reform her own coin, and sir Thomas 
Gresham and the city of London joined in the 
security, liapin. The amount of some of the 
English and other loans, during memorable periods, 
viz. : — 



Seven years' war 
American war . . . 
French revolutionary war. 
War against Bonaparte 
2 loans, 1813 

Wiir against Russia . . 
For deficiency in revenue . 



'755 to 1763 . £52,100,000 

1776101784 . 75,500.000 

1793 to 1802 . 168,500,000 

1803 to 1814 . 206,300,000 
£21,000,000 and 22,000,000 

1855 to 1856 . 16,000,000 

. 1856 . 10,000,000 



[Both taken by the Rothschilds alone. | 
By East India Company 1858 8,000,000 



A subscription loan (i3,ooo,oooZ.) to cany on the war, 
against France, filled up in London in 15 hours and 
20 minutes (see Loyalty Loans), 5 Dec. 1796. 

War loan, 29,550,000^ , April, 1900. 

French loan on 9 July, 1855, on account of the war with 
Russia. The French legislature passed a bill for raising 
by loan 750 million francs (30,000,000?. sterling). On 
the 30th the total subscribed in France amounted to 
3,652,591,985 francs (about 146,103,6792.), nearly five 
times the amount required ; 2,533,888,450 francs were 
from Paris ; from the departments, 1,118,703,535 francs. 
The number of subscribers was 316.864. No less than 
231,920,155 francs were made up by subscription of 50 
francs and under. About 600 millions came from foreign 
countries. The English subscription of 150,000.000 
francs was returned, as double the amount required 
had been proffered. 

The French government raised a loan of 20,000,000?. for 
the Italian war from its own people without difficulty. 
May, 1859. 

A Turkish loan, in 1854, at yh per cent. , recommended 
by lord Palmerston ; a loan of 5,000,000?., at 4 per 
cent., on the security of England and France, was 
taken up by Rothschild in Aug. 1855, and was well 
received : the stock rose to a small premium. 

French loan for 17,600,000/. announced 29 Jan. 1868. 

French loan 2,000,000,000 francs for 80,000,000?. : nearly 
twice the amount subscribed in France alone, 28 June, 
1871 ; another loan (of 120,000,000?. at 6\ per cent.), 
for speedy payment of the indemnity and evacuation 
of the provinces held by the Germans ; announced 26 
July, 1872 ; above twice the amount subscribed. See 
France. 

Foreign Loans Committee : appointed to inquire con- 
cerning certain loans to Honduras, Costa Rica, and 
Paraguay, in their report comment on the exaggerated 
statements respecting the revenues and resources of 
the states in the prospectuses, the efforts of the con- 
tractors to make fictitious markets ; the proceedings 
on the stock exchange to maintain their prestige ; the 
secrecy adopted in the proceedings ; " the best secu- 
rity against the recurrence of such evils will be found, 
not so much in legislative enactments as in the en- 
lightenment of the public as to their real nature and 
origin, thus rendering it more difficult for unscrupulous 
persons to carry out schemes .... which have ended 
in so much discredit and disaster," July, 1875. 

Loan bill (S. African war), 60,000,000?. passed, 9 Aug. 
1901. 

LOAN SOCIETIES. The laws relating to 
them were amended by the act 3 & 4 Vict. c. 1 10 ; 
passed Aug. 1840. 

LOBSTERS and CRABS- The size at which 
they are to be sold is regulated by the Fisheries 
act, 1877. 

LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACT, passed in 
1858, was amended in 1861. Scotch local govern- 
ment bill introduced by the lord advocate, J. P. B. 
Robertson, 8 April, passed 26 Aug. 1889. 

Mr. Ritchie's Local Government Bill (England & Wales) 
read first time 19 March ; second time item. con. 20 
April ; royal assent 13 Aug. 1888 ; 51 & 52 Vict. c. 41. 

I. Establishes County Councils in every adminis- 
trative county as defined by the act. Council to 
consist of councillors and aldermen, with a chair- 
man ; electors to be parliamentary voters, and male 
and female ratepayers. 

II. 61 boroughs constituted county boroughs ; the 
metropolis constituted the county of London, super- 
seding the Metropolitan Board of Works. 

III. Boundaries. 

IV. Finance. 

V. Supplemental. 

VI. Transitory provisions ; first election (for three 
years) in Jan., and duties entered on 1 April, 1889. 

Local Government (Boundaries) Act. See under 

Boundary Acts, 1887. 
Locai Government (Electors) Act passed 16 May, 

i883. (Elections) bill passed, 6 March, 1S96. 



LOCAL GOVEENMENT BOAED. 



v. 



LODGEES. 



Irish Local Government Bill introduced by Mr. A. J. 
Balfour (due pro vision made for the rights of minorities); 
read first time 18 Feb. ; second reading (339-247) 
24 May ; withdrawn, 13 June, 1S92 ; Mr. Gerald Bal- 
four's bill passed, 12 Aug. 1898 ; bill (No. 2) royal 
assent, 18 Dec. 1902. See Ireland. 

Bill for the establishment of parish councils (which 
see) read first time, 21 March, 1893 ; passed, 5 March, 
1894. 

Scotch Local Government Act passed, 25 Aug. 1894 ; 
amended March, 1895. See Scotland. 

Parish councils (which see), guardians and district 
councils established, 1894. See London Govmt. Act, 
13 July, 1899. 

LOCAL GOVEENMENT BOAED (anew 
department of the government, comprising the 
supervision of the public health, and local govern- 
ment together with the powers and duties of the 
Poor Law board, including education, police, 
highways,' &c.), was established in pursuance of 
an act passed 14 Aug. 1871. First president, Mr. 
James Stansfeld, appointed president of the poor 
law board, March, 1871. Mr. (aft. sir John) Lam- 
bert, C.B., first secretary, appointed Sept. 1871. 
Reports issued annually. See Gladstone and other 
Administrations, and Children, Jan. 1897. 

LOCAL LOANS ACT, passed 13 Aug. 1875. 
By the National Debt and Local Loans Act passed 
12 July, 1887, the local loans stock was created. 
In May, 1891, the local indebtedness was stated to be 
about 195,400,000?., which is still increasing, being the 
result of expenditure by local authorities on important 
public works, frequently reproductive, and also sani- 
tary improvements. The debtors include nearly all 
the great towns in the kingdom. See National Debt, 
1895. 

''LOCAL OPTION," see Permissive Bill 
and Liquor Traffic. 

LOCAL PAELIAMENTS- The first of 
these mimic parliaments was opened in Liverpool, 
about 1864 ; a conference of about 150 delegates 
from 146 of these assemblies, with 20,000 members, 
in Great Britain, met at the Crystal Palace, 20-23 
May, 1883. 

LOCAL EATES in England, come from 26 
sources. 
Local self-government is a chaos of authorities, of rates, 

and areas. G. J. Goschen. 

See Probate Duty, 1888. 

The London Ratepayers' Defence League formed (the 
duke of Westminster president) 18 Nov. 1891. 

Bating Act, 37 & 38 Vict. c. 54, passed, 7 Aug. 1874 ; 
abolishes exemption from the Poor Law Act, 43rd of 
Elizabeth, and provides for the rating of woods, mines, 
rights of fowling, fishing, &c. A bill for the rating of 
machinery was read a second time in 1890, 1892, 1893 
and 1895. 

Beport on local taxation by Mr. Henry H. Fowler (pre- 
sident of the Local Government board), April, 1893. 
[Expenditure, 1868, 24,740,000?. ; 1891, 50,662,000, 
principally raised by rates. England and Wales, 
1894, 32,223,972?. ; Scotland, 3,355,022?. ; Ireland, 
2,867,770?. 

He introduces a bill for the equalization of rates (Lon- 
don) ; read first time, 1 May ; withdrawn, Sept. 1893 ; 
act passed, 25 Aug. 1894. 

Boyal commission on local taxation appointed ; lord 
Balfour of Burleigh, lord Emlyn, Mr. J". B. Balfour, 
and others, met, 6 May, 1897 ! reports issued, 1 Feb. 
1901 ; blue-book published, Times, 1 Sept. 1902. 

LOCHLEVEN CASTLE (Kinross), built on 
an isle in Loch Leyen, it is said by the Picts, was 
the royal residence of Alexander III. and his queen 
when taken from it to Stirling. It was besieged 
by the English in 1301, and in 1334. Patrick 
Graham, first archbishop of St. Andrews, im- 
prisoned for attempting to reform the church, died 



here about 1478. The earl of Northumberland was 
confined in it, 1569. It was the place of queen 
Mary's imprisonment in 1567, and of her escape on 
Sunday, 2 May, 1568. 

LOCKE'S ACT, 23 & 24 Vict. c. 127 (i860), 
relates to legal proceedings. 

LOCKE KING'S ACTS; 17 & 18 Vict, 
c. 113 (1854), an(1 3° & 3 1 vict - c. 69 (1867), relate 
to mortgages. 

LOCK HOSPITAL, established 1747; the 
asylum, 1787. 

LOCK-OUTS, see Strikes. 

LOCKS, early used by the Egyptians, Greeks, 
Romans, and the Chinese. Denon has engraved an 
Egyptian lock of wood. Uu Cange mentions locks 
and padlocks as early as 1 381. 

Barron's locks (on the many-tumbler principle) were 
patented in 1778; Bramah's, in 1788; and Chubb's 
"detector" locks in 1818. 

Mr. E. Beckett Denison (now lord Grimthorpe) in- 
vented a lock asserted to be secure against picking in 
1852. 

New locks have been produced by Messrs. Day and 
Newell, Yale, Andrews, and others, especially in 
America. 

Mr. Hobbs, an American, exhibited his own locks in 
the Crystal palace, in 1851, and showed great skill in 
picking others. 

A " Key Bureau " to aid in the recovery of lost keys 
(charge is. per annum) established in London in 1885. 

Chubb's "panic door lock" for easy opening of doors 
in theatres announced Oct. 1887. 

Mr. F. J. Biggs's tubular lock, said to be cheaper and 
better than mortice locks, manufactured by a syndi- 
cate in London, May, 1890. 

A beautiful key composed of gold and other metals 
brought from various colonies was made by Messrs. 
Chubb and used by the queen in opening the Imperial 
Institute, 10 May, 1893. 

LOCOMOTIVES, see Railways. The use of 
steam locomotives on ordinary roads is regulated by 
acts passed in 1861, 1865, 1878 and 1898. See 
Carriages, 1896. 

LOCEIANS, an ancient people of Northern 
Greece. They resisted Philip of Macedon, were 
aided by the Athenians and Thebans, and defeated 
by him at Chseronea, 6 or 7 Aug. 338 B.C. 

LOCUSTS, one of the plagues of Egypt, 1491 
B.C. (Exod. x.) The ravages of locusts in Cyprus 
have been greatly checked by the skill and energy 
of Mr. Richard Mattei and Mr. Samuel Brown, 1881 
et seq. A swarm of locusts settled upon the ground 
about London, and consumed the vegetables ; great 
numbers fell in the streets ; they resembled grass- 
hoppers, but were three times the size, and their 
colours more variegated, 4 Aug. 1748. They in- 
fested Germany in 1749, Poland in 1750, S. Africa 
1797, 1877, and Warsaw in June, 1816. They are 
said to have been seen in London in 1857 Russia 
was infested by them in July, i860; Algeria, 
severely,in 1866. 1874, 1889, and 1891-2 ; Sardinia 
in 1868; and Minnesota, U.S., 1873-74; S. Russia, 
June, 1884; Cyprus, 1884 et seq. ; N. India, June, 
July, 1891 ; Morocco, Dec. 1891, June, 1892 ; Gib- 
raltar, Algeria and Morocco, 26 April, 1893; Tokar, 
Soudan, Nov. 1896; Orange River colony, Dec. 
1902. Poisoning with arsenic said to be successful 
in Natal, announced Sept. 1897. 

LODGEES paying 10I. a year for a whole year 
for apartments without furniture, acquired the 
suffrage, by Reform act passed 15 Aug. 1867. Act 
to protect their goods from distraint, passed 16 Aug. 



LODGING-HOUSES. 



750 



LOMBAEDY. 



187 1. The lodger franchise much increased by 
the Parliamentary and Municipal Eegistration act 
of 1878 ; and by the new Eeform Bill, 6 Dec. 1884. 
The assembled judges decide that with a non-resident 
landlord the lodger is a householder ; with a resident 
landlord he must qualify as a compound householder. 

LODGING-HOUSES. An act placing com- 
mon lodging-houses under the watch of the police 
was passed in 185 1. In that year a model lodging- 
house erected by prince Albert appeared at the Great 
Exhibition. Since then, blocks of lodging-houses 
for the poor have been erected by Baroness Burdett- 
Coutts and others. Mr. 1'eabody's donation of 
12 March, 1862, has been appropriated for a similar 
purpose ; see Peabodp and Rowton. On 19 Nov. 
1863, the city of London voted 20,000^. and a piece 
of land in Victoria-street (now Farringdon-road) for 
the purpose. See London, 1845. 

LODI (N. Italy). Napoleon Bonaparte, com- 
manding the French army, totally defeated the 
Austrians, under Beaulieu, after a bloody engage- 
ment, at the bridge of Lodi, 10 May, 1796. The 
republican nag floated in Milan a few days after. 
Monument to Victor Emmanuel inaugurated, 16 
Sept. 1883. 

LOGAEITHMS, the indexes of the ratio of i 
numbers one to another, were invented by John 
Napier, baron of Alerchiston, who published his 
canon, or table, in 1614. The invention was com- 
pleted by Mr. Henry Briggs, at Oxford, who pub- 
lished tables, 1616-18. The meuiod of computing 
by means of marked pieces of ivory was discovered 
about the same time, and hence called Napier's 
bones. 
"The Construction of Logarithms," 1619, by John 

Napier, baron of Merchiston, translated, with notes 

and a catalogue of Napier's works, by Wm. Rae Mac- 

donald, published in 1889. 

"LOGIA" (sayings or oracles) of our Lord, 
deciphered from a leaf of papyrus found at 
Oxyrynchus (Behnesa) by Messrs. Grenfell and 
Hunt, winter of 1896-97 ; fresh discoveries 1902-3. 

LOGIC, " the science of reasoning." Eminent 
works on it are by Aristotle ; Bacon, Novum 
Organon ; Locke on the Understanding ; and the 
modern treatises on Logic, b) r archbishop "Whately, 
sir "William Hamilton, and Mr. John Stuart Mill. 
Earl Stanhope's Demonstrator, or Logical Machine, in- 
vented in the latter part of the 18th century, was de- 
scribed by rev. Robert Harley to the British Associa- 
tion, 19 Aug. 1878. 
In his " Principles of Science," 1874, Mr. Wm. Stanley 
Jevons describes his " Logical Abecedarium " and 
" Logical Slate." 
G. Boole on " Laws of Thought," 1854. 
J. Venn's "Symbolic Logic," July, 1881. 

LOGIERIAN SYSTEM of musical educa- 
tion, commenced by J. B. Logier, in Jan. 1815, and 
introduced into the chief towns of the United King- 
dom, Prussia, &c. He died in 1846. 

LOG-LINE, used in navigation, about 1570; 
first mentioned by Bourne in 1577. It is divided 
into spaces of 50 feet, and the way which the ship 
makes is measured by a half-minute sand-glass, 
which bears nearly the same proportion to an hour 
that 50 feet bear to a mile : the line used in the 
royal navy is 48 feet. 

LOGOGRAPH, apparatus invented by Mr. W. 
H. Barlow, about 1874, to give graphic representa- 
tion of the vibratory motions of the air-waves 
of speech, somewhat resembling a telegraphic 
message. 



LOGOGRAPHIO PRINTING, in which 
the commoner words were cast in one mass, was 
patented by Henry Johnson and Mr. John Walter 
of the Times vo.i~%t ) . Anderson's "History of Com- 
merce," vol. iv., was printed by these types in 1789. 

LOGRONO, seeNa/ara. 

LOI DES SUSPECTS, enacted by the 
French convention, 17 Sept. 1793, during the reign 
of terror, filled the prisons of Paris. The Public 
Safety bill, of a similar character, was passed, 
18 Feb. 1858, shortly after Orsini's attempt on the 
life of the emperor, Napoleon III. 

LOLLARDS (by some derived from the German 
lollen, to sing in a low tone, by others derived from 
the English verb to loll or lounge), the name given 
to the first reformers of the Soman catholic religion 
in England, the followers of Wykliffe. The sect is 
also said to have been founded in 1315 by Walter 
Lollard, who was burnt for heresy at Cologne in 
1322. The Lollards are said to have devoted them- 
selves to acts of mercy. The first Lollard martyr 
in England was William Sawtree, parish priest of 
St. Osith, London, 12 Feb. I40i,when the Lollards 
were proscribed by parliament, and numbers of 
them were burnt alive. Sir John Cobham, lord 
Oldcastle, a follower of Wykliffe, was accused of 
treason and condemned, Sept. 1413. He escaped to 
Wales, where he was captured, and brought to 
London and burnt, 25 Dec. 1418. Lollards' tower, 
! part of the bishop's prison, was near St. Paul's, not 
Lambeth palace. Dr. Maitland. 

LOMBARDISTS, disciples of Peter Lombard, 
the schoolman, bishop of Paris, author of the " Book 
of Sentences," who died in 1164. 

LOMBARD MERCHANTS, in England, 
were understood to be composed of natives of some 
one of the four republics of Genoa, Lucca, Florence, 
or Venice. Anderson. Lombard usurers were sent 
to England by pope Gregory IX. to lend money to 
convents, communities, and private persons who 
were not able to pay down the tenths which were 
collected throughout the kingdom with great rigour 
that year, 13 Hen. III. 1299. They had offices in 
the street named after them to this day. Their 
usurious transactions caused their expulsion from 
the kingdom in the reign of Elizabeth. 

LOMBARDY _(N. Italy) derived its name 
from the Longobardi, a German tribe from Branden- 
burg, said (doubtfully) to have been invited into 
Italy by Justinian to serve against the Goths. 
Their chief, Alboin, established a kingdom which 
lasted from 568 to 774. The last king, Desiderius, 
was dethroned by Charlemagne. (For a list of 
the Lombard kings, see Italy.') About the end of 
the 9th century the chief towns of Lombardy forti- 
fied themselves, and became republics. The first 
Lombard league, consisting of Milan, Venice, 
Pavia, Modena, &c, was formed to restrain the 
power of the German emperors, in 1167. On 29 
May, 1 1 76, they defeated the emperor Frederick 
Barbarossa at Legnano, and eventually compelled 
him to sign the peace of Constance in 1183. In 
1226 another league was formed against Frede- 
rick II., which was also successful. After this, 
petty tyrants rose in most of the cilies, and foreign 
influence quickly followed. The Guelf and Ghibel- 
line factions greatly distracted Lombardy ; and 
from the 15th century to the present time, it has 
been contended for by the German and French 
sovereigns. The house of Austria obtained it in 
1748, and held it till 1797, when it was conquered 



LOMBOK. 



751 



LONDON. 



by the French, who incorporated it with the Cisal- 
pine republic, and in 1805 with the kingdom of 
Italy. On the breaking up of the French empire 
in 1815, the Lombardo-Venetian Kingdom was 
established by the allied sovereigns and given to 
Austria, who had lost her Flemish possessions. 
Lombardy and Venice revolted, and joined the king 
of Sardinia in March, 1848 ; but they did not sup- 
port him well, and were again subjected to Austria 
after his defeat at Novara, 23 March, 1849. An 
amnesty for political offences was granted in 1856. 
Great jealousy of Sardinia was felt by Austria after 
1849. In 1857 diplomatic relations were suspended ; 
and in April, 1859, war broke out ; the Austrians 
crossing the Ticino and entering Piedmont. The 
French emperor declared war against Austria, and 
immediately sent troops into Italy. The Austrians 
were defeated at Montebello, 20 May ; Palestro, 30, 
31 May ; Magenta, 4 June ; and Solferino, 24 June. 
By the peace of Villafranca (11 Jul}'), the largest 
part of Lombardy was ceded to Louis Napoleon, who 
transferred it to the king of Sardinia. It now forms 
part of the new kingdom of Italy, to which Venetia 
was also surrendered by the treaty of Vienna, 
3 Oct. 1867. Population, 1890, 3,906,958; 1901, 
4,278,188. 

LOMBOK, an island in the Indian Archipelago, 
subject to the Dutch since 1863. See Holland, 
1894 et seq. 

LONATO (Brescia, N. Italy). Here Napoleon 
Bonaparte defeated Wurmser and the Austrians, 3 
Aug. 1796. 

LONDON, the capital of the British empire. 
The earliest history is traditional. The Celtic name 
is said to have been Lyn-din, lake-fort ; Tacitus in 
the first century, calls it Londinium, and describes 
it as a nourishing trading city ; it was afterwards 
called Augusta, an appellation frequently given to 
great cities ; several other forms of the name appear 
in documents, such a< Lundenbyrig, Lundonia, and 
London-wic. In i860, London and the subui-bs 
were estimated to cover 121 square miles (11 miles 
each way, being three times as large as in 1800 ; in 

1880, 122 square miles. London was constituted 
an "administrative" county by the local govern- 
ment act, 1888, including as rateable value seven- 
eighths of Middlesex, about two-thirds of Surrey, 
and nearly one-third of Kent. The population of the 
"city" in 1801,156,859; in 181 1, 120,909; ini82i, 
125,434; in 1831, 125,574; in 1841, 125,008; in 
1851, 122,440; ini86i, 112,063; in 1871,74,897; in 

1881, 50,652. Day census, 25-30 April, 2bl,o6l ; 
1891, 5 April, 37,694 (day census, 27 April, 301,384). 
For London and suburbs, 1S01 et seq. see table in 
article Population (5 April, 1891, 4,231,431). 
Inner London, 4.392.346; Outer Ring, 1,656,209 ; 
total, 6,048,555, June, 1895. Census of 29 boroughs 
in the county of London, 4,536,541 (total, 
with Outer Ring, 6,578,784), 31 March, 1901. 
Revenue of corporation, 1862, 437,341/.; 1875, 
655,391/.: expenditure, 592,244/. ; in 1877, revenue 
634,734/.: expenditure, 667,812/.; in 1892, revenue, 
788,398/.: expenditure, 770,118/.; in 1893, revenue, 
729,709/. : expenditure, 717,029/. The city is said 
to have expended 11,223,277/. in the last 50 years 
for the benefit of the metropolis (1895). Annual 
rateable value (metropolitan district), April, 1881, 
27,405,488/. ; the " city," 3,537,561/. Jan. 1888, 
34,346,596/.; gross value, 43,961,653/.; rateable 
value, 36,437,810/., 31 March; 1898. Municipal 
debt of London (county), 37,941,704/., March, 
published Nov. 1896; total debt, 38,681.661/. for 
year ending March, 1897, announced. 21 Dec. 1897. 



The "port" of London extends from London Bridge- 
to the North Foreland. Tonnage entering and 
leaving the port, 1871, 7,600,000; 1885, 12,000,000- 
(dues paid over 41,000/.). The "city" returns 2 in- 
stead of 4 members to parliament by Act of 1885. 
"London Statistics," published by London County 
Council, 1893-94. See Locks, Mayors, Metropoli- 
tan Board of Works, London County Council, and 
Treaties. 

The town appears to have prospered under British T 
Eoman, and Saxon rules, and to have been much 
indebted to Alfred and his successors, but suffered! 
greatly by the Danes ; it was not attacked by Wil- 
liam I., by whom the citizens were conciliated, and its 
corporate government was recognized by his son 
Henry I. The city receh ed many favours from the- 
Plantagenet kings, but frequently resisted their 
exactions. London is governed by the lord mayor, 
the court of aldermen, the common council, and other 
offices. London was not included in the municipal 
corporations Act, 1835. The London county council 
was constituted by the local government Act passed 
in 1888. 
London (metropolitan district), contains 6612 miles 
of streets ; 528,794 inhabited houses ; population, 

4,025,659 June, 1873 

Income of the city estates, 538,651?. . . . ,, 
Aulus Plautius invades Britain and erects a fort 

on the Thames 41 or 43; 

Boadicea, queen of the Iceni, defeats the Romans 
and burns London ; she is defeated by Suetonius 

and dies by suicide 61 

London held by the rebel emperors, Carausius and 

Allectus 286 

Conjectured date of the building of the wall . 350-369. 
800 vessels said to be employed in the port of Lon- 
don for the export of corn 359, 

St. Paul's church founded by Ethelbert, about . 597 
London termed the ecclesiastical capital of the East 

Saxons 604. 

Mellitus, first bishop (soon expelled) . . . . 604- 

A plague ravages London 644 

Great Are which nearly consumed the city . . . 798. 
London pillaged by the Danes, 839 ; these expelled ; 

Alfred repairs and strengthens London . . . 884. 
Easterlings settle in London before .... 978 

Another great fire 982 

Tower built by William I. 107S 

First charter granted to the city by the same king* 1079. 
Another great fire, St. Paul's burnt .... 1086 
606 houses thrown down by a tempest . . . 1090. 
Important Charter granted by Henry I. . . . nor 
St. Bartholomew's priory founded by Rahere, about „ 
London-bridge built, 1014 ; burnt with part of the 

city n3 & 

Charter granted by Henry II 1154. 

Old London -bridge begun n 76 

Henry Pitz-Ailwin, the first mayor (served twenty- 
four years) see below, 1889 . . . 1189 or 119T 

Massacre of Jews ,, 

First stone bridge finished 1209 

Charter of king John ; mayor and common council 

to be elected annually 1214 

Foreign merchants invited, settle here . 1199-1220. 

Charter of Henry III 1233 

Watch in London, 38 Henry III. . . . . 1253. 

Privileges granted to the Hanse merchants (which 

see) 1259- 

The liberties and privileges of the city maintained 

and enlarged by Walter Harvey, mayor . . 1272 
Tax called murage, to keep the walls and ditches in 

repair about 1282? 

Henry le Waleys and 5 others first M.P.'s for London 1284 

* It is still preserved in the city archives. This 
charter is written in beautiful Saxon characters, on a 
slip of parchment six inches long, and one broad, and is 
in English as follows :— " William the king greetetb, 
William the bishop, and Gosfrith the portreeve, and all 
the burgesses within London, French and English, 
friendly. And I acquaint you, that I will that ye be all 
there law-worthy as ye were in king Edward's days. And 
I will that every child be his father's heir, after his father's 
days. And I will not suffer that any man do you any 
wrong. God preserve you." 



LONDON. 



752 



LONDON. 



Water brought from Tyburn to West Cheap . . 1285 
Expulsion of the Jews* by Edward I. (16,511) . . 1290 
The manor of South wark conveyed to the citizens 1327 

Charter granted by Edward III 1328 

Terrible pestilence, in which 50,000 (?) citizens 

perish* 1348 

London sends 4 members to parliament . . . 1355 
William of Walworth lord mayor . . . . 1380 

Wat Tyler's rebellion (see Tyler) .... 1381 

Aldermen elected for life 1394 

Great plague, 30,000 (?) died 1406 

City first lighted at night by lanterns . . . . 1415 
Guildhall commenced 1411, finished . . . 1416 
Whittington thrice lord mayor, viz., 1397, 1406, 1419 
Jack Cade's rebellion ; see Cade .... 1450 
First civic procession on the water ; sir John Nor- 
man lord mayor 1453 

Falconbridge attempts the city .... 1471 

Printing-press set up by Caxton ,, 

Sweating sickness rages 1485 

Fleet ditch navigable 1502 

St. Paul's school founded by dean Colet . . . 1509 

The fatal sweat, Sudor Anglicus 1517 

Evil May-day (which see) ,, 

Streets first paved (Viner's Slat.) . . . . 1533 

<l Bills of Mortality " ordered to be kept . . . 1538 

Dissolution of religious houses 1539 

St. Bartholomew's monastery changed to an hospital ,, 
Forty taverns and public houses allowed in the 

city, and three in Westminster, act 7 Edw. VI. . 1553 
Christ's hospital founded by king Edw. VI. . . ,, 
Russian trading company established . . . . ,, 

Coaches introduced about 1563 

Royal Exchange built (see Exchange) . . . 1566 
New buildings in London forbidden "where no 
former hath been known to have been," to pre- 
vent the increasing sizet 1580 

Thames water conveyed into the city by leaden 

pipes 1580-94 

Stow publishes his survey 159S 

Nearly all London yet built of wood . . . 1600 
30,578 persons said to perish by the plague . . 1603 
Thomas Sutton founds Charterhouse school, &c. . 161 1 
New river water brought to London . . . .1613 

Principal streets paved 1616 

Hackney coaches first plied 1625 

A great plague , , 

Building of the western parishes, St. Giles's, <fec. 

begun 1640 

The city held for the parliament . . ' . . 1642 

London fortified 1643 

Jews allowed to return to London by Cromwell . 1650 
Banking begun by Francis Child . . about 1660 
Royal Society of London chartered . . . . 1662 

The great plague (see Plagues) 1665 

" Oxford" afterwards " London Gazette " published 

7 Nov. ,, 
Great fire of London (see Fires) . . 2-6 Sept. 1666 
Act for a "new model of building" in the city . „ . 
Monument erected by Wren (see Monument) . 1671-7 

St. Paul's founded 21 June, 1675 

A London directory published 1679 

Charter granted by Charles II. .... 1680 

* This terrible pestilence broke out in India, and 
spreading itself westward through every country on the 
globe, reached England. Its ravages in London were 
so great that the common cemeteries were not sufficient 
for the interment of the dead, and various pieces of 
ground without the walls were assigned for burial-places. 
Amongst these was the waste land now forming the 
precincts of the Charter-house, where upwards of 50,000 
bodies were then deposited. This disorder did not sub- 
side till 1357. Leigh. 

+ This proclamation or decree was dated from None- 
such, 7 July, 1580, and it was forbidden to erect new 
buildings where none had before existed in the memory 
of man. The extension of the metropolis was deemed 
calculated to encourage the increase of the plague ; 
create a trouble in governing such multitudes ; a dearth 
of victuals ; multiplying of beggars, and inability to 

relieve them ; an increase of artisans more than could 
live together; impoverishing oilier cities for lack of 
inhabitants. The decree stated that lack of air, lack of 
room to walk ami shout , &c. , arose out of (no crowded a 
city. A proclamation to the same effect was also issued 
by James I. 



Penny post established 1683 

London partly lit at night by Edward Heming's 

patent 1684-5 

Settlement of French protectants .... 1685 
Charter declared forfeited, 1682 ; but restored . . 1689 

Bank of England established 1694 

St. Paul's opened 2 Dec. 1697 

Awful storm .... 26 Nov.-i Dec. 1703 

Sacheverel's sermon and mob (see Riots) . . . 1709 
Act for the erection of fifty new churches . .1711 
South Sea bubble commenced, 1710 ; exrjloded (see. 

South Sea Company) 1720 

Chelsea water works formed 1722 

The Election act passed 1724 

Bank of England built 1732-4 

Glass lamps in the street . . between 1694 & 1736 
Fleet ditch covered, and Fleet market opened . 1737 
" Great Frost," 25 Dec. 1739 to 8 Feb. . . . 1740 

London Hospital instituted „ 

New Mansion-house founded, 1739; completed . . 1753 

British Museum established ,, 

Society of Arts established ,, 

The New road, 1755-6 ; City road projected about 1760 

Eight gates removed 1760-1 

Shop signs removed 1762 

Westminster paving-act passed . . . ,, 

Blackfriars-bridge opened ... 19 Nov. 1769 

The lord mayor (Brass Crosby) committed to the 

Tower by the House of Commons for a breach of 

privilege 27 March, 1771 

Lord George Gordon's No-popery mob (see Gordon's 

mob) June, 1780 

Thanksgiving of George III. at St. Paul's Cathedral 

23 April, 1789 
Building of Camden town, begun . . . . 1791 
Royal Institution of Gt. Britain founded . . 1799 
London docks opened .... 20 Jan. 1805 

London Institution founded ,, 

Lord Nelson's funeral .... 9 Jan. 1806 

Gas first exhibited in Pall Mall 1807 

Riots on the committal of sir F. Burdett to the 

Tower 6 April. 1810 

The Mint finished 1811 

Regent-street begun 1813 

Civic banquet to the allied sovereigns at Guildhall, 

18 June, 1814 

Custom-house burnt 12 Feb. ,, 

The city generally lighted with gas . . . . „ 
Waterloo-bridge opened ... 18 June, 1817 

New Custom-house opened ,, 

Southwark-bridge opened . . .24 March, 1819 
The great increase in building commences . . . 1820 
Bank of England completed by sir John Soane . 1821 
Tumults at queen Caroline's funeral . 14 Aug. „ 

Cabs introduced 1823 

London Mechanics' Institution founded . . . ,, 

Bubble companies' panic 1825 

London University chartered . . . n Feb. 1826 
27 turnpikes removed by act of parliament . . 1827 

New Post-office completed 1829 

Farringdon-market opened „ 

Omnibuses introduced ,, 

New metropolitan police began . . 29 Sept. ,, 

Covent-garden market rebuilt 1830 

Memorable political panic, 5 Nov. ; and no lord 

mayor's show 9 Nov. ,, 

New London-bridge opened . . . .1 Aug. 1831 
General Fast on account of the cholera in England, 

6 Feb. 1832 
Hungerford-market opened . . . 3 July, 1833 
Houses of parliament burnt . . . . 16 Oct. 1834 
City of London school founded ....,, 

The queen dines at Guildhall . . .9 Nov. 1837 
Royal Exchange burnt .... 10 Jan. 1838 
Railway opened from London to Birmingham, 

17 Sept. ; to Greenwich . . . . 28 Dec. ,, 

Penny-postage begun .... 10 Jan. 1840 

Railway to Southampton opened . . n May, ,, 
Wood pavement tried ; fails .... ,, 

London library established . . . . . . 1S41 

Railway to Bristol opened . . . 30 June, „ 

Blackwall railway opened . . . .2 Aug. „ 

Railway to Brighton opened . . 21 Sept. „ 

Thames Tunnel opened. . . . 25 March, 1843 

Royal Exchange opened by the queen . 28 Oct. 1844 
Erection of baths and wash-houses begins . . . „ 

Fleet prison taken down 

New building act begins operation . . 1 Jan. 1845 



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753 



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Penny steamboats begun 1845 

Model lodging houses built ,, 

itailway mania ,, 

Twopenny omnibuses begun 1846 

Great Chartist demonstration in London (see 

Chartists) 10 April, 1848 

He-appearance of the cholera . . . Sept. 1849 
•Coal Exchange opened .... 30 Oct. ,, 

Lord mayor's great banquet (of mayors) — (see Lord 
Mayers) . . . . . .21 March, 1850 

Attack upon general Haynau ... 4 Sept. , , 
Great Exhibition opened, 1 May ; closed, 11 Oct. . 1851 
Duke of Wellington dies, 14 Sept. ; his funeral at 
St. Paul's (see Wellington) . 18 Nov. 1852 

Cab-strike 27-29 July, 1853 

Visit of king of Portugal . . . . 19 May, 1854 
Attack of cholera .... Aug. & Sept. ,, 
Meeting for Patriotic fund .... 2 Nov. „ 
Visit of emperor and empress of the French to the 

lord mayor 19 April, 1855 

The queen distributes Crimean medals .18 May, ,, 
Failure of Paul, Strahan, & Co. (see Trials) 5 June, ,, 
Metropolitan Local Management act passed 14 Aug. ,, 
Visit of the king of Sardinia . . 30 Nov. „ 

Metropolitan Board of Works, first meeting 22 Dec. ,, 
Peace proclaimed, 29 April ; illuminations and fire- 
works in the parks .... 29 May, 1856 
Royal British Bank stops payment (see British Bank) 

4 Sept. ,, 
Meetings of unemployed operatives in Smithfield, 

Feb. 1857 
Many commercial failures ; Bank charter act sus- 
pended 12 Nov. ,, 

James Morison (originally a poor boy), who mainly 
introduced the system of quick returns and small 
profits, dies exceedingly rich . . 30 Oct. ,, 

Metropolis divided into 10 postal districts 1 Jan. 1858 
Great Eastern launched (began 3 Nov. 1857)31 Jan. „ 
Complaints of the state of the Thames ; act for its 

purification passed 2 Aug. ,, 

Panic on stock exchange (40 or 50 failures at re- 
ported French and Russian alliance against Aus- 
tria April, 1859 

A strike among the building trades, and a lock-out 
by the masters, 8 Aug. ; the latter require the men 
to sign a document, declaring that they will not 
belong to any society which interferes with the 
freedom of the workman ; the strike was dying 
out in . . ...... Nov ,, 

Disgraceful riots at the church of St. George's in 
the East, through the indiscretion of the Trac- 
tarian clergyman, the rev. Bryan King, Sept. and 
Oct. The church (closed for a time) re-opened : 
fresh disturbances on 6, 13, 20 Nov. ; the agita- 
tion continued till Mr. King retired ; a compromise 

was effected 29 July, i860 

Metropolitan railway (underground) commenced in 

spring of ,, 

Great distress through the severe winter ; thousands 

relieved at the police offices . Dec. i860, & Jan. 1861 
Another strike in the building trades commences, 

22 March, ,, 
A street railway in the metropolis opened near 

Bayswater (temporary) . . .23 March, ,, 

Great fire near Tooley-street (see Fires) 22 June, „ 
Sale of the East India house . . 23 June, ,, 
Meeting to establish the " City of London College," 

bishop of London in the chair . . 2 Oct. „ 
Mr. George Peabody, the American merchant, gives 
150,000!. to ameliorate the condition of the poor 
and needy of London . . 12 March, 1862 
The International Exhibition opens . 1 May, ,, 
Thames embankment bill passed, after much dis- 
cussion Aug. ,, 

Fights in Hyde-park between the Garibaldians and 

Irish 28 Sept. & 5 Oct. „ 

Public meetings there prohibited . 9 Oct. ,, 

Comtesse de Silly leaves 4000L to poor of London ,. 
The Metropolitan railway opened . . 10 Jan. 1863 
Pneumatic despatch company begins to convey 

post-office bags 21 Feb. ,, 

Princess Alexandra of Denmark enters London, 

7 March, ,, 
Prince and princess of Wales present at the city ball 

at Guildhall 8 June, ,, 

Appeal of the bishop of London on account of the 
spiritual destitution ->f the metropolis (see Church 
of England.) . .... June, " „ 



The common council vote 20,000^. and a site in 
Victoria-street, E.C. (now Farringdon-road), for 
a lodging-house for the poor . -19 Nov. 

New street between Blackfriars and London- bridge 
opened 1 Jan. 

Charing Cross railway opened . . .11 Jan. 

First block of Peabody's dwellings in Spitalfields 
opened 29 Feb. 

Garibaldi enters London, n April ; receives the 
freedom of the city .... 21 April, 

Many turnpikes in the N. suburbs abolished, 1 July, 

Great excitement through the murder of Mr. Briggs 
in a carriage of the N. London railway . 9 July, 

The first railway train enters the city of London 
near Blackfriars-bridge ... 6 Oct. 

North London industrial exhibition, Islington, 
opened by earl Russell . . . -17 Oct. 

Excitement through the performance of the Daven- 
port brothers Oct. -Dec. 

Great bullion robbery in Lombard-street, 3 or 4 Dec. 

Many burglaries in London ; great robbeiy at 
Walker's, the jewellers, Cornhill . . 4, 5 Feb. 

South London industrial exhibition opened by earl 
of Shaftesbury 1 March, 

The prince of Wales present at the opening of the 
main drainage works, at the southern outfall 
near Erith 4 April, 

Prince of Wales opens the international reformatory 
exhibition at Islington . . . . 19 May, 

Cattle piague breaks out in cow houses near Barns- 
bury, about 27 June, 

Investigation into the state of the workhouse in- 
firmaries from several paupers dying through 
neglect Aug. 

Many turnpikes in the S. suburbs abolished, 31 Oct. 

Mr. Peabody adds ioo,ooo£. to his gift of 1862, 

29 Jan. 

City industrial exhibition opened by lord mayor, 

6 March, 

Horrible murder of Sarah Millson in Cannon-street 
(culprit undiscovered) . . . . 11 April, 

Black- Friday ; commercial panic ; failure of Overend, 
Gurney, & Co., Discount Company (see Bank, 
11 May) . ..... . . 10 May. 

Agra and Masterman's bank stops ; greatexcitement, 

6 June, 

Shocking revelations in London workhouse in- 
firmaries ..... June, et seq. 

Cholera prevails in east London (see Cholera), 

July-Sept. 

Riots in Hyde-park .... 23, 24 July, 

Cannon-street railway station opened . 1 Sept. 

Lord mayor honourably entertained at Brussels by 
the king of the Belgians .... Oct. 

Working classes industrial exhibition at Islington 
closed 12 Nov. 

Report of committee at common council recom- 
mending enlargement of constituency voting for 
municipal questions (from about 6700 to 15,000) 

12 Nov. 

Reform demonstration by trades unions ; procession 
of about 25,000 to Beaufort-house grounds, Bromp- 
ton ...... .3 Dec. 

Estimated population of the " City " by day, 
283,520; by night, about 100,000 . . Dec. 

Severe frost : 40 lives lost by breaking in of ice on 
ornamental waters in Regent's park . 15 Jan. 

" Icy night " ; many accidents through fall of rain 
and immediate frost 22 Jan. 

London Street Reform Association organised, Jan. 

Great distress in east London ; large subscriptions ; 
Mansion-house Metropolitan Relief Fund esta- 
blished 26 Jan. 

Metropolitan poor act passed . . 29 March, 

London conference on Luxemburg question 

7-1 1 May, 

First stone laid of Holborn viaduct, 3 June ; of new 
meat market 5 June, 

The lord mayor entertained the viceroy of Egypt 
11 June ; the Belgians, 12 July ; the Sultan, 

18 July, 

The Sultan gives 2500?. to the poor of London, 

22 July, 

Electors for M.P.'s to have 3 votes only, by Reform 
act passed 15 Aug. 

County Court for the city established by act of par- 
liament ... . . 20 Aug. 

3 c 



1864 



LONDON. 



754 



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Edw. M'Donnell shot by supposed Fenian, 28 Sept., 

died 5 Oct. 1867 

Tailors' strike, began 22 April ; over . . Oct. ,, 
Lord mayor's state coach not used . . 9 Nov. „ 
Common Council undertake erection of another 

cattle market (for foreign cattle) . . 6 Dec. „ 
Premeditated explosion outside Clerkenwell house 
of detention to release Fenians (7 persons killed 
and about 50 wounded) .... 13 Dec. „ 
Much excitement through other attempted explo- 
sions ; about 30,000 special constables sworn in, 

17-24 Dec. ,, 
Mysterious disappearance of the rev. B. Speke in 

Westminster 8 Jan. 1868 

Great distress in the east of London through want 
of employment ; meeting of employer and em- 
ployed ; work offered to the iron shipwrights at 
lower wages declined .... 25 Jan. ,, 
52,974 special constables in the metropolis up to 

28 Jan. ,, 
Mr. Speke (partially insane) found in Cornwall, 

24 Feb. ,, 
(East) London Museum Site act passed . 28 Feb. ,, 
The queen lays foundation-stone of the new St. 

Thomas's hospital .... 13 May, ,, 
Western approach street, Holborn Valley, opened, 

25 June, ,, 
Part of the Albert (southern) embankment of the 

Thames opened . . . . . 30 July, ,, 
King's Cross market opened ... 7 Aug. ,, 
Midland Counties railway station opened 1 Oct. ,, 
Great meeting to relieve sufferers by South American 

earthquake (n,ooo£.) collected . . .13 Oct. ,, 
New meat market, Smithfiekl, inaugurated by the 

lord mayor, 24 Nov. ; opened to the public, 1 Dec. ,, 
Mr. Peabody gives another ioo,oooZ. to the poor of 

London 5 Dec. ,, 

London Association for prevention of poverty and 

crime founded 17 Dec. „ 

S. London industrial exhibition opened 1 March, 1869 
Columbia market, Bethnal-green, erected by Miss 

Burdett-Coutts ; opened by her . . 28 April, ,, 
Statue of Mr. Peabody uncovered, prince of Wales 

present 23 July, ,, 

Inauguration of the Holborn viaduct and the new ,, 
Blackfriars bridge by the queen . . 6 Nov. „ 

Inauguration of the Victoria (northern) Thames em- 
bankment by the prince of Wales . . 13 July, 1870 
International workmen's exhibition at Islington 

opened by the prince of Wales . . 16 July, ,, 
London ratepayers' school-board association esta- 
blished 8 Oct. „ 

New city library and museum founded near Guild- 
hall 27 Oct. ,, 

Loudon education board elected . . 29 Nov. ,, 
Foundation-stone laid of new general post-office, 

16 Dec. „ 
Mansion-house Relief Fund established for the 

French (24,000?. raised in 4 days) . 18 Jan. 1871 

Addresses of the corporation presented . 28 Feb. „ 
Royal Albert hall, Kensington, opened by the queen, 

29 March, ,, 
First annual International Exhibition at South 
Kensington opened by the prince of Wales (closed 

30 Oct.) 1 May, , , 

St. Thomas's hospital opened by the queen, 21 June, ,, 
Hampstead heath purchased by Metropolitan board 

of works for 45, 000J. ; act passed . 29 June, ,, 
The freedom of the city presented to prince Arthur, 

13 July, ,, 
Tolls on the Commercial roads, London, E. , ceased, 

5 Aug. 
Queen Victoria-street opened, 4 Nov. ; St. Andrew's 

street, &c, opened 20 Nov. ,, 

New lieutenancy appointed, 1 Nov. . 8 Dec. ,, 
National thanksgiving for the recovery of the prince 
of Wales ; the queen and prince go to St. Paul's. 

27 Feb. 1872 
Strike of building trades begun, 1 June (see Strikes) ; 

lock-out by the masters begun . . 19 June, ,, 
East London Museum at Bethnal-green opened by 

the prince and princess of Wales . . 24 June, ,, 
Murder of Mrs. Squires and daughter in Hoxton 

(undiscovered) .... noon 10 July, „ 
Failure of Gledstanes and Co. (East India firm) for 

nearly 2, 000, 000?. ; announced . . 22 Aug. „ 
Builders' strike and lock-out ends by agreement, 
about 27 Aug. „ 



Epidemic smallpox .... July-Sept. 1872 

Second annual International Exhibition opened 
1 May ; closed 19 Oct. „ 

New City Library and Museum at Guildhall opened 
by the lord chancellor .... 5 Nov. ,,. 

Brutal murder of Harriet Buswell, a gay woman, 
in Great Coram-street (undiscovered) 25 Dec. „. 

Forgery on the Bank of England to amount of 
8o,ooo£. detected March, 1873. 

Banquet to mayors of corporate towns at the Man- 
sion-house 26 March, „ 

Victoria-park visited by the queen ; she went 
through Islington and returned through the city, 

2 April, ,, 
The City temple (to replace the Poultry chapel) 

founded near Holborn Viaduct . . 19 May, ,, 
First Hospital Sunday (which see) . . 15 June, ,, 
The Shah of PersiaatabanquetatGuildhall, 20 June, „ 
The common council vote io.oooJ. to buy Upton 

park, West Ham Nov. ,, 

Bank-rate, 9 per cent., panic on stock exchange 

7 Nov. ,, 
Continued fog, much sickness, and many accidents 

8-13 Dec. ,, 
National training school for music, South Ken- 
sington ; foundation laid by the duke of Edin- 
burgh 18 Dec. „ 

Tichborne case closed (see Trials) . . 28 Feb. 1874 
Duke and Duchess of Edinburgh enter London 

12 March, „ 
Fourth International Exhibition, opened 6 April, ,, 
City liberal club, earl Granville, president, organ- 
ized May, ,, 

The czar entertained at Guildhall . .18 May, ,, 
City Temple, Holborn Viaduct, opened . 19 ,, ,, 
Banquet to provincial mayors at Mansion-house 

3 June, ,. 
Second Hospital Sunday . . . 14 June, ,, 
The czar presents 1000Z., to the bishop and the lord 

mayor for the poor of London . . 2 July, ,, 
First Hospital Saturday (which see) . . 17 Oct. ,, 
Freedom given to sir Garnet J. Wolseley . 22 Oct. „ 
International exhibition closed . . 31 Oct. „ 
Lord mayor Stone and the sheriffs at the opening 

of the new opera-house , Paris . . 5 Jan. 1875 

Congregational Memorial hall, Farringdon-street, 

opened iq Jan. ,, 

Arrival of Moody and Sankey (see Revivals), first 

meeting 9 March, ,, 

Lord Elcho's bill for municipal government with- 
drawn May, „ 

Great Failures in the iron trade . . 31 ,, „ 

Arrival of the Sultan of Zanzibar . . 9 June, ,, 
Failure of Alex. Collie & Co. led to others (Collie 

absconded 9 Aug.) .... June, July, ,, 
British and foreign mayors, burgomasters, prefets, 

&c. , entertained by the lord mayor . . 29 July, ,, 
Discussion on widening London Bridge Sept. -Oct. „ 
First pile of steam-ferry landing-place from Wap- 
ping to Rotherhithe struck by lord-mayor Stone 

11 Oct. ,, 
Prince Leopold takes up his freedom . . 25 Oct. ,, 
Grocers' company wing, London hospital, opened 

by the queen 7 March, 1876 

Freedom of the city given to chief-justice Cockburn 

(said to be first case of the kind) . 9 March, „ 
Banquet and ball to the prince of Wales on his 

return from India (11 May) . . . 19 May, „ 
Lord Elcho's resolution for reforming the corpora- 
tion and establishing a metropolitan government 
withdrawn from the Commons . . 13 June, ,, 
Stock exchange very dull ; new 3 per cent, con- 
sols, 97^ ...... 24 July, ,, 

Public meeting at Mansion-house respecting atro- 
cities in Bulgaria (see Turkey) . . 18 Sept. „ 
" Great Eastern-street " (from Shoreditch to Old- 
street), opened 12 Oct. ,, 

Visit of municipal officers of Paris, to inspect rail- 
ways, &o. ... 30 April — 8 May, 1877 
Sir John Bennett thrice elected alderman, rejected 
by court of aldermen, third time, 16 Oct. ; Edgar 
Breffitt elected by court of aldermen . 23 Oct. „ 
Temple Bar removed . . . 2 — 14 Jan. 1878 
Revival of trade ; bank discount 4 per cent. 1 Aug. ,, 
Banquet to the ministers after the treaty of Berlin; 
freedom of city given to the earl of Beaconsfield 
and the marquis of Salisbury . . . 3 Aug. „ 
The Parochial Charities commission appointed (the 



LONDON. 



LONDON. 



duke of Northumberland, canon R. Gregory, pre- 
bendary Win. Rogers, and others) . 9 Aug. i 

Bank discount raised to 5 per cent. . 12 Aug. 

Great Eastern-street completed and opened Aug. 

Foundering of the Princess Alice (which see) through 
collision with the Bywell Castle in Thames (see 
Mansion House Fund) .... 3 Sept. 

Waterloo-bridge opened toll-free . . 5 Oct. 

" City and Guilds of London Institute for the ad- 
vancement of Technical Education," formally 
constituted 11 Nov. 

City Church and Churchyard Protection Society 
formed Feb. : 

New-formed street between Shoreditch and Betlmal- 
green opened (it completes direct road from 
Oxford-street to Old-ford) . . .29 March. 

Holborn Town-hall opened by the lord mayor, 

18 Dec. 

The king of Greece receives freedom of the city, 

16 June, : 

Municipality of London bill introduced by Mr. Firth 
and others 25 June, 

Explosion of gas main near Tottenham-court-road ; 
2. deaths ; much property destroyed . 5 July, 

City Livery Companies' Commission appointed (earl 
of Derby, duke of Bedford, lord Sherbrooke, lord 
Coleridge, sir R. A. Cross, &c.) . . July, 

Topographical Society of London founded, 28 Oct. 

Temple Bar Memorial uncovered (see Temple), 8 Nov. 

Mansion-house (which see) ; attempt to blow it up 
detected 16 March, 

Elcho shield placed in Guildhall, 10th time 29 Oct. 

Mr. W. Ward bequeaths 20,000?., and other property 
to the Corporation, announced . 17 Nov. 

City of London College near Moorgate-st. ; founda- 
tion laid 31 March, 

The lord Mayor takes freedom of the city to the 
King of the Netherlands at the Hague . 20 Sept. 

New city of London schools, Victoria Embankment, 
opened by the prince of Wales . . 12 Dec. 

Freedom given to lord Alcester . n April, 

City of London Parochial Charities act, 46 & 47 
Vict. c. 56, passed 20 Aug. 

Much excitement about the dwellings of "Out-cast 
London" through Mr. G. R. Sims, "How the 
poor live," &c Autumn 

Meeting at the Mansion House to raise 50,000?., to 
aid the Beaumont legacy, in establishing a great 
institution for the instruction and recreation of 
the people of the East end . . .14 Dec. 

New street from King William street to the Tower 
opened 25 Jan. 

i,oooi!. offered by government, and i,ooot by 
railway companies, for discovery of dynamite 
conspirators about . . . .3 March, 
See Dynamite, and Explosions, 1883-4. 

Freedom of the city given to the earl of Shaftesbury, 
a life-long social philanthropist . . 5 March, 

Proposed settlement of Oxford and Cambridge 
university men in E. London to improve social 
life May, 

Remains of Roman architecture, &c. discovered 
during excavations in Bevis Marks, E.C. . Aug. 

The common council meet in their new chamber at 
Guildhall 2 Oct. 

The common council agree to the construction of a 
low-level bridge between the Tower and Horsely- 
down, with lifting sections for the passage of 
ships, cost about 750,000?.. . . .24 Oct. 

Great meeting of unemployed social democratic 
federation on Thames embankment ; proceed to 
local government board ; dissatisfied and riotous 

16 Feb. 

Freedom of the city presented to prince Albert 
Victor of Wales 29 June 

Tower bridge act passed ... 14 Aug 

Meeting of citizens at Guildhall ; sir John Lub- 
bock's resolution against an Irish parliament 
carried 2 April, 

Foundation-stone of the Tower bridge laid by the 
prince of Wales 21 June, 

Fire panic hi Hebrew dramatic club, Spitalfields, 
17 killed 18 Jan. 

Parliamentary committee to enquire into charges of 
spending corporation funds to oppose municipal 
reform bill report the charge to be partially 
sustained in getting up metropolitan ratepayers' 



protection association ; bogus meetings and 
much agitation (19,550?. spent in 1882-5), about 
21 May, 1887 ; charge declared not proved by 
the common council .... 9 Feb. : 

The queen receives the lord mayor and others with 
their jubilee address .... 9 May, 

The queen proceeds from Paddington to Mile End 
to open the " People's Palace " ; visits the 
Mansion-house ; the houses in the route 
splendidly decorated ; the line kept by the 
military, volunteers, and police ; no disorder, 

14 May, 

Death of sir Horace Jones, city architect, aged 68, 
21 May. See Jubilee, June, 1887. 

Terrific storm, destructive of life and property 
began 5.30 p.m., lasting about 4 hours 17 Aug. 

Increased spread of scarlet and other fever 

Sept.-Oct. 

Torchlight meeting of liberal and radical clubs 
at Rotherhithe, about 12,000 present condemning 
the Irish policy of the government . 24 Oct. 

Special constables sworn in (see Riots) 17-19 Nov. 

Freedom of the city of London conferred on the 
marquis of Hartington ... 18 April, 

The new city of London court opened by the lord 
mayor 6 Dec. 

The great free steam ferry between north and south 
Woolwich opened by lord Rosebery 23 March, 

The lord mayor Whitehead visits the exhibition at 
Paris, and is honourably entertained 6 May et seq. 

Freedom of the city given to the marquis of 
Dufferin (with banquet) ... 29 May, 

Freedom of the city presented to prince George of 
Wales 1 June, 

Strike of dock labourers (see Strikes) . Aug. -Sept. 

Ball at the Mansion-house to celebrate the 700th 
anniversary of the mayoralty . . 29 Oct 

Grand lord mayor's show arranged by Hon. Lewis 
Wingfield 9 Nov. 

Sir Sydney H. Waterlow presents a park at South 
Hampstead (see Waterlow Park) . .12 Nov. 

Lord Napier of Magdala dies 14 Jan. ; grand mili- 
tary funeral, St. Paul's . . 21 Jan. 

The freedom of the city given to Mr. H. M. Stanley 
(see Soudan, 1887 et seq.) . . .13 May 

New art gallery of the corporation opened by the 
lord mayor 10 June 

Temporary strikes of the postmen and police (which 
see) July 

Excavations near the post-office, St. Martin's-le- 
Grand ; discoveries of Roman remains, the town 
ditch, &c Sept. 

City and S. London Electric Railway opened by 
the prince of Wales .... 4 Nov. 

The Corporation medal commemorating the founda- 
tion of the mayorality in 1189, completed by 
Messrs. Kirkwood of Edinburgh . . Nov. 

Financial crisis through the serious difficulties of 
Messrs. Baring (liabilities, 21,000,000?.), who are 
promptly and judiciously assisted by the Bank of 
England, William Lidderdale, governor, aided by 
the Bank of France, and other establishments ; 
Mr Bertram W. Currie very instrumental ; 
panic hardly averted . . 8-15 Nov. et seq. 

Baring Brothers constituted a limited liability 
company, principally by Mr. T. C. Baring and the 
family ; registered 24 Nov. 

Great meeting in the Guildhall, London, appealing 
to the czar on behalf of the Jews, 10 Dec. 1890 ; 
memorial and the lord mayor's letter, returned to 
him, through the foreign office, by the Russian 
ambassador without comment . . 7 Feb. 

The telephone system between London and Paris 
inaugurated (see Telephone) . .18 March 

Freedom of the city presented to Mr. William 
Lidderdale, governor of the bank of England 

6 May 

Omnibus strike (which see) . . . 7-13 June, 

State visit of the German emperor and empress (see 
Germany) 10 July 

The prince of Naples dines with the lord mayor 

28 July 

The London Ratepayers' Defence League formed at 
a meeting at the Guildhall . . . 18 Nov. 

Death of Mr. Benjamin Scott, aged 78, chamber- 
lain since 1858, died, 17 Jan. ; succeeded by alder- 
man Win. J. R. Cotton .... 5 Feb. 

Sir Charles Hall, Q.C., elected recorder . 8 Feb. 

3 c 2 



1S89, 



1/ 



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756 



LONDON. 



The discovery of America by Columbus in 1492 
celebrated by a banquet at the Hotel Metropole 

12 Oct. 

London chamber of arbitration first sitting at 

Guildhall 23 Nov. 

London Reform Union inaugurated . . 15 Dec. 

Royal commission respecting the unification of the 

administration of London appointed, Mr. L. H. 

Courtney, chairman, sir Thomas H. Farrer, and 

others, March, 1893 ; preliminary meeting, 4 May, 

Banquet at the Mansion House to M. Waddington, 
the retiring French ambassador . . 4 March, 

Sir John Gilbert, having presented pictures to the 
city, the hon. freedom is voted to him by the 
common council 27 April, 

Great meeting at the Guildhall, protesting against 
the Irish home rule bill .... 3 May, 

The duke and duchess of York, after their wedding 
at St. James's palace (see England) drive through 
London to Liverpool St. station, and arrive at 
Sandringham 6 July, 

The king and queen of Denmark, the prince and 
princess of Wales and daughters, the cesarevitch, 
and other eminent persons, entertained by lord 
mayor Knill at the Guildhall . . .8 July, 

Corporation gifts to the duke and duchess of York 
presented at York House, St. James's . 7 Oct. 

An industrial and loan exhibition in Westminster 
opened by the bp. of Wakefield . . 4 Dec. 

Meeting of merchants and others urging the 
government to increase the navy, and offering 
financial help 12 Dec. 

The corporation declines to give further evidence 
to the unification commission, 16 Feb. ; report 01 
a committee published, Times . . 17 Feb. 

The Autonomic club-rooms, Windmill-street, Tot- 
tenham-court-road, adroitly taken by the police, 
anarchist documents found, many persons tem- 
porarily arrested ; other houses searched and 
explosives discovered, evidences of a conspiracy, 

16 Feb. 

Proposals for the unification of London presented 
to the royal commission by the London county 
council (a lord mayor, 19 aldermen, 118 coun- 
cillors, &c), reported . . . .27 Feb. 

Report adopted 16 March, 

Col. Wm. Haywood, engineer, constructor of the 
Holborn viaduct and other works, aged 72, died 

13 April, 

Cab strike, which see . . 16 May-n June, 

Tower bridge, which see, opened by the prince of 
Wales 30 June, 

Equalization of rates (London) bill passed, 25 Aug. 

Report of the royal commission appointed in 
March, 1893 ; important changes recommended, 
viz., one governing body, with various indepen- 
dent local elected bodies ; the whole area of 
London to be called the "City of London," a 
county in itself; the present "city" to be 
termed the "old city." The new governing 
body to consist of the " mayor, and commonalty, 
and citizens of London," to succeed the present 
corporation and London connty council, issued, 

29 Sept. 

Liquidation of the Raring estate practically ended, 
see above, Nov. 1890 ; reported . . . Nov. 

The earl of Rosebery at the Mansion-house, on 
'behalf of friends, presents to the rev. Wm. 
Rogers, rector of Bishopsgate, a portrait of Mr. 
Rogers, by Mr. A. S. Cope, and a piece of plate 
in recognition of his eminent services to the 
poor ; the earl also opened the Bishopsgate 
institute, established by means of ancient "dole " 
money 24 Nov. 

Thunderstorm with snow ; churches slightiy 
damaged by lightning, St. Bride's, St. Clement 
Danes, and St. Stephen's, Westminster, 23 Jan. 

Destructive gale, 4 deaths . . .24 March, 

Visit of the Afghan prince, Nasrulla Khan, to the 
Guildhall 6 June, 

Visct. Peel receives the freedom . . n July, 

Visit of the king of Portugal . . . 12 Nov. 

Close of several weeks' excitement on the Stock 
exchange, chiefly relating to Africau mines, a 
few failures, reported ... 18 Nov. 

The incorporation of Southwark with the city, 
approved by the common council . 15 April, 

Statue of the queen on the Victoria embankment, 



1894 



presented to London by sir A. Seale Haslam, un- 
veiled by the duke of Cambridge . 21 July, 

Meeting at the Mansion house in aid of the Indian 
famine relief fund ; see India . . 16 Jan. 

Bill for a vote for 96,000^. for fortifications (London), 
read 1st time 1 Feb. 

Dr. and Mrs. Nansen and others arrive (see North 
E. £ W. Passage), 3 Feb. ; he lectures to the R. 
Geog. society at the Albert hall, receives a special 
medal from the prince of Wales ; lieut. Scott- 
Hansen, scientific head of the expedition, also 
receives a medal ; photographs exhibited 8 Feb. 

Thanksgiving day, 20 June ; see Jubilees, 1897. 

Edw. Charles Baring, lord Revelstoke, formerly 
head of the firm of Baring Bros, (see above), born 
1828, died 17 July, 

Mr. Walter Burns, philanthropist, born 9 Sept. 
1838, of the Anglo-American house of J. S. 
Morgan and Co., died ... 22 Nov. 

Meeting at the Mansion house, proposing a national 
commemoration in 1901, of the death of king 
Alfred 18 March, 

Exhibition of Australian art at the Grafton gal- 
leries 4 April-July, 

Lord Kitchener receives the freedom . 4 Nov. 

The queen warmly welcomed, 15 May (see Kensing- 
ton Palace and S. Kensington) ; her 80th birthday 
celebrated ; thanksgiving services at St. Paul's 
and the Abbey (see li'indsor) . . 24 May, 

Mr. Henniker Heaton (see Post-office) receives the 
freedom .20 July, 

Meeting at the Guildhall in support of the govern- 
ment's S. African policy ... 16 Oct. 

Lloyd's-avenue, site and 6000Z. provided by Mr. J. 
Dixon, between Fenchurch-st. and Crutched- 
friars, opened by the lord mayor . .11 Nov. 

See Volunteers and England ... 19 Dec. 

City imperial volunteers, the " lord mayor's own," 
to serve in S. Africa, received at the Guildhall, 
1 Jan. 1900 ; they receive the freedom ; ^service 
held at St. Paul's and banquet at the Inner 
Temple, 12 Jan., and leave 13 Jan. ; 2nd and 3rd 
detachments, after receiving similar honours, 
leave 20 and 27 Jan. 

City subway between the Mansion-house, Bank of 
England and the Royal Exchange, partially 
opened 8 Jan. 

Great rejoicings at the relief of Ladysmith (see .5. 
African War, 28 Feb.) . . . . 1 March, 

The queen drives through the city, piesented with 
its sword by the lord mayor, and, returning it, 
said, " I wish to thank you for all that my city 
hasdone"; great demonstrations outside Buck- 
ingham palace, 8, 9 March ; queen returns to 
Windsor 10 March, 

Death of sir Chas. Hall, recorder since 1892 ; died, 
9 March ; succeeded by sir Forest Fulton, 

20 March, 

Carnivals in aid of the Transvaal war funds, held 
in St. Pancras and other parishes, 24 May ct seq. 

Return of the volunteers from S. Africa, service at 
St. Paul's,the queen's message read at the banquet 
in Finsbury by lord Wdlseley, expressing the pride 
and satisfaction with which she had heard of their 
gallantand soldierlike conduct during the dangers 
and hardships of the campaign, and alluding in 
pathetic terms to her sympathy with the relatives 
of those who have fallen (61), and to her own loss 
of a dear and most gallant grandson (prince 
Christian Victor of Schleswig-Holstein, died at 
Pretoria, 29 Oct.) .... 29 Oct. 

The lord mayor opens a new street, FitzQeorge- 
avenue, W. Kensington . . . .16 Jan. 

Death of Mandel) Creighton, bp. of London, his- 
torian and lecturer, aged 57, 14 Jan., much 
lamented, buried in St. Raid's . . 17 Jan. 

The Horniman museum, which see, opened at 
Forest-hill 29 June, 

Great overflow meeting at the Guildhall in favour 
of the government's S. African policy 10 July, 

Sir James Willcocks (see Ashantee) receives the 
freedom and a sword of honour . .11 July, 

Lord Milner receives the freedom, lords Goscheu, 
Cromer ami Mr. Chamberlain present . 23 July, 

Russian delegates (agriculturists, &c.) visit the 
markets, lunch at the Guildhall . 30 Sept. 



LONDON. 



757 



LONDON. 



The lord mayor opens new buildings to the Queen's 
Jubilee hospital, Earl's-court . . 22 Oct. : 

The duke and duchess of Cornwall welcomed home 
from colonial tour 2 Nov. 

The prince and princess of Wales entertained at 
the Guildhall ; the prince speaks warmly of the 
loyalty and attachment to the old country dis- 
played by the colonies during his tour, and that 
Gt. Britain, if she is to hold her own, "must 
wake up " 5 Dec. 

Electric explosions in the city, some damage and 
several persons injured. . . . 4, 5 Jan. : 

Death of marquis of Dufferin and Ava, ambassador 
at Paris, former viceroy of India and gov. -gen. of 
Canada, aged 75 12 Feb. 

Mr. Chamberlain enthusiastically received in the 
City ; presented with an address at the Guild- 
hall, expressing high appreciation of his ability 
as colonial secretary in welding together the 
"British dominions beyond the seas," 13 Feb. 

Mansion-house meeting; lord mayor, borough 
mayors, chairman of the county council, sir 
Thos. l.ipton (bart. 26 June), to organise the 
king's dinner to the poor; committee formed, 

18 March, 

The lord mayor opens the Colonial Products exhi- 
bition, Royal Exchange, 10 March; the "Paris 
in London" exhibition at Earl's court . 7 May, 

Prince and princess of Wales visit the Austrian 
exhibition at Knightsbridge . . 31 May, 

Peace rejoicings, illuminations and fireworks, &c. ; 
special service at St. Paul's ; state visit of the 
lord mayor to the City of London school, 2 June, 

Death of sir Richmond Cotton, city chamberlain, 
aged 80 .4 June, 

Peace thanksgivings : the king and queen receive 
the sword of the city at Temple Bar, on their way 
to St. Paul's 8 June, 

Mansion-house meeting in aid of a coronation gift 
for " King Edward's Hospital Fund " . 9 June, 

Prince Komatsu of Japan decorates the lord mayor 
with the "Order of the Rising Sun" . 23 June, 

Royal and other distinguished foreign and colonial 
guests arrive for the coronation . 23 June, 

The king and queen warmly welcomed . 23 June, 

The king dangerously ill ; coronation and most of 
the festivities postponed; see England, 24 June, 

Royal port and docks commission, lord Revelstoke, 
hon. Alf. Lyttelton, sir Robt. Giffen, sir John 
Wolfe-Barry,'and others, appointed, 1900 ; report, 
proposing a central authority to organise and 
administer the whole 7,000,000?. for expenditure 
required, issued, Times 1 July, 

Prince of Wales presents the colours to the new 
battalion of the Roy. Fusiliers, the "Old 
Seventh " 4 July, 

Grand reception of the Indian princes, at the 
India office, by the prince and princess of Wales, 

4 Ju iy, 

The king's dinner (cost 30,000?.) to about 600,000 
poor; his message sent to the lord mayor and all 
the boroughs, expressing regret at not being 
present, and hoping his guests were enjoying 
themselves and passing a happy day; the prince 
and princess of Wales and other members of the 
royal family visited different districts; the news 
that the king was out of danger greatly ap- 
plauded 5 July, 

The lord mayor entertains the abps. and bps. at 
the Mansion-house .... 9 July, 

Children's fetes at Kensington gardens, 25,000 in 
Battersea park; the duchess of Argyll present, 

29 June, 9, 11 July, 

Empire coronation banquet at the Guildhall, 

11 July, 
Coronation bazaar at the Roy. Botanic gardens in 

aid of the Children's hospital, Great Ormond- 
street, opened by the queen . 18-12 July, 
The king's dinner to the blind of London at Chel- 
sea town-hall, the duchess of Argyll present, 

12 July, 
Grand welcome to lord Kitchener ; addresses pre- 
sented by the mayors of Paddington and West- 
minster ; entertained by the prince of Wales at 
St. James's palace ; afterwards greeted by the 
king and queen and presented with the new 
order of merit 12 July, 



Queen's teas to 10,000 maid-servants in various 
districts 7 July et seq. 1 

Mr. Chamberlain and lord Kitchener receive the 
freedom of the Grocers' company . 1 Aug. 

Lords Roberts and Kitchener presented with 
addresses and plate at the Guildhall . 6 Aug. 

Coronation of the king and queen at the Abbey ; 
great rejoicings 9 Aug. 

Illuminations, &c. ; the fine Canadian arch in 
Whitehall much admired . . 9- n Aug. 

The Metropolitan Mounted Rifles from S. Africa 
attend a thanksgiving service at St. Paul's ; 
afterwards entertained by the lord mayor at the 
Mansion-house 24 Sept. 

Meeting against the Education bill, St. James's- 
hall 14 Oct. 

Lord mayor's banquet to Mr. Balfour . 15 Oct. 

The Cuming museum (founded 1782) and 8,000?. 
bequeathed by the late Mr. H. S. Cuming to 
Walworth-rd. public library, announced, 16 Oct. 

Royal procession to S. London ; the king and 
queen entertained at Guildhall . . 25 Oct. 

Mansion-house committee on the Port of London, 
meets first . 12 Nov. 

Sir Joseph Dimsdale, M.P., elected city chamber- 
lain 12 Nov. 

Great meeting in support of the education bill, 
the bps. of London and Rochester present, 

14 Nov. 

Death of Mr. R. M. Kerr, 42 years judge of city of 
London court, aged 81 ... 21 Nov. 

The queen's Christmas dinner to 629 widows and 
836 children of soldiers killed in the S. African 
war, at the Alexandria Trust, City-rd. 27 Dec. 

Mr. W. W. Astor gives 50,000?. to the hospital for 
sick children Jan. 

Marriage of Mr. Brodrick, secretary of state for 
war, with Miss Madeleine Stanley, St. George's, 
Hanover-square, Mr. Balfour " best man," 5 Jan. 

Mr. Quintin Hogg, philanthropist and founder of 
the Polytechnic, Regent-street, died from acci- 
dental suffocation, aged 57 . . -17 Jan. 

Fatal fire at Colney Hatch (see Fires) . . 27 Jan. 

London traffic commission appointed . . Feb. 

Sale of fittings and relics of Newgate prison, 4 Feb. 

Demonstration of the unemployed in Trafalgar- 
square 14 Feb. 

King and queen visit Woolwich, and open a new 
nursing department at the Herbert hospital and 
present medals to a number of nurses, 16 Feb. 

Mr. Adrian Pollock elected city remembrancer in 
succession to sir Prior Goldney, retired, end Feb. 

Appointment of Mr. E. R. Henry as commissioner 
of the metropolitan police, on retirement of Col. 
sir Edward Bradford . . . .4 March, 

Sir Chas. Wyndham's new theatre, St. Martin's: 
lane, opened . . . . , 12 March, 

First court of the season held by the king and 
queen 13 March, 

Death of Dr. Bradley, ex-dean of Westminster, 
aged 84 13 March, 

Mr. Chamberlain enthusiastically received in the 
City on his return from S. Africa ; presented 
with an address at the Guildhall, . . 20 March 

Demonstration of the properties of radium given by 
sir Wm. Crookes, at Royal society . March, 

Tercentenary of Queen Elizabeth's death celebrated 
by the Royal Geographical society . 23 March, 

The king starts on his foreign journey . 31 March 

University boat race won by Cambridge by 6 
lengths 1 April, 

London water board holds its first meeting, 2 April, 

Marriage of Miss Nellie Samuel, daughter of the 
lord mayor, to Mr. Walter H. Levy, by the chief 
rabbi, in the Egyptian hall, Mansion-house, 

7 April, 

Dr. Robertson, principal of King's college, elected 
bishop of Exeter .... 13 April, 

Royal commissiorr on food supply irr time of war, 
appointed mid April, 

Mr. Chas. Booth's " Life and Labour of the People 
in London," third series, " Religious Influences," 
published mid April 

Stockbrokers' walk to Brighton . „ . 1 May, 

Sale of jewels at Messrs. Christies' realised 58,293?. 

1 May, 



LONDON. 

Gambart collection of pictures sold for 31,014?. 

2-4 May, 190 

Arrival of the king in London from his foreign 
journey 5 May, „ 

Death of Mr. Hanbury, president of the board of 
agriculture, 28 April ; memorial service at St. 
Margaret's, Westminster . . .6 May, ,, 

Annual meeting of the navy league . . 13 May, „ 

Visit of the lord mayor and sheriffs to Brussels 
where they are feted, 6 May ; honours conferred 
by the king of the Belgians . . 7 May, ,, 

South London electric tramway opened by the 
prince of Wales 15 May, ,, 

Deputation from the committee of the queen's 
nurses' endowment fund received by the king 
and queen, to whom they present 66,050?. col- 
lected in England and Wales, and 5,864?. collected 
in Ireland, as a women's memorial to the late 
queen Vi.toria 2I May, 

Demonstration in Hyde-park against the London 
education bill 2 , May, 

The Derby won by sir J. Miller's "Rocksand'; 
king and queen present . . . . 27 May, „ 

The Oaks' stakes won by Mr. J. B. Joel's "Our 
Lassie " . 29 May, „ 

Marble hill-park, Twickenham, acquired for the 
public (72,000?.) ; opened by lord Monkswell, 
chairman London county council . 29 May, ,, 

Violent thunderstorms in London, several deaths 
by lightning ..... 2Q _ 30 May, „ 

The king and queen atcend service at St. Paul's 
cathedral, special appeal on behalf of London 
hospitals ; 4,300?. collected . . 7 June, „ 

Drama, Flodden Field, by the poet laureate, and The 
Man who Was, by Mr. Rudyard Kipling, performed 
at His Majesty's theatre; the king and queen 
present ; proceeds devoted to Guy's hospital, 

8 June, ,, 
The king, queen and princess Victoria present at 

the marriage of lady Juliet Lowther to Mr. Duff, 
2nd Life Guards, at St. Peter's, Eaton-square, 

9 June, ,, 
The Stationers' company celebrate the 500th anni- 
versary of their foundation; archbp. of Canter- 
bury present roJune, „ 

The king and queen open a new wing of the Lon- 
don hospital j j j une 

Members of the international telegraphic conven- " 
tion received at the Mansion house . 15 June 

Bicentenary of John Wesley's birth celebrated at " 
the City road chapel ... 17 June 

Death of cardinal Vaughan, archbp. of Westminster ' 
aged 69 June ' 

Prof. Curie, of Paris, lectures on " Radium," at the " 
royal institution Ig j une 

Royal agricultural show opened at Park Royal, ' ' 

A?- -i «■ n T-, i. 2 3 June, ,, 

Visit of the Khedive , . . "Ijune 

King's birthday officially celebrated in 'London and " 
elsewhere honours announced, prince of Wales 
promoted to vice-adm., peerages conferred on 
Mr. Michael Biddulph, sir E. Lawson Mr G T 
Sotheran-Estcourt, and Mr. W. H Watson- 
Armstrong, P.C.'s, baronetages, and knight- 
hoods also conferred . . 20 j," ne 

Mr. Chamberlain entertained at the Constitutional ' 
club, speaks on preferential tariffs . 26 June 

First meeting of the British academy, lord Reav' " 
the president, delivers an address . . 26 June 

Letter from Lord Rosebery to lord Monkswell' ' 
offering on behalf of Messrs. Wernher, Beit&Co 
.100,000/. to provide technical education if the 
London County Council endow the new technical 
high school with 20,000/. per annum . 2Q June 

Death of viscount Colville of Culross, lord eham' " 
berlam to the queen, aged 84 . . . ijnlv 

Mr. AsquiLli speaks at an " emergency meeting " of " 
the National Liberal federation,' against" Mr 
Chamberlain's proposals ; meeting of unionist 
members opposed to protective tax on British 
lood imports at the house of commons . 1 July 

resident Loubot arrives in London, visits the " 
French embassy, ami dines with the king 'it 
Buckingham palace, 8 July ; reception at" the 
guildhall, presentation of an address and luncheon 
With the lord mayor, the prince and piincvss of 
Wales and a distinguished company; entertains 



758 



LONDON, BISHOPKIC OF. 



the king, the prince of Wales and the duke of 
Connaught at a banquet at the French embassy ; 
royal performances at the opera in Coven t-garden, 

9 July, 1903 

Rear-adm. Cotton and officers of the United States 
warship at Portsmouth received by the king at 
Buckingham palace, 8 July ; entertained at 
luncheon by the "Pilgrims," and dinner by the 
king, who sent a cordial message to president 
Roosevelt, 9 July ; luncheon at the Mansion- 
house 10 July, ,, 

Irish Land bill read the third time in the commons, 
317 to 20 21 July, ,, 

French senators and deputies received at the 
Mansion house 23 July, ,, 

Tariff Reform league inaugurated, the duke of 
Sutherland president ... 21 July, ,, 

Capt. J. de Courcy Hamilton, R.N., appointed 
chief officer of the Fire brigade, in succession to 
Capt. Wells, R.N 28 July, ,, 

Death of sir John Rigby, formerly a lord justice of 
appeal, aged 69 26 July, ,, 

Royal assent given to London education bill, 

14 Aug. ,, 

Severe gale in London .... 15 Aug. ,, 

Death of lord Salisbury, aged 73 (see Times, 24 Aug.) 

22 Aug. ,, 

Memorial service for lord Salisbury held in West- 
minster abbey ; representatives of the king, 
queen, and other members of the royal family, 
the diplomatic service, peers and members of 
the house of commons, and many distinguished 
persoLS present 31 Aug. „ 

Death of count Deym, Austrian ambassador at St. 
James' since 1888 ..... 3 Sept. ,, 

Excessive rainfall in London, June, July and 
August, i5"87 in. registered at Camden-square, 
9-62 in. above the average. 

St. Leger won by sir J. Miller's " Rock Sand," 

9 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Balfour's pamphlet on " Insular Free Trade " 
published 15 Sept. ,, 

Resignation of Mr. Chamberlain, lord Geo. Hamil- 
ton, and Mr. Ritchie, announced . . 18 Sept. „ 
(For other changes see Balfour Administration). 

Death of the rev. Borrett White, rector of St. Mary, 
Aldermary 27 Sept. „ 

Earl Howe appointed chamberlain to the queen, 

Oct. „ 

New cabinet appointments announced . 6 Oct. ,, 

Col. sir Wm. J. Colville, master of the ceremonies, 
died ,16 Oct. ,, 

Portion of old Roman wall discovered during 
demolition of Newgate prison, reported, early Oct. ,, 

Death of Mr. J. C. Horsley, R.A., aged 86, 18 Oct. ,, 

Body of Miss Hickman, a lady doctor, who dis- 
appeared mysteriously 15 Aug., found in a plan- 
tation at Richmond park . . . 18 Oct. ,, 

The king and queen attend the opening of the new 
Gaiety theatre and witness the performance of 
The Orchid 26 Oct. ,, 

London municipal elections, Progressive and 
Labour majority 2 Nov. ,, 

Visit of the king and queen of Italy to the Guild- 
hall, enthusiastic reception . . 19 Nov. ,, 

Total valuation of rateable administrative county 
of London (6 Apr. 1903), gross, 49,184,021?. ; rate- 
able, 40,610,415?. ; assessable, 40,599,379?. 

[See England; and the occurrences not noticed 
here, under their respective heads. 

LONDON, BISHOPRIC OF, is said tradition- 
ally to have been founded in the reign of Lucius, 
about 179. Restitutus, bishop, is said to have 
been present at the council of Aries, 314. Augustin 
made Canterbury the metropolitan see of England. 
Mellitus was first bishop in 604 ; expelled 616 ; 
first successor, Cedd, 656. The see has given to the 
church of Rome five saints, and to the realm sixteen 
lord chancellors and lord treasurers; it was valued 
in the king's books, at l\gl. 8s. qd. per annum. 
Present income, 10,000/. In 1845 Hertford and part 
of Essex were taken from the see of London and 
added to that of Rochester. . 



LONDON BRIDGE. 



759 LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL. 



RECENT BISHOPS. 

11787. Beilby Porteus, died 14 May, 1809 

jrfoo. John Randolph, died 28 July, 1813. 

[1813. W. Howley, trans, to Canterbury, Aug. 1828. 

1828. Charles James Blomfield ; resigned Oct. 1856 

(died 5 Aug. 1857). 
2:856. Archibald Ca7npbell Tait, translated to Canterbury, 

Dec. 1868. 
1869. John Jackson, from Lincoln, elected 14 Jan. (had 

consecrated 84 new churches, 1869-79), died 6 

Jan. 1885. 
a 885. Fred. Temple, translated from Exeter ; Canterbury, 

Oct. 1896. 
E896. Mandell Creighton, translated from Peterborough, 

Nov. ; elected, 5 Jan. 1897 ; died, aged 57, 14 Jan. 

1901. 
2901. Arthur F. Winnington-Ingram, bp. suffragan of 

Stepney, elected 25 March ; confirmed, after 

some protests, 17 April, 1901. 

LONDON BRIDGE. The first bridge said 
to have been built 994, was much injured by the 
Danes 1008 and destroyed by a flood 1091. Another 
bridge erected by command of William II., was 
burnt in 1 136. The late old bridge was com- 
menced about 1 1 76, by Peter of Colechurch, and 
completed in 1209, with houses on each side, con- 
nected together by large arches of timber which 
cr - 03sed the street. 

A fire at the Southwark end brought crowds on the 
bridge ; the houses at the north end caught fire 
likewise, and prevented their escape : and up- 
wards of 3000 persons lost their lives, being 
either killed, burned, or drowned . . July, 1212 
The bridge restored in 1300, again destroyed by fire 
in 1471 ; 13 Feb. 1632, and . . . Sept. 1725 

All the houses pulled down 1756 

Waterworks began, 1582 ; destroyed by fire . . 1774 
The toll discontinued . . . . 27 March, 1782 
In 1822 the corporation advertised for designs for a 
new bridge : that by John Rennie was approved, 
and the works were executed by his sons John 
and George. The first pile was driven 200 feet to 
the west of the old bridge, 15 March, 1824 ; the 
first stone was laid by the lord mayor, alder- 
man Garratt ... . 15 June, 1825 
The bridge opened by William IV. and his queen, 

1 Aug. 1831 
The cost was 506,000^. 

Plans for widening the bridge rejected . . . 1875 
It was computed that on 17 March, 1859, there 
passed over London-bridge 20,498 vehicles (of 
which 4483 were cabs and 4286 omnibuses), and 
£67,910 persons (107,074 on foot, and 60,836 in 
vehicles). In April 1881 in one day (24 hours) 
passed over 78,943 passengers in 10,733 vehicles. 
Attempt to explode S.W. end, damage to property, 

not life ; near 6 p.m., 500Z. reward offered, 13 Dec. 1884 
Widening of the bridge; roadway increased in 
width from 34 ft. 6 in. to 37 ft. ; footways from 
9 ft. to 14 ft. . . . . . . . 1901-3 

LONDON CHAMBER of Arbitration, 

see London, Nov. 1892. Instituted to decide on 
■commercial disputes, and to avoid the cost and 
delay of legal proceedings, held its first sitting at 
Guildhall, the lord mayor president, 23 Nor. 1892. 
'The scheme was widely supported by the citizens. 
The first case was decided by sir Albert Rollit, sole 
arbitrator, alter 10 days' deliberation, 16 Dec. 1892. 

LONDON CONFERENCE, of representa- 
tives of the chief European powers to i - econcile Aus- 
tria, Prussia, and Denmark, met 25 April to 25 June, 
1864, without effect. A conference in London re- 
specting the treaty of Paris, 1856, led to a treaty 
signed 13 March, 1871 ; see Black Sea. 
■Conference respecting Egyptian affairs ; earl Gran- 
ville, foreign secretary, &c, H. C. E. Childers, 
chancellor of the exchequer, met the following 
ambassadors : Count Karolyi (Austria), M. Wad- 
•diagton (France), count Minister (Germany), 
«count Nigra (Italy), count De Staal (Russia), and 
Musurus Pasha (Turkey), 28 June, 1884; ad- 
journed without result sine cZic . . 2 Aug. 1884 



LONDON COUNCIL for the promotion of 
public morality, founded 1899; meeting at St. 
Martin's lown-hall, bp. of London in the chair, 
the E. C. bp. of Southwark, the chief Rabbi, and 
others present, 1 Feb. 1900. 

LONDON, COUNTY OF, constituted by 
the Local government act of 1888. It contains 24 
parishes, total acres, 75,442 (29 boroughs, 1901). 
First lord-lieutenant the duke of Westminster, 
announced, 24 Oct. 1888. 

LONDON COUNTY COUNCIL was 

constituted by the Locul Government Act of 1888, 
and to it was transferred the powers, duties, 
property, and debts and liabilities, of the Metro- 
politan Board of Works (which see). The council 
consists of 118 members, elected by the ratepayers 
of the parishes, and 19 aldermen, including a 
chairman. The old "city" retains most of its 
ancient privileges. 

First council elected ; the earl of Rosebery, sir 
John Lubbock, Mr. Benjamin Cohen, and Mr. 
Henry Clarke returned for the city (lady Sand- 
hurst and Miss Cobden elected councillors) 

7 Jan. 1889 
First provisional meeting, sir John Lubbock 
chairman, 31 Jan. ; 19 aldermen elected, including 
lord Lingen, lord Hobhouse, and the earl ot 
Meath, the majority progressive radicals, 5 Feb. ; 
the earl of Rosebery appointed chairman, sir 
John Lubbock vice-chairman (both unpaid), Mr. 
J. F. Bottomley Firth deputy-chairman (salary 
2000L) 12 Feb. 1889. Mr. Firth died suddenly 
about 4 Sept. ; succeeded by Mr. Alfred H. 
Haggis (salary 1000Z.), 7 Nov. 1889 ; he died sud- 
denly . 24 Nov. 1891 

The council entered on its duties by order of the 

local government board ... 21 March, 1889 
The queen's bench decides on appeal of lady Sand- 
hurst that women are disqualified for election 
as councillors, 16 May, 1889 ; see Women . 1889-90 
Sir John Lubbock elected chairman to succeed the 
earl of Rosebery (resigned), 22 July ; sir Thomas 
H. Farrer, vice-chairman, 29 July ; the three 

officers re-elected 7 Nov. 1890 

The council was authorised to raise money by acts 

passed 1889-90 ; acts passed 1092-1895. 
Second council elected (progressives, 83 , moderates, 
35), 5 March ; the earl of Rosebery elected 
chairman ; Mr. John Hutton, vice-chairman ; Mr. 
W. H. Dickinson, deputy-chairman, 13 March; 
the earl of Rosebery resigns 22 June ; succeeded 
by Mr. John Hutton (knt. 24 May, 1894) ; Mr. 
Charles Harrison, vice-chairman . 12 July, ,, 

For the unification of London, see London 

March et seq. 1S93 

Proposals presented by the council to the royal 
commission, reported ..... 27 Feb. 1894 

Third council elected (moderates, 59 ; progressives, 
59), 2 March (afterwards 60 moderates, 58 pro- 
gressives) ; Mr. Arthur Arnold (knt. 1895) 
elected chairman; Mr. J. W. Benn, M.P., vice- 
chairman ; Mr. Dickinson re-elected deputy- 
chairman ; resigned, July ; all progressives ; 19 
aldermen (progressive majority), 12 March, 1895 ; 
Dr. Collins elected chairman, 61-59 . 9 March, 1897 

Report of the Works committee, disclosing falsi- 
fication of accounts and jobbery, dismissal of Mr. 
Holloway, manager, and Mr. Ruddle, agreed to, 
17 Nov. 1896 ; special committee appointed, 24 
Nov., 4 officials dismissed, 1 Dec. ; Mr. W. Adams 
appointed manager, 2 Feb. 1897 ; report of special 
committee, fabricated accounts proved but no 
misappropriation of moneys, changes in manage- 
ment recommended, 6 April ; new standing 
orders adopted, 20 July, 1897. 

Buildings (Trafalgar-square) bill rejected by the 
commons J 8 Feb. ,, 

Fourth council elected (69 progressives, 48 mode- 
rates) ; Mr. T. M'Kinnon Wood, chairman ; lord 
Welby, vice-chairman ; and Mr. H. P. Harris, 
deputy-chairman (10 aldermen for 6 yrs.), elected, 



LONDONDEEEY. 



760 



LONDON PAEKS ACT. 



15 March, 1898 ; annual meeting ; lord Welby 
elected chairman .... 14 March, 1899 

Heavy expenditure, 11,000,000?. in 1899, reported, 
9 Oct. 1900 ; over 10,000,000?. ; 1901, 4,310,217/. 1902 

Fifth council elected : 84 Progressives, 32 Con- 
servatives and Unionists and 2 Independents, 
2 March, 1901 ; Mr. A. Torrance, chairman ; Mr. 
McDougall (knt. 1902), vice-chairman; lieut.-col. 
Rotton, deputy-chairman ; 6 Progressive, and 3 
Moderates aldermen, elected . . 12 March, „ 

Lord Monkswell elected chairman ; Mr. E. A. Corn- 
wall, vice-chairman, and Mr. R. A. Robinson, 
deputy-chairman for 1903-4 ; 208,800?. to be ex- 
pended on tramway under the new thoroughfares 
from Holborn to the Strand . . 10 Mar. 1902 

Tunnel under the Thames between Rotherhithe 
and Shadwell, to cost 1, 340, 000L, approved 13 Oct. ,, 

LONDONDEEEY or Derry (N. Ireland), 
mentioned 546. An abbey here was burned by the 
Danes in 783. A charter was granted to the Lon- 
don companies in 1615. The town was surprised, 
and sir George Powlett, the governor, and the 
entire garrison were put to the sword by rebels, in 
1606. Jt was besieged by O'Neill in 1641. A grant 
was made of Derry, with 210.000 acres of land, to 
various companies in London, in 1619, when it took 
its present name. The siege of Derry by James II. 's 
army commenced 20 April, 1689. The garrison 
and inhabitants were driven to the extremity of 
famine ; but under the rev. George Walker, they 
defended it until the siege was raised by gen. 
Kirke, on 30 July. James's armj', under the French 
general Eosen, retired with the loss of about 9000 
men. Foyle College act passed, 1874. A grand 
iron bridge over the Foyle, opened 1 Jan. 1878. 
Eiots through orange opposition to the mayor of 
Dublin's visit, 31 Oct. 1883. Population 1881, 
29,162; 1891,32,893; 1901,39,873. 
The earl of Zetland, opened new Guildhall 31 July, 1890 
Visit of the marquis of Salisbury, demonstrations 

against home rule . . . . 26, 27 May, 1893 
Disorderly scenes in connection with Nationalist 

processions in the city ; riotactread, 13, 14 Aug. 1S99 
Visit of the king and queen ... 28 July, 1903 

LONDON DIALECTICAL SOCIETY, 

see Dialectical. 

LONDON EDUCATION ACT, similar to 
Education Act of 1902 ; royal assent, 14 Aug. 1903. 

LONDON GAZETTE, see Newspapers. 

LONDON GOVEENMENT ACT divides 
London, exclusive of the City, into 28 boroughs, 
with council scomposed of mayors, aldermen, and 
councillors (see Wvme», 1899") ; royal assent, 13 
July, 1899. Commission appointed, July, 1899; I $ 2 
councillors elected, 1 Nov. 1900 ; again 2 Nov. 1903. 

LONDON HOSPITAL, Whitechapel, in- 
stituted Nov. 1740; for seamen, labourers, &c. 
Foundation of present building laid by adm. sir 

Peter Warren, 15 Oct. 1752 ; had 130 beds . . I7 6o 
The queen opened the Grocers' company's wing 

(raising number of beds to 790) . . 7 March, 1876 
12,000?., proceeds of a bazaar, handed in, 18 July, 1898 
60,000?. bequeathed by the late baroness de Stern ; 

10,000?. from Mr. E. Raphael, reported. 6 Sept. 1899 
Appeal for 170,000?., issued by the hospital authori- 
ties (queen gives 1,000?.) . . . 6 March, 1903 
New wing for treatment of lupus, opened by the 
King 11 June ,, 

LONDON INSTITUTION, "for the ad- 
vancement of literature and the diffusion of useful 
knowledge," in imitation of the Royal Institution, 
was founded in 1805 by sir Francis Baring, bart., 
and others, at 8, Old Jewry, Cheapside, and incor- 
porated 30 April, 1815. Prof. Poison, the first 
librarian, died 25 Sept. 1808. The present building 
in Finsbury-circus was opened on 21 April, 1819; 



the first lecture was delivered by Mr. TV. T. Brande, 
on 5 May following. Mr. W. R. Grove, Q.C- 
(afterwards justice) (the inventor of the Voltaic 
battery which bears his name), was the first pro- 
fessor of experimental philosophy, 1840-6. The 
institution possesses an excellent library, lecture- 
room, and laboratory. Thorras Baring, M.P., long 
president, died 18 Nov. 1873 ! succeeded by Dr. 
"Warren de la Rue; by Mr. Henry Hucks Gibbs, 2 
March, 1886; sir John Lubbock, 1894; lord 
Avebury, 1900. 

LONDON LIBEAEY (circulating), at first 
in Pall-mall, now in St. James's-square, was 
founded by lord Eliot, Thos. Carlyle, W. E. Glad- 
stone, T. B. Macaulay, and others, 24 June, 1840, 
and opened 1 May, 1841. Catalogues were printed 
in 1875-88, and 1903 ; 24,000 books in 1845. Death 
of Mr. Robt. Harrison, librarian 1857-93, 4 Jan. 
1897. New buildings opened by Mr. Leslie Stephen, 
the president (K.C.B. June, 1902), 5 Dec. 1898; 
about 220,000 books in 1903. Annual meetings. 

LONDON MISSIONAEY SOCIETY, 

established 1795. In 1878 there were 151 European, 
and 543 ordained native missionaries : receipts in. 
1887, 105,382/; 1894, income, 139,835/.; 1897, 
117,073; centenary celebrated, 15 Jan. 1895; cen- 
tenary fund, 108,451/.: deficit, 8,416/. "History 
of the L.M.S. 1795-1895," 2 vols., by rev. R. 
Lovett, pub. 1899. The rev. Robt. Lang bequeaths 
23,000/. to the society, 1900; income, 170,623/.; 
deficit, 1,657/. for 1902. 

LONDON MUNICIPAL BILL, intro- 
duced by sir W. Harcourt, 8 April ; withdrawn, 
10 July, 1884. 

The corporation of London was to be so extended as to 
comprehend the whole Metropolitan area ; common 
council, (240 members) elected triennally by burgesses 
of 39 districts, to be sole governing body, and to com- 
bine functions of existing corporation, Metropolitan 
Board of Works, and other local authorities ; and to- 
elect annually a Lord Mayor and Deputy Mayor ; and. 
to control all local affairs except Pocr Law Administra- 
tion, Education, and Police. 
Common council adopt a scheme for creation of nine 
municipal corporations in addition to that of London, 
5 Nov. ; published in Times, 6 Nov. 1885. 
For opposition to the London municipal bill, see 
London, 21 May, 1887. 

LONDON MUNICIPAL EEFOEM, » 

league was founded 10 March, 1881, to promote 
one representative municipal government for the- 
metropolis ; meetings were held in Oct. 1881 ; 
chairman of council, Mr. J. F. B. Firth, M.P. for 
Chelsea. 

The London Hi form Union inaugurated by the earl of 
Rosebery, Mr. Asquith, home secretary, Mr. Acland, 
Mr. Childers, Mr. Hutton, chairman of the county 
council, and others, at Exeter-hall, 15 Dec. 1892. 
The union absorbs the Municipal Reform League, 
and recommends the amalgamation of the city 
government with the county council with enlarged 
powers. Annual meetings held. 

Citizen Sunday, when sermons are annually preached! 
in the London churches on the duties of citizenship, 
was instituted by the London Reform union ; also. 
Citizens' Visit t to places of interest in and around 
London. 

London Municipal Society founded by unionists and 
conservatives for the reform of London government, 
ami promotion of its well-being. First general 
meeting, lord George Hamilton in the chair, 20 July, 
1894. Annual meetings. 

LONDON PAEKS AND WOEKS ACT„ 
placed Battersea Park, Kennington Park, Bethnal 
Green Museum Gardens, Chelsea Embankment, 
and Victoria Park, under the direction of the 



LONDON PHILANTHROPIC SOC. 761 



LONDON WATER SUPPLY. 



Metropolitan Board of Works, 1887. Col. Sexby's 
"London Parks and Gardens" (249) published, 
April, 1899. 

LONDON PHILANTHROPIC SO- 
CIETY was founded in 1841. 

LONDON RAILWAYS, principal exten- 
sions and branches incorporated. 

London and Blackwall, 1836 ; London, Brighton, and 
South Coast, 1846 ; London, Chatham and Dover, 
1853 i London and Greenwich opened 1838 ; London 
and North-Western (formed out of the London and 
Birmingham, Grand Junction and Manchester and 
Birmingham), 1847; see North- Western; London and 
South-Western (and Southampton till 1839), opened 
1840 ; acts consolidated, 1855 ; Metropolitan, 1854 ; 
Metropolitan District, 1864; Midland, 1844; North 
London, 1846 ; South Eastern, 1836. See Railways. 

LONDON SACRED HARMONIC SO- 
CIETY, formed after the dismissal of Mr. Sur- 
man, conductor of tho Sacred Harmonic Society, 
6 March, 1848 ; gave last concert, 22 Dec. 1856. 

LONDON SALVAGE CORPS, maintained 
by the Fire Insurance Companies, established 1866, 
when the London fire establishment was transferred 
to the Metropolitan Board of Works, and the 
Metropolitan Fire Brigade was organised. 

LONDON SHIPPING EXCHANGE, 

see under Exchange. 

LONDON SCHOOL BOARD, see Metro- 
politan School Board, and Education, 1870, et seq. 

LONDON STEAMER, see Wrecks, &c, 11 
Jan. 1866. 

LONDON STONE. A stone said to have 
been placed by the Romans in Cannon-street, then 
the centre of the city, 15 B.C. London stone was 
known before the time of William I. It was re- 
moved from the opposite side of the way in 1742 ; 
and again moved to its present position in the wall 
of St. S within' s church, 1798. It was against this 
stone that Jack Cade is traditionally said to have 
struck his sword, exclaiming "Now is Mortimer 
lord of this city ! " 1450. 

LONDON, UNIVERSITY of. The "Lon- 
don university" was founded by the exertions of lord 
Brougham, Thomas Campbell, sir Isaac L. Goldsmid, 
and others; thedeedofsettlementdatednFeb. 1826. 
Thebuildingwascommenced 30 April, 1827 (when the 
first stone was laid by the duke of Sussex) ; and 
was opened by an inaugural lecture from professor 
Bell, I Oct. 1828. On 28 Nov. 1836, two charters 
were granted: by one the "London university" 
was changed to "University college," and by the 
other the University of London was established, 
with a chancellor and other officers. New charters 
were granted to the latter on 5 Dec. 1837 and 21 
April, 1858. It has power to grant degrees to 
students of the universities of the united kingdom, 
and of many collegiate establishments; and to 
women, by a supplemental charter, 1878. Its offices 
were long in Burlington-house, Piccadilly, London. 
The university was enfranchised by the Reform 
act of 1867, and Robert Lowe was elected the first 
M.P. 17 Nov. 1868 ; succeeded by sir John Lubbock 
(made a peer, Jan. 1900), June, 1880; sir Michael 
Foster, 8 Feb. 1900. The new buildings in 
Burlington-gardens, erected by Mr. Pennethorne, 
were inaugurated by the queen 11 May, 1870. 
Chancellors : earl of Burlington (aft. duke of) 
Devonshire, 1836; earl Granville, 1856 (died 31 



March, 1891) ; earl of Derbv, April, 1891 (died 21 
April, 1893) 5 Farrer, lord Herschell, June, 1893 
(died 1 March, 1899) ; earl of Kimberley, March, 
1899 (died 8 April, 1902) ; lord Rosebery, May, 
1902; vice-chancellor, sir H. E. Roscoe, Feb. 1896. 
University Hall, Gordon-square, was founded in 
1847. University College, new buildings opened, 
Oct. 1880. A scheme for establishing a teaching 
university of London, with four faculties (arts, 
laws, science and medicine), set forth at the Society 
of Arts, by lord Reay, and others, iq Dec. 1884, 
and 5 Feb. 1885. 

Report of the royal commission appointed 1888 — 
Lord Selborne, sir George Stokes, sir Wm. Thom- 
son (lord Kelvin 1902), sir James Hannen — 
recommends that a teaching university for 
London should be provided by the extension 
of the university of London . . . May, 1889 

Another scheme propounded by the senate of the 
university of London, Feb. ; not approved by the 
colleges, March ; rejected by the convocation ' 
(461-197) 12 May, 1892 

University college issues an appeal to the public 
for additional funds (50,000^) to enable it to 
carry on its work 24 Jan. 1892 

Royal commission to consider the charter of the 
proposed teaching university in and for London, 
nominated : earl Cowper, chairman, lord Reay, 
Dr. J. S. Burdon Sanderson, and 10 others, 25 
April ; met 2 June, , % 

The establishment of a "Professorial university" 
for London was proposed in June, 1892, by sir 
H. E. Roscoe, professors Riicker, E. Ray Lan- 
caster, and others. 

A scheme set before the University commissioners, 

April, 1893 

The new engineering and electrical laboratories 
for University College opened by the duke of 
Connaught 29 May, ,,. 

Scheme published by the Gresham commission, 
recommending the establishment of a teaching 
university for London, with a visitor, chancellor, 
senate, council, convocation, schools, <fec, to 
replace the present university of London, whose 
convocation utterly opposes the scheme, 5 April, 
1894 ; meeting of convocation ; the Gresham 
scheme approved by a majority of 31 . 22 Jan. 1895 

University of London bill read 1st time in the lords, 
9 May, 1895 ; important memorial presented to 
the duke of Devonshire, Times, 30 Dec. ; he in- 
troduces a bill into the lords, 6 July ; with- 
drawn, 11 Aug. 1896; read 2nd time, lords, 23 
July ; withdrawn, 2 Aug. 1897 ; passed (royal 
assent) 9 Aug. 1899 

Establishment of a " University of Westminster" 
proposed by a committee including sir Hugh R. 
Beevor, dean of King's college, Times . 23 Nov. ,„ 

London university commission bill passed by the 
standing committee of the lords ; commissioners, 
lord Davey, the bishop of London, sir William 
Roberts, and others ; passed, 12 Aug. 1898 ; final 
report issued, 1 March, 1900 ; the university to 
occupy part of the Imperial institute at S. 
Kensington, 5 July, 1899 ; the prince of Wales 
distributes the prizes in the new buildings S. 
Kensington 9 May, 1900 

Mr. W. W. Astor gives 2o,oooZ. to endow professor- 
ships at University college . . mid April, 1902 

Mansion-house meeting : the duke of Devonshire 
speaks earnestly in support of the fund for 
higher education and research, and the incorpora- 
tion of university and other colleges in the 
London university ; the lord mayor- presided ; 
resolutions carried, 9 May ; 92,000^ received, 

Oct. ,, 

Schools of modern languages organised ; chair of 
music established .... autumn, ., 

Honorary degrees (first ever conferred by the uni- 
versity) on the prince and princess of Wales, 
lords Kelvin and Lister . . -24 June ,„ 

LONDON WATER SUPPLY, see Water. 



LONE STAB. 



762 



LONGEVITY. 



LONE STAB, a secret society formed in 1848, 
in Alabama and other southern states of the North 
American Union, for the " extension of the institu- 
tions, power, influence, and commerce of the 
United States over the whole of the western hemi- 
sphere, and the islands of the Atlantic and Pacific 
oceans." The first acquisitions to be made by the 
order were Cuba and the Sandwich Islands. The 
knowledge of the existence of this society reached 
England in Aug. 18^2. 

LONG- ISLAND or Flatbush (N. America) , 
Battle of, 27 Aug. 1776, between the British troops 
under sir William Howe, and the revolted Ameri- 
cans, who suffered a severe defeat, after a well- 
fought action, losing 2000 men killed and wounded 
and IOOO prisoners. 

LONGEVITY. Methuselah died, aged 969 
2349 B.C. {Gen. v. 27). Golour M'Crain of the Isle 
of Jura, one of the Hebrides, is mythically said to 
have kept 180 Christmases in his own house, and died 
in the reign of Charles I. " In 1014 died Johannes 
de Temporibus, who lived 361 years (!)" Stow. 
Thomas Parr, a labouring man of Shropshire, was 
brought to London by the earl of Arundel, in 1635, 
and said to be in his 153rd year and in perfect 
health; he died 15 Nov. in the same year. Henry 
Jenkins, of Yorkshire, died in 1670, and was buried 
in Bolton churchyard, 6 Dec. aged 169 years (?) The 
researches of sir G. Cornewall Lewis, professor 
Owen, Mr. Wm. J. Thorns (in his " Human Longe- 
vity," May, 1873) an d others, have disproved many 
alleged cases of longevity; and few statements 
of lives extending much beyond a century can be 
relied on. There were no records of baptism till 
the 1 6th century. In last decade about 800 alleged 
centenarians registered ; 204 men. Deaths of 25 
men and 66 women aged above IOO registered in 
188 1. See Abstinence. 

Alleged instances (most of them evidently false). 
Died. Aged. 

1656. James Bowles, Killing-worth . . . . 153 

1691. Lady Eecleston, Ireland 143 

1759. James Shell, Irish yeoman 136 

1766. Colonel Thomas Winslow, Ireland . . . 146 

1772. Mrs. Clum, Lichfield 138 

1774. William Beeby, Dungarvan (an ensign who 
served at the battles of the Boyne and Augh- 

rim) 130 

it 780. Bobert Mac Bride, Hemes 130 

,, Mr. William Ellis, Liverpool . . • . .130 

1785. Cardinal de Solis no 

1797. Charles Macklin, actor, London . . . . 107 
e8o6. Mr. Creeke, of Thurlow I2 5 

,, Catherine Lopez, of Jamaica . . . . 134 

1813. Mrs. Meighan, Donoughmore .... 130 

1814. Mary Innes, Isle of Skye 127 

1816. Jane Lewson, Coldbatii-fields, Clerkenwell . 116 
1840. Mrs. Martha Rorke, of Dromore, county of 

Kildare, 27 Aug I33 

1853. Mrs. Mary Power (aunt of Rd. Lalor Shiel), 

Ursuline convent, Cork, 20 March . . . 116 
.1S58. James Nolan, Knockardrane, Carlow . . . 116 
1874. Anthony Beresford (born 8 Feb. 1772) died at 

Alstonfield, 3 March, authentic . . 101 

C875. Count Jean Fred. Walduck, painter; born at 
Prague, 16 March, 1766; died at Paris, 29 

April, 1875 Iog 

„ Jacob Wm. Lulling, at Morden college . . 103 
1:876. Madame Hulsenstein, said to have been maid 

of honour to the empress Maria Theresa . . 119 
,, Elizabeth Abbott, Ipswich, said to be . . 105 
• 877. Pleasanec, widow of sir James E. Smith, bo- 
tanist, (b. 11 May, 1773; d. 3 Feb. 1877) • io 3 
,, Eunie.e Bagster, wil'e of Samuel, Bible book- 
seller, London, 22 Aug. .... 100 
[878. Thomas Budgen, Spitalfields, London 4 Aug. 104 
1879. Jane Hooper, St. Faunas, London . . .102 

,, Rev. Canon Beadon, Stonohaw . . . . 102 
,, Margaret Crook, Durham 112 



Died. Aged. 

1880. Sarah Way, Bristol 104I 

,, Johannette Polack (born Genth) ; Wiesbaden 

101 and 5 months 

1881. Martha Gardner, Liverpool, 10 March 104 and 5 

months 
,, Fanny Bailey, Worthing, 6 April . . . 103^ 
„ Annie Webb, sister of Sir Joseph Maxwell, Aug. 102 
,, Jane Pinkerton, of Lower Crumpsall, Man- 
chester, (born 10 June, 1774) died 5 Oct. . 107 
,, Archibald MArthur, Dunoon, born 1777 . 104 

1882. James Smith, St. Mary Cray, born 1777 

died 27 Nov. aged nearly 105 
,, Thomas Bramley, Ilkeston, Derby, born 

29 Dec. 1777, died Dec. .... 105 

1883. Betty Morgan, Garth in Wales, died 26 Feb. 107 
,, Stephen Lewes, Southampton, died May . . 106 

1884. Rhoda Dunn, Hunstanton, Norfolk . . 103 

1885. Sir Moses Montefiore, Ramsgate, died 28 July, 100J 
„ Mrs. Townsend, Faringdon, Berkshire, died 

29 May . . . . . . . . 102 

1886. Miss Joanna Hastings (aunt of G. W. Hastings, 

M.P.), Great Malvern (born 14 March, 1782), 

died 12 March 103 

,, Richard Holmes, Heathfield, Sussex, died 

5 May . . . . 107 
,, Sarah Marshall, Nantyglo, Wales, died 6 Aug. . 107 
,, W. Nicholson, Wenden, Essex, died 15 Dec. . 103 

1887. Miss Jane Gibson, Glasgow, died Dec. . . 102J 
,, The death of 31 alleged centenarians reported 

in 1887. 

1888. M. Dimitrios Antippa, died Jan. . . 115 (?) 

,, Caroline Heathorne, died 3 Feb 104 

,, Pattison Jolly, Dublin, died 5 Feb. . . 104 

,, Thomas Eggleston, West Virginia, TJ. S., died 

3 May 111} 

1889. Mrs. R. Chapman, Lewes, died March . . 105 
,, Eugene Chevreul, Paris, 9 April . . . 102 
,, Mrs. Catherine Voss, Shortlands, died 17 July 104 
,, Madame Poulaillon, or Roux, at Toulouse, 

died Nov 106 

1890. Mr. Edward Grubb, Bristol, died about 1 July 109 

1891. Ann Telford, at Maryport, died 3 March . . in 
,, Mrs. Ann Starling, Birmingham, died 30 Sept. 103 

1892. Magdalen Ponsa, at Vienna, died 4 Feb. . -117 

1895. Mrs. Maryanne Parminster Glasse, Bourne- 

mouth, died early June 102 

1896. Mary Ann Peverell, born 17 July, 1792, died 

6 Jan. . 103 

,, Dr. William Salmon, of Penlynn court, Glamor- 

ganshie, born 1790, died 10 May . . . 106 
,, AntoinerMountsoy, naval veteran, born at 

Bordeaux, 1787, died near Lichfield, 22 

April 
,, Mrs. Major, Sutton Veney, Wilts, died 2 Aug. 105 

1897. Mrs. Sarah Thomas, Burryport, died 29 (?) Jan. 108 
,, Mrs. Garland, Dublin, died mid March . . 105 

1898. Mr. Thomas Young, Watford, died 15 Dec. . 105 
1900. M. Alonzo Pean, writer, died mid Oct. . . 100 
ij,oi. Mrs. Ann Smith, Worcester, died 5 Jan. . . . 109 

,, John Rose, Olney, Bucks, buried 9 April, . 102 
,, Mrs. Elizabeth Hanbury, philanthropist, 

Richmond, Surrey, 31 Oct 10S 

,, John O'Brien, Illinois, died 31 Oct. . . 10S 

1902. Mrs. (Margaretta Green) Mieville, Salop, died 

16 June 102 

,, Mrs. Mary Morgan, Marylebone, died 14 Aug. 102 
,, Mrs. Betsy Moore, Bishop's Teignton, died 14 

Sept . .102 

1903. Mrs. Elizabeth Alsop, Gosden, Guildford, 

died mid Jan 102 

,, Mrs. Neve, Guernsey, died, 4 April . . no 
,, Viscountess Glentworth, died, 28 Aug. 

EXAMPLES FURNISHED BV DR. J. WEBSTER, F.R.S. 

(unauthenticated.) 

Died. Buried at ' Aged. 
1652. Dr. W. M.ade, Ware, Herts .... 148J 
1711. Mrs. Scrimshaw, Rosemary-lane . . . 127 
1739. Margaret Patten, Christchurch, Westminster . 13b 
1741. John Rovin, Temeswar, Hungary . . . 172 
1757. Alexander M'Culloch, Aberdeen . . . 132 
1759. Donald Cameron, liannaeh, Aberdeenshire . 130 
1763. Mrs. Taylor) Piccadilly 131 



LONGITUDE. 



763 



LOEDS, HOUSE OF. 



Died. Aged. 

1766. John Mount, Langham, Dumfries . . . 136 

,, John Hill, Leadhills, near Edinburgh . . . 130 

1771. Mr. Whalley, Rotherhithe . . . .121 

177S. Widow Jones, Campbell 125 

1780. Mr. Evans, Spitalfields 139 

1784. Mary Cameron, Braemar, Aberdeen . . . 129 

1791. Archbd. Cameron, Keith, Aberdeenshire . . 122 

1851. Jean Golembeski, Hotel des Invalides, Paris . 126 

LONGITUDE, determined by Hipparchus, at 

Nice, who fixed the first degree in the Canaries, 
162 B.C. Harrison made a time-keeper, in a.d. 
1759, which in two voyages was found to correct 
the longitude within the limits required by the act 
of parliament 12 Anne, 1714 ; and obtained the 
reward; see Harrison's Timepiece. The chrono- 
meters of Arnold, Eamshaw, and Breguet, are 
highly esteemed. Chronometers are now received 
on trial at Greenwich Observatory. The act relating 
to the discovery of the longitude at sea was repealed 
in 1828. The Bureau des Longitudes at Paris was 
established in 1795. 

LONGMAN'S MAGAZINE first published 
(to replace " Frazer's"), Nov. 1882. 

LONGOBARDI, see Lombardy. 

LONG PARLIAMENT met 3 Nov. 1640 ; 
was forcibly dissolved by Cromwell 20 April, 1653. 

LONGWOOD, in St. Helena (S. Atlantic 
Ocean), the residence of the emperor Napoleon from 
to Dec. 1815 till his death, 5 May, 1821. 

LONGWY (N.E. France), a frontier town, 
was taken by the allied army of Austrians and 
Prussians, 23 Aug. 1792, the beginning of the great 
war. It was again taken 18 Sept. 1815. After a 
bombardment it surrendered to the Germans, 215 
Jar.. i£yi. 

LOOCHOO ISLES ; N. Pacific ; long nomi- 
nally subject to Japan ; with a nearly independent 
king. Disputes between China and Japan respect- 
ing them, 1879 ; the isles annexed by Japan, 1879. 

LOOKING-GLASSES, see Mirrors. 

LOOM: was used by the Egyptians. Theweavei's 
otherwise called the Dutch loom, was brought into use 
in London from Holland, about 1676. There were, in 
[825, about 250,000 hand-looms in Great Britain, 
and 75,000 power-looms, each being equal to three 
hand-looms, making twenty-two yards each per 
day. The steam-loom was introduced in 1807; see 
Cotton, Electric-loom, Jacquard, Pneumatic-loom. 

The needle-loom, invented by a German family in 
the United States, substituting needles for 
shuttles, successful in weaving ribbons, &c, 
exhibited in London .... Nov. 1901 

LOOSHAIS, a predatory nomadic Indian 
tribe, about 300 miles east of Calcutta. They fre- 
quently robbed the British tea plantations, killing 
the planters and carrying off their children. An 
expedition to chastise them was successful, Dec. 187 1 . 

LORD, see Lady. When printed in the Eng- 
glish Bible in small capitals Lord stands for Jeho- 
vah, the self-existing God, the name first revealed 
to Moses, 1491 b.c. Exod. vi. 3. When Lord is in 
ordinary type, it represesents Adonai, lord or 
master. 

LORD ADVOCATE, CHAMBERLAIN, 
CHANCELLOR, &c, see Advocate, Chamber- 
lain, Chancellor, &c. 



LORD MAYOR, see Mayors. 

LORD'S DAY ACT, 29 Chas. II. c . 7, see 
Sabbath. 

LORD'S SUPPER, instituted by Jesus Christ 
{Matt. xxvi. 17), 33, see Sacrament and Transub- 
stantiation. 

LORDS.* The nobility of England date their 
creation from 1066, when William Fitz-Osborn is 
said to have been made earl of Hereford by Wil- 
liam I. ; and afterwards Walter d'Evreux, earl of 
Salisbury, Copsi, earl of Northumberland; Henry 
de Ferrers, earl of Derby ; and Gherbod (a Fleming) 
earl of Chester. Twenty-two other peers were made 
in this sovereign's reign. The first peer created by 
patent was lord Beau champ of Holt Castle, by 
Richard II. in 1387. In Scotland, Gilchrist was 
created earl of Angus by Malcolm III. 1037. In 
Ireland, sir John de Courcy was created baron of 
Kingsale, &c., in 1181; the first peer after the 
obtaining of that kingdom by Henry II. 

LORDS, HOUSE OF. The peers of England 
were summoned ad consulendum, to consult, in early 
reigns, and by writ, 6 & 7 John, 1205 ; but the 
earliest writ extant is 49 Hen. III. 1265. The 
commons did not form a part of the great council ot 
the nation until some ages after the conquest ; see 
Parliament. The houseof lords includes the spiritual 
as well as temporal peers of Great Britain. The 
bishops are supposed to hold certain ancient baronies 
under the king, in right whereof they have seats in 
this house. Some of the temporal lords sit by de- 
scent, and some by creation: others by election, 
since the union with Scotland in 1707, and with 
Ireland, 1801. In 1719, with the king's consent, 
a bill for limiting the power of the sovereign of 
creating peers, was introduced into the lords and 
twice passed, but twice rejected by the commons. — 
Scotland elects 16 representative peers, and Heland, 
28 temporal peers for life. The house of lords in 
Jan. 1902, consisted of 4 princes of the blood, 2 
archbishops, 22 dukes, 22 marquises, 144 earls, 37 
viscounts, 336 barons, and 24 bishops; in all, 592. 
The valuable " Constitutional History of House of 
Lords," by L. 0. Pike, was published in 1894. Su" 
Wm. Charles' " Crusade against the Constitution: 
a vindication of the House of Lords," published 
1896. 

House of lords at death of Charles II. 1685 . 176 peers. 

,, ,, Will. III. 1702 . 192 

,, ,, Anne, 1714 . . 209 

,, ,, Geo. I. 1727 . . 216 

,, ,, Geo. II. 1760 . . 229 

,, ,, Geo. HI. 1820 . 339 

,, ,, Geo. IV. 1830 . . 396 

Will. IV. 1837 . 456 

,, in the 18th Vict. 1855 . . 448 

,, ,, 24th Vict, i860 . . 462 

,, ,, 32nd Vict. 1868 . . 464 

,, ,, 39th Vict. 1876 . . 494 

,, ,, 41st Vict. 1878 . . 501 

,, „ 6 1 st Vict. 1898 . . 519 

,, ,, 64th Vict. 1900 . . 523 

The king, barons, and clergy enact the constitutions 

of Clarendon in 1164 

Obtain Magna Charta in 1215 

* Peers of England are free from all arrests of debts, as 
being the king's hereditary counsellors ; therefore a peer 
cannot be outlawed in any civil action, and no attach- 
ment lies against his person ; but execution may be taken 
upon his lands and goods. For the same reason, they 
are free from all attendance at courts leet or sheriffs' 
turns ; or, in case of a riot, from attending the posse 
comitojus. He can apt as a justice of the peace in any 
part of tti3 kingdom. . See Baron, Karl, &c. 



LORDS JUSTICES. 



764 



LOTTERIES. 



Held the government 1264-5 

House of lords abolished by the commons, 6 Feb. 1649 
,, ,, met again, . . . 25 April, ,, 

Unite with the. commons in making William and 
Mary king and queen 1689 

Reject the great reform bill, 7 Oct. 1831 ; pass it, 

4 June, 1832 

The parliament house destroyed by fire . 16 Oct. 1834 

Take possession of their new house . 15 April, 1847 

Oppose successfully the creation of life peerages,* 

7 Feb. 1856 

Voting by proxy abolished by standing order, 

31 March, 1868 

New regulations respecting committees 2 April, ,, 

Six new peers were gazetted . . 17 April, ,, 

Bankrupt pieers not to sit or vote, decided 10 Feb. ; 
settled by act 13 July, 1871 

That peers cannot vote for M.P. 's affirmed by court 
of common pleas on appeal . . . 15 Nov. 1872 

Two peers for life may be created by her majesty as 
lords of appeal in ordinary, to aid the house of 
lords ; as a court of ultimate appeal (see Supreme 
Court). 

Lords Blackburn and Gordon created peers for life 

5 Oct. 1876 

Entitled to sit and vote in parliament while appeal 
judges ; first sitting .... 21 Nov. ,, 

Lord Rayleigh (said to be) the first peer elected a 
professor of physics (at Cambridge) 12 Dec. 1879; 
Royal Institution, London .... 1887 

Proposed abolition of the hereditary principle 
negatived (202-166) in the commons, 5 March, 
1886; (223-162) 9 March, 1888; (201-160) 17, 18 
May, 1889; (201-139) . . . 2r March 1890 

Lord Blackburn having resigned, permitted to sit 
by appellate jurisdiction act .... 1887 

The earl of Rosebery's motion for a committee to 
consider reform of the house of lords rejected 
(97-50) 19 March, 1888 

Lord Dunraven's bill for reforming the constitution 
of the house of lords withdrawn 011 the promise 
of the government dealing with the question 

26 April, „ 

Marquis of Salisbury's bill for creation of life peers 
and exclusion of those whom he termed " black 
sheep " read first time 18 June ; second time 10 
July ; dropped July, ,, 

The lords of appeal are peers for life (see under 
Appeals). 

Lord Salisbury resigns, the duke of Devonshire 
leader 14 July, 1902 

Death of lord Colville of Culross, 1 July ; the mar- 
quis of Salisbury, 22 Aug. ; and the duke of 
Richmond and Gordon ... 27 Sept. 1903 

LORDS JUSTICES, see Justices, Appeal, 
and King's Bench. 

LORDS LIEUTENANTS, see Lieutenants 
and Ireland. 

LORDS OF THE PALE, see Pale. 

LORENZO MARQUEZ, see Lourenco. 

LORETTO, near Aneona, Italy. Here is the 
Casa Santa, or Holy House, in which it is pretended 
the Virgin Mary lived at Nazareth, and said to have 
been carried by angels into Dalmatia from Galilee 
in 1 291, and brought here a few years after. The 
lady of Loretto, gaudily dressed, stands upon an 
altar holding the infant Jesus in her amis, sur- 
rounded with gold lamps. Loretto was taken by the 
French in 1797; the holy image, which had been 
carried to France, was brought back with pomp, 5 
Jan. 1803. 

* Peerage for life only, with the title of lord Wensleydale 
of Wensleydale, was granted to baron sir James Parke, 
to Jan. 1856 ; the house of lords Opposed his sitting and 
voting as a peer for life, and on 25 July, 1856, he was 
created a peer in the usual way, with the title of lord 
Wensleydale of Walton. He died in 1868. A bill for 
creating life peerages was read a second time in the iords, 
27 April, 1S69, but afterwards rejected. 



L ORIENT (W. France). Lord Bridport off 
this port defeated the French fleet, 23 June, 1795. 
The loss of the French was severe: that of the 
British inconsiderable. — The French flag-ship, 
L'Okient, blew up during the battle of the Nile, 1 
Aug. 1798. Admiral Brueys and about 900 men 
perished. Strike and riot, 4, 5 Aug. 1903. 

LORRAINE (Lotharingia), formerly a French 
now a German province, became a kingdom under 
Lothaire (son of the emperor Lothaire I.) about 
85? ; and was divided at his death, in 869, part of 
it being made a duchy. From the first hereditary 
duke, Gerard, nominated by the emperor Henry III. 
in 1048, descended the house of Lorraine, repre- 
sented now by the emperor of Austria, whose ances- 
tor, the empress Maria Theresa, married in 1736 
Francis formerly duke of Lorraine, then of Tuscany. 
Lorraine, given to the dethroned king of Poland, 
Stanislaus I., for life, was, at his death in 1766, 
united to France ; see Nancy. Lorraine was the seat 
of war in Aug. 1870, and about the fifth part, in- 
cluding Metz and Thionville, was annexed to 
Germany at the peace, 26 Feb. 187 1. 

Visit of the German emperor and empress, 15 Oct. ; 
the statue of emperor Frederick (William) HI. at 
Worth unveiled 18 Oct. 1895 

LOTS- Casting lots, as an appeal to God, was 
sacred among the Jews, Proverbs xvi. 33. It was 
employed in the division of the land of Canaan, 
about 1444 B.C., by Joshua (xiv.), and in the elec- 
tion of Matthias the apostle, a.d. 33, Acts i. — Lots 
for life or death have been frequently cast. For an 
instance, see Wales, 1649, note. 

LOTTERIES are said to have originated in 
Florence about 1530, and to have been legalised in 
France in 1539, and soon became common. They 
were prohibited by pope Benedict XIII. (1724-30), 
and sanctioned by Clement XII. (1730-40). See 
Art Union under Arts and Paris (exhibition 1889). 

The first mentioned in English history took 
place, day and night, at the western door of 
St. Paul's cathedral, It contained 40,000 " lots " 
at 10s. each lot, the profits were for repairing the 
harbours, and the prizes were pieces of plate, 

11 Jan. -6 May, 1569 

A lottery, granted by the king, in favour of the 
colony of Virginia (prizes, pieces of plate), drawn 
near St. Paul's . . . 29 June-20 July, 1612 

First lottery for sums of money took place in . . 1630 

Lotteries established (for more than 130 years 
yielded a large annual revenue to the crown) . . i6q3 ' 

Lottery for the British Museum .... 1753 

Cox's museum, containing many rare specimens of 
art, disposed of by lottery 1773 

An act passed for the sale of the buildings of the 
Adelphi by lottery .... 16 June, 

Irish state lottery drawn 1780 | 

Lottery for the Leverian Museum . . 1784-5 | 

For the Pigott diamond, permitted, Jan. 2, 1S01 ; it 
was afterwards sold at Christie's auction for 9500 
guineas 10 May, 1802 • 

For the collection of pictures of alderman Boydell, 
by act 1804-5 

Lotteries abolished by 6 Geo. IV. c. 60, Oct. ; the 
last drawn 18 Oct. 1S26 : 

Act passed declaring that the then pending Glasgow 
lottery should lie the last 1834 : 

An act passed imposing a penalty of 50?. for adver- 
tising lotteries in the newspapers . . . . 1836 | 

Lotteries suppressed in France . . 1793 and 1836 ' 

Mr. Dethiers' twelfth-cake lottery, Argyll-rooms, 
Hanover-square, suppressed . . .27 Dec. i860 

Twelve million national lottery tickets of one franc 
each, sold at Paris to pay for prizes to exhibitors, 
and expenses of working men visitors, 1878; 1st 
prize worth 5,000/., 2nd, 4,000/., 3rd and 4th 
2,000/. ; total 230,000 rewards. Drawing began 

26 Jan. 1S79 



LOUDOUN-HILL. 



765 



LOWER EMPIRE. 



Missing Word Competition. In 1892, some weekly 
periodicals occasionally printed a sentence in 
which one word was omitted, and offered a money 
prize to the person who correctly supplied the 
deficiency ; is. coupons being issued. This was 
condemned by sir John Bridge at Bow-street as 
a species of lottery, and several persons were 
fined. This sentence was confirmed by Mr. 
Justice Stirling in the Chancery division, in the 
case of Barclay and others v. Pearson (in relation 
to Pearson's Weekly), and he decided that the 
23,628/. which had been paid into court, should 
be returned to Mr. Pearson, to be distributed by 
him to the claimants, to whom the court could 
give no help, as the affair was illegal, 9 Feb. 
1893. This was done. See Trials . . June, 1899 



DRUMCLOG ; see 



LOUDOUN-HILL, or 

Drumclog. 

LOUIS-D'OR, a French gold coin of 24 francs, 
struck by Louis XIII. in 1640; it was not legal, 
1795-1814 ; superseded by the Napoleon, 1810. 

LOUISIANA (N. America), one of the United 
States; discovered by Ferdinand de Soto, 1541 ; 
traversed by M. de Salle, 1682 ; settled by Louis 
XIV. (from whom it derived its name), about 1698. 
It formed the basis of Law's Mississippi scheme, 
1717. Ceded to Spain when all east of the Missis- 
sippi was given to England, 1763. Capital, Baton 
Rouge; commercial capital, New Orleans. Pop., 
1880,939,946; 1890, 1,118,587; 1900,1,381,625. 

Restored to France 1801 

Sold to the Americans, 1803 ; and made a state . 18 12 
Gen. Jackson defeated the British at New Orleans, 

8 Jan. 1815 
Seceded from the Union by ordinance . 25 Jan. 1861 
Adm. Farragut takes New Orleans . 28 April, 1862 
Louisiana restored to the Union .... 1865 
The state disturbed by factions and civil war : at 

Grant parish many negroes massacred 11 April, 1873 
Lockport destroyed by a cyclone ; 6 deaths, 7 Sept. 1893 
See New Orleans and Mississippi. 

LOUIS, St., commercial capital of the Missis- 
sippi valley. Founded by the French in 1764. 
Population, 1880, 350,518*; 1900, 623,000. 

Terrible cyclones, preceded by utter darkness, 
bridges, buildings, and much shipping destroyed, 

followed by fires 27 May, 1896 

Strike riots, 7 deaths .... 9 June, 1900 
Great floods, many deaths . . . 6-10 June ,, 
St. Louis international exhibition to be opened, 
30 April, 1904 ; buildings and grounds dedicated 
by president Roosevelt . . . .30 April, 1903 

LOUISVILLE, chief commercial town in 
Kentucky, U.S., founded 1773 ; named after Louis 
XVL, France, 1780. The town suffered greatly by 
a tornado, 27 Mareb, 1890, when about 93 persons 
perished ; see Storms. Great fires and explosion, 
about 25 persons perished, 8, 9 Dec. 1891. Popula- 
tion, 1880, 123,758; 1890, 161,129; 1900, 204,731. 

^LOURDES, Hautes Pyrenees, S. France, see 

France, 1872, et seq., and Pilgrimages. 

LOURENCO MARQUES, a Portuguese 
settlement, E. "coast of Africa. In May, 1879, a 
treaty was agreed to permitting a railway to be 
made to the Transvaal territory. Its ratification 
was opposed in the chambers at Lisbon in 1881, and 
led to a change of ministry. See Portugal, 188 1, 
and Delagoa Bay. 

Kaffir rising against the hut-tax ; raids by the 

natives, reported 9 Oct. 1894 

State of siege reported .... 12 Oct. ,, 
Hostilities between the Portuguese and natives, 

Oct. 1804-Jan. 180? 



Treacherous attack on the Portuguese camp at 
Maraqueen ; lieut. Antonio and many others 
killed 2 Feb. 1895 

The rebels routed and kraals destroyed on the In- 
^ comati river, reported . . . . 6 Feb. ,, 

Kaffirs defeated with heavy loss near Maraqueen, 

21 March, ,, 

About 400 Portuguese soldiers arrive at Maraqueen, 

19 April, ,, 

Defeat of the rebels ; end of the revolt, reported, 

24 May, ,, 

Natives defeated at Mague (300 killed) . 8 Sept. ,, 

Gungunhana's army defeated with great slaughter, 
by col. Galhardo, near lake Coolera . . 5 Nov. ,, 

Manjacaze taken, submission of tribes . n Nov. ,, 

Gungunhana, and his son Godide, captured by capt. 
Mousinho, at Chaimite, reported . . 4 Jan. 1896 

Portugal maintains strict neutrality in the Trans- 
vaal difficulty Jan. ,, 

Two German warships in Delagoa bay, 9 Jan. 1896, 
withdrawn Feb. ,, 

The Portuguese government grant 450Z. to the 
English at Catembe, for losses during the native 
rising, announced 25 Feb. „ 

Gungunhana, his son Godide, 2 indunas, etc., 
arrive as prisoners in Lisbon . . 13 March, ,, 

Expedition against the Namarallos, reaches Monte 
Pao, reported successful, 8 March, 1897 ; chiefs 
submit, reported 29 May, 1897 

Rising in Gazaland, against the hut-tax, rebels de- 
feated, 29 May ; rebellion crushed . 3 Aug. ,, 

Major M. D' Albuquerque, governor-gen. ; trouble 
with the natives on the Limpopo, soldiers cap- 
tured, reported 19 Jan. 1898 

Thousands of refugees from the Transvaal arrive, 
reported 6 Oct. 1899 

Portuguese troops return, after suppressing a rising 
on the Sabi river 24 Nov. ,, 

Law revived enforcing passports on all leaving 
Portuguese territory, reported . . .8 Jan. 1900 

Fire at the government offices, some destroyed, 

19 May, 1901 

Modus vivendi settled between Portugal and Great 
Britain, re the harbour .... Dec. ,, 

British military stores, estimated value 500,000?., 
burnt down 3, 4 July, 1902 

Lord Milner warmly received . . n-i4Aug. ,, 

LOUVRE, in Paris, is said to have been a royal 
residence in the reign of Dagobert, 628. It was a 
prison-tower constructed by Philippe Augustus in 
1204. It afterwards became a library, and Charle3 
VI. made it his palace (about 1364). The new 
buildings, begun by Francis I. in 1528, were enlarged 
and adorned by successive kings, particularly Louis 
XIV. — Napoleon I. turned it into a museum, and 
deposited in it the finest collection of paintings, sta- 
tues, and treasures of art known in the world. The 
chief of those brought from Italy have since beer, 
restored to the rightful possessors. The magnificent 
buildings of the new Louvre, begun by Napoleon I. 
and completed by Napoleon HI., were inaugurated 
by the latter in great state, 14 Aug. 1857. Tho 
library was destroyed and other buildings much 
injured by the communists, May, 1871. Earoness 
Nathaniel de Eothschild bequeaths Greuze's 
"Laitiere," a fine collection of Botticellis and 
others to the Louvre, 1899. Five new rooms opened, 
20 May, 1 901 ; 111 pictures, 140 bronzes, given, 
Jan. 1902. 

LOVE FEASTS, see Agapce. 

LOW COUNTRIES, the Pays Bas, now Hol- 
land and Belgium (which see). 

LOWER EMPIRE. Some historians make 
it begin with the reign of Valerian, 253 ; others 
with that of Constantine, 323. 



LOWERING BOAT APPARATUS. 766 



LUNATICS. 



LOWERING BOAT APPARATUS, see 

Life-boats. 

LOW SUNDAY, the first Sunday after Easter, 
said to derive its name from the inferiority of its 
solemnities to those of Easter Sunday ; see Easter. 

LOYAL AND PATRIOTIC UNION, 

see Ireland, 1 886. 

LOYALISTS, a term applied to the Royalist 
party during the American war of 1775-83, and to 
the supporters of the Union in Ireland in 1083. 

LOYALTY LOANS were raised during the 
revolutionary wars. The term was applied to one 
opened in London 5 Dec. 1796; in fifteen hours and 
twenty minutes the sum of eighteen millions sterling 
was subscribed ; see National Association. 

LUBBOCK'S ACT, Sir John, see Bank Holi- 
days' Act. 

LUBECK, a city in N. Germany, one of the 
four republics of the German confederation, was 
built in the 12th century, and was chief founder of 
the Hanseatic league about 1 240, which lasted till 
1630. Liibeck was declared a free imperial city 
about 1226 ; but was frequently attacked by the 
Danes. The French took it by assault, 6 Nov. 
1806, and Napoleon incorporated it with his empire 
in 1810. On his fall in 1814 it became once more a 
free imperial city. It joined the North German 
confederation 18 Aug. 1866. The Elbe and Trave 
canal, connecting the North Sea and Baltic, opened 
by the emperor, 16 June, 1900. Population in 
1871, 52,158; in 1880, 63,571; in 1885, 67,658 ; 
1890, 76,485 ; 1900, 82,098. 

LUCANIANS, a warlike people of S. Italy 
defeated Alexander of Epirus at Pandosia, 332 B.C. ; 
were subdued by the Romans, 272 ; revolted after 
the battle of Cannse, 216; were reduced by Scipio, 
201 ; again revolted, 90; admitted as Roman citi- 
zens, 88. 

LUCCA (central Italy), a Roman colony, 177 
B.C. ; a Lombard duchy, a.d. 1327 ; a free city about 
1370 ; took an active part in the civil wars of the 
Italian republics. It was united with Tuscany, and 
given as a principality to Eliza Bonaparte by her 
brother Napoleon I., 1805. Lucca, as a duchy, was 
given to Maria Louisa, widow of Louis, king of 
Etruria, in 1814. It was exchanged by her son 
Charles-Louis for Parma and Plaeentia in 1847 ; 
was annexed to Tuscany, and with it became part 
of the kingdom of Italy, in i860. 

LUCERNE (Switzerland) became independent 
in 1332, and joined the confederation. The city 
Lucerne is said to derive its name from a light 
(lucema) set up to guide travellers. It dates from 
the 8th century, and was subject to the abbots 
of Murbach, who surrendered it to the house of 
Hapsburg. It was taken by the French in March, 
1798, and was for a short time capital of the Hel- 
vetic republic ; which, as the focus of insurrection 
against the French, was suppressed Oct. 1802. As 
a catholic canton, Lucerne was very active on 
behalf of education by the Jesuits, 1844 ; see Swit- 
zerland. Population, 1888: canton, 135,360; city, 
20,314; 1901 : canton, 146,474 ; city, 29,633. 

LUCIA, ST. (West Indies), first settled by 
the English, 1639; expelled by the natives; settled 
by French in 1650 ; taken by the British several 
times in the subsequent wars. Insurrection of 
the French negroes, April, 1795. St. Lucia was 
restored to France at the peace of 1802 ; but was 
seized by England, 1803, and confirmed to her in 



1814. Population in 1871, 31,811 ; 710 whites. In 
1880, 38,265; 1891, 41,713; 1899, 48,650. See 
Windward Isles. 

LUCIFER MATCHES .came into use about 
1834. Kri tion matches were invented by Walker 
of'Stockton-on-Tees, 1829. In March, 1842, Mr. 
Reuben Partridge patented machinery for manu- 
facturing the splints. In 1845, Schrotter of 
Vienna produced his amorphous phosphorus (by 
heating ordinary phosphorus in a gas which it 
cannot absorb), by the use of which lucifers are 
rendered less dangerous, and the manufacture less 
unhealthy. Phosphoros (Greek) and lucifer (Latin) , 
both signify light-bearer . 

Mr. Lowe's proposed tax on lucifers (with " ex luct 
lucellum" on the box) was much opposed, and with- 
drawn, April, 1871. For their exertions, a drinking 
fountain at Bow was inaugurated as a memorial to 
Bryant and May, 5 Oct. 1872. The match manufacture 
was made a monopoly in France in Oct. 1872, for 
750,oooJ. 
Strike of women and girls at Bryant and May's, assisted 

by socialists, 5-17 July, 1888. 
The Swedish match company formed in 1888 reported 

unsuccessful, 6 March, 1889. 
The manufacture in France became a state monopoly, 
1 Jan. 1890. See Phosphorus. 

LUCIGEN, a strong light for open-air work, 
produced by apparatus invented by Lyle and 
Hannay. The fuel is hydro-carbon oil and com- 
pressed air. It was tried at the King's Cross 
Station, Dec. 1885, and has been employed on the 
Forth Bridge Works. Exhibited at the Crystal 
Palace, 14 Sept. 1887. 
Messrs. F. Braby & Co. patent a light created by a 

combination of heated oil, water and compressed air. 

The light said to be equal to 2,500 candles. It is 

intended to light public works and large areas, 

Oct. 1888. 

LUCKNOW, the capital of Oude, since 1675 ; 
see Oude, and India, 1857. Visit of prince of 
Wales, Jan. 1876. Lucknow nearly submerged by 
an inundation, reported 13 Sept. 1894. A monu- 
ment, recording the services of the 32nd Foot 
during the i-iege (1857), unveiled by lady Inglis, 
5 April, 1899. Population in 1901, 263,951. 

LUDDITES. Large parties of men under this 
designation, derived from Ned Lud, an idiot, who 
once broke some frames in a passion, commenced 
depredations at Nottingham, breaking frames_ and 
machinery, Nov. 181 1. Skirmish with the military 
there, 29 Jan. 1812. Serious riots occurred again 
in 1814; and numerous bodies of unemployed arti- 
sans committed great excesses in 1816 etseq. Several 
of these Luddites were tried and executed, 1813 and 
1818; see Derby. 

LUGDUNUM, see Leyden and Lyons. 

LUMINOUS PAINT, invented by Mr. W, 
H. Balmain, of University College, London ; 
patented by Ihlee and Home, of London. 

Phosphorescent materials ; lime and sulphur mixed 
with oil or water; clock-faces, statues, &c, painted 
with this mixture, exposed to light, remain luminous 
for some time. Besides domestic uses, it is applied to ' 
military purposes. 

LUNAR SOCIETY, Birmingham, about 1780. 
The members, Joseph Priestley, James Watt, Eras- 
mus Darwin, Dr. Withering, and others, met near 
the full of the moon, to discuss philosophy and 
politics. 

LUNATICS. Insanity (defined by sir Wm. 
Hamilton as "the paralysis of the regulating or 
legislating faculties of the mind "). 



LUNATICS. 



767 



LUTHERAN1SM. 



' ' The king shall have the custody of the lands of 

natural fools," &c, 17 Edw. II. . . . 
Marriages with lunatics declared void, 15 Geo. II 



3° 



Others were made in . . . . 1774 and 
Act regarding criminal lunatics passed . Aug. 
Lunacy act, 8 <fe 9 Vict. c. 100, passed . . . 1845 
The numerous laws respecting lunatics were con- 
solidated and amended by 16 & 17 Vict. cc. 70, 96, 

97 1853 

A new lunacy act for Scotland passed 
An act to amend the law relating to commissions ol 
lunacy passed (said to be in consequence of the 
Wyndham ease ; see Trials, 1862) . 
A parliamentary committee reports favourably of 

the present system of custody of lunatics 
Lunacy Regulation act amended 
A trial of Lunatics act passed . . . 25 Aug 
A stringent Lunacy bill introduced by lord chan 
cellor Selborne, 26 March, 1885 ; re-introduced 
by lord- chancellor Herschell, 1 March, 
passed by the lords, 1 April, 1887 ; another bill 
introduced ; dropped .... 10 July, 
n,9S4 lunatics in charge in Scotland . . 1 Jan 
Lunacy acts amendment bill passed 26 Aug., 1889 

and a consolidating act in 1890 ; amended . 
The Cathcart case (see Trials) . . . July, ,', 

TREATMENT OF THE INSANE. 

Till the end of the last century lunatics were treated 
with cruel severity ; see Conolly " On the Treat- . 
ment of the Insane," 1856. 

The insane were exhibited at Bethlem as a show, 
for id. or 2d. till 1770 

Enlightened principles of treatment were intro- 
duced by Win. Tuke, at the Society of Friends' 
" Retreat," at York, and by Pinel, at theBicetre, 
Paris, with very great success . . . . 1792 

Esquirol succeeds Pinel, and strongly recommends 
instruction in the management of mental dis- 
orders 1810 

Exposure of enormous cruelties in the Bethlem 
hospital 1815 

This led to gradual improvements, and at last to 
the total abolition of mechanical restraints at 
Lincoln, 1837 '• an d at Hanwell Asylum (under 
the superintendence of Dr. John Conolly) and at 
other places 1839 

Psychological Journal first published by Dr. Forbes 
Winslow 1848 

Journal of Mental Science, by Dr. J. C. Bucknill . 1852 

International congress on lunacy reforms opened 

at Antwerp 1 Sept. 1902 

See Hospitals. 
Lunatics in charge in England and Wales, 1 Jan. 1855. 
Private. Pauper. 

Male. Female. Male. Female. 

County Asylums . 132 123 6008 7316 

Hospitals . . 895 723 91 94 

Licensed houses . 1448 1350 1034 1279 



Total. 

13.579 
1,803 

5.111 



2475 2196 7133 06! 

Lunatics, Idiots, and Persons of Unsound 
England and Wales : 



,9 20,493 
Mind in 



Jan. 


Registered. 


1 Jan. 


Registered 


1859 . 


36,672 


1881 . 


73> II 3 


i860 . 


38,058 


1882 . 


74,842 


1861 . 


39,647 


1883 . 


76,765 


1862 . 


41,129 


1884 . 


78,528 


1863 . 


43,118 


1885 . 


79,704 


1864 . 


44,795 


1886 . 


80,156 


1865 . 


45,95o 


1887 . 


80,891 


1866 .. 


47,648 


1888 . 


82,643 


1867 . 


49,086 


1889 . 


84,340 


1868 . 


51,000 


1890 


86,067 


1869 


53,i77 


1892 


87,848 


1870 . 


54,7i3 


1893 . 


89,822 


1871 . 


56,755 


1894 . 


92,067 


1872 . 


58,640 


1895 . 


94,081 


1873 • 


60,296 


1896 


96,446 


1874 • 


62,027 


1897 . 


99,365 


1875 • 


63,793 


1898 . 


101,972 


1876 


64,916 


1899 . 


105,086 


1877 . 


66,636 


1900 


106,611 


1878 . 


68,538 


1901 


107,944 


1879 . 


69,885 


1902 


110,713 


1880 . 


71,191 


1903 


• 113,964 



Criminal lunatics in charge, Oct. 1890, 926 ; 1891, 900 ; 
1892, 915 ; 1893, 728 ; 1895, 757 ; 1896, 769 ; 31 Dec. 1S98, 
781 ; 1899, 766; 1900, 770; 1901, 791. 

1878. Male lunatics, 31,024 ; female, 37,514 ; ratio, 27.5 
per 10,000. 

Ratio per 1000 to tie population: 1859, 1.86; 1865, 
2.18 ; 1870, 2.47 ; 1874 2-62. 

In 1851, there were in Ireland nearly 15,000 lunatics of 
all classes ; in Scotland in 1851, 3362 in charge ; in 1855, 
7403 ; of which only 3328 were under the protection of 
the law; 14,500 insane in Scotland; 18,966 in Ireland, 
1 Jan. 1897 ; Scotland, 16,658, 1 Jan., 1903. 

LUND-HILL, near Barnsley, in South York- 
shire. "While ttie miners were dining in the pit, 19 
Feb. 1857, the inflammable gas took fire and 
exploded. About 189 miners perished. In April 
and May bodies were still being extricated. There 
had been great laxity of discipline in the pit. 
7000/. were subscribed for the bereaved. 

LUNEBUEG, see Brunswick. 

LUNEVILLE (France), PEACE OF, con- 
cluded between the French republic and the emperor 
of Germany, confirmed the cessions made by the 
treaty of Campo Formio, stipulated that the Rhine, 
as far as the Dutch territories, should form the 
boundary of France, and recognised the Batavian, 
Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine republics, 9 FA. 
1801. 

LUPERCALIA, a yearly festival observed at 
Rome on 15 Feb. instituted in memory of Romulus 
and Remus, according to Plutarch ; but according 
to Livy, brought by Evander into Italy. These 
feasts are said to have been abolished in 496, by 
pope Gelasius, on account of their great disorders. 

LUPUS, a disease of the skin produced by the 
bacillus tuberculosis. Treated by the Finsen light, 
and also by X (Rontgen) rays. 

LUSATIA, a marquisate in N. Germany, 
given to John of Bohemia, 1319 ; obtained by 
Matthias of Hungary, 1478 ; ceded to Saxony in 
1635- 

LUSHAIS, see Chins. 

LUSIAD, the great epic poem of the Portu- 
guese, written in honour of their discoveries in 
India, by Luis de Camoens, and published by him 
at Lisbon, 1572. The English translations are by 
sir Richard F anshawe, 1655 ; by Win. Julius Mickle, 
1775; and others; the latest and best by J. J. 
Aubertin, 1884. 

LUSITANIA, see Portugal. 

LUSTRUM, an ancient expiatory sacrifice 
made for the Roman people, at the end of every 
five years, after the census had been taken. Every 
fifth year was called a lustrum; and ten, fifteen, or 
twenty years, were commonly expressed by two, 
three, or four lustra, ihe last lustrum took place, 

74 A.D. 

LUTE, an ancient instrument of oriental origin, 
(Arabic, al'ud) ; said to have been brought to 
Mecca, in the 6th century a.d., and thence to 
Europe. J. S. Bach and others composed for the 
"Western lute in the 18th century. 

LUTHERANISM,* the form of Christianity 



* Martin Luther was born at Eisleben, 10 Nov. 1483 ; 
studied at Erfurt, 1501 ; was professor of philosophy at 
Wittenberg, 1508 ; resisted the sale of indulgences, affix- 
ing his theses against them on the door of the Castle 
church at Wittenberg {which see), 31 Oct. 1517; defended 
himself at Augsburg, 1518 ; at Worms, 1520 ; was ex- 
communicated, 16 June, 1520 ; began his German bible, 
1521 ; married Katherine de Bora, 1525 ; published hi& 
German bible complete, 1534 ; died 18 Feb. 1546. 



LTJTINE. 



768 



LYDIA. 



professed by the majority of the people of the north 
of Germany, Prussia, Denmark, and Sweden. The 
doctrines are mainly embodied in Luther's cate- 
chisms, in the Augsburg Confession, and in the 
Formula Concordice of the Lutherans, published in 
1580. Their first university was founded at Mar- 
burg, in 1527, by Philip, landgrave of Hesse. The 
Luther memorial at Worms was unveiled in presence 
of the king of Prussia and other sovereigns, 25 
June, 1868. Fourth centenary of Luther's birth 
celebrated at Halle, Eisleben (where he was born), 
Berlin, and throughout Germany ; also at London, 
Edinburgh, Dublin, and other places in the united 
kingdom ; at Paris, and other places on the con- 
tinent, 31 Oct.— 17 Nov. 1883. 

LUTINE, see Wrecks, 1799. 

LUTZEN, or LUTZENGEN (N. Germany). 
Here Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, defeated 
the imperialists under Wallenstein, 16 Nov. 1632, 
but was himself killed ; and here the French army, 
commanded by Napoleon, defeated the combined 
armies of Kussia and Prussia, commanded by general 
Wittgenstein, 2 May, 1813. The battles of Bautzen 
and Wurschen immediately followed (19-21 May), 
both in favour of Napoleon. The allies were com- 
pelled to pass the Oder, and an armistice was 
agreed to, afterwards prolonged ; but, unfortunately 
for the French emperor, this did not produce 
peace. 

LUXEMBURG, a grand duchy held by the 
king of Holland till Nov. 1890. Luxemburg, the 
capital, once considered the strongest fortified city 
in the world, has been many times besieged and 
taken : by the French in 984, 1443, 1479, 1542-3 ; 
by the Spaniards in 1544 ; by the French in 1684; 
restored to Spain in 1697 ; taken by the French in 
1701 ; given to the Dutch as a barrier town, but 
ceded to the emperor at the peace in 1713- It 
withstood several sieges in the last century. It 
surrendered to the French after a siege, from Nov. 
1794 to July, 1795 ; and was retaken by the allies 
in May, 1814. Population of the grand duchy, 
1867,199,9158; 1875,205,158; 1885, 213,283; 1890, 
211,088; city, 18,187; 1900,236,543; city, 42,308. 

The grand duchy was annexed to the Netherlands, 
still remaining a member of the Germanic con- 
federation, the capital having a Prussian garrison 1815 

A portion given to the new kingdom of Belgium . 1830 

After the dissolution of the Germanic confedera- 
tion, the emperor Napoleon objected to the Prus- 
sian garrison, and offered to buy the grand duchy 
from the king of Holland . . . March, 1867 

In consequence of the opposition of Prussia, a con- 
ference of representatives of the great powers met 
in London, 7-1 1 May, who agreed upon a treaty 
guaranteeing the neutrality of the province, the 
retirement of the Prussian garrison, and the dis- 
mantling the fortress of Luxemburg . 7-11 May, ,, 

The Prussian soldiers retired . . . Nov. „ 

The fortifications dismantled .... Aug 1870 

The people protest against absorption into Germany , 

21 Oct. „ 

Ihey are accused of violating neutrality, and the 
abrogation of the treaty is mooted by Prussia, 

early in Dec. ,, 

The king of Holland, their sovereign, declared that 
he would maintain the treaty, 15 Dec. ; and the 
government protested against the charge, 19 Dec. ,, 

New treaty with Prussia ; indemnity to be paid for 
breaches of neul vality ; fortresses to be garrisoned 
by Germans Feb. 1871 



Fortifications transformed to civil purposes 
The duke of Nassau, on the severe illness of the 
king of Holland, assumed the regency of Luxem- 
burg 10 April, 

The king recovers and resumes the government, 

3 May, 



1874 



The duke reassumes the government as regent, 
6 Nov. ; becomes grand duke on the death of the 
king, 23 Nov. ; takes the oath and opens the par- 
liament 9 Dec. 1890 

M. de Xivry, the governor, assassinated at Arlon by 
a lunatic who afterwards shot himself, 26 Jan. 1901 

Grand Duke, 1890, Adolphus William Charles, 
(titular duke of Nassau), born 24 July 1817. Heir, 
William Alexander, born 22 April, 1852. 

LUXOR, or El-Uksur, Egypt, see Thebes. 

LUXURY. Lucullus (died 49 B.C.), at Rome, 
was distinguished for inordinate luxury ; see Sump- 
tuary Laws. 

LYCEUM (originally a temple of Apollo 
Lyceus, or a portico, or gallery, built by Lyceus, 
son of Apollo) was a spot near thellissus, in Attica, 
where Aristotle taught philosophy ; and as he 
generally taught as he walked, his pupils were 
called peripatetics, walkers-about, and his philoso- 
phy that of the Lyceum, 342 B.C. Stanley ; see 
Theatres. 

LYCIA (Asia Minor), subject successively to 
Croesus (about 560 B.C.), to the Persians (546 B.C.), 
to Alexander the Great (333 B.C.), and to his suc- 
cessors the Seleucidae. The Romans gave Lycia to 
the Rhodians (188 B.C.). It became nominally free 
under the Romans, and was annexed to the empire 
by Claudius. The marbles brought from Lycia by 
sir Charles Fellows were deposited in the British 
Museum, 1840-46. 

LYCURGUS, see Laws. 

LYDIA, or Maeonia, an ancient kingdom in 
Asia Minor ; the early history wholly mythical. 
Of a long dynasty of kings, the last was Croesus, 
"the richest of mankind." The coinage of gold 
and silver mone} r , and other useful inventions, are 
ascribed to the Lydians. iEsop, the fabulist, 
Alcman, the early lyric poet, Thales of Miletus, 
Anaximenes, Xenophanes, Anacreonof Teos, Herac- 
litus of Ephesus, &c., flourished in Lydia and 
Greece, from the 7th century B.C. 
Agron, a descendant of Hercules, reigns in Lydia, 

Herod about B.C. 1223 

The kingdom, properly so called, begins under 

Ardys I. Blair 797 

Alyattes I. reigns 761 

Myrsus commences his rule 747 

Reign of Candaules (or Myrsilus) .... 735 
Gyges, first of the race Mermnadae, kills Candaules, 
marries his queen, usurps the throne about 690, 
and makes great conquests . . . about 716 
Ardys II. reigns, 678 ; the Cimbri besiege Sardis, 

the capital of Lydia 635 

The Milesian war, commenced under Gyges, is con- 
tinued by Sadyattes, who reigns . . . . 628 

Reign of Alyattes II. 617 

Battle upon the river Halys, between the Lydians 
and Medes, interrupted by an almost total eclipse 
of the sun. This eclipse had been predicted many 
years before by Thales of Miletus. Blair. 

28 May, b.c. 585 
Croesus, son of Alyattes, succeeds to the throne, 
and conquers Asia Minor .... 560-50 

Croesus, dreading Cyras, whose conquests had 
reached to the borders of Lydia, crosses the 
Halys to attack the Medes, with 420,000 men and 
60,000 horse ........ 548 

He is defeated, pursued, and besieged in his capital 
by Cyrus, who orders him to be burned alive ; 
the pile is already on fire, when Croesus calls 
aloud Solon ! and Cyrus hearing him, spares his 
life. Lydia made a province of the Persian 

empire 546 

Sardis burnt by the Ionians 499 

Lydia conquered by Alexander .... 332 
Becomes part of the kingdom of Pergamus . . 283 

Conquered by the Turks a.d. 1326 



LYING-IN HOSPITALS. 



769 



LYRE. 



LYING-IN HOSPITALS. The first, esta- 
blished in Dublin by Dr. Bartholomew Mosse, a 
physician, amid strong opposition, was opened 
March, 1745; see Hospitals. 

LYMPHATICS (absorbent vessels connected 
with digestion), discovered about 1650 by Rudbek 
in Sweden, Bartholin in Denmark, and Jolyffe in 
England. Asellius discovered the lacteals in 
1622. In 1654, Glisson ascribed to these vessels the 
function of absorption ; and their properties were 
studied by Win. and John Hunter, Monro, Hew- 
son, and other great anatomists. 

LYNCH LAW, punishment inflicted by pri- 
vate individuals, independently of the legal authori- 
ties. The origin of the term is doubtful ; the 
practice has been attributed to James Lynch Fitz- 
Stephen, warden of Galway, about 1526, to Lynch, 
a farmer in Virginia, and to Lynch, a person sent to 
America to suppress piracy, 1687-8. "Judge 
Lynch" is thought by some to be a mythical person. 
This mode of administering justice still exists in 
the outlying districts of the United States. Four 
robbers were taken from prison and hanged by a 
vigilance committee at New Albany, on the Ohio, 
II Dec. 1868. 

Cases occurred at Savannah, Georgia, and near 
Bessemer, Alabama, and Como, Mississippi, 

Nov. 1890 

At Salina village, Boulder county, Colorado 

21 Feb. 1891 

New Orleans (which see) . . . . 14 March ,, 

Numerous cases in 1891-94 

Eight men killed and many wounded in attempt- 
ing to lynch a prisoner at Roanoke, Virginia, 

20 Sept. 1893 

An anti-lynching committee existing in London, 
the duke of Argyll, sir J. B. Gorst, Mr. Justin 
M'Carthy, and others Oct. 1894 

Five men lynched at Versailles, Indiana, 14 Sept. 1897 

Five Italians lynched at Tallulah, Louisiana ; the 
U.S. government express sincere regret to count 
Vinci, Italian charge d'affaires . . 23 July, 1899 j 

A negro burnt at the stake for murder at Corinth, 
Mississippi 28 Sept. ,, 

Barbarous lynchings frequent in the south, re- 
ported, Sept. 1902 et seq. ; lynching riot at Evans- 
ville, Indiana, mob dispersed by troops, 10 whites 
killed early July, 1903 

President Roosevelt, in a' letter to Mr. Durbin, 
governor of Indiana, strongly reprobates the 
system of lynching as "simply one form of 
anarchy, and anarchy is now, as it has always 
been, the handmaiden and forerunner of tyranny," 

early Aug. 1903 

. LYNDHUKST' S ACT (5 & 6 Will. IV. c 54) , 
introduced by lord Lyndhurst, rendered valid cer- 
tain marriages within the forbidden degrees (with 
deceased wife's sister) up to that time, but prohi- 
bited them for the future ; passed 31 Aug. 1835. 

LYNN REGIS, or King's Lynn, seaport of 
Norfolk, population, 1881, 18,454; l 9 01 > 20,108. 
Chartered by king John in 1204 ; taken by the 



parliamentarians (3 weeks' siege), 1643. Outbreaks 
of typhoid fever, attributed to bad water, 1892 et 
seq. New supply of water to be ready in 1898. 
Thirteen business and other houses burnt down in 
the High-st., 27 Dec. 1897. The duke and duchess 
of York open a new wing to the hospital, 27 May. 
1899. 

LYONS (S. France), the Roman Lugdunum, 
founded by M. Plancus, 43 B.C. The city was re- 
duced to ashes in a single night by lightning, a.d. 
59, and was rebuilt in the reign of Nero. It was 
a free city till its union with France in 1307. 
Population in 1886, 367,822; in 1891, 401,930; 
1901, 453>ooo. 

Battle near Lyons ; Clodius Albinus defeated and 

slain by Septimius Severus . . 19 Feb. 197 
Two general councils held here (13th and 14th) , 

Silk manufacture commenced ....'. 1515 
Lyons taken by the republicans after 70 days' siege, 
9 Oct. ; awful pillage and slaughter follow ; the 
Convention decreed the demolition of the city, 

12 Oct. 1791 
Capitulated to the Austrians . . .March, 181 1 

Entry of Napoleon 8 March, 1815 

An insurrection among the artisans, which led to 
great popular excesses; quelled by an army, 

21 Nov. -31 Dec 1831 
Dreadful riots, put down by military . 15 April, 1834 
Railway to Paris opened ... 7 April, 1839 

A dreadful inundation at Lyons (see Inundations), 

4 Nov. 1840 
Another insurrection quelled, with much loss of life, 

15 June, 1849 
Grand banquet to Louis Napoleon . 15 Aug. 1850 
A committee of public safety appointed here and the 
red flagraised soon afterthe revolutionin Paris. M. 
Saigne, calling himself president, gen. Cluseret (ex- 
pelled from Paris), and other extreme republicans, 
defeated in their endeavours to depose M. Challemel 
Laeour, the prefect of the Rhone, who was well 
supported by the national guard ; gen. Mazure, 
the military commander, accused of treacherous 
inaction, was arrested ... 28 Sept. 1870 
Arnaud, commandant of the national guard, mur- 
dered by the mob, after a mock trial, for resist- 
ing them 20 Dec. „ 

Visited by marshal MaeMahon . . . Sept. 1876 

Rioting, see France Oct. 1882 

Assassination of president Carnot, see France, 

24 June, 1894 
Anti-Italian riots ... 25 June et seq. ,, 
About 3,000 ruined Italians quit Lyons, reported, 

29 June, ,, 
Pres. Loubet unveils a monument to pres. Carnot, 

4 Nov. 1900 

LYRE. Its invention is ascribed to the Grecian 
Hermes (in Latin Mercury), who, according to 
Homer, gave it to Apollo, the first that played upon 
it with method, and accompanied it with poetry. 
The invention of the primitive lyre, with three 
strings, is ascribed to the first Egyptian Hermes. 
It is said that Terpander added several strings to 
the lyre, making the number seven, 673 B.C., and 
that Phrynis, a musician of Mitylene, added two 
more, making nine, 438 B.C. 



3 D 



MACADAMISING. 



770 



MACEDON. 



M. 



MACADAMISING, a system of road-making 
invented by Mr. John Macadam, and published by 
him in an essay, in 1819, having practised it in 
Ayrshire. He prescribed stones to be broken to six 
ounces weight, and the use of clean flints and granite 
clippings. He received 10,000/. from parliament; was 
appointed surveyor-general of the metropolitan roads 
in 1827, and died in 1836; see Moads. 

MACAO (in Quang-tong, S. China) was given 
to the Portuguese as a commercial station in 1586 
(in return for their assistance against pirates), sub- 
ject to an annual tribute, which was remitted in 1886. 
Here Camoens composed part of the " Lusiad." The 
abuses of the Coolie trade by the Portuguese led to 
its abolition here by the British and Chinese govern- 
ments in 1873. Outbreak of plague reported, 23 
April, 189^. 

MACARONI. This name, given to a poem by 
Theophilus Folengo, 1509, continues to designate 
trifling performances, as buffoonery, puns, ana- 
grams, " wit without wisdom, and humour without 
sense." His poem was so called from a nutritious 
preparation of wheat-flour in tubes and threads. 
These poems, in Italy- and France, gave rise to 
Macaroni academies, and in England to Macaroni 
clubs (about 1772), when everything ridiculous in 
dress and manners was called " Macaroni." Wil- 
liam's macaroni manufactory in London, only one 
in England, Dec. 1897. 

MACCABEES, a name of the Asmonteans, who 
commenced their career during the persecution of 
AntiochusEpiphanes, 167 B.C. Mattathias, a priest, 
resisted the tyranny ; and his son, Judas Maccabseus, 
defeated the Syrians in three battles, 166, 165 B.C. ; 
but fell in an ambush, 161 B.C. His brother Jona- 
than made a le&gue with the Eomans and Lace- 
daemonians, and after an able administration was 
treacherously killed at Ptolemais by Tryphon, 
143 B.C. His brother and successor, Simon, was 
also murdered, 135 B.C. John HyrcHims, son of 
Simon, succeeded. His son Judas, "called also Aris- 
tobulus, took the title of king, 107 B.C. The history 
of the Maccabees is contained in five books of that 
name, two of w hich are included in our Apocrypha. 
Four are accounted canonical by the Roman Catholic 
church ; none by Protestant communions. 
The magnificent Maccabees chapel at Geneva, founded 
in 1415, by the cardinal Jean de Broguier, president of 
the council of Constance and the place of his sepulchre. 
The building, much injured and desecrated at the time 
of the Reformation, was finely renovated in 1881 and 
fitted up as a museum. 

MoCAETHYITES, a name given to the 
Anti-Parnellites, see Parnellites, Dec. 1890. 

MACCLESFIELD, Cheshire, was incorpor- 
ated in i2bo, disenfranchised in 1885. The church 
of St. Michael was founded by queen Eleanor in 
1278; the grammar-school in" 1502. Population, 
1881,37,514; 1891,36,009; 1901,34,634. 

MACDONALD AFFAIR, see Prussia, 1861. 

MACE, a weapon anciently used by the cavalry 
of most nations, was originally a spiked club, hung 
at the saddle-bow, and usually of metal. Maces 
were also early ensigns of authority borne before 



officers of state, the top being made in the form of 
an open crown, and commonly of silver gilt. The 
lord chancellor and speaker of the house of commons 
have maces borne before them. Edward III. granti d 
to London the privilege of having gold or silver 
maces carried before the lord mayor, sheriffs, alder- 
men, and corporation, 1354. It was with the mace 
usually carried before the lord mayor on state 
occasions, that Walworth, lord mayor of London, is 
said to have knocked the rebel Wat Tjler off his 
horse, for rudely approaching Richard II., a cour- 
tier afterwards despatching him with his dagger, 
15 June, 1 381. Cromwell, entering the house of 
commons to disperse its members and dissolve the 
parliament, ordered one of his soldiers to " take 
away that bauble," the mace, which was done, and 
the doors of the house locked, 20 April, 1653. 

MACEDON" (N. Greece). The first kingdom 

is said to have been founded by Caranus, about 761 
B.C. It was successively under the protection of 
Athens, of Thebes, aud Sparta, until the reign of 
Philip, the father of Alexander the Great, who by 

his political wisdom and warlike exploits made it a 
powerful kingdom, and paved the way for his son's 
greatness. 
Reigns of Caranus, about 761 ; Perdiccas I., 729; 

Argseiis I. , 684 ; Philip I. , 640 or 609. 

Reign of Amyntas, 540 ; of Alexander I. . B.C. 500 
Macedon conquered by the Persians, 513 ; delivered 

by the victory of Platsea 479 

Reign of Perdiccas II 454 

Potidasa, revolting, 433 ; re-taken by the Athenians 429 
Archelaus, natural son of Perdiccas, murders the 
legitimate heirs ; seizes the throne, and improves 
the country, 413 ; murdered by a favourite, to 

whom he promised his daughter in marriage . 399 

Pausanias reigns . 394 

Reign of Amyntas II., after killing Pausanias . 393 
The Ulyrians enter Macedonia, expel Amyntas, and 

make Argfeus, brother of Pausanias, king . . 392 
Amyntas again recovers his kingdom . . . 390 
Reign of Alexander II. , 369 ; assassinated . . . 367 
Reign of Perdiccas III., 364; killed in battle . . 360 
Reign of Philip II., and institution of the Mace- 
donian phalanx 359 

He defeats the Athenians and Ulyrians . . 360, ,, 

He takes Amphipolis 358 

He conquers Thrace. Illyria, and Thessaly . 356-352 

Birth of Alexander III. the Great .... 356 

Close of the first sacred war 346 

Illyricum overrun by the army of Philip . . . 344 

Thrace made tributary to Macedon . . . . 343 

Aristotle appointed tutor to Alexander . . . ,, 

War against the Athenians 341 

Philip besieged Byzantium unsuccessfully . . 340 

Battle of Clueronea ; Philip victor . . . . 33S 

Philip is assassinated by Pausanias at JEgte during 
the celebration of games in honour of his 
daughter's nuptials; Alexander III., the Great, 

succeeds ....... 336 

The Greeks appoint him general of their armies 

against the Persians 335 

The Thebans revolt ; he levels Thebes to the 

ground ; the house of Pindar alone left . . ,, 
He passes into Asia, and gains his first battle over 

Darius at the Granicus ... 22 May, 334 1 

Sardis surrenders, Halicarnassus taken, and cities 

in Asia Minor . . . . . . . ,, 

Memnon ravages the Cyclades ; Darius takes the I 

field with 460,000 infantry, and 100,000 cavalry 333 1 

Darius defeated at Issus (which see) . . Nov. ,, ' 

Alexander on his way to Egypt, lays siege to Tyre, 

which is destroyed after seven months . . 332 [ 



MACEDON. 



771 



MACEDON. 



Damascus is taken ; Gaza surrenders . . . 332 

Alexander enters Jerusalem ; Egypt conquered ; 

Alexandria founded ,, 

'The Persians totally defeated at Arbela . 1 Oct. 331 
Alexander master of Asia ; enters Babylon . . ,, 

•Sits ©11 the throne of Darius at Susa . . . 330 
Parthia, Media, <fcc., overrun by him . . B.C. 329 
Thalestris, queen of the Amazons, visits him . ,, 

He puts his friend Parmenio to death, on a charge 

of conspiracy supposed to be false . . . ,, 
His expedition to India ; Porus, king of India, is 
•defeated and taken ; and the country as far as the 

Ganges, is overrun 327 

Callisthenes is put to the torture for refusing to 

fender divine homage to Alexander . . . 328 
Voyage of his admiral Nearchus from the Indus to 

the Euphrates 328-325 

Returns to Babylon, 324 ; dies .... 323 

Philip III. (Aridteus) king 323 

Alexander's conquests are divided among his 
generals, 323 ; his remains are transported to 
Alexandria, and buried by Ptolemy . . . 322 
The Greeks defeated by Antipater and the Mace- 
donians, near Cranon (which see) . . . . ,, 
"Cassander reigns, 316 ; rebuilds Thebes . . . 315 

Seleucus recovers Babylon 312 

Cassander kills Roxana and her son (the last of 

Alexander's family), and usurps the throne . . 311 
Battle of Ipsus (which see) ; Antigonus killed . . 301 
New division of the empire . . . . . ,, 

Death of Cassander 298 

Reign of Alexander V. and Antipater, his sons . ,, 
Demetrius I. , Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus, murders 

Alexander, and seizes the crown of Macedon . 294 
Achaean league, formed against Macedon . . 281-243 
Governments of Pyrrhus, 287 ; Lysimachus, 286 ; 

Ptolemy Ceraunus 281 

Irruption of the Gauls ; Ptolemy killed . . . 279 

Sosthenes governs 278 

Reign of Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius . 277 
Pyrrhus invades Macedon, defeats Antigonus, and 

is proclaimed king 273 

Pyrrhus slain ; Antigonus restored . . .278 

Antigonus takes Athens . . . . . . 262 

The Gauls again invade Macedon . . . . ,, 

Revolt of the Parthians _ . 250 

Reign of Demetrius II 239 

Philip, his son, 232 ; set aside by Antigonus Doson 229 
Philip V., 220; allies with Hannibal, 211; wars 

unsuccessfully against the Rhodians . . . 202 
Philip defeated by the Romans at Cynoscephalse 197 
Reign of Perseus, his son, 178 ; war with Rome . 171 
Perseus defeated at Pydna ; Macedon made a 

Roman province 168 

Perseus and his sons walk in chains before the 
chariot of jEmilius in his triumph for the con- 
quest of Macedon 167 

Insurrection of Andriscus, calling himself Philip, 

son of Perseus, quelled 148 

Macedonia plundered by Theodoric the Ostro- 
goth a.d. 482 

Conquered by the Bulgarians 978 

Recovered by the emperor Basil 1001 

Formed into the Latin kingdom of Thessalonica, by 

Boniface, of Moutferrat 1204 

After various changes, conquered by Amurath II., 

and annexed to Turkey 1430 

A Macedonian Society formed to urge the execution 
of the Treaty of Berlin (1878) was active in 
1885-95. 
Macedonian congress at Sofia ; petitions to prince 

Ferdinand and the czar . . . April, 1895 

The country greatly disturbed ; conflicts between 
the people and the Turkish troops, reported, 23 
June ; many arrests .... June- Aug. ,, 
The village of Dospat attacked and destroyed by a 
band of Macedonians, Aug. 1895. See Times, 

7, 15 Jan. 1896 
Tli e Macedonian committee met at Sofia, demanding 

reforms from Turkey ... 21 June, ,, 
Conflicts between Turks and Greeks, reported 

July, Aug. „ 
A Turkish consul assassinated by Albanians in 
Vrania ; a band of insurgents routed by Turks, 

reported 24 Aug. , 

Greek bands dispersed ; further conflicts, 4-29 Sept. ,, 
Tranquillity reported 2 Nov. ,, 



Takis, Macedonian chief, captures Krania, a strong 
Turkish position 6 March, 

Frequent conflicts between Servians and Bulga- 
rians Oct. 

Search for arms ; torture and atrocities on Bulga- 
rians in Uskub, Kossovo and elsewhere by Tur- 
kish officials Feb. 

Commission of inquiry sent by the porte ; 127 Bul- 
garians released at Uskub, and 151 at Isteb, Feb. 
March ; 6 Bulgarians sentenced to life imprison- 
ment 27 March, 

Agitation for autonomy and refoims, and art. 23 of 
the Berlin treaty to be kept, by the Macedonian 
committee Dec. 

Military posts strengthened, but reforms evaded, 

Dec. 

Macedonian manifesto issued . . .21 Jan. 

Agitation continues in Bulgaria and Roumania 
(which see) ; jco political murders during 1900, 
reported 24 Jan. 

Repressive measures, many arrests, conflicts with 
Turkish troops, reported . . .17 Feb. 

Daily arrests of persons accused of complicity in 
the designs of the Macedonian committee ; 7 
Bulgarians sentenced to death, others imprisoned 
or banished 12, 13 May, 

Further disturbances, conflicts with troops, re- 
ported 29 March, 

Bulgarian outrages suppressed by Turkish troops, 
April ; another fight at Patili . early June, 

Mgr. Firmillian consecrated Servian bishop of 
Uskub 28 June, 

Commission of inquiry as to the disturbed districts 
recommends certain administrative reforms and 
reorganisation of gendarmerie . . 24 July, 

Macedonian congress at Sofia, 10 Aug. ;. open-air 
meeting against the government policy, 11 Sept. 

Bulgarian rising in Monastir and Salonika ; severe 
fight at Vodena, 52 killed, 23 Sept. ; reserves 
called out 29 Sept. 

150 Greeks murdered by Bulgarians, Aug. -Sep., re- 
ported 30 Sept. 

Conflicts reported . . .11, 15, 18, 20 Oct. 

Zontcheff s band defeated near Ne vrokop, reported, 
25 Oct. ; again at Fakire Tepe . 1, 2 Nov. 

Fatal skirmishes on the frontier, Turkish barbari- 
ties, reported, 10-17 Nov. ; again . . Dec. 

Turkish scheme of reforms published, 3 Dec. ; re- 
ported unsatisfactory . ... 8 Dee. 

Count Lamsdorff, Russian foreign minister, nego- 
tiates at Belgrade, Sofia, and Vienna, on the 
Balkan difficulties .... 24 Dec. 

Encounter between strong band of Macedonians 
and Turkish troops near lake Okhrida, the former 
defeated, reported .... early Feb. 

Bulgarian bands causing trouble in the Monastir 
district mid Feb. 

Austro-Russian programme of reforms presented 
to the other great powers . . . 17 Feb. 

Austro-Russian programme, consented to by the 
great powers, includes the appointment of an 
inspector-general with extended powers, the 
organisation of the gendarmerie by European 
officers, an amnesty for political offences, and 
financial reforms, presented to the porta, 21 Feb. 

Blue book on the Macedonian question, 1900 — 
Jan. 1903, issued 23 Feb. 

Fighting between Turkish troops and revolutionary 
bands at Brondo and in the district of Malesh, 
and other places, reported ... 28 Feb. 

Further fighting near lake Presba . 3 March, 

2,000 Redifs and large supplies of ammunition sent 
from Asia to Monastir ... 7-8 March, 

Increasing disquiet and conflicts in the Malesh dis- 
trict between Turks and revolutionary bands ; 
revolt in N. Albania against the reform scheme, 
and conflict with Turkish troops ; attack on M. 
Stcherbina, the Russian consul at Mitrovitza, 
who is mortally wounded 31 March (died 10 April): 
the sultau tenders his regret to Russian ambas- 
sador at Constantinople . . . 1 April 

Fight in the Istib district, alleged barbarities of 
the Turks ; massacre of Christians by Albanians 
at Okrida 5 April, 

Conflict at Saparevo, Melnik district ; capt Saieff, 
a brave and prominent leader of- he insurgents, 

killed Q April, 

3 D 2 



1897 



MACEDONIANS. 



772 



MADAGASCAR. 



Engagement between Turkish troops and Bulga- 
rians near Radovitch . . . ig April, 
Further conflicts between Turks and insurgents, 

reported 22 April, 

Bomb explosion at Salonika by Bulgarian agita- 
tors ; Ottoman bank destroyed, many lives lost, 

28 April, 
Severe conflict between troops and Bulgarian 
bands, between Velet and Gradsko . 30 April, 
Turkish troops mobilized in Macedonia, 156 
battalions, each of 700 men, 37 squadrons of 
cavalry, and 78 batteries . . early May, 
Attack of the Turkish populace upon Bulgarians 
at Monastir ; many Bulgarians killed ; persecu- 
tion of Bulgarians in Macedonia, 6 May ; panic, 
Turkish excesses reported . . 11, 12 May, 
More or less disquiet and conflicts between Turkish 
troops and insurrectionary party mid May -June, 
Turks occupy strategic positions in the Kossovo, 
Monastir, and Adrianople districts ; protest of 
Bulgaria to the great powers about . 1 July, 
The Austrian, Russian, and British consuls report 
terrible outrages in ihe vilayet of Uskub by the 
Turks upon Bulgarians of both sexes ; 3,043 Bul- 
garian peasants, men, women, and children, up to 
23 June had taken refuge in Bulgaria ; the Kedif 
regiment replaced in consequence of its excesses, 

mid July, ,, 
Famous Bulgarian brigand Alexis and others 
killed in conflict with Turkish troops near 

Petrich IO j u iy, ,, 

Revolution proclaimed in the vilayet of Monastir 
in conformity with the decision of the central 
revolutionary committee, reported . 2 Aug. ,, 
Dynamite outrages by insurgents on the railway 

between Salonika and Monastir . . 3 Aug. „ 
General rising in Macedonia, spread of the insur- 
rection to the vilayet of Adrianople ; murder of 
M. Rostkowsky, Russian consul at Monastir, by 
Turkish gendarme Halim . . mid Aug. „ 
Port of Vasiliko on coast of the Black sea captured 
by insurgents ; principal government buildings 
blown up with dynamite ; fearful atrocities 
stated to be perpetrated by Turkish troops in 
vilayet of Monastir, reported . 12 Aug. et seq. ,, 
Krustevo captured by the Turkish troops, reported, 

15 Aug. ,, 
Severe fighting reported near Monastir . 18 Aug. ,, 
Spread of the rising in vilayet of Adrianople, train 
between Adrianople and Constantinople blown up, 
six persons killed, 15 injured . . . 28 Aug. ,, 
Strained relations between Bulgaria and Turkey ; 
European correspondents ordered by the porte 
to leave Macedonia ; shocking reports of outrages 
by Turks and Albanians, reported 31 Aug. et seq. „ 
Frightful cruelties perpetrated on inhabitants 
of Smilievo, Armensko, Krustevo, and other 
places, reported .... early Sept. „ 
Severe fight near Couklite, Perim district 17 Sept. ; 
also at Batchevo and Mehonia ; Turks commit 
many atrocities ; fight at Kotchani, 

18 Sept. and 23 Sept. ,, 
Consular reports describe the devastation in the 
Adrianople vilayet, " too terrible for words," 

about 24 Sept. „ 
Identical note sent by Austria and Russia to 
Bulgaria and Turkey, stating their intention to 
institute a "more efficacious mode of control" 
in connection with the Macedonian reforms, 5 Oct. „ 
See Turkey and Addenda. 

MACEDONIANS, a semi- Arian sect, followers 
of Macedonius, made bishop of Constantinople 
about 341. His appointment was greatly opposed 
and led to much bloodshed. He was expelled by 
the decree of a council held 360. 

MACHIAVELLIAN PRINCIPLES, 

those of Nicolo Machiavelli of Florence (born 
1469, died 1527), iu his " Practice of Politics" and 
"The Prince." By some they are styled "the 
most pernicious maxims of government, tounded on 
the vilest policy ;" by others as "sound doctrines, 
notwithstanding the prejudice erroneously raised 



against them." The author said that if he taught 
princes to be tyrants, he also taught the people to 
destroy tyrants. "The Prince" appeared at Rome 
in 1532, and was translated into English in 1761. 

MACIEJOVICE (near Warsaw, Poland). 
Here the Poles were totally defeated by the Russians, 
and tneir general, Kosciusko, taken prisoner, IO 
Oct. 1794, after a murderous action. He strenuously 
endeavoured to prevent the junction of the Russian 
and Austrian armies. The statement that he said 
" Finis Polonise !" is contradicted. 

MACKENZIE BASIN, see Canada, 1888. 

MADAGASCAR (S. E. coast of Africa), a 
large island (capital, Antananarivo), said to have 
been discovered by Lorenzo Almeida, 1 506. The 
people are called Hovas. Population, about 
6,000,000 (1900). 

Portuguese settlement, 1548; destroyed by the 
French one, 1642, on arrival of a French governor 1669, 

The French attempted to settle at Antongel-bay in 1774 

Count Benyowski supreme in the island, Oct. 1775 
killed in an encounter with the French 23 May, 1786 

Their establishment at Fort Dauphin fell into the 
hands of the English with Bourbon and Mauritius 
in 1810-11 

The settlements ceded to king Radama, on his 
giving up the slave trade 1818 

Radama I. king 1810, who favoured Europeans and 
encouraged Christianity, died .... 1828 

A reactionary policy under his energetic queen 
Ranavalona, 1828. The English missionaries who 
came in 1820 obliged to depart . . . . 1835 

The application of the native laws to the European 
settlers occasioned an unsuccessful attack on the 
town of Tamatave, by a united expedition from 
the English at the Mauritius, and the French 
from the isle of Bourbon . . . June, 1845 

All amicable intercourse ceases, the native Christians 'bfcwM, 
suffer persecution 1846 et seq. 

The French defeated in an attack on the island, w- - 

19 Oct. 1855 

Conspiracy against the queen frustrated . June, 1857 

The rev. W. Ellis published accounts of his three 
visits to the island, on behalf of the London 
Missionary Society, in 1854-5-6 1858 

The queen dies ; succeeded by her son Radama II., 
a Christian 23 Aug. 1861 

Treaty with Great Britain and France signed, , ^ ,, 

12 Sept. 1862 

A revolution ; the king and his ministers assassinated ; 
the queen Rasoherina proclaimed sovereign, May, 1863 

Embassy from Madagascar arrives at Southampton, 

Feb. 1864 

Disputes with the French . . . . Nov. „ 

Treaty with Great Britain ; Christians to be tole- 
rated, &c. , 27 June, 1865 ; ratified . . 5 July, 1866 

Rev. Wm. Ellis's "Madagascar Revisited," pub- 
lished 1 Feb. 1867 

The queen died in March ; her cousin, Ranavalona II. , 
succeeded as queen, 1 April, 1868 ; baptized, Feb i860 

Dr. Henry Rowley was consecrated bishop of 
Madagascar, Dec. 1872 ; Dr. R. Kestell-Comish 1874 

African slavery prohibited, 1873 ; solemnly June, 1877 

Disputes with the French begin respecting land 
given to Laborde, a missionary, reclaimed by the 
Hovas ; aggressive insolent conduct of French 
consuls, Cassas, Meyer, and Baudais . . 1879 et seq. 

The French claim protectorate of part of N.W. Ma- 
dagascar, by virtue of a treaty made with rebel 
chiefs, 1840-1 ; on appeal the British government 
correspond with the French ministry July, Aug. 1882 

Native embassy to France objecting to French 
protectorate, &c. Oct. ,, 

The French government unyielding Nov. ; the 
envoys come to London ; received by earl 
Granville, 2 Dec, by the queen . . 12 Dec. ,, 

Friendly modification of the treaty of 1868 with 
England Feb. 1883 

Arrival of French war vessels in Madagascar 23 Feb. „ 

Treaty with the United States ratified about 

14 March, ,, 

H. M.S. Dryad at Tamatave . . . 14 April, , 



MADAGASCAE. 



773 



MADAGASCAE. 



Treaty with Germany .... 15 May, 1883 
Admiral Pierre bombards and seizes the custom- 
house at Majunga 24 May ; Adm. Pierre bombards 
Tamatave,unresistingn June,capturesit,i3 June, „ 
French ultimatum, offered and rejected, announced 

13 June, „ 
The queen Ranavalona II. dies about 13 July ; 

succeeded by her niece Ranavalona III. . July, ,, 
Tenoarivo destroyed ; state of siege at Tamatave ; 
adm. Pierre orders the British consul, T. C. 
Pakenham (ill) to quit within 24 hours, who dies, 
, 22 June. Mr. Shaw, missionary, arrested ; capt. 
Johnson of the Dryad insulted ; the British go- 
vernment demands explanations 12 July, satisfac- 
tion ordered to be given . . . Aug. ,, 
Adm. Pierre reports repulse of two night-attacks 

on 22 June and s July, ,, 

Release of Mr. Shaw about .... 7 Aug. „ 

Adm. Pierre dies 10 Sept. „ 

The Hovas retake French posts, except Majunga, 

announced 6 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Shaw at Exeter Hall, describes his arrest, false 
charges against him, cruel usage and abrupt 

release 27 Sept. ,, 

Great mortality among French troops . Sept. ,, 
eoooJ. awarded to Mr. Shaw, and apology made to 
the British government by the French, announced 

about 29 Oct. ,, 
Much British property destroyed . . . Nov. ,, 
French demand raised, by M. Baudais . . Jan. 1884 
The French chambers vote to support French 

honour in Madagascar (450 — 32). . 27 March, ,, 
French attack on the Hova camp repulsed 27 June, ,, 
Two blue-books published by the Hova government 
£ giving the history of the disputes with the 

SjFreneh, 1879-84 Aug. ,, 

Desultory warfare and negotiations reported, 

French settlements in progress at Majunga, &c. ; 

the Hovas prepare for war .... Aug. , , 

The French bombard Mahanoro . . .22 Sep. ,, 

Mr. T. Wilkinson, missionary and trader, expelled 

from Antananarivo for newspaper correspondence 

Nov. ,, 
The Hovas severely defeated . . .2 Dec. ,, 
The French take forts after sharp conflict 6-11 Dec. ,, 
Seven French ships of war at Tamatave, the Hovas 

retreating inland Jan. 1885 

French chambers vote for maintaining of status quo, 

July- Aug. ,, 
Unsuccessful French attack on the Malagasy 

position near Tamatave ... 10 Sept. ,, 
Another conflict (undecisive) announced 28 Sept. ,, 
Negotiations for peace fail ; French protectorate 

rejected 13 June-17 Aug. „ 

Treaty signed conceding partial French control on 

foreign affairs ; 400,000?. as compensation for 

local injuries &c, by the agency of adm. Miot. 20 

Dec. 1885 ; ratified by French senate 13 March, ,, 

M. le Myre de Vilers, first French resident April, ,, 

Tamatave evacuated by the French, re-occupied by 

the natives 25 Jan. 1887 

Prosperity of the island reported . . . Oct. 1889 
French protectorate recognised by Great Britain 

5 Aug. 1890 
Massacre of about 200 complaining natives, by the 

governor of Belanona, reported . . 9 Jan. 1891 
The governor and his brother tried and executed, 

reported 24 March, ,, 

Dr. Catat, at Paris, reports the results of an 
exploring scientific expedition in Madagascar 
sent out in 1888, by the government 23 March, ,, 
Insurrection in the Comoro Islands (near Mada 
gascar), ruled by Arab chiefs under French pro- 
tection ; massacres and exactions. Prince Salim 
refuses to negotiate with Dr. Ormieres, the 
French resident, reported . . .28 March, ,, 
The residents take refuge in the ships ; slaves hold 

the town in Johanna Island, reported 3 April, ,, 
Murder of Dr. Beziat, chief of the French medical 

staff, reported 30 Oct. ,, 

M. Georges Muller, French explorer, shot by 

brigands near Mandritsara . . . Aug. 1893 
Conflicts between the French and the Hovas, re- 
ported 24 Dec. ,, 

A cyclone at Diego Suarez ; great destruction of 

property Feb. 5, 1894 

Exploring expedition of prince Henri d'Orleans 
and M: de Grandmaison . . July. Aug. ,, 



Partial blockade of the ports by the French re- 
ported 3 Oct. 

Arrival of M. le Myre de Vilers at Tamatave, 2 
Nov. ; his ultimatum rejected by the Hova 
government, reported 5 Nov. ; diplomatic rup- 
ture 10 Nov. ; Tamatave deserted by the Hovas, 

14 Nov. 
the queen's manifesto exhorting to resistance, 

28 Nov. 
Tamative occupied by the French . . 10 Dec. 
The queen accepts the conditions of the French, 

10 Dec. 
Defeat of the Hovas at Farafatra . . 28 Dec. 
Murder of Mr. Sornay, a British subject, reported, 

25 Dec. 
Majunga bombarded and occupied by the French, 

16 Jan. 

M. le Myre de Vilers, dissatisfied with the queen's 

concessions, leaves, 27 Dec. 1894 ; arrives at 

Marseilles 2Q Jan. 

Nossi-Vey, island, S.W. coast, taken by the French, 

14 Feb. 
Mr. Waller, formerly U.S. consul at Tamatave, 
imprisoned by French for aiding the Hovas ; 
U.S. government protests ; he arrives at Mar- 
seilles, 20 April (released 19 March, 1896) . 
The French occupy Ambommarine after severe 

fighting, reported 21 April, 

Gen. Metzinger storms Miadane, the Hovas fled, 

3 April, 
Murder of M. Greve, naturalist, by the Hovas, re- 
ported 25 April, 

Marovoay stormed by gen. Metzinger ; much 

slaughter ; flight of the Hovas . . 2 May, 

Gen. Duchesne, commander-in-chief, arrives at 

Majunga 6 May, 

Defeat of the Hovas ; successful advance of the 

French, reported ... 19 May, et seq. 

Great mortality amongst the French from fever, 

reported 21 May, 

Withdrawal of Col. Sherviuton and English officers 

from Madagascar May, 

Repulse of the French advance, reported 15 May, 
Mevatanana occupied without resistance 12 July, 
Bridge over the Betsiboka completed ; 300 ft. long, 

22 July, 
Capture of Andriba by gen. Duchesne, 22 Aug. ; 
slow advance of the French ; the Hova govern- 
ment apparently incapable of preparing for de- 
fence or surrender ; many French soldiers in- 
valided and dying .... Aug. -Sept. 
The Hovas defeated with great loss at Tsinainondry, 
by gen. Duchesne . . . . 15 Sept. 
Antananarivo, the capital, bombarded and cap- 
tured by gen. Duchesne ; flight of the queen and 
court, 30 Sept. ; treaty of peace ratified by the 
queen, 1 Oct. ; she accepts the French protecto- 
rate, and is reinstated ; the prime minister 
arrested, 4 Oct. ; gen. Metzinger appointed 

governor 10 Oct. 

Hova works at Farafatra captured . 10 Oct. 

The queen holds an assembly, announcing the 

peace 6 Nov. 

Mr. and Mrs. Johnson and child murdered at a 

mission at Arivouhnamo ... 22 Nov. 

Rebels defeated with much loss . . 23 Nov. 

Estimated French loss during the campaign by 

disease, 3,500 ...... Nov. 

M. Laroche appointed resident-general . 1 Dec. 
Tribal risings against the Hovas . . . Jan. : 
Skirmishes with the French . . . April, 
Several pioneer explorers murdered by brigands, 

May, 

Antsirabo burnt by rebels, 3 days' siege of the 

Norwegian mission raised by M. Allez, rebel loss 

200 about 4 June, 

Murders, looting, and burning of villages, etc., 

Aug., Sept. 

Scientific expedition under Dr. Forsyth-Major lands 

at Mananzara in 1894 ; returns with collections, 

Sept. 
M. Laroche recalled ; gen. Gallieni appointed gov- 
ernor-gen. and commander-in-chief, arrives, 

28 Sept. 

Prince Ratsimananga (the queen's uncle) and the 

ex-governor of Tamatave, tried and executed for 

rebellion at Antananarivo ■ jj . 30 Oct. 



1895 



MADDER. 



774 



MADRAS. 



Insurrection over, improved conditions . Jan. 1897 
The queen leaves for Reunion . . .7 March, ,, 
Two French protestant missionaries massacred 

in Ankaratra .... abt. 10 June, ,, 
Skirmish on the Tsiribihina, 3 officers and others 

killed Oct. ,, 

Siege raised at Imerina and Betsiloe . mid Jan. 1898 
Natives repulsed with loss by the French at Am- 

biky 22 Feb. „ 

Lord Salisbury protests against the abolition of the 

rights of British commerce, 9 July, 1898. (Times, 

7 Jan. 1899.) 
Mutiny of soldiers, And.jia plundered ; they are 

disarmed and sent back to Diego Suares, Nov. „ 
Concessions demanded by Mr. "Waller (see above), 

Feb. 1895 ; refused by the French . . Nov. „ 
Outbreak of plague at Tamatave, 108 deaths, Dec. 

1898 ; decreasing . . . Jan. T899 

Rising at Ikongo, rebel position captured, 

24, 25 June, 1899 
Successful operations against rebels in the south, 

Oct. -mid Nov. 1901 
The ex-queen allowed to visit St. Malo . Aug. 1902 
Good financial report, trade progressing, 

1900-Sept. ,, 

MADDER, the root of the Rubia tinctoria, 
highly valued for dyeing properties. See Alizarine. 

MADEIRA, an island, N. W. coast of Africa, 
discovered, it is said, in 1344, by Mr. Macham, an 
English gentleman, or mariner, who fled from 
France for an illicit amour. He was driven here 
by a storm, and his mistress, a French lady, dying, 
he made a canoe, and carried the news of his dis- 
covery to Pedro, king of Aragon, which occasioned 
the report that the island was discovered by a 
Portuguese, 1345. It is asserted that the Portu- 
guese did not visit this island until 1419 or 1420, 
or colonise it until 1431. It was taken by the 
British in July, 1801 ; and again by admiral Hood 
and general Beresford, 24 Dec. 1807, and retained 
in trust for the royal family of Portugal, who had 
emigrated to the Brazils. It was restored to the 
Portuguese in 1814. Since 1852 the renowned 
vintages here have been almost totally ruined by 
the vine disease (oi'dium). Population, 1882, 
133,955 ; 1900, 150,528. 
Opposition of the peasantry to new taxation ; 

fighting with bloodshed announced . 16 Jan. 1888 

MADIAI PERSECUTION, see Tuscany. 

MADRAS (S. E. Hindostan), called by the 
natives Chennapatam, colonised by the English, 
1640. Population of the province, 1881, 30,812,745 ; 
^91, 35,588,850; 1901, 38,208.609; of ihe city, 
1881,405,848; 1891,449,950; 1901,509,397. 

Fort St. George built, 1641 ; made a presidency . 1653 

Bengal placed under Madras 1658 

Calcutta, hitherto subordinate to Madras, made a 

presidency I7 oi 

Madras taken by the French . . 14 Sept. 1746 

Restored to the English 1749 

Vainly besieged by the French under Lally, 12 Dec. 1758 
Hyder marches to Madras and obtains a favourable 

treaty April, 1769 

Sir John Lindsay arrives .... July, 1770 
He is succeeded'by sir R. Hartland . . Sept. 1771 
Lord Pigot, governor, imprisoned by his own coun- 
cil, 24 Aug. 1776 ; dies in confinement, 17 April, 
1777 ; his enemies convicted and fined iooo?. each, 

11 Feb. 1780 
Sir Eyre Coote arrives .... 5 Nov. „ 

He defeats Hyder 1 July, 1781 

Lord Macartney arrives as governor . . 22 June, „ 
The Madras government arrest gen. Stuart for dis- 
obedience, and send him to England. . June, 1783 
Lord Cornwallis arrives here . . .12 Dec. 1790 
Sir C. Oakley succeeds gen. Wm. Meadows as 
governor ! Aug. 1792 



Madras system of education introduced (see Moni- 
torial) 

Lord Mornington (afterwards the marquis Wellesley) 
visits here Dec. 

General Harris with the Madras army enters Mysore, 
5 March ; and arrives at Seringapatam, 5 April, 
which is stormed by the British under major- 
general Baird, and Tippoo Sahib killed . 4 May, 

Appointment of sir Thomas Strange, first judge of 
Madras under the charter ... 26 Dec. 

More than 1000 houses in Madras burnt . . Feb. 

The Madras army under general Arthur Wellesley 
(afterwards duke of Wellington) marches for Poo- 
nah (see India) March, 

Mutiny among the native forces at Vellore ; 600 
sepoys killed ; 200 executed ... 10 July, 

Mutiny of the sepoy troops at Madras . . . . 

Arrival of lord Minto at Madras, who publishes a 
general amnesty . . . 29 Sept. 

Awful hurricane, by which the ships at anchor were 
driven into the town and seventy sail sunk, many 
with their crews May, 

Madras attacked by the Pindarees .... 

Appointment of the rev. Dr. Corrie, first bishop of 
Madras 14 Feb. 

Sir Charles Trevelyan, governor, Jan. 1859 ; recalled 

for publishing a minute in opposition to Mr. Jas. 

Wilson's financial schemes ... 10 May, 

[Appointed financial secretary and a member of 

the Indian council at Calcutta, Oct. 1862.] 

His successor, sir H. Ward, dies at Madras, 2 Aug. 

Sir Wm. Dennison appointed governor, Nov. i860 ; 
arrives 18 Feb. 

Lord Napier appointed governor . . 31 Jan. 

Arrival of the duke of Edinburgh . . 22 March, 

Lord Hobart appointed governor, Feb. 1S72 ; died, 
27 April ; the duke of Buckingham appointed, 

May, 

Visit of the prince of Wales . . . 13 Dec. 

The Rt. Hon. W. P. Adam appointed governor, 
Aug. 1880: died 24 May; the Rt. Hon. M. E. 
Grant Duff appointed governor . . June, 

He reports " a deep peace broods over the land," 
natives advancing in civilization . . . Jan. 

The right hon. Robert Bourke (created lord Conne- 
mara) appointed governor . . . Aug. 

Great accidental fire began in booths at a fair 
in the people's park ; great panic, about 405 
persons said to have perished . . 31 Dec. 

25 persons killed by an explosion of gunpowder at a 
village festival 14 Oct. 

A severe famine in Ganjam, the last crops having 
failed through deficiency of rain ; high prices 
and much destitution ; about 15,000 persons 
employed on relief works ; deaths from cholera ; 
about 1,400 weekly middle of May et seq. 1S89. 
Lord Connemara visits the district . June, 

Government relief aided by native princes ; 9,429 
persons employed on public works ; 865 deaths 
from cholera in one week ; reported . 18 June 

Lord Connemara reports improvement in the con- 
dition of Ganjam ; employed on works, 15,425 ; 
deaths from cholera in a week, 602 ; reported 

9 July, 

Lord Connemara resigns, much regretted . Nov. 

Beilby Lawley, lord Wenlock, appointed governor 
about 1 Dec. 1890 ; arrives . . .19 Jan. 

A famine commissioner appointed . 19 Jan. 

Tour of lord Wenlock . . . April, May, 

Heavy rains, improved prospects . May, June, July, 

Employed on relief works, 15,728, Sept. 1889; 
19,655, 10 Nov. 1891 ; 29,319, 16 Feb. 1892 ; 64,000, 
5 May ; 53,000, 22 July ; under 9,000 . 3 Sept., 

Works stopped, reported . . . .22 Sept. 

Great East Coast railway bridge at Bezwada, over 
the Kistna, opened by lord Wenlock. 17 March, 

Death of lieut.-gen. sir James Dormer, commander- 
in-chief, from wounds by a tiger . . 3 May, 

Madras and Bombay armies act passed . 5 Dec. 

The great Periyar Irrigation works executed by 
col. John Pennycuick, 1SS7-95 (the course of the 
river diverted from west to east, a great dam, 
tunnel and reservoir constructed, eastern drought 
supplied from western Hoods, costabout 500,900/.), 
opened by lord Wenlock 12 Oct. 

Rising of the Moplnh fanatics, who are defeated in 
a conflict by capts. Cosens and Chad, 1 March, 



J 79S 
1798 



I 79S> 
1800 



iaii 
1817 

183s 



1B61 
1866 
1870 

187S- 



1091 
1892 



1895 



MADEID. 



MAGDALA. 



Riot at Negapatam through the lock-out by the 
railway company of 3,000 workmen ; mob fired 
on by the police, 2 rioters killed, reported 24 Oct. 1896 
Lord Ampthill appointed governor . . Sept. 1900 
Statue of the king-emperor unveiled . 8 April, 1903 

[For other events, see India.] 

MADRID (New Castile), mentioned in histcry 
as Majerit, a Moorish castle. Population in 1887. 
470,283; 1897,512,150. 

Sacked by the Moors 1190 

Fortified by Henry III. about 1400 

Humiliating treaty of Madrid between Charles V. 

and Francis I., his prisoner ... 14 Jan. 1526 
Made the seat of the Spanish court by Philip II. . 1560 

The Escurial built 1563 et seq. 

Taken by lord Galway . . . .24 June, 1 706 

The old palace burnt down 1734 

Madrid taken by the French . . . March, 1808 
The citizens attempt to expel the French ; defeated 

with much slaughter . . . .2 May, „ 

Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as king of Spain 

(but soon retires) 20 July, ,, 

Madrid retaken by the French . . .2 Dec. ,, 
Retained till it is entered by Wellington 12 Aug. 1812 
Ferdinand VII. restored .... 14 May, 1814 
Madrid pronounces for provisional government 

against Isabella II 29 Sept. 1868 

English protestant church authorised . 9 Nov. ,, 
Madrid (with Alcala de Henares) made a bishopric 

early in 1885 

The bishop Martinez Izquierdo shot on the steps of 

the pro-cathedral by Cayetano Galeote, a priest 

suspended by him, 18 April ; dies . 19 April, 1886 
Destructive hurricane, about 32 persons killed and 

about 320 wounded, 12 May ; sufferers visited by 

the queen 13 May, ,, 

Grand Columbus celebration ; historical exhibition 

opened 30 Oct. et seq. 1892 

Much damage caused by the explosion of an 

aerolite, see Meteorites 10 Feb. 1896 

5 bombs exploded near the royal palace, no injury, 

several arrests 19 Feb. ,, 

A statue of Velasquez unveiled by the queen- 
regent mid June, 1899 

The king lays the first stone of a free school, 

13 May, 1902 
Fetes on the king's accession (see Spain), 

17-21 May, ,, 
First sod of a new railway direct to Bilbao turned, 

20 Oct. ,, 
See Spain, 1892-4. 

Population, in 1857, 271,254: in 1870, 332,024; 1884, 
391,829 ; 1897, 513,000 (including suburbs). 

See Spain, 1840 et seq. 

MADRIGAL, an unaccompanied song for three 
or more voices, of which fine examples are by Eng- 
lish composers. Madrigals, invented in the Nether- 
lands, were adopted in Italy, where fine specimens 
were produced. Many were published by Morley, 
J 594 S Weelkes, 1597 ; Wilbye, 1598 ; and Benne't, 
1599. The Madrigal Society in London began in 
1 741. English Glee and Madrigal Union founded 
in 1851. Rimbault's "Bibliotheca Madrigalium " 
published 1847. The madrigal, "Summer is i cumen | 
in" is attributed to the 13th or 14th century. 

MAESTRICHT (Holland), the ancient Tra- \ 
ject.um ad Mosam, the capital of Limburg. It re- J 
volted from Spain, and was taken by the prince of i 
Parma in 1579, when a dreadful massacre took 
place. In 1632, the prince of Orange reduced it j 
after a memorable siege, and it was confirmed to I 
the Dutch in 1648 ; Louis XIV. took it in 1673 ; 
William, prince of Orange, invested it in vain in 
1676 ; but in 1678 it was restored to the Dutch. I 
In 1748 it was besieged by the French, who were ] 
permitted to take possession of the city on condi- 
tion of its being restored at the peace then nego- | 
tiating. In Feb. 1793, Maestricht was unsuccess- j 
fully attacked by the French, but they became \ 



masters of it, Nov. 1794. In 1814 it was made part 
of the kingdom of tne Netherlands, and now 
belongs to Holland. Population, 1891, 32 225 ; 
' 1900, 34,182. 

I MAFIA, a secret terrorist murderous society in 
Sicily, comprising all classes: became prominent 
in i860. It k opposed to the Camorra. Efforts for 

I the suppression of both were made by the govern- 
ment in 1874-5. Murder trials (see Italy), Oct. 
1901-July, 1902. See New Orleans, 1890-95. 

MAFEKING, SlEGE OF. See S. African 
War, 15, 16 Oct. 1899-17, 18 May, 1900. Maj.-gen. 
Baden-Powell (who with the little garrison and 
townspeople bravely held out against great odds) 
presented with a casket, by the mayor, 16 Sept. 
1902. 

MAGAZINE, at first a miscellaneous periodical 
publication. There are now magazines devoted to 
nearly every department of knowledge. The fol- 
lowing are the dates of the first publication of the 
principal magazines, some of which are extinct. 
Jan. 1865, 544 magazines; Jan. 1872, 639; Jan. 
1889 ("including reviews), 1,593; J an - 1892, 1,901;, 
Feb. 1901, 2,446; 1902, 2,486; 1903, 2,531 were in 
course of publication in Great Brita'in and Ireland; 
see Reviews and Newspapers. 



Gentleman's 

London . 

Scots . 

Royal . 

Court . 

Gospel . 

Lady's 

European 

Methodist . 

Evangelical . 

Monthly 

Philosophical 

Blackwood's 

New Monthly 

Fraser's 

Metropolitan . 

Penny . 

Tait's . 

Cassell's Family . 

Cornh.il] 

Macmillan's . 

Good Words 

Temple Bar . 

Quiver 

St. Paul's . 

Nineteenth Century 

Magazine of Art 

Antiquary . 

Century . 

Harper's 

Longman's 

Merry England . 

English Illustrated 

Murray's 



!73i 
1732 
1739 
*759 
1760 
1768 
1772 
1782 
1784 
1792 
1796 
1798 
1817 
1814 
1830 
1831 
1832 
1833 



1877 



Seribner's . . . 

Strand 

Geographical Journal 

Pall Mall 1 May, 

Illustrated Archaeo- 
logist . . June, 

The Minster (illustd.) 

Windsor 

The Englishwoman 
(illustrated) . 

Badminton(illus.)Aug. 

Savoy (illustd. quar- 
terly), Dec. (1895) 
Nov. 

Lady's Realm . 

Pearson's . . . 

Cosmopolis (interna- 
tional review, Jan. 

Architecture(illustd.) 

Royal 

The Wide World Mar. 

The Windmill (illustd. 
quarterly) . Oct. 

London Magazine 

The International 
Monthly . Jan. 

Smart Set . 

The Tiger (monthly), 
March, 

Animal Life (monthly), 
July, 

Page's (monthly), 

June, 

Hibbert Journal, Oct. 



1900' 
1901 



MAGAZINE RIFLES, see under Fire- 



MAGDALA, a very strong place in Abyssinia 
{which see). On Good Friday, 10 April, 1868, the 
troops of the emperor Theodore attacked the first 
brigade of the British army under sir Robert 
Napier, and were repulsed with great slaughter. 
On the next day all the European prisoners were 
given up, but Theodore himself refused to sur- 
render ; and on Easter Monday, 13 April, Magdala 
was stormed, and Theodore himself killed — it is 
said by his own hand. — British loss, 2 killed ; 20 
wounded : Abyssinian loss, about 500 killed and 
wounded out of about 5000. Magdala was burnt to 
the ground by the British, 17 April, 1868. 



MAGDALENS. 



776 



MAGNA GE^ECIA. 



MAGDALENS and Magdalenettes, 
communities of nuns, consisting chiefly of penitent 
courtesans. The order of penitents of St. Magdalen 
was founded 1272, at Marseilles. The convent of 
Naples was endowed by queen Sancha, 1324. That 
at Metz was instituted in 1452. At Paris, 1492. 
The Magdalen at Eome was endowed by pope 
Leo X., in 1515, and favoured by Clement VIII. in 
1594. The Magdalen hospital, London, was founded 
in 1758, under the direction of Dr. Dodd. The 
asylum in Dublin was opened in June, 1766. 

MAGDEBUEG (Prussia). The archbishopric 
was founded about 967. The city suffered much 
during the religious wars in Germany. It was 
besieged and taken by the elector Maurice, Nov. 
1550, and Nov. 1551 ; blockaded for seven months 
by the imperialists, under Wallenstein, in 1629 ; 
and barbarously sacked by Tilly on 10 May, 1631. 
It was given to Brandenburg in 1648; was taken 
by the French, 8 Nov. 1806 ; annexed to the kingr 
dom of "Westphalia, 9 July, 1807 ; restored to 
Prussia, May, 1813. Valuable fine art collection 
burnt 6 April, 1891. Population, 1890,202,325; 
1900, 229,663. 

The Magdeburg Experiment is shown by means of a hollow 
sphere, composed of two hemispheres, fitting air-tight. 
When the air is exhausted by the air-pump, the hemi- 
spheres are held together by the pressure of the atmo- 
sphere, and require great force to separate them. The 
apparatus was suggested by Otto von Guericke, the 
inventor of the air-pump. He died in 1686. Brande. 

MAGELLAN, Straits oe (connecting the 

Atlantic and Pacific oceans), was passed by Fer- 
nando de Magelhaens (Magellan), a Portuguese, on 
27 Nov. 1520. He gave the latter ocean its name 
•on account of its calmness. Magellan completed 
the first voyage round the world, with a fleet of 
discovery fitted out by the emperor Charles V., but 
was killed in 1521. The Spaniards had a fort here, 
called Cape Famine, because the garrison perished 
from want. 

MAGENTA, a small town in Lombardy, near 
which the French and Sardinians defeated the 
Austrians, 4 June, 1859. The emperor Louis 
Napoleon commanded, and he and the king of 
Sardinia were in the thickest of the fight. It is 
said that 55,000 French and Sardinians, and 75,000 
Austrians were engaged. The former are asserted 
to have lost 4000 killed, and wounded, and the 
Austrians 10,000, besides 7000 prisoners. The 
French generals Espinasse and Clerc were killed. 
The arrival of general MacMahon during a deadly 
struggle between the Austrians and the French, 
greatly contributed to the victory. The contest 
near the bridge of Buffalora was very severe. The 
Austrians fought well, but were badly commanded. 
The emperor and king entered Milan on 8 June 
following; MacMahon and Regnault d' Angel y were 
created marshals of France. A monument erected 
here in memory of the slain was solemnly inaugu- 
rated 4 June, 1872. — The red dye, rosaniline, ob- 
tained by chemists from gas-tar, is termed magenta; 
Bee Aniline. 

MAGI, an order of priests and teachers among 
the ancient Medes and Persians, with much political 
power. One of them who on the death of Cainbyses 
asserted that he was Smerdis, a son of Cyrus, and 
claimed the throne of Persia, was deposed oy Darius 
Hystaspes, 521 B.C., and a massacre of the Magi 
followed. They retained their religious position 
till the later Roman empire. The constitution of 
the order is traditionally assigned to Zoroaster, the 



Zarathustra of the Zendavesta, whose time and very 
existence are uncertain, the 6th century B.C. being 
mentioned. He is said, to have taught the know- 
ledge of Ormuzt, the supreme good principle, to the 
Magi, whom he classified as learners, masters, and 
perfect scholars, the possessors of all spiritual 
power, and the science of the age, see Parsees. 
The name Magi has been applied to the " wise 
men " of Matt, ii., and the Parsees at Bombay are 
descendants of the Guebres or fire-worshippers. 

MAGIC, see Alchemy, Witchcraft, &c. The 
invention of the Magic Lantern is ascribed to 
Roger Bacon, about 1260, but more correctly to 
Athanasius Kircher, who died 1680. Sir David 
Salomons, in a discourse at the Royallnstitution on 
" Optical Projection," exhibited an arrangement of 
the magic lantern, in which by the use of lenses 
magnifying up to 4,500 diameters, he stated that he 
was enabled to magnify a postage stamp to the size 
of 2\ acres, 26 Feb. 1892. See Godwin's "Lives 
of the Necromancers," 1834, and Ennemoser's 
"History of Magic," translated by W. Howitt, 
1854. 

MAGISTRATES, see Justices. Stipendiary 
borough magistrates may be appointed by 5 & 6 
Will. IV. c. 76, 1853; and by 26 & 27 Vict.'c. 97, 
1863. The present arrangement of metropolitan 
magistrates (the chief sitting at Bow-street) was 
made by acts of parliament in 1792 and 1839. 
Eleven courts were appointed in 1840. Their salaries 
raised from 25 March, 1875. Henry Fielding, the 
novelist, was acting magistrate for Westminster 
and at Bow-street. He was succeeded by his half- 
brother, sir John Fielding, in 1761 ; by 

Sir William Addington 1780 

Sir Richard Ford 1800 

Mr. Read ". . 1806 

Sir Nathaniel Conant 1813 

Sir Robert Baker 1820 

Sir Richard Birnie 1821 

Sir Frederick Roe 1823 

Mr. T. J. Hall 1839 

Sir Thomas Henry (died suddenly, 16 June, 1876) . 1864 
Sir James Taylor Ingham, July, 1876 ; died 5 March, 
1890 ; sir John Bridge, March, 1890 (35 yrs. 
magistrate) ; resigns, July, 1899 ; died 26 April, 
1900 ; sir Franklin Lushington, 1899 ; died, 10 
Nov. 1901 ; Mr. Albert de Rutzen, Nov., knt., 

Dec. 1901 
The new offices, Bow-street, opened . . 4 April 1881 

MAGNA CHAETA. Its fundamental parts 
were derived from Saxon charters, continued by 
Henry I. and his successors;. On 20 Nov. 1214, the 
archbishop of Canterbury and the barons met at 
St. Edmondsbury. On 6 Jan. 1215, they presented 
their demands to king John, who deferred his 
answer. On 19 May they were censured by the 
pope. On 24 May they marched to London, and 
the king was compelled to yield. The charter was 
sealed by John at Runnymede, near Windsor, 
15 June, 1215. It was many times confirmed, by 
Henry III. and his successors. This last king's 
grand charter was granted in 1224, and was assured 
by Edward I.; see Forests, ihe original MS. 
charter is lost. The finest MS. copy, which is at 
Lincoln, was reproduced by photographs in the 
" National MSS." published by government, 1865. 

MAGNA GE^ECIA, the independent states 
founded by Greek colonists in South Italy, Sicily, 
&c. Cumse, in Campania, is said to have been 
founded in 1034 B.C., Pandosia and Metapontum 
in 774 b. c. These states were ruined through siding 
with Hannibal when he invaded Italy, 216 B.C. 



MAGNANO. 



777 



MAHOGANY. 



Syracuse founded about b. c. 734 

Leontinum and Catana . . . . . . . 730 

Sybaris 721 

Crotona . . . 710 

Tarentum .......... 708 

Locri Epizephyrii . . 673 

Lipara 627 

Agrigentum 582 

Thuriuin 432 

MAGNANO (N. Italy). Here Scherer and a 
French army were defeated by the Austrians under 
Kray, 5 April, 1799. 

MAGNESIA (Asia Minor). Here Antiochus 
the great, king of Syria, was defeated by the 
Scipios, 190 B.C. — Magnesia alba, the white alkaline 
earth used in medicine, was in use in the beginning 
of the i8th century. Its properties were developed 
by Dr. Black in 1755. 

MAGNESIUM, a metal first obtained from 
magnesia by sir Humphry Davy in 1808, and since 
produced in larger quantities by Bussy, Deville, 
and especially by Mr. E. Sonstadt, in 1862-4. Its 
light when burnt is very brilliant, and is so rich in 
chemical rays that it may be used in photography. 
Lamps made for burning magnesium wire, were 
employed by the excavators of the tunnel through 
Mount Cenis. By its light photographs of the' in- 
terior of the Pyramids were taken in 1865. Larkin's 
magnesium lamp (in which the metal is burnt in 
the form of a powder) was exhibited at the Roval 
Institution on 1 June, 1866, and before the British 
Association at Nottingham in Aug. 1866. 

MAGNETISM. The attractive power of the 
loadstone or magnet was early known, and is re- 
ferred to by Homer, Aristotle, and Pliny ; it was 
also known to the Chinese and Arabians. The 
Greeks are said to have obtained the loadstone from 
Magnesia in Asia, IOOO B.C. Roger Bacon is said 
to have been acquainted with its property of point- 
ing to the north (1294). The invention of the 
mariner's compass is ascribed to Flavio Gioia, a 
Neapolitan, about 1310; but it was known in Nor- 
way previous to 1266; and is mentioned in a French 
poem, 1 150. See under Electricity. 

Robert Norman, of London, discovered the dip of 
the needle about 1576 

Gilbert's treatise "De Magnete," published . . 1600 

Ualley's theory of magnetic variations published . 1683 

Marcel observed that a suspended bar of iron be- 
comes temporarily magnetic by position . . 1722 

Artificial magnets made by Dr. Go wan Knight . . 1746 

The variation of the compass was observed by Bond, 
about 1668 ; the diurnal variation by Graham, 
1722 ; on which latter Canton made 4000 observa- 
tions previous to 1756 

Coulomb constructed a torsion balance for deter- 
mining the laws of attraction and repulsion, 1786 ; 
also investigated by Miehell, Euler, Lambert, 
- Robison, and others 1750-1800 

The deflection of the magnetic needle by the voltaic 
current was discovered by CErsted . . . 1820 

Air. Abraham invents a magnetic guard for persons 
engaged in grinding cutlery 1821 

The magnetic effects of the Violet rays of light ex- 
hibited by Morichini, 1814 ; polarity of a sewing 
needle so magnetised shown by Mrs. Somerville . 1825 

Mr. Christie proves that heat diminishes magnetic 
force : •'. about ,, 

Sir W. Snow Harris invents various forms of the 
compass 1831 

Magnetic north pole discovered by commander (aft. 
sir) Janies Clark Ross (during sir John Ross's 
second voyage) . . . " . 1 June, ,, 

Electricity produced by the rotation of a magnet by 
professor Faraday, 1831 ; his researches on the 
action of the magnet on light, on the magnetic 
properties of flame, air, and gases (published 



1845), on dia-magnetism (1845), on magno-crys- 
tallic action (1848), on atmospheric magnetism 
(1850), on the magnetic force .... 1851-2 

Magnetic observations established in the British 
colonies under the superintendence of col. Edward 
Sabine 1840 et seq. 

Prof. Tyndall proves the existence of dia-magnetic 
polarity 1856 

Mr. Archibald Smith described the results of his 
investigations respecting the deviation of the 
compass in iron ships at the Royal Institution, 

9 Feb. 1866 

Win. Robinson patenteda method of makingwrought 
iron from cast iron by the help of magnetism, 

announced, July, 1867 

Wilde's magneto-electric machine exhibited (see 
under Electricity) „ 

In the present century our knowledge of the phe- 
nomena of magnetism has also been greatly in- 
creased by the labours of Arago, Ampere, Hans- 
teen, Gauss, Weber, Poggendorff, Sabine, Lamont, 
Du Moncel, Archibald Smith, sir Wm. Thom- 
son Clord Kelvin), &c. (see Animal Magnetism). 

In the Royal Institution, London, is a magnet by 
Logeman, of Haarlem, constructed on the princi- 
ples of Dr. Elias, which weighs 100 lb, and can 
sustain 430 lb. Hsecker, of Nuremberg, con- 
structed a magnet weighing 36 grains, capable of 
sustaining 146 times its own weight. This was 
exhibited in 1851, also at the Royal Institution, 
sir Wm. Thomson's mariner's compass produced, 1872 

Sir E. Sabine, eminent for life-long researches in 
magnetism, died (aged 94), 26 June, 1883. 

MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY, the discovery 
of professor Faraday ; see under Electricity. Mag- 
neto-electricity has been recently applied to tele- 
graphic and to lighthouse purposes. The South 
Foreland lighthouse, near Dover, was illuminated 
by the magneto-electric light in the winter of 
1858-9 and 1859-60 (the light removed to Dungeness 
in 1861), the Lizards, by Dr. C. "William Siemens' 
magneto-electric light, 1878. See Faradisation. 

MAGNOLIA. Magnolia glauca was brought 
here from N. America, 1688. The laurel-leaved 
Magnolia, Magnolia grandiflora, from N. America, 
about 1734. The dwarf Magnolia, Magnolia pumila, 
from China, in 1789; and (also from China), the 
brown stalked, 1789; the purple, 1790; and the 
slender, 1804. 

MAGUIEE, see Molly. 

MAGYAES, see Hungary. 

MAHAEAJPOOE (India). Here sir Hugh 
Gough severely defeated the Mahratta army of 
Gwalior, 29 Dec. 1843. Lord Ellenborough was 
present. 

MAHDI (Guided by God), a name assumed by 
several Mahometan fanatics claiming to be divinely 
sent reformers and liberators. An eminent example 
is found in Ibn Tumert, the Almohade Mahdi in the 
12th century. See B abysm, and for the latest Mahdis 
see Soudan, 1881, et seq. A Mahdi has risen in 
Bokhara, named Mahomed Abdallah Ben Oman, 
May, 1884. See Dervishes. "Ten Years' Cap- 
tivity in the Mahdi's Camp " by Father Ohrwalder, 
published Autumn, 1892. Total defeat of the 
Khalifa at Omdurman, 2 Sept. 1898 ; again at 
Omdebrikat, when he and his chief emirs were 
killed (see Soudan, 24 Nov. 1899), and consequent 
end of Mahdism. 

MAHEDPOEE, see Mehedpore. 

MAHOGANY is said to have been brought to 
England by Raleigh, in 1595 ; but not to have come 
into general use till 1720. 



MAHOMETANISM. 



778 



MAINE. 



MAHOMETANISM embodied in the Koran, 
includes— the unity of God, the immortality of the 
soul, predestination, a last judgment, and a sensual 
paradise. Mahomet asserted that the Koran was 
revealed to him by the angel Gabriel during a 
period of twenty-three years. He enjoined on his 
disciples circumcision, prayer, alms, frequent ablu- 
tion, and fasting, and permitted polygamy and 
concubinage. 

The Mahometan year, 1319-1320. Months; Shawall 
(begins n Jan. 1902); Dulkaada (9 Feb.); Dul- 
heggia (n March); Muharram (10 April); Sap- 
har (10 May); Rabia I. (8 June); Rabia II. 
(8 July) ; Jornada I. (6 Aug.) ; Jornada II. 
(4 Sept.); Rajab (2 Oct.); Shaaban (5 Nov.;; 
Ramadan (2 Dec). 
(The dates are given in the best almanacks.) 
Mahomet, Mohammed (the name is spelt many 

ways), born at Mecca . . . 569 or 570 

Announced himself as a prophet . . .about 611 
Fled from his enemies to Medina (his flight is called 

the Hegira) I5 July, 622 

Defeats his enemies (the Koreish, the Jews, &c.) . 623-5 

Defeats the Christians at Muta 629 

Is acknowledged as a sovereign .... 630 
Dies, it is said, of slow poison, administered by a 

Jewess to test his divine character . . 8 June, 632 
The Mahometans are divided into several sects, the 
two chief being the Sonnites, or the Orthodox 
(who recognised as caliph Abubeker, the father- 
in-law of Mahomet, in preference to Omar and 
Ali), and the Shiites (Sectaries), or Falimites, the 
followers of Ali, who married Fatima, the pro- 
phet's daughter. 
The former (also called Sunnites) recognise the 
" Sunna " (traditions) sayings of Mahomet (sup- 
plementary to the Koran) which the Shiites 
reject. Husan and other sons of Ali were mur- 
dered a.d. 680, and a miracle play and a festival 
in their honour are still observed. 
The Ottoman empire is the chief seat of the Son- 
nites, the sultan being considered the representa- 
tive of the caliphs ; Persia has been for centuries 
the stronghold of the Shiites. 
Their progress in France was stopped by their 

defeat at Tours by Charles Martel, in . . . 732 
The Mahometan Arabs termed Saracens, conquered 
Arabia, North Africa, and part of Asia, in the 
7th century ; in the 8th they invaded Europe, 
conquering Spain, where they founded the cali- 
fat of Cordova, which lasted from 756 to 1031, 
when it was broken up into smaller govern- 
ments, the last of which, the kingdom of 
Grenada, endured till its subjugation by Ferdi- 
nand in 1492 ; but the Moorish Mahometans were 
not finally expelled from Spain till . ... 1609 
After a long contest, the Turks under Mahomet II. 
took Constantinople ; he made it his capital and 
the chief seat of his religion . ... 1453 

Though considered to be declining, Mahoinetanism 
is calculated as including 100 millions amongst its 
votaries. 
Coomroodeen Tyabjee, a Mahometan, admitted to 
practise as an attorney in England, having taken 
the oaths upon the Koran . . . Nov. 1858 
Budroodeen Tyabjee, a Mahometan, called to the 

bar 30 April, 1867 

The first Mahometan mosque in England erected at 
Maybury, Woking, Surrey, to be completed by 
the exertions of Dr. G. W. Leitner (not a Maho- 
metan), Aug. 1889 ; the ameer of Afghanistan, 
by his son, presents 500/. to the mosque, 4 June, 1895 
The representation of a play called Mahomed on 
the English singe, was stopped by request, aided 
by the intervention of the sultan . . Dec. 1890 
A Mahometan marriage at the Moslem Institute, 

Liverpool, the first in England . 18 April, 1891 
" The Life and Teachings of Mohammed, or, The 
Spirit of Islam," bySyed Ameer Ali, m. a.., a judge 
in Bengal, published in 1873 and 1891. 
A conference of Moslems protesting against attacks 
on their religion, &c, Sir E. Ashmead-Bartlett 
present, London .... 15 May, 1895 j 

Loyal declaration of the Moslem patriotic league 
at the Oriental academy, London . 13 Aug. 1897 I 



Mr. Theodore Beck, the successful principal of the 
Mahomedan college at Aligarh since 1883, dies, 
aged 40 early Sept. 1899 

MAHRATTAS, a people of Hindostan, who 
originally dwelt north-west of the Deccan. which 
they overran about 1676. They endeavoured to 
overcome the Mogul, but were restrained by the- 
Afghans. They entered into alliance with the East 
India company in 1767, made war against it in 
1774, again made peace in 1782, and were finally 
subdued in 1818. See India 1803, et seq., Gwalior 
and Indore. 

MAID, see Holy Maid, Elizabeth Barton, and 
Joan of Arc, maid of Orleans. 

MAIDA (Calabria) where the French, com- 
manded by general Regnier, were signally defeated 
by the British under major-general sir John Stuart r 
4 July, 1806. 

MAIDEN, see Guillotine. 

MAIDS OF HONOUR. Anne, daughter of 
Francis II. duke of Brittany, and queen of Charles- 
VIII. and Louis XII. of France (1483-98), had 
young and beautiful ladies about her person, called 
maids of honour. The queen of Edward I. of 
England is said to have had four maids of honour 
(1272-1307) ; queen Victoria had eight; queen 
Alexandra has 4. 

MAIDSTONE, Kent, a British town, anciently- 
termed the city of the Medway (Caer Meguaid), a 
possession of the archbishops of Canterbury in 
1086-7. It was chartered by several kings, from 
Edward VI. to George II. The royalist Kentish 
men were here defeated by Faixfax, 1648. The 
archbishop's palace was built in 1348. Maidstone, 
which previously sent two members to parliament, 
since 1885 sends one. Typhoid epidemic attri- 
buted to bad water ; Farleigh water supply cut off, 
2 Oct. 1897 (see Mansion-house Fund). The lord 
mayor presented with the freedom, 21 Aug. 1903. 
Population, 1881,29,263; 1891,32,150; 1901,34,000. 

MAIL-COACHES, for the conveyance of 
letters, were first set up at Bristol by Mr. John 
Palmer, of Bath, 2 Aug. 1 784. They were employed 
for other routes in 1785, and soon became genera} 
in England. The mails first sent by rail in 1838. 

MAILLOTINS (small mallets), a name given 
to certain citizens of Paris, who, in March, 1382, 
violently opposed the collection of new taxes- 
imposed by the duke of Anjou, the regent. They 
armed themselves with small iron mallets (taken 
from the arsenal), and killed the collectors ; for 
which they were severely punished in Jan. 1383. 

MAIMING and WOUNDING, see 
Coventry Act. 

MAINTENANCE, see Barratry. 

MAIN PLOT, a name given to a conspiracy 
to make Arabella Stuart sovereign of England in 
place of James I. in 1603. Lord Cobham, sir 
Walter Raleigh, and lord Grey, were condemned 
to death for implication in it, but reprieved ; others 
were executed. Raleigh was executed, 29 Oct. 
1618. 

MAINE, 1, a province, N.W. of France, seized 
by William I. of England in 1069. It acknowledged 
prince Arthur, 1 199 ; was taken from John of 
England by Philip of France, 1204 ; was recovered 
by Edward III. in 1357 ; but given up, 1360. After 
various changes it was finally united to France by 
Louis XL in 1481.— 2. Maine (N. America), 



MAIWAND. 



F79 



MALARIA. 



was discovered by Cabot, 1497 ; and colonised by 
the English 1630 et seq. ; it became a state of the 
union in 1820. Capital, Augusta. Population, 
1880,648,936; 1890,661,086; 1900, 694,406. The 
boundary line between the British and the United 
States territories in Maine was settled by the 
Ashburton treaty, concluded 9 Aug. 1842. The 
Maine liquor law, prohibiting the manufacture, 
sale, and use of intoxicating drinks, with certain 
exceptions, was enacted in 185 1. In 1872, it 
was officially reported to have greatly decreased 
drunkenness and rendered the trade disreputable. 

Great fire at Camden ; 80 warehouses and 50 houses 
destroyed ...... 10 Nov. 1892 

The Opera house and other buildings at Bath burnt, 

30 March, 1893 

Maine,. United States cruiser, burnt by explosion 
in Havana harbour, 2 officers and 270 men killed, 
9.40 p.m. 15 Feb. 1898 

Court of inquiry finds no evidence to fix the re- 
sponsibility, but attributes the explosion to a 
mine underneath the vessel, reported to congress, 
with a dignified message from the president, 28 
March ; the Spanish commission consider the 
explosion was from within, report received at 
Washington 29 March, ,, 

At Mt. Desert, 20 deaths by the breaking of a 
ferry-slip 5 Aug. 1899 

Maine, an American ship lent by Mr. Bernard 
Baker, turned into a hospital ship by lady Ran- 
dolph Churchill and other Americans in London, 
leaves for S. Africa .... mid Dec. ,, 

MAIWAND, Afghanistan, about 50 miles from 
Candahar. On 27 July, 1 880, gen. J. Burrows marched 
from Kushk-i-Nakhud, and attacked the army of 
Ayoob Khan, about 20,000 men, entrenched here on 
the river Helmund, and after four hours' severe 
conflict was compelled to retreat. About 300 of the 
British with many officers fell (including lieut.-col. 
Galbraith, major G. F. Blackwood, captains Garratt, 
McMath, Cullen, Roberts, and others), especially 
officers of the 66th regiment ; with about 700 of the 
native troops killed or missing. The British com- 
manders were censured. Ayoob Khan did not 
improve his victory, and was totally defeated by 
gen. sir F. Roberts, 1 Sept. 1880. See Mazra. 

MAJESTY. Among the Romans, the emperor 
and imperial family were thus addressed, and also 
the popes and the emperors of Germany. The 
style was given to Louis XL of France in 1461. 
Voltaire. Upon Charles V. being chosen emperor 
of Germany in 1519, the kings of Spain took the 
style. Francis 1. of France, at the interview with 
Henry VIII. of England, on the Field of the Cloth 
of Gold, addressed the latter as Your Majesty, 1520. 
James I. used the style "Sacred," and "Most 
Excellent Majesty." 

MAJOLICA WARE, see Pottery. 

MAJORCA, see Balearic Ides, and Minorca. 
Majorca opposed Philip V. of Spain in 1714 ; but 
submitted, 14 July, 1715. Its first railway, from 
Palma, capital of the Balearic isles, to Inca, 18 
miles, opened, 24 Feb. 1875. 

MAJUBA HILL (see Transvaal). On Satur- 
day night, 26 Feb. 1881, above 600 men under sir 
George P. Colley marching from the camp at Mount 
Prospect, ascended Majubahill overlooking Laing's 
Nek, where the Boers were encamped, to surprise 
them. The attack of the Boers began 10.30 a.m. of 
the 27th. Fierce conflicts ensued ; eventually over- 
whelmed by numbers and deadly fire, the British 
were routed and fled. Sir George Colley fell with 
his face to the enemy. Boer loss unknown, some 
say only one man. About 350 British engaged. 



Loss: killed, 3 officers and about 82 men; many- 
wounded, 122 prisoners, and some missing. 

MAKALAKA, see Mashona. 

MALABAR (S.W. coast of Hindostan). The- 
Portuguese established factories here in 1 ^05 ; the 
English did the same in 1601. A murderous attack 
on the Hindus by the Moplah Mussulmans, pun- 
ished \>y the British, 8 April, 1894. 

MALACCA, on the Malay peninsula, E. Indies, 
was made a Portuguese settlement in 1511. The 
Dutch factories were established in 1640. The 
Dutch government exchanged it for Bencoolen in 
Sumatra in 1824, when it was placed under the- 
Bengal presidency. It is now part of the Straits- 
Settlements (which see). 

MALAGA (S. Spain), a Phoenician town, taken 
by the Arabs, 714 ; retaken by the Spaniards, after 
a long siege, 1487; see Naval Battles, 1704. An 
insurrection against the provisional government 
was put down with much slaughter, 31 Dec. 1868. 
Population in 1887,134,106; 1897, 126,000. 

MALAKHOFF, a hill near Sebastopol, on 
which was situated an old tower, strongly fortified 
by the Russians during the siege of 1854-55. 1' ne 
allied French and English attacked it on 17, 18- 
June, 1855, and after a conflict of forty-eight hours- 
were repulsed with severe loss ; that of the English 
being 175 killed and 1126 wounded; that of the- 
French 3338 killed and wounded. On 8 Sept. the- 
French agMin attacked the Malakhoff; at eight 
o'clock the first mine was sprung, and at noon the 
French flag floated over the conquered redoubt ; see 
Sebastopol. In the Malakhoff and Redan were found 
3000 pieces of cannon of every calibre, and I20,000> 
lbs. of gunpowder. 

MALARIA. The parasite of malaria — l.e. r 
a'iue and yellow fever — discovered by Laveran in 
1880. The theory that mo.-quitoes conveyed the- 
disease held also by King, Biguami and Manson. 
Major Konald Ross (K.C.B. 1902) began his- 
researches on sir Patrick Manson's theory in India 
in 1895, and proved deductively and experimentally 
that mosquitoes of the genus called Anopheles. 
Claviger conveyed the disease, 1897-98 ; confirmed 
by profs. Koch and Grassi and Drs. Bignami and 
Bastianelli, Dec. 1898. See Sierra Leone, Aug. 1899* 
Elephantiasis, a tropical disease, also conveyed 

by the mosquito, reported . . 12 Aug. 1900 
Major Ronald B,oss proves that the prime source 
of mosquito infection is the native children, 
whose blood contains the parasites, Sept. 1900. 
(he received the Nobel prize, Dec. 1902). 
Drs. Sambon and Low live perfectly free fronii 
fever in the worst malarial part of the Roman 
Campagna, near Ostia, without taking quinine 
orany other drag, by merely keeping within a 
mosquito-proof hut from an hour before sunset te> 
an hour after sunrise, Aug.-Sept. 1900 ; success- 
ful experiments carried on with similar results, 
by prof. Grassi and others. 
Committee appointed jointly by Mr. Chamberlain, 
M. P., and the Royal Soc. in 1898 for the. inves- 
tigation of malaria and mosquitoes and allied 
insects in tropical countries ; 3,000 specimens, 
sent to the Nat. Hist, museum, Crom well-id., 
reported Sept. 1900 (researches continued 1903) 
The prophylactic use of quinine, surface drainage, 
destruction of larva; and the employment of 
mosquito nets, &c, advocated by major Ross in 
malarious places .... 29 Nov. ,„ 
Campaign against the anopheles species carried also 
on in Gambia, Gold Coast (Ismailia, 1902-3), and 
elsewhere, 1901 et seq. 
Navy-blue, a favourite colour with mosquitoes, 
proved very successful by Dr. Nuttall and Mr. 
Shipley's experiment, in 1901 



MALA VITA. 



tt 



MALTA. 



The king of Italy gives 10,000 lire to the Italian 
Red Cross Soc July, 1902 

Drs. Stephens and Christopher report malaria to be 
an infectious fever present in nearly every native 
hut, and its suppression doubtful, Times, 4 Aug. 1903 

MALA VITA (evil life), the name of a secret 
society in south Italy ; the highest of its three grades 
is the Camorristi. At Lucera, in Foggia, 68 men 
were sentenced to various terms of imprisonment 
(from 5 to 10 years), reported 2 Oct. 1894; see 
Uamorru. 

MALAY AECHIPELAGO. Great im- 
provement in the country through British pro- 
tection, slavery abolished, railways constructed, 
<fec, since 1875. Lieut. -col. sir Charles B. H. 
Mitchell appointed high commissioner, 8 July, 
1896; sir Frank A. Swettenham, 1901. Popula- 
tion, 1901, 676,138. Messrs. Annandale and 
Robinson's expedition completed, good results 
reported, July, 1902 ; excellent progress and pros- 
perity reported, 9 Sept. 1902, and 20 July, 1903. 
See Moluccas, Philippines, Straits, &c. 

MALDON (Essex) , built 28 b.c, is supposed 
to have been the first Roman colony in Britain. 
It was burnt by queen Boadicea, and rebuilt by the 
Romans ; burnt by the Danes, a.d. 991, and rebuilt 
by the Saxons. Maldon was incorporated by Philip 
and Mary. Absorbed into the county, 1885. The 
singular custom of Borough-English is kept up 
here, by which the youngest son, and not the 
eldest, succeeds to the burgage tenure on his 
father's death ; see Borough-English. 

MALICIOUS DAMAGES. The law re- 
specting them was consolidated and amended by 
24 & 25 Vict. c. 97. This act protects works of art, 
electric telegraphs, &c, 1861. 

MALINES, see Mechlin. 

MALLSTS' ACT, 20 & 21 Vict. c. 57, relating 
to the powers of women in regard to property, was 
passed in 1857. 

MALMESBUEY, Wiltshire, an old market- 
town. The abbey, founded about 670, was several 
times destroyed by the Danes and restored. Its 
chief was made a mitred abbot by Edward 
III. Athelstan was buried in the abbey. Thomas 
Hobbes, the philosopher, was born here, 5 April, 
1588. By the act of 188$, Malmesbuiy was disen- 
franchised and absorbed into the county. Popula- 
tion, 1881, 3,176; 1891, 2,964; 1901, 2,854. 

MALO, ST. (N.-W. France). This port, as a 
great resort of privateers, sustained a tremendous 
bombardment by the English under admiral Benbow 
in 1693, and under lord Berkeley in July, 1695. ^ n 
June, 1758, the British landed in considerable force 
in Cancale bay, and went up to the harbour, 
where they burnt upwards of a hundred ships, and 
did great damage to the town, making a number 
of prisoners. It is now defended by a very strong 
castle, and the harbour is very difficult of access. 

MALO-JAEOSLAVITZ, near Moscow, cen- 
tral Russia : the site of severe encounters between 
the Russians and the retreating French army, 
24 Oct. 1812. The latter were victorious, but with 
great loss. 

MALPLAQUET (N. France). Here the 
allies under the duke of Marlborough and prince 
Eugene defeated the French, commanded by mar- 
shal Villars, II Sept. 1709. Each army consisted 
of nearly 120,000 choice soldiers. There was great 



slaughter on both sides, the allies losing 18,000 
men, but captured Mons. 

MALT, barley prepared for brewing and distil- 
lation. A duty was laid upon malt in 1667 ; re- 
pealed but reimposed 1697, et seq. Important acts 
for the regulation of malt duties were passed in 
1830 and 1837. In March, 1858, there were 6157 
licensed maltsters in the United Kingdom. The 
duty on malt in 1863 amounted to 6,273,727^. 
In 1864 the duty was remitted on malt used for 
cattle feeding; and in 1865, an act was passed 
allowing the excise duty to be charged according to 
the weight of the grain used. A parliamentary 
committee to consider repeal of malt tax was agreed 
to, 14 May, 1867, without success; a motion to 
repeal the tax was negatived (244-17), 23 April, 
1874. Tax abolished, 1880 (when it was 2s. 8%d. a 
bushel). It ceased 1 Oct. 1880. 

Revenue from the malt duties : in the year ending 31 
March, 1850, 5,391,322?. ; — 1854, 5,418,418?. ; — 1856, 
6,676,849?.; — 1857 (tax reduced), 5,690,950?. ; — 1860, 
6,648,881?. ,-—1862, 6,208,813?.; 1867, 6,816,385?. ;— 1871, 
6,978,371?. ;— 1872,6,910,366?.;— 1873, 7,544,175?.;— 1877, 
8,040,378?.; — 1878, 7,721,548?. 
Malt made and retained in the United Kingdom : in 
1825, 36,205,451 bushels; in 1835, 42,892,012; in 1847, 
35,307,815; in 1857, 44,545,649; in 1861, 46,650,300; in 
1870, 56,775,614 ; in 1875, 63,0x5,676. 

MALTA (formerly Melita), an island in the 
Mediterranean, held successively by the Phosni- 
cians, Carthaginians, and Romans, which last con- 
quered it, 259 B.C. The apostle Paul was wrecked 
here, a.d. 62. (Acts xxvii., xxviii.) Malta was 
taken by the Vandals, 534 ; by the Arabs, 870 ; and 
by the Normans from Sicily, 1090. With Sicily it 
became successively part of the possessions of the 
houses of Hohenstaufen, of Anjou (1266), and of 
Aragon (1260). In 1530 Charles V. gave it to the 
Knights Hospitallers, who defended it most cou- 
rageously and successfully, in 155 1 and 1565, against 
the Turks, who were obliged to abandon the enter- 
prise after the loss of 30,000 men. The island was 
taken by Bonaparte in the outset of his expedition 
to Egypt, 12 June, 1798. He found in it 1200 
pieces of cannon, 200,000 lbs. of powder, two ships 
of the line, a frigate, four galleys, and 40,000 mus- 
kets, besides an immense treasure collected by 
superstition ; and 4500 Turkish prisoners, whom he 
set at liberty. Malta surrendered to the British 
under Pigot, 5 Sept. 1800. At the peace of Amiens 
it was stipulated that it should be restored to the 
knights. The British, however, retained possession, 
and the war recommenced between the two nations ; 
but by the treaty of Paris, in 1814, the island was 
guaranteed to Great Britain. A legislative con- 
stitution was established in 1849; and after various 
changes was replaced by a more popular one pro- 
claimed 22 Dec. 1887. La Yaletta, the capital, 
was founded in 1557 by the grand master 
La Valetta, and completed and occupied by the 
knights, 18 Aug. 157 1. The Protestant college 
was founded in 1846. A grand new naval dry dock 
was opened, May, 1871. Governor of Malta and 
Gozo, sir Patrick Grant, March, 1867 ; sir C. T. Van 
Straubenzee, 1872 ; sir Arthur Borton, 1878 ; gen. 
sir John Lintorn A. Simmons, 1884; It. -gen. sir 
Henry D'Oyly Tori-ens, March, 1888, died 1 Dec. 
1889 ; gen." sir H. A. Smyth, Dec. 1889 ; lieut.- 
gen. A. J. Lyon Frernantle, Dec. 1893: sir Francis 
Grrenfell, 15 Nov. 1898 (made a peer, June, 1902) ; 
It. -gen. sir C. Mansfield Clarke, bt., 1 April, 1 903. 
— The visit of prince of Wales, 6 April, 1876. 
Great immigration of destitute Europeans from 
Alexandria (see Egypt) middle June, 1882 ; about 
2200, 6 July, 1882. See Cholera. Population of 



MALTA, KNIGHTS OF. 



781 



MAN, ISLE OF. 



Malta and adjacent isles 1890, 165,662; 1901, 

186,491. 

Negotiations respecting the Roman Catholics and 
marriage laws concluded by sir J. L. Simmons ; 
see under Pope, Leo XIII. ... 7 April, 1890 

Jubilee statue of the queen unveiled, 6 Aug. 1891, 
by lady Smyth. 

Naval and military manoeuvres . . April, 1899 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Cornwall ; exhibi- 
tion of arts and crafts opened . 25-27 March, 1901 

Mass meeting protesting against the language and 
fiscal questions n Aug. ,, 

Proclamation issued withdrawing the announce- 
ment of 1899, that English was to become the 
official language of the law courts . 8 Feb. 1902 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaught, 

16 March, 1903 

Visit of king Edward VII., 16-21 April, 1903 ; lays 
first stone of new breakwater at entrance to the 
Grand Harbour ; great water carnival, 20 April, ,, 

Education vote for current financial year thrown 
out by Council of Government after heated 
debate on the language question . 24 April, „ 

Governor reads new letters patent from Imperial 
government amending the constitution of Malta ; 
elected members of the Council of Government 
reduced from 13 to 8, and official members 
increased from 6 to 9 .... 22 June, ,, 

MALTA, KNIGHTS OF. A military religious 
order, called also Hospitallers of St. John of Jeru- 
salem, Knights of St. John, and Knights of Rhodes. 
Some merchants of Main, trading to the Levant, 
obtained leave of the caliph of Egypt to build a 
house for those who came on pilgrimage to Jerusa- 
lem, and whom they received with zeal and charity, 
1048. They afterwards founded a hospital for the 
reception of pilgrims, from whence they were called 
Hospitallers (Latin, hospes, a guest). The military 
order was founded about 1099 > confirmed by the 
pope, 11 13. In 1119 the knights defeated the Turks 
at Antioch. After the Christians had lost their 
interest in the East, and Jerusalem was taken, the 
knights retired to Acre, which they defended 
valiantly in 1290. John, king of Cyprus, gave 
them Limisso in his dominions, where they stayed 
till 13 10, in which year they took Khodes, under 
their grand master De Vallaret, and the next year 
defended it under the duke of Savoy against an 
army of Saracens. The story that his successors 
have used F. E. R. T. (Fortitudo ejus Rhodum 
tenuit, or his valour kept Rhodes) for their device 
is much doubted. From this they were also called 
knights of Rhodes; but Rhodes being taken by 
Solyman in 1522, they retired into Candia, thence 
into Sicily. Pope Adrian VI. granted them the 
city of Viterbo for their retreat; and in 1530 the 
emperor Charles V. gave them the isle of Malta. 
The order was suppressed in England in 1 540 ; re- 
stored in 1557; and again suppressed in 1559. St. 
John's Gate, Clerkenwell, a relic of their possessions, 
still exists. The emperor Paul of Russia declared 
himself grand master of the order in June, 1799. 
After the death of the grand master, Tommasi di 
Contara, in 1805, the order was governed by a lieu- 
tenant and a college at Rome, till Pope Leo XIII, 
made count Ceschi a. Santa Cisce (lieutenant since 
14 Feb. 1871) grand master, 28 March, 1879. The 
knights sent a hospital establishment into Bohemia 
during the war in 1866, which afforded great relief 
to the wounded and sick. 

MAMELON, a hill, one of the defences of 
Sebastopol, captured by the French, 7 June, 1855. 

MAMELUKES, originally Turkish and Cir- 
cassian slaves, established by the sultan of Egypt as 
a body-guard, about 1260. They advanced one of 
their own corps to the throne of Egypt, May, 1260, 
and continued to do so until it became a Turkish 



province, in 15 17, when the beys took them into pay, 
and filled up their ranks with renegades from 
various countries. On the conquest of Egypt by 
Bonaparte, in 1798, they retreated into Nubia ; but, 
assisted by the Arnauts, reconquered Egypt from 
the Turkish government. In 1804, Napoleon em- 
bodied some of them in his guard. On 1 March, 
181 1, they were decoyed into the power of the 
Turkish pacha, Mehemet Ali, and slain at Cairo. 

MAMEETINI, sons of Mamers or Mars, were 
Campanian soldiers of Agathocles. They seized 
Messina in Sicily, in 281, B.C., and when closely 
besieged by the Carthaginians, and Hiero of Syra- 
cuse, in 264, they implored the help of the Romans, 
which led to the first Punic war. 

MAMMOTH, an extinct species of elephant. 
An entire mammoth, flesh and bones, was dis- 
covered in Siberia, in 1799. Remains of this 
animal have since been found at Harwich, in 1803, 
and at places in Europe, Asia, and America. Mam- 
moth is also termed Mastodon. 

MAN, ANTIQUITY OF. In 1836, M. Boucher 
de Perthes found some rude flint implements, 
which he believed to be of human manufacture, 
mingled with bones of extinct animals, in the old 
alluvium near Abbeville in Picardy, France, and also 
in 1847, near Amiens. Similar flints have since been 
found in Sicily by Dr. Falconer, at Brixham by 
Mr. Pengelly, and lately in various parts of the 
world. Hence many geologists infer that man ex- 
isted on the earth many ages earlier than has been 
hitherto believed. 

Some burnt bricks found in the Nile are considered 
to be 20,000 years old, and some bones found in 
lacustrine deposits in Florida, 30,000 years old. 

The " Engis skull" found by Schmerling in the 
valley of the Meuse about 1834 

Fossil human remains found in extinct volcanos of 
St. Denis, near Puy en Velay .... 1844 

A human jaw said to have been found in the drift 
at Moulin Quignon, near Abbeville . March, 1863 

Sir Charles Lyell's "Antiquity of Man" was pub- 
lished in 1863 (4th edition, 1873), and sir John 
Lubbock's " Prehistoric Times," 1865 (4th ed. 1878). 

The skeleton of a man supposed to have been a con- 
temporary of the mammoth and cave-bear was 
found with polished flint implements by M. 
Riviere in the Cavillin cavern, near Mentone, 
26 March, 1872. Mr. W. Pengelly went to exa- 
mine these remains. 

" The Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons, and Or- 
naments ofGreat Britain,"by John Evans, F.R.S., 
published, July, 1872; and his "Ancient Bronze 
Implements, Weapons, &c." published . May, 1881 

" In our day the quaternary man is a fact univer- 
sally accepted ; but the tertiary man is a pro- 
blem under discussion." — Virchow . . . 1877 

Flint implements found in Egypt, probable date 
3000 b.c. (termed the " palaeolithic age") 
reported 1895 

MAN, ISLE OF, was subdued by Edwin, king 
of Northumberland, about 620 ; by Magnus of Nor- 
way, 1098 ; by the Scots, 1266 ; occupied by Edward 
at thewish of the inhabitants 1290; recovered by the 
Scots in 1313 ; but taken from them by Montacute, 
afterwards earl of Salisbury, to whom Edward III. 
gave the title of king of Man, in 1343. It was 
afterwards subjected to the earl of Northumber- 
land, on whose attainder Henry IV. granted it in 
fee to sir John Stanley, 1406. It was taken from 
this family by Elizabeth, but was restored in 1610 
to the earl of Derby, through whom it fell by in- 
heritance to the duke of Athol, 1735. He received 
70,000^. from parliament for all his rights in 
1765; and the nation was charged with the further 
sum of 132,944^. for the purchase of his remaining 



MAN, ISLE OF. 



782 



MANCHESTER. 



interest in the revenues of the island in Jan. 1829. 
The countess of Derby held the isle against the 
parliament forces for a time in 1651. 'lhe new 
queen's landing pier (cost 46,400/.) inaugurated 
■by the lieut. governor, H. B. Loch, 1 July, 1872. 
Act relating to the harbours and coasts, passed June, 
.1872. The first railway (from Douglas to Peel) 
opened, 1 July, 1873. Population, 187 1, 54,042 ; in 
1881, 53,558: "189 1, 55,598; 1901, 54,758- Revenue, 
1889-90, 63,824/. ; expenditure, 57,947/. : 1894-5, 
■estimated revenue, 72,000/. : expenditure, 67,000/. 
The Bishopric is said to have been presided over 
by Amphibalus about 360. Some assert that St. 
Patrick was the founder of the see, and that Ger- 
manus was the first bishop, about 447. It was 
united to Sodor in 1 1 13. The bishop has no seat in 
the house of lords; but lord Auckland (bishop, 
1847-54) sat by right of his barony. Present 
income 2,000/. 

The Tynwald, an independent legislative body, con- 
sists of two branches— 1. The governor and 
council ; 2. The house of Keys ; their acts receiv- 
ing the royal assent. The house of Keys was 
formerly self-elective ; election by the people 
.every seventh year was established by act of 
parliament, 1866 ; the property qualification for 
■members abolished ; household suffrage was 
granted in towns and suffrage conferred on 
women by royal assent in 1881. New Customs 
Act passed in 1887 

The foundation stone of the Eiffel tower at Douglas 
laid by the earl of Lathom . . 23 Oct. 1890 

According to custom, five bills, which had received 
the royal assent, one for the re-distribution of 
seats in the house, of Keys, were promulgated to 
the legislature, in the open air on the Tynwald 
hill, by the lieut. -governor, Spencer Walpole, 30 
March, 1891 ; ceremony shortened by bill passed 

7 Nov. 1895 

The bishop's palace near Ramsey partially burnt, 

16 May, 1893 

An electric tramway from Douglas to Laxey, 
opened Aug. 1894 

Outburst of poisonous fumes at the Snaefell lead 

mines, Laxey, 20 deaths ... 10 May, 1897 

'The house of Keys meets at Douglas . . 25 Feb. 1898 

Portrait of the queen presented by herself to the 
island 12 April ; Sir Wm. Drinkwater, 50 years 
Deemster (resigned, Oct. 1897) ; presented with 
an address, &c 5 July, ,, 

•21,000 trees purchased by the landowners, re- 
ported 1 Nov. ,, 

Sir John Goldie-Taubman, speaker of the house of 
Keys, an active public official, died . 9 Nov. ,, 

Suspension of Dumbell's bank . . .3 Feb. 1900 

Charles B. Nelson, director (see Trials, Feb. 
1902), John Shimmon, manager ; Wm. and 
Harold Aldred and Joseph Rogers, auditors of 
Dumbell's bank, convicted of issuing false 
"balance-sheets, 14 Nov. 1900 ; Chas. B. Nelson 
and John Shimmon also found guilty of mis- 
appropriating the moneys of the ba'.ik, sentenced 
to 5 years' penal servitude, the rest to several 
months' imprisonment ... 19 Nov. ,, 

Extensive damage by floods . . .18 Oct. 1901 

Sir James Gell, acting governor, promulgates 3 new 
laws on the Tynwald hill . . .5 July, 1902 

isle of Man customs act, royal assent . 8 Aug. ,, 

Visit of the king and queen . . . 25 Aug. ,, 

Mr. H. B. Noble bequeathed 31,350?. to charities, 

2 May, 1903 

RECENT BISHOPS OF SODOR AND MAN. 

1784. Claudius Origan : died in 1813. 

1 813. George Murray, trans, to Rochester, 1827 

C828. William Ward; died in 1838. 

1S38. James Bowstead, trans, to Lichfield, Dec. 1839. 

1840. Henry Pepys, trans, to Worcester, 1841. 

1841. Thos. Vowler Short, trans, to St. Asaph, 1846. 

1846. Walter Augustus Shirley ; died in 1847. 

1847. John Eden (lord Auckland), trans, to Bath, 1854. 
1854. Hon. Horatio Powys ; died 31 May, 1877. 



1877. Rowlev Hill, consecrated 24 Aug. ; died 27 May, 
1887". 

1887. John Wareing Bardsley; translated to Carlisle, 
Dec. 1891. 

1891. Norman D. J. Straton, Dec. 

Recent lieut. -governors : H. B. Loch, 1863; Spencer 
Walpole, 1882 ; Sir Joseph West Ridgeway, Nov. 1893, 
till Sept. 1895; John M. lord Henniker, installed 
24 Jan. 1896 (died, 27 June, 1902); lord Raglan, 
installed, 21 Oct. 1902. 

MANASSAS JUNCTION (Virginia, United 
States), an important military position, where the 
Alexandria and Manassas Gap railways meet, near 
a creek named Bull Run. I. It was held by the 
confederates in 1861, when they were attacked by 
the federal general Irwin McDowell. He began 
his march from Washington on 16 July, and gained 
some advantage on the 18th at Centi-eville. On 
the 21st was fought the first battle of Bull Run. 
The federals, who began the fight, had the advan- 
tage till about three o'clock p.m., when the con- 
federate general Johnston brought up reinforcements, 
which at first the federals took for their own troops. 
After a brief resistance, the latter were seized with 
sudden panic, and, in spite of the utmost efforts of 
their officers, fled, abandoning a large quantity of 
arms, ammunition, and baggage. The confederate 
generals Johnston and Beauregard did not think it 
prudent to pursue the fugitives, who did not halt 
till they arrived at Washington. The federal army 
is said to have had 481 killed, ion wounded, 
1 2 16 missing. The loss of the confederates was stated 
to be about 1500. — In March, 1862, when the army 
of the Potomac, under general McClellan, marched 
into Virginia, they found that the confederates had 
quietly retreated from the camp at Manassas. 2. On 
30 Aug. 1862, this place was the site of another great 
battle between the northern and southern armies. 
In August, general "Stonewall" Jackson, after 
compelling the federal general Pope to retreat, de- 
feated him at Cedar mountain on the 9th, turned 
his flank on the 22nd, and arriving at Marassas 
repulsed his attacks on the 29th. On the 30th 
general R. E. Lee (who had defeated general 
McClellan and the invading northern army before 
Richmond, 26 June to I July) joined Jackson with 
his army, and Pope received reinforcements from 
Washington. A desperate conflict ensued, which 
ended in the confederates gaining a decisive victory, 
compelling the federals to a hasty retreat to Centre- 
ville, where they were once more routed, I Sept. The 
remains of their army took refuge behind the lines 
of Washington on 2 Sept. Pope was at once super- 
seded, and McClellan resumed the command to 
march against the confederates, who hf.d crossed 
the Potomac and entered Maryland; see United 
States. 

MANCHESTEE (Lancashire), in the time of 
the Druids, was one of their most principal stations, 
and had the privilege of sanctuary attached to its 
altar, in the British language Meyne, a stone. It 
was one of the seats of the Brigantes, who had a 
castle, or stronghold, called Maneenion, or the place 
of tents, near the confluence of the rivers Medlock 
and Irwell. The site of this, still called the 
"Castle Field," was, about 79, selected by the 
Romans as the station of the Cohors Prima Fric- 
ioruni, and called by them Mancunium ; hence its 
Saxon name Manceastre, from which its modern 
appellation is derived. Lewis. Manchester con- 
stituted a harbour and port, 22 Dec. 1893. See 
under Population. 

Maneenion taken from the Britons . . . . 488 
Captured by Edwin of Northumbria . . " . 620 

The inhabitants become Christians . . about 627 
The town taken by the Danes, 870; retaken . . 923 



MANCHESTER. 



783 



MANCHESTER. 



The charter (Magna Charta of Manchester), 14 May, 1301 
" Manchester cottons " introduced .... 1352 
The church made collegiate . . . . . . 1421 

Free grammar-school founded 1516 

Privilege of sanctuary moved to Chester . about 1541 
An aulnager (measurer) stationed here . . . 1565 
Sir Thomas Fairfax takes the town . . . . 1643 
The walls and fortifications razed .... 1652 
Cheetham college, or Blue-coat hospital, founded 1653 
Tumult raised by " Syddall, the barber," afterwards 

hanged 1715 

Prince Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, 
makes it his quarters . . 28 Nov. 1745 

Queen's theatre first built 1753 

The Infirmary instituted, 1752 ; built . . . 1755 
The inhabitants discharged from their obligation to 

grind their corn at Irk-mill 1759 

Cotton goods first exported 1760 

Manchester navigation opened, by Bridgewater 

canal 1761 

Lunatic asylum founded 1765 

Agricultural society instituted 1767 

Christian, king of Denmark, visits Manchester, and 

puts up at the Bull-inn 1 768 

The Queen's theatre rebuilt 1775 

Subscription concerts established .... 1777 
Riots against machinery . . . . 9 Oct. 1779 
Manufacture of muslin attempted here . about 1780 
Philosophical society established . . . . 1781 

New Bailey bridge completed 1785 

Queen's theatre burnt down, 19 June, 1789 ; re- 
erected . 1790 

New Bailey built „ 

Assembly-rooms, Mosley-street, built . . . . 1792 

Philological Society instituted 1803 

Fever hospital erected, 1805 ; Theatre-royal . . 1806 

The portico erected ,, 

The weavers' riot 24 May, 1808 

Exchange and Commercial buildings erected, Jan. 1809 
Manchester and Salford water- works established . ,, 

Blanketeers' meeting 4 Nov. 1817 

Lock-hospital established 1819 

Manchester reform meeting (called Peterloo) of from 
60,000 to 100,000 persons, men, women, and chil- 
dren. Mr. Hunt, who took the chair, had spoken 
a few words, when the meeting was suddenly as- 
sailed by a charge of cavalry, assisted by a 
Cheshire regiment of yeomanry, the outlets being 
occupied by other military detachments. The 
unarmed multitude were driven upon each other ; 
many were ridden over by the horses, or cut down 
by their riders. The deaths were 11, men, 
women, and children, and the wounded about 600 

16 Aug. „ 

New Brunswick-bridge built 1820 

Chamber of commerce established . . . . ,, 

Law library founded ,, 

Natural History society projected .... 1821 

New Quay company founded 1822 

Deaf and Dumb school instituted .... 1823 

Koyal Institution formed ,, 

Floral and Horticultural society established . . ,, 

Mechanics' institution founded 1824 

Musical festival first held 1828 

At the launch of a vessel which keeled and upset, 
upwards of 200 persons precipitated into the 

river ; 51 perished 29 Feb. 1828 

In a tumult, a factory burnt, and much machinery 

destroyed 3 May, 1829 

New concert-room established , , 

The races established 1830 

Manchester and Liverpool railway (vpened — Mr. 

Huskisson killed (see Liverpool) . 15 Sept. „ 

Manchester made a parliamentary borough (2 mem- 
bers) by Reform act .... 7 June, 1832 

Choral society established 1833 

Statistical society formed (the first in England), 

2 Sept. ,, 
Church-rate refused .... 3 Sept. 1834 

Manchester incorporated, by Municipal Reform act 1835 
Manchester and Leeds railway act passed . . . 1836 

.Geological Society instituted 1838 

Charter of incorporation . . . . 23 Oct. ,, 
Manchester police act .... 26 Aug. 1839 
Great disorders in the midland counties among 

artisans : they extend to this town . . Aug. 1842 
British Association meet here . . .23 June, ,, 



Great free-trade meetings held here (see Com Laws) 

14 Nov. 1843 
Important meeting held at the Athenaeum (see 

Athenaeum) 3 Oct. 1844 

Great anti-corn law meeting, at which 64,984!. were 

subscribed in four hours . . . 23 Dec. 1845 
The Queen's-park, Peel-park, and Philip's-park, 

opened Aug. 1846 

Manchester made a bishopric . . 10 Aug. 1847 

Opening of Owens collegiate institution, to which 

John Owens bequeathed 100,000/. . 12 March, 1851 

The Queen's visit to Manchester . . .7 Oct. ,, 
Great meeting in the Free-trade hall, to greet M. 

Kossuth 11 Nov. ,, 

The engineers' strike . . . 3 Jan. -26 April, 1852 
The Guild of Literature entertained at a banquet by 

the citizens 31 Aug. ,, 

Opening of the Free library . . . . 2 Sept. ,, 
Great Free-trade banquet ... 2 Nov. ,, 
Manchester declared to be a city, and formally so 

gazetted 16 April, 1853 

Great strike of minders and piecers . . 7 Nov. 1855 
Exhibition of Art Treasures determined on, 20 
May, 1856 ; 1115 old pointings, 689 new paintings, 
969 water-colours, 388 British portraits, &c. col- 
lected ; opened by prince Albert, 5 May ; visited 
by the Queen, 29, 30 June ; visited by 1,335,915 
persons ; expenses, 99,500?., receipts, 98,500!. ; 

closed 17 Oct. 1857 

Sir John Potter, a benefactor to the town, died 

25 Oct. 1858 
British Association meet here (2nd time), 4 Sept. 1861 
Great county meeting ; 130,000?. subscribed to the 

Lancashire Relief fund .... 2 Dec. 1862 
Meeting of the Church Congress . . 13-15 Oct. 1863 
Great Reform meeting; Mr. Bright there, 24Se.pt. 1866 
Manchester Education bill committee appointed . ,, 
Additional M.P. granted by Reform act 15 Aug. 1867 
Meeting of Manchester and Liverpool agricultural 

society 27 Aug, ,, 

Trades' Unions commission opened ; evidence ob- 
tained of gross outrages . . . 3-24 Sept. ,, 
Two Fenians, Kelly and Deasy, forcibly taken from 
a police-van, near Manchester, and Brett, a 

policeman killed 18 Sept. ,, 

23 persons committed for trial ; trial, 29 Oet-12 

Nov. ; five condemned to death for murder, 1 

Nov. ; others to imprisonment ; Allen, Gould, 

and Larkin executed . . . .23 Nov. ,, 

Jacob Bright elected M.P. (Lily Maxwell, a widow, 

voted for him) 26 Nov. ,, 

False alarm of fire at Lang's music-hall, 23 killed, 

31 July, 1868 
New town-hall founded .... 26 Oct. ,, 
Manchester Reciprocity Association founded, Sept. 1869 
National Education Union meet . . 3, 4 Nov. ,, 
Bishop James Prince Lee died, 24 Dec. 1869 ; suc- 
ceeded by James Fraser .... Jan. 1870 
Alexandra -park (provided by the corporation) 

opened 6 Aug. ,, 

Owens college new buildings founded . 23Se.pt. ,, 
Grammar school : additional building opened by 

earl of Derby 25 Oct. 1871 

Visit of Mr. Disraeli ; enthusiastically received, 

2-5 April, 1872 
The library at the Athenaeum burnt 24 Sept. 1873 

Proposal to rebuild the cathedral by subscription, 

spring, 1874 
Athenaeum lecture-rooms opened by lord chief just. 

Cockburn, the marquis of Salisbury, &c. 22 Jan. 1875 
Humphry Nichols, who had given about 100,000/. 

to public charities, died ... 31 Oct. ,, 
Statue of Cromwell (by M. Noble) gift of Mrs. 

Abel Heywood, uncovered . . .1 Dec. ,, 
Rev. Thos. Middleton bequeaths 14,000!. to Royal 

Infirmary May, 1876 

Proposal to make Owens college a university, July, ,, 
Death of sir Elkanah Armitage, a great benefactor 

26 Nov. ,, 
New town-hall opened, by Mr. Abel Heywood, the 

mayor 13 Sept. 1877 

Owens college made the nucleus of Victoria Univer- 
sity (which see) . . ■ July, 1880 
New school of art opened by the earl of Derby, 

27 April, 1881 
Visit of the dukes of Edinburgh and Albany 12 Dec. „ 



MANCHESTER. 



784 MANCHESTER, BISHOPRIC OF. 



Formation of a ship canal by junction of the Mersey 
and Irwell ; Mr. Williams's plan approved about 

26 Sept. 

Pine art and industrial exhibition opened . 20 Oct. 

Fire at Messrs. Wilkinson and Hodgkinson's, about 
100,000?. damage 17 Nov. 

New line art gallery opened . . . 31 Aug 

Edmund Potter, manufacturer and benefactor of 
the city, died aged 81 . . . .26 Oct. 

Three great meetings to support the government 
and the franchise bill . . . . 26 July, 

Great conservative demonstration, present the 
marquis of Salisbury, sir E. Cross, lord Randolph 
Churchill, and others 9 Aug. 

Manchester Geographical Society established Jan. 

Manchester returns six M. P. 's by act passed 25 June, 

Royal Jubilee Exhibition of manufactures, science, 

and art opened by the prince and princess of 

Wales, 3 May ; closed .... 10 Nov. 

[4,765,137 persons admitted ; receipts about 

250,000?. The surplus over 43,000?. given to 

the Manchester Whitworth Institute, Dec. 

1889.] 

Sir Joseph Whitworth's trustees propose the estab- 
lishment of the Whitworth Institute of Art and 
Industry May, 

Prince Albert Victor opens Birchfield recreation 
grounds and lads' club ... 20 Oct. 

Manchester new college, Oxford, opened . 25 Oct. 

The Manchester Whitworth Institute chartered, 
Nov. 1889; inaugurated by the marquis of Har- 
tington 17 July, 

The Queen's theatre burnt . . .17 Aug. 

Messrs. Holland's cotton mill burnt, estimated 
loss, 120,000?. ..... 17 Aug. 

Statue of Mr. John Bright unveiled by the earl of 
Derby 10 Oct. 

Earl Spencer installed chancellor of the Victoria 
university 25 May, 

Rylands Free Library (see Libraries) (Althorp) 

For Mr. David Lewis' bequest (see Liverpool) . 

The title of " lord " granted to the mayor, 15 June, 

Death of Mr. Abel Heywood, aged 82, twice mayor, 
eminent bookseller and energetic opposer of the 
Stamp Act, 1832, et seq 19 Aug. 

The new Royal College of Music opened, 7 Oct. 

Statue of Dr. Joule, natural philosopher, unveiled 
by lord Kelvin (see Heat) ... 8 Dec. 

Textile Workers' international congress opened, 

24 July, 

The Waterworks at Thirlmere (cost 4,500,000?.) ; 
opened ; a fountain in Manchester started by sir 
John Harwood 13 Oct. 

Mr. Henry Wilde endows the Literary and Philo- 
sophical society with 8,000?. . . . Feb. 

Mr. Sam Weston bequeathed 177,000?. to charities 
in and about Manchester, and 50,000?. to the 
church, payment begun . . . Sept. 

Death of Mr. Francis Win. Crossley, philanthro- 
pist, aged 57, founder of Star Hall, Ancoats 

25 March, 

Royal agricultural show buildings etc., much 
injured by the gale, 16 June ; opened 23 June, 
the duke of York (president) present . 28 June, 

Mr. J. Heywood's premises burnt, estimated 
damage, 20,000? 14 Feb. 

Mr. W. Roberts, architect, bequeaths 19,350?. for 
public purposes, reported . . .23 Feb. 

Mr. Richard Johnson, philanthropist, born, 1827, 
died early March, 

Victoria theatre, foundation-stone laid by sir Henry 
Irving 4 Oct. 

The John Rylands memorial library erected by his 
widow (see above, 1892), opened ; Mrs. Rylands 
presented with the freedom of the city, 6 Oct. 

Messrs. Ferguson's and 2 other factories burnt 
down, houses buried . . . .23 Nov. 

Mr. Balfour addresses large meetings in E. Man- 
chester on the war in S. Africa ; deprecates 
criticism of the commanders and upholds the 
War Office 8, 10 Jan. 

Fire at the central post-office, telegraphic com- 
munication, &c, stopped . . 19 Sept. 

Epidemic of peripheral neuritis, or arsenical poison- 
ing, attributed to adulteration in beer ; 36 
deaths between 25 Nov. and 10 Jan. 1901. 
(Royal commission appointed, see Arsenic.) 

Explosion at a hat factory, 13 deaths . 15 Jan. 



1897 



Lord Roberts opens a royal military tournament 
and presents war medals ; unveils a statue of 
queen Victoria . . . . g, 10 Oct. 

Mr. John Morley unveils a statue of Mr. Glad- 
stone 23 Oct. 

Mr. J. H. Gartside endows Owens college with 
10,000?. for scholarships of commerce and indus- 
tries, announced .... 3 March, 

The prince and princess of Wales open the new 
Whitworth-hall, cost 50,000?., gift of the late Dr. 
Christie ; statue of queen Victoria by the duchess 
of Argyll unveiled in the cathedral . 12 March, 

Sir Geo. White opens the royal military tourna- 
ment 18 Sept. 

Stone laid in Delamere forest for a sanatorium (at 
a cost of 70,000?. from Mr. W. J. Crossley), 

7 Oct. 

Nat. union of Conservative assocs. meets ; lord 
Derby elected president for 1903 ; Mr. Balfour's 
firm speech in favour of the education bill well 
received ; he opens a new school of technology, 

14, 15 Oct. 

Jubilee of the free library celebrated ; message from 
the king ...... 3 April, 

Celebration of publication by Dr. John Dalton of 
his discovery of the atomic theory . 19 May, 

Meeting held and committee appointed to arrange 
for holding an international exhibition in 1905, 

mid July, 

Manchester ship canal act (with conditions) passed 
July, 1885 ; company formed, Mr. Daniel Adam- 
son, active promoter, proposed capital 
8,000,000?. Oct. 1885. To hold property of Bridge- 
water Navigation Company ; to occupy about 
7,500 square miles. Contract for work taken by 
Lucas and Aird for 5,750,000?. July ; execution of 
the scheme suspended through non-subscription 
of capital announced 24 July, 1886 ; first sod cut 
at Eastham by lord Egerton of Tatton 11 Nov. 
1887 ; satisfactory progress in the work reported, 
about-one third done .... June, 

Mr. J. A. Walker, the contractor, dies 25 Nov. ; 
progress retarded by the bursting of the Mersey 
bank at Statham 7 Nov. 

Water of the Mersey first admitted into the East- 
ham section of the canal, 18, 19 June, 1891. 
Collapse of part of the embankment near the 
Eastham section; new embankment quickly con- 
structed, t2 July ; the first flotilla of traffic from 
Ellesmere port passed down the ship canal into 
the Mersey 16 July, 

Through the error of a pointsman, George Pratt, 
aged 16, a train of carriages conveying rock debris 
and soil was precipitated down an embankment 
60 feet deep, killing 10 men at supper below ; 6 
men on the train leaped from it and thus escaped, 
about 1 a.m 18 July, 

Amount expended, 10,359,597?. U P to . 1 Aug. 

The Manchester Corporation lent 3,000,000?., 1891 ; 
t, 500,000?. more required .... Aug. : 

Money loans : Manchester corporation, 2,000,000?. 
(additional) ; Salford, 1,000,000?. . 20-27 Oct. 

The Lodore, from Saltport, on the canal, arrives at 
the Regent's Canal dock, London . . 8 Dec. 

Oldham agrees to lend 250,600?. . about 17 Jan. 1893 

The company authorizes the directors to borrow 
2,000,000?. ...... 16 June, 

The canal completed ; length, 35J miles ; width, 
172 ft. ; depth, from 26 to 28 ft. ; total outlay, 
1885-93, J 3A7°>- 2I 1- ! inspection trips by the 
directors, &c, 16 Dec. 1893 ; public opening of 
the canal, a procession of steamers, &c. . 1 Jan. 1894 

The canal inaugurated by the queen, after driving 
through Manchester and receiving addresses, 

21 May, ,, 

Mr. Williams, chief engineer, knighted . June, ,, 

Unfavourable report respecting traffic . Nov. ,, 

Revenue from all sources gradually increasing, 1895-1901 

Manchester ship canal directors publish scheme 
for the readjustment of company's capital and its 
relations with the corporation . end of May. ,, 

MANCHESTER, Bishopric of. An order 
in council in Oct. 1838, declared that the sees of 
St. Asaph and Bangor should be united on the next 
vacancy in either, and that the bishopric of Man- 
chester should be immediately created within the 



MANCHURIA. 



MANIPUR. 



jurisdiction of the archiepiscopal see of York; the 
county of Lancaster for that purpose to be detached 
from Chester. By act IO Vict. (1847) the sees of 
St. Asaph and Bangor were to exist undisturbed, 
and that of Manchester was to be created. 

BISHOPS. 

1847. James Prince Lee ; died 24 Dec. 1869. 

1870. James Fraser, Jan. 1870 ; died 22 Oct. 1885. 

1886. James Moorhouse, D.D. (bishop of Melbourne), 

Jan., retired 31 Oct. 1903. 
1903. Edmund Arbuthnott Knox (bishop (suffragan of 

Coventry). 

MANCHURIA. N.E. division of the Chinese 
empire. Capital, Mukden; treaty port, Nin-Chuang. 
The Manchus conquered China in 1644, and founded 
the present Chin dynasty. The French (1838) 
and British (1861) have missionary stations there. 
Population estimated over a million. The Japanese 
invaded Manchuria during the war of 1894-5. Capt. 
Frank E. Younghusband's "Travels in Manchu- 
ria," published, March, 1896. Pi-osperity increased 
by Russian immigration, 1897-8. See Corca. For 
the massacres here, see China, 14 Aug. 1901. 
Great mortality from cholera, July et seq. 1902. 
The province is virtually occupied by Russia, 
causing strained relations with Japan (30 Nov. 
1 9°3)i see Russia. 

MANDALAY, capital of Upper Burraah ; 
population, 1891, 188,815 > IC ) 01 ) 182,498. See 
Burmah. 

MANERU, near Puente de la Reyna Navarre. 
Here took place a conflict between the republicans, 
under Moriones, and the Carlists, under Otto ; both 
claimed a victory ; 6 Oct. 1873. 

MANGANESE. Black oxide of manganese, 
long used to decolorise glass, and called Magnesia 
nigra, was formerly included among the ores of iron. 
Its distinctive character was proved by the re- 
searches of Pott (1740), Kaim and Winterl (1770), 
and Scheele and Bergmann (1774) ; it was first 
eliminated by Gahn. Manganese combined with 
potassium is called mineral chameleon, from its 
rapid change of colour under certain circumstances. 
Forchammer employed it as a test for the presence 
of organic matter in water ; and Dr. Angus Smith, 
successfully applied this test to air in 1858. The 
oxide is the important ingredient in Condy's " dis- 
infecting fluid." Manganese bronze, is a metal 
produced by Mr. P. M. Parsons, inventor of white 
brass, 1876. Manganese steel produced by Messrs. 
Pfeil & Co. 1887. 

MANICA, a territory in S. Africa in Mashona- 
land, near Mozambique, which on account of its 
mines, the Portuguese vainly endeavoured to 
acquire in the 16th century. See Zambesi. 

The territory was acknowledged to be under the influ- 
ence of Portugal by the convention of Aug. 1890. 

Dispute with Great Britain ; delimitation referred to 
arbitration of Italy, March, 1894 ; boundary settled, 
30 Jan. 1897 ; further concessions, reported, 22 Feb. 
1899. 

MANICHEANS, a sect founded by Manes, 
in Persia, about 261. It spread into Egypt, Arabia, 
and Africa. A rich widow, whose servant Manes 
had been, left him much wealth, after which he 
assumed the title of Apostle, or envoy of Jesus 
Christ, and announced that he was the paraclete 
or comforter that Christ had promised to send. He 
maintained two principles, the one good he called 
light, the other bad he called darkness. He re- 
jected the Old Testament, and composed a system of 
doctrine from Christianity and the dogmas of the 
ancient fire-worshippers. Sapor, king of Persia, 



believed in him at one time ; but afterwards 
banished him. He was burnt alive by Bahram or 
Varanes, king of Persia, in 277. His followers 
dispersed, and several sects sprang from them. 

MANILLA (or Manila) (built about 1573), 
capital of the Philippine isles, a great mart of 
Spanish commerce. Manilla was taken by the 
English, 6 Oct. 1762, when the archbishop engaged 
to ransom it for about a million sterling ; never 
wholly paid. Manilla has suffered greatly by earth- 
quakes. It is stated that nearly 3000 persons perished 
by one in 1645. In Sept. 1852, the city was nearly 
destroyed, and on 3 July, 1863, about a thousand 
lives were lost. The duke of Edinburgh was hospit- 
ably entertained here, 19 Nov. 1869. See Earth- 
quakes 1852, 1863, 1880. Destructive typhoon, 20, 
21 Oct. 1882. Great fire; 4,000 houses burnt, 
many deaths, I April, 1893. Great tire, 30,000 
persons homeless, reported 5 April, 1896; another, 
public buildings destroyed, several deaths, 28 Sept. 
1897 ; another fire, 206 houses burnt, reported, 7 
Feb. 1898. See Spanish- American War. 

MANIPUR (Manipore), a small native state, 
N.E. India, adjoining Assam and Burmah ; popula- 
tion, 1881, 221,070; army about 5,000. 
The state has long been protected by the British from 
the attacks of the Burmese. In 1834, Gumbheer Singh, 
the restored rajah, died, and was succeeded by his 
son, Chandra Kirti Singh, two years old. The regent, 
Nar Singh, a relative, usurped the government, and 
ruled till his death in 1850, when the young rajah was 
restored ; a British resident being afterwards placed in 
the capital, with good etlect. Much trouble was given 
by iival members of his family till 1866; he died in 
1885 or 1886. He left eight sons, who formed opposing 
parties. The eldest, Sura Chandra Singh, became 
maharajah, and appointed his eldest brother, Kula 
Chandra Dhuya Singh, jubraj, or heir-apparent, after- 
wards termed regent, a weak, incapable man. In Sept. 
1890, his brother, Takendrajil Singh, the senaputti, or 
commander-in-chief, dethroned the maharajah and set 
up the jubraj in his place. The maharajah retired to 
Calcutta. 
On 21 Feb. 1891, Mr. James W. Quinton, chief commis- 
sioner of Assam, was directed to proceed with a 
sufficient force to Manipur, to recognise the regent, 
and to remove the senaputti. He entered Manipur 
22 March, with 470 men and officers, civil and 
military, and was well received by the regent and 
the senaputti, but could not succeed in getting 
the latter to attend a durbar or court. Mr. Quin- 
ton as an ultimatum required the surrender of 
the senaputti, the letter being taken by Mr. F. St. 
C. Grimwood, political agent, without any result, 23 
March. On the 24th, colonel Skene proceeded with 
250 men to arrest the senaputti at his house within 
the fort inclosure, of which they obtained possession 
after a sharp struggle, during which lieut. Bracken- 
bury was mortally wounded. The senaputti had 
escaped. About 10 a.m., the Manipuris opened lire 
on the residency in front, and about noon on the rear, 
and shelled it. About 4 p.m. the troops were with- 
drawn from the senaputti's house, and all the force 
was posted in the residency, which was seriously 
damaged by artillery about 5 p.m., and the ammuni- 
tion began to fall short. About 7 p.m. negotiations 
were re-opened by letter from Mr. Quinton, and the 
tiring ceased, but the conditions offered by the regent 
could not be accepted. Having been invited by the 
senaputti halfway between the residency and the 
palace, Mr. Quinton took with him colonel Skene, 
Mr. F. St. C. Grimwood, Mr. H. Cossins, and lieut. 
Simpson, unarmed, and without escort. After a long 
parley, the party entered the fort and were seen no 
more, and it was afterwards discovered that they 
were all killed (beheaded or otherwise). The firing 
re-commenced about midnight. The ammunition 
having been greatly reduced, it was decided to retire 
from the residency, anil to inarch across the country 
to meet captain Cowley's advancing party. This was 
done about 2 a.m. on the 25th, the party taking with 
them 17 wounded, and Mrs. Grimwood, who displayed 

3 E 



MANITOBA. 



786 



MANSION-HOUSE. 



much judgment, courage, and humanity. There was 
no serious resistance during the march, but a few 
skirmishes occurred. About 10 a.m. they met captain 
Cowley's party, who supplied them with food and 
other assistance. They continued their march, ar- 
riving, on 30 March, at Lakhipur on the Cachar frontier. 

Lieut. C. J. W. Grant hearing, on 27 March, of the 
disaster at Manipur, volunteered to attempt the 
relief of the British captives, and marched with 
80 native soldiers from Tamu in Burmah, 28 
March ; entrenched himself near Thobal, 3-1 
March ; held out against the attacks of the 
Manipuri army (about 3,000) till 7 April ; and 
resisted negotiations judiciously ; only 1 killed. 
[Lieut. Grant was made major and otherwise 
honoured.] 

About 2,000 Manipuris, entrenched near Tamu, 
attacked and dispersed by general Graham's 
party, captain Drury being especially successful, 

25 April ; three columns under gen. Graham, and 
others from different directions converge at 
Manipur, which they find totally deserted, the 
regent, senaputti, and other princes having fled, 

26 April ; the palace had been blown up ; the 
heads of Mr. Quinton and his companions were 
found in the enclosure. 

Funeral ceremony was held over the exhumed bodies 
of Mr. Quinton and his companions, 30 April ; 
general Collett was left in command at Manipur, 
some of the troops left. The Manipuris returned 
to their homes, May ; the regent and his minister 
were captured, 8 May, and the senaputti, 

about 23 May, 1891 

The regent, the senaputti, and prince Angao Sena, 
a younger brother, were tried for rebellion and 
abetting to murder, and sentenced to death (all 
appealed) 9-20 June, „ 

The sentences of death on the senaputti and the 
Tongal general, as implicated in the murders, 
were confirmed. The sentences on the regent 
and his younger brother commuted to transporta- 
tion for life to the Andaman Islands ; forfeiture 
of property, announced 10 Aug. The senaputti 
and the Tongal general hanged at Manipur, 

13 Au g- ,, 

It was decided that Manipur should still be ruled 
by a native prince, 23 Aug. ; and Chura Chand, 
aged 5, great grandson of Nar Singh, was appointed 
rajah, 13 Sept. ; dignity to be hereditary, subject 
to the government of India ; an annual tribute to 
be paid ; declaration communicated . . Oct. „ 

The young prince was invested with a dignity, 

29 April, 1892 

Heavy rain, causing destructive floods and loss of 
life May, 1893 

Lord Curzon held a durbar (of about 3,000) here, 

16 Nov. 1901 

MANITOBA, see Rupert's Land and Hudson's 
Bay (N. America). Manitoba was made a part of 
the confederation in 1870. Capital, Winnipeg. 
Population, 1886, 108,640; i8qi, 154,442; iqoi, 
2 54>947- Lieut.-gov., John C. Schultz; suc- 
ceeded by J. C. Patterson, June, 1895 ; D. H. 
McMillan, 1900. A Fenian attack on the 
colony was suppressed by American troops about 
l;s Oct. 1871. For insurrection in the neighbouring 
provinces in March, 1885, see Canada. For the 
Red River Railway disputes see Canada, Oct. 1888. 
Disputes with the Dominion government respecting 
the privileges of the Catholic schools, March et seq. 
1895 ; negotiations closed, the difficulty settled by 
compromise, 17 Oct. 1896; bill passed, 25 March, 
1897. Catholic schools of Winnipeg taken over 
by the school board by agreement, Sept. 1901. 
Prairie fires, villages burnt, 7 deaths, reported, 
4 Oct. 1897. 

MANNHEIM (S. Germany), founded in 1606, 
became the court residence of the palatine of the 
Rhine in 1719 ; but his becoming elector of Bavaria 
in 1777 caused the removal of the court to Munich. 
Mannheim surrendered to the French, under com- 
mand of general Pichegru, 20 Sept. 1795. On 31 



Oct. the Austrians under general Wurmser defeated 
the French near the city. Several battles were 
fought with various success in the neighbourhood 
during the wars of Napoleon I. Kotzebue, the popu- 
lar dramatist, was assassinated at Mannheim, by 
Sand, a student of Wurtzburg, 2 April, 1819. Popu- 
lation, 1890, 79,044 ; 1900, 140,384. 

MANOMETER (Greek, tnanos, thin), an in- 
strument for measuring the rarity of the atmo- 
sphere, gases, and vapours. One is said to have 
been made by Otto von Guericke about 1660, and 
the "statical barometer" of Robert Boyle was 
a simple manometer. Various forms of the appara- 
tus were devised by Ramsden (about 1773), by Roy 
(1777), by Cazalet (1789), and by Bourdon and 
others. A manometer was constructed for the in- 
vestigation respecting the elasticity of steam con- 
ducted by Prony, Arago, Dulong, and Girard, 1830. 

MANORS are as ancient as the Saxon times, 
and imply a territorial district with its jurisdiction, 
rights, and perquisites. They were formerly called 
baronies, and still are lordships. Each lord was 
empowered to hold a court called the court-baron 
for redressing misdemeanours, and settling disputes 
between the tenants. Cabinet Lawyer. 

MANSFIELD COLLEGE, Oxford, for the 
study of Nonconformist theology opened in tempo- 
rary rooms 19 Oct. 1886. The new college solemnly 
opened, 14 Oct. 1889. A settlement connected with 
the college, called Mansfield house, at Canning 
town, E. London. 

MANSION-HOUSE, London. The resi- 
dence of the lord mayor. It is situate at the east 
end of the Poultry on the site of the ancient Stocks- 
market. It was built of Portland stone by George 
Dance the elder, 1739-53 > repaired and redecorated, 
1867-68 ; see Mayor and Hospitals. 

Attempt to blow up part of Mansion-House ; a box 
of gunpowder (40 lbs.) discovered in a window, 
east side, about 11 p.m. 16, March, 1881 ; again, 

12 May, 1882 

Visited by the queen, after opening the People's 
Palace 14 May, 1887 

Exhibition and sale of Irish work organised by the 
Irish industries association, opened by the 
prince and princess of Wales . 16 March, 1900 

Large national meeting for the organisation of the 
S. African war relief funds, lord Derby elected 
chairman of the central council ; committees, 
appointed 19 Oct. ,, 

Meeting of lords-lieutenant, mayors, and others, 
lord mayor president, for the organisation of war 
relief funds, lord Derby elected chairman of the 
central council, executive and sub-committees 
appointed 19 Oct. ,, 

Public meeting in support of the Queen Victoria 
national memorial, the lord mayor presiding ; 
16,000?. subscribed (1,000?. from the king), 

26 March, 1901 

Meetings in support of a royal naval volunteer 
reserve, 10 Jan. ; and for a coronation gift, see 
Hospitals 9 June, 1902 

Mansion-House Funds : — 

French Relief Fund for the sufferers by the siege 
of Paris, was established at a meeting . j8 Jan. 1871 

In four days about 24,000?. had been received ; up 
to 4 March, 113,599?. ; finally, 126,609?. Col. H. 
Stuart Wortley and Mr. George Moore went to 
Paris on 3 Feb. with 68 tons of provisions, and 
personally superintended theirdistribution by the 
clergy, foreign consuls, and others. An official 
I'eport issued by the lord mayor, dated 7 Nov. 
1871, showed a balance of 4679?. in hand. 

Bengal Relief Fund, begun 24 Jan 1874 ; prince 
of Wales became patron, 24 Feb ; public meeting, 
14 April; above 55,000?. subscribed, 19 March; 
125,000?., 27 July, when the fund was closed. 



MANSION-HOUSE. 



787 



MANSION-HOUSE. 



Eastern War Sufferers' Fund ; 9400?. received 
iip to 6 Oct. 1876 ; 18 Oct. 13,000?. ; 27 Oct. 
14,200?. 

Inundations Relief Fund ; 1877, received, n Jan. 
3600?. ; 20 Jan. 8100?. ; closed, 14 Feb., 8792?. 

Indian Famine Relief Fund, 1877-8; announced, 
15 Aug. ; received up to 20 Aug. 12,000?. ; 11 Sept. 
135,000?.; 23 Oct. 415,000?.; 5 Nov. 446,100?.; 
(fund declared closed by request of the duke of 
■ Buckingham, governorof Madras) ; since received, 
22 Dec. 493,000?. ; 15 Jan. 1878, 503,000?. ; total 
received, 689,466?. 17s 20 May, : 

" Eurydice " Fund (see Wrecks, 24 March, 1878) ; 
received for families of the men, 5496?.; trans- 
mitted 25 Sept. 

" Princess Alice" Relief Fund ; opened 5 Sept. 
1878 ; received, 21st Sept. 25,000?.; 1 Oct. 31,400?. 
See Princess Alice. 

A.bercarn Colliery Explosion Fund ; opened 
14 Sept 1878 ; received, 21 Sept. 11,500?.; 21 Oct. 
29,300?. : above 18,000?. received in the country. 

Dinas Colliery Explosion Fund (for 180 widows 
and children) ; opened in . . . . Feb. 1 

Hungarian Floods Fund ; opened 14 March ; re- 
ceived 18 March, about 4,200?. ; May 1, 11,248?. 

Zulu War Fund ; opened, 31 March ; received 

2 April, 3,400?. ; 25 April, 10,300?. 

Rowland Hill Memorial proposed 9 Sept. 1879 ; 
the lord mayor, Whetham, announced that as 
about 100?. only had been subscribed ; the money 
would be returned ; another committee was then 
formed, and lord mayor Truscott assumed charge 
of the fund, n Nov. ; 6,300?. received 12 Dec. 
1879 ; about 16,000?. 26 Feb. 1880 ; 17,286?. 5 Jan. : 

Duchess of Marlborough's Irish Relief Fund ; 
opened on appeal by her grace, 22 Dec. 1879 ; 
about 2,300?. received 29 Dec. ; total sent to 
Dublin, 34,164?. 6s. 6d. ; fund closed . 10 Aug. : 

" Atalanta " Fund ; to relieve sufferers by loss of 
the Atalanta (which see) ; opened . . 15 June, 

Truro Cathedral Fund opened 14 July ; received, 
1,085? 9 Nov. 

Risca Colliery Explosion Fund, opened 16 July ; 
received 7,317?. 9 Nov. 

Naini Tal Landslip Fund ; opened . 22 Oct. 

Agram Earthquake Fund ; opened . 17 Nov. 

Penygraig Colliery Explosion Fund ; opened, 

!"~'~ 13 Dec. 

Chios or Scio Earthquake Fund ; opened 7 April, 

Defence of Property in Ireland Fund, ("to up- 
hold the rights of property against organized 
combination, to defend and to sustain freedom of 
contract and liberty of action,") begun, 13 Dec; 
1881 ; 18,226?. applied, balance of 1,268?. trans- 
ferred to Irish Defence Union . .18 Dee. 

Egyptian Refugees Fund: 2,100?., 30 June, 1882; 
2,700?., 6 July ; 7,800?., 11 Aug. ; 8,000?., 10 Sept. ; 
21,308? 10 April, 

Relief of Persecuted Russian Jews Fund, begun 
1 Feb. 1882; 46,000?., received, 13 Feb. ; 50,365?. 

20 Feb. ; about 72,000?., 19 May. Fund closed 
108,759?., received (ovei 1 10,000?. received, finally 
closed 9 July, 1886) 25 Oct. 

Fund for Emigration of the Unemployed, es- 
tablished 13 April; unsuccessful, closed 25 April, 

Iceland Famine Fund, formed 29 Aug. 1882 ; 
1,500?. received 6 Sept. ; 2,800?. 14 Sept. ; 3,700?. 

21 Sept.; 5,505?., closed .... April, 
Clay Cross Colliery Explosion Fund, about 14 

Nov.; 496?. 10s. 6d. remitted ; fund closed, 26 Jan. 

Jamaica Fire Relief Fund, established, 22 Jan. 
received 4,400?. ; 21 Feb. 7,620?. ; closed, received 
7,850? 9 April, 

West Coast of Scotland Fund, 2,200?. received 

3 April ; 3,964?. 12 April ; 4,861?. 8 May ; 5,159?. 
fund closed 23 July, 

Fund for ' Sufferers by North Sea Gale, 

(6 March) 12 April, 

Ischia Earthquake Fund, opened 14 Aug. ; 1,200?. 

22 Aug. ; about 29,000?. 12 Oct. ; closed 31 Oct. 
Egyptian Cholera Fund, opened 31 Aug. about 

2,731?. received ; closed . . . .9 Nov. 



Eastern Counties Earthquake Fund, begun 26 
April, 1884 ; 2,000?. received, 2 May ; 3,000?. 5 May ; 
6,000?. 15 May ; 9,900?. 10 June ; 10,413?. 31 July, 

Nisero Fund (see Nisero), established 17 July ; 
405?. received from earl of Derby and others ; 600?. 
received from Rotterdam, Aug. ; 1,237?. received, 
fund closed 1 Dec. 

Neapolitan Cholera Fund, 1,000?. sent off, Oct. 1 
final remittance, 323?.. .... Nov. 

Gordon National Memorial Fund, (see Gordon 
Memorial) begun 25 Feb. ; 13,500?. received up to 
8 April ; king of Belgium gives 100?. . 8 April, 

Spanish Cholera Fund begun 11 Sept. ; 4191?. 
received ; closed 4 Nov. 

Unemployed Relief Fund begun about 5 Feb. ; 
over 3,300?. received ; 76,225?. 26 March ; 76,819?. 
31 March ; 77,910?. (1,200?. collected in the streets 
3 April) 7 April; closed 19 April ; total received 
78,629?. ........ 

St. Paul's Cathedral Approach Fund, begun 

about 5 Feb. 

Earthquake Fund for sufferers in Greece and 
Charleston, U.S. 7 Sept. ; 5,000?. 17 Sept. ; 6,500?. 
24 Sept. ; closed .... 26 Oct. 

Colonial and Indian Institute Fund proposed as 
a memorial of the queen's jubilee by the prince of 
Wales 13 Sept. 1886 ; 27,500?. received 27 Oct. 

Exeter Theatre Fire Relief Fund 8 Sept. ; the 
queen gives 100?. ; announced 12 Sept. ; 1,300?. to 

16 Sept. 

Prussian Inundation Fund, 9 April ; 3,000?. 
received 13 April, 

Chinese Famine Fund proposed 22 Jan. ; 5,300?. 
received 30 Jan. ; 18,250?. 4 March ; 21,706?. 26 
March ; fund closed, over 32,654?. received May, 

The fund in aid of the Royal Agricultural Jubilee 
Show (see Windsor) amounted to 5,516?. 1 Aug. 

Pasteur Institute Fund established (see Hydro- 
phobia), 1 July, 1889 ; received from the prince of 
Wales 105?., the duke of Westminster 200?., the 
duke of Northumberland 100?. , and many others ; 
amount received, 2,839? Dec. 

Fruit Culture Fund begun by the lord mayor ; 
the duke of Westminster gave 50?., baroness Bur- 
dett-Coutts 50?. , and others . . . 14 Oct. 

Llanerch Colliery Explosion Fund. Contri- 
butions received, n Feb., 363?. ; 1 March, 5,000?. ; 
7,333?. remitted 23 May, 

Morfa Colliery Explosion Fund, 15 March. 
Contributions received, 22 March, about 1,300?. ; 
2 June, 2.800? 

Lord Strathnairn (sir Hugh Rose) Memorial. 
Fund. Amount received, 17 June, 1,500?. 2,700?. 
6 Nov. Liberal contributions received from 
Indian princes 

Salonica Fire Relief Fund, 19 Sept. 3,373?. 
received, 7 Nov. ; fund closed . . 8 Nov. 

Lord Napier of Magdala Memorial Fund. 
Received from city companies and others 2,000?., 
8 Feb. 1890; total received, 5,446?. . 10 Nov. 

Serpent Wreck Relief Fund (see Navy, 10 Nov. 
1890, et seq.) started by request about 20 Nov.; 
2,750?. received 8 Jan. 

Mauritius Hurricane Fund, opened 30 April, 
1892; received about 1,300?., 24 May; (closed) 
12,083? 2 ° Sept. 

St. John's, Newfoundland, fire, relief fund for 
the sufferers started 12 July; received up to 15 July, 
6,oooZ. (the queen 50?., the prince of Wales 26?. 5s., 
city of London corporation 210?., Goldsmiths' 
company 500?. , and other companies ; sir Donald 
A. Smith 1,000?.); 21,000?., 20 Aug. ; 24,502?., Nov. 

Park Slip colliery relief fund opened, 29 Aug. ; 
the queen, 100?. ; the marquis of Bute, 500?. ; the 
lord mayor, D. Evans, 500?. ; received up to 
14 Sept. 3,300?. ; 4,639?. ... 4 Nov 

Victoria disaster relief fund opened 23 June [see 
Navy of England, 22 June] ; the queen, 200?. ; 
prince and princess of Wales, 157?. 10s. ; the duke 
of Edinburgh, 150?. ; the duchess of York (re- 
ported surplus of wedding present fund, 800?.), 
and other eminent persons ; total received up to 
1894, 73,265?., reported ... 29 May, 

3 E 2 



1892 



1895 



MANSION-HOUSE. 



788 



MARATHON. 



Thornhill colliery explosion fund opened, 
10 July; the queen, 50?. ; 12 July, 6,661?., re- 
ported 3 Aug. 1893 

Greek earthquakes relief fund opened, 30 April ; 
princess of Wales, 50?., 7 July ; total, 5,288?. ; 
closed 1 6 July, 1894 

Albion colliery, Pontypridd, explosion fund 
opened, 26 June ; prince and princess of Wales, 
52?., 9 July ; the queen 50?., 17 July ; 5,000?., 
q Aug. ; 7,000?. received at Cardiff . . . ,, 

Constantinople earthquake fund opened,'i7 July; 
Ottoman bank, credit of 5,000?., 19 July ; Messrs. 
Rothschild, 1,000?. . . . .23 July, ,, 

Audley colliery disaster (14 Jan.) fund opened, 
25 Jan. (local fund relief, 4,600?., reported 28 Jan.); 
50?. from the queen ; total, 2,121?. us. iod., 

April, 1895 

Bechuanaland relief fund opened, 29 June, 1896 ; 
total received, 1,432?. 12s. $d. 

Japan Earthquake relief fund opened, 21 July ; 
total, 3,895? Nov. 1896 

Indian Famine fund opened, 8 Jan. 1897 ; the 
queen 500?. 10 Jan. ; again 500?. ioMar. ; theprince 
and princess of Wales 2sogs. ; duke and duchess 
of Connaught 105?. ; duke of York 105?., 13 Jan. ; 
1,050?. London corporation ; 1,000?. Bank of Eng- 
land ; marquis of Salisbury, 250?. ; other large 
sums : total, 550,000?., Nov. ; see India . . 1897 

Montserrat inundation relief fund opened, 16 Jan. 
1897 ; total, 2, oool. ; closed . . . 1 April, ,, 

Essex storm relief fund, 6 July, 1897 ; 100I. from 
the queen, n July ; total, 28,000?. . . Nov. ,, 

Lady Mayoress's branch of the prince of Wales's 
Hospital fund, 5,000? Nov. „ 

rooREST of the poor London Jubilee dinner fund, 
initiated by the princess of Wales ; large sub- 
scriptions ; 29 April ; 25,000?. from Mr. Lipton 
(knt. 1 Jan. 1898); reported total, 60,000?.; 
fund closed, May. [20,000 sheep sent from Aus- 
tralia.] See Jubilees. Surplus distributed to 
various funds, Jan. 1898. 

City Fire relief fund : for the workpeople ; 4,000?., 

2 Dec. ,, 

Maidstone epidemic fund opened, 9 Oct. 1897 ; total, 
including local relief fund, 27,916?. 18s. 8<Z., 
announced 16 July, 1898 

The Duchess of Teck Memorial (home of rest 
for poor women from London), 10,856? 7s. ^d. . ,, 

Hurricane, West Indies relief fund ; opened 
17th Sept. ; the queen 250?., the prince of Wales 
105?., the duke of York 25 gs., city corporation 
1,000 gs. ; total, 46,121?. 3s. 5& ; closed . April, 1899 

Gordon Memorial College, Khartoum, fund 
opened 1 Dec. 1898 ; 250?. from the queen, 100 gs. 
from the prince of Wales ; total, 22,738?. 5s. xod. ; 
closed , . 17 April, ,, 

Newlyn and Lowestoft fishery disaster, 7 April ; 
fund opened 17 April ; 7,000?. . . 16 June, ,, 

Hurricane, West Indies ; Montserrat, St. Kitts, 
Nevis (Leeward group) ; relief fund opened, 
15 Aug. ; 7,200? 23 Nov. ,, 

Transvaal War Refugees Fund ; opened 12 Oct. 
1899; 500 gs. from the prince and princess of 
Wales, 14 Oct. ; 500 gs. from the queen, 16 Oct. ; 
50 gs. from the duke and duchess of York, 17 Oct. ; 
total, 170,000?. ...... Aug. 1900 

Transvaal War Fund ; opened 21 Oct. 1899 ; 1,000?. 
from the queen, 6 Nov. ; 1,001,000?. 21 Aug. 1900 ; 
1,131,860? 5 March, 1902 

(Other funds also raised in London and provinces, 
2,600,000?. end of 1900). 

City Imperial Volunteer Fund ; total, 117,000?. 

21 Aug. 1900 

Bishop Creiohton Memorial Fund ; opened Jan. ; 
total, 3,300?. ...... 7 Nov. 1901 

Indian Famine Fund ; opened 16 Feb. 1900 ; 
the queen 1,000?., the prince and princess of Wales 
350 gs., and 100?. from the duke and duchess of 
York, 19 Feb. ; total, 394,000?. ; closed . March, ,, 

Ottawa Fire Fund ; opened 28 April ; the queen 
500 gs., the prince of Wales 250 gs., 4 May ; duke 
of York 105?., 5 May ; proceeds of matinees, 
1,019?. **• 2( ^ i total, 53,405?. 16s. io<f. . July, ,, 



Johannesburg Refugees Fund ; i,ooo?. Messrs. 
N. M. Rothschild .... 8 April, 1902 

St. Vincent (volcanic eruption), W. Indies relief 
fund ; opened 14 May ; the pope 20,000 f. about 
14 May; the king gives 400?., the queen 500?., 
prince and princess of Wales 250?., 15, 16, i7May ;, 
Canada, 25,000 dol. ; the queen of Holland and 
her mother, 1,250 fl. ; king of Denmark, over n 00?. 
31 May ; 65,200?. 8 Oct. ; 1,348?. 18s. gd. from 
Belgium, reported 2 Sept. ,„ 

Queen Victoria National Memorial Fund ; 
opened 26 March, 1901 ; (5,000?. from the New 
York chamber of commerce, 1,000?. from the 
hon. W. C. Whitney, nearly 15,000?. fromll.S.N.A.. 
reported, 13 Nov. 1902); Natal, 10,000?. ; Cape 
Colony, 20,000?. ; Ceylon, 5,000?. ; Canada, 30,000?. ; 
New Zealand, 15,000?.; total, 230,000?.; Nov. 1902, 
250,000?. 30 Nov. 1903 

MANSOURAH (Lower Egypt). Here Louis 
IX. was defeated by the Saracens and taken pri- 
soner, 5 April, 1250. He gave Damietta and 400,000 
livres for his ransom. Mansourah suffered much 
by cholera, summer, 1883. 

MANTES, a town in the department of Seine- 
et-Oise, France, is situated on the river Seine, 
about 36 miles from Paris. It possesses a hand 1 - 
some Gothic church, and contains other objeets of 
antiquarian interest. Here, while besieging the 
town, William the Conqueror received the fataS 
wound that caused his death, 1089. 

MANTINEA _ (Arcadia, Greece). Here— (1) 
Athenians and Argives were defeated by Agis II. of 
Sparta, 418 B.C. (2) And here Epaminondas and 
the Thebans defeated the combined forces of Lace- 
daemon, Achaia, Elis, Athens, and Arcadia, 362 B.C. 
Epaminondas was killed in the engagement, and 
Thebes lost its power among the Grecian states. The 
emperor Adrian built a temple at Mantineain honour 
of his favourite Alcinoiis. The town was also called 
Antigonia. Otber battles were fought near it. 

MANTIS, a genu3of remarkable insects, whose 
forms and colours of their bodies and wings 
imitate the leaves and twigs that environ them. 
The praying mantis (mantis reliffiosa) derives its 
name from the peculiar position of its anterior 
pair of legs. 

MANTUA (N. Italy), an Etruscan city, nea? 
which Virgil was born, 70 B.C. Mantua was ruled 
by theGonzagas, lords of Mantua, from 1328 to 1708, 
when it was seized by the emperor Joseph I. It 
surrendered to the French, 2 Feb. 1797, after a 
siege of eight months ; retaken by the Austriaus 
and Kussians, 30 July, 1799, after a short siege. 
After the battle of Marengo (14 June, 1800), the 
French again obtained possession of it. It was in- 
cluded in the kingdom of Italy till 1814, when it 
was restored to the Austrians, w-ho surrendered it to 
the Italians, 11 Oct. 1866, after the peace. 

MANU, see Menu. 

MAORIS, see New Zealand. 

MAPLE-TREE. The Acer nibrum, or scarlet 
maple, was brought here from N. America, before 
1656. The Acer Negundo, or ash-leaved maple, 
before 1688. From the Acer saccharinum (intro- 
duced here in 1735) the Americans make good 
sugar. 

MAPS, see Charts, and Mercator. 

MARANON, see Amazon. 

MARATHON (in Attica). Here, on 28 or 29 
Sept 490 B.C., the Greeks, only 11,000 strong, de- 
feated the Persian army amounting to about 1 10,000. 
The former were commanded by Miltiades, Aristides, 
and Themistocles. Among the slain (about 6400) is 



MAEBLE. 



7S9 



MAEIOLATEY. 



said to have been Hippias, who had been expelled 

from Athens, and was the instigator of the war. The 

Persian army was forced to retreat to Asia; see 

Greece. 

(investigations in 1890 on the presumed site of this battle 

led to the discovery of vases, and the probable grave 

of the iq2 Athenians who fell. 

MAEBLE. Dipoenus and Scyllis, statuaries of 
Crete, were the first artists who sculptured marble, 
and polished their wcrks; all statues previously 
being of wood, about 568 b. c. Pliny. The edifices 
or monuments of Rome were constructed of, or orna- 
mented with, tine mai'ble. The ruins of Palmyra 
are chiefly of white marble. The marble arch, 
London, erected at Buckingham palace, 1830, was 
removed to Hyde-park, March, 1851. 

MABB17EG (W. Germany). The cathedral 
was founded, 1231 ; and the first Protestant univer- 
sity in 1527. It suffered much during the Seven 
years' war, 1753-60. 

MAECH, the first month of the Eoman year, 
until Numa added January and February, 713VB.C. 
It is said that Komulus gave to this month the 
name of his supposed father, Mars; though Ovid 
■observes, that the people of Italy had the month of 
March before the time of Komulus, but placed it 
differently in the calendar. The year commenced, 
on the 25th of this month till 1753 ; see Year. The 
March of 1845 an & I &86 had much frost and skating 

MAECHES- The old boundaries between 
England and Wales, and England and Scotland. 
The Lords Marchers of the "Welsh borders had vice- 
regal authority ; the wardens of the Scotch marches 
were subordinate officers. These powers were abol- 
ished, 1536, and 1689. 

MAECHFELD (Austria). Here Ottocar II. 
»f Bohemia was defeated and slain by his rival, the 
emperor Rodolph of Hapsburg, 26 Aug. 1278 ; see 
' emia. 



. MABCIONITES,followersof Marcion, a here- 
tic, about 150, who preceded the Manichees, and 
taught similar doctrines. Cave. 

MAECOMANNT, a people of Southern Ger- 
many, expelled the Boii from Bohemia, and, united 
with other tribes, invaded Italy about 167, but were 
repelled by the emperorsAntoninusandVerus. They 
were defeated by the legion called, from a fabled 
miracle, the Thundering Legion, 1 79 ; and finally 
driven beyond the Danube by Aurelian, 271. 

MABENGO (N.. Italy). Here the French army, 
■commanded by Bonaparte, after crossing the Alps 
into Piedmont, attacked the Austrians, 14 June, 
s8oo ; his army was retreating, when the arrival of 
general Dessaix turned the fortunes of the day. The 
slaughter on both sides was dreadful. By a treaty 
between the Austrian general Melas and Bonaparte, 
signed 15 June, the latter obtained twelve strong 
fortresses, and became master of Italy. 

MAEESCHALS or Marshals, in France, 

were the esquires of the king, and originally had 
the command of the vanguard to observe the enemy 
and to choose proper places for its encampment. 
Till the time of Francis I., in 1515, there were but 
two marshals, who had 500 livres per annum in 
war, but no stipend in time of peace. The number 
was afterwards greatly increased. Napoleon's mar- 
shals were renowned for skill and courage ; see 
Marshal. 

MABGABINE, see under Butter. 



MABGATE, Kent, Royal sea-bathing infirmary 
founded 1792, enlarged 1882. The town-hall was 
erected in 1820. Population, 188 1, 16,030 ; 1891, 
18,419 ; 1901, 23,057. New park, presented by 
Mr. J. Woodward, opened by the lord mayor, 1 June, 
1898. 

MAEIAN PEBSECUTION, see Protestants. 

MABIGNANO (nowMALEG]*ATsro),N. Italy, 
near Milan. Three battles have been fought near 
here — 1. Francis I. of France defeated the duke of 
Milan and the Swiss, 13, 14 Sept. 1515 ; above 20,000 
men were slain. This conflict has been called the 
Battle of the Giants. — 2. Near here was fought the 
battle of Pavia (which see), 24 February, 1525. — 3- 
After the battle of Magenta, 4 June, 1859, the Aus- 
trians entrenched themselves at Malegnano. The 
emperor sent marshal Baraguay d'Hilliers with 
16,000 men to dislodge them, which he did with a 
loss of about 850 killed and wounded, on 8 June. 
The Austrians are said to have lost 1400 killed and 
wounded, and 900 prisoners, out of 18,000 engaged. 

MAEINE BIOLOGICAL ASSOCIA- 
TION. See Biology. 

MABINEE'S COMPASS, see Compass, and 
Magnetism. 

MABINES, soldiers serving on ship-board, 
were first established with the object of form- 
ing a nursery to man the fleet. An order in 
council, dated 16 Oct. 1664, authorised 1200 sol- 
diers to be raised and formed into one regiment. In 
1684, the third regiment of the line was called the 
Marine Regiment ; but the system of having soldiers 
exclusively for sea service was not carried into effect 
until 1698, when two marine regiments were formed. 
More regiments were embodied in subsequent years; 
and in 1741 the corps consisted of ten regiments, 
each 1000 strong. In 1759 they numbered 18,000 
men. In the latter years of the French war, ending 
in 1815, they amounted to 31,400, but there were 
frequently more than 3000 supernumeraries. The 
jollies, as they are called, frequently distinguished 
themselves. The "Royal Marine Forces" (so 
named 1 May, 1802), now comprehend artillery and 
light infantry. The vote for 1857 was for 16,000 
marines, inclusive of 1500 artillery. P. If. Nicolas. 
Marine Engineers' Institution, founded in 1872. 
Officers of the marines made equal in rank with 
those in the army and navy, Dec. 1882. The 
Historical Records of the Royal Marines, edited by 
major L. Edye, published 1893, et seq. 

MAEINE SOCIETY (for the maintenance 
and instruction of boys for the navy), was founded 
by Jonas Han way, 1756, and incorporated, 1772. It 
instituted the first training ship on the Thames, 
1786. H.M.S. Warspite burnt, no deaths, 3 Jan. 
1876; and the boys were removed to the Conqueror. 

MABINO, SAN, a republic in central^ Italy. 
Its origin is ascribed to St. Marinus, a hermit, who 
resided here in the 5th century. Its independence 
lost for a short time, to Caesar Borgia, 1503, and to 
the pope, 1739; was confirmed by pope Pius VII. 
in 1817. A convention with Italy, 27 March, 1872. 
New extradition treaty with Gt. Briiain ratified, 
1 Oct. 1900. Population, in 1858, about 8000 ; 
in 1869, 7303 ; in 1874, 7816 ; in 1891, about 8,000 ; 
11,000 in 1900. 

MAEIOLATEY, worship of the virgin Mary, 
began in the 4th century, greatly increased in the 
10th. 



MARIONETTES. 



,"90 



MAEEIAGE. 



MARIONETTES, puppet plays. The fan- 
toccini, popular in Italj r in the 15 th century ; in 
the 18th in England, and Germany. See Punch. 

MARITIME EXHIBITION at Havre 

opened by representatives of the government I June, 
1868 : (another at Havre, 7 May, 1887) ; a similar 
exhibition was opened at Naples by the prince of 
Piedmont, 17 April, 1871 ; at Paris, 10 July, 1875; 
at Liverpool, 11 May, 1886. 

Maritime Laws, see Navigation Laws. 
New international code of signals based on the English, 
introduced 1 Jan. igoi 

MARK, a silver coin of the northern nations, 
and the name mark-lubs is still retained in Denmark. 
In England, the mark was two- thirds of \l. sterling 
or 13s. $d. The German mark is nearly equivalent 
to is. in English. 

MARKET, see Smitlifield, Metropolitan Cattle 
Market, Billingsgate, Leadenhall, Farringdon, 
Columbia, and Covent Garden Markets. There are 
also the Borough and Spitalfields markets (vege- 
tables), Cumberland market, Hampstead-road (hay), 
and Shadwell (fish). New market constructed 
by Great Eastern Eailway Co. at Hishopsgate 
street; opened, 1 July, 1882. Wholesale fish and 
poultry market opened, 19 Oct. 1882. 
Royal Commission on Market Bights and Tolls 

appointed in 1888 ; issued first report March, 1889 
The Market and Fairs act, 1887, amended . . 1891 
Final report Jan. 1891, recommending reforms. 

MARK' S, ST. (Venice) . The church was erected 
between 977 and 1043. The Campanile (bell 
tower), 323 ft. high, 42 ft. wide at base, fell to the 
ground, 14 July, 1902; some art treasures damaged, 
but the church saved. 
The restorations of the Palace of the Doges were 

completed and exposed to view . . Nov. 1889 

MARLBOROUGH, a town in Wiltshire; a 
royal manor mentioned in Domesday book. lung 
Henry III. passed the " Statutes of Malbridge " in 
the ancient castle in 1267. Marlborough i-eturned 
two members to parliament since Edward I. Ab- 
sorbed into the county, 1885. The grammar 
school was founded by Edward Vt. — Marlborough 
House, Pall Mall, London, was built by Wren for 
the duke of Marlborough, 1709-10; was let to the 
princess Charlotte and prince Leopold in 1824 ; 
held by queen Adelaide, 1837-49, and became the 
residence of the prince of Wales, 1863. " Marl- 
borough House," by Arthur H. Beavan, published 
1896. See Gems. Population, 1881, 3,343 ; 1891, 
3,012; 1901, 4,000. 

MARLOWE MEMORIAL, a committee de- 
termine to erect a memorial to Christopher Mar- 
lowe, the dramatist (1564-93), in Canterbury, Dec. 
1888. The statue unveiled by Mr. H. Irving, 
16 Sept. 1891. 

MAROCCO, see Morocco. 

MARONITES, Christians in the East, fol- 
lowers of one Maron in the 5th century ; they are 
said to have embraced the errors of the Jacobites, 
Nestorians, and Monothelites. About 1180 they 
numbered 40,000, living in the neighbourhood of 
mount Libanus, and were of service to the Christian 
kings of Jerusalem. They were reconciled to the 
church of Rome soon after. For an account of the 
massacres of the Maronites in i860, see Druses. 

MAROONS, a name given in Jamaica to run- 
away negroes. When the island was conquered 



from the Spaniards, a number of their negroes fled 
to the hills and became very troublesome to the 
colonists. A war of eight years' duration ensued, 
when the Maroons capitulated on being permittee! 
to retain their free settlements, about 1730. In' 
1795 they again took arms, but were speedily put 
down and many were transported. Brande. 

MARPINGER, village, near Saarbruck, The' 
Virgin and Satan said to have been seen by children ; 
and miracles wrought, 3 July, 1876. The priest, 
Neureuter, acquitted of the charge of imposture, 
April, 1879. 

MAR-PRELATE TRACTS, virulently at- 
tacking episcopacy, were mostly written, it is 
believed, by John Penry, who was cruelly executed, 
29May, 1593, for writing seditious words against the 
queen (found about his person when seized) . The 
tracts appeared about 1586. Some had very singular 
titles: such as " An Alinand for a Parrat," "Hay 
any Worke for Cooper ? " &c. They were collected 
and reprinted in 1843. 

MARQUE, LETTERS OF, see Privateer. 

MARQUESAS ISLANDS (Polynesia) were 
discovered in 1595 by Mendana, who named them 
after the viceroy of Peru, Marquesa de Mendocja. 
They were visited by Cook in 1774, and were taken 
possession of by the French admiral Dupetit Thouars, 
I May, 1842. 

MARQUIS, a dignity, called by the Saxons 
markin-reve, by the Germans markgrave, took its 
original from mark or March, a limit or bound (see 
Marches) ; the office being to guard or govern the 
frontiers of a province. Marquis is next in honour 
to a duke. The first Englishman on whom the title 
was conferred was the favourite of king Bichard II., 
Robert de Vere, earl of Oxford, created marquis of 
Dublin, and placed in parliament between tbe dukes 
and earls, 1385. James Stewart, second son oi 
James III. of Scotland, was made marquis of Or- 
mond, in 1476, without territories, afterwards earl 
of Ross. 

MARRIAGE was instituted by God {Gen. ii.), 
and confirmed by Christ {Mark x.), who performed 
a miracle at the celebration of one {John ii.). Ma- 
trimonial ceremonies among the Greeks are ascribed 
to Cecrops, king of Athens, 1554 B.C. See Age, 
Affinity. 

Law favouring marriage passed at Rome . . B.C. iS 
Priests forbidden to marry after ordination a.d. 325 

Marriage in Lent forbidden 366 

It was forbidden to bishops in 692, and to priests in 
1015 ; and these latter were obliged to take the 

vow of celibacy 1073 

Statute prohibiting marriages between certain 

persons within prohibited degrees 25 Hen. VIII. 1533-4' 
The celebration of marriage, as a sacrament, in 
churches ordained by pope Innocent III. about 
1199 ; and so affirmed by the council of Trent . . 134? 
Marriages solemnised by .justices of the peace under 

an act of the commons 1653 

A tax laid on marriages, viz. : marriage of a duke, 

$61. ; of a common person, 2s. 6d 1695 

Irregular marriages prohibited (see Fleet Marriages) 1753 

Marriages again taxed 1784 

New marriage act, 1822 ; partially repealed . . 1823 
Acts prohibiting marriages by Roman Catholic 
priests in Scotland, or other ministers not belong- 
ing to the church of Scotland, repealed . . 1834 
Act to render the children of certain marriages 
within forbidden degrees (with deceased wife's 
sister) legitimate ; such marriages in future pro- 
hibited (Lyndhurst's act, which see) ; (efforts made 
to legalise marriage with deceased wife's sister 
ever since) 1835 



MAKRIAGE. 



791 



MARRIAGE. 



The present marriage act for England, authorising 
marriages without religious ceremony, by regis- 
trar's certificate, or in a dissenting chapel, passed 
1836 [amended in 1837 and 1856]. 

Marriage Registration act ...... 

Amendment acts passed in . . . 1840 and 

A bill to suppress irregular marriages in Scotland 
(see Gretna) passed in 

A court established for Divorce and Matrimonial 
Causes, which has the power of giving sentence of 
judicial separation for adultery, cruelty, or deser- 
tion without cause for two years and upward (see 
Divorce) 

In the case of Brook v. Brook, it was decided that 
such a marriage celebrated in a foreign country 
was not valid 17 April, 

This decision confirmed on appeal to the house of 
lords, on 18 March, 

A commission appointed to inquire into the work- 
ing of. the marriage laws of Scotland, 22 March, 
1S65, reported strongly in favour of changes being 
made to insure uniformity, simplicity, and cer- 
tainty July, 

Consular Marriage Act, enabling acting British 
consuls abroad to solemnize marriages, passed, 16 
July, 1868 ; amendment act passed, 1890. 

Married Women's property act passed . 9 Aug. 

Marriage Law of Ireland amended by an act passed 
10 Aug. 1870 ; amended .... July, 1 

Matrimonial Causes Act (ivhich see), passed . . 1 

A bill for the recognition in Great Britain of such 
colonial marriages was read a 2nd time in the 
commons, 28 Feb. 1877 ; (21 majority) • 27 Feb. 

An act to encourage regular marriages in Scotland ; 
passed 8 Aug. 

These marriages made legal by the legislature at 
Melbourne, Nov. 1872 ; at Sydney, 1875 ; in 
New Zealand, 1880 ; Canada . . . . 1 

The Marriage Law Reform association instituted (to 
legalise a marriage with a deceased wife's sister), 
15 Jan. 1851. A bill for this purpose passed the 
commons, 2 July ; was rejected by the lords, 23 
July, 1858 ; again rejected, 1862 ; and again by 
the commons, 2 May, 1866 ; and 30 April, 1870, 
rejected by the lords (77-73) 19 May, 1870 ; passed 
by commons, 9 March, rejected by the lords (97- 
71), 27 March, 1871 ; passed by commons in 1872, 
1873 ; and rejected by the lords (49-74), 14 March, 
1873; rejected by commons (171-142), 17 Feb. 
1875 ; by the lords (101-81) ; (the prince of Wales 
and duke of Edinburgh voted for it), 6 May, 1879 ; 
(101-90), 25 June, 1880 ; (132-128), 12 June, 1882 ; 
read second time by commons, (165-148) 11 June ; 
rejected by lords (145-140) . . .28 June, 1 

Resolution for it adopted by the commons (238-127) 
6 May, 1884 ; rejected by the lords (149-127) 24 
May, 1886 ; read 2nd time by commons (239-182) 
18 April, 1888 ; again for Scotland 3 April ; re- 
jected by the lords (147-120) . . 9 May, 1 

Read 2nd time by the commons (222 — 155), 30 
April, 1890; (202 — 155)11 Feb.; withdrawn, 17 
June, 1891 ; rejected by the lords (129-120), 15 
June, 1894 ; passed by the lords, 10 July, 1896 ; 
stopped in the commons .... Aug. 1 

Commander Christopher Bethell's marriage with 
Teepoo, a Baralong woman, in Bechuanaland, 
according to native rites, declared invalid in 
England (" Bethell v. Hildyard ") . 15 Feb. 1 

Marriage Act passed 1886 extends hour of marriage 
from 12 to 3 p.m. in England and Wales. 

Marriages Abroad act passed . . 27 June, 1 

The "World's Great Marriage Association" (to 
provide men with rich wives), Daniel Mortimer, 
J. C. Skates, and John Abrahams convicted of 
conspiring to defraud Alfred Jordan and others ; 
Skates sentenced to 5, and the others to 3 years' 
penal servitude .... 5 March, 1 

Marriages Validity Act (Irish banns made valid), 
passed 1 

Marriage Act Amendment, passed, 6 Aug. 1900 ; 
marriages legalization act, passed. . . . i 

REGISTERED MARRIAGES IN ENGLAND AND WALES, 
1750 . . . 40,300 1815 . 

1800 . . . 73,228 1820 

1810 . . . 84,473 1825 • 



^837 
1856 



1857 



1870 



91,946 
96,883 
98,378 



Registered Marriages in England Wales — continued. 



850* . 

853 ■ 

854 

855 (Crimea/i 

856 



• 143.743 
. . 138,230 

• 152,744 

. . 164,520 

• i59,7 2 7 
War) 152,113 

• 159,337 



1857 .... 159,097 

1858 . . . 156,070 

1859 ■ ... 167,723 
i860 . . . 170,156 

1861 (Cottonfamine) 163,706 

1862 . . . 164,030 

1863 .... 173,510 

1864 . . . 180,387 



866 

867 
870 
871 
872 
873 
874 
875 
876 
877 



MARRIAGES IN THE 

England and Wales. 
187,776 

• • i79> 1 54 

• 181,655 
. . 190,112 

201,267 

. . 205,615 

202,010 

201,212 

. 201,874 

. . 194,352 

. 190,054 

. . 182,082 

. 191,965 

. . 197,290 

. 204,405 

. . 206,384 

204,301 

■ • 197,745 

. 196,071 

. . 200,518 

. 203,821 

. . 213,865 

223,028 

. . 226,526 

. 227,135 

. . 218,251 

. 226,449 
227,865- 

• 242,445 

• • 249,145 

• 255,379 

• • 262,334 

• 257,139 



UNITED KINGDOM. 

Scotland. 
23,629 
22,521 
23,788 
23,966 
25,580 
26,730 
26,247 
25,921 
26,563 
25,790 
24,333 
23,462 
24,489 
25,948 
26,574 
26,855 
26,061 
25,256 
24,469 
24,876 
25,305 
26,318 

27,44! 
27,969 
28,637 
27,090 
27,604 
28,380 
30,256 
S^oso 
32,112 
32,935 
32,444 



Ireland.! 

29,796 
28,835 
28,q6o 
27,114 
26,270 
24,481 
24,037 
26,388 
24,722 
25,284 
23,254 
20,363 
21,826 
22,029 
21,368 
22,585 
21,177 
20,594 
20,945 
20,060 
21,521 
20,990 
2i,475 
21,530 
21,710 
21,602 
23,120 
22,856 
22,891 
22,580 
22,311 
21,182 



Royal Marriage Act, 12 Geo. III. e. 11, was passed in 
1772, in consequence of the mamage of the duke of 
Gloucester, the king's brother, with the widow of the 
earl Waldegrave, and of the duke of Cumberland with 
the widow of colonel Horton and daughter of lord Irn- 
ham. [By this act, none of the descendants of George II. , 
unless of foreign birth, can marry under the age of 25, 
without the consent of the king ; at and after that age, 
after twelve months' notice given to the privy council, 
they may contract such marriage, which shall be 
good unless both houses of parliament disapprove. 
The marriage of the duke of Sussex with the lady 
Augusta Murray, solemnised in 1793, was pronounced 
illegal, 1794, and the claims of their son, sir Augustus 
d'Este, declared invalid, by the house of lords, 9 July, 
1844. He married lady Cecilia Underwood (afterwards 
duchess of Inverness), 1831. 

H. R. H. the princess Louise was married to the mar- 
quis of Lome by the queen's consent, 21 March, 1871. 

Half Marriage. Semi-Matrimoniitm. Among the- 
Romans concubinage was a legitimate union, not 
merely tolerated but authorised. The concubine had 
the name of semi-conjux. Men might have either a 
wife or a concubine, provided they had not both to- 
gether. Constantine the Great checked concubinage, 
but did not abolish it. This ancient custom of the 
Romans was preserved, not only among the Lombards, 
but by the French when they held dominion in that 
country. Cujas assures us that the Gascons and other 
people bordering on the Pyrenean mountains had not 

* Of these marriages, it is stated in the registrar's re- 
turns that 47,570 men and 70.601 women could not write, 
and that they signed the marriage register with their 
marks. — In France, the marriages were 208,893 in 1820 ; 
243,674 in 1825 ; and 259,177 in 1830. As respects Paris, 
7754 marriages were, bachelors and maids, 6456 ; bachelors 
and widows, 368 ; widowers and maids, 708 ; widowers 
and widows, 222. 

t Approximative, through doubtful returns. 



MAERIED WOMEN. 



792 



MARSHALS OF FRANCE. 



relinquished this custom in his time, 1590. The women 
bore the name of " wives of the second order." Hi- 
nault. See Morganatic Marriages. 

Double Marriages. There are some instances of a hus- 
band and two wives (but they are very rare) in countries 
where polygamy was interdicted by the state. The first 
Lacedaemonian who had two wives was Anaxandrides, 
the son of Leon, about 510 b.c. Dionysius of Syracuse 
married two wives, viz. : Doris, the daughter of Xenetus, 
and Aristomaehe, sister of Dion, 398 b.c. It is said 
that the count Gleiehen, a German nobleman, was per- 
mitted, under peculiar circumstances, by Gregory IX., 
in a.d. 1237, to marry and live with two wives. The 
Mormonites practise and encourage polygamy. 

Forced Marriages. The stat. 3 Henry VII. (1487) made 
the principal and abettors in marriages with heiresses, 
&c. , contrary to their will, equally guilty as felons. 
By 39 Eliz. (1596) such felons were denied the benefit 
of clergy. This offence was made punishable by trans- 
portation, 1 Geo. IV. (1820). The remarkable' case of 
Miss Wharton, heiress of the house of Wharton, whom 
captain Campbell married by force, occurred in William 
I II. 's reign. Sir John Johnston was hanged for seizing 
the young lady, and the marriage was annulled by 
parliament, 1690.— Edward Gibbon Wakefield was tried 
at Lancaster, and found guilty of the felonious abduc- 
tion of Miss Turner, 24 March, 1827 ; and his marriage 
with her was immediately dissolved by act of parlia- 
ment. 

Marriages by Sale. Among the Babylonians, at a cer- 
tain time every year, the marriageable females were 
assembled, and disposed of to the best bidder. This 
custom is said to have originated with Atossa, daughter 
of Belochos, about 1433 b.c. 

Fleet Marriages. See Fleet 

MARRIED WOMEN, see Wives. 

MARRS MURDERS, see Ratcllffe Highioatj. 

MAR'S INSURRECTION. John, earl of 
Mar, proclaimed James III. at Braemar, Aberdeen- 
shire, 6 September, 1715. He was defeated at 
Sheriffmuir, 13 Nov., and escaped from Montrose 
with the Pretender, 4 Feb. 1716. 

MARS, a planet, next to the earth in order of 
distance from the sun; the spots on its surface were 
first observed by Fontana, in 1636. Two satellites 
named Phobos and Deimos, were discovered by 
professor Asaph Hall, at Washington, U.S., 11 Aug. 
1877. 

M. Dubois of Paris suggests that these satellites may 
be planetoids attracted by Mars, Aethra and another of 
these bodies having disappeared about the time of the 
discovery. 

M. Schiaparelli, of Milan, describes configurations like 
canals, 1882, and M. Perrotin since has mapped them 
and asserts that Mars has an atmosphere and clouds 
(1887) 

" They have likewise discovered two lesser stars or sa- 
tellites which revolve about Mars." — Swift, Gulli- 
ver's Travels— Voyage to Laputa, about 1726. 

MARSAGLIA (Piedmont, N. Italy). Here 
the imperialists under prince Eugene and the duke 
of Savoy were defeated by the French under Catinat, 
4 Oct. 1693. 

MARSEILLAISE HYMN. The words and 
music are ascribed to Eouget de Lille, or L'Isle, a 
French engineer officer, who, it is said, composed it 
by request, 1 792, to cheer the conscripts at Strasburg. 
It derived its name from a body of troops from 
Marseilles marching into Paris in 1792 playing the 
tune. This account is doubted by some (1879). The 
author was pensioned by Louis Philippe, 1830, and 
died in 1836. 

MARSEILLES. The ancient Massilia (S. 
France), a maritime city, founded by the Phocajans 
about 600 ri.c. ; an ally of Rome, 218 n.c. Cicero 
styied it the Athens of Gaul, on account of its excel- 



lent schools. Population, 1881, 360,099; 1891, 
375.378 ; 1901, 422,378. 

Taken by Julius Caesar after a long siege . . b. c 49 

By Euric the Visigoth a.d. 470 

Sacked by the Saracens 839 

Marseilles a republic 1214 

Subjected to the counts of Provence . . . 1251 

United to the crown of France 1482 

The plague rages 1649 

It carried off 50,000 of the inhabitants. The bishop 

Belsunce devotedly exerted himself to relieve the 

sufferers 1 720-1 

Revolutionary commotions here . . 30 April, 1789 
Marseilles opposes the revolutionary government, 

and is reduced 23 Aug. 1793 

Dissensions and conflicts between the French and 

Italians ; much stabbing ; several deaths ; about 

200 arrests, 19. 20 June city quiet . 22 June 1881 
Pharo Chateau and Park presented to the city, 

by the ex-empress Eugenie, Dec. 1882 ; finally 

accepted July, 1883 

Inauguration of great drainage works; M. Frey- 

cinet, the premier, and 4 other ministers present, 

8 Oct. 1891 
New cathedral, begun in 1852 by M. Leon Vaudoyer, 

consecrated 30 Nov. 1893 

Dock strike, 28 Feb. 1901 ; some rioting, 20, 22 

March ; strike ends .... 9 April, 1901 
Large deficits in the city finances, reported . igoo-1902 
Strike of sailors, heavy losses . 25 Nov., 18 Dec. 1902 
See Cholera. 

MARSHALS- Two were appointed in London 
to clear the streets of vagrants, and to send the 
sick, blind, and lame to asylums and hospitals for 
relief, 1567. Northouck. 

MARSHALS, British Field. This rank 
was first conferred upon John, duke of Argyll, and 
George, earl of Orkne} r , by George II. in 1736. The 
duke of Cambridge was made field-marshal, 9 Nov. 
1862 ; the prince of Wales, 29 May, 1875 ; lord 
Napier of Magdala, I Jan. 1883, died 14 Jan. 1890; 
sir Patrick Grant, 24 June, 1883, died 28 March, 
1895 ; lord William Paulet, 1886 ; sir Donald Stewart 
(died 1900) and viscount Wolseley, 24 May, 1894 ; 
gen. Fred. Sleigh, Lord Roberts, 24 May, 1895 ; 
prince Edward of Saxe-Weimar, June, 1897; Sir 
Neville Chamberlain, 24 April. 1900, died 17 Feb. 
1902; the German Emperor, 27 Jan. 1901 ; the duke 
of Connaught and Sir Henry Wylie Norman, 26 
June, 1902 ; sir H. Evelyn Wood aod sir George S. 
White, April, 1903; the emperor of Austria, 3 Sept. 
1903. See Marcschal. 

MARSHALS of France, appointed by 

the kings and revived by Napoleon I. during his 
wars, 1804-14. 

Augereau, duke of Castiglione ; died 12 June, 1816. 
Bernadotte, prince of Ponte Corvo, king of Sweden, 

1818 ; died 8 March, 1844. 
Berthier, prince of Neufchatel and Wagram, killed or 

committed suicide at Bamberg, 1 June, 1815. 
Bessieres, duke of Istria; killed at Liitzen, 1 May, 1813. 
Brune, Guillaume M. A., murdered at Avignon, 2 Aug. 

1815. 
Davoust, or Davout, prince of Eckmiihl and duke of 

Auerstadt ; died 1 June, 1823. 
Gouvion Saint-Cyr, Laurent; died 17 March, 1830. 
Grouchy, Emmanuel de, died 29 May, 1847. 
Jourdan, peer of France ; died 23 Nov. 1833. 
Kellermann, duke of Valmy ; died 12 Sept. 1820. 
Launes, duke of Montebello. wounded at Aspern ; died 

31 May, 1809. 
Lefebvre, duke of Dantzic ; died 14 Sept. 1820. 
Macdonald, duke of Tarento ; died 24 Sept. 1840. 
Marmont, duke of Ragusa ; died 2 March, 1852. 
Massena, prince of Essling and duke of Rivoli ; died 4 

April, 18 1 7. 
Molitor, Gabriel Jean Joseph ; died 28 July, 1849 

(doubtful). 
Moncey, duke of Conegliano ; died 20 April, 1842. 
Mortie'r, duke of Treviso, killed by Fieschi, 28 July, 1835. 
Murat, king of Naples, executed 13 Oct. 1815. . 



MAESHALSEA COUET. 



793 



MARTINIQUE. 



Ney, prince of Moskwa, duke of Elchingen, executed 
7 Dec. 1815. 

Oudinot, duke of Reggio ; died 13 Sept. 1847. 

Perignon, Dominique C. ; died 25 Dec. 1818. 

Poniatowski, prince Josef Anton, wounded at Leipsic, 
and drowned 19 Oct. 1813. 

Serrurier, Jean Mathieu Philibert, comte ; died 21 Dec. 
1819. 

Strait, duke of Dalmatia ; died 26 Nov. 1851. 

Suchet, duke of Albufera; died 3 Jan. 1826. 

Victor, duke of Belluno ; died 1 March, 1841 

It is asserted that Arrighi, due dePadoue (died 21 March, 
1853), H. J. W. Clarke, due de Feltre (died 28 Oct. 
1818), and Andoche Junot, due d'Abrantes (suicide 
29 July, 1813), were only titular marshals, and that 
G. Christophe Michel Duroc (killed at the battle of 
Mackersdorff, 23 April, 1813), was only marshal of the 
palace. 

Appointed since 1814: Bertrand, comte de Clausel (died 
21 April, 1842); J. Baptiste Drouet, comte d'Brlon 
(died 2"5 Jan. 1844) ; Etienne Maurice Gerard (died 
17 April, 1852) ; Jacques A. B. L. Lauriston (died 
J2 June, 1828) ; Nicolas J. Maison (died 13 Feb. 1840) ; 
Francois A. Bazaine (died 23 Sept., 1888), and Marie 
B. P. M. MacMahon, due de Magenta (died 17 Oct. 
1893)- 

Francois Oanrobert, the last surviving marshal, died 
28 Jan. 1895. 

. MAESHALSEA COUET, having jurisdic- 
tion in the royal palace, was very ancient, of high 
dignity, and coeval with the common law. Since 
the decision of the case of the Marshalsea (see lord 
Coke's 10 Rep. 68) no business has been done in this 
court ; but it was regularly opened and adjourned 
at the same time with the Palace court, the judges 
and other officers being the same. These courts 
were removed from Southwark to Scotland-yard in 
1 801, were abolished by parliament, anddiscontinued 
31 Dec. 1849; see Prisons. 

MAESI, a brave people of Southern Italy, who, 
after several contests, yielded to the Romans, about 
301 B.C. During the civil wars they and their 
allies rebelled, having demanded and been refused 
the rights of Roman citizenship, 91 B.C. After 
many successes and reverses, they sued for and 
obtained peace and the rights they required, 87 B.C. 
The Marsi being Sociioi the Romans, this was called 
the Social war. 

MAESTON-MOOE (near York). The Scots 
and parliamentary army were besieging York, when 
prince Rupert, joined by the marquis of Newcastle, 
determined to raise the siege. Both sides drew up 
on Marston-moor, on 2 July, 1644, and the contest 
was long undecided. Rupert, commanding the 
right wing of the royalists, was opposed by Oliver 
Cromwell, at the head of troops disciplined by him- 
self. Cromwell was victorious ; he drove his op- 
ponents off the field, followed the vanquished, 
returned to a second engagement and a second vic- 
tory. The prince's artillery was taken, and the 
royalists never recovered the blow. 

MAETELLO TO WEES, said to have been 
erected by Charles V. on the coasts of Italy. 
Similar circular buildings were erected in the be- 
ginning of the present century, on the southern 
coast of England, and other parts of the empire, as 
defences against invasion. The towers were said by 
some to be named from Cape Martello, or Mortella in 
Corsica. They are now being destroyed as obsolete. 

MAETIAL LAW, see Courts- Martial, and 
Military Law. 

MAETINESTI, see Rimnik. 

MAETINIQUE (French West Indies), dis- 
covered in 1493 or 1502 ; settled by France, 1635. 
This and the adjacent isles of St. Lucia and 



St. Vincent, and the Grenadines, were taken by the 
British from the French in Feb. 1762. They were 
restored to France at the peace of the following 
year. They were again taken, 16 March, 1794; 
restored at the peace of Amiens in 1802 ; again 
captured 23 Feb. 1809. A revolution in this island 
in favour of Napoleon was finally suppressed by 
the British, 1 June, 1815, and Martinique reverted 
to its French masters. Severe earthquakes occurred 
here in 1766 and 1839 ; at other times 200 shocks in 
1843. 

Great destruction of life and property was caused 
by a cyclone and earthquake about 18 Aug. 1891 ; 
estimated deaths 378, besides losses by ship- 
wrecks. Estimated loss 2,000,000/. 

Strike riots, incendiary tires in La Francois, troops 
Are on the mob, 9 men killed, 5-13 Feb. ; dispute 
referred so arbitration . . . -14 Feb. 1900 

Desstrtjction of St. Pierre, about 35,000 persons 
perished 8 May, 1902 

Mont Pelee, a volcano 4,428 ft. high, about 4J miles 
behind the town, caused some loss of life and 
property in 1760 and 1851, and began again to 
show signs of activity at the end of April, 1902 ; 
masses of steam were thrown out, and St. Pierre 
was covered with ashes, 3, 4 May ; a stream of lava 
(20 ft. high) swept everything away before it to 
the sea, the Guerin factory and over 150 lives 
destroyed ; the sea receded 300 ft. , and, returning, 
flooded St. Pierre, 5 May ; reassuring reports 
were issued by the Government, 6 May, but the 
eruptions increased in force, and finally, a little 
before 8 a.m., " with a terrific roar a huge column 
of white-hot sand, burning cinders and stones 
was shot up, and poured down a terrible volcanic 
torrent (spreading out for miles, round even as 
far as Fort de France), and within ten minutes 
St. Pierre became a city of the dead," and the 
whole (about 50 sq. m.) district a desolation, 
8 May ; Times 24 May, ,, 

The governor, M. Mouttet (who had tried to allay 
the panic, and persuaded the people to remain), 
his wife, the British and American consuls and 
their families, and about 40,000 were killed. The 
Grappler, a cable ship, with a fine set of engineers 
and men, and about 18 other vessels were totally 
lost ; the Suchet, French gun-boat, picked up in 
the afternoon eight men belonging to the British 
s.s. Roraima, and 10 others drifting about on 
wreckage ; the British s. s. Roddam was saved by 
thepluckand fortitude of capt. Ed. Win. Freeman, 
who, though burnt in the face and disabled, 
managed to steer it to a place of safety ; but out 
of 44 on board only 18 survived, and most of 
these were injured ; many reports issued ; 
estimated damage, 2oo,ooo,ooof. , reported, 

20 July, ,, 

Seven craters active, 15 May ; the work of search 
parties interrupted, 19 and 20 May ; a torrent of 
ashes and mud destroyed what remained of 
Basse Pointe, 24 May ; new crater active, 

27-31 May, „ 

Active aid and general sympathy (king Edward, 
1,000/.); total fund, 1,400,000/. ,27 May ; 8,107,167! 

3 Sept. ,, 

Special American, British and French expeditions 
were sent to Martinique and St. Vincent to 
investigate the volcanic conditions of the West 
Indies, May ; one sent by the roy. soc. returned 
about 2 Aug. ,, 

The destruction of St. Pierre attributed to a rush 
of gas at very high temperature ; Le Prechure 
and Ste Philomene to torrents of mud, which 
overwhelmed them — Nature . . 3 June, ,, 

Fresh outbreaks, June, and 9, 12 July ; again, 
15 Aug. et. seq. ; two of great violence, 25 and 28 
Aug. ; finally a terrible outburst destroyed Morne 
Rouge and Aioupa Bouillon, Morne Boudon and 
three villages ; 800 killed and about 200 hope- 
lessly injured (a wave swept Carbet and about 
200 were drowned). On the east, a portion of 
land over a mile long sunk into the sea, and the 
interior of the island laid waste ; about 1,500 
killed and more injured . . . 30,31 Aug. j' 



MAETINMAS. 



794 



MASHONA. 



Two French cruisers active, bringing the inhabi- 
tants from the northern districts to Fort de 
France, early Sept. ; fresh eruption reported, 

27 Dec. 1902 

MAETINMAS, 11 Nov., the feast of St. 
Martin, bishop of Tours, in the 4th century, is 
quarter day in parts of the north of England 
and in Scotland. The high sheriffs of England and 
Wales are nominated on the morrow of St. Martin, 
12 Nov. 

MAETIN'S HALL, ST. (Long Acre, London), 
was opened as a concert-room for Mr. John Hullah, 
on 11 Feb. 1850; burnt down 26 Aug. i860; rebuilt, 
1861 , opened as the New Queen's Theatre, by 
Mr. Alfred Wigan, 24 Oct. 1867. See Westminster, 
1890. 

MAETYES. Stephen, the first Christian 
martyr, was stoned, 33. The festivals of the 
martyrs, of very ancient date, took their rise about 
the time of Polycarp, who suffered martyrdom about 
169. St. Alban is the English protomartyr, 286 ; 
see Persecutions, Protestants, and Diocletian Era. 
The Martyrs' Memorial, Smithfield, erected by the 
Protestant Alliance, was inaugurated 11 March, 
1870. The Martyrs' memorial church, St John's- 
street, Clerkenwell, was consecrated 2 June, 1871. 

_ MAE Y- ANNE. Secret republican associa- 
tions, especially in France. The name was given to 
the republic of 1792, to the guillotine, and to little 
statuettes of Liberty. 

MAE'S LAND, named after queen Henrietta 
Maria, one of the first thirteen United States of 
North America, was granted in 1632 to lord Balti- 
more, and settled by a company of English 
Komanists in 1634. It contains the district of 
Columbia, in which Washington is situate. It con- 
tinued in the Union when the other slave states 
seceded in i860 and 1861. The confederate army, 
under general Lee, after their victory at Bull Bun, 
30 Aug. 1862, crossed the Potomac and entered 
Maryland. They were followed by the federal 
army under McClellan. Severe conflicts ensued, 
especially on 17 Sept., at Antietam Creek, with 
great loss on both sides, each claiming the victory. 
The confederates retired into Virginia in good order, 
and it is said with much booty. Capital, Anna- 
polis ; population, 1880, 934,943; 1890, 1,042,390; 
1900, 1,188,044. 

MAEY-LE-BONE, a large parish, N.-W. 
London. The name is corrupted from St. Mary at the 
Bourne, or brook, — Tyeboume. It was chiefly pas- 
ture land in 1 760. The manor was acquired by the 
duke of Portland in 18 13. The hunting-grounds 
now form Regent's park (which see). The parishes 
of Marylebone, St. Pancras, and Paddington were 
made a parliamentary borough in 1832. By act of 
1885 Marylebone alone returns two M. P. 's. Con- 
stituted a municipal borough by act of 1899 (10 
aldermen, 60 councillors) . St. Marylebone Churches 
Bill passed, 1898. Population, 1881, 154,910; 1891, 
142,381; 1901, 133,301. 

New higher grade and technical schools presented by 
ladies Howard de Walden and Ossington opened 30 
July, 1890. 

Mary-le-bone gardens— attached to the " Rose of Nor- 
mandy "— a place of public entertainment, opened in 
the middle of the 17th century ; mentioned by Pepys ; 
closed 23 Sept. 1776 ; a music hall erected here, 1855. 

The Marylebone Murder.— Miss Lucy Clark, dressmaker, 
aged 49, living at 86, George St., Portman Sq., found 
murdered 23 Jan. 1888. 

New baths and washhouses opened by the duke of 
Xork, 6 March, 1897. 



MASANIELLO, see Naples, 1647. Auber's 
opera, "La Muette de Portici" (1828), was pro- 
duced in London as " Masaniello," 4 May, 1829. 

MASCAT, see Muscat. 

MASHONA, Makalakaland and Matabele 
lands, territories in south Africa, ruled by Loben- 
gula. The country is rich in minerals, the Mash- 
onas generally peaceful, theMatabeles described as 
warlike, aggressive and cruel. Lobengula entered 
into agreement with the British government, II 
Feb. 1888. 

A deputation of two head men from him was received 
by queen Victoria, 2 March, 1889, requesting pro- 
tection against a syndicate, to which he had incon- 
siderately conceded lands. The concession was 
afterwards legally withdrawn. See Zambesi, 1889. 

The Imperial Mission conveying queen Victoria's letter 
to Lobengula, recommending the British South 
Africa chartered company, favourably received by him 
at Buluwayo, the Matabele capital, 29 Jan. 1890. 

Successful progress of colonization, reported May, 1892. 

Explorations of Mr. J. Theodore Bent ; he discovers at 
Zimbabwe, an ancient fortress (probably Phoenician), 
a tempie with ornamented walls, monoliths, specimens 
of good pottery, relics of gold-mining, etc., June- Aug. 
1891. Mr. Bent gave an account of his exploration at 
a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, 22 Feb. 

l8Q2. 

About 400 oz. of Mashona gold exhibited at Cape Town, 
about 18 Nov. 1892. 

Dr. Knight Bruce, first bishop, 1892. 

Murderous raids of Matabeles on the Mashonas ; invasion 
on British settlement near fort Victoria, unauthorised 
by Lobengula ; repulsed with slaughter, 9 July, et seq. 
1893 ; Dr. Jameson, administrator at fort Victoria, and 
Mr. C. J. Rhodes, prepare for war ; angry message 
from Lobengula, reported 1 Aug. ; intervention of sir 
H. B. Loch, Aug. ; the chartered company directed to 
avoid aggression, 7 Sept. ; reinforcements and volun- 
teers from Cape Colony sent by the company to fort 
Victoria, against which 2 impis (native contingents) 
are advancing, 21 Sept. ; capt. White's defensive force 
fired at by a Matabele impi, about 1 Oct. ; the com- 
pany's troops well armed, 500 men at forts Salisbury, 
Victoria, and Charter, 3 Oct. ; an attack on the 
Bechuanaland border police (major Goold Adams, 
commander) by the Matabele on the Shasi river, near 
Macloutsie, 5 Oct. ; the company's forces advancing to 
Matabele border ; a free hand given to Dr. Jameson, 
7 Oct. ; junction of all the forces, joined by volunteers 
from Cape Town regiments, 16 Oct. ; major Forbes 
commander ; skirmish at Intaba Zimbi (the iron 
mountain), 15 Oct. ; 22 Matabele killed ; capt. Camp- 
bell wounded, died 16 Oct. ; two envoys from Lo- 
bengula shot by mistake at Tati, about 23 Oct. ; 
Lobengula's army (about 5,000 strong) severely re- 
pulsed, with heavy loss, near the Shangani river, 
24-26 Oct. [British loss, Walters, Burnett, capt. 
Gwinydd Williams, and others]. British advance on 
Buluwayo attacked by Lobengula's picked regiments ; 
the enemy defeated, with heavy loss, by deadly fire of 
Maxim guns, near the M'Bembezu river; British loss, 3, 
1 Nov. 1893. 

Major Forbes and Dr. Jameson occupy Buluwayo, 4 Nov. 
1893. 

Lobengula retreats towards Zambesi ; ultimatum sent 
to Lobengula, 9 Nov. 1893. 

Major Forbes starts in pursuit of Lobengula, 14 Nov. ; 
sends forward capt. Wilson, 3 Dec, who is encountered 
by an ambush and cut off from the main force, 4 Dec. 
1893. 

Major Forbes' advance attacked by the Matabele, and 
cheeked by the rising of the Shangani river, retreats ; 
arrives at Inyati, 15 Dec. 1893. 

Major Allan Wilson and all his party killed, after severe 
fighting, 4 Dec. 1803 ; capts. Fitzgerald, Judd, H. 
Greenfield, Kirton, H. J. Borrow ; lieuts. G. Hughes 
and Hofmeyer, and 22 others, reported, 3, 6 Jan. 1894. 

Submission of the Matabele ; end of the campaign ; 
success attributed to the energy and foresight of Dr. 
Jameson and Mr. Cecil Rhodes. 

Mr. A. R. Colquhoun 1st administrator of Mashonaland, 
Jan. 1804. 



MASKS. 



795 



MASSACRES. 



Conference regarding the Matabeleland settlement 
between sir Henry Loch, Mr. Cecil Rhodes, and Mr. 
Hofmeyer, at Cape Town, 10 Jan. 1894. 

Submission of Matabele chiefs, 14 Jan. 1894. 

Death of Lobengula by fever, 23 Jan., 40 m. S. of the 
Zambesi ; most of his army surrenders, reported 9 Feb. 
18944 

Quiet settlement of the country proceeding, 27 Feb. 
1894. 

The officers and men of the Bechuanaland police 
exonerated from blame by the government respecting 
the shooting of Lobengula's envoys at Tati in Oct. 
1893, reported 5 March, 1894. 

Some anonymous charges of cruelty made against the 
officers and men of the company's forces engaged in 
the war, which appeared in Truth, 15 Feb. 1894, a 
paper published in London by Mr. Labouchere, M.P., 
and which he justified in the Times, 21 Feb. and 
2 March, were repelled, especially by the African ex- 
plorer, Mr. F. C. Selous, in the Times, 19 Feb., and in 
a lecture at the Royal colonial institute, 13 March, 
1894. 

Dr. Jameson and the company's officers exonerated by a 
government commission of inquiry, July, 1894. 

Temporary government ; the administrator, a council of 
three, and a judge nominated by the company, with 
the assent of the secretary for the colonies, March, 
1894. 

Col. Rhodes at Buluwayo, 6 April, 1894 

Daniels and Wilson, of the Bechuanaland police, having 
suppressed a message of submission from Lobengula 
to major Forbes and appropriated a present of 1,000?., 
thereby causing the deaths of major Wilson and his 
party, were tried at Buluwayo, and sentenced to 14 
years' penal servitude, 29 May, 1894. 

Settlements in Matabeleland (named Rhodesia, which 
see) open to claimants, 25 April ; building proceeding, 
June — Aug. 1894. 

Dr. Jameson, C.B., appointed administrator for the 
British S. Africa company, 16 Oct. 1894 ; superseded, 
5 Jan. 1896, see 'Transvaal, 1895. 

Three of Lobengula's sons arrive at Cape Town, to be 
educated at Mr. Cecil Rhodes expense, 13 Nov. 1894. 

Native revolt during 1896 ; suppressed 1897 ; natives 
display great loyalty during the S. African war, 
1899-1902. 

MASKS. Masks of painted papyrus are said 
to have been occasionally worn by kings and priests 
of ancient Egypt. Horace attributes them to 
jEschylus ; yet Aristotle says the inventor and time 
of their introduction were unknown. — Modern 
masks, and muffs, fans, and false hair for the 
women, were devised in Italy, and brought to Eng- 
land from France in 1572. Stow ; see Iron Mask. 

MASONIC INSTITUTIONS, see Free- 
masonry. 

MASORAH (Hebrew, tradition), a collection 
of conjectural readings (Keris) of the Hebrew text 
of the Old Testament, with critical, grammatical, 
and exegetical remarks by various Jewish doctors, 
written between the 6th and 10th centuries, who 
also furnished the Masoretic vowel points. 

The first Rabbinical Hebrew Bible, containing the 
Masorah, Targums, and comments, printed by Bomberg 
at Venice, 1518. The " Book of the Masorah, the 
Hedge of the Law," first printed at Florence, 1750. 

MASQUERADES were in fashion m the 
court of Edward III., 1340; and in the reign of 
Charles II. 1660, masquerades were frequent among 
the citizens. The bishops preached against them, 
and made such representations as occasioned their 
suppression, 9 Geo. I. 1724. They were revived 
and carried to a shameful excess in violation of the 
laws, and tickets of admission to a masquerade at 
Ranelagh were on some occasions subscribed for at 
twenty-five guineas each, 1776. Mortimer. At, 
the close of a bal masque, given by Anderson the 
Wizard, 5 March, 1856, Covent-garden theati-e was 
destroyed by fire. 



MASQUES, precursors of the opera, introduced 
into England in the latter part of the 16th century; 
many were written by Ben Jonson, Beaumont and 
others; Inigo Jones designed the costumes, &c. ; 
Wm. and H. Lawes, Banister, Locke and others 
composed the music. A very costly one was held at 
the Middle Temple on the marriage of princess 
Elizabeth, Feb. 1613. Milton's "Comus," the music 
by Henry Lawes, was represented at Ludlow castle 
in 1634. " Beauty's Awakening," arranged by 
Mr. Walter Crane and Mr. C. R. Ashbee, presented 
by the members of the Art Workers' Guild at the 
Guildhall, 27 June, 1899. 

MASS, in the Roman church, is the office or 
prayers used at the celebration of the Eucharist, in 
memory of the passion of Christ, and to this every 
part of the service alludes. The general division 
consists in high and low ; the first is that sung by 
choristers, and celebrated with the assistance of a 
deacon and sub-deacon ; low masses are those in 
which the prayers are rehearsed without singing. 
Mass was first celebrated in Latin about 394 ; it was 
introduced into England in the 7th century. Pros- 
tration was enjoined at the elevation of the host in 
1 201. Dr. Daniel Rock, in "The Church of our 
Fathers " (1849), describes an ancient MS. of " The 
Service of the Mass, called the Rite of Salisbury," 
compiled for that cathedral, by St. Osmund and 
others, during the 12th century. The English 
communion service was adopted in 1549 ; see Missal, 
and Ritualism. 

MASSACHUSETTS, the mother state of 
New England, North America, founded by the 
English puritans at Flymuuth-rock, 1620. _ It 
abolished slavery 1783, and adopted the constitution 
of the United States, 1788. Capital, Boston. Popu- 
lation, 1880, 1,783,085; 1890, 2,238,943; 1900, 
2,805,346. See Pilgrim Fathers and Boston. 
Great fire at Lynn, a large shoe-making town. 296 
buildings destroyed, and about 8,000 persons destitute, 
estimated loss 5,000,000 dollars, 26 Nov. 1889. 

MASSACRES. The following are among the 
most remarkable, probably exaggerated : — 

BEFORE CHRIST. 

Of all the Carthaginians in Sicily, 397. 

2000 Tyrians crucified and 8000 put to the sword for not 

surrendering Tyre to Alexander, 331. 
Of 2000 Capuans,* friends of Hannibal, by Gracchus, 211. 
A dreadful slaughter of the Teutones and Ambrones, near 

Aix, by Marius, the Roman general, 200.000 being left 

dead on the spot, 102. 
The Romans throughout Asia, women and children not 

excepted, massacred in one day, by order of Mithri- 

dates, king of Pontus, 88. 
A great number of Roman senators massacred by Cinna, 

Marius, and Sertorius, 87. 
Again, under Sylla and Catiline, his minister of ven- 
geance, 82. 
At Perusia, Octavianus Ceesar ordered 300 Roman senators 

and other persons of distinction to be sacrificed to the 

manes of Julius Caesar, 40. 

AFTER CHRIST. 

At the destruction of Jerusalem, 1,100,000 Jews are 

said to have been put to the sword, 70. 
The Jews, headed by one Andrse, put to death many 

Greeks and Romans, in and near Cyrene, 115. 
Cassius, a Roman general, under the emperor M. 

Aurelius, put to death 300,000 of the inhabitants of 

Seleucia, 165. 
At Alexandria, many thousands of citizens were mas- 
sacred by order of Antoninus, 215. 
The emperor Probus is said to have put to death 400,000 

of the barbarian invaders of Gaul, 277. 
Of the Gothic hostages by Valens, 378. 
Of Thessalonica, when 7000 persons invited into the 

circus were put to the sword, by order of Theodosius, 

39°- 



MASSACRES. 



796 



MASSOWAH. 



■Of the circus factions at Constantinople, 532. 

Massacre of the Latins at Constantinople, by order of 

Andronicus, 11 84. 
•Of the Albigenses and Waldenses, commenced at Toulouse, 

1208. Thousands perished by the sword and gibbet. 
'Of the French in Sicily, 1282 ; see Sicilian Vespers. 
At Paris, of the Armagnacs, at the instance of John, 

duke of Burgundy, 1418. 
Gf the Swedish nobility, at a feast, by order of Chris- 
tian II., 1520. 
■Of Protestants at Vassy, 1 March, 1562. 
Of 70,000 Huguenots, or French Protestants, in France 

(see St. Bartholomew), 24 Aug. 1572. 
Of the Christians in Croatia by the Turks, when 65,000 

were slain, 1592. 
Of the pretender Demetrius, and his Polish adherents, 

at Moscow, 27 May. 1606. 
■Of Protestants in the Valteline, X. Italy July, 1620. 
Of Protestants at Thorn, put to death underi pretended 
legal sentence of the chancellor of Poland, for being 
concerned in a tumult occasioned by a Roman Catholic 
procession, 1724. All the Protestant powers in Europe 
interceded to have this unjust sentence revoked, but 
unavailingly. 
At Batavia, 12,000 Chinese were massacred by the natives, 
Oct. 1 740, under the pretext of an intended insurrec- 
tion. 
At the taking of Ismail by the Russians, 30,000 old and 

young were slain, Dec. 1790 ; see Ismail. 
Of French Royalists (see Septembriztrs), 2 Sept. 1792. 
■Of Poles, at Praga, 1794. 

In St. Domingo, where Dessalines made proclamation for 
the massacre of all the whites, 29 March, 1804, and 
many thousands perished. 
Insurrection at Madrid, and massacre of the French, 

2 May, 1808. 
Massacre of the Mamelukes, in the citadel of Cairo, 

1 March, 181 1. 
Hassacre of Protestants at Nismes, perpetrated by the 

Catholics, May, 181 5. 
Massacre at Scio, 22 April, 1822 ; see Chios. 
Of the Janissaries at Constantinople. 14 June, 1826 ; at 

Cabul (see Afghanistan), 1841. 
'600 Kabyles suffocated in a cave Algeria, 18 June, 

1845 ; see Dahra. 
Massacre of Christians at Aleppo, 16 Oct. 1850. 
Of 136 emigrants at Mountain Meadows, Utah (said to 
be by Mormons whom they had offended) ; a few chil- 
dren spared ; 18 Sevjt. 1857. 
f Bishops Ph. K. Smith and Lee accused; Brigham Young 
exonerated, 1875. Bp. Lee sentenced to death, Oct. 
1876 ; shot, 23 March, 1877.] 
Of Maronites, by Druses, in Lebanon, June, i860 ; and of 
Christians, by Mahometans, at Damascus, 9-1 1 July, 
i860 ; see Druses and Damascus. 
Of 173 N.-W. Indians (including women and children) 
(as a chastisement for murders, outrages, and rob- 
beries), by major Baker, of U.S. army, Jan. 1870. 
Of French missionaries and others, at Tien-tsin, 22 per- 
sons (see China), 21 June, 1870. 
<Of foreigners, by the native Gauchos in the Tandel dis- 
trict, Buenos Ayres, S. America, 1 Jan. 1872. 
Of about 90 French colonists and others in New Cale- 
donia, by natives, during a revolt, June, 1878. 
Of about 6 negro militiamen, who had made a patriotic 
demonstration 011 4 July, by whites, at Hamburg, 
South Carolina, 9 July, 1876. 
Of Mehemet Ali Pacha, and others, at Ipek, near Scu- 
tari, by Albanians, 6 Sept. 1878. 
At Cabui (see Afghanistan), 1879. 
Alexandria (sec Egypt), 11 June, 1882. 
Of Christians in Cochin-China ; 24,000 reported to be 
massacred, summer, 1885 ; and about 22,000 in Annam 
by rebels, July-Dec. 1885. 
See Indians, Minnesota, Modoc Indians, and Turkey, 
1876, and 25-29 Aug. i8q6, Armenia, 1894-96, Macedonia, 
1903, Somaliland, Nov. 1896, Candia, 1896-8, Russia, 1903. 
Of missionaries and converts in China, which see, May, 
June, 1900. 

MASSACRES IN BRITISH HISTORY. 

Of 300 British nobles, on Salisbury Plain, by Hengist, 

about 450. 
Of the monks of Bangor, to the number of 1200, by Ethel- 

frid, king of Bernicia, 607 or 612. 
Of the Danes in the southern counties of England, in 

the night of 13 Nov. 1002, by order of Ethelred II. At 

London it was most bloody, the churches being no 



sanctuary. Amongst the rest was Gunilda, sister of 
Swein, king of Denmark, left in hostage for the per- 
formance of a treaty but newly concluded. Baker. 

Of the Jews, in England. Some few pressing into West- 
minster hall at Richard I.'s coronation, were put to 
death by the people ; and a false alarm being given 
that the king had ordered a general massacre of them, 
the people in many parts of England slew all they met. 
In York 500, who had taken shelter in a castle, killed 
themselves, rather than fall into the hands of the 
multitude, 1189. 

Of the Bristol colonists, at Cullen's Wood, Ireland (see 
Cullen's Wood), 1209. 

Of the English factory at Amboyna, in order to dispossess 
its members of the Spice Islands, Feb. 1624. 

Massacre of the Protestantsi n Ireland, in O'Neill's rebel- 
lion, which began 23 Oct. 1641. Upwards of 30,000 British 
were killed in the commencement of this rebellion. Sir 
William Petty. In the first three or four days of it, 
forty or fifty thousand of the Protestants were de- 
stroyed. Lord Clarendon. Before the rebellion w„s 
entirely suppressed, 154,000 Protestants were massa- 
cred. Sir W. Temple. 

Of the Macdonalds of Glencoe (see Glencoe), 13 Feb. 1692. 

Of 184 men, women, and children, chiefly Protestants, 
burnt, shot, or pierced to death by jukes ; perpetrated 
by the insurgent Irish, at the barn of Scullabogue, 
Ireland, in 1798. Musgrave. 

Of Europeans at Meerut, Delhi, &c, by mutineers of the 
native Indian army (see India,), May and June, 1857. 

Of Europeans at Kalangan, on the south coast of Borneo, 
1 May, 1859. 

Of the Europeans at Moiant bay, Jamaica, by the in- 
furiated negroes. 11-12 Oct. 1865 ; see Jamaica. 

Of lieut. Holcombe and surveying party (about 70) in 
Assam on Naga hills ; about 24 Feb. 1875. 

Of Mr. Margary and servants (with col. Browne's expedi- 
tion into Western China) at Manwyne, by Chinese, 
21 Feb. 1875. 

Of commodore Goodenough, of the Peart, and 2 seamen, 
by natives of Santa Cruz island, South Pacific ocean ; 
attacked 12 Aug., died 20 Aug. 1875. 

Of prof. Palmer and others ; see Egypt, 1882. 

Of gen. Gordon ; see Khartoum, 1885. 

Of Mr. Quinton and others, in Manipur (which see), about 
24 March, 1891. 

MASSAGETiE, an ancient Scythian people 
(probably the ancestors of the Goths), who invaded 
Asia about 635. In a conflict with them Cyrus the 
Great was killed, 529 B.C. 

MASSILIA, see Marseilles. 

MASSORAH, see Masorah. 

MASSOWAH, a port on the Red Sea, subject to 
Egypt. Certain commercial lights secured to Abys- 
sinia by treaty with England and Egypt, May, 1884. 

The Italian flag hoisted beside the Egyptian, 6 Feb, 1885 
The Abyssinians under Ras Aloula severely defeat 

the Arabs at Kufeit near Amadib . 23 Sept. „ 
Government of Massowah assumed by the Italians 

2 Dec. ,, 
Abyssinians attack Massowah and Italian outposts 

but sutler loss and retire . . 18 Jan. et seq. 1887 
About 500 Italians proceeding with supplies to 
Sahati cut off by Abyssinians under Ras Aloula 
at Dagoli, near Massowah . . 25-26 Jan. ,, 
Negotiations with Ras Aloula with respect to release 

of prisoners 11 March, ,, 

Skirmishes between Italians and Deber tribe 

27-28 March, ,, 
Major Savoironx made a prisoner, still kept by the 

Abyssinians, April ; released . . Sept. ,, 

Proclamation issued declaring that a state of war 
exists in Massowah and its dependencies, with 
blockade of ports .... 2 May, „ 

The chief Kantibay submits to Italy . 18 Oct. ,, 
Declared to be in a state of siege . . 10 Nov. „ 
Italy notifies to the powers that it has annexed 

Massowah July, 1888 

Protectorate proclaimed at Zulla . . 3 Aug. ,, 

Severe defeat of Italians at Sanganeiti on the borders 
through native treachery ; four Italian otticei-s 

killed Aug. „ 

Keren occupied and annexed by the Italians 2 June, 18S9 



MASTER OF THE CEREMONIES. 797 



MATERIALISM. 



Gen. Baldissera occupies Asmara . . 4 Aug. 1889 

About 1,000 dervishes severely defeated after their 
incursion into Italian-protected country ; captives 
and booty rescued, reported . . 29 June, 1890 

Gen. Gandolfi, new governor, announces the termi- 
nation of military rule, in the Italian possessions 
on the Red Sea (named Eritrea, 1 Feb.) 1 July ,, 

Severe defeat of about 10,000 dervishes by the 
Italian troops under col. Arimondi at fort Agordat ; 
about 4,000 dervishes killed, also Ghen Daref and 
4 emirs, reported .... 20 Dec. 1893 

The dervishes, after a murderous raid, pursued by 
Italians under col. Baratieri, gov. -gen., who 
captures Kassala by assault 17 July, 1894 

Batagos, an Abyssinian chief, defeated and killed 
at Halai by Italians under major Toselli, reported, 

20 Dec. ,, 

Gen. Baratieri defeats the Abyssinians under Ras 
Mangascia at Coatit . . . . 13, 14 Jan. 1895 

Another victory at Senafa, reported . .17 Jan. ,, 

Adigratoccupied by the Italians . 25 March, ,, 

The heights of Debra carried by assault, and Antalo 
occupied bv gen. Baratieri, after a rapid march, 

9 Oct. „ 

Major Toselli's column (about 2,450) surprised and 
defeated by 15,000 Shoans at Amba Alagi, major 
Toselli and 3 lieuts. killed, after a heroic defence, 
great slaughter on both sides ; capts. Botrero 
and Pagella with the scattered troops retreat to 
Adera, and join gen. Arimondi . . 8 Dec. ,, 

Shoans repulsed with heavy loss at Makaleh, by 
lieut.-col. Galliano .... 7-1 1 Jan. 1896 

The Italians largely outnumbered, after a gallant 
resistance and great suffering, vacuate the fort 
with honours of war, 23 Jan. ; and arrive at 
Adigrat 30 Jan. ,, 

Fruitless negotiations for peace with Menelik, 

26 Jan., 15 Feb. ,, 

Shoans defeated, and the Pass of Seeta captured, 
16 Feb. ; again defeated by col. Stevani at 
Maimara 26 Feb. „ 

The battle of Adowa : Italians under gen. Baratieri 
severely defeated by the Shoans ; gen. Dabormida 
and prince Chigi killed at the head of their men 
(the brigade fought heroically all day) ; gen. 
Baratieri, incapable through weakness, retired ; 
gen. Arimondi (fate unknown) and 150 officers 
killed ; estimated Italian loss, 7,000, and 2,000 
natives ; gen. Albertoni, cols. Nava and Galliano 
(mortally wounded), 48 officers, and 1,500 men 
prisoners ; Shoan loss, 4,000 . 29 Feb., 1 March, „ 

Fort Adigrat, provisioned for a month under major 
Prestinari, surrounded by Shoans, 2 March ; the 
garrison relieved, 5 May; evacuated by the 
Italians, reported .... 18 May, ,, 

Gen. Baldissera assumes the command in Mas- 
sowah, 4 March ; gen. Baratieri arrives there 
greatly prostrated . . . . 11 March, ,, 

Negotiations for peace opened . . 13 March, ,, 

Dervishes repulsed with heavy loss near Kassala, 
8 and 18 March ; again by col. Stevani at Mt. 
Mocram ; forts captured at Tucruf, 2 April ; 
enemy's camp burnt, lieut. Partini and 3 others 
killed 3 April, ,, 

Dervish retreat from Kassala . . 7 April, ,, 

The Italians strongly entrenched at Dongollo and 
other places, the Abyssinians retreating, 26 May, ,, 

Negotiations between gen. Baldissera and Ras 
Mangascia and other chiefs for release of 
prisoners, 8 May ; many released 13 May et seq. ,, 

Ambra Debra captured in a night attack by lieut. 
Sapelli, flight of enemy . . . 18 May, ,, 

Gen. Baratieri tried by court martial at Asmara, 
and acquitted 5-13 June, ,, 

1,300 Italian prisoners reported in Abyssinia, 

6 Nov. ,, 

Treaty of peace signed (see Abyssinia), 26 Oct. . ,, 

Advance of (5,000 or 6,000) dervishes on Agordat, 
Tucular occupied Jan. 1897 

Gen. Vigano arrives at Agordat, concentration of 
troops, and defence organized . . 22 Jan. ,, 

Retreat of the dervishes, to Amdarab . 1 Feb. ,, 

MASTER OF THE CEREMONIES, see Cere- 
monies. 

MASTER and Servant Act (amending 

the statute respecting tiiem) was passed 20 Aug. 



1867 ; another act repealing parts of preceding acts- 
was passed 26 July, 1889. See Servants. 
Royal commission to examine into its working, 
reported 31 July ; published evidence . Oct. 1874 

MASTER of the Great Wardrobe, an 

ancient office abolished in 1782; duties transferred 
to the lord chamberlain. 

MASTER of the Revels, an officer of the 

court. Solomon Dayrolle was the last appointed. 
Part of the duties were transferred to the licenser of 
plays, 1737. 

MASTER OF THE ROLLS, an equity judge, 
derives his title from having the custody of all! 
charters, patents, commissions, deeds, and recog- 
nizances, entered upon rolls of parchment ; his de- 
crees are appealable to the court of chancery. The 
repository of public papers, called the Rolls, was in 
Chancery-lane. The rolls were formerly kept in a 
chapel founded for the converted Jews ; but after 
the Jews were expelled the kingdom in 1290 it was- 
annexed for ever afterwards to the office of the 
mastership of the rolls. Here were kept all the 
records since the beginning of the reign of king: 
Richard III., 1483 ; all pi-ior to that period being 
kept in the Tower of London ; see Records. The 
first recorded master of the rolls was either John de 
Langton, appointed 1286, or Adam de Osgodeby, 
appointed I Oct. 1295 ; but it is clear that the office 
was in existence long before. Hardy. The duties- 
were defined in 1833; the salary regulated in 1837. 
Changes by the judicature act of 1881. By the 
supreme court of judicature act, the master of the 
rolls was made a judge of appeal 011I3-. 

RECENT MASTERS OF THE ROLLS. 

Sir fm, Grant appointed . . . -27 May, 180a 

Sir Thomas Plumer 6 Jan. 1818; 

Robert, lord Gifford 5 April, 1824 

Sir J. S. Copley (aft. lord Lyndhurst) . 14 Sept. 1826 

Sir John Leach 3 May, 1827 

Sir C. Pepys (aft. lord Cottenham) . 29 Sept. 1834 
Henry Bickersteth (aft. lord Langdale) . 19 Jan. 1836 
Sir John (baron 1865) Romilly . . 28 March, 1851 
Sir George Jessel (a Jew), 2g Aug. 1873 ; died, 

21 March, 1883 
Sir fin. Baliol Brett (lord Esher, 1885, visct. 1897), 

3 April, 1883; resigned, 13 Oct. 1897, died 24 May, 1899. 
Sir Nathaniel Lindley, 20 Oct. 1897 ; resigned, 

May, 1900 
Sir Richard Webster (lord Alverstone), May ; lord 

chief justice ... . Oct. ,, 

Sir A. L. Smith, Oct. 1900 ; resigned, mid Oct. ; 

died 20 Oct. 1901 

Sir Richard Henn Collins .... Oct. ,, 

MASTERS in Chancery, chosen from the 

equity bar, were first appointed, it is said, to assist 
the ignorance of sir Christopher Hatton, lord chan- 
cellor of England, in 1587. The office was abolished 
in 1852. The offices of the masters in the queen's 
bench, common pleas, and exchequer divisions of 
the high court of justice were amalgamated in to- 
one central office in the high court of justice in 
1879. 

MASTODON, see Mammoth. 

MATABELE LAND. See Mashona. 

MATACAO, a small island near Sierra Leone ; 
secured to the British by treaty, 18 April, 1826. 
It was occupied by the French, Alarch, 1879 ; and 
after some discussion was left by the.n June fol- 
lowing. 

MATCHES, see Lucifers. 

MATERIALISM, the doctrine held by those 
who maintain th.it the soul of man is not a spiritual 



MATEENITY CHAEITY. 



798 



MAUSOLEUM. 



substance distinct from matter, but is the result of a 
particular organisation of matter in the body. The 
term is rather loosely applied to the system of 
Epicurus, about 310 B.C. ; Hobbes, about A.D. 1642 ; 
Priestley, about 1772 ; and many eminent men in 
the present day. It is not necessarily identical 
with atheism, see Animism. 

MATERNITY CHAEITY, EOYAL, 

Finsbury; founded 1757. 

MATHEMATICS formerly signified all kinds 
of learning; but the term is now applied to the 
sciences relating to numbers and quantity ; see 
Arithmetic. Among the most eminent mathe- 
maticians were Euclid, 300 B.C.; Archimedes, 
287 B.C. ; Descartes, died 1650 a.d. ; Barrow, died 
1677; Leibnitz, died 1716 ; sir Isaac Newton, died 
1727; Euler, died 1783; Lagrange, died 1813 ; 
Laplace, died 1827; and Dr. Peacock, died 1858; 
sir G. B. Airy, Bartholomew Price (died, aged 79, 
29 Dec. 1898) ; J. J. Sylvester (died 15 March, 
1897), I. Todhunter (died 1884), and prof. Arthur 
Cayley, born 16 Aug. 1821, barrister, 1849-63 ; 
wrote above 800 papers, 1852-94; much honoured 
abroad (died 26 Jan. 1895) ; prof. Sophus Lie 
(born 12 Dec. 1842, died, 18 Feb. 1899), nre 
eminent mathematicians. Mary Somerville, born 
1790, author of the "Mechanism of the Heavens," 
died 1873. 

The London Mathematical Society was founded, 
16 Jan. 1865 ; professor Aug. De Morgan, president. 

John Thomas Crossley, author of the popular " Intel- 
lectual Calculator," died 29 April, 1889, aged 89. 

Mathematical congress at Zurich, mid. Aug. 1897, one 
at Paris in iqoo. 

MATHURINS, see under Trinity. 

MATINS. The service or prayers first per- 
formed in the morning or beginning of the day in 
the Koman Catholic church. The French Matins 
were the massacre of St. Bartholomew, 24 Aug. 
1572. The Matins of Moscow were the massacre of 
prince Demetrius, and the Poles his adherents, in 
the morning of 27 May, 1606. 

MATEIMONIAL CAUSES ACT, passed 
1859. By the act passed 27 May, 1878, a magistrate 
may grant judicial separation with maintenance to 
a wife suffering from a husband's violent usage. 
The act was amended in 1884. 

MATTEE is held to exist in three states: 
gaseous, liquid, and solid'. Mr. William Crookes 
considers that there is a fourth state, "radiant 
matter," subtler than any of these, 1879-80. See 
Light. 

MATTEEHOEN, a part of the main ridge of 
the Alps, about 14,836 feet high, S. Switzerland. 
After various fruitless attempts by professor Tyn- 
dall and other eminent climbers, in i860, the sum- 
mit was reached on 14 July, 1865, by Mr. Edward 
Whymper and others. During their descent, four 
of the party were killed. Mr. Hadow fell ; the 
connecting rope broke, and he himself, lord Francis 
Douglas, the rev. Mr. Hudson, and Michael Croz, 
a guide, slipped down, and fell from a precipice 
nearly 4000 feet high. Miss Walker, with her 
father, ascended the Matterhorn, 22 July, 187 1. 
Three gentlemen ascended without a guide, 21 July, 
1876. Dr. W. 0. Moseley, an American, was killed 
here, 14 Aug. 1879. Three persons attempting the 
ascent perished 12 Sept. 1890; Dr. Black and a 
Miss Bell killed here, 23 July, 1901. 

MAUNDY-THUESDAY (derived by Spel- 



nian from inande, a hand-basket, in which the king 
was accustomed to give alms to the poor ; by others 
from dies mandati, the day on which Christ gave 
his grand mandate, that we should love one an- 
other), the Thursday before Good Friday. Wheatly. 
On this day it was the custom of our sovereigns or 
their almoners to give alms, food, and clothing to as 
many poor persons as they were years old. It was 
begun by Edward III., when he was fifty years of 
age, 1363, and is still continued. 

MAUE, ST., see Benedictions. 

MAURITANIA. (N. Africa), with Numidia, 
became a Eoman province, 33 f.c Augustus created 
(30 B.C.) a kingdom formed of Mauritania and part 
of Getulia, for Juba II., a descendant of the ancient 
African princes. Suetonius Paulinus suppressed a 
revolt here, A.d. 42, when it was made a province, 
divided into parts. The country was subjugated 
by the Vandals, 429, and Greeks, 533, and fell into 
the hands of the Arabs, about 680. See Morocco, 
and Moors. 

MAURITIUS, or Isle of France (in the 
Indian Ocean), was discovered by the Portuguese, 
1505 ; but the Dutch were the first settlers in 1598. 
They called it after prince Maurice, their stadt- 
holder, but on the acquisition of the Cape of Good 
Hope, they deserted it ; and it continued unsettled 
until the French landed, and gave it the name of 
one of the finest provinces in France, 1715. This 
island was taken -by the British, 2 Dec. 1810, and 
confirmed to them by the treaty of Paris in 1814. 
The bishopric was founded 1854. Sir Henry Barkly, 
governor, in 1863, succeeded by sir Arthur A. 
Gordon, 1870; sir Arthur Purves Phayre, 1874; 
sir George F. Bowen, 1879 ; sir J. Pope Hennessy, 
Dec. 1882; sir Charles Cameron Lees, Sept. 1889; 
Sir Herbert E. H. Jerningham, April, 1893 ; 
sir C. Bruce, Jan. 1897. Population in 1861, 
313,462; in 1875, 344i6° 2 ; in 1890, 377,986; 
in 1901, 380,040. In 1866 two railways were in 
progress; both now opened. By an awful' hurricane, 
on II March, 1868, great damage was done to ship- 
pingand buildings, with much loss of life. 
A responsible government granted with a legislative 

assembly July-Sept. 1885 

Dissensions between sir J. Pope Hennessy and 
Mr. Clifford Lloyd and the council, April ; Mr. 
Lloyd removed (made governor of the Seychelles) ; 
sir Hercules Robinson as royal commissioner 
investigates the affairs, and suspends the governor 
from action, announced 28 Dec. 1886. Sir J. Pope 
Hennessy reinstated with admonition July, 1887 ; 
arrives at Mauritius .... 22 Dec. 1888 
Violent hurricane, great destruction of buildings, 
shipping and crops ; one-third of port Louis de- 
stroyed, with about 600 deaths, 29 April ; total 
number ot deaths reported, 1,230 . 14 July, 1892 
Relief committees organised (see Mansion-house) ; 
the queen 50J. ; loan of 6oo,oooi. to the colony 
guaranteed by the British government, 

about June, ,, 
Great fire at St. Louis ; great damage . 23 July, 1893 
Destructive cyclone, with loss of life . 23 Feb. 1894 
Statue of the queen unveiled at St. Louis, Jubilee 

day 22 June, 1897 

Sir Celi court Auguste Antelme, able financier, 

born 1S18, died 6 June, 1899 

Outbreak of bubonic plague . . . July, 1899-1903 
Visit of the duke and duchess of Cornwall founda- 
tion stone of the Queen Victoria memorial at 

Port Louis, laid 5 Aug. 1901 

The Seychelles, hitherto a dependency of Mauri- 
tius, constituted a separate colony . 7 Nov. 1903 

MAUSOLEUM. Artemisia married her own 
brother, Mausolus, king of Caria, Asia Minor, 
377 B.C. At his death, 353, it is said she drank in 
liquor his ashes after his body had been burned, and 



MAUVE. 



799 



MAYOES. 



erected to his memory at Halicarnassus a monument, 
one of the seven wonders of the world (350 B.C.), 
termed Mausoleum. She invited all the literary 
men of her age, and proposed rewards to him who 
composed the best elegiac panegyric upon her hus- 
band. The prize was adjudged to Theopompus, 357 
B.C. She died 352 B.C. The statue of Mausolus is 
among the antiquities brought from Halicarnassus 
by Mr. (aft. sir) C. T. Newton in 1857, and placed 
in the British Museum. A mausoleum for the royal 
family of England was founded by the queen at 
Frogmore, 15 March, 1862. 

MAUVE (French for malva, mallow), a dye 
produced by Dr. Stenhouse from lichens in 1848 ; 
now produced from Aniline {which see) . 

MAY, the fifth month of the year, received its 
name, some say, from Romulus, who gave it this 
appellation in respect to the senators and nobles of 
his city, who were denominated majores ; others 
supposed it was so called from Maia, the mother of 
Mercury, to whom they offered sacrifices on the first 
day. The ancient Romans used to go in procession 
to the grotto of Egeria on May -day ; see Evil 
May-day. 
Mrs. Elizabeth Montague (who died in 1800) gave for 

many years, on May day, an entertainment at her 

house in Portman square, to the chimney-sweepsrs of 

London. 
The annual festival of " Jack in the Green," and his 

companion sweeps, has gradually ceased, 1876. 
See under Working Men, May 1890, 1891, 1892, 1893, 1894. 

MAYENCE, see Mentz. 

MAY-FLOWEE, see Pilgrim Fathers. 

" MAY LAWS," see Prussia, May, 1873. 

MAYNOOTH COLLEGE (Ireland), 
founded by parliament, 1795, and endowed by a 
yearly grant voted for the education of students 
designed for the Roman Catholic priesthood in 
Ireland. An act for its government was passed in 
1800. It contains about 500 students. Permanent 
endowment of this college (30,000^. for the enlarge- 
ment of the buildings and 26,000^. annually) was 
granted by parliament, June, 1845. This occasioned 
much controversy in England, amotion being made 
for its abolition almost every session. The college 
was repaired and enlarged in i860. By the Irish 
Church act, passed 26 July, 1869, the annual parlia- 
mentary grant was to cease after 1 Jan. 1871 ; a 
compensation being made. A synod held hero, 
Sept. 1875, condemned mixed education. The build- 
ings were much injured by fire, 31 Oct. 1878 ; dam- 
age estimated at 10,000^. The pictures and books 
were saved. The centenary celebrated, an inter- 
national assembly of ecclesiastics present, 25-27 
June, 1895. The king and queen visit the college 
(see Ireland, 1903), Mgr. Gargan, president since 
1894, died, aged 84, 27 Aug. 1903. 

MAYO ASSASSINATION. Richard South- 
well Bourke, earl of Mayo, was born 21 Feb. 1822. 
As lord Naas he was chief secretary for Ireland, in 
the Derby and Disraeli administrations, 1852, 1858-9, 
1866-8. In Sept. 1868, he was appointed viceroy 
of India, and energetically fulfilled the duties. He 
was assassinated at Port Blair in the Andaman 
islands, on a visit of inspection, by Shere Ali, a 
convict, 8 Feb. 1872. The Indian government 
granted an annual pension of iooo^.to the countess, 
and 20,ooo£. for the children; and 1000/. a year 
was added to lady Mayo's pension by parliament, 
voted unanimously, 22 July, 1872. 

MAYOES OF THE PALACE, high officers in 
France, who had great influence during the later 



Merovingian kings, termed " faineants," do-no- 
things : — Pepin the Old (or de Landen), 622 et seq.; 
Pepin Heristal, 687-714; Charles Martel, despotic, 
714-741 ; Pepin le Bref, 741, who shut up Chil- 
deric III. in a monastery, and himself took the 
kingdom, 752. 

MAYOES of Corporations. At the time 

of the Norman conquest, 1066, the chief officer of 
London was called port-grave, afterwards softened 
into port-reeve, from Saxon words signifying chief 
governor of a harbour. He was afterwards called 
provost , but in Henry II. 's reign the Norman title 
of maire (soon after mayor) was brought into use. 
At first the mayor was chosen for life, but after- 
wards for periods of irregular duration ; now he is 
chosen annually, but is eligible for re-election. He 
must be an alderman, and have been sheriff. His 
duties commence on 9 Nov. In early times the 
mayor was always an M.P. for the city. The prefix 
lord is peculiar to the mayors of London, Dublin, 
York, Belfast, Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Bir- 
mingham, Sheffield, Bristol (1899), Cork (1900) 
Sydney and Melbourne (1902), and to the provosts 
of Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dundee, Aberdeen and 
Perth. The dukes of Norfolk and Sutherland, the 
marquis of Ripon, and the earls of Derby and 
Lonsdale, and 6 other peers were elected mayors, 
Nov. 1895. 

The first mayor of London, Henry Fitz-Ailwin, 
held office for 24 years, appointed . 1189 or 1191 

(Some say Thomas Legge, created lord mayor by 
Edw. III., 1354). 

Sir Henry Pickard, who had been lord mayor of 
London in 1357, sumptuously entertained in one 
day four monarchs : Edward, king of England ; 
John, king of France ; the king of Cyprus ; and 
David, king of Scotland ; the Black Prince and 
many of the nobility being present. Stow. . . 1363 

Sir John Norman, lord mayor, went by water to be 
sworn at Westminster, and it is said instituted 
lord mayor's show 1453 

The more costly pageants of the show laid aside . 1685 

The lord mayor entertained the prince regent of 
England, the emperor of Russia, king of Prussia, 
and numerous foreigners of high rank 18 June, 1814 

The lord mayor, Farncombe, gave a banquet to 
prince Albert and the mayors of most of the 
boroughs of the United Kingdom, in further- 
ance of the project of the great International 
Industrial Exhibition, 1851 . . 21 March, 1850 

The lord mayor, sir F Moon, entertained the em- 
peror and empress of the French . 19 April, 1855 

The lord mayor, B. S. Phillips, entertained the king 
and queen of the Belgians, July ; entertained by 
them at Brussels Oct. 1866 

The lord mayor entertained the viceroy of Egypt, 
11 June ; the sultan, 18 July, 1867 ; the shah of 
Persia, 20 June,. 1873 ; the czar (others since), 

18 May, 1874 

Lord Mayor Nottage died while in office (the first 
since William Beckford, who died 21 June, 1770), 

11 April, 1885 

LORD MAYORS OF LONDON. 



1800-1. 


Sir William Staines, bait. 


1801-2. 


Sir John Earner, bart. 


1802-3. 


Charles Price. 


1803-4. 


John Perring. 


1804-5. 


Peter Perchard* 


1805-6. 


Sir James Shaw. 


1806-7. 


Sir William Leighton, bart. 


1807-8. 


John Ainsley. 


1808-9. 


Sir Charles Flower, bart. 


1809-10. 


Thomas Smith. 


1810-11. 


Joshua Jonathan Smith. 


1811-12. 


Sir Claudius S. Hunter, bart 


1812-13. 


George Scholey. 


1813-14. 


Sir William Domville, bart. 


1814-15. 


Samuel Birch. 


1815-16. 


Matthew Wood 



MAYORS. 



800 



MECCA. 



1816-17. Matthew Wood again. 

1817-18. Christopher Smith. 

1818-19. John Atkins. 

1819-20. George Brydges. 

1820-1. John T. Thorpe. 

1821-2. Christopher Magnay. 

1822-3. William Heygate. 

1823-4. Robert Waithman. 

1824-5. John Garratt. 

1825-6. William Venables. 

1826-7. Anthony Browne. 

1827-8. Matthias Prime Lucas. 

1828-9. William Thompson. 

1829-30. John Crowder. 

1830-1 and 1831-2. Sir John Key, bart. 

1832-3. Sir Peter Laurie. 

1833-4. Charles Farebrother. 

1834-5. Henry Winchester. 

1835-6. William Taylor Copeland. 

1836-7. Thomas Kelly. 

1837-8. Sir John Cowan, bart. 

1838-9. Samuel Wilson. 

1839-40. Sir Chapman Marshall, bart. 

1840-1. Thomas Johnson. 

1841-2. John Pirie. 

1842-3. J. Humphrey. 

1843-4. Sir W. Magnay, bart. 

1844-5. Michael Gibbs. 

1845-6. John Johnson. 

1846-7. Sir George Carroll. 

1847-8. John Kinnersley Hooper. 

1848-9. Sir James Duke, bart., M.P. 

1849-50. Thomas Farncombe. 

1850-1. Sir John Musgrove. 

1851-2. William Hunter. 

1852-3. Thomas Challis, M.P. 

1853-4. Thomas Sidney. 

1854-5. Sir Fras. G. Moon, bart. 

1855-6. David Salomons, Jew. 

1856-7. Thomas Quested Finnis. 

1857-8. Sir Robert W. Carden (bart. , May, 18S7), (died 20 

Jan. 1888). 
1858-9. David W. Wire. 
1859-60. James Carter. 
1860-1. William Cubitt, M.P. 
1861-2. William Cubitt, again. 
1862-3. W. A. Rose. 
1863-4. Wm. Lawrence. 
1864-5. Warren S. Hale. 
1865-6. Benj. Sam. Phillips, Jew. 
1866-7. Tho's. Gabriel. 
1867-8. Wm. Ferneley Allen. 
1868-9. James Lawrence. 
1869-70. Robert Besley. 
1870-1. Thomas Dakin. 
1871-2. Sills John Gibbons. 
1872-3. Sir Sidney Hedley Waterlow. 
1873-4. Andrew Lusk, M.P. 
1874-5. David Henry Stone. 
1875-6. Wm. James Richmond Cotton. 

1876-7. Sir Thomas White. 
1877-8. Thomas Scambler Owden. 

1878-9. Sir Charles Whetham. 

1879-80. Sir Francis Wyatt Truscott. 

1880-1. Wm. McArthur. 

1881-2. John Whittaker Ellis (bart. May). 

1882-3. Henry Edmond Knight. 

1883-4. R. N. Fowler, M.P. 

1884-5. George Swan Nottage ; died 11 April, 1885. 

1885. Sir R. N. Fowler, bart. , M.P., re-elected 14 April. 

1885-6. John Staples. 

1886-7. Sir Reginald Hanson (bart., May, 1887). 

1887-8. Polydore de Keyser (Belgian R.C.) (knt. Oct. 
1888). 

1888-9. James Whitehead (bart., Nov. 1889). 

1889-90. Sir Henry Aaron Isaacs, Jew. 

1890-1. Joseph Savory (bart. , July, 1891.) 

1891-2. David Evans (knt, July, 1892). 

1892-3. Stuart Knill, R.C. (bart, July, 1S93, died 19 
Nov. 1898). 

1893-4. George Robert Tyler (bart., 30 June, 1894). 

1894-5. Sir Joseph Renals (bart, June, 1895). 

1895-6. Sir Walter Henry Wilkin. 

1896-7. George F. Faudel-Phillips, Jew (bart., June, 
1897). 

1897-8. Col. Horatio David Davies, M.P. (K.C.M.G. 
1898). 

1898-9. Sir John Voce Moore. 



1899-1900. Alfred James Newton (bart., 1900). 

1900-1. Frank Green (bart, 9 Nov. 1901, died 3 Dec, 

1902). 
1901-2. Sir Joseph Cockfield Dimsdale, M.P. (bart.-. 

26 June, 1902). 
1902-3. Sir Marcus Samuel, Jew. 
1903-4. Sir James Thomson Ritchie. 

LORD MAYORS OF DUBLIN. 

John le Decer was appointed first provost in 1308 ; 
a gilded sword was granted to be borne before the 
provost by Henry IV 1407 

Thomas Cusack appointed first mayor . . . 1409 

The collar of SS. and a foot company granted by 
Charles II. to the mayors 1660 

Sir Daniel Bellingham, the first mayor honoured 
with the title of lord, by Charles II. , who granted 
500Z. per annum, in lieu of the company of foot . 1665 

The new collar of SS. granted by William III. to the 
mayor, value 1000Z. , the former having been lost 
in James II. 's time 1697 

MAZARIN BIBLE, see Printing, 1450-5. 

MAZBA (or Baba Wali), near Candahar, 
Afghanistan. Here gen. sir Frederick Sleigh 
Roberts totally defeated Sirdar Mahomed Ayoob 
Khan, and captured his camp and all his cannon, 
I Sept. 1880. Amongst the killed were colonel F. 
Brownlow, capt. St. John F. Frome, and capt. E. 
Straton ; lieut. Hector Maclaine (made prisoner 27 
July) was found recently murdered. Ayoob Khan 
with some followers tied towards Herat. 

MAZURKA, a Polish dance of the 16th cen- 
tury, introduced into England about 1845 ; Chopin's 
music for the mazurka is much admired. 

MEAL TUB PLOT, against the duke of 
York, afterwards James II., contrived by one 
Dangertield, who secreted a bundle of seditious 
letters in the lodgings of colonel Maunsell, and then 
gave information to the custom-house officers t» 
search for smuggled goods, 23 Oct. 1679. After 
Dangerfield's apprehension, on suspicion of forging 
these letters, papers were found concealed in a 
meal-tub at the house of a woman with whom he- 
cohabited, which contained the scheme to be sworn 
to, accusing the most eminent persons in the Protes- 
tant interest, who were against the duke of York's- 
succession, of treason, — particularly the earls of 
Shaftesbury, Essex, and Halifax. On Dangerfield 
being whipped the last time, as part of his punish- 
ment, 1 June, 1685, one of his eyes was struck out 
by a barrister named Robert Francis. This caused 
his death, for which his assailant was hanged. 

MEASURES, see Weights, and Micrometer, 
"Not men, but measures," a phrase used in par- 
liament by Brougham, 2 Nov. 1830. 

MEAT, see Provisions. 

MEAT-BISCUIT, said to have been invented 
by Cecil Borden, 1850. See Milk. 

MEATH (Ireland). Many episcopal sees in 
Meath (as Clonard, Duleek, and others of less note) 
were fixed at Clonard, before 1151-2, when thw 
division of the bishoprics in Ireland was made by 
John Paparo, then legate from Pope Eugene III. 
Eugene was the first styled bishop of Meath, about 
1 1 74. Meath was valued, 30 Henry VIII., at 
373/. I2s. per annum. 

MECCA (in Arabia), the birth-place of Ma- 
homet, about 571, whence he was compelled to fiec r 
15 July, 622 (the Hegira). On one of the neigh- 
bouring hills is a cave, where it is asserted he- 
retired to perform his devotions, and where thc- 
greatest part of the Koran was brought to him by 
the angel Gabriel, 604. Mecca, after being vainly 



MECHANICAL ENGINEERS. 



801 



MEDALS. 



besieged by Hosein for the caliph Yezid, 682, was 
taken by Abdelmelek, 692. In 1803 it fell into the 
hands of the Wahabees, a Mahometan sect. They 
were expelled by the pacha of Egypt in 1818, 
who retired in 1841. It is said that 160,000 
pilgrims visited Mecca in 1858, and only 50,000 
in 1859. The grand shereef was assassinated by a 
fanatic, 21 March, 1880. Pilgrimage to Mecca 
still continues ; annual average, 93,350 (188") ; 
about 300,000 in 1893. 

MECHANICAL ENGINEERS' INSTI- 
TUTION. See under Engineers, 1847. 

MECHANICS. The simple mechanical 
powers have been ascribed to heathen deities ; the 
axe, wedge, wimble, &c, to Daedalus; see Steam 
Engine, Motion. 

Aristotle writes on mechanics about . . b. c. 320 
The properties of the lever, &c. , demonstrated by 

Archimedes, who died 212 

[He laid the foundations of nearly all those inven- 
tions, the further prosecution of which is the 
boast of our age. Wallis (1695).] 
The hand-mill, or quern, was very early in use ; the 

Romans found one in Yorkshire. 
Cattle-mills, molae jumentarice, were also in use by 

the Romans. 
The water-mill was probably invented in Asia ; the 
first that was described was near one of the 

dwellings of Mithridates 70 

A water-mill is said to have been erected on the 

river Tiber, at Rome 50 

Pappus wrote on mechanics . . about a. d. 350 

Floating-mills on the Tiber 536 

Tide-mills were, many of them, in use in Venice 

about 1078 
Wind-mills were in very general use in the 12th 

century. 
Saw-mills are said to have been in use at Augsburg 1332 
Theory of the inclined plane investigated by Cardan 

about 1540 

Work on Statics, by Stevinus 1586 

Galileo's " Scienza Mecanica " 1634 

Theory of falling bodies, Galileo .... 1638 
Laws of percussion, Huygheus, Wallis, Wren, about 1660 
Theory of oscillation, Huyghens .... 1670 
Epicycloidal form of the teeth of wheels, Roemer . 1675 
Percussion and animal mechanics, Borelli ; he died 1679 
Application of mechanics to astronomy, parallel- 
ism of forces, laws of motion, &c. , Newton, 

Hooke, <&c. 1666-1700 

Problem of the catenary with the analysis, Dr. 

Gregory 1697 

Spirit level (and many other inventions) by Dr. Hooke 

from 1660 to 1702 
D'Alembert's researches on dynamics . about 1743 
Lagrange's " Mecanique Analytique " published . 1788 
Laplace's " Mecanique Celeste " published 1799-1805 

Borgnis' " Dictionnaire de Mecanique appliquee 

aux Arts," 10 vols 1818-23 

Edward H. Knight's excellent "Practical Dic- 
tionary of Mechanics," published . . 1877-84 
{Among the best modern writers on the science of 
mechanics are Poneelet, Whewell, Barlow, Mose- 
ley, Delaunay, Rankine, Bartholomew Price, Ball 
and Willis.] 

MECHANICS' INSTITUTIONS. One 

was founded by Dr. Birkbeck in London, and 
another in Glasgow, in 1823 ; and man}' others since. 
They have revived since 1857, many noblemen and 
gentlemen giving lectures in them. 

MECHANICS' MAGAZINE, weekly; esta- 
blished 30 Aug. 1823 ; was incorporated with a new 
paper termed Iron, Jan. 1873. 

MECHLIN or MALINES (Belgium), re- 
nowned for its lace manufacture, was founded in 
the 6th century; destroyed by the Normans in 884; 
•sacked by the Spaniards', 1572 ; taken by the prince 
of Orange, 1578, and by the English, 1580; and 



frequently captured in the 17th and 18th centuries, 
partaking in the evil fortunes of the country. A 
Roman Catholic congress was held here Sept. 1867. 
Population 1890, 50,962 ; 1900, 56,013. 

MECKLENBURG (N. Germany), formerly 
a principality in Lower Saxony, now independent 
as the two grand duchies of Mecklenburg-Schwerin 
(population in 1885, 575,152; 1890,578,565; 1900, 
607,835) ; and Mecklenburg-Strelitz (population in 
1885, 98,371; 1890, 97,978; 1900, 102,628). The 
house of Mecklenburg claims to be descended from 
Genseric the Vandal, who ravaged the western 
empire in the 5th century, and died 477. During 
the Thirty years' war Mecklenburg was conquered 
by "Wallenstein, who became its duke, 1628 ; it 
was restored to its own duke, 1630. After several 
changes the government was settled in 1701 as it 
now exists in the two branches of Schweriu and 
Strelitz. In 1815 the dukes were made grand 
dukes. The dukes joined the new North German 
confederation by treaty, 21 Aug. 1866. 

GRAND-DUKES OF MECKLENBURG-SCHWERIN. 

1815. Frederie-P'rancis I.; died 7 March, 1842. 

1842. Frederic-Francis II. ; born 28 Feb. 1823 ; died- 15 
April, 1883. 

1883. Frederic-Francis III. son, born iq March, 1851, 
died 10 April, 1897 ; his brother, duke Johann 
Albrecht, regent during the minority of the 
heir ; duke Frederic Wilhelm, half-brother to 
the regent, accidentally drowned, 22 Sept. 
1897. 

1901. Fred. Francis IV., born 9 April, 1882. 

GRAND-Dl'KES OF MECKLENBURG-STRELITZ. 

1815. Charles; died 6 Nov. 1816. 

1816. George, born 12 Aug. 1779; died 6 Sept. i860. 
i860. Frederic William, born 17 Oct. 1819 ; married prin- 
cess Augusta of Cambridge, 28 June, 1843. 

Heir: his son, Adolphus-Frederic, born 22 July, 
1848. 

The royal family of England is intimately allied 
with the house of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. King 
George III. married Charlotte, a daughter of the 
duke, in 1761 ; their son, the duke of Cumber- 
land (afterwards king 01 Hanover) married 
princess Frederica Caroline, a daughter of tl * 
duke, in 1815. 

MEDALS, see Numismatics. The ancient 
medals resembled medallions, Modern medals 
began about 1453 in the 15th century with the 
works of Vittore Pisano, of Verona, who died 
1456, and his followers. Charles I. author- 
ized the presentation of a badge or medal for 
"forlorn hopes" soldiers, May, 1643. The house 
of commons resolved to grant rewards and medals 
to the fleet whose officers (Blake, Monk, Penn and 
Lawson) and men gained a glorious victory over 
the Dutch fleet, oft'theTexel, in 1653. Blake's medal 
of 1653 was bought by his majesty, William IV. for 
150 guineas. In 1692 an act was passed for apply- 
ing the tenth part of the proceeds of prizes for 
medals and other rewards for officers, seamen, and 
marines. Subsequent to Lord Howe's victory, 
I June, 1794, it was thought expedient to institute 
a naval medal. Medals were struck for the victory 
of Waterloo; a general war medal (for the war 
I 1793-1814) was ordered in 1847 ; and special medals 
were given after the Caft're and Chinese wars. Medals 
were presented by the queen to persons distin- 
guished in the war in the Crimea, 18 May, 1855. 
Medals were given to arctic voyagers of 1875-6, in 
1877 ; after Egyptian war, 1882, distributed by the 
queen at Windsor, 21 Nov. 1882; medals for the 
Soudan war, 1885; a Burmah medal was given for 
the war, 1885-7 ; for the South African war, 1902. 
Col. Eaton exhibited IOOO medals in New Boud- 
strect, May, 1880. See Victoria Cross. 

3 F 



MEDIA. 



802 



MEGALOPOLIS. 



Society of Medallists formed in the spring of 1885 by the 

hon. C. W. Fremantle, deputy-master of the Mint, 

president, sir Frederick Leighton and others. 
Jubilee medal designed by sir Frederick Leighton, 

P.B.A., issued. 
A list of military and naval medals is given in Whitaker's 

Almanack in 1888. 
General Fred. Brine possesses a fine collection of war 

medals which he has exhibited. 
New military medal for troops employed in W. Africa, 

1887-92, reported 3 Nov. 1892. 
" Numismata Londinensia," edited by Charles "Welch, 

with photographs, 1895. 
Diamond jubilee medals in gold, silver, and bronze 

issued by the Mint, June, 1897. 
The Kaisar-i-Hind medal for public service in India, 

ordered, n May, 1900. 
" British Empire," to commemorate the accession 

of Edward VII., struck, Dec. 1901. 
The China medal, 1900, in Jan. 1902. 
Coronation medal for lord mayors and mayors, lord 

provosts and provosts, 26 June, 1902. 
278,648 war medals manufactured in 1901. 
"King's S. Africa," "Africa General Service," and 

" Transport Service" medals, granted in 1902. 

MEDIA, a province of the Assyrian empire, 
revolted, 711 B.C. Its chronology is doubtful. 

Arbaces, reputed founder of the monarchy about b. c. 842 

Succeeded, by eight kings (Ctesias), or by four ■ 

(Herodotus). 
Deioces, founder of Ecbatana, reigns . . . . 709 
Phraortes, or Arphaxad, reigns (he conquers Persia, 

Armenia, and other countries) .... 656 

Warlike reign of Cyaxares 632-594 

War with the Lydians (see Halys) .... 603 

Astyages reigns 594 

Astyages deposed by Cyrus, who established the 

empire of Persia (which sec) .... 560 

MEDLEVAL, see Dark Ages. 

MEDICAL ACT, see Medical Council and 
Royal Army Medical Corps. 

MEDICAL ASSOCIATION, British, 
founded in 1832 for the promotion of medical science 
and the maintenance of the honour of the medical 
profession. It holds annual meetings at different 
places in the United Kingdom, and publishes the 
British Medical Journal weekly. Meetings in 
London, 1873, 1,500 members ; July, 1895 ; 
Montreal, 30 Aug. 1897; Edinburgh, 26 July, 1898; 
Port?mouth, 1 Aug. 1899; Cheltenham, 30 July, 
1901 ; Manchester, 29 July, 1902. 

MEDICAL BENEVOLENT COLLEGE, 

Rojal (Epsom), opened in 1855 by the prince 
consort. It provides an asylum for 20 pensioners 
male and female ; and 40 foundation scholars (sons 
of medical men) are fed, clothed, and educated. 

MEDICAL CONGEESSES, International, 
have been held at Paris, 1867 ; Florence, 1869 ; 
Vienna, 1873 ; Brussels, 1875 > Geneva, 1877 ; 
Amsterdam, 1879 ; London, 2-9 August, 1881 ; 
Copenhagen, 10 Aug. 1884; Washington, 5-10 Sept. 
1887; Berlin, 4-9 Aug. 1890; Rome, 29 March, 
1894; Moscow, 19 Aug. 1897; Paris, Aug. 1900; 
to be at Madrid, 23 April, 1903. 

MEDICAL COUNCIL. The Medical Act, 
1858, " to regulate the qualifications of practi- 
tioners in medicine and surgery;" was amended 
in i860, and an important amendment act, with- 
drawn 25 July, 1884, passed 1886. It esta- 
blished '"'the General Council of Medical Edu- 
cation and Registration of the United King- 
dom." The Royal Colleges of Physicians and 
Surgeons form a conioint examining board. 



The first meeting of this council took place 
on 23 Nov. 1858, when sir B. C. Brodie was 
elected first president (who on 30 Nov. was elected 
president of the Royal Society) . He was succeeded 
by Mr. J. H. Green in June, i860 ; by Dr. George 
Burrows, Jan. 1864; by Dr. George Edward Paget 
in 1870; and by Dr. Henry Wentworth Acland in 
1874; Mr. John Marshall in 1887, and by sir 
Richard Quain, bart., in 1891 (died, 1898)*; Sir 
W. Turner, 1898. The first Medical Register was 
issued in July, 1859. In 1862 the council was 
incorporated by parliament, and authorised to 
prepare and sell a new Pharmacopoeia, which 
was published as the "British Pharmacopoeia," 
in 1864. New editions have appeared since. 

MEDICAL SOCIETY OF LONDON, 

founded 1773. Royal Medical and Chirurgical 
Society, founded 1805. 

MEDICI FAMILY, the restorers of litera- 
ture and the fine arts in Italy, were chiefs or 
signori of the republic of Florence from 1434, in 
which year Cosmo de' Medici, who had been 
banished from the republic, was recalled and made 
its chief; he ruled for thirty years. Lorenzo de' 
Medici, styled "the Magnificent," and the " Father 
of Letters," ruled Florence from 1469 to 1492. 
Giovanni de' Medici (pope Leo X.) was the son of 
Lorenzo. Eoscoe. From 1569 to 1737 the Medici 
family were hereditary grand dukes of Tuscany 
(which see). Cattarina de' Medici became queen of 
France in 1547, and regent in 1550. She plotted 
with the duke of Alva to destroy the Protestants 
in 1565. 

MEDICINE, see Physic, and Physicians. 

MEDINA (Arabia Deserta), famous for the 
tomb of Mahomet, in a large mosque, lighted by 
rich lamps. Medina was called the City of the 
Prophet, because here Mahomet was protected when 
he fled from Mecca, 15 July, 622 ; see Hegira. 
Medina was taken by the Wahabees in 1804 ; re- 
taken by the pacha of Egypt, 1818. 

MEDINA, Bopora country, Africa, a kingdom 
annexed to Liberia by consent, announced Feb. 
1880. It is rich in forests and African products, 
with gold, iron, and other minerals. 

MEDINA DEEIO SECO (Valladolid, 
Spain). Here Bessieres defeated the Spaniards, 
15 July, 1808. 

MEDIOLANUM, see Milan. 

MEDIUM, see Spiritualism. 

MEDUN, near Podgoritza, European Turkey. 
In a ravine here, the Turks, under Malrmud 
Pacha, were severely defeated by the Montenegrins, 
14 Aug. 1876. 

MEEANEE. The Beloochees, amounting to 
30,000 infantry, with 15 guns and 5000 cavalry, 
posted in a formidable position at Meeanee, were 
defeated with great loss on 17 Feb. 1843, by lieut.- 
gen. sir Charles Napier, with 2600 men of all 
arms. 

MEEEUT (near Delhi). Here the Indian 

mutiny began, 10 May, 1857; see India. 

MEG-^EA, see Wrecks, 1S71. 

MEGALOPOLIS, a city of Arcadia, founded 
by the advice of Epaminondas, 371 B.C., long sub- 
ject to the Macedonians. Having joined the 



MEGAPHONE. 



803 



MELBOURNE. 



Achaean League, 234 B.C., it'was taken and plun- 
dered by Cleomenes of Sparta, 222 B.C. It was 
partly restored 221, but gradually decayed. 
During the excavations carried on for the British school 
of Archaeology of Athens, many discoveries were made, 
including the site of a great theatre, a tumulus with 
boues, ornaments, etc., reported April, 1890. An 
account of the excavations was published by Mr. 
Ernest A. Gardner, 1893. 

MEGAPHONE, a form of telephone {which 
see), invented by Mr. T. A. Edison, for the use of 
the deaf; announced 1878. 

MEGABA, a city of ancient Greece, was sub- 
dued by the Athenians in the 8th century B.C. 
Pericles suppressed a revolt, 445 B.C. The Mega- 
rian* founded Byzantium 657 B.C. Megara became 
a free city 307, and joined the Achaean League, 242, 
and sent a second colony, 628 B.C. The Megarian 
(Eristic or disputatious) school of philosophy was 
founded by Euclid and Stilpo, natives of Megara. 

MEHADPORE or MAHEDPOEE (W.India). 
Here sir Thomas Hislop and sir John Malcolm 
defeated the Mahrattas under Holkar, 21 Dec. 1817. 

MEININGEN COURT COMPANY. See 
under Theatres : Drury-lane. 

MEISTERSINGERS, see Minnesingers. 

MELANESIA, South-west Pacific Isles. The 
rev. J. C. Patteson (son of sir John), born 1827, was 
consecrated missionary bishop of Melanesia. He 
and the rev. J. Atkin were murdered at the isle of 
Santa Cruz, one of the Queen Charlotte group, by the 
natives, Sept. 1871, it is supposed in revenge for 
the kidnapping natives for slaves for Queensland 
and the Fiji isles, a measure which the bishop 
himself strenuously opposed. 

MELAZZO (W. Sicily). Here Garibaldi, on 
20, 21 July, i860, defeated the Neapolitans under 
general Bosco, who lost about 600 men; Garibaldi's 
loss being 167. The latter entered Messina; and 
on 30 July a convention was signed, by which it 
was settled that the Neapolitan troops were to 
quit Sicily. The)' held the citadel of Messina till 
13 March, 1861. 

MELBOURNE (Australia), capital of Victoria 
{which see). It was founded by J. P. Fawkener, 
29 Aug. 1835 ; and laid out as a town by order of 
sir R. Bourke, in April, 1837. The first land sale 
took place in June, and speculation continued till 
it caused wide-spread insolvency, in 1841-2. 
Population in 1851, 23,000; 1891, 491,378; 1901, 
493,956. 

Made a municipal corporation, 1842 ; a bishopric . 1847 
First legislative assembly of Victoria meets . . 1852 
Gold found in great abundance about 80 miles from 
Melbourne in the autumn of 1851, and immense 
numbers of emigrants flocked there in conse- 
quence, causing an enormous rise in the prices of 

provisions and clothing „ 

The city greatly improved with public buildings, 

handsome shops, <fcc 1853 

The Victoria bank, Ballarat, broken open, and 
14,300?. in money and 200 ounces in gold dust 
carried off [one of the robbers was taken in Eng- 
land, sent back to Melbourne, and there tried 

and hanged] -.8 Oct. 1854 

University founded 1855 

Monster meeting held at Ballarat respecting the 
collection of. the gold licences, followed by riots, 
during which the Southern Cross flag was raised ; 
intervention of the military ; 26 rioters and three 
soldiers killed, and many wounded . 30 Nov. ,, 
The mayor comes to London to congratulate the 

queen on the marriage of the princess royal . 1858 
Intercolonial exhibition opened . . .25 Oct. 1866 



Arrival of the duke of Edinburgh . . 23 Nov. 
Great telescope set up at the Observatory early in 
Theatre-royal burnt .... 19 March, 
International exhibition opened by the marquis of 

Normanby 1 Oct. 

Direct railway to Sydney completed . . June, 
Centenary exhibition to celebrate the foundation of 
New South Wales colony opened by sir Henry 
Brougham Loch, the governor, 1 Aug. 1888-31 Jan. 
Great meeting to support Imperial Institute 9 May, 
Great fire in Collins street, 3 firemen killed, loss 

about 200,000? 13 Sept. 

Meeting of Australian delegates respecting the 
federation (see Australasia) . . 6-14 Feb. 
Great strike of officers and men employed in ship- 
ping connected with the marine association, 
about 15 Aug. 
A union of employers formed, 4 Sept. ; plenty of 
free labour .11 Sept- 
Gradual resumption of work ; end of the strikes 
announced at a mass meeting . .14 Nov. 
The new Anglican cathedral consecrated 22 Jan. 
Destructive overflow of the Yarra-Yarra owing to 
heavy rains about n July, et seq. ; floods subside ; 
12,000?. subscribed for sufferers . 21 July, 
The Standard Bank of Australia stops payment ; 

temporary panic 4 Dec. 

The new great Western dock opened by lord Hope- 

toun 22 March, 

Melbourne murder: Frederick Bailey Deeming (alias 
Albert Oliver Williams), tried for the murder of 
Emily Mather whom he married at Liverpool 
17 Oct., and brought to Australia 15 Dec, and 
murdered at Windsor, near Melbourne, about 
25 Dec. 1891 ; convicted 28 April-2 May; executed 

23 May, 

[It was stated that in Feb. 1881, he married 

Marie James, went with her to Sydney, and 

was there convicted of fraud in 1882 ; that 

he took Dinham Villa, Bainhill, near Widnes,. 

Lancashire, England, 23 July, 1891 ; and' 

there murdered his wife and four children 

about 26, 27 July, 1891 ; he was charged with 

the murders, by the verdict of the coroner's 

jury, 28 March, 1892.] 

Destructive storm, 1 death . . .15 March, 

St. Patrick's B. C. cathedral consecrated 31 Oct. 

Great fire, 20 buildings gutted, Elizabeth-st., Flin- 

der's-lane, estimated loss, 1,000,000?. . 21 Nov. 

Extreme heat, many deaths, bush fires, reported 

Feb. 

Great rejoicings on the arrival of the duke and 

duchess of Cornwall .... 6 May, 

See Australasia. 

The prefix lord conferred on the mayor . 23 Nov. 

See Victoria. 



1872 



1CJCI 

1902 



MELBOURNE ADMINISTRATIONS, 

Ou the retirement of earl Grey, 9 July, 1834, 
viscount Melbourne * became first minister of the 
crown, 16 July. When viscount Althorp became 
earl Spencer, on his father's decease, Nov. same 
year, lord Melbourne waited on the king to receive 
his majesty's command as to the appointment of a 
new chancellor of the Exchequer, when his maiesty 
said he considered the administration at an end. 
Sir Robert Peel succeeded, but was compelled to re- 
sign in 1835, and lord Melbourne returned to office. 
His administration finally terminated, 30 Aug. 
1841, sir Robert Peel again coming into power; see 
Administrations. 

first administration, July, 1834; resigned 
Nov. 1834. 
Viscount Melbourne, first lord of the treasury. . 
Marquis of Lansdowne, lord president. 
Earl Mulgrave, privy seal. 
Viscount Althorp, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Viscount Duncannon, viscount Palmerston, andT. Spring- 
Rice (afterwards lord Monteagle), home, foreign, and 
colonial secretaries. 

* Wm. Lamb, born in 1779; became M. P. for West 
minster, 1812; secretary for Ireland, 1827; succeeded his 
father as viscount Melbourne, 1828; died 24 Nov. 1S4S. 

3 r 2 



MELEGNANO. 



804 



MENDICANT FETAES. 



Lord Auckland, admiralty. 

Mr. Charles Grant (afterwards lord Glenelg), and Mr. C. 

P. Thomson (afterwards lord Sydenham), boards oj 

control a,nd trade. 
Lord John Russell, paymaster of the forces. 
Lord Brougham, lord chancellor. 
Sir John Hobhouse, Mr. Elliee, marquis of Conyngham, 

Mr. Littleton, &c. 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION, April, 1835. 

Viscount Melbourne, first lord of the treasury. 

Marquis of Lansdowne, lord president. 

Viscount Duncannon, privy seal, and woods and forests 

(succeeded by earl of Clarendon, Jan. 1840). 
T Spring Rice, chancellor of the exchequer (succeeded by 

Francis T. Baring, Aug. 1840). 
Lord John Russell, home secretary (succeeded by marquis 

of Normanby, Aug. 1839). 
Viscount Palmerston, foreign secretary. 
Lord Glenelg, colonial secretary (succeeded by marquis 

of Normanby, Feb. 1839 ; lord John Russell, Aug. 1839). 
Viscount Howick, secretary-at-war (succeeded by T. B. 

Macaulay, Sept. 1839). 
Lord Auckland, admiralty (succeeded by earl of Minto, 

Sept. 1835). 
Sir John C. Hobhouse, board of control. 
C. Poulett Thomson, board of trade (succeeded by Henry 

Labouchere, Aug. 1839). 
Lord Holland, chancellor of duchy of Lancaster (succeeded 

by earl of Clarendon, Oct. 1840). 
The chancellorship in commission ; sir C. Pepys (after- 
wards lord Cottenham), became lord chancellor, Jan. 

1836. 

MELEGNANO, see Mariynano. 

MELENITE, a new explosive invented by M. 
Turpin, a French chemist ; approved by the French 
"War Minister, Dee. 1886. Several persons killed 
by an explosion of this material at Belfort. 

By an explosion of melenite at Bourges four work- 
men were killed 10 Oct. 1S90 

The melinite scandal, notice by the chamber of 
deputies, May, June, 1891. M. Turpin and 
captain Tripone sentenced to imprisonment, 
exile and fines for receiving money for communi- 
cations respecting melinite to foreigners, 17 June, 1891 

MELFI (Apulia, S. Italy) was nearly destroyed 
by an earthquake, 14 Aug. 1851 : about 600 persons 
perished. 

MELODISTS' CLUB, founded in 1825 by 
admirers of Dibdin ; prizes were offered. 

MELODEAMA, in which dialogue is inter- 
spersed with music, began in Germany in the 18th 
century, and was introduced here by Thomas Hol- 
croft. 

MELOEA or MELORIA, a small isle in the 
Mediterranean, near which the Pisan fleet defeated 
the Genoese, in 1241, capturing many bishops going 
with much treasure to a council. The total destruc- 
tion of the Pisan fleet on 6 Aug. 1284, by the 
Genoese near the same place, after a most sanguinary 
confiicf, was considered to be the just punishment 
of their impiety. 

MELOS (now Milo), one of the Cyclades in the 
JEgean sea, early colonised by the Spartans. 
During the Peloponnesian war the Melians 
adhered to Sparta, till the island was captured, 
after seven months' siege, by the Athenians, who 
massacred all the men and sold the women and 
children as slaves, 416 B.C. A statue of Venus, 
found here in 1820, was placed in the Louvre, 1834. 

Many statues, etc., discovered by excavations, re- 
ported May, 1896 

MEMBEES OF PAELIAMENT 

(Charges and Allegations) ACT, passed 
13 Aug., 1888. Sec under Ireland and ParmUites. 



MEMEL, an important commercial port 111 
Prussia, built about 1252 by the Livonian order. 
It was fortified by the Teutonic knights, 1404. 
It was almost totally destroyed by fire, 4 Oct. 
1854. 

^ MEMNONEIUM or EAMESEION (Thebes, 
Egypt), the first Egyptian monarch — 4455, Brugsch, 
the tomb of Osymandyas, according to Diodorus, 
now considei - ed to be that of Barneses III., about 
1200, Brugsch. 

MEMOEIAL HALL, see Independents. 

MEMOEY, see Mnemonics. 

MEMPHIS, an ancient city of Egypt ("of 
which the very ruins are stupendous"), is said to 
have been built by Menes. It included several 
grand temples with the tombs of the kings. 
The invasion of Cambyses, 525 B.C., began the 
ruin of Memphis, and the founding of Alexandria, 
332, completed it. It was restored by Septimius 
Severus,A.D. 202. In the 7th century, under the 
dominion of the Saracens, it fell into decay. — 
Memphis, Tennessee, IT. S., on the Mississippi, was 
taken from the confederates by the federals after a 
severe conflict, 6 June, 1862. 
The cyclorama of Memphis as it might have appeared at 

the departure of the Israelites from Egypt 1491 B.C., 

painted by Herr Edmund Beringer, was exhibited at 

Niagara-hall, Westminster, Jan. 1892. 

"MEN OF THE BEIGN," by T. Humphry 
Ward, published 1885. " Celebrities of the Cen- 
tury," by L. C. Sanders, 1887. 

MEN OF THE TIME, a Dictionary of Con- 
temporaries, first, published 1852; 12th edition, by 
T. Humphry Ward, 1887. 13th edition "Men 
and Women of the Time," edited by G. W. Moon, 
1891. 14th edition by Victor G. Plarr, April, 1895, 
combined with "Who's Who." — " Men of Mark," 
printed photographs, with biographical sketches, 
by Mr. T. Cooper, first appeared Jan. 1876. 

MENAGEEIE, see Zoology, Toiver. 
Mr. Phineas Taylor Barnum's great menagerie at Bridg- 
port, Connecticut, burnt ; a great many animals perish ; 
loss about 140,000/. 20 Nov. 1887. Mr. Bai'num stated 
to have purchased the old Wombwell's collection Jan. 
1888. See Barnmn. 

MENAI STEAIT (between the Welsh coast, 
and the isle of Anglesey). Suetonius Paulinus, 
when he invaded Anglesey, transported his troops 
across this strait in fiat-bottomed boats, 59. In 
crossing this strait, a ferry-boat was lost, and fifty 
persons, chiefly Irish, 4 Dec. 1785. The road from 
London to Holyhead has long been regarded as the 
highway from the British metropolis to Dublin ; 
Mr. Telford was applied to by the government to 
perfect this route by the London and Holyhead 
mail-coach road, which he did by erecting beautiful 
suspension bridges over the river Conway and the 
Menai Strait, commenced in July, 1818, finished in 
July, 1825, opened 30 Jan. 1826. The Britannia 
tubular bridge over the Menai was constructed by 
Stephenson and Fairbairn in 1849-50 ; see Tubular 
Bridges. 

MENDICANT FEIAES, Several religious 
orders commenced alms-begging in the 13th century, 
in the pontificate of Innocent III. They spread 
over Europe, and formed many communities; but 
at length by a general council, held by Gregory X. 
at Lvons, in 1272, were reduced to four orders — 
Dominicans, Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augus- 
tines. The Capuchins and others branched off. 
See Franciscans, &c. 



MENDICITY SOCIETY. 



805 



MERCY, ORDER OF. 



MENDICITY SOCIETY (Red Lion-square, 
London), was established in 1818 for the suppression 
of public begging, and other impositions. Tickets 
received from the society are given by subscribers 
to beggars, who obtain relief at the society's house, 
if deserving. In 1857, 54,074 meals; in i860, 
42,912; in 1865, 52,137; in 1872, 26,330; in 1878, 
55,180 were distributed. In 1878, 1700 begging 
letters were investigated ; in 1891, 1358; in 1896, 
1,516; in 1897, i,6n. 1,400/. were expended in 
relief in 1894; 1,244/. i n 1897 ; and 1,182 vagrants 
apprehended; 1,146/. in 1901 ; 1,504 vagrants taken 
up ; 8S9 begging letters received. (See Poor.) 
The society has been much aided by the action 
of the Charity Organization society, established 
in 1870 ; they agree to co-operate together, June, 
1897. 

MENDOZA, in the Argentine republic, nearly 
destroyed by an earthquake, one of the most awful 
recorded, 20 March, 1861 : above 7000 persons 
perished. 

MENIPPEE, see Satire. 

MENNONITES, four sects of Dutch, Flemish 
and German baptists ; derive their name from Menno 
Symonis (1505-61), formerly a catholic priest, who 
became a teacher and leader of the anabaptists, 
about 1537, and published his " True Christian 
Belief" in 1556 ; subsequently divisions and changes 
ensued. The Mennonites, objecting to war, emi- 
grated from Prussia to Odessa, to escape military 
service, and went thence to America, 1878. 

MENSURATION. The properties of conic 
sections were discovered by Archimedes, to whom 
the chief advancement in mensuration may be 
attributed. He also determined the ratio of spheres, 
spheroids, &c, about 218 B.C. ; see Arithmetic. 
The Mensurator, a new machine for the solution 
of triangles, was explained by Mr. W. Marsham 
Adams, at the British Association Meeting at 
Brighton, Aug. 1872. 

MENTANA (near Monte Rotondo, in the old 
papal states). Here Garibaldi and his volunteers, 
after having intrenched his positions at Monte 
ilotondo and Mentana on their march towards 
Tivoli, on Sunday, 3 Nov. 1867, were totally 
defeated by the pontilical and French troops under 
generals Kanzlar and Polhes, after a severe con- 
flict, in which general Failly said " the Chassepot 
rities did wonders." There were about 5000 men 
on each side, but the Garibaldians were very badly 
armed. The loss of the papal and French troops 
was about 200 killed and wounded ; that of Garibaldi 
about 800. Garibaldi crossed the Italian frontier, 
and was arrested at Correse, and eventually sent to 
Caprera (about 25 Nov.). See Rome. A monu- 
ment to the Garibaldians who fell here was inau- 
gurated 25 Nov. 1877. 

MENTZ or MayEjNTCE (S.W. Germany), the 
Roman Moguntiacum, built about 13 B.C. The 
archbishopric was founded by Boniface, 745. Many 
diets have been held here ; and here John Faust 
established a printing press, about 1440. A festival 
in honour of John Gutenberg was celebrated here 
in 1837, another June, 1890. See Printing. Mentz 
was given up to the Prussians, 26 Aug. 1866. 
500th anniversary of the birth of Gutenberg, 
typographical exhibition opened by the grand duke 
of Hesse, 23 June, 1900. Population 1890, 72,934; 
1900, 84,251. 

MENU, INSTITUTES OF, the very ancient 
code of India. Sir Wm. Jones, who translated them 



into English (1794), considers their date should be 
placed between Homer (about 962 B.C.) and the 
Roman Twelve Tables (about 449 B.C.). 

MERCANTILE MARINE ACT was passed 
in Aug. 1850, and amended Aug. 1851. 

MERCATOR'S CHARTS, said to have been 
constructed by Gerard Mercator or Kauffmann and 
published 1556, and applied to navigation by Edward 
Wright about 1599. 

. MERCHANDISE MARKS ACT, passed 
in 1862 to punish forgeries of trade-marks. Another 
act passed in 1887 ; reported effectual, 1890 ; 
amended 189 1 — 94; reported partially effectual by 
a committee, July, 1897. 

At an International Conference on the subject of 
fraudulent trade-marks, lield at Madrid 7-14 April, 
1890, an important convention was agreed to. 

MERCHANT ADVENTURERS' COM- 
PANY, established by the duke of Brabant in. 
1296, was extended to England in Edward lll.'s 
reign, and was formed into a corporation in 1564. — 
The Merchant-Taylors, a rich company of the- 
city of London, of which many kings have been, 
members, were so called after the admission of" 
Henry VII. into their company, 1501, but were in- 
corporated in 1466. Their school was founded in- 
1 561. Stow. 

MERCHANT SHIPPING ACT of 1854. 
was amended by acts passed in 1862, 1867, 1871, 1872, 
and 1873. The Act suddenly passed 13 Aug. 1875, 
gave further power to the Board of Trade for 
stopping unseaworthy ships. Other Acts passed 
1876, 1880, 1882. 1883, 1889, 1892, consolidated 
1894; amended, 1897 and 1898; merchant shipping 
(liability of shipowners and others) act passed, 
6 Aug. 1900 ; see Courts of Survey, and Seamen. 
Loss of life at sea having grsatly increased, a new 
bill brought in by Mr. Joseph Chamberlain, pre- 
sident of the Board of Trade, to prevent over- 
loading, under-manning, and over-insurance, 19 
May ; withdrawn .... 3 July, 18S4-- 

Koyal commission to inquire into merchant ship- 
ping (earl of Aberdeen, the duke of Edinburgh, 
Mr. J. Chamberlain, Mr. Burt, Mr. H. Green, Mr. 
T. C. Baring and eight others), gazetted 28 Oct. 
1884 ; last meeting .... 31 July, 1885, 

First report issued 15 Nov. „ 

Royal commission on loss of life at sea appointed 

4 March, 1886- 
Issue report recommending such alteration of law 
of marine insurance as would prevent owners 
from making profit by the loss of their ships and 
other changes 27 Aug. 1887 

MERCHANTS were protected by Magna 
Charta, 12 15, and by many statutes. See Acton 
Burnel. An attempt made by queen Anne's ministry 
to exclude merchants from sitting in the house of 
commons in 1711, failed. 

MERCIA, see under Britain. 

MERCURY, the planet nearest the sun, and 
the smallest known to the ancients. Schiaparelli 
asserts his rotation to be as long as his revolution in 
his orbit. The transit of Mercury over the sun's 
disk, of r?.re occurrence and first observed by 
Gassendi, 1631, was well observed 5 Nov. 1868; at 
Athens, 10 May, 1891, well observed by Prof. Bar- 
nard at Lick Observatory, California, 10 Nov. 1894. 
See Calomel and Quicksilver. The Greek god 
Hermes was the Roman Mercury. 

MERCY, ORDER OF (in France), was estab- 
lished with the object of accomplishing the redemp- 
tion of Christian captives among the Saracens, by 
John de Mathain 1198. Henault. Another order 



MEEIDA. 



806 



MESSINA. 



was formed by Pierre Nolasque in Spain, 1223. A 
League of Mercy (based on the plan of the guild 
founded by the late duchess of Teck), organized 
to further the objects of the prince of Wales's 
hospital fund for London ; an "Order of Mercy," 
established in connection with the league, as a 
reward for free service to the sick and poor ; 
meeting held at Marlborough house ; the prince 
and princess of Wales, presidents, 1 March, 1899; 
succeeded by the present prince and princess of 
"Wales, Nov. 1901. 

MEEIDA (Spain), a town in Estremadura 
(built by the Romans), was taken by the French, 
Jan. i8ji. Near this town, at Arroy dos Molinos, 
the British army under general (afterwards lord) 
Hill defeated the French under general Girard, 
after a severe engagement, 28 Oct. 181 1. The 
British took Merida from the French in 1812, 
general Hill leading the combined forces of English 
and Spanish troops. 

MERIDIAN, see under Geodesy. 

MERINO SHEEP, imported into England 
from Spain, 1788, are thought to be descendants of 
English sheep taken to Spain as part of the dowry 
of John of Gaunt's daughter Katherine, 1390. 

MERIT, Order of (British), created by king 
Edward VII. for those who have won distinction 
in the army, navy, literature, art and science, 26 
June, 1902. First members : earl Roberts, viscount 
Wolseley, viscount Kitchener, adm. H. Keppel, 
adm. sirE. H. Se5mour, lord Kelvin, lord Lister, 
lord Rayleigh, sir W. Huggins, rt. hon. John 
Morley, Mr. G. F. Watts, B.A., the rt. hon. 
W. E. H. Lecky (died 23 Oct. 1903). 

MEROE, an ancient city and country of 
Africa, near the sources of the Nile, said to have 
flourished under sacerdotal government in the time 
of Herodotus, about 450 B.C. 
The priest-king Ergamenes massacred the priests and 

became absolute, about 300 b.c. 
The ruins of the ancient capital were discovered by 

Caillaud between 1819 and 1822. 

.MEROVINGIANS, the first race of French 
kings, 418-752 ; see France and Mayors. 

MERRIMAC, see United States, 1862. 

MERRY- ANDREW. The name is said to 
have been first given to Andrew Borde, a physician, 
who lived in the reign of Henry VIII. , and who, on 
some occasions, on account of his facetious manners, 
appeared at court, 1547. 

MERSEY TUNNEL, see Tunnel. 

MERTHYR-TY D VI L (Glamorganshire) . 
Riots commenced here, 3 June, 183 1, and continued 
for several days ; many persons were killed and 
wounded; see Coal {Accidents). 

MERTON (Surrey). At an abbey here, the 
barons under Henry III., 23 Jan. 1236, held a 
parliament which enacted the Provisions of Merton, 
the most ancient body of laws next after Magna 
Charta. They were repealed in 1863 ; see Bastards. 
The statute of Merton also provides for the in- 
closure of common lands. 

MERV, or Meru (the ancient Antiochia Mar- 
giana), a town of independent Turkestan, Central 
Asia. It flourished under the Seljuk Turks, especi- 
ally under Sultan Alp Arslan ; it was sacked by the 
Monguls in 1221 ; it became subject to Persia in 
15 10; to the emir of Bokhara 'in 1787; to the 
Turkomans in 1856, and to Russia 1883-4. Nearly 
10,000 Turcomans die of malignant fever, March- 
Oct. 1896. See Russia and Turkestan. 



MESMERISM. Frederick Anthony Mesrner, 
a German physician, of Merseburg, published his 
doctrines in 1766, contending, in a thesis on 
planetary influence, that the heavenly bodies dif- 
fused through the universe a subtle fluid which acts 
on the nervous system of animated beings. Quitting 
Vienna for Paris, in 1778, he gained numerous 
proselytes and much money by experiments with 
and without metallic plates, producing effects termed 
then "animal magnetism,'' now "hypnotism." 
A committee of physicians and philosophers investi- 
gated his pretensions, and Bailly, in a paper drawn 
up in 1784, exposed the futility of animal mag- 
netism. Mesmerism excited attention again about 
1848, when Miss Harriet Martineau and others 
announced their belief in it. In 1859, the Mesmeric 
Infirmary issued its tenth annual report, archbishop 
Whately being president, and the earl of Carlisle 
and Mr. Monckton MiLnes (since lord Houghton) 
among the vice-presidents. See Animal Magnetism 
and Hypnotism. 

The " New Mesmerism" exhibited in Paris by Dr. 
Luys and others, which included the alleged ex- 
ternalization of sensations and transference of 
sensibility to inanimate objects, such as dolls, 
was well described in the Times, 28 Dec. 1892, and 
5, 11 Jan. 1893, and by Mr. Ernest Hart in the 
British Medical, Journal .... Jan. 1893 

MESOPOTAMIA, the district between the 
rivers Tigris and Euphrates {which see and Aram), 
successively held \>y Assyiians, Babylonians, Per- 
sians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs and Turks. Meso- 
potamia is mentioned in Gen. xxiv. 10 ; Acts ii. 9, 
and other places. 

MESSALIANS, a sect professing to adhere to 
the letter of the gospel, about 3 10, refused to work, 
quoting this passage, " Labour not for the food 
that perisheth." 

MESSENIA (now Maura-Matrd), in the 
Peloponnesus, an ancient kingdom. It had long 
sanguinary wars with Sparta. It was at first 
governed by kings ; after its restoration to power 
in the Peloponnesus it formed an inferior republic, 
under the protection first of the Thebans, and after- 
wards of the Macedonians. 

The first Messenian war began 743 B.C. ; was occa- 
sioned by violence offered to some Spartan 
women in a temple of devotion common to both 
nations ; the Tung of Sparta being killed in his 
efforts to defend the females. Eventually, Ithome 
was taken, and the Messenians became slaves to 
the conquerors B.C. 724 

The second war, to throw off the Spartan yoke, com- 
menced about 685, ending in the defeat of the 
Messenians, who fled to Sicily 668 

The third war (the Messenians emigrate) . 464-455 

MESSIAH, synonymous with Christ "the 
anointed," foretold by Danielix. 25, about 538 B.C. 
"We have found the Messias, which is, being in- 
terpreted, the Christ." John i. 41. "The Mes- 
siah," Handel's greatest oratorio, composed by 
him in twenty-three days (22 Aug. -14 Sept. 1741), 
was first performed at Oublin, 13 April, 1742, the 
receipts being given by him to the charities of that 
city. 

MESSINA (Sicily), so named by the Samians, 
who seized this city, then called Zancle, 671 B.C. 
It was seized by the Mamertini {which see), about 
281 B.C. It belonged for many ages to the Roman 
empire ; was taken by the Saracens, about a.d. 829. 
Priestley. Roger the Norman took it from them by 
surprise, about 1072. 

Revolts against Charles of Anjou, and is succoured 
by Peter of Aragon 1282 



METALS. 



807 



METEOEOLOGY. 



Revolts in favour of Louis XIV. of Prance, 1676 ; 

the Spaniards punish it severely . . . 1678 

Almost ruined by an earthquake and eruption of 

Etna 1693 

Nearly depopulated by a plague .... 1740 
Half destroyed by an earthquake . . . . 1783 

Head-quarters of the British forces in Sicily, prior to 1814 
An insurrection here subdued ... 7 Feb. 1848 
Garibaldi enters Messina after his victory at Melazzo 

20-21 July, i860 
The citadel surrenders to Cialdini . . 13 March, 1861 
Population 1890, 142,000. 

METALS. Tubal-Cain is mentioned as an 
"instructor of every artificer in brass and iron." 
{Gen. iv.) The Phoenicians had great skill in 
working metals. Bunsen and Kirchhoff's method 
of chemical analysis by means of the spectrum has 
added csesium, rubidium, thallium, indium, gallium, 
and others to the known metals. See Elements, 
Mines, Iron, and the other metals. " Metallurgy," 
published by Dr. John Percy, 1861-80; he died 19 
June, 1889. "Electro-Metallurgy," translated 
from the German of Dr. W". Borchers, with addi- 
tions by "Walter G. McMillan, published, 1897. 

METAMOEPHISTS in the 15th century 
affirmed that Christ's natural body, with which he 
ascended into heaven, was wholly deified. 

METAPHYSICS, the science of abstract 
reasoning, or that which contemplates the existence 
of things without relation to matter. The term, 
literally denoting "after physics," originated from 
these words having been put at the head of certain 
essays of Aristotle, which follow his treatise on 
Physics. Mackintosh. Modern metaphysics arose 
in the 15th century — the period when an extra- 
ordinary impulse was given to the study of the 
human mind in Europe, commonly called the "re- 
vival of learning." Hobbes, Cudworth, S. T. Cole- 
ridge, Dugald Stuart, and sir W. Hamilton, were 
eminent British metaphysicians, and Descartes, 
Pascal, Kant, Schelling, and Fichte, foreign ones. 
See Philosophy. 

METAUEUS, a river in central Italy, where 
Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, was defeated 
and slain, 207 B.C., when marching with abundant 
reinforcements. The Romans were led by Livius 
and Claudius Nero, the consuls. The latter com- 
manded the head of Hasdrubal to be thrown into 
his brother's camp. The victory saved Rome. 

METEMPSYCHOSIS, a doctrine attributed 
to Pythagoras, about 528 B.C., asserts the trans- 
migration of the soul from one body to another. 
It is also ascribed to the Egyptians, who would 
eat no animal food lest they should devour the 
body into which the soul of a deceased friend had 
passed. They had also an idea that so long as the 
body of the deceased was kept entire, the soul 
would not transmigrate ; and therefore embalmed 
the dead. See Buddhism. 

METEOEOGEAPH, an apparatus for the 
invention of which father Secchi of Rome received 
a prize at the Paris International Exhibition, July, 
1867. It is self-acting, and registers the various 
changes of the atmosphere in the form of a dia- 
gram. 

METEOEOLOGY (from the Greek meteoros, 
aerial), the science which treats of the phenomena 
which have their origin in the air, such as rain, 
lightning, meteors, fogs, &c. The writings of 
Theophrastus, on meteorology, 3rd century B.C. 
were translated by Jas. G. Wood, edited by G. J. 
Symons, published 1894. Aristotle, Bacon, Boyle, 
and Franklin wrote on the subject. 



Meteorological Society of the Palatinate, established 
1780. 

Meteorological Society of London, first met, 15 Oct. 
1823. 

John Dalton's essay on meteorology appeared in 1793. 

Luke Howard's work on the clouds appeared in 1802, 
and his " Barometrographia " in 1848. See Clouds. 

Sir W. Reed published his work on the " law of storms " 
in 1838. The works of Daniell (1845), Kssmtz (1845), 
M tiller (1847), and Buchan (1867) are esteemed. 

The " British " Meteorological Society, established in 
1850, chartered in 1866, became Royal, Oct. 1883 ; Mr. 
Henry Perigal, the treasurer, a scientist, died, aged 
97, 6 June, 1898. By the exertions of Mr. James 
Glaisher, long the secretary, the apparatus at Green- 
wich was erected ; and meteorology has appeared in 
the " Greenwich Observations " since 1848. See 
Balloon —Scientific Ascents. 

The Royal Meteorological Society's annual exhibitions 
began in 1880. 

Meteorological observatories have been erected in all 
parts of the globe. 

The Meteorological department of the Board of Trade, es- 
tablished in 1855, under admiral Fitzroy, commenced 
the publication of reports in 1857. The admiral pub- 
lished his "Weather-Book" in 1863. His exertions 
are said to have overworked his brain ; and on 30 
April, 1865, he died by his own hand. The Meteoro- 
logical office was soon after placed under the direction 
of Mr. Robert H. Scott. It has issued apparatus and 
instruction books to captains of ships and established 
observatories in many places in the empire. It was 
handed over to the Royal Society in 1871, and endowed 
by Mr. J. P. Gassiot. Annual reports on ocean- 
meteorology, weather telegraphy and climatology 
issued. 

The Kew meteorological observatory given to the British 
Association in April, i860. It was placed under the 
Meteorological council nominated by the Royal Society, 
but appointed by the treasury. R. H. Scott, secretary, 
July, 1877. 

At the recommendation of M. Le Verrier and admiral 
Fitzroy, meteorological information, obtained by the 
telegraph from the principal places in the United King- 
dom, has been transmitted daily to Paris, and thence 
to other parts of Europe since 1 Sept. i860. 

Storm-warnings first issued in Holland through M. 
Buys Ballot, i860. His "law of the winds" points 
out the relation between the direction of the wind, 
and the atmospheric pressure. 

Storm- warnings first sent to the coast by the Board of 
Trade, 6 Feb. ; and first published 31 July, 1861 ; sus- 
pended, 7 Dec. 1866 ; restoration proposed, Nov. 1867 ; 
reissued at Christmas 1867, and have been since 
continued. 

Daily international bulletin of the imperial observatory 
at Paris, under the direction of M. Le Verrier, first 
published in MS. 1 Jan. 1858, first issued to subscribers, 
4 Nov. 1863. (This was the first chart with united 
maps.) 

" Daily weather charts" first issued by the Meteorological 
Office, 1 Oct. (first prepared in MS. 3 Sept. i860), 1872 ; 
" Weekly Weather Report" first published, 11 Feb. 1878. 

International Meteorological congress at Vienna, 2-16 
Sept. 1873 ; at Rome 14-22 April, 1879 ; and at Berne, 
9-12 Aug. 1880. 

" Weather Charts and Storm Warnings," by R. H. Scott, 
published, 1876 et seq. 

Wrecks diminished in consequence, June 1876-7, 1805 ; 
1S79-81, 891. 

Circular issued relating to a new plan for obtaining in- 
formation from ships at sea, &c, 14 April, 1882. 

Observatory erected on Ben Nevis ; Mr. R. T. Omond 
appointed director, 6 Sept.; opened 17 Oct. 1883. New 
tower erected, 1884. 

A French academy of meteorology organised a successful 
balloon ascent, 9 Aug. 1879. 

An observatory on Sonnblick Salzburg (10,177 feet 
high), opened about 1 Sept. 1886. 

Daily forecasts for midland counties, 1886, 310. Absolute 
successes 247, absolute failures 26, and partial suc- 
cesses 36, announced Times, 7 Feb. 1887. 

Weather plant ( Abrus precatorius) exhibited by professor 
Nowack at Vienna ; changes in the weather said to be 
foretold by alteration in the leaves attributed to electro- 
magnetism in 24 to 48 hours previously, Aug.-Sept. 
1888. The plant is grown in the Botanical society's 
gardens, London. Many other plants possess this 



METEORS. 



METRIC SYSTEM. 



property (W. Sowerby), Sept. 1888. During the experi- 
ments made at the Jodrell laboratory, Kew, by 
Dr Oliver and Herr Joseph Nowack in October, 1889, 
when many weather changes occurred, only one fore- 
cast was given by the weather plant, which therefore 
cannot be relied upon for meteorological purposes. 
Mr. J. F. Nowack maintains the success of his new 
system of forecasting atmospheric, etc., disturbances, 
by it, Times, 13 Dee. 1897. 

International Meteorological Congress at Munich 26 Aug. 

. et seq. 1891 ; at Paris, Sept. 1896 ;' St. Petersburg, 2-7 
Sept. 1899. 

The 13th annual exhibition of meteorological apparatus, 
London, opened 15 March, 1892. 

State observatory established by prof. Assmann of 
Berlin on the Brocken, 1 Oct. 1895. 

Observatory on Mt. Wellington, Tasmania, begun May, 
1895. 

Mr. G. J. Symons, eminent meteorologist (see Rainfall), 
dies 10 March, 1900. 

Sir Cuthbert Peek, scientist and meteorologist, died, 
aged 46, 5 July, 1901. 

Mr. Jas. Glaisher, eminent meteorologist and aeronaut, 
died, aged q3, 7 Feb. 1903. 

See Barometer, Thermometer, &c. 

METEORS, Luminous, include shooting 

stars, fire-balls, and falling stones or aerolites. 
They were described by Halley, Wallis, and others 
early in the 17th century- The periodicity of the 
star showers about the 10th of August (termed in 
the middle ages St. Lawrence's tears) was dis- 
covered separately by Quetelet, 1836, and by Her- 
rick in 1837. The following are remarkable epochs 
for their annual return : —2 Jan.; 29 July; 3 and 
9-12 Aug. ; 8-14N0V. ; 11 Dec. E.F.Greg. See 
[August. 

The magnificent continuous star-shower of 14 Nov. 1866, 
had been predicted by professor Newton some time 
previously. A fine display occurred on the night of 

13 Nov. 1868, in the United States. A similar phenome- 
non had been witnessed by Humboldt at Cumana 
(S.A.), 12 Nov. 1799 ; and by Dr. D. Olmsted, at New- 
haven (U.S.), 13 Nov. 1833. They were well observed in 
Britain and Europe, 27 Nov. 1872 ; and in Southern 
and Western Europe, 27 Nov. 1885. 

Aerolites, falling-stones, accompanying meteors, are 
found in our museums. They contain iron, nickel, and 
other minerals. 

Explosion of an aerolite above Madrid, windows shat- 
tered, houses damaged, etc., 9.29 a.m. 10 Feb. 1896 ; 
another exploded, S. of Cyprus, 18 April, 1896. 

Mr. Norman Lockyer announces his theory, based on 
spectrum experiments that all self-luminous bodies in 
the celestial spaces are composed of meteorites or 
masses of vapour produced by heat brought about by 
condensation of meteor swarms due to gravity ; Royal 
Society, 17 Nov. 1887. A great meteor or fireball seen 
in England, 25 Jan. 1894. 

Dr. G. Johnstone Stoney reported his studies of the 
November meteors, at the Royal Institution, Londou, 

14 Feb. 1879, and 18 Feb. 1897. 

The Leonid meteors well seen at Yerkes observatory, 
Wisconsin, U.S.N.A., 15 Nov. 1898. 

Fall of meteorites at Mt. Zomba, 25 Jan. 1899. 

The non-appearance of the November Leonids attri- 
buted to a change of orbit. — Times, 14 Nov. 1899 > 
a fine meteor or fire-ball seen in the S. of England, 
13 July, 1902. 

A meteorite, about iolb. in weight, fell at Crumlin, co. 
Antrim, 13 Sept. 1902. 

METHOD (Greek, a way of transit), that which 
gives to knowledge its character. S. T. Coleridge's 
treatise on the science of method is prefixed to the 
first volume of the " Encyclopaedia Metropolitana," 
1845. 

The most recent work on this subject is Professor 
Stanley Jevons' " Principles of Science : a Treatise on 
Logic and Scientific Method," 1874. " The powers of 
mind concerned in creation of science are discrimina- 
tion, detection of identity, and retention." 

METHODISTS, see Wesleyans. 



METHUEN TREATY, a treaty for regulat- 
ing the commerce between Great Hri tain and Portu- 
gal, made 27 Dec. 1703, concluded by Paul Methuen, 
our ambassador at Lisbon. It greatly favoured the 
importation of port wine into this country by 
lowering the duty, to the discouragement of French 
wines. It was abrogated in 1834. 

METHYL, a colourless inodorous gas, a com- 
pound of hydrogen and carbon, obtained in the 
free state first by Frankland and Kolbe separately, 
in 1849. 

METHYLATED SPIRITS. By an aet 

passed in 1855 a mixture of spirits of wine with 10 
per cent, of its bulk of wood-naphtha, or methylie 
alcohol, is allowed to be made duty free for use in 
the arts and manufactures, not less than 450 gal- 
lons being made at one time. In 1861 an act was 
passed permitting the methylated spirits to be re- 
tailed by licence. 

METONIC CYCLE, a period of 19 years, 0* 
6940 days, at the end of which the changes of the 
moon fall on the same days ; see Cahppic Period \ 
Golden Number. 

METRIC SYSTEM. Before the revolution 
there was no uniformity in French weights and mea- 
sures. On 8 May, 1790, the constituent assembly 
charged the Academy of Sciences with the organisa- 
tion of a better system. The committee named for 
the purpose by the academy included the names of 
Berthollet, Borda, Delambre, Lagrange, Laplace, 
Mechain, and Prony. Delambre and Mechain were 
charged with the measurement of an arc of the meri- 
dian between Dunkirk and Barcelona, and from their 
calculations the metre, which is equal to a ten-mil- 
lionth part of the distance between the poles and the 
equator (3 '2808 English feet) was made the unit of 
length and the base of the system by law on 7 April,. 
1795. The system was completed in 1799, and made- 
by law the only legal one on 2 Nov. 1801. A decree 
on 12 Feb. accommodated the old measures to the 
new system ; but on 4 July, 1837, it was decreed 
that after 1 Jan. 1840, the metric and decimal 
system in its primitive simplicity should be used in 
all business transactions. The example of France 
has been followed by the greater part of Europe,, 
and will probably in time be adopted in the British 
empire. 

Unit of Surface, cenliare=a square metre=i'i96o. 
English yard (a square decametre or are= 100 square- 
metres). 

Unit of Volume or Solidity, stere=a. cubit metre- 
Unit of Capacity, litre=a cubic decimetre (or 10th of a 
metre)=i 76077 English pint. 

Unit of Weight, </?y«h me = weight of a cubic centimetre- 
(the 100th part of a metre) of distilled water=o'5643S 
English drachm. 

Unit of Money, the franc, a piece of silver weighing 5 
grammes. 

The multiples of these units are expressed by Greek 
numerals (deca-, 10 ; hekato-, 100 ; kilo-, 1000 ; myria-, 
10,000). The divisors are expressed by Latin numerals 
(depi-, 10 ; eenti-, 100 ; milli-, 1000). 

Sir John Wrottesley brought the subject before 
parliament 25 Feb. 182$ 

A commission of inquiry appointed at the instance 
of the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. Spring- 
Rice (since lord Monteagle) . . . May, 183S. 

Another commission was appointed (both consisted 
of eminent scientific men, and reported strongly 
in favour of the change) . . .20 June, 1843, 

A committee of the house of commons reported to 
the same effect 1 Aug. 1853, 

Mr. Gladstone, admitting the advantages of the 
system, thought its introduction premature. 

Decimal Association formed for the purpose of 
obtaining the adoption of the system - June, 1.854 



METRONOME. 



809 



METROPOLITAN COMMONS. 



Another commission for inquiry was appointed, 
consisting of lords Monteagle and Overstone, and 
Mr. J. G. Hubbard, who published a preliminary 
report (with evidence), but expressed no opinion, 

Nov. 1855 i 

An International Decimal Association formed in . ,, I 

The decimal currency adopted in Canada 1 Jan. 1858 

The new weights and measures bill (an approxima- 
tion to the decimal system) was passed . . 1862 

An act passed " to render permissive the use of the 
metric system of weights and measures," 29 July, 1864 
(repealed by weights and measures act, 1878). 

A bill for the compulsory adoption of the metric 
system rejected by the commons . . 26 July, 1871 

Meeting at the Mansion-house, London, advocating 
its adoption 17 Jan. 1872 

International Congress to promote the universal 
adoption of the metric system . . 24Se.pt. ,, 

International convention for adopting metric sys- 
tem, signed at Paris, by representatives of 
Austria, Germany, Russia, Italy, Spain, Portugal, 
Turkey, Switzerland, Belgium, Sweden, Denmark, 
United States of America, Argentine Republic, 
Brazil, and Peru, 20 May, 1875, England . 1884 

The system (to come into force in 1889) adopted by 
Sweden May, 1876 

International congress on weights and measures 
met at Paris 4 Sept. 1878 

Adoption of decimal system ; negatived (108-28) ; 
in the commons '. . . .29 March, 1881 

Delegates from the New .Decimal association, 
chambers of commerce, and other bodies, re- 
ceived by sir W. V. Harcourt, chancellor of the 
exchequer ; he declines taking up the question, 

2^ Jan. 1893 

Metric system adopted by Turkey ; 1 March, 
1896 ; by Russia 1S97 

Report on the working of the system in various 
European countries, Times . . .7 Aug. 1900 

METRONOME, to regulate time in the per- 
formance of music, one patented 1816. 

METROPOLIS of Great Britain in- 
cludes the cities of London and Westminster, and 
the old boroughs of South wark, Finsbury, Maryle- 
bone, Tower- Hamlets, Hackney, Lambeth, and 
Chelsea; great changes made by the re-distribution 
of seats act, 1885, 59 constituencies in all. The 
Metropolis Management Act, 18 & 19 Vict. c. 122, 
was passed in 1855 ; amended (by-laws) act passed, 
1 Aug-. 1899 ; estimated gross value of property, 
6 April, 1903, 49,184,021/.; ratable, 40,610,4.151'. ; 
see London, and London, County of. 

METROPOLIS ROADS ACT (passed in 
1863) transferred the management of certain roads 
north of the Thames from the commissioners to the 
parishes, and abolished certain turnpikes and toll- 
bars. 

METROPOLIS WATER ACT, 1852, 
amended, 1871 ; another, royal a >sent 18 Dec. 1902, 
establishes the Metropolitan Water Hoard to 
acquire, manage, and carry on the undertakings of 
the Metropolitan water companies. 

METROPOLITAN (from the Greek metro- 
polis), a title given at the council of Nice, 325, to 
certain bishops who had jurisdiction over others in 
a province. 

METROPOLITAN ASSOCIATION for 
Improving the Dwellings of the In- 
dustrious CLASSES- Founded 15 Sept. 1841 ; 
incorporated 16 Oct. 1845. 

Capital originally ioo,oooZ. ; increased to 2oo,oooZ. 
(1884). Dividend not to exceed 5 per cent. Secretary, 
and chief originator, Mr. Charles Gatlitf; offices, 118, 
Pinsbury-circus. The late rt. hon. lord Claud Hamilton 
member 1845-84 ; chairman for 13 years. 



METROPOLITAN BOARD of WORKS 

I was established by 18 & 19 Vict. c. 120 (1855),* 

! amended in 1862. It held its first meeting and 

; elected Mr. (aftds. sir) John Thwaites as chairman, 

I 22 Dec. 1855. The office was in Spring-gardens. Ir& 

1858, its powers were extended in order to effect the 

' purification of the Thames by constructing a new 

main drainage for the metropolis. The board was- 

authorised to raise a loan and levy 3d. in the pound 

i on the property in the metropolis. It was also 

I authorised to construct the Thames Embankment, 

In 1861 the board received nearly a million pounds, 

and expended 900,000/. ; see Sewage, and Thames. 

Sir John Thwaites, the chairman, died 8 Aug. 1870, 

aged 55. Much discussion ensued respecting the 

appointment of his successor ; Mr. Bruce, the home 

secretary, having intimated the probability of the 

office being abolished by parliament, with other 

changes, n Aug., Col. (aftds. sir) James Mae- 

naghten McGarel Hogg (created baron Maghera- 

I morne, June, 1887), a member of the board, was 

elected chairman for one year, 18 Nov. 1870 ; 

annually till 1889 (he died 27 June, 1890). The 

; board was empowered to borrow money by acts 

passed 1869-87. Its powers extended over 117 

square miles, and 3,266,287 persons in 1873. It was 

' com posed of delegates from various local boards, &c. 

Royal commission of inquiry into the working of 
the board appointed by parliament, 1888. Lord 
Herschell chairman ; charges against Messrs. 
Robertson, Goddard, and others ; many dismissed 

June-July, I88S 1 . 

The commissioners' "interim" report discloses 
cases of negligence, inefficiency, irregularities, 
errors in judgment, and some evidence of 
corruption Nov. ,, 

The eminent engineer of the Board, sir Joseph 
Bazalgette, appointed 1856; resigns Feb. 1889; 
he died 15 March, 1S93 

The board was abolished by the local government 
act of 1888, and its powers, duties, property, 
debts and liabilities transferred to the London 
county council, beginning 21 April, 1889 ; carried 
into effect by the local government board, 

21 March, ,., 

The board accepted a tender for the construction 
of a tunnel from Blackwall to Greenwich for 
318,840^. from Messrs. S. Pearson & Sons, 

15 March, „ 

Final report of the commission issued . 4 May ,, 



METROPOLITAN BUILDING ACTS, 

see Building. 

METROPOLITAN CATTLE MARKET, 

inaugurated by the lord mayor and corporation on 
Wednesday, 13 July, 1855, in presence of the prince 
consort. It is situated in Copenhagen-fields, am 
elevated site north of London, occupying an area of 
about fifteen acres, larger by nine acres than Smith- 
field, and capable of containing 30,000 sheep, 6400 
bullocks, 1400 calves, and 900 pigs. In the centre 
is a circular building, let to bankers and others 
having business connected with graziers and cattle- 
agents. Within and around the market are erected 
several large taverns. A place is set apart for 
slaughtering animals, with approved appliances for 
purposes of health, by ventilation, sewerage, &c. ; 
there is also a place for haystands. Sales com- 
menced on Friday, 15 June, 1855. — An act fo» 
establishing a meat and poultry market in Smith- 
field (which see) was passed in i860. 

METROPOLITAN COMMONS. Acts re- 
specting them passed 1866, 1869, and 1878. See 
Commons. 

* " For the management of public works in which the 
metropolis has a common interest." 



METROPOLITAN. 



810 



METZ. 



METROPOLITAN CONVALESCENT 
INSTITUTION, Fire Brigade, and 

HOUSELESS POOR. See Convalescent, Fire 
Brigade, and Houseless Poor. 

METROPOLITAN DISTRICT ASY- 
LUMS BOARD, instituted by parliament in 1867, 
proceeded to erect hospitals at Haverstock-hill, 
Caterham, &c, 1868, causing much discontent in 
several parishes. The asylum for idiots at Leaves- 
den, near Watford, Herts, inaugurated 27 Sept. 
1870. An act respecting the board passed in 1884. 
The epidemic of fevers, especially scarlet, caused 

greatly increased demand for accommodation for 

patients, well met Sept. 1887-Jan. 1888. The 

spread of small-pox greatly checked. 
Cases of infectious diseases notified to the managers. 
Epidemic of small-pox, Aug. 1901.. 945 cases, in 

London hospitals ; 28 Jan., i,S54 I 1 April, 1,362, 

579 12 July, 1902 

See Scarlet Fever. 
Cost to board of small-pox epidemic, 1901-2, 

491,1592., reported 21 Feb. 1903 

METROPOLITAN DRAINAGE, see 

Sewers. 

METROPOLITAN DRINKING FOUN- 
TAIN and Cattle Trough Association ; 

founded 1859. See Drinking Fountains. 

METROPOLITAN MEAT MARKET, 

Smithfield, erected in accordance with an act passed 
in i860, was inaugurated by the lord mayor, James 
Lawrence, 24 Nov. 1868, and opened for business, 
I Dec. 

METROPOLITAN MUNICIPAL ASSO- 
CIATION met 11 Dec. 1866. 

METROPOLITAN POLICE ACTS, 1829 
et seq. s consolidated in 1887 ; amended 1898. 

METROPOLITAN POLICE MAGIS- 
TRATES, see Magistrates and Police. 

METROPOLITAN POOR ACT, "for the 
establishment in the metropolis of asylums for the 
sick, insane, and other classes of the poor," passed 
29 March, 1867; was amended in 1869; see Poor. 

METROPOLITAN RAILWAY {Under- 
ground), at first between Paddington and Victoria- 
street, near Holborn. The act for it passed in 1853 ; 
the construction began in the spring of i860 ; and it 
was opened for traffic, 10 Jan. 1863. Many serious 
difficulties were overcome with great skill and 
energy by the engineer, John Fowler (knt. 1885 ; 
died, 20 Nov. 1898), and the contractors, Jay. 
Smith, and Knight. In the first six months of 
1865 there were 7,462,823 passengers. It has been 
continued, and there is now an Inner and Outer 
Circle, and it has been supplemented by the Metro- 
politan District Railway. 

. METROPOLITAN SCHOOL BOARD, 

mstituted by the Elementary Education act, 1870, 
was elected 29 Nov. 1870 (for three years). It in- 
cluded lord Lawrence, lord Sandon, professor Hux- 
ley, Miss Garrett, M.U., and Miss Davies. At its 
first meeting, 15 Dec, lord Lawrence was elected 
chairman, and Mr. C. Reed, M.P., vice-chairman; 
On 27 Nov. 1873, 3° Nov. 1876, and 27 Nov. 1879, 
Mr. (afterwards sir) Charles Heed was elected 
chairman. He died 25 March, 1881, succeeded by 
Mr. Edwd. North Buxton. Rev. J. R. Diggfe 
elected chairman, 3 Dec. 1885; re-elected 4 Dec. 
1888, and 3 Dec. 1891 ; lord George Hamilton 
elected chairman, 6 Dec. 1894 ! l° ru Keay elected 
chairman, 2 Dec. 1897. For history, &c, see 
Education, 1870 et scq. Its powers transferred to 
the London Couivy Council by London Education 
Act, 1903. 



METROPOLITAN STREETS ACT 

(30 & 31 Vict. c. 134) " for regulating the traffic in 
the metropolis, and for making provision for the 
greater security of persons passing through the 
streets," passed 20 Aug. 1867. A short act, modi- 
fying the clauses relating to costermongers and cabs, 
was passed 7 Dec. 1867. 

METTRAY, see Reformatory Schools. 

METZ, a fortified city in Lorraine, annexed to 
the empire of Germany, 10 May, 187 1. It was 
the Roman Divodunum or Meti, capital of the 
Mediomatrici, a powerful Gaulish tribe, and after- 
wards of the kingdom of Austrasia, or Metz, in the 
6th century. It was made a free imperial city, 985. 
It was besieged by Charles VII. of France for seven 
months in 1444, and was ransomed for 100,000 
florins ; was captured by Henry II., 10 April, 1552, 
and successfully defended by the duke of Guise 
against the emperor Charles V. with an army of 
100,000 men, 31 Oct. 1552 to 15 Jan. 1553. Metz 
was ceded to France by the peace of Westphalia, 
24 Oct. 1648, and was fortified by Vaubanand Belle- 
isle. On 28 July, 1870, the emperor Napoleon III. 
arrived at Metz and assumed the chief command. 
After the disastrous defeats at Woerth and Forbach, 
on 6 Aug. the whole French army (except the corps 
of MacMahon, De Failly, and Douay) was concen- 
trated here, 10, 11 Aug., and by delay was hemmed 
in by the Germans. Marshal Bazaine assumed the 
chief command, 8 Aug. The emperor departed with 
the vanguard, which crossed the Moselle early on 
14 Aug. Population, 1890, 60,194; 1900,58,424. 

1. Battle of Pange or Oourcelles, gained by the 

first army under Von Steinmetz, after several 
hours' fighting, with great German loss, 

14 Aug. 1870 
Bazaine was censured for not advancing on 

15 Aug. ,, 

2. Battle of Vionville or Mars-la-Tour, gained by 

the 2nd army under prince Frederick Charles, 
after twelve hours' fighting. By the unex- 
pected unmasking of a mitrailleuse battery, 
Henry, prince of Reuss, and many German 
nobles were killed in a few moments. The 
victory was at first claimed by the French. 
(This battle, the most sanguinary in the war 
hitherto, included a Balaclava charge of a 
German regiment of cavalry upon a French 
battery, by which it was decimated, but to 
which the victory was greatly due. Twice as 
many Germans were killed as at Kbniggratz, 
the killed and wounded being estimated at 
17,000. The French loss was said to have 
been equally great) . . . 16 Aug. ,, 
Bazaine masses his troops for a decisive conflict, 

17 Aug. „ 

3. Battle of Rezonville or Gravelotte, gained by 

the combined istand 2nd armies, commanded 
by the king in person, after twelve hours' 
fighting. " The most desperate struggle took 
place on the slopes over Gravelotte, which 
the Germans gained by nightfall, after re- 
peated fatal charges ; the fortune of the day 
being long in suspense. But the right of the 
French had been outflanked, they fell back 
fighting to the last, and retired under cover 
of Metz. The French are said to have lost 
19,000; and the Germans, 25,000. " (The king, 
on the 19th, had not undressed for thirty 
hours. The carnage is considered to have 
been unexampled ; a large number of French 
prisoners were made ; and enormous loss was 
experienced by the imperial guard. The Ger- 
man army included Saxons and Hessians), 

18 Aug. „ 
Bazaine repulsed in a sortie at Courcelles, near Metz 

(he claimed a victory) ... 26 Aug. ,, i 

His whole army defeated by gen. Manteuflel of the 
army of prince Frederick Charles, in a battle 
lasting from the morning of 31 Aug. to noon, 

i Sept. ,, i 



MEXICO. 



Sll 



MEXICO. 



Von Steinmetz sent to govern Posen ; prince 
Frederick Charles sole commander before Metz, 

21 Sept. 1870 

Three vigorous but ineffective sallies, 

23, 24, 27 Sept. ,, 

About 100,000 soldiers estimated in Metz, 30 Sept. ,, 

Great sortie ; the Germans surprised ; about 40,000 
French engaged ; they are repulsed after a severe 
engagement from 3 p.m. till dark ; loss about 2000 
French and 600 Germans ... 7 Oct. ., 

About 600 oxen and 500 sheep captured during a 
sortie 8 Oct. ,, 

General Boyer arrives at Versailles to treat for 
terms of capitulation . . . . 14 Oct. ,, 

Metz surrenders with the army, including marshals 
Bazaine, Canrobert, and Le Bceuf ; 66 generals ; 
about 6000 officers ; 173,000 men, including the 
imperial guard ; 400 pieces of artillery ; 100 
mitrailleuses ; and 53 eagles or standards, 27 Oct. ,, 

The capitulation was signed at Frescati by generals 
Jarras and Stiehle on behalf of the French and 
German commanders . . . . 27 Oct. „ 

General order to the armyissued by marshalBazaine, 
saying that they were "conquered by famine," 

27 Oct. ,, 

Order to the army issued by prince Frederick 
Charles, recognising their bravery, great obedi- 
ence, calmness, cheerfulness, and devotion, 

27 Oct. ,, 

The Germans enter Metz ... 29 Oct. ,, 

One cause of the fall of Metz was the great army it 
contained ; it might have been successfully de- 
fended by 20,000 men. 

Marshal Bazaine was tried and condemned to death 
for surrendering Metz and the army, 6 Oct.- 
10 Dec. ; punishment commuted to 20 years' 
imprisonment, 12 Dee. ; he escaped from Isle St. 
Marguerite 9 Aug. 1874 

The German emperor and empress were well re- 
ceived at Metz, 23 Aug. 1889 ; the emperor holds 

a military review 18 May, 1901 

See France. 

MEXICO, anciently Anahuac, N. America, is 
said to have been conquered by the Aztecs, who 
founded the city of Mexico about 1325. It was dis- 
covered in 1517, and conquered by Fernando Cortez, 
1519-21; explored by Alexander von Humboldt, 
1799-1804. It consists of 27 confederate states. It 
is stated that there have been above 260 insurrec- 
tions in Mexico since 1821. Population, 1874, 
about 9,276,079 ; 10,447,974 in 1882 ; 1895, 
12,588,497 : the city, Mexico, 44,377, 1895 ; 1900, 
about 13,545,462 : city, about 400,000, 1901. 

Montezuma emperor 1503 

Cortes lands, 1519 ; captures the city of Mexico . 1521 
Mexico constituted a kingdom. Cortes, governor . 1522 
Mendoza, first viceroy of New Spain, 1530; estab- 
lishes a mint ... .... 1535 

Unsuccessful insurrections of Miguel Hidalgo, 1810 ; 

of Morelos, 1815; ofMina 1817 

Mexico declared independent by the treaty oT 

Aquala 23 Aug. 1821 

Augustin Iturbide, president of a provisional junto, 
Feb. ; Mexico formed into an empire ; the crown 
declined by Spain ; Iturbide made emperor, May, 1822 
Compelled to abdicate .... 26 March, 1823 
Mexican federal republic proclaimed . 4 Oct. ,, 
Iturbide went to England ; returns and endeavours 

to recover his dignity ; shot . . .19 July, 1824 
Federal constitution established . . . Oct. ,, 
Treaty of commerce with Great Britain April, 1825 

Expulsion of the Spaniards decreed . March, 1829 

Spanish expedition against Mexico surrendered, 

26 Sept. ,, 
Mexican revolution: the president Guerrero de- 
posed 23 Dec. „ 

Santa Anna president 11 May, 1833 

Independence of Mexico recognised by Brazil, 

June, 1830; by Spain . . . 28 Dec. 1836 

Declaration of war against France . . 30 Nov. 1838 
This war terminated .... 9 March, 1839 
War with the United States . . . 4 June, 1845 



The Mexicans defeated at Palo Alto, and at Mata- 
moras . . . . . . . 8 May, 1846 

Santa Fe captured, 22 Aug. ; and Monterey, 24 Sept. ,, 

Battle of Buena Vista ; the Mexicans defeated by 
general Taylor, with great loss, after two days' 
fighting 22 Feb 1847 

The Americans, under general Scott, defeat the 
Mexicans at Cerro Gorda . . .18 April, ,, 

The Mexicans beaten in several actions; Mexico 
taken by assault by general Scott . 15 Sept. ,, 

Treaty of peace ratified .... 19 May, 1848 

Political convulsions .... Sept. 1852 

President Arista resigns, 6 Jan. ; and Santa Anna 
returns, Feb. ; dictator . . . 16 Dec. 1853 

He abdicates ; Carera elected president . Jan. 1855 

Who also abdicates ; succeeded first by Alvarez, 
and afterwards by general Comonfort . Dec. ,, 

Property of the clergy sequestrated . 31 March, 1856 

New constitution established . . .5 Feb. 1857 

Beginning of a reformed Church by Aguilar and 
others ,, 

Comonfort chosen president . . . July, ,, 

Coup d'etat ; constitution annulled by the church 
party; Comonfort compelled to retire, n Jan.; 
general Zuloaga takes the government, 21-26 Jan. 1858 

Benito Juarez declared constitutional president at 
Vera Cruz 11 Feb. ,, 

Civil war: several engagements . Aug. to Nov. ,, 

General Miguel Miramon nominated president at 
Mexico by the Junta 6 Jan. 1859 

Zuloaga abdicates 2 Feb. ,, 

In consequence of injury to British subjects, ships 
of war sent to Mexico .... Feb. ,, 

Miramon forces the lines of the liberal generals, 
enters the capital, assumes his functions as 
governor, and governs without respect to the 
laws of life and property . . . 10 April, ,, 

Juarez confiscates the church property 13 July, ,, 

Miramon and the clerical party defeat the liberals 
under Colima 21 Dec. ,, 

He besieges Vera Cruz, 5 March; bombards it; 
compelled to raise the siege . . 21 March, i860 

General Zuloaga deposes Miramon, and assumes 
the presidency .... 1 May, ,, 

Miramon arrests Zuloaga, 9 May; the diplomatic 
bodies suspend official relations with the former, 

10 May, ,, 

Miramon defeated by Degollado . . 10 Aug. „ 

He governs Mexico with great tyranny; seizes 
152,000?. belonging to English bondholders, Sept. ; 
the foreign ministers quit the city . . Oct. ,, 

He is defeated ; compelled to retire ; Juarez enters 
Mexico, n Jan. ; re-elected president . . 19 Jan. 1861 

Juarez made dictator by the congress . 30 June, ,, 

The Mexican congress decides to suspend payments 
to foreigners for two years . . 17 July, „ 

Which leads to the breaking off diplomatic relations 
with England and France . . 27 July, ,, 

In consequence of many gross outrages on foreign- 
ers, the British, French, and Spanish govern- 
ments, after much vain negotiation, claiming 
efficient protection of foreigners, and the payment 
of arrears due to fundholders, sign a convention 
engaging to combined hostile operations against 
Mexico 3 1 Oct. ,, 

The Mexican congress dissolves, after conferring 
full powers on the president . . 15 Dec. ,, 

Spanish troops land at Vera Cruz, 8 Dec. ; it sur- 
renders 17 Dec. ,, 

A British naval and French military expedition 
arrives 7, 8 Jan. 1862 

The Mexicans resist, and invest Vera Cruz; their 
taxes raised 25 per cent Jan. ,, 

Miramon arrives, but is sent back to Spain by 
the British admiral Feb. „ 

Project of establishing a Mexican monarchy, for 
archduke Maximilian of Austria, disapproved of 
by British and Spanish governments . Feb. ,, 

Negotiation ensues between the Spanish and Mexi- 
cans ; convention between the commissaries of 
the allies and the Mexican general Doblado, at 
Soledad 19 Feb. ,, 

The Mexican general Marquez takes up arms 
against Juarez ; and general Almonte joins the 
French general Lorencez ; Juarez demands a com- 
pulsory loan, and puts Mexico in a state of siege, 

March, ,, 



MEXICO. 



812 



MEXICO. 



Conference between plenipotentiaries of the allies 
at Orizaba; theEnglish and Spanish declare for 
peace, which is not agreed to by the French, 
9 April; who declare war against Juarez, 

16 April, i8£ 
The Spanish and British forces retire ; the French 
government sends reinforcements to Lorencez, 

May, ,, 
The French, induced by Marquez, advance into 
the interior; severely repulsed by Zaragoza, at 
Fort Guadaloupe, near Puebla '. . 5 May, ,, 
Juarez quits the capital ... 31 May, ,, 

The French defeat the Mexicans at Cerro de Borg'o, 

near Orizaba 13, 14 June, ,, 

The Mexican liberals said to be desirous of nego- 
tiation Au». 

Gen. Forey and 2500 French soldiers land 28 Aug. ,',' 
Letter from the emperor Napoleon to Lorencez 
disclaiming any intention of imposing a govern- 
ment on Mexico ; announced . . Sept. ,, 
Death of Zaragoza, a great loss to the Mexicans, 

8 Sept. „ 
Gen. Forey deprives Almonte of the presidency at 
Vera Cruz, and appropriates the civil and mili- 
tary power to himself .... Oct. 
Ortega takes command of the Mexicans 19 Oct. ',', 
The Mexican congress assembles, and protests 
against the French invasion . . .27 Oct. 
The French evacuate Tampico . . 13 Jan. 186 
Forey marches towards Mexico . . .24 Feb. 
Siege of Puebla; bravely defended, 29 March; 
severe assault, 31 March to 3 April ; it is sur- 
rendered at discretion by Ortega . . 18 May, 
Juarez and the republican government remove to 
San Luis de Potosi . . . .31 May 
Mexico occupied by the French, under Bazaine, 
5 June ; Forey and his army enter, 10 June ; pro- 
visional government 

Assembly of notables at Mexico decide on the es- 
tablishment of a limited hereditary monarchy, 
with a Roman Catholic prince as emperor; and 
offer the crown to the archduke Maximilian of 
Austria : a regency established . . 6-10 July, 
The French re-occupy Tampico . . uAug. 
Marshal Forey resigns his command to Bazaine, 
and returns to France . . . . 1 Oct. 
The archduke Maximilian will accept the crown if 
it be the will of the people ... 3 Oct 
The Mexican general Coinonfort surprised and shot 

by partisans 12 Nov. 

Successful advance of the imperialists ; Juarez 

retires from San Luis de Potosi, 18 Dec. ; it is 

entered by the imperialists . . . 24 Dee. 

The French occupy various places Jan. & Feb! 1864 

The ex-president, general Santa Anna, lands at 

Vera Cruz, professing adhesion to the empire, 

27 Feb. ; dismissed by Bazaine . 12 March, 

Juarez enters Monterey, which becomes the seat of ' 

the republican government ... 3 April 
The archduke Maximilian definitively accepts the ' 

crown from the Mexican deputation at Miramar, 

m, , 10 April, ,, 

The emperor and empress land at Vera Cruz, 29 May • 

enter the city of Mexico . . . 12 June' 

The emperor visits the interior; grants a free press! ' 

Auo-' 
The republicans defeat the imperialists at San Pedro, ' 

Juarez, at Chihuahua, exhorts the Mexicans to " 
maintain their independence . 1 Jan 1865 

The emperor institutes the order of the Mexican 
eagle 

Surrender of Oaxaca to marshal Bazaine ' 9 Feb! " 

A constitution promulgated . . 10 April' ' 

Ortega, at New York, enlists recruits for the repub- 
lican army, May ; discountenanced by the U. P. 
government June 

Anniversary of Mexican independence; descend- 
ants of Iturbide made princesses, &c. 16 Sept 

The emperor proclaims the end of the war, and ' 
martial law against all armed bands of men ; 
much indignation excited ... 2 Oct. 

Juarist generals taken prisoners ; shot . 16 Oct ", 

The American government protests against the 
French occupation .... Nov. -Dec. 

Presidency of Juarez expires ; he determines to 
continue to act, 30 Nov. ; he flies to Texas, 20 Dec. 



1866 



Bagdad, on the Rio Grande, seized by American 
Juarists, 4, 5 Jan. ; occupied by the American 
general Weitzel, 5 Jan. ; his conduct disavowed ; 
and Bagdad re-occupied by imperialists, 20 Jan. 
Ministerial changes . . . March-April, 
Emperor Napoleon agrees to withdraw all his sol- 
diers from Mexico between Nov. 1866 and Nov. 1867 

April, ,, 
Guerilla warfare going on, numerous conflicts, with 

varying success .... March-May, „ 
Matamoras captured by the liberals, under Escobedo, 

23, 24 June, ,, 
The empress Charlotte departs for France, 13 July ; 
conspiracy against the government suppressed, 

15-17 July, ,, 
Convention between Maximilian and the French ; 
transfer of the receipts of the customs to France, 

30 July, ,, 
Juarez and his party take Tampico . . 1 Aug. ,, 
The Americans disallow Maximilian's blockade of 

Matamoras 17 Aug. , r 

Dissension among the liberals ; three rival presi- 
dents, Juarez, Ortega, and Santa Anna, 

Sept. -Oct „ 
The empress solicits help from France, in vain, 

Sept. ; she falls ill Oct. ,, 

Firm speech of emperor Maximilian . . 19 Sept. ,, 
Emperor leaves Mexico for Orizaba ; giving autho- 
rity to Bazaine Oct. ,, 

The French evacuate several places . . Nov. ,, 
Imperial council at Orizaba determine to maintain 

the empire 24 Nov. ,, 

Death of Augustin Iturbide . . . 11 Dec. ,, 
Maximilian, at the head of the army, arrives at 

Queretaro iq Feb. 1867 

Departure of the French, 13 Jan., 5 Feb., 14 March, „ 
Contest for supremacy between Juarez, Diaz, and 

Ortega April. „ 

Queretaro, after many conflicts, captured by 

treachery ; Mendez shot . . . .15 May, ,, 
Emperor Maximilian, Miramon, and. Mejia, after 

trial, shot 19 June, , ? 

Mexico city taken after 67 days' siege ; republic re- 
established 21 June, ,, 

Surrender of Vera Cruz .... 25 June, (> 
Santa Anna captured ; detained a prisoner July, ,, 
J uarez enters Mexico ; convokes the assembly to 

elect a president .... 14, 15 July, ,. 

Marquez and others said to be organising resistance 

to Juarez Aug. ,, 

Numerous executions ; reign of terror, Aug. et seii. ,, 
Porfirio Diaz said to be nominated for the presidency, 

Sept. „ 
Santa Anna sentenced to eight years' banishment, 

Oct. ,,' 
Maximilian's body given up to the Austrian admiral 

Tegethotf 26 Nov. ,, 

Mexican congress opened ; Juarez acting as provi- 
sional president; foreign consuls said to be leaving, 

8 Dec. ,, 
Juarez re-elected president . . . Dec. 
Juarez inaugurated as president . about 25 Dec. 
Maximilian's body buried at Vienna . 18 Jan. 
Rebellion against Juarez in Yucatan and other pro- 
vinces Jan. -Feb. „ 

Hasty blockade of Mazatlan by capt. Bridge of 
H.M.S. CluuUklecr, for an outrage 20 June ; 
raised by admiral Hastings . . . July, „ 
Treaty with United States adopted . . Dec. ,, 

Insurrection at Puebla suppressed . . Feb. 1869 
General Almonte dies at Paris . . March, ,, 

Encounter between Mexicans and United States 
troops who had pursued some Indian depreda- 
tors ; about 40 Americans killed ; reported, 

12 April, 1873 
Election for president ; Diaz, 1982 votes ; Juarez, 
1963 ; Lerdo, 1366 ; Juarez retains the power, 

27 July, ,, 

Insurrections arise Aug. ,, 

Insurrection headed by Negrete, Riveras, and 

others, suppressed with much slaughter 12 Oct. ,, 
Juarez re-elected president .... Oct. „ 
Insurgents under Porfirio Diaz twice defeated ; 

announced Jan. 

Civil war going on with varying success, April-June,, 
Rebels nearly subdued . . . . 1 July, 
Death of Benito Juarez (aged about 68) by apoplexy 

18 July, 



1868 



1872 



MEXICO. 



813 



MICHIGAN. 



The country tranquil ; Diaz accepts the amnesty ; 
announced . . . . . .14 Aug. 

Lerdo de Tejado (of good character) elected presi- 
dent, Oct. ; Diaz submits .... Nov. 

Railway from Mexico city to Vera Cruz completed ; 
runs 23 Jan. 

Customs' tariffs liberalised . . . July, 

A senate voted by the Congress . . . Aug. 

Religious orders suppressed . . . Dec. 

Religious disturbances : Catholic outrages on Pro- 
testants .... . . Jan. 

Insurrection by Porflrio Diaz, March ; he takes 
Matamoras 1 April, 

Progress of reformed church ; union with episcopal 
church of United States proposed . April, 

Insurgents defeated at Oaxaca, 29 May ; at Quere- 
taro . June, 

Death of Santa Anna, ex-president . . 20 June, 

Diaz defeats the government troops at Tekoar, 
12 Nov. ; enters Mexico, assumes power as provi- 
sional president Nov. 20 

President Lerdo de Tejado retires ; Iglesias takes 
arms as president .... Dec. 

Diaz defeats Iglesias, who retreats ; Diaz elected 
president, 18 Feb. ; proclaimed . . 5 May, 

Brief rebellion ; about 80 hanged ; announced, 

28 Dec. 

Insurrection of Negrete ; Diaz marches against 
him ; becomes president . . .16 June, 

Manuel Gonzalez elected, 11 July ; succeeds 1 Dec. 

About 200 lives lost through precipitation of train 
on San Morelos railway into the river near 
Cuartla, through fall of bridge, night of 24 June, 

Increase of railways constructed by Americans 

British envoy re-appointed (sir Spencer St. John), 
June ; received 17 July, 

Remains of an ancient city discovered in Sonora, 
near Magdalena, including a great pyramid, 
rooms cut in a stony mountain, implements, &c. 
and hieroglyphic inscriptions .... 

Diplomatic relations with Great Britain resumed, 
announced, Aug. 

Concession obtained from the Mexican government 
by Mr. James B. Eades for 99 years for the con- 
struction ot a railway for the conveyance of ships 
across the isthmus ; estimated cost, 15,000,000^. ; 
model exhibited at Long Acre, London . Aug. 

Riots in Mexico city on account of conversion of 
English debt ; bloodshed ... 18 Nov. 

Porflrio Diaz inaugurated president . . 1 Dec. 

Impending state insolvency through public works 
speculations ; funding debts and loan proposed ; 
much dissatisfaction .... June, 

Insurrection at Nuevo Leon suppressed, Dec. 1885 ; 
another insurrection, Guerro captured, insurgents 
signally defeated ; disturbances between the 
people of El Paso and the Texaus ; interference 
of the United States and Mexican governments, 

July, 

Mr. Cutting, an American journalist in Texas, 
imprisoned for libel ; the U.S. government inter- 
venes, July- Aug. ; Mr. Cutting released 23 Aug. 

Inundations through heavy rains ; great loss of 
life, especially at Leon and Silas 17-20 June, 

Wreck of an excursion steamer on Lake Chapala ; 
loss of 50 lives March, 

Two companies of soldiers, while bathing, mas- 
sacred by Yaqui Indians from Sonora ; the 
government send 4,000 men to punish the In- 
dians, announced 12 Oct. 

Famine in the agricultural districts, government 
assistance given, reported ... 10 Dec. 

Insurrection ; gen. Lorenzo Garcia killed by his 
troops, who join the rebels under Garza in Texas ; 
he captures 45 soldiers and kills 4 officers, re- 
ported 31 Dec. 1891 ; Garza's band dispersed, re- 
ported 4 Jan. 1892 ; Diaz re-elected president 

1 1 July, 

Indian rising suppressed, with slaughter, reported, 

25 Oct. 

Conflicts on the frontier, with varying success, 

about 28 Dec. 

Gen. Urez shot as a rebel ... 6 Feb. 

Renewed war with the Yaqui Indians, reported 

18 June, 

Destructive storm in the gulf of Mexico ; about 
1,000 lives lost 2 Oct. 



1872 



1873 
1874 



1875 
1876 



1877 



Between Temamatla and Tenango (inter-oceanic 
railway) a train goes over a precipice ; 140 lives 

lost 28 Feb. 1895 

Boundary dispute between Mexico and Guatemala 
settled, reported .... 2 April, „ 

Pres. Diaz re-elected 1 Dec. 1896 

Boundary dispute with Gt. Britain settled, April, 1897 
Joaquin Arroyo, for attempting the life of the 
president, 16 Sept. ; assassinated by the police, 

17 Sept. ,, 
Ten police officials sentenced to death, one to im- 
prisonment, reported . . . .23 Nov. ,, 
The Banco Central Mexicano, with a share capital 

of 6,000,000 dols., constituted . . 6 Feb. 1899 
New 5 per cent. Mexican Loan successful, reported, 

14 July, ,, 
Hostilities against the Indians in Yucatan, mid 

Sept. „ 
The Yaqui Indians defeated in 2 fierce battles ; 

much slaughter, reported ... 25 Sept. ,, 
President Diaz re-elected, announced . 3 Oct. 1900 

Diplomatic relations with Austria resumed . April, 1901 
Great progress, peace and order, reported . Aug. „ 
Californian pious fund case settled by the Hague 
arbitration court ; 1,420,682 dollars awarded to 
the United States ; Mexico also to pay 43,051 

dollars per annum 14 Oct. 1902 

Sir W. Pearson & Son procure a concession to 
establish an electric generator at a cost of 
12,000,000 dols. in the mountains of Puebla, to 
transmit electricity, 8o,oco horse-power, to the 
city, reported 27 Dec. ,, 

EMPERORS. 

1822. Aug. Augustin Iturbide, Feb. ; abdicated 23 
March, 1823 ; shot for attempting to recover his 
authority, 19 July, 1824. 

1864. Maximilian (brother to the emperor of Austria), 
born 6 July, 1832 ; accepted the crown, ic 
April, 1864 ; married 27 July, 1857, to princess 
Charlotte, daughter of Leopold I., king of the 
Belgians ; adopted Augustin Iturbide as his 
heir, Sept. 1865 ; shot (after a trial), 19 June, 
1867. 

MEZZOTINTO, see Engraving. 

MHOW COUET-MARTIAL, see Trials, 

Nov. 1863. 

MICHAEL, St., and GEOEGE, St. 

This order of knighthood, founded lor the Ionian 
Isles and Malta, 27 April, 18 18, was reorganised in 
March, 1869, in order to admit servants of the 
crown connected with the colonies. Among the 
first of the new knights were the earl of Derby, earl 
Russell, and earl Grey. Order enlarged 30 Oct. 
1932. Knights grand cross increased to 100, 
knights commanders to 300, companions to 600. 
See Knights. 

MICHAELMAS, 29 Sept., the feast of St. 
Michael, the reputed guardian of the Eoman 
Catholic church, under the title of "St. Michael 
and All Angels." Instituted, according to Butler, 
487. 

The custom of eating goose at Michaelmas has been 
erroneously attributed to Queen Elizabeth's eating of 
the bird at dinner on 29 Sept. 1588, at the house of sir 
Neville Umfreyville, at the time she heard of the 
destruction of the Spanish Armada. The custom is of 
much older date, and is observed on the continent. 
Clavis Calendaria. 

MICHAEL'S MOUNT, St. (Cornwall), is 
considered by some to be the Iktis of Diodorus 
Siculus, and an ancient resort of the tin merchants. 
St. Michael was said to have appeared on the 
mount, 495 or 710; and the place, thus reputed 
holy, became the seat of a body of monks, who 
received a charter from Edward the Confessor, 
1044, and many privileges from pope Gregory VII., 
1079. 

MICHIGAN, a north-west state of N. America, 
settled by the French, 1670; admitted into the union, 
26 Jan. 1837. Capital, Lansing. Lumber trade 



MICROBES. 



814 



MIDIAN. 



and manufacture of furniture the leading indus- 
tries. At Grand Rapids half-year fairs are held. 
Buyers come from all parts of the world. Popula- 
tion, 1880, 1,636,937 ; 1900, 2,420,982. 
About 500 persons perish and 10,000 made homeless 

by destructive forest fires on . . 5 Sept. 1881 
Great fire at Grandhaven, 41 buildings destroyed, 

about 30 Sept. 1889 
Explosion at Messrs. Farriwold's dynamite factory 

at White Pigeon, 16 men killed . . 3 Sept. 1891 
Subsidence in a mine near Crystal Falls ; about 40 

deaths 28 Sept. 1893 

Ontonagon destroyed by fire, great loss, 1,800 in- 
habitants destitute . . . .25 Aug. 1896 
University founded 1837. Library contains 133,000 

vols. 3,441 students 1900 

MICEOBES, see Germ. 

MICROMETER, an astronomical instrument 
used to measure any small distances and the minuter 
objects in the heaven s, such as the apparent dia- 
meters of the planets, &c, was invented by ¥m. 
Gascoigne, who was killed at the battle of Marston- 
moor, 2 July, 1644. It was improved by Huyghens 
about 1652. Sir Joseph Whit worth made a ma- 
chine to measure the millionth of an inch, about 
1858 ; the measurement of the 30,000th of an inch 
is now common. Dr. Carpenter measured a fila- 
ment, the breadth being the 200,000th part of an 
inch, 1879. 

MICROPHONE (Greek, mihros, little ; phone, 
sound), a name given by Wheatstone, in 1827, to an 
instrument for rendering weak sounds audible by 
means of solid rods. The name was also given to 
an arrangement invented (in Dec. 1877) by pro- 
fessor D. E. Hughes (inventor of the type-writing 
telegraph, born in London 16 May, 1831, died 22 
Jan. 1900), and shown to the Royal Society, 9 May, 
1878. 

MICROPHITE, a microscopic plant, especially 
parasitic ; some physiologists consider bacteria and 
bacilli to be microphites, 1890. 

MICROSCOPES, . said to have been in- 
vented by Jansen, in Holland, about 1590 ; by 
Galileo, about 1610; by Fontana, in Italy, and 
by Drebbel, in Holland, about 1621. Those 
with double glasses were made at the period 
when the law of refraction was discovered, about 
1624. Solar microscopes were invented by Dr. 
Hooke. In England great improvements were made 
in the microscope by Benjamin Martin (who in- 
vented and sold pocket microscopes about 1740), by 
Henry Baker, F.R.S., about 1763, and still greater 
during the present century by Wollaston, Ross, 
Jackson, Varley, Hugh Powell, and others. Diamond 
microscopes were made by Andrew Pritchard in 
1824 ; and the properties of "test objects " to prove 
the qualities of microscopes, discovered by him and 
Goring in 1824-40. A binocular microscope {i.e., for 
two eyes) was constructed by professor Riddell in 
185 1, and "Weuham's binocular prism was made 
known in 1861. Nachet's stereoscopic microscope, 
1867; Abbe' s orthoscopic and pseudoscopic, 1881. 
Treatises on the microscope by J. Quekett (1848), by 
Dr. W. B. Carpenter (1856-1902), and Griffith and 
Henfrey's " Micrograph ic Dictionary" (1856,1875, 
and 1883), are valuable. The Microscopical Society 
of London was established 20 Dec. 1839, and the 
Quekett Microscopical Club, 1865. In 1865 Mr. H. 
Sorby exhibited his spectrum microscope, by which 
the millionth of a grain of blood was detected. 

MICROTOME, an instrument for cutting 
minute sections of organic tissue for the microscope, 
invented, 1885, by prof. Wm. Rutherford (who died, 
21 Feb. 1899) ; improved by Dr. Paul Meyer and 
others. 



MIDDLE AGES, see Dark Ages. 

MIDDLE-CLASS EXAMINATIONAL 
SCHOOLS, see Education (1858, and 1865-8). 
Middle-Class Education Corporation, established in 

1866, for education of children of clerks and others in 

similar ranks of life. Building in Cowper-street 

London. 

MIDDLE-LEVELS, see Levels. 

MIDDLESBROUGH, N. Riding of York- 
shire, on the Tees, a coal port and a chief seat of the 
iron manufacture, the first house erected by George 
Chapman, April, 1830. New dock, and literary and 
scientific institution opened, Oct. 1875. Mr. Henry 
W. F. Bolckow and John Vaughan, heads of great 
iron-works (Mr. Bolckow, the first mayor and M.P., 
died 18 June, 1878). The prosperity of the Cleve- 
land district, which had greatly declined since 1874, 
began to revive in the autumn of 1879. At the 
jubilee celebration, 6 Oct. 1881, a bust of Mr. 
Bolckow was unveiled; and one of Mr. Vaughan 
was unveiled 2 June, 1884. See under Steel. Popu- 
lation, 1861, 18,992; 1881, 55.934; 1891, 7S,5i6; 
1901, 91,317. 

South Gare breakwater, nearly i\ miles long, 
begun in 1864, opened by the right hon. W. H. 

Smith 25 Oct. 1888 

A town hall &c. opened by the prince and princess 

of Wales 23 Jan. 1889 

Stoppage of the firm of Messrs. Downey & Co., iron 

manufacturers 28 March, 1892 

Great distress in the district through the Durham 
miners' strike, April et seq. ; relieved by subscrip- 
tions in London, &c. . . . May, June, ,, 
Boiler explosion at Warrenby ; nine deaths ; esti- 
mated damage, 50,000?. ; 400 persons thrown out 
of employment 14 June, 1895 

MIDDLESEX, the metropolitan county of 
England, was the seat of the Trinobantes in the 
Roman province, Flavia Canadensis, and the Mid- 
del-Sexe, or Middle Saxons, in the kingdom of 
East-Sexne, or Essex. Lionel Cranfield was crea- 
ted earl of Middlesex, 16 Sept. 1622 ; succeeded by 
his sons, James, 1645-51; Lionel, 1651-74, when 
the title became extinct. Charles Sackville was 
made earl in 1675; anc ' n ^ s son became duke of 
Dorset in 1720. Area of the county formerly 
181,301 acres; population, 1901, 3,585,139. By the 
Local Government Act, 188S, which came into 
force in 1902, 31,484 acres (including South 
Hornsey) were given over to London, and 771 to 
Hertfordshire. Middlesex now has au area of 
178,754 acres ; population, 1901, 810,213. 
Middlesex returns forty-eight M.P's. by act passed 

25 June, 1S85 
The Middlesex county record society was estab- 
lished in 1884. It has issued four volumes con- 
taining session rolls, &c. (1549 et seq.) 1888, 1892. 
The earl of Strafford, lord lieutenant, president 1888 
The Middlesex sessions now held at the Guildhall, 
Westminster ; the county of London sessions 
held at Clerkenwell since „ 

MIDDLESEX HOSPITAL, London, 
founded, 1745; incorporated, 1836; cancer ward 
endowed, 1791 . Cancer research laboratories 
opened, Nov, 1900. 

MIDIAN, now Arz MAD IAN, N. W. Arabia ; 
anciently held by the descendants of Midian, a son 
of Abraham. Having enticed the Israelites to idol- 
atry, they were severely chastised, 1452 B.C. They 
invaded Canaan about 1249 B.C., and were tho- 
roughly defeated by Gideon. 

Capt. Richard F. Burton explored the ruined cities of 
Midian in 1S77, and found the remains of ancient 
mines, many relics, and gold. An expedition, equipped 
by the khedive of Egypt, and placed under his com- 



MIDLAND INSTITUTE. 



815 



MILITAEY LANDS ACT. 



mand, started from Suez, 10 Dec. 1877, and returned 
20 April, 1878. He brought home 25 tons of geological 
specimens, specimens of silver and copper ore, many 
coins and other antiquities, and photographs of the 
remains of ruined cities, &c. 

MIDLAND INSTITUTE, Birmingham, 

incorporated 1854. 

MIDLAND BAILWAY STATION, St. 

Pancras, N. London, possessing the largest known 
roof in the world (245 feet 6 inches wide, and 698 
feet long), was opened for traffic I Oct. 1868. The 
engineer was Mr. H. W. Barlow. The architect of 
the magnificent Gothic hotel was sir G. Gilbert Scott. 

MIDWIFEEY. Women were the only practi- 
tioners among the Hebrews and Egyptians. Hippo- 
crates, in Greece, 460 B.C., is styled the father of 
midwifery, as well as of physic. It advanced 
under Celsus, who nourished A.d. 37, and of Galen, 
wbo lived 131. In England midwifery became a 
science about the period of the institution of the 
college of physicians, 10 Hen. VII. 15 18. Dr. 
Harvey engaged in the practice of it, about 1603 ; 
Astruc affirms that madame de la Valliere, mistress 
of Louis XIV., in 1663, employed Julian Clement, 
a surgeon, with great secrecy, Midwives Act, royal 
assent, 31 July, 1902. 

MILAN, Mediolanum, capital of the ancient 
Liguria, now Lombardy, is reputed to have been 
built by the Gauls, about 408 B.C. The cathedral, 
termed duomo, was built about 1385. Population, 
1890, 414,551 ; 1900, 498,681. 

Conquered by the Roman consul Marcellus . B.C. 222 
Seat of government of the western empire . a.d. 286 

Council of Milan 346 

St. Ambrose, bishop of Milan 375 

Milan plundered by Attila 452 

Included in the Ostrogothic kingdom, 489 ; in the 

Lombard kingdom 569 

Becomes an independent republic .... 1101 
The emperor Frederic I. takes Milan, and appoints 

a podesta 1158 

It rebels ; is taken by Frederic and its fortifications 

destroyed 1162 

Rebuilt and fortified 1169 

The Milanese defeated by the emp. Frederic II. . 1237 
The Visconti become paramount in Milan . . . 1277 
John Galeazzo Visconti takes the title of duke . 1395 
Francesco Sforza, son-in-law of the last of the Vis- 
conti, subdues Milan and becomes duke . . . 1450 
Milan conquered by Louis XII. of France . . 1499 
The French expelled by the Spaniards . . . 1525 
Milan annexed to the crown of Spain . . . 1540 
Great plague alleviated by the archbishop Bor- 

romeo 1576 

Milan ceded to Austria 1714 

Conquered by the French and Spaniards . . . 1743 
Reverts to Austria, upon Naples and Sicily being 

ceded to Spain . . - 1748 

Seized by the French .... 30 June, 1796 

Retaken by the Austrian s 1799 

Regained by the French ... 31 May, 1800 
Made the capital of the kingdom of Italy, and Napo • 

leon Bonaparte crowned with the iron crown here, 

26 May, 1805 
The Milan decree of Napoleon against all continental 

intercourse with England . . -17 Dec. 1807 
Insurrection against the Austrians ; flight of the 

viceroy 18 March, 1848 

Surrenders to the Austrians ... 5 Aug. ,, 
Treaty of peace between Austria and Sardinia, 

6 Aug. 1849 
Another revolt promptly suppressed and rigorously 

punished 6 Feb. et seq. 1853 

Milan visited by the emperor of Austria . Nov. 1856 
Amnesty for political offences granted . Dec. 1857 
After the defeat of the Austrians at Magenta, 4 June, 

Napoleon III. and the king of Sardinia enter Milan, 

8 June, 1859 
Peace of Villafranca ; a large part of Lombardy 

transferred to Sardinia . . . 12 July, ,, 



1867 
1872 
1875 



1900 
1903 



Victor-Emmanuel enters Milan as king . 8 Aug. 
Reactionary plots of Neapolitan soldiery suppressed, 

29, 30 April, 
The Victor-Emmanuel gallery opened by the king, 

15 Sept. 
The arts exhibition opened by the king 26 Aug. 
Visit of the emperor of Germany . . 18-23 Oct. 
The Mentana Memorial inaugurated by Garibaldi', 

4 Nov. 
National exhibition, opened by the king 5 May, 
St. Gothard line to Milan, opened .... 
Visit of the emperor William II. . . ig Oct. 
First performance of Verdi's operas : Otello, 6 Feb. 

1887 ; Falstaff g Feb. 

United exhibitions opened by the king and queen, 

6 May, 

Monument to Victor Emmanuel unveiled by the 

king .... 24 June, 

Electric tramways, 1893 ; 80 miles held by the 

corporation 

Great Are, several persons injured, much damage 

to property 2 Sept. 

See Italy. 

MILETUS, a Greek city of Ionia, Asia Minor, 
founded about 1043 B.C. The Milesians defended 
themselves successfully, 623-612 B.C. During the 
war with Persia it was taken, 494, but restored, 
449. Here Paul delivered his celebrated charge 
to the elders of the church of Ephesus, a.d. 60 
{Acts xx.). 

MILFOBD HAVEN (S.W. Pembroke). 
The finest natural harbour in the kingdom. Mil- 
ford is a parliamentary borough, has extensive 
docks, is competing for the trade with America. 
Here the earl of Bichmond, afterwards Henry VI L, 
landed on his way to encounter Eichard III., whom 
he defeated at Bosworth, 1485. The packets from 
this port to Ireland, sailing to Waterford, were 
established in 1787. The dock-yard, established 
here in 1 790, was removed higher up the haven 
to Pembroke in 18 14. Sham naval fights here 
16 Aug. et seq. 1886. 

Milford Haven adopted as an Atlantic terminus by 
the Anchor line company; their steamer, the 
City of Rome, arrives .... 24 Oct. 1889 

MILITAEY ASYLUM, Eoyal, at Chelsea, 
"for the children of the soldiers of the regular 
army." The first stone was laid by the duke of 
York, 19 June, 1801. 

MILITAEY EDUCATION, see Army, 
June, 1868. 

MILITAEY EXHIBITION, Eoyal, 

Chelsea, president the duke of Cambridge, was 
opened by the prince of Wales, with the princess, 
the duke of Edinburgh, and other distinguished 
persons, 7 May, 1890; visited by the queen, 4 July. 
The exhibition consisted of the industrial work of 
the soldiers, articles of military equipment, pictures 
lent, and other objects of interest; military sports, 
drills, &c. Mr. Spencer's strong war balloon 
ascended 10 May, et seq. The exhibition was 
intended to promote the increase of soldiers' insti- 
tutes in towns. 

The exhibition closed 1 Now 1890 

The profits were reported to be 9,744?. . 9 May, 1891 
Exhibition at Earl's-court opened by the duke of 

Cambridge 4 May, 1901 

A military tournament is annually held at the 

Agricultural Hall in May. See Riding, and 

Tournaments. 

MILITAEY KNIGHTS of WINDSOB, 

see Poor Knights of Windsor. 

MILITAEY LANDS ACT, passed 27 June, 
1892 ; amended, 1897. See Commons. 



MILITAEY LAW. 



816 



MINDEN. 



MILITAEY or MAETIAL LAW is built 
on no settled principle, but is entirely arbitrary, 
and, in truth, no law ; but sometimes indulged, 
rather than allowed, as law. Sir Matthew Male. 
It has been several times proclaimed in parts of 
these kingdoms, and in 1798 was almost general in 
Ireland, where it was also proclaimed in 1803. 
Military manoeuvres act passed, 1897. Military 
works act passed, 1897; another, 1899- The lung's 
regulations and orders promulgated, 1901. 

MILITIA, the standing national force of these 
realms, is traced to king Alfred, who made all his 
subjects soldiers, 872-901 . See Army Defence. 
Commission of array to raise a militia . . .1122 

Revived by Henry II "7° 

Again revived *557 

Said to amount to 160,000 men . . . . 1623 

The militia statutes 1661 to 1663 

Supplemental militia act passed . . . . 179° 
Irish militia offered its services in England, 

28 March, 1804 
General militia act for England and Scotland, 1802 ; 

for Ireland . . . • ■ ■ • . ■ ; l8oQ 
Enactment authorising courts-martial to inflict 

imprisonment instead of flogging passed . . 181 4 
Acts to consolidate the militia laws . 1852 -54, 1882 
Militia embodied on account of the Russian war, 

1854 • on account of the Indian mutiny, 1857 ; and 

on account of the war in the Soudan . 18 Feb. 1885 

Militia reserve act passed 1867 

Militia in 1872, 139,018; 1875, 149. 33°: 1877, i34,5°°; 

in 1884, 82,525 ; in 1886, 108,196 ; in 1887, 110,488 ; 

1888, 141,593 ; 1890, 113.163; 1893, 124,692 ; 1899, 

MUitia (volunteers) Enlistment Act, consolidating 
and amending the laws passed . . n Aug- 1875 

A committee on the state of the militia reported, 
Feb 1890 greatly increased efficiency since 1850. 

Militia embodied on account of the S. African war, 
May 1900 ; 99,000 were under arms ; 22,000 were 
sent 'abroad ; Militia and Yeomanry bill passed, 

16 Dec. 1902 

MILITIA OF JESUS, a society of Roman 
Catholic youth of France and Italy, formed to sup- 
port the papal cause by moral agencies, became 
known in 1877. 

MILK. The type of food as containing all 
things needful for the development of the animal 
body! A process for its condensation was in- 
vented by Mr. Gail Borden, near New York, in 
1849, for which he was awarded a medal at the 
Great Exhibition in 185 1, when he erected factories. 
He invented meat biscuit, 1 850. The Anglo- Swiss 
•condensed milk company was established in 1866; 
and since then the Aylesbury and other companit s. 
Typhoid fever is held to be propagated by milk ; 
epidemics in various parts of the country have 
been traced to infected dairies. The first in- 
stance was in London . . . Aug., Sept. 1873 

MILKY WAY (Galaxy) in the heavens. 
Juno is said by the Greek poets to have spilt her 
milk in the heavens after suckling Mercury or 
Hercules. Democritus (about 428 B.C.) taught that 
the via laclea consisted of stars, which Galileo 
.(1610-42) proved by the telescope. See Stars, 1892. 

MILLBANK PENITENTIAEY, West- 
minster. The very unhealthy site was purchased 
of the Grosvenor family. The building, a modifi- 

* This militia act was consequent upon the then pre- 
vailing opinion of the necessity of strengthening our 
national defences against the possibility of French 
invasion The act empowered her majesty to raise a 
force not exceeding 80,000 men, of which number 50,000 
were to be raised in 1852, and 30,000 in 1855 ; the quotas 
for each county or riding to be fixed by an order in 
council. 



cation of Jeremy Bentham's Panopticon {which 
see), first received convicts 27 June, 1816. 

In consequence of many deaths during a great epi- 
demic the convicts were placed in Woolwich hulks, 
1822-3. On 16 June, 1843, a committee reported the 
penitentiary a failure. The system was abolished in 
parliament, and the building styled Millbank prison ; 
made a military prison, 1870. 

The buildings ordered to be pulled down and site sold, 
1888. 

It was finally closed 6 Nov. 1890.' 

Management of the site transferred to the board of 
works, by act passed in 1892. 

Building taken down and blocks of artizans' dwellings 
erected by the London County Council, 1893. 

The National Gallery of British Art, the Tate Gallery, 
built and presented to the nation by Sir Henry Tate 
(died 1899), 1897 ; enlarged 1899. 

MILLENAEIANS (or Chiliasts) suppose that 
the world will end at the expiration of the seven 
thousandth year from the creation; and that during 
a thousand years (millennium) Christ and the saints 
will reign upon the earth ; see Rev. xx. The 
doctrine was very generally inculcated in the 2nd 
and 3rd centuries, by Papias, Justin Martyr and 
others. 

MILLENAEY PETITION, presented to 
king James on his accession, 1603, on behalf of 
nearly a thousand Puritan ministers against the 
'' human rites and ceremonies " of the church of 
England. 

MILLS. Moses forbade mill-stones to be taken 
in pawn, because it would belike taking a man's 
life to pledge. Dent. xxiv. 6. The hand-mill was 
in use among the Britons previously to the con- 
quest by the Romans. The Romans introduced the 
water-mill. Cotton mills moved by water were 
erected by sir Richard Arkwright, at Cromford, 
Derbyshire. He died in 1792. See Mechanics. 
Mill- work exhibition at the Agricultural Hall, 
London, N. 10-18 May, 188 1. 

MILWAUKEE. A town in Wisconsin, 
North America, founded 1835. The New Hall hotel 
was burnt 4 a.m. 10 Jan. 1883, when about 109 
persons perished. George Scheller, lessee of the 
bar-room, arrested for arson about 17 Jan. 1883. 
Population, 1890, 204,486; 1900, 285,315. Great 
fire at the Union oil works ; 600 buildings 
destroyed; estimated loss about 5,826,000 dollars, 
28 Oct. 1892. 

MINCTO, a river of Lombardy. Here the 
Austrians were repulsed by the French under 
Brune, 25-27 Dec. 1800; and by Eugene Beau- 
harnais, 8 Feb. 18 14, near Valeggio. 

MIND-CUBE. A sect termed Christian 
Scientists in Boston, U.S., led by Mrs. M. B. (J. 
Kddy, professes to cure bodily diseases by acting on 
the "mind through the body, &c, 1866, e't seq. See 
Trials, Dec. 1898. The sect increasing in (jermany; 
1,000,000 cases said to be cured in the United 
States within 25 years, reported, 6 May, 1902. 

MINDEN (Prussia), BATTLE OF, I Aug. 
1759, between the English, Hessians, and Hano- 
verians (under prince Ferdinand of Brunswick), 
and the French (under marshal De Contades), who 
were beaten and driven to the ramparts of Minden. 
Lord George Sackville (afterwards lord George 
Germain) who commanded the British and Hano- 
verian horse, for some disobedience of orders was 
tried by a court-martial on his return to England, 
found guilty, and dismissed, 22 April, 1 760. He 
was afterwards restored to favour, and became 
secretary of state, 1776. 



MINERALOGY. 



817 



MINNESINGERS. 



MINERALOGY, the science of minerals, is 
a branch of geolcgy ; see Geology, Mines, and 
Crystallography . It was not muc i studied by the 
ancients. George Agricola in the 16th century 
made the first attempt to treat it scientifically. 

The study of mineralogy was advanced by Becker, 

Kircher, and Woodward in the 17th century. 
A British Mineralogieal Society established in . . 1800 
Hatty's ''Traite de Mineralogie" appeared in . . 1801 
Mineralogieal society of Great Britain held first 

meeting in London, 3 Feb. 1876, and others since. 
Another society termed itself h, k, I, Miller's 

symbol for the face of a crystal .... 1876 
James D. Dana's "System of Mineralogy," 6th 

edition, extended by E. S. Dana .... 1899 

MINERVA, see Parthenon and Athens. 

MINES. Strabo and Tacitus enumerate gold 
and silver as among the products of Britain. The 
earliest instance of a claim to a mine royal being 
enforced occurs 47 Hen. III. 1262. It related to 
mines containing gold, together with copper, in 
Devonshire. In Edward I.'s reign, according to 
Mr. Raiding, the mines in Ireland, which produced 
silver, were supposed to be so rich that the king 
directed a writ for working them to Robert de 
Ufford, lord justice, 1276. The lead mines of Cardi- 
ganshire, from which silver has ever since been ex- 
tracted, were discovered by sir Hugh Middleton in 
the reign of James I. ; see Goal, and the various 
metals. Average depth of mines (1891) 400 yards. 
Deep mines : Ashton Moss colliery, near Man- 
chester, 2,850 ft. ; part 3,000 ft. ; copper mine, 
Calumet, near lake Superior, U.S., 3,900ft. (1890) ; 
silver-lead mine, Przibram in Bohemia, 3,432 ft. 
Chambers' Encyclopaedia, 1891. 

Mining Journal established . . .29 Aug. 1835 

The Royal School of Mines, &c, Jermyn-street, 
St. James's, opened in .... Nov. 1851 

An act for the regulation of mines passed in . . i860 

A Miners' Protection Association proposed by Mr. 
William Gurney and others in . . March, 1862 

Value of the total mineral produce of the United 
Kingdom estimated at 29,155,701?. in 1854; 
31,680,581?. , 1859 ; 41, 521,7051, 1868; 46,094,600?., 
1870; 69,041, 158?. , 1873; 63,737,881?., 1879; 
88,042,4572., 1881 ; 58,653, 689Z., 1887 ; 100,802,657/., 
1890; 80,900,825?., 1894; 78,738,947?., 1896; 
87,701,975?., 1898; 117,309,892?., 1899; 160,604,800?., 
1900. 

Miners' conference, for amelioration of their con- 
dition, held at Merthyr Tydvil ; well conducted ; 
Mr. Halliday president .... Oct. 1871 

Lord Aberdare's Metalliferous Mines Regulation 
act passed 10 Aug. 1872 

The Amalgamated Association of Miners begun in 
Lancashire about 1869, held a conference at New- 
port, 1872 ; at Bristol . . . .8 Oct. 1873 

Royal commission on mines (see under Coal) ap- 
pointed, Feb. 1879. Report issued . Nov. 1881 

A miners' national conference on wages, &c. ; opened 
at Birmingham, 20 April, 1881 ; at Manchester, 
29 Aug. 1882, and frequently at other places. 

Miners' association of Northumberland vote against 
continuance of payments to their M.P's, Messrs 
Burt and Fenwick, 19 Sept. ; vote rescinded, 
Nov. 1887 ; further agitation on the subject ; 
again rescinded April, 1888 

National Miners' Federation annual conferences, 
1889 ; Birmingham, 22 Jan. etseq. 1890 ; Birming- 
ham, 7 Jan. 1891 ; Stoke-on-Trent, 12 Jan. 1892 ; 
Birmingham, 11 Jan. 1893; Leicester, 16 Jan. 
1894 ; Birmingham, 8 Jan. 1895 ; Leicester, 5 Jan. 
1897 ; Bristol, 4 Jan. 1898 ; Edinburgh, 10 Jan. 
1899 ; Cardiff, 9 Jan. 1900 ; Birmingham, 1 Oct. 
1901 ; Southport 7 Oct. 1902 

International exhibition of mining and metallurgy, 
Crystal palace . . . . 28 July — n Oct. 1890 

Institute of Mining Engineers met at Nottingham, 
24 Sept. 1890 ; at other places since. 



International congress of miners at Jolimont, Bel- 
gium, 20-24 May, 1890 ; at Paris, 31 March-4 
April, 1891 ; at Westminster, 7-10 June, 1892 ; 
at Brussels, 22 May, 1893 ; at Berlin, 14-19 May, 
25 1894 ; at Paris, 3-7 June, 1895 ; Aix-la-Chapelle, 
May, 1896 ; London, 7 June, 1897 ; Vienna, 1 Aug. 
1898 ; Brussels, 22 May, 1899 ; Paris, 25 June, 
1900 ; London, 27 May, i_,oi ; Diisseldof, 19 May, 1902 
See Coal 1889 et seq. 

Persons employed in mines in the United Kingdom, 
1888, 592,696; 1891, 707,411; 1900, 814,517; 1901, 
839,178 ; 1902, 855,603. 

By the flooding of Wheal Owles, a Cornish tin 
mine, 20 men were drowned . . 10 Jan. 1893 

Royal commission on mining royalties, earl 
Nortlibrook, chairman, appointed, 1889 ; final 
report and evidence relating to the act of 1872, 
&c, signed 24 March, 1893 

The first annual report on the mineral industry of 
the United Kingdom (1894) by Dr. C. Le Neve 
Foster, published, Jan. 1896 ; second part, Aug. 1898 

Miners' conciliation board, 1st meeting, London, 
advance of 5 per cent, on the standard of 1888, 
conceded 27 Jan. 1899 

The mines (prohibition of child labour under- 
ground) act passed .... 30 July, 1900 

Committee appointed to inquire into the use of 
electricity in mines .... Oct. 1902 

Accidents in mines, see under Coal. 

MINGRELIA, the ancient Colchis, mentioned 
in the legend of " Jason, the Argonauts, and the 
Golden Fleece." A province of Asiatic Russia, 
prince Nicolas having ceded his rights to the Czar 
in 1867. I n 1887 the prince was spoken of as a 
candidate for the Bulgarian throne. 

MINIATURE PAINTING was practised 
in England by Holbein, Isaac, and Peter Oliver, 
and others in the 16th century ; by other eminent 
artists since. The new Society of Miniature 
Painters, president, Mr. Alyn-Williams, opened its 
first exhibition at 175, New Bond-street, London, 
23 Sept. 1896. "The Society of Miniaturists,'' 
president, lord Ronald Gower, 1st exhibition, at 
the Grafton Galleries, London, 14 Nov. 1896. Sir 
Wm. Ross, 1 794-1860, may be said to be the last 
miniaturist. 

MINIE RIFLE, invented at Vincennes, about 
1833, by M. Minie (born 1810). From a common 
soldier he raised himself to the rank of chef 
d'escadron. His rifle, considered to surpass all 
made previous to it, was adopted by the French, 
and, with modifications, by the British, 1852. 

MINIMIZERS. A name given to certain 
writers who advocate the limitation of the sove- 
reign power of the state as much as possible to the 
protection of life and property, which is styled 
by professor Huxley "administrative nihilism." 
They include "W. von Humboldt, J. S. Mill (in his 
"Essay on Liberty "), and Mr. Herbert Spencer 
(in his "Political Institutions"), 1882. 

MINIMS (from minimi, the least), an order of 
monks, founded by S. Francisco di Paolo (1416— 
1507), in Calabria, received their name, as profes- 
sing themselves inferior to the Minorites (from 
minor, less) ; see Franciscans. St. Francis died 
in France in 1507; where he had established houses 
of his order. 

MINISTERS, see Administrations. 

MINISTERS in Scotland : church patronage 
was abolished in 1874. 

MINNESINGERS, lyric German poets, of 
the 12th and 13th centuries, who sang of love and 
war to entertain knights and barons of the time. 
The Meister singers, their successors, an incorporated 

3 a 






MINNESOTA. 



818 



MISSAL. 



fraternity in the 14th century, composed satirical 
ballads for the amusement of the citizens and lower 
classes. Hans Sachs, a shoemaker (1494-1576), a 
poet of the reformation, was for a time their dean. 
His works were published at Nuremberg, 1560. 
"Owleglass" and "Reynard the Fox," are attri- 
buted to the Meistersingers. 

MINNESOTA, a western state of N. America, 
was organised as a territory, 3 March, 1849, and 
admitted into the union in 1858. On 17 Aug. 1862, 
the Sioux Indians commenced a series of outrages 
at Acton in Messier county, desolating the country 
and massacring above 500 persons, of both sexes, 
and of all ages. General Sibley beat the Indians 
in two battles and rescued many captives. Thirty- 
eight Indians were executed as assassins. Capital, 
St. Paul. 

The great Tribune buildings at Minneapolis were 
burnt, about 20 persons perished, 30 Nov. 1889 ; 
another fire, 3 deaths ; estimated loss, 2,000,000 
dollars 13 Aug. 1893 

Tornado, much destruction and loss of life in St. 
Paul and the neighbourhood ; the Sea-King, 
steamer, on lake Pekin upset, about 100 persons 
drowned, and many others in small boats ; total 
loss about 250 13 July, 1890 

Destructive tornado with loss of life 15, 16 June, 1892 

Destructive forest fires ; see United States, 31 Aug.- 
3 Sept. 1894. 

Bill passed forbidding the marriage of insane, 
epileptic and idiotic persons, and requiring a 
medical certificate of applicants for marriage 
licences April, 1901 

Dr. Whipple, bp. of Minnesota, friend and champion 
to the Indians, died, aged 79 . about 3 Oct. ,, 

Population, 1880, 780,773; 1890, 1,301,826 ; 1900, 
i,75i,394- 

MINORCA and MAJORCA, the Balearic 
Isles (ivhich see). Port Mahon in Minorca was 
captured by lieutenant-general Stanhope and sir 
John Leake in 1708, and was ceded to the British 
by the treaty of Utrecht in 17 13. It was retaken 
by the Spanish and French in July, 1756, and 
admiral Byng fell a victim to public indignation 
for not relieving it; see Byng. It was restored to 
the British at the peace in 1763; taken 5 Feb. 
1782 ; again captured by the British under general 
Stuart, without the loss of a man, 15 Nov. 1798; 
given up at the peace of Amiens, 25 March, 1802. 

MINORITIES. In the new reform bill, 
passed 15 Aug. 1867, provision was made for the 
representation of minorities in constituencies with 
three members by limiting each elector to two votes. 
It was introduced as an amendment by lord Cairns 
in the lords, 30 July, and accepted by the commons, 
Aug. 1867. The principle was adopted in a new 
constitution by the state of Illinois, U.S., July, 
1870. See Proportional Representation. 

MINSTER, or MONASTERIUM, a place oc- 
cupied by monks; see Westminster and York. 
" The Minster," an illustrated monthly magazine, 
supported by the archbishop of Canterbury, sir 
Benjamin. Baker, and other eminent persons ; 
No. 1, Jan. 1895. 

MINSTRELS, originally pipers appointed by 
lords of manors to divert their copyholders while at 
work, owed their origin to the glee men or harpers 
of the Saxons, and continued till about it;6o. John 
of Gaunt erected a court of minstrels at Tutbury in 
1380. So late as the reign of Henry VIII. they 
intruded without ceremony into all companies, even 
at the houses of the nobility ; but in Elizabeth's 
reign they were adjudged rogues and vagabonds 
0597)- 



MINT. Athelstan enacted regulations for the 
government of the mint about 928. There were- 
several provincial mints under the control of that 
of London. Henry I. is said to have instituted a 
mint at Winchester, 1125. Stow says the mint was 
kept by Italians, the English being ignorant of 
the art of coining, 7 Edw. I. 1278. The operators 
were formed into a corporation by the charter of 
king Edward J1L, in which condition it consisted 
of the warden, master, comptroller, assay-master, 
workers, coiners, and subordinates. The first entry 
of gold brought to the mint for coinage occurs in 
18 Edw. III. 1343. Tin was coined by Charles II. 
1684; and gun-metal and pewter by his successor 
James after his abdication. Sir Isaac Newton was 
warden, 1699- 1727, during which time the debaseil 
coin was called in, and new issued at the loss of 
the government. Between 1806 and 1810, grants 
amounting to 262,000/. were made by parliament 
for the erection of the present mint, which was 
completed in 1810; it was injured by lire, 31 Oct, 
1815. The new constitution of the mint, founded 
on the report of the hon. Wellesley Pole, took 
effect in 1817. Professor Thomas Graham, the 
master of the mint, died 16 Sept. 1869. By the 
Coinage Act, passed 4 April, 1870, the office was 
combined with that of the chancellor of the ex- 
chequer, the duties being transferred to the deputy- 
master (Sir C. W. Fremantle), k.c.b., i Jan. 1890," 
resigned, Sept. 1894; succeeded by Mr. Horace 
Seymour, made k.c.b. June, and died 25 June, 
IQ02 ; Mr. W. E. Macartney appointed Jan. 1903. 
(Sir VV'm. Roberts-Austen, chemist and assayer 
since 1870, died 22 Nov. 1902.) After reorganisa- 
tion, the work was resumed, 8 Dec. 1882. See Coin. 

MASTERS OF THE MINT. 



181 7. Wellesley Pole. 
1823. Thomas Wallace. 

1827. George Tierney. 

1828. J. C. Herries. 
1830. Lord Auckland. 

1834. James Abercrombie. 

1835. Alexander Baring. 
,, Henry Labouchere. 



1 84 1. William E. Glad- 
stone. 

1845. Sir George Clerk. 

1846. Richard L. Sheil. 
1850. Sir John F. HerscheJ, 

F.R.S. 

1855. Thomas Graham, 

F.R.S. 



MINUET, a French dance, said to have been 
first danced by Louis XIV., 1653. 

MINUS, see Plus. 

MIRACLE PLAYS, see under Drama. 

MIRIDITES, or MlRDlTES, see Turkey, 
1877. 

MIRRORS. In ancient times mirrors were 
made of metal ; those of the Jewish women of 
brass. Mirrors of silver were introduced by Praxi- 
teles 4th century B.C. Minors or looking-glasses 
were made at Venice, a.d. 1300 ; and in England, 
at Lambeth, near London, in 1673. The improve- 
ments in manufacturing plate-glass, and that of 
very large size, have cheapened looking-glasses very 
much. Various methods of coating glass by a 
solution of silver, thus avoiding the use of mer- 
cury, so injurious to the health of the workmen, 
have been made known ; by M. Petitjean in 1851 \. 
by M. Cimeg in 1861, and b} r Liebig and others. 

MISCHNA, see Talmud. 

MISERERE {Psalm li.) sung at Rome in the 
" TenebrcB," the service in Holy or Passion Week, 
in a peculiarly effective manner, to old music. One 
arrangement is by Costanzo Festa, dated 15 1 ~- 

MISSAL, or MASS BOOK, the Romanist 
ritual compiled by pope Gelasius 1. 492-6 ; revised 
by Gregory I. 590-604. Various missals were in 



MISSING WORD COMPETITION. 819 



MITRAILLEUSE. 



use till the Roman missal was adopted by the coun- 
cil of Trent, 1545-63. The missal was super- 
seded in England by the book of common prayer, 
1549- 

MISSING WORD COMPETITION. 

See Lotteries, 1893, and Trials, 1899. 

MISSIONARY BISHOPS, see under 
Bishops. 

MISSIONS,* see Mark xvi. 15. Among the 
Romanists, the religious orders of St. Dominic, St. 
Francis, St. Augustin, &c, have missions to the 
Levant and to America. Marco Polo is said to have 
introduced missionaries into China, 1275. The 
Jesuits have missions to China (which see) and to 
most other parts of the world. Among the l'rotes- 
tants, an early undertaking of this kind was a 
Danish mission, planned by Frederick IV. in 1706. 
The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in 
foreign parts was established 1 701, and the Mora- 
vian Brethren encouraged missions about 1732. 
The London Missionary Society held their first 
meeting, 4 Nov. 1794 (1st mis -ion sent to the South 
Sea Islands in the Buff, 1796) ; centenary cele- 
brated, 15 Jan. 1895. Most Christian sects now 
support missions. British Contributions to Foreign 
Missions: 1871,855,742^. (in 1871-7, 6,977,586;.). 
Nearly 3,000,000^. spent in the world on missions 
in 1900. 

Great congress of protestant missions in London ; a 
large number ot societies represented ; the earl of 
Aberdeen president, 9-19 June, 1888. 

Commander Allan Gardner, R. N. , who left England in 
the Ocean Queen in Sept. 1850, on the Patagonian mis- 
sion, with Mr. Williams, surgeon, Mr. Maidment, 
eatechist, and four others, died on Picton Island, at 
the mouth of the Beagle Channel, to the south of 
Tierra del Fuego, having been starved to death ; all 
his companions having previously perished, 6 Sept. 
1851. 

M. Schoffler, a missionary to Cochin-China, was publicly 
executed at Son-Tay, by order of the grand mandarin, 
for preaching Christianity, such preaching being pro- 
hibited by the law of that country, 4 May, 1851. 

MISSISSIPPI, a great river, N. America, 
explored by De Soto about 1541. Captain Glazier 
discovered its source, 1884. Its length is now stated 
to be 2,960 miles. The Mississippi trade was begun 
in England, in Nov. 1716. Law's Mississippi scheme 
in France, commenced about the same period, ex- 
ploded in 1720; at which time the nominal capital 
is said to have amounted to 100,000,000^. The ruin 
of thousands soon followed. See Law's Bubble. 
Population, 1880, 1,131,597; 1890, 1,289,600; 1900, 

1,551,270. 
The great Eads bridge at St. Louis opened, 4 July, 1874 
By the explosion of the boiler of the Corona at 
Port Hudson on the Mississippi, 43 persons 

perished 3 Oct. 1889 

The North American state, Mississippi, was settled 
in 1716 ; admitted as a state of the union, 1817 ; 
seceded from it by ordinance, 8 Jan. 1861 ; sub- 
mitted, 1865. Capital, Jackson. 
About 85,000 persons made homeless through floods 

in the lower Mississippi valley early in March, 1882 
The Mississippi valley suffers much by frequent 
inundations ; one was very disastrous in March, 
April, 1890, when thousands of square miles were 
submerged, many towns isolated, and communi- 
cations cutoff. Louisiana suffered much in April 
following. 150,000 dollars voted by congress to 
relieve the sufferers .... 25 April, 1890 

* Missions, "a series of sermons, generally by a 
' missioner,' or special preacher, often followed by con- 
fessions and communions " (a species of revivalism), 
were authorised in the metropolis by the bishops of 
London, Winchester, and Rochester, held 1869 and 
since. 



Grenada nearly destroyed by fire . . 14 Jan. 1891 
The great cantilever bridge, 3 miles long, at Mem- 
phis, joining Tennessee and Arkansas, completed; 
cost, 6oo,oooL, announced . . n April, 1892 
Destructive floods ; about 250 lives lost, about 13 
April et seq. ; about 1,500 sq. miles covered near 
St. Louis ; 11 million dollars estimated loss ; 
great loss of life ; floods abating . . 25 May, ,, 
Great rising of the river .... May, 1893 
Destructive floods in central and southern Missis- 
sippi ; towns isolated and many lives lost, re- 
ported, 21 April, 190c; great rising of the river 
and loss of life June, 1903 

MISSOLONGHI, a town in Greece, taken 
from the Turks, 1 Nov. 1821, and heroically and 
successfully defended against the Turks by Marco 
Botzaris, Oct. 1822 — 27 Jan. 1823. It was taken 22 
April, 1826, after a long siege. Here Lord Byron 
died, 19 April, 1824. A statue of Byron was un- 
veiled here, 6 Nov. 1881. It was surrendered to the 
Greeks in 1829. 

MISSOURI, a south-western state in N. 
America, was settled in 1763, and admitted into the 
union, 10 Aug. 1821. It decided on neutrality in 
the conflict of 1861, but was invaded by both the 
confederate and federal forces in June of that year, 
and became one of the seats of war. Capital, 
Jefferson city; population, 1880, 2,168,380; 1890, 
2,679,184; 1900,3,106,665; see United States, 186 1 
et seq. — Great railway strike March, 1886. The 
university library, Columbia, burnt, 9 Jan. 1892. 
— For the MISSOURI COMPROMISE, see Slavery 
in America. The Missouri river is 3,047 miles 
long. See Storms, 28 April, 1899. 

MITCHELSTOWN, Cork, see Ireland, 9 
Sept. 1887. 

MITHRIDATE, a medical preparation in the 
form of an electuary, supposed to be an antidote to 
poison and the oldest compound known, is said to 
have been invented by Mithridates, king of Pontus, 
about 70 B.C. 

MITHRLDATIC WAR, caused by the mas- 
sacre of 80,000 Romans, by Mithridates VI., king of 
Pontus, 88 B.C., and remarkable for its duration, 
its many sanguinary battles, and the cruelties of its 
commanders. Mithridates having taken the consul 
Aquilius, made him ride on an ass through a great 
part of Asia, crying out as he rode, "I am Aquilius^ 
consul of the Romans." He is said to have killed 
him by causing melted gold to be poured down his 
throat, in derision of his avarice, 85 B.C. Mithri- 
dates was defeated by Pompey, 66 b.c; and com- 
mitted suicide, 63 B.C. 

MITRAILLEUSE, or Mitrailleur, a 

machine-gun in which 37 or more large-bored rifles 
are combined with breech-action, by means of which 
a shower of bullets may be rapidly projected by one 
man. It was invented in Belgium, and adopted by 
the French emperor soon after the Prusso -Austrian 
war in 1866, and was much used in the Franco- 
Prussian war in 1870. Its peculiar "dry, shrieking, 
terrible sound" was described in the bombardment 
of Saarbriiek, 2 Aug. 1870. Modifications of the 
mitrailleuse have been made by Montigny and 
others. The Fosbery mitrailleuse was tried and 
approved at Shoeburyness, 11 Aug. 1870. — It is 
mentioned in Grose's Military Antiquities (1801) 
that in England, in 1625, a patent was granted to 
William Drummond for a machine composed of a 
number of muskets joined together, by the help of 
which two soldiers can oppose a hundred, and 
named, on account of its effect, "thunder carriage," 
or more usually, "fire carriage." An English 

3 G 2 



MITEE. 



820 



MOHUEETJM. 



mitrailleuse, a modification of the American gatling, 
containing 50 cartridges, was tried at Woolwich, 18 
Jan. 1872; fifty of them were ordered to be made 
by Armstrong. 

MITEE. The cleft cap or mitre was worn by 
the Jewish high-priest, 1491 B.C. It had on it a 
golden plate inscribed "Holiness to the Lord." 
Exodus xxxix. 28. The most ancient mitre that 
has the nearest resemblance to the present one is 
that upon the seal of the bishop of Laon, in the 10th 
century. Fosbroke. Anciently the cardinals wore 
mitres, but at the council of Lyons, in 1245, they 
were directed to wear hats. 

MITYLENE, or LESBOS, ^gean Sea. Near 
here the Greeks defeated and nearly destroyed the 
Turkish fleet, 7 Oct. 1824. 

MNEMONICS, artificial memory, was intro- 
duced by Simonides the younger, 477 B.C. Arund. 
Marbles. "Mnemonica" was published by John 
Willis in 1618; and the " Memoria Technica" of 
Dr. Grey first appeared in 1730. A system of 
mnemonics was announced in Germany in 1806-7. 

MOABITES, descendants of Lot, a people 
living to the south-east of Judsea. They were fre- 
quently at war with the Israelites, and were sub- 
dued with divine help by Ehud about 1336, by 
David about 1040, and by Jehoshaphat, 895 B.C., 
hut often harassed the Jews in the decay of their 
monarchy. The discovery of a stone with inscrip- 
tion in Phoenician characters, relating to Mesha, 
king of Moab, referred to in 2 Kings, iii., was 
announced in Jan. 1870, and impressions were 
exhibited soon after. 

MOCKEEN (Prussia). Here the French army 
under Eugene Beauharnais were defeated by the 
Prussians under Torek, 5 April, 1813 ; and here 
Bliicher defeated the French, 16 Oct. 1813. 

MODELS. The first were figures of living 
persons, and Dibutades, the Corinthian, is the 
reputed inventor of those in clay. His daughter, 
being about to be separated from her lover, traced 
his profile by his shadow on the wall ; her father 
filled up the outline with clay, which he afterwards 
baked, and thus produced a figure of the object of 
her affection, giving rise to an art till then unknown, 
about 985 b.c. 
A beautiful model of the Dew town of Edinburgh, before 

the building began, was formed in wood. 
A model was made of a bridge over the Neva, of uncom- 
mon strength as well as elegance ; and of the moun- 
tains of Switzerland, by general Pfiffer (1766-85). 
M. Choffin's model of Paris also was remarkable for its 

precision. 
Fine models of Gibraltar, Quebec, and other fortified 
places, are deposited in the Rotunda at Woolwich. 
See Waxwork and Lodging-houses. 

MODENA (formerly Mutina), capital of the 
late duchy in Central Italy ; was governed by the 
house of Este, from 1288 till 1796, when the last 
male of that house, the reigning duke Hercules III., 
was expelled by the French. By the treaty of 
Campo Formio, the Modenese possessions were 
incorporated with the Cisalpine republic, 1797, and 
with the kingdom of Italy, 1805. The archduke 
Francis of Este, son of the archduke Ferdinand of 
Austria, and of Mary, the heiress of the last duke, 
was restored in 1814. Modena, in accordance with 
the voting by universal suffrage, was annexed to 
Sardinia on 18 March, i860. Population of the 
city, 1881, 31,053 ; 1901, 64,941 ; of the province, 

1881, 279,254; 1889, 303.541 ; iqoi, 322,617. 



GftAND DUKES. 

1814. Francis IV. An invasion of his states by Murat 
was defeated, n April, 1815. He was expelled 
by his subjects in 1831, but was restored by the 
Austrians. 

1846. Francis V. (born 1 June, 1819) succeeded 21 Jan. 
His subjects rose against him soon after the 
Italian war broke out, in April, 1859. He fled 
to Verona, establishing a regency, 11 June; 
which was abolished, 13 June ; Farina was ap- 
pointed dictator, 27 July ; a constituent assembly 
was immediately elected, which offered the 
duchy to the king of Sardinia, 15 Sept., who 
incorporated it with his dominions, 18 March, 
i860. Francis died, 20 Nov. 1875. 

MODEEADOS. A political party in Spain, 
long headed by Ramon Maria Narvaez, duke of 
Valencia (who died 23 April, 1868), who opposed 
the Progresistas headed by Espartero and Prim. 
The party was reinforced by the favourers of Don 
Carlos, after his total defeat in 1876. 

MODEEATES, opponents of the Progressives 
{which see). 

MODOC INDIANS (a few hundreds), 
dwelling in lands south of Oregon, were removed to 
other lands by the United States government. Not 
obtaining subsistence, they returned to their old 
possessions, and their able leader captain Jack de- 
feated the troops sent to expel them, 17 Jan. 1873. 
During negotiations for a peaceful settlement, they 
decoyed the United States commissioners into an 
ambush (11 April), and massacred general Canby 
and about 40 others. Fighting took place, 15, 16 
April, and the Indians retreated to almost impreg- 
nable positions. The troops were fired on, and 
suffered much loss, 27 April. The Indians were 
gradually surrounded. Jack and about twenty war- 
riors held out desperately. Some surrendered, and 
he himself was captured, I June ; tried, July, and 
executed 3 Oct. 1873- 

MGESIA (now Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria), 
was finally subdued by Augustus, 29 B.C. It was 
successfully invaded by the Goths, A.D. 250, who 
eventually settled here ; see Goths. 

MOGULS, see Tartary. 

MOHACZ (Lower Hungary). Here Louis king 
of Hungary, defeated by the Turks under Solyman 
II. with the loss of 22,000 men, was suffocated by 
the fall of his horse in a muddy brook, 29 Aug. 1526. 
Here also prince Charles of Lorraine defeated the 
Turks, 12 Aug. 1687. 

MOHAMMEDAN, see Mahometanism. 

MOHAMMEEAH, a Persian town near the 
Euphrates, captured, after two hours' cannonading, 
by sir James Outram, during the Persian war, 26 
March, 1857. News of the peace arrived 4 April. 

MOHILEV, or Mohilef (Russia). Here 
the Russian army, under prince Bag-ration, was 
signally defeated by the French under marshal 
Davoust, prince of Eckmiihl, 23 July, 1812. 

MOHOCKS, ruffians, who went about London 
at night, wounding and disfiguring the men, and 
indecently exposing the women. One hundred 
pounds were ottered by royal proclamation in 17 12, 
for apprehending any one of them. Northouck. 
The " scourers " of the seventeenth century resemble 

the Mohocks. 

MOHUEETJM, a Mahometan festival inhonour 
of the prophet's nephews: at its celebration in Bom- 



MOKANNA. 



821 



MONEY. 



bay, Feb. 1874, the Mahometans fiercely attacked 
the Parsees, and were quelled by the military. 

MOKANNA (Hakim ben Allah), "The Veiled," 
prophet, founder of a sect in Khorassan in the eighth 
century. He pretended to be an incarnation of 
God, and therefore veiled his face, but really to con- 
ceal the loss of an eye. He rebelled against the 
calif Almahdi, was for a time successful, but was 
subdued in 780, when he and the remains of his 
followers took poison. He is the subject of a poem 
by Thos. Moore in " Lalla Rookh," 1817. 

MOLDAVIA, see Danubian Principalities. 

MOLINISTS, a Roman Catholic sect, followers 
of Louis Molina, a Jesuit, born 1535. He maintained 
the reconcilability of the doctrines of predestination 
and free will, 1588. 

MOLLY MAGUIRE, the name of a secret 
society in Ireland in 1843, and of another society 
(originally Buckshot, about 1853) in mining dis- 
tricts, United States (which see), 1877. It ceased 
about March, 1879. 

MOLOKANI, a sect in "West Russia, said to 
date from the 16th century, who maintain primi- 
tive Christian doctrines and practices; well de- 
scribed by Mr. D. Mackenzie Wallace in his 
" Russia," published 1877. Dassajeff, a peasant 
woman, one of the sect, received by the empress 
dowager for her kind assistance rendered 10 her 
son, the Cesarevitch, at his death at Abbas Tuman, 
10 July, reported, 31 July, 1899. 

MOLUCCAS, an archipelago in the Indian 
Ocean (the chief island, Amboyna), discovered by 
the Portuguese, about 1511, and held by them 
secretly until the arrival of the Spaniards, who 
claimed them, till 1529, when Charles V. yielded 
them to John III. for a large sum of money. The 
Dutch conquered them in 1607, and have held them 
ever since, — except from 1810 to 1814, when they 
were subject to the English. Earthquake at Am- 
boina, the capital almost destroyed and 50 persons 
killed, 5 Jan. 1898. 

MOLWITZ (in Prussian Silesia). Here the 
Prussians, commanded by Frederick II., obtained a 
great victory over the Imperialists, 10 April (0. S. 
30 March), 1741. 

MOLYBDENUM, a whitish, brittle, almost 
infusible metal. Scheele, in 1778, discovered mo- 
lybdic acid in a mineral hitherto confounded with 
graphite. Hjelm, 1782, prepared the metal from 
molybdic acid; and in 1825 Berzelius described 
most of its chemical characters. Gmelin. 

MOMBASA, chief town of the British East 
Africa territories ; increasing prosperity reported,, 
July, 1890. Kisawir, or Frere Town, is a thriving 
station of the Church Missionary society. See 
Africa (British Eust). 

MONACHISM (from the Greek monos, 
alone). Catholic writers refer to the prophet Eli- 
jah, and the Nazarites mentioned in Numbers, ch. 
vi., as early examples. The first Christian ascetics 
appear to be derived from the Jewish sect of the 
Essenes, whose life was very austere, practising 
celibacy, &c. About the time of Constantine 
(306-22) numbers of these ascetics withdrew into 
the deserts, and were called hermits, monks, and 
anchorets ;* of whom Paul, Anthony, and Pacho- 
mius were most celebrated. Simeon, the founder 
of the Stylitse (or pillar saints), died 451. He is 

* The anchorites of the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries 
must not be confounded with the anachorets and ancho- 
rets, or hermits. The former were confined to solitary 
cells ; the latter permitted to go where they pleased. 



said to have lived on a pillar thirty years. St. 
Benedict, the great reformer of western monachism, 
published his rules and established his monastery at 
Monte Casino, about 529. The Carthusians, Cister- 
cians, &c, are varieties of Benedictines. In 964, 
by decree of king Edgar, all married priests were 
ineffectually ordered to be replaced by monks. 
Religious orders expelled from France, by decree, 
29 March, 1880. Relieved of their vows by the 
Pope, 1 88 1. See Abbeys, and Benedictines. 

MONACO, a principality, N. Italy, held by 
the Genoese family Grimaldi since 968. By treaty 
on 2 Feb. 1861, the prince ceded the communes of 
Roquebrune and Mentone, the chief part of his 
dominions, to France, for 4,000,000 francs. The 
prince, Charles III., born 8 Dec. 1818, succeeded 
his father Florestan, 20 June 1856 ; died 10 Sept.. 
1889, was succeeded by Albert, born 13 Nov. 1848 
A commercial convention between the prince and 
France, signed 9 Nov. 1865, was much discussed as 
tending towards the abolition of the French naviga- 
tion laws. Petitions against Monte Carlo, the great 
gaming establishment, 1880-4 ; a 50 years' con- 
cession granted, reported, March, 1896. Interna- 
tional sporting club opened, autumn 1903. Popu- 
lation, 1888, 13,304; 1901, 15,180. 

MONARCHY. Historians reckon various 
grand monarchies — the Chaldaean, Assyrian, Baby- 
lonian, Median, Persian, Grecian, Parthian, and 
Roman (which see) . 

MONASTERIES, see Abbeys. 

MONCONTOUR (near Poitiers, France). 
Here the admiral Coligny and the French Protes- 
tants were defeated with great loss by the duke of 
Anjou (afterwards Henry III.), 3 Oct. 1569. 

MONCRIEFF SYSTEM, see Cannon. 

MONDAY CONCERTS, see under Music. 

MONDOVI (Piedmont). Here the Sardinian 
army, commanded by Colli, was defeated by Napo- 
leon Bonaparte, 22 April, 1796. 

MONETARY CONFERENCES, Interna- 
tional, opened at Paris, 16 Aug. 1878 ; and 19 April, 
1881 ; Cologne, 11-13 Oct. 1882; Paris, 21 July, 
adjourned, 5 Aug. 1885; the union continued till 
1 Jan. 1887 : conventions signed, 6 Nov., and 8 
Dec. 1885. A congress was held at Paris II Sept. 
et seq., 1889. See Latin Union. International 
monetary conference at Brussels, respecting bi- 
metallism (which see), proposed by the United 
States, N.A. ; 18 nations represented (sir Charles 
Fremantle, sir Wm. H. Houldsworth, M.P., Mr. 
Bertram Currie, Mr. Alfred Rothschild, and others, 
for Great Britain) ; opened by M. Beernaert, 
Belgian minister of finance, 22 Nov. 1892 ; confer- 
ence adjourned to 13 May, 1893, 17 Dec. 1892. 
"International Monetary Conferences," by H. B. 
Russell, Aug. 1898. 

MONEY is mentioned as a medium of com- 
merce in Genesis xxiii., i860 B.C., when Abraham 
purchased a field as a sepulchre for Sarah. The 
coinage of money is ascribed to the Lydians. 
Moneta was the name given to their silver by the 
Romans, it having been coined in the temple of 
Juno-Moneta, 269 B.C. Money was made of dif- 
ferent metals, and even of leather and other articles, 
both in ancient and modern times. It was made 
of pasteboard by the Hollanders so late as I.S74- 
The czar Nicholas struck coins in platinum. Par- 
liamentary committee on money lending, meetings, 
T. W. Russell, chairman, July, 1897 ; Mr. John 
Kirkwood refused to answer certain questions, ad- 
monished at the bar of the commons, 16 July. 



MONEYERS. 



822 



MONTE CASINO. 



Money-lending act (regulating the business of 
money-lenders) passed 8 Aug. 1900. See Coin ; 
Gold; Copper ; Mint; Banks, Latin Union, &c. 
For Money Orders, see Post Office. 

MONEYERS travelled with our early kings, 
and coined money as required ; see Mint. 
MONGOLS, see Tartary. 

MONITEUR UNIVERSEL, a newspaper, 
established in Paris by C. J. Panckoucke, 5 May, 
1789; daily paper, 24 Nov. 1789; the organ of the 
government, 28 Dec. 1799. It was superseded by 
the Journal Officiel, 1 Jan. 1869 ; resumed its official 
position about 23 Sept. 1870; and was again super- 
seded by the Journal Officiel, Feb. 1871. It became 
the organ of MacMahon's government in 1875. 

MONITORIAL SYSTEM (in education), 
in which pupils are employed as teachers, was used 
by Dr. Bell in the Orphan Asylum at Madras in 
1795, ant * was a,so adopted by Joseph Lancaster, 
in London ; see Education. 

MONITOR SHIPS, see United States. The 
American monitor, Miantonomah, arrived at Ply- 
mouth in June, 1866, and excited much attention. 

MONK, see Monachism. 

MONMOUTH, Monmouthshire, was a Roman 
station, afterwards a Saxon fortress. The ancient 
castle rebuilt by John, lord of Monmouth, 1257, be- 
came the property of John of Gaunt, and in it his 
grandson, Henry V., was born, 9 Au_'., 1388. Mon- 
mouth was first incorporated in 1550. Visit of the 
duke and duchess of York, 29 Oct. 1900. Popula- 
tion, 1881, 6,111 ; 1891, 5,470; 1901, 5,095. 

MONMOUTH'S REBELLION. James, 
duke of Monmouth (born at Rotterdam, 9 April, 
1649), a natural son of Charles II. by Lucy Waters, 
was banished England for his connection with the 
Rye-house plot, in 1683. He invaded England at 
Lyme, n June, 1685; was proclaimed king at 
Taunton, 20 June; was defeated at Sedgmoor, near 
Bridgewater, 6 July; and beheaded on Tower-hill, 
15 July. 

MONOCHORD, a box of thin wood, with a 
bridge, over which is stretched a wire or chord, said 
to have been invented by Pythagoras, about 600 B.C. 

MONOLITH, Greek for single stone; see 
Obelisk. 

MONOPHYSITES, see Eutychians. 

MONOPOLIES were formerly so numerous 
in England that parliament petitioned against 
them, and many were abolished, about 1601-2. 
They were further suppressed by 21 Jas. I., 1624. 
Sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchell were 
punished for their abuse of monopolies, 162 1. In 
1630, Charles I. established monopolies of soap, 
salt, leather, and other common things, to supply a 
revenue without the help of parliament. It was 
decreed that none should be in future created by 
royal patent, 16 Chas. I. 1640. 

MONO-RAIL SYSTEM, see under 
Railways. 

MONOTHELITES, heretics who affirmed 
that Jesus Christ had but one will, were favoured 
by the emperor Heraclius, 630 ; they merged into 
the Eutychians (which see). 

MONROE DOCTRINE, a term applied to 
the determination expressed by James Monroe, 
president of the United States, in his message to 
the congress, 2 Dec. 1823, not to permit any Euro- 
pean power to interfere with the concerns of any 
independent states of North or South America. 



This doctrine was referred to in 1859, 1865, 1895-96. 
A resolution strongly affirming the doctrine pro- 
posed by senator Davis to the senate, 20 Jan. 1896. 
The action of Great Britain and Germany in their 
dispute with Yenezuela 1902-3 (see Venezuela) 
aroused considerable excitement in the United 
States as being contrary to the Monroe doctrine. 
See Capt. Mahan's article on the Monroe doctrine, 
National Review, Feb. 1903, and Times, 30 Jan. 
1903. 

MONTANA, a territory of the United States, 
north America, formed out of Idaho ; became a 
territory in 1864, and a state in 1889. Capital, 
Helena. Population in 1880, 39,159; 1890, 132,159 ; 
1900, 243,329. 

Explosions of dynamite, &c, through a fire at 
Butte ; 75 or 100 deaths ; estimated loss, 
1, 000,0:0 dollars . . . . .15 Jan. 1895 
MONTANISTS, followers of Montanus, of 
Ardaba, in Mysia, about 1 7 1, who was reputed to 
have the gift of prophecy, and proclaimed himself 
the Comforter promised by Christ. He condemned 
second marriages as fornication, permitted the dis- 
solution of marriage, forbade avoiding martyrdom, 
and ordered a severe fast of three lents. The elo- 
quent father, Tertullian, joined the sect, 204. 

.MONT BLANC, in the French Alps, is the 
highest mountain in Europe, being 15,78! ^ ee t 
above the level of the sea. The summit was first 
reached by Jacques Balmat in June, 1786, and 
afterwards by II. B. Saussure, aided by Balmat, 
on 2 Aug. 1787. The summit was attained by Dr. 
Hamel (when three of his guides perished) in 1820, 
and by many other persons before and since. Ac- 
counts of the ascents of Mr. John Auldjo, Charles 
Fellows (1827), and of professor Tyndail (1857-8) 
have been published ; see Alps. 57 ascents re- 
ported in 1873 ; 64 in 188 1. 
Herr Rothe and a guide killed by an avalanche, 

20 Aug. 1891. Accidents frequent. 
Erection of an observatory on the summit pro- 
posed ; work proceeding, July ; stopped about 
28 Aug. ; 3 deaths. Favourable report by M. 
Janssen to the Academy of Sciences. 2 Nov. 1891. 
Preparations for a renewal of the work, with pre- 
cautions June, 1892 

An association was formed, and by its means, a 
wooden observatory was constructed at Meudon 
arid sent to Chamounix to be conveyed to the 
summit of the mountain . . . Sept. ,, 
The observatory on Mont Blanc erected, (to be 
transferred to a rocky point of the same alti- 
tude summer of 1898) ; observations on the spec- 
trum of the solar rays by prof. Janssen, Sept., 
reported to the French Academy . . Oct. 1893 
Clockwork registration apparatus set up by M. 

Janssen 1894 

By the torrents consequent on the fall of a glacier, 
the " Etablissement des Bains" at St. Gervais 
and two villages were destroyed, and about. 130 
persons perished . . . n, 12 July. 1892 
Mr. C. E. Mathews' "Annals of Mont Blanc" 
published 1898-99 

MONT CENIS, see Alps. 

MONTEBELLO, in Piedmont, where Lannes 
defeated the Austrians, 9 June, 1800, and acquired 
his title of duke of Montebello ; and where, after 
a contest of six hours, the French and Sardinians 
defeated the Austrians, who lost about 1000 
killed and wounded, and 200 prisoners, 20 May, 
1859. The French lost about 670 men, including 
general Beuret. 

MONTE CARLO, see Monaco. 

MONTE CASINO (Central Italy). Here 
Benedict formed his first monastery, 529. After 
affording a refuge for many eminent persons, its 
monastic character was abolished by the Italian 



MONTEM. 



823 



MONTFERRAT. 



government in 1866, care being taken for the pre- 
servation of its historical and literary monuments. 
MONTEM, see Eton. 

MONTENEGRO (Black Mountain), inhabited 
by a race of hardy mountaineers, inveterate enemies 
of the Turk ; an independent principality in Euro- 
pean Turkey, was conquered by Solyman II. in 
E526. It rebelled in the 17th century, and in 1696 
established a hereditary hierarchical government in 
the family of Petrovitsch Njeguch, — permitted, but 
not recognised by the Porte. Population, in 1891, 
200,000. Capital, Cettinge. 
The nephew and successor of the Vladika, Peter II. , 
declined to assume the ecclesiastical function, 
and declared himself a temporal prince, with the 
title of Daniel I., 1851 ; and began war with 

Turkey 1852 

Montenegro put in a state of blockade . 14 Dec. „ 
After indecisive encounters, tranquillity restored by 
the influence of the arms and negotiations of 
Omar Pacha, the general of the Turkish army ; he 
left the province ..... 25 Feb. 1853 
Blockade raised . . . . . 10 April, ,, 

War again broke out ; the Turks defeated at Gra- 

hovo, June ; peace restored .... Nov. 1858 
"The country much disturbed through the tyrannical 
conduct of prince Daniel, who was assassinated 

(aged 35) . 14 Aug.- i860 

Succeeded by his nephew Nicolas, or Nikita, 

(married) 8 Nov. ,, 

An insurrection in Herzegovina the blockade of 

Montenegro 4 April, i8ui 

Omar Pacha invaded the province with an army of 

32,000 men in Aug. „ 

Many conflicts with various success, but latterly in 
favour of the Turks ; peace made, Turkish supre- 
macy recognised 8-9 Sept. 1862 

Conflicts between Christians and Mussulmen at 
Podgoritza ; 21 Montenegrins said to be 

killed by Turks 20 Oct. 1874 

Threatened war prevented by intervention of the 

great powers Jan. 1875 

Some rioters executed . . . .15 May, ,, 
Montenegro with difficulty restrained from inter- 
vention in Herzegovina . Autumn and Winter, „ 
The prince declared war and joined the Servians 

2 July, 1876 
See Turkey and Russo-Turkish ivar . . 1876-7-8 
(Declared independent of Turkey by treaty of San 
Stefano, 3 March ; (with new boundaries, and 
Antivari for a seaport) by the Berlin treaty 

13 July, 1878 
Podgoritza surrendered by Turkey . . 7 Feb. 1879 
After much resistance by the Albanians, and nego- 
tiation with Turkey, Gussinge surrendered, April, 1880 
Frontier disputes with Turkey settled, Nov. 1882; 

the prince well received at Constantinople, Sept. 1883 
Building to eontain state library, museum, and 

theatre, at Cettinge founded . . 12 May, 1884 
A constitution promised . . . May, 

'Temporary fighting between Turks and Monte- 
negrins at Cettinge . . . . 3, 4 July, 1886 
The prince visits the czar at St. Petersburg May, 1889 
Severe famine relieved by the great exertions of the 
prince, Sept. ; aided by Russia, Hungary, and 

Turkey Oct. ,, 

About 6,360 persons emigrate to Servia, Oct., Nov. 

1889 ; famine continues . . . March, 1E90 
Colonel Bosko Martinoviteh, cousin of the prince, 
murdered ; the assassin lynched . . 7 July, 
Albanian raids checked by Turks . July, Aug. " 
Agitation for more liberal government Jan. et seq. 1893 
Frequent raids by the Albanians, appeal to the 

Porte ; redress promised . . March, April, 1894 

Continued emigration into Austria-Hungary of 

nobles opposed to the new system of government, 

introduced by prince Nicolas, rep. . July, 

Formation of a standing army above 36,000 men, 

with Russian weapons jgq- 

Visit of the prince of Naples, Aug. ; leaves 2 Sept. 1896 
Princess Helen, the prince of Naples, and the duke 
of Genoa arrive at Bari, where she professes the 
R.C. faith, 21 Oct. (see Italy, Oct, 1896) 
Celebration of the bicentenary of the. present dy- 
nasty ; removal of the re nains of Petrovitch 



Nieguch, the founder, from the cathedral to the 
mausoleum, designed by the princess of Naples ; 
addresses by prince Nicholas and others, 

O.S. 14 Jan. 

Marriage of prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg 
and princess Anna of Montenegro, celebrated at 
Cettinge 18 May 

Successful European tour of prince Nicholas, 
returns to Cettinge .... 4 June, 

ConHicts on the frontier between Mahometans and 
Christians, many killed, including women and 
children ; over 700 houses burnt . 16 June, 

National guard, under prince Mirko, organised, 

March, 

Marriage of the crown prince and the duchess 
Militza at Cettinge, 27 July ; received by the 
sultan at Constantinople . . 2-6 Sept. 

Prince Nicholas assumes the title "Royal High- 
ness " by request of his people . . 19 Dec. 

Conflicts with Turkish troops on the frontier, 

Feb. et seq. 

Existing treaty of commerce between Gt. Britain 
and Montenegro prolonged until 1 Jan. 1904, 
reported 6 Jan. 

PRINCES. 

1851. Daniel, born 25 May, 1826 ; assassinated, 13 



1899 



1903 
Aug. 



i860. Nicolas, or Nikita (nephew), born 7 Oct. 1841 ; 
like his predecessors, a poet, and promoter of 
national education ; married princess Milena, 
8 Nov. i860. Issue : (Helen, daughter, born 8 
Jan. 1873 ; married the prince of Naples, at 
Rome, 24 Oct. 1896.) 
Heir, Danilo Alexander, born 29 June, 1871 ; 
married the duchess Jutta (Militza) of Meekleu- 
burg-Strelitz, 27 July, 1899. 

MONTENOTTE, a village in Piedmont, 
memorable as being the site of the first victory 
gained over the Austrians by Napoleon Bonaparte, 
12 April, 1796. 

MONTEREATT (near Paris). On the bridge 
of Montereau, at his meeting with the dauphin, 
John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, was killed by 
Tanneguy de Chatel in 1419. This event led to 
our Henry V. subduing France, the young duke 
Philip joining the English. Here the allied armies 
were defeated by the French, commanded by Napo- 
leon, with great loss in killed and wounded; but 
it was one of his last triumphs, 18 Feb. 1814. 

MONTEREY (Mexico), was taken by general 
Taylor after a three days' conflict with the Mexi- 
cans, 21-23 Sept. 1846. 

MONTE-VIDEO (S. America), was taken by 
storm by the British forces under sir Samuel Auch- 
muty, but with the loss of nearly one-third of our 
brave troops, 3 Feb. 1807. It was evacuated 7 July 
the same year, in consequence of the severe repulse 
the British met with at Buenos- Ayres ; see Buenos- 
Ayres. Monte-Video, a subject of dispute between 
Brazil and Buenos- Ayres, was given up to Uruguay, 
1828. For recent war, etc., see Brazil and Uruguay. 
Fire at celebration service for Garibaldi, about 20 
killed, 11 June, 1882. Latin- American scientific 
congress held here, 29-31 March, 1901. Stone laid 
for the new harbour works here, 18 July, 1901. 
The Victoria (memorial) hall, erected by British, 
opened, 14 Nov. 1902. 

MONTFERRAT (Lombardy), HOUSE OF, 
celebrated in the history of the Crusades, began 
with Alderan, who was made marquis of Mont- 
ferrat, by Otho, about 967. Conrad of Montferrat 
became lord of Tyre, and reigned from 1 187 till 
1 191, when he was assassinated. William IV. died 
in a cage at Alexandria, having been thus impri- 
soned nineteen months, 1292. Violante, daughter 
of John II., married Andronicus Palaeologus, em- 
peror of the East. Their descendants ruled in 
Italy amid perpetual contests till 1533, when John 



MONTGOMERY. 



824 



MONTREAL. 



George Palseologus died without issue. His estates 
passed after much contention to Frederic II. Gon- 
zaga, marquis of Mantua, in 1536, and next to the 
duke of Savoy. 

MONTGOMERY, capital of Alabama, United 
States, founded 181 7. Here the state convention 
passed the ordinance of secession from the union 
on 11 Jan. 1861 ; here the confederate congress met 
on 4 Feb. and elected Jefferson Davis president, 
and Alexander Stephens vice-president, of the con- 
federate states of North America ; and here they 
were inaugurated on 18 Feb. On 21 May the 
congress adjourned to meet on 20 July at .Rich- 
mond, in Virginia, that state having joined the 
confederates and become the seat of war. 

MONTH (from mona, Anglo-Saxon moon), the 
twelfth part of the calendar year. See Year, 
Calendar, January and other months, French Revo- 
lutionary Calendar and Jewish Era. 

Lunar Month. — The period of one revolution of the 
moon (synodical) ; mean length, 2gd. 12/1. 44m. 2.87s. 

Sidereal Month. — Time of moon's revolution from a star 
to the same again, 2yd. jh. 43m. 11.5s. 

Solar Month. — The time the sun passes through one 
sign of the zodiac, 3od. ioh. 29m. 4.1s. 

Information respecting the months of the Egyptians, 
Jews, Greeks, Romans, Persians, and other nations will 
be foiuid in sir H. Nicolas's "Chronology of History." 
See under Jewisli era and Mahometanism. 

MONTI DI PIETA, charitable institutions 
for advancing money on pledges, were first estab- 
lished at Perugia, Florence, Mantua, and other 
Italian cities, 1462, et seq. The Franciscans, in 
1493, began to receive interest, which was per- 
mitted by the pope, in 1515. Monts de Piete, 
established in France 1777, were suppressed by the 
Revolution, but restored, 1804; regulated bylaw, 
1851-2; see Paivnbroking . The Mont de Piete 
started in England, failed, Aug. 1894. 

MONTIEL (Spain), BATTLE OE, 14 March, 
1369, between Peter the Cruel, king of Castile, and 
his brother Henry of Trastamare, aided by the 
French warrior, Bertrand du Guesclin. Peter 
was totally defeated, and afterwards treacherously 
slain. 

MONTIGNY, see under Firearms. 

MONTLHERY (Seine -et-Oise, France), 
site of an indecisive battle between Louis XI. and a 
party of his nobles, termed "The League of the 
Public Good," 16 July, 1465. 

MONTMARTRE, Heights oe, near Paris, 

taken by Bliicher, 30 March, 1814. They were 

• fortified during the communist insurrection, March, 

1871; and retaken by the army of Versailles, 28 

May. 

MONTMIRAIL (Marne, France). Here 
Napoleon defeated the allies, 11 Feb. 1814. 

MONTPELLIER (S. France), built in the 
8th century, prospered as the neighbouring city 
Maguelonne decreased. It was acquired by mar- 
riage by the king of Arragon, 1204 ; by the king of 
Majorca, 1276; was ceded to France, 1349; given 
to Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, in exchange 
for Mantes, &c, 1365; sequestered by France, 
1378. It was seized by the Huguenots early in the 
reign of Henry III., and held by them till Sept. 
1622, when it surrendered after a siege, followed 
by a treaty of peace, 20 Oct. Sexcentenary of the 
University celebrated, president Carnot present, 23 
May, 1890. Mine. Bouisson, widow of a professor, 
bequeathed 1,500,000 f. to promote the study of 



medicine and theology, reported Nov. 1893. Valu- 
able archives, pictures, etc. were destroyed by a 
fire at the exhibition, 18 Aug. 1896. Population 
in 1 90 1, 76,364. 

MONTREAL, the Birmingham of Canada, 
founded by the French, and named Ville Marie, 
18 May, 1642. Population, 1881, 140,747; 1891, 
216,650; 1901, 267,730 (with suburbs nearly 
350,000). 

Surrendered to the English . . . 8 Sept. 1760 
Taken by the Americans ... 12 Nov. 1775 
Betaken by the British . . . .15 June, 1776 
The church, Jesuits' college, prison, and many 

buildings burnt down ... 6 June, 1803 

Great military affray . . . .29 Sept. 1833 

Bishopric founded . 1836 

Riots against the government ... 6 Nov. 1837 
The self-styled "loyalists " of Montreal assault the 
governor-general, lord Elgin ; enter the parlia- 
ment-house, drive out the members, and set fire 

to the building 25 April, 1849 

A bishopric established „ 

A destructive Are 23 Aug. 1850 

Another, destroying 1200 houses; the loss esti- 
mated at a million sterling . . .12 July, 1852 
At an anti-papal lecture here by Gavazzi, riots en- 
sued, and many lives were lost . . 10 June, 1853 
The cathedral destroyed by fire . . 10 Dee. 1856 
Victoria railway bridge {which see) formally opened 

by the prince of Wales . . . . 25 Aug. i860 
Fierce riots at the attempt to bury Joseph Guibord, 
a Roman Catholic, while under censure, in the 
Roman Catholic cemetery . . . Sept. 1875 

[He belonged to the " Institut Canadien," censured 
for possessing forbidden books ; he died in 1869; 
after much litigation, the privy council judicial 
committee affirmed his right to burial against the 
clerical authorities.] 
Riot at a memorial Romanist procession ; 1 man 

killed 26 Sept. „ 

Guibord buried with military and police escort, 

16 Nov. ,, 

Violent bread riots 17 Dec. ,, 

Fierce orange riots, with loss of life 12 July et seq. 1877 
Ice palace erected and carnival held .. 23 Jan. 18S3 
Prevalence of small pox ; riots against compulsory 
vaccination suppressed, 29 Sept. 1,622 deaths in 
October ... ... .1885 

Great inundation through ice gorge of the lower 
town ; about 1, 000,000?. damage ; much privation 

17-18 April, 1886 

Great fires in 1887-8 

The Longue Pointe Lunatic Asylum burnt, about 

80 persons perisli 6 May, 1890 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaught 2 June, ,, 
Great fire at the Cote St. Antoine suburb ; the loss 

about 50,000 dollars . . . .28 July, ,, 
Visit of the comte de Paris, banquet . 25 Oct. ,, 
Great labour demonstration . . . 7 Sept. 1893 

Destructive earthquake, no deaths . 27 Nov. 1893 

Attempted destruction of the Nelsun monument, 
by dynamite, 3 militia officers arrested, 20 Nov. 
1893 ; Mercier, Pelland and Demartigny plead 
guilty, fined 25 dollars each . . 18 Jan. 1S94 
Statue of sir John Macdonald unveiled by the earl 

of Aberdeen 6 June, 1895 

The Lachine rapids, 20,000 to 25,000 horse power 
utilized for electric lighting ; works opened, 

25 Sept. 1896 
Fire at a hospital in St. Hyacinthe, 13 deaths, 

16 May, 1898 
M'Gill university ; 3 new buildings founded and 
endowed by sir Wm. C. McDonald, philanthropist 
(knt. Dec. 1898); opened by lord Minto, gov.- 
gen., 20 Dec. 18981; endowments by lord and 
lady Strathcona and others. 
Great demonstration on the departure of the 2nd 
(French and English) Canadian contingent for 

South Africa 4 Jan. 1900 

A statue of the queen, by princess Louise, unveiled 

by the earl of Minto .... 1 Nov. ,, 
Great fire ; important buildings burnt, 2 deaths ; 

estimated damage over 4,000,000 dols. . 23 Jan. 1901 
Visit of the duke and duchess of Cornwall (see 
Canada) 18, 19 Sept. ,, 



MONTSERRAT. 



825 



MOPLAHS. 



Lord Stratlicona presents the king in London with 
an address and a gold medal from the citizens of 
Montreal .14 April, 1902 

MONTSERRAT, a W. India island, dis- 
covered by Columbus in 1493, and settled by the 
British in 1632. It has several times been taken 
by the French, but was secured to the British in 
1783. Destructive floods, 75 deaths, reported, 4 
Dec. 1896; see Mansion house, 1897. Terrific 
hurricane, 74 natives killed, see West Indvs, 
7 Aug. ; great fire at Plymouth, reported, 23 Sept. 
1899. Population, 1891, 11,762; 1901, 12,215. 
See Leeward Isles. 

MONUMENT op LONDON, built by sir 
Christopher Wren, 1671-7. The pedestal is forty 
feet high, and the edifice altogether 202 feet, that 
being the distance of its base from the spot where 
the fire which it commemorates commenced. It is 
the loftiest isolated column in the world. Its 
erection cost about 14,500/. The staircase is of 
black marble, consisting of 345 steps.* Fall of 
part of the stone coping, no one injured, 25 Sept. 
1888 ; examined and repaired ; re-opened 14 Jan. 
1889. Of the four original inscriptions, three 
were Latin, and the following in English, — cut 
in 1681, obliterated by James II. ; re-cut in the 
reign of William III. ; and finally erased by order 
of the common council, 26 Jan. 1831. They pro- 
duced Pope's indignant lines : — 

" Where London's column, pointing at the skies, 
Like a tall bully, lifts the head, and lies." 

THIS PILLAR WAS SET VP IN PEBPETVAL REMEMBRANCE 
OF THAT MOST DREADFUL BURNING OF THIS PBOTESTANT 
CITY, BEGUN AND CARRYED ON BY Y e TREACHERY AND 
MALICE OF Y« POPISH FACTION, IN Y e BEGINNING OF 
SEPTEM. IN Y e YEAR OF ODR LORD 1666, IN ORDER TO Y« 
CARRYING ON THEIR HORRID PLOT FOR EXTIRPATING Y e 
PROTESTANT RELIGION AND OLD ENGLISH LIBERTY, AND 
Y e INTRODUCING POPERY AND SLAVERY. 

MONUMENTS, see Ancient. An act passed 
22 July, 1878, empowers the Metropolitan board of 
works to take care of Cleopatra's needle, and other 
monuments. 

MONZA, or Monsa, formerly capital of the 
kingdom of Lombardy, frequently besieged. The 
cathedral was founded in the sixth century. The 
iron crown of Italy (which see) was kept here till 
1859. See Italy, Oct. 1891. 

MOODKEE (India). Here, on 18 Dec. 
1845, the Sikhs attacked the advanced guard of 
the British, commanded by general Gough, and 
were repulsed three miles, losing many men and 
fifteen pieces of cannon. Sir Robert Sale was 
mortally wounded. The battle preceded that of 
Ferozeshah {which see). 

MOOLTAN (N. W. India), an ancient city, 
was stormed by Runjeet Sing, 1818. Here his son, 
Moolraj Sing, ruler of the Sikhs, treacherously 
murdered Mr. Vans Agnew and lieutenant Ander- 
son, 21 April, 1848. Several conflicts took place 
between the British and the Sikhs, in which the 
latter were beaten, and Mooltan taken after a pro- 
tracted siege, 2-22 Jan. 1849. 



* William Green, a weaver, fell from this monument, 
25 June, 1750. A man named Thomas Craddock, a baker', 
precipitated himself from its summit, 7 July, 1780. Mr. 
Lyon Levy, 'a Jewish diamond merchant, of considerable 
respectability, threw himself from it, 18 Jan. 18 10; as 
did more recently three other persons : in consequence 
of which a fence was placed round the railing of the 
gallery in 1839. 



MOON. Opacity of the moon, and the true 
causes of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales, 640 B.C. 
Hipparchus made observations on the moon at 
Rhodes, 127 b.c. Posidonius accounted for the 
tides from the motion of the moon, and said that 
the moon borrows her light from the sun, 79 B.C. 
Dioa. Laert. 

Maps of the moon constructed by Hevelius, 1647. 
Cassini 1680 

Beer and Madler's map published . . . . 1834 

Professor John Phillips invited the British Associa- 
tion to make arrangements to obtain a "syste- 
matic representation of the physical asj>ect of the 
moon '' 1862 

Photographs of the moon taken by Draper at New 
York, 1840; by Bond, 1850; by Mr. Warren de la 
Bue, 1857 : by Rutherford 1871 

Hansen's "Tables of the Moon," calculated at the 
expense of the British and Danish governments, 
published at the cost of the latter . . . 1857 

The British Association "lunar committee " publish 
two sections of a map of the moon, on a scale of 
200 inches to her diameter . . . July, 1867 

The earl of Rosse made experiments on the radiation 
of heat from the moon 1868-99 

Professor S. P. Langley, of Washington, U.S., pub- 
lished the results of experiments relative to the 
temperature of the moon . . . Nov. 1887 

Professor J. P. Julius Schmidt, of Athens, com- 
pleted his map of the moon after 34 years' work : 
diameter 2 metres 1874 

Mr. James Nasmyth and Mr. J. Carpenter published 
the result of many years' observations, in "The 
Moon " 1874 ; new edition, 1885 

Mr. Edmund Neison published "The Moon and 
the Conditions and Configurations of its Surface" 

July, 1876 

Professor Schmidt's map published at Berlin . . 1878 

Mr. C. V. Boys, of South Kensington, described at 
the Royal Institution how he obtained evidence 
of the heat of the moon by means of his very 
sensitive thermopile composed of quartz fila- 
ments, according to the anticipations of professor 
Piazzi Smyth . . . .17 April el seq. 1890 

Prof. Pickering imputes many of the changes on 
the surface of the moon to the growth of lunar 
vegetation ; other distinct changes noted in the 
canals, etc. ....... June, 1902. 

See Eclipses. 

"MOONLIGHTERS," a name given to the 
perpetrators of night outrages in 1880. See Ireland, 



MOORS, formerly the natives of Mauritania 
(which see) , but afterwards the name given to the 
Numidians and others, and now applied to the 
natives of Morocco and the neighbourhood. 
They frequently rebelled against the Roman 
emperors, and assisted Genseric and the Vandals 
in their invasion of Africa, 429. They resisted 
for a time the progress of the Saracens or Arab 
Mahometans, but were overcome in "joj, and 
in 1019 were by them introduced into Spain, 
where their arms were long victorious. In 1063 
they were defeated in Sicily by Roger Guiscard. 
The Moorish kingdom of Grenada was set up 
in 1237, and lasted till 1492, when it fell before 
Ferdinand V. of Castile, mainly owing to internal 
discord. The expulsion of the Moors from Spain 
was decreed by Charles V., but not fully carried 
into effect till 1609, when the bigotry of Philip 
III. 'inflicted this great injury to his country. About 
1 518 the Moors established" the piratical states of 
Algiers and Tunis (which see). In the history of 
Spain, the Arabs and Moors must not be con- 
founded. 

MOPLAHS, industrious fanatical Mahometans 
in Malabar, E. Indies, gave trouble by their attacks 
on Hindoos and the British, especially in 1845 ; an 
outbreak was suppressed about 15 Sept. 1873. 



MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 



826 



MORMONS. 



MORAL PHILOSOPHY, the science of 
■ethics, defined as the knowledge of our dutj% and 
the art of being virtuous and happy. Socrates 
i(about 430 B.C.) is regarded as the father of 
ancient, and Grotius (about 1623) the father of 
modern moral philosophy; see Ethics and Philo- 
sophy. 

MORAT (Switzerland), where Charles the Bold 
of Burgundy was completely defeated by the Swiss, 
22 June, 1476. A monument, constructed of the 
bones of the vanquished, was destroyed by the 
French in 1798, and a stone column erected. 400th 
anniversary kept, 1876. 

MORAVIA, an Austrian province, occupied by 
the Slavonians about 548, and conquered by the 
Avars and Bohemians, who submitted to Charle- 
magne. About 1000 it was subdued by Boleslas of 
Poland, but recovered by Ulrich of Bohemia in 
1030. After various changes, Moravia and Bohemia 
were amalgamated into the Austrian dominions in 
1326. Moravia was invaded by the Prussians in 
a866, and they established their head quarters at 
Briinn, the capital, 13 July. The demand of the 
Moravians for home rule was resisted Oct. 187 1. 
Strike of 30,000 coal miners at Ostrau, and rioting 
suppressed by military, 16, 17 April, 1890. Popu- 
lation in 1890, 2,276,870; 1900, 2,435,081. 

MORAVIANS, or United Brethren. 

eaid to have been part of the Hussites, who with- 
drew into Moravia in the 15th century; but the 
brethren assert that their sect was derived from the 
Greek church in the 9th century. In 1722 they 
formed a settlement (called Hermhut, the watch 
of the Lord) on the estate of count Zinzendorf. 
Their church consisted of 500 persons in 1727. 
They were introduced into England by count Ziu- 
gendorf about 1738; he died at Chelsea in June, 
8760. In 185 1 they had thirty-two chapels in Eng- 
land. They are zealous missionaries, and founded 
settlements in foreign parts, about 1732. London 
Association founded, 1817. Mr. Thos. Morton, a 
British merchant, who died 11 Sept. 1897, be- 
queathed a large sum, conditionally, to the Mora- 
vians. 

MORAY FLOODS, see Inundations, 1829. 

MORDAUNT, see Administrations, 1689. 

MORDEN COLLEGE (Blackheath), alms- 
houses for decayed merchants, with pensions, esta- 
blished by sir John Morden, 1695 ; opened, 1702. 

MORE A, a name given to the Peloponnesus in 
the 13th century ; see Greece. 

MORETON BAY (New S. Wales). The 
■colony founded here in 1859 has since been named 
'Queensland (which see). 

MORGANATIC* MARRIAGES, when the 
left hand is given instead of the right, between a 
oian of superior and a woman of inferior rank, in 
which it is stipulated that the latter and her chil- 
dren shall not enjoy the rank or inherit the pos- 
sessions of the former. The children are legitimate. 
Such marriages are frequently contracted in Ger- 
many by royalty and the higher nobility. It has 
Sbeen asserted that our George I. was thus married 
to the duchess of Kendal ; the late duke of Sussex 
to lady Cecilia Underwood ; Frederic VI. of Den- 



* Said to be derived from Morgengabe, the gift of 
a husband of a limited part of his property to sucli a 
E«'ide on the morning after the marriage. 



mark to the countess of Danner, 7 Aug. 1850 ; and 
several Austrian princes, recently ; the grand duke 
Paul of Russia with Mme. Pistolkors, reported, 
2 Dec. 1902. 

MORGARTEN (Switzerland). 1300 Swiss en- 
gaged 20,000 Austrians, commanded by the duke 
Leopold, whom they completely defeated, 15 N07. 
1315, upon the heights of Morgarten, overlooking 
the defile through which the enemy was to enter 
their territory from Zug. 

MORICE DANCE, an ancient dance pecu- 
liar to some of the country parts of England, and, it 
is said, also to Scotland : it was performed before 
James I. in Herefordshire. 

MORIER INCIDENT, see Prussia, 1889. 

MORISONIANS, followers of the Eev. James 
Morison of Kilmarnock, suspended for heterodoxy, 
1841. 

MORLEY HALL and Welbeck Institute, 
Regent Street, London, for the Young Women's 
Christian Association, opened by princess Christian, 
22 Nov. 1886. 

MORMONS (calling themselves the Church 
of Jesus Christ of the Latter-day Saints). 
This sect derives its origin from Joseph Smith, 
called the Prophet, who announced in 1823, at 
Palmyra, New York, that he had had a vision of 
the angel Moroni. In 1827 he said that he found 
the book of Mormon, written on gold plates in 
Egyptian characters. This book is said to have 
been written about 1812, by a clergyman named 
Solomon Spaulding (or by Martin Harris, who died 
Sept. 1875), as a religious romance in imitation of 
the scripture style. It was translated and published 
in America in 1830, in England in 184 1. It fell 
into the hands of Rigdon and Smith, who deter- 
mined to palm it oft' as a new revelation. The 
Mormons command the payment of tithes, permit 
polygamy, encourage labour, and believe in their 
leaders working miracles. Missionaries are propa- 
gating these doctrines in Europe with more success 
than would be expected. 

The Mormonites organise a church at Kirkland, 
Ohio . . 1830 

They found Zion, in Jackson county, Missouri 1831-2 

From 1833 to 1839 the sect endured much perse- 
cution, and, driven from place to place, was com- 
pelled to travel westwards ; till the city Nauvoo 
on the Mississippi was laid out and a temple 
was built 1840-1 

Joseph and his brother Hyram, when in prison on a 
charge of treason, shot by an infuriated mob, and 
Brigham Young chosen seer . . June, 1844 

Much harassed by their neighbours ; departure from 
Nauvoo determined on 1845 

The Great Salt Lake chosen "for an everlasting 
abode," and taken possession of . .24 July, 1847 

The valley surveyed by order of the United States 
government 1849 

The provisional government abolished and the Utah- 
territory recognised by the United States ; Brig- 
ham Young appointed the first governor ; and the 
university of Deseret was founded . . 1849-50 

The population, 11,354 I 8si 

The crops at the Utah settlement said to be de- 
stroyed by locusts .... Aug. 1855 

The United States judge at Utah resigned from 
inability to discharge his functions, in conse- 
quence of the violent and treasonable conduct of 
the Mormons, and their leader, Brigham Young 1857 

A conference of Mormon elders, <fec. , was held in 
London ; offensive speeches made and songs sung 
advocating polygamy 1 Sept. „ 

The United States government sent an army to 
Utah : a compromise was entered into, and peace 
was established by governor Cummings in June, 185S 



MORMONS. 



827 



MOROCCO. 



A Mormonite meeting at Southampton . 18 Feb. 1861 

A French Mormonite priest preached at Paris in Oct. 1862 

" Latter-day Saints' " meetings held in London . 1865 

Utah settlement visited by Hepworth Dixon : he 
stated that it contained 200,000 persons, and an 
army of 20,000 rifles. (" New America," published 
in 1867) 1866 

Reported schisms : through increasing opposition 
to polygamy June, 1867 

Synod held in Store-street, London (London con- 
ference said to include 1 172 members) 5 April, 1868 

650 new Mormonites sailed from Liverpool for Utah, 

6 June, 

Bill depriving polygamists of civic rights passed 
U. S. house of representatives . . March, 1870 

Brigham Young ordered to be tried for bigamy, 
flies ; Hawkins, a Mormonite elder, sentenced to 
three years' imprisonment for adultery, end of Oct. 1871 

Brigham Young surrenders for trial, 2 Jan. ; pro- 
ceedings annulled by the supreme court about May, 1872 

Brigham Young resigns temporal powers, 10 April, 1873 

The Mormonite conferences at the Holborn Amphi- 
theatre 25 May, ,, 

Nineteen missionaries for Britain arrive at Liverpool 

12 Nov. „ 

Brigham Young again indicted for polygamy, about 

15 Oct. 1874 

Adjudged to support one of his wives while she sues 
for divorce, March ; imprisoned in his own house, 
for non-compliance, Nov. ; discharged . Dec. 1875 

Bp. J. D. Lee shot for his share in Mountain Mea- 
dows massacre, (Brigham Young suspected,) (see 
Massacres) 23 March, 1877 

Death of Brigham Young, aged 76 . 29 Aug. ,, 

John Taylor, chief of 12 apostles, became presi- 
dent of the church Sept. ,, 

Conference in London opened . . 30 Sept. „ 

Orson Pratt, a leader and colleague of Joseph 
Smith, died Nov. 1881 

Six meeting-houses in London, March, 1882; esti- 
mated 85,000 English converts . . . 1837-82 

Polygamy in the United States abolished by Act 
passed 23 March, 1882 

Great meeting at Salt Lake ; 57 missionaries sent 
out 6 Oct. 1883 

Senator' Edmund's bill for suppression of the Mor- 
mon ehurch passed by the U.S. senate (38-7) 

9 Jan. 1886 

Meeting of Mormon elders and missionaries at St. 
George's Hall, Langham-place, London 12 Oct. ,, 

John Taylor died 25 July, 1887 

Decree for the suppression of the church ; appealed 
against ... ... Oct. iSSS 

A new temple erected in Salt Lake City, capable of 
holding 14,000 persons, the granite walls 20 ft. 
thick at the base, taper upwards to 6 ft. 

reported Aug. 1889 

Many Mormons disenfranchised for taking an 
illegal oath ; the "Gentiles" obtain majority in 
elections Feb. 1890 

President Woodruff and a conference of elders put 
forth a profession of faith, recognizing the Bible 
and the Book of Mormon as the Word of God, 
gifts of tongues, &c, and renouncing polygamy, 
about 25 Sept. ; adopted by the church at a great 
meeting 6 Oct. ,, 

£44,352 Mormons in the United States, N. A. ; 
census of 1S90. Mr. Joseph Smith, jun., son of 
the founder of Mormonism, heads a party op- 
posed to polygamy (about 30,000 members) Aug. 1^91 

New settlement on land granted by the Mexican 
government in N. Mexico ; arrangements made 
by Mr. John Young, son of Brigham Young; a 
large number of Mormons ready to start from 
Utah, reported June, 1892 

Amnesty granted for past polygamic marriages, 
future to be punished by law, about . 5 Jan. 1893 

Dedication of the great temple at Salt Lake City, 
built in 40 years, stated cost, 5,000,000 dollars 

6 April, et seq. ,, 

Suppression of polygamy generally accepted July, 1894 

Pardon granted to polygamists, by proclamation 

27 Sept. ,, 

Ten colonies in N.Mexico, reported prosperous, Jan. 1897 

Mr Lorenzo Snow, 5th president of the church, 
died, aged 87, about 10 Oct. ; succeeded by Mr. 
Joseph Smith 18* Oct. 1901 



MORNING ADVERTISER first pub- 
lished, 8 Feb. 1794. 

MORNING CHRONICLE, Whig, 1770, 
extinct 1 762. 

MORNING POST, fashionable daily paper, 
favourable to the Whigs and High Church party, 
first appeared, 2 Nov. 1772. Conservative, 1874. 
Price reduced to id., 2 J June, 1881. 

MOROCCO, or MAROCCO, an empire in North 
Africa, formerly Mauritania {which see). In 105 1 
it was subdued for the Fatimite caliphs by the 
Almoravides, who eventually extended their do- 
minion iuto Spain. These were succeeded by the 
Almohades (1121), the Merinites (1270), and in 
1516 by the Scherifs, pretended descendants of 
Mahomet, the now reigning dynasty. The Moors 
have had frequent wars with the Spaniards and 
Portuguese, due to piracy. Population, 1891, about 
8,000,000; Fez, the capital, 140, to 150,000. 

Invasion of Sebastian of Portugal, who perishes 
with his army at the battle of Alcazar 4 Aug. 1578 

Tangiers (which see) acquired by England, 1662 ; 
given up 1683 

The Moors attack the French in Algeria at the 
instigation of Abd-el-Kader ; the prince de 
Joinville bombards Tangiers, 6 Aug. , and Mogador 

16 Aug. 1844 

Marshal Bugeaud defeats the Moors at the river 
Isly, and acquires the title of duke . 14 Aug. ,, 

Peace between France and Morocco . 10 Sept. ,, 

The Spaniards, who possess several places on the 
coast of Morocco (Ceuta, Penon de Velez, &c), 
having suffered much annoyance by Moorish 
pirates, declare war .... 22 Oct. 1859 

Negotiations fruitless : the Spanish government 
increasing their demands as the sultan yielded ; 
the English government interfered in vain. For 
the v:ar, see Spain 1859-60 

A Moorish ambassador (the first since the time of 
Charles II.) in London. (He gave 200Z. to the 
lord mayor for the London charities) June-Aug. i860 

The British government gave a guarantee for a loan 
of 426,000?. to the sultan to meet his engagements 
with Spain ... . . 24 Oct. 1861 

Insurrection of a pretender, Elkadin ben Abder- 
ahman, suppressed Dec. 1873 

Prince Sidi Shereef visits Britain . Aug. 1877 

The grand sherif of Wazan marries an English wife ; 
liberates his slaves, &c. ; persecuted, becomes a 
French subject Jan. 1884 

The rebel tribes of Benin Guild district defeated 
after a severe engagement . . 25 June, 1888 

The sultan's visit to Tangier delayed . Sept. ,, 

An exploring expedition under Mr. Joseph Thomson 
and Mr. Harold Crichton Browne aided by the 
Royal and Geographical societies, spring and 

summer, ,, 

Disputes among the foreign consuls ; abuse of their 
powers and consequent Moorish resistance, 

autumn, ,, 

The sultan visits Tetuan, 5 Sept. ; Tangier, 22 Sept. 1889 

Dispute with Spain respecting the seizure of a 
Spanish coasting vessel, Miguel Texesa, settled by 
due reparation . . . . about 29 Sept. ,, 

Affray between Moors and the Spanish cavalry of 
the" fortress Melilla, several killed, 20 July ; 
peace restored 25 July, 1890 

The sultan defeats rebel tribes, and beheads 80 
prisoners, reported 20 Aug. ; further defeats of 
the rebels reported . . . .26 Sept. ,, 

The Moorish government agrees to pay 50,000?. as 
indemnity for murder of persons connected with 
a British factory at Cape Juby in 1889 . Feb. 1891 

Sir William Kirby Green, the able British minister 
to Morocco, died 25 Feb. ; succeeded by sir 
Charles Euan Smith, from Zanzibar . . . „ 

Hostility of the Kabyles and other tribes to the 
governor ; two British war-vessels arrive off 
Tangier, about 5 Jan. ; 3 foreign vessels arrive, 

about 13 Jan. 1892 



MOEOCCO. 



828 



MOROCCO. 



Tranquillity restored by the sultan dismissing the 
governor, and appointing a successor . 22 Jan. 
Sir C. Euan Smith received by the sultan at Fez, 

14 May, 
A new commercial treaty considered . . May, 
Rebellion in Angera . . . . . June, 

Sir C. Euan Smith's negotiations for a commercial 
treaty fail ; the mission withdraws to Tangier 

22 July et seq. 

Rebellion of 1,200 Angherites, or Anjerites, headed 
by Hmam, a desperate fanatic (chiefly against the 
governor), near Tangier, about 27 July ; indeci- 
sive conflicts, July, Aug. ; negotiations, 16, 17 
Aug. ; the Angherites defeated after severe fight- 
ing ; they sue for peace, 4 Sept. ; a new governor 
appointed, reported 13 Sept. ; peace proclaimed, 
16 Sept. ; agreement signed . . .26 Oct. 

A French mission, under count d'Aubigny, arrives 
at Fez, 4 Oct. ; departs, having obtained some 
concessions 5 Dec. 

Sir Charles Euan Smith absent on leave, 3 Oct. ; 
Mr. Charles Eliot charge d'affaires . 19 Oct. 

Juan Trinadad, a British subject, killed in a fracas 
at Tangier, 1 Dec. 1892; reparation demanded, 
S Jan. ; an ultimatum sent to the sultan by Mr. 
Charles Eliot, requiring an answer within 48 
hours 9 Jan. 

Three Moorish night-guards imprisoned for the 
murder of Juan Trinadad . . .10 Jan. 

The sultan pays an indemnity of 1,000?. . 19 Jan. 

Reappearance of Ould Hmam in Anghera ; fresh 
outrages, about 22 Jan., he is captured and taken 
to Tangier .... reported 24 Feb. 

Colonel sir J. West Ridgeway warmly received at 
Madrid, 25 Jan. ; at Tangier, 31 Jan. ; received 
by the commissioner for foreign affairs, 9 Feb. ; 
returns to England . . . . 31 July, 

The mountaineers enter Wazan, and are subdued 
with much slaughter, reported . . 20 Feb. 

Renewed fighting ; the tribes defeated with much 
slaughter, reported .... 9 July 

Mr. Ernest Satow, British minister, arrives, 29 Aug. 

About 7,000 Moors (Riff tribe) attack Fort Gua- 
raich, near Ceuta, held by 300 Spanish troops, 
under general Margallo at Melilla, severe fighting 
all day, the Moors repulsed ... 2 Oct. 

The Moors driven from their entrenchments 

21 Oct. 

The Spaniards repulsed, 27 Oct. ; general Margallo 
killed, his body and cannon recovered, Spanish 
loss 22 killed and 81 wounded, 28 Oct. ; general 
Macias appointed to the command, 29 Oct. ; skir- 
mishes, 3 Nov. ; Melilla distressed, the Moors 
make strong entrenchments, 7 Nov. ; the sultan 
condemns the action of the tribesmen and 
threatens punishment, reported . . 9 Nov. 

Reinforcements sent from Spain . . . Nov. 

Marshal Campos takes the command, 28 Nov. ; re- 
construction of Fort Sidi Guaraich begun, with- 
out opposition 30 Nov. 

Terms of peace proposed by marshal Campos to the 
tribes . . .... 7 Dec. 

Moorish concessions, two chiefs surrendered 

27 Dec. 

Arrival of marshal Campos as Spanish ambassador 
in Morocco, 29 Jan. ; received by the sultan 

31 Jan 

Arrival of Moorish troops at Melilla, to punish the 
Riff tribes, etc about 3 Feb. 

Spanish claims acceded to (792,000?..), 10 March, 
1894 ; treaty completed .... Feb. 

Revolt of the Kabyles in the south, the govern- 
ment troops defeated, near Mazagan, reported 

19 Aug. 

British and Spanish war-vessels sent to Mazagan 

19, 20 Aug. 

Peace made with the Kabyles, reported . 13 Sept. 

British mission under Mr. Ernest Satow, warmly 
received at Fez by the sultan, 29 Oct. 1894 ; re- 
tires successful .... 20 April, 

A British company's settlement at Cape Juby 
bought by Morocco ; convention signed . April, 

French Mission received at Fez . . 27 May, 

Sir Arthur Nicolson appointed minister . 26 June, 



1894 



1895 



Indemnity claimed for murder of a German sub- 
ject ; agreed to 11 Aug. 1895 

Death of the shereef of Wazan. benevolent citizen, 

Oct. ,, 

Sir Arthur Nicolson, British minister, arrives at 
Tangiers 3 Oct. ,, 

Arab rebellion, Saffi attacked, severe fighting 

7-1 1 Nov. ,, 

Sir Arthur Nicolson cordially received by the 
sultan, 13 April, 1896; returns to Tangier, 22 May, 1896 

Liberal grants from the sultan for works at Tan- 
gier, announced 27 May, ,, 

The sultan marches with about 60,000 men to awe 
the Riffians and disaffected districts, 16 Sept. ; 
rebels defeated at Tadla, Oct. 1897 ; rebels and 
prisoners treated with great cruelty, Jan. et seq. 1898 

Trial of Mr. Gray and the crew of the British steamer 
Tourmaline for alleged attempt to smuggle arms 
into Sus, begins at Tangier, 14 June ; all sen- 
tenced to short terms of imprisonment 2 July „ 

[Major Spilsbury tried and acquitted at Gibraltar, 
19 April, 1899.] 

Indemnity paid to the Portuguese and Italian 
governments for Riflian piracy (1898) . 3 Jan. 1899 

Tribal fighting on the frontier, great slaughter, 

Dec. 1898-22 March, ,, 

Compensation to Germany for losses in 1896, 
settled March, ,, 

Kaid Gilooli's troops attack Sus and loot European 
property ; estimated loss, 20,000?., reported, 

28 April, ,, 

Sid Ahmed Ben Musa, grand vizier and stern ruler, 
dies 13 May, 1903 

The Moorish government protests against French 
encroachments upon Twat and Igli as a violation 
of the frontier treaty of 1845 (see Algeria 1900), 
and asks for arbitration . . . . 9 June, ,, 

Great excitement at Fez owing to the French 
occupation of the Twat oases ; M. Marcos Essagin 
murdered by the mob ... 28 June, ,, 

The powers again appealed to . . . 20 Aug. ,, 

Kaid Mehadi appointed grand vizier. May, 1901 ; 
received by the king in London, 10 June ; visits 
France, Germany, and other powers ; returns, , 

about 29 July, 1901 

A modus vivendi with France regarding the Algerian 
frontier settled end July, ,, 

Moorish mission visits Paris and St. Petersburg, 
July- Aug. ; returns . . . .25 Aug. ,, 

Village j raided near Tangier, tribal disorders in- 
creasing 25 Sept. ,, 

Free trade between the coast towns (due to lord 
Lansdowne) instituted .... Sept. ,, 

The government pays 30,000 dol. as indemnity to 
Spain for the abduction of 2 Spanish captives 
by the Kabyles, in May, and 1,600 dol. to the 
parents 31 Oct. ,, 

Destructive floods and terrific cloud-burst at 
Saffi ; about 100 deaths . . . 29 Dec. ,, 

Berber raids and rising, Aug. ; their villages burnt 
and a tribe routed near Mekinez . . 4 Sept. 1902 

Death of the sultan's mother an enlightened lady, 

6 Sept. „ 

Prison reforms started by the sultan, Nov. 1901 ; 
work progressing rapidly .... Sept. ,, 

Submission of Berber tribes ; armistice discussed, 

25, 26 Sept. 

Algerian-Morocco frontier settled . . mid Oct. ,, 

Mr. D. Cooper, missionary, shot near Fez by a 
fanatic, who was seized and executed (the sultan 
presents Mrs. Cooper with 1,000?.., Nov.) 17 Oct. ,, 

Rebels, under Omar Zarhuni " Bu Hamara," pre- 
tender to the throne, defeated near Tesa, 3 Nov. ,, 

The Benider Kabyles defeated near Tetuan, 

11, 14 Nov. ,, 

Revolt increases : the sultan is defeated at Tesa, 
29 Nov. ; the pretender holds Tesa and surround- 
ing districts 9 Dec. ,, 

Rout of the sultan's army, 17 guns captured, near 
Tesa (see Times, 29 Dec) . . . 22 Dec. ,, 

The sultan holds Fez, 23 Dec. ; many tribes return 
and swear fealty, reported . . .4 Jan. 1903 

Villages near Tangier attacked by Fahsias, who are 
repulsed 13 Jan. ,, 

French loan of 7,500,000 francs . 27 Jan. ,, 



MOEPHIA. 



829 



MOSCOW. 



Skirmishing in the Fez district, many rebels killed 
and captured . . .19 Jan., 14, 15 Feb. 1903 

The sultan's brother, Mulai Mohammed, proclaimed 
sultan by the Riff tribes . . .3 April, 

Fort Trajana captured by the rebels, reported, 

13 April, 

Mekinez attacked and pillaged, reported, 22 April, 

Anarchy reported in Gharbia . . 29 April, 

Arzila besieged in April, relieved . . 2 May, 

Defeat of the sultan's troops at Zelwan, reported, 

7 May, 

Tetuan attacked, suburbs destroyed, n May ; fort 
of Tesa captured, villages pillaged and burnt ; 
Teutan relieved, reported . . .16 May, 

Zimmuris desert the sultan, afterwards attacked, 
many killed, reported . . . .22 May, 

Heavy loss of sultan's troops near Rebat, reported, 

26 May, 

Zenaga bombarded by the French . . 8 June, 

Village of Zinat burnt by the troops ; Mr. Harris, 
correspondent of the Times, captured near there 
by the rebels, 16 June ; released . . C July, 

Tesa recovered from the rebels by El Menebhi, 

7 July, 

Continued fighting in -the Teutan district, 20 July, 

Rebel villages near Tangier burnt by the sultan's 
troops 21 July, 

Severe fighting, 6, 7 Aug. ; the rebel forces under 
Mulai Mohammed routed at Meknessa ; other 
successes by sultan's troops, reported . 13 Aug. 

Troops defeated with loss near Tesa, reported , 

28 Aug. 

Native officials confer with commander of sultan's 
troops near Tangier respecting an armistice with 
the local rebel tribes ; 1,200 Moorish soldiers sent 
to Ujda, return there after defeat by the pre- 
tenders at Sidi Mellouk, reported, early Sept. ,, 

Kaid sir H. Maclean arrives at Tangier from Fez en 
route for London ; expresses confidence the 
sultan will shortly crush the rebellion if a 
loan of 25,000,000 francs, preferably an Anglo- 
French loan, could be obtained . . 14 Sept. ,, 

Sultan orders all Europeans except the consuls to 
leave Fez 18 Sept. ,, 

Pourparlers between England and France respect- 
ing the guarantee of the status quo in Morocco, 
by agreement with the other powers, leaving the 
solution of affairs to France, interrupted by 
British ministerial crisis ; no agreement arrived 
at by the powers . . reported early Oct. ,, 

Troops commanded by the sultan in person, severely 
repulsed by the rebels . . . .12 Oct. ,, 

Meeting of London shipowners and merchants 
connected with the Morocco trade ; resolution 
passed to present a memorial to the government 
urging the adoption of a policy to maintain the 
equal trading conditions at present existing in 
Morocco 21 Oct. ,, 

Sultan abandons his expedition against the rebels, 
which has proved a failure, sultan returning to 
Fez ; the road to Fez blocked by the rebels ; 
general state of anarchy, reported . 28 Oct. ,, 

SULTANS. 

1822. Muley Abderahman. 

1859. Sidi Muley Mohammed, Sept., died Sept. 1873. 

1873. Muley Hassan (son), proclaimed 25 Sept. ; died 7 

June, 1894. 
1894. Muley Abdul Aziz (son, born 1879), proclaimed, 

11 June. 

MORPHIA, an alkaloid, discovered in opium 
by Sertiirner, in 1 803. 

MORPHOLOGY (Greek, morphe, form), the 
science of form and structure, as distinguished from 
physiology, studied in the 19th century, by Goethe, 
Gegenbaur, Haeckel, and others. 

MORRILL TARIFF, see United States, j86i. 

MORRIS DANCE, see Morice. 

MORTALITY TABLES have been fre- 
quently compiled. The Northampton tables (for 



1735-80), by Dr. Price; the Carlisle tables (for 
1780-87), by Dr. Hailsham; see Annuities and Bills 
of Mortality. 

MORTARA ABDUCTION, see Jews, 1858. 

MORTARS, a short gun with a large bore, and 
close chamber, for throwing bombs; said to have 
been used at Naples in 1435, and first made in 
England in 1543. The mortar left by Soult at 
Cadiz in Spain was fixed in St. James's-park in 
Aug. 1816. On 19 Oct. 1857, a colossal mortar, 
constructed by Mr. Robert Mallet, was tried at 
Woolwich ; with a charge of 70 lbs. it threw a 
shell weighing 2550 lbs. It mile horizontally, and 
about I mile in height. 

MORTELLA TOWERS, see Martello. 

MORTIMER'S CROSS (Herefordshire). 
The earl of Pembroke and the Lancastrians were 
here severely defeated by the young duke of York, 
afterwards Edward IV., 2 Feb. 1461. He assumed 
the throne as Edward IV. in March following. 

MORTMAIN ACTS {mort main, dead hand). 
When the survey of all the land in England was 
made by William I., 1085-6, the whole was found 
to amount to 62,215 knights' fees, of which the 
church then possessed 28,015, to which additions 
were afterwards made, till the 7th of Edward I., 
1279, when the statute of mortmain was passed, 
from a fear that the estates of the church might 
grow too bulky. By this act it was made unlawful 
to give any estates to the church without the king's 
leave; and this act, by a supplemental provision, 
was made to reach all lay-fraternities, or corpora- 
tions, in the 15th of Richard II., 1391. Mortmain 
being such a state of possession as makes property 
inalienable, it is said to be in a dead hand. Several 
statutes have been passed on this subject; legacies 
by mortmain were especially restricted by the 9th 
Geo. II., c. 36 (1736). Law consolidated and 
amended 1888 ; 1891, 1892. 

MOSAIC WORK (the Roman opus tessella- 
tum), is of Asiatic origin, and is probably referred 
to in Esther, ch. i. 6, about 519 b.c. It had 
attained to great excellence in Greece, in the time 
of Alexander and his successors, when Sosos of 
Pergamus, the most renowned Mosaic artist of 
antiquity, flourished. He acquired great fame by 
his accurate representation of an " unswept floor 
after a feast." The Romans also excelled in Mosaic 
work, as evidenced by the innumerable specimens 
preserved. Byzantine Mosaics date from the 4th 
century after Christ. The art was revived in Italy 
by Tafi, Gaddi, Cimabue, and Giotto, who designed 
Mosaics, and introduced a higher style in the 13th 
century. In the 16th century Titian and Veronese 
also designed subjects for this art. The practice of 
copying paintings in Mosaics came into vogue in 
the 17th century ; and there is now a workshop in 
the Vatican where chemical science is employed in 
the production of colours, and where 20,000 different 
tints are kept. In 1861, Dr. Salviati of Venice had 
established his manufacture of " Enamel-mosaics," 
and in July, 1864, he fixed a large enamel Mosaic 
picture in one of the spandrils under the dome of 
St. Paul's cathedral, London. He also executed 
commissions for queen Victoria and other persons. 
He died Feb. 1890, aged 74. See Paul's, St., 1896. 

MOSANDRIUM. See PMlippium. 

MOSCOW, the ancient capital of Russia, wsa 
founded, it is said, by Dolgorouki, about 1147. The 
occupation of the south of Russia by the Mongols, 



MOSELY COMMISSION. 



830 



MOUNT EVEREST. 



in 1235, led to Moscow becoming the capital, and 
beginning with Jaroslav II., 1238, its princes 
became the reigning dynasty. It is regarded as a 
holy city by the Russians. Population, 1886 : 
province 2,204,930 ; city, 1885, 753,469 ; 9 Feb. 
1897,988,610; 1900,1,023,817. 

Cathedral of the Assumption built, 1326 ; of the 

Transfiguration 1328 

The Kremlin founded 1367 

Moscow plundered by Timour 1382 

By the Tartars 1451. 1477 

Massacre of Demetrius and his Polish adherents, 

the " Matins of Moscow " . . . 27 May, 1606 
Moscow ravaged by Ladislas of Poland in . .1611 

The university founded 1705 

Entered by Napoleon I. and the French, 14 Sept. ; 
the governor, Rostopchin, is said, doubtfully, to 
have ordered it to be set on fire (11,840 houses 
burnt, besides palaces and churches) . 15 Sept. 1812 
The French evacuate Moscow . . . Oct. ,, 
Railway to St. Petersburg opened .... 1851 

Industrial exhibition 16 July, 1865 

Very great fire, about 50 houses burnt . 18 June, 1876 
Zvartofsky's weaving-works burnt ; about 24 per- 
sons perish 8 March, 1880 

Exhibition of Russian arts and manufactures, 

summer, 1882 

St. Saviour's cathedral (erected to commemorate 

the retreat of the French in 1812), founded by 

Nicholas I., 27 July, 1838; consecrated 7 June, 1883 

The French exhibition of arts and manufactures 

solemnly opened, 11 May; visited by the czar 

and czarina 30 May, 1891 

Admiral Gervais and the officers of the French 

fleet enthusiastically received . . 7 Aug. „ 
Coronation of the czar, see Bussia . 26 May, 1896 
The Panin hall, public library, burnt . 23 Aug. „ 
Student riots, 1, 114 persons arrested, 662 found 

guilty, reported 17 Dec. ,, 

Monument to Alexander II. unveiled by the czar, 

28 Aug. 1898 
Paul M. Tretiakoff, art collector, presented his 
splendid gallery of Russian pictures, &c, to the 
town in 1893 ; died, aged 66 . . .16 Dec. „ 
Restrictive measures against the Jews, adopted, 

April, 1S99 
Student agitation, see Russia, April, 1899-1902. 
A million roubles bequeathed by W. J. Astrakoff 

to found a university for women, reported, April, ., 
Attempt on the life of Trepoff, chief of the police, 
by a governess .... end March, 1902 

MOSELY INDUSTRIAL COM- 
MISSION, see Labour Question. 

MOSKIRCH (Baden). Here the Austrians 
were defeated by Moreau and the French, 5 May, 
1800. 

MOSKWA or Borodino, Battle of ; see 

Borodino. 

MOSQUE, a Mahometan house of prayer. Fine 
examples exist in Spain, India, and other countries. 
The dome and porticos are leading features. After 
the capture of Constantinople in 1453 by Mahomet 
II., the church of St. Sophia was transformed into 
a mosque, see Sophia, St. A mosque was erected 
in England in 1889 ; see under Mahometanism. 

MOSQUITO COAST (Central America). 
The Indians inhabiting this coast were long under 
the protection of the British, who held Belize and a 
group of islands in the bay of Honduras. The 
jealousy of the United States long existed on this 
subject. In April, 1850, the two governments 
covenanted not "to occupy, or fortify, or colonise, 
or assume, or exercise any dominion over any part 
of Central America." In 1855 the United States 
charged the British government with an infraction 
of the treaty ; on which the latter agreed to cede 



the disputed territory to the republic of Honduras, 
with some reservation.* The matter was finally 
settled in 1859. 

H.M.S. Cleopatra landed 50 men for the protec- 
tion of the chief, Robert Henry Clarence, presi- 
dent of the council, against the Nicaraguans, 27 
Feb. ; soon withdrawn, reported . 12 March, 1894 

Conflicts between the British subjects and the 
Nicaraguans on Corn island ; martial law pro- 
claimed, reported .... 14 July, ,, 

General Ortiz defeats the natives, reported, 7 Aug. „ 

Bluefields retaken by the Nicaraguans ; British 
subjects and prince Clarence rescued by capt. 
Stewart of H.M.S. Mohawk, reported 12 Aug. ; 
conveyed to Jamaica, reported . . 28 Aug. ,, 

The British vice-consul, Mr. Hatch, and others, 
arrested and taken to Greytown by the Nicara- 
guans, 23 Aug. ; released on parole, reported 

28 Aug. ,, 

Martial law revoked, Nicaragua supreme, reported 
20 Sept.; recognized by U. S. N. A. but not by 
Great Britain 28 Nov. ,, 

Ultimatum presented by Mr. Gosling, British min- 
ister, indemnity for injuries, 15,000^. 25 Feb. 1895 

MOSQUITOS, see Malaria. 

MOSS-TROOPERS, desperate plunderers, 
and lawless soldiers, secreting themselves in the 
mosses on the borders of Scotland. Many severe 
laws were enacted against them, but they were not 
extirpated till the 18th century. 

MOTETTS, short pieces of church music, some 
of which are dated about the end of the 13th cen- 
tury. Good motetts were written between 1430 
and 1480; and very fine ones in the 16th and 17th 
centuries. The "Motett Society," for the publi- 
cation of these works, was founded in 1847, by 
Wm. Dyce. 

MOTION. On 13 Nov. 1873, professor Sylvester 
desci'ibed to the London Mathematical Society a ' 
machine for converting spherical into rectilinear, 
and other motions, and for producing perfectly 
parallel motion, the discovery of M. Peaucellier, a 
French engineer officer, about 1867. See Kine- 
matics. 

MOTOR CARRIAGES, see Carriages, 1896. 

MOTTOES, ROYAL. Bleu et mon Droit, 

first used by Kichard 1., 1198. Ich dien, " Iserve," 
adopted by Edward the Black Prince, at the battle 
of Cressy, 1346. Honi soit qui mal y pense, the 
motto of the Garter, 1349- Je maintiendrai, "I 
will maintain," adopted by "William III., to which 
he added, in 1688, " the liberties of England and 
the Protestant religion." Semper eadem, wag 
assumed by queen Elizabeth, 1558, and adopted by 
queen Anne, 1702. See thenl severally. 

MOUNTAIN MEADOWS, see Massacres, 

MOUNTAIN PARTY, see Clubs, French. 

MOUNT EVEREST, 29,002 feet high, the 
highest point in the Himalayas and as yet known 
in the world, was named after the late sir George 
Everest, superintendent of the trigonometrical sur- 
vey of India in Dec. 1843, by his successor, gen. 
sir Andrew Scott Waugh, K.E., F.R.S. 



* St. Juan del Norte (Greytown) was held by the British 
on behalf of the Mosquitoes till the American adventurers, 
under col. Kinney, took possession of it in Sept. 1855- 
He joined Walker'; and on 10 Feb. 1856, their associate, 
Riv'as, the president, claimed and annexed the Mosquito 
territory to Nicaragua., 



MOUNTS. 



831 



MUMMIES. 



MOUNTS, see Bernard, Calvary, Etna, Hecla, 
Himalaya, Olivet, and Vesuvius. 

Mr. W. M. Conway during his Karakoram expedition 
among the mountains bordering Cashmire, ascended 
a height of 20,000 ft. which he named Crystal 
Peak, and another peak about 23,000 ft. which he 
named Pioneer Peak. 31 July, 25 Aug. 1892 ; and 
reached the top of Yllimani, Cordilleras, with 2 guides, 
9 Sept. 1898. 

Mount St. Elias, in Alaska, highest peak in the 
Rockies, 18,000 feet, first ascended by the duke 
of Abruzzi and party . . . 30-31 July, 1897 

MOURNING FOR THE Dead. The Israel- 

ites neither washed nor anointed themselves during 
the time of mourning, which for a friend lasted 
seven days ; upon extraordinary occasions a month 
or more. The Greeks and Romans fasted. White 
was used in mourning for the imperial family at 
Constantinople, 323. The ordinary colour for 
mourning in Europe is black ; in China, white ; 
in Turkey, violet; in Ethiopia, brown; it was 
white in Spain until 1498. Anne of Brittany, the 
queen of two successive kings of France, mourned 
in black, instead of the then practice of wearing 
white, on the death of her first husband, Charles 
VIII., 7 April, 1488. Henault. 

MOUSQUETAIEES or Musketeers, 

horse-soldiers under the old French regime, raised 
by Louis XIII., 1622. This corps was considered 
a military school for the French nobility. It was 
disbanded in 1646, but was restored in 1657. A 
second company was created in 1660, and formed 
cardinal Mazarin's guard. Henault. The Mousque- 
taires were abolished in 1775. 

MOZAMBIQUE, chief of the Portuguese 
territories, E, Africa, was visited by Vasco da 
Gama, 1498 ; conquered by the Portuguese under 
Tristan da Cunha and Albuquerque, 1506 ; a 
settlement was established, 1508. Capital, Mozam- 
bique, on an islet. 

Great rising of the natives against the Portuguese, who 
are said to have been severely defeated 23 Oct. ; the 
rebellion quelled Dec. 1886 ; temporary revival 2-4 
March, 1887. 

Territorial disputes with the sultan of Zanzibar led to 
war. The Portuguese stormed Tungi 16 Feb. ; the war 
ended early March, 1S87. Fresh insurrection ; Bonga 
defeated by the governor after a severe conflict, 
announced 12 Jan. 1889. 

A company formed at Lisbon for the development of 
the resources of Mozambique, announced 12 Dec. 1889. 
For the disputes with England respecting East Africa, 
see under Zambesi. 

Much hostility shown tow y ards the English at 
Quilimane. . May, June, 1890 

Col. Joaquim Jose Machado appointed governor- 
general of Mozambique . . about 17 June, „ 

Lieut. Azevedo Continho, in the Shire seizes the 
James Stevenson, belonging to the British African 
lakes company, at Chimoro, and sends the crew 
to Quilimane for trial, reported 31 July ; he is 
censured by the government . . 2 Aug. ,, 

Mr. (aft. sir) H. H. Johnston, C.B., British consul 
at Mozambique, nominated consul-general for the 
Portuguese East Africa territories . . Jan. 1891 

A Portuguese royal charter granted to a company 
in Mozambique, 11 Feb. ; modified . 30 July ,, 

Natives repulsed in an attack on Portuguese troops 
under major Mousinho Albuquerque, gov.-gen. , 
19 Oct. 1896 ; martial law, 5 Nov. 1896 ; campaign 
ended, commercial transit opened to Macuane in 
the interior, reported .... 5 April, 1897 

Sen. Ferreira appointed governor . . July, 189S 

A Portuguese expedition against Mataka ; routes 
the natives mid Aug. 1899 

Severe encounter with slave-dealers, 50 killed, 162 
captured, 12 dhows seized, 700 slaves released, 
reported . .... 18 March, 1902 



MUCKER (hypocrites), a German sect; see 
Ebelians and Brazil, 1874. 

MUGGLETONIANS, so called from Ludo- 
wic Muggleton, a tailor, known about 1641, promi- 
nent about 1650; convicted of blasphemy, Jan. 
1676 ; died, 1697. He and John Reeve affirmed 
that God the Father, leaving the government of 
heaven to Elias, came down and suffered death in a 
human form. They asserted that they were the two- 
last witnesses of God which should appear before 
the end of the world, Rev. xi. 3. This sect exist ed ? 
1850. 

MUHLBERG, on the Elbe, Prussia. Here 
the German protestants were defeated by the em- 
peror Charles V., 24 April, 1547, and John Frede- 
rick, elector of Saxony, was taken prisoner. 

MUHLDORF (Bavaria). Near this place 
Frederick, duke of Austria, was defeated and taken 
prisoner by Louis of Bavaria, 28 Sept. 1322. 

MULBERRY -TREES. The alleged first 
planted in England are in the gardens of Sion- 
house. Shakspeare is said to have planted a 
mulberry-tree with his own hands at Stratford- 
upon-Avon; and Garrick, Macklin, and others were 
entertained under it in 1742. Shakspeare's house- 
was afterwards sold to a clergyman of the name of 
Gastrel, who cut down the mulberry-tree for fuel:, 
1765. A silversmith purchased the whole, anti 
manufactured it into memorials. 

MULE, a spinning machine invented in I779> 
by Samuel Crompton, born at Bolton, Lancashire, 
in 1753; named, from Crompton's residence, Hail- 
in- the-ivood-iv heel ; and muslin-wheel, from its 
giving birth to the British muslin and cambric- 
manufacture ; and mule, from its combining the 
advantages of Hargreave's spinning jenny, and! 
Arkwright's adaptation. It is stated that Crompton 
at the time knew nothing of the latter. He did not 
patent his invention, but gave it up in 1780 to the 
public. It produced yarn treble the fineness and 
very much softer than any ever before produced 
in England. Parliament voted him 5000^. in 1812, 
now considered a most inadequate compensation. 
Mr. Roberts invented the self-acting mule in 1825. 

MULHAUSEN (in Alsace-Lorraine), an im- 
perial city, under Rodolph of Hapsburg ; joined the 
Swiss confederation in 15 15 ; annexed to France ii* 
1798 ; conquered and annexed to Germany, 1870-1.. 
The calico manufacture was introduced in 1746. 
Population, 1890, 76,968; 1900, 89,012. 

MUMMIES (from the Coptic mum, bitumen, 
gum, resin) ; see Embalming . The mummies in the 
British Museum, with other Egyptian antiquities, 
were placed there about 1803 and since. Mr. Alex- 
Gordon, in 1737, published an essay on three 
Egyptian mummies, one of which was brought to 
England in 1722 by capt. "Wm. Lethieullier ; two 
others came in 1734, one of which was retained 
by Dr. Mead, the other was given to the College 
of Physicians. In 1834, Mr. T. J. Pettigrew pub- 
lished a "History of Egyptian Mummies." The 
discovery of about 39 mummies of kings, priests, 
and other eminent persons in sarcophagi at Renneh, 
near Thebes, Upper Egypt, was announced in Aug. 
1881, supposed to be of the 2ist dynasty, about 
IIOO B.C. 

The mummies of Rameses II. (Sesostris) and III. 
were uncovered by MM. Gaston Maspero and E. 
Brugsch in the presence of the khedive of 
Egypt and others .... 1 June, 18S6 



MUNCHENGEATZ. 



832 



MUEEAY'S HANDBOOKS. 



A mummy, dated about 800 B.C., unrolled by Mr. 
E. A. Wallis Budge at University college, Lon- 
don 18 Dec. 1889 

Discovery of a large burial place of mummified 
cats, sacred animals, in central Egypt, sold as 
manure ; 28 tons brought + o Liverpool . Feb. 1890 

Discovery by M. Grebaut, director-general of the 
excavations, of a vast tomb of the high priests of 
Amen, on the Libian mountains west of Thebes, 
near De'ir-el-Bahari, containing many sarcophagi, 
some dating from the nth dynasty, statuettes, 
papyri, votive offerings, &c. Three galleries 
opened, one empty ; the others contained 152 
mummies intact, 149 of the 21st dynasty, about 
1,100 B.C., and 2 of the 19th, the whole conveyed 
in barges to Cairo Feb. 1891 

The high priests of Amen, at Thebes, were a line of 
powerful prelates, beginning under the kings of 
the 12th dynasty, between 3,000 and 2,000 B.C. 

Four mummy coffins presented by the Khedive to 
the British Museum ; reported . . . Nov. 1893 

" The Mummy," by E. A. Wallis Budge, published, 

Nov. ,, 

The British Museum now possesses about 44 human 
mummies, 80 coffins, well arranged, representing 
about 4000 years, commencing with Mycerinus 
III. (4th dynasty), builder of the third pyramid 
of Gizeh, about 3640 B.C., and ending with a lady 
and 3 children, about 400 a.d., see Egypt April, 1898 

MUNCHENGEATZ (Bohemia) was taken by 
the Prussians under prince Frederick Charles, after 
a severe action, 28 June, 1866. The Austrians lost 
about 300 killed and 1000 prisoners, and the prince 
gained about 12 miles of country. 

MUNDA (now Monda, S. Spain). Here Cneius 
Scipio defeated the Carthaginians, B.C. 216; and 
here Julius Csesar defeated the sons of Pouipey, 1 7 
March, 45, after a severe conflict. 

MUNDANE EEAS. That of Alexandria 
fixed the creation at 5502 B.C. This computation 
continued till a.d. 284, Alex, era, 5786; but in 
A.D. 285 ten years were subtracted, and 5787 be- 
came 5777. This coincided with the Mundane era 
of Antioch (which dated the creation 5492 B.C.). 
Nicolas. 

MUNICH, the capital of Bavaria, said to have 
been founded by duke Henry of Saxony, 962, on 
a site previously occupied by monks (Iliinchen). It 
was taken by Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in 
1632; by the Austrians, in 1704, 1741, and 1743; 
and by the French under Moreau, 2 July, 1800. It 
abounds in schools, institutions, and manufactories. 
The university was founded by king Louis in 1826. 
A Bavarian art- exhibition was opened here by 
prince Adalbert, 20 July, 1869. A congress of" Old 
Catholics" (which see) met here, 23 Sept. 1871. 
International exhibition opened, 19 July, 1879. 
International art exhibition opened 1 July, 1883 ; 
others, I June, 1888, and 1892. Centenary of King 
Louis I., 30-31 July, 1888. Visit of the emperor 
"William II., 7 Sept. i8qi ; again, 24 Nov. 1898. 
The new National museum opened by the prince- 
regent, 29 Sept. 1900. Population, Dec. 187 r, 
169,693; 1880,230,023; 1885,261,981; 1895,407,307; 
1900, 499,959- 

MUNICIPAL OOBPOEATIONS, &c. ; see 

Corporations, and Socialism. 

MUNSTEB ("W. Prussia). The bishopric, said 
to have been founded by Charlemagne, 780, was 
secularised in 1802 ; seized by the French, 1806 ; 
part of the duchy of Berg, 1809; annexed to France, 
1810; ceded to Prussia, 1815. The Anabaptists, 
under John of Leyden, the king of Munster, held 
the city in 1534-5. Here were signed the prelimi- 
naries of the treaty of Westphalia (which see), 



or Munster, Jan. 1647; definitively signed 24 Oct. 
1648. The academy of Miinster raised to the 
status of a university, July, 1902. Population, 
1890,49,344. — Munstek, the southern province of 
Ireland, an ancient kingdom. See Ireland, 1014. 
In 1568 a commission was issued for its government 
by a president and council, and new colonies were 
founded in 1588. 

MUEADAL, see Toloso. 

MUECIA, a province, formerly a kingdom, 
N. E. Spain, ^as subdued by the Moors, 713; by 
Ferdinand of Castile, 1240; and divided between 
Castile and Arragon, 1305. Population, 1887 : 
province, 491,436; city, 98,538; city, 1897, 
1 10,000. 
Murcia, the capital, was sacked by the French under 

Sebastiani, 23 April, 1810. It was inundated by the 

Segura, after a violent storm, 15-17 Oct., 1879, when 

about 1000 persons perished. 

MUEDEE, the highest offence against the law 
of God. (Genesis ix. 6, 2348 b.c.) A court of 
Ephetae was established by Demopboon of Athens 
for the trial of murder, 1 179 B.C. The Persians did 
not punish the first offence. In England, during 
a period of the heptarchy, murder was punished 
by fines only. So late as Henry VIII. 's time the 
crime was compounded for in Wales. Murderers 
were allowed benefit of clergy in 1503. Aggravated 
murder, or petit treason (a distinction now abo- 
lished) , happened in three ways : by a servant 
killing his master, a wife her husband, and an 
ecclesiastical person his superior, stat. 25 Edw. III. 
1350. The enactments relating to this crime are 
very numerous, and its wilful commission has been 
rarely pardoned by our sovereigns. The act whereby 
the murderer should be executed on the day next 
but one after his conviction, was repealed, 1836; 
see Assassinations, Executions, Trials; also Lon- 
don, 1872, Bravo, Burton, Euston, Ratcliffe, Road, 
Richmond, Harley Street, Whitechapel, Poisoning ; 
Railways, 1864 and 1881 ; Slough, Melbourne. 
For St. Pancras murder, see Trials, 1898. 

Murders in England and Wales (from Coroners' In- 
quests) : — 



t8.<;6 . 


• 205 


1857 • 


. 184 


185S . 


. 183 


1859 . 


. 204 


i860 . 


. 268 


1861 . 


. 210 


1862 . 


. 221 


1863 . 


. 270 


1S64 . 


. 246 


186=; . 


. 226 


1866 . 


272 


1867 . 


• 255 



1870 



1873 
1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 



261 

265 

222 

226 
257 
223 
223 
200 
207 
199 
I.76 
153 



1880 . 


• i57 


ISSI . 


• i93 


(101 females) 


1882 . 


. 176 


1883 . 


• i77 


1884 . 


. 192 


1885 . 


. 158 


1886 . 


• 177 


1887 . 


. 196 


1888 . 


. 190 


1889 . 


. 167 


1889-9 


D I46 



1895 



1900 
1901 
1902 



155 

170 

157 
152 

183 
169 

142 

14s 
208 

"3 



MUEET (S. France). Here the Albigenses, 
under the count of Thoulouse, were defeated by 
Simon de Montfort, and their ally Peter of Arragon 
killed, 12 Sept. 1213. 

MUBFEEESBOEOUGH (Tennessee, N. 
America) was the site of fierce conflicts between 
the federals under Kosencrans and the confederates 
under Bragg, from 31 Dec. 1S62 to 3 Jan. 1863, when 
Bragg retired with great loss. This struggle is 
called also the battle of Stone River. 

MURIATIC ACID, see Alkalies. 

MUEEAY'S HANDBOOKS FOE TEA- 

VELLERS. The parent of the series, a " Handbook 
for Travellers on the Continent," which appeared in 
1836, was the work of Mr. John Murray the 
publisher. Handbooks for France, Switzerland, 



MUSCAT. 



833 



MUSIC. 



South Germany, &c, soon followed ; one for Algeria 
appeared in Oct. 1873 ' one ^ 01 J a P an i u r 884 ; 
New Zealand, 1893; Asia Minor, &c, 1896; and 
others since. Handbooks for all the counties in 
England completed, June, 1899. 
Murray's Magazine first published by John Murray, of 

50, Albemarle Street, London, W., Jan. 1887. 
Mr. John Murray, aged nearly 84, died 2 April, 1892. 

MUSCAT, or MASCAT, an Arab city on the 
gulf of Oman, was conquered by the Portuguese 
under Albuquerque in 1507, but recovered by the 
Arabs in 1648. Population, 1892, 6o,O0O. 

Ahmad bin Sa'id repelled a Persian invasion and 

founded present dynasty 1741 

Sa'id, his son, succeeded 1775 

Sa'id bin Sultan, his son 1803 

Treaty with the British 1839 

At his death his territories divided ; after a con- 
flict, his son Sa'id Thuwainy obtained Oman ; and 
Majid, Zanzibar (which see) . . 1856 

Syud Redin compelled to fly, and a chief, Azan bin 

Gheo, seized the government . . . Oct. 1868 
The imaum tried to regain his authority . Aug. 1870 
The city was taken by Sa'id Toorkee, and the chief 

killed about 30 Jan. 18 71 

Grant of a subsidy, and new British treaty con- 
cluded by sir Bartle Frere, in . . . 1873 
Sa'id Abdool Aseer said to be deposed by his bro- 
ther, Sa'id Toorkee, end of Dec. 1875 
Rebellion against the sultan . . . June, 1882 
Muscat besieged by the sultan's brother, whose 
camp is shelled by the British ship Philomel ; 
siege raised, announced . . . 29-31 Oct. 1883 
Rebels defeated and dispersed, announced 5 Nov. ,, 
Five Arab horses presented by the sultan received 

by the queen at Windsor . . .18 Nov. 1886 
Death of the sultan ; succeeded by Seyyid Feysal 

bin Turkee 4 June, 1S88 

British territorial treaty agreed to by the sultan, 

in 1891 

Insurrection of Bedouins ; the city plundered 

24. Feb. 1895 
Rebels retire on payment of i6,ooodollars . March, ,, 
A British gun-boat sent there . . 15 March, „ 
The sultan revokes the grant of a coaling station 
and naval base to the French under threat of 
bombardment by adm. Douglas ; attends a 
durbah on the flagship Eclipse . . 16 Feb. 1899 
A coal depot ceded to France, with restrictions, 

March, ,, 

MUSEUM, originally a quarter of the palace 
of Alexandria, like the Prytaneum of Athens, where 
eminent learned men were maintained by the 
public. The foundation is attributed to Ptolemy 
Philadelphus, who here placed his library about 280 
B.C. Besides the British Museum, Soane's Museum, 
and the Museum of Geology {which see), there are 
very many others in London. The opening of 
public museums and galleries on Sunday was long 
advocated in parliament (see Sunday) ; agreed to 
by resolution for London (178—97), 10 March, 
1896. Urban authorities authorised to provide 
museums and gymnasiums, by act passed 3 July, 
1891. 

Museum Sunday, 6 Nov. 1892, when by the agency of 
the Sunday Society, (which see), the Mansion house and 
various exhibitions and galleries in London were 
opened, and sermons were preached to support the 
movement at several churches ; supporting meeting 
at the Mansion house, 8 March, 1893. Museum 
Sunday, 26 Nov. 1893 ; 2 Dec. 1894 ; annual. 
Museums Association formed in 1890 to promote the 
efficacy of museums, first London meeting, sir W. H. 
Flower, president, many country delegates present, 
3 July, 1893 ; at Dublin, 5 July, 1894. 
■" Essays on Museums, &c," by sir W. H. Flower, pub- 
lished, June, 1898 ; he died, 1 July, 1899. 

MUSIC* "Jubal, the father of all such as 

* Pythagoras (about 555 B.C.) maintained that the 
motions of the twelve spheres must produce delightful 



handle the harp and the organ " (3875 B.C. Gen. 
iii. 21). The flute, and harmony, or concord in 
music, are said to have been invented by Hyagnis, 
1506 B.C. Arund. Marbles. Vocal choruses of 
men are first mentioned 556 B.C., see Athens. 
Dufresnoy. See Organ, and other musical instru- 
ments. Prior to 1600, the chief music in England 
was masses, ballads, and madrigals, but dramatic 
music was much cultivated from that time. About 
the end of James I.'s reign, a music professorship 
was founded in the university of Oxford by Or. 
"Wm. Hychin; and the year 1710 was distinguished 
by the arrival in England of George Frederick 
Handel. Mozart came to England in 1 763 ; Joseph 
Haydn in 1791 ; and Carl Maria von Weber in 
1825. "The Oxford History of Music," Vol. IV., 
V., Feb. 1903. The Polyphonic Period, by prof. 
Wooldridge, published, 1902. 

Dictionaries of Music, Rousseau's, published 1767 ; in 
" Encyclopedie Methodique," 1791 ; Fetis, "Biogra- 
phie Universelle des Musiciens," 1835-44, and 1860-65. 
The publication of the excellent " Dictionary of Music 
and Musicians," edited by Mr. (aft. Sir) George 
Grove, begun Jan. 1878, was completed in 1890 ; he 
died, 28 May, 1900. 
Monthly Musical Record published, 1871 et seq. 
Musical Notes, &c. See Gamut. The first six are said 
to have been invented by Guy Aretino, a Benedictine 
monk of Arezzo, about 1025. Blair. The notes at 
present used were perfected in 1338. Counterpoint 
was brought to perfection by Palestrina about 1555. 
Gafforio of Lodi read lectures on musical composition 
in the 15th century, and they effected great improve- 
ment in the science. The Italian style of composition 
was introduced into these countries about 1616. 
The Musical Pitch was settled in France in 1859. The 
middle A to be 870 simple or 435 double vibrations in a 
second ; but through error of measurement the fork 
made gave (A) 439 double vibrations (C, 522). At a 
meeting on the subject, held at the Society of Arts, on 
23 Nov. i860, the concert pitch of C was recommended 
to be 528 vibrations in a second ; but the fork made by 
Mr. J. H. Giiesbach gives 539I vibrations. Mr. Hullah 
adopted 512 vibrations. 
A lower pitch was adopted at concerts in London in Jan. 
1869. 528 vibrations for C adopted for performances 
at the international exhibition of 1872, at a meeting, 
20 Jan. 1872. 
[Handel's tuning-fork, 1740, was 495 ; the Philharmonic 

Society's, 1813-43, was 515.] 
Mr. A. J. Ellis's elaborate " History of Musical Pitch " 
is published in " Journal of the Society of Arts," 
5 March, 1880, and separately. 
Sir G. Macfarren and a meeting agree to French normal 
diapason, 20 June ; agreed to by international con- 
ference at Vienna, about 17 Nov. 1885 ; adopted by the 
Philharmonic society, Aug. 1895. 
Musical Festivals in England. Dr. Bysse, chancellor 
of Hereford, about 1724, proposed to the members of 
the choirs a collection at the cathedral door after 
morning service, when forty guineas were collected 
and appropriated to charitable purposes. It was then 
agreed to hold festivals at Hereford, Gloucester, and 
Worcester, in rotation annually. Until the year 1753, 
the festival lasted only two days ; it was then ex- 
tended at Hereford to three evenings ; and at Glouces- 
ter, in 1757, to three mornings, for the purpose of in- 
troducing Handel's "Messiah," which was warmly 
received, and has been performed annually ever since. 
Musical festivals on a great scale are now annually held 
at various cathedrals in England ; Chester, 21 July, 
1897 ; see Handel and Crystal Palace. 
" Sons of the Clergy " annual musical performances at St. 

Paul's began 1709. 
Musical Festivals. Several were held on the conti- 
nent in the 18th century; for Haydn at Vienna, 1808- 
1811 ; others at Erfurt 1811, Cologne 1821, and fre- 
quently since. 

sounds, inaudible to mortal ears, which he called " the 
music, of the spheres. " St. Cecilia, said to have enticed 
an angel from the celestial regions by her melody, is 
termed the patroness of music. She died in the second 
century. 

3 H 



MUSIC. 



834 



MUSIC 



Study of music greatly increased by the efforts and 
teaching of John Hullah since 1840 et seq. 

The Tonic sol-fa system, in which the letters d, r, m, f, s, 
I, t, (for do, re, mi, fa, so, la, ti, or si) are used instead of 
notes, was invented by Miss Glover, of Norwich, and 
improved by rev. John Curwen, about 1841 ; he died 
1880. 

The Tonic Sol-fa Association founded 1853 ; the college 
established 1862 ; jubilee celebrated at St. Paul's, 
7 July ; Crystal Palace. 18 July, 1891. 

Musical Institutions. The Ancient Academy of Music 
was instituted in 1710. It originated with numerous 
eminent performers and gentlemen wishing to promote 
the study of vocal harmony. 

Madrigal Society was established in 1741, and other musi- 
cal societies followed. 

" Ancient concerts " began, 1776.; ceased, 1848. 

Eoyal Society of Music arose from the principal nobility 
and gentry uniting to promote the performance of 
operas composed by Handel, 1785. 

Philharmonic Society's concerts began in 1813. 

Royal Academy of Music, established 1822 (which see). 

Melodists' Club, 1825. 

New Philharmonic Society established 1852. 

Sacred Harmonic Society, Exeter hall, established 1831. 
500th performance, 13 Dec. 1867 ; performances at St. 
James's hall, 1880-1. It ceased to exist in 1882 ; 
final concert, 28 April (Handel's "Solomon"). The 
new society gave its first concert, 23 Feb. 1883. 

British Orchestral Society, 1872. 

Catch Club formed, 1761 ; centenary kept, July, 1861. 

Glee Club formed, 1787. 

Musical Union, founded by John Ella, 1844 ! ne died 
2 Oct. 1888. 

Harmonic Union (for performances of ancient and 
modern music), 1852-4. 

Musical Society of London, established 1858. 

"Popular Monday Concerts" at St. James's hall, 
founded by Thos. and Arthur Chappell, commenced 
with a "Mendelssohn night," 14 Feb. 1859; Mr. 
Arthur Chappell retired from their direction, 18 Dec. 
1901 ; Mr. Thos. Chappell died, June, 1902. 

London Academy of Music founded in i860. 

Csecilian Society, London, founded by Z. W. Vincent and 
others in 1785 ; ceased in 1861. 

The People's Concert society founded, 1878. 

The hon. Norman de L'Aigle Grosvenor, one of the 
founders, president, died, 21 Nov. 1898. 

Folk Song society formed, inaugural address by sir 
Hubert Parry, 7 Feb. 1899. 

" Musical Education Committee " of the Society of Arts, 
London, with the prince of Wales as chairman, held its 
first meeting 22 May, 1865. Its first report, dated 27 
June, 1866, recommended the reconstitution of the 
Royal Academy. 

National Training School for Music ; building near the 
Albert hall, founded by the duke of Edinburgh, 
18 Dec. 1873 ; opened by him 17 May, 1876 ; first public 
concert, 23 June, 1879. Premises given up to the 
prince of Wales as chairman of the proposed National 
College of Music, 6 April, 1882. 

Guildhall School of Music founded 1880 (see under 
Guildhall). 

Royal College of Music, Kensington; establishment pro- 
posed at a meeting at Marlborough-house, the prince 
of Wales in the chair, Aug. 1878, and 23 and 28 Feb. 
1882. Charter granted ; prince of Wales, president ; 
sir George Grove, director ; 21 April, 1883 ; Dr. Charles 
Hubert Parry, Nov. 1894 (knt. 1898) ; opened by the 
prince of Wales, 7 May; reported successful; first 
annual meeting 28 May, 1884 ; prince (George) of 
Wales, president, 27 May, 1902. 

Mr. Samson Fox, civil engineer of Leeds, presented 
30,000?. (increased to 45,000/.., 18 May, 1889), for the 
erection of buildings ; personally accepted by the 
prince of Wales, Jan. 1888, who laid the foundation of 
new buildings, 8 July, 1890; state opening by the 
prince and princess of Wales ; the Donaldson museum 
of ancient musical instruments, &c, also opened, 
2 May, 1894. 

" Musical Association for the Investigation and Discus- 
sion of subjects connected with the Ait and Science 
of Music," founded 16 April, 1874, by Messrs. Spottis- 
woode, Wheatstone, Tyndall, G. A. Macfarren, J. 
Hullah, Sedley Taylor, Stone, Pole, Chapjpell, Barnby, 
and others. Publishes its " Proceedings." 



Henry Leslie's musical choir formed about 1855 ; dis- 
solved 1880; reorganised, Mr. Randegger conductor, 
July, 1882-87. Mr. Leslie died 4 Feb. 1896. 

Church Choral Society, London, incorporated as Trinity 
College, 1875. 

National Opera-house, N. Thames embankment, first brick 
laid by Mile. Tietjens, 7 Sept. : first stone by the duke 
of Edinburgh, 16 Dec. 1875. 

The Wagner Society in London gave concerts to intro- 
duce R. Wagner's so-called " Music of the Future " 
(the due combination of music and poetry), Feb. 1873. 

Wagner's Lohengrin, performed at Covent-garden, 8 May, 
at Drury-lane, 13 June, 1875. Tannhauser performed at 
Covent-garden, 29 April, 1876. 

Three series of performances of Wagner's " Ring des 
Nibelungen," in four parts (Rheingold, Walkiire, Sieg- 
fried, and Gbtterdamvierung ), at Bayreuth, in 
presence of the emperors of Germany and Brazil, the 
king of Bavaria, and many other sovereigns and 
princes, 13 Aug. et seq., 1876 ; at Berlin, May, 1881. In 
London, 5 May et seq. 1882. 

Wagner Festival, Royal Albert hall, London (Wagner 
present), 7 — 19 May, 1877, and others since. 

Richard Wagner died at "Venice, 13 Feb. 1883. 

National Society of Professional Musicians founded in 
1882. 

A tine collection of musical instruments at the Inven- 
tions Exhibition, South Kensington, opened 4 May, 
1885. 

Josef Hofman, aged about 10, plays brilliantly at St. 
James's hall long classical pieces from memory, 
summer and autumn ; goes to America, where his 
performances are stopped by a philanthropist, 1887. 

Otto Hegner, aged n, plays in London, March, 1888 ; 
many other juvenile performers since. 

Copyright of musical compositions, restricting their 
unauthorised performance, passed 5 July, 1888. 

Mine. Patey, eminent contralto, died a few hours after 
singing an encore at Sheffield, 28 Feb. 1R94. 

Bi-centenary of the death of Henry Purcell celebrated 
in Westminster Abbey, 21 Nov. 1895. 

The Strand, musical monthly magazine (illustrated), 
No. I. published, Jan. 1895. 

First international music-trades exhibition at the Agri- 
cultural hall, London, 150 exhibitors, opened 13 June, 
prizes distributed 21 June, 1895. 

Sir Charles Halle, conductor and pianist, born n April, 
1819, died 25 Oct. 1895. 

Sir Joseph Barnby, conductor and composer, born 
12 Aug. 1838, died 28 Jan. 1896. 

Mdme. Clara Schumann (widow of Robert Schumann), 
pianist and composer, born 13 Sept. 1819, died 20 
May, 1896. 

The Musician, weekly paper, started mid May, 1897. 

Musical festival at Dublin, a revival of the old Feis 
Ceoil, May, 1897 ; again, May, 1898. 

National convention of choirmasters meets at Man- 
chester, 16 Sept. 1897. 

Incorporated Society of Musicians 13th annual meeting 
at the Mansion house, 4 Jau. 1898 ; Plymouth, 3 Jan. 
1899. 

London musical festival at the Queen's hall, 17 May, 
1899. 

Mdlle. Gabrielle Vaillant, eminent violinist, died, aged 
46, 14 May, 1899. 

The French diapason normal pitch of 1859 adopted by 
the Covent Garden opera in 1879 ; by the Queen's hall 
orchestra, under Mr. H. J. Wood, 1893 ; the Philar- 
monic, 1896, finally adopted for pianos by the leading 
firms, 1 Sept. 1899. 

Death of M. Charles Lamoureux, the famous chef 
d'orehestre and upholder of Wagner, and others, 21 Dec. 
1899. 

Mr. Sims Reeves, the famous tenor, born, 26 Sept. 1818 ; 
died, 25 Oct. 1900. 

Sir Arthur Seymour Sullivan died suddenly, much 
lamented, London, 22 Nov. 1900 (his bust, in front of 
the Savoy theatre, unveiled by the princess Louise, 
duchess of Argyll, 10 July, 1903). 

Mr. Henry Russell, singer and writer of songs, "Cheer 
boys, cheer," and other stirring melodies, died, aged 
88, 7 Dec. 1900. 

Sir John Stainer, eminent organist and musician, born 
1840 ; died, 31 March, 1901. 



MUSICAL GLASSES. 



835 



MUTINIES. 



Sig. Piatti, eminent violoncellist, died, aged 79, 19 July, 
igoi. 

Sig. Arditi, composer and conductor, died, aged 80; 
1 May, 1903. 

The Monthly Magazine first issued, 15 Nov. 1901. 

Musical copyright act, royal assent, 22 July, 1902. 

Musical Charities. Royal Society of Musicians, estab- 
lished 1738 ; incorporated 1790. 

Royal Society of Female Musicians, established 1839; 
these two combined, 1866. 

Choir Benevolent Fund, 1851. 

Sacred Harmonic Benevolent Fund, 1855. 



EMINENT MUSICAL COMPOSERS. 



Tallis . ' . 
Palestrina 
T. Morley. 
Orlando Gibbons 
H. Lawes . 
Lully . 
Purcell -. 
J. Seb. Bach* 
G. F. Handel . 
T. A. Arne . 
C. Gluck . 
W. A. Mozart 
Joseph Haydn . 
C. Dibdin . 
S. Webbe . 
J. W. CaUcott 

C. Weber . 
F. Schubert . 
L. Beethoven . 
M. Cherubini . 
F. Mendelssohn-Bartholdy 
F. Chopin 
H. Bishop . 
R. Schumann . 
L. Spohr 
J. E. Halevy . 
J. Meyerbeer 
J. Rossini 
L. H. Berlioz 
M. W. Balfe . 

D. T. Auber . 

W. Sterndale Bennett (knt 
J. Raff .... 
R. Wagner . 
M. Costa .... 
Julius Benedict (knt. 1871) 

F. Liszt .... 

G. A. Macfarren (knt. 1883) 
Alfred Cellier . 
G. Verdi .... 
R. Franz .... 
George Job Elvey 
C. F. Gounod . 
A. Rubinstein 
J. Brahms 

Chas. C. Saint-Saens . 
J. Stainer(knt. 1888) . 
P. von Tschaikowsky . 
P. A. Dvorak . 

E. H. Greig .... 
A. S. Sullivan (knt. 1883) 
A. C. Mackenzie (knt. 1895). 
Chas. H. H. Parry (bart. June, 1902) 
C. V. Stanford (knt. June, 1902) 

F. H. Cowen . 
Johann Strauss 
Peter Benoit . 
Edward Elgar 



1871) 



Bom 
1529 
*5H 
1550 
1583 
1600 
1633 



1710 
1714 
1756 
1732 
1748 
1740 
1766 
1786 
1797 
1770 
1760 
1809 
1810 
1787 
1810 

1783 

1799 

*794 
1792 
1803 
1808 
1784 
1816 
1822 
1813 
1810 
1804 
1811 
1813 
1844 
1813 
1815 
1816 
1818 
1829 
1833 
183s 



1843 
1842 
1847 
1848 
1852 
1852 
1826 
1834 
1857 



Died 
1585 
1594 
1 604 
1624 
1662 
1672 
1695 
r 75° 
1759 
1778 
1787 
1791 
1809 
1814 
1817 
1821 
1826 
1828 
1827 



1871 
187S 



MUSICAL GLASSES, see under Harmonic, 
and Gopophone. 

Musical Arcs, invented by Mr. Duddell, by means of 
an arrangement of electric currents by which a 
musical note that can be altered to any pitch is 
obtained and a tune played — Nature, 20 Dec. 1900 ; 
4 April, 1901. 

• _ MUSIC HALLS- In 1878, 347 of these were 
licensed in London : first class, 3 ; second class, 6 ; 
third class, 13 ; fourth class, 53 ; &c. 

* He had eleven sons musicians ; four distinguished. 



MUSKETS, see Firearms. 

MUSKETRY SCHOOLS at Hythe and 

Fleetwood were established in 1854 under major- 
general C. C. Hay. He resigned in 1867. The 
school at Fleetwood was closed the same year. 

MUSLIN, a fine cotton cloth, so called, it is 
said, from having a downy nap on its surface, re- 
sembling moss (French, mousse) ; according to 
others, because it was first brought from Moussol,. 
in India. Muslins were first worn in England ia 
1670. Anderson. By means of the Mule (which- 
see), British much superseded India muslins. 

MUSWELL HILL, N. London, see Trials,. 

1889. 

MUTA (Syria). Here Mahomet and his fol- 
lowers defeated the Christians in his first conflict. 
with them, 629. 

MUTE. A prisoner is said to stand mute, when, 
being arraigned for treason or felony, he either 
makes no answer, or answers foreign to the pur- 
pose. Until 1 741, persons refusing to plead were 
subjected to torture by pressure. 
Walter Calverly, esq. , of Calverly in Yorkshire, having 

murdered two of his children, and stabbed his wife in 

a fit of jealousy, being arraigned for his crime at York 

assizes, stood mute, and was thereupon pressed to 

death in the castle, a large iron weight being placed upon 

his breast, 5 Aug. 1605. Stow. 
Major Strangeway suffered death in a similar manner 

at Newgate for the murder of his brother-in-law, Mr. 

Fussell, 1657. 
Judgment was awarded against mutes, as if they were- 

convicted or had confessed, by 12 Geo. III. 1772. 
A man refusing to plead was condemned and executed at 

the Old Bailey on a charge of murder, 1778, and another- 

on a charge of burglary at Wells, 1792. 
An act passed by which the court is directed to enter a. 

plea of " not guilty " when the prisoner will not plead,. 

1827. 

MUTINA (now Modena), N. Italy. Here- 
Mark Antony, after defeating the consul Pansa, was- 
himself beaten with great loss by Hirtius the other 
consul, and fled to Gaul, 27 April, 43 B.C. 

MUTINIES, BRITISH. The mutiny through- 
out the fleet at Portsmouth for an advance of wages, 
April, 1797. It subsided on a promise from the 
Admiralty, which not being quickly fulfilled, occa- 
sioned a second mutiny on board the London man- 
of-war; admiral Colpoys and his captain were put 
into confinement for ordering the marines to fire, 
whereby some lives were lost. The mutiny sub ■ 
sided 10 May, 1797, when an act was passed to raise 
the wages, and the king pardoned the mutineers. 
Mutiny of the Bounty, 28 April, 1789 ; see Bounty. 
Mutiny at the Nore, which blocked up the trade of the 
Thames, broke out on 27 May, 1797, and subsided 
13 June, 1797, when the principal mutineers wereput in 
irons, and several executed (including the ringleader, 
who had assumed the name of rear-admiral Richard 
Parker), 30 June, at Sheerness. 
Mutiny of the Danae frigate ; the crew carried the ship 

into Brest harbour, 27 March, 1800. 
Mutiny on board admiral Mitchell's fleet at Bantry Bay, 

Dec. 1801, and January following (see Bantry Bay). 
Mutiny at Malta, began 4 April, 1807, and ended on the 
12th, when the mutineers (chiefly Greeks and Corsi- 
cans) blew themselves up by setting fire to a large 
magazine, consisting of between 400 and 500 ban-els of 
gunpowder. 
Mutiny on the Flowery Land, bound from London to 
Singapore ; John Lyons and six foreign sailors mur- 
dered the captain and others, 10 Sept. 1863 ; Tiffin, a 
sailor, separated from the rest, gave information ; seven 
were tried and five executed, 14-22 Feb. 1864. 

3 h 2 



MUTINY ACT. 



83:5 



MYSTICS. 



Mutiny on the Jefferson Borden, U.S. schooner; two 
mates murdered; put down by the captain, 20 April ; 
vessel arrived at Gravesend. May ; 2 men condemned 
at Boston, U.S., 1 Oct., 1875. 

Mutiny on the Lennie, British ship, bound for America, 
captain and two mates murdered by foreign seamen, 
31 Oct. 1875. Van Hoydek, steward, managed to get 
the vessel to the Isle of Rlie" ; 1 r men seized and con- 
veyed to London, tried, 4 convicted, 4 May ; executed, 
23 May, 1876. 

Mutiny on the Caswell, Glasgow barque, capt. G. Best, 
4 Jan., on way home from Valparaiso; captain and 
3 men killed ; mutineers overcome by others, some 
killed ; vessel brought to Queenstown, 13 May ; 
Christos Baumbos sentenced to death, 31 July ; exe- 
cuted at Cork, 25 Aug. 1876. Giuseppe Pistoria exe- 
cuted at Cork, 25 Aug. 1879. 

Mutiny in 19th Hussars, Curragh camp, Dublin ; through 
discontent with officers on account of extra duty, 8 
Sept. ; 75 arrested ; court martial ; sentenced to penal 
servitude, 2 for 5 years, 2 for 6 years, 1 for 7 years, 1 
for 8 years, 14 Nov. 1877. 

Mutiny on board the Frank N. Thayer, U.S. ship, 700 
miles from St. Helena ; two coolies from Manila 
wound the captain, cause panic, kill six men, imprison 
others, set tire to the ship ; overpowered ; leap over- 
board 2-3 Jan. ; the captain and crew in boats reach 
St. Helena 10 Jau. 1886. 

Mutiny of 3 American sailors on the Leicester Castle, 
British ship, 300 mi. off Pitcairn island, capt. Peattie 
wounded, and Mr. Nixon, mate, killed ; the mutineers 
escaped on a raft, unheard of since, 2 Sept. 1902 ; 7 
men murdered on the Veronica, 7 Dec. 1902; see 
Trials, May, 1903. 
For Indian Mutinies, see Madras, t8o6, and India, 1857. 

MUTINY ACT (i & 2 Will, and Mary, c. 5), 
for the discipline, regulation, and payment of the 
army, &c, was passed 12 April, 1689, and has since 
been re-enacted annually. 

A parliamentary commission reported in favour of con- 
solidating and simplifying military law, by combining 
the mutiny act and articles of war in a new act to be 
passed annually, &c, July, 1878, called the Army 
(Annual) Act. See under Army, 1879 and 1S81. 

MYCALE (Ionia, Asia Minor), BATTUE OF, 
fought between the Greeks (under Leotychides, the 
king of Sparta, and Xantippus the Athenian) and 
the Persians, 22 Sept. 479 B.C. ; the day on which 
Mardonius was defeated and slain at Platea by 
Pausanias. The Persians (about 100,000 men), 
who had just returned from the unsuccessful expe- 
dition of Xerxes in Greece, were completely de- 
feated, thousands of them slaughtered, and their 
camp burnt. The Greeks sailed back to Samos 
with an immense booty. 

MYCENAE, a division of the kingdom of 
Argives, in the Peloponnesus. It stood about fifty 
stadia from Argos, and nourished till the invasion 
of the Heraelidse. Early history mythical. 

Perseus removes from Argos, and founds Mycenfe/ 

b.c. 1431, 1313, or 1282 

Reign of Eurystheus . . . 1289,1274,01-1258 

[Towards the close of his reign is placed the story of 
the labours surmounted by Hercules.] 

iEgisthus assassinates Atreus ; Agamemnon suc- 
ceeds to the throne ; becomes king of Sicyon, 
Corinth, and perhaps of Argos . . . 1201 

He is chosen generalissimo of the Grecian forces 
going to the Trojan war . . . about 1 193 

JDgisthus, in the absence of Agamemnon, lives in 
adultery with the queen Clytemnestra. On the 
return of the king they assassinate him ; and 
iEgisthus mounts the throne . . . H83 

Orestes, son of Agamemnon, kills his mother and 
her paramour II7 6 

Orestes dies of the bite of a serpent. . . . no6 

The Achaians are expelled 

Invasion of the Heraelida?, and the conquerors 



divide the dominions 



Mycenas destroyed by the Argives . . a.d. 1468 

Discoveries on the supposed site of Mycense made 
by Dr. Schliemann : reported March,' 1874— Sept. 1876 

Visited by the emperor of Brazil . 15 Oct. ,, 

Discovery of tombs of Agamemnon and others, 
and of many treasures ; announced by Dr. Schlie- 
mann 28 Nov. ,, 

Dr. Schliemann reports his discoveries to the So- 
ciety of Antiquaries, London, 22 March ; pub- 
lishes his "Myceme" .... Dec. 1877 

Renewed excavations with discoveries by Dr. 
Schliemann Sept. 1888 

Dr. Schliemann died at Naples . . 26 Dec. 1890 

MYL2E, a bay of Sicily, where the Romans, 
under their consul Duilius, gained their first naval 
victory over the Carthaginians, and took fifty of 
their ships, 260 B.C. Here also Agrippa defeated 
the fleet of Sextus Pompcius, 36 B.C. 

MYOGKAPHION, an apparatus for deter- 
mining the velocity of the nervous current, invented 
by H. Helmholtz in 1850, and since improved by 
Du Bois Reymond and others. 

MYSOEE (S. India), was made a flourishing 
kingdom by Hyder Ali, who dethroned the reign- 
ing sovereign in 1761, and by his son, Tippoo 
Sahib, who considerably harassed the English. 
Tippoo was chastised b} r them in 1792, and on 
4 May, 1799, his capital, Seringapatam, was taken 
by assault, and himself slain. Tippoo's last sur- 
viving son, Gholam Mahomet, a British pen- 
sioner, died at Calcutta, n Aug. 1872. The English 
established a prince of the old royal family as 
maharajah of part of Mysore in 1799; being with- 
out an heir he was permitted to adopt a child of 
four years of age, maharajah Chamarajendra Wode- 
yar Bahadur, in Aug. 1867 ; who succeeded him at 
his death, 27 Mar. 1868, and assumed the govern- 
ment in May, 1881 ; an able, beneficent ruler ; died, 
27 Dec. 1894 ; succeeded by his son, Krishnaraja 
Wadyar Bahadur, aged nine (his mother regent), 
1 Feb. 1895 ; formally installed by lord Curzon, 
viceroy, 8 Aug. 1902. Visit of the viceroy, lord 
Lansdowne, 10 Nov. 1892. Population, in 1881, 
4,j86. 188 ; in 1891, 4,859,760; 1901, 5,538,482. 
Agricultural banks formed in 1895. 

Sir Sheshadri Iyer, an eminent and progressive states- 
man, who built up the gold and other industries, and 
whose "prudent and far-sighted measures" averted 
famine, &c, died; 13 Sept. 1901. 

MYSTERIES, derived from the Greek muste- 
rion, a mystery or revealed secret. The Sacred 
mysteries is a term applied to the doctrines of 
Christianity, called the "mystery of godliness," 
1 Tim. iii. 16, as opposed to the " mystery of 
iniquity," 2 Tlicss. ii. 7. The Holy Eucharist is 
also termed the sacred mysteries. The Profane mys- 
teries were the secret ceremonies performed by a se- 
lect few in honour of some deity. From the Egyptian ] 
mysteries of Isis and Osiris sprang those of Bacchus \ 
and Ceres among the Greeks. The Eleusinian mys- 
teries were introduced at Athens by Eumolpus, 1356 : 
B.C. — Mystery Plays; see Drama. 

MYSTICS, a name given to those theologians j 
who, in addition to the obvious meaning of the ' 
Holy Scriptures, assert that there are interpreta- I 
tions to be discovered by means of an emanation of 
the Divine Wisdom, by which the soul is enlight- 
ened and purified; for .which purpose they advocate 
seclusion for contemplation and asceticism. 

Mysticism taught at Alexandria by Clemens, Pantsenus, 
Origen, and others, who mingled Christianity and 
Platonisin, 2nd and 3rd centuries. 



MYTHOLOGY. 



837 



MYTHOLOGY. 



Much promoted by the works of the pseudo-Dionysius 
("The Mystic Theology," &c), 6th century. 

Introduced into the Western empire, 9th century. 

Eminent mediaeval mystics (opposed by the schoolmen), 
Master Eckhart (1251-1329); John Tauter of Stras- 
burg, where he acted heroically during the plague, 
termed the "black death" (1290-1361); Henry Suso 
(1300-65). They aimed at a more spiritual religion 
than Romanism ; but their followers were charged 
with immorality, pantheism, communism, and main- 
taining private inspiration. 

Jacob Bohme or Behmen, the German mystic, published 
his "Aurora" (an alleged divine revelation) 1612; 
died, 18 Nov. 1624. 

For modern mystics, see Quakers, Quietists, Hutchin- 
sonians, and Swedenborgians. 

MYTHOLOGY (Greek mfftho*, fable), the 
traditions respecting the gods and early history of 
any people. For the Egyptian mythology, see 
Egypt. 



Greek Gods. Roman. 

Kronos ) „ Saturn ) „ 

Rhea J Paints of Cybele J parents of 

Zeus Jupiter (Diovis-pater). 

Plouton (Aides, Hades) . . . Pluto. 

Poseidon Neptune. 

Here or Hera Juno. 

Demeter Ceres. 

Hestia . . . . ■ . . . Vesta. 

Persephone . .... Proserpine. 

Dionysius Bacchus. 

Jupiter's Children. 

Apollon Apollo. 

Ares Mars. 

Hermes . . • Mercury. 

Hephaistos Vulcan. 

Athena or Athene Minerva. 

Aphrodite Venus. 

Artemis Diana. 

The chief Hindu gods are Brahma the creator, Vishnu, 
the preserver, and Siva the destroyer, but there have, 
been many changes in the Hindu Pantheon. 



NAAS. 



NAPIER'S BONES. 



N. 



NAAS (E. Ireland). Here a desperate engage- 
ment took place between a body of royal forces and 
the insurgent Irish, 24 May, 1798, during the re- 
bellion. The latter were defeated with the loss of 
300 killed and many wounded. 

NABONASSAE, Era OF, received its name 
from the prince of Babylon, under whose reign 
astronomical studies were much advanced in 
Chaldsea. The years contain 365 days each, with- 
out intercalation. The first day of the era was 
Wednesday (said, in mistake, to be Thursday, in 
L' Art de Verifier les Bates), 26 Feb. 747 B.C. — 
3967, Julian period. To find the Julian year on 
which the year of Nabonassar begins, subtract the 
year, if before Christ, from 748; if after Christ, 
add to it 747. 

NACHOD (Bohemia). At this place the 
Prussians, under their crown prince, defeated 
the Austrians, after a severe conflict, 27 June, 1866. 
The Prussian Uhlans vanquished the Austrian 
cavalry. 

NACOLE A (Phrygia) . Near here the usurper 
Procopius was defeated, and soon afterwards slain 
by the emperor Valens, 366. 

NAFELS (Switzerland). Here an Austrian 
army was defeated by a small body of Swiss, 1388. 

NAGA HILLS MASSACRE, see India, 
1875- 

NAG'S HEAD STORY. Matthew Parker 
was consecrated archbishop of Canterburv at Lam- 
beth, 17 Dec. 1559, by bishops Barlow, Coverdale, 
Scory, and Hodgkins. For forty-five years after, the 
Romish writers asserted that Parker and others had 
been ordained in an abnormal fashion bv Scory at 
the Nag's Head Tavern, Cheapside. This fiction 
was refuted by Burnet, and is rejected by Roman 
Catholic authorities, such as Lingard. 

NAHUM, FESTIVAL OF. Nahum, the seventh 
of the twelve minor prophets, about 713 B.C. ; the 
festival is kept by the Eastern church on 1 December. 

NAINI TAL, see Landslips, 18 Sept. 1880. 

NAISSUS (Mcesia). The Goths were defeated 
near here with great slaughter by the emperor 
Claudius II., 269. 

NAJARA or NAVARRETE (N. Spain). At 
Logrono, near these places, "Edward the Black 
Prince defeated Henry de Trastamara, and re- 
established Peter the Cruel on the throne of 
Castile, 3 April, 1367. 

NAMES. Adam and Eve named their sons. 
Gen. iv. 25, 26. A Roman citizen had generally 
three names ; prcenomen, denoting the individual ; 
nomen, the gens or clan ; cognomen, the branch of 
the clan : sometimes he had the agnomen {e.g., 
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus). The popes 
change their names on their exaltation to the 
pontificate, "a custom introduced by pope Sergius, 
whose name till then was Swine-snout," 687. 
Platina. Onuphrius (followed by most of the mo- 
dern authorities), refers it to John XII., 956; 
stating that it was done in imitation of SS. Peter 
and Paul, who were first called Simon and Saul. 
In France the name given at baptism was some- 



times changed. The two sons of Henry II. of 
France were christened Alexander and Hercule3 ; 
at their confirmation these names were changed to 
Henry and Francis. Monks and nuns, at their 
entrance into monasteries, assume new names. See 
Surnames. Miss Tonge's "History of Christian 
Names," published 1863 (new edition 1884). M. A. 
Lower's " Patronymica Britannica," i860. 

NAMUR, in Belgium, was made a county in 
932 ; taken by the French, 1 July, 1692 ; by Wil- 
liam of England, 4 Aug. 1695 ; ceded to the house 
of Austria by the peace of Utrecht, and garrisoned 
by the Dutch as a barrier town of the United Pro- 
vinces in 1 7 15. The city of Namur was ceded to 
Austria, 1 7 13; taken by the French in 1746, but 
was restored in 1749. In 1782, the emperor Joseph 
expelled the Dutch garrison. In 1792 it was again 
taken by the French, who were compelled to 
evacuate it in 1793; regained 1794; delivered up 
to the allies, 1814; assigned to Belgium, 1831. It 
was a site of a severe conflict in June, 1815, between 
the Prussians and the French under Grouchy, when 
retreating after the battle of Waterloo. Population, 

1890, 29,794; 1900, 32,223. 

NANCY (N.E. France), an ancient city, capital 
of Lorraine, in the 13th century. After taking 
Nancy, 29 Nov. 1475, and losing it, 5 Oct. 1476, 
Charles the Bold or Burgundy was defeated beneath 
its walls, and slain by the duke of Lorraine and 
the Swiss, 5 Jan. 1477 ; see Lorraine. Nancy was 
embellished by Stanislas, ex-king of Poland, who 
resided and died here Feb. 1766. It was captured 
by Bliicher, Jan. 1814, and on the retreat of Mac- 
Mahon's army, and expecting the German army, 
surrendered to four Uhlans, 12 Aug. 1870. It was 
restored at the peace. Population in 1901, 102,463. 
Prof. Bleicher, eminent scientist, murdered by M. Four, 

a chemist, who afterwards committed suicide, 8 June, 

1901. 
Grand fetes ; visits of president Carnot and the grand 

duke Constantine of Russia, 5-7 June, 1892. 

NANKIN, said to have been made the central 
capital of China, 420. It was the court of the 
Ming dynasty from 1369 till Yung-lo removed it to 
Pekin in 1410. On 4 Aug. 1842, the British ships 
arrived at Nankin, and peace was made. The rebel 
Tae-pings took it on 19, 20 March, 1853. It was 
recaptured by the Imperialists, 19 July, 1864, and 
found to be in a very desolate condition. Esti- 
mated population, i,oob,ooo. 

NANTES (W. France), formerly capital of the 
Namnetes. The edict in favour of the Protestants 
issued here by Henry IV., 13 April, 1598, was re- 
voked by Louis XIV., 22 Oct. 1685 (bicentenary cele- 
bration, 22 Oct. 1885). Awful cruelties were com- 
mitted here by the republican Carrier, Oct. -Nov. 
1793 ; see Droivning. Population in 1886, 127,482 ; 

1891, 121,054; 1901, 128,349. 

NAPHTHA, a clear combustible rock oil, 
known to the Greeks, called " oil of Media," and 
thought to have been an ingredient in the Greek 
fire (which see). A rich spring struck near Ber- 
diansk, Russia, Oct. 1899; wells found in cis- 
Caucasia, Aug. 1903. See Petroleum. 

NAPIER'S BONES, see Logarithms. 



NAPLES. 



839 



NAPLES. 



NAPLES, formerly the continental division 
and seat of government of the kingdom of the Two 
Sicilies, began with a Greek colony named Parthe- 
siope (about IOOO B.C.), which was afterwards 
divided into Palseopolis (the old) and Neapolis (the 
new city) ; from the latter the present name is 
derived. The colony was conquered by the Romans 
in the Samnite war, 326 B.C. Naples, after resisting 
the power of the Lombards, Franks, and Germans, 
was subjugated by the Normans under Roger Guis- 
card, king of Sicily, a.d. 1131. Few countries have 
had so many political changes, and cruel and des- 
potic rulers, or suffered so much by convulsions of 
nature, such as earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, &c. 
The eldest son of the king of Italy is styled prince 
of Naples. In 1856, the population of the kingdom 
of Naples was 6,886,030, of Sicily 2,231,020; total, 
9,117,050. It now forms part of the revived king- 
dom of Italy. Population of the pi-ovince in 1889, 
1,060,032; 1901, 1,135,906; of the city in 1890, 
530,872; 1901,563,751. 

Naples conquered by Theodoric the Goth . . 493 
The city retaken by Belisarius ..... 536 

Taken again by Totila 543 

Retaken by Narses 552 

Becomes a duchy nominally subject to the Eastern 

empire 568 or 572 

Duchy of Naples greatly extended . . . . 593 
Robert Guiscard, the Norman, made duke of Apulia, 

founds the kingdom of Naples . . . 1059 

Naples conquered, and the kingdom of the Two 

Sicilies founded by Roger Guiscard II. . . . 1131 
The imperial house of Hohenstaufen (see Germany) 

obtains the kingdom by marriage, and rules 1194-1266 
The pope appoints Charles of Anjou king, who de- 
feats the regent Manfred (son of Frederick II. of 
Germany) at Benevento (Manfred slain) 26 Feb. 1266 
Charles defeats Conradin (the last of the Hohen- 
staufens who had come to Naples by invitation of 
the Ghibellines), at Tagliacozzo, 23 Aug. : Con- 
radin beheaded 29 Oct. 1268 

The massacre called the Sicilian vespers (winch see) 

30 March, 1282 
Andrew of Hungary, husband of Joanna I. , murdered 

18 Sept. 1345 
His brother Louis, king of Hungary, invades Naples 1349 
Queen Joanna put to death . . .22 May, 1382 
Alphonso V. of Arragon (called the Wise and Mag- 
nanimous) on the death of Joanna II. seizes Naples 1435 
Naples conquered by Charles VIII. of France . . 1494 
And by Louis XII. of France and Ferdinand of 

Spain, who divide it 1501 

Expulsion of the French 1504 

Naples and Sicily united to Spain . . • • ,, 
insurrection of Masaniello, occasioned by the extor- 
tions of the Spanish viceroys. An impost was 
claimed on a basket of figs, and refused by the 
owner, with whom the. populace took part, headed 
by Masaniello (Thomas Aniello), a fisherman ; 
they obtained the command of Naples, many of 
the nobles were slain and their palaces burnt, and 
the viceroy was compelled to abolish the taxes 
and to restore the privileges granted by Charles 

V. to the city June, 1647 

Masaniello, intoxicated by his success, was slain by 

his own followers 16 July, ,, 

Another insurrection suppressed by don John of 

Austria Oct. ,, 

Henry II., duke of Guise, lands, and is proclaimed 
king, but in a few days is taken prisoner by the 

Spaniards April, 1648 

Naples conquered by prince Eugene of Savoy, for 

the emperor 1706 

Discovery of Herculaneum (which see) . . . 1711 
The Spaniards by the victory at Bitonto (26 May) 
having made themselves masters of both king- 
doms, Charles (of Bourbon), son of the king of 
Spain, ascends the throne, with the ancient title 

of king of the Two Sicilies 1734 

Order of St. Januarius instituted .... ^38 
Charles, becoming king of Spain, vacates the throne 
iu favour of his third son, Ferdinand, agreeably to 

treaty 1759 

Expulsion of the Jesuits . . . 3 Nov. 1767 



Dreadful earthquake in Calabria ... 5 Feb. 1783 

Enrolment of the lazzaroni (which see) as pikemen 
or spontoneers 1793 

The king liees on the approach of the French repub- 
licans, who establish the Parthenopean republic, 

14 Jan. 1799 

Nelson appears ; Naples retaken ; the restored king 
rules tyrannically June, ,, 

Prince Caracciolo tried and executed by order of 
Nelson 29 June, „ 

The Neapolitans occupy Rome . . 30 Sept. ,, 

Dreadful earthquake ; thousands perish . 26 July, 1805 

Treaty of neutrality between France and Naples 
ratified 9 Oct. „ 

Ferdinand, through perfidy, is compelled to flee to 
Sicily, 23 Jan. ; the French enter Naples, and Jo- 
seph Bonaparte made king .... Feb. 1806 

The French defeated at Maida . . .4 July, ,, 

Joseph Bonaparte, after beginning many reforms, 
abdicates for the crown of Spain . . June, 1808 

Joachim Murat made king (rules well) 15 July, ,, 

His first quarrel with Napoleon .... 1811 

His alliance with Austria . 1 . . . Jan. 1814 

Death of queen Caroline .... 7 Sept. ,, 

Joachim declares war against Austria . 15 March, 1815 

Defeated at Tolentino .... 3 May, ,, 

He retires to France, 22 May, and Corsica : he madly 
attempts the recovery of his throne by landing at 
Pizzo : seized, tried, and shot . -13 Oct. ,, 

Ferdinand, re-established, soon returns to tyrannical 
measures June, ,, 

A plague rages in Naples, Nov. 1815 to June . 

Establishment of the society of the Carbonari . . 

Successful insurrection of the Carbonari under gen. 
Pepe ; the king compelled to swear solemnly to a 
new constitution 13 July, 

The Austrians invade the kingdom, at the king's 
instigation ; general Pepe defeated . 7 March, 

Fall of the constitutional government . 23 March, 

Death of Ferdinand (reigned 66 years) . 4 Jan. 

[In 30 years, 100,000 Neapolitans perished by various 
kinds of death.] 

Insurrection of the Carbonari suppressed . Aug. 

Accession of Ferdinand II., Bomba (as faithless and 
tyrannical as his predecessors) . . 8 Nov. 

Dispute with England respecting the sulphur trade, 
1838 ; settled May, 

Attilio and Emilio Bandiero, with eighteen others, 
attempting an insurrection in Calabria, are shot 

17 Jan. 1844 

[The statement that lord Aberdeen had given notice 
of this attempt was contradicted by his lordship.] 

Prospect of an insurrection in Naples ; the king 
grants a new constitution with liberal ministry, 

29 Jan. 1848 

Great fighting in Naples ; the liberals and the na- 
tional guard almost annihilated by the royal 
troops, aided by the lazzaroni . . 15 May, „ 

A martial anarchy prevails ; the chiefs of the liberal 
party arrested in Dec. 1849 

Settembrini, Poerio, Carafa, and others, after a 
mock trial, are condemned, and consigned to hor- 
rible dungeons for life .... June, 1850 

After remonstrances with the king on his tyrannical 
government (May), the English and French am- 
bassadors are withdrawn ... 28 Oct. 1856 

Attempted assassination of the king by Milano 8 Dec. , 

The Cagliari, a Sardinian mail steamboat plying 
between Genoa and Tunis, sailed from the former 
port on 25 June, 1857, with thirty-three passen- 
gers, who, after a few hours' sail, took forcible 
possession of the vessel, and compelled the two 
English engineers (Watt and Park) to steer to 
Ponza 25 June, 1857 

[Here they landed, released some prisoners there, 
took them on board, and sailed to Sapri, where 
they again landed, and restored the vessel to its 
commander and crew. The latter steered imme- 
diately for Naples ; but on the way the vessel was 
boarded by a Neapolitan cruiser, and all the crew 
were landed and consigned to dungeons, where 
they remained for nine months waiting for trial, 
suffering great privations and insults. This caused 
great excitement in England : and after much 
negotiation, the crew were released, the vessel 
given up to the British government, and 3000^. 
given as a compensation to the sufferers.] 



1816 
1819 



1020 
1821 
1825 

1828 
1830 
1840 



NAPLES. 



840 



NAPLES. 



Italian refugees, under count Pisaecane, land in 

Calabria, are defeated, and their leader killed, 

27 June — 2 July, 1S57 
Dreadful earthquake in the Apennines . 16 Dec. ,, 
Amnesty granted to political offenders . 27 Dec. 1858 
Poerio and sixty-six companions released and sent to 

N. America. Jan. ; on their way, they seize the 

vessel, sail to Cork, 7 March ; and proceed to 

London . . . . . .18 March, 1859 

Death of Ferdinand II., after dreadful sufferings, 

22 May, 
Diplomatic relations resumed with England and 

France June, 

A subscription for Poerio and his companions in 

England amounted to io,ooo£. . . July, 

Insubordination among the Swiss troops at Naples, 

many shot, July 7 ; major Latour sent to Naples 

by the Swiss confederation . . .16 July, 
Army increased ; defences strengthened . Oct. 
Many political imprisonments ; the foreign ambas- 
sadors collectively address a note to the king 

stating the necessity for reform in his states, 26 

March ; the count of Syracuse recommends re- 
form and alliance with England . . April, 
Garibaldi lands in Sicily, n May ; defeats the Nea- 
politan army at Calatafimi . . . 15 May, 
Revolutionary committee at Naples . 15 June, 

Francis II. proclaims an amnesty ; promises a liberal 

ministry ; adopts a tricolor flag, &c. 26 June, 

Baron Bremer, French ambassador, wounded in his 

carriage by the mob . . . .27 June, 
A liberal ministry formed ; destruction of the com- 
missariat of the police in 12 districts ; state of 

siege proclaimed at Naples ; the queen-mother 

flees to Gaeta 28 June, 

Garibaldi defeats Neapolitans at Melazzo, 20 July ; 

enters Messina, 21 July ; the Neapolitans agree to 

evacuate Sicily 30 July, 

The king of Sardinia in vain negotiates with Francis 

II. for alliance July, 

Francis II. proclaims the re-establishment of the 

constitution of 1848, 2 July ; the army proclaim 

count de Trani king . . . .10 July, 
Garibaldi lands at Melito, 18 Aug. ; takes Reggio, 

21 Aug. 
Defection in army and navy ; Francis II. retires to 

Gaeta, 6 Sept. ; Garibaldi enters Naples without 

troops 7 Sept. 

Garibaldi assumes the dictatorship, 8 Sept. ; gives 

up the Neapolitan fleet to the Sardinian admiral 

Persano, 11 Sept. ; expels the Jesuits ; establishes 

trial by jury ; releases political prisoners Sept. 

Sovereigns of Naples and Sicily. 
1 1 31. Roger I. (of Sicily, 11 30), Norman. 
1 154. William I. the Bad ; son. 
1 1 66. William II. the Good ; son. 
1189. Tancred, natural son of Roger. 
1194. William III. son, succeeded by Constance, married 

to Henry VI. of Germany. 
1197. Frederick II. of Germany (Hohenstaufen). 



He repulses the Neapolitans at Cajazzo, 19 Sept. ; 
defeats them at the Volturno . . 1 Oct. i86o> 

The king of Sardinia enters the kingdom of Naples, 
and takes command of his army, which combines 
with Garibaldi's n Oct. , r 

Naples unsettled through intrigues . . Oct. ,, 

Cialdini defeats the Neapolitans at Isernia, 17 Oct. ; 
at Venafro 18 Oct. ,, 

The plebiscite at Naples, &c. ; almost unanimous 
vote for annexation to Piedmont (1,303,064 to 
10,312) ....... 21 Oct. ,„ 

Garibaldi meets Victor-Emmanuel, and salutes him 
as king of Italy 26 Oct. ,,. 

The first English protestant church built on ground 
given by Garibaldi ; consecrated . 11 March, 1865 

Cholera raged at Naples .... autumn, 1866 

Great eruption of Vesuvius began . 12 Nov. 1867 

Land-slip at Naples ; 20 persons engulfed 28 Jan. 1868 

Victor-Emmanuel, prince of Naples (son of prince 
Humbert), born at Naples . . .11 Nov. 1869 

Maritime exhibition opened at Naples . 17 April, 1871 

Great marine biological laboratory organised by Dr. 
Dohm 1872 

Manzo and his band of brigands (said to be the last), 
destroyed by soldiers . . . .20 Aug. 1873- 

National exhibition of the fine arts opened at Naples 
by the king 8 April, 1877 

Death of Sisto Riario Sforza, cardinal archbishop, 
a proposed successor to the pope . 6 Oct. „ 

Antonio Scialoia, statesman and financier, died, 
aged 61 about 17 Oct. ,, 

Revival ofbrigandage, chiefly in the south, July, Aug. 187S 

Asiatic cholera rages in Naples and Spezzia (see 
Cholera). The king energetic in relieving the 
sufferers, 7-14 Sept. ; disease dying out . 6 Oct. 1884 

Naples visited by the king Humbert and the em- 
peror William II 16 Oct. 1888; 

The king inaugurates new sanitary works 15 June, i88g> 

Trial of the two dukes of Vilarosa for the murder 
of lieut. Leone, a suitor for the hand of their 
sister, 30 Dec. 1S88 ; one brother acquitted, the 
other sentenced to 5 years' imprisonment ; much 
indignation 22 Dec. 189.3 

Panic through fire in a church at Torre dell' An- 
nunziata, 13 deaths .... 23 April, 1893, 

Visit of the king and queen and the German em- 
peror and empress .... 27 April, „ 

Decree issued suspending the studies at the univer- 
sity for a year in consequence of disorders, Feb. 1895 

Municipal elections, the Camorristi defeated, Nov. ioxir 

Naples visited by king Edward VII. . 23-27 April, 1903 

Monte di Pieta burned down, damage, 2,000,000 lire, 
[General history under Italy.] 2 June, ,, 



1250. Conrad ; son. 

1254 Conradin, son ; but his uncle, 

1258. Manfred, natural son of Frederick II., seizes the- 

government ; killed at Benevento, in 1266. 
1266. Chas. of Anjou, brother of St. Louis, king of France. 

[Conradin beheaded, 29 Oct. 1268.] 
1282. Insurrection in Sicily. 



NAPLES. 

1282. Charles I. of Anjou. 

1285. Charles II. ; son. 

1309. Robert the Wise ; brother. 

1343. Joanna (reigns with her husband, Andrew of Hun- 
gary), 1343-45 ; with Louis of Tarento, 1349-62 ; 
Joanna put to death (22 May, 1382) by 

1382. Charles III., grandson of Charles II. : he becomes 
king of Hungary ; assassinated there, 1386. 
,, Louis I., titular, crowned. 

1385. Louis II., son of Louis I. 

1 386. Ladislas of Hungary. 
1414. Joanna II., sister, dies in 1435, and bequeaths her 

dominions to Regnier of Anjou. They are ac- 
quired by 



{Separation of the Kingdoms in 1282.) stcilv. 

1282. Peter I. (III. of Arragon.) 
1285. James I. (II. of Arragon.) 
1295. Frederick II. 
1337. Peter II. 
1342. Louis. 
1355. Frederick III. 
1376. Maria and Martin (her husband). 
1402. Martin I. 

1409. Martin II. 

1410. Ferdinand I. 
1416. Alphonso I. 



NAPLES. 

1458. Ferdinand I. 

1494. Alphonso II. abdicates. 

1495. Ferdinand II. 

1496. Frederic II. expelled by the French, 1501 

1503. Ferdinand III. (king of Spain). 
1516. Charles I. (V. of Germany). 
1556. Philip I. (II. of Spain). 
1598. Philip II. (III. of Spain). 



1435. Alphonso I. thus king of Naples and Sicily, 

(Separation of Naples and Sicily in 1458.) sicily. 

458. John of Arragon. 
479. Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain. 



The Crowns United. 

I 1621. Philip III. (IV. of Spain). 

1665. Charles II. (of Spain). 

1700. Philip IV. (V. of Spain), BourbonSv 
I 1707. Charles III. of Austria 



NAPOLEON CODE. 



841 



NATAL. 



NAPLES. 

1713. Charles III. of Austria. 



E735. Charles IV. (III. of Spain). 



(Separation in 1713.) sicily. 

I I 7 I 3- Victor Amadeus of Savoy (exchanged Sicily foa 
I Sardinia, 1720.) 

The Two Sicilies. 
(Part of the empire of Germany, 1720-34.) 

I I7S9- Ferdinand IV, fled from Naples to Sicily, 1806.. 
Naples. (Separation in 1806.) sicily. 

1806. Joseph Napoleon Bonaparte. I 1806-15. Ferdinand IV. 

1808. Joachim Murat, shot 13 Oct. 18 15. 

The Two Sicilies. 
1815. Ferdinand I., formerly Ferdinand IV, of Naples 1850. Francis II., 22 May ; bom 16 Jan. 1836 ; last Kin© 
and Sicily. of Naples; deposed; fled 6 Sept. i860 ; died a* 

1825. Francis I. Arco, 27 Dec. 1894. 

1830. Ferdinand II., Nov. 8 (termed king Bomba). 1S61. Victor-Emmanuel II. of Sardinia, as King of Italy, 

March ; (see Italy, end). 



NAPOLEON CODE, see Codes. 

NAPOLEON MEMOEIAL : subscriptions 
from the Royal family and the three services for a 
statue of prince Louis Napoleon (killed in Zulu- 
land, 1 June, 1879), were closed about 15 July, 
1879. The statue was placed in St. George's 
chapel, "Windsor, May, 1881 ; placing it in West- 
minster Abbey having been much opposed. 

NARBONNE (S.E. France), the Roman 
Narbo Martius, founded 1 18 B.C., made capital of a 
Visigothic kingdom, 462 ; captured by the Saracens, 
720; re-taken by Pepin le Bref, 759. Gaston de 
Foix, the last vicomte (killed at Ravenna, 11 April, 
1 5 12), resigned it to the king in exchange for the 
duchy of Nemours. Many councils held here, 589- 
1374- 

NARCEINE AND NARCOTINE, alkaloids 
obtained from Opium (ivhich see). Narceine was 
discovered by Pelletier in 1832 ; and narcotine by 
Derosne in 1 803. 
Crystallized narceine was stated by M. Laborde at Paris 

to be an innocuous antesthetic, June 1890. 

NARVA (Esthonia, Russia). Here Peter the 
Great of Russia was totally defeated by Charles XII. 
of Sweden, then in his nineteenth year, 30 Nov. 
1700. The army of Peter is said to have amounted 
to 60,000, some Swedes affirm 100,000 men, while 
the Swedes were about 20,000. Charles attacked 
the enemy in his intrenchments, and slew 18,000; 
30,000 surrendered. He had several horses shot 
under him. He said, " These people seem dis- 
posed to give me exercise." Narva was taken by 
Peter in 1704. 

NASEBY (Northamptonshire), the site of a 
decisive victory over Charles I. by the parliament 
army under Fairfax and Cromwell. The main 
body of the royal army was commanded by lord 
Astley ; prince Rupert led the right wing, sir Mar- 
maduke Langdale the left, and the king himself 
headed the body of reserve. The king fled, losing 
his cannon, baggage, and nearly 5000 prisoners, 
14 June, 1641;. Foundation of the Cromwell 
tercentenary library, proposed at the meeting here 
on the protector's birthday, 25 April, 1899; two 
rare records (illustrated) of the commonwealth 
secured, June, 1899. 

NASHVILLE (Tennessee, N. America) was 
occupied by the confederates in 1861, and taken 
by the federals, 23 Feb. 1862. Near here the con- 
federates under Hood were defeated by the federals 
under Thomas, 14-16 Dec. 1864. Population, 1890, 
76,168; 1900,80,865. 

NASSAU, a German duchy, made a county by 
the emperor Frederic I. about 1180, for Wolfram, a 
descendant of Conrad I. of Germany; from whom 



1721 
1812 
1823 

1835 



1856- 



are descended the royal house of Orange, now 
reigning in Holland (see Orange and Holland), 
and the present duke of Nassau. "Wiesbaden was- 
made the capital in 1839. On 25 April, i860, the 
Nassau chamber strongly opposed the conclusion of 
a concordat with the pope, and claimed liberty of 
faith and conscience. The duke adopted the Aus- 
trian motion at the German diet, 14 June, and after 
the warthe duchy was annexed to Prussia by decree, 
20 Sept., and possession taken, 8 Oct. 1866. Popu- 
lation of the ducly in 1865, 468,311. 

1788. Count Frederic William made duke in 1806. 

1814. William-George, 20 Aug. 

1839. Adolphus-William-Charles, born 24 July, 1817 % 
assumed the regency of Luxemburg 10 April, 1S89, 
became grand duke on the decease of the king 
of Holland, 23 Nov. 1890. See Luxemburg. 

NATAL (Cape of Good Hope). Vasco de Gama 
landed here on 23 Dec. 1497, and hence named i$ 
Terra Natalis. 

The Dutch attempted to colonise it about . . . 

The Zulu power established about .... 

Lieut. Farewell, with some emigrants, settled 

Capt. Allen Gardiner's treaty witli the Zulus, 

6 May, 

Dutch republic, Natalia, set up ; put down by the 
British 12 May, 

Natal annexed to the British possessions . 8 Aug. 

Made a bishopric (Dr. John Win. Colenso, bishop), 
1853 ; and an independent colony 

Attempts to depose bishop Colenso for unsound 

doctrine having failed, the rev. W. R. Macrorie 

was sent out as bp. of Maritzburg, to act with 

the clergy ojtposed to their bishop Dec. 

See Church of England, 1863-8. 

A bishop of Zululand appointed . ... 

Alleged insurrection of Cafl'res under Langalibalele, 
quickly suppressed . . . Nov.-Dec. 

He and others were tried, it was said illegally, and 
punished with imprisonment ; he is sent to Rob- 
ben island 4 Aug. 

Bishop Colenso came to England to advocate his 
case 

Sir Garnet Wolseley sent as temporary governor, 
Feb. ; Langalibalele released, and placed under 
surveillance out of the colony ; sir Garnet re- 
turns Aug. 

Succeeded by Mr. Walter J. Sendall, appointed, 

Nov. 

Great dissatisfaction in the colony at this appoint- 
ment Nov. 

Death of bishop Colenso . . . 20 June, 

Governors of Natal : Robt. Win. Keate, 1867 ; An- 
thony Musgrave, 1873; sir Benj. C. C. Pine, 1874; 
sir H. Ernest Bulwer, Sept. 1878 ; sir Garnet 
Wolseley, May, 1879; sir George Pomeroy Colley, 
May, 1880 ; killed at the battle of Majuba Hill, 

27 Feb. 

Sir Henry E. G. Bulwer nominated governor, Dec. 
1882 ; sir A. E. Havelock, Nov. 1885 ; sir Charles 
B. H. Mitchell, Aug. 1889 ; sir Walter F. Hely- 
Hutchinson, June ; arrives . . 30 Sept. 

The legislative council offers to undertake the 
administration of Zululand at the cost of the 
colony to check the encroaching Boers about 



1875 



NATAL. 



842 



NATIONAL CONVENTION. 



22 Oct. ; sanction refused by the British govern- 
ment announced 27 Oct. : 

Slight military mutiny ; two men killed in its 
suppression at Fort Napier . . 7 Aug. i 

The council vote for a free and responsible govern- 
ment 26 June, j 

At Pietermaritzburg (the capital) a statue of the 
queen by sir E. Boehm was unveiled by sir 
Charles Mitchell 8 July, 

The bill for a new constitution voted . 3 Feb. : 

Parliament opened 30 April, 

Constitutional bill passed, parliament prorogued, 

8 Aug. 

Conference of two Natal delegates, sir John Robin- 
son and Mr. Sutton, with lord Knutsford May, : 

Railway to Orange Free State opened . 13 July, 

Responsible government deferred by the legisla- 
tive council, about 7 Oct. 1892 ; approved by the 
council, 1 March, 1893 ; bill passed by the coun- 
cil, 11 May ; proclaimed ... 4 July, : 

A ministry formed, sir John Robinson, premier, 
10 Oct. ; parliament opened by the governor, 
19 Oct. ; prorogued .... 27 Oct. 

The new parliament opened by the governor, 

25 April, : 

Mail train from Johannesburg wrecked near Dur- 
ban, 35 deaths (mostly women and children) 

30 Dec. 

Strong resistance to the immigration of Indians at 
Durban, reported Jan. 

Sir J. Robinson resigns ; new ministry formed by 
the hon. H. Escombe, att.-gen. 13 Feb. ; resigns, 
succeeded by Mr. Henry Binns (knt. 1898, died 
June, 1899) 5 Oct. 

British squadron, under rear-admiral Rawson, 
arrives at Durban, 16 April ; leaves . 20 April, 

Annexation of Zululand agreed to . 17 Dec. 

The monthly output of coal, 30,000 tons in Natal ; 
the government offers to supply H.M. navy 
calling at Durban, 12,000 tons of coal annually, 
free of cost, 30 Marcli ; accepted gratefully 

2 April, 

The town hall at Pietermaritzburg burnt down 

12 July, 

Statue of the queen (by W. H. Thornycroft) at 
Durban, unveiled by the governor . 19 April, 

Parliament opened by the governor, increase of 
revenue reported . . . . .11 May, 

New ministry, col. Hime premier . . 10 June, 

Loyal meetings sympathising with the Uitlanders, 
see Transvaal 1 July, 

Preparations for war, reserves called out . Sept. 

Sir George White appointed commander of British 
forces in Natal ; arrives .... 7 Oct. 

Boers concentrated on the frontier, Sept. ; invade 
Natal ; see S. African War ... 10 Oct. 

Death of Mr. H. Escombe, ex-premier, aged 61, 

27 Dec. 

The Natal ministry heartily supports the policy of 
the imperial government in S. Africa, 27 March, 

Lord Roberts warmly welcomed . . 30 Nov. 

Sir H. E. McCallum succeeds Sir W. F. Hely- 
Hutehinson as governor, Jan. ; arrives, 13 May, 

Good budget; 3,000,000?. loan for railways, har- 
bours, &c, proposed .... 23 May, 

The duke and duchess of Cornwall visit Durban, 
13 Aug. ; the duke opens the new town hall at 
Pietermaritzburg, receives an address from 
55 Zulu chiefs, reviews the troops and distributes 
medals, &c. ...... 14 Aug. 

Parliament dissolved by proclamation . 30 Aug. 

Lord Milner is presented with an address at Pieter- 
maritzburg, thanks Natal for its great services, 
and hopes for a peaceful, prosperous, progressive 
South Africa under the British flag, 25 Oct. ; 
at Durban and Ladysmith . . 25, 30 Oct. 

Parliament opened by sir H. McCallum . 27 Feb. 

Resolution passed in the legislative assembly 
repudiating the slanders on the British army and 
nation 3 March, 

Mr. Seddon, premier of New Zealand, warmly 
received at Durban . . . .17 May, 

Annexation (territory) bill (Vryheid reunited to 
Zululand ; Utrecht and part of the Wakker- 
stroom district added to Natal) passed, 12 May, 

Martial law repealed, with certain restrictions, 

4 Oct. 



Parliament opened by the governor, ministerial 
majority, one 13 Nov. 1902 

Mr. and Mrs. Chamberlain enthusiastically received 
at Durban ; he speaks warmly of his mission "to 
draw more closely together the people of the 
mother country and their kinsmen over seas," 
26 Dec. ; in a great speech at Pietermaritzburg, 
he urged the necessity of imperial as well as 
colonial union, and added that Natal, by re- 
nouncing claims for war losses, would contribute 
nearly 2,000,000?. to the war . . .30 Dec. ,, 

Visits Ladysmith, entertained at a banquet, 1 Jan. ; 
visits Spion Kop 2 Jan. 1903 

Parliament opened by sir H. McCallum . 30 April, ,, 

New floating dock for Durban launched in England, 

8 Aug. „ 

New ministry, Mr. Sutton, premier . 17 Aug. „ 

Population, 326,957 (20,490 whites), 1876 ; in 1886, 
442,697; in 1891, 543,913; 1901, 925,118. See 
Zululand. 

NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL HALL, 

see under Agriculture. 

NATIONAL ANTHEM, see God save the 



NATIONAL ASSEMBLY, French. 
Upon the proposition of the abbe Sieyes, the states- 
general of France constituted themselves the Na- 
tional Assembly, 17 June, 1789. On the 20th the 
hall of this new assembly was shut by order of the 
king ; upon which the deputies of the tiers etat 
repaired to the Jeu de Paume, or Tennis-court, and 
swore not to dissolve until they had digested a 
constitution for France. On the 22nd they met at 
the church at St. Louis. This assembly abolished 
the state religion, annulled monastic vows, divided 
France into departments, sold the national do- 
mains, established a national bank, issued as- 
signats, and dissolved itself 21 Sept. 1792; see 
National Convention. In 1848 the legislature was 
again termed the National Assembly. It met 
4 May, and a new constitution was proclaimed, 12 
Nov. A new constitution was once more proclaimed 
by Louis Napoleon in Jan. 1852, after dissolving 
the National Assembly, 2 Dec. 185 1. The present 
French National Assembly was elected 8 Feb., and 
met 12 Feb. 1871; new constitution adopted, 25 
Feb. 1875 ; see France. 

NATIONAL ASSEMBLY, German, see 
Germany, 1848. 

NATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS. One was 

formed in 1584, headed by the earl of Leicester, to 
protect queen Elizabeth from assassination, in con- 
sequence of the discovery of various plots. Another 
was proposed in the house of commons, in Feb. 
1696, bj' sir llowland Gwyn, for the defence of the 
person and government of William III. soon after 
the discovery of the assassination plot {which see). 
The members of both houses of parliament and the 
majority of the male population joined it imme- 
diately ; all persons holding office under govern- 
ment were required to be members; see Aid to Sick 
and Wounded, Artillery, Arts, Colonies, Education, 
Employers, Farmers, Social Science, Tuberculosis, 
and Volunteers. 

NATIONAL BENEVOLENT INSTI- 
TUTION, established 1812, incorporated 1859. 
Pensions are granted to decayed gentry, and to 
professional people, teachers, and other's in reduced 
circumstances. 

NATIONAL CONVENTION of France, 
constituted in the hall of the Tuileries 17 Sept., and 
formally opened 21 Sept. 1792, when M. Gregoire, 
at the head of the National Assembly, announced 
that that assembly had ceased its functions. It was 



NATIONAL COUNCIL. 



843 



NATIONAL DEBT. 



then decreed, " That the citizens named by the 
French people to form the .National Convention, 
being met to the number of 371, after having verified 
their powers, declare that the National Convention 
is constituted." This convention continued until 
a new constitution was organised, and the execu- 
tive directory was installed at the Little Luxem- 
bourg, 1 Nov. 1795 i see Directory. The chartists 
{which see) in England formed a national conven- 
tion in 1839. 

NATIONAL COUNCIL OF THE 
EVANGELICAL FEEE CHURCHES, 

popularly known as "The Free Church Council," 
originated in an article by dr. Guinness Rogers to 
the Methodist Times, 20 Feb. 1890. The idea of 
the article, for the federation of the nonconformist 
bodies to promote their common interests, took 
practical shape, and the first free church congress 
was held at Manchester, 7 Nov. 1892. The second 
congress took place at Leeds, Mar. 1894, when it 
w.as determined that each congress should have an 
official president, dr. Berry being the first elected 
to hold that office. Since that date the congress 
has been held annually. The objects of the national 
council are " to facilitate intercourse and co-opera- 
tion among the evangelical free churches ; t > assist 
in the organization of local councils ; to encourage 
devotional fellowship and mutual counsel cone Til- 
ing the spiritual life and religious activities of the 
churches ; tj advocate; the New Testament doctrine 
of the church, and to defend the rights of the asso- 
ciated churches ; to promote the application of the 
law of Christ in every relatiun of human life." 
Among prominent past and present leaders of the 
movunent have been and are dr. Clifford, rev. F. 
B. Meyers (president for 1903), dr. Guinness Rogers, 
the late rev. H. Price Hughes, dr. Munro Gibson, 
dr. Fairbairn, rev. T. Law (the secretary), the late 
dr. Dale, the late dr. Parker, the late dr. Berry, 
dr. Townsend, dr. A. Maclaren, Messrs. G. Cadbury, 
R. W. Perks, m.p., Evan Spicer, J. Rutherford, 
and other prominent nonconformists. In addition 
to social organizations, " free church lectures" on 
the history and principles of nonconformity are 
given. The free church council has taken a very 
active part in the nonconformist agitation against 
the education act of 1902, and that for London 1903, 
and also in the passive resistance movement [which 
see). Offices, Memorial hall, Farringdon-street, E.C. 

NATIONAL DEBT. In 1693 an excise act 
was passed, granting duties for carrying on the 
war with France ; the act also secured certain 
recompenses and advantages to such persons as 
should collectively advance 1,000,000/. for the same 
purpose ; this sum was speedily subscribed. The 
permanent debt began by the establishment of the 
Bank of England in 1694, mainly through the 
exertions of Charles Montague, afterwards earl 
of Halifax, under the condition of its lending 
money to the sovernment on interest, the repay- 
ment of the principal not to be demanded The 
rapid growth of the debt was mainly caused by 
foreign wars, and its reduction was continually 
demanded. See Stocks, Sinking Fund, and Local 
Loans. Debts of the metropolitan authorities by 
loans, reported by Mr. Cosmo Rose-Innes {Times. 
24 Oct. 1895), about 38,1500,000/., yearly charge 
about 2,500,000/. Total debt of the English and 
Welsh local authorities 1885, 173,207,968/. ; 1895, 
202,742,864/. ; 1900, 293,864,224/. 

Amount of the National Debt, see Wars, 1689 et seq. 
1691,3,130,000?.; 1701, 12,552,486?. : 1714, 36, 175,460?. ; 
x 748, 751812,132?. ; 1763,132,716,049?.; 1792,239,663,421?.; 
1815, 861,039,049/. ; 1820, 834,900,960?. ; 1830, 



784,803,997?. ; 1840, 789,578,720?. ; 1850, 787,029,162?. ; 
1856, 807,981,788?. ; 1901, 690,992,621?. ; 1903, 

77°i779,ooo?. 

(31 March) Debt. 

861. Funded debt £785,119,609 

Unfunded 16,689,000 

866. Funded debt 773,313,229 

Unfunded 8,187,700 

871. Funded debt 732,043,270 

Unfunded 6,091,000 

876. Funded debt 713,657,517 

Unfunded . .... *i 1,401, 800 
881. Funded debt 709,078,526 

Unfunded 22,077,500 

884. Funded debt 640,631,095 

Unfunded 14,110,600 

885. Funded debt 640,181,896 

Unfunded 14,033,100 

886. Funded debt 638,849,694 

Unfunded 17,602,8(0 

887. Funded debt 637,637,640 

Unfunded 17,517,9°° 

888. Funded debt 609,740,743 

Unfunded 17,385,100 

889. Funded debt 607,057,811 

Unfunded 16,093,322 

3go. Funded debt 585,959,852 

Unfunded 32,252,305 

891. Funded debt 579,472,082 

Unfunded 36,140,079 

392. Funded debt 577,944,665 

Unfunded 35,312,994 

393. Funded debt 589,533,082 

Unfunded 20,748,270 

894. Funded debt 587,631,096 

Unfunded 21,446,300 

895. Funded debt 586,015,919 

Unfunded 17,400,300 

896. Funded debt 589,146,878 

Unfunded 9,975,800 

897. Funded debt 587,698,732 

Unfunded 8,133,000 

898. Funded debt 585,788,000 

Unfunded 8,133,000 

899. Funded debt 583,186,305 

Unfunded 8,133,000 

900. Funded debt 552,606,898 

Unfunded . . . ' . . 16,133,000 

901. Funded debt 551,182,153 

Unfunded 78,133,000 

902. Funded debt 609,587,248 

Unfunded 75,133,000 

[Exclusive of terminable annuities, estimated, 1867, 
27,521,513?.; 1872, 55,749,070?. ; 1876, 51,911,227?. ; 
1878, 46,335.589'-] 

The National Debt and Local Loans ant passed 12 July, 
1887, see Local Loans. 

Mr. Matthew O'Reilly Dease, formerly m.p. for Louth, 
bequeaths about 40,000?. towards extinguishing the 
national debt ; he died 17 Aug. 1887. 

The National Debt Redemption act with suitable pro- 
visions was passed; royal assent, n April, 1889. 

Sir Stafford Northeote's act provides the annual charge 
of 28,000,000?. ; the surplus to be devoted to the re- 
duction of the debt — 1876. 

The annual interest in 1850 was 23,862,257?.; and the 
total interest, including annuities, amounted to 
27,699,740?. On 1 Jan. 1851, the total unredeemed 
debt of Great Britain and Ireland was 769,272,562?., 
the charge on which for interest and management was 
27,620,449?. The total charge on the debt for interest 
and management, 1872, 26,839,601?. 

Mr. Childers' plan for reducing national debt by termin- 
able annuities, commencing 1885, April, 1883. 

National Debt Conversion of Stock act passed 3 July, 
1884 ; accepted, 17 Oct. 1884, 18,666,000?. for 2J per 
cent. ; 4,451,000?. for 2| per cent., by government, 
nearly 12,000,000?. 

Annual charge reduced by 2,000,000?., April, 1887. 
Reduced to 25,000,000?. by new act passed, royal 
assent, 31 May, 1889. 

* Including Suez Canal bonds, 1876, 4,000,000?.; 1877, 
3,990,000?. ; 1878, 3,929,200?. 



NATIONAL DEFENCE. 



844 



NATIONAL GUARD. 



Mr. Goschen's National Debt Conversion act ; royal 
assent 27 March, 18S8. 

[3 per cent, stock reduced to 2} till 5 April, 1903, and 
afterwards to 2^, new stock not redeemable till 
5 April, 1923.] 
National debt redemption act passed, 1893. 
See Budget 1899, 1900, 1901, 1902, 1903. 

ESTIMATED FOREIGN NATIONAL DEBTS. 

France (i902)£i, 157, 687,553 I Belgium (1901) £111,122,054 
Germany (1899) 117,283,000 | Sweden (1901) . 19,396,240 
Russia (igoi) . 690,017,109 Norway (1900) . 12,695,879 
Austria (1902) . 384,565,000 Denmark (1901). 12,071,901 
Hungary (1902) 210,390,000 Switzerland( 1900)1 5,050, 288 
Italy (1902) . . 512,040,000 I Greece (1902) . 13,616,687 
Spain (1901). . 433,283,066 j China (1899) . 54,530,000 
Portugal (1901). 171,723,502 I Japan (1902) 
Turkey (1902) . 123,729,595 United States 
Holland (1902). 95,032,537! (1901) . . 



52,957,264 
75>935.o67 
Colonial 



NATIONAL DEFENCE, see 

Defences Commission, under Colonics, 1879, Naval 

and Military Administration, 1895. 

Resolutions voted in the commons for supporting 
arrangements with the colonies in providing ships, 
&c, 850,000?. ; and for defence of various ports and 
coaling stations, 2,600,000?. 15 May, 1888. 

National Defence act passed 13 Aug. i883 ; another 
act passed 31 May, 1889 ; see Navy, 1889. 

NATIONAL DRAMATIC ACADEMY 

proposed by professor H. Morley and others in 1879. 

NATIONAL FEDERATION (Irish) esta- 
blished in opposition to Mr. Parnell, by Mr. Justin 
M'Carthy and other m.p.'s, supported by the E. C. 
bishops and clergy ; inaugural meeting- at Dublin, 
10 March, 1891. Its organ is the National Press, 
rirst published, 7 March, 1891. See Ireland, March, 
1892. 

NATIONAL GALLERY, London, began 

with the purchase, by the British government, of 
the Angerstein collection of 38 pictures, 101-57, 000/., 
in 1824. The first exhibition of them took place in 
Pall-mall, on 10 May, 1824. Sir G. Beaumont 
(1826), Mr. Holwell Carr (1831), and many other 
gentlemen, as well as the British Institution, con- 
tributed many fine pictures ; ana the collection has 
been since greatly augmented by gifts and pur- 
chases. The present edifice in Trafalgar-square, 
designed by Mr. Wilkins, was completed and 
opened 9 April, 1838. In July, 1857, a commission 
appointed to consider the propriety of removing the 
pictures reported in favour of their remaining in 
their present locality ; and in i860, 15,000/. were 
voted to be expended in adapting the central part 
of the building to exhibition purposes. On 1 1 May, 
1861, the National Gallery was reopened after 
having been closed eight months, during which 
time great improvements were made in the internal 
arrangements. On 19 June, 1865, the house of 
commons voted 20,000/. to buy land to enlarge the 
building, and an act for this purpose was passed 
15 July, 1866. Visitors in 1866, 7715,901; in 1871, 
911,658; in 1883, 849,604; sum Voted for year 
1867-8, 15,895/., 'for 1876, 20,098/. Legacy from 
Francis Wm. Clarke, about 24,000/., fell in 1880 ; 
1880, pictures 1040. The gallery opened to the 
public free Mon., lues., Wed., "Sat.; Student's 
days Thurs. and Fri., bd. ; Sun ay, Apr. to Oct. 
(inclusive) 2 to 5 or 6 p.m. 

Sir Charles Eastlake, director, 1850; sir Fred. W. Burton, 
1864; Mr. (afterwards sir) Edward J. Poynter, April, 
1894 ; Mr. Hawes Harison Turner succeeds (Mr. Chas. 
L. Eastlake, 20 years keeper) . . March, 1898 

A parliamentary return gives a list of pictures presented 
to or purchased for the National Gallery— 284 pre- 
sented, 256 bequeathed, and 313 purchased. The cost 
of the 313 purchases, which has been spread over 45 
years, has been 254,527/. Up to 1871, 337,195/. had 



been expended. The Peel collection (70 pictures), 
bought for 75,000/., spring, 1871. Two pictures of the 
Blenheim collection were bought for 83,520/., March, 
1885 (Raphael's "Ansidei Madonna" 70,000/.). The 
"Congress of Minister, " a master-piece of Terburg 
(valued at 7280/. in 1868), presented by sir Richard 
Wallace, Oct. 1871. 

Mr. Wynn Ellis (a silk merchant, born July, 1780; died 
27 Nov. 1875) bequeathed about 800 pictures to the 
National Gallery on certain conditions. Re-opened ; 
new galleries erected by E. Barry : pictures re-arranged. 
Aug., 1876. 
] About 1030 oil paintings in the gallery . March, 1882 

Mr. Henry Tate presents 57 modern pictures (value nearly 
90,000/.), announced 8 March; declined by the govern- 
ment for want of space ; the government proiwses 
placing his pictures in galleries at South Kensington, 
26 June, 1890 ; sir John Millais' " Order of Release " 
bought by sir Henry Tate (5000 gs.) at the Renton sale, 
30 April, presented by him to the gallery, May, 1898. 
I Three of the earl of Radnor's pictures purchased for the 
gallery for 55,000/. (Holbein's "Ambassadors," and two 
portraits by Velasijuez and Moroni), reported July, 1890. 
[The government gave 25,000/., lord Rothschild, sir 
Edward Guinness (since lord Iveagh)and Mr. Charles 
Cotes, each 10,000/. 1 

Mr. (now sir) William Agnew offers to present 10,000/. 
towards the erection of a special National gallery of 
British art, near Kensington palace, 21 July, 1890. 

An anonymous donor (Mr. Henry Tate) through Mr. 
Humphry Ward, offers to the government 80,000/. for 
the erection of a National gallery of British art, 
12 March ; accepted by Mr. Goschen, 19 March, 1891. 

Mr. Tate, not approving of the site proposed by the 
government, withdraws his offer, 3 March, 1892. 

The site of Millbank prison proposed by government, 
Nov. ; accepted by Mr. Tate (bart. May, 1898 ; died, 
5 Dec. 1899), Dee. 1892 ; the building, designed by 
Mr. Sidney Smith, erected by Messrs. lliggs and 
Hill, opened by the prince of Wales, 21 July, 1897 ; 
nine new rooms added, 27 Nov. 1899. 

A collection of Gainsboroughs given to the nation by 
the Misses Lane, Dec. 1896. 

Mr. Chas. Holroyd appointed keeper of the Gallery of 
British Art, July, 1897. 

"Pictures in the National Gallery," with notes, &c, 
by C. L. Eastlake, illustrated, published 1899. "The 
National Gallery," edited by sir E. J. Poynter, 
vols. i. and ii. , Dec. 1899. 

" The Death of Chatterton," by Wallis, bequeathed to 
the nation by the late C. G. Clement, placed in the 
gallery, Dec. 1899. 

Millais's "Boyhood of Raleigh" (realised 5,200 gs. 
12 May), presented by lady Tate to the gallery. 
May, 1900. 

National Gallery (purchase of adjacent land) act passed, 
1901. 

Lord Cheylesmore (died 10 July) bequeathed five 
pictures to the gallery, 19c 2. 

Mr. G. F. Watts, r.a., completes his gift of 
ethical and allegorical pictures by his large 
picture, " The Court of Death " . . Feb. 1903 

Cosmopolitan club present Mr. Watts' painting of 
" The Banquet of Anastasio degli Onesti " to the 
National Gallery Feb. „ 

"The Nation's Pictures" (Cassell & Co.), 48th part, 
completing the work . . published Aug. ,, 

National Art Collections fund inaugurated, Sept. ,, 

NATIONAL GUARD of France was 

instituted by the Committee of Safety at Paris on 
13 July, 1789 (the day before the destruction of the 
Bastille), to maintain order and defend the public 
liberty. Its first colours were blue and red, to 
which white was added, when its formation was 
approved by the king. Its action was soon para- 
lysed by the revolution, and it ceased altogether 
under the consulate and empire. It was revived 
by Napoleon in 1814, and maintained by Louis 
XVIII., but was broken up by Charleo X., after a 
tumultuous review in 1827. It was revived in 1830, 
and helped to place Louis Philippe on the throne. 
In 1848 its reconstitution and its enlargement from 
80,000 to 100,000 men led to the frightful conflict of 



NATIONAL HEALTH SOCIETY. 84,5 



NATIONAL TRUST. 



June, 1848. Its constitution was entirely changed 
in Jan. 1852, when it was subjected entirely to the 
control of the government. Formerly it had many 
privileges, such as choosing its own officers, &c. 
In consequence of the defection of part of the 
National Guard and the in competes yy of the rest 
during the outbreak in Paris in 1871, its gradual 
abolition was decreed by the national assembly at 
Versailles (488-154), 24 Aug. 1871. The peaceful 
disarmament began in September. National guards 
established in Spain, Naples, and other countries, 
during the nineteenth century. 

NATIONAL HEALTH SOCIETY, 

founded in 1873 f° r ' ne collection and diffusion of 
sanitary knowledge, by lectures and otherwise. 

NATIONALISTS. The name taken by the 
party in Ireland demanding legislative indepen- 
dence, &c, opposed by the Unionists. See Ireland 
{Young), Home Rule, Pamellites, and Separatists. 

NATIONALITY ; a word much used since 
1848. In Poland, Hungary, Italy, and Germany, 
the struggle for nationality has been long and severe. 
In 1866 agitation for this principle began in Bohemia, 
Slavonia, and other parts of the Austrian empire. 
The nationality of Ireland is the alleged basis of 
the Fenian agitation ; see Ireland, 1870, and Home 
Government. 

NATIONALIZATION, Sat., see under Zand. 

NATIONAL LEAGUES, see Leagues and 

Ireland, 1882 et seq. 

NATIONAL LIBERAL FEDERATION, 

see under Liberals. 

NATIONAL OPERA HOUSE, N. Thames 
Embankment ; Mr. Mapleson, proprietor ; Mr. F. II 
Fowler, architect ; Mr. Win. Webster, contractor. 
First brick laid by Mile. Tietjens, 7 Sept.; first 
stone laid by the duke of Edinburgh, 16 Dec. 1875. 
Failure of the scheme reported, Nov. 1877. Mate- 
rials sold, 24 June 1880, et seq. ; estimated loss by the 
scheme about 100,0001?. ; the building was pulled 
down, May, 1888. 

NATIONAL PHYSICAL LABORA- 
TORY, see Physical. 

NATIONAL PORTRAIT EXHIBI- 
TIONS proposed by the earl of Derby, earl Gran- 
ville, and others, at a meeting in London, 13 July, 
1865. They were held in what had been the re- 
freshment room of the Exhibition of 1862, at South 
Kensington. The 1st was opened 16 April ; closed 
18 Aug. 1866: 2nd, opened 3 May; closed 31 Aug. 
1867 : 3rd, opened 13 April ; closed 22 Aug. 1868. 

NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY was 

determined on in Feb. 1857, in pursuance of votes 
from both houses of parliament. The sum of 2000/. 
was appropriated for the purchase of portraits of 
persons eminent in British history. Donations are J 
received under certain restrictions. The gallery, j 
Gt. George-street, Westminster, was opened 15 Jan. 
1859. Director, &c, George Scharf, c.B. ; k.c.b., 
1895; literary artist; born, 1820; died, 19 April, 
1895 ; succeeded by Mr. Lionel Cust, April, 1895. 
The collection was removed to South Kensington 
Dec. 1869, and reopened 28 March, 1870. The 
pictures removed to Bethnal Green museum for 
•safety after the fire at the Indian museum, June, 
1885. A valuable collection of national portraits 
appeared at the Manchester exhibition in 1857. 

The marquis of Salisbury at the Royal Academy dinner, 
stated that the government had received an anonymous 



offer to erect a building for the National Portrait 
Gallery, if a site were provided, 4 May, 1889. 

Mr. W. H. Alexander having given 100,000?., the 
north extremity of the National Gallery chosen for the 
site of the new building, July ; bill passed 26 July, 1889. 

Mr. G. F. Watts presents 15 oil portraits and 2 draw- 
ings to the gallery, announced, 6 Dec. 1895. 

The new gallery in St. Martin's-place, W.C., opened, 
4 April, 1896. 

Col. John Barrow, f.b.s., bequeathed a series of 
portraits by Mr. Stephen Pearce, relating to the search 
for Sir John Franklin (and arctic portraits bequeathed 
by Lady Franklin), received April, 1899; other gifts, 
June ; the queen presents the portrait of herself by 
Sir George Hayter, Aug. 1899. Total bequests, &c, 
1431 up to 1901. 

National Portrait Gallery for Scotland. — 30,000?. offered 
by a gentleman to form a collection and erect a building 
1883-4. 1'be building at Edinburgh was opened by the 
marquis of Lothian, 15 July, 1889. 

NATIONAL REFORM UNION, see under 

lief arm Association. 

NATIONAL REVIEW, Conservative, first 
appeared March, 1883. 

NATIONAL SCHOOLS, see Education and 
Music, 1873. 

NATIONAL SERVICE LEAGUE, to 

advocate the adoption of drill as a compulsory 
subject in schools, and to urge that military and 
naval training be made compulsory by law ; formed 
at a meeting at Apsley house, the duke of 
"Wellington president, 26 Feb. ; a meeting held at 
Oxford, 12 Nov. 1902. First annual meeting 
26 May, 1903. 

NATIONAL SOCIETY for promoting the 
Education of the Poor in the principles of the esta- 
blished church of England, founded 1811, incorpo- 
rated 1817. In 1883 there were 2,385,374 children, 
and 28,000,000^. had been expended. Training 
colleges: St. Mark's, Chelsea, Whitelands, and 
Battersea. Annual meetings. National society for 
the employment of epileptics ; colony started, 1895 ; 
four new houses at Chalfont St. Peter, Bucks, 
the gift of Mr. Passniore Edwards and others ; 
opened by the duke of York, 23 June, 1899. 

NATIONAL TESTIMONIALS (subscribed 
for) were presented to Kowland Hill (for his exer- 
tions in obtaining the penny postage), 17 June, 
1846 ; and to Miss Florence Nightingale (for her 
beneficent exertions for the sufferers during the 
Crimean war), 29 Nov. 1855. See Jubilee, 1888, 
and Nurses. 

NATIONAL THRIFT SOCIETY, formed 
at Oxford in 1878. Meetings have been held at the 
Mansion house, London, 1880 et seq. The erection 
of a Thrift hall proposed, 31 Dec. 1887. , „ ; 

. NATIONAL TRADE SOCIETY formed 
in June, 1871, to watch over and secure the interests 
of traders, and promote amendments in the law 
affecting commercial interests. President, rt. hon. 
W. H. Smith, m.p. Civil Service trading, the in- 
come tax, and international exhibitions have been 
considered by the committee. 

NATIONAL TRAINING SCHOOL for 

Music, South Kensington, founded by the duke of 
Edinburgh, 18 Dec. 1873 ; opened by him, 17 May, 
1876. 

NATIONAL TRUST, for places of historic 
interest or natural beauty; an association founded 
by the duke of "Westminster, the marquis of 
Dufferin, the earl of Kosebery, and others; first 



NATIONAL UNION. 



846 



NAVAL AND MILITARY. 



meeting, 16 Nov. 1893 ; first annual meeting, Lon- 
don^ May, 1895. 

NATIONAL UNION was formed in 1868 to 
combine a number of associations supporting the 
conservative party. Lecturers were employed and 
pamphlets circulated. The party was termed na- 
tionalist in Aug. 1 87 1. Lord Randolph Churchill 
was chairman in 1884. Conference at Aberdeen, 
1 6 Oct. 1884. The twentieth annual conference 
held at Oxford, 22 Nov. 1887, and at other places 
since. 

NATIONAL UNION CONVENTION, 

see United States, 1866, and Dec. 1890. 

NATIONAL VIGILANCE ASSOCIA- 
TION, for the promotion of social purity, and the 
protection of women and children, founded by Dr. 
G. Ridding (bishop of Southwell), Mr. Samuel 
Morley, and others, March, 1886. 
Annual meetings are held ; international congress, 

London, closed 1 June, 1899 

NATIONAL WAIFS ASSOCIATION, 

see Barnardo's Somes. 

NATIONAL WORKSHOPS, see Ateliers 
Nationaux. 

NATIVITY. There are three festivals in the 
Roman and Greek churches, under this name. The 
Nativity of Christ, also observed by the protestants, 
on 25 Dec. (see Christmas) ; the Nativity of the 
"Virgin Mary, not observed by the protestants at all. 
Pope Sergius I., about 690, established the latter, 
but it was not generally received in France and 
Germany till about IOOO ; nor by the eastern Chris- 
tians till the 1 2th century. The festival of the 
nativity of St. John the Baptist, 24 June, Midsum- 
mer-day, is said to have been instituted in 488. 

NATURAL HISTORY was studied by Solo- 
mon, ioiab.c. (I Kings iv. 33) ; Aristotle (384-322 
B.c.);byTheophrastus (394-297 B.C.); and by Pliny 
(23-79A.D.) ; see Botany, Zoology, British Museum, 
&c. 

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY, see Philo- 



NATURAL SELECTION, see Species. 

NATURALIZATION is defined to be "the 
making a foreigner or alien a denizen or freeman of 
any kingdom or city, and so becoming, as it were, 
both a subject and a native of a king or country 
that by nature he did not belong to." The first act 
of naturalisation passed in 1437 ; and various similar 
enactments were made in most of the reigns from 
that time ; several of them special acts relating to 
individuals. An act for the naturalisation of the 
Jews passed Ma}'. 1753, but was repealed in 1754, 
on the petition of all the cities in England ; see 
Jews, for the privileges since granted them. The 
act for the naturalization of prince Albert passed 
3 Vict., 7 Feb. 1840. A committee to inquire into 
the naturalization laws, appointed May, 1868, earl 
of Clarendon chairman, met 25 Oct. 1868 ; reported 
about Feb. 1869; and new acts for this purpose were 
passed 12 May, 1870, and 25 July, 1872. In 1870 
there were about 9500 Americans in England, and 
about 2,500,000 British subjects in the United States 
of America. By the new act the latter were enabled 
to renounce tbeir allegiance; and by the conven- 
tion signed 3 Feb. 1 871, the nationality of British 
subjects was made dependent on choice and not on 
birth. Naturalization (abroad) act passed, 6 July, 
1895. 



Committee on naturalization's report issued, with 
suggestions, see Times leader, 3 Oct. 1901. 

NATURALISM, a realistic style in litera- 
ture, mainly introduced by Balzac, 1829 et seq. 
" Naturalism" is now defined as the knowledge of 
phenomena, and the laws by which they are con- 
nected, but nothing more. Some writers combine 
with naturalism, agnosticism, positivism, and 
empiricism {which see) . 

Naturalism and Agnosticism," the Gifford lectures, 
1896-8, 2 vols., by prof. James Ward, published 1899, 
in which he opposes the mechanical view of nature, 
viz. naturalism, and insists upon the recognition of 
mind as the animating principle. 
Edmond and Jules de Gon court published " Medical and 

Physiological Novels," 1846 et seq. 
Emile Zola, in his " Rougon-Macquart " series, 1871 et 
seq., portrayed deformed and diseased rather than true 
nature. A dramatised form of his " Assommoiv," en- 
titled " Drink," had a long run in London in 1879. 

NATURE, a weekly illustrated journal of 
science, first appeared 4 Nov. 1869 ; editor, Mr. 
Joseph Norman Lockyer, f.e.S. Mr. Alex. Mac- 
millan, one of the founders, born 1818, died, 
25 Jan. 1896. 

La Nature (founded and edited by M. Gaston Tissandier, 
died Sept. 1899 ; see Balloons) appeared in 1892. 

NATURE PRINTING. This process con- 
sists in impressing objects, such as plants, mosses, 
feathers, &c, into plates of metal, causing these 
objects, as it were, to engrave themselves ; and 
afterwards taking casts or copies fit for printing 
from. Kniphoff, of Erfurt, between 1728 and 1757, 
produced his, Herbarium vivum by pressing the plants 
themselves (previously inked) on paper ; the im- 
pressions being afterwards coloured by hand. In 
[833, Peter Kyhl, of Copenhagen, made use of steel 
rollers and lead plates. In 1842 Mr. Taylor printed 
lace. In 1847 Mr. Twining printed ferns, grasses, 
and plants ; and in the same year Dr. Branson sug- 
gested the application of electrotyping to the im- 
pressions. In 1849, professor Leydolt, of Vienna, 
by the able assistance of Mr. Andrew Worring, ob- 
tained impressions of agates and fossils. The first 
practical application of this process is in Von 
Heufler' s work 011 the mosses of Arpasch, in Tran- 
sylvania; the second (the Jirst in this country) in 

The Ferns of Great Britain and Ireland," edited 
by Dr. Lindley, the illustrations to which were pre- 
pared under the superintendence of Mr. Henry 
Bradbury in 1855-56, who also in 1859-60 printed 
"The British Sea-weeds," edited by W. G. John- 
stone and Alex. Croall. The process was applied to 
butterflies by Joseph Merrin of Gloucester, in 1864. 

NATURFORSCHER GESELL- 
SCHAFT, see German Union. 

NAUCRATIS, see under Egypt Exploration 
Fund. 

NAUTICAL ALMANAC, first published in 
1767, edited by Dr. Neville Maskelyne, astronomer 
royal ; t&e new and improved series began in 1834. 
Dr. John Russell Hind (died 1895), for many 
years superintendent, was succeeded by Mr. A. M. 
W. Downing, Jan. 1S92. 

NAUVOO, Illinois, N. America, a city of the 
Morinonites {which see) ; founded 1840; left 1848. 

NAVAL AND MILITARY ADMINI- 
STRATION, royal commission appointed con- 
sisting of lord Hartington, lord R. Churchill, 
lord Revelstoke, Mr. Campbell Bannerman, Mr,. 
Isuiay, general Brackehbury, admiral sir F. : 



NAVAL AND MILITAEY. 



847 



NAVAL BATTLES. 



Richards, sir E. Temple, and Mr. W. H. Smith, 

7 June, 1888. 

First report, containing various recommendations with 
evidence, issued 20 March, 1890. 

Mr. B. Stanhope, the war secretary, reports the proposal 
for the establishment of a council within the cabinet, 
for naval and military affairs, to decide on questions 
between the two departments, also to establish a war 
office council and a promotion board, 3 July, 1890. 

The "Naval and military council," the duke of Devon- 
shire president (cabinet ministers), established in 1895. 

NAVAL AND MILITARY OFFICERS' 
ASSOCIATION, instituted to provide employ- 
ment for retired officers, proposed spring 1885. 

NAVAL ANNUAL, a valuable publication, 
begun by lord Brassey in 1886 ; continued by his 
son, Mr. T. A. Brassey, in 1896; Mr. JohnLeyland, 
1900. 

NAVAL ARCHITECTS' INSTITU- 
TION was established in Jan. i860. Annual 
international sessions are held ; a meeting at Paris, 
lord Brassey, president, n June, 1895: at Ham- 
burg, 9 June ; Berlin, 10 June et seq. (the emperor 
present II June), 1896; London, 6 July, 1897; a 
German society, founded in 1898, met in Berlin, the 
emperor present ; 18, 19 Nov. 1901. 

NAVAL ARCHITECTURE. A scientifi- 
committee of fifteen appointed to consider the pre- 
sent state of naval architecture and the require- 
ments of naval warfare ; 6 naval officers, 9 scientific 
men ; lord Dufferin chairman ; about 19 Dec. 1870. 
A royal school of naval architecture, established at 
South Kensington in 1864, merged into the Royal 
Naval College, Greenwich. 

M. Raoul Pictet, of Geneva, announced his discovery of 
a new kind of keel to glide over water, Aug. 1881. 

NAVAL ARTILLERY VOLUNTEER 
FORCE, ROYAL, established by act passed 5 Aug. 

1873- 

On March 22, 1889, a proposal to utilise these volunteers 

who are stationed at various ports was made in the 

house of lords. 

NAVAL ASYLUM, Royal, begun at Pad- 

dington in 1801, was transferred to Greenwich in 
1807. The interior of the central portion of the 
building was commenced in 1613 by Anne, queen of 
James I., and completed in 1635 by queen Henrietta- 
Maria, whose arms still adorn the ceiling of the 
room in which her son Charles II. was born, 1630. 

NAVAL BATTLES. The first sea-fight on 
record is that between the Corinthians and Corcy- 
reans, 665 B.C. The following are among the most 
celebrated naval engagements: for the details of 
which see separate articles. 

B.C. 

Battle of Salamis (Greek victory) . . 20 Oct. 480 

Battle of Eurymedon (ditto) '469 

Battle of Cyzicus ; the Lacedemonian fleet taken by 

Alcibiades, the Athenian 410 

Battle of Arginussa 406 

Battle of iEgospotamos (Spartans victors) . . . 405 
The Persian fleet, under Conon, defeats the Spartan, 
at Cnidos ; Pisander, the Athenian admiral, is 
killed ; and the maritime power of the Lacede- 
monians destroyed . .... 394 
Battle of Mylie (Romans defeat Carthaginians) . . 260 
The Roman fleet, off Trepanum, destroyed by the 

Carthaginians 249 

The Carthaginian fleet destroyed by the consul Lu- 

tatius 241 

Battle of Aetium 31 

The emperor Claudius II. defeats the Goths, and 
sinks 2000 of their ships . . . . A.r>. 269 



Battle of Lepanto (Turks defeated) . . 7 Oct. 1571 
Bay of Gibraltar; Dutch and Spaniards (a bloody 
conflict and decisive victory, giving for a time the 
superiority to the Dutch) . . .25 April, 1607 
The Austrians defeat the Italians at Lissa (see Lissa) 

20 July, 1866 

NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS IN BRITISH HISTORY. 

[Hallam considers that the naval glory of England 
can first be traced " in a continuous track of 
light " from the period of the Commonwealth.] 

Alfred with 10 galleys, defeated 300 sail of Danish 
pirates on the Dorsetand Hampshire coast. Asser's 
Life of Alfred 897 

Edward III. defeats the French near Sluys 24 June, 1340 

Oft' Winehelsea ; Edward III. defeated the Spanish 
fleet (L'Espagnols sur mer) of 40 large ships, and 
captured 26 29 Aug. 1350 

The English and Flemings ; the latter signally de- 
feated I37I 

Earl of Arundel defeats a Flemish fleet of 100 sail, 
and captures 80 ... 24 March, 1387 

Near Milford Haven ; the English take 8, and de- 
stroy 15 French ships j^ ^ 

Off Harfleur ; the duke of Bedford takes or destroys 
nearly 500 French ships ... 15 Aug. 1416 

In the Downs ; a Spanish and Genoese fleet cap- 
tured by the earl of Warwick . . . . 1459 

Bay of Biscay ; English and French, indecisive, 

10 Aug. 1512 

Sir Edward Howard attacks the French under Prior 
John ; repulsed and killed . . .25 April, 151 3 

The Spanish Armada destroyed . . 19 July, 1588 

Dover straits ; the Dutch admiral Van Tromp de- 
feated by admiral Blake 28 Sept. The Dutch 
surprise the English in the Downs, 80 sail engag- 
ing 40 English, several of which are taken or 
destroyed, 28 Nov. ; the Dutch admiral sails in 
triumph through the channel, with a broom at his 
masthead, to denote that he had swept the English 
from the seas 29 Nov. 1652 

The English gain a victory over the Dutch fleet off 
Portsmouth, taking and destroying 11 men-of-war 
and 30 merchantmen. Van Tromp was the Dutch, 
and Blake the English admiral . 18-20 Feb. 1653 

Again, off the North Foreland. The Dutch and 
English fleets consisted of near 100 men-of-war 
each. Van Tromp commanded the Dutch ; Blake, 
Monk, and Deane, the English. Six Dutch ships 
taken ; n sunk, and the rest ran into Calais roads 

2 June, ,, 
Again, on the coast of Holland ; the Dutch lose 30 

men-of-war, and admiral Tromp was killed (the 
seventh and last battle) . . .31 July, 

At Cadiz, when two galleons, worth 2,000,000 pieces 
of .eight, were taken by Blake . . . Sept. 1656 

Spanish fleet vanquished, and burnt in the harbour 
of Santa Cruz by Blake . . . .20 April, 1657 

English and French : 130 of the Bordeaux fleet de- 
stroyed by the duke of York (afterwards James II. ) 

4 Dec. 1664 

The duke of York defeats the Dutch fleet off Har- 
wich ; Opdam, the Dutch admiral, blown up, with 
all his crew ; 18 capital ships taken, 14 destroyed 

3 June, 1665 
The earl of Sandwich took 12 men-of-war and 2 India 

snips 4 Sept. „ 

A contest between the Dutch and English fleets for 
four days. The English lose 9, and the Dutch 15 

slli P s 1-4 June, 1666 

Decisive engagement at the mouth of the Thames, 
the English gain a glorious victory. The Dutch 
lose 24 men-of-war, 4 admirals killed, and 4000 

seamen 25, 26 July, „ 

The Dutch admiral de Ruyter sails up the Thames 

and destroys some ships . . . n June, 1667 
Twelve Algerine ships of war destroyed by sir 

Edward Spragg IO May, 1671 

Battle of Southwold bay (see Solebay) . 28 May, 1672 
Coast of Holland ; by prince Rupert, 28 May, 4 
June, and n Aug., sir E. Spragg killed ; d'Etrees 

and Ruyter defeated j.g 7 - 

Off Beachy Head ; the English and Dutch defeated 

by the French under Tourville . . 30 June, 1690 
Who is defeated by them near Cape LaHogue, 19 May, i6g2 
Off St. Vincent ; the English and Dutch squadrons,' 
under admiral Rooke, defeated by the French, 

16 June, 1693 



NAVAL BATTLES. 



848 



NAVAL BATTLES. 



Off Carthagena, between admiral Benbow and the 
French fleet, commanded by admiral Du Casse. 
Fought 19 Au S- 17 02 

The other ships of the squadron falling astern, left 
Benbow alone to maintain the battle. A chain- 
shot shattered his leg, yet he would not be 
removed from the quarter-deck, but continued 
fighting till the morning, when the French 
sheered off. He died in Oct. following, of his 
wounds, at Jamaica, where, soon after his arrival, 
he received a letter from the French admiral, of 
which the following is a translation :— 

"Carthagena, 22 Aug. 1702. 
"Sik, — I had little hopes, on Monday last, but 
to have supped in your cabin ; yet it pleased God 
to order it otherwise. I am thankful for it. As 
for those cowardly captains who deserted you, 
hang them up, for by G— d they deserve it. 

"Du Casse." 

Captains Kirby and Wade were shot on their arrival 
at Plymouth, having been previously tried by a 
court-martial. 

Sir George Rooke defeats the French fleet off Vigo 
(which see) 12 Oct. 1702 

Off Malaga ; bloody engagement between the French, 
under the count of Thoulouse, and the English, 
under sir George Rooke . . . 13 Aug. 1704 

At Gibraltar ; French lose 5 men-of-war . 5 Nov. ,, 

In the Mediterranean, admiral Leake took 60 French 
vessels, laden with provisions . . .22 May, 1708 

Spanish fleet of 29 sail totally defeated by sir George 
Byng. in the Faro of Messina . . 31 July, 1718 

Bloody battle off Toulon ; Matthews and Lestock 
against the fleets of France and Spain. Here 
brave captain Cornewall fell with 42 men, including 
officers ; and the victory was lost by a misunder- 
standing between the English admirals ti Feb. 1743-4 

Off Cape Finisterre ; the French fleet of 38 sail taken 
by admiral Anson 3 Ma >'. x 747 

Off Finisterre ; when admiral Hawke took 7 men-of- 
war of the French 14 Oct. 

Off Newfoundland ; when admiral Boscawen took 2 
men-of-war 10 June, 1755 

Off Cape Franchise ; 7 ships defeated by 3 English, 

21 Oct. 1757 

Admiral Pocock defeats the French fleet in the East 
Indies, in two actions, 1758, and again . . . 1759 

Admiral Boscawen defeats the French under De la 
Clue, off Cape Lagos .... 18 Aug. „ 

Admiral Hawke defeats the French fleet, com- 
manded by Conflans, in Quiberon Bay, and thus 
prevents a projected invasion of England (see 
Quiberon Bay) 20 Nov. ,, 

Keppel took 3 French frigates and a fleet of mer- 
chantmen 9 Oct- 176 2 

On Lake Champlain the provincial force totally de- 
stroyed by admiral Howe . . . 11 Oct. 1776 

Capt. Sam. Marshall, of " the saucy Arethusa," 32 guns 
(part of Keppel's fleet), summoned La Belle Poule 
to surrender off Ushant, and fired across her bow ; 
after two hours' conflict, the French made sail and 
escaped 16 or 17 June, 1778 

Off Ushant ; a drawn battle between Keppel and 
d'Orvilliers 27 July, „ 

In New England ; the American fleet totally de- 
stroyed 3°J ul y> 1779 

Near Cape St. Vincent ; admiral Rodney defeated a 
Spanish fleet under admiral don Langara (see 
Rodney) 16 Jan. 1780 

At St. J ago ; Mons. Suffrein defeated by commodore 
Johnstone 16 April, 1781 

Dogger-bank, between admiral Parker and the Dutch 
admiral Zoutman : 400 killed on each side, 5 Aug. ,, 

Admiral Rodney defeated the French going to at- 
tack Jamaica ; took 5 ships of the line, and sent 
the French admiral, Comte de Grasse, prisoner 
to England 12 April, 1782 

The British totally defeated the fleets of France and 
Spain in the Bay of Gibraltar . . 13 Sept. „ 

East Indies : a series of actions between sir Edward 
Hughes and Sutt'ren, viz. : 17 Feb. 1782, the 
French had 11 ships to 9; 12 April they had 18 
ships to 11, yet were completely beaten. Again, 
6 July, off Trineomalee, they had 15 to 12, and 
were again beaten with loss of 1000 killed, 3 
.Sept. 1782 ; again 20 June, 1783 



1796 
1797 



1798 

" I 

1799 I 
1800 
1801 ! 



Lord Howe defeated the French off Ushant, took 6 
ships of war, and sunk one . . . 1 June, 1794 

Sir Edward Pellew took 15 sail ; burnt 7, out of a 
fleet of 35 sail of transports . . . 8 March, 1705 

French fleet defeated, and 2 ships of war taken by 
admiral Hotham. Fought . . 14 March, ,, 

Admiral Cornwallis took 8 transports, convoyed by 

3 French men-of-war. Fought . . 7 June, ,, 
Eleven Dutch East Indiamen taken by the Sceptre, 

man-of-war, and some armed British Indiamen in 
company 19 June, „ 

LOrient : the French fleet defeated by lord Brid- 
port, and 3 ships of the line taken ; see L 'Orient, 

23 June. ,, 

Dutch fleet, under admiral Lucas, in Saldanha Bay, 
surrenders to sir George Keith Elphinstone (see 
Saldanha Bay) . .\ . . 17 Aug. 

Victory off Cape St. Vincent (which see) . 14 Feb. 

Unsuccessful attempt on Santa Cruz ; admiral 
Nelson loses his right arm . . .24 July, 

Victory of Camperdown (which see) . n Oct. 

Of the Nile (which see) 1 Aug. 

Off the coast of Ireland ; a French fleet of 9 sail, 
full of troops, as succours to the Irish, engaged 
by sir John Borlase Warren, and 5 taken, 12 Oct, 

The Texel fleet of 12 ships and 13 Indiamen surren- 
ders to admiral Mitchell ... 30 Aug. 

Capture of the Cerbere (which see) . . 29 July, 

Copenhagen bombarded (see Copenhagen), 2 April, 

Gibraltar bay ; engagement between the French 
and British fleets ; the Hannibal, of 74 guns, lost, 

6 July, „ I 

Off Cadiz ; sir James Saumarez obtains a victory 
over the French and Spanish fleets ; 1 ship cap- 
tured. Fought 12 July, ,, [ 

Sir Robert Calder, with 15 sail, takes 2 ships (both 
Spanish) out of 20 sail of the French and Spanish 
fleets, off Ferrol (Calder censured) . 22 July, 1805 | 

Victory off Trafalgar (which see) . . 21 Oct. ,, : 

Sir R, Strachan, with 4 sail of British, captures 4 
French ships, off Cape Ortegal . . 4 Nov. ,, 

In the West Indies ; the French defeated by sir T. 
Duckworth ; 3 sail of the line taken, 2 driven on 
shore 6 Feb. 1806 

Sir John Borlase Warren captures 2 French ships, 

13 March, ,, j 

Admiral Duckworth effects the passage of the 
Dardanelles (see article Dardanelles) . 19 Feb. 1807 

Copenhagen fleet captured . . . .8 Sept. ,, | 

The Russian fleet of several sail, in the Tagus, sur- 
renders to the British .... 3 Sept, 1808 j 

Aix or Basque Roads ; 4 sail of the line, &c, de- 
stroyed by lord Gambier . . .11, 12 April, 1809! 

Two Russian flotillas of numerous vessels taken or 
destroyed by sir J. Saumarez . . . July, 

French ships of the line driven on shore by lord 
Collingwood (two of them burnt by the French 
next day) 25 Oct. 

Bay of Rosas, where lieut. Tailour, by direction of 
captain Hallowell, takes or destroys 11 war and 
other vessels (see Rosas Bay) . . . 1 Nov. 

Basseterre ; La Loire and La Seine; French frigates, 
destroyed by sir A. Cochrane . . .18 Dec. 

The Spartan frigate gallantly engages a large French 
force in the bay of Naples ... 3 May, 

Action between the Tribune, captain Reynolds, and 

4 Danish brigs. Fought . . . .12 May, 
Isle of Rhe ; 17 vessels taken or destroyed by the 

Arrnide and Cadmus . . . -17 July, 

Captain Barrett, in the merchant vessel Cumber- 
land, with 26 men, defeats four privateers and 
takes 170 prisoners .... 16 Jan. 

Twenty-two vessels from Otranto taken by the 
Cerberus and Active .... 22 Feb. 

Off hissa, (which see); brilliant victory gained over 
a Franco-Venetian squadron by capt. Win. Hoste,, 

13 March, 

Amazon French frigate destroyed off Cape Bsriieur 

25 March, 

Sagone Bay ; 2 French store-ships burnt by captain 
Same's ships 1 May, 

The British sloop Little Belt, and American ship 
President: their rencontre . . 16 May, 

Off Madagascar ; 3 British frigates under captain 
Schomberg, engage 3 French larger-sized, with 
troops on board, and capture 2 .20 May, 



NAVAL COLLEGE. 



819 



NAVARINO. 



The Thames and Ceplialus capture 36 French vessels 

July, 
The Naiad frigate attacked in presence of Bonaparte 

by 7 armed praams ; they were gallantly repulsed. 

21 Sept. 
French frigates Pauline and Porno ne captured by the 

British frigates Alceste, Active, and Unite 29 Nov. 
Rivoli, 84 guns, taken bj* Victorious, 74, 21 Feb. 
L'Orient : 2 French frigates, &c. , destroyed, by the 

Northumberland, capt. Hotham . 22 May, 

Guerriere, British frigate, 46 small guns, captured 

by the American ship Constitution, 54 guns (an 

unequal contest) 19 Aug. 

British brig Frolic captured by the American sloop 

Wasp 18 Oct. 

British frigate Macedonian taken by the American 

ship United States, large class . . 25 Oct. 
British frigate Java taken by the American ship 

Constitution, large class . . . .29 Dec- 
British frigate Amelia loses 46 men killed and 95 

wounded, engaging a French frigate . 7 Feb. 
British sloop Peacock captured by the American 

ship Hornet ; she was so disabled that she sunk 

with part of her crew ... 25 Feb. 

American frigate Chesapeake taken by the Shannon, 

captain Broke (see Chesapeake) . . 1 June, 
American ships Growler and Eagle taken by British 

gun-boats 3 June, 

American sloop Argus taken by the British sloop 

Pelican 14 Aug. 

French frigate La Trave, 44 guns, taken by the 

Andromache, of 38 guns ... 23 Oct. 

French frigate Ceres taken by the British ship 

Tagus - 6 Jan. : 



French frigates Alcmene and Iphigenia taken by the 
Venerable „. . . . . .16 Jan. 

French frigate Terpsichore taken by the Majestic 

3 Feb. 

French ship Clorinde taken by the Dryad and 
Achates, after an action with the Eurotas, 25 Feb. 

French frigate VEtoile captured by the Hebrus, 

27 March, 

American frigate Essex captured by the Phoebe and 
Cherub 29 March, 

British sloop Avon sunk by the American sloop 
Wasp ... ... 8 Sept. 

Lake Champlain : the British squadron captured by 
the American, after a severe conflict , 11 Sept. 

American ship President captured by the Endymion 

15 Jan. 

Algiers bombarded by lord Bxmouth ; see Algiers 

27 Aug. 

Navarino (which see) 20 Oct. 

Action between the British ships Volage and 
Hyacinth and 29 Chinese war-junks, which were 
defeated 3 Nov. 

Bombardment and fall of Acre. The British 
squadron under admiral Stopford achieved this 
triumph with trifling loss, while the Egyptians 
lost 2000 killed and wounded, and 3000 prisoners 
(see Syria) 3 Nov. 

Lagos attacked and taken by commodore Bruce, 
with a squadron consisting of the Penelope, Blood- 
hound, Sampson, and Teazer, war-steamers, and 
the Philomel brig of war . . 26-27 Dec. 

[For naval actions which cannot be called regular 
battles, see China, Japan, Egypt, 1882 ; Manila.] 



SHIPS TAKEN OR DESTROYED BY THE NAVAL AND MARINE FORCES OF GREAT BRITAIN :- 



In the French War, ending 1802. 


In the French War, ending 18 


14. 


Force. 


a 



2 


4 

'3 


S3 a 
4 .2 

03 


Total. 




janish. 
anish. 


a 
.3 


0i 


Total. 




fi 


P 


02 


fc 




fc< 


go Q 


« < 






45 


25 


II 


2 


83 


70 


27 ! 23 


4 ° 


124 


Fifties 


2 


1 


O 





3 


7 


O , I 


; 1 





Frigates 


133 . 3i 


20 


7 


191 


77 


36 | 24 


6 5 


148 


Total . . 


161 I 32 


55 


16 


264 


188 


64 16 


7 13 


288 


34i 89 


86 


25 


54i 


342 


127 


64 


17 


19 


569 



NAVAL COLLEGE, Royal, established 

at Greenwich Hospital, and opened 1 Feb. 1873. 
Eoyal Naval College, Osborne, Isle of Wight, 
opened by the king, 4 Aug. 1903. 

NAVAL CONSTRUCTION and Arma- 
ments Company, chairman, adm. H. Boys, regis- 
tered 18 Feb. 1888. 

NAVAL DEFENCE ACTS, see Colonies, 
1865 and 1887. Act passed, 31 May, 1889 ; amended, 
1893 an d 1894. 

NAVAL EXHIBITION, Royal, Chelsea 

embankment, was opened by the prince of Wales, 
2 May ; visited by the Queen, 7 May ; by the Ger- 
man emperor, 10 July ; by the prince of Naples, 28 
July; closed 24 Oct. 1891. 

Sir William Dowell was chairman of the executive com- 
mittee. 

The exhibition consisted of nine galleries, named Nelson, 
Benbow, &c, containing relics, pictures, ordnance, 
ancient and modern, models of the Victory, light- 
houses, &c, and an arctic panorama. There was also 
a lake for nautical evolutions. 

Total number of persons admitted 2,351,683 ; receipts, 
T 55.447^ ! by the surplus profit, 47,246^., the Royal 
Naval Fund was founded, 29 June ; first general 
meeting, 20 Dec. 1892 ; first annual meeting, the prince 
of Wales in the chair, 19 Feb. 1894. 



I NAVAL KNIGHTS of Windsor, see 
Poor Knights. 

NAVAL RECORDS, RESERVE, RE- 
VIEWS, SALUTE, and VOLUNTEERS, 

see under Navy. 

Naval volunteer home defence association, formed in 
1885 ; decided in May, 1889, to break up in June 
following. 

NAVAL .WORKS ACT (at home and 
abroad), relating to docks, ports, passed 31 March, 
1896; estimated cost, docks, 3,979,000^. 1896. 
Other acts passed 1897, 1899, and 1903. 

NAVARINO (S. W. Greece), settled by the 
Arabs 6th century; taken by the Turks, 1500; by 
Venetians, 1686; by Turks, 1718 ; by Greeks, 1821 ; 
by Turks, 1825. Near here, on 20 Oct. 1827, the 
combined fleets of England, France, and Russia, 
under command of admiral Codrington, nearly 
destroyed the Turkish and Egyptian fleet. More 
than thirty ships, many of them four-deckers, were 
blown up or burnt, chiefly by the Turks themselves, 
to prevent their falling into the hands of their 
enemies. This destruction of the Turkish naval 
power was characterised by the duke of Wellington 
as an " untoward event." The port is also called 
Navarine. 

3 1 



NAVARRE. 



850 



NAVIGATION LAWS. 



NAVARRE, now a province of Spain, formed 
a part of the Roman dominions, and was conquered 
from the Saracens by Charlemagne, 778. His 
descendants appointed governors, one of whom, 
Garcias Ximenes, took the title of king in 857. In 
1076, king Sancho IV. was poisoned, and Sancho 
Eamorez of Aragon seized Navarre. In 1 134, 
Navarre became again independent under Garcias 
Eamorez IV. In 1234, Thibault, count of Cham- 
pagne, nephew of Sancho VII., became sovereign of 
Navarre ; and in 1284, by the marriage of the 
heiress Jane with Philip IV. le Bel, Navarre was 
united to France. 

SOVEREIGNS OF NAVARRE. 

1274. Jane I. and (1284) Philip-le-Bel of France. 

1305. Louis X. Hutin of France. 

1316. Philip V. the Long, of France. 

1322. Charles I. the Fair, IV. of France. 

1328. Jane II. (daughter of Jane I.), and her husband 

Philip d'Evreux. 
1349. Charles II. , the Bad. 
1387. Charles III., the Noble. 
1425. Blanche, his daughter, and her husband, John of 

Aragon. 
1441. John II., alone, who became king of Aragon, in 

1458. He endeavoured to obtain the crown of 

Castile also. 
1479. Eleanor de Foix, his daughter. 

,, Francis Phoebus de Foix, her son. 
1483. Catherine (his sister) and her husband John 

d'Albret. Ferdinand of Aragon conquers and 

annexes all Navarre south of the Pyrenees, 1512. 

Lower Navarre (in France). 

1516. Henry d'Albret. 

1555. Jane d'Albret and her husband Anthony de 
Bourbon, who died 1562. 

1572. Henry III. who became in 1589 king of France 
(Henry IV.), to which Lower Navarre was for- 
mally united in 1609. 

NAVIES, see Fleets. 

NAVIES (FOREIGN) . Numerical strength of 
the navies of the foreign countries specified, as 
compared with the navy of Great Britain, com- 
piled from the parliamentary paper issued 25 May, 
1903 :— 

Battleships— is* class, Great Britain, 42 ; France, 19 ; 
Russia, 13 ; Germany, 12 ; Italy, 12 ; United States, 
10 ; Japan, 6. 2nd class, Gt. Britain, 4 ; France, 8 ; 
Russia, 4; Germany, 4; Italy, o; U. States, 1 ; Japan, 
1. 3rd class, Gt. Britain, 2 ; France, 1 ; Russia, 1 ; 
Germany, 12 ; Italy, 5 ; U. States, o ; Japan, o. 

Coast Defence Vessels— Gt. Britain, 2; France 1; 
Russia, 1; Germany, n ; Italy, o; U. States, 15; 
Japan, 2. 

Cruisers, Armoured— Gt. Britain, 18; France, 9; Rus- 
sia, 8; Germany, 2; Italy, 5; U. States, 2 ; Japan, 2. 
Protected, 1st class, Gt. Britain, 21 ; France, 7; Russia, 
6 ; Germany, 1 ; Italy, o ; U. States, 3 ; Japan, o. 
2nd class, Gt. Britain, 51 (including 3 partially pro- 
tected) ; France, 16; Russia, 5; Germany, 8; Italy, 5; 
U. States, 11; Japan, 10. yd class, Gt. Britain, 32 
(including 1 partially protected); France, 17; Russia, 
o; Germany, 10; Italy, n ; U. States, 2; Japan, 8. 
Unprotected, Gt. Britain, 10; France, 1; Russia, 3; 
Germany, 20; Italy, o; U. States, u ; Japan, 9. 

Torpedo Vessels— Gt. Britain, 34; France, 16; Russia, 
9; Germany, 2; Italy, 14; U. States, o; Japan, 1. 

Torpedo-boat Destroyers— Gt. Britain, 112; France, 
14; Russia, 48; Germany, 28; Italy, 11; U. States, 
14 ; Japan, 17. 

Torpedo-boats— Gt. Britain, 85; France, 247; Russia, 
132 ; Germany, 93 ; Italy, 145 ; U. States, 27; Japan, 67. 

Submarine Torpedo-boats— Gt. Britain, 5; France, is: 
Italy, 1 ; U. States, 3. 3 ' 

In course of construction, 1903. 
Battleships— 1st class, Gt. Britain, 12 (3 more to be 
laid down 190^-4); France, 7; Russia, 8; Germany, 8 ; 
Italy, 6 ; U. States, 9 (5 more to be laid down 1903-4). 
2nd class, France, 1. 



Coast Defence Vessels — U. States, 1. 

Cruisers- -Armoured, Gt. Britain, 9 (4 more to be laid 
down 1903-4); France, 13 (1 more to be laid down 
1903-4); Germany, 3 (1 more to be laid down 1903-4); 
Italy, 1; U. States, 11. Protected (1st class), Russia, 
3. 2nd class, Gt. Britain, 2; Russia, 2; U. States, 6; 
Japan, 2. 3rd class, Gt. Britain, 4 (3 more to be laid 
down 1903-4); Germany, 5 (2 to be laid down 1903-4); 
Japan, i. 

Scouts — Gt. Britain, 4 (4 more to be laid down 1903-4). 

Torpedo-boat Destroyers— Gt. Britain, 19 (15 more to> 
be laid down in 1903-4) ; France, 19 (4 more to be laid 
down in 1903-4) ; Russia, 6 ; Germany, 4 (6 more to be- 
laid down 1903-4); Italy, 2; U. States, 6; Japan, 2. 

Torpedo-boats — Gt. Britain, 2; France, 18 (25 more to 
be laid down 1903-4) ; Russia, 7 ; Italy, 8 ; U. States, 4 ; 
Japan, 18. 

Submarine Torpedo-boats — Gt. Britain, 4 (10 more to- 
be laid down 1903-4); France, 25(18 more to be laid? 
down 1903-4) ; Russia, 2 ; Italy, 3 ; U. States, 5. 

Note. — The first turbine-driven man-of-war (the third- 
class cruiser Amethyst) constructed (2 torpedo-boat, 
destroyers, the Velox and Eden, had previously been 
built) for the British navy was launched at Elswick 
yard, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 5 Nov. 1903. 

NAVIGATION began with the Egyptians and 
Phoenicians. The first laws of navigation originated I 
with the Khodians. The first account we have of j 
any considerable voyage is that of the Phoenicians- 
sailing round Africa. 

Plane charts and mariner's compass used about . 142& ! 

Variation of the compass observed by Columbus . 1492 
That the oblique rhomb-lines are spiral, discovered 

by Nonius 1537 I 

First treatise on navigation ^545 I 

The log first mentioned by Bourne .... 1577 ' 

Mercator's chart 1599. | 

Davis's quadrant, orbaekstaff, for measuring angles, 

about 1600 

Logarithmic tables applied to navigation by 

Gunter 1620- ' 

Middle latitude sailing introduced .... 1623 | 

Mensuration of a degree, Norwood . . . . 1631 1 

Hedley's quadrant 1731 I 

Harrison's time-keeper used 1 764 

Nautical Almanac first published .... 1767 | 

Barlow's theory of the deviation of the compass . 1820 j 
Quarterly Journal of Naval Science, edited by E. J. 

Bced, published April, 1872-5 j 

See Compass, Latitude, Longitude, Steam, &c. 

NAVIGATION LAWS. A code of maritime J 
laws is attributed to Richard I. of England, said 
to have been decreed at the isle of Oleron, I 
1 194, and further enactments were made by | 
Richard II. in 1381. — In Oct. 1651, the parliament. | 
passed an act entitled "Goods from foreign parts,! 
by whom to be imported," the principles of which j 
were affirmed by 12 Charles II. c. 18, "an act for 
the encouraging and increasing of shipping and! 
navigation" (1660). The latter act restricts the, 
importation and exportation of goods from or to 
Asia, Africa, or America, to English ships, of which 
the masters and three-fourths of the mariners are 1 
to be English. This was followed by many acts' 
of similar tenor ; which were consolidated by 3 & 4 , 
"Will. IV. c. 54 (1833). These acts were in the I 
whole cr in part repealed by the act " to amend the: 
laws in force for the encouragement of British' 
shipping and navigation" (passed 12 & 13 Vict. 6,1 
29, 26 June, 1849, after much opposition), and| 
which came into operation 1 Jan. 1850. The steam! 
navigation act passed 14 & 15 Vict. c. 79, 1851,1 
same into operation 1 Jan. 1852. The act regulating 
the navigation of the river Thames was passed in, 
1786.— In Feb. 1865 the emperor recommended the 
modification of the I rench navigation laws ; in Feb. 
1872, new restrictions were laid upon foreign ships, 
chiefly affecting British. 



NAVIGATORS. 



8ol 



NAVY. 



An International Maritime conference, at which 23 
nations were represented by 50 delegates, Portu- 
gal not included, met at Washington, and were 
received by Mr. secretary Blaine and introduced 
to president Harrison. Adm. Franklin, U.S., 
elected president 16 Oct. 1889 

Conference closed 31 Dec. ,, 

[Subjects discussed by committees : lights, signal- 
ling, rules of the road, life-saving systems, sea- 
worthiness, sailors, routes at sea. J 

A government blue-book issued on the subject, Nov. 1890 

A congress on international maritime law at Genoa, 
■26 Sept. et seq. 1892 ; Antwerp . . 29 Sept. 1898 

International code of signal committee met at the 
Board of Trade office .... 12 Jan. 1893 

International maritime congress : 1st meeting at 
Paris, 1889 ; 2nd, London, 18 July, 1893 ; Brussels, 
25 July, 1898 ; London, 14 July, 1899 ! Hamburg, 

For rule of the road, see Seas. 25 Sept. 1902 

NAVIGATORS (or Navvies) . These helpers 
in the construction of railways probably derived 
their name (about 1830) from formerly making the 
inland navigation in Lincolnshire, &c, and are 
doubtfully said to be descendants of the original 
Dutch canal labourers. Navvy Mission Society 
(new) met at Lambeth palace, 7 M a 3'> 1880. A 
"steam navvy" suitable for working in sand, 
gravel, or heavy clay, made by Messrs. Ruston, 
Proctor, & Co., of Lincoln, 1878. 

NAVY OF ENGLAND, " whereon, under the 
good providence of God, the wealth, safety, and 
strength of the kingdom chiefly depends," Act for 
the government of the Nary. " The Koyal Navy," 
3 vols., by "W. Laird Clowes, assisted by sir 
Clements Markham, capt. A. T. Mahan and others, 
published 1897-99. See Naval Battles and Wrecks. 
A fleet of galleys built by Alfred . . . -897 
The number of galleys greatly increased under 
Edgar, who claimed to be lord of the ocean sur- 
rounding Britain about 965 

A formidable fleet equipped by the contribution of 
every town in England, in the reign of Ethelred II. 
when it rendezvoused at Sandwich, to be ready to 

oppose the Danes 1007 

A fleet collected by Edward the Confessor to resist 
the Norwegians, 1042 ; v and by Harold to resist 

the Normans 1066 

Richard I. collected a fleet and enacted naval laws ; 

about 1191 

[The Cinque ports and maritime towns frequently 

furnished fleets commanded by the king or his 

officers. ] 

Edward III. 's fleet defeat the French at the "battle 

of Sluys, 24 June, 1340; and the Spanish off 

Winchelsea 29 Aug. 1350 

Henry V. made efforts to increase the navy . 1415-1422 
Henry VII. built the Royal Harry ; considered to be 

the beginning of the Royal Navy . . . . 1488 
The Trinity house established and the Navy office 

appointed (see Admiralty and Trinity house) . 1512 
[The navy then consisted of Great Harry, 1200 tons, 
two ships, of 800 tons, and six or seven smaller.] 
James I. and Charles I. improve the navy. The 

Sovereign of the Seas launched 1637 

Frigates said to have been first built . . . 1649 
James II. systematises sea-signals and improves the 
navy 1685-8 



Years. 


Ships. 


Tons. 


Men. 


Navy Estimates. 


1546 


58 


12,455 


8,546 


no account. 


*558 


27 


7,110 


3-565 


no account. 


1578 


24 


10,506 


6,700 


no account. 


1603 


42 


17.055 


8,346 


no account. 


1658 


J 57 


57,000 


21,910 


no account. 


1688 


173 


101,892 


42,000 


no account. 


1702 


272 


159,020 


40,000 


1,056,915?. 


1760 


412 


321,134 


70,000 


3.227,143 


1793 


498 


433,226 


45,000 


5.525.331 


1800 


767 


668,744 


135,000 


12,422,837 


1808 


869 


892,800 


143,800 


17,496,047 


1814 


901 


966,000 


146,000 


18,786,509 



Reign of George III. ; dimensions of ships in- 
creased ; copper sheathing adopted for ships of 
every class ; establishments of naval stores pro- 
vided at all dockyards and naval stations ; and 
various improvements made in shipbuilding 1760-1820 

Great Britain had 901 ships; i770ftheline,ini8i4; 621 
ships, some of 140 guns each, and down to survey- 
ing vessels of two guns only; 148 sail employed 
on foreign and home service 1830 

The screw propeller introduced in the Royal Navy, 1840 

The total number of ships of all sizes in commission, 
183 1 Jan. 1841 

The Navy consisted of 339 sailing and 161 steam 
vessels 1850 

Naval Coast Volunteers' act passed . . Aug. 1853 

Of 315 sailing vessels, 97 screw steamers, and 114 
paddle steamers April, 1854 

Review of the Baltic fleet at Spithead by the Queen, 

10 March, 1854, and 23 April, 1856 

Of 271 sailing vessels, carrying 9594 guns, and 258 
steam vessels, carrying 6582 guns ; together 573 
vessels, carrying 16,176 guns ; also 155 gun- 
boats, and in vessels on harbour service, July, ,, 

Proclamation for manning the navy . . 30 April, 1859 

Naval Reserve Force authorised . . . Aug. ,, 

Flogging not to be inflicted on first-class seamen 
except after a trial Dec. ,, 

Great excitement respecting the French Govern- 
ment building the plated frigate Gloire' (see 
Navy of France) i860 

The Warrior, our first iron-plated steam frigate, 
the largest vessel then in the world except the Great 
Eastern (see Steam), length, 380 ft. breadth, 58 ft. ; 
iron-plate, 4J inches thick ; 6170 tons burthen ; 
cost about 400,000?. ; launched [censured in 1864], 

29 Dec. ,, 

A royal commission recommends the abolition of 
the board of admiralty, and the appointment of a 
minister of the navy department . . March, 1861 

Lord Clarence Paget, secretary of admiralty, states 
that England has 67 steam-ships of the line ; 
while France has 37, Russia 9, Spain 3, and Italy 1 

ii April, ,, 

New act for the government of the navy (the Naval 
Discipline act) passes .... 6 Aug. ,, 

Four iron-plated vessels (400 ft. long ; 59J ft. wide ; 
and cost about 600,000?. each) building . Dec, „ 

Cupola or Turret ships. Capt. Cowper Coles' mode 
of constructing iron-plated vessels, with a cupola 
or turret for tiring from, the other parts of the 
vessel being nearly submerged, made known in 
1855, and recommended to the admiralty in 1861 ; 
adopted by Ericson in the Monitor, 1862 ; pro- 
posed to be adopted by the British government, 1862 

Six different kinds of plated vessels said to be con- 
structing ; E. J. Reed authorised to build the 
Enterprise as a specimen, of an iron-plated sea- 
going vessel April, ,, 

Royal Oak, iron-clad steamer, launched at Chatham, 

10 Sept. ,, 

Twin or double screws for vessels of light draught 
introduced 1863 

Mr. E. J. Reed appointed chief constructor of the 
Royal Navy Jan. ,, 

Navy consists of 1014 vessels of all classes ; 85 line- 
of-battle ships ; 69 frigates ; 30 screw corvettes, 

Jan. , , 

Steam ram Valiant launched . . .14 Oct. ,, 

Minotaur iron-steamer launched . . 12 Dec. ,, 

Royal School of Naval Architecture, South Kensing- 
ton, established 1864 

The turret-ship Sovereign, constructed on Coles' 
principle, put out of commission, and placed 
among reserved ships ; this blamed by some, Oct. ,, 

Naval models from the time of Henry VIII. col- 
lected early in the present century by sir Robert 
Seppings, removed to South Kensington Museum, 

Dec. ,, 

29 iron-clad vessels building " to he ready for sea 
this year " March, 1865 

Bellerophon, iron-clad, by Mr. E. J. Reed ; and the 
Lord Warden, iron-clad, launched . . May, ,, 

A British fleet entertained at Cherbourg, Brest, &c. , 
15 Aug., &c. ; and a French fleet at Portsmouth, 

29-31 An '. ,, 

3 1 2 



NAVY. 



852 



NAVY. 



Eoyal Navy "consists of 73s vessels and steam- 
ships of all classes " (30 iron-clads ready for sea), 
(see under Cannon) .... July, 1866 

New Naval Discipline act, passed . . . Aug. „ 
Difficult launch of the Northumberland iron-clad, 

17 March, ei seq. ; effected . . .17 April, ,, 
Experimental cruise of the iron-clad fleet in stormy 
weather ; general performance satisfactory (Times) 

Sept. -Nov. ,, 
150 wooden ships of all classes sold . . . 1859-67 
[Of these were 7 line-of-battle ships and 6 frigates, 

cost above i,ooo,oooZ., sold for 87,543/.] 
Acts for protection of naval stores passed, 1867 and 1869 
Hercules, 12, armour-plated ship, 1200 horse-power, 

floated at Chatham 10 Feb. 1868 

The Monarch, our first armour-clad turret ship, 

launched at Chatham .... 25 May, ,, 
47 armoured vessels afloat, with 598 guns ; 66 
efficient unarmoured vessels ; and a large number 
of vessels of the old type, constitute the navy, 

April, „ 
Satisfactory trial trip of the Navy Beserve squadron, 

July, ,, 
Explosion of the boiler of the Thistle gun-boat, on 

trial trip ; 10 killed 3 Nov. 1869 

Devastation, iron turret ship, first rivet of her keel 
clinched by Mr. Childers, the first lord, at Ports- 
mouth 12 Nov. „ 

Eesignation of Mr. E. J: Reed, chief constructor, 

July, 1870 
Adm. sir T. M. C. Symonds reports on the Monarch 
and Captain turret ships (the latter said to be over- 
masted and unfit to cruise under sail alone) Aug. ,, 
H.M.S. iron-clad frigate Triumph launched at 

Jarrow 27 Sept. ,, 

The Captain founders near Finisterre about 

12.15 a.m 7 Sept. ,, 

483 lives were lost, including the captain, Hugh 
Burgoyne, Captain Cowper Coles, the designer of 
the ship, Mr. Childers (a son of the first lord), 
and other officers, the elite of the service ; 18 men 
of the crew were saved. " She capsized in a 
heavy squall shortly after midnight, and went 
down in three minutes. " — Gunner's report. Her 
destruction was attributed to too low free-board, 
heavy top-weight, masts, and hurricane deck. 
She cost 440,000/. She was built by Messrs. 
Laird at Birkenhead. 
A court-martial for the nominal trial of James May, 
the gunner, and 17 other survivors, was held 27 
Sept. to 4 Oct. ; Mr. E. J. Reed and other emi- 
nent authorities were examined ; the verdict was, 
that the loss of the ship was due to instability 
from faulty construction: "a grave departure 
from her original design having been committed " 

Oct. ,, 

Report on the Monarch that her reserve of energy 

to prevent upsetting by a squall, is 16 to 1 of 

that of the Captain. — Times . . . 10 Nov. ,, 

Navy. — 55 armoured vessels afloat ; 9 constructing ; 

effective force afloat, 354 vessels ; and a large 

number of others 1871 

Megcera troopship lost near Amsterdam island (see 

Wrecks) 16 June, ,, 

The Agincourt, capt. Hamilton Beamish, 6621 tons, 
struck on the Pearl Rock near Gibraltar, n a.m. 
1 July ; got off by great skill and management 
by the Hercules, capt. lord Guildford . 4 July, ,, 
[After trial, admirals Wellesley and Wilmot ordered 
to strike flags ; capts. Beamish and Well super- 
seded ; others censured ; lord Guildford com- 
mended, Aug. 1871.] 
Turret vessels of the Monitor type designed by E. 
J. Reed, launched : the Glatton, 6 March ; Devas- 
tation, 12 July ; Cyclops . . . iS July, „ 
New rules respecting promotions, &c, published 

9 Feb. 1872 
The Thunderer, ocean-going turret ship, launched 

at Pembroke 25 March, ,, 

Lord Clyde, iron-clad, stranded off Pantellaria, 15 
March ; capt. Bythesea and staff-commander 
May dismissed the service . . . . May, ,, 
A trial-trip of the Devastation reported successful, 

15 April, 1873 
Navy. — 23 great iron-clads ; 27 smaller . Aug. ,, 



" We now carry 35-ton guns on board ships in tur- 
rets protected by 14-inch plates" (Times), 28 Aug. 1875 
Royal Naval Artillery Volunteer force established 

by act passed 5 Aug. ,, 

H.M.S. Alexandra launched at Chatham . 7 April, ,, 
H.M.S. Vanguard, double-screw iron -clad (cost 
350,000/.), sunk by collision with the Iron Duke 
during a fog off the Wicklow coast ; crew /about 
400) saved ; 50 m. past noon . . . 1 Sept. ,, 
Court-Martial on capt. Dawkins ; assigned as causes : 
1. That the squadron (under admiral Tarleton), of 
which the Vanguard was one, was going at too 
great a speed for a fog ; 2. That captain Dawkins 
had left the deck before an ordered evolution was 
performed ; 3. That the speed of the Vanguard 
had been injudiciously reduced ; 4, 5, 6. The in- 
creased speed of the Iron Duke, her improper 
navigation, and want of signals ; captain Dawkins 
reprimanded and dismissed ; others reprimanded, 

29 Sept. ,, 
The Admiralty Minute considered the speed of the 
squadron no cause of the accident ; censured part 
of admiral Tarleton's evidence on responsibility 
of officers ; and removed lieutenant Evans of the 
Iron Duke from his command . 12 Oct. ,, 

Iron Duke nearly lost through a valve left open, 

28 Nov. ,, 
The Monarch, iron-clad, injured by collision with 

Norwegian ship Halden in the Channel 28 Nov. ,, 
The Inflexible, with 18-inch armour and four 81-ton 
guns, movable by hydraulic power, launched by 
princess Louise at Portsmouth . . 27 April, 1876 
The Teme'raire, smaller iron-clad, launched at Chat- 
ham 9 May, ,, 

The Thunderer (see 1872 above) : explosion of a 
boiler through sticking of safety valves ; 45 deaths 
ensued ; about 50 injured ; during a trial trip in 
Stokes Bay, near Portsmouth ; 14 July ; inquest 
begun 27 July ; (about 5,000/. subscribed for the 
sufferers); verdict, accidental deaths . 30 Aug. ,, 
Bacchante, unarmoured war-ship, launched, 19 Oct. „ 
Launched at Glasgow, Nelson, iron -clad . 4 Nov. ,, 
,, ,, Northampton . 18 Nov. ,, 
Euryal.us, unarmoured corvette, launched at Chat- 
ham -31 Jan. 1877 

Commission of inquiry respecting the Inflexible, 

appointed about 14 July, ,, 

4 new ironclads bought .... March, 1878 
Dreadnought, iron-clad ; 10,886 tons ; engines, 8000 
horse-power ; four 38-ton guns, <fec. ; most j>ower- 
ful fighting ship in the world ; constructed . ,, 

Eurydice, H.M.S. frigate ; training ship, foundered 
in a gale off Dunose, Isle of Wight ; about 300 
perished with capt. Hare, 24 March ; with much 
skill and labour raised and taken to Portsmouth 
1 Sept., ordered to be broken up . . Sept. ,, 
The Thunderer (see 1876), a 38-ton gun explodes 
while practising, near Ismid, in the Sea of 
Marmora, Turkey ; 2 officers and 8 men killed, 
and between 30 and 40 wounded . . 2 Jan. 1879 
On investigation the cause assigned was that the 
gun was charged and missed fire ; re-charged and 
both charges were fired, when it exploded Feb. ,, 
Agamemnon, iron-clad turret ship ; 8492 tons ; en- 
gines, 6000 horse -power; four 38-ton guns; 
launched at Chatham ... 17 Sept. ,, 

Collision of the Achilles and Alexandra, off Larnaca, 

Mediterranean ; boats injured, <fcc. . 2 Oct. ,, 
Sham naval attack on Portsmouth ; defended by 

torpedoes, &c 16 Oct. ,, 

Thunderer gun experiments at Woolwich (confirm 
decision of investigation committee of Feb. 1S79), 

9 Dec. 1879—3 Feb. 1880 
Atalanta training ship lost in gale (see Atalanta), 

12—16 Feb. 1, 
Great naval demonstration at Portsmouth ; attack 

on forts ; electric light used at night . 10 Aug. ,, 
Doterel, 6 guns ; capt. Richard Evans ; destroyed 
by explosion (attributed to xerotine siccative, 
3 Sept.) in Straits of Magellan ; out of 150 about 
143 persons perished .... 26 April, 1881 
Polyphemus, huge double-screw steam armour- 
plated ram ami torpedo boat ; launched at Chatham 
(designed by sir G. Sartorius) . . 15 June, „ 
Launch of Canada corvette at Portsmouth, 26 Aug. ; 
of Conqueror, steel-clad turret, ship, at Chatham 

8 Sept. „ 



NAVY. 

Triumph, explosion of xerotine siccative (a patent 
drier for paint) near Coquimbo, coast of Chili, 
23 Nov. ; 3 men killed, 7 wounded . . Jan. j 

Ajax, new armoured turret shif), moved from Chat- 
ham 20 Feb. 

Two very large armour-plated war-ships launched ; 
Edinburgh, at Pembroke, 18 March ; Colossus, at 
Portsmouth 21 March, 

The Phoenix lost off Prince Edward's island, 12 Sept.; 
commander Greenfell dismissed . . 1 Dec. 

The Collingwood, of "British Admiral class," 
launched at Pembroke ... 22 Nov. 

Naval Intelligence Committee formed . . Dec. 

The duke of Edinburgh appointed to command the 
Channel fleet .... about 26 Nov. i 

Collision of the Defence and Valiant in Bantry Bay, 
18 July ; capt. Edwin John Pollard of the De- 
fence, tried and dismissed from his ship for 
inefficiency 30 July, i 

Wasp, gun-boat (coram. Nicholls), wrecked off Tory 
island (attributed to bad navigation) ; about 52 
perish 22 Sept. 

Rodney, great iron-clad, launched by the duchess of 
Edinburgh, at Chatham . . . .8 Oct. 

Navy Discipline act amended 

Great Britain has 46 iron-clads . . . Dec. 

Large and important additions to the navy autho- 
rised . . . Feb. : 

Launch of Mersey , "protected corvette, " at Chatham, 

31 March, 

Benbow, ironclad battleship, launched at Black wall, 

15 June, 

Sham battle near Bantry Bay, 30 June ; attempted 
attack on Greenock .... 14 July, 

Icarus, warship, launched at Devonport 27 July, 

Severn, fast sailing steel corvette launched at 
Chatham 29 Sept. 

Hero, steel built, armour-plated, turreted ram, 
launched at Chatham ... 27 Oct. 

Swallow, largest gun vessel launched at Sheerness 

27 Oct. 

Camperdoum, great ironclad war-ship launched at 
Portsmouth 24 Nov. 

The duke of Edinburgh takes command of the 
Mediterranean fleet . . . .22 Feb. 

Anson, twin-screw armour-plated barbette ship, 
launched at Pembroke dockyard . 17 Feb. 

H.M.S. Collingwood, at Portsmouth, 43 ton gun 
burst ; no casualty, 4 May ; stated to be due to 
defective metal 6 Sept. 

Sham naval fights at Milford Haven 16 Aug. et seq. 

H.M.S. Orlando, first of the new class of belted 
cruisers, launched at Jarrow-on-Tyne . 23 Aug. 

The Undaunted, another belted cruiser, launched 
at Jarrow-on-Tyne .... 25 Nov. 

Narcissus, new belted cruiser, launched at Hull, 

15 Dec. 

The naval intelligence department formed as a 
committee, 10 April, 1884 ; as a department, 

1 Feb. 

Report of commission on admiralty contracts 
censures system and recommends changes, about 

10 March, 

Serpent, large torpedo cruiser launched at Devon- 
port 10 March, 

Victoria (first called Renown), armour-clad war- 
ship, launched at Elswick yard, Newcastle, 

9 April, 

Sans Pareil, iron-clad war-ship, launched at Black- 
wall 9 May, 

Serious collision between Ajax and Devastation on 
their way to Spithead . . . 18 July, 

Grand jubilee naval review by the queen at Spit- 
head ; 135 vessels, 20,200 men andabout 500 guns, 

23 July, 

Naval manoeuvres and torpedo experiments on the 
coast Aug. 

Trafalgar, great steel twin-screw turret ram ; 11,940 
tons, 345 feet long, 73 feet broad, launched at 

Portsmouth 20 Sept. 

Wasp, gunboat, supposed to have foundered in a 
typhoon in the China seas . . 10 Oct. 

Nile, iron-clad, heaviest yet launched in England ; 
12,000 tons, 345 feet long, 73 feet broad ; launched 
at Pembroke dock .... 27 March, 

H.M.S. Magicienne, twin-screw swift cruiser, 
launched at Govan .... 12 May, 



853 



NAVY. 



H.M.S. Medea, twin-screw, second-class cruiser, 
launched at Chatham .... 9 June, 1 

H.M.S. Marathon, cruiser, launched by princess 
Beatrice in the Clyde .... 23 Aug. 

Naval manoeuvres, sham capture of Liverpool and 
other ports Aug. 

Lord George Hamilton, first lord, at Glasgow, gives 
a favourable account of the state of the navy, 

10 Oct. 

Navy afloat : 62 armoured vessels ; 29 protected 
and partially protected ; 282 unprotected ; total, 
373 ships; tonnage, 679,144; cost, 35,635,719?. 

1 Jan. 1 

Lord George Hamilton proposes resolutions for the 
construction and equipment of 70 ships, includ- 
ing 10 battle ships (8 first and 2 second class), 
and 42 cruisers, 18 torpedo boats, &c, to be com- 
pleted in 4^ years, cost 21,500,000?. (10,000,000?.. 
from the consolidated fund in seven years; 
11,500,000?. from five years' navy estimates), 

7 March, 

The Northbrook programme of 1885 reported nearly 
complete 7 March, 

Lord George Hamilton's resolutions adopted by 
the commons 2-4 April, 

Sir A. Hoskins succeeds the duke of Edinburgh in 
command of the Mediterranean fleet 6 April, 

The Sultan, ironclad, run ashore on a rock at 
Comino channel, Maltese group, 6 March ; 
abandoned ; the crew saved ; after strenuous 
attempts to save her, the vessel sank, 14 March ; 
trial ; captain Rice reprimanded for sailing too 

close to shore 8 April, 

[The admiralty appointed a court to enquire into 
all the circumstances, 29, 30 May, when the 
duke of Edinburgh, who had directed the 
salvage operations, was examined ; the court 
reported its approbation of the steps taken for 
the recovery of the vessel.] . . 15 June, 

The Sultan was raised 20 Aug., sailed to Malta 
26 Aug. ; at Spithead . . . -23 Dec. 

H.M.S. Vulcan, swift cruiser, launched at Ports- 
mouth 13 June, 

Naval Defence aet passed (provision made for con- 
structing 70 ships, including 10 battleships, 42 
cruisers, 18 torpedo gunboats), royal assent, 

31 May, 

The fleet assembled for the autumn manoeuvres in- 
spected by the emperor William II. (and his 
brother prince Henry), the prince of Wales, and 
members of both houses of parliament. The dis • 
play consisted of 20 battle-ships (9 first-class, 9 
second class and 2 third class), 38 first-class 
torpedo boats and other vessels, in all 106 vessels 
(the queen inspected the fleet later in the day), 

S Aug. 

The naval manoeuvres begin ; sham declaration of 
war, 15 Aug. ; English fleet commanded by adm. 
Tryon, Achill or foreign fleet by adm. Baird ; 
enemies' country, Ireland ; Dublin, Belfast, 
Waterford captured by Tryon ; Edinburgh cap- 
tured, Aberdeen, Sunderland and other towns 
bombarded by Baird, invasion repelled 

22-29 Aug. 

Barham, steel-plated cruiser, launched at Ports- 
mouth 11 Sept. 

Lilly gun-boat struck on a rock, off Point Armour, 
Labrador coast, and sank, 7 lives lost ; heroic 
conduct of the crew, i6Sept. ; commander Russell 
and lieut. Sharp censured and dismissed 4 Oct. 

Blake, protected cruiser, the largest yet constructed, 
length 375 ft., breadth 65 ft., launched at Chat- 
ham 23 Nov. 

Gossamer and Gleaner, gun-vessels, launched at 
Sheerness 9 Jan. 

Barracouta, cruiser (launched April, 1889), trial 
trip off Margate ; explosion ; Henry Ovendina and 
James Gould killed, 8 severely injured, 7 Feb. ; 
inquest, 10 Feb. ; verdict, accidental death ; 
engineer censured . . . .10 April, 

Latona, wilt cruiser, launched at Barrow 22 May, 

Pallas, second-class cruiser, the first of a set con- 
structed under the Naval Defence act, launched 
at Portsmouth 30 June, 

Blenheim, large cruiser, launched at Blackwall 

5 J ulv , 



NAVY. 

Naval manoeuvres ; defensive fleet under aclm. 
sir George Tryon ; enemy's fleet under adm. sir 
Michael Culme-Seymour ; kept the seas but could 
not be met with ; there was much practice and 
many evolutions but no conflict . 9-18 Aug. 1 

Launch of Melampus, steel protected cruiser, at 
Barrow 2 Aug. 

Andromache, cruiser, launched at Chatham, 14 Aug. 

Serpent, torpedo-cruiser, started from Plymouth 
8 Nov. ; during a gale struck on a rock at Penta 
del Buey, on the coast of Camariiias, 5 miles N. of 
cape Villano. Commander Harry L. Ross, lieuts. 
Guy A. J. Greville and Torquil Macleod, Mr. 
James W. Dixon, paymaster, and 169 others were 
drowned ; three seamen, Edwin Burton, Frederick 
Joseph Gould and Oney Luxton were the only 
survivors .... 10.30 p.m. 10 Nov. 

The bodies were honourably buried as they were 
washed ashore. Court-mart iai verdict, error in 
navigation 16, 17 Dec. 

A national fund for the relief of the families suffer- 
ing by the wreck, was started at Devonport by 
the duke of Edinburgh, 18 Nov. ; the duke gave 
Tool., the duchess 50L, the queen 50?., the prince 
of Wales 25L (see Mansion House Fund and 
Soldiers' and Sailors' Families Association). 
Total sum collected 13,5802., reported . 15 Nov. 1 

Edgar, first-class cruiser, launched at Devonport 

24 Nov. 1 

Pique, second-class twin-screw cruiser ; launched at 
Howdon-on-Tyne . . . . 13 Dec. 

Earnest appeal on behalf of the rank and file 
(warrant officers, &c), for a system of promotion ; 
circulated. .... about 17 Jan. 1 

The queen, in the presence of her three sons and 
a large company at Portsmouth, names and 
launches the Royal Arthur, first-class protected 
cruiser ; and also names, and causes the floating- 
out of dock of the Royal Sovereign, the largest 
battleship in the Royal Navy (length 380 feet, 
breadth 75 feet) ; all very successful . 26 Feb. 

"The, Empress of India, great ironclad, 14,150 tons, 
380 feet long, 75 feet broad, with 7 Whitehead 
torpedoes, launched at Pembroke docks by the 
duchess of Connaught .... 7 May, 

•Cordelia, cruiser ; 2 lieuts. and 4 men killed by the 
explosion of a gun while practising in the Pacific 
ocean 29 June, 

Naval manoeuvres under admirals Seymour and 
Jones, tactical operations of all kinds 

13 July-3 Aug. 

Endymion, armoured cruiser, launched at Hull, and 
named by the marchioness of Salisbury, 22 July, 

Hood, great turret ship, length 380 ft, breadth 
75 ft., launched at Chatham, and "named by Lady 
Hood 30 July, 

Victoria, flagship," runs aground near Platea, 
W. Greece, 29 Jan. ; refloated, little injured, 
5 Feb. et sea. ; arrived at Malta for repairs, 
12 Feb. ; capt. Bourke reprimanded for negligence 
by a court-martial .... 25 Feb. 1! 

Grafton, swift cruiser, launched at the Thames 
Ironworks dockyard . . . .30 Jan. 

Repulse, great turret ship, length 380 ft. ; breadth 
75 feet ; launched at Pembroke, 27 Feb. ; the 
Ramillies, a similar vessel, was launched on the 
Clyde 1 March, 

Gibraltar, first-class protected cruiser, launched at 
Govan, near Glasgow ... 27 April, 

Jason, torpedo gunboat, launched at Barrow-in- 
Furness 14 May, 

Resolution, first-class battleship, launched at 
Jarrow-on-Tyne 28 May, 

St. George, first-class battleship, launched at Hull 

23 June, 

Naval manoeuvres, 5-13 Aug. ; 19 battleships and 
17 other vessels engaged ; red squadron, 2 divi- 
sions, under adm. H. Fairfax and rear-adm. R. 
O'B. Fitzroy ; blue squadron under H. C. St. 
John ; manoeuvres in the St. George's channel 
and Irish sea ; the two red divisions eventually 
unite and capture the blue squadron, the pro- 
posed object n Aug. 

Barfleur, ironclad, launched at Chatham . 10 Aug. 

Royal Naval Fund for the relief of widows anil 
orphans, was founded by means of the surplus 
from the Naval exhibition of 1891 (which see), 

29 June, 



854 



NAVY. 



The Leda and Alarm, gunboats, launched at Sheer- 
ness . . . . . . -13 Sept. 

The last 2 of the 8 great battleships ordered in 1889 
launched : the Revenge in the Tyne, 3 Nov. ; the 
Royal Oak in the Mersey ... 5 Nov. 

The Bonaventure, protected cruiser, launched at 
Devonport by the princess Marie of Edinburgh, 

2 Dec. 

" Discreditable project," a term applied to a pro- 
posal in the Army and Navy Gazette, Nov. 1891, 
for the union of naval officers to bring their 
grievances before parliament ; a circular, signed 
by coram. Chas. N. Robinson, was distributed 
through the fleet, Aug. 1892. — Times . 11 Oct. 

The Howe, battleship, runs aground on a reef off 
Ferrol ; attributed to an incorrect chart, 2 Nov. ; 
officers acquitted of blame, 30 Nov. ; vice-adm. 
Henry Fairfax acquitted, 29 Dec. 1892 — 7 Jan. 
1893 ; capt. Hastings and commander Dickson 
censured by the admiralty, 24 Feb. ; the Howe 
floated, 29 March ; arrives at Sheerness, 22 June, 

The Victoria (see above, 1887), flagship in the Medi- 
terranean (vice-admiral sir George Tryon), sank 
by collision with the Camperdown (rear-admiral 
Markham) while manoeuvring off Tripoli, on the 
coast of Syria, through an error of judgment of 
admiral Tryon ; the vessels were 6 instead of 8 
cables apart ; he remained on the bridge till the 
vessel sank, taking all blame, 3.41 p.m. 22 June, 

[Besides admiral Tryon, 22 officers, 336 men, includ- 
ing lieut. Philip H. Munro, rev. S. S. Morris, 
chaplain, Felix Foreman, fleet-engineer, were 
drowned ; much unselfish heroism was exhibited ; 
25 officers and 259 men landed at Malta, 30 June ; 
liberal contributions for the relief of the families 
of the sufferers w-ere received (see Mansion House 
Fund, June-Aug. et scq. 1893).] 

A court-martial on board the Hibernia, admiral sir 
Michael Culine-Seymour president ; the hon. 
Maurice Bourke, capt. of the Victoria, and other 
survivors, were acquitted. The court decided 
that the accident was due to the error of admiral 
Tryon, but regretted that admiral Markham did 
not act on his first intention to ask admiral Tryon 
for an explanation of his signal of 6 cables' 
distance 17-27 Julyi 

Naval manoeuvres ... 27 July — 4 Aug. 

Red squadron under vice-adm. H. Fairfax ; blue 
squadron under R. O'B. Fitzroy, contend for the 
possession of the Irish sea ; indecisive encounter 
off Calf of Man 29 July 

The Mediterranean squadron visit Taranto, &c. (see 
Italy) 16-29 Oct. 

H.M.S. Resolution much injured during a gale in 
the bay of Biscay ; 1 man lost . . Dec. 

Naval scare ended Dec. 

Launches : the Cambrian, protected cruiser, at 
Pembroke, 30 Jan. ; Astrcea, 2nd class cruiser, at 
Devonport, 17 March ; Speedy (large torpedo 
gunboat), at Chiswick, 18 May ; Charybdis, at 
Sheerness ; Fox, at Portsmouth, 15 June ; Her- 
mione, 2nd class cruiser, at Devonport, 7 Nov. ; 
Flora, 2nd class cruiser, at Pembroke, 21 Nov. ; 
Forte, 2nd class cruiser, at Chatham, 9 Dec. ; 
Hornet, at Poplar, 23 Dec. 1893 ; Eclipse, 2nd 
class cruiser, at Portsmouth . . 19 July, 

Magnificent, ist-class battleship, 390 ft. long, 75 ft. 
broad ; launched at Chatham . . 19 Dec. 

Mr. Win. H. White, F.R.S., director of naval con- 
struction (K.C.B. 1895), in a discourse at the 
Royal Institution on the " Making of a Modern 
Fleet," reported that nearly all of the 70 ships 
ordered in 1889 were completed in the time speci- 
fied in the act ; cost, about 22! millions, 9 March, 

Navy estimates, 1894-5, net amount, 17,366,100?. ; 
proposed construction of 7 first-class battleships, 
6 cruisers, and others ... 15 March, 

Naval manoeuvres .... 3-7 Aug. 

Red squadron under admirals Fitzroy and Dale ; 
blue squadron under admirals Seymour and 
Drummond ; engagement oft' Belfast Lough, 
5 Aug. ; victory awarded to the blue . 7 Aug. 

Ma jest ic, battleship; 390 ft. long, 75 ft. broad; 
launched at Portsmouth by the princess Louise, 

31 Jan. 

Renown, 1st class battleship, launched at Pembroke 
dock 8 May, 



1894 



NAVY. 



855 



NAVY. 



'Terrible, cruiser ; 538 ft. long, 71 ft. wide ; launched 
near Glasgow 27 May, 1 

Powerful, 1st class cruiser, launched at Barrow by 
the duchess of Devonshire . . . 24 July, 

Prince George, 1st class cruiser, launched at Ports- 
mouth by the duchess of York . 22nd Aug. 

Discussion on the proposed substitution of tubular 
for cylindrical boilers, hitherto tried in gunboats, 

April et seq. 

Manoeuvres : tactical exercises, Ac, by Channel 
fleet, reserve fleet and torpedo squadron, 24 July- 

7 Aug. ; " hide and seek " . . . 5-15 Aug. 
Victorious, battleship, 390 ft. long, 75 ft. broad ; 

launched by Mrs. Goschen at Chatham 19 Oct. 

joo officers (taken from the naval reserve, &c, 
and 100 from the mercantile marine to the naval 
reserve), gazetted Nov. 

H.M.S. Edgar's pinnace foundered off Chemulpho, 
48 lives lost 13 Nov. 

Jupiter, 1st class battleship, 390 feet long, 75 ft. 
9 in. broad ; launched at Glasgow, by Miss 
Balfour 18 Nov. 

Flying squadron, rear-adm. A. T. Dale hoists his 
flag on the Recenge .... 14 Jan. 1 

Great improvement of the navy in fighting power, 
1 886 et seq., demonstrated . . . Jan. 

Mars, 1st class battleship, 390ft. long, 75 ft. broad ; 
launched at Birkenhead . . .30 March, 

Hannibal, 1st class battleship, launched at Pem- 
broke Dock .28 April, 

Naval manoeuvres ; mimic war, 4 fleets engaged, 

24-30 July, 

.28 vessels pass Osborne, and fire a final salute, 
3 Aug. ; inspected by the queen . 4 Aug. 

Ccesar, 1st class battleship, 390 ft. long, 75 ft. 
broad; launched at Portsmouth . . 2 Sept. 

■Illustrious, 1st class battleship ; launched at Chat- 
ham 17 Sept. 

<Capt. H. B. Lang and 3 seamen of H.M.S. Narcissus 
China squadron, drowned at Fish river, 11 Sept. 

(Lieut. Gerald A. Heyman and 7 others of H.M.S. 
Satellite, Pacific squadron, drowned through 
swamping of a boat at Unalaska . . 6 Sept. 

ELord Walter Kerr with the Channel squadron con- 
voys the czar and czarina to meet the Fi'ench 
fleet mid-channel 5 Oct. 

•Gladiator, battleship ; launched at Portsmouth, 

Dec. 

Niobe, cruiser ; launched at Barrow . 20 Feb. 1 

Naval manoeuvres : Channel fleet, 1st division, 
under adm. Stephenson, against 2nd division, 
under rear-adm. Fellowes, from N.W. Ireland, 
reserve fleet, under adm. Compton Domvile, in 
S. Ireland, technical evolutions, &c. 2-1 1 July, 
See Cape of Good Hope, 10 July, 1897. 

iCanopus, battleship ; launched at Portsmouth, 

13 Oct. 1 

-Sir Harry Rawson, officers and men of the flagship 
St. George returned from the Cape, received by 
the queen at Osborne .... 2 Feb. 1 

Sub-lieut. Wm. Lowther and 5 men of the Alarm 
drowned by the capsizing of the gig, and 5 coast- 
guardsmen drowned off Wells, Norfolk, 22, 23 Feb. 

Navy work much delayed by engineers' stiike in 
1897, reported .... 9 March, 

•Goliath, battleship, 390 ft. long, 74 ft. wide ; 
launched at Chatham ... 23 March, 

Albion, battleship, launched at Blackwall ; duke 
and duchess of York present ; .just as the launch 
took place a backwash of water swept about 200 
people off a gangway ; 37 deaths ; many brave 
■rescues ; 21 June ; fund raised, 50L from the 
queen, 2,762? 18 July, 

Ocean, battleship ; launched at Devonport by 
princess Louise 5 July, 

Usual manoeuvres suspended in view South Wales 
coal strike ; channel squadron to cruise as usual 

July, Aug. 

Aggregate strength of the Hoyal navy, 95,540 offi- 
cers, men, and boys . . . .11 July, 

Five men lost from H.M.S. Cleopatra by collision 
with Livlig, Norwegian barque, in the Kattegat, 

29 Aug. 

Battleships launched : Formidable, at Portsmouth, 
Irresistible, at Chatham . . .17 Nov. 

H.M.S. Bruiser; boat lost in a gale off Samos, 

8 deaths 1 March, 1 



Battleships launched : Implacable, at Devonport ; 
Glory, at Birkenhead . . .11 March, 3 

Explosion on Bullfinch, torpedo-boat destroyer, in 
the Solent; 13 deaths .... 21 July, 

Vengeance, battleship, 12,950 tons displacement, 
launched at Barrow-in-Furness . . 25 July, 

Naval manoeuvres : mimic war ; wireless telegraphy 
of great service ... 17 July — 8 Aug. 

French trawler refusing to stop fishing in British 
waters, is fired on by the gunboat Leda , one 
man killed 8 Aug. 

The queen sends 400?. to his father . 16 Oct. 

Sir Fred. Richards (5 years), first naval lord of the 
admiralty board, resigns ; succeeded by vice- 
admiral lord Walter Kerr . . 19 Aug. 

Committee (adm. Moore, sir Henry Norbury, 
Mr. Austen Chamberlain and surgeon Gipps) on 
the training of naval medical officers, issue report 
with important recommendations . . Sept. 

Training squadron established, 1885 ; reconstructed, 
the masted ships replaced by four modern war- 
ships 30 Oct. 

Battleships : London, 430 ft. long, 75 ft. wide (cost 
over 1,000,000?.), launched by Lady George 
Hamilton, 21 Sept. ; Venerable, launched at 
Chatham by Mrs. Chamberlain . . 2 Nov. 

Total strength of navy, officers and men, 106,507, 

1 April, 1900 

The queen left Dublin, escorted by the channel 
squadron, and sent her " thanks to her escort, 
of which she was justly proud, and whose 
appearance she greatly admired " . 26 April, 

Capt. Lambton (rear-admiral, Oct. 1902) and the 
naval brigade thanked by the queen at Windsor 
for their tine services in the S. African war, 

2 May, 

Experiments with lvddite, &c, on the Belleisle in 
the channel. May, 

Manoeuvres: hostilities between two fleets of 
about equal strength, result indecisive, 

24 July-4 Aug. 

Naval reserve (mobilization) act, passed . 8 Aug. 

Grand naval pageant on the funeral of the queen, 
see England 1 Feb. 

Battleships launched : Russell, at Jarrow-on-Tyne, 
19 Feb. ; Montagu, at Devonport ; Albemarle, at 
Chatham ; Drake, cruiser, at Pembroke ; Kent, 
cruiser, at Portsmouth . . .5,6 March, 

Committee of inquiry re boilers (Sept. 1901) 
recommend the water-tube pattern in preference 
to the cylindrical (other reports issued, Times, 
10 July, 1902, and 9 Jan. 1903) . . 13 March, 

Lieut. Vernon Maud, commander of H.M.S. Leda, 
and a seamen, drowned in Luce bay in a gale, 

20 March, 

Battleships launched : Duncan, at Blackwall, 
21 March ; Cornwallis, at Blackwall . 17 July, 

The Viper, turbine torpedo-boat, lost near Alderney, 
all saved 3 Au S- 

Manoeuvres: war declared, 9.30 a.m., 29 July; 
the B fleet, guarding the English Channel, totally 
defeated off the Lizard .... 6 Aug. 

Exmouth, battleship, launched at Birkenhead, 

31 Aug. 

Cobra, turbine torpedo-boat destroyer, sank in a 
severe gale on the Outer Dowsing Shoal, Lincoln- 
shire, lieut. Bosworth Smith. Messrs. M. Sandison, 
and Robt. Barnard, and 64 others, lost ; 12 saved, 

18 Sept. ; funeral at Grimsby, attended by capt. 
Hugnet and crew of French gunboat, Ibis, 23 
Sept. ; the loss of the ship due to structural 
weakness, verdict of court-martial . 16 Oct. 

Kinq A If red, first-class cruiser, launched at Barrow, 

28 Oct. 
Gun accident on board the Royal Sovereign; 
capt. Spurway and 5 men killed, 19 injured, 

9 Nov. 
Active, coastguard cruiser, lost in a gale at Granton, 

19 deaths, 11 Nov. ; Salmon, torpedo-boat 
destroyer, run into by the Cambridge s.s., 
2 deaths 2 Dec. 

Sir W. H. White, director of naval construction, 
resigns ; succeeded (1 Feb. 1902) by Mr. Phillip 
Watts, designer of the Elswick cruisers, 

early Dec. 

Condor, sloop, foundered with all hands in a gale 
off Cape Fattery 3 Dec. 



NAVY. 

Commander Clifton Sclater and 102 others lost, 
announced 28 March, : 

Blue-book on the Hyacinth and Minerva boiler 
trials, issued 26 Feb. 

Queen, battleship, launched by queen Alexandra at 
Devonport 8 March, 

Prince of Wales, battleship, launched by the prince 
and princess of Wales at Chatham . 25 March, 

Explosion during gun practice on board the Mars, 
battleship, off Berehaven, lieuts. Bourne and 
Miller and nine men killed, 7 (one mortally), 
injured, 14 April ; the German emperor sends his 
sympathy 21 April, 

Lieut. Arthur Pringle and two others killed by an 
accident on board the Formidable battleship off 
Maddalena, Mediterranean '. . .28 April, 

Naval reserve volunteers act, royal assent, 22 July, 

Coronation naval review at Spithead, over 100 ships ; 
four foreign cruisers, illuminations, &c. 16 Aug. 

Manoeuvres in the Mediterranean 30 Sept.-5 Oct. 

Capt. prince Louis of Battenberg appointed 
director of naval intelligence . . . Oct. 

New admiralty scheme for naval and marine 
training, &c, issued (Times, 25 Dec.) 24 Dec. 

Collision between the Pioneer and the Orwell off 
Corfu, 15 deaths 30 June, 

Reorganisation of the Home fleet and naval reserves 
to take complete effect in May, 1903; the com- 
mand of the Home fleet to be separated from the 
command of the naval reserves, and from office 
work at the Admiralty, and the adm. -superin- 
tendent of naval reserves to cease to act as 
admiral in command of a sea-going squadron. 
As the commands fall vacant, vice-adm. sir 
A. K. Wilson to command the Home fleet, vice- 
adm. Lord Chas. Beresford to command the 
Channel squadron, vice-adm. Rice to command 
the naval reserves, announced . . end Feb. 

Navy estimates for 1903-4, 34,457,500/., issued early 

March, 

Lord Chas. Beresford takes over the command of 
the Channel squadron . . . .17 April, 

Commonwealth, battleship, launched by lady Lin- 
lithgow at Govan .... 13 May, 

Accident on board the Good Hope off Gibraltar, 2 
died 

Adm. sir John Fisher, second sea lord, succeeds 
adm. sir Chas. Hotham as commander-in-chief at 
Portsmouth, and is succeeded at the Admiralty 
by rear-adm. sir Chas. Drury . . early June, 

Admiralty issues a circular on the selection, 
training, and advancement of navigating officers, 

June 

Report of committee on "berthing accommoda- 
tion" for H.M.'s ships issued ; new port at St. 
Margaret's Hope recommended . mid June, 

United States European squadron under adm. 
Cotton visit Portsmouth ; illumination of British 
fleet and U.S. warships in the evening, 6 July ; 
received by the king at Buckingham palace 
8 July ; adm. and officers entertained at the 
mansion house 10 July ; at a banquet at Ports- 
mouth nth July ; prince of Wales breakfasts on 
board the flagship Kearsarge ; ball in new naval 
barracks in honour of the visitors 13 July; leaves 

17 July, 

King Edward VII., battleship, launched by the 
princess of Wales at Devonport . 23 July, 

Cruiser Melampus runs down and sinks steam 
collier Ruperra near Scilly isles . . 29 July, 

Torpedo manoeuvres in the Irish sea and St. 
George's channel 3_8 Aug. 

Vice-adm. sir Robert H. Harris appointed president 
of the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, in suc- 
cession to adm. sir R. H. M. Molyneux, 6 Aug. 

Boiler accident on the Blake at Funchal, 2 killed, 
5 injured 7 Aug! 

Royal naval volunteer reserve, under the " Naval 
Forces act, 1902," raised . . .10 Aug. 

Fleet manoeuvres (65 ships) in the Atlantic ; the 
B 2 fleet, under lord Chas. Beresford, though 
chased by the X fleet, succeeded in joining the 
B 1 fleet under sir A. Wilson, and the "Battle of 
the Azores" took place 9 Aug. (results referred 
to umpires), they all arrived at Lagos bay, Por- 
tugal 13 Aug. 



856 



NAVY. 



Dominion, battleship, launched by princess Louise 
(Argyll), at Barrow .... 25 Aug. 1903 

Circular letter by Admiralty to all commanders 
embodying new scheme for organising and train- 
ing of bands for the fleet ; whole of naval band 
service to be transferred to the Royal Marines, 
issued 29 Aug. ,, 

Adm. of the Fleet sir A. M. Lyons retires ; suc- 
ceeded by adm. sir C. F. Hotham, who hoists his 
flag on the Victory at Portsmouth . 30 Aug. , y 

Torpedo experiment at Portsmouth, to test the 
efficacy of corn pith cellulose, on the hulk Belle- 
isle, which was sunk .... 4 Sept. ,, 

King Charles of Portugal appointed hon. adm. in 
British navy by the king ... 8 Sept. ,, 

Hampshire, cruiser, launched by lady Londonderry 
at Elswick 24 Sept. ,, 

Controversy between rear-adm. Lambton and gen. 
sir A. Hunter, respecting evidence given by the 
latter before the War Commission relative to the 
practice of the naval guns at Ladysmith, 

Sept. -Oct. ,j 

New dietary, in accordance with which the men 
have cocoa on waking and supper, thus giving 
each man 5 meals per diem instead of 3 as pre- 
viously, came into force . . . 1 Oct. ,, 

Carnarvon, cruiser, launched by lady Penrhyn at 
Govan 7 Oct. ,, 

Collision between the battleships Prince George and 
Hannibal while manoeuvring oft Ferrol ; Prince 
George sustains serious damage . . 17 Oct. ,, 

Accident to the Victory, her port side stove in, by 
the Neptune colliding with the flagship while 
being towed out of Portsmouth harbour ; staff- 
captain Rawson subsequently decorated by the 
king with the Royal Victorian order, for smartness 
in docking the Victory after the collision, 23 Oct. ,, 

Prince George of the Hellenes appointed by the 
king hon. adm. of British fleet, announced, 

31 Oct. „ 

Vice-adm. H. L. Pearson selected as commander- 
in-chief at the Nore, announced . . 2 Nov. ,, 

Orders issued by Admiralty for a number of the 
ships included in 1903-4 programme, announced 
in Feb. by earl of Selbome (which included 3 
battleships, 4 armoured cruisers, and a number 
of smaller craft) ; orders issued comprise 3 
armoured cruisers of 13,500 tons, 22J knots speed 
(Achilles, Cochrane, and Natal, named after the 
colony) ; 4 scouts of 2,000 tons, 25 knots speed ; 
and 6 torpedo-destroyers, 255 knots speed, 4 Nov. „ 
Important experiments by capt. Egerton and staff 
of the Vernon, torpedo-school ship at Ports- 
mouth, with submarine mines, carried out in 
Stokes Bay ; simultaneous explosion of 40 mines 
charged with 2,000 lbs. of gun-cotton . 4 Nov. ,, 

Annual Expenditure of the British Navy (estimates). 
— 1S50, 6,942, 397?. ; — 1854, 6,640,596/.; — 1855 (to 31 
March, Russian war), 14,490,105/. ; — 1856, 19,654,585/. ; 

— 1859, 9,215,487/. ; — 1861, 13,331,668/. ; — 1862, 
12,598,042/. ; — 1863, 11,370,588/. ; — 1S64, 10,821,596'. ; 

— 1865, 10,898,253/. ; — 1866, 10,259,788/. ; — 1867, 
10,676,101/. ;— 1868, 11,168,949/. ' — 1 869, 11,366,545/. ; — 
1870, 9,757,290/. ; — 1S71, 9,456,641/. ;— 1S72, 9,900, 4S6/. ; 

— 1873, 9,543,000/. ; — 1874, 10,279,900/. ; — 1875, 
10,680,404/.; — 1876, 10,285,194/.; — 1877, 11,288,872/ 

— 1878, 11,053,901/. ; — 1879, 
10,492,935/. ; — 1881, 10,725,919/. 
— 1883, 10,899,500/. ; — 1884-5, 
12,694,900/. ; — 1886-7, 12,993,100/ 

— 1888-9, 13,082,800/. ; — 1889-90, 13,685,400/. ; — 1890-1, 
14,557,856/.; — 1891-2, 14,215,100/.; — 1892-3, 14,302,000/.; 
■ — 1893-4, 14,048,000/.; — 1894-5, 16,366,100/.; — 
1895-6, 18,701,000/.; — 1896-7, 21,823,000/.; — 1897-8, 
21,838,000/.; 500,000/. added (July); — 1898-9, 
26,669,021/. ; — 1899-1900, 26,594,500/. ; — 1900-1, 
28,791,900/. ; 1901-2, 30,875,500/. ; 1902-3, 31,255,000/. ; 
i9°3-4> 34.457,5°°'. 

Number of men voted for 1892-3, 74,100; — 1893-4, 83,400 ; 
— 1895-6, 88,850; — 1896-7, 93,750; — 1897-8, 100,050; — 
1898-9, 106,390 (6,340 increase) ; — 1899-1900, 110,640; 
— 1900-1, 114,880; — 1901-2,118,625; — 1902-3, 122,500; — 
1903-4, 127,100 (officers and men). 

Naval Salute to the British Flag began in Alfred's 
reign, and though sometimes disputed, may be said to 
have been continued ever since. The Dutch agreed to 



10,586,894/. ; 
; — 1882, 10,483,901/. ; 
11,645,711/. ; — 1885-6 
-8,12,476,800/. ; 



NAVY. 



857 



NEBRASKA. 



strike to the English colours in the British seas, in 
1673. The honour of the flag salute at sea was also 
formally assented to by France in 1704, although it 
had been long previously exacted by England ; see 
Flag and Salutes at Sea. 

Naval Uniforms. The first notice of the establishment 
of a uniform in the British naval service, which we 
have met with, occurs in the Jacobite's Journal of 5 
March, 1748, under the head of " Domestic News," in 
these terms: — "An order is said to be issued, re- 
quiring all his majesty's sea-officers, from the admiral 
down to the midshipman, to wear a uniformity of 
clothing, for which purpose pattern coats for dress 
suits and frocks for each rank of officers are lodged at 
the Navy-office, and at the several dockyards for their 
inspection." This is corroborated by the Gazette of 13 
July, 1757, when the first alteration in the uniform 
took place, and in which a reference is made to the 
order of 1748, alluded to in the journal above men- 
tioned, and which in fact is the year when a naval uni- 
form was first established. James I. had indeed 
granted, by warrant of 6 April, 1609, to six of his 
principal masters of the navy, "liverie coats of fine 
red cloth." The warrant is stated to have been drawn 
verbatim from one signed by queen Elizabeth, but 
which had not been acted upon by reason of her death. 
This curious document is in the British Museum ; but 
king James's limited red livery is supposed to have 

. been soon discontinued. — Quarterly Review. An act 
respecting them was passed in 1894. 

Navy Pay Office, organised in 1644, was abolished in 
1836, when the army and navy pay departments were 
consolidated in the Paymaster General's office. 

Navy List was first officially compiled by John Finlai- 
son, the celebrated actuary, and published monthly in 
1814 el seq. ; Lean's " Koyal Navy List" is published 
quarterly. 

Naval Reviews. The queen reviewed the fleet at Spit- 
head, near Portsmouth, n Aug. 1853; again, March, 1854, 
before it sailed to the Baltic, at the commencement of 
the Russian war ; and again, at Portsmouth, on the 
conclusion of peace, in the presence of the parliament, 
&c. The fleet extended in an unbroken line of 5 miles, 
and consisted of upwards of 300 men-of-war, carry- 
ing 3800 guns, and manned by 40,000 seamen. There 
were about 100,000 spectators, 23 April, 1856. 

A grand naval review (15 great wooden ships, 15 iron- 
plated, 16 gun-vessels and boats), was held at Spithead 
(the queen, the sultan, and the viceroy of Egypt pre- 
sent), 17 July, 1867 ; another at Spithead before the 
shah of Persia, 23 June, 1873 : another at Spithead 
by the queen (10 broadside ships, 8 turret ships, &c), 
3 Aug. 1878 ; another at Portsmouth, the queen and 
colonial visitors present (at the expense of the officers), 
23 July, 1886. 

Grand unexampled naval review (jubilee) by the queen 
at Spithead, 23 July, 1887 ; 135 vessels of all kinds, 
including 26 ironclads, 20,200 officers and men ; one 
man died through the bursting of a saluting gun. 
Diamond Jubilee review at Spithead ; the prince of 
Wales, the royal family, and foreign visitors present : 
165 British warships in 4 lines, 5 miles in length, 
between Portsmouth and the Isle of Wight ; outside 
them, 2 lines of foreign warships, and special mer- 
chant vessels with guests ; illuminations, &c. at 
night, 26 June, 1897. 

Coronation Review, Spithead, 16 Aug. 1902. The fleet 
assembled on 28 June, but owing to the illness of the 
king the review was postponed. There were present 20 
battle-ships, 24 cruisers, 15 torpedo-gunboats, 32 
torpedo-destroyers, 5 training-ships, and 7 brigs, in 
all 103 vessels, exclusive of yachts, torpedo-boats, and 
special-service vessels. For the review on 28 June the 
following foreign men-of-war assembled : — Germany, 
1 vessel ; Russia, 1 ; France, 1 ; Spain, 1 ; Portugal, 1 ; 
Sweden and Norway, 2 ; Denmark, 1 ; Holland, 1 ; 
Greece, 1 ; Italy, 1 ; United States, 1 ; Japan, 2 ; 
Chili, 1 ; and the Argentine Republic, 1 ; only those 
belonging to Japan, Italy, and Portugal remained for 
the review on the 16 Aug. The review by the king- 
passed off successfully, but a heavy thunderstorm in 
the evening marred the otherwise brilliant spectacle 
of the illuminated fleet. 

Naval Volunteers (or Reserve). By 16 <fc 17 Vict. c. 73 
(1853), the admiralty were empowered to raise a body 
of sea-faring men to be called the " Naval Coast Volun- 



teers," not to exceed 10,000, for the defence of the 
coast, and for actual service if required. In 1859, 
acts were passed to enable the admiralty to raise 
a number of men, not exceeding 30,000, as a re- 
serve force of seamen, to be called the " Royal Naval 
Volunteers." In November following, the admiralty 
issued a statement of the "qualifications, advantages, 
and obligations " of this reserve. The enrolment com- 
menced on 1 Jan. i860. The engagement is for five 
years, and the volunteers are entitled to a pension 
when incapacitated after the expiration of the term. 
At the prospect of war with the United States in Dec. 
1861, a great number of seamen at Hartlepool, Dundee, 
London, Aberdeen, &c. , ottered their services. About 
24,000 men, in 1896. Naval Reserve act passed, 14 
Aug. 1896. Naval Volunteers Reserve act, 22 July, 
1902. 

First enrolled body of Royal Naval Volunteers inspected, 
about 18 Jan. 1873. 

The Navy Records Society, established to promote 
the writing of a new adequate naval history of 
England, and the publication of books relating to the 
subject ; first general meeting at the R. United Ser- 
vice Institution, 4 July, 1893 ; annual meetings. 

The Navy League, established in 1894, to secure, as 
a primary object of the national policy, "the command 
of the sea," and to spread valuable information by 
means of publications, lectures, &c. ; the late adm. 
sir Geoffrey Hornby, first president. No. 1 of the 
journal published July, 1895 ; appeal to the colonies 
for support responded to by the Cape, Times leader, 
12 Oct. 1895 ; Mr. Wyatt, envoy, leaves for Canada, 
Sept. 1902 ; annual meetings. 

NAVY OF FRANCE. It is first mentioned in 
history, 728, when, like that of England at an early 
period, it consisted of galleys ; in this year the 
French defeated the Frisian fleet. The French 
fleet was almost annihilated by Edward III. at the 
battle of Sluys, 24 June, 1340. It was considerably 
improved under Louis XIV. at the instance of his 
minister Colbert, about 1697. The French navy was 
in its splendour about 1781 ; became greatly reduced 
in the wars with England ; see Naval Battles. It 
was greatly increased by the emperor Napoleon III., 
and in 1859 consisted oi 51 ships of the line (14 
sailing vessels and 37 steamers), and 398 other 
vessels, in all 449; including vessels building, con- 
verting, or ordered to be built. The new French 
iron-clad frigate Gloire, constructed by M. Dupuy 
de Lome, launched in i860, was generally considered 
as successful. The Solferino and Magenta were 
launched in June, 1861 ; other iron vessels since. 
The Magenta was destroyed by fire, 6 killed, 31 Aug. 
1875. The Devastation, a great iron-clad, launched 
at Lorient, 19 Aug. 1879. France had 22 battle- 
ships, II armoured vessels for coast defence, 
besides gun-boats, cruisers and torpedo-boats; in all 
256 vessels in 1888. The Supreme .Navy Council 
was created by decree, 6 Dec. i88q. Navy league, 
founded 12 May, 1899. See Navies {Foreign). 

NAZARENE, a name given to Jesus Christ, 
and his disciples ; but afterwards to a sect who re- 
jected the doctrine of Christ's divinity in the first 
century. A sect named Nazarenes, resembling the 
Society of Friends in Britain, became prominent in 
Hungary in the autumn of 1867. 

NEAPOLIS, see Naples. 

NEBRASKA, a N.W. territory of North 
America (part of Louisiana), was organised 30 May, 
1854. Capital, Lincoln ; Omaha city, very im- 
portant. Bradshaw destroyed by a tornado, 3 June, 
1890. Great prairie fire above 15 miles in North 
Piatt county; several villages destroyed ; loss above 
150,000 dollars, 30 March, et seq. 1893. Train 
wrecked at Lincoln, through suspected removal of 
rail on a trestle bridge ; about 24 persons killed, 



NEBUL/E. 



80S 



NEPAUL. 



9 Aug. 1894. Population, 1880, 452,402 ; 1890, 
1,058,910; 1900, 1,066,300. 

NEBULiE, the luminous cloudlike mist visible 
to the naked eye in some constellations, such as 
Orion, in others only by powerful telescope ; much 
studied by astronomers, and formerly considered 
to be clusters of stars. H alley gave a list of 6 
nebula}, with a theory, in 17 16. Messier, in 1784, 
gave 103. Sir Wm. Hersehel discovered more than 
2,500, and sir John Hersehel more than 2,000 ; 
7,840 known up to 1887 ; Dr. Dreyer's index cata- 
logue gives 1,529, published total, 9,369, 1895. 

'The Nebular Hypothesis put forth by Laplace in his 
"Systeme du Monde," 1796, supposed that the solar 
system was evolved mechanically from a vast diffused 
revolving nebula, and that nebula were the early 
stages in the formation of planets and their satellites, 
by cooling, condensation, and contraction. This 
theory was adopted by sir William Hersehel, and 
though at first opposed, is now generally accepted in 
a modified form. Mr. Lassell scrutinized the dumb- 
bell nebula in Orion, and reported that the bright 
parts did not appear to be stars, Oct. i860. Dr. Win. 
Hug-gins reported his analyses of certain nebulae by 
their spectra, and believed them to be gaseous, 1865. 

For sir Norman Lockyer's theory see under Meteors, 
17 Nov. 1887. 

Mr. Wm. Ford Stanley's " Notes on the Nebular 
Theory," a full work, published 1895. 

Prof. Max Wolf, of Heidelberg, discovered a fine cluster 
in Coma Berenices, April, 1901. 

NECEOMANCEES, see Magic. 

NECTARINE, the Amy g dolus Pcrslca, ori- 
ginally came from Persia about 1562. Previously, 
presents of nectarines were frequently sent to the 
court of England from the Netherlands ; and 
Catherine, queen of Henry VIII., distributed them 
among her friends. 

NEEDLES. " The making of Spanish needles 
was first taught in England by Elias Crowse, a 
German,, about the eighth year of queen Elizabeth, 
•and in Queen Mary's time there was anegro who made 
tine Spanish needles in Cheapside, but would never 
teach his art to any." — Slow. The manufacture 
was greatly improved at Whitechapel, London ; 
Redditch, in Gloucestershire, and Hathersage, in 
Derbyshire. An exhibition of ancient needlework 
was formed at South Kensington Museum in 1873. 
Royal school of art (started 1872); new building 
erected at cost of 52,000/. (10,000/. from Mr. Edw. 
Stern). Opened by the princess of Wales, 29 April, 
1903; princess Christian opens an embroidery 
exhibition, 30 April. 

NEEDLE-GUN (Zundnadelgewehr),& musket 
invented by J. N. Dreyse of Sooinmerda, about 1827, 
and made a breech-loader in 1836, which was 
adopted by the Prussian general Manteuffel about 
1846. It was found to be a most effective weapon 
in the war with Denmark in 1864, and in that with 
Austria in 1866. The ignition of the charge is pro- 
duced by a fine steel rod or needle being pressed 
through the cartridge. The principle is claimed for 
James Whitley, of Dublin, 1823; Abraham Mosar, 
1831 ; and John Hanson, of H udders a eld, 1843. 

NEEEWINDEN, see Landen. 

NEGRO TEADE, see Slavery. 

NEGUS (wine and water), said to be named 
after col. Francis Negus, about 1714. The sove- 
reign of Abyssinia is termed negus. 



NELSON'S VICTORIES, &c, see separate 

articles. 

Horatio Nelson, born at Burnham Thorpe, Norfolk 

29 Sept. 1758 

Sailed with captain Phipps to the North Pole . 1773 

Distinguished himself in the West Indies . . 1780 

Lost an eye at the reduction of Calvi, Corsica . 1794 

Captured Elba 9 Aug. 1796 

With Jervis at the victory off St. Vincent, 14 Feb. ; 
knighted and made rear-admiral . 20 Feb. 1797 

Lost his right arm at the unsuccessful attack on 
Santa Cruz 25-26 July, ,, 

Gained the battle of the Nile, 1 Aug. ; created 
baron Nelson of the Nile ... 6 Nov. 1798 

Attacks Copenhagen, 2 April ; created viscount, 22 
May ; attacks Boulogne flotilla, and destroys 
several ships ..... 15 Aug. 1801 

Appointed to chief command in the Mediterranean, 

20 May, 1803 

Pursues the French and Spanish fleets, March to 
Aug. ; returns to England, Aug. ; re-appears at 
Cadiz, and defeats the fleets in Trafalgar Bay, 
where he is killed .... 21 Oct. 1805 

The Victory man of war arrived off Portsmouth 
with his remains 4 Dec. ,, 

The body lay in state in the Painted Hall, at 
Greenwich, 5 Jan. ; removed to the Admiralty, 
8 Jan. ; funeral took place . . .9 Jan. 1806 

The prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.), the 
duke of Clarence (afterwards William IV.), and 
other royal dukes, almost all the peersof England, 
and the lord mayor and corporation of London, 
with thousands of military and naval officers and 
distinguished men, followed the funeral car to St. 
Paul's ; the military amounted to near 10,000, 
independent of volunteers. 

Nelson Column, Trafalgar-square, London, com- 
pleted, and statue placed on it (see Statues), 4 Nov. 
1843 ; repaired by Mr. Harrison, the Sheffield 
steeplejack . . . . . .9 Nov. 1896 

Belies, medals, &c, bought by government for 2,5ooL, 
July ; transferred to Greenwich, Aug. 1895 ; 
stolen, 8 or 9 Dec. 1900 ; his bust at Windsor 
presented by the king to the royal united service 
museum 10 June, 1901 

NEMEAN GAMES, celebrated at Nemea, 
in Achaia, said to have been instituted by the Ar- 
gives, in honour of Archemorus, who died by the 
bite of a serpent ; and revived by Hercules, who 
slew the Nemean lion. The conqueror was rewarded 
with a crown of olives, afterwards of green parsley. 
They were celebrated every third year, or, accord- 
ing to others, on the first and third year of every 
Olympiad. — Herodotus. They were revived by the 
emperor Julian, a.d. 362, but ceased in 396. 

NEO-PLATONISM or New Platonism, 

see PhiloHophy . 

NEPAUL (N. India) was conquered by the 
Ghoorkas, 1768, who made treaties with the British, 
1 791 and 1801 ; but frequently made incursions ; 
andinconsequence war with them commenced 1 Nov. 
1814 ; terminated 27 April, 1815. A treaty of peace 
was signed between the parties, 2 Dec. 1815. War 
was renewed through an infraction of the treaty by 
the Nepaulese, Jan. 1816; and after several con- 
tests, unfavourable to the Nepaulese, the former 
treaty was ratified, 15 March, 1816. An extra- 
ordinary embassy from the king of Ncpaul to the 
queen of Great Britain arrived in England, landing 
at Southampton, 25 May, and remained till Aug. 
1850; it consisted of the Nepaulese prince, Jung 
Bahadoor, and his suite, to whom many honours 
were paid. He supported the Englisli during the 
Indian mutiny in 1857. The prince of Wales was 
honourably received in Nepaul, 12 Feb. 1876. 

War with Thibet on account of robbed merchants, 

May, 1884 
Thibet submits June, „ 



NEPHALIA. 



859 



NEUTRALITY LAWS. 



Kevolution : the prime minister and son murdered ; 

22 Nov. 1885 

New ministry constituted : the maharajah, Pirthibi 

Bir Bikrum Sah (born 7 Aug. 1875 ; succeeded 

17 May, i88t); prime minister, sir Bir Shamsher 

Rana Bahadur ; appointed . . 22 Nov. ,, 

Gen. lord Roberts' visit to Nepaul very satisfactory 

April, 1892 
Bazaars destroyed by Tibetans and traders killed, 

1895 ; ultimatum sent .... April, 1896 
Deb Shamshere, prime minister, dismissedfortrying 
to introduce unacceptable reforms, reported, 

2 July, 1 90 1 
Landslip and floods, many killed, reported, 

29 Aug. 1902 

NEPHALIA, sacrifices of sobriety among the 
Greeks, when they ottered mend instead of wine to 
the sun and moon, to the nymphs, to Aurora, and 
to Venus ; and burnt any wood but that ot the vine, 
fig-tree, and mulberry-tree, esteemed symbols of 
drunkenness, 613 B.C. 

NEPHOSCOPE (nephos, Greek, a c'oud). An 
apparatus for measuring the velocity of clouds, in- 
vented by Karl Braun, and reported to the Academy 
•of Sciences, Paris, 27 July, 1868. 

NEPTUNE, a primary planet, first observed 
on 23 Sept. 1846, by Dr. Galle, at Berlin, in con- 
sequence of a letter from JM, Le Terrier, who had 
conjectured from the anomalous movements of 
Uranus that a distant planet might exist nearly in 
the position where Neptune was situated. Calcula- 
tions to the same effect had been previously made 
hy Mr. J. Couch Adams, of Cambridge ; but unfor- 
tunate delays occurred in their publication, and 
also of professor Challis's consequent discovery of 
the planet. The Royal Society of London awarded 
its gold medal to both astronomers as equals in the 
theoretical discovery. A satellite of Neptune was 
discovered by Mr. Lassell on 10 Oct. following. 
Neptune is said to have been seen by Lalande, and 
thought to be a fixed star. The Greek god Po-eidon 
became the Roman Neptune. Prof. J. C. Adams 
died 21 Jan. 1892; his "Papers" published 
March, 1897. 

NEPTUNIUM, a new metal discovered in 
iantalite, from Connecticut, by II. Herrmann in 
1877 > n °t generally admitted by chemists. 

NERVES. Our knowledge of the nature and 
functions of the nervous system has been greatly 
enlarged by the researches and experiments of phy- 
siologists during the 19th century. Sir Chanes 
Bell announced his discovery of the distinction 
between the nerves of motion and sensation, 1810. 
He published papers on the nervous system, 
1821. See Graniology. 

NEPVII, a warlike tribe in Iielgic Gaul, were 
defeated in a severe battle by Julius Caesar 57, and 
subdued 53 B.C. 

NERWINDEN, see Landen. 

NESBIT, seeMsbet. 

.NESTORIANS, the followers of Nestorius, 
bishop of Constantinople (428-431), who is repre- 
sented as a heretic. He was opposed by Futyches ; 
1 see Eutychians. 
1. He rejected the error of those who said Christ was 
a mere man, as Ebion, Paul of Samosata Photinus. 
2. He maintained that the Word was united to the 
humanity in Christ Jesus, and that this union was 
most intimate and strict. 3. He held that these two 
natures made one Christ, one Son, one Person ; only 
made up of two natures. 4. And this one Person may 
have either divine or human properties attributed to 
Him. 



Nestorian Christians in the Levant administer the 
sacrament with leavened bread and in both kinds, 
permit their priests to marry, and use neither con- 
firmation nor auricular confession.— DuPin. 

A Nestorian priest and deacon were in London in July, 
1862. 

The Persian Nestorians (15,000) received into the 
Russian church at St. Petersburg . 6 April, 1898 

NETHERLANDS. William Frederick, 
prince of Orange, assumed the title of King of the 
Netherlands 16 March, 1815, and his successors, 
kings of Holland, retain the title. See Flanders, 
Holland, and Belgium. 

NETLEY HOSPITAL, near Southampton, 
for invalid soldiers. The foundation stone was laid 
by the queen, 19 May, 1856. Princess Henry of 
Batteuberg visits the wounded from S. Africa, 
25 Jan. 1900 ; and queen Victoria stays 3 hours there, 
27 Feb. ; again, 16 May. 

NEUFCHATEL, a canton in Switzerland, 
formerly a lordship, afterwards a principality. The 
first known lord was UJric de Fenis, about 1032, 
whose descendants ruled till 1373, after which by 
marriages it frequently changed governors. On the 
death of the duchesse de Nemours, the last of the 
Longuevilles, in 1707, there were many claimants; 
among them our William III. He and the allies 
however gave it to Frederick I. of Prussia with the 
title of prince. In 1806 the principality was ceded 
to France, and Napoleon bestowed it on his general 
Berthier, who held it till 18 14, when it fell to the 
disposal of the allies. They restored the king of 
Prussia with the title of prince with certain rights 
and privileges; but constituted it a part of the 
Swiss confederation. Population : 1888, canton, 
108,153; city, 16,261; 1901, canton, 125,804; city, 
20,916. 

After an unsuccessful attempt in 1831, the inhabit- 
ants repudiated their allegiance to Prussia, and 
proclaimed Neufchatel a free and independent 
member of the Swiss confederation . . . 1848 
The king of Prussia protested against this ; and a 
protocol was signed between England, France, and 
Austria, recognising his claims . . . . 1852 

Some of his adherents, headed by the count de Pour- 
tales, broke out into insurrection against the re- 
publican authorities, who, however, quickly sub- 
dued and imprisoned them, with the intention of 
bringing them to trial .... Sept. 1856 
War threatened by the king of Prussia, and great 
energy and determination manifested by the Swiss. 
On the intervention of the English and French 
governments, a treaty was signed by which the 
king of Prussia virtually renounced his claims, on 
receiving a pecuniary compensation, which he 
eventually gave up. He retains the title of prince 
of Neufchatel, without any political rights 

11 June, 1857 
The prisoners of Sept. 1856 were released without trial 

18 Jan. ,, 

NEUROLOGICAL SOCIETY OP 
LONDON, formed to promote the study of nerves 
from a psychological, physiological, anatomical, 
and pathological point of view, 1887. First 
president. Dr. Samuel Wilks, F.R.S. Dr. Julius 
Althaus, eminent neurologist, dies, aged 67, 11 June, 
1900. 

NEUSTRIA or West France, a kingdom 

allotted to (Totaire by his father Clovis, at his 
death in 51 1. His descendant, Charlemagne, be- 
came sole king of France in 771. It was conquered 
by the Northmen and hence named Normandy 
{which see). 

NEUTRALITY LAWS. A commission, in 
a report issued in May, 1868, recommended changes. 



NEUTRAL POWERS. 



860 



NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE. 



An act to make better provision for the preservation 
of neutrality was passed 9 Aug. 1870. John P. 
McDiarmid apprehended, for breach of neutrality 
laws, at Bow-street, 28 Oct. 1870. 

NEUTRAL POWERS. By the treaty of 
Paris, signed by the representatives of Great 
Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Prussia, Turkey, 
and Sardinia, on 16 April, 1856, it was determined 
that privateering should be abolished ; that 
neutrals might carry an enemy's goods not con- 
traband of war ; that neutral goods not contraband 
were free even under an enemy's flag ; and that 
blockades to be binding must be effective. The pre- 
sident of the United States acceded to these provi- 
sions in 1861. Proclamation of neutrality in respect 
to the war between the United States and Spain by 
Great Britain, France and other powers, 26 April, 
et seq., 1898. — See International Law. 

NEVADA, a western territory of the United 
States of N. America, organised 2 March, 1861 ; 
admitted a state, 31 Oct. 1864. Capital, Carson 
city. Virginia city was nearly destroyed by fire, 26 
Oct. 1875; several lives were lost ; property about 
2,000,000 dols. ; 10,000 persons rendered homeless. 
Population of Nevada, 1880, 62,266; 1890, 45,761 ; 
1900,42,335. 

NEVILLE'S CROSS or Durham, Battle 

OF, between the Scots under king David Bruce and 
the English it is said (probably incorrectly) under 
Philippa, consort of Edward III., and lord Percy, 
12 or 17 Oct. 1346. More than 15,000 of the Scots 
were slain, and their king taken prisoner. 

NEVIS (W. Indies), an island discovered by 
Columbus, planted by the English in 1628 ; taken 
by the French, 14 Feb. 1782 ; restored to the Kng- 
lish in 1783. The capital is Charleston. See Lee- 
ward Isles. 

NEWARK (Nottinghamshire). The church 
was erected by Henry IV. Here, in the midst of 
troubles, died king John, 19 Oct. 1216; here the 
royal army under prince Rupert repulsed the army 
of the parliament, besieging the town, 21 March, 
1644; and here, 5 May, 1646, Charles I., after his 
defeat at Naseby, put himself into the hands of the 
Scotch army, who afterwards gave him up to his 
enemies. Newark was first incorporated by Ed- 
ward VI., and afterwards by Charles II. Absorbed 
into the county, 1885. Population, 1881, 14,018; 
1891, 14,457 ; 1901, 15,146. 

NEWARK, a town in New Jersey, U.S.A., 
settled in 1666, and chartered in 1836. Population 
in 1890, 181,830; 1900, 246,070. 

NEW BRUNSWICK was taken from Nova 
Scotia, and received its name as a separate colony 
in 1785. It was united with Canada by act passed 
29 March, 1867. Population of New Brunswick in 
1865, 272,780; in 1881, 321,233; 1891, 321,294. 
Capital, Fredericton. Lieut. -governor, Lemuel A. 
Wilmot, 1868 ; Samuel Leonard Tilley, 1874 ; 
Robert Duncan Wilmot, 1880 ; sir Samuel L. 
Tilley, 1886 ; John Boyd, 1893 \ John Jas - Fraser, 
1894 (died Nov. 1896) ; succeeded by A. R. M'Clelan, 
2 Dec. 1896; J. B. Snowball, Jan. 1902. 
Great fire at St. John, 20-22 June, 1877 ; destruction of 

12 churches, 25 public buildings ; thousands houseless ; 

about 20 killed, loss about 3,000,000^. Subscriptions 

in Britain. 
Very destructive forest fires on both sides of the St. 

Lawrence, 10 June et seq. 1891. 
The St. Lawrence lumber mills burnt, 24 Sept. 1891. 
Great discovery of coal in Gloucester county reported, 

Feb. 1893. 



Fire at Gibson, 80 houses and 2 churches destroyed, loss 

about 200,000 dollars, 20 June, 1893. 
Great fire at St. John, 100 buildings burnt, 25 May, 

1899. 
Forest fires, Musquash destroyed, 4 June, 1903. 

NEWBURY (Berkshire). Near here were 
fought two desperate battles — (1.) 20 Sept. 1643 ; 
between the army of Charles I. and that of the 
parliament under Fssex ; it terminated somewhat 
favourably for the king. Among the slain was 
the amiable Lucius Cary, viscount Falkland, 
deeply regretted. (2.) A second battle of dubious 
result was fought between the royalists and the 
parliamentarians under Waller, 27 Oct. 1644. Popu- 
lation, 1881, 14,018; 1891, 14,457; 1901, 11,002. 
A memorial to lord Falkland and his companions, in- 
augurated by the earl of Carnarvon, 9 Sept. 1878. 
Queen Victoria memorials, museum and art gallery, 
opened, 7 Nov. 1902 ; one presented by Mr. G. Sanger 
unveiled, 24 June, 1903. 

NEW CALEDONIA (Pacific Ocean), dis- 
covered by Cook on 4 Sept. 1774, was seized by the 
French, 20 Sept. 1853, and colonised. The French 
government in Dec. 1864, redressed the outrages 
committed upon the British missionaries at a station 
established here in 1854. 

In the latter part of June, 1878, some of the native 
tribes revolted, burnt some of the towns and villages, 
and killed about 90 of the European colonists, men., 
women, children and servants, including col. Gally- 
Passebose, the military commandant of the island. 
The insurrection was not subdued till the end of the year. 
Now used as a French penal settlement ; said to be very 

disorderly, 1884. See Recidivists. 
Destructive hurricane, three ships wrecked, reported, 
1 March, 1898. 

NEWCASTLE - UPON - TYNE (North- 
umberland), the Koman Pons iElia, the first coal 
port in the world,* and the commercial metropolis 
of the north of England. The coal-mines were dis- 
covered here about 1234. The first charter granted 
to the townsmen for digging coal was by Henry III. 
in 1239. See Population. 

The castle built by Robert Courthose, son of Wil- 
liam I. 1080 

Taken by William II. 1095 

St. Nicholas church built, about 1091 ; burnt in 1216 ; 
restored by Edward I., to whom John Baliol did 

homage here, 1292 ; rebuilt 1359 

Newcastle surrenders to the Scotch .... 1640 
Who here gave up Charles I. to the parliament 

30 Jan. 1647 

Occupied by general Wade in 1745 

Antiquarian Society established .... 1813 
Literary and Philosophical Society founded 1793 ; 
the foundation-stone of the building was laid by 
the duke of Sussex in 1822 ; liberally endowed by 

Robert Stephenson 1858-9 

T. Bewick, the wood-engraver, dies .... 1828 
The magnificent market erected by Richd. Grainger, 
who greatly improved the town . . . . 1835 

British Association met here 1838 

High-level bridge erected by Robert Stephenson ; 

and grand central station built . . . 1846-50 
1538 persons die of cholera . 31 Aug. to 26 Oct. 1853 
Great fire through the explosion at Gateshead (which 

see) 5> 6 Oct. 1854 

Great distress through failure of Northumberland 

Joint-Stock Bank Nov. 1857 

Richard Grainger dies, aged 63 . . .4 July, 1861 

* In 1306 the use of coal for fuel was prohibited in 
London, by royal proclamation, chiefly because it injured 
the sale of wood for fuel, great quantities of which were 
then growing about the city ; but this interdiction did 
not long continue, and we may consider coal as having 
been duj; and exported from this plaee for more than 500 
years. 



NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE. 



861 NEWCASTLE ADMINISTRATION. 



Enthusiastic leception of Mr. W. E. Gladstone, 

7-9 Oct. 

British Association met here, second time 26 Aug. 

Great fire at Brown's flour mills, r&c, near the new- 
high-level bridge, which is injured ; about 70,000?. 
loss 24 June, 

The Central Exchange destroyed by fire 11 Aug. 

Mr. Mawson, the sheriff, and Mr. Bryson, the town 
surveyor, and others, killed, while attempting to 
bury some nitro-glycerine in the town-moor, to 
get rid of it 18 Dec. 

Strike of about 9000 engineers, for day's work of 
nine hours ; begun about . . .16 May, 

College of Physical Science in connection with the 
Durham University, opened . . . Oct. 

Engineers' strike closed : terms, nine hours a day, 
to begin on 1 Jan. 1872; men to work overtime 
when needed; wages to remain the same; ar- 
ranged by Mr. R. B. Philipson and Mr. Joseph 
Cowen " 6 Oct. 

Elswick estate purchased by a committee for a 
public park, announced .... Aug. 

New R. C. church built by the Dominicans, opened 

10 Sept. 

New swing-bridge over the Tyne (281 feet long ; 
weight, 1450 tons, lifted by a hydraulic crane) ; 
begun 1868 ; completed . . . June, 

Bishoprics act ; permitting the erection of a see at 
Newcastle, passed .... 16 Aug. 

Technical college for north of England inaugurated 

24 Sept. 

Centenary of birth of George Stephenson celebrated 

9 June. 

Newcastle constituted a city ; charter received 

5 Juiy, 

Public library opened 13 Sept. 1880 ; the new 
building was opened . . . . 1 Sept. 

Sanitary Institute of Great Britain and congress 
met here 26 Sept. 

Parks given by sir William Armstrong ; addition 

Feb. 

Visit of prince and princess of Wales and family ; 
enthusiastic reception ; opening of Armstrong 
park, natural history museum, free library, 
Albert Edward dock, &c. . . 20, 21 Aug. 

Great distress through want of employment Oct. 

Royal mining, engineering, and industrial exhi- 
bition opened by the duke of Cambridge, 1 1 May ; 
2,092,273 admissions ; reported successful ; closed 

29 Oct. 

Royal Agricultural Society's show opened 11 July ; 
visited by the prince of Wales and sons 12 July, 

Newcastle and Durham college of physical science : 
foundation-stone laid by sir Win. Armstrong 
(after lord), 15 June, 1887 ; opened by the 
princess Louise 5 Nov. 

Third meeting of the British Association 11 Sept. 

The new college of medicine (founded by the duke 
of Northumberland in 1887) opened by the mayor 

2 Oct. 

Mr. John Fleming bequeaths above 100,000?. to 
local charities (Fleming Memorial Hospital for 
sick children, <fec), announced . . Feb. 

Death of Mr. John Clayton, aged 98 ; 45 years 
town clerk (estate sworn at 728,746?.) . 14 July, 

Threatened strike of persons employed on the 

North-Eastern railway, averted by concessions . 

about 20 Dec. 

Newcastle programme, proposed at the meeting of 
the National Liberal Federation (by Mr. Glad- 
stone). Re-constitution of the house of lords ; 
one man, one vote ; shorter parliaments ; paid 
members ; settlement of the Irish question ; land 
laws, &c. 1 Oct. et seq. 

Great strike of the engineers on the Tyne and Wear 
respecting overtime, 2 Nov., ended . . 7 Nov. 

Strike and lock-out of ship-building engineers, and 
plumbers, on the Tyne, due to internal disputes, 
about 30 Jan. ; about 20,000 out of work, 12 
March ; arbitration accepted ; work resumed 

27 April, 

The rev. Dr. John Collingwood Bruce, historian of 
" The Roman wall " dies, aged 86 . 5 April, 

End of the Durham miners' strike, see Coal . 

11 March-i June, 



iat>2 
1863 



1871 



1873 



Centenary of the Literary and Philosophical Society 
warmly celebrated ; lord Armstrong the president, 
dr. Wilberforce the bishop, the mayor and many 
eminent persons present, 7 Feb. ; by a fire at 
6-8 a.m. the premises and a large part of the 
valuable library (about 35,000 vols.) were de- 
stroyed or damaged .... 8 Feb. 1893 

Freedom of the city presented to lord Roberts on 
his visit 20 March, 1894 

Rutherford college opened by the duke of York 

5 April, „ 

End of 18 weeks' strike of N.E. coast ironworkers 

20 July, ,, 

Strike of 1,500 moulders on the N.E. coast, conse- 
quent stoppage of nearly 20,000 workers, March ; 
strike ended by ballot . . . 31 Aug. ,, 

Annual meeting of the national union of conserva- 
tive associations ; Mr. A. J. Balfour warmly 
received ; powerful speech . . 13 Nov. „ 

The old mansion house, near the quay, burnt 

6 Oct. 1895 
See Strikes, Feb. 1897. 

Great fire at Messrs. Mawson and Clark's, oil re- 
finery, Walker-gate, explosion of creosote, ten 
deaths, no injured . . . 29-31 Jan. 1898 

See Elswick, 10 June, 1899. 

Death of Mr. John Hall, shipowner, benefactor 
(bequeaths 130,000?. to local charities), 26 June, 1899 

Lord Woiseley receives the freedom of the city and 
holds a review 15 July, ,, 

Theatre Royal burnt down, estimated damage, 
20,000?. ...... 24 Nov. ,, 

Central Exchange art gallery, the Vaudeville 
theatre, &c. , burnt down . . . 23 Jan. 1900 

Messrs. Robinson & Co.'s premises burnt down; 
estimated damage, 40,000?. . . 7 March, „ 

The prince of Wales lays foundation-stone of a new 
infirmary 20 June, ,, 

Lord Armstrong, founder of the Elswick works 
and inventor of modern artillery, dies aged 90, 

27 Dec. „ 

Lord Kelvin opens the Electric Supply Co.'s new 
works 18 June, 1901 

Mr. Watson Armstrong gives 100,000?. to the new 
infirmary ; presented with the freedom of the city, 

17 July, „ 

Foundation-stone of a new art gallery, the gift of 
Mr. Alex. Laing (20,000?.), laid by Mrs. Watson 
Armstrong 13 Aug. ,, 

New bridge, cost 80,000?., opened . 13 Aug. ,, 

Electric tramway, estimated cost 800,000?., opened, 

16 Dec. ,, 

Destructive fires at Quayside . 15, 16 March, 1902 

18,000?. subscribed for a sanatorium . 2 Oct. „ 

Princess Louise, duchess of Argyll, opens Tem- 
perance institute . . . . 14 Oct. ,, 

Statue of queen Victoria, the gift of sir Wm. 
Stephenson, unveiled . . . .24 April, 1903 

Maj.-gen. sir Baden-Powell receives the freedom of 
the city 25 July, ,, 

Exhibition in commemoration of the 150th anniver- 
sary of birth of Thos. Bewick, the engraver, 
opened 12 Sept. ,, 

Scheme for quay extension and improvement, 
estimated cost 559,000?., adopted by city council, 

end Sept. ,, 

NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE, Bishopric 

OF, founded by Order in Council 17 May, 1882. 

BISHOPS. 

1882. Ernest Roland Wilberforce consecrated at Durham, 
25 July, 1882 ; translated to Chichester, Nov. 1895. 

1895. Edgar Jacob, Nov. 1895 ; trans, to St. Albans 
Feb. 1903. 

1903. A. T. Lloyd, Feb. 1903. 

NEWCASTLE ADMINISTRATION, 

formed April, 1754; resigned Nov. 1756; when 

the duke of Devonshire became first lord of the 

treasury. 

Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of Newcastle, first lord of 
the treasury. 

Henry Bilson Legge, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl of Holdernesse and sir Thomas Robinson (after- 
wards lord Grantham), secretaries of state. The latter 
succeeded by Henry Fox (afterwards lord Holland). 



NEWCASTLE AND PITT. 



862 



NEWFOUNDLAND. 



Lord Anson', first lord of the admiralty. 

Earl Granville, lord president. 

Lord Gower (succeeded by the duke of Marlborough 

1755), lord privy seal. 
Earl of Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 
Duke of Grafton, earl of Halifax, George Grenville, <fcc. 

NEWCASTLE AND PITT ADMINIS- 
TRATION (see Chatham Administration)!, formed 
June, 1757. After various changes it resigned May, 
1762 ; lord Bute coming into power. 

Thomas Holies Pelham, duke of Newcastle, first lord of 

the treasury. 
William Pitt (afterwards lord Chatham), secretary of state 

for the northern department, and leader of the house of 

commons. 
Earl of Holdernesse, secretary of state for the southern 

department. 
Earl Granville, lord president. 
Earl Temple, privy seal. 
H. B. Legge, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Duke of Devonshire, lord chamberlain. 
Duke of Rutland, lord steward. 
Lord Anson, admiralty. 
Duke of Marlborough (succeeded by lord Ligonier), 

ordnance. 
Sir Robert Henley, lord keeper of the arced seal. 
Henry Eox, George Grenville, viscount Barrington, lord 

Halifax, James Grenville, (fee. 

NEW CHURCH, see Swedenborgians. 

NEW COLLEGE (St. John's Wood, London), 
erected hy the Independent dissenters for the edu- 
cation of their ministers, 1850-1, was formed by 
the union of Homerton, Highbury, and Coward 
colleges. See Oxford. 

NEW DEPARTURE DEMOCRATS, see 

United States, 1871. 

NEW ENGLAND (N. America). The first 
settlement made in 1607, was named New England 
by captain Smith, in 1614. A band of 102 Puri- 
tans, now termed the " Pilgrim Fathers" (with 28 
women), arrived here in the May Flower, and 
f aunded the settlement on Plymouth Rock, 25 Dec. 
1620, which was named New Plymouth. This was 
the nucleus of Massachusetts, from whence were 
gradually developed New Hampshire, Vermont, 
Connecticut, and Khode Island. In 1643 these 
settlements formed the first American confederation, 
a defensive union, with a constitution based on the 
Mosaic law, governed by a religious aristocracy, 
which lasted till 1693. Maine was made an inde- 
pendent state in 1820. 

NEW FOREST (Hampshire), was made 
(" afforested") by William the Conqueror, 1079-85. 
It is said that the whole country, for thirty miles 
in compass, was laid waste. "William Rufus was 
killed in this forest by an arrow shot by "Walter 
Tyrrel, that accidentally glanced against a tree, 
2 Aug. 1 100, the site of which is now pointed out 
by a triangular stone. The New Forest Deer 
Removal act was passed 14 & 15 Vict. c. 76, 7 Aug. 
1851. Agitation for the preservation of this forest, 
autumn, 1870. In accordance with an act passed 
in 1877, the forest is now managed by a court of 
Verdcrers as a public pleasure ground, and cattle 
farm. New Forest (sale of lands for public pur- 
poses) act passed, 24 July, 1902. See Forests. 

NEWFOUNDLAND (N. America), said to 
have been discovered by Jolm Cabot, who called it 
Prima Vista, 24 June, 1497. It was formally taken 
possession of by sir Humphry Gilbert, 1583. In the 
reign of Elizabeth cthev nations had the advan- 
tage of the English in the fishery. In 1577 there 
were IOO fishing vessels from Spain, 50 from Portugal, 



150 from Fiance, and only 15, but of larger size, 
from England. — llahluyt. Rut the English fishery 
in some years afterwards (1625) had increased so 
much that the ports of Devonshire alone employed 
150 ships, which sold their fish in Spain, Portugal, 
and Italy. The sovereignty of England was recog- 
nised in 171.3, by the treaty' of Utrecht, certain 
rights on the '' French shores " being reserved for 
France. Newfoundland obtained the privilege of 
a colonial legislature in 1832; and the bishopric 
was established in 1839. Population, 1884, 197,335 ; 
1901, 220,247. Appalling fire at St. John's, a great 
portion of the town destroyed, the loss estimated at 
1,000,000/. sterling, 9 June, 1846. On 14 Jan. 
1857, a convention was concluded between the 
English and French governments, confirming cer- 
tain French privileges of fishery in exchange for 
others. The English colonists were dissatisfied 
with this convention. Newfoundland refused 
union with the dominion of Canada, March, 1869; 
a railway from St. John's to St. George's bay, 
projiosed by the colonial government Aug. 1878. 
Capital, St. John's; population, 1884, 31,142. 
Governor, col. sir Stephen J. Hill, 1870 ; sir John 
II. Glover, Jan. 1876. Maxse died Sept. 1883; sir 
John Hawley Glover, Dec. 1883; died 30 Sept. 
1885; sir G. Wni. des Vceux, Feb. 1886; sir J. 
Terence N. O'Brien, Nov. 1888; sir H. H. Murray, 
Sept. 1895; sir Henry McCallum, 1899; sir Caven- 
dish Boyle, Jan. 1901. See Canada, Nov. 1877. 
"A History of Newfoundland," by Judge D. W. 
Prowse, published, May, 1895. 

Fishery Dispute. At Fortune bay, U.S., fishers 
fixed nets on Sunday, 13 Jan. 1878 ; this being 
contrary to local regulations, they were forcibly 
removed ; controversy ensued ; Mr. Evarts on 
part of U.S. government sent despatch, 24 Aug. ; 
correspondence, Sept.-Oct. ; the marquis of Salis- 
bury refused compensation ; but earl Granville 
granted it ; 15,000?. were awarded by arbitration 

2S May, 1883 

The French tri-colour flag set up at Cumberland 
Stage, near St. John's, by a French captain, 

9 Sept. 1882 

Conflicts between the Orangemen and Romanists 
at Harbour Grace ; several killed 26 Dec. 1883 

Continued disputes through the British lobster fac- 
tories on the French shore 1890 

The people dissatisfied with the new arrangements 
begun after 1 July, 1889, termed modus Vivendi. 
A great meeting at St. John's . . 26 March, ,, 

Sir James Winter, ex-attorney-general, and other 
delegates, arrive in London . . .13 May, „ 

Address to the queen voted by the Newfoundland 
legislature 14 May, ,, 

A French war vessel requests the stoppage of 
British fishing in St. George's bay ; indignation 
meeting at St. John's . . reported 24 May, ,., 

The parliament votes an address to the queen and 
is prorogued 11 June, r , | 

Fight between Newfoundlanders and French 
fishermen respecting lobsters, at Port-au-rort, 
with clubs, &c. ; the latter beaten, 

about 19 June, ,, ; 

Capt. Sir Baldwin Walker, of the Emerald, stops 
Mr. Baird's lobster factory at Sandy Point, about 
26 June ; Mr. Baird sues for damages . July, , r j 

French war vessel at Port-au-Port drives off 30 
British fishing vessels . . . .23 June, , 

Sir William Whiteway, premier, and Mr. Harvey, 
delegates in London, 3 July e.t seq. ; the colonists 
claim extinction of French rights, about 5 Aug. ; 
Sir W. Whiteway returns to Newfoundland 

12 Nov. et seq. , 

The modus vivendi enforced by the Emerald and 
the Forward gunboat . . . Sept. el seq. , 

Joseph Girardin, capt. of the French schooner 
Minegard, arrested for illegal acts; imprisoned 
till lines were paid ; rescued from prison, regains 
his wlii p, puts off to sea ; the ship runs aground,, 
and is again seized Oct. , 



NEWFOUNDLAND. 



863 



NEWFOUNDLAND. 



Great storm, destruction of shipping, buildings, &e. 

reported 8 Dec. 1890 
Action of Mr. Baird against sir Baldwin Walker in 
tlie supreme court concluded ; judgment reserved 

10 Feb. 1891 
Verdict for Mr. Baird, iS March; appeal to the 

privy council, March, 1891 ; dismissed 4 Aug. 1892 
Arbitration accepted by the British and French 
governments, the modus vivendi to continue, 
agreement signed in London, 11 March, at Paris, 
13 March, and reported at St. John's 13 March, ,, 
Bill" brought into the house of lords to enforce the 
modus vivendi, early April ; read second time . 

27 April, 1 89 1 
Sir William Whiteway and 4 other delegates 
appear at the house of lords, and make a state- 
ment 23 April, ,, 

The house of assembly adopts a petition to the 
queen, to ratify their convention with the United 

States. . 8 April, ,, 

The British fishermen of Fortune's bay rise against 
the sale of bait to others, about 22 April ; stock- 
ade raised, and bait seized . about 28 April, ,, 
After some negotiation, the modus vivendi coercion 
act (to last till 1893) is passed by both branches 
of the Newfoundland legislature . 26 May, ,, 
(The coercion bill in the British house of commons 

was withdrawn May.) 
The French enforce the modus vivendi; difficulties ; 

reported 18 June, ,, 
Sixty British lobster factories closed by order 

under the modus vivendi . . reported 7 July, ,, 
The Canadian government protests against the re- 
strictions on the supply of herrings as bait for 
the fisheries and threatens reprisals, about 28 
Nov. ; and imposes import duties on fish 8 Dec. ,, 
A sudden blizzard off the coast drove out 220 fish- 
ing btfats, 27 men perished by frost, &c. 27 Feb. 1892 
The modus vivendi respecting lobsters, renewed 
by the British and French governments 

25 March, ,, 
The French shore bill supported by the British 
government, for constituting a judicial commis- 
sion court to settle the disputes submitted to the 
house of assembly, 30 April ; rejected 14 May ; a 
joint committee on the subject appointed 19 May ,, 
The dispute with Canada settled ; return to the 

status of 1889 . . . announced 21 May, ,, 
The French fishermen break the modus vivendi by 
destroying 300 British lobster traps, 

about 13 June, ,, 
Great fire at St. John's, from 5 p.m. 10 July till 
8p.m. it July, during a violent gale ; about 11,000 
homeless ; the beautiful cathedral (by G.G. Scott), 
churches and chapels, colleges, and other public 
buildings, and; the greater part of the city 
destroyed ; shipping greatly damaged. Loss, 
about 2,500,000?. ; 6 deaths and people missing. 
Relief largely supplied by the Dominion of 
Canada, the United States and the United King- 
dom (see Mansion House Funds). 
Meeting of the legislative assembly ; energetic re- 
storation of St. John's reported . 7 March, 1893 
Destructive blizzard with loss of 5 lives 20 March, ,, 
The operation of the Bait act suspended, 22 March, ,, 
General election, the government of sir W. White- 
way returned to power ... 8 Nov. ,, 
The ministry request dissolution of the legislature 
on account of charges of bribery at elections, 3 
April ; governor O'Brien refuses ; the ministry 

resigns I2 April, 1894 

New ministry formed by Mr. A. T. Goodridge 

13 April, ,, 
The Whiteway party retain possession of the cham- 
ber and demand a dissolution ; the governor pro- 
rogues the legislature to 5 July . 15 April, „ 
Election trials, many members, including sir Wm. 

Whiteway, unseated for bribery, 5 May-30 July, ,, 
Legislature prorogued .... 9 Aug. „ 
Elections, majority of the Whiteway party . Nov. ,, 
Financial crisis ; several banks and 6 firms stop 
payment . through commercial embarrassment ; 
application to the imperial government for help 

10 Dec. ,, 
Resignation of the ministry, 12 Dec. ; new one 

formed by Mr. D. J. Green . . 13 Dec. „ 

Great distress at St. John's, 14 Dec. ; parliament 
opened to consider the crisis . . 15 Dec. ,, 



The Commercial bank charged with reckless mis- 
management, &c. ; the notes of the Union bank 
guaranteed by government . . . Dec. 1394. 
Mr. Cooke, manager, and 4 directors of the Com- 
mercial bank charged with fraud, arrested and 

bailed 2? Dec. ,, 

The government much assisted by the bank of 

Montreal j an . 1895 

Gradual resumption of business, reported . 16 Jan. ,, 
Bill passed removing the disqualification of un- 
seated members 22 Jan. „ 

Resignation of the ministry . . . 31 Jan. ,,. 
Cabinet formed by sir Wm. Whiteway . 8 Feb. ,,. 
Much distress relieved by lady O'Brien's subscrip- 
tion fund 7 Feb. 

Negotiations for union with Canada ; delegates sent 
to Ottawa, April; the scheme abandoned through 
differences respecting the terms . 16 May, ,., 
Sir Herbert Murray, imperial commissioner, or- 
ganizes relief works at St. John's . April, ,, 
A loan of 2,500,000 dollars from London, floated in 
Montreal at (94) 4 per cent. ; improved pro- 
spects reported, 31 May ; the loan authorized by 

the chambers I3 June, , T 

French treaties bill passed (upper house) . 24 June ,, 

House prorogued 4 July, ,, 

Forest tires ; railway settlement at Norris Arm 

burnt, reported ... . 10 July, ,., 

Mr. James Gordon and Mr. John Gillard, official 
liquidators of the defunct Union bank, accuse 
the directors, sir Robt. Thorburn, ex-premier, 
hon. Augustus Harvey, Win. Donnelly, Mr. 
Walter Grieve, and Mr. Pinsent, manager of 
the bank, of issuing a false statement of its affairs, 
and paying dividends which the bank had not 
earned, 19 July ; warrants issued ; bail accepted 

20 July, , r 
Arrests in connexion with the smuggling scandals, 
Mr. M. Tobin and one of the governors of the 

savings bank I0 Oct. y , 

Sentenced to fine and imprisonment . 5 Nov. ,, 
Discovery of coal towards the west coast Nov. ,, 

Sir Herbert Murray arrives at St. John's as 

governor 29 Nov. „ 

Sir Robert Thorbuin, bank director, and three 
others committed for trial, 15 Nov. ; indictment 

ignored 2 i April, 1896 

Great destitution at St. John's, reported 15 Jan. ,, 
Parliament opened ; successful retrenchment, re- 
ported 11 June ,, 

Oil struck at a depth of 1,000 feet on the W. coast 

by a company Dec. ,, 

Legislature dissolved .... 20 Sep. 1897 
Elections : government defeated, 28 Oct. ; new 
cabinet, sir James Winter premier, 9 Nov. ; 
economical reforms effected . . . Nov. ,, 
Trial of the bank directors, 2 Nov. ; acquitted and 

cases abandoned . . . . 17, 27 Dec. ,, 
A government contract with Mr. Reid, taking up 

railways, docks, &c. ; signed . . 3 March, 1898, 
Railway bill passed, 15 March ; a modus vivendi 

passed both houses ... 23 March, , T 

Sealers cut off from their ship, perish on the ice, 

30 miles from Cape Bona vista, 55 deaths 21 March ,, 
Seal fishery season, very successful . April ,, 
Royal commission negotiates successfully with the 

ministry, and leaves .... 29 Oct. ,, 
Sir Herbert Murray leaves St. John's . 25 Jan. 1899. 
Negotiations with France respecting the French 

shore question Jan. , , 

Imperial government declines to interfere in the 
legislation of the colony, and with the "Reid 
contract," seeTim.es .... 23 Jan. ,, 

Legislature prorogued 7 Feb. ,, 

Sir Henry Mc.Callum appointed governor ; arrives, 

3 March, ,,, 
Sealing fleet inspected by sir H. McCallum, 

8 March, ,, 
French lobster factory near St. John's burnt, end 
of March (Ingram Taylor pleads guilty to arson, 
sentenced to 1 years' imprisonment and banish- 
ment, 8 Sept.). 
Legislature opened by the governor, good report,. 

economies effected, 11 May ; closed . 19 July, ,. 
British warships at St. John's, 1,000 men reviewed, 

19 July, ,, 
Severe storm ; fishing settlements destroyed, 26 
deaths, reported . . is Sept. , 



NEWFOUNDLAND. 



864 



NEW GUINEA. 



The Winter ministry defeated . . -19 Feb. 1900 

The modus vivendi re-enacted by bill passed, 20 Feb. ; 
the ministry resigns, deadlock, 5 March ; legisla- 
ture prorogued, 14 March ; Mr. Bond forms a 
ministry 15 March, „ 

Legislature opened by the governor . 29 March, „ 

Seal fishery, value 600,000 dollars largest total since 
1882 24 April, ,, 

Good revenue, large surplus, nearly 140,000 dollars 
for year ended 30 June, ,, 

Legislature dissolved .... 23 July, ,, 

Elections ; great victory of the opponents of the 
" Reid contract " 7 Nov. ,, 

The Bond ministry, 32-4, enlarged and recon- 
structed 7 Dec. ,, 

Modus vivendi re the French shore, renewed, act 
passed 27 Feb. 1901 

Legislature opened, good revenue, reported, 

23 May, „ 

Sir Cavendish Boyle, arrives, . . .17 June, „ 

Compromise with Mr. Reid effected ; he surrenders 
ownership of the railway, but agrees to work it 
for 50 years mid July, ,, 

Bill passed, 2 Aug. ; Reid Newfoundland company 
formed 20 Aug. ,, 

Mercantile stores in St. John's burnt, 2 deaths, 
estimated loss, 500,000 dollars . . n Sept. „ 

The duke and duchess of Cornwall welcomed at St. 
John's ; Mr. Bond, premier, knighted, 24, 25 Oct. ,, 

Chief justice Little, of St. John's, knighted, 9 Nov. ,, 

French fishery on the Green Banks fails . June, 1902 

Good surplus for year ending . . 30 June, ., 

The Reid Newfoundland co. awarded 800,450 
dollars, from the government, by arbitration, 
reported ... 8 Oct. ,, 

Government and other buildings, the cathedral, 
schools, &c, burnt down at St. Pierre . 1 Nov. ,, 

Bond-Hay reciprocity treaty re fish, signed at 
Washington 8 Nov. ,, 

Modus vivendi bill passed, 12 March ; again renewed, 
for 1903, 14 Dec. 1902, and for 1904, 23 March, 
1903 ; revenue 2,200,000 dol. . . . 30 June, 1903 

Seal fishery best for years, reported . 21 April, „ 

Decline of British imports 10 per cent, and increase 
of American 50 during 1902-03, reported . Oct. ,, 

Codfish sales propuce 1,000,000 dols. more than in 
1902, reported end Nov. ,, 

NEW FRANCE, see Canada. 

"NEW" GALLERY, Eegent Street, W., 
erected by seceders from the subscribers to the 
Grosvenor Gallery {which see), opened 9 May, 1888. 
In this building were held the Tudor, Stuart, 
Guelph, and .Victorian exhibitions, which see, and 
Picture exhibitions. 

NEWGATE, LONDON. The pjrison derives its 
name from the gate, to which was attached a small 
prison, gradually enlarged. One was erected in 1086 
by the bishop of London. It was used as a prison 
for persons of rank as early as 1218 ; but was rebuilt 
about two centuries afterwards by the executors of 
sir Richard Whittington, whose statue with a cat 
stood in the niche till the time of its demolition 
by the great fire of London, in 1666. It was then 
reconstructed ; but becoming an accumulation of 
misery and inconvenience, was pulled down and 
rebuilt between 1778 and 1780. During the riots 
in 1780, the interior was destroyed by fire, but 
shortly afterwards restored. In 1857 the interior 
was pulled down to be re-erected on a plan adapted 
to the reformatory system. Newgate was disused 
as an ordinary prison, 31 Dec. 1881. Building 
demolished 1902-3. Sale of fittings and relics 
4 Feb. 1903. During the pulling down of the 
building, part of an old Roman wall was discovered. 
Major Arthur Griffiths' " Chronicles of Newgate,'' 
published Jan. 1884. See Old Bailey. Newgate 
market, established in 1681, was ordered to be 
abolished by an act passed in 1861, which took 
effect when the meat and poultry market in Smith- 
field was opened, I Dec. 1868. 



NEW GRENADA (S. America), discovered 
by Ojeda in 1499, and settled by the Spaniards in 
1536. It formed part of the new republic of Bo- 
gota, established in 181 1; and, combined with 
Caracas, formed the republic of Colombia, 17 Dee. 
18 19; see Colombia. 

President M. Ospina entered on office . 1 April, 1857 

After several reunions and dissolutions, the republic 
of New Grenada merged into the Grenadine Con- 
federation, which includes Bolivar, Antioquia, 
Panama, and other small states . 15 June, 1858 

Struggles between the conservatives, partisans of 
the old government, and the liberals . . Jan. 1861 

General Mosquera (liberal) deposes Ospina ; and 
seizes the government ... 18 July, ,, 

A congress of the states determine on union, under 
the name of the United States of Colombia, 

20 Sept. ,, 

Arboleda, chief of the conservatives, assassinated 
(succeeded by Cassal) . . . . 1 Nov. 1862 

New constitution established . . .8 May, 1863 

Mosquera invites Venezuela and Ecuador to join 
the confederation Aug. ,, 

Ecuador declines — war ensues . . .20 Nov. ,, 

The troops of Ecuador defeated, 6 Dec. ; peace en- 
sues, and Ecuador remains independent 30 Dec. ,, 

Coup d'etat of Mosquera, who declares himself dic- 
tator . .... 11 March, 1866 

Mosquera deposed by Santos Acosta, who becomes 
provisional president ... 23 May, 1867 

Mosquera, the ex-president, exiled . . 1 Nov. ,, 

General Santas Gutierrez Vergara, the president, 
deposed and imprisoned, and general Ponce made 
provisional president. Ponce compelled to ab- 
dicate ; succeeded by Correoso, 29 Aug. , who 
defeated his opponents ... 12 Nov. 1868 

The republic now named Colombia (which see). 

NEW GUINEA or Papua, a large island, 
Pacific Ocean, discovered by the Portuguese after 
then- settlement of the Moluccas between ic;ii and 
1530. It was visited by Saavedra, a Spaniard, in 
1528. It is said to have been named New Guinea 
by Ortiz de Retes, a Portuguese, 1549. Torres 
Straits, which divide New Guinea and Australia, 
were discovered by Torres, a Spaniard, in 1606. 
It was frequently visited by the Dutch in the 
17th century. They established a colony and 
erected a fortress, named Dubus, on the S.W. 
coast, in 1828, which was unsuccessful; and re- 
moved in 1835. A lofty range of mountains was 
named after capt. Owen Stanley, who first saw them 
from his vessel on sea about 1849. See German 
New Guinea. 

On 9 Oct. the New Guinea Colonizing Association pro- 
posed to lord Carnarvon, the colonial secretary, to 
send to New Guinea an expedition of 200 men with 50 
officers, in a ship of 1200 tons burden ; he declined 
to sanction it, and referred to dangers, 30 Oct. 1875 ; 
part of the island annexed by the Queensland govern- 
ment, announced April, 18S3, with the approval of an 
Australia ; this act declared by the British government 
to be " null in point of law, and not to be admitted in 
point of policy," 2 July, 1883 ; signified by lord Derby's 
dispatch, also recommending a confederation of 
Australian states, 11 July, 1883. 

Mr. Maclvor's proposed expedition to New Guinea pro- 
hibited by lord Derby, Oct. 1883. 

Inter-colonial conference at Sydney recommend annexa- 
tion, 6 Dec. 1883. 

Protectorate of the southern part and adjacent islands 
under a high commissioner determined on, Aug. 1884 ; 
to be supported by the Australian colonies ; 
Major-Gen. Peter H. Scratchley appointed, Oct. 1884 ; 
protectorate proclaimed in New Guinea, 6 Nov. 

German flag hoisted on northern part and adjacent 
islands; Australian colonies protest, Dec. 1884. 

The German colony named Kaiser Wilhelm's Land, 
March, 1885. 

Agreement between England and Germany announced, 
19 June, 1885. 



NEW HAMPSHIRE. 



865 



NEWHAM COLLEGE. 



Exploring expedition of geographical society of Austral- 
asia under captain Everill, in New Guinea, Sept. 1885. 

Death of sir Peter Henry Scratchley announced, 3 Dec. 
1885. 

Bill regulating the government passed by legislature of 
Queensland, 4 Nov. 1887. 

New Guinea constituted an independent colony by 
letters patent, 30 Oct. 1888. Seat of government, 
port Moresby; Mr. (aft. sir) W. Maegregor, lieut.- 
governor, March, 1895 ; succeeded by Mr. G. B. Le 
Hunte, Aug. 1898, resigns, April, 1903. 

Sir Wm. Maegregor explores the Owen Stanley 
range of mountains and names one Victoria 
(13,121 feet- high), another Albert Edward (12,500 
feet), 40 miles inland from Port Moresby, . 

May, June, 1889 

Sir Wm. Maegregor lands at Demara with 22 men 
to search for murderers ; repulses an attack of 
250 natives and burns a village, announced 15 
Oct. 1889 ; his explorations of the river systems, 
&c., reported, Oct. 1894 ; he is awarded the Royal 
Geographical Society's Founders' medal, 27 April, 
1896 ; further explorations in the west division 

8 Feb. — 22 March, 1897 

Murder of Mr. J. Hedley and the crew of the cutter 
Isabel (while pearl fishing) . reported 1 Oct. 1890 

Massacre of 40 villagers by the Tngaree tribe . 

reported 9 Jan. 1891 

Five European miners killed by natives at Mam bare 

7-12 Jan. 1897 

Mr. Green, government resident and eight con- 
stables murdered by natives at Tamata 14 Jan. ,, 

Charter to a company for colonization, &c, 
applied lor by three Dutchmen, reported, 3 Dec. ; 
refused 10 Dec. ,, 

The New Guinea company transfer rights to Ger- 
many over the protectorate, announced, 26 Oct. 
1898 ; the German govnt. assumes the adminis- 
tration, 1 April, 1X99 ; the Caroline, Pelew, and 
Marianne islands incorporated in German New 
Guinea Jan. 1900 

Two white diggers killed and eaten, Feb. 1901 ; the 
rev. James Chalmers and 13 others massacred by 
natives on Coarabata island . . 8 April, 1901 

Expedition under Mr. Le Hunte attacked, 24 
natives killed 2 May, ,, 

Mrs. Wolff murdered in the Bismarck archipelago ; 
a tribe annihilated by a German punitive force, 
reported Aug. 1902 

Messrs. Jeswick and Brackenbury murdered, 25 
natives killed in a fight ; drought and famine ; 
some cannibalism, reported . . 31 Dec. ,, 

Intoxicating liquors prohibition, reported, 4 Aug. 1903 

Medical expedition for ethnological investigation 
and collection of data for cancer research in New 
Guinea leaves London .... Aug. ,, 

NEW HAMPSHIRE, one of the early United 
States of N. America, was settled in 1623, placed 
under Massachusetts, 1641 ; separated, 1679. Capital, 
Concord. Population, 1080, 346,991 ; 1890,376,1530; 
1900, 411,588. 

A lunatic asylum near Dover burnt ; over 50 in- 
mates perish 9 Feb. 1893 

Suicide of Isaac Abbott, city treasurer of Dover, 
and cashier of the National bank, after defalca- 
tion of 80,000 dollars .... 14 Jan. 1895 

NEW HARMONY, see Harmonists. 

NEW HEBRIDES (S. Pacific Ocean), dis- 
covered by Quiros, who believing them to be a 
continent named them Tierr a Australia del Espiritu 
Santo, in 1606. Bougainville in 1768 found them 
to be islands; and in 1774 Cook gave them their 
present name. On appeal, the British government 
promise protection to the natives against kid- 
napping, «fec. 7 Feb. 1883. 
In 1878 the British and French governments agreed not 

to occupy these islands, but French aggressions were 

protested against by the Australian colonies, 1887. 
French vessels land troops here to protect their 

countrymen, 1 June, 1886. 
Land dispute between French Hebrides company and 

native christian mission, reported 15 Sept. 1886. 



Sir William Stawell appointed lieut-governor Jan. 18S7 ; 
died, 1889. 

The Anglo-French convention of 16 Nov. 1887, and the 
agreement of 26 June, 1888, placed the islands, for the 
protection of life and property, under a joint com- 
mission of French and English naval officers on the 
Pacific stations. 

NEW HOLLAND, see Australia, New South 
Wales, &c. 

NEW IRELAND, an island in the Pacific 
ocean, lat. 2° 3' S., long. 152 E., 200 miles long, 25 
miles average width. An attempt of the French 
marquis de Bays to colonise this island was re- 
ported a disastrous failure in August, 1880, and 
May, 1881. The island is now named New Meck- 
lenburg. 

NEW JERSEY, one of the early United States 
of N. America, was settled by the Dutch from New 
York, 1620; and by Swedes in 1627. Capital, 
Trenton. Population, 1880, 1,131,116; 1890, 
r.444,933; 1900, 1,383,669. 
The S. half of Seabright with fine buildings burnt, 

17 June (see Jews) 1891 

Great fires at Paterson, 26 blocks destroyed, 1 
death, 20 injured, 9 Feb. ; 3 blocks burnt down 
at Atlantic city, estimated loss over 2,000,000 
dollars, 6 deaths, reported . . 3 April, 1902 

NEW JERUSALEM CHURCH, see 
Swedenborgians. 

NEW LANARK (W. Scotland). A manu- 
facturing village founded by David Dale, 1783. 
Here his son-in-law, Bobert Owen, endeavoured to 
establish socialism in 1801 ; and here the first in- 
fant school was set up, 1815. 

" NEW LEARNING," a term applied to the 
revival of the study of the Bible and the Greek and 
Latin classics, in their original tongues, in the 15th 
and 1 6th centuries, which conduced greatly to the 
Beformation. See Humanism. 

NEWMARKET (Cambridgeshire), renowned 
for its horse-races. It is first mentioned in 1227; 
and probably derived its name from the market 
then recently established. James I. erected a hunt- 
ing seat here, called the king's house, to which 
Charles I. was taken as a prisoner in 1647, when 
the parliament army was quartered in the neigh- 
bouring village of Kennet. Charles II. , who was fond 
of racing, built a stand-house for the sake of the 
diversion, about 1667,* and from that period races 
have been annual to the present time ; and many 
extraordinary races have been run ; see Races. 
Population, 1881,5,093; 1891,6,213; 1901,19,065. 

NEW MEXICO (N. America), ceded to the 
United States in 1848, and organised as a territory, 
9 Sept. 1850 ; admitted as a state by the house of 
1 epi-esentatives, 1892. Capital, Santa Fe. Precious 
metals are found in almost every part of the 
territory. Population, 1880, 119,565; 1890, 
153,593; 1900, 195,310. 

NEWNHAM COLLEGE, see Girton. 

* During the races, on 22 March, 1683, Newmarket was 
nearly destroyed by an accidental fire, which occasioned 
the hasty departure of the company then assembled, 
including the kin,.', the queen, the duke of York, the 
royal attendants, and many of the nobility ; and to this 
disaster historians have ascribed the failure of the Ityo 
house plot, the object of which was said to be the assas- 
sination of the king and his brother on the road from 
Newmarket to London, if the period of their journey had 
not been thus anticipated ; see lUje House Plot. 

3 K 



NEW ORLEANS. 



866 



(NEW) RUGBY. 



NEW ORLEANS, capital of Louisiana, N. 
America {which see), founded in 1717, under the re- 
gency of theduke of Orleans. In 1788, seven-eighths 
of the c ity were destroyed by fire . The British attacked 
New Orleans in Dec. 1814, and were repulsed with 
great loss by the Americans under general Jackson, 
8 Jan. 1815; the British general, sir Edwaid 
Pakenham, was killed. New Orleans was surrendered 
to the Federals in April, 1862. The strong feeling 
of the inhabitants in favour of the Confederates and 
against the Federals induced general B. Butler to 
rule them with military i-igour, occasionally degene- 
rating into brutal tyranny, especially towards 
females, May to October, 1862. He was replaced by 
general Banks, 16 Dec. 1862. Sanguinary riots; 
due to agitators, begun 30 July, 1866, only sup- 
pressed by martial law ; about 40 persons, white 
and coloured, were killed, and about 160 wounded, 
similar riots occurred, 24 Oct. 1868, and often since. 
Population in 1880, 216,090; in 1890, 158,019; 
1900, 300,000. 

New Orleans. — John McEnery elected governor of Louis- 
iana by the southern whites, 4 Nov. 1872 ; but W. P. 
Kellogg, elected by the coloured people and their 
white friends, was recognised by the Federal govern- 
ment. To defend themselves against tyranny, the 
southerns formed the "white league," and collected 
arms, which they refused to surrender on demand on 
15 Sept. 1874. They deposed Kellogg at New Orleans 
after some resistance, and established McEnery as 
governor, but submitted to the president's proclama- 
tion ; and Kellogg was restored 18 Sept. 

The government troops eject members from the 
legislative assembly as unduly elected 4 Jan. 1875 

After much discussion, a peaceful compromise April, ,, 

Much trouble, 2 governors at one time, Jan. ; dis- 
putes settled in favour of Democrats by juesident 
Hayes ; prospect of peace . . 25 April, 1877 

"World's Industrial and Cotton Centennial " Expo- 
sition .... 16 Dec. 1884—30 May, 1885 

Another exposition opened ... 10 Nov. ,, 

Mississippi steamer, /. M. White, burnt, 30 lives 
lost . . ... about 14 Dec. 1888 

Mr. David Hennessy, chief of the police, assassinated 
by a party of the Sicilian vendetta society 
named Mafia, which see, 15 Oct. ; 17 men 
arrested 19, 20 Oct. 1890 

The committee of safety, aided by the Italian 
government, determine to clear the city from 
secret societies ; meeting held. . . 27 Oct. ,, 

Indictment of 17 Sicilians for the murder of Mr. 
Hennessy, 22 Nov. 1890 ; 9 tried ; 6 acquitted ; no 
verdict on 3, 13 March, 1891; the mob, invited 
by Mr. Parkerson, lawyer, and other citizens, 
break into the gaol, and shoot or hang 11 
prisoners (2 not American citizens). . 14 March, 1891 

Strong protest of the Italian government 15 March, ,, 

Secretary Blaine writes to Mr. Nicholls, governor 
of Louisiana, expressing the president's regret at 
the citizens' disparagement of the law ; Baron di 
Fava, the Italian minister, recalled by his govern- 
ment 31 March, ,, 

Correspondence between the Governments March, 

April, ,, 

The United States government pays to the Italian, 
25,000 dollars for the benefit of the heirs of the 
lynched Italians ; diplomatic relations resumed . 

about 14 April, 1892 

Destructive storm, about 1,200 deaths, buildings 
and works destroyed .... 2 Oct. 1893 

Severe drought, reported ... 23 Oct. 1894 

Rioting between the whites and negroes, with 
bloodshed, reported ... 12 March, 1895 

Order restored 13 March, „ 

Exp'osion in a saloon opposite the French market, 
attributed to the Malia, which see, 15 persons 
killed . S April, ,, 

NEW PHILOSOPHY, a term applied in 
'he 17th century to that of Bacon (which see). 

NEW PLYMOUTH, see New England. 



NEWPORT (Monmouthshire). Chartered by 
Edward III. and James I. Population, 1881, 38,469 ; 
1891, 54,695; 1901, 67,290. 

Chartist Riots. — About 10,000 chartists (which see), 
from the neighbouring mines, armed with guns, pikes, 
&c. , arrived at Newport, 4 Nov. 1839. They divided 
themselves into two bodies — one, under the command 
of Mr. John Frost, an ex-magistrate, proceeded down 
the principal street ; whilst the other, headed by his 
son, took the direction of Stow-hill. They met in 
front of the Westgate hotel, where the magistrates 
were assembled with about 30 soldiers of the 45th 
regiment, and several special constables. The rioters 
broke the windows and fired on the inmates, by which 
the mayor, Mr. (afterwards sir Thomas) Phillips, and 
several other persons, were wounded. The soldiers 
returned the fire, and disjiersed the mob, which fled, 

■ leaving about 20 dead, and others wounded. A detach- 
ment of the 10th royal hussars arrived from Bristol, 
and the town became tranquil. 

Frost was apprehended on the following day, together 
with his printer, and other influential persons 
among the chartists. He and others were tried 
and sentenced to death (afterwards commuted to 
transportation) Jan. 1840 

An amnesty was granted them, 3 May, and they 
returned to England .... Sept. 1856 

Frost died, aged 96 .... 29 July, 1877 

Explosion on the Tancarville petroleum steamer in 
the dry dock ; five men killed, many injured 

11 May, 1891 

Mr. T. Cordes bequeaths 100,000?. to the Newport 
and Co. hospital, reported . . 17 Oct. 1901 

NEW RIVER, for the supply of London with 
water, was begun 1609, and finished in 1613, when 
the projector, Hugh Myddelton, a London gold- 
smith, was knighted by James I. — Strype. This 
artificial river, which rises in Hertfordshire,* and 
which, with its windings, then forty-eight miles 
long, was brought to London, and opened 29 Sept. 
1613. So little was the benefit of it understood, that 
for above thirty years the seventy-two shares 
(equally divided into King's and Adventurers'), 
netted only 5*!. apiece. Charles I. sold his shares to 
Myddelton's representatives for an annuity of 500/. 
Each of these shares was sold originally for 100/. A 
part of a share sold at the rate of 94,050/. the share, 
I Nov. 1876; part of a king's share at rate of 90,000/. ; 
of an adventurer's share at rate of 93,200/., 15 May, 
1878 ; king's share, rate 88,200/. ; adventurer's, 
91,000/., Oct. 1878; king's share, rate 91,010/.; 
adventurer's, 94,500/., Nov. 1880; king's share 
rate 85,800/. ; adventurer's, 85,200/. Nov. 1887. 
An entire freehold adventurer's share of the com- 
pany was sold by auction for 122,800?. to the 
Prudential Assurance company . . 17 July, 1889 
The animal income of the company from land and 

water was stated to be 511,356?. in 1888 

An entire " king's share " sold for 95,100?. 21 May, 1890 

A freehold adventurer's sold for 94,900?., 15 Nov. 1893 

An adventurer's share sold by auction for 122,500?., 

15 March, 1899 ; for 114,000?., '1st week in July, 1899 

See- also under Water, 1902-3. 

NEW ROAD, N. London (now Pentonville, 
Euston, and Marylebone roads), was cut through 
verdant meadows, 1756-7, after much opposition. 

NEW ROSS (Wexford), S. E. Ireland. Here 
general Johnston totally defeated the rebels under 
Beauchamp D. Bagenal Harvey, 4 June, 1798. 

(NEW) RUGBY, Tennessee, United States, N. 
America, a colony of British farmers and others, 
founded on English principles by Mr. Thomas 
Hughes, Q.c., formerly M.P., author of "Tom 



* Myddelton turned the first sod atChadwell, a spring 
rising at the foot of a hill near Ware, 19 April, 1609 ; the 
water issued out of a deep hole, and combined with 
another spring, Arnwell ; forming a river about 20 feet 
wide ; he died poor, 10 Dee. 1631. 



NEWSY. 



867 



NEW SOUTH WALES. 



Brown's Schoolda\s," &c; inaugurated 5 Oct. 1880. 
Reported failure of crops and prevalence of fever, 
Aug. 1881 ; more favourable reports, Sept. 1883. 

NEWEY (N. Ireland). In the rebellion of 
1641, Newry was reduced to a ruinous condition ; it 
was surprised by sir Con. Magenis, but was retaken 
by lord Conway. After the Restoration the town 
was rebuilt. It was burnt by the duke of Berwick 
when fleeing from Schomberg and the English 
army, and only the castle and a few houses escaped, 
1689. Serious rioting, 15 July, 1902. Population, 
1901, 13,121. 

NEWS-AGENTS' AND BOOK- 
SELLERS' UNION first annual meeting, held at 
Stationers' hall, London, 18 Feb. 1897. 

NEWS-LETTEES. News- writers in the 
reign of Charles II. collected from the coffee-houses 
information, which was printed weekly and sent 
into the country. The London Gazette, then the 
only authorised newspaper, contained little mory 
than proclamations and advertisements. 

NEW MODEL, see Council of Officers. 

NEW SOUTH WALES, the principal 
colony of Australia on the eastern coast,was explored 
and taken possession of and named by captain Cook 
in 1770. At his recommendation a convict colony 
was first formed here. Captain Arthur Phillip, the 
first governor, arrived at Botany Bay with 800 con- 
victs, 20 Jan. 1788 ; but he subsequently preferred 
Sydney, about seven miles distant from the head of 
Port Jackson, as a more eligible situation for the 
capital. Gold was discovered in "1851. A new 
constitution was granted in 1855 (18 & 19 
Vict. c. 54). The Intercolonial Exhibition was 
opened at Sydney, by the governor-general lord 
Belmore, 30 Aug, 1870. It consisted of two depart- 
ments, agricultural and non-agricultural A con- 
ference of delegates from the Australian colonies 
met at Sydney in Jan. 1873, to deliberate on a cus- 
toms' union, postal and railway arrangements, &c. 
The ministry introduceda free trade budget near the 
end of the year. Industrial exhibition opened by 
the governor, 11 April, 1874. Population, (1856), 
269,722; (1862), 367,495 ; (1866), 411,388; (1871), 
519,163; (1881), 750,000; (1891), 1,134,207; 
(1901), 1,366,408 (30 June). Imports 6,597,053/. 
in 1859; 20,960,157/. in 1883; 18,806,236/. in 
1887522,954,015/. in 1890; 18,107,035/., 1893; 
21,744,350/., 1897; 27,500,000/., 1901 , exports, 
4,768,049/. in 1859 ; 19,886,018/. in 1883 ; 
18,496,917/. in 1887 ; 13,266,222/. in 1890 ; 
22,921,223/., 1893 ; 23,602,991/,, 1897 ; over 
28,000,000/., 1901 ; revenue, 1889-90, 8,519,159/. ; 
expenditure, 1889-90, 9,811,251/. ; revenue, 
1896-7, 9,729,117/. ; expenditure, 1896-7, 
10,698,167/.; revenue, 1898-99, 9,754,185/. ; 1900-1, 
10,794,233/. ; 1900-3, debit balance, 484,355/. 
Governor, sir John Young, i860; earl of Bel- 
more, 1867 ; sir Hercules Robinson, April, 1872 ; 
lord Loftus, 1879; lord Carrington, 1885; the earl 
of Jersey, 1890; sir Robert ¥m. Duff, 1893 ; visct. 
Hampden, June, 1895 ; resigns, succeeded by lord 
Beauchamp, Jan. 1899 ; sir F. M. Darley, 1901 ; 
adm. sir Harry Rawson, Jan. 1902. See Australia, 
Sydney, and Rabbits. 

The bishopric of Australia was formed in 1836 ; New 
Zealand was detached in 1841, and Tasmania in 
1842 ; the di'ocese of Australia was again divided 
in 1847, the sees of Sydney, Newcastle, Adelaide, 
and Melbourne being formed ; the diocese of 
Perth was formed 1857 ; Goulburn, 1863 ; Bathurst, 
1869 ! Grafton and Armidale, 1869 ; Ballarat, 1875 ; 
North Queensland, 1878 ; Riverina . . . . 1883 



Town of Jerilderie seized and robbed by the Victo- 
rian thieves, " Kelly gang" . . 8-10 Feb. 

International Exhibition opened by Lord A. Loftus, 

17 Sept. 

Building burnt down .... 22 Sept. 

The Wolverene was presented as a gift from the 
British government to the government of New 
South Wales . . . . 16 Jan. 

Henry Parkes, originally farm labourer, came from 
Birmingham to Sydney in 1839; actively opposed 
convict immigration, 1849 > member for Sydney 
in the legislative council, 1856, premier 1872-5, 

K.C.M.G., 1877, 1878-83. 

New parliament ; resignation of ministry ; Mr. 
Alex. Stuart forms a new cabinet . 3 Jan. 

The legislature rejects the federal scheme by 1 vote 

about 1 Nov. 

Military contingent ordered to be sent to the 
Soudan ; 3o,oooZ. subscribed for the Patriotic 
Fund, at Sydney, 23 Feb. ; amount raised to 
45,oooL 3 March ; contingent starts, 3 March ; 
arrives at Suakim 29-30 March ; left May, 

Resignation of ministry ; new one formed by sir 
John Robertson, 17 Dec. 1885 ; coalition formed 
by sir J. Robertson and sir Patrick Jennings, 

25 Feb. 

Explosion at Bulli colliery ; 85 men perish, 

23 March, 

Proposal to change the name of the colony to 
Australia 23 Nov. 

Reward of 25,000?. offered by government for the 
extermination of rabbits introduced from Europe. 
— M. Pasteur suggests the introduction of rabbits 
inoculated with microbes ; professor Watson of 
Adelaide proposes a similar method, 1887 ; [re- 
ported unsuccessful, 1889-90.] 

Sir Henry Parkes premier . . . . 1 

Centenary of the landing of captain A. Phillip at 
Sydney 24 Jan. et seq. 

Severe Chinese restriction bill (against the treaties 
of Nankin and Pekin) passed by the assembly 

16-17 May, 

Conference of Australasian ministers on the Chinese 
question 12 June, 

Hon. G. R. Dibbs forms a new ministry, 15 Jan. ; 
defeated 17 Jan. ; dissolution of parliament ; 
elections, 2 Feb. 1889 ; sir Henry Parkes forms a 
ministry 14 March, 

Great storm on the coast near Sydney with much 
loss of life and property . . 25 May et seq. 

Bill for the payment of legislature finally passed . 

20 Sept. 

The town of Bourke temporarily submerged by the 
rising of the Upper Darling river, through heavy 
rain ; much property damaged, no loss of life 

18-20 April, 

New parliament opened ... 29 April, 

For the great strikes, see Sydney . . Aug. 

The Broken Hill (silver mines) proprietary com- 
pany formed about 1883, prosperous till Sept. 

Death of sir John Robertson, eminent statesman, 

aged 75, premier 1860-63, 1868-70, 1875-77, 1885-6 

announced 8 May, 

Parliament dissolved .... 7 June, 

Elections ; 48 ministerialists, 56 opposition, 31 
labour candidates and others . . 30 June, 

Parliament opened 15 July; Mr. Dibbs' vote of 
want of confidence in sir Henry Parkes negatived 
(80 to 57) 23 July, 

The earl of Jersey's proclamation strictly forbidding 
all interference with free labour . 23 July, 

Settlement of the shearers' strike anncd. ti Aug. 

Resignation of sir H. Parkes and his ministry on 
account of the introduction of a bill limiting the 
hours of labour to 8 in coal-mines . . 19 Oct. 

New ministry formed by Hon. G. R. Dibbs 23 Oct. 

The Eight hours bill passed . . . 1 Dec. 

The new tariff bill voted by the legislative assem- 
bly by 50 votes against 3, 19 Dec. 1891 ; assent 
given 2 March, 

Great difficulty with the unemployed. . April, 

Railway accident near Bathurst, 9 deaths, 27 April, 

Seven months' drought relieved by rain . 26 May, 

The earl of Ancrum, aide-de-camp of the earl of 
Jersey, killed by a gun accident, about 17 June, 

3 K 2 



NEW SOUTH WALES. 



868 



NEW SOUTH WALES. 



The hon. G. R. Dibbs, premier, arrives in London, 
8 June ; knighted, 23 July ; returned 12 Sept. 

Confidence in the ministry affirmed (68-64), 3° Sept. 

The funded stock bill (for 3,000,000?. at 4 per cent.) 
passed ; the debt, about 50,000,000?. . 20 Oct. 

Mr. Francis Abigail, director, sentenced to 5 years' 
penal servitude, and Mr. Roderick M'Namara, 
manager, to 7 years', for fraud connected with 
the Australian Banking company . 3 Nov. 

Strike at the Broken Hill silver mines against re- 
duction of wages, July ; negotiations fail ; the 
mines opened to free labour, 25 Aug. ; order 
maintained by military, Sept. ; 7 rioters sen- 
tenced to terms of imprisonment, with hard 
labour, 30 Oct. ; strike ends . about 6 Nov. 

Vote of censure on the ministry rejected 22 Dec. 

Resignation of the earl of Jersey for personal 
reasons ..... about 23 Jan. 

Sir H. Parkes's proposed vote of censure negatived 
(57-160) ; 32 hours' sitting ... 3 Feb. 

The rt. hon. Robert Win. Duff appointed gover- 
nor, about 23 Feb. ; arrives at Sydney 29 May, 

Floods, through rising of Hunter River ; Newcastle 
and other places submerged . 9-1 1 March, 

Precautionary stoppage of the Australian joint 
stock bank, 20 April ; and of the National bank 
of Australasia at Sydney, &c, 1 May; both re- 
constructed 4 May, 

New banking act passed . . . .3 May, 

Stoppage of the Commercial banking company of 
Sydney (started 1834), 15 May ; proceedings in 
London, 29 May ; re-opens . . ig.June, 

Notes of various banks proclaimed legal tender in 

the colony 15 May, 

See Australia, May, 1893. 

Case of the Costa Rica packet ; the vessel wrongfully 
seized and the captain imprisoned by the Dutch 
in the Moluccas, Nov. 1891 ; lord Rosebery 
recommends the Dutch government to pay 
2500?. as compensation, July ; declared in- 
sufficient by sir George Dibbs . . 16 July, 

Parliament opened by sir Robert Duff 26 Sept. 

New bank note bill passed ... 28 Nov. 

Parliament prorogued .... 8 Dec. 

Parliament opened .... 17 Jan. 

Budget introduced, deficit about 1,200,000?. 1 Feb. 

Important discovery of gold at Wyalong, 33 m. 

S.W. of Sydney; a rush of miners to the spot, 

reported 16 March, 

A bill authorizing the issue of bank notes, except 
at Sydney, passed .... 5 April, 

Parliament prorogued till 10 July . 11 June, 

Letter from sir George Dibbs to the hon. J. B. 
Patterson, premier of Victoria, proposing a 
scheme of Australian federation . 14 June, 

Parliament dissolved . . . .25 June, 

Resignation of the Dibbs cabinet reported 30 July, 

New ministry formed by Mr. George H. Reid, 
2 Aug. ; parliament opened . . 28 Aug. 

Sir Alfred Stephen, G.C.M.G., statesman, chief 
justice, 1844-73 ! lieut -governor, 1875-91 ; died 

29 Oct. 

Railway collision at Redfern, 11 lives lost, many 
injured 31 Oct. 

Mr. George H. Reid proposes financial reform 

7 Nov. 

Revenue for 1894, 9,476,000?. . . .31 Dec. 

Death of sir Robt. W. Duff (born 1835), governor at 
Sydney, 15 March ; state funeral . 17 March, 

Bill reducing the governor's salary from 7000?. to 
5000?. passed by the house, 9 April ; shelved by 
the legislative council ... 18 April, 
Mr. G. fi. Reid in his free-trade budget proposes a 
land-tax of one penny and an income-tax of six- 
pence in the pound to meet the deficit 9 May, 
Bill introduced to amend the constitution June, 
Parliament dissolved 5 July ; government majority 
at the elections, 24 July ; new parliament opened, 
speech by sir F. Darley, lieut. -gov. . 14 Aug. 
Land and income-tax assessment bill passed by 
the legislative assembly, 17 Sept. (land-tax 
exemption fixed at 200?., income-tax exemption 

at 150?.) 18 Sept. 

Dean, convicted of poisoning his wife, reprieved 
by the action of his counsel, Messrs. Meagher 
and Crick, legislators : rearrested, 8 Oct.; Mr. 
Meagher arrested for perjury, 8 Oct. (acquitted 



1895 



15 May, 1896); Dean committed for trial, ti 
Oct. ; sentenced to imprisonment for perjury, 

25 Oct. 

Federal enabling bill passed, Nov. 1895 ; [amend- 
ment bill passed, Nov. 1897] ; see Australasia, 
1891 et seq ; [votes for federation insufficient, 
June, 1898J. 

Visct. Hampden arrives at Sydney . 21 Nov. 

Great heat : average, 112 F., 35 deaths, Jan. 1896 ; 
125°, 10 more deaths .... 22 Jan. 

Military conference of commandants from Aus- 
tralian colonies respecting federal defence, major- 
gen. Hutton president, at SydDey, 29 Jan. -5 Feb. 
See Divorces, 1895. 

Sir Henry Parkes, born 1815, died . 27 April, 

Parliament opened by the governor, with a cheer- 
ful speech, 12 May ; prorogued . . 13 Nov. 

New S. Wales Defence guard established 26 May, 

Nevertire, destroyed by a cyclone, reported, 29 Dec. 

Long drought: (16 April) appointed as a day of 
humiliation and prayer . . .8 April, 

Parliament opened .... 27 April, 

The "Australian Horse" new volunteer regiment, 
formed ; about 1,000 men . . . Sept. 

Debate on the estimates (30 hrs.) . 10, 11 Nov. 

Successful irrigation by artesian wells, reported, 

13 Nov. 
Colliery explosion, at Newcastle, 15 deaths, re- 
ported 21 March, 

Parliament opened, good revenue, &c, reported ; 
21 June; dissolved .... 8 July, 

Special session on federation question opened, 21 
Feb. 1899 ; Federal bill passed by the assembly, 
2 March ; amended by the council, 21 March ; 
parliament prorogued, 2nd special session (12 
new members in the council) opens . n April, 

Federal bill amended ; passed by the assembly and 
by the council . . . . 13, 19 April, 

A squadron of New South Wales lancers, to be 
trained at Aldershot, arrives in London, 

27 April, 

[Volunteer for service in South Africa, and leave 
England amid great enthusiasm, 10 Oct.] 

Federal demonstration in Sydney . . 1 May, 

Earl Beauchamp, governor, welcomed at Sydney, 

18 May, 

The referendum for the commonwealth bill, 107,274 
for and 72,701 against the bill . . 20 June, 

Parliament opened by the governor ; increased 
revenue, 147,00c?. surplus . . .18 July. 

Government defeated on a vote of censure, 78-41, 
7 Sept. ; Mr. Reid's ministry resigns, 11 Sept. ; 
new cabinet; Mr. W. Lyne, premier (knt., May, 
1900), . .... 14 Sept. 

2nd New South Wales contingent leaves for South 
Africa 17 Jan. 

Parliament opened by the governor . . 12 June, 

Sir Saul Samuel, agent-general in England 18 years 
till 1898, dies, aged 80 . . . .29 Aug. 

Sir W. Lyne's budget statement : surplus for 1899, 
169,230? 4 Oct. 

Old age pensions bill passed by the council, 29 Nov. 

Lord Hopetoun, gov.-gen. of Australia, arrives at 
Sydney, 15 Dec. ; asks sir W. Lyne to form a 
Federal ministry, 19 Dec. ; he declines, after 
conferring with the premiers of Victoria and 
South Australia, 24 Dec. See Australasia, 1 Jan. 

Mr. John See forms a ministry, 10 April ; elec- 
tions ; government majority . . .3 July, 

Parliament opened 23 July, 

Industrial arbitration bill passed by the legislative 
council 6 Dec. 

Land bill passed, both houses, reported . 17 Dec. 

Adm. sir H. Rawson, governor, arrives ; opens 
parliament 27, 28 May, 

Women's franchise bill passed, both houses, 

14 Aug. 
Drought ends in the northern districts, 

22 Aug. 
Budget, surplus, 3000?. ; existing deficit, 84,000?., 

24 Sept. 

Loan of 4,000,000?. against 4 per cent, treasury 

bills, London, passed by the assembly. 10 Dec. 

Parliament meets 16 June ; estimated deficit (1904) 

50,000?., reported 30 June, 

Strikes at the Hebburn colliery and elsewhere, 

13 July, 



1895 



1897 



NEWSPAPER PROVINCIAL SOC. 869 



NEWSPAPERS. 



Defeat of the government in the assembly on vote 
of censure, 59-42 16 July, 1903 

Tumut (which see) proposed as the federal capital of 
Australia (rejected by senate Aug.) . 18 July. „ 

Water famine at Broken Hill, causing stoppage of 
.mines, 27 June ; water trains sent from S. Aus- 
tralia ; relief works started by the government 
J7 July ; general rain reported during Aug. and 

Sept. ,, 

NEWSPAPER PROVINCIAL SO- 
CIETY, established in 1836, became the News- 
paper Society in 1889 ; see Press Association. 

NEWSPAPERS. The Roman Acta Diicrna 
were issued, it is said, 691 B.C. In modern times, a 
Gazetta, which derived its name from its price, a 
small coin, was published in Venice (about 1536). 
The Gazette de France, now existing, nrst appeared 
in April, 1631, edited by Ltenaudot, a physician. It 
was patronised by the kinir, Louis XIIE., who wrote 
one article for it, and by Bichelieu. The first real 
newspaper published in England* was established 
by sir Roger L'Estrange, in 1663 : it was entitled 
the Public Intelligencer, and continued nearly 
.three years, when it ceased, on the appearance of 
the Gazette. In the reign of James I., 1622, 
appeared the London Weekly Go urant ; and in the 
year 1642 (the period of the civil war) were printed 
a variety of publications, certainly in no respect 
.entitled to the name of newspapers. See Fourth 
Estate. The following are the titles of some of 
them: — 

England's Memorable Accidents. 
The Kingdom's Intelligencer. 
The Diurnal of Certain Passages in Parliament. 
The Mercurius Aulicus. 
The Scotch Intelligencer. 
The Parliament's Scout. 

The Parliament's Scout's Discovery, or certain Informa- 
tion. 
The Mercurius Civicus, or London's Intelligencer. 
The Country's Complaint, &c. 
The Weekly Accounts. 
Mercurius Britannicus. 

A paper called the London Gazette,^ published 22 Aug. 
1642. The London Gazette of the existing series, pub- 
lished tirst at Oxford, the Court being there on account 
•of the plague, 7 Nov. 1665, and afterwards at London, 
5 Feb. 1666. A valuable index (1830-1883) compiled 
by Alex. Pulling for council of law reporting, pub- 
lished Nov. 1885. 
Printing of newspapers and pamphlets prohibited, 31 

Chas. II. 1680. Salmon's Chron. 
The regular newspapers commenced on the abolition of 

the censorship of the press, in 1695. 
Daily Courant said to have been first published in 1702. 

The stamp duty imposed 1711 

Sunday Newspapers began with The British Gazette and 
Sunday Monitor, 26 March, 1780; followed by the Ob- 
server, 1791 ; Bell's Messenger, 1796 ; Weekly Dispatch, 
1801, &c. London ed. of New York Herald, 1889. 
A penny charged for every sheet, and a halfpenny for 

every half sheet. 
The duty made id. or 4L is. 8cf. the 1,000. . 1761 

The duty raised to ijd. in 1776 ; to 2d. in 1789 ; to 
z$d. in 1794 ; to 3jd. in 1797 ; to 4^. in . . 1815 

* Some copies of a publication are in existence called 
The English Mercury, professing to come out under the 
authority of queen Elizabeth, in 1588, the period of the 
Spanish Armada. The researches of Mr. T. Watts, of 
the British Museum proved these to be forgeries, 
executed about 1766. The full title of No. 50 is " The 
English Mercurie, published by authoritie, for the pre- 
vention of false reports, imprinted by Christopher Bar- 
ker, her highness's printer, No. 50." It describes the 
Spanish Armada, giving "A journall of what passed since 
the 2ict of this month, between her majestie's fleet and 
that of Spayne, transmitted by the Lord Highe Admiral, 
to the Lordes of council." 

t On 22 May, 1787, a London Gazette Extraordinary was 
(forged^ with a view of affecting the funds. 



Reduced to id., and id. for a supplement in . 1836 
Abolished, the compulsory stamp being retained 

only for postal purposes 185 

This also ceased 30 Sept. 1870 

Newspapers first sent with a hd. stamp affixed to 

the cover 1 Oct. ,, 

NUMBER OF STAMPS ISSUED TO BRITISH NEWSPAPERS. 



1753 
1760 

1774 
1790 



7.4",757 
9,404,790 
12,300,000 

i4.°35>639 
16,084,905 
20,172,837 



1820 
1825 



1835 
1840 
1843 



. 24,862,186 
. 26,950,693 
. 30,158,741 
. 32,874,652 

• 497033-384 

• 5°>433>977 



In the year ending 5 Jan. 1851, there were 159 London 
newspapers, in which appeared 891,650 advertisements; 
222 English provincial newspapers, having 875,631 
advertisements. In Scotland, same year, there were 
no newspapers, having 249,141 advertisements. In 
Ireland, there were 102 newspapers, having 236,128 
advertisements. 

The number of stamps issued was — in England, 
65,741,271 at id., and 11,684,423 supplement stamps 
at M. ; in Scotland, 7,643,045 stamps at id., and 
241,264 at id. ; in Ireland, 6,302,728 stamps at irf.,and 
43,358 at fd. 

Reduction of newspaper duty from ^d. to id. took effect 
on 15 Sept. 1836. 

The distinctive die came into use 1 Jan. 1837. 

Duty on advertisements abolished, 1853. 

By the act passed 15 June, 1855 (18 & 19 Vict. c. 27), the 
stamp on newspapers, as such, was totally abolished, 
and to be employed henceforth only for postal pur- 
poses. Many new papers were then started, which 
were but of short duration. 

In 1857, 71 million newspapers passed through the post- 
office. In Jan. i860, 1060 newspapers ; in Jan. 1868, 
1404 newspapers ; in Jan. 1903, 2,431 newspapers 
were published in the United Kingdom. 

On 1 Oct., 1861, when the paper duty came off, the Times, 
Daily Neivs, and Morning Post reduced their price to 
3d. each copy, unstamped. 

" Penny a Week Country Daily Newspaper," single copy 
Id. ; No. 1, 25 June, 1873. 

Petit Journal, Jd. daily, established by Marinoni, 1861 ; 
circulation about 840,000. 

Sell's "Dictionary of the World's Press " for 1887, consists 
of 1, 200 pages; increased considerably, T892 ; published 
in 2 vols., 1899. 

Newspaper libel and registration act passed 1881. 

Law of libel relating to newspapers amended 1888. 

Mitchell's annual newspaper press directory first pub- 
lished, 1845 ; jubilee number with essays by Mr. Wells- 
man, 37 years editor, Feb. 1895. 

Estimated newspapers in the world, 41,000, Aug. 1890. 

For copyright in newspaper articles, see Trials, June, 
1892, and July, 1903. 

"British and Irish Press Guide," issued by Mr. James 
Willing, 30th year, 1903. 

" Anglo-Russian Trade Messenger," monthly, first pub- 
lished in Moscow, 13 Nov. 1897. 

Daily Graphic, the only illustrated daily paper in Great 
Britain, first issued 1 Jan. 1890. 

Daily Mail, the first halfpenny daily published in Eng- 
land, started 4 May, 1896. 

A school of .journalism proposed for New York ; Mr. 
Pulitzer gives 2,000,000 dols. Times, 17 Aug. 1903. 

Daily Mirror, the first daily newspaper published ex- 
pressly for women in Great Britain, began 2 Nov. 
1903. 

IRISH NEWSPAPERS. 

The first was the Dublin Neics Letter, by Joseph Ray, 
1685 ; Pue's Occurrences, 1700 or 1703. Faulkner's 
Journal was established by George Faulkner, " a man 
celebrated for the goodness of his heart and the weak- 
ness of his head," 1728. The oldest of the existing 
Dublin newspapers is the Freeman's Journal, founded 
as the Public Register, by the patriot Dr. Lucas, about 
1763. The Limerick Chronicle, the oldest of the pro- 
vincial prints, 1766. Mr. Wm. O'Brien's Irish People 
first issue, 14 Sept. 1899 ; seized, 9 May, 1901. 



NEWSPAPERS. 



870 



NEWSPAPERS. 



PROVINCIAL NEWSPAPERS. 

Norioich Postboy, 1702. Worcester Postman, 1709. New- 
castle-on-Tyne Courant, 1711. 

FOREIGN NEWSPAPERS. 

Gazette de Venise, early in the 17th century. 

Gazette de France, started by Theophraste Renaudot 

(now publishing), 30 May, 1631. 
Journal de Paris, alleged first French daily paper, 1 Jan. 

1777. 
Galignani's Weekly Messenger, Paris, begun T814. 
Moniteur, Paris, 1 790-1901. 
Chinese newspaper published in London, 1876. 
Arabic newspaper ,, ,, ,, 

The first published in America, the Boston News Letter, 

in 1704 ; the first at Philadelphia in 1719 ; and the 

first in Holland in 1732. 
" America whose population is 23 millions and a half, 

supports 800 newspapers, 50 of these publishing daily), 

and their annual circulation is stated at 64,000,000. 

In Paris there exists 169 journals, literary, scientific, 

religious, and political." — Westminster Review, 1830. 

Nearly 3,000 in 1901. 2,000 dailies in 1903, United 

States. 



REGISTERED NEWS- 
















PAPERS. 


850. 


1865. 


1876. 


1881. 


1885. 


1895. 


1903. 


London daily 


12 


22 


IQ 


J 7 


20 


27 




London weekly . 


s8 


166 


238 




318 


34° 




London generally 


— 


— 


320 


178 


4°5 


456 


454 


Bng. prov. . . . 
Wales . . . . 


222 


750 


95° 


1087 


1202 


1342 


1443 














107 




102 


132 


n8 


154 


161 


168 


375 


Scotch . . . . 


no 


140 


IS2 


181 


184 


217 


233 


British isles . . 


14 


14 


r 9 


20 


21 


23 


19 



Total newspapers in the United Kingdom, Feb. 1898, 
2418 ; Feb. 1901, 2488 ; 1902, 2532 ; 1903, 2431. 

ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRINCIPAL LONDON NEWSPAPERS, 

(Mitchell) daily (1903). 

Lloyd's List (with Shipping and Mercantile Gazette) 1726 

Public Ledger (commercial) 1759 

Morning Chronicle (liberal), 1770 ; extinct . . 1862 

Morning Herald {conservative), 1780, extinct 31 Dec. 1869 

Morning Post (whig, latterly conservative) . . . 1772 

Times (independent) 1 Jan. 1788 

Sun (liberal) extinct 1792 

Morning Advertiser (independent) . . 8 Feb. 1794 

Globe (whig : 1866 conservative) evening . . . 1803 
Standard (conservative) even. (morn. even. 29 June, 

1857) 1827 

Shipping and Mercantile Gazette . . 4 Jan. 1836 

Daily News (liberal) 21 Jan. 1846 

Daily Chronicle and Clerkenwell News (liberal) . 1855 
Daily Telegraph* (liberal, latterly conserv.), 29 June, ,, 

Sporting Life (and Bell's Life in London) . . . 1859 

Morning Star (liberal), 1856 ; extinct . . Oct. 1869 
Pall Mall Gazette (independent), even. (morn. Jan.- 

April, 1870) 1865 

Sportsman Aug. ,, 

Glowworm (liberal), extinct ,, 

Echo id. (independent) Dec. 1868 

Financier (neutral) ^70 

Hour (conservative), 24 March, 1873 ; extinct 11 Aug. 1876 

Continental Times (neutral) 1878 

St. James's Gazette (anti-radical) . . May, 1880 
Argus (independent) ....... 

Financial News (independent) 1S84 

Evening Post (independent) 1887 

Financial Times (independent) 1888 

Star, \d. (radical) ,, 

Daily Graphic (illustrated) ^90 

Morning (conservative) 1892 

Morning Leader (liberal) 

Sun (independent) 1803 

Westminster Gazette (liberal) ,, 

Jewish Express (independent) . . . 21 Jan. 1895 

Daily Mail (vmperialist) . . . 4 May, 1896 

Daily Express (independent) . . .24 April, 1900 

Daily Mirror (women's daily) . . . 2 Nov. 1903 



* 144,000 copies sold on 16th Dec. 18 
consort died on the 14th. 



ii. The prince 



PRINCIPAL SUNDAY, 

Lond. Gazette, 7 Nov. 1665 
St. James's Chronicle 
(conser.), united with 
'Press' . . . 1763 
County Chronicle . 1787 
Mail .... 1789 
Observer (ivhig) . . 1791 
Bell's Messenger (lib. 

conservative) . . 1796 
Weekly Dispatch (lib.) 1801 
Examiner(K6., extinct) 

1808-81 
Literary Gazette (ex- 
tinct) . . 1817-62 
John Bull (conserv.) 1820-92 
Bell's Life in London 
(sporting), now with 
Sporting Life (daily) 1822 
Sunday T\mes(lib. con.) ,, 
Lancet (medical) . 1823 
Mechanic's Magazine 
(merged into" Iron," 
1873) . . . „ 
Atlas (libercd) extinct . 1826 
Medical Gazette, 1827; 
Medical Times (uni- 
ted)i8so(extincti885) 1828 
Athenaum (liter, and 

scientific), 1 Jan. . . ,, 
Spectator (liberal) . ,, 
Record (lib. conserv.) . ,, 
Law Magazine and Re- 

view(netu ser. 1898) . ,, 
Court Journal (neut.). 1829 
Mark Lane Express . 1832 
United Service Gazette 1833 
Naval and Military 

Gazette (extinct) . ,, 
Mining Journal . . 1835 
Railway Times . . 1837 
Era (theatrical) . . ,, 
Publishers' Circular . ,, 
Ecclesiastical Gazette 1838 
Medical Press . . ,, 
Tablet (Rom. Catholic) 1840 
Gardeners' Chronicle . 1841 
Nonconformist . - ,, 
Punch . . . ,, 

Jewish Chronicle . ,, 
Pharmaceutical Journ. ,, 
Illustrated London 

News (neutral) . 1842 
Lloyd's Weekly Lon- 
don Newspaper(ro</.) ,, 
Builder . . . ,, 
Inquirer (Kb.) . . ,, 
English Churchman 
& St. James's Chro- 
nicle (High Church) 1843 
News of the World 

(liberal) . . . ,, 
Law Times . . . ,, 
Economist (liberal) . ,, 
Farmer (agricultural) ,, 
Allen's Indian Mail 
(combined with 
Homeward Mail) . ,, 
Musical Times . . 1844 
Agricultural Gazette . ,, 
Gnaxc\ia.n(HighChurcK) 1846 
Educational Times . 1847 
Notes and Queries (lit. 

and antiquarian) . 1S49 
Journal of Gaslighting ,, 
Journal of Society of 

Arts . . . 1852 
Press (conserv.), united 
with " St. James's 
Chronicle " (extinct) 1853 
Field (country gentle- 
men's) . . . ,, 
Civil Service Gazette . „ 
British Medical Jour- 
nal , 

Building News . . 1854 
Saturday Review (lit.) 1855 
Overland Mail . 



WEEKLY, ETC. (1903). 

Engineer . 

Court Circular . 

City Press (neutral) . 

Homeward Mail . 

Solicitors' Journal 

Bookseller . 

Photographic News . 

Chemical News . 

Christian World 

Army and Navy Gaz. 

National Reformer . 

Catholic Times . 

Fun (comic) 

Queen (ladies') . 

Church Review(ritnai) 

Owl {satirical) stopped 

English Mechanic 

Engineering 

Law Journal 

Land and Water (nat. 
hist.) 

Bullionist . 

Rock (Protestant) 

Pall Mall Budget 

Vanity Fair 

Bazaar 

Academy (literary) 

Architect . 

Nature (scientific) 

Graphic (illustrated) . 

Freemason . 

Journal of Education 

Garden 

British Mail 

Metropolitan 

Iron (manufactures and 
science), 1873 ; com- 
bined with " Indus- 
tries '' 

Money 

Illustrated Sporting 
and Dramatic News 

Pictorial World . 

World 

Accountant 

British Architect 

Sanitary Record 

Whitehall Review 

Bicycling News . 

Truth .... 

Referee 

Statist 

Electrician 

Citizen 

Life . 

Lady's Pictorial . 

St. James's Budget . 

War Cry . 

Knowledge . 

Stage .... 

People 

Industries and Iron . 

Stock Exchange. 

National Observer 

City Leader 

County Council Times 

Pelican (society) . 

Law Gazette 

Speaker (liberal) 

Woman ( for ladies) . 

Black and White (illus- 
trated) . 

Anti-Jacobin (conser- 
vative) 

Express (neutral) 

Trade Unionist . 

Sketch (illustrated) . 

Engineering Review 
(monthly) . 

London 

Westminster Budget . 

Commerce . 

"Lika Joko " (comic) 
16 Oct. 

Realm (unionist) 
(extinct) . 16 Nov. 

Unicorn (i7/»s.),ioSep. 



1856 
1857 



1859 



1865 



1876 
1877 



1879 



1893 



1895 



NEW STYLE. 



871 



NEW YORK. 



Literature ( critical, 
&c.) . 23 Oct. 

M.A.P. 

Outlook (conservative) 
5 Feb. 

Review of the Week . 

Sphere (illustrated) 

26 Jan. 

Military Mail (inde- 
pendent) . 29 March, 

Royal Newspaper 
chartered 1890. The k 



Tatler (illustrated) 

3 July, 1901 
T.P.'s Weekly, 

14 Nov. 1902 
King and his Navy, 
amalgamation of the 
King and the Army 
1900 and Navy 

(illustrated) Mar. 1903 
1901 

Press Fund, established 1864 
ing gives 25 guineas, April 1902. 



NEW STYLE. Pope Gregory XIII., in order 
to rectify the errors of the current calendar, pub- 
lished a new one, in which ten days were omitted — 
5 Oct. 1582, becoming 15 Oct. The new styie was 
adopted in France, Italy, Spain, Denmark, Holland, 
Flanders,- Portugal, in 1582, in Germany in 1584, 
in Switzerland in 1583 and 1584, in Hungary in 
1587; in Scotland in 1600, and in England in 1751. 
In 1752 eleven days were left out of the calendar — 
3 Sept. being reckoned as 14 Sept.' The difference 
between the old and new style up to 1699 was 10 
days; after 1700, II days; after 1800, 12 days. 
In Russia, Greece, and throughout the East, the 
old style is still retained. The czar, Alexander II., 
was born on the 17th April, 1818, old style, 29 
April, new style ; see Calendar. 

NEW TESTAMENT, see Bible. 

NEWTONIAN PHILOSOPHY, the doc- 
trines respecting gravitation, &c, taught by sir 
Isaac Newton in bis " Principia," published in 
1687 ; see Gravitation. He was born 25 Dec, 1642; 
became master of the mint, 1699; president of the 
Royal Society, 1703 ; and died 20 March, 1727. A 
statue of him in marble by Roubiliac was set up at 
Trinity College, Cambridge, 14 July, 1755, and one 
in bronze by Theed, at Grantham, 21 Sept. 1858, 
when lord Brougham delivered a discourse on the 
life and works of Newton. The latter statue cost 
1600^., a sum obtained by public subscription. 

NEWTOWNBARRY RIOT (S.E. Ireland). 
At a seizure of stock for tithes, a conflict ensued 
here between the yeomanry and the people, when 
thirty-five persons were killed or wounded, 18 June, 
1831. The jury at the inquest were unable to agree 
on a verdict. 

NEWTOWN-BUTLER (N. Ireland). On 
30 July, 1689, the Enniskilleners under Gustavus 
Hamilton thoroughly defeated the adherents of 
James II. commanded by general Maccarty, taking 
him prisoner with his artillery, arms, and baggage. 

NEW YEAR'S DAY, &c. The beginning 
of the Jewish year was changed and the passover 
instituted, 1491 B.C. A feast is said to have been 
instituted by Numa, and dedicated to Janus (who 
presided over the new year), 1 Jan. 713 b.c. 
On this day the Romans sacrificed to Janus a cake of 
now sifted meal, with salt, incense, and wine ; and all 
the mechanics began something of their art of trade ; 
the men of letters did the same, as to books, poems, 
&c. ; and the consuls, though chosen before, took the 
chair and entered upon their office this day. Nonius 
Marcellus refers the origin of New-year's gifts 
among the Romans to Titus Tatius, king of the 
Sabines, who having considered as a good omen a 
present of some branches cut in a wood consecrated 
to Strenia, the goddess of strength, which he received 
on the first day of the new year, authorised the cus- 
tom afterwards, and gave these gifts the name of 
Strense, 747 B.C. 

NEW YORK, the "empire state" of the 
United States of N. America, is said . to have been 



discovered by Verrazano, a Florentine in the French 
service, about 1524, and rediscovered by Hudson, 
an Englishman in the Dutch service, in 1609, and 
settled by the Dutch in i6t4- the city being named 
Manhattan and New Amsterdam ; but the English 
under colonel Nichols dispossessed them and the 
Swedes, 27 Aug. 1664, and changed its name, 
the king, Charles II., having given the territory to 
his brother, the duke of York. Population of the 
city, in i860, 805,651 ; in 1870, 942,292 ; in 1880,. 
1,206,299; in 1890, 1,515,301; of the state in 1880^, 
5,082,871; in 1890, 5,997,853; 1900, 7,268,894; 
of Albany, the state capital, in 1880, 90,758; m 
1890, 94,923 ; of Brooklyn, in 1880, 566,663 ; in, 
1890, 806,343; of Buffalo, in 1880, 155,134; "* 
1890, 255,664. Brooklyn with other towns con- 
solidated with. New York to form a single city 
under one government; bill passed 27 Feb. 1894. 
Population, greater New York, in 1900, 3,444,675. 

The city confirmed to England by the peace of 
Breda 24 Aug. 1667 ■ 

Taken by the Dutch, and named New Orange, 1673 ; 
surrendered 1674 

The city a principal point of the struggle for inde- 
pendence. It surrendered to the British forces 
under general Howe .... 15 Sept. 1776- 

The city was evacuated by the British; "Evacua- 
tion day " made one of rejoicing ever since, 25 Nov. 1783; . 

Academy of the fine arts, and a botanical garden, 
established in 1804. 

Fire here ; 674 buildings destroyed, and property 
valued at nearly 20,000,000 dollars . 16 Dec. 1835, . 

Astor library founded by John Jacob Astor I. ; see 

under Libraries *%39 ■ 

Fire ; 302 houses burnt . . . .19 July, 1845 

The Park theatre destroyed by Are . 16 Dec. 1848 ■ 

Serious riot (several lives lost) at the theatre, 
originating in a dispute between Mr. Macready 
(English) and Mr. Forrest (American), actors, 

10 May, 1849 1 

New York Times first appeared . . 18 Sept. 1851.. 

The Crystal Palace, containing an exhibition of 
goods from all nations, was opened in the presence 
of the president of the United States and many 
other dignitaries .... 14 July, 1853 

New York suffered severely by large commercial 
failures, and "hunger demonstrations "took place 
during the panic Nov. 1857 

The Crystal Palace destroyed by fire . . 5 Oct. 1858 

A magnificent cathedral erected .... 1859 

Great fire ; about 50 lives lost . . .2 Feb. i860 

During the civil war of 1861 New York strongly 
supported the government of president Lincoln 
(republican, or abolitionist) ; but during 1862 a 
reaction gradually took place, and the opposition 
(democrat) candidates for congress were elected 
by large majorities Nov. 1862 

Fierce riots against conscription ; many persons 
killed and much property destroyed 13-17 July, 1863 

Barnum's museum burnt; great loss, 13 July, 1865 ; 
again 2 March, 1868 

Great loss and panic through James Fisk and 
others (the Erie Ring) buying up gold, 22-26 Sept. 1869 

Riot through an Orange procession ; about 30 killed, 

12 July, 1871 

Disclosure of great corruption in the municipal 
government (termed "Tammany frauds," from 
the council meeting in Tammany hall) ; public 
meeting to obtain prompt redress . 4 Sept. ,, 

The Tammany party excluded from office by the 
elections Nov. „ 

Demonstrations of the International Society of 
Workmen repressed Dec. „ 

James Fisk, the railway and financial speculator, 
assassinated by Edw. Stokes, through jealousy, 
dies 7 Jan. 1872 

Collapse of the Erie railway ring, ruled by Fisk and 
Jay Gould ; new directors elected (including 
generals Dix and M 'Clellan) . . March, ,, 

Much inconvenience by the horse disease . Oct. ,, 

Legal proceedings against Gould suspended ; he 
agrees to give up to the company 9,000,000 dollars, 

Dec, ,, 



NEW YORK. 



872 



NEW YORK. 



Stokes convicted of murder, 6 Jan. ; new trial, 
sentenced to imprisonment . . . . 30 Oct. 

Barnum's museum again burnt ; menagerie de- 
stroyed ; reported Jan. 

Financial excitement through the stoppage of Jay, 
Cooke & Co about r8 Sept. 

The lion. Wm. M. Tweed, of the Tammany ring, 
convicted of embezzlement (sentenced to 12 
years' imprisonment), 19 Nov. Tweed permitted 
to visit his own house, escapes . .4 Dec. 

Death of W. B. Astor, very rich merchant 24 Nov. 

Great tire, with loss of life, 30 buildings destroved 

8 Feb. 

Death of Alex T. Stewart, very rich merchant 

10 April, 

Tweed arrested at Vigo .... 8 Sept. 

Some of the rocks named " Hell Gate," blown up to 
improve entrance into the harbour . 24 Sept. 

"Commodore" Vanderbilt, a "railway king "and 
great capitalist died Jan. 

Tweed discloses the system of the " Tammany 
frauds," incriminating many persons Sept. 

Abp. Bayley dies 3 Oct. 

Great fire at Greenfield's confectionery works, &c, 
50 to 60 persons perished . about 20 Dec. 

Elevated street-railways in progress . . . i 

Tweed dies in gaol . * . . . .12 April, 

International exhibition here (in 1883) proposed . 

Fall of O'Kelly, the " boss " of New York ; once 
very influential Dec. 

Abbey-park theatre burnt . . . .30 Oct. 

Peter Cooper, philanthropist, founder of the Cooper 
Institute, died aged 92 ... 4 April, 

Bridge from New York to Brooklyn, 5989 feet long 
(constructed by the skill of Mr. and Mrs. 
Washington Roebling), begun 3 Jan. 1870; opened 
24 May ; 12 persons killed in a panic 30 Mav, 

New Metropolitan opera-house opened . 22 Oct. 

Centenary of "Evacuation day "celebrated 26 Nov. 

The Standard theatre burnt . . .14 Dec. 

Severe panic in the stock market, Wall-street, 
checked 12-14 Mav, 

Attempt to kill capt. Phelan, 9 Jan. ; to kill 
O'Donovan Rossa (see Fenians) . . 2 Feb. 

Great ironworkers' strike ; compromise 1-16 June, 

General Grant's funeral (see United States) 8 Aug. 

About nine acres of rock (Flood rock) in Hell Gate 
channel exploded by dynamite . . 10 Oct. 

Great strike on S.W. railway, early March, 1886 ; 
men submit .... about 31 March, 

Mr. Abram Hewitt elected mayor in opposition to 
Mr. Henry George .... 3 Nov. 

Alderman McQuade for bribery, &c, sentenced to 
seven years' imprisonment and fine . 20 Dec. 

Rev. Henry Ward Beecher, popular preacher, &c, of 
Plymouth church, Brooklyn, dies, aged 73, 

8 March, 

Destructive blizzard, see Storm . n-13 March, 

Messrs. Fairbank's lard refinery works and other 
establishments on the river side, about half a 
mile in extent, burnt ; two persons killed, others 
missing ; loss about %, 000,000 . 19, 20 April, 

Grand Washington celebration, see United States, 
20-30 April, 1 May, 

John Jacob Astor, wealthy benefactor to charities, 
died 22 Feb. 

Western Union Telegraph building destroyed by 
explosion and fire ; great loss . . 18 July, 

Great fire in central New York; estimated loss 
1,000,000 dollars 30 July, 

Strike of servants of the New York central railway \ 
promoted by the Knights of labour, 8 Aug. ; de- 
feated, 11 Aug. ; fresh strike. . . 15 Aug. 

Temporary financial panic connected with the 
crisis in London .... about 15 Nov. 

Many commercial failures, about 10 Dec. ; confi- 
dence restored 12 Dec. 

Clinton state prison nearly destroved by fire, 3 Jan.' 

Great snow-storm ; electric light, telegraph, and 
telephone communication stopped . "24, 25 Jan. 

By a fire in Park-place above 60 persons perish 

22 Aug. 

A man enters the office of Mr. Russel Sage, de- 
mands money, and causes a great explosion by 
dynamite by which he himself and 4 others are 
killed .... 4 Dec. 



I The Hotel Royal, Sixth-avenue, burnt ; many 

1873 ] perish 7 Feb. 

Mr. William Astor died . . . .25 April, 
,, J Oswego lumber district nearly destroyed by fire 

about 21 May, 

Death of Mr. Jay Gould, a millionaire . 2 Dec. 

Great explosion in a tunnel near East River through 

the thawing of frozen dynamite ; 9 persons killed, 

28 Dec. 
The American Fine Arts society's buildings opened, 

1875 Dec. 
Severe shock of earthquake in the city and Long 

1876 Island 7 March, 

International naval review (see United States), 

27 Aprd, 

Death of gen. Wm. C. Y'oung, constructor of can^.s 

and railways, aged 94. . . . 22 Dec. 

Greater New York bill passed . . .27 Feb. 

Dr. Talmage's tabernacle and many houses de- 

1877 stroyed by fire . ... 13 May, 
Jones's woods and many buildings destroyed by 

fire ; 50 horses burnt .... 15 May, 

Strike of 15,000 tailors in sweating establishments 
for increased wages .... 4 Sept. 

Great rejoicing at the arrival of the French Atlantic 

877-8 steamer La- Gascogne, after 16 days' voyage from 

Havre ; all well (rjart of the machinery broke 

1880 down, 30 Jan.) 12 Feb. 

The town of Hamilton (Utica) partly destroyed by 
fire 20 Feb. 

Max Grauer, an incendiary, sentenced to 30 years' 
imprisonment 1 March, 

Death of Mr. Charles Lanman, artist and author ; 
born 1819 ; reported .... 8 March, 

The Astor, Lenox, Tilden libraries consolidated 
(400,000 vols.) and endowed . . . March, 

The Washington memorial arch inaugurated, 

4 May, 

The construction of a railway suspension bridge 
over the Hudson, from New York to Jersey city, 
authorized June, 

Haarlem ship canal opened by a procession of 
vessels 17 June, 

Much official reform effected by the mayor, Mr. 
Strong Feb.— June, 

Grand marriage of the duke of Marlborough to 
Miss Consuelo Vanderbilt ... 6 Nov. 

369 deaths from heat (97 F.) . . 6-12 Aug. 

Mass meeting for the Armenians . . 26 Oct. 

National Grant monument inaugurated by pres. 
M'Kinley 27 April, 

Immigrant station at Ellis island burnt down, 

15 June, 

Mr. Charles A. Dana, eminent journalist, died, 
aged 78 about 18 Oct. 

Express train falls over into the Hudson river, 28 
deaths, near Garrisons . . . .24 Oct. 

Sudden death of Mr. Henry George, socialist, can- 
didate for the mayoralty . . 29 Oct. 

Judge van Wyck elected mayor, 235,181 votes ; 
Mr. Low, 149,873 (Tammany victory) . 2 Nov. 

Disastrous fire in Lower Broadway ; warehouses, 
&c. , gutted 4 Dec. 

The Windor hotel, Fifth avenue, burnt ; 45 deaths, 
many injured 17 March, 

Fatal fire, 2 and 3 East Sixty-seventh-street ; 12 
deaths (Mr. and Mrs. Wallace Andrews and 
others) 7 April, 

"Idle Hour," Mr. Wm. K. Yanderbilt's house, 
Long island, burnt ; estimated loss, 300.000 
dollars 11 April, 

Hotels, &c, burnt dowir, Coney island . 26 May, 

Tramway strike at Brooklyn ; serious rioting ; 
dynamite outrage on the elevated railroad ; 22 
arrests 18-22 July, 

Adm. Dewey welcomed, see United States, 

29, 30 Sept. 

Great fire at Hoboken ; North German Lloyd's 
docks and piers destroyed, several liners greatly 
damaged ; estimated deaths, 200 ; great heroism 
shown (189 deaths from the Main Saale and 
Bremen) 30 June, 

Explosion caused by a fire at Messrs. Tarrant & 
Co.'s. ; many buildings destroyed, 38 persons re- 
ported killed or missing, and 104 injured, 29 Oct. 



1897 



NEW ZEALAND. 



873 



NEW ZEALAND. 



The Carnegie Steel Co. and 6 other concerns pur- 
chased by a syndicate or trust headed by Mr. 
Pierpont Morgan, the capital of the new trust 
being over 200,000,000?. sterling . . Feb. 1901 

Temporary panic on the New York stock market, 

9 May, ,, 

Many deaths from heat; 106 F., 28 June; 989 
deaths week ending .... 6 July, ,, 

Mr. Low, the Fvsioiiist, elected mayor, Tammany 
defeated by 30,000 .... 6 Nov. ,, 

Conference between capital and labour re strikes, 

16 Dec. „ 

Explosion of dynamite in an unfinished subway ; 
7 deaths, many injured, buildings damaged, 

27 Jan. 1902 

Fire at an armoury spreads to Park-avenue hotel ; 
Mrs. Salome Foster, a philanthropist, and 16 
others killed 22 Feb. ,, 

Mr. O'Dell, republican, elected state governor, 

4 Nov. ,, 

Explosion of fireworks in Madison-square ; 12 killed 
and 80 injured 4 Nov. ,, 

New York chamber of commerce, new building 
dedicated by president Roosevelt . n Nov. ,, 

Gen. Greene made police commissioner ; initiates 
effective reforms 1 Jan. 1903 

Intense cold in New York, much inconvenience 
and distress caused by the coal famine, about 

13 Jan. ,, 

Explosion at fort Lafayette, 5 deaths . 19 Feb. ,, 

Great mass meeting to protest against the Kishineff 
massacres and treatment of Jews in Russia (which 
see), April, 1903 7 June, ,, 

Intense heat wave, 56 deaths, 182 cases of severe 
prostration mid July, „ 

Members of the hon. artillery company land ; enter- 
tained in New York while on their visit to the 
Boston artillery company of Massachusetts, 

7 Oct. ,, 

Magnetic storm, fine display of the aurora boreal is ; 
disorganization of telegraphic and telephonic 
services 31 Oct. ,, 

Tammany victory (63,6 r 7 majority) at municipal 
elections, Mr. Geo. B. McClellan returned as 
mayor of New York 3 Nov. ,, 

See under United States. 

NEW ZEALAND (in the Pacific Ocean), 
discovered by Tasnian in 1642. The country re- 
mained unknown, and was supposed to be part of a 
southern continent, till 1769-70, when it was cir- 
cumnavigated I13- captain Cook. In 1773, he 
planted several spots of ground on this island with 
European garden seeds; and in 1777, he found 
some fine potatoes. European population in i860. 
84,294; Dec. 1865, 190,607; 1874, 310,895, natives 
(Maoris), 46,016; in 1881, 489,933; 1887,603,340 
Europeans; 1891, 626,830; about 42,000 natives; 
1902, 851,063;" 707,920 whites, 43,143 Maoris. 
1859, imports, 1,551,030/. ; exports, 551,484/. ; 
11874, imports, 6,464,687/.; exports, 5,610,371/. ; 
E887, imports, 6,245,515/.; exports, 6,865,169/.; 
1890, imports, 6,260,505/.; exports, 9,811,720/.; 

1896, imports, 7,035,379/. ; exports, 9,3:1,105/. 
1900 - 1901, imports, 10,64^,096/. ; exports, 
13,246,161/.; 1902-1903, imports, 1 r, 500,000/., 
experts, 15,000,000/. ; 1887-8, revenue, 3,521,490/. ; 
expenditure, 4,082,634/.; 1890-91, revenue, 
4,208,029/. ; expenditure, 4,081,566/. ; 1894-95, 
revenue, 4,406,515/. ; expenditure, 4,266,722/. ; 
1896-97, revenue, 4,886,109/. gs.M.; expenditure, 
4,563,425/. 14.5. 2d. ; 1902-03, revenue, 6,447,435/. '■> 
expenditure, 6,214,019./. Public debt, 1888, 
38,758,437/.; 1891, 38,830,350/; 31 March, 

1897, 44,366,618/. Railways, miles working, in 
1877, 860; ' in March, 1897, 2,018. Number of 
telegraph stations open in 1866, 13 ; in 1897, 780 ; 
in 1901, 7,469 mi. of telegraph lines. 

The right of Great Britain to New Zealand recog- 
nised at the peace in !8 I4 



No constitutional authority placed over it until a 

resident subordinate to New South Wales . . 1833 
New Zealand company established ; Wellington 

founded 1839 

Capt. Hobson, the first governor, landed, 29 Jan. ; 
treaty of Waitangi signed, by which the chiefs 
cede a large amount of land ... 5 Veh. 1840 
New Zealand an independent colony and a bishop's 

see April, 184 1 

Capt. (aft. adm.)Fitzroy, governor, Dec. 1843 to Nov. 1845 
Sir George Grey, governor . . . Nov. „ 
A charter, founded upon an act passed in 1846, 
creating powers, municipal, legislative, and ad- 
ministrative 29 Dec. l8 47 

This charter was not acted on ; a legislative council 

opened by the governor . . . .20 Dec. 1848 
Foundation of Auckland, 1840 ; Nelson and Tara- 
naki (or New Plymouth), 1841 ; Otago, 1848 ; Can- 
terbury 1850 

New Zealand company relinquish charter . . ,, 

New constitution granted 1852 

Settlement of Canterbury, South island, founded 

(capital Christchurch) 1850-3 

Col. Wynyard, governor . . Jan. 1854 — Sept. 1855 

Governor Browne Oct. ,, 

An earthquake ; not much damage done, 23 Jan. ,, 

Constitution modified 1857 

New bishoprics established : Christ Church, 1856 ; 

Nelson and Wellington, 1858 ; Waiapu . . 1859 

Insurrection of the natives (Maoris) under a chief 
named William King(Wirrimu Kingi), arising out 
of disputes respecting the sale of land ; the bishop 
Selwyn and others consider the natives unjustly 

treated March, i860 

Indecisive actions between the militia and volun- 
teers and the Maoris . . . 14-28 March, „ 
War breaks out at Taranaki ; the British repulsed 

with loss 30 Jlm e, „ 

Great excitement in Australia ; troops sent to New 

Zealand, under gen. Pratt, land . . 3 Aug. ,, 
Indecisive actions . . 10, 19 Sept. , 9, 12 Oct. ,, 
Gen. Pratt defeats the Maoris at Mahoetahi, and 

destroys their fortified places . . 6 Nov. ,, 
New Zealand colonists in England justify the con- 
duct of the governor . . . ■ 22 Nov. „ 
The Maoris defeated, 29 Dec. i860; 23 Jan., 24 Feb. 

16-18 March, 1861 
The war ends : surrender of natives . 19 March, ,, 
Sir George Grey re-appointed governor . June, ,, 
Gold discovered at Otago, &c. . . - June, „ 
A native sovereignty proclaimed ; 5000 British sol- 
diers in the island July, ,, 

Loyalty of the natives increasing . . May, 1862 
The Maori chiefs sign a poetical address of condo- 
lence to the queen on the death of the prince con- 
sort " received ...•■■ ^ov. ,, 
Natives attack a militarv escort and kill 8 persons, 

4 May, 1863 
Waikato tribe driven from a fort . . 17 July, ,, 
War spreads ; natives construct rifle pits . Aug. „ 
Proposed confiscation of Waikato lands . .Sept. ., 
Gen. Cameron severely defeats the Maoris at Ran- 

gariri 20 Nov. ,, 

Continued success of gen. Cameron ; capitulation of 

the Maori king 9 Dec - » 

British attack on Galepa (the gate pah) repulsed 

with loss of officers and men . . 29 April, 1864 
Loan of 1,000,000?. to New Zealand ; guaranteed by 

parliament July, >, 

Several tribes submit Aug. ,, 

Maori prisoners escape and form the nucleus o( a 

new insurrection Sept. ,, 

Sir George Grey issues proposals of peace, 25 Oct. ; 
the Aborigines Protection Society send religious, 
moral, and political advice to the Maoris (con- 
sidered injudicious) .... Nov. „ 
Change of ministry and policy ; seat of government 
to be removed from Auckland to Wellington on 

Cook's Strait 24 Nov. „ 

Maoris' attack on Cameron severely defeated, 25 

Jan. ; again 25 Feb. 1865 

Outbreak of the Pai Mariri or Hau-hau heresy, a 
compound of Judaism and paganism, amongst 
the Maoris ; the rev. C. S. Volkner murdered and 
many outrages committed, 2 March ; proclamation 
of governor sir George Grey against it; it is checked 
by the agency of a friendly native chief We-tako, 

April, ,, 



NEW ZEALAND. 



874 



NEW ZEALAND. 



William Thompson, an eminent chief, surrenders 
on behalf of the Maori king . . 25 May, 

New Zealand still unsettled . . . July, 

The Hau-haus beaten in several conflicts, Aug. ; 
the governor proclaims peace, 2 Sept. ; British 
troops about to leave . . . .15 Sept. 

The Maoris treacherously kill the envoys of peace ; 
resignation of the Weld ministry ; one formed by 
Mr. Stafford Oct. 

Bishopric of Dunedin, Otago, founded . 

General Chute subdues the Hau-haus . . Jan. 

Progress of peace measures . . . April, 

Murderers of Mr. Volkner executed . 17 May, 

Governor announces cessation of the war, 3 July, 

Death of Wm. Thompson, the Maori chief, 28 Dec. 

Sir George F. Bowen appointed to succeed sir 
George Grey ; gazetted ... 19 Nov. 

Act relating to the government of New Zealand 
passed in the British parliament . 

Geo. Samuel Evans (an eminent colonist, 1838-9) dies 

23 Sept. 

Te Kooti, a chief, and about 150 Maori convicts, 
escape from Chatham island to the mainland, 
4 July ; they repulse troops sent against them, 
7 Sept. ; massacre the whites at Poverty bay, 

10 Nov. 

Te Kooti and the rebels defeated by col. Whitmore ; 
130 Maoris killed 5 Jan. 

Massacre of settlers at Taranaki . . 12 Feb. 

Change of ministry; lion. Mr. Fox's proposal to 
pay for British troops declined by the home 
government Sept. 

Te Kooti, thrice defeated by the colonists and friendly 
natives, a fugitive . . . . . Oct. 

Despatch from earl Granville, insisting on the 
withdrawal of the British troops (18th regiment) 
causes much dissatisfaction ... 7 Oct. 

Friendly interview between Mr. McLean and the 
Maori king's minister . . . .8 Nov. 

Increased demand for the New Zealand fibrous 
plant, Phormium tenax ...... 18 

Departure of the last British troops . . 22 Jan. 

Te Kooti, refusing to surrender at discretion, 
24 Jan., narrowly escapes . . . 5 Feb. 

Te Kooti's party attacked and dispersed ; his speedy 
capture anticipated . . . . 31 July, 

The duke of Edinburgh, in the Galatea, at Welling- 
ton 27 Aug. 

Increase of prosperity reported ; loan of 4,000,000/. 
proposed Aug.' 

Political union of the islands effected . . Aug. 

Murder of Mr. Todd, surveyor, by Maoris, 28 Dec. 

Te Kooti reported as living by plunder ; acting as a 
fanatical potentate Nov. 

University with three colleges established in 

Friendly meeting of Mr. McLean with Wirrimu 
Kingi and other chiefs, who submit to the British 
government March, 

Mr. Stafford's ministry resigns, succeeded by one 
under Mr. Waterhouse (the Fox partj ) about Oct. 

Sir James Fergusson appointed governor, March, 

The marquis of Normanby governor . . Jan 

The Maori king (Tawhiao) submits to the British 
government Feb. 

The colony reported highly prosperous by sir 
Julius Vogel, ex-premier . . .31 Oct. 

Sir Hercules G. R. Robinson governor . April, 

Disputes with the Maoris ; they expel British 
settlers near New Plymouth, Taranaki ; and 
plough the land 25 May, 

The settlers recover their land by force 22 June' 

Great influence of Erueti, now Te Whiti, a fanati- 
cal Christian Maori, aged 45 ; he supports Maori 
claims, but checks bloodshed .... 

Sir George Grey, energetic liberal premier, resigns ; 
succeeded by lion. John Hall . . . Oct. 

Sir Arthur Hamilton Gordon appointed governor . 

Apprehended outbreak at Pnrihaka under the Maori 
chief, Te Whiti; volunteers coming forward 31 Oct. 

Te Whiti arrested for sedition announced 6 Nov. 

He counsels passive resistance . . 8 Nov. 

124 arrests .... announced 17 Nov. 

Difficulty peaceably settled . announced 3 Dec. 

Resignation of the Hall ministry .about 10 April, 

Public debt, 31,400,000/. . . . 31 March, 

Several Maori chiefs in London; received by the 
prince of Wales, 17 Aug. ; sail for home 7 Sept. 



1870 



1871 

1872 

1873 
1875 



1S77 
1879 



Sir William Jervois, governor . . . Jan. 

Release of Te Whiti, John, and others 8 March, 

Mahuki and 20 others sentenced to imprisonment 
for outrages .... about 7 May, 

Communication between New Zealand and the 
Thames by steamers ; time reduced to 40 days 
(14,000 carcases of sheep brought) . . Dec. 

Tawhaio, the Maori king, arrives in London, 
2 June ; visits theatres, &c.,and receives visitors ; 
received by the earl of Derby ; appeals for redress, 
referring to the treaty of Waitangi (1840), 22 July ;' 
sails from Gravesend ... 20 Aug. 

Mr. H. A. Atkinson forms a ministry, 28 Aug. ; 
resigns 30 Aug 

Lieut. Bryce, colonial native minister, v. G. W. 
Rusden, for gross libel in " History of New 
Zealand," charging him with cruelty, &c, to the 
Maoris ; damages awarded, 5000. . 12 March, 

Destructive volcanic eruption of Tarawera moun- 
tain ; about 60 miles of beautiful fertile country 
desolated by showers of lava, hot cinders, and 
mud ; about 100 persons killed ; Wairoa de- 
stroyed 9, 10 June, 

The Maori king reconciled, sits in the legislative 
council May, 

Maori incursions on European lands . . July, 

Ministry resign 30 Sept. ; Mr. H. A. Atkinson 
forms a ministry 9 Oct. 

The earl of Onslow, governor . . . Nov. 

The debate on the. Representation bill to increase 
the number of country members of parliament at 
Wellington lasted 76 hours, adjourned 27 July ; 
amicable arrangement between town and country 
parties 29 July, 

International exhibition at Dunedin opened 

about 26 Nov. 

Rev. A. B. Suter, bishop of Nelson, declared 
primate Dec. 

A shipping strike begun at Wellington 5 Sept., 
ended 31 Oct. 

Resignation of ministry ; new cabinet under lion. 
J. Ballance 24 Jan. 

Fii'st visit to the Uriwera country, North island ; 
the earl of Onslow well received by the Maoris, 
reported April ; he resigns . . . Nov. 

Women authorized to serve in parliament and to 
vote at elections, 4 Sept. ; the bill rejected by 
the legislative council ... 10 Sept. 

Sir George Grey's 80th birthday enthusiastically 
celebrated .... about 14 April, 

Tawhaio, the 2nd Maori king, accepts a pension, 

May, 

Buckley v. Edwards, see under Judges . 21 May, 

Two Americans, Messrs. Witham and Webster's old 
claim for compensation for seizure of land, pur- 
chased from native chiefs ; the senate of U.S.A. 
recommend arbitration ... 26 May, 

The earl of Glasgow governor . . .7 June, 

Arrival of the earl of Glasgow . . 7 June, 

Disagreement between the earl of Glasgow, the 
governor, and the ministry, who desire the ap- 
pointment of 12 additional members of the legis- 
lative council ; the matter referred to the home 
government, about 23 Aug., which agrees with 
the ministry 26 Sept. 

Twelve new members appointed . about 16 Oct. 

The Maoris' petition for a separate representative 
council declined Oct. 

Great fire at Hastings, Hawke's bay district ; esti- 
mated damage 50,000/ 8 Feb. 

Death of Mr. J. Ballance, the premier ; succeeded 
by Mr. Richard J. Seddon . . . 1 May, 

Act passed conferring the elective franchise on 
women 19 Sept. 

General election ; victory of the government, re- 
ported 29 Nov. 

Financial surplus 200,000?., reported . 13 April, 

The New Zealand loan and mercantile agency com- 
pany, established 1865 ; misunderstandings about 
debentures ; counsel consulted ; advice not acted 
on, 1879-80 ; new debentures issued, 1892 ; peti- 
tion to chancery for reconstruction of the com- 
pany granted conditionally, 11 April, 1894; 
examination of the directors and officers before 
Mr. justice Vaughan Williams, chancery division, 
13-27 April ; his statement respecting the evi- 
dence ; the directors collectively, including Mr. 
Mu idella, sir John E. Gorst, and sir James 



893 



NEW ZEALAND. 



875 



NEY'S EXECUTION. 



Fergusson, severely censured for reticence as to 
the unsecured condition of the early debenture- 
holders and the financial condition of the com- 
pany, for misleading balance-sheets and reports, 
and for payments of dividends not justified, &c, 

7 Ma y> 

Death of Tawhiao, king of the Maoris . 27 Aug. 

Desire of the government to administer the Samoan 
isles, reported Oct. 

Parliament opened ; cheerful prospects . 20 June, 

Death of Mr. justice Christopher "Wm. Richmond, 
statesman, aged 74 .... 3 Aug. 

Bill embodying the recommendations of the com- 
mittee on the aflairs of the New Zealand bank 
passed 3 Sept. 

An explosion of fire-damp at the Brunner mine, 
W. coast of South island, 67 deaths, 26 March . 

Mr. Watson, president of the bank of New Zealand, 
refusing to give evidence ; pays 500?. fine, re- 
ported 20 July, 

Asiatics exclusion bill passed . . .3 Sept. 

A committee of the legislative council issue their 
report on the banking legislation, 1894 and 1895, 
and exonerate the government from corruption, 
and declare the Bank of New Zealand to be in a 
stable condition, Sept. ; reorganisation recom- 
mended Oct. 

The Banking bill abandoned by parliament, session 
closed, reported 18 Oct. 

General election : government majority . 5 Dec. 

Sir James Prendergast, administrator . 8 Feb. 

Earl of Ranfurly appointed governor, April ; 
arrives 10 Aug. 

Diamond Jubilee celebrations throughout the 
country 20 June et seq. 

Parliament opened, important measures proposed 
by the governor, 23 Sept. ; eight hours day and 
labour bills passed .... 17 Nov. 

Death of prof. Kirk, eminent botanist, conservator 
of forests (1886) . . . abt. 12 March, 

The earl of Ranfurly, the, governor, and rear-adm. 
Pearson visit Papanui ; received with great 
loyalty by a large Maori gathering, about 26 May, 

Parliament opened by the governor . 24 June, 

Death of Sir George Grey .... Sept. 

Municipal franchise reform act passed . 15 Oct. 

Old-age pensions act passed (amended 1900-1901) 

1 Nov. 

Difficulty with Austrian emigrants, great distress, 

Dec. 

The rev. Wm. Colenso, F.B.S., missionary and 
naturalist, died, aged 87 ... 10 Feb. 

Sir Julius Vogel, ex-premier, great financier, born 
1835, died 13 March, 

Divorce bill passed, 1898 ; royal assent 13 April, 

Victoria university college opened in Wellington, 

April, 

Sir James Prendergast, chief justice, resigns, 
25 May ; succeeded by sir Robert Stout, 22 June, 

Parliament opened by the governor with a cheerful 
speech 23 June, 

Vote of want of confidence rejected by a majority 
of 7, 6 July ; session closed . . -24 Oct. 

Mr. Seddon's budget statement, 490,000?. surplus, 

1 Aug. 

General election ; government victory, reported, 

6 Dec. 

Great enthusiasm on the departure of troops for 
S. Africa 20 Jan. 

Parliament opened by the governor. . 22 June, 

Mr. Seddon's budget statement ; surplus, 605,000?. 

17 Aug. 

Pacific islands visited by lord Ranfurly (Cook, 
Savage, and Suwarrow formally annexed, June, 
1901) Oct. 

Fire at the Rochester orphan asylum, 28 deaths, 

8 Jan. 

Lord Ranfurly returns from his tour in the 
Pacific . 21 Jan. 

Universal mourning on the death of the queen, 

22 Jan. 

British troops welcomed at Wellington . 9 Feb. 

Death of dean Jacobs, an influential churchman 
and writer end March, 

Government 4-per-cent. loan of 500,000?. , subscribed 
twice over, reported . . . .23 April, 

Parliament opened 2 July, 



The duke and duchess of Cornwall land at Auckland, 

11 June, : 

Army and naval review, stone for a Maori girls' 
school laid, 12 June ; the Maoris visited at 
Rotorna, 13 June ; at Wellington, honours con- 
ferred on lord Ranfurly and others, 300 war 
medals distributed, 18, 19 June ; grand military 
review at Christchurch, 24 June ; first stone of a 
statue to Queen Victoria laid at Dunedin (see 
Van, Diemaii,'s Land) . . . .27 June, 

Royal commission on federation, report unani- 
mously against it .... Aug. 

Arbitration and conciliation bill read third time in 
the representatives . . . .12 Oct. 

Patriotic mass meeting at Wellington ; resolutions 
passed " approving the British conduct of the 
S. A frican war, and Mr. Chamberlain's refutation 
of foreign slanders " .... 17 Jan. 

Enthusiastic send-off of the 8th and 9th con- 
tingents (total sent during the war, 6,700 officers 
and men, 6,620 horses) . 8 Feb., 12 March, 

Loyal meeting of Maoris at Papawai, North Island, 
reported 7 April, 

Mr. Seddon, premier, presented with a warm 
address, 20,000 signatures (and a purse of about 
5,000?.), at Christchurch . . . 8 April, 

Dr. Cowie, bishop of Auckland and primate, died, 

27 June, 

Parliament opened, governor's speech . 1 July 

Maori councils (local self-government) act of 1501, 
reported successful 8 J aly, 

Budget statement, surplus, 367,000?., public debt 
increased by 3,370,000?. in 1901 ; loan of 1,750,000?. 
proposed, 8 July ; passed . . .7 Aug. 

Mr. Seddon welcomed at Johannesburg, Pretoria, 
and Cape Town, 21, 22, 26 May ; London, the 
king's guest, 14 June ; receives a testimonial, 
21 July ; in the provinces, Aug. ; leaves 8 Sept. 

Parliament prorogued 4 Oct. 

Mr. Seddon welcomed home ... 25 Oct. 

General election, government majority, 49, 25 Nov. 

Mr. Seddon, in a speech at New Plymouth, refers 
to the continued prosperity of the colony ; the 
prospect of a splendid harvest and the good 
prices obtained for products ; there would be a 
surplus of 250,000?. in the revenue ; considerable 
reduction hud been made in the expenditure, and 
further economies would be made, especially on 
internal defence ; the population of the colony 
was increasing at the rate of over 1,500 per month, 

mid Feb. 

Mahuta, the Maori king, appointed a member of 
the legislative and executive councils 22 May, 

Empire day, the governor opens the veterans' home 
in Auckland 24 May, 

Celebrations at Wellington in honour of Mr. Seddon 
(10 years premier) ; he reports progress and pros- 
perity (surplus 303,905?.), 4 May ; he unveils a 
war memorial at Hokitaka, speaks in favour of 
Mr. Chamberlain's fiscal scheme, resolution sup- 
porting it carried 3 June, 

Parliament opened ; governor states that fiscal 
changes and amendment of the constitution of the 
privy council are necessary . . .30 June, 

Dispute between the judges and the executive 
respecting precedence, &c. . . Feb. -July, 

Budget revenue : increase 84,000?., credit balances 
570,000?., reported 11 Aug. 

Eruption of the Waimangu geyser, 4 persons killed, 

29 Aug. 

Naval defence bill, providing for annual sum of 
40,000?. towards the maintenance of the Austra- 
lian squadron, introduced . . . mid Oct. 

1,000,000?. loan bill for public works passes the 
house of representatives, money to be raised in 
the colony ; statement by Mr. Seddon, that not- 
withstanding the largely increased revenue of 
the colony economy would be practised by the 
government and the reduction in expenditure 
continued ...... 16 Oct. ,, 

NEY'S EXECUTION. Ney, duke of El- 
chingen, prince of the Moskwa, and one of the most 
valiant of the marshals of France, was shot as a 
traitor, 7 Dec. 1815. On 7 Dec. 1853, his statue 
was erected on the spot where he fell. 



NEZIB. 



876 



NICARAGUA. 



After the abdication of Napoleon I., 5 April, 1814, Ney 
took the oath of allegiance to the king, Louis XVIII. 
On Napoleon's return to France from Elba, he marched 
against him ; but his troops deserting, he regarded the 
cause of the Bourbons as lost, and opened the invader's 
way to Paris, March, 1815. Ney led the attack of the 
French at Waterloo, where he fought in the midst of 
the slain, his clothes pierced with bullet-holes, five 
horses having been shot under him ; night and defeat 
•obliged him to flee. Though included in the decree of 
24 July, 1815, which guaranteed the safety of all 
Frenchmen, he was sought out, and on 5 Aug. taken 
at the castle of a friend at Urillac, and brought to trial 
before the Chamber of Peers, 4 Dec. The 12th article 
of the capitulation of Paris, fixing a general amnesty, 
was quoted in his favour in vain. 

NEZIB, Syria. Here Ibrahim and the 
Egyptians defeated the Turks, 24 June, 1839. 

NIAGARA (N. America). At the head of this 
river, on the western shore, is Fort Erie, which was 
taken by the English, 24 July, 1759. It was 
abandoned in the war with the United States, 27 
May, 1813, hut was retaken, 19 Dec. following. A 
suspension bridge of a single span of 820 feet over 
the Niagara, connecting the railways of Canada 
and New York, was opened in March, 18515. It is 
elevated 18 feet on the Canadian, and 28 feet on the 
American side; superseded by u greit new steel 
arch bridge, last panel fitted, 28, 29 March, 1897, 
a great engineering feat, constructed by the Penn- 
sylvanian steel company for the Canadian and New 
York incorporations. There are at present four 
bridges crossing the river. 

About eighteen miles below Fort Erie are the remarkable 
falls. The river is here 740 yards wide ; the half-mile 
immediately above the cataracts is a rapid, in which 
the water falls 58 feet ; it is then thrown, with aston- 
ishing grandeur, down a stupendous precipice of 150 
feet perpendicular, in three distinct and collateral 
sheets ; and, in a rapid that extends to the distance of 
nine miles below, falls nearly as much more. The river 
then flows in a deep channel till it enters lake Ontario, 
at Fort Niagara. 

The falls visited by the prince of Wales, Sept. i860. 

Blondin crossed the falls on a tight rope, 30 June et seq. 
to 2 Sept. 1859 ; and again in i860. 

Professor Tyndall visited the falls, Nov., 1872, and lec- 
tured on them at the Royal Institution, 4 April, 1873. 

Company formed to utilize its water power mechani- 
cally, 1877. 

Capt. Matt Webb drowned while attempting to swim 
across the whirlpool rapids, 24 July, 1883. 

Niagara international park purchased' by the U.S. govern- 
ment, opened 15 July, 1885. 

Mr. Carlisle D. Graham, an Englishman, passed through 
the rapids safely in a barrel shaped like a buoy, seven 
feet long, 11 July, 1886; again, 15 June, 1887." 

Wm. J. Kendall in a cork vest swims through the 
rapids, 22 Aug. 1886. 

The huge upper table rook fell, due to weight of 
accumulated ice, 13 Jan. 1887. 

Mr. Hollingshead's grand "cyclorama" of Niagara, 
London, opened 12 March, 1888, closed 29 Nov. 1890. 

Mr. Carlisle D. Graham after long preparation said to 
have " shot Niagara (rapids) in a barrel" 25 Aug. 1889. 

Mr. Dixon crosses Niagara river below the falls on a 
wire rope, 6 Sept. 1890. 

An international commission (president, sirWm. Thom- 
son, afterwards lord Kelvin) was appointed to consider 
the best method for utilizing 125,000 horsepower, of 
the force of the Niagara falls, which is computed to be 
about 4,500,000 horse-power. Prizes were given by the 
Cataract company to the authors of various projects 
9 Feb. 1 89 1. 

In the Times of 8 June, 1892, professor George Forbes, 
who was engaged in the undertaking, reported that 
the engineering works were nearly completed, and 
that the electrical arrangements by which the vast 
force was to be transmitted, were begun. 

The force is to be used in factories, in lighting Niagara 
Falls city, and in working railways. In 1892 the work 
was carried on by the Niagara Falls Power company. 



The great power house completed, 5,000 horse-power 
dynamos constructed by the Westinghouse company, 
reported Dec, 1894. 

Mr. T. C. Martin, of New York, gave an illustrated dis- 
course on the "Utilisation of Niagara," at the Royal 
Institution, London, 19 June, 1896. 

Receipt of 15,000 horse-power from the Niagara works 
at Buffalo, 26 miles distant, midnight, Sunday, 15 
Nov. 1896. 

Prof. Forbes introduces further developments with 
success, reported, 24 Aug. 1899 ; 100,000 horse power, 
in 1902. 

Strike riot among workmen employed by th' Canadian 
electrical power companies, resulting from a reduction 
of wages, 2 Nov. 1903. 

NIBELUNGENOTor Nibelungen-Lied, 
a popular German epic of the 1 2th century, com- 
posed of various ancient mythical poems, termed 
sagas; which, according to the poet Wm. Morris, 
should be to our i - ace what Homer was to the 
Greeks. 

The first critical edition, by K. Lachmann, appeared 1826 
and 1846. The best translation in modern German, by 
Simrock, 1827 ; a useful edition, with translation and 
glossary, by L. Braunfels, 1846 ; in English, by W. N. 
Lettsom, 2nd ed. 1874. 
Richard Wagner's musical dramas, "The Ring of the 
Nibelungen," are based on this poem : the persons in- 
clude the great Northern gods and goddesses, the giants, 
the dwarfs, and the daughters of the Rhine (see under 
Music). 

NICiEA, see Nice. 

NICARAGUA, a state in Central America 
(which see) . The present constitution was estab- 
lished 19 Aug. 1858. At the commencement of 1855 
it was greatly disturbed by two political parties : 
that of the president, Chamorro, who held Granada, 
the capital, and that of the democratic chief, 
Castellon, who held Leon. The latter invited 
Walker, the filibuster, to his assistance, who in a 
short time became sole dictator of the state.* By 

* William Walker was born at Tennessee, in the 
United States, where he became successively doctor, 
lawyer, and journalist, and afterwards gold-seeker in 
California, whence he was invited to Nicaragua by 
Castellon, with the promise of 52,000 acres of land, on 
condition of bringing with him a band of adventurers to 
sustain the revolutionary cause. Walker accepted the 
terms, and on 28 June landed at Reale.jo with 68 men. 
He increased his forces at Leon, and soon after attacked 
the town of Rivas, where he was repulsed with loss. 
He then joined col. Kinney, who had occupied and 
governed Grey Town, 6 Sept. On 13 Oct. Walker cap- 
tured Granada by surprise when in a defenceless state, 
shot Mayorga, one of the ministers, and established a 
rule of terror. By intervention of the American consul 
he made peace with the general of the state army, Corral, 
but shot him on 7 Nov., on finding him corresponding 
with fugitives at Costa Rica. Walker at first was only 
general-in-chief ; but on Rivas, whom he had made 
president, deserting him, he became sole dictator. On 
14 May, 1856, his envoy Vijil was recognised by the 
president of the United States, whence also he obtained 
reinforcements during his retention of power. Costa Rica 
declared war against him, 28 Feb. 1856 ; the other states 
of central America soon followed the example, and a 
sanguinary struggle ensued, lasting till May, 1857. On 
25 Nov. 1856, Walker totally burnt Granada, being unable 
to defend it, and removed the seat of government to 
Rivas. This place he surrendered to gen. Mora on 1 May, 
1857, on the intervention of capt. Davis, of the £/. Mary's, 
U.S. Himself, his staff, and 260 men were conveyed in 
that vessel to New Orleans, where they were received with 
great enthusiasm. On 25 Nov., 1857, he again invaded 
Nicaragua, landing at Punta Arenas with 400 men ; bnt 
on 8 Dec. was compelled to surrender to capt. Paulding, 
U.S., and was conveyed to New York. He escaped 
punishment by nolle prosequi (2 June, 1858): but capt. 
Paulding was tried for exceeding orders, and blamed — 
yet excused by president Buchanan. On 5 Aug. i860, 



NICARAGUA. 



877 



NICE. 



the united efforts of the confederated states the 
filibusters were all expelled in May, 1857. On 
1 May, 1858, Nicaragua and Costa llica appealed to 
the great huropean powers for protection. Nicaragua 
railway, a transit route between the Pacific and 
Atlantic, proposed, and company formed Nov. 1866. 
President T. Martinez elected, 1859 and 1863 ; 
Fernando Guzman, elected 1 March, 1867 ; Vicente 
Quadra elected 1 Feb. 1871 ; Pedro Joaquin Cha- 
morro, I Feb. 1875 > Joaquin Zavala, 1 March, 
1879 » dr. Adam Cardenas, Jan. 1883 ; seftor 
Carazo, 16 Dec. 1886. Population in 1897, 310,000. 

Louis Napoleon, afterwards emperor, proposed the 
making a ship canal by the lake Nicaragua from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific, between 1842-4 ; the govern- 
ment of Nicaragua proposed it in 1846 ; colonel Childs 
made a survey in 1851 ; a company was chartered for 
85 years, and conventions were signed, but the capi- 
talists declined their support. 

The scheme was revived in Feb. 1875. Sae Panama and 
Loans. 

Treaty by which the United States may construct a 
canal (MenscaU's plan) from San Juan (Grey Town) 
on the Caribbean sea to Brito, on the Pacific, with 
equal powers ; contrary to the Bulwer Clayton treaty, 
which see, about 16 Dec. 1884 ; rejected by the United 
States legislature, 30 Jan. 1885. 

The senate and house pass the Nicaragua canal bill, 
7 Feb. 1889. 

The construction of a breakwater at Grey Town begun 
June, 1889. 

Death of sig. Carazo ; Dr. Sacaza elected president ; re- 
ported 2 Aug. 1889 ; re-elected about 9 Oct. 1890. 

Tue construction of the Nicaragua canal begun 22 Oct. 
1889 ; the bill for it abandoned by the U.S.A. senate, 
27 Feb. 1891. 

Insurrection in Granada suppressed with bloodshed (the 
leaders exiled), 23 Aug. 1891. 

Convention of delegates respecting the canal meets at 
New Orleans, 30 Nov. 1892. 

Insurrection ; the rebels capture fort San Carlos and 
fort Castillo, n May, 1893 ; joined by ex-president 
Cardenaz and gen. Gutierrez ; the insurgents defeated 
by president Sacaza, May ; the government troops 
defeated at Masaya, 20 May ; negotiations for peace ; 
president Sacaza resigns ; new government formed by 
compromise, 30 May ; Salvador Machado, president, 
1 June ; the revolutionists enter the city, 6 June ; 
take Corinto and Chinandega, reported July ; gen. 
Jose Santos Zelaya, president, reported, 18 July ; 
government overtures rejected by the insurgents ; 
fighting continued, 21 July ; Mauagua captured 
by the insurgents, reported 26 July ; they occupy 
Masaya, 31 July ; treaty of peace ; the Leon party 
supreme ; gen. Zelaya retires ; amnesty reported, 
3 Aug. 1893. 

War with Honduras, which see, Jan. 1894. 

Dispute with Mosquito territory (which see), 1894. 

By an explosion at the military barracks at Granada, 
many lives lost, 9 Oct. 1894. 

The canal bill passed by the U.S.A. senate ; 70,000,000 
dollars to be guaranteed ; the secretary of the U.S. 
treasury to have the supervision of the work, ten of 
the directors to be appointed by the president, 26 Jan. 
1895 ; unfavourable report of the commission of engi- 
neers, &c, on the scheme, announced, Dec. 1895 ; 
preliminary report, cost to be 115,000,000 dols., 
Dec. 1898 ; bill passed U.S.A. senate, 21 Jan. 1899 ; 
convention revising the Clayton-Bulwer treaty of 1850, 
signed by lord Pauncefote and Mr. Hay, 5 Feb. 1900 ; 
the concession to the Maritime Canal Co., reported, 
26 April, 1900. 

The new Hay- Pauncefote canal treaty, superseding the 
Clayton-Bulwer treaty, signed at Washington, 18 Nov. 
1901. See United States. 

Walker landed near Truxillo, Honduras, and took the 
fort on the 6th. On the 7th he proclaimed that he made 
war on the government, not on the people of Honduras. 
On being summoned to surrender his booty by capt. 
Salmon, B.N., of the Icarus, he refused, and fled. He 
was pursued, caught, given up to the Honduras govern- 
ment, tried, and shot (12 Sept.). His followers were 
dismissed. Grey Town was surrendered to Nicaragua in 
i860. 



The Panama canal bill passed by U.S. congress. 

26 June ; signed by pres. Boosevelt, 28 June, 1902. 
Ultimatum : Great Britain demands 15,500^. as reparation 

for injuries to British subjects, &c, 19 March, 1895. 
Nicaragua proposes that all questions should be referred 

to impartial arbitration, 15 April, 1895. 
Arrival of 3 British war-ships at Corinto, 22 April, 1895. 
Payment of indemnity demanded within 3 days, 24 April ; 

refused, 26 April ; the republic declared under martial 

law, 28 April, 1895. 
Corinto occupied by the British unopposed, 27 April ; 

capt. Trench installed governor, 28 April, 1895. 
Pres. Zelaya protests against the British occupation, &c.„ 

28 April, 1895. 
Nicaragua agrees to pay 15,500?. within 15 days after the 

British evacuate Corinto, 30 April, 1895. 
The minister of Salvador in London authorized to pay 

the indemnity : the British retire from Corinto, 4 May, 

1895 ; a convention agreed to, announced, 18 March, 

1896. 
Bevolt in the north-west ; pres. Zelaya declares himself 

dictator, reported 25 Feb. 1897. 
Severe defeat of the rebels at Matearis and Nargote, 

guns captured, reported, 2 March ; Matapa and Mora 

taken by pres. Zelaya, reported, 18 March, 1897. 
Serious disturbances by the Honduras soldiers at 

Corinto suppressed by the British and American 

marines, with the approbation of the president, 2-4 

May, 1897. 
Nicaraguan rebels (300) evacuate San Juan dal Sur,. 

7 Feb. ; rebels defeated at Bivas, 8 Feb. 1898. 
Country unsettled : Aguas Calientes captured by the 

troops, Feb. 1899 ; gen. Beyes, insurgent leader, 

surrenders to British and U. S. cruisers ; marines 

landed at Blewfields, 28 Feb. 1899. 
Gen. Torres, dictator, demands repayment of duties % 

martial law declared ; reported, 25 March, 1899. 
Gen. Zelaya inaugurated president on re-election, 

2 Feb. 1902. 
Concentration of troops on Pacific and Atlantic coasts, 

imposition of heavy war taxes, commerce suffering,, 

reported, Dec. 1902. 

NICE or NKLEA, a town in Bithynia, Asia 
Minor, N. W. Antigonus gave it the name Anti- 
goneia, which Lysimachus changed to Nicasa, the 
name of his wife. It became the residence of the 
kings of Bithynia about 208 B.C. At the battle of 
Nice, a.d. 194, the emperor Severus defeated his 
rival, Pescennius Niger, who was again defeated at 
Issus, and soon after taken prisoner and put to 
death. The first general council was held here 
19 June to 25 Aug. 325, which adopted the Nicene 
Creed and condemned the Arians. It was attended 
by 318 bishops from divers parts, who settled both 
the doctrine of the Trinity and the time for observing 
Easter. An addition was made to the creed, 381 % 
was rejected, 431. See FiUoquc. When the Cru- 
saders took Constantinople, and established a Latin 
empire there in 1204, the Greek emperors removed 
to Nice and reigned there till 1261, when they re- 
turned to Constantinople ; see Eastern Empire. 
Nice was taken by the Ottoman Turks in 1330. 

NICE (S.E. France) was the seat of a colony 
from Massilia, now Marseilles, and formed part of the 
Roman empire. In the middle ages it was subject 
to Genoa, and suffered from the frequent wars- 
being taken and retaken by the imperialists ana- 
French. It was taken by the Austrians under 
Melas, 1800; seized and annexed to France 1792; 
restored to Sardinia in 18 14. Nice was again 
annexed to France in virtue of the treaty of 
24 March, i860; the people having voted nearly 
unanimously for this change by universal suffrage. 
The French troops entered 1" April, and definite 
possession was taken 14 June following. Garibaldi, 
a native, vehemently protested against this annexa- 
tion. Population, 1901, 125,099. 
Fire at the opera house, and panic, about 70 killed, 

23 March, 1881 
International exhibition .... 6 Jan. 1884 



NICIAS. 



878 NIGER COAST PROTECTORATE. 



About 90 acres of forest destroyed by fire ; three 

persons perish 27 Feb. 1891 

Statue of Garibaldi unveiled . . . 4 Oct. ,, 

The queen visits Nice . March, April, 1896, 1897 l!_; 98 > 
she opens a bridge over the Paillon, presents 42oof. 
to charities, &c, 27 April, 1899. 

NICIAS, PEACE OF, between Athens and 
Sparta for 50 years, 421 B.C., negotiated by that 
unfortunate Athenian general, who with his col- 
league, Demosthenes, was put to death after the 
disastrous termination of the expedition against 
Syracuse, 413 B.C. 

NICKEL, a white, ductile, malleable, magnetic 
metal, employed in the manufacture of German 
silver. Cronstedt in 1751 discovered nickel in the 
mineral copper-nickel. Nickel ordered to be sub- 
stituted for bronze coinage in France, 1882. 
The nickel heat engine of professor Stefan of Vienna in 
1885 consisted of plates of nickel fixed on a wheel 
which rotated when the metal was heated, in the 
presence of a magnet. Similar machines have been 
constructed by E. Berliner, 1885, Edison, 1887, and 
F. J. Smith, 1892. 

NICOBAR ISLES, Indian Ocean, S. of Bay 
of Bengal, given up by Denmark and occupied by 
Great Britain to suppress piracy ; announced June, 
1869. Combined with the Andaman Isles, which 
see. 

NICOLAITANES, a sect mentioned in Rev. 
ii. 6, 15, said to have sprung from Nicolas, one of 
the first seven deacons {Acts vi.), and to have 
advocated a community of wives, and to have denied 
the divinity of Christ. 

NICOMEDIA, the metropolis of Bithynia, Asia 
Minor, N.W., founded by king Nicomedes I., 264 
B.C., on the remains of Astacus ; destroyed by an 
earthquake, a.d. 115 ; and restored by the emperor 
Adrian, 124. The Koman emperors frequently 
resided here during their eastern wars. Here 
Diocletian resigned the purple, 305 ; and Constan- 
tine died at his villa in its neighbourhood, 337. It 
surrendered to the Seljukian Turks, 1078 ; and to 
Orchan and the Ottoman Turks in 1338. 

NICOPOLIS, on the Danube, Bulgaria, 
founded by Trajan. Here was fought a battle be- 
tween the allied Christian powers under Sigis- 
mund, king of Hungary, afterwards emperor, and 
the Turks under Bajazet; said to have been the 
first battle between the Turks and Christians, the 
latter were defeated, losing 20,000 slain, and as 
many wounded and prisoners, 28 Sept. 1396- Ni- 
copolis was taken by the Kussians after a severe 
conflict (2 pashas, about 6000 men, 2 monitors, 
and 40 guns were captured), 15, 16 July, 1877. 

NIELLO-WORK, believed to have been pro- 
duced by rubbing a mixture of silver, lead, copper, 
sulphur, and borax into engravings on silver, &c, 
an art known to the ancients, was practised in the 
middle ages, and said to have given to Maso 
Finiguerra the idea of engraving upon copper, about 
1460. 

NIEMEN, or MEMEL, a river flowing into the 
Baltic, and separating Prussia from Russia. On a raft 
on this river the emperor Napoleon met Alexander 
of Russia, 22 June, 1807, and made peace with him 
and Prussia. He crossed the Niemen to invade 
Russia, 24 June, 1812, and recrossed with the 
remains of his army, 28 Dec. Near it the Poles 
defeated the Russians 27 May, 183 1. 

NIGER. A great river of N.W. Africa. British 
settlements at the mouth established since 1841. 



Niger expedition, see Africa, 1841. British protec- 
torate with free trade affirmed by the West African 
conference at Berlin, Dec. 1884 ; confirmed June, 
1885. Capt. Ringer successfully explored the area 
within the bend of the river, 18*87-89. 

NIGER COAST PROTECTORATE. 
NIGERIA, 1897, see Oil Rivers. Northern 
Nigeeria and Southern Nigkia, i Jan. 1900. 

The National African company incorpora ed in 1882 : 
chartered as the Royal Niger company in 1886 ; 
chairman, lord Aberdare. The company's territories 
were constituted by the combination of various settle- 
ments, 1879-85, and by treaties with petty chiefs and 
especially by the treaty of Nikki concluded by capt. 
Lugard, placing Kishi (13 Oct.) and Borgu (or Busah) 
under British protection, 10 Nov. 1894 ; Anglo- 
French treaty at Busah, 20 Jan. 1890 ; Royal Niger 
company act (transfer of Nigeria to the imperial 
government for 865,000^) passed, 9 Aug. 1899. 

Samuel Adjai Crowther, a native African, first bishop of 
the Niger territory, rescued when a child from a slave- 
ship by the British, and taken to Sierra Leone 1822 ; 
baptised and educated ; became a missionary ; con- 
secrated at Canterbury cathedral, 1864; died 31 Dec. 
1891. 

Lieut. L. Mizon, leader of a French exploring expedition 
in the Niger country in 1891, on his return to Paris in 
June, 1892, accused the officers of the Niger company 
of opposition and ill-usage. The charges were firmly 
repelled by the company's chairman, lord Aberdare, 
22, 25 July, 1892. 

New expedition, 10 Aug. ; his aggressive conduct to- 
wards the British, Germans and natives, reported Oct. 
et seq. 1892 ; his recall ordered. 

M. Hoelle sent out; further complications, reported 
Sept. ; proceedings of the company justified by lord 
Aberdare : Times, 19 Sept. 1893. 

Lieut. Mizon sails for France, 12 Oct. 1893 ; dies, March, 
1899. 

Repressive measures of the company lead to native 
risings at Brass, 27 Jan. 1895. 

Akassa looted, 28 Jan. ; Mr. Wyse and other prisoners 
killed ; sir Claude Macdonald holds Brass ; reinforce- 
ments arriving, reported 15 Feb. 1895. 

Adm. Bedford takes Sacrifice island, Nimbi, and Fish- 
town, defeats and punishes the Brass chiefs ; lieut. 
Geo. J. Taylor and 2 seamen killed, 20-25 Feb. 1895. 

Dispute ended ; Brass reopened to trade, 25 April, 1895. 

Sir George Taubman-Goldie, deputy-gov. under lord 
Aberdare (who died 25 Feb. 1895) since 1886, elected 
governor of the company ; lord Scarborough deputy, 
March, 1895. 

Reports of lieut. Baud's and capt. Decoeur's mission ; 
treaties signed, March-April, 1895. 

The British and French Niger commission meet at Paris, 

8 Feb. ; the Boussa territory occupied by the com- 
pany, Feb. 1896. 

King Koko of Brass outlawed, reported, 18 April, 1896. 

Terrible explosion at Bida, in the Nupe country, the 
emir Maleki's palace destroyed, 200 deaths, reported 
16 May, 1896. 

Successful repression of the slave trade, reported 
11 June, 1896. 

Katchella's stronghold on the Middle Binue river de- 
stroyed after a desperate fight and himself killed, 
many slaves rescued, 14 soldiers killed, Aug. 1896. 
See Lagos, Dec. 1896-7. 

Successful expedition of major Leonard, Mr. James and 

9 carriers, unarmed, to Bendi city, 180 miles inland ; 
treaties with various kings and chiefs made, returns 
to Opobo, 19 Dec. 1896. 

An expedition, under major Arnold and sir George 
Tanbman Goldie, against the emir of Nupe and the 
Fulahs for tyranny and the breaking of treaties, 1885 
and 1890, leaves Lokoja 6 Jan. 1897 ; reaches Sura, the 
enemy retreating on Bida, n Jan. 1897. 

Mr. Wallace, agent-gen., with an armed flotilla, drives 
out the Fulahs and burns Shonga, their stronghold ; 
the Nupes join the forces against the Fulahs, 14 Jan. ; 
successful advance on Egbon ; Ladi, the S. Fulah 
capital, destroyed, and 1200 slaves rescued, 22 Jan. ; 
Bida taken by major Arnold after a desperate fight 
(1 a.m. to 4 p.m.), Fulahs (20,000) utterly routed ; 
lieut. A. C. Thomson killed, 26, 27 Jan. ; sir George 
Goldie enters Bida, deputations of Nupes received, 



NIGER COAST. 



879 



NIGER COAST. 



free farms granted S.W. of the Niger and protection 
proclaimed, 29 Jan ; desultory fighting, prince Isa 
captured, 30 Jan. 1897. 

Many surrenders, festivities, races, &c. 1 Feb. ; treaty 
of peace with Mohammed, the new emir of Nupe, signed 
at Kosoji, s Feb. ; treachery of the Ilorins, severe 
lighting near the Oyon river, 15 Feb. ; the town of 
Ilorin bombarded and taken by major Arnold's 
column, 16 Feb. ; the emir and 4 chiefs submit, treaty 
of Ilorin signed, giving power to the company and 
effecting a settlement of the Lagos frontier, 18 Feb. 

. 1897. 

French expedition from Dahomey descends the river Elo 
and occupies Busa, 13 Feb. (lieut. Bretonnet assumes 
the title of French resident of the Middle Niger, and 
M. Chrron styled French resident at Busa, Mar.), 1897. 

A treaty signed with the emir of Lafiagi, 23 Feb. ; the 
troops return to Lokoja, 25 Feb. ; other emirs send in 
their submission, March ; prince Markum acknow- 
ledged emir of Bida ; campaign entirely successful 
throughout the W. Soudan, March, 1897. 

Submission of the Patanis at Abutshi, 5 March, 1897. 

Lieut. Musters, who captured some Nupe horsemen 
singlehanded at Sheshi, dies at Forcados, 9 Mar. 1897. 

Mr. Wallace's operations with the river tribes success- 
ful, Feb.-March, 1897. 

French encroachments, reported, 11 Oct. 1897. 

The Anglo-French Niger commission meets at Paris, 29 
Oct, 1897 ; convention, signed, 14 June ; Times, 16, 
18 June, 1898. 

Treaties negotiated by the Royal Niger company, Times, 
12 Nov. 1897. 

Major Arnold storms Kim, the stronghold of prince 
Arku, son of the king of Igara, rebel slave raider, the 
enemy routed, 17 Nov. 1897. 

Niki occupied by the French, the Baribas routed, 30 
Nov. 1897. 

Successful expedition, under lieut. Festing, against the 
Ibouzas, between Asaba and Benin, Jan. ; terms of 
peace : abolition of human sacrifices, one king, &c, 
settled by Mr. Wallace at a durbar, 17 Feb. 1898. 

Death of the king cff Niki ; the king of Beri, whose ter- 
ritory is in British occupation, becomes king of all 
Borgu, Jan. 1898. 

The sultan of Sokoto accepts the terms of the British 
alliance, Jan. 1898. 

Hard fighting in the Ediba country against hostile 
tribes, lieut. Frank Fenton killed ; tribes surrender- 
ing, Feb. 1898. 

Bereguru and Bashoro, in Borgu, occupied by the 
British, Feb. ; see Lagos, March, 1898. 

Severe fighting on the Cross river; the Ekuris decline 
overtures of peace, their capital detroyed, 1 Feb. ; 
district quiet, 15 Feb. 1898. 

Niger coast protectorate expedition, under majors 
Searle, Cockburn, and others, leave Opobo, 2 April, 
to hold a palaver with the Nibo chief (who had been 
stopping trade, &c), at Omukorosho ; on his refusal 
to meet the British, his town was stormed and taken 
with some loss ; the chief afterwards surrendered and 
agreed to terms, reported, 31 May, 189S. 

Anglo-French convention to delimit frontier of N. 
Nigeria, signed, June, 1898. 

Two expeditions by the Royal Niger company's forces 
against the emirs of Lapai and Argeyes for slave 
raiding very successful ; Lapai captured and destroyed, 
21 June ; Argeyes occupied, enemy's loss heavy, no 
British killed, 24_June, 1898. 
An expeditionary force from Lagos, under major Arnold, 
attacks and destroys Siama in Forcados to punish 
native piracy, &c, 28 Aug. 1898. 
Busa (evacuated by the French) and Ilo occupied by 

the British, 4 Oct. 1898. 
Borgu evacuated by the French, reported, 1 Sept. 1898. 

Revolt in the Assaba hinterland against interference 
with sacrificial rites ; severe fighting, many natives 
killed at Illah, Oct.-Nov. 1898. 

Lieuts. Keating and Gale, with 14 natives, treacherously 
attacked, and all killed but 2 natives, Oct. 1898. 

Assaba district subdued, the king of Ibo submits, 3-25 

Dec. 1898. 
Expedition under maj. Carter and capt. R. Gabbett to 
suppress fetishism in the Kwo Ibibio country, suc- 
cessful, 4 Feb. -15 March, 1899. 
See Oil Rivers, 1899. 
The chief of Suntai and his town captured by a punitive 
. expedition, reported, 13 July, 1899. 



Royal charter granted 1886, revoked, July ; territory 
taken over by the imperial government by act passed, 
9 Aug. 1899. 

Company reconstituted, government terms adopted ; 
lord Scarborough succeeds sir George Goldie as chair- 
man, 23 Aug. 1899. 

Testimonial presented to sir G. Goldie, 27 Oct. 1899. 

Successful punitive expedition on the Binue ; 8 towns 
destroyed after much fighting, reported, 13 Oct. 1899. 

British protectorate : Upper and Lower Nigeria and 
Lagos ; col. (aft. sir Frederick) Lugard proclaimed 
high commissioner in N. Nigeria ; sir R. D. Moor 
high commissioner in S. Nigeria, 1 Jan. 1900. 

Capt. Carroll, with a telegraph construction staff, under 
lieut. McClintock, N.E. of Lokoja, attacked by the 
Munshis tribes ; enemy routed, 80 killed, 8, 10 Jan. ; 
enemy again defeated and Ibi captured, 15 Jan. 1900. 

Natives again routed by lieut. Monck-Mason and 150 
men on the Gurara, N. of Lokoja, 21 Feb. 1900. 

Punitive expedition under lieut. -col. Lowry-Cole against 
the Munshis ; much fighting, 5 British killed, reported, 

5 March, 1900. 

Further fighting on the Gurara, enemy's camp destroyed 

reported, 23 March, 190c. 
The Pagan stronghold at Lemo, N. Nigeria, stormed 

and burnt by col. Lowry-Cole ; many natives killed, 

9 May, 1900. 
The hon. David Carnegie killed near Lokoja, 26 Nov. 

1900. 
Punitive expedition under col. Kemball ; Kantagora 

and Bida, in N. Nigeria, captured, 19 Jan. -17 Feb. 

1 901. 
Operations in S. Nigeria under maj. Heneker ; towns 

captured, 20 March-May, 1901. 
Capt. Keyes (26), in command of Ilo, on the French 

frontier, treacherously murdered in Argungu by 3 

French traders ; in some after fighting 2 of his party 

and 12 others were killed, 21 June, 1901. 
Negotiations with Fadr-Allah Rabah's son, concluded, 

Aug. ; he was afterwards attacked and killed by the 

French, at Godiba, Sept. 1901. 
Punitive expedition under lieut. -col. Morland against 

the emir of Adamawa ; Yola captured, the emir fled, 

2 Sept. ; his brother Bobo Amadu installed as emir by 

Mr. Wallace, o.m.g., 8 Sept. 1901. 
The Aros attack Obagu and massacre the natives, about 

15 Nov. ; their position at Enyong creek, Cross river, 

shelled and occupied by the British under col. 

Montanaro, 28 Nov. ; enemy again defeated, 30 Nov. ; 

rapid progress, enemy's strong resistance successfully 

repulsed, 2, 5, 6, 8 Dec. ; Bendi taken after 3 days' 

fighting, 16 Dec. ; Oror taken, the Aros defeated, 

6 chiefs surrender, 24-31 Dec. ; col. Festing capture ■> 
Oloks ; 25 chiefs and others captured, 2, n Jan. 1902. 

Stubborn resistance, enemy's loss severe, 25, 29, Jan. ; 
a stronghold of the Igas captured ; enemy defeated 
in Ngwa country, 12, 19 Feb. ; many towns submit; 
campaign closed, 23 March, 1902. 

Sir Fred. Lugard reports British occupation of 9 pro- 
vinces, chiefly on the Niger and the Binue, Feb. 1902. 

Gombe, Gnjba, and Bautshi occupied by col. Morland 
without opposition ; Mr. C. L. Temple installed as 
resident at Bautshi. Feb. 1902. 

Col. Morland's expedition to lake Chad very successful ; 
British posts established, reported, June, 1902. 

Slave trade abolished in Long Ju-Ju ; fetish destroyed, 
cash currency introduced in the Aro countiy, S. 
Nigeria, &c, reported, Sept. 1902. 

Capt. Moloney, resident at Keffi, murdered by a native 
chief in N. Nigeria, 4 Oct. 1902. 

Successful Ju-Ju expedition (to stop human sacrifices) 
against Oma Nabad, 7 natives rescued, 4 chiefs killed, 
17 Nov. 1902. 

The emir of Kano, N. Nigeria, makes hostile prepara- 
tions against the British, reported, 5 Dec. 1902. 

The Opobo chief, in S. Nigeria, surrenders ; successful 
expedition, reported, 10 Dec. 1902. 

Sir F. Lugard decides upon active operations against 
the emir of Kano, said to be the greatest military 
chief in Hausaland, in consequence of his increased 
hostility in affording protection to the murderer of 
capt. Moloney, British resident at Keffi, end Dec. 1902. 

Emir of Kano flees to Sokoto, reported 2 Jan. 1903. 

British force of 37 officers and 1050 men under the 
command of col. Morland concentrate at Zaria, the 
nearest port to Kano, 12 Jan. 1903. 



NIGHTINGALE FUND. 



880 



NILE, BATTLE OF THE. 



Mixed British and German commission to demarcate at 
boundaries laid down by the Anglo-German agree- 
ment of 1893 : frontier to be fixed from southern 
shoie of lake Chad to Zola, reported mid Jan., 1903. 

Two companies Ceo strong of Lagos batt. of W. Africa 
frontier force leave Lagos for expedition against emir 
of Kano, 27 Jan. 1903. 

Capture of Kano by col. Morland, 300 natives killed, 2 
British officers, and 12 men wounded, 3 Feb. 1^03. 

Gen. Kemball leaves Kano for Sokoto, the great Fulah 
capital, 16 Feb. 1903. 

Sokoto occupied after some fighting, the sultan and 
chief having fled, 15 March, 1903. 
[British supremacy completed over 500,00c sq. 
mi., with a population of about 20,000,000.] 

The ex-sultan of Sokoto, joined by a large number, who 
had fled N.E. of Bantshi, are pursued by capt. Sword's 
column to Burmi on the Dongola river ; but want of 
guns causes failure of the attempt to capture the 

. town ; after severe fighting capt. Sword retreats with 
the loss of 4 killed and 60 wounded, enemy's loss 
much greater, 16 May, 1903. 

Capt. Sword reaches Bantshi 23 May, the ex-sultan 
begins negotiations, but is only promised his life if 
he submits ; Burmi again attacked by a force of 40 
British and 500 native troops, and completely 
destroyed after desperate fighting, in which the ex- 
sultan Ataibihu, most of his emirs, and about 700 
natives were killed, the British loss being maj. Marsh 
and 10 others killed, 3 officers and 69 men wounded, 27 
July, 1903. 

Anglo-German boundary commission under lt.-col. 
Jackson, completes survey of districts S. of lake 
Chad, reported 24 Aug. 1903. 

NIGHTINGALE FUND. On 21 Oct. 1854, 
Miss Florence Nightingale left England with a 
staff of thirty-seven nurses, and arrived at Scutari, 5 
Nov. She rendered, invaluable services to the army ; 
and returned to London, 8 Sept. 1856. In honour 
of this a meeting was held at Willis's rooms on 29 
Nov. 1855, to raise funds to establish an institution 
for the training of nurses and other hospital atten- 
dants. Madame Jenny Lind-Goldschmidt sang at 
Exeter hall on 11 March, 1856, and gave the pro- 
ceeds (1872/.) to the fund. The subscriptions 
closed 24 April, 1857, amounting to 44,039^. The 
queen gave Miss Nightingale a valuable jewel. 

NIGRITIA, see Saudan. 

NIHILISM, a popular name for the school of 
philosophy which believes nothing without phy- 
sical evidence, renounces all forms of Divine reve- 
lation, and gives nothing in their place. 

NIHILISTS, ultra-reformers in Russia, said to 
propose the destruction of all government, and to 
begin society afresh. They became known and 
spread in 1872; their alleged leader, Zychareff. The 
government began to suppress them, Sept. 1875. 
One of the leaders, Michael Bakounin, died at 
Lugano, 1 July, 1876. For recent events, see 
Russia, 1877-87 et seq. The term Nihilist was 
invented by the Russian novelist Turgenief, who 
died 3 Sept. 1883. 

" The Nihilists ask concessions, which are the common- 
places of every free community." — Times, 16 April, 
1881. 
" Nihilism as it is " by Stepniak, edited by Dr. Spence 
Watson, Nov. 1894. 

NIKA CONTESTS, see Circus. 

N I KOLSBURG (Moravia) . Here were signed, 
26 July, 1866, the preliminaries of a peace between 
Austria and Prussia. 

NIKSICH, a strong Turkish fortress in Monte- 
negro, many times besieged. Having been left by 
the Turks with insufficient garrison, it was captured 
bv Montenegrins, 7, 8 Sept. 1877, causing great re- 
joicings. 



NIL DARPAN, see India, June, 1861. 

NILE (Egypt). The longest river in Africa, 
formerly considered to have its rise in what were 
termed "'the mountains of the moon." The travels 
of Bruce were undertaken to discover the source 
of the Nile. He set out from England in June, 
1768; on the 14th of November, 1770, discovered 
the source of the Blue Nile in lake Tana, and 
returned home in 1773. The Nile overflows regu- 
larly every year, from about the 15th of June to the 
17th of September, w r hen, having given fertility to 
the land, it begins to decrease. The first Nilometer 
(a pillar) is said to have been set up by Osirtasen 
III., a king of the XII. dynasty, 2,300 B.C. One 
was set up by Solyman the Caliph, 715 a.d. 
In 1829, the inundations of the Nile rose to 26 in- 
stead of 22, by which 30,000 people were drowned 
and immense property lost. Mr. Petherick set out 
early in 1861 to explore the country at the source 
of the Nile. For recent discoveries, see Africa 
1863. A bridge over the Nile (above 1300 feet) 
at Cairo, was completed by a French company, 
Aug. 1872. For the discoveries of Speke, Crant, 
and Baker, see Victoria Nyanza, §c. 

Mr. H. M. Stanley, in his book, "Darkest Africa," 
published June, 1890, expressed his opinion that the 
newly-discovered lake Albert Edward Nyanza, at the 
head of the Semliki river which is fed by the snows of 
the mighty Ruivenzori range (possibly the mountains 
of the moon mentioned by Ptolemy the geographer in. 
the 2nd century a.d.), is the real source of ttie Nile. 

The barrage works of the Nile, consisting of two great 
dams or weirs for irrigation, anil the conveyance of 
boats by means of locks, constructed under the 
direction of Mouget Bey, a Frenchman, 1843-61 ; were 
unsuccessful and eventually neglected. 

In 1885 the great powers agreed to the expenditure of 
i,ooo,oooL on irrigation works, and the renovation of 
the barrage was effected under the direction of sir 
Colin Scott Moncriefl, 1886-90 ; supplementary dams 
advised by sir W. E. Garstin in 1897. 

Mouget Bey died at Paris, aged 82, Dec. 1890. 

The White Nile cleared of sudd by major Peake ; 
navigable from Khartum to fort Berkeley, end 

May, 1900 

Survey of the Nile to determine its species of fish 
(organised by Dr. John Anderson, died Aug. 
1900), by the Egyptian government, assisted by 
the British museum, began March, 1899 ; 2,500 
fishes sent to Natural History museum, 14 
new species .... Jan. 1901-June, 1903 

Barrage completed at Assuan ... 5 Feb. „ 

Lady Cromer lays the coping-stone . -15 Feb. 1902 

14 boats passed through the locks, waterway 
through the first cataract to Wady Haifa, open, 
3 Aug. ; the great dam, 2185 yards wide, 130 It. 
high, at Assuan formally opened by the khedive, 
the duchess of Connaught laying the last stone 
before the dukeanddistinguished company, 10 Dec. ,, 

[The water stored behind the dam estimated by 
sir William Garstin at over a thousand millions 
of cubic metres ; annual gain to the country, 
2,608, coo?., to the state, 378,400?., and over 
i,ooo,coo.?. to be received for the sale of re- 
claimed lands. Sir Benjamin Baker made k.c.b., 
sir Wm. Garstin, o.c.m.g., Mr. Win. Willcocks, 
major Hanbury Brown, and Fakry pasha, k.c.m.g. ; 
other honours conferred ; sir E. Cassel and sir 
John Aird decorated by the khedive, 10 Dec. ] 

Regions of the Upper Nile protected by the Anglo- 
Abyssinian treaty .... 15 May, „ 

Zif'teh barrage between Cairo and the sea, opened 

by the khedive 7 March, 1903 ' 

Expedition fcr the exploration of the Blue Nile 
under Mr. W. N. McMillan en route to Addis 
Abeba reported to be making good progress, 

25 March, „ 

NILE, Battle of the (or Aboukir), i Aug. ; 

1798, near Rosetta, between the French fleet under I 
limeys, and the British under sir Horatio Nelson, 
Nine of the French linc-of-battle ships were taken, L 



NIMEGUEN. 



881 



NOBEL BEQUEST. 



two were burnt, and two escaped. The French ship, 
L' Orient, with Brueys and IOOO men on board, 
blew up, and only 70 or 80 escaped. Nelson's 
exclamation upon commencing the battle was, 
" Victory or Westminster Abbey ! " 

NIMEGUEN (Holland). Here was signed 
the treaty of peace between France and the United 
Provinces, 1678. The French were successful against 
the British under the duke of York, before Nime- 
guen, 28 Oct. 1794; were defeated by them 3 Nov. ; 
but gained the place 8 Nov. Population, 1890, 
32,618 , 1900, 44,043. 

NINETEENTH CENTURY and After, 

a magazine open to writers of totally different 
opinions ; first appeared, March, 1877 ; introductory 
sonnet written by lord Tennyson ; editor, sir James 
Knowles (K.C.V.O., 6 Dec. 1903). 

NINEVEH, the capital of the Assyrian empire 
(see Assyria), founded by Ashur about 2245 B.C. 
The empire fell when Nebuchadnezzar captured 
Nineveh 606 B.C. The discoveries of Layard 
and others since 1839, in the neighbourhood of 
Mosul, at Koyunjik, the site of the ancient Ni- 
neveh, and other places, have in a manner disin- 
terred and re-peopled a city which for centuries 
had ceased to figure on the page of history. Botta 
commenced his explorations at Khorsabad in 1843, 
and published his great work "Monuments de Ni- 
nive," 1849-50. In 1848 Mr. (after sir, K.C.B.) 
Austen Henry Layard, published his "Nineveh 
and its Remains," and in 1853 his "Discoveries," 
in his second visit in 1849-50. He was born 5 March, 
1817, and died 5 July, 1894. See Gladstone, 1868, 
ambassador at Constantinople, 1877-80. Mr, Hor- 
musd Rassam, in 1854, discovered an ancient 
palace. Mr. George Smith described his excavations 
and their results in 1873-4, i Q "Assyrian Disco- 
veries," 1875. He died at Aleppo, 19 Aug. 1876. 
See Assyria. Mr. Rassam, appointed his succes- 
sor, among other valuable discoveries at Balawat, 
nine miles N.E. of Nimroud, and at Koyunjik, &c, 
found a bronze monument with inscriptions re- 
cording the names, title, genealogy, and exploits 
of king Assur-nazir-pal (b.c. 885-860), builder of 
the palaces and temples of Kalakh, the capital of 
the middle Assyrian empire. Mr. Rassam arrived 
in London with collections, Dec. 1882. 

The forms, features, costume, religion, modes of warfare, 
and ceremonial customs of its inhabitants stand before 
us as distinct as those of a living people ; and by help 
of the sculptures and their cuneiform inscriptions, the 
researches of the learned have increased the knowledge 
of Assyrian history. Among the sculptures that en- 
rich the British Museum may be mentioned the 
winged bull and lion, and numerous hunting and 
battle pieces ; and the bas-relief of the eagle-headed 
human figure, presumed to be a representation of the 
Assyrian god Nisroch (from Nisr, an eagle or hawk), 
whom Sennacherib was in the act of worshipping 
when he was assassinated by his two sons, about 710 
B.C. 2 Kings xix. 37. 

NIOBIUM, a rare metal, discovered by Hat- 
chett in columbite, a black earth, and named 
columbium, 1801. It was pronounced to be iden- 
tical with tantalum (or tantalium) by Wollaston ; 
but was rediscovered by H. Rose in 1846, and 
named niobium. 

NIRVANA, see Buddhism. 

NISBET or NESBET (Northumberland). Here 
a battle was fought between the English and Scotch 
armies, the latter greatly disproportioued in strength 
to the former. Several thousands of the Scots were 
slain upon the field and in the pursuit, 7 May, 1402. 



NISI PEIUS ("unless before "j, words in a 
writ summoning a person to be tried at Westmin- 
ster, unless the judges should come to hold their 
assizes in the place where he is. Judges sit in 
Middlesex by virtue of 18 Eliz. c. 12 (1576). 

NISMES (Nimes), S. France, was the flourish- 
ing Roman colony, Nemausus. Its noble amphi- 
theatre was injured by the English in 141 7. The 
inhabitants embraced Protestantism, anil suffered 
much persecution in consequence, and Nismes haa 
frequently been the scene of religious and political 
contests. The treaty termed the Pacification of 
Nismes (14 July, 1629) gave religious toleration for 
a time to the Huguenots. 

NITRE, see Saltpetre. 

NITRIC ACID, a compound of nitrogen and 
oxygen, formerly called aquafortis, is said to have 
been first obtained in a separate state by Raymond 
Lully, an alchemist, about 1287 ; but we are in- 
debted to Cavendish, Priestley, and Lavoisier for 
our present knowledge of its properties. H. 
Cavendish demonstrated the nature of this acid 
in 1785. Nitrous acid was discovered by Scheele 
about 1774. Nitrous gas was accidentally discovered 
by dr. Hales, Nitrous oxide gas (laughing gas) 
was discovered by dr. Priestley in 1776. The use 
of this gas as an anaesthetic, recommended by H. 
Davey in 1800, was begun in America (by Mr. Wells, 
a dentist), 1844; in Paris, 1866; in London, 
31 March, 1868, ingenious apparatus having been 
invented for its application. 

NITROGEN or AZOTE (from the Greek a, no, 
and za'o or zo, 1 live), an irrespirable elementary 
gas, and an important element in food, discovered 
by Rutherford about 1772. Before 1777, Scheele 
separated the oxygen of the air from the nitrogen, 
and almost simultaneously with Lavoisier dis- 
covered that the atmosphere is a mixture of these 
two gases. Nitrogen combined with hydrogen 
forms the volatile alkali ammonia, so freely given 
off by decomposing animal and vegetable bodies. 
See Air, 1894. Prof. Hermann Hellriegel (born 
1831) demonstrated in 1886 the power of legumi- 
nous plants to fix free nitrogen through the agency 
of microbes in their root nodules whereby the soil 
is much enriched. Clover gives up to the soil that 
which wheat requires. He died 24 Sept. 1895. 

NITRO- GLYCERINE (also called Nitro- 
LEUM), an intensely explosive amber-like fluid, 
discovered by Sobrero in 1847, is produced by add- 
ing glycerine (in successive small quantities) to a 
mixture of one part of nitric acid and two parts 
of sulphuric acid. Alfred Nobel, a Swede, first 
attempted its application as an explosive agent in 
1864. It has caused several most disastrous acci- 
dents, with great loss of life. In attempting to 
bury some nitro-glycerine in the town moor f.t 
Newcastle-on-Tyne, 17 Dec. 1867, an explosion 
took place, and seven persons lost their lives, in- 
cluding Mr. Mawson, the sheriff, and Mr. Bryson, 
town surveyor ; see Dynamite. Mr. Alfred Nobel's 
nitro-glycerine manufactory, near Stockholm, blown 
up ; 15 persons killed, many injured, 10 June, 
1868. An act prohibiting its importation for a time, 
and regulating its transmission, was passed in 1869, 
and repealed by the Explosives Act of 1875. Secret 
manufacture discovered, see Birmingham, 1883. 

NIZAM, see Hyderabad. 

NOBEL BEQUEST. Dr. Alfred Nobel, a 
Swede, died 1896 (see NUro-Glycerine, Blasting 

3 L 



NOBILITY. 



NON NOBIS, DOMINE: 



Gelatine, and Dynamite), left a large sum or 
■which the interest was to he awaided annual! y 
by a board of control at Stockholm in prizes 
each of the value of about 8,000/. to those who 
in the previous year should have rendered 
the greatest service to mankind, in inventions 
or discoveries in physical sciences, chemistry, 
physiology or medicine, literary work, and the cause 
of international brotherhood, in the suppression 
or reduction of standing armies, or the founding 
of Peace congresses. Regulations for the c re- 
petition issued, Oct. 1900. The Peace prize of 
150,000 kronen divided between M. Henri 
Bunant (Swis=>) and M. Frederic Passy (French) ; 
200,OOof. each to M. Sully Prudhomme, French 
poet, for literature ; to Dr. Behring. of Halle, for 
medicine ; prof, van't Hon" of Berlin, f r chemistry ; 
and prof Rontgen of Munich, for physics. The 
distribution took place at Stockholm, the crown 
prince and others present, 10 Dec. 1901. The 
Peace prize awarded to Mr. William Randall 
Cremer. m.p , for his work on behalf of inter- 
national arbitration; the four Nobel prizes were 
given to prof. Henri Btcquerel of Paris, divided 
with M. and Mdme. Curie also of Paris, for 
physics ; to prof, xlrrhenius of Stockholm for 
chemistry ; to prof. Finsen, of Copenhagen for 
medicine, and to M. Bjornstjeme Bjornsen, of 
Christiana, for literature, 11 !)■ c. 1903. Noebel 
Institutes are in process of establishment to carry 
out scientific investigation on the lines of the 
above scheme of the founder. 

The Nobel committee of the society of authors, 
formed for the purpose of recommending English 
candidates for the literature prize ; first meeting 
held in London, Dr. Richard Garnett in the 
chair(lord Avebury elected permanent chairman), 

14 Jan. 1902 

NOBILITY. The Goths, after they had seized 
a part of Furope, rewarded their heroes with titles 
of honour, to distinguish them from the common 
people. The right of peerage seems to have been 
at tirst territorial. Patents to persons having no 
estate were first granted by Philip the Fair ol 
France, 1095. George Neville, duke of Bedford 
(son of John, marquis of Montague), ennobled in 
1470, was degraded from the peerage by parliament, 
on account of his utter want of property, 19 Edw. 
IV., 1478. Noblemen's privileges were restrained 
in June, 1773; see Lords, and the vaiious orders of 
the nobility. 

In 1845 a statistical writer said that there were 500,000 
nobles in Russia, 239,000 in Austria ; in Spain (in 
1780), 470,000; in France (before 1790) 360,000 (of 
whom 4,120 were of the ancienne noblesse) ; in the 
United Kingdom, 1,631 with transmissible titles (dukes 
to baronets). 

NOBILITY of France preceded that of 

England. On 18 June, 1790, the National Assembly 
decreed that hereditary nobility could not exist in 
a free state ; that the titles of dukes, counts, 
marquises, knights, barons, excellencies, abbots, 
and others be aboli-hed ; that all citizens take 
their family names ; liveries and armorial bearings 
also to be abolished. The records of the nobility, 
600 volumes, were burnt at the foot of the statue 
of Louis XIV., 25 June, 1792. A new nobility was 
created by the emperor Napoleon I., 1808. * The 
hereditary peerage was abolished 27 Dec. 183 1 ; re- 
instituted by Napoleon III., 1852. 

NOBLE, an English gold coin (value 6s. 8d.), 
first struck in the reign of Edward III., 1343 or 



1344, said to have derived its name from the excel- 
lence of the metal of which it was composed. 

NOCTUENE, a name given by John Field 
(who died 1837) to a new and very pleasing musical 
composition. He was followed very successfully r 
by Chopin, who died, 1849. The term was adopted 
by Mr. Whistler, the artist, for his night pieces, in 
which he began with line, form, and colour, 1877-8. 

"NOLUMUS LEGES ANGLIC MU- 
TARI," see Bastards, and Merton. 

NOMINALISTS (or Conceptualists), a 
scholastic sect, opposed to the Bealists, maintain 
that general ideas have no existence outside our 
minds, and only exist by the nanies we give them. 
The founder of the sect, Jean Roscellin, a canon 
of Compiegne, was condemned by a council at 
Soissons, 1092, but the controversy was revived in 
the 1 2th century. Among the Nominalists are 
reckoned Abelard, St. Thomas Aquinas (partially), 
Occam, Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, and Dugald 
Stewart. The Realists assert that general ideas are 
real things with positive existence. 

NON- CONFORMISTS. The Protestants in 
England are divided into conformn-ts and non- 
conformists ; or, churchmen and dissenters. The 
first place of meeting of the latter, in England, 
was established at Wandsworth, near London, 
20 Nov. 1572. The name of non-conformists was 
taken by the Puritans when the Act of Uniformity 
came into operation on 24 Aug. 1662 (termed 
" Black Bartholomew's day"), when 2000 ministers 
of the established religion resigned, not choosing to 
conform to the statute passed " for the uniformity 
of public prayers and administration of the sacra- 
ments; " see Puritans, and Dissenters. The laws 
against them were relaxed by the Toleration act, 
24 May, 1689. — The Nonconformist newspaper 
(edited by Mr. Edward Mial'l, aft. M.P.) first 
appeared 14 April, 1841. He died 29 April, 1881. 
The non-conformists presented to Mr. Miall 10,000 
guineas for his exertions on behalf of religious 

equality 18 July, 1873 

Meeting of bishops and dissenting ministers at 
Lambeth palace, to consider the alleged progress 
of irreligious thought .... 24 July, 1876 
Mansfield college, Oxford (which see) . opened, 1886 
Three large bodies in England, Congregationalists 
(or Independents), Baptists, Wesleyan Method- 
ists, 8 others of considerable importance, Pres- 
byterians, Unitarians, Society of Friends 
(Quakers), Salvation Army and 4 Wesleyan 
bodies ; Primitive Methodists, Methodist (New 
Connexion), United Methodist Free Churches, 
and Bible Christians in 1903. 

NONES, in the Roman calendar, were the fifth 
day of each month, excepting March, Slay, July, 
and October, when the nones fell on the seventh 
day. 

NON-JURORS considered James II. to have 
been unjustly deposed, and refused to swear alle- 
giance to William III. in 1689. Among them were 
Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury; Ken, bishop 
of Bath and Wells, and the bishops of Ely r , Glou- 
cester, Norwich, and Peterborough, and many of 
the clergy, who were deprived 1 Feb. 1691. Non- 
juiors were subjected to double taxation, and 
obliged to register their estates, May, 1723. They 
formed a separate communion, which existed till 
the beginning of the present century. 

NON NOBIS, DOMINE ! (" Not unto us, 
Lord!" &c, Psalm cxv. 1), a musical canon, 



NON-RESISTANCE OATH. 



883 



NOETH BRITON. 



eung as a grace at public feasts, was composed by 
W. Birde in 1618. 

NON-RESISTANCE OATH (containing a 
declaration that it is unlawful to take arms against 
the king upon any pretence whatever), enforced by 
the Corporation act, 1661, was repealed in 1719. 

NOOTKA SOUND (Vancouver's Island), 
discovered by captain Cook in 1778, and settled by 
the British in 1786, wben a few British merchants 
in the East Indies formed a settlement to supply 
the Chinese market with furs ; but the Spaniards 
in 1789 captured two English vessels and took pos- 
session of the settlement. The British ministry 
demanded reparation, and the affair was amicably 
terminated by a convention, and a free commerce 
was confirmed to England in 1 790. 

" NO-POPERY RIOTS," see Gordon. The 
■cry was revived against the Catholic emancipation 
bill, 1829. The Anti-popery association petitioned 
against the election of Mr. Alderman Knill, R. C, 
as lord mayor of London, Oct. 1892. 

NORDLINGrEN (Bavaria). Here the Swedes 
under count Horn were defeated by the Austrians, 
27 Aug. 1634; and the Austrians and allies by 
Turenne in 1645. 

NORE MUTINY, see Mutinies. 

NORFOLK ISLAND (Pacific Ocean), dis- 
covered in 1774, Dv captain Cook, who found it 
uninhabited, except by birds. The settlement was 
made by a detachment from Port Jackson under 
governor Phillip, in 1788, in Sydney bay, on the 
south side of the island. This was at one time the 
severest penal colony of Great Britain. The island 
was abandoned in 1809, but re-occupied as a penal 
settlement in 1825, penal settlement removed in 
1855. The descendants of the mutineers of the 
Bounty were removed to it in June, 1856, from 
Pitcairri s Island (which see). Visited by lord 
Hampden, transferred to New South Wales and en- 
dowed with a new constitution, col. Spalding 
installed resident magistrate, 14 Nov. 1896. Pop- 
ulation, 1 90 1, 827. 

Excitement in the island and resignation of the 
"Council of Elders" as a protest against the 
absorption of the island into the Australian 
iCommonwealth, reported .... June 1903 

NORICUM, see Austria. 

NORMAL SCHOOLS (from norma, a rule). 
One for the instruction of teachers, established at 
Paris by a law, 30 Oct. 1794, opened 20 Jan. 1795, 
under the direction of La Place, La Harpe, Haiiy, 
and other eminent men, was soon closed. Another, 
established by Napoleon in 1808, was closed in 1822. 
The plan was revived in 1826, and has been de- 
veloped in England and other countries. See 
Science and Art. 

NORMANDY (N.France), part of Neustria, 
a kingdom founded by Clovis in 511 for his son 
Clotaire, which, after various changes, was united 
to France by Charles the Bald in 837. From the 
beginning of the 9th century it was continually 
devastated by the Scandinavians, termed North- 
men or Normans, to purchase repose from whose 
irruptions Charles the Simple of France ceded the 
duchy to their leader Rollo, 905. ltollo, the first 
duke, held it as a fief of the crown of France, and 
several of his successors after him, until William, 
the seventh duke, acquired England, in 1066. It 
•.remained a province of England till the reign of 



king John, 1204, when it was conquered by 
Philip Augustus and reunited to France. It 
was re-conquered by Henry V., 1418, and held by 
England partially till 1450. The English still pos- 
sess the islands on the coast, of which Jersey and 
Guernsey are the principal. 



912. 
927. 

943' 
996 

1027. 

1028. 

i°35- 



1 1 06 
1135 
1144 
1151, 

1 1 89. 
1 199 



DUKES. 

Rollo (or Raoul), baptized as Robert. 
William I. Longsword. 
Richard I. the Fearless. 
Richard II. the Good. 
Richard III. 
Robert I. the Devil. 
William II. (I. of England). 

Robert II. , Courthose (his son), after a contest de- 
spoiled by his brother. 
Henry I. (king of England). 
Stephen (king of England). 
Matilda and Geoffrey Plantagenet. 
Henry II. (king of England in 1154). 
Richard IV. (I. of England). 
1204. Arthur and John of England. 



NORTH ADMINISTRATION, formed by 
lord North, Jan. 17 70, who resigned March, 1782. 
(Lord North entered into a league with the Whigs ; 
which led to the short-lived Coalition ministry, 1783. 
He succeeded to the earldom of Guildford in 1790, 
and died in 1792; see Coalition?) 

Frederick, lord North, first lord of the treasury, and chan- 
cellor of the exchequer. 

Earl Gower, lord president. 

Earl of Halifax, privy seal. 

Earl of Rochford, lord Weymouth (succeeded by lord 
Sandwich) and earl of Hillsborough, secretaries of state. 

Sir Edward Hawke, admiralty. 

Marquis of Granby, ordnance. 

Sir Gilbert Elliot, lord Hertford, duke of Ancaster, lord 
Carteret, &c. 

NORTHALLERTON (Yorkshire). Near 
here was fought the "battle of the Standard," 
where the English totally defeated the Scotch 
armies, 22 Aug. 1 138. The archbishop of York 
brought forth a consecrated standard on a carriage 
at the moment when they were hotly pressed by the 
invaders, headed by king David. 

NORTH AMERICA, see America, United 
States, Indians, Canada, &c. 

NORTH AMERICAN REVIEW began 
at Boston, U.S., in 1815, as a rival of the Edin- 
burgh and Quarterly Beviews. It was published at 
first every second month ; in 1818, quarterly ; in 
1879, monthly, at New York. 

NORTHAMPTON was burnt by the Danes 
in IOIO. Here Henry III. proposed to found a 
university in 1260, and held a parliament in 1269. 
On 10 July, 1460, a conflict took place between the 
duke of York and Henry VI. of England, in which 
the king was defeated, and made prisoner (the 
second time) after a sanguinary fight which took 
place in the meadows below the town. Northamp- 
ton was ravaged by the plague in 1637. It was 
seized and fortified by the parliamentary forces in 
1642. A fire nearly destroyed the town, 3 Sept. 
1675. Eiots here because Mr. C. Bradlaugh was 
not elected M.P., 6 Oct. 1874, were suppressed by 
the military. Population, 1881, 51,881; 1891, 
61,016; 1901, 87,021. 

Statue of Mr. Charles Bradlaugh, M.P. for North- 
ampton 1880-91, unveiled . . 25 June, 1894 

Excavations at Castor ; remains of a Roman temple, 
&c. , discovered 13 Dec. 1902 

NORTH BRITON, a newspaper, first pub- 
lished 29 May, 1762, supported by John Wilkes, 

3 l 2 



NOETHBEOOK CLUB. 



N.-E. AND N.-W. PASSAGES. 



M.P. for Aylesbury, and a London alderman, and 
very bitter against the earl of Bute's administra- 
tion, accusing him of unduly favouring the Scotch. 
In No. 45 (termed " Wilkes's number"), the king was 
charged with uttering falsehood in his speech ; 

published 23 April, 1763 

" General warrant " issued by lord Halifax against 

the authors, printers, and publishers 26 April, ,, 
Wilkes and others arrested and committed to the 

Tower, and his house searched . . 30 April, „ 
Brought by writ of habeas corpus before chief-jus- 
tice Pratt, and discharged, his arrest being re- 
garded as illegal 6 May, ,, 

300Z. damages granted to a printer for false impri- 
sonment 6 July, „ 

No. 45 declared to be "a scandalous and seditious 
libel " by parliament, and ordered to be burnt by 

the hangman 15 Nov. ,, 

Riot at the burning in Cheapside . 3 Dec. ,, 

" General warrants " declared illegal by chief-justice 
Pratt ; 1000Z. damages awarded to Wilkes for 
seizure of his papers .... 6 Dec. ,, 
4000Z. damages obtained by Wilkes in an action 

against lord Halifax .... 10 Nov. 1769 
Wilkes elected lord mayor, 8 Oct. ; elected fifth time 

M.P. for Middlesex Oct. 1774 

Allowed to take his seat .... Jan. 1775 
Elected chamberlain of London, 1779; died, 26 Nov. 1797 

NOETHBEOOK CLTJB Originated in 1879 
to promote comfort and social intercourse for young 
Indians of good families under education in Eng- 
land. New premises in "Whitehall Gardens were 
inaugurated by the prince of Wales, 21 May, 1883. 
Lord Northbrook was an active promoter of the 
undertaking. 

Northbrook Society, first annual meeting at the 
Imperial Institute, 23 March, 1893 ; grand re- 
ception 24 June, 1902 

NOETH CAEOLLNA, NOETH GEE- 
MAN, see Carolina, German. 

NOETH-EAST and -WEST PASSAGES. 
The attempt to discover a north-west passage was 



made by a Portuguese named Corte Real, about 

in 1585, 
called the "Fellowship for the discovery of the 



1500.. 



[585, a company was formed in London 



North-West Passage." From 1743 to 1818 parlia- 
ment offered 20,000^. for this discovery. In 1818 
the reward was modified by proposing that 5000^. 
should be paid when either no°, 120 , or 130° W. 
long, should be passed ; one of which payments was 
made to sir E. Parry. For their labours in the 
voyages enumerated in the list below, Parry, 
Franklin, Ross, Back, Richardson, M'Clure, Nares, 
and McClintock were knighted. 

Sebastian Cabot's voyages to the arctic regions, 1498, 1517 
Sir Hugh Willoughby's and Richard Chancellor's 
expedition to find a north-east passage to China, 
in the Edward Bona.ventura, Bona Esperanza, and 
Bona Confidentia, sailed from the Thames. 20 May, 1553 
Richard Chancellor, in the Edward, reached Arch- 
angel and afterwards Moscow ; the rest perished 
off the coast of Lapland, about . 1554 
Sir Martin Frobisher's attempt to find a N.-W. pas- 
sage to China I5 76 

Capt. Davis's expeditions to find a N.-W. passage, 

1585, 1586, 1587 
Barentz's Dutch expeditions (by N.-E.) . . 1594-5 
Waymouth and Knight's expedition . . . . 1602 
Hudson's voyages (see Hudson's Bay) . . 1607-10 

Sir Thomas Button's ^12 

Baffin's (see Baffin's Bay) io i6 

Foxe's expedition 1631 

[A number of enterprises, undertaken by various 

countries, followed.] 
Behring's voyages .... 1728, 1729, 174T 

Middleton's expedition 1742 

Moore's and Smith's ....... 1746 

Hearne's land expedition . . . . . 1769 

Captain Phipps, afterwards lord Mulgrave, his ex- 
pedition 1773 



Capt. Cook, in the Resolution and Discovery July, 1776 

Mackenzie's expedition 1789 

Captain Duncan's voyage 1790 

The Discovery, captain Vancouver, returned from a 
voyage of survey and discovery on the north-west 

coast of America Sept. 1795 

Lieut. Kotzebue's expedition .... Oct. 1815 
Captain Ross and lieut. Parry in the Isabella and 

Alexander 1818 

Captain Buchan's and lieut. Franklin's expedition 

in the Dorothea and Trent ,, 

Franklin's second expedition 1819-22 

Lieuts. Parry and Liddon, in the Hecla and Griper, 

4 May, 1819 
They return to Leith .... 3 Nov. 1820 

Capts. Parry and Lyon in Fury and Hecla,, 8 May, 1821-23 
Parry's third expedition with the Hecla . 8 May, 1824 
Capts. Franklin* and Lyon, after having attempted 
a land expedition, again sail from Liverpool, 

16 Feb. 1825 
Capt. Parry* again in the Hecla, sails from Dept- 
ford, and reaches a spot 435 miles from the North 
Pole, 22 June ; returns ... 6 Oct. 1827 

Capt. Ross* arrived at Hull, on his return from his 
Arctic expedition, after an absence of four years, 
and when all hope of his return had been nearly 

abandoned f 18 Oct. 1833 

Capt. Back and his companions arrived at Liver- 
pool from their perilous Arctic land expedition 
(1833), after having visited the Great Fish River 
and examined its course to the Polar Seas 8 Sept. 1835 
Capt. Back sailed from Chatham in command of his 
majesty's ship Terror, on an exploring adventure 

to Wager River 21 June, 1836 

[The Geographical Society awarded the king's annual 

premium to capt. Back for his polar discoveries 

and enterprise, Dec. 1835.] 

Sir John Franklin, and capts. Crozier and Fitzjames, 

in the ships Erebus and Terror, leave England, 

(see Franklin) 24 May, 1845 

[The north-west passage was discovered by sir 
John Franklin and his comxianions, who sailed 
down Peel and Victoria Straits, since named 
Franklin Straits. On the monument in Waterloo- 
place is inscribed — " To Franklin and his brave 
companions, who sacrificed their lives in completing 
the discovery of the north-west passage, a.d. 1847-8." 
Ladj' Franklin received a medal from the Royal 
Geographical Society.] 
Commanders Collinson and M'Clure, in the Enter- 
prise and Investigator, sailed eastward in search of 
sir John Franklin { .... 20 Jan. 1850 I 
A north-west passage discovered bv capt. M'Clure, 

26 Oct. 



* Sir John Franklin died 11 June, 1847 (see Franklin) ; 
Sir E. Parry died 8 July, 1855, aged- 65 ; and sir John 
Ross died 30 Aug. 1856, aged 80. 

t In 1830 he discovered Boothia Felix : on 1 June, 1831, 
his nephew, com. James Clark Ross, discovered the 
north magnetic pole, in 70° 5' 17" N. lat., and 96° 46' 45" 
W. long. 

t Capt. M'Clure sailed in the Investigator in company 
with com. Collinson in the Enterprise in search of sir 
John Franklin, 20 Jan. 1850. On 6 Sept. he discovered 
high land, which he named Baring's land ; on the 9th, 
other land, which he named after prince Albert ; on the 
30th the ship was frozen in. Entertaining a strong con- 
viction that the waters in which the Investigator then lay 
communicated with Barrow's straits, he set out on 2t 
Oct. , with a few men in his sledge, to test his views. On 
26 Oct. he reached Point Russell (73* 31' N. lat., 114° 14' 
W. long.), where from an elevation of 600 feet he saw 
Parry or Melville Sound beneath them. The strait con- I 
nectuig the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans he named after 
the prince of Wales. The Investigator was the first ship 
which traversed the Polar sea from Behring's straits to 
Behring island. Intelligence of this discovery was brought I 
to England by com. [nglefleld,- and the Admiralty chart ; 
was published 14 Oct. 1853. Capt. M'Clure returned to 
England, Sept. 1S54. In 1855, 5000/. were paid to capt. j 
(afterwards sir Robert) M'Clure, and 5000/. were distri- 
buted among the officers and crew. On 30 Jan. 1855, thej 
Admiralty notified that the Arctic medal would be given' 
to all persons engaged in the expeditions from iSiS to 1855. 



N.-E. AND N.-W. PASSAGES. 



885 



N.-E. AND N.-W. PASSAGES. 



A German arctic expedition (the Germania and the 
Hansa) sailed, 15 June ; arrived at Pendulum bay, 
Greenland, 18 July, 1869 ; the vessels parted ; the 
Germania arrived at Bremen, 11 Sept. 1870; the 
Hansa, was frozen and sank, Oct. 1869 ; the crew 
escaped with provisions, and reached Copenhagen 

1 Sept. 1870 

Herr Julius von Payer after 2 years' exploration in 
the Tegetiwff, discovers Franz- Josef land . .1871 

A Norwegian arctic expedition sailed in the spring 1872 

A Swedish expedition, under professor Nordensk- 
jbld, sailed from Tromso, 21 July, 1872 ; unsuc- 
cessful ; returned summer 1873 

Capt. Hall sailed from New York in the U.S. ship 
Polaris, 29 June, 1871 ; frozen in, Sept. ; died, 
8 Nov. After much suffering, the crew reached 
Newfoundland 9 May, ,, 

Mr. B. Leigh Smith sailed to lat. 81° 24', and dis- 
covered land to the N.E. of Spitzbergen, 1871 ; in 
other voyages he discovered under-currents of 
warm water flowing into the polar basin ; he re- 
lieved the Swedish expedition . . . 1872-73 

An Austro-Hungarian expedition in the Admiral 
Tegetiwff, and the Isborjnen, under Weyprecht 
and Payer, sailed from Tromso, in Norway, 14 
July, 1872 ; the ships parted company, and the 
Tegetiwff sailed northward and discovered Franz- 
Josef Land, 31 Aug. 1873 ; frozen in, abandoned 
ship, May, 1874 ; reached Vardoe, Norway, by 
sledges, 3 Sept. ; arrived at Vienna . 25 Sept. 1874 

Mr. Disraeli consents to a new British arctic expe- 
dition, 17 Nov. 1874 ; 38,620^. voted for the ex- 
pedition 5 March, 1875 

Capt. G. S. Nares, of the Challenger, appointed to 
command the Alert, and capt. H. F. Stephenson 
to command the Discovery. 

Telegram from the queen to capt. Nares before 
starting : " I earnestly wish you and your gallant 
companions every success, and I trust that you 
may safely accomplish the important duty you 
have so bravely undertaken." 

In the reply, " Her majesty may depend on all 
doing their duty. " 

The ships sailed from Portsmouth 29 May, 1875 ; 
despatches received from Disco (all well) 15 July „ 

Alert (on return) arrived at Valentia, 27 Oct. ; the 
Discovery at Queenstown, 29 Oct. ; at Ports- 
mouth 2 Nov. 1876 

Results. Sledges reached 83° 20' 26", 12 May, 1876 ; 
passage to the pole declared to be impracticable ; 
no signs of open polar sea ; ships wintered, 82° 87' 
lat. ; sun absent 142 days ; no Esquimaux be- 
yond 8t° 52'. 

Out of 120 persons 4 deaths ( 1 frost bitten, 3 scurvy) ; 
greatest cold, 72° — zero ; extremest N. point 
reached by Markham named Cape Colombia. 

Cost of the expedition, 120,000?. 

The " Voyage" published by Capt. Nares . . 1878 

Expedition of capt. Allen Young in the Pandora 
(aided by lady Franklin), sailed 25 June ; returned 
19 Oct. 1875; sailed again, 2 June; returned3i Oct. 1876 

Dutch expedition sailed from Holland . April, 1878 

Mr. James Gordon Bennett's expedition ; lieut. de 

Long sailed in yacht Jeannette . . 8 July, 1879 
Dutch exploring expedition in Willem Barents, 
sailed for Arctic Ocean, 6 May ; successful ; re- 
turned to Hammerfest, Norway . . 24 Sept. „ 

Another expedition in Vega, under prof. Nordensk- 
jold, started 4 July, 1878 ; at Port Dickson on the 
Yenisei, 6 Aug. ; at the mouth of Lena, 27 Aug. ; 
at Yakutsk, 22 Sept. ; imprisoned in ice near 
Tsehuctshe settlement, 28 Sept. 1878 — 18 July, 
1879 ; passed East Cape, Behring's strait ; entered 
St. Lawrence Bay, in Pacific Ocean, 20 July ; 

reached Yokohama 2 Sept. ,, 

The North- East PASSAOEfrom the Atlantic to the 
Pacific is thus accomplished; chiefly at the ex- 
pense of Mr. (aft. baron ) Oscar Dickson, a mer- 
chant of Gothenburg (died aged 73, 7 June, 

1897) 1878-9 

Mr. B. Leigh Smith's successful expedition in his 
yacht Eira from and to Peterhead, 22 June — 

12 Oct. 1880 
Another expedition by him in the Eira, 14 June ; 
Eira seen in Straits of Nova Zemblu . 8 July, 1881 



[The Eira injured by ice ; at Cape Flora sank in 
deep water, 21 Aug. ; stores saved, tent and 
house erected ; the party live on seals, walrus, 
&c. during winter, 1881-2 ; return voyage began 
(boats hauled, &c), 21 June ; fell in with a Dutch 
vessel, Willem Barents, and soon after with the 
Hope, near Matotchkin Straits, Nova Zembla, 
3 Aug. ; sail for home, 6 Aug. ; arrive at Aber- 
deen, 20 Aug.] 

Search for him proposed ; government to give 
5000Z. Geographical Society 1000L ; other sums 
offered March, 1 

The Hope (Capt. Sir Allen Young) sails in search 
of the Eira 22 June, 

Expedition in the Jeannette, which is crushed by 
ice, 23 June ; two boats with crew received by 
Russians at mouth of the Lena ; one boat missing, 
Dee. 1881 ; bodies c-f capt. de Long and others 
found nearthe mouth of the Lena, 23 March, 1882 ; 
conveyed to Philadelphia, and buried 23 Feb. 1 

German arctic expedition, Germania sailed, summer, 
returned 23 Oct. 1 

British circumpolar expedition started . 11 May, 

Arrived at Fort Rae, 30 Aug. ; good news 1 Dec. 

Austrian Polar expedition, Polar started 2 April, 
1882 ; returned to Drontheim 11 Aug. ; to Vienna 

22 Aug. 1 

The British government presents the Alert to aid 
the expedition, under commander Winfield S. 
Schley, in search for the party under lieut. 
Greeley, 25 persons (which started for the Polar 
seas in the summer of 1881), Feb. 1884 ; the 
search expedition starts, 10 May, 1884; 5000?. 
reward offered by U. S. government for discovery 
of lieut. Greeley and party . . . May, j 

Lieut. Greely's party reached Cape Sabine, Smith's 
Sound, 83 deg. 24' N. lat. ; 17 persons starved to 
death ; 1 drowned, 6 survivors found by com. 
Schley with the Thetis, 22 June ; arrive at St. 
John's, Newfoundland, 17 July ; at Portsmouth, 
New Hampshire 1 Aug. 

[The Alert returned to the British government 
with thanks, Feb. 1885.] 

Colonel Gilder's expedition starts from Winnipeg 
2 Oct. 1886 ; returns ... 3 March, j 

Bjorling and Kalstennius, young Swedish natural- 
ists, and a small party, leave St. John's in the 
Ripple for Smith's Sound, 24 June, 1892 ; reach 
Disco island, Greenland, insufficiently equipped, 
31 July ; they crossed Baffins Bay, and arrived at 
Carey island, 16 Aug. ; the vessel is driven on 
shore, 17 Aug. ; in a desperate condition with 
shortness of provisions, embark forClarence Head, 
Cape Faraday, Ellesmereland, in a small boat, 12 
Oct.; not since heard of, reported Dec. 1893; traces 
of them found on Carey island, reported . 19 Oct. 1 

Dr. Fridtjof Nansen starts from Christiania in the 
Frami for Arctic regions, 24 June, 1893 ; Dr. 
Nansen witli lieut. Johansen, left the Fram in 
charge of capt. Sverdrup and lieut. Scott- Han- 
sen, 14 March, 1895 ; after having touched a 
point 4 degrees further north than any previous 
explorer. In their journey over the ice they 
reached 86° 14' lat., 8 April ; and arrived at Franz- 
Josef Land, 14 Aug., and there wintered: Dr. 
Nansen met Mr. Jackson there, 17 June, 1896; 
and they returned in the Windward to Vardoe, 3 
Aug. ; arrival of the Fram at Skjervbe, after 
reaching 85 57' N. lat., great rejoicing, 20 Aug.; 
Dr. Nansen and his companions leceived by the 
king at Christiania. 9 Sept. ; arrived in London 
(which see), 3 Feb. 1897, Edinburgh, 12 Feb. ; and 
other towns, Feb. ; made D.Sc. at Cambridge. 
16 March ; farewell lecture, St. James's Hall, 24 
March ; Paris, 25 March ; Berlin, received by 
the emperor, and granted medals, 3 April ; re- 
ceived by the king at Copenhagen, 7 April. 
"Farthest North," by Dr. Nansen and lieut. 
Johansen, published .... Feb. 

The Norwegian parliament grants sums of money 

to l.he members of the expedition, March, 1897. 
Lieutenant Peary starts from New York, with an 
expedition in two parties, 2 July, 1893 ; the expe- 
dition fails through bad weather and loss of dogs. 
Peary relief expedition in the Falcon leaves St. 
John's, 7 July, 1894 ; returns there with the 
members of the expedition, including Mrs. Peary, 



N.-E AND N.-W. PASSAGES. 



N.-W. PROVINCES OF INDIA. 



all well, 15 Sept.; lieut. Peary, Mr. Hugh Lee, 
and Henson, a servant, remain in Greenland to 
continue their explorations ; Peary relief expe- 
dition, in the Kite, leaves St. John's for Bowdoin 
bay, Inglefield gulf, July ; returns with lieut. 
Peary, Mr. Lee, and Henson, who were nearly 
starved, 21 Sept. 1895. Lieut. Peary returns to 
Cape Breton with scientific collections, 26 Sept. 
1896; returns to St. John's with the Cape York 
meteorite (45 tons), 20 Sept. 1897. 

The Falcon wrecked off S. Greenland, Oct. ; all 
perish [reported 27 Nov. 1894]. 

Mr. F. G. Jackson arrives at Hull after spending 
some months within the Arctic circle . 4 Feb. 

The Jackson -Harmsworth expedition (33 persons) 
in the Windward, Mr. A. C. Harmsworth defray- 
ing all expenses, about 25,000?. starts for Franz- 
Josef Land ; London, 12 July ; left Archangel, 
5 Aug. ; reached Franz-Josef Land, Sept. 1894, 
frozen in ; exploration by Mr. Jackson ; he and 
his paity remain ; the Windward leaves 3 July, 
and arrives at Gravesend ... 22 Oct. 

Herr Andree and M. Eckholm leave Tromso in 
the Virgo for a balloon expedition to the N. Pole, 
15 June, 1896; prevented, and return, 24 Aug. ; 
he ascends in the Eagle with Drs. Strindberg and 
Fraenkel from Danes island (617 nils. from the N. 
Pole), 2.30 p.m. 11 July, 1897 ; relief expedition 
in the Victoria returns to Tromso without news, 

21 Nov. : 
(Other expeditions unsuccessful, 1898-1900.) 

Capt. Robertson, of the Dundee whaler Bakena 
discovers several islands on the S coast of Franz- 
Josef Land, reported .... 3 Sept. 

Arctic relief expedition to rescue whalers ; arrived 
at Cape Vancouver 16 Dec. 

Herr Theodor Lerncr's North Polar Expedition in 
the German steamship Helgoland leaves Berlin, 

30 May, 

Capt. Sverdrup's polar expedition in the Fra'm 
leaves Christiania .... 24 June, 

The Swedish expedition in the Antarctic, under Herr 
Nathorst, successfully explores King Charles 
Land, W. Spitzbergen, and North-East Land ; re- 
turns to Tromso . . , . . 7 Sept. 

"Northward over the 'Great Ice,' 1886 and 
1886-97," by lieut. R. Peary, 2 vols., published, 

autumn, 

Mr. Wellman's expedition to Franz-Josef Land ; 
established an outpost, " Fort McKinley," 
81° lat., autumn, 1898 ; Mr. Wellman pushed 
northward, mid Feb. 1899 ! unknown regions 
explored, and good scientfic results, reported ; 
they return to Tromso . . . -17 Aug. : 

Andree search expedition, under Dr. Nathorst, 
discovers new inlets E. of Greenland, and 
arrives at Malmo 12 Sept. 

Andree's buoy No. 4 found at Skjervoe, containing 
message : N. 45° east, in excellent spirits, 1 1 July ; 
M. Andree reported by some to have been killed 
by natives 31 Aug. 

Mr. Walter Wellman's (American) N. polar expedi- 
tion in the Frifhyof leaves Tromso . 27 June, 

The duke of Abruzzi's expedition in the Stella 
Polare to Franz-Josef Land ; left Christiania, 
12 June, 1899, wintered on Rudolf Land ; 
Capt. Cagni's party (the duke too severely frost- 
bitten to go) started for the N. Pole, n March 
(lieut. Qnerini and two men lost since 22 March), 
readied 86° 33' 49" N., 25 April, 1900 ; returned, 

Sept. 

Baron Toll's expedition left Cape Wyssoki for 
Bennett land 13 July, : 

The Baldwin-Ziegler expedition left Dundee, 
28 June, 1901 ; visited Rudolph Land, Nansen's 
hut, Greely island ; returned with new charts, &c, 
to Norway 31 July, 

Lieut. Peary, undaunted by previous suffering, 
advanced to extremity of Greenland, .83° 50', 
spring, 1900 ; was stopped by the ice opening ; 
again he started from Cape Hecla, Gruinnell 
Land, and reached 83° 15', but had to fall back, 
spring, 1901 ; lie started again, 1 April, 1902, with 
Henson and four Eskimos, &c, but failed to 
reach the Pole ; all returned in the Windward, 
to Sydney, Cape Breton Island . . 18 Sept. 



Capt. Sverdrup, in the Fram, was blocked in the 
ice about 79 N. near Cape Sabine, Aug. 1898 ; 
in Aug. 1899, he rounded S. end of Ellesmere 
Land, through Jones Sound and Cardigan Strait ; 
explored new lands, with important scientific 
results, to 8i°37' ; returned to Norway, 19 Sept. 
1902 ; honours and medals bestowed . 30 Sept. 1902 
(Charts of the latest discoveries are published in 
Petermann's " Mittheilungen der Geographie.") 

Scientific expedition to the region of the N. pole, 
under the patronage of, and subsidized by, the. 
French Academy of Sciences, in process of 
organization by M. Jean Charcot. The expedition 
will include scientific investigations in Iceland, 
Spitzbergen, and Nova Zembla, with special 
reference to the biology of the codfish, and the 
northern currents of the Gulf stream, reported 

Jan. 1903 

Ziegler expedition in the America leaves Trondhjem 
for Franz-Josef Land . . . .23 June, ,, 

Canadian arctic expedition in the Neptune leaves 
Halifax for Hudson bay, and the Arctic seas, 

22 Aug. ,, 

NORTHMEN or NORSEMEN, see Scandi- 
navia, and Normandy. 

NORTH SEA, or German Ocean, a canal 

connecting the sea with Amsterdam; opened by the 
king of Holland, I Nov. 1876. For the canal con- 
necting the North sea with the Baltic, see Baltic? 
1887-95, an d Kie'. 

NORTHUMBERLAND AVENUE, W. 

LONDON, opened 18 March, 1876. 

NORTHUMBERLAND HOUSE, 

STRAND, LONDON, built on the site of a hospital, 
dedicated to the Virgin, by Henry Howard, earl of 
Northampton, was finished 1605; named Suffolk 
house by his nephew, Thomas, earl of Suffolk ; and 
afterwards named Northumberland house from his 
descendant, Elizabeth, marrying Algernon, earl of 
Northumberland, by whom it was partially rebuilt. 

The house was purchased by the Metropolitan 
Board cf Works ; 497,000?. being paid for it, 
June. The lion (set up 1749) taken down, 3 
July, to be put up at Sion house ; the house 
pulled down during the autumn .... 1874, 

NORTHUMBRIA, a Saxon kingdom, founded 
by Ida, 547 ; see under Britain. 



TERRITORIES. See- 



NORTH-WEST 

Western territories. 



NORTH WESTERN PROVINCES of 

India, separated from Bengal in 1835 (Oude was. 
annexed in 1856), and all were placed under one 
lieut. -governor in 1877. Capital, Allahabad. Popu- 
lation in 1881, 44,107,869; 1891, 46,905,085; 
1901,47,696,324. Lieut. -governors, Hon. sir Alfred 
Comyns Lyallj 1882 ; sir Auckland Colvin, autumn 
1887 ; sir Charles Crosthwaite, Nov. 1892 ; sir 
Anthony Macdonnell, March, 1895 ; Sir James. 
La Touche, 14 Nov. 1901. 

Demarcation of the Perso-Baluchistan and Indo- 
Afghan frontier completed by col. Holdich and 
lieut. MacMahon, announced . . 27 April, 1896 
Mr. W. Crooke's "North-Western Provinces," a 

valuable work, published 1897 

See Indian Famine, 1897. 
Agra municipality (native) censured by the lieut.- 
gov. for misgovernment, Jan. 1899 ; Mr. Morgan, 
joint magistrate, appointed official secretary to 
examine and re-organize every department, 

mid Jan. 1899 
The Elgin bridge over the Gogra, opened by sir 

A. P. Macdonnell 25 Jan. ,, 

Tenancy bill, after long controversy, passed, 

20 Oct. 1901 
New north-west frontier province, see Punjaitb, 

9 Nov. 1901 



NORTH-WESTERN RAILWAY. 887 



NORWAY. 



NORTH-WESTERN RAILWAY, 

LONDON AND, constituted by the amalgamation ot 
the London and Birmingham Grand Junction, and 
the Liverpool and Manchester railways, in 1847. 
Sir Richard Moon (director, 1848, chairman, 1862), 
on resigning, 20 Feb. 1891, reported the capital, 
Dec. 1890, to be about 110,077,934/., proprietors 
34,000, persons employed, about 60,000, mileage, 
1,900. See Crewe. Sir George Fiudlay, the able 
general manager for nearly 20 years, died 26 



succeeded by Mr. F. 
Total receipts, 1 895, 
78,863.305/.; mileage, 



March, 1893, aged 63 ; 
Harrison, April, 1893. 
6,181,480/. ; capital, 1895 
1895, 21,866,967. 

Dispute with the men settled by government inter- 
vention 11 Dec. 1896 

NORWAY, until the 7th century, was governed 
by petty rulers. About 630, Olaf Trsetelia, of the 
race of Odin termed Ynglings or youths, expelled 
from Sweden, established a colony in Vermeland. 
the nucleus of a monarchy, founded by his de- 
scendant, Halfdan III. the Black, a great warrior 
and legislator, whose memory was long revered. 
Population, 1887, 1,925,000; 189T, 1,988,997 ; 
i960, 2,239,880. 

Olaf Trsetelia, 630 ; slain by his subjects . . . 640 
Halfdan I., 640 ; Eystein I., 700 ; Halfdan II., 730 ; 

Gudrod, 784 ; Olaf Geirstade and Halfdan III. . 824 
Halfdan recovers his inheritance from his brother, 
whom he subdues, together with the neighbour- 
ing chiefs, 840 ; accidentally drowned . . . 863 
The chiefs regain their power during the youth of 
his son, Harold Harfager, or fair-haired, who vows 
neither to cut nor comb his hair till he recovers 

his dominion 865 

He defeats his enemies at Hafsfiord, 872 ; dies . . 934 
Eric I. (the bloody axe), his son, a tyrant, expelled, 

and succeeded by 
Hako (the Good), 940 ; lie endeavours in vain to 

establish Christianity ; dies 

Harold II., Graafeld, son of Eric, succeeds . . . 
Killed in battle with Harold of Denmark 
Hako Jarl, made governor of several provinces ; be- 
comes king, 977 ; his licentiousness leads to his 
ruin ; deposed by Olaf I. , Trygvteson ; and slain 

by his slave 

Olaf I. , 995 ; establishes Christianity by force and 

cruelty 

Defeated and slain, during an expedition against 
~ j?omerania, by the kings of Denmark and Sweden, 
who divide Norway between them . . . . 
Olaf II. , the Saint (his son), lands in Norway . 
Defeats his enemies and becomes king . . . 
Fiercely zealous in the diffusion of Christianity 1018-21 
Successful invasion of Canute, who becomes king 1028-9 
Olaf expelled ; returns and is killed in battle . . 1030 
Sweyn, at the death of Canute, succeeds as king of 
Norway, but is expelled in favour of Magnus I., 

bastard son of Olaf II 1035 

Magnus becomes king of Denmark, 1036; dies 
Harold Hardrada, king of Norway . . . . 
Invades England ; defeated and slain by Harold II. 

at Stamford-bridge 25 Sept. 

Olaf III. and Magnus II. (sons), kings, 25 Sept. 1066 

Olaf alone (pacific) 106' 

Olaf III. founds Bergen 

Magnus III. (Barefoot), son of Olaf . . . , 
Invades the Orkneys and Scotland .... 

Killed in Ireland 1 103 

Sigurd I., Eystein II., and Olaf IV. (sons) . . ,, 
Sigurd visits the Holy Land as a warrior pilgrim 1 107-10 

Becomes sole king, 1122 ; dies 11 30 

Magnus IV. (his son) and Harold IV. . . . ,, 

Magnus dethroned 

Harold IV. murdered ; succeeded by his sons, Sigurd 

II. , &e. ;. civil war rages 

Nicolas Breakspear (atterwards pope Adrian IV.), 

the papal legate, arrives, reconciles the brothers, 

and founds the archbishopric of Drontheim . . 

Numerous competitors for the crown ; civil war ; 

Inge I., Eystein III., Hako III., Magnus V. . 1136-62 
Magnus V. alone 1162 



Rise of Swerro, an able adventurer, who becomes 
king ; Magnus defeated ; drowned . . . 1186 

Swerro rules vigorously ; dies 1202 

Hako, his son, kmg, 1202 ; Guthrum, 1204 ; Inge II. 1205 

Hako IV., bastard son of Swerro 1207 

Unsuccessfully invades Scotland, where he dies . 1263 
Magnus VI. , liis son (the legislator), dies . . 1280 

Eric II. , the priest-hater, marries Margaret of Scot- 
land ; their daughter, the Maid of Norway, be- 
comes heiress to the crown of Scotland . . . 1286 
Hako V. , his brother, king .... 1299-1 319 
Decline of Norwegian prosperity. 
Magnus VII. (III. of Sweden), king . . . 1319-43 

Hako VI 1343-80 

Olaf V. of Norway (II. of Denmark) . . . 1380-87 
Norway united with Denmark and Sweden under 

Margaret 1389 

At an assembly at Calmar the three states are 

formally united 1397 

Sweden and Norway separated from Denmark, 1448 ; 

re-united i45° 

Denmark and Norway separated from Sweden . 1523 
Christiania, the modern capital, built by Chris- 
tian IV 1624 

Norway given to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel ; 
Pomerania and Rugeii annexed to Denmark 14 



963 



977 



995 



1000 
1012 

5 



1047 



1066 

-1093 
1070 

i°93 

1096 



1134 

1136 



1152 



Jan. 



1S14 



The Norwegians declare their independence, 17 May, 
The Swedish troops enter Norway . . 16 July, ,, 
Charles Frederic, duke of Holstein, elected king of 

Norway ; abdicates 10 Oct. ,, 

Charles XIII. of Sweden proclaimed king by the 
National Diet(Storthing)assembled at Christiania; 
he accepted the constitution which declares Nor- 
way a free, independent, indivisible, and inalien- 
able state, united to Sweden . . 4 Nov. ,, 

Nobility abolished 1821 

The national order of St. Olaf instituted by king 

Oscar 1 1847 

Millennial festival of the establishment of the king- 
dom, kept 18 July, 1872 

The king Oscar II. crowned at Drontheim, 

17 July, 1873 

Statue of Charles John XIV. unveiled at Christiania 

7 Sept. 1875 

Christian Selmer succeeds Fk. Stang as prime 
minister ... • I 88i 

Disputes between the Storthing and the crown 
respecting constitutional changes . . . . ,, 

Elections ; liberal majority claiming Norwegian 
constitutional rights ; many republicans Oct. 1882 

Liberal leaders, Sorens Jaabcek (violent), Mr. Sver- 
drup (moderate) . . - . . • ■ Jan. 1883, 

Opening of the Storthing, firm resistance of the 
crown ministers Feb. ,, 

Who are threatened with impeachment, 9 March ; 
which is adopted 23 April, ,, 

Exhibition of art and industry opened at Chris- 
tiania June, „ 

Impeachment of the minister, Christian Selmer, 
and his 10 colleagues, for advising the king to 
veto the bill for ministerial responsibility . „ 

Trial of Selmer began .... 22 Oct. , r 

Selmer found guilty by the supreme council of 
Norway; sentenced to dismission from public 
service, and payment of expenses of prosecution, 

27 Feb. 1884 

M. Selmer resigns his post, the king accedes, but 
maintains his power of veto . . 12 March, ,, 

Trial and conviction of M. Kjerulf and other 
ministers .... 20 March— 1 April, ,, 

The crown prince of Sweden appointed viceroy of 
Norway 19 March ,, 

New ministrv formed (councillor Schweigaard and 
M. Carl LoVenskjold, and others) . 3 April, ,, 

Resigns, 6 June ; M. Johan Sverdrup forms a 
liberal ministry 26 June, 1884 

Resignation of the Sverdrup ministry, 2 July ; suc- 
ceeded by Einil Stang . . . .12 July, 1889 
Death of Christian A. Selmer . . about 9 Sept. „ 
Visit of the German emperor at Christiania, grand 

reception 1 July et seq. 1890 

Resignation of the Stang ministry, in consequence 
of a vote in the parliament demanding greater 
independence for Norway in political policy, tend- 
ing to separation from Sweden . . 23 Feb. 1891 



NORWAY. 



NORWICH. 



M. Steen, the liberal leader, forms a cabinet 

5 March, 1891 

Norway desires autonomy in foreign affairs ; 
opposed by Sweden, Feb. ; adopted by the 
Storthing 10 June, 1892 

Destructive Are at Christiansand ; public buildings 
destroyed 8 July ,, 

The Steen ministry resigns, 30 June ; resumes 
office by compromise .... 27 July, ,, 

A liberal-unionist party formed about . 28 Nov. „ 

Violent storm over the Lofoden islands, a fishing- 
fleet destroyed, about 123 lives lost . end of Jan. 1893 

Continued demand for autonomy in foreign affairs, 
Feb. ; the storthing ignores the conciliatory over- 
tures of Sweden, March, and claims separate 
foreign consular establishment . 17 March, ,, 

King Oscar visits Christiania, 17 April ; on his re- 
fusal to consent to autonomy in foreign affairs 
the Steen ministry resigns and the storthing 
adjourns, 23, 24 April ; new ministry formed by 
M. Emil Stang, 2 May ; censured by vote (63-51) 

6 May, ,, 
See Landslips, May, 1893. 

The storthing votes the partial substitution of the 
Norwegian flag for that of the Union . 21 June, ,, 

Telephonic communication opened between Chris- 
tiania and Stockholm .... 2 Sept. „ 

Eightieth anniversary of the union of Norway and 
Sweden; king Oscar at a banquet speaks strongly 
in support of the union, specially in foreign 
affairs ....... 4 Nov. ,, 

Address of the storthing to the king, censuring the 
state of the army and navy . . 7 June, 1894 

Parliamentary elections : left, 59 ; right and mode- 
rates, 55 26 Nov. ,, 

Resignation of the ministry, 31 Jan. 1895 ; negotia- 
tions between the king and the storthing, Feb. ; 
no result, the old ministry retains office, 25 May, 1895 

M. Bonnvil declines to form a ministry . 19 June, „ 

Hardanger hotel, Odde, and several houses burnt 
(great loss to tourists) .... 9 Aug. ,, 

A coalition ministry formed by M. Hagerup, pre- 
mier 14 Oct. ,, 

Storthing opened by the king ... 3 Feb. 1896 

"The Fridtjof-Nansen Fund for scientific re- 
search," started to commemorate Dr. Nansen's 

Arctic expedition Oct. „ 

See North-E. and W. Passage 1896, and London 
1897. 

Harald Haarfagre, ironclad, launched at Walker, 
on the Tyne, 4 Jan. ; Tordenskjold, sister ship, 
launched there .... 18 March, 1897 

Namsos, in province of N. Trondhjem destroyed 
by fire 3 o May, ,, 

Storthing opened by the king . . u Feb. 1898 

Resignation of the Hagerup ministry, 12 Feb. ; 
new ministry formed by M. Steen . 17 Feb. „ 

Report of the Norwegian committee on the union 
with Sweden, presented to parliament, 7 March, ,, 

International fisheries exhibition opened at Bergen, 
16 May ; and festival (1st) of Norwegian music, 
conducted by Dr. Edvard Grieg ; 26 June-2 July, ,, 

Storthing opened by the king . . . 12 Oct. ,, 

Joint commission to promote a modus vivendi with 
Sweden, fails Oct. 

New state loan of 20,000,000 kroner at 3 J per cent. , 
redeemable in 20 years, announced . 12 Nov. „ 

The king refuses tosanction a purely Norwegian flag, 

Dec. „ 

Budget : revenue, 78,900,000 kroner ; expenditure, 
76,100,000 kroner ; session closed. . 27 May, 1899 

Inter-parliamentary peace conference at Christiania, 
M. Lund, president ; opened by M. Steen, 

2 Aug. ,, 

New Norwegian national theatre in Christiania 
opened by the king; three days' dramatic festival 
ovations to Ibsen, Bjornson and Grieg, 1-3 Sept. ., 

Elections : 77 members of the left, 37 of the right 
and moderates to Sept. 1899 

Increasing prosperity and commerce in Norway ; 
constitutional disagreements with Sweden con- 
tinue, reported Oct. 

State loan, 30,000,000 kroner, authorized by the 
storthing 23 Oct. „ 

Illness of the king ; the storthing opened by the 
crown prince, as regent, 24 Oct. ; the king 
resumes his office 21 Jan. tqoi 



Great fire in Farsund, over 1,200 persons homeless, 

12 Aug. iqoi 

State loan of 35,000,000 kroner at 3J per cent, for 
60 years, concluded with a Scandinavian banking 
syndicate . . . '. . . n Jan. 1902 

M. Steen's ministry resigns, 16 April ; one formed 
by M. Blehr 20 April, „ 

Henrik Niels Abel (mathematician), centenary 
celebrations (degrees conferred on lords Kelvin, 
Rayleigh, sir G. Stokes and 26 foreign scientists), 

4-7 Sept. ,, 

Capt. Sverdrup and the Fram N. Pole expedition 
welcomed in Christiania . . .28 Sept. ,, 

Storthing opened, army reorganization proposed, 

13 Oct. ,, 

Storthing adopts, by 81 to 32, president's resolution 
for the establishment of a separate Norwegian 
consular system ..... Jan. 1903 

Blehr ministry resigns, prof. Hagerup forms new 

cabinet 21 Oct. ,, 

See Denmark and Sweden. 

NORWEGIAN. LITERATURE may be 

divided into two periods — ancient (comprising the 

Sagas and Eddas) and modern. "Writers between 

the 13th and 19th centuries are included with 

the Danes, whose language the} - used. 

Principal authors : Wergeland, p. , 1808-45 ; Welhaven,p., 

1807-73 > Bjornson, n. and p., born 1832 ; Ibsen, 

d. and p., born 1828 ; Kjelland, n. and d., born 1849. 

Anna Thoresen, 181Q-1903. 

NOEWICH (Norfolk), mentioned in history in 

the Saxon Chronicle at the period when Sweyn, 

king of Denmark, destroyed it by fire, 1004. See 

Population. 

Artisans from the Low Countries establish here the 
manufacture of baizes, &c, about . . . . 11.32 

Cathedral first erected in 1088, by bishop Herbert 
Losinga ; completed by bishop Middleton, about 
1280 ; octo-centenary celebrated . July, 1896 

A great plague 1348 

Church of the Blackfriars, now St. Andrew's-hall, 
erected 1415 

Norwich nearly consumed by fire .... 1505 

Public library instituted, 1784; burnt 1 Aug. . 1898 

John Stratford executed for poisoning John Burgess 
by arsenic 17 Aug. 1829 

Norwich new canal and harbour were opened, 

3 June, 1 83 1 

Church congress met .... 3-7 Oct. 1865 

The musical festival was attended by the prince of 
Wales .31 Oct. 1866 

Norwich and Norfolk Industrial exhibition opened 
in St. Andrew's-hall .... Aug. 1867 

British Association met here . . 20-26 Aug. 1868 

Norfolk and Norwich Naturalists' Society founded 1869 

Mutilated remains of a human body discovered near 
Norwich, 21-25 June, 1851 ; William Sherward, a 
publican of the place, confessed on 1 Jan. 1869, 
that they were the remains of his wife murdered by 
him ; he recanted, but was tried and condemned, 
and executed 20 April, ,, 

Norwich Crown bank stopped ; much distress oc- 
casioned ; sir Robert H. J. Harvey, the chief 
partner, commits suicide : died . 19 July, 1870 

Election commission ; much corruption disclosed 

Aug. -Sept. 1875 

Writ for election of M. P. suspended till dissolution 
of parliament, by act passed . . 15 Aug. 1876 

National fisheries exhibition (opened by the prince 
of Wales) .... 18-30 April, 1881 

The castle, long used as a prison, proposed to bo 
transformed into a museum, &c 188S 

The choir of the cathedral re-opened after extensive 
restoration 2 May, 1894 

Visit of the duke and duchess of York ; the museum 
and fine art gallery at the castle opened, 23 Oct. „ 

Mr. Robert Fitch, F.S.A., F.G.S., chemist and 
druggist, gave his collections to the Norwich 
museum ; died 4 April, 1895 

Musical festival, visit of the prince and princess of 
Wales, the duke and duchess of York, and others 

7 Oct. 1896 



NORWICH, BISHOPRIC OF. 



Strike in the boot trade, with intimidation, March; 
closed .20 Oct. 1897 

Mr. Wm. Cadge gives io,ooo2. (20,000?. in all in 
recent years) to the Norwich hospital, an- 
nounced . . . . . .9 Jan. 1899 

Mr. J. J. Colman bequeathed a selection of 
pictures by the Norwich School of Artists (1898), 
delivered at the Castle museum. . . Feb. ,, 

Visit of the prince and princess of Wales, the 
Jenny Lind infirmary for sick children opened 

30 June, 1900 

Lady Leicester opens a hospital and a nurses' home 
(15,000?. given by Leicester, 5,000?. promised) 

16 July, 1903 

NORWICH, Bishopric of, originally East 

Anglia ; the first bishop was Felix, a Burgundian, 
sent to convert the East Anglians about 630. The 
see was divided into two distinct bishoprics — Elm- 
ham, in Norfolk, and Dunwich, in Suffolk, about 
673. Both sees suffered extremely from the Danish 
invasions, insomuch that after the death of St. 
Humbert, they lay vacant for a hundred years. At 
last the see of Elmham was revived, and Dunwich 
was united to it; but Arfastus removed the seat to 
Thetford, where it continued till Herbert Losinga 
removed it to Norwich, 1094. This see has given to 
the church of Rome two saints ; and to the nation 
five lord chancellors. It was valued in the king's 
books at899^. 18*. jhd. per annum. Present income, 
4500/. ; see Bislwprics. 

RECENT BISHOPS OF NORWICH. 

1790. George Horne; died 17 Jan. 1792. 

1792. Charles Manners Sutton ; translated to Canterbury, 

r Feb. 1805. 
1805. Henry Bathurst ; died 5 April, 1837. He was a 

strenuous supporter of catholic emancipation, 

and for a long time the only liberal bishop in the 

house of peers. 
1837. Edward Stanley ; died 6 Sept. 1849. 
1849. Samuel Hinds ; resigned 1857. 
1857. Hon. John T. Pelham, May ; resigned, March, 

1893 ; died, 1 May, 1894. 
1893. John Sheepshanks, March. 

NOTABLES, French assemblies of nobles, 
bishops, knights, and lawyers. An assembly of the 
notables was convened by the duke of Guise, 20 Aug. 
1560, and by other statesmen. Calonne, the minister 
of Louis XVI., summoned one whicli met on 22 
Feb. 1787, on account of the deranged state of the 
king's finances, and again in 1788, when he opened 
his plan : but as any reform militated too much 
against private interest to be adopted, Calonne was 
dismissed, and soon after retired to England. Louis 
having lost his confidential minister, De Vergennes, 
by death, called De Brienne, an ecclesiastic, to his 
councils. The notables were re-assembled on 6 
Nov. 1788. In the end, the states-general were 
convoked 5 Dec. ; and from this assembly sprang 
the national assembly {which see). The notables 
were dismissed by the king, 12 Dec. 1788.— The 
Spanish notables assembled and met Napoleon 
(conformably with a decree issued by him command- 
ing their attendance), at Bayonne, 25 May, 1808. 

NOTARIES PUBLIC, said to have been 
appointed by the primitive fathers of the Christian 
church, to collect the acts or memoirs of the lives 
of the martyrs in the 1st century. — I)u Fresnoy. 
This office was afterwards changed to a legal em- 
ployment, to attest deeds and writings, so as to esta- 
blish their authenticity in any other country. A 
statute to regulate public notaries was passed in 
1801, and statutes on the subject have been enacted 
since. 

"NOTES AND QUERIES," a medium of 
intercommunication for literary men and general 



) NOVA SCOTIA. 

readers, founded and edited by W. J. Thorns ; first 
published on 3 Nov. 1849; bought by sir C. "W. 
Dilke, about Aug. 1872. 

NOTRE DAME, the cathedral at Paris, was 
founded in 1163, completed 1257. It narrowly es- 
caped destruction by the communists, May, 187 1. 
It has lieen beautifully and judiciously restored, at 
a cost of about 250,000^., under the superintendence 
of Viollet-le-Duc, 1866 et seq. 

NOTTINGHAM (Saxon, Snotingaham) , 
created a city, June, 1897. The castle here was 
defended by* the Danes against king Alfred, and 
his brother Ethelred, who retook it, 868. It was 
rebuilt by William I. 1068 ; and ultimately became 
a strong fortress. See Population. 

Burnt in the civil wars . . . 1140,1153,1173 
Parliaments held . . 1194, 1337, 1386, 1394, 1397 

Here Charles I. raised his standard . 6 May, 1642 

The riots at Nottingham, in which the rioters broke 

frames, &c. . . . 14 Nov. 181 1 to Jan. 1812 
Much similar mischief .... April, 1814 
Tiie Watch and Ward act was enforced . 2 Dec. 1816 
Nottingham castle was burnt by rioters during the 

Reform excitement .... 10 Oct. 1831 
Fierce election riots with " lambs " and others took 

place in July, 1865 

The British Association met . . 22 Aug. 1866 

Suffragan bishop— Henry Mackenzie, D.D. . . 1870 
The church congress met .... Oct. 1871 

A gentleman gives io,oooZ. to educate the working 

classes Jan. 1875 

University college buildings founded 27 Sept. 1877 

Midland Counties Art museum opened by the 

prince of Wales, 3 July, 1878 ; Mr. Henry Lam- 

min bequeaths to it paintings, &c. value 4,000?. 

Aug. 1890 
University free public library and free natural 

history museum opened by prince Leopold, duke 

of Albany 3° June . l88 * 

50th anniversary of the foundation of the Mechanics 

Institution celebrated ; duke of St. Alban.i in the 

chair 1 Nov. et seq. 1887 

The Royal Agricultural Society meet here, very 

successful 9 July, 1888 

New guildhall opened by the mayor . 27 Sept. „ 
Settlement by conciliation of a great strike in the 

lace trade 9 Se Pt- l88 9 

Wilhelm E. H. Arnemann, dentist, sentenced to 

20 years' penal servitude for shooting judge Bris- 

towe at the railway station (19 Nov. 1889), 

8 March, 1890 
Adcock's factory burnt, estimated loss, 40,000?., 

5 June, 1 891 
The British Association met, 2nd time . 13 Sept. 1893 
Great fire, lace manufactories destroyed ; estimated 

damage about 140,000? 17 Nov. 1894 

Messrs. Sampson's lace factory burnt ; estimated 

loss, 200,000?. . . . . . 13 Jan. 1902 

Sanatorium on Ratcher-hill opened by the duke of 

Portland . . . . . • 3 1 Ma y> >. 

NOVARA (N.W. Italy). Near this town the 
Austrian marshal Kadetzky totally defeated the 
king Charles Albert and the Sardinian army, 23 
March, 1849. The contest began at 10 a.m. and 
lasted till late in the evening; the Austrians lost 
396 killed, and had about 1850 wounded ; the Sar- 
dinians lost between 3000 and 4000 men, 27 cannons, 
and 3000 prisoners. The king soon after abdicated 
in favour of his son Victor Emmanuel. 

NOVA SCOTIA (N. America), was discovered 
by Cabot, 1497 ; visited by Vernizzani, 1524, and 
named Acadia ; settled in 1622, by the Scotch under 
sir "William Alexander, in the reign of James I. of 
England, from whom it received the name of Nova 
Scoria. Since its first settlement it has more than 
once changed proprietors, and was not confirmed to 
England till the peace of Utrecht, in 17 13. It was 
taken in 1745 and 1758; but was again confirmed 



NOVATIANS. 



890 



NUNCIO. 



to England in 1763. Nova Scotia was divided 
into two provinces in 1 784, and was erected into a 
bishopric in Aug. 1787. King's College, Windsor, 
ivas founded in 1788; see Baronets. Gold was 
found in Nova Scotia in 1861. By an act passed 
29 March, 1867, Nova Scotia and New Brunswick 
were united with Canada for legislative purposes. 
On the agitation for secession Mr. John Bright pre- 
sented a petition in the commons 15 May; his 
motion for a i'03 r al commission of inquiry negatived 
16 June, 1868. The agitation soon subsided. Lieut. - 
governor, sir Charles H. Doyle, 1867; Joseph Howe 
died soon after his appointment, 1 June, 1873 > 
Adams George Archibald, 1873 ; Matthew Henry 
Richey, 1883; A. M. McLelan, 1888 (died 26 June, 
1890) ; M. B. Daly, 1800; re-appointed, 1895 ( knt - 
1900). Capital, Halifax. Population, in 1881, 
440,572; 1891, 450,523; iqoi, 459,116; Alfred 
Gilpin Jones, 1901. 

The gaol and other buildings at Picton were burnt 
by the act of a prisoner, who perished, about 

S Nov. ; estimated loss, io,ooo£ 1890 

The " Princess," a block of buildings at Yarmouth, 

burnt, loss about io,oooL . reported 29 Dec. ,, 
Explosion at Springhill coal mines ; 122 deaths, 
21 Feb. ; subscriptions in England for sufferers ; 
the queen gives 30?. .... March, 1S91 

Construction of the Chignecto ship railway stopped, 
after the expenditure of 3,500,000^. ; 1,500,000^. 

more required Dec. ,, 

Destructive fire at Halifax, and hurricane, about 20 

vessels wrecked, with loss of life . 21 Aug. 1893 
Great fruit crop, large exportation of apples, 

29 Jan. 1895 
Clara Friend, American schooner, foundered near 
Liverpool harbour, during a snowstorm ; crew 

(16) lost 11 Feb. „ 

Windsor, N.W. of Halifax, destroyed by fire, 
17, 18 Oct. 1897 ; Pugwash, totally destroyed by 

fire 25 July, 1S9S 

Thirty-second anniversary of the Canadian con- 
federation ; mobilization of the imperial forces 
under gen. lord Wm. Seymour . . 1 July, 1899 
The legislature prorogued ; revision of statutes and 
advancement cf railway and mining enterprises, 

announced 30 March, 1900 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Cornwall ; see 

Canada 19 Oct. 1901 

Great lire at Pugwash, 25 buildings burnt, 10 Nov. ,, 
Disastrous forest fire, reported . . 4 June, 1903 

NOVATIANS, a sect which denied restoration 
to the church to those who had relapsed during per- 
secution, began with Novatian, a Roman presbyter, 
in 250 ; see Cathari. 

NOVELS (Novella?) , a part of Justinian' s Code, 
published 535. See Romances. 1,743 new novels 
in 1902. 

NOVEMBER (novem, nine), anciently the 
ninth month of the year. When Nunia added 
January and February, in 713 B.C., it became the 
eleventh as now. The Roman senators wished to 
name this month in which Tiberius was born, by 
his name, in imitation of Julius Caesar, and Augus- 
tus; but the emperor refu-ed, saying, " What will 
you do, conscript fathers, if you have thirteen 
Cassars?" 

NOVEMBER METEORS, see Meteors. 

NOVGOROD (Central Russia), made the seat 
of his government by Ruric, a Varangian chief, in 
862, is held to be the foundation of the Russian 
empire. In memory of the event the czar inaugu- 
rated a national monument at Novgorod, on 20 
Sept. 1862. Novgorod became a republic about 
1 150. Visited by the duke of Edinburgh, 20-27 
Aug. 1875. Pan-Russian exhibition opened, 
9 June ; visited by the czar, 29 July, 1896. Popu 
lation, 1886: province, 1,231,539; city, 66,585; 
1897, province, 1,600,304; city, 95,124." 



NOVI (N. Italy). Here the French, com- 
manded by Joubert, were defeated by the Russians 
under Suwarrow, with immense loss, 15 Aug. 1799. 
Among the French slain was their leader, Joubert, 
and other distinguished officers. 

NOVI BAZAR, see Herzegovina. 

NOVUM ORGANON, the great work of lord 
Bacon, containing his system of philosophy, was 
published 1620. 

NOXIOUS VAPOURS, see Alkalies and 
Chemical Works. 

NOYADES, see Browning. 

NUBIA, the ancient ./Ethiopia supra iEgyptum, 
said to have been theseat of the kingdom of the Meroe, 
received its name from a tribe named Nubes or 
Nubates. The Christian kingdom, with Dongola, 
the capital, lasted till the 14th century, when it 
was broken up into Mahometan principalities. It 
is now subject to the viceroy of Egypt, having been 
conquered by Ibrahim Pacha in 1822. 

NUCLEUS THEORY in Chemistry, see 

Compound Radicles. 

NUISANCES REMOVAL ACT; passed 
1848; amended 1849 ; see Sanitary Legislation. 

NUITS. A small fortified town, near Dijon, in 
Burgundy, N.E. France, chartered in 1212; fre- 
quently captured and ravaged, specially in 1569, 
1576, and 1636. It was taken by the Badenese 
under Von VVerder, 18 Dec. 1870, after five hours' 
conflict, in which above 1000 French are said to 
have been killed and wounded, and 700 prisoners 
taken. The German loss was also heavy. A depot 
of arms and ammunition was gained by the victors. 

NUMANTINE WAR. The war between the 
Romans and the Celtiberians (Celts who possessed 
the country near the Iber, now the Ebro) began, 
143 B.C., on account of the latter having given 
refuge to their allies the Sigidians, who had been 
defeated by the Romans. Numantia, an unpro- 
tected city, withstood a long siege, in which the 
army of Scipio Africanus, 60.000 men, was opposed 
by no more than 4000 men able to bear arms. The 
Numantines fed upon horse-flesh, and their own 
dead, and then drew lots to kill one another. At 
length they set fire to their houses, and destroyed 
themselves, so that not one remained to adorn the 
triumph of the conqueror, 133 B.C. 

NUMIDIA (N. Africa), the seat of the war of 
the Romans with Jugurtha, which began in B.C., 
and ended with his subjugation and captivity, 106. 
The last king, .Tuba, joined Cato and was killed at 
the battle of Thapsiu-, 46 B.C., when Numidia be- 
came a Roman province ; see Mauritania. 

NUMISMATICS, the science of coins and 
medals, an important adjunct to the study of history. 
In this country Evelyn (1697), Addison (1726), and 
l'inkerlou (1789), published works on medals. Pel- 
lerin's '" Recueil des Medailles," 9 vols. 4to (1762). 
Kudiug's Annals is the great work on British 
coinage (new edition, 1840). — The Numismatic 
Society in London was founded by Dr. John Lee in 
1836. It publishes the Numismatic Chronicle. — 
Mr. Yonge Akerman's Numismatic Manual (1840) 
is a useful introduction to the science. Foreign 
works are numerous. 

NUNCIO, an envoy from the pope of Rome to 
catholic states. The pope deputed a nuncio to the 
Irish rebels in 1645. Tlie arrival in London of a 



NUNNERY. 



8'J1 



NYSTADT. 



nuncio, and his admission to an audience by 
James II., July, 1087, is stated to have hastened 
the Revolution. 

NUNNERY. The first founded is said to have 
been that to which the sister of St. Anthony retired 
at the close of the 3rd century. The first founded 
in France, near Poictiers, by St. Marcellina, sister 
to St. Martin, 360. — Du Fresnoy. The first in 
England was at Folkestone, in Kent, by Eadbald, 
or Edbald, king of Kent, 630. — Dugdale; see Abbeys 
and Monachism. The nuns were expelled from 
then - convents in German y, in July, 1785 ; in 
France, in Jan. 1790. In Feb. i8bl, monastic 
establishments were abolished in Naples, com- 
pensation being made to the inmates. For memor- 
able instances of the fortitude of nuns, see 
Acre, and Coldingham. 

NUREMBERG, a free imperial German :ity 
in 1219. In 1522, the diet here demanded ecclesi- 
astical reforms and a general council, and in 1532 
secured religious liberty to the Protestants. It was 
annexed to Bavaria in 1805. Albert Diirer was 
born here in 147 1. Population, 1890, 142,403 ; 
1900, 261,022. 

NURSES, their qualifications have been 
greatly raised during this century by the influence 
of Florence Nightingale and the viscountess 
Strangford, who clied 24 March, 1887 ; both ladies 
rendered eminent services to the sick and wounded 
in the Russo-Turkish wars. Institution of Nurs- 
ing Sisters founded 1840, and many others since. 
See Nightingale Fund and John, St. 

Mr. (afterwards sir) Henry C. Burdett in Oct. 1887, 
proposed a scheme for the establishment of the 
National Pension Fund Royal 1890, for nurses and 
hospital officials. In Jan. 1888 Messrs. Gibbs, Ham- 
bro, J. S. Morgan and Rothschild presented 20,000?. 
towards its foundation ; incorporated Feb. 1888 ; 
22,500?. presented about 27 Oct. 1895 ; 5,000/. raised 
by subscription, presented 1 Jan. 1897. Total in- 
vested funds, over 372,000/. reported 17 March, 189S. 

Certificates of membership of the fund presented by the 
princess of Wales at Marlborough House, 4 July, 1890, 
to about 650 nurses, who represented the first 1,000 
investors in the fund ; again to 1,200 nurses, 21 July, 
1899. 



The family of the late Junius S. Morgan presented 
7,731?. 15.S. sd. to the fund named after him, iS Dec, 
1890. Total amount of the fund, 17,000?. March, 1898. 

70.000?. of the Women's Jubilee Offering was devoted to 
the benefit of nurses and nursing institutions for the 
sick poor by direction of the queen, 1887 ; 5,000?. 
presented by Mr. (ait. sir) Henry Tate, Feb. 1896 (died 
1899); total. 135.888?. 2s. 71?. subscribed in 1897- 
(i,oooZ. from lady Tate, Dec. 1901.) See under Jubilee. 

About 400 of the queen's Jubilee nurses received by the- 
queen at Windsor, 2 July, 1896 ; 770 received by queen 
Alexandra, London, 3 July, 1901. 

British Nwses' Association, founded 1887 Royal 1891 ; 
charter, 1893, princess Christian, president; the 
duchess of Connaught vice-president, 1899 Annual 
meetings. Club room and offices, 10, Orchard-street, 
W. Membership 1902, about 3,000. 

"Burdett's Nursing Directory" first published, Nov. 
1897. 

The Victorian order of nurses founded by lady Aberdeen 
in Canada in 1897. 

Queen Alexandra's Imperial Military Nursing Service 
(the queen president, lady Roberts vice-president), 
created, 27 March, 1902. 

Women's memorial to queen Victoria ; 66,050?. collected 
in England and Wales, total about 80,000?., with 
subscriptions from Scotland and Ireland, for the 
queen's nurses endowment fund ; presented 21 May, 
1903 ; 1,000?. from queen Alexandra, reported, 26 May, 
1903. 

NYASALAND, the region S.W. and N.W. 
of Lake Nyasa, E. Africa, occupied by the African 
Lakes company of Glasgow since its foundation in 
1878. It contains missionary stations at Blantyre 
and Bandawe. Active measures are taken to sup- 
press the slave trade. Prosperity reported, May, 
1896. See Africa, British Central. 
Serious rising of the Southern Angoni in the 
Domwe district ; lieut. Brogdeu's force en- 
counters a large impi of Angoni, while recon- 
noitring, 1 Sikh killed, Angoni's loss severe ; 

reported 26 June, 1898. 

Rising ended, Domwe found deserted early July, ,, 
British and Portuguese joint expedition against 
Mataka and other i-aiding chiefs ; successful, 

Aug. -Oct. ,, 

NYNEE TAL, see Landslips, 18 Sept. 1880. 

NYSTADT, S.W. Finland. By a treaty, 
signed here 30 Aug. 1/21, Sweden ceded Livonia, 
Esthonia, and other territories to Russia. 



OAK, 



OBELISK. 



0. 



OAK, styled the monarch of the woods, and an 
emblem of strength, virtue, constancy, and long 
life. That produced in England is considered to be 
the best calculated for ship-building. In June, 403, 
the "Synod of the oak," was held at Chalcedon. 
The constellation Eobur Caroli, the oak of Charles, 
was named by Dr. Halley in 1676, in memory of 
the oak in which Charles II. saved himself from 
his pursuers, after the battle of Worcester, 3 Sept. 
1 65 1 ; see Boscobel, and Races. 

The evergreen oak, Quercus Ilex, brought from the 
south of Europe before I5 8i 

The scarlet oak, Quercus coccinea, brought from 
North America before 1691 

The chestnut-leaved oak, Quercus Prinus, from 
North America before I73 o 

The Turkey Oak, Quercus Cerris, from' the south of 
Europe I73S 

The agaric of the oak was known as a styptic in '. 1750 

Heme's oak, Windsor Park, mentioned in Shaks- 
peare's "Merry Wives of Windsor, " finally de- 
stroyed by the wind .... 31 Aug 1863 

Existing Oaks, 1879. Cowthorpe, Yorkshire ; girth 
at the ground, 5S feet 6 inches. Newland, Glou- 
cester (mentioned in Domesday Book), 46 feet. 

OATES' S PLOT. Titus Oates, at one time 
chaplain of a ship of war, was dismissed for im- 
moral conduct, and became a lecturer in London. 
In conjunction with Dr. Tongue, he invented a plot 
against the Roman Catholics, who he asserted had 
conspired to assassinate Charles II., and extirpate 
the Protestant religion. He made it known 12 Aug. 
1678, and in consequence about eighteen Koman 
Catholics were accused, and upon false testimony 
convicted and executed ; among them the aged 
viscount Stafford, 29 Dec. 1680. Oates was after- 
wards tried for perjury (in the reign of James II.), 
and being found guilty, was fined, put in the 
pillory, publicly whipped from Newgate to Tyburn, 
and sentenced to imprisonment for life, May, 1685. 
Pardoned on the accession of William and Mary, 
and a pension of $1. a week granted to him, 1689. 

OATHS were taken by Abraham, B.C. 1892 
(Gen. xxi. 24), and authorised (b.c. 1491) Exod. 
xxii. II. The administration of an oath in judicial 
proceedings was introduced by the Saxons into 
England, 600.— Rapin. That administered to a 
judge was settled 1344. 

Icelandic Oath. " Name I to witness that I take oath 
by the ring, law-oath, so help me Freyand Nicirdh, 
and almighty Thor, as I shall this suit follow or 
defend, or witness bear, or verdict or doom, as I 
wit Tightest and soothe stand most lawfully," &c. 

y. d about 925 

Of {supremacy, first administered to British sub- 
jects, and ratified by parliament, 26 Hen. VIII. 
(Stoic's Chron.) I5 , 5 

Oaths were taken on the Gospels so early as 528 ; 
and the words "So help me God and all saints," 
concluded an oath until . . . 155 o 

The ancient oath of allegiance, which contained a 
promise "to be true and faithful to the king and his 
heirs, and truth and faith to bear of life and limb 
and terrene honour ; and not to know or hear of any 
ill or damage intended him without defending 
him therefrom," was modified by James I., a 
declaration against the pope's authority being 
added 1603 : it was again altered .... 1689 

The affirmation of a Quaker was made equivalent to 
an oath, by statute, in 1696, et seq. 



Of Abjuration, being an obligation to maintain 
the government of king, lords, and commons, 
the church of England, and toleration of Protes- 
tant dissenters, and abjuring all Roman Catholic 
pretenders to the crown, 13 Will. III. . . . 1701 

The Test and Corporation oaths modified by stat. 
9 Geo. IV. (see Teste) 1828 

Act abolishing oaths in the customs and excise de- 
partments, and in certain other cases, and substi- 
tuting declarations in lieu thereof, 1 & 2 Will. IV. 1831 

Affirmation, instead of oath,, was permitted to 
Quakers and other dissenters by acts passed in 
1833, 1837, 1838, and 1863 (see Affirmation). 

In 1858 and i860, Jews elected M.P. were relieved 
from part of the oath of allegiance (see Jews). 

By 24 & 25 Vict. c. 66, a solemn declaration may be 
substituted for an oath by persons conscientiously 
objecting to be sworn in criminal prosecutions . 1861 

A bill for modifying the oath taken by Roman 
Catholics (passed by the commons), was rejected 
by the lords 26 June, 1865 1 

The oath to be taken by members of parliament 
was modified by an act passed . . 30 April, 1866 I 

New oath of allegiance provided by the 31st and 
32nd Vict. c. 72 (1868), to be taken by the mem- 
bers of the new parliament : — " I do swear that I 
will be faithful and bear true allegiance to her 
majesty queen Victoria, her heirs and successors, 
according to law, so help me God." 

Bradlaugh Case, see Parliament, 1880. 

New parliamentary oaths bill brought in ; dis- 
charged 5 July, 1881 

Affirmations ordered to be accepted for oaths in 
France, 2 Feb. ; in Spain . . . April, 1883 

Mr. Bradlaugh's Oaths Bill, substituting an affirma- 
tion for an oath, in all cases when required (by 
sec. 5 of this act the Scotch form of taking an oath 
is permitted when desired) ; royal assent, 24 Dec. 1888 

OBELISK (Greek obetos, a spit, monolithos, 
a single stone) . The Eg3'ptian symbol of the su- 
preme God. The first mentioned in history was 
that of Pameses II., king of Egypt, about 1322 B.C. 
The Arabians called them Pharaoh's needles, and 
the Egyptian priests the fingers of the sun. Several 
were erected at Pome ; one was erected by the 
emperor Augustus in the Campus Martius, on the 
pavement of which was a horizontal dial that 
marked the hour, about 14 B.C. Of the obelisks 
brought to Pome by the emperors, several have 
been restored and set up by various popes. One was 
excavated and set up in the piazza of St. John 
Lateran, Pome, by Sixtus V. 1588. 
Egyptian Obelisks. — 42 are known, some broken : 12 at 
Rome ; 1, from Luxor, set up in the Place de la 
Concorde, Paris, Oct. 1836 ; 5 in England (2 British 
museum ; 1 Alnwick ; 1 Soughton hall ; 1 on Thames 
embankment). 
The obeusks improperly named Cleopatra's Needles were 
erected by Thothmes III. at On (Heliopolis), about 160c 
a.c. One was removed to Alexandria by Augustus, 
about 23 B.C. After being long imbedded in the shore, 
it was acquired for Great Britain by sir Ralph Aber- 
cromby, in 1801 ; but not removed. It was oil'ered to 
the British government by Mehemet Ali, and again bj 
the Khedive, 15 March, 1877. 
Mr. James Erasmus Wilson (knt. Nov. 1881) having 
offered to pay all expenses, Mr. John Dixon, the 
engineer, undertook to convey it to England. The i 
vessel, Cleopatra, containing it sailed with the Olgu 
21 Sept. During a violent gale, the vessels were 
separated, 14-15 Oct. ; six lives were lost in a fruit- 
less attempt to recover it. The Cleopatra, which was 
abandoned, was found by the Fitzmaurice (capt. 
Carter), and towed to Ferrol, whence it was towed by 
the Anglia, and arrived in London, 20 Jan. 1878. 



OBER-AMMERGAU PASSION PLAY. 



ODD VOLUMES, SETTE OR 



The salvage awarded was 2000Z., 6 April, 1878. 

After much discussion, the Thames embankment (be- 
tween Charing cross and Waterloo bridges) was selected 
for its site ; where, by much engineering skill, it was 
placed, 12 Sept. 1878. 

The obelisk weighs 186 tons, 7 cwt., 2 stones, 11 lb. 
Height, from base to point, 68 feet 5^ inches. 

It was placed under the care of the metropolitan board 
of works by act passed 22 July, 1878. 

Sir J. Erasmus Wilson died 8 Aug. 1884. 

In London are three English obelisks : first in Fleet- 
street, at the top of Bridge-street, erected to John 
Wilkes, lord mayor of London in 1775 (see North 
Briton) ; and immediately opposite to it at the south 
end of Farringdon-street, stands another of granite to 
the memory of Robert Waithman, lord mayor in 1824, 
erected 25 June, 1833 ; the third at the south end of 
the Blackfriars-road marks the distance of one mile 
and a fraction from Fleet-street. Controversy during 
1903 respecting its removal and the substitution of an 
illuminated clock-tower on the site. 

The Washington Obelisk, at Washington, U.S., 555 feet 
high, inaugurated, 21 Feb. 1885 

OBER-AMMEEGAU PASSION PLAY, 

see Drama. 

OBLIVION. In 1660 was passed an act of 
" free general pardon, indemnity, and oblivion for 
all treasons and state offences" committed between 
1 Jan. 1637, and 24 June, 1660. The regicides and 
certain Irish popish priests were excepted. A similar 
act was passed 20 May, 1690. See Amnesty. 

OBSERVANCE, Fathers of the (or 
OBSERVANTS), a name given to certain members 
of the Franciscan order, about 1363, who volun- 
tarily undertook the observance of their rule in its 
pristine rigour. This reformation was after a time 
enforced by the pope. 

OBSERVATORIES, Astronomical. The 

first is said to have been erected on the top of the 
temple of Belus at Babylon about 2247 B.C. The 
first in authentic history was at Alexandria, about 
300 B.C., erected by Ptolemy Soter. " Observatory, 
a monthly review of astronomy," first appeared in 
1877. Observatories of early date probably existed 
in Egypt, China, and India. 
First modern meridional instrument by Copernicus 1540 

First observatory at Cassel 1561 

Tycho Brahe's, at Uranienburg .... 1576 

Astronomical tower at Copenhagen . . . . 1657 

Royal (French) 1667 

Royal observatory at Greenwich (which see) . . 1675 
Observatory at Nuremberg . . . . . 1678 

At Utrecht 1690 

Berlin, erected under Leibnitz's direction . . 1711 

At Bologna 1714 

At St. Petersburg . 1725 

At Pekin, about 1750 

Oxford, Dr. Radctiffe 1772 

Calton Hill, Edinburgh . . . . . . 1776 

Dublin, Dr. Andrews 1783 

Armagh, Primate Robinson 1793 

Cambridge, England 1824 

Pulkowa, Russia 1839 

Cambridge, U.S. 1840 

Washington, U.S 1842 

Liverpool, England 1844 

Ben Nevis, Scotland 1883 

Lick Observatory, on a peak of Mount Hamilton, 
California, U.S. (4,200 feet above sea-level), en- 
dowed by James Lick of San Francisco (who died 
1 Oct. 1876); erected .... 1888 et seq. 
The new observatory in the Vatican, completed Jan. 1890 
New observatory at Abastrouman, Tiflis, opened 

23 Aug. 1892 
Mont Blanc, which see, 1891-3. 
New observatory erected by prof. T. S. C. Lowe on 
the Sierra' Madre mountains, 3,600 ft. above sea 

level, reported 27 Oct. 1894 

Blackford Hill, Edinburgh ... 7 April, 1896 
Yerkes observatory, 75 m. from Chicago, 1,200 feet 

above sea-level, opened . . . .21 Oct. 1897 
An observatory established on the top of Mount 



Kosciusko, New Zealand, at a height of 7,000 feet, 

reported n Dec. 1897 

Heidelberg, opened .... 10 June, 1898 
Mont Mounier, Maritime Alps, cost defrayed by 
M. Bischoffsheim, who also endowed the Nice 
observatory, announced ... 24 Dec. ,, 
Calcutta, at the Presidency college . . Jan. 1902 
Regina Margherita, scientific observaiory, with 
physiological laboratory, under prof. Mosso ; 
good report, Nature . . . .17 April, ,, 

OBSERVER, Sunday paper (liberal), esta- 
blished 1 79 1. 

OC (for hoc, yes); oil, now ou' ; "yes." See 
French Language. 

O A N A (central Spain) , near which the 
Spaniards were defeated by the French, commanded 
by Mortier and Soult, 19 Nov. 1809. 

OCCULT SCIENCES (from occultus, con- 
cealed) ; see Astrology, Alchemy, Magic, &c. 

OCEANA, an imaginary republic, described in 
a book written by James Harrington, dedicated to 
Oliver Cromwell, and published in 1656. 

OCEAN MONARCH, an American emi- 
grant ship, left Liverpool, bound for Boston, 
24 Aug. 1848, having nearly 400 persons on board. 
When within six miles of Great Orme's head, Car- 
narvonshire, N. "Wales, she took fire, and in a few 
hours was burnt to the water's edge, and 178 persons 
perished. 

The Brazilian steam-frigate, Alfonzo, happened to be out 
on a trial trip at the time, with the prince and princess 
de Joinville and the duke and duchess d'Aumale on 
board, who witnessed the catastrophe, and aided in 
rescuing and comforting the sufferers. The crews and 
passengers of the Alfonzo and the yacht Queen of the 
Ocean saved 156 persons, and 62 others escaped by 
various means. 

OCTARCHY, see Britain. 

OCTOBER, the eighth month in the year of 
Romulus, as its name imports, and the tenth in the 
year of Numa, 713 B.C. October still retained its 
first name, although the senate ordered it to be 
called Faustinus, in honour of Faustina, wife of 
Antoninus the emperor; Commoduscalledit_/?m'c£w,?, 
and Domitianus. October was sacred to Mars. 
October Club. A party of country gentlemen in the 

house of commons, about 1710, which professed high 

church principles, and favoured Bolingbroke and the 

Jacobite cause. 

OCTROIS (from the low Latin auctorium, 
authority), a term applied to concessions from 
sovereigns, and to the taxes levied at the gates of 
towns in France on articles of food before entering 
the city. These octrois, of ancient origin, were 
suppressed in 1791 ; re-established, 1797, and re- 
organised in 1816, 1842, and 1852. In 1859, the 
octrois of Paris produced above 54 million francs. 
The Belgian government became very popular in 
July, i860, by abolishing the Octrois. The Coal 
and Wine dues of London were of this nature. 

ODDFELLOWS, Unity of, the name of a 
large friendly society, originally of a convivial 
character, which took its present name in 1812. It 
has numerous branches, but its headquarters are 
in Manchester. In 1886, there were 617,587 mem- 
bers; in 1892, 709,403 members, income, 1,361,314/.; 
capital, 7,630,228/. ; 1895, 739,449 members, 
8,420,452/. capital; 1901, 850,709 members, 
10,750,954/. capital. 

ODD VOLUMES, SETTE OF. A literary 
society established in London; dined at Freemasons' 
Tavern, London, Jan. 1884. The society prints for 
private distribution, small out-of-the-way works. 



ODES. 



894 



OIL BIVEES. 



ODES are very ancient ; amongst the Greeks 
they were extempore compositions sung in honour 
of the gods. Anacreon's odes were composed about 
532; Pindar's, 498 to 446; and Horace's from 24 
to 13, all B.C. Anciently odes were divided into 
strophe, antistrophe, and epode; see Poets Lau- 
reate. 

ODESSA, a port on the Black Sea, built by 
the empress Catharine of Russia, 1784- 1 792, after 
the peace of Jassy. In 1817 it was made a free 
port, since when its prosperity has rapidly in- 
creased. It was partially bombarded by the British, 
21 April, 1854, in consequence of the Russian 
batteries having fired on a Hag of truce, 6 April. 
On 12 May the English frigate Tiger stranded 
here, and was destroyed by Russian artillery. The 
captain, Gifi'ard, and many of his crew were killed, 
and the rest made prisoners. Population, 1885, 
240,000; 9 Feb. 1897,404,651. 

Military and naval manoeuvres begin ; H.M.S. 

Melita most cordially received . 6-12 Sept. 1899 
Great petroleum Are ... 18, 19 .Nov. 1902 

ODOMETEE (from the Greek hodos, way, and 
metron, measure), see Pedometer. 

ODONTOLOGY (from the Greek odontes, 
teeth), the science of the teeth, may be said to 
have really begun with, the researches of professor 
Richard Owen, who in 1839 made the first definite 
announcement of the organic connection between 
the vascular and vital soft parts of the frame and 
the hard substance of a tooth. His comprehensive 
work, "Odontography" (illustrated with beautiful 
plates), was published 1840-45. The Odontological 
Society was established 1856. 

ODBYSiE, a people of Thrace. Their king 
Teres retained his independence of the Persians, 
508 B.C. Sitalces, his son, enlarged his dominions, 
and in 429, aided Amyntas against Perdiccas II., of 
Macedon, with an army of 150,000 man. Sitalces, 
killed in battle with the Triballi, 424, was suc- 
ceeded by Seuthes, who reigned prosperously; 
Cotys, another king (382-353), disputed the pos- 
session of the Thracian Chersonesus with Athens. 
After 9 or 10 years' warfare, Philip II. of Macedon 
reduced the Odrysre to tributaries, and founded 
Philippopolis and other colonies, 343. The Romans, 
after their conquest of Macedon, favoured the 
Odrysse, and in 42 their king Sadales bequeathed 
his territories to the Romans. The Odrysae, tur- 
bulent subjects, and often chastised, were finally 
incorporated into the empire by Vespasian, about 
a.d. 70. 

ODYL, the name given in 1845 by baron von 
Reichenbach to a so-called new " imponderable, or 
influence," said to be developed by magnets, crys- 
tals, the human body, heat, electricity, chemical 
action, and the whole material universe. The 
odylic force is said to give rise to luminous pheno- 
mena, visible to certain sensitive persons only. 
The baron's " Researches on Magnetism, &o., infla- 
tion to the Vital Force," translated by Dr. Gregoiy, 
were published in 1850. Emanuel Swedcnborg 
(died 1772) described similar phenomena. 

OECUMENICAL BISHOP (from the Greek 
mkoumene, the habitable, globe understood), " uni- 
versal bishop ; " a title assumed by John, bishop of 
Constantinople, 587. 

CENOPHYTA (Beootia, N. Greece). Here 
Myronides and the Athenians severely defeated the 
Boeotians, 456 B.C. 

OFEN, see Buda. 



OFFA'S DYKE, the iutrenchment from the 
Wye to the Dee, made by Oft'a, king of Mercia, to 
defend his country from the incursions of the 
Welsh, 779. 

OFFICIAL SECEETS ACT, passed 26 
Aug. 1889, punishes disclosures as a misdemeanour. 

OFFICIAL INTELLIGENCE, see Stocks. 

OGULNIAN LAW, carried by the tribunes Q. 
and Cn. Ogulnius, increased the number of the 
pontiffs and augurs, and made plebeians eligible to 
those offices, B.C. 300. 

OGYGES, see Deluge. 

OHIO, a western state of North America, 
settled by the French in 1673, was ceded to the 
British with Canada, in 1763; extensively settled 
in 1788, and admitted into the Union, 29 Nov. 1802. 
Capital, Columbus ; see Storms, 1890. Explosion 
of 16 tons of gunpowder at King's powder mills, 20 
miles from Cincinnati, 20 persons killed, 15 July, 
1890. Population, 1880,3,198,062; 1890,3,672,316; 
1900,4,157,545. 

Fire at lumber yards at Coalgrove, 3 deaths ; esti- 
mated loss 750,000 dollars ... 7 April, 1893 

Fire at Toledo, chamber of commerce, &c. destroyed, 
estimated loss 1,000,000 dollars . . 3 Jan. 1894 

Destructive rioting at Cleveland, suppressed by the 
military 1 May, „ 

Lynching riot, suppressed by the military, 3 persons 
killed 16, 18 Oct. ,, 

Anti-negro riot at Akron, city hall burnt, gaol 
attacked, 3 deaths and 18 wounded . 22 Aug. 1900 

OHM'S LAW, for determining the quantity 
of the electro-motive force of the voltaic battery, 
was published in 1827. It is in conformity with 
the discovery that the earth may be employed as 
a conductor, thus saving the return wire in electric 
telegraphy. 

OIL was used for burning in lamps as early as 
the epoch of Abraham, about 1921 B.C. It was the 
custom of the Jews to anoint with oil persons ap- 
pointed to high offices, as the priests and kings, 
Psalm exxxiii. 2 ; 1 Sam. x. 1 ; xvi. 13. The fact 
that oil, if passed through red-hot iron pipes, will 
be resolved into a combustible gas, was long known 
to chemists; and after the process of lighting by 
coal-gas was made apparent, Messrs. Taylor and 
Martineau contrived apparatus for producing oil- 
gas on a large scale, 1815. — Oil Springs ; see 
Petroleum. Oil Frescos; see wider Painting. 

To supply oil to calm the waves, pipes were laid 
down in the port of Aberdeen ; experiments with 
Mr. Shield's apparatus, 26 Sept. ; successful ex- 
periments reported .... 4 Dec. 1882 

Scotch fishing vessels provided with oil tanks, Nov. 1883 

Mr. Shield's plans successful at Folkestone harbour, 

Jan. 1884 

Capt. Chetwind reports oil to be ineffectual in re- 
gard to breakers and surf . . . Oct. „ 

Mr. Gordon's oil-shells shot out at Montrose said 
to calm the sea 6 April, 1885 

Crude petroleum tried as a dust layer near Farn- 
borough 27 Sept. 1902 

OIL PAINTING, see Painting. The Insti- 
tute of Painters in Oil Colours established ; first 
President Mr. J. H. Linton ; 94 members elected, 
Feb. ; first exhibition opened 17 Dec. 1883. 

OIL EIVEES, now called " Niger Coast Pro- 
tectorate " (1894), a territory on the W. coast of 
Africa, between Cameroons and Lagos, adjoining 
the territories of the Royal Niger company, see 
Niger. It contains six main rivers, which derive 



OKAPI. 



89o 



OLD CATHOLICS. 



their general name from palm oil, the chief product, 
with a population reported above 12,000,000. 

The country was visited first by missionaries early 
in the 19th century, and afterwards by traders, 
who by peaceful means have gradually established 
plantations and nearly 40 lactories in the interior. 
The region was placed under British protection, 
with a consul, in 1884. The traders formed them- 
selves into an association, Feb. 1890 ; major sir 
Claude Maxwell MacDonald appointed commis- 
sioner, with consular jurisdiction . . Nov. 1890 

Good report Jan. 1893 

<_!onflicts with the chief Nana in Benin checked by 
H.M.S. Alecto and others, 25,29 Aug. 1894; captain 
Lalor died of his wounds, 3 Sept. ; admiral Bed- 
ford, of the I J hilomcl, captures Nana's stronghold 
on the Benin river, 25 Sept. ; Nana surrenders at 
Lagos, reported 30 Oct. ; sentenced to life im- 
prisonment, 6 Dec. 1894; partially commuted, 

Nov. 1896 

Consul-gen. Phillips, major Copland Crawford, 
capts. Boisragon and Maling, Dr. Elliott, Messrs. 
Campbell, Locke, Powis, and Gordon, with 250 
native carriers, left Sapele, unarmed, on a peace- 
ful mission to Benin city, 2 Jan. 1897; well re- 
ceived at Gwato, 4 Jan. ; proceeded on their 
journey, intending to remonstrate with the king, 
who was carrying on an annual butchery of 
-slaves ; all shot dead from an ambuscade except 
capt. Boisragon, Mr. Balph Locke, and about 15 
carriers, who escaped into the bush (Mr. Camp- 
bell was captured and afterwards put to death), 

5 Jan. 1897 

Punitive expedition under lieut.-col. Bruce Hamil- 
ton, Mr. B. D. Moor, commissioner (K.C.M.G. 
June, 1897), and other officers, with a flotilla 
under rear-adm. Bawson, arrives at Siri, 6 Feb ; 
adm. Bawson captures Gwato, Sapobo (lieut. 
Pritchard, of H.M.S. Alecto, and one man killed, 
11 Feb.), and Ologbo .... 12 Feb. ,, 

Benin city taken by col. Bruce Hamilton's force 
after a running 8 hours' fight in the bush ; Dr. C. 
J. Fyfe and 7 others killed, capt. G. Taylor Byrne 
mortally wounded ; human sacrifices and corpses 
found everywhere 18 Feb. ,, 

Fort erected at Benin city, lieut. A. H. Turner ap- 
pointed resident, March (died of fever, Sept.) . ,, 

A patrol under lieuts. Carrol and Fitzgerald defeats 
the fugitive king of Benin, 9 June ; and again in 
the Protectorate territory, lieut. Fitzgerald and 
2 men killed, June ; the king and about 3,000 
men surrender at Benin city, 7 Aug. ; removed 
to Old Calabar ; 2 chiefs executed for the Benin 
massacre Oct. ,, 

Capt. Roupell, resident, country peaceful . Sept. ,, 

Further operations against rebellious tribes in the 
Hinterland of Benin ; 2 towns captured, severe 
fighting, 150 natives killed, and 7 Hausas killed, 

13-16 Nov. 1808 

Capt. Parker killed in an attack by natives on his 
expedition early April, 1899 

Punitive expedition under major Carter leaves 
Benin City 20 April ; Ologbosheri's town and 
himself captured by capt. Gabbett after heavy- 
fighting, lieut. Uniacke killed, 24 April ; the 
chief charged with the massacre of Europeans 
and natives (Jan. 1897), I s hanged, 28 June, 1899 ; 
his son Okoro given up by the natives . June, ,, 

OKAPI, a new mammal (giraffe-like), first 
heard of by sir H. M. Stanley ; discovered by sir 
Harry Johnston in the Semliki forest, Central 
Africa; Times, 7 May, 1901. 

OKLAHOMA ("beautiful land"), a part of 
the "Indian Territory" situated between Texas, 
Kansas, and Arkansas, partly inhabited by Indians. 
The western part of tlie territory was ceded to the 
United States in 1866. It has been surveyed and 
divided into 85 townships. See United States, 1889. 

Great distress caused through the destruction of 
the promising crops by a hot wind (15 June) ; 
about 30,000 destitute persons, government relief 
promised ....... Dec. 1890 



Destructive tornado, with loss of 100 lives, 

25 April, 1893 
Rioting and dynamite outrages, reported . 18 July, 1894 
Towns : Guthrie, Oklahoma, Kingfisher, and others. 
Additional lands opened, Sept. 1891. Population, 
1890, 61,834 ; 1900, 398,331. 

OLBEES, the asteroid, now termed Pallas, dis- 
covered by M. Olbers, in 1802. 

OLD BAILEY SESSIONS COURT is 

held for the trial of criminals, and its jurisdiction 
comprehends the county of Middlesex as well as 
the city of London. It is held eight times in the 
year by the royal cornm^sion of oyer and terminer. 
The judges are, the lord mayor, those aldermen 
who have passed the chair, the recorder and the 
common-serjeant, who are attended by both the 
sheriffs, and one or more of the national judges. 
The court-house was built in 1773, aud enlarged 
in 1808 ; the lord mayor lays the first stone of the 
new session house here, 20 Dec. 1902 ; see Central 
Criminal Court. 

During some trials in the old court, the lord mayor, 
one alderman, two judges, the greater part of the 
jury, and numbers of spectators, caught the gaol 
distemper, and died .... May, 1750 

This disease was fatal to several . . . . 1772 

Twenty-eight persons killed at the execution of Mr. 
Steele's murderers at the Old Bailey . 23 Feb. 1807 

OLD BELIEVEES, a Russian sect, said to 
number about 12,000,000, originated in a revolt 
against the cruelties of the patriarch Nicon, 
whom they named Anti-Christ, 1654. They profess 
to adhere to the old reading of the Sclavonian 
sacred books, which have been superseded by the 
present Russian church. The czar Alexander II. 
granted liberty of worship to the sect in 1879. 

OLD CATHOLICS, the name assumed 
in Germany by the members of the Roman 
Catholic church opposed to the dogma of papal 
infallibility, headed by professor Dollinger of 
Munich (see Councils, 18 July, 1870). After 
three days' conference at Munich, Sept. 187 1, they 
decided to set up independent worship, first meet- 
ing in a church given them by the town council of 
Munich. The abbe Miehaud began a similar 
movement in Paris in Feb. 1872. Dr. Dollinger 
preached in favour of union with the church of 
England, March, 1872. Fere Hyacinthe (Charle» 
Loyson), president of the party at Rome, issued a 
programme, respecting the Vatican decrees, recog- 
nising ecclesiastical authorities, demanding reform, 
yet opposing schism, about 5 May, 1872. The bishops 
of Lincoln (Wordsworth) and Ely (Browne) and the 
dean of Westminster (Dr. Stanley), by invitation, 
attended the conference at Cologue, and delivered 
addresses, 20-22 Sept. 1872. The Old Catholics 
elected their first bishop, Dr. Joseph Reinkens, 
1 June, 1873, who was recognised by the emperor 
and other powers. 

Congress of old Catholics held at Constance, 18 Sept. 
1873 ; at Freiburg 6 Sept. 1874 

First synod held in Germany at Bonn, opened 

27 Maj-, ,, 

Dr. Dollinger received delegates from eastern and 
western churches at Bonn, with a view for union 
with the old Catholics ; and after much discussion 
certain preliminaries were agreed on ; much 
result was not expected ... 14 Sept. ,, 

First old Catholic church in Berlin opened 30 Nov. „ 

In Prussia about 20,000 old Catholics (about 
8,000,000 Bomanists) 1875 

Congress at Bonn : bishop of Winchester, canon 
Liddon, and several oriental clergy present, 12 
Aug. ; agreement respecting the filioque clause 

16 Aug. „ 



OLDENBURG. 



OLYMPIA. 



Circular put forth by the old Catholics at Bonn ask- 
ing for a church for their worship ; (they declare 
opposition to the Vatican decrees of 18 July, 1870; 
they do not secede from the Catholic church, 
but desire Catholicism free from debasing doc- 
trines ; repudiate infallibility and supremacy of 
the pope ; sanction reading of the Bible, and 
divine worship in the vulgar tongue ; and mar- 
riage of priests) Bee. 1875 

Congress at Bonn ; strong opposition to celibacy of 
clergy ; question deferred, early in . . June, 1876 

Congress at Mentz opens . . . 28 Sept. 1877 

Meeting at Berne : bishop Cotterill of Edinburgh 
and M. Hyacinthe Loyson there, 17 Aug. 1879; 
at Geneva, 23 May, 1880 ; at Baden-Baden 19-21 
Sept. 1880 ; at Vienna, .... 8 Sept. 1886 

Visits of the bishops of Lichfield (W. D. Maclagan) 
and Salisbury (J. Wordsworth), congresses at 
Bonn, &c, in Switzerland, and at Vienna, Oct. 
1887 ; international congresses at Cologne, 12 
Sept. 1890; at Lucerne, 12 Sept. 1892 ; at Rotter- 
dam, Aug. 1894 ; at Vienna, 1 Sept. 1897 ; at 
Bonn S Aug- 19 02 

[The doctrines of the Old Catholics closely resem- 
ble those of the church of England.] 

The progress of the Italian catholic church opposed 
to the papacy, reported .... Feb. 1888 

Dr. Dollinger's ninetieth birthday celebrated at 
Munich, 28 Feb. 1889 ; he died . . 10 Jan. 1890 

Dr. Weber, of Breslau, consecrated bishop in suc- 
cession to dr. Reinkens, who died . . Jan. 1896 

OLDENBURG, a grand duchy in North Ger- 
many, was annexed to Denmark in 1448 ; in 1773, 
Christian VII. ceded the country to Russia in ex- 
change for Holstein Gottorp, and soon after the 
present dignity was established. The duke joined 
the North German confederation, 18 Aug. 1866, 
and obtained a slight increase of territory from 
Holstein, 27 Sept. following. The grand duchy 
comprises Oldenburg proper, the principality of 
Lubeck, and that of Birkent'eld. Population in 1864, 
301,812; in 1871,314,591 ; in 1880, 337,478 ; 1890, 
354,968 ; 1900, 398,500. 

DUKES. 

1773. Frederick Augustus. 

1785. Peter Frederick. The duchy was seized by Napo- 
leon, and annexed to his empire in 1811 ; but 
restored in 18 14. 

GEAND-DUKES. 

1829. May 21. Augustus. 

1853. Feb. 27. Peter, son ; born 8 July, 1827 ; died, 13 

June, 1900. 
1900. Frederick' Augustus, son; born 16 Nov. 1852; 

married princess Elizabeth of Mecklenburg- 

Schwerin, 24 Oct. 1896. Heir : Nicholas, born 

1897. 
OLDHAM, Lancashire, a village in 1760, was 
incorporated in 1849, and has sent two members to 
parliament since 1832, when "William Cobbett was 
elected one of the members. It has extensive 
cotton manufactories. The handsome town -hall 
was built in 1841, and enlarged in 1879. Alexan- 
dra park was opened in 1865. Population, 1881, 
111,343; 1891, 131,463; 1901, 137,382. 

OLD MAN of the Mountain, see 

Assassins. 
OLD STYLE, see New Style. 

OLEFIANT GAS, a combination of hydrogen 
and carbon, which burns with much brilliancy. 
In 1862, Berthelot formed it artificially by means 
of alcohol. 

OLEOMETER, an instrument for determining 
the density of fixed oils at a standard temperature 
of 59° Fahr. The oleometers most in use are those 
of Gobby, Lefebre, Fisher and Brix. This instru- 
ment is also called the Elaiometer. 

OLERON, see Navigation Laws, 



OLIBANUM, a kind of gum obtained from 
various species of Boswtllin found growing on the 
limestone rocks of Somaliland and in Southern 
Arabia. It is identical with the thus of the 
Romans, and is largely used as incense, and a con- 
siderable trade in this product is carried on at Aden. 
Large quantities of olibanum are u<ed in India. 

OLIVES are named in the earliest accounts of 
Egypt and Greece. They were first planted in Italy 
about 562 B.C. The olive has been cultivated in 
England since 1648 a.d. ; the Cape olive since 1730. 
From the olive is obtained oleic acid, a colourless, 
oily fluid, and in its combined foruis is used in 
medicine, and in soap manufacture. 

Mount of Olives, also named Mount Olivet, a ridge of 
rocks situated east of Jerusalem, from which it is 
separated by the valley of Jehoshaphat. Here Titus 
encamped when he besieged Jerusalem 70 a.d. The 
Mount is chiefly associated with the life of our Lord ; 
here, according to tradition, the angels appeared to 
the disciples after the resurrection. Christ taught 
His disciples the Lord's prayer ; and here he wept 
over Jerusalem. On the summit of the central peak 
is built the Church of the Ascension, the site of an 
earlier church erected by St. Helena. 

OLMUTZ, the ancient capital of Moravia. 
Here the emperor Ferdinand abdicated, on behalf 
of his nephew, Francis Joseph, 2 Dec. 1848 ; and 
here the latter promulgated a new constitution, 
4 March, 1849. A conference was held here, 29 Nov. 
1850, under the czar Nicholas, when the difficulties 
between Austria and Prussia respecting the affairs 
of Hesse-Cassel were arranged. 

OLTENITZA. A Turkish force having crossed 
the Danube, under Omar Pacha, established them- 
selves at Oltenitza, in spite of the vigorous attacks 
of the Russians, who were repulsed with loss, 2 and 
3 Nov. 1853. On the 4th a desperate attempt to 
dislodge the Turks by general Danneberg with 9000 
men, was defeated with great loss. 

OLYMPIA, West Kensington, opened 27 Dee. 

1886. See under Agriculture, and Irish Exhibition. 

First great horse show of English Horse Society 
opened here . . . . . .15 May, 1889 

See under Horse. 

The pictures not accepted by the Royal Academy 
for exhibition in 1889 were exhibited here 

22 June, et seq., „ 
See Bamum's Show. 

Olympia opened as a skating rink for roller skates 

21 April, 1890 

Olympia taken by Mr. Augustus Harris and a 
syndicate . . . . . . . Feb. 1891 

Representations of ancient and modern Venice 
entirely designed and constructed by Mr. Imre 
Kiralfy, exhibiting the scenery, the life of 
the inhabitants, manufactures (including Dr. Sal- 
viati's glass manufacture), 100 gondolas, with 
gondoliers, a grand aquatic carnival, and other 
entertainments ; opened, 26 Dec. 1891 . 7 Jan. 1893 

Representation of Constantinople constructed by 
Mr. Bolossy Kiralfy, Mr. Wilson Bennington, 
Signor Joseph Goletti, and other artists ; it in- 
cluded the bridge of boats across the Golden 
Horn, the Tower of Galata, &c, historic pageants, 
tableaux, &c. opened .... 26 Dec. „ 

Visit of the prince and princess of Wales and 
family, 8 Feb. ; closed ... 20 Oct. 1894 

" The Orient," representing Turkey, Egypt, 
India, &c, opened .... 26 Dec. „ 

A compulsory winding-up order granted, the com- 
pany not having raised sufficient capital, 1 July, 
1895 ; first meeting of creditors, 10 Aug. 1896. 

New entertainments by sir Augustus Harris and 
others, 26 Dec. 1895 ; gardens and hall erected, 
opened May, i8q6 



OLYMPIADS. 



897 



OMNIMETER 



The Barnum and Bailey show (about 1,600 men 
and women employed) : spectacular military 
drama, "The Mahdi, or For the Victoria Cross," 
native dances, etc. ; menagerie, Johanna, the 
educated gorilla, etc. ; and human monstrosities, 
27 Dec. 1897-2 April, 1898. 2nd exhibition 
opened . ' . . . 26 Dec. 1898-8 April, 1895 
See Barnum's Show. 
Buffalo's Bill's Wild West, 26 Dec. 1902 . 4 April, 1903 
National sports exhibition, 26 Dec. 1903 to Easter 1904 

OLYMPIADS,' the era of the Greeks, from 
1 July, 776 B.C., the year in which Corcebus was 
successful at the Olympic games. This era was 
reckoned by periods of four years, each period being 
called an Olympiad, and in marking a date the year 
and Olympiad were both mentioned. The computa- 
tion of Olympiads ceased with the 305th, a.d. 440. 

OLYMPIC GAMES, so famous among the 
Greeks, traditionally said to have been instituted 
in honour of Jupiter by the Idsei Dactyli, 1453 
B.C., or (by Pelops, 1307 B.C., revived by Iphitus, 
884 B.eC, were held at intervals of four years, on 
the banks of the Alpheus, near Olympia, in the 
Peloponnesus, now the Morea, to exercise the youth 
in five kinds of combats; the conquerors being 
highly honoured. The prize contended for was a 
crown made of a kind of wild olive, appropriated to 
this use. The festival was abolished by Theodosius, 
A.n. 394. In 1858 M. Zappas, a wealthy Pelopon- 
nesian, gave funds to re-establish these games, 
under the auspices of the queen of Greece. — Olympic 
Theatre, London, opened 1806 ; see Theatres. 

The revival of the games every four years at 
some European capital was decided on at an 
international congress at Paris in 1894. First to 
be at Athens in 1896 ; second at Paris in 1900. 

Preliminary contests to select champions held in 
the ancient stadium, capable of seating 50,000 
persons, renovated by M. Averotf of Alexandria 
(died 27 July, 1899) (8o,oooL), the king and family 
present (129 foreign athletes to compete), 

21, 22 March, 1896 

The statue of M. Averoff unveiled by the crown 
prince 5 April, ,, 

The 75th anniversary of Greek independence, and 
inauguration of the Olympic games (ancient and 
modern) by the king and royal family, address 
by the crown prince, etc., 6 April ; king Alex- 
ander of Servia present, 8 April et seq. ; the race 
from Marathon won by Louis, a Greek peasant, 
70,000 spectators, 10 April ; end of the games, 
prizes distributed ; Pindaric ode by Mr. G. S. 
Robertson, recited, several addresses presented, 

15 April, ,, 

OLYMPIEITM (near Peloponnesus), the great 
temple of Jupiter, erected by Libon, of Elis, about 
450, at the charge of the Eleans, after their con- 
quest of the country. For this temple Phidias 
made the colossal statue of the god, in gold and 
ivory, 437-433 B.C. 

The German explorations by Messrs. Hirschfeld and 
Botticher, planned by prof. Ernst Curtius, the his- 
torian, began in Oct. 1875. Torsos and other relics 
were found. Above 904 objects in marble, many coins, 
bronzes, inscriptions, <&c, found, 1875-8. Explora- 
tions closed, Nov. 1880. 

OLYNTHUS, a city, N. Greece. To resist the 
predominance of Sparta, it formed a league with 
other cities, which was subdued in war, 382-379 B.C. 
It resisted Philip of Macedon, 350 B.C., by whom 
it was destroyed, 347. Demosthenes delivered three 
orations on itSui>ehalf, 349. 

OMAHA, the principal city of Nebriska, 
situated on the river Missouri, which is spanned by 
a bridge 2,750 ft. in length. Founded in 1854, the 
city has rapidly developed, and is now (1903) one 



of the most prosperous of the cities of the Eastern 
States. Omaha contains many handsome public 
buildings snd churches. Manufactures and indus- 
tries of various kinds are carried on, the most im- 
portant being its large silver-smelting works, said 
to be the largest in the world, and its pork-packing 
business, third only in importance to that of Chicago. 
A large trade in grain is also carried on. Popula- 
tion i860, 1,902 ; 1880, 30,518; 1890, 140,452. 

OMAN, an independent Mahommetan state, 
S.E. Arabia, ruled by a sultan. Population 
1,500,000 (about) ; capital Muscat, which see. 

OMENS, see Augury. Alexander the Great 
and Mithridates the Great are said to have studied 
omens. At the birth of the latter, 131 B.C., there 
were seen for seventy days together, two splendid 
comets ; and this omen, we are told, directed all the 
actions of Mithridates throughout his life. — Justin. 

OMER, ST., N.E. France. At this town in 
1592, the eminent Jesuit, father Parsons, founded 
a seminary for the education of English and Irish 
Eoman Catholics, in which there were 50 pupils in 
1594. The Seminary was suppressed in 1762, and 
the masters and pupils migrated successively to 
Bruges, Liege, and in 1794 to England, by invita- 
tion. The seminary of St. Omer was much referred 
to during the trials connected with Oates's plot in 
1678. See Stonyhurst. 

OMLADINA, an Austrian political society 
composed of Slav students, journalists, and working 
men ; about 800 members, divided into groups, 
with officers, was formed at Vienna in 1 890, to 
promote the federation of the empire, with equal 
rights for all classes. See Austria, 1894. 

OMMIADES, a dynasty of Mahometan 
caliphs, beginning with Moawiyah, of whom four- 
teen reigned in Arabia, 661-750 ; and eighteen at 
Cordova, in Spain, 755-1031. Their favourite colour 
was green. 

OMNIBUS (from omnibus, Latin "for all")- 
The idea of such conveyances is ascribed to Pascal, 
about 1662, when similar carriages were started, 
but soon discontinued. They were revived in Paris 
about II April, 1828; and introduced into London 
by a coach proprietor named Shillibeer. The first 
omnibus started from Paddington to the Bank of 
England on Saturday, 4 July, 1829. Regulations 
were made respecting omnibuses by 16 & 17 Vict, 
c. 33 (1853). See Cabriolets and Hackney Coaches. 
The London Omnibus Company was established in 
Jan. 1856. The saloon omnibuses ran in 1857-60. 
In Sept. 1865, it was stated that there were then 
running about 620 omnibuses belonging to the 
General Omnibus Company, and 450 belonging to 
private proprietors ; in 1867, about 1050 omni- 
buses, with 13,000 drivers and conductors. — Sir 
E. Mayne. In 1873 about 1,400 omnibuses ; 1891, 
2,415 ; 1893, 2,366 ; 1896, 3,001 ; 1902, 4,200. 
Dividend, Aug. 1878, I2| per cent. : 1903, 7 per 
cent. An omnibus bill, one which deals with many 
topics. 

The London Road Car Company registered 1 Jan. 1883. 
The number of omnibuses greatly increased, daily 

additions with cheap fares, some id. and hd. 1889-92. 
Strike of the men employed by the General Omnibus 

and Road Car Companies, claiming a twelve hours' 

day, 7 June; closed by concessions, 13 June, 1891. 
The Workers' co-operative omnibus company formed ; 

new omnibuses ordered, 30 Dec. 1891. 

OMNIMETER, a new surveying apparatus 
(combining the theodolite and level, and comprising 

3 M 



ONE-POUND NOTES. 



OPERA IN ENGLAND. 



a telescope and microscope), invented by Eckhold, 
a German engineer, to supersede chain measuring ; 
announced Sept. 1869. 

ONE-POUND NOTES issued by the Bank 
of England, 4 March, 1797, withdrawn for England, 
1823 ; re-issued for a short time, 16 Dec. 1825. 

Mr. Goschen's proposal in 1891 to issue one pound 
notes to increase the reserve of gold at the Bank of 
England was much discussed, and at a meeting of 
the London chamber of commerce the consideration 
of the question was deferred (51 to 14), 21 Jan. 1892. 

ONEIDA, collision with the Bombay ; see 
United States, 1870. 

ONTARIO, formerly Canada West, or Upper 
Canada; capital, Toronto. Bishopric founded 1861. 
Comber, 30 miles from Amherstburg, destroyed by 
fire, 27 April, 1891. Population, 1861,1,396,091; 
1881, 1,923,228; 1891, 2,112,989; 1901,2,182,942. 
Lieut. -governor, hon. sir Alexander Campbell, 
1887; hon. Gr. A. Kirkpatrick, 1892 (knt. 1897, 
died 13 Dec. 1899) ; sir Oliver Mowat, 1897 (died 
19 April, 1903), W. Mortimer Clark, 21 April, 1903. 
During a meeting the flooring in the city hall, 
London, gave way, 22 persons were killed and 
over 100 injured, 3 Jan. 1898. 

O. P. (old prices) RIOT began on the opening 
of the new Covent Garden Theatre, London, by 
J. P. Kemble, with increased prices of admission, 
18 Sept., and lasted till 16 Dec. 1809, when the old 
charges were restored. Of the play, Macbeth, not 
one word was heard, and great injury was done to 
the theatre. 

OPEN-AIR MISSION, founded 1853. Races, 
fairs, &c, are visited by preachers. Jubilee cele- 
brated 21 April, 1903. 

"OPEN DOOR," a term much used with 
regard to China, 1897 et seq, implying equality of 
treatment and absence of differential duties as be- 
tween nation and nation ; Times, 24 Nov. 1898. 

Negotiations with the powers and Japan, maintain- 
taining the policy of holding China open to the 
world's commeice, successfully concluded by 
Mr. Hay, U.S. secretary of state, Washington, 
announced 2 Jan. 1900 

OPEN SPACES ACT (Metropolitan), 40 

&41 Vict. c. 35 (1877), authorises the Metropolitan 
Board of Works and the corporation of London to 
acquire open spaces for the benefit of the public. 
Acts consolidated in 1887. Another act, 29 June, 
1893, see Commons. About 220 open spaces, 1902. 

OPERA, originated with the Greeks; the 
earliest librettos were by Sophocles and iEschylus, 
such as the Agamemnon and Antigone ; a band of 
lyres and flutes constituted the oixhestra ; the 
dialogues were musically declaimed, and the 
choruses sung to the best music of the time. This 
was the germ of all later developments. Grove. 

Adam de la Hale, a Trouvere, "le Bossu d'Arras," born 
1240, composed the first comic opera, Li Gieus (Le 
Jeu) de Robin et de Marion. Le Ballet comique de lo 
Royne, composed by Beaulieu and Salmon, was per- 
formed before Henri III. in 1581. 

Italian opera began with Cavaliere's II Satiro (1590) ; 
Orazio Vecchi's L'Amfi/parnasso, printed at Venice, 
1594 ; Peri's Dofnc (1597), libretto by Rinuccini ; their 
Euridice was performed at Florence on the marriage 
of Henry IV. of France with Maria de' Medici in 1600. 
Monteverde's Arianna was produced in 1607 ; Orfeo, 
1608 ; full score published at Venice in 1609. Perrin's 
Pomone, with music by Cambert, was performed in 
Paris in 1669 ; Lulli's Atys, 1676, etc. 



Johann Theile's Adam und Eva was performed in German 
at Hamburg in 1678, and Reinhard Keiser, founder of 
the great German school, produced over 116 operas 
there : Basilius, 1693 ; Circe, 1734. Scarlatti composed 
109 operas, followed by Stradella, Caldara, and others, 
1680 et seq. N. Logroscino and Piccini developed the 
opera buffa, 1700-70. Handel wrote 42 operas : Almira, 
1705 ; Roderigo, 1706 ; Rinaldo, brought out at the 
Haymarket, 1711 ; Radamisto, 1720, etc. J. A. Hasse 
produced many operas at Dresden. Gluck, a great 
reformer, composed Orfeo ed Euridice, 1762 ; Alceste, 
1767 ; Iphigeuie en Aulide, 1774 ; Iphigenie en Tauride, 
1779. Mozart's Die Entfiihrung aus dem Serail 
appeared, 1782 ; Le Nozze di Figaro and Die Zauberfldte, 
1786 ; II Don Giovanni, 1787 ; La Clemenza di Tito, 
1791 . Cimarosa's II Matrimonio segreto, 1792. Cheru- 
bim's Lodoiska, 1791 ; Les Deux Journees, 1880 ; AH 
Baba, 1833, etc. Beethoven's Fidelio, 1805 ; Spontini's 
La Vestale, and Mehul's Joseph, 1807. Rossini's II 
Tancredi, 1813 ; Barbiere di Seviglia and Otello, 1816 ; 
La Gazza Ladra, 1817 ; Semiramide, 1823 ; Guillaume 
Tell, 1829. Spohr's Jessonda,, 1823, etc. Weber's Der 
Freischiitz, 1821 ; Euryanthe, 1823 ; Oberon, 1826. 
Marschner's Der Vampyr, 1828 ; Templar und Judin, 
1829, etc. Auber's Masaniello, 1828, etc. Bellini's 
La Sonnambula, 1831 ; Norma, 1832, etc. Donizetti's 
Lucia di Lammermoor, 1835 ; Lv.crezia Borgia, 1840, 
etc. Halevy's La Juice, 1835, etc. Meyerbeer's 
Robert le Diable, 1831 ; Les Huguenots, 1836 ; Le Pro- 
pli'ete, 1843, etc. Berlioz's Benvenuto Cellini, 1838. 
Wagner, musician and poet, produced Rienzi, 1842 ; Der 
fliegende Hollander, 1843 ; TannMiuser, 1845 ; Lohen- 
grin, 1850 ; Tristan und Isolde, 1865 ; Die Meistersinger, 
1868; Der Ring des Nibelungen, 1873-76; Parsifal, 
1882, see Music, 1873-83. Gounod's La Nonne sang- 
lante, 1854 \ Faust, 1859 ; Philemon et Baucis, 1861 ; 
Romeo et Juliette, 1867 ; Polyeucte, 1878, etc. Bizet's 
Carmen, 1875. 

Verdi's Oberto, 1839 ; Rigolctto, 1851 ; II Trovatore and 
La Traviata, 1853, etc. ; Aula, 1871 ; Otello, 1887 ; 
Falstaff, 1891. (Verdi died, aged 87, 27 Jan. 1901.) 

Ambroise Thomas's La Double Echelle, 1837 ; Mignon, 
1866 ; Hamlet, 1868 ; Frangoise de Rimini, 1882, etc. 

Mascagni's Cavalleria Rusticana, 1892 ; Leoncavallo's 
I Pagliacci, 1892. 

Humperdinck's fairy opera Hansel unci Gretel, 1893. 

OPERA IN" ENGLAND grew out of the masque. 
Henry Purcell was the first to change the masque 
into the opera. He wrote Dido and JEneas (1680), 
King Arthur (1691), Bonduca (1695), and many 
other complete operas, besides numerous dramatic 
compositions. By the exertions of Mr. Carl Bosa 
(Rose) and the company formed by him, since 1875 
(termed Royal, 1892) performances of English 
opera have been greatly promoted in England. The 
company was joined by Mr. (aft. sir) Augustus Harris 
in April, 1889, and obtained the command of Drury 
Lane in addition to Covent Garden and the Prince 
of "Wales's.— Carl Rosa died, aged 46, 30 April, 
1889, much lamented. See Theatres. 

The Opera Company liquidating Jan. 1890; arrange- 
ments with Mr. A. Harris terminated . Nov. 1890 

Sir Augustus Harris born 1852, died . 22 June 1896 

The Carl Rosa Company held Daly's theatre, Lon- 
don, Jan. -15 Feb. 1896, and the Garrick, 

Jan.-6 Feb. 1897 

The Royal English Opera House, Cambridge-circus, 
Shaftesbury-avenue, erected by Mr. D'Oyly Carte, 
opened, 31 Jan., 1891. See under Theatres. 

Gay's Beggar's Opera, the music adapted by Dr. 
Pepusch, was first performed at the Lincoln's 
Inn theatre, 29 Jan. 1727. Dr. Arne's Tom 
Thumb was produced in 1733 ; Artaxerxes, 1762. 
Storace wrote 15 (1788-96), Haunted Tower, Iron 
Chest, etc. Dibdin, The Waterman, 1774 ; The 
Quaker, 1775, etc. Shield, Rosina, Lock and Key, 
etc. 1782-1807. Michael Kelly, The Castle Spectre, 
1797 ; Bluebeard, 1798, etc. Sir Henry Bishop, 
Guy Mannering, 1816, etc. Michael Win. Balfe, 
Siege of Rochelle, 1835; Bohemian Girl, 1843, etc. 
Sir Julius Benedict, Lily of Killarney, 1862. 

Sir A. C. Mackenzie, Colombo, 1883. 

A. Goring Thomas (died 1892), Esmeralda, 1883 ; 
Nadeshda, 1885. 



OPERA COMIQUE. 



899 



OPORTO. 



C. Villiers Stanford, The Veiled Prophet, 1881 ; Can- 
terbury Pilgrims, 1884, etc. ; Shamus O'Brien, 
opera comique 2 March, 1896 

Fred. H. Cowen, Pauline, 1876 ; Signa, 30 June, 
1894 ; Harold, 1895. 

Hamish MacCunn, Diarmid, book by the marquis 
of Lome 23 Oct. 1897 

Sir A. Sullivan's chief operas (librettos by W. S. 
Gilbert) pei'formed at the Savoy, 1881 et seq. 
H.M.S. Pinafore, 1878 ; Pirates of Penzance, 1879 ; 
Patience, 1881 ; Iolanthe, 1882 ; Princess Ida, 1884 ; 
The Mikado, 1885 ; Ruddygore, 1887 ; Yeoman of 
the Guard, 1888. The Gondoliers, 7 Dec. 1889, per- 
formed before the queen at Windsor, 4 March, 
1891 ; Ivanhoe, see Royal English Opera, Theatres, 
1891 ; Haddon Hall (libretto by Sydney Grundy), 
24 Sept. 1892 ; Utopia {Limited), libretto by W. S. 
Gilbert, 7 Oct. 1893 ; The Chieftain (book by F. C. 
Burnand), 12 Dec. 1894 ; The Grand Duke, book 
by W. S. Gilbert, 7 March-10 July, 1896; The 
Beauty Stone (book by A. W. Pinero and J. 
Comyns Carr), 28 May, 1898 ; The Rose of Persia, 
book by Basil Hood, 29 Nov. 1899-28 June, 1900 ; 
sir Arthur died suddenly ... 22 Nov. 1900 

OPERA COMIQUE, a new theatre, 299, 
Strand, opened 29 Oct. 1870, by Mdlle. Dejazet and 
a French company. The French opera comique 
began 1715 ; destroyed by fire, about 131 persons 
perish, 25, 26 May, 1887, see Paris. 

OPERA-HOUSE, The Italian, or 
Queen's, or (since 1901) His Majesty's 
THEATRE. The original building is generally sup- 
posed to have been constructed by sir JohnVanbrugh, 
though Mr. Pennant attributes it to sir Christopher 
Wren. It was built as " the queen's (afterwards 
changed to king's) theatre," opened 9 April, 1705; 
and burnt down 17 June, 1789. The foundation of 
the new theatre was laid 3 April, 1790; and the 
house was opened 22 Sept. 1791, on an improved 
plan; a new exterior was erected in 1820, 
from designs by Mr. Nash, relievo by Mr. Budd, 
1 82 1. This theatre was totally destroyed by fire 
on the night of 6-7 Dec. 1867. The loss of the 
lessee, Mr. Mapleson, was about 12,000/., and that 
of Mdlle. Titiens was valued at 2000/.; rebuilt, 
bat internal arrangements not completed. Moody 
and Sankey's revival meetings were held here, 12 
April, 31 May, 1875. The new house was opened 
for Italian opera by Mr. Mapleson, 28 April, 
1877 ; see Theatres. The house was pulled down 
in 1892-3. — The English Opera (or Lyceum) 
was opened 15 June, 1816. It was entirely de- 
stroyed by fire 16 Feb. 1830. The new English 
Opera-house, or Lyceum, was erected from designs 
by Mr. S. Beazley, and opened in July, 1834; 
see Theatres and National Opera-house. 

OPHICLEIDE, the keyed bassoon, said to 
have been invented by Frichot, a Frenchman, in 
London, between 1791 and 1800. 

OPHTHALMIA, general term for disease of 

the eye. 

Ophthalmic hospitals were founded in London, 1804, 
1843, and since. The Ophthalmological Society of 
Great Britain was founded in 1880 mainly by sir W. 
Bowman, the first president. He died 29 March, 1892, 
having greatly advanced ophthalmic surgery. 

Heere Shah and 3 Indian oculists acquitted of con- 
spiracy to defraud, 30 Oct. 1893. 

8th international ophthalmological congress (Edin- 
burgh), 7 Aug. 1894 ; 9th at Utrecht, 14-18 Aug. 1899. 

OPHTHALMOSCOPE, an apparatus for 
inspecting the interior of the eye, invented by 
professor H. Helmholtz, in 1851. 

OPIUM, the juice of the white poppy, was 
known to the ancients, its cultivation being men- 
tioned by Homer, and its medicinal use by Hippo- 



crates. It is largely cultivated in British India, 
and was introduced into China by our merchants, 
which led eventually to the war of 1839, the im- 
portation being forbidden by the Chinese govern- 
ment. The revenue derived from opium by the 
Indian government in 1862 was about 7,850,000/. ; 
in 1874, 8,000,000/. ; in 1880, about 10,500,000/., 
but it has since declined. Laudanum, a preparation 
of opium : was employed early in the 17th century. 
A number of alkaloids have been discovered m 
opium : narcotine by Derosne, and morphia by 
Sertiirner, in 1803. A society for suppressing the 
opium trade held meeting in London, 17 Jan. 1881 
and since, 8 Oct. 1902. 

The Chinese government derives a large revenue from 
the duty on imported opium which was fixed by the 
treaty of 1858. The plant is now largely grown in 
China. 
Sir Joseph Pease's resolution condemning the cultiva- 
tion of opium in India, the traffic in the drug, and 
the revenue, was adopted by the house of commons 
(160-130), 10 April, 1891 ; this caused much excite- 
ment in India. 
Mr. Webb's resolution for appointing a royal commis- 
sion against the opium revenue negatived by the 
commons (184-105), 30 June, 1893. 
Royal commission appointed, July; president, lord 
Brassey ; first meeting, 7 Sept. ; at Calcutta, 18 Nov. 
1893 ; two sections sat at Indore, Bombay, and other 
places, Feb. 1894 ; in their report the commissioners 
do not recommend the prohibition of the growth and 
manufacture of opium, but suggest increased state 
supervision, April, 1895. The report accepted by the 
Imperial government. 

OPOBO EXPEDITION, see under Nigeria, 

OPORTO (W. Portugal), the_ ancient Calle, 
one of the most impregnable cities in Europe. 
After being held at various times by the Goths and 
Moors, Oporto was finally acquired by the christians 
1092. Oporto is the mart of Portuguese wine known 
as " Port." A chartered company for the regula- 
tion of the port-wine trade was established in 1756. 
The French, under marshal Soult, were surprised 
here by lord Wellington, and defeated in an action 
fought 12 May, 1809. The Miguelites besieged 
Oporto, and were repulsed by the Pedroites, with 
considerable loss, 19 Sept. 1832. The Oporto wine 
company was abolished in 1834, but re-established 
by a royal decree, 7 April, 1838. An international 
exhibition was opened here by the king, 18 Sept. 
1865. Population, 1890, 138,860 ; 1900, 172,421 ; 
see Portugal. 
The Baquet theatre burnt ; panic ; about 100 lives lost ; 

20 March, 1888. 
Business paralyzed by the strike of masters and men 
connected with the wine trade, through the govern- 
ment favouring speculators for a monopolizing com- 
pany ; riots quelled by the military about 30 May, 
et seq. 1889. 
Revolt of about 600 of the garrison, led by captain 
Leitao, joined by citizens ; suppressed by loyal troops ; 
the rebels fortify themselves in the Hotel de Ville ; 
they surrender after bombardment ; about 50 killed 
and many wounded, 31 Jan. ; many persons, civil and 
military, arrested, 1-4 Feb. 1891. 
Trial by courts-martial of about 300 soldiers and 21 civi- 
lians, 27 Feb. et seq. Sentences : captain Leitao, 6 years' 
cell imprisonment, followed by 10 years' transportation ; 
other officers and civilians various kinds and terms of 
imprisonment or transportation, the majority of the 
soldiers 18 months' imprisonment. 
The Abbe of St. Nicholas, acquitted 23 March, 1891. 
The rebels all pardoned by the king on his birthday 

28 Sept. 1891. 
Visit of the king and queen, 18 Nov. 1891. 
Exhibition of National Manufactures opened by the 

king, 22 Nov.; review of troops, 25 Nov. 1891. 
Several banks stop payment about 18 March, 1892. 
Exhibition of national products opened, 18 Sept. 1897. 

3 M 2 



OPPOETUNISTS. 



9C0 



OEANGE FEEE STATE. 



Several cases of plague, sanitary cordon round the town. 
24 Aug. 1899 > commission appointed by the king, 29 
Aug., and repressive measures adopted, Sept. ; theatres, 
&c. closed, 18 Oct. ; total deaths, 108 ; epidemic de- 
clared over, 7 Feb. 1900. 

Visit of the king and queen ; foundation stone laid of a 
disinfecting station, 23 Oct. 1900. 

OPPOETUNISTS, a name given to French 
politicians (especially the ultra-liberals,) who sus- 
pend agitation for their peculiar opinions till a 
suitable opportunity comes ; among them Gambetta 
was prominent, 1876-82. See France. Opportunism 
in England is defined as the modification of political 
policy as the necessities of the time dictate, Oct. 
1891. See Trimmer. 

OPTICS, a science studied by the Greeks; and 
by the Arabians about the 12th century. See Light. 
Burning lenses known at Athens . . . . B.C. 424 
A treatise on optics doubtfully attributed to Euclid, 

about 300 
The magnifying power of convex glasses and con- 
cave mirrors, and the prismatic colours produced 
by angular glass, mentioned by Seneca, about a.d. 50 
Treatise on optics by Ptolemy . . . about 120 
Two of the leading principles known to the Pla- 

tonists 300 

Greatly improved by Alhazen, who died . . . 1038 
Hints for spectacles and telescopes, given by Roger 

Bacon about 1280 

Spectacles said to have been invented by Salvinus 

Armatus, of Pisa before 1300 

Camera obscura said to have been invented by Bap- 

tista Porta 1560 

Telescopes invented by Leonard Digges about 1571 

Kepler publishes his " Dioptrice " . . . . 1611 
Telescope made by Jansen (said also to have in- 
vented the microscope), about 1609, and inde- 
pendently, by Galileo .... about 1630 
Microscope, according to Huyghens, invented by 

Drebbel . . . . " . . . about 1621 
Law of refraction discovered by Snellius about 1624 

Inflection of light discovered, and the undulatory 

theory suggested by Grimaldi . . . about 1665 
Reflecting telescope, Jas. Gregory, 1663 ; Newton . 1666 
Motion and velocity of light discovered by Boemer, 

and after him by Cassini 1667 

[Its velocity demonstrated to be 190 millions of 

miles in sixteen minutes.] 
Double refraction explained by Bartholinus . . 1669 

Cassegrainian reflector 1672 

Newton's discoveries in colours, &c. . 1674 

Telescopes with a single lens by Tschirnhausen, 

about 1690 
Polarisation of light and undulatory theory dis- 
covered by Huyghens about 1692 

Structure of the eye explained by Petit . about 1700 
Newton's " Optics " and other treatises published. 1704 
Aberration of light discovered by Bradley . . 1727 
Achromatic telescope constructed by Mr. Hall (but 

not made public) in 1733 

Constructed by Dollond, most likely without any 

knowledge of Hall's telescope .... 1757 
Herschel's great reflecting telescope erected at 

Slough I7 8 9 

Br. T. Young's discoveries (undulatory theory, &c.) 1800-3 

Camera lueida (Dr. Wollaston) 1807 

Malus (polarisation of light by reflection) about 1808 
Fresnel's researches on double reflection, &c. . . 1S17 
Optical discoveries of Wheatstone . . 1838 et scq. 
Large telescope constructed by lord Rosse . . 1845 
Arago (colours of polarised light, &c.) . . .1811-53 
Sir U. Brewster, optical researches (see Kaleidoscope, 

Photography) 1814-57 

The spectroscope constructed and used by Kirch- 

hoff and Bunsen !86i 

Dr. Tyndall's Lectures on Light first illustrated by 
Duboscq's electric lamp, at the Royal Institution, 
London ... . . 1856 

Researches of Mr. Wm. Spottiswoode on polarised 
light 1871-8 



Mr. Shelford Bidwell's experiments in physiological 
optics, at the Royal society . . 13 June, 1894 

See Telescope, Microscope, Stereoscope, Pseudoscope, 
Spectrum, Photography, Magic, Ophthalmoscope,, 
&c. 

OPTIC NEEVES are said to have been dis- 
covered by N. Varoli, a surgeon and physician of 
Bologna, about 1538. — Nouv. Diet. 

OPTIMISM (from optimus, the best), the 
doctrine that everything which happens is for the 
best, in opposition to Pessimism (from pessimus, 
the worst). The germ of optimism is to be found 
in Plato, and in St. Augustin, and other fathers; 
and has been especially propounded by Malebranehe 
and Leibnitz, and adopted by Pope, Bolingbroke 7 
Rousseau, and others. Optimism as expressed in 
the term, " the best of all possible worlds," is ridi- 
culed by Voltaire (1694-1778) in his " Candide." 
The term meliorism (from melior, better) has been 
lately introduced. See Pessimism. 

" OPTION," a term given at the time to the 
permission given to the inhabitants of Alsace and 
Lorraine by the German government to choose, 
before 30 Sept. 1872, whether they would quit 
their country or become German subjects. GreafS 
numbers emigrated into the French territories. The 
" option " of ai-chbishops respecting their claims on 
a benefice becoming void on the creation or transla- 
tion of a bishop, was abolished in 1845. -A- Stock 
Exchange term, meaning the liberty to sell or buy 
stock in a time bargain at a stated price. 

OEACLES, a term applied to revelations made 
by God to man. They were given to the Jews at 
the Mercy-seat in the tabernacle ; see Exod. xxv. 
18-22. 'Ihe Holy Scriptures are the Christian 
"oracles," Rom. iii. 2; 1 Pet. iv. 11. King Aha- 
ziah sent to consult the oracle of Baalzebub at 
Ekron about 896 k.c. The Greeks consulted espe- 
cially the oracles of Jupiter and Apollo (see Dodona 
and Delphi); and the Italians those of Faunus, 
Fortune, and Mars. 

OEAN, Algeria (N. Africa), a Moorish city 
several times captured by the Spaniards ; defini- 
tively occupied by the French in 1831, who have- 
since added docks, &c. 

OEANGE, a principality in S.E. France, 
formerly a lordship in the 9th or 10th century. 
It has been ruled by four houses successively : that 
of Giraud Adhemar (to 1 174); of Baux (1182 to 
1393) ; of Chalons (to 1530) ; and of Nassau (1530 
to 1713) ; see Nassau, i'hilibert the Great, prince 
of Orange, the last of the house of Chalons, having 
been wronged by Francis I. of France, entered the 
service of the emperor Charles V., to whom he 
rendered great services by his military talents. 
He was killed at the siege of Florence, 3 Aug. 1530. 
He was succeeded by his nepbew-in-law, Rene of 
Nassau ; see princes of Orange under Holland. 
The eldest son of the king of Holland is styled the 
prince of Orange, although the principality- was 
ceded to France in 1713. See Arausio. 

OEANGE FEEE STATE (annexed by 
Gt. Britain, and styled Orange River Colony, 
28 May, 1900), a republic in South Africa, founded 
by Boers from Cape Colony in 1836. The British 
government proclaimed its authority over this 
territory on 3 Feb. 1848, but declared it inde- 
pendent 23 Feb. 1854. A constitution proclaimed, 
10 April, 1854; revised, 1866 and 1879. The able 
president, sir John Henry Brand, first elected, 1863, 
died, 14 July, 188S. President Reitz elected, 1 1 Jan. 



OEANGE EEEE STATE. 



901 



OEATOEIO. 



1889; re-elected, 27 Nov. 1893; resigns 17 Nov. 
1895 ; Judge Steyn, ihe last president (see 
■8. African War), elected, 21 Feb. 1896. Defensive 
treaty with the Transvaal, about 13 March, ratified 
25 May, 1889. Concession granted to the Cape 
Government to construct a railway to Bloemfontein, 
the capital, May, 1889; railway opened at Bloem- 
fontein, 17 Dec. 1890. Population, 1885, 133, 518; 
1900, 207,000 (78,000 whites). 
The state earnestly supports the Transvaal govern- 
ment Dec. 1895 el s:q. 

Visit of pres. Kruger to Bloemfontein . 9 March, 1897 
Committee appointed to revise the constitution, 

June ; their report issued . . .19 Dec. „ 
The worst drought since 1862, signs of breaking up, 

great suffering in many districts . . Dec. ,, 
Closer union with the Transvaal adopted . 5 Oct. 1898 
Railway from Bloemfontein to Heilbron opened, 

31 Jan. 1899 
The raad opened ; federation with the Transvaal 
rejected, until the abrogation of article iv. of the 
1884 convention (i.e. British suzerainty) be 
obtained. ...... 4 April, ,, 

Conference at Bloemfontein between Sir A. Milner 
and presidents Kruger and Steyn ; negotiations 

fail 31 May-5 June, ,, 

The raad votes 53,977?. for war purposes, 23 June, ,, 
Conference between Messrs. Hofmeyr, Herholdt 
(Cape ministers), and pres. Steyn, Mr. Fischer, 
and others ; proposals inadequate . 2-4 July, ,, 
Eaad opened with a defiant speech by pres. Steyn, 

21 Sept. ,, 
Military preparations carried on . . Sept. -Oct. ,, 
Pres. Steyn espouses the cause of the Transvaal, 
10 Oct. ; British government denounced and 
martial law proclaimed . . . 11, 12 Oct. ,, 
Merchants and every available man commandeered, 

early Jan. el seq. 1900 
See S. African War. 
Eaad opened at Kroonstadt by pres. Steyn, 2 April ; 

adjourns sine die 4 April, ,, 

Major-gen. Pretyman appointed military gov. of 

the Free State 20 April, ,, 

The State formally annexed to the British Empire, 
under the name of "Orange River Colony," 

28 May, ,, 
Sir A. Milner, high commissioner of S. Africa, 
appointed governor (made a peer 24 May), and 
major Hamilton Goold- Adams, lieut.-gov. (made 
K.C.M.G., 26 June, 1902) .... Jan. 1901 
Land settlements begun ; several returned yeomanry 
occupy government farms in Thaba Nchu district, 

reported 22 Now ,, 

Civil administration appointed ; industries and 
education re-established, country progressing, 

Jan. -Dec. ,, 
Meetings held protesting against Continental 

slanders on the British Army . Feb.-March, 1902 
Lord Milner (visct. 26 June) sworn in as governor 

of the colony at Bloemfontein) . . 23 June, ,, 
Daily patrol of the colony by the S. African 
constabulary (formed 22 March), organized, 

early July, ,, 
Vote of 8, 000,000?. for the colony and the Trans- 
vaal, passed the commons . . .5 Nov. ,, 
Martial law repealed ..... 19 Nov. ,, 
Lord Milner tours through the colony, 

25 N0V.-16 Dec. ,, 
Rapid repatriation of burghers . . . Dec. ,, 
Rev. H. Duplessis, minister of the Dutch Reformed 
Church at Lindley, forced to resign owing to the 
•systematic boycott of his congregation on account 
of his British sympathies, appointed by the 
government inspector of schools in the Transvaal 

6 Jan. 1903 
Legislative council (enlarged) opened . 14 Jan. ,, 
Enthusiastic reception of Mr. Chamberlain at 
Bloemfontein, 3 Feb. ; he receives a deputation 
headed by, gen. Christian De Wet and Boer 
delegates who present a petition setting forth 
.alleged grievances . . . . 6 Feb. ,, 
(intercolonial conference at Bloemfontein, lord 
Milner, president ; Customs Union Convention, 
preferential treatment of British imports signed, 

10-23 March, ,, 



Estimated surplus, 1903-4, 102,000?., reported 

22 May, 1903 
Intercolonial Council for the affairs of the Orange 
River Colony and the Transvaal established, 

15 June, ,, 

OBANGEMEN. The "Battle of the Dia- 
mond," 21 Sept. 1795 (see Diamond), and the 
treachery experienced by the Protestants on that 
occasion, convinced them they would become an 
easy prey to the Roman Catholics, from their small 
numbers, unless they associated for their defence, and 
consequently the Orange Society was formed in 1795. 
The first Orange lodge was formed in Armagh ; 
but the name of Orangemen already existed. An 
Orange lodge was formed in Dublin ; the members 
published a declaration of their principles (the 
maintenance of church and state under the house 
of Brunswick) in Jan. 1798. After 1813 Orange- 
isni declined; but revived again in 1827, when 
the duke of Cumberland became grand-master; 
and it is stated that in 1836 there were 145,000 
Orangemen in England, and 125,000 in Ireland. 
After a parliamentary inquiry Orange clubs were 
broken up in conformity with resolutions of 
the house of commons; but were revived in 1845 
— 1889. In Oct. 1857, the lord chancellor of Ire- 
land ordered that justices of the peace should not 
belong to Orange clubs. The Orangemen in Canada 
were greatly excited during the visit of the prince 
of Wales in Sept. i860. Mr. Wm. Johnston, a 
grand -master, convicted of violating the Party 
Processions act, was elected M.P. for Belfast, Nov. 
1869. See Belfast. The Orangemen vigorously 
oppose the home rule movement, see Ulster, 1892-3". 

OEANGES. The sweet, or China orange, was 
first brought into Europe from China by the Portu- 
guese, in 1547 ; and it is asserted that the identical 
tree, whence all the European orange-trees of this 
sort were produced, is still preserved at Lisbon, in 
the gardens of one of its nobility. Orange-trees 
were first brought to England, and planted, with 
little success, in 1595 ; they are said to have been 
planted at Beddington park, near Croydon, Surrey. 
The duty on imported oranges was repealed in i860. 

OEATOE HENLEY. An eccentric English 
gentleman of some talents, in 1726, opened his 
"oratory," a kind of chapel, in Newport-market, 
where he gave lectures on theological topics on 
Sundays, and on other subjects on Wednesdays, 
every week. Novelty procured him many hearers ; 
but he was too imprudent to gain any permanent 
advantage. He removed his oratory to Clare-market, 
and sank into obscurity previously to his death, in 
1756. 

OEATOEIANS (from the Latin orare, to 
pray), a regular order of priests established by St. 
Philip Neri, about 1564, and so called from the 
oratory of St. Jerome, at Pome, where they prayed. 
They had a foundation in France, commenced by 
Guillaume Gibieuf and Pierre de Berulle (afterwards 
cardinal), 1612, approved by pope Paul V. 1613. — 
The rev. Frederick Faber and others, as "Fathers 
of the Oratory," established themselves first in 
King William-street, Strand, in 1848, and after- 
wards at Brompton. 

OEATOEIO, a sacred musical composition, 
the subject of it being generally taken from the 
Scriptures. The origin of our oratorios (so named 
from having been first performed in an oratory) is 
ascribed to St. Philip Neri, about 1550. The first 
true oratorio, Emilio del Cavaliere's "Eappresen- 
tazione," was performed at Rome in 1600. He 
was followed by Giovanni Carissimi, Alessandro 



OECHIDS. 



902 



OEEGON TEEEITOEY. 



Scarlatti, &c. Bach's " Passion Music," the "St. 
Matthew," was produced at Leipzig on Good Friday, 
1729, see Passion-Week. Handel composed 17 
English oratorios; his first, "Esther," was per- 
formed at the Haymarket theatre, 2 May, 1732. 
"Israel in Egypt" was produced in 1738, and the 
"Messiah" in 1741 ; Haydn's " Creation" in 1798; 
Beethoven's "Mount of Olives," 1803; Spohr's 
"Last Judgment" (properly "Last Things"), 
1825; Mendelssohn's "St. Paul" in 1836, and 
"Elijah" in 1846; Costa's "Eli," 1865; " Naa- 
man," 1864; S. Bennett's " Woman of Samaria," 
1867; Macfarren's "John the Baptist," 1873, 
Sullivan's "Prodigal Son," 1869; "Light of the 
World," 1873; "Martyr of Antiooh," 1880, &c. 
Latterly the name has been modified, e.g., Dra- 
matic Oratorio, such as Mackenzie's "Rose of 
Sharon;" Hubert Parry's "Judith," "Job," 
"King Saul" (1894), &c. Sacred Trilogy, 
Gounod's "Redemption," Berlioz's " Childhood of 
Christ ; " El gar's "The Apostles," Pts. I. and II., 
1903 ; or, again, as a form of Dramatic Cantata, 
as Schumann's " Paradise and the Peri," Sullivan's 
" Golden Legend," Mackenzie's" Dream of Jubal." 

OECHIDS, a natural order of plants of a very 
peculiar organization, recently much cultivated. 
In 1880 a great establishment for their cultivation 
was set up at St. Albans by Mr. Sander, "the 
orchid king," patronised by the Rothschilds, who 
introduced him to the queen at Waddesdon Manor, 
14 May, 1890. The orchids at Blenheim sold for 
about 5,250/., 19-23 Dec. 1892. 

OECHOMENUS, a small Greek state in 
Bceotia, was destroyed by the Thebans, 367 B.C. ; re- 
stored by Philip II. of Macedon, 354 ; and given up 
by him to Thebes, 346. 

OEDEAL was known among the Greeks and 
Jews {Num. v. 2). It was introduced into England 
by the Saxons. A prisoner who pleaded not guilty 
might choose whether he would put himself for 
trial upon God and his country, by twelve men, as 
at this day, or upon God only. The trial by ordeal 
was abolished in 1218. 

OEDEE OF THE COEPOEATE EE- 

TjNlON, virtually a new episcopal church, said 
to arise out of the Christian Unity Association 
{xohich see). It proposed to form four stations, 
(Canterbury, York, Caerleon, and St. Andrews) , with 
rectors and provincials ; announced 11 Sept. 1877. 

OEDEES, 8ee Knighthood. 

OEDEES IN COUNCIL were issued by the 
British government 7 Jan. and II Nov. 1807, pro- 
hibiting: trade with the ports occupied by the 
French, being reprisals for Napoleon's Berlin and 
Milan decrees (see Continental System). They 
greatly checked the progress of manufactures in 
this country, and caused much distress and smug- 
gling. They were repealed in regard to America, 
18 June, 1812. The action under these orders led 
to the disastrous war with the United States in 
1812-15. 

ED I NANCES, see Ordonnances, Self- 
Denying Ordinances. 

OEDINATION of ministers in the Christian 
church began with Christ and his apostles ; see 
Mark iii. 14, and Acts vi. and xiv. 23. In Eng- 
land in 1549 a new form of ordination of ministers 
was ordered to be prepared by a committee of six 
prelates and six divines. 



OEDNANCE OFFICE. Before the inven- 
tion of guns, this office was supplied by officers 
under the following names : the bowyer, the cross- 
bowyer, the galeater, or purveyor of helmets, the 
armourer, and the keeper of the tents. Henry VIII. 
placed it under the management of a master-general, 
a lieutenant, surveyor, &c. The master-general 
was chosen from among the first generals in the 
service of the sovereign. The appointment was 
formerly for life ; but since the restoration, was 
held durante bene placito, and not infrequently by 
a cabinet minister. — Beatson. The letters patent 
for this office were revoked 25 May, 1855, and its 
duties vested in the minister of war, lord Panmure. 
The last master-general was lord Fitzroy-Somerset, 
afterwards lord Raglan. The revival of the office 
recommended by the Ordnance Commission (see 
under Army, 1886). 

OEDNANCE SUEVEY. The trigonome- 
trical survey of England was commenced by gen. 
Roy, in 1784, continued by col. Colby, and com- 
pleted by col. (aft. sir Henry) James in 1856. The 
publication of the maps (scale 7 inches to a mile), 
commenced in 1819, under the direction of col. 
Mudge, and was completed in 1862 ; a large part 
of these maps have been coloured geologically. 
The survey of Ireland (6 inches to a mile) has 
been completed and published; that of Scotland, 
completed Nov. 1882. By the Survey act, passed 12 
May, 1870, the ordnance survey was transferred to 
the Board of Works, and by an act passed in 1889, 
to the Board of Agriculture, beginning 1 April, 1896. 
Directors, lieut.-gen. John Cameron, succeeded sir 
Henry James in 1875, died 30 June, 1878 ; col. A. 
C. Cooke; col. R. H. Stotherd, 1885; col. Farqu- 
harson (K.C.B. 1899); col. Duncan Johnston, 1901. 
In 1892 several sets of maps were in course of 
publication or preparation. The Ordnance Survey 
maps having been considered deficient, a depart- 
mental committee was appointed in April, 1892, 
and met during the year; sir John Dorington, 
M.P., chairman. Report, with recommendations, 
presented to the Board of Agriculture, 31 Dec. 1892; 
published, 6 March, 1893. New maps issued, May, 
1902 ; survey sections sent to S. Africa, spring, 
1902 ; 4-inch and i-inch maps revised, issued, 
Aug. 1902 ; others issued 1903. Pocket maps of 
many of the sections, scale 1 in. and ^ in. to a 
mile, are published at a cheap rate. 

OEDONNANCES, the laws enacted by the 
Capetian kings of France previous to 1789. They 
began with " in the name of the king," and ended 
with " such is our good pleasure." The first in 
French is dated 1287 (Philip IV.) The publication 
of these " ordonnances," ordered by Louis XIV., 
1706, is still in progress. The " ordonnances " of 
Charles X., promulgated 26 July, 1830, led to the 
revolution. 

OEEGON TEEEITOEY (N. America), is 
said to have been visited by Drake in 1579. Lieut. 
Broughton took possession of part of it for Great 
Britain in 1792. In 1810 a settlement named 
Astoria, was founded by a New York Company. 
Oregon was occupied by the English in 18 14, but 
was claimed by the United States government, to 
whom the greater part was ceded, after much nego- 
tiation, by the treaty of 12 June, 1846. Oregon 
was made a territory in 1848, and admitted as a 
state, Feb. 1859. Capital, Salem. Population, 
1880, 174,768; 1890,313,767; 1900,413,536. 

By the fall of a train through a broken bridge in 
Wascow county, 10 men were killed 4 Feb. 1890 



ORGAN. 



903 



ORLEANS. 



Disastrous floods on the Willematte river, 6 Feb. ; 
much distress at Salem and Portland 

about 7 Feb. 1890 
The overland Pacific train wrecked on the long 
trestle bridge over lake Labish, 4 lives lost and 

many injured 12 Nov. ,, 

Great fire at Portland ; docks, &c, destroyed, 3 

deaths 23 Sept. 1894 

At Silverlake, by explosion of a lamp, 41 deaths, 

24 Dec. „ 
Disastrous forest fires, loss of life, reported, 

25 Sept. 1902 
Cloud-burst wrecked the town of Heppner, over 
300 lives lost . . . ' . . . 15 June, 1903 

ORGAN, a development of the pandean pipes; 
the " organ" in Gen. iv. 21 should be trans- 
lated pipe. The invention is attributed to Ctesi- 
bius, a barber of Alexandria, about 250 B.C. ; and to 
Archimedes, about '220 B.C. The organ was brought 
to Europe from the Greek empire, and was applied 
to religious devotions in churches, about a.d. 657. 
— Bellarmine. Organs were used in the western 
churches by pope Vitalianus, in 658. — Ammonius. 
It is affirmed that the organ was known in France 
in the time of Louis I., 815, when one was con- 
structed by an Italian priest. The organ at Haar- 
lem is one of the largest in Europe ; it has 60 stops 
and 8000 pipes. At Seville is one with no stops 
and 5300 pipes. The organ at Amsterdam has a 
set of pipes that imitate a chorus of human voices. 
Of the organs in England that at St. George's Hall, 
Liverpool, by Mr. Willis, was the largest ; next in 
order that at York minster, and that in the music- 
hall, Birmingham. In' London, the largest was, 
perhaps that of Spitalfields church ; and that in 
Christ Church was nearly as extensive. The erection 
of the famous Temple organ was competed for by 
Schmidt and Harris ; after long disputes, the 
question was referred to vote, and Mr. Jefferies, 
afterwards chief justice, gave the casting vote in 
favour of Schmidt (called Father Smith), about 
1682. A monster organ was erected in the Crystal 
Palace, Sydenham, in June, 1857. The organ, by 
Willis, at the Royal Albert Hall, is now said to be 
the largest in the world ; 1871. A larger proposed 
for a cathedral in Long Inland, North America, 
1880. A noble organ (by Bryceson), with many 
appliances, opened in the hall, Primrose-hill-road, 
London, N. Jan. 1876 ; see Westminster Abbey , 
1895. 

Barrel organs are said to have been first made early in 
the 18th century. The finest was the ApoUonicon 
(which see). 

William Thos. Best, born 1826, virtuoso player, 
died at Liverjiool .... 10 May, 1897 

Mr. Henry Willis (Father Willis), the great organ- 
builder, died, aged 80 ... n Feb. 1901 

ORGANIC SYNTHESIS, see Chemistry. 

ORIEL COLLEGE (Oxford), founded, in 
1326, by Adam de Brome, archdeacon of Stow, and 
almoner to king Edward II. This college derives 
its name from a tenement called l' Oriole, on the 
site of which the building stands. 

ORIENTAL INSTITUTE, Woking, Surrey, 
founded by dr. G. W. Leitner, the distinguised 
Orientalist (died, aged 68, 22 March, 1899 ; see 
Funjaub), for the training of young Indians, about 
1884. A mosque was erected here, Aug. 1889. 

ORIENTALISTS. The first International 
Congress of these scholars was held at Paris, 1 Sept. 
1873, M. Leon de Rosny, the founder, president ; 
the second Congress met at the Royal Institu- 
tion, in London, 14- 19 Sept. 1874, dr - S. Birch 
president; the third Congress met at St. Peters- 
burg, 1 Sept. 1876 ; the fourth at Florence, Sept. 



1878; the fifth met at Berlin, 12-17 Se Pt- 1881, 
M. Dittman president; the sixth at Leyden, 10 
Sept. 1883; the seventh, Vienna, 27 Sept. 1886; 
eighth, Stockholm, president king Oscar II., 2 r 7 
Sept. 1889; independent, London, I-IO Sept. 
1891 ; ninth in London, 5-12 Sept. 1892 ; tenth, 
Geneva, 4 Sept. 1894 ; eleventh, Paris, 6 Sept. 
1897; twelfth, Rome, 4-15 Oct. 1899; thirteenth, 
Hamburg, 5 Sept. 1902. See Asiatic Societies. 
Oriental Studies ; Professor Max Miiller, in the 
presence of the prince of Wales, at the Royal In- 
stitution, gave a discourse to inaugurate the 
establishment of a school for modern oriental 
studies by the Imperial Institute, in union with 
University College and King's College, London 

11 Jan. 1890 

ORIENTATION, the setting of the chancel 
of a church so that it points to the east. This 
custom is followed in the churches of England, and 
those of northern Europe, but is not strictly 
adhered to in Italy and the South. St. Peter's, at, 
Rome, has its choir pointing to the west. 

ORIFLAMME, see Auriflamma, 

ORIGENISTS pretended to draw their opinions 
from the writings of Origen, who lived 185-253.. 
They' maintained that Christ was the son of God. 
in no other way than by adoption and grace ; that 
souls were created before the bodies ; that the sun, 
moon, stai's, and the waters that are under the 
firmament, have souls ; that the torments of the 
damned shall have an end, and that the fallen' 
angels shall, after a time, be restored to their first 
condition. They were condemned by councils, and 
the reading of Origen's work was forbidden. — Burke. 
These doctrines were condemned by the council of 
Constantinople in 553. 

" ORIGIN OF SPECIES, by means of 
NATURAL SELECTION," by Charles Robert Dar- 
win, F.R.S., first published, 24 Nov. 1859. He was- 
born 12 Feb. 1809, died 19 April, 1882. See- 
Species. 

ORION STEAM-SHIP. On 18 June, 1850, 
this splendid vessel, bound from Liverpool to Glas- 
gow, struck on a sunken rock, northward of Port- 
patrick, within a stone's throw of land, and in- 
stantly filled. Of two hundred passengers more 
than fifty were drowned. 

ORISSA, an ancient kingdom of India, now 
a province of N.W. Bengal, conquered by Clive 
in 1755, and nearly all acquired by the company in 
1765. It suffered much by famine in 1770, and 
1792-3, and more especially from the end of 1865 
to Nov. 1866, when it is said about 750,000 per- 
sons perished. The government and officials were 
censured for neglect and want of forethought. It 
is also said that during a hurricane in Oct. 1836, 
22,500 persons were drowned. 

ORKNEY and SHETLAND ISLES 

(North of Scotland), were conquered by Magnus III. 
of Norway, 1099, and were ceded to James III. as 
the dowry of his wife Margaret, in 1469. The 
Orkneys were the ancient Orcades ; united with 
Shetland, they now form one of the Scotch coun- 
ties. The bishopric of Orkney, founded by St. 
Servanus early in the 5th century, some affirm by 
St. Colm, ended with the abolition of episcopacy in 
Scotland, about 1689; see Bishops in Scotland. 
Orkney and Zetland small piers and harbours act 
passed, 14 Aug. 1896. 

ORLEANS (a city in central France), formerly 
Aurelianum ; gave title to a kingdom, 491, and 



OELEANS. 



904 



OEPHAN-HOUSES. 



afterwards to a duchy, usually held by one of the 
royal family. Attila the Hun, besieging it, was 
defeated by Aetius and his allies, 451. It was be- 
sieged by the English under earls of Salisbury and 
Suffolk, 12 Oct. 1428, bravely defended by Gaucour 
(as its fall would have ruined the cause of Charles 
VI. king of France), and relieved by the heroism 
of Joan of Arc, afterwards surnamed the Maid of 
Orleans, 29 April, 1429, and the siege was raised 
8 May; see Joan of Arc. (The 439th anniver- 
sary was celebrated 10 May, 1868 ; the emperor 
and empress being present.) During the siege of 
Orleans, Feb. 1563, the duke of Guise was 
assassinated. 

After nine hours' severe fighting, Orleans captured 
by the Germans, under general Von der Tann. 
More than 4000 prisoners were taken. The loss 
on both sides was heavy. About 35,000 on each 
side were engaged. The city was made to pay a 
war contribution of 60,000?. . . n Oct. 1870 

Von der Tann and the Bavarians defeated by 
generals D'Aurelle de Faladines and Pallieres, 
and Orleans re-taken. The Germans acknow- 
ledged the loss of about 700 men and 1000 pri- 
soners, chiefly wounded. The French asserted 
"the numbers of both to be higher, and were much 
cheered with their victory. The French loss was 
heavy. The chief conflict took place between 
Coulmiers and Bacon or Baccon . 9, 10 Nov. ,, 
'Severe conflicts at Bazoche and Chevilly, near Or- 
leans, between a part of the army of the Loire 
and prince Frederick Charles and the grand-duke 

of Mecklenburg 2-4 Dec. „ 

.A battle, during which the suburbs were stormed, 
and about 10,000 unwounded prisoners, 77 guns, 
and four gunboats taken. The French retired ; 
Orleans re-taken by the Germans . 5 Dee. ,, 



Louis contended for the regency with John the Fearless, 
duke of Burgundy, by whose instigation he was assas- 
sinated in 1407. 

•Charles taken prisoner at Agincourt, 1415 ; released, 
1440 ; died, 1465. 

Louis, became Louis XII. of France in 1498, when the 
duchy merged in the crown. 

Bourbon Branch. — Philip, youngest son of Louis XIII. , 
born, 1640; died, 1701. 

Philip II., son, born, 1673; regent, 1715; died, 1723. 

Louis, son, born, 1703; died, 1752. 

Louis Philippe, son, born, 1725; died, 1785. 

Louis Philippe Joseph, son, born, 1747; opposed the 
court in the French revolution ; took the name 
Egalite, n Sept. 1792; voted for the death of Louis 
XVI.; was guillotined. 6 Nov. 1793. 

Louis Philippe, son, born, 6 Nov. 1773; chosen king of 
the French, 9 Aug. 1830: abdicated, 24 Feb. 1848; 
died, 26 Aug. 1850. His queen, Marie Amelie, died, 
24 March, 1866 (see France). 

Ferdinand Philippe, son, duke of Orleans, born, 3 Sept. 
1810; died, through a fall, 13 July, 1842. 

Louis Philippe, son, count of Paris, born, 24 Aug. 1838, 
married Maria Isabella, daughter of the duke of 
Montpensier, 30 May, 1864 ; died at Stowe, Bucks, 
8 Sept. ; funeral at Weybridge, Surrey, the duke of 
York present, 12 Sept. ; in his will he acknowledges 
his failure, but maintains his rights, and deplores 
French irreligion, 21 July, 1894. Their daughter, 
Helene, married to the duke d'Aosta, 25 June, 1895. 
Son, Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, born 7 Feb. 
1869, see France, Feb. 1S90; married the arch- 
duchess Maria Dorothea of Austria, . 5 Nov. 1896 

Death, from shock, of Henri Eugene, due. d'Aumale 
(born 16 Jan. 1822, 4th son of Louis Philippe) 

6 May, 1897 
See Paris, 4 May, 1897. 

The demand of the Orleans princes to return to 
France, 19 June, refused by the legislative assem- 
bly after discussion .... 2 July, 1870 

Their request to serve in the army after the fall of 

the empire declined ..... Sept. ,, 
(The due de Chartres served incognito.) 



After discussion, the due d'Aumale and the prince 
de Joinville permitted to take their seats as mem- 
bers of the national assembly . . 19 Dec. 1870 

After much discussion, the comte de Paris at a per- 
sonal interview recognized the comte de Cham- 
bord as the legitimate head of the Bourbon family 
and king of France .... 5 Aug. 1873 

For consequent proceedings see France . T873 et seq 

The bodies of king Louis Philippe and others of his 
family removed from England and buried in the 
mausoleum at Dreux ... 9 June, 1876 

Marriage of princess Marie, daughter of due de 
Chartres, to prince Waldemar of Denmark 22 Oct. 1885 

Marriage of princess Amelie, daughter of the comte 
de Paris, to the duke of Braganza . 22 May, 1886 

Expulsion of the Orleans princes from France (see 
France) . . . . . . May-June, ,, 

For acts of the comte de Paris see France, 1873 et seq. 

The due de Montpensier, born 1824 (see Spain, 
1846 et seq.), died 4 Feb. 1890 

The prince de Joinville publishes "Vieux 
Souvenirs " April, 1894 

Fetes in honour of Joan of Arc . . 6-8 May, ,, 

The due de Nemours, 2nd son of king Louis Philippe, 
born 1814, died 25 June, 1896 

Frangois Ferdinand, prince de Joinville, died, aged 
81 . . . . . . . -15 June, 1900 

Prince Henry, elder son of the due de Chartres, 
honoured for his explorations in the Far East, 11 
March, 1896 ; dies, aged 34, at Sairgon 9 Aug. 1901 

OELEANS, NEW, see New Orleans. 

OEMUL UM, a metrical version of the Gospels 
and Acts, in early English, made by Orm, an ecclesi- 
astic, in the 12th century, printed at Oxford in 
1852, from a MS. in the Bodleian. 

OENITHOLOGY, see Birds. 

OENITHOEHYNCHUS, the duck-billed 
platypus, or water-mole, a singular compound of 
the mammal and the bird, a native of Australia, 
was first described by Dr. Shaw, in 1819. 

OEOQUIETA, Navarre, N. Spain. Here don 
Carlos, calling himself king Carlos VII., grandson 
of don Carlos, brother of Ferdinand VII., com- 
manding about 4000 men, was suddenly attacked 
by general Moriones with about 2000, and defeated 
after a short conflict, 4 May, 1872. He fled, leav- 
ing 757 prisoners and 38 dead. 

OEPHAN-HOUSES. The emperor Trajan 
first formed establishments for this purpose. Pliny 
relates in his Panegyric that he had caused 5000 free- 
born children to be sought out and educated, about 
a.d. 105. Orphan houses properly so called are 
mentioned for the first time in the laws of the 
emperor Justinian. At the court of Byzantium the 
office of inspector of orphans, orphanotrophos, was 
so honourable that it was held by the brother of the 
emperor Michael IV. in the nth century; see 
Foundling Hospitals. 

The Orphanotropheon at Halle, established by Au- 
gust Francke 1698-9 

The Orphan Working Asylum for 20 boys was esta- 
blished at Hoxton in 1758. It is now situated at 
Haverstock-hill, and contains 350 boys and girls. 

Asylum for Female Orphans, Lambeth ; removed 
to Beddington, near Croydon ; instituted . . 1 758 

London Orphan Asylum founded, 1813 ; removed to 
Clapton, 1823 ; new building at Watford, founded 
by the prince of Wales, 13 July, 1869 ; opened, 

20 July, 1871 

British Orphan Asylum, Clapham-rise, established 
1827; removed to Slough, Bucks; re-opeued, 

25 June, 1863 

The Infant Orphan Asylum at Wanstead (1827); 
and the Asylum for Fatherless Children (in 1844 ; 
settled at Reedham, Surrey), established mainly 
through the exertions of a congregational minister, 
the rev. Andrew Reed, D.D. 



ORPHEONISTS. 



905 



OTAHEITE. 



Orphan-houses, Ashley-down, Bristol, founded by 
George Muller, . a Prussian (died, aged 92, 10 
March, 1898), supported entirely by voluntary 
contributions, see Scripture Knowledge. (He began 
in a house in Bristol, 11 April, 1836.) 2,050 
orphans were maintained, 1873 ; reported pros- 
perous, 189"; ; 20,000?. bequeathed ; see Bristol, 

Mar. 1899 

Erdington Orphanage and Alms-houses, near Bir- 
mingham, erected and endowed (with 250,000?.) 
by Josiah Mason, a manufacturer of Birmingham, 

1860-69 

Royal Albert Orphan Asylum, at Bagshot, esta- 
blished, 1864; additional buildings founded by 
the queen, 29 June, 1867. 

Alexandra Orphanage for Infants, Holloway, 1864; 
foundation of building laid, 6 July, 1867. 

Stockwell Orphanage, Claphani-road, founded by 
Rev. C. Spurgeon, aided by legacy of Miss Hill- 
yard 1867 

Orphans' Homes : — Maida-hill, 1873 ; West-square, 
South wark ; and Gravesend . . . . ,, 

Passmore-Edwards' Teachers' Orphanage, West- 
hill, Sydenham 1899 

ORPHEOJNTSTS, see Crystal Palace, i860. 

ORPHEUS, Steamer, see Wrecks, 7 Feb. 
1863. 

ORRERY, a planetary machine to illustrate 
and explain the motions of the heavenly bodies, 
appears to have been coeval with the clepsydra. 
Ptolemy devised the circles and epicycles that dis- 
tinguish his system about 130. The planetry- 
clock of Finee was begun 1553. The planetarium 
of De Kheita was formed about 1650. The planet- 
arium, now termed the Orrery, it is said, was 
constructed by Kowley, after a pattern devised by 
the clock-maker, George Graham, at the expense of 
Charles Boyle, earl of Orrery, about 1715. A large 
" planetarium " was constructed by the rev. ¥m. 
Pearson, for the Eoyal Institution, London, about 
1803. An excellent planetarium, constructed in 
London by signor N. Perini, was exhibited in Dee. 
1879. 

ORSINTS PLOT against the emperor Napo- 
leon III.; see France, Jan. 1858. 

ORTHES or ORTHEZ (S. France), once capital 
of the principality of Beam. Near it the British 
and Spanish armies, commanded by Wellington, 
defeated the French, under Soult, 27 Feb. 1814. 
The battle of Toulouse soon followed. 

ORTHOPEDIC HOSPITALS, for the 

cure of club-foot, spinal curvatures, &c. : National, 
Great Portland street, founded, 1836 ; Eoyal, Han- 
over-square, 1838; City, 1851. 

OSBORNE HOUSE (Isle of Wight), was 
purchased by the queen in 1845, and rebuilt by 
Mr. Cubitt. She died here, 22 Jan. 1901, and left 
the house and estate under her will to the king, 
who gave it to the nation, to be used as an army 
and navy convalescent home (for officers), 9 Aug. 
1902; Osborne estate bill passed, 15 Dec. 1902. 
Royal ISlaval College, opened by king Edward VII., 
4 Aug. 1903. 

OSMIUM, one of the heaviest known metals, 
discovered in platinum ore by Tennant in 1 803. 

OSNABURG (N. Germany), made the seat of 
a bishopric, by Charlemagne, near the end of the 
8th century. . After the treaty of Westphalia in 
1648, the bishop was a Roman Catholic and Protes- 
tant alternately, the latter being chosen from the 
house of Brunswick. Frederick, duke of York, the 
last bishop, resigned in 1803, when the lands were 
annexed to Hanover. He died 5 Jan. 1827 



OSSORY (S.E. Ireland), BISHOPRIC OF, 
was first planted at Saiger, about 402 ; translated 
to Aghadoe, in Upper Ossory, in 1052 ; and to 
Kilkenny about the end of the reign of Henry II. 
It was united to Ferns and Leighlin in 1835. 

OSTEND (Belgium). An important sea-port 
in the nth century, was destroyed by the sea 1334, 
rebuilt and afterwards walled by Philip the Good, 
the duke of Burgundy, 1445; sustaineda siege by the 
Spaniards, from July, 1601, to Sept. 1604, when it 
honourably capitulated. On the death of Charles 
II. of Spain, the French seized Ostend; but in 
1706, after the battle of Ramillies, it was retaken by 
the allies. It was again taken by the French in 
1745, but restored in 1743. In 1756, the French 
garrisoned this town for the empress-queen Maria 
Theresa. In 1792, the French once more took 
Ostend, which they evacuated in 1793, but regained 
in 1794. The English destroyed the works of the 
Bruges canal ; but the wind shifting before they 
could re-embark, they surrendered to the French, 
19 May, 1798. The Ostend East India company, 
established 1723, was dissolved 173 1. Riotous at- 
tacks on British fishermen landing fish quelled 
with bloodshed ; intervention of the king ; peace 
restored 23-30 Aug. 1887. Population, 1890, 24,712 ; 
1900, 39,541- 

OSTIA, a Roman port, at the mouth of the 
Tiber, said to have been founded by Ancus Martius 
about 627 B.C. 

OSTRACISM (from the Greek ostrakon, a 
potsherd or shell), a mode of proscription at Athens, 
is said to have been first introduced by the tyrant 
Hippias; others ascribe it to Cleisthenes, about 510 
B.C. The people wrote the names of those whom 
they most suspected upon small shells ; these they 
put in an urn or box and presented to the senate. 
Upon a scrutiny, he whose name was oftenest 
written Avas sentenced by the council to be banished 
from his altar and hearth. 6000 votes were re- 
quired. Aristides, noted for his justice, and Mil- 
tiades, for his victories, were thus ostracized. The 
custom was abolished by ironically proscribing 
Hyperbolus, a mean person, about 338 B.C. 

OSTRICH (the struthios of the ancients), a 
native of Africa (see Job xxxix. 14). Ostriches 
were hatched and reared at San Donato, near Flo- 
rence, 1859-60; and at Tresco abbey, the seat of 
Augustus Smith, in the Scilly isles, 1866. 

OSTROGOTHS, or Eastern Goths, were 

distinguished from the Visigoths (Western Goths) 
about 330. After ravaging eastern Europe, Thrace, 
&c, their great leader, Theodoric, established a 
kingdom in Italy, which lasted from 493 to 553 ;1 
see Italy. 

OSTROLENKA (Poland). Near here the 
French defeated the Prussians, 16 Feb. 1807. In 
another battle here between the Poles and Russians 
the slaughter was immense, but the Poles remained 
masters of the field, 26 May, 1831. 

OTAGO, see New Zealand, 1848, 1861, 1866. 

OTAHEITE or TAHITI, an island in the S. 
Pacific Ocean, seen by Byron in 1765, and visited 
in 1767 by captain Wallis, who called it George the 
Third Island. Captain Cook came hither in 1768 
to observe the transit of Venus ; sailed round the 
whole island in a boat, and stayed three months ; 
he visited it twice afterwards. See Cook. Omai, a 
native of this island, was brought to England by 
Cook, and carried back in his last voyage. In 



OTHEOSCOPE. 



906 



OVATION. 



1799, king Pomare ceded the district of Matavai to 
some English missionaries. Queen Pomare was 
compelled to put herself under the protection of 
France, 9 Sept. 1843. She retracted, and Otaheite 
and the neighbouring islands were taken possession 
of by admiral Dupetit-Thouars in the name of the 
French king, Nov. 1843. ^ e French imprisoned 
Mr. Prichard, the English consul, 5 March, 1844, 
but the act was censured in France. 

Queen Pomare IV., born, 23 Feb. 1813 ; succeeded her 
brother, Pomare III., in Jan. 1827 ; died 17 Sept. 1877, 
having reigned 50 years. By consent of her successor 
the island was formally annexed to France, 29 June, 
1880. The queen arrived at Paris, 27 Feb. 1884. 

Long rebellion in Raiatea and Huahine islands put 
down ; the queen exiled by the French, reported, 
10 April, 1897. 

Rurutu and Tubuai islands annexed to France, 21 Aug. 
1900. 

OTHEOSCOPE (from otheb, I propel), ap- 
paratus invented by Mr. W. Crookes, for studying 
molecular motion, the effects of radiation ; described 
by him, April, 1877. 

OTOLOGY, the science of the ear. A con- 
gress of Otologists met at Brussels, Sept. 1888 ; 
another in London, 300 aurists present, 8 Aug. 
1899. 

OTTAWA (formerly BYTOWN), cn tne river 
Ottawa, was appointed to be the capital of Canada 
by the queen in August, 1858. The executive 
council met here 22 Nov. 1865, and the Canadian 
parliament was, for the first time, opened here by 
the governor-general, lord Monck, on 8 Jane, 
1866. Mr. Darcy McGee, M.P. for Montreal (once 
an Irish agitator, but afterwards exceedingly loyal), 
was assassinated on his return from parliament, 
7 April, 1868. Fenians were suspected, and the 
town was put in a state of siege. "Whelan, con- 
victed of the murder, 15 Sept. 1868, was executed 
Feb. 1869. A dominion exhibition was opened 
here 24 Sept. 1879. The duke and duchess of 
Connaught warmly received 4 June, 1890. Na- 
tional monument to sir John Macdonald unveiled, 
I July, 1895. Destructive fire in public offices, 
records burnt, 11 Feb. 1897. Population in 1861, 
14,669; in 1871, 21,545; i n 1881, 27,412; 1891, 
44,154; 1901,59,902. 

Hull, a suburb and part of Ottawa, burnt down ; 

see Canada 26, 27 Apl. 1900 

Mr. Andrew Carnegie gives 20,000?. for a public 

library Mar. 1901 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Cornwall ; see 

Canada 20-24 Sept. ,, 

Lord Dundonald unveils a soldiers' memorial, 

fi Aug. 1902 
Great fire 10 May, 1903 

OTTERBURN (Northumberland). In 1388 
the Scotch besieged Newcastle and were driven off 
by Henry Percy (Hotspur), son of the earl of North- 
umberland. Percy pursued them to Otterburn, 
where a battle was fought on 10 Aug., in which the 
earl of Douglas was killed and Percy taken pri- 
soner. On this battle the ballad of Chevy Chase is 
founded. 

OTTOMAN EMPIRE, see Turkey, 1299. 

OUDE or OUDH (North India), formerly a 
vice-royalty held by the vizier of the great mogul. 
About 1760, it was seized by the vizier Sujah-ud- 
Dowlah, ancestor of the late king. 

Battle of Buxar, where Sujah and his ally, Meer 
Cossim, are totally defeated, and the British be- 
come virtually masters of Oude . . 23 Oct. 1764 



Reign of Asoph-ud-Dowlah, who cedes Benares, <&c, 
to the East India Company, who place troops in 
Oude (see Chunar) 1775-81 

[The annual subsidy to the company in 1787 was 
5oo,oooL ; in 1794, 76o,oooL ; in 1801, 1,352,347^.] 

More territories ceded to the company . . . 1801 

Ghazee-ud-deen becomes king, with the consent of 
the British 1819 

Dreadful misgovernment of Nusser-ud-deen 1827-37 

[At his death, the British resident, Colonel Lowe, 
promptly suppresses an insurrection.] 

Mahomed Ah' governs well 1837-42 

But his son, Umjeed Ali Shah .... 1842-7 

And grandson, Waud Ali Shah, exceed all their pre- 
decessors in profligacy .... 1847-56 

In consequence (by virtue of the treaty of 1801) 
Oude is annexed to the British territories, by 
decree, proclaimed . . 7 Feb. 1856 

The queen and prince of Oude, &c. , arrive in Lon- 
don to apjieal 20 Aug. ,, 

Oude joins the Indian mutiny; ex-king of Oude 
imprisoned (on suspicion) . . .14 June, 1857 

The queen dies at Paris, 24 Jan. ; and the prince at 

London 26 Feb. 1858 

[For the war, see India, 1857-8.] 

Triumphal entry of the governor-general into Luck- 
now ; the Talookdars (landowners) receive a free 
grant of their estates .... 22 Oct. 1859 

Grand durbar held at Lucknow by the viceroy, sir 
John Lawrence 12 Nov. 1867 

Oude was annexed to the N.W. Provinces (which 
see) in 1856 

OUDENARDE (Belgium). Here the English 
and allies under the duke of Marlborough and prince 
Eugene thoroughly defeated the French besiegers, 
II July, 1708. 

OULAET (S.E. Ireland). Here 5000 Irish 
insurgents attacked the king's troops, in small 
numbers, 27 May, 1798. The North Cork militia, 
after great feats of bravery, were cut to pieces, five 
men only escaping. — JHusgrave. 

OUNCE (from undo), the sixteenth part of the 
pound avoirdupois, and twelfth of the pound troy. 
Its precise weight was fixed by Henry III., who 
decreed that an English ounce should be 640 dry 
grains of wheat; that twelve of these ounces should 
be a pound ; and that eight pounds should be a 
gallon of wine, 1233. 

OURIQUE (Portugal), where Alfonso, count 
or duke of Portugal, is said to have encountered 
five Saracen kings and a great army of Moors, 25 
July, 1 139, and signally defeated them; and then 
to have been hailed the first king Lisbon, the 
capital, was taken, and be soon after was crowned. 

OUTLAW, one deprived of the benefit of the 
law, and out of the sovereign's protection; a 
punishment for such as being called in law do con- 
temptuously refuse to appear. In the reign of 
Edward III. all the judges agreed that none but the 
sheriff only having lawful warrant therefor, should 
put to death any man outlawed. — Coivel. Outlawry 
in civil proceedings was abolished by 42 & 43 Vict. 
c. 59, 15 Aug. 1879. 

OUZEL GALLEY SOCIETY. In 1700, 
the case of the Ouzel Galley, a ship in the port of 
Dublin, excited great legal perplexity, and was 
referred to an arbitration of merchants, whose 
prompt decision was highly approved. This led to 
the present society, founded in 1705. 

OVATION, an inferior triumph which the 
Romans allowed those generals of their army whose 
victories were not considerable. Publius Posthumius 
Tubertus was the first who was decreed an ovation, 



OVEELAND MAIL. 



907 



OXFOED BISHOPEIC. 



503 B.C. A sheep (ovis) was offered by the general 
instead of a bull. 

OVEELAND MAIL, see Waghorn. The 
overland mail travelled first through the Cenis 
tunnel to Brindisi, saving 24 hours, 5 Jan. 1872. 

Communication between the Bast and West has been 
greatly facilitated by the opening of the Suez 
Canal, 1869, and the railways between the 
Atlantic and Pacific oceans ; by means of the 
Canadian Pacific railway the China and Japan 
mails were conveyed from Yokohama to London 
in 25 days, arriving in London . . 13 May, 1891 

Mr. H. de Windt travels 19,000 miles overland 
from Paris to New York . . Dec. 1901-Sept. 1902 

New overland route to China, via Siberian and 
Chinese Eastern railways, discussed in Paris, 

8 Oct. „ 

OVEBSEEBS of the poor for parishes were 
appointed in 160 1 ; see Poor Laws. 

OWENS COLLEGE, Manchester, founded 
by means of a bequest of 100,000/. by John Owens, 
merchant, who died in 1846. A new constitution 
was obtained in 1870, and the duke of Devonshire, 
president, laid the first stone of the new building, 
23 Sept. 1870; and opened it, 8 Oct. 1873. Mr. 
E. E. Langworthy bequeathed 1 0,000/. to develop 
the chair of experimental physics, 1874. In 1880 
" Owens " became the first college of the new 
Victoria University, Manchester. The Beyer 
laboratories and natural history museums were 
erected 1887 at a cost of 80,000/. Mr. B. C. 
Christie, formerly professor, gives 50,000/., 5 Oct. 
1897. New physical (research) laboratory (cost 
40,000/.) opened by lord Bayleigh, 29 June, 1900. 
See Victoria University. Connected with the 
college are the " Hulme " and the " Dalton " halls 
of residence for male students, and " Ashburne 
House " for female students. 

Owen's School, Islington, founded 1613, by Dame Alice 
Owen, in gratitude for her escape from death by an 
arrow ; free education to 30 children and maintenance 
to 14 pensioners : the benefits of the charity since its 
foundation have been greatly increased ; high-class 
education now given to 700 children at a nominal fee ; 
new buildings erected by the Brewers' company under 
the trust, opened, 14 April, 1896. (Her statue un- 
veiled, 21 Oct. 1897.) 

OWHYHEE or HAWAII, the chief of the 
12 islands which constitute the territory of Hawaii 
situated in the N. Pacific Ocean. The islands are 
said to have been discovered in 1542 by Gaetano, 
and were rediscovered by capt. Cook in 1778, who 
named them the Sandwich islands after lord Sand- 
wich, then the first lord of the admiralty. Capt. 
Cook was killed at Owhyhee by the natives 1779. 
King Kamehameha I., who died 18 rg, united the 
12 islands into one monarchy, and under his suc- 
cessor, Kamehameha II., idolatry was abolished, 
1819-20; the king and his queen visited England, 
and died in London 1824. In 1840, Kamehameha 
III. established a constitution, which included an 
assembly of nobles, and a representative council. 
The independence of the kingdom was guaranteed 
by the English and French governments in 1843. 
A more popular constitution was granted in 1887, 
but in 1893 a revolution broke out, and the queen 
Liliuokalani was dethroned, and a republic was pro- 
claimed in 1894. Hawaii was formally annexed to 
the United States 1898, and became one of its 
territories in 1900. Population, about 100,000. 
three-fourths of which are Japanese. Honolulu is 
the capital of the Hawaiian group ; population 
about 30,000. 



Eruption of the volcano Mauna Loa ceased, about 20 
miles of lava, 8 Feb. ; there have been frequent out- 
breaks of volcanoes on the island with occasional 
shocks of earthquake ; earthquake shocks 5 May, 1887, 
et seq. ; 167 persons killed ; violent eruption of Mauna 
Loa and Kilcana, 4 July, 1899. 

OWNEBS OF LAND, see Domesday. 

OXALIC ACID, which exists in several 
plants, especially in sorrel, is now abundantly 
obtained, for use in the arts, from sawdust acted 
upon by caustic potash or soda, according to dr. 
Dale's process, patented in 1862. 

OXFOED, an ancient city, restored by king 
Alfred, who resided here and established a mint, 
&c, about 879. Beturns one M.P. by Act of 
1885. See Population. 
Canute held a national council here .... 1017 

Stormed by William 1 1068 

Charter by Henry II. , the city granted to the bur- 
gesses by John 1199 

Henry III. holds the " mad " parliament here . . 1258 
Bishops Ridley and Latimer burnt here, 16 Oct. 

1555 ; and archbishop Cranmer . 21 March, 1556 
Fatal (or Black) Oxford Assizes, — when the high 
sheriff and 300 other persons died suddenly of an 

infection from the prisoners 1557 

Charles I. took Oxford, 1642, and held a parliament 

here 1644 

Taken by the parliament ... 24 June, 1646 
Charles II. held parliaments here . . 1665 & 1681 

Visit of the allied sovereigns 1814 

British Association met here . 1832, 1847, i860, 1894 
Oxford Military College, Cowley, opened . 20 Sept. 1876 
New high school opened . . . .15 Sept. 1881 
New theatre opened 13 Feb. 1886 ; greatly injured 

by fire 10, 11 March, 1892 

Statue of Thomas Sydenham unveiled by the mar- 
quis of Salisbury 9 Aug. 1894 

New municipal buildings and the Sarah Acland 

Home opened by the prince of Wales 12 May, 1897 
Ruskin hall, to promote the education of the 
working classes, founded by Mr. Vrooman and 
other Americans, opened . . .22 Feb. 1899 
The new Radcliffe library, gift of the Drapers' 

co., London (cost 21,000/.), opened . 18 June, 1901 
Conference on higher education . . 12 Aug. 1903 

OXFOED ADMINISTEATION, formed 

29 May, 171 1. 

Robert, earl of Oxford (previously right hon. Robert 
Harley), lord treasurer. 

Sir Simon (afterwards lord) Hareourt, lord keeper. 

John, duke of Normauby and Buckingham, lord presi- 
dent. 

John, bishop of Bristol (aft. London), privy seal. 

Henry St. John (afterwards viscount Bolingbroke), and 
William, lord Dartmouth, secretaries of state. 

Robert Benson (afterwards lord Bingley), chancellor of 
the exchequer. 

The duke of Shrewsbury succeeded lord Oxford, receiv- 
ing the lord treasurer's staff on 30 July, 1714, three 
days before the death of queen Anne. From the reign 
of George I. the office of lord treasurer has been exe- 
cuted by commissioners. 

OXFOED BISHOPEIC, established by 
Henry VIII., formed out of Lincoln, first placed 
at Osney in 1542 ; removed to Oxford cathedral 
(formerly St. Frideswide, now Christ Church), 1545. 
Present income, 5000/. 

RECENT BISHOPS. 

1807. Charles Moss ; died, 16 Dec. 1811. 

1812. William Jackson ; died, 2 Dec. 1815. 

1815. Edward Legge ; died, 27 Jan. 1827. 

1827. Charles Lloyd ; died, 31 May, 1829. 

1829. Richard Bagot ; translated to Bath, Nov. 1845. 

1845. Samuel Wilberforce ; translated to Winchester, 

Nov. 1869 ; died, 22 April, 1901. 
1869. John Fielder Mackarness ; resigned about 21 June, 

1888 ; died 16 Sept. 1889. 
1888. William Stubbs ; translated from Chester, July ; 

died, 22 April, 1901. 
1901. Francis Paget, appointed May, 1901. 



OXFOED DECLARATION. 



908 



OXFORD UNIVERSITY. 



OXFORD DECLARATION, see Church of 
England, 1864. 

OXFORD MARBLES, see Arundelian. 

OXFORD UNION SOCIETY, established 
•as a debating club, in 1823 ; amongst its early 
members are or were Mr. Gladstone, bp.Wilberforce, 
iord Stanhope, abp. Manning, Sidney Herbert, abp. 
Tait, &c. It held a jubilee festival, 22 Oct. 1873, 
the lord chancellor Selborne in the chair. 

OXFORD UNIVERSITY. The statement 
that king Alfred founded ''the schools" is now 
discredited as legendary. See Ashmolean. 

Charter granted by Henry III 1248 

Charter of Edward III. 1355 ; of Henry VIII. . . 1510 

The university incorporated by Elizabeth . . 1570 

Receives the elective franchise (to send two mem- 
bers to parliament) ^04 

Bodleian Library opened, 8 Nov. 1602 ; building 
completed ^3 

The botanic garden, &e. , established by the earl of 
Danby . . I 6 2 2 

Radcliff'e Library opened, 13 April, 1749 ; the 
Radeliffe observatory completed .... 1786 

A commission appointed (31 Aug. 1850) to inquire 
into its "state, studies, discipline, and revenues ;" 
reported 27 April, 1852 

Acts making alterations passed . . . 1854, 1856 

University Museum opened .... July, i860 

Examination statutes passed . 1801, 1807, 1850, 1862 

Extension of the university proposed at a meeting 
held 16 Nov. 1865 

University tests abolished by act passed 16 June, 1871 

Royal commission to inquire respecting university 
property, &c, appointed . . . . 6 Jan. 1872 

Income in 1871, reported to be : university, 
47,589?. os. 3d. ; colleges andhalls, 366,253?. 16s. 3d.; 
total, 413,842!. 16s. 6d Oct. 1874 

Hebdomadal board reported that about 100,000?. 
was needed for education in science . June, 1875 

Lord Ilchester's bequest to promote the study of 
Slavonian literature, especially Polish ; first lec- 
tures given -. May, ,, 

New commission appointed (lords Selborne and 
Redesdale, Montague Bernard, sir M. W. Ridley, 
dean Burgon, and Mr. Justice Grove) ; announced 

27 March, 1876 

Oxford University Bill withdrawn July, 1876 ; the 
Universities Act passed . . .10 Aug. 1877 

The commission publish a new scheme for profes- 
sors, <&c, very restrictive . . .2 Nov. 1880 

Statute jjassed admitting women to examination 

29 April, 1884 

Pusey memorial house, containing Pusey's library, 
(fee, opened by bishop of Oxford . . 9 Oct. „ 

4 sets of rooms at Queen's College destroyed by fire 

11 Dec. 1886 

Museum for gen. Pitt-Rivers' collection of ancient 
weapons, &c, presented to the university, opened 

Feb. 1887 

Combination of the municipal and academical civic 
powers in conformity with the local government 
act of 1888, consummated . . .9 Nov. 1889 

Catherine T. Riordon's attempt on the life of Dr. J. 
T. Briglit, master of University College, 6 Nov. ; 
sentenced to 6 years' penal servitude . 15 Nov. 1890 

The first Romanes lecture, given by Mr. W. E. 
Gladstone on "University Life," 24 Oct. 1892; 
by T. H. Huxley, 18 May, 1893 ; by prof. Auguste 
Weismann, 2 May, 1894; Mr. Holman Hunt, 30 
May, 1895 ; the bishop of Peterborough, " English 
National Character," 17 June, 1896; Mr. John 
Morley, " Machiavelli," 2 June, 1897; "Hu- 
manism," by prof. Jebb, June, 1899 ; by Mr. 
Bryce, M.P., 7 June, 1902; sir Oliver Lodge, 
" Modern Views of Matter " . . 12 June, 1903 
<Jreat meeting to support the Radeliffe infirmary ; 
.the marquis of Salisbury, chancellor, present, 

1 March, 18 19 

Death of prof. Benjamin Jowett, influential master 
of Balliol 1 Oct. „ 

Prof. Romanes died suddenly at Oxford . 23 May, 1894 

"School of English Language and Literature;" 
regulations issued 4 Dec. „ 



Sir John Robt. Mowbray (father of the house of 
commons) sat since 1853, sen. member of the 
university ; born 1815, died . . 22 April, 1899 

Statue of Charles Darwin, by Mr. Hope Pinker, 
presented by prof. Poulton ; unveiled by sir 
Joseph Hooker, at the museum . . 14 June, ,, 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes bequeaths 100,000?. to Oriel, his 
old college, and 51,750?. per annum for 175 
scholarships (60 colonial, 100 American, and 15 
German) in the university. For his will, see 
Rhodesia 1902 

Bodleian tercentenary celebrated . . 8, 9 Oct. „ 
See Women, 3, 10 March, 1896. 

COLLEGES. 

University, founded by William, archdeacon of 
Durham, about 1249 

Balliol ; founded by John Baliol or Balliol, knt. 
(father to Baliol, king of the Scots), and Deborah, 
his wife 1263 

Merton College, by Walter de Merton, bishop of 
Rochester 1264 

Hertford College, 1312 (dissolved in 1805 and a 
Hertford scholarship appointed) ; revived, and 
Magdalen Hall incorporated with it ... 1874 

Exeter, by Walter Stapleton, bishop of Exeter . 1314 

Oriel College, by king Edward II. ; Adam deBrome, 
archdeacon of Sto we 1326 

Queen's College, by Robert de Eglesfleld, clerk, 
confessor to queen Philippa, consort of Edward 
III 1340 

New College, by William of Wykeham, bishop of 
Winchester ; first called St. Mary of Winchester, 
founded 1379 ; occupied 1386 (500th anniversary 
celebrated 14 Oct. 1879). 

All Souls' College, by Henry Chichely, archbishop 
of Canterbury 1437 

Magdalen, by William of Waynflete, bishop of Win- 
chester 1456 

Lincoln College, by Richard Fleming, 14 27; finished 
by Rotherham, bishop of Lincoln . . . 1479 

Brazenose, by William Smyth, bishop of Lincoln, 
and sir Richard Sutton 1509 

Corpus Christi, by Richard Fox, bishop of Win- 
chester 1516 

Christ Church, by cardinal Wolsey, 1525 ; and 
afterwards by Henry VIII. 1532 

Trinity, by sir Thomas Pope, on the basis of a 
previous institution, called Durham College . 1554 

St. John's, by sir Thomas Whyte, lord mayor of 
London 1555 

Jesus College, by dr. Hugh Price and queen Eliza- 
beth 1571 

Wadham, by Nicholas Wadham, and Dorothy, his 
wife 1613 

Pembroke, by Thomas Teesdale and Richard Wight- 
wick, clerk 1624 

Worcester, by sir Thomas Cokes, of Bentley, in Wor- 
cestershire; it was originally called Gloucester 
College 1 714 

Keble College (see Keble College) ; first stone laid by 
archbishop of Canterbury 25 April, 1868 ; conse- 
crated 23 June, 1870 

Indian Institute, founded 1878 or 1879. 

Somerville Hall, opened, 1879 ; Mansfield College, 
for INonconformists 1886 

Manchester New College 18S9-93 

Proposed establishment of Honour School of modern 
European languages 3 May, 1887 

halls (not incorporated). 

St. Edmund's 1269 

St. Mary's 1333 

New Inn Hall 1392 

St. Mary Magdalen (incorporated with Hertford 

college 1874) 1487 

St. Alban's (united with Merton College, 1882) . 1547 

[Oxford University Calendar.] 
Hanningtqn Hall, a memorial of the bishop (see 

Uganda, 1889 and 1892), opened . 26 Jan. 1897 
First Professorships — Divinity (Margaret), 1502 : 

Divinity, Law, Medicine, Hebrew, Greek, 1540, 

&c. 

RECENT CHANCELLORS. 

1809. William, baron Granville. 

1834. Arthur, duke of Wellington. 

1852. Edward, earl of Derby ; d. 23 Nov. 1869. 



OXFOED, PEOVISIONS OF. 



909 



OYSTEE. 



1869. Robert, marquis of Salisbury, elected 12 Nov. ; 

d. 22 Aug. 1903. 
1903. George Joachim, viscount Goschen, 31 Oct. 

OXFOED, Provisions of, for several poli- 
tical reforms ; enacted by "the mad parliament," 
June 1258 ; several times annulled and confirmed 
during the "barons' war." 

OXFOED' S ACT, Bishop OF, see District 

Churches. 

OXFOED' S ASSAULT on the Queen. 

Edward Oxford, a youth who had been a servant 
in a public-house, discharged two pistols at queen 
Victoria and prince Albert, as they were proceeding 
up Constitution-hill in an open phaeton from 
Buckingham palace, 10 June, 1840. He stood 
within a few yards of the carriage, but neither her 
majesty nor the prince was injured. Oxford was 
tried at the Old Bailey (10 July), and was adjudged 
to be insane, and sent first to Bethlehem hospital, 
next to Broadmoor ; and set at liberty in 1868, on 
condition of going abroad. 



HOUSE, see University 



OXFOED 

Teaching. 

" OXFOED MOVEMENT, 1833-45, by 
E. "W. Church," late dean of St. Paul's, published 
10 March, 1891 ; see Puseyism and Tractarianism. 

OXUS (the Persian and Turkish Djihoun, 
local name, Amou Darya), a river of Central Asia ; 
supposed to have changed its course before 1000 
a.d., and to have resumed its ancient bed in 1878. 
The Oxus navigated as far as Faizabad Kali 
(Afghan frontier) by the Russians under adm. 
Baturin; reported, 11 Dec. 1894. 

OXYGEN, a gas (named from the Greek oxus, 
sharp, as being generally found in acids), is the 
most abundant of all substances, constituting about 
one-third of the solid earth, and forming about 
nine-tenths of water and one-fifth of the atmo- 
sphere. It was first separated from red oxide of 
mercury by Priestley, 1 Aug. 1774, and by Scheele, 
who was ignorant of Priestley's discovery, in 1775. 
It is a supporter of animal life (in respiration), and 
of combustion. An oxygen gas company was 
announced in Dec. 1864 ; its object being the cheap 
manufacture of oxygen for its application to the 
production of perfect combustion in lamps, stoves, 
furnaces, &c. It is now largely produced with 
about 5 per cent, of inert nitrogen by the Brin 
method from atmospheric air (1893). Oxygen was 
liquefied by Raoul Pictet at Geneva (pressure, 
320 atmospheres, temp. 140° below zero Cent.), 22 
Dec. 1877. See Ozone. 

Professor Dewar obtained 2 cubic centimetres (yV of a 
fluid oz.) of liquid oxygen by means of liquid ethylene 
(the illuminating part of coal gas), temp. 140° below 
zero Cent, (by Wroblewski and Olzewski's method), 
at the Royal Institution, London, in the presence of 
the prince and princess of Wales, 26 Juno, 1884. He 
exhibited for the first time some solid oxygen in the 
form of snow (temperature — 200 Cent. — 400 Fahr.), 
produced by placing liquid oxygen in a partial vacuum, 
at the Royal Institution 27 May, 1886. 

Professor Dewar exhibited between 300 to 400 centi- 
timetres liquid oxygen at the Faraday Centenary, 
26 June, 1891. The feeble magnetism of oxygen, 
demonstrated by Faraday, was shown by Professor 
Dewar to be greatly increased when reduced to the 
liquid state by a temperature of 180° below zero centi- 
grade ; announced 10 Dec. 1891. Some liquid oxygen 
placed in the magnetic field sprang to the poles and 
adhered to them till evaporated ; this was publicly 
exhibited bv the professor at the Royal Institution, 
10 June, 1892. Several pints of liquid oxygen and 



liquid air were then produced in the presence of the 
audience. 

At the Friday evening meeting of the Royal institution, 
20 Jan. 1893, prof. Dewar exhibited some of the re- 
markable properties of liquid oxygen and air, and he- 
showed how the liquid state could be maintained! 
longer by surrounding it with a very high vacuum. 
These costly experiments had been aided by a gift of 
i,oooZ. from the Goldsmiths' company. The lecture 
and experiments were repeated before the prince ctf 
Wales, the duke of York, and a distinguished company, 
22 Feb. 1893. Prof. Dewar reported to the Royal 
society that he had obtained solid air in the form 
of ice, a mysterious body, 9 March, 1893. Further 
researches reported, 22 Jan. 1897. 

Prof. Dewar was awarded the Rumford medal of tha 
Royal society in 1894. 

A statue of Priestley, by F. J. Williamson, at Birming- 
ham, was unveiled by professor T. H. Huxley, 1 Aug. 
1874, the centenary of the discovery of oxygen. This 
was also celebrated at Northumberland, Pennsylvania, 
where he was buried, Feb. 1804. The following tele- 
gram was sent 31 July : " The brethren at the grave 
to the brethren at the home of Priestley send greet- 
ing on this centennial anniversary of the birth of 
chemistry." 

A method of obtaining oxygen from air, devised and 
patented by M. Margis, of Paris. The principle is that 
of dialysis, or diffusion under pressure, Sept. 1882. 
See Gas (liquefaction). 

By the explosion of a cylinder of compressed oxygen, 
the carrier was killed, 15 March, 1895. 

Oxygen Home, 2, Fitzroy square, London ; founded 
for the treatment of ulcers and wounds by oxygen 
gas, about 1896 ; the oxygen is supposed to turn the 
toxins or poisons secreted by certain micro-organisms 
into oxy-toxins or antidotes ; continued success 
reported, 10 May, 1899. 

O YEE AND TERMINER, a commission directed 
to the judges of the courts, by virtue whereof they 
have power to hear and determine treasons, felonies^ 
&c, 1285. 

O YES ! A corruption of the French oyez, hear 
ye ! The ancient term still used by a public crier 
and by the usher of courts of justice to enjoio 
silence and attention. 

OYSTEE (the Latin Ostrea edulis). British 
oysters are celebrated by the Roman satirist Juvenal 
(Sat. iv. 140) about 100. The robbery of oyster- 
beds is prohibited by 7 & 8 Geo. IV. c. 29 (1827). 
About 15,000 bushels of oysters were said to be pro- 
duced from the Essex beds alone. In 1858 M. Coste 
commenced rearing oysters in great numbers on the 
coast of Brittany, and his plan has been found suc- 
cessful. 

An act for promoting the cultivation of oysters in 

the United Kingdom, passed . . Aug. 

One for the preservation of oyster fisheries 3 May, 

Certain restrictions of the Oyster Fisheries act, 

1862, removed by the Fisheries act 
The fisheries (oyster, crab, and lobster) act forbids 
the sale of deep-sea oysters between 15 June and 4 
August ; and the sale of others, between 14 May 
and 4 August ; passed ... 10 Aug. 
Professor Huxley at the Royal Institution asserts 
the uselessness of restrictions and a close time for 
oysters, and the present uncertainty of culture, 

11 May, 
Artificial breeding greatly promoted by professor 
Brooks of Baltimore (who discovered non-her- 
maphrodite), lieutenant Winslow, U.S., and M. 
Bouchen-Brandely, announced . . . June, 
Act for the cultivation of oysters in Ireland passed 
Dean of Winchester and other guests at a banquet 
poisoned by eating oysters, contaminated by 
sewage. The dean subsequently died . 22 Dec. 
Typhoid epidemic in Hampshire, occasioned by 
consumption of Emsworth oysters (see Times, 
11 July, 1903) .... Dec. 1902-Jan. 
Committee representing the oyster trade to con- 
sider the contamination of oysters by sewage, 
pass various resolutions .... 5 Jan. 



1866 
1867 



1877 



1902 
1903 



OZOKERIT. 



910 



OZONE. 



Oysters, about 1830 the commonest of food, are now be- 
coming scarcer and scarcer, although their reproduction 
is about a million-fold. A committee recommend 
a close time for dredging, viz. 1 May to 1 Sept., deep- 
sea fishing to be restricted, as at present, from 15 June 
to 15 Aug. ; no oyster to be sold under 2 J inches in dia- 
meter. The Whitstable beds in 1875 are said to have 
produced about 79,564,000 oysters ; value about 

American and Portuguese oysters are now largely im- 
ported. 

Oysters successfully cultivated at Arcachon, near 
Bordeaux, 1889. 

OZOKEMT, a mineral hydro-carbon found in 
Moldavia and Wallachia. From it is distilled a 
substance suitable for making candles, introduced 
in the autumn of 1871. ■ 

OZONE (from the Greek ozein, to yield an 
odour), was discovered by Schonbein, of Basel, in 
1840, when experimenting with the then newly- 
invented battery of sir ¥m. Grove, and was recog- 
nised by him successively as a minute constituent 
of the oxygen gas resulting from the electrolysis of 
water effected by a current of high tension ; of air 
or oxygen through which electric discharges have 
taken place ; and of air in which moist phosphorus 
has been undergoing slow oxidation. 



Marignac determined the action of ozone on various 
substances to be due to their oxidation . . 1845 

Ozonometers constructed 1858 

M. Schonbein announced his discovery of another 
modification of oxygen, which he termed antozone, 
hitherto found only in the compound state (in 
peroxides of sodium, potassium, &c.) . . . 1859 

The French Academy of Sciences appointed a com- 
mittee of eminent philosophers to inquire into 
the nature and relations of ozone . 4 Dec. 1865 

Andrews and Tait demonstrated ozone to be a con- 
densed form of oxygen .... i860, „ 

This further established by Soret and Brodie, by 
quantitative reactions. (Odling suggested and 
Brodie proved ozone to be 3 parts of oxygen com- 
pressed into the space of 2) 1872 

Ozone, generated by a current produced by Wilde's 
magneto-electric machine, employed to bleach 
sugar, by Edward Beane's patent . . Aug. 1868 

Liquefied by Hautefeuille and Chappuis . Oct. 1880 

Other properties since discovered . . . 1881-4 

The inhalation of ozone recommended as a remedy 
for phthisis ; the institution at St. Raphael on the 
Mediterranean opened for the purpose ; reported 

Dec. 1 89 1 

M. Emile Andreoli's system for the commercial 
production of ozone economically carried on by 
Messrs. Allen & Hanbury in London . July, 1893 

M. Otto, in Paris, discovers the means of purifying 
water by ozone ; reported . . .6 Feb. 1902 

Radium reported to possess the property of con- 
verting oxygen into ozone 1903 



PACIFICATION. 



911 



PAINTING. 



P. 



PACIFICATION, Edicts of, the name 

usually given to the edicts of toleration granted by 

the French kiugs to the protestants ; see Ghent. 

First edict, by Charles IX. , permitting the exercise 
of the reformed religion near all the cities and 
towns in the realm .... Jan. 1562 

The reformed worship permitted in the houses of 
lords justiciaries, and certain other persons, March, 1 563 

These edicts revoked, and all Protestant ministers 
ordered to quit France in fifteen days . . . 1568 

Edict, allowing lords and others to have service in 
their houses, and granting public service iu cer- 
tain towns 1570 

[In Aug. 1572, the same monarch authorised the 
massacre of St. Bartholomew (see Bartholomew).] 

Edict of Pacification by Henry III., April; re- 
voked, Dec. 1576; renewed for six years . Oct. 1577 

[Several edicts were published against the protes- 
tants after the six years expired.] 

Edict of Henry IV., renewing that of Oct. 1577 . 1591 

Edict of Nantes (which see), by Henry IV., 13 April, 1598 

Pacification of Nismes (which see) . . 14 July, 1629 

PACIFIC ISLANDERS. Sea Kidnapping 



PACIFIC OCEAN, the largest of the five 
oceans of the globe. It was first discovered in 1513 
by Vasco Nunez de Balboa, and received its name 
from Magellan in 1521. Sir Francis Drake was the 
first Englishman who sailed upon it in 1577. The 
Santa Cruz and Duff islands annexed by Gt. Britain, 
June, 1898; Wake island, by U.S.A., Dec. 1898; 
14 others annexed by Gt. Britain, Dec. 1900 ; 3 
more, May, 1903. See Magellan; Steam, 1851; 
Wrecks, 1856; Kidnapping Acts; Panama. 

PACIFIC CABLE. See Electric city. Bill 
passed 6 Aug. 1901 ; amended, 7 Aug. 1902. 

PACIFIC RAILWAY, North America, from 
Omaha city, Missouri, to Sacramento, California, 
1700 miles, opened 12 May, 1869. By a collision 
near San Francisco, about 15 persons were killed, 
14 Nov. 1869. For new Pacific railway, see Canada, 
I081 et seq. By means of this railway, the China 
and Japan mails were conveyed from Yokohama to 
London in 25 days; received 13 May, 1891. 

PADLOCKS are said to have been invented 
by Beecher at Nuremberg, 1540, but are mentioned 
much earlier. 

PADUA, the Roman Patavium, in Venetia, N. 
Italy, said to have been founded by Antenor, soon 
after the fall of Troy. It flourished under the 
Eomans. Patavian Latin was considered very 
corrupt, and is traced in Livy, a native of Padua. 
After being an independent republic, and a member 
of the Lombard league, Padua was ruled by the 
Carrara family from 13 18 with a short interruption 
till 1405, when it was seized by the Venetians. 
The university was founded about 1220. It was 
closed through disturbances, 1848-50. 

PAGANS, the heathen, worshippers of idols, 
not agreeing in any set form or points of belief. See 
Idols. Constantine's nephew, Julian, attempted their 
restoration, 361; but Paganism was renounced by 
the Roman senate in 388, and finally overthrown 
in the reign of Theodosius the younger, about 391. 

PAHANG, see Straits Settlements. 

PAI MARIRE, a name given to the dogmas 
of the Hau-hau sect; see New Zealand, 1865. 



PAINS AND PENALTIES, certain bills 

passed by the legislature to punish state offenders ; 

see Queen Caroline. 
PAINTING. This art was practised in Egypt 

and Greece in very early times ; see under Arts. 

Polygnotus, said to be the first portrait and historic 
painter, lived about b. c. 45c 

Zeuxis of Heraclea and Parrhasius of Ephesus, about 40c 

Apelles about 332 

Pausias of Sicyon was the inventor of the encaustic, 
a method of burning the colours into wood or 
ivory about 360-330 

Antijjhilus, an Egyptian, is said to have been the 
inventor of the grotesque. Pliny. . .b.c. 332 

The art was introduced at Rome from Etruria, by 
Quintus Fabius, styled Pictor. Livy. . . . 291 

Excellentpicturesbroughtfrom Corinth by Mummius 146 

After the death of Augustus, not a single painter of 
eminence appeared for several ages ; Ludius, who 
was very celebrated, is supposed to have been the 
last about a. d. 14 

Painting on canvas seems to have been known at 
Rome in 66. Bede, the Saxon historian, knew 
something of the art, died 735 

Giovanni Cimabue, of Florence, revived the art ; lie 
died 1300 

John Van Eyck, of Bruges, and his brother, Hubert, 
are regarded as the founders of the Flemish school 
of painting in oil 1415 

Uccello first studied perspective ; died . . . 1432 

Henry VIII. patronised Holbein, and invited Titian 
to his court about 1523 

In Aug. i860, the sale of lord Northwick's pictures 
occupied eighteen days. It produced 95,725?. A 
Carlo Dolci fetched 2010?., and a Murillo 1400?. 

The Bicknell collection, sold ia April, 1863, pro- 
duced 25,600?. 

Mr. Wm. Noy Wilkins invented a process of using 
oil with mineral colours for frescoes in 1853 ; pub- 
lished his " Durability in Art " .... 1875 

Gainsborough's picture of Georgiana, duchess of 
Devonshire, bought by Messrs. Agnew for 10,605?., 
stolen from their house in Bond-st. 24-25 May, 1876 

Baron Albert Grant's collection said to have sold 
for 106,262?. 28 April, 1877 

Mr. Munro's Novar collection, sold for 64,975?. 
close of sale . . . . 3 June, 1878 

Leigh Court collection (sir P. W. Miles) sold for 
44,296? 28 June, 1884 

The collections of John Graham of Ayrshire : ancient 
masters sold for 69,168?. 12 April, 1886; modern 
masters, 62,297? 30 April, 1887 

Mr. Bolckow's collection of about 70 modern 
pictures sold for 71,378?. . . .5 May, 1888 

Mr. Wells' (of Redleaf) collection of 104 pictures 
sold for 77,000? 10 May, 1890 

Constable's " White Horse" sold for 6,?oo guineas 
to Mr. Agnew 28 April, 1894 

Gainsborough's " Market Cart " sold for 4,500?., 

26 May, „ 

Turner's " Ancient Italy " bought for the Louvre, 
price 8000? .5 June, ,, 

Portrait of lady Betty Delme and her children, by 
sir Joshua Reynolds, sold to Mr. C. Wertheimer 
for 11,000? 7 July, ,, 

Collection of the late Mr. James Price, of Bar- 
combe, S. Devon, sold for 87,143?. 15s., 15 June, 1895 
See under Blenheim and Hamilton Palace. 

Picture by Romney of two ladies as Music and 
Painting, bought by Mr. C. Wertheimer for 
10,500 guineas n June 1896 

The sale of sir Julian Goldsmid's pictures by Rey- 
nolds, Turner, and others realised 67,342?. 13 June, „ 

Sale of sir J. Millais' pictures, one by Holbein, 
realised 3,000 guineas . . . . 1 May, 1897 

Sale of sir John Pender's pictures by Turner, 
Wilkie, Millais and others, realised 75,917?. 

29 May, ,, 



PAINTING. 



912 



PAINTING. 



A fine collection of paintings by Millais, lord 
Leighton, Alma-Tadema, Riviere and others, 
destroyed at the tire at Eynsham hall, Oxford- 
shire 10 Jan. 1898 

The Ruston collection sold for 44,9952. . 23 May, ,, 

Two portraits by Romney realised 5,200 gs. and 
3,ooogs. 25 June, ,, 

The Burne-Jones sale realised nearly 29,4752. 8s. ; 
"Love and the Pilgrim" sold for 5,500 gs., 18 July, ,, 

Rembrandt exhibition at Burlington house . early 1899 

The Mieville collection of ancient and modern 
pictures, sold for 41,751?. 3.5. . . 29 April, ,, 

The late sir John Fowler's collection sold for 
65,355?. 13s., a landscape by Hobbema realized 
9,100 gs., and "a view of Venice " by Turner, 
8J2oogs 6 May, „ 

The late sir Cecil Miles' and other collections of 
pictures by old masters, realise about 35,000?., 

13 May, ,, 

The Bardini collection of pictures, &c, sold for 
38,259* "5-7 June, „ 

Sale of pictures by old masters realised about 
20,000? ....... 10 June, ,, 

A portrait attributed to Reynolds sold for 2,800 gs. ; 
aWatteau, 1,380? 1 July, „ 

The Schubert sale (Munich) realised about 35,000?., 
a Hobbema, 4,300?. (bought for Dresden gallery), 

23, 24 Oct. ,, 

The Borghese collection bought by the Italian 
government for about 133,000?., reported . Feb. 1900 

Peel heirlooms: 2 Van Dycks sold for 24,250?., 

11 May, ,, 

A portrait by Romney realised 7,000 gs., and land- 
scape by Hobbema, 6,200 gs., 16 June; a 
Romney sold for 2,900 gs. . . . 7 July, ,, 

Portraits (125) by Holbein, Van Dyck, Rubens, 
Velasquez, and others, destroyed by fire at the 
Chateau Belceil, near Tournay . . 14 Dec. „ 

The lost Gainsborough (stolen, 1876), recovered in 
Chicago, brought to London, 8 April, 1901, and 
sold to Mr. Pierpont Morgan for 30,000?., April, ,, 

A Hobbema and a Romney realised 9,400 gs. and 
5,600 gs. 27 April, 1901 

A sketch by Rubens of his " Raising of the Cross," 
realised 3,200 gs 4 May, ,, 

A landscape by Hobbema realised 9,200 gs., a 
Raeburn, 6,500 gs., 3 May ; a Rembrandt, 
5,500 gs., 31 May ; a portrait by Romney, 
10,500 gs., 14 June ; another, for which he received 
25 gs., 4.100 gs 5 July, ,, 

M. Raffaelli's method of solidifying oil colours into 
cylindrical sticks, reported successful . 25 Nov. 1902 

A portrait of his daughters, by Gainsborough, 
realised 5,600 gs 6 Dec. ,, 

A Paul Potter realised 2,855?. . . 25 April, 10,03 

Sir L. Alma-Tadema's "Dedication to Bacchus" 
realised 5, £00 gs. ; one of RosaBouheur'S3,ioogs. 

2 May, „ 

Portrait of sir John Sinclair, by Raeburn, realised 
14,000 gs. • 21 May, ,, 

Mr. R. Vaile's collection realised 58,529?. ; and other 
pictures reached a total of 105,845'. . 23 May, ,, 

EMINENT PAINTERS. Bom OT 

School. Flourished. Died. 

Guido da Siena .... — 1220 — 

Marghitone d'Arezzo . . Florentine . 1212 1289 

Cimabue Ditto . . 1240 1300 

Giotto ..... Ditto . . 1276 1336 

Simone Martino (Memmi) . Italian . . 1283 1344 

Andrea Orcagna . . . Ditto . . 1329 1389 

Hubert Van Eyck . . . Flemish . . 1366 1426 

J. Van Eyck . . . . Ditto . . 1266 1441 

Fra Angelico da Fiesole. . Italian . . 1387 1455 

Filippo Lippi . . . . Ditto . . 1412 1463 

Domenico Ghirlandajo . . Ditto . . 1449 1498 

Andrea Mantegna . . . Ditto . . 1431 1506 

Giorgione .... Venetian . 1477 1511 

Sandro Botticelli . . . Italian . . 1437 1515 

Giovanni Bellini . . . Ditto . . 1426 1516 

Leonardo da Vinci . . . Florentine . 1452 1520 

Raphael d'Urbino . . . Roman . 1483 1520 

Pietro Paolo Perugino . . Italian . . 1446 1524 

Albert Diirer .... German . 1470 1528 

Quentin Matsys . . . Flemish . . 1460 1529 

Andrea Vannuchi (del Sarto). Florentine. 1488 1530 

Correggio Lombavdian 1494 1530 

Parmegiano .... Ditto . . 1503 1540 



Hans Holbein . 

Giulio Romano 

Sebastian del Piombo 

Lucas Cranach 

Giovanni Razzi . 

Michael Angelo Buoi 

Titian 

Paul Veronese 

Tintoretto . 

Annibal Caracci 

Breughel . 

P. P. Rubens . 

Domenichino 

Vandyck 

Guido 

Wm. Dobson . 

Both . 

P. Potter 

Le Seur 

Spagnoletto . 

Snyders 

Velasquez 

Zurbaran . 

N. Poussin 

Guercino . 

Hobbema 

A. Cuyp 

Samuel Cooper 

A. Vander Velde 

Salvator Rosa 

Rembrandt 

Gerard Douw . 

Sir Peter Lely . 

Mieris 

Ruysdael . 

Claude Lorraine 

Ostade 

Murillo . 

Berghem . 

Carlo Dolci 

Wouvermans 

Le Bran . 

Teniers, junr. 

W. Vander Velde 

Watteau 

Sir Godfrey Kneller 

Sir J. Thornhill 

Huysum 

Hogarth 

Canaletti 

J. Mortimer 

R. Wilson 

Gainsborough . 

C. J. Vernet . 

Sir J. Reynolds . 

Romney . 

George Morland 

Barry 

George Stubbs . 

Opie 

Paul Sandby . 

Bourgeois . 

Copley . 

West . 

H. Raeburn . 

Fuseli 

David 

Lawrence . 

Northcote 

Thos. Stothard . 

A. C. H. Vernet 

Beechey 

Wm. Hilton . 

Wilkie 

Hay don . 

Collins 

Etty 

Turner 

Martin . 

C. R. Leslie 
Aug. Egg 
Wm. Mulready . 
J. E. H. Vernet 
F. V. E. De la Cro 
Wm. Hunt 

D. Roberts 



Bom or 


School. Flourished 


German 


1495 


Roman . 


1492 


Venetian 


1485 


German 


1472 


Siennese 


1479 


Florentine 


1474 


Venetian 


*477 


Ditto . 


1532 


Ditto . 


1512 


Lombardian 


1568 


Flemish 


156S 


Ditto . 


1577 


Bolognese 


1581 


Flemish . 


1599 


Lombardian 


1575 


English 


1610 


Dutch . 


1600 


Ditto . 


1625 


French . 


1617 


Spanish 


1589 


Flemish 


1579 


Spanish . 


1599 


Ditto . 


1598 


French . 


1594 


Bolognese 


159° 


Flemish . 


161 1 


Dutch . 


1606 


English . 


1609 


Dutch 


1638 


Neapolitan 


1615 


Dutch . 


1606 


Ditto . 


1613 


German . 


1617 


Dutch . 


1635 


Ditto 


1636 


French 


1600 


Dutch . 


1610 


Spanish 


1618 


Dutch . 


1624 


Florentine 


1616 


Dutch . 


1620 


French . 


1619 


Flemish 


1610 


Dutch . 


1633 


French . 


1684 


German 


1648 


English . 


1676 


Dutch . 


1682 


English 


1697 


Venetian 


1697 


English 


1739 


Ditto 


1714 


Ditto . 


1727 


French . 


1714 


English 


1723 


Ditto . 


J734 


Ditto 


1763 


Ditto . 


1 741 


Ditto . 


1724 


Ditto . 


1761 


Ditto 


1725 


Ditto . 


1756 


Ditto 


1738 


Ditto . 


1738 


Ditto 


1786 


Ditto . 


1741 


French . 


1748 


English 


1769 


Ditto 


1746 


Ditto . 


I75S 


French . 


1758 


English 


1753 


Ditto 


1786 


Ditto . 


1785 


Ditto 


1786 


Ditto . 


1788 


Ditto 


1787 


Ditto . 


1775 


Ditto 


1789 


Ditto . 


1794 


Ditto . 


1816 


Ditto 


1786 


French 


1789 


Ditto 


1798 


English 


1790 


Ditto 


1796 



PAINTING. 



913 



PALAIS EOYAL. 



W. P. Witherington 
Clarkson Stanfleld . 
P. Von Cornelius . 
J. D. A. Ingres . 
Thos. Creswick 
P. Overbeek 

D. Maclise 
Sir George Hayter 
Sir E. Landseer 
W. Kaulbaeh . 
Jean B. C. Corot . 
P. P. Poole 

E. M. Ward . 
E W. Cooke 
Gustave Dore . 
Johannes Makart 
Thos. Webster 
Richd. Redgrave 
Frank Holl- . 
Arthur Stocks . 
John R. Herbert . 
J. C. Horsley . 
C. W. Cope . 
J. L. E. Meissonier . 
Edwin Long . 
W. P. Frith 
Fredk. Goodall 
Sir Win. F. Douglas . 
John Faed 
Thomas Faed 
Wm. Holman Hunt 
Ford Madox Brown . 
Sir Edw. Burne-Jones 
John Hayter 
John Evans Hodgson 
Henry Moore 
H. S. Marks . 
Sir J. E. Millais . 
Sir F. Leighton (lord i£ 
G. Vicat Cole . 
G. D. Leslie . 
L. Alma-Tadema (knt. 
Peter Graham 
Thos. S. Cooper . 
Edw. Armitage 
Sir J. Gilbert . 
J. C. Hook . 
J. Sant 

George Fred. Watts 
Carl Haag . 
Phil. Calderon 
J. A. M. Whistler . 
W. O. Orchardson . 
E.J.Poynt e r{^t. ; 896, ) } Ditto 

Marcus Stone . . . Ditto 

Briton Riviere . ... Ditto 

Jas. D. Linton . . . Ditto 
Eliz. Thompson, since lady 

Butler Ditto 



Bom or 
School. Flourished. 

. English 

. Ditto 

. German 

. French 

. English 

. German 

. English 

. Dfeto . 

. Ditto . 

. German 

. French 

. English 

. Ditto . 

. Ditto 

. French 

. German 

. English 

. Ditto 

. Ditto . 

. Ditto 

. Ditto . 

. Ditto 

. Ditto . 

. French 

. English 

. Ditto . 

. Ditto 

. Scottish 

. Ditto 

. Ditto . 

. English 

. Ditto 

. Ditto . 

. Ditto 

. Ditto . 

. Ditto 

. Ditto . 

. Ditto 

. Ditto . 

. Ditto 

. Ditto . 
i . Dutch 

. Scottish 

. English 

. Ditto . 

. Ditto 

. Ditto . 

. Ditto 
Ditto . 

. German 

. Spanish 

. American 

. English 



1811 
1789 
1811 

.T 792 
1802 
1805 
1796 
1806 
1816 
l8lO 
1832 
1840 
1800 
1804 



l8lO 
1817 
l8ll 
l8lS 
1839 
1819 



1826 
1827 
182I 
1833 



1829 
1829 
1830 
1833 
l83S 
1836 
1836 
1803 
1817 
1817 
1819 
182O 
1817 
1820 
1833 
1835 
1835 



184O 



S67 



Sir John Pettie 


Scottish . . 


1839 


1893 


John MacWhirter . . . 


Ditto . 


1839 




Walter W. Ouless . 


English . . 


1848 




Hubert Herkomer . 


German 


1849 




George Richmond 


English 


1809 


1896 


Frederick Barnard . 


Ditto . 


1846 


1896 


Charles Parsons Knight 


Ditto . . 


1829 


1897 


Frangois Louis Frangais . 


French 


1814 


1897 


J. B. Burgess . 


English 


1830O 


1897 


Wm. C. T. Dobson . 


Ditto . 


1817 


1898 


Pierre Puvis de Cha vannes 


French 


1826 


1898 


Benjamin Constant 


Ditto . 


184s 


1902 


Joseph Wolf (animal painter) German 


1820 


1899 


" Rosa " (Marie Rosalie) ( 
Bonheur ) 


French . 


1822 


1S99 


Aug. Baud-Bovy . 


Swiss . 


1848 


1899 


Wilhelm Amberg 


German . 


1823 


1899 


Sir Fred. Wm. Burton . 


Irish. . 


1816 


1900 


Fred. Edwin Church 


American 


1826 


1900 


Michel de Munkacsy 


Hungarian 


1844 


1900 


Vasili Verestchagin . 


Russian 


1842 




Arnold Boecklin . 


Swiss 


1827 


1901 


Eden Upton Eddis . 


English 


1812 


1901 


Vasclav Brozik 


Bohemian 


■ 1851 


1901 


Luis Alvarez 


Spanish 


• 1836 


1901 


Joseph Noel Paton 


. Scottish 


. 1821 


1 901 



Born or 
Flourished. 
1832 



Died. 
1902 



1902 
1902 



School. 
John Brett .... English 
Ernest Waterlow (knt. June, 

1902) Ditto . 

Hendrik Willem Mesdag . Dutch . 
James Tissot . . . . French 
Henryk von Siemiradzki . Polish , 

PAISLEY, Vi-'oarough, W. Scotland, the Roman 
Vanduara, and grew out of the priory of Passalet, 
founded 1160-4 by Walter Stewart, made an abbey 
about 1220 ; burnt by the English 1307, rebuilt 15th 
century. Made a burgh of barony 1488 and a Parlia- 
mentary borough 1832. Since 1805 Paisley silk and 
cotton shawls have been celebrated. Visited by the 
Queen, 23 Aug. 1888. Statue of Burns unveiled 
by the earl of Eosebery, 26 Sept. 1896. Serious 
fires, 55,000/. damage, 7 April, 1903. See Popu- 
lation. 

PALACE 

Green Cloth. 



COURT, see Marshalsea, and 



PALACE OF JUSTICE, or Royal 

COURTS OF JUSTICE. The names given to the new 
Law Courts, London. See Law Courts under Law. 

PALACES, see Buckingham, St. James's, Par- 
liament, 1834-52, 1885, Escurial, Tuileries, St. 
Cloud, Versailles, &c. Palace Theatre, under 
Theatres (Koyal English Opera-house). 

PALAEOGRAPHY, ancient writing; see 
Diplomatics, Writing, Palaeographical society 
founded 1873, dissolved, 1 July, 1895. M. Leon 
Gautier, eminent palaeographer, born 1832, died. 
Aug. 1897. 

PALiEOLOGI, a family which reigned as 
emperors of the east from 1260 to 1453. George 
Palseologus raised Alexius Comnenus to the throne 
in 1081, and thereby founded his own family. An- 
drew, the last Palseologus, son of Thomas, ruler of 
the Morea, after the overthrow of his father, be- 
came a Mahometan at Constantinople about 1533. 
A person who called himself John Anthony Palseo- 
logus Lascaris died at Turin, Sept. 1874. His 
claims were doubted. 

PALEONTOLOGY (from the Greek palaios, 
ancient, and onta, beings), treats of the evidences of 
organic beings in the earth's strata. It combines 
biology and geology (which see). "Wm. Buckland, 
Cuvier, Mantell, Agassiz, Owen, Edward Forbes, 
Cope, Marsh, and Blainville, all of the present 
century, may be reckoned as fathers of this science. 
The Palseontographical society, which publishes 
elaborate monographs of British organic remains, 
was founded in 1847. The journal " Palseon- 
tographica" (German) began 185 1. Professor Owen's 
"Palaeontology " was published in i860. " Nearly 
40,000 species of animals and plants have been added 
to the Systema Naturae by palaeontological research." 
Huxley. See Man. 

PAL^EOPOLIS, see Naples. 

PALAIS ROYAL, Paris, originally Palais 
Cardinal, built for cardinal Richelieu by Lemer- 
cier, 1620-36, received its present name when occu- 
pied by Louis XIII., to whom the cardinal gave it 
shortly before his death in 1642. Louis XIV., in 
1692, gave it to his nephew Philippe, duke of Or- 
leans, and it became the residence of his successors. 
It was confiscated by the republic in 1793, after the 
execution of Philippe Egalite. Louis Philippe re- 
sided in it, 1814-31. It suffered much injury at 
the revolution in 1848. Under the second empire 

3 N 



PALATINATE. 



914 



PALL. 



it became the residence of prince Jerome and his 
son Napoleon. The buildings were much injured 
by fire by the communists, 24 May, 187 1. 

PALATINATE OF THE RHINE, one of the 
seven ancient electorates of Germany. It was long 
united to Bavaria, but was separated in 1294. — 
.Frederic V., the elector palatine in 1610, married 
in 1613 Elizabeth, the daughter of J-aMCS.I. of Eng- 
land, and thus was an ancestor of queen Victoria ; 
see Hanover. In 1619 he was elected king of Bo- 
hemia, but lost all by his defeat by the Austrians 
at Prague in 1620. The Palatinate was horribly 
ravaged by Tilly in 1622, and by the French in 
1688. Several thousands of the ruined peasantry 
were sent to America by the British government 
and people. The elector palatine, Charles Theo- 
dore, inherited Bavaria in 1778; since when the 
two electorates have been united ; see Bavaria. 

PALATINE. William the conqueror made 
his nephew, Hugh De Abrincis, count palatine of 
Chester with the title of earl, about 1070. Edward 
III. created the palatine of Lancaster, 1539; see 
Lancaster, duchy of. The bishopric of Durham also 
made county palatine. There is also mention made 
of the county palatine of Hexham, in 33 Henry 
VIII. c. 10, which then belonged to the arch- 
bishop of York, but by the 14th of Elizabeth 
it was dissolved, and made part of the county of 
Northumberland. The palatinate jurisdiction of 
Durham was separated from the diocese, and vested 
in the crown, 6 Will. IV. c. 19, 21 June, 1836. 

PALE, the name given to the part of Ireland 
colonised by the English — viz., parts of the coun- 
ties of Louth, Dublin, Meath, and Kildare. Anglo- 
Irish rulers were termed lords of the pale. Their 
arbitrary exactions led to a royal commission of 
inquiry in 1537. The defection of the lords of the 
pale in 1641 was followed by a general insurrection, 
and the royal cause was ruined in 1647. In 1652 
Ireland was committed to the rule of four com- 
missioners. 

PALERMO (N. W. Sicily), the ancient Pan- 
ormus. It has been held by the Carthaginians, 415 
B.C. ; taken by the Bomans, 254 B.C. ; by the Sara- 
cens, a.d. 832 ; and by the Normans, 1072. Here 
Roger II. was crowned king of Sicily, 1130. 
Palermo was the scene of the Sicilian Vespers 
{which see), 30 March, 1282. It suffered from 
earthquake in 1726 and 1740. The king Ferdinand 
resided at Palermo from 1806 to 1815, while Naples 
was ruled by Joseph Bonaparte and Joachim Murat. 
It revolted against the tyranny of Ferdinand II. 
12 Jan. 1848. It was attacked by general Filan- 
gieri, 29 March, 1849, and surrendered on 14 May. 
It was taken by Garibaldi, 6 June, i860. An in- 
surrection against the abolition of the monastic 
establishments broke out in Palermo on 13 Sept. 
1866, and was suppressed by the royal troops with 
much bloodshed; order was restored by 22 Sept. 
Population, 1890, 267,416; 1901, 310,352. 
The Italian National Exhibition at Palermo opened 

in the presence of the lung and the royal family, 

by signor Chimirri, minister of agriculture 

15 Nov. 1 89 1 
The exhibition included manufactures, fine arts, 

Greek relics, an Abyssinian department, &c, 
New monument to Garibaldi uncovered ; speech by 

sig. Crispi . . . . . -27 May, 1892 
Rioting suppressed by the military ; 8 persons 

killed ; the town clerk and his wife killed by the 

mob 10 Dec. 1893 

See Sicily. 

PALESTINE, the name given by Moses 
{Exodus xv., 14) and other ancient writers, to a 



broad strip of land on the eastcoast of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, which originally included Philistia, but 
was afterwards limited to the part termed the land 
of Canaan or Israel, Judea, and the Holy Land ; 
see Jeivs. After being several times conquered by 
the Saracens, and retaken from the 7th to the 10th 
century, and after being the scene of the wars of 
the Crusades {ivhich see), and other conflicts, Pales- 
tlrjj jwss uniieu to the Ottoman empire by Selim I. 
in 1516. See Bible (note), Holy Places, and Syria. 

Palestine visited by the prince of Wales, 

March and April, 1862 

"The Palestine exploration fund" was founded in 
London by many eminent persons as a society 
"for the investigation of the archaeology, topo- 
graphy, geology, and manners and customs of the 
Holy Land ; " the archbishop of York (Dr. W. 
Thomson) was in the chair (annual meetings), 

22 June, 1865 

By its means captain (after sir Charles) Wilson and 
a party left England for Palestine in Nov. 1865 ; 
they arrived at Damascus Dec. 20: and in the 
following spring explored Jezreel, Nazareth, and 
many other parts of the Holy Land. 

Excavations in Jerusalem carried on by captain 
(after sir Charles) Warren . . . 1867-1870 

The Moabite stone discovered 1868 

The systematic trigonometrical survey of Palestine 
carried on by capt. Stewart, R.E., lieuts. Conder 
and Kitchener, R.E . 1872-7 

A similar fund established at New York . . . 187 1 

The ordnance survey of Sinai by capts. Wilson and 
Palmer, published 1872 

The surveying party attacked by natives, rescued 
by soldiers, after much suffering . . 10 July, 1875 

Survey of Western Palestine completed ; announced 

Oct. 1877 

Publication of map (1 inch to the mile) in 26 sheets 

May, 1880 

Map and Memoirs of the Survey of Western Pales- 
tine published 1880-1 

A raised map of Palestine completed by Mr. George 
Armstrong, assistant secretary to the fund, Sept. 1893 

Survey of Eastern Palestine begun by lieuts. Conder 
and Kitchener 1881 

The twenty-first anniversary of the foundation 
celebrated at the Royal Institution ; the abp. of 
York in the chair . . . . . 22 June, 1886 

"Twenty-one Years' Work in the Holy Land," pub- 
lished . June, ,, 

For captain Conder's discovery of a key to the 
Hittite inscriptions see under Hittites, 26 Feb. 1887 

Firman authorising excavations granted with con- 
ditions ; the committee appoint Mr. Flinders 
Petrie, superintendent, announced . Feb. 1890 

The archbishop of Canterbury (Dr. Benson) suc- 
ceeds the archbishop of York, as president of the 
fund, April, 1891 ; died . . . .11 Oct. 1896 

An association for the Colonization of Palestine by 
the Jews held an important meeting in east 
London, 7 Feb. ; several colonies reported pros- 
perous May, 1896 

Palestine 'visited by the German empei-or and 
empress Oct. -Nov. 1898 

Excavations of Gezer, conducted by Mr. Stewart 
Macalister ; important results . June-Sept. 1902 

PALESTRO (N. Italy). Here the Sardinians 
defeated the Austrians, 30, 31 May, 1859. 

PALIMPSEST (from the Greek, palm, again ; 
and psao, I efface), parchments written on after 
the previous writing had been partially effaced. 
Cardinal Mai, by removing the second writing in 
some MSS., recovered the original. This was the 
case with Cicero's " De Republic;!," published by 
Mai in 1821. It had been covered b)- a treatise of 
Lactaniius. 

PALL, PALLIUM, in the Roman Church an 
ensign of dignity of a strictly personal character |J 
conferred by the pope upon archbishops. It con- 
sists of a narrow band of pure white wool, taken I 
from two lambs, which annually, on the feast of f 



PALLADIUM. 



915 



PALMISTEY. 



St. Agnes, are brought to the church of St. John 
Lateran, and after being bles-ed are presented to 
the pope; the wool is afterwards made up into 
pallia by a community of nuns. The pallium, 
which is worn around the shoulders, is orna- 
mented with four purple crosses, and its form is 
indicated in the arms of the archbishop of Can- 
terbury. By a decretal of pope Gregory XI. (abou'- 
1370), no archbishop could call a council, bless the 
chrism, consecrate churches, ordain a clerk, or con- 
secrate a bishop, till he had received his pall from 
the see of Rome. The pall was first worn by an 
Irish archbishop in 1152, when Gelasius was recog- 
nised as primate of all Ireland. The late cardinal 
Vaughan was invested with the pallium in the 
pro-cathedral, Kensington — the first occasion of 
its investiture in England since the time of cardinal 
Pole. Archbishop Bourne, the new archbishop of 
Westminster, receives the pallium from pope 
Pius X. at Rome, 12 Nov. 1903. 

PALLADIUM, the statue of Pallas, said to h ave 
fallen from heaven near the tent of Ilus, as he was 
building Ilium, which the oracle of Apollo de- 
clared should never be taken so long as the Palla- 
dium was found within its walls. The Greeks are 
said to have obtained it by craft during the Trojan 
war, 1 184 B.C. ; but some writers assert, another 
statue was taken, and that the real Palladium was 
conveyed from Troy to Italy by iEneas, 1183 B.C., 
and preserved by the Romans with the greatest 
secrecy in the temple of Vesta. — Palladium is a 
rare metal, discovered in platinum ore by Dr. Wol- 
laston, in 1803. 

PALLAS, the planet, was discovered by Olbers, 
at Bremen, 28 March, 1802. 

PALLISER'S CHILLED SHOT, see 

{Jannon. 

PALL MALL, a street near St. James's 
palace, London, is named from a French game at 
ball {pale-mail, being a wooden mallet), re- 
sembling the modern croquet, having been played 
there about 1600, and introduced into England 
about 1660. Among eminent inhabitants were 
Nell Gwyn and Dr. Thomas Sydenham. The 
Pall Mall Gazette, a daily independent political 
and literary journal, first appeared 7 Feb. 1865, and 
was edited by Mr. Frederick Greenwood till 1 May, 
1880, when it became a libtn - al paper, edited by Mr. 
John Morley, who retired 25 Ausr. 1883. Price 2d. 
reduced to id. 2 Jan. 1882. The paper became 
again conservative, Dec. 1892. Mr. H. J. C. Cust, 
M.P., editor, spring, 1893. 

Nos. 6, 7, 8, 9 July, 1885,. contained Mr. Stead's state- 
ments respecting offences against young women and 
children. Greatly disproved on investigation. See 
Trials, Oct.-Nov. 1885. 

PALMERSTON ADMINISTRATION.* 

The resignation of the Aberdeen administration was 

* Henry John Temple was bom 20 Oct. 1784 ; was 
educated at Harrow, Edinburgh, and Cambridge ; suc- 
ceeded his father, viscount Palmerston, 1802 ; became 
M.P., and a junior lord of the admiralty, 1807 ; wassecre- 
tary-at-war, 1809-28, and a secretary for foreign affairs, 
Nov. 1830-34, April, 1835 to Sept. 1841, and July, 1846 
to Dec. 1851, and home secretary, Dec. 1852 to March, 
1855, when he became first lord of the treasury. He was 
ereated lord warden of the cinque ports, 31 March, 1861 ; 
and master -of the corporation of the Trinity house, 
16 June, 1862. He sat for Tiverton, 1835-65. He died 
18 Oct., and was buried in Westminster abbey, 27 Oct. 
1865. His statue at Romsey, by M. Noble, was un- 
covered by earl Russell, 21 July, 186S. Lady Palmer- 
ston died 11 Sept. 1869, aged 82. 



announced 1 Feb. 1855, but nearly all its members 
returned to office soon after under lord Palmerston, 
lord Derby and lord John Russell having each in 
vain endeavoured to form an administration. On 
22 Feb. Mr. Gladstone, sir James Graham, and Mr. 
Sidney Herbert resigned on account of the Sebas- 
topol inquiry. Lord John Russell resigned 13 July. 
Lord Canning was appointed governor- general of 
India, 4 July, 1855. This cabinet resigned 20 Feb. 
1858, in consequence of a vote of censure upon it 
for introducing the Foreign Conspiracy bill, and was 
succeeded by the Derby administration {which see). 
First lord of the treasury, Henry viscount Palmerston. 
Lord chancellor, lord Cranworth. 
President of the council, earl Granville. 
Lord privy seal, duke of Argyll ; next, earl of Harrowby ; 

afterwards the marquis of Clanricarde. 
Secretaries — home, sir George Grey ; foreign, earl of 

Clarendon ; colonial, Sidney Herbert (resigned Feb. 22) ; 

afterwards lord J. Russell (resigned July 13) ; sir 

William Molesworth (died 22 Oct. 1855) ; next Henry 

Labouchere ; war, lord Panmure. 
Chancellor of the exchequer, W. E. Gladstone (resigned 

22 Feb.) ; next, sir G. Cornewall Lewis. 
First lord of the admiralty, sir James Graham (resigned 

22 Feb.) ; next, sir Charles Wood. 
Board of control, sir Charles Wood ; next, R. Vernon 

Smith. 
Public ivories, sir Win. Molesworth ; next, sir B. Hall 

(appointed 22 July, 1855). 
Postmaster-general, viscount Canning (appointed governor- 
general of India, 4 July) ; next, duke of Argyll. 
President of the board of trade, lord Stanley of Alderley. 
Marquis of Lansdowne, without office. 
Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, earl of Harrowby ; 

next, M. T. Baines (appointed 24 Nov. 1855). 

PALMERSTON-RUSSELL ADMINIS- 
TRATION. The second Derby administration 
{which see) resigned II June, 1859. Earl Granville 
was requested by the queen to form an administra- 
tion, and obtained the support of lord Palmerston, 
but not of lord John Russell : the two last then 
agreed to form a cabinet, which came into office 
18 June, 1859. On the decease of lord Palmerston, 
i80ct. 186s, earl Russell became premier; seeRussell. 

First lord of the treasury, Henry viscount Palmerston. 
Lord high chancellor, John lord Campbell (died 23 June, 

1861) ; succeeded by sir Richard Bethell, made Lord 

Westbury, who resigned 4 July, 1865 ; succeeded by 

lord Cranworth. 
Lord president of the council, earl Granville. 
Lord privy seal, duke of Argyll. 
Secretaries— foreign affairs, lord John (afterwards earl) 

Russell ; colonies, duke of Newcastle ; succeeded by 

Edward Cardwell, 8 April, 1864 ; home, sir G. Cornewall 

Lewis ; succeeded by sir George Grey ; war, Sidney 

(afterwards lord) Herbert ; succeeded by sir G. C. 

Lewis (died 13 April, 1863), and by earl de Grey 

(1 May) ; India, sir Charles Wood. 
Chancellor of the exchequer, Wm. Ewart Gladstone. 
First lord of the admiralty, duke of Somerset. 
President of the board of trade, Thos. Milner Gibson. 

[This office was offered to Mr. R. Cobden, and declined 
by him.] 
Secretary of state for Ireland, Edward Cardwell; succeeded 

by sir R. Peel (not in the cabinet). 
Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, sir George Grey, 

bart. ; succeeded by Edward Cardwell ; and by earl 

Clarendon, 8 April, 1864. 
Postmaster-general, earl of Elgin (proceeded to China in 

April, i860) ; succeeded by lord Stanley of Alderley, 

appointed Sept. i860. 
Poor-law board, T. Milner Gibson ; succeeded by Charles 

P. Villiers (9 July, i860). 
Palmeuston's Act for abatement of smoke nuisance (16 

& 17 Vict. c. 128), 20 Aug. 1853. 

PALMISTRY, or Chiromancy, the art of 

studying the lines in the palm, to discover the 
character and fortunes of a person, practised in 
ancient India and Greece. The subject was noticed 
by Aristotle, Pliny, Paracelsus, Albertus Magnus, 

3 n 2 



PALM-SUNDAY. 



916 



PANAMA. 



and Cardan. A work by Johann Hartlieb was 
published in Augsburg, 1475. M. le capitaine 
d'Arpentigny and M. Adrieii Desbarrolles are chief 
modem authorities. A. R. Craig's " Book of the 
Hand" (1867), L. Cotton's "Palmistry" (1890). 
Dr. F. Galton published his study of "Finger 
Prints," 1893. See Fortune Telling. Sophia 
Eobson, alias "Minerva," professor of palmistry, 
fined 25^. for pretending to tell fortunes, 15 Feb. 
1895; Zuleika Cavalier, fined 25^,6 April, 1900; 
others fined, 8, 18 Jan. 1901. 

PALM -SUNDAY. When Christ made his 
entry into Jerusalem, multitudes of the people who 
were come to the feast of the Passover, took branches 
of the palm-tree, and went forth to meet him, 33. 
It is usual, in some countries, to cany palms on the 
Sunday before Easter, hence called Palm-Sunday. 

PALMYRA (Syria) was supposed to have been 
the Tadmor in the wilderness built by Solomon, 
but was manifestly Grecian. The brilliant part of 
the history of Palmyra was under Odenatus and his 
queen Zenobia. At the death of Odenatus, Zenobia 
assumed the title of queen of the East, in 267. 
Aurelian defeated her at Emesa, in 272, and made 
her captive, 273, and killed Longinus, the philo- 
sopher, her friend. Palmyra is now inhabited by a 
few Arab families. The ruins were visited in 1751, 
by Mr. Wood, who published an account of them 
in 1753. The rev. Dr. W. Wright published 
" Palmyra and Zenobia" in 1895. 

PAMIRS, a lofty mountain ridge in Turkestan, 

Central Asia. 

Col. Gromtchevski's Russian exploring expedition 
stopped by Afghan and British outposts in 1889. 
Capt. Yonoff, with a military force, excludes capt. 
Younghusband and lieut. Davison, travellers, from 
the little Pamir, on the frontiers of Afghanistan, &c. 
The Russians afterwards retire on the advance of a 
party of Goorkhas Aug. 1891. The Russian govern- 
ment; declares the action of capt. Yonoff to be illegal, 
and apologises, Feb. 1892. 

Col. Yonoff, with a body of Russian troops, re-occupies 
the part which he quitted in 1891. 

A collision ensued with the Afghans, attributed by col. 
Yonoff to their offensive conduct ; 1 Russian and 
about 15 Afghans killed, about 24 July ; col. Yonoff s 
letter transmitted to the viceroy, 23 Aug. 1892. 

Russians evacuate the Pamirs and return to Russian 
territory, 14 Sept. — 7 Oct. 1892. 

China resists the claims of Russia, about 8 March, 1893. 

A Russian expedition under col. Yonoff starts, 1 June, 
1893. 

" The Pamirs," by the earl of Dunmore, published, Dec. 
1893. 

The Russians (exploring) troops under col. Yonoff with- 
drawn, reported 13 Nov. 1894. 

Agreement between Great Britain and Russia respecting 
their spheres of influence, March, 1895. 

Anglo-Russian commission arrives to mark out the 
frontier, June ; work completed, 18 Sept. 1895. 

Roads rapidly made by Russians, 1897 et se 1- 

PAMPELUNA (N. E. Spain, taken by the 
French on their invasion of Spain) , was invested by 
the British, between whom and the French obstinate 
conflicts took place, 27 and 29 July, 1813. It sur- 
rendered to the British, 31 Oct. in that year. Popu- 
lation, 1887, 26,663. 

PAMPHLETS. Their first appearance 
amongst us is generally thought to have been in 
opposition to the church of Rome. Those who were 
first convinced of the reasonableness of the "new 
learning," as it was then called, propagated their 
opinions in small pieces, cheaply printed, and (what 
was then of great importance) easily concealed. 
Political pamphlets began in Edward VI. 's time, 



and were very numerous in the 17th and 18th cen- 
turies (by De Foe, Swift, Steele, and others). 

Paul Louis Courier wrote "Simple Discours" and other 
pamphlets against the priests and nobles after the 
restoration of the Bourbons, 1815. His " Pamphlet 
des Pamphlets," defendingthepamphleteer(published, 
1824), probably led to his murder, 10 April, 1825. 

Large collections are in the libraries of the British 
Museum and the Royal and London Institutions. 

Certain enactments respecting pamphlets removed by an 
act passed July, 1869. 

Political pamphlets, " Killing no Murder," &c, selected 
by Mr. A. F. Pollard, published, 1897. 

PANAMA, the isthmus which joins the two 
Americas; see Darien. Across this a ship canal 
was proposed by the Buhner- Clayton treaty, 
19 April, 1850. A treaty for the construction of a 
ship canal through the isthmus by the United 
States was signed by representatives of that govern- 
ment and that of Colombia 26 Jan. 1870. A railway 
was opened in 1855. In that year a new state, New 
Granada, was divided into eight federal states, one 
of which is named Panama. A revolution took 
place in Panama, on 9 March, 1865 ; the govern- 
ment was deposed, and don Jil Colunje became pre- 
sident; succeeded by Vincent Olarte, 1 Oct. 1866. 
Panama is now subject to Colombia {which see). 
Aspinwall, a town at the extremity of the Panama 
railway, named after its originator, Mr. Aspinwall, a 
New York merchant, was officially named Colon in 
1870. The government overthrown by Colombian 
troops without bloodshed, about 12 Oct. 1875. Civil 
war between dr. Damaso Cervera and gen. B. Ruiz ; 
sharp fights; the Morro beats the Alajuela, 14 
Oct. 1884. General Santo Domingc Vila installed 
as president, 8 Jan. 1884. Rebellion ; government 
steamer Ectiadouan captures the rebel ship Buacho; 
much slaughter announced, 24 Dec. 1884. Insur- 
rection in Panama; conflict with Colombian troops; 
about 20 people killed. Insurgents destroy Aspin- 
wall railway terminus, &c. ; the United States 
government intervenes with troops, &c. to protect 
colonists and restore buildings ; rebels said to be 
totally defeated, 16 March-April. Railway re- 
opened with protected trains, 13 April, 1885. 
Rebellion ; severe fighting round Panama, much 
slaughter, 24 July; quiet restored, the liberals 
surrender, 26 July, 1900. Republic proclaimed, 
3 Nov. 1903. 

Gen. Tiirr and a committee propose a canal Oct. 1876 

Lieut. L.A.B.Wyse'ssiu-vey(i875)publishedautumn 1S77 

Congress respecting a new canal meet at. Paris ; 
Ferdinand De Lesseps president . . 1 May, 1879 

Seven schemes proposed ; canal from Gulf of Limon 
to Bay of Panama recommended (by 74-8)29 May, ,, 

Scheme suspended for want of funds . . . ,, 

Canal through Nicaragua proposed by Americans ; 
favoured by gen. Grant .... Sept. ,, 

Lesseps' scheme opposed by the United States 
government March, 1880 

Lesseps at Liverpool describes his plan ; canal to 
be 46 miles long 31 May, ,, 

Engineers leave Paris to proceed to the work, 3 
Jan. ; at work 24 Feb. 1881 

Mr. Blaine, the American secretary, issued a circu- 
lar to the European powers protesting against 
.joint international guarantees of the neutrality of 
the canal, asserting that the guarantee of the 
United States of 24 July, 1846, is sufficient 25 Oct. ,, 

Railway and works partly destroyed by earthquakes 

7, 9, 10 Sept. 1882 

Colon and Aspinwall, with consulates, burnt by the 
rebels under gen. Aizpurn, announced 1 April, 1885 

United States marines defeat the rebels ; destroy 
barricades and occupy Panamfi, to protect pro- 
perty and railway transit . about 24 April, ,, 

The Colombian government resume possession of 
Panama 1 ; amnesty granted, with exceptions 

30 April, ,, 



PANAMA. 



917 



PAN-ANGLICAN SYNOD. 



Gen. Aizpurn arrested 4 May, 1885 ; martial law, 
. about 12 June ; quiet restored . . July, 1885 

M. de Lesseps sails up about 3 miles . 20 Feb. 1886 

Ten men killed by gunpowder explosion, announced 

31 March, ,, 

M. de Lesseps' proposal of a lottery loan opposed 
. by the French premier, M. Tirard . . Jan. 1888 

The lottery loan bill passed by the deputies 28 
April ; by the senate 5 June ; progress of the 
scheme retarded .... July et seq. ,, 

M. de Lesseps asserts that the canal will be opened 
in July, 1890 21 Oct. „ 

The necessary amount of subscriptions to the loan 
not received ; the company suspend payment 14 
Dec. ; the government bill permitting the com- 
pany to suspend payments for three months 
rejected by the chambers (256-181) . 15 Dec. ,, 
[about sixty million pounds already expended] 

M.de Lesseps resigns and proposesliquidation 1 5 Dec. ,, 

A great meeting of shareholders agree to the sus- 
pension of payments of coupons and annuities 
until the opening of the canal, and the raising of 
more capital, and profess continued confidence in 
M. de Lesseps 27 Dec. ,, 

Report received that perfect order remains at the 
works, which are still carried on . . 8 Jan. 1889 

The United States senate pass resolutions against 
any interference of foreign powers in regard to 
the canal 9 Jan. ,, 

New company for the completion of the canal . 
started (the old company dissolved) Jan. ; suf- 
ficient shares not taken up ; the company goes 
into liquidation Feb. ,. 

Gradual suspension of the works . . . Feb. ,, 

The Panama Canal Bill to promote the continuance 
of the work passed by the chamber of deputies 

28 June, ,, 

Canal bill passed by the French senate . 11 July, ,, 

Report of Inquiry commission states that 
900,000,000 francs will be required to complete 
the canal 5 May, 1890 

Great fire at Colon (formerly Aspinwall), the 
Panama railway buildings and a large part of the 
town destroyed, 23, 24 Sept. 1890 ; another great 
fire, 14 June, 1894. 

Arrangement between the company and the re- 
public of Colombia ; the time for the completion 
of the canal extended by ten years ; contract 
dated 10 Jan. 1891 

After visitation of the works, total collapse of the 
scheme reported ; legal investigation proposed 

Sept. ,, 

Report of M. Monchicourt, the official liquidator, 
issued at Paris Nov. ,, 

A committee of inquiry into the affairs of the com- 
pany (M. Brissou and members of the chamber) ; 
painful disclosures ; met . . 24 Nov. et seq. 1892 

Prosecution of M. Ferdinand de Lesseps (age 87 ; 
ill), Charles de Lesseps, and other directors, for 
fraud, bribery, &c, opened 25 Nov. 1892 ; trial 
begun 10 Jan. 1893 ; 4 days' defence by M. Bar- 
boux ; sentences : MM. Ferdinand and Charles 
de Lesseps, 5 years' imprisonment ; MM. Fontane, 
Cottu and Eiffel, 2 years and fines, 9 Feb. ; 
appeals presented, n Feb. ; rejected . 24 Feb. 1893 

Report of the committee by M. Brisson . 15 Feb. ,, 

Trial of M. Charles de Lesseps and M. Fontane for 
giving bribes ; MM. Baihaut, Blondin, Sans 
Leroy, Beral, Dugue de la Fauconnerie, Gobron, 
Antonin Proust, Arton, for receiving bribes, 
8 March et seq. ; defensive statements by MM. 
Floquet, Clemenceau, and De Freycinet, 10 March; 
startling depositions of Madame Cottu leads to 
the temporary resignation of M. Bourgeois, 
minister of justice, n March; sentences: im- 
prisonment, M. Charles de Lesseps, 1 year ; 
M. Blondin, 2 years ; M. Baihaut, 5 years and 
fine of 750,000 francs ; M. Cornelius Herz escapes 
to England ; the others acquitted, 21 March ; 
appeal ; judgment set aside by the court ; public 
surprise, 15 June, 1893 ; fresh trial, 18 Dec. 1897; 
all acquitted, 30 Dec. ; M. Naquet, 3 March, 1898. 

Difficulties respecting the concession of the Colom- 
bian government for renewal of the work ; the 
contract of 1890 ignored, reported . 4 April, ,, 

The committee of inquiry meets again . 23 June, ,, 

M. Charles de Lesseps liberated . . 12 Sept. ,, 

Proposed formation of a new company to complete 



the canal by M. Eiffel, M. Bartissol, and others ; 
arrangements to be made with the old company, 

Feb. 1894 

At a meeting of the shareholders, a resolution 
appointing a syndicate of 5 persons to form a new 
company adopted ; capital to be 20,000,000 
francs 4 April, ,, 

Dr. Cornelius Herz arrested at Bournemouth, 
19 Jan. 1893 ; ill ; extradition not effected ; in 
default, sentenced to 5 years' imprisonment with 
a fine of 3,000 francs, 3 Aug. 1894 ; his appeal to 
the court at Paris, 15 May, disallowed, 2 Aug. ; 
1895 ; sentence of imprisonment confirmed, 4 
Nov. ; legal proceedings begun against him at 
Bournemouth, 27 April, 1896 ; the charge dis- 
missed at Bow-street, 2 May ; another committee 
of inquiry appointed in 1897 ; he died 6 July, 1898. 

M. Ferdinand de Lesseps ; born 19 Nov. 1805 ; 
died, 7 Dec. 1894 (his statue unveiled by the 
Khedive at Port Said, 17 Nov. 1899). 

Meeting of the new Panama canal company in 
Paris, M. de la Tournerie appointed chairman of 
the technical commission, 21 Dec. 1895 ; 2nd 
annual meeting, 15 Dej. 1896 ; other meetings in 
1897 ; steady work reported on the canal, 3,500 
labourers employed, reported . . 10 Jan. 1898 

A company formed in New Jersey, U.S.A., pur- 
chase the canal. French interests acquired, 
27 Dec. ; the French directors resign, reported, 

30 Dec. 1899 

Panama canal bill (property of the Panama canal 
co., purchased for 8,ooo,ooo£.), &c, signed by 
pres. Roosevelt, 28 June, 1902 ; the new com- 
pany meets, Paris, report adopted . 30 Dec. 1902 

Panama canal treaty, between the U.S. and 
Colombia, signed at Washington 22 Jan. ; ratified, 

17 March, 1903 

Treaty rejected by the Colombian senate, reported 

17 Aug. ,, 
[Under the terms of the Spooner Act the presi- 
dent is directed to proceed at once to 
negotiate with Nicaragua and Costa Rica, 
and then take the necessary steps for the 
construction of a canal by the Nicaraguan 
route.] 

Revolution in Panama ; independence of the 
Isthmus proclaimed ; Colombian officials made 
prisoners, and Colombian warships captured, 

3 Nov. ,, 

Junta, pending the constitution of a republic, 
consisting of J. A. Arango, Fredk. Boyd, and 
Tomas Arias, reported .... 4 Nov. ,, 

Colombian troops abandon Colon . . 5 Nov. ,, 

Important memorandum by Mr. Hay, U.S. secretary 
of state 7 Nov. ,, 

Panama formally recognized as a republic by the 
United States . ■ . '. . . . 13 Nov. „ 

PAN- AMERICAN CONGBESS. 34 dele- 
gates from the. states of North, South, and Central 
America, met at Washington 30 Sept. 1889. Mr. 
Secretary Blaine was appointed president 2 Oct. 
They visit Chicago and other cities, Oct., meet at 
Washington 18 Nov. et seq. Construction of con- 
necting railways proposed Feb. 1890. Treaty 
adopting arbitration agreed on, &c. Banquet to 
president Harrison 16 April ; the delegates depart 
for home 19 April, 1890. They meet at Mexico, 
22 Oct. 1901. 

PAN- ANGLIC AN SYNOD ,. the popular 
name of a conference of 76 bishops, British, colonial, 
and American, who met at Lambeth-palace, 24-27 
Sept. 1867. They issued an address, published 
their resolutions, of a very general character, and 
formally closed their conference on 10 Dec. 
Another synod of about 100 bishops met . 2 July, 1878 
Grand closing service at St. Paul's . 27 July, ,, 
An encyclical letter issued proposing an episcopal 
board of reference for ecclesiastical questions, &c, 
1878 ; another issued with practical moral recom- 
mendations, earnestly advocating unity and union 

with nonconformists 188S 

The third conference of 145 bishops was held at 
Lambeth 7-28 July ; the abp. of York preached 
at St. Paul s .... 27 July, „ 



PAN-ARMENIAN CONGRESS. 918 



PANTHEON. 



The fourth conference of 199 bishops at Lambeth, 
30 June ; visit Canterbury, 3 July, 1897 ; cordial 
greeting from the general assembly of the church 
of Scotland received, 6 July ; ab}ts. and bishops 
received by the queen at Windsor, 13 July ; 
closed, 2 Aug. ; encyclical published, Times, 5 
Aug. ; 63 resolutions published, Times 11 Aug. 1897 

See under Presbyterians. 

PAN-ARMENIAN CONGRESS, over 

2,000 members, in sympathy with the oppressed 
Armenians, met at Brussels, 17 July, 1902. 

PAN-CELTIC CONGRESS held first in 
Dublin to promote the study of the ancient cus- 
toms, languages, &c. ; Irish, Scotch, Welsh, Manx, 
Cornish and Breton represented ; lord Castletown, 
president, 19-23 Aug. 1901. 

PANDEAN PIPES (said to be the Greek 
syrinx, and the ugab or organ of the Bible, Gen. iv. 
21 and Psalm cl.), usually seven tubes, popular in 
Britain early in the 19th century. A "Pre- 
ceptor" for Davies' "new invented syrrynx" was 
published in 1807. 

PANDECTS, a digest of the civil law, made by 
order of Justinian, 533. It is stated that a copy of 
these Pandects was discovered in the ruins of Amalfi, 
1 137 ; removed from Pisa in 1415, and preserved in 
the library of the Medici at Florence, as the Pan- 
dects Florentine. 

PANDOSIA (Bruttium, S. Italy). Here 
Alexander, king of Epirus, was defeated and slain 
by the Bruttians, 326 B.C. Laevinus, the Koman 
consul, was defeated between Heraclea and Pando- 
sia, in Lucania, by Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 280 B.C. 

PANE AS or Panius (Syria) . Here Antioehus 
the Great defeated Scopas, the Egyptian general, 
and his Greek allies, 198 B.C. 

PANICS, COMMERCIAL, generally the result 
of over-speculation; see Bubbles, South Sea, Law's. 

Through French war : government issued 5,ooo,oooZ. 

exchequer bills 1793 

Through Irish rebellion, &c. (3 per cents, at 44I) . 1797 
Through bubble companies, 770 banks stopped 

winter, 1825-6 

Through railway mania Oct. 1847 

Through American failures . . . Nov. 1857 
Through fear of European war . . . April, 1859 
Through over-speculation in limited liability com- 
panies May, 1866 

Through Franco-Prussian war . . 10 July, 1870 
Through Russian attack on Afghans at Penjdeh 

(temporary) 9 April, 1885 

War panics at Paris and London . 3-4 Feb. 1887 

See London, 24 Nov. 1890. 

PANNONIA, part of Ulyria, now Hungary, 
Was finally subdued by Tiberius, a.d. 7-9. 

PANOPTICON of Science and Art, in 

Leicester-square, erected in 1852-3 for a chartered 
company, by Mr. T. H. Lewis, the architect; was 
opened in 1854 for lectures, musical performances, 
&c. It had a very large electrical machine, battery, 
&c. The speculation did not succeed ; the building 
was sold in 1857, and in March, 1858, was opened for 
concerts and horsemanship, and called the Alhambra 
(which see). 

Jeremy Bentham's book " Panopticon, or the Inspection 
House," an establishment in which persons may be 
kept under inspection, published 1791 ; see Milbank. 

PANORAMAS, invented by Robert Barker, 
are bird's-eye views painted round the wall of a 
circular building. In 1788 he exhibited at Edin- 
burgh a view of that city, the first picture of the 



kind. He then commenced similar exhibitions in 
London in 1789, having adopted the name " Pano- 
rama," and was ultimately enabled to build com- 
modious premises in Leicester-square for that 
purpose. Panoramas were exhibited on the conti- 
nent by himself and his associate, Robt. Fulton. 
M. Thuyer, having bought the invention from 
Fulton, exhibited panoramas in Paris about 1796. 
See Colosseum. (Barker died in April, 1806.) J. P. 
Loutherbourg, a painter, termed the panoramist, 
invented the "Eidophusikon," natural phenomena 
represented by moving pictures, exhibited at Lisle- 
street, Leicester-square, 3 April, 1781. "This was- 
certainly not a panorama." Dr. Eimbault. 

PANORMUS, see Palermo. 

PANTAGRAPH (from the Greek panta, all 
things, and graphein, to write, and incorrectly 
termed Pentagraph), an instrument for copying, 
reducing, or enlarging plans, &c, invented by 
Christopher Scheiner, about 1603 ; improved by pro- 
fessor Wallace, and called " Eidograph," about 182K 

PANTALEON, a musical instrument (a drum 
with tuned strings) , invented by Pantaleon Heben- 
streit, about 1735. 

PANTECHNICON, Motcombe - street, 
Knightsbridge, London, W., erected by Seth Smith,, 
as a receptacle for paintings, jeweller y, furniture, 
carriages, &c., 1830; was destroyed by fire 13 — 14 
Feb. 1874, when much property was lost : re-built, 
1874. See alsj Fires, 11 Sept. 1902. 

PANTHAYS, Mahometans in the Chinese 
province, Yunan, became independent under a 
sultan, during the Tae-ping revolt, 1851-64. After 
its suppression, the Panthays, after a severe 
struggle, were also subdued. Their capital, Talifoo, 
was captured, and its inhabitants cruelly massacred 
in Feb. 1873. The Panthays sent an embassy to 
England in 1872, without effect. Sultan Suleiman 
committed suicide. 

PANTHEISM, the formula of which is 
"everything is God, and God is one," was espe- 
cially taught by Xenophanes, who died 500 B.C. 
The doctrine is attributed to Spinoza, Kant, Fichte, 
and other modern philosophers. Amalric of Chartres, 
censured for holding the doctrine, recanted 13th 
century. He is said to have asserted that " all is 
God, and God is all." 

PANTHEON, at Pome, a circular temple 
built by Agrippa, the son-in-law of Augustus, 
27 B.C. It had niches in the wall, where the image 
or representation of a particular god was set up ; the 
gates brass, the beams covered with gilt brass, and' 
the roof covered with silver. Pope Boniface III. 
dedicated it to the Virgin Mary and all the saints, 
by the name of S. Maria della Rotunda, or "ad 
Martyres," a.d. 608.* — The Pantheon in London 
was erected by subscription, and opened 27 Jan. 
1772; formed into an opera house; burned down 
14 Jan. 1792; rebuilt for masquerades in 1795; 
opened as theatre, 1812 ; made a bazaar in 1834. 
The bazaar was closed in 1867, and the premises 
taken by Gilbey and Co., wine merchants, who lent 
the south part for a temporary church. 

Pantheon, Paris, a magnificent building founded by 
Louis XV. in pursuance of a vow, dedicated to Ste. 
Genevieve; built by Sonlllot, 1757-90; named Pan- 
theon, and decreed to be a mausoleum for eminent 
men, 1791 ; made a church, 1806 ; named Ste. Gene- 



* Victor Emmanuel, first king of united Italy, was 
buried here, 17 Jan. 1878. 



PANTOGEN. 



919 



PAPIER MACHE. 



vieve, 1821 ; re-named Pantheon, 1831 ; again a church, 
Nov. 1852 ; again secularised, 27 May, 1885 ; received 
the remains of Victor Hugo, 1 June, 1885. The re- 
mains of Voltaire and Rousseau found there by a 
commission, 18 Dec. 1897. 

PANTOGEN, see Atomic Theory. 

PANTOMIMES were representations by ges- 
tures and attitudes among 1 the Greeks, and were 
introduced on the Roman stage by Pylades and 
Bathyllus, 22 B.C. Comic masques were introduced 
here from Italy about 1700. The first regular 
English pantomime is said to have been " Harle- 
quin executed," produced by John Rich at the Lin- 
coln's-inn-fields theatre, 26 Dec. 1717. Joseph 
Grimaldi (1779-1837) was a most eminent clown. 

" PAPAL AGGRESSION." In a consistory 
holdenin Rome, 30 Sept. 1850, the pope (Pius IX.) 
named fourteen new cardinals, of whom four only 
were Italians. Among them was Dr. Nicholas Wise- 
man, vicar-apostolic of the London district, who 
was at the same time nominated lord archbishop of 
Westminster. 
Dr. Ullathorne enthroned as Roman Catholic bishop 

of Birmingham in St. Chad's cathedral 27 Oct. 1850 
A pastoral letter from Dr. Wiseman read in all the 
Roman catholic chapels of his see (all England 
parcelled out into Romish dioceses) . .27 Oct. ,, 
The answer of the bishop of London (Dr. Blomfleld) 
to a memorial from the protestant clergy of West- 
minster, against a Romish hierarchy in this 
country, was followed by the "Durham" letter 
from lord John Russell, then chief minister of the 
crown, to the bishop of Durham, in which he 
severely censured, not only the papal aggression, 
but also the proceedings of the tractarian clergy 
of the Church of England . . . 4 Nov. ,, 
Immediately from every quarter of England ad- 
dresses poured in to her majesty the queen, calling 
upon her and the government to resist the usurpa- 
tion ; 6700 addresses, it is said, had been voted 
from nearly as many influential meetings up to 

31 Dec. „ 
Dr. Briggs, created Roman catholic bishop of Bever- 
ley, was enthroned in St. George's chapel at York, 

13 Feb. 1851 
Dr. Browne, created bishop of Clifton, and Dr. 
Burgess, bishop of Shrewsbury : both consecrated 
in St. George's cathedral, Southwark 27 July, ,, 
The Ecclesiastical Titles act, 14 & 15 Vict. c. 60, 
prohibited the constitution of bishops of pre- 
tended provinces under a penalty of 100L Aug. ,, 
It was not acted upon, and was repealed 24 July, 1871 

PAPAL INFALLIBILITY. This dogma, 
maintained by one party in the Roman church, 
tolerated by another, and utterly rejected by a 
third, was adopted and promulgated at the general 
council at Rome 18 July, 1870, a great many bishops 
having withdrawn. The dogma was inculcated by 
the false decretals of Isidore and others, but not 
adopted by the council of Trent ; see Councils XXI. 
Professor Dollinger, the historian, was excommuni- 
cated at Munich for rejecting this dogma, 18 April, 
1 87 1 : he was made a D.C.L. at Oxford about 
16 June following; see Old Catholics. The doc- 
trine was strenuously attacked by Mr. W. E. Glad- 
stone, in his pamphlet, " The Vatican Decrees," 
Nov. 1874. 

PAPAL STATES, see Rome, and Popes. 

PAPER, see Papyrus. Paper was probably 
made in Egypt, and centuries before the Christian 
era. It was made of cotton about 600 a.d. ; and of 
rags about 1300.* White coarse paper was made 

* Mr. Joseph Hunter (in the Archceologia, xxxvii.) 
states that the earliest paper which he had seen was a 
MS. account-book, dated 1302, probably of Bordeaux 



by sir John Speilman, a German, at Dartford, in 
England, 33 Eliz. 1580; and here paper mills 
were erected. Stow. Paper for writing and print- 
ing manufactured in England, and an act passed 
to encourage it, 2 Will. III. 1690; before this 
time we paid for these articles to France and 
Holland 100,000^. annually. The French refugees 
taught our people ; we had made coarse brown 
paper almost exclusively, until they came among 
us; we made white paper first in 1690. Anderson. 
Paper-making by a machine was suggested by 
Louis Robert, who sold his model to Didot, the 
great printer, who brought it to England, and, con- 
jointly with Fourdrinier, perfected the machinery. 
The latter obtained a patent for paper-making ma- 
chinery in 1801 ; and for manufacturing paper of 
an indefinite length in 1807. The machinery was 
improved by Bryan Donkin. A sheet of paper, 
13,800 feet long, and 4 feet wide, was made at 
Whitehall-mills, Derbyshire, in 1830; and one 
21,000 feet long, and 6 feet 3 inches wide, was 
made at Colyton in Devon in i860. Esparto, a 
Spanish grass, first imported in 1857, has been 
largely employed in the paper manufacture since 
1864. In 1866 wood was largely manufactured into 
paper at Philadelphia ; and at the Paris exhibition, 
1867, fine specimens of wood-paper were shown; see 
Parchment (note). The paper duty, imposed in 
1694 (producing about 1,400,000^. annually), 
after having been the subject of agitation for 
several years, was repealed in 1861. Hop-stalks 
said to be used for paper-making in France, 1873. 

Paper-mills in Great Britain, 1877, about 385 (England, 
300 ; Scotland, 65 ; Ireland, 20) ; annual produce about 
360,000 tons ; value, 16, oqo,codL Great increase since. 

Paper-exhibition at Berlin, Aug. 1878 : contained not 
only great varieties of paper, but a paper house, tables, 
chairs, carpets, barrels, boats, &c. 

Paper pianoforte exhibited, soft tone, July, 1885. 

Bottles largely made of paper in America, 1887. 

5th iuternational paper and printing exhibition, Agri- 
cultural hall, London, opened, 23 June, 1897. 

Causes of the deterioration of paper, investigated by a. 
committee of the Soc. of Arts, Sept. et seq. 1897, report 
in their journal, 20 May, 1898. 

PAPER-HANGINGS, &c Stamped paper 
for this purpose was first made in Spain and Hol- 
land about 1555. Made of velvet and floss, for 
hanging apartments, about 1620. The manufacture 
of this kind of paper rapidly improved in this 
country during the present century. — Paper 
Bricks have been made in America ; and paper 
tubing for water and gas, made by M. Jaloureau of 
Paris, was shown in i860. 

PAPER-MONEY, see Panks and Greenbacks. 

PAPIER MACHE. This manufacture (of 
paper-pulp combined with gum and sometimes with 
china clay) has existed for above a century. Martin, 
a German snuff-box maker, is said to have learnt 
the art from one Lefevre about 1740. In 1745 it 
was taken up by Baskerville, the printer at Bir- 
mingham, and soon spread over that district. 
Papier mache is now largely employed in orna- 
menting the interior of buildings, &c. A large 
dome at Brussels ordered to be made of it, Dec. 

^ 



manufacture. He gives engravings of manufacturers' 
marks, French and English, the dates of which range 
from 1330 to 1431. He also gives an extract from a work 
by Bartholus, a writer of the middle of the 14th century, 
in which mention is made of a paper manufactory in the 
Marches of Ancona. At the end of Wynkin de Worde's 
edition of Bartholomseus De Proprietatibus Rerum, 
1494, its thin paper, made by John Tate in England, is 
commended. 



PAPIN'S DIGESTER. 



920 



PARCEL POST. 



PAPIN'S DIGESTER (seesaw), invented 
about 1681. Denis Papin, a French, philosopher, 
assisted Boyle in his experiments about 1678. 

PAPISTS, see Roman Catholics. 

PAPUA, see New Guinea. 

PAPYRUS, the reed from which was made 
the paper of Egypt and India, used for writings 
until the discovery of parchment, about 190 B.C. 
The earliest known specimens of papyri were found 
in the monuments attributed to the third dynasty, 
3966 B.C. Many papyri were discovered at Hercu- 
laneum in 1754 ; and many were collected by the 
French in Egypt, 1798. A manuscript of the 
Antiquities of Josephus on papyrus, among the 
treasures seized by Bonaparte in Italy, and sent to 
the National Library at Paris, was restored in 1815. 
Fac-similes of the largest known papyrus, found in 1855, 
behind Modinet Habu on the Nile, and now in the 
British Museum, were published with translations by 
the trustees in 1876. 
A papyrus MS. of the poems of Bacchylides acquired by 
the British Museum, announced, Dec. 1896 ; a fac- 
simile, edited by Frederick G. Kenyon, Vol. II. 
published, Dec. 1898. 
Greek papyri, " Logia " of our Lord, &c, found at 
Belmesa during excavations by Mr. P. B. Grenfell 
and Mr. A. 8. Hunt, reported, 29 May, 1897. Books 
published; see Egyptian Kxpluration, 1897. 

PARABLE, see Fable. 

PARACHUTE, see Balloons, 1785, 1802, 1837. 

PARACLETE (Greek for comforter), a name 
given by Abelard to the convent which he founded 
in Champagne in 1122, of which Heloise became 
the first abbess. 

PARADISE LOST, the great English epic 
by J ohn Milton , appeared first in . ten books in 
1667, in twelve books in 1674 ; the author received 
for the first three editions (1,500 copies) 5/. each. 
" Paradise Regained " was published in 1671. 

PARADOX (Greek, para, beyond ; and doxa, 
opinion), something contrary to common opinion. 
Professor De Morgan's "Budget of Paradoxes" (of 
all kinds) was published in 1872. John Paget's 
"Paradoxes and Puzzles, Historical, Judicial, and 
Literary," published 1874. 

PARAFFIN (h-omparum affinis, from its having 
little affinity with anything), also called photogen, 
a solid substance, somewhat like spermaceti, pro- 
duced by distillation of coal, and first obtained by 
Keichenbach in 1830, and by Dr. Christison about 
the same time. It was procured from mineral oil by 
Mr. James Young about 1848 at Alfreton in Derby- 
shire. Soon after it was largely obtained from Bog- 
head cbal. It is also obtained from Irish peat. It 
makes excellent candles. Much litigation ensued 
through interference with Mr. Young's patent- 
right. In 1882, 120,508 cwts. were imported into 
the United Kingdom; 1900, 984,571 cwts.; 1901, 
839437 cwts. 

PARAGRAPH BIBLES, see under Bibles. 

PARAGUAY, a republic in S. America, dis- 
covered by Juan Diaz de Solis in 1515, and by 
Sebastian Cabot in 1526; conquered by Alvarez 
Nunez in 1535, and civilized by the Jesuits, who 
in 1608 commenced their missions there and held 
it till their expulsion in 1768. Paraguay rose 
against the Spanish yoke in 181 1. In 1814, Dr. 
Jose G. R. Francia was elected dictator; he ruled 
vigorously but tyrannically ; he was succeeded on 



his death in 1840 by Yibal. From 1814 to 1844 the 
cjuntry was rigidly closed against foreigners. The 
president, C. A. Lopez, elected in 1844, was suc- 
ceeded by his son, Francis S. Lopez, Sept. 1862 
(see below) . Paraguay was recognised as an inde- 
pendent state by the Argentine Confederation, 
14 July, 1852, and by Great Britain in 1853. 
Capital, Asuncion. Population in 1857, l>337,439 ; 
in 1873, 221,079; in 1900 (estimated) 635,600. 

Hostilities between Paraguay and Brazil began when 
a Brazilian steamer was cap cured as an intruder 

on the Paraguay 11 Nov. 1864 

Brazil invaded in December , 

Lopez invaded the territories of the Argentine re- 
public, which immediately made alliance with 

Brazil 14 April, 1865 

The army of Lopez defeated . . . . Sept. ,, 
The allies captured Uruguayana aud an army of Para- 
guayans 18 Sept. ,, 

[For details of the war, see Brazil, 1865-9.] 
A provisional government installed ; Lopez totally 

defeated, proclaimed an outlaw . 17 Aug. 1869 

Lopez killed near the Aquidaban . . 1 March, 1870 
Peace signed with Brazil and Argentina republic, 

20 June, ,, 
President Salvador Jovellanos elected for three 

years 12 Dec. 1871 

President Juan Bautista Gill . . 25 Nov. 1874 
The president and his brother assassinated, April; 

Higinio Uriarte, president . . 12 April, 1877 
President Candido Bareiro (for 4 years) . 25 Nov. 1878 
President gen. B. Caballero . . .25 Nov. 1882 
President gen. Escobar . . . . 25 Sept. 1886 
President J. Gonzalez . . . -25 Sept. 1890 
Revived prosperity of the country reported . Oct. „ 
Revolutionary attempt by major Vera and others 

suppressed with bloodshed, reported . 24 Oct. 1891 
Establishment of a Socialist settlement by emi- 
grants from Australia, to be named " New 

Australia" July, 1893 

Coup d'etat ; seiior Marinigo becomes president, 

reported 11 June, 1894 

Sen. Egusguiza elected president . . 26 Sept. ,, 
Emilio Aceval elected president . . 25 Nov. 1898 
Revolution at Asuncion, pres. Aceval deposed ; 

Hector Carvalho made president . 9 Jan. 1902 
High premium on gold, trade conditions unsatis- 
factory, reported Sept. ,, 

Seii. Ezcurra elected president, reported, 28 Sept. „ 
Sig. Boggiani, an explorer, murdered by Chamacoco 
Indians, his body found by a relief expedition 
under seii. Cancio, 1902 ; an attempt by two 
Englishmen to navigate lake Ipacary partially 
successful, end of 1902, reported . . Aug. 1903 

PARALLEL MOTION, see Motion. 

PARASOLS were used by the ancient Egyp- 
tians. A new form (said to have been devised by the 
duchess of Rutland) came into general use about 1 820. 

PARC AUX CERFS, a deer-park at Ver- 
sailles, near Paris, made by Louis XII., and kept 
as such till 1694, when Louis XIV. took the land 
for building. The name was given to a house 
erected on it by madame Pompadour, popularly said 
to form a seraglio for Louis XV. in 1755. It was 
closed by madame Du Barry in 1771. 

PARCEL POST (advised by Rowland Hill in 
1842). Proposed in Parliament by Mr. H. Fawcett 
27 March ; act passed, 18 Aug. 1882; came into 
operation 1 Aug. 1883. 

Maximum weight raised to 11 lbs. from 1 May, 1886. 
Parcel Post extended to India, British Burmah, Aden, 

Gibraltar, and Egypt 1 July, 1885, and other countries 

since. 
Coldbath fields prison was converted into offices for the 

Parcel Post, 1887. 
Coaches started to convey parcels to various parts from 

London, 1892. 
Parcels conveyed 1883-4, 21,000,000 ; 1891-2, 51,000,000. 
Metropolis, Aug. 1883, 3,600,000; 1891-2, 9,000,000; 

1902-3, 90,300,000. 



PAECHMENT. 



921 



PAEIS. 



PAECHMENT. Invented for writing books 
by Eumenes (some say by Attalus), of Pergamus, the 
founder of the celebrated library at Pergamus, 
formed on the model of the Alexandrian, about 
190 B.C. Parchment-books from this time became 
those nrost used, and the most valuable as well as 
oldest in the world are written on the skins of 
goats. It should be mentioned that the Persians 
and others are said to have written all their records 
on skins long before Eumenes' time. Parchment 
superseded by paper of a special kind for grants of 
probate, Dec. 1900. 

Parchment paper (or vegetable parchment) was invented 
and patented in 1857, by Mr. W. E. Gaine, C.E., who 
discovered, that when paper is exposed to a mixture of 
two parts of concentrated sulphuric acid and one part 
of water for no longer time than is required to draw it 
through -the fluid, it is immediately converted into a 
strong tough skin-like material. It must be instantly 
washed with water. Its great strength points out 
many applications of this material, e.g., maps, school 
and account-books, and drawing-paper. In 1859 it ap- 
peared that a similar invention had been made in Paris 
by Figuier and Poumarede in 1846. 

PAEDONS. General pardons were proclaimed 
at coronations : first by Edward III. in 1327. The 
king's power of pardoning is said to be derived a 
lege sum dignitatis ; and no other person has power 
to remit treason or felonies, stat. 27 Hen. VIII. 
f 535- Blackstone. A pardon cannot follow an 
impeachment of the house of commons : stat. 
Will. III. 1700. 

PAEENTS' NATIONAL EDUCA- 
TIONAL UNION, established to enlighten and 
assist parents in the discharge of their important 
duties in the training of their children, founded by 
Miss Mason; annual meetings, the earl of Meath, 
president, held in London, 27 June, 1895 et se i- 

PAEGA, a city in European Turkey : retained 
its civic independence under the protection of 
Venice till 1797, when that state was conquered by 
the French. It resisted various attempts to cap- 
ture it ; and in 1806 was garrisoned by Russians. 
It was given up to the French in 1807 ; taken by 
the English, 22 March, 1814; surrendered to the 
Turks, 1817 ; and abandoned by above 3000 of its in- 
habitants, who retired to the Ionian Isles, May, 1819. 

PAEIAN MAEBLES, see Arundelian 
Marbles. 

PAEIS (formerly Lutetia Parisiorum), the 
capital of France, situated on the river Seine, which 
cuts it into two unequal parts, the strongest being 
towards the north, and in which are three isles, 
la ville (the city), the lie St. Louis, and the tie 
Louviers. In the time of Julius Caesar, Lutetia 
comprised the city only. It was greatly improved 
by the emperor Julian, who made it his residence 
while he governed Gaul, 355 to 361. It became 
successively the capital of the kingdoms of Paris, 
Soissons, and Neustria, and eventually of all the 
kingdom. Many ecclesiastical councils were held 
at Paris, 360-1528. The representative of the house 
of Orleans is styled count of Paris. Population of 
Paris in 1856, 1,178,262; in 1872, estimated popula- 
tion, 1,851,792; in 1876, 1,988,806; in 1881, 
2,269,023; in 1891, 2,424,705; 1896, 2,536,000; 
1901, 2,714,068. See France. 

Clovis makes Paris his residence . . about 508 

St. Denis founded 613 

Hotel Dieu hospital founded by bishop Landry 

about 656 
Paris ravaged by the Normans (or Danes), 845, 855, 
861 : suffered from-famine .... 845-940 



Gallantly defended against the Danes by the count 

Eudes and the bishop Goslin . . ... 885 
University founded, about ..... 1200 

Rebuilt 1231 

Church of Notre Dame built .... 1160-1270 

The parliament established 1302 

Suffers by the factions of the Armagnacs and Bur- 

gundians 1411-1418 

Taken by the English 1420 

Retaken by the French 1436 

Pont Notre Dame built 1499 

The Louvre commenced (see Louvre) . . . 1522 

Hotel de Ville founded 1533 

The Boulevards commenced 1536 

Fountain of the Innocents erected . . . . 1551 
The Tuileries begun (see Tuileries) .... 1564 
Massacre of St. Bartholomew's . . 24 Aug. 1572 

The Pont Neuf begun 1578 

Vainly besieged by Henry IV 1589-90 

Entered by him March, 1594 

Hospital of Invalids 1595 

Place Royale begun 1604 

The Hotel-Dieu founded 1606 

Jardin des Plantes formed 1610 

The Luxembourg, by Mary de Medicis . . . 1615 

The Palais-Royal built 1629 

The Val-de-Grace 1645 

Conflicts of the Fronde 1648-53 

Royal palace at Versailles built ; the court removed 

there 1661-72 

The Academy of Sciences founded .... 1666 
The Observatory established ^ . . . . 1667 

Champs Elysees planted 1670 

Arch of St. Denis erected 1672 

Palais d'Elysee Bourbon built 1718 

The Palace of the Deputies 1722 

The Military School 1751 

The Pantheon (which see) St. Genevieve, founded . 1764 
The French revolution breaks out ; the Bastile taken, 

14 July, 1789 

Pont de Louis XIV. finished 1790 

Cemetery of Pere la Chaise consecrated . . . 1804 
Pont des Invalides, &c, erected .... 1806 
Paris surrenders to the allies . . 30 March, 1814 

Paris lit with gas 1819 

Revolution (see France) .... July, 1830 
Column of July founded . . . .28 July, 1831 
Fortifications of Paris (for which 140,000,000 francs 

were voted, 1833) commenced 15 Dec. 1840 ; com- 
pleted March, 1846 

Revolution (see France) .... 22 Feb. 1848 
Paris much improved by Louis Napoleon (probable 

cost i2,8oo,oooJ.) 1853-62 

Industrial Exhibition opened by the emperor and 
empress, 15 May ; visited by queen Victoria and 
prince Albert (the first visit of an English sovereign 
to Paris since 1422), 24 Aug. ; exhibition closes, 

15 Nov. 1855 
Conference at Paris respecting the Danubian Prin- 
cipalities (which see) ; closes . . . Aug. 1858 

Bois de Boulogne opened as a garden of acclimatisa- 
tion 6 Oct. i860 

Remains of Napoleon I. deposited in the Invalides, 

31 March, 1861 

A building was erected for a permanent industrial 
exhibition by a company .... Oct. 1862 

The scheme failed Feb. 1864 

Boulevard prince Eugene opened by the emperor, 

7 Dec. 1862 

Decree for an international exhibition of the pro- 
ducts of agriculture, industry, and the fine arts, 
at Paris, in 1867 ; commissioners appointed, 

21 Feb. 1864 

Cab strike, 4 days 1865 

Fine arts exhibition opened . . . 1 May, 1866 

The cathedral of Notre Dame and other buildings 
restored ,, 

International Exhibition on the Champ de Mars 
(with a new park, comprising more than 100 
acres) ; the oblong building designed by Leplay 
(enclosing 35 acres), 1245 feet wide, 1500 feet long, 
consisting of circles within circles ; the external 
corridor was a belt of iron, 85 feet high and 115 
feet wide ; opened by the emperor and empress, 

1 April, 1867 



PAEIS. 



922 



PAEIS. 



It was visited by the prince of Wales, the kings of 
Greece, Belgium, Prussia, and Sweden, the czar 
of Russia, the viceroy of Egypt, the sultan of 
Turkey, the emperor of Austria, and other inferior 
potentates May-Nov. 

Attempted assassination of the czar by Berezowski, 
a Pole 6 June, 

The czar and the king of Prussia entertained by 
M. Haussmann, prefect of Paris (cost 36,0001.), 

8 June, 

Departure of the czar n June; of the- king of 
Prussia 14 June, 

Distribution of prizes to exhibitors by the emperor 
in the presence of the prince of Wales, the sultan, 
<fee. 1 July, 

Berezowski condemned to transportation for life, 

15 July, 

Visit of the emperor of Austria . 23 Oct. -2 Nov. 

Grand banquet to commissioners of international 
exhibition 26 Oct. 

Exhibition finally closed (instead of on 31 Oct.), 
Sunday, 3 Nov., gross receipts, 9,830,369 francs. 

M. Haussmann, the prefect of the Seine, reported 
the budget of the city to exceed 9,200,000! He 
resigned Jan. 1870 

For the sieges and other recent events, see France 
and Franco-German War 1870-1 

Versailles becomes the seat of government, March, 1871 

Grand Opera-house burnt . . 28-29 Oct. 1873 

Great explosion with loss of life at Poirier's chemi- 
cal works, near Paris .... 19 Nov. 1874 

Grand new opera-house ; decreed i860 ; designed 
by Gamier ; opened in state ... 5 Jan. 1875 

Municipal officers visit London, to inspect rail- 
ways, &c 30 April, 1877 

New Hotel Dieu finished .... Aug. „ 

International Exhibition : site, two unequal 
parts divided by the Seine. The main building in 
the Champ de Mars covers 263,593 square yards : 
(765 by 360 yards) ; the Trocadero (which see) 
palace is a stone structure, with a rotunda sup- 
ported by columns, crowned by a dome, flanked 
by two lofty towers, the exterior gallery orna- 
mented with statues. 

The exhibition was opened by the president, mar- 
shal MacMahon (" in the name of the republic") 
in presence of the prince of Wales, the due 
d'Aosta, and other distinguished persons, 1 May, 1878 

IIX >955 persons visited exhibition (a fete day) 

15 Aug. ,, 

Grand distribution of medals by marshal Mac- 
Mahon, with speech . . . .21 Oct. ,, 

Closed Sunday 10 Nov. ,, 

Total admissions, 16,032,725; daily average, 82,000; 
gross receipts, 12,653,746 francs. 

International exhibition of applied science opened, 

24 July, 1879 

The senate and assembly meet again at Paris, 27 Nov. ,, 

Electrical exhibition and congress (see under EUc- 
tricity) Aug.-Oct. 1881 

Statue of Alexandre Dumas, sen. by G. Dore un- 
covered. . * 4 Nov. 1883 

International exhibition of manufactures and pro- 
cesses 23 July-23 Nov. 1885 

Grand funeral of Victor Hugo . . 1 June, ,, 

International Workmen's Exhibition and Congress 
opened 2 June, 1886 

Opera Comique destroyed by fire ; panic ; about 131 
lives lost 25-26 May ; M. Carvalho, the director, 
sentenced to three months' imprisonment and a 
fine of above 2,000/!. ; and the fireman Andre to 
one month's imprisonment . . 15 Dec. 1887 

Deatli of Mad. Boucicault, a great benefactress of 
the city, see Bon Marchi .... Dec. ,, 

Strike of navvies, about 22 July . ends 16 Aug. 1888 

Socialistic strikes of waiters and hairdressers Aug. „ 

Universal Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures, &o. 
(proposed in 1884), opened by president Carnot 
(about 209,000 persons admitted), 6 May ; 
officially closed, 6 Nov. 1889. The greatest of 
all the exhibitions hitherto held. The buildings 
were of colossal proportions, and with the charm- 
ing gardens, occupied nearly the whole of the 
Champs de Mars. The chief galleries were sur- 
mounted by domes with a central one. Archi- 
tect, M. Dutert ; engineer, M. Contamin, decora- 



tions in excellent taste. The gigantic Eiffel Tower, 
985 feet high, was constructed chiefly of iron by 
M. Eiffel and a company, it is said after the 
design of a young engineer Nonguier ; probable 
removal, Aug. 1894. The building was inaugu- 
rated by M. Tirard, the premier, 31 March. The 
electric lighting by Messrs. Davey, Paxman and 
Co., the Societe Gramme of Paris, very good . 18S9 
A grand nocturnal fete arranged by M. Alphand, 

manager 1 June, „ 

Total paying visitors about 22,277,000, 2,723,000 

gratuitous ; 402,065 admitted . . 13 Oct. ,, 

Receipts, 41,000,000 francs (i8,oco,ooo francs from 
the state ; 7,000,000 francs from the city) ; ex- 
penses, 41, 000, 000 francs ; surplus, 4,000,000 francs 

14 Nov. ,, 
Among the distinguished visitors were the prince 
and princess of Wales (9-15 June), the shah of 
Persia, the king of Greece, the duke of Braganza 
(since king of Portugal), the dukes of Cambridge 
and Edinburgh, prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria, 
the two sons of the khedive, and Milan, ex-king 
of Servia. 
Awards of medals by international jurors ; to 

British exhibitors, 910, out of 1,017. 
The French honours granted to British subjects 
were distributed by M. Waddington, the French 
ambassador, at the Mansion-house, London, 
25 Jan. 1890. 
Many international congresses on social, moral, 
scientific, literary, and artistic subjects met at 
Paris during the exhibition. 
The new commercial exchange was opened by 

M. Tirard, the premier ... 24 Sept. ,, 
Death of sir Richard Wallace, benefactor to Paris, 

son of the marquis of Hertford . . 20 July, 1890 
Baron Haussmann, who, supported by Napoleon III. 
and aided by M. Alphand, rebuilt Paris (1853 et 
seii.), dies, 11 Jan. 1891. Death of M. Alphand 

7 Dec. 1891 
The telephone system between London and Paris 

inaugurated (see Telephone) . . 18 March, ,, 
Condemnation of certain artists and their models 
for improper dressing at a ball leads to a riot 
among the students of the Latin quarter, during 
which a man named Nuger is accidentally killed 
by a policeman, 1-2 July ; students joined by the 
artisans ; many persons injured and property 
destroyed ; quiet restored by the police and 
military ; about 200 arrests, followed by im- 
prisonments 3-6 July, 1893 

Izeyl, a sacred (Buddhist) drama by MM. Sylvestre 
and Morand, produced by Mdme. Sarah Bern- 
hardt at the "Theatre de la Renaissance," 24 Jan. 1894 
A municipal loan of 200 million francs at 2J per 

cent, fully taken up . . . .21 April, „ 
M. Ambroise Thomas, musical composer, invested 
with the grand cordon of the legion of honour by 
president Carnot, at a musical fete at the Opera 
Comique ; Verdi present ... 15 May, ,, 
Military outfitting establishment and the Cite 

Petville destroyed by fire ; 1 death . 1 July, 1895 
Collision on the Ceinture railway near the Porte 

Maillot station through a fog, 2 deaths . 24 Jan. 1896 
Tornado in Central Paris, about 1 mill., 8 persons 

killed, much damage .... 10 Sept. ,, 
Visit of the. czar and czarina (see Russia) . 6 Oct. ,, 
Inauguration of the revived university of Paris at 

the new Sorbonne .... 19 Nov. ,, 

Fete in honour of Sarah Bernhardt, actress, 9 Dec. ,, 
The Goncourt collection of drawings sold for 695,729 

francs, announced 18 Feb. 1897 

A grand charity bazaar, " Old Paris," in the rue 
Jean Goujon, on a site lent by Mdme. Henri 
Heine, supported by the leading ladies of the 
conservative and catholic parties, destroyed by 
fire through the ignition of ether in the lamp of 
a kinematograph, which was placed at the end 
o x f a hall built of old pinewoud ; 130 persons, 
mostly ladies, perished, including the duchesse 
d'Alencon, sister of the empress of Austria (who 
refused to escape), gen. Munier (died 6 May), and 
many other eminent persons, 4 May, 1897 (many 
died from injuries). 
General mourning ; theatres, <fec. closed ■ 5 May, ,, 
State requiem mass at Notre Dame . . 8 May, „ 



PARIS. 



923 



PARISHES. 



500 men and women rewarded for saving life, by M. 
Barthou, Eugene .Georges, coachman, made che- 
valier of the legion of honour, 21 May (very 
liberal subscriptions) 1897 

Bomb explosion in the Place de la Concorde, the 
Strassburg statue damaged . . .16 June ,, 

Destructive cyclone at Asnieres, about 20 persons 
killed 18 June, ,, 

English diamond jubilee fund (30,121/.), devoted to 
charities 3 July, ,, 

M. Armand Dreyfus (not related to eapt. Dreyfus) 
and 4 others found dead in a room from the fumes 
of charcoal 8 Nov. ,, 

International Exhibition (for 1900) proposed ; 
buildings erecting, March, 1898 ; Royal com- 
mission for Gt. Britain, the prince of Wales, 
duke of Connaught, and others appointed, 

Feb., March, 1898 

Paris metropolitan railway sanctioned by the 
senate ." 30 March, ,, 

Dock strike, with rioting, order restored by the 
military, 5 Oct. ; other bodies join, 45,000 men 
out, 9 Oct. ; threatened railway strike, stations 
occupied by troops, 13 Oct. ; strike subsides, 

17 Oct. et seg. 1898 

Destructive gale and heavy rain . . 2 Jan. 1899 

Library (40,000 vols.) of the Paris chamber of com- 
merce burnt 14 May, „ 

The Theatre Frangaise burnt down ; mile. Henriot, 
a young actress, killed (see Comedie Frangaise), 

about noon, 8 March, 1900 

Inteenat. exhibition opened by pres. Loubet, 

14 April, ,, 

Underground electric railway from Vincennes to 
the Porte Maillot, opened . . 19 July, ,, 

Many international congresses during the exhibi- 
tion, one on colonial sociology, &c. . 6-11 Aug. ,, 

Awards and honours distributed by M. Loubet to 
the president of groups of 75,000 exhibitors, over 
40,000 people present in the Great-hall ; Paris 
illuminated and a " nautical fete " at the exhibi- 
tion 18 Aug. ,, 

Free day, 449,0x3, 7 Aug. ; closed, 12 Nov. (total 
admissions, 48,000,000). 

Receipts, 114,000,000! (40,000,000! from the state 
and the city) ; expenses, u6,ooo,ooof. 

[The beautiful Avenue Nicolas II. and the Alex- 
andre III. bridge remain as memorials of the 
exhibition of 1900]. 

Congress of learned societies ; first meeting, 

16 April, 1901 

Explosion in a cartridge-factory at Issy, 17 deaths, 

14 June, ,, 

Paris Municipal debt, 95,480,000^. , reported, 16 Aug. ,, 

Victor Hugo centenary monument unveiled in 
Place Victor Hugo .... 26 Feb. 1902 

Great fire in the Rue Uzes and Rue Montmartre, 
1 death 10, 11 March, ,, 

Monument to Alphonse Daudet unveiled, 31 May, ,, 

Demonstrations against the closing of unauthorised 
R.C. schools .... 22, 23, 26 July, ,, 

The Dutuit bequest, fine art collection, accepted, 

19 Aug. ,, 

Death of M. de Blowitz, 30 years Paris correspon- 
dent of the Times 18 Jan. 1903 

King Edward VII. visits Paris ; enthusiastic recep- 
tion ; city en fete (see France) . . 1-4 May ,, 

Violent encounters between Clericals and anti- 
Clericals, many injured . . . .23 May, ,, 

Death of " Max O'Rell " (Paul Blouet), Paris corre- 
spondent of the New York Journal . 24 May, „ 

Socialist meeting, resolution passed denouncing 
the Russian government as the real authors of 
the Kishineff massacre (see Russia, 19, 20 April), 
27 May ; another meeting . . . 26 June, ,, 

Underground electric railway disaster, 84 deaths 
(see France) 10 Aug. ,, 

Messages of sympathy from king Edward and 
president Loubet ; public funeral, M. Combes and 
other ministers present . . .13 Aug. ,, 

Humbert trial begins 8 Aug. ; sentence passed 
(see France) 22 Aug. ,, 

The king and queen of Italy are enthusiastically 
welcomed by large crowds on their visit to Paris ; 
state banquet given in honour of their majesties 
by pres. Loubet, the city brilliantly illuminated 



14 Oct. ; they visit Versailles ; are present at a 
gala performance at the opera, Paris, 15 Oct. ; 
visit the Invalides and tomb of Napoleon, lunch 
at the Italian embassy ; present at state banquet 
given by M. Declasse at the foreign office, 16 
Oct. ; the king accompanies pres. Loubet on a 
shooting excursion to Rambouillet, 17 Oct. ; king 
and queen leave Paris . . . .18 Oct. 1903 

British commercial delegates in Paris received by 
the minister of commerce, the prefect of the 
Seine, and president of the municipal council, 

29 Oct. „, 

Disturbance by a section of the working classes in 
Paris ; collision with gendarmes and republican 
guards as the demonstrators after a meeting 
march through the streets . . . 29 Oct. ,, 

M. Lebaudy's balloon "Jaune" makes a success- 
ful journey from Moisson to the Champs de Mars, 

12 Nov. „ 

important treaties of PARIS. 

Between England, France, Spain, and Portugal; 
cession of Canada to Great Britain by France, 
and Florida by Spain .... 10 Feb. 1763 

Between France and Sardinia ; the latter ceding 
Savoy, &c 15 May, 1796 

Between France and Sweden, whereby Swedish 
Pomerania and the island of Rugen were given up 
to the Swedes, who agreed to adopt the French 
prohibitory system against Great Britain 6 Jan. 1810 

Capitulation of Paris : Napoleon renounces the 
sovereignty of France .... n April, 1814 

Convention of Paris, between France and the allied 
powers ; the boundaries of France to be the same 
as on the 1st of January, 1792 . . 23 April, „ 

Peace of Paris ratified by France and all the allies, 

14 May, 18141 

Convention of St. Cloud, between marshal Davoust, 
and Wellington, and Blucher, for the surrender of 

Paris 3 July, 1815 

[The allies entered it on the 6th.] 

Treaty of Paris, between Great Britain, Austria, 
Russia, and Prussia, styling Napoleon the prisoner 
of those powers, and confiding his safeguard to 
England 2 Aug. „ 

Establishing the boundaries of France, and stipu- 
lating for the occupation of certain fortresses by 
foreign troops for three years . . 20 Nov. , r 

Treaty of Paris, confirming the treaties of C'haumont 
and Vienna, same day . . . .20 Nov. ,, 

Treaty of Paris, to fulfil the articles of the Congress 
of Vienna 10 June, 1817 

Treaty of Paris between Russia and Turkey, Eng- 
land, France, and Sardinia (revised 13 March, 
1871 ; see Russia) .... 30 March, 1856 

Declaration of Paris, signed by European powers, 
not by United States, March, 1856 : 1. Privateer- 
ing abolished. 2. Neutral flags to exempt an 
enemy's goods from capture, except contraband 
of war. 3. Neutral goods under an enemy's flag 
not to be seized. 4. Blockade to be binding must 
be effective. This declaration was censured in 
parliament in 1871. 

Treaty of Paris between England and Persia. 

4 March, 1857 

Treaty of Paris between the European powers, 
Prussia, and Switzerland, respecting Neufcliatel, 

26 May, „ 

Important commercial treaty between France and 
England 23 Jan. i860 

Convention between France and Italy for with- 
drawal of French troops from Rome . 1$ Sept. 1S64 

PARISHES. Their boundaries in England 
are said to have been fixed by Honorius, archbishop 
of Canterbury, 636, or by Alfred about 890. They 
were enlarged, and the number of parishes was 
consequently reduced in the 15th century, when 
there were 10,000. Parish registers were com- 
menced in 1538. Acts were passed in 1844 and 
1856 by which new parishes may be formed out of 
too extensive ones ; acts amended in 1869. The 
appointment of parish constables was made un- 
necessary by an act passed Aug. 1872. See Regis- 
ters, and Benefices. Number of ecclesiastical 
parishes or districts in 1893, 1,400. By the Local 



PARISIENNE, LA. 



924 



PARLIAMENT. 



Government act, passed 5 March, 1894, Parish and 
District Councils were appointed for rural parishes 
of 300 inhabitants or upwards, with suitable 
arrangements, to consist of from 5 to 15 members 
(women eligible) annually elected, on 15 April; 
1st election in 7,142 parishes, 4 Dec. et seq. 1894. 
Parish councils were established in Scotland by 
the Local Government act of 1894. Parish registers 
of several counties are now published by the Parish 
Register Society, 1897. Parish councillors (tenure 
of office) act passed, 20 June, 1899. 

PARISIENNE, LA, popular song by Casimir 
Delavigne, celebrating the defeat of the troops of 
Charles X. by the Parisians, 1 Aug. 1830; the 
music (an old air) was arranged by Auber. 

PARKES MUSEUM, see Sanitation. 

PARKESINE. A new substance, composed 
of gun-cotton, obtained from vai-ious vegetable 
bodies, and oil. It can be formed with the pro- 
perties of ivory, tortoiseshell, wood, india-rubber, 
gutta-percha, &c. It is the invention of Mr. Alex- 
ander Parkes, of Birmingham, and was shown by 
him at the Exhibition in 1862. In Dec. 1865, at 
the Society of Arts, parkesine was proved to be an 
excellent electric insulator, and therefore likely to 
be suitable for telegraphic purposes. 

PARK LANE MURDER, see Trials, 1872. 

PARKS. The Romans attached parks to their 
villas. Fulvius Lupinus, Pompey, and Hortensius, 
among others, had large parks. " In England, the 
first great park of which particular mention is made 
was that of Woodstock, formed by Henry I., 1 125. 
Queen Caroline, consort of George II., inquired, it 
is said, of the first Mr. Pitt (afterwards earl of 
Chatham), how much it would cost to shut up the 
parks as private grounds. He replied, "Three 
crowns, your majesty." The design was never 
afterwards entertained. See Finsbury, Southwark, 
Green, Hyde, James's, St., Regent's, Victoria, 
Alexandra, Batter sea, West Ham, and People's 
Parks, Clissold, Waterlow, and Yellowstone Park, 
U.S., and London Parks Act. 

The Parks Preservation Society, established by Mr. 
P. G. Heath and others 187 1 

The Parks' Regulation act, passed . 27 June, 

By new regulations, Hyde, Battersea, Regent's, and 
Victoria parks are the only metropolitan parks in 
which public addresses may be given, under 
certain restrictions Oct. 

These regulations (much objected to ; broken, and 
offenders fined) were modified by the home secre- 
tary Feb. 

Acts for the establishment of public parks in Eng- 
land and Ireland were passed, 12 July, 1869; for 
Scotland 18 March, 

Parks railway bill (Hyde Park, &c.) rejected by 
commons committee . . . .20 May, 

By the London Parks and Works Act, the charge 
of Battersea park, Bethnal Green museum and 
garden, Chelsea embankment and Victoria park 
were transferred to the Metropolitan Board of 
Works 

Clissold park, Stoke Newington, purchased for the 
public (price 96,045/.), 10 Jan. 1889. 

Walpole park, Ealing (cost 40,000/.), opened by lord 
George Hamilton .... 1 May, 

North brook park, Lee, the gift of lord North In. ink 
and his son, opened .... 14 March, 

Avery hill, Eltham (cost 25,000/.), opened as a 
London park by lord Monkswcll . 23 May, ,, 

PARK'S TRAVELS. Mungo Park set sail 
on his first voyage to Africa, under the patronage of 
the African society, to trace the source of the river 



1872 



1873 



1901 
1903 



Niger, 22 May, 1795 ; and returned 22 Dec. 1797. 
after having fruitlessly encountered great danger, 
He again sailed from Portsmouth on his second 
voyage, 30 Jan. 1805, appointed to a new expedition 
by government. It is stated that his party fired 
on the natives when resisted, and that he was killed 
at Broussa 011 the Niger, Nov. 1805. His "Travels 
in Africa" were published in 1799. 

PARLIAMENT (from the French parlement, 
discourse) derives its origin from the Saxon general 
assemblies, called Wittenagemot. The name was 
applied to the assemblies of the state under Louis VII. 
of France, about the middle of the 12th century, 
but it is said not to have appeared in our law till its 
mention in the statute of Westminster I. , 3 Edw. I , 
1272 : and yet Coke declared in his Institutes, and 
spoke to the same effect, when speaker (1592), that 
this name was used even in the time of Edward the 
Confessor, 1041. The first clear account we have of 
the representatives of the people forming a house of 
commons, was in the 43rd Hen. III. 1258, when it 
was settled by the statutes of Oxford, that twelve 
persons should be chosen to represent the commons 
in the three parliaments, which, by the sixth statute, 
were to be held yearly. Burton's Annals. The 
general representation by knights, citizens, and 
burgesses, took place 49 Hen. III. 1265. Bug dale' s 
Summons to Parliament, edit. 1685 ; see Commons 
and Lords. The power and jurisdiction of parlia- 
ment are so transcendent and absolute, that it can- 
not be confined, either for causes or persons, within 
any bounds. It hath sovereign and uncontrollable 
authority in making and repealing laws. It can 
regulate or new-model the succession to the crown 
(as was done in the reigns of Henry VIII. and 
William III.). It can alter and establish the re- 
ligion of the country, as was done in the reigns cf 
Henry VIII., Edward VI., Mary, and Elizabeth. 
Sir Edward Coke.* The ninth edition of May's 
" Practical Treatise on Parliament" was published 
in 1883 ; tentli edition, with many changes by 
sir Richard Palgrave, published Dee. 1893, Mr. 
G. Barnett Smith's elaborate " History of the 
English Parliament" was published Nov. 1892; 
see Triennial and Septennial. Return of the 
names of members of parliament from the earliest 
period to the present lime, ordered by the house 
of commons, 4 May, 1876, and 9 March, 1877. 
Part I. (1213-1702), published 1879. See Reform 
and Local Parliaments. 

First summons of barons by writ directed to the 
bishop of Salisbury, by John .... 1205 

Parliament of Merton 1236 

An assembly (the mad parliament) . n June, 1258 

Simon de Montford, earl of Leicester, summons a 

parliament, including knights of the shire . . 1264 
First assembly of the commons as a confirmed repre- 
sentation. Dvgdale 20 Jan. 1265 

First regular parliament (according to many his- 
torians), 22 Edw. 1 1294 

First a deliberative assembly ; It becomes a legisla- 
tive power, whose assent is essential to constitute 

a law 1308 

The commons elect their first speaker, Peter De la 

Mare 1377 

Parliament of only one day (Richard II. deposed) 

29 Sept. 1399 
" Ptirliamentum Indoclum" at Coventry (lawyers ex- 
eluded) 6 Oct. 1404 

* When the royal assent is given to a public bill, the 
clerk says " Le. roi [or la rcine] le vent." If the bill be 
a private bill, he says " Soil fait comme il est desiri." If 
the bill have subsidies for its object, he says, Le roi [or 
hi reinr] remercie ses loyatue siijets, accepte.leur benevolence, 
el aitssi If veat. " If the king do not think proper to assent 
to the bill, the clerk says, '' Le roi [or la reine] s'avisera " 
which is a mild way of giving a refusal. It is singular 
that the French language should still be used. 



PARLIAMENT, 



925 



PARLIAMENT. 



Members obliged to reside at the. places they repre- 
sented 1413 

Forty-shilling freeholders only to elect knights . . 1430 
" Parliamentum diabolicum " at Coventry : attainted 

. the Yorkists 1459 

Journals of the lords commenced . . . . 1509 
Acts of Parliament printed in 1501, and consecutively 

from „ 

Members protected from arrest (see Ferrars) . . 1542 
Journals of the commons begun .... 1547 
Francis Russell, son of the earl of Bedford was the 
first peer's eldest son who sat in the house of 

commons . ' 1549 

The Addled Parliament ; remonstrated with James I. 
respecting benevolences ; dissolved by him in anger 

5 April, 1614 
The parliament in which were first formed the Court 
and Country parties, 1614, disputes with James I. 

June, 1620 
Charles I. dissolves parliament, which does not meet 

for eleven years 1629 

The Long Parliament (which voted the house of lords 

as useless) first assembled ... 3 Nov. 1640 
The bishops excluded from voting on temporal mat- 
ters ,, 

The Rump Parliament ; it voted the trial of Charles I. 

Jan. 1649 
House of peers abolished . . . .6 Feb. ,, 
A peer sat as a member of the commons . . . „ 
Cromwell roughly dissolves the Long Parliament 

20 April, 1653 
Barebone's parliament (which see) . . 4 July, ,, 
A convention parliament (see Convention) . . . 1660 
Roman catholics excluded from parliament . . 1678 
The commons committed a secretary of state to the 

Tower Nov. „ 

The speaker of the commons refused by the king . 1679 
A convention parliament (see Convention) . . 1688 
James II. convenes the Irish parliament at Dublin, 

which attaints 3000 protestants . . . . 1689 
Act for triennial parliament (see Triennial) . . 1694 
First parliament of Great Britain met . 23 Oct. 1707 
Members of the house of commons accepting any 
office of profit ordered to be re-elected by statute 

6 Anne, cap. 7 „ 

The Triennial act repealed, and Septennial act voted 

(see Septennial Parliament) . . . 7 May, 1716 
The journals ordered to be printed .... 1752 
Privilege as to freedom from arrest of the servants 

of members relinquished by the commons . . 1770 
The lord mayor of London (Oliver) and alderman 
Crosby committed to the Tower by the commons 

in Wilkes's affair 1771 

Reporting the debates permitted (see under Report- 
ing) about „ 

Assembly of the first parliament of the United King- 
dom of Great Britain and Ireland . 2 Feb. 1801 
Clergymen prohibited from becoming M.P.s . . ,, 
Sir F. Burdett committed to the Tower . 6 April, 1810 
Murder of Spencer Perceval, by Bellingham, at the 

house of commons .... n May, 1812 
Return for Clare county, Ireland, of Mr. O'Connell, 
the first Roman catholic commoner elected since 

the Revolution 5 July, 1828 

The duke of Norfolk took his seat in the lords, the 
first Roman catholic peer under the Relief bill (see 
Roman Catholics) .... 28 April, 1829 

The Reformed Parliament meet . . 7 Aug. 1832 
Joseph Pease, the first Quaker admitted M.P. on his 

affirmation 15 Feb. 1833 

Houses of Parliament destroyed by fire . 16 Oct. 1834 
New houses of parliament commenced * . . 1840 

The members of the commons' and lords' houses re- 
linquish the privilege of franking letters (see 
Franking) 10 Jan. ,, 

* Termed the " Palace of Westminster." The first con- 
tract for the embankment of the river was taken in 1837, 
by Messrs. Lee ; this embankment, faced with granite, is 
886 feet in length, and projected into the river in a line 
with the inner side of the third pier of old Westminster- 
bridge. Sir Charles Barry (born 1795, died i860) was the 
architect of the sumptuous pile of buildings raised since 
1840. The whole stands on a bed of concrete twelve feet 
thick ; to the east it has a front of about 1000 feet, and 
covers an area of nine statute acres. It contains uoo 
apartments, 100 staircases, and two miles of passages or 
corridors. The great Victoria tower at the south-west 



Committal of Smith O'Brien by the commons for 
contempt (see Ireland) ... 30 April, 

The peers took possession of their house, that por- 
tion of the palace being ready . . 15 April, 

Reporters excluded by motion of John O'Connell for 
two hours 18 May, 

The commons assemble in their new house 4 Nov. 

The chairman of committees of the whole house ap- 
pointed to act as a deputy-speaker of the house of 
commons Aug. 

The two houses began to communicate by letter 

Baron L. Rothschild, the first Jew admitted 26 July, 

Court of referees to examine private bills established 

Henry Fawcett (blind), elected M. P. . July, 

The parliamentary oaths modified and made uniform 

30 April, 

Arthur M. Kavanagh (without arms and legs), elected 

Nov. 

Her Majesty authorised to proclaim prorogation of 
parliament during the recess, by act passed 

12 Aug. 

New Reform biU received royal assent . 15 Aug. 

Great dissatisfaction in the commons at the small- 
ness of their building ; a committee's report (pro- 
posing changes or a new house) printed . Oct. 

Changes in mode of dealing with private bills in 
court of referees March, 

Vote by proxy in the house of lords abolished by 
standing order 31 March, 

Reform acts for Scotland and Ireland, and Parlia- 
mentary Boundaries act passed . . 13 July, 

Parliamentary Elections act passed . 31 July, 

Parliament dissolved 1 1 Nov. 

New parliament met .... 10 Dec. 

Reporters excluded from the commons during de- 
bates on the Contagious Diseases act, 

24 May and 20 July, 

The commons sat from 2 p.m. 15 July, to 5.30 a.m., 

16 July, 

Meeting of parliament, in six days after proclama- 
tion, legalised by act passed ... 9 Aug. 

Death of the earl of Onslow, father of the house of 
lords, aged 93 24 Oct. 

Mr. Fawcett alone in the lobby (350-1, on grant of 
3o,oooL to princess Louise on her marriage), 

16 Feb. 

Bankrupt peers disqualified from sitting or voting 
in parliament by act passed . . 13 July, 

Mr. Bonham Carter succeeds Mr. J. C. Dodson as 
deputy speaker and chairman of committees, 

8 April, 

Mr. Biggar and others caused reporters and others 
to be excluded from the debates in the commons ; 
much discussion ensued ; Mr. Disraeli's resolu- 
tion that strangers are not to withdraw without 
a vote of the house or order of the speaker, 
unanimously adopted . . . 31 May, 

Only 89,938?. paid to members (commons) for sala- 
ries and pensions, civil, naval, and military July, 

The ballot act passed .... 18 July 

Mr. Plimsoll, greatly excited, makes unparliamen- 
tary charges at the proposed withdrawal of the 
Merchant Shipping Bill, 22 July ; apologises ; 
motion for reprimand withdrawn . 29 July, 

The commons through Irish members (principally 
Messrs. Pamell, Biggar, O'Donnell, Power, Gray, 
Kirk, and Nolan) sat from 3.45 p.m. 2 July, to 
7.15 a.m. 3 July; from about 4 p.m. 31 July, to 
6. 10 p.m. . . . . . . . 1 Aug. 

Temporary resolution to check obstructiveness (by 
abuse of the power of moving the adjournment of 
the house) passed (282-32) . . 27 July, 

Major O'Gorman, M.P. for Waterford, "named" by 
the speaker for refusing to submit to his authority, 
6 Aug. ; apologises .... 7 Aug. 

Much obstruction by home-rule party, June, July ; 
Mr. Parnell's virtual vote of censure of the 
speaker (for directing notes to be taken, &c.) lost 
(29-421) 11, 12 July, 

Breach of privilege ; Mr. C. B. Grissell having stated 
that he could influence the committee on the 
" Tower high level bridge," is examined by a 



1847 

1849 
1852 



1853 
1855 



1867 



1870 



1871 



1872 



187S 



1877 



1879 



extremity is 346 feet in height, and towers of less magni- 
tude crown other portions of the building. In the recess 
of 1894-5 extensive alterations were made in the 
house and private rooms to promote the comfort of the 
members and public. 



PARLIAMENT. 



926 



PARLIAMENT, 



committee ; he and Mr. John Sandilands Ward 
■convicted, 16 July ; Mr. Grissell went abroad ; 
order for his apprehension issued ; Mr. Ward ap- 
peared before the house ; taken into custody, 23 
July ; released, 30 July ; Mr. Grissell surrenders ; 
sent to Newgate, 14 Aug. ; released . 15 Aug. 18 

Motion for quinquennial parliaments negatived, 
(110-160) 24 Feb. 18 

Sir Stafford Northcote's resolutions against obstruc- 
tion, 26 Feb. ; adopted in the standing orders 
(160-20) 28 Feb. , 

Mr. Grissell arrested, and committed to Newgate, 
2, 3 March ; discharged . . .24 March, , 

Mr. Charles Bradlaugh, M.P. for Northampton (not 
believing in God) objects to take oath of alle- 
giance ; his affirmation refused, 3 May ; his offer 
to take oath not permitted . . .21 May, , 

A committee appointed ; recommends that he be 
allowed to affirm, 16 June ; much discussion en- 
sues ; resolution of Mr. Labouchere, M.P. for 
Northampton, that Mr. Bradlaugh be permitted 
to affirm, negatived (275-230) . . 22 June, , 

Mr. Bradlaugh's claim to take the oath, or affirm, 
denied by the house ; he refuses to withdraw, and 
is taken into custody, and imprisoned in the clock 
tower (vote 326-38), 23 June ; released by vote, 

24 June, , 

Resolution moved by Mr. Gladstone that affirma- 
tion be accepted instead of an oath in certain 
cases ; opposed by sir Stafford Northcote as re- 
scinding vote of 22 June ; resolution accepted 
(303-249) 1, 2 July ; Mr. Bradlaugh affirms, is ad- 
mitted, and votes 2 July, , 

See Trials, 1881. 

The commons sat continuously 21 hours (devoted 
to Irish affairs) 26, 27 Aug. , 

Debate on Irish amendments to the address : 

Mr. Parnell's lost (57-435) . . 6-14 Jan. 1? 
Mr. Justin McCarthy's (37-201) . 17-19 Jan. , 
Mr. Dawson (36-274) . . . .20 Jan. , 
Mr. O'Kelly (34178) . . . 20 Jan. , 

House of Commons on Irish protection bill, sat 
from 4 p.m. 25 Jan. to 2 p.m. . . 26 Jan. , 

Mr. Gladstone's motion for urgency carried (251- 
33) 

On first reading of Mr. Forster's coercion bill, de- 
bate summarily closed by Mr. H. Brand, the 
speaker (termed coup d'dtat)^ p.m. 31 Jan. to 9.30 
p.rii 2 Feb. , 

Thirty-six Irish members, Mr. Parnell, Mr. Justin 
McCarthy, and others, suspended for the sitting 
for disorderly conduct ; Mr. Gladstone's resolu- 
tions ; speaker invested with all the powers of the 
house to regulate business when voted urgent by 
three-fourths of the members (at least 200) (234- 
150) 3 Feb. , 

New stringent rules to be enforced when business is 
declared urgent by a minister of the crown ; laid 
on table by the speaker .... 9 Feb. ,, 

Supplemental rules, 17 Feb. modified ; acted on 
21 Feb. ; new rules announced n, 12 March, , 

Mr. Gladstone's resolution for " urgency," with the 
supplies lost (212-296) . . . 14 March, ,, 

Mr. Bradlaugh re-elected for Northampton, 9 April, , 

His offer to take the oath opposed (208-175) ; he is 
forcibly removed, 26 April ; again ejected, 10 May, , 

New parliamentary oaths bill discharged 5 July, ,, 

Mr. Bradlaugh's attempt to enter the House of 
Commons, forcibly resisted by the poliee. Mr. 
Labouehere's motion to rescind the resolution of 
10 May, 1881, negatived (191-7) . . 3 Aug. , 

Differences between the houses on the land bill 
settled by mutual concessions . . 12-15 Aug. , 

Mr. Bradlaugh not permitted to sit ; government 
motion negatived (286-228) . . .7 Feb. 18 

New rules of procedure including the cloture (the 
power of closing a debate) and delegation of 
business, proposed by Mr. Gladstone . 13 Feb. , 

Proposal for writ for Northampton negatived 
(307-18) ; Mr. Bradlaugh repeats oath and takes 
a seat ; withdraws when directed ; 21 Feb. ex- 
pelled (291-83) ; new writ to be issued . 22 Feb. 

Michael Davitt, convict, elected M.P. forco. Meath 
(see Fcniiuis) 22 Feb. . 

Mr. Bradlaugh re-elected for Northampton 2 Mai-. , 

Resolution of 7 Feb. re-affirmed (286-228) . 6 Mar. , 

Mr. Marriott's amendment on Mr. Gladstone's new 
rule negatived (318-279) . 30-31 Mar. 



Discussion on the cloture deferred . . 1 May, 1882 
Commons ; sat 2 p.m. -8 p.m. 30 hours, committee 

on prevention of crime bill ; 25 Irish members 

suspended for wilful obstruction 30 June and 

1 July, ,, 
Mr. O'Donnell suspended for 14 days (181-33) 3 July, » 
Difference between the two houses ; compromise 

(see Ireland) Aug. ,, 

Mr. Bradlaugh publishes a determined manifesto, 

Times 23 Sept. ,, 

Parliament meets 24 Oct. ; discussion on procedure 

resumed 25 Oct ,, 

Mr. Gibbons' amendment (the cloture to be carried 

by two-thirds instead of bare majority) negatived 

322-238 ....... 1-2 Nov. ,, 

The cloture adopted (304-260) . . 10-11 Nov. ,, 
The new rules made standing orders 27 Nov.-i Dec. ,, 
Affirmation bill introduced in the commons (184-53) 

19-20 Feb. 1883 
Mr. O'Kelly suspended for a week for giving Mr. 

Forster the lie 22 Feb. „ 

Grand committee's first meeting, Mr. Goschen 

chairman 9 April, ,, 

Affirmation bill rejected by the commons (292-289) 

3-4 May, ,, 
Mr. Bradlaugh not permitted to take the oath 4 May, ,, 
His exclusion voted (232-65) . . . 9 July, ,, 

Arrested by Mr. Gosset, the sergeant-at-arms, for 

attempting to enter the house, 3 Aug. ; brings an 

action against the sergeant, 7 Dec. ; verdict for 

defendant 9 Feb. 1884 

Mr. Bradlaugh administers the oath to himself, sits, 

and votes; excluded by vote (228-120)11 Feb. ; 

re-elected for Northampton (4,032-3664) 19 Feb. ; 

vote for his re-exclusion (226-173) . . 21 Feb. ,, 
New Reform bill introduced by Mr. Gladstone 

28 Feb. ,, 
Commons : irregular debate on Egyptian poliey ; 

supplies ; sat fromi2.2o p.m. isMarch, to 5.45 a.m. 

(Sunday) 16 March, ,, 

Queen v. Bradlaugh for voting without taking the 

oath, Queen's Bench . . . .13 June, ,, 
Verdict for the crown . .... 30 June, ,, 
Conflict between the lords and commons, respecting 

the Franchise bill, (see Reform) ....,, 
Explosion (dynamite) on the stair above the crypt 

in the house of commons ; much damage done ; 

two police constables, Wm. Cole and Thos. 

Cox, and Mr. Green seriously hurt. [Cole 

picked up a blazing parcel, to carry it out and 

saved the building ; he and Cox commended by 

the queen, and rewarded for steady courage. Cole 

received the Albert medal, in Westminster Hall 

26 March.]* Westminster Hall much injured by 

another explosion a few minutes past 2 p.m. 

24 Jan. 1885 
Mr. Bradlaugh's appeal disallowed by the lords 

justices 28 Jan. „ 

The new rules and the cloture first applied ; Mr. 

O'Brien expelled 24 Feb. ,, 

Mr. Bradlaugh not permitted to take the oath 

(263-219) 6 July, ,, 

Retirement of Mr. Ralph A. Gosset ; knighted after 

a long service and ten years sergeant-of-arms 

(died 27 Nov.) 30 Sept. ; succeeded by H. D. 

Erskine ,, 

Parliament dissolved 18 Nov. ,, 

New parliament meets 12 Jan. ; opened by the 

queen 21 Jan. 1886 

Mr. Bradlaugh takes the oath, intervention stopped 

by the speaker 13 Jan. „ 

* The chief Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police, 
sirE. Y. W. Henderson, issued an order stating that the 
Prime Minister directed the payment of 50/., each to Cole 
and Cox from the Royal Bounty Fund, and further, that 
the Home Secretary has approved of the payment of 
120I. to Cole and 70L to Cox, while sir James Ingham 
granted them the sum of 30/. each from the Bow-street 
Reward Fund. Both were granted a pension of 78L per 
annum each, April, 1886. Cole and Cox were each pre- 
sented with a money testimonial from the members of 
both Houses (108?. 10s. each ; Cole received a gold watch 
and chain). They both left the hospital at the end of 
March, 1S85. On 5 Oct. 1885, John Colebrook, Esq., 
retired surgeon of the Indian army, a member of the 
Royal Institution of Great Britain, presented to both 
men a copy of this book at the institution. 



PAKLIAMENT. 



927 



PAKLIAMENT. 



Mr. Gladstone introduces his bill, "to make better 
provision for the future government of Ireland ;" 
the House crammed, occupied by members from 
6 a.m 8 April, 18: 

Sir T. Erskine May (author of the " Practice of 
Parliament," 1884 et seq.) assistant clerk to the 
commons 1856 ; clerk 1871 ; retires 15 April 
(created lord Farnborough 10 May ; died 17 May) ; 
succeeded by Reginald Palgrave . . 1 May, ,. 

Death of lord Redesdale, chairman of committees 
since 1851, 2 May ; succeeded by the duke of Buck- 
ingham (122 against 103 for lord Morley), 10 May, „ 

New parliament meets (see England) . 5 Aug. ,, 

Parliament prorogued . . . .25 Sept. ,. 

New procedure rules with increased application of 
the closure, &c, introduced 21 Feb. ; first and 
principal rule adopted (222-120) . 16 March, 18! 

House of commons sat above 21 hours 21-22 March, ,, 

The commons decide that an article in the Times of 
May 2 on Mr. Dillon is not a breach of privilege 
(Mr. Dillon rejects the offer of a public prosecu- 
tion) 4, 5 May ; Mr. Gladstone's motion for a 
committee rejected (317-233) . . 6, 7 May, „ 

Much obstruction of the opposition to the 
Criminal Law (Amendment) Ireland Bill in the 
commons ; many amendments 28 March et seq. ,, 

Mr. T. Healy suspended for 14 clays . 29 July, ,, 

Mr. C. Graham and Mr. E. Harrington suspended 
for speaking disrespectfully of the house of lords 

13 Sept. „ 

New rules of procedure introduced ; rule 1 (limiting 
the sittings of the commons on ordinary days 
from 3 p.m. to 1 a.m.) passed 24 Feb. ; rule 2 
(giving the power of closure to a majority in a 
house of 100), 3-8 (for repressing disorder and 
waste of time) passed 28 Feb. ; 9-12 passed 29 Feb. ; 
13 (reviving grand committees, &c.) 7 March, 18J 

Mr. C. A. V. Conybeare, M.P., suspended for a 
month (or to the end of the session) for libelling 
the speaker in the Star newspaper . 21 July, ,, 

Illegal attempt by constable Jeremiah Sullivan to 
arrest Mr. Sheehy, M.P., in the precincts of the 
House ; committee to consider breach of privilege 
appointed 26 Nov. ; breach affirmed, but no 
action 7 Dec. ,, 

Dr. Tanner suspended for insulting Mr. Balfour 

21 Dec. ,, 

The house of lords meets to pass the Appropriation 
Bill, 11.20 p.m 22 Dec. ,, 

Parliament meets, 21 Feb. ; prorogued . 30 Aug. 18E 

Parliament meets 11 Feb. 18c 

Mr. Labouchere suspended from sitting for a week, 
for asserting his disbelief in lord Salisbury's 
denial of connection with a conspiracy for de- 
feating the ends of justice in relation to a recent 
trial 28 Feb. „ 

A select committee on procedure in parliament 
nominated (Mr. Goschen (chairman), Mr. A. J. 
Balfour, Mr. J. Chamberlain, Mr. Gladstone, sir 
W. V. Harcourt, lord Hartington, and others), 
27 June ; first met, 30 June. Mr. Balfour's 
report not accepted ; some of the members 
retire . . . . . . . 14 July, ,, 

[The committee recommended various means 
for saving the time of parliament in passing bills 
from one session to another, and for shortening 
the sessions, &c] 

The commons sat from 3 p.m. to 7 a.m. (obstruction 
to Irish light railways bill) . . 14, 15 Aug. ,, 

The resolution against Mr. Bradlaugh, 22 June, 
1880, ordered to be expunged from the journals 
of the commons, 27 Jan. ; he died . 30 Jan. 18c 

Sir William Whiteway, premier of Newfoundland, 
with other delegates, appears at the bar of the 
house of lords ; he makes a statement in defence 
of the colony's claims .... 23 April, ,, 

Mr. Cunninghame Graham, M.P., expelled from 
France for seditious speeches . . 11 May, ,, 

Capt. Edmund Hope Verney expelled from the 
house of commons, having been sentenced to a 
year's imprisonment for a misdemeanour on his 
own confession 12 May, ,, 

Mr. Atkinson, M.P., suspended for disrespect to 
the speaker 27 July, ,, 

Parliament prorogued 5 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Edward S. W. De Cobain, M.P. for Belfast; 
fled from justice ; commanded to attend the 
house on 23 July, 1891 ; expelled . 26 Feb. 18c 



[See Trials, 17, 21 March et seq. 1893.] 

Mr. George W. Hastings, M.P. for E. Worcester- 
shire, sentenced to 5 years' penal servitude for 
fraud as a trustee (see Trials), 11 March; ex- 
pelled from the house . . .21 March, 1892 

Mr. Fenwick's resolution for the payment of 
members of parliament rejected by the commons 
(227 — 162) 25 March, ,, 

Mr. James F. Buckley, Mr. John W. Maclure, M.P., 
Mr. William B. Hawkins, and Mr. John Conacher, 
directors of the Cambrian railway, were admon- 
ished by the speaker, by direction of the house 
of commons, for a breach of privilege in dismiss- 
ing Mr. John Hood, a stationmaster, on account 
of his evidence given to the committee on the 
hours of railway servants . . .7 April, ,, 

Mr. Cunninghame Graham suspended for a week 
for disorderly conduct .... 4 May, ,, 

Parliament dissolved, 28 June ; new parliament 
meets 4 Aug. „ 

The publication in the Times of Viscount Wol- 
mer's words, asserting that some of the Irish 
members were paid by government, declared to 
be a breach of privilege ; lord Wolmer withdrew 
his words 16 Feb. 1893 

Mr. William Allen's resolution for the payment of 
members adopted by the commons (276-229) 

24 March, ,, 

Mr. Michael Davitt, in compliance with the Act of 
1883, as a bankrupt, retires from parliament, 
about ... .... 12 May, „ 

The charge of breach of privilege against the Daily 
News, for burlesque in parliamentary reports, 
dropped 5 June, ,, 

Mr. Gladstone's resolution (termed gagging) for re- 
stricting the discussion in committee on the Irish 
home-rule bill by means of the closure (see above, 
March, 1887), adopted (299-267), 30 June; the 
committee stage closed amid great excitement ; 
order restored by calling in the speaker, see 
Ireland, 27 July ; Mr. Sexton suspended for the 
night for refusing to withdraw his assertion 
that Mr. Brodrick's remark that the Irish were 
"an impecunious and garrulous race" was 
" grossly impertinent " . . . n July, ,, 

The closure much adopted in the debates on the 
Irish government bill, see Gagging and Ireland, 
July, Aug.; the bill passed by the commons 
(301 — 267), 2 Sept. ; rejected by the lords 
(419 — 41), 8, 9 Sept. ; parliament sits, 31 Jan. — 
22 Sept. ; 2 Nov. — 27 Dec. ; prorogued, 5 March, 1894 

Disagreement of the lords and commons, see Em- 
ployers' liability bill, Dec. 1893, and Local Govern- 
ment bill (parish councils) . . . Feb. 

New session, 12 March .... 25 Aug. 

New session 5 Feb. 

Mr. William Allen's resolution for the payment of 
members adopted by the commons (176—158) 

22 March, 

Mr. Dalziel's resolution for a second ballot in cer- 
tain cases in parliamentary elections, carried 
(132 — 72) 6 April, 

Resignation of Mr. Arthur Wellesley Peel, the 
speaker ; hearty thanks of the house, 9 April ; 
created viscount, with 4,000/.. pension, receives 
freedom of the city of London . . April, 

Mr. William Court Gully elected speaker (285 — 274) 

10 April, 

The earl of Selborne's proposition to retain his seat 
in the commons as viscount Wolmer, after suc- 
ceeding his father as a peer, set aside by the 
Vacation of Seats committee. . . 20 May, 

Dissolution 8 July, 

Parliament meets (see Commons) 12 Aug., prorogued, 

5 Sept. „ 

Parliament meets, queen's speech, 11 Feb. ; ad- 
dress voted, 18 Feb. ; new sessional order respect- 
ing days reserved for supply (20 days) adopted, 
27 Feb. ; parliament prorogued . . 14 Aug. 1896 

Parliament re-assembles, queen's speech, 19 Jan. ; 
address voted, 26 .Jan. ; the sessional order of 
1896 renewed (commons) . . -29 Jan. 1897 

Mr. T. Redmond and 3 others suspended for dis- 
order in the commons .... 28 May, ,, 

The house of lords attends worship at the Abbey 
and the house of commons at St. Margaret's, 
Westminster . ... 20 June, ,, 



PARLIAMENT. 



928 



PARLIAMENT. 



Congratulatory addresses to the queen by the lords 
and commons (411-41), 21 June; presented at 
Buckingham palace . . . .23 June, 1897 

Mr. John Kirkwood admonished by the commons 
for refusing to answer questions asked by a com- 
mittee on money lending ... 16 July, ,, 

Parliament prorogued .... 6 Aug. ,, 

Parliament meets, queen's speech, address voted 
in the lords, 8 Feb. 1898 ; the sessional orders re- 
newed (commons), 8 Feb. ; address voted, 18 
Feb. ; parliament prorogued . .12 Aug. 1898 

Parliament meets, queen's speech, address voted in 
the lords, 7 Feb. 1899; sessional orders renewed 
(commons), 7 Feb. ; address voted, 21 Feb. 1899 ; 
adjourns .... 28 March-10 April, „ 

Debates in both houses ; sir A. Milner's minimum 
of reforms in the Transvaal warmly supported, 

28 July, 1899 

Parliament prorogued, 9 Aug. ; meets : queen's 
speech on the S. African crisis, address voted 
(lords), 17 Oct. ; (commons) Mr. Dillon's vote of 
censure rejected (322-54), 17 Oct. ; Mr. Stanhope's 
negatived (362-135) ; address voted, 19 Oct. ; par- 
liament prorogued .... 27 Oct. „ 

Parliament meets, address voted in the lords, 30 
Jan. 1900; and in the commons, 9 Feb. ; 
sessional order agreed to (303-62) . 15 Feb. 1900 

Letters from Mr. Labouchere and other M.P.'s to 
Boer officials in S. Africa published as a parlia- 
mentary paper, much discussed . 23 Aug. „ 

Parliament prorogued, 8 Aug. ; dissolved, 25 Sept. „ 

New Parliament meets ; Mr. Wm. Court Gully re- 
elected speaker (see Commons) . . 3 Dec. „ 

Queen's speech: "I have watched with cordial 
satisfaction the development of my greater 
colonies into self-governing communities ; I feel 
confident that the establishment of the great 
Federation of Australia will prove advantageous 
not only to the colonies immediately concerned, 
but to the empire at large " ; address voted in 
the lords, 6 Dec. ; sessional, orders renewed 
(commons), 6 Dec. ; address voted(26s-23), 10 Dec. ,, 

Parliament meets (on the death of the queen, 22 
Jan.) 23 Jan - 190 1 

B.C. peers formally protest against the terms of 
the Accession oath .... 14 Feb. „ 

Parliament opened by the king, speech from the 
throne ; address voted in the lords, 14 Feb. ; in 
the commons 26 Feb. „ 

Eleven Nationalists, Mr. Flavin and others, resist- 
ing the closure on the education vote of supply, 
refusing to go out on division, were suspended, 
and had to be forcibly removed by the police, 

5 March, ,, 

The standing order relating to disorderly conduct 
amended . ' 7 March, „ 

The editor and publisher of the Globe newspaper 
reprimanded for breach of privilege . 16 Aug. „ 

New supply rule to hasten despatch passed, 7 
Aug. ; parliament prorogued . . 18 Aug. ,, 

The closure of debate adopted 74 times during the 

SGSSiOll . * * • • • • • ■ )) 

The -king and queen open parliament ; praise of 
the troops ; their cheerfulness amid the hardships 
of guerilla warfare, humanity in their treatment of 
the enemy, even to their own detriment, strongly 
emphasized in the king's speech, 16 Jan. ; 

address voted 29 Jan - r 9° 2 

Some of the new rules of procedure adopted (289- 

98), issued 30 Jan. ; came into force . 5 May, ,, 
Mr. Archibald Milman, clerk of the house of com- 
mons, resigns; made K.C.B. mid Jan. ; dies 14 Feb. „ 
Sir C. P. Ilbert appointed ... 7 Feb. „ 
Mr. Dillon suspended for a week . 20 March, „ 
Mr. Redmond, protesting against the enforcement 
of certain sections of the crimes act (1887) in 
Ireland, moves the adjournment of the commons ; 
rejected (253-148) .... 17 April, ,, 
All-night debate on the new rules of procedure, 

closed 5.40 a.m 30 April, ,, 

Nationalists' motion against the speaker rejected 

* (308-63) 7 May. .. 

"Col." Lynch (elected M.P. for Galway city, 
spring, 1902) arrested on a charge of treason 

11 June, ,, 
Mr P. A. M'Hugh, M.P., arrested . . 15 June, ,, 
Mr. Balfour warmly welcomed as prime minister 
(commons) '4 Jutyi » 



Parliament adjourns, 8 Aug. ; meets, Mr. John 

O'Donnell suspended for disorder . . 16 Oct. 1902 
Mr. Balfour's closure scheme (styled guillotine by 
some) for restricting discussion in committee and 
report stages of the Education bill, carried by 
119 majority (see above, 1893) . . 11 Nov. ,, 
New sessional orders relating to procedure con- 
verted into standing orders (155-61) . 1 Dec. ,, 

Parliament prorogued . . . . 18 Dec. ,, 

Parliament opened by the king . . 17 Feb. 1903 

Parliament opened by the king ; king's speech ; 
address voted in the lords, 17 Feb. ; in the com- 
mons, after amendments (all negatived) [on 
housing of the working classes, provision of 
work for the unemployed ; land forces' organisa- 
tion ; ministers of the crown and public com- 
panies, and other topics] . . .26 Feb. ,, 

Army estimates, 1903-4, considered in committee 
of supply 9, 10, 11 March, ,, 

Unionist motion to reduce the number of men in 
army estimates by 27,000 defeated (245-154), 

11 March, „ 

Church discipline bill (No. 1) passed second read- 
ing (190-139) 12 March, ,, 

Irish land bill introduced by Mr. Wyndham, well 
received by the Irish party . . 25 March, ,, 

Navy estimates, 1993-4 . 16, 18, 30, 31 March, ,, 

London education bill, first reading . . 7 April, ,, 

Budget : reduction of income tax from is. 3d. to 
lid. ; abolition of the corn duty . 23 April, ,, 

London education bill, second reading . 29 April, ,, 

Resolution sanctioning Transvaal loan of 35,000,000^. 
agreed to without a division ; Mr. Chamberlain's 
statement on the financial position of the Trans- 
vaal 6 May, ,, 

Irish land bill debate, 4, 5 May ; second reading 
(443-26) 7 May, „ 

Port of London bill read second time and referred 
to joint committee ; resolution calling upon 
government to extend and amend workmen's 
compensation act, agreed to . -13 May, „ 

Resolution (lords) that parliament ought to meet 
earlier in the winter and rise early in July, 
carried 25 May, ,, 

London education bill committee, carried with 
amendment (242-114), 19 May ; reported 26 May, ,, 

Motion that the lords' veto on any measure pre- 
sented by the commons should be limited to one 
session, rejected (118-62) . . .27 May, ,, 

Sugar convention bill, first reading (commons) 
(142-82) 28 May, „ 

Sir Chas. Dilke called attention to Mr. Chamber- 
lain's speeches on imperial fiscal reform ; 
speeches by Mr. Balfour, Mr. Chamberlain and 
others 28 May, ,, 

Bill to abolish the declaration made by the 
sovereign on accession (lords) rejected (109-62), 

29 June, ,, 

Irish land bill committee, 15 June ; reported 17 
July ; third reading (317-20) . . 21 July, ,, 

London education bill, third reading (228-118), 

22 July, ,, 

Debate (lords) on fiscal policy . . 23, 24 July, „ 

London education bill passes through committee 
(lords), 4 Aug. ; third reading 11 Aug. ; lords' 
amendments agreed to by commons . 12 Aug. ,, 

Irish land bill passes through committee (lords), 
with slight alterations, 7 Aug. ; third reading 
(lords), 1 1 Aug. ; lords' amendments to commons' 
amendments agreed to . . . 13 Aug. ,, 

Indian budget 13 Aug. ,, 

Royal assent to various measures ; parliament pro- 
rogued 14 Aug. to 2 Nov. ; further prorogued to 
2 Feb. 1904. 

Visit of British M.P.s to France duriug . Nov. ,, 

NUMBER AND DURATION OF PARLIAMENTS, FROM. 
27 EDW. I. 1299, TO 59 VICT. 1895. 

Edward 1 8 pari, in 8 yrs'. reign 

Edward II 15 ,, 20 ,, 

Edward III 37 ,, 50 „ 

Richard II 26 ,, 22 ,, 

Henry IV 10 ,, 14 ,, 

Henry V. . . . . 11 ,, 9 ,, 

Henry VI 22 ,, 39 ,, 

Edward IV 5 ,, 22 

Richard III 1 ,, 2 ,, 

Henry VII 8 „ 24 „ . 



PARLIAMENT. 



929 



PAEMA. 



Reign. 


Day of Meeting. * 


When Dissolved. 


Henry VIII. . 


21 Jan. 


1510 


23 Feb. 


1510 




4 Feb. 


15" 


4 March 


1513 




5 Feb. 


1514 


22 Dec. 


1515 




15 April 


1523 


13 Aug. 


1523 




3 Nov. 


1529 


4 April 


1536 




8 June 


1536 


18 July 


,, 




28 April 


1539 


24 July 


1540 




16 Jan. 


1541 


28 March 


1544 




30 Jan. 


1545 


uncertain 






23 Nov. 




31 Jan. 


1547 


Ebward VI. 


4 Nov. 


1547 


15 April 


1552 




1 March 


1553 


31 March 


1553 


Mary 


5 Oct. 




5 Dec. 






2 April 


1554 


5 May 


1554 




12 Nov. 




16 Jan. 


1555 




21 Oct. 


1555 


9 Dec. 






20 Jan. 


1SS8 


17 Nov. 


1558 


Elizabeth . . 


23 Jan. 


1559 


8 May 


1559 




11 Jan. 


1563 


2 Jan. 


1567 




2 April 


1571 


29 May 


1571 




8 May 


1572 


19 April 


1583 




23 Nov. 


1584 


14 Sept. 


1585 




29 Oct. 


1586 


23 March 


1587 




12 Nov. 


1588 


29 March 


1589 




19 Feb. 


1593 


10 April 


*593 




24 Oct. 


1597 


9 Feb. 


1598 




27 Oct. 


1601 


19 Dec. 


1601 


James I. . 


19 March 


1604 


9 Feb. 


j6ii 




5 April. 


1614 


7 June 


1614 




16, 23, 30 










Jan. 


. 1621 


8 Feb. 


1622 




12 Feb. 


1624 


27 March 


1625 


Charles I. . 


17 May 


1625 


12 Aug. 


,, 




6 Feb. 


1626 


15 June 


1626 




17 March 


1628 


10 March 


. 1629 




13 April 


1640 


5 May 


1640 


Long Parliament 


3 Nov. 


,, 


20 April 


1653 


Commonwealth 


3 Sept. 


1654 


22 Jan. 


1655 




17 Sept. 


1656 


4 Feb. 


1658 




27 Jan. 


1659 


22 April 


1659 




7 May 




16 March 


1660 


Charles II. . . 


25 April 


1660 


29 Dec. 


,, 


Pensionary Pari. 


8 May 


1661 


24 Jan. 


• 1679 




6 March 


1679 


12 July 




Seven Proroga- 










tions. 


17 Oct. 




18 Jan. 


1681 


James IL . 


21 March 


1681 


28 March 




(Convention.) 


19 May 


1685 


2 July 


1687 


William III. . 


22 Jan. 


1689 


6 Feb. 


1690 




20 March 


1690 


11 Oct. 


1695 




22 Nov. 


1695 


7 July 


1698 




24 Aug. 


1698 


19 Dec. 


1700 


Anne . 


6 Feb. 


1701 


11 Nov. 


1 701 




30 Dec. 


,, 


2 July 


1702 




20 Aug. 


1702 


5 April 


1705 




25 Oct. 


1705 


11 April 


1708 




18 Nov. 


1708 


28 Sept. 


1710 




25 Nov. 


1710 


8 Aug. 


1713 


George I. . . 


11 Nov. 


I 7 I 3 


15 Jan. 


i7 r 5 




21 March 


I 7 I 5 


10 March 


1722 


George IL 


9 Oct. 


1722 


7 Aug. 


1727 




28 Jan. 


1728 


18 April 


1734 




14 Jan. 


1735 


28 April 


1 741 




4 Dec. 


1741 


18 June 


1747 




10 Nov. 


1747 


8 April 


1754 


George III. . . 


14 Nov. 


J 754 


21 March 


1761 




3 Nov. 


1761 


12 March 


1768 




10 May 


1768 


30 Sept. 


J 774 




29 Nov. 


1774 


1 Sept. 


1780 




31 Oct. 


1780 


25 March 


1784 




18 May 


1784 


21 June 


1790 




26 Nov. 


1790 


20 May 


1796 




27 Sept. 


1796 


29 June 


1802 




16 Nov. 


1802 


24 Oct. 


1806 




15 Dec. 


1806 


29 April 


1807 




22 June 


1807 


24 Sept. 


1812 




24 Nov. 


1812 


10 June 


1818 


George IV. . 


14 Jan. 


1819 


29 Feb. 


1820 




23 April 


1820 


2 June 


1826 




14 Nov. 


1826 


24 July 


1830 


William IV. 


26 Oct. 


. 1830 


22 April 


1831 




14 June 


1831 


3 Dec. 


1832 



1879. 



■book, 



Reign. 



William IV. 
Victoria . 



Edward VII. 



Day of Meeting. * 



29 June . 
19 Feb. . 
15 Nov. . 
19 Aug. . 
18 Nov. . 

4 Nov. . 
1 April . 

31 May . 

1 Feb. . 

10 Dec. . 

5 March . 
29 April . 
12 Jan. . 

5 Aug. . 

4 Aug. . 
12 Aug. . 

3 Dec. . 
14 Feb. . 



1833 
1835 
1837 
1841 
1847 
1852 

1857 



1900 
1901 



When Dissolved. 



30 Dec. 

17 July 
23 June 
23 July 

1 July 
21 March . 1857 
23 April 

6 July 

11 Nov. . 1868 
26 Jan. . 1874 
23 March . 1880 

18 Nov. . 1885 
26 June . 1886 
28 June . 1892 

8 July . 1895 
25 Sept. . 1900 



1834 
1837 



1852 



i86 S 



PARLIAMENT of Ireland, it is said, 

began with conferences of the English settlers on 
the hill of Tara, in 11 73. Writs for knights of the 
shire were issued in 1295. The Irish parliament 
met last on 2 Aug. 1800; the bill for the union 
having 



PARLIAMENT of Scotland consisted of 

barons, prelates, and abbots, and occasionally of 
burgesses. A great national council was held at 
Scone by John Balliol, 9 Feb. 1292 ; and by Robert 
Bruce at Cambuskenneth, in 1326. A house of 
commons was never formed in Scotland. The par- 
liament of Scotland sanctioned the act of union on 
16 Jan. 1707, and met for the last time on 22 April, 
same year. 

The parliament hall, Edinburgh castle, erected by 
James I., in 1434, was thoroughly and judiciously 
restored by M. Hippolyte Blanc, at the expense of 
the late Mr. Nelson and family. The hall was re- 
opened, Feb. 1891. The undertaking was greatly pro- 
moted by the investigations of lords Napier and 
Ettrick, major Gore Booth, and Mr. R. Chambers. 

PARLIAMENT of Paris was instituted by 
Philip Augustus II., 1 190, and was made the chief 
court of justice in France by Philip IV. ; at his 
suggestion it revoked a bull of pope Boniface VIII., 
1302. It was suppressed by Louis XV., 1771 ; 
restored by Louis XVI., 1774 ; demanded a meeting 
of the states-general in 1 787 ; and was suspended by 
the national assembly, 3 Nov. 1789; see Commune. 

PARLIAMENTARY AND MUNICI- 
PAL REGISTRATION ACTS (41 & 42 Vict, 
c. 26), passed 22 July, 1878. 

PARMA (N. Italy), founded by the ancient 
Etrurians. It took part with the Lombard league 
in the wars with the German emperors. It was 
made a duchy (with Placentia), 1545. Population 
of Parma and Modena, 1890, 1,034,712; 1901, 
616,929. 

United to Spain by Philip V.'s marriage with Eliza- 
beth Farnese 1714 

Battle near Parma ; the confederates, England, 
France, and Spain, against the emperor ; both 
armies claimed the victory . . 29 June, 1734 
Battle near the Trebbia ; the French under Macdon- 
ald, defeated by Suwarrow, with the loss of 10,000 
men and four generals . . . .19 June, 1799 
The duke of Parma made king of Etruria . Feb. 1801 
Parma united to France : with Placentia and Guas- 
talla conferred on Maria Louisa, ex-empress, by 
treaty of Fontainebleau . . . . 5 April, 1814 
Parma occupied by the Austrians and Sardinians in 
the war of 1848 



* Corrected by the blue-book, 
land," printed 1879 



; Parliaments of Eng 



3 o 



PARNELLITES. 



930 



PARNELLITES. 



The Sardinians retire after the battle of Novara, 

23 March, 1849 

The duke Charles II. abdicates in favour of his son, 
Charles III. (died 17 April, 1883) . 14 March, ,, 

Charles III. stabbed by an assassin,* 26 March, dies, 

27 March, 1854 

Robert I., a minor (born 9 July, 1848) ; whose mother 
becomes regent. 

[See Bulgaria, 1893.] 

War in Italy ; the Parmesans establish a provisional 
government ; the duchess-regent retires to Switzer- 
land 1 May, 1859 

Farina became dictator ... 18 Aug. „ 

Annexation to Sardinia voted . . .12 Sept. ,, 

Col. Anviti, a former obnoxious police minister, 
having rashly returned, cruelly murdered by the 
mob 5 Oct. ,, 

Parma is now part of the province of iEmilia in the 
kingdom of Italy, to which it was annexed by de- 
cree after a plebiscite ... 18 March, i860 

Duchess-regent died 1 Feb. 1864 

PARNELLITES, the followers of Mr. Charles 
Stewart Parnell, the principal leader of the more 
energetic section of the home-rule party, 1880 et 
seq. He was born 28 June, 1846, elected m.p. for 
co. Meath, 1875-80; for Cork, 1880-91; became 
Irish parliamentary leader, with great influence, 
which he lost greatly, Nov. 1890 ; he died suddenly 
near Brighton, 6 Oct. 1891 ; solemn funeral at 
Dublin, 11 Oct. 1891; his " Life," by E. Barry 
O'Brien, Nov. 1898 ; hismother, Mrs. Delia Parnell, 
died 27 March, 1898. Mr. John Howard Parnell, 
m.p., city marshal of Dublin in 1897 et seq. See 
Home Rule and Ireland, 1879 et seq., and below. 

The Times publishes a series of articles headed 
"Parnellism and Crime," 7, 10, 14 March, 
1887 et seq. ; the third series published June, 
1887, related to the Clan-na-gael, based upon 
statements in United Ireland (Dublin), Irish 
World (New York), and other papers. The Times 
published the facsimile of a letter alleged to be 
signed by Mr. Parnell (dated 15 May, 1882), in 
which he is made to say "though I regret the 
accident of lord Cavendish's death, I cannot 
refuse to admit that Burke got no more than his 
deserts," 18 April, 1887. This letter Mr. Parnell 
in parliament termed an " anonymous fabri- 
cation " ia.m., 19 April, 1887 

Mr. Frank Hugh O'Donnell v. Mr. John Walter 
and others (for libel in the Times, "Parnellism 
and Crime"), damages claimed 50,000?., Queen's 
Bench Division, no case; verdict for the de- 
fendants 2-5 July, 1888 

Royal commission to examine into the authenticity 
of charges against certain Irish members of 
parliament 17 Sept. ,, 

The court of session, Edinburgh, dismisses Mr. 
Parnell's action against the Times 23 Oct. 1888 and 

5 Feb. 1889 

Mr. Parnell moves for a trial in the exchequer 
division, Dublin (afterwards stopped) n Feb. ,, 

Mr. Parnell's action against the Times in London 
deferred till Michaelmas sessions . . 18 June, ,, 

Parnellite Commission. 
Sir James Hannen, president ; Mr. justice Day 
and Mr. justice A. L. Smith, constituted by act 
passed 13 Aug. 1888. Preliminary meeting: sir 
C. Russell, Mr. Asquith, and others counsel for 
Mr. Parnell and other m.p.'s (65) ; attorney- 
general sir Richard Webster, Mr. W. Graham 
and others for the Times, 17 Sept. 1888 ; pro- 
ceedings begin 22 Oct. 1888. Long examination 
of witnesses ; examination of Mr. Parnell's 
alleged letters, 14 Feb. 1889 ; after the evidence 
and cross-examination of Mr. Soames, solicitor, 
and Mr. Macdonald, manager of the Times, and 
of Mr. Houston, from whom thealleged letters were 
obtained, Mr. Richard Pigott, Irish journalist, 

* Antonio Carra, in revenge of a private injury, and 
on behalf of the Giovane Italiane. He was acquitted 
through a flaw in the evidence, and died in Philadelphia 
Aug. 1887. 



who had sold them to Mr. Houston, on cross- 
examination by sir Charles Russell, grossly 
prevaricated . . . 20-22 Feb. : 

Mr. Pigott fled to Paris, and his confession that he 
forged some of the alleged letters, and had given 
false evidence, was read in the court, 27 Feb. 
(57th sitting) ; the attorney-general on behalf of 
the Times accepted the confession and expressed 
deep regret for the publication of the letters, 
27 Feb., which was confirmed by the Times 

28 Feb. 

Suicide of Richard Pigott at Madrid, 1 March ; 
buried there 6 March, 

Long address of sir C. Russell ends . 12 April, 

Pxtrick Malloy sentenced to 6 months' hard labour 
for perjury before the commission . 15 April, 

On examination Mr. Parnell denies all complicity 
with crime .... 30 April-8 May, 

Examination of archbishop Walsh and other priests 

8 May et seq. 

91st to 100th sitting, Mr. T. Sexton and other m.p.'s 
examined .... 18 June-4 July, 

101st sitting : Michael Davitt examined . 4 July, 

106th sitting : Mr. Houston, secretary of the 
"Loyal and Patriotic Union" (established in 
1885), states that in 1885 he purchased the copy- 
right of "Parnellism Unmasked" (by Richard 
Pigott). The court refuses to accede to the ap- 
plication of sir C. Russell to inspect the books of 
the " Loyal and Patriotic Union" . 12 July, 

107th sitting : Mr. Parnell and his friends with 
their counsel withdraw from the case . 15 July, 

112th sitting : examination of the Land League 
account books and documents [important books 
lost] : adjournment to 24 Oct. . . 25 July, 

113th sitting, 24 Oct. : speech by Mr. Biggar. 
Mr. M. Davitt began an address which was 
finished 31 Oct. 

118th to 128th sitting : Sir Henry James' address 
for the Times .... 31 0ct.-22 Nov. 

The report of the commissioners was laid before 
parliament, 13 Feb. 1890. The following is an 
abridgment of their conclusions : — I. That the 
respondent members of parliament collectively 
were not guilty of conspiring for the absolute 
independence of Ireland as a separate nation, but 
that some of them (Messrs. M. Harris, Dillon, 
W. O'Brien, W. Redmond, O'Connor, J. Condon, 
and J. J. O'Kelly), together with Mr. Davitt, 
established the Land League mainly for that 
purpose. II. That the respondents [44] did con- 
spire to promote agrarian agitation, tie non-pay- 
ment of rents, and the expulsion of the landlords 
(styled the English garrison). III. That they ac- 
quitted Mr. Parnell and others of the charge of 
insincerity in their denunciations of the Phoenix 
Park murders, and affirmed the fac-simile letter 
to be a forgery. IV. They found that the respon- 
dents did disseminate the Irish World and other 
newspapers, intending to incite to sedition and 
other crimes. V. That the charges of incitement 
to crime, except by intimidation, and of payments 
for that purpose, were not proved. VI. They 
found that the respondents did not denounce the 
system of intimidation, though they knew its 
effects ; and VII. That they defended persons 
charged with agrarian crime, and supported 
their families, but it was not proved that they 
subscribed for testimonials for, or were intimately 
associated with, notorious criminals, or aided 
their escape by payments. VIII. That they 
found that the respondents made payments to 
compensate persons injured in the commission of 
crime. IX. That the respondents did invite and 
obtain the assurance and co-operation of the 
Physical Force Party in America, including the 
Clan-na-Gael, and did not repudiate the action of 
that party. 

[Certain allegations against Mr. Parnell were 
declared not proved.] 

The report adopted with thanks, by the commons, 
after 7 days' debate, 3-1 1 March; by the lords 
(without a division), 21 March, 1890. Mr. Glad- 
stone's amendment rejected by 339 to 268. 

Parnell v. Walter and another, for libel, Queen's 
bench division, justices Denman and Wills ; 
damages claimed, 100,000?. ; 40s. paid into court, 



PAEOCHIAL CHAEITIES. 



931 



PAS1GEAPHY, 



ii Jan. Verdict for the plaintiff, by consent, 

5000L damages 3 Feb. 1890 

[The publication voted not a breach of privilege 
by the commons (260 — 212), n Feb. 1890.] 

In consequence of the issue of the divorce suit, 
capt. O'Shea, Mrs. O'Shea, and Mr. C. S. Parnell, 
15-17 Nov. 1890, Mr. Parnell was re xuested by 
Mr. W. E. Gladstone and other English liberals 
to retire from the chairmanship of the Irish party. 
He declined, and issued a manifesto to the people 
of Ireland, giving an account of private confer- 
ences with Mr. Gladstone and Mr. John Morley, 
29 Nov. The Irish R.C. bishops demanded Mr. 
Parnell' s retirement, 3 Dec. After a week's 
angry discussion in the commons' committee- 
room No. 15, the Irish party divided ; Mr. Justin 
M'Carthy, the vice-chairman, was elected chair- 
man by 44 members ; Mr. Parnell continuing 
chairman with 26 followers, 6 Dec. Manifestoes 
of the two parties issued . . 9, 10 Dec. ,, 

Collapse of negotiations (chiefly at Boulogne) of 
Mr. Parnell with Messrs. Win, O'Brien, Dillon, 
Justin M'Carthy, Sexton, and others ; Mr. Par- 
nell refuses to resign the leadership, n Feb. ; 
counter manifestoes issued . 12 Feb. et seq. 1891 

Dispute between Mr. Parnell and Mr. M'Carthy 
respecting the disposal of the league funds (in 
Paris) . ... . . . Feb., March, ,, 

Mr. Parnell in his campaign visits Roscommon, 
22 Feb., Drogheda, and other places 1 March, 

et seq. „ 

The National Federation (which nee) established by 
the Anti-Parnellites . . . .10 March, ,, 

9 Parnellites (Mr. John Redmond, leader), 72 Anti- 
Parnellites (Mr. Justin M'Carthy, leader), elected 
m.p. . July, 1892 

Mr. Gladstone and lord Tweedmouth each give 100J. 
to " Irish Parliamentary Fund," in answer to an 
appeal, 22 Aug. ; this leads to dissension in the 
Irish party Aug., Sept. 1894 

Great meeting of Parnellites at Dublin, Mr. John 
Redmond, m.p., president ... 8 Oct. ,, 

The Paris funds placed in the hands of Mr. Justin 
M'Carthy Oct. „ 

Disputes among the anti-Parnellites . . Jan. 1895 

Mr. Justin M'Carthy resigns the chairmanship of 
the party ; succeeded by Mr. Dillon, Mr. Sexton 
declining . . 18 Feb. 1896 

The anti-Parnellites vote for the conservative 
education bill 12 May, ,, 

PAEOCHIAL CHAEITIES COMMIS- 
SION, see London, 1878, and under Charities, 



PAEEICIDE. There was no law against it 
in Athens or Some, such a crime not being supposed 
possible. About 172 B.C., L. Ostius having killed 
his father, the Romans scourged the parricide; 
sewed him up in a leathern sack made air-tight, 
with a live dog, a cock, a viper, and an ape,and thus 
cast him into the sea. Miss Blandy was executed 
at Oxford for the murder of her father, April, 1752 ; 
see Trials, March, 1890. 

PAESEES or GuEBRES, the followers of 
Zaradusht, called by the Greeks Zoroaster, who is 
doubtfully said to have lived before sixth century 
B.C. (see Magi), dwelt in Persia till 638, when, at 
the battle of Kadseah, their army was decimated by 
the Arabs, and the monarchy annihilated at the 
battle of Nahavend in 641. Many submitted to 
the conquerors, but others fled to India, and their de- 
scendants still reside at Bombay (where they are 
termed Parsees). Sir Jamsetjee Jejeebhoy, the 3rd 
baronet, was elected president of the community 
there, July, 1877. ^ r< Dadabhai Naoroji, a Par- 
see merchant, was for several years professor of 
Gujerati at University college, London. He was 
nominated as m.p. for the Holborn district, but not 
elected, 1886; elected 6 July, 1892, for Central 



Finslmry ; visits Bombay, Dec. 1893. "History 
of the l'arsis," by Do-abhai Framji Karaka, pub- 
lished, 1884. See Bombay. A Parsee fire temple at 
Bombay was consecrated, Nov. 1891. 
Co iverbai, an eminent scholar, promoter of native 

female education, the mother of Mr. M. M. Bhow- 

naggree, m.p. for N.E. Bethnal-green (1895), died, 

aged 65, at Bombay, 6 Feb. 1896. 
Death of Bai Motlibai Wadia, great benefactress to 

Bombay, age I 87, 15 June, 1897. 
Sir Binshaw Manockjee Petit, a noble benefactor, died 

at Bombay, aged 78, 5 May, 1901. 

"PAETANT POUE LA SYEIE," popu- 
lar French song; words by comte Alexandre de 
Laborde; music by Hortense Beauharnais, wife of 
Louis Bonaparte, king of Holland, about 1809. The 
music became very popular after her son became 
emperor, in 1852, as Napoleon III. 

PAETHENON (from Greek parthenos, virgin), 
a temple at Athens dedicated to Minerva, erected 
about 442 B.C. In it Phidias placed his renowned 
statue of that goddess, 438 B.C. The roof was de- 
stroyed by the Venetians in 1687. Buinous state of 
the building through earthquakes, described Ti mes, 
14 Aug. 1897. "The Parthenon" published by Mr. 
James Fergusson in 1883. See Elgin Marbles. 

PAETHENOPEAN EEPUBLIC was esta- 
blished by the French at Naples (anciently called 
Parthenope), 23 Jan. 1799, and overthrown in June 
same year. 

PAETHIA (Asia). The Parthians were origi- 
nally a tribe of Scythians, who, being exiled, as 
their name implies, from their own country, settled 
near Hyrcania. Arsaces laid the foundation of an 
empire which ultimately extended over a large part 
of Asia, 250 B.C. ; the Parthians were never wholly 
subdued by the Romans. The last king, Arta- 
banus V., was killed, a.d. 226; and his territories 
were annexed to the new kingdom of Persia founded 
by Artaxerxes, who had revolted against Parthia. 

PAETICULAEISTS- The name given to 
those Germans who desire the maintenance of the 
independence of the German states, and oppose 
their absorption into the empire. M. Gasser, one 
of them, failed in an attempt to form a ministry in 
Bavaria, Sept. 1872. Particularism revived during 
the election in 1893. 

PAETITION ACT, relative to the division of 
property sold by direction of the court of chancery, 
passed 25 June, 1688. 

PAETITION TEEATIES. The first treaty 
between England and Holland for regulating the 
Spanish succession (declaring the elector of Bavaria 
next heir, and ceding provinces to France) was 
signed 19 Aug. 1698; and the second (between 
France, England, and Holland, declaring the arch- 
duke Charles presumptive heir of the Spanish mon- 
archy, Joseph Ferdinand having died in 1699), 
1 3 March, 1 700. Treaty for the partition of Poland ; 
the first was a secret convention between Russia and 
Prussia, 17 Feb. 1772 ; the second between the 
same powers and Austria, 5 Aug. same year ; the 
third was between Russia, Austria, and Prussia, 
24 Oct. 1795. 



PAETNEESHIP. 

were amended in 186; 
Liability. 



The laws respecting it 
and 1890; see Limited 



PAETY, see Processions. 

PASIGEAPHY (from Greek, past, for all) 

3 2 



PASQUINADES. 



932 



P ASTON LETTERS. 



a system which professes to teach people to com- 
municate with each other by means of numbers 
which convey the same ideas in all languages. A 
society for this purpose was established at Munich ; 
and the president, Anton Bachmaier, published a 
dictionary and grammar for German, French, and 
English, 1868-71 ; 4334 mental conceptions may 
he thus communicated. 

PASQUINADES. Small satirical poems ob- 
tained this name about 1533. 

At the stall of a cobbler named Pasquin, at Rome, idle 
persons used to assemble to listen to his sallies, to re- 
late anecdotes, and rail at the passers-by. After the 
cobbler's death, his name was given to a statue to which 
lampoons were affixed. 

PASSAROWITZ TREATY, concluded 
21 July, 1718, between Germany and Venice, and the 
Turks, by which the house of Austria ceded certain 
commercial rights, and obtained from Turkey the 
Temeswar, Belgrade, and part of Bosnia, Servia, 
and Wallachia. The Turks gained the Morea. 

PASSAU (Germany), TREATY OF, whereby 
religious freedom was established, was ratified be- 
tween the emperor Charles V. and the protestant 
princes of Germany, 31 July, 1552. In 1662 the 
cathedral and great part of Passau were consumed 
hy fire. 

PASSENGERS-by public vehicles, are pro- 
tected by 1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 22 (1831), 1 & 2 Vict. 
c - 79 O838), and 16 & 17 Yict. c. 33 (1853) ; 
another act was passed in 1889. Mr. Cleghorn, 
under whom the front seat on the near side of one 
of the general omnibus company's carriages had 
given way, recovered 400^. damages against the 
company, in a verdict by consent, in the Queen's 
bench, 10 Dec. 1856. The Ships' Passenger act, 
18 & 19 Vict. c. 119, passed in 1855, was amended 
in 1863 ; see Campbell's Act, and under Raihvays. 

PASSIONISTS, a congregation of clerks of 
the holy cross, founded by St. Paul of the Cross, 
who died 1775' an d was canonized by the pope 
1867. A home was set up in England in 1841, and 
others since. The monastery, Highgate, London, 
N., solemn!}' blessed by cardinal Manning, and 
opened, 16 July, 1876. 

PASSION PLAY, see Drama. 

PASSION- WEEK, the name given since the 
Reformation to the week preceding Easter, was 
formerly applied to the fortnight. Archbishop 
Laud says the two weeks were so called "for a 
thousand years together," and refers to an epistle, 
by Ignatius, in the 1st century, in which the prac- 
tice is said to have been "observed by all." The 
week preceding Easter is now by some termed 
"Holy Week," the previous week "Passion 
Week." 

Passion-Music: Gregory Nazianzen (a.d. 330-390) is said 
to have iirst set forth the history of the Passion in a 
dramatic form. 

Guidetti, in 1586, published music for this subject, 
which lias been treated since by many composers. 

J. S. Bach's great "Passion Musik," iirst performed on 
Good Friday, 1729, has been revived with great suc- 
cess in this country, beginning with that "according 
to St. Matthew," 6 April, 1854 ; performed annually 
at St. Paul's on Tuesday in Holy Week. 

PASSIVE RESISTANCE, the term used 
by the opponents of the Education act, 1902, in 
justification of their action in refusing to pay the 
rate levied for education on the alleged ground 
that the act gi es an unfair advantage to the 



schools of the established church, and to its 
doctriual teaching in the supported schools. 
Early in Ihe spring of 1903 many nonconformists 
in the neighbourhood of London and in the 
provinces refusing, as they stated, on conscientious 
grounds to pay the rate their goods were seized 
and sold. Much agitation has resulted and still 
(Nov. 1903) continues, see Education Acts 1902, 
1903 in Addenda. 

PASSMORE EDWARDS' SETTLE- 
MENT, Tavistock-square, St. Pancras, founded 
by Mr. Passmore Edwards with a gift of 15,000^., 
the duke of Bedford 1500^., to promote education, 
&c, partially used since 9 Oct. 1897 ; opened by 
Mr. John Morley, lord Peel in the chair, 12 Feb. 
1898. See Li varies. 

The Passmore Edwards-hall, built for the London 
university school of economics (Mr. Passmore 
Edwards gave u,oooL, lord Kothschild 5000Z. ; 
site granted by the London County Council) in 
Clare market, Strand ; opened by Lord Rose- 

bery 29 May, 1902 

A summer vacation school started here by Mrs. 
Humphry Ward with great success ; meeting 
held. Mr. Haldane, m.p. , Mr. Buxton, m.p., lord 
Grey, the bishop of Hereford present . 5 Aug. ,, 

PASSOVER, the most solemn festival of the 
Jews, instituted 1491 B.C. {Exodus xii.) in comme- 
moration of their coming out of Egypt; because 
the night before their departure, the destroying 
angel, who put to death the firstborn of the Egyp- 
tians, passed over the houses of the Hebrews with- 
out entering them; the door posts being marked 
with the blood of the Paschal Lamb killed the 
evening before. The passover was celebrated in 
the new temple, 18 April, 515 b.c. Usher. 

PASSPORT SYSTEM forbids subjects to quit 
one country or enter another without the consent of 
the sovereign thereof. In 1858 the system was 
somewhat changed in this country, and the stamp 
duty on passports was reduced from 5s. to 6d. 
Passports were abolished in Norway in 1859 ; in 
Sweden in i860 ; and (with regard to British sub- 
jects) in France, 16 Dec. i860; in Italy, 26 June, 
1862; in Portugal, 23 Jan. 1863; and are falling 
into disuse in other countries. The passport system 
was established in the United States on 19 Aug. 
1861. The passport system, revived in France on 
account of the war, 1 Aug. 1870, was abolished by 
M. Thiers, 10 April, 1872, in compliance with the 
wish of the British government. 

PASTEUR INSTITUTE, Paris, see under 
Hydrophobia. The remains of M. Pasteur (died 
28 Sept. 1895) transferred from Notre Dame to a 
crypt in the institute, 26 Dec. 1896. 

PASTEL, a roll of paste made of different 
colours ground with gum water, used as a crayon. 
Pastel painting has been recently much practised 
on the continent. The Society of British Pastellists, 
president sirCoutts Lindsay, first exhibited at the 
Grosvenor gallery, 18 Oct. 1890. Its members 
included Mr. Watts, Mr. Orchardson, and other 
eminent artists. Another started, exhibition at 
the Royal institute, Piccadilly, opened, 4 Feb. 
1899. 

PASTON LETTERS, the correspondence of a 
Norfolk family, 1422-83, giving a picture of 
social life in England, were edited by sir John 
Fenn, and published in five volumes, quarto, 1787- 
1823. Their authenticity was questioned Sept. 
1865, but was satisfactorily vindicated by a com- 
mittee of the Society cf Antiquaries in May, 1866. 



PATAYT. 



933 PATRIOTIC BROTHERHOOD. 



Part of the MS. was soon after purchased by the 
trustees of the British Museum. The publication 
of a new edition, by James Gairdner, with addi- 
tional letters, 1872-5. The MS. of the second 
series with other letters was found in 1875, by Mr. 
Frere, of Roydon Hall, near Diss, Norfolk. The 
MS. of the first series, long lost from the Royal 
Library, found in the library of col. Geo. Tomline 
at Orwell Park, who died 25 Aug. 1889 ; announced 
April, 1890. 

311 MS. Paston letters put up for sale by Messrs. 
Christie, London, bought in at a high reserve, 

31 July, 1888 

PATAY (France), where Joan of Arc, the maid 
of Orleans, was present, when the earl of Rkhe- 
monte signally defeated the English, 18 June, 1429. 
Talbot "was taken prisoner, and the valiant Fastolfe 
was forced to fiee. In consequence, Charles VII. 
of France entered Rheims in triumph, and was 
crowned 17 July, following year, Joan of Arc as- 
sisting in the ceremony in full armour, and holding 
the sword of state, see Joan of Arc. 

PATENTS (from pateo, Hie open), licences and 
authorities granted by the king. Patents are said to 
have been granted for titles of nobility in 1344, by 
Edwardlll. They were first granted for the exclu- 
sive privilege of printing books, in 1591. The pro- 
perty and right of inventors in arts and manufac- 
tures were secured by letters patent by an act passed 
in 1623. The later laws regulating patents are very 
numerous; among them are 5 & 6 Will. IV. c. 83 
(1835), and 15 & 16 Vict. c. 83 (1852). By the latter 
Commissioners of Patents were appointed, viz., 
the lord chancellor, the master of the rolls, the attor- 
ney-general for England and Ireland, the lord 
advocate, and the solicitors-general for England, 
Scotland, and Ireland. In 1853, a journal was pub- 
lished under their authority, and indexes of patents, 
from March, 161 7, to the present time. Specifica- 
tions of patents may be consulted by the public at 
the Free Library and lteading-room, in Southamp- 
ton-buildings, opened 5 March, 1854. A museum 
containing models, portraits, &c, was established 
in 1859 at South Kensington, mainly by the exertions 
of Mr. Bennet Woodcroft. 

The "Illustrated Official Journal," combining six others 
published Jan. 1889. 

An international congress for the protection of patents 
met at Vienna, Aug. 1873 ; at Paris, 6 March, 1883. 

New patent bills introduced into parliament withdrawn, 
1875, 1876, 1879; another read, 15 June, 1881. 

Patent Design and Trade Marks Act, 46 & 47 Vict. e. 57, 
passed 25 Aug. 1883, began 1 Jan. 1884 ; amended 
24 Dec. 1888. It greatly relieved patentees by lessen- 
ing fees, &c. 

In 1864, the alleged defalcations of Mr. Edmunds, a clerk 
in the patent office and an official of the house of lords, 
led to his retirement. He obtained a pension of 800I. , 
which was taken from him by a vote of the house of 
lords on 9 May, 1865. Much litigation ensued. In an 
action against Mr. Gladstone, the prime minister, and 
others, for a libel, Mr. Edmunds was non-suited, 21, 22 
June, 1872 ; and he failed in actions against several 
newspapers for printing a treasury minute. His appeal 
to the house of lords failed 16 June, 1873. 

17,110 applications for patents in 1884 ; 16,101 in 1885 ; 
17,162 in 1886; 18,051 in 1887; 19,103 in 1888; 21,008, 
1889 ; 22,888, 1S91 ; 24,169, 1892 ; 25,123, 1893 ; 25,386, 
1894; 30,194, 1896; 30,958, 1897; 27,649, 1898; 25,800, 
1899; 23,924, 1900; 26,777, 1901 ! 28,976, 1902. 

Royal commission to enquire into the law relating to 
letters patent appointed 1862 ; Mr. Hindmarch's re- 
port issued 1864. In pursuance of recommendations 
for the formation of a roll of patent agents, the Insti- 
tute of Patent Agents was registered 1882, chartered 
1891. It has given much attention to legislation re- 
specting patents. 



New Patent Office facing Staple-inn, completed hi 1897. 
Patent Law Amendment bill passed, 1 Dec. 1902. 

PATENT MEDICINES: received for stamps, 
year 1883-4, 159,23^- 

PATHOLOGY, the science of disease, much 
studied with experiments in the present century, 
and said to be advanced by vivisection. Wilks and 
Moxon, Wagner, Cornil and Ranvier, Payne, 
Hamilton, Virchow (" Cellular Pathology," 1856; 
he died 5 Sept. 1902), Koch. Pasteur, Lister, and 
Paget are eminent pathologists. The Pathological 
society in London was founded, 1846. 

Prof. D. J. Hamilton's Text-boolc of Pathology published, 

1894. 
Pathological institute at the London hospital, opened 

by sir H. Koscoe, 10 July, 1901. 

PATHOMETER, an instrument to record 
automatically the distance travelled by a vehicle, 
also the various directions followed, and the hills, 
ascended or descended ; reported, Jan. 1899. 

PATNA (N. India). Near here the English,, 
under major Carnac, defeated the emperor bhah 
Alum on 15 Jan. 1761. The town was acquired by 
the British by their defeat of the sanguinary Meer 
Cassim, 23 Oct. 1764. Population, 1901, 135,172. 

PATRIARCHS (a name given to Abraham, 
Isaac, Jacob, and his sons). The ecclesiastical 
historian Socrates gives this title to the chiefs of 
Christian dioceses, about 440. It was first con- 
ferred on the five grand sees of Rome, Constanti- 
nople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. The 
Latin church had no patriarchs till the 6th century. 
The first founders or heads of religious orders are 
called patriarchs. 

Nectarius, bishop of Constantinople, as ex-offlcio chief of" 
the Eastern bishops, was nominated patriarch of Con- 
stantinople at the second general council of Constanti- 
nople, 9 July, 381. This led the way to the schism 
between the Eastern and Western churches. 

PATRICIANS, the highest citizens or aristo- 
cracy of Rome ; their authority began with the city" 
itself ; see Rome. 

PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL, ST. (Dublin) r 

was founded in 1190 by archbishop Comyn, on the- 
site of an old church. The cathedral was dese- 
crated in 1546, and used as a law court ; restored 
1553. After renovation by the munificence of the 
late sir Benjamin Lee Guinness, it was re-opened 24 
Feb. 1865. Several persons killed by the falling of 
a flying buttress, 14 Sept. 1882. See Dublin. 

PATRICK, ST., KNIGHTS OF, an order in- 
stituted by king George III., 5 Feb., the statutes 
were signed 28 Feb. 1783. The number, originally 
fifteen, was increased in 1821, 1831, and 1833, ana 
is now twenty-two. The prince of Wales was 
installed as knight, 18 April, 1868.- — St. Patrick's 
Benevolent Society, London, instituted 1784. It 
sprang from the Irish Charitable Society, founded 
in 1704. See Shamrock. 

PATRIOTIC ASSOCIATION, formed to 
aid in upholding the honour and interest of the 
British Empire. A meeting was held at St. James's 
hall, London, 27 March, 1880. "England," a 
weekly paper, was published same day. The duke 
of Abercorn, earl Stanhope, and others, were sup- 
porters. 

PATRIOTIC BROTHERHOOD, see Ire- 
land, 1883. 



PATRIOTIC FUNDS. 



934 



PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, ST. 



PATRIOTIC FUNDS, established to en- 
courage the army and navy in times of war. 
i. Founded by the subscribers to Lloyd's, " to animate 
the efforts of our defenders by sea and land " by 
providing a fund for the relief of themselves when 
Wounded, and of their widows and orphans, and for 
granting pecuniary rewards and badges of distinction 
for valour and merit, 20 July, 1803 : 24 Aug. 1809, 
424, 832?. had been received, and 331,61 1?. expended. 
Prom 1803 to 1826 the total sum received was 
629,8232. 14s. id. 
.2. A commission (headed by prince Albert) was appointed 
to raise and distribute a fund bearing this name, for 
the relief of the families of those who might fall in 
the Russo-Turkish war, June ; a great meeting held 
Nov. 1854. 
JLarge sums were collected from this country and the 
colonies, amounting to 1,171,270?. in July, 1855 ; to 
1,296,282?. on 16 Nov. 1855 ; finally to 1,460,861!. In 
Jan. 1874, 1,303,386?. expended. 
,200,000?. appropriated to founding an asylum for 300 
orphan girls (the Royal Victoria Patriotic Asylum) 
on Wandsworth common, the first stone of which 
was laid by the queen, n July, 1857. 
The royal family and many of the aristocracy con- 
tributed drawings, sold for high prices, in May, 1855. 
-3. A large fund contributed for the relief of the sufferers 
by the Indian mutiny, Aug. 1857, 434. 7 2 9^- collected 
up to Nov. 1858. An act for its administration was 
passed, 12 Aug. 1867, amended 1886; see India, 1857. 
'The total of the funds administered was 755,102?., 
31 Dec. 1888; 764,211/., 31 Dec. 1890; 774,606?. Dec. 
1892. 
' The alleged mal-administration of the Patriotic Fund was 
brought before the house of commons by baron de 
Worms 9 Aug. 1880, and in Jan. 1881. 
Liberal subscriptions to the fund from Australia, 
on account of the Soudan war ; about 45,000?. at 
Sydney . . ... . .2 March, 1885 

Total capital of the fund, 881,167?. ! expenditure, 

41,877?., 31 Dec. 1895 ; 892,068?. 6s. 7c?. ; expenditure, 

42,141?. 17s. 3d., 31 Dec. 1897 ; 1,263,208?. 4.S. gd. ; 

•expenditure, 84,272?. 16s. 6d., 31 Dec. 1900; receipts 

of the Transvaal war fund, 479,377?. ; expenditure, 

1901,93,862?. ; total expenditure, 1854-1901, 2,921,139?. 

Royal commission on the fund met in London, 6 Jan. 

1898 ; 36th report, blue book issued, July, 1898 ; 40th 

report, for year ending July, 1902, issued, 12 Aug. T902. 

Scheme for merging all funds for the relief of soldiers, 

sailors, and their families into a new patriotic fund, 

proposed by the duke of Cambridge, 8 Jan. 1901. 

3,399?. 18s. presented by the children of Canada to the 

queen ; handed over by her wish to this fund, Jan. 

1901. 

Patriotic volunteer fund instituted by lord mayor 

Whitehead, see Volunteers 1889 

Patriotic fund act, royal assent . . 11 Aug. 1903 

PATRONAGE OF LIVINGS by Laymen in 
England is very ancient ; in Scotland was opposed 
by the books of discipline 1560 and 1578, abolished 
1649, restored 1660. The "system led to the dis- 
ruption of the established church, and the foundation 
of the free church, 18 May, 1843. The abolition of 
lay patronage was earnestly advocated by the 
authorities of the established church in March, 
1870, and the duke of Argyll volunteered to resign 
his patronage in May. Of 1 109 livings 319 belonged 
to the crown, and about 600 to private persons. An 
act (37 & 38 Vict. c. 82) for abolishing patronage 
in Scotland, brought in by the duke of Richmond, 
18 May, passed, 7 Aug. 1874. In England a church 
patronage bill (to check sales and give rights to 
parishioners, &c.), introduced by the archbp. of 
Canterbury, 13 May, 1886; a bill passed by the 
lords, 1 April, 1887 ; another bill read third time, 
2 May, 1893 ; another bill passed committee in the 
lords, 1895 ; dropped. See Bcncfccs. 

PAULIANISTS or Paulinians, followers 
of Paul bishop of Samosata, afterwards patriarch of 
Antioch, 260, who are said to have denied Christ's 
divinity and the trinity ; he was excommunicated 
269 by a council at Antioch. 



PAULICIANS, a sect of Christian reformers, 
arose about 652. Although they were severely 
persecuted, they spread over Asia Minor, in the 9th 
century, and finally settled at Montford, in Italy, 
where they were attacked by the bishop of Milan 
in 1028. Severe decrees against them were made 
in 1 163, aiid they gradually dispersed; very 
probably sowing the seeds of the great reformation 
of the 16th century. 

PAUL JONES, a Scotchman, born 1742 ; died 
at Paris, 1792. He commanded an American 
privateer during the American war, and made 
daring depredations on British commerce. He 
pillaged the house of lord Selkirk, near Kirkcud- 
bright, and at Whitehaven burnt shipping in the 
harbour, April 1778. The Dutch permitted Paul 
Jones to enter their ports with two British ships of 
war which he had taken, and which the stadtholder 
peremptorily refused to deliver up, 1779. 

PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, ST. (London). 
For details of its history, see Dugdale's "History 
of St. Paul's," 1658 and 1716 ; Dean Milman's 
" Annals of St. Paul's," 1868 ; and Mr. ¥m. Long- 
man's " History of the Three Cathedrals, dedicated 
to St. Paul," 1873. Many royal pageants have 
taken place in the cathedral. 

The first church, built on the site of a temple to 
Diana, supposed to have been destroyed during 
the Diocletian persecution (302), rebuilt in the 

reign of Constantine 223-337 

Demolished by the pagan Saxons, and restored by 
Ethelbert and Sebert .... about 597-610 

Injured by fire 962 

Destroyed by the great conflagration, 1086, after 
which Mauritius, then bishop of London, com- 
menced a magnificent edifice with the highest 
spire in the world about 1087 ; completed . . 1240 

Nearly destroyed by fire 1444 

The spire burnt 1561 

A commission granted to Laud, then bishop of 

London, to restore the cathedral . 2 April, 1631 

It was totally destroyed by the fire of . Sept. 1666 
Clearing of the ground began . . . May, 1674 
First stone of the present edifice laid . 21 June, 1675 
The choir opened for divine worship . 2 Dec. 1697 

The whole edifice completed under sir Christopher 

Wren (except some decorations, finished 1723) . 1710 
[The total cost (including 200 tons' weight of iron 
railing) was 1,511,202?.] 

Lord Nelson buried 9 Jan. 1806 

Ball and cross restored by Mr. Cockerell . . 1822 

Duke of Wellington buried . . 18 Nov. 1852 

Money having been subscribed to adapt St. Paul's 
for the purpose, evening services began, under 
the dome, when above 4000 persons were present, 

Sunday, 28 Nov. 1858 
A national guinea subscription for completing the 

interior ornamentation, began . . Feb. 1864 

87th meeting of the charity school children 3 June, 1869 
Great meeting held at the Mansion-house to complete 
the interior of the cathedral according to Wren's 
design, 13 July ; 34,708?. collected by . 4 Nov. 1870 
Dr. Church, the new dean, gave 1000?. . Nov. 1871 
National thanksgiving for the recovery of the 

prince df Wales* see Thanksgiving . 27 Feb. 1872 
" Thanksgiving fund " established . . . . ,, 
The queen gave 1000?. , the prince 500?. . Feb. ,, 

After an interval, annual meeting of the children 

resumed — [not held 1878] ... 9 Oct. 1873 
The iron railings (set up in 1710) sold, and soon 
after removed (the dean and chapter bought the 
enclosed space from the corporation), S Jan. ; for- 
mally opened 26 Jan. 1874 

Discussion respecting the ornamentation : Mr. 
Burges' plans censured, June ; the engagement 
with him rescinded .... Nov. ,, 

Meeting to endeavour to obtain a peal of bells, the 
lord mayor, the dean, &c, present, 2 Nov. 1875 ; 
arrangements being made . . . Sept. 1876 



PAUL'S CROSS. 



935 



PAVIA. 



Grand concluding service of Lambeth episcopal 
synod ; about ioo bishops present . 27 July, 1878 

Peal of 12 bells (by Taylor, of Loughborough) given 
by the corporation and some of the companies, 
dedicated . . . . ' . .1 Nov. ,, 

The corporation authorised to deal with the church- 
yard as an open space, 1878; opened as a garden 
by the lord mayor .... 22 Sept. 1879 

Great Paul (see under Bells) dedicated . 3 June, 1882 

The clock by Langley Bradley, set up in 1708, was 
replaced by a new clock, designed by lord Grim- 
thorpe, made by Messrs. Smith of Derby, dedi- 
cated by dean Gregory ... 21 Dec. 1893 

Professor Palmer, capt. Gill, and lieut. Charrington 
buried in the crypt .... 6 April, 1883 

The mutilated statue of queen Anne at the west 
front by Francis Bird, 1712 ; replaced by a new 
one by B. Belt and others ; uncovered by the 
lord mayor 15 Dec. 1886 

Citizen's .jubilee service ... 23 June, 1887 

Lord Napier of Magdala buried . . 21 Jan. 1890 

Memorial of Mr. William Bede Dalley, Australian 
statesman (the first colonial memorial) unveiled 
by the earl of Rosebery . . . .17 July, ,, 

*' Reconciliation service," on account of the dese- 
cration of the cathedral by the suicide of Edward 
Easton on 28 Sept 13 Oct. ,, 

Sir F. Edgar Boehm, sculptor, buried . 20 Dec. ,, 

Bust of sir John Maodonald, premier of Canada, 
unveiled bv the earl of Rosebery . 16 Nov. 1892 

Continued progress of the decorative work of the 
dome, &c, by Mr. W. B. Richmond, Mr. Watts, 
sir Fred. Leighton, Mr. Poynter, Mr. A. Stevens, 
and Mr. Brit tan 1862-95 

Sir Frederick (lord) Leighton, died 25 Jan., burhd 
in the crypt (his monument unveiled. 19 Feb. 
1902) . . ..." 3 Feb. 1896 

The fine mosaics in the choir, designed by Mr. W. B. 
Richmond (k.c.b., 1897), and executed under his 
direction by English workmen, dedicated, 4 April, ,, 

Sir John Everett Millais, died 13 Aug., buried in 
the crypt 20 Aug. ,, 

Death of the rev. Win. Sparrow Simpson, librarian 
and historian of St. Paul's, 1861 et seq. 28 March, 1897 

George C. Martin, organist, knt. . . . June, ,, 

Masonic commemoration of the opening of the 
new cathedral (1697) 2 Dec. ,, 

Sir Arthur Sullivan, composer, died 22 Nov. ; buried 
in the crypt ...... 27 Nov. 1900 

Memorial services for soldiers and sailors of the 
empire killed in South Africa, 19 Dec. 1900 ; and 

16 Dec. 1901 
Mandell Creighton, bishop of London, buried here, 

17 Jan. „ 
National memorial service on the death of queen 

Victoria 2 Feb. ,, 

Memorial service for Mr. Cecil Rhodes (see Rhodesia), 
thousands unable to get in, as the church was 
full 10 April, 1902 

The chancel, dome, nave and crypt lit by elec- 
tricity (the gift of Mr. Pierpont Morgan, begun, 
1899) 18 May, ,, 

Thanksgiving for the conclusion of peace in South 
Africa ; the king and queen present . 8 June, ,, 

Illness of the king, 24 June ; intercessory services, 
26, 29 June ; thanksgiving for his recovery, 10 
Aug. ; again the king and queen present, 26 Oct. ,, 

See Reredos, 1891. 

DIMENSIONS. 

Length of St. Paul's from the grand portico to east feet. 

end 510 

Breadth, north to south portico 282 

Exterior diameter of the dome .... 145 

Height from ground to top of cross . . . . 404 
[Stated by surveyor to be 365 feet from the pavement.] 
Campaniles, or bell towers, at each corner, height . 208 

Breadth of western entrance 189 

Circumference of dome 420 

Entire circumference of the building . . . . 2292 
Diameter of ball 6 

PAUL'S CROSS, ST. (London), which stood 
at the north side of the cathedral, was a j u'.pil 
formed of wood, mounted upon steps of stone, and 
covered with lead, from which the most eminent 
divines were appointed to preach every Sunday in 



the forenoon. To this place the court, the mayor, 
the aldermen, and principal citizens used to resort. 
It was in use as early as 1259, and was appropriated 
not only to preaching, but to political and ecclesias- 
tical discourses, &c. The cross was demolished in 
1643, by order of the parliament. 

PAUL'S SCHOOL, ST., was endowed in 
1512 by John Colet, dean of St. Paul's, for 153 boys 
" of every nation, country, and class," in memory 
of the number of fishes taken by Peter (John xxi. 
11). The first sehoolhouse was burnt in 1666; the 
second, by "Wren, was taken down in 1824, and 
another building erected by George Smith. William 
Lilly was the first master, and his grammar is still 
used by the school. Timbs. The claim of the Mercers' 
company to be owners instead of trustees of Colet' s 
estate was set aside by the vice chancellor, ri Feb. 
1870. • The school ordered to be removed to 
West Kensington ; site bought, June, 1878. New 
building designed by Mr. Waterhouse opened by 
lord Selborne, 23 April, 1884. The number of scho- 
lars has been increased. New schemes for the 
management of the school were issued by the 
charity commissioners, 1876, 1879, and 1893 ; after 
much discussion and opposition a scheme was sent 
to the committee of council of education for appro- 
val, May, 1894; finally modified, July, 1894; new 
arrangement, Feb. 1899 ; further arrangement, 
16 June, 1900, under which scheme it is now 
governed. 

St. Paul's Industrial School, Mile End, ordered to 
be closed by the home secretary in consequence of 
serious charges against the managers ; brought 
forward by Mrs. Surr, member of the metropolitan 
School Board, Nov. ; she is warmly commended 
in the home secretary's letter, 15 Nov. ; who re- 
mitted the case to the public prosecutor . Nov. 1881 
Mr. T. Scrutton, manager, sued Miss Helen Taylor,, 
and obtained 1000Z. for damages; the charges were 
withdrawn 30 June, 1882 

PAUPERS, see Poor. 

PAVAN, Pavane, or Pavin, was a slow dance 
of the 16th and 17th centuries, sometimes accom- 
panied by singing. 

PAVEMENT. The Carthaginians are said to 
have been the first who paved their towns with 
stones. The Romans, in the time of Augustus, had 
pavement in many of their streets ; the Appian 
way, a paved road, was constructed 312 B.C. In 
England there were few paved streets before 
Henry VII. 's reign. London was first paved about 
1533. It was paved with flagstones between 1815 
and 1825. Wood and asphalt e paving were tried in 
1839, and have been disused since 1847 ; see Wood 
Pavement. Asphalte has been much used since 
1869. Wood reported to be the best for London, 
May, 1876. 
Grano-metallic stone laid clown in a plastic state in 

part of the Strand, London, and in other places, 1885 
Tarred macadam, as a new and durable pavement 

at Hamilton, Ontario, reported successful, Nov. 1900 

PAVIA (N. Italy), the ancient Ticinum or 
Papia. Its university, founded by Charlemagne, 
is said to be the oldest in Kurope. Pavia was built 
by the Gauls, who were driven out by the Romans, 
and these in their turn were expelled by the Goths : 
in 568 it was taken by the Lombards, and became 
the capital of their kingdom. In the 12th century 
it was erected into a republic, but soon after was 
subjected to Milan and followed its fortunes. On 
24 Feb. 1525, a battle was fought near here between 
the French and the Imperialists, when the former 
were defeated, and their king, Francis I., after 
fighting with heroic valour, and killing seven men 



PAWNBROKLNG. 



936 



PEACE. 



with his own hand, was at last obliged to surren- 
der himself a prisoner. It was long asserted that 
£ 'rands wrote to his mother, Louisa of Savoy, regent 
of the kingdom during Ms absence, saying, Tout 
est perdu, madame, J'ors I'honneur (All is lost, 
madam, except honour). The words are now said 
to have been, L'honneur et la vie qui est saulve. 

PAWNBROKING. The Roman emperors 
lent money upon land. The origin of borrowing 
money by means of pledges deposited with lenders 
is referred to Perugia, in Italy, about 1462. The 
institutions Avtre termed monli dipietu {which see). 
Soon afterwards it is said that the bishop of 
"Winch ester established a system of lending on 
pledges, but without interest. The business of 
pawnbrokers was regulated in 1756, and licences 
issued in 1783. The rate of interest on pledges was 
fixed in 1800. In London there were, in 1851, 334 
pawnbrokers ; and in England, exclusively of 
London, 1127; the number is increasing more than 
in proportion to the population. In i860 an act 
was passed enabling pawnbrokers to charge a half- 
penny for every ticket describing things pledged 
for a sum under 5s. The acts relating to pawn- 
brokers were amended in 1856, 1859, i860. Pawn- 
brokers in Great Britain: 1851, 1873; in 1861, 
2578; in 1871, 3540. The law was consolidated in 
the pawnbrokers' act passed 10 Aug. 1872. 

PAX, a small tablet, generally silver, termed, 
tabula pads or osculatorium, kissed by the Roman 
Catholic priests and laity ; substituted for the 
primeval kiss of peace in the early church. The 
pax is said to have been introduced about the 12th 
century. 

PAYMASTER-GENERAL. In 1836 the 
army and navy pay departments were consolidated 
into the paymaster-general's-office, sometimes held 
by a cabinet minister. 

PAYMENT of m.p.'s, see Parliament, 1893, 
1895. They are paid in the United States, N.A., 
and in some of our colonies. 

PEABODY FUND. Mr. George Peabody, 
an American merchant (born 18 Feb. 1795, died 4 
Nov. 1869), who had made his fortune in London, 
gave on 12 March, 1862, 150,000/., on 21 Jan. 
1866, 100,000?., on 5 Dec. 1808, 100,000?., and by 
his will directed his trustees to pay 150,000?. — in all 
500,000?. — to ameliorate the condition of the London 
poor. 
An autograph .letter, promising her portrait in 

miniature, was sent him by the queen, 28 March, 1866 
[Inscription on the miniature sent: — "V.R. pre- 
sented by the Queen to G. Peabody, Esq., the 
benefactor of the poor of London."] 
The first block of buildings for working classes, termed 
" Peabody dwellings," in Commercial street, Spital- 
fields, was opened 29 Feb. 1864 ; and others since, in 
Spitalftelds, Islington, Shadwell, Westminster, Chel- 
sea, Bermondsey, <fec. ; they have been found to be 
self-supporting, T878. In 1879, net gain, 24,786?. ; 1885, 
23,691?. ; 1887, 24,902?. ; 1888, 29,611?. 
Mr. Peabody's statue, at the east end of the 
Royal Exchange, was inaugurated by the prince 

of Wales 23 July, 1869 

Funeral service at Westminster abbey . 12 Nov. „ 
Funeral at Portland, U.S., prince Arthur present 

S Feb. 1870 
He also gave large sums, for educational purposes, in 

the United States. 
39,763?. expended on land and buildings in 1S85, making 
the total expenditure 1,210,550?. ; 1,250,390?. in 1897 ; 
1,285,107?. 2.s. yd. in 1899 ; 1902, 1,358,173?. 
Net gains, rent and interest in 1890, 28,656/. ; in 1894, 
29,995?. 7s. 7<?. ; 1896, 28,787?. ; 1S97, 32,320? ; 1899, 
35,183?. 17s. 2(?. ; 1902, 32,673?. 



Centenary of the birth of George Peabody, celebrated 
at Peabody, Mass., and other places, 18 Feb. 1895. 

PEACE. A temple was dedicated to peace by 

Vespasian, 75 ; see Fireworks, Treaties, Justices? 
&c. — "Peace of Religion" (between catholics 
and protestants) was signed at Augsburg, 15 Sept. 
1555- 

A Peace Society, founded 1816, for the promotion 
of universal peace ; holds annual meetings ; pro- 
posed amalgamation with the International Arbi- 
tration and Peace association (founded by" Mr. 
Lewis Appleton in 1880), Dec. 1884. The associa- 
tion divided in May, 1886, when the British arbi- 
tration association was founded by Mr. Appleton. 
A congress of the friends of peace, from all parts of 
the world, commenced its sittings at Paris, 22 Aug, 
1849. It me t m London at Exeter hall, 30 Oct. 
following ; and at Frankfort, in St. Paul's church, 
22 Aug. 1850 ; at Birmingham, 28 Nov. 1850 ; and 
at Exeter hall, 22 July, 1851. A meeting was held 
at Manchester, 27 Jan. 1853 ; and at Edinburgh, 
12 Oct. 1853 ; Glasgow, 10 Sept. 1901 ; London, 
20 May, 1902, and . . . .20 May, 1903 

Mr. Bright and Mr. Cobden' were among the most 
conspicuous members of the society. A deputa- 
tion from the Peace society, consisting of Messrs. 
J. Sturge, A. Pease, and another quaker friend, 
stated their views to the emperor of Russia at St. 
Petersburg, at an interview granted them in Feb. 1854* 
Stormy international arbitration and peace congress 

at Geneva ; Garibaldi present . 9-12 Sex't. 1867 
A peace congress met at Berne . . 24 Sept. 1868 
A t the peace congress held at Lausanne, the violence 
of the communists at Paris in May, was warmly 

reprobated 25 Sept. 1873 

Congress held at Lugano, 23 Sept. 1872 ; at the 
Hague, 25 Sept. 1873 ! a t Paris, 6 Sept. 1875 ; at 
Geneva, Oct. 1877 ; at Paris, 25 Sept. 1878; at 
Brussels, 17 Oct. 1882; at Berne . 4-9 Aug. 1884 
Meeting at Crystal palace near London, 22 July, 
1885 ; another meeting 16 July, 1886 ; at Geneva, 
9 Sept. 1887 ; at Paris, 23 June, 1889 ; in Lon- 
don, 14 July, 1890 ; Rome 1 1 Nov. 1891 ; Berne, Aug. 
1892 ; Antwerp, Aug. 1894 ; Budapest, 21 Sept. 1896 
The principle of arbitration in place of war was 
adopted by the Pan-American congress at Wash- 
inton ; a treaty was signed for several of the 

states 28 April, 1890 

Inter-Parliamentary Conferences on International 
Arbitration (members of different legislatures) : 
first meeting at Paris, M. Jules Simon president, 
June, 1889 ; London, lord Herschell president, 
22 July, 1890 ; Rome 3-7 Nov. 1891 ; at Berne, 
29-31 Aug. 1892 ; Brussels, 10 Oct. 1893 ; the 
Hague, 4 Sept. 1894 ; Brussels, 13 Aug. 1895 ; 
Brussels, 7 Aug. 1897 ; Christiania, 2 Aug. 1899 ; 
Paris, 31 July, 1900 ; Monaco . . 2 April, 1902; 
The International Arbitration society meets at 
Frankfort, 17 Sept. 1890 ; at Westminster, 1 
July, 1891 ; 30 May, iS y 2 ; 30 June, 1893 ; 4 July, 

(annual meetings) 1S94 
The British and foreign arbitration association vote 
an address to the government respecting the 
Chinese and Japanese war ... 15 Nov. 1894 
Great international peace demonstration in Hyde 
park ; delegates from 19 countries ; proceedings 
checked by a thunderstorm . . . 26 July, 1896 
" Peace, day" celebrated throughout Europe and 

America 22 Feb. 1898, 

International peace congress meets at Turin, 

26 Sept. ,„ 
Meeting at St. James's hall, in support of a peace 
conference, see Russia, Aug.-Sept. 1898 ; an 
international peace crusade favoured by lord 
Salisbury and others, 18 Dec. ; the bishop of 
London chairman of executive committee, 

27 Dec. , r 
Meetings held throughout the country, Jan. et seq. 1899 
National convention at St. Martin's town-hall, 

lord Aberdeen and others present . 21 March, ,, 
International peace bureau meets at Berne, 

mid May, 1900 
International peace congress in Paris . 2 Oct. „ 



PEACE PEESEEVATION ACTS. 937 



PEDESTEIANISM. 



International Peace Conference (26 states re- 
presented) meets at the Hague, M. de Staal, 
Bussian ambassador in London, elected president ; 
British delegates : sir Julian Pauncefote (made 
a peer, July, 1899), sir Henry Howard, vice-adm. 
sir John Fisher, major-gen. sir John Ardagh, 
and others ; M. de Beaufort (Netherlands foreign 
minister) delivers an address to the czar, the 
initiator of the conference, see Russia, Aug. 
1898-n, Jan. 1899 ; 18 May, 1899 ; work divided 
into 3 sections — disarmament, laws of war, and 
arbitration ; presidents and vice - presidents 
elected ; sub-committee of 8, to discuss indepen- 
dent projects, 20-26 May ; Great Britain and 
United States left in a minority concerning the 
prohibition of asphyxiating gases and expanding 
bullets of the "dum dum" type, 23 July; the 
Bussian proposals for the limitation of arma- 
ments outvoted, 30 June ; arbitration scheme 
(60 articles), permanent arbitration court, dis- 
cussed, 7 July ; signed by 16 powers ; codifica- 
tion of the rules of war and the extension of the 
Geneva convention to naval warefare, signed by 
15 powers ; the disarmament proposals left un- 
settled ; and the final act, including prof. Louis 
Benault's scheme, see Time", 1 Aug. 1899 ; pro- 
tocol signed by all the 26 states represented, 

29 July, 1899 

The acts ratifying the treaties and declarations 
signed at the conference placed in the foreign 
office at the Hague, and a message sent to the 
czar 4 Sept. 1900 

Permanent court of arbitration established at the 
Hague ; lord Pauncefote (died 24 May, 1902, aged 
74), sir E. Malet, sir Bdw. Fry, prof. Westlake 
and other representatives appointed British 
members Dec. -mid April, 1901 

Boer appeal for arbitration signed by Dr. Leyds, 
Messrs. Fischer and Wolmarans, 10 Sept. 1901 ; 
rejected ... ... 20 Nov. ,, 

Mr.' Carnegie gives 1,500,000 dol. for a palace of 
peace reported 25 April, 1903 

See Holland; Venezuela ,, 

PEACE PEESEEVATION ACTS (Ike- 
land) : one passed 4 April, 1870, was continued in 
1876 to 31 June, 1880. A new act to last till 1 June, 

1886, passed 21 March. 1881, continued till 31 Dec. 

1887, 4 June, 1886. See Arms Bills. 

PEACHES are said to have been introduced 
into this country from Persia about 1562. 

PEAELS, mentioned Job xxviii. 18. M. 
Reaumur, in 1717, alleged that pearls are formed 
like other stones in animals. An ancient pearl was 
valued by Pliny at 80,000/. sterling. One which 
was brought in 1574 to Philip II., of the size of a 
pigeon's egg, was valued at 14,400 ducats. A pearl 
named the Incomparable, spoken of by De Boote, 
weighed thirty carats, equal to five pennyweights, 
aud was about the size of a muscadine pear. The 
pearl mentioned by Tavernier, as being in possession 
of the emperor of Persia, was purchased of an Arab 
in 1633, and is valued at a sum equal to 110,400/. 
Value of pearls imported into Great Britain, 1856, 
56,162/. Artificial mother of pearl is said to have 
been made at Berne by Mr. K. Gehmia. 

PEASANTS' WAE, see Jacquerie. 

PEAT, see Bogs. A peat coal and charcoal 
company, established in 1873, when coal was 
41s. a ton. 

"PECIJLIAE PEOPLE," a small sect 
founded in Lor/don by Wm, Bridges and Jas. Ban- 
yard in 1838 ; chief seat Essex. Two members, Thomas 
andMaryanne Wagstaffe, were tried and acquitted of 
manslaughter, 29 Jan. 1868. They had neglected 
getting medical assistance for their sick child, and 
depended on the efficacy of their elders' prayers and 
anointing it with oil [James v. 14). Many cases of 



healing by these means are asserted. On 8 May, 1872, 
a father was convicted for neglecting to get medical 
advice for his child who died of small pox ; and the 
sect agreed to modify their practice. Establishments 
for healing diseases by prayer exist in Germany. 

At another trial, Thomas Hines was acquitted, in accord- 
ance with the opinion of the court ; Baron Pigott held 
that the case did not amount to criminal neglect be- 
cause the prisoner had not called in a doctor to his. 
sick child, 19 Aug. 1874 ; similar cases since ; 1875-6. 

John Bobert Downes (for neglect respecting scarlet fever> 
sentenced to 3 months' imprisonment 21 Sept. 1876. 

Thos. Senior sentenced to 4 months' imprisonment foB 
manslaughter of his infant child, 15 Dec. 1898 ; similar 
cases since. 

Disturbances at St. Martin's town-hall, London, at a 
lecture on "Faith Healing " by Dr. Dowie, 22 Oct. 



PEDESTEIANISM. Euchidas, a citizen of 
Platsea, is said to have gone from thence to Delphi 
to bring the sacred fire. This he obtained, and 
returned with it the same day before sunset, having 
travelled 125 English miles. No sooner had he 
saluted his fellow citizens, and delivered the fire, 
than he fell dead at their feet. After the battle of • 
Marathon, a soldier was sent from the field to 
announce the victory at Athens. Exhausted with 
fatigue, and bleeding from his wounds, he cried out, 
"Rejoice, we are conquerors!" and immediately 
expired. 

Foster Powel, the English pedestrian, performed many 
astonishing journeys on foot. His expedition from 
London to York and back again, in 1788, is said to 
have been completed in 140 hours. 

Captain Barclay, for a wager (on which many thousands 
of pounds depended), walked 1000 miles in 1000 suc- 
cessive hours, each mile in each hour, in forty-two 
days and nights (less 8 hours). His task was accom- 
plished on 10 July, 1809. 

Thomas Standen, aged 60, of Salehurst, walked no© 
miles in 1100 hours (1 mile in 1 hour), finished, 
July, 181 1. 

Bichard Manks, a native of Warwickshire, undertook (in 
imitation of captain Barclay) to walk 1000 miles in 
1000 hours : the place chosen was the Barrack-tavern 
cricket ground, in Sheffield ; he commenced on Monday, 
17 June, 1850, and completed the 1000 miles, 29 July 
following, winning a considerable sum. 

On 7 Oct. 1861, a 12 miles foot-race was held, when 
Levett, the champion of England, ran 7 miles in 37 
minutes 27 seconds ; Deerfoot, a Seneca Indian, ran 12 
miles in 65 minutes 5 seconds ; and Mills ran 10 miles 
in 54 minutes 10 seconds ; other races followed. 

On 11 May, 1863, Deerfoot was beaten by White, who 
ran 10 miles in 52 minutes 14 seconds. 

Miss Bichards walked 1000 miles in 1000 hours 

18 May-29 June, 1874 

Edward Payson Weston (American), at Newark, 
U.S., walked 500 miles in 5 days 23 hours 34 min. 

21-26 Dec. ,, 

Wm. Perkins, at Lillie Bridge, London, S.W., 
walked 8 miles in less than one hour . 20 Sept. 1875 

Match between Weston and Perkins at Agricul- 
tural Hall, London, N., began 9.25 p.m. 8 Feb. 
1876 ; Perkins walked 50 miles in 9 h. 37 m. 41 s., 
rested 26 m., went on for 65 m., and stopped; 
Weston walked 50 miles in 9 h. 55 m. 52 s., went 
on for 16 h., stopped for 1 h., went on to 24 h. 
(walked 109 miles 758 yards) . . 8-9 Feb. 1876 

Weston began to walk 500 miles in 6 days at Agri- 
cultural Hall, 12.5 a.m. 6 March, had walked 450 
miles 11 March ; he walked m miies in 24 con- 
secutive hours at Manchester . . April, ,, 

Bella St. Clair walked 1000 miles in 950 hours 

25 July et seq. „ 

Weston engaged to walk 505 miles in 6 days at 
Agricultural hall, London, walked 460 18-23 Dec. ,, 

Match between Weston and O'Leary, for 1000 gui- 
neas ; won by O'Leary, who walked 520 miles, 
Weston 510 miles . . . .2-7 April, 1877 



PEDLARS. 



938 



PEEEESSES. 



Wm. Gale, aged 45, walked 1500 miles in 1000 con- 
secutive hours, at Lillie bridge, London, S.W. 
26 Aug. -6 Oct. ; 4000 -j-miles in 4000 consecutive 
10 minutes, at Agricultural hall, London ; com- 
pleted 17 Nov. 1877 

Match of 17 pedestrians at Agricultural hall ; 
■ O'Leary won, walked 520 miles 18-23 March, 1878 

"Grand match (of 18 competitors) for championship 
and 500L, Agricultural hall ; 6 days and 6 nights ; 
won by W. Corkey, who walked 521 miles 

28 0ct.-2 Nov. ,, 

E. P. Weston starts to walk over England 2000 miles 
in 1000 consecutive hours (except on Sundays), 18 
Jan. ; fails by 22J hours . . . .28 Feb. 1879 

Weston walked 550 miles at the Agricultural hall, 
and won sir John Astley's belt . 16-21 June, ,, 

Blower Brown walked 553 miles in 6 days (won long 
distance championship of England, Astley's belt, 
&e.) 16-21 Feb. 1880 

Belt, &c. won by Rowell . . . 1-6 Nov. ,, 

Wm. Gale attempts to walk 2500 miles in 1000 hours ; 
walks 2405^ miles. . . 20 Nov. 1880-1 Jan. 1881 

Weston walks 5000 miles in 100 days (on teetotal 
principles) . . 21 Nov. 1883-15 March, 1884 

Littlewood wins sir John Astley's belt at Westmin- 
ster aquarium ; 405 miles in six days . Nov. „ 

George Littlewood walks 623 miles 1320 yards in 
six days at New York ; declared champion of the 
world ; concluded . . . . 1 Dec. 1888 

H. Watkins, 10 miles champion runner, accom- 
plished 11 miles 1286 yards in an hour, at 
Rochdale 16 Sept. 1899 

Race won by L. Hurst, English champion, against 
Bobt. Hallan, American champion, at Stamford- 
hill, London ; Hurst ran nearly 13 miles in 1 
hour 17 minutes 45 seconds at Stamford-hill. 

23 Sept. 1901 

J. Butler walked from Westminster clock to 
Brighton aquarium (52J mi.) in 8 hrs. 43 min. 
16 sec, 14 March, 1903 ; the same distance was 
competed for by 87 members of the Stock Ex- 
change, and won by Mr. E. F. Broad in 9 hrs. 
30 min. 1 sec. 1 May, 1903 

A. Shrubb, at Ilford, ran 2 mi. in 9 min. 11 sec. 

30 May, „ 

A " globe walk " from London to Brighton 
accomplished by Miss Florence, an American, 

16-21 June, ,, 

Leonard Hurst ran 25 mi. in 2 hrs. 33 mins. 42 sec. 

27 Aug. „ 
Many annual matches. 

PEDLARS, see Hawkers. The Pedlars act 
"., Aug. 1871. 

PEDOMETER and ODOMETER, appa- 
ratus for measuring the distance traversed by a 
walker or carriage. 

Odometers, or road-measurers, are said to have 
been known in the 15th century ; and improve- 
ments in them were made in England by Butter- 
field, about 1678 ; and by Meynier, in France 

about 1724 
Wm. Grayson's odometer, or road-measurer, to be 

attached to carriages, was patented . 1 Dec. 1851 
Ralph Gouts' pedometer for indicating the steps 

taken by a walker, was patented . 4 Nov. 1799 

Wm. Payne's pedometer for the waistcoat pocket, 

patented IS Feb. 1831 

Other improvements since. 

PEEL ACTS. Among the most important 
were the Bank acts of 1819 and 1844; the acts 
amending the criminal laws, 1827 ; dividing 
parishes into districts, 1843, and the act repealing 
the corn laws in 1846. 

PEEL ADMINISTRATIONS.* The fibst 
succeeded the Melbourne administration, which 



* Sir Robert Peel was born 5 Feb. 1788 ; entered par- 
liament in 1809 ; became under-secretary of the colonies 
in 1811, chief secretary for Ireland in 1812 ; m.p. for 
Oxford in 1818 (when he resigned his office) ; secretary 
for home department in 1822 ; resigned office and re- 
appointed in 1827 ; resigned again in 1830 ; became 
premier in 1834 and 1841 (see above). He "was thrown 



was broken up on the retirement of lord Althorp, 
the chancellor of the exchequer, in Nov. 1834. 
Sir E. Peel, then in Italy, was summoned home, 
the duke of "Wellington holding the seals of office in 
the interim. Thev both resigned in April, 1835. 
In May, 1841, sir P. Peel carried a vote of want of 
confidence in the Melbourne cabinet, but did not 
take office ; and in Sept. of that year, he became 
again premier. He lost the support of the conserva- 
tive party by obtaining the repeal of the corn laws, 
and resigned 29 June, 1846. 

FIRST ADMINISTRATION (Dec. 1834). 

Sir Robert Peel, first lord of the treasury and chancellor 

of the exchequer. 
Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 
Earl of Rosslyn, lord president. 
Lord Wharncliffe, privy seal. 
Henry Goulbura, duke of Wellington, and earl of 

Aberdeen, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries of state. 
Earl De Grey, first lord of the admiralty. 
Lord Ellenborough and Alexander Baring, board of 

control and trade. 
Sir Edward Knatchbull, paymaster of the forces. 
J. C. Herri es, secretary of war. 
Sir George Murray, master-general of the ordnance, &c. 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION (Sept. 1841). 

Sir Robert Peel, first minister. 

Duke of Wellington in the cabinet without office, aft. 
commander-in-chief. 

Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 

Lord Wharncliffe, lord president. 

Duke of Buckingham, lord privy seal (succeeded by duke 
of Buccleuch). 

Sir James Graham, earl of Aberdeen, and lord Stanley, 
home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 

Henry Goulbura, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl of Haddington, first lord of the admiralty. 

Earl of Ripon, board of trade (succeeded by W. E. Glad- 
stone). 

Lord Ellenborough, India board (succeeded by lord Fitz- 
gerald ; succeeded by earl of Ripon). 

Sir Henry Hardinge, sir Edward Knatchbull, sir George 
Murray, &c. 

[Terminated 29 June, 1846, by sir Robert's resigna- 
tion.] 

PEELITES, a name given to gentlemen, whigs 
and tories, who adhered to sir Robert Peel, after 
his defeat by the conservative party, on account of 
his free-trade measures carried in 1846. The 
principal were Henry Goulburn, W. E. Gladstone, 
(Sidney (afterwards lord) Herbert, sir James Gra- 
ham, Edward Cardwell, sir George Cleric, lord Lin- 
coln (afterwards duke of Newcastle), and lords 
Canning and Elgin, and others. Several of them 
became members of the Palmerston and Aberdeen 
administrations (which see). 

PEEL PICTURES. The family collection 
(70) were purchased for the National gallery for 
75,000/. 1871. 

PEEP-O' -DAY-BOYS, insurgentsin Ireland, 
who visited the houses of their antagonists at 
break of day, in search of arms. They first appeared 
4 July, 1784, and were long the terror of the 
country ; see Defenders. 

PEERESSES ' of the United Kingdom (in 
their own right) : 7 in 1885, countess of Cromartie 
(duchess of Sutherland), baronesses Berkeley, Ber- 
ners, Burdett-Coutts, Le JJespencer, Willoughby 
D'Eresby, Bolsover. In 1903: viscountess Ham- 
bleden and batontsses Berkeley, Berners, Burdett- 

from his horse 29 June, and died 2 July, 1850. He greatly 
relaxed the severity of our criminal code in 1827 et seq. ; 
established the new police, and carried the catholic 
emancipation bill in 1829, and the repeal of the corn laws 
in 1846. Statues have been erected to him — at Salford, 
in 1852 ; at Tanxworth, Leeds, Bury, and Manchester, in 
1853 ; and in London and Birmingham in 1855. 



PEERS. 



959 



PENAL LAWS. 



Coutts, Beaumont (a minor), Macdonald of Earns- 
cliffe, Conyers (countess of Yarborough), Cromartie 
(countess); Dorchester; Clifton (a minor). 

PEERS, see Lords and Genealogy. 

PEGU, a province of the Burmese empire, dis- 
covered by the Portuguese in 1520. Pegu, the 
capital, was taken by major Cotton, with 300 men, 
in June, 1852, without loss ; and afterwards 
abandoned. It was again occupied by the Burmese 
and strongly fortified, with a garrison of 4000 men. 
It was recaptured by general Godwin with 1200 
men and two guns, in two hours, with the loss of 
six killed and thirty-two wounded. The province 
was annexed to our Indian possessions, by procla- 
mation, 20 Dec. 1852, and has since prospered. In 
Feb. i862j it was united with Arracan and Tenas- 
serim as British Burmah. 

PEIHO, see China, 1859, i860. 

PEISHWA, the prime minister of the Mah- 
rattas, seized the sovereign power and settled at 
Poonah, 1749. The title was abolished in 1818. 

PEIWAR PASS (Kotul), in the Khoorum 

valley, Afghanistan. Here general Roberts, with 
the 72nd highlanders and the Ghoorkas, defeated the 
Afghans, 2 Dec. 1878. Major Anderson and capt. 
Kelso were killed, and about 80 men were killed and 
wounded. The enemy's loss was very great. 

PEKIN, the capital of China, was built by 
Kaehilai-Khan, grandson of Genghis- Khan, about 
1267. Here was held the court of the Mongol or 
Yuen dynasty, 1280 to 1368. In 1369, Hung-wu, 
of the Ming dynasty, removed to Nankin, which 
was the capital till Yung-lo removed his court to 
Pekin in 1410 ; and by him and his successors the 
city was enlarged, fortified, and beautified. It was 
visited by lord Macartney, Sept. 1793; surrendered 
to the allied English and French armies, 12 Oct. 
[860; and evacuated by them 5 Nov., after peace 
had been signed 24 Oct. It was described as being in 
a very desolate state, and the inhabitants scattered 
and indigent. English and French representatives 
were settled at Pekin, March, 1861. Preliminary 
peace with France concluded here, 5 April, 1885. 
The famous temple or altar of heaven burnt 18 Sept. 
1889. Population, estimated 1877, 1,650,000. 
Busso-Chinese school opened . . 21 July, 1899 
Hong-kong and Sanghai bank, new building opened, 

early July, ,, 
Siege and Heroic Defence of the Legations : 
see China, 20 June-14 Aug. 1900; a memorial in 
front of the British legation unveiled . 14 Sept. igoi 

PELAGIANS, followers of Pelagius, a Briton, 
appeared at Home about 400. Their doctrines were 
condemned by councils at Jerusalem, Carthage, and 
other places, 415, 530. They maintained : — 

1. That Adam was by nature mortal, and whether he had 
sinned or not would certainly have died. 2. That the 
consequences of Adam's sin were confined to his own 
person. 3. That new-born infants are in the same 
condition with Adam before the fall. 4. That the 
law qualified men for the kingdom of heaven, and 
was founded upon equal promises with the gospel. 
5. That the general resurrection of the dead does not 
follow in virtue of Christ's resurrection. 

PELASGT, the primitive inhabitants of Asia 
Minor, Greece, and Italy, appear to have belonged 
to the Indo-Germanic race. They were in Greece 
about 1900 B.C., and in Italy about 1600 B.C. They 
have been termed Tyrrheni, Sicanior Siculi, Apuli, 
&c. From the Pelasgi came the Dorians, JEolians, 
and Ionians; all three being Hellenes or Greeks. 



The Pelasgi appear not to have had the art of 
writing, but have left numerous architectural re- 
mains ; they were probably a wealthy, powerful 
and intelligent people. 

PELEE, MONT, see Earthquakes. 

PELEW ISLANDS (N. Pacific Ocean), dis- 
covered by the Spaniards in the 17th century. The 
East India company's packet Antelope, captain 
Wilson, was wrecked here in 1783. The king, 
Abba Thulle, allowed captain Wilson to bring prince 
Le Boo, his son, to England, where he arrived 
in 1784, and died of the small-pox soon after. The 
East India company erected a monument over his 
grave in Botherhithe churchyard. 

PELHAM ADMINISTRATION. Mr. H. 

Pelham replaced the earl of Wilmington as premier, 
25 Aug. 1743 ; see Wilmington. In Nov. 1744, 
the following ministry was formed (termed " the 
broad bottom administration," because it compre- 
hended a grand coalition of the parties). It was 
dissolved by the death of Mr. Pelham, 6 March, 
1754- 
Henry Pelham, first lord of the treasury and chancellor of 

the exchequer. 
Lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 
Duke of Dorset, president of the council. 
Earl Gower, lord privy seal. 
Duke of Newcastle and the earl of Harrington, secretaries 

of state. 
Duke of Montagu, master-general of the ordnance. 
Duke of Bedford, first lord of the admiralty. 
Duke of Grafton, lord chamberlain. 
Duke of Bichmond, master of the horse. 
Duke of Argyll, keeper of the great seal of Scotland. 
Marquis of Tweeddale, secretary of state for Scotland. 

All of the cabinet. 
The duke of Devonshire and duke of Bolton were not of 
the cabinet. 

PELLS (from pellis, skin), receipts on parch- 
ment rolls deposited in the court of exchequer. 
By an act passed in 1834, the office of clerk of the 
pells was abolished, ano a comptroller-general 
appointed. " Pell records," or " issues of the 
exchequer," or payments made out of his revenue 
by James I., were published by the government in 
1836. 

PELOPIUM, see Niobium. 

PELOPONNESUS (the island of Peiops), a 
peninsula, S. (ireece, termed Morea in the 13th 
century, said to have been settled by Peiops about 
1283 b.c. Peloponnesian War continued for 
twenty-seven years between the Athenians and the 
people of the Peloponnesus, with their respective 
allies, and is the most famous of the wars of Greece. 
It began by an attempt of the Boeotians to surprise 
Platsea, 431 B.C., on 7 May, and ended 404 by the 
taking of Athens by the Lacedaemonians. 

PELUSIUM (now Tlneh), formerly Sin, the 
key of Kgypt. Here, in 525 B.C., Psammeticus III. 
was defeated by Cambyses, the Persian, who thereby 
obtained possession of the kingdom. Pelusium 
surrendered to Alexander, 333 ; was taken by the 
Persians, 309; by Antiochus, 173; by Augustus, 
30 B.C. ; and after a protracted resistance by Am- 
rou, the Saracen, A.d. 638. 

PEMBROKE (S. Wales). A county palatine 
till 1536. The royal dockyard at Milford was 
moved to Pembroke'in 1814. Pembroke College 
and Hall, see under Oxford and Cambridge. Popu- 
lation, 1881, 14,156; 1891, 14,978; 1901, 15,853. 

PENAL LAWS, see Criminal Laws and 
Roman Catholics. Penal Servitude was substituted 



PENANCE. 



940 



PENNSYLVANIA. 



for transportation by acts passed in 1853 and 1857, 
and amended in 1864. A penal servitude commis- 
sion appointed, 22 Jan. 1878. 
First session of the International Penal Law union 

opened at Brussels 7 Aug. 18S9 

The Penal Servitude acts, 1853 et seq. combined by 

act passed 5 Aug. 1891 

PENANCE, a sacrament in the Koman church, 
arose out of the practice of auricular confession 
(which see). The council of Trent, in its 14th ses- 
sion (1551), decreed that every one is accursed who 
shall affirm that this sacrament was not instituted 
by Christ. 

PENANG, or Prince of "Wales's Island, 

was given up to the East India company in 1786, 
by captain F. Light, who received it as a marriage 
portion with the daughter of the king of Keddah. 
After several changes it became one of the Straits 
Settlements (which see) . 

PENDULUMS. The isochronous property 
of the pendulum is said to have been applied to 
clocks by Galileo about 1639, and by Richard Harris 
about 1641. Christian Huyghens claimed this dis- 
covery, 1658. See Clocks. George Graham in- 
vented the compensating pendulum, 1715. Experi- 
ments were made to determine the density of the 
earth by pendulums by Mr. (aft. sir) G. B. Airy 
(aftds. astronomer royal), and others, in a mine 
in Cornwall, in 1826 and 1828 ; and at Horton 
colliery 1854. In 1851, M. Foucault demonstrated 
the rotation of the earth by the motion of a 
pendulum. 

PENGE MYSTERY, Surrey, see Trials, 
Sept. 1877. 

PENINSULAR COMPANY, see Steam, 
1837-40. 

PENINSULAR WAR, see under Spain, 

1808-14. 

Wellington computed that he lost 36,000 men in 

this war — killed, prisoners, deserters, &c. He 

took great care of his men (1836). 

PENITENTIARIES. The London Female 
Penitentiary, Pentonville-road, was established in 
1807 ; and the British Penitent Female Refuge at 
Cambridge heath, Hackney, in 1829. The Church 
Penitentiary association, founded 185 1. Inter- 
national penitentiary congresses held, first in 
London, 1872, at other capitals since ; at Paris, 
30 June, 1895. See Millbanlc. 

PENITENTS, see Magdalens. The Penitents 
of the name of Jesus in Spain were a congregation 
of persons who had led a licentious life, formed 
about 1550. The penitents of Orvieto were formed 
into an order of nuns about 1662. 

PENNSYLVANIA (N. America), the first 
state in the Union in regard to mineral wealth. 
The settlement by the Swedes here in 1643, 
was taken by the Dutch in 1655, and acquired 
by the British in 1664. Pennsylvania was 
granted by Charles II. to the duke of York, 
1664; and it was sold to the Penn family, 
1681. Pennsylvania was afterwards purchased 
from the Indians by the celebrated William 
Penn (son of admiral Penn), who went out from 
England with a number of colonists ; from which 
period the settlement gradually increased. Mr. 
Penn granted a charter in May, 1701, but the emi- 
grants from the Low Countries refused it, and 
separated themselves from the province of Pennsyl- 
vania. They afterwards had their own assembly, 



in which the governor of Pennsylvania presided. 

This state adopted an independent constitution in 

1787, and established the present in 1790. Capital, 

Harrisburg ; principal city, Philadelphia. It was 

strongly unionist during the civil war, 1861-5 ; see 

United States of America and Petroleum. For strikes 

see United States, 1877, 1882. Population in i860, 

2,906,370; in 1880, 4,282,891; 1890, 5,258,014; 

1900, 6,302,115. 

Great destruction of property and life by a tornado, 
especially at Pittsburg and Reading, 9 Jan. 1889. 

Several days' violent storms and heavy rain in the 
AUeghanies swelled the rivers, and caused the over- 
flow of the lakes, May, 1880. At 5 p.m. 31 May, the 
South Fork reservoir, a lake about 4 miles square, burst 
the huge dam, and a mass of water rushed down the 
South Fork, four miles, by the deep circuitous Cone- 
maugh valley, to its junction with the Conemaugh 
river, driving all before it. For a distance of about 
12 miles round Johnstown the flood swept out towns 
and villages, destroying all the bridges, railways, and 
factories. South Fork, Johnstown, Cambria city, 
Morrelville, Sheridan, and other flourishing towns 
were completely blotted out. A great mass of floating 
wreckage, which was stopped by a stone railway 
bridge at Johnstown, took fire ; above five hundred per- 
sons, who were hurled on the burning mass, perished. 

The most energetic measures were taken by the govern- 
ment, by several states, and by the railway companies 
for the relief of the sufferers, and for averting imminent 
famine and pestilence. Robbers of the dead and 
living were lynched by a vigilance committee. Troops 
were sent to maintain order, liberal subscriptions were 
begun in London, Paris, and other places, June. 

It is stated that the dam had previously given visible 
signs of its being in a very insecure condition, and 
had not beeii properly constructed. Several towns 
and villages submerged, June ; many bridges swept 
away ; above 150 deaths reported. 

Latest statistics state the result of the Johnstown 
disaster to be about 6.000 deaths . . 26 July, 1889 

Panic in a theatre at Johnstown, 10 persons killed, 
many injured 10 Dec. ,, 

Destructive storms with loss of life at Pittsburg 
and neighbourhood 8 Feb. 1890 

At Hartford coal-pit, Ashley, Wyoming valley, 28 
men were entombed and 26 perished by a cave-in 
and explosion 15 May, ,, 

A cyclone in the Wyoming valley and neighbour- 
hood, about 54 killed . . . about 19 Aug. ,, 

By an explosion in the Frick mine, ten miles from 
Mount Pleasant, 151 out of 160 men perished 

27 Jan. 1891 

Johnstown again inundated through heavy rains 

about 16 Feb. ,, 

Riotous strikes in the Pennsylvania coke district, 
much destruction of property, reported 30 March ; 
desperate fight, 9 men killed, 2 April ; 1000 soldiers 
maintaining order, 3 April ; rioting renewed 
with desperate fights . . about 22 April, ,, 

A train containing 75 men thrown off the line while 
rushing through a burning forest near Conders- 
port, Potter county ; 5 men killed, many 
injured about 12 May, ,, 

After heavy rains, when the rivers had become 
torrents, early on 5 June, a cloud burst over the 
Pittsburg oil regions, causing great inundations. 
At Titusville the tanks of oil and distilled benzine 
were upset and were ignited by lightning and the 
city was fired. A flaming stream with floating 
wreckage carried all before it, destroying the 
bridges. Explosions followed, causing a panic, 
and the people fled to the hills, women and 
children being trampled on during the rush. The 
fiery river reached Oil city, 18 miles distant, and 
a large part of it was reduced to ashes or sub- 
merged. It was reported that 150 persons were 
either drowned or burnt at Titusville, and about 
200 missing. The loss of property at the two 
cities was estimated at 3,000,000 dollars ; large 
sums were immediately subscribed for the relief 
of the sufferers .... 6 June et scq. 1892 

Destructive forest fires in various parts, about 

2 Nov. ,, 



PENNY. 



941 



PEOPLE. 



A cokers' strike and riots with bloodshed, chiefly 
Hungarians, S.W. Pennsylvania, 4 April et seq. 
150 arrests April, May, 1894 

Strike of about 50,000 colliers for an advance of 
20 per cent, reported 20 April ; subsidence of the 
strike reported 10 June, ,, 

Dynamite outrage at Salisbury, Mr A. J. Leiin and 
wife killed 4 Oct. ,, 

Forest fire in the North oilfields, several small 
towns destroyed, reported ... 4 June, 1895 

Railway collision near Atlantic city, on the Penn- 
sylvania railway, so deaths . . .30 July, 1896 

The Capitol at Harrisburg burnt down, reported, 

2 Feb. 1897 

A body of foreign miners on strike, refusing to 
disperse, fired on by order of sheriff Martin, 22 
killed, near Hazleton, 10 Sept. ; strike over, 
men's terms agreed on, 12 Sept. ; further rioting, 

16, 20 Sept. ,, 

Sheriff Martin and 82 deputy-sheriffs tried for the 
deaths of 22 miners (10 Sept.), 1 Feb. 1898 ; all 
acquitted ... . . 9 March, 1898 

Bioting at Shenandoah in connection with coal 
strike ; troops sent ; order restored, 30 July ; 
national guard ordered out in the strike region, 

7 Oct. 1902 

Part of the town Olyphant subsides 50 feet into 
mine workings ; 2 buildings burnt . . 2 Jan. 1903 

PENNY. The ancient silver penny was the 
first silver coin struck in England, and the only one 
current among the Anglo-Saxons. The penny until 
the reign of Edward I. was struck with a cross, so 
deeply indented that it might be easily parted into 
two for halfpence, and into four for farthings, and 
hence these names. Copper penny and two-penny 
pieces were coined by Boulton ami Watt, at Soho, 
Birmingham, in 1797, and were accounted the 
finest of our copper currency ; see Coins, &c. — 
Penny- Post ; see Post-office. — The Penny 
Magazine began in 1832 ; the Pexny Cyclopaedia 
in 1833 (supplements in 1846 and 1 858) . The 
Penny Receipt stamp was appointed in 1853 (post- 
age stamps authorised to be used for receipts after 
I June, 1 881), and in 1858 a pennystamp was directed 
to be placed on bankers' cheques. — Penny Banks 
(in 1861 about 200) were established about 1850. 
They have become numerous, and in 1878 were 
authoi-isedtoinvesttheir funds. —Penny Readings, 
for the working classes, became general in 1859. 
Carpenter's "Penny Reading's," published in 1865-7. 
" Penny Poets," &c. ; Mr/W. T. Stead began the 
series with Macaulay's " Lays of Ancient Rome," 
&c, price one penny, May, 1895. 

The value of the Roman penny (mentioned Matt. xx. 2), 
or denarius, was estimated at yhd. of our money. 

Penny dinners for poor Board school children ; organi- 
zation proposed at Society of Arts, 6 Dec. 1884 ; see 
Destitute Children. A similar self-supporting system 
existed in the provinces. 

PENEHYN LIBEL SUIT, see Trials. 

PENRUDDOCK'S REBELLION on be- 
half of Charles II. was suppressed, and colonel John 
Penruddock himself executed, 16 May, 1655. 

PENSIONS. The ci-own's power of granting 
them, often much abused, was materially checked 
by statute I Anne, c. I (1702), see Poor, 1893-5. 

English pension list fixed at 95,000?. . . .1781 
Irish pension list said to amount to 489,000?. . . 1793 
Provision made by parliament to reduce all the pen- 
sion lists of the united kingdom from 145,000?. to 

a maximum of 75,000?. 1830 

A committee appointed to define the proper persons 
to whom pensions should be granted : it reported 
in favour of servants of the crown and public, and 
also of those who " by their useful discoveries in 
-science and attainments in literature and the arts, 
have merited the gracious consideration of their 
sovereign and the gratitude of their country " . 1834 



The queen empowered to grant annually new pen- 
sions to the amount of 1200Z. .... 1837 

The political offices pension act passed . 9 Aug. 1869 

The pensions commutation acts passed . 29 June, 

1871 and 1882 

Death of rev. Thos. Thurlow, nephew of the lord 
chancellor, whereby pensions for abolished 
offices, said to amount to 11,779?. , ceased 26 Sept. 1874 

Report of committee on such pensions published 

Sept. 1887 

Perpstual pensions were granted to the dukes of 
Grafton, Richmond, Marlborough, and many 
others in the 17th and 18th centuries. 

By virtue of an act passed in 1873, various perpetual 
pensions have been terminated by agreement for 
compensation 1890 

The Old Age Pension scheme of Mr. Joseph Cham- 
berlain, m.p., proposed the establishment of a 
state pension fund to be aided by annual parlia- 
mentary grants and contributions from local 
rates and annuitants, considered by a committee 
of the commons, 16 March ; adopted 17 May, 1892 ; 
total sum yearly, 611,464?. ; doles, 327,655?. ; re- 
ported, May ; report of committee, issued, 7 July, 
1898 ; the committee report in favour of pensions 
of at least 5s. a week to needy persons over 65, 
half the cost to be paid from local rates and the 
other from the exchequer ... 26 July, 1899 

PENTAMETER VERSE (five feet), first 
used about the 7th century B.C. ; see Elegy. 

PENTATEUCH, the five books of Moses, pro- 
bably written about 1452 B.C. See Bible. 

PENTECOST signifies the fiftieth, and is the 
solemn festival of the Jews, called also " the feast of 
weeks," because it was celebrated fifty days, or seven 
weeks after the feast of the Passover, 1491 B.C. {Lev. 
xxiii. 15 ; Exod. xxxiv. 22) ; see Whitsuntide. 

PENTLAND HILLS (near Edinburgh). 
Here the Scotch presbyterians, since called Came- 
ronians [which see), who had risen against the go- 
vernment on account of the establishment of episco- 
pacy, were defeated by the royal troops, 28 Nov. 1666. 

PENZANCE, Cornwall. The town was burnt 
by the Spaniards, July, 1595. It was taken by 
Fairfax in 1646. Here sir Humphry Davy was 
born, 17 Dec. 1778, and here was inaugurated his 
memorial statue, 17 Oct. 1872. Visit of the king 
well received, 9 April, 1902. Population, 1881, 
12,409; 18.91, 12,448; 1901, 13,123. 

PEONAGE SYSTEM, see United States, 
1903. 

PEOPLE. The duke of Norfolk and C. J. Eox, 
at a dinner in 1798, gave a toast "the majesty of 
the people," for which their names were struck off 
the list of privy councillors. A " people's petition " 
was presented to parliament by Mr. T. Duncombe, 
and rejected, 2 May, 1842. "People's Parks," 
principally through private liberality, have been 
opened since 1846, at Manchester, Halifax, Bir- 
mingham, Sheffield, Dundee, Bradford, Hull, Bath, 
Bolton, Liverpool, Leeds, &c. {which see). 
People's banks, based on co-operative principles, 
have been successfully introduced into Germany 
and Italy by Dr. Schulze-Delitzsch ; they begin with 
a deposit of 2^d. and a monthly subscription of 
5(?. In 1887 there were 2200 of these banks in 
Germany and in that year, less than half of 
them dealt with more than 50,000,000?. sterling. 
Reported successful in Gt. Britain in 1896. 
People's Cafe company established 1874, to give 
the working classes the advantages of club-houses, 
opened their first house in Upper Whitecross- 

street, London 16 April, 1875 

A "People's Tribute" to the earl of Beaconsfield, a 
gold wreath, made by Hunt & Roskeil, by sub- 
scription of 52,800 pennies; collected by the 
agency of Mr. Tracy Turnerelli. Its presentation 
was declined by the earl . . .16 June, 1879 
See Entertainment. 



PEOPLE'S PALACE. 



942 



PEEJTIEY. 



PEOPLE'S PALACE, see Beaumont Trust. 

PEPPER was used by the Greeks ; licences to 
sell pepper abolished, 1869. Pepper imported into 
the United Kingdom in 1863, 16,810,467 lbs. ; 
1883, 31,375,589 lbs. ; 1890, 29,691,858 lbs. ; 1893, 
31,222,418 lbs.; 1896, 26,113,001 lbs.; 1900, 
22,276,242 lbs. ; 1901, 15,706,503 lbs. 

PEPSIN, a peculiar organic substance found by 
Schwann in the gastric juice, and named by him 
from pepsis, digestion. It was experimented on by 
M. Blondlot in 1843, and has since been prescribed 
as a medicine. 

PEPYS' DIAEY. Samuel Pepys was born 
23 Feb. 1632 ; became secretary to the admiralty 
about 1664; president of the Royal society, 1684; 
died 26 May, 1703. His "Diary," as published, 
begins 1 Jan. 1659-60 ; ends 31 May, 1669. 

The MSS. at Magdalene College, Cambridge, was 
deciphered by the Rev. John Snath. The first 
edition (with a selection from his correspondence), 
by Richard, lord Braybrooke, appeared in 1825. 
The publication of a new edition, "deciphered 
with additional notes by the rev. Mynors Bright," 
1875-9 ; a complete edition of this by H. B. 
Wheatley, 1893-6 ; vol. ix. Index . . June, 1899 

PEE A, a suburb of Constantinople, the residence 
of the British and other ambassadors ; has frequently 
been destroyed by fire; see Turkey, 2 Aug. 1831, 
and 5 June, 1870. 

PEEAK, see Straits Settlement. 

PEECEVAL ADMINISTEATION. It 

commenced on the dissolution of the duke of Port- 
land's, through his death, 30 Oct. 1809. Mr. Per- 
ceval was assassinated in the lobby of the house of 
commons, by Bellingham, II May, 1812. The earl 
of Liverpool succeeded as premier. 

Spencer Perceval [born 1762 ; chancellor of exchequer, 
1807], first lord of the treasury, chancellor of the exchequer, 
and chancellor of the, duchy of Lancaster. 

Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 

Earl Camden, lord president. 

Earl of Westmorland, lord privy seal. 

Richard Ryder, marquis of Wellesley, and earl of Liver- 
pool, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 

Lord Mulgrave, admiralty. 

Mr. Dumas and earl Bathurst, boards of control and 
trade. 

Earl of Chatham, ordnance. 

Viscount Palmerston, secretary of war, &c. 

PEECUSSION CAPS, see Fire-arms. 

PEECY FAMILY. William de Percy ob- 
tained lands in Yorkshire from William the Con- 
queror, and died at Antioch about 1096. 

The heiress of the last baron Percy married Josceline 
de Louvaine, son of Godfrey, duke of Brabant, in 
the reign of Henry II 1154-89 

Henry de Percy, their descendant, created earl of 
Northumberland in 1377 

Many of his descendants were slain during the wars 
of the Roses. 

Lady Elizabeth Percy, the heiress of Josceline 
Percy, who died 1670, married Charles, duke of 
Somerset. 

Lady Elizabeth Percy, heiress of their son Algernon 
Seymour, duke of Northumberland, married sir 
Hugh Smithson, created duke of Northumber- 
land in 1766 

Their descendant, duke Algernon, died without 
issue, 12 Feb. 1865, and was succeeded by his 
cousin, George Percy, carl of Beverley, who died 
22 Aug. 1867 ; succeeded by George Algernon, the 
present duke. 

The Percy Society, fur the publication of ancient 
ballads, &c, named after Dr. Percy, bishop of 
Dromore (died 1811), who published ballads, was 



established in 1840, published 94 little volumes, 

and was dissolved 1852 

Percy Anecdotes, classified, compiled by J. C. Robertson 
and Thomas Byerley, under the names of Sholto and 
Reuben Percy, 1820-3. 

PEEED (Hungary). Here the Hungarians 
under Gbrgey were defeated by Wohlgemuth and 
the Ru-sians, 21 June, 1849. 

PEEEKOP, an isthmus, five miles broad, 
connecting the Crimea with the mainland. It was 
called by the Tartars Orkapou, " gate of the isth- 
mus," which the Russians changed to its present 
name, which signifies a barren ditch. The lines 
across the isthmus were forced by the Russian mar- 
shal Munich, May, 1736, and the fortress was taken 
by Lacy, July, 1738. It was again strongly fortified 
by the khan, but was again taken by the Russians 
in 1771, who have since retained it. 

PEEE-LA-CHAISE, see Cemeteries. 

PEEFECTION, see Illuminati. 

PEEFUMEEY. In Exodus xxx. (1490 B.C.), 
directions are given for making the holy incense. 
Philip Augustus of France granted a charter to the 
master perfumers in 1190. Perfumes became 
fashionable in England in the reign of Elizabeth. 
In i860 there were about forty manufacturing 
perfumers in London ; in Paris about eighty. No 
such trade as a perfumer was known in Scotland in 
1763. Creech. A stamp-tax was laid on various 
articles of perfumery in England, and the vendor 
was obliged to take out a licence in 1786. At the 
corner of Beaufort-buildings, in the Strand, resided 
Lilly, the perfumer, mentioned in the Spectator. 

PEEGAMOS, see Seven Churches, yd. 

PEEIM, an island at the southern entrance of 
the Red Sea, held by the British, 1 799-1800: and 
again in 1857 ; made a coaling station in 1883 ; 
under the government of Bombay. Population 
about 400. 

PEEIODICAL LITEEATUEE, see News- 
papers, Magazines, and Revieivs. "An Index to 
Periodical Literature," 1853 et seq. ; by W. F. 
Poole. Published in two volumes, 1882-8. 

PEEIPATETIC PHILOSOPHY, see Ly- 
ceum. 

PEEIPLUS- The voyage of Hanno, the Car- 
thaginian navigator, about the third century B.C. 
His account of his travels, written in the Punic 
language, was translated into Greek; an English 
translation, edited by Falconer, in London, 1797. 

PEEJTJEY. The early Romans threw the 
offender headlong from the Tarpeian precipice ; and 
the Greeks set a mark of infamy upon him. After 
the empire became Christian, any one who swore 
falsely upon the Gospels, was to have his tongue cut 
out. The canons of the primitive church enjoined 
eleven years' penance ; and in some states the false 
swearer became liable to the punishment he charged 
upon the innocent. In England perjury was pun- 
ished with the pillory, fine, and imprisonment, 
1562. By the Abolition of Oaths bill, persons 
making a false declaration are deemed guilty of a 
misdemeanor ; Act 5 & 6 Will. IV. cc. 60 aiid 61, 
9 Sept. 1835 ; a perjury bill was read a second time, 
2 April, 1895. Perhaps the greatest perjurer in 
modern times was Titus Oates ; see Gates. A 
woman named Alice Grey was convicted of many 
perjuries in 1856. See Trials, 1873. 



PERKINS' METALLIC TRACTORS. 943 



PERSIA. 



PERKINS' METALLIC TRACTORS, see 

Animal Magnetism. 

PERMANENT COMMITTEES. One was 

appointed, 15 Sept. 1871, by the French national 
assembly to watch over the proceedings of the go- 
vernment during a recess. It consisted of 25 per- 
sons of various parties. A similar committee of the 
Spanish cortes, appointed 22 March, 1873, was per- 
emptorily dissolved by the government 22 April 
following. 

PERMISSIVE PROHIBITORY BILL 

(which would give power to two-thirds of the rate- 
payers of a parish to refuse licences for the sale of 
intoxicating liquors) , advocated by the United King- 
dom Alliance party, was i - ejected by the house of 
commons, 8 June, 1864; 12 May, 1869 (193-87) ; 17 
May, 1871 (206-124) > 8 May, 1872 (369-15) ; 7 May, 
1873 (321-81) ; 17 June, 1874 (301-75) ; 16 June, 
1875 (371-86) ; 14 June, 1876 (299-81); withdrawn, 
25 July, 1877 '> (27^-84) 26 June, 1878. It is 
strongly advocated by sir Wilfrid Lawson, m.p. ; 
resolution rejected (252-164) II March, 1879. 
Resolution to give local option (that is, power to the 
inhabitants of any place to stop licensing public- 
houses) was rejected by the commons (248-134) 
5 March, 1880; but adopted (229-203) 18-19 June, 1880 ; 
(196-154) 14 June, 1881 ; (228-141) 27 April, 1883; re- 
jected 29 April, 1891. 
A liquor traffic (local control or veto) bill introduced by- 
sir VV. V. Harcourt, 27 Feb. 1893 ; much opposed ; 
withdrawn, 18 Sept. 1893. 
A bill for Wales, read second time, 15 March, 1803 ; 
other bills relating to the sale of liquors introduced 
by the bishops of Chester and London and Mr. 
Bolitho, March, 1893 ; modified and re-introduced by 
him as local option bill, read first time in commons, 
8 April, 1895. 
"Local Option," an Americanism, is said not to work 
satisfactorily in the United States. 
See Liquor Traffic. 

. PERNAMB UCO, a province of Brazil, with a 
city of the same name, comprising Recife and 
other towns, founded in 1530 ; seized by the 
British, and retained for a month, 1594; insurrec- 
tions here, 1661, 1710, 1817, i82i,and 1829. Popu- 
lation, 1890, 190,000. 

PERONNE (N. France). Louis XI. of France, 
having placed himself in the power of the duke oi 
Burgundy, here was forced to sign a treaty, con- 
firming those of Arras and Conflans, and recognising 
the duke's independence ; 14 Oct. 1468. The not- 
ables declared the treaty invalid and the duke a 
traitor, Nov. 1470. 

PERPENDICULAR, see Gothic Archi- 
tecture. 

PERPETUAL EDICTS, see Edicts. 

PERPETUAL MOTION. For this purpose 
machines have been constructed by the marquis of 
Worcester and many others, although the impossi- 
bility of attaining it was demonstrated by sir Isaac 
Newton and De la Hire, and affirmed by the academy 
of sciences at Paris, 1775. It is still the object of 
experiment by half-taught persons. See Pensions. 

PERRANZABULOE, Perran in the sands 
[in sabulo), mid Cornwall, named from Perran, the 
patron of tinners. The remains of an ancient 
British oratory or church, resembling the arrange- 
ment of protestant churches, were discovered in the 
sand in 1835, with other interesting relics. 

PERSECUTIONS. Historians usually reckors 
ten general persecutions of the Christians ; see Jews, 
Heretics, Inquisition, Huguenots, Protestants, Mas- 
sacres, Bartholomew, St., &c. 



I. Under Nero, who, having set fire to Rome, threw 
the odium upon the Christians ; multitudes were 
massacred ; wrapt up in the skins of wild beasts, 
and torn and devoured by dogs ; crucified, burnt 
alive, &c. ....... a.d. 64-68 

II. Under Domitian 95 

III. Under Trajan 106 

IV. Under Marcus Aurelius 166-177 

V. Under Septimus Severus .... 199-204. 
VI Unde>- Maximus 235-8 

VII. Under Decius, more bloody than anypreceding 250-2 

VIII. Under Valerian 25S-60 

IX. Under Aurelian 275 

X. Under Diocletian, who prohibited divine wor- 
ship ; houses filled with Christians were set on 
fire, and many of them were bound together with 
ropes and cast into the sea . . . . 303-13 

PERSEPOLIS, the ancient splendid capital of 
Persia. Alexauderisaccusedof settiugfire to it, while 
intoxicated, 331 B.C. Ruins of this city still exist. 

During Mr. Cecil Smith's expedition, Nov. 1891 et 
seq., supported by lord Savile and others, paper 
mouldings were taken of various sculptures by 
sig. Giuntini, including the historical frieze con- 
nected with the hall of Xerxes, a series of groups 
of animals, &c, and a cast of the monolithic 
monument of Cyrus. The casts presented to the 
British museum, to that at New York, and other 
collections, reported .... Sept. 1897 

PERSIA or Iran, in the Bible called Elam,* 
W. Asia. The early history is mythical ; see 
Media, Xerxes' Campaign, and Magi. Population 
of the present kingdom, about 6,500,000. 

Cyrus revolts against the Medes, and becomes king 
of Persia, 559 ; overthrows the Medo-Babylonian 
monarchy, about 557 ; conquers Asia Minor about 
548 ; becomes master of the east, 536 ; killed in 
a war with the Massagetae . . . . b.c. 529 
Cambyses, his son, king, 529 ; conquers Egypt 

(which see) 525 

The false Smerdis killed ; Darius Hystaspes king, 

521 ; conquers Babylon 517 

Conquest of Ionia ; Miletus destroyed . . . . 498 

Darius equips a fleet of 600 sail, with an army of 

300,000 soldiers to invade the Peloponnesus, 

which is defeated at Marathon (ivhich see) . . 490 

Xerxes (king, 485) ; recovers Egypt, 484 ; enters 

Greece in the spring at the head of an immense 

force ; battle of Thermopylae 480 

Xerxes enters Athens, after having lost 200,000 of 
his troops, and is defeated in a naval engagement 

o.f Salamis ,, 

Persians defeated at Mycale and Platcea . 22 Sept. 479 
Cimon, son of Miltiades, with a fleet of 250 vessels, 
takes several cities from the Persians, and de- 
stroys their navy, consisting of about 340 sail, 

near Cyprus 470 

His victories at the Eurymedon .... 469 
Xerxes is murdered in his "Wed by Artabanus . . 465 
Artaxerxes I. Longimanus, king, 465; marries Esther, 458 
Xerxes I. king, slain "by Sogdianus, 425 ; who is de- 
posed by Darius II. , Nothus 424 

Artaxerxes II. Mneinon, king, 405 : battle of Cunaxa, 

Cyrus the younger killed 401 

Retreat of the 10,000 Greeks (see Retreat) . ,, 

War with Greece, 399 ; invasion of Persia . . . 396 
Peace of Antalcidas (which see) .... 387 

Artaxerxes III. (Ochus) kills all his relations at his 

accession 359 

He is killed by his minister Bagoas, and his son, 

Arses, made king 33 8 

Bagoas kills him and sets up Darius III. , Codoma- 

nus, by whom he himself is killed . . . . 336 
Alexander the Great enters Asia ; defeats the Per- 
sians at the river Granicus, 334 ; near Issus, 333 ; 

at Arbela 331 

Darius III. treacherously killed by Bessus . . . ,, 
Alexander dies at Babylon, 323 ; when his empire was 
divided, Persia with Syria was allotted to Se- 
leucus Nicator, whose successors, the Seleucidae, 

* Elamite antiquities presented to the British Museum 
by col. Ross, 1876. 



PERSIA. 



944 



PERSIA. 



ruled Persia, till it was conquered by the Par- 
tisans, led by Arsaces I., the founder of the 
dynasty of the Arsacidte about 250 ; his successors 
ruled till the Persian revolt . . . . a.d. 226 
Artaxerxes I. founds the Sassanides dynasty ; re- 
stores kingdom of Persia ,, 

Religion of Zoroaster restored and Christianity per- 
secuted 227 

Artaxerxes murdered ; succeeded by Sapor I. ; Ar- 
menia becomes independent under Chosroes . 240 
Sapor conquers Mesopotamia, 258 ; repels the Bo- 
mans and slays the emperor Valerian . . 260 
Sapor assassinated ; succeeded by Hormisdas I. ; 

who favours the Manichees 272 

Varanes I. (Baharam) persecutes them and the 

Christians 273 

Varanes II. defeated by the emperor Probus ; makes 

peace 277 

Persia invaded by the emperor Carus, who conquers 

Seleucia and Ctesiphon 283 

Varanes III. king, 293 ; Narses .... 294 

The emperor Galerius conquers Mesopotamia, &c. . 298 

Peace with Diocletian ,, 

Hormisdas II. king 301 or 303 

Ormuz built about 303 

Sapor II. king, 309 ; proscribes Christianity, 326 : 
makes war successfully with Rome for the lost 

provinces 337-360 

The emperor Julian invades Persia ; slain near the 
Tigris, 26 June ; his successor Jovian purchases 
his retreat by surrendering provinces . . . 363 
Sapor annexes Armenia, 365 ; and Iberia, 366 ; 

makes peace with Rome 372 

Artaxerxes II. king, 380 ; Sapor III. . . . 385 
Armenia and Iberia independent . . . . 386 
Varanes IV. , 390 ; Yezdejird I. , 404 ; conqirers Ar- 
menia 412 

Vai'anes V., 420, persecutes Christians ; conquers 
Arabia Felix, 421 ; makes peace with the Eastern 

empire for 100 years 422 

Armenia again united to Persia .... 428 

■Wars with Huns, Turks, &c 430-2 

Yezdejird II. king, 440 ; Hormisdas III., 457 ; civil 
war, 458-86 ; Feroze king, 458 ; Pallas, 484 ; Kobad, 
486 ; Jamaspes, 497 ; Kobad again . . . 497 
Eis son, Chosroes I. king ; long wars with Justinian 

and his successors, with various fortune . . 531-79 
Successful campaigns of Belisarius .... 541-2 
Hormisdas IV. continues the war ; degrades his 
general, Baharam, who deposes him ; but is 

eventually defeated 590 

Chosroes II. 591 ; renews the war with success, 603 ; 

Egypt and Asia Minor subdued . . . 614-6 
Chosroes totally defeated by the emperor Heraclius, 

who advances on Persia 627 

Chosroes put to death by his son, Siroes, 628 ; Ar- 
taxerxes III. king, 629 ; Purandokt, daughter of 
Chosroes, reigns, 630; Shenendeh, her lover, 631 ; 
Arzeindokt, her sister, 631 ; Kesra, 631 ; Ferokh- 

dad, 632 ; Yezdejird III 632 

Persia invaded by the Arabs ; the king flees, 641 ; 
is betrayed to them and is put to death, and his 

army exterminated 642 

Persia becomes the seat of the Shiite or Fatimite 

Mahometans 661 

The Taherite dynasty established, 813; the Sof- 

feride, 872 ; the Samanide 902 

Pei'sia subdued by Togrul Beg and the Seljukian 
Turks, 1038 ; who are expelled, 1194 ; subdued by 
Genghis Khan and the Mongols . . . . 1223 

Bagdad made the capital 1345 

The poet Haliz died about 1368 

Persia invaded by Timour, 1380 ; ravaged by him . 1399 

The poet Jami born 1414 

Persia conquered by the Turcomans, 1468, who are 
expelled by the Shiitcs, who establish the Sophi 

dynasty under Ismail I. 1501 

Ispahan made the capital 1590 

The Turks take Bagdad ; great massacre . . 1638 

Georgia revolts to Russia 1783 

Teheran made the capital 1796 

War witli Russia 1826-9 

Rupture with England through the Persians taking 

Herat (which sec), 25 Oct. ; war declared 1 Nov. 1856 
Persians defeated ; Bushire taken . . 8-10 Dec. ,, 
General Outram defeats the Persians at Kooshab, 
•3 Feb. ; and at Mohammerah . . 26 March, i?57 



Peace ratified at Teheran ... 14 April, 1857 
Commercial treaty with France, &c. . June, ,, 

Herat given up by the Persians . . . July, ,, 
The shah re-organizes the government . 9 Sept. 1858 
Railways in process of formation .... 1865 

Electric telegraph introduced 1867 

Great sufferings through three years' drought, ac- 
companied by fever and cholera ; about 16,000 
persons perished at Ispahan, &c. . July-Oct. 1871 
Collection in London for relief ; above 13,000/. sub- 
scribed .... . Oct. 1871— Feb. 1872 
Concession to baron Julius de Reuter to make rail- 
ways, waterworks, &c. for 70 years, with great 

power 25 July, ,, 

Prosperity restored through a good harvest, March, 1873 
The shah starts to visit Europe, 19 April ; arrives at 
St. Petersburg, 22 May ; at Berlin, 31 May ; at 
Brussels, 16 June ; at London, 18 June ; receives 
the garter at Windsor, 2c June ; at Paris, 5 July ; 
at Turin, 25 July ; at Vienna, 30 July ; at Con- 
stantinople. 19 Aug. ; returned to Teheran 23 Sept. ,, 
The shah visits Europe in summer ; returned to 

Teheran 9 Aug. 1878 

Rebellious incursions of the Kurds suppressed after 

much bloodshed (see Kurdistan) . Oct.-Dec. 1880 
Treaty with Russia signed . . .22 Dec. 1881 
The Russians attack the Shohsovan tribes going 

into winter quarters, killed about 80 . Jan. 1886 
Sir H. D. Wolff, British minister . . 1 Dec. 1887 
First railway constructed in Persia from Teheran 

to Shah-Abdul-Azim opened . . 25 June, 1888 
The river Karun decreed open to all nations by the 

intervention of England . . . 9 Sept. ,, 
The shah visits Europe ; at St. Petersburg, 23-26 
May ; Berlin, 9 June ; Amsterdam, 16 June ; Ant- 
werp, 22 June ; received by the prince of Wales 
at Gravesend, and sails to Westminster, 1 July ; 
at Windsor, 2 July ; at Guildhall, London, 

3 July ; visits Birmingham and other places 7-29 
July ; Paris, 30 July ; Munich, 19 Aug. ; Vienna, 
23 Aug. ; Budapesth, 26 Aug. ; returns to Tehe- 
ran 20 Oct. 1889 

Imperial bank of Persia established (concession to 
baron Julius de Reuter, 30 Jan.) . 23 Oct. ,, 

Prince Malcolm khan, long minister in London, 
recalled to Persia Dec. ,, 

Mirza Mahomet Ali khan, new minister for Eng- 
land, received by the marquis of Salisbury . 

4 March, 1890 

Sir Frank C. Lascelles, British minister . July, 1891 

Great opposition of the priests and people to the 
monopoly of the Imperial tobacco regie (corpora- 
tion), 14 Dec. ; the monopoly abolished in the 
interior, 19 Dec. ; by a proclamation . 27 Dec. ,, 

Complete abolition of the monopoly demanded, 

4 Jan., granted 7 Jan.; compensation to the com- 
pany to be paid April, 1892 

The Russian government offer to lend 500,000/. to 
pay the compensation to the tobacco corpora- 
tion, reported 23 April ; the offer declined ; a 
loan from the Imperial bank of Persia, London, 
accepted about 16 May, ,, 

"Persia and the Persian Question," by the hon. 
George N. Curzon, m.p., published . May, ,, 

Revolt of the Barharloos, suppressed . . Feb. 1893 

Great earthquake at Kuchan, 12,000 deaths, re- 
ported 17 Nov. ,, 

Delimitation treaty with Russia ratified, 30 July ; 
reported 26 Nov. ,, 

The coinage and importation of silver suspended, 

2 March, 1S94 

Sir Mortimer Durand appointed British minister 
March, 1894 ; arrives at Teheran . 17 Nov. ,, 

Kuchan rebuilt ; again destroyed by earthquake ; 
11,000 lives lost .... 17-22 Jan. 1895 

Delimitation of the Russo-Persian frontier settled 
by commission ...... Feb. ,, 

Zanjabad and several other villages partially de- 
stroyed by an earthquake, 300 deaths . 2 Jan. 1896 

Goi completely destroyed, 800 deaths . 5 Jan. ,, 

Assassination of the shah, 1 May (Mirza Reza, the 
murderer, executed :it Teheran, 12 Aug.) ; suc- 
ceeded by Muzailer-ed-Deen, recognised by the 
powers 2 May, ,, 

Enthronement of the shah at Teheran . 8 June, „ 

Ministerial changes, the shah head of the cabinet 
of 12 ministers . . , . Nov ,, 



PERSIA. 



945 



PERU. 



Earthquake with loss of life in the island of Kishim, 

1,400 deaths 10, n Jan. 1897 

Death of sir Joseph Tholozan, the shah's physician, 

Aug. „ 
Mr. Graves, of the telegraph department, mur- 
dered and his camp looted at Karwan ; Indian 
troops sent to Jask, Dec-Jan. ; Shaki Ma- 
homed, the murderer, executed at Jask, 31 May, 1898 
The Baluchistan, steamship, of London, conveying 
arms, &c, seized by H.M.S. Lapwing, off Muscat, 

24 Jan. ,, 
Abdul Khan, Nasir-ul-Mulk, appointed finance 

minister 12 Feb. ,, 

Serious fanatical riot at Hamadan, 27 deaths 22 Feb. ,, 
The governor of Kirman takes Panoch fort, held by 

rebels, who fly to the hills . . . March, ,, 
Amin ed Dowleh, grand vizier, resigns 5 June, ,, 

Lingah retaken from the Arabs . . 9 March, 1899 
Great fire at Resht, damage, abt. ioo,oooZ., 15, i6Nov. ,, 
Financial agreement with Russia, 5 per cent, gold 
loan of 22,500,000 roubles issued by the Persian 
government to the Loan bank of Persia . 30 Jan. 1900 
Sir Arthur Hardinge, British minister . . Aug. ,, 
The shah received bydthe czar at St. Petersburg, 

17 July ; at Paris, 28 July (shot at by Salsou, 

2 Aug.); leaves, 11 Aug. ; returns . 27 Oct. ,, 
New loan of 10,000,000 roubles, entitled 5 per cent. 

Persian gold loan, reported . . 8 April, 1902 
The shah visits Europe — at Cracow, 12 May ; pre- 
sent at a military review in Rome, 22 May ; 
received by prince Arthur of Connaught at 
Dover, 17 Aug. ; by the prince of Wales, London, 

18 Aug. ; by the king at Portsmouth, 20 Aug. ; 
visits sir Hiram Maxim's engineering works, 
Westminster, and the Abbey, 21 Aug. ; Wool- 
wich, 22 Aug. ; Windsor, Crystal palace, 23 Aug. ; 
at Paris, 25 Aug. -14 Sept. ; receives the Spanish 
order of the Golden Fleece, 6 Sept. ; Berlin, 

15 Sept. ; with the czar at Kursk, 17, 18 Sept. „ 

Raiding dhows captured by H.M.S. Lapwing off 
Koweyt ; enemy lost about 24, 1 British killed, 

6 Sept. „ 

Scheme of financial reform with corporation of 
Belgian experts determined upon by Persian 
government, announced (Cologne GazetU), 27 Dec. ,, 

Concession for construction of new road from 
Tabriz to Kazvin, granted to Russian bank at 
Teheran ; detrimental to British trade in northern 
Persia 30 Dec. „ 

Order of the garter conferred by King Edw. VII. 
on Shah 1 Jan. 1903 

Formal investiture by lord Downe, appointed as 
special envoy 2 Feb. ,, 

Russo-Persian commercial agreement ratified by 
the Tsar. Provides ad valorem duties of treaty 
of 1828 shall be superseded by specific duties, 
the majority of export duties to be abolished ; 
farming of taxes to be entirely abolished ; 
•customs stations to be established, and pro- 
visions relating to customs and traffic and toll 
dues ; reported to come into operation, 14 Feb. ,, 

a. r>. SHAHS. 

1502. Ismail or Ishmael : conquers Georgia, 1519. 

1523. Tamasp or Thamas I. 

1576. Ismail II. Meerza. 

1577. Mahommed Meerza. 

1585. Abbas I. the Great : made a treaty with the Eng- 
lish, 1612 ; died in 1628. 

1628. Shah Sophi. 

1641. Abbas II. 

1666. Shah Sophi II. 

1694. Hussein ; deposed. 

1722. Mahmoud, chief of the Afghans. 

1725. Ashraff the Usurper ; slain in battle. 

1730. Tamasp or Thamas II. ; recovered the throne of 
his ancestors from the preceding. 
[Thamas-Kouli-Khan, his general, obtained great 
successes in this and the subsequent reigns. ] 

17 32. Abbas III., infant son of Tamasp, under the re- 
gency -of Kouli-Khan, who afterwards caused 
himself to be proclaimed king as 

1736. Nadir Shah (the victorious king) ; conquers India, 
1739 ; assassinated at Khorassan by his nephew. 

1 747. Shah Rokh. 

1751. [Interregnum. ] 

H759. Kureem Khan. 



1779. Many competitors for the throne, and assassina- 
tions till — 

1795. Aga-Mahommed Khan obtains the power, and 
founds the reigning (Turcoman) dynasty ; assaa- 
sinated, 1797. 

1798. Futteh Ali-Shali. 

1834. Mahommed-Shah, grandson of Futteh ; died, 10 
Sept. 1848., 

1848. Nasr-ul-Deen, or Nasr-ed-Deen, son; born, 4 
April, 1829; sakl to be an able prince and 
friendly to Britain, visited Europe, 1873, 1878 
and 1889; shot in a mosque near Teheran by 
Mirza Reza, said to be a Babi fanatic, 1 May, 
1896. 

1896. Muzaffer-ed-Deen, son, born 25 March, 1853. Heir: 
son, Ali Mirza Itezad-es-Sultaneh, born 1872. 

PERSON, Offences against- The statute 

laws respecting these were consolidated and amended 
in 1861. In the Keform bill, 1832, women were 
disfranchised by the insertion of the word (male) 
before person. 

PERSPECTIVE in drawing was observed by 

the Van Eycks (1426-46) and treated scientifically 
by Michael Angelo, Leonardo da Vinci, and Albert 
Diirer, early in the 16th century. Guido Ubaldo 
published a treatise in 1608 ; Dubreuil's treatise 
(the " Jesuits' perspective") appeared in 1642, and 
the mathematical theory was demonstrated by 
Brook Taylor in 1731. 

PERTH (the old capital of Scotland), said to have 
been founded by Agricola, about a.d. 70. It was 
besieged by the Regent Robert, 1339. On 20 Feb. 
1437, James I. was murdered at the Black Friars' 
monastery here, by Robert Graham and the earl of 
Athol, for which they suffered condign punishment, 
Gowrie's conspiracy occurred here, 6 Aug. 1600. 
Perth was taken from the French garrison by the 
reformers, 26 June, 1559. The " Articles of Perth" 
relating to religious ceremonies, were agreed to by 
the General Assembly of Scotland, 25 Aug. 1618'. 
Perth was taken by Cromwell in 1651 ; and by the 
earl of Mar after the battle of Dunblane, in 1715. 
The statue of the prince consort was inaugurated in 
the presence of the queen, 30 Aug. 1864. St. John's 
Cathedral much damaged by fire, 31 Dec. 1894. 
The Natural History museum opened by sir William 
Flower, 29 Nov. 1895. Population, 1881, 25,250; 
1891,30,760; 1901,32,872. 

Public library opened by lord Rosebery . 22 Oct. 1898 
Mr. Andrew Carnegie receives the freedom, 8 Oct. 1902 
Collapse of a stand at a cricket match, many 
injured . .. . 1 Aug. 1903 

PERTH, capital of western Australia (which 
see), founded 1829. Population, 1891, 9,617 ; 1901, 
36,199. 

PERU (S. America), was long governed by 
incas, said to be descended from Manco Capac, who 
ruled in the nth century. Population, 1876, 
2,699,945 ! I ?96, 4,559,550. Capital, Lima. 

Peru explored and conquered by Francisco Pizarro 

and Almagro 1524-33 

The last inca, Atahualpa, put to death . 29 Aug. 1533 
Pizarro assassinated at Lima . . 26 June, 1541 
Fruitless insurrection of the Peruvians under Tapac 

Amaru, an inca 1780 

San Martin proclaims the independence of Peru, 

28 July, 1821 

War against Spain I4 Jan. 1824 

Bolivar made dictator Feb. „ 

Mariano Prado president ... 28 Nov. ,, 
The Spaniards defeated at Ayacucho, and freedom 

of Peru and Chili achieved ... 9 Dec. „ 
The new Peruvian constitution signed by the presi- 
dent of the republic . . . . 21 March, 1828 
War with Colombia ; treaty of peace . 28 Feb. 1829 

3 p 



PERU. 



946 



PERU. 



After a succession of fierce party conflicts, general 
Ramon Castilla becomes president ; firm and 

politic 1845 

Exportation of guano began 1846 

President Echenique, deposed ; Castilla again 

president 1855 

New constitution, 1856 ; modified . . . . i860 
Population (without Indians) about 2^ millions . 1859 
Marshal San Ramon president . . 24 Oct. 1862 

General J. A. Pezet president ... 3 April, 1863 
The Spanish admiral Pinzon took possession of the 
Chincha-isles (valuable for guano) belonging to 
Peru, stating that he would occupy them till the 
claims of his government on Peru were satisfied, 

14 April, 1864 
American congress at Lima ; plenipotentiaries from 
Chili and other states meet to concert measures 
for defence against European powers . Nov. ,, 
Negotiations followed by peace with Spain, 28 Jan. ; 

Chincha islands restored . ... 3 Feb. 1865 
Revolt against president Pezet, 28 Feb. ; several 

provinces soon lost May, „ 

The insurgents declare war against Spain . Oct. ,, 
They take Lima ; Pezet flies, and Canseco becomes 

president Nov. ,, 

Peru joins Chili, and declares war against Spain, 

Feb. 1866 
The Spanish admiral Nufiez, in his attempt to bom- 
bard Callao, repulsed and wounded . 2 May, ,, 
The Spaniards quit Peruvian waters . 10 May, ,, 
Riots at Lima against religious toleration 15 April, 1867 
Invasion of ex-president Castilla, May ; dies of fever, 

30 May, „ 
Mariano-Ignace Prado resigns dictatorship ; made 

provisional 1 resident, 15 Feb. ; proclaimed, 

31 Aug. ,, 
Insurrection against Prado ; he resigns, 7 Jan. ; suc- 
ceeded by gen. La Puerta ; Pezet's treaty with 
Spain confirmed 18 Jan. 1868 

Col. J. Balta president 1 Aug. ,, 

Several towns in Peru suffered by great earthquakes 

(see Earthquakes) .... 13-15 Aug. ,, 
Gold mines discovered at Huacho . . . Oct. 1871 
Industrial exhibition opened at Lima . July, 1872 
Military insurrection at Lima ; Tomas Gutierrez, 
minister of war, makes himself dictator, and im- 
prisons president Balta . . . .22 July, ,, 
Unsupported by the people, and not recognised by 
diplomatic representatives, he orders Balta to be 
shot : is himself compelled to fly ; caught ; killed 
by the people, and hanged to a lamp-post ; col. 
Zavallos, vice-president, assumes the government ; 
order restored ; about 200 lives were lost during 

the coup el'e'tat 26 July, „ 

Manuel Pardo elected president by the people, as- 
sumed office 2 Aug. „ 

Armed riots in Lima at the execution of cols. Ganrio 

and Zavallos as rebels .... May, 1873 
President Pardo escapes assassination . 22 Aug. 1874 
Insurrection under Pierola ; he is defeated at 

Sorota, near Tarata .... 3 Dec. „ 
Talisman sailed from Cardiff for South America ; 
consigned to Peruvian rebels ; seized and con- 
demned as a prize, and English sailors impri- 
soned, Nov. 1874-Nov. 1875 ; report on ill-usage, 
English government promise inquiry . March, 1876 
President, Mariana I. Prado ... 2 Aug. ,, 
Reported insurrection of Nicolas de Pierola, with 
about 6000 men, endeavouring to establish a 
southern confederacy .... 6-10 Oct. ,, 
He sails away with the Huascar ironclad, 29 May ; 
this is attacked by adm. De Horsey, with H.M.S. 
Shah and Amethyst, as piratical, for attacking 
mail ships ; it is compelled to go into Lima and 
surrender ; the Peruvians resent British inter- 
ference, and threaten reprisals . . June, 1877 
Peruvian government issues a circular to the 

powers, 10 June ; demands reparation 25 June, ,, 
Sir John Holker, att. -general, in house of com- 
mons, said thai the ffitascar had committed acts 
which made her an enemy of Great Britain, and 
had no belligerenl rights; and that De Horsey 
was justified in what Ee did . . n Aug. ,, 
Pierolas and his ndherents amnestied . Aug. ,, 
Ex-president Pardo, president of the senate, assas- 
sinated at Lima . . ■ . 16 Nov. 1878 



Peru and Bolivia declare war against Chili, an- 
nounced 2 April, 18794 

For the events of the war, see Chili, 1879 — 81. 
Sanguinary revolution at Lima ; Pierola proclaimed 

dictator ; Prado flees . . 22 Dec. et seq. „ 
Lima occupied by the Chilians . 17 Jan. 1881 

Seiior F. G. Calderon provisional president at Mag- 

dalena March, ,, 

Anarchy in Lima March, „. 

Pierolas, near Lima, declares for continual war,. 

April, ,,. 
Pasco, a seaport, burnt by Peruvian soldiery ; about 

1000 inhabitants massacred, announced 20 Feb. 188a 
Pierolas quits Peru, announced . . 10 April, ,, 
President Montero opposed to truce with Chili ; 

disaffection May, , T 

President Iglesias formed a ministry about 12 

Sept.; he signs peace with Chili at Ancon 20 Oct. 18831 
Important territories surrendered. . ■. Oct. ,, 
Lima evacuated by the Chilians . . 23 Oct. ,,. 
Arequipa surrendered to the Chilians . 26 Oct. , T 

Gen. Iglesias' government confirmed by elections, 

about 29 Jan. 1884 
Treaty with Chili ratified by the Notables, March ; 

partial evacuation of Peruvian territory May, ,, 
Gen. Caceres makes himself president in opposition 
to Iglesias ; enters Lima with a rabble, and is 
quickly repulsed .... 27 Aug. ,, 
Montero oscillates between the two parties ; civil 
war continues ; Truxillo captured for Iglesias ; 
severe fighting announced ... 17 Oct. ,, 
Gradual submission to the government . Dec. ,, 
Insurrection ; government troops defeated at 

Ayacucho, announced . . . .2 May, 1885 
Gen. Caceres defeated by gen. Iglesias at Huancayo, 

about 28 May, ,, 
Caceres' army disbanded, announced . 26 June, , r 
Renewed heavy fighting announced, 9 July ; re- 
ported rebel victory .... 15 Aug. ,. 
Government troops gain a victory over the forces 
of gen. Caceres, 16 Oct. ; at Jania about 19 Nov. ; 
Caceres attacks Lima ; severe fighting ; Iglesias 
surrenders 2 Dec. ; Dr. Arenas elected president, 
3 Dec. ; Iglesias and Caceres retire from Lima 
through foreign intervention . . 4 Dec. ,, 
Gen. Caceres president .... 3 June, 1886 
Col. Remigio Morales Bermudez, president, 10 Aug. 1890 
Revolutionary attempt of Pierola's supporters near 

Lima defeated ; about 40 killed . . 2 Dec. , r 
A new ministry formed by seiior Justiniamo Bor- 
gono, 24 Aug. 1891 ; succeeded by sen. Carlos 

Elias about 1 July, 1892 

Great fire at Callao ; buildings and much shipping 

destroyed 21 Aug. „ 

New ministry under gen. Velarde, 3 March ; under 

sen. Jose Mariano Jimenez . . .12 May, 1893 
Crisis through the fall in price of silver (which see) 

end of June, ,, 
Death of president Bermudez ; vice-president col. 

Borgono assumes power ... 31 March, 1894 
Gen. Caceres installed as president . 10 Aug. ,, 
Insurrection in the south, reported, n Aug. ; in- 
surgents defeated near Mirave, reported, 29 Aug. ; 
again defeated at Huarez, reported . 14 Oct. ,, 
Bands of rebels defeated, reported . 12, 29 Nov. ,, 
The rebels occupy Arequipa, reported . 31 Jan. 1895 
Lima besieged by the insurgents undergen. Pierola, 

18 Feb. ,, 
Reported defeat of the government troops at 

Cabanillas ..... n March, ,, 
Gen. Pierola enters Lima, fighting with much 
slaughter; a truce obtained by the diplomatic 

corps 17-20 March, ,,. 

Gen. Pierola retires ; president Caceres takes 
refuge on French man-of-war at Callao ; a pro- 
visional government formed . 21, 22 March, ,, 
Gen. Nicola Pierola elected president . 10 July, ,, 
Srfi. Barrmaja forms a cabinet . . 1 Dec. ,, 
Short rebellion of Seminario ends . . July, 1896 
Congress opened bypres. Nicola Pierola, prospi rity 

reported 28 July, ,, 

Sen. Barrmaja resigns, succeeded by sen. Manuel 

Olacchea, announced . . . .8 Aug. ,, 
Great lire at Guayaquil, churches and public build- 
ings destroyed ; estimated loss, 6,oco,oooZ., 

6, 7 Oct. „ 



PERUGIA. 



947 



PETERBOROUGH, 



Congress opened, 12 Aug. 1897 ; the cabinet resigns, 
29 Oct. ; new one formed by sen. Roinana, 

26 Nov. 1897 
The president in a secret message to congress owns 
to not having complied with several laws pro- 
mulgated in 1896 ...... Nov. ,, 

Bill passed providing for civil marriage, announced, 

16 Dec. ,, 
The president of the cabinet resigns . 24 Dec. ,, 

Protocol regarding the plebiscite on the question of 
restoring land to Peru, signed at Santiago, 

22 April, 1898 
Congress opened by president Pierola ; Washington 

postal convention accepted by Peru . 28 July, 1899 
Sen. de Romafia installed president, 8 Sept. ; new 
cabinet formed .... mid Dec. ,, 

Frequent changes of ministry . . . Aug. 1900 
Sen. Balaunde, ex-minister of finance, charged with 
appropriating 20,000/. from the national funds ; 
great indignation mass meeting at Lima, troops 
called out, reported . . . . 1 Oct. ,, 

New coalition ministry formed, sen. Domingo 
Almenara, president and minister of finance, 

3 Oct. „ 
Sen. Chacaltana forms a cabinet, reported, 12 Sept.. 1901 
Gold standard only, adopted by law passed 9 Dec. ,, 
Sen. Alejandro de Ustua's ministry formed, 10 Aug. ,, 
Argentina government appointed arbitrator be- 
tween Bolivia and Peru respecting boundaries, 

2 Jan. 1903 
Sell. Manuel Candamo elected president . 30 May, ,, 
Congress opened ; pres. Romano states that the 
relations between Peru and other nations were 
friendly, and that the question between Peru and 
Bolivia had been submitted to arbitration ; that 
a solution with Chili regarding the Tacna-Arica 
was impossible ; no budget would be presented, 

28 July, „ 
Senate passes a measure reducing the import duty 
on sugar to an equivalent of 6 francs, the maxi- 
mum allowed by the Brussels convention, 

8 Aug. ,, 

PERUGIA, a city of central Italy ; as Perousia, 
anciently one of the Etruscan confederation. It 
allied itself with the Samnites, but was ruined by 
two defeats by the Romans, 309 and 295 b.c. It 
was taken by Octavius Caesar from the adherents 
of Antony ; many of whom were immolated on altars 
by their victor, 41. Leo X. took Perugia from the 
rival families Oddiand Baglioni, in a.d. 1520. An 
insurrection here against the pope w r as put down by 
the Swiss with great cruelty, 20 June, 1859. Perugia 
was taken by the Sardinian general Fanti, in Sept. 
i860, when the cruel papal general Schmidt and 
1600 men were made prisoners. 

PERUKE or WlG. The ancients used false 
hair, but the present peruke was first worn in France 
and Italy about 1620 ; and introduced into England 
about 1060, and prevailed more or less till about 
1810. 

It is said that bishop Blomfield (of London), in 1830, 
obtained permission for the bishops to discontinue 
wearing their wigs in parliament, of which they gra- 
dually availed themselves. On account of the heat, sir 
J. P. Wilde, and other judges and several counsel, 
appeared in court without wigs, 22, 23 July, 1868. 

PERUVIAN BARK, see Jesuits' Bark. 

PESCHIERA, a strong Austrian fortress, on 
an island in the Mincio, near the Lago di Garda, 
N. Italy. It has been frequently taken by siege : — 
by the French, 1796; by the Austrians and Russians, 
1799 5 by the French again, 1801 ; given up by 
them, 1814; taken by the Sardinians, May, 1848; 
retaken by Radetsky, March, 1849. The Sardinians 
were preparing to besiege it in July, 1859, when 
peace was made. It was given up to the Italians, 
9 Oct. 1866 ; see Quadrilateral. 

PESSIMISM (from pessimus, the worst), the 
opposite doctrine to optimism (which see). Mr. 



James Sully's " Pessimism, a History and a Criti- 
cism," was published in 1877. Arthur Schopen- 
hauer (1788-1860), an eminent pessimist, says, "All 
life is effort, all effort is painful, the pains of life 
must predominate." 

PESTALOZZIAN SYSTEM of education 
was devised by John Henry Pestalozzi, born at Zurich 
in Switzerland, in 1746, died 17 Feb. 1827. In 1775 
he turned his farm into a school for educating poor 
children in reading, writing, and working ; but he 
did not succeed. In 1798 he established an orphan 
school where he began with the mutual instruc- 
tion, or monitorial system, since adopted by Lan- 
caster ; but his school was soon after turned into 
a hospital for the Austrian army. In 1802, in 
conjunction with Fellenberg, he established his 
school at Hofwyl, which at first was successful, but 
eventually declined through mismanagement. 

PESTH (Hungary), built about 889, on the 
east bank of the Danube, opposite Buda, was re- 
peatedly taken and besieged in the wars of Hungary, 
particularly with the Turks. The great insurrec- 
tion broke out here, and the minister, count Lam- 
berg, was killed, 28 Sept. 1848. Buda-Pesth was 
taken by the imperialists, 5 Jan. 1849. The Hun- 
garians afterwards defeated the Austrians, who were 
obliged to evacuate it 18 April, same year ; see 
Hungary. Buda-Pesth formally constituted 
capital of Hungary, Nov. 1873. 
Hungarian national exhibition opened 2 May, 1885. 

PESTILENCE, see Plague. 

PETALISM (from the Greek petalon, a leaf), 
a mode of deciding upon the guilt of citizens of 
Syracuse, similar to the Athenian ostracism, the 
name being written on a leaf (generally of an 
olive) instead of on a shell, about 460 B.C. If guilt 
were established the sentence was usually banish- 
ment. 

PETARD, or PETAR, an invention as- 
cribed to the Huguenots in 1579. Petards of 
metal, nearly in the shape of a hat, were employed 
to blow up gates or other barriers, and also in 
countermines to break through into the enemy's 
galleries. Cahors was taken by Henry IV. by 
means of petards, in 1580, when it is said they were 
first used. "Hoist with his own petar." Shak- 
speare, Hamlet iii. 4. 

PETER THE GREAT'S WILL, see under 
Wills. 

PETER THE WILD Boy, a savage creature 
found in the Harzwald, electorate of Hanover, 
when George I. and his friends were hunting. 
He was found walking on his hands and feet, 
climbing trees like a. squirrel, and feeding on 
grass and moss, Nov. 1725. At this time he was 
supposed to be thirteen years old. He died, while 
under the care of an English farmer, Feb. 1785, 
unchanged in his habits. 

PETERBOROUGH, anciently Medesham- 
stede (Northamptonshire) ; obtained its present 
name from a king of Mercia founding an abbey and 
dedicating it to St. Peter about 655. The church, 
destroyed by the Danes, was rebuilt with great 
beauty. The tower becoming dangerous, restora- 
tion resolved on, Dec. 1882. Foundation laid of 
new building, 7 May, 1884. Choir re-opened 11 
July, 1889; Cathedral re-opened, 14 Oct. 1890; 
further restoration, May, 1894; completed (total 
cost about 80,000/.), July, 1902. The bishopric 
was erected by Henry VIII., out of the lands of 

3 p 2 



PETERLOO. 



948 



PETEA. 



dissolved monasteries in the diocese of Lincoln. 
The first bishop was John Chambers, the last abbot 
of Peterborough, 1541 The see was valued in the 
king's books at 419/. 19s. nd. Present income 
4500/. Population, 1881, 21,228; 1891, 25,172; 
1901, 30,870. 

Exhibition of relics of Mary queen of Scots opened 
19 July, 1887. 

KECENT BISHOPS. 

1794. Spencer Madan ; died, 8 Oct. 1813. 

1813. John Parsons ; died, 12 March, 1819. 

1819. Herbert Marsh ; died, 1 May, 1839. 

1839. George Davys ; died, 8 April, 1864. 

1864. Francis Jeune, May ; died 20 Aug. 1868. 

1868. Wm. Connor Magee ; elected 31 Oct. ; translated 

to York, 1891. 
1891. Mandell Creighton, elected 18 March ; translated 

to London, Nov. 1896. 
1896. Hon. Edward Carr-Glyn, Nov. ; elected 6 Feb. 

1897. 

PETERLOO, see Manchester Reform Meeting , 
16 Aug. 1819. 

PETERSBURG, ST., the modern capital of 
Eussia, founded by Peter the Great, 27 May, 1703. 
He built a small hut for himself, and some wooden 
hovels. In 1710, the count Golovkin built the first 
house of brick; and the next year, the emperor, 
with his own hands, laid the foundation of a house 
-of the same material. The seat of empire was 
transferred from Moscow to this place in 1712. 
Here, in 1736, a fire consumed 2000 houses; and 
in 1780, another fire consumed 11,000 houses; this 
last fire was occasioned by lightning. Again, in 
June, 1796, a large magazine of naval stores and 
100 vessels were destroyed. The winter palace was 
burnt to the ground, 29 Dec. 1837. The railway to 
Moscow was finished in 1851 ; to Berlin, opened 
5 May, 1862. On 10 June, 1862, property to the 
amount of nearly a million sterling was destroyed 
by fire. Population, 1886: province, 1,660,859; 
•city, 1885, 861,303; 9 Feb. 1897, 1,267,923 (with 
suburbs) ; 1900, 1,248,643. See Eussia, 1862 et seq. 
— Petersburg, Virginia, see United States, 1864. 
Peace of St. Petersburg, between Russia and 
Prussia, the former restoring all her conquests to 

the latter, signed 5 May, 1762 

Treaty of St. Petersburg for the partition of Poland 

(see article, Partition Treaties) . . .5 Aug. 1772 
Treaty of St. Petersburg, led to a coalition against 

France 8 Sept. 1805 

Treaty of Alliance, signed at St. Petersburg, be- 
tween Bernadotte, prince royal of Sweden, and 
the emperor Alexander ; the former agreeing to 
join in the campaign against France, in return for 
which Sweden was to receive Norway 24 March, 1812 
Grand new Alexander II. bridge over the Neva 

opened 12 Oct. 1879 

Ship canal to Cronstadt completed, Feb. ; opened 

by the czar 27 May, 1883 

War memorial uncovered by the czar . 26 Oct. 1886 
Semi-centennial anniversary of the foundation of 
the British and American chapel ; Russian digni- 
taries and foreign ambassadors present . 18 Dec. 1890 
Exhibition of works of British artists visited by 

the czar and czarina .... 22 Jan. 1898 
Naval storehouses burnt, 10 June, 1900; and great 
dock fire, 13 June, 1901 ; 30 houses burnt down 
in the Narva quarter ... 10 July, 1901 
Revolutionary demonstration, 17 March, 1901 ; 

again, many injured . . . 16 March, 1902 
Celebration of bi-centenary of the founding of St. 
Petersburg; new Troitski bridge formally opened 
in presence of the czar ... 29, 30 May, 1903 

PETER'S CHURCH, ST. (Rome), originally 
erected by Constantine, 306. About 1450, pope 
Nicholas V. commenced a new church. The present 
magnificent pile was designed by Bramante; the 
first stone laid by pope Julius II. in 1506. In 
1514, Leo X. employed Raphael and two others to 



superintend the building. Paul III. committed the 
work to Michael Angelo, who devised the dome, in 
the construction of which 30,000 lbs. of iron were 
used. The church was consecrated 18 Nov. 1626. 
The front is 400 feet broad, rising to a height of 
180 feet, and the majestic dome ascends from the 
centre of the church to a height of 324 feet; the 
length of the interior is 600 feet, forming one of 
the most spacious halls ever constructed. The 
length of the exterior is 669 feet; its greatest 
breadth within is 442 feet; and the entire height 
from the ground 432 feet. Renewal of the leaden 
envelope completed, July, 1884. 

PETER'S PENCE, presented by Ina, king 
of the West Saxons, to the pope at Rome, for the 
endowment of an English college there, about 725 ; 
so called because agreed to be paid on Peter Mass, 
I Aug. The tax was levied on all families pos- 
sessed of thirty pence yearly rent in land, out of 
which they paid one penny. It was confirmed by 
Offa, 777, and was afterwards claimed by the popes 
as a tribute from England, and regularly collected, 
till suppressed by Henry VIII. 1534. Camden. A 
public collection (on behalf of the pope) was for- 
bidden in France in i860. 
A collection for the pope was proposed to be made in 

Hungary by the prince primate, reported, 16 Nov. 

1892. 
The Peter's pence presented at the pope's jubilee was 

said to amount to 263,960^. ; Great Britain, 48,000?. ; 

Ireland, 720?. Feb. 1893. See Pope. 

PETERSWALDEN (Germany), CONTEN- 
TION OF, between Great Britain and Russia, by 
which a firm and decisive alliance between those 
powers was made against France, and the course of 
action against Napoleon Bonaparte was planned ; 
signed 8 Juty, 1813. This alliance led to the over- 
throw of Bonaparte in the next year. 

PETERWARDEIN (in Austria), was taken 
by the Turks, July, 1526. Here prince Eugene of 
Savoy gained a great victory over the Turks, 5 Aug. 
1716. 

PETITIONS. The right of petitioning the 
crown and parliament for redress of grievances is a 
fundamental principle of the constitution. Peti- 
tions are extant of the date of Edward I. In the 
reign of Henry IV. petitions began to be addressed 
fo the house of commons in considerable numbers. 
In 1837 there were presented to parliament 10,831 
petitions, signed by 2,905,905 persons; in 1859, 
24,386, signed by 2,290,579; in 1867, 12,744, signed 
by 1,145,216; 1893-94, 33,742, signed by 5,010,056; 
1901,9,885, signed by 1,111,342. See Abhorrers, 
and Rights. 

A petition from Boulogne for a consul was brought in, 
but not received by the commons . April-May, 1876 

Evidence before a committee of the commons disclosed 
systems whereby vast numbers of fictitious and 
forged signatures were obtained, rendering the 
petitions for and against the continuance of the 
London coal and wine dues utterly valueless, May, 1887. 

PETO'S ACT, 13 & 14 Vict. c. 28 (1850), 
renders more simple and effectual the titles by 
which religious bodies hold property. 

PETRA, the ancient Sela, in mount Seir, near 
mount Hor, in the land of Edom. In the 4th cen- 
tury B.C. it was held by the Nabathseans, who 
successfully resisted Antigonus. About A.D. 70 it 
was the residence of the Arab princes named 
Aretas. It was conquered by Cornelius Palma, and 
annexed to the empire under Trajan, 105, to which 
period its remarkable monuments are ascribed. It 



PETRARCH. 



949 



PFAFFENDORF. 



■was an important station for commercial traffic with 
Rome. It has been described by Burckhardt and 
other travellers. 

PETRARCH AND LAURA; celebrated for 
the refined passion of the former for the latter, 
began in 1327, and' the chief subject of his sonnets. 
He was born 1304, crowned with laurel, as a poet 
and writer, on Easter-day, 8 April, 1341 ; and died 
at Arqua, near Padua, 18 July, 1374. Laura died 
6 April, 1348. A commemoration of his death at 
Avignon and other places, 18 July, 1874. 

PETRO-BR USIANS, followers of Pierre de 
Bruys, an early reformer, who was burnt at St. 
Gilles, Languedoc, as a heretic, in 1130. 

PETROLEUM, rock oil or mineral oil 
similar to paraffin, has been found in many parts of 
the world, especially at Eangoon. In 1859 and since, 
a number of oil-springs were discovered in the bitu- 
minous coal regions of N. "W. Pennsylvania, now 
termed " Petrolia," and others have been dis- 
covered in Ohio and other states, and also in Canada. 
Numerous artesian wells were sunk, manufactories 
erected, and an almost unlimited supply obtained ; 
between 1859-77, 2,802,500,000 gallons ; in 1863, 
8,907,365 gallons. Inconsequence of the importation 
of this oil into this country, and many accidents 
having taken place through its inflammability at 
low temperature, actsfor "the safe keeping of petro- 
leum" were passed, 29 July, 1862; July, 1868, Aug. 
1871, and 1879. Petroleum became an awful weapon 
in the hands of the insurgents in Paris, 23-27 May, 
1871. About fifty killed by explosion at a petroleum 
manufactory near Rheims, 16 July, 187 1. The Pe- 
troleum Association test petroleum, with the view 
of preventing the importation of that which is 
dangerous. Refined petroleum imported : 1872 
5,670,674 gallons; 1877, 33,474,955 gallons; 1881 
58,371,386 gallons. Unrefined and refined : 1882 
59,695,982 gallons ; 1883, 70,526,996 gallons; 1886 
71,251,736 gallons ; 1888, 94,401,285 gallons ; 1890! 
105,080,863 gallons; 1893, 155,125,667 gallons; 
1900, 254,978,043 gallons; 1901, 253,784,741 gallons. 

Petroleum oil found in Luneberger Haidee, Han- 
over ; a colony formed named CElheim . Aug. 1881 

Petroleum fire at Bristol ; fire floated through the 

■ drains into the river . . . .30 Nov. ,, 

The great petroleum grounds near Baku, a Russian 
town on the Caspian, long monopolized, set free, 
1872 ; greatly developed by Ludwig (died April 
1888), and Robert Nobel, Swedes, since 1875 ; 
34,000,000 gallons of oil produced in 1875 ; 
Russia supplied 200,000,000 in 1882 ; exporta- 
tion begun and greatly increasing . . 1884-91 
[Baku is the site of the ancient fire worship 
by the followers of Zoroaster.] 

Petroleum largely discovered in Austrian Galicia, 1885 

Mr. Edwin N. Kenwood's invention for use of 
petroleum for the production of steam announced 
March, 1886 ; Spiel's petroleum engine an- 
nounced April, 1886 

Petroleum discovered in Egypt on the coast of the 
Red Sea, March, 1886 ; reported successful 22 Aug. 1887 

Petroleum found in Burmah . . . May, „ 

Destructive fire at the Markoff petroleum fountain 
near Baku 25 July, „ 

Large quantities of natural gas now used as fuel in 
ironworks &c. in Pittsburg, &c. . . 1884 et seq. 

Mr. Penn's system of lighting by petroleum lamps, 
was introduced at the Cuxton station, S.E. Rail- 
way Nov. 1890 

Mr. Chenhall's process for solidifying petroleum to 
form cheap steam fuel reported successful 19 Nov. 1891 

Oil is discovered in the waters of some wells on 
the Ashwiek estates near Shepton Mallet, Somer- 
set, reported Times 31 Jan. 1894 

Confirmed, on investigation, by prof. Redwood and 
Mr. Topley .... 10 March, „ 



A great petroleum fountain at Grozni, north of the 
Caucasus, takes fire ; 17 workmen killed and 
much destruction, reported . . 18 Oct. 1894 

Mr. Boverton Redwood's " Petroleum," an exhaus- 
tive work, historical, geographical, scientific, and 
legal, 900 pages, with maps, etc., published, 

March, 1896. 

A number of wells discovered in Buzeo, Roumania, 
reported 31 Dec. ,,. 

Oil struck at a depth of 1,040 feet at St. Paul's 
inlet, Newfoundland . . Dec. 1896-Jan. 1897 

The petroleum committee's report recommends 
legislation 13 July, 1898 . 

Ten factories and 5 depots burnt at Baku, about 
127 lives lost, many injured, early Feb. 1901 ; 
again 40 towers destroyed and 2 reservoirs burnc, 

1 Oct. 1901 

Strike at the Rothschild petroleum works at 
Batum, 17 March ; fatal rioting . 21, 22 March, 1902 

Petroleum discovered in Trinidad, reported, 

11 July, ,, 

Strike and rioting at Baku, oil wells set on fire, 
conflict between rioters and troops, 15-18 July, 1903 

PETROLEUSES, a name given to women 
charged with throwing petroleum on the burning 
houses in Paris during the siege by the govern- 
ment, May, 187 1. 

PETROPAULOVSKI, a fortified town on 
the east coast of Kamtschatka, was attacked by an. 
English and French squadron, 30 Aug. 1854. J-hey 
destroyed the batteries, but failed in taking some 
Russian frigates, except the Sitka, a store-ship 
taken by the President, and a schooner taken by 
the Pique. Admiral Price was killed, it is sup- 
posed by 1 the accidental discharge of his own pistol. 
A party of 700 sailors and marines landed to assault 
the place, but fell into an ambuscade; many were 
killed, including captain Parker and M. Bourasset, 
English and French officers. The objects of the 
attack were not attained, it is thought from 
want of stores. After this the Russians greatly 
strengthened their defences, but on 30 May, 1855, 
the allied squadron in the Pacific arriving here 
found the place deserted. The fortifications were 
destroyed, but the town was spared. The Russian 
ships escaped. 

PETTY BAG, Clerk of the: power was 

given to the treasury, with consent of the lord 
chancellor and master of the rolls, to abolish this, 
office, by the Great Seal Offices Act, 1874. 

PEVENSEY (Sussex), said to be the sile of 
the Roman Anderida, on which a Norman castle 
was erected. Here William of Normandy landed, 
28 or 29 Sept. 1066. The duke of York, in the 
reign of Henry IV., was for some time confined 
within the walls of this castle; as was also queen 
Joan of Navarre, the last wife of Henry IV., who, 
with her confessor, friar Randal, was accused of a 
design to destroy Henry V., her step-son. 

PEWS in churches. " In a London will we 
read of sedile vocatum pew" (a seat called pew), 
1453. Pews were censured by Latimer and Brad- 
ford, 1553. Walcot. The church of Geddington 
St. Mary, Northamptonshire, long contained a pew 
dated 1602. The rev. W. M. H. Church (vicar 
1844-6) restored and re-seated the church, and pre- 
served the panel with the date in the door of the 
surplice press. Another pew in the chancel was 
dated 1604. 

PFAFFENDORF and Liegnitz (Silesia). 

Near these two places was fought a battle between 
the Imperialists and Prussians, 15 Aug. 1760. The 
Austrians were defeated by Frederick of Prussia, 
who thus prevented the junction of the Russian and 
Austrian armies. 



PHALANSTEEY 



950 



PHILADELPHIA. 



PHALANSTEEY, see Fourierism. 

PHALANX, the Greek phalanx consisted of 
8000 men in a square battalion, with shields joined, 
and spears crossing each other. The battalion 
of Philip of Macedon, called the Macedonian pha- 
lanx, was formed by him about 360 B.C. 

PHALSBOUEG (Pfalzburg, Palatine city), a 
strong town of Alsace, was founded in 1570, by the 
elector palatine George John . It was ceded to France 
in 1661, and its fortress erected by Vauban, 1679. 
It checked the progress of the victorious armies of 
the allies both in 1814 and 1815, and withstood the 
Germans from 16 Aug. to 12 Dec. 1870, when it 
capitulated unconditionally. It was retained at the 
<peace in Feb. 187 1. 

PHAEAOH, the general title of the kings of 
Egypt in the Old Testament, found only there and 
in the copyists. The Egyptian word, pir-aa, has 
been interpreted, king or sun. According to sir 
Erasmus Wilson, Egypt of the Past (1881), the 
hieroglyphs of per, a house, and per-aa a great 
house, are identical with that of Pharaoh, hence 
the signification, " royal ruler," " founder of a 
house." 

PHAEAOH' S SEEPENTS, a dangerous 
chemical toy, composed of sulpho- cyanide of mer- 
cury, appeared in Paris in the summer of 1865. 

PHAEISEES, a sect among the Jews; so 
called from pharash, a Hebrew word for separated, 
because they pretended to a greater degree of holiness 
than the rest of the Jews. Luke xviii. 9-12. The 
Talmud enumerates seven classes of Pharisees. 

PHAEMACOPCEIA, a book of directions for 
the preparation of medicine, published by colleges 
of physicians, the earliest in England 1618. In 
1862 the General Medical Council were empowered 
to prepare and sell a new pharmacopoeia, to super- 
sede those of the colleges of London, Edinburgh, 
-and Dublin, which was published in June, 1864 ; 
succeeded by a new one in May, 1867 ; reprinted, 
1890; another ordered, Dec. 1893; a new "Im- 
perial " one, comprising the entire pharmacy of 
the empire, edited by prof. Attfield, reported, Dec. 
1900. 

PHAEMACY : the knowledge of the chemical 
and medical properties of drugs and other things 
employed medicinally. The Pharmaceutical Society 
of Great Britain, founded 1 June, 1841, mainly by 
Mr. Jacob Bell, obtained its charter in 1843. An- 
nual conferences. It publishes a weekly journal. — 
The pharmacy act, 18^2. regulates the qualifica- 
tions of pharmaceutical chemists. It was amended 
by the pharmacy act of 1868 which required all 
sellers of poisons to be registered after 31 Dec. 
1868; act amended in 1869; amended 1898. 
Sale of Food a;,d Drugs Act passed . 11 Aug. 1875 
Pharmaceutical Society of Ireland was instituted 

by the Irish Pharmacy Act, passed . nAug. ,, 
Pharmacy. — An international pharmaceutical con- 
gress (with an exhibition) was opened in London 

1 Aug. 1881 
International Pharmaceutical congress at Brussels, 

31 Aug. 1885 

PHAEOS, an island on the coast of Egypt, on 
which was erected the celebrated lighthouse called 
the tower of Pharos, begun by Sostratus of Cnidus, 
298, and completed by king Ptolemy Philadelphia 
about 283 B.C. On the top firea were constantly 
kept to direct Bailors in the bay. See Lighthouses. 

PHAESALIA, a strong city in Thessaly, 
N. Greece. Near it Julius Ciusar defeated his rival 



Pompey, 9 Aug. 48 B.C., and became virtually 
master of the known world. Pompey fled to Egypt, 
where he was treacherously slain, by order of 
Ptolemy the younger, then a minor, and his body 
left naked on the strand, till it was burnt by his 
faithful freedman, Philip. See Greco- Turkish 
war, 1897. 

PHENOL, or phenic acid, names for carbolic 
acid (which see). 

PHENOPHTHALMOSCOPE, an appara- 
tus for investigating the movements of the eye-ball, 
invented by Donders, of Utrecht, and announced in 
1870. 

PHEE^E (Thessaly, N. Greece), see Thessaly. 

PHIOALIAN MAEBLES, in the British 

Museum, were purchased for it by the prince regent 
in 1815. They consist of portions of the frieze 
taken from the temple of Apollo Epicurus at 
Phigaleia in Arcadia, and are reputed to be works 
of the earlier school of Phidias, who died 432 B.C. 
The bas-reliefs repi'esent the conflicts of the Greeks 
and Amazons, and of the Centaurs and Lapithse. 

PHILADELPHIA (Asia Minor), see Seven 
Churches. — Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, was 
planned by William Penn 24 Oct. 1682, chartered 
by him as a city, 28 Oct. 1701. The William 
Penn charter school founded, 1689, and chartered 
by him, 1701-11 (first master, George Keith); it 
is still a flourishing school (1898). The first 
American congress assembled here in 1774, an( l 
promulgated the declaration of independence on 
4 July, 1776. It was the capital of the Union till 
1800, when Washington was selected in its place. 
The National Union Convention held its first 
meeting here 14 Aug. 1866 ; see United States. 
Population 1880, 847,170; 1890, 1,046,964; 1900, 
i,293> 6 97- 
Beginning of centennial year celebrated with great 

demonstration 1 Jan. 1876 

International exhibition opened by the president, 
the emperor and empress of Brazil present ; very 
successful ; about 130,000 persons present 

10 May, ,, 

Said to be the most extensive of all exhibitions 

hitherto ; vista of three-eighths of a mile ; main 

building 1900 feet long ; 6 other large buildings, 

and 200 smaller. 

Prizes awarded to exhibitors ; out of 11,000, 488 

given to Great Britain .... 27 Sept. ,, 
About 80,000 persons admitted by payment daily, 

Sept. ; exhibition closed . . . 10 Nov. ,, 
[Total admitted, 9,789,392 ; daily average, 61,568 ; 

receipts, 3,813,749 dollars.] 
International congress respecting education July, „ 
A permanent exhibition opened by president Hayes 

10 May, 1877 
Great storm : 384 dwellings, 31 churches, and many 
public buildings destroyed ; 8 ships sunk ; esti- 
mated loss, 2,000,000 dollars . . 24 Oct. 1878 
Grand festival to honour gen. Grant on return from 

his long tour 17-24 Dec. 1879 

Foundation of city celebrated . . 24 Oct. 1882 
Great Irish convention . . . 25-27 April, 1883 
Fire at lunatic asylum, 28 perish . . 12 Feb. 1885 
Celebration of the centenary of the adoption of the 

federal constitution (see United States) 15 Sept. 1S87 
Mr. John Bardsley, the defaulting city treasurer, 
sentenced to 15 years' solitary confinement and 

heavy fine 2 July, 1891 

The Grand Central theatre, the Times offices and 
other buildings burnt, several persons perish 

27 April, 1892 
Mr. George W. Childs, eminent publisher and 
benefactor; born 12 May, 1829; he set up many 
memorials in England to literary men and others ; 

died 18 Jan. 1894 

30 buildings burnt down ... 26 Jan. 1897 



PHILANTHROPIC SOCIETY. 



951 



PHILIPPINE ISLES. 



An equestrian statue of George Washington un- 
veiled by the president ... 15 May, „ 

Peace jubilee, naval display, &c. . . 25 Oct. 1S98 

National export exhibition opened . 14 Sept. 1899 

.Explosion in Locust-st., 5 buildings wrecked, 10 
deaths and over 40 injured ... 5 Aug. 1901 

Prince Henry of Prussia presented with the free- 
dom of the c-ity .... ic March, 1902 

Panic in a cigar factory due to an alarm of fire, 
about 10 deaths, 20 injured . . 30 April, ,, 

Mr. C. Tower presents the library with 2,500 valu- 
able Russian books, reported . . 24 Aug. ,, 

PHILANTHROPIC SOCIETY, for the 

reformation of criminal boys, was established in 
4788, and incorporated in 1806. It supports a farm- 
school at Redhill, Reigate, Surrey ; see Reformatory 
Schools. Mr. George Smith, a brickmaker in 
childhood, who energetically promoted the civiliza- 
ition of brickmakers, the canal population and 
•others, by acts of parliament, &c. ; died, aged about 
'64, 21 June, 1895. 

PHILHARMONIC SOCIETY (London), 
was established in 1813; first concert, 8 March. 
New Philharmonic Society began 1852. 

PHILIPHAUGH, near Selkirk, S. Scotland, 
where the marquis of Montrose and the royalists 
were defeated by David Leslie and the Scotch 
■covenanters, 13 Sept. 1645. 

PHILIPPI (Macedonia), so named by Philip 
II. of Macedon. Here Octavius Caesar and Marc 
Antony, in two battles, defeated the republican 
forces of Cassius and Brutus, who both committed 
■suicide, Oct. 42 B.C. Paul preached here, a.d. 48, 
and wrote an epistle to the converts, 64. 

PHILIPPICS, the term applied to the orations 
of Demosthenes against Philip II. of Macedon, 
352-341 B.C., and also to the orations of Cicero 
against Marc Antony (one of which, called divine 
•toy Juvenal, cost Cicero his life), 44-43 b.c. 

PHILIPPINE ISLES (in the Malay Archi- 
pelago), discovered by Magellan, in March, 1521, 
who here lost his life in a skirmish. They were 
taken possession of in 1565 by a fleet from Mexico, 
which first stopped at the island of Zeba, and sub- 
dued it. In 1570 a settlement was effected at the 
mouth of the Manila river, and Manila became 
the capital of the Spanish possessions in the 
Philippines; see Manila and Earthquakes. The 
Philippine commercial company was unsuccessful, 
1785. A successful Philippine exhibition was 
opened in Madrid, autumn 1887. Population about 
1885, reported, 5,636,000. 

Rebels defeated in a fierce engagement at Lanas, 

reported 10 Sept. 1891 

Mr. John Foreman's "Philippine Islands" was 
published in 1891. 

Assault of the natives on the Spanish garrison at 
fort Mumungan ; repulsed with great native loss, 
including their sultan, reported . . 26 June, 1893 

Conflicts with the natives, reported March, et seq. ; 
the natives defeated .... 24 July, 1894 

Severe fighting in Mindanao ; the Malay Mahome- 
dans defeated ; their sultan killed . 10 March, 1895 

Insurgents defeated at Tatan . . . Sept. ,, 

Insurrection near Manila, state of siege proclaimed, 
rebels repulsed with loss ... 30 Aug. 1896 

Help from Hong Kong requested . Sept. ,, 

Rebels defeated in two engagements, many ring- 
leaders killed, and others captured and shot, Sept. 1896 

The insurgents masters of all the towns in Cavite ; 
convents sacked ; Spanish monks (40) murdered 
in the island of Luzon . . .19, 20 Sept. „ 

Insurgents suffer heavy losses in 10 engagements 
near Manila ; a plot discovered, and 100 con- 
spirators arrested Sept. „ 



Insuigent attack on the Spanish post at Re- 
chazada repulsed, their leader and 50 men killed, 
reported 25 Sept. 1896 

Mutiny of native soldiers in Mindanao, officers 
killed Oct. „ 

Nasugdu captured by gen. Juramillo, rebels de- 
feated with great loss .... Oct. ,, 

Insurgents signally defeated, Novaleta taken, early 
Nov. ; again severely defeated at Santa Cruz and 
Angrat Nov. ,, 

Gen. Polavieja succeeds gen. Blanco as governor- 
gen Dec. „ 

Revolt of some of the troops, some soldiers shot 
at Mindanao ; a European committee of Pro- 
tection formed at Manila . . . Dec. ,, 

Dr. Rizal shot for fomenting the rebellion 28 Dec. ,, 

Insurgents defeated at Bulacan, with loss ; Spanish 
loss, 23 Dec. ,, 

13 persons, charged with conspiracy, shot 4 Jan. 1897 

Insurgents surprised and routed at Agony, Al- 
mansas, and Noveleta .... Jan. „ 

Sen. Rojas and 1 1 other insurgents shot, as insti- 
gators of the rebellion . . . 11 Jan. ,, 

Signal victory by the Spaniards, Silang stronghold 
captured ; much slaughter .... Feb. ,, 

Native rising in Manila city, suppressed with 
bloodshed 25 Feb. ,, 

Salitran captured by the Spaniards, gen. Zaballa, 
S officers, 10 men, and 76 insurgents killed, 

March, ,, 

Gen. Primo de Rivera appointed capt.-general, 

March, ,, 

Imus and Cavite captured by the Spaniards, March ; 
Naic, 500 rebels killed and 200 prisoners . May, 

Volcanic eruption and earthquake; a village des- 
troyed in Mayon, 120 deaths, reported . 1 July, ,, 

Rebels repulsed with loss at San Rafael, Aug. ; see 
Manila, 1896-7. 

Disastrous cyclone at Leyte . . .12 Oct. ,, 

Complete submission of rebels in return for pardon, 

25 Nov. et seq. „ 

Aguinaldo, rebel chief, exiled to Hong-kong, 27 Dec. , , 

Geu. Augustin appointed gov. -general . 26 Feb. 1898 

A Spanish detachment surprised and 40 killed at 
Bolinao ; other engagements . . . March, ,, 

Battle of Manila, see Spanish- American war, 

30 April-May, ,, 

Rebel town in Panay island captured by the 
Spaniards and destroyed, great slaughter, 672 
rebels killed, reported . . . .8 May, ,, 

Assembly of 15 members of natives and others, 
instituted by the gov.-general, sen. Paterno, pre- 
sident 13 May, d 

Aguinaldo returns from Hong-kong, supplied with 
arms, etc. from U. S. ships, captures Cavite 
province, after 3 days' severe fighting, Spanish 
outposts driven'in, great slaughter ; the whole 
archipelago in revolt, except Visayas isles, 31 
May-2 June ; Manila surrounded by insurgents ; 
concessions offered to the natives by gen. Augus- 
tin ; he appeals to Madrid for help . 8 June, ,, 

Aguinaldo allies himself with the insurgents in the 
north, active operations against the Spaniards 
carried on everywhere north of Manila, 4 Sept. ; 
insurgent conquest of Luzon, 9,000 Spanish 
prisoners, 9 Sept. ; the insurgents evacuate 
Manila, trade active, 14 Sept. ; the Filipino 
republic constituted at Malolos, gen. Aguinaldo 
president Nov. ,, 

The Spaniards under gen. Rios evacuate Iloilo, 

24 Dec. ,, 

The government of the islands taken over by 
America ; proclamation issued . . 5 Jan. 1899 

Aguinaldo issues a manifesto calling on the 
Filipinos to declare their independence, 8 Jan. ; 
again 22 Feb. ,, 

Spanish governor and officers murdered by natives 
at Port Royalist, reported . . 23 Jan. ,, 

The insurgents are. repulsed with heavy loss ac 
Manila ; 3 U.S. officers and 56 men killed, 4-5 
Feb. ; Caloocan captured after a desperate fight, 

10 Feb. ,, 

Iloilo and Jaro captured by gen. Miller, 11-12 Feb. ,, 

Guerilla warfare; the U.S. flag raised by the 
natives on Negros island . . . Feb. ., 



PHILIPPINE ISLES. 



952 



PHILIPPIUM. 



Sharp fighting in and around Manila, incendiary 
fires, insurgents driven out with heavy loss, 

21-24 Fe b. 

Desultory fighting ; insurgents driven out of Pasig, 
Paterno, &e., after 7 hours' fighting ; many killed, 
363 captured . . . . 15, 16 March, 

Insurgents repulsed with great loss at Caloocan, 

25 March, 

Col. Egbert killed, and prince Loewenstein (while 
performing an act of heroism), near Polo, 26 
March ; Aguinaldo's main army routed near 
Malolos 27 March, 

Malolos captured by gen. McArthur . 31 March, 

U.S. proclamation issued, announcing the cession 
of the islands by Spain to America . 4 April, 

Santa Cruz and gunboats, &c, seized by gen. 
Lawton ; he returns to Manila after capturing 8 
towns 11, 17 April, 

Yorktown, U.S. warship, rescues 85 Spaniards at 
Baler Luzon ; lieut. Gilmore and 14 men cap- 
tured 12 April, 

Continued skirmishing . . . 21-23 April, 

Bebel entrenchments carried by gens. McArthur 
and Hale's brigades after hard fighting ; 75 
rebels killed, 24 April ; Calumpit captured ; the 
Bio Grande river crossed (a daring feat) by U.S. 
troops under gen. Wheaton ; entrenchments 
carried ; Americans advance to Apalit, 

26, 27 April, 

Negotiations between gen. Otis and the govern- 
ment fail 28, 29 April, 

Desultory fighting in Luzon ; gen. Lawton occupies 
San Tomas and San Fernando . 4, 5 May, 

Gen. Lawton routs the enemy and captures San 
Isidro 17 May, 

U.S. civil commission receive Aguinaldo's peace 
commissioners ; negotiations fail . 22 May, 

Enemy repulsed near San Fernando, 50 killed and 
28 captured 24 May, 

Gen. Luna (insurgent officer) assassinated at Caba- 
natuan 6 June, 

Guerilla warfare ; gen. Lawton's brigades success- 
fully engaged .... 10 June, 

Gen. Lawton defeats the enemy on the Zapote 
river 13 June, 

Insurgent attack on San Fernando repulsed, 

16 June, 

Robber bands in Negros defeated . . 19 July, 

Gen. McArthur drives the enemy north from San 
Fernando ..... 9 Aug. 

Angeles occupied, and enemy routed . 16, 20 Aug. 

Chinese exclusion law applied to the islands by 
gen. Otis . . .... Aug. 

Further skirmishing, U.S. successes . early Sept. 

Col. Snyder defeats the enemy near Cebu, 

22, 23 Sept. 

Porac carried by U.S. troops . . . 28 Sept. 

Severe fighting north and south . 30 Sept. -3 Oct. 

Novaleta captured, 200 insurgents killed ; Rosario 
afterwards occupied . . . . 8, 9 Oct. 

Further skirmishing, Cabal occupied . 31 Oct. 

The U.S. commission advise the United States to 
keep possession of the isles, and force the 
insurgents to submit; agreed to by the U.S. 
government 3 Nov. 

Col. Bell captures Tarlac, the Filipino government 
seat 12 Nov. 

Insurgents routed near San Jacinto . 12 Nov. 

Enemy defeated in the hills S. of Lingayen, stock 
and guns captured, reported . . 29 Nov. 

3,000 Spanish prisoners released during . Nov. 

Col. March destroys Aguinaldo's bodyguard, and 
liberates 57s Spaniards, reported . . 13 Dec. 

Gen. Lawton killed while leading the attack on 
San Mateo, reported .... 19 Dec. 

Continued American successes . 5, 7, 9 Jan. 

Gen. Sohwan captures San Diego, insurgents 
routed, 67 killed 21 Jan. 

Gen. Ot is retires ; succeeded by gen. MacArfchur, 

early April, 

Gen. Pio del Pilar, after a week's sharp lighting 
near San Miguel, captured . . . 8 June, 

The American commission holds its 'first legislative 
session 12 Sept. 

Fresh outbreaks, desperate light at Mavitac, 
American loss heavy, mid Sept. ; many skirmishes, 
reported 26 Sept. 

Americans repulsed near Narvican . 24 Oct. 



Insurgents defeated N. of Manila . . mid Nov. 1900 
U.S. military stations, 53, 1 Nov. 1899 ; 413, 1 Sept. „, 
3,227 insurgents killed, 694 wounded, 2,684 

captured .... 1 Nov. 1899-1 Sept. ,,. 
Total American loss, 357 killed or mortally 

wounded, 1,085 died from disease, 1899-1900, 

reported ....... Nov. 1930 

Deportation of insurgent generals and others to 

Guam ........ Jan. igor 

Gen. Trias. 9 officers and 199 men surrender, 

reported . . . . ■ . .16 March, ,, 
Aguinaldo and some of his staff captured by a ruse 

of gen. Funston, at Palanan . . 17 March, ,. 
Aguinaldo declares allegiance to the U.S. ; the 

Americans release 1,000 prisoners . 19 April, 
Gen. Chaffee appointed military governor . June, 
Continued surrenders . .31 March, 24 June, 

Judge. Taft appointed governor; civil government 
established 4 July, 

Gen. Bellarmino and 1,000 men surrender . 6 July, 

Maj. Alhambra, 3 officers and 28 men, the remnants 
of Aguinaldo's followers, captured at Casiguran, 
reported 22 Sept. 

American reverse at Balangiga, garrison surprised, 
and many killed . . . ' . .28 Sept. 

Insurrection prevails in Samar, military and civil 
report unsatisfactory ; San Jose, in Batangas, 
burnt by the insurgents, 24 Oct. ; severe act 
against treason and sedition drafted by U.S. 
commission 1 Nov. 

Maj. Waller captures Sojotan, 26 insurgents killed ; 
reported 9 Nov. 

Fighting at Dapday, Samar ; enemy repulsed with 
loss, reported . . . . . .27 Dec. , 

Malvar, rebel leader, surrenders ; resistance over in 
the north, mid April ; further surrenders, 

25 April, 1902 

Gen. Davis captures the chief fort of the Daltos ; 
reported 4 May, ,, 

Seven American soldiers captured and murdered 
by natives near Manila ... 30 May, ,„ 

Total American expenditure on the war, 170,326,586 
dollars, reported 20 June, , y 

Civil government bill signed by the president, 
Washington 2 July, ,. 

American authority accepted ; pacification com- 
plete, except in the Moro country ; Aguinaldo 
and other political prisoners pardoned ; general 
amnesty proclaimed .... 1-4 July, ,, 

Skirmishes near Manila and Cavite . 18 Aug. 1902 

Governor Taft returns from conferences at Wash- 
ington and Rome 22 Aug. ,, 

Cholera epidemic, 19,640 deaths ; agricultural de- 
pression, reported 30 Aug. ,, 

Rios, a fanatical leader, routed in Tayabas/3 Sept. 

American successes in the Macin country, 

17-21 Sept. 

Gen. Chaffee leaves, succeeded by gen. Davis, about 

1 Oct. ,. 

The Main Moros routed, 40 forts destroyed, re- 
ported 4 Oct. ,, 

Brigandage suppressed, many killed, in Leyte and 
Bilaran, reported 27 Nov. ,, 

Outbreak of cholera reported . . . Dec. ,, 

Insurgents defeated near Mariquira . . 8 Feb. 1903 

Further fighting at Cus and Surigao in March ; 
insurgents routed with loss near Mariquira, 
reported 27 March, ... 

A stronghold captured, 100 natives killed, reported, 

10 April, ,, 

Gen. Miles's report, confirming some American 
cruelties during the war, published . 27 April, ,. 

Capture of 10 forts, heavy loss of the enemy, 
reported 7 May, ,, 

Continued agricultural and commercial depression, 

reported . 8 Aug. ,, 

See Spanish American war. 

PHILIPPIUM, a metal of the yttrium series, 
found in Samarskite earth (in Russia, North Caro- 
lina, &c.) by M. Marc Delafontaine, by means of 
the spectroscope ; announced Oct. 1878. Also said 
to have been found by Mr. Lawrence Smith, anc5 
named Mosandrium, July, 1878. 



PHILIPPOPOLIS. 



953 



PHOCIS. 



PHILIPPOPOLIS, capital of (Eastern) Rou- 
melia, which see. Population, 1888,33,032; 1900, 
42,849. 

PHILISTINES, a people of Palestine, con- 
quered Israel, 1156 B.C., and ruled it forty years. 
They were defeated by Samuel, 1120; and by Saul 
and Jonathan, 1087. They again invaded Israel 
about 1063, when David slew their champion, 
Goliath. After David became king he thoroughly 
subdued them, 1040. In common with Syria, their 
country was subjugated by the Romans, under 
Pompey, about 63. — In Germany, about 1830, 
Heine and the liberal party applied the term 
"Philistines" to the opponents of progress, or con- 
servative party. 

In England the term lias been applied to the 
opponents of "culture "and refinement, chiefly 
among the upper middle classes by Mr. Matthew 
Arnold and others 1867 et seq. 

PHILOBIBLION SOCIETY, was insti- 
tuted in 1853 by Mr. R - Monckton Milnes (aft. lord 
Houghton), M. Sylvain Van de Weyer, the Belgian 
minister, and others. It publishes volumes of 
"Miscellanies," &c. 

PHILOLOGY, the science of language, much 

studied during the present century. 

John Horne-Tooke's "Diversions of Purley" pub- 
lished I7 86 

Philological society of London established 18 May, 1842 

Lorenz Diefenbach's " Lexicon Comparativum " 1846-51 

32nd congress of German philologists met at Wies- 
baden, professor Curtius president, 26-29 Sept. 
1877 ; the 42nd met at Vienna . . 23 May, 1893 

Hyde Clarke, D.C.L., an eminent philologist, born, 
1815 ; died z March, 1895 

Prince Louis Lucien Bonaparte's philological 
library purchased by Mr. H. S. Nichols, an- 
nounced Nov. 1896 

Dr. John N. Valetta, D.C.L., a distinguished philo- 
logist, born 1818, died ... 2 Jan. 1900 
LSee Language, Dictionaries, and Grammarians.] 

PHILOSOPHEE'S STONE, see Alchemy. 

PHILOSOPHICAL LAMP, constructed 
by Johann Wolfgang Dobereiner, who applied in 
it the property possessed by spongy platinum of 
causing the combination of oxygen and hydrogen, 
discovered by him in 1823. 

PHILOSOPHY (love of wisdom), the know- 
ledge of the reason of things (distinguished from 
history, the knowledge of facts, and from mathema- 
tics, the knowledge of the quantity of things) — the 
hypothesis or system upon which natural effects are 
explained. Locke. Pythagoras first adopted the 
name of philosopher (such- men having beeu 
previously called sages) about 528 B.C. Philoso- 
phers were expelled from Rome, and their schools 
suppressed, by Domitian, a.d. 83. Philosophy is 
now divided into: — 1. Moral or Ethical; 2. Intel- 
lectual ; 3. Natiu-al or Physical. 

MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Ancient Schools.— The Vedas {which see) contain what 
is now considered to be the most ancient moral 
philosophy ; the source of later systems, about the 
sixth or seventh century, B.C. (professor Max Miiller, 
March, 1894.) Pythagorean, about 500 B.C.; Platonic 
(the academy), by Plato, 374 ; Peripatetic (the Lyceum), 
by Aristotle, 334 ; Sceptic, by Pyrrho, 334 ; Cynic by 
Diogenes, 330 ; Epicurean by Epicurus, 306 ; Stoic, by 
Zeno, 290 ;' Middle Academy, by Arcesilaus, 278; New 
Academy, by Carneades, 160 ; New Platonists (who 
attempted to combine Platonism with Christianity) : 
Ammonius Saccas, died a.d. 243 ; Plotinus, died about 
270; Porphyry, died about 305; Jambliehus, died 
about 333 ; Julian the emperor, died 363. 



Modern Systems. — Nominal, Jean Eoscellin, about 
1092 ; Abelard, <fec. ; Rational, Bacon, about 1624 ; Car- 
tesian, Descartes, about 1560 : Reflective or Perceptive,- 
Locke, 1690; Idealistic, Berkeley, 1710; Elective, 
Leibnitz, 1710; Common Sense, Beid, 1750-70; Trans- 
cendental, Kant, Hamilton, &c, 1770-1860 ; Scientific, 
Fichte, 1800-14 : Absolute Identity, Schelling, 1800-20 ; 
Absolute Idealism, Hegel, 1810-30 ; Utilitarian, Ben- 
tham, Mill, &c. 1790-1873 ; Positive, Comte, 1830 ; 
Realism and Evolutionary Materialism, prevalent, Dar- 
win, Herbert Spencer's, &c. 1873. "System of Syn- 
thetic Philosophy," 10 vols., 1860-96 (died 8 Dec. 
1903). Mr. Howard Collin's " Epitome," 4th edition, 
published, autumn, 1897. [Prof. Wm. Wallace, of 
Oxford, died 19 Feb. 1897.] See Ethics. 

NATURAL PHILOSOPHY. 

Greek and, Latin. — Thales, about 600 b.c. ; Pythagoras, 
590 ; Aristotle and Plato, 350 ; Euclid, 300 ; Archi- 
medes, 287 ; Hipparehus, 150 ; Lucretius, about 100 ? 
Julius Ctesar, 50; Ptolemy, a.d. 150. 
Middle Ages. — Arabians: Ben Musa, 800; Alhazen, &c.^ 
1100. Gerbert, Decimals, 959. Roger Bacon, Opu& 
Majiis, 1266. 
Inductive Philosophy : 
Copernicus's system published .... 1543, 

Tycho Brahe 1546-1602 

Gilbert's researches in electricity and magnetism 1600 
Kepler's Laws . . . . . . 1609-18. 

Bacon's Novum Organum 1620- 

Galileo's Dialogues 1632 

Royal Society begins (which see) . . . . 1645 
Otto Guericke — air pump and electric machine . 1654 

Huyghens on pendulums 165S 

Newton — Fluxions, 1665 ; Analysis of Light, 1669; 
Theory of Gravitation, 1684 ; Principia pub- 
lished, 1687 ; death 1727 

Bradley discovers aberration ,, 

Euler on Perturbation of the Planets . . . 1748 

Black on Heat 1762 

Laplace on Tides 1775 

Lagrange, Mecanique Analytique . . . . 178& 

Galvani and Volta's researches .... 1791 

Laplace, Mecanique Celeste 1799 

Girsted discovers electro-magnetism . . . 1819 

Faraday, magneto-electricity 183J 

I. Todhunter's "History of the Theory of Elasti- 
city " published July, 1893, 

Herschell, Whewell, Tyndall, W. Thompson (lord 
Kelvin), Werner Siemens, C. W. Siemens, Helm- 
holtz, Wildemann. 

[See Acoustics, Astronomy, Optics, Chemistry, 
Electricity, <fec] 

PHIPPS' EXPEDITION. The hon. captain 
Phipps (afterwards lord Mulgrave) sailed from 
England in command of the Sea-Horse and Carcase 
ships, to make discoveries, as near as possible to- 
the North Pole. In August 1773, he was for nine- 
days environed with barriers of ice, in the Frozen 
Ocean, north of Spitzbergen, 8o° 48' N. lat. A 
brisk wind in two or three days accomplished their 
deliverance. They returned to England without 
having made any discoveries, 20 Sept. 1773. Nelson 
was coxswain to the second in command. 

PHLOGISTON, a term employed by Stahl to 
designate the hypothetical matter or principle of 
fire; "the inflammable principle " of bishop Wat- 
son, near the close of the 17th century. The 
chemical theory based upon it was refuted by La- 
voisier, 1790, who substituted for it the theory of 
oxj r gen.ition. 

PHOCIS, a state in Northern Greece. The 
Phocians seized Delphi 357 B.C., and commenced 
the second Sacred War. They were opposed by 
Thebes and other states, and were utterly subdued 
by Philip II. of Macedon in 346. By the excava- 
tions of the British school of archaeology at Abee 
the remains of two ancient temples of Apollo, with 
relics of bronzes, inscriptions, &c, and at Hyam- 
polis, a shrine of Artemis (Diana), &c, were 
discovered, l-eported, 30 Aug. 1894. 



PHOENICIA. 



954 



PHOSPHORUS. 



PHCENICIA, on the sea coast of Syria. The 
natives were the most eminent navigators and 
traders of antiquity, their cities or allied states 
being Tyre, Sidon, Berytus, Tripoli, Byblos, and 
Ptolemais, or Acre. From the 19th to the 13th 
centuries before Christ, they established colonies 
on the shores or isles of the Mediterranean — Car- 
thage, Hippo, Utica, Gades, and Panormus, and they 
are said to have visited the British Isles. Phoenicia 
was conquered by Cyrus, 537 B.C.; by Alexander, 
332 ; by the Romans, 47 ; and after partaking of 
the fortunes of Palestine, was added to the Ottoman 
empire, a.d. 1516. See Sidon and Tyre. 

PHCENIX CLUBS, of a treasonable charac- 
ter, were formed in Ireland in 1858. They met at 
night to drill. Several persons were arrested and 
tried in March, 1859, at Tralee ; but the jury could 
not agree on their verdict. l)aniel Sullivan was 
"Condemned to penal servitude for ten years, April, 
1859. Eventually some of the prisoners pleaded 
guilty, and were discharged on being bound over to 
keep the peace. 

PHCENIX PARK. A beautiful park, 
1,327 acres, in Dublin ; for the murders here see 
Ireland, 1 882-3, 1896. 

PHONEIDOSCOPE, an instrument for ob- 
serving the colour-tigures of liquid films under the 
action of sonorous vibrations, being a visible de- 
monstration of the vibratory and molecular motion 
■of a telephone plate ; invented by Mr. Sedley Tay- 
lor, 1877 ; manufactured by S. C. Tisley & Co., 
London, 1878. 

PHONO-CINEMA, a combination of the 
phonograph and cinematograph, which preserves the 
face, voice and gestures of lining beings, displayed 
at the Paris exhibition, June et seq. 1900. 

PHONOGRAPH, a machine proposed to be 
attached to pianofortes and other keyed instru- 
ments, by which any music that is played may be 
written down on blank paper, since it rules and 
prints the notes simultaneously. It was patented 
by Mr. Fenby, 13 June, 1863. The motive-power 
is electro-magnetism. Machines with a similar 
object were projected by Mr. Creedd in 1847 ; Mr. 
J. F. Unger in 1774 ; and by Mr. Carreyre in 
8:827. See Telephonograph. 

A new phonograph by Thomas Alva Edison, elec- 
trician of New Jersey, was announced . Dec. 1877 

Linear indentations are made by means of a pin in 
a sheet of tinfoil by speaking or singing ; and 
from these casts may be taken. When these are 
placed upon the diaphragm of a telephone con- 
nected with revolving apparatus, the sounds may 
be reproduced with a weirdlike effect. Improved 
by Mr. Shelford Bidwell, 1879. See Telephone. 

A greatly improved instrument by Mr. Edison adap- 
ted for postal communication, announced, 21 Nov. 
1887; successful experiments reported, 12 May, 1888 

Professor Graham Bell's graphophone, a modification 
of Edison's phonograph, was announced. . Nov. 1887 

Mr. Emile Berliner (of Washington) announced his 
gramophone, a modification of Leon Scott's 
phonautograph Nov. ,, 

The phonograph and graphophone were both exhibited 
to the British Association at Bath . Sept. 1888 

Exhibitions of Mr. Edison's greatly improved 
phonograph, considered perfect in the record, 
reproduction and preservation of sounds of all 
kinds (wax is used in place of tinfoil) Nov. 1888 et seq. 

Mr. Edison receives phonograms from the duke of 
Cambridge, Mr. Gladstone, and others . Jan. 1889 

Mr. Edison's talking dolls, which utter about 30 
words, by means of a concealed phonograph and 
clockwork, were exhibited at the Savoy Hotel, 
Westminster, 25 July; Edison's phonographic 
toy company announced .... July, 1890 



Mr. Edison adapts his phonograph to a water 
motor as well as electricity . reported Sept. 1890 

The pope, by Mr. Moriarty, transmits a phono- 
gram, containing a message, to the president of 
the United States N. A. . . .20 March, 1893 

Many improvements made and others in progress, 1903 

PHONOGRAPHY (from the Greek phone, 
sound), suggested by Franklin, 1768. The Phonetic 
society, whose object was to render our mode of 
writing and printing more consonant to sound, was 
established, 1 March, 1843; sir W. C. Trevelyan, 
president, and Mr. Isaac Pitman, secretary, the 
latter being the inventor of the system which was 
made known in 1837; knighted, May, 1894; died, 
aged 84, 22 Jan. 1897. Among other works pub- 
lished by the promoters of the system, was the 
"Phonetic News," in 1849. Phonography has 
been adopted for European and oriental languages, 
1887, et seq. " Phonographic Quarterly Review," 
published, Nov. 1894; see Visible Speech. 

" Pickwick Papers " in shorthand, first of a series, 

published by Mr. Pitman . . . 1 May, 1883 
Script Phonography, a simplified system of short- 
hand, combining the manual movement of long- 
hand with the connection of vowels and con- 
sonants in their natural order, by Thos. Stratford 

Malone 2 Nov. 1885 

Messrs. Pitman first publish in phonography the 

New Testament from engraved plates . 8 Oct. 1886 
First Phonographic journal, published . 1 Jan. 1887 
Sol-fa system in shorthand first published 5 Feb. „ 
The book of Common Prayer ; and a National 
" Phonographic Library " begun in . April, ,, 

PHONOPORE, an arrangement of telegraph 
wires to facilitate transmission of sound, by check- 
ing the influence of adjoining wires, the invention 
of Mr. C. Langdon Davies, announced, May, 1886. 
See Telephones. The system was stated to have 
worked successfully on the South Eastern railway 
between London and Folkestone, Feb. 1887, the 
Midland railway, and others, 1889-92. 

PHONOSCOPE, an apparatus for testing the 
quality of musical strings, invented by Dr. Rudolph 
Koenig, and exhibited at the International Exhi- 
bition in 1862. He died, aged 68, 2 Oct. 1901. 

Mr. Edmunds' phonoscope, exhibited to the British As- 
sociation, Aug. 1878, is an instrument for producing 
figures and light from the vibrations of sound. 

The name phonoscope is given to apparatus used 
by M. M. G. Dumeny in photographing the lips 
of a speaker and so combining the images thus 
produced that they may be understood by a deaf- 
mute, June, 1892. See Photography, 1891. 

PHOSPHOR-BRONZE, an alloy of copper, 
tin, and phosphorus, invented by Messrs. Monte- 
fiore-Levi and Kiinzel, of Belgium, in 1867. It is 
very hard, ductile, and elastic, with a colour re- 
sembling gold. 

PHOSPHORESCENCE. The property pos- 
sessed by some bodies of retaining luminosity after 
exposure to light observed by the ancients ; espe- 
cially noticed by Vincenzo Cascariolo (1602), Boyle, 
Canton, Wilson, and others; and specially studied 
by Edmond Becquercl, and Balmaiu. See Lumi- 
nous Paint, Air (footnote). 

PHOSPHORUS was discovered in 1667, by 
Brandt, of Hamburg, who procured it from urine. 
The discovery was prosecuted by John Kunckel, a 
Saxon chemist, about 1 670, and by the lion. R. 
Boyle about the same time. JS'ouv. Diet. Phos- 
phoric acid is first mentioned in 1743, but is said to 
have been known earlier. Gahn pointed out its 
existence in bones in 1769, and Scheele devised 



PHOTOGEAPHY. 



955 



PHOTOGEAPHY. 



a process for extracting it. Canton's phosphorus 
is so called from its discoverer, 1768. Phospho- 
retted hydrogen was discovered by Gengembre 
in 1812. The consumption of phosphorus has 
immensely increased since the manufacture of 
lucifer matches. In 1845, Schrotter, of Vienna, 
discovered allotropic or amorphous phosphorus, 
which ignites more slowly and is less unwholesome 
in working than ordinary phosphorus. 

Mr. S. A. Rosenthal and dr. S. J. von Komocki 
succeed in preparing matches without yellow 
phosphorus, reported .... Sept. 1S98 

PHOTOGEAPHY. The action of light on 
chloride of silver was known as early as the 16th 
century. The phenomenon was studied by Scheele 
(1777), Senebier (1790), Hitter and Wollaston 
(1801). From the results of these investigations, 
experiments were made by Thos. Wedgwood and 
Humphry Davy, in the Royal Institution, London, 
which were published in its Journal, 1802. Wedg- 
wood may be regarded as the first photographer. 
His paper was entitled "an account of a method 
■of copying paintings upon glass, and of making 
profiles by the agency of light upon nitrate of 
silver." 

Further discoveries were made by Niepce in 1814, and 
sir J. Herschel in 1819. 

Louis J. M.-Daguerre commenced his experiments in 
1824 ; and in 1826 joined Joseph Nieephore Niopee, 
and worked with him till the death of the latter in 
1833. The production of Daguerreotype plates was 
announced in Jan. 1839 ; and the French chamber of 
deputies granted a pension to Daguerre and to Niepce's 
son Isidore. 

In 1839 Mr. Henry Fox Talbot first published his mode 
of multiplying photographic impressions by producing 
a negative photograph (i. e., with the light and shades 
reversed) from which any number of positive copies 
may be obtained. His patent for producing the 
Talbotype or Calotype (on paper) is dated Feb. 1841. 

In 1851, collodion (which see) was applied to photography 
by Mr. F. Archer. 

Herr Franz Veress of Klausenburg, Transylvania, 
photographs colours on glass and paper ; speci- 
mens are exhibited at the Photographic Institute at 
Vienna, March, 1890. 

The Photographic Society of London was established in 
1852 (royal, 1894). It publishes a journal. On 22 Dec. 
1852, 774 specimens of photography were exhibited 
at the rooms of the Society of Arts, Adelphi. 42nd 
annual exhibition, very successful, 25 Sept. et seq. 
1897 ; congress held, New gallery, Regent-street, 
19 May, 1903. 

Carte de visite portraits (which see) taken by M. Ferrier 
at Nice, 1857. 

In 1861 Mr. Thompson, of Weymouth, photographed the 
bottom of the sea. 

Photography was successfully applied to the transfer of 
works of art to wood blocks by Mr. John Leighton, in 
his illustrated edition of Lyra Germanica, 1861. 

In 1861 professor 0. M. Rood suggested the application 
of photography to the microscope. 

The tannin process introduced by major Russell about 
1861. 

The copyright of photographs is secured by an act passed 
in 1862. 

Dr. Henry Wright photographed objects of surgical inte- 
rest in Jan. 1863. 

The Wothlytype process, in which nitrate of silver and 
albumen are discarded and a double salt of uranium 
and collodion substituted, invented by Wothly, was 
announced in the autumn of 1864. 

The light of ignited magnesium was employed for photo- 
graphs by Mr. Brothers, of Manchester, in the spring 
of 1864. 

Mr. H. Van der Weyde, an American artist, succeeded in 
making electric light very effectual in photography, 
1876-8. 

Photographs of the first page of the Times, containing 
many French advertisements (i^- inch long by 1 inch 
wide), sent to Paris from Bordeaux by balloons, Jan. 
1871. 



Criminals ordered to be photographed (by the act for 

prevention of crime), from 2 Nov. 1871. 
Composite portraits (in which sometimes 9 components 
were used) formed by Mr. Francis Galton, by means 
of photography, 1877. 

The Autotype process lor transferring and printing reported 
successful, April, 1873. 

Mr. B. J. Muybridge photographs, instantaneously, 
animals in rapid motion, 1881 et seq. See Zoopraxiscope. 

Capt. Abney(K.C.B. 1900) photographs a disc in rapid 
motion by the electric spark, 17 March, 1882. 

Celestial Photography began with professor Bond, the 
astronomer, of Cambridge, U.S., who exhibited a 
photograph of the moon in 1851. Since then, Mr. 
Warren de la Rue, of London, has produced excellent 
photographs of the moon, and other heavenly bodies, 
and on 18 July, i860, photographed the solar 
eclipse. 

By means of the gelatine dry plate, the results of the 
astronomical work of years is now obtained in hours. 
Delicate details are obtained not only of comets, 
nebuliB and faint stars, but also of stars invisible by 
the most powerful telescopes. Since 1876, Dr. W. 
Huggins and Mr. Andrew A. Common in England, and 
Mr. Draper in America, have been eminently success- 
ful in celestial photography. About 400 stars have 
been depicted in the space of two square inches. 

The Photochronogmph, an apparatus invented by father 
Fargis, Georgetown, U.S.A., for measuring star 
transits, reported Oct. 1892. 

Photography successfully applied to the heavens by 
MM. Paul and Prosper Henry, 1885-8. Charts 
of the whole heavens expected in ten years. 

Decision by justice North that a photographer has 
no right to sell or exhibit photographs of private 
sitters; " Pollard and wife v. The Photographic 
Company. Rochester " . . . .20 Dec. 1888 

Mr. A. A. Common's excellent telescope specially 
adapted for photography, set up at Baling, near 
London spring, 1890 

Mr. W. E. Woodbury s " Encyclopaedia of Photo- 
graphy," published . . . ■ . .1890 et seq. 

M. Marey's method of photographing the motions of 
living animals by his chrono-photograph applied 
by M. G.Demeny to the movements of the lips in 
speech, the results being readable by deaf-mutes ; 

reported Aug. 1891 

" Photographie des Couleurs par la Methode inter- 
ferentielle de M. Lippmann," by Alphonse Berget, 
published June, ,, 

M. Gabriel Lippmann announced his method of 
photographing the spectrum in its natural 
colours by producing iridescence on the film, 

March, 1891-May, 1892 

Mr. F. E. Ives at the Royal Institution, London, 
io, 17 May, 1892, exhibited his patented method of 
photographing colours, by which he produced 
colour prints. 

Mr. Van der Weyde lectures on his "photo-cor- 
rector " at the Society of Arts . . 26 April, 1893 

Photographs of flowers, &c, exhibiting the natural 
colours, taken by M. Lumiere (by an improve- 
ment on the original idea of M. Lippmann) on 
gelatino-bromide plates, were exlribited by the 
Photo club, Paris ; the process is slow, 10 May, „ 

Congress of British photographic societies, opened 
in London ; capt. Abney president . 10 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Arthur Burchett's new process, by the combi- 
nation of green and yellow screens, exhibited at 
the Camera club 25 Jan. 1894 

Specimens of Dr. Joly's method of photography in 
natural colours on glass plates exhibited at the 
Royal society June, 1895 

Mr. Vernon Heath, landscape photographer, born, 
1820, died 25 Oct. ,, 

The bottom of the Mediterranean photographed by 
M. Louis Bontan, in ,, 

Mr. Campbell Swinton exhibited photographs (ra- 
diographs) of the interior of the hand, etc. at the 
Camera club ; see Rontgen Rays . . 16 Jan. 1896 

Mr. Friese-Greene's improvements in printing pho- 
tographs (blocks dispensed with), exhibited at 
the Royal Institution ... 28 Feb. ,, 

M. G. Lippmann at the Royal Institution described 
and illustrated his method of producing coloured 
photography, specimens included the spectrum, 
flowers, trees, etc. . . . .17 April, ,, 



PHOTOMETEE. 



9,56 



PHYSIC. 



M. Villedien Chassagne and dr. Adrien M. Dan- 
sac's invention of producing photographs show- 
ing the actual colours of the objects photo- 
graphed, reported, Times ... 30 Jan. 1897 

Mr. fiennetto exhibits excellent specimens of his 
colour photography by the action of light on 
chemical substances at the Camera club, 8 
March, 1897, and other places. 

The National Photographic Kecord association, 
founded by sir Benjm. Stone, M.P. . 8 July, ,, 

Royal Photographic Society's international exhi- 
bition at the Crystal Palace, opened by the 
prince of Wales .... 25 April, 1898 

M. Paul Boyer exhibits portraits taken by nis new 
Hash-light process, London . . . May, ,, 

Mr. Francis Galton's new method of analytical 
photography, to isolate the differences between 
any two pictures, reported . . 27 Nov. 1900 

See Rbntger: Rays. 

Photoheliograph, an apparatus for registering the 
position of the sun's spots by means of clockwork 
and photography ; erected at the suggestion of sir 
John Herschel at Kew observatory about 1857. It was 
used by Mr. Warren de la Rue to photograph the disc 
of the sun during the eclipse of 18 July, i86oj 

Photogalvanography, the art of producing engravings 
by the action of light and electricity. The earliest 
specimens were produced by Nicephore Niepce, and 
presented by him in 1827 to the great botanist, Robert 
Brown. Great advances have since been made in this 
art by MM. Niepce de St. Victor (who published a 
treatise on it in 1856), Vitry, W. R. Grove, H. Pox 
Talbot, &c. In 1852, Paul Pretsch patented a process 
which he called "Photogalvanography." 

Photoglyphic Engraving (a process by which the light 
actually etches a picture on a plate that may be and 
has been printed from) was patented by Mr. Fox 
Talbot in 1858, and is described and exemplified in the 
Photographic News, 9 and 16 Sept. 1859, a specimen 
being given in the latter number. 

Photozincography (a process by which photographs 
are transferred to zinc plates which may be printed 
from) was devised by sir Henry James, chief of the Ord- 
nance Survey, and made known in i860. By it maps, 
charts, and engravings may be printed at a small cost. 

Photo-Sculpture : M. Villeme's employment of photo- 
graphs in the formation of sculpture was announced in 
1863. 

Messrs. Goupil's process of Photogravure, rivalling 
mezzo-tint, reported highly successful ; fine pictures 
reproduced, Feb. 1884. 

PHOTOMETEE' (light measurer); one was 
constructed by Dr. W. Bitchie in 1825. Many im- 
provements have been made recently in photo- 
metry. See under Stars. 

Mr. A. Vernon Harcourt's new holophotometer highly 
approved June, 1888. 

Stellar Photometry, the measurement of the light of the 
stars, has been much studied by astronomers, especi- 
ally by sir John Herschel, prof. Argelandftr, prof. C. 
Pritchard and others. Mr. W. J. Dibd'in, in his " Guide 
to the measurement of light," published in 1889, de- 
scribes Ins application of terrestrial photometry to 
stellar light. 

PHOTOPHONE. In this apparatus, con- 
structed by professor Graham Bell and Mr. Sumner 
'fainter of Washington, in 1880, a thin plane 
mirror is thrown into vibration bv the voice ; a 
beam of light is reflected from this mirror and re- 
ceived at a distance by a cell of the metal selenium; 
when, by arrangement, this is connected with a 
telephone, the sounds arc reproduced. 

PHOTOSPHEEE, see Sun, note. 

PHOTOTACHOMETEE, an instrument for 
measuring the velocity of light, invented by Pro- 
fessor Simon Newcomb of Washington, 1879-80. 

PHOTOTHEEAPY, the treatment of disease 
by light, successfully applied by prof. Finsen, of 



Copenhagen, in smallpox, 1893, and lupus, see 
Tuberculosis, 1901. 

PHEENOLOGY, see Craniology. 

PHEYGTA (now Karamania), a province in » 
Asia Minor, became part of the Persian empire in 
537 B.C., and partook of its changes. After their 
defeat of Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, 190 
B.C., the Komans added Phrygia to the kingdom of 
Pergamus, which was bequeathed to them by 
Attalus III., the last king, 133 B.C. 

PHYLLOXEEA, see Vine. 

PHYSIC appears to have been first practised 
by the Egyptian priests. Pythagoras endeavoured 
to explain the philosophy of disease and the action 
of medicine, about 529 B.C. Hippocrates, the father 
of medicine, flourished about 422 B.C., and Galen, 
born A.]). 131, was the oracle of medical science. 
About 980 Avicenna, an Arab, wrote a system of, 
medicine. Dr. E. Quain's Dictionary of Medicine, 
published 1882. 3rd edition issued 1902. " The 
System of Medicine," consisting of contributions- 
by eminent physicians and surgeons, edited by sir 
J. Eussell Eeynolds, in 5 vols., published 1866-75. 
A ' ' System of medicine, by many writers, edited 



I., June 1896; vol. III., 



by dr. Clifford Allbutt, vol, 

1898. See Medical. 

The dogmatic age of medicine lasted till the Reforma- 
tion, when it was attacked by Paracelsus (1493-1541), 
and Vesalius (1514-64). Since 1800 medical practice 
has been completely transformed by physiological 
and chemical research. 

The discovery of the circulation of the blood, by Br. 
Harvey, furnished an entirely new system of physio- 
logical and pathological speculation, 1628. See Medi- 
cal and Societies. 

Physician to the King.— John, the king's chaplain and 
physician (afterwards bishop of Bath and Wells), men 
tioned 1090. 

The earliest mandate or warrant for the attendance of 
physician at court is dated 1454, and 33 Henry VI., a 
reign fertile in the patronage which was afforded to 
practitioners in medicine ; but no appointment existed 
which can justly be called physician to the royal per- 
son. By this warrant the king, with the consent of 
his privy council, deputed to three physicians and two 
surgeons the regulation of his diet, and the administra- 
tion of such medicines and remedies as might be suffi- 
cient for his cure, without any allusion to the previous 
existence or permanency of the office which they were 
authorised for a time to fill, or to a remuneration for 
their services. — Life of Linacre. 

Miss Garrett (afterwards Mrs. Anderson) licensed at 
Apothecaries' hall, London, to practise medicine, 28 
Sept. 1865. 

At a meeting of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical 
Society, 3 May, 1869, it was resolved that the " Royal 
Society of Medicine " (including the various sections) 
be founded ; the resolution was affirmed, 22 Feb. 1870 ; 
but in 1871 the project dropped. 

School of Medicine for Women in London (council : 
Professors Burdon-Sanderson and Huxley, Mrs. Garrett- 
Anderson, M. U., Mrs. Blackwell, M. D., and others); 
opened, Oct. 1874. 

Registration of medical women, permitted by Medical 
act, 39 & 40 Vict. c. 41, 11 Aug. 1876. 

The queen lays the foundation of the Medical Examination 
hall on the Victoria embankment, 24 March, 1886. 

The curriculum for medical students changed from 4 to 
5 years ; begins Oct. 1893. 

London school of tropical medicine promoted by the 
liberality of Mr. Chamberlain, col. sec, Dec. 1898; 
established in the London Docks; good research 
work, reported, 3 Nov. 1902 et scq. 
See Anatomy. 



EMINENT MEDICAL MEN. 



Cornelius Celsus 

Paulus jEgineta flourished 



Bom Died 
14 A.D. 

. about 630 



PHYSIC GARDENS. 



957 



PIACENZA. 



EMINENT MEDICAL MEN. Bom Died 

Averrhoes 12 Dec. 119S 

Thomas Linaere 1460 1524 

Paracelsus 1493 1541 

Ambrose Pare, French surgeon . . . 1509 1590 

William Harvey 1578 1657 

Thomas Sydenham 1624 1689 

Malpighi 1628 1694 

Hermann Boerhaave 1668 1738 

R. Mead 1673 1754 

Albert von Haller . . . . . . 1708 1777 

William Hunter 1718 1783 

John Hunter 1728 1793 

B. T. Laennec 1781 1826 

John Abernethy 1764 1831 

Astley Cooper 1768 1841 

Sir James Young Simpson (introducer of 

anaesthetics) 1811 1870 

Sir Henry Holland 1788 1873 

Henry Bence Jones . . . . . . 1813 1873 

Sir Thomas Watson 1792 1882 

Richard Quain T803 1887 

Sir Jas. Risdon Bennett 1809 

Sir Wm. W. Gull 1816 1890 

1 Sir George Paget . . . ... 1809 1892 

Sir Jas. Paget 1814 1899 

Sir Wm. Jenner • . . 1815 189S 

Sir Richard Quain 1816 1898 

Sir Morell Mackenzie 1837 1892 

Sir John Eric Erichsen 1818 1896 

Sir Joseph Fayi'er 1824 - 

Sir Andrew Clark . . . ... 1826 1893 

Sir Joseph Lister (made a peer 1897) . . 1827 

Sir George Johnson 1818 1896 

Sir George Murray Humphry . . . 1820 1896 

George Harley 1829 1896 

Sir B. Ward Richardson 1828 1896 

Sir Thomas Spencer Wells 1818 1897 

Sir William Roberts 1830 1899 

Sir William Priestley 1829 1900 

Sir William MacCormac 1836 1901 

Sir Frederick Treves (bart. June, 1902) . . 1853 

William Smoult Playfair .... 1836 1903 

PHYSIC GARDENS. The first cultivated 
in England was by John Gerard, surgeon of 
London, in 1567 ; that at Oxford was endowed by 
the earl of Danby, in 1652 ; that at Cambridge was 
commenced about the middle of the last century ; 
and that at Chelsea, originated by sir Hans Sloane, 
was given to the Apotbecaries' company in 1721; 
this last was very much admired by Linnaeus. The 
trustees of the London parochial charities agree to 
dedicate 800/. per ann. to its maintenance, March, 
1899. New laboratories and plant-houses opened 
by lord Cadogan, 25 July, 1902. 

PHYSICAL EDUCATION, British Col- 
lege of, started in 1893 ; a meeting of the council 
was held at the earl of Meath's house, sir Benjamin 
Richardson in the chair, 20 Oct. 1894. Annual 
meetings. See Scotland. Royal Commission on 
Physical deterioration appointed, 1903. 

PHYSICAL SOCIETY, established 14 Feb. 
1874; Dr. J. H. Gladstone, first president. 
National Physical Recreation Society 
founded, 1885-6 ; in full activity, Mr. Herbert J. 
Gladstone, president, Nov. 1896. National Phy- 
sical Laboratory, committee appointed re- 
specting its establishment, lord Rayleigh chairman, 
3 Aug. 1897 ; favourable report issued, 4 Oct. 1898 ; 
government grants 14,000^. for erection and 4,000^. 
per ann. for maintenance, Mr. R. T. Glazebrook 
appointed director, Aug. 1899. Bushy-house, Ted- 
dington, granted by the queen to the Royal society 
for the laboratory, Dec. 1900; opened by the prince 
and princess of Wales, 19 March, 1902. 

PHYSICIANS, Royal College of, of 

London (of England since 1858), was projected by 
Dr. Linaere, physician to Henry VIII. , who, 



through his interest with cardinal "Wolsey, obtained 
letters patent, constituting a corporate body of 
regular phj^sicians in London, with peculiar privi- 
leges, 23 Sept. 1518. Linaere was elected the first 
president of the college. Dr. W. Harvey was a 
great benefactor to this institution, 1653. He built 
a library and public hall, which he granted for ever 
to the college, with his books and instruments. 
The college was afterwards held in a building in 
Wai-wick-lane, erected by sir C. Wren, where it 
continued till 1825, when the present elegant stone 
edifice in Trafalgar-square was erected from designs 
by sir R. Smirke. The college is composed of 
fellows and members, formerly called licenciates 
and extra-licenciates. The queen's bench division 
decided that the college was entitled by the medical 
act of 1886 to grant diplomas both of medicine and 
surgery, 8 March, 1893. The prince of Wales 
elected a fellow of the college, July, 1897. — The 
College of Physicians, Dublin, was founded by 
charter of Charles II. 1667, and was re-incorpo- 
rated in 1692. The Royal College of Physicians, 
Edinburgh, 29 Nov. 1681. 

RECENT PRESIDENTS OF ROYAL COLLEGE, LONDON. 



1796. 


Thomas Gisborne. 


1S81. 


Sir Wm. Jenner; died 


1804. 


Sir Lucas Pepys. 




11 Dec. 1898. 


1811. 


Sir Francis Milman. 


1888. 


Sir Andrew Clark ; 


T8T3. 


John Latham. 




died 6 Nov. 1893. 


1820. 


Sir Henry Halford. 


1803. 


J. Russell Reynolds, 


1844. 


John Ayrton Paris. 




bart., 1895 ; died 29 


I8S7- 


Thomas Mavo. 




May, 1896. 


1862. 


Sir Thomas Watson. 


1896. 


Samuel Wilks, bart., 


1867. 


Sir James Alderson. 




June, 1897. 


1871. 


Sir George Burrows. 


1899. 


Wm. Selby Church, 


T876. 


Sir James Risdon 




bart., K.C.B. June, 




Bennett. 




1902. 



PHYSICS, see under Philosophy, Natural. 

PHYSIOGNOMY, a science which affirms 

that the dispositions of mankind may be discovered 
from the features of the face. The origin of the 
term is referred to Aristotle; and Cicero was at- 
tached to the science. It became a fashionable 
study from the beginning of the 16th century; and 
in the 18th century, the essays of Le Cat and Per- 
nethy led to the modern system. 

J. K. Lavater, who endeavoured to raise physiognomy to 
the rank of a science, published his celebrated work 
" Physioguomische Fragmente," 1775-78, of which an 
English translation by Holcroft was published in 1793. 
The subject was considered by C. R. Darwin in his 
work "Expression of the emotions in Man and 
Animals," 1873, and by Mantegazza in his "Physiog- 
nomy and Expression," 1890. 

PHYSIOLOGY is that part of physics which 
treats of the inner constitution of animals and 
plants, and the several functions and operations of 
all their organs and tissues. The works of Miiller, 
Milne-Edwards, Huxley, Carpenter, Virchow, 
Brown - Sequard, Helmholtz, Ludwig, Du Bois- 
Reymond, Salomon Strieker Rutherford and sir 
John Bucknill, are much celebrated, and Todd's 
" Cyclopaedia of Physiology " (1836-59) is a library 
in itself. Physiological Society, in London, founded 
by Dr. Burdon-Sanderson (bart. 1899) and others, 
early in 1876 ; see Anatomy, Biology, Morphology, 
Royal Institution. International congresses of 
physiology; Basle, 1888; Liege, Aug. 1892; Berne, 
9 Sept. 1895 ! Cambridge, 23-26 Aug. 1898 ; Tuiin, 
17 Sept. 1901. 

By means of the Rontgen rays the action of the 
heart and viscera in a living human body were 
made visible at a meeting in Munich . 6 Aug. 1896 

PIACENZA, see Placentia. 



PIANETTE. 



958 



PIGEONS. 



PIANETTE, a small upright piano introduced 
by Bord of Paris in 1857. 

PIANOFORTE-* The invention is attributed 
to Cristofalli (or Cristofori) , an Italian, J. C. 
Schroter, a German, and Marius, a Frenchman, 
early in the 18th century. The strings are struck 
by small hammers, and not by quills, as in harpsi- 
chords. Schroter is said to have presented a model 
of his invention to the court of Saxony, in 1717 ; 
and G. Silberman manufactured pianofortes with 
considerable success in 1772. Pianofortes were 
made in London by M. Zumpie, a German, 1766, 
and have been since greatly improved by Clementi, 
Broadwood, Collard, Kirkman, Erard, Pleyel, and 
others. 

Upright pianos, first made in this country, were sug- 
gested by Isaac Hawkins in 1800, and Thomas Lond, 
in 1802. Wm. Southwell patented "cabinet pianos" 
in 1807 ; superseded, from about 1840, by the cottage, 
piccolo, and other pianos. 

A keyed instrument at Modena was named "piano e 
forte," 1598. 

A "stone pianoforte," formed of a series of flints and 
other stones of various sizes, collected in France and 
arranged by M. Baudre, was played on by him at the 
Royal Institution, on 16 March, 1866. 

The new transposing piano, invented by Mr. Henry 
Schallehn, was exhibited at the Savoy hotel, 
Westminster, 10 June, 1890. 

The Janko pianoforte, with a new arrangement of key- 
board, exhibited in the Portman rooms, London, W., 
24 Nov. et seq. 1891, said to possess many advantages. 

See Grove's " Dictionary of Music," article "Pianoforte." 

Mr. A. J. Hipkins' "History of the Pianoforte," pub- 
lished 1896. 

A "double piano," a new harpsichord and harp, played 
on at Messrs. Pleyel's rooms, London, 12 April, 
1897. 

Among mechanical contrivances for pianoforte playing 
or "dumb pianists " are the Pianola, and the Metzler 
Piano-player, 1903. 

PICARDY (N. France), was conquered by the 
English in 1346, and by the duke of Burgundy in 
141 7, to whom it was ceded by the treaty of Arras, 
21 Sept. 1435, and annexed to France by Louis XL, 
1463. 

PICCADILLY, a fine street, W. London ; the 
name, of uncertain origin, was Pickadilla and Pi- 
gudello, about 1660, when a house of entertain- 
ment existed near the Haymarket, termed Picka- 
dilly hall, after which buildings were gradually 
extended westwards. 

PICCOLO PIANO, a small pianoforte intro- 
duced by Robert Wornuin in 1829. 

PICENTINES, a Sabine tribe, subdued by the 
Romans, and their capital, A senium, taken, 268 B.C. 
They began the Social war in 90, and were con- 
quered in 89 B.c. 

PICHEGRU'S CONSPIRACY, see Georges. 



* The nucleus of the instrument was a little box over 
which was stretched strings: such was the citole, the 
dulcimer, and the psalterj . The clavitheriuin had keys ; 
the clavichord (about 1500) had dampers; successive 
improvements were the virginals (on which queen Eliza- 
beth played), the spinet, (about 1700), and the harpsi- 
chord (with two rows of keys), said to have been used 
in He 15th century, for which Bach and Handel com- 
posed 111 flic 17th century. A collection of harpsichords 
(one dated 1555) is in the South Kensington museum. 
A double-pianoforte (with two keyboards reversed), 
giving remarkable effects (pateiiled by M. M. Mengeot), 
played on at Covcnt-garden theatre, 21 Oci. 1878. 



PICKETING, see Trials, Aug. 1867 and 1897. 

R. Read and four other cabinetmakers imprisoned 

for picketing May, 1875 

Watching dwellings, &c, declared illegal, 20 Dec. 1898 

PICQUET, a game with cards, invented, 
it is said, by Joquemin, for the amusement of 
Charles VI. of France, then in feeble health, 1390. 
Me'zeray. 

PICTS (possibly from Pieti, painted) , the name 
given to the earliest known inhabitants of the east 
of Scotland, by the Romans, who made expeditions 
into the country, 296 et scq. ; see Roman Wall. 

PICTURES, see Painting. 

PIEDMONT (Pedemontiam, Latin, foot of the 
mountains), a region in N. Italy, formerly the seat 
of government of the kingdom of Sardinia, which 
see, and Savoy. Population, 1890, 3,234,506. 

PIE-POUDRE COURT, the Court of Dusty 
Foot, whose jurisdiction was established for cases 
arising at fairs and markets, to do justice to the 
buyer and seller immediately upon the spot. By 
stat. 17 Edw. IV., it had cognizance of all disputes 
in the precincts of the market to which it might be- 
long, 1477. 

PIER and HARBOUR ACT, to facilitate 
the formation, management, and maintenance of 
piers and harbours in Great Britain and Ireland, 
was passed in 1862. 

PIETISTS, a Lutheran sect, instituted in 
Leipsic, by Philip James Spener, a professor of 
theology, about 1689, with the view of reforming 
the popular religion. He established ' ' colleges of 
pietists," with preachers resembling those of the 
society of friends and the methodists in Britain, 
about 1760. A body resembling the Pietists, named 
Chasidim, arose among the Jews in the Ukraine, 
and spread through Poland and European Turkey. 

PIETRO BARSANTI Club, see Italy, 1878. 

PIEZOMETER (Greek piezo, I compress), an 
apparatus for measuring the compressibility of 
liquids, invented by ffirsted (died 1S51) ; improved 
by Despretz & Saigey. 

PIGEONS were employed as carriers by the 
ancients. Hirtius and Brutus corresponded by 
means of pigeons at the siege of Modena. The 
pigeons of Aleppo served as couriers at Alexandretta 
and Bagdad. Thirty-two pigeons liberated from 
London at 7 o'clock in the morning, 22 Nov. 1819 ; 
at noon one of them arrived at Antwerp ; a quarter 
of an hour afterwards a second arrived ; the re- 
mainder on the following day. Phillips. At a 
pigeon race, 25 July, 1872, from Spalding to Lon- 
don, the speed allowed was 90 seconds a mile ; see 
Post Office, 1870. 

In a pigeon race from Dover to Plymouth, some pigeons 
attained the velocity of 1,233 yards, 1,218 yards and 
1,008 yards per minute 22 July, 1886. About 300 
pigeon-flying societies exist in France : the organization, 
of carrier-pigeon stations ordered by the minister for 
war, Jan. 1SS8. About 350 similar societies exist in 
Germany, stated Jan. 188S. 

National Peristeronic Society (originating from the Co- 
lumbarian Society, founded in 1750), has annual shows. 

A bill for prohibiting shooting pigeons rising from a 
trap attended with cruelties, passed by the commons 
with large majorities, in 18S3 and 1884(195 — 40), was 
rejected by the lords in 1S83 (30—17), and oil 9 May, 
1SS4 (7S-48). 



PIGMIES. 



959 



PIMLICO. 



The London Columbarian society opened its 15th 
annual exhibition of pigeons, at the Westminster 
Aquarium, 2 Dec. 1891. 

Pigeon postal service successfully established between 
Auckland, New Zealand and Gt. Barrier island, sum- 
mer, 1899. 

National pigeon post for military and naval purposes, 
scheme inaugurated at the Crystal palace, 18 Dec. 
1900. 

PIGMIES, see Dwarfs. 

PILCHARD FISHEEY. Peculiar to Land's 
End, Cornwall, reverts to W. Ireland, after sus- 
pension of two centuries (stated July, 1883). 

PILGRIMAGE OF GRACE, a name as- 
sumed by religious insurgents in the north of Eng- 
land, who opposed the dissolution of the monasteries. 
The movement, which commenced in Lincolnshire 
in Sept. 1536, was suppressed in Oct. ; but soon 
after revived in Yorkshire ; and an expedition, 
hearing the foregoing name, having banners on 
Avhich were depicted the five wounds of Christ, was 
headed by Aske, and other gentlemen, and joined 
by priests and 40,000 men of York, Durham, Lan- 
caster, and other counties. They took Hull and 
York, with smaller towns. The duke of Norfolk 
marched against them, and by making terms dis- 
persed them. Early in 1537 they again took 
arms but were promptly suppressed, and the leaders, 
several abbots, and many others, were executed. 

PILGRIMAGES began with the pilgrimage 
of the empress Helena to Jerusalem, 326. They be- 
came very frequent at the close of the 10th century. 
Eobert II. of France made several pilgrimages; 
among others one to Rome about the year 1016, 
perhaps in 1020, when he refused the imperial 
dignity and the kingdom of Italy. The pilgrimage 
to Canterbury is described by Chaucer in his Canter- 
bury Tales about 1383. The pilgrimage of Maho- 
metans to Mecca, the birth-place of the prophet, is 
commanded in the Koran. This pilgrimage was 
very great from India, where it has been encouraged 
by the princes, but discouraged by the British as 
idolatrous. The great mortality due to want and 
disease compelled the government to intervene 
with strict sanitary regulations, and it is now 
stated that the number of deaths has diminished, 
aud the number of pilgrims increased. The con- 
tract with Messrs. Cook and sons in 1886 to convey 
pilgrims from Bombay to Mecca is said to be a failure 
financially, reported, Jan. 1895. See Cholera. 
Pilgrimages to shrines of the Virgin Mary in 
France revived in 1873, an ^ since, in consequence 
of miracles alleged to have taken place at La Salette 
in 1846 and at Lourdes, 11 Feb. 1858; those of La 
Salette discredited by Pope Leo X., 1879. See 
Sacred Heart. 

100 American pilgrims received by the pope 9 June, 1874 
About 100 agricultural labourers (locked out for 
being unionists) traversed England as pilgrims, 
receiving hospitality and money ; beginning 

30 June, et seq. ,, 
English R.C. pilgrimage to shrine of St. Edmund, 

archbishop of Canterbury, at Pontigny . Sept. ,, 
English pilgrimage to Lourdes directed by the "Ca- 
tholic Union of Great Britain," start proposed ; 

given up Aug. 1880 

Many Irish pilgrims present at the pope's jubilee 

at Rome . - . . . .14 Feb. et seq. 1893 
The duke of Norfolk and about 900 British pilgrims 

received by the pope (see Pope) . . 27 Feb. ,, 
The count of Conde and 1,500 Belgians received by 

the pope 23 April, 1898 

St. Winifred's well, in Flintshire, for centuries 

frequented by pilgrims ; see Trials . June, 1899 
Pilgrims (4 men and 36 women) killed by the 
partial collapse of a house in Porchov, Russia, 
many injured, reported ... 8 Oct. 1900 

[See Boulogne.] 



PILGRIM FATHERS, the name given in 
North America to a party of 74 English puritans- 
and 28 women, members of John Robinson' s- 
church, who sailed in the May Flower from Ley den 
to North America, and landed on Plymouth Rock, 
where they founded a colony, 25 Dec. 1620. 
The rev. A. E. Dunning, D.D., of Boston, U.S., with 46 
American congregational ministers and others, follow- 
ing the track of the pilgrim fathers, arrive at Ply- 
mouth, 11 June ; the party were received at Oxford, 
Bedford and other places ; the visitors leave, much 
gratified, 2 July, 1896. 
Memorial congregational church in memory of the 
" Pilgrim Father," John Robinson, founded at Gains- 
borough, 29 June, 1896. 
The MS. log of the Mayflower presented to the President 
and citizens of the United States by the bishop of 
London, in compliance with the petition of Mr. T. F. 
Bayard, U.S. ambassador, 25 March, 1897 ; given up 
by him to governor Wolcott, of Massachusetts, 26 
May, 1897. 
" The Story of the Pilgrim Fathers," reprinted and 
edited by Mr. Edw. Arber, 1897. 

"PILGRIM'S PROGRESS from this 
World to that which is to Come," written 

by John Bunyan, in Bedford gaol, where he was 
imprisoned twelve years, 1660-72. The first part 
was published in 1678. A Hebrew version appeared 
in 1851 ; see Bedford. A first edition (1678) 
realised 1,475^., 9 May, 1901. 

PILLAR SAINTS, see Monachism. 

PILLORY, a scaffold for persons to stand on, 
to render them publicly infamous. This punish- 
ment was awarded against persons convicted of 
forgery, perjury, libelling, &c. In some cases the 
head was put through a hole, the hands through 
two others, the nose slit, the face branded with one 
or more letters, and one or both ears were cut off. 
There is a statute of the pilloiy, 41 Hen. III. 1256. 
Many persons died in the pillory by being struck 
with stones by the mob, and pelted with rotten eggs 
and putrid offal. It was abolished as a punish- 
ment except for perjury, 1815, and totally abolished 
in 1837. The last who suffered at the Old Bailey 
was Peter Jas. Bossy, for perjury, 22 June, 1830. 

PILNITZ (near Dresden, Saxony). The con- 
vention of Pilnitz took place between the emperor 
Leopold and the king of Prussia, 20 July, 1 791. On 
27 Aug. the treaty of Pilnitz, or, as some style it, 
the Partition treaty, was finally agreed upon at 
Pavia by the courts in concert. It was to the effect 
"that the emperor should retake all that Louis XIV. 
had conquered in the Austrian Netherlands, and 
uniting these provinces to the Netherlands, give 
them to his serene highness the elector palatine, to 
be added to the palatinate ; Bavaria to be added to. 
the Austrian possessions," &c. 

PILOT. The act relating to pilots, 16 & 17 
Vict. c. 129 (1853), w * tn ot ber acts, is embodied in 
the Merchant Shipping act ; 1 t;th annual conference 
of the United Kingdom Pilots' association at Car- 
narvon, 12 July, 1898; see Trinity -House. 

PILPAY, see Fables. 

PIMLICO, S.W. suburb of London, belonging 

to the Orosvenor family, who have built largely 

upon it since 1830. 

On 20 Dec. 1881, Georgina Moore, 7J years old, living 
with her parents in Winchester-street, disappeared % 
her body was found by bargemen in the Med way, near 
Yalding, 30 Jan. 1882. Esther Pay, with whom she 
was last seen, accused of her murder, was acquitted,, 
29 Apiil, 1882. 

Pimlico poisoning case. See Trials, April, 1886. 



PINCHBECK. 



960 



PITCH. 



PINCHBECK, an alloy of 25 per cant, of zinc 
and 75 copper, used for watch-cases, &c. ; named 
after either Christopher or Thomas Pinchbeck, 
Loudon, mechanics; the former is said to have 
died in 1732, the latter in 1783. 

PINDABEES, bands of freebooters, or mer- 
cenary soldiers in the central provinces of India, 
headquarters Malwa, who, after the fall of the 
Mogul empire, ravaged the native territories and 
the British settlements, 1804, et seq., till finally 
crushed by two armies commanded by the marquis 
of Hastings in 181 7. 

PINE-TBEES. The stone pine (Pinus Pinea), 
brought to these countries before 1548. The cluster 
pine (Pinus Pinaster), brought from the south of 
Europe before 1 596. The Weymouth pine (Pinus 
Strobus), from North America, 1705. Frankincense 
pine (Pinus Tceda), from North America, before 
1713. There are other varieties. 

PING-PONG, i.e. Table Tennis, very popular, 
1901 et seq. 

PINKIE (near Edinburgh), where the English 
under the Earl of Hertford, protector, totally de- 
feated the Scots under the regent Arran, 10 Sept. 
1547. There fell not 200 of the English, but above 
10,000 of the Scots. Above 1500 were taken prisoners. 

PINS have been found in British barrows (Fos- 
brohe) ; and are mentioned in a statute of 1483. Brass 
pins were brought from France in 1540, and first 
used in England, it is said, by Catherine Howard, 
queen of Henry VIII. Phis were made in England 
in 1543. Slow. They were first manufactured by 
machinery in England in 1824, under a patent of 
Lemuel Wellman Wright, of the United States. 

PIOMBINO, a principality, Italy, previously 
ruled by the Appiani family, was acquired by the 
Spaniards, 1589. It was ceded to France, 1801, 
and given by Napoleon to his sister Elise, wife of 
prince Bacciochi, who held it from 1805 to 1815, 
when it was restored to the Buoncampagni family, 
subiect to Tuscany. It became part of the kingdom 
of Italy, i860. 

PIPE POLL SOCIETY, founded in 1884 
for printing all extant public records prior to the 
year a.d. 1200. 

PIEACY, Greek pirati, was severely sup- 
pressed by the Romans. Pompey destroyed the 
Cilician pirates, 67 B.C. ; see Buccaneers. Many 
acts of parliament have been passed for the sup- 
pression of piracy ; the latest in 1837. 

PIBiEUS, the port of Athens, was united t° 
the city by two long walls, one erected by Themisto- 
cles, and the other by Pericles, 456 B.C., which were 
destroyed by Lysander, 404 B.C. It was fortified by 
Con on, 393 B.C. The Pirasus was able to contain 
400 Greek vessels. It was occupied by the French 
during the Russian war in 1854. 

PIBMASENS (Bavaria). Here Moreau and 
the French were defeated by the duke of Brunswick 
and the Prussians, 14 Sept. 1793. 

PISA an ancient city in Tuscany, was founded 
about six centuries before Christ, and was favoured 
by the early Roman emperors as a flourishing re- 
public. The citizens took an active part in the 
Italian wars of the middle ages, but became subject 
to Florence, after a long siege, 1405-6. In 1494 
Pisa became independent under the protection of 
Charles VIII. of France, but was retaken by the 
Florentines in 1509. The university was founded 



in 1343, and revived by the Medici in 1472 and 
1542. The rival popes, Benedict XIII. and Gre- 
gory XII., were deposed at a council held at Pisa in 
1409, and Alexander V. elected in their room. The 
Campanile or leaning tower was built about J 1.54,* 
and "the Campo Santo about the same time. Fire 
panic in the cathedral, 9 persons crushed to death, 
21 injured, 29 May, 1897. 

PISCICULTUBE, see Fisheries. 

PISTOLS, the smallest fire-arms, said to have 
been invented at Pistoja in Italy ; were first used by 
the cavalry of England about 1544. Of late years 
they have been made with a revolving cylindrical 
breech, in which are formed several chambers for 
receiving cartridges, and bringing them in succes- 
sion into a line with the barrel ready for firing. 
The earliest model of this kind of arm is to be found 
in the museum of the United Service Institution, 
and is supposed to date from the reign of Charles I. 
An eight- chambered matchlock revolver of the 16th 
century is placed in the Royal Artillery Museum, 
Woolwich. The manufacture of pistols by machinery 
was first introduced into England from the United 
States, America, in the year 1853, by col. Colt, who in- 
vented the Colt revolving pistol, 1851. This system 
of manufacture induced the British government to 
establish the Enfield armoury, in 1855 ; see Fire- 
Arms. 
A pistols hill, restricting the sale and carrying of 

pnstols, read 2nd time (commons) . . 27 Feb. 1895 

PIT BBOW WOMEN, see Coal, 23 June, 
1887. 

PITCAIBN'S ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, 
said to have been discovered by Pitcairn in 1768,, 
seen by Cook in 1773, and since colonised by ten 
mutineers from the ship Bounty, captain Bligh, in 
1789 ; see Bounty. 

The mutineers remained unknown to England until 
discovered accidentally in 1814. A ship nearing the is- 
land was hailed by a swarthy youth iu the English 
language, when it appeared that the mutineers, soon 
after settling there, had married some black women from 
a neighbouring island, and had become a well-conducted 
community under the care of Adams, the principal 
mutineer. He died in 1829, when George Hunn Nobbs, 
an Englishman, who arrived a few years before, became 
chief. In Aug. 1852 admiral Moresby spent a few days 
on the island. By his means Nobbs was sent to England 
and obtained ordination. His death (aged 86) an- 
nounced Jan. 1885. As their numbers increased, the 
island proved incapable of their support. The English 
government removed them, with all their property, in 
the ship Morayshire, on 3 May, 1856, and landed them, after 
a boisterous passage, on Norfolk Island, prepared pre- 
viously for theirreception, 8 J une. The government stocked 
Norfolk Island with 2000 sheep, 450 head of cattle, and 
twenty horses, and gave them stores to last twelve 
months ; their numbers were 96 males and 102 females. 

The island visited by H.M.S. Peterel was found to be 
prosperous, Dec. 1875. Population, 15 Aug. 1879, 93 ; in 
1890, 126. 

Harry Christian sentenced to death for murdering a 
woman' and her children (June, 1S97), reported, 8 Nov. 
1898 ; the Sokota s.s. visited the island, 30 Aug. 1902. 

PITCH, see under Music. 

* The Campanile was erected to contain bells, and 
stands in a square close to the cathedral. It is built en- 
tirely of white marble, and is a cylinder of eight stories, 
each adorned with a round of columns, rising one above 
another. It inclines so far on one side from the perpen- 
dicular, that in dropping a plummet from the top, which 
is 188 feet in height, it falls sixteen feet from the base. 
Some thought this was done purposely by the architect ; 
others attributed it to an accidental subsidence of the 
foundation. From this tower Galileo made his observa- 
tion on gravitation (about 1635). 



PITT ADMINISTRATIONS. 



961 



PLAGUE. 



PITT ADMINISTRATIONS.* The first 
administration was formed on the dismissal of the 
Portland ministry 18 Dec. 1783, and termi- 
nated by resignation in 1801. The second was 
formed 12 May, 1804; and terminated (after various 
changes) by Mr. Pitt's death, 23 Jan. 1806. A 
public funeral was decreed to him, and 40,00x3/. to 
pay his debts. 

ADMINISTRATION OF 1 783. 

William Pitt, first lord of the treasury and chancellor of 
the exchequer. 

Earl Gower, lord president. 

Duke of Rutland, privy seal. 

Marquis of Carmarthen and earl Temple (immediately 
succeeded by lord Sydney), secretaries. 

Lord Thurlow, lord chancellor. 

Viscount Howe, admiralty. 

Duke of Richmond, ordnance. 

William Wyndham Grenville, Henry Dundas, &c. 

IMr. Pitt was joined by the duke of Portland, earl 
Spencer, and other leading whigs in 1794 ; he continued 
minister until 1801. Many changes occurred in the 
ministry in the long period of seventeen years.] 

ADMINISTRATION OF 1804. 

William Pitt, first lord of the treasury. 

Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 

Duke of Portland, succeeded by lord Sidmouth (late Mr. 
Addington), lord, president. 

Earl of Westmorland, lord privy seal. 

Lord Hawkesbury, lord Harrowby (succeeded by lord 
Mulgrave), and earl Camden (succeeded by viscount 
Castlereagh), home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 

Viscount Melville (succeeded by lord Barham), admiralty. 

Duke of Montrose, Mr. Dundas, &c. 

PITTSBURG-, the second city of Pennsyl- 
vania, founded on the site of Fort Duquesne (which 
see) in 1759, and named Fort Pitt, afterwards Pitts- 
burg, in honour of the then British prime minister, 
William Pitt. See United States, July, 1877. The 
exhibition building burnt, 3 Oct. 1883. Population 
in 1880,156,389; 1890,238,617; 1900,321,616. 

Upwards of 100 persons perish by a mining explo- 
sion near here . . . about n Nov. 1888. 

The use of coal as fuel gradually superseded in 
Pittsburg by inflammable gas rising from the 
ground 1884 et seq. 

Strike of about 10,000 railway men and coal-miners 

begins 1 Oct. 1891 

Strike and lock-out of about 3800 men at Messrs. 
Carnegie's steel works at Homestead, near Pitts- 
burg, 29 June ; rioting and conflicts with the 
police, with loss of life on both sides, 6-7 July ; 
•order at last restored at Homestead by the state 
militia and martial law, 26 July ; work gradually 
resumed, Aug. — Nov. ; strike quite over, re- 
ported 21 Nov. 1892 

Plot to poison the non-unionists at Homestead 
discovered ; many deaths, reported about 12 Dec. ; 
several arrests ; Patrick Gallagher, the cook, re- 
vealed the plot, 19 Dec. 1892 ; he is sentenced to 
5 years', Dempsey and Beatty to 7 years', and 
Davidson to 3 years' imprisonment . 4 March, 1893 

Legal proceedings respecting the Homestead riots 
closed 3 June, ,, 

The Carnegie steel mills reopened . . 4 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Andrew Carnegie presents 5000 dollars daily 
to the poor, and orders his mills to be kept run- 
ning during Jan. and Feb. 1894 . . 28 Dec. ,, 

Free library, museum, &c, cost about 1,000,000 
dollars, presented by Mr. Andrew Carnegie, 
dedicated 5 Nov. 1895 

Severe storm and floods, 17 persons drowned, re- 
ported 28 July, 1896 

Mr. Andrew Carnegie gives 5,000,000 dollars to his 
workmen, &c, March, and 400,000^. to Pitts- 
burg . Nov. 1901 

* William Pitt, second son of the great earl of Chatham, 
was born 28 March, 1759; became m.p. 23 Jan. 1782; 
moved for a reform in parliament, 7 May, 1782 ; became 
chancellor of the exchequer, July, 1782 ; died 23 Jan. 
cSo6. 



Steel strike, 35,000 men called out, 1 July ; ends 
in defeat of the men . . . .14 Sept. 1901 

Oil explosion at Sheraden in some naphtha cars, 
20 deaths ; the naphtha escaping caused another 
explosion at Esplenborough, wrecking 3 buildings, 

12 May, 1902 

PITTSBURG LANDING (near Corinth, 
Tennessee). On Sunday, 6 April, 1862, a great 
battle was fought between the American federals 
under Grant and Prentiss, and the confederates 
under Albert Sydney Johnston and Beauregard. 
The latter began the attack and were victorious, 
but lost their able general Johnston. The federals 
were reinforced the next day and renewed the at- 
tack ; the confederates maintained their ground ; 
but soon after retired in good order to Corinth. 
This engagement is also named the battle of Shiloh. 

PITURINE, a new narcotic, said to have been 
discovered in 1882 in Australia. It resembles a 
mixture of opium and tobacco, and is extracted 
from the dried leaves of the Duboisia pituri. 

PIUS IV., CREED OF, see Confessions. 

PLACENTIA (now Piacenza), K. Italy, 
founded by the Romans about 220 B.C. It suffered 
in all the convulsions attending the fall of the em- 
pire and the wars of the middle ages. In 1254 it 
fell under the rule of the family of the Scotti. In 
1302 Alberto Scotto was overcome, and Placentia 
was united to Milan, then ruled by the Visconti. 
On their extinction in 1447, Placentia revolted, but 
was taken by Sforza duke of Milan, and treated 
very cruelly. In 1513 it was given to pope Leo X. 
In 1545 Paul III. gave it with Parma as a duchy to 
his son Peter Louis Farnese. The French and 
Spaniards were defeated by the Austrians and Sar- 
dinians near Placentia, 16 June, 1746; see Parma. 

PLACILLA, Chili (ivhich see). The site of the 
decisive victory of the congressists over president 
Balmaceda, 28 Aug. 1891. 

PLAGUE. The plagues of Egypt (1491 b.c.) 
are described in Exodus ix., &c. The first recorded 
general plague in all parts of the world occurred 
767 B.C. Petavius. At Home a desolating plague 
prevailed, 453 B.C. The devastating plague at 
Athens, which spread into Egypt and Ethiopia, 430 
B.C., is admirably described by Ihucydides. Another 
which raged in the Greek islands, Egypt, and Syria, 
destroyed 2000 persons every day, 187 b.c. Pliny. 
See Cattle. 

At Rome, a most awful plague ; 10,000 persons perished 
daily, a.d. 80. 

Again ravaged the Roman empire, 167, 169, 189. 

Another in the Roman empire. For some time 5000 per- 
sons died daily at Rome ; many towns entirely depopu- 
lated, 250-265. 

In Britain, a plague swept away such multitudes that 
the living were scarcely sufficient to bury the dead, 

43°- 
A long-continued, dreadful one began in Europe in 558, 

extended all over Asia and Africa. 
At Constantinople, when 200,000 of its inhabitants 

perished, and in Calabria, Sicily, and Greece, 746-749. 
In London, 962. 
At Chichester, in England, an epidemical disease carried 

off 34,000 persons, 772. Will. Malms. 
In Scotland 40,000 persons perished, 954. 
In London, great mortality, 1094 ; and Ireland, 1095. 
Again, in London ; it extended to cattle, fowls, and other 

domestic animals, mi. Holinshed. 
In Ireland ; after Christmas this year Henry II. was 

forced to quit the country, n 72. 
Again, in Ireland, when a prodigious number perished, 

1204. 
The " Black Death " in Italy, 1340 

3 Q, 






PLAGUE. 



962 



PLANETS. 



A plague raged throughout Europe, causing extensive 
mortality. Britain and Ireland suffered grievously. 
In London alone 200 persons were buried daily in the 
Charterhouse-yard, 1348-9. (That at Florence described 
by Boccaccio.) 

["The Great Pestilence" (black death), by Francis 
Aidan Gasquet, d.d., an elaborate work, published in 
1894.] 

In London and Paris a dreadful mortality prevailed in 
1361-2, 1367, 1369, and in Ireland in 1370. 

A great pestilence in Ireland, called the Fourth, destroyed 
a great number of the people, 1383. 

30,000 persons perished of a dreadful pestilence in Lon- 
don, 1407. 

Again, in Ireland, superinduced by a famine ; great 
numbers died, 1466 ; and Dublin was wasted by a 
plague, 1470. 

An awful pestilence at Oxford, 1471 ; and throughout 
England, a plague which destroyed more people than 
the continual wars for the fifteen preceding years, 1478. 
Rapin : Salmon. 

The Sudor Anglicus, or sweating sickness, very fatal in 
London, 1485. Delaune. 

The plague in London so dreadful that Henry VII. and 
his court removed to Calais, 1499-1500 Stow. 

The sweating sickness (mortal in three hours), in Lon- 
don, 1506 ; and in 151 7. In most of the capital towns 
in England half the inhabitants died, and Oxford was 
depopulated, 9 Henry VIII. Stow. 

Limerick was visited by a plague, when many thousands, 
perished, 1522. 

The sweating sickness again in England, 1528 ; and in 
North Germany in 1529 ; and for the fifth time in Eng- 
land, in 1551. 

30,578 persons perished of the plague in London alone, 
1603-1604. It was also fatal in Ireland. 

200,000 perished of a pestilence at Constantinople in 
1611. 

In London a great mortality prevailed, and 35,417 per- 
sons perished, 1625. 

In France a general mortality ; at Lyons, 60,000 persons 
died, 1632. 

The plague brought from Sardinia to Naples (being intro- 
duced by a transport with soldiers on board), raged 
with such violence as to carry off 400,000 of the inhabi- 
tants in six months, 1656. 

The Great Plague of London, began Dec. 1664, which 

cari'ied off 68,596 persons ; some say 100,000. Fires 

were kept up night and day to purify the air for three 

days; and it was thought the infection was not totally 

. destroyed till the great conflagration of Sept. 1666. 

[Graphically described by De Foe in his partially imagi- 
native History of the Plague.'] 

" Loimographia : an account of the GreatPlague in 1665," 
by William Boghurst, apothecary, edited by Joseph 
Frank Payne, m.d., from the MS. in the British 
Museum, 1896. 

60,000 persons perished of the plague at Marseilles and 
neighbourhood, brought in ship from the Levant, 1720. 

One of the most awful plagues that ever raged, prevailed 
in Syria, 1760. Abbe Mariti. 

In Persia, a fatal pestilence, which carried off 80,000 of 
the inhabitants of Bassora, 1773. 

In Egypt, about 800,000 persons died of plague, 1792. 

In Barbary, 3000 died daily ; and at Fez 247,000 perished, 
1799 ; in the east, 1800 ; 1840 ; 1873 ; manv deaths in 
Bagdad, &c, April-May, 1876. 

In Spain and at Gibraltar immense numbers were car- 
ried off by a pestilent disease in 1804 and 1805. 

Again at Gibraltar, an epidemic fever much resembling 
' the plague, caused great mortality, 1828. 

The Asiatic cholera (see Cholera) made its first appear- 
ance in England, at Sunderland, 26 Oct. 1831 ; in Scot- 
land, at Haddington, 23 Dec. same year ; and in 
Ireland, at Belfast, 14 March, 1832. 

The cholera again visited Kngland, (fee, 1848 and 1849 (see 
Cholera). 

The cholera raged at Smyrna and Constantinople, and 
appeared in Paris, Marseilles, Naples; July-Dec. 1865. 

A great cattle plague (which, .sec) in England,' resembling 
typhus, near London, begins June, 1865. 

Anew, and hitherto an incurable disease, named black 

death, on account of purple blotches coming out on 

the skin, appeared in Dublin ; many persons of all 

ranks died a few hours after the seizure. March 

■ et seg. 1866. 

Plague in Astracan, Jan. — April, 1879. 

Plague in Hong-Kong (which see), June, July, 1894. 



Plague in Bombay, Karachi (which see), and other paits 
1 of India, Oct. et seq. 1896-8. 
Sanitary conference of the powers, .65 delegates, count 

Bonin elected president, 16 Feb. 1897 ; convention 

signed, 19 March, 1897. 
The commission under prof. Koch issues a report, 

20 July, 1897 ; official report issued, June, 1898. 
Plague in Turkestan, Samarkand, great mortality, Oct.- 

Nov. 1898. 
Plague severe in India, great mortality in Bombay 

(which see), 1898 ; estimated deaths, 600,000, Aug. 1901. 
(Punjaub, 530 deaths, 1899-1900'; 6,399 deaths, 1900— 

1901 ', 200,000 deaths, 1901-02.) 
Plague in Mauritius, 1 899-1903 ; Oporto (which see). 
Dr. Manson reports bubonic plague to be a rat-borne 

disease, and holds their extermination as a preventa- 
tive, Oct. 1899 [disputed by dr. Bruce Low in his 

report of the spread of the disease in the world, 

1898-1901 ; Times, 25 Oct. 1902]. 
Prof. Kitasato of Japan discovers the plague bacillus 

saprophytic, reported, ? 1900. 
Prof. Haft'kine's system of anti-plague inoculation 

successful ; encouraged by government, Feb. 1900. 
Plague at Sydney, spring et scq. 1900 ; total deaths, 103 ; 

town free, 8 Sept. 1900 ; 33 deaths up to 14 May, 

1901. 
Dr. Yersin's anti-plague serum obtained from horses, 

proved successful in Indo-China, Aug. -Oct. 1900. 
Slight outbreak at Glasgow, 7 deaths, 27 Aug.-i4 Nov. 

1900 ; 4 cases, 1 death, 26 Oct. 1901. 
Plague at Cape Town, n Feb. 1901. 
Hong-kong: 113 deaths, week ending 18 May, 1901 ; 

total deaths, 1,509 (11 Europeans) ; subsiding, 24 July ; 

103 deaths, 7-21 June, 1902 ; subsides, reported clear, 

mid Sept. 1902 ; increasing Feb. 915 deaths, 18 April- 

Aug. 1903. 
Oporto : 4 deaths, reported, 26 June, 1901. 
Egypt : 173 cases, 83 deaths, 7 April-7 Oct. 1901 ; 147 

deaths, April-19 July, 1902. 
Plague in Liverpool : 6 deaths, 30 Oct. ; 1 death, 7 Nov. 

1901. 
Plague in Madagascar : 4 deaths, 19-27 May, 1902. 
Plague in Odessa : slight epidemic, Sept.-early Nov. 

1902. 
Plague in Durban : 27 deaths, reported, 26 Jan. 1903. 
Plague in India, Bombay and elsewhere, 600,000 deaths, 

Jan.-Aug. 1903. 

PLAIN-SONG, see Chanting. 

PLAN OF CAMPAIGN (see Ireland), Oct. 
1886. By this plan the tenant of a farm was to pay 
his rent to the National League instead of to the 
landlord, and was to be supported if evicted. It 
was condemned by the pope, 20 April, 1888; given 
up by many tenants throughout the country, and 
disavowed by Mr. Parnell and others, 1890- 1. The 
plan given up by many on the Woodford estate, 
Gal way, Oct. 1891. 

Mr. Dillon stated before the Evicted Tenants com- 
mission that the total amount received from all 
sources for evicted tenants was 234,431!. 4 Jan. 1893 

PLANE. A true plane, most successfully 
obtained by sir Joseph Whitworth. Fine specimens 
exhibited at the Royal Institution in 1873. 

PLANETAEIUM, see Orrery. 

PLANETS. Jupiter was known as a planet to 
the Chinese and the Chaldeans, and inserted in a 
chart of the heavens, made about 600 B.C., and in 
which 1460 stars are accurately described; this chart 
is said to be in the national library at Paris. The 
four satellites of Jupiter discovered by Galileo, 
7 Jan. 1601, see Mars, Saturn. "We now know 
eight primary planets, termed major ; Mercury, 
Venus, the Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, 
Uranus, Neptune ; and secondary or minor, 
situated between the orbits of Mars and Ju- 
piter. The numerical order differs in the lists of 
English, German, and Freuch astronomers. In the 
French and German lists, Aglaia to Pandora are 
numbered 47 to 55 ; Melete is 56. 



PLANETS. 



963 



PLANETS. 



Uranus, formerly called Georglum Sidus and 
Herschel; discovered by W. Herschel (see Geor- 
gium Sidus) . . ■ . . . ■ 13 March, 1781 

Neptune, discovered by Galle(in consequence of the 
calculations of Le Verrier) (see Neptune), 23 Sept. 
1846. It had been theoretically discovered by pro- 
fessor J. Couch Adams of Cambridge . . . 1845 

Vulcan (between Mercury and the Sun), said to be 
discovered by M. Lescarbault, a physician (not 
seen since), 26 March, 1859, and its discovery is 
now generally doubted ; said to have been seen 
by Watson during the solar eclipse (doubted by 
Peters) . . . . . . 29, 30 July, 1878 

A red star seen by M. Trouvelot during the solar 
eclipse, perhaps Vulcan . . . . 6 May, 1883 

Minor Planets (according to Mr. G. F. Chambers, the 
Royal Astronomical Society, and others). 

1. Ceres, discovered by Piazzi visible to the naked 

eye) . . . . . . .1 Jan. 1801 

2. Pallas, discovered at Bremen by Olbers (see 

Pallas) . . .-.•'. .28 March, 1802 

3. Juno, discovered by Harding . . 1 Sept. T804 

4. Vesta, discovered by Olbers . . 29 March, 1807 

5. Astrcea, by K. C. Hencke ... 8 Dec. 1845 

6. Hebe, by the same 1 July, 1847 

7. Iris, by J. R. Hind . ... .13 Aug. „ 
8.- Flora, by the same .... 18 Oct. ,, 
9. Metis, by A. Graham . . . .25 April, 1848 

10. Hygeia, by A. de Gasparis . . 12 April, 1849 
it. Parthenope, by the same . . .11 May, 1850 

12. Victoria, by J. R. Hind ... 13 Sept. ,, 

13. Egeria, by A. de. Gasparis .• . .2 Nov. ,, 

14. Irene, by J. R. Hind ... 19 May, 1851 

15. Eunomia, hy A. de Gasparis . . 29 July, „ 

16. Psyche, by the same . . .17 March, 1852 

17. Thetis, by R. Luther ... 17 April, „ 

18. Melpomene, by J. R. Hind . . 24 June, ,, 

19. Fortuna, by the same . . .22 Aug. ,, 

20. Massilla, hy A. de Gasparis . . 19 Sept. ,, 

21. Lutetia, by H. Goldschmidt . . 15 Nov. ,, 

22. Calliope, by J. R. Hind ... 16 Nov. „ 

23. Thalia, by the same .... 15 Dec. ,, 

24. Themis, by A. de Gasparis . . 5 April, 1853 

25. Phocma, by M. Chacornac . . .6 April, ,, 

26. Proserpine, by R. Luther . . .5 May, ,, 

27. Euterpe, by J. R. Hind ... 8 Nov. ,, 

28. Bellona, by R. Luther . . . 1 March, 1854 

29. Amphitrite, by Mr. Marth . . .1 March, „ 

30. Urania, by J. R. Hind ... 22 July, „ 

31. Euphrosyne, by James Ferguson . 1 Sept. ,, 

32. Pomona, by H. Goldschmidt . . .26 Oct. „ 

33. Polyhymnia,, by M. Chacornac . . 28 Oct. „ 

34. Circe, by the same .... 6 April, 1855 

35. Leucothea, by R. Luther . . .19 April, ,, 

36. Atalanta, by H. Goldschmidt . 19 April, ,, 

37. Fides, by R. Luther .... 5 Oct. ,, 

38. Leda, by M. Chacornac ... 12 Jan. 1856 

39. Lcetitia, by the same .... 8 Feb. ,, 

40. Harmonia, by R. Luther . . 31 March, ,, 

41. Daphne, by H. Goldschmidt . . 22 May, ,, 

42. Isis, by Norman Pogson . . 23 May, ,, 

43. Ariadne, by the same . . .15 April, 1857 

44. Nysa, by H. Goldschmidt . . 27 May, ,, 

45. Eugenia, by the same . . .28 June, ,. 

46. Hestia, by N. Pogson . . 16 Aug. ,, 

47. *Melete, by H. Goldschmidt . . 9 Sept. „ 

48. Aglaia, by R. Luther ... 15 Sept. „ 
49 Doris, by H. Goldschmidt . . 19 Sept. „ 

50. Pales, by the same . . . . 19 Sept. ,, 

51. Virginia, by James Ferguson . . 4 Oct. ,, 

52. Nemausa, by M. Laurent . . .22 Jan. 1858 
53 Europa, by H. Goldschmidt . . 6 Feb. ,, 

54. Calypso, by R. Luther ... 4 April, ,, 

55. Alexandra, by H. Goldschmidt . 10 Sept. ,, 

56. Pandora, by Mr. Searle . . 10 Sept. „ 

57. Mnemosyne, by R. Luther . . 22 Sept. 1859 

58. Concordia, by the same . . 24 March, i860 

59. Danae, by H. Goldschmidt . . 9 Sept. ,, 

60. Olympia, by M. Chacornac . . 12 Sept. ,, 

61. Erato, by MM. Forster and Lessing 14 Sept. ,, 

* It was believed at first to be Daphne, No. 41 ; and 
hence was called "Pseudo-Daphne," when B. Schubert 
proved it to be a new planet. It was not re-discovered 
by M. Goldschmidt till 1 Sept. 1862, when it received its 
present name, that of the Muse of Meditation. 



100. 
101. 
102. 
103. 
104. 
105. 
106. 
107. 
108. 
109. 
no. 
III. 

112. 

"3- 

114. 

US 



Maia, by H. P. Tuttle . 
Asia, by N. Pogson ■ . 
Leto. by R. Luther . 
Hesperia, by M. Schiaparelli 
Panopcea, by H. Goldschmidt 
Feronia, by Peters and Satford 
Niobe, by It. Luther . 
Clytie, by H. P. Tuttle . 
Galatea, by M. Te.mpel 
Eurydice, by C. H. F. Peters 
Freia, by M. dArrest 
Frigga, by C. H. F. Peters . 
Diana, by R. Luther 
Eurynome, by Jas. C. Watson 
Sappho, by N. Pogson 
Terpsichore, by M. Tempel 
Alcmene, by R. Luther 
Beatrix, by A. de Gasparis 
Clio, by R. Luther . 
Io, by C. H. F. Peters . 
Seinele, by F. Tietjen 
Sylvia, by N. Pogson . 
Thisbe, by C. H. F. Peters 
Julia, by M. Stephan . 
Antiope, by R. Luther 
JEgina, by Alphonse Borelly 
Undina, by C . H. F. Peters 
Minerva, by J. C. Watson 
Aurora, by the same 
Arethusa, by R. Luther 
JEgle, by M. Coggia . 
Clotho, by M. Tempel . 
Ianthe, by C. H. F. Peters 
Dike, by A. Borelly . . 
Hecate, by J. C. Watson . 
Helena, by the same 
Miriam, by C. H. F. Peters 
Hera, by J. C. Watson . 
Clymene, by the same 
Artemis, by J. C. Watson 
Dione, by J. C. Watson . 
Camilla, by N. Pogson . 
Hecuba, by R. Luther t . 
Felicitas, by C. H. F. Peters 
Lydia, by Alphonse Borelly 
Ate, by C. H. F. Peters . 
Iphigenia, by C. H. F. Peters 
Amaltlwea, by R. Luther 
Cassandra, by C. H. F. Peters 
Thyra, by J. C. Watson 



62. Echo (orig. Titania), by J. Ferguson 15 Sept. 

63. Amonia, by A. de Gasparis . . 10 Feb. 

64. Angelina, by M. Tempel . . 4 March, 

65. Cybele (orig. Maximiliana), by M. Tempel, 

8 March, 

66. Maia, by H. P. Tuttle ... 9 April, 

67. Asia, by N. Pogson ■ . . . 17 April, 

29 April, 

69. Hesperia, by M. Schiaparelli . 29 April, 

70. Panopcea, by H. Goldschmidt . 5 May, 

71. Feronia, by Peters and Satford . 29 May, 

72. Niobe, by It. Luther . . . -13 Aug. 

73. Clytie, by H. P. Tuttle ... 7 April, 

74. Galatea, by M. Tempel ... 29 Aug. 

75. Eurydice, by C. H. F. Peters . 22 Sept. 

76. Freia, by M. dArrest ... 21 Oct. 

77. Frigga, by C. H. F. Peters . . 12 Nov. 

15 March, 

14 Sept. 
2 May, 

30 Sept. 

27 Nov. 
26 April, 

25 Aug. 

19 Sept. 

4 Jan. 

16 May, 

15 June, 
. 6 Aug. 

1 Oct. 
. 4 Nov. 

7 July, 
24 Aug. 

6 Sept. 
23 Nov. 

17 Feb. 

17 Feb. 

18 April, 

28 May, 
n July, 

15 Aug. 

22 Aug. 
. 7 Sept. 

13 Sept. 

16 Sept. 
10 Oct. 

17 Nov. 
2 April, 

. 9 Oct. 

19 April, 

14 Aug. 
19 Sept. 

12 March, 

23 July, 
. 6 Aug. 

116. Sirond (by R. Luther, 14 Sept.), by C. H. F. 

Peters 8 Sept. 

Lamia, by A. Borelly ... 12 Sept. 
Peitho, by R. Luther . . . . 15 March, 
Althcea, by J. C. Watson . . 3 April, 
Lachesis, by A. Borelly . . .10 April, 
Hermione, by J. C. Watson . . 12 May, 
Gerda, by C. H. F. Peters . . 31 July, 
Brunhilda, by C. H. F. Peters . 31 July, 
Alceste, by C. H. F. Peters. . . 23 Aug. 
Liberatrix, by Prosper Henry . n Sept. 
Velleda, by Paul Henry ... 5 Nov. 
Johanna, by Prosper Henry . . .5 Nov. 
Nemesis, by J. C. Watson . . .25 Nov. 
Antigone, by C. H. F. Peters . . 5 Feb. 
Electra, by C. H. F. Peters . . 17 Feb. 
Veda, by C. H. F. Peters . . 24 May, 
JEthra, by J. C. Watson . . .13 June, 
Cyrene, by J. C. Watson . . 16 Aug. 
Sophrosyne, by R. Luther . . .27 Sept. 
Hertha, by C. H. F. Peters . . 18 Feb. 
Austria, by J. Palisa iS March, 

Melibcea, by J. Palisa ... 21 April, 
Tolosa, by M. Perrotin . . .19 May, 
Juewa, by J. C. Watson ... 10 Oct. 
Siwa, by J. Palisa .... 13 Oct. 
Lumen, by Paul Henry ... 13 Jan. 

Polana, by J. Palisa . . . .28 Jan. 
Adria, by J. Palisa ... 23 Feb. 
Vibilia, by C. H. F. Peters . . 3 June, 



i860 
1861 



1863 



1866. 



1867- 



117. 
118. 
119. 
120, 
121. 
122. 
123. 
124. 
125. 
126, 
127. 
128. 
129. 
130. 

131- 
132. 

133- 
134- 
i3S^ 
136. 

137- 
138. 

I 139' 
140, 
141. 

I x 4 2 ' 
143' 
144. 



1870 
1871. 



1872: 



1874 



•8?5 



t Atropus said to have been discovered by R Luther, 
14 April, 1869. Not observed since. 

3 Q 2 



PLANETS. 



964 



PLANETS. 



145. Adeona, by C. H. F. Peters 

146. Lucina, by A. Borelly . 

147. Protogeneia, by L. Schulhof 

148. Gallia, by Prosper Henry 

149. Medusa, by M. Perrotin 

150. Nuiva, by J. C. Watson . ... 

151. Abundantia, by J. Palisa . 

152. Atala, by Paul Henry 

153. Hilda, by J. Palisa . . . 

154. Bertha, by Prosper Henry 
155- Scylla, by J. Palisa 

156. Xanthippe, by J. Palisa 

157. Dejanira, by A. Borelly 

158. Koronis, by V. Knorre . 

159. Aemilia, by Paul Henry 

160. Una, by C. H. F. Peters . 

161. Athor, by J. C. Watson 

162. Laurentia, by Prosper Henry 

163. Erigone, by M. Perrotin 

164. Eva, by Paul Henry 

165. Loreley, by C. H. F. Peters 

166. Rhodope, by C. H. F. Peters 

167. Urda, by C. H. F. Peters 

168. Sibylla, by J. C. Watson 

169. Zelia, by Prosper Henry 

170. Maria, or Myrrha, by M. Perrotin 

171. Ophelia, by Alphonse Borelly 

172. Baucis, by Alphonse Borelly 

173. Ino, by Alphonse Borelly 

174. Phmdra, by J. C. Watson . 

175. Andromache, by J. C. Watson 

176. Idunna, by C. H. F. Peters 

177. Irma, by Paul Henry . 

178. Belisana, by J. Palisa 

179. Clytemnestra, by J. C. Watson . 

180. Garumna, by M. Perrotin 

181. Eucharis, by Cottenot 

182. Elsa, by J. Palisa . . . . 

183. Istria, by J. Palisa . . . 

184. Deiopeia, by J. Palisa . 

185. Euniks, by C. H. F. Peters 

186. Celuta, by Prosper Henry 

187. Lamberta, by Coggia 

188. Menippe, by C. H. F. Peters 

189. Phthia, by C. H. F. Peters . 

190. Ismene, by C. H. F. Peters 

191. Kolga, by C. H. F. Peters 

192. Nausikaa, by J. Palisa . 

193. Ambrosia, by Coggia 

194. Procne, by C. H. F. Peters 

195. Eurykleia, by J. Palisa . 

196. Philomela, by C. H. F. Peters . 

197. Arete, by J. Palisa 

198. Ampella, by Borelly 

199. Byblis, by C. H. F. Peters 

200. Dynaniene, by C. H. F. Peters 

201. Penelope, by J. Palisa 

202. Chryseis, by C. H. F. Peters . 

203. Pompeia, by C. H. F. Peters 

204. Callisto, by J. Palisa . 

205. Martha, by J. Palisa . 

206. Hersilio, by C. H. F. Peters . 

207. Hedda, by J. Palisa . 

208. Lacrimosa, by J. Palisa . 

209. Dido, by C. il. F. Peters . 

210. Isabella, by J. Palisa 
2ii. Isolda, by J. Palisa . 

212. Medea, by J. Palisa 

213. Lilrea, by C. H. F. Peters 

214. Aschera, by J. Palisa. 
215/ CEnone, by V. Knorre . 

216. Cleopatra, by J. Palisa . 

217. Eudora, by Coggia 

218. Bianca, by J. Palisa 

219. Thusnelda, by J. Palisa 

220. Stephania, by J. Palisa . 

221. JCos, by J. Palisa .... 

222. Lucia, by J. Palisa . 

223. Bosa, by J. Palisa 

224. Oceana, by J. Palisa 

225. Henrietta, by J. Palisa . 

226. Weringia, by J. Palisa 

227. Philosophia, by Paul Henry 

228. Agathe, by J. Palisa . 

229. Adelinda, by J. Palisa . 

230. Athamantis, by L. Pe Ball 

231. Vindobona, by J. Palisa 

232. Russia, by J. Palisa . 



1876 



1877 



. 3 June, 1875 

8 June, ,, 

. 10 July, „ 

7 Aug. „ 
. 21 Sept. ,, 

18 Oct. , 

1 Nov. , 

2 Nov. ,, 

2 Nov. ,, 
4 Nov. ,, 

8 Nov. „ 
22 Nov. ,, 

1 Dec. 
4 Jan. 

26 Jan. 
. 20 Feb. 
18 April, 

21 April, 
26 April, 

12 July, 
. 10 Aug. 
. .17 Aug. 

29 Aug. 
. 27 Sept. 

28 Sept. 

10 Jan. 

13 Jan. „ 
. 5 Feb. „ 

2 Aug. ,, 
. 3 Sept. ,, 

. 1 Oct. ,, 

14 Oct. ,, 
. 5 Nov. ,, 

6 Nov. ,, 

12 Nov. ,, 
29 Jan. 1878 

. 2 Feb. „ 

7 Feb. ,, 

. 8 Feb. „ 

28 Feb. „ 

1 March, ,, 

6 April, ,, 

, 11 April, ,, 

18 June, ,, 

9 Sept. ,, 
22 Sept. ,, 

, 30 Sept. „ 
17 Feb. 1879 

28 Feb. ,, 

21 March, ,, 

22 April, ,, 
. 14 May, , , 

21 May, ,, 

13 June, ,, 
. 9 July, ,, 

27 July, ,, 

7 Aug. ,, 

11 Sept. „ 
. 25 Sept. „ 

8 Oct. „ 
. 13 Oct. „ 

13 Oct. ,, 

. 17 Oct. „ 

si Oct. „ 

. 22 Oct. ,, 

12 Nov. ,, 

. 10 Dec. „ 

6 Feb. 18S0 

. 16 Feb. „ 

1 March, ,, 

. 7 April, ,, 

10 April, „ 

. 30 Aug. „ 

4 Sept. ,, 

. 30 Sept. ,, 

19 May, 1881 
. 18 Jan. 1882 

9 Feb. ,, 
9 March, ,, 

, 30 March, ,, 

19 April, ,, 
19 July, ,, 

. 12 Aug. ,, 

19 Aug. ,, 

. 22 Aug. ,, 

3 Sept. „ 
. 10 Sept. ,, 

31 Jan. 1883 



233. 
234- 
235- 

236. 

237- 
238. 

239- 

-240. 
241. 
242. 

243- 

244. 
245. 
246. 
247. 
248. 
249. 
250. 
251. 
252. 
253- 
254- 
255- 
256- 
257- 
258. 
259- 
260. 
261. 
262. 
263. 
264. 
265. 
266. 
267. 
268. 
269. 
270. 
271. 
272. 

273- 
274. 
275. 
276. 
277. 
278. 
279. 
280. 
281. 
282. 
283. 



286. 
287. 



290. 
291. 
292. 

293- 
294. 
295- 
296. 
297. 
298. 
299. 
300. 
301. 
302. 
3°3- 
3°4- 
3°5- 
306. 

3°7- 
308. 

3°9- 
310. 

3"- 

312. 

3*3- 

3i4- 
3i5' 
316. 
3*7- 
318. 
319. 
320. 



Asterope, by Borelly 
Barbara, by C. H. F. Peters 
Carolina, by J. Palisa . 
Honorki, by J. Palisa 
Cadestina, by J. Palisa . 
Hypatia, by V. Knorre. 
Adrastea, by J. Palisa . 
Vanadii, by Borelly 
Ge.rmania by R. Luther . 
Kriemhild, by J. Palisa . 
Ida, by J. Palisa 
Sita, by J. Palisa 
Vera, by J. Palisa 
Asporina, by Borelly 
Eukrate, by Luther 
Lameia, by J. Palisa . 
Use, by C. H. F. Peters . 
Bettiiw., by J. Palisa . 
Sophia, by J. Palisa 
Clementina, by Perrotin . 
Mathilde, by J. Palisa . 
Augusta, by J. Palisa 
Oppavia, by J. Palisa . 
Walpurga, by J. Palisa 
Silesia, by J. Palisa 
I'yehe, by Luther 
Aletheia, by C. H. F. Peters 
Hubcrta, by J. Palisa 
Prymno, by C. H. F. Peters 
Valda, by J. Palisa . 
Dresda, by J. Palisa 
Libussa, by C. H. F. Peters . 
Anna, by J. Palisa 
Aline, by J. Palisa . 
Tirza, by Charlois 
Adorea, by A. Borelly 
Justitia, by J. Palisa . 
A nahita, by C. H. F. Peters . 
Penthesilea, by V. Knorre . 
Antonia, by Charlois 
Atropos, by J. Palisa . 
I'hilogoria, by J. Palisa . 
Sapientia, by J. Palisa 
Adelheid, by J. Palisa 
Elvira, by Charlois 
Paulina, by J. Palisa 
Thule, by J. Palisa 
I'hilia, by J. Palisa 
Lucre'ia, by J. Palisa 
Clbrinde, by J. Palisa 
Emma, by Charlois 
Amelia, by Charlois 
Regina, by Charlois . 
Idea, by Charlois or J. Palisa 
Nephlhys, by C. H. F. Peters 
Glaukc, by R. Luther 
Nenetta, by M. Charlois 
Bruna, by J. Palisa 
Alice, by J. Palisa 

Ludovica, by J. Palisa . 

Brasilia, by M. Charlois 

Felicia, by M. Charlois . 

Theresa, by J. Palisa . 

Phaetusa, by M. Charlois 

Ccecilia, by M. Charlois 

Baptistitia, by M. Charlois 

Thova, by J. Palisa 

Geraldina, by Charlois 

Bavaria, J. Palisa 

Clarisa, by Charlois . 

Josephine, by prof. Millosevich 

Olga, by J. Palisa 

Gordonia, by Charlois . 

Unites, by prof. Millosevich . 

Nike, by M. Charlois . 

Polyxo, by M. Borelly 

Fratcrnitas, by J. Palisa 

Margarita, by Charlois 

Claudia, by Charlois 

Pieretta, by M. Charlois . 

Chithliiea, by J. Palisa . 

Rosalia, by Charlois . 

Constantia, by Palisa 

Goberta, by Charlois . 

Roxana, by Charlois, 

Magdalena, by Charlois . 

Leona, by Charlois 

Kathariiw, by J. Palisa . 



11 May, 1883 
. 12 Aug. ,, 

28 Nov. ,, 

. 26 April, 1884 

27 June, ,, 
. 1 July, ,, 

18 Aug. „ 
27 Aug. ,, 

. 12 Sept. ,, 

22 Sept. ,, 

. 29 Sept. ,, 

14 Oct. „ 

. 6 Feb. 1885 

6 March, ,, 

14 March, ,, 

. 5 June, ,. 

16 Aug. ,, 
. 3 Sept. ,, 

. 4 Oct. ,, 

. 27 Oct. „ 

12 Nov. „ 
31 March, 1886 
31 March, „ 

. 3 April, ,, 

5 April, ,, 
4 May, ,, 

28 June, ,, 
. . 3 Oct. ,, 

31 Oct. ,, 

3 Nov. ,, 
. 3 Nov. ,, 

22 Dec. ,, 

. 27 Feb. 1887 

17 May, ,, 
27 May, ,, 

9 June, ,, 

21 Sept. ,, 

8 Oct. ,, 

. 16 Oct. ,, 

4 Feb. 1888 
8 March, ,, 

3 April, ,, 

15 April, ,, 

17 April, ,, 

. 3 May, ,, 

16 May, ,, 

. 25 Oct. „ 

29 Oct. „ 

. 31 Oct. „ 

29 May ,, 

. 28 Jan. 1S89 

8 Feb. ,, 

. 3 Aug. ,, 

3 Au S- " 
. 25 Aug. ,, 

20 Feb. 1890 

10 March, ,, 

20 March, „ 

25 April, ,, 

25 April, ,, 

. 20 May, ,, 

15 July, ,, 
. 17 Aug. ,, 

19 Aug. ,, 
. 9 Sept. , , 

9 Sept. ,, 

. 6 Oct. ,, 

3 Oct, ,, 

16 Nov. ,, 
14 Nov. ,, 

. 12 Feb. 1891 

. 14 Feb. ,, 

. 16 Feb. ,, 

. 1 March, ,, 

5 March, ,, 

31 March, ,, 

6 April, ,. 
. 16 May, ,, 

11 June, ,, 

28 Aug. ,, 

30 Aug. ,, 
. 1 Sept, ,, 

4 Sept, ,, 
. 8 Sept. „ 

11 Sept. ,, 

. 24 Sept. ,, 

. 8 Oct. ,, 

. 12 Oct. „ 



PLANETS. 



965 



PLANTAGENET. 



321. 
322. 

3 2 3' 
324- 
325- 
326. 
327- 
328. 
329' 
33°' 



333- 
334- 
335- 
336. 
337- 
338- 
339- 
34°- 
34 1 - 
342- 
343- 
344- 
345- 
346- 
347- 
348. 
349- 
35°- 
351- 
352- 
353- 
354- 
355- 
356. 
357- 
358. 
359- 
360. 
361. 
362. 
363. 
364- 
365- 
366. 
367- 
368. 
369- 
37°- 
37i- 
372- 
373- 
374- 
375- 
376. 
377- 
378. 
379- 
380. 
381. 
382. 
383. 



385- 

386. 
387- 



39i. 
392- 
393- 
394- 
395- 
396- 
397- 



400. 
401. 
402. 

4°3- 

404. 

4°5- 



Florentina, by J. Palisa 
PJueo, by Borelly 
Brncia, by Dr. Wolf 
Bamberga, by Dr. Palisa 
Heidelberga, by Dr. Wolf 
Tamara, by Dr. Palisa 
Columbia, by M. Charlois 
Svea, by Dr. Wolf . 
Gudrun, by Dr. Wolf . 
Adalberta, by Dr. Wolf 



Etheridgea, by Charlois 
Siri, by Dr. Wolf 
Badenia, by Dr. Wolf . 
Chicago, by Dr. Wolf 
Roberta; by Staus . 
Lacadiera, by Charlois 
Devosa, by Charlois 
Boudrosa, by Charlois 
Dorothea, by Dr. Wolf . 
Eduarda, by Dr. Wolf 
California, by Dr. Wolf 
Endymion, by Dr. Wolf 
Ostara, by Dr. Wolf 
Desiderata, by Charlois 
Tercidina, by Charlois . 
Hermentaria, by Charlois 
Pariana, by Charlois . 
May, by Charlois 
Dembowska, by Charlois 
Ornamenta, by Charlois 
Yrsa, by Dr. Wolf 
Gisela, by Dr. Wolf . 
Ruperto-Carola, by Dr. Wolf 
Elennora, by Charlois 
Gabriella, by Charlois . 
Liguria, by Charlois 
Ninina, by Charlois 
Apollonia, by Charlois 

, by Charlois . 
Georgia, by Charlois 
Bonovia, by Charlois . 
Havnia, by Charlois 
Padua, by Charlois 
Isara, by Charlois . 
Cordoba, by Charlois . 
•Vincentina, by Charlois 
Amiciti'-t, by Charlois . 
Haidea, by Charlois 
Aeria, by Borelly 
Modestia, by Charlois 
Bohemia, by Charlois . 
Palma, by Charlois . 
Melusina, by Charlois . 
Burgundia, by Charlois 
Ursula, by Charlois 
Geometria, by Charlois 
Campania, by Charlois 
Holmia, by Charlois 
Huenna, by Charlois . 
Fidiwia, by Charlois 
Myrrha, by Charlois . 
Dodona, by Charlois 
Janina, by Charlois . 
Burdigala, by Courty 

, by Dr. Wilson 
Ilmatar, by Dr. Wolf 
Siegena, by Dr. Wolf . 
Aquitani:i, by Courty 
Charybdis, by Charlois 
Industria, by Charlois 
^ima, by Bigourdan . 

, by Dr. Wolf 
Ingeborg, by Dr. Wolf . 
Wilhehirina, by Dr. Wolf 
Lampetia, by Dr. Wolf 

, by Borelly 
Delia, by Charlois 
JFMia, by Charlois . 
Vienna, by Charlois 

, by Charlois 
Persephone, by Dr. Wolf 

, by Charlois 
Ottilia, by Dr. Wolf . 
Chloe, by Charlois . 
Cyane, by Charlois 
Arsiuoe, by Charlois 
Thia, by Charlois . 



. 15 Oct. 

27 Nov. 

28 Nov. 
25 Feb. 

4 March, 
1 g March, 
22 March, 

18 March, 
21 March, 

(identical with 298) 

19 March, 
1 April, 

19 March, 
22 Aug. 



. 1 Sept. 

19 Sept. 

22 Sept. 
25 Sept. 
25 Sept. 
25 Sept. 
25 Sept. 

17 Oct. 

15 Nov. 

20 Nov. 

23 Nov. 

27 Nov. 
29 Nov. 
29 Nov. 

. 9 Dec. 

14-15 Dec. 

. 16 Dec. 

12 Jan. 
. 16 Jan. 

17 Jan. 
. 20 Jan. 

21 Jan. 
. 11 Feb. 
8 March, 

10 March, 

11 March, 

11 March, 

12 March, 
17 March, 
19 March, 
21 March, 
21 March, 

19 May, 

19 May, 

4 July, 

14 July, 

16 July, 
19 Aug. 

15 Sept. 
18 Sept. 
18 Sept. 

18 Sept. 

20 Sept. 

6 Dec. 
8 Jan. 
8 Jan. 

10 Jan. 
29 Jan. 
29 Jan. 

11 Feb. 
. 30 Jan. 
1 March, 
1 March, 
5 March, 

7 March, 

8 March, 
24 March, 

1 Nov. 
. 1 Nov. 

7 Nov. 
. 7 Nov. 

19 Nov. 
. 30 Nov. 

1 Dec. 
. 19 Dec. 

28 Dec. 
. 23 Feb. 

15 March, 

16 March, 
21 March, 

18 May, 
20 June, 
23 July, 



406. , by Charlois ... 22 Aug. 1895 

407. Arachne, by Dr. Wolf ... 13 Oct. ,, 

408. Fama, by Dr. Wolf . . . .19 Oct. ,, 

409. Aspasia, by Charlois . . . .9 Dec. ,, 

410. , by Charlois ... 7 Jan. 1896 

411. , by Charlois .... 7 Jan. „ 

412. Elisabctha, by Dr. Wolf ... 7 Jan. ,, 

413. Edburga, by Dr. Wolf . . . .7 Jan. „ 

414. , by Charlois . . . 16 Jan. „ 

415. Pcdatia, by Dr. Wolf .... 7 Feb. ,, 

416. Vaticana, by Charlois . . .4 May, ,, 

417. Salvia, by Dr. Wolf . . . .6 May, ,, 

418. Alemannia, by Dr. Wolf ... 3 Sept. ,, 

419. Aureiia, by Dr. Wolf . . . .7 Sept. ,, 

420. Bertholda, by Dr. Wolf ... 7 Sept. ,, 

421. Zdhringia, by Dr. Wolf . . .7 Sept. ,, 

422. Bcrolina, by Witt . . . 8 Oct. ,, 

423. Distima, by Charlois . . . .7 Dec. ,, 

424. Gratia, by Charlois .... 31 Dec. ,, 

425. Cornelia, by Charlois ... 28 Dec. ,, 

426. (same as 188, see above), by Charlois 25 Aug. 1897 

427. , by Charlois . . .27 Aug. ,, 

428. Monachia, by Villiger ... 18 Nov. ,, 

429. , by Charlois . . .23 Nov. ,, 

430. , by Charlois . . . .18 Dec. „ 

431. , by Charlois . . .18 Dec. ,, 

432. Pythia, by Charlois . . . 18 Dec. ,, 

433. Eros, by Charlois .... 16 July, 1898 

434. , by Witt ... 13 Aug. ,, 

434. Hungaria, by Dr. Wolf . . . 11 Sept. ,, • 

435. Ella, 'by Drs. Wolf & Schwassmann n Sept. ,, 

436. Patricia, by Drs. Wolf & Schwassmann, 13 Sept. ,, 

439. Ohio, by Coddington . . . 13 Oct. ,, 

440. Theodora, by Coddington . . . 13 Oct. „ 

437. , by Charlois ... 8 Nov. ,, 

438. , by Drs. Wolf & Schwassmann, 6 Nov. ,, 

441. , by Charlois ... 8 Dec. ,, 

442. Eic/is/eMl byDrs.Wolf & Schwassmann, 15 Feb. 1899 
44^. Photographica, by Drs. Wolf & Schwassman, 

17 Feb. ,, 

444. Gyptis, by Coggia . . . .31 March, ,,. 

445. Edna, by Coddington . . . 2 Oct. ,,. 

446. jEtemitas, by Drs. Wolf & Schwassmann, 27 Oct. „ 

447. Valentine, by Drs. Wolt'& Schwassmann, 27 Oct. ,,. 

448. Natalie, by Drs. Wolf & Schwassmann, 27 Oct. ,,, 

449. Bamburga, by Drs. Wolf & Schwassmann, 

31 Oct. ,, 

450. Brigitta, by 

451. Patientia, by Charlois .... 4 Dec. ,, 

454. Mathesis, by Dr. Schwassmann . 28 March, 1900. 

455. Bruclisalia, by Drs. Wolf & Schwassmann, 

22 May, ,, 

456. , by Drs. Wolf & Schwassmann, 4 June, ,, 

457. Allcghenia, by Dr. Wolf . . . 15 Sept. ,, 

458. H yreynia,\by Wolf and Schwassmann, 21 Sept. ,, 

470. Kilia, by Camera ... 21 April, 1901. 

471. , by Dr. Wolf ... 7 June, ,, 

472. Roma, by Camera ... 12 July, ,, 

475. Ocllo, by Stewart . . . .14 Aug. ,,. 

476. Hedwig, by Dr. Wolf . . . 17 Aug. ,, 

477. Italia, by Dr. Wolf .... 23 Aug. ,, 
i 478. Tergeste, by Camera . . . 21 Sept. ,, 

479. , by Camera ... 12 Nov. ,, 

480. , by Dr. Wolf & Camera . 21 May, 1902- 
487. Venetia, by Camera .... 9 July, „ 
During 1902 43 small planets were discovered. 

The minor planets are very small, being in 
general only a few miles in diameter. They are 
divided into three groups (Mars group, Chief 
group, and Jupiter group) according to their 
mean velocities. 

The rapid discovery of planetoids by photography, 
especially by Wolf and Charlois, in recent years, 
has caused much confusion in records, 1892-1903. 

Eight small planets during May and June dis- 
covered by Wolf and Dugan, reported 1 July, 

1903, provisionally indicated by . . . . 1903 

[Numbers unnamed are uncertain, not having been 
verified.] 

PLANING MACHINE. One for wood was 
constructed by Bramah, about 1802 ; and one for 
iron by Joseph Clement in 1825. 

PLANT AGENET,* House of, to which 

* Fulke Martel, earl of Anjou, having contrived the 
death of his nephew, the earl of Brittany, in order to 



PLANTATIONS. 



966 



PLEADINGS. 



belonged fourteen English kings, from Henry II., 
1 154, to Richard III., 1485 ; see England, Kings. 

PLANTATIONS, see Trade. 

PLASSEY, in Bengal, India, the site of a 
battle fought between the British under Clive and 
the Hindoos under Surajah Uowlah, 23 June, 1757; 
68,000 men were vanquished by 1000 British and 
about 2000 sepoys. The victory laid the foundation 
of our empire in India. 

PLASTEE OF PARIS. Gypsum, sulphate of 
lime, used for moulds, statuary, &c, first found at 
Montmartre, near Paris, whence its name. The 
method of taking likenesses by its use was first 
discovered by Andrea del Verrochio, about 1466. 

PLATA, LA, see Argentine Republic. 

PLATiEA (Bceotia, N. Greece), site of the 
fbattle between Mardonius, commander of the army 
of Xerxes of Persia, and Pausanias, commander of 
the Lacedaemonians and Athenians, 22 Sept. 479 B.C.; 
;the same day as the battle of Mycale. Of 300,000 
Persians scarce 3000 escaped with their lives. The 
•Grecian army, about 110,000, lost but few men. 
The Greeks obtained immense plunder, and were 
■henceforth delivered from the fear of Persian in- 
vasions. Platsea, as an ally of Athens, was destroyed 
by the Thebans, 372 ; and rebuilt by Philip II. after 
'his victory at Chseronea, 338. 

PLATE. In England, plate, with the excep- 
tion of spoons, was prohibited in public-houses by 
statute 8 Will. III. (1696). The celebrated Plate 
act passed in May, 1756. This act was repealed in 
1780. The act laying a stamp-duty upon plate 
passed in 1784; see Goldsmiths' Company. By 
17 & 18 Vict. c. 96 (1854), gold wares were allowed 
to be manufactured at a lower standard ; but a later 
•act excepted marriage rings. — The art of covering 
baser metals with a thin plate of silver, either for 
use or for ornament (plating), said to have been 
invented by a Birmingham spur-maker, who began 
~with making the branches of a pair of spurs hollow, 
and filling the hollow with a slender rod of steel. 
He continued to make the hollow larger and the iron 
thicker, till at last he merely coated the iron spur- 
with silver ; see Electrotype. 

Mr. Wilfred Joseph Cripps' "Old English Plate," a valu- 
able work, containing the researches of Mr. O. Mor- 
gan, published, 1878. His " Old French Plate," 1880. 
Duty on silver plate to be reduced gradually till abolished, 

from 1 June, 1881 ; abolished 17 April, 1890. 
"The Corporation Plate of England and Wales " (illus- 
trated), by Mr. Jewitt and W. H. St. John Hope, 
published, 1895. 
Elizabethan salt-cellar realised 3000?., at Christie's, 
11 Dec. 1902. 

PLATE- WAYS, on ordinary roads for waggons 
carrying gocds, proposed at Liverpool about 1880, 
to supersede railways for cheapness ; not adopted. 

PLATFORM, see Public Meetings. 

PLATINUM, the heaviest of all the metals, 
except iridium. The name originated with the 
Spaniards on account of its silvery colour ; Plata 
signifying silver. It was found in the auriferous 
sand of the river Pinto, in South America, and was 

succeed to the earldom, his confessor sent him, in atone- 
ment for the murder, to Jerusalem, attended by only two 
servants, one of whom was to lead him by a halter to the 
Holy Sepulchre, the other to strip and whip him there, 
like a common malefactor. Broom, in French genet, in 
Latin genista, being the only tough, pliant shrub in 
Palestine, the noble criminal was smartly scourged with 
it, and from this instrument of his chastisement he was 
called Planta-genista , or Plantagenet ; other accounts are 
given. Skinner and Mezemy. 



unknown in Europe until 1741, when don Antonio 
Ulloa announced its existence in the narrative of his 
voyage to Peru. Greig. In its ore have been found 
the metals palladium,' rhodium, osmium, iridium, 
and ruthenium (which see). Platinum was rendered 
malleable and ductile by Dr. Wm. Hyde Wollaston, 
whose processes are described in the Royal Society's 
Bakerian lecture for 1829. He died in 1828, having, 
it is said, gained 30,000^. by his inventions. In 
1859, M. H. Ste.-Claire Deville made known anew 
method of obtaining platinum from its ore, in great 
abundance and purity; and at the international 
exhibition of 1862 was shown a mass worth 3840/., 
weighing 2665 lb., of a metal hitherto considered 
infusible, obtained by his process, employing the 
oxy r -hydrogen flame. See Philosophical Lamp. 
Dode's process for coating iron with platinum to prevent 

rust, shown at Johnson & Matthey's, 11 Jan. 1879. 
Platinotypes, photographic reproductions of pictures, by 
a peculiar process by Mr. F. Hollyer, specimens 
exhibited in the Dudley Gallery, Oct. 1892. 

PLATONIC PHILOSOPHY, the most 

popular of all systems (see Philosophy). Plato's 
dialogues have been termed " Philosophy backed by 
example." He was a disciple of Socrates, 409 B.C., 
and died 347. The leading feature of his mind was 
comprehensiveness. '1'he Cambridge Platonists in- 
cluded Whichcote, Cudworth, John Smith, Henry 
More. 

Professor Jowett's popular translation of " Plato's 
Dialogues " published in 1871 ; 3rd edition, 1893. 

PLATONIC YEAR, the period of time which 
the equinoxes take to finish their revolution, at the 
end of which the stars and constellations have the 
same place with regard to the equinoxes that they 
had at first. Tycho Brahe says that this year or 
period requires 25,816 common years to complete 
it ; Ricciolus computes it at 25,920 ; and Cassini at 
24,800 ; at the end of which time some imagined 
that there would be a total and natural renovation 
of the whole creation. 

PLATTSBURG. A British expedition against 
this place, a town of New York, on Lake Champlain, 
was designed under general sir George Prevost, but 
was abandoned after the naval force of England had 
suffered a defeat in an engagement with the 
Americans, 11 Sept. 1814, when the British 
squadron in Lake Champlain was captured ; see 
United States. 

PLAY-GROUNDS. In 1858 a society was 
established by the earl of Shaftesbury and other 
benevolent persons to provide play-grounds for the 
recreation of adults and the children of the humble 
classes. Ground was liberally offered by the govern- 
ment, and by the marquis of Westminster and 
others; and in 1859 an act of parliament was passed 
to facilitate grants of lands for this purpose, for 
which part of Smithfield was to be reserved. The 
scheme was not successful. 

The Metropolitan Public Garden, Boulevard, and Play- 
ground association formed by lord Brabazon (aft. earl 
of Meath) and others in 1882 has done good service 
in the eaot of London. 
The London -Playing-fields association founded ; very 

active in obtaining places, Feb. et seq. 1890-2. 
Hackney marsh (337 acresj, purchased by the London 
county council and others as a playground for east 
London, opened by sir John Hutton, 21 July, 1894. 

PLAYS, see Drama and Theatres. 

PLEADINGS. In the early courts of judi- 
cature in England, pleadings were made in the 
Saxon language; and in Norman- French from the 
period of the conquest in 1066 until 1362. Pleadings 



PLEBEIANS. 



967 



PLYMOUTH BEETHEEN. 



were ordered to be in English by 36 Edward III. 
1362, and Cromwell extended the rule to all legal 
proceedings 1650. In English law the proceedings 
are the mutual statements of the plaintiff's cause 
of action and the defendant's ground of defence. 

PLEBEIANS, Plebes, or Plebs, the commons 
of Rome, as distinguished from the Patricians', 
see Rome, 494-366 B.C. 

PLEBISCITUM, a term given to a law passed 
by the comitia tributa, an assembly of the Roman 
people in their tribes, first established in 491 ts.c. 
The term has been recently revived in France and 
Italy, and applied to Universal Suffrage {which see). 

PLETHYSMOGEAPH, an apparatus for 
detecting the state of the mind by obsM-vin^ the 
relations of the circulation of the blood from the 
heart to the brain, invented by M. M^ssol, of Turin, 
1882. 

PLEVNA, Bulgaria, 27 miles N.N.W. of Nico- 
(polis; near the river Vid ; the site of very tierce 
conflicts during the Russo- Turkish war, 1877. 

Occupied by the Russians, 6 July, but retaken by 
Osman Pacha, 18 July, and held by him after 
severe combats, with Schildner-Sehuldner, 19, 20 
July ; with Krudener . . . 29-31 July, 1877 

The Russians lost about 2000 killed, 4000 wounded. 
The Russian attack was considered rash, like that 
at Balaclava, and a disastrous check. 
Osman Pacha defeated in a desperate sortie, about 

30 Aug. ,, 
Gen. Seobeleff gained a great advantage by captur- 
ing Lovatz (or Loftcha) ... 3 Sept. ,, 
Siege began, 7 Sept., with an artillery duel lasting 

to 10 Sept. ,, 

Fruitless sanguinary conflicts . ir, 12 Sept. ,, 

Chef ket Pacha carried in reinforcements to Plevna, 

about 22 Sept. ,, 

Todleben takes command of the staff . 28 Sept. ,, 
Plevna completely invested ; reported 8 Nov. ,, 

Russian attacks repulsed . . 12, 15 Nov. ,, 

Osman Pacha, reduced by want of supplies, despe- 
rately endeavours to break out at night, 9 Dec. ; 
surrounded and defeated with great slaughter ; 
■surrenders unconditionally (30,000 prisoners, 128 
officers, 100 guns) .... 10 Dec. ,, 

PLOTS, see Conspiracies and Rebellions. 

PLOUGH. "Thou shalt not plough with an 
ox and an ass together." Deut. xxii. 10 (1451 B.C.). 
The Roman plough is minutely described by Virgil, 
about 31 B.C. Engines to plough grounds, whether 
inland or upland, were patented by David Ramsay 
and Thomas Wildgoose, in 1618; and many im- 
provements in ploughs have been patented since. 
The application of steam power to ploughing was 
patented by John Upton in 1837, and by others since, 
more especially by lord Willoughby D'Eresby, the 
raiarquis of Tweeddale, and the earl of Caithness , 
see Steam-Plough. 
International trial of ploughs, &c, at Haarlem ; prizes 

won by English makers (Howards, Ransomes, &c), 

17-19 Sept. 1879. 

PLOUGH MONDAY, in January, the first 
Monday after the Epiphany. It received the appel- 
lation from its having been fixed upon by our fore- 
fathers as the day upon which they returned to the 
duties of agriculture after enjoying the festivities 
of Christmas. Ashe. On Plough Monday, too, 
the ploughmen of the north country used to draw 
a plough from door to door and beg plough money 
to drink. Bailey. 

On Plough Monday, the lord mayor of London holds 
annually at Guildhall a grand court of wardmote, 
at which the election of the common council and other 
officers on St. Thomas' day, 21 Dec, is confirmed. 



PLUM. We have two native plums ; our finer 
kinds came from Italy and Flanders about 1522. 
The Diospyros Lotus, the date plum, was brought 
from Barbary, before 1596; the Pishamin plum, 
Diospyros virginiana, from America, before 1629. 
Formerly damsons, apricots, and peaches went by 
this name, as raisins do to this day. 

PLUMBAGO, see Graphite. 

PLUMBEES. The company is dated 161 1. 
A bill for their registration introduced into the 
commons in 1894; withdrawn, 15 Aug. 1894; 
passed, 10 March, 1902. 

PLUEALITIES. Clergymen have been re- 
strained from holding more than one benefice by- 
several statutes; the first being 21 Henry VIII. 
1529. In 1838 an act was passed prohibiting the 
holding of more than two benefices except they were 
at a distance less than ten miles; and the law on 
this subject was still further amended in 1850, 1855, 
and 1885, provisions being made for the amalgama- 
tion of neighbouring benefices. See Electors. 

PLUEAL NUMBEE, see We. 

PLUS ( + ) AND MINUS (— ). Professor De 
Morgan attributes these signs to either Christopher 
Rudolf, who published a book on algebra about 1522, 
or Michael Stifelius, about 1544. 

PLYMOUTH, a fortified seaport in Devon- 
shire, originally Sutton, was incorporated as Ply- 
mouth in 1439. It was in 1588 the rendezvous of 
the English fleet of 120 sail under Howard, Drake, 
&c, which pursued the Spanish armada. The fine 
hotel and assembly-rooms were burnt 6 Jan. 1863; 
loss about 50,000/. The National Association for 
Social Science met here, Sept. 1872. See Armada, 
1888, 1830, Breakwater, and Population. 
Plymouth dock constructed, about 1689, named Devonport 
1824, is now a great naval arsenal extending nearly 
4 miles along the Hamoaze. It has two m.p.'s. 
The new guildhall was opened by the prince of 

Wales 13 Aug. 1874 

New wing to British female orphan asylum (esta- 
blished about 1834), founded by the duke of Edin- 
burgh 7 Oct. „ 

Art and industrial exhibition opened . 23 May, 1881 
Tercentenary of the birth of sir Francis Drake 

celebrated, statue up veiled . . .14 Feb. 1884 
Royal Agricultural shows, 1865 . 23-27 June, 1890 

The duke of Edinburgh appointed commander-in- 
chief at Devonport, assumes command . 4 Aug. ,, 
Two fishing-boats, Sunbeam and Alonzo, sunk by 
firing from the gunboat Plucky, one man drowned, 
30 Oct. Court martial ; lieut. Sydney R. Free- 
mantle acquitted of negligence, 24-27 Nov. Com- 
pensation made to the sufferers . . Dec. 1891 
Destructive fire at Devonport dockyard 16 June, 1894 
Great fire at Messrs. Tuckett & Co.'s confectionery 

works, estimated loss 2o,ooo7. . . 28 Nov. ,, 
An official dinner given to the Austrian squadron 

by admiral sir Algernon Lyons . . 28 June, 1895 
Visit of the Spanish fleet, see Spain 20 July, „ 

Palace theatre of varieties opened . . 23 Dec. 1898 
A system of electric lighting and tramway traction 

inaugurated 22 Sept. 1899 

Sir Red vers Buller receives the freedom, n April, 1901 
Visit of the king and queen, see Navy, 8, 10 March, 1902 
Messrs. Spooner's and other buildings burnt down, 

14 June, ,, 
Lady Butler lays the first stone for a memorial to 
prince Christian Victor and others who fell in 
the South African war .... 4 Aug. ,, 

Fire in the Great Western docks ; estimated 
damage, 20,000?.. . . . . 25, 26 Jan. 1903 

Launch of battleship King Edward VII. at Devon- 
port by the princess of Wales . . 23 July, ,, 

PLYMOUTH BEETHEEN, a body of 
Christians calling themselves " the Brethren," first 



PNEUMATIC DESPATCH CO. 968 



POISONING. 



appeared at Plymouth about 1830. In 1 85 1 they 
had 132 places of worship in England and Wales. 
They object to national churches as too latitudi- 
narian, and to other dissenters as too sectarian. 
They receive into communion all who confess Christ, 
and own the Holy Ghost as his vicar. Their doc- 
trines agree with those of most evangelical pro- 
testant churches, but they recognise no order of 
ministers. Mr. Darby, regarded as their founder, 
afterwards separated from them with some ad- 
herents. 

PNEUMATIC DESPATCH COMPANY, 

to convey letters and parcels through tubes by means 
of atmospheric pressure and a vacuum. The com- 
pany's act was passed 13 Aug. 1859, and tubes were 
laid down in Threadneedle-street on 12 Sept. i860 ; 
and on 20 Aug. 1861, successful experiments were 
performed at Battersea. In 1862 tubes were laid 
down from the Euston railway station to the N.W. 
post-office in Camden-town, and on 21 Feb. 1863, 
the conveyance of the mail-bags began. In Oct. 

1865, tubes had been laid down between Euston 
railway and Holborn; and on 7 Nov. several persons 
travelled in them. Engineer, Mr. Rammell. The 
company stopped through insufficient support, 1876. 
A pneumatic tube by Siemens, employed to trans- 
mit telegraphic messages, began about Jan. 1871. 

PNEUMATIC LOOM, in which compressed 
air is the motive power, invented by Mr. Harrison, 
was exhibited in London in Dec. 1864. A company 
was formed to bring it into general use. Pneu- 
matic tyre company, see Velocipede, 1896. 

PNEUMATICS, the science which treats of 
the mechanical properties of air and gases; see Air 
and Atmospheric Railways. 

PODESTA (from potesias, power), an Italian 
governor, afterwards a judge ; one with supreme 
authority was appointed at Milan by the emperor 
Frederick I., when he took the city in 1 158. 

PODOLL (Bohemia), the site of a severe con- 
flict between the Austrians and a part of the army 
of prince Frederick Charles of Prussia, 26 June ; 

1866. The Prussians had the advantage. 

PODOSCAPHE, see Canoe. 

POET-LAUEE ATE. Selden could not trace 
the precise origin of this office. 

Warton, in his History of English Poetry, states that in 
the reign of Henry III. there was a Versificator Regis, 
to whom an annual stipend was first paid of 100s. 

Chaucer, on his return from abroad, assumed the title 
of poet-laureate; and in the twelfth year of Richard II., 
1389, lie obtained a grantof an annual allowance of wine. 

In the reign of Edward IV., John Kay was laureate; 
Andrew Bernard was laureate, temp. Henry VII. ; and 
John Skelton, lemp. Henry VIII. 

James I. in 1615 granted to his laureate a yearly pension 
of 100 marks ; and in 1630, this stipend was augmented 
by letters patent of Charles I. to 100I. per annum, with 
:ni additional grant of one tierce of Canary Spanish 
wine to be taken out of the king's store of wine yearly. 
We believe that on Souther's appointment the tierce of 
Canary wine was commuted for 27/. 

Laurence Eusdcn commenced a series of Birth-Day and 
New Year's Odes, which continued till the death of 
Pye, in 1813. 

On the death of Warton its abolition was recommended 
by Gibbon, whose elegant compliment on the occasion 
still more forcibly applied on Wordsworth's death, in 
1850 — "This is the best time for not filling up the office, 
when the prince is a man of virtue, and the poet just 
departed was a man of genius. " 

POF.TS-LAUREATE. 

Edmund Spenser, died 1599. 

Samuel Daniel, died 1619. 

Ben Jousou (born 1574), died 1637. 



Sir William Davenant, 1637 ; died 1668. 

John Dry den, 1670 ; deposed at the revolution, 1688. 

Thomas Shadwell, 1688 ; died 1692. 

Nahum Tate, 1692 ; died 1715. 

Nicholas Rowe, died 1718. 

Rev. Laurence Eusden, 1718 ; died 1730. 

Colley Cibber, 1730; died 1757. 

William Whitehead (on the refusal of Gray), 1757 ; died 

1785- 
Rev. Dr. Thomas Warton (on the refusal of Mason), 1785 ; 

died 1790. 
Henry James Pye, 1790 ; died 1813. 
Dr. Robert Southey (on the refusal of Scott), 1813 ; died 

21 March, 1843. 
William Wordsworth, 1843 ; died 23 April, 1850. 
Alfred (aft. lord) Tennyson (born 1809), installed 1850 ; 

died, 6 Oct. 1892. 
Alfred Austin, 1896. 

POETEY. The song of Moses on the deliver- 
ance of the Israelites, and their passage through the 
Red Sea, 1491 B.C. {Exodus xv.). Ancient Egyptian, 
poetry still extant. Orpheus of Thrace was deemed 
the inventor of poetry amongst the Greeks; see 
Epics, Odes, Satire, Comedy, Tragedy, Sonnets r 
Ballads, Hymns, and Verse. Mr. Courthope's 
" History of English Poetry," vol. I.j published, 
May, 1895. Vol. II., June, 1897. 

POICTIEES (W. France), near which -was- 
fought the battle between Edward the Black Prince 
and John, king of Fi-ance, in which the English 
arms triumphed, 19 Sept. 1356. The standard of 
France was overthrown, many of her nobility slain, 
and her king was taken prisoner, and brought to- 
London ; see Tours and Vougle. 

POISONING. A number of Roman ladies- 
formed a conspiracy and poisoned their husbands. 
A female slave denounced 1 70 of them to Fabius- 
Maximus, who ordered them to be publicly exe- 
cuted, 331 B.C. It was said that this was the 
first public knowledge they had of poisoning at 
Rome. Poisoning was made petty treason in Eng- 
land, and was punished by boiling to death (of 
which there are some remarkable instances), 23, 
Henry VIII. 1531 ; see Boiling to deuth. The 
frequency of cases of poisoning by means of arsenic, 
in England, caused the British legislature to pass 
a law rendering the sale of arsenic difficult (14 
Vict. c. 13, 6 June, 1851). Thesale of poison is now 
regulated by the Pharmacy act of 1868. Additional 
restrictions by act passed in 1885. The Poisoned 
Grain Prohibition Act passed 28 July, 1863. 
A deadly poison, freely administered by Italians in the 
seventeenth century, was called aqna tofana, from the- 
name of the woman Tofania, who made and sold it in 
small flat vials. She carried on this traffic for half a 
century, and eluded the police ; but, on being taken, 
confessed that she had been a party in poisoning 600 
people. Numerous persons were implicated by her, 
aud many of them were publicly executed. All Italy 
was thrown into a ferment, and many fled, and some 
persons of distinction, on conviction, were strangled! 
ia prison. It appeared to have been chiefly used by 
married women who were tired of their husbands. 
Four or six drops were a fatal dose ; but the effect was 
not sudden, and therefore not suspected. It was as 
clear as water, but the chemists have not agreed about its 
real composition. A proclamation of the pope described 
it as aquafortis distilled into arsenic, and others con- 
sidered it as a solution of crystallised arsenic. 
Between 1666 and 1676, the marchioness de Brinvilliers 
poisoned her father and two brothers and many others. 
She was executed, 16 July, 1676. 
W. Palmer was executed in 1856, and Miss M. Smith tried 
in 1857, for poisoning ; see 'Trials. Catherine Wilson, 
a noted poisoner, was executed on 20 Oct. 1862. 
Edward William Pritchard, M.D., was executed at. 
Glasgow, 28 July, 1865, for the slow murder of his wife 
and her mother by antimony. 
Nov. 1858, 17 persons died at Bradford through eating 
sweetmeats in which arsenic had been mixed by 



POITOU. 



969 



POLAND. 



mistake. Mr. Hodgson, a chemist, was tried for homi- 
cide, and acquitted. 

Weltinann, a bookbinder at Posen, poisoned 4 wives and 
2 children, about 1859. 

Christiana Edmunds, of Brighton, was convicted of 
murdering a child by poisoned sweetmeats ; other per- 
sons barely escaped (sentence remitted on the ground 
of insanity), 16 Jan. 1872. 

Mary Ann Cotton, imprisoned Oct. 1872, suspected of 
poisoning 16 persons, principally children ; convicted 
of poisoning her child, 7 March ; executed at Durham, 
24 March, 1873. 

About 25 wives convicted of poisoning their husbands 
at Gross Bedskereh in Hungary ; Theckla Popav was 
said to be the head of the conspiracy, Aug. 1882. 

Catharine Flanagan and Margaret Higgins (sisters) con- 
victed of poisoning Thomas Higgins, to obtain insur- 
ance money, 9 Feb. ; other charges not tried ; they 
confessed, and were executed, 3 March, 1884. 

Mad. Van Der Linden convicted of many poisonings at 
Leyden, 3 May, 1885. 

Albert Pel poisoned mother, wife, mistress, and others, 
1872 et seq. ; convicted at Paris 13 June ; penal servi- 
tude, 14 Aug. 1885. 

Dr. Philip Cross convicted at Cork of poisoning his wife 
with arsenic and strychnine 17 Dec. 1887 ; executed 
10 Jan. 1888. 

Mrs. Maybrick charged with the murder of her husband 
James Maybrick by poisoning with arsenic, 6 June, 
1889 ; she was tried before Mr. justice Stephen at 
Liverpool, and convicted 31 July — 7 Aug. ; sentence 
of death commuted to penal servitude for life, 
22 Aug. 1889. 

Ten women tried at Mitrowitz in Hungary for 
poisoning their husbands with arsenic, 30 June ; 
four sentenced to death, four to penal servitude, 
and two acquitted 5 July, 1890 

Poisoning at a wedding breakfast at Louisville, 
U.S.A. ; 3 persons died ... 18 April, 1891 

Thomas Neill, alias Cream, see Trials . Oct. 1892 

Martha Needle, executed at Melbourne for poison- 
ing her husband, children, and lodger 22 Oct. 1894 

Mdine. Joniaux sentenced to death"' for poisoning 
3 relatives, see Belgium .... Feb. 1895 

Hermann Springstein and his sister, Mdme. Bock, 
sentenced to death at Prenzlau for poisoning 
several relatives whose lives had been insured, 

5 Nov. ,, 

Four women sentenced to death for poisoning hus- 
bands and relatives, Budapest . . 2 July, 1897 

Walter Horsford executed (Cambridge gaol) for the 
murder of Annie Holmes by strychnine, at St. 
Neots 2 8 June, 1898 

Valentine Lebeau (Mdme. Bianchini) sentenced to 
S years' imprisonment for attempting to poison 
her husband (10 May, 1898) ; (believed by him 
to be innocent) 7 March, 1899 

Mary Ann Ansell, 21, executed at St. Albans for 
the murder of her sister by sending her poisoned 
cake 19 July, ,, 

Edward Bell poisoned his wife by strychnine ; 
executed 25 July, ,, 

Severino Klosowski executed at Wandsworth for 
poisoning Maud Marsh by antimony . 7 April, 1903 
See Bravo case. 

POITOU, an ancient province, W. France, part 
of the dowry of Eleanor, queen of Henry II. of 
England, 1151. It partook of the fortunes of Aqui- 
taine. 

POL A (Illyria), a very ancient city, where 
Augustus founded the colony Pietas Julia, which 
flourished during the empire. Oft'Pola, the Genoese 
fleet, under Doria, defeated the Venetians under 
Pisani, 5 or 6 May, 1379, with great loss. 

POLAND (N.E. Europe), part of ancient Sar- 
matia. It is said to have become a duchy under 
Lechus or Lesko I. 550; and a kingdom under 
Boleslaus, about 992. '1 he natives belong to the great 
Sclavonic family. The word Pole, from Poliani, 
is not older than the loth century. Population of 
tne kingdom of Poland (Russian) in 1857 was 
4,789,379 ; in 1867, 5,705,607 ; in 1872, 6,528,017 ; 



in 1885, 7,416,958 ; in 1890, 8,256,562. 9 Feb. 

1897, 9,442,590. 

Piastus, a peasant, is elected to the ducal dignity, 

about 842 
[Piastus is said to have lived to the age of 120, and 
his reign to have been so prosperous that suc- 
ceeding native sovereigns were called Piasts.] 
Introduction of Christianity . . . about 992 
Boleslas II. murders St. Stanislaus, the bishop of 
Cracow, with his own hands, 1079 ; his kingdom 
laid under an interdict by the pope, and his sub- 
jects absolved of their allegiance .... 1080 
He flies to Hungary for shelter ; but is refused it 
by order of Gregory VII., and at length kills 
himself or dies in a monastery . . . . . 1083 

Tartar invasion 1241 

Premislas assassinated 1296 

Louis of Hungary elected king .... 1370 

Ladislas VI. defeated and slain by the Turks at 

Varna ^^ 

War against the Teutonic knights . . . 1410 ; 1.147 
The Wallachian invaders carry off 100,000 Poles, 
and sell them to the Turks as slaves . . . 1498 

The Wallachians defeated 1532 

Splendid reign of Sigismund II 154S 

Lithuania incorporated with Poland . . . 1569 
Stephen forms a militia composed of Cossacks, on 

whom he bestows the Ukraine 1575 

Poland conquered by the Swedes and Russians, 

1634 et seq^ 

Recovered its independence 1660 

Abdication of John Casimir 166S 

Victories of John Sobieski over the Turks at Vienna 1683 
Many protestants killed after an aftray at Thorn . 1724 

Stanislaus abolishes torture 1770 

An awful pestilence destroys 250,000 persons . . ,, 
Civil war so weakened the kingdom that it fell an 

easy prey to Russia, Austria, and Prussia . . 1772 
The first partition treaty . . -17 Feb. ,, 

The public partition treaty, 5 Aug. ; acted on, 18 Sept. ,, 
A new constitution granted by the king 3 May, 1791 

The Russians, <fec., on various pretexts enter 

Poland 1792 

S'xond partition treaty signed 179,3; 

Insurrection under Kosciusko . . . March, 1794 
After many successes he is defeated by the Russians 

at Maciejovice and taken prisoner . 10 Oct. ,, 

Warsaw and Praga sacked by Suwarrow . 9 Nov. ,, 
Courland is annexed to Russia >- . . . 1795 

Stanislaus resigns his crown at Grodno ; final par- 
tition of his kingdom . . . 25 Nov. ,, 
Kosciusko set at liberty .... 25 Dec. 179& 

He arrives in London 30 May, 1797 

The Poles enter the French army and greatly help 

to gain their victories .... 1797 et seq. 

Stanislaus dies at St. Petersburg . . 12 Feb. 1798 

Napoleon I. enters Warsaw ; his army wintered in 

Poland 1806-7 

The Poles neglected by the treaty of Tilsit (which 

see) 7 July, 1807 

General diet at Warsaw .... June, 1812 
The central provinces (the duchy at Warsaw, be- 
tween 1807 and i8i3)made the kingdom of Poland 
under Alexander of Russia . . .30 April, 1815 
New constitution granted and Cracow declared to 
be a free republic .... 27 Nov. ,, 

Polish diet opened Sept. 1820 

A revolution at Warsaw ; the army declare in 

favour of the people .... 29 Nov. 1830. 
The diet declares the throne vacant . . 25 Jan. 1831 
Battle of Grochow, near Praga ; the Russians lose 
7000 men ; the Poles, who keep the field, 2000, 

19, 20 Feb. , y 
Battle of Wawz (which see) . . 31 March, ,,. 
Insurrection in Wilna and Volhynia . 3 April, ,„ 
Russians defeated at Zelicho, 6 April; Seidlece, 

10 April ; at Ostrolenka . . . 26 May, t> 
The Russian general Diebitsch dies . . 10 June, ,, 
Battle of Wilna; Poles defeated . . 19 June, ,, 
Grand-duke Constantine dies . . . 27 June, ,,. 

Battle of Minsk 14 July, ,, 

Warsaw taken by Russians ... 8 Sept. , v 
The insurrection suppressed . . . .5 Oct. ,„ 
Ukase issued by the emperor Nicholas, decreeing 
that the kingdom of Poland shall henceforth 
forman integral part of the Russian empire, 

26 Feb. 1832 



POLAND. 



970 



POLAND. 



Attempted revolution in Austrian Poland,* 

22-27 Feb. 1846 
The courts of Austria, Russia, and Prussia revoke 
the treaty of 18 15, which constituted Cracow a 
free republic, and it is declared Austrian terri- 
tory 16 Nov. ,, 

(This annexation was protested against by England, 

France, Sweden, and Turkey.] 
The kingdom of Poland declared a Russian pro- 
vince May, 1847 

Great popular demonstration in commemoration of 

the tattle of Cracow .... 25 Feb. 1861 

Six members of the Royal Agricultural society 

killed by the military .... 27 Feb. „ 
Oreat excitement at their funeral ; many citizens 
put on mourning; an address to the emperor 
Alexander signed by 60,000 persons ; mild conduct 
of prince Gortschakoff, the governor 1-7 March, ,, 
Mukhanoff, curator of Poland, who had written a 
circular exciting the peasantry against their 
lords, quits Warsaw, which is illuminated in con- 
sequence 17 March, ,, 

The government promises reforms and the re-estab- 
lishment of Poland as a separate kingdom ; yet 
abolishes the Agricultural society . . 7 April, .,, 
Great meeting in consequence ; which is dispersed 
by the military (now 32,000 strong) ; above 100 are 

killed and wounded 8 April, „ 

Great agitation in the rural districts ; the Russian 
officials quit Lublin ; general Chruleff marches 

thither April, ,, 

So,ooo soldiers in Poland ; reign of terror in War- 
saw May, „ 

Death of prince Gortschakoff, lieut. -general of Po- 
land 30 May, „ 

New administrative council appointed . June, ,, 
Death of prince Adam Czartoryski at Paris, aged 91, 

15 July, ,, 
Oppressive regulations issued respecting dress . ,, 
Fresh disturbances ; Warsaw put in a state of siege, 

Oct. „ 
Military arrests in churches in Warsaw ; they are 

closed by the priests . . . -17 Oct. „ 
The governor, count Lambert, leaves Warsaw, 

23 Oct. ,, 
General Gerstenzweig, the military governor, assas- 
sinated 25 Oct. ,, 

Bialobzeski, catholic archbishop of Warsaw, ar- 
rested, 19 Nov. ; tried and condemned to death 
as a rebel for closing the churches [he died shortly 

after] 18 Dec. „ 

The new archbishop Felinski exhorts the Poles to 

submission 15 Feb. 1862 

Eigour of the government relaxed ; amnesty granted 

to 89 convicted political prisoners . 29 April, ,, 
Attempted assassination of Wielopolski, a liberal 

Pole, president of the council . . 7 Aug. ,, 
The grand-duke Constantine appointed governor, 
28 May ; begins with lenient policy, but his life is 
attempted by Jaroszynsky, 3 J uly, who is executed, 

21 Aug. ,, 
Count Zamoyski, an eminent loyal Pole, exiled for 
presenting to the government the report of a 
meeting of nobles at Warsaw, for which he had 
been asked Sept. ,, 

* On 22 Feb. 1846, an Austrian force under general 
Collin, which had entered Cracow on the approach of 
armed bands of peasantry, was attacked and driven out 
of the town. A provisional government was then pro- 
claimed by the insurgents, and two days afterwards they 
crossed the Vistula, expecting to be joined by the pea- 
santry of Gallicia, who were solicited by the nobles and 
clergy to strike a blow in the cause of liberty. The 
Austrian government, in order to prevent this junction, 
excited in the peasantry a suspicion of the motives of 
the nobles, and offered a reward for every noble de- 
livered up, alive or dead : a general massacre of the 
nobility and clergy in the circle of Tarnow followed: the 
insurgents from Cracow were defeated at Gdow, whence 
they retreated to Podgorze, a suburb of Cracow ; here 
they were attacked by general Collin, and driven into 
Cracow on the 27th of February. The forces of the three 
powers then began to concentrate on Cracow ; the people 
in the town opened negotiations with the Austrian* about 
a surrender, and while these were going on a Russian 
corps entered the town without esistance, and soon 
afterwards the revolution was d. 



Telkner, the chief of the secret police, found mur- 
dered ... 9 Nov. 1862 

Severe military conscription without notice, 14 Jan. 1863 

Insurrection in the night ; at Warsaw . 22 Jan. ,, 

Many Russians murdered ; Poland put in a state of 
siege ........ 24 Jan. ,, 

The Polish provisional government issues its first 
proclamation 2 Feb. ,, 

Louis Mieroslawski announces himself as head of 
the Poles, 19 Feb. ; his band defeated and dis- 
persed 23 Feb. ,, 

Marian Langiewicz declared dictator of Poland, 
10 March ; after several defeats he enters the 
Austrian territory, is detected and imprisoned, 

19 March, ,, 

The insurrection becomes general, and is supported 
by the landed proprietors, Feb. ; successful 
guerilla warfare . . . March and April, , , 

The secret central committee assumes the supreme 
command March, ,, 

The czar offers an amnesty to all who lay down 
arms before 13 May ; rejected . . 12 April, ,, 

European intervention on behalf of Poland, 
17 April, &c. ; firmly replied to by the Czar, 

26 April, &c. „ 

The secret committee (as a provisional government) 
levies taxes, 3 May, and forbids payment of taxes 
to Russia 9 May, ,, 

8o,ooo£. taken from the Russian treasury at Warsaw 
for the provisional government, 12 June ; the 
Poles claim the Poland of 1772 . . 26 June, ,, 

Fruitless intervention of European powers ; san- 
guinary rule of Mouravieff at Wilna . June, ,, 

General Berg replaces the marquis de Wiepolski, as 
lieut. -gen., and governs with great rigour, 7 July, ,, 

Unsuccessful invasion of Volhynia by the Poles, 
under Wysocki and Horodyeki, 1 July ; Felinski, 
the R. C. archbishop of Warsaw, banished, July ; 
frequent conflicts with varying results ; many 
captured priests and nobles executed . . Aug. ,, 

Lelewel, a brave Pole, after several victories, killed 
in battle 6 Sept. ,, 

Earl Russell decides against armed intervention, 
Aug. : negotiation ceases . Sept. ,, 

Gen. Berg fired at from the Zamoyski hotel, War- 
saw, 19 Sept. ; the hotel destroyed . . Sept. ,. 

Many eminent Poles executed, Oct. ; Wm. Alger, 
an Englishman, shot at Warsaw for making 
grenades ; the Hotel de ville fired . 9 Oct. ,, 

Mourning forbidden to be worn for the Poles at 
Warsaw, 27 Oct. ; 41 ladies arrested at night, 

3 Nov. ,, 

The Times correspondent expelled from Warsaw, 

27 Nov. ,, 

The abbe Machiewicz, a warlike priest, venerated 
as a martyr, hanged .... 28 Dec. ,, 

Mouravieff rules Lithuania with great rigour, Dec. ,, 

Numerous skirmishes, and many executions of 
prisoners captured by the Russians ; the insurrec- 
tion gradually dying out . . Jan. -April, 1864 

The pope promulgates an arrogant encyclical letter 
to the Polish church .... 30 July, ,, 

Romuald Traugott, once a Russian colonel, head 
of the Polish provisional government, since Oct. 
1863, and five others, hanged . . 5 Aug. ,, 

Decree for reorganising education at Warsaw, 
founding a university, &c. . . * . 11 Sept. ,, 

The secret provisional government, after stating 
that 50,000 men had been slain, and 100,000 ex- 
iled to Siberia, still calls on the Poles to begin a 
"national war" 21 Sept. ,, 

Many Roman Catholic convents closed for partici- 
pating in the insurrection . . . Nov. , , 

Further measures for denationalising Poland 
adopted Deo. ,, 

The ex-dictator Langiewicz released by the Aus- 
trians and sent to Switzerland [he died May, 1887] 

Feb. 1865 

The abbe Stanislas Bizoski and his lieutenant cap- 
tured and executed .... 23 May, ,, 

Estates of suspected sympathisers with rebels 
ordered to be sold 22 Dec. ,, 

Church property appropriated by the government ; 
the clergy to be paid by the state . . 9 Jan. 1866 

Military government ceases, and state of siege par- 
tially raised 17 Feb. , 

Count Goluchowski, a Pole, made governor of 
Gallicia Oct. ,, 



POLAND. 



971 



POLAE CLOCK. 



Insurrection of Polish exiles in Siberia, soon sup- 
pressed, July ; many executed . . Nov. 1866 

Decree abolishing all political distinctions of Po- 
land as a kingdom 19 Dec. ,, 

Promulgated 5 Jan. 1867 

Amnesty to political offenders pi'oclaimed, 31 May, ,, 

Poland designated the "Vistula province" in a 
ukase Jan. 1868 

Its separate internal government abolished, and 
complete union with the empire effected, 29 Feb. ,, 

The distinct financial departments of Poland 
abolished April, ,, 

The Polish language interdicted in public places, 

July, ,, 

Conciliatory policy towards the Poles in Russia and 
Austria proposed March, 1872 

Count Berg, the last lieutenant-general for Poland, 
dies 18 Jan. 1873 

Polish language prohibited in courts of law and 
public offices in Russian Poland . . June, 1876 

Tne czar and czarina visit Warsaw (great precau- 
tions) 8-27 Sept. 1884 

About 34,700 Poles expelled from Prussia Oct. -Nov. 1885 

Movement for denationalising Poland (see Prussia) 

Feb. 1886 

Count Ladislaw Platu, active in the revolutions of 
1830 and 1863, dies in Switzerland (aged 83)23 April, 1889 

Conciliatory measures towards Polish landowners 
proposed May, ,, 

The body of Adam Mickiewiez, the great Polish poet 
(1798-1855), brought from France, re-interred at 
Cracow 4 July, 1890 

Second congress of Polish historians and archseolo- 
gists opeued at Leopol ... 17 July, ,, 

Centenary of the Polish constitution of 1791, cele- 
brated in Austrian Poland . . .3 May, 1891 

The emperor William II. appoints a Polish arch- 
bishop of Posen, 1891, and otherwise favours the 
Poles 1892 

Brzeznica destroyed by fire, lives lost . 25 Sept. 1893 

Political demonstration in Warsaw, many arrests 

16 April, 1894 

Polish deputation warmly received by the czar 
Nicholas II. ; pardon granted to political pri- 
soners of 1863, by manifesto . . 26 Nov. ,, 

Increased toleration of the Roman catholics ; gen. 
Gourko, the governor-general of Warsaw, resigns 
(died 24 Jan. 1891); succeeded by count Shu valoff, 
20 Dec. 1894 ; succeeded by prince Imeribinsky, 

17 Jan. 1897 

Adam Asnyk, eminent poet, born 1838, died 2 Aug ,, 

The czar and czarina warmly received at Warsaw, 
31 Aug. ; grand review at Bielostok . 7 Sept. ,, 

Panic in a synagogue at Lentschitz, 32 deaths ; 
reported 14 Sept. 1899 

Petition for the instruction of Polish youth in 
their native language, history, &c, granted, 

mid Sept. ,, 

R. C. archbishop of Vilna deprived of his office 
for opposing the government on the language 
question early April, 1902 

The czar gives 200,000 roubles to sufferers from 
floods (July) in the Vistula district . Aug. 1903 
See Cracow, Warsaw, and Russia. 

DUKES AND KINGS OF POLAND. 

842. Piastus, duke. 
861. Ziemovitus, his son. 
892. Lesko or Lescus IV. 
913. Ziemomislas, son of Lesco. 
1964. Miecislas I. becomes Christian. 
992. Boleslas I., surnamed the Lion-hearted ; obtained 
the title of King from the emperor Otho III. 
Miecislas II. 
C034. Richense or Richsa, his consort, regent : driven 

from the government. 
1037. [Anarchy.] 

1041. Casimir I., her son, surnamed the Pacific ; he had 
retired to a monastery, but was invited to the 
throne. 
E058. Boleslas II., styled the Intrepid. 
eo8i. Ladislas I., called the Careless, duke. 
E102. Boleslas III., surnamed Wry-mouth. 
1138. Ladislas, son of the preceding. 
1146. Boleslas IV., the Curled. 
1173. Miecislas III, the Old ; deposed. 
1 1 77. Casimir II., surnamed the Just. 
1 194. Lesko V., the White : abdicated. 



1200. Miecislas III. ; restored. 

1202. Ladislas III. ; retired. 

1206. Lesko V. ; restored ; assassinated : succeeded by 

his son, an infant. 
1227. Boleslas V., surnamed the Chaste. 
1279. Lesko VI. , surnamed the Black. 
1289. [Horrid anarchy.] 

1295. Premislas, styled king of Poland, governs wisely 

assassinated. 

1296. Ladislas I. (IV.), the Short : deposed. 

1300. Wenceslas, king of Bohemia, abandons Poland. 

1304. Ladislas IV. , the Short. 

133.3- Casimir III., the Great : encourages the arts, and 
amends the law : killed by a fall from his horse. 

1370. Louis, king of Hungary, elected king. 

1382. Maria; and 1384, Hedwige (daughters of Louis), 
and her consort, Jagello, duke of Lithuania, by 
the style of Ladislas V. 

1399. Ladislas II. (V.), alone : annexed Lithuania. 

1434. Ladislas III. (VI.), son : succeeded as king of Hun- 
gary, 1440. 

1445. [Interregnum.] 
,, Casimir IV. 

1492. John (Albert) I., son. 

1 501. Alexander, prince of Livonia, his brother. 

1505. Sigismund I., brother; obtained the surname of 
the Great. 

1548. Sigismund II., Augustus, son (last of the Jagellon 
dynasty) ; a splendid reign : added Livonia to 
his kingdom : died 1572. Interregnum. 

ELECTED MONARCHS. 

1573. Henry de Valois, duke of Anjou, brother to the 
king of France ; he afterwards succeeded to the 
French throne. 

1575. Stephen Bathori, prince of Transylvania : estab- 
lished the Cossacks as a militia. 

1586. [Interregnum.] 

1587. Sigismund III., son of the king of Sweden, to the 

exclusion of Maximilian of Austria, elected by 
the nobles. 

1632. Ladislas IV. (VII.), Vasa, son of Sigismund HI. ; 
succeeded by his brother. 

1648. John II., or Casimir V. ; abdicated 1668, and re- 
tired to France, where he died a monk, in 1672. 

1668. [Interregnum.] 

1669. Michael-Koributh-Wiesnowiski : in this reign the 

Cossacks join the Turks, and ravage Poland. 
167.4. John III., Sobieski ; the last independent king: 

illustrious for victories over the Cossacks, Turks, 

and Tartars. 
1697. [Interregnum.] 
,, Frederick- Augustus I., son of John-George, elector 

of Saxony ; and elector in 1694 ; deprived of his 

crown. 
1704. Stanislas I. (Leczinski) : forced to retire from his 

kingdom in 1709. 
1709. Frederick- Augustus I. again. 
1733. Frederick-Augustus II., son of the preceding 

sovereign. 

1763. [Interregnum.] 

1764. Stanislas II. Augustus Poniatowski, resigned his 

sovereignty, 25 Nov. 1795 : died at St. Peters- 
burg, a state prisoner, 12 Feb. 1798. 

Polish Language, The, is a widely-spread branch of 
the Slavonic family. Much of the early literature is 
in Latin. Casimir III. founded the University of 
Cracow, which continues to be the centre of intellec- 
tual life and culture in Poland. Chambers. 

Principal Polish Authors: — Nicholas Rej, p., 1505-69; 
Jan Kochanowski, p., 1530-84 ; Boguslawski,' 'd., 
1759-1829; Ignacy Krasicki, m., 1735-1801 ; Karpinski, 
p., 1745-1825 ; Woronicz, p., 1757-1829 ; Kasimir 
Brodzinski, p., 1791-1835 ; count Alex. Fredro, d., 
1793-1876; Adam Mickiewiez, p., 1798-1855 ; Anton 
Malczewski, p., 1792-1826 ; Sigismund Krasinski, p., 
1812-59; Julius Slowacki, p., 1809-49; Ignacy Kras- 
zewski, n., 1812-87; Joachim Lelewel, hist., 1786- 
1862; Gabriele Zmichowska, p., 1825-78; Michel 
Balucki, popular p., 1837-1901. 

POLAR CLOCK. An optical apparatus in- 
vented by professor Wheatstone (about 1849), 
whereby the hour of the day is found by means of 

the polarisation of light. 



POLAR CONFERENCES. 



972 



POLICE. 



POLAR CONFERENCES, INTERNA- 
TIONAL, to organize setting up stations round 
the polar area for continuous scientific inves- 
tigation, met at Hamburg, 1879 ! at Berne in 1880; 
at St. Petersburg, 1-6 Aug. 1881, and at other 
places since. 

POLARISATION OF LIGHT, see Optics. 

POLAR REGIONS, see North-East and 
- West Passage, and Southern Continent. 

POLE STAR or Polar Star, a star of the 

6econd magnitude, the last in the tail of the con- 
stellation called the Little Bear . As its nearness to 
the North Pole causes it never to set to those in the 
northern hemisphere, it is called the seaman's 
guide. Two stars in the constellation Ursa Major, 
or Great Bear, are called pointers to the Polar star. 
The discovery of the Pole star is ascribed by the 
Chinese to their emperor, Hong-ti, the grandson 
(they say) of Noah, who reigned and flourished 
1976 B.C. Univ. Hist. Spectroscopic observations 
at Lick observatory prove the star to be a triple 
system, i.e., a binary, with a revolution of about 
4 days, moving lound a third more distant star, 
Sept. 1899. 

POLICE. The London police grew out of the 
London watch, instituted about 1253. Its jurisdic- 
tion was extended 27 Eliz. 1585, and 16 Chas. I. 
1640; and the system improved by various acts in 
subsequent reigns. See Magistrates. 
Police offices: — The jurisdiction of twenty-one magis- 
trates, three to preside in each of the seven 
divisional offices, commenced . . .1 Aug. 1792 
The Thames police was established in . . . 1798 
The Police Gazette (re-modelled by Mr. Howard 

Vincent in 1884) established 1828 

The London police, remodelled by Mr. (afterwards 
sir Robert) Peel, by 10 Geo. IV. 19 June, com- 
menced duty 29 Sept. 1829 

The London police improvement acts passed 3 Vict. 
1839, 4 Vict. 1840, which were amended by 19 & 20 
Vict. c. 2 . 



In 1857 the total expenditure was 445,212/. for the 
metropolitan police, consisting of 17 superinten- 
dents, 140 inspectors, 630 sergeants, and 5296 
constables. 

The total efficient police force in England and 
Wales, exclusive of the metropolis, in Sept. 1859, 
was 11,309, and in Sept. 1863, 14,661 (see Con- 
stabulary). 

Division X was established to attend the Interna- 
tional Exhibition in 

The whole police and constabulary in England and 
Wales amounted to 23,032 men ; metropolitan 
police, 6590 ; city of London X'olice, 743 ; dock- 
yard police, &c, 743 .... 29 Sept. 

Metropolitan police, 7493, 1 Jan. 1866; 7548, 1 Jan. 
1867 ; great increase proposed in . . Dec. 

Col. Rowan and Richard May ne, commissioners of 
metropolitan police, appointed, 1829 ; Maynedied 

26 Dec. 

Colonel (after sir Edmund) Henderson appointed 
commissioner in room of sir R. Mayne . Feb. 

Resigns in consequence of the riots of 8 Feb. 1886 
(see Mots), 22 Feb. 1886 ; succeeded by sir Charles 
Warren, 12 March, 1886, who resigned 8 Nov. 1888 ; 
succeeded by Mr. James Monro, 26 Nov. 1888 ; 
resigns 10 June, 1890 ; succeeded by sir Edward 
Ridley C. Bradford, 20 June, 1890. 

The commissioner of the City of London police, sir 
James Frazer, appointed in 1863, resigned about 
26 June ; succeeded by col. Henry Smith, 28 July, 
1890. 

The first annual report of the commissioner issued, 

State : 8883 police constables for a radius ol 15 miles 
from Charing Cross (exclusive of the city of Lon- 
don), including 3,563,410 inhabitants . Dec. 

The detective police, only 15 men in June, i860, has 
been since raised to 266 men and a superinten- 
dent, with good ellect Oct. 



1856 



1862 



1867 



1870 



1870 



State: 9655 of all ranks, Dec. 1871 ; 9958 . Dec. 1874 

Large meetings of police to agitate for an increase 
of pay ...... 17-24 Oct. 1872 

Request granted ; meeting of some constables 
through misapprehension ... 16 Nov. „ 

Some constables prosecuted, 18 Nov. ; 109 dis- 
missed ; 65 reduced in rank . . 20 Nov. „ 

Several policemen censured for misconduct and 
over-zeal, autumn ....... 1873 

Police detectives prosecution, see Trials . . 1877 

Appointment of commission to investigate detec- 
tive system in metropolitan police (sir H. Selwyn- 
Ibbetson, lion. col. Wm. Fielding, and others), 
about 13 Aug. , t 

Pay : first class constable, 30s. per week ; reserve, 
3 is. 6c?. ; first class sergeant, 36s. ; second class, 
34s 187S 

Discontent among police respecting pay (crimesaid 
to have increased ; apprehensions diminished). 

Committee of inquiry (sir M. W. Ridley and Mr. J. 
B.'MauIe) appointed to inquire into the pay and 
organisation .... about 8 Aug. „ 

Various changes (with increase of pay in some 
cases) were ordered by the home secretary 

end of Aug. ,, 

20,000 peculiarly made whistles, received for distri- 
bution among the police .... March, 1884 

Metropolitan police 13,319 ; cost 1,059,628?. in . 1885 

Police arrangements north of Thames remodelled 

1 April, 1886 

Report of committee on the police, with vague 
recommendations, issued . . about 2 Oct. ,, 

Police Disabilities Removal act, enabling police to 
vote at parliamentary elections, passed 23 May, 1887 

Miss Cass arrested in mistake by police-constable 
Endacott in Regent-st. about 9. 15 p.m. 28 June ; 
inquiry refused by home secretary July ; govern- 
ment defeated in commons (153-148) 5 July; 
Endacott acquitted of perjury . . 1 Nov. ,, 

Medals presented to the metropolitan police for 
their conduct during the jubilee celebrations in 
June, ordered 3 Sept. ,,. 

A testimonial to the police for their conduct at 
Trafalgar-square (see under Riots) ; combination 
of two funds Nov. ; appropriated to their con- 
valescent asylum at Dover . . . . Feb. i883 

Charges against the police of levying black mail 
made by Mr. W. S. Caine and others in July, 1887 ; 
investigated and declared not proved by sir 
Charles Warren, Times .... 6 Feb. ,, 

Agitation respecting pay, pension, &c. May, June, 1890 

Bow-street station. Insubordination; 130 men for 
an hour refused to go on duty, 10 p.m. ; some 
transferred to another district, 40 dismissed, 
5 July; rioting of dismissed men and roughs 
quickly stopped by the foot-guards, 7 July ; per- 
fect order in the force reported . . 8 July, ,, 

Increase of pay begun .... 17 Dec. ,, 

Col. sir Edward Ridley C. Bradford commissioner 
(G.C.B. June, 1897; bart. 26 June, 1902) . . ,, 

Police Disabilities Removal acts passed . . . 1893 

Police amendment act passed ,, 

Lieut. -col. Henry Smith commissioner for the city, 
1895; K.C.B. , June, 1897; resigns. . 2 Dec. 1901 

Metropolitan police, 14,041, 31 Dec. 1S87 ; 1891, 
15,072; 1894, 15,216; 1896, 15,326; iqoi, 15,977; 
190J, 16,374. 

Medals and clasps presented to the police and a 
grant of 4 days' pay for their conduct in the 
Diamond Jubilee week . . 20-26 June, 1897 

Increase of pay for metropolitan police . 31 Dec. 1900 

International Christian Tolice association con- 
ference held at Birmingham . . 25-28 Sept. 1901 

Capt. Nott Bower elected commissioner for the 
city 21 March, 1902 

Police reservists act, royal assent . . 22 July, ,, 

Mr. E. R. Henry, assistant-commissioner, appointed 
chief commissioner of metropolitan police, on 
resignation of sir E. Brad lord . . 5 March, 1903 

Police of England and Wales, year 1871-2, 
27,999 men, cost 2,372,888?. (84?. 15s. a man) ; 
1872-3, 28, 550 men, cost 2,567,481!.; 1874-5,29,460 
men, cost 2,742,526?. ; 1875-6, 29,719 men, cost 
2,849,073'. ; 1876-7, 30,016 men, cost 2,902,635?. (per 
man, 96?. 14s.); 1877-8,30,673111611, cost 2,980,592?. 
(per man, 97?. 3s. 51?.) ; 1878-9, 31,407 men, cost 
3,058,671?. (per man, 98?. 10s. 4<i.); 1881-2, 33,173 
men, cost 3,264,337?. ; 1882-3, 34,48s men, cost 



POLICIES OF ASSURANCES ACT. 973 



POLYGLOT. 



3,367,678?. ; 1886-7, 36,912 men, cost 3,711,933?. ; 
1887-8, 37,296 men, cost 3,727,942?. ; 1888-9,37,957 
men, cost 3,734,916/. ; 1889-90, 39,221 men, cost 
3,846,508; 1890-1, 39,673 men, cost 3,971,282?. ; 
1891-2, 40,596 men, cost 4,091,303?. ; 1892-3, 
41,164 men; 1896-7, 41,560; 1899, 43,450; 1900, 
44,054. Scotland, 1890, 4103 ; 1893, 4488 ; 1899, 
4867 ; 1901, 5278. Ireland, 1890, 13,921 ; 1893, 
!3>463 ; 1899, 12,351 ; 1900, 12,320. 
System of identification by finger marks, to supersede 
anthropometry, authorized by the secretary of state 
justified by its practical working. New arrangements 
made from 1 July, 1932, whereby all persons convicted 
of certain offences in summary courts, and sentenced 
to more than one month's imprisonment, in addition 
to those convicted at all L quarter sessions and assizes, 
are thus registered. During 1902 1,722 identifications 
made by this method, as against 462 in 1900 when 
anthropometry alone was used. 

POLICIES OF ASSURANCE ACT, 

passed 20 Aug. 186" ; see Insurance. 

POLITICAL ECONOMY, the science 
which has for its object the improvement of the 
condition of mankind, and the promotion of civili- 
sation, wealth, and happiness; was considered by 
Plato, Xenophon, and Aristotle. Its history in 
this country may be dated from the publication of 
sir Wm. Petty's "Treatise on Taxes," 1662, and 
" Political Arithmetic," 1691 ; Dr. Adam Smith's 
"Wealth of Nations," 1776. The works of J. S. 
Mill, M'Culloch, Malthus, Ricardo, Carey, Jevons, 
Sidgwick, Marshall, and Faweett are celebrated. A 
professorship of political economy was established 
at Oxford by Mr. Henry Drummond, M.P., 1825 ; 
and at Cambridge, first by Mr. G. Pryme, in 1828 ; 
but regularly established by the university in 1863, 
Henry Faweett (blind) being the first professor. 

Archbishop Whately endowed a professorship at 
Trinity college, Dublin ; Isaac Butt first pro- 
fessor 1832 

The Political Economy club, London, founded in 
T821, by Thos. Tooke and others, to propagate 
free trade principles, kept the hundredth anni- 
versary of the publication of Smith's "Wealth of 
Nations " 31 May, 1876 

Mr. R. H. Inglis Palgrave's " Dictionary of Political 
Economy," published 1891 et seq. 

Imaginary systems: Plato's "Republic;" he died 347 
b.c. Sir T. More's " Utopia" 1548 ; sir P. Sidney's 
"Arcadia," 1590; James Harrington's "Oceana," 
1656 ; Win. Morris's "News from Nowhere," 1891 ; 
and E. Bellamy's " Looking Backwards," 1888. 

POLITICAL OFFICES PENSIONS 

ACT passed 9 Aug. 1869. 

POLITICAL UNIONS were formed in Eng- 
land in 1831 to carry the Reform Bill ; the most 
important was that of Birmingham. 

POLITICIANS. A politician is described as 
a man well versed in policy, or the well regulating 
and governing of a state or kingdom ; a wise and 
cunning man. A man of artifice ; one of deep 
contrivance. South. The term was first used in 
France about 1569. A new faction appeared, 
known by the name of Politicians, headed by the 
due d'Alenc_on and the Montmorencies, and 
strengthened by the accession of the Huguenots in 
1574. The duke was arrested and the Montmoren- 
cies sent to the Bastille. 

POLKA, a dance said to have been invented 
between 1830 and 1834 in Bohemia, and to have 
obtained its name in Prague in 1835. It became 
very popular, and was introduced into England 
about 1844. 

POLL ACT passed in Ireland by the Junto of 
the Pale, putting a price upon the heads of certain 
Irish; the earl of Desmond being then deputy, 



5 Edward IV. 1465. This act long endured, see 
Ireland, 1465. 

POLLENTIA (Piedmont, N. Italy), the site 
of a great victory of Stilicho, the Imperial general, 
over Alaric the Goth, 29 March, 403. 

POLL-TAX or Capitation Tax, existed 

among the ancient Romans. It was first levied in 
England in 1380 ; and occasioned the rebellion of 
Wat Tyler (see Tyler), 138 1. It was again levied 
in 15 13. By the 18th Charles II. every subject 
was assessed by the head, viz., a duke lool., a 
marquis 80/., a baronet 30^., a knight 20L, an 
esquire 10/., and every single private person I2d., 
1667. This grievous impost was abolished by 
William III. 1689. 

POLLUTION OF RIVERS, see Rivers. 

POLO, the game of ball termed hockev played 
on horseback, became popular in England in 1872, 
having been introduced from India. Games were 
played by lancers and life-guards at Woolwich, 16, 
19 July, 1872. A polo club was formed, and inter- 
national contests held ; at Brighton one opened 
3 Aug. 1878. Polo is said to have been an old 
Russian game, mentioned 1492 under the name of 
Chftgan, as brought from Persia. English beat 
the Americans, 3 games out of 4, June, 1902. 

POLOTSK (Russia). The French under mar- 
shal Oudinot were here defeated by the Russians 
under general Wittgenstein, 30 and 31 July, 1812 ; 
the next day, the Russians were defeated. After 
several smaller actions with various results, Polotsk 
was stormed b} r the Russians, and retaken Oct. 1812. 

POLTOWA, see Pultowa. 

POLYGAMY, &c, was permitted among the 
early nations, and now by Mahometans. In Media, 
it was a reproach to a man to have less than seven 
wives. Among the Romans, Marc Antony is 
mentioned as the first who took two wives. The 
practice was forbidden by Arcadius, 394. The 
emperor Charles V. punished polygamy with death. 
In England, by stat. 1 James I. 1603, it was made 
felony, with benefit of clergy. It was formerly 
punished with transportation, but now by im- 
prisonment or penal servitude ; see Marriages. 
Polygamy exists among the Mormons {which see). 
Abolished in the United States, 23 March, 1882. — 
Polyandry (where one woman has several hus- 
bands) is permitted in some eastern countries, the 
children having equal rights. 

POLYGLOT, from two Greek words denoting 
" many languages," is chiefly applied to editions of 
the Bible in several languages. 
Giustiniani published a polyglot psalter, 1576. 

1. The Complutensian Polyglot, in six vols, folio, was 
printed at Alcala (Complutensis), in Spain, 1502-14 ; 
the first edition published in 1522, at the expense of 
the : elebrated cardinal Ximenes, costing 250,000 
ducats. Six hundred copies of it were printed ; three 
on vellum. Count MacCarthy, of Toulouse, paid 483?. 
for one of these copies at the Pinelli sale. 

2. The Polyglot, printed at Antwerp, by Montanus, 8 
vols, folio, in 1559-69, at the expense of Philip II. of 
Spain. 

3. Printed at Paris, by Le Jay, in 10 vols, folio, 1628-45. 

4. Edited by Bryan Walton, in 6 vols, folio, 1654-7. 
Copies of all four are in the library of the British and 

Foreign Bible Society. 

5. Edited by Dr. Samuel Lee, published by S. Bagster, 1 
vol. folio, 1831. 

6. Hexaglot bible : begun by Henry Cohn ; com- 
pleted by the rev. Edwd. R. De Levante and others, 
6 vols. 4to, 1874. 



POLYNESIA. 



974 



POMPEY'S PILLAE. 



POLYNESIA, a name recently given to the 
isles in the great Pacific Ocean, see Owhyhee, 
Otaheite, Sandwich Islands, Fiji Isles, &c. These 
islands have been classifiedas Micronesia, Melanesia, 
and East Polynesia. The Polynesian society, Wel- 
lington, New Zealand, was founded in 1892. The 
archipelago explored by Mr. Fred. W. Christian, 
1890-98. 

POLYOLBION, a poetical description of the 
tracts, rivers, mountains, forests, &c. of Great 
Britain, with historical details, by Michael Dray- 
ton, published 1606-22 ; a new edition, 3 vols., by 
the rev. Richard Hooper, was published 1876. 

POLYPES, also named Hydrae {many-footed 
animals), on account of their property of repro- 
ducing themselves when cut in pieces, every part 
soon becoming a perfect animal ; first discovered by 
Leeuwenhoek, and described by him in the Philo- 
sophical Trans. 1703. The polypes are of the order 
Zoophytes, and are partly animal and vegetable. 

POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTION, 

ROYAL, Regent-street, London, was erected by 
Thompson in 1838, opened 6 Aug. 1839, ana 
enlarged in 1848. It contained a hall of manufac- 
tures with machines worked by steam-power, 
lecture theatres, &c, diving-bell, electric machine, 
&c. Timbs. The institution did not prosper com- 
mercially, and its decline was hastened by the fall 
of a staircase on 3 Jan. 1859, when one person was 
killed and many injured. The institution was 
closed in May, 1859, but was re-opened by a new 
company on 12 Nov. i860; see Fcole Polytech- 
nique. Professor Pepper, the director for many 
years, resigned in 1872 ; returned, 1878. The 
classes were formed into a college, which was in- 
augurated by the earl of Shaftesbury, 7 Oct. 1872. 
Polytechnic institution announced to be closed on 
27 Aug. 1881 ; affairs wound up. Plant sold for 
about 2000^. 23 March, 1882. In 1882 it was 
occupied by the Polytechnic young men's chris- 
tian institute, principally bj r the instrumentality 
of Mr. Quintin Hogg (suffocated by fumes in a 
geyser bath, 17 Jan. 1903), for educational purposes, 
with about 2000 members ; over 17,000, Jan. 1903. 

Prof. John Pepper lectured here on Australia (from 
which he had just returned) . . .9 Nov. 1889 

Polytechnic Institutions established in south 
Loudon, promoted by the charity commissioners 
and liberally subscribed for . . . . 1888-9 

Polytechnic Institute or People's palace for S.W. 
London, Westminster, Chelsea, Pulham, &c, 
proposed and liberally supported by the duke of 
Westminster, president, earl Cadogan, Mr. R. C. 
Antrobus, and others . .... 1S89-90 

With reference to the City of London Parochial 
Charities act of 1883, the committee of Council 
on Education reports approval of schemes for 
the management of the following institutions : — 
1, the City Polytechnic, comprising the North- 
ampton and Birkbeck Institutes, and the City of 
London college ; 2, the Regent-street Polytech- 
nic Institute ; 3, the Battersea Polytechnic Insti- 
tute ; 4, the South-western Polytechnic Insti- 
tute ; 5, the Borough-road Polytechnic Institute, 
opened 30 Sept. 1902 ; 6, Northern Polytechnic 
Institute, Holloway, opened autumn, 1896 ; 7, 
Tottenham Polytechnic Institute, opened 10 Dec. 1895 

Memorial stoneoftheBatterseaPolyteehnic, the first 
of the series, laid by the prince of Wales 20 July, 
1891 ; opened by him . . . .24 Feb. 189* 

The Goldsmiths' Company's Technical and Recrea- 
tive Institute at New-cross, Surrey, wasopened by 
the prince and princess (if Wales, 22 July, 1891 ; 
see Goldsmiths' Company. 

Polytechnic at Chelsea ; foundation stone laid by 
the prince and princess of Wales . 23 July, ,, 

See Beaumont Trust and Goldsmiths' Company. 



Memorial stone of the St. Bride Foundation Insti- 
tute laid by the prince of Wales, 20 Nov: 1893 ; 
opened by the lord mayor ... 20 Nov. 1894 

Northampton Institute, St. John's-street-road, 
founded, 9 July, 1894 ; opened by the lord mayor, 

18 March, 1898 

Princess Louise, duchess of Argyll, distributes 
prizes at the Battersea Polytechnic . 5 Feb. 1902 

Sir John Cass Technical Institute, Aldgate, cost 
over 40,000?., opened by lord Avebury. 5 June, 1902 

Passmore-Ed wards Polytechnic, Camberwell, stone 
laid by lady Carrington ... 16 July, 1903 

POMEGRANATE TREE (Punica Grana- 
tum) was brought to England from Spain before 
1584. 

POMEBANIA, a Prussian province, N. Ger- 
many, was held by the Poles, 980, and by Den- 
mark, 1210; made an independent duchy, 1479; 
and divided between Sweden and Brandenburg, 
1648. The Swedish part, awarded to Denmark in 
18 14, was given up to Prussia for Lauenburg, 1815; 
see Denmark ; Wrecks, 1878. 

POMFRET or PONTEFRACT (S. York). At 
the castle (built 1080), Eichard II. was confined 
and murdered, 10 Feb. 1400. Some writers assert 
that Richard escaped and died in Scotland. In this 
castle also, the earl Rivers, lord Grey, sir Thomas 
Vaughan, and sir Richard Haut or Hause, were 
put to death by order of the duke of Gloucester, 
then protector of England (afterwards Richard III.), 
about 26 June, 1483. The castle, which had stood 
four sieges, was dismantled in 1649. The first 
parliamentary election by ballot took place here, 
15 Aug. 1872, very quietly. It lost one of its two 
members in 1885. Population, 1881, 8,798; 1891, 
9,702; 1901, 13,398. 

POMPEII (S. Italy), an ancient city of Cam- 
pania, was partly demolished by an earthquake in 
a.d. 63. It was afterwards rebuilt, but was over- 
whelmed by an eruption of Vesuvius, accompanied 
by an earthquake, on the night of 24 Aug. 79. The 
principal citizens were then assembled in an amphi- 
theatre where public spectacles were exhibited. 
The ashes buried the whole city and covered the 
surrounding country. Afier a lapse of fifteen 
centuries, a countryman, as he was turning up the 
ground, found a bronze figure ; and this disco very 
led to further search, which brought numerous 
other objects to light, and at length the city was 
uncovered. The part first cleared was supposed 
to be the main street, 1 750. The kings of Naples 
greatly aided in exploring Pompeii, and the present 
Italian government resumed the work in 1863. 
A commemorative meeting of antiquaries and philo- 
sophers met at Pompeii, 25 Sept. 1879. 
Further discoveries made, autumn 1882 et seq. 
The remains of a handsome five-storied house were 
uncovered July, 1890 

POMPEY'S PILLAR stands about three- 
quarters of a mile from Alexandria, between the 
city and the lake Mareotis. The shaft is fluted, 
and the capital ornamented with palm-leaves ; the 
whole, which is highly polished, composed of three 
pieces, and of the Corinthian order. The column 
measures, according to some, 94 feet ; to others 
141, and even 160 feet; but of its origin, name, 
use, and age, nothing is certain. 

It is generally believed that the column has no reference 
to Pompey, to whom a mark of honour was, neverthe- 
less, set up somewhere about this part. One supposes 
the edifice was dedicated to Vespasian, another to 
Severus ; and Mr. Clarke, from a half-effaced inscrip- 
tion on the base, considered that Adrian is the 



PONDICHERRY. 



975 



POOR. 



person honoured ; while many assert, from the same 
inscription, that it is dedicated " to Diocletian 
Augustus, most adorable emperor, tutelar deity of 
Alexandria." 

PONDICHERRY (S.E. India), the capital 
of French India, and tirst settled by the French >u 
1674. It was taken from them by the Dutch in 
1603, restored 1697; besieged by the English, 1748; 
taken by them, Jan. 1 761 ; restored, 1763; again 
taken, Oct. 1778; restored in 1783; taken 23 Aug. 
1793, and in 1803; restored, 1815. Visited by the 
Viceroy of India (Earl Dufferin), Dec. 1886. 
Prosperous state of the colony reported Jan. 1889. 
Population in 1891, 282,923. 

PONDOLAND, the coast between Cape Colony 
and Natal, S. Africa, the British protectorate was 
proclaimed and notified, 6 Jan. 1885. 

Severe fighting among the natives reported, Feb.- 
March-April ; the chief Umhlangaro surrenders 
to the Cape authorities . . . . April, 1891 

Renewed fighting ; Sigcau defeated with great loss 
by the Umzizis, reported ... 15 Jan. 1894 

Major Elliot's mission to the chiefs successful ; 
they submit, and consent to annexation to Cape 
Colony, reported March, „ 

Deed signed by Sigcau and Nquiliso . 19 March, ,, 

Sir Henry Loch proclaims the annexation to Cape 
Colony . ' . . . . 20 March, ,, 

Territory about 4000 square miles ; population 
about 170,000 April, ,, 

PONT-A-CHIN, see Espierres. 

PONT-A-NOYELLES. At this place, near 
Amiens, took place a tierce indecisive conflict, 
lasting from 11 a.m. to 6 p.m., between the Germans 
under Manteuffel and '.he French army of the north 
under Faidlierbe, 23 Dec. 1870. Both sides claimed 
a victory; the French general asserted that he 
remained master of the field. 

PONTEFRACT, see Pom/ret. 

PONTIFFS (Latin Pontifices), the highest 
Roman sacerdotal order, established by Numa. The 
college first consisted of 4 patricians, with a chief 
(Pontifex Maximus) ; to these 4 plebeians were 
added, by the Ogulnian law, 300 B.C. Sylla in- 
creased the number to 15 (8 majores, 7 minor es), 
(81), and Julius Csesar to 16. T. Coruncanius, a 
plebeian, obtained this office, 254 B.C. 

PONTUS, in Asia Minor, seems to have heen a 
portion of Cappadocia, and received its name from 
its vicinity to the Pontus Euxinus. Artabazus was 
made king of Pontus by Darius Hystaspes in 
the 4th century B.C. His successors were mere 
satraps of the kings of Persia. 

Reign of Mithridates I B.C. 383 

Ariobarzanes invades Pontus 363 

Mithridates II. recovers it . . . . 336 

Mithridates III. reigns 301 

Ariobarzanes II. reigns 266 

Mithridates IV. is besieged in his capital by the 

Gauls, &c.' 252 

Mithridates attacks Sinope, and is obliged to raise 

the siege by the Rhodians 219 

Reign of Pharnaces, 190 ; he takes Sinope, and makes 

it the capital of his kingdom 183 

Reign of Mithridates V 157 

He is murdered in the midst of his court . . . 123 
Mithridates VI. , surnamed the Great, or Eupator, 

receives the diadem at 12 years of age . . . ,, 

Marries Laodice,' his own sister 115 

She attempts to poison him ; he puts her and ac- 
complices to death 112 

Mithridates conquers Scythia, Bosphorus, Colchis, 

and other countries in 

He enters Cappadocia 97 

His war with Rome 80. 



Tigranes ravages Cappadocia . . . . .86 
Mithridates enters Bithynia, and makes himself 

master of many Roman provinces, and puts 80,000 

Romans to death ,„ 

Archelaus defeated by Sylla, at Chseronea ; 100,000 

Cappadocians slain . . . . . ,, 

Victories and conquests of Mithridates up to this 

time . 74 

The fleet of Mithridates defeats that under Lucullus 

in two battles • • 73 

Mithridates defeated by Lucullus . . . . 69 

Mithridates defeats Fabius 68 

But is defeated by Pompey 66 

Mithridates stabs himself, and dies . . . -63 

Reign of Pharnaces ; . „ 

Battle of Zela (see Zela) ; Pharnaces defeated by 

Csesar 47 

Darius reigns 39 

Polemon, son of Zeno, reigns 36 

Polemon II. succeeds his father . . . a.d. 33 

Mithridates VII. reigns 40 

Pontus afterwards became a Roman province. 
Alexis Comnenus founded a new empire of the 

Greeks at Trebizond, in this country, 1204, which 

continued till the Turks destroyed it in 1459. 

POONAH, a province, S.W. India, formerly 
the seat of the power of the peishwa of the 
Mahrattas, 1749. It was captured by Wellesley 
from Holkar, 19 April, 1803, for Bajee Rao, who 
had claimed British protection. Bajee resigned his 
office, 3 June, 1818, for a pension. Visited by the 
prince of Wales, 13 Nov. 1875, see Bombay, 1897. 

POOR. The poor of England, till the time of 
Henry VIII., subsisted as the poor of Ireland until 
1838, entirely upon private benevolence. By statute 
23 Edw. 111. 1349, it was enacted that none should 
give alms to a beggar able to work. By the com- 
mon law, the poor were to be sustained by "par- 
sons, rectors of the church, and parishioners, so that 
none should die for default of sustenance ; " and by 
15 Rich. II. impropriators were obliged to distribute 
a yearly sum to the poor; but no compulsory law 
was enacted till the 27th Hen. VIII. 1535. The 
origin of the present poor law is referred to the 
43rd of Elizabeth, 1601, by which overseers were 
appointed for parishes. See Settlement, Act of. 

First Poor Law commission (E. Chad wick assistant com- 
missioner), 1832-3. 

New Poor Law board appointed (E. Chadwick, sec), 
1834 ; dissolved, 1846. 

Additional workhouses ordered to be erected, 1819, 1834. 

Poor Law Amendment bill passed 1834 ; * forming 
" Unions," &c, amended in 1836, 1838, 1846, and 1847. 

Poor Law (Ireland) act passed 1838 ; amended 1839. 

A Poor Law system established in Scotland, 1845. 

Poor Law (Ireland) Rate in aid act passed in 1849. 

In Scotland, in the year ending May, 1851, the number 
relieved was 141,870, at an average cost of il. is. sd., 
and the expenditure was 535,943^ 

In Ireland, the poor's rate for the year ending Sept. 1851, 
was 1,101,878?. 

Mr. Henry Mayhew publishes his "London Labour and 
the London Poor," 1851-2. 

An agitation for the equalisation of poor's rates throughout 
the kingdom, began in 1857. 

The Times drew attention to the condition of the house- 
less poor in London, which led to measures for their 
relief, Dec. 1858. 

Society for relief of distress, St. James's, established i860. 

Laws respecting removal of the poor amended in 1861. 

* "The principle of the poor law of 1834 (now in 
force) : — (1) No one shall be allowed to perish through 
want of what is necessary for sustaining life and health ; 
(2) every destitute parent is bound to demand and obtain 
from the guardians what is necessary for sustaining the 
health and life of his children ; neglect of this duty is 
criminal ; (3) it is obligatory on the guardians of the 
poor to afford sufficient relief to all persons unable to 
maintain themselves ; refusal an indictable offence." 
(F. Peek.) 



POOE. 



1870 



Union relief act passed to enable certain unions to obtain 
temporary aid (on account of the distress in Lanca- 
shire through suspension of cotton manufactures), 1862. 

Metropolitan houseless poor act (authorising guardians to 
receive destitute persons into workhouses, and the 
metropolitan board to reimburse them) passed, 29 July, 
1864. 

Annual report cf Poor Law board for 1864 shows great 
decrease of pauperism — issued Sept. 1865. 

40 refuges for houseless poor established in London, 1864-5. 

" Casual wards " in London workhouses receive 1000 per 
night, Jan. 1865. 

Union chargeability act passed, 1865. 

Field-lane Refuge : new building formally opened by 
earl of Shaftesbury, 6 June, 1866. 

Metropolitan Poor act passed for establishment of asy- 
lums for the sick, insane, &c. , 29 March, 1867. 

Poor Law Amendment act makes Poor Law board per- 
manent ; passed, 20 Aug. 1867. 

Much excitement respecting the bad condition of London 
workhouse infirmaries, June, 1866 ; of Farnham work- 
house, Oct. 1867. Classification urgently needed. 

Poor Law Amendment act passed . 31 July, 1868 

Divided Parishes and Poor Law Amendment act 
passed 15 Aug. 1876 

Presidents of the Poor Law board : Gathorne Hardy, 
9 July, 1866 ; earl of Devon, May, 1867 ; G. J. 
Goschen, 9 Dec. 1868, to March, 1871 ; see Local 
Government Board. 

Minute of the poor law board defining limits of 
relief, and recommending organisation of metro- 
politan charitable institutions, 20 Nov. , which is 
adopted by several parishes . . . Dec. 1869 

General order for boarding-out pauper children, 
issued 25 Nov. 

Charity Organisation Society (sec Charitable Relief), 
established, 1869 ; reported very successful Jan. 1878 

The act for more equal distribution of charge for 
relief of in-door poor (passed 20 June) came into 
operation 29 Sept. „ 

Circular of poor law board respecting farming out 
pauper children 25 Nov. ,, 

New regulations for casual poor published in Tunes 

27 Nov. ,, 

Poor rate assessment acts amended . . . 1882 

Poor law conference act passed . . 18 June, 1883 

Commission to inquire into the state of the poor, 
appointed ; abp, of Canterbury, earls Spencer, 
Onslow, and others .... March, 1888 

New poor law act passed, 30 Aug. 1889 ; amended, 1899 

Sir Edwin Chadwick, eminent poor law reformer, 
aged 90, died 5 July, 1890 

Aged poor commission, lord Aberdare, chairman; 
the prince of Wales, lords Lingen, Brassey, Plav- 
fair, Mr. Joseph Chamberlain, Mr. C. T. Ritchie, 
Dr. W. A. Hunter, Mr. J. Arch, Mr. Henry 
Broadhurst, Mr. C. S. Loch, and others ; Mr. E. 
Austin Browne, secretary, Jan. ; first meeting, 
rFeb. 1893 ; many meetings ; report issued ; much 
difference of opinion, and various schemes pro- 
pounded 30 March, 1895 

Housing of the poor, see Artisans. 

Circular of the local government board, respecting 
classification in workhouses, issued . Aug. 1896 

.See Children, 1896, Diamond Jubilee, 24 June, 1897, 
Charitable Bequests. 

London Poor Law schools' exhibition of arts and 
crafts in Westminster town-hall, opened by the 
duke and duchess of York . . 12 July 

Poor Removal act passed . . . 30 July 

Poor Relief (Ireland) act passed . . . 6 Aug 

Efficient working of the Poor Laws, 1861 et seq. 
reported 20 Sept 

Received, for relief of the poor, in 1869, in England 
and Wales, 11,776,153/. ; in Scotland, 892,712/. ; in 
Ireland, 927,046/. ; total, 13,595,911/. ; receipts, 
1900-1901, 27,638,433/. ; expenditure, 27,673,677/. 

Paupers receiving relief 1 Jan. 1878 : England and 
Wales, 742,703 ; Ireland, 85,530 ; 14 May, 1877, 
Scotland, 96,404 ; total, 924,437 ; Feb. 1889, 
England and Wales, 762,853. 

Paupers in the metropolis receiving relief :— Dec. , 
1869, 152,557; Dec, 1870, about 147,000; Dec, 
1871, about 124,000; July, 1872, 104,280; April, 
114,644 ; Aug., 104,578 ; Oct., 1873, 97,287 ; Sept., 
1874,104,983; June, 1875,84,598 (indoor 32,661, 
out 51,937); Dec, 1875, 84,782 (indoor 35,673, 



1900 



20 Sept. 1 901 



976 POOE. 

out 49,109) ; July, 1876, 77,498 (indoor, 33,735, 
out 43,763) ; Jan. 1877, 82,950; June, 78,203 (in- 
door, 35,903) ; 8 Dec. 81,986 (indoor, 42,242) ; 27 
March, 1878, 84,753 (indoor, 41,403) : 27 July, 
76,709 (indoor, 38,043) ; 31 Dec. 83,674 ; 8 Feb. 
1879, 94,765 (indoor, 45,095) ; 19 April, 83,075 ; 28 
June, 78,680 ; 27 Sept. 79,674 ; 717 vagrants ; 27 
Dec. 92,495. 1880, last week, March, 88,893 '< 
(indoor, 46,738) ; June, 84,137 (vagrants, 931); 
Sept. 82,188; Dec. 92,654 (vagrants, 697); 1881, 
last week March, 95,767 ; indoor, 52,012 ; vag- 
rants, 780; June, 86,404 (indoor, 48,293); 1881, 
Oct., 89,740 (indoor, 50,792, vagrants, 932) ; Dec. 
1st, 93,170; vagrants, 883 ; 1882, 1 April, 92,233 
(indoor, 51,480, vagrants, 788) ; June, 86,417 (in- 
door, 48,363, vagrants, 643); Sept. 88,581 (indoor, 
50,174, vagrants, 915); Dec. 96,687 (indoor, 
54,373, vagrants, 696); 1883, March, 97,743 (in- 
door, 54,836, vagrants, 497) ; June, 85,555 (in- 
door, 49,713, vagrants, 386); Sept. 85,849 (indoor, 
50,917, vagrants, 461); 1884, Jan. 94,540 (indoor, 
55,965, vagrants, 471) ; April, 89,540 (indoor, 
54,122, vagrants, 528); Aug. 85,069 (indoor, 
51,849, vagrants, 482) ; Dec. 94,041 (indoor, 57,092, 
vagrants, 374); 1885, March, 94,047 (indoor 56,491, 
vagrants, 540); June, 85,555 (indoor, 49,713, vag- 
rants, 592) ; Sept. 86,119 (indoor, 51,968, vagrants, 
562) ; 26 Dec. 94,902 (indoor, 56,002, vagrants, 
322) ; 1886, 27 March, 101,982 (indoor, 56,507, 
vagrants, 463); 26 June, 87,171 (indoor, 51,570, 
vagrants, 454); 25 Sept. 87,604 (indoor, 52,628, 
vagrants, 650); 25 Dec. 98,611 (indoor, 57,520, 
vagrants, 475); 1887, 26 March, 103,726 (indoor, 
58,221, vagrants, 627); 27 Aug. 88,274 (indoor, 
53,164, vagrants, 619) ; 26 Nov. 101,852 (indoor, 
59,066, vagrants, 1,054); 1888, 28 Jan. 108,783 
(indoor, 60,883, vagrants, 1,165) ! 28 April, 102,617 
(indoor, 58,273, vagrants, 1,151); 28 July, 90,510 
(indoor, 52,875, vagrants, 976) ; 27 Oct. 96,030 
(indoor, 58,070, vagrants, 1,182); 1889, 26 Jan. 
104,734 (indoor, 61, 52T, vagrants, 1,119) ; 27 April, 
95,600 (indoor, 58,509, vagrants, 1,114); 2 9 June, 
88,699 (indoor, 54,460 ; vagrants, 605) ; 28 Sept. 
92,012 (indoor, 56,805; vagrants, 1,169); 2 & Dec. 
97,661 (indoor, 60,111; vagrants, 775); 1890, 
5 April, 93,596 (indoor, 58,216; vagrants, 707); 
28 June, 87,600 (indoor, 54,267; vagrants, 765); 
27 Sept. 88,147 (indoor, 55,273 ; vagrants, 1,014) ; 
27 Dee. 97,128 (indoor, 59,588; vagrants, 525); 
1 891, 28 March, 92,395 (indoor, 58,364 ; vagrants, 
748); 27 June, 86,109 (indoor, 53,981 ; vagrants, 
772) ; 26 Sept. 86,072 (indoor, 54,478 ; vagrants, 
814); 31 Dec. 94,639 (indoor, 60,169; vagrants, 
743) ; 1892, 26 March, 92,936 (indoor, 59,612 ; 
vagrants, 771); 26 June, 85,731 (indoor, 54,838; 
vagrants, 740) ; 24 Sept. 88,898 (indoor, 57,297 ; 
vagrants, 1,218); 241)60.98,124 (indoor, 62,577; 
vagrants, 901); 1893, 25 March, 93,067 (indoor, 
60,334; vagrants, 654) ; 30 June, 90,341 (indoor, 
57,708; vagrants, 800); 30 Sept. 97,424 (indoor, 
61,961); 31 Dec, total 104,823 (indoor, 65,937); 31 
March, 1894, 99,885 (indoor, 63,854); 30 June, 
93,697 (indoor, 59,679); 29 Sept. 96,055 (indoor, 
61,015); 29 Dec. 104,242 (66,770), vagrants (men, 
women and children), 1,243 '> 3 1 J an - J 8o5, 
125,435; 30 March, 122,611 (indoor, 67,070; 
vagrants, 1070); 29 June, 96,905 (indoor, 60,982; 
vagrants, 1,059); 28 Sept. 99,477 (indoor, 63,154 ; 
vagrants, 1,309); 28 Dec. 106,186 (indoor, 67,193; 
vagrants, 1,079) > 1896, 25 April, 101,059 (indoor, 
63,845 ; vagrants, 1,024) I 2 7 Jnne, 96,989 (indoor, 
60,807 i vagrants, 936) ; 30 Sept. 98,619 (indoor, 
62,316 ; vagrants, 1,178) ; 30 Dec 104,327 (indoor, 
66,633; vagrants, 883) ; 1897, 31 March, 103,118 
(indoor, 65,660; vagrants, 950); 3 July, 96,143 
(indoor, 60,565 ; vagrants, 716) ; 30 Sept. 99,468 
(indoor, 63,509 ; vagrants, 1,122); 31 Dec. 104,487 
(indoor, 67,337); 1898, 31 March, 104,615 (indoor, 
67,278; vagrants, 1,260); 2 July (indoor, 62,696; 
vagrants, 959) ; 30 Sept. 99,309 (indoor, -63,825, 
vagrants, 1,024); 31 Dec 104,286 (indoor, 67,542; 
vagrants, 881); 1899, 31 March, 106, 114 (indoor, 
68,676; vagrants, 1,065); 30 June, 97,117 (indoor, 
62,360; vagrants, 959); 28 Oct. 100,884 (indoor, 
65,618; vagrants, 1,090); 30 Dec. 104,806 (indoor, 
68,294; vagrants, 1,071); 1900, 31 March, 103,255 
(indoor, 66,466 ; vagrants, 874) ; 30 June, 96,384 
(indoor, 61,476 ; vagrants, 725); 29 Sept. 97,425 



POOE CHILDREN'S AID SOCIETY. 977 



POPE. 



{indoor, 62,420; vagrants, 975); 31 Dec, 103,034 
{indoor, 66,507; vagrants, 1,107); 1901, 30 March, 
106,045 (indoor, 67,705; vagrants, 982); 29 June, 
98,479 (indoor, 62,153; vagrants, 737); Sept. 
100,515 (indoor, 63,722; vagrants, 973); 28 Dec. 
107,317 (indoor, 68,326 ; vagrants, 987) ; 1902, 
29 March, 106,476 (indoor, 67,141 ; vagrants, 939); 
28 June, 101,242 (indoor, 63,431; vagrants, 912); 
27 Sept. 103,442 (indoor, 65,057 ; vagrants, 893) ; 
20 Dec. 113,352 (indoor, 71,108 ; vagrants, 1,003). 

The powers and duties of the Poor Law board 
merged into the Local Government hoard by act 



passed 14 Aug. 1871 ; president, James Stansfeld ; 

G. Sclater-Booth Feb. 1874 

A Poor Law act passed .... 15 Aug. 1876 



ENGLAND AND WALES. 



Expended. 
In 1580 



1700 
1785 



Poor rates. 
£188,811 
665,562 
819,000 
1,556,804 
2,184,950 
4,952,421 



Expended. 

In 1820 
1830 . 
1835 
1840 . 



Poor rates. 

£7>329.594 
8,111,422 

6,356,345 
5,468,699 
5,543.650 
6,522,412 



PAUPERS RECEIVING RELIEF (NOT VAGRANTS) 



England & Wales, 1 Jan. 
Scotland . about 14 May 
Ireland . . 1 Jan. 

Total 



1849. 
934,419 
82,357 
620,747 



J68,i86 
69,217' 
50,582 



932,400 
78,433t 
59,54i 



I ,°79,39 I 
126,187 
73,92i 



1875. 
815,587 
105,895 
80,993 



799,296 
92,618 
115,684 



!, 637.523 1,087,985 1,070,374 r, 279,499 1,002,475 1,007,5 
* 1857. t 1861. t 14 Jan. 



810,132(787,545 
90,918 88,606 
109,957 107,774 



1900. 
797,630 

96,9291 
103,866 



1,011,007 983,925 998,425 981,598 



100,019+ 
101,090 



ENGLAND AND WALES. 



Years ended 


Average number of paupers. 


Expendi- 


Lady-day. Indoor. Outdoor. 


ture. 


1858 . . . . 122,613 786,263 


£5,878,542 


1859 






121,232 744,214 


5,558,689 


i860 






113,507 73i, I2 6 


5,454,964 


1861 . 






125,866 758,055 


5,778,943 


1862 






132,236 784,906 


6,077,922 


1863 . 






136,907 942,475 


6,527,036 


1864 






133,761 881,217 


6,423,381 


1865 . 






131,313 820,586 


6,264,966 


1866 






132,776 783,376 


6,439,517 


1867 . 






137,310 794,236 


6,959,840 


1868 (1 Jan.) 






158,723 876,100 


7,498,059 


1869 ,, 






163,071 876,478 


7,673,100 


1870 






165,324 914,067 


7,644,307 


1871 ,, 






165,289 916,637 


7,886,724 


1872 „ 






• 154,233 823,431 


8,007,403 


1873 „ 






154,171 736,201 


7,692,169 


1874 „ 






149,558 679,723 


7,664,957 


1875 






153,711 661,876 


7,488,481 


1876 






148,931 600,662 


7.335,858 


l8 77 






• 157,191 57i,i59 


7,400,034 


1878 






166,875 575,828 


7,688,650 


1879 






*75,345 625,081 


7,829,819 



Years ended Average number of paupers. 


Expendi 




Indoor. Outdoor. 


ture. 


1880 ( 1 Jan. ). 


189,394 648,636 


£8,015,010 


1881 „ 


i8q,438 613,688 


8,102,136 


1882 „ 


188,433 609,181 


8,232,472 


1883 


190,386 608,910 


8,353,292 


1884 „ 


187,593 586,717 


8,4°2,55° 


1885 


190,184 593,971 


8,491,600 


1886 ,, 


194,440 613,193 


8,296,230 


1887 


196,853 620,436 


8,176,768 


1888 „ 


200,666 624,843 


8,440,821 


1889 ,, 


198,191 611,941 


8,366,477 


1890 ,, 


195,048 59 2 ,497 


8,434,345 


1891 „ 


192,942 581,963 


8,643,318 


1892 ,, 


192,460 562,025 


8,847,678 


1893 „ 


199,934 576,524 


9,217,514 


1894 „ • 


212,629 599,812 


9,673,505 


1895 ,, 


215,548 601,883 


9,866,605 


1896 ,, 


216,872 610,345 


10,215,974 


1897 


216,029 608,333 


10,432,189 


1898 ,, 


218,439 604,912 


10,828,276 


1899 „ 


217,833 590.039 


11,286,973 


1900 ,, 


217,148 580,606 


11,567,649 


1901 ,, 


215,623 574,179 


12,119,544 



POOR CHILDREN'S AID SOCIETY, 

for providing food, clothing, &c, established 1887. 

POOR KNIGHTS of Windsor, or Alms 

KNIGHTS. Soon after his institution of the order 
of the Garter, Edward III. founded this charity, for 
the provision of 24 (afterwards 26) poor persons 
eminent for military services. Edward IV. dis- 
charged the college from the support of the alms- 
knights, but Elizabeth re-established the charity 
for 13 knights, 1559. King William IV. changed 
the name to the " Military Knights of Windsor," 
in consequence of their all having held commissions 
in the army, Sept. 1833. — The "Naval Knights of 
Windsor" are maintained on a distinct foundation, 
under the bequest of Samuel Travers, 1724. The 
corporation was established in 1 798. An act making 
lieutenants and widowers eligible was passed in 
1867. Alterations made by act passed in 1885. Ail 
act to dissolve the corporation was passed in 1892. 

POPE (from the Greek Pappas and Papa, a 
father or grandfather), considered by Komanists to 
be the visible chief of the church, the vicar of Jesus 
Christ, and the successor of St. Peter. He styles 
himself " servant of the servants of God." The 
title pope was formerly given to all bishops. It 
was first adopted by Hyginus, 139; and pope Boni- 
face III. induced Phocas, emperor of the east, to 
confine it to the prelates of Kome, 606. By the 
connivance of Phocas also, the pope's supremacy 



over the Christian church was established ; see 
Italy, Reformation, and Pome, Modern. 

Wilfrid, abp. of STork, expelled from his diocese, 

appeals to the pope 679 

Custom of kissing the pope's toe introduced . . 708 
Adrian I. caused money to be coined with his name 780 
Sergius II. the first pope who changed his name on 
his election, 844 ; some contend that it was 
Sergius I. 687, and others John XII. . . . 956 
Indulgences for the pardon of sin granted by pope 

Leo III ". . . about 800 

John XVIII. , a layman, made pope .... 1024 
The first pope who kept an army, Leo IX. . . . 1054 
Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) obliges Henry IV. , em- 
peror of Germany, to stand three days, in the 
depth of winter, barefooted at the gate of the - 
castle of Canossa, to implore his pardon . . 1077 
The pope's authority fixed in England . . . 1079 
Appeals from English tribunals to the pope' intro- 
duced (Finer), 19 Stephen 1154 

i Henry II. of England holds the stirrup for pope 

Alexander III. to mount his horse . . . . 1161 
! Celestine III. kicked the emperor Henry VI. 's 
crown off his head while kneeling, to show his 
prerogative of making and unmaking kings . .1191 
' John, king of England, did homage to the pope's 
legate for his dominions, and bound himself and 
his successors to an annual payment to the pope, 

15 May, 12 13 
j The pope collected the tenths of the whole kingdom 

of England 1226 

The papal seat was removed for seventy years to 

Avignon in France 

3 R 



IjOO 



1363 



1517 
1533 

154* 

J 773 

1814 



POPE. 

The pope's demands on England refused by parlia- 
ment 

After the discovery of America, pope Alexander VI. 
granted to the Portuguese all the countries to the 
east, and to the Spanish all the countries to the 
west, of Cape Non, Africa, they might conquer . 

Pope Leo X. published the sale of general indul- 
gences throughout Europe 

Appeals to Borne from England abolished (Viner) . 

The words "Lord Pope " struck out of all English 
books 

Kissing the pope's toe and other ceremonies abo- 
lished by Clement XIV 

The pope's political influence greatly diminished by 
the French revolution .... 1789- 

His temporal power lost, see Rome . . . Dec. 1870 
See Pius IX. under Popes. 

BISHOPS AND POPES OF ROME 

(the names in italics were antipopes) : 

42. St. Peter : (said to have been the first bishop of 
Rome, and to have been crucified, head down- 
wards, in 66.) 
* * St. Clement (Clemens Romanus); according to 
Tertullian. 

66. St. Linus :* martyred ? 

78. St. Cletus, or Anacletus ? martyred 

91. St. Clement II. : abdicated? 
100. St. Evaristus : martyred ; multiplied churches. 
109. St. Alexander: martyred. 
119. St. Sixtus I. : martyred? 
127. St. Telesphorus : martyred. 
139. St. Hyginus : condemns Gnostics ; called himself 

pope. 
142. St. Pius : martyred. 
157. St. Anicetus. 

168. St. Soterus : martyred under Marcus Antoninus. 
177. St. Eleutherius : opposed the Valentinians. 
193. St. Victor I. : martyred under Severus. 
202. St. Zephyrinus : claimed to be Peter's successor. 
219. St. Calixtus : martyred. 
*22. [The chair vacant.] 
223. St. Urban I. : beheaded. 
230. St. Pontianus : banished by the emperor Maximin. 

235. St. Anterus : martyred. 

236. St. Fabian : martyred under Decius, 250. 
250. [The chair vacant.] 

351. St. Cornelius : died. 

252. St. Lucius : martyred 252. Novatianus : (denied 
restoration to the repentant lapsed). 
53. St. Stephen I. : martyred in the persecution of 
Valerian. 

257. St. Sixtus II. (his coadjutor) : martyred three days 

before his disciple St. Laurence, in the persecu- 
tion of Valerian, 258. 

258. [The chair vacant. ] 

259. St. Dionysius : opposed the heresy of Sabellius. 
269. St. Felix I. died in prison. 

275. St. Eutychianus. 

283. St. Caius : a relative of the emperor Diocletian. 

296. St. Marcellinus : said to have lapsed under a severe 

persecution ? ; canonised. 
304. [The chair vacant. ] 
308. St. Marcellus : banished from Rome by the emperor 

Maxentius. 

310. St. Eusebius : died the same year. 

311. St. Miltiades orMelchiades : coadjutor to Eusebius. 
314 St. Silvester : commencement of temporal power 

by gifts of Constantine. 

336. St. Marcus : died the next year. 

337. St. Julius I. : of great piety and learning ; main- 

tained the cause of St. Athanasius. 

352. Liberius : banished. 

.353. Felix II., antipope : placed in the chair by Con- 
stans, during the exile of Liberius, on whose 
return he was driven from it with ignominy. 
[The emperor would have the two popes reign 
together ; but the people cried out, " One God, 
one Christ, and one bishop!"] 

* St. Linus is frequently set down as the immediate 
successor of St. Peter ; but Tertullian maintains that 
it was St. Clement. In the first century neither the 
dates nor order of succession of bishops are reconcilable 
by even the best authorities. Sonic assert, that there 
were two or three bishops of Rome at the same time. 



978 



358. 

359- 
366. 

367 

384- 
398- 
402. 
417. 
418. 

422. 
432- 
440. 

461. 
468. 
483- 



5i4 
523 

526, 

53° 
533 
535 

536. 



537- 
555- 
560. 

573- 
574- 
578- 
59°- 

604. 
606 
607 

614 
617 
625. 

6 39- 
640. 

642. 
649. 
654- 
6S7- 
672. 
676. 



687 
701 
705 



715 
73i' 



741, 
752 



757- 
767. 
768. 
772. 
795- 
S16. 



POPE. 

Liberius again : abdicated. 

Felix became pope. 

Liberius again : martyred 365. 

St. Damasus : opposed the Arians : St. Jerome;, 

his secretary, corrected Latin Bible. 
Ursinus : expelled by Valentinian. 
Siricius : combated heretics. 
St. Anastasius : proscribed works of Qrigeii. 
St. Innocent I. : condemned Pelagians. 
St. Zozimus : ditto. , 

St. Boniface I. : maintained by the emperor Hono- 

rius, against Eidalius. 
St. Celestine I. : sent missions to Ireland. 
Sixtus III. : opposed Nestorius and Eutyches. 
St. Leo I. the Great : zealous ; restrained Alaric ; 

an able writer. 
St. Hilary ; rich, liberal. 
St. Simplicius : wise, prudent. 
St. Felix III. : opposed emperor Zeno respecting 

the Henoticon. 
St. Gelasius : opposed heresy ; fixed the canon oi 

Scriptures ; compiled the mass. 
St. Anastasius II. : congratulated Clovis. 
Symmachus : zealous against the Henoticon. 
Laurentius : antipope. 
Hormisdas : opposed Eutychians. 
John I. : sent to Constantinople by Theodoric- 

tolerant. 
Felix IV. : introduced extreme unction as a sacra- 
ment. 
Boniface II. — Dioscorus. 
John II. : called Mercurius. 
Agapetus : converted Justinian. 
St. Silverius : son of pope Hormisdas, who had- 

been married ; the empress Theodora procured 

his banishment into Lyeia (where he died of 

hunger), and made Vigilius pope. 
Vigilius : banished, but restored. 
Pelagius I. : an ecclesiastical reformer. 
John III. : great ornamenter of churches. 
[The see vacant.] 
Benedict I., surnamed Bonosus. 
Pelagius II. ; died of the plague. 
St. Gregory the Great : revised the liturgy ; sent. 

Augustin to convert the Anglo-Saxons. 
Sabinianus : said to have introduced church bells. 
or 607. Boniface III. : died in a few months, 
or 608. Boniface IV. 
or 615. St. Deusdedit. 
or 618. Boniface V. 

Honorius I. : interested in British churches. 
[The see vacant. ] 
Severinus : ~k 

^condemned Monothelites. 

liberal. 

Vitalianus : favoured education in England. 

Adeodatus, the gift of God. 

Domnus I. : ornamented churches. 

St. Agathon : tribute to the emperor ceased. 

St. Leo II. : instituted holy water ; favoured music. 

[The see vacant] 

Benedict II. 

John V. : learned and moderate. 

Conon. — Theodore and Pascal. 

Sergius : " governed wisely." 

John VI. : redeemed captives ; firm and wise. 

John VII. : moderate. 

Sisinnius : died 20 days after election. 

Constantine : wise and gentle ; visited Constanti- 
nople. 

St. Gregory II. : sent Boniface to convert Ger- 
mans. 

Gregory III, independent ; first sent nuncios to 
foreign powers. 

St. Zacharias, a Greek. 

Stephen II. elected : died before consecration. 

Stephen II. or III. : temporal power of the church 
of Rome commenced. 

Paul I. : moderate and pious. 

ConMantine Theophylacius: killed by Lombards. 

Stephen III. or IV. : literary. 

Adrian I. : sanctioned images. 

Leo III. : crowned Charlemagne, 800. 

Stephen IV. or V. 



John IV. : 
Theodoras I. 
Martin I. : 
Eusenms I. : 



POPE. 



979 



POPE. 



8i 7 
824. 

S27 



8 47 - 
855- 



872 

882 



900. 

9°3' 



934 
911 
9*3' 
914. 
928, 
929. 
931. 

936. 
939> 
942. 
946. 
956. 



964. 



965' 

972. 
974 

975 



996. 
999. 



1003. 
1009. 



1044. 

1046. 

1047. 
1048. 

1054. 
1055. 
1057. 
1058. 

1061. 
i°73- 



. Pascal I. : ascetic, and built churches. 

Eugenius II. : "father of the afflicted. "— Zozimus, 

Valentinus. 

Gregory IV. ; pious and learned. 

Sergius II. 

Leo IV. : defeated the Saracens. 

Pope Joan's election fabulous (which see). 

Benedict III. — Anastasius. 

Nicholas I., the Great : conversion of Bulgarians. 

Adrian II. : eminent for sanctity. 

John VIII. : crowned 3 emperors. 

Marinus or Martin II. : condemned Photius. 

Adrian III. : ditto. 

Stephen V. or VI. : very charitable. 

Formosus : political. — Sergius. 

Boniface VI. : deposed. 

Stephen VI. or VII. : vicious ; dishonoured the corpse 
of pope Formosus ; strangled by the people. 

Bomanus. — Sergius. 

Theodoras II. : governed 22 days. 

John IX. 

Benedict IV. : "a great pope." 

Leo V. : expelled : died in prison. 

Christopher. 
[Several popes made by the infamous Marozia. ] 

Sergius III. : disgraced by his vices. 

Anastasius III. 

Landonius, or Lando. 

John X. : stifled by Guy, duke of Tuscany. 

Leo VI. : considered an intruder. 

Stephen VII. or VIII. 

John XL : son of Marozia ; imprisoned in the castle 
of St. Angelo, where he died. 

Leo VII. : great for zeal and piety. 

Stephen VIII. or IX. : " of ferocious character." 

Marinus II. or Martin III. : charitable. 

Agapetus II. : of holy life ; moderate. 

John XII., the infamous : deposed for adultery and 
cruelty ; and murdered. 

Leo VIII. : an honour to the chair. 

Benedict V. : chosen on the death of John XII., 
but opposed by Leo VIII., who was supported 
by the emperor Otho : died at Hamburg. 

John XIII. , elected by the authority of the emperor 
against the popular will. 

Benedict VI. : murdered in prison. 

Domnus II. — Boniface VII. 

Benedict VII. 

John XIV. : imprisoned by Boniface VII. 

John XV. : died before consecration. 

John XVI. : loved gain. 

Gregory V. — John XVII. : expelled by the emperor, 

and barbarously used. 
Silvester II. (Gerbert) : learned and scientific ; said 
to have introduced the Arabic numerals, and 
invented clocks. 

John XVII. : legitimate pope, died same year. 

John XVIII. abdicated. 

Sergius IV. (original name "Bocca di Porco," Pig's 
Snout). 

Benedict VIII. : supported by the emperor against 
Gregory. 

John XIX. : elevated by bribery. 

Benedict IX. ; became pope, by purchase, at 
12 years of age ; expelled for vices. 

Sylvester III. : 3 months. 

Gregory VI. : deposed. — Sylvester; and John XX. 
[The emperor very influential.] 

Clement II. died the next year {Clemens Bomanus, 
the first Clement). 

Benedict IX. again : again deposed. 

Damasus II. : died soon after. 

St. Leo IX. : a reformer of simony and incontinence. 

[The throne vacant one year.] 

Victor II. : a reformer. 

Stephen IX. or X. 

Benedict X. ; expelled. 

Nicholas II. : increased the temporal power. 

Alexander II. : raised the papal power. — Hono- 
rius II. 

St. Gregory VII. (Hiklebrand) : vigorous reformer ; 
opposed the emperor Henry IV. respecting in- 
vestitures ; and excommunicated him, 1076 ; re- 
stored him at Canossa, 1077; died, in exile, 
1085. 



1080. Clement III. (Guibert). 

1085. (The throne vacant one year.] 

1086. Victor III. (Didier) : learned. 
1088. Urban II. ; crusades commenced. 

1099. Pascal II. (Ranieri) : Tuscany given to the papa 
by the countess Matilda. 

1118. Gelasius II. : retired to a monastery. — Gregor 

VIII. 

1119. Calixtus II. : settled investiture question. 
1 124. Honorius II. 

1130. Innocent II. : condemned heresies : held 2n 

Lateran council. — Anacletus II. 
1138. Victor IV. 

1 143. Celestine II. : ruled 5 months. 

1 144. Lucius II. : killed by accident in a popular com- 

motion. 

1145. Eugenius III. : ascetic. 

1 153. Anastasius IV. 

1 1 54. Adrian IV., or Nicholas Brakespeare, the only 

Englishman elected pope : born at Abbot's Lang- 
ley, near St. Alban's ; Frederick I. prostrated 
himself before him, kissed his foot, held his 
stirrup, and led the white palfrey on which he 
rode. 

1159. Alexander III. : learned ; canonised Thomas a 
Becket ; resisted Frederick I. ; 1159, Victor V. ; 
1164, Pascal III. ; 1168, Calistus III. ; 1178, Inno- 
cent III. 

1181. Lucius III. — The cardinals acquire power. 

1185. Urban III. : opposed Frederick I. 

1187. Gregory VIII. : ruled only 2 months. 
,, Clement III. : proclaimed 3rd crusade. 

1191. Celestine III. 

1 198. Innocent III. (Lothario Conti) : endeavoured to fr< e 
Rome from foreign influence ; excommunicated 
John of England ; preached crusade against the 
Albigenses, 1204. 

1216. Honorius III. : learned and pious. 

1227. Gregory IX. : preached a new crusade ; collected 
decretals. 

1241. Celestine IV. : died 18 days after his election. 
[The throne vacant 1 year and 7 months.] 

1243. Innocent IV. : opposed Frederick II. : gave the red 
hat to cardinals. 

1254. Alexander IV. : established inquisition in France. 

1261. Urban IV. : instituted feast of " Corpus Christi." 

1265. Clement IV., an enlightened Frenchman, pre- 
viously legate to England ; discouraged the 
crusades. 

1268. [The throne vacant 2 years and 9 months.] 

1271. Gregory X. : held a council at Lyons to reconcile 
the churches of the east and west. 

1276. Innocent V. : died shortly after. 

,, Adrian V. : legate to England in 1254 ; died 36 days 

after election. 
,, Vicedominus : died the next day. 
,, John XX. or XXI. : died in 8 months. 

1277. Nicholas III. : died in 1280. 

1281. Martin IV., French : supported Charles of Anjou. 

1285. Honorius IV. : supported the French. 

1288. Nicholas IV. : endeavoured to stir up a new 

crusade. 
1292. [The throne vacant 2 years and 3 months.] 
1294. St. Celestine V. : ascetic ; resigned. 
,, Boniface VIII. : proclaimed that " God had set 

him over kings and kingdoms : " imprisoned his 

predecessor ; quarrelled with Philip of France ; 

laid France and Denmark under interdict. 

1303. Benedict XL : a pious and liberal pontiff : said to 

have been poisoned. 

1304. [The throne vacant n months.] 

1305. Clement V. (Bertrand de Got) : governed by 

Philip of France ; removed the papal seat from 

Rome to Avignon, 1309. 
1314. [The throne vacant 2 years and 4 months.] 
1316. John XXII. 

1334. Benedict XII. (Nicholas V. at Rome.] 
1342. Clement VI. : learned. 
1352. Innocent VI. : favoured Rienzi. 
1362. Urban V. : charitable ■ a patron of learning. 
1370. Gregory XL : protecto 1- of learning ; restored the 

papal chair to Rome ; proscribed WickliflVs 

doctrines. 

Schism— 1378-1447. 
1378. Urban VI. : so severe and cruel that the cardinals 
chose Robert of Geneva, as 
,, Clement VII. 

3 r 2 



POPE. 



980 POPE. 



i 3 8 9 . 
1394- 
1404. 
1406. 
1409. 
1410. 
1417. 
1424. 
1431- 



;I45S- 
1458 



1484. 
.7492. 



1522. 
1523- 



1534- 
1550. 
IS5S- 



1566. 
1572- 

1585- 

1590. 

i59i- 
1592. 

.1605. 

1621. 

,1623. 

1644. 

1655. 
1667. 
1670. 
1676. 



1691. 

j 700. 

1721 

1724. 

1730- 

1740. 

I7S8. 
1769. 



Boniface IX. 

Benedict (called XIII.) at Avignon. 

Innocent VII. : died in 1406. 

Gregory XII. , Angelo Corario. 

Alexander V. : died, supposed by poison. 

John XXIII. : deposed. 

Martin V. Otho Colonna. 

Clement VIII. : resigned 1429. 

Eugenius IV. Gabriel Condohnera : deposed by the 
council of Basil, and Amadeus of Savoy chosen 
as Felix V., in 1439, who resigned 1449. 

Nicholas V. : learned ; proposed crusade against 
Turks. 

Calixtus III. Alfonso Borgia : courageous. 

Pius II. iEneas Silvius Piccolomini : learned. 

Paul II. Pietro Barbo : preached a crusade. 

Sixtus IV. : tried to rouse Europe against the 
Turks. 

Innocent VIII. 

Alexander VI. Roderic Borgia : poisoned at a feast 
by drinking of a bowl he had prepared for 
another. 

Pius III. Francisco Piccolomini : 21 days pope. 

Julius II. Julian della Bovere : martial ; began St. 
Peter's. 

Leo X. Giovanni de' Medici : his grant of indul- 
gences for crime led to the Reformation ; patron 
of learning and art. 

Adrian VI. : just, learned, frugal. 

Clement VII. Giulio de' Medici : refused to divorce 
Catherine of Aragon, and denounced the marriage 
of Henry VIII. with Anne Boleyn. 

Paul III. Alexander Farnese : approved the Jesuits. 

Julius III. Giovanni M. Giocchi. 

Marcellus II. : died soon after his election. 

Paul IV. John Peter Caraffa. He would not ac- 
knowledge Elizabeth queen of England ; insti- 
tuted " the Index " (which see), and leagued with 
France against Spain. 

Pius IV. Cardinal de' Medici : founded Vatican 
press. 

St. Pius V. Michael Ghisleri : pious ; energetic. 

Gregory XIII. Buoncampagno : great civilian and 
canonist : reformed the calendar. 

Sixtus V. Felix Peretti : an able governor ; excom. 
Henry III. and Henry IV. of France. 

Urban VII. ; died 12 days after election. 

Gregory XIV. Nicholas Sfrondrate. 

Innocent IX. : died in two months. 

Clement VIII. Hippolito Aldobrandini : learned 
and just : published the Vulgate. 

Leo XL : died same month. 

Paul "V. Camille Borghese ; quarrelled with Venice. 

Gregory XV. Alexander Ludovisio : founded the 
Propaganda. 

Urban VIII. Mallei Barberini : condemned Jan- 
senism. 

Innocent X. John Baptist Panfili : ditto. 

Alexander VII. Fabio Chigi : favoured literature. 

Clement IX. Giulio Rispogliosi : governed wisely. 

Clement X. Emilio Altieri. 

Innocent XI. Odescalchi : condemned Gallicanism 
and Quietism. 

Alexander VIII. Ottoboni, 6 Oct. ; helped Leopold 
against Turks. 

Innocent XII. Antonio Pignatelli : 12 July ; con- 
demned Fenelon. 

Clement XI. John Francis Albani : 23 Nov. ; issued 
the bull Unigenitus. 

Innocent XIII. Michael Angelo Conti : the eighth 
of his family ; 8 May; pensioned Jas. Ed. Stuart. 

Benedict XIII. Orsini 29 May ; favoured J. E. 
Stuart. 

Clement XII. Orsini : 12 July ; restored San Marino 
(republic). 

Benedict XIV. Lambertini : 17 Aug.; learned, 
amiable. 

Clement XIII. Chas. Rezzonico : Avignon lost. 

Clement XIV. Ganganelli: 19 May; suppressed the 
Jesuits. 

Pius VI. Angelo Braschi, Feb. 15 : dethroned by 
Bonaparte ; expelled from Rome, and deposed in 
Feb. 1798 ; died at Valence, 29 Aug. 1799. 



1800. Pius VII. Barnabo Chiaramonte : elected 13 March ; 
agrees to a concordat with France, 15 July, 1801 ; 
crowns Napoleon, 2 Dec. 1804 ; excommunicates 
him, 10 June, 1809 ; imprisoned, 6 July, 1809 ; 
restored in 1814 ; died, 20 Aug. 1823. (He re- 
stored the Jesuits, 1814.) 

1823. Leo XII. Annibale della Gejiga, 28 Sept. 

1829. Pius VIII. Francis Xavier Castiglioni, 31 March. 

1831. Gregory XVI. Mauro Capellari, 2 Feb. : died, 1 June, 
1846. 

1846. Pius IX. Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti (born 
13 May, 1792): elected, 16 June. See Rome, 
1846-71. 

1848. His diplomatic relations with Great Britain au- 
thorised by parliament. 
[Act repealed, 1875.] 

1860-65. His powers in France greatly checked. 

1869. The "Latse Sententise," regarding excommunica- 

tion and limiting absolution, signed, 12 Oct. ; 
issued, Dec. 

1870. The pope opens a general council (8 Dec. 1869), 

which propounds the doctrine of papal infalli- 
bility and list of anathemas (see Councils), Feb. ; 
deprived of the remains of his temporal power 
(see Rome), Dec. 

1871. Visited by the prince and princess of Wales, 

27 March ; celebrates a jubilee (25th anniversary 
of election), 16 June ; nominates 14 Italian pre- 
lates, 24 Nov. 

1872. Perforins no Easter solemnities 31 March ; in his 

allocution complains of the persecution of the 
church in Italy, Germany, and Spain, Dec. 23. 

1873. Letter from the pope to the emperor of Germany 

oomplaining of his persecuting the bishops, and 
asserting his authority over all baptized per- 
sons, 7 Aug. ; the emperor replies in justifica- 
tion, and asserts that there is no mediator be- 
tween God and man but Jesus Christ, 3 Sept. ; en- 
cyclical letter of the pope on wrongs of the church, 
21 Nov. ; he appoints 12 new cardinals, 22 Dec. 

1874. The papal mmcio expelled from Switzerland; pro- 

tests by letter, 17 Jan. ; a bull (said to be forged), 
altering mode of electing a pope, &c, dated 

28 Ma}', 1873 ; appears, Jan. ; 3600L (from poor 
girls in Great Britain) presented to the pope by 
lady Herbert of Lea, 9 April ; the pope receives 
100 American pilgrims, 9 June ; the English un- 
official secretary of legation at the papal court 
withdrawn; leaves, 11 Nov.; in his allocution, 
the pope exhorts the faithful to patience, and 
forbids priests meddling with polities, 21 Dec. 

1875. The pope re-appears at St. Peter's, after four years' 

seclusion, 9 Feb. ; he dedicates the universal 
church to "the sacred heart," 16 June; his 
nuncio issues a circular against religious tolera- 
tion in Spain, Sept. ; allocution ; new cardinals 
announced, 17 Sept. 

1876. Announces an exhibition of sacred objects at the 

Vatican (in celebration of his jubilee) on 21 May, 
1877, Aug. ; performs a requiem for the souls of 
his enemies, 2 Nov. ; death of his cardinal-secre- 
tary, Antonelli, 6 Nov. ; succeeded by Simeoni, 
about 15 Nov. 

1877. Creates n new cardinals, and issues a warm allo- 

cution against the Italian government, 12 March ; 
and circular to foreign powers, on account of the 
bill to repress clerical abuses, 21 March ; creates 

3 cardinals, 22 June ; 2 cardinals, <fec, 28 Dec. 
Died 7 Feb. 1878. 

1878. Leo XIII. Gioachino Pecci (born 2 March, 1810); 

elected, 20 Feb. 1878. 
Reduces his guards : holds a consistory, with an 
allocution ; revives R. C. hierarchy in Scotland, 

4 March. 

Publishes encyclical endorsing policy of prede- 
cessor, but moderate, 25 April. 

Makes his secretary of state cardinal Franchi, 5 
March ; cardinal Nina, Aug. 

Issues an encyclical letter condemning commun- 
ism, socialism, and nihilism, as results of the 
Reformation ; dated 28 Dec. 

1879. Appoints 10 cardinals (including J. H. Newman), 

12 May. 
Issues encyclical against modern false philosophy ; 
recommends Thomas Aquinas, early in Aug. 



POPE. 



981 



POPE. 



Issues encyclical on marriage, as a sacrament, and 
against divorce ; published 18 Feb. 

Delivers an allocution censuring the government 
of Belgium {which see), and praising the bishops, 
20 Aug. 

Cardinal Nina, secretary, resigns for bad health, 
13 Oct.; cardinal Jacobini successor, 17 Nov. ; 
he resigned Dec. 1886 (died 28 Feb. 1887). 

Proclaims an extra jubilee for the distressed 
Church, 15 May. 

Issues an encyclical letter, asserting that all 
government is of divine origin, and that 
wars are consequences of the Reformation, 
July. 

Canonizes De Rossi and three others, 8 Dec. 

Encyclical letter against heresy, socialism, &c, 
read in London churches, 5 Nov. 

Circular to Irish bishops enjoining abstinence from 
disaffection to the government, n May. 

Letter to president Grevy censuring the re- 
publican warfare against religion, 23 June. 

Courteous, firm answer delivered, 8 Aug. 

Letter from the pope defending the papacy, and 
recommending the study of ecclesiastical history, 
Sept. 

The pope addresses 20,000 pilgrims in St. Peter's, 
and recognises Italian unity, 7 Oct. 

Visited by the crown prince of Germany, 18 Dec. 

Encyclical letter to French bishops, commending 
early French devotion to religion, and exhorting 
the bishops to redouble their vigilance in regard 
to heresy and infidelity, n Feb. 

In a letter to cardinal Jacobini he offers 40,000?. 
to erect an hospital for cholera at Rome which 
he would visit, 10 Sept. 

Allocution, 8 cardinals and many bishops 
created, 10 Nov. 

The pope's messenger, father Giulianelli, well re- 
ceived by the emperor of China, April. 

Letter from the pope to the emperor of China, 
1 Feb. ; reply agreeing to receive a papal agent to 
protect R.C. missionaries, July. 

Encyclical letter condemning liberalism, &c, 
6 Nov. 

Monsignor Rampolla becomes pontifical secretary 
of state, March. 

Allocution 23 May. 

Letter from the pope asserting his territorial 
rights, 15 June. 

The pope's jubilee (on being ordained priest, 
31 Dec. 1837). 

The duke of Norfolk, envoy extraordinary from 
queen Victoria, appointed, Dec. ; received by the 
pope 17 Dec. ; a massive basin and ewer of gold 
presented to the pope, 25 Dec. 

The pjope's grand jubilee ; masses at St. Peter's : 
present48 cardinals, 238archbishopsand bishops, 
and about 30,000 persons, 1 and 5 Jan. ; the 
pope's speech demanding the independence of 
the church, 3 Jan. ; the pope condemns the 

. plan of campaign and boycotting on moral 
grounds, announced 27 April. 

The emperor William II. visits the pope 12 Oct. 

Address of English R.C. bishops to the pope pro- 
testing against Italian repressive legislation 
respecting his temporal power, 10 Nov. 

The pope receives French pilgrims, 20 Oct. — Nov. 

The pope's encyclical letter on the moral duties of 
Catholics now much neglected, issued, 6 Jan. ; 
published, 16 Jan. 

Negotiations respecting the Roman catholics in 

Malta, between the British government and the 

pope, carried 011 by sir John Lintorn Simmons, 

concluded ; he leaves Rome, 7 April. 

. Encyclical concerning socialism and the Labour 

question issued 15 May. 
. Encyclical to the French bishops enjoining on all 
good catholics entire submission to the govern- 
ment of the republic, 16 Feb. ; obedience enforced 
by a brief, dated 3 May. 



1893. The pope celebrates his episcopal jubilee, Feb. ; 

about 50,000 pilgrims of various nations present 
in and about St. Peter's ; mass celebrated by 
the pope amid great enthusiasm ; many presents; 
St. Peter's illuminated, 19 Feb. ; Peter's pence 
received, total, reported, 263,9602. ; Great Britain 
48,000?., Ireland 720L, Feb. ; see Phonograph, 
20 March ; he receives the princess of Wales, 
the duke of York, and her daughters, and 
gives them his portraits, 23 March ; receives 
the German emperor and empress, 23 April ; 
letters from the pope to the French catholics, 
approving those who support him, but severely 
censuring malcontents, 3 Aug.; to the congress- 
general of German catholics at Wurzburg, re- 
ported 30 Aug. 

1894. Encyclical to all princes and nations from the 

pope, praying that all Christian nations may be 
brought into the unity of the Roman church,. 
20 June ; the pope presides at conferences with 
some Eastern patriarchs to consider the reunion 
of the dissident Eastern churches with the 
church of Rome, 24 Oct. et seq. ; partial agree- 
ment at a final meeting, 8 Nov. 

1895. Allocution against the Hungarian civil marriage 

law, reported, 21 March; "Apostolic letter to 
the English people," earnestly appealing for 
reunion with the catholic church, 14 April, 
Times, 20 April ; pastoral letter from the abp. 
of Canterbury, 30 Aug. 
Papal consistory : creation of 9 new cardinals, and 
24 Italian bishops, 29 Nov. 

1896. Encyclical advocating Christian unity, 30 June. 
Apostolic letter confirming the decision of ' 

Paul IV. in 1555 and other popes against the 
validity of the Anglican orders, 13 Sept. 

1897. Temperate reply of the archbishops of Canterbury 

and York, sustaining the validity of the Angli- 
can orders, signed 19 Feb., Times, 9 March. 

1898. "A vindication of the bull "by the R. C. car- 

dinal, archbishops and bishops of Westminster, 
published, Feb. ; the English archbishops' firm 
reply, 12 March. Encyclical to Italy, Aug. 

1899. Encyclical to cardinal Gibbons and the American 

catholics, condemning "Americanism" and the 

doctrines of the Paulists, 22 Jan. 
The bull, proclaiming the universal jubilee of 

1900, read, 11 May. 
The pope presides over the commission on the 

union of the churches, 20 May ; see France,, 

15 June, 1899. 
Papal encyclical re the Dreyfus case, vague and 

discursive, published 16 Sept. 
Papal consistory and allocution, 14 Dec. 
The holy year 1900 inaugurated by the opening of 

the "holy door " of St. Peter's, 24 Dec. 

1900. Preconisation of bishops and allocution, 19 April. 
Queen Margherita's prayer for the soul of her 

murdered husband, approved by the bishop of 
Cremona and recited in the churches ; repudiated 
by the Vatican, see Times, 24 Aug. 1900. 

The pope gives his blessing to multitudes at 
St. Peter's, 29 Sept., 13 Oct., 15 Nov., 24 Dec. 

Encyclical to the Roman prelates, stating that 
multitudes have flocked to the "threshold of 
the apostles," relying upon the indulgence 
offered by the church at the close of this 
century, 1 Nov. 
Allocution against his continued loss of temporal 
power, 17 Dec; closes the "holy door," 24 Dec. 
igoi. The pope receives about 800 British pilgrims ; the 
duke of Norfolk reads an address from the 
catholic union, expressing their "indignation 
at the proselytising societies in Rome," and 
praying for the pope's restoration to temporal 
power. The pope in reply lamented the tolera- 
tion to non-catholics in Rome, &c, 8 Jan. 

The pope's Latin ode to the twentieth century, 
published 12 Jan. 

Allocution bewailing the -hostilities against the 
church in various parts of Europe, and the 
French religious associations bill ; 12 cardinals 
created, 15 April. 



POPE. 



982 



POPULATION. 



1901. Commission of biblical exegesis appointed, Aug. 

1902. The pope's pontifical jubilee, 3 March ; special 
British mission ; lord Denbigh presents an auto- 
graph letter from the king, 8 March. 

Encyclical to the R. C. hierarchy " On the most 

holy eucharist," 28 May. 
Papal consistory : creation of 3 new cardinals 

and several bishops ; allocution deploring the 

attempt to dechristianize Rome and Italy by 

heresy, protestantism, &c, 9 June. 
Dinner at the Vatican to 1500 poor, and jubilee 

fete, 6 July. 
The pope at his Christmas reception of the cardinals 

delivers a discourse in favour of the Christian 

democratic movement, and signifies his approval 

of clergy taking part in it, 25 Dec. 
"Poems, charades, inscriptions of pope Leo 

XIII.," with English translation and notes by 

H. T. Henry, published, 1902. 

1903. The pope receives king Edward VII. at the 

Vatican, 29 April ; and the German emperor, 
3 May. 

Papal consistory : 7 new cardinals created, 22 June. 

Death of pope Leo XIII., aged 93, 20 July; tem- 
porarily interred in St. Peter's, 25 July. 

He bequeathed 50,000 lire to the poor of Rome, 
30,000 lire to the poor of Perugia, 10,000 lire to 
the poor of Carpinets. 

Pius X., Giuseppe Sarto(born 2 June, 1835), elected 
pope, 4 Aug. 

Declares his intention to support the king of Spain, 
reported, 29 Aug. 

Papal encyclical, dwelling on recent election, and 
declaring aim to be the restoration of all things 
in Jesus Christ, and to be in all things the 
minister of God, published 3 Oct. 

Fire at the Vatican in rooms over the famous 
library, 1 Nov. 

Papal consistory : Mgr. Callagari and mgr. Merry 
del Val (new papal secretary of state) created 
cardinals ; allocution on the temporal power of 
the papacy, declaring continuance in the policy 
of his predecessors in protesting against the 
injury done to the pontificate by depriving it 
of its necessary liberty. He (the pope) would 
bear his part in politics whenever they were 
inseparable from catholic morality. The 
church opposed neither progress nor science, but 
was willing to assist both whenever they were 
derived from divine sources, 9 Nov. 

Interview of M. Henri des Houx with the pope, 
who referring to old French catholics, expounded 
the doctrine that Christ, who ought to be the 
model for all Christians, had preferred a life of 
suffering and humiliation, reported in Paris 
Matin, 9 Nov. 



1903. Papal consistory (public) : 5 cardinals (3 created 
by Leo XIII.) invested with their hats ; pallium 
conferred on Dr. Bourne, new abp. of West- 
minster, 12 Nov. 

POPE, A., poet (1688— 1 744) . His bi-centenary 
"was celebrated by an exhibition of books, pictures, 
and other relics, and a lecture by professor H. 
Morley at Twickenham town-hall, 31 July, 1888. 

POPE JOAN. It is falsely asserted that, in 
the 9th century, a female named Joan, having con- 
ceived a passion for Felda, a young monk, in order 
to be admitted into his monastery assumed the 
male habit, and that on the death of her lover she 
entered upon the duties of professor, and, being 
very learned, was elected pope, when Leo IV. died, 
in 855. Other scandalous particulars follow; "yet, 
until the reformation, the tale was repeated and 
believed without offence." Gibbon. 

POPISH PLOTS, see Gunpowder Plot and 
Oates's Plot. 

POPLAR TEEES. The Tacamahac poplar 
(Populus Balsamifera) was brought hither from 
North America before 1692. The Lombardy poplar 
from Italy about 1758. 

POPLIN (or Tabinet), an elegant rich fabric 
composed of silk and worsted, introduced by the 
Huguenot refugees from France about 1693 ; first 
manufactured in Dublin. Irish poplins are still 
deservedly esteemed. 

POPULAR CONCERTS, see under Music. 

POPULATION. The population of the 
world was estimated in 1869 at 1,228,000,000 ; 
(at "Washington, 1874), 1,391,032,000; 1882, 
1,433,887,500; 1890, 1,468,000,000 (Ravenstein) ; 
1891, 1,480,000,000 (Behm and Wagner) ; 1902, 
1,600,000,000. For the population of countries, 
see the table (after the preface) facing page I . 



Europe 


275,806,741 . 


312,398,480 




357,379.°°° 


Asia . 


755,000,000 . 


831,000,000 




825,954,000 


Africa 


200,000,000 . 


205,219,500 




163,953,000 


America 


67,896,041 . 


86,116,000 




121,713,000 


Australia . 
Polynesia . 


1,445,000 ^ 
1,500,000 ) 


4,411,300 


r 


3,230,000 
7,420,000 



* Behm and Wagner. 



ESTIMATED POPULATION OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 

Population. 

1790 . . . 8.675,000 

Estimated population of 

Scotland in 1751, 

1,255,663. 

Estimated population of Ireland in 1652, 850,000; in 1712, 2,099,094; in 1754, 2,372,634; in 1805, 5,395,456. 

POPULATION OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND BY CENSUS. 

(The earlier returns given below are approximate, and have been corrected in subsequent Reports.) 





Population. 




Population. 




Population. 


1377 • 


. 2,092,978 


1710 


. 5,240,000 


i75° 


. . 6,467,000 


1483 


. 4,689,000 


1720 


• • 5,565,000 


1760 


. 6,736,000 


1696 


. 5,250,000 


173° • 


. 5,796,000 


1770 


. . 7,428.000 


1700 


• • 5,475,°oo 


1740 


. . 6,064,000 


1780 . 


• 7.953,°°° 



Division. 


1801. 


1811. 


1S21. 


1831. 


1841. 


1851. 


1861. 


1871. 


England . . . 
Wales .... 
Scotland . . . 
Army, Navy, &c. 

Total . . . 
Ireland . . . 
Islands in Bri- ^ 

tish seas . j" 


8,33i,434 
541,546 

1,599,068 
47°,598 


9,55i,888 
611,788 

1,805,688 
640, 500 


11,261,437 

717,438 

2,093,456 

3*9. 3°° 


13,089,338 

805,236 

2,365,807 

277,017 


14,095,138 

916,619 

2,620,184 

312,493 


16,854,142 

1,060,626 

2,870,784 

142,916 


18,949,130 

1,111,705 

3,061,251 

162,021 


21,487,688 

1,216,420 

3,358,613 

207,198 


10,942,646 


12,609,864 
5,937,856 


14,391,631 
8,175,124 


16,537,398 
7,784,934 


18,844,434 
8,175,124 


20,936,468 

6,515.794 

143,126 


23,284,197 

5,764.543 

143.779 


26,269,919 
5,402,759 

144.43° 


27.595.388 


29,192,419 1 31,817,108 



POPULATION. 



983 



POPULATION. 



Division. 


Year. 


Males. 


Females. 


Inhabited Houses. 


England and Wales . 

Scotland .... 
Ireland .... 


1861 
1871 
1881 
1891 
1861 
1871 
1861 
1871 


9,776,259 
11,058,934 
12,639,902 
14,050,620 
1,446,982 
1,601,633 
2,804,961 
2,634,123 


10,289,965 
11,653,332 
13,334)537 
i4,95o,39 8 
1,614,269 
1,756,980 
2,959,582 
2,768,636 


3.739.505 

4. 2 59,n7 

4.831,519 

5,460,976 

393,289 

419.635 

995,156 

960,352 



Abstract of the Census of 4 April, 1S81 ; 5 April, 1891 ; and of 31 March, 1901 : England and Wales, 1881, 25,974,439 '< 
1891, 29,001,018; 1901, 32,527,843. Scotland, 1881, 3,734,370; 1891, 4,033,103; 1901, 4,472,103. Ireland, 
1881, 5,159,839; 1891, 4,706,162; 1901, 4,458,775. [Wales, 1881, 1,360,505; 1891, 1,518,914; 1901, 1,455,680.] 
Channel Isles, 1881, 87,702; 1891, 92,272; 1901, 95,841. Isle of Man, 1881, 53,558; 1891, 55,598; 1901, 54,748. 
Total of the United Kingdom, 1881, 35,246,561 ; 1891, 37,888,153 ; 1901, 41,605,220. 



Reports published Aug. 1892 : Scotland, 1881, 3,735,573 ; 1891, 4,025,647. Ireland, 1881, 5,174,- 



1891, 4,704,750. 



POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL TOWNS OF GREAT BRITAIN. 



Towns. 



tiondon and 

suburbs . 
Manchester, 

&c. . . 
Glasgow, &c. 
Liverpool . 
Edinburgh, 

<fec. . . 
Birmingham 
Leeds, &c. . 
Bristol, &c. . 
Sheffield . . 
Plymouth . 
Portsmouth 
Norwich 
Aberdeen . 
Newcastle- 

on-Tyne . 
Paisley . . 
Nottingham 
Hull . . 
Dundee . 
Brighton 
Bath . . 
York . . 
Preston . 
Cambridge 
Oxford . 



864,845 

94,876 
77,385 
79,722 

82,560 

73,670 

* * 

63,645 

43,i94 
43.461 
36,832 
27,608 

36,963 

31,179 
28,861 
34,964 
26,084 
7.339 
30,113 
23,692 
11,887 
13,360 
15,124 



1,009,546 

115,874 
100,749 
100,240 

102,987 
^85,753 

* ?6 ' 4 * 3 
56,060 
52,769 
37.256 

35.37° 

36,369 
36,722 

34,253 
32,467 
29,616 
12,012 
32,214 
26,422 
17,065 
13,802 
15.337 



1,225,694 

161,635 

147.043 
131,801 

138,235 
106,721 
83,796 
87,779 

69.479 
61,212 
56,620 
50,288 
44,796 

46,948 
47.003 
4o,4iS 
41,874 
3o,575 
24,429 
36,811 

29.527 
24.575 
14,142 
16,364 



237.832 
202,426 
189,244 

162,403 
142,251 
123,393 
103,886 
91,692 

75,534 
63,026 
61,116 
58,019 

57,937 
57.466 
50,680 
49.46i 
45.355 
40,634 
38,063 
34.46i 
33.H2 
20,917 
20,432 



1,873,676 

242,583 
274,533 
286,487 

168,182 
182,922 
152,054 
122,296 
111,091 
80,059 
63,03 
72,344 
63,288 

70,860 
60,487 
57,407 
71,629 
62,794 
46,661 
38,304 
38,321 
50,131 
24,453 
23,834 



2,362,236" 

404,465 
340,653 
375,955 

i93,9 2 9 

232,841 

172,270 

137.328 

i35,3io 

102,380 

72,096 

68,195 

7 J .945 

87,784 
69,951 

71.344 
84,690 
77,829 
65.573 
54, 2 40 
40,359 
69,542 
27,815 
27,843 



Si.t 



71. t 



3,251,8043,834,194 



552,508 



400,774 
309,119 
206,874 
284,508 

73,794 
127, 

87,842 



186,575 
86,502 

107,546 
5i, 8 i4 



357,979 


383,843 


394,857 


477,144 


443,93 s 


493,346 


168,098 


196,500 


296,076 


343,696 


207,165 


259,201 


154,093 


182,524 


185,172 


239,947 


62,599 


69,414 


94,799 


112,954 


74,891 


80,390 


73,794 


88,125 


109,108 


128,160 


47.419 


48,257 


74.693 


86,608 


97.66i 


123,111 


90,425 


118,974 


87.317 


103,760 


52,528 


53,714 


45,385 


50,761 


82,985 


85,428 


26,361 


34,029 


27,560 


34,514 



96,537 
35.363 

40,872 



4.231,4314.536,541 



505,303 

792,728 

517.951 

261,261 

429,171 
367.506 
221,665 

324.243 
84,179 
159,255 

100,964 
121,905 

186,345 

66,427 
211,984 

95.422 
155,640 
115,402 

51,843 
66,984 
107,573 

36,983 
45,741 



543,969 

761,665 
685,276 

3!6,479 
522,182 
428,953 
328,842 
380,717 
107,509 
189,160 
111,728 
i53.io3 

214,803 
79.355 
239,753 
240,618 
160,871 
123,478 
49,821 

77.793 
112,982 

38,393 
49.413 



In 1851 



51, 1,106,558 males, and 1,255,678 females. t 1861 and 1871 : parliamentary limits of the boroughs. 

In Great Britain, Ireland, and islands, in 1901, 20,163,309 males, and 21,441,911 females ; in London, 2,015,899 males 
and 2,520,641 females. Total in employment (over 10 years of age) in England and Wales, 1891, 22,053,857 ; 

1901, 25,322,834. 

[The returns for 1891 and 1901 are taken from the Preliminary Report of the census.] 

Estimates of the population of the United Kingdom are given in the annual reports of the Registrars-general. 

London registration district, 4,411,271, 29 March, 1896. 

Ireland. 
Dublin, 1881,249,602; 1891, 254,709; 1901, 289,108. Belfast, 1881, 208,122; 1891, 255,896; 1901, 348,965. Cork, 
1881, 80,124; lS 9i, 75,070; 1901, 75,978. Waterford, 1891, 21,693; I 9° I . 26,743. Londonderry, 1891,32,893; 
1901, 39,873. Limerick, 1891, 37,072 ; 1901, 38,085. 



POPULATION OF THE CHIEF CITIES OF THE WORLD. 



Cities. 
Adelaide, 1901 . 
Alexandria, Egypt, 1901 
Amsterdam, 1901 
Antwerp, 1900 . 
Athens, 1896 
Baltimore, U.S., 1901 
Barcelona, 1897 
Basle, 1901 
Belgrade, 1901 
Berlin, 1901 
Berne, 1901 
Bologna, 1901 
Bombay, 1901 
Bordeaux, 1901 



Inhabitants. 
160,691 
319,766 
520,800 
285,600 
111,486 
541,000 
509,589 
111,009 

72,000 
1,901,567 

64,864 
152,009 
821,764 
257.471 



See separate Ai'ticles. 
Cities. Inhabitants. 

Boston, U.S., 1900 . . 560,892 
Bremen, 1900 . . . 163,297 
Breslau, 1900 . . . 1,697,719 
Brooklyn, 1890 . . 806,343 

Brussels, 1900 . . . 211,429 
Buda-Pesth, 1900 . . 732,222 
Buffalo, 1900 . . . 352,387 
Cadiz, 1897 . . . 70,177 

Cairo, 1900 . . . 570,062 

Calcutta (including suburbs), 

1901 .... 1,121,664 
Canton, 1890 . aboxtt 1,600,000 
Chicago, 1900 . . . 1,698,575 
Christiania, 1900 . . 227,626 



Cities. 




Inhabitants. 


Cincinnati, 1900 . 






405,000 


Cleveland, 1900 . 






381,768 


Cologne, 1900 






372,229 


Constantinople, 190 


estmd. 


1,125,000 


Copenhagen, 1901 






378,235 


Dresden, 1900 . 






397,3oo 


Florence, 1901 . 






204,950 


Frankf ort-on-Main , 


1900 




288,489 


Geneva, 1901 






105,139 


Genoa, 1901 






234,800 


Ghent, 1900 






160,949 


Hague, 1900 






212,211 


Hamburg, 1900 . 






705,738 


Hanover, 1930 . 






235,666 





POBCELAIN. 


984 


POBTLAND ADMINISTBATIQNS. 


Cities. 


Inhabitants. 


Cities. 


Inhabitants. 


Cities. Irihabito/nts. 


Konigsberg, 1900 




187,897 


Naples, 1901 


■ 563.751 


Stockholm, 1900 . . 300,624, 


Leipsic, 1900 




455>°89 


New Orleans. 1900 


300,000 


St. Etienne, 1901 


346,671 


Liege, 1900 . 




173,706 


New York(including Brook- 


St. Louis, 1900 . 


623,000 


Lille, 1901 . 




215.431 


lyn), 1900 


• 3,444,675 


St. Petersburg, 1900 . 


1.439.375 


Lima, 1896 




298,106 


Odessa, 1897 


404,651 


Stuttgart, 1900 . 


176,705. 


Lisbon, 1900 




357,000 


Oporto, 1900 


172,421 


Sydney, 1901 


438,000. 


Lubeck, 1900 




82,098 


Palermo, 1901 


3 I0 .35 2 


Teheran . . estimated 210,000 


Lyons, 1901 




453. 1 55 


Paris, <fec, 1901 . 


. 2,660,550 


Tien-tsin, 1887 . 


950,000 


Madras, 1901 




509,397 


Pekin, 1874 


. 1.648,814 


Tokio, 1899 


1,440,121 


Madrid, 1897 




512,150 


Philadelphia, 1900 


• 1.293.697 


Toronto, i6gi 


207,971 


Malaga, 1897 




125,559 


Pittsburg, 1900 . 


321,616 


Toulouse, 1901 . 


147,606 


Marseilles, 1901 . 


estimated 


494.709 


Prague, 1900 


. 389,741 


Tunis . . . estimated 150,000 


Melbourne, 1901 




493.956 


Quebec, 1901 


. 1,620,974 


Turin, 1901 


335.639 


Messina, 1901 




149,823 


Rio Janeiro, 1890 


. 876,884 


Upsal, 1900 


22,855 


Mexico, 1900 




329.774 


Rome, 1901 


463,000 


Utrecht, 1900 


104,194, 


Milan, 1901 




491,460 


Rotterdam, 1900 


• 332,185 


Valencia, 1897 . 


204,768 


Montreal, 1901 . 


nearly 


350,000 


Rouen, 1901 


• "5>9i4 


Valparaiso, 1899 


143,022 


Moscow, 1900 




1,023,817 


San Francisco, 1900 


360,000 


Venice, 1901 


151,84a 


Munich, 1900 




499.959 


Santiago (Chili), 1899 


320,638 


Vienna, 1900 


1,656,662 


Nankin 


estimated 


1,000,000 


Seville, 1897 


146,205 


Warsaw, 1897 


638,208 


Nantes, 1901 




128,349 


Smyrna, 1901 . estimated 201,016 


Washington, U.S., 1900 


278,718. 



POECELAIN, see Pottery. 

POBPHYEOGENITUS, "bom in the pur- 
ple," a term applied to emperors of the east, born 
while their fathers were reigning. 

POET AETHUE, China. See Corea, Nov. 
1894; Russia, 1898. Kussian conference held here, 
July, 1903. 

POET BBETON, an isle near New Caledonia, 

South Pacific. 

In 1877 the marquis Du Breil de Rays purchased of the 
king Maragano a quantity of land on which to found 
a colony. Glowing prospectuses were issued in 
France, a company was formed, and, the scheme being 
favoured by the legitimists, a large number of shares 
were purchased and much money received. Other 
speculating companies were formed, and colonial 
government officers nominated. In spite of warning 
and prohibition several vessels sailed in 1879 with 
emigrants to meet with misery, disease, and, to a 
large extent, with death. A few who had been landed 
in New Caledonia got back to France and published 
an account of their sufferings. The marquis and some 
of his associates were brought to trial 27 Nov. 
1883 ; he was sentenced to four years' imprisonment 
and a fine of 3000 francs, his associates to shorter im- 
prisonment, 2 Jan. 1884; on appeal, sentence con- 
firmed, 14 March, 1884. 

POETE, or Sublime Porte, official name 
of the court of the sultan of Turkey. Mostasem, 
the last of the Abbasside caliphs (1243-58), fixed in 
the threshold of the principal entrance to his palace 
at Bagdad a piece of the black stone adored at 
Mecca, and thus this entrance became the " porte " 
by eminence, and the title of his court. The sul- 
tans, successors of the caliphs, assumed the title. 
— Bouillet. 

POBTEOCS MOB. Capt. Porteous, at Edin- 
burgh, on 15 April, 1736, commanded the guard at 
the execution of "Wilson, a smuggler, who had 
saved the life of a fellow criminal, by springing 
upon the soldiers around them, and by main force 
keeping them back, while his companion fled. This 
excited great commiseration, and the spectators 
pelted the guard with stones. Fearing a rescue, 
Porteous ordered his men to fire upon the mob, and 
seventeen persons were killed or wounded. He 
was found guilty of murder, 22 June, 1736; but the 
queen granted him a reprieve (the king being then in 
Hiinover). The people, at night, broke open the 
prison, took out Porteous, and hanged him on a 
dyer's sign-post, in the Grass-market, 7 Sept. 1736. 
None of the rioters were ever detected. 

POETEE. Dr. Ashe says that this malt liquor 
obtained its appellation on account of its having 
been dn;»k by porters in the city of London, about 



1730. The number of licensed brewers in 1850, 
in England, was 2257; in Scotland, 154; and in 
Ireland, 96— total, 2507. On 17 Oct. 1814, at Meux's 
brewhouse two large vats of porter burst, destroy - 
ing neighbouring houses. Several lives were lost ; 
and the loss was between 8000 and 9000 barrels. 

Chief Brewers. In 1760. Barrels. 

Calvert & Co. brewed 74,734 

Whitbread ■ . . . . 63,408. 

Truman 60,140 

Sir William Calvert 52,785 

Giflbrd & Co 41,410 

Lady Parsons . 34,008 

Thrale 30, 740 

Huck & Co 29,615 

Harman 28,017 

Meux & Co 10,012 

In J815. 

Barclay & Perkins 337,62 a 

Meux, Reid & Co 282,104 

Truman, Hanbury & Co 272,162 

Whitbread & Co 261,018 

In 1840. 

Henry Meux & Co 229,100 

F. Calvert & Co 219,333 

Combe, Delafield <fc Co 305,083 

Barclay, Perkins & Co. . . . . . . 361,323 

Truman, Hanbury & Co 263,235 

Whitbread & Co 218,828 

Reid and Co 196,442 

Combe, Delafield & Co 177.542 

Felix Calvert (fe Co 136,38? 

Sir Henry Meux <& Co 116,547 

POETEEAGE ACT, regulating the charge fo? 
porterage of small parcels, passed 1799. 

The Fellowship of Free Porters established in London in 
the 13th century, with exclusive privileges, relating to 
grain, &c, much reduced by the act of parliament of 
1872 and the construction of clocks. The institution 
was gradually dying out. After urgent demands and 
much delay, the distribution of the accumulated 
funds and p'roperty amongst the members was ordered 
by the rulers, 12 Oct. 1893. The fellowship disbanded 
by the court of common council, June, 1894. 

Final payment of assets, 10,379?. 4s. jd., distributed to 
495 members, 18 Dec. 1894. 

POET HAMILTON, see Corca. 

POET JACKSON (New South Wales), thir- 
teen miles north of Botany Bay, was so named by 
capt, Cook in 1770; see Sydney. Here the duke 
of Edinburgh was shot by O'Farrell, a Fenian, 
12 March, 1868, but soon recovered. The assassin 
was hanged, 21 April. 

POETLAND ADMINISTEATIONS. 

The first was the "coalition ministry," of which 



PORTLAND CEMENT. 



985 



POET BOYAL. 



William Henry Cavendish, duke of Portland,* as 
first lord of the treasury, was the head. It obtained 
the name of the "coalition" ministry, and in- 
cluded lord North with Mr. Fox, formerly in- 
veterate opponents. Formed 5 April, 1783; dis- 
solved by Mr. Pitt's coming into power, Dec. same 
year. 

FIRST ADMINISTRATION. 

Duke of Portland, first lord of the treasury. 

Viscount Stormont, president of the council. 

Earl of Carlisle, privy seal. 

Frederick, lord North, and Charles James Fox, home and 

foreign secretaries. 
Lord John Cavendish, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Viscount Keppel, admiralty. 
Viscount Townshend, ordnance. 
Lord Loughborough, chief commissioner of great seal. 
Charles Townshend, Edmund Burke, Richard Fitz- 

patrick, Richard B. Sheridan, <&c. 

SECOND ADMINISTRATION, 25 March, 1807. 

Earl Camden, lord president. 

Lord Eldon, lord chancellor. 

Earl of Westmorland, lord privy seal. 

Hon. Spencer Perceval, lord Hawkesbury(afterwai'ds earl 

of Liverpool), Mr. Canning, and viscount Castlereagh 

(afterwards marquis of Londonderry), home, foreign, and 

colonial secretaries. 
Earl Bathurst and Mr. Dundas, boards of trade and 

control. 
Lord Mulgrave, admiralty. 
Earl of Chatham, ordnance. 

POETLAND CEMENT, first mentioned in 
a patent granted to Joseph Aspden, a bricklayer of 
Leeds, 1824. His son made the true cement at 
Northfleet. Its value as a building material was 
established by Mr. John Grant's tests, 1859-71. 
Portland cement concrete was used by Mr. E. A. 
Bernay in 1867. 

POETLAND ISLE (off Dorset), the English 
Gibraltar. Fortified before 1 142. Portland castle 
was built by Henry VIII. about 1536. Off this 
peninsula a naval engagement commenced between 
the English and Dutch, 18 Feb. 1653, which con- 
tinued for three days. The English destroyed 
eleven Dutch men-of-war and thirty merchantmen. 
Van Tromp was admiral of the Dutch, and Blake of 
the English. — Here is found the noted freestone 
used for building our finest edifices. The Portland 
lights were erected 1716' and in 1789. The pier, 
with nearly half a mile square of land, was washed 
into the sea in Feb. 1792. Prince Albert laid the 
first stone of the Portland breakwater, 25 July, 
1849, and the last stone was laid by the prince of 
Wales, 10 Aug. 1872. Mr. James Rendel, the first 
chief engineer, was succeeded on his death in 1856 
by Mr. (aft. sir) John Coode. The breakwater and 
other harbour works cost 1,033,600/. exclusive of 
convict labour. 'I he Portland prison was established 
in 1848. A mutiny among the convicts here in 
Sept. 1858, was promptly suppressed. The king 
visits the prison and Whitehead's torpedo works, 
4 April, 1902. 

POETLAND (or Barberini) VASE. This 
beautiful specimen of Greek art (composed of a 
glass-like- substance, with figures and devices raised 
on it in white enamel ; height 10 inches ; diameter 
in the broadest part, 7 ; with a handle on each 
side) was discovered about the middle of the 16th 
century, in a marble sarcophagus in a sepulchre at 
a place called Monte del Grano, about 2\ miles 
from Borne. The sepulchre was supposed to have 
been that of- the Roman emperor, Alexander Se- 

* Born 1738; became lord chamberlain, 1765; lord 
lieutenant of Ireland, 1782; premier, 1783; home secre- 
tary, 1794; lord president, 1801 ; premier again, 1807; 
died 1809, when Mr. Spencer Perceval became premier. 



verus (222-235), and his mother Mammaea, and the 
vase is supposed to have been the cinerary urn of 
one of these royal personages. It was placed in the 
palace of the Barberini family, at Borne, where it 
remained till 1770, when it was purchased by sir 
William Hamilton, from whose possession it passed 
to that of the duchess of Portland, 1787; at the 
sale of her effects, it is said to have been bought 
by the then duke of Portland, who, in 1810, de- 
posited it (on loan) in the British museum. On 
27 Feb. 1845, tn i* vase was smasne( i t0 pieces with 
a stone by a man named William Lloyd ; it has- 
been skilfully repaired, and is now shown to the 
public in a special room. Josiah Wedgwood made 
a mould of it, and took a number of casts. 

POET MAHON, see Minorca. 

POETO BELLO (S. America), discovered by 

Columbus, 2 Nov. 1502, was taken by Morgan the 
buccaneer in 1668 ; by the British under admiral 
Vernon, from the Spaniards, 21 Nov. 1739, and the 
fortifications destroyed. Before the abolition of the 
trade by the galleons, in 1 748, it was the great mart 
for the rich commerce of Peru and Chili. 

POETO FEEEAJO, capital of Elba {which 
see); built and fortified by Cosmo I., duke of 
Florence, in 1548. The fortifications were not 
finished till 1628, when Cosmo II. completed them 
with great magnificence ; see France. 

POETO NOVO (S. India). Here sir Eyre 
Coote, with about 9500 men and 55 light field- 
pieces, skilfully defeated Hyder Ah, ruler of the 
Carnatic, with 80,000 men and some heavy cannon,. 
I July, 1781. Hyder lost about 10,000, the British 
587 killed and wounded. PORTO NOVO, W. 
Africa, a French settlement on the coast of Daho- 
mey, which see (1890 et seq.). 

POETO EICO, a West India island, belong- 
ing to Spain; discovered by Columbus in 1493. 
Attacks on it by Drake and Hawkins repulsed,, 
1595. Revolt suppressed, 1823. Slavery abolished,. 
23 March, 1873. I'eded to United States, N.A., 
10 Dec. 1898; see Spanish American War. 
Fearful hurricane, many deaths, 7 Aug. 1899; see 
West Indies. Mr. Wm.'Hunt appointed governor, 
30 Aug. 1 901; fatal rioting re election registrations,, 
reported, 29 Oct. 1902. 

POET PHILLIP (New S. Wales), original 
name of the colony of Victoria (which see). 

POETEAIT GALLERY, &c, see National 
Portrait Gallery and Composite Portraits. 
The Society of Portrait Painters held its first exhi- 
bition at the Institute of Painters in "Water 
Colours in Piccadilly, July, 1891. The society 
includes the most eminent artists. Annual 
autumn exhibitions. 
The formation of a " British Museum of Portraits " 
(photographs) was proposed by Mr. James 
Glaisher in 1864, and partly begun. The under- 
taking resumed mainly by the exertions of Mr. 
Glaisher and the Amateur Photographic associa- 
tion, and a collection of portraits deposited in 
the art department at South Kensington museum, 

July, 189? 

POETEEEVE (derived from Saxon words 
signifying the governor of a port or harbour). The 
chief magistrate of London was originally so styled ; 
but Richard I. appointed two bailiffs, and afterwards 
London had mayors. Camden ; see Mayors. 

POET EOYAL (Nova Scotia), capital of the 
French colony, Acadie, founded in 1604; after 
having been taken and restored several times, it was 
finally acquired by the British in 1710, and named 
Annapolis. 



POET EOYAL. 



986 



PORTUGAL. 



POET EOYAL (Jamaica), once a consider- 
able town, was destroyed by earthquakes in 1602 
and 1692 ; laid in ashes by fire in 1702; reduced to 
ruins by an inundation of the sea in 1722 ; and 
destroyed by a hurricane in 1774. After these 
calamities, the custom-house and public offices were 
removed to Kingston. Port Eoyal was again greatty 
damaged by fire in 1 750; by another awful storm 
in 1784; and by a devastating fire in July, 1815 ; 
in 1850 it suffered by cholera. 

POET EOYAL DES CHAMPS (near Paris) 
M 7 as a French Cistercian convent, founded by Odo, 
bishop of Paris, at the wish of king Philip Augus- 
tus, 1204. Having fallen into decay, it was revived 
and reformed in 1608 by Angelica Arnauld. In 
1625 the increased community removed to Paris. 
The Port Eoyal des Champs, in 1656, became the 
retreat of the Arnaulds, Tillemont, Pascal, Lance- 
lot, and other eminent Jansenists, who devoted 
themselves to education, and produced the Port 
Royal grammars, logic, and other works. This 
institution was condemned by the pope in 1 709, 
and the buildings were pulled down, and tombs 
desecrated, by the order of Louis XIV., in 1710. 
'The Port Eoyal at Paris was suppressed, with other 
monasteries, in 1790. 

POETSMOUTH (Hampshire), the most con- 
siderable haven for men-of-war, and most strongly 
fortified place in England. The dock, arsenal, and 
storehouses were established in the reign of Henry 
VIII. See Population. 
The French under DAnnebaut attempted to destroy 

Portsmouth, but were defeated by viscount Lisle, 

in the then finest war-ship in the world, the Great 

Harry i 545 

Here Geor fe e Villiers, duke of Buckingham, was 

assassinated by Felton ... 23 Aug. 1628 

Admiral Byng (see Byng) on a very dubious sen- 
tence was shot at Portsmouth . . 14 March, 1757 
The dockyard was fired, the loss estimated at 

400,000/. . . . . . . .3 July, 1760 

Another fire occasioned loss of 100,000/. 27 July, 1770 
£The French were suspected both times, but there 

was no actual proof.] 
Tire caused by James Aitken (John the painter) 

7 Dec. 1776; executed . . . . 10 March, 1777 
Royal George (ivhich see) sunk . . 29 Aug. 17S2 

Grand naval mock engagement and parade of the 

fleet, the king being present, 22 to 25 June, 1773, 

and 30 June, 1794 

Another great fire occurred . . . . 7 Dec. 1776 
The king of the French with a fleet arrives at 

Portsmouth, see France ... 6 Oct. 1S44 
A great naval review was held . . 25 April, 1856 
Visited by a French fleet amid great rejoicings, 

29 Aug.-i Sept. 1865 
Easter Monday volunteer review, &c. , very successful 

13 April, 1868 
Naval review at Spithead before the shah of Persia. 

23 June, 1873 
Explosion at Priddy's hard ; 5 killed . 5 May, 1883 

See Navy of England, 1887, 1889, 1890, 1891. 
The emperor William II. visited Portsmouth, 5 Aug. 

1889, and 6 Aug. 1890 

The prince of Wales opens the new town-hall 

9 Aug. ,, 
The Amphitheatre music-hall burnt (cost, 10,000/.) 

25 Dec. ,, 
The Royal Arthur and the Royal Sovereign launched 

by the queen, see Navy ... 26 Feb. 1891 
Visit of the French fleet, see France . 19-26 Aug. „ 
Visit of the Italian fleet, see Italy . . July, 1895 
Visit of the czar and czarina . . 4, 5 Oct. 1896 
Lord Roberts presented with the freedom, 6 Dec. 

1898 [and with that of the borough, 23 Oct. 1902]. 
The empress Frederick opens the Diamond Jubilee 

block of the Sailors' Rest ... 30 Dec. 1898 



The duke and duchess of York open 2 blocks of 
the new Portsmouth hospital . . 27 Feb. 1899 

Messrs. Vosper & Co.'s engineering works, Broad- 
street, burnt 9 July, „ 

Demonstration and banquet in honour of capt. 
Lambton and the naval brigade of H.M.S. Power- 
fid (see South African War) . . 24 April, 1900 

Theatre Royal (3000 seats) opened . . 6 Aug. „ 

Lord Howe opens a naval and military exhibition, 

16 June, 1902 

Captain Percy Scott and officers and crew of the 
Terrible warmly welcomed on return from cam- 
paigns in S. Africa and China, 1899 et seq., 

19-23 Sept. ,, 

Explosion at Priddy's yard, building damaged, 

6 Nov. ,, 

Statue of queen Victoria unveiled . . 8 July, 1903 

United States squadron arrive under adm. Cotton, 
7 July, 1903 ; banquet of 500 American and 300 
British sailors and marines ; statue of queen 
Victoria in the Town-hall-square unveiled ; illu- 
mination of Channel squadron and U.S. ships at 
Spithead, 8 July (see Navy), leave . 17 July ,, 

House in which Chas. Dickens was born, bought by 
corporation (1 125/.) .... 29 Sept. „ 

King and queen of Italy arrive here on their visit 
to king Edward VII 17 Nov. „ 

POETTJGAL, the ancient Lusitania. The pre- 
sent name is derived from Porto Callo, the 01-iginal 
appellation of Oporto. After a nine years' struggle, 
\inder Viriathes, a brave able leader, the Lusi- 
tftnians submitted to the Roman arms about 137 B.C. 
Portugal underwent the same changes as Spain on 
the fall of the Eoman empire. There are in 
Portugal two universities, that of Coimbra, founded 
in 1308, and the smaller one of E\ora, founded in 
1533. Lisbon has also its royal academy, and the 
small town of Thomar has an academy of sciences; 
but, in general, literature is at a low ebb in 
Portugal. The poet Camoens, called the Virgil 
of his country, and author of the Lusiad (1569), 
translated into English by Mickle, was a native of 
Lisbon. Population of the kingdom and colonies, 
31 Dec. 1863, 8,037,194; in 1872, kingdom on the con- 
tinent, with Madeira and Azores, 4,390,589; colonies, 
3,258,140; in 1878, kingdom and colonies, 8,037,831; 
1881, kingdom, 4,708,178; I Dec. 1900, 5,428,800. 
Estimated revenue, 1890-1, 8,817,040/. ; 1893-4, 
9,146,674/. ; expenditure, 1890-1, 9,574,150/. ; 
1893-4, 10,271,637^. ; 1897-8, revenue, 52,865,478 
reis ; expenditure, 55,563,304 reis ; 1901-02, 
revenue, 53,269,000 reis; expenditure, 55,239,000 
reis. The constitution granted in 1826 was 
revised in 1852. 

Settlement of the Alains and Visigoths here . . 472 

Conquered by the Moors 713 

The kings of Asturias subdue some Saracen chiefs, 

and Alfonso III. establishes bishops . . . 900 
The Moors, conquered by Alfonso VI. the Valiant, of 
Castile, assisted by many other princes and volun- 
teers ; Henry of BesanQon (a relative of the duke 
of Burgundy and king of France), very eminent; 
Alfonso bestowed upon him Theresa, his natural 
daughter, and Portugal as her marriage portion, 
which he was to hold of him as count . . . 1095 
Alfonso Henriquez defeats five Moorish kings, and 

proclaimed king; see unique '. . 25 July, 1139 
Assisted by a fleet of Crusaders on their way to the 

Holy Land, he takes Lisbon from the Moors, 25 Oct. 1 147 
Part of Algarve taken from the Moors by Sancho I. 1189 
Reign of Dionysius I. or Denis, father of his coun- 
try, who builds 44 cities or towns in Portugal . 1279 
University of Coimbra founded .... 1308 

Military orders of Christ and St. James instituted, 

1279 and 1325 

Ifies de Castro murdered 135s 

John I., surnamed the Great, carries his arms into 

Africa i4 T 5 

Maritime discoveries 1419-30 

Madeira and the Canaries seized .... 1420 



PORTUGAL. 



987 



PORTUGAL. 



1777 
1792 



Code of laws digested 1425 

Lisbon made the capital .... about 1433 
Prince Henry, the navigator, dies .... 1460 
Passage to the Bast Indies by the Cape of Good 
Hope discovered by Vasco da Gama . 20 Nov. 1497 

Discovery of the Brazils 1499 

Brazil discovered by Cabral .... April, 1500 
Carnoens, author of the Lusiad, born . about 1520 

The Inquisition established 1526 

University of Bvora founded . . . 1451 or 1533 

African expedition ; king Sebastian defeated and 

slain in the battle of Alcazar . . .Aug. T578 

The kingdom seized by Philip II. of Spain . . . 1580 
The Dutch seize ihe Portuguese settlements in India, 

1602-20 
The Portuguese throw off the yoke, and place John, 

duke of Braganza, on the throne . . Dec. 1640 
The Portuguese defeat the Spaniards at Villa Viciosa, 
1665 ; war ended by the treaty of Lisbon . . 166S 

Methuen treaty (which see) 1703 

The great earthquake destroys Lisbon . 1 Nov. 1755 
Joseph I. narrowly escapes death by assassins . 1758 
ISome of the first families were tortured to death ; 
their very names being forbidden to be mentioned ; 
the innocence of many was soon afterwards made 
manifest; the Jesuits were also expelled.] 
Joseph, having no son, obtains a dispensation from 
the pope to enable his daughter and brother to 
intermarry, which took place . . 6 June, 1760 
The Spaniards and French invade Portugal, which 

is saved by the English . . . 1762 and 1763 

John, prince of Brazil, marries his aunt, Maria 

Francesca 

Regency of John (afterwards king), owing to the 

lunacy of queen Maria 

War with Spain, 3 March ; peace . . 6 June, 
Treaty between France and Spain for the partition 
of Portugal, Oct. ; French invasion ; Junot arrives 
at Lisbon, 27 Nov.; the court sail for Brazil, 

29 Nov. 1807 
Eise of the Portuguese ; several times defeated, 
June and July ; arrival of Wellington at Oporto, 
July; he defeats Junot at Vimiera, 21 Aug.; con- 
vention of Cintra confirmed . . 30 Aug. 1808 
Oporto taken by Soult ... 29 March, 1809 
Almeida taken by Massena ... 27 Aug. 1810 
Massena defeated at Busaco . . 27 Sept. ,, 
Wellington secures the lines of Torres Vedras Oct. ,, 
Massena defeated at Fuentes de Onoro ; retreats, 

5 May, 
The British parliament grants the sufferers by war 

in Portugal ioo,oooL 

Portugal cedes Guiana to France . • . 

"Union of Portugal and Brazil 

Revolution begins in Oporto ... 29 Aug. 
Constitutional junta established . . 1 Oct. 

Return of the court 4 July, 

Independence of Brazil; the prince regent made 

emperor; see Brazil 12 Oct. 

The king modifies the constitution . . 5 June, 
Disturbances at Lisbon; Miguel departs 1-9 May, 1824 

Treaty with Brazil 29 Aug. 1825 

Deatli of John VI 10 March, 1826 

Dom Pedro grants a constitutional charter, and con- 
firms the regency 26 April, „ 

He relinquishes the throne in favour of his daughter, 

Donna Maria da Gloria . . . .2 May, „ 
Miguel takes oath of fealty at Vienna . 4 Oct. ,, 
Marquis of Chaves' insurrection at Lisbon in favour 

of Dom Miguel 6 Oct. ,, 

Dom Miguel and Donna Maria betrothed 29 Oct. „ 
Portugal solicits the assistance of Great Britain, 
3 Dec. ; departure of the first British auxiliary 

troops for Portugal 17 Dec. ,, 

Bank of Lisbon stops payment . . 7 Dec. 1827 
Dom Miguel made regent; he arrives in London, 

30 Dec. 1827 ; takes the oath at Lisbon 22 Feb. 1828 
The British armament quits Portugal, 28 April ; 

foreign ministers withdraw ... 3 May, ,, 
Sir John Doyle, a partisan of Donna Maria, arrested, 

13 June, 
Dom Miguel assumes the title of king . 4 July, 

He dissolves the three estates . . .12 July, 
His troops take Madeira ... 24 Aug. 

Release of sir John Doyle .... 7 Sept. 
The queen Donna Maria arrives in London 6 Oct. 
Miguel's expedition against Terceira defeated, 

11 Aug. 1829 



1811 



1814 
1815 
1820 

1 82 1 

1822 
"23 



Duke of Palmella appointed regent . March, 

Dom Pedro arrives in England . . . i6-June, 

Insurrection in Portugal in favour of the queen ; 
more than 300 lives lost . . . 21 Aug. 

Dom Pedro's expedition sails from Belle-isle, 9 Feb. ; 
at Terceira proclaims himself regent, 2 April; 
takes Oporto 8 July, 

The Miguelites attack Oporto, and are defeated 
with considerable loss on both sides . 19 Sept. 

Mount Cavello taken .... 9 April, 

Admiral Napier takes Dom Miguel's squadron off 
Cape St. Vincent 5 July, 

Lisbon evacuated by the duke of Cadaval; the 
queen proclaimed, 24 July; enters Lisbon, 22 Sept. 

After various conflicts Dom Miguel capitulates to 
the Pedroites, and Santarem surrenders, 26 May ; 
Dom Miguel embarks at Evora for Genoa, 31 May, 

Massacres take place at Lisbon . . .9 June, 

The cortes declare the queen of age . 15 Sept. 

Dom Pedro dies 24 Sept. 

Oporto wine company abolished .... 

Prince Augustus (duke of Leuchtenberg) prince con- 
sort; married, 1 Dec. 1834; dies . 28 March, 

The queen marries Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, 9 April, 

Revolution at Lisbon .... 9 Aug. 

Another outbreak there . . . . 8 Nov. 

The duke of Terceira attempts to restore Dom 
Pedro's charter 18 Aug. 

He and Saldanha fail, and embark for England, 

18 Sept. 

Oporto wine company re-established . 7 April, 

The northern province in a state of insurrection 
about this time 20 April, 

The duke of Palmella resigns . . .31 Oct. 

Action at Evora, the queen's troops defeat the in- 
surgent forces 31 Oct. 

British squadron under admiral Parker arrives in 
the Tagus, at the queen's request . 31 Oct. 

Palmella banished 26 Nov. 

Marquis of Saldanha defeats count Bomtinn at 
Torres Vedras 22 Dec. 

The insurgents enter Oporto . . .7 Jan. 

London conference : England, France, and Spain 
determine to assist the queen of Portugal to ter- 
minate the civil war .... 21 May, 

Submission of Sa da Bandeira . . 11 June, 

A Spanish force enters Oporto, and the junta capi- 
tulates 26 June, 

An American squadron in the Tagus to enforce 
claims against the Portuguese . 22 June, 

Military insurrection, headed by the duke of Sal- 
danha, who, being outstripped in his march on 
Santarem by the king of Portugal, flees northward 

10 April, 

Oporto declares for the duke, who had left the city 
for Vigo to embark for England ; but is called 
back by the insurgents ... 24 April, 

Saldanha's entry into Oporto . . 29 April. 

The conde de Thomar, prime minister, resigns ; 
arrives in England .... 16 May, 

Saldanha, prime minister . . . .23 May, 

Dom Miguel marries the princess Adelaide of 
Lowenstein-Rosenberg ... 24 Sept. 

Revision of the charter by the cortes sanctioned by 
the queen ; the prince royal takes the oath to 
the constitution 18 July, 

Conversion of the public debt . . 18 Dec. 

Death of the queen Maria II. . . .15 Nov. 

King-consort recognised as regent . 19 Dec. 

The young king visits England . . . June, 

The slaves on royal domains freed . 30 Dec. 

The king visits France .... May, 

Inauguration of the king . . . 16 Sept. 

Resignation of Saldanha ministr5 r . . 5 June, 

First Portuguese railway (from Lisbon to Santarem) 
opened 26 Oct. 

Fever rages in Lisbon ; the king very active in 
relieving the sufferers . . Oct. and Nov. 

The French emigrant ship for negroes, Charles-et- 
Georges, seized 29 Nov. 

Anger of the French government ; its ultimatum 
sent, 13 Oct. ; and ships of war to the Tagus ; the 
vessel restored (see Charles-et-Georges) . 25 Oct. 

Death of the duke of Terceira, prime minister, 
April 26 ; succeeded by the senhor Aguiar, May 2, 
who resigns 2 July, 

Death of the king, Pedro V. ; succeeded by his 
brother the duke of Oporto . . 11 Nov. 



1B30 
1 83 1 



"833 



1835 



1846 



1847 



1850 
1851 



i»S4 
1855 



1857 



POETUGAL. 



988 



POETUGAL. 



Death of John, the king's brother . . 29 Dec. 

The law of succession altered in favour of the king's 
sisters . . . . . . .3 j an . 

The due de Louie becomes minister . . Feb. 

The king married to Princess Maria Pia of Savoy by 
proxy, at Lisbon 6 Oct. 

Elections : majority for the government . Nov. 

Birth of Dom Carlos, heir to the throne . 28 Sept. 

Ministerial changes Jan. 

Death of the celebrated statesman the duke of 
Palmella 2 April, 

Free-trade measures introduced . . .1 June, 

Frontier treaty with Spain concluded . 29 Sept. 

U.S. vessels Niagara and Sacramento in the Tagus 
fired on, through suspicion of their sailing after the 
confederate vessel Stonewall, 27 March ; the diffi- 
culty with the U.S. government arranged. 7 April, 

The premier, de Louie, resigns ; marquis Sa da 
Bandeira forms a ministry . . 17 April, 

Constitutional privileges granted to the colonies, 

May, 

Another prince born . . . .31 July, 

New ministry formed ; Aguiar premier . 4 Sept. 

The international exhibition at Oporto opened by 
the king ^ Sept. 

The king visits England and France . . Dec. 

General Prim enters Portugal, 20 Jan. ; ordered to 
depart Iy p e b. 

Death of Dom Miguel, the ex-king . . 14 Nov. 

The king and queen of Spain visit Lisbon 11 Dec. 

King and queen at the Paris exhibition, July-Aug. 

New ministry under count d'Avila . 5 Jan. 
under Sa da Bandeira . . . 21 July, 

under the duke de Saldanha . . 7 Jan. 

under the duke de Louie . . n Aug 

Violent opposition of Saldanha ; ordered back to 
Paris as ambassador there ; he resigns Dec. 

Cortes dissolved Jan. 

Saldanha heads a military insurrection ; seizes the 
royal palace ; forms a new ministry . 19 May, 

Neutrality in the French war proclaimed . July, 

Manifestation against Saldanha in Lisbon and 
Oporto . . .... 2 Aug. 

The French republic recognized . . . Sept. 

New ministry under the bishop of Vizeu, 30 Oct. 

New ministry under the marquis d'Avila, 30 Jan. ; 
under Fontes Pereira de Mello . 13 Sept. 

Great fire at Lisbon 13 June, 

Conspiracy against the government ; officers in the 
army arrested . ... . about 26 Aug. 

Death of Joaquim A. Aguiar, statesman (see i860, 
1865) 2 6 May, 

The duke of Coimbra visits England . . Aug. 

The prince of Wales at Lisbon . . . 1 May, 

Financial crisis : banks of Oporto and Portugal 
suspend payment ; confidence soon returns, about 

19-24 Aug. 

Death of the duke de Saldanha (buried in state at 
Lisbon) 2I Nov. 

Marquis d'Avila forms a new ministry 5 March, 

Resigns after vote of censure ; new ministry formed 
under Fontes Pereira de Mello . . 29 Jan. 

Ministry resigns, 30 May, new one formed by sen. 
A. J. Braamcamp . . . . i July, 

Great demonstration in honour of Camoens and 
Vasco da Gama at Lisbon . . . June, 

Discussion in the chambers respecting treaty with 
GreatBritain, respecting Lourengo Marques (which 
see), E. coast of Africa ; ministry resigns ; suc- 
ceeded by sen. Sampayo . . 21-26 March, 
Elections ; majority in favour of ministry 21 Aug. 

The kings of Portugal and Spain open a new rail- 
way between Lisbon and Madrid . . 8 Oct. 

Visit of the king and queen of Spain 10 Jan. et seq. 
National art exhibition at Lisbon opened 

about 15 April, 

Reform bill introduced abolishing hereditary 
peerage end of Feb. 

The king and queen visit Madrid . . 22 May, 

Ministry reconstructed by Fontes Pereira de Mello 

20 Oct. 
Circular affirming Portuguese rights over the Congo 

issued Oct. 
The crown prince returned from a visit to England 

21 Dec. 
Government bill for reform of constitution adopted 

by the deputies 8 Feb. 



186s 



1870 



1874 
187s 
1876 



1877 



1S79 



Mr. John Dixon's claims on the Guimaraes railway 
company for compensation for their taking the 
Minho railway, constructed by him ; complaint 
of judicial delays ; British intervention; discussed 

May, ] 

Death of the king consort Ferdinand aged 69, 

15 Dec. j 

The de Mello ministry resigns, succeeded by that of 
senhor Jose de Castro ... 19 Feb. 1 

The king visits Great Britain, Denmark, and the 
continent (warmly received) Aug.-Sept. 1886 ; 
returns to Lisbon 26 Sept. 

Strike and riots at Oporto (which see), about 30 May, i 

Dispute respecting the Delagoa railway (which see) 

June et seq. 

The wine trade much disturbed by bounties to 
wine-growers ; granted by the chamber, 12 June, 

Death of king Luis I., 19 Oct. ; funeral . 26 Oct. 

British remonstrances on Portuguese encroach- 
ments in East Africa (see Zambesi) . Nov., Dec. 

The king Carlos inaugurated ... 28 Dec. 

The king opens the cartes with a firm, temperate 
speech respecting E. Africa ... 2 Jan. i 

Telegrams : lord Salisbury demands the immediate 
recall of the Portuguese forces from places in 
Africa under British protection or influence, 5 Jan. 

Sen. Barros Gomes accedes, under conditions ; 
delays, 6 — 8 Jan. Ultimatum from lord Salisbury 
requiring immediate submission, threatening sus- 
pension of diplomatic relations ; the council of 
state accede to all the British demands, under 
protest 11, 12 Jan. 

Excitement in Lisbon and the provinces against 
the British, promptly suppressed ; about 63 
arrests, 13-16 Jan. ; the de Castro ministry 
resigns ; sen. Serpa Pimental forms a cabinet ; 
sen. Hintze Ribeiro, foreign minister . T4 Jan. 

Sen. Serpa Pimental informs the chamber that he 
submits to England, who has might while 
Portugal has right . . . . 15 Jan. 

The Blue-book containing correspondence between 
lord Salisbury and sen. Barros Gomes, 22 June, 
1887, to 20 Jan. 1890, published . . 12 Feb. 

Capt. Neves Ferreira resigns, about . 18 Jan. 

Manifesto of the republican party . about 19 Jan. 

The cortes dissolved .... 20 Jan. 

National defence fund started, 23 .Jan. ; 55,000?. 
received up to 4 March (nearly 33,000?. subscribed 
by the king and royal family), about . 11 March, 

Decrees respecting public meetings, liberty of the 
press, judicial reforms, &c, issued . 7 April, 

The new cortes opened by the king ; friendly 
relations with Great Britain, reported . 19 April, 

Major Serpa Pinto arrives at Lisbon, 20 April ; 
made one of the king's adjutants . 27 April, 

Anglo - Portuguese agreement respecting Africa, 
settled in London 20 Aug. 

Resignation of sen. Serpa Pimental ministry, 17 Sept. 

Gen. Chrysostomo d' Abreue-Sousa forms a ministry, 
13 Oct., opposed to the proposed convention ; 
cortes closed 15 Out. 

A modus vivendi agreed on for six months ; the 
agreement of 20 Aug. withdrawn ; the status quo 
ante maintained, 10 Nov. ; signed . 14 Nov. 

East Africa : Capt. Paiva and the Bihe expedition 
resisted on the river Caquiema ; fighting with 
the natives, with great loss . . . 1 Nov. 

Celebration of the 250th anniversary of the re- 
establishment of the monarchy . . 1 Dec. 

For the disputes with the S. Africa company 
respecting the Manica company, see under 
Zambesi Sept.— Dec. 

Military expedition for the defence of Manica, sails 
from Lisbon ... 15 Jan. and 12 Feb. 

Arrival of col. Paiva d'Andrade, complaining of the 
conduct of the British in Manica (see Zambesi, 
Nov. 1890) 19 Jan. 

Military revolt at Oporto {which see) . 31 Jan. 

The Malange steamer, with 700 men, arrives at 
Zanzibar 9 Feb. 

The cortes opened .... 4 March, 

The Countess of Carnarvon, steamer, seized by the 
Portuguese, see under Zambesi . . March, 

Loan of 10,000,000/. on the tobacco monopoly voted 

19 March, 
The cortes closed .... 20 March, 
Ministerial crisis ends, no change . .17 April, 



PORTUGAL. 



989 



PORTUGAL. 



Financial crisis ; heavy fall in the funds, through 
increase of the national debt and great depression 
of trade ; run upon the banks met by large coinage 
of silver, . . . about 8 May et seq. ] 

Decree authorising the suspension of payments by 
the banks ; the Bank of Portugal suspends cash 
payments for 60 days . . . . 11 May, 

Treaty extending the modus Vivendi for one month, 
signed 14 May, 

Financial improvement reported . . 14 May, 

New ministry formed by senior Joao Chrysostomo, 
president and war general . . . 21 May, 

New Anglo-Portuguese convention signed (after- 
wards ratified) 11 June, 

Monetary crisis ; sovereigns sold at a high price ; 
traffic in silver coin . . 20 July — 20 Aug. 

Meeting of the cortes ; the king states that the 
treaty of June with England is being duly 
executed 2 Jan. 1 

Expiration of the treaty of Goa (which see) . 14 Jan. 

New cabinet- formed by sen. Jose Dias Ferreira 

15 Jan. 

The minister of finance reports great deficiency in 
the revenue and great increase of debt, and pro- 
poses large reductions in the expenditure and 
increase of taxation ; accepted by the king, who 
proposes to largely reduce his civil list, and by 
the cortes . . . 20 Jan. — 23 Feb. 

Violent cyclone at Lisbon, much damage ; esti- 
mated loss, 45,000?., 19 Feb. Great loss of life 
(105) and property on the coast by a violent gale 
27 Feb. and 6 March, 

Revolts against the expedition to lake Nyassa in 
E. Africa, reported . . 3 March et seq. 

The cortes closed by the king . . 2 April, 

Ministry reconstituted by sen. Ferreira . 27 May, 

Decree reducing the temporary payments to foreign 
bondholders, then due to one-third the amount ; 
protest of the bondholders . . 14 June, 

General election ; government majority . 23 Oct. 

The king and queen visit Madrid . 10-17 Nov. 

Retirement of sir George Petre, the able British 
minister ; succeeded by sir H. MacDouell, Dec. 

The cortes opened by the king . . 2 Jan. : 

The Dias Ferreira ministry resigns through dis- 
agreement with the king . . .20 Feb. 

Sen. Hintze Ribeiro forms a liberal ministry 

22 Feb. 

The cortes closed 15 July, 

Dissolution of the chamber of deputies . 7 Dec. 

Dispute between France and Portugal respecting 
railway arrangements ; M. Bilhourd, French 
minister, leaves for Paris . . .17 Feb. 

Agreement arrived at . . .27 March 

Celebration of the 500th anniversary of the birth 
of prince Henry the navigator ; foundation stone 
of a monument laid by the king ; and an exhibi- 
tion of colonial products opened at Oporto 

1-4 March, 

Delimitation of Manicaland (which see) to be sub- 
mitted to arbitration, reported . 15 March, 

Large concession of territory on the West coast of 
Africa to a new company ; reported, 16 March, 

Parliamentary elections ; government majority 

15 March, 

Great meeting of the progressist party at Oporto 

8 June, 

Death of sen. Oliveira-Martins, historian, born 

' 1845 ; minister of finance in 1892 . . 24 Aug. 

Reconstruction of the ministry ; premier, sen. 
Lobo d'Avila 3 Sept. 

The new cortes opened by the king . . 1 Oct. 

Sen. Hintze Ribeiro's budget ; reduction of the 
deficit 29 Oct. 

The poet Joao de Deus decorated by the king, at 
Lisbon, with much honour . . 8 March, 

The chamber dissolved by decree ; electoral re- 
form; number of deputies reduced from 170 — 120 

30 March 

Sen. Carlos Lobo d'Avila, able minister for foreign 
affairs, aged 34, died .... 9 Sept. 

j Reform of the house of peers : 90 life members 

j nominated by decree .... 26 Sept. 

The king starts to visit Spain and other countries 

2 Oct. 



Met by the duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha at 
Charing-cross ; received by the prince of Wales, 
at Sandringham, 6 Nov. ; by the queen at Bal- 
moral ; made K.G., 9 Nov. : entertained by the 
lord mayor at the Mansion house, 12 Nov. ; leaves 
England, 14 Nov. ; returns to Lisbon . 16 Nov. 

Elections: government majority . . 18 Nov. 

The3*cortes opened by the king with a cheerful 
speech 2 j an . 

Joao de Deus, popular poet, born 1830; died n Jan. 

At a club carnival ball, in Santarem, 42 women 
and 1 man perish by a fire occasioned by paper 
lanterns x q Feb. 

The king confers honours on col. Galhardo and 
his officers, see Lourengo Marques, 1895, at 
Lisbon 25 April, 

New government loan for war vessels . 19 Nov. 

The king opens the cortes .... 2 Jan. 

Resignation of the ministry, 4 Feb. ; ministry 
formed by sen. Jose Luciano de Castro, 6 Feb. ; 
amnesty to prisoners for press offences ; the 
chamber of deputies dissolved . . 8 Feb. 

Oceanographic exhibition, showing the results of 
the king's own scientific researches, opened by 
the king I2 April, 

Parliament opened by the king . . 10 June, 

400th anniversary of the departure of Vasco da 
Gama to discover the sea route to the Indies ; 
celebrated at Lisbon . . . 8 July, 

Portuguese W. Africa, see Africa . . . Dec'. 

Parliament opened by the king, 2 Jan. . 

Bill for the conversion of the external debt passed, 
29 April ; cortes closed ... 4 June, 

Dom Carlos J. cruiser launched at Elswick 5 May, 

New ministry, sen. Luciano de Castro, premier, 

16 Aug. 

Death of sen. Henriques B. Gomes, ex-minister for 
foreign affairs I5 Nov. 

The cortes opened by the king . . .2 Jan. 

Adm. Rawson and British officers warmly received 
at Lisbon I3 May, 

Plague at Oporto (which sie) . . Aug. -Feb. 

Cortes opened 2 Jan. 

The ministry resigns, 21 June ; one formed by sen. 
Hintze Ribeiro 24 June, 

Adm. sir H. Rawson and British squadron much 
honoured, 6, 7 Dec. ; queen Victoria thanks the 
king for his good wishes and the friendly 
alliance between the two countries . 9 Dec. 

Cortes opened by the king . . . . 2 Jan. 

The king visits England to attend the funeral of 
queen Victoria, 30 Jan. -4 Feb. ; receives a depu- 
tation of the Evangelical alliance and promises 
toleration to all protestants in his dominions, 

7 Feb. 

Some religious associations dissolved by govern- 
ment (decree published 20 April) . . March, 

Roman catholic protests received by the king, 

11 April, 

Cortes dissolved 5 June 

General election : government majority . 6 Oct! 

Cortes opened by the king . . . 2 Jan. 

Budget deficit 948 contos of reis, for 1902 14 Jan. 

Bill for the conversion of the external debt 
adopted by the chamber, 26 April ; and the peers, 

10 May, 

Sir Martin Gosselin, new British minister, arrives, 

13 Oct. 

The king visits Paris, 18 Oct. ; Windsor, 17 Nov. - 
8 Dec. ; Madrid, 1 1 Dec. ; returns . 16 Dec. 

Cortes opened by the king . . . . 2 Jan. 

Cabinet resigns, new one formed by sen. Ribeiro, 

27, 28 Feb. 

King Edward VII. visits Lisbon ; warmly welcomed, 
city decorated 2 -y April 

The king made an admiral of the English fleet by 
king Edward VII 8 Au°-. 

Earthquake shocks .... 9 Aug! 

British fleet salutes the king of Portugal at the 
close of the naval manoeuvres at Lagos ; adm. 
sir A. Wilson and officers entertained, they leave 
Lisbon 2Q Aug. 

Severe storm over N.W. coast, destruction of many 
fishing boats and other vessels at Lavos and 
Torreir end Sept. 



1897 



POETUGAL. 



990 



POSTAL UNION. 



SOVEREIGNS OF PORTUGAL. 

1095. Henry, count or earl of Portugal. 

1112. Alfonso, his son, and Theresa. 

1128. Alfonso, count of Portugal, alone. 

1 1 39. Alfonso I. declared king, having obtained a signal 
victory over a prodigious army of Moors on the 
plains of Ourique. 

1185. Sancho I., son of Alfonso. 

1212. Alfonso II., surnamed Crassus, or the Fat. 

1223. Sancho II., or the Idle : deposed. 

1248. Alfonso III. 

1279. Denis or Dionysius, the father of his country. 

1325. Alfonso IV., the Brave. 

1357. Peter, the Severe. 

1367. Ferdinand I. , son. 

1385. John I., the Bastard and the Great; natural 
brother ; married Philippa, daughter of John of 
Gaunt, duke of Lancaster. 

1433. Edward or Duarte. 

1438. Alfonso V. , the African. 

1481. John II., the Great and the Perfect. 

1495. Emmanuel, the Fortunate ; cousin. 

1521. John III., son ; admitted the Inquisition, 1536, 
and the Jesuits, 1540. 

1557. Sebastian ; drowned after the great battle of Alca- 
zarquivir, in Africa, 4 Aug. 1578. 

1578. Henry, the cardinal, son of Emmanuel ; great uncle. 

1580. Anthony, prior of Crato, son of Emmanuel; de- 
posed by Philip II. of Spain, who united Portu- 
gal to his other dominions. 
„ Philip II. ) 

1598. Philip III. \ kings of Spam. 

1621. Philip IV. ) 

1640. John IV., duke of Braganza ; dispossessed the 
Spaniards in a bloodless revolution, and was 
proclaimed king, Dec. 1. 

1656. Alfonso VI. ; deposed in 1667, and his brother 
Peter made regent. 

1683. Peter II., brother. 

1706. John V., son. 

1750. Joseph Emmanuel ; son. The daughter and suc- 
cessor of this prince married his brother, by 
dispensation from the pope, and they ascended 
the throne, as 
Maria I. and Peter III. jointly. 
Maria I. alone : this princess afterwards falls into a 
state of melancholy and derangement ; dies, 1816. 

1792. Regency— John, son (afterwards king) ; declared 
regent, 1791. 

1816. John VI., previously regent. He had withdrawn:! 
in 1807, owing to the French invasion of Portu- 
gal, to his Brazilian dominions ; but the discon- 
tent of his subjects obliged him to return in 1821 ; 
died in 1826. 

1826. Peter IV. (Dom Pedro), son ; making his election 
of the empire of Brazil, abdicated the throne of 
Portugal in favour of 
Maria II. (da Gloria) ; daughter ; seven years of age. 

1828. Dom Miguel, brother to Peter IV., usurped the 
crown, which he retained, amid civil conten- 
tions, until 1833. 

1833. Maria II. restored ; declared in Sept. 1834 to be of 
age ; married Augustus, duke of Leuch ten berg, 

1835 ; 2nd, Ferdinand of Saxe-Coburg, 9 April, 

1836 (who died, 15 Dec. 1885) ; died, 15 Nov. 1853. 
1853. Peter V. (Dom Pedro), son; bom 16 Sept. 1837; 

died, 11 Nov. 1861. 
1861. Luis I., brother ; born 31 Oct. 1838 ; married Maria 

Pia. daughter of Victor Emmanuel, king of 

Italy (born 16 Oct. 1847), 6 Oct. 1S62 ; a judicious 

reformer ; died, 19 Oct. 1889. 
1889. Dom Carlos (son), born 28 Sept. 1863 ; married 

Marie Amelie, daughter of the comte dc Paris, 

22 May, 1886. 
Heir : Louis Philippe, born 21 March, 1887. 

Portuguese language and literature. The earlier 
tonus of Portuguese bore close affinity to Galician, 
mid although it bears a strong resemblance to its 
sister language, the Castilian, it yet differs so widely 
in structure as almost to be regarded as an original 
tongue. Chambers. Principal Portuguese authors: 
King Diniz, )». in the 13th century ; Gil Vicente, d., 
I47 ^.i5 3 6; Sa de Miranda, <(., 1495-1558; Antonio de 
Ferreira, d., Ignea de Castro, 1528-69; Camoens, p., 
Ihe Lvdads, 1524-80; do Earros, hist. 1496-1570, and 
many others. 



POET VICTOEIA, on the Medway, Kent, a 
new port for London, established by the South- 
Eastern Kailway company; communications opened, 
Sept. 1884. The German emperor gives 50^. to the 
restoration fund of Grayne church, March, 1901. 

POET, see Wine. 

POSEN, a Polish province, annexed to Prussia 
1772 and 1793; made part of the duchy of Warsaw, 
1807; restored to Prussia, 1815. An insurrection 
here quelled, May, 1848. 

About 2000 Austrian Poles expelled, Oct.-Nov. 1885. 
Prince Bismarck's plan for Germanizing Posen, see 

Prussia, Feb. 1886. 
Visit of the emperor ; grand military parade ; memorial 

to the emperor Frederick unveiled ; conciliatory 

speech to the Poles, 3, 4 Sept. 1902. 

POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY set forth by 
Auguste Comte, an eminent mathematician, bom 
19 Jan. 1798; died at Paris, 5 Sept. 1857, succeeded 
by M. Pierre Lafntte as director of positivism ; 
died, aged 80, early Jan. 1903. M. P. Emile 
Littre, the great French philologist, ardently 
embraced the system, and published "De la 
Philosophie Positive," in 1845.— See Calendar. 

Comte's "Cours de Philosophie Positive," published 
1830-42; "Systeme de Politique Positive, ou Traite 
de Sociologie, instituant la Religion de l'Humanite 
(l'ampur pour principe, l'ordre pour base, et le pro- 
gres pour but)," '1851-4. 

It professes to base itself wholly on positive facts or 
observed phenomena, and rejects all metaphysical 
conceptions, which it considers negatives, having 
nothing real or true in them ; and dispenses with the 
science of mind. It sets aside theology and meta- 
physics as two merely preliminary stages in life ; ano\ 
abandons all search after causes and essences of 
things, and restricts itself to the observation and 
classification of phenomena and the discovery of their 
laws. Comte asserted that Europe had now arrived 
at the third stage of its progress. 

Positivism does not recognise the supernatural or the 
future state. 

The Society of Positivists in London meet in Newton- 
hall, in Fleur-de-lys-court, near Gough-square, oh 
Sunday evenings, when discourses on philosophy, 
morality, science, politics, &c, are delivered. Their 
professed object is to promote the perfection of man 
by means of education in its widest sense, aiming at 
the attaining of universal brotherhood independently 
of all professed religious sects ; concerts are occa- 
sionally given; Frederick Harrison, president (Pal) 
Mall Gazette, 29 Nov. 1883). 

"The Church of Humanity" is a modified form of 
positivism, described by Mr. Richard Congreve, an 
ardent comtist (Pall Mall Gazette, 17 Jan. 1884) ; he 
died, aged 81, 5 July, 1899. 

Commemorative meeting at Paris, address by Mr. Fred.. 
Harrison, 5 Sept. 1896. 

POSSIBILISTS. A section of the liberal 
party in Spain; aiming at reforms: Sen. Castelar,. 
a chief, Oct. 1883. 

The name is also given to the workmen's party in Paris, 
who aim at effecting social reforms by legal methods ; 
they are said to have prevented a revolutionary out- 
break of the violent Blanquists, or autonomists, at 
the presidential election, 3 Dec. 1887. 

POSTAL UNION, General, was esta- 
blished by the Treaty of Berne, signed 9 Oct. 1874^ 
and took effect from 1 July, 1875. From time to 
time conferences have been held at Berne, Jan. 
1876; Paris, 1878 and 1880; Lisbon, 1885. At 
the congress at Vienna, 20 May — 4 July, i89i„the 
British Australasian colonies were added to the 
union ; Cape Colony added, 1 Jan. 1895; congress at 
Washington, 5 May, 1897. 



POSTING. 



991 



POST-OFFICE. 



POSTING. Post-chaises were invented by the 
French, and, according to Grainger, were intro- 
duced into this country by Mr. William Tell, son of 
the writer on husbandry. Posting was fixed by 
statute of Edward VI. at one penny per mile, 1548. 
By a statute, re-establishing the post-office, none 
but the postmaster or his deputies could furnish 
post-horses for travellers, 1660. The post-horse 
duty was imposed in 1779. Post-horse duty yielded, 
in 1852, in England, 128,501/., and in Scotland, 

POSTS, said to have originated in the regular 
couriers established by Cyrus, who erected post- 
houses throughout the kingdom of Persia, about 
550 B.C. Augustus was the first who introduced 
this institution among the Romans, 31 B.C. This was 
imitated by Charlemagne about a.d. 800. — Ashe. 
Louis XI. first established post-houses in France 
owing to his eagerness for news, and they were the 
first institution of this nature in Europe, 1470. — 
Henault. An international commission respecting 
postal arrangements met at Paris, 1 1 Ma.j, and broke 
up 9 June, 1863. 

POST-OFFICE of England. In England, 

in the reign of Edward IV. 1481, riders on post- 
horses went stages of the distance of twenty miles 
from each other, in order to procure the king the 
earliest intelligence of the events that passed in the 
course of the war that had arisen with the Scots. — 
Gale. Richard III. improved the system of couriers 
.n 1483. In 1543 similar arrangements existed in 
England. — Sadler's Letters. Post communications 
aetween London and most towns of England, Scot- 
and, and Ireland, existed in 1635. — Strype. 

The first chief postmaster of England, sir Thomas 

Eandolph, appointed by queenElizabeth . . 1581 
Tames I. appointed Matthew de l'Equester as 
foreign postmaster, 1619 ; and Chas. I. appointed 
William Frizell and Thomas Witherings . . . 1632 
\ proclamation of Chas. I., "whereas to this time 
there hath been no certain intercourse between 
the kingdoms of England and Scotland, the king 
now command^ his postmaster of England for 
foreign parts to settle a running post or two to 
run night and day between Edinburgh and London, 
to go thither and come back again in six days," 1631 
Che king commanded his "postmaster of England 
for foreign parts," to open a regular communica- 
tion by running posts between the metropolis 
and Edinburgh, West Chester, Holyhead, Ireland, 
' Plymouth, Exeter, &c. (Rates of postage — 1 letter 
carried under 80 miles 2d. ; under 140 miles, \d. ; 
above that distance in England, Cd. ; to anv part 
of Scotland, 8d). 
Ln enlarged office erected by the parliament in 
I 1643 ; and one more considerable in 1657, with a 
view " to benefit commerce, convey the public 
dispatches, and as the best means to discover and 
prevent many dangerous wicked designs against 
the commonwealth by the inspection of the cor- 
respondence " 1657 

:'he post-office as at present constituted was 
founded 12 Chas. II. . . . . 27 Dec. 1660 
'armed to John Mauley, 1653 ; to Daniel O'Neil . 1663 
, fenny Post first set up in London and its suburbs 
I by a Mr. Robert Murray, upholsterer . . .1681 
. le assigned his interest in the undertaking to Mr. 
Dockwra, a merchant, 1683 ; but on a trial at the 
King's bench bar it was adjudged to belong to 
the duke of York, as a branch of the general pose, 
and was thereupon afterwards annexed to the 

revenue of the crown 1690 

;'his institution considerably improved and made a 

twopenny post, July, 1794, et seq. 
Jross posts established by Ralph Allen . . . 1720 
between 1730 and 1740, the post was only trans- 
mitted three days a week between Edinburgh and 
London : and the metropolis, on one occasion, 
sent a single letter, which was for an Edinburgh 
banker, named Ramsay. 



A penny post was first set up in Dublin . . . 1774 

The mails conveyed by coaches ; the first mail left 
London for Bristol (see Mail Coaches) . 2 Aug. ,, 

The mails first conveyed by railway, 1830 ; by the 
overland route to India 1835, 

Post-office acts consolidated . . .12 July, 1837 

Early in 1837, Mr. Rowland Hill broached his plan 
of penny postage, which was adopted after a full 
investigation by a committee of the house of 
commons 1839 

The new postage law, by which the uniform rate of 
4<£ per letter was tried as an experiment, came 
into operation 5 Dec. ,, 

The uniform rate of id. per letter of half an ounce 
weight, &c, commenced ... 10 Jan. 1840 

Stamped postage covers came into use 6 May, ,, 

Adhesive stamps invented by Mr. James Chalmers 
of Dundee, 1834 ; they came into use, superseding 
Mulready's allegorical envelope (of 1 May, 1840) . 1843 
Reduction in postage — to be id. instead of 2d for 

every ounce above the first . . . April, 1865 
Book Post. — A treasury warrant issued, providing 
for the carriage by post of books, pamphlets, &c, 
under certain restrictions — 4 oz. for id ; 8 oz. for 
2d., <fcc. 5 June, 1855 

Altered to under 2 oz. , id ; every additional 2 oz. , 
or part of 2 oz., Jd; beguu . . . 7 Oct. 1870 

A Money-order Office, set up in 1792, was little used 
on account of the expense, till 1840. In 1839, 
188,291 money orders were issued for 313,124?. ; in 
1861, 7,580,455 orders for 14,616,348?.; in 1865, 
orders were issued for 17,829,290?.; in 1870, for 
19,993,987?. 

The Postal GuideUxst appeared in 1856; in which year 
London and the vicinity were divided into districts 
for postal purposes ; viz. , East, West, &c. The 
postmaster-general has issuedAnnualReports since 1854 

Postmaster empowered to purchase the electric 
telegraphs by act passed 31 July, 1868 ; work 
begun .5 Feb. i860. 

Post-office money order system applied to France 
by virtue of a convention signed . . 5 Aug. 1870 

Halfpenny stamped cards issued to the public, 1 Oct. ,, 

By the post-office act (passed 9 Aug. 1870) the 
newspaper stamp for posting was abolished; re- 
gistered newspapers and pamphlets or patterns 
under 2 oz. to be sent for £d on and after 1 Oct. ,, 

Postage lowered : Letters sent at the rate of id for 
1 oz., i£d for 2 oz., &c, from . . 5 Oct. 1871 

Short strike of telegraph clerks at Manchester, 
Liverpool, and Dublin .... Dec. ,,, 

Pigeon post between London and Tours during the 
siege of Paris (48 day mails and 1 186 night mails 
sent) . . . .18 Nov. 1870—28 Jan. , r 

Post-office scandal, money spent from other funds on 
telegraph service without authority of parliament; 
censured by commons . . . .29 July, 1873; 

Payment for registered letters reduced from 4d to 
2d ; charge for money orders raised ; new postal 
wrappers issued 1 Jan. 1878. 

Telegraph acts consolidated and amended by 41 & 
42 Vict. c. 76 16 Aug. ,, 

Messrs. Warren de la Rue & Co.'s tende* for supply 
of postage-stamps accepted . . 17 June, 1879. 

New postage stamps issued . . 6 Jan. 1880. 

Returned letters, £c.: 1867, 3,618,838; year 1878-9, 
4,286,648 ; 1883-4, 5>73 2 >3 10 ; 1890-1, 5,750,527. 

New system of receiving small sums for savings- 
banks by stamps tried in some counties ; gene- 
rally adopted 

New rates for money orders from is. . .1 Jan. 188a 

International postal congresses met at Paris, 7 
April, 1878 ; and 9 Oct. 1880 ; at Lisbon, 
16 March, 1885 ; (agreement signed 21 March). 

Postage Stamps for id authorised to be used for 
receipts after 1 June; and for telegrams after 

1 Nov. ,,. 

Reduction of 6d. for 480 id. newspaper wrappers 

1 Jan. 1882.' 

Reply post-cards issued .... 2 Oct. ,, 

Late letters received in the sorting carriage of mail 
trains at stations on and after . . 1 Nov. 



POST-OFFICE. 



992 



POST-OFFICE. 



Parcel post comes into operation, which see i Ang. 

Post-office protection act passed . . 14 Aug. 

Postal orders (like bankers' cheques) largely used 
(since 1880) 

Special postal trains established ; letters received 
later and delivered earlier ; beginning 1 July, 

Private posting boxes in London sanctioned April, 

After negotiation conveyance of American mails 
transferred from the Cunard and White Star 
companies to Inman, North German Lloyd, and 
others till 28 Feb. 1887, Dec. 1886 ; amicable 
settlement Feb. 

New sets of postage stamps issued ; the penny 
stamp unchanged 1 Jan. 

" London Postmen's Rest," Dover, established by 
lord Wolverton, late postmaster . . Feb. 

Rented night letter-boxes authorised after 1 Aug. 

The government authorised to purchase the sub- 
marine electric telegraph with France 21 May, 

Post cards to be sold 10 for 6cl. or $%d. 1 July, 

Payment of money, 10I., at post-offices by tele- 
graph authorised after 2 Sept., Aug. 1889 ; autho- 
rised for xl. to iot. from 1 March ; announced 
about 18 Feb. 

Meeting of postmen's union in Hyde park to dis- 
cuss grievances 20 Oct. : 

Jubilee of the establishment of the penny post 
celebrated 10-15 Jan- 
Uniform colonial and India postage (23d.), long advo- 
cated by Mr. J. Henniker Heaton, m.p., adopted 
by the government .... 17 April, 

Grand conversazione given by the lord mayor at 
the Guildhall ; present, the prince of Wales, 
Mr. Raikes, the postmaster-general, and other 
officers, 16 Slay. There was an interesting exhi- 
bition of objects connected with the postal service 

16-19 May, 

Exhibition of the Philatelic society's collection of 
postage stamps of all nations, at the Portman 
rooms, Baker-street, W., opened by the duke of 
Edinburgh, a zealous collector . . 19 May, 

Jubilee fete for the Roland Hill benevolent fund at 
South Kensington museum; the queen patron, 
the duke of Edinburgh president. Exhibition of 
old and new postal operations and telegraphic 
communications in the United Kingdom, the 
colonies, and the United States, &c. Messrs. De 
la Rue's artistic Jubilee envelope, of which only 
a limited number were printed, was sold for is. 
each . . . 2 July, 

Agitation among the London postmen respecting 
pay, pension, and hours . . May — July, 

Mass meeting of the postmen's union 7, 8 July, 

About 100 postmen at the parcel post depot at 

Clerkenwell dismissed for attacking and expelling 

about 70 non-unionists, 10 July ; about 130 men 

dismissed for insubordination in other districts 

about 10 July, 

[435, out of 6,000, dismissed up to 12 July, 1890.] 

New general post-office, north, near St. Martin's-le- 
grand ; memorial stone laid by Mr. H. C. Raikes, 
postmaster-general .... 20 Nov. 

Uniform colonial and India postage reduced to 2^-d. 
for £ oz., begins 1 Jan. 1891 ; to foreign countries, 

1 July, 1 

About 240 clerks in the Savings-bank department 
suspended for refusing to work overtime, 2 Jan. ; 
reinstated after apology ... 8 Jan. 1 

" The Boy Messengers " and " District Messengers " 
companies, for the quicker conveyance of single 
letters for short distances, stopped by the post- 
office as illegal March, 

The post-office express delivery service, for the 
quicker delivery of letters and parcels, by boy 
messengers, begins, 25 March ; at Edinburgh, 
Dublin, and other places, 26 March, et seq. ; ex- 
tended to the whole United Kingdom . 1 Aug. 
[The actions against the companies in the 
queen's bench division stopped by arrangement, 
the companies submit, and agree to take out 
licences from the post-offfce, 14 April, 1891.J 

Automatic stamp distributors attached to the 
postal pillars, began ... 29 April, 



International postal union congress, meeting at 
Vienna ; sir A. Blackwood present ; various 
improvements made . . 20 May — 4 July, 1891 

Various improvements in the postal service begun 

1 Jan. and 1 June, 1892 

Post-office acts passed, 5 Aug. 1891 ; 1892; 1895; and 1988 

Charge for embossed envelopes reduced . 1 July, 1893 

Plain cards of proper size with |d. stamp autho- 
rised, from 1 Sept. 1894 

Free postal redirection of all letters, books, news- 
papers, &c. (except parcels), from . . 1 Jan. 1895 

Gross receipts, 10,760,000^. 1894-5; n,86o,oooZ. 
1896-7. 

Transfer of the trunk telephone wires to the Post- 
office 4 April et seq., 1896 

New regulations respecting pensions, issued, 31 Dec. ,, 

Reductions of payments and penalties, &c, after 
1 Feb. 1897. See Telephone . . .6 Feb. 1897 

Postal changes (4,oz reduced to id., &c.) on and 
after 22 June, ,, 

Philatelic exhibition in Piccadilly, opened by the 
duke of York 22 July, ,, 

Threatened strike of telegraphists and others, 
averted by concessions and reason . 13 Aug. ,, 

Postman's Federation inaugurated at Nottingham, 
22,000 members 2 Sept. „ 

Parcel postal convention with France for India and 
Australia, signed at Paris . . .1 Dec. ,, 

Steam-motor (oil) mail service (parcels van), be- 
tween London and Redhill, first started 16 Dec. ,, 

Imperial penny postage established between Great 
Britain and every part of the British empire ex- 
cept Australia and N. Zealand, 25 Dec. 1898- 
Dec. 1899 ; silver pennies distributed by Mr. 
Henniker-Heaton, one accepted by the queen, as 
a memento of the occasion . . Christmas, 1898 

Private posting boxes, two collections per day, &c, 
for moderate fees (iL to il. per aim.), started, 

1 Feb. 1899 

Express Sunday morning delivery of letters, 3d. 
per mile additional pay, begins . . n Feb. „ 

International exhibition of postage stamps at Man- 
chester June-5 July, ,, 

Telephonic communication placed under the Post- 
office by act passed .... 9 Aug. ,, 

Forty-fifth annual report issued . . 5 Sept. ,, 

First annual congress of postal and telegraph 
officials opened at Derby ... 29 Sept. ,, 

Post-cards of larger size issued . . 1 Nov. ,, 

Parcel post from U.K. to Egypt agreed to, mid Feb. 1900 

Postmen's park and cloister in Aldersgate opened 
by the lord mayor .... 30 July, ,, 

Penny postage to the Orange River colony and the 
Transvaal. from the U.K. on and after . 1 Dec. ,, 

Penny postage from New Zealand starts . 1 Jan. 1901 

luternat. postal and railway conference (England 
and France) opened at Dover . . 21 Feb. ,, 

International Philatelic union's exhibition of 
postage stamps, London ... 23 Feb. ,, 

Official collection of postal packets gratis under 
regulations, announced . . .29 March, ,, 

Telegraph money order system extended to Egypt, 

1 Nov. ,, 

New postage stamps with the king's portrait, 
issued 1 Jan. 1902 

Money orders issued to and from 16 principal towns 
in the Transvaal, after . . . . 1 Jan. ,, 

Imperial penny postage from Great Britain to 
Australia, announced, 27 April ; also to Chinese 
ports, from 1 May, ,, 

Post-office sites bill passed . . .29 July, ,, 

Great increase of parcel post business, since 1897 ; 
over 86,800,000 in 1901-2. 

Parcel post from U.K. to the United States, 

1 Sept. „ 

Congress of employes in Holborn town-hall, 150 
delegates ; resolutions passed demanding re- 
forms, &c 13 Sept. ,, 

i ruinea postal order act, royal assent 21 July, 1903 



POST-OFFICE. 



993 



POST-OFFICE. 



NUMBER OF LETTERS, &C. , DELIVERED IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 

1839 (including 6,563,024 franks) . . 82,470,596! 18.51-5 (average) 410,000,000 

1840 168,768,344 I 1861-5 ,, 648,000,000 

1851 360,651,187 1866-70 ,, 800,000,000 

Scotland, 36,512,649. Ireland, 35,982,782. I Scotland, 76,000,000. Ireland, 60,000,000. 



Letters. 



Post Cards. 



Books, 

Circulars, 

&c. 



News- 
papers. 



Money 
Orders. 



Telegrams. 



Net Revenue. 



Tele- 
grams. 
Deficits 4 



871 . 



S93 



90 . 

91 . 

■4 ■■ 
■5 - 
-7 • 
-8 . 

"9 • 
-1900 



900- 
901-: 
902-: 



067,000,000 
885,000,000 
1,127,997,500 
1,165,166,900 
1,322,086,900 
1,512,200,000 
1,650,100,000 
1,705,800,000 
1,811,800,000 
1,770,900,000 
1,893,000,000 
2,012,300,000 
2,186,800,000 
2,246,800,000 
2,323,600,000 
2,451,500,000 
2,579,500,000 



76,000,000 
114,458,400 
122,884,000 
153,586,100 
188,800,000 
217,100,000 
229,700,000 
248,000,000 
312,800,000 
336,000,000 
360,400,000 
382,200,000 
400,300,000 
419,000,000 
444,900,000 
488,000,000 



114,000. 

2I3>9 6 3: 

240.356; 

294,594; 

389,500, 

441,900, 
481,200. 

574.3°°: 
614,600. 
697,900, 
727,300. 
701,500. 
702,800. 
732,400. 
766,20c, 
809,800, 



£22,573,547 
25,019,683 
26,371,020 
26,003,582 
27,629,879 
26,334,126 
27,165,905 
27,867,887 
28,720,829 
28,923,127 
30,249,087 
32,114,579 
33.278,517 
35,201,262 
39.374.665 
42,169,201 
45,402,495 



12,473.796 
i5.535.7 8 ° 
26,547,137 
29,411,982 
32,843,120 
53.4°3,425 
62,403,399 
66,409,211 
70,899,498 
71,589,064 
79,423,556 
83,°29,999 
87,043,652 
90,415,123 
89,576,961 
90,432,041 
92,471,000 



.289,754 
.523.976 
.497.687 
597.768 
,610,026 

77i,5i7 
208,511 
.163,989 
734,273 
,070,116 
,900,579 
737,o59 
859,3n 
7 I °>336 
953,886 
999,351 



£303,457 
159,835 
341,006 
368,8x5 
51,255 
31,247 
145,794 
i5°,335 
i°7>254 
141,638 
144.456 
307,118 
221,869 
288,592 
337,6*1 
651,806 
593,5o5 



Telegraph Receipts : 1898-9, 3,204,3962. ; 1899-1900, 3,389,746?.; 1900-1, 3,380,589?. ; 1901-2, 3,5700,46?. 



REVENUE OF THE POST-OFFICE. 



1643. 


It yielded . 


£5,000 


1835. 


U. Kingdom£2, 353 


E653. 


Farmed 


10,000 


1839- 


Ditto 


• 2,522 


1663. 


Farmed 


21,500 


1840. 


New rate . 471 


1674. 


Farmed for 


43,000 


1845. 


Netrevenue 761 


1685. 


It yielded . 


65,000 


1850. 


Ditto 


. 803, 


1707. 


Ditto . . 


111,461 


1855. 


Ditto 


■ i,i37, 


1714- 


Ditto 


145,227 


1859. 


Ditto 


• 1,150, 


1723- 


Ditto . . 


201,805 


i860. 


Ditto 


. 1,102 


1744- 


Ditto . . 


235,492 


1861. 


Ditto 


. 1,161 


T764. 


Ditto . . 


432,048 


1862. 


Ditto 


• 1,236, 


1790. 


Ditto . . 


480,074 


1863. 


Ditto* 


• 1,037 


1800. 


Ditto . . 


745,313 


1864. 


Ditto 


• 1,153 


1805. 


Gt. Britain 


1,424,994 


186s 


Ditto 


. 1,482, 


1810. 


Ditto . . 


1,709,065 


1866. 


Ditto 


• i,397 


T815. 


Ditto . . 


1,755,898 


1867. 


Ditto 


. 1,421 


1820. 


U. Kingdom 


2,402,697 


1868. 


Ditto 


• I ,4 I 6 


1825. 


Ditto . . 


2,255,239 


1870. 


Ditto 


■ i,493 


1830. 


Ditto . . 


2,301,432 


1903. 


Ditto 


.15,004 



,340 

,495 
,ooo 



,941 
,404 

,261 
,522 

,986 
,364 

,922 
,610 

,938 

After payment for foreign and colonial mails. 

POST-OFFICES. 

The General Post-office of London was originally 
established in Cloak-lane, near Dowgate-hill, whence 
it was removed to the Black Swan, in Bishopsgate- 
street. After the great fire of 1666 it was removed to 
the Two Black Pillars, in Brydges-street, Covent- 
garden, and afterwards (about 1690) to sir Robert 
Viner's mansion in Lombard-street. It was transferred 
to the building in St. Martin's-le-Grand, erected on the 
site of an ancient college, from designs by R. Smirke, 
23 Sept. 1829. Foundation of a new general post-office 
laid 16 Dee. 1870 ; occupied 1873 ; additional buildings 
completed, 1894. 

The new post-office of Dublin opened, 6 Jan. 1818. 

The foundation of a new post-office at Edinburgh was 
laid by the prince consort in Oct. 1861. 

Public receptacles for letters before 1840, 4,028 ; in 1865, 
16,246; in 1876, 24,171; in 1877, 25,082; Jan. 1879, 
25,767 ; in 1884, 31,700 ; 1888, 36,750 ; 1891, 40,643. 

In i860, there were in the United Kingdom, 11,412 post- 
offices; 1862, 11,316 ; 1875, 13,226; 1877, !3>447 : J an - 
1879, 13,881 ; 1884, 15,951 ; 1888, 17,587 ; 1891, 18,806 ; 
1896, 20,398; 1899, 21,940. 

The street Letter-boxes were erected in March, 1855. The 
first one was placed at the corner of Fleet-street and 
Farringdon-street. There were in i860, 1,958 ; in 1875, 
10,186 ; Jan. 1879, 11,880 ; 1891, 21,837 > 1896, 27,622. 

Staff employed : 1862, 25,285 ; in 1872, 28,959 ; 1874, 
43,982; 1875, 44,644 ; 1879, 45,947 ! 1888,' 56,460; 1891, 
63,868; 1899, 167,0705.1900, 173,184; 1903, 183,595. 

Revenue: post office, 1899, 12,710,000?. ; 1900,13,300,00c?. ; 
1901, 13,800,000?. ; 1902, 14,300,000?. ; 1903, 15,004,938?. 
Telegraphs, 1899, 3,150,000?. ; 1900, 3,350,000?. ; 1901, 
3,450,000?. ; 1902, 3,490,000?. ; 1903, 3,723,866?. 



Post-office Sa vinos-banks established by parliament 
1861 (began Sept. 16) ; interest 2J per cent. ; govern- 
ment responsible to depositors. The number of these 
banks and the amount of deposits received on 31 March, 
1862, were— 

Banlcs. Deposits. 

England . . . 1795 . £668,879 10 2 
Wales . . . . 129 . . 28,392 2 10 
Scotland . . . 299 . 10,237 9 8 

Ireland . . . 300 . . 26,064 J 8 8 
The Islands g 1,679 J 5 ° 



2532 £735,253 16 4 

London district .... 267,329 13 8 
1866. Computed total amount of capital held by these 

banks in the United Kingdom, 8,121,175?. 
1901. 140,392,916?. 

Foundation-stone of the new central offices at W. Ken- 
sington laid by the prince of Wales, 24 June, 1899. 
Headquarters of P.O. savings bank removed from 
Queen Victoria-street to W. Kensington, 14 April, 
1903. 
Dec. 1870, 1,183,153 depositors in United Kingdom ; total 
sum held, 15,099,104?. ; in 1883, 6,297,378 de- 
positors ; total sum held, 43,294,949?. ; 31 Dec. 
1887, 6,916,327 ; total sum held, 53,974,065?. ; 
31 Dec. 1890, 7,634,807?.; 8,776,566 depositors ; 
1893, 80,597,641?. ; 9,838,198 depositors ; 1896, 
108,098,641?...; 6,862,035 depositors ; 1899, 
130,118,605?. ; 8,046,680 depositors ; 1900, 
135,549,645?. ; 8,439,983 depositors ; 1901, 
140,409,645?. ; 8,787,675 depositors ; 1902, 
144,605,088?. ; 9,000,000 depositors, April, 1903. 
Other Statistics. 1902. Average number of letters 
to each person in the United Kingdom, 58 - 9", post- 
cards, 10*7; book packets (including circulars), i8'4; 
newspapers, 4"i ; parcels, 2"i ; registered letters, 
18,800,313 ; undelivered postal packets, 10,183,866, 
value of property in them 668, 529?. 

postmasters. 

The number of postmasters (2) reduced to 1, 1822. 

The offices of postmaster-general of England and of Ire- 
land united in one person, 1831. 

Act passed permitting postmaster to sit in house of 
commons, July, 1866. 

1823. Thomas, earl of Chichester. 

1826. Lord Frederick Montague. 

1827. William duke of Manchester. 
1830. Charles duke of Richmond. 

1834. Francis marquis of Conyngham 

1835. William lord Maryborough. 
1835. Francis marquis of Conyngham. 

,, Thomas earl of Lichfield. 
1841. William viscount Lowther. 
1846. Edward earl of St. Germans. 

3 s 



POST-OFFICE ACT. 



994 POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. 



1846. Ulick marquis of Clanricarde. 

1852. Charles Philip earl of Hardwicke. 

1853. Charles John earl Canning. 
i8S5- George duke of Argyll. 

1858. Charles lord Colchester. 

1859. James earl of Elgin. 
i860. Edward lord Stanley of AMerley. 
1866. James duke of Montrose (July). 
1868. Spencer marquis of Hartington (Dec). 
1871. Wm. Monsell(Jan.). 

1873. Dr. Lyon Playfair (18 Nov.) ; died 29 May, 1898. 

1874. Lord John Manners (21 Feb.). 
1880. Henry Pawcett (3 May) ; died 6 Nov. 1884. 

1884. Geo. Shaw-Lefevre (18 Nov.). 

1885. Lord John Manners (24 June). 

1886. George Grenfell Glyn, lord Wolverton (about 

6 Feb.). 
,, Henry Cecil Eaikes, 26 July ; died, 24 Aug. 1891. 

1891. Sir James Fergusson, about 21 Sept. 

1892. Arnold Morley, 18 Aug. 
1895. Henry Howard, duke of Norfolk, July ; resigned, 

March, 1900. 
1900. Lord Londonderry, April. 

1902. Austen Chamberlain, Aug. 

1903. Lord Stanley, Oct. 

CHIEF SECRETARIES. 

1797. Francis Freeling. 

1836. Wm. L. Maberley. 

1854. Rowland Hill (sec. to postmaster-general, 30 Nov. 
1846); received national testimonial, 17 June, 
1846; resigned 29 Feb. 1864; made K.C.B. i860, 
with a grant of 20,000?. and 2000J. pension ; died 
27 Aug. ; buried in Westminster Abbey, 4 Sept. 
1879 (see Rowland Hill Memorial). 

1864. JohnTilley, K.C.B. 1880; died 18 March, 1898. 

1880. Sir Stevenson Arthur Blackwood ; died 2 Oct. 1893. 

1893. Spencer Walpole (Nov.), K.C.B., 1 Jan. 1898 ; 
retires, 14 Feb, 1899. 

1899. George H. Murray (aft. sir) ; succeeded by H. 
Babington Smith, Sept. 1903. 

POST-OFFICE ACT, passed 14 June, 1875, 
consolidates previous acts (1840, et seq.), and 
enacts some new regulations. The Post-office 
(Parcels) act was passed 18 Aug. 1882 ; other acts 
passed, 1891 and 1895. 

POST-OFFICE DIRECTORY for London, 

published by Kelly & Co., since 1800. County 
directories and trade now published. 

POST-OFFICE Money-Orders Acts, 
11 & 12 Vict. c. 88 (1848), 43 & 44 Yict. c. 33 (1880). 

POSTMAN AND TUBMAN, ancient offices 
in the court of exchequer held by barristers with 
certain privileges. 

POTASSIUM, a remarkable metal, discovered 
by Humphry Davy, who first succeeded in sepa- 
rating it from its oxide, potash, by means of a 
Powerful voltaic battery, in the laboratory of the Royal 
nstitution, London, about 19 Oct. 1807 ; and also 
the metals Sodium from soda, Calcium from lime, 
&c. The alkalies and earths had been previously 
regarded as simple substances. Potassium ignites 
on contact with moisture. 

POTATOES, natives of Chili and Peru, gene- 
rally considered to have been brought to England 




Their first culture in Ireland is referred to sir "Walter 
Raleigh, who had large estates in that country, 
about Youghal, in the county of Cork. It is said 
thiit potatoes were not known in Flanders until 
1620. A fine kind of potato was first brought from 
America by Mr. Howard, who cultivated it at Car- 
dington, near Bedford, 17615 ; and its culture be- 
came general soou after. The fail 'arc of the potato 



crop in Ireland, several years, especially in 1846, 
caused famine, to which succeeded pestilent disease 
of which multitudes died ; among them many priests 
and physicians. Parliament voted ten millions, 
sterling; and several countries of Europe, and the 
United states of America, forwarded provisions and 
other succours; see Ireland. In 1868 it was reported 
that in England and Wales 500,000 acres, and in 
Ireland 1,000,000 acres, were under cultivation for 
potatoes. Potato disease prevailed greatly in Eng- 
land, autumn of 1872. In consequence the value of 
potatoes imported in 1872 was 1,654,240/.; in 1871, 
only 225,732/. ; in 1877, 7,964,840 cwt., value, 
2,348,749/.; m 1883, 5, 149,509 cwt., value 1, 585,260/.; 
in 1887, 2,763,357 cwt. ; in 1889, 1,864,426 cwt. ; 
in 1890, 1,940,100 cwt. ; in 1900, 8,910,932 cwt. ; 
in 1902., 5,699,090 cwt. ; Temporary alarm respec- 
ting the American Colorado beetle or bug, autumn, 
1876. Acres cultivated for potatoes in Great 
Britain in 1867, 492,217; 1871, 627,691; 1877, 
512,471; 1883, 543,455; in 1887. 559,652; in 
1890, 529,661; in 1902, 573,880; Ireland, 1902, 
629,304. 

[Mr. W. Carruthers considers that the disease did not 
appear in Britain before 1844; Mr. Thiselton-Dyer 
thinks that it did.] 
International potato exhibition, Crystal Palace, 17-18 

Sept. 1879 ; another 7-8 Oct. 1885. 
Rain and want of sunshine greatly injured the crops in 

1879. 
Report of a select committee on the failure of the potato 

crop, Aug. 1880. 
7th potato show (the 1st, 1874) at the Crystal Palace, 
very good, 23 Sept. 1880 ; 8th exhibition, 20 Sept. 1882. 
Solanum maglia successfully cultivated in wet land by 

Mr. A. Sutton of Reading, 1884. 
Tercentenary of the introduction of the potato into 
England celebrated at Westminster ; exhibition and 
conference, about 500 varieties exhibited, 1-4 Dec. 1886. j 
Failure of the potato crop in Cork, &c, see Ireland, 

1800. 
The bouillie Bordelaise treatment of the disease by dress- | 
ings of salts of copper recommended by Dr. Girard 
(1890), was tried by Messrs. Sutton, of Reading, with 
doubtful results, June, et seq. 1891. Favourable results 
reported by some persons. 
Outbreak of disease in parts of Ireland, mid. July, 1S93 
Blight in co. Limerick and Clare, reported, 16 Aug. 1897 
Heavy rains and floods of the summer and early 

autumn very deleterious to the potato crop in 1903 
Local firm at Lincoln sells 7 lbs. of Eldorado pota- 
toes for 700Z. ; purchaser resells part at 150Z. 
per lb 11 Dec. ,, 

POTID^EA, a town in Macedonia, a tributary 
of Athens, against which it revolted 432 B.C., but 
submitted in 429. It was taken from the Athe- 
nians after three years' siege, by Philip II. of Mace- 
don in 356 B.C. 

POTOMAC, see United States, Aug. 1861. 

POTOSI (Peru). Silver mines here were dis- 
covered by the Spaniards in 1545 ; they are in a 
mountain in the form of a sugar-loaf. 

POTSDAM (near Berlin), the Versailles of 
Prussia. It was made an arsenal in 1 72 1. Here is 
situated the palace of Sans Souci (built, 1660-73), 
embellished by Frederick II., and occupied by Na- 
poleon I. in Oct. 1806 ; and the new palace, erected 
by Frederick the Great, 1 763-9, was the residence 
of the emperor Frederick III., when prince 
Frederick William of Prussia and his wife the 
princess roya) of England, married 25 Jan. 1858. I 
Population, I890, 54,161 ; 1900, 59,814. 

POTTERY AND PORCELAIN. Themanu- 
facture of earthenware (the ceramic art) existed I 
among the Jews as an honourable occupation (see f 
1 Chron. iv. 23), and the power of the potter over 






POTWALLOPERS. 



995 



PR/ETORS. 



the clay as a symbol of the power of God is de- 
scribed by Jeremiah, 605 B.C. (ch. xviii.) Earth- 
enware was made b} - the ancient Egyptians, Assy- 
rians, Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans. 

The Majolica, Raffaelle, or Umbrian ware of the 15th 
century was probably introduced iuto Italy from 
the Moors from Majorca. Raffaelle and other 
artists made designs for this ware. 

Pottery manufactured at Beauvais, in France, in 
the 12th century. 

Enamelled pottery made at St. Cloud . . about 1688 

Luca della Robbia (born about 1410) applied tin 
enamel to terra-eotta. Fayence ware was made 
in France by Bernard Palissy (died, 1589) and his 
family. 

Porcelain, formed of earth kaolin, was made in 
China in the 2nd century after Christ. Chinese 
porcelain is mentioned in histories of the 16th cen- 
tury, when it was introduced into England, and 
eagerly sought after. 

Porcelain made at Bow, near London, early in the 
18th century, and at Chelsea, before . . . 1698 

Birch's " History of Ancient Pottery" (185S); Mar- 
ryat's ' ' History of Pottery and Porcelain, Medi- 
aeval and Modern" (1857) ; and Brongniart's 
"Arts Ceramiques," are valuable works. 

The first European porcelain was made at Dresden 
by Bottcher ... ... about 1700 

[The manufacture was fostered by the king Augus- 
tus II.] 

The Capo di Monte factoiy at Naples established 1736 

Thomas Frye painted porcelain, 1749 ; and Dr. Wall 
established the manufacture at Worcester . . 1750 

The St. Cloud China manufactory removed to 
Sevres 1756 

Josiah Wedgwood's patent ware was first made, 
1762 ; his great works at Etruria in Staffordshire 
were established in 1771 ; his fine art works and 
ordinary crockery have been largely exported to 
all parts of the world. 

The Royal Porcelain manufactory, at Copenhagen, 
started in 1775, was soon after taken up by the 
State and carried on till 1867, when it reverted 
into private hands. In 1882 it was purchased by 
the Aluminia company of Copenhagen. 

The British manufacture greatly improved by Her- 
bert Minton, who died 1858 

The duty on earthenware taken off . . . . i860 

Lord Dudley's collection of china sold for 40,856?. 

21 May, 1886 

Great improvements in form and colour in deco- 
rative stoneware, glazed pipes, &c, were made in 
Messrs. Doulton's Lambeth pottery works, 1871, 
et seq. , in connection with the Lambeth School of 
Art. Lambeth faience was introduced in 1873. 
Sir Henry Doulton, born, 1820 ; was knighted in 
1887 ; died 17 Nov. 1897 

The potter's wheel has greatly superseded moulding 
as producing more original work . ... 1888 

The sale of the collection of oriental porcelain, &c, 
of the late Mr. Wells, of Redleaf, realized 
i2,8nL 12s. 6d. .... 13, 14 May, 1890 

Great lock-out in the pottery district, Staffordshire, 
respecting wages, 5 May ; settled by compromise 

about iq May, 1892 
Sale of Mr. D. Macdonald's fine 'collection of old 

English porcelain .... 26-28 Nov. 1900 
Lord Henry Thynne's old Chelsea porcelain realised 
12,500?. ....... 12 July, igoi 

POTWALLOPERS (or boilers). Before the 
passing of the reform act of 1832, persons who had 
boiled a pot for six months claimed the right to vote 
for the election of members of Parliament. 

POULTRY. An exhibition of poultry was held 
in London, Jan. 1853, when nearly 1000 cocks were 
exhibited ; and similar exhibitions have been held 
at the Crystal palace since. A national poultry 
conference (first) opened at Heading by Mr. Walter 
Long, 1 1 July, 1899. 



POULTRY COMPTER (London) was one 
of the most noted of the old city prisons. The 
compter of \Vood-street belonged to the sheriff of 
London, and was made a prison-house in 1555. 
This latter and Broad-street compter were re-built 
in 1667. The Giltspur-street orison, built to supply 
the place of the old city compters, was pulled down 
in 1855. The Poultry chapel was erected on the site 
of the Poultry compter, in 1819. — Leigh. 

POUND, from the Latin Pondus. The value 
of the Roman pondo is not precisely known, though 
some suppose it was equivalent to an Attic mina, or 
3^. 4s. "]d. The pound sterling was in Saxon times, 
about 671, a pound troy of silver, and a shilling was 
its twentieth part; consequently the latter was three 
times as large as it is at present. — Peacham. Our 
avoirdupois pound weight came from the French, 
and contains sixteen ounces; it is in proportion 
to our troy weight as seventeen to fourteen ; see 
under Standard. 

POWDERING THE HAIR, see Hair. 

POWER-LOOMS, see Looms, and Cotton. 

POYNINGS' LAW, named after sir Edward 
Poynings, lord deputy of Ireland at the time of its 
passing, at Drogheda, 13 Sept. 1494. By this law all 
legislation in the Irish parliament was confined to 
matters first approved of by the king and the English 
council. The act was repealed, together with the 
English Declaratory act of the 6th of Geo. I. and 
other obnoxious Irish statutes, April, 1782. 

PR^EMONSTRATENSIAN ORDER, or 

WHITE CANONS, founded in 1120 by Norbert, a 
monk, at Pre Montre, near Laon. Its first house 
in England was founded by Peter de Gousla or 
Gousel, at Newsham, in Lincolnshire, 1143 — 
Tanner ; according to others in 1 146. The order 
spread widely through England soon after. The 
house at Newsham was dedicated to St. Mary and 
St. Martial. — Lewis. 

PR.ZEMUNIRE, Law of. This law (which 

obtained its name from the first two words " Prce- 
moneri," or " Prcemuniri facias," "Cause to be 
forewarned," which is applied to any offence in the 
way of contempt of the sovereign or his govern- 
ment) derived its origin from the aggressive power 
of the pope in England. The offence introduced a 
foreign power into the land, and created an 
imperium in imperio. The first statute of Prsemu- 
nire was enacted 35 Edward I. 1306. — Coke. The 
pope bestowed most of the bishoprics, abbeys, &c, 
before they were void, upon favourites, on pretence 
of providing the church with better qualified suc- 
cessors before the vacancies occurred. To put a 
stop to these encroachments, Edward III. enacted 
a statute in 1353. The statute commonly referred 
to as the statute of Praemunire is the 16th of 
Richard II. 1392. Several similar enactments 
followed. The assertion that parliament is indepen- 
dent of the sovereign was declared a praemunire, 1 661 . 

PRAETORIAN GUARDS, instituted by the 
emperor Augustus (13 B.C.) ; their numbers en- 
larged by Tiberius, Vitellius, and their successors. 
At first supporters of the imperial tyrants, they 
eventually became their masters, actually putting 
up the diadem for sale (as in March, 193 a.d., 
when it was bought by Didius Julian us). They 
committed many atrocities, and were finally dis- 
banded by Constantine in 312. 

PRAETORS, Roman magistrates, afterwards 
termed consuls (which see), were elected at the 

3 s 2 



PRAGA. 



996 



PREDESTINATION. 



establishment of the republic, 509 B.C. In 366 
the prcetor urbanics was appointed for the city, and 
the prcetor peregrinus for foreigners, 246 B.C. Two 
praetors were appointed for the provinces, 227, and 
two more, 197. Sylla, the dictator, added two, and 
Julius Caesar increased the number to 10, which 
afterwards became 16. After this, their number 
fluctuated, being sometimes 18, 16, or 12 ; till, in 
the decline of the empire, their dignity decreased, 
and their numbers were reduced to three. 

PRAGA, a suburb of Warsaw, where a bloody 
battle was fought, 4 Nov. 1794; 30,000 Poles were 
killed by the Russian general fciuwarrow. Near 
here, on 25 Feb. 1831, the Poles, commanded by 
Skrznecki, defeated the Russians, under general 
Giemsar, who lost 4000 killed and wounded, 6000 
prisoners, and 12 pieces of cannon. 

PRAGMATIC SANCTION, an ordinance 
relating to church and state affairs. The ordinances 
of the kings of France are thus called ; in one the 
rights of the Gallican church were asserted against 
the usurpation of the pope in the choice of bishops, 
by Charles VII. in 1438. The Pragmatic Sanction 
for settling the empire of Germany in the house of 
Austria, 1439. The emperor Charles VI. published 
the Pragmatic Sanction, whereby, in default of 
male issue, his daughters should succeed in prefer- 
ence to the daughters of his brother Joseph I., 
19 April, 1 7 13 ; and he settled his dominions on 
his daughter Maria Theresa, in conformity thereto, 
1723. She succeeded in Oct. 1740; but it gave rise 
to a war, in which most of the powers of Europe 
were engaged, and which lasted till 1748. 

PRAGUE, the capital of Bohemia {which see). 
The old city was founded about 759 ; the new city 
rebuilt in 1348 by the emperor Charles IV., who 
made it his capital and erected a university. Prague 
has suffered much by war. Population, 1880, 
162,323; 1890,184,109; 1900,389,741. 

Victory of the Hussites under Ziska . 14 July, 1420 
Frederick, the king, totally defeated by the Aus- 

trians near Prague .... 8 Nov. 1620 

Prague taken by the Swedes in 1648, and by the 

French in 174 1 ; they left it 1742 

Taken by the king of Prussia ; obliged to abandon it, 1744 
Great battle oj Prague (the Austrians defeated by 
prince Henry of Prussia, and their whole camp 
taken ; their commander, general Braun, mor- 
tally wounded, and the Prussian marshal 

Schwerin killed) 6 May, 1757 

Insurrection in Prague ; soon suppressed . June, 184S 
A treaty of peace between Austria and Prussia signed 
at Prague (by its articles Austria consented to 
the breaking up of the Germanic confederation, 
and to Prussia's annexing Hanover, Hesse Cassel, 
Nassau, and Frankfort ; and gave up Holstein, 
and her political influence in North Germany), 
and North Schleswig to Denmark if the people 
vote for it ; (the last not carried out) 23 Aug. 1866 ; 

abrogated Feb. 1879 

Riots of Czech and German students ; Marshal 

Krause appointed governor about . 10 July, 1881 
45 socialists sentenced to imprisonment . .Dec. 1882 
Destructive floods ; the ancient bridge over the 
Moldau greatly injured, 1—5 Sept., by the col- 
lapse of a wall of the bridge ; 40 labourers were 
cast into the river and 23 drowned . 13 Oct. 1890 
Bohemian Industrial exhibition opened, 15 May ; 

closed 1% Oct. 1891 

Visit of the emperor, warmly received . 26 Sept. ,, 
Serious Czech rioting suppressed by the police, 

after fighting 28 March, 1892 

Demonstration of the Czschs against the Germans 

30 Nov. 1897 
Serious rioting against Germans and Jews, houses 
plundered and burnt ; semi state of siege pro- 
claimed by government, 4 persons killed, 150 
wounded, troops concentrated . . 1-3 Dec. „ 



An aggressive manifesto issued by the young Czech 
party, newspapers confiscated . . 20 Dec. 1897 

PRAGUERIE, WAR OF (so named from 
Prague, then celebrated for its civil disorders) ; 
the revolt of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XL, 
against his father Charles VII., aided by Alexander, 
the bastard of Bourbon, and other nobles. It was 
soon quelled ; Louis was exiled, and Alexander put 
to death by drowning, July, 1440. 

PRAIRIAL INSURRECTION at Paris. 
On 1, 2, 3 Frairial, year 3 (20, 21, 22 May, 1795), 
the faubourgs rose against the directory, and were 
quelled by the military. 

PRAISE - GOD - BAREBONES' PAR- 
LIAMENT, see Barebones. 

PRASLIN MURDER. The duchesse de 
Choiseul-Praslin was murdered by her husband, 
the due de Praslin, at his own house, in Paris, 17 
Aug. 1847. She was the only daughter of the 
celebrated marshal Sebastiani, the mother of nine 
children, and in her forty-first year. Circum- 
stances were so managed by him as to give it the 
appearance of being the act of another. During 
the arrangements for the trial, the duke took 
poison. 

PRAYER-BOOK, see Common Prayer. The i 

Prayer-book and Homily Society, London, was '■ 
founded in 1812. 

Prayer-book Revision Society, established 1854, for pro- | 

moting a revision of the book of common prayer, and 1 

such liturgical reforms in the church of England as ' 

in the opinion of the society would strengthen its 1 
Protestant and scriptural character. 

PRAYERS. "Then began men to call upon I 
the name of the Lord " {Gen. iv. 26), 3875 B.C. The I 
mode of praying with the face to the east was | 
instituted by pope Boniface II. a.d. 532. Prayers 
for the dead, first introduced into the Christian 
church about 190, are advocated by some ministers 
of the English church. Prayers addressed to 
the Virgin Mary and to the saints are said to have 
been introduced by pope Gregory, 593. See 
Liturgies. 

PREBENDARY, a clergyman attached to a 
cathedral or collegiate church, who receives an 
income termed prebenda for officiating at stated 
times. The office slightly differs from that of a 
canon. 

PRECEDENCE was established in very early 
ages, and was amongst the laws of Justinian. In 
England the order of precedency was regulated 
chiefly by two statutes, 31 Hen. VIII. 1539, and 1 
Geo. I. 1 7 14. 

PRECEPTORS, COLLEGE OF, Blooms- 
bury, London, established in 1846, and incorporated 
by royal charter 28 March, 1849, for promoting 
sound learning, especially among the middle classes, 
by the instruction of teachers, and by the exami- 
nation of pupils at stated times. 

Professorship (the first in England) of the science and 

art of education, instituted, 1873. 
New building in Bloomsbury Square opened by the prince 

of Wales, 30 March, 1887. 

PREDESTINATION {Ephes. L). The doc- 
trine concerning this is defined in the seventeenth 
article of the Church of England {Ephes. i. and 
Romans is.). It was maintained by St. Augustin, 
and opposed by Pelagius, in the early part of the 
5th century. In later times it has been maintained 



PEEHISTORIC ARCHEOLOGY. 997 



PRESS ASSOCIATION. 



by the Augustinians, Jansenists, the church of 
Scotland, and many dissenters (termed Calvinistic), 
and opposed by the Dominicans, Jesuits, and dis- 
senters (termed Arminian), especially by the Wes- 
leyan methodists. 

; PREHISTORIC ARCHEOLOGY began 
in Sweden, and first systematised by Mr. Nillson. 
Daniel Wilson's " Archaeology and Pre-historic 
Annals of Scotland," published 1851. An inter- 
national congress for treating prehistoiical subjects 
met at Neuchatel in 1866, and at Paris in 1867. At 
the third meeting at Norwich, Aug. 1868, it assumed 
the name of " International Congress for Prehistoric 
Archaeology," and published its transactions in 1869. 
A meeting was held at Stockholm 7-14 Aug. 1874. 
See Barroivs, Man, Ancient Monuments and Lake 
Dwellings. 

Sir John Lubbock divides prehistoric archaeology into 
four great epochs : 1. The Drift or Palaeolithic or old 
stone age ; 2. The Neolithic or polished stone age ; 3. 
The Bronze age ; 4. The Iron age, when bronze was 
superseded. 

PRE-RAPHAELITE SCHOOL, a name 
given about 1850, to J. E. Millais, Wm. Holman 
Hunt, D. G. llossetti, and other artists, who opposed 
the routine conventionality of academic teaching, 
and resolved to study nature as it appeared to 
them, and not as it appeared in the antique. For 
a short time they published " The Germ, or Art and 
Poetry," beginning in 1850. Their works have 
been much criticised, but their influence has been 
beneficial. Their principles are much advocated 
by the great art-critic, John Buskin. 

PREROGATIVE COURT, in which for- 
merly all wills were proved, and all administrations 
taken, which belonged to the archbishop of Canter- 
bury by his prerogative, a judge being appointed by 
him to decide disputes.* Appeals from this court, 
previously to the pope, were commanded to be 
made to the king in chancery, 1533 ; to the privy 
council in 1830-2. This court was abolished, and 
the Probate Court established in 1857. Sir John 
Dodson, the last judge, died in 1858. 

PREROGATIVE, ROYAL. In England 
the sovereign is the supreme magistrate, and it is a 
maxim that he can do no wrong. He is the head 
of the established church, of the army and navy 
and the fountain of office, honour, and privilege, 
but is subject to the laws, unless exempted by 
name. The royal prerogatives were greatl\ exceeded 
by several despotic sovereigns, such as Elizabeth, 
James I., and Charles I. Elizabeth used the phrase 
" We, of our Royal prerogative, which we will not 
have argued or brought in question" (1591). 
James I. t jld his parliament " that as it was blas- 
phemy to question what the Almighty could do 
of His power, so it was sedition to inquire what a 
king could do by virtue of his prerogative." 
These extreme doctrines were nullified by the 
revolution of 1688, and the exercise of the preroga- 
tive is now virtually subject to parliament; see 
Lords. 

PRESBURG, the ancient capital of Hungary, 
where the diets were held and the kings crowned. 
On 26 Dec. 1805, a treaty was signed between 

* The records date from 1383 ; but the testamentary 
jurisdiction from that year to 1433 was exercised by the 
court of arches. Then abp. Stafford transferred it to a 
new court ; president, the commissary of the prerogative 
court of Canterbury. There was also a prerogative 
court of the archbishop of York. 



France and Austria, by which the ancient states of 
Venice were ceded to Italy; the principality of 
Eichstadt, part of the bishopric of Passau, the city 
of Augsburg, the Tyrol, all the possessions of 
Austria in Suabia, in Brisgau, and Ortenau, were 
transferred to the elector of Bavaria, and the duke 
of Wurtemberg, who, as well as the duke of Baden, 
were then created kings by Napoleon. The inde- 
pendence of the Helvetic republic was also stipu- 
lated. A new iron and stone railway and passenger 
bridge over the Danube was inaugurated by the 
emperor, 30 Dec. 1890. Population, 1890, 52,444 ; 
1900, 61,861. 

PRESBYTERIANS are so called from their 
maintaining that the government of the church 
appointed in the New Testament was by presby- 
teries, or association of ministers and ruling elders, 
equal in power, office, and in order. " The elders 
(Greek, presbyteros) I exhort, who am also an 
elder (sympresbyteros)." 1 Peter v. 1. Presby- 
terianism was accepted by parliament in place of 
episcopacy in England in 1648, but set aside at the 
restoration in 1660. It became the established 
form of church government in Scotland in 1696. 
Its tenets were embodied in the formulary of faith 
said to have been composed by John Knox, in 1560, 
which was approved by the parliament, and ratified, 
1567, and finally settled by an act of the Scottish 
senate, 1696, afterwards secured by the treaty of 
union with England in 1707. The first Presby- 
terian meeting-house in England was established 
at Wandsworth, Surrey, 20 Nov. 1572. 

A pan-presbyterian congressheld inLondon. Repre- 
sentatives of about fifty bodies, British, Ame- 
rican, and foreign, agreed to form an ' ' Alliance of 
Presbyterian churches " . . . 19-22 July, 1875 

The presbyterian church of England re-constituted 
at Liverpool (in union with the United Presbyte- 
rian Church of Scotland) . . . 13 June, 1876 

A pan-presbyterian congress, held at Edinburgh, 
3 July, 1877 ; at Philadelphia, U.S.A., 23 Sept 1880 

The delegates to the pan-presbyterian council 
assemble at Exeter Hall . . .4 July, 1888 

Pan-presbyterian alliance met at Toronto, prof. 
Blackie president . . . . 21 Sept. 1892 
See Church of Scotland, Cameronians, Burghers, 
Relief, Glasites, Free Church, &c. 

PRESCOTT (Upper Canada). On 17 Nov. 
1838, the Canadian rebels were attacked by the 
British under major Young, and (on the 18th) by 
lieut. -colonel Dundas, who dispersed the insurgents, 
several of whom were killed, and many taken pri- 
soners, and the remainder surrendered. The troops 
also suffered considerably. 

PRESERVED MEAT, see Provisions. 

PRESIDENT, see Court of Session, Privy 
Council; United States, 1789; France, 1848,1871; 
Wrecks, 1841.— PRESIDENT OF THE COUNCIL, 
LORD, the fourth great officer of state, is appointed 
under the great seal, durante beneplaeito, and, by his 
office, is to attend the sovereign's ro3 r al person, and 
to manage the debates in council, to propose matters 
from the sovereign at the council-table, and to 
report to his majesty the resolutions taken there- 
upon. 

PRESS ASSOCIATION (a company "limi- 
ted") was established by the newspaper proprie- 
tors of Loudon and the provinces, at a meeting at 
Manchester, 29 June, 1868, to make arrangements 
to enable them to avail themselves of the increased 
facilities for the speedy transmission of news 
afforded by the post office, in consequence of the 



PEESS, LIBERTY OF THE. 



998 



PRETENDERS. 



purchase of the rights of all the telegraph com- 
p.mies, authorised by the Telegraph Act of 1868. 
The organisation of the association was completed 
at a meeting in London, 3 March, 1869. The Pro- 
vincial Newspaper Society, out of which it sprang, 
was founded in 1836, and became the Newspaper 
Society in 1889. Since 1868 the number of good 
daily provincial newspapers, containing the latest 
news of the world, has very greatly increased. 
Mr. John Hawkings, one of the founders of the 
central press, &c, dieJ, aged 64, 19 Feb. 1899. 
Foreign press association registered as a society, 
March, 1898. 

International press congress, Antwerp, 9 July, 1894 ; 
Bordeaux, 1895 ; Buda-pest, 1896 ; Stockholm, 1897 ; 
Lisbon, 1898 ; Rome, 1899 ; Leeds, 26 Aug. 1901 ; Berne, 
21 July, 1902. 

PRESS, LIBERTY OF THE. The imprimatur 
"let it be printed" was much used on the title- 
pages of books printed in the sixteenth and seven- 
teenth centuries. The liberty of the press was 
severely restrained, and the number of master- 
printers in London and Westminster limited by the 
Star Chamber, 13 Charles I., July 1, 1637. John 
Milton published his noble work, " Areopagitica ; 
or, a Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed 
Printing," 1644. See Fourth Estate. 

"Disorders in printing" were repressed by the 
parliament in 1643 and 1649, and by Charles II. . 1662 

The censorship of the press (by a licence established 
in 1655 and 1693) abandoned J 695 

The toast, "The liberty of the press ; it is like the 
air we breathe — if we have it not we die," was 
first given at the Crown and Anchor tavern, at a 
Whig dinner 1795 

Presses licensed, and the printer's name required to 
be placed on both the first and last pages of a 
book July, 1799 

The severity of the restrictions on the French press 
relaxed by M. Persigny, minister of the interior, 
but soon restored Dec. i860 

The liberty of the press in the United States greatly 
checked during the civil war . . . 1861-1865 

Certain restrictions on printers in the United King- 
dom removed by act passed . . . July, 1869 

Bill greatly freeing the press in France introduced 
into the chamber .... 24 Jan. 1881 

Press (newspaper), a revolutionary journal, pub- 
lished in Dublin : commenced in Oct. 1797 ; 
Arthur O'Connor, Mr. Emmett, the barrister 
(whose brother was executed in 1803), and other 
conspicuous men, contributors to it ; it inflamed 
the public mind in Ireland on the eve of the 
rebellion in 1798. The paper was suppressed by 
a military force .... 6 March, 1798 

PRESS-GANG for the royal navy was regu- 
lated by statute, 1378, and by 5 & 6 Will. IV. 1835; 
the compulsory service is limited to five years, see 
Impressment. 

PRESSING TO Death, see Mute. 

PRESTON (Lancashire). Near here Cromwell 
totally defeated the royalists under sir Marmaduke 
Langdale, 17 Aug. 1648. Preston was taken in 
1 7 15 by the Scotch insurgents, under Forster, who 
proclaimed king James VII. They were defeated 
in a battle on 12, 13 Nov. by generals Willes and 
Carpenter, who with the royal army invested 
Preston on all sides. The Scots laid down their 
arms, and their nobles and leaders were secured ; 
some were shot as deserters, and others sent to 
London pinioned and bound together, to intimidate 
their party. — The stoppage of the cotton manu- 
facture in 1861 and 1862, through the civil war in 
America, occasioned great suffering in Preston. See 
Population. 



" The Preston guild Merchant festival," said to have 
been instituted in Saxon times, recorded as be- 
ginning 1328, and to have been kept once in 20 
years regularly since 1562, was duly celebrated in 

Sept. 1862, Sept. 1882, and Sept. 1902 

A fine art and industrial exhibition here opened 

21 Sept. 1865 

The new town hall opened by the duke of Cambridge 

3 Oct. 1867 

Statue of the late earl of Derby publicly inaugurated 

3 June, 1873 

Preston strikes. — In 1853, a great number of strikes 
took place among the workmen in the north of 
England. Those at Preston struck for an increase 
of 10 per cent, on their wages. On 15 Oct. the 
masters, in consequence, closed forty-nine mills, 
and 20,000 persons were thrown out of employ- 
ment, who were mostly maintained for a long 
time by subscriptions from their fellows. In the 
week ending 17 Dec. 1:4,972 were relieved, at the 
cost of 2820Z. 8s. The committee of workmen 
addressed lord Palmerston, 15 Nov., who gave 
them his advice 24 Dec. 1853 

After many attempts at reconciliation, the strike 
closed for want of funds 1 May, 1854 

Another strike was closed in May, 1869 

The executors of Mr. E. C. Harris, a solicitor, 
awarded 70,000/. for a free library, museum, &c, 
Sept. 1879 ; of which the foundation was laid by 
the earl of La thorn .... 5 Sept. 1882 

The foundation of the Lancashire county hall laid 
by the earl of Derby ... 14 Sept. „ 

Mr. Rich. Newsham bequeaths his pictures and art 
treasures, worth about 70,000/. to Preston 

announced Dec. 1883 

Free library and museum, the gift of Mr. E. R. 
Harris, 300,000/., and others, opened by the earl 
of Derby ; banquet . . . .26 Oct. 1893 

Manchester cotton mill burnt, 2 men injured, 500 
out of work 7 Aug. 1902 

Earl of Derby presented with the freedom of the 
city 6 Aug. 1903 

PRESTONPANS, near Edinburgh. At 
Gladsmuir, near this place, was fought a battle 
between the Young Pretender, prince Charles 
Edward Stuart, and his Scotch adherents, and the 
royal army under sir John Cope, 21 Sept. 1745. 
The latter was defeated with the loss of 500 men, 
and fled. 

PRETENDERS. A name given to the son 
and grandsons of James II. of England. 

The Old Pretender, James Francis Edward 
Stuart, Chevalier de St. George, born 10 June, 
1688, was acknowledged by Louis XIV. as James 
III. of England, in 1701. 

Proclaimed, and his standard set up, at Braemar 
and Castletown, in Scotland . . 3 Sept. 1715 

Landed at Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, from 
France, to encourage the rebellion that the earl 
of Mar and his other adherents had prompted, 

25 Dec. ,, 

This rebellion having been soon suppressed, the 
Pretender escaped to Montrose (from whence he 
proceeded to Graveliues) ... 4 Feb. 1716 

Died at Rome 30 Dec. 1763 

The Young Pretender, Charles Edward, was 
born in 1720 

Landed in Scotland, and proclaimed his father king 

25 July, 1745 

Gained the battle of Prestonpans, 21 Sept. 1745, 
and of Falkirk 17 Jan. 1746 

Defeated at Culloden, and sought safety by flight, 

16 April, ,, 

He continued wandering among the wilds of Scot- 
land for nearly six months ; and as 30,000/. were 
offered for taking him, he was constantly pursued 
by the British troops, often hemmed round by 
his enemies, but still rescued by some lucky 
accident, and at length escaped from the isle of 
Uist to Morlaix in Sept. He died . 31 Jan. 1788 

His natural daughter assumed the title of duchess 
of Albany ; died in ...... 1789 



PEETOEIA. 



999 



PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND. 



His brother, the cardinal York, calling himself 
Henry IX. of England, born March, 1725 ; died 
at Rome in Aug. 1807 

His alleged grandson, Charles Edward Stuart comte 
d'Albanie, died 24 Dec. 1880 

See France, Louis XVII. ; and Impostors, 1606. 

PRETORIA, capital of the Transvaal colony, 
in the neighbourhood of the goldfields of Lyden- 
fourg, situated 90 miles N.E. of Potchefstroom, and 
980 miles from Cape Town. It derives its name 
from Andries Preforms, who during the B^er trek, 
by his military skill, waged war with ihe Zulus 
and defeated them on several occasions. Formerly 
the capital of the Transvaal or S. African republic. 
During the war in S. Africa 1899-1902 {which 
see) it was occupied by lord Roberts 5 June, 1900, 
and a new government under British authority 
instituted. Pretoria was visited (1903) by Mr. 
Chamberlain during his tour in S. Africa. The 
city has several handsome public buildings. 
Population (1899), 12,500. 

PREVENTION OF CORRUPTION 

(Illicit commissions) Act passed, 6 Aug. 1900. 

PREVENTION OF CRIME ACTS, 21 
Aug. 1871, 15 Aug. 1879, and 12 July, 1882. See 
Ireland, May, 1882, 1887 et seq. 
Criminal law and procedure (Ireland) act (1887) 
repeal bill (repealing the crimes act), read 
second time commons (222-208) . . 8 May, 1895 

PREVENTIVE MEDICINE. The dis- 
coveries of Pasteur, Koch, and others, relative to 
the propagation of disease by minute germs (see 
Germ Theory), led to the gradual firmation of a 
British (aft. Jenner) institute of Preventive Medi- 
cine by a committee of eminent physiologists and 
medical men, The institute was incorporated, sir 
Joseph Lister the first chairman, July, 1891; named 
the Lister institute, 7 Aug. 1903. 25,000^., part 
of a legacy from Mr. Richard Berridge, awarded 
to the institute ior the endowment of a laboratory 
at Chelsea, April, 1894. 250,000^. received from 
lord Iveagh, Dec. 1898. The Harben gold medal 
given to lord Lister, 1 Jan. 1899, and prof. Koch, 
1901. See Diphtheria. Sir Geo. Buchanan, M.D., 
a government medical officer, 187 1, an active pro- 
moter of preventive medicine, died 5 May, 1895 ; 
and sir Richard Thorne, his able successor, died 
18 Dee. 1899. 

PRICES, see Corn, Bread, and Provisions. 
Mr. T. Tooke, in 1838, published a "History of 
Prices from 1793 to 1856 " He was latterly aided 
by Mr. W. Newmarch. " History of Agriculture 
and Prices" (1259-1702). By Mr. J. E. T. Rogers; 
«ix volumes published 1866-87 '■> he died 13 Oct. 1890. 

PRIDE'S PURGE. On the 6th Dec. 1648, 
colonel Pride, with two regiments, surrounded the 
house of parliament, and seizing in the passage 
£orty-one members of the Presbyterian party, sent 
them to a low room, then called hell. Above 160 
•other members were excluded, and none admitted 
•but the most furious of the Independents. The 
ijprivileged members were named the Rump parlia- 
ment, which was dismissed by Cromwell, 20 April, 

PRIENE,one of the twelve cities of the Ionian 
league in Asia Minor. The temple of Minerva 
PoSas, founded here by Alexander the Great, and 
the work of Pythios, was excavated by Mr. R. P. 
Pullan, for the Dilettanti Society, in 1868-9. 

PRIEST (derived from presbyteros, elder), in 
the English church the minister who presides over 
the public worship. In Gen xiv. 18, Melchizedek 



king of Salem is termed " priest of the most high 
God." (1913 b.c. ; see Hebrews vii.) The Greek 
hiereus, like the Jewish priest, had a sacrificial 
character, which idea of the priesthood is still 
maintained by the Bomanists and those who favour 
their views. Among the Jews, the priests assumed 
their office at the age of thirty years. The dignity 
of high or chief priest was fixed in Aaron's family, 
1491 B.C. After the captivity of Babylon, the civil 
government and the crown were superadded to the 
high priesthood; it was the peculiar privilege of 
the high priest, that he could be prosecuted in no 
court but that of the great Sanhedrim. The 
heathens had their nrch-flamen or high priest, 
resembling the Christian archbishop. For " Priest 
in Absolution," see Holy Gross. 

PRIMER. A book so named from the Romish 
book of devotions, and formerly set forth or pub- 
lished by authority, as the first book children 
should publicly learn or read in schools, containing 
prayers and portions of the scripture. Primers were 
printed 1535, 1539. Henry VIII. issued a prayer- 
book called a "primer" in 1545. The three were 
published by Dr. Burton in 1834. 

PRIMITIVE CULTURE, see Civilisation. 

PRIMOGENITURE, Right of. a usage 

brought down from the earliest times. The first- 
born in the patriarchal ages had a superiority over 
his brethren, and in the absence of his father was 
priest to the family. In some parts of England, 
by the ancient customs of gavel-kind and borough- 
English, primogeniture was superseded. It came 
in with the feudal law, 3 Will. I. 1068. The 
rights of primogeniture abolished in France, 1 790. 
" Primogeniture," by Mr. Evelyn Cecil, published 
Feb. 189^. 

PRIMROSE LEAGUE, formed in 1884 in 
memory of the late lord Beaconsfield (with whom 
the primrose is said to have been a favourite flower) 
and in support of conservative principles. He died 
19 April, 1881, and the anniversary of that day is 
termed "Primrose Day," when the flower is gene- 
rally worn by his admirers, and his statue in 
Parliament-square decorated. The marquis of 
Salisbury became grand master. 
The league, which began with under a thousand 

members, was declared to consist of 810,228 

knights, dames, and associates, with 1,992 

" habitations" (2,414 in 1903), on . 20 May, 1889 
The league issues great number of political leaflets 

and songs. " Habitations " have been established 

in Scotland and Ireland. 
Number of members reported, 1,002,097, April, 1891 ; 

1. 131, 821, April, 189; ; 1,617,983 . . April, 1903 
Annual meetings : in Co vent Garden theatre, the 

marquis of Salisbury in the chair, 6 May, 1892 ; 

19 April, 1893; 19 April, 1894; 26 April, 1895; 

29 April, 1806 ; 6 May, 1897 ; at the Albert hall, 

4 May, 1898'; 19 April, 1899 ; 9 May, 1900 ; 8 May, 

1901 ; 7 May, 1902 ; 1 May, 1903, Mr. Balfour 

chairman. 

PRINCE OF THE PEACE, a title conferred 
on Manuel Go.loy by Charles IV. of Spain, for 
concluding the Treaty of Basle. 

PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND (Dominion 

of Canada) was discovered by Cabot in 1497; was 
finally taken from the French by the liritish in 
1758 ; united with Cape Breton as a colony in 1763 ; 
but separated in 1768. Population 1881, 108,894; 
1891,109,088; 1901,103,259. Capital, Charlotte- 
town. Lieut-governors: W. F. Robinson, Aug. 
1870; sir Robert Hodgson, 1874; hon. Thomas 
Heath Haviland, 1879; hon A. A. Macdonald 1884; 



PEINCE OF WALES'S ISLAND. 1000 



FEINTING. 



J. S. Carvell, 1889, died 14 Feb. 1894; G. W. 
Howlan, 1894 ; Peter A. Mclntyre, 1900. 

PEINCE OF WALES'S ISLAND, see 



PEINCE EUPEET'S LAND, see Rupert's 
Land, and Hudson' s Bay. 

PEINCESS ALICE, an iron saloon steamer, 
belonging to the London steamboat company, while 
carrying, it is supposed, above 900 persons, princi- 
pally women and children, on their return from 
Sheerness, was immediately sunk by collision with 
the Bywell Castle, a large iron screw steamer, about 
7.40 p.m. on Tuesday, 3 Sept. 1878, in the Thames, 
in Gallion's reach, about a mile below Woolwich 
arsenal. About 200 persons were saved, but of 
these about 16 died afterwards. About 640 bodies 
were recovered and buried ; many at Woolwich. 

The Princess Alice was 251 tons gross ; 219ft. 4m. long; 
20 ft. 2 in. broad; 8 ft. 4 m. deep. Engines, 140 horse 
power, by Caird, of Glasgow. Capt. Wm. Grinstead 
(lost), with (it is said) 6 sailors, 2 engineers, 3 firemen, 
6 stewards, and <; boys. 

The Bywell Castle, 1376 tons gross; 254ft. 3 in. long; 
32 ft. 1 in. broad ; 19 ft. 6 in. deep. Engines, i2ohorse 
power. Owners, Hall Brothers, London. Captain 
Thomas Harrison. 

Mansion Honsz Relief Fund opened, 5 Sept. The queen 
sent 105Z. ; subscriptions came from royal family ; 
38,2462. 2S. 6cl. received; final meeting, 30 Dec. 1878. 

Board of Trade Inquiry. — Result : Officers of Bywell 
Castle and Princess Alice not considered responsible for 
the accident, but some were censured for carelessness, 
28 Oct. The Princess Alice considered to be equal to her 
load; inquiry concluded, 31 Oct. Decision: "that 
the cause of the casualty was the breach of Rule 29 
of the Thames Conservancy Regulations, by the 
Princess Alice not porting her helm when she came 
end on to the Bywell Castle, a vessel coming in the 
opposite direction." Report dated 6 Nov. 1878. 

Coroner's Inquest. — Verdict : " Bywell Castle did not take 
necessary precautions in time, of easing. &c. ; Princess 
Alice contributed to the collision by not stopping her 
engines and going astern, &c." ; 14 Nov. 1878. 

An action for damage against owners of Bywell Castle in 
Admiralty division began 27 Nov. ; decision that both 
vessels were to blame, 11 Dec. 1878 ; decision on 
appeal that the Princess Alice was solely to blame, 15 
July, 1879. 

PEINCESS'S THEATEE, see under 

Theatres. 

PEINCE TON, New Jersey, N. America. 
Here Washington defeated the British, 3 Jan. 1777. 

PEINTED GOODS, see Calico. 

PEINTEES' PENSION SOCIETY, (now 
termed "Printers' Corporation"), founded 1827; 
chartei-ed, 1865 ; almshouses instituted, 1841 ; 
orphan schools have been set up. 

PEINTING. Block printing is said to have 
Deen invented by the Chinese about 593 A.n., 
movable types made in the 10th century. The 
honour of first printing with single types in Europe 
has been appropriated to Mentz, Sti asburg, Haarlem, 
Venice, Borne, Florence, Basle, and Augsburg ; but 
the names of the three first only are entitled to 
attention ; the early history is very doubtful, and 
the subject of much controversy ; see Press. 
Adrian Junius awards the honour of the invention 
to Laurenzes John Koster, of Haarlem, "who 
printed with blocks, a book of images and letters, 
Speculum Humance Salvationis, and compounded 
an ink more viscous and tenacious than common 
ink, which blotted, about 1438." 
[The leaves of this book, being printed on one side 
only, were afterwards pasted together.] 



[In 1859, Mr. Samuel Leigh Sotheby issued an 
elaborate work compiled by his father and him- 
self, entitled " Principia Typographica," con- 
taining fac-similes, &e. , of the block-books of the 
15th century; and Mr. J. Russell Smith published 
a fac-simile of the Biblia Pauperum, a very early 
block-book.] 

John Fust established a printing-office at Mentz, 
and printed the Tractatus Petri Hispani . . 1442 

John Gutenberg invented cut metal types, and 
used them in printing the earliest edition of the 
Latin bible (termed the Mazarin, from the dis- 
covery of a copy in the cardinal's library) at 
Mentz I 4S°"S5 

[At the sale of the Perkins library, 6 June, 1873, a 
copy of this bible on vellum sold for 3400J. , one on 
paper sold for 2690Z. ; a copy belonging to sir John 
Thorold, of Syston-park, sold for 3900?. 13 Dec. 
1884 ; a copy belonging to the earl of Crawford 
sold for 2650Z., 15 June, 1887; lord Hopetoun's 
copy sold for 2000L, 25 Feb. 1889.] 

Book of Psalms, by Fust and Schceffer . 14 Aug. 1457 

Sir John Thorold's copy on vellum sold for 4950Z. 
[formerly sold for 1362.] 19 Dec. 1884. 

The Durandi Rationale, first work printed with cast 
metal types 1459 

[Printing was introduced into Oxford, about this 
time. Collier. Denied by Dibclin.] 

A Livy printed. Du Fresnoy ..... 1460 

The first Latin bible with a date completed at 
Mentz by Fust and Schceffer 1462 

Mentz taken and plundered, and the art of printing, 
in the general ruin, is spread to other towns . * * 

The types were uniformly Gothic, or old German 
(whence our old English or Black Letter), until . 1465 

Greek characters (quotations only) first used, same 
year ,, 

Cicero de Offieiis printed by Fust at Mentz . . . ,, 

Roman characters, first at Rome .... 1467 

A Chronicle, said to have been found in the arch- 
bishop of Canterbury's palace (the fact disputed), 
bearing the date "Oxford, anno 1468." 

Lactantius, by Sweynheym and Pannartz, near 
Rome, 1465 ; Livy by the same . . . 1469 

[To the west of the Sanctuary in Westminster 
Abbey, stood the Eleemosynary or Almonry, 
where the first printing press in England was 
erected about 1470-76, by William Caxton, en- 
couraged by the learned Thomas Miliug, then 
abbot. 

He printed Willyam Caxton's Recuyel of the Hystoryes 
ofTroy,byRaoulleFeure. Phillips . . . , r 

His early pieces were, A Treatise on the Game of 

Chesse and Tully's Offices (see below). Dibclin . 1474 
" The Golden Legend," which see .... 1483 

AZsop's Fables, printed by Caxton, is supposed to be 
the first book with its leaves numbered . . 1484 

Aldus cast the Greek Alphabet, and a Greek book 

printed ap. Aldi !47& 

He introduces the Italics * * 

The Pentateuch, in Hebrew 1482 

German Bible at Nuremberg 1483 

Homer, in folio, beautifully done at Florence, 
eclipsing all former printing, by Demetrius . . 14SS 

Caxton prints the Boke of Eneydos . . . 1490 

Aldus Manutius begins printing at Venice . . . 149+ 

Printing used in Scotland 1507 

The first edition of the whole bible was, strictly 
speaking, the Complutensian Polyglot of cardinal 
Ximenes (see Polyglot) 15 17 

The Liturgy, the first book printed in Ireland, by 
Humphrey Powell 1550 

Printing in Irish characters introduced by Nicholas 
Walsh, chancellor of St. Patrick's . . . 1571 

The first newspaper said to be printed in England 
(see Newspapers) 158S 

First patent granted for printing .... 1591 

First printing press improved by William Blaeu, at 
Amsterdam ... .... i6ol 

First printing in America, in New England, when 
the Freeman's Oath and an almanack were 
printed 1639 

" Bay Psalm-book" printed at Cambridge, Mass. . 1640 

First bible printed in Ireland was at Belfast. 
Hardy's Tour 1704 

First types cast in England by Caslon. Phillips . 1720 



PRINTING. 



1001 



PRINTING. 



Stereotype printing practised by William Ged, of 

Edinburgh about 1730 

[Specimen at Royal Institution, London.] 

The present mode of stereotype invented by Mr. 
Tilloeh about 1779 

[Stereotype printing was in use in Holland in the 
last century. Phillips.] 

Logographic printing in which words cast in one 
piece were employed : patented by H. Johnson 
and Mr. Walter of the Times ; (soon disused) . 1783 

Machine-printing (ivhich see) first suggested by 
Nicholson 1790 

The Stanhope press invented about 1800 ; in general 
use 1806 

The Chiswick press, at which fine printing was pro- 
duced by Chas. Whittingham, was established 
about 1811. He died in 1840. His nephew and 
successor, Charles Whittingham, who removed 
the work- to Took's court, Chancery lane, in 1852, 
died in 1876. The work is now carried on at the 
same place by Messrs. Bell, of Covent garden. 

Albion press introduced 1816 

The roller, which was a suggestion of Nicholson, 
introduced ,, 

Cowper's and Applegath's rollers . . . . 1817 

Columbian. press of Clymer patented „ 

Printing for the blind (by raised characters) begins 1827 

Anastatic Printing, in which written or printed 
matter is transferred upon zinc plates, was inven- 
ted by Baldennus of Berlin about 1841, and made 
known in London ; lectured on by Faraday in 
1845 ; and improved by Strickland and Delamotte 
in 1848 

[A similar process was invented by Mr. Cocks of 
Falmouth in 1836.] 

Printing-types electro-faced with copper about 1850 

Engraved copper-plate electro-faced with iron and 
nickel 1858 

Type-compos i ng machi nes. — By James Young's several 
numbers of the "Family Herald" were set up, 
beginning 17 Dec. 1842 ; Hattersley's appeared at 
the Exhibition of 1862 ; Hart's was shown at the 
meeting of the British Association at Cambridge 

6 Oct. 1862 

W. H. Mitchel's composing machine was tried at 
Messrs. Spottiswoode's, 1861 ; these machines 
were said to be in use in America in . Jan. 1863 

Kastenbein's composing and distributing machines 
(in use at the Times office) shown at the Inter- 
national exhibition 1872 

The "Clowes" type-composing machine (Hooker's 
patent), in which electro-magnets are employed, 
was shown at the Caxton celebration exhibition, 
South Kensington July, 1877 

[10,000 types per hour may be set up in page form.] 

Alexander Mackie's type-composing machine in use 
at his office in Warrington, and at Messrs. Clay's, 
London, in 1871. It was said to be able to set up 
4 columns of the Times in an hour. 

Linotype. — An American composingand distributing 
machine, in which type matrices are employed 
instead of type. The manipulator brings letters, 
points, and spaces together in one line of the 
galley ; this is passed into a casting-box, and a 
solid line of type is produced in stereo metal ; 
this is repeated till the galley is full. The New 
York Herald uses 62 machines. An English com- 
pany was formed in 1889, 2000 machines in use 
in Great Britain and about 5000 in America, 
reported, 1899. 

Miss Emily Faithfull established the Victoria 
printing-office in Great Coram-street, London, in 
which female compositors are employed, i860 : the 
"Englishwoman's Journal" printed there Aug. 
1861 ; appointed printer and publisher in ordinary 
to her Majesty, June, 1862; died . . June, 1895 

Mr. William Blades, learned printer, printed fac- 
similes of several of Caxton's works, 1858, et seq. 
" Life of Caxton," 1861-3, and 1877 ; and other 
valuable works connected with printing ; born, 
1824 ; died 27 April, 1890 

[See Printing Machine, Stereotype, and Nature Printing.] 



Titles of the earliest Books of Caxton and 
Wynkyn de Worde. 

The Game and Playe of the Chesse. Translated out 
of the Frenche and emprynted by me William Caxton. 
Fynysshid the last day of Marche the yer of our Lord God 
a thousand foure hondred and Ixxiiij. 

[A fac-simile of this book was printed by Mr. Vincent 
Figgins in i8sq.] 

The Recuyell of the Historyes of Troye ; written in 
French by Raoul Lefevre ; translated and printed 
by Wm. Caxton (about 1472-74) ; sold for 950Z. at the; 
Ashburnham sale, 9 Dec. 1897, and a French version of 
the same printed 1476, for 600I. ; reprinted by H. Oskar 
Sommer, with index, glossary, and illustrations, 1895. 

The Dictes and Wise Sayings of the Philosophers, 
is stated to be the first book printed by Caxton in 
England, 1477. (Fac-simile published by Elliot Stock, 

1877-) 

Raoul Le Fevre's "Bokeof the Hoole Lyf of Jason,' 
translated and printed by Caxton at Westminster, 
about 1477 ; sold for 2iocL at the Ashburnham sale, 
9 Dec. 1897. 

The Boke of Tulle of Olde Age Emprynted by me 
simple persone William Caxton into Englysshe as the 
playsir solace and reverence of men grouing in to old age 
the xij day of August the yere of our Lord M. cccc. Ixxxj.. 
Herbert. 

The Polycronycon conteyning the Berynges and Dedes- 
of many Tymes in eyght Bakes. Imprinted by William 
Caxton after having somewhat cliaunged the rude and olde 
Englysshe, that is to wete [to wit] certayn Words which 
in these Dayes be neither vsyd ne understanden. Ended 
the second day of Juyll at Westmestre the xxij yere of the 
Regne of Kynge Edward, the fourth, and of the Incarna- 
cion of oure Lord a Thousand four hondred four Score 
and tweyne [1482]. Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 

The Cronicles of Englond Empntcd by me Wyllyam 
Caxton thabbey of Westmynstre by londonthe v day of 
Juyn the yere of thincarnacion of our lord god 
m. cccc. LXXX. 

Polycronycon. Ended the thyrtenth daye of Apryll the 
tenth yere of the reyne of kinge Harry the seuenth And 
of the Jncarnacyon of our lord mcccclxxxxv. Empryn- 
ted by Wynkyn The worde at Wesmestre. 

The Hylle of Perfection emprynted at the instance of 
the reverend relygyous fader Tho. Prior of the hous of 
St. Ann, the order of the charterouse Accomplysshe[d\ 
they fynysshe[d] att Westmynster the uiii day of Janeuer 
and yere of our lord Thousande cccc.lxxxxvii. And in 
the xii yere of kynge Henry the vii by me wynkyn de 
worde. Ames, Herbert, Dibdin. 

The Descripcyon of Englonde Walys Scotland and! 
Irlond speaking of the Noblesse and Worthynesse of the 
same Fynysshed and empryntedin Flcte strete in the syne 
of the Sonne by me Wynkyn de Worde the yere of our 
lord a m ccccc and ij. mensis Mayiis [mense Maii]. 
Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 

The Festyvall or Sermons on sondays and holidais taken 
out of the golden legend enprynted at london in Flete-strete 
at y e sygne of y e Sonne by Wynkyn de worde. In the 
yere of our Lord m. ccccc. vin. And ended the xi daye 
of Maye. Ames. 

" Helyas, Knyght of the Swanne," from Wynkyn 
de Worde's press, 1512, and undescribed by all biblio- 
graphers, sold for 410?. , 11 July, 1899. 

Caxton's "Ryal Book" sold for 1,550?. 31 July, 1901 ; 
another copy, printed by him in 14P7, realized 2,225?. 
20 March, 1902. 

The lord's prayer [As printed by Caxton in 1483. J 
Father our that art in heavens, hallowed be thy name : 
thy kingdome come to us ; thy will be done in earth as is- 
in heaven: our every day bread give us to day; and 
forgive us oure trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass- 
against us ; and lead us not in to temptation, but deliver 
xis from all evil sin, amen. Lewis's Life of Caxton. 

A Placard. [As printed by William Caxton.] If it 
plese ony man spirituel or temperel to bye ony pies of two 
or three comemoracios of Salisburi use* enprynted after 
the forme of this preset lettre whiche ben wel and truly 
correct, late him come to westmonester in to the almonestye 
at the reed pale [red pale] and he shall have them good 
there. Dibdin's Typ. Ant. 

* Romish Service-books, used at Salisbury, by the- 
devout called Pies (Pica, Latin), as is supposed from 
the different colour of the text and rubric. Our printing- 
type Pica is called Cicero by foreign printers. — Wlieatlcy. 



PRINTING. 



1002 



PRISONS. 



Caxton Celebration of 400th anniversary of discovery 
of printing : First meeting at Westminster abbey ; dean 
Stanley in chair; Messrs. Spottiswoode, Rivmgton, 
Clowes, and others present, 17 Feb. 1877. 

Exhibition (at South Kensington) of early printed books, 
bibles, and engravings ; printing, paper-making, ste- 
reotyping, electrotyping, in operation ; opened by Mr. 
W. E. Gladstone, 30 June ; closed 1 Sept. 1877. 

1116I. profit given to the Printers' Pension Corporation, 
30 July, 1878. 

The catalogue contains valuable information. 

Printing-machines.— William Nicholson, editor of the 
PhilosophicalJournal, first projected (1790-1), but Mr. 
Konig first contrived and constructed a working 
printing machine, which began with producing the 
Times of 28 Nov. 1814, a memorable dav in the annals 
of typography. 

In 1818, Mr. E. Cowper patented improvements. * 

Kbnig's machine printed 1800 an hour on one side ; 
Cowper's improvements increased this number to 
4200. This was raised to 15,000, by Mr. Applegath's 
machine, which printed the Times. 

Hoe's American machine, introduced into London 1858, 
prints 20,000 an hour. 

Marinoni's machine at Paris said to print 36,000 an hour ; 
Dec. 1868. 

Walter press, invented for the Times by J. C. Macdonald 
and Mr. Calverley, between 1862-9, prints about 17,000 
an hour perfected ; 1872. 

American Campbell press said to print 50,000 sheets per- 
fected in an hour, Feb. 1876. 
ngram web rotary machine, invented by Mr. (later sir) 
W. J. Ingram, M.P., for printing illustrated papers; 
first used to print Illustrated London Netvs, 4 Oct. 1877. 

Printing in Colours was first commenced by the 
employment of several blocks, to imitate the initial 
letters in MSS. (for instance, the Mentz Psalter of 
Fust, 1455, which has a letter in three colours). 
Imitations of chiaroscuro soon followed ("Repose in 
Egypt," engraving on wood after Louis Cranach, in 
1519, in Germany; others by Ugo da Carpi, in Italy, 
1518). 

J. B. Jackson (1720-54) attempted, without success, to 
imitate water-colour drawings, and to print paper- 
hangings. 

About 1783, John Skippe, an amateur, printed some 
chiaroscuros. 

In 1819-22, Mr. William Savage produced his remarkable 
work, "Hints on Colour Printing," illustrated by 
imitations of chiaroscuro, and of coloured drawings, 
giving details of the processes employed. 

In 1836, Mr. George Baxter produced beautiful specimens 
of Picture-Printing, and took out a patent, which 
expired in 1855. In some of the illustrations to the 
"Pictorial Album" (1836), he employed twenty dif- 
ferent blocks. 

It has been applied to Lithography (henoe Chromo- 
lithography). 

In 1849, Mr. G. C. Leighton produced imitations of 
water-colour drawings, by means of modifications and 
improvements of Savage's processes. In 1851 he com- 
menced colour-printing by machinery, and has since 
availed himself of aqua-tinted plates, and also of elec- 
trotyped silver and copper surfaces to obtain purity of 
colour as well as durability ; Mr. Leighton died, 8 
May, 1895. 

The large coloured prints of the Illustrated London News 
were first issued in Dec. 1856. 

Mr. E. Meyerstein explained his process of printing 
many colours at one impression (stenochromy), So- 
ciety of Arts, 13 Dec. 1876. 

Mr. Ivan Orloff s colour-printing machine, multi-coloured 
designs produced by one operation ; one set up in 
London, July, 1899. 

Printing surfaces. Vulcanised india-rubber was first em- 
ployed for this purpose by Mr. John Leighton, F.S.A., 
about 1862, and patented in the name of Alfred Leigh- 
ton, 1864. The application is much used for hand- 
stamps for books, &c. 

Mr. Fred Wicks' type-casting machine (cheap), reported 
limes, 19 Nov. 1896, adopted 1900. 

* In 1817 was published Blumenbach's Physiology 
by Elliotson, the first book printed by machinery. The 
machine employed was Konig's, one which printed both 
sides in one operation at the rate of 900 sheets an hour 
<t8i6). 



Printing Exhibition (of specimens, apparatus, mate- 
rials, stationery, and machinery), at Agricultural Hall, 
London, include 5-17 July, 1880 ; 14 July et seg- 1881 ; 
and 30 July et seq. 1883. 

International exhibition of printing at Stationers' hall, 
London, opened by the lord mayor, 14 Oct. 1889. 

PRIORIES, at first dependent on the great 
ys, are mentioned in 722 in England ; see 
Abbeys, and Monasteries. JLlien priories were seized 
by the king (Edward I.) in 1285, and in succeed- 
ing reigns on the breaking out of war with France ; 
but were usually restored on the conclusion of 
peace. These priories were dissolved, and their 
estates vested in the crown, 3 Henry V. 1414. — 
Rymer's Feeder a. 

PRISCILLIANISTS, disciples of Priscillian, 
a Spanish bishop who propagated doctrines alleged 
to contain Gnosticism and Manicheism,372. When 
condemned he appealed from the pope to the 
emperor, but was beheaded at Treves, 385. 

PRISONERS OF WAR, among the ancient 
nations, when spared, were usually enslaved. About 
the 13th century, civilized nations began to ex- 
change their prisoners. 
The Spanish, French, and American prisoners of 

war in England were 12,000 in number, 30 Sept. 1779 
The number exchanged by cartel with France, from 

the commencement of the then war, was 44,000 

June, 1781 
The English prisoners in France estimated at 6000, 

and the French in England 27,000 . . Sept. 1798 
The English in France amounted to 10,300, and the 

French, &c, in England to 47,600, in . . .1811 
Great numbers made by the Germans in the war 1870-1 
Boer prisoners made by the English, about 32,000 

(24,996 deported oversea) in the war . . 1899-1902 

PRISONERS' COUNSEL ACT, 6 & 7 
Will. IV. c. 114 (1836), allows counsel to persons 
tried for felony ; hitherto prohibited. Poor 
prisoner.- defence act, royal assent 14 Aug. 1903. 

PRISONS of England and Wales. Annual 
cost: 1867-8,482,414^. ; 1869-70,501,348/.; 1880-1, 
421,686/.; 1883-4, 334>674^- ; 1887-8, 340,483/.; 
1890-1, 326,551/. ; 1892-3, 348,689/. ; 1902-3, 
660,929/. (England and Colonies); Scotland, 91,131^.; 
Ireland, 113,641/. 

Total of prisoners received in 1893, 183,143 ; in 1894, 
186,225 ; 1899, 186,840 ; 1901-2, 185,643. Ireland, 1901, 
32,086. 

Number of persons (England and Wales) sentenced in 
1901 : death, 28 ; penal servitude for life, 1 ; for a term of 
years, 868 ; imprisonment on indictment, 6,804 ; on 
summary conviction or for want of sureties, 160,647. 
Youthful Offenders, 1901-2, under 12 years, male 17, 
female 2 ; 12 to 16 years, 1,235 males, 141 females ; 16 to 
21 years, 13,342 males, 2,200 females. Soldiers mid 
Sailors (by courts-martial) 1901-2, 3,193 ; debtors (or on 
civil process) 14,039 ; in default of sureties, 1,415. 
Prisoners who could read and write in 1870, 33*8 per 
cent. ; in 1900, 19-2 per cent. Value of work performed 
by prisoners at local and convict prisons and state 
inebriate reformatories 1901-2, 215,276?. 17s. id., an 
average of 13I. 13s. 3d. per head. 

PRISONS OF LONDON, see Fleet, King's 
Bench, Newgate, Poultry, Clerkemvell, Millbank. 
Horsemonger-lane gaol was built in 1791 ; closed, 

1878 ; opened as a playground . . 5 May, 1884 
The, state of prisons greatly improved after the 
exertions of Howard.* Cold-Bath Fields prison 
was built on his suggestion, 1794 ; converted into 
offices for the parcels post .... 1887-91 



* John Howard was born 2 Sept. 1726; made sheriff 
of Bedford, 1773; investigated into the state of English 
prisons, 1773-5; and gave evidence thereon before the 
house of commons, which led to amendments by law, 
1774 ; he visited prisons all over the continent, and died 
at Kherson, 20 Jan. 1790. Centenary celebrated 20 Jan. 



PEISONS. 



1003 



PEIVY COUNCIL. 



The atrocities of governor Aris in this prison were 
exposed in parliament . . . .12 July, 1800 

Sheriffs' fund, society for assisting discharged 
prisoners established by aldermen C. Smith and 
sir R. Phillipps 1807 

Whitecross-street prison for debtors erected . 1813-15 

Millbank prison (see Millbank) received convicts as 
a penitentiary 27 June, 1816 

Borough compter mean and confined till visited 
by a parliamentary committee in . . . . 1817 

Savoy prisou, for the confinement of deserters from 
the Guards, formerly situated in the Strand, was 
pulled down to make room for Waterloo-bridge . 1819 

New Bridewell prison was erected as a substitute 
for the City Bridewell, Blackfriars, in . . . 1829 

Tothill Fields Bridewell, built in 1618, rebuilt . 1836 

The old Marshalsea prison, Southwark, built in the 
13th century, taken down 1842 

Pentonville Model prison completed „ 

Millbank penitentiary reported a failure ; changed 
to an ordinary prison . . . . ' . 1843 

Middlesex House of Detention, Clerkenwell, erected 
in 1847 (converted now into offices for the parcels 
post and Board School). 

City prison, Holloway, opened . . 6 Feb. 1852 

Royal Discharged Prisoners' Aid society established 1858 

Act passed for abolishing Queen's Bench prison . 1862 

Prison Ministers' act passed 1863 

Acts to consolidate and amend the law relating to 
prisons, passed . . .5 July, 1865 ; Aug. 1866 

Howard Association (which see) instituted . . ,, 

A National Prison Association was organized in 
New York 1869 or 1870 

Millbank made a military prison, 1870 ; closed, 

6 Nov. 1890 

international prison congress met at the Middle 
Temple, London 3 July, 1872 

Prison Discijiline Society, by the philanthropic 
labours of sir T. F. Buxton, M. P., was instituted 
in 1815, and held its first public meeting in 1820. 
Its objects were the amelioration of gaols, the 
classification and employment of the prisoners, 
and the prevention of crime. 

Whitecross-street prison ; ordered to be pulled down 
and materials sold .... n Oct. 1870 

The Prison Acts, for England. Ireland, and Scot- 
land, passed 12 July and 14 Aug. 1877. They trans- 
fer management of prisons, after 1 April, 1878, 
from local authorities to the home secretary ; 
provide for re-distribution and reduction of 
number of prisons, &c. 

Other gaols closed 1878 

An international Prison Congress met at Stockholm, 
20-24 Aug. 1878 ; at Paris . . . July, 1895 

Prisoners' aid societies, prison charities act passed 

18 Aug. 1882 

Discharged prisoners' aid societies are now attached 
to all prisons. The " metropolitan" society was 
established 1864 

A receiving house for discharged prisoners was 
opened by gen. Booth at 30, Argyle-square, W.C. 

30 Jan. 1S91 

The committee appointed to inquire respecting 
prison rules, reported in favour of their continu- 
ance in regard to dress and hair-cutting, for 
sanitary, disciplinary and general reasons . June, 1889 
Enternational congress respecting prisons at St. 
Petersburg, 550 delegates ; president, prince of 
• Oldenburg .... 19 June, et seq. .1890 

The departmental committee on prisons appointed, 
5 June, 1894 ; Mr. H. J. Gladstone, chairman, 
issued its report, containing various reeommen 
dations, 23 April, 1895; the prisons board intro- 
duce a variety of fresh industrial occupations, 

Feb. 1896 
[A continuation of the " Commission Peniten- 
tiaire Internationale," founded in 1872, has met in 
London, Rome, and elsewhere.] 
New prisons act, granting regulating powers to 

home secretary and other changes, passed 12 Aug. 1898 
Report of the commissioners of prisons (decrease of 

crime) for year ended 31 March . . Sept. ,, 
International prison congress (6th quinquennial) at 

Brussels 6-13 Aug. 1900 

Commissioners' report, reforms instituted, classifi- 
cation of criminals, etc., decrease of crime and in 
the number of debtors, for year ended 31 March, 

Sept. ,, 



Association of lady visitors of prisons, duchess 
of Bedford vice-president ; first conference, Lon- 
don 18 June, 1901 

The evils of Russian military imprisonment at 
Schlusselburg "killing by inches," exposed 
Times 21 Aug. 1903. 

PEIVATE BILLS, see Acts of Parliament. 

PEIVATEEE, a ship belonging to private 
individuals, sailing with a licence (termed a. Letter 
of Marque), granted by a government in time of 
war, to seize and plunder the ships of the enemy. 
The practice, said to have been adopted by Ed- 
ward I. against the Portuguese in 1295, was gene- 
ral during the war between Spain andthe Nether- 
lands in the 17th century, and during the last 
French war. Privateering was abolished by the 
great sovereigns of Europe by treaty, 30 March, 
18^6. The United States government refused to 
agree unless the right of blockade was also given up. 
The British government declined this, asserting 
" that the system of commercial blockade was 
essential to its naval supremacy." On 17 April, 
1861, Jefferson Davis, president of the southern 
confederacy, announced his intention of issuing 
letters of marque, and on the 19th president Lin- 
coln proclaimed that all southern privateers should 
be treated as pirates. This decree was not carried 
out: see United States. All the great powers for- 
bade privateering during the American civil war 
(which see). By the treaty of Washington priva- 
teering was prohibited; and April, 1898, in rela- 
tion to the Spanish- American war, a Spanish 
decree maintains liberty of action. 

PEIVILEGED PLACES, see Asylums. 

PEIVY COUNCIL. A council said to have 
been instituted by Alfred, 895. The number of the 
council was about twelve when it discharged the 
functions of state, now confined to the members of 
the cabinet ; but it had become of unwieldy amount 
before 1679, in which year it was remodelled upon 
sir William Temple's plan, and reduced to thirty 
members : Anthony Ashley, earl of Shaftesbury, 
being president. The number is now unlimited. 
To attempt the life of a privy councillor in the 
execution of his office was made capital, occasioned 
by Guiscard's stabbing Mr. Harley while the latter 
was examining him on a charge of high treason, 9 
Anne, 171 1. 

" The Proceedings and Ordinances of the Privy Council 
of England from 10 Richard II. to 33 Hen. VIII., 
edited by sir H. Nicolas, 7 vols," were published by 
- the record commissioners, 1834-7. 
The "Acts of the Privy Council," edited by Mr. J. R. 
Dasent, beginning with 1542, Vols. I.— IX., issued in 
1890-4 ; Vol. XVI. 1897. 
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council.— In lieu of 
the Court of Delegates, for appeals from the lord chan- 
cellors of Great Britain and of Ireland in cases of 
lunacy— from the Ecclesiastical and Admiralty Courts 
of England, and the Vice-Admiralty courts abroad— 
from the Warden of the Stannaries, the courts of the 
Isle of Man, and other islands, and the Colonial courts, 
&c.,— fixed by statute 3 & 4 Will. IV.. c. 41, 1833 ; 
amended by other acts in 1844, 1851, 1852. 
Judges.— The lord president, lord chancellor, master of 
the rolls, vice-chancellor, lords justices in appeal, lord 
chief justice of the queen's bench and common pleas, 
lord chief baron, judges of the courts of bankruptcy, 
probate, and admiralty, and others appointed by the 
queen. In consequence of the increase of business, 
and consequent delay, the queen was empowered to 
appoint four new judicial members of the committee, 
by 34 & 35 Vict. c. 91 (21 Aug. 1871). The attorney- 
general, sir R. Collier, was made a judge of the Common 
Pleas, 7 Nov., and a member of the judicial committee 
22 Nov. 1871.' 



PRIVY SEAL, THE LORD. 



1004 



PRONUNCIAMENTO. 



These proceedings were considered contrary to the spirit 
of the act by several judges and the legal profession 
generally. A vote of censure on the Gladstone ministry 
was negatived in the house of lords (89-87), 15 Feb. ; 
in the commons (268-241), 19 Feb. 1872. 

Other changes were made by an act passed in 1876. 

The addition of .judges from the colonies authorized by 
an act passed 6 July, 1895. 

PRIVY SEAL, the Lord, the fifth great 
officer of state, has the custody of the privy seal, 
which he must not put to any grant, without good 
warrant under the king's signet. This seal is used 
by the king to all charters, grants, and pardons, 
signed by him before they come to the great seal. 
Richard Fox, bishop of Winchester, held this office 
in the reign of Henry VIII. previously to 1523, 
when Cuthbert Tunstall, bishop of London, was 
appointed. The privy seal has been on some 
occasions in commission. — Beatson. See under 
Liverpool, Canning, Wellington, and succeeding 
Administrations. 

PRIZE-FIGHTING, see Boxing. 

PRIZE MONEY, arising from captures made 
from the enemy, was decreed by government to be 
divided into eight equal parts, and distributed by 
order of ranks, 17 April, 1793. The distribution of 
army prize-money is regulated by an act passed in 
1832. Naval prize-money is now regulated by royal 
proclamation; the last, 19 May, 1866. 

PROBABILITY, Theory of (termed by 
Butler, "the guide of life" ; by Laplace, "good 
sense reduced to calculation"), was originated by 
Pascal, and taken up by Ferniat, in their corre- 
spondence in 1654. 

Its object is " the determination of the number of ways 
in which an event may happen or fail, in order that 
we may judge whether the chances of its happening or 
failing are greater."- Jevons. 
It has been treated upon by the most eminent mathema- 
ticians, viz., the Bernouillis, De Moivre, D'Alembert, 
Euler, Lagrange, Laplace, and Quetelet. 
Isaac Todhunter's copious "History of Probability" 
published 1865. 

PROBATE COURT, established in Aug. 1857 
by 20 & 21 Vict. c. 77, which abolished all powers 
exercised by the ecclesiastical courts in the granting 
of probates of wills, &c. ; see Prerogative Court. 
The first judge appointed, 5 Jan. 1858, was sir 
Cresswell Cresswell, who took his seat on 12 Jan. 
On his death, sir James P. Wilde (aft. lord Pen- 
zance) was appointed judge, 28 Aug. 1863 ; see Su- 
preme Court. The president of the probai e, divorce, 
and admiralty division, sir James Hannen (1872)' 
succeeded by sir Charles P. Butt, Jan. 1891 (died 
25 May, 1892) ; sir Francis Henry Jeune, 30 May, 
1892. By the Judicature Act of 1873, th e probate, 
divorce, and admiralty courts were constituted the 
5th division of the Supreme Court. A probate and 
matrimonial division of the high court of justice of 
Ireland was established by Judicature act, 1877 ■ 
present judge, rt. hon. Wm. Drennan Andrews.' 
.Probate is the exhibiting and proving a will before 
the proper authority. The probate registry is now 
at Somerset House. 

Probate duties partly transferred to relieve local taxa- 
tion by Local Government Act, 1888— amount received 
1887-8, 4,596,620*. The duty was superseded in 1804 
by the "estate duty," which sec. 



PROCEDURE RULES, see under Parlia- 
ment 1882 and 1888, 1890. 

PROCESSIONS ACT, 13 Vict. c. 2, passed 
12 March, 1850, prohibited party processions, with 



banners, &c. It was repealed in 1872. Processions 
of workmen and others, for demonstrations in Hyde 
Park, prohibited in the great thoroughfares of 
London, by the police, 31 May, 1890. 

PROCLAMATIONS, Royal, " have only 
a binding force when grounded upon and to enforce 
the laws of the realm." — Coke. Henry VIIL, in 
1539, declared that they were as valid as acts of 
parliament. This was annulled, 1547. 

The lord-lieutenant of Ireland has power by procla- 
mation to place districts under the provisions of the 
Criminal Law Procedure Acts, 1881 and 1887, which 
districts are then said to be proclaimed. 

PROCONSUL, a Roman consul, whose tenure 
of office was extended beyond his legal term. Q. 
Publilius was the first proconsul appointed during 
the war with Parthenope, 327 B.C. The name was 
afterwards given to governors of provinces. 

PROCTOR (from jn-ocurator), an office in 
ecclesiastical courts, corresponding to that of an 
attorney or solicitor in courts of common law. It 
was abolished by the Judicature act, 1873. The 
persons chosen to represent the clergy in convoca- 
tion are termed proctors. The university proctors 
enforce discipline. 

PROFILES. The first profile taken, as recorded , 
was that of Antigonus, who, having but one eye, his 
likeness was so taken, 330 B.C. — Ashe. " Until the 
end of the 3rd century, I have not seen a Roman 
emperor with a full face ; they were always painted 
or appeared in profile, which gives us the view of a 
head in a very majestic manner." — Addison. 

PROGRESISTAS, a political party in Spair, 
headed by Espartero, duke of Victory, aud latterly 
by general Prim. Since 1865 they adopted a policy 
of inaction in public affairs; by uniting with the 
unionists and republicans in Sept. 1868, the govern- 
ment were overthrown, see Spain. 

A party in Servia and also in Portugal are termed Pro- 
gressists. 

In England, since 1888 etseq., the radical party in county- 
councils, the school board, parish councils, and 
similar bodies have been termed Pjrogbessives, and 
their opponents Moderates. 

"PROGRESS AND POVERTY," see 

Land Nationalization. 

PROGRESSIONIST THEORY supposes 
that the existing species of animals and plants were 
not originally created, but were gradually developed 
from one simple form ; see Species. 

PROHIBITION OF EXPORTATION 
OF ARMS Act passed 6 Aug. 1000, and became 
law 7 Aug. 1900. 

PROMISSORY NOTES were regulated and 
allowed to be made assignable in 1705. First taxed 
by a stamp in 1782 ; the tax was increased in 1804, 
and again in 1808, and subsequently ; see Bills of 
Exchange. 

"PRO NIHILO," a pamphlet, said to be by- 
count Henry Arnim, attacking count Bismarck ; 
published Nov. 1875. -He was prosecuted for it iu 
1876 ; see Prussia. 

PRONUNCIAMENTO, a revolution (in 
Spain or South America) effected by a military 
leader; in France, termed a coup d'etat. See 
France and Spain. 



PROPAGANDA FIDE. 



1005 



PROTESTANTS. 



PROPAGANDA FIDE, Congregatio 
DE (congregation for the propagation of the faith of 
the .Romish church), was constituted at Home by 
Gregory XV. in 1622 ; the college, by Urban VIII., 
in 1627, for the education of missionaries to various 
countries, a special feature of the college being the 
education of some 200 natives at an early age for 
mission work in their own lands. It has a large 
and valuable library consisting of about 30,000 
volumes, a museum, and a polyglot printing press. 
The Epiphany is celebrated as the great festival of 
the college. 

PROPAGATION of the Gospel Society 

received its charter, 16 June, 1701. Its sphere, to 
minister to British subjects beyond the seas, much 
extended, see " Spiritual Expansion of theEmpire," 
pub. 1899. Bicentenary celebrations, 16 June, 
1900; great meeting in Exeter hall, abp. of Canter- 
bury and lord Salisbury present. 19 June ; S. London 
missionary and colonial exhibition opened by the 
lord mayor, 14 Nov. 1900. General income in 
1867, 114,546;.; in 1879, 145,240^.; in 1884, 
109,572^.; in 1894, 122,327;.; 1897, 317,512;.; 
1898, 132,355;. 13*. bd. (the queen gives 200;. to 
the bicentenary fund, May ; the prince of Wales, 
100 gs., June, 1900) ; bicentenary celebrated at the 
Guildhall, 12 Feb. 1901 (the king gives 105;. 
March) ; general fund, 88,585;., 1902 ; total, 
206,709;., 1901 ; 152,529;., 1902. 

PROPERTY. The assessments on real 
property, under the property tax of 1815, were 
51,898,423;.; of which Middlesex was 5,595,537;., 
Lancashire, 3,087,774;. ; and Yorkshire, 4,700,000;. ; 
Wales, 2,153,801;. Estimated wealth of the country 
(1878), 8,500,000,000;. See Zand, Income Tax, 
Capital. 

PROPHESYING. About 1570 the puritanical 
part of the clergy, particularly at Northampton, 
held meetings (termed prophesyings) for prayer and 
exposition of the scriptures. These were forbidden 
by queen Elizabeth, 7 May, 1577, and immediately 
ceased. 
The Prophecy Investigation society, formed about 1840, 

held a special meeting at the Mansion-house, London, 

30 April, 1 89 1. 

PROPHETS, see under Jews. 

PROPORTIONAL REPRE- 
SENTATION. The scheme propounded by 
Mr. Thomas Hare in 1857, in a pamphlet on " Re- 
presentation," and perfected in his " Treatise on the 
Election of Representatives," published in 1859, 
which was well received by Mr. J. Stuart Mill. 
A society to introduce this principle was formed in 
Eeb. 1884. It included sir John Lubbock (presi- 
dent), Mr. Leonard H. Courtney, and many other 
M.P.'s. 

It proposed that " in all cases where an elector is 
entitled to one vote only, to enable the elector to 
nominate more than one candidate to whom, under 
certain circumstances, that vote might be transferred 
in the manner indicated by the elector." Negatived by 
the commons, 134 — 31, 3 March, 1885. 

PROROGATION of Parliament. By an 

act passed 12 Aug. 1867, her majesty was enabled 
to issue a proclamation for the prorogation of par- 
liament during the recess. 

PROSECUTOR. By the Prosecution of Of- 
fences Act, 42 & 43 Vict. c. 22 (3 July, 1879), the 
appointment of a director of public prosecutions 
with assistants was enacted, somewhat resembling 
officers in Scotland and Ireland. It came into ope- 



ration 1 Jan. 1880. John Blossett Maule, appointed 
director of public prosecutions, Dec. 1879; succeeded 
by sir Augustus Stephenson, 1884 ; succeeded by 
the hon. Hamilton Cuft'e, Oct. 1894. 
A committee reported the plan to be a failure, and 
recommended changes, June ; act amended, 1884. 551 
prosecutions ; 451 convictions in 1893 ; 449 in 1900. 
A public prosecutor, " procureur du roi," in France, is 
mentioned in the 14th century; replaced by "accusa- 
teur publique " (elected), 1791 ; by "commissaire na- 
tional," 1793 ; "procureur" restored by Napoleon I. 

PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PRO- 
PERTY ACT (for part of Ireland), passed 16 
June, 187 1 ; another, 3 March, 188 1. See Ireland. 

PROTECTIONISTS, that section of the con- 
servative party which opposed the repeal of the corn 
laws, and which separated from sir Robert Peel in 
1846. The name was derived from a " Society for 
the Protection of Agriculture," of which the duke 
of Richmond was chairman, and which had been 
established to counteract the efforts of the Anti-Corn 
Law League, 17 Feb. 1844. Lord George Bentinck 
was the head of the party from 1846 till his death, 
21 Sept. 1848. The Derby administration not pro- 
posing the restoration of the corn-laws, the above 
society was dissolved, 7 Feb. 1853. — The protection 
of native manufactures has been maintained in the 
United States since 1868, and in France, Germany, 
Italy, and other countries. See France, March, 
1887; England, 1903; United States,_ Oct. 1890. 
President Cleveland condemned protection, 4 March 
1893: Mr. McKinley, a protectionist, elected 
president of U.S.N.A. 3 Nov. 1896. 

The revival of protection negatived by the house of 
commons without a division, 14 May, 1886. The 
national association for the preservation of agriculture 
and other industries held a meeting in London, 8 Dec. 
1887. Other protection meetings, Mr. James Low- 
ther, M.P., in the chair, in London, 13 Dec. 1S95, and 
10 Dec. 1896. 
See Fair Trade, Free Trade, Tariff Reform League, and 

Addenda, 

PROTECTIVE TARIFFS, see Addenda. 
PROTECTORATES in England. That 

of the earl of Pembroke, 19 Oct. 12 16, ended by his 
death, 1218. Of Humphry, duke of Gloucester, 
began 31 Aug. 1422 ; he was seized 11 Feb. 1447, 
and found dead a few days after. Of Richard, duke 
of Gloucester, began May, 1483, and ended by his 
assuming the royal dignity, 26 June the same year. 
Of Somerset began 28 Jan. 1547, and ended by his 
resignation in 1549. Of Oliver Cromwell began 16 
Dec. 1653, and ended by his death, 3 Sept. 1658. 
[He firmly refused to be styled king, as solicited by 
the parliament, Feb.-May, 1657.] Of Bichard 
Cromwell began 3 Sept. 1658,' and ended by his 
resignation, 25 May, 1059 ; see England. 

PROTEIN, from the Greek {prdteion, princi- 
pal) ; a chemical term introduced by Mulder about 
1844, for the basis of albumen, fibrin, and casein. 

PROTESTANT REFORMATION SO- 
CIETY, established 1820; it employs mission- 
aries and readers. 

PROTESTANTS. The emperor Charles V. 
called a diet at Spires in 1529, to request aid from 
the German princes against the Turks, and to devise 
means for allaying the religious disputes which 
then raged owing to Luther's opposition to the 
Roman catholic clergy. Against a decree of this 
diet, to support the doctrines of the church of Borne, 
six Lutheran princes, with the deputies of thirteen 



PROTOPLASM. 



1006 



PROVISIONS. 



imperial towns, formally and solemnly protested, 19 
April, 1529. Hence the term protestants was given 
to the followers of Luther ; it afterwards included 
Calvinists, and other sects separated from the see of 
Rome. The six protesting princes were : John, 
elector of Saxony ; George, margrave of Branden- 
burg ; Ernest and Francis, the dukes of Lunenburg; 
the landgrave of Hesse ; and the prince of Anhalt ; 
these were joined by the citizens of Strasburg, 
Nuremberg, Ulin, Constance, Heilbron, and seven 
other cities ; see Lutheranism, Calvinism, Hugue- 
nots, Germany, Church of England, &c. 

Protestants persecuted in Scotland and Germany . 1546 

Edward VI. established Protestantism in England . 1548 

Mary re-establishes Eomanism, and persecutes the 
Protestants : above 300 put to death . . 1553-8 

Ridley, bishop of London, and Latimer, bishop of 
Worcester, were burnt at Oxford, 16 Oct. 1555 : 
and Cranmer, abp. of Canterbury . 21 March, 1556 

[During three years of Mary's reign, 277 persons were 
brought to the stake ; besides those punished by 
imprisonment, fines, and confiscations. Among 
those who suffered by fire were 5 bishops, 21 
clergymen, 8 lay gentlemen, 84 tradesmen, 100 
husbandmen, servants, and labourers, 55 women, 
and 4 children. The principal agents of the queen 
were the bishops Gardiner and Bonner. ] 

Elizabeth restores Protestantism . . . . 1558 

Protestant settlements formed in Ulster, N. Ireland 

1608-11 

The Protestant union of princes in Germany, 4 May, 
1608 ; met last . May, 1621 

Thirty years' war between Romanists and Protestants 
in Germany 1618-48 

Protestants persecuted at Thorn, in Poland . . 1724 

Protestant Association (see Gordon's " No-Popery " 
Mob) 1780 

A society for planting communities of the poorer 
Protestants on tracts of land, particularly in the 
northern counties of Ireland, established in Dub- 
lin in Dec. 1829 

(London) Protestant Society, established 1827 ; Pro- 
testant Association, 1835 ; Protestant Alliance . 1849 

Protestant Conservative Society established 9 Dec. 1831 

Protestant Alliance formed at Armagh . 7 Nov. 1845 

Pan-protestant conference held at Worms (about 
1000 delegates) 31 May, 1869 

Meeting of a general synod of the Reformed Church 
of France (M. Guizot present), to propose return 
to early doctrine and discipline held at Paris, 
7 June ; the " liberal party " attack the doctrines 
of the authority of the Bible, the divinity and 
resurrection of Christ, &c. ; an orthodox confes- 
sion is carried amid strong opposition (61-45) 

20 June, 1872 

Protestant churchmen's alliance formed, see Church 
nf England (annual meetings) . . 25 Feb. 1890 

Death of M. Edmond de Pressense, eminent free 
church pastor, at Paris, aged 67 . 8 April, 1891 

National Protestant congress meets at Brighton 
13 Oct. 1891 ; 7th, London, 12 Oct. 1896 ; Folke- 
stone, 17 Oct., 1898. 

United Protestant demonstration held at the 
Albert Hall, vise. Midleton in the chair, 4 Feb. 1902 

PROTOPLASM, the material of the minute 
ultimate particles of all animal and vegetable tis- 
sues, formerly termed sarcode ; by Von Mohl, proto- 
plasm (1884), "the physical b;isisof life," by Huxley 
(1808). The protamoeba, the lowest form of life, is 
a structureless mass of protoplasm ; the amoeba, a 
similar mass, contains a nucleus. Protoplasm is 
composed of hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, 
and sulphur. 

PROTYLE, see Elements. 

PROVENCE (the Roman Provincia), S. E. 
France, was made a kingdom by the emperor Lo- 
thaire for his son Charles. It afterwards became 
part of the kingdom of Aries as a feudal fief, and 
was re-united to the German empire in 1032 by 



Conrad II. On the fall of the Hohenstaufens it 
was acquired by Charles of Anjou, who married the 
heiress of the count in 1245, and became king of 
Naples, in 1268 ; and was held by his successors 
till its annexation to France by Charles VIII. in 
1487. 

PROVERBS. The book of Proverbs by Solo- 
mon is dated about 1000 B.C. The latter part was 
collected by order of Hezekiah, about 700 B.C. 
Ray's collection of English proverbs appeared in 
1672, and Bohn's general collection in 1857. Martin 
F. Tupper's " Proverbial Philosophy" first, appeared 
in 1839. Alfred Henderson's "Latin Proverbs," 
1869. A society for the Revision of Proverbs 
existed in 1886. 

PROVIDENCE, capital of Rhode Island, U.S. 
{which see), 1636. Population, 1890, 132,146; 
1900, 1 75,597- 

PROVIDENT KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY 

established in 1872, to forward the post-office finan- 
cial schemes; by establishing penny banks, sending 
out lecturers, and publishing papers for the promo- 
tion of thrift among the lower classes. It held its 
first annual meeting, 9 May, 1873, the earl of Derby 
in the chair. 

PROVISIONS OF OXFORD, see Oxford. 

PROVISIONS-Remarkable State- 
ments CONCERNING THEM. The high value 
of money at the time must be borne in mind. 

Sale of Food and Drugs act passed 11 Aug. 1875 (see 
Adulteration). 

Wheat for food for 100 men for one day worth only one 
shilling, and a sheep fourpence, Henry I. about 1130. 
The price of wine raised to sixpence per quart for red, 
and eightpence for white, that the sellers might be 
enabled to live by it, 2 John, 1200. — Burton's Annals. 

When wheat was at 6s. per quarter, the farthing loaf was 
to be equal in weight to twenty-four ounces (made of 
the whole grain), and to sixteen the white. When 
wheat was ts. 6d. per quarter, the farthing white loaf 
was to weigh sixty-four ounces, and the whole grain 
(the same as standard now) ninety-six, by the first 
assize, 1202. — Mat. Paris. 

A remarkable plenty in all Europe, 1280. — Dufresnoy. 

Wheat is. per quarter, 14 Edw. I., 1286. — Stow. 

The price of provisions fixed by the common council of 
London as follows : two pullets, three half-pence ; a 
partridge, or two woodcocks, three half-pence ; a fat 
lamb, sixpence from Christmas to Shrovetide, the rest 
of the year fourpence, 2Q Edw. I., 1293.— Stow. 

Price of provisions fixed by parliament : at the rate of 
2I. 8s. of our money for a fat ox, if fed with corn, 3Z. 12s. ; 
a shorn sheep, 5s. ; two dozen of eggs, 3d. ; other 
articles nearly the same as fixed by the common council 
above recited, 7 Edw. II., 1313. — Rot. Pari. 

Wine the best sold for 20s. per tun, 10 Rich. II., 1387. 

Wheat being at is. id the bushel in 1390, this was deemed 
so high a price that it is called a dearth of corn by the 
historians of that era. 

Beef and pork settled at a halfpenny the pound, and veal 
three farthings, by act of parliament, 24 Hen. VIII., 
I S33- — Anderson. 

Document from a "Book of the Joint Diet, Dinner and 
Stopper, and thecharge thereof, for Cranmer, Latimer, and 
Ridley," kept by the bailiffs of Oxford, while they were 
in their custody : — 

I Oct. 1554. DINNER. 

Bread and Ale . . . .£002 

Oysters 001 

Butter 002 

Eggs . . . - . ..002 

Lyng 008 

A piece of fresh salmon . . . o o 10 

Wine 003 

Cheese and pears . . ..002 

The three dinners . 026 






PROVISOES, STATUTES OF. 



1007 



PRUSSIA. 



Milk sold, three pints ale-measure for one halfpenny, 2 

Eliz. 1560. Stow's Chronicle. 
Liebig's discovery of his "Extractum Carnis," extract of 

meat, announced 1847. 
Since the autumn of 1865, meat, milk, and butter greatly 

increased in price owing to the cattle-plague, &c. 
The "Food Committee" of Society of Arts lirst met 21 

Dec. 1866. 
Meat very dear in England, 1868-73. Introduction of 

Australian preserved meat by Mr. John McCall in 1865 ; 

imported in 1866, 91 cwt. ; in 1871, 237,160 cwt. Meat 

imported here in 1863, 3283 cwt. ; in 1877, 599,181 cwt. 
Carcases frozen by Harrison's method ; cargo sent to 

England from Melbourne, Australia, 23 July ; arrived, 

18 Oct. ; proved a failure, 2 Nov. 1873. 
Good preserved American meat sold in London, 27 Dec. 

1875. Great influx of meat preserved by cold, 1877. 
Bell & Coleman's patent refrigerators reported successful 

in preserving meat, <fcc, Aug. Sept. 1878. 
Meat to the amount of about 2,500,000^. imported 

annually, 1885. 
Fresh meat brought from Australia, Feb. 1880. 
5,000 frozen sheep arrived from New Zealand, 25 May, 

1882 ; 1,879,961 in 1902 ; total carcases, 3,668,061, 

1902. 
Mr. Coleman explained his process at the Royal Institu- 
tion, London, and showed that by these machines 

atmospheric air could be cooled down to 8o° below 

zero Fahrenheit, whereby the vitality of microphytes 

was completely destroyed, 29 May, 1885. 
Refrigerator railway car conveyed fresh herrings from 

Wick to London, 15 Aug. 1883. 
io,oooi. worth of fresh meat imported from Libau, Russia, 

during July, 1883. 
The Elderslie with 25,000 frozen sheep from New Zealand, . 

arrives in London, Dec. 1884. 
Refrigerating barges for the distribution of imported 

frozen provisions, and constructed by the Pulsometer 

Engineering company, announced Jan. 1890. 
A new system of refrigeration by cold air, published by 

the British and Foreign Refrigerating company, 

London. 
For the price of Bread since 1735, see Bread. 
From New Zealand and Australia, 2,514,541 carcases 

of frozen sheep, and 171,640 quarters of beef, received 

in 1893. Great increase in 1895-1903. 
80 ships engaged in importing frozen meat ; reported 

13 March, 1895 ; 147, 31 Dec. 1902. 
Royal commission to inquire into food imports during 

the time of war (see Food Supply), appointed April, 

1903. 
See Milk, Cattle. 

PROVISORS, Statutes of, beginning 25 

Edward III., 1351-2, prohibited the pope from ap- 
pointing aliens and others to benefices before they 
were vacant. 

PROVOST, the chief municipal magistrate of 
a city or burgh in Scotland, corresponding to the 
English mayor. The provosts of Edinburgh, 
Glasgow, Aberdeen, Perth, and in 1892 Dundee, are 
styled " lord provosts." 

PROVVEDIMENTO. . SOCIETIES . in 

Italy, formed to aid in acquiring Rome and Venice, 
elected Garibaldi as their chief, 10 March, 1862. 
They were tolerated by Ricasoli, and warned to be 
moderate by Kattazzi. 

PROXIES. Voting by proxy, an ancient privi- 
lege of the house of peers, was very frequently 
abused. In the reign of Charles II., when the duke 
of Buckingham sometimes brought 20 proxies in his 
pocket, it was ordered that no peer should bring 
more than- two proxies. From 1830 to 1867, both 
inclusive, proxies were only called 73 times. In 
conformity with the recommendation of a committee, 
a new "standing order" was adopted, 31 March, 
1868, by which it was ordered "That the practice of 



calling for proxies on a division shall be discon- 
tinued." 

PRUD'HOMMES, Conseils de (from 
prudens homo, -a, prudent man), trade tribunals in 
France, composed of masters and workmen, were 
constituted to arbitrate on trade disputes in 1806. 
Similar bodies with this name existed as far back as 
1452 at Marseilles, and at Lyons in 1464. 

PRUSSIA. This country was anciently pos- 
sessed by the Venedi. They were conquered by the 
Porussi, who inhabited the Riphsean mountains ; 
and from these the country was called Borussia. 
The Porussi afterwards intermixed with the fol- 
lowers of the Teutonic knights, and latterly with 
the Poles. The constitution, established 31 Jan. 
1850, was modified 30 April, 1851 ; 21 May, 5 June, 
1852; 7 and 24 May, 1853; 10 June, 1854; 30 May, 
1855; and 15 May, 1857. Population, with Lauen- 
burg (annexed 14 Aug. 1865), 19,304,843; with 
Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau, and Frankfort 
Dec. 1867, 24,039,543 ; 1875, 25,742,204 ; 1880, 
27,279,111; 1890,29,959,388; Dec. 1900,34.472,509. 
1891-2, budget estimates, revenue, 79,580,650/. ; 
expenditure, 79,580,650/. ; revenue estimated 
1894-5, 96,507,644/. ; 1897-8, 102,301,566/. ; re- 
venue, 1900-01, 123,613,300/. President of tlte 
ministry, &c, prince Bismarck, Sept. 1862. See 
below, 1890, 1892. 

St. Adalbert arrives in Prussia to preach Chris- 
tianity, and is slain about 997 

Boleslas of Poland revenges his death by dreadful 
ravages . . 1018 

The Prussians resist the Poles, and renounce 
Christianity about 1061 

Berlin built by a colony from the Netherlands, in 
the reign of Albert the Bear 1163 

The Teutonic knights returning from the holy wars, 
undertake the conquest and conversion of Prus- 
sia 1225 

Thorn founded by them 1231 

Prussia subjugated by the Teutonic knights . . 1283 

Konigsberg, lately built, made the capital . . . 1286 

Largely re-peopled by German colonists 12-1301 
century. 

Frederick IV. of Nuremberg (the founder of the 
reigning family) obtains by purchase from Sigis- 
mund, emperor of Germany, the margraviate of 
Brandenburg i +I5 

Casimir IV. of Poland assists the natives against 
the oppression of the Teutonic knights . . 1446 

Albert of Brandenburg, grand master of the Teutonic 
order, seizes its territories, renounces the Roman 
catholic religion, embraces Lutheranism, and is 
acknowledged duke of East Prussia, to be held as 
a fief of Poland 1525 

Successful rebellion against the knights consum- 
mated by the treaty of Thorn .... 1466 

University of Konigsberg founded by duke Albert, 1544 

John Sigismond created elector of Brandenburg and 
duke of Prussia 1608 

The principality of Halberstadt and the bishopric 
of Minden transferred to the house of Branden- 
burg 1648 

Poland obliged to acknowledge Prussia as an inde- 
pendent state, under Frederick William, sur- 
named the Great Elector 1657 

Order of Concord instituted by Christian Ernest, 
elector of Brandenburg and duke of Prussia, to 
commemorate the part he had taken in restoring 
peace to Europe 1660 

Frederick III. in an assembly of che states, puts a 
crown upon his own head and upon the head of 
his consort ; is proclaimed king of Prussia by the 
name of Frederick I., and institutes the Order of 
the Black Eagle 18 Jan. 1701 

Gueldres taken from the Dutch .... 1702 

Frederick I. seizes Neufchatel or Neunbnrg, and 
purchases Tecklenburg 1707 



PRUSSIA. 



1008 



PRUSSIA. 



The principality of Meurs added to Prussia . .1712 
Frederick II. the Great, king, who made the Prus- 
sian monarchy rank among the first powers of 

Europe 1740 

Breslau ceded to Prussia 1741 

Silesia, Glatz, &c, ceded 1742 

*' Seven years' war " (see Battles) . . . 1756-63 
Frederick II. victor at Prague, 6 May ; defeated at 

Kolin, 18 June ; victor at Rosbach . 5 Nov. 1757 
<Jen. Lacy, with an Austrian and Russian army, 
marches to Berlin ; the city is laid under contri- 
bution, &c. ; magazines destroyed . . Oct. 1760 
Peace of Hubertsburg (ends "seven years' war") ; 

Silesia gained by Prussia . . . 15 Feb. 1763 
Prussia snares in the first partition of Poland . . 1772 
Frederick the Great dies . . . .17 Aug. 1786 
Frederick William II. invades France . . . . 1792 
Joins the coalition against France .... 1793 
The Prussians seize Hanover . . 1801 and 1806 
Prussia joins the allies of England against France, 

6 Oct. „ 
Fatal battles of Jena and Auerstadt . . 14 Oct. ,, 

[Nearly all the monarchy subdued.] 
Berlin decree promulgated ... 20 Nov. ,, 
Peace of Tilsit (which see) .... 9 July, 1807 
Formation of the Tugendband (which see), a patriotic 
society (promoted by Von Stein) . . . . „ 

Convention of Berlin 5 Nov. 1808 

Schaunhorst secretly restores the army by the sys- 
tem of reserves ; forming a nation of soldiers 1809-13 
The people rise to expel the French from Germany 
at the king's appeal, and form the "landwehr" or 

militia 17 March, 1813 

Treaty of Paris 11 April, 1814 

The king visits England .... 6 June, ,, 
Ministry of education established . . . . 1817 
Congress of Carlsbad . . . . 1 Aug. 1819 
Bliicher dies in Silesia, aged 77 . . 12 Sept. ,, 

{From this time Prussia pursued a peaceful and un- 
disturbed policy until 1848.] 
Government disputes with R. C. clergy begin, 
through ultra.montanism of the Radziwill family 

since 1830 1840 

Serious attempt made on the life of the king, by an 
assassin named Tesch, who fired two shots at him 

26 July, 1844 
Insurrection in Berlin . . . .18 March, 1848 

Berlin declared in a state of siege . . 12 Nov. ,, 
The constituent assembly meets in Brandenburg 
castle ....... 29 Nov. ,, 

This assembly dissolved ; the king issues a new 

constitution 5 Dec. ,, 

The German National Assembly elect the king of 
Prussia "hereditary emperor of the Germans" 

28 March, 1849 
The king declines the imperial crown . 29 April, ,, 
The kingdom put under martial law . . 10 May, ,, 
The Prussians enter Carlsruhe . . 23 June, ,, 
Armistice between Prussia and Denmark . 10 July, „ 
Bavaria declared for an imperial constitution with 

the king of Prussia at its head . . 8 Sept. ,, 
Treaty between Prussia and Austria . 30 Sept. ,, 
Austria protests against the alliance of Prussia with 

the minor states of Germany . . .12 Nov. ,, 
Prince Charles Anthony Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, 

minister, resigns 6 Dec. ,, 

New constitution, 31 Jan. ; the king takes the oath 

required by it 6 Feb. 1850 

Hanover withdraws from the Prussian alliance, 

25 Feb. „ 
Treaty signed at Munich between Austria, Bavaria, 
Saxony, and Wurtemberg to maintain the German 

union 27 Feb. ,, 

Wurtemberg denounces the insidious ambition of 
the king of Prussia, and announces a league be- 
tween Wurtemberg, Bavaria, and Saxony, under 
the sanction of Austria . . . 15 March, ,, 

Attempt to assassinate the king . . 22 May, 
Hesse-Darmstadt withdraws from the Prussian 

league 30 June, ,, 

Treaty of peace between Prussia and Denmark, 

2 July, ,, 



A congress of deputies from the states included in 
the Prussian Zollverein opened at Cassel 

12 July, 1850 

Prussia refuses to join the restricted diet of Frank- 
fort 25 Aug. „ 

The Prussian government addresses a despatch 
to the cabinet of Vienna, declaring its resolve 
to uphold the constitution in Hesse-Cassel, 

21 Sept. ,, 

Count Brandenburg, prime minister, dies, 6 Nov. „ 

Decree, calling out the whole Prussian army, 
223,000 infantry, 38,000 cavalry, and 29,000 artil- 
lery, with 1080 field-pieces ... 7 Nov. ,, 

The Prussian troops in Hesse occupy the military 
road in that electorate .... 9 Nov. , , 

The Prussian forces withdraw from the grand 
duchy of Baden 14 Nov. „ 

General Radowitz, late foreign minister, visits 
queen Victoria at Windsor . . .26 Nov. ,, 

Convention of Olmutz for the pacification of Ger- 
many 29 Nov. ,, 

The Prussian troops commence their retreat from 
Hesse-Cassel 5 Dec. ,, 

Prince Schwartzenberg visits the king . 28 Dec. ,, 

The king celebrates the 150th anniversary of the 
Prussian monarchy 18 Jan. 1851 

The king visits the czar of Russia . . 18 May, ,, 

Statue of Frederick the Great, by Rauch, inaugu- 
rated at Berlin 27 May, ,, 

The king and czar leave Warsaw for Olmutz to meet 
the emperor of Austria . . . . 31 May, ,, 

The king revives the council of state as it existed 
before the revolution of 1848 . . . 12 Jan. 1852 

A Prussian industrial exhibition opened at Berlin, 

28 May, ,, 

Prussia repudiates a customs' union with Austria, 

7 June, ,, 

But agrees to a commercial treaty . . 19 Feb. 1853 

Democratic plot at Berlin detected . . April, ,, 

Death of Radowitz 25 Dec. ,, 

Vacillation of the government upon the Eastern 
question March and April, 1854 

Agrees to a protocol for preservation of the integrity 
of Turkey, which is signed at Vienna . 7 April, ,, 

Declares neutrality in the war 6 Sept. and Oct. „ 

Excluded from the conferences at Vienna . Feb. 1855 

Disputes with Switzerland (see Neufchdtel) 

Nov. 1856, to May, 1857 

Alarming illness of the king, the prince of Prussia 
appointed regent 23 Oct. ,, 

Chevalier Bunsen ennobled . . . Jan. 1858 

Prince Frederick William of Prussia married to the 
princess royal of England . . .25 Jan. „ 

Queen Victoria visits them at Potsdam . 10 Aug. ,, 

Prince of Prussia permanent regent . . 7 Oct. „ 

Resignation of Manteuffel ministry ; succeeded by 
that of prince Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (liberal): 
the elections end in favour of the new government 

Nov. ,, 

Prince Frederick William, son of the princess royal 
of England, born 27 Jan. 1859 

Italian war — Prussia declares its neutrality, but 
arms to protect Germany . May and June, ,, 

The regent announces that " the Prussian army 
will be in future the Prussian nation in arms," 

12 Jan. 1S60 

The regent and several German sovereigns meet 
the emperor of the French at Baden (see Baden), 

15-17 June, ,, 

Baron Bunsen dies (aged 70) ... 27 Nov. „ 

Disclosures respecting the oppressive system of 
Prussian police ; Stieber, the director, prosecuted 
and censured, but not punished . . Nov. „ 

Death of Frederick William IV. Accession of Wil- 
liam I. 2 Jan. 1861 

Meeting of the chambers : on the motion for the 
address, M. von Vincke carries an amendment in 
favour of Italian Unity and "a firm alliance with 
England" 6 Feb. „ 

On 12 Sept. i860, capt. Macdonald was committed 
to prison at Bonn, for resisting the railway autho- 
rities there ; the English residents appealed and 
were censured ; a correspondence ensued between 
the Prussian government and the British foreign 



PEUSSIA. 



1009 



PEUSSIA. 



secretary ; and strong language was uttered in 
the house of commons, 26 April, and in the Prus- 
sian chambers . . . . .6 May, 186 
The Macdonald affair settled by a firm yet concilia- 
tory despatch from the Baron von Schleinitz, 

May, „ 
Attempted assassination of the king by Becker, a 
Leipsic student, 14 July ; who is sentenced to 20 

years' imprisonment 23 Sept. „ 

The king meets the emperor Napoleon at Compiegne 

6-8 Oct. „ 
The king and queen crowned at Kbnigsberg ; he 
declares that he will reign by the "Grace of 

God" 18 Oct. „ 

Bill for making the ministry responsible, passed 

6 March, 1861 
The chamber of representatives oppose the govern- 
ment in regard to the length of military service, 6 
March : and resolve on discussing the items of 
the budget ; the ministry resigns ; the king will 
not accept the resignation, but dissolves the 

chambers 11 March, ,, 

The ministry (liberal) resigns, and a reactionary 
cabinet formed under Van der Heydt, 18 March- 

12 April, ,, 
Elections go against the government ; only one 

minister elected May, „ 

Parliament opens ; ministers appeal to the patriotism 

of the members 19 May, „ 

Severe discussion on military expenditure ; the 
chamber reduces the vote for the maintenance of 
the army from 200,000 to 135,000 men 11-16 Sept. ,, 
Van der Heydt resigns ; succeeded as premier 
by the count Bismarck Schbnhausen, 23 Sept. ; 
who informs the chamber that the budget is 
deferred till 1863 ; the chamber protests against 
this as unconstitutional . . -30 Sept. ,, 
The chamber of peers passes the budget without 
the amendments of the chamber of representa- 
tives ; which (by 237 against 2) resolves that the 
act is contrary to the letter and spirit of the con- 
stitution 11 Oct. ,, 

The king closes the session (65th) saying, " The 
budget for the year 1862, as decreed by the cham- 
ber of representatives, having been rejected by 
the chamber of peers on the ground of in- 
sufficiency, the government is under the necessity 
of controlling the public affairs outside the con- 
stitution" 13 Oct. „ 

Agitation in favour of the constitution proceeding ; 
passive resistance adopted ; several liberal papers 

suppressed Nov. ,, 

The chambers reassemble ; unconciliatory address 
from the king, 14 Jan. ; bold reply of the depu- 
ties ; adopted 23 Jan. 1863 

They recommend neutrality in the Polish war 

28 Feb. „ 
Violent dissension between the deputies and the 

ministry May ,, 

The chamber of deputies address the king on their 
relation with the ministry, and the state of the 
country, 22 May ; the king replies, that his minis- 
ters possess his confidence, and adjourns the 
session . ... . . . . 27 May, ,, 

The king resolves to govern without a parliament . ,, 

The press severely restricted, 1 June ; the crown 

prince in a speech disavows participation in the 

recent acts of the ministry, 5 June ; and censures 

them in a letter to the king, 6 July ; reconciled to 

the king 8 Sept. „ 

The liberal members feted in the provinces 

18, 19 July, ,, 
The chamber of deputies dissolved, 2 Sept. ; a 

liberal majority re-elected .... Oct. „ 
A motion in favour of maintaining the rights of 
the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, carried 2 
Dec. ; but the chamber obstinately refused its 
assent to it or to defray the expenses of war, Dec. ,, 

Chambers dissolved Jan. 1864 

[For the events of the war, see Denmark.] 
Preliminaries for peace with Denmark . 1 Aug ,, 
Peace with Denmark signed . . .30 Oct. ,, 

The opening of the chambers, 14 Jan. ; revival of 
the constitutional agitation for control over the 

army budget 16 Jan. 1865 

International exhibition at Cologne opened by the 
erown prince 2 June, ,, 



The deputies having rejected the budget, the bills 
for reorganizing the army and increasing the fleet, 
and meeting the expense of the war with Denmark, 
the chamber is prorogued ; the government will 

rule without it 17 June, 

The king at Carlsbad issues a despotic decree ap- 
propriating and disposing of the revenue, 5 July, 
A political dinner of the liberal deputies prohibited 
at Cologne, and forcibly prevented at Oberlahn- 
stein, in Nassau .... 24 July, 

Convention of Gastein (see Gaitein), signed 14 Aug. 
Navigation treaty with Great Britain concluded, 

16 Aug. 

The king takes possession of Lauenburg, purchased 

from Austria with his own money . 15 Sept. 

Bismarck visits the emperor Napoleon at Biarritz, 

Nov. 
The chambers opened with a supercilious speech 

from M. Bismarck .... 15 Jan. 1 

The opposing chamber prorogued . 22 Feb. 

Decree asserting Prussian jurisdiction over Holstein, 

11 March, 

Prussian circular calling on German states to decide 

whether they will support Austria or Prussia 

(they profess neutrality) . . 24 March, 

Prussia prepares for war ... 27 March, 

Treaty between Prussia and Italy, said to have been 

concluded .* . . . . 27 March, 

The French government professes neutrality, April, 

Austria demands the demobilisation of the Prussian 

army, 7 April ; Bismarck proposes a German 

parliament 9 April, 

Great meeting at Berlin in favour of peace, 15 April, 
Blind's attempt to assassinate Bismarck fails, 

7 May, 

Recriminatory correspondence between Mensdorff 

(Austrian) and Bismarck, calling for disarmament, 

April, May, 

Alliance with Italy May, 

The Prussians enter Holstein ; Austrians retire, 

7 June, 
Meeting of the Federal diet at Frankfort ; the 
demobilisation of the Prussian army proposed by 
Austria ; voted for by Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, 
Hesse - Cassel, Nassau, and others ; Prussia 
declares the Germanic confederation to be dis- 
solved 14 June, 

Prince Alexander of Hesse appointed to command 

the Federal army June, 

The Prussians declare war against Hanover and 

Saxony 15 June, 

Justificatory manifestoes issued by Austria and 

Prussia 17 June, 

Prussia declares war ; royal manifesto to the people 

18 June, 

The Prussians occupy Hanover and Hesse-Cassel, 

Saxony and Nassau .... 16-20 June, 

The Austrian northern army enters Silesia, 18 June ; 

joined by the Saxons . . . about 19 June, 

Nearly all the northern states join Prussia about 

23 June, 

Prince Frederick Charles and the first army, and 

the army of the Elbe enter Bohemia, 23 June ; 

victorious in severe engagements at Liebenau, 

Tiirnau, and Pocloll, 26 June ; Hiihnewasser, 27 

June ; Miinchengratz, 28 June ; Gitschin, 29 June, 

The crown prince and the second army (of Silesia) 

enter Bohemia, 22 June ; repulsed at Trautenau, 

27 June ; victorious at Soor and Trautenau, 28 

June ; Koniginhof . . . .29 June, 

The left column of the crown prince's army defeat 

the Austrians at Nacliod, 27 June ; Skalicz, 28 

June : Schweinschadel ... 29 June 

Fruitless victory of the Hanoverians at Langensalza, 

27 June; they capitulate to the Prussians,29 June, 

Communications opened between the two armies, 

30 June, 

The command assumed by the king . . 1 July, 

Battle of Kbniggratz, or Sadowa ; total defeat of 

the Austrians under Benedek . . .3 July, 

Benedek superseded by the archduke Albrecht, 

8 July, , 
Campaign of the army under Vogel von Falken- 
stein against the army of the confederation, 
under princes Charles of Bavaria and Alexander 
of Hesse ; Prussian victories at Wiesenthal and 
Dermbach, 4 July ; Hammelburg and Kissingen, 

10 July, 

3 T 



PEUSSIA. 



1010 



PEUSSIA. 



Advance of the united armies under the king ; 
cavalry skirmish at Saar ; Austrians retire, 

., 10 July, 

Prince Frederick Charles enters Briinn, capital of 
Moravia 12 July, 

Campaign on the Maine: Prussian victories at 
Laufach, 13 July, and Aschaffenburg 14 July, 

The members of the German diet retire from Frank- 
fort to Augsburg 13 July, 

Austrians defeated at Tobitschau . . 15 July, 

Frankfort occupied by Falkenstein . . 16 July, 

Severe fight at Blumenau stopped by the news of an 
armistice 22 July, 

Preliminaries of peace signed at Nikolsburg, 

26 July, 

The Prussians occupy Wiesbaden, 18 July ; vic- 
torious at Tauberbischofsheim, Hochhausen, Wer- 
bach, 24 July ; Neubrunn, Helmstadt, Gerscheim, 
25 July ; Wiirzburg, 28 July ; armistice granted, 

30 July, 

The army reviewed by the king fifteen miles from 
Vienna, 31 July ; begin their return home, 1 Aug. 

Franconia occupied by the Prussian army of reserve, 
under the grand-duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 
23 July-i Aug. ; armistices granted 1-3 Aug. 

The diet at Augsburg recognised the dissolution of 
the Germanic confederation ... 4 Aug. 

Bohemia and Moravia cleared by . . 18 Aug. 

The treaty of peace signed at Prague . 23 Aug. 

Meeting of special committee of the chamber of de- 
puties ; cost of the war stated, 88,000,000 dollars, 

29 Aug. 

Peace with Wurtemburg concluded, 13 Aug. ; with 
Baden, 17 Aug. ; with Bavaria, 22 Aug. ; with 
Hesse-Darmstadt (ceding Hesse-Cassel, Hesse- 
Homburg, <&c.) 3 Sept. 

Formation of the North German confederation (see 
Germany) Aug. 

Indemnity bill for the ministry passed . 8 Sept. 

Entry of the army into Berlin ; enthusiastic reception, 

20 Sept. 

Decree for the annexation of Hanover, Electoral 
Hesse, Nassau, and Frankfort . . 20 Sept. 

Possession taken of Hanover, 6 Oct. : of Hesse, 
Nassau, and Frankfort .... 8 Oct. 

Treaty of peace with Saxony . . . 21 Oct. 

Electoral law for new German parliament promul- 
gated at Berlin 23 Oct. 

Prussian chambers reassemble . . .12 Nov. 

Schleswig and Holstein incorporated with Prussia 
by decree ; promulgated ... 24 Jan. 

Chambers closed 9 Feb. 

North German parliament meet at Berlin, 24 Feb. ; 
adopt a federal constitution ; closed . 17 April, 

Prussian chambers opened by the king 29 April, 

They accept the Nortli German constitution (sacri- 
ficing Prussian civil rights to German unity), 

8 May, 

Luxembourg question settled by a conference at 
London (see Luxembourg) . . . 7-1 1 May, 

The king visits Paris ; leaves it . . 14 June, 

The Prussian chambers approve North German 
constitution ; closed by the king . . 24 June, 

The new Prussian parliament opened by the king, 

15 Nov. 

Treaty with the United States respecting naturalisa- 
tion of aliens signed at Berlin . . .22 Feb. 

The parliament closed .... 29 Feb. 

Much of the king of Hanover's property seques- 
trated, on account of his maintaining a Hano- 
verian legion, &c March, 

Prince Napoleon Jerome visits Berlin ; left, March, 

North German parliament opened by the king, 

23 March, 

Count Bismarck defeated in the North German 
parliament ; his bill withdrawn . . 22 April, 

Konig Wilhelm, a noble ironclad, originally con- 
structed for the sultan by Mr. E. Reed, the chief 
constructor of the British admiralty, bought by 
Prussia, launched at Blackwall . . 25 April, 

Customs' parliament at Berlin . 27 April-23 May, 

21 Hanoverians convicted of incipient treason 
against Prussia 20 May, 

Count von Bismarck's temporary retirement through 
ill-health June, 

North German parliament closed by the king, 

20 June, 



1867 



Workmen's congress at Berlin, to promote centrali- 
sation 26-29 Sept. 

Prussian chamber opened with a pacific speech 
from the king 4 Nov. 

Opposition in the chambers ; violent speech of the 
minister, Leonhardt 1 Dec. 

Bismarck, recovered, returns to Berlin . 8 Dec. 

The property of the king of Hanover sequestrated 
for his opposition 15 Feb. 

The parliament closed .... 6 March, 

The Prussian army exercised in manoeuvring at 
Stettin, Konigsberg, &c. in presence of the king, 

Sept. 

The parliament meet, 6 Oct. ; rejects the proposal 
for disarmament 21 Oct. 

The crown prince visits Vienna . . .7 Oct. 

Prince Leopold, of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, con- 
sents to become candidate for the throne of Spain, 
about 5 July 

In consequence of the virulent opposition of the 
French government he, with the king's consent, 
relinquishes the candidature . . 12 July, 

The French government requiring guarantees from 
the king against the future, the king repulses 
and declines to receive the French minister, 
Benedetti, 13 July ; and issues a circular to his 
representatives at foreign courts . 15 July, 

The emperor of the French declares for war, 

15 July, 

The North German parliament meet, and vote to 
support Prussia 19 July, 

Proclamation of the king, granting "amnesty for 
political offences," and " accepting the battle for 
the defence of the fatherland," 31 July ; and to the 
army, undertaking the command of the whole 
army 3 Aug. 

For the events of the war see Franco-Prussian War. 

Order of the "Iron Cross " (distributed in the war 
of 1813) revived ; given to the crown prince for 
his victory at Wissembourg on . . .4 Aug. 

Prussian bishops protest against infallibility of the 
pope end of Aug. 

Great rejoicing at Berlin, &c, at the surrender of 
the emperor Napoleon ... 3 Sept. 

Munich, Stuttgardt, and other southern cities, de- 
mand union with North Germany . 6 Sept. 

M. Jacoby arrested at Konigsberg by Von Falcken- 
steinfor speaking against the annexation of Alsace 
and Lorraine .... early in Sept. 

Restriction on democratic meetings rescinded by 
gen. Von Falckenstein .... 7 Oct. 

Herr Twesten, the liberal opponent of government 
in the chamber, dies . . . .14 Oct. 

Jacoby and other liberals released by royal decree 
(Jacoby died 7 March, 1877) . about 26 Oct. 

Election of new parliament, Nov. ; opened with 
speech promising internal reforms, 14 Dec. ; aris- 
tocratic address from the peers congratulating 
the king as nominated emperor (see Germany), 

21 Dec. 

The king proclaimed emperor of Germany at Ver- 
sailles 18 Jan. 

The Prussian parliament closed . . .17 Feb. 

The emperor arrives at Berlin . . . 17 March, 

The new imperial diet opened at Berlin 21 March, 

Bismarck created a prince ... 22 March, 

The czar arrives at Berlin ... 8 June, 

Triumphal entry of the German army into Berlin ; 
inauguration of the statue of Frederick William 
III 16 June, 

The bishop of Ermeland excommunicates Dr. Woll- 
ner for denying the pope's infallibility, 5 July ; 
similar acts disapproved by the government, 

July, 

The imperial prince and princess arrive in London, 

6 July, 

Convocation of the evangelical church at Berlin, 

2 Aug. 

Meeting of the parliament . . . 27 Nov. 

Von Muhler, minister of public instruction, ultra- 
conservative, forced to resign . . .17 Jan. 

Clerical interference with schools opposed in the 
parliament 8-10 Feb. 

Meeting of German princes at Berlin on the em- 
peror's birthday ... 22 March, 

The new "national conservative party" formed 

about May, 



1870 



1873 



1872 I 



PEUSSIA. 



1011 



PKUSSIA. 



Law for expulsion of the Jesuits, published 5 July, 

Memorial to Von Stein, the statesman (see 1807), 
at Nassau, inaugurated ... 9 July, 

Government disputes with the B. C. clergy sup- 
porting papal infallibility ; the bishop of Erme- 
land's salary ordered to be suspended, from 1 Oct. 

The government defeated in the house of peers on 
the district administrations bill (145 — 18) (the bill 
would deprive the peers of power in the provinces 
by granting representatives to the peasants in the 
local assemblies) 31 Oct. 

The parliamentary session closed, 1 Nov. ; re- 
opened, government firm . . .12 Nov. 

24 new peers created 2 Dec. 

The principle of the reform bill passed by the peers 
(114 — 87) 7 Dec. 

Bismarck resigns the presidency ; continues the 
foreign department ; announced . . 18 Dec. 

Count Roon to be chairman of the ministry Dec. 

Great financial prosperity ; surplus revenue said to 
be 187,000,000 thalers (3s. each) . . . . 

Declaration of the R. C. archbishops of Cologne 
and Posen against proposed legislation on church 
affairs Feb. 

Subjection of the church to the state affirmed by 
the legislature . . . . 12 March, 

Laws introduced by M. Palk, minister of public 
worship, establishing a royal tribunal of ecclesias- 
tical affairs, in opposition to the authority of the 
pope, 9 Jan. ; passed . . . 11 May, 

The emperor recognises the "old Catholic " bishop, 
Reinkens about Aug. 

Letter from the pope to the emperor complaining of 
the ecclesiastical prosecutions, and asserting his 
authority over all baptized persons, 7 Aug. ; the 
emperor replies justifying them, and asserting 
that there is no mediator between God and man 
but Jesus Christ 3 Sept. 

Parliament dissolved, n Oct. ; new parliament 
elected Nov. 

The emperor visits Vienna ... 17 Oct. 

Archbishop Ledochowski of Posen fined for threat- 
ening to excommunicate a professor ; and arch- 
bishop Melchers fined for instituting priests with- 
out government permission . . . Oct. 

The pope (by letter) encourages archbishop Ledo- 
chowski to resist 3 Nov. 

Parliament opened : (votes for government, 432 ; 
opposition, 121) 12 Nov. 

Government defeated in attempt to restrict the 
press ; the ultramontanes join the opposition 

3 Dec. 

A new oath of implicit obedience to the state pro- 
posed for the clergy ; the civil marriage bill passed 

Dec. 

Several bishops fined for disobedience to the law 

Dec. 

Archbishop Ledochowski imprisoned, 3 Feb. ; de- 
prived 15 April, 

Serious illness of Bismarck, March ; recovering 

June, 

New ecclesiastical laws, restraining authority of 
bishops, with punishment for disobedience, pro- 
mulgated May, 

Van der Heydt, statesman (see 1862) dies 14 June, 

Martin, bishop of Paderborn, resists the ecclesias- 
tical laws 10 July, 

Bismarck wounded by Kullmann, a fanatical cooper, 
near Kissingen 13 July, 

Catholic associations in Berlin closed . 21 July, 

Bishop of Paderborn, summoned to resign, refuses, 
7 Sept. ; sentenced to imprisonment for sedition 

21 Sept. 

Launch of the iron-clad Friedrich der Grosse at Kiel, 
in the presence of the emperor . 20 Sept. 

Arrest of count Harry Arnim and confinement in 
Berlin for refusing to give up documents sent to 
him as ambassador, 4 Oct. ; for illness released 
on bail, 28 Oct. ; again arrested . .12 Nov. 

Kullmann sentenced to 14 years' imprisonment 30 Oct. 

Government defeated in parliament on a bank-note 
bill 16 Nov. 

Ultramontanes attack Bismarck in parliament ; he 
replies 4 Dec. 

Bismarck's proffered resignation not accepted 

17, 18 Dec. 



1873 



1874 



Arnim's trial, 9 Dec. ; convicted of making away 
with ecclesio-political documents; acquitted of 
other charges ; sentence, 3 months' imprisonment, 

19 Dec. 1874 

Catholic bishops and priests imprisoned for infrac- 
tion of ecclesiastical laws . . . Jan. 1875 

Deprivation of the bishop of Paderborn 5 Jan. ,, 

Parliament opened 16 Jan. ,, 

Civil marriage adopted by the parliament 25 Jan. ,, 

Encyclical of the pope to the bishops encouraging 
firmness, protested against by the R. C. deputies 
of parliament 5 Feb. ,, 

Exportation of horses prohibited . . 4 March, ,, 

Clerical control over parish funds taken away ; bill 
for depriving the R. C. clergy of state aid brought 
in 16 March, ,, 

Alarm of war with France arises . . April, ,, 

Prussian bishops at Fulda api>eal to the emperor 
against ecclesiastical legislation; 2 April ; rebuked 
for not submitting to the law . . .9 April, ,, 

Visit of the czar to Berlin ; war panic in Europe, 
10 — 13 May ; diplomatic intervention of Great 
Britain leads to assurances of peace about 24 May, ,, 

Bismarck abolishes the semi-official press 

about 26 May ,, 

King and queen of Sweden arrive at Berlin 28 May, , f 

George von Vincke, an eminent constitutional states- 
man, dies ... . . June, ,, 

Count Arnim's new trial, 15 June ; verdict, confirm- 
ing sentence 20 Oct. , y 

Partial submission of the bishops : announced 

Aug. ,, 

Launch of the Wilhelm, iron-clad . . 17 Sept. ,, 

Fdrster, prince-bishop of Breslau, sentenced to de- 
privation 6 Oct. ,, 

The emperor warmly received by the king of Italy 
at Milan (prince Bismarck too ill to go) 1 8-23 Oct. , , 

Statue of Von Stein (see 1807 above) inaugurated 
by the crown prince .... 26 Oct. „ 

German parliament opened by the emperor ; firm 
and pacific speech read . . . .27 Oct. „ 

Letter from count Arnim rebutting accusations in 
the Times of 19 Nov. ,, 

He is to be prosecuted for treason in a pamphlet 
entitled " Pro Nihilo," published at Zurich Nov. ,, 

Prussian diet opened 16 Jan. 1876 

Asserted deficiency in revenue of about 2,500,000?. 

about 25 Jan. ,, 

Archbishop Ledochowski released from prison (pro- 
ceeds to Rome) 3 Feb. ,, 

The empress visits England . . 3 May- June, ,, 

Parliament dissolved, 14 Oct. ; liberal majority in 
new parliament 27 Oct. ,, 

The emperor celebrates his 70th military anniversary, 
1 Jan. ; eightieth anniversary birthday 22 Jan. 1877 

Chambers opened 12 Jan. ,, 

Berlin Conference on Eastern question (emperor of 
Russia, prince GortsehakofF, and count Andrassy). 
See Berlin it, 12 May, ,, 

Prince Bismarck's resignation not accepted ; he 
retires temporarily for his health . . April, ,, 

Count Eulenburg's policy as minister of interior dis- 
pleases prince Bismarck ; the count's resignation 
not accepted ; he is granted six months' absence, 

Sept. „ 

Parliament opened ; loan for military purposes pro- 
posed 21 Oct. ,, 

Resolutions against government defeated in parlia- 
ment through promised administrative changes, 

27 Oct. ,, 

Prince Bismarck resumes his active duties as chief 
of ministry, 15 Feb. ; in the German parliament, 
asserts strict neutrality and non-interference 
with Russia in the Eastern question . 19 Feb. 1878 

Ministerial crisis : resignation of Camphausen, 
finance minister .... 6 March, ,, 

Ministry unsettled May, ,, 

Hodel (called Lehman), a socialist, fires at the em- 
peror and misses, at Berlin . . . 11 May, ,, 

The emperor wounded by shots by Dr. Nobiling, 2 
June ; gradually recovered . . June — Sept. ,, 

Hodel executed at Berlin . . . 16 Aug. ,, 

Statue of Frederick- William III. unveiled by the 
emperor at Cologne . . . .26 Sept. ,, 

Count Arnim publishes " Quid faciamus nos?" Jan. 1879 

Marriage of princess Louise Margaret of Prussia to 
the duke of Connaught . . . 13 March, „ 

3x2 



PRUSSIA. 



1012 



PRUSSIA. 



The emperor's golden wedding kept . n June, 1879 
New Parliament opened by the emperor (majority 

for Bismarck) 28 Oct. ,, 

Letter from the pope to Melchers, abp. of Cologne, 
recommending submission of names of priests to 
the government, dated . . . -24 Feb. 1880 
Ecclesiastical laws (Falk) amendment bill, pro- 
moted by prince Bismarck ; much discussed, 
May ; passed (maimed ; 206-202) . 28 June, „ 

Parliament opened 28 Oct. ,, 

Discussion on the social movement against the Jews 

through jealousy ; no vote . . 20-22 Nov. ,, 
Anti-Semitic league very active ; much opposed by 

the prince imperial and others .' . . Jan. 1881 
The minister of the interior, count Eulenburg, re- 
signs through offence of prince Bismarck, 

about 19 Feb. ,, 
Prince William, grandson of the emperor and of 
queen Victoria, married to princess Augusta Vic- 
toria of Schleswig-Holstein . . 27 Feb. ,, 
Death of count Arnim at Nice . . 19 May, ,, 
Dr. Felix Korum nominated bishop of Treves, at 

Rome ; approved by Bismarck . 14 Aug. et seq. ,, 
.Revenue surplus announced . . .18 Jan. 1882 
jBismarck's tobacco bill rejected by his economic 

council 21 March, ,, 

(Liberals rather weakened by elections about 29 Oct. ,, 
^Prospect of reconciliation with the Vatican ; amend- 
ments of the ecclesiastical laws of May, 1873, 
introduced ..'.... 5 June, 1883 
Bill passed ; diet closed ... 2 July, ,, 

Revival of the Prussian Council of State, the crown 
prince president, royal family members 18 June, 1884 

Parliament opened 15 Jan. 1885 

Death of prince Frederick Charles, the "Red 

Prince " aged 57 15 Jan. ,, 

Prince Charles Anthony Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, 

dies aged 73 2 June, ,, 

General Manteuffel dies aged 76 . . 17 June, ,, 
Prof. Graff acquitted of perjury, 9 days' trial, 8 Oct. ,, 
Twenty-fifth anniversary of the king's accession 

celebrated 3 Jan. 1886 

Prince Bismarck puts forth his plan for Germanizing 
Posen by purchasing Polish estates to be settled 
by Germans ; 5,000,000?. to be raised for the 
purpose, Feb. ; finally passed . . 7 April, ,, 
Bill for greatly amending the ecclesiastical laws 
(see May, 1873) passed by the upper house, 

13 April, ,, 
Political meetings without permission prohibited 

by decree . 14 May, „ 

■ Convention signed between Prussia and the Vatican 

about 11 Aug. ,, 
The emperor's 90th birthday celebrated at Berlin, 

22 March, 1887 
Prince Bismarck introduces Church and State Bill, 

softening Falck laws .... March, „ 
Death of emperor William I. ; succeeded by his 

son Frederick III 9 March, 1888 

Amnesty for certain political offences proclaimed, 

31 March, ,, 
Prince Bismarck opposes the project of a marriage 
between prince Alexander of Battenberg and 
princess Victoria of Prussia ; favoured by the 
emperor and empress ; he withdraws his resigna- 
tion and the project deferred . early April, ,, 
Marriage of prince Henry of Prussia and princess 
Irene of Hesse, grandchildren of queen Victoria 

of England 24 May, „ 

Parliamentary quinquennial bill promulgated, 

7 June, ,, 
Death of emperor Frederick III ; succeeded by his 

son William II 15 June, ,, 

Publication in the Deutsche Rundschau (Oct.) of 
alleged extracts from the diary of the emperor 
Frederick III., when crown prince asserting that 
it was he who suggested the unity of Germany and 
the empire, with other statements ; said by prince 
Bismarck at first to be apocryphal and after- 
wards to be notes falsified and coloured ; the 
work ordered to be prosecuted for publishing 

state secrets Sept. „ 

[The books were found locked up in the house at 
San Remo where the crown prince resided : the 
diary contains details of the war with France, 
1870-1 : it was stated that the books were 
given or shown by the prince to baron von 
Roggenbach, the Baden statesman.] 



Dr. Geffcken arrested at Hamburg . 29 Sept. 1888 
A part of the prince's diary published in the Kieler 

Zeitung Sept. „ 

The Kblnisehe Zeitung 16 Dec. accuses the British 
ambassador at St. Petersburg (sir Robert B. D. 
Morier) when charge 1 d'affaires at Darmstadt, of 
giving information to marshal Bazaine of the 
movements of the Prussian army in 1870. Sir 
Robert writes to count Herbert Bismarck re- 
pelling the charge (and sends a letter from the 
marshal to himself to the same effect) i9_ Dec. 
Sir Robert publishes the correspondence in the 
Times, 4 Jan. ; much discussion ensues . Jan. 1889 
Dr. Geffcken acquitted of criminal intents, 7 Jan. „ 
Prince Bismarck publishes the indictment and 

evidence 16 Jan. „ 

The king of Italy, his son, and signor Crispi at 

Berlin 21-26 May, ,, 

Death of the empress Augusta, 7 Jan. ; grand 

funeral 11 Jan. ,, 

The emperor-king convokes the council of state 
respecting the working-classes, see Germany and 
Berlin, 4 Feb. ; delivers an address ; propositions 

considered 14-28 Feb. 1890 

Prince Bismarck resigns the offices of premier and 
foreign minister, 18 March ; succeeded by gen. 
George von Caprivi . . about 20 March, „ 
Death of count Moltke, see Germajwy 24 April, 1891 

Much discussion on the primary education bill, 
which enacts, that in all schools some form of 
Christianity should be taught, to counteract 
socialism ; read first time ... 30 Jan. 1892 
Ministerial crisis in relation to the education bill ; 
count Caprivi resigns the premiership, but re- 
mains foreign minister and chancellor of the 

empire 22 March, ,, 

Count Botho von Eulenburg becomes premier 

24 March, ,, 
The government withdraw the education bill, about 

28 March, ,, 
Certain privileges of the nobility abolished with 

compensation May, ,, 

Blackpox epidemic in East Prussia ; many deaths, 

7 March, 1893 
Important communal taxation bill, introduced by 

Dr. Miquel, passed .... 3 July, ,, 
Elections for the diet (lower house), little changed 

from that of 1888 ... 31 Oct -7 Nov. „ 
Opening of the diet, 16 Jan. 1894, see Kdnigsberg, 

1894. 
Resignation of count Eulenburg, president of the 
council, 26 Oct. ; succeeded by prince Clovis 
von Hohenlohe ; Herr von Koller minister of the 

interior 29 Oct. 1894 

Opening of the diet ; budget shows a deficiency, 

15 Jan. 1895 
Law of association (amended) (a government) bill 
passed by the diet, 30 June ; rejected by the 
lower house, 24 July, 1897 ; diet closed, 18 May, 1898 
Expulsion of Danes and non-Prussians from 

Schleswig and elsewhere . . . Oct. ,, 

Diet opened by the emperor ; financial surplus, 

announced 16 Jan. „ 

Chamber adjourns 4 July, ,, 

Herr Heinrich von Achenbach, chief president of 
the province of Brandenburg, 1879, dies, aged 69, 

10 July, 1899 
Great fire at Marienburg, near Dantzig . 26 July, ,, 
Diet meets ; government defeated on the Rhine 
Elbe canal bill, 16, 19 Aug.; crisis; the emperor 
holds a council, 23 Aug. ; royal message, mode- 
rate and conciliatory, diet closed . 29 Aug. ,, 
Landriithe and othei officials placed on the retired 

list for opposing the canal bill . . 1 Sept. ,, 
Baron von der Recke (interior) and Dr. Bosse 
(education) resign; baron von Rheinbaben and 
Herr Studt, conservatives, appointed . 4 Sept. ,, 
Diet meets, speech from the throne read by prince 
Hohenlohe, reintroduction of the Rhine-Elbe 
canal bill, announced .... 9 Jan. 1900 
Diet meets, 24 April; joint sitting of the two 

houses, session closed ... 19 June, .. 
Imperial edict granting reforms in the higher 

schools, English to be compulsoi'y . 2 Dec. ,, 
Diet meets, speech from the throne read by count 
von Bulow; budget 1899-1900, surplus 88,000,000 
marks 8, 9 Jan. 1901 



PRUSSIA. 



1013 



PSYCHOLOGY. 



Bicentenary of the Prussian monarchy celebrated 
in Berlin 17, 18 Jan. 1901 

Crisis; agrarian victory, the canal bill given up; 
joint sitting of the Wo houses ; diet closed ; Dr. 
von Miguel (finance) and other ministers resign 

3 May, ,, 

Count William Bismarck, chief president of East 
Prussia, dies, aged 48 ... 30 May, „ 

Dr. von Miguel, fiscal reformer, born 1829, died 

7 Sept. ,, 

Prau Piasecka sentenced to 2J years' and 22 others 
to various terms of imprisonment for disturb- 
ances at the Wreschen school in Posen, owing to 
the children being punished for refusing to 
receive religious instruction in German, reported, 

19 Nov. „ 

Anti-German agitation at Lemberg and Warsaw, 

early Dec. „ 

Interpellation introduced by prince Radziwill in 
the diet 10 Dec. ,, 

Meeting of Polish women at Lemberg ; resolution 
to boycott German goods, papers, and schools, 
carried 15 Dec. ,, 

Religious instruction in German abandoned at 
Wreschen mid Dec. ,, 

Diet meets ; financial depression reported, 8 Jan. 1902 

Visit of prince Henry of Prussia to the United 
States .... 23 Peb.-n March, „ 

Death of prince George of Prussia, dramatic author, 
aged 76 2 May, ,, 

Germanisation of the Slav peoples urged by the 
emperor 5 June, ,, 

Polish (German) settlement bill passed . June, ,, 

Polish demonstration against ministerial Polish 
policy, Berlin 17 Aug. ,, 

New State college for arts and music at Charlotten- 
burg opened by the emperor . . .2 Nov. ,, 

Diet opened, 13 Jan.; about 3,635,000^. deficit for 
1903; to be covered by a loan . . 14 Jan. 1903 

Count von Bulow defends his Polish policy, 19 Jan. ,, 
(See Germany 1871 et seq.) 

Margraves, Electors, Dukes, and Kings. 
margraves or electors of brandenburg. 
1 134. Albert I., the Bear, first elector of Brandenburg. 
1 1 70. Otho I. 
1 184. Otho II. 
1206. Albert II. 
1221. John I. and Otho III. 
1266. John II. 
1282. Otho IV. 
1309. Waldemar. 

1319. Henry I. the Young. 

1320. [Interregnum.] 
1323. Louis I. of Bavaria. 
1352. Louis II. the Roman. 
1365. Otho V. the Sluggard. 
1373. Wenceslas, of Luxemburg. 
1378. Sigismund, of Luxemburg. 
1388. Jossus, the Bearded. 

141 1. Sigismund, again emperor. 

1415. Frederick I. of Nuremberg (of the house of Hohen- 

zollern). 
1440. Frederick II., surnamed Ironside. 
1470. Albert III. , surnamed the German Achilles. 
1476. John III. , his son ; as margrave ; styled the Cicero 

of German y. 
i486. John III. as elector. 
1499. Joachim I. , son of John. 
1535. Joachim II., poisoned by a Jew. 
1571. John George. 
1598. Joachim Frederick. 
1608. John Sigismund. 

DUKES OF PRUSSIA. 

1618. John Sigismund. 

1619. George William. 

1640. Frederick William, his son, the " Great Elector. " 
1688. Frederick III., son of the preceding ; crowned king, 
18 Jan. 1701. 

KINGS OF PRUSSIA. 

1 701. Frederick I. ; king ; died. 

1713. Frederick William I., son of Frederick I. 

1740. Frederick II. (or Frederick III. ; styled the Great), 

son ; made Prussia a military power. 
1786. Frederick William II., nephew of the preceding. 



1797. Frederick William III. (he had to contend against 
the might of Napoleon, and after extraordinary 
vicissitudes he aided England in his overthrow), 
died 7 June, 1840. 

1840. Frederick William IV., son; born 15 Oct. 1795; 
died, 2 Jan. 1861 

1861. William I., brother (born, 22 March, 1797); pro- 
claimed emperor of Germany at Versailles, 18 Jan. 
1 871) ; married princess Augusta of Saxe-Weiniar, 
11 June, 1829 ; golden wedding kept, 11 June, 
1879 ; died 9 March, 1888 ; she died 7 Jan. 1890. 

1888. Frederick III. (William) son, "the noble"; born 
18 Oct. 1831 ; (married Victoria, princess-royal 
of England, 25 Jan. 1858,); died 15 June, 1888. 
,, William II., son ; born 27 Jan. 1859 (married, 
princess Augusta Victoria of Schleswig-Holstein, 
27 Feb. 1881) ; brother, Henry, born 14 Aug. 
1862 (married princess Irene of Hesse, 24 May., 
1888). 
Heir : William ; born 6 May, 1882. 

PEUSSIC ACID (hydrocyanic acid), acci- 
dentally discovered by Diesbach, a German chemist, 
in 1709, and first obtained in a separate state by 
Scheele about 1782. It is colourless, smells like 
peach flowers, freezes at 5° Fahrenheit, is very 
volatile, and turns vegetable blues into red. Simple 
water distilled from the leaves of the lauro-cerasus 
first ascertained to be a most deadly poison by Dr... 
Madden of Dublin; see Blue. 

PEUTH. a river in Moldavia, the boundary of 
Turkey. Peter the great crossed the Pruth, was 
surrounded by the Turks, and lost much by a con- 
vention, June, 1711. The Russians crossed it 2 
July, 1853, and war ensued. 

PEYTANIS, a magistrate of Corinth, annually- 
elected from 745 B.C. till the office was abolished by 
Cypselus, a despot, 655 b.c. 

PSALMS OF DAVID were collected by 
Solomon, IOOO B.C. ; others added, 580 and 515 B.C. 
The Church of England Old Version in metre by 
Sternhold and Hopkins was published in 1562 ; the 
New Version by Tate and Brady in 1698. 

The version of Francis Rous, provost of Eton, first pub- 
lished in 1641, was ordered to be used, by the parliament 
in 1646. It is the basis of the Scotch version, which 
appeared in 1650. The marquis of Lome published a 
version in 1877. Many other versions published. 

Mr. W. E. Gladstone's edition of "The Psalter," with 
concordance, &c, published, March, 1895. 

"The Earliest known Coptic Psalter, the text in the 
dialect of Upper Egypt," edited by E. A. Wallis- 
Budge, published Feb. 1899. 

The Anglo-Genevan edition, 1558, recovered 1902. 

PSEUDONYM LIBBAEY, a name given 
to a series of books by eminent writers in which the 
name of the publisher was substituted for that of 
the author. The publication began in 1891. 

PSEUDOSCOPE (from pseudos, false), a 
name given by professor Wheatstone (in 1852) to 
the stereoscope, when employed to produce '' con- 
versions of relief," i.e., the reverse of the stereo- 
scope : a terrestrial globe appears like a hollow 
hemisphere. 

PSYCHIC FOECE, see Spiritualism. 

PSYCHOLOGY, the science of the soul and 
its phenomena, studied by Aristotle, Plato, Des- 
cartes, Leibnitz, Locke, Hume, James Mill, J. S. 
Mill, Herbert Spencer, sir Wm. Hamilton, Alex. 
Bain, and others. See Telepathy. 
Psychological Society founded by serjt. Cox, 1875-79. 
Professor Balfour Stewart, lord Rayleigh, and the 

bishops of Carlisle and Ripon were members, 1886. 
Society for Psychical Research founded, 1882. At a 

meeting of the society, 29 Jan. 1897, prof. Wm. Crookes 



PSYCHEOMETEE. 



1014 



PUBLIC MEETINGS. 



(knt. 1897), presided, and gave an address. 
International congress of Experimental Psychology, 

Paris, 1889 ; London, 1 Aug. 1892 ; Munich, 4 Aug. 

1896 ; Paris, 20 Aug. 1900. 
Prof. Wm. James' "Principles of Psychology," 1892. 
Mr. P. Myers, hon. sec, poet and author of psychical 

works, died, aged 57, 17 Jan. 1901. 
Sir Alex. Bain, an eminent psychologist, died, aged 85, 

18 Sept. 1903. 
Mr. Herbert Spencer, the illustrious psychologist, 

died, aged 83 8 Dec. 1903 

PSYCHEOMETEE (from psyehros, cold), an 
apparatus for measuring the amount of elastic 
vapour in the atmosphere ; invented by Gay Lussac 
(1 778-1850), and modified by Regnault (about 1848). 
An electric psychrometer was described by Edmond 
Becquerel, 4 Feb. 1867. 

PTOLEMAIC SYSTEM. Claudius Ptolemy 
of Pelusium, in Egypt (about a.d. 140), supposed 
that the earth was fixed in the centre of the uni- 
verse, and that the sun, moon, and stars moved 
round once in twenty-four hours. The sj-stem (long 
the official doctrine of the church of Rome) was uni- 
versally taught till that of Pythagoras (500 B.C.) 
was revived by Copernicus, a.d. 1530, and demon- 
strated by Kepler (1619) and Newton (1687). 

PUBLICANS, farmers of the state revenues 
of Pome. Soon after the battle of Cannse they were 
so wealthy as to be able to advance large sums to 
the government, payable at the end of the war. No 
magistrate was permitted to be a publican. 

PUBLIC BATHS, &c, see Baths, Education. 

PUBLIC DEPAETMENTS, Royal Com- 
mission to inquire generally into their state was 
appointed about 13 Sept. 1886. It consisted of sir 
M. \V r . Ridley (chairman), lords Brownlow, Lingen, 
Rothschild, Messrs. Sclater Booth, H. Fowler, Ry- 
lands, sir E. Guinness, and others; Mr. Walpole 
(secretary) ; first report issued, Oct. 1887 ; second, 
$ept._ 1888. Important changes recommended. 
Public expenses act passed, 1 April, 1898. 

PUBLIC ENTEETAINMENTS ACT, 

38 Vict. c. 21, passed 14 June 1875, amends the Act 
25 Geo. II. c. 36, 1752. 

PUBLIC GOOD, see Leagues. 

PUBLIC HEALTH ACTS. New act. con- 
solidating all the previous sanitary and nuisance 
acts, passed, 11 Aug. 1875; another act passed in 
1883. Amendment acts passed in 1890, and 1892. 
The Public Health (London) act, passed 5 Aug 1891, 
made very important changes. It came into opera- 
tion 1 Jan. 1892; amended, 1893; it repealed 16 
acts entirely, and partially 19 more, and consolidated 
their best provisions. The Public Health acts, re- 
lating to Scotland and Ireland, were amended in 
1891. An act relating to supply of water passed 
4 July, 1878. New Public Health act passed, 7 
Aug. 1896. Public Health act (Scotland) passed, 
1897. yee Health, Sanitation. 

British (made "Royal" 1898) institute of public health 
founded, 1886 ; annual congress met at Edinburgh, 
27 July, 1893; London, July, 1894; Hull, 12 Aug. 
1895 ; London, .jubilee meeting, 16 June, 1897 ; Dublin, 
18 Aug., 1898 ; Blackpool, the marquis of Lome, 
president, 21 Sept. 1899; at Aberdeen, 2 Aug. 1900; 
Exeter, 21 Aug. 1902 ; Liverpool, 15-21 July, 1903. 
In Dr. Legge's "Public Health in European Capitals," 
1896, London is stated to be in the best condition. 

RATE OF DEATHS PER 1,000. 

England in 1660-79, 8 ° ', 1840-74, 22 £. 

Average death-rate per 1,000 for 4 weeks, in London and 
32 great English towns (published in the Registrar- 
General's weekly report)— 1S90, 15 Jan. 28T; 15 



Feb. 25 - 3; 15 March, 23-6; 12 April, 20 '6 ; 10 May, 
19 "2 ; 14 June, 17*2 ; 12 July, 17*7; 16 Aug. 21*0; 

13 Sept. i8 - 6; 11 Oct. ig'8; 15 Nov. 2i"i; 13 Dec. 
(frost), 217; 20 Dec. 26*0; 27 Dec. 267. 1891, 
3 Jan. 287; 17 Jan. 277; 24 Jan. 25*1; 31 Jan. 
(warmer), 22-3 ; 7 Feb. 19-8 ; 14 Feb. 19-9 ; 14 March, 
22 - i ; 11 April, 22-9 ; 2 May (influenza), 26-8 ; 16 May, 
30T ; 13 June, 23 - 8 ; 11 July, i6'8 ; 15 Aug. i8 - 8 ; 19 
Sept. 177 ; 17 Oct. i8 - 2 ; 14 Nov. 20-6 ; 12 Dec. ig'8. 
1892, 16 Jan. 33-0 (influenza); 23 Jan. 35*4 ; 13 Feb. 
23'i ; 12 March, 22-9; 16 April, 207; 14 May, 20*4; 
11 June, 17*9; 16 July, 17*9 ; 20 Aug. i8"o; 17 Sept. 
i8 - 6; 15 Oct. 177; 19 Nov. i8'6 ; 17 Dec. 207. 1893, 

14 Jan. 28-3 ; 11 Feb. 19-9; 18 March, 19*9 ; 15 April, 
2o - 8 ; 13 May, i8'6; 10 June, i8'2 ; 15 July, 24^8 ; 12 
Aug. 207 ; 16 Sept. ig'i ; 14 Oct. 18-2 ; n Nov. 21-5 ; 
16 Dec. 26-6. 1894, 13 Jan. 28-6; 17 Feb. 187; 17 
March, 19^2; 14 April, 197 ; 12 May, i8"2 ; 14 July, 
157; 11 Aug. i7 - 6 ; 15 Sept. 157; 13 Oct. 167; 17 
Nov. 17-1 ; 15 Dec. 197. 1895, 12 Jan. 2o"i (frost) ; 16 
Feb. 267 (9 March, London, 41-2); 16 March, 32"2; 

14 April, 207; 11 May, 177; 15 June, 15*4; 13 July, 
197 (London, 17 Aug. 17-3 ; 15 Sept. 157); J 3 Oct. 
2i - o; 16 Nov. 19-1 ; 14 Dec. 17-8. 1896, 11 Jan. 187 ; 

15 Feb. 197 ; 14 March, 2o - o ; 11 April, 2o"o ; 16 May, 
187; 13 June, 167; 11 July, 19*9 ; 15 Aug. 19*9 ; 12 
Sept. 15-8 ; 17 Oct. 167 ; 14 Nov. 20-8 ; 19 Dec. i8 - 2. 
1807, 16 Jan. 19-2 ; 13 Feb. ig - 6 ; 13 March, i8'6 ; 10 
April, i8 - 6; 15 May, 167; 12 June, i5'6; 16 July. 
17*6 ; 14 Aug. 29-5; 18 Sept. 187; 16 Oct. 16.9; 13 
Nov. 19-0; 11 Dec. 2o'8. 1898, 15 Jan. 2o - 6 ; 19 Feb. 
20 "4 ; 12 March, 21*1 ; 16 April, ig7 ; 14 May, i6'6 ; 
18 June, 147; t6 July, 147; 13 Aug. 20-5; 17 Sept. 
24 'o; 15 Oct. ig"o; 12 Nov. 17^2; 17 Dec. i6'6. 1899, 

14 Jan. 187 ; 18 Feb. 197 ; 18 March, 237 ; 15 April, 
197; 13 May, 177; 17 June, 167; 12 Aug. 247; 

16 Sept. 21-1; 14 Oct. 187; 18 Nov. 177; 30 Dec. 
30*6 (London, 35*2). 1900, 13 Jan. 29*1 ; 17 Feb. 
25'8; 17 March, 207; 14 April, 22-4; 19 May, i8'2 ; 
16 June, i8'o (London, 137, 23 June); 14 July, 
i5'6; 18 Aug. 197; 15 Sept. i8 - 2 ; 13 Oct. 17*1; 17 
Nov. i7'6; 15 Dec. i6 - 8. 1901, 19 Jan. 19-1 ; 16 Feb. 
197; 16 March, 187; 13 April, ig"2; 18 May, i6'8 ; 

15 June, 147 (London, 137); 13 July, is'6; 17 Aug. 
217; 14 Sept. 187; 12 Oct. 157; 16 Nov. 197; I 4 
Dec. 187. 1902, in London and 75 great towns, 18 
Jan. 177 ; 15 Feb. 227 ; London only, 2g7, 22 Feb. ; 
15 March, 22-0 ; ig April, 187 ; 17 May, 177 ; 14 June, 
iS'o; 12 July, 147; 16 Aug. 157; 13 Sept. 167; 18 
Oct. 177; 15 Nov. 177; 13 Dec. ig'6. igo3, 17 
Jan. 177; 14 Feb. 17-1 ; 14 March, 17-2 ; 18 April, 
157 ; 16 May, 157; 13 June, 137 ; 18 July, 137 ; 15 
Aug. 157 ; 12 Sept. 15-8. 

PUBLIC HOUSES, see Victuallers, and 
Sunday. 

PUBLIC LIBEAEIES ACTS, passed 1855 
and 1871 ; amended in 1877, 1887, 1889. ; consoli- 
dated, 1892; amended, 1893; another passed 1901. 
Public Works Loans act passed 1890, 1901, and 
1903. 

PUBLIC LOAN COMMISSIONERS 

were constituted by the acts passed 13 Aug. 1875. 
Other acts passed 1879-83. 

PUBLIC MEETINGS, for political purposes, 
were occasionally ht Id in England in the latter part 
of the 17th century, but became very important in 
the reign of George III. The meetings in Devon- 
shire in 1763 to protest against the Cider Tax, were 
very effective, and set an example speedily followed, 
with the warm approbation of Burke, Fox, and 
other statesmen. These meetings were prohibited 
by the Gagging acts, wh ieh see, passed in 1 795 ; see 
Sedition. In the reign of George IV., the right of 
public meetings was fully assured, and they were 
very effectual in relation to the passing the Reform 
acts, the Repeal of the Corn I aws, and other impor- 
tant measures. See Hyde Park. The place on 
which the speakers stand is termed a "platform," 
corresponding to the Roman rostrum, and the 
French tribune. "The Platform," by Mr. H. 



PUBLIC OFFICES SITE ACT. 1015 



PUEBLA. 



Jephson, was published in 1 7Q2. The term "plat- 
form " is also applied to a set of political or religious 
opinions held by a party ; such as the " platform of 
■Geneva." Hooker. 

PUBLIC OFFICES SITE ACT (for the 
Admiralty and War) passed 24 July, 1882. 
Public Buildings Expenses act passed, i April, 1898 ; 

estimated cost, 2,550,000^ 

PUBLIC PEOSECUTOB, see Prosecutor. 
PUBLIC RECORDS, see Records. 
PUBLIC SAFETY, Committee of, was 

established at Paris during the French Revolution 
on 6 April, 1793, with absolute power, in conse- 
quence of the coalition against France. The severe 
government of this committee is termed the Reign 
of Terror, which ended with the execution of Robes- 
pierre and his associates, 28 July, 1794. A similar 
•committee was established at Paris by the com- 
munists, March-May, 1871. 

PUBLIC SCHOOLS ACT, 1868, amended 
by acts passed 1870 and 1872 ; see Education. 

PUBLIC STORES. The laws relating to 
their protection were consolidated and amended by 
an act passed 29 June, 1875. 

PUBLIC WORKS ACT, passed 21 July, 
1863, to provide work for the unemployed persons 
in the manufacturing districts at the time of the 
cotton famine. It enabled corporate bodies to raise 
loans, and proved very successful. It was continued 
in 1864-75, 1886 and 1892-3. See under Local 
Loans. Public Works Loans act 1903, royal assent 
14 Aug. 

PUBLIC WORSHIP REGULATION 
ACT, 37 & 38 Vict. c. 85, principally for the re- 
pression of ritualism in the church of England, was 
introduced into the House of Lords by the archbishop 
of Canterbury, 21 April, and after very much dis- 
cussion, received the royal assent, 7 Aug. 1874. 

By it a new judge in the provincial courts of Canter- 
bury and York was appointed : the first being 
lord Penzance (dies, 9 Dec. 1899); the act came 
into operation July, 1875 

First cause, the parish of Folkestone v. rev. C. J . 
Ridsdale, the vicar, 4 Jan., 1876 ; tried at Lam- 
beth palace ; verdict for plaintiffs . . 3 Feb. 1876 

Rev. Arthur Tooth of Hatcham, and rev. T. Pelham 
Dale of St. Vedast's, London ; monition to dis- 
continue practices .... 18 July, ,, 

Rev. A. Tooth disregards monition ; justifies him- 
self and denies authority of court, 21 Dec. 1876 ; 
carries on ritualistic services up to 14 Jan. ; pro- 
nounced contumacious by lord Penzance in court 
of Arches, 13 Jan. ; imprisoned in Horsemonger- 
lane gaol from 22 Jan. to 17 Feb. The church was 
forcibly entered, and he celebrated holy com- 
munion in the censured form . . 14 May, 1877 

Proceedings against him quashed by the Queen's 
Bench on appeal, because the trial did not take 
place in the diocese of Rochester . 19 Nov. ,, 

Sentence upon Rev. T. P. Dale set aside through 
legal difficulty ; he resumes service . 22 July, ,, 
[Again convicted and admonished, 8 Feb. 1879.] 

The Queen's Bench division assert the public wor- 
ship regulation court is a new court, and not a 
modification of the court of Arches . 19 Nov. ,, 

Rev. John Edwards of Prestbury suspended for six 
months, and Rev. A. H. Mackonochie warned, 

23 March, 1878 

Rev. A. H. Mackonochie sentenced by court of 
Arches to three years' suspension from benefice 
and office, for disobedience to monition of the 
court 1 June, ,, 

Enforcement of the sentence prohibited by the 
Queen's Bench 8 Aug. ,, 

Rev. J. Edwards' suspension also set aside . Aug. ,, 



Sentence of court of Arches against Mr.Mackonochie 
affirmed by court of Appeal, 28 June ; he is sen- 
tenced to 3 years' suspension from benefice (from 
23 Nov. 1879), he protests ... 15 Nov. 1879 

Mr. Sinclair, nominated to officiate, retires ; Mr. 
Mackonochie officiates as usual . . 23 Nov. „ 

Martin v. Mackonochie, new trial ; lord Penzance 
declines to decide, as the former sentence has not 
been carried out 5 June, 1880 

Rev. T. Pelham Dale is imprisoned in Holloway 
gaol for contempt of court . . -3° O ct - i> 

Rev. Sidney F. Green, rector of Miles Platting, Man- 
chester, and Rev. Rd. Wm. Enraght, of Bor- 
desley, Birmingham, convicted 20 Nov. : Mr. 
Enraght imprisoned in Warwick gaol 27 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Dale applies to Queen's Bench for release on 
ground of illegal proceedings ; his detention 
affirmed 6-13 E ee - .. 

Mr. Dale on appeal to house of lords released till 11 
Jan. 1881 ; Mr. Enraght prefers to remain 

18 Dec. „ 

Mr. Dale (and consequently Mr. Enraght) dis- 
charged through technical irregularity respecting 
the writ by decision of Appeal court, 15 Jan. 
1881 ; he died in 1892 

Rev. A. H. Mackonochie's appeal to the house of 
lords dismissed ; sentence of 1878 to take effect 

7 April, ,, 

The judicial committee of privy council grant him 
a new trial, 3 Feb. ; remit to Lord Penzance to 
decree suitable punishment . . .22 Feb. 1882 

Rev. S. F. Green imprisoned in Lancaster Castle 
March 1881 ; released . ... 5 Nov. „ 

Sir Percival Hey wood v. the bishop of Manchester, 
for refusing to institute Rev. Mr. Cowgill, curate 
of Rev. S. F. Green, as his successor, 10, 12 Dec. 
1883 ; Baron C. Pollock decides for the bishop 

21 Jan. 1884 

Mr. Mackonochie sentenced to deprivation by court 
of Arches, 21 July, 1883. He resigns the benefice 
of St. Peter's, London Docks 31 Dec. 1883. 
Died, aged 62, by exposure to cold, having lost his 
way near Kinlochmore, Scotland about 15 Dec. T887 

Rev. James Bell Cox suspended for ritualistic 
practices after much litigation ; committed to 
Walton gaol, by error for contempt of court, 5 
May ; release ordered by writ of habeas corpus, 
20 May ; this set aside on appeal, 22 Nov. ; but 
affirmed by the house of lords . . 5 Aug. 1890 

A trial of the bishop of Lincoln, see under Canter- 
bury. 

The people's churchwarden of St. Mark's, Maryle- 
bone v. the rev. Morris Fuller, the vicar, for 
certain alterations and innovations in the church ; 
verdict for plaintiffs with costs ; notice of appeal, 
consistory court 7 Dec. 1897 

Mr. John Kensit, an anti-Ritualist agitator, severely 
injured after speaking at a meeting in Birken- 
head, 25 Sept. ; died of pneumonia or blood poison- 
ing, aged 49, 8 Oct. ; John M'Keever, accused 
of murder, acquitted .... 11 Dec. 1902 

PUBLISHERS' CIRCULAR, first issued 
twice a month, weekly since Dec. 1890; organised 
chiefly by Mr. William Longman (died 1877), 
greatly assisted by Mr. Sampson Low, who first 
published it, 2 Oct. 1837. 

In 1890 the London publishing firm of Messrs. Longman, 
which existed as Osman and Longman in 1726, pur- 
chased the business of Messrs. Rivington, which was 
established by Mr. Charles Rivington in 1710. "The 
Publishing House of Rivington," edited by Septimus 
Rivington, published, June, 1894. 
Publisher's association inaugural meeting, Mr. C. J. 

Longman president, 21 April, 1896. 
International congress of publishers in London, Mr. 
John Murray (president), 7-9 June, 1899 ; Leipzig, 10 
June, 1901 
Mr. George M. Smith, eminent publisher, died, aged 77, 
6 April. 1901. 

PUDDLING, making the walls of canals 
water-tight by means of clay, was largely adopted 
by Brindley in constructing the Bridgewater canals, 
1 76 1 et seq. ; see also under Iron Manufacture. 



PUEBLA, see Mexico, 1863. 



PUEETO. 



1016 



PUECELL SOCIETY. 



PUEETO, see Porto. 

PUGILISM, see Boxing. 

PULLEY, vice, and other mechanical instru- 
ments, are said to have been invented by Archytas 
of Tarentum, about 400 B.C., or by Archimedes, 
287-212. In a single movable pulley the power 
gained is doubled : in a continued combination the 
power is equal to the number of pulleys, less one, 
doubled. 

PULLMAN CAES, see under Railways, 1874. 

PULTOWA (Russia), where Charles XII. of 
Sweden was entirely defeated by Peter the Great 
of Russia, 8 July, 1709. He tied to Bender, in 
Turkey. 

PULTUSK (Russia), where a battle was fought 
between the Saxons, under their king Augustus, and 
the Swedes, under Charles XII., in which the 
former were signally defeated, 1 May, 1703. Here 
also the French under Napoleon fought the Russian 
and Prussian armies : both sides claimed the victory, 
but it inclined in favour of the French, 26 Dec. 
1806. 

PUMPS. Ctesibius of Alexandria is said to 
have invented pumps (with other hydraulic instru- 
ments), about 224 B.C., although the invention is 
ascribed to Danaus, at Lindus, 1485 B.C. Pumps 
were in general use in England, a.d. 1425. An in- 
scription on the pump in front of the late Royal 
Exchange, London, stated that the well was sunk 
in 1282. The air-pump was invented by Otto 
Guericke in 1654, and improved by Boyle in 1657 ; 
see Air and Wells. 

PUNCH, the puppet show, borrowed from the 
Italian Poliehinello, is descended from a character 
well known in the theatres of ancient Rome. Fos- 
broke.^ The satirical weekly publication, Punch, or 
the London Charivari, was established by Henry 
Mayhew, Mark Lemon, Douglas Jerrold, Gilbert 
a' Beckett, and others: amongst its early contribu- 
tors were Wm. M. Thackeray ; Prof. E. Forbes, and 
other eminent writers; first published 17 July, 1841. 
Mark Lemon, the first editor, died 23 May, 1870 ; 
2nd, Shirley Brooks, died 23 Feb. 1874 ; 3 rd , 1' om 
Taylor, died July, 1880; 4th, Francis Cowley Bur- 
nand. Richard Doyle, who designed the wrapper, 
and was a frequent contributor, died n Dec. 1883; 
John Leech died 1864, and was succeeded by Mr. 
George Du Maurier, born in Paris, 6 March, 1834, 
died, 8 Oct. 1896. Mr. Percival Leigh, an early and 
long- continued contributor to Punch, died 24 Oct. 
1889, aged 77. Charles Keene, artist, a contri- 
butor since 1850, died 4 Jan. 1891. Phil May, artist 
and clever caricaturist, died, aged 39, 5 Aug. 1903. 
John Tenniel, cartoonist, since 1851 (knt. 1893); 
resigns, Jan. 1901; succeeded by Linley Sam bourne. 
Mr. W. H. Lucy (Toby, M.P.). Mr. *Wm. Agnew, 
proprietor (bart. June, 1895). An interesting jubilee 
number of Punch was published 17 July, 1891. 
Mr. Wm. Hardwick Bradbury, born, 3 Dec. 1832, 
long printer of Punch, and of this volume, died, 
13 Oct. 1892. " The history of Punch," bv M. H. 
Spielmann, published autumn, 1895. Mr. Edwin 
James Milliken, contributor of the " 'Arry papers," 
etc., died, aged 57, 26 Aug. 1897. Punch appears 
in an enlarged form, and with a story by Dr. 
Conan Doyle, 3 Jan. 1900. "Punch's Holiday 
Book," edited by Mr. E. T. Reed, July, 1901. 
The king receives Mr. Burnand (knt. 26 June, 
1902) ; accepts a copy of the Coronation number, 
21 June, 1902. See Caricatures and Charivari. 



PUNCTUATION. The Hebrew accents foi- 
punctuation are very ancient. The period (.) is the 
most ancient ; the colon (:) was introduced about 
1485 ; the comma (,) was first seen about 1521, and 
the semicolon (;) about 1570. In sir Philip Sid- 
ney's "Arcadia" (1587), they all appear, as well as- 
the note of interrogation (?), asterisk (*), and 
parentheses ( ). 

PUNIC WAES, see Carthage, 264-241 ; 218- 

201 ; 149-146 b.c. 

PUNISHMENTS, see Beheading, Blinding, 
Boiling, Death, Prawning, Flogging, and Poison- 
ing, 

PUNJAUB (N. W. Hindostan) was traversed by 
Alexander the Great, 327 B.C. ; by Tamerlane, 
a.d. 1398 ; by Mahmoud of Ghizni, about 1000. It 
was an independent state under Runjeet Singh, 
1791-1839. Our wars with the Sikhs began here, 
14 Dec. 1845, and were closed on 29 March, 1849, 
when the Punjaub was annexed ; see India. The 
Punjaub has since greatly flourished, and on 1 Jan. 
1859, was made a distinct presidency (to include the 
Sutlej states and the Delhi territory) ; sec Durbar. 
The Sirhind canal (502 miles) opened by the vice- 
roy, marquis of Ripon, 24 Nov. 1882. Local self- 
government bill passed 10 Oct. 1883. Population in 
1881, 18,843,186; in 1 891, 20,803,000; in 1901, 
22,455,769^. Capital, Lahore ; population, 1901, 
120,058. 
[Dhuleep Singh (son of Runjeet Singh), born 
183S, received a pension of 40,000?. ; he resided 
in England till 1886 when he sailed for India ; 
in consequence of an indiscreet proclamation to 
the Sikhs he was stopped at Aden about 3 May, 
1886. After his release he wandered about 
Europe ; in May 1889 he married a European ivs 
Paris ; his manifesto to the Sikhs, inciting 
them to rebellion, indignantly rejected with, 
strong censure, Nov. 1889. After severe illness, 
he expresses deep regret for his conduct, 27 
July, and is pardoned by queen Victoria, 1 Aug. 

1890 ; received by her at Grasse, 31 March, 

1891 ; dies at Paris, 22 Oct. 1893.] 

The new Jhelam irrigation canal (relief work), s ?e 
India, 1896-7; 28,000 labourers employed, Jan. 
1897 ; opened 29 Oct. 1903 

Increase of plague, reported . . . 11 Feb. 1898. 

Lord Cnrzon visits Lyallpur, a new town founded 
as the result of successful irrigation . 3 April, 1899 

Punjaub land alienation bill becomes law, see 
India ....... 19 Oct. 1900 

Sir Mackworth Young installs the young maharajah 
of Patiala 22 Oct. 1903 

New north-west frontier province formed out of 
the 4 Trans-Indus districts, Feb. 1901 ; inaugura- 
tion of col. Deane as chief commissioner at 
Peshawar. 9 Nov. ,, 

Lieut. -governors: sir James Lyall, 18S7; sir Dennis 
Fitzpatrick, March, 1S92 ; Mr. (aft. sir) Wm. 
Mackworth Young, March, 1897 ; sir Charles 
Bivaz 6 March, 1902 

PUPPETS (Italian, puppi ; French, marioii- 
nettes), of which the eyes, arms, &c, were moved by- 
strings, were used by the ancients, and are men - 
tioned by Xenophon", Horace, and others. Skilful 
theatrical performances with puppets have been 
several times exhibited in London (at the Ade- 
laide gallery, 1852). A performance with pup- 
pets as large as life, began at St. Janies's-hall, 
July, 1872. M. Ch. Magnin published a " Mistoire 
des Marionnettes" 1852. 

PUECELL CLUB, formed Aug. 1836; dis- 
solved 1863. 

PUECELL SOCIETY, founded 21 Feb. 
I 1876, to publish and perform the works of Henry 



PUECHASE OF LAND. 



1017 



PYEOMETEE. 



Purcell. Bi-centenary of Purcell's death cele- 
brated in Westminster Abbey, 21 Nov. 1895. 
Purcell operatic society founded, 1899. 

PUECHASE OF LAND, see under Land. 

PUECHASE SYSTEM in the army. _ The 
payment of a present or gratuity for a commission 
was prohibited by "William III., 1693 ; butin 1 702 pur- 
chase was legally re-organised. In 171 1 the saleof 
commissions was forbidden without the royal permis- 
sion ; in 1719-20 regulations were issued; and a 
fixed scale of prices was adopted in consequence of 
a commission in 1765. Large over-regulation pay- 
ments continued to be paid. Commissions of inquiry 
were held frequently since 1858 ; and in 1871 the 
system was abolished, with compensation, by royal 
warrant, 20 July, 187 1, the bill for the purpose 
having been rejected by the house of lords. For 
amounts paid, see under Army. 

PURGATIVES of the mild species (aperients), 
particularly cassia, manna, and senna, are ascribed 
to Actuarius, a Greek physician, 1245. 

PUEGATOEY, the middle place between 
heaven and hell, where, it is believed by the Roman 
catholics, the soul passes through the fire of purifi- 
cation before it enters the kingdom of God. The 
doctrine was known about 250 ; was introduced into 
the Eoman church in the 5th century, and made a 
religious dogma by Gregory I., 590-604. It was 
first set forth by a council at Florence, 1439; 
enforced by the council of Trent, Dec. 1563 ; see 
Indulgences. 

PURIFICATION, after childbirth, was or- 
dained by the Jewish law, 1490 B.C. {Lev. xii.) ; see 
Churching. The feast of the purification was insti- 
tuted, 542, in honour of the Virgin Mary's going to 
the temple. {Luke ii.) Pope Sergius I. ordered 
the procession with wax tapers, whence Candlemas- 
day. 

PURITANS, the name first given, it is said, 
about 1564, to persons who aimed at greater purity 
of doctrine, holiness of living, and stricter discipline 
than others. They withdrew from the established 
church, professing to follow the word of God alone, 
and maintaining that the church retained many 
human inventions and popish superstitions ; see 
Cathari , Nonconformists, and Presbyterianism. 

PUELEY, see Diversions. 

PURPLE, a mixed tinge of scarlet and blue, 
discovered at Tyre. It is said that Hercules Tyrius 
having observed his dog's lips to be stained, after 
eating a shell-fish named murex or purpura, was 
thereby led to invent the dye. Purple was anciently 
used by the princes and great men for their gar- 
ments. It was restricted to the emperor by 
J ustinian I. 532, and porphyrogenitus attached to 
the names of some emperors signifies "born to the 
purple." 

PURVEYANCE, an ancient prerogative of 
the sovereigns of England of purchasing provisions, 
&c, without the consent of the owners, led to much 
oppression. It was regulated by Magna Charta, 
12 K, and other statutes, and was only surrendered 
by Charles II. in 1660, for a compensation. 

PUSEYISM, a name attached to the views of 
certain clergymen and lay members of the church 
of England, who proposed to restore the practice of 
the church of England to what they believed to 
be required by the language of her Liturgy and 



Rubrics, but which were considered by their oppo- 
nents to be of a Romish tendency. The term was 
derived from the name of the professor of Hebrew 
at Oxford, Dr. Edwd. Pusey. The heads of houses of 
the university of Oxford passed resolutions censuring 
Dr. Pusey' s attempts to renew practices which are 
now obsolete, 15 March, 1841 ; and his celebrated 
sermon was condemned by the same body, 30 May,. 
1843 ; he died 16 Sept. 1882 ; see Tractarians, and 
Ritualism. 

PUTNEY, anciently Putilei and Putenheath,. 
N.E. Surrey, on the Thames, opposite Fulham. A 
new granite bridge, founded by the prince of Wales 
(to replace the wooden one completed in 1729), 12- 
July, 1884. Opened by the prince, 29 May, 1886. 

PYDNA (Macedon), where Perseus, the last 
king of Macedon, was defeated and made prisoner 
by the Romans, commanded by iEmilius Paulus, 22 
June, 168 B.C. 

PYEAMIDS OP EGYPT, about 75 in number, 

of various sizes, constructed for the preservation of 

mummies of the kings and their families. 

The Stepped Pyramid of Sakkara is conjecturally 
assigned to Ouenephes of the first dynasty, see Egypt. 
Three great pyramids are situated near Gizeh on the 
W. bank of the Nile. The first or greatest, is said to 
have been erected as the tomb of Choofoo, fourth dy- 
nasty, the Cheops of Herodotus, dated by Brugscn, 
3733-3666 B.C. Its height is said to have been origin- 
ally 481 feet, and its base 774 square feet. The 
second pyramid is ascribed to Chafra, or Chephren, 
3666-3633 B.C. The third pyramid is said to have 
been built by Menkaura or Mycerinns, 3633 b.o. 

The pyramids have been visited and described by Bel- 
zoni, 1815 ; Vyse, 1836 ; 0. Piazzi Smith, and others, 
see Egypt Exploration Eund. 

Some of the eleven pyramids at Sakkara explored by 
M. Maspero, 1880 et seq. 

At the battles of the Pyramids, Napoleon Bonaparte de- 
feated the Mamelukes, and thereby conquered Lower- 
Egypt, 13 and 21 July, 1798. 

' PYEENEES. After the battle of Vittoria 
(fought 2 1 June, 18 13), Napoleon sent Soult to super- 
sede Jourdan, with instructions to drive the allies 
across the Ebro; Soultretreatedinto France withaloss- 
of more than 20,000 men, having been defeated by 
Wellington in a series of engagements from 25 July 
to 2 Aug. One at the Pyrenees on 28 July. A 
railway through the Pyrenees (from Bilbao to- 
Miranda) was opened 21 Aug. 1862. — The Peace, 
of the Pyrenees was concluded between France 
and Spain, by cardinal Mazarin, for the French 
king, and don Louis de Haro, on the part of Spain, 
in the island of Pheasants, on the Bidassoa. By 
this treaty Spain yielded Roussillon, Artois, and her 
right to Alsace ; and France ceded her conquests in 
Catalonia, Italy, &c, and engaged not to assist 
Portugal, Nov. 1659. 

PYEOLETEE, a mechanical and chemical 
apparatus for extinguishing fires, especially in ships, 
invented by Dr. Pat on. 

PYEOMETEE (fire-measurer), an apparatus, 
employed to ascertain the temperature of furnaces, 
&c, where thermometers cannot be employed ; 
Muschenhoek's pyrometer (a metallic bar) was 
described by him in 1731. Improvements were 
made by Ellicott and others. Wedgwood employed 
clay cylinders, 1782-6. In 1830 professor Daniel! 
received the Rumford medal for an excellent pyro- 
meter made in 1821. Mr. Ericsson's pyrometer 
appeared in the Great Exhibition of 1851. (JSng. 
Oyc.) Mr. (aft. sir) C. W. Siemens' electric pyro- 
meter and those of Becquerel, and Le Chatelier are 
also in use. 



PYEOPHONE. 



1018 



PYX. 



PYEOPHONE (Greek, pur, fire; phone, voice), 
a musical instrument, invented by M. Frederic 
Kastner, of Paris. It consists of glass tubes of 
various lengths ; the tones being produced by 
what are termed " singing flames." It is based 
upon the "chemical harmonicon." Keys are 
attached for playing, as in the piano. The inven- 
tion was reported to the French Academy of 
Sciences, 17 March, 1873; exhibited at Vienna, 
same year; and at the Society of Arts, 17 Feb. 
1875. M. Kastner died aged 31, 6 April, 1882. 

PYEOXYLIN, the chemical name of Gun 
Cotton (which see) . 

PYEEHONISM, see Sceptics. 

PYTHAGOEEAN PHILOSOPHY. 

Pythagoras, of Samos, head of the Italic sect, 
flourished in the 6th century B.C. He is said to 
have taught the doctrine of metempsychosis, or 
transmigration of the soul from one body to another, 
forbidden his disciples to eat flesh and beans, in- 
vented the multiplication table, improved geometry, 
and taught the present system of astronomy. 



PYTHIAN GAMES, in honour of Apollo, 
near the temple of Delphi ; asserted to have been 
instituted by himself, in commemoration of his 
victory over the serpent, Python. Also said to have 
been established by Agamemnon, or Diomedes, or 
Amphictyon, or lastly, by the council of the 
Amphictyons, 1263 B.C. They lasted till 394. 

PYX, the casket in which Catholic priests keep 
the consecrated wafer. In the ancient chapel of the 
pyx, at Westminster abbey, are deposited the 
standard pieces of gold and silver, under the joint 
custody of the lords of the treasury and the comp- 
troller-general. The " trial of the pyx" signifies 
the verification by a jury of goldsmiths of the 
coins deposited in the pyx or chest by the master of 
the mint; this took place on 17 July, 1861, at the 
exchequer office, Old Palace-yard, in the presence 
of twelve privy councillors, twelve goldsmiths, and 
others, and on 15 Feb. 1870. This trial is said to have 
been ordered in the reign of Henry II., 1154-89; 
King James was present at one in 1611. The first 
annual trial of the pyx, appointed by the Coinage 
act of 1870, took place 18 July, 1871 ; new regula- 
tions issued, Feb. 1901. 



QUACKERY. 



1019 



QUAKERS- 



Q. 



QUACKERY, or medical imposture, is very 
ancient. Quack medicines were taxed in 1783 
et seq. An inquest was held on the body of a 
young lady, Miss Cashin, whose physician, St. 
John Long, was afterwards tried for manslaughter, 
21 Aug. 1830; he was found guilty, and sentenced 
to pay a tine of 250*?., 30 Oct. following. He was 
tried for manslaughter in the case of Mrs. Catherine 
Lloyd, and acquitted, 19 Feb. 1831. Dr. Vries, 
"the black doctor," a professed cancer-curer, at 
Paris, was condemned to fifteen months' imprison- 
ment as an impostor in Jan. i860. Alabone v. 
Morton, see Trials, 8 July, 1893. 

QUADRAGESIMA SUNDAY, first Sun- 
day in Lent and 40th day before Good Friday; see 
Lent, and Quinquagcsima. 

QUADRANT, a mathematical instrument in 
the form of a quarter of a circle. The solar quad- 
rant was introduced about 290 B.C. The Arabian 
astronomers under the caliphs, in 995, had a quad- 
rant of 21 feet 8 inches radius, and a sextant 59 feet 
9 inches radius. Davis's quadrant for measuring 
angles was produced about 1600; Hadley's quadrant 
about 1 731 ; see Navigation. 

QUADRILATERAL or Quadrangle, 

terms applied to four strong fortresses in N. Italy, 
long held by the Austrian?, but surrendered to the 
Italians, Oct. 1866; — Peschiera, on an island in the 
Mincio ; Mantua on the Mincio ; Verona and Leg- 
nago, both on the Adige ; see Italy, Peschiera, &c. 
The Turkish Quadrilateral was Shumla, Varna, Rustchuk, 
and Silistria, lost to the sultan by the treaty of Berlin, 
which established the autonomy of Bulgaria. 

QUADRILLE, a dance (originally quadrille 
de contre danse, introduced into French ballets 
about 1745), in its present form became popular in 
France about 1804. It was introduced into this 
country about 1808 {Miss Berry), and promoted 
by the duke of Devonshire and others, in 1813. 
Itaikes. 

QUADRIVIUM, see Arts. 

QUADRUPLE ALLIANCE. That be- 
tween Great Britain, France, and the emperor 
(signed at London, 22 July, 1718), on the accession 
of the states of Holland, 8 Feb. 17 19, obtained its 
name. It guaranteed the succession of the reign- 
ing families of Great Britain and France, settled 
the partition of the Spanish monarchy, and led to 
war. 

QUADRUPLE TREATY, concluded in 
London 22 April, 1834, by the representatives of 
Great Britain, France, Spain, and Portugal, gua- 
ranteed the possession of her throne to Isabella II., 
the young queen of Spain. 

QUADRUPLEX TELEGRAPHY, see 

under Electricity. 

QUAESTORS (seekers). Two qumstores parri- 
tidii, public prosecutors, in cases of murder and 
other capital crimes, acted in Rome under the 
kings ; two qumstores classici, who had the man- 
agement of the public treasure; appointed about 
484 B.C. The number of quiestors was raised from 
time to time, as circumstances demanded. Ple- 



beians were first elected in 409 B.C. There were 
eight quasstors in 265. Sylla raised the number to 
twenty; Julius Cassar to forty. 

QUAKERS or Society of Emends, origin- 
ally called Seekers, from their seeking the truth, 
and afterwards Friends (3 John, 14). Justice Ben- 
net, of Derby, gave the society the name of Quakers 
iri 16^0, because George Fox (the founder) admon- 
ished him and those present to quake at the word 
of the Lord. This sect was commenced in England 
about 1646, by George Fox (then aged 22), who 
was joined by George Keith, "William Penn, and 
Robert Barclay, of Ury, and others. Fox rejected 
all religious ordinances, explained away the com- 
mands relative to baptism, &c. ; discarded the 
ordinary names of days and months, and used thee 
and thou for you, as more consonant with truth. 
He published a book of instructions for teachers and 
professors, and died 13 Jan. 1691. Sir H. Nicolas 
explains the Quaker calendar in his Chronology of 
History. The first meeting-house in London was 
in White Hart-court, Gracechurch-street. 

Their principles are contained in " Extracts of minutes " 
(from the beginning) published 1782 : revised 1802, 
1861, and 1883. 

The Quakers early suffered grievous persecutions. At 
Boston, U.S., where the first Friends who arrived were 
females, they were cruelly scourged, and had their 
ears cut off; some put to death. 

In 1659 they stated in parliament that 2000 Friends had 
endured sufferings and imprisonment in Newgate: and 
164 Friends offered themselves at this time, by name, 
to government, to be imprisoned in lieu of an equal 
number in danger (from confinement) of death, 1659. 

Fifty-five (out of 120 sentenced) were transported to 
America, by an order of council, 1664. 

The masters of vessels refusing to carry them for some 
months, an embargo was laid on West India ships, 
when a mercenary wretch was at length found for the 
service. The Friends would not walk on board, nor 
would the sailors hoist them into tl e vessel, and sol- 
diers from the Tower were employed. In 1665, the 
vessel sailed ; but it was immediately captured by the 
Dutch, who liberated twenty-eight of the prisoners in 
Holland, the rest having died of the plague. Few 
reached America. 

William Penn, with a company of Friends, colon- 
ised Philadelphia .... 1682 

First meeting of Quakers in Ireland in Dublin in 
1658; and their first meeting-house there was 
opened in Eustace-street . . 1692 

The solemn affirmation of Quakers enacted to be 
taken in all cases in the courts below, wherein 
oaths are required from other subjects (see Affir- 
mation) 1696 

John Archdale, a Quaker, elected M.P. for Chipping 
Wycombe; refused to take the oaths, and his 
election was declared void 1699 

Quakers emancipated their negro slaves . 1 Jan. 1788 

The Quakers had in England 413 meeting-houses in 
1800, and 372 in .... . . 1872. 

A schism in the society was begun in America 
about 1827, by Blias Hicks publishing his opinions 
denying the divinity of Christ and his atonement 
and the authority of the Holy Scriptures. His 
numerous followers are styled Hicksite Friends. 

Joseph Pease, a Quaker, was admitted to parliament 
on his affirmation .... is Feb. 1833 

At an annual assembly it was agreed to recommend 
that mixed marriages should be permitted, and 
that many of the peculiarities of the sect in speech 
and costume should be no longer insisted on. 

2 Nov. i8s8 



QUALIFICATION. 



1020 



QUEBEC. 



An act passed rendering valid Quaker marriages 
when only one of the persons is a Quaker. May, i860 

The Quakers publish an address deprecating the 
continuance of the Franco-Prussian war . Jan. 1871 

Said to be 14,441 Quakers in Great Britain, May, 
1877 ; about 14,700, May, 1880 ; 15,381, May, 1885 ; 
16,854, all( i 348 meeting-houses in 1898 ; in the 
world, 112,413 members, of whom 92,398 are in 
America, reported, 10 Jan. 1898 ; home and 
colonial membership, 21,629 • • ■ J an - I 9°3 

Quaker summer school of theology opened at Scar- 
borough 4 -j8 Aug. 1897 

Their "appeal to the nation " against increase of 
army and navy and forward policy issued . Dec. ,, 

QUALIFICATION for Office Aboli- 
tion Act, passed May, 1866, rendered it unneces- 
sary to make and subscribe certain declarations. 

QUARANTINE, the custom observed at 
Venice as early as 1127, whereby all merchants and 
others coming from the Levant were obliged to 
remain in the house of St. Lazarus, or the Lazar- 
etto, forty days before they were admitted into the 
city. Various southern cities have now lazarettos ; 
that of Venice is built in the water. In the times 
of plague, England and all other nations oblige 
those that come from the infected places to perform 
quarantine with their ships, &c., a longer or shorter 
time, as may be judged most safe. Quarantine acts 
were passed in 1753 and in l82 5* The s ) stem was 
abolished in England by an act passed 1896, 
and the old quarantine men-of-war in the Solent 
were broken up. Quarantine established through- 
out Europe, in consequence of the bubonic plague 
at Bombay (which see), 16 Jan. 1897. By order of 
council, 10 Nov. 1866, foreign cattle were made 
subject to quarantine. 

QUARRIES. An act was passed for their 
regulation in 1894. See Slate. 

QUARTER SESSIONS established 25 
Edw. III. 1350-1. Days of sitting appointed, 
2 Hen. V. 1413. In 1830 it was enacted that 
quarter sessions of the peace should be held in the 
first whole weeks after 11 Oct., 28 Dec, 31 March, 
and 25 June. Further regulated, 1842, 1848, and 
1858. Brewster Sessions are regulated by the 
Licensing Act 1902. 

QUARTERLY REVIEW, the organ of the 
Tory party. The publication was proposed to Mr. 
George Canning, and his support solicited by Mr. 
John Murray, the publisher, in a letter dated 25 
Sept. 1807, in opposition to the opinions of the 
Edinburgh Review. Mr. Murray was assisted 
by Walter Scott, Kobert Southey, John Gibson 
Loekhart (editor 1825-53), J. W. Croker, and other 
eminent persons. It first appeared F,eb. 1809, 
with William Gifford, the celebrated translator .of 
"Juvenal" as editor. He died 31 Dec. 1826. 
The rev. Whitwell El win, an able editor, 1S53-1867, 
died, aged 84, 1 Jan. 1900. Dr. (aft. sir) William 
Smith, editor, from 1867 till his death, 7 Oct. 1893 ; 
succeeded by Mr. llowhmd Prothero, Nov. 1893. 

QUASI MODO, a name given to Low Sunday 
(the first Sunday after Easter) from the commence- 
ment of a hymn sung on that day. 

QUATERNIONS, an important mathemati- 
cal method or calculus, invented by Sir Win. 
Rowan Hamilton, about 1843. 
It is based upon the separation of multiplication from 
addition, and its fundamental idea is mental trans- 
ference or motion by what he termed vectors. He 
attributed to addition motion from a point; to mul- 
tiplication about a point. Pour numbers arc generally 
involved, hence the name quaternion. Hamilton's 



" Lectures on Quaternions," was published 1853: his 
"Elements," 1866. Other works by professors Kelland 

and Tait, published since. 

QUATRE-BRAS (Belgium). Here on 16 
June, 1815, two days before the battle of Waterloo, 
a battle was fought between the British and allied 
army under the duke of Brunswick, the prince of 
Orange, and sir Thomas Picton, and the French 
under marshal Ney. The British fought with re- 
markable intrepidity, notwithstanding their inferi- 
ority in number, and their fatigue through maixh- 
ing all the preceding night. The 42nd regiment 
(Royal Highlanders) suffered severely in pursuit of 
a French division by cuirassiers posted in ambush 
behind growing corn. The duke of Brunswick was 
killed. 

QUEBEC a province of the dominion of 
Canada, formerly called Lower Canada, was 
settled by the French in the 16th and 17th cen- 
turies. Quebec the capital, was founded by them 
in 1608. Population of the province, 1881, 
1,359,027; 1891, 1,489,062; 1901, 1,648,898. Town, 
1881,62,446; 1891,63,090; 1901,68,840. 

Quebec reduced by the English, with all Canada, in 

1629, but restored 1632 

Besieged by the English, but without success . 171 3 

Conquered by them after a battle memorable for the 
death of general Wolfe in the moment of victory, 
and of the French general Montcalm 13 Sept. 1759 
Besieged in vain by the American provincials, under 

general Montgomery, v ho was slain . 31 Dec. 1775 
Bishopric established ...... 1793 

Public and private stores and several wharfs de- 
stroyed by fire; the loss estimated at upwards of 

260,000?. Sept. 1815 

Awful fire, 1650 houses, the dwellings of 12,000 pier- 
sons, burnt to the ground . . .28 May, 1845 
Another great fire, 1365 houses burnt . 2S June, ,, 
Fire at the theatre, 50 lives lost . . 12 Jan. 1846 
Quebec made the seat of government . 17 April, 1856 
Visited by the prince of Wales . . 18-23 Aug. i860 
Great fire in French quarter ; 2500 houses and 17 
churches destroyed, and nearly 20,000 persons 

made homeless 14 Oct. 1866 

Great fire ; 500 houses burnt ... 24 May, 1870 
Great fires at St. John's — commercial district; 9 
churches and 7 hotels said to be destroyed. 

18 June, 1S76 
Dissensions between the lieut. -governor Luc Letel- 

lier de St. Just and his ministers . . ,, 

600 small wooden houses destroyed by fire . June, 1883 
Parliament buildings burnt (incendiary) 19 April, 1883 
Dynamite explosions destroying new parliament 

buildings 11 Oct. 1884 

Destructive fire in the citadel ; the powder maga- 
zine saved ; about 30,000/. damage . 6-7 July, 1887 
A. Real Angers appointed lieut. -govern or . . „ 

Thunderstorm with great loss of life and property, 

16 Aug. 1888 
Fire in the suburb St. Sauveur ; above 700 houses 

destroyed; great distress . . 15-16 May, 1889 
Jesuits' Estate act passed, see Canada . Aug. ,, 
Landslip below the citadel, 7 dwellings fell, 19 

Sept. ; 30 bodies recovered, 36 missing 21 Sept. „ 
Theduke and duchess of Oonnaughtreceived warmly 

10 June, 189c 
Visit of the Comte de Paris, banquet . 28 Oct. „ 
At St. Joseph de Levis, a railway train, crossing 
the bridge, is thrown into the river, about 10 lives 

lost 18 Dec. ,, 

Destructive boiler explosion at Hare Point, about 

30 persons killed 12 Feb. 1893 

The Hon. Honore Mercier, premier of Quebec, and 
Mr. Joseph Adolphe Chapleau, secretary of state, 
charged with inisappiopi'iatingpublie money in re- 
lation to the Chaleurs Bay railway, &c. ; the 
charge accepted by the Senate . . 14 Sept. „ 
In consequence of the interim report of the Royal 
Commission of inquiry (three .judges) appointed 
by lieut. -governor Heal Angers (issued Nov.), he 
dismisses the ministry . . . .16 Dec. ,, 
Mr. C..B.de Bqucherville forms a ministry 21 Dec. ,, 






QUEEN. 



1021 



QUEENSLAND. 



Eoyal commission to inquire into the conduct of 
the ministry, u Jan. 1892 ; the report censures 
several persons and blames Mr. Mercier for negli- 
gence, 17 Feb. ; investigations proceeding, April, 1892 

New parliament opened (conservatives 55, opposi- 
tion 17) 27 April, ,, 

Trial of Mr. Charles Langelier and Mr. Ernest Pa- 
caud for conspiracy and fraud ; judgment re- 
served 21 May, ,, 

Mr. Mercier and Mr. Pacaud committed for trial for 
conspiracy to defraud the province of money, 9 
June ; acquitted 4 Nov. ; , 

Great fire at Hedley ; 120 families homeless, 9 Sept. ,, 

Sir J. A. Chapleau appointed lieut. -governor, Dec. ,, 

Mr. C. de Boucherville resigns, succeeded by Mr. 
Taillon as premier .... 14 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Mercier, in a manifesto, advocates Canadian 
independence ; reported . . .4 April, 1893 

Death of sir Narcisse Fortunal Belleau, eminent 
official 14 Sept. 1894 

Death of Mr. Honore Mercier, ex-premier 30 Oct. ,, 

Forest fires, many farmers ruined . about 23 Sept. ,, 

Cabinet reconstructed, Mr. E. J. Flynn premier, 

11 May, 1896 

Ursuline convent at Roberval, Lake St. John, burnt 
down, 7 nuns perish .... 6 Jan. 1897 

Legislature dissolved .... 6 March, ,, 

New ministry, Mr. F. G. Marchand, premier, 26 May, , , 

Victoria park opened by sir J. A. Chapleau (died, 
13 June, 1898), Jubilee day . . .22 June, ,, 

Disastrous floods ; towns in the east under water, 
reported 15 July, ,, 

Sir Louis Jette appointed lieut. -governor . 3 Jan. 1898 

Card. Taschereau, archbishop of Quebec, born 17 
Feb. 1820, died 12 April, ,, 

Construction of a cantilever bridge over the St. 
Lawrence began Sept. 1900 

Death of Mr. F. G. Marchand, premier, aged 68, 

25 Sept. ,, 

Duke and duchess of Cornwall and York visit the 
city 16, 17 Sept. 1901 

Strike riot, factory raided . . .5 March, 1903 
(See Canada, 1898 et seq.) 

QUEEN (Saxon, cwen; German, kbnigin). 
In 1554 an act was passed " declaring that the regall 
power of this realme is in the queues majestie 
[Mary] as fully and absolutely as ever it was in 
any of her moste noble progenitours hinges of this 
realme." The Hungarians called a queen-regnant 
king; see Hungary. John Knox's "Monstrous 
Regiment of Women," published 1555, against 
Mary queen of Scots, greatly offended Elizabeth of 
England. See under England, kings and queens. 

QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY, established 
by her in Nov. 1703, being the first-fruits with the 
tenths, to increase the incomes of the poorer clergy. 
There were 5597 clerical livings under 50^. per 
annum found by the commissioners under the act 
of Anne capable of augmentation. Chalmers. Act 
to consolidate the offices of first-fruits, tenths 
and queen Anne's Bounty, passed 1 Vict. 1838 
Benefactions in 1895, 53,467^. ; in 1902, 35,126^. 
Total of benefactions and grants, 1 703-1903 
7, 783,057^ Joint commission, lords and commons, 
1 900-1, on reconstruction of the Bounty. 

QUEEN ANNE'S FARTHINGS. The 
popular stories of the great value of ttiis coin are 
fabulous, although some few of particular dates 
have been purchased by persons at high prices. 
The current farthing, with the broad brim, when 
in fine preservation, is worth \l. The common 
patterns of 1713 and 1714 are worth il. The two 
patterns with Britannia under a canopy, and Peace 
on a car, r r r, are worth 2I. 2s. each. The 
pattern with Peace in a car is more valuable and 
rare, and worth ^l. Pinkerton (died 1826). 

QUEEN CAEOLINE'S TRIAL, &c. 

Caroline Amelia Elizabeth, second daughter of 
Charles William Ferdinand, duke of Brunswick, 



I79S 
1796 



1813 
1814 



born 17 May, 1768 ; married to George, prince of 
Wales 8 April, 

Their daughter, princess Charlotte, born 7 Jan. 

The "Delicate Investigation" {which see) 22 May, 

Charges against her again disproved 

The princess embarks for the continent . Aug. 

Becomes queen, 20 Jan. ; arrives in England, 

6 June, 1820 

A secret committee in the house of lords, appointed 
to examine papers on charges of incontinence, 

8 June, ,, 

Bill of pains and penalties introduced by lord 
Liverpool 5 July, ,, 

The queen removes to Brandenburg-house, 3 Aug. ,, 

Receives an address from the married ladies of the 
metropolis (and many others afterwards) 16 Aug. ,, 

Her trial commences .... 19 Aug. ,, 

Last debate on the bill of pains and penalties, when 
the report was approved by 108 against 99 ; the 
numerical majority of nine being produced by the 
votes of the ministers themselves. Lord Liver- 
pool moves that the bill be reconsidered that day 
six months . . . . . 10 Nov. „ 

Great public exultation ; illuminations for three 
nights in London . . . 10, 11, 12 Nov. ,, 

The queen goes to St. Paul's in state . 29 Nov. ,, 

She protests against her exclusion from the corona- 
tion, 19 July ; taken ill at Drury-lane theatre, 30 
July ; dies at Hammersmith ... 7 Aug. 1821 

Her remains removed on their route to Brunswick ; 
an alarming riot occurs ; two persons were killed 
in an affray with the guards . . 14 Aug. ,, 

QUEEN CHARLOTTE Ship of War, 
a first-rate ship of the line, of 1 10 guns, the flag- 
ship of lord Keith, then commanding in chief in 
the Mediterranean, was burnt by an accidental fire, 
off the harbour of Leghorn, and more than 700 
British seamen out of a crew of 850 perished by fire 
or drowning, 17 March, 1800. 

QUEEN'S ADVOCATE (see King's) , prose- 
cutes or defends on the part of the crown in all 
cases in the court of admiralty. Sir K. J. Philli- 
more, appointed in 1862, was succeeded by sir 
Travers Twiss, Aug. 1867, who resigned in March, 
1872 ; no successor appointed. 

QUEENS BENCH COURT and PRI- 
SON, see King's Bench. 

QUEEN'S COLLEGES, see Cambridge and 
Oxford. Queen's colleges, Ireland, from their un- 
sectarian character termed the " Godless Colleges," 
were instituted in 1845, to afford education of the 
highest order to all religious denominations. They 
were placed at Belfast, Cork, and Galway ; the last 
was opened on 30 Oct. 1849. —The " Queen's Uni- 
versity in Ireland," comprehending these colleges, 
was founded by patent, 15 Aug. 1850; the earl of 
Clarendon, lord lieutenant, the first chancellor. 
These were "condemned" by the Propaganda and 
the pope, and by a majority (a small one) of the 
Irish bishops in a synod held at Thurles, in Sept. 
1850. A supplemental charter, granted in June, 
1806, created much dissension when acted upon in 
October following, and was suffered to expire, 31 
Jan. 1868 ; see Colleges. 

A government commission of inquiry into the col- 
leges was appointed about . . . May, 1876 

Dissolution of the Queen's University enacted, ano- 
ther to be created, by 42 &, 43 Vict. c. 65, passed 
15 Aug. 1879. 

Queen's college, Harley-street, London, founded 
mainly by the rev. F. D. Maurice in 1848, its 
jubilee commemorated .... 2 May, 1898 

QUEENSLAND, Moreton-bay, a British 
colony, comprising the whole of the north-eastern 
portion of Australia ; was separated from New South 
Wales and made a distinct colony, in 1859, when 
Brisbane, the capital (pop? 1901, 119,428), founded 



QUEENSLAND. 



1022 



QUEENS OF ENGLAND. 



:■ 



by Oxley, 1823, was made a bishopric. Chinese 
immigrants are virtually excluded. 
Sir George Fergusson Bowen, the first governor, 1859 
(died 1899), succeeded by Mr. Blaekall, 1868 ; the 
marquis of Normanby, 1871 ; Mr. Wm. Wellington 
Cairns, 1874; sir Arthur E. Kennedy, Jan. 1877; 
sir Anthony Musgrave, March, 1883 (died 9 Oct. 
1888); sir Henry Arthur Blake Nov. (objected to 
by the colony) ; resigns about 27 Nov. ; sir 
Henry Wylie Norman appointed Nov. 1888 ; well 
received 1 May. ; opens the parliament with 
speech noticing the prosperity of the colony, 

21 May, 1889 

Report of royal commission, 25 April, 1885 ; on 
recruiting in South Pacific Isles for labourers for 
sugar plantations in North Queensland, discloses 
much deceit and cruelty, especially in the ship 
Hopeful, capt. Shaw, May ; Neil McNeil, agent, 
and Williams, boatswain, were convicted of 
murder (not executed) 1884; 404 islanders sent 
home, announced . . 6 June ; others in July, 1885 

North Queensland made a bishopric 1878 ; agitation 
of North Queensland for separation July, et seq. ,, 

Loan of 1,554,000/. authorised . . .15 Nov. 1889 

Mount Morgan, a grazing district of 640 acres, in 
central Queensland, bought by Donald Gordon 
for 5s. an acre, was sold by him to Messrs. Morgan 
for 1/. an acre : in 1882 they discovered gold, and 
formed a partnership with Messrs. Hall and others. 
The product of gold enormously increased, and 
in 1886, a new company was formed with a capital 
of 1,000,000/., which is said to have paid very 
large dividends Nov. ,, 

Disastrous floods, about 800 miles of land submerged 
through heavy rains . . announced 5 Jan. 1890 

The cabinet re-arranged ; hon. B. D. Morehead still 
premier announced 6 Jan. ,, 

Destructive cyclone ; Cardwell, a small town- 
ship, nearly destroyed . . about 31 March, ,, 

Resignation of Mr. Morehead's ministry, 7 Aug. ; 
succeeded by sir S. W. Griffith's . . 8 Aug. ,, 

Labour disputes and riots in central Queensland, 
about 21 March ; suppressed . . 26 March, 1891 

The Shearers' Union, very active . . . 1890-1 

Strike of the shearers collapses reported 14 June, 1891 

Very large crop of wheat and wool reported 8 Dec. ,, 

Misunderstanding between sir Thomas M'llwraith 
and the Bank of England respecting a loan, Sept.- 
Dec, 1891 ; explanations given, March ; amicable 
settlement 3 May, 1892 

North and Central Queensland petition for separa- 
tion from the colony ; the British government 
recommends delay May, ,, 

Revival of the employment of Kanaka labourers, 
under restrictions ; bill passed reported 6 May ,, 

The separation question deferred by government, 
Aug. ; the bill passed, 13 Oct. ; rejected by the 
legislative council .... 27 Oct. ,, 

Destructive floods through heavy rains on the S. E. 
coast, a national calamity ; Brisbane, Ipswich, 
and other towns greatly damaged ; about 30 lives 
lost ; relief funds opened in all the Australian 
colonies, London, &c, 5 Feb. et seq. ; estimated 
loss about 3, 000,000?.; relief funds, 69,000?., 4 May, 1893 

Resignation of sir Samuel Griffith ; sir Thomas 
M'llwraith forms a ministry, about . 26 March, ,, 

Stoppage of Queensland National bank and the 
bank of North Queensland, 15 May ; of the Royal 
Bank of Queensland .... 17 May, ,, 

Meeting of parliament .... 25 May, ,, 

The Royal bank re-constructed . . 15 June, ,, 

National bank declared solvent, 6 July ; re-opened 

2 Aug. ,, 

Budget reported ; deficit, 1,500,000?. ; due to floods, 
&c, 25 July; the issue of 620,000?. of treasury 
bills authorized, 17 Oct. ; issue suspended, 27 Oct. ,, 

Resignation of sir Thomas M'llwraith, premier; 
succeeded by Mr. Hugh Muir Nelson . 27 Oct. „ 

Peace preservation bill for the suppression of out- 
rages in the pastoral districts ; passed. 19 Sep. 1894 

A loan for 2,000,000?. authorized ; passed 6 Dec. ,, 

Lord Lamington appointed governor . . Sept. 1895 

Fierce tornado and floods over N. Queensland, 20 
deaths and destruction of shipping, etc. atTowns- 
ville 25, 26 Jan. 1896 

Parliament dissolved . . .22 Feb. ,, 



1897 



Lord and lady Lamington arrive at Brisbane, 9 Apr. 

Federal enabling bill rejected by the legislative 
council, Oct. ; Mr. H. Nelson, the premier, is 
requested by the premiers of the other colonies 
to reconsider the question, so that Queensland 
may be represented at the Federal convention ; 
bill withdrawn 29 Nov. 

The national bank, loss of 1,183,000?., with a deficit 
of 1,253,000?. declared ; government bill guaran- 
teeing current deposits for 12 months, passed, 

12 Nov. 

Bill authorising a government loan passed, n Dec. 

Report of a committee of inquiry into the affairs 
of the National bank received ; estimated losses 
up to 30 June 1896, 3,500,000?. . . 16 Nov. 

Destructive cyclone at Mackay . . . Feb. 

Mr. Byrnes, attor.-gen., becomes premier, 12 April, 
dies 27 Sept. 

Prosecutions begun against Mr. Hart (ex-chairman), 
Mr. Morehead, Mr. Webster (ex-directors), and 2 
others at Sydney, 8 May ; trial concluded, verdict 
110? guilty 8 Nov. 

Mr. James Tyson, born 1S22, a benefactor, formerly 
a squatter, died early Dec. 

The legislative assembly dissolved . -15 Feb. 

Hurricane off the coast ; many deaths, reported, 

10 March, 

Elections, government majority, 25 March ; 13th 
parliament opened . . . .16 May, 

Federal bill passed both houses, 20 June ; referen- 
dum, 35,000 for and 29,000 against the bill, 
reported 1 Oct. 

Queensland offers troops for South Africa, 12 July; 
see Colonies 

National agricultural and industrial association's 
exhibitionat Brisbane, opened by lord Lamington, 

9 Aug. 
The ministry resigns, 25 Nov. ; Mr. R. Philp forms 

a cabinet 7 Dec. 

Budget : good report, 47,800?. surplus . 30 Aug 
Sir J. R. Dickson, premier, 1898, minister of 

defence in the 1st Federal cabinet, dies, aged 69, 

10 Jan. 
Imperial troops welcomed at Brisbane, 17, 18 Jan. 
The duke and duchess of Cornwall warmly received 

at Brisbane 20 May, 

Lord5Lamington leaves amid regrets . 20 June, 
Lord Hopetoun, gov. -gen. of Australia, welcomed, 

19 Sept. 

Parliament dissolved 4 Feb. 

Major-gen. sir Herbert Chermside, governor, arrives 

at Brisbane 24 March, ., 

Parliament opened by the governor . . 9 July, ,, 
Death of Brunton Stephens, poet, aged 67, early Aug. ,, 
Appeal of 3,000 islanders against the Pacific island 

labour act, 1901, 23 June; refused . 30 Aug. ,, 
Terrible cyclone at Townsville (see Storms) 9 March, 1903 

Parliament opened 21 July, ,, 

Death of Dr. Webber, bp. of Brisbane, aged 66, 

3 Aug. ,, 
Brisbane exhibition very successful, closed 15 Aug. ,, 
New cabinet formed by Mr. Morgan . 17 Sept. ,- 
Statement to the legislative assembly by Mr. 
Kidston re the financial position of the colony ; 
anticipated revenue 185,000?. less than late 
treasurer's estimate, leaving a deficiency for year 
ending 30 June, 1904 of about 200,000?. ; the 
government meant to effect economies by reform 
in administration, recognising the opposition of _ 
the country to fresh taxation, reported 13 Oct. ' ,, 
Population in 1850, about 23,450 ; in 1871, 125,146 ; 
in 1875, about 163,182; in 18S4, 301,577; in 1891, 
393,718; 1901, 502,892. 
Chief exports, wool, gold, copper, tallow, live stock, 
cotton, and sugar ; value in 1871, 2,560,383?. ; 
1883, 5,276,608?. ; in 1901, 9,249,366?. 
Revenue 1887, 3,032,463?. ; expenditure, 3,350,049?. 
1888-9,1'evenue, 3,636,000?.; expenditure 3,510,000?. 
1889-90, revenue, 3,260,30s/.; expenditure, 
3,745,217?. ; imports, 5,066,700?. ; exports, 
8,554,512?. ; revenue, 1894, 3,413,000?. ; revenue, 
I 895, 3,642,000?. ; revenue, 1901, 4,403,225?. ; 
expenditure, 4,958,806?. ; imports, 6,376,239/. ; 
exports, 9,249,366?. 

QUEENS of ENGLAND, sec under Eng- 
land. 



190& 



1901 



1902 



QUEEN'S THEATRE. 



1023 



QUIEINUS. 



QUEEN'S THEATEE, see Opera House. 

QUEEN'S TITLE, see Poyal Style. 

QUEENSTOWN (Upper Canada) . This town, 
on the river Niagara, was taken in the war with 
U.S.N. A. hy the troops of the United States, 13 Oct. 
1812 ; but was retaken by the British forces, who 
defeated the Americans with considerable loss in 
killed, wounded, and pi-isoners, on the same day. 
Queenstown suffered severely in this war. — The 
Cove of Cork was named Queenstown, 3 Aug. 1849, 
by the queen on her visit. The U. S. steamer 
America was burnt here, 29 Nov. 1893. 

QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY (see Queen's Col- 
leges), was directed to be dissolved by 42 & 43 Vict. 
c. 65 (1879), and was dissolved by proclamation, 31 
Jan. 1 882 ;_ see University of Ireland. 

QUEEN'S YEAE, see Jubilee, 1887 and 1897. 

QUEEN VICTOEIA Steam Ship. 
Wrecked 15 Feb. 1853 ; see Wrecks. 

QUENTIN, ST. (N. France). The duke of 
Savoy, with the army of Philip II. of Spain, as- 
sisted by the English, defeated the French under 
the constable De Montmorency, at St. Quentin, 10 
Aug. 1557- In fulfilment of a vow made before 
the engagement, the king built the monastery, 
palace, &c, theEscurial, considered by the Spani- 
ards the eighth wonder of the world ; see Escurial. 
During the Franco-German war the army of the 
north, under Faidherbe, was defeated here by the 
Germans after seven hours' fighting, on 19 Jan. 
187 1 ; total loss about 15,000 : the German loss 
about 3100. 

QUEEETAEO (Mexico), was besieged and 
taken (through the treachery of Lopez) by the 
liberal general Escobedo, 15th May, 1867. The 
emperor Maximilian and his generals Miramon and 
Mejia, were taken prisoners, and, after trial were 
shot 19 June following. 

QUEEN or Hant>MILL, is probably the im- 
plement spoken of in Isaiah xlvii. 2, about 712 B.C. 
So-called Boman querns have been found in York- 
shire. 

QUESNOY (N. France), was taken by the 
Austrian s, n Sept. 1793, but was recovered by the 
French, 16 Aug. 1794. It surrendered to prince 
Frederick of the Netherlands, 29 June, 1815, after 
the battle of Waterloo. — It was here that cannon 
were first used, and called bombards. Henault. 

QUETTAH, see Beloochistan. 

QUIBEEON BAY (W. France). A British 
force landed here, Sept. 1746, but was repulsed. In 
the bay admiral Hawke gained a complete victory 
over the French admiral Conflans, and thus defeated 
the projected invasion of Great Britain, 20 Nov. 
1759. Quiberon was taken by some French regi- 
ments in the pay of England, 3 July, 1795 ; but on 
21 July, through treachery, the French republicans, 
under Eoche, retook it by surprise, and many emi- 
grants were executed. About 900 of the troops, 
and nearly 1500 royalist inhabitants who had joined 
the regiments in the pay of Great Britain, effected 
their embarkation on board the ships. 

QUICKSILVEE, in its liquid state, mercury. 
Its use in refining silver was discovered, 1540. 
There are mines of it in various parts, the chief of 
which are at Almaden, in Spain, and at Idria, in 
Illyria ; the latter, discovered by accident in 1497, 
for several years yielded 1200 tons. A mine was 



discovered at Ceylon in 1797; and at New Almaden 
and other places in California. Quicksilver was 
congealed in winter at St. Petersburg, in 1759. It 
was congealed in England by a chemical process, 
without snow or ice, by Mr. Walker, in 1787. Cor- 
rosive sublimate, a deadly poison, is a combination 
of mercury and chlorine; see Calomel. 

QUICUNQUE VULT, see Athanasian 
Creed. 

QUIETISM, the doctrine of Miguel Molinos, 
a Spaniard (1627-96), whose work, the "Spiritual 
Guide," published in 1675, was the foundation of a 
sect in France. He held that religion consisted in 
an internal silent meditation on the merits of 
Christ and the mercies of God. Madame de la 
Mothe-Guyon, a quietist, was imprisoned in the 
Bastille for her visions and prophecies, but released 
through the interest of Fenelon, archbishop of 
Cambray, between whom and Bossuet, bishop of 
Meaux, arose a controversy, 1697. Quietism was 
finally condemned by pope Innocent XII. in 1699. 
See Jansenists, Quakerism and Pietism. 

QUILLS are said to have been first used for 
pens in 553 ; authorities say not before 635. 

QUINCE, the Pyrus Cydonia, brought to this 
country from Austria, before 1573. The Japan 
quince, or Pyrus Japonica, brought hither from 
Japan, 1796. 

QUINDECEMVIBI, fifteen men, chosen to 
keep the Sybilline books. The number, originally 
two (duumviri), about 520 B.C., was increased to 
ten in 365 B.C., and afterwards (probably by Sylla) 
to fifteen, about 82 B.C. Julius Cassar added one ; 
but the precedent was not followed. 

QUININE or QuiNIA, an alkaloid (much 
used in medicine), discovered in 1820 by Pelletier 
and Caventou. It is a probable constituent of all 
genuine cinchona barks, especially of the yellow 
bark; see Jesuits' Park. Artificial quinine was 
prepared (synthetically) by Mr. W. L. Scott, in 
Oct. J865. — Quinoidine, see Fluorescence. John 
Eliot Howard, promoter of the cultivation of cin- 
chona in India, and author of " Quinologia " (1862) 
died 22 Nov. 1883. 

QUINQUAGESLMA SUNDAY. The ob- 
servation is said to have been appointed by Gregory 
the Great (pope, ' 590-604) . The first Sunday in 
Lent having been termed Quadragesima, and the 
three weeks preceding having been appropriated to- 
the gradual introduction of the Lent fast, the three 
Sundays of these weeks were called by names sig- 
nificant of their position in the calendar: and 
reckoning by decades (tenths), the Sunday pre- 
ceding Quadragesima received its present name, 
Quinquagesima, the second Sexagesima, and the 
third Septuagesima. 

QUINTILIANS, heretics in the 2nd century, 
the disciples of Montanus, who took their name 
from Quintilia, a lady whom he had deceived by 
his pretended sanctity, and whom they regarded as 
a prophetess. They made the eucharist of bread 
and cheese, and allowed women to be priests and 
bishops. Pardon. 

QUIEINUS, a Sabine god, whose name was 
given to Komulus after his death. L. Papirius 
Cursor, general in the Roman army, first erected a 
sun-dial in the temple of Quirinus, from which time 
the days began to be divided into hours, 293 B.C. 
Aspin. The sun-dial was sometimes called the 
Quirinus, from the original place in which it was 



QUITO. 



1024 



QUO WAEEANTO ACT. 



set up. Ashe. The Sabines who became Eoman 
citizens were termed Quirites. 

QUITO (capital of tbe republic of Equator), 
founded in 1534, was the scene of the measure- 
ment of a degree of the meridian, by the French 
and Spanish mathematicians, 1736-42. Forty thou- 
sand persons perished by an earthquake which 
almost overwhelmed the city of Quito, 4 Feb. 1797. 
Since then violent shocks, but not so disastrous, 
occurred; till one, on 22 March, 1859, when about 
5000 persons were killed; see Earthquakes and 
Equator. 

QUIXOTE, see Bon Quixote. 

QXJOITS, a game said to have originated with 
the Greeks, and to have been first played at the 
Olympic games, by the Idiei Dactyli, fifty years 
after the deluge of Deucalion, 1453 B.C. Perseus, 
the grandson of Acrisius, by Danae, having inad- 
vertently slain his grandfather, when throwing a 
quoit, exchanged the kingdom of Argos, to which 
he was heir, for that of Tirynthus, and founded the 
kingdom of Mycense, about 1313 B.C. 



QUOTATIONS- Athenaeus's "Deipnosophista 
or Banquet of the Learned'" (compiled about 228), 
and Burton's "Anatomy of Melancholy" (1621), 
contain masses of extracts. Henry Ainsworth's 
" Communion of Saints " (died 1622), is a mosaic of 
Scripture quotations. 

Macdonnel's "Dictionary of Quotations," 1796;- 
Moore's 1831 

Eiley's "Dictionary of Latin Quotations," with a 
Selection of Greek, published by H. Bonn . . 1856 

Collections of English Quotations are now numerous : 
Priswell's " Familiar Words," 2nd ed. . . 1866 
Bartlett's " Familiar Quotations " . . . 1869-91 
Adams' " Cyclopaedia of Poetical Quotations " . 1853 
Bonn's " Dictionary of Poetical Quotations " . 1881-4 

Several useful books since published. 

QUO WAEEANTO ACT, passed 1280. By 
it a writ may be directed to any person to inquire 
by what authority he holds any office or franchise. 
Charles II. directed a writ against the corporation of 
London in 1683, and the court of king's bench de- 
clared their charter foi-feited. The decision was 
reversed in 1690. The proceedings have been regu- 
lated by various acts, 1710, 1792, 1837, 1843. 



L 



RABBITS. 



1025 



RACES. 



K. 



RABBITS, see New South Wales, 1887. 
The rabbit pest has spread devastation over the Austra- 
lian colonies. Rabbit-proof wire-netting is at present 
the only means of checking its progress. The ravages 
of the jack-rabbits in California and adjoining states 
checked by hunters, 1895-6. Rabbits destroyed in 
Queensland by injection with chicken cholera, re- 
ported, 22 Oct. 1898. 

RABELAIS CLUB, to promote the study of 
Rabelais and the illustration of his works; lord 
Houghton, sir W. Frederick Pollock and his sons, 
Walter Besant, and others ; first meeting, Dec. 1879. 
Rabelais Gallery, Pall Mall Bast, opened to the 
press, 13 Oct. ; at the instance of the National 
Vigilance Association, four pictures were seized 
as indecent by the police, 3 Nov. ; Mr. J. F. 
Sutton and Mr. H. Scarborough, the exhibitors, 
were prosecuted at Bow Street, 5 Nov. ; com- 
mitted for trial ; 21 pictures ordered to be de- 
stroyed, 12 Nov. ; Messrs. Sutton & Scarborough 
convicted, 18 Dec. 1890 ; fined 25!. each ; the pic- 
tures ordered to be returned to Prance 18 April, 1891 
Mr. W. F. Smith's translation of the works of 
Rabelais was issued by the club to subscribers, 

Feb. 1893 
A hitherto unknown first edition of the fifth book 
of " Gargantua and Pantagruel," dated 1549, a 
duodecimo vol. , discovered by Herr L. Rosenthal, 
reported Dec. 1900 

RABIES, see Hydrophobia. 

RACES, one of the ancient games of Greece. 
Hoise-races were known in England in very 
early times. Fitz-Stephen, in the days of Henry 
II., mentions the delight taken by the citizens 
of London in the diversion. In James I.'s 
reign Croydon in the south, and Garterly in the 
north, were celebrated courses. Near York there 
were races, and the prize was a little golden bell, 
1607. Camden. In the end of Charles I.'s reign, 
races were performed at Hyde Park. Charles II. 
patronised them, and instead of bells, gave a silver 
bowl, or cup, value 100 guineas. William III. 
added to the plates (as did queen Anne) , and founded 
an academy for riding. 
At Ascot, begun by the duke of Cumberland, uncle 

to George III. ; mentioned 1727 

The first racing calendar is said to have been pub- 
lished by John Cheney ,, 

Act for suppressing races by ponies and weak 

horses, 19 Geo, n 1739 

-JThe most eminent races in England are those at 
Newmarket (which see), established by Charles II. 
1667; and at Epsom, begun about 1711 ; by Mr. 
Parkhurst (annual since 1730, Allen's Surrey). 
[The earl of Derby began the Oaks, 1779 : the 
Derby, 1780 (first won by DiomeJ)]. See Derby 
Day. 
At Doncaster, by col. St. Leger(the St. Leger stakes 

were founded in 1776, and so named in 1777) . 1776 
At Goodwood, begun by the duke of Richmond, in 

his park 1802 

Lord Stamford, said to have engaged Jemmy Grim- 
shaw, a light-weight jockey, at a salary of 1000!. 

a year March, 1865 

" Tattersall's," the "high-change of horse-flesh," 
was established by Richard Tattersall, near Hyde 
Park Corner (hence termed "the Corner") in 1766, 
for the sale of horses. The lease of the ground 
having expired, the new premises at Brompton 
were erected and opened for business on 

to .April, ,, 



The Jockey Club, which now chiefly regulates races 
and the betting connected with them, was founded 
in 1750. Its gradually accumulating rules were 
modified in 1828 and revised in . ■ 1857 

Alterations recommended by a committee appointed 
in April ; adopted by"the club_i6 July following . 1870 

Rules revised, Nov. 1876; reforms made . .,. 1880 

Proceedings taken against the club by the Anti- 
Gambling league at Newmarket for keeping 
betting places 12 Feb. 1895 

Summonses dismissed from wantof proper evidence 

16 Feb. „ 

Resolved that a shorthand -writer be present at the 
meetings 16 April, 1890 

John Scott, a most eminent trainer, died, aged 77, 

Oct. 1871 

Betting. Between 1858 and 1868, 75,000!. and 
115,000!. have been won upon a single race. 
Betting is now much reprobated ; see Betting. 

Gate-meetings: Races held in fields by publicans 
and others ; Metropolitan Race-course Act (42 & 
43 Vict. c. 18), to check them, passed . 3 July, 1879 

Tom Chaloner, celebrated jockey, dies March, 1886 

Fred. Archer, very successful jockey, winner of 
2,746 races, aged 29, committed suicide with a 
revolver when in a state of high fever (left by will 
7 o,oooZ.) 8 Nov. „ 

Charles Wood, jockey, v. Cox, for libel in Licensed 
Victuallers' Gazette, charging Wood with pulling 
the head of Success in two races ; nine days' 
trial in queen's bench division ; verdict for 
plaintiff damages one farthing and no costs 
allowed 29 June, 1888 

Sir George Chetwynd v. the earl of Durham, see 
Trials 29 June, 1880 

Suspected poisoning of the duke of Westminster's 
Orme, to prevent his running . . 28 April, 1892 

The York race committee and the Gimcrack club's 
131st annual dinner, the earl of Rosebery present, 

7 Dec. 1897 

George Barrett, very successful jockey, died, aged 

34 25 Feb. 1898 

Mr. Edmund Tattersall, eminent horse auctioneer, 

died, aged 82 5 March, ,, 

John Watts, many years the king's first jockey, 
died, aged 41 29 July, 1902 

RACE-HORSES. 

Flying Childers, bred in 1715 by the duke of Devon- 
shire, was allowed by sportsmen to have been the fleetest 
horse that ever ran at Newmarket, or that was ever bred 
in the world ; he ran four miles in six minutes and forty- 
eight seconds, or at the rate of 35J miles an hour, carry- 
ing nine stone two pounds. He died in 1741, aged 
26 years. 

Eclipse was the fleetest horse that ran in England since 
the time of Childers; he was never beaten, and died in 
February, 1789, aged 25 years. His heart weighed 14 lb., 
which accounted for his wonderful spirit and courage. 
Christie White's Hist, of the Turf. 
On the accession of queen Victoria, the royal stud 

was sold for 16,476!. on . . . .25 Oct. 1837 
The comte de la Grange's stud (in consequence of the 

war) was sold for 23,730!. Gladiateur fetched 5800!. 1870 
Middle-park stud (property of Mr. Blenkiron, de- 
ceased) sold for 102,005 guineas ; Blair Athol, for 
12,000!. (to the English Stud Company) ; 4 days' 

sale 26 July, 1872 

Lieut. Lubowitz, Hungarian, rode from Vienna to 
Paris, on his horse Caradoc, in 15 days, winning 

a wager, arriving 9 Nov. 1874 

Death of Comte Frederic Lagrange, eminent French 
studmaster ...... -22 Nov. 1883 

Lord Falmouth's stud sold for 36,420 guineas ; (Har- 
rester 8600 guineas ; Busybody 8800 guineas) 
28 April ; and for 75,440 guineas . 30 June, 1884 

3 u 



EACK. 



1026 



EAGUSA. 



Persimmon (owner, the prince of Wales), won the 
Derby, 3 June, 1896, and the Ascot gold cup, 

17 June, 1897 

RACK, an engine of torture, for extracting a 
confession from criminals, mentioned by Demos- 
thenes, de Corona, B.C. 330, and in later times an 
instrument of the Inquisition. Lord Coke states 
from tradition that the duke of Exeter, in the reign 
of Henry VI., erected a rack of torture (thence called 
the duke of Exeter's daughter, now seen in the 
Tower), 1447. In the case of Feiton, who murdered 
the duke of Buckingham, the judges of England 
protested against the proposal of the privy council 
to put the assassin to the rack, as contrary to the 
laws, 1628 ; the use of the rack was abolished 1640. 
See Jtavaillac and Torture. 

EACQITETS (Arabic ra'hat, "palm of the 
hand"). A game played in an open (now but 
seldom) or close court (60 ft. long, and 30 ft. wide 
and 40 ft. high, with high walls surrounding it, the 
floor being divided into two principal areas by the 
"short" line) with a bat resembling that used in 
tennis, and a small hard ball. 15 usually con- 
stitutes the game. Racquets first came into vogue 
during the early part of the 19th century, and 
Chas. Dickens refers to the game in " Pickwick " in 
connection with the Fleet prison, where insolvent 
debtors enlivenei the monotony of their existence 
bv playing this game against a single wall. In 
1853, a racquet court was erected at Prince's Club, 
and since tl.en courts have become common at the 
universities and public schools. On the sale of 
Prince's Club grounds in 1886, the Queen's Club, 
Kensington, became the headquarters of the game, 
and here the championship and the universities 
and public school matches take place. "Racquets" 
in the Badminton series by J. M. Heathcote, 1890. 

Champion Flayers of England, Sir W. Hart Dyke, 1862 ; 
H. J. Gray,' 1863 ; Wm. Gray, 1866 ; H. Fairs, 1876 ; 
Joseph Gray, 1878 ; P. Latham, 1887 to 1902 (retired) ; 
Jamsetjee (the Parsi professional), 1503. 

EADCLIFFE Library, Oxford, founded 

under the will of Dr. John Kadcliff'e, an eminent 
physician. He died 1 Nov. 17 14, leaving 40,000^. 
to the university of Oxford for the founding a 
library, the first stone of which was laid 17 May, 
1737, and the edifice was opened 13 April, 1749 — 
The Radcltffe Observatory, Oxford, founded by 
the exertions of Dr. Ilornsby, Savilian professor of 
astronomy, about 1771, was completed in 1794. The 
publication of the observations was commenced in 
1842, by Mr. Manuel J. Johnson, the director, ap- 
pointed in 1839. Radcliffe Infirmary opened in 
1770, see Oxford, 1893. 

EADIATION, see Heat. 

EADICALS or " Eadical Eeformers," 
persons who professed to aim at procuring a thorough 
reformation in the government and policy of Eng- 
land, became prominent in 1816, when 'Hampden 
clubs were formed, of which sir Francis Burdett, 
lord Cochrane, major Cartwright, and William 
Cobbett were prominent members. Samuel Bam- 
ford's " Life of a Radical," published in 1842, gives 
much information ; lie died 13 April, 1872. Many 
radicals were severely punished, 1817-20. Wm. 
Harris's " History of the Radical Party,'' published 
early in 1885.— The "Radicals" in the United 
States were the party headed byThaddeus Stevens, 
bitterly opposed lo tin' policy of president Johnson, 
as too favourable to the subdued Southern States. 
The Radical Programme, advocated bythe n. hon, 
Joseph Chamberlain, widely circulated, first 
appeared July, 1885, in Hie Fortnightly Review; 



it included reform of the land laws, free education, 
increased local government, reform in taxation 
and finance, improvement of condition of agri- 
cultural labourers and of the poor, and religious 
equality and dis-establishment of national 
churches. 

Mr. C. C. Greville (Journal, 25 Aug. 1837) describes 
" Tory Radicals." Some politicians were so 
termed in 

The National Radical Union at its fourth anniver- 
sary at Birmingham changed its name to National 
Liberal Union 24 April, 

EADICLE, see Compound. 

EADIOGEAPHS, a name given to the T 
tographs obtained by Rontgen rays, see Th 
graph y, 1896. 

EADIOMETEE, &c, a little instrument c 
structed by Mr. (knt. 1897) Wm. Crookes, f.k - 
1873-6. Two little disk arms, mounted on a pi 
and placed in an exhausted glass-bulb, rev< 
when placed in bright light. The motion 
attributed to heat-absorption, 1877 ; see Light. 
Radiophone. By this apparatus professor Bell, at PI 
delphia, showed how a ray of strong light, acting ( 
selenium cell, conveyed sound 500 feet, Sept. 1884. 

EADIUM, a new metal found in pitcbblen 
its discovery by M. and Mdme. Curie, annourj 
in 1903, see Addenda. 

EADSTADT, Austria. Here Moreau and 
French defeated the Austrians, 5 July, 1796. 

EAFFAELLE WAEE, see Tottery. 

EAGGED SCHOOLS, free schools for 
cast destitute ragged children, set up in large tow 
The instruction is based on the scriptures, and n: 
of the teachers are unpaid. John Pounds, a cobb 
of Portsmouth, who died in 1839, opened a school 
this kind ; and one was set up by Andrew Walk 
in "Devil's Acre," Westminster, in 1839. Knig 
They did not receive their name till 1844, when 
" Ragged school union" was formed, principally 
Mr. S. Starey and Mr. Wm. Locke (afterwards h 
secretary) . The earl of Shaftesbury was chairm 
In 1856 there were 150 Ragged school mstitutiol 
Sunday ragged schools reported in London 
1867, 226; in 1898, 231; day schools, in 18 
204; in 1878,58; week evening schools, in 18' 
207, in 1878, 147; 44 industrial schools in 18 I 
Ragged school buildings were exempted from rai 
seded by those established by the London set 
1869. "The day schools have now been sup. 
board ; but the sun day and night schools, moth 
meetings, &c, are still maintained in very gr 
efficiency (1903). The union reported 212 federa 
schools (1895). Dr. Guthrie, a founder of rag 
schools in Edinburgh, &c, died 24 Feb. 1873. . I 
carl of Shaftesbury an ardent supporter of 
movement, died iOct. 1885. Jubilee celebrai 
20 April, 1894. Annual meetings ; the union 
styled Shaftesbury society in May, 189S ; b 
members 127,087, 1902. "See Shoeblack. 

EAGMAN EOLL (said to derive its n. 

from Ragimunde, a papal legate in Scotland) ( 
tains the records of the homage and fealt\ 
Edward I., sworn to by the nobility and clerg 
Scotland at Berwick in 1296. The original 
given up to Robert Bruce, king of Scotland, in I 
when his son David was contracted in marriag 1 
the princess Joanna of England. 

EAGITSA, a city on the Adriatic, on the s< 
confines of Dalmatia, was taken by the Veneti 
1 171, but became an independent republic, I - 



EAID OF EUTHVEN. 



1027 



EAILWAYS. 



Ft suffered much by an earthquake, 1667 ; was 
taken by the Freneh in 1806, and given up to 
Austria in 1814. 

EAID OF Euthven, see Rut/wen. 

EAILWAY COMMISSIONEES; see Rail- 
ways, 1873 and 1880. 

EAILWAYS. Short roads, in and about New- 
castle, laid down by Mr. Beaumont, so early as 
1602, are thus mentioned in 1676 : — "The manner 
of the carriage is by laying rails of timber from the 
•colliery to the river, exactly straight and parallel ; 
and bulky carts are made with four rollers fitting 
those rails, whereby the carriage is so easy that one 
horse will draw down four or five chaldron of coals, 
and is an immense benefit to the coal merchants." 
Roger North. They were made of iron at White- 
haven, in 1738. See Gauges, Tramroads. For 
electric railways see Electricity. 

An iron railway laid down near Sheffield by John 
Curr (destroyed by the colliers) . . . . 1776 

The first considerable iron railway was laid down 
at Colebrook Dale 1786 

The first iron railway sanctioned by parliament (ex- 
cept a few undertaken by canal companies as 
small branches to mines) was the Surrey iron 
railway (by horses), from the Thames at Wands- 
worth to Croydon 1801 

Trevethick and Vivian obtained a patent for a high- 
pressure locomotive engine 1802 

William Hedley of Wylam colliery made the first 
travelling engine (locomotive), or substitute for 
animal power in a colliery 1813 

The first locomotive constructed by George Stephen- 
son, travelled at the rate of 6 miles per hour . 1814 

The Rocket travelled at the rate of 25 and 35 miles 
per hour 1829 

(It obtained the prize of 500Z. offered by the directors 
of the Liverpool and Manchester railway com- 
pany for the best locomotive, Oct. 1829.) 

The Firefly attained a speed of 20 miles per hour . 1834 

The North Star moved with a velocity of 37 miles 
per hour 1839 

At the present time locomotives have attained a 
speed of 70 miles per hour. 

Stockton and Darlington railway, constructed by 
Edw. Pease and George Stephenson, first opened 
for passengers (see 1875-1881, beloiv) . 27 Sept. 1825 

The Liverpool and Manchester railway commenced 
in Oct. 1826, and opened (Wm. Huskisson, m.p., 
killed) I5 Sept. 1830 

Act for transmission of mails by railways . . . 1838 

Duty on Railways; — M. a mile for 4 passengers 
(2 1&3 Will. IV. c. 120), 1832 ; 5 per. cent, on gross 
receipts (5 & 6 Vict. c. 59) 1842 

Railway clearing house established . . . . 

The examination of railway schemes, before their 
introduction into parliament, by the Board of 
Trade, was ordered 1844 

7 & 8 Vict. c. 85, required companies to run cheap 
trains every day, and to permit erection of elec- 
tric telegraphs, and authorised government, after 
1 Jan. 1866, to buy existing railways with the 
permission of parliament ,, 

George Hudson, a draper, mayor of York in 1839, 
by his successful management as chairman of 
the Leeds and York railway and others, was styled 
the " railway king " 

Great Southern and Western Ry. (Ireland) opened. „ 

Midland Great Western Ry. (Ireland) opened . . 1845 

Waterford, Limerick and Western Ry. opened . ,, 

An act passed 10 Vict, for constituting commis- 
sioners of railways, who have since been incor- 
porated with the Board of Trade . . 28 Aug. 1846 

The Railway Mania and panic year, when 272 rail- 
way acts passed Jf 

Act for compensating families of persons killed by 

accidents (see Campbell's Act) . . . . ,, 
George Stephenson died . . . 12 Aug. 1S48 
Buffer springs invented by Mr. John Brown of 
Sheffield in 

The absolute block system introduced . . . 1853 



Act for the better regulation of railways . . . 1854 
Railway Benevolent Institution, instituted May, 1858 
Act to enable railway companies to settle differences 

with other companies by arbitration . . . 1859 
Belfast and Northern counties Ry.(Ireland) opened i860 
Railway Clauses Consolidation act passed . . . 1863 
Joint committee of both houses of parliament ap- 
pointed to report on railway schemes . 5 Feb. 1864 
Murder of Mr. Briggs in a railway carriage (see 
Trials 1864) 9 July, „ 

(See Atmospheric and Street Railways.) 

Period of "contractors' lines " .... 1859-6 

London, Chatham, and Dover company suspend 
payment ; directors censured for their policy . 1866 

Railway Companies Securities act passed . Aug. „ 

A Welsh railway train (about to start) seized for 
debt 27 Nov. ,, 

250 railway bills passed, 1865; only 98 . . . 1867 

Strike of 350 men on London and Brighton line, 

25-27 March, ,, 

Strike of 500 on North Eastern line, 1 1 April ; over- 
come by the company ... 25 April, „ 

Railway commission report against the government 
buying the railways, <fcc. . . . May, „ 

Railway acts amended by act passed . 20 Aug. ,, 

A climbing locomotive, by means of central rails, 
ascended Mont Cenis in 1865. [The experiments 
were first tried on the High Peak railway, Sept. 
1863 and Feb. 1864.] The railway completed and 
traversed by a locomotive and two carriages, con- 
taining Mr. Fell, the inventor of the plan, and 
others ; an unexampled journey in regard to steep- 
ness of gradients and the elevation of the summit 
level, 6700 feet, 21 Aug. 1867. After successful 
trials in May, the railway was opened 15 June, 1868 

Lord Cairns (on appeal) decides that holders of de- 
bentures are responsible as qualified proprietors, 

28 Jan. ,, 

Capt. Yolland, government inspector, reports that 
in his opinion electric communication between 
the passengers and the railway servants on trains 
stopping only at long intervals is necessary and 
practicable March, „ 

Railway Regulation acts passed . 1868, 1871 

Conference of railway shareholders at Manchester, 

iji4, 15 April, 1868 

Southern Railways Amalgamation bill ; opposed in 
the lords ; withdrawn .... June, ,, 

Mont Cenis railway opened for traffic . 15 June, ,, 

New act to amend the laws relating to railways, 
30 & 31 Vict. c. 119 ; (it orders smoking compart- 
ments, and communication between passengers 
and railway servants in certain trains ; and pro- 
hibits trains for prize-fights, &e.) passed, 31 July, ,, 

Midland railway station, St. Pancras (which sec), 
opened 1 Oct. ,, 

New route to Liverpool (by a viaduct over the Mer- 
sey at Runcorn), opened . .1 April, 1869 

Pacific railway : from the Atlantic to the Pacific ; 
opened 12 May, ,, 

"Abandonment of Railways act " passed 11 Aug. ,, 

Railway Companies Powers act (1864) and Con- 
struction Facilities act (1864) amended by act 
passed -20 June, 1870 

"Railway Association " established : (it consists of 
directors and representatives of shareholders, to 
watch legislation, <fec. ,) inaugural dinner, 21 July, ,, 

Under the London, Chatham, and Dover railway 
act, the arbitrators, the marquis of Salisbury and 
lord Cairns, decide for the amalgamation of the 
general undertaking; extensions for award pub- 
lished . Aug. 1871 

Rigi Mountain railway (up to 4000 feet above sea 
level), opened . . . -23 May, ,, 

Mansion-house station of the Metropolitan District 
railway inaugurated 1 July, ,, 

European and North American railway opened at 
Bangor, Maine 18 Oct. „ 

Proposed amalgamation of the Midland and Glas- 
gow and South-Western . . . . . ,, 

Amalgamation of the London and North-Western 
and the Lancashire and Yorkshire railways, voted 
by companies 20 Oct. ,, 

Forged telegram announcing proposed amalgama- 
tion of the Midland and Manchester, Sheffield, 
and Lincolnshire railways (led to purchase of 
shares, and affected the market), about 23 Nov. „ 

3 u 2 



EAILWAYS. 



1028 



EAILWAYS. 



George Hudson, the " railway king," died, aged 71, 

14 Dec. 1871 

Strike of porters of London and North-Western 
company ; settled ... 26. 27 July, 1872 

Death of Thos. Brassey, who made 6600 miles of 
railways, which cost 78,000,000?. (able, honest, kind) ,, 

Parliamentary committee report in favour of rail- 
way amalgamation, published . . . Aug. ,, 

First railway in Japan opened . . 12 June, ,, 

One-rail railway laid down at Paris by M. Larmen- 
jat, reported successful for short distances Aug. ,, 

Amalgamations already accomplished : London and 
North-Western, 61 branch lines ; Great Northern, 
37 ; Great Eastern, 27 ; London and Brighton, 22 ; 
London and South-Western, 22 ; Midland, 17 . ,, 

Railway proposed by M. de Lesseps from Orenburg 
to Peshawur (2500 miles), to connect by means of 
Russian and East Indian railways Calais and 
Calcutta May, 1873 

Bill for amalgamation of London and North-Western 
and Lancashire and Yorkshire companies rejected 
by the commons committee . . .23 May, ,, 

New Regulation of Railways Act passed (commis- 
sioners to be appointed to carry out the Act of 
1854), 21 July ; commissioners : sir Frederick 
Peel, Mr. Price, and Mr. Macnamara ; met first 
time it Nov. „ 

First railway in Persia begun at Resht . n Sept. ,, 

Raihuay accidents investigated by Capt. Tyler ; 1871, 
171; in 1872, 246; in the United Kingdom in 
1872, 541 railway servants killed, 499 injured. 

Circular from the Board of Trade, by Mr. Chichester 
Fortescue, to the railway companies respecting 
the increase of preventable accidents and un- 
punctuality 18 Nov. ,, 

The justificatory replies of sir Edward Watkin for 
the London and Brighton Co., and of R. Moon 
for the L. and N. W. Co. ; from other companies 

Dec. ,, 

Ten railway servants convicted of robbing the lug- 
gage, severely sentenced . . . .19 Nov. ,, 

120 persons killed ; 48 without their own fault ; in 
six months 1873-4 

The Board of Trade's reply (by Mr. Malcolm) to 
the railway companies, published about 24 Feb. 1074 

The Pullman palace saloon cars (American, 1863) 
introduced on the Midland railway, 21 March ; 
opened to the public . . . .1 June, ,, 

Commission to inquire into causes of railway acci- 
dents agreed to by government, 27 April ; nomi- 
nated (duke of Buckingham and others) 11 June, ,, 

Circular from sir C. Adderlej', recommending punc- 
tuality and care, to avoid accidents . July, ,, 

Railway Travellers' Protection Society organised ; 
duke of Manchester, president . . 23 July, ,, 

Board of Trade Arbitration Act passed . 30 July, 

New standing orders respecting labourers' houses 
removed for making railways, passed 30 July, „ 

Statement of railway servants : that 632 were killed 
in 1872. and 773 killed in 1873 ; many injured ; 
[asserted to be less than the truth] . . Sept. „ 

Midland railway company announces change of 
fares : first-class to iW. a mile ; second-class 
abolished ; no return tickets at lower fares; 
began 1 Jan. 1875 

1 (ther companies announce reductions in fares Jan. „ 

Persons employed on railways : England, 228,958 ; 
Scotland, ',1,023; Ireland, 14,554; total, 274,535 ; 
(L. & N. \V. company, about 40,000) ; announced 

Jan. ,, 

House of lords on appeal decide that railway com- 
panies are responsible for negligence in conveying 
persons and goods, although they disclaim it on 
tickets 1 June, ,, 

Great trial of continuous rail/wwy brdkeson Midland 
railway, near Lowdham ; Westinghouse auto- 
matic air-prrssiiii brake considered the best June ,, 

Extension of Metropolitan railwayto Great Eastern 

opened, 10 July, ,, 

Railway jubilee a1 Darlington ; 50th anniversary of 
open in"; of (lie st nek i on and Darlington railway : 
statue of Joseph Pease unveiled . . 27Sept. ,, 

Dr. Strousberg, "German railway king," tried for 

fraud, &('., at Moscow 1876 

Great Northern Ry. (Ireland) opened . . . „ 

Metropolitan extension to Aldgate opened . n Nov. 



1877 



1879 



Elevated street railways erected in New York, 
U.S.A 1877 etseq. 

Folkestone and Dover tunnel injured by rains ; 
fallings in 12, 15 Jan. 

Fusion of South-eastern and London, Chatham, & 
Dover companies, voted by former . . 18 Jan. 

Railway accident commission report : recommend 
that the companies' responsibilities be not 
diminished, &c. . . . . . . Feb. 

Proposed fusion of the Great Northern and Great 
Eastern, fails June ; of the Manchester and Shef- 
field and Lincolnshire with the Great Northern 
and Midland, fails Nov. 

First railway in China, from Shanghai to Oussoon 
(n miles), constructed by Europeans; at first 
opposed ; trial trip, 16 March ; publicly opened. 
30 June, 1876; much opposed ; stopped 31 Oct. ; 
plant taken to Formosa ; resumed . . Dec. 

Many embarrassed subsidiary lines purchased by 
the French government (for about 11,000,000?.) . 

Great increase of third-class passengers, receipts, 
about 7,000,000?. 1869; about 14,000,000?. 

Sudden strike of goods-guards on Midland railway 
through alteration of mode of payment, 3 Jan., 
fails about 20 Jan. 

South-Eastern railway company v. Railway Commis- 
sioners (who had given orders for enlarging station 
at Hastings, &c), Queen's Bench ; verdict restrict- 
ing powers of the commissioners (see above, 1873), 
two judges against one . . . 13 Jan. 

Enlarged dividends on the principal lines for half- 
year 1 Jan. to 30 June, 

Expended on railways in the United Kingdom, about 
720,000,000?. (since 1829); gross annual receipts 
about 62,000,000?., net earnings about 30,000,000?. 
reported Aug. 

Packet of dynamite placed on rails between Bushey 
and Watford (L. & N. W. Railway), night, 12-13 

Sept. 

Board of Trade circular respecting precautions 
against accidents, <fec. (accidents of 10, 11 Aug. 
attributed to neglect) . . . .20 Sept. 

Railway rates select committee meet . 10 March, 

Siemens' <fe Halske's electrical railway at Berlin, 
18^ miles an hour, tried 12 May ; opened to the 
public . . . .16 May. 

Centenary of George Stephenson's birth celebrated 
at Newcastle, Chesterfield, the Crystal Palace, 
London, and throughout the counties of Durham 
and Northumberland . . . .9 June. 

Murder of Mr. Fk. Isaac Gold in a carriage on 
London and Brighton railway . . 27 June, 

[Percy Lefroy alias Mapleton arrested on suspicion, 
8 July; committed for trial, 21 July ; convicted, 
8 Nov. ; executed .... 29 Nov.] 

Passenger duty received, 507,076?. for year 1872-3 ; 
736,369?. for year 1875-6; 728,718?. for 1S76-7 ; 
741,919?. for 1877-8; 748,506?. for 1880-1 ; 708,364?. 
for ■. . . ii 

International congress for the unification of the 
rolling stock on the railways at Berne opened 

16 Oct. 

The committee on railway and canal rates for the 
conveyance of persons, merchandise, &c. defer 
their report, recommend re-appointment of the 
committee, aud also the establishment of a tri- 
bunal to decide questions and enforce decisions ; 
revision of rates, &C, early Aug. 1881 : issue 
report with few recommendations . 27 July, 

A Pullman car burned near Hunslct, Dr. Arthur 
perishes 20 1 let. 

Railway passengers' protection association estab- 
lished . 

Caledonian railway strike, traffic partly suspended ; 
Glasgow, &c. . . . -15. 16, 17 Jan. 

A compromise ; strike ends . . . 21 Jan. 

Proposed reduction of duty oil third-class passengers 

April. 

Metropolitan railway carried 36,753,321 passengers 
in six months without accident .... 

Association of railway shareholders established; 
meeting held in London . . . .8 Aug. 

Existing : railway and canal, railway companies, 
railway shareholders, associations 

Anothei cheap trains act passed . . 20 Aug. 

Northern Pacific railway (2,500 miles) opened 8 Sept. 






KAILWAYS. 



1029 



KAILWAYS. 



4,000?. awarded to rev. Joseph Lloyd Brereton, and 
6,500?. to gen. Brereton for injuries caused by 
derangement of machinery, <fcc. 28 July, 1882 ; 

25, 26 Feb. 1884 

Parks railway bill rejected by committee 20 May, ,, 

Railway regulation bill making it a permanent 
court of record, enlarging powers, &c, read first 
time, 22 May; dropped . . . .10 July, „ 

M. Lartigue's balance railway (single rail), re- 
ported successful in Normandy . . . June, ,, 

Renewed agitation respecting brakes ; the board of 
trade's recommendations neglected . . . „ 

Metropolitan Inner Circle completed ; opened 1 Oct. ,, 

312,047 railway servants in England . . Oct. ,, 

Communication of the Canadian Pacific railway 
(Halifax, Nova Scotia, to Port Moody, British 
Columbia) 18 May ; work completed . 7 Nov. 1885 

Death of Dr. B. H. Gilbert, inventor of the ele- 
vated rail system used in New York, very poor 

Aug. ,, 

Receipts of twelve leading companies, about 
25,084,000?. Jan-June, ,, 

Wm. H. Vanderbilt, "Railway King," dies suddenly 
at New York, aged 64 . . . . 8 Dec. ,, 

Jjawrie v. L. & S. W. Railway ; companies may 
increase their fares on clays of extra traffic such 
as Ascot races n Dec. ,, 

459 railway servants killed in 1886 

International railway congress, Brussels, opens 8 
Aug. 1885 ; at Berne, July, 1886 ; and June, 1887 

Mr. Mundella introduces bill" for constituting a 
new court of record for railway affairs with great 
powers; read first time n, 12 March; second 
time 6 May, 1886 ; introduced (modified) into the 
lords by lord Stanley ... .1 March, ,, 

The South-Bastern railway company's present of 
1,000?. to the Imperial Institute March ; declared 
to be illegal 6 May, ,, 

Midland Railway ; strike of 2,713 drivers, firemen, 
&c. ; traffic continued 5 Aug. ; strike gradually 
fails Aug. -Sept. „ 

International railway congress at Rome opens 

17 Sept. ,, 

Thirty-four principal railway lines of the United 
Kingdom ; net divisible profit for ordinary share- 
holders first six months, 1886 4,390,517?. ; 1887, 
^»357>89^. 

E5t.l1 annual congress of Amalgamated society of 
Rail way Servants at Newcastle-on-Tyne ; prudent 
discussion ; Midland strike censured 4-7 Oct. ,, 

Trumpets employed for signalling near Glasgow, 
and introduced into the greater lines autumn, ,, 

JLeinwather, an Austrian, publishes his' improve- 
ments in portable railways for military purposes 

Dec. „ 

A railway between Listowel and Ballybunion, 
county Kerry, on the Lartigue single-rail system 
opened 27 Feb. 1888 

Railway and Canal Traffic Bill passed . . . ,, 

State purchase of the railways negatived by the 
commons without a division . . 4 May, ,, 

L. & N. W. company run trains between London 
and Edinburgh and Glasgow in 9 hours from 
1 June ; in eight hours 6 Aug ; the Great Northern 
makes similar reductions . June and Aug. ,, 

First railway constructed in Persia, from Teheran to 
Shali-Abdul-Azim, opened . . 25 June, ,, 

Direct railway communication between Constanti- 
nople and Vienna completed . . . Aug. „ 

Central Asian railway from the Caspian to Samarcand 
opened May, ,, 

Mr. justice Wills appointed president of the railway 
commission ....... Dec. ,, 

First regular railway in China, 86 miles, opened Nov. ,, 

The new railway and canal commission begins 1 Jan. 1889 

Railway up Mount Pilatus, Switzerland, inaugu- 
rated 4 June, „ 

Bill for the regulation of railways relating to the 
block system, brakes, &c, passed . . Aug. „ 

Great swing railway bridge, span 140 ft., over the 
Dee declared open by Mrs. Gladstone . 2 Aug. ,, 

i[lt gives a direct route to the Manchester, Sheffield 
and Lincolnshire Railway into Wales, and also to 
the Great Northern and Midland systems.] 

Eiiteraational railway Congress at Paris . 14 Sept. ,, 

Death of sir Daniel Gooch, aged 73, able chairman 
of the Great Western .... 15 Oct. ,, 



Increased dividends through improvement in trade 

July-Dec. 7 

International railway conference at Rome 15 Jan. i 

City and South London Electric railway (see 
Tunnels) .... 4 Nov. and 18 Dec. 

Underground Central London Electric Railway bill 
(from Uxbridge-road to the Bank), passed by the 
commons ........ 

Lynton and Lynmouth cliff railway, steep ascent, 
worked by water, opened . . 7 April, 

Dispute between the South-Eastern and the London 
Chatham & Dover railway companies, on appeal 
decided by the house of lords in favour or the 
latter company 5 May, 

Board of Trade inquiry (by lord Balfour of Burleigh 
and Mr. Courtenay Boyle) as to the rates of 
charges for the carriage of goods, concluded 

Jah.-2i May 

Tables of maximum rates issued , . . July, 

Proposed establishment of the New Grand Junction 
company to unite the Manchester, Sheffield and 
Lincolnshire railway, with the Metropolitan and 
other railways, so as to form a new line to the 
north, Oct. 1890 ; bill rejected . 

First annual congress of railway employes of all 
grades opened at the Hope Town -hall, Bethnal- 
green-road 18 Nov. : 

City and South London Electric railway formally 
opened by the prince of Wales, 4 Nov., to the 
public ' 18 Dec. 

Strike of the men employed in the Caledonian, 
North British, Glasgow and S. W. railways, for 
a ten hours' day, &c. . 22 Dec. 1890-31 Jan. 
By thegreat exertions of Mr. Thompson, manager 
of the Caledonian railway, and Mr. Walker, 
manager of the North British railway, the pas- 
senger traffic was continued with much difficulty, 
but the goods traffic almost suspended. About 
9,000 men were out at one time. Rioting at Mother- 
well, at the eviction of railway tenant strikers, 
was quelled by military and police, 5 Jan. et. seq. 
The strike ended by the submission of the men, 
North British, 29 Jan., Caledonian 31 Jan. 

Select committee of the commons on the working 
hours of railway servants, sir M. H. Beach chair- 
man, meets . . . . .10 March et seq. 

The Gliding railway, which is moved by hydraulic 
power over a thin layer of water was exhibited 
by M. A. Barre, at the Crystal Palace 26 March 

The nine Railway Rates and Charges bills passed . 

5 Au S- 

Brienzer Rothhornbahn railway on the Alps, the 
highest in Europe, opened . . early Nov. 

Receipts of 12 great companies, 33,028,558?. . 

July-Dec. 

Mr. Christopher Anderson's (of Leeds) invention 
for carrying oft smoke and foul air in underground 
railways by tubes, tried and reported successful 
at Neasden, near Willesden . . 26 March, : 

Death of sir James Joseph Allport, the eminent 
railway manager, especially of the Midland, aged 
81 25 April, 

Great demonstration of railway servants in Hyde- 
park, for shorter hours and increased wages 

15 May, 

The broad gauge totally superseded, on the Great 
Western 20-23 May, 

Sir James Brunlees, eminent railway engineer, 
dies, aged 76 . , 2 June, 

Lancashire, Derbyshire, and East Coast (East and 
West) railway begun (incorporated 1891) 7 June, 

Railway and canal traffic amendment act, passed, 

27 June, 

Central London railway act passed . 28 June, 

Manchester, Sheffield & Lincolnshire railway (with 

extension to London) act ; third reading in the 

lords suspended by dissolution . . 28 June 

[Act passed, 28 March ; another act, 29 June, 

1893 ; amended, 1894.] 

International railway congress at St. Petersburg, 

20-31 Aug. 

Mr. W. E. Gladstone cuts the first sod of the Wirral 
railway connecting Wales and Liverpool, 21 Oct. 

Railway Travellers' association instituted 17 Nov. 

The electric overhead system, connecting Walsall, 
Wednesbury, Darlaston, and Bloxwich opened, 

31 Dec. 



RAILWAYS. 



1030 



RAILWAYS. 



New railway rates begin, i Jan. lead to contro- 
versy ; sir James Whitehead, president of the 
Mansion-house railway traffic association ; sir 
Henry Oakley, hon. sec. of the Railway Com- 
panies' association ; compromises proposed, Jan. 1893 

Great meeting at the Mansion-house opposing the 
new rates 30 Jan. ,, 

Second-class carriages abolished on the East Coast 
"express" route between England and Scotland 
worked by the Great Northern, North Eastern, 
and North British companies, and also on the 
London & North-Western, and Caledonian lines, 

1 May, „ 

The new "corridor train," G. W. R., goes from 
London to Penzance . . . . 1 June, ,, 

Railway union conference at Berne 5 June, et seq. „ 

Railway Servants (Hours of Labour) act passed, 

27 July, „ 

First international congress of railway servants at 
Zurich 14 Aug. ,, 

Great loss by the Midland and other railways 
through the coal strike . . Aug. -Sept. ,, 

Report of the select committee on railway rates 
issued mid. Dec. ,, 

Great decrease in the dividends through the coal 
strike . . . July-Nov. 1893 ; Jan.-Feb. 1894 

Lancashire, Derbyshire, and East Coast railway act 
passed 31 July, ,, 

International congress of railway servants at Paris 

3 Oct. „ 

The countess of Wharncliffe cuts the first sod of 
the Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire (ex- 
tension) railway at Alpha-road, St. John's Wood 

13 Nov. ,, 
1st conference on "light railways," summoned by 

the board of trade, Mr. Brice, m.p., chairman, 

6 Dec. ,, 
Mr. justice Mathew decided that the London, 
Chatham, and Dover railway company had been 
making illegal charges for passage from London 
to Calais (Mr. C. N. Nicholson v. the company), 

14 May, 1895 
Charles Henry Parkes, born 1816, able and suc- 
cessful chairman of the Great Eastern railway 
company, Nov. 1874-93 > died . . 9 May, „ 

International railway conference at Amsterdam, 

150 delegates, 6 June ; at the Imperial institute, 

Loudon, 26 June ; the delegates (1,100) received 

by the queen at Windsor . . .6 July, ,, 

Race to Aberdeen won by the West Coast route 

against the East (540 miles in 512 min.) 22 Aug. „ 
Wirral railway (see Oct. 1892) opened by Mr. Glad- 
stone 28 March, 1896 

Railway up Snowdon ; on the descent of the first 
passenger train, at 12 a.m., the engine left the 
line at a sharp curve and plunged over the Cym- 
glas precipice, 6 April, 1896 ; Mr. E. G. Roberts, of 
Llanberis, died of injuries, 7 April, 1896 ; " safety 
guard," the invention of sir Douglas Fox, laid 
down, railway re-opened to Clogwyn . 19 April, 1897 
The Board of Trade report to the companies the 
necessity of protecting women travelling alone, 

Times 5 Aug. 1896 

Baker-street and Waterloo railway act passed, 7 Aug. , , 
Light railways Act passed . . . 14 Aug. ,, 

The Board Of Trade report the capital of the U. K. 
railway companies to have been more than 1,000 
millions sterling in 1895 .... 8 Oct. ,, 
28 applications to construct light railways in Great 

Britain up to 31 Dec. ; (121 up to July, 1898) . ,, 
Miss Camp murdered in a train near Waterloo, L. 

&S. W. R 11 Feb. 1897 

Board of Trade committee appointed to inquire 
respecting the means of communication between 
passengers and railway servants in charge of 

trains 4 May, ,, 

Samuel Laing, late chairman of the L. and Brighton 

railway, died 6 Aug. ,, 

Railway across Salisbury plain from Pewsey autho- 
rised Nov. ,, 

S. Wales direct, railway, first Sod cut by the 

duchess of Beaufort . . -29 Nov. ,, 

International conference at Franklbrl-on-t!:e-Main, 
accelerated service between London and Basle 
arranged ....... Dec. „ 

Position of servants on the Great Eastern and 
London and North Western improved . Feb. 1898 



Sir George Russell, m.p., born 1828, chairman of 
the S. Eastern railway, died (succeeded by Mr. 
Cosmo Bonsor, m.p.) .... 7 March, lags'. 

New code of railway bye-laws submitted to the 
Board of Trade by the N. E. company . June, ,, 

Working union between theS. E. and theL. C. & D. 
railways agreed to Aug. ,, 

Electric (underground) railway between Waterloo 
station and the Mansion-house, opened by the 
duke of Cambridge .... 11 July, ,, 

Mr. justice Mathews and a special jury awards 
2,500?. damages against the Gt. Western railway 
to Mr. Pfeiffer (for injuries sustained Feb. 1898), 

22 Feb. 1899. 
Gt. Central railway extension, Marylebone ter- 
minus, opened 9 March, „ 

Third-class train of increased breadth (to seat 12 
instead of 10 passengers), Gt. Eastern railway, 
ran between Liverpool-street and Enfield, 10 
April ; widened carriages for suburban traffic 

adopted July, , r 

Royal commission appointed to inquire into acci- 
dents to railway servants meets, 16 June, 1899; 
recommends active state control and supervision, 
&c, report issued .... 22 Jan. 1900- 
New daily fast service between Montreal and the 
Pacific ; London brought within 10 days of 
Vancouver . ... 18 June, ,, 

Central London (electric tube) railway opened by 

the prince of Wales . . . .27 June, ,, 
Sir Richard Moon, born 1814, chairman of the 
London and N.W. railway company 1847-91, a 
great organiser and of high financial probity, 

died 17 Nov. 1899) 

Col. sir Francis Marindiu, born 1838, inspecting 
officer of railways to the Board of Trade 1877 et 
seq. , originated some important railway reforms, 

died 21 April, 190& 

Experiments upon the atmospheric resistance to 
trains, special train used on the Baltimore and 
Ohio railway, U.S., 2 miles made in 81 sec, 

reported 9 June, „ 

Railways (prevention of accidents) act passed, 

30 July, ,. 
Internat. railway congress, at the exhibition, 

Paris Sept. , r 

Mr. Pearson murdered in a train (S.W. railway) 

near Wimbledon, by G. H. Hill, alias Parker, and 

Mrs. King also attacked by him, 17 Jan. 1901 ; he 

was convicted and sentenced to death, 1 March, 1901 

Sir Edward Watkin, the "railway king," born 

1819, died 14 April, ,, 

Great reduction of dividends chiefly owing to con- 
tinued increase of working expenses ; tables of 
rates issued, Times .... 14 Aug. , r 
Mr. J. T. Marshall's new locomotive valve gear, 
which, with lower steam pressure, greatly aug- 
ments the haulage power, reported . 13 Feb. 1902; 
Mr. W. L. Jackson, chairman of the Gt. Northern 

railway, made a peer ... 26 June, ,, 

Internat. conferences at Brussels and St. Peters- 
burg on the Trans-Siberian route . 9-21 Dec. , t 
Memorial at Euston to railway employes killed in 
the S. African war, unveiled by lord Roberts, 

23 April, 1903: 
Electrification of the Mersey line completed, 

1 May, ,, 
Death of sir Joseph Wilkinson, general manager, 

G.W.R 16 June, ,„ 

An express reaches Carlisle from Euston, 299 miles, 

without stopping, two minutes before time, 

19 June, , r 
New Rhsetian railway, Thusis to Pontresina, begun 

1898, opened 27 June, ,, 

Central Asian railway in progress, train reaches 

Turkestan . . ' . . . . 8 July, ... 
Line between Lulea and Narvik, within the Arctic 

circle, opened by the king of Sweden . 14 July. ... 
Railways (electrical power) act to come into force 

i.lan. 1004, royal assent . . . 1 4 Aug. ,,. 

Mails for China, Japan, and Corea despatched by 

French mail service for first time by overland 

route rid Trans-Siberian railway, reducing time 

of transit one-half . . . .28 Sept. ,,. 

Electro-pneumatic signalling established at Bolton 

(Lanes, and Yorks. railway), reported, 30 Sept. ,,, 



KAILWAYS. 



1031 



RAILWAYS. 



Express service, via Dover and Ostend, between 
London, Berlin and St. Petersburg ; the express 
leaves London ioa.m., reaches terlin 7.40 p.m., 
and St. Petersburg 2.25 p.m. the following day ; 
quickest route between these capitals yet esta- 
blished ; express night service, via Zurich, be- 
tween London and Vienna, leaving London 9 p.m., 
reaching Vienna in 45 hours, commenced, 1 Oct. 1903 

First train into Coomassie arrives . . 1 Oct. ,, 

The Novelty, constructed by Messrs. Braithwaite & 
Wilson, one of the three engines that took part 
in the competitive locomotive trials in 1830 for 
the best engine to run on the Liverpool and Man- 
chester railway (the others were the Sans Pariel, 
built by Hackworth, and the Rocket, which won 
the premium of 500?. , constructed by Stephen- 
son ; both these are in the South Kensington 
museum), discovered at Rainhill, announced 

early Oct. 

Congress of amalgamated society of railway ser- 
vants at Peterborough opened . . 5 Oct. 

Automobile service established on the Stroud valley 
line (G.W.R.) between Stonehouse and Chalford, 

mid Oct. 

First section of the Japanese railway from Seoul to 
Fusan, as far as Su-won, formally opened, 20 Oct. 

New electric railway (4^ miles) up Vesuvius, con- 
structed by Messrs. Thos. Cook & Sons, reported 

early Nov. 

Miss Goss savagely assaulted and robbed in Hare- 
castle tunnel 9 Dec. 

See Strikes, Feb.— Dec. 1897. 



RAILWAYS OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 




Capital 


Miles 


Net 


Year. 


'paid-up. 


opened. 


Receipts. 


1851. 


£240,897 


6,890 




1854. 


286,068,794 


8,054 


£11,009,519 


i860. 


348,130,127 


io,433 


14,579,254 


1865. 


455,478,143 


13,289 


18,602,582 


1870. 


529,908,673 


15,537 


23,362,618 


1875. 


630,223,494 


i6,6 5 S 


28,016,272 


1879. 


717,003,469 


17,696 


29,73!, 43° 


1880. 


728,316,848 


17,933 


31,890,501 


1882. 


767,899,570 


iS,457 


33.206.688 


1883. 


784,921,312 


18,681 


33,693,708 


1884. 


801,464,367 


18,864 


33,305,446 


1885. 


815,858,055 


19,169 


32,767,817 


1887. 


845>97i,°:4 


19,578 


33,880,110 


1888. 


864,695,963 


19,812 


30,851,320 


1890. 


897,472.026 


20,073 


36,760,146 


1891. 


919,425^-21 


20,191 


36,731,624 


1892. 


944,357, 3 2 o 


20,325 


36,374,075 


1893. 


97i>323,353 


20,646 


34,936,773 


1894. 


985,387,355 


20,908 


37,102,518 


1895. 


1,001,110,221 


21,174 


38,046,065 


1896. 


1,029,475,335 


21,277 


39,926,698 


1898. 


1,134,468,462 


. 21,659 


40,291,958 


1899. 


iji52,3i7,5oi 


21,700 


4 I >576,378 


1900. 


1,176,001,890 


21,855 


40,058,338 


1901. 


1,195,564,478 


22,078 


39,069,076 


1902. 


1,216,861,421 


22,152 


41,628,502 


forking 


expenses: 1854, 


9,206,205?. ; 


1861, 13,843,337?. 


1870, 21 


715,525k; 1874, 


32,612,712?. 


1877,33,857,978? 


1880, 33 


601,124?. ; 1883, 


37,368,562?. 


1887, 37,063,266? 


1888, 37 


063,266?..; 1889, 


40,094,116?. 


1890, 43,188,556? 


1891, 45 


144, 778?.; 1892, 


45,7i7,9 6 5k 


1893,45,695,119? 


1894, 47 


208,313?.; 1895, 


47,876,637?. 


1896, 50,192,424? 


1897, 53 


083,804?.; 1898, 


55,960,543?. 


1899, 60,090,687? 


1900, 64 


743,520?.; 1901, 


67,489,739^ 


1902, 67,841,218 



Number of passengers (not season-ticket holders) 
1845,33,791,253; 1854, 111,206,707; i860, 163,483,572 
1865,251,959,862; 1870,331,701,801; 1877,549,541,325 
1880,603,885,025; 1883,683,718,137; 1887, 733,678,531 
1890,817,744,046; 1893,873,177,052; 1894,911,412,926 
1895,929,770,909; 1896, 980,339,433; 1897, 1,030,420,201 
1898, 1,062,911,116 ; 1899, 1,106,691,991 ; 1900 
1,142,276,686; 1901, 1,172,395,900; 1902, 1,188,219,269 



Miles opened. 



1843. j 1861. j 1879. 
England & 

Wales 1775 I 7820 ! 12,547 
Scotland 225 j 1626 [ 2,864 
Ireland . 31 ; 1423 2,285 



1883. ! 1893. 1900. 

I i o 

13,215 14,440 15,187 
2,964: 3,215 3,485 

2,502 2,991 3,183 



15,358 
3,580 

3> 2I 4 



For 1847-9, it was calculated that out of 4,782,188 
travellers by railway, owe person was killed, from 
causes beyond his own control ; for 1856-9, one 
in 8,708,411; 1866-8, one in 12,941,170. In 1878, 
one in 7,503,000. Passengers killed from causes 
beyond their control : in 1871, 12 ; 1862-72, 271 ; 
1872, 24 ; 1876, 811. 

United Kingdom. 

1874, 1424 killed -211 passengers (not their fault, 

86) ; 788 servants, 425 trespassers ; 5041 injured. 

1876, 1286 killed — 138 (by own fault, 101) passen- 
gers ; 61 12 injured, 1883 passengers. 

1877, 1 175 killed — 126 passengers; 4988 injured, 
1283 passengers. 

1878, 1112 killed ; 6507 injured by various causes. 

1879, 1032 killed; 160 passengers ; 3513 injured, 1307 
passengers. 

1882, 1,121 killed ; 127 passengers ; 4,601 injured, 
1,739 passengers; 1884, 1135 killed; 4100 injured ; 

1885, 957 killed, 3,467 injured ; 1886, 938 killed, 
3,539 injured. 

1887, 919 killed, 3,590 injured; 1888, 905 killed, 
3,826 injured. 

1889. 1,076 killed ; 4,836 injured. 

1890. 1,076 killed; 4,721 injured. 

1891. 1,168 killed, 5,060 injured. 

Killed: 1892, 1,130; 1893, 1,011; 1894, 1,185; I 895, 
1,090 ; 1896, 1093 ; 1897, 1,165 ; 1898, 1,179 ; 1899, 
1,240; 1900, 1,250; 1901, 1,277 i 1902, 1,171. 

Railway servants killed : annual average (1872-5) 
740; 1880, reduced to 483 ; 1896, 447 ; 1898, 522 ; 
1899, 5 12 j 1900, 559 ; 1901, 511 ; 1902, 447. 

United States passengers and railway servants 
killed, 2,819 ; injured, 39,800 during year ended 
30 June, 1Q02. 

Compensation paid for injuries by companies. 
1873. 1883. 1902. 

Passengers . . £364,509 I £247,032 I £141,489 
Goods . . . 231,707 I 197,941 I 483,807 

PRINCIPAL RAILWAYS OF THE UNITED KINGDOM. 

The railways are generally named after their termini. 
Railways. Bate of Opening. 

Arbroath and Forfar .... 3 Jan. 1839 
Atmospheric Railway (which see) . . . . 1840 

Aviemore and Inverness (Highland) . 1 Nov. 1898 
Bangor and Carnarvon .... July, 1852 

Belfast and county of Down . . . April, 1850 
Belfast and Northern counties opened . . . i860 
Birmingham and Derby .... 12 Aug. 1839 
Birmingham and Gloucester . . 17 Dec. 1840 

Birmingham, Wolverhampton, and Stour Valley, 

July, 1852 
Brighton and Chichester .... 8 June, 1846 
Brighton and Hastings . . . 27 June, ,, 

Bristol and Exeter 1 May, 1844 

Bristol and Gloucester .... July, 1845 

Caledonian Feb. 1848 

Canterbury and Wliitstable . . . May, 1830 
Central London (Electric), Tube (2nd), Bank to 

Shepherd's Bush, opened . . -27 June, 1900 
Charing Cross Railway, London, opened 11 Jan. 1864 
Cheltenham and Gloucester .... Oct. 1847 
Chester and Birkenhead . . . .22 Sept. 1840 

Chester and Crewe 1848 

City and South London, Tube, opened 4 Nov. and 
18 Dec. 1890 ; new line to the Bank and Moor- 
gate-street, opened, 26 Feb. 1900 ; extension from 
Stockwell to Clapham-common opened, 3 June, iqoo 
Cockermouth and Workington . . 28 April, 1847 

Colchester and Ipswich .... 15 June, 1846 

Cork and Bandon ..... 8 Dec. 1851 

Cornwall . . . . . . . 1 May, 1859 

Coventry and Leamington .... 2 Dec. 1844 

Croydon and Epsom .... 17 May, 1847 

Devon and Somerset 7 Nov. 1873 

Dover and Deal, begun ... 29 June, 1878 

Dublin and Belfast Junction . . . June, 1852 

Dublin and Carlow 10 Aug. 1846 

Dublin and Drogheda . . . .26 May, 1844 

Dublin and Kingstown .... 17 Dec. 1834 

Dundee and Newtyle Dec. 1831 

Dundee and Perth 22 May, 1847 

Durham and Sunderland ... 28 June, 1839 

Eastern Counties (aft. Gt. Eastern) . 18 June, ,, 
Eastern Union (London and Colchester), 29 March, 1843 



EAILWAYS. 



1032 



EAILWAYS. 



Railways, Date of Opening. 

East London . . . . . 10 April, 1876 

Edinburgh and Berwick ... 18 June, 1846 

Edinburgh and Glasgow .... 8 Feb. 1842 
Ely and Peterborough .... Jan. 1847 

Exeter and Plymouth (part) . . 29 May, 1846 

Glasgow and Ayr 19 Sept. 1840 

Glasgow and Greenock . . . .24 March, 1841 
Glasgow, Garnkirk, and Coatbridge . . July, 1845 
Gloucester and Chepstow .... Sept. 185 1 
Gloucester and Swindon .... May, 1845 
Grand Junction (Birmingham to Newton) . July, 1837 
Gravesend and Rochester ... 10 Feb. 1845 

Great Central (name given to the Manchester, Shef- 
field and Lincolnshire) in 1897; extension to 

London opened 9 March, 1899 

Great Eastern (name given to the eastern counties) 

in 1862, when incorporated. 
Great Southern and Western (Ireland) opened . 1844 
Great Northern (Ireland) opened . . . . 1876 

Great Northern 1852 

Great Western to Maidenhead, 4 June, 1838 ; to 
Bristol, 30 June, 1841 ; to Burryport, 15 March; 

to Good wick 1 July, 1899 

Hertford branch of Eastern Counties . 31 Oct. 1843 
Highland, 1865 ; to Fort George . . 1 July, 1899 
Inner Circle, London . . . .21 July, 1882-4 
Ipswich and Bury St. Edmunds . . 24 Dec. 1846 

Isle of Man 1 July, 1873 

Kendal and Windermere . . . .21 April, 1847 
Lancaster and Carlisle .... 16 Dec. 1846 

Lancaster and Preston . . . .30 June, 1 840 
Leeds and Bradford .... 1 July, 1846 

Leeds and Derby July, 1840 

Leeds and Huddersfield, via Spen valley, 1 Oct. 1900 
Liverpool and Birmingham . . . .4 July, 1837 
Liverpool and Manchester . . .15 Sept. 1830 

Liverpool and Preston .... 31 Oct. 1838 

London and Birmingham . . . .17 Sept. „ 

London and Blackwall 2 Aug. 1841 

London and Brighton . . . .21 Sept. ,, 
London and Bristol .... 30 June, ,, 
London and Cambridge . . . .30 July, 1845 
London, Chatham, and Dover, 29 Sept. i860 ; 

united to South- Eastern . . . 1 Jan. 1899 
London and Colchester ... 29 March, 1843 
London and Croydon . . . . ' 1 June, 1839 

London and Dover 7 Feb. 1844 

London and Greenwich ... 26 Dec. 1838 

London and Richmond . . . .27 July, 1846 
London and Southampton . . . n May, 1840 

London and Southend .... June, 1856 
Loudon and Warrington ; branch of the Great 

Northern Aug. 1850 

Lowestoft branch ; Norwich and Yarmouth . . 1847 

Lynn and Ely , 

Manchester and Birmingham . . 10 Aug. 1842 

Manchester and Leeds . . 1 March, 1841 

Manchester and Sheffield ... 22 Dec. 1845 

Meon valley branch, shorter route to Portsmouth, 

via Aldershot, Farnham, and Alton . 1 June, 1903 
Metropolitan, London ; act obtained, 1853 ; con- 
struction began, i860; opened . . 10 Jan. 1863 
Midland Counties .... 30 June, 1840 

Midland and Great Western (Ireland) opened . . 1845 
Newcastle and Berwick .... July, 1847 
Newcastle and Carlisle . . . .18 June, 1839 
Newcastle and North Shields . . 18 June, „ 

Newmarket and Cambridge .... Oct. 1851 
Northampton and Peterborough . . 2 June, 1845 
North and South-Western Junction . . Dec. 1852 
North British ... . . . 1862 

North Eastern July, 1854 

Norwich and Yarmouth . . . . 1 May, 1844 
Nottingham to Grantham .... July, 1850 
Nottingham and Lincoln .... 3 Aug. 1846 
Nottingham branch j Rugby and Derby . 30 May, 1839 
Oxford branch of London and Bristol . 12 June, 1844 
Oxford, Worcester, and Wolverhampton . May, 1852 

Penzance to Camborne Jan. ,, 

Rugby and Derby July, 1840 

Rugby and Leamington Feb. 1851 

St. Andrew's July, 1852 

St. Helen's ; first act passed ..... 1830 
Salisbury branch of the London and Southampton. 1847 

Sett Le and Carlisle 1 May, 1876 

Southampton and Dorchester . . . 1 June, 
South Devon 1850 



Railways. Date of Ope n i ng. 

South Eastern (London and Dover) . . 7 Feb. 1844 
South Eastern ; North Kent line .... 1849 
Stockton and Darlington . . . .27 Sept. 1825 

Trent Valley 26 June, 1847 

Ulster Aug. 1839 

Waterford, Limerick and Western opened . . 1845 

Waterloo and City opened 1898 

West and East India Docks and Birmingham Junc- 
tion from the Blackwall railway to Camden Town, 

Aug. 1850 
West Highland, n Aug. 1894; extension to loch 

Ness 22 July, 1903 

Worcester and Droitwich .... Jan. 1852 
York and Darlington (N. Eastern) . . 4 Jan. 1841 
York and Newcastle „ . . 17 June, 1847 

York and Nonnanton ,, . . . 30 June, 1840 
York and Scarborough ,, . . . 7 July, 1845 
Yarmouth and Norwich . . . . 1 May, 1844 
Yarmouth and Lowestoft . ... 13 July, 1903 

Alleged Extent of Railways (in miles) :— Germany, 
34,069 ; Russia, 28,745 ! France, 26,382 ; Austria-Hun- 
gary, 22,670 ; Italy, 9,827 ; Spain, 8,301 ; Sweden, 6,702 ; 
Belgium, 3,871 ; Switzerland, 2,355 ; Roumania, 1,932; 
Turkey, 1,912 ; Denmark, 1,775 ; Holland, 1,715 ; Por- 
tugal, 1,470 ; Norway, 1,240; Greece, 605 ; Servia, 360 ; 
1 Jan. 1900. United Kingdom, 22,078 in 1901 ; 22,152 
in 1902 ; United States of America, 201,839, June, 1902. 

Rolling Siocfc of railways in the United Kingdom, 1901 : 
locomotive engines, 21,714 ; passenger carriages, 
48,851 ; other vehicles attached, 19,065 ; waggons for 
live stock, goods, &c, 697,683 ; miscellaneous vehicles, 
18,407. 

Clashes in which passengers were carried in 1901 : 1st 
class, 34,622,141, an increase of 303,332 on 1900; 2nd 
class, 68,854,769, decrease of 229,860 ; 3rd class, 
1,068,918,990, increase of 30,045,742 ; season or periodi- 
cal ticket-holders, 1,879,136, increase of 129,332, with 
the following receipts respectively, 1st class, 3,520,963?., 
increase on 1900 of 86,984?. ; 2nd class, 3,101,463!., 
increase 114,953?. ; 3rd class, 28,900,249?., increase 
685,207?. ; season and periodical ticket-holders, 
3,573,378?., increase 122,314?. 

MEMORABLE RAILWAY ACCIDENTS.* 

Very many (where only 2 perso7is killed) are not noted; 
in nearly all cases a large number were injvred. 

W. Huskisson, m.p., killed at the opening of the 

Liverpool and Manchester railway . 15 Sept. 1830 
Great Corby (Newcastle and Carlisle) ; train runs 

offline; skilled 3 Dec. ,, 

Brentwood (Eastern Counties) : carriages over- 
turned ; 3 killed 21 Aug. 1840 

Cuckfield (London and Brighton) : engine runs off 

line ; 4 killed 2 Oct. 1841 

Sonninghill cutting, near Reading : engine forced 

off line ; 8 killed .... 24 Dec. „ 

Versailles : carriages take fire, passengers locked in; 

52 or 53 lives lost, including admiral D'Urville, 

8 May, 1S42 
Masborough (Midland Counties) : collision ; Mr. 

Boteler and others killed, many injured, 20 Oct. 1845 
St rat ford (Eastern Counties): collision through great 

carelessness ; Mr. Hind killed, many mutilated, 

18 July, 1846 
Pevensey (Brighton and Hastings) : collision ; 40 

injured 24 Aug. ,, 

Clifton (Manchester and Bolton) ; express runs off 

line ; 2 killed, many injured . . 15 Dec. ,, 
Chester (Chester and Shrewsbury): train runs 

off bridge ; 4 killed ; greater number injured, 

iS May, 1S47 
Wolverton (North Western): collision; 7 killed, 

many injured 5 June, ,. 

Shrivenham (Great Western) : collision ; 7 killed, 

many injured 10 .May. 1S4S 

Carlisle (Caledonian) : axletree of carriage breaks : 

5 killed 10 Feb. 1849 



* On Dec. 27, 1864, the queen wrote to the directors of 
I In' railway companies of London, requesting them "to 
lie as careful ol other passengers as of herself." 



KAIL WAYS. 



1033 



KAIL,WAYS. 



Frodsham Tunnel (Chester and Warrington Junc- 
tion) : collision ; 6 killed . . .30 April, 

Newmarket Hill (Lewes and Brighton) : train runs 
off line ; 4 killed 6 June, 

Bicester (Oxfordshire) : collision ; 6 killed, 6 Sept. 

Burnley (Great Northern) : collision ; 4 killed. 

12 July, 

Dixonfold (Great Northern) : engine wheels broke ; 
7 killed 4 March, 

Near Straffan (Great Southern and Western, Ire- 
land) : collision; 13 killed . . . 5 Oct. 

Near Harling, Norfolk (Eastern Counties) : colli- 
sion ; 6 killed 12 Jan. 

Croydon (Brighton and Dover) : collision ; 3 killed, 

24 Aug. 

Burlington, between New York and Philadelphia : 
21 killed 29 Aug. 

Reading (Gt. Western): collision; 5 killed, 12 Sept. 

Near Paris : collision ; 9 killed . . 9 Oct. 

Between Thoret and Moret : collision ; 16 killed 

23 Oct. 

Campbell (N. Pennsylvania) : collision ; above 100 
killed 17 July, 

Dunkett (Waterford and Kilkenny) : collision ; 7 
killed 19 Nov. 

Kirby (Liverpool and Blackpool) : collision ; 200 
injured ; none killed ... 27 June, 

Lewisham (North Kent): collision ; n killed, 28 June, 

Between Pyle and Port Talbot : collision ; 4 killed 

14 Oct. 

Attleborough, Warwickshire (North Western) : 
train thrown off the line through a cow crossing 
the rails : 3 killed . . . . 10 May, 

Near Mons, Belgium : coke waggon on the rails ; 
21 killed June, 

Chilham (South Eastern) : either too great speed or 
broken axletree ; 3 killed ... 30 June, 

Near Round Oak Station (Oxford and Wolver- 
hampton) — excursion train : collision ; 14 killed, 

23 Aug. 

Tottenham (Eastern Counties) : engine wheel 
breaks ; 6 killed 20 Feb. 

Helmshore (Lancashire and Yorkshire) — excursion 
train : collision ; 11 killed ... 4 Sept. 

Atherstone (North Western) : collision of mail and 
cattle trains ; 11 killed . . . 16 Nov. 

Near Wimbledon : Dr. Baly killed . . 28 Jan. 

Railway tunnel falls in near Haddon Hall, Derby- 
shire ; 5 men killed 2 July. 

Clayton Tunnel (London and Brighton) : collision ; 
23 killed, 176 injured ... 25 Aug. 

Kentish Town (Hampstead Junction) : 16 killed, 
320 injured 2 Sept. 

Market Harborough : collision ; 1 killed and 50 
injured 28 Aug. 

Near Winchburgh (Edinburgh and Glasgow) : colli- 
sion ; 15 killed, 100 wounded . . 13 Oct. 

Near Streatham (London and Brighton) : explosion 
of boiler through attempting too great speed ; 4 
killed ; above 30 injured . . . 30 May, 

Near Lynn (Lynn and Hunstanton): carriages upset 
through bullock on the line ; 5 killed 3 Aug. 

Egham (South Western) : collision ; 5 killed, above 
20 injured 7 June, 

Canada : train ran off a bridge at St. Hilaire in 
crossing ; about 83 killed, 200 wounded, 

29 June 

Blackheath Tunnel : fast train ran into a ballast 
train; 6 killed 16 Dec. 

Near Rednal (on a branch of Great Western) : train 
ran off insecure rails ; 13 killed, about 40 injured, 

7 June, 
Near Staplehurst (South Eastern) : train ran off in- 
secure rails, &c. ; 10 killed and about 50 injured, 

9 June, 

Near Colney Hatch (Gt. Northern) : collision with 

coal trucks : above 50 persons injured . 30 Aug. 

Fall of a bridge at Sutton (S. coast line) : 6 men killed, 

28 April, 

Near Caterham junction (London and Brighton) : 3 

killed, 12 injured . . . • . 30 April 

In Welwyn Tunnel (Great Northern) : a steam tube 

burst ; collision of three goods trains ; and a great 

fire ; 2 lives lost . . . . Q; IO j une> 

Near Royston (Great Northern) : train ran offline ■ 

3 lives lost- . . . ..- . . 2 July,' 



1851 



1852 
1853 



1854 



1855 



1856 



i860 



Brynkir station (Carnarvonshire) : points said to 
have been tampered with ; train ran off line ; 6 
persons killed 6 Sept. 1866 

20 miles from Carlisle (Lancaster and Carlisle) : an 
axle of carriage of goods tram broke ; collision 
with another goods train ; fire, and explosion of 
5 tons of gunpowder ; 2 killed . . 25 Feb. 1867 

Between Bhosawul and Khundwah (Great Indian 
Peninsular) : train precipitated into a chasm 
made in an embankment by a river torrent ; many 
lives lost 26 June, „ 

Walton Junction, Warrington (London and North 
Western) : collision with coal train ; error of 
pointsman; 8 lives lost . . . 29 June, ,, 

At Brayhead, near Enniscorthy (Dublin, Wicklow, 
and Wexford) : went off the line into a gorge ; 2 
killed, many injured . . ... 9 Aug. ,, 

Between New Mills and Peak Forest : 2 collisions ; 
5 lives lost 9 Sept. ,, 

French Great Northern, about 14 miles from Paris : 
several killed, many wounded . . 27 Oct. ,, 

Lake Shore railway, New York : embankment fell ; 
41 persons burnt to death ... 18 Dec. ,, 

Carr's Rock, on river Delaware ; Erie railway : 
carriages precipitated down an embankment ; 
26 persons killed, 32 very seriously injured, 

14 April, 1868 

Abergele, N. Wales (London and North-Western) ; 
collision between Irish mail train and luggage 
train ; barrels of petroleum ignited ; 33 persons 
burnt to death (see Abergele) . . 20 Aug. „ 

Near Birdingbury station (Rugby and Leamington) 
carriages went over Draycot embankment ; 2 
persons killed 1 Oct. ,, 

Near Bull's Pill, S. Wales (Great Western) : mail 
train ran into a cattle train ; 1 person and much 
cattle killed 6 Nov. ,, 

Near Copenhagen tunnel, Holloway (Great North- 
ern) : coal train ran off the line ; 2 killed, 18 Jan. 1869 

Near Khandalla, Bombay (Great Indian Peninsular) 
train ran off the line ; about 18 killed 26 Jan. „ 

Arch fell in at Bethnal Green (Great Eastern) : 
coal train passing ; 5 killed . . 25 Feb. ,, 

Newcross (London and Brighton) : collision ; 2 
killed, many injured ; loss to the company by 
compensation, about 70,000?. . . 23 June, „ 

Near Barnet (Great Northern) : collision ; 1 mail 
burnt to death 16 Aug. ,, 

Long Eaton Junction (Midland) : collision; 7 killed 

q Oct. ,, 

Near Welwyn (Great N orthern) : collision; 3 killed 

24 Oct. ,, 

Eureka, St. Louis, Missouri ; collision ; 19 killed, 

12 May, 1870 

Near Newark (Great Northern) : collision ; a 
waggon of a goods train, through the breaking of 
an "old axle," went off the rails and met an excur- 
sion train ; 19 deaths ; 1.30 a.m. . 21 June, ,, 

Near Carlisle : collision ; 5 killed . 10 July, ,, 

Tamworth (London and North Western) : Irish 
mail (late), sent into a siding ; broke down a 
buttress and ran into the river Anker (error of a 
pointsman); 3 deaths . . 4.7 A.M. 14 Sept. „ 

Plessis near Tours : collision ; between two trains ; 
several killed . . . .4 A.M. 20 Sept. ,, 

Harrow (London and North- Western) : collision 
with coal waggons ; 7 killed . . . 26 Nov. ,, 

Brockley Whins (North Eastern) : collision through 
mistake of Hedley, a pointsman ; skilled 6 Dec. „ 

Barnsley (Manchester, Sheffield, and Lincolnshire 
railway) : collision ; goods trucks broke loose ; 
14 killed, many injured . . . .12 Dec. ,, 

Bell-bar, near Hatfield (Great Northern) : tire of 
wheel broke ; break and carriages overturned ; 8 
killed . 26 Dec. „ 

Between Bandoz and St. Nizaire : explosion of gun- 
powder in casks ; 60 killed ... 25 Feb. 1871 

Revere (Boston and Portland, U.S.): collision; 
above 20 killed 26 Aug. ,, 

Near Champigny (Lyons Company) : a spring 
broke; n killed . . . . 16 Sept. ,, 

Ferry-hill (North British) : collision ; 2 killed, 

16 Oct. „ 
Antibes railway between Nice and Cannes : train 
thrown into the river Brague ; 12 said to be killed 

24 Jan. 1872 



EAILWAYS. 



1034 



RAILWAYS. 



Belleville (Grand Trunk of Canada) : engine broke 
off the line ; many burnt, scalded, &e. ; about 
30 killed 22 June, 

Connellsville (Baltimore and Pittsburg) : collision ; 
many hurt, 3 killed .... 22 June, 

Juvisy (Orleans railway) : express ran into luggage 
train ; boiler exploded ; 5 burnt to death (includ- 
ing mother of the duchess of Malakotf ) 26 June, 

Rose-hill junction (Newcastle and Carlisle) : colli- 
sion ; 4 killed 5 July, 

Red-hill junction (Great Western and L. &N.W.), 
near Hertford ; 2 killed ... 29 July, 

Clifton junction (Lancashire and Yorkshire): col- 
lision ; 4 killed 3 Aug. 

Kirtlebridge, Dumfries (Caledonian) : collision ; 
express train late ; error of pointsman ; 12 killed, 

2 Oct. 

Kelvedon, near Chelmsford (Great Eastern) : loco- 
motive driven off the line by a raised rail ; 1 
killed, many hurt .... 17 Oct. 

Near Woodhouse junction (Manchester, Sheffield, 
and Lincolnshire) : collision ; two killed, 18 Oct. 

Corry, Pennsylvania, U.S. : train broke through a 
bridge ; about 20 killed ... 24 Dec. 

Near Pesth : train ran off line ; 21 killed, 

about 7 May, 

Near Shrewsbury (Great Western and London & 
N. W. Junction) : axle of engine broke ; car- 
riages driven off the line ; 4 killed . . 8 May, 

Near Higham, Derbyshire (Midland); engine-tire 
broke ; train ran off the line ; 2 killed . 21 June 

Wigan (London and North Western) : carriages 
thrown off the line ; sir John Anson and others 
(13 persons) killed . . . . 23 Aug. 

Retford Junction (Great Northern, Manchester, and 
Sheffield) : collision ; 3 killed . . 23 Aug. 

Near Hartlepool (North Eastern) : train thrown off 
the line ; 3 killed 2 Sept. 

Peamarsh crossing, near Guildford (Southwestern) : 
collision with a bullock ; train thrown off the 
line ; 3 killed 9 Sept. 

Barkston Junction, near Grantham (Great North- 
ern) : 2 killed 10 Jan. 

Near Manuel and Bo'ness Junction, between Edin- 
burgh and Glasgow (North British) : collision of 
London express with mineral train ; 16 killed 

27 Jan. 

Euxton Junction, between Preston and Wigan ; col- 
lision through fog and too great speed ; 2 killed 

20 Feb. 

Merthyr-Tydvil (Great Western) : coupling broke, 
causing collision ; about 40 seriously injured ; 
1 death . ,8 May, 

Bargoed (Rhymney railway) : collision ; train ran 
away through brakes not acting ; 2 killed ; much 
damage 12 Aug. 

Thorpe, near Norwich (East Norfolk) : collision ; 
two trains met (mistake of Cooper and Robson, 
telegraph clerks, committed for trial for man- 
slaughter) ; 26 deaths ; about 50 injured ; 8.30 p.m. 

10 Sept. 
[Cost the company above 13,000^., Cooper sen- 
tenced to 8 months' imprisonment, 7 April, 1875.] 

Shipton, near Oxford (Great Western) ; tire of car- 
riage-wheel broke ; train driven over an embank- 
ment ; 34 deaths ensued, about 70 injured 

24 Dec. 
[Verdict of inquiry, accidental deaths ; 16 March, 
1875J 

Rotbbury, near Morpeth (North Eastern) : train 
ran otf embankment ; 4 killed . . 3 July, 

Kildwick, near Skipton, Yorkshire (Midland): 
Scotch express ran into an excursion train ; 
7 deaths, n. 30 p. m 2 8 Aug. 

Between Mutford and Somerlcyton ; train ran off 
the line ; 3 killed .... 1 Jan. 

Near Odessa : train ran over embankment; about 
68 killed 8 Jan. 

Abbot's Bipton (Great Northern), near Hunting- 
don; 2 collisions; first, Scotch express with coal 
train ; and second, with Leeds express from Lon- 
don, whereby 14 deaths; including Mr. Tims. 
Mure, Scotch advocate, a son of Mr. Noble, the 
sculptor ; a son of Mr. Dion Houeicault, dramatist; 
brother and 2 nieces of Dr. Burdon Sanderson; 
during a snow storm . . . .21 Jan. 
[Coroner's inquest : verdict, virtually accidental 



1873 



1S74 



1875 



1876 



deaths ; directors censured for not having a sepa- 
rate line for mineral traffic, 3 Feb. 1876.] 

Near Long Ashton (on Great Western), " Flying 
Dutchman " express : about 57 miles an hour ; 
driver and stoker killed ; defective condition of 
permanent way 27 July, 

Between Radstock and Wellow ; about 4 miles from 
Bath (Somerset and Dorset), single line ; collision 
between excursion trains ; 14 killed ; about 

11 pan 7 Aug. 

[Inquest: verdict, manslaughter against James 
Sleep, station-master, 12 Sept. 1876.] 

Wambrechie, near Lille (French great northern) : 
collision with a conveyance on level crossing, 6 
killed 5 Nov. 

Arlsey siding, near Hitchin (Great Northern) : col- 
lision of Manchester express with goods train, 5 

killed 23 Dec. 

[Verdict of inquest : neglect of Thos. Pepper, 
the driver (killed), in not observing the signal, 
5 Jan. 1877.] 

Near Ashtabula, U.S., Pacific express from New 
York : a bridge over a creek broke down during 
a snow-storm, above 100 perished by drowning, 
burning, &c. 29 Dec. 

Near Morpeth (North Eastern) : Scotch express 
went off the line ; 5 killed . early 25 March, 

Near Billing, Northamptonshire (London and North 
Western) : collision, 2 deaths . . 18 Oct. 

Buckstone Junction, near Grantham (Gt. Northern): 
express ran off the rails ; 2 killed 7 Dec. 

Holcombe, near Leeds (Midland): collision of trains ; 
2 killed 24 Dec. 

Chester : 2 carriages went off rails ; 1 death ; above 
30 hurt 8 July, 

Newcross : collision between carriages of Brighton 
and S. Eastern Cos. : several injured, 7.45 pan. 
(Bank Holiday) 5 Aug. 

Sittingbourne (London, Chatham, & Dover): cheap 
fast train, bringing home holyday-makers ; run 
into luggage trucks ; mistake of pointsman ; 

midday 31 Aug. 

[Jacob Moden and Charles Clarke, committed 
for trial for manslaughter, 3 Sept. 187S.] 

Curragheen, near Cork : engine uncoupled ; ran off 
line ; 3 killed and many injured . S Sept. 

Near Pontypridd junction (Rhondda branch of Taff 
Vale line) ; collision through error of signals ; 
13 killed ; about 40 hurt . . . 19 Oct. 

Talybont (Brecon and Merthyr) ; engines uncon- 
trolled ; ran down steep descent ; 4 killed ; great 
destruction of property .... 2 Dec. 

Bloomficld, near Tipton, Staffordshire (London and 
North Western) ; collisions ; about 30 severely 
injured 31 May, 

Near Manningtree (Great Eastern) ; train ran off 
line ; 1 killed ; several injured . . 8 Dec. 

Tay bridge, Dundee ; bridge and train blown into 
the river ; about 74 lives lost . . 28 Dec. 

Brickfield siding, Burscough junction (Lancashire 
and Yorkshire) ; collision ; through error of 
signalman ; 8 deaths .... 15 Jan. 

Argenteuil, near Paris ; collision ; 7 killed 4 Feb. 

Lofthouse, near Wakefield (Great Northern) ; train 
runs off line ; 2 deaths ... 20 March, 

A bridge fell near Hereford (Midland) ; 1 death 

iS June, 

Marshall Meadows, 2 or 3 miles N. of Berwick 
(North British) ; " Flying Scotchman " engine 
ran olt the line ; carriages precipitated down em- 
bankment ; guard, driver, and fireman killed; 
much damage to carriages; few passengers ; (al- 
leged cause, loose rails), about 11 a.m. 10 Aug. 

Near Weuningtoii Junction, 12 miles N. of Lan- 
caster (Midland) ; train went off the rails ; S 
deaths 11 Aug. 

Near Manchester (Midland) ; train went off rails ; 
17 injured 2 Sept. 

Near Nine Kims station, Vauxhall (South Western); 
collision of train with a left engine; 5 killed ; 20 
injured " Sept. 

Kibworth: Leicestershire (Midland); Scotch ex- 
press ; driver by mistake reversed the engine ; 
collision with advancing train ; several severely 
injured 9 0ct 

Leeds (Midland) ; collision ; 2 deaths; many in- 
jured 21 °eo. 



1S76 



187S 



1S79 



1SS0 ! 



EAILWAYS. 



1035 



EAILWAYS. 



Dalston Junction (North London) ; collision ; 
through error in signalling ; 2 deaths ensued ; 

about 30 hurt 26 Feb. 18S] 

Mexico ; Morelos railway ; through fall of bridge 
near Cuartla ; train precipitated into river San 
Antouio ; about 200 lives lost ; night of 24 June, ,, 
Blackburn (Lancashire and Yorkshire); collision; 

5 deaths ; about 40 injured . . 8 Aug. „ 

Bow Station (Great Eastern) ; collision ; 2 killed 

3 Sept. ,, 
Charenton (Lyons Railway) ; collision ; about 20 

killed 5 Sept. ,, 

Desford, near Leicester (Midland); collision; 5 
killed, 22 Oct. ; (Butler, pointsman, arrested for 

manslaughter) 6 Nov. ,, 

Tayport, Fife (North British) ; collision with goods 

train ; 4 deaths 25 Nov. ,, 

Highbury Tunnel, near Canonbury (North London) ; 

collision of 3 trains ; 5 deaths . . 10 Dec. ,, 

Slough (Great Western) ; express runs into a goods 

train ; 12 killed 24 Dec. ,, 

Between Middlesbrough and Stockton ; explosion 

of locomotive ; 4 deaths . . . .26 Dec. ,, 
Hudson river railway, near New York ; collision 
and fire ; 8 or 9 killed, including senator Wagner 

burned to death 13 Jan. x88 

Hornsey (Great Northern) ; collision ; fog ; 2 deaths 

25 Jan. ,, 
Near Old Ford Station ; collision of train with broken 

up coal trucks ; 6 deaths . . . .28 Jan. ,, 
Near Cork ; collision ; about 40 injured . 9 July, . , 
Between Tcherny and Bastigeur (Moscow Kursk, 
line) ; 8 carriages ran off the rails ; about 178 

killed 13 July, „ 

Streatham Fen (Great Eastern) : destruction of the 
express train, <fec, by being thrown off the line 

28 July, ,, 
Hugstetten, between Freiburg and Colmar, Baden ; 
excursion train ran off the line ; about 70 

killed 3 Sept. ,, 

Crewe (London and North Western) ; collision ; 

many injured 30 Sept. ,, 

Bromley (London, Chatham and Dover) ; fall of a 

bridge ; 7 killed 24 Nov. ,, 

Near Auchterless (Macduff and Turiff section of 
Great North of Scotland) ; train wrecked by fall 
of a bridge ; about 5 killed . . . 27 Nov. ,, 
Vriog, near Barmouth (Cambrian, ; clitl gave way, 

part of train falls over ; 2 killed . 1 Jan. 188 

Near the Eglinton Street Station, Glasgow ; col- 
lision ; 4 killed .... 19 March, ,, 
Near Lockerbie (Caledonian) ; collisions ; 8 deaths, 

11.30 p.m. 14 May, ,, 

Watford (London and North Western ; express runs 

into empty carriages ; 1 death . . 31 Oct. „ 

Near Toronto, Canada (Grand Trunk) ; collision ; 

about 31 killed 2 Jan. 18E 

Stepney ; collision ; about 30 persons injured 

22 March, „ 
Between Breamore and Downton (South Western) ; 
coupling broke, train falls over embankment ; 
5 killed and 41 injured . . . .3 June, ,, 
Near Sevenoaks Station (South Eastern); collision ; 

of goods trains ; 2 killed . . . . 7 June, ,, 
Bullhouse Bridge, near Penistone (Manchester, 
Sheffield, and Lincolnshire) ; express, 55 miles an 
hour ; crank-axle of locomotive engine broke, 
train wrecked over an embankment; sharp 
curve ; 24 deaths, afternoon . . . 16 Juiy, „ 
Near Penistone ; coal waggon, by breaking of an) 
axle, thrown into the way of an excursion train ; 
4 deaths, many injured . . . .1 Jan.' i8i 
Earl's Court, Kensington (District), collision ; one 

killed 23 Aug. ,. 

Whitland and Cardigan Railway, train went off the 

line through fast driving, 3 lives lost . 25 Aug. , : 
Finsbury Park station, collision of Great Northern 
and North London trains through fog ; many 
injured ; 1 death (March) . . . 11 Feb. 18I 
Roccabrunna, between Monte Carlo and Mentone 
(Riviera) collision ; about 8 killed ; many injured 

10 March, ,, 
Portadown (Great Northern of Ireland), 4 killed 

30 June, , 
Collision near Niagara Falls ; 18 killed . 14 Sept. , 



Near Woodstock, Vermont, U.S. (Vermont Central) 

Boston and Montreal express ; carriages fall over 

a bridge over the White River (frozen) and catch 

lire ; about 45 lives lost ... 4 Feb. 1887 

Near Boston (Boston and Providence) U.S. ; train 

broke through bridge ; 32 killed . 14 March, ,, 
Ibrox station (Glasgow and Paisley joint line), 4 

surfacemen killed by an accident . 22 March, )r 
Collision at St. Thomas's, Ontario ; ignition and 
explosion of petroleum, 14 killed and about 100 

injured 16 July, , r 

East of Chatsworth, Illinois ; excursion to Niagara ; 

train overthrown by a burning bridge ; 83 killed 

and many died afterwards . . . n Aug. ,, 

Hexthorpe, near Doncaster ; a Manchester and 

Sheffield train runs into a Midland excursion train 

during collection of tickets ; 25 deaths 16 Sept. ; 

Samuel Taylor (driver) and Robert Davis (fireman) 

committed' for manslaughter 23 Sept. ; acquitted ; 

the directors and other officials censured 15 Nov. , T 

Hyde (Manchester, Sheffield and Lincolnshire) ; 

collision with a goods train ; 4 women killed, 

midnight .... 14-15 July, 188S 

Hampton Wick (London and South Western), 

collision with a light engine, 4 persons killed, near 

midnight, officers censured for recklessness 

6 Aug. ,, 
Velars, between Blaisy and Lyons, train went off 

the rails, 9 persons killed early . 5 Sept. , r 

Lehigh Va ley Railway, collision between excursion 
trains above Pennhaven ; about 61 persons killed 
10 Oct. ; another collision on the same railway, 

14 persons killed 16 Oct. , ? 

Landslip between Salandra and Grassam Italy ; 
destruction of an excursion train, about 22 persons 

killed 20 Oct. ,, 

Near Borki Station in S. Russia, the engine of the 
imperial train (with the czar) ran off the line with 
four carriages (weak rails) ; 21 persons killed ; 
the czar slightly injured . . .29 Oct. ,, 

By the falling in of Abergwynfi tunnel of the 
"Rhondda and Swansea Bay railway, 7 persons 

were killed 22 Jan. iS8q> 

Near Gronendal, Brussels ; train crushed by col- 
lision with a bridge, about 12 lives lost 3 Feb ,, 
Near St. George, Ontario, Canada, by collapse of a 

bridge, 11 persons killed . . . .27 Feb. , f 
Penistone station (Manchester, Sheffield and Lin- 
colnshire), excursion train ran off the line, 1 life 

lost 30 March, ,, 

Near Hamilton, Ontario (Grand Trunk), excursion 
train from Chicago to New York ; carriages run 
off the line and burnt ; 17 killed . 28 April, „ 
Killooney near Armagh (Gt. Northern of Ireland), 
collision between Sunday School excursion trains; 
about 80 deaths ; 400 injured (officials charged with 
culpable negligence) . . . .12 June, ,, 
Near Bucharest ; collision of passenger and luggage 

trains, about 15 deaths . . . .8 July, ,,. 
NearWildpark Station, between Stuttgart and Bob- 
lingen, train went down embankment ; 7 killed . 

1 Oct. „. 
Longsight, near Manchester (London & North- 
western), collision of passenger and goods train, 6 

deaths 4 Oct. 

Stirling, California, collision between Burlington 
and Union Pacific trains, about 30 deaths . 

16 Oct. ,, 
At Jams Run, West Virginia, train upset by spread- 
ing rails ; 10 killed 28 Dec. „ 

Near Cincinnati, U.S.A., collision of express train 

to New Y'ork ; 6 persons killed . . 17 Jan. 1890 
Near Salem, U.S.A., train runs offline ; 6 killed . ,, 

27 Jan. ,, 
At Bnrnmouth, near Berwick (North British), colli- 
sion ; 3 deaths 25 Jan. „ 

Carlisle station (London <& North Western), Scotch 
express ran into engine approaching (attributed 
to failure of vacuum or pneumatic brake through 
cold), 4 persons killed, 3 a.m. . . 4 March, , r 
Near Hamburg, U.S.A., Lake Shore railway, colli- 
sion; 6 killed . . . . 5 March, ,, 
Quincey, near Boston, U.S.A., engine and cars left 

the rails ; about 20 deaths . . . 20 Aug. ,, 
At Schuylkill valley, near Reading U.S.A., collision 
of coal and goods train* ; 23 deaths . 20 Sept. „ 



RAILWAYS. 



1036 



RAILWAYS. 



At Norton Fitzwarren, near Taunton (Great 
Western), collision of special express train from 
Plymouth and a shunted goods train ; 10 passen- 
gers (from the Cape) killed ; George Rice, signal- 
man, through forgetfulness had declared the line 
clear, about 1.30 a.m. 11 Nov. ; acquitted of 
manslaughter 22 Nov. 

Edinburgh, Georgia station (Suburban railway), 
collision of passenger and goods trains, through 
neglect of signalman ; many persons injured . 

11 Nov. 

Primrose-hill tunnel (London & North-Western), 
collision of passenger and goods trains ; guard 
killed 13 Nov. 

At Topsin, near Salonica, train runs off the line ; 
about 40 retired soldiers killed . . 14 Nov. 

Wreay, 5 miles S. of Carlisle (London and North- 
western), express goods train ; axle of a wagon 
broke, 20 wagons thrown over the embankment 
25 feet high, 2 a.m 3 April, 

Norwood Junction (London & Brighton), express 
train wrecked by the collapse of Portland bridge, 
through defect in the ironwork ; about 10 a.m. ; 
6 persons injured 1 May, 

Moenchenstein, near Bale, Switzerland, excursion 
train ; by the collapse of a bridge several carriages 
thrown into the river Birse ; about 70 persons 
perish 14 June 

Ravenna, Ohio, collision between heavy freight 
train and the Erie express for New York, above 
25 persons perish 3 July, 

Charleston, W. Virginia, collapse of a trestle bridge, 
part of a train falls over 13 persons killed . 

4 July 

St.Mande, near Paris, collision of a goods and an 
excursion train ; about 44 killer . 27 July, 

Near Port Byron, New York ; collision ; 11 persons 
killed 6 Aug. 

Pontypridd (Taff Vale) collision ; 15 persons in- 
jured 15 Aug. 

At a junction between Munchenbuchsee and Zolli- 
koi'en, near Berne ; collision; about 14 deaths . 

17 Aug. 

Trestle bridge over the Catawba river, N. Carolina, 
train plunged into the river ; above 20 deaths . 

26 Aug. 

Near Burgos, Old Castile, collision of express and 
mixed trains ; 25 deaths (including Mr. Maurice 
Long, British vice-consul at Malaga, and Mr. Win. 
Cotton) 24 Sept. 

Kohlfurt (between Breslau and Berlin) ; collision ; 
5 deaths, midnight 19 Oct. 

Near Nagpur, Bombay ; train went off the line 
through wheel breaking ; 11 British soldiers and 
5 others killed 5 Nov. 

Near Domnino station on the Kosloff, &c, rail- 
way, Central Russia ; train ran off the line on a 
bridge, 31 persons killed ... 23 Nov. 

About 70 miles from Lahore, the N. W. railway o r 
India ; collision ; about 30 persons killed . 

about 8 Dec. 

At Barnby (Great Eastern) collision of Lowestoft 
and Beccles trains ; 3 persons killed . 24 Dec. 

Near Hastings, New York Central ; collision of 
Buffalo and Niagara Falls, and St. Louis express 
trains ; 10 persons killed . . . .24 Dec. 

Near Medill, Missouri; train falls in the river 
through breaking down of the bridge; 7 per- 
sons killed 4 May, 

On the Cottonbelt, Arkansas, U.S.A., collision, 7 
persons killed 20 May, 

Birmingham, collision between the L. & N. \V. 
express train and a Midland train entering the 
station at the same 1 ime and partly on the same 
line ; 2 deaths, many injured, 27 May, [T. E. Fear, 
the Midland driver, charged with man- 
slaughter] 8 June, 

Near South Carrol Hon, Kentucky, collision, 4 deaths 

5 June, 

Bsholt junction near Leeds (Midland), collision; 4 

deaths 9 June, 

Bishopsgato station (Cieat Eastern); collision of 
workmen's trains from Walthamstow and Enfield, 
containing 1,800 persons; 4 deaths, about 1 o in- 
jured ; between 6 and 7 a.m., 14 June; signal- 
men censured by the coroner . . .i/June, 
Jlarrwburg, U.S.A., collision ; to deaths .25 June, 



1890 



Merreton, Grand Trunk railway, collision of two 
trains ; carriages fall into the Welland canal ; 
several persons drowned . . . 18 July, 

Near Melton Mowbray (London and North- Western) 
train ran off the line ; 3 persons killed 25 July, 

Near Clapham-junction (South-Westem), collisi.n, 
causing great fire ; 1 death, many injured, 

20 Aug. 

Leman-street, east (Great Eastern), collision ; many 
injured 21 Aug. 

Near Cambridge station, Fitchburg railway, 
U.S.A., collision ; about 14 deaths . n Sept. 

Clearfield and Cambria railway, Pennsylvania ; 
collision ; 8 persons killed ... 9 Sept. 

At Shreve (Chicago railway) ; collision ; n persons 
killed 21 Sept. 

Near Manayunk tunnel (Philadelphia and Reading 
railway) ; collision ; 7 persons killed . 24 Oct. 

Manor-house cabin, near Thirsk (North-Eastern) ; 
collision of second part of Scotch express from 
Edinburgh with a goods train, through neglect 
of James Holmes, signalman ; some of the 
wreckage takes fire ; 10 persons killed ; about 
4 a.m 2 Nov. 

James Holmes convicted of manslaughter and dis- 
charged ; the company censured for the long term 
of duty of the signalmen . . . Dec. 

Alton junction, on the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Co- 
lumbus and St. Louis railway ; collision of express 
with goods train ; oil in tank-cars takes fire ; 21 
deaths, many fatally injured ; reported 21 Jan. 

Camp, Tralee and Dingle light railway ; the train 
ran off the steep gradient through failure of the 
brake ; 3 deaths 22 May, 

Poulton-in-the-Fykle, near Blackpool, Preston and 
Wyre railway ; engine went off the line at a 
curve ; 3 deaths 1 July, 

Near Treforest station (Taff Vale railway) ; part of 
the train went over the embankment ; 12 deaths 

12 Aug. 

At Bushwick junction, Long Island, U.S.A. ; 
collision ; 16 deaths .... 26 Aug. 

Near Chester, Massachusetts ; collision ; 15 deaths 

31 Aug. 

Near Kankakee, on the Illinois Central railway ; 
collision ; 12 deaths .... 18 Sept. 

At Jackson (Michigan Central railway) ; collision ; 
18 deaths 13 Oct. 

Battle Creek (Michigan) ; collision and fire ; 26 
deaths 19 Oct. 

At Limito, near Milan ; collision ; express and 
goods train ; 13 deaths ... 28 Nov. 

Near Dunkirk, New York State; collision; 11 
deaths 15 Dec. 

Near Leicester (Midland.), an express goods train 
wrecked by a roll of web newspaper falling under 
the wheels ; much damage to Market Harboro' 
station ■ . . 14 Jan. 

Near Jersey City, New Jersey ; collision; 15 deaths 

15 Jan. 

Near Bilbao ; heavy train fell over an embank- 
ment ; 13 deaths 7 July, 

Near Winsford (London and North-Western rail- 
way) ; collision ; 1 death . . .6 July, 

Newtonmore (Highland railway); collision; prof. 
Dobie, of Edinburgh'lTniversity. killed 2 Aug. 

St. Pancras (Midland) ; through the failure of the 
brakes the Scotch express was wrecked in the 
station; 21 persons injured (morning). 12 Aug. 

At Apilly, between Noyon and Chauny ; collision 
between Cologne express and a goods train; 5 
deaths; is injured 9 Sept. 

Near Northallerton (North-Eastern railway); col- 
lision between Scotch express and coal train, 
4 Oct. ; driver died .... 12 Oct. 

Near Canterbury (Soufch-Eastern railway) ; collision 
between a goods train and a wagon carrying hop- 
pickers during a log on a level crossing : 7<l^;it lis 

o Oct, 

Chelford, near Crewe (London and Nbrth-Westem); 
collision of the up-express with part oi goods 
train which had been blown on to the line by the 
violent gale then raging : 14 deaths . 22 Dec. 
I Verdict of inquest : no criminal negligence, 
1 1 .Ian. 1895.] 
Low Moor, near Bradford (Lancashire & Yorkshire 
railway) ; collision between two excursion trains ; 
16 persons injured . .26 Dec. 



1893 



KAILWAYS. 



1037 



KAILWAYS. 



Near Mexico city ; a train cast down a precipice ; 

140 lives lost ' 28 Feb. 1895 

Near Thornhill station (London & North-Western 

railway) ; collision ; 2 deaths . 28 March, „ 

Near Leamington (London & North-Western) ; 

collision ; 1 death and 18 injured . . 13 May, ,, 
Craigshead station (Grand Trunk railway), E. 
Quebec ; collision between two sections of a 
pilgrim train ; 14 deaths . . . g July, ,, 
At San Pablo, Argentine republic; cjllision ; 15 

deaths; reported .... 11 July, ,, 
Near St. Brieuc, France, a pilgrim train ran off the 

line, 12 deaths 26 July, ,, 

Near Freiburg, collision between a military and 

goods train ; 13 deaths ... 20 Sept. ,, 
Collision at Wellingborough (Midland), 1 death, 

27 Sept. „ 
Collision, near Ottignies, Belgium ; 17 deaths, 

many injured 6 Oct. ,, 

At St. Neots (Gt. N. R.), train left the rails and 
collided with some coal wagons ; Miss L. O'Hara 
killed, 10 Nov. ; Mr. W. H. Corrie died of injuries, 

18 Nov. „ 
Near Peterborough (Gt. N. R.), 2 carriages of the 

Leeds express left the rails ; 2 deaths 7 March, 1896 
Near Preston (L. & N. W.), express train left the 
rails ; 1 death ; much damage ; after midnight, 

12 July, ,, 
Preston Junction (E. Lancashire), collision ; 1 
death ... .... 3 Aug. „ 

March station (Gt. E. R.), collision ; 1 death, 21 

injured 23 Sept. ,, 

Louis & Nashville railway, 50 mi. from Birming- 
ham, U. S. N. A. train went over a bridge ; 
about 30 deaths .... 27 Dec. ,, 

Baroda line, near Golwood station, collision mail 

and passenger trains ; 5 deaths, 24 injured 9 Jan. 1897 
Accident, caused by a broken rail, near Dorchester, 

New Brunswick ; 2 deaths ... 26 Jan. ,, 
By the fall of a platform on the Coldrenick viaduct, 
134 ft. high, near Menheniot (Cornwall R.), 12 

men killed 9 Feb. ,, 

Excursion train left the line at Rothbury, North- 
umberland ; 3 deaths . . . 13 Feb. ,, 
Excursion train left the rails, near Oswestry (Cam- 
brian R.) ; 11 deaths .... 11 June, ,, 
Collision between a fast and excursion train, near 

Copenhagen (see Denmark) . . 11 July, ,, 

A goods train ran over the points at Buxton (L. & 

N. W. R.) ; 1 death .... 2 Aug. „ 
Express from Paris to Rouen left the rails at Petit 

Couronne, 1 death .... 21 Aug. ,, 

Near Mayfield (London, Brighton <fe S. Coast), pas- 
senger train left the rails ; driver killed, many 

hurt 1 Sept. ,, 

Collision at Tournay between 2 passenger trains, 

12 deaths 24 Nov. ,, 

See France, 24 Dec. 1897. 
Collision near Dunbar (Scotch express and coal 

wagon), 1 death t. Jan. 1898 

Collision at Barassie between mail express and 
goods train (Glasgow & S. W. R.), 7 deaths, 

4 Feb. ,, 
Collision at St. John's-road station, Lewisham-road 
(S. E. R.), 3 deaths .... 21 March, ,, 

Collision at Bisley (L. & S. W. R.), between engine 
and standing train ; many volunteers injured, 

11 April, „ 
Collision between 2 excursion trains at Leyland, 
near Preston (L. and N. W. R.) ; 2 deaths, many 
injured, 9.30 p.m. ..... 2 June, ,, 

Wellingborough (Midland), 7 deaths ; express ran 

into a van that had fallen on to the line 2 Sent. ,, 
Collision between Montreal express and a car 
(Delaware and Hudson R.), near Cohoes, 18 deaths, 

5 Sept. ,, 
At Wrawby junction (Gt. Central R.) an express 
wrecked by the shunting of a goods train, 9 

deaths 17 Oct. ,, 

Collision (Grand Trunk R.) near Trenton, Canada, 

12 deaths 15 N °v. ,, 

Collision near Bound Brook (Lehigh valley R.), 
U.S.N.A., 12 deaths .... 9 Jan. 1891 

See Storms, Jan. 1899. 
Collision between an express from Calais and a 
local trains at Forest, near Brussels, 21 deaths 
and 100 injured, some mortally . 18 Feb. ,, 



Collision, 2 passenger trains (Philadelphia and 

Reading R.), at Exeter, 34 killed . . 12 May, 1S99 
Near Waterloo, Iowa, U.S., a train left the rails, 

8 deaths 27 May, ,. 

At Flushing, the Berlin express dashed into the 

buffet, 3 deaths 1 June, ,. 

A shunting accident at Reading, 3 deaths, 24 June, ,, 
Collision at Juvisy (Orleans R ) between 2 portions 
of a Paris express, 17 deaths and about 40 injured, 

5 Aug. , 
Express leaves the rails between Montreal and 

Ottawa, 7 deaths 9 Aug. „ 

In Chili, train leaves the rails and falls into the 

river Mapocho, 6c deaths ... 24 Aug. ,, 
Seven-sisters'-rd. station, Cape Colony, collision 
between 2 sections of a refugee train, 9 deaths, 

13 Oct. „ 
Collision : Bordeaux express and goods train at 

Thouars, 4 deaths ... . 1 Nov. ,, 

Collision in a fog : London express from Flushing 
with a mail train near Capelle (Holland), 5 killed 
and 15 mortally injured . . . 15 Nov. ,, 
Collision : Bordeaux express and fast train, Orleans 

line, near Montmoreau, 3 deaths . . 18 Dec. ,, 
Collision in a fog between the Newhaven boat train 
and the Brighton express at Wivelsfield, 6 deaths 

and 18 injured 23 Dec. ,, 

Near Motherwell, branch of the Caledonian R , a 
train went over an embankment, 3 deaths and 

12 injured 23 Dec. ,, 

Collision : express and goods train at Bischweiler, 

Strasburg, 3 deaths 4 Jan 1900 

Collision between 2 workmen's trains in Glasgow, 
near Charing-cross station, 7 deaths, 31 injured, 

28 March, ,, 
Electric railway accident near Budapest, 4 deaths, 

4 June, ,, 
Collision between stationary passenger train and 
Plymouth express at Slough (G. W. R.), 5 deaths 
and over 35 injured . . . .16 June, ,, 
Accident near Frederickstad, S. Africa, 13 deaths, 

39 injured 31 July, ,, 

Collision on the Salario bridge near Rome, 15 
deaths and many injured (the king and queen 
active in the work of rescue) . . . 12 Aug. ,, 
Collision near Plevna, Bulgaria, 20 deaths, 20 Aug. „ 
Mail train leaves the line near Baripada, Orissa, 

11 deaths, 25 injured, reported . 23 Aug. ,, 

Collision at Hatfield, Philadelphia and Reading R., 

U.S.N. A., 15 deaths, 40 injured . . 2 Sept. ,, 
Train disaster at Bolivar Point, on the Gulf and 

Inter-State R., U.S.N. A., 85 deaths . 8 Sept. ,, 
Collision near Karlsthor, Germany, 4 deaths, over 

70 injured 7 Oct. ,, 

Collision between the Frankfurt express and local 

train near Offenbach, 8 deaths, 30 injured, 8 Nov. ,, 
Collision between 2 passenger trains at Choisy-le- 

Roi, near Paris, 8 deaths, 25 injured . 11 Nov. ,, 
Southern express falls over an embankment at Dax, 
near Bayonne ; the duke of Canevaro and 16 
others killed, 20 injured ... 15 Nov. ,, 

Collision near Bethulie, Orange River colony, 4 

deaths 2 Feb. 1901 

Train falls down a declivity near Sydenham, New 

S. Wales, 10 deaths .... 15 Feb. ,, 

Collision near Courtrai, Belgium, 3 deaths, 9 March, ,, 
A train dashed down an incline at Saratoff, on the 

Volga, 5 deaths 17 April, ,, 

Train derailed near Lofa, Pekin railway, 19 Chinese 

killed, 23 injured .... 28 April, ,, 
Collision near Pretoria, 9 deaths . . 7 June, „ 
Collision and explosion near Vestal, New York, 

9 deaths 8 June, ,, 

Collision at Chailland, France, 7 deaths . 15 June, ,, 
A petroleum train dashed into an express at 

Palota, Hungary, 8 deaths and 9 injured 21 Sept. ,, 
Locomotive-boiler explosion, many killed, at 

Lezama station, Bilbao, Spain . . .4 Oct. ,, 
Collision between passenger trains near Seneca, 
Wabash R., U.S. ; one took tire ; 20 killed and 

30 injured 27 Nov. ,, 

Collision between an express and passenger train 
near Paderborn, in Westphalia, 12 killed, 21 

injured 20 Dec. ,, 

Fire at Dingle station, Liverpool Overhead Electric 

railway, 6 deaths .... 23 Dec. „ 
Collision in New York (Central Railroad), 15 deaths, 
30 injured. ... .8 Jan. 1902 



RAILWAYS. 

'Train leaves the rails near Barberton, S. Africa ; 
driver, stoker, 38 soldiers killed, 45 injured (6 

mortally) 30 March, 1 

Another accident near Machavie, 13 soldiers killed 

and 13 injured 12 April, 

Accident (due to the breaking of an axle) to a 
workmen's train at Hackney downs station, 
3 deaths, many injured, 10 seriously . 25 April, 
Pilgrim train from Brussels to Lourdes derailed 
near Compiegne, 8 killed, 25 injured . 6 May, 
Train blown over by a cyclone near Rampur-hat, 
E. India, 13 deaths, 15 injured . . 30 June, 
Collision on the Mountain and Lake electric rail- 
way, near Gloversville, Utica ; 12 killed, 36 

injured 4 Jul.V> 

Train derailed at Khatauli, Meerut, 16 deaths, 30 

injured 3 1 Julv > 

Lille express derailed near Charleville, 3 deaths. 

20 injured 10 Aug. 

Collision between a refugee train and an engine at 

Bloemfontein, several deaths . . 24 Aug. 

Negro excursion train fell down an embankment at 

Berry, Alabama, 26 deaths, many injured 1 Sept. 

Mail train wrecked by collapse of bridge, near 

Mangapatnan, Madras ; 62 bodies found, many 

natives 11 Sept. 

Express leaves the. rails near Douai, France, 20 

killed, 41 injured .... 27 Sept. 

Collision at Bloemfontein between goods trains, 

6 natives killed, 10 injured ... 4 Oct. 

Train wrecked near Halifax. N.S., 7 deaths, 12 

injured 6 Dec. 

Collision between an express and goods train 

(Grand Trunk R.) at Wanslead, Canada, 28 

deaths, 28 injured, many fatally . . 26 Dec. 

Collision between a working train and a snow 

rjlough, at Chiwakum, Washington, U.S.A., 12 

deaths 20 Jan. 

Collision near Tucson, Arizona, between 2 express 
trains ; the debris caught tire, the driver and 
fireman burnt to death, 8 killed, 17 injured ; colli- 
sion at La Fox, Illinois, 3 killed, 12 injured, 

28 Jan. 

Collision between an express and local train at 

Graceland, New Jersey, 21 killed and over 50 

injured, reported 28 Jan. 

Collision at Newark, N. Jersey, U.S., school 
excursion train, 12 children killed, 30 injured, 

some fatally 19 Feb. 

Forepart of train derailed near Ballymoe, Ireland, 

2 deaths 11 April, 

Collision between express and goods train, near 

Halifax, Canada, 4 deaths . . 11 April, 

Collision between an express and goods train at 

Redhouse, N. York state ; 6 deaths . 20 April, 

Iving's-cross (Met.) collision, between G.W. and 

Inner Circle trains ; 5 persons seriously injured, 

17 June, 
Train on the Bilbao-Zaragoza line ran into the 
Najerilla river, at San Asensio, Spain ; over 100 
killed, many injured ... 27 June, 

Train leaves the rails at Waterloo station, Liver- 
pool ; 7 deaths, 116 injured . . . 15 July, 
At St. Enoch's, Glasgow, an excursion train from 
I. of Man, dashed into the station against the 
buffers, 2 carriages shattered ; 15 deaths, over 
30 injured (1 death subsequently) . 27 July, 
Collision at Preston between an excursion and 
empty passenger train, about 30 injured (1 

death) 1 Aug. 

Collision between 2 sections of a circus train cm tin' 
Grand Trunk railway, U.S., 19 deaths, reported, 

7 Aug. 

Paris Underground Electric railway fire : the 

motor of a train failing, the train was joined to 

anothei(both having 1 n emptied of passengers), 

and they were run past several stations towards 
the terminus ; the station-master at Les Cou- 
ronnes, seeing that the carriages were on Ore, 

called to the driver to stop ; lie, however, dashed 
■on, and soon after an explosion took place, the 
electric light wires became fused, and the 
current was cut, off. Another train following 
was stopped about 300 yards off ; a tearful panic 
«nsued, 84 personswere killed by suffocation and 
in other ways, and a large number injured in 
their efforts to escape .... 10 Aug. 



1038 



RAIN-GAUGE. 



902 



[903 



Train derailed near Rothenkirchen, Saxony ; 3 
killed, 20 seriously injured, reported . 17 Aug. 1903 

Collision between a military and a goods train near 
Pasian, Italy ; 18 deaths, many injured, reported 

28 Aug. ,, 

Fall of a mail train with crew of 16 men over a 
trestle bridge 75 ft. high, at Danville, Virginia, 
U.S., causes 9 deaths and serious injury to the 
other 7 men, reported ... 28 Sept. ,, 

Collision on the Lanes, and Yorks. rly., 1 killed, 
25 injured .22 Oct. ,, 

RAINBOW. Its theory was developed by 
Kepler in 1611, and by Rene Descartes in 1629; 
see Spectrum. 

RAIN-FALL. Mr. G. J. Symons printed a 
table of rain-fall in Britain for 140 years, 1 726- 1865, 
in the reports of the British Association in 1866 ; 
and another table in 1883 for the years 1866— 1880. 
The wettest year was 1852, being 38 percent, above 
the average ; but 1872 was 58 per cent. He began 
to publish his "Annual Rainfall in the British 
Isles" in 1866-95. ^ n l ^7 ne published, " Rain : 
Mow, When, Where, Why , it is Measured." Itcon- 
tains an attempt at a rainfall table of the world. 
Mr. Symons died, aged 62, 10 March, 1900. 

Rainfall observers in Britain for the tables, 168 in i860 ; 
about 2000 in 1888 ; 3,506 stations in U.K. in 1902. 

Deficient rainfall in 1887 ; average yearly fall at Bolton, 
Lancashire, for 56 years 47-07 in. ; in 1887, 27-92 in. 
See Drought. 

August 1S91, the wettest in Britain for many years. 
Experiments for the artificial production of rain 
by means of explosives at El Paso in Texas . 

18, 19 Sept. 1891 

Melbourne, "the rain-maker," contracts to water 
N.-W. Kansas in June-Aug. 1892 . . Oct. ,, 

Rain-making experiments made in Madras presi- 
dency Nov. ,, 

Extraordinary rainfall at Ilkley ; estimated damage 
over ioo,oooZ i2 July, 1900 

Red rain with sand descends in Italy and Vienna, 

10 March, 1901 

Rain-making experiments successful in Italy and 
later at Brisbane 2 Oct. „ 

Total fall in London, 21-48 in. ; 126 rain days, 

1 Jan. -31 Dec. .. 

Fall of red dust with rain in Cornwall, end of Jan. 1902 

Fall of ''blood rain," due to (Carabus coccinellaj 
insects, in Hamburg . . . .24 May, ,, 

1 901, the driest (except 1888) since 1862, in the 
British Isles ; 18 per cent, below the average 
rainfall in England, 15 per cent. Wales, 13 per 
cent. Scotland, and 10 per cent. Ireland. 1902 : 
20^84 in. fell in United Kingdom, 52 stations, 85 
per cent, of average. 

Heavy rain fell in London and the south of England 
daily 9-1 1 June; again without ceasing, when 
about 3i in. fell, 13-15 June ; more rainy days, 
20 hrs., 19 June ; total amount 6-43 in., with 
very low temperature ; the wettest June since 
i860 8-19 June, 1903 

Another heavy fall in London, Fleet-street offices 
flooded 25, 26 July, ,, 

Total fall for June and July 11-62 ins. on 23 days, 
highest amount in 45 years, reported . 3 Aug. ,, 

British Rainfall association, founded by the late 
Mr. Symons in i860. Mr. Sowerby Wallis, his 
associate for ^o years, retires, and is succeeded 
by Dr. H. R. Mill .... 1 Sept. ,, 
Rainfall 34-61 in. . . from 1 Jan. to 27 Oct. ,, 
[The wettest year recorded at Camden-square ob- 
servatory since 1858 is that of 1903. During 46 
years, in 6 complete years the annual rainfall 
exceeded 30 in., the wettest year in London 
previously to 1903 being that of 1S78 ; of the 
British Isles, that of 1S72.] 

RAIN - GAUGE, an apparatus consisting 
primarily of a lunnel-shaped receiver and a glass 
graduated measure of a much smaller size, 
measuring the amount of rain collected in tenths 
and hundredths of an inch. Those chiefly in use 



RAISINS. 



1039 



RANK, RELATIVE. 



are Symons', the improved Glaisher's, Fleming's, 
and Jagga's. 

RAISINS, dried grapes, produced chiefly in 
the S.W. provinces of Spain, in Asia Minor, the 
Greek Archipelago, Crete, S. Italy, and Provence. 
Imports, Great Britain, 1866, 493,600 cwt., value 
813,000^.; 1887, 653,100 cwt., 1,022,400;. ; 1902, 
662,459 cwt. 1,201,378/. 

RAJPUTANA, an administrative territory, 
N.W. India, embracing 20 native states and the 
British district of Ajmere-Merwara (27,11 sq. mi. ; 
population, 460,722). Total area, 132,461 sq. mi.; 
population in 1881, 10,268,392 ; 1891, 12,089,330 ; 
1901, 9,723,301. The Rajputs, the predominant race, 
are a proud aristocracy. At the time of the Ma- 
hometan invasions in the nth century, the Rajputs 
ruled over half-a-dozen strong states. From the 
end of the 16th to the middle of the 18th century, 
these states acknowledged the supremacy of the 
Mogul emperor of Delhi ; they were next subjected 
by the Mahrattas, but became independent when 
these were crushed by the British, 181 7 et seq., 
with whom they eventually became allies. The 
Rana of Jhalawar accused of misgovernment, etc., 
was deprived of full powers in [887, reinvested, 1894. 

RALEIGH'S CONSPIRACY, termed the 
Main Plot {which see). 

" RALLIED " to republicanism, a name as- 
sumed by a party at the general election in France, 
Aug. 1893. 

RAM, that portion of the bow of a battleship 
which projects below, the water-line in the form of 
a beak, and designed by its momentum when 
striking a hostile vessel to crush in its side. All 
line-of-battleships are now constructed with rams. 
The ram was first used during the American civil 
war, when the federal frigate Cumberland was sunk 
by the confederate ram Virginia, 1862. During the 
Austro-Italian w r ar the Austrian ironclad Ferdinand 
Max sunk the Italian ironclad Re d' Italia at the 
battle of Lissa, 1866. In the war between Chile and 
Peru, the Peruvian battleship Huascar sunk the 
Chilian corvette Esmeralda, 1879 Accidents by 
collision between battleships have occurred : — 
The Vanguard was rammed and sunk by the 
Iron Duke, 1875; tQe Grosser Kurf first by the 
Konig Wilhelm, 1878 (280 of the crew of the 
former were drowned) ; the Victoria by the Cam- 
perdown ; Adm. Tryon and 400 men perished, 1893. 

RAMADAN, otherwise Ramadham, Ramazan, 
the ninth month of the Mahometan year, in which 
is kept a strict fast in memory of the first revelation 
to Mahomet; the fast is followed by the short 
festival Bairam {which see). The Mahometan 
year is lunar, consisting of 354 days 21 hours, and 
in about 33 years the Ramadan passes through all 
the seasons. Bamadan begins on 9 Nov. in 1904 ; 
on 30 Oct. in 1905 of our calendar. 

RAMAYANA, the older of the two great 
Sanskrit epic poems, is said to have been written 
by the poet Valmiki, 5th cent. B.C. Its hero is 
Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu, as the son of the 
king of Oudh. The Ramayana consists of 24,000 
verses, divided in 7 books. A translatioa in 
English verse by R. T. H. Grifiiths in 5 vols., 
published 1870-75. 

RAMBOUILLET, a royal chateau, about 25 
miles from Paris. Here Francis I. died 31 March, 
1547; and here Charles X. abdicated, 2 Aug. 1830. 
After being owned by the count of Thoulouse and the 
ducdePenthievre, it was bought by Louis XVI. 1778. 



RAMILLIES (Belgium), the site of a brilliant 
victory gained by the English under the duke of 
Marlborough and the allies over the French com- 
manded by the elector of Bavaria and the marshal 
de Villeroy, on Whitsunday, 23 May (o.s. 12), 1706. 
The French were soon seized with a panic, and a 
general rout ensued : about 4000 of the allied army 
were slain in the engagement. This accelerated 
the fall of Louvain, Brussels, &c. 

RAMSGATE, Kent, a fishing village in the 
17th century, became important through commerce 
after 1689. The erection of the pier began in 1750 ; 
the harbour was formed by George Smeaton, 1780- 
95, and the lighthouse erected soon after. Iron 
promenade pier, 1881 ; handsome Roman Catholic 
church, built by the Pugins, the elder of whom 
resided here ; Jewish synagogue and college 
erected by sir Moses Montefiore, also a resident ; 
the ranville hotel, a handsome structure. Rams- 
gate incorporated as a borough 1884. Frith' s 
" Ramsgate Sands" painted 1854. Population, 
1881, 22,683; l8 9 ! > 2 4>676 ; 1901, 27,693. 

RANELAGH (near Chelsea), a public garden 
for concerts and dancing, occupying the grounds of 
Ranelagh House (built by Jones, earl of Ranelagh, 
about 1691), was opened with a breakfast, 5 April, 
1742. The music for the orchestra was frequently 
composed by Dr. Arne. The gardens were closed, 
and the buildings taken down, in 1804. 

RANGES ACT, 1891. See under Commons. 

RANGOON, maritime capital of the Burmese 
empire, built by Alompra, 1 753, was taken by sir 
A. Campbell on n May, 1824. In Dec. 1826, it 
was ceded to the Burmese on condition of the pay- 
ment of a sum of money, the reception of a British 
resident at Ava, and freedom of commerce. Oppres- 
sion of the British merchants led to the second 
Burmese war, 1852. Rangoon was taken by storm 
by general Godwin, 14 April, and annexed to the 
British dominions in December. An English 
bishopric founded, 1877. Destructive fire for two 
days about 18 April, 1884. Foundation stone of 
Cathedral laid by lord Dufferin, viceroy, 24 Feb. 
1886. Prince Albert Victor of Wales hospitably re- 
ceived, 20 Dec. 1889. Population, 1891, 180,324; 
1901, 232,326. Fighting between the Mahometans 
and Hindoos during a festival suppressed by govern- 
ment ; many deaths, 23-25 June, 1893. Memorial 
of the officers who fell in the war, 1885-90, unveiled 
by the viceroy, the marquis of Lansdowne, 20 Nov. 
1893. Mr. Macgregor, a merchant, bequeaths 
75,600/. to the city, Jan. 1903. See Burmah. 

RANK, RELATIVE, m the Navy and 
Army— 

^Admiral of the Fleet") 

ranks with . . . / 

"Admirals .... ^Generals. 

* Vice- Admirals . . . *Lieut. -generals. 

■ ; Rear-Admirals . . . *Major-generals. 

-Commodores, 1st and 2nd) *•□ -„„ A - , 

class . . . / Bn S ad ier-generals. 

"'■Captains (of 3 years) with . *Colonels. 

'Captains (under 3 years > * Lieut .colonels 
and staff captains) with f ^eut. -colonels. 

Commanders and staff/ , r ■ ,+. „ , ,„ 

commanders, with. .[ +Lieut. -colonels. 
Lieutenants and navig.-~\ 

lieutenants of 8 years' ]• ^Majors, 
standing, with . .J 
Lieutenants and navig.- . 

lieutenants under 8 years' • jCaptains. 
standing, as with . . ) 

Sub-lieutenants with . . ^Lieutenants. 
* According to date of commission. + Senior to. 
t According to date of commission or order. 



"Field-marshal. 



RANSOME'S ARTIFICIAL STONE. 1040 



READERS. 



RANSOME'S ARTIFICIAL STONE, the 
invention of Mr. Fred. Ransome, 1848, is made by 
dissolving common flint (silica) in heated caustic 
alkali, adding; fine sand. The mixture is pressed 
into moulds and heated to redness. 

RANTERS, a sect which arose in 1645, similar 
to the Seekers, now termed Quakers. The name 
is sometimes applied to the Primitive Methodists, 
separated from the WesUynns in 181c. 

RAPE was punished with death by the Jews, 
Romans, and Goths ; by mutilation and loss of 
eyes in V\ illiam I.'s reign. This was mitigated by 
the statute of Westminster I, 3 Edw. I. 1274. 
Made felony by stat. Westminster 2, T2 Edw. III. 
1338 ; and without benefit of clergy, 18 Eliz. 1575. 
Eape made punishable by transportation in 1841 ; 
by penal servitude for life, or a less period, 1861. 
The Crimimal Law Amenpment Act, 1885, contains 
pr visions respecting rape. 

RAPHIA, a port of Palestine. Here Antiochus 
III. of Syria was defeated by Ptolemy Philopater, 
king of Egypt, 217 b.c 

RAPHOE, a bishopric in N. Ireland. St. 
Columb-kille, a man of great virtue and learning, 
and of royal blood, founded a monaster y in this 
place, and it was afterwards enlarged by other holy 
men : but it is the received opinion that St. Eunan 
erected the church into a cathedral, and was the 
first bishop of the see in the 8th century. Eaphoe 
was united to the bishopric of Derry by act, 3 & 4 
Will. IV. [833 ; see Bishops. 

RAPPAHANNOCK, see Ghancellorsville, and 
Trials, 1865. 

RASPBERRY, not named among the fruits 
early introduced into this country from the conti- 
nent. The Virginian raspberry (Rubus occiden- 
talis) before 1696, and the flowering raspberry 
(Ricbus odoratus), about 1700, came from North 
America. 

RASTADT, Baden. Here the preliminaries of 
a peace were signed, 6 March, 1714, by marshal 
Villars on the part of the French king, and by 
prince Eugene on the part of the emperor ; the 
German frontier was restored to the terms of the 
peace of Eyswick. — The Congress of Ras- 
tadt, to treat of a general peace with the 
Germanic powers, was commenced 9 Dec. 1797 ; 
and negotiations were carried on throughout 1798. 
The atrocious massacre of the French plenipoten- 
tiaries at Kastadt by the Austrian regiment of 
Szeltzler took place 28 April, 1799. 

RATCLIFFE HIGHWAY (nowSt. George' s- 

street), East London. Mr. Marr, a shopkeeper here, 
with his » ife, child, and boy, were brutally mur- 
dered, 7 Dec. 181 1 ; and on 11 Dec, Mr. and Mrs. 
Williamson, their child, and servant, were also 
murdered. A man, named Williams, arrested on 
suspicion, committed suicide, 15 Dec. 

RATES. See Local Rate*. 

RATHMINES (near Dublin) . Colonel Jonos, 
governor of Dublin castle, made a sally out, routed 
the marquis of Ormond :it Kathmines, killed 4000 
men, and took 2517 prisoners, with their cannon, 
baggage, and ammunition, 2 Aug. 1649. 

RATING ACT. See local Rates. 

RATIONALISM, the doctrine of those wh( 
reject a divine revelation and admit no other means 



of acquiring knowledge but experience and reason. 
The leading writers are Reimarus of Hamburg (died 
1768), Paulus of Heidelberg, Eichhorn, Reinhaid, 
and Strauss. W. Lecky's (died 23 Oct. IQ03) 
"History of Rationalism in Europe" appeared, 
July, 1865 ; and Dr. J. Hurst's," April, 1867. 
Higher Criticism, see Addenda. 

RAT1SBON (in Bavaria) was made a free 
imperial city about 1200. Several diets have beeD 
held here. A peace was concluded here between 
France and the emperor of Germany, by which was 
terminated the war for the Mantuan succession, 
signed 13 Oct. 1630. In later times, it was at 
Ratisbon, in a diet held there, that the German 
princes seceded from the Germanic empire, and 
placed themselves under the protection of the 
emperor Napoleon of France, 1 Aug. 1806. Batis- 
bon was made an archbishopric in 1806 ; secularised 
in 1810 ;. was ceded to Bavaria in 1815 ; became 
again an archbishopric in 1817. Population 1890, 
37,567; 1900,45,426. 

RATTENING (from ratten, provincial for rat), 
the removing and hiding workmen's tools as a 
punishment for nonpayment to trades unions, or 
opposition to them. Much "rattening" was dis- 
closed at the commission of inquiry at Sheffield in 
June, 1867; and at Manchester Sept. following; see 
Sheffield. 

RAUCOUX (Belgium). Here marshal Saxe 
and the French army totally defeated the allies 
under prince Charles of Lorraine, 11 Oct. 1746. 

RAVAILLAC'S MURDER of Henry TV. of 

France, 14 May, 1610. The assassin was fearfully 
tortured, and executed, 27 May. 

RAVENNA (on the Adriatic), a city of the 
Papal states, founded by Greek colonists, fell under 
the Roman power about 234 B.C. It was favoured 
and embellished by the emperors, and Honorius 
made it the capital of the Empire of the West about 
a.d. 404. In 568 it became the capital of an 
exarchate. It was subdued by the Lombards in 
752, and their king, Astolphus, in 754 surrendered 
it to Pepin, king of France, who gave it to the pope 
Stephen, and thus laid the foundation of the tem- 
poral power of the holy see. On the nth of April, 
1512, a battle was fought between the French, 
under Gaston de Foix (duke of Nemours and 
nephew of Louis XII.), and the Spanish and Papal 
armies. De Foix perished in the moment of his 
victory, and his death closed the good fortune of the 
French in Italy. Ravenna became part of the king- 
dom of Italy in i860. 

Many of the Accoltellatori, a secret society of as- 
sassins fsaid to have been formerly followers of 
Garibaldi), who long kept the city in terror, 
arrested, Sept.— Oct. ; condemned to life im- 
prisonment 12 Dec. 1874 

RE, IsLE OF (W. coast of Fiance, near P.ochelle). 
Oyster beds planted here in 1862 have flourished. 
See Rochelle. 

READERS, an order of mini^tiants in the 
church of England, received the assent of the 
archbishops and bishops in July, 1866. They are 
not ordained or addressed as reverend, but are 
licensed by the bishop of the diocese. Readers 
wear a special badge to denote their office. A 
monthly magazine devoted to the interests of 
licensed readers is in project, the first number to 
be issued 1 Jan. 11)04. 



BEADING. 



1041 



BEBELLIONS. 



BEADING (Berkshire) . Here Alfred defeated 
the Danes, 871. The abbey was founded in 1121 
by Henry I. The last abbot was hanged in 1539 
for denying the king's supremacy. The palace 
prison was erected 1850. New town hall, free 
library, &c. opened 31 May, 1882. Royal County 
theatre burnt, 25 Aug. 1894. Mr. George Palmer, 
giver of Palmer park, &c, born 1818, died 19 Aug. 
1897. University Extension (Oxford) college 
(4000^. presented by Mr. Walter Palmer), opened 
by the prince of Wales, ir June, 1898. Lady 
Warwick hostel, to train women in the lighter 
side of agriculture, opened Oct. 1898 ; a donation 
of 50,000/. received Dec. 1900; exhibition, &c, 
16 July, 1902. Population, 1881, 48,769; 1891, 
60,054 ! ^oi, 72,214. 
Prince Christian unveils a statue of the king, 

3 Dec. 1902 

BEAL ACTIONS Limitation Act, passed 

1874, comes into operation I Jan. 1879. 

BEALISTS, see Nominalists. 

BEAL PBESENCE, see Transubstantia- 
tion. 

. BEAPING-MACHINES. One was invented 
in this country early in the present century, but 
failed from its intricacies. At the meeting of the 
British association at Dundee, Sept. 1867, the rev. 
Patrick Bell stated' that he invented a reaping- 
machine in 1826, which was used in 1827 ; the 
principle being that on which the best American 
machines are now constructed. On 15 Jan. 1868, 
he was presented with a valuable testimonial, and 
IOOO/. in money. McCormick's American machine 
was invented about 1831, and perfected in 1846 ; he 
received a gold medal from the jurors of the exhibi- 
tion of 185 1 ; and also at the Royal Agricultural 
society's competition at Bristol, 6 Aug. 1878. The 
sheaves are bound by these reaping machines. 
About 200 patented ; few good. Hussey's machine, 
also American, exhibited in 1851, was highly 
commended. 

John Ridley, the inventor of the reaping machine 
largely used n Australia, died 28 Nov. 1887. 

BEASON was decreed to be worshipped as 
a goddess by the French republicans, 10 Nov. 
1793, and was personified by an actress. — Thomas 
Paine' s " Age of Reason" was published in 1794-5 > 
Immanuel Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason," 
(" Kritik der reinen Vernunft "), 1781. 

BEBECCA BIOTS, see Wales, 1843, 1878. 

BEBELLIONS or Insurrections in 
British History. Details of many are given 
in separate articles. See Conspiracies. 

Against William the conqueror, in favour of Edgar 

Atheling, aided by the Scots and Danes, 1069. 
By Odo of Bayeux and others, against William II. in 

favour of his brother Robert, 1088 ; suppressed, 1090. 
In favour of the empress Maude, 1139. Ended, 1153. 
The rebellion of prince Richard against his father Henry 

II. 1189. 
Of the barons, April, 1215. Compromised by the grant 

of Magna Charta, 15 June following. 
Of the barons, 1261-67. 
Of the lords spiritual and temporal against Edward II. 

on account 01 his favourites, the Gavestons, 1312. 

Again, on account of the Spencers, 1321. 
Of Walter the Tyler, of Deptford, vulgarly called Wat 

Tyler, occasioned by the brutal rudeness of a poll-tax 

collector to his daughter. He killed the collector in 

his rage, and raised a party to oppose the tax itself, 

1381 ; see Tyler. 



In Ireland, when Roger, earl of March, the viceroy 
heir presumptive to the crown, was slain, 1398. 

Of Henry, duke of Lancaster, who caused Richard II. 
be deposed, 1399. 

Against king Henry IV. by a number of confederated 
lords, 1402-3. 

Against Henry V. by earl of Cambridge and other lords, 
1415 

Of Jack Cade, against Henry VI. 1450 ; see Cade's Insur- 
rection. 

In favour of the house of Fork, 1452, which ended in the 
imprisonment of Henry VI. and seating Edward IV. of 
York on the throne, 1461. 

Under Warwick and Clarence, 1470, which ended with 
the expulsion of Edward IV. and the restoration of 
Henry VI. the same year. 

Under Edward IV. 1471, which ended with the death ol 
Henry VI. 

Of the earl of Richmond, against Richard III. 1485, which 
ended with the death of Richard. 

Under Lambert Simnel, i486, who pretended to be 
Richard III.'s nephew, Edward Plantagenet, earl of 
Warwick ; his army was defeated, leaders slain, and he 
was discovered to be a baker's son ; he was pardoned, 
and employed by the king as a menial. 

Under Perkin Warbeck, 1492 ; defeated ; executed 1499. 

Under Thomas Flammoek and Michael Joseph, in Corn- 
wall, against taxes levied to pay the Scottish war 
expenses. They marched towards London, and lord 
Audley took the command at Wells. They were de- 
feated at Blackheath, 22 June, and the three leaders 
were executed, 28 June, 1497. 

The "Pilgrimage of Grace" against Henry VIII. 1536-7. 

Of the English in the West, to restore the ancient liturgy, 
&c, 1549 ; suppressed same year. 

In Norfolk, headed by Ket, the tanner, but soon sup- 
pressed, Aug. 1549. 

In favour of lady Jane Grey, against queen Mary. Lady 
Jane was proclaimed queen of England on the death of 
Edward VI. 10 July, 1553 ; but she resigned the crown 
to Mary a few days afterwards : she was beheaded for 
high treason, in the Tower, 12 Feb. 1554, aged 17. 

Of sir Thomas Wyatt, son of the poet, and others, against 
queen Mary's marriage with Philip of Spain, &c, fails ; 
he is beheaded n April, 1554. 

Of the Roman catholic earls of Northumberland and 
Westmoreland against queen Elizabeth, Nov. and Dec. 
1567. The former fled to Scotland, but was given up. 
by the regent Morton and executed. 

Of the Irish under the earl of Tyrone, 1599, suppressed 
in 1601. 

Under the earl of Essex, against queen Elizabeth, 1600 ; 
it ended in his death, 1601. 

Of the Irish under Roger More, sir Phelim O'Neil, &c, 
against the English in Ireland, 1641-5. 

The "Great Rebellion," 1641-60. 

Rebellion of the Scots covenanters, 1666 ; soon put 
down. 

Under the duke of Monmouth, 1685 ; executed 15 July. 

Of the Scots in favour of the Old Pretender, 1715 ; quelled 
in 1716. 

Of the Scots under the Young Pretender, 1745 ; suppressed 
in 1746 ; lords Lovat, Balmerino, and Kilmarnock be- 
headed. 

Of the Americans on account of taxation, 1774. This 
rebellion led to the loss of our chief North American 
colonies, and the independence of the United States, 
1782. 

In Ireland, called the Great Rebellion, when great num- 
bers took up arms, commenced 24 May, 1798 ; sup- 
pressed next year. 

Again in Ireland, under Robert Emmett, a gifted enthu- 
siast, 23 July, 1803, when lord Kilwarden was killed 
with several others by the insurgents. 

Canadian insurrection {which see), Dec. 1837 to Nov. 1838. 

Of Chartists at Newport {which see), 4 Nov. 1839. 

Smith O'Brien's silly Irish rebellion ; terminated in the 
defeat and dispersion of a multitude of his deluded 
followers by sub-inspector Trantand about sixty police 
constables, on Boulagh common, Ballingary, co. Tip- 
perary, 29 July, 1848 ; see Ireland. 

Sepoy mutiny in India (see India), 1857-8. 

Of Fenians in Ireland ; see Fenians and Ireland, 1865-7. 
Sea UMli. 

3 x 



EECEIPTS. 



1042 



EEDE LECTURE. 



EECEIPTS FOR MONEY were first taxed by 
a stamp duty in 1783. The act was amended in 
1784, 1 79 1 et seq., and receipts were taxed by a 
duty varying according to the amount of the money 
received, in all transactions. Stamps required on 
bills of exchange, notes, and receipts in Ireland, by 
stat. 35 Geo. III. 1795 5 see ^*'#* of Exchange. 
The uniform stamp of one penny on receipts, for ail 
•sums above 2l., was enacted by 16 & 17 Vict. c. 59 
'(4 Aug. 1853) ; see Stamps. Penny posts ge-stamps 
/used for receipts after 1 June, 1881. 

EECIDI VISTS, the French term for habitual 
, criminals. The proposal of the French govern- 
ment to transmit many of these to New Caledonia, 
with partial freedom, was opposed in France as 
. dangerous to liberty, and very warmly protested 
against by our Australian colonies, especially 
Queensland and New South Wales, fearing their 
intrusion as dangerous to public security, 1883-4. 
French legislation resumed ; bill passed 12 May ; 
came into operation . . . . 1 Dec, 1885 

EECIPEOCITY ASSOCIATION, founded 
at Manchester Sept. 1869, in consequence of the 
restrictions on the importation of British manu- 
factures into their territories imposed by foreign 
governments. 

'Reciprocity, a form of protection, was advocated by lord 
Bateman and others in 1878-9. His resolution was 
negatived by the lords, 29 April, 1879. 

EECIPEOCITY TEEATY between Great 
Britain and the United States, regulating the rela- 
tion between the latter and Canada, in regard to 
trade, fisheries, &c, negotiated by lord Elgin, and 
ratified 2 Aug. 1854. Its abrogation, proposed by the 
United States government in 1864, was effected 17 
March, 1866. Its renewal was desired in the states 
iin 1867. See Canada and United States, 1891. 

EECITATIVE, a species of singing differing 
but little from ordinary speaking, and used for nar- 
ratives in operas, is said to have been first employed 
at Rome by Emilio del Cavaliere, who disputed the 
claim of Rinuccini to the introduction of the opera, 
1600 ; see Opera. 

EECOED, Evangelical or Low Church, weekly 
newspaper, established 1828. 

EECOEDEE, the principal judicial officer of 
i great corporations. The first recorder of London 
was Jeffrey de Norton, alderman, 1298 ; right hon. 
Russell Gurney, Q.C., recorder, Dec. 1856 — Jan. 
1878. Sir Thomas Chambers, Feb. 1878', died 24 
Dec. 1891, succeeded by sir Charles Hall, 8 Feb. 1892, 
.died 9 March, 1900; sir Forest Fulton, 20 March, 
1900. The salary, originally 10/. per annum, is now 
30001?. 

EECOEDS, Public, in England, began 

to be regularly preserved in IIOO, by order of Henry 
I. The repositories which possessed materials the 
most ancient and interesting to the historian were, 
the Chapter-house of Westminster Abbey, the Tower 
of London, the Rolls Chapel, and the Queen's Re- 
membrancer's offices of the exchequer. The early 
records of Scotland, going from London, were lost 
by shipwreck in 1298. In Ireland, the council- 
chnnber and most of the records were burned, 1711. 
Public records Act, 2 Vict. c. 94 (10 Aug. 1838). — 
Anew Record Office has been erected on the Rolls 
estate, between Chancery and Fetter lanes, to which 
the records have been gradually removed. Now 
additional buildings occupied Oct. 1895 et seq. The 



Record Commissioners commenced their publica- 
tions in 1802. Mr. F. Thomas's valuable "Hand- 
books to the Public Records," was published in 1853; 
Mr. Ewald's " Our Public Records," in 1873. Acts 
relating to the Public Records of Ireland, passed 
1867 and 1875. The British Records society, which 
had published many documents, 1887 et seq., was 
incorporated 1892. Annual meetings. 

EECEEATIOlSr, see Playground. 

The Recreative Evening Schools Association for boys who 
have left school, founded, under royal patronage, 1886. 

EECEEATIVE RELIGIONISTS, a name 

given to an association of gentlemen for diffusing a 
knowledge of natural religion by the aid of science, 
formed in Dec. 1866. In Jan. 1867 lectures were 
given on Sunday evenings at St. Martin' s-hall, 
London, by professor Huxley, Dr. "W. B. Carpenter, 
and others, sacred music being performed at intervals 
during the evening. This was decided not to be an 
infraction of the Sunday act, 21 Geo. III. c. 49, in 
the trial, Baxter v. Baxter Langley, 19 Nov. 1868. 
See Sunday Lecture Society. 

RECRUITING, see Army, 33 Oct. 1866. 
Recruits : 1878, 28,325 ; 1879, 25,662 ; 1880, 
25,622; 1881,26,258; 1882,23,802; 1883,33,096 
(new regulations); 1884, 35,653; 1885, 39,971; 
1886, 39409; 1887,31,225; 1888, 25,153; 1890, 
(for the regular army), 32,923; 1893, 35,195; 
1894, 33,698; 1895, 2 9'S83; 1896, 28,532; 1897, 
35,015; 1898, 38,418; 1899, 42,700; 1900, 49,260, 
and 37,853 militia ; 1901, 47,039, and 37,644 militia ; 
1902, 50,753, and 41,486, militia. 

RECUSANTS, persons who refuse^ to attend 
church, 1 Eliz. c.2, 1559; dissenters relieved from 
this act, 1689; it was repealed, 1844. 

REDAN, a field fortification, consisting of two 
faces meeting in a salient angle directed towards 
the enemy; see Russo- Turkish War, 1855. 

RED CRAG, deposits of fossil remains on the 
coast of Essex and Suffolk, so designated by Edward 
Charlesworth about 1835. They are much used in 
the manure manufacture. 

EED CEOSS on a white ground, the flag of 
the Geneva Convention {which see). Third inter- 
national convention at Geneva, 1 Sept. 1884. The 
Russian Red Cross society, with others, was very 
active during the Servian war, July-Aug. 1876. 
The order of the Royal Red Cross for ladies who 
have acted as nurses in war, &c, and others, in- 
stituted by queen Victoria, 23 April, 1883. The 
princess of Wales and other ladies nominated, 25 
May, 1883 ; conferred on Mrs. Grimwood for her 
services in the retreat of the troops from Manipur 
{which see), June, 1891 ; and on Miss Annie 
Myers and Miss Daisy Brazier for services in 
Pekin during the operations in China, Sept. 1002. 
The British Red Cross society active during the 
Greco-Turkish war, 1897; French aid received; 
the duke of Portland gives 10,000/.; the Princess of 
]J~<t/tx hospital ship fitted up by the society; the 
princess of Wales gives 1,000/., and hands over 
9,000/., the balance of the Egyptian campaign 
fund ; and much help by Americans and others 
during the S. African war, Nov. 1899-1902. Inter- 
national conference held at St. Petersburg, 29 May, 
1902. 

EEDE LECTUEE, Cambridge ; sir Robert 
Rede, chief justice of common pleas, in 1518 en- 



EEDEMPTOEISTS. 



1043 EEFOEM IN" PARLIAMENT. 



(lowed some lectureships. In 1859 these were 
replaced by an annual lecture : which has been 
given by professors Owen, Phillips, Ansted,Tyndall, 
and other eminent persons. 

EEDEMPTOEISTS, see Liguorians. 

BEDHILL, see Reformatory Schools. 

BEDISTBIBUTPON OF SEATS ACT, 
.see Reform, 1885. 

REDOWA, a Bohemian dance in 3-4 time, in- 
troduced in 1846 or 1847, at Paris, and soon after in 
London. 

EED EIVER SETTLEMENTS, a name 
given to part of the Hudson bay settlements. 

EED SEA, the Mare Eryttmeum of the 
ancients, between Arabia and Africa, crossed by the 
Phoenicians and others in commerce, and by the 
Israelites in their escape from Egypt, 1491 B.C. In 
1826 Ehrenberg discovered that the colour was due 
to marine plants, the Trichodesmium Erythrceum ; 
see Suez, Soudan, and Somallland. — Red Sea Lit- 
toral, Suakin, &<■., governor-general, col. Holled 
Smith, appointed 1888, resigned June, 1892 ^suc- 
ceeded by col. Archibald Hunter, Oct. 1892; col. 
George Lloyd, Sept. 1894. Capt. N. E. Playfair, 
present governor (1903). 

Much piracy and gun-running ; 7 divers killed near 
Massowali 10 Sept. 1902 

Active measures of suppression taken by the 
British and Italians ; 3 dhows burnt and sunk ; 
2 Italians killed at Midi, reported 5 Nov.; agree- 
ment with Turkey settled, reported . 10 Nov. ,. 

British chase a pirate off Hodeida, reported, 8 Dec. ,, 

EEFEBENDUM, the name given to an 
article in the Swiss constitution of 29 May, 1874, 
by which certain laws passed by the Cantonal and 
Federal legislations might be referred to the people 
at large by plebiscite. The people have also the 
right of taking the initiative in proposing the 
enactment of new laws and the repeal of old ones. 
The referendum was much employed in Belgium 
in relation to the revision of the constitution, 
Feb., March, 1893. 

EEFLECTOES, see Burning-glass and Cali- 
fornia. 

EEFOEM ASSOCIATION, instituted at 
Westminster to protect electors, 20 May, 1835. 

National Reform Union : at the annual meeting at Man- 
chester it was said to have 411 affiliated societies, 
22 May, 1889. 

EEFOEM BANQUETS, see France, 1847. 

EEFOEM CLUB, established in 1886 by the 
right hon. Edw. Ellice, M.P., and others, to 
succeed the Westminster Club, 1834-6. The 
building in Pall-mall, designed by sir Charles 
Barry, was completed in 1841. 

Jubilee ball ; the prince of "Wales and son, and above 
2,000 persons of all parties present, 15 June, 1887. 

A 2nd edition of the catalogue of the excellent library 
compiled by Mr. 0. W. Vincent, the librarian, under the 
supervision of the library committee, with an historical 
introduction by Mr. W. Fraser Rae, was published in 
June, 1894. Mr. Louis Pagan's " The Reform Club ; 
its Founders' and Architect," 1886 ; he died early Jan. 
1903. 

EEFOEM in Parliament. Mr. Pitt's mo- 
tion for a reform in parliament was lost by a majority 
of 20, 7 May, 1782; of 144, 7 May, 1783 ; and of 74, 



[8 April, 1785 ; see Radicals. The measure of reform 
by earl Grey's administration was proposed in the 
house of commons by lord John Russell, 1 March, 1831. 

BILL OF 1831. 

First division ; second reading : for it, 302 ; against it, 
301 ; 22 March. 

On motion for a committee, general Gascoyne moved an 
amendment, " that the number of representatives for 
England and Wales ought not to be diminished. " Amend- 
ment carried on a division, 299 to 291 ; 19 April. 

The bill abandoned, and parliament dissolved, 23 April. 

A new parliament assembled, 14 June. Bill again intro- 
duced, 24 June. 

Division on second reading : for it, 367 ; against it, 231 — 
majority, 1 36 ; 7 July. 

Division on third reading of the bill : for it, 345 ; against 
it, 236 — majority, 109 ; 22 Sept. 

In the Lords : — first division, on second reading ; lord 
Wharncliffe moved, " that the bill be read that day six 
months." For the amendment, 199; against it, 158 — 
majority, forty-one ; 8 Oct. [Parliament prorogued, 
20 Oct. 1831.] 

act of 1832.* 

Read in the Commons a, first time without a division, 12 
Dec. 1831. Second reading ; division, viz. : for the bill 
324 ; against it, 162 — majority, 162 ; 17 Dec. 1831. Thira 
reading ; division, viz. : for the bill, 355 ; against it, 
239 —majority for it, 116 ; 23 March, 1832. 

In the Lords : — read & first time on motion of earl Grey, 
27 March. Second reading : for the bill, 184 ; against 
it, 175 — majority, nine ; 14 April. In the committee 
lord Lyndhurst moved, " that the question of enfran- 
chisement should precede that of disfranchisement." 
The division was 151 and 116 — majority against minis- 
ters, thirty-five, 7 May. 

Resignation of ministers, 9 May; great public excitement 
ensued, and they were induced to resume office on the 
king granting them full power to secure majorities by 
the creation of new peers. 

In the Lords, the bill was carried through the committee, 
30 May ; read a third time : 106 against 22 — majority, 
eighty-four ; 4 June. Received the royal assent, 

7 June, 1832. 

The royal assent given to the Scotch reform bill, 1 7 July ; 
and to the Irish one, 7 Aug. 1832. 

abortive reform bills. 

Lord John Russell introduced a new reform bill, 13 Feb. 
1854, which was withdrawn, n April, 1854, in conse- 
quence of the war with Russia. 

On 28 Feb. 1859, Mr. Disraeli brought in a reform bill, 
which was rejected by the commons on 31 March, by a 
majority of 39. This led to a dissolution of parlia- 
ment, and eventually to a change of ministry. 

The new government (lords Palmerston and J. Russell) 
brought forward a new bill, 1 March, i860 ; but with- 
drew it, 11 June. No reform bill was brought forward 
by the government, 1861-5 : se e Commons. 

The discussion respecting parliamentary reform was re- 
vived in the autumns of 1864 and 1865. 

Mr. Baines' reform bill was rejected by the commons, 

8 May, 1865. 

Mr. Gladstone introduced a franchise bill, 12 March, 1866 ; 
after much discussion, it was read a second time, 28 
April. A re-distribution of seats bill was introduced, 
and incorporated with the franchise bill, 7 May ; an 
amendment (on a clause, substituting " rateable " for 
" clear yearly value ") was passed, in opposition to the 
government, 19 June ; which led to the resignation of 
the government, 26 June ; and the withdrawal of the 
bill (see Adullam), 19 July, 1866. 

Numerous great reform meetings : London, Hyde-park 
(riotous), 23, 24 July ; Agricultural-hall, 30 July ; and 
Guildhall, 8 Aug. ; Manchester, 24 Sept. ; Leeds, 8 
Oct. ; Glasgow, 16 Oct. ; Edinburgh, 17 Nov. ; Con- 
ference at Manchester, 19 Nov. 1866. 

* By this "Act to amend the Representation of the 
People in England and "Wales " (2 & 3 "Will. IV. c. 45), 56 
boroughs in England were disfranchised (schedule A.), 30 
were reduced to one member only (B.) ; 22 new boroughs 
were created to send two members (C), and 20 to send 
one member (D.), and other important changes made. 

3x2 



EEFOEM IN PAELIAMENT. 



1044 



EEFOEMATOEY SCHOOLS. 



Reform demonstration of trades-unions in London ; pro- 
cession of about 25,000 ; great order observed, 3 Dee. , 
1866. 

Procession of about 18,000 men to Agricultural-hall, 
Islington : good order kept; 11 Feb. 1867. 

Mr. Disraeli announced his plan of proceeding with re- 
form by 13 resolutions, 11 Feb. ; these withdrawn, 

26 Feb. 1867. 

" Ten Minutes' bill" introduced and withdrawn, 25 Feb. 
1867. 

[It comprised a 61. franchise for boroughs, and 20I. for 
counties. Said by sir John Pakington to have been 
agreed to in the last ten minutes of a cabinet council.] 

New bill (with household suffrage) introduced 18 March ; 
read second time, 27 March, 1867. 

The "Tea-room meeting" of liberals (Messrs. Owen Stan- 
ley, Dillwyn, Grant Duff', and others), who agree to 
support the bill in opposition to Mr. Gladstone's reso- 
lution, which is withdrawn, and the bill goes into 
committee, 8 April ; Mr. Gladstone's amendment re- 
jected by 22 (for 288, against 310), 12 April, 1867. 

Peaceable reform meetings at Birmingham, 22 April ; 
Hyde-park, 6 May ; National Reform Union (first 
meeting), 15 May, 1867. 

acts of 1867-8. 

The new Reform bill passed by the commons, 15-16 July ; 
by the lords (with amendments, when lord Derby said, 
that it was " a greac experiment," and " a leap in the 
dark ") 6 Aug. ; received the royal assent, 15 Aug. 
1867.* 

Scotch reform bill introduced by lord advocate, 17 Feb. ; 
passed 13 July, 1868. 

Irish bill introduced by the earl of Mayo, 19 March ; 
passed 13 July, 1868. 

The Reform league was dissolved 13 March, 1869 ; re- 
vived, Oct. 1876. 

Bill for extending household suffrage to counties brought 
in annually by Mr. G. O. Trevelyan, see Household 
Suffrage. 

acts of 1884-5. 

New bill for Representation of the People of the United 
Kingdom extending hoiifehold and lodger suffrage to 
counties uniform with boroughs, adding about 2,000,000 
voters introduced by Mr. Gladstone, the premier, 28 
Feb., read first time 3 March ; lord John Manners' 
amendment, declining to pass the bill without know- 
ledge of re-distribution of seats, 24 March ; negatived, 
(340-210), bill read second time, 7-8 April ; third time, 

27 June. Lords, first time, 27 June : rejected by earl 
Cairns's amendment (conservatives led by Marquis of 
Salisbury), (205-146), 8-9 July ; earl of Wemyss's com- 
promise rejected (182-132) ; earl Cadogan's amendment, 
(adjournment, instead of prorogation of parliament till 
the autumn), adopted 17 July. Commons, bill read 
first time, 24 Oct. ; second time, (372-232) 7-8 Nov. ; 
third time, 11 Nov. Lords bill read first time, 14N0V.; 

* This act is divided into three parts :— 

I. Franchises. Boroughs : All householders rated for 
relief of the poor ; lodgers, resident for twelve months, 
and paying 10?. a year. Counties : Persons of property of 
the clear annual value of 5I. ; and occupiers of lands or 
tenements paying 12Z. a year. At a contested election for 
any county or borough represented by three members,no 
person to vote for more than 2 candidates; in London, 
to vote for 3 only. 

Disfranchised: Totnes; Reigate ; Great Yarmouth; 
Lancaster. 

II. Distribution of Seats : Boroughs with less than 
10.000 population, to return one member only (38 in 
Schedule A). Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham, and 
Leeds, to have 3 members instead of 2. 

Chelsea (with Fulham, Bammersmith, and Kensington) 
made a borough : Merthyr Tydvil, and Salford, to return 
t wo members : Tower Samlets divided Into two boroughs 
-Hackney, and Tower Hamlets. (Other new boroughs 
in Schedule B.) University of London to return one 
member. 

HI. Supplementary Provisions; Registration, &c. 

Boundary Cm issi rs (which see). Parliament not ti> 

be dissolved on any future demise of the crown. Mem- 
bers holding offices of profll from the crown nut to vacate 
their seats on acceptance of another office. 



second time, 18 Nov. ; (compromise with the govern- 
ment) ; third time, 5 Dec. ; passed 6 Dec. 1884. 

Redistribution of Seats Act ; commons, read first time, 
1 Dec. ; second time, 4 Dec. 1884 ; third time (116-33), 
11-12 May,i885. Lords, read first time, 12 May ; second 
time, 15 May ; third time, 12 June ; Royal assent, 25 
June, 1885. 

Redistribution of Seats Act. — Boroughs to cease as such 
(having less than 15,000 inhabitants): England, 80; 
Scotland, 2 ; Ireland, 22. To be included in theiv 
counties: Berwick, Lichfield, Carrickfergus, and Drog- 
heda. Disfranchised for corruption : Macclesfield, Sand- 
wich. To lose one member (having less than 50,000 in- 
habitants) : England, 34 ; Ireland, 3. To have addi- 
tional members (with more than 50,000 inhabitants) ; 
England, 12 ; Scotland, 3 ; Ireland, 2. New boroughs; 
England, 43. 160 seats obtained by disfranchisement 
to be divided among counties and boroughs now under- 
represented. Certain boroughs and counties return- 
ing more than one member, formed into new sub- 
divisions, returning one member. London only to have 
two members. Total number of members to be raised 
from 652 to 670 ; England to have 6 more, Scotland 12. 
more. 

Mr. Stansfeld's resolution advocating the principle of 
"one man, one vote," negatived in the commons- 
(291 — 189), 3 March, 1891. 

EEFOEMATION, The. Efforts for the 
reformation of the church may be traced to the 
reign of Charlemagne, when Paulinus, bishop of 
Aquileia, employed his voice and pen to accomplish 
it. The principal reformers were Wicklifl'e, Huss, 
Jerome of Prague, Savonarola, Erasmus, Luther, 
Zuinglius, Tyndal, Calvin, Melanchtbon, Cranmer, 
Latimer, Knox, and Browne. Luther thus charac- 
terised himself and his fellow reformers : "lies non 
Verba — Luther." "Verba non Res — Erasmus." 
"Reset Verba — Mclanchthon." "Nee Verba nee 
Res — Carlstadt ;" see WickUffites, Protestants, Cal- 
vinists, Lutherans, Presbyterianism, Wittenbergt 
&c. The eras of the reformation are as follows : — 

In France (Albigenscs), said to have been a surviving 
gnostic sect, nbt Christian reformers . about 1177 

In England (Wickliffe) 1360 

In Bohemia (Huss) 1405 

In Italy (Jerome Savonarola) 1498- 

In France (by Farcl) before 1512 

In Germany (Luther) 1517 

In Switzerland (Zuinglius) 1 5 l <> 

In Denmark (Andreas Bodenstein) .... 1521 

In Prussia 1527 

In France (Calvin) ; see Huguenots .... 1529 

Protestants first so called 

In Sweden (Petri) 1530 

In England (Henry VIII.) 1534 

In Ireland (Archbishop George Browne) . . . 1535 
In England, completed (Cranmer, Bucer, Fagiu-s. 
<fec), 1547; annulled by Mary, 1553; restored by 

Elizabeth 155& 

In Scotland (Knox), established 1560 

In the Netherlands, established .... 1562 

EEFOEMATOEY SCHOOLS, for juvenile 
delinquents.* The Reformatory School at Mettray, 
near Tours in France, was founded in 1839 by 
M. de Metz, formerly a councillor of Paris, warmly 
seconded by the vicomte de Courcelles, who gave- 
the estate on which the establishment is placed. 
The one at Redhill, Surrey, is situated on land 
purchased in 1840 by the Philanthropic Society, 
and under the direction of the rev. Sydney Turner. 
The first stone of the building was laid 30 April, 
1849, by the prince consort. The inmates of these 
establishments arc instructed in firm labour, and 
divided into so-called families. In 1854 the Juvenile 

*It was calculated (about 1S56) that there were in 
London 30,000, and in England 100,000 youths under 
1 - 1. ading a vagabond life, and that out of 15,000 of those 
who were committed for trial nearly half were in custodfl 

for the first time. 



"EEFOEMED CHUECH." 



1045 



EEGICIDES. 



Offenders act was passed ; amended act, 1901. In 
185 1 and 1853 great meetings were held on this 
subject ; and in Aug. 1856, the first grand con- 
ference of the National Reformatory Union was 
held. See Industrial Schools. 
North-West London Preventive and Reformatory- 
Institution in the New-road, established : all kinds 

of trades taught 1852 

Reformatory and Refuge Union founded . . 1856 

Acts for establishing reformatory schools passed, 

1857, 1858, 1866, 1868 ; amended . . 1872 & 1893 
Fifty-one reformatory schools in England (and nine 
in Ireland), 1863 ; 53 reformatory schools (with 
4674 boys ; 1165 girls), 1872 ; Reformatory 
schools in England and Wales, 1889-90, 46; in- 
dustrial schools, 1889, 134 ; 1890, 141 ; in Great 
Britain, 227 in 1893 ; 223 in 1901 (45 reformatory, 
142 industrial, 14 truant, and 22 day industrial 
schools ; 24,608 boys, 5297 girls in the reforma- 
tory and industrial schools). 
An international exhibition of the works of these 
schools at the Agricultural -hall, Islington, near 
London, opened by the prince of Wales . . . 1865 
Mr. T. Barwick Lloyd Baker, an eminent pro- 
moter of the reformatory system, died . Dec. 1886 
Act passed abolishing imprisonment as a necessary 
preliminary to detention in reformatories . . 1899 

"EEFOEMED CHUECH" (Calvinistic), 
established in Holland and in some parts of Ger- 
many. For the Reformed Presbyterian Church in 
Scotland, see Cameronians, note. 

EEFOEMED EPISCOPAL CHUECH, 

founded in the United States of North America in 

1873 ; in this country a secession from the Free 

Church of England in 1877. 

Dr. Cummins, assistant bishop of Kentucky, after re- 
vising the prayer-book, consecrated C. E. Cheney as 
bishop, 14 Dec. 1873 ; others since consecrated and 
•churches formed. 

EEFBACTION, see Light. 

BEFBESHMENT HOUSES for the sale 
•of wine, &c, are licensed in pursuance of an act 
passed in i860, amended in 1861 : a new act passed 
in 1864, 1865. See Licences. 

BEFBIGEBATOBS, see Provisions. 

EEFUGE FOE THE DESTITUTE (cri- 
minal young females), Dalston, London, E. ; 
instituted 1805, incorporated 1838. 

BEFUGEES' BENEVOLENT FUND, 

instituted in consequence of the Franco-German 
war, at a great meeting held at the Mansion-house, 
London, 21 Oct. 1870. It afforded temporary relief 
to many sufferers. 

BEFUGES, see Poor, 1864. Refuges for Desti- 
tute boys and girls, established iu Great Queen- 
street in 1852. See Chichester. 

BEGALIA, see Crown. 

BEGATTA. A public boat race, introduced 
into this country from Venice in 1775 : and in that 
5 r ear one took place on the Thames. 

BEGELATION. See Ice. 

EEGENCY BILLS. One was passed 1751. 
One was proposed to parliament in consequence of 
the mental illness of George III., and debated 10 
Dec. 1788. It was relinquished on his majesty's 
recovery, 26 Feb. 1789. The return of the malady 
led to the prince of Wales (afterwards George IV.) 
foeing sworn in before the privy council as regent of 
the kingdom, 5 Feb. 1811. The Regency Bill pro- 
viding for the administration of the government. 



should the crown descend to the princess Victoria 
while under eighteen years of age, passed 1 Will. 
IV., 23 Dec. 1830. A Regency Bill appointing 
prince Albert regent in the event of the demise of 
the queen, should her next lineal successor be under 
age ; passed 4 Aug. 1840. 

EEGENTS, see Protectorates. 

EEGENT'S CANAL, begun at Paddington, 
where it joins a cut to the Grand Junction, passes 
under Maida-hill, continues its course by the Re- 
gent's-park to Islington, where another subterranean 
excavation, about three-quarters of a mile in length, 
was formed for its passage. It then proceeds by 
Hoxton, Hackney, Mile-end, to Limehouse, where 
it joins the Thames. The whole length of it is 
nine miles; it comprises twelve locks and thirty- 
seven bridges. Begun, 1812; opened 1 Aug. 1820. 
Great explosion of gunpowder (which see), 2 Oct. 
1874. New bridge, near Gloucester gate, Regent's 
park, opened by theduke of Cambridge, 3 Aug. 1878. 
Regent's Canal and City Railway Co." act passed, 
1882. 

EEGENT'S PAEK, originally part of the 
grounds belonging to a palace of queen Elizabeth, 
near to the north end of Tottenham court-road, 
pulled down in 1791. Since 1600, the property was 
let to various persons, but the leases having expired 
it reverted to the crown ; and in 1814 great im- 
provements were commenced under the direction of 
Mr. Nash. The park consists of about 450 acres ; 
within it are the gardens of the Zoological Society 
and the Royal Botanical Society. During a frost 
on 15 Jan. 1867, the rotten ice of one of the lakes 
gave way, and about 200 persons were immersed, of 
whom above 40 perished. Addition of 20 acres 
made to the public park, 1883. 

Joseph Rumbold was murdered near York Gate, 24 May. 
Eight youths, George Gallesly, 17, William Elvis, 16, 
Francis Cole, 18, Peter Lee, 17, William Joseph Graefe, 
17, William Henshaw, 16, Charles Henry Govier, 16, 
and Michael Duling, 15, all described as labourers, 
were charged with the wilful murder, 1 Aug. ; Gallesly 
was convicted ; the rest acquitted of murder, 2 Aug. ; 
they pleaded guilty to minor charges, and were sen- 
tenced to various terms of penal servitude, 4 Aug. 
The evidence disclosed the existence of local bands of 
young roughs carrying on internecine warfare. Joseph 
Rumbold was not the intended victim ; Gallesly 
reprieved, Aug. 1888. 

EEGENT STEEET, London, W. ; designed 
and executed by John Nash ; authorised by act, 53 
George III. 1813. The colonnades of the quadrant 
were removed in 1848. 

EEGGIO, see Ehegium. 

EEGICIDES, in English history, are the com- 
missioners appointed to try king Charles I., 150 in 
number; of whom 70 acted, and 59 signed the 
death-warrant, Jan. 1649. Of these last, 29 were 
tried, and 10 executed : Harrison, 13 Oct. ; Cook 
and Peters, 16 Oct. ; Scott, Scroop, Clement, and 
Jones, 17 Oct. ; Axtell and Hacker, 19 Oct. 1660. 
They asserted themselves to be martyrs. Others 
were imprisoned. See Assassinations. 

Foreign Regicides. 
James I. of Scotland, by nobles . . 20 Feb. 
James III. ,, ,, . . n June, 

Henry III. of France, by Clement, 1 Aug. ; d. 2 Aug. 
Henry IV. ,, by Ravaillac . . 14 May, 

Gustavus III. of Sweden, by Ankarstrom, t6 March; 

d. 29 March, 
Louis XVI. ,, by convention . 21 Jan. 

Paul of Russia, by nobies . . * . 24 March, 
Maximilian of Mexico .... 19 June, 



1437 
14S8 

1589 
1610 

1792 

1793 
1801 
1867 



REGIMENTAL EXCHANGE ACT. 1046 



REIGN OF TERROR. 



EXCHANGE ACT, 



REGIMENTAL 

passed 28 May, 1875. 

REGIMENTS OF INFANTRY were formed in 
France about 1588 ; see Infantry. The following 
are the approximate dates of the establishment of 
several British regiments: — 

CAVALRY. 

Oxford Blues are erroneously said to have been 
formed in the reign of Henry VIII. ; they derive 
their name from their colonel, the earl of Oxford, 
in 1661 

Three Indian regiments (19th, 20th, and 21st) added 

Aug. 1861 

The Dragoon Guards, the Scots Greys, and the 
Royal Irish were formed about . . . 1683-6 

Several regiments of Light Dragoons were armed 
with lances and termed Lancers . . Sept. 1816 
See Germany, June, 1894. 

infantry (see Guards). 
1st Royal or Royal Scots regiment, 1633 ; the old title 

resumed Dec. 1871 

Coldstream Guards, established by Monk, in . 1660 

3rd Buffs, represent London train bands and have 

special privileges 

2nd Queen's Royal 1661 

4th King's Own x 685 

5th Northumberland Fusiliers . . . 

26th Cameronian x 689 

100th Canadian 1858 

101st to 109th (Indian) added . . . Aug. 1861 
The Highland regiments are the old 42nd, 71st, 72nd, 

78th, 79th, 92nd, and 93rd. See Army Organization. 

Note.— By the reorganisation of the infantry in 1881 
the numbers of the regiments by which they were 
formerly designated were (with some exceptions) merged 
into their territorial names. 

The 3rd Buffs are now the Kent (East) regiment ; the 
2nd Queen's Royal, the Surrey (Royal West) regiment ; 
4th King's Own, the Lancaster (Royal) regiment; 5th 
Northumberland Fusiliers, the Northumberland Fusi- 
liers ; 26th Cameronians, the Cameronians (Scottish 
Rifles). 

Highland Regiments.— The old 42nd (the Black Watch) 
is now the 1st battalion of the Royal Highlanders ; the 
71st, the 1st batt. Highland Light Infantry ; the 72nd, 
the 1st batt. Seaforth Highlanders (the Ross-shire 
Buffs); the 78th, the 2nd batt. Seaforth Highlanders ; 
the 79th, the Cameron Highlanders ; the 92nd, the 2nd 
batt. Gordon Highlanders ; the 93rd, the 2nd batt. 
Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders. 

REGISTERS. The registering of deeds and 
conveyances disposing of real estates was ap- 
pointed to be effected in Yorkshire and in Middlesex, 
2 Anne, 1703, et seq. Greater security was thus 
given to purchasers and mortgagees; and the value 
of estates increased in those counties. Wills have 
been for a series of years kept and registered, in 
London, at Doctors' Commons; see Wills. The 
registering of shipping in the Thames was com- 
menced, 1786; and throughout England, 1787; and 
several acts and amendments of acts have since 
followed for keeping and improving registers. 

Tlic duties and payments of the Lord Clerk Register 
of Scotland and his deputy were regulated by 42 
& 43 Viet. c. 44 .... . 1S79 

REGISTERS, Parochial, were established 

by Cromwell, lord Essex, by which the dates of 
births, marriages, ami burials, became ascertain- 
able, Sept. 1538. This measure was imposed 
by the people, who feared some new taxation. A 
stamp-tax was laid on registers in 1784. Laws for 
their better regulation were enacted in 1813 et seq. 
The great Registration net (introduced by bud John 
Russell), 6 & 7 Will. IV. c. 86, passed 1 7 Aug. 1836, 
see Bills of Mortality, Sec. 



A new registration act for births and deaths, passed 
7 Aug. 1874 ; another passed in 1901. 

Births and Deaths Registration act for Ireland 
passed 2 Aug. 1880 

Major George Graham, the first registrar-general 
(1838), was succeeded by sir Brydges Powell 
Henniker, appointed, Jan. 1880 ; retires, suc- 
ceeded by Mr. Reginald Macleod . Feb. 1900 

To the registrar-general's annual reports, supple- 
ments and decennial volumes are issued occa- 
sionally. 

REGISTRATION of Voters was enacted 

by the Reform act, passed 7 June, 1832, and by 
acts passed in 1868 and 1885; see Revising 
Barristers. 

New Parliamentary and Municipal Registration act 

passed 22 July, 1878 

Newbill, second reading, 26Apr. ; withdrawn, Sept. 1893 
Registration Acceleration act passed . 31 July, 1894 

REGIUM DONUM (Royal gift), an allowance 
from the sovereign for the maintenance of the Pres- 
byterian ministers in Ireland, commenced by 
Charles II. in 1672, and revived by William III. i» 
1690, was commuted by the Irish Presbyterian 
Church act passed June, 1871. The allowance to 
certain protestant dissenting ministers in Ireland 
was given up by them in 1857, in deference to the 
wishes of English dissenters. 

REGULATION OF PUBLIC WOR- 
SHIP, see Public Worship. 

REGULATION of the Forces Act passeO 
17 Aug. 187 1. See Army. 

REICHENBACH (Prussia). Here Duror 
was killed during the conflicts between the French 
and the allies, 22 May, 1813; see Bautzen. Here 
was signed a subsidy treaty between Russia, Prussia, 
and England, whereby the last engaged to provide 
means for carrying on the war against Napoleon I. 
on certain conditions, 14, 15 June, 1813. Austria 
joined the alliance soon after. 

REICHSRATH, the representative council cf 
the empire of Austria, reconstituted by decree 5 
March; met en 31 May, i860. In May, 1861, the 
upper house consisted of 17 spiritual, 55 hereditary, 
and 39 peers. The lower house consisted of 13d 
elected deputies. No representatives came from 
Hungary, Transylvania, Venetia, the Banat, fela- 
vonia, Croatia, and Istria. The Reichsrath was- 
abolished by a rescript, 21 Sept. 1865, with the 
view of restoring autonomy to Hungary and otheT 
provinces. It again met 20 May, 1867. The 
Reichstag of Germany, the imperial parliament or 
diet, first met at Berlin, 21 Mar. 1871. 

REIGATE (Surrey), sent two members t» 
parliament in the reign of Edward 1. ; lost one bj 
the Reform Act of 1832, and was wholly disfran- 
chised for corruption by t bat of 1867. Population, 
1881,18,662; 1891, 22,646 ; 1901, 25,993. 

REIGN OF TERROR. Maximilien Robes- 
pierre headed the populace in the Champ de Mars 
in Paris, demanding the dethronement of the king, 
17 Jul}-, 1701. He was triumphant in 1793, an ^ 
numbers of eminent men and citizens were sacrificed 
during bis sanguinary administration. Billaud 
Varennes denounced the tyranny of Robespierre in 
the tribune, 27 July, 1794. The next day he 
suffered death, with many of his companions; 
see Fnnict -. This has been termed the Mid Terror. 
The reaction after the restoration of the Bourbons., 



EEIGNS OF SOVEEEIGNS. 



1047 



EEPEAL OF THE UNION. 



1 815, disgraced by many atrocious acts of wanton 
cruelty, has been termed the White Terror. The 
Jesuits were then conspicuous in the destruction 
of their adversaries. 

EEIGNS OF SOVEEEIGNS. The average 
duration, according to Newton, is 19 years each ; 
according to Hales 22^ years ; that of the sovereigns 
of England being 235 years, and that of the popes, 
72 years. Pius IX. was the first pope who reigned 
above 25 years, 1846-78. 

EELICS, the trade in these became general in 
the 7th century, fragments of bones, &c. being 
brought from Jerusalem. The sale of relics was 
prohibited by pope Innocent III. 1 198, without 
effect. 

BELIEF CHUECH, a secession from the 
church of Scotland, founded by Thomas Gillespie, 
who was deposed from his ministry for opposing the 
doctrine of passive obedience to the law of the 
church of Scotland respecting the settlement of 
ministers, 23 May, 1752. The church was consti- 
tuted as the "presbytery of relief," 22 Oct. 
1761. The Belief and Secession churches were 
united as the United Presbyterian Church, 13 May, 
1847. 

EELIEF OF DISTEESS (Ireland) 
ACT, 43 & 44 Vict. c. 14, passed 2 Aug. 1880. See 
Ireland, Dec. 1890. Society for the relief of dis- 
tress founded, i860. 

EELIGION (from religo, I bind again, in the 
sense of a vow or oath) comprehends a belief in the 
being and perfections of God, and obedience to his 
commandments. The Jewish religion is set forth in 
the Old, and the Christian religion in the New, Testa- 
ment. Departure from these scriptures has been 
the origin of all corrupt forms of religion, as foretold 
in them. Buddhism differs from this. See Maho- 
metanism, and other religions and sects under their 
names. The population of the globe with reference 
to religious worship, is given by Balbi (who assumed 
the total population to be 1,050,000,000), and 
Dieterici (who assumed it to be 1,288,000,000), as 
follows : A gallery of religions at the British 
museum, Bloomsbury, opened 19 Feb. 1894. 

Balbi (1836). Dieterici (1859) 

Jews ...... 4,500,000 5,000,000 

Christians .... 225,000,000 335,000,000 

Roman Catholics . . . 160,000,000 170,000,000 

Mahometans .... 155,000,000 160,000,000 

Idolaters, <fee. not professing the 
Jewish, Christian, or Mahome- 
tan worship .... 665,500,000 800,000,000 

Estimate in 1869 : 1,375,000,000. 

Roman Catholics 195,460,200 

Protestants 100,385,000 

Eastern church 81,478,000 

Buddhists 360,000,000 

Other Asiatic religions .... 260,000,000 

Pagans ........ 200,000,000 

Mahometans ...... 165,000,000 

Jews . . . . .... . 7,000,000 

In Europe (estimated) 1869 (Almanack cle Gotlui). 

Roman Catholics 144,000,000 

Protestants ... ... 68,500,000 

Greek Church ... . 68,000,000 

Jews ........ 4,400,000 

Mahometans ...... 6,642,000 

EELIGION OF HUMANITY, see Posi- 
tive Philosophy and Secularism. 



EELIGIOUS TE ACT SOCIETY, founded 

1799; receipts (1887), including sales, &c, 203,446/. 
Centenary meeting in Exeter-hall, 5 May, 1899 ; 
centenary fund, total, 51,490/., 20 April, 1900; 
receipts, 1 902, 20,975/. Literature in 230 languages 
and dialects published. Religious instruction in 
board schools, see Education, 1870-94, and 7 Aug. 
1902. 

EEMISSION OF PENALTIES ACT, 

see Sunday. 

EEMONSTEANCE, The Grand, drawn 

up by the house of commons, and presented to- 
king Charles I., 1 Dec. 1641. It consisted of 206 
articles, dwelt bitterly on all the king's illegal 
and oppressive acts, and was printed by order of 
the house. 

EEMONSTEANTS, see Arminians. 

EENAISSANCE, a term applied tothe revival 
of the study of classic literature and art in the 15th 
and 1 6th centuries, under the patronage of the 
Medici and others ; see Painters, and Sculptors. 
Mr. John A. Symonds' "History of the Renaissance 
in Italy," with supplements, 7 vols., published 
1875-86. He was born 1840 and died 19 April, 
1893. " The Renaissance," vol. i. of the Cambridge 
Moaern History, published J an . 1903. 

EENDSBUBG (Holstein), was taken by the- 
imperialists in 1627 ; by the Swedes in 1643 ; and by 
the Prussians and confederate troops in 1848. The- 
first diet of Schleswig and Holstein met here 3 
April, 1848. It was re-occupied by the Danes in 
1852, and taken by the Prussians after a serious; 
conflict, 21 July, 1864. 

EENNES (capital of Brittany, N. W. France). 
Here was established by Henry II., in 1553, the 
parliament so celebrated for its independence, 
especially in its struggle with the court, 1788-89. 
On 20 May, 1788, it declared infamous every one 
who should take part in the cour pleniere then pro- 
posed, but afterwards suppressed. Population in 
1901, 74,006. 

EENTS said to have been first made payable in 
money, instead of in kind, about 1 135. Numerous 
statutes have been enacted in various reigns to 
define the relations and regulate the dealings 
between landlord and tenant. 8 & 9 Vict. c. 106 
(1845) regulates leases. By the act 8 Anne, 1709, 
no goods are removable from tenements under an 
execution until the rent shall have been paid to the 
landlord by the sheriff, 1709. The rental of England, 
including land, houses, and mines, was 6,000,000/. 
about the year 1600, and twelve years' purchase the 
value of land. About 1690, the rental amounted to 
14,000,000/., and the land was worth eighteen 
years' purchase. Davenant on the Revenues, The 
rental of the United Kingdom was estimated dur- 
ing the nineteenth century at 127,000,000/.; Great 
anti-rent agitation in Ireland, 1879, et seq. ; see 
Land, Ireland, and Irish Land Act, 1903. 

EEPEAL oe the Union, Ireland. An 

Irish association was formed with this object under 
the auspices of Mr. O'Connell, in 1829. See Rome 
Rule and Ireland. 

A proclamation of the lord lieutenant prohibited the 
meetings of a society " leagued for the purpose of 
procuring a repeal of the union, under the name 
of the Irish Society for Legal and Legislative 
Relief, or the Anti-Union Society " . 18 Oct. 1830 



EEPLENISHEE. 



1048 



EESEEVE FOECES. 



The commons, by a majority of 484, reject Mr. 
O'Cormell's motion for repeal . 27 April, 1834 

A new association in 1841, 1842, and 1843 became 
more violent. Assemblies of the lower classes 
of the people were held in the last-named year, 
in various parts of Ireland, some of them 
amounting to 150,000 persons, and called "monster 
meetings." 

A great meeting at Trim, 16 March ; other meetings 
were held at Mullingar, Cork, and Longford, 
on 14, 21, and 28 May, respectively ; at Drogheda, 
Kilkenny, Mallow, and Dundalk, on 5, 8, 11, and 
29 June ; at Donnybrook and Baltinglass, 3 and 
20 July ; at Tara, 15 Aug. ; at Loughrea, Clifton, 
and Lismore, 10, 17, and 24 Sept. ; and at 
Mullaghmast 1 Oct. 1843 

A meeting to be held at Clontarf, on 8 Oct. was 
prevented by government ; and Mr. O'Connell and 
his chief associates were brought to trial for 
political conspiracy, 15 Jan. 1844; and convicted 
12 Feb. ; but the sentence was reversed by the 
house of lords, 4 Sept. ; see Trials. 

The association for the repeal of the union con- 
tinued for some time under the direction of Mr. 
John O'Connell, but was little regarded. 

The total " repeal rent" is said to have amounted 
to 134, 379?. 

A fruitless attempt was made in Dublin to revive 
repeal agitation 4 Dec. i860 

EEPLENISHEE, see Electricity {Fractional). 

EEPOETING. The publication of the debates 
an parliament is forbidden as a breach of privilege, 
but was virtually conceded, after a severe struggle, 
in 177 1.* Reporters' galleries were erected in the 
houses of parliament after the fire of 1834. To the 
unfettered liberty of reporting we doubtless owe 
■much of our freedom and good government; see 
under Law. By the verdict for the defendant in 
the case of Wason v. The Times (for libel) reports 
•of parliamentary debates were decider] to be privi- 
leged, Nov. 1868. For the attempted exclusion of 
reporters, see Parliament, 1875. A commons com- 
mittee on reporting recommend continuance of 
Hansard's debates with improvement, May, 1879. 

'The publication of Hansard's parliamentary debates 
began 1803 and closed in 1888. Latterly a sub- 
sidy was granted. The publication of the de- 
bates was taken up by Messrs. Macrae, Curtice 
& Co., Feb. 1889; and continued by the Hansard 
Publishing Union, limited, 1889; the Union 
ordered to be wound up, 13 May. See Trials, 
1892-93. 
Mr. Thomas Curson Hansard, formerly editor of 

the " debates," aged 78, dies . . 12 Nov. 1891 
Government contract with Renter's Telegram com- 
pany for printing and publishing reports of par- 
liamentary debates, &c, 21 Dec. 1891 ; published 

26 Feb. 1892 
The contract accepted for 1893 by Messrs. Eyre & 

Spottiswoode. 
A select committee of the commons on parliament- 
ary reporting, sir J. T. Hibbert chairman, met 

10 April, 1893 
Tenders invited for three schemes of reporting, 

about 20 Dec. ,, 
Tender accepted for 1895, by Waterlow, Sons & Co. 

Jan. 1895 

* Very inaccurate reports of parliamentary debates 
were inserted in the Gentleman's Magazine and other 
periodicals in the middle of the last century. Miller, 
printer of the London Evening Mail, was arrested in the 
city of London, by order of the house of commons, for 
publishing the debates, but was discharged by the lord 

mayor, who for doing this was sent to the Tower, where 
lie remained until the end of the session. No opposition 
was made to the publication of the debates in the nexl 
session, 1772. 



BEPBESENTATION of the People 
Act fop England, passed 15 Aug. 1867 ; for 

Ireland and Scotland, 13 July, 1868; a new act 
passed, 6 Dec. 1884. See Reform. 

The Representative, a daily Tory paper, was started 
by Mr. John Murray, the bookseller, in opposition 
to ttie Times, in 1826. Although he was assisted 
by Mr. Benjamin Disraeli and other eminent per- 
sons, the project was unsuccessful ; the first 
number appeared 25 Jan., the last . 29 July, 1826 

" EEPTILE BUEEATJCEACY," term ap- 
plied in German} - to certain journalists writing for 
government pay, 1871, et seq. 

EEPUBLICANS, see Democrats. The name 
adopted by the Northern party in the United States, 
N.A., opposed to the democrats in the South. It 
is stated that the first delegate-nominating con- 
vention in the United States that adopted the name 
Eepublican party, was held in Strong, Franklin 
count}', Maine, 7 Aug. 1854. Sir Charles Dilke, 
M.P. professed himself a republican at public- 
meetings and was much applauded, Nov. 1871; 
but at some places his appearance led to riotous pro- 
ceedings. His motion for returns respecting the 
expenditure of the civil list by the queen was nega- 
tived in the house of commons (2 — 276), 19 March, 
1872. A national republican conference of delegates 
was held at Sheffield, 1 Dec. 1872, when a national 
flag was adopted. 

BEPTJBLICS, see Athens, Heme, Genoa, 
Venice, France (1792, 1848, 1870), Spain (1873), 
Brazil (1889), Panama (1903), and America. 

BEQUESTS, COUPTS of; see Conscience. 

EEQTJIEM, a solemn mass, sung for the 
dead, so called from the introit " Requiem 
JEternam," &c. Palestrina's Requiem was printed 
at Rome, 1591 ; Vittoria's at Madrid, 1605; Mo- 
zart's last work was a requiem, 1791. 

EEEEDOS, the screen- or decorated portion of 
the wall behind the altar in a church. 

A highly sculptured reredos, designed by sir G. G. 
Scott, was erected in Exeter cathedral, by sub- 
scription 1S73 

Prebendary Philpotts, the chancellor, and others 
who objected, brought their objections before the 
bishop's visitation court, on 7 Jan. ; it was decided 
that the bishop had jurisdiction in the matter, 
and he ordered the reredos to Vie removed, 15 
April, 1874. Dean Boyd appealed to the court of 
arches, and sir P. Phillimore reversed the pre- 
vious decision 6 Aug. 1874 

Prebendary Philpotts appealed to the judicial com- 
mittee of the privy council, who decided that the 
reredos should remain ... 24 Feb. 1875 

The magnificent reredos set up in St. Paul's 
Cathedral, London, was protested against as 
idolatrous by some of the London clergy, April, 
1S88. An action against the dean having been 
stopped by the bishop, the queen's bench divi- 
sion ordered the bishop to withdraw his veto 
upon the prosecution, 1 June, 1889. After further 
litigation, the house of lords sustained the 
bishop's veto 20 July, 1S91 

EESEEVE FOECES. In the summer of 1859, 
acts were passed to provide for the establishment 
of a military reserve force of men who have been in 
her majesty's service (not to exceed 20,000), and a 
volunteer reserve force of seamen not to exceed 
30,000. These acts were consolidated and amended 
in 1867, 1882 and [896. The reserve forces called out by 
proclamation, on account of possible war with Russia, 



1 



RESOLUTE. 



1049 



REVENUE. 



2 April, 1878. About 35,000 good soldiers appeared, 
and were commended. They were disbanded 31 
Aug. 1878. Again called out on account of war in 
Egypt, 25 July, 1882, and prospect of war with 
Russia, 27 March, 1885. Aveiage of armv reserve : 
1888, 55,068; 1890, 56,082; 1893, 76,874; 1896, 
78,057; 1898, 8o,000. Important changes to be 
made to meet exigencies during war time, act 
1, 1 July, 1898. 



RESOLUTE, ship, see Franklin Search, 1854. 

RESONATOR, a small apparatus, placed in 
the mouth to strengthen and increase the volume of 
the voice in singing, invented by signor Alberto 
Each, who exhibited its effects at the Royal 
Academy of Music, 29 June, 1880. 

RESPIRATORS, see Charcoal and Fireman. 

RESTITUTION BILL, of Mr. Jesse Cei- 
lings, proposes the surrender of lands illegally 
taken from commons, to be given to small culti- 
vators, to become peasant proprietors, Jan. 1885. 

RESTORATION, The, of king Charles II. 
to the crown of England, after an interregnum of 
eleven years and four months, between 30 Jan, 1649, 
when Charles I. was beheaded, and 29 May, 1660, 
when Charles II. entered London amidst the accla- 
mations of the people. The annual form of prayer, 
with thanksgiving, then appointed, was ordered 
to be disused by 22 Vict. c. 2, 25 March, 1849. 
See France, 1814, 1815. 

RESTORATION CAMPAIGN, see 

Zionists. 

RETREAT of the Ten Thousand 

GREEKS, who had joined the army of the younger 
Cyrus in his revolt against his brother, Artaxerxes 
Mnemon. The Greeks were victors, but Cyrus was 
defeated and slain at the battle of Cunaxa, 401 B.C. 
Artaxerxes having enticed the Greek leaders into 
his power and killed them, Xenophon was called to 
the command of his countrymen. Under continual 
alarms from sudden attacks, he led them across 
rapid rivers, through vast deserts, over the tops of 
mountains, till he reached the sea. The Greeks re- 
lurned home after a inarch of 1155 paiasangs or 
leagues (3465 miles), which was performed in 215 
days, after the absence of fifteen months. This 
retreat has been immortalised by the account given 
by its conductor, in his "Anabasis Cyri" (Expedi- 
tion of Cyrus) . 

REUNION, see Evangelical Order. 

REUNION, isle of, see Bourbon. 

REUSS-GREIZ and REUSS-SCHLEIZ, 
two principalities in central Germany, with a united 
population of 166,502 in 1885 ; in 1890, 182,565 ; 
1900, 208,000. The reigning family sprang from 
Ekbert, count of Osterode, in the 10th century. 
The princely dignity was conferred by the emperor 
Sigismond in 1426. 

E859. Henry XXII., prince of Reuss-Greiz, 8 Nov. ; born 
28 March, 1846; married princess Ida of Schaum- 
burg-Lippe in 1872 ; she died in 1891 ; son, 
Henry XXIV., insane, born 20 March, 1878. 






REUTER'S International TELE- 
GRAPHIC NEWS AGENCY, founded by baron 
Paul Julius deReuter, born 1816, died 25 Feb. 1899. 
First line between Aix-la-Chapelle and Berlin, in 
i84\"); chief office in London in 1851 ; cables laid 
between England and Germany and between France 



and United States, 1865 et scq. The agency was 
converted into a limited liability company in 1875* 

REVELATION, see Apocalypse. 

REVENUE and Expenditure of Eng- 
land. The revenue collected for the civil list, and for 
all the other charges of government, as well ordinary 
as extraordinary, was 1, 200,000*?. per annum, in 
1660, the first after the restoration of Charles II. In 
1690 it was raised to 6,000,000/., every branch of the 
revenue being anticipated; this was the origin of 
the funds and the national debt, 2 William and 
Mary. Salmon. The revenue laws were amended 
in 1861. Previously to 1854 there had been an 
average surplus of 2,500,000/. since 1849. In con- 
sequence of the Russian war the deficiency in 1854 
was 3,209,059/.; in 1855, 21,141,183/.; in 1856, 
10,104,412/. In 1857 there wasasurplus of ^6,ogj I. ; 
in 1858, of 1,127,657/.; in 1859, a deficiency of 
2,019,584/.; in April, 1901, the detieit, owing to the 
S. African war, was 55,357,000/.; in April, 1902, it 
was about 23,924,000/.; see Statistical Abstract. 



PUBLIC REVENUE. 

William I. estimated 

William Rufus .... 

Henry I 

Stephen 

Henry II 

Richard I 

John 



. . .£400,000 

35°> 000 

300,000 
250,000 
200,000 
150,000 
100,000 

Henry III 80,000 

Edward I. 150,000 

Edward II 100,000 

Edward III i54> 000 

Richard II 130,000 

Henry IV 100,000 

Henry V 76,643 

Henry VI 64,976 

Edward IV * * * 

Edward V 100,000 

Richard III 130,000 

Henry VII. . . 400,000 

Henry VIII 800,000 

Edward VI 400,000 

Mary 450,000 

Elizabeth 500,000 

James 1 600,000 

Charles 1 895,819 

Commonwealth i,5i7> 2 47 

Charles II 1,400,000 

James II 2,001,855 

William III 3,895,205 

Anne (at the Union) 5,691,803 

George 1 6,762,643 

George II 8,522,540 

George III., 1788 15,572,971 

,, 1800, about 38,000,000 

United Kingdom, 1820 .... 65,599,570 

George IV. , 1825 62,871,300 

William IV., 1830 55,431,3*7 

1835 50,494,732 

Victoria, 1845, net 53,060,354 

„ 1850 52,810,680 

1853 54,430,344 





Revenue. 


Expenditure 


1855, net . 

1856 . " . 

1857. . 

1858 .... 


£63,364,605 
68,008,623 
66,056,055 
61,812,525 


£65,692,962 
88,428,345 
75,588,667 
68,128,859 



REVEREND. 



1050 



REVOLUTIONS. 



859, 31 March, gross 
860. 

863 . 

864 . 

865 . 
866. 
867 . 



873 ■ 
874. 

875 . 
876. 
877 . 



Vote of Credit, 27 
April, 1885 



900 . 

901 (Edward VII.) 

902 . 

903 . 



Gross 

Revenue 

(Estimated). 



£65,477,284 
72,089,669 
70,603,561 
70,208,964 

7o.3i3»437 
67,812,292 
69.434.S68 
69,600,219 
72,591,991 
75,454,252 
69,945,220 
74,708,314 
76,608,770 
77.335.657 
75.434.252 
77,131,693 
78,565,036 
79.763.298 

83.n5.972 
81,265,055 
84,041,288 
85,822,282 
89,004,456 
87,205,184 
88,043,660 



39,581,301 
90,772,758 
89,802,254 
88,472,812 
89,304,316 
89,489,112 
90,994,786 

9o,395,377 
91,133,410 
94,683,762 
IOI >973>829 
103,949,885 
106,614,004 
108,336,193 
119,839,905 
130,384.684 
152,601,637 
154,770,000 



Gross 

Expenditure, 

exclusive of 

Fortifications 

(Estimated). 



£64,663,883 
69,502,289 
69,302,008 
67,056,286 
66,462,207 

65,914,357 
66,780,396 
71,236,242 
72,069,961 
68,864,752 

69,548,539 
71,490,020 
70,714,448 
76,466,510 
74,328,040 
76,621,773 
78,125,227 
82,403,495 

85,407,789 
84,105,754 
83,107,924 
85,472,556 
88,906,278 
86,999,564 
89,092,883 

11,000,000 
92,223,844 
89,996,752 
87,423,645 
87,683,830 
86,083,314 
87,732,855 
89,9 2 7,773 
90,375,365 
91,302,846 
93,918,421 

97,764,357 
101,476,669 
102,935,994 
108,150,236 
133,722,407 
183,592,264 
195,522,214 
144,331,000 



* Revised in relation to army, navy, and India. 

The weekly instead of the quarterly publication of the 
public revenue and expenditure was begun by Mr. Robert 
Lowe, the chancellor of the exchequer, 16 Feb. 1870. 
By an act passed 31 July, 1868, revenue officers are per- 
mitted to vote for the election of members of parliament. 

Above 100 statutes relating to inland revenue fell into 
disuse 1 Jan. 1871. 

The revenue friendly societies, and national debt act, 
45 <fe 46 Vict., c. 72, passed iS Aug. 1882. New revenue 
act passed, 1884. 

REVEREND, an honorary appellation given 
to the clergy, since the middle of the 17th century. 
In Taniworth parish register the minister is first 
styled "reverend," in 1657, occasionally after- 
wards; but regularly s«, alter 1727. It iirst ap- 
pears in the registry oi All Hallows, Barking 1732 
The prefix 011a family tombstone . was refused 
to Mr. Keet, a Wesleyan preacher, by the bishop 
of Lincoln, but given by the archbishop of Can- 
terbury 

On trial/Mr. WalterQ. F. Phillimore, the'chancellor 
of Lincoln, decided againsl Mr. Keet. who gave 
notice of appeal, 3 June. Sir R. Phillimore gave 

a similar decision in tli mi of arches m July 

On appeal to the privy council these decisions were 
reversed. It was decided thai chere is no law or 
usage restricting the epithel to ministers of the 
Church of England ; it is merely laudatorj , 

21 Jan. 1876 
REVIEWS. The Journal des Scavans, pub- 
lished on 5 Jan. 1665, by Denis de Salo, under the 



1S74 



1875 



name of Hedouville, was the parent of critical 
journals. It was soon imitated throughout Europe, 
and was itself translated into various languages. It 
is still published. George III. spoke of this publi- 
cation to Dr. Johnson, in the private interview' with 
which he was honoured by his majesty, in the 
library of the queen's house, in Feb. 1767. Bosivell. 
The Bibliotheque Anglaise came out in 1716-27 ; 
the Revue Britannique, founded 1825, ceased Dec. 
1901 . For Military .Reviews, see Alder shot, Army,. 
and Volunteers. For Naval Keviews, see JSavy. 

3877 



Monthly Review 
Critical 
Anti-Jacobin . 
Edinburgh . 
Quarterly 
Eclectic 

North American 
Retrospective . 
Westminster . 
Athenaeum . . 
Dublin 
North British 
British Quarterly 
National 
Saturday . 
Fortnightly . 
Contemporary . 
Academy 
Church Quarterly 



1749 
1756 



• 1813 

• i8 I5 
. 1820 
. 1824 
. 1828 
. 1836 



1855 
1855 



1875 



Nineteenth Century . 

National Review 

Law Quarterly . . 

English Historical Re- 
view. 

Universal Review 18! 

" New Review " . . 

Paternoster Review . 

Albemarle Review 

Progressive Review . 

Anglo-Saxon Review 
(quarterly), edited 
by lady Randolph 
Churchill, Vol. 1. 

June, 

Empire Review 

King and Country 

New Liberal Review, 



1896 



1901 
1902 
1903 



REVISERS, see under Bible. 

REVISING BARRISTERS' COURTS, to 

examine the lists of voters for members of parlia- 
ment, were instituted by the Reform Act of 1 832. 

REVISION, see under Bible. Advocates of 
the revision of the French constitution, chiefly 
Bonapartists or Jeromists, termed Revisionists, 
Feb. 1884. 

REVIVALS on the subject of religion arose in 
the United States in 1857. In the autumn of 1859, 
they began in Scotland, the north of Ireland (par- 
ticularly Belfast), and England. Many meetings 
were held for prayers and preaching throughout the 
week, as well as on Sundays. The " twelve days' 
mission." a series of revival services, took place in 
many London churches during advent, 1869. 

Mr. Moody, preacher (born 1837, died 22 Dec. 1S99), 
and Mr. Sankey, singer, American Revivalists, 
visited many towns in the United Kingdom, 1874-5. 
Their meetings in London began at the Agricultural- 
hall, 9 March, about 13,000 present ; at the Queen's 
theatre, Haymarket, 12 April-31 May: farewell meet- 
ing, 12 July, 1875. Moody and Sankey again in Lon- 
don, 6 Oct. 1881 ; 3 Nov. 1883-23 June, 1884. See 
Salvation Army. 

^REVOLUTIONARY CALENDAR, see 
French Revolution, and Calendar. 

REVOLUTIONARY TRIBUNAL, esta- 
blished at Paris, Aug. 1792. 

Up to 27 July, 1794, when Robespierre was deposed, it 
had put to deatl) 2774 persons, including queen Marie 
Antoinette, the princess Elizabeth, and a large number 
of nobility and gentry, male and female The oldest 
victim was counsellor Dupin, aged 07; the youngest, 
Charles Dubost, aged 14. From 27 July to 15 Dec. 
1794, only Robespierre and his accomplices (about 
100) suffered by it. 

REVOLUTIONS ■— 

The Assyrian empire destroyed, and that of the 
Medes and Persians founded by Cyrus the Great, 

B.C. 536 

The Macedonian empire founded on the destruction 
of the Persian, by the defeat of Darius Codoma- 
nus, by Alexander the Qreal . . . 33J 

The Roman em], ire established on the ruins of the 
republic by Julius Ctesai' .... 47 



REVOLVERS. 



1051 



RHODES. 



The empire of the Western Franks begun under 

Charlemagne a.d. 800 

In Portugal ........ 1640 

In England 1649 and 1688 

In Russia 1730 and 1762 

In North America , 1775 

In Venice ......... 1797 

In Sweden 1772 and 1809 

Iu Holland, 1795 ; counter-revolution . . . 1813 

In Poland i7°4> i79S> aT1 d 1830 

In the Netherlands ,, 

In Brunswick , 

In Brazil 1831 

In Hungary . . 1848 

In Rome. . . 1798 and ,, 

In France . . 1789, 1830, 1848, 1851, 1870, and 1871 

In Italy . 1859 and i860 

In United States 1860-5 

In Danubian principalities 1866 

In Papal States, suppressed .... Oct. 1867 
In Spain . - . . . . Sept. 1868 and Dec. 1874 

In Brazil 15 Nov. 1889 

In Chili Jan. — Sept. 1891 

In Servia . . . . . . 11 June, 1903 

In Colombia, new republic of Panama declared 

3 Nov. ,, 
Revolutions have been frequent in the South 
American republics. 

[See the countries respectively.] 
Among the results of the Revolution of 1688 in Great 
Britain, were the toleration act, the establishment of 
the presbyterian kirk of Scotland, the power of grant- 
ing supplies limited to the house of commons, the 
purification of the administration of justice, and un- 
licensed printing. 
REVOLVERS, see Pistols. 

REVUE DES DEUX MONDES, the 

French literary and historical periodical published 
od the 1st and 15th of each month, first appeared in 
1831. It includes among its contributors the most 
eminent writers in France. 

REYNARD THE FOX, "Reineke 
ElJCHS," a satirical epic in low German, in which 
beasts are actors and speakers, was first printed as 
Reineke Vos, at Lubeck in 1498, and professes to be 
written by Hinreck van Alkmer. It has been fre- 
quently translated. Goethe's version in High (or 
literary) German hexameters appeared in 1794. 
Jacob Grimm has shown that the subject-matter of 
this "Thier-sage" or "beast-fable" is very ancient, 
many incidents being found in Pilpay and other 
oriental writers. The early French had a " Roman 
de Renart," and " Renart le Nouvel.'' A poem, 
entitled " der Reinaert," in Flemish, was known in 
the nth century; Caxton's translation in English 
prose was printed 1481; a poetic English translation 
of Goethe's version, by T. J. Arnold, appeared in 
1855. 

REZONVILLE, Battle of, 18 Aug. 1870, 

see Metz. 

RHiETIA (or R^etia), an ancient Alpine 
country, comprising the modern Grisons, Tyrol, 
and part of Lombardy, inhabited by a wild rapa- 
cious people, after a long struggle was conquered 
by Drusus and Tiberius, B.C. 15. 

RHE, ISLE OF, see Re and Rochelle. 

RHEA, see China Grass. 

RHEGTUM (now Reggio), S. Italy, a Greek 
colony, flourished in the 5th century, B.C. It was 
held by the Campanian legion, 281-271, afterwards 
severely punished for its rebellion. Reggio was 
taken by Garibaldi, Aug i860. 

RHEIMS (N. France). The principal church 
here, built before 406, rebuilt in the 12th century, 
is now very beautiful. The corpse of St. Remy, the 
archbishop, is preserved behind the high altar, in a 
magnificent shrine. The kings of France were 



crowned at Rheims ; probably because Clovis, the 
founder of the French monarchy, when converted 
from paganism, was baptized in the cathedral in 
496. Several ecclesiastical councils have been held 
here. The city was taken and retaken several 
times in the last months of the French war, 1814* 
University founded by cardinal Lorraine, 1547, 
suppressed about 1790. Strike of the workmen of 
Mr. Jonathan Holden, mill owner, a great benefactor 
to the town. May, 1890. Population, 1891, 104.186; 
1901, 107,773. 

RHEOMETER, see under Electricity. 

RHETORIC. Rhetorical points and accents 
were invented by Aristophanes of Byzantium, 200 
B.C. Rhetoric was first taught in Latin at Rome by 
Photius Gallus, about 87 B.C. He taught Cicero, 
who said " We are first to consider what is to be 
said ; secondly, how ; thirdly, in what words ; and 
lastly, how it is to be ornamented." A regius pro- 
fessor of rhetoric was appointed in Edinburgh, 
20 April, 1762, when Dr. Blair became first pro- 
fessor. 

RHINE (Latin, Rhenus ; German, Rhein ; 
French, Rhin), a river, about 760 miles long, rising 
in Switzerland, receiving the Moselle, Main,Meuse,. 
Neckar, and other rivers, terminating in many 
arms in Holland, and falling into the German 
ocean. On its banks are Constance, Basel, Stras- 
bourg, Spires, Mannheim, Cologne, Diisseldorf, 
Utrecht, and Ley den. The possession of the banks 
of the Rhine has been the cause of many wars, and 
it lias been crossed by the French above twenty 
times in a century. In the'beginning of the revo- 
lutionary war, Custine invaded Germany by crossing 
it in 1792; and at the close of the war in 1815, 
France retained the left bank, but lost it at the close 
of the Franco-Prussian war, 1870-1 [which see). 
A navigation treaty with other powers was signed by 
France, 1 7 Oct. 1868. A central committee for the 
navigation exists, formed by members for Alsace, 
Lorraine, Baden, Bavaria, Hesse, Holland, and 
Prussia. Very great damage (about 4,000,000^.) 
and loss of life, caused by the rising of the river 
through excessive rain, end of November and De- 
cember, 1882 ;. relieved by government grants. 
Becker's German song " They shall not have it, the free 
German Rhine ; " and Alfred de Musset's reply, in 
French, " We have had it, your German Rhine," ap- 
peared in 1841. Max Schneckenburger, author of "The 
Watch on the Rhine," died 1851. All were popular 
during the war, 1870-71. 

RHINOPLASTY, an operation performed by- 
dissecting a flap of' skin froTn the forehead and 
placing it over the nose. 

RHODE ISLAND (N. America), settled by 
Roger Williams about 1636, was taken in the war 
of independence by the British, 8 Dec. 1776; but 
was evacuated by them, 25 Oct. 1779. Capitals, 
Providence and Newport. Population in 1880, 
2 76,53i ; 1890,345,506; 1900,428,556; see United 
States. 

RHODES, an island on the coast of Asia 
Minor, is said to have been peopled from Crete, as- 
early as 916 B.C. The Rhodians were great navi- 
gators, and institutors of a maritime code after- 
wards adopted by the Romans. The city was built 
about 408 and flourished 300-200 B.C. ; see Colossus. 
Rhodes, long an ally of the Romans, was taken by 
the emperor Vespasian, a.d. 71. It was held by the 
Knights Hospitallers from 1309 to 1522, when it 
was conquered by the Turks, who still retain it. 
The knights retired to Malta (which see) . Rhodes 
suffered severely by an earthquake on 22 April, 
1863. 



EHODESIA. 



1052 



EHODESIA. 



EHODESIA, the name given (1895) to the 
territories subject to the S. Africa company (after 
<the rt. hon. Cecil Rhodes, "the great empire 
builder," born at Bishop's Stortford, 5 July, 1853; 
died 26 March, 1902), about 2,000 mi. long, and 
i.oco mi. broad; chief towns, Bulawayo and Salis- 
bury. See Zambesi and Mashon aland, 1894. 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes after the troubles in the Trans- 
vaal, visits London, 4 Feb. 1896; returns to 
Salisbury, and devotes himself to the develop- 
ment of Rhodesia ; appointed administrator in 
conjunction with Earl Grey . . . Feb. 1896 

Revolt of the Matabele, joined by many of the 
native police in the Insega and Filibusi districts 
and Matoppo hills ; massacre of 8 whites, in- 
cluding inspectors Bentley and Jackson ; several 
families murdered at outlying stations March, „ 

Skirmish between Mr. Selous with 5 troopers and 
the Matabele 25 March, ,, 

The hon. Maurice Gifford's force repulses large 
body of natives .... 27 March, ,, 

Commissioners Graham, Handley, and 6 others 
attacked and killed, after a desperate fight with 
300 natives at Inyati ... 27 March, „ 

Salisbury, Bulawayo, and other places fortified ; 
relief parties sent out, 29 March ; Mr. M. Gifford 
returns to Bulawayo after relieving Shangani and 
defeating the natives ; Mr. Cecil Rhodes and col. 
Plumer arrive at Salisbury . . 30 March, „ 

Capt. Macfarlane repulses the natives at Queen's 
Reef in the hills, and returns to Bulawayo, 

31 March, ,, 

Enrolment of volunteers at Bulawayo 31 March, ,, 

Olimo, instigator of the rebellion, styles himself 
king of the Matabele . . . 1 April, ,, 

The hon. Maurice Gifford repulses a large body of 
rebels in the Shiloh district, 5 engagements in 4 
days, Mr. Gifford severely wounded ; British 
loss, 3, Matabele loss, about 200 ; Gifford's party 
relieved by capt. Macfarlane . 4-8 Aprii, ,, 

Frequent murders ; desultory attacks repulsed, 

April, ,, 

Capt Brand's patrol attacked by 1,500 rebels on the 
Tuli road ; 5 British and 150 Matabele killed, 

10 April, „ 
Mr. Duncan, acting-administrator at Bulawayo, 

establishes 7 forts in the Mangwe Pass with 400 
men 14 April-2 May, ,, 

Insurrection attributed to losses by the rinderpest 
and locusts 17 April, „ 

Natives severely defeated by Mr. Duncan and capt. 
Napier on the Umgusa river, 22 April ; repulsed 
again, after a desperate fight, by capt. Macfarlane 
and Mr. Duncan, 500 killed . . 25 April, „ 

Earl Grey (administrator) arrives at Bulawayo, 

28 April, ,, 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes and the Salisbury column repulse 
an attack, near Gwelo . . . . i May, „ 

Genera] parade at Bulawayo, earl Grey compli- 
ments Mr. Duncan and officers . . 3 May, ,, 

The enemy repulsed in several skirmishes, 

9-1=; May, „ 

Rebels outed at Thabas Induna, by col. Napier, 

14 May, ,, 
Col. sir Richard Martin, deputy-commissioner, 

arrives with reinforcements, at Bulawayo, 

15 May, „ 
More murders in different parts . . May, „ 
Rebels defeated near Bulawayo and near the Um- 
gusa river, with great loss . 24, 25, 26 May, „ 

Mr. Rhodes warmly r >ived at Bulawayo t June, ,, 

Sir Predk. Carrington arrives at Bulawayo, 2 .rune, ,, 
Rebels defeated, with heavy loss, by col. Spreckley 
and lieut.-col. Beats column on the Gwelo road, 
6 June ; the Makalaka driven from the hills, by 

capt. Gibbs 9 June, ,, 

Mr. Chamberlain reports to parliament, that Mr. 
Cecil Rhodes was managing director of S. Africa 
company without power over administrators, 

11 June, „ 
Rebels in strong force on the Matoppos, more 

murders; Maz listrict in revolt i3-i8June, ,. 

Martial law proclaimed at Salisbury, rising of the 
Mashonas 21 June, ,, 



Escort from the Mazoe district attacked ; Messrs. 
Blakiston and Routledge and 7 men killed, after 
a long light, reported . . . .22 June, 1896 

Mr. Graham, native commissioner, and 3 others 
found murdered at Inyati ; mission station at 
Ingwengwesi river destroyed ; severe fighting 
with the Mashonas, on the Umfuli 22 June, ,, 

Lieut. Bremner, the Meyers, and others murdered ; 
the whole Ayrshire party killed on their way to 
Salisbury ; M'Limo, the prophet, killed in the 
Matoppos ; Fort Charter surrounded, 14 herd- 
boys killed, reported ... 24 June, ,, 

Resignation of the hon. Cecil J. Rhodes and Mr. 
Beit as directors (3 May), accepted by the com- 
pany in London 26 June, ,, 

The enemy surprised and defeated at Thabas-I- 
Mhamba, about 150 killed, 500 women and 
children, and much cattle, captured ; British 
loss 8, and 2 mortally wounded . . 5 July, ,, 

Desultory fighting : kraals captured by major Hur- 
rell 23-31 July, , , 

Rebel stronghold on Inyandi Mt. shelled 2 Aug. ,, 

Capt. "White relieves Hartley, after several fights ; 
communication with Salisbury restored 4, 5 Aug. ,, 

Matabele (5 impis) defeated by col. Plumer's force, 
at Seconibo's stronghold in the Matoppos; heroic 
conduct of capt. Beresford's party, capt. Llewel- 
lyn, and the Cape "boys," under lieut. H. 
Howard ; rebel loss, about 300 ; British, major 
F. Kershaw, lieut. H. F. Hervey, and 5 other 
officers killed 5 Aug. ,, 

Col. Alderson captures Makoni's kraal ; capt. 
Alfred E. Haynes and 3 troopers killed, rebel 
loss, 200 ; other kraals taken, and forts erected, 

8 Aug. „ 

Terms of surrender proclaimed . . Aug. ,, 

Select committee of the commons on the adminis- 
tration of the British S. Africa company and the 
"Jameson Raid" : chairman, Mr. W. L. Jackson, 
sir Richard Webster, sir H. Campbell-Banner- 
man, Mr. Chamberlain, sir M. Hicks-Beach, sir 
Wm. Haixourt, Mr. Labouchere, and others, 
appointed, 11 Aug. ; 1st meeting . 14 Aug. „ 

Capt. M'Callum murdered by Mashonas at Mate- 
limi (25 June) ; 101 murders in Mashonaland up 
to 11 Aug. ,, 

Marandella's kraal and others destroyed ; AY. B. 
Jolifle killed 19 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes, Dr. Saner, and Mr. J. Colen- 
brander unarmed, meet Secombo and other chiefs, 
who eventually surrender unconditionally, 

21 Aug. ,, 

Makoni, rebel chief, captured near Umtali by lieut. 
Richat, 4 Sept. ; after several attempts to escape, 
tried by court martial, and shot, by order of 
major Watts, 7 Sept. ; major Watts arrested, 9 
Sept. ; exonerated on inquiry, 30 Sept. 

Major Ridley captures 2 chiefs and 60 natives, 

12 Sept. ,, 

Awesnya, rebel chief, convicted of atrocities, &c, 
shot 13 Sept. ,, 

Major Tennant captures Simbanoatu, after much 
slaughter ; 2 chiefs and 425 men surrender ; major 
Jenner defeats Mtigeza (who surrenders) near 
Fort Charter, strongholds captured mid Sept. ,, 

Gen. sir Frederick Carrington, Mr. Rhodes, and 
others hold an indaba with Babyan and other 
chiefs ; terms accepted . . . .20 Sept. ,, 

Judge Vintcent holds a meeting with the Mazoe 
chiefs, terms agreed to 21 Sept. ,, 

Serious lighting on the Mazoe river 26-28 Sept. ,, 

Mazoe, and other districts, cleared of rebels, 

30 Sept. „ 

Explosion of a dynamite magazine at Bulawayo, 
li. W. Downes, W. Cooper, and 8 Kaffirs killed, 

2 Oct. „ 

Pesultorv lighting, kraals captured, lieut. H. G. 
Morris and W. A. Smith, killed . . Oct. ,, 

Karl Grey, Mr. Rhodes, and others hold a final 

1 ting with chiefs in the Matoppos, peaceful 

settlement 13 Oct. ,, 

Major Alderson takes Ohena's kraal, after a hot 
tight ; 1S0 natives surrender in the Somnabula 
forest, to capt. Robinson and Mr. Driver, 

mid Oct. ,, 
Gatze's kraal taken, major F. S. Evans, capt. Edw. 
Finucane, and trooper Earnshaw killed, 

19, 22 Oct. ,, 



EHODESIA. 



1053 



RHODESIA. 



Lieut. -col. Baden-Powell captures 8 kraals, 16, 28 

Oct. ; Dango's burnt, after a fight . . 30 Oct. 1896 
Meeting of the British S. Africa company in 
London ; the capital over a million, in hand 
(Feb. 1S95), exhausted ; issue of 500,000^ 2?. 

shares authorized 6 Nov. ,, 

Col. Paget disperses rebels on the Thaba Insimba 

lulls, and returns to Gwelo . . 20 Nov. ,, 

Much heroism shown during the war, by the set- 
tlers and troops ; troops disbanded . 12 Dec. ,, 
Mr. Cecil Rhodes warmly received at Port Eliza- 
beth and Cape Town, 24, 30 Dec. ; in London, 
23 Jan. 1897. 
Change of government announced to 85 Matabele 
chiefs by the hon. A. Lawley in the name of lord 
Grey, at Eulawayo ; 12 districts to be under re- 
sponsible paid chiefs and native commissioners, 

5 Jan. 1897 
Major Gosling captures Seka's kraal on his refusing 

to surrender his guns . . . mid Jan. ,, 
[The select "committee of inquiry of the commons on 
the Transvaal Raid (14 Aug. 1896), re-appointed, 
30 Jan. 1897 ; evidence of Mr. Cecil Rhodes, 16 
Feb.-s March, also of sir Graham Bower and Mr. 
Win. P. Schreiner, 12, 26 March ; Dr. Jameson, 
26 March ; col. Frank Rhodes, 29 March ; sir John 
Willoughby, 2 April, he declined to answer 
certain questions, 6 April ; Dr. Jameson recalled, 
explanations given by him and sir John Wil- 
loughby, 9 April ; Dr.* Harris, 30 April ; the duke 
of Abercorn and the duke of Fife expressed their 
total ignorance of any raid, 12 May ; Mr. Chas. 
Leonard, 14 May ; Miss Flora Shaw, correspon- 
dent of the Times, 25 May (again 2 July) ; Mr. 
Chamberlain, 1 June ; lord Selborne, 4 June. 
Report presented to parliament, 15 July. Con- 
clusions : Discontent in Johannesburg previous 
to raid owing to grievances of the Uitlanders, 
Mr. Cecil Rhodes involved in grave breaches of 
duty, in his course of action. The imperial and 
colonial governments, the directors of the S. 
Africa company, with the exception of Mr. Beit 
and Mr. Maguire, exonerated from complicity in 
the raid. Mr. P. Stanhope's vote of censure on 
the report of the committee on Mr. Rhodes, and 
on the Chartered company, rejected in the com- 
mons, 304 — 77, 26 July, 1897.] 
Many kraals captured, after much fighting, and 

native loss ' . Feb. „ 

The Prospectors' association repudiate the reports 
of the pacification of the country, and appeal 

for imperial aid 23 April, ,, 

Marandella's kraals captured, after a hard fight, 

23-26 May, ,, 
Mr. Cecil Rhodes returns to Bulawayo, 18 June; 
holds an indaba of Matabele chieis, 23 June ; 

lord Grey arrives 28 June, ,, 

Medals granted to officers and men engaged in the 

war, from 24 March — 31 Dec. 1896 . . 6 July, ,, 
Severe fighting on the Unyami, 7, 10 July ; 600 
rebels and 40 guns captured, in rebels surrender, 
13 July ; desultory fighting near Fort Charter, 
district cleared, 3 British killed, 15 July ; sir 
Richard Martin assumes command, 20 July ; a 
kraal taken, 4 British killed ; 600 prisoners liber- 
ated and located in Cherimba . . 24 July, ,, 
Dr. Jameson welcomed at Bulawayo, and Fort 
Salisbury . . . . . . 22, 24 July, ,, 

Surrender of all the Mashona chiefs, reported, 

29 Oct. ,, 
Railway from Kimberley to Bulawayo projected by 
Mr. Cecil Rhodes, opened by sir A. Milner at 

Bulawayo 4 Nov. ,, 

Col. Rivett Carnac appointed deputy-commissioner 

duriug the absence of sir R. Martin . 4 Jan. 189S 

Mr. Chamberlain's scheme for the reconstitution 
of the S. Africa company, increasing government 
control, &c. issued ; Times ... 25 Feb. ,, 
Escape of 51 native prisoners from the gaol at 
Salisbury ...... 25 Feb. „ 

British S. Africa co.'s 2 yrs. report, ended 31 March, 
1897, 360,000?. compensation to settlers for losses 
during the native rising ; surplus over expendi- 
ture, 59,650?. for 1895-6 ; expenditure during the 
rebellion, 2,266,976?., Times, 14 April, 1898; in- 
crease of capital, 1,500,000?. ; Mr. Rhodes (arrived 
in London, 2 April), re-elected director, his 



scheme of administration approved, report 
adopted at a meeting, London . . 21 April, 
Meeting in London of the security holders of the 189S 
Bechuanaland railway co. , Mr. Cecil Rhodes in 
the chair ; the railway from Vryburg to Bula- 
wayo, 600 miles, cost 2,000,000?. ; supplemental 
trust deed approved, 6 May ; debate in the com- 
mons, defence of the Chartered company by Mr. 

Chamberlain 6 May, ,, 

Growth of the gold industry and rapid develop- 
ment of the country, reported . . 25 Jan. i89oj 
Mr. Cecil Rhodes's negotiations in Berlin re the 
Trans- Atlantic telegraph, successful, 11-16 Mar.; 
he raises nearly 10,000,000?. in a few weeks, 

Times 3 May, ,,, 

Legislative council (S. Rhodesia) first meets at 

Salisbury 15 May, ,, 

First train (E. Coast line) enters Salisbury, 1 May ; 
first sod of the northern extension railway cut 

at Bulawayo 31 May, ,,, 

Expedition against Kazembe, a cruel chief ; he 

flies into the Congo Free State . . 27 Oct. , r 
N.E. Rhodesia, including a large area north of the 
Zambesi (administrator, Mr. Codrington), consti- 
tuted in , 

Gen. sir Fred. Carrington arrives at Bulawayo, 

27 June, 1900 
Protectorate proclaimed over Marotseland under 
the title N.W. Rhodesia ; major Coryndon 
appointed administrator .... Sept. ,, 
Sir Marshal J. Clarke, resident commissioner, 

autumn, ,,, 
Death of Mr. Cecil Rhodes, aged 48, at Cape Town 
which see, 26 Mar. 1902 ; great demonstrations of 
grief and homage during the funeral ceremonies 
and along the route from Cape Town to the 
Matoppos, where he was buried (according to his 
own wish) in the hill which he called the " view 
of the world," thousands of natives and others 

being present 10 April, 1902 

[By his will, dated 1 July, 1899, he practically be- 
queathed his immense fortune and possessions 
(about 6,000, oool.) to the public service, viz., 
his landed property near Bulawayo and at 
Tnyanga, near Salisbury, to his trustees, lord 
Rosebery, lord Grey, lord Milner, Mr. A. Beit, 
Dr. Jameson, Mr. L. Michell, and Mr. B. F. 
Hawksley, to cultivate, for the instruction of the 
people of Rhodesia ; 100,000?. to Oriel college,, 
Oxford, nearly 52,000?. per annum for scholar- 
ships, viz., to be created at Oxford university,, 
60 colonial of 300?. each a year, 24 for S. Africa, 
36 for Australasia and the North American and. 
W. Indian colonies, and 2 for each of the 50. 
states or territories of the U.S.N.A. ; also 15 
of the value of 250?. per annum for German 
students, to be nominated by the German em- 
peror. His residence, De Groote Schuur (i.e.', 
the Great Granary, or Barn), near Cape Town, 
with contents, and all his land under Table. 
Mountain, he left to the Federal government of 
S. Africa (when constituted), the house for the 
prime minister, and the other lands for public- 
purposes, with an income of 1,000?. a year for 
maintenance ; also 4,000?. per annum to be in- 
vested as a Matoppos and Bulawayo fund ; and 
2,000?. a year to be called the Inyanga fund, &c. ;. 
see Times, 5 April, 1902. Mr. G. R. Parkin, 
author of "The Great Dominion," principal of 
the Upper Canada college of Toronto, appointed 
by the trustees to prepare a scheme re the^ 
Colonial and American scholarships, reported. 
13 Aug. 1902.] 
Virulent cattle disease (redwater) spreads, 

April-May, ,„ 
" The Ancient Ruins of Rhodesia," by R. N. Hall 
and W. G. Neal, result of their explorations be- 
tween the Zambesi and the Limpopo, 1895-1900, 

published spring, ,, 

Interesting discoveries in the ruins at Zimbabye, 

Aug. ,, 
Outbreak of rabies, reported . . .4 Sept. ,, 
Cape to Cairo railway, line from Buluwayo to Salis- 
bury, ma Gwelo, 300 miles, completed . 6 Oct. ,, 
Mr. Milton, administrator, opens the legislative 
council 6 Nov.. „ 



RHODIUM. 



1054 



RIFLE CORPS. 






Irrigation scheme reported successful . 15 Nov. 1902 
British 8. Africa co.'s report— revenue, 435,255/. ; 
expenditure, 710,563?., 1901-2 ; revenue for 1903, 
513,000/. ; expenditure, 740,000/., reported, 

25 June, 1903 
An order in council amending the provisions of the 
Southern Rhodesia Order in Council, 1898, pub- 
lished. Legislative council to consist of the 
administrator, the resident commissioner, with 
7 nominated and 7 elected members . 17 Feb. ,, 

RHODIUM, a rare metal, discovered in pla- 
tinum ore, by Dr. Wollaston in 1804. It has been 
used for the points of metallic pens. 

RHODOPE MOUNTAIN'S (Turkish, Des- 
poto Dagh), a plateau in Roumelia. 

In these about 150,000 Mahometans took refuge 
during the Russo-Xurkish war, on the approach of 
the Russians in Dec. 1877, and Jan. 1878 ; and re- 
sisted the invaders. The Russians were accused 
of killing and outraging thousands of men, women, 
and children. A European commission of inquiry ; 
met 21 July ; closed, 26 Aug. ; confirmed the 
statements, but issued no united report ; some 
members seceded 1878 

The insurgents asserted that they were not resisting 
the sultan himself, but maladministration. They 
are governed by an English chief, col. St. Clair, 
who receives the taxes, &c. , and is styled "com- 
mander-in-chief of the national army of the 
Rhodope" Sept. „ 

About 40,000 destitute ; reported . . 18 Jan. 1879 

The insurrection gradually subsided. 

Territory ceded to Bulgaria, reported . 16 July, 1895 

RHUBARB. This plant was first cultivated 
for its stalks to be used as food by Mr. Myall, of 
Deptford, about 1820, and soon after came into 
general use. 

RHUDDLAN, statute of, see Wales, 1283. 

RIALTO, BRIDGE OF THE, at Venice (men- 
tioned by Shakspeare in his "Merchant of Venice"), 
built about 1590, consists of a marble arch across 
the Grand Canal, 90 feet wide and 24 feet high. 

RIBBONISM, a term given to the principles 
of a secret society in Ireland, organised about 1820, 
to retaliate on landlords any injuries done to their 
tenants. To the ribbonmen are attributed many 
of the agrarian murders, 1858-71-79. An act was 
passed to repress them, 16 June, 187 1. 

RICE, the Oryza sativa of botanists, in the 
husk termed paddy ; largely grown in intertro- 
pical regions, occupying the same place as wheat 
in the warmer parts of Europe. It was conveyed 
to South Carolina near the end of the 17th century, 
and its cultivation greatly increased. 

The duty on foreign rice, 15s., on colonial rice, is. per 
cwt., was reduced by sir Hubert Peel in 1842 to 6s. 3d. 
and 6?,d. respectively. Further reductions were, made 
in 1846, and in i860 the duty was totally abolished. 

Imported into Britain : 1846, 770,604 ewt.; 1856, 3,724,695 
cwt. ; 1866, 2,309,494 ewt. ; 1877, 6,617,739 cwt. ; 
1881, 8,500,062 cwt. ; 1883, 7,747,725 cwt. ; 1885, 
5,588,650 cwt. ; 1887, 5,019,512 cwt. ; 1889, 6,585,779 
cwt. ; 1890, 5.957,555 cwt. ; 1893, 5,449,602 cwt. ; 1896, 
4i53 1 )5 I 8 cwt. ; 1900, 6,291,331 cwt. ; 1901, 6,755,263 
cwt. 

RICHMOND (Surrey), anciently called Sheen, 
which in the Saxmi tongue signifies resplendent. 
Here stood a palace in which Edward I. and II. 
resided, and Edward III. died, 1377. Here also 
died Anne, queen of Richard II., 1394. The palace 
was repaired by Henry V., who founded three re- 
ligious houses near it. In [497 it was destroyed by 
fire; but Henry YII. rebuilt it, ami commanded 



that the village sliould be called Richmond, he 
having borne the title of earl of Richmond (York- 
shire) before he obtained the crown : and here he 
died in 1509. Uueen Elizabeth was a prisoner in 
this palace for a short time during tlie reign of her 
sister. When she became queen it was one of her 
favourite places of residence; and here she died 
24 March, 1603. It was afterwards the residence of 
Henry, prince of Wales. The beautiful park and 
gardens were enclosed by Charles I. 1,914 acres 
now open to the public. The observatory was 
built by sir W. Chambers in 1769. In Richmond, 
Thomson "sang the Seasons and their change; " 
and died 27 Aug. 1748. 

The Star and Garter hotel burnt . 12 Jau. 1870 

Mrs. Julia Martha Thomas was murdered at Rich- 
mond, her body cut up, put in bags and cast into 
river Thames, by Katherine Webster, aged 30, 
about 2 March ; John Church, a publican, arrested 
on suspicion, discharged 17 April ; Webster com- 
mitted for trial, 16 May ; convicted, 8 July ; con- 
fessed ; executed at Wandsworth . 29 July, 1879 

Richmond incorporated 1890 

Municipal buildings : foundation-stone laid by the 
mayor, sir J. Whittaker Ellis, M.P., 31 Oct. 
1891 ; opened by the duke of York . 10 June, 1893 
Foot-bridge opened by the duke of York 19 May, 1894 
New theatre opened by the mayor . 14 Sept. 1899 
Petersham lodge and estate presented to the town 
by Mr. Max Waechter (knt. 9 Nov. 1902) to pre- 
serve the view from the hill ; the house to be used 
as a holiday home for governesses . 14 Oct. 1902 
Marble hill estate, Twickenham (cost 72,000/.) 

opened to the public ... 30 May, 1903 

Body of Miss Hickman, the lady doctor, discovered 

in Richmond-park .... 18 Oct. „ 
Population, 1881, 19,066; 1891, 22,684; E901, 31,677. 

RICHMOND (Virginia, U.S.) became the 
capital of the southern confederate states. The 
congress adjourned from Montgomery, Alabama, to 
Richmond, where it met 20 July, 1 86 1. After a 
siege of 1452 days and many desperate battles, Rich- 
mond was evacuated by the confederates, 2, 3 April, 
1865; see United States. By the fall of the flooring 
in the state capital building, about 60 persons were 
killed, 27 April, 1870. A statue of "Stonewall" 
Jackson (subscribed for by Englishmen), was un- 
veiled here in presence of his wife and child, 26 
Oct. (875. A statue of gen. Robt. Lee at Richmond 
was unveiled 29 May, 1890. Population 1880, 
63,600; 1890,81,388; 1900,85,050. 

RIDING, see Races. 

Leon, a Mexican, rode 100 miles, consecutively, 
in 4 hours 57 minutes, using 6 " Mustang horses," 
15 July, 1876 ; 505 miles in 49 h. 51J niin. 

S-10 Feb. 1877 

Lord Dunmore rode from the Punjaub frontier, vid 
the Pamirs, to Constantinople, Feb. 1892-15 Feb. 1893 

Military ride. A number of German officers rode 
from Berlin to Vienna, and a number of Austrian 
officers from Vienna to Berlin (above 200 officers 
in all), 575 kilometres ; 1st prize, 20,000 marks 
and a silver statuette given by the German 
emperor to count Stahremberg (Austrian), who 
rode the distance in 71 h. 20 m.; 2nd prize, 
10,000 marks and a silver statuette, given by the 
emperor of Austria to baron von Reitzenstein 
(German), who rode 73 h. 6 m. Other prizes 
given, 1-7 Oct. 1892. An international military 
ride from Brussels to Ostend, 61 competitors, 
won by Lieut. Madamet (French) . . 27 Aug. 1902 

RIFLE CORPS, see Volunteers, and Fire- 
arms. Rifle Brigade formed, 1800. International 
rifle meeting, Washington, began 26 Sent. 1876. 
Another at Creedmoor, near New York, began 14 
Sept. ; the British victors, 1882 ; again victors at 
Ottawa, 13 Sept. 1002; the American team won at 
Bisley, n July, 1903. Mr. Astor gives 10,000^. to 



EIGHTS, BILL OF. 



1055 



EIOTS. 



the nat. rifle assoc., reported, 25 Dec. 1901. 
Rifle Ranges, see Commons. 

EIGHTS, BILL OF. To the Petition of 
Rights, preferred 17 March, 1627-8, Charles I. 
answered, " I will that right be done according to 
the laws and customs of the realm." Both houses 
addressed the king for a fuller answer to their 
petition of rights, whereupon he gave them an 
answer less evasive, " Soit droit fait comme il est 
desire'' 7 June, 1628. The petition thus became a 
statute 13 Car. I. c. 1. An important declaration 
was made by the lords and commons of England to 
the prince and princess of Orange on 13 Feb. 1689, 
in an act " declaring the rights and liberties of the 
subject, and settling the succession of the crown." 
The Bill of Bights, virtually the same as the de- 
claration, was passed by parliament. It totally 
abolished the dispensing power of the crown, Oct. 
1689. See Claim nf Right. 

EIG-VEDA. See Vcdas. 

EIMNIK (near Martinesti, Wallachia). Here 
the Austrians and Bussians under prince Coburg 
and gen. Suwarrow, gained a great victory over the 
Turks, 22 Sept. 1789. 

BLSTDEBPEST, German for cattle plague 
(which see). 

EING DES NIBELUNGEN, see Nibe- 
lunge Not. 

BINGS anciently had a seal or signet engraved 
on them, to seal writings, and they are so used to 
this day. In Genesis xli. 42, it is said that Pharaoh 
gave Joseph his ring. Bings are now put upon 
women's fourth finger at marriage; but the Jews 
used them at the espousal or contract before mar- 
riage. Wedding-rings are to be of standard gold by 
statute, 1855. 

SINK (from the Gaelic rian, or Saxon hrinc, a 
course) , a term used in the Scotch game, " curling." 

The Belgravia skating rink, London, S.W., was 
opened to the public .... 2 Aug. 1875 

Others since at Brighton and other places. Skates 
with rollers (said to have been introduced in a 
scene of Meyerbeer's "Prophete," at Paris, 16 
April, 1849), are used. Mr. Plimpton, an Ame- 
rican, patented roller-skates in 1865 ; his right 
was affirmed on a trial for infringement 28 Jan. 1876 
See Glaciarium. 

EIO DE JANEIEO (S. America), discovered 
by De Sousa, 1 Jan. 1531 ; see Brazil, 1889. In 
1807 it was made capital of the empire of Brazil. 
Population of the city, 1885,357,332; 1890, 876,884. 
See Brazil. 

EIOTS. The riotous assembling of twelve or 
more persons, and their not dispersing upon pro- 
clamation, was first made high treason by a statute 
enacted 2 & 3 Edw. VI. 1548-9. The present Riot 
Act was passed 1 Geo. I. 1714. 

Riots against Jews in London 1189 

Some riotous citizens of London demolished the 
convent belonging to Westminster abbey ; the 
ringleader was hanged, and the rest had their 

hands and feet cut off, 6 Hen. Ill 1221 

Goldsmiths' and Tailors' companies fought in the 

streets of London ; several killed ; the sheriffs 

quelled it ;. and thirteen hanged .... 1262 

A riot at Norwich ; the rioters burnt the cathedral 

and monastery ; the king went thither, and saw 

the ringleaders executed 1271 

Riot of Evil May-day (which see) . . . -1517 
Dr. Lamb killed by the mob . . . June, 1628 



For 



A riot on pretence of pulling down houses of ill- 
fame ; several of the ringleaders hanged . . . 1668 
Another, at Guildhall, at the election of sheriffs ; 
several considerable persons, who seized the lord 

mayor, were concerned 1682 

At Edinburgh and Dumfries, on account of the 

Union 1707 

In London, on account of Dr. Henry Sacheverel, for 
preaching two sermons (one 5 Nov. 1709), voted 
by the house of commons to be scandalous and 
seditious ; several dissenting meeting-houses were 
broken open and destroyed . . . Feb. 1710 
Riot of the Whig and Tory mobs, called Ormond 

and Newcastle mobs . . . .29 May, 1715 
The Mug-house riot, in Salisbury-court, between the 
Whigs and Tories ; the riot quelled by the guards ; 
Ave rioters hanged .... 24 July, 1716 
Of the Spitalfields weavers, on account of employing 
workmen come over from Ireland ; quelled by the 
military, but many lives lost .... 1736 

Porteous riot at Edinburgh (see Porteous) 7 Sept. „ 
The nailers in Worcestershire march to Birming- 
ham, and make terms with iron merchants there 1737 
Of the Spitalfield weavers ; the duke of Bedford 

narrowly escaped death ; lives lost . . May, 1763 
A mob in St. George's-flelds, to see Mr. Wilkes in 
the King's Bench prison ; the military aid indis- 
creetly called for by the justices of the peace, and 
several innocent persons, particularly young Allen, 
fired upon, and killed 10 May, 1768 

Gordon's " No Popery " riots . 10 May, 2-9 June, 1780 
At Birmingham, on account of commemorating the 
French revolution, when several houses were 

destroyed 14 July, 1791 

In various parts of Scotland, on account of the 

militia act, when several were killed . Aug. 1797 
At Maidstone, at the trial of Arthur O'Connor and 
others, 22 May, 1798 ; the earl of Thanet, Mr. 
Ferguson, and others, were active in endeavouring 
to rescue O'Connor, for which they were tried and 

convicted 25 April, 1799 

At Liverpool, occasioned by a quarrel between a 

party of dragoons and a press-gang . 27 June, 1809 
O. P. riot (which see) at Covent-garden . . Sept. ,, 
In Piccadilly, in consequence of the house of com- 
mons committing sir Francis Burdett to the 

Tower 6 April, 1810 

Machinery destroyed by rioters at Nottingham from 

Nov. 1811 to Jan. 1812 
In various parts of the north of England, by the 

Luddites, during . . . 1811 and „ 

At Sheffield, during which 800 muskets belonging 

to the local militia were destroyed . 14 April, „ 
At the Theatre Royal, Dublin, on account of the 

celebrated Dog of Montargis, several nights, Dee. 1814 
Alarming riots at Westminster, on account of Corn 

bill : lasted several days . . . March, 181 5 
At the depot at Dartmoor, in quelling which seven 
American prisoners of war were killed, and thirty- 
five wounded - April, ,, 

Popular meetings at Spa-fields, when the shops of 
the gunsmiths were attacked for arms. Mr. Piatt 
shot in that of Mr. Beckwith, on Snow-hill (Wat- 
son tried for high treason, but acquitted, June, 

1817) 2 Dec. 1816 

In St. James's park, on the prince-regent going to 
the house of lords ; it was said that an air-gun 

was fired at him 28 Jan. 1817 

At Manchester, at a popular meeting . 3 March, „ 
Affray at Manchester, called the " Field of Peterloo" 

(see Manchester reform meeting) . . 16 Aug. 1819 
At the Theatre Royal, Dublin, of several nights' 

duration 5 » 

Riot at Paisley and Glasgow ; many houses plun- 
dered 16 Sept. , 

At Edinburgh, on the acquittal of queen Caroline, 

ig Nov. 1820 

In London, at the funeral of the queen 14 Aug. 1821 

At Knightsbridge, between the military and the 
populace, on the funeral of Honey and Francis, 
(killed 14 Aug.) .... - 26 Aug. „ 






RIOTS. 1056 



RIOTS. 



At the theatre in Dublin ; the riot called the "Bottle 
conspiracy," against the marquis Wellesley, lord- 
lieutenant 14 Dec. 1822 

Riot at Ballybay ; Lawless arrested . . 9 Oct. 1828 

Riot at Limerick ; the provision-warehouses plun- 
dered and mischief done . . . 15 June, 1830 

Fatal affrays at Castlepollard, 23 May ; and Newtown - 
barry {which see) 18 June, 1831 

Alarming riots at Merthyr-Tydvil among the iron- 
workers ; several fired upon by the military, killed 
and wounded 3 June, ,, 

Riot at the Forest of Dean (see Dean) . 8 June, ,, 

Nottingham castle burnt by rioters . . 10 Oct. ,, 

Reform riots at Bristol (see Bristol) . . 29 Oct. ,, 

Affray at Castleshock, county Kilkenny, when a 
number of police, attacked by the populace, were, 
with their commander, Mr. Gibins, killed, 

14 Dec. ,, 

Riot at Boughton, near Canterbury, produced by 
persons called Thomites, headed by a fanatic, 
Thorn, or Courtenay, who, with others, was killed 
(see Thomites) 28-31 May, 1838 

Great riots throughout the country, occasioned by 
the chartists (which see); Llanidloes, Montgomery- 
shire, 30 April, suppressed by military, 4 May ; 
a proclamation 12 Dec. ,, 

Riots in Birmingham ; much mischief . July, 1839 

Chartist riot at Newport (which see) . 4 Nov. ,, 

Meditated chartist outbreak at Sheffield, with most 
destructive objects, providentially discovered, 
and many persons arrested . . . n Jan. 1840 

Rebecca riots against tunrpikes in Wales . . . 1843 

Chartist demonstration (see Chartists) 10 April, 1848 

Fatal affray at Dolly's Brae, near Castlewellan, in 
Ireland, between the Orangemen and the Roman 
catholics ; several of the latter lost their lives, 
and some of their houses were ransacked and 
burnt 12 July, 1849 

Serious riots at Yarmouth, through a dispute be- 
tween the shipowners and the seamen 23 Feb. 1S51 

Riots occasioned by a procession of Orangemen at 
Liverpool, and several lives lost . . 14 July, „ 

Riot at Stockport, Cheshire ; two catholic chapels 
destroyed and houses burnt . . 29 June, 1852 

Fierce religious riots at Belfast, in Ireland, occur, 

14 July, ,, 

Fatal election riot at Six-mile-bridge, in the county 
of Clare, in Ireland ; five persons shot dead by 
the military 22 July, ,, 

Riots at Wigan, among the coal-miners, suppressed 
by the military without loss of life . 28 Oct. 1853 

Bread riots at Liverpool .... 19 Feb. 1855 

Riots at Hyde-park, about Sunday bill, July, 1855 : 
about dearness of bread . . 14, 21, 28 Oct. ,, 

Riots at Belfast through the open-air preaching of 
the rev. Hugh Hanna . . .6, 13, 20 Sept. 1857 

Religious riots at St. George's-in-the-Bast, London, 
on Sundays in . . . . Sept. and Nov. 1859 

Break-out of the convicts at Chatham, suppressed 
by the military 11 Feb. 1861 

Violent riots at Belfast begin, through an Orange 
demonstration 17 Sept. 1862 

Fierce rioting (caused by the Irish against the 
favourers of Garibaldi) at Hyde- park, London, 28 
Sept. and 5 Oct. ; and at Birkenhead, Cheshire, 

8 and 15 Oct. „ 

Rioting at Stalybridge (on account of the mode of 
relief to the unemployed cotton-workers), princi- 
pally Irish ; put down by the military, 21 March, 1S63 

Fierce conflicts between Romanists and Protestants 
at Belfast ; 9 persons killed, and about 150 injured 

10-27 Aug. 1864 

Reform riots in Hyde-park, London ; much damage, 
and many hurt 23, 24 July, 1866 

Anti-popery riots at Birmingham, through the lec- 
turing of Murphy : much damage done to houses, 

17, 18 June, 1867 

Col. Kelly and Deasy committed for trial as Fenians ; 
rescued from the prisoners' van ; Brett, a police 
sergeant, shot dead .... 18 Sept. ,. 

At Wigan ; colliers mi strike . . end of April, 1S68 

Fierce riots against a colliery manager at Mold. 
Flintshire, put down by the military ; 4 deaths, 

2 June, 1869 



Violent rioting at a colliery at Thorncline, near 
Sheffield ; quelled by intervention of lord Wharn- 
cliffe and others 21 Jan. 1870 

Rioting at Armathwaite, near Carlisle, between 
English and Irish navvies . . 15, 16 Oct. „ 

Violent riots at Belfast ... 19, 20 Aug. 1872 

Riots at Northampton, because Mr. C. Brad laugh was 
not elected M. P. ; suppressed by military 6 Oct. 1874 

At Blackburn, Burnley, Aecrington, Preston, and 
other places, through cotton strike and lock-out ; 
several mills and houses destroyed ; riots quelled 
by the military . . . . 14, 15 May, 1878 

At Camborne, Cornwall, against the Irish ; a 
Romanist church destroyed . . 17-18 April, 1S82 

At Wrexham, of coal miners . . . 19 April, ,, 

Westminster colliery . . . . iq April, ,, 

In Skye, cottars against rent about 19 April-Sept. ,, 

At Tredegar, Monmouthshire, Salvationists at- 
tacked by Irish roughs, retaliate with great 
violence ; Irish quarter sacked, 8, 9 July ; 1 
Irishman died ; 600 destitute Irish landed at 
Queenstown, 14 July ; 6 rioters sentenced to 
3 months' imprisonment ... 2 Aug. ,, 

In Dublin, through resignation of police, suppressed 
by the military 1 Sept. ,, 

At Kidderminster 4-8 April, 1884 

Peaceable mass meeting of the unemployed in 
Trafalgar-square, joined by the social democrats 
with red flag led by Hyndman, Burns, and 
Champion, who, unchecked for about two hours 
(4 to 6 p.m.), from Pall-mall to Oxford-street and 
neighbourhood, smash windows, ransack shops, 
attack and rob private carriages : finally dis- 
persed : police organisation inefficient (except by 
superintendent Cuthbert) ; estimated damage 
n,oooZ., 8 Feb. ; other meetings ; rioting checked 
9, 10 Feb. ; rioters sentenced to various terms 
of imprisonment March, i835 

Riots at Leicester occasioned by a strike ; de- 
struction of factories, &c. ; partially checked by 
the police, 11, 12 Feb. ; rioting continued 

13-16 Feb. ^ 

Riots Damages Act passed , r 

Destructive riot of coal-miners at Plas-Power 
colliery near Wrexham ... 30 Sept. ,, 

Violent riots of Lanarkshire miners at Hamilton, 
Airdrie, &c. ; 74 men arrested . 8-10 Feb. 18S? 

Riot at Lillie-bridge, West Bromptou ; structures 
destroyed and burnt by a crowd (about 5,000) 
disappointed at the non-performance of a race 
and their money not returned . . 19 Sept. ,, 

Riotous assemblage of the unemployed in Trafalgar- 
square dispersed 17 Oct. ; meeting at Hyde-park 
dispersed by the police after severe conflict, 
18 Oct. ; again dispersed 19 Oct. ; meeting in 
Trafalgar-square, about 2,000 went to Westminster 
Abbey ; disorderly, 23 Oct. ; quiet meetings 24-27 
Oct. and since ; arrests for seditious language, &c, 
4-S Nov. ; meetings in Trafalgar-square prohibited, 
8 and 18 Nov. ; processions of disorderly mob- 
dispersed, and meetings in Trafalgar-square 
prevented by mounted ami foot police aided by 
the 1st life guards ; several severe conflicts with. 
men using iron bars and knives ; many seriously 
injured, chiefly police; Mr. Cuninghame Graham, 
M.P., a magistrate, and Mr. John Burns and. 
many others arrested ; moderate conduct of the 
police ; sir C. Warren's arrangements thoroughly 
successful, Sunday, 13 Nov. ; many sentenced to 
penal servitude 14 Nov. „ 

Funeral procession of Alfred Linnell, a law writer, 
accidentally killed in a crowd in Northumberland- 
averme on Sunday, 20 Nov., from Soho to Bow 
cemetery : .Messrs. Cuninghame Graham, M.P., 

Wm. Morris the poet, ami others present ; onlei 
was only maintained by a large body of police, 

18 Dec. „ 
Much rioting connected With strikes . . . 1890-92 
Attacks of the coal mine strikers in Ebbw vale, 
Wales, defeated by the workers ; military present 

17 Aug. iSotj; 
liiotous proceedings of the strikers in the coal dis- 
tricts Checked by the military ; - deaths; much 
property destroyed . . . 7-8 Stfpt ,. 

Sec Coal and Hull, 1S93. 



BIPON. 



1057 



EOBIN HOOD. 



Report of a committee on riots appointed, May, 
1894 ; issued . £ v ! ; .- March, 1895 

See Strikes, 1881 ; * Ireland ; Crofters,' 1887-8 ; Belfast, 
Southampton, Cardiff, Coal, Hull, &c. d£M 

BIPON (Yorkshire), an ancient town. About 
661 an abbey cell was built bere by Eata. Ripon 
was made a bishopric by archbishop "Wilfred, in 
690, but did not endure so. It suffered much by 
the ravages of the Danes, the Normans (1069), ami 
the Scots (1319 and 1323). The present see was 
erected 5 Oct. 1836, out of the archdeaconry of York 
in the West Riding. Income 4,200/. The cathedral 
was restored by sir G. G. Scott : the choir was re- 
opened 27 Jan. 1869. The thousandth anniversary 
of its incorporation was celebrated 25-27 Aug. 1886. 
Population, 1881,7,390; 1891,7,512; 1901,8,225. 

BISHOPS. 

1836. Charles Thos. Longley, trans, to Durham, 1856. 
1856. Robert Bickersteth, died 15 April, 1884. 
[884. Win. Boyd Carpenter, May. 

EITCHIE'S ACT, see under Local Govern- 
ment. 

EITITALISTS, a name given in 1866 to a 
party in the church of England, formerly termed 
Puseyites, who endeavoured to give a more im- 
posing chai-acter to public worship, by the use of 
coloured vestments, lighted candles, incense, &c, 
professing to go back to the practices of the church 
in the time of Edward VI. An exhibition of these 
things was held during the church congress at York 
in Oct. 1866, but was not officially connected with 
it. The practices of the ritualists (said by Mr. 
Disraeli to be symbolical of doctrines they were 
bound to renounce), were censured in several 
episcopal chai-ges in Dec. 1866; in two reports 
of the ritualistic commission, 19 Aug. 1867, and 
April, 1868, and by the judicial committee of 
the privy council on appeal, 23 Dec. 1868. See 
Church of England and Trials, 1867-9. At a gene- 
nil convocation of the American episcopal church at 
Philadelphia, 27, 28 Oct. 1868, after a warm dis- 
cussion on ritualism,, the discussion was adjourned. 
It was renewed at the convocation 10 Oct. 1874, 
and the ritualists were defeated by the evangelical 
party, a stringent canon on ceremonies being passed 
27 Oct. The "Public "Worship Regulation Act" 
was passed 7 Aug. 1874, f° r the repression of 
ritualism in England. Clerical declaration on 
ritual, see Times, 13 July, 1903. See Public Wor- 
ship and Church of England 1903. 

EIVEES COMMISSIONS, first appointed, 
C865, Messrs. R. Rawlinson, J. T. Harrison, and 
Professor "Way ; second, 1868 ; sir "Wm. Denison, 
Mr. J. Chalmers Morton, and Professor Frankland. 

Published six blue books 1874 

Association for preserving the rivers of Scotland, 

formed Jan. 1875 

The Pollution of Rivers Act passed 15 Aug. 1876 ; 

amended, 1893 ; reported ineffectual by royal 

commission July, 1901 

E1VOLI (near Verona, N. Italy). Near here 
the Austrians defeated the French, 17 Nov. 1796; 
and were defeated by Bonaparte 14, 15 Jan. 1797. 
Massena was made duke of Rivoli for his share in 
the actions. 

EOAD CLUB, established in the autumn of 
1874 i 11 London, by gentlemen interested in the 
revival of coaching. 

EOAD MUEDEE. On the night of 29-30 
June, i860, Francis S a vile Kent, four years old, 
was murdered, and his body hid in a garden 



water-closet at Road. His step-sister ConstanceKent 
(aged sixteen), and the nurse Elizabeth Gough 
(the first suspected), were discharged for want 
of evidence. The coroner was severely blamed 
for charging the jury improperly, but the court of 
queen's bench, in Jan. 1861, refused to issue a writ 
for a new inquiry. Constance Kent, on 25 April, 
1865, before sir Thomas Henry at Bow-street, and 
at her trial at Salisbury, on 21 July following, con- 
fessed herself to be guilty of the murder. Her 
punishment was commuted to penal servitude for 
life. Let out on ticket-of-leave, 18 July, 1885. 
Road is near Frome, Somerset. 

EOADS, see Roman Roads. The first general 
repair- of the highways of this country was directed 
about 1285. Acts were passed for the purpose in 
1524 and 1555, followed by others in Elizabeth's 
and succeeding reigns. Roads through the High- 
lands of Scotland were begun by general Wade in 
1726. Loudon M 'Adam's roads were introduced 
about 1818. "Wooden pavements were tried with 
partial success in the streets of London : at White- 
hall in 1839, and in other streets in 1840 ; asphalte 
pavement soon after. An act " for the better man- 
agement of the highways" was passed in 1862 
after much opposition; another, 16 Aug. 1878; 
also regulated the use of locomotives on roads. 
Steam road-rollers were tried in 1867; used in 
London 18 March, 1868 : see Macadamising, Tolls, 
and Wooden Pavements. Committee on Highways 
appointed, 18 March, 1903, report issued, 29 Sept. 
1903. 

EOAD STEAMEES. Mr. R. W. Thomson, 

of Edinburgh, in 1868, by adding india-rubber t.> 
the tires of the wheels of locomotives is considered 
to have solved the question of steam traction on 
common roads. Road steamers have been success- 
fully employed in Edinburgh and Leith for drawing 
heavy waggons up inclined planes, and are adapt- 
able to any draught work. They were tried at 
Woolwich, 1 Oct. 1870, and reported successful by 
eminent authorities ; and their application to plough - 
ing by lord Dunmore was exhibited 1 Feb. 187 1. 

BOANOAKE, an island off N. Carolina, U.S., 
discovered by sir Walter Raleigh, 1584, and settled 
by him, 1585, without success. Other settlers also 
failed. 

BOASTING- ALIVE. An early instance is 
that of Bocchoris, king of Egypt, by order of Saba- 
con of Ethiopia, 737 B.C. Leng'let. Sir John Old- 
castle, lord Cobham, was thus put to death in 1418, 
and Michael Servetus for heresy at Geneva, 27 Oct. 
1553 ; see Burning Alive, and Martyrs. 

BOB BEES were punished with death by 
Edmund I.'s laws, which directed that the eldest 
robber should be hanged. Remarkable robbers in 
England were Robin Hood, 1189 (see Robin Hood), 
and Claud Du Val, "executed at Tyburn," says an 
historian quaintly, "to the great grief of the 
women," Jan. 1670. In Ireland, the famous Mae- 
Cabe was hanged at Naas, 19 Aug. 1691. Gallop- 
ing Hogan, the rapparee, flourished at this period. 
Freney, the celebrated highwayman, surrendered 
himself, 10 May, 1749. The accomplished Barring- 
ton was transported, 22 Sept. 1790. See Trials. 

EOBIN HOOD, captain of a band of robbers, 
in Sherwood forest, Nottinghamshire ; traditionally 
reported to have been the earl of Huntingdon, dis- 
graced and banished the court by Richard 1. at his 
accession (1189): Robin Hood and Little John and 

3 Y 






"EOBINSON CRUSOE." 



1058 



EOGATION WEEK. 



their band are said to have continued their depre- 
dations till 1247, when .Robin died. Stoiv. Lord 
Tennyson's drama, "The Foresters; Robin Hood 
and Maid Marian," first represented at New York 
on account of the American copyright law, end of 
March, 1892. 

" EOBINSON CETJSOE," by Daniel De 
Foe; the first part appeared in 1719. See Juan 
Fernandez. Three old ladies, Mary Ann, Jane 
Amelia, and Sarah Frances i)e Foe, lineally de- 
scended from De Foe, pensioned by queen Victoria, 
May, 1877. 

EOBUEITE, a German explosive invented 
by Dr. Carl Roth, reported 1888. 

EOCHDALE, Lancashire. A charter was 
obtained for a market by Edmund de Lacy, 1241, 
and the grammar school was founded 1564. Roch- 
dale canal was opened 1804. The new town was 
commenced in 1865. Rochdale first sent a member 
to parliament in 1832. The woollen manufacture 
was carried on in the 16th century. The first 
cotton mill was erected in 1795. Theatre royal 
and opera house, built in 1867, destroyed by fire, 
27 Jan. 1894. Population, 1881, 68,866; 1891, 
71,458; 1901,83,112. 

EOCHEFOET (W.France), a seaport on the 
Charente. The port was made by Louis XIV. in 
1666. In Aix-roads or Basque-roads, near Roche- 
fort, capt. lord Cochrane attacked the French fleet 
and destroyed four ships, 11-12 April, 1809. Near 
Rochefort, the emperor Napoleon surrendered him- 
self to capt. Maitland of the Bellerophon, 15 July, 
1815. 

EOCHELLE (W. France), a seaport on the 
Atlantic, belonging to the English for some time, 
but finally surrendered to the French leader, Du 
Guesclin, in 1372. As a stronghold of the Calvinist 
party, it was vainly besieged by the duke of Anjou 
in 1573 ; and was taken after a siege of thirteen 
months by cardinal Richelieu in 1628. The duke 
of Buckingham was sent with a fleet and army to 
relieve it; but the citizens declined to admit him. 
He attacked the isle of Rhe, near Rochelle, and 
failed, 22 July, 1627. He was i - epulsed 8 Nov. fol- 
lowing. A conspiracy here in 1822 caused loss of 
life to sergeant Bories and others. 

The new harbour opened by president Carnot 

19 Aug. 1890 

EOCHESTEE, in Kent, the Roman Duro- 
brivce. The bishopric, founded by Augustin, 604, 
is the next in age to Canterbury. The first cathe- 
dral was erected by Ethelbert, king of Kent. St. 
Justus was bishop in 604. Alterations were made 
in the diocese in 1845. Rochester is valued in the 
king's books at 358/. 3s. 2\d. per annum. Present 
income 3,000/. The cathedral re-opened after 
repairs of the choir, 1 1 June, 1875 > wes t front and 
towers restored, 25 July, 1894. The old castle 
and grounds were purchased for the public by the 
Corporation. 1883. The " ten churches fund " 
begun by the bishop, 1884. Population, 1881, 
21,307 ; 1891, 26,309 ; 1901, 30,622. 
Eastgate House, originally the residence of sir 
Peter Buck, clerk of queen Elizabeth's navy at 
Chatham. Date 1590 carved on woodwork. 
Referred to by Chas. Dickens in "Edwin 
Drood," opened as ;i public museum 31 March, 1903 
Mr. Foord gives 10,000 gs. to St. liartholomew's 
hospital, Rochester, and the cathedral . July, ,, 

RECENT BISIIOI'S. 

1793. Samuel Horseley, trans, to St. Asaph's, 1802. 
1802. Thomas Dampier, translated to Ely, 1808. 
1809. Walter King, died 22 Feb. 1827. 



1827. 
1827. 



1867. 
1877- 



1890. 



1893. 



Hugh Percy, translated to Carlisle, 27 Oct. 
George Murray, died 16 Feb. i860. 
Joseph Cotton Wigram, died 6 April, 1867. 
Thos. Legh Claughton, translated to St. Albans. 
Anthony Wilson Thorold, consecrated, 25 July ; 

translated to Winchester, 1890. 
Randall Thomas Davidson, Nov. ; translated to 

Winchester, 1895 ; abp. of Canterbury, enthr. 

12 Feb. 1903. 
Edward Stuart Talbot. 



EOCKETS, destructive war implements, were 
invented by sir William Congreve about 1803. The 
carcase-rockets were first used at Boulogne, 8 Oct. 
1806, when they set the town on tire, their powers 
being previously demonstrated in the presence of 
Mr. Pitt and several of the cabinet ministers, 1806. 
Improved rockets were made by Hales in 1846. 
Boxer's life-saving rope-carrying rocket, for com- 
municating with stranded vessels, described in 1878. 
See Wrecks, March, 1892. 

EOCKINGHAM ADMINISTEATIONS. 

The first succeeded the administration of Mr. Geo. 
Grenville ; the second succeeded that of lord North. 

first administration, 13 July, 1765 to 30 July, 1766. 
Charles, marq. of Rockingham,* first lord of the treasury. 
William Dowdeswell, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Earl of Winchilsea and Nottingham, lord president. 
Duke of Newcastle, privy seal. 
Earl of Northington, lord chancellor. 
Duke of Portland, lord chamberlain. 
Duke of Rutland, master of the horse. 
Lord Talbot, lord steward. 

Henry Seymour Conway and the duke of Grafton, secre- 
taries of state. 
Lord Egmont, admiralty. 
Marquis of Granby, ordnance. 
Viscount Barrington, secretary -at-ioar. 
Viscount Howe, treasurer of the navy. 
Charles Townshend, paymaster of the forces. 
Earl of Dartmouth, first lord of trade. 
Lords Bessborough, Grantham, and Cavendish, &e. 
See Chatham administration. 

second administration, March to i July, 1782, when the 

marquis died. 
Marquis of Rockingham, first lord of the treasury. 
Lord John Cavendish, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Lord Camden, president of the council. 
Duke of Grafton, privy seed. 
Lord Thurlow, lord chancellor. 

William, earl of Shelburne and Charles James Fox, secre- 
taries of state. 
Augustus viscount Keppel, first lord of the admiralty. 
Duke of Richmond, master-general of the ordnance. 
Thomas Townshend, secretary -at-war. 
Isaac Barre, Edmund Burke, John Dunning, &c. 

EOCEOY (N. France). Here, 19 May, 1643, 

the Spaniards were totally defeated by the French, 
commanded by the great Conde. 

EODNEY'S VICTOEIES. Admiral Rodney 
fought, near Cape St. Vincent, the Spanish admiral, 
Don Langara, whom he defeated and made prisoner, 
capturing six of his ships, one of which blew up, 
16, 17 Jan. 1780. On 12 April, 1782, he encountered 
the French fleet in the West Indies, commanded by 
the count dc Grassc, took five ships of the line, and 
sent the French admiral prisoner to England : 
Rodney was raised to the peerage, June, 1782. 

EOGATION WEEK. Rogation Sunday, the 
Sunday before Ascension-day, received its title from 
the Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday following it, 
called Rogation days, derived from the Latin rngare, 

* Charles Watson Wentworth, marquis of Rockingham, 
was born 13 May, 1730 ; succeeded his father as marquis, 
1750. He died without issue, 1 July, 1782 ; and his 
estates passed to his nephew, earl Fitzwillian . 



EOHAN. 



1059 



EOMAN CATHOLICS. 



to beseech. Extraordinary prayers and supplica- 
tions for these three days are said to have been 
appointed in the third century, as a preparation for 
the devout observance of our Saviour's ascension on 
the next day succeeding to them, denominated 
Holy Thursday or Ascension-day. The whole week 
in which these days happen is styled Rogation 
week ; and in some parts it is still known by the 
other names of Crop week, Grass week, and Pro- 
cession week. The perambulations of parishes have 
usually been made in this week. 

ROHAN, an illustrious family, descended from 
the ancient sovereigns of Brittany. Henri de 
Rohan, son-in-law of the great Sully, after the 
death of Henry IV. (14 May, 1610), became head of 
the Protestant part} 7 , and sustained three wars 
against Louis XIII. He eventually entered the 
service of the duke of Saxe-Weimar, and died of 
wounds received in battle in 1638. Of this family 
was the cardinal de Kohan; see JJiatnond Necklace. 

EOHILCUND, a tract of country, N.E.India, 
was conquered by the Rohillas, an Afghan tribe, 
who settled here about 1747. After aiding the 
sovei - eign of Oude to overcome the Mahrattas, they 
were treated with much treachery by him, and 
nearly exterminated. Rohilcund was ceded to the 
British in 1801. After the great mutiny, Kohilcund 
was tranquillised in July, 1858. 

EOLLEE SKATES, see Rink. 

EOLLHSTG-MILLS, in the metal manufac- 
tories, were in use here in the 17th century, and in 
1784 Mr. Cort patented his improvements. 

EOLLS, see Master of the Rolls, and Records. 

EOLLS' CHAPEL (London), founded by 
Henry III., about 1233, for receiving Jewish rabbis 
converted to Christianity. On the banishment of 
the Jews in 1290 the buildings now called the Kolls, 
and the chapel, were annexed by patent to the 
office of the keeper or master of the rolls of chan- 
cery, from which circumstance they took their 
name. A number of public records from the time 
of Kichard III., kept in presses in this chapel, have 
been removed to the Record Office {which see) . The 
Kolls chapel was pulled down in July, 1892. 

EOLT'S ACT, 25 & 26 Vict. c. 42 (1862), 
relates to the Chancery Court. 

EOMAGrNA, a province of the papal states, 
comprised in the legations of Bologna, Eerrara, 
Eorli and Ravenna. It was conquered by the Lom- 
bards ; but taken from them by Pepin, and given to 
the pope, 753. Caesar Borgia held it as a duchy in 
1501, but lost it in 1503. In 1859 the Romagna 
threw off the temporal authority of the pope, and 
declared itself subject to the king of Sardinia, who 
accepted it in March, i860. It now forms part of 
the province of Emilia, in the new kingdom of Italy. 
Population, 1890, 1,218,392. See Rome. 

EOMAINVILLE and Belleville, heights 

near Paris, where Joseph Bonaparte, Mortier, and 
Marmont were defeated by the allies after a 
vigorous resistance, 30 March, 1814. The next day 
Paris capitulated. 

EOMAN CATHOLICS, their religion was 
the established one in Britain since 597 till the 
Reformation ; see Church of England. Since 
then many laws were made against them, which 
have been repealed ; see Rome, Religion, Leagues, 
Maynooth. Among other disabilities, Roman 



Catholics were excluded from corporate offices, 
1667 ; from parliament, 1691 ; forbidden to marry 
protestants, 1 708; to possess arms, 1695, &c. 

Roman Catholic Church, in England and Wales, 1878 ; 

I archbishop, 12 bishops (Beverley, Birmingham, 
Clifton, Hexham, Liverpool, Newport, Northamp- 
ton, Nottingham, Plymouth, Salford, Shrews- 
bury, Southwark) ; 1894, 14 bishops ; 1903, 1 arch- 
bishop, 15 bishops, 2 auxiliary bishops (sees: 
Birmingham, Clifton, Hexham and Newcastle, 
Leeds, Liverpool, Middlesbrough, Newport, 
Northampton, Nottingham, Plymouth, Ports- 
mouth, Salford, Shrewsbury, Southwark, Mene- 
via, Wales. Ireland, 4 archbishops (metropolitan, 
Paul Cullen, archbishop of Armagh, 1850 ; of 
Dublin, 1852) ; 24 bishops ; 1894, 23 bishops. 
Scotland, 1894, 2 archbishops, 4 bishops. 

Roman Catholics in Great Britain and Ireland, 
5,640,891 ; in Europe, 146,335,603 ; Asia, 9,234,000 ; 
Africa, 2,656,000 ; America, 51,033,790; Australia 
and Polynesia, 672,000 ; in the world, estimated 
nearly 210,000,000 (240,000,000 in 1903) . . 1891 

British empire, 28 archiepiscopal, 102 episcopal 
sees, 166 archbishops and bishops in 1898 ; 28 
archiepiscopal, 105 episcopal sees, 30 vicariates, 

II prefectures apostolic, 176 archbishops and 
bishops in 1903. 

Great Britain, 5,414,956 Roman Catholics in 1897. 
Ireland, 3,310,028 Roman Catholics . . . 1901 

R.C. hierarchy consists of 55 cardinals, n patri- 
archs, 725 archbishops and bishops of the Latin 
rite, 49 of the Oriental rite, 367 titular bps. and 
archbps., and 10 prelates nullius diocesos, Jan. ,, 
United Kingdom, estimated Roman Catholic popu- 
lation, 5,250,000 ...... Jan. 1902 

Great Britain, priests, 3,500 . . . Jan. ,, 
Bishop Fisher, sir Thomas More, and others, exe- 
cuted for denying the king's supremacy . . . 1535 
Catholics absolved from their allegiance to the king 

by Paul III. 1535 ; by Pius V 1570 

They rebel in 1549 and 1569 

The Gunpowder Plot (which see) .... 1605 
They suffer by Oates's fictitious popish plot . . 1678 
They are excluded from the throne . ... 1689 

They suffer by the Gordon riots . . June, 1780 

Various disabilities removed in . . 1780 and 1791 
Mr. Pitt proposes measures for their relief, which 

he gives up 1801-4 

Roman Catholic Association organised in Ireland, 
with the object of removing the political and civil 
disabilities of Roman catholics, "Catholic 

rents " subscribed 1823 et seq. 

Bills in their favour frequently brought in without 

effect from 1813 to 182S 

An act of parliament passed for the suppression of 
the Catholic Association (it had voted its own 
dissolution, 12 Feb.) .... 5 March, 1829 
The duke of Wellington and sir Robert Peel carry 
the Catholic emancipation bill (10 Geo. IV. c. 7) 
in the commons, 30 March ; in the lords, 10 April; 
received the royal assent . . . 13 April, ,, 
The duke of Norfolk and lords Dormer and Clifford, 
the first Roman catholic peers, take their seats, 

28 April, ,, 
The first English R. C. member returned, the earl 

of Surrey, for Horsham .... 4 May, ,, 
Mr. O'Connell elected for Clare, 1828, takes his seat 

(first Roman catholic m.p. since 1689) . Aug. ,. 
Mr. Alexander Raphael, the first Roman catholic 

sheriff of London .... 28 Sept. 1834 

Sir Michael O'Loghlen, the first Roman catholic judge 

(as Master of the Rolls in Ireland), appointed, 30 Oct. 1836 
St. George's cathedral, Southwark, erected by A. 

W. Pugin ; founded 1840 

Tablet newspaper established ,, 

Mr. O'Connell elected first Roman catholic lord 

mayor of Dublin 1841 

" Catholic Poor School Committee " established . 1847 
The "Papal Aggression" (which see); cardinal 
Nicholas Wiseman appointed archbishop of West- 
minster 30 Sept. 1850 

Roman catholic university,Dublin, originated 5 May, 

1851 ; established 1854 

Universe newspaper established i860 

3 y 2 



ROMAN CATHOLICS. 



1060 



EOMAN EOADS. 



Agitation in favour of the pope .... 1860-2 
Missionary college founded at Drumcondra, Ire- 
land 20 July, 1862 

Roman catholic chaplains permitted for gaols, by 

Prison Ministers act July, 1863 

Serjeant Win. Shee made a justice of the Queen's 
Bench, the first Roman catholic judge since the 
Reformation [died 19 Feb. 1868] . . 15 Dec. „ 
Death of cardinal Wiseman, aged 63 ; 7th English 

cardinal since the Reformation . .15 Feb. 1865 
Henry Manning (formerly an archdeacon in the Eng- 
lish church) consecrated archbishop of West- 
minster 8 June, ,, 

Conference of Roman catholic bishops at Dublin ; 
publish resolutions declining state help (in accor- 
dance with the papal injunctions, 1801 and 1805), 
and condemning mixed education and secret 

societies 17 Oct. 1867 

In Great Britain 1639 Roman catholic priests ; 1283 
chapels and churches ; 227 convents for women 
(principally educational) ; 21 colleges and large 

schools Dec. ,, 

A proposal of the Derby government to endow a 
catholic university for Ireland, Oct. 1867, failed 
through the catholic bishops claiming the entire 
practical control .... 31 March, 1868 
Mr. Justice Thomas (aft. lord) O'Hagan, appointed 
lord chancellor of Ireland, is the first Roman 
catholic who has held that office since the revolu- 
tion of 1688-9 Dec - >> 

Catholic truth society by Dr. (aft. cardinal) 

Vaughan, established about 1868 ; important 

conference at Hanley, end of Sept. 1896; annual 

meetings. 

Catholic union of Great Britain, president the duke 

of Norfolk, constituted 1871 

A Roman catholic made M.A. at Oxford, after the 

abolition of the test .... 22 June, ,, 
The catholics opposing the dogma of papal infalli- 
bility term themselves " old catholics" (which see) „ 
The Ecclesiastical Titles act (see Papal Aggression) 

repealed 24 July, „ 

Pastoral issued by the R. C. bishops in Ireland 
claiming endowment for colleges, &c. under their 

sole control Oct. ,, 

" Catholic Education Crisis Fund " established . ,, 
Two R. C. bishops consecrated at Salford 28 Oct. 1872 
"Catholic Union," Dublin, re-organised to obtain 

education under ecclesiastical control, abt. 4 Dec. 1873 
A catholic union in Dublin formed . . . ,, 

Roman Catholic university senate meet 21 May, 1874 
Archbishop Manning made a cardinal . . . 1875 
Catholic Congress at Venice met . . 12 June, ,, 
The marquis of Ripon becomes a Roman Catholic 

7 Sept. ,, 
Roman Catholic university college, Kensington ; 

monsignor Capel, principal ; opened . 15 Oct. „ 
Several English clergymen secede to Rome . Oct. ,, 
New Catholic club opened in London by the duke 
of Norfolk, lords Denbigh and Petre, and others 

27 Nov. „ 
Mr. Gladstone's pamphlet, "The Vatican Decrees " 
occasions declarations respecting papal infalli- 
bility, from abp. Manning, monsig. Capel, the 
Catholic Union and othersforit ; from lords Acton, 
Camoys, and sir George Bowyer, against it, Nov. ,, 
R. C. hierarchy re-established in Scotland, by pope 

Leo XIII 4 March, 1878 

For the dissension between Church and State re- 
specting the duct] inc. of papal infallibility, see 
Prussia and Germany. 
Church in low state in Germany, 3 dioceses (of 12) 
occupied: 200 parishes without priests; 1500 
priests expelled, reported . . . April, 1879 
The church of the Oratory opened at South Ken- 
sington 25 April, 18S4 

Lord Petre, a R. C. priest, takes his scat in the house 

of lords 3 Nov. „ 

Centenary of l;he establishment of the first R. C. 
diocese in the United State! Lebrated at Balti- 
more, 10 Nov it. ■•■'!. ; cardinal Gibbons dedicates 
the new Catholic university at Washington 

13 Nov. 1889 
Rev. J. II. Newman, Anglican, professed Romanism, 
Oct. 1845; made cardinal, 1. May, 1S79; died, 
aged 89 . . . . . . '11 An;. 1890 



New Spanish church, Manchester-square, London, 
W., opened 29 Sept. 1890 

Mr. Gladstone's bill to enable a Roman Catholic to 
be lord chancellor of England or lord-lieutenant 
of Ireland, rejected by the commons (256 — 223) 

4 Feb. 1891 

Death of cardinal Manning, aged 83, 14 Jan. ; 
solemn funeral service at the Brompton oratory ; 
buried at the R. C. cemetery at Kensal green 

21 Jan. 1892 

Catholic congresses: Madrid, president, archbishop 
of Saragossa, 25 April et seq. ; at Vienna, the high, 
clergy and nobility present, 29 April, 1889 ; Ma- 
lines, 8 Sept. 1891 ; Seville ... 20 Oct. ,, 

Dr. Herbert Vaughan, bishop of Salford, appointed 
archbishop of Westminster by the pope ; con- 
firmed, 3 April ; enthroned, 8 May, 1892 ; created 
cardinal, 16 Jan. 1893 ; entertained with R. C. 
bishops at the Mansion-house, London, n April, 1893 

The foundation stone of the cathedral at West- 
minster laid by cardinals Vaughan and Logue 

29 June, 1895 

Growth of organisation in the R. C. church, con- 
gresses, clubs, &c 1870-1900 

R. C. peers protest against the expressions used in 
the Declaration against Transubstantiation, sub- 
scribed by the king .... 14 Feb. 1901 

R. C. bishops protest against any special doctrines 
being denounced by the sovereign on his acces- 
sion 9 July, , 

Exodus from France (ichich see) of religious orders 
due to the new associations law of 1 July ; many 
come to England . . . July-3 Oct. ,, 

Mass meeting of Catholics at Halifax (N.S.), pro- 
testing against the terms used in the accession 
and coronation oaths .... 22 Jan. 1902 

Demonstration held by the Catholic league at 
Bermondsey in favour of financial equality 
between Catholic elementary schools and Board 
schools 10 Feb. ,, 

St. Edward's tower, the Campanile of the new 
Westminster R. C. cathedral, illuminated by a 
beautiful crown and search-light . 9-12 Aug. ,, 

Lord Grey's bill to abolish the Declaration made 
by the sovereign on his accession negatived by 
109 — 62, on motion for second reading .25 June, 1903 

Death of cardinal Vaughan, age 71, 19 June ; laid in 
state in Westminster cathedral, buried at Mill- 
hill 26 June, ., 

Dr. Bourne, bishop of Southwark, elected arch- 
bishop of Westminster, 24 Aug. ; confirmed by 
the pope 28 Aug. ; receives the pallium at Rome, 

12 Nov. ,, 

New Westminster cathedral opened for public 
worship Dec. ,, 

EOMANLAW, see Codes; Roman Litera- 
ture, see Latin. 

EOMAN EOADS in ENGLAND. Our 
historians maintain, but arc mistaken, that there 
were but four of these roads. Camden. " The 
Romans," says Isidore, "made roads almost all 
over the world, to have their marches in a straight 
lino, and to employ the people ;" and criminals were 
frequently condemned to work at such roads, as wo 
learn from Suetonius, in his life of Caligula. They 
were commenced and completed at various periods, 
between the 2nd and 4th centuries, and the Roman 
soldiery were employed in making them, that inac- 
tivity might uot give them an opportunity to raise 
disturbances. Bede. 

isi. WATLING-STREET, so named from Vitcllianus. who is | 
supposed to have directed it. the Britons calling him 
in their language Gvetalin (from Kent to Cardigan 
Bay) 

2nd, Iknield, or Ikf.nild-strket, from its beginning 
among the Iceni (from ^t. David's to Tynemouth). 

3rd, Fosse, or Fosse Way, probably from its having 
been defended by a fosse on both sides (from Cornwall 

l.i I llieoln). 



ROMAN WALLS. 



1061 



ROME. 



4th, Ermin-street, from Inminsul, a German word, 
meaning Mercury, whom our German ancestors wor- 
shipped under that name (from St. David's to South- 
ampton). 

EOMAN WALLS. One was erected by 
Agricola (79 to 85) to defend Britain from the in- 
cursions of the Picts and Scots ; the first wall ex- 
tended from the Tyne to the Sol way firth (80 miles) ; 
the second from thj firth of Forth, near Edinburgh, 
to the firth of Clyde, near Dumbarton (36 miles). 
The former was renewed and strengthened by the 
emperor Adrian (121), and by Septimius Severus 
(208). It commenced at Bowness, near Carlisle, 
and ended at Wallsend near Newcastle. It had 
battlements and towers to contain soldiers. The 
more northern wall was renewed by Lollius Urbicus, 
in the reign of Antoninus Pius, about 140. Many 
remains of these walls still exist, particularly of the 
southern one; Dr. J. C. Bruce' s " Ho man Wall" 
published 1853-1868. 

ROMANCE, originally a composition in the 
Romance or Provencal idiom. The term in the 
middle ages was extended to narrative poetry in 
general. Heliodorus, a bishop of Tricca, in Thessaly, 
about 398, was the author of JEthiopica (relating to 
the loves of 1'heagenes and Charicleia) , the first work 
in this species of writing. The first part of the 
"Koman de la Rose" was written by Guillaume de 
Lorres (1226-70) ; the second, a separate poem, by 
Jean de Meung (1285-1314), the Decameron of Boc- 
caccio was published, 1358; Don Quixote, by Cer- 
vantes, 1605 ; Gil Bias, by Le Sage, 1715. Dunlop's 
" History of Fiction," published 1814. See English 
Language ; '■'■Reynard the Fox." 

ROME. The foundation of the city, by 
Romulus, was laid on the 20th April,* according to 
Varro, in the year 3961 of the Julian period (753 
years before the birth of Christ, and in the fourth 
year of the sixth Olympiad. Other dates given : 
Cato, 75 1 ; Polybius, 750 ; Fabius Pictor, 747 ; 
Cincius, 728 B.C.). The Romans conquered nearly 
the whole of the then known world. In the time 
of Julius Caesar, the empire was bounded by the 
Euphrates, Taurus, and Armenia on the east ; by 
^Ethiopia on the south ; by the Danube on the north ; 
and by the Atlantic on the west. Numerous ecclesi- 
astical councils have been held at Rome, from 197 to 
1869-70. Population, 1872, about 240,000 ; 1877, 
250,000; 1881,300,467; 1890,423,217; 1901,463,000. 
Chiefly through the exertions of Mr. John Henry 
Parker of Oxford, the Roman exploration fund was 
established, for the preservation of ancient archi- 
tectural remains. His "Archaeology of Rome" (with 
many photographs) published, 1874-8. Professor 
J. H. Middleton's works on "Ancient Rome," pub- 
lished 1885, 1888, and 1892. The Italian govern- 
ment votes 1200/. a year for a similar purpose. 
The early history of home is legendaiy, and the 
dates purely conjectural. It has been greatly eluci- 
dated by the researches of B. G. Niebuhr, whose 
Roman history w r as published 1811 and 1827-30, 
and still further by Dr. Mommson in his history of 
Rome, 1854. He died 1 Nov. 1903. 



* In its original state, Rome was but a small castle on 
the summit of mount Palatine ; and the founder, to give 
his followers the apiiearance of a nation or a barbarian 
horde, was obliged to erect a standard as a common 
asylum for criminals, debtors, or murderers, who fled 
from their native country to avoid the punishment which 
attended them. From such an assemblage a numerous 
body was soon collected, and before the death of the 
founder, the Romans had covered with their habitations 
the Palatine, Capitoline, Aventine, and Esquiline hills, 
with Mounts Ccelius and Quirinalis. 



Foundation of the city by Romulus . . . B.C. 753 
The Romans seize on the Sabine women at a public 

spectacle, and detain them for wives . . . 750 
Rome taken by the Sabines ; the Sabines incor- 
porated with the Romans as one nation . . 747 
Romulus said to have been murdered by senators . 716 
Numa Pompilius elected king, 71s ; institutes the 

priesthood, the augurs and vestals . . . 710 
The Romans and the Albans contesting for supe- 
riority, agreed to choose three champions, on 
each part to decide it. The three Horatii, Roman 
knights, overcame the three Curiatii, Albans, and 

united Alba to Rome about 667 

War with the Fidenates ; the city of Alba destroyed 665 
Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber, built . about 627 

The capitol founded 615 

The first census of the Roman state taken . . . 566 
Political institutions of Servius Tullius . . . 550 
Tarquinius II. and his family expelled for tyranny 
and licentiousness, royalty abolished : the Patri- 
cians establish an aristocratical commonwealth . 509 
Junius Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus first 
prtetors or consuls ; first alliance of the Romans 

with Carthage ,, 

The capitol dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus . . 507 
First dictator Titus Lartius . . . . . . 501 

The Latins and the Tarquins declare war against 

the republic, 501 ; defeated at lake Regillus . 496 
Secession of the Plebeians to the sacred mount ; 

establishment of tribunes of the Plebeians . . 494 
First agrarian law passed by Spurius Cassius ; he 
is put to death by Patricians . . . . 486-5 

Wars with the jEquians and Volscians ; exploits 
and exile of Coriolanus ; he besieges Rome, but 
retires at the intercession of his mother and wife 

about 491 
Victory of Cincinnatus over the iEquians by strata- 
gem, liberating the Roman army . . . 458 
Destructive pestilences . . 472, 466, 463 and 451 
Wars with Yeii and the Etruscans, indecisive, 475, 
465 ; slaughter of the patriotic Fabii (which 

see) 477 

The Aventine mount allotted solely to the 

plebeians 456 

The appointment and fall of the Decemvirs (which 
see), 451 — 448. The Decemvirs were tried, Appius 
Claudius and Spurius Oppius died in prison, 

others were banished 448 

The Canuleian law passed, permitting marriages be- 
tween Patricians and Plebeians . . . . 44s 
Military tribunes first created . . . . > 444 

Office of censor instituted 443 

The Veientes defeated, and their king Tolumnius 

slain 437 

Great defeat of the Sabines 447 

Spurius Mcelius, a benefactor during famine, ju- 
dicially murdered by the Patricians . . . 436 

War with the Etruscans 434 

iEqui and Volsci defeated by Tubertus, dictator . 428 

Two more quiestors appointed 421 

Another dreadful famine at Rome . . . - 411 
Three quaestors are chosen from the Plebeians for 

the first time 4°9 

Veii taken by Camillus after ten years' siege . . 396 

Banishment of Camillus 39 T 

Great victory of the Gauls near the Allia, 16 July ; 
they sack 'Rome, which is deserted, but are re- 
pulsed in an attack on the Capitol, which they 
blockade ; they accept a heavy ransom, and 

retire 39° 

Proposed removal of the state, to Veii, rejected . 389 
[Rome gradually rebuilt amid great distress and 

wars with neighbouring states.] 
M. Manlius, liberal to poor debtors, is executed as 

a traitor 3 3 4 

Passing of the Licinian laws (which see) ; by 
them, one consul is to be a Plebeian (much re- 
sisted) 36s 

Marcus Curtius leaps into the gulf which had opened 

in the forum 3^ 2 

The Gauls defeated in Italy 36° 

Treaty with Carthage to repress Greek piracy . . 348 



EOME. 



1062 



EOME. 



3°4 



309 



295 



290 



War with the Etruscans, ended by a truce ; war b.c. 
with the Latins ; league renewed . . . 365-342 
First Samnite war, indecisive . . . . 343-340 
Mutiny in the army in Campania, and rise of the 
commons in Rome ; peace restored by conces- 
sions and the general abolition of the debts 
caused by the Gaulish invasion . . . .341 
The Publilian law passed, equalising the plebeians 

with the patricians in political rights . . . 339 
The second Samnite war, a severe struggle, 326, et 
seq. ; the Roman army, entrapped in the Cam line 
Forks (which see), 321 ; victories of L. Papirius 
Cursor ; the Samnites and their allies compelled 

to submit 

War with Etruria, 311 ; victories of Q. Fabius 

Maximus at the Vadimonian lake, <toc. ; the 

Etrurians and Umbrians submit .... 

Appius Claudius Csecus, censor, favours the lower 

classes ; with the public money makes the road 

from Rome to Capua, termed the " Appian way," 

| and erects the first aqueduct .... 312-308 

Conquest of the yEquians, Marsians, &c. . . 304-302 

Third Samnite war 300 

Coalition of the Samnites, Etruscans, and Gauls 
(not continuous) against Rome ; nine campaigns, 
with many conflicts and alternate invasions ; 
great Roman victory at Sentinum (which see) 
The Samnites subdued after desperate struggles, 
294-29! ; their general, C. Pontius, put to death 

at Rome 

Conquest of the Sabines by M. Curius Dcntat'us ! 
Great distress of the Plebeians, through war, pesti- 
lence and famine 300, et seq. 

Secession of the people to the Janiculum ; the 

Hortensian laws (which see) passed . . . . 2S6 
Census : 262,322 Roman citizens .... 293 
Seven new temples erected, with statues by Greek 

HI LI SIS •■....,. 302- 2Q2 

The Etruscans defeated at the Vadimonian lake . 283 

The Tarentines form a coalition against Rome, and 

invite Pyrrlms, king of Epirus, to join them, 281 ; 

he defeats the Romans at Pandos'ia, 280 ; and at 

Aseulum, 279 ; defeated by them at Beneventum 275 

Subjugation of Tarentum, Samniura, Bruttium and 

their allies, 272-265 ; Rome supreme in Italy . 265 
First Punic war (see Carthage.) . . . "64-241 

First Roman fleet built 2 6 

Temple of Janus closed i 235 

Corsica and Sardinia annexed . . . . 238 etseq. 

invasion of the Gauls ; beaten by the consuls . . 225 

Second Punic, war, 218-201 ; Rome saved by the 

adhesion of 18 colonies, by the free-will offerings 

of gold, silver and money by the senate and 

people, and by the defeat of Hasdrubal at the 

Metaurus (see Carthage) 207 

Syracuse taken by Marcellus 212 

The Macedonian wars with Philip begin, 213 and 

200 ; his defeat at Cynoseephalfe ... 197 
Death of Scipio Africanus the elder . . . .185 
Third Macedonian war begins 171 ; Perseus beaten 

at Pydna ; Macedon annexed ^s 

First public library erected at Rome 

Philosophers and rhetoricians banished from Rome 

Third Punic war begins 

Corinth and Carthage destroyed by the Romans (see 

Corinth and Carthage) . 
Celtiberian and Numantine war in Spain 
Attains III. of Pergamos bequeaths hi 

and riches I" the Romans 
The Servile war in Sicily 

TWO Plebeian consuls chosen . 
Agrarian disl nrbanees : Gracchus slain 
The Jugurthine war .... 
The Mithridatic war (which see) . ' . 
The Ambroncs defeated by Marius . 
The Social war 

Rome besieged by four armies (viz. 

Marius, China, Carbo, and Sertorius) and taken 

Sylla defeats Marius : becomes dictator ; sanguinary 
proscriptions, 82 : abdicates ....'. 

Bithyni a bequeathed to the Romans by king Nico- 
medes . . . 

Revolt of Spartacus and the slaves .... 

Syria conquered by Pompey 

The Catiline conspiracy suppressed bj Cicero . 

The ihst triumvirate : Csesar, Pompey, and Crass us 60 

Civsar's campaigns in Caul, 58 ; in Britain . • . 55 



167 
161 [ 
149 

146 

53-133 
1 

• 133 
. 132 



112-106 

. 108-63 

102 

. 90-88 

those of 

S7 

79 

74 

73-71 

65 

63 



Crassus killed by the Parthians . . . B.C. 53 
Gaul conquered and made a province . . . . 51 
War between Csesar and Pompey .... 50 
Pompey defeated at Pharsalia (which see) . . . 48 
Ca?sar defeats Pharnaces at Zela ; and writes home 

" Veni, vidi, vici " 47 

Cato kills himself at Utica ; Caesar dictator for ten 

years 46 

C;esar killed in the senate-house . . 15 March, 44 
Second triumvirate : Oetavius, Antony, and Lepidus 43 
Cicero killed, proscribed by Antony ....,, 
Battle of Philippi ; Brutus and Cassius defeated . 42 
Lepidus ejected from the triumvirate, 36 ; war be- 
tween Oetavius and Antony, 32 ; Antony defeated 

totally at Actium 2 Sept. 31 

Oetavius emperor, as Augustus Ccesa/r ... 27 
The empire now at peace with all the world ; the 
temple of Janus shut ; Jksus Christ born. (See 
Jews) ......... 4 

Varus defeated by Hermann and the Germans a.d. 9 

Ovid banished to Tomi ,, 

Death of Ovid and Livy iS 

Tiberius retires to Caprea ; tyranny of Sejanus 26 

A census being taken by Claudius, the emperor and 

censor, the inhabitants of Rome are stated to 

amount to 6,944,000. — [It is now considered that 

the population of Rome within the walls was 

under a million.] 4S 

Caractaeus brought in chains to Rome ... 50 
St. Paul arrives in bonds at Rome . . . . 62 
Nero burns Rome to the ground .and charges the 

crime upon the Christians 64 

Seneca, Lucan, &c, put to death .... 65 
Peter and Paul said to be put to death . . . 67 
Jerusalem levelled to the ground by Titus 8 Sept. 70 
Coliseum founded by Vespasian . . . . . 75 
The Dacian war begins (continues 15 years) . . 86 
Pliny, junior, proconsul in Bithynia, sends Trajan 

his celebrated account of the Christians . . . 102 
Trajan's expedition into the East against the Par- 
thians, &c. ; subdues Daeia 106 

Trajan's column erected at Rome 1x4 

Adrian resides in Britain, and builds the wall . . 121 
The capitol destroyed by lightning . . . . 188 
Byzantium taken ; its walls razed .... 196 

The Goths are paid tribute 222 

[The Goths, Vandals, Alani, Suevi, and other 
Northern nations attack the empire.] 

Pompey's amphitheatre burnt 248 

Invasion of the Goths 250 

Pestilence throughout the empire .... 252 
Great victory over the Goths obtained by Clau- 
dius II. ; 300,000 slain 269 

Dacia relinquished to the Goths .... 270 
Palmyra conquered, and Longinus put to death . 273 
The era of Martyrs, orof Diocletian . . . . 284 
The Franks settle in Gaul. Frcret . . . .287 

Constantius dies at York 306 

Four emperors reign at one time .... 30S 
Constantine the Great, it is said, in consequence of 
a vision, places the cross on his banners, and 
begins to favour the Christians . . . . 312 

Constantine defeats Licinius, at Clirysopolis. and 

reigns alone iS Sept. 323 

He tolerates the Christian faith ,. 

Puts Ins son Crispus in death ..... 324 
Constantine convokes the first general council of 

Christians at Nice 325 

The seat of empire removed from Rome to Byzan- 
tium. 321 : dedicated by Constantine . . . 330 
Constantine orders the heathen temples to be. 

destroyed , 

Revolt of 300,000 Sarmatian slaves suppressed . 334 
Death of Constantine, soon after being baptized . 337 
The army under Julian proclaims him emperor . 360 
Julian, who had been educated for the priesthood, 
and had frequently officiated, abjures Christianity, 

and re opens the heathen temples, becoming the 
pagan pontiff 361 

Julian killed in buttle in Persia : Christianity 
restored by Jovian 363 

The empire divided into Eastern and Western by 
Valentinian and Valens, brothers : the former has 

the Western portion, or Rome 364 

(See Western and Eastern Umpires; and Italy.) 

Rome placed under the exarchate of Ravenna . 404 

Taken by Alaric 24 Aug. 410 

Taken and pillaged by Genseric . . 15 July, 455 



EOME. 



1063 



EOME. 



Odoacer takes Rome, and becomes "king of Italy . 476 
Home recovered for Justinian by Belisarius . . 536 
Retaken by Totila the Goth, 546 ; recovered by 

Belisarius, 547 : seized by Totila .... 549 
Recovered by Narses, and annexed to the eastern 

empire ; and the senate abolished . . . . 553 
Rome at her lowest state .... about 600 
Rome independent under the popes . . about 72S 
Pepin of France compels Astolphus, king of the 
Lombards, to cede Ravenna and other places to 

the Holy Church 755 

Confirmed and added to by Charlemagne . . 774 

Charlemagne crowned emperor of the West by the 

pope at Rome 25 Dec. 800 

Rome taken by Arnulf and the Germans . . . 896 
Otho I. crowned at Rome .... 2 Feb. 962 
The emperor Henry IV. takes Rome . March, 1084 
Arnold of Brescia, endeavouring to reform church 
and state and to establish a senate, is put to 

death as a heretic 1155 

The pope removes to Avignon 1309 

Nicola di Rienzi, tribune of the people, establishes 
a republic, 20 May ; is compelled to abdicate, 

15 Bee. 1347 
Returns ; made senator, 1 Aug.; assassinated, 8 Oct. 1354 

Papal court returns to Rome 1377 

Rise of the families, Colonna, Orsini, &c. about ,, 
Julius II. conquers the Romagna, Bologna, and 

Perugia 1503-13 

The city greatly embellished by pope Leo X. 1513-21 

It is captured by the constable de Bourbon, who is 

slain 6 May, 1527 

Ferrara annexed 1597 

St. Peter's dedicated .... 18 Nov. 1626 
Expulsion of the Jesuits .... 16 Aug. 1773 
Harassed by the French, German, and Spanish 
factions . from the 16th to the 18th century. 
The French invasion ; the Legations incorporated 

with the Cisalpine republic 1796 

The French proclaim the Roman republic, 20 March, 1798 
Recovered for the pope by the Neapolitans, Nov. 1799 
Retaken by the French, 1800 ; restored to Pius VII. 

July, 1801 
Annexed by Napoleon to the kingdom of Italy, and 

declared second city of the empire . May, 1808 
Restored to the pope, who returns . 23 Jan. 1814 

He re-establishes the Inquisition and the Jesuits, 

7 Au g. » 
The papal government endeavour to annul all inno- 
vations, and thus provoke much opposition ; the 
Carbonari increase in numbers . . . 1815-17 

Political assassinations in the Romagna . . . 1817 
The " Young Italy " party established by Joseph 
Ma-zzini ; temporary insurrections at Bologna 

suppressed by Austrian aid 1831 

Election of Pius IX. . . . .16 June, 1846 

He proclaims an amnesty ; and authorises a national 

guard and municipal institutions . . . . 1847 
The Romans desire to join the king of Sardinia 
against the Austrians ; the pope hesitates ; the 
Antonelli ministry retires ; and the Mamiani 

ministry is formed 1848 

Count Rossi, minister of .justice of the pontifical 
government, assassinated on the staircase of the 
Chamber of Deputies at Rome . . 15 Nov. ., 

Insurrection at Rome, the populace demand a 
■democratic ministry and the proclamation of 
Italian nationality ; the pope (Pius IX.) hesi- 
tates, thfi Romans surround the palace, and a 
■conflict; ensues. The pope accepts a popular 
aninistry {Cardinal Palma, the pope's secretary, 
shot in this conflict) . . . .16 Nov. ,, 
A free constitution published . . 20 Nov. „ 
The pope escapes in disguise from Rome to Gaeta, 

■24 Nov. „ 
M. de Corcelles leaves Paris for Rome, a French 
armed expedition to Civita Vecchia having 
preceded him, to afford protection to the pope, 

27 Nov. ,, 
Protest of the pope against the acts of the provi- 
sional government .... 28 Nov. ,, 
A constituent assembly meets at Rome . 5 Feb. 1849 
The Roman National Assembly divests the pope 
of all temporal power, and adopts the republican 
form of government .... 8 Feb. ,, 

Mazzini, Armellini, and Salti appointed triumvirs 

Feb. „ 



The pope appeals to the Catholic powers, 

18 Feb. 1849 
Civita Vecchia occupied by the French force under 

Marshal Oudinot .... 26 April, „ 
A French force repulsed with loss . . 30 April, ,, 
Engagement between the Romans and Neapolitans ; 

the former capture 60 prisoners and 400 muskets, 

5 May, „ 
The assembly refuses to receive the French as allies, 

19 May, „ 
The French under marshal Oudinot commence an 

attack on Rome 3 June, „ 

After a brave resistance, the Romans capitulate to 

the French army 30 June, ,, 

The Roman assembly dissolved . . .4 July, ,, 
An officer from Oudinot's camp arrives at Gaeta, to 
present the pope with the keys of the two gates 
of Rome by which the French army had entered 

the city 4 July, „ 

The re-establishment of the pope's authority pro- 
claimed at Rome . . . . 15 July, „ 
Oudinot issues a general order stating that the 
pope (or his representative) now re-possesses 
the administration of affairs, but that public 
security in the pontifical dominions still remains 
under the special guarantee of the French army, 

3 Aug. ,, 
The pope arrives at Portici on a visit to the king of 

Naples 4 Sept. ,, 

He arrives at Rome ; cardinal Antonelli becomes 

foreign minister April, 1850 

He issues the bull establishing a Roman catholic 
hierarchy in England (see Papal Aggression), 

24 Sept. , , 
Important concordat with Austria . 18 Aug. 1855 
The pope visits his dominions . . May-Sept. 1857 
Insurrection in the Romagna, at Bologna, and Ferrara 

June, 1859 
The pope appeals to Europe for help against Sardinia 

12 July, ,, 
The Legations form a defensive alliance with 

Tuscany, Parma, and Modena . . 20 Aug. ,, 
The queen of Spain engages to send troops to 

Rome, if the French retire . . 26 Aug. , , 

The assembly at Bologna vote annexation to Pied- 
mont, 7 Sept. ; the king engages to support their 
cause before the great powers, 15 Sept. ; the pope 
annuls the acts of the assembly at Bologna ; and 
announces the punishment due to those who 
attack the holy see, 26 Sept. ; and dismisses the 
Sardinian charge d'affaires at Rome . 1 Oct. ,, 
The Romagna, Modena, and Parma formed into a 

province, to be called iEmilia . . 24 Dee. „ 
The Sardinian government annul the Tuscan and 

Lombard concordats . . 27 Jan., 20 March, i36o 
Riots at Rome suppressed by the police with great 

cruelty 19 March, „ 

The pope excommunicates all concerned in the 

rebellion in his states ... 26 March, ,, 
General Lamoriciere takes command of the papal 
army, March ; which is re-organised, and in- 
creased by volunteers from Ireland, &c. . May, ,, 
Tuscan volunteers enter the papal states and are 

- repulsed 19 Ma y, >> 

Irish volunteers are severely treated for insubor- 
dination ; many dismissed . . . July, ,, 
The papal army estimated at 20,000 . . Aug. „ 
Insurrection in the Marches, 8 Sept. ; Fossembrone 
subdued by the papal troops ; the people appeal 
to the Sardinian government, whose troops, 
under Cialdini and Fanti, enter the Papal States, 

11 Sepc. ,, 
Fanti takes Pesaro, 12 Sept. ; and Perugia, in- 
cluding general Schmidt and 1600 prisoners, 

14 Sept. ,, 
Ancona besieged by sea and land . .17 Sept. ,, 
Severe allocution of the pope against France and 

Sardinia ; he appeals to Europe for help, 28 Sept. ,, 
Cialdini defeats Lamoriciere at Castel-Fidardo, 

18 Sept. : and takes Ancona . . 29 Sept. ,, 
Additional French troops sent to Rome . Oct. „ 
The Marches vote for annexation to Sardinia, Nov. ,, 
Subscriptions raised for the pope in various coun- 
tries ; the formal collection forbidden in France 
and Belgium ; permitted in England . . Nov. ,, 
Monastic 'establishments suppressed in the Lega- 
tions ; the monks pensioned ; educational institu- 
tions founded -Dee. 



EOME. 

The French emperor advises the pope to give up his 
revolted provinces .... 21 Dec. 

Publication of Rome et les Eveques, 6 Jan. ; and of 
La France, Rome et I'ltalie, 15 Feb. ; great excite- 
ment, and strong advocacy of the pope's temporal 
government (attacked by prince Napoleon) in the 
French chambers .... March, 

Cavour claims Home as capital of Italy, 27 March, 

Petition to the emperor Napoleon to withdraw 
French troops from Rome ... 10 May, 

The emperor of France declines a union with 
Austria and Spain for the maintenance of the 
pope's temporal power .... June, 

Grand ceremony at the canonization of 27 Japanese 
martyrs (see Canonization) ... 8 June, 

The pope declares a severe allocution against the 
Italians 9 j une; 

Garibaldi calls for volunteers, taking as his watch- 
word, " Rome or death ! " . . . 19 July, 

Railway between Rome and Naples completed ; its 
opening opposed by the papal government, Nov. 

Earl Russell's offer to the pope of a residence at 
Malta, 25 Oct. ; declined . . .11 Nov. 

Antonelli's resignation of his office not accepted, 

5 March, : 

Convention between France and Italy: French 
troops to quit Rome within two years, 15 Sept. ■ 

Encyclical letter of the pope, publishing a "sylla- 
bus," censuring 80 errors in religion, philosophy, 
and politics ; (caused much dissatisfaction, and 
was forbidden to be read iii churches in France 
and other countries) .... 8 Dec. 

Jews persecuted at Rome .... Dec. 

Fruitless negotiations between the pope and the 
king of Italy (by Vegezzi); mutual concessions 
proposed . . . . 21 April to 23 June, 3 

Pope's severe allocution against secret societies 
(Freemasons, Fenians, &c.) . . 25 Sept. 

Merode, the papal minister of war, dismissed, 20 Oct. 

A part of the French troops leave the papal dominions 

- Nov - 

Rupture with Russia . . Dec. 1865— Jan. 1 

A Franco-pontifical legion (1200 men) formed at 
Antibes, arrives ; blessed by the pope, 24 Sept. 

Pope's severe allocution against Italy and Russia, 

29 Oct. 

The pope invites all catholic bishops to meet at 
Rome to celebrate the 18th centenary of the 
martyrdom of Peter and Paul . . 8 Dec. 

The pope's blessing given to French troops, 6 Dec.! 
who all quit Rome .... 2-12 Dec. 

Rome tranquil I3 D ec 

Law prohibiting protestant worship except at 
embassies in Rome enforced . . 31 Dec. 

Negotiation with Italy fruitless ; the Italian coun- 
cillor Tonello quits Rome . . . April, 1 

599 bishops and thousands of priests present at the 
pope's allocution, 26 June ; and canonization of 
25 martyrs 2Q j lme> 

The pope receives an album and address from 100 
cities of Italy . .... 8 July 

Cholera in Rome ; death of cardinal Altieri, while 
assisting the afflicted . . . n Au« 

The pope's allocution censures the sacrilegious 
audacity of the Sub-alpinc kingdom, in confisca- 
ting ecclesiastical property . . . 2oN('|>1. 

Garibaldi arrested at Sinalimga, near the Roman 
frontier 23 Sept. 

Irruption of Garibaldians in Viterbo— conflicts with 
various results ; reported appeal of Antonelli for 
help from the great powers . . Oct. 

Zouave barracks at Koine blown up, many killed! 

22 Oct! 

Attempt at insurrection in Home suppressed, 22 
Oct. ; state of siege proclaimed ; Garibaldi within 

2oini!"s of Koine, ..., Oct. ; lakes Monte Hoi on, I,, 

French brigades enter Rome . . .. 30 Oct. 

Italian troops cross the frontier. |o Oct. ; occupy 
several posts 3 No y 

Garibaldians defeated by the papal and French 
troops at Mcntana (which see) . . , 3N0V 

Italian troops retire from the papal stales "' Nov' 
The Roman committee of insurrection issue a narra- 
tive, and state that their watchword is -'fn 
again and do better " .... Dec. 
The papal army increased to about 15,000 . Dec! 



1064 



EOME. 



The pope's short allocution (thanking and blessing 
the French government) ... 19 Dec. 
Nine cardinals made ; Lucien Bonaparte one 

13 March, 

Sudden death of cardinal Andrea . . 15 May, 

The pope, in his allocution, censures the Austrian 

new civil marriage law" .. . .22 June, 

Arrangement respecting the papal debt made with 

Italy 30 July, 

Encyclical letter of the pope, summoning an oecu- 
menical council at Rome on 8 Dec. 1869, and in- 
viting ministers of the Greek and other churches 

13 Sept. 
The patriarch of the.Greek church declined toattend 

about 3 Oct. 

Monti andTognetti (for complicity in the explosion 

of the Zouave barracks, 22 Oct. 1867), executed 

24 Nov. 

The pope celebrates a jubilee . . n April, 

In his allocution he deplores the opposition to the 

church in Austria and Spain . . 25 June, 

He declares, in a letter to archbishop Manning, 

that no discussions on disputed points can take 

place at the council 4 Sept. 

The council opened, see Council XXI. . 8 Dec. 
An exhibition of objects of Christian art opened by 

the pope 7 Feb. 

British and American bishops protest against dis- 
cussing the dogma of papal infallibility in the 
council, 11 April ; the discussion begins 14 May, 
Count Arniin, on behalf of the North German con- 
federation, protests against the dogma . May, 
Papal infallibility adopted by the council and pro- 
mulgated (533 for ; 2 against ; many retire) ; the 
council adjourns to 11 Nov. . . 18 July, 
Rome completely evacuated by French troops in 
consequence of the war ; 8 mortars and 15,000 
shells said to be ceded to the pope, 8 Aug. ; the 
troops sent from Civita Vecchia . . 21 Aug. 
Conciliatory letter from Victor Emmanuel to the pope 

S Sept, 
Agitation in the papal provinces ; the Italian 
troops invited to enter . . about 10 Sept. 
The pope refuses terms offered him by the king of 
Italy (sovereignty of the Leonine city and reten- 
tion of his income) .... 11 Sept. 
Skirmish with papal Zouaves ; several killed 

14 Sept. 
The Italians occupy Civita Vecchia without resist- 
ance about 15 Sept. 

Gen. Cadorna crosses the Tiber at Casale ; sends 

flags of truce to gen. Kanzler, commander of the 

Zouaves, who refuses to surrender ; baron Arniin 

in vain negotiates between them . 17 Sept, 

Letter from the pope to gen. Kanzler directing that 

a merely formal defence be made at Rome, and 

that bloodshed be avoided . . 19 Sept, 

After a brief resistance from the foreign papal 

troops, stopped by order of the pope, the Italian 

troops under Cadorna make a breach and enter 

Rome amid enthusiastic acclamations of the 

people . . . • . . . .20 Sept. 

[Reported Italian loss, about 22 killed, 117 

wounded : papal troops, 55 killed and wounded.] 

Cardinal Antonelli issues a diplomatic protest 

against the Italian occupation of Rome 21 Sept. 

The papal troops surrender arms ; about 8500 

foreigners march out with honours of war : they 

insult the Italians ; the native troops retained, 

2.? Sept. 

About 10,000 persons assemble in the Coliseum. 
choose 11 names for a provisional government 
(giunta) 22 Sept. 

Protest of the pope 26 Sept. 

Castle or St. Angelo occupied by Italian troops al 
the pope's, request . . . . 2S Sept. 

Circular Letter from the pope to the cardinals 
complaining of the invasion and of his loss of 
liberty, and interference With his private pOSl bag 

29 Sept. 
A giunta of i4(tbcdiikeGactaiii chief) select ed from 

the 44 names chosen ; approved by Cadorna 

30 Sept. 
Genera] Masi in command of Rome and the pro- 
vinces; S. P. Q.R. appears on the proclamations 

30 Sept. 



1870 



SOME. 



1065 



SOME. 



Plebiscite : out of 167,548 votes, 133,681 for union 
with the kingdom of Italy ; 1507 against ; the 
remainder didnot vote . . . .2 Oct. 1870 

Cardinal Antonelli issues a protest ; published, 

,4 Oct. „ 

The pope said to have accepted 50,000 crowns (his 
monthly civil list) from the" Italian government, 

. 4 -. Oct. „ 

The result of the plebiscite sent to the king, 8 Oct. , 
Borne and its provinces incorporated with the 
kingdom by royal decree ... 9 Oct. ,, 

General La Marmora enters Rome as viceroy; 
he proclaims that the pope shall be guaranteed 
in his sovereign powers as head of the church, 

11 Oct. „ 

The Roman provinces united into one bv decree 

19 Oct. ,, 

The pope issues an encyclical letter adjourning the 
meeting of the council . . . 20 Oct. ,, 

Antonelli protests against the occupation of the 
Quirinal by the king . . . .10 Nov. „ 

Bill introduced into the Italian parliament respect- 
ing the transfer of the seat of government to 
Rome in about six months, and the preservation 
of the spiritual and temporal sovereignty of the 
pope about 12 Dec. ,, 

Inundation of the Tiber ; great suffering of the 
people, 27, 28 Dec. ; the king gives 200,000 lire ; 
visits Rome suddenly, the city illuminated 

4 a.m. 31 Dec. ,, 

Law guaranteeing to the pope full personal liberty 
and honours, a revenue of 3,225,000 livres, &c, 
13 May ; rejected by the pope in his allocation, 

15 May, 1871 

2624th anniversary of the city kept ; the pope cele- 
brates a jubilee on the 25th anniversary of his 
election 16 June, ,, 

The Italian government remove to Rome, 2, 3 July, ,, 

Allocution of the pope, appointing some Italian 
bishops; still rejecting guarantees . 27 Oct. ,, 

Grand reception of the king . . 21 Nov. ,, 

He opens the parliament, saying, "The work to 
which we have consecrated our life is completed " 

27 Nov. ,, 

The pope receives an address from nobles and others 

27 Nov. ,, 

Commission appointed to dredge the bed of the 
Tiber to recover antiquities . . . Dec. ,, 

Easter solemnities not performed by the pope 

31 March, 1872 

The pope delivers an allocution complaining of per- 
secution of the church in Italy, Germany, and 
Spain 23 Dec. ,, 

American Protestant church dedicated to St. Paul ; 
founded 25 Jan. 1873 

First Anglican church within the walls opened 

25 Oct. 1874 

Assassination of Raffaele Sonzogno, a republican 
printer and manager of "II Capitate," 6 Feb. ; 
trial of Pio Frezza, the murderer caught in ■ the 
act with Lueiani, Armati, and others, as inciters 
to the crime ; convicted " with extenuating cir- 
cumstances ; " penal servitude for life . 13 Nov. 1875 

Re-interment on the Janiculum hill of remains of 
Angelo Brunetti (termed Ciceruacchio) and other 
unarmed Italian patriots (shot by the Austrians 
10 Aug. 1849) 12 Oct. 1879 

International exhibition of fine art, opened 21 Jan. 1883 

The German crown prince arrives a Rome, 17 Dec. ; 
visits the pope 18 Dec. ,, 

2,637th anniversary of the foundation of Rome 

21 April, 1884 

First Italian " Derby day " . . . 24 April, ,, 

A sale of part of the Castellani collection, 21 days, 
about 48,000?. realized . . . . April, ,, 

Dispute ; a cardinal stopped from visiting a cholera 
hospital without quarantine . . . Oct. ,, 

Discoveries about the Temple of Vesta in the 
Forum by Prof. H. Jordan, announced April, 1885 

Death of .prince Torlonia, a great benefactor, 

aged 86, 7 Feb. 1886 

Statue of Giordano Bruno, philosopher (burnt as a 
heretic at Venice, 17 Feb. 1600); unveiled, 9 June, 1889 

Sig. Aurelio Sam, one of the triumvirs of Feb. 1849, 
dies at Forli, aged 71 ... 10 April, 1890 



Great explosion of the powder magazine at Fort 
Monteverde, 4 persons killed and about 150 
wounded ; the Vatican and several churches 
injured, and much property destroyed ; the 
place visited by the king to relieve the sufferers 

23 April, 1891 

" Labour day," rioting suppressed with bloodshed ; 
4 persons killed, many wounded . . 1 May, ,, 

Popular demonstration against foreign pilgrims for 
supposed insults to the memory of king Victor 
Emanuel ; 3 pilgrims arrested . . 2-4 Oct. ,, 

The Negroni Caftarelli palace burnt ; great loss ; 

26 Aug. 1893 

The nth international medical congress opened ; 
the king and queen present . . 29 March, 1894 

National fine art exhibition opened by the king, 

17 Sept. 1895 

National fetes, commemoration of the entry of the 
Italian troops into Rome, 1870 ; monument to 
Garibaldi on the Janiculum, unveiled by the 
king, 20 Sept. ; the Humbert bridge opened, and 
the Cavour monument unveiled, 22 Sept. ; other 
memorials unveiled . . . .24 Sept. „ 

Anti-Anarchist conference (see Ar.archy), 24 Nov. 1898 

St. Bede's college, founded by cardinal Vaughan 
for English R.C. converts ; papal constitution 
granted ...... 29 Dec. ,, 

Latin American council inaugurated, mgr. Casa- 
nova, president 28 May, 1899 

Earthquake shock in the city and environs, some 
damage . . . . - . . 19 July, ,, 

Excavations in and around the Forum and the 
basilica iEmilia, the Via Sacra, the Black stone, 
Fons and Sta. Maria (2,400?. from Mr. Lionel 
Phillips) discovered by sig. Boni, 1899 et seq. ; 
visited by the king .... 6 Nov. 1900 

British school at Rome estab. Nov. 1899 ; excava- 
tions going on . . . . . . Jan. 1901 

Statue of Goethe presented by the German emperor, 

27 Jan. 1902 

Prehistoric tomb (abt. 8th century b.c.) discovered 
in the Forum 2 April, ,, 

Visit of the shah, grand review, the king and queen 
present 22 May, ,, 

Death of cardinal Ledochowski, the Red pope, 
aged 79, 22 July ; succeeded by cardinal Gotti, 

29 July, ,, 

The king opens an international historical congress, 

2 April, 1903 

Latin congress held in the Capitol . . 15 April, ,, 

General strike, 7-10 April ; printers' strike ends, 

15 April, ,, 

Centenary of the French Academy celebrated, the 
king and queen present . . .18 April, ,, 

Visit of king Edward VII. , enthusiastic reception, 
the city handsomely decorated, 27 April ; visits 
Pope Leo XIII. at the Vatican, 29 April ; leaves 
Rome 30 April, ,, 

Sig. Marconi visits Rome, received with enthu- 
siasm, 1 May ; receives the freedom of the city, 

7 May, ,. 

Students' anti- Austrian demonstration, university 
closed 1,2 June, ,, 

Death of pope Leo XIII., who bequeathed 90,000 
lire to the poor of Rome . . .20 July, ,, 

Pope Pius X. elected .... 4 Aug. ,, 

Fire in the Vatican (see Pope) . . . 1 Nov. ,, 
See Popes, Pius IX. et seq., and Italy. 

KINGS OF ROME. 

b.c. (Dates conjectural.) 

735. Romulus ; murdered by the senators. 

[Titus Tatius, king of the Sabines, had removed to 

Rome in 747, and ruled jointly with Romulus 

six years.] 
716. [Interregnum.] 
715. Numa Pompilius, son-in-law of Tatius the Sabine, 

elected ; died at the age of 82. 
673. Tullus Hostilius ; murdered by his successor, by 

whom his palace was set on fire ; his family 

perished in the flames. 
640. Ancus Martins, grandson of Numa. 
616. Tarquinius Priscus ; son of Demaratus, a Corinthian 

emigrant, chosen king. 



EOME. 



1066 



EONDO. 



578. Servius Tullius, a manumitted slave ; married the 
king's daughter ; and succeeded by the united 
sutlrages of the army and the people. 

534. Tarquinius Superbus, grandson of Tarquinius Pris- 
cus ; assassinates his father-in-law, and usurps 
the throne. 

510. [The rape of Lucretia, by Sextus, son of Tarquin, 
and consequent insurrection, leads to the aboli- 
tion of royalty and the establishment of the 
consulate. ] 

REPUBLIC. 

510 07. First period. From the expulsion of Tarquin to 
the dictatorship of Sylla. 
2-07. Second Period. From Sylla to Augustus. 
48. Caius J alius Caesar ; perpetual dictator ; assassi- 
nated, 15 March, 44 B.C. 
31. Octavianus Ca j sar. 



27. 

A.D. 
14. 

37- 



T17. 
138. 
•161. 



222. 
235- 
2.37- 

238. 



249. 
251- 

253- 



EMPERORS. 

Augustus Imperator, died 19 Aug. a.d. 14. 

Tiberius (Claudius Nero). 

Caius Caligula : murdered by a tribune. 

Claudius I. (Tiberius Drusus) : poisoned by his wife 
Agrippina, to make way for 

Claudius Nero ; deposed ; kills himself, 63. 

Servius Sulpicius Galba ; slain by the praetorians. 

M. Salvius Otho ; stabbed himself. 

Aulus Vitellius ; deposed by Vespasian, and put to 
death. 

Titus Flavius Vespasian. 

Titus (Vespasian), his son. 

Titus Flavius Domitian, brother of Titus ; last of 
the twelve Caesars ; assassinated. 

Cocceius Nerva. 

Trajan M. Ulpius (Crinitns). 

Adrian or Hadrian (Publius /Elius). 

Antonius Titus, surnamed Pius. 

Marcus Aurelius (a philosopher) and Lucius Verus, 
his son-in-law ; the latter died in 169. 

Commodus (L. Aurelius Antoninus), son of Marcus 
Aurelius ; poisoned by his favourite mistress, 
Martia. 

Publius Helvius-Pertinax ; put to death by the prae- 
torian band. 

[Four emperors now start up : Didianus Julianus, 
at Rome; Pescennius Niger, in Syria; Lucius 
Septimius Severus, in Pannonia ; and Clodius 
Albinus, in Britain.] 

Lucius Septimius Severus ; died at York in Britain, 
in 211 ; succeeded by his sons, 

M. Aurelius Caracalla and Septimius Geta. Geta 
murdered by Caracalla, 212 ; who is slain by his 
successor 

M. Opilius Macrinus, prefect of the guards ; be- 
headed in a mutiny. 

Heliogabalus (M. Aurelius Antoninus), a youth ; put 
to death for his enormities. 

Alexander Severus ; assassinated by some soldiers 
corrupted by Maximums. 

Caius Julius Verus Maximums ; asassinated in his 
tent before the walls of Aquileia. 

M. Antonius Gordianus, and his son ; the latter 
having been killed in a battle with the par- 
tisans of Maximums, the father strangled him- 
self in a lit of despair, at Carthage, in his 80th 
year. 

Balbinus and Pupienus ; put to death. 

Gordian III., grandson of the elder Gordian, in his 
i6thyear; assassinated by the guards, at the 
instigation of his successor. 

Phi lip the Arabian ; assassinated by his own soldiers ; 
his son Philip was murdered at the same time, in 
his mother's arms. 

Metius Decius ; lie perished with his two sons, 
ami I heir anny, in an engagement with the Goths 

Gal lus Hosti litis, and his son Volusianiis ; both slain 
by the soldiery. 

.Kmilianus ; put to death after a reign of only four 
months. 

Vain ianus. and his son Gallienus ; the first was 
taken prisoner by Sapor, king of Persia, and 
Bayed alive. 

Gallienus reigned alone. 

[About this timethirtypretendera to imperial power 
arise in different parts of the empire; of these 
Cyriades is the first, but he is slain.] 



268. Claudius II. (Gallienus having beeu assassinated by 

the officers of the guard) succeeds ; dies of the 

plague. 
270. Quintillus, his brother, elected at Rome by the senate 

and troops ; Aurelian by the army in Ulyricum. 

Quintillus, despairing of success against his 

rival, who was inarching against him, opened his 

veins and bled himself to death. 
,, Aurelianus ; assassinated by his soldiers on his 

march against Persia, in Jan. 275. 

275. [Interregnum of about nine months.] 

,, Tacitus, elected 25 Oct. ; died at Tarsus in Cilieia, 
13 April, 276. 

276. Florianus, his brother ; his title not recognised by 

the senate. 
„ M. Aurelius Probus ; assassinated by his troops at 
Sirmium. 

282. M. Aurelius Cams ; killed at Ctesiphon by light- 

ning ; succeeded by his sons. 

283. Carinus and Numerianus ; both assassinated, after 

transient reigns. 

284. Diocletian ; who associated as his colleague in the 

government, 
286. Maximianus Hercules ; the two emperors resign in 
favour of 

305. Constantius I. Chlorus and Galerins Maximianus ; 

the first died at, York, in Britain, in 306, and the 
troops saluted as emperor his son, 

306. Constantine, afterwards styled the Great ; whilst 

at Rome the praetorian band proclaimed 
3,6. Maxentius, son of Maximianus Hercules. Besides 
these were 

„ Maximianus Hercules, who endeavoured to recover 
his abdicated power. 

,, Flavius Valerius Severus, murdered by the last- 
named pretender ; and 

307. Flavius Valerianus Licinius, the brother-in-law of 

Constantine. 
[Of these, Maximianus Hercules was strangled in 
Gaul, in 3io;Galerius Maximianus died wretchedly 
in 311 ; Maxentius was drowned in the Tiber in 
312 ; and Licinius was put to death by order of 
Constantine in 324.] 
323. Constantine the Great now reigned alone ; died on 
Whitsunday, 22 May, 337. 

/Sons of Constantine ; divided 
the empire between them ; the 
first was slain in 340, and the 
second murdered in 350, when 
the third became sole em- 
l peror. 
360. Julian, the Apostate, so called for abjuring Chris- 
tianity, having been educated for the priesthood ; 
mortally wounded m a battle with the Persians, 
163. 

363. Jovian ; reigned eight months ; found dead in his 

bed, supposed to have died from the fumes of 
charcoal. 

364. Valentinian and Valens. 

375. Valens witli Gratia 11 and Valentinian II. 
379. Theodosius I., &c. 
392. Theodosius alone. 

395. The Roman empire divided ; see Eastern Empire, 
Western Empire, Popes, and Italy. 

EOMILLY'S ACT, Sir Samuel, 52 Geo. 

III., C. IOI (1812) relates to charities. 

The Roniilly society, founded for the improvement 
of the criminal law, reform of prison regulations, 
abolition of cruel punishments, &c, inaugu- 
rated Essex hall, London, Lord Justice Vaughan 
Williams in the chair, i May, 1S9S; annual 
meetings. 

EONCESVALLES (in the Pyrenees), where, 
it is said, Charlemagne's paladin, Roland or 

Orlando, was surprised, defeated and slain by the 
Gascons, 778. On 25 July, 1813, marshal Souk 
was defeated here by the British entering France. 

EONDO. ;» short piece of music having one 
prominent subject to which returns are made ; many 
composed by Beethoven, Chopin, and others. 



( Constantine II 
. < Constans. 
(.Constantius II. 



RONTGEN BAYS. 



1067 ROSEBERY ADMINISTRATION. 



RONTGEN RAYS, see Surgery, 1896. 
Prof. W. C. Rontgen while experimenting with a 
Crooke's vacuum tube, electrically excited, and 
enveloped in a black covering, observed that some 
rays proceeding from the tube passed through the 
black paper and affected a fluorescent screen at a 
distance of two yards, 8 Oct. 1895. See Vacuum. 

The contiuued researches proved that many substances 
opaque to ordinary light were transparent to these 
rays, as flesh, wood, &c. ; the shadows of such objects 
thrown on a screen can be photographed ; the interior 
of a dead monkey was photographed with great dis- 
tinctness, Lancet, March, 1896. 

The movements of the bones in living animals were ex- 
hibited by these rays by means of a cinematograph, 
in 1897 et seq. These rays have the power of dis- 
electrifying electrified bodies. 

The rays are much utilized in surgery ; 416 cases at 
St. Thomas's hospital were reported in 1897 ; very 
successful in military surgery in 1898 et seq. 

The Rontgen society founded, prof. Silvanus P. Thomp- 
son, president, June ; first meeting in London, 5 Nov. 
1897 (see Radiographs). 

Experiments by dr. Heineke in Leipsig show rontgen 
rays exert a harmful effect on the internal organs of 
the body, reported, 9 Dec. 1903. 

ROOF. The largest in the world was said to be 
that over a riding school at Moscow, erected in 
1791, being 235 feet in span. The roof of the 
London station of the Midland railway, in Euston- 
road, London, N.W., is 240 feet wide, 690 feet long, 
125 feet high. The extent of ground covered is 
about 165,000 square feet. 

ROPE-MAKING MACHINE. One was 
patented by Richard March in 1784, and by Edmd. 
Cartwright, in 1792. Many improvements since. 

RORKE'S DRIFT, boundary of British terri- 
tory of Natal, in South Africa and Zululand. 
Behind extemporised trenches a handful of British 
soldiers, under lieuts. Chard and Bromhead, here 
successfully resisted a large Zulu army, and pro- 
bably saved the colony, 22 Jan. 1879. See Zululand. 

ROSAMOND'S BOWER. Rosamond was 
daughter of lord Clifford, and mistress of Henry II. 
about 1 154. A conspiracy against her was formed by 
the queen, prince Henry, and the king's other sons. 
Henry kept her in a labyrinth at Woodstock, where 
his queen, Eleanor, it is said, discovered her apart- 
ments by the clue of a silk thread, and poisoned her. 
Buried at Godstow church, from whence Hugh, 
bishop of Lincoln, had her ashes removed, ngi. 

ROSARY, see Beads. 

In a brief of pope Pius IX., 30 Sept. 1852, it was asserted 
that 40 repetitions in a rosary of 40 beads of " Sweet 
Heart of Mary, be my salvation ! " will obtain a large 
number of days of indulgence for souls in purgatory 
(23,300 days calculated). 

ROSAS (N. E. Spain), Bay of, where a brilliant 
naval action was fought bj' the boats of the Tigre, 
Cumberland, Volontaire, Ajiollo, 1'opaze, Philomel, 
Scout, and Tuscan, led by lieut. John Tailour (of 
the Tigre), which ended in the capture or destruc- 
tion of eleven armed vessels in the bay, 1 Nov. 
1809; for which purpose lord Collingwood had 
organised the expedition commanded by capt. Hallo- 
well. Rosas was gallantly defended by lord Coch- 
rane, 27 Nov.; but surrendered, 4 Dec. 1809. 

ROSBACH (Rosebecque), Flanders. Here 
Charles VI. of France beat the Flemings, who had 
revolted against their count, 27 Nov. 1382. — At 
Rosbach, in Prussia, a great battle was fought 
between the Prussians, commanded by Frederick 



the Great, and the combined army of French and 
Austrians, in which the latter were defeated with 
severe loss, 5 Nov. 1757. 

"ROSCIUS, INFANT," fm. Henry West 
Betty, born 13 Sept. 1 791. After acting at Belfast, 
16 Aug. 1803, and. at other places, with much ap- 
plause, he appeared at Covent-garden, I Dec. 1803, 
as Selim, in " Barbarossa," and is said to have 
gained in his first season, 17,210/. 

After several years' retirement, he re-appeared, but 
soon after left the stage, not being successful. 
He retired on the fortune he had amassed, and 
died Aug. 1874 

His portrait may be seen at the Garrick club. 

Mr. Thos. Henry Betty, his son, died, aged 77 
bequeathing large sums to form eventually the 
" Betty's Fund for poor actors and actresses, 
and to the. Royal Theatrical fund, &c. 7 Feb. 1897 

ROSE, see under Flowers. The rose, a symbol 
of silence, gave rise to the phrase sub rosa, " under 
the rose;" said, by Italian writers, to have risen 
from the circumstance of the pope's presenting 
consecrated roses, which were placed over the con- 
fessionals at Rome, to denote secrecy, 1526. The 
pope sent a golden rose to the queen of Spain, which 
was given to her with much solemnity, 8 Feb. 1868. 
A "national rose society " opened its first annual 
show, St. James's hall, 4 July, 1877; shows now 
held at the Crystal palace. 

The League of the Rose, under the patronage of tlie 
Comtesse de Paris, formed to promote the restoration 
of the monarchy in France, autumn 1888. 

ROSEBERY ADMINISTRATION suc- 
ceeded the fourth of Mr. W. E. Gladstone, who 
resigned 3 March, 1894 ; the ministry resigned in 
consequence of a minority on a vote of supply 
(132 — 125), virtually a vote of censure on the 
secretary of state for war (Mr. Campbell- Banner- 
man), who immediate^ resigned, 21 June. 1895. 

First lord of the treasury and lord president of the council — 
Archibald Philip Primrose (earl of Rosebery). * 

Lord high cha.ncel.lor — Lord Herschell. 

Lord privy seal — Edward Marjoribanks (baron Tweed- 
mouth). 

Chancellor of the, exchequer and leader — Sir Win. G. G. 
Vernon-Harcourt. 

Secretaries — home, Herbert Henry Asquith. 
foreign, earl of Kimberlvy. 
colonial, George F. S. Robinson (marquis of 

Ripon). 
war, Henry Campbell- Bannerman. 
Lndia, Henry H. Fowler. 

Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, James Bryce ; suc- 
ceeded by lord Tweedmouth, 26 May. 

First lord of the admiralty — John Poyntz (earl Spencer). 

Chief secretary for Lreland — John Morley. 

Secretary for Scotland — Sir George Trevelyan. 

President of the board of trade — Anthony John Mundella ; 
resigned about 12 May, 1894 ; James Bryce, about 
26 May, 1894. 

President of the local government board — George J. Shaw- 
Lefevre. 

Vice-president of the committee of council on education — 
Arthur H. Dyke Acland. 

Postmaster-general — Arnold Morley. 

The above formed the cabinet. 

President of the board of agriculture — Herbert Gardner. 

First commissioner of works — Herbert J. Gladstone. 

Financial secretary to the treasury — sir John T. Hibbert. 

* Born 7 May, 1847 ; became 5th earl, 1868 ; president 
of the social science congress, 1874 ; lord rector of the 
university of Aberdeen, 1878; of Edinburgh, 1880; first 
commissioner of works, 1884 ; first chairman of the 
London county council, Feb. 1889— June, 1890 ; June, 
1S92; foreign secretary, Feb.— July, 1886; Aug. 1892 — 
March, 1804 ; resigns the leadership of the liberal party, 
speech at Edinburgh, 6, 9 Oct. 1896. See Liberals. 



EOSE'S ACT. 



1068 



EOTHSCHILD FAMILY. 



Permanent secretary to the treasury — sir F. Mowatt. 
Attorney -general — sir Charles Bussell ; sir John Rigby, I 

May, 1894 ; sir Robert Threshie Reid, Oct. 1894. 
Solicitor-general — ■ sir John Rigby ; Robert Threshie 

Reid, May, 1894 ; sir Frank Lockwood, Oct. 1894. 
Secretaries — admiralty, sir Ughtred Kay Shuttleworth. 
local government board, sir (Balthazar) W. 
Foster. 
Undersecretaries — home, sir Godfrey Lushington ; 
Kenelm E. Digby, Nov. 1894. 
foreign, sir Edward Grey. 
colonial, Sydney C. Buxton. 
India, Donald James Mackay (lord 

Reay). 
xcar, lord Sandhurst ; lord Monks- 
well, Jan. 1895. 
Ireland. — Lord-lieutenant. — Robert O. A. Milnes, baron 

Houghton (aft. earl of Crewe, 1895). 
Lord chancellor — Samuel Walker. 
A ttomey-general — The Macdermot. 
Solicitor-general — Charles Hare Hemphill. 
Lord advocate for Scotland — J. B. Balfour. 

EOSE'S ACT, 33 Geo. III. c. 54 (1793) brought 
benefit societies under the control of government. 

EOSES, WARS OF THE, between the Lan- 
castrians (who chose tie red rose as their emblem) 
and the Yorkists (who chose the white rose), 1455- 
1485. It is stated that in the Wars of the Roses 
there perished 12 princes of the blood, 200 nobles, 
and 100,000 gentry and common people. The union 
of the roses was effected in the marriage of Henry VII. 
with the princess Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV. 
i486. 

Richard II., who succeeded his grandfather Edward 
III. in 1377, was deposed and succeeded in 1399 
by his cousin Henry IV. (son of John of Gaunt, 
duke of Lancaster, the fourth son of Edward III.), 
in prejudice to the right of Roger Mortimer 
(grandson of Lionel, duke of Clarence, Edward's 
third son), who was declared presumptive heir to 
the throne in 1385 

Roger's grandson, Richard duke of York, first 
openly claimed the crown in 1449 

Attempts at compromise failed, and the war began 
in • 1455 

The Lancastrians were defeated at St. Albans ; the 
protector Somerset was slain ; a truce was made, 
and Richard was declared successor to Henry VI. 

23 May, 1455 

The war was renewed, and the Yorkists defeated the 
Lancastrians at Bloreheath . . 23 Sept. 1459 

The Yorkists eventually dispersed, and the duke 
was attainted. 

He defeated his opponents at Northampton, took 
Henry prisoner, and was declared heir to the 
crown ; but fell into an ambuscade near Wake- 
field, and was put to death ... 31 Dec. 1460 

His son (Edward) continued the struggle; was in- 
stalled as king 4 March, 1461 

Defeated the Lancastrians at Towton . 29 March, ,, 

Was deposed by Warwick, who restored Henry VI. 

Sept. 1470 

Edward defeated the Lancastrians at Barnet, 14 
April, and finally at Tewkesbury . . 4 May, 1471 

The struggle ended with the defeat and death of 
Richard HI. at Bosworth . . . 22 Aug. 1485 

EOSETTA (in Egypt), taken by the French in 
1798; and by the British and Turks, 19 April, 1801. 
The Turks repulsed the British here. 22 April, 1807. 
Near Rosetta was fought the battle of the Nile, 
I Aug. 1798 ; see Nile. Mehemel Ali rendered great 
service to his country by constructing a canal 
between Eosetta and Alexandria. 

The Rosetta Stone, discovered by the French in 1799, was 
brought from Rosetta in n French vessel, from whence 
it was taken by Mr, Wm, K. Hamilton, who deposited 
it in the British Museum, in 1S4 1 . Mr. Letronne pub- 
lished the text and a translation of the Greek inscrip- 



tion. It is a piece of black basalt, about 3 ft. long 
and dk ft. wide, with an inscription in three languages, 
viz. , hieroglyphics, modified hieroglyphics (demotic or 
enchorial), and Greek, setting forth the praises of 
Ptolemy Epiphanes (about 196 B.C.). It was studied 
by Dr. T. Young and especially by J. F. Champollion, 
whose works were published 1814-1845. Champollion's 
method was adopted by Rosellini, and extended by 
Lepsius, Bunsen, Birch, Brugsch, and others. Cham- 
pollion discovered that the hieroglyphs represented 
sounds by an initial letter, and after studying the 
"Ritual of the dead," published a grammar and dic- 
tionary. 

EOSICEUCIANS, a sect of mystical philo- 
sophers who appeared in Germany in the 14th 
eentuiy. It is asserted that their founder was a 
noble German monk named Christian Hosenereutz, 
bom 1378, who travelled in Arabia, Egypt, Africa, 
and Spain; returned to Germany and founded the 
fraternity of the Rosy Cross, and died aged 102. 
The Fama Fraternitatis and the Confessio Rosea 
Cruets, 1615, the latter attributed to Johann Valen- 
tin Andreas and others, are important works. 
They swore fidelity, promised secrecy, and wrote 
hierogiyphically, and affirmed that the ancient 
philosophers of Egypt, the Chaldeans, Magi of 
Persia, and Gymnosophists of the Indies, taught 
the same doctrine. 

Mr. Arthur E. Waite's elaborate work " The Real History 
of the Rosicrucians " published in 1887. 

EOSS, Cork (S. Ireland), a bishopric founded, 
it is supposed, by St. Fachnan, in the beginning of 
the 6th century. It was united to Cork in 1340 , 
and Cloyne to both, by the Irish Church Temporali- 
ties act (1833) ; see Bishops ; New Ross. 

EOSTEUM (plural rostra), a beak, the name 
given to the prows of ships, which were affixed to 
the front of the platform (hence termed rostra), 
erected between the comitium and the forum in 
Rome, whence the tribunes addressed the people. 
The custom is said to have begun with the ships of 
Antium, taken during the Latin war, which ended 
33 B.C. 

EOTA CLUB, a society who met at Miles's 
Coffee-house in New Palace-yard, Westminster, 
during the administration of Oliver Cromwell ; 
their plan was that all the great officers of state 
should be chosen by ballot : and that a certain 
number of members of parliament should be changed 
annually by rotation, from whence they took their 
title. Sir William Petty was one of the members 
in 1659. Biog. Brit. 

EQTHAMSTED EXPERIMENTS, see 

Agriculture, 1843. 

EOTHESAY, capital of the Isle of Bute. The 
ruined castle, founded about 1098, was repaired by 
the marquis of Bute, 1871-77. After 139S, the 
eldest son of the Scottish sovereign was styled duke 
of Rothesay. The Glenburn hydropathic establish- 
ment destroyed by fire, estimated loss, 45,000/., 10 
July, 1891. * Population, 1881,8,329; 1891, 9,034; 
190*1, 9,383. 

EOTHESAY CASTLE, see Wrecks, 1S31. 

EOTHSCHILD FAMILY. Meyer Am- 
schel, or Ansclm, was born at No. 14S, Judengasse 
(Jew-lane), Frankfort, in 1743. In 1772 he began 
business as a money-lender and dealer in old coins, 
in the same house, over which he placed the sign 
of the red shield (in German, Roth Schild). Hav- 
ing had dealings with the landgrave of Hesse, that 
prince entrusted him with his treasure (said to hare 



EOTTEEDAM. 



1069 



EOUMANIA. 



been 250,000/.) in 1806, when the French held hia 
country. With this sum as capital, Anselm traded 
and made a large fortune, and restored the 250,000/. 
to the landgrave in 1815. At his death his sons 
continued the business as partners. His son, Na- 
than, began at Manchester in 1798, removed to 
London in 1803 ; and died immensely rich, 28 July, 
[836. The baron, James, head of the family, died 
at Paris, 15 Nor. 1868. 

Sir Nathaniel de Rothschild, son of Lionel, created a 

peer; takes his seat, 9 July, 1885. 
Hannah, daughter and heiress of the late baron Amschel 

de Rothschild, married to the earl of Rosebery, 1878, 

a great benefactress, dies, aged 39, 19 Nov. 1890. 
Baron Ferdinand de Rothschild, born 1839, died, 17 Dec. 

1898. 
See Jews and British Museum, 1899. 
Baron Wilhelm Carl von Rothschild, of Frankfort, 

benefactor, born, 16 May, 1828 ; died, 25 Jan. 1901. 

EOTTEEDAM, the second city in Holland. 
Its importance dates from the 13th century. The 
commerce of Antwerp was transferred to it in 1509 
In 1572, Eotterdam was taken by the Spaniards by 
stratagem, and cruelly treated. It suffered iiucb. 
from the French revolution aiy wars, and from in- 
undations in 1775 and 1825. Desiderius Erasmus 
was born here in 1467. The museum and picture- 
gallery of Eotterdam were destroyed at the fire of 
the Schieland palace, 16 Feb. 1864. Strike of dock 
labourers about 27 Sept. -14 Oct. 1889. Population, 
1887, 193,658; 1890, 209,136; 1900,332,185. See 
Danube, 1890 et seq. 

EOUEN (N. France), an archbishopric, 260, be- 
came the capital of Normandy in the 10th century. 
It was held by the English kings till 1204 ; and was 
retaken by Henry V., 19 Jan. 1419. Joan of Arc, 
the Maid of Orleans, was burnt here, 30 May, 1431. 
It was taken by Charles VII. of France in 1449 ; 
and by the duke of Guise from the Huguenots, Oct. 
1562 and 1 591. Rouen, after slight conflicts, 4, 5 
Dec. 1870, surrendered to general Von Goben, 
6 Dec. It was ordered to pay a contribution of 
f 7,000,000 francs. Population, 1886, 107,163; 1891, 
109,541 ; 1901, 115,914- 

The theatre, destroyed by Are ; many persons in- 
jured, and 13 killed . . . .25 xVpril, 1876 
Strike disturbances, many arrests . 22 Aug. 1899 
International peace congress meets . 22 Sept. 1903 

" EQTJGrH TEEEOE," a term given in 1874 
to the prevalence of brutal assaults on women, 
children, and unprotected persons among the lower 
classes, especially in Lancashire and other manu- 
facturing districts, for the repression of which the 
law appeared to be inadequate. 

EOUMANIA, a kingdom, the name assumed 
by the Danubian principalities {which see) on 23 
Dec. 1861, when their union was proclaimed at 
Bucharest and Jassy. Population in 1888, 5,376,000 ; 
S902, 6,000,000 (estimated). 

M. Catargi, the president of the council of minis- 
ters, assassinated as he was leaving the chamber 
of deputies 20 June, 1862 

The united chambers of the two principalities meet 
at Bucharest 5 Feb. ,, 

Coup d'etat of prince Couza against the aristocrats ; 
a plebiscite for a new constitution, 2 May ; which 
is adopted 28 May, 1864 

Law passed enabling peasants to hold land Aug. ,, 

Revolt at Bucharest suppressed, 15 Aug. ; amnesty, 

11 Sept. 1865 

Revolution at Bucharest ; forced abdication of 
prince Couza ; and provisional government esta- 
blished 22 Feb. 1866 



The offered crown declined by the count of Flan- 
ders, Feb. ; prince Charles of Hohenzollerii-Sig- 
maringen elected hospodar by plebiscite, 20 
April ; enthusiastically received at Bucharest, 
22 May ; sworn to observe the constitution 

12 July, 

Recognised hereditary hospodar by the sultan, and 
received at Constantinople . . 24 Oct. 

Roumania unsettled ; " nationality " projects, Nov. 

The legislature proposes to repudiate the just claims 
of the German shareholders in the Roumanian 
railways ; the prince assents reluctantly ; Bis- 
marck appeals to the Porte, which declines to 
interfere July- Aug. 

Peace between the prince and chambers . Nov. 

Austria, Germany, and Russia inform Turkey that 
they claim the right to conclude separate treaties 
with Roumania ; the sultan objects . Oct. 

Convention with Russia, giving permission to cross 
Roumania, signed 16 April ; Russians enter Mol- 
davia 24 April, 

The Senate vote a declaration of independence and 
war with Turkey . . . .21 May, 

The Roumanians actively engaged "before Plevna. 
See Russo-Turkish War, 1877. 

Roumania declared independent by treaties of San 
Stefano (3 March) and of Berlin (losing the part 
of Bessarabia acquired in 1856, in exchange for 
the Dobrudscha) . . . . 13 July, 

Independence recognised by England, France, and 
Germany 20 Feb. 

The prince and princess crowned king and queen, 

23 May, 

Temporary rupture with Austria respecting the 
Danube, about 1-27 Dec. 

Roumanian troops enter Silistria and seize territory, 

3 Sept. 

Riotous meeting at Bucharest suppressed with loss 
of life, 25-27 March; M. Bratiano resigns (twelve 
years minister) . . . about 27 March, 

M. Rosetti forms a ministry . . 3 April, 

Insurrection in the country towns and agricultural 
districts ; increase reported ; military called out ; 
Bucharest threatened ; revolt said to be en- 
couraged by Russian emissaries 16 April ; de- 
crease, 24 April ; the elections support the 
government, Oct. ; assembly meets . 13 Nov. 

M. Catargi, minister, 12 April, resigns ; succeeded 
by gen. Mano 16 Nov. 

Proposed impeachment of M. Jean Bratiano, re- 
jected by the chamber (86—67) ■ • I2 Feb. 

Resignation of gen. Mano's ministry . 27 Feb. 

Gen. Floresco forms a cabinet . . 5 March, 

Prince Ferdinand, heir presumptive, said to be 
engaged to Mile. Vacaresco, maid-of-honour ; 
public disapproval . . . June, et seq. 

Sir H. D. Wolff, British minister . . . July, 

Mile. Helene Vacaresco leaves the queen at Venice 

2 Sept. 

The king visits the German emperor at Potsdam 

28 Oct. 

New ministry formed by M. Catargi . . 9 Dec. 

Vote of want of confidence in the ministry carried 
(78—74) 21 Dec. 

The senate and chamber dissolved . 23 Dec. 

Coalition of parties ; M. Catargi's ministry recon- 
structed about 30 Dec. 

Sir J., Walsham, British minister . about Jan. 

The government supported by a majority in the 
elections Feb. 

Prince Ferdinand betrothed to the princess Marie 
of Edinburgh, 2 June ; received in London, 21 
June ; the king invited by queen Victoria, arrives 
with his brother, 27 June ; at Windsor, 29 June ; 
made K.G., 30 June ; leaves England . 4 July, 

Dispute with Greece respecting the Zappa bequest, 
see Greece ..... about 15 Oct. 

The king visits Vienna . . . 16-18 Nov. 

Treaty of commerce with Great Britain adopted, 

Dec. 



1867 



1874 
1877 



1090 
1801 



ROUMANIA. 



1070 



BOUND. 



Marriage of prince Ferdinand and princess Marie 
• •t Edinburgh at Sigmaringen, near the Danube ; 
present, the king of Rouniania, the prince and 
princess of Hohenzollern , the d ukes and duchesses 
of Edinburgh and Connaught, the emperor Wil- 
liam, the grand-duke Alexis of Russia, and many 
other relatives, 10 Jan. ; the prince and princess 
received at Bucharest .... 4 Feb. 

Opening of the parliament by king Charles 27 Nov. 

Resignation of many cavalry officers dissatisfied 
with recent changes in the service 

reported 16 Feb. 

The agitation subsides .... 20 Feb. 

Gen. Lahovari, minister of war, resigns 6 March, 

About 50 persons drowned at Galatz, on the 
Danube, through the breaking-down of the land- 
ing stage 3° April, 

New Sulina canal, opened by king Charles 17 May, 

Parliament opened by the king ; revenue surplus, 
reported 27 Nov. 

Political crisis : M. Demeter Sturdza forms a 
liberal ministry 15 Oct. 

Elections : large government majority . 13 Dec. 

Visit of the eniperor Francis Joseph to Bukharest, 
28 Sept. et seq. 

Foundation stone of the new harbour laid by the 
king, at Constanza .... 28 Oct. 

Parliament opened by the king, with a cheerful 
speech 27 Nov. 

Riots in Bukharest against the deposition of the 
metropolitan Gennadius . . 28, 30 Nov. 

The ministry resigns, new cabinet formed by M. 
Aurelian, 2 Dec. ; question of the deposition of 
Mgr. Gennadius settled by compromise, 14 Dec. ; 
the metropolitan resigns ... 17 Dec. 

Resignation of the cabinet . . . 7 April, 

M. Demeter Sturdza forms a cabinet . 11 April, 

Prince Ion Ghika, eminent statesman, born, 1817 ; 
died 4 May> 

New university at Jassy opened by the king and 
queen 2 Nov. 

Anti-Semitic riots in Bukharest and Galatz ; shops 
plundered, &c 5 Dec. 

Parliament opened by the king . . 27 Nov. 

Agrarian rising suppressed by troops at Krajova, 

5 Feb. 

Treaty respecting railways, &c, signed at Berlin, 

1 March, 

Disorder in Bukharest, collision with the troops, 
2 deaths 9 April, 

The cabinet resigns, ti April ; M. George Canta- 
cuzene forms a ministry, 23 April ; session 
opened by the king . . . -24 June, 

Parliament opened by the king, reform of taxation 
proposed 27 Nov. 

Great exodus of Jews due to restrictive legislation 
and persecution . . . Jan. -July 19, 

Failure of the harvest ; reported . . . . 

The ministry resigns . . . -17 July, 

Several political murders by Bulgarian revolution- 
ists : Prof. Michaileano shot dead in Bukharest, 

4 -Aug. 

Strained relations between Bulgaria and Roumania, 
owing to the Macedonian agitation . . Aug. 

Satisfactory negotiations proceeding . Sept. -Oct. 

Many Bulgarians expelled from the country Oct. 

Conflict between peasants and troops at Pirkoff, 
i death 2 Nov. 

Nine prisoners convicted of the murder of Kiril 
Fitofski and prof. Michaileano and plotting 
against the life of King Charles; Dimitrof and 
[lief the actual assassins. 

Parliament opened by the king with a firm speech, 

28 Nov. 

Decrease of revenue for 1900, reported . Jan. 

M. Carp's cabinet resigns; M. Sturdza forms a 
liberal cabinet 26-27 , '" ,, b. 

New parliament opened by the king . 6 April, 

Great tire at Kahfat, three streets destroyed, 

8 Oct. 

Parliament opened by the king . . 28 Nov 

Rioting in Bukharest, 130 arrests . . 25 Feb. 

The Sturdza ministry reconstituted, about 29 July, 



American circular note, protesting against the 
treatment of Roumanian Jews as an international 
wrong, and as a breach of Article 44, Berlin 
treaty, 1878, 17 Sept. ; British note of enquiry 
as to the action of the signatory powers, reported, 

19 Sept. 

State anti-semitism, steady immigration of Jews, 
June; again ..... Sept. -Oct. 

The king visits Bulgaria early . . . Nov. 

Parliament opened by the king . . 27 Nov. 



1894 



PRINCES AND KING OF EOVMANIA. 

1859. Alexander Couza ; abdicated 1866. 
1866. Charles I. (of Hohenzollern-Siginaringen) ; born 
20 April, 1839; elected 20 April, 1866 ; mar- 
ried Elizabeth, daughter of prince Hermann 
von Wied, 15 Nov. 1869 ; [scholar, poetess, 
popularly named Carmen Sylva, and "Mother 
of her people," visited Wales, at the Eisteddfod, 
Sept., received by queen Victoria, 2-4 Oct. ; 
left England, 7 Oct. 1890], nominated king 26 
March, 1881, and crowned with the queen, 23 
May, 1881. 
Heir, Prince Ferdinand (of Hohenzollern), nephew; born 
24 Aug. 1865 ; declared heir, 18 March, 1889; married 
to princess Marie of Edinburgh, to Jan. 1893. Issue, 
Carol, 16 Oct. 1893; Elizabeth, 12 Oct. 1894; Nicholas, 
18 Aug. 1503. 

EOUMELIA or EOMANIA (Turkey), part of 
Thrace (ivhich see). The Roumelian railway opened 
17 June, 1873. Population, 1880, 815,94*6; 1888, 
960,901 ; 1899, 5,912,520. 

By the treaty of Berlin, the province of Eastern 
Roumelia (termed South Bulgaria in 1886) was 
constituted, to be partly autonomous, with a 
Christian governor, nominated by the sultan 

13 July, 1878 

Sir H. D. Wolff appointed H.M.'s European com- 
missioner for organisation of the province, 

10 Aug. ,, 

Russian prince Dondoukoff Khorsakoff rules here 

July-Nov. ,, 

Scheme for government of the province approved 
by the sultan and the allied commissioners Nov. ,, 

Russian evacuation begins ... 5 Slay, 1879 

Aleko Pasha (prince Alexander Vogorides, a Bul- 
garian) installed as governor at Philippopolis 

30 May, ,, 

Much political disorganisation reported Sept. ,, 

Tranquillity restored Dec. ,, 

Great prosperity reported .... Sept. 18S3 

M. Chrestoviteh (Gavril Pasha) appointed governor- 
general by the Porte, about . . .10 May, 1884 

Bloodless revolution at Philippopolis ; re-union 
with Bulgaria proclaimed iS Sept. ; prince 
Alexandei at Philippopolis ; all Bulgaria and 
Roumelia arming .... Sept.-Oct. 1885 

About 75,000 Roumelians armed . . Nov. ,, 

(see Turkey and Bulgaria for the war.) 

Turkish delegates sent to Philippopolis . 2 Dec. ,, 

Prince Alexander appointed governor for live years, 
(see Bulgaria) 5 April, 1S86 

State of siege at Philippopolis on account of 
brigandage and Russian agency . . 4 Nov. ,, 

Diplomatic rupture with Greece respecting the 
nationality of a person who died at Bucharest, 

13 Nov. 1887 

A band of about 150 Montenegrins invading 
Bourgas repulsed with loss . . . 4 Jan. 188S 

Amnesty granted to the insurgent peasantry, 

15 Jan. 1889 

First Bulgarian exhibition opened at Philippo- 
polis by prince Ferdinand . . .27 Aug. 1892- 

Fight between Turkish troops and Bulgarians in 
Radovishte, six Turks killed, reported . 3 Jan. 1903 

Trial of 19 Bulgarian revolutionists at Salonika, 
three condemned to death, seven to life imprison- 
ment, and others to lighter sentences, 28 March, ., 

JvOUND- A species of musical canon in regular 
rhythm. Ancient rounds for six voices were com- 
posed in Italy, and introduced into England by the 



BOUND- HEADS. 



1071 



EOYAL ACADEMY. 



earl of Essex, about 15 10. The first printed col- 
lection appeared in 1609. "Warren's collection pub- 
lished 1763-94. Round, Catch, and Canon club 
founded in 1843. 

ROUND-HEADS. In the civil war which 
began in 1642, the adherents of Charles I. were 
called Cavaliers, and the friends of the parliament 
Round-heads. The term, it is said, arose from those 
persons who had a round bowl or dish put upon 
iheir heads, and their hair cut to the edge of the 
bj\vl ; see Cavaliers. 

EOUND TABLE, see under Garter and 
Liberals, 1887. 

BOUND WAY DOWN (near Devizes, Wilt- 
shire) . Here the royalists defeated the parliamen- 
tarians with great slaughter, 13 July, 1643. 

BOVEBEDO (Austrian Tyrol) was held by 
the Venetians from 1416 till 1609, when it was ac- 
quired by Austria. It was taken by Bonaparte and 
the French, 4 Sept. 1796, after a brilliant victory. 

BOWING, see Boat Races, Doggett, and Uni- 
versity. 
On 16 Oct. 1873, Mr. Reginald Herbert undertook to row 

on the Thames, from Maidenhead to Westminster 

bridge (47 miles 3 furlongs), in twelve hours, for 1000L 

He did it in ioh. 2m. 19 see. 

BOWLAND HILL MEMOBIAL FUND. 

See Mansion House. Mr. W. D. Keyworth was 
chosen to make a bust of sir Rowland Hill for 
Westminster abbey, March, 188 1. A benevolent 
fund for the widows and orphans of postmen 
established 1882. A statue of him at the Royal 
Exchange uncovered by the prince of Wales, 17 
June, 1882. 

BOWTON HOUSES, buildings erected to 
afford respectable unmarried working-men cheap 
comfortable lodgings, with some of the advantages 
of the west-end clubs. The f.rst in Bond-street, 
Vauxhall, was erected by lord Rowton, at a cost of 
30,000^., to accommodate 470 persons; opened by 
his niece, Miss Berta Cony, 15 Dec. 1892. Lord 
Rowton died, aged 65, 9 Nov. 1903. 

The scheme proved very successful ; a company 
was started in March, 1894, the first directors 
being lord Rowton, chairman; Mr. R. E. Far- 
rant, the hon. C. Ashley and Mr. Walter Long. 
A new Rowton house was erected in Calthorpe- 
street, King's-cross-road. The building contains 
677 cubicles, with good beds and large dining- 
room, &c, May, 1896 ; a third house still larger 
(804 cubicles), opened at Newington Butts, 
23 Dec. 1897 ; a fourth (800 cubicles) opened, 
Hammersmith-road, 30 Nov. 1899 ; a fifth, in 
Fieldgate-st., Whitechapel (816 cubicles), opened, 
11 Aug. 1902. 

BOXBUBGHE CLUB was instituted in 
1812 by earl Spencer, for the republication of rare 
books, or unpublished MSS.. in memory of John 
duke of Roxburghe. See under Ballads. 

BOYAL Agricultural, Astronomical, 
Geographical, Horticultural, &c; see 

under Agriculture, Astronomy, Geography, Horti- 
culture, Niger, &c. 

EOYAL ACADEMY. A society of artists 
met in St. Peter' s-court, St. Martin' s-lane, about 
1739, which Hogarth established as the society of 
Incorporated Artists, who held their first exhibition 
at the Society of Arts, Adelphi, 21 April, 1760. 
From this sprang the Royal Academy, in con- 
sequence of a dispute between the directors and the 



fellows. On 10 Dec. 1768, the institution of the 
present Royal Academy was completed under the 
patronage of George III. ; and sir Joshua Reynolds, 
knighted on the occasion, was appointed its first 
president. Leigh. The first exhibition of the 
academicians (at Pall- Mall) was on 26 April, 1769,. 
when 136 works appeared. In 1771 the king 
granted them apartments in old Somerset-house, 
and afterwards, in 1780, in new Somerset-house,, 
where they remained till 1838, when they removed 
to the National Galleiy. Among the professors have 
been Johnson, Gibbon, Goldsmith, Macaulay, and 
Hallam. Turner, the painter, gave funds to the 
academy for the award of a medal triennially for 
landscape-painting, which was awarded to Mr. N. 
0. Lupton in 1857. A commission of inquiry into 
the affairs of the academy, appointed in 1862, re- 
commended various changes in July, 1863, which 
were carried into effect. The hundredth anniversary 
of the foundation of the academy was celebrated 
10 Dec. 1868. The Royal Academy held its first 
exhibition in Burlington-house, Piccadilly, 3 May, 
1869. The annual exhibition of pictures by the old! 
masters, with some British, began 3 Jan. 1870. 
The money received has been devoted to the es- 
tablishment of a professorship of chemistry and a 
laboratory, &c. In 1874 the exhibition included/ 
many of Landseer's pictures. 

Sir Francis Chantrey, sculptor, died 25 Nov. 1841. At 
the death of his wife Jan. 1875, in conformity with 
his will, about 3000?.. a year accrued to the Academy 
for the purchase of works of art for the nation, and 
other purposes. 

The court of appeal upholds Mr. justice North's decision- 
that the works of sculpture purchased must be 
finished in marble or bronze, and not models,. 
June, 1889. 

The gallery containing the sculptures of John Gibson,, 
bequeathed by him, was opened free, 27 Nov. 1876. 

The number of the works of art exhibited in 1789 was 
about 620, in 1889, 2196, including sculptures. 

Rembrandt exhibition, 95 oil paintings and collection, 
of drawings, opened, 31 Dec. 1898. 

io,ooo£. bequeathed by the late lord Leighton constituted 
a trust fund as "The J.eighton Bequest," the interest 
to be devoted to the adornment of public places, &c. ;, 
announced, 11 Feb. 1899. 

PRESIDENTS. 

1768. Sir Joshua Reynolds. 

1792. Benjamin West. 

1805. James Wyatt (election not confirmed). 

1806. Benjamin West. 
1820. Sir Thomas Lawrence. 
1830. Sir Martin A. Shee. 

1850. Sir Charles Eastlake, died 24 Dec. 1865. 
1866. Sir Edwin Landseer elected ; declines, 24 Jan. 

_,, Sir Francis Grant, Feb. 1 ; died 5 Oct. 1878. 
1878. Sir Frederick Leighton, 13 Nov. ; created lord,, 

Jan. 1896; died 25 Jan. 1896. 
1896. Sir John Everett Millais ; died 13 Aug. 1896. 
,, Sir Edward John Poynter, 4 Nov. 1896 (bart. r 
June, iqo2). 

BOYAL ACADEMY of MUSIC was es- 
tablished in 1822, mainly by the exertions of lord 
Burghersh (afterwards earl of Westmorland, who 
died 16 Oct. 1859), and was incorporated by charter 
23 June, 1830. The first concert took place 8 
Dec. 1828. Its reconstruction was proposed in i866> 
and since effected. Sir George Macfarren prin- 
cipal, 1876; died, 31 Oct. 1887; succeeded by dr. 
A.C.Mackenzie, Feb. 1888; knight, Jan. 1895. 
The duke of Edinburgh, president, July, 1893. 

The academy unites with the Royal College of 
Music in regard to local examinations, announced 

13 Nov. 1889 

First meeting for the purpose at Marlborough- 
house 29 July, 1890 



ROYAL ADELAIDE. 



1072 



EOYAL INSTITUTION. 



ROYAL ADELAIDE, see Wrecks, 1850. 

ROYAL ARMY MEDICAL CORPS, 

name given by the queen to a corps formed out of 
the Army Medical Staff and the Medical Staff 
Corps, the officers of which will bear the same 
military titles as other officers of the army up to 
the rank of colonel, announced by lord Lansdowne 
at a banquet given by the lord mayor to members 
of the medical profession, 4 May, 1898. 

ROYAL ASSENT. If the king assent to a 
public bill, the clerk of the parliament declares in 
Norman French, " Le roy le veult," the king wills 
it so to be. If the king refuses his assent, it is in the 
gentle language of li Le roy s'avisera," the king 
will consider it. Hale. By the statute 33 Hen. 
VIII., 1541, the king may give his assent by letters - 
patent. Blackstone' s Com. 

ROYAL BOUNTY, a fund from which sums 
are granted to female relatives of officers killed or 
mortally wounded during service. 

ROYAL CHARTER, see Wrecks, 1859. 

ROYAL COLLEGE, see Music, 1878, and 
Science and Art, 1890. RoYAL ENGLISH 
OPERA HOUSE, see under Theatres. 

ROYAL EXCHANGE (Cambium Eegis), 
London. The foundation of the original edifice was 
laid by sir Thomas Gresham, 7 June, 1566, on the 
site of the ancient Tun prison. Queen Elizabeth 
opened it on 23 Jan. 1571, and her herald named it 
the Royal Exchange. Hume. It was totally de- 
stroyed by the great fire, Sept. 1666. Chai'les II. 
laid the foundation-stone of the next edifice, 23 Oct. 
[667, which was completed by Mr. Hawkesmore, a 
pupil of sir Christopher Wren, in about three 
years ; it was repaired and beautified in 1 769. This 
also was burnt, 10 Jan. 1838. The new Royal Ex- 
change, erected under the direction of Mr. Tite, was 
opened by the queen, 28 Oct. 1844. — Basement of 
Lloyd's offices damaged by fire, 27 Dec. 1894. I m ~ 
provement and enlargement of the chimes inaugur- 
ated, I July, 1895. Decorations : paintings by sir 
F. (aft. lord) Leighton and others, 1895 ^ se 1- '■> 
a fresco unveiled 30 Sept. 1903. Messrs. Smith's 
offices damaged by fire, 16 Jan. 1903. The Royal 
Exchange, Dublin, commenced 1769, opened 1779. 

ROYAL GEORGE, a man-of-war of 108 
guns, lost off Spithead. While heeled over to repair 
a pipe, a sudden gust of wind washed the sea into 
her ports, and she went down. The rear-admiral 
Kempenfeldt, the crew, many marines, women, and 
Jews, in all about 600 persons, were drowned, 29 
Aug. 1782. By the use of the diving-bell, the ship, 
embedded in the deep, was surveyed in May, 1817, 
et seq. Portions of the vessel and its cargo were 
brought up in 1839-42, under the superintendence 
of sir Charles Pasley, when gunpowder was ignited 
by the agency of electricity. 

ROYAL GRANTS to members of the royal 
family : — 

Tim queen on July 2 applied to parliament for a 
grant to prince Albert Victor of Wales for liis 
maintenance, and for one to the princess Louise 
of Wales on her proposed marriage with the earl 
of Fife, a select committee was appointed con- 
sisting of 23 members (including Mr. Goschen, 
Mr. W. II. Smith, lord llartingtoii, Mr. .J. Cham- 
berlain, Mr. Gladstone, Mr. John Morley, Mr. 
Labouchere, Mr. Burt.dr. Cameron, Mr. Parnell, 
and Mr. Sexton), 8 July, the committee lirst met 

10 July, 1889 



After several meetings at which there was much' 
discussion on various propositions, a report was 
submitted to the house of commons, who even- 
tually resolved, after several amendments had 
been rejected, that 36,000?., out of the consoli- 
dated fund should be paid annually (through 
trustees) to the prince of Wales for the support 
and maintenance of his family, the same to con- 
tinue till six months after the queen's decease, 
29 July, 1889. An act of parliament to this 
effect was passed .... 12 Aug. 1889 

ROYAL HUMANE SOCIETY (London), 

see Humane Society. 

ROYAL INSTITUTION of Great 
BRITAIN, the earliest of the kind in London, was 
founded 9 March, 1799, by count Rumford, sir 
Joseph Banks, earls Spencer and Morton, and several 
other noblemen and gentlemen. It received the 
immediate patronage of George III., and was in- 
corporated 13 Jan. 1800, by royal charter, as "The 
Royal Institution of Great Britain, for the diffusing 
knowledge, and facilitating the general introduc- 
tion of useful mechanical inventions and improve- 
ments, and for teaching, by courses of philosophical 
lectures and experiments, the application of science 
to the common purposes of life." It was enlarged 
and extended by an act of parliament in 1810; the 
original plan, as drawn up by count Rumford, in 
1799, having been considerably modified. The mem- 
bers are elected by ballot, and pay ten guineas on 
admission, and five guineas annually, or a com- 
position of sixty guineas. " The Royal Institution, 
its Founder, and its first Professors," by Dr. Bence 
Jones, hon. sec, published 1871. 

The House (in Albemarle-street, Piccadilly) was pur- 
chased in June, 1799, and the present front was added 
by subscription in 1838. The Lecture theatre was 
erected in 1800-1, under the superintendence of Mr. 
T. Webster. 

The Laboratory established in 1800; was rebuilt, with 
the modern improvements, 1872. 

The Library was commenced in 1803, by the munificent 
subscriptions of the proprietors of the institution, 
It now comprises about 60,000 volumes. Classified 
catalogues (by W. Harris) were published in 1809 
and 1821 ; new ones (by B. Vincent) in 1S57 and 1882. 

The Museum contains original philosophical apparatus 
of Young, Cavendish, Davy, Faraday, and De la Rue. 

The first Lecture was delivered 4 March, 1800, by Dr. 
Garnett, he being the first professor of natural philo- 
sophy and chemistry. 

In Aug. he was succeeded by Dr. Tlwmas Young, so cele- 
brated for his researches in optics, resulting in the 
discovery of the interference of light, and t lie estab- 
lishment of the theory of undulation. His " Lectures 
on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts," first 
published in 1807, are still considered a text-book of 
physical science. His works on antiquarian literature 
(hieroglyphic inscriptions, &c.) are highly esteemed. 

In Feb. 1801, Mr. (afterwards sir Evmvphry) Davy was 
engaged as assistant lecturer and director of the labo- 
ratory, and on 31 May, 1S02, lie was appointed pro- 
fessor of chemistry. His lectures were eminenttj 
successful, and his discoveries in chemistry and elec- 
tricity have immortalised his name, and' conferred 
honour on the institution. By him the alkaline metals 
potassium and sodium, were discovered in 1S07; the 
nature of chlorine was determined in 1810, and the 
safety damp invented in 1815. 

William Thomas Brands succeeded sir Humphry Davy as 
professor of chemistry in iSr;, and held that office till 
his resignation in 1S52, since which time, till his death 
(Feb. 1S66), he was hon. professor. From 1S16 to 1850 
he delivered, in the laboratory of this institution, his 
celebrated chemical lectures to students. 

In 1813 Miclutel Faraday (born 22 Sept. 1791), on the 
recommendation of sir It. Davy, was engaged as as- 
sistant in the Laboratory, and in 1S25 as its director; 
in 1827 he became one of the permanent lecturers of 
the institution. In 1820 he commenced those researches 



EOYAL INSTITUTION. 



1073 



EOYAL SOCIETY. 



in electricity and magnetism which form an era in ths 
history of science. In 1823-4 ne discovered the con- 
densability of chlorine and other gases ; in 1831 he 
•obtained electricity from the magnet; in 1845 he ex- 
hibited the two-fold magnetism of matter, compre- 
hending all known substances, the magnetism of gases, 
dame, <fec. ; in 1850 he published his researches on 
atmospheric magnetism : died, 25 Aug. 1867. 

John Tyndall. F.R.S., professor of natural philosophy, 
July, 1853, lion, professor, 9 May, 1887 ; died 4 Dec. 
1893 ; eminent for his researches on magnetism, heat, 
glaciers, <fec. ; bequeathed 1,000?. to the Royal Insti- 
tution, received Jan. 1898. 

Lord Bayleigh, P.R.S., professor of natural philosophy, 
9 May, 1887 ; is eminent for his researches on sound, 
light, &c. 

Edward Frankland, F.R.S. (after sir), professor of 
chemistry 1863-8, eminent for his discoveries in 
organic chemistry ; h; died, 9 Aug. 1899. 

James Dewar, P.R.S. (born 20 Sept. 1842), professor of 
chemistry, 9 April, and director of the laboratory, 
7 May, 1877 ; eminent for his discoveries and re- 
searches in the liquefaction and solidification of gases 
at high temperatures, air, oxygen, hydrogen, &c, 
1878 et seq. 

In 1804, sir J. St. Aubyn and other gentlemen proposed 
to form a school of mines at this institution ; but the 
plan, although warmly supported by the members, was 
withdrawn for want of encouragement by the govern- 
ment and by mining proprietors. 

The weekly evening meetings, on the Fridays, from 
January to June, as now arranged, commenced in 1826. 
Discourses (of which abstracts have been printed, 1851 
et seq.) are given at these meetings by the professors of 
the institution and other eminent scientific men. 

Endowments. In 1833, John Fuller, esq., of Rosehill, 
endowed two professorships, of chemistry and physio- 
logy ; the former bestowed on Mr. Faraday for life ; 
succeeded by Dr. Wm. Odling, 1868-73 ; by Dr. John 
Hall Gladstone, 1874, died 7 Oct. 1902 ; by James 
Dewar, 1877. The latter on Dr. Roget for three years, 
to be filled up afterwards by triennial election. — The 
Fullerian professors of physiology have been P. M. 
Roget, R. E. Grant, T. R. Jones, W. B. Carpenter, 
W. W. Gull, T. W. Jones, T. H. Huxley (twice), 
R. Owen, J. Marshall, Michael Foster, Wm. Ruther- 
ford, Alfred H. Garrod, and E. A. Schafer (187S-81), 
J. G. McKendrick, 1881-4; A. Gamgee, 1884; G. J. 
Romanes, i883, Victor Horsley, 1891 ; Charles Stewart, 
1893 ; Augustus D. Waller, 1S97 ; Edwin Ray Lankester, 
6 Jan. 1898 ; Dr. Allan Macfadyen, Jan. 1901. — In 1838, 
Mrs. Acton gave 1000L to be invested for paying every 
seven years 100 guineas for the best essay on the benefi- 
cence of the Almighty, as illustrative of a department 
of science; which have been awarded -in 1844 to Mr. 
G. Fownes ; in 1851 to Mr. T. Wharton Jones; in 
1858 no award was made; in 1865 to Mr. George 
Warington ; in 1872 to Rev. George Henslow and B. 
Thompson Lowne ; in 1879, to Mr. G. S. Boulger ; in 
18S6, to Prof. (aft. sir) G. G. Stokes, Pres. R.S. ; Miss 
Agnes M. Clerke, 1893 ; sir Wm. and lady Huggins, 1900. 

The "Fund for the Promotion of Experimental . Re- 
search " was founded on 6 July, 1863, by sir Henry 
Holland, Professor Faraday, sir R. I. Murchison, Dr. 
Bence Jones, and others. 

Many donations received, 1863 et seq. ; since 1892 liberal 
donations have been received to support prof. Dewar's 
researches connected with low temperatures: Mr. 
Thomas G. Hodgkins, of Long Island, New York, 
100,000 dollars ; Goldsmiths' company, i,ooo£., Nov. 
1892 ; again i,oooZ., Nov. 1899. The earl of Derby 
bequeaths 2,000?., 21 April, 1893 et seq. ; Mr. Ludwig 
Mond, 1887-93, 1,540?. ; others since. 

In 1843 the establishment of a school of practical 
chemistry in the institution approved by profs. Fara- 
day and Brande was proposed but failed. 

On 2 July, 1894, the scheme was revived by Mr. Ludwig 
Mond, F.R.S. and M.R.I., who presented to the insti- 
tution the house adjoining, with a proposal for its 
transformation into a laboratory, to be termed the 
Davy-Faraday Research Laboratory. He supplied 
the funds necessary for the incidental expenses of the 
work, and also gave an endowment sufficient to main- 
tain a staff of professors and assistants, and to supply 
■everything necessary for the prosecution of scientific 



research, especially in pure chemistry and physical 
science. The laboratory is an adjunct to the Royal 
Institution, and is open, conditionally, to independent 
private research. 'J he conveyance and deed of trust 
dated 8 June, 1896. The laboratory is subject to a 
committee appointed by the managers of the institu- 
tion, the first directors being lord Rayleigh and prof. 
James Dewar. Dr. Alexander Scott appointed super- 
intendent, 1896. The laboratory was opened by the 
prince of Wales, after an historical address by Dr. 
Ludwig Mond, followed by experiments in liquid air, 
by prof. Dewar, 22 Dec. Times, 23 Dec. 1896. 

The first ojficers of the institution were sir Joseph Banks, 
president, till the charter was granted, afterwards the earl 
of Winchilsea ; Mr. (afterwards sir Thomas) Bernard, 
treasurer; rev. Dr. Samuel Glasse, secretary. — Algernon 
duke of Northumberland, K.G., elected president, 1842; 
succeeded by sir Henry Holland, in 1865 (died 27 Oct. 
1873) ; by Algernon George, duke of Northumberland, 
K.G., 1873 (died 2 Jan. 1899); by his son, Henry 
George, duke of Northumberland, 6 March, 1899. 
W. Pole, esq., treasurer, elected 1849; succeeded 
by Wm. Spottiswoode, esq., in 1865; by George 
Busk, esq., 1873; by Henry Pollock, esq., 1886; by 
sir James Crichton Browne, 1889. The rev. John 
Barlow, secretary, elected 1842 ; succeeded by Henry 
Bence Jones, M.D., i860; by Wm. Spottiswoode, 
x 873 ; by Warren de la Rue, 1879 ; by sir Wm. Bow- 
man, Bart., 1882; by sir Frederick Bramwell, Bart., 
1885; by sir Wm. Crookes, 1900.. Librarians: Wm. 
Harris, 1803-23 ; S. Weller Singer, 1826-35 ; Wm. Mason, 
1835-48 ; Benjamin Vincent, 1849-89 (hon. librarian, 
1889; died 3 May, 1899); Henry Young, 1889. 
21 eminent foreign scientific men were elected hon- 
orary members, 4 May, 1891, in relation to the 
Faraday centenary, which see. 

Centenary celebrations : 26 eminent foreign scientists 
elected honorary members, 1 May, 1899; banquet to 
the foreign delegates at the Merchant Taylors' hall, 
the prince of Wales, the dukes of Cambridge and 
Northumberland, the lord chancellor and others 
present, 5 June ; the prince of Wales presides at a 
commemorative lecture by Lord Rayleigh on the 
" Discoveries of Thos. Young," 3 p.m., and presents 
diplomas to the foreign scientists, 4 p.m. ; the lord 
mayor holds a reception in the evening, 6 June ; at the 
second lecture (the duke of Northumberland in the 
chair), prof. Dewar produced liquid hydrogen, which 
see, in substantial quantities at about 21 absolute 
temperature, and by it solidified liquid oxygen and air, 
and exhibited a succession of beautiful experiments 
before lords Kelvin, Rayleigh, and a brilliant audience, 
Friday eve, 7 June, 1899. 

Historical apparatus, &c, was exhibited in the upper 
library, 5-7 June, 1899. 

Bust of sir Frederick Bramwell unveiled by the duke 
of Northumberland, 17 Jan. 1902. 

Michael Faraday relics, bequeathed by Mr. Thos. Deacon, 
of Newcastle-on Tyne, received, Jan. 1902. 

EOYAL LITEEAEY FUND, see Literary 
Fund, Royal. 

EOYAL MAEEIAGE ACT, &c, see Mar- 
riage Act ; Royal Military and Naval Asylums ; 
Navy, and Prerogative. 

EOYAL NAYAL COLLEGE, see Naval. 

EOYAL SOCIETY (London). In 1645 
several learned men met in London to discuss philo- 
sophical questions and report experiments ; the 
Novum Organon of Bacon, published in 1620, hav- 
ing given great impulse to such pursuits. Some of 
them (Drs. Wilkins, Wallis, &c), about 1648-9, 
removed to Oxford, and with Dr. (afterwards bishop) 
Seth Ward, the hon. Robert Boyle, Dr. (afterwards 
sir) W. Petty, and several doctors of divinity and 
physic, frequently assembled in the apartments of 
Dr. Wilkins, in Wadham college, Oxford. They 
formed what has been called the Philosophical 
Society of Oxford, which only lasted till 1690. The 
members were, about 1658, called to various parts 

3 z 






EOYAL SOCIETY. 



1074 



RUGBY SCHOOL. 



of the kingdom, on account of their respective pro- 
fessions ; and the majority coming to London, con- 
stantly attended the lectures at Gresham college, 
and met occasionally tilljhe death of Oliver Crom- 
well, 3 Sept. 1658 ; see Societies, and Scientific 
Papers. " Record of Royal Soc." issued 1897. 

The society was organised in 1660, and constituted by 
Charles II. a "body politic and corporate, by the appella- 
tion of "The President, Council, and Fellowship of the 
Royal Society of London, for improving Natural Know- 
ledge," 22 April, 1662. 

Henry Oldenburg, the first secretary, an eminent 
philosopher, a native of Bremen, a friend of Milton, 
Boyle, Wilkins, Wallis, and Petty, died Sept. 1677. 

Evelyn records the first anniversary meeting, St. An- 
drew's-day, 30 Nov. 1663. 

The Philosophical Transactions begin 6 March, 1664-5. 

In 1668 Newton invented his reflecting telescope (now in 
the possession of the society), and on 28 April, 1686, 
presented to the society the MS. of his Principia, 
which the council ordered to be printed. This was 
done under the superintendence and at the expense of 
Halley the astronomer, at that time clerk to the 
society. 

The society met for some years at Gresham College, and 
afterwards at Arundel House (1666), where it came 
into possession of a valuable library, presented by Mr. 
H ward, grandson of its collector, the earl of Arundel. 
After various changes the fellows returned to Gresham 
College, where they remained till their removal tc 
Crane-court, in a house purchased by themselves, 
8 Nov. 1710. 

The Croonian lecture was founded in 1701 ; the Bakerian 
lecture by Henry Baker, 1774. 

The first Copley medal was awarded to Stephen Gray in 
1731 ; the royal medal to John Dalton, 1826 ; the Rum- 
ford medal (instituted in 1797) to count Rumford him- 
self in 1800. 

The society remove to apartments granted them in Somer- 
set-house, 1780; to apartments in Burlington-house, 
Piccadilly, 1857. 

Parliament votes annually 4000Z. to the Royal Society 
for scientific purposes ; raised to 5,oooL in 1895. 

Regulations made by which only fifteen fellows are to be 
annually elected, who pay ten pounds on admission, and 
four pounds annually, or a composition of sixty pounds, 
March, 1847. In consequence, the number of fellows 
was reduced from 839 in 1847, to 626 in 1S66 ; to 567 in 
1875 ; to 552 in 1877 ; to 523 in 1888 ; 511 in 1893. 

The entrance fee abolished, and the annual payment re- 
duced to 3?.., announced, Nov. 1878. 

The "Royal Society Scientific Fund" was founded in 
imitation of the " Literary Fund " in 1859 ; see Scien- 
tific Fuiul. 

The Davy medal (which see) first awarded, Nov. 1877. 

The Darwin medal (see Development) first awarded, 1890. 

The Croonian lecture given by prof. Virchow, of Berlin, 
16 March, 1893. 

Sir Wm, Mackinnon bequeaths over 16,000?. to the 
society, announced Dec. 1897. 

The " Hughes " medal for original discovery in physical 
science, particularly electricity and magnetism (from 
a b 'quest by prof. David Edw. Hughes), first awarded 
to Joseph John Thomson, Nov. 1902. 



riiKslIiF.NTS 



1660. 
1663. 
1677. 
l6So. 
1682. 
1683. 



169O. 
1695. 



Sir Hubert Moray. 

Lord Brounckrr. 

Sir Joseph Williamson 

Sir Christopher Wren. 

Sir John Hoskyns. 

Sir Cyril Wyche. 

Samuel Pepys, author 
of Diary. 

John, earl of Carbery. 

Tl is, earl of Pem- 
broke. 

Sir Robert Southwell. 

(has. Montague (arts. 
earl of Halifax) 

John, lord Somers. 



1727. 
1741. 
1752- 

1764. 
1768. 

1772. 
1772. 
1778. 
1820. 



Sir Isaac Newton 
(M.P. for Cam- 
bridge University, 
1688-1705). 

Sir Hans Sloane. 

Martin Folkes. 

George, earl of Mac- 
clesfield. 

J anies, earl of Morton. 

.lames Burrow. 

James West. 

James Burrow. 

Sir John Pringle. 

Sir Joseph Banks. 

Dr. W. H. WV.laslMii. 



1820. 


Sir Humphry Davy. 


1878. 


Wm. Spottisw'oode, 


1827. 


Davies Gilbert. 




died 27 June, 1883- 


1830. 


Duke of Sussex. 


1883. 


T. H. Huxley, 5 July. 


1838. 


Marquis of North- 


1885. 


Sir George G. Stokes, 




ampton. 




30 Nov. (M.P.„ 


1848. 


Earl of Rosse. 




1887, Bart, 1889). 


1854. 


Lord Wrottesley. 


1890. 


Sir William Thomson, 


1858. 


Sir Benj. C. Brodie. 




1 Dec. (created 


1861. 


Maj.-gen. sir Edward 




Baron Kelvin, Feb. 




Sabine. 




1892.) 


1871. 


Sir G. B. Airy. 


1895. 


Sir Joseph Lister, 30 


1873- 


Dr., afterwards sir, 




Nov., baron Lister, 




Joseph Dalton 




Jan. 1897. 




Hooker. 


1900. 


Sir William Huggins, 
1 Nov. 



EOYAL SOCIETY of Edinburgh, incor- 
porated 29 March, 1783, arose out of the Philoso- 
phical Society of Edinburgh, founded in 1739. It 
received a second charter in 181 1. 

EOYAL SOCIETY of Literature was 

founded under the auspices of king George IV. in 
1823, and chartered 13 Sept. 1826. 

EOYAL STYLE, &c, see Style, Royal, and 
Titles. Royal titles act passed by royal assent, 
17 Aug. 1901. 

EOYAL UNIYEESITY of Ireland, see 

University. 

BUBICON, a small river flowing into the 
Adriatic sea, separated Cisalpine Gaul from Italy 
proper. Roman generals were forbidden to pass- 
this river at the head of an army. Julius Csesar 
did so, Jan. 49 B.C., and thereby began a revolt and 
deadly civil war. 

EUBIDIUM, an alkaline metal, discovered by 
Bunsen by means of the spectrum analysis, and 
made known in 1861. 

EUBEICS, directions in church offices, often 
printed in red. New ones for the English service 
agreed to by convocation, 4 July, 1879. 

EUBY MINES OF BURMAH, Tavernier 
(middle of the 17th century) describes it as a place 
where rubies and other precious stones are largely 
obtained, in a country difficult of access. Similar 
accounts were given by Father Giuseppe d'Amato, 
about 1830. The largest stones were royal property. 
Mr. Bredemeyer had charge of these and other 
mines in 1868. Revenue about 1855, from 12,500/. 
to 15,000/. per annum. These mines are now 
British property (see under Burmah, 1885), and 
for the use of them a revenue is paid by the Shan 
tribes, 1887. An agreement respecting them 
made between the Indian Government and Messrs. 
Streeter & Co. of London, announced May, 1887 ; 
suspended July, 1887. "Working licences issued to 
persons on the spot, 1887. Lease for seven years 
to the Streeter Syndicate signed at the India office, 
22 Feb. 1889 ; formation of a company headed by 
Messrs. Rothschild, March ct scq., 1889. Visit of 
sir Lepel Griffin to the mines, satisfactory to the 
company, reported March, 1S90. Lt. -governor, sir 
Hugh Shakespear Barnes, April 1903. 

BUFFLES became fashionable about 1520; 
and went out about 1790. 

EUGBY SCHOOL (Warwickshire), was 
founded in 1567 by Lawrence Sheriff, a London 
tradesman ; its arrangements were affected by the 
Public Schools act 1868. Dr. Thomas Arnold, the 
historian, entered on the duties of head-master here 
in August, 1828, and under him the school greatly 
nrospered. He died 12 June, 1842. His successors 



EUGEN. 



1075 EUSSELL ADMINISTEATIONS. 



were Drs. Tait, Goulburn, Temple, Hayman, Jex 

Blake, Percival andH. A. James (since 1895). See 

New Rugby. 

Dr. H. Hayman was opposed by the masters of the 
school, and after much dissension and discussion, was 
dismissed by the trustees, Dec. 1873, and Dr. Jex 
Blake elected in his room, Feb. 1874. Succeeded by 
Eev. J. Percival, Nov. 1886 (created bp. of Hereford, 
1895) ; the rev. H. A. James elected, 2j March, 1895. 
Vice-Chancellor Malins decided against Dr. Hayman 
in his attempt to set aside his dismissal, but ex- 
pressed his own opinion on "the grievous hardship 
of Dr. Hayman's case," 21 March, 1874. 

Mr. Disraeli, the premier, presented Dr. Hayman to 
the living of Aldmgham, Lancashire, April, 1874. 

Population of Rugby in 1881, 9,891 ; 1891, 11,262; 1901, 

16,830. 

Thomas Hughes, author of "Tom Brown's Schooldays," 
(at Rugby under Dr. Arnold), born 20 Oct. 1823, died 
22 March, -1896. 

The abp. of Canterbury unveils memorials bo dean 
Goulburn and abp. Benson, 1 Oct. 1898. 

EUGEN, an island in the Baltic, has frequently 
changed masters, having been held by the Danes, 
Swedes, and French. Transferred to Prussia 1815. 

EUHMKOEFF'S INDUCTION COIL, 

see Induction. 

. " EULE, BEITANNIA. " The words are by 
James Thomson (altered by Mallet) ; the music, 
ascribed to Dr. Arne, is said by Schoslcher (in his 
life of Handel) to have been taken from an air in 
Handel's "Occasional Oratorio" composed 1746, 
but the song and music were really printed in Dr. 
Arne's masque of " Alfred," 1740. Grove. 

EULE-OF-THE-EOAD, see Seas. 

EULING MACHINES, used for ruling 
paper with faint lines, for merchants' account- 
books, &c. They were invented by an ingenious 
Dutchman, resident in London, in 1782, and were 
subsequently greatly improved by "Woodmason, 
PajTie, Brown, and others. They were improved 
in Scotland in 1803. An invention has lately ren- 
dered account-books perfect by the numbering of 
the pages with types, instead of the numbers being 
written by a pen, so that a page cannot be torn out 
from them without being discovered. The late Herr 
F. A. Nobert devised a ruling machine in 1845 f° r 
the production of microscopical test plates, diffrac- 
tion gratings, and micrometers, specimens of which 
were exhibited in 185 1. The test plates contain 
bands of lines in a graduated series of fineness from 
Touo to 201S00 °^ a P al 'is line. 

EUM (French rhum), ardent spirit distilled 
from sugar lees and molasses, deriving its peculiar 
flavour from a volatile oil. Ruin is principally 
made in the West Indies. The duty (since 1900) on 
rum imported into the United Kingdom is 1 is. \d. 
per gallon, is. additional per gallon if imported 
in bottle (since 1899). 
Imported. 



1877 



EUMFOED MEDAL, see Royal Society. 

EUMP PAELIAMENT, see Bride's Purge. 

EUNES. Alphabetic characters, probably of 
Phoenician origin, but popularly ascribed to the' god 
Odin, cut or scratched on stone monuments, wea- 
pons, ornaments, implements, &c, which have been 



Gallons. 


Imported. 


Gallons 


6,858,981 


1882 . 


■ 7.3°5.679 


4.745.244 


1885 


• 6,877,581 


6,515,683 


1887 . 


. 6,362,070 


7> I 94.738 


1890 


6,237,773 


7,526,890 


1893 . 


• 5.942,132 


7,920,150 


1896 


5>373>9°4 


6,946,657 


1900 


. 6,239,151 


6,107,661 


1901 


6,719,452 


4,816,887 


1902 


. 8,210,668 



hypothetically dated from iooob.c. to 1000 a.d. ; 
principally found in Scandinavia and England, and 
sometimes in Western Europe. Professor George 
Stephens, of Copenhagen, in his "Old Northern 
Runic Monuments in Scandinavia and England " 
(1866-84), has given the results of forty years' 
studies. 

EUNNING, see Athletic Sports. Cross- 
country championships, the National won by 
A. Shrubb, S. London Harriers, 1902 ; Shrubb also 
ran 2 miles in 9 min. 11 see., establishing a world's 
record, 30 May, 1903; T. Conneff, Travers Is., New 
York, ran 1 mile, in 4 min. 15! sec, 30 Aug. 1895. 

' EUNNY-MEDE (council-mead), near Egham, 
Surrey. Here king John granted Magna Charta, 
15 June, 1215. 

EUPEE. See India, 1892 et seq. The value 
of the coin varied during 1895; exchange on 11 
Nov. 1896, stood about is.T^d.; 1898-1903, at is. 4^. 

EUPEET'S LAND (N. America), or Red 
River Settlement, now Manitoba, formerly the ter- 
ritories of the Hudson's bay company, was made a 
bishopric in 1849. By the Rupert's Land act, 
passed 186S, the Hudson's bay co. surrendered its 
rights over the entire region, which is now included 
in the dominion of Canada. See Hudson'' s Bay, 
Canada, and Manitoba. 

EUPTUEE SOCIETY, London, established 
1804; seel'russ. 

EUEAL CONFEEENCES. A meeting in 
London of delegates from rural districts, organised 
in connection with the National Liberal Federation, 
claiming reform, 10 Dec. 1891. Mr. W. E. Glad- 
stone addressed the conference, II Dec. 1891 
A congress of labourers, &c, organized by the 
eastern counties conservative associations, was 
held at Ely. The Rt. Hon. Henry Chaplin 
present ...... 29 Jan. 1892 

Rural conference at Leicester . . .2 April, ,, 
Rural Labourers' League : Mr. Jesse Collings, 
president ; 3rd annual meeting, at Westminster ; 
the duke of Devonshire and Mr. Joseph Chamber- 
lain present, 17 Feb. 1892 ; again 6 June, 1893 ; 
26 July, 1894 . . . '. . 27 Aug. 1895 

EUSKIN MUSEUM, see Sheffield, 1881-90, 

and Oxford, 1899. 

Buskin Society of London, formed for the promotion 
of Mr. Raskin's opinions in relation to art, in- 
augurated at the London Institution . 21 March, 1890 

" The Life and Work of John Ruskin," by W. G. 
Collingwood, published . . . April, 1893 

" John Ruskin" school, Walworth, opened by lord 
Reay 23 Feb. 1899 

John Ruskin, born 1819, died at Coniston, 20 Jan. 1900 

Buskin Union, for the study, &c, of his works, 
founded at a meeting, Mr. Fred. Harrison in the 
chair, and council appointed, London, 8 Feb. 
1900 ; first congress opened at Sheffield, lord 
Windsor president .... 21 Sept. „ 

Ruskin exhibition at Coniston . . July-Sept. ,, 

Memorial at Friars' Crag, Keswick, unveiled by 
Mrs. Arthur Severn 6 Oct. ,, • 

The Ruskin museum and institute opened, 31 Aug. 1901 

"The Ruskin plot," 5 acres of land at Cothill, 
Berks, to be kept uncultivated, given by Mr. 
Henry Willett to the Ashmolean Nat. Hist. Soc, 
reported 21 Oct. ,, 

Ruskin memorial fund ; Mr. Geo. Cadbury gives 
500?. March, 1902 

Lord Avebury lays the first stone of the Ruskin 
memorial museum, &c, at Bournville, near Bir- 
mingham 21 Oct. ,, 

EUSSELL ADMINISTEATIONS,* see 

Palmerston Administration, &c. 

* Lord John Russell, third son of John, duke of 
Bedford, was born 19 Aug. 1792; M.P. for Tavistock 

3 z 2 



EUSSELL INSTITUTION. 



1076 



RUSSIA. 



first administration (formed on the resignation of sir 
Robert Peel), July, 1846. 

First lord of the treasury, lord John Russell. 

Lord chancellor, lord Cottenhain (succeeded by lord 
Truro). 

Lord president of the council, marquis of Lansdowne. 

Privy seal, earl of Minto. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. (aft. sir Charles) Wood. 

Foreign, home, and colonial secretaries, viscount Pal- 
merston, sir George Grey, and earl Grey. 

Boards of control and trade, sir John Hobhouse (aft. lord 
Broughton), and earl of Clarendon (succeeded by Mr. 
Labouchere). 

Admiralty, the earl of Auckland (succeeded by sir 
Francis Thornhill Baring). 

Duchy of Lancaster, lord Campbell (succeeded by the earl 
of Carlisle, late viscount Morpeth). 

Secretary at war, Mr. Fox Maule. 

Postmaster, marquis of Clauricarcle. 

Paymaster-general, T. B. Macaulay. 

Lord John Russell i.nd his colleagues resigned their 
offices, 2i Feb. 1851 ; but were induced (after the 
failure of lord Stanley's party to' form an adminis- 
tration) to return to power, 3 March following. 

second administration (or continuation of his first), 
March, 1851. 

First lord of the treasury, lord John Russell. 

President of the council, marquis of Lansdowne. 

Lord privy seal, earl of Minto. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, sir Charles Wood. 

Home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. Sir George Grey, 
viscount Palmerston (succeeded by earl Granville, 
22 Dec), and earl Grey. 

Lord chancellor, lord Truro. 

First lord of the admiralty, sir Francis T. Baring. 

Board of control, lord Broughton. 

Board of trade, Mr. Labouchere. 

Secretary at war, Mr. Fox Maule (aft. lord Paniuure, and 
earl of Dalhousie). 

Postmaster -general, marquis of Clanricarde. 

Paymaster -general, earl Granville. 

Lord Seymour, earl of Carlisle, &c. 

This ministry resigned 21 Feb. 1852 ; see Derby Adminis- 
tration. 

third administration. (On the decease of lord Pal- 
merston, 18 Oct. 1865, earl Russell received Her 
Majesty's commands to reconstruct the adminis- 
tration.) 

First lord of the treasury, John, earl Russell. 

Lord chancellor, Robert, lord Cranworth. 

Postmaster-general, John, lord Stanley of Alderley. 

President of the poor-law board, Clias. Pelham Villiers. 

Lord president of the council, George, earl Granville. 

Lord privy seal, George, duke of Argyll. 

Chancellor of the exchequer, Win. E. Gladstone. 

Secretaries— foreign affairs, George, earl of Clarendon ; 
colonies, Edward Cardwell ; home, sir George Grey ; 
war, George, earl de Grey and Ripon, succeeded by 
Sjiencer, marquis of Hartington, Feb. 1866; India, sir 
Charles Wood, resigned (created viscount Halifax) ; 
succeeded by earl de Grev, Feb. 1866. 

First lord of the admiralty, Edward, duke of Somerset. 

President of the t„«i rd «f trade, Thos. Milner Gibson. 

Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster, George J. Gdschen. 

Secretary for Inland, Chichester Fortescue. 

This ministry resigned, 28 Juno, 1866, in consequence of 
a minority on 19 June (see under Reform, and Derby 
Administrations). 

RUSSELL INSTITUTION (Great Coram- 
.street, London), was founded in 1808 by sir Samuel 
llomilly, Francis Horner, J)r. Mason Good, Henry 



1813 : for London, 1841-61 ; was paymaster of the forces, 
1830-34; secretary for home department, iS^-o; forthe 
colonies, 1839-41 ; first minister, July 1846 to March 
1852; secretary for foreign affairs, Dec. 185.- to Feb. 
1853 ; president of the council, June 1854 to Feb. 1855; 
secretary for the colonies, March to Nov. 1855 ; secretary 
fur foreign affairs, June 1859 to Oct. 1865, when lie suc- 
ceeded lord Palmerston as premier; created a peer, as 
earl Russell, 30 July, 1861. His motion for reform in 
parliament was negatived in 1822 ; adopted 1 March, 
1831: lie introduced the registration bill and a new 
marriage bill in 1856 ; introduced and withdrew a reform 
bill, i860; died ??. May, 1878. 



Hallam, sir James Scarlett (aft. lord Abinger), and 
others. The building comprises a library, news 
room, billiard room, &c. 

RUSSELL TRIAL. William, lord Russell's 
trial lor complicity in the Rye-house plot was 
marked by a most touching scene. When he re- 
quested to have some one near him to take notes to 
help his memory, he was answered, that any of 
his attendants might assist him ; upon which he 
said "My Wife is here, and will do it forme.'' 
He was beheaded in Lincoln's-Iim-Fields, 21 July, 
1683. Lady Russell survived him forty years, 
dying 29 .Sept. 1723, in her eighty-seventh year. 
Ilis attainder was reversed, 1 Will. III. 1609. 

RUSSIA, the eastern part of ancient Sarmatia. 
The name is generally derived from the Roxolani, 
a Slavonic tribe. Ruric, a Varangian chief, 
appears to have been the first to establish a govern- 
ment, 862. His decendants ruled amid many 
vicissitudes till 1598. The progress of the Russian 
power under Peter the Great and Catherine II. is 
unequalled for rapidity in the history of the world. 
The established religion of Russia is the Greek 
church, with toleration of other sects, even Mahome- 
tans. By an imperial ukase, in 1802, six universi- 
ties were established, viz., at St. Petersburg, 
Moscow, Wilna, Dorpat (in Livonia), Charcov, and 
Kasan ; but literature made little progress till the 
present century, the native publications being 
very few, and the best books being translations. 
The Russian language, though not devoid of 
elegance, is, to a foreigner, of very difficult pro- 1 
nunciation; the number of letters and diphthongs is, 
forty-two. The Anglo-Russian Literary Society , 
with library, &c, set up at the Imperial Institute,} 
1893. The population of the empire in 1867, 
82,159,630; in 1872, about 85,685,945; in 1877! 
(estimated), 86,952,347 ; in 1885, 108,843,192;! 
1st general census of the empire,' total, 129,211,113,! 
9 Feb. 1897. By the first Russian budget (1862), 
the estimated revenue was 34,500,000/. ; expendi- 
ture, 37,850,000/; 1892, revenue, 118,025,000/.;! 
expenditure, II2,549,0C0'.;. 1897, revenue (estimate),, 
142,823,037/.; expenditure the same; 1902, total 
debt, 690,107,109/. Besides about 500 cathedrals,) 
about 35,000 churches (Greek church, which see).) 
Total armed strength of Russia, estimated at, 
3,460,000, 1903. Railways, 1893, 19,441 miles ;| 
1902, 35,079 miles open. 

Russia invaded by the Huns . . . a.d. 
Ruric the Norman or Varangian, arrives at Novgorod 
(or New City), and becomes grand duke [anni- 
versary kept 20 Sept. 1862] 

Oleg successfully invades the Greek empire 
Baptism of Olga, widow of duke Igor, at Con-, 

stantinople, about 

Vladimir the Great marries Anne, sister of the 

emperor Basil II., and is baptized 
The Golden Horde of Tartars conquer a large part 

of Russia about 

The grand duke Jurie killed in battle 

Alexander Xcwski defeats the invading Panes 

The Tartars establish the empire of the khan of 

Captschak, and exercise great influence in Russia 1:542 
He is made grand duke of Russia by the Tartars 

Moscow made the capital 

Tartar war, 1380 ; Moscow burnt 

Tamerlane invades Russia, but retires 
Accession of [von 111. the Great— able and despotic, 
founds the present monarchy . .... 
Ivan introduces lire-arms and cannon into Russia . 
(ireat invasion of the Tartars; consternation of 

Ivan 

His general Svenigorod annihilates their power 

War wiili Poland ....... 1506-2 

'1'hc English " Russian company" established . 1553, 

Richard Chancellor sent to open the trade . . 1554; 
Discovery of Siberia >■ j 



37<Sl' 

S62J 
9°7, 

9S5 J 



1223; 

1237" 

1241 



1252J 
1300. 
1383 
I395 l, 

140.; 
1475 j 

1479 



EUSSIA. 



1077 



BUSSIA. 



I The royal body-guard (the Strelitz) established . 1568 
'I Ivan solicits the hand of queen Elizabeth of 

i| England 1579 

jl Murder of Feodor I. , last of the race of Ruric, which 

had governed Russia for 700 years . . . . 1598 
:j The imposition of Demetrius (see Impostors). — 

Matins of Moscow . . . -29 May, 1606 

I Michael Fedorovitz, of the house of Romanoff, 

ascends the throne . 1613 

Finland ceded to Sweden 161 7 

Russian victories in Poland 1654 

Subjugation of the Cossacks 1671 

Reign of Ivan and Feter I. or the Great . . . 1682 

Peter sole sovereign 1689 

He visits Holland and England, and works in the 

dockyard at Deptford 1697 

Recalled by a conspiracy of the Strelitz, which he 

cruelly revenges ; 2000 tortured and slain ; he be- 
heads many with his own hand .... 1698 
The Russians begin their new year from 1 Jan. (but 

retain the old style) . . . . . . . 1700 

War with Sweden ; Peter totally defeated by Charles 

XII. at Narva 30 Nov. ,, 

Peter founds St. Petersburg as a new capital, 27 May, 1703 

The Strelitz abolished 1704 

Charles XII. totally defeated by Peter at Pultowa, 

and flees to Turkey 8 July, 1709 

14,000 Swedish prisoners sent to Siberia . . . ,, 
War with Turkey : Peter and his army cross the 

Pfuth, and are surrounded by the Turks ; they 

escape by the energy of the empress Catherine, 

who obtains a truce .... June, 1711 

Esthonia, Livonia, and a large part of Finland 

added to the empire 171 5 

Peter visits Germany, Holland, and France . . ,, 

The Jesuits expelled 1718 

Conspiracy and mysterious death of prince Alexis 

7 July, ,, 
Peter II. (last of the Romanoffs) deposed, and the 

crown given to Anne of Courland . . . 1730 

Elizabeth, daughter of Peter I., reigns, in prejudice 

of Ivan VI., an infant, who is imprisoned for life 1741 
Teter III. dethroned and murdered, succeeded by 

Catherine his wife 1762 

Ivan VI., the rightful heir, till now immured, put 

to death 1764 

Treaty of Kutschouc Kainardji ; independence of 

the Crimea and freedom of Black sea . July, 3774 
Rebellion of the Cossacks, 1774; suppressed . . 1775 
Successful invasions of the Crimea . . 1769-84 

Dismemberment of Poland ; commenced by Cathe- 
rine (see Folci ml), 1772 ; completed . . . 1795 
Catherine gives her subjects a new code of laws ; 

abolishes torture 111 punishing criminals ; and 

dies 1796 

Unsuccessful war with Persia , , 

Russian treaty with Austria and England . . . 179S 
Suwarrow, with an army joins the Austrians, and 

checks the French in Italy 1799 j 

Mental derangement of Paul, 1800 ; murdered, 

24 March, 1801 
Alexander I. makes peace with England -May, ,, 
He joins the coalition against France . 11 April, 1805 
Allies defeated at Austerlitz . . .2 Dee. ,, 

Treaty of Tilsit with France ... 7 July, 1S07 
Russians defeated by the Turks, near Silistria, 

26 Sept. 1809 

War with France June, 1812 

The Russians defeated at Smolensko, 17 Aug. ; and 

at the Borodino 7 Sept. ,, I 

Moscow burnt by the Russians, 14 Sept. ; retreat of 

the French begins 15 Oct. ,, 

Alexander present at the battle of Leipsic, Oct. 1813; 

entered Paris March, 18 14 

He visits England June, ,, j 

Forms the Holy Alliance 1815 

The grand duke Constantine renounces the right of 

succession 26 Jan. 1822 

Death of Alexander, 1 Dec. ; Pestal's conspiracy 

against Nicholas I. ; insurrection of troops at 

Moscow ; suppressed . . . 26-29 Dec. 1825 

Nicholas crowned at Moscow . . .3 Sept. 1826 

War against Persia 28 Sept. ,, 

Nicholas visits England ; invested with the order of 

the Garter 9 July, 1827 

Peace between Russia and Persia . . 22 Feb. 1828 
War between Russia and the Ottoman Porte declared 

(see Turkey and Battles) . 26 April, ,, 



1850 



1851 
1S52 



1854a, 



1855 



Peace of Adrianople 14 Sept. 1829 

The war for the independence of Poland against 
Russia (see Poland) .... 29 Nov. 1830 

Failure of the expedition against Khiva . Jan. 1840 

Treaty of London (see Syria) . . 15 July, ,, 

The emperor Nicholas arrives in London . 1 June, 1844 

The grand duke Constantine arrives at Portsmouth 
in the Ingermanland, of 74 guns . 9 June, 1846 

For the participation of Russia in the Hungarian 
[war of 1848-9, soe Hungary.'] 

Russia demands the expulsion of the Hungarian 
and Polish refugees from Turkey (see Turkey) 

5 Nov. 1840 

They are sent to Konieh, in Asia Minor . Jan. 

Conspiracy against the emperor detected 6 Jan. 

Harbour of Sevastopol completed . . Feb. 

The emperor decrees seven men in each thousand 
of the population of Western Russia to be enrolled 
in the army, giving a total increase of 180,000 
soldiers ■ . Aug. 

St. Petersburg and Moscow railway begun . . 

The czar visits Vienna .... 8 May, 

Concentrates forces on frontiers of Turkey . Feb. 

Origin of the Russo-Tur.kish war {which see, and 
Holy Places) March, 

Conference between the emperors of Russia and 
Austria at Olmutz . . . .24 Sept. 

And king of Prussia at Warsaw . . .2 Oct. 

Interview of Mr. J. Sturge and other quakers with 
the czar to obtain peace .... Feb. 

The northern provinces put in a state of siege, 

S March, 

The czar issues a manifesto to his subjects : he will 
combat only for the faith and Christianity, 

23 April, 

Death of the czar Nicholas, and accession of Alex- 
ander II. ; no change of policy . . 2 March, 

Most extensive levy ordered by the czar (at 
Nicolaieff ) .3 Nov. ,, 

He visits his army at Sebastopol . . to Nov. ,, 

Death of prince Ivan Paskiewitsch, aged 74 1 Feb. 1856 

Treaty of peace at Pari; . . . 30 March, ,, 

Alexander Gortschakoff foreign minister and chan- 
cellor 29 April, ,,.. 

Amnesty granted to the Poles, 27 May ; five poli- 
tical offenders, &c. ; Alexander II. crowned at 
Moscow 7 Sept. ,,, 

Manifesto on account of the English and French 
interference in the affairs of Naples . 2 Sept. ,. 

St. Petersburg and Warsaw railway begun by go- 
vernment, 1851 ; ceded to Great Russian railway- 
company (about 335 miles, the half completed) . 

Grand duke Constantine visits Prance and England, 

April, 1857- 

The czar meets the emperor Napoleon at Stutgardt, 
25 Sept. ; and the emperor of Austria at Weimar, 

1 Oct. „ 

Partial emancipation of the serfs on the imperial 
domains 2 July, 1858 

A Russian naval station established at Villa Franca, 
on the Mediterranean, creates some political ex- 
citement Aug. ,, 

New commercial treaty with Great Britain 12 Jan. 1859 

Russia reproves the warlike movements of the Ger- 
man confederation duringthe Italian war, 27 May, ,, 

The czar protests against the recognition of the 
sovereignty of peoples . . . 13 Feb. 1SC0 

Fruitless meetings of the emperors of Russia and 
Austria and the regent of Prussia at Warsaw 

20-25 Oct, ,, 

Treaty with China for enlargement of commerce 

1 Jan. 1861 

Decree for the total emancipation of the serfs 
(23,000,000) throughout the empire in two years 
(19 Feb.) 3 March, ,, 

Demonstrations and repression in Poland (which see) 

Feb. -April, ,, 

Disturbances in South Russia, caused by an im- 
postor asserting himself to be a descendant of 
Peter III. ; many peasants shot or flogged, 

May and June, ,, 

Inundations at Kiev, Moscow ; 615 houses under 
water May, „ 

Death of prince Michael Gortschakoff, governor of 
Poland 14 May, ,, 

Student riots at the university of St. Petersburg, 
which is closed, 6-9 Oct. : reopened . 24 Oct. 



EUSSIA. 

The nobles sign a petition for a political constitution 
t ■, ~Sov. 

Increased privileges granted to the Jews . 26 Jan. 
Death of Nesselrode, the chancellor of the empire, 

20 March, 
Alarming increase of fires at St. Petersburg and 
Moscow ; the government suppresses various edu- 
cational institutions .... June, 
Russia recognises the kingdom of Italy 10 July' 
1000th anniversary of the foundation of the Rus- 
sian monarchy at Novgorod, celebrated 20 Sept 
Re-organisation of the departments of justice de- 
creed ; juries to be employed in trials, &c. 14 Oct. 
Trade tax bill introduced, admitting foreigners to 
merchants' guilds, &c. ... 26 Nov. 
Insurrection in Poland . . . 22-24 Jan. 

[For events, see Poland.] 
Termination of serfdom ... 3 March, 

Provincial institutions established throughout 

Russia I3 j an 

Great victory over the Oubykhs in the Caucasus, 31 
March ; emigration of the Caucasian tribes into 
Turkey, April ; submission of the Aibgas ; the 
war declared to be at an end ... 2 June, 
The cesarevitch betrothed to the princess Dagmar 
of Denmark 28 Sept- 
Serfdom abolished in the Trans-Caucasian provinces : 
new judicial system promulgated . . Dec. 
The Russian nobles request the emperor to esta- 
blish two houses of representatives [declined] 

24 Jan. 
New province, "Turkestan," in central Asia, created 

!4 Fe b 
The cesarevitch Nicholas dies at Nice . 24 April, 
Industrial exhibition at Moscow closes . 16 July, 
Censorship of the press relaxed ; law begins, 13 Sept. 
Rupture with the pope, on account of Russian 
severity to Polish clergy . . Jan. and Feb. 
Assembly of the nobility ; short, stormy session 

March, 

Inauguration of trial Try jury in Russia . 8 Aug. 

Karakozow attempts to assassinate the czar, 16 

April ; after long investigation into the origin of 

the plot, he is executed . . .15 Sept. 

War with Bokhara ; conflicts with varying results ; 

Russians advance in May, et seq. ; ended . Nov. 

Marriage of prince Alexander, heir to the crown, to 

princess Dagmar of Denmark . . 9 Nov. 

Emancipation of many state serfs in Poland, n Nov. 

Three decrees for abolishing the remains of Polish 

nationality T j an 

Congress of Slavonian deputies at Moscow 5 Mayj 

Russian America sold to the United States for 

7,000,000 dollars, by treaty, 13 March; ratified 

15 May, 
Amnesty in favour of the Poles . . 29 May, 
The czar visits Paris (which see) . . . June] 
Escapes assassination by Berezowski, a Pole, 

6 June, 
Decree for the use of the Russian language in the 

Baltic provinces 7 July, 

A Romanist college to replace the authority of the 

pope, established at St. Petersburg . 2 Aug. 

The separate interior government in Poland sup- 

pressed 2g Feb . 

Samarcand taken by Kaufmann . . 26 May, 
Amnesty for political otfenees -ranted . 6 June' 
Polish language interdicted in public places in 

m , Pol ,'" ul July, 

lhc Government Mc^e 11 <j<:r, i.iih-ial journal, published 

at St. Petersburg n .),,„. 

Socialist seei-el conspiracy anion- the students 
headed bySergius Netschajew, detected ; the in- 
former assassinated urn. 

liuriinganie, i tnnese envoy, arrives . 2 Feb 

Dies at St. Petersburg 2 „ |.',.|, 

Russia neutral in ib,' Franco Prussian war July 
Said to lie arming. 20 Sept. ; contradicted 27 Sept. 
Fruitless visit nf M, Thiers al si. Petersburg on 
behali oi the French government . - 7 Sepl 
Diplomatic circular of prince Qort8chakoff, foreign 
minister, repudiating the clauses of the treaty of 
30 March, 1856, respecting the Black Sea, ,, 1 >ct 
received by carl Granville, „ Nov., who replies' 
maintaining the force of the treaty . to Nov.' 
Vigorous protesl of British ami Austrian govern- 
ments t6 Nov. 

Decree ior forming military reserves, about 16 Nov. 



1078 



RUSSIA. 



1861 
1862 



i860 



Conciliatory despatch from prince Gortschakoff to 
earl Granville, agreeing to a conference for revi- 
sion of the treaty of 1856 . 20 Nov. 1870 

Prussian government expresses surprise at Gortscha- 
kolfs circular, and proposes a conference 

about 26 Nov. ,, 

Firm courteous despatch from earl Granville, con- 
senting to a conference which shall "assemble 
without any foregone conclusion " . 28 Nov. ,. 

The other powers agree to a conference 7 Dec. .. 

Re-organisation of the army ordered . . Jan. 1S71 

The conference meets in London . . 17 Jan. ,, 

The Black Sea clauses abrogated (see Black Sea), by 
treaty, signed 13 March, 

Schamyl, the Circassian chief, dies about April, ,, 

The grand duke Wladimir visits England . June, , , 

Military exercises, sham battles round St. Peters- 
burg, 30,000 engaged ; emperor present, 

15-23 Aug. „ 

Trial of persons implicated in a socialist conspiracy 
(at St. Petersburg) ; many condemned to impri- 
sonment Sept. ,, 

Electric telegraph between St. Petersburg and Naga- 
saki, Japan, completed .... Nov. ,, 

200th anniversary of the birth of Peter the Great, 
30 May, 1672 (o.s.), solemnly observed by the. court 
and nation ti June, 1872 

Peter the Great ironclad (incomplete) launched at 
St. Petersburg Aug. j, 

Great Russian Encyclopaedia undertaken by prof. 
Beresina autumn ,, 

Reconnoitring expedition to Khiva ; defeat of gen. 
Markosoff announced .... Dec. ,, 

Diplomatic visit of count Schouvaloff to London 
respecting this ; presented to the queen ; Russian 
concessions reported satisfactory . 13 Jan. 1S73 

Expeditions against Khiva start . . March,- ,, 

The emperor of Germany warmly received at St. 
Petersburg 27 April, ,, 

The Shah of Persia visits St. Petersburg 22-31 May, ,, 

Khiva surrenders, 10 June ; a rebellion suppressed, 

•Inly, ., 

Jumuden Turcomans defeated at Tschandyr 

25, 27 July, ., 

New treaty with Bokhara, published . . Dec. 

Marriage of the grand duchess Marie with the duke of 
Edinburgh 23 Jau. 1074 

Visit of the emperor of Austria at St. Petersburg, 
13 Feb. ; the czar in proposing his health, says, 
" In the friendship which binds us and also the 
emperor William and the queen Victoria, I see a 
most sure guarantee of peace " . . 15 Feb. „ 

The czar visits England . . . 13-21 May, ,, 

Count Schouvaloff succeeds Brunnow as ambas- 
sador in London .... autumn, ,, 

New law for organization of the army . . Sept. 

Son born to the duke of Edinburgh and grand- 
duchess Marie 15 Oct. 

Visit of the empress and the cesarevitch to England 

15 Oct. -24 Nov. ,, 

Mitrophania, mother abbess, of Serpouchow, Mos- 
cow, prosecuted for fabricating commercial bills ; 
convicted, and sentenced to 14 years* exile, Nov. ,, 

International telegraphic conference at St. Peters- 
burg 1-19 July, 1075 

Expedition (with scientific men) to Krasnovodsk, 
Central Asia, spoken of .... Aug. ,, 

War with Khokand (which see) . 4 Sept. — Oct. 

Commercial panic through failure of Dr. Strousberg, 
a German railway speculator, at Moscow. Prague, 
and Berlin Nov. ,, 

At a dinner of " Knights of St. George." the czar 
declares that the three emperors arc united to 
maintain peace S Dec. ,, 

Baltic provinces (formerly a provincial federation 
with a governor), incorporated with the empire 
under the ministry of the interior, on the death 
of the governor Bagration . . . 29 Jan. 1876 

Khokand, formally. annexed (as Ferghana) 29 Feb. ,, 

Prosecution of a sect " White Doves" (Skoptzi) 

April, „ 

Warlike enthusiasm : Russian volunteers in the 
Servian army July-Sept. ., 

Depression through Servian defeats ., . Oct. ,, 

Pacific declaration of the czar to lord Aug. Loftus 

2 Nov. ,, 



EUSSIA. 



1079 



EUSSIA. 



The czar,, in an address at Moscow, says that if suf- 
ficient guarantees are not given by Turkey, he 
will act independently . . . 10 Nov. 1876 

Dr. Strousberg and others tried for fraud, &c, Nov. ; 
he is sentenced to banishment from Russia 

14 Nov. ,, 

Enthusiasm for Bulgarians ; partial mobilisation of 
the army ordered . . . about 14 Nov. ,, 

Internal loan of 10 million roubles . 19 Nov. ,, 

Great enthusiasm for Bulgarians ; war declared, and 

begun . 24 April, 1877 

\ See Turkey ; and Russo-Turlcish War, 1877. 

The czar warmly received at Moscow, 4 May ; and 
St. Petersburg 7 May, ,, 

Great trial of Nihilists for revolutionary propa- 
gandism, begun about 31 Oct. „ 

Russian loan of 15,000,000^ at 5 percent, announced 

12 Nov. ,, 

The czar at St. Petersburg ; celebrates centenary 
anniversary of birth of Alexander I. 23 Dec. ,, 

Ill-feeling against Bulgarians . . . Dec. ,, 

Nihilist trial ended ; about 160 sentenced to hard 
labour ; about 90 acquitted, . about 9 Feb. 1878 

Treaty of peace with Turkey signed at San Stefano ; 
Europe dissatisfied .... 3 March, , , 

Vera Zasulitch (or Sassulitch), a young woman, who 
acknowledged firing at gen. Trepoff, prefect of St. 
Petersburg (5 Feb.), for severity to prisoners, ac- 
quitted by jury 12 April, ,, 

Reported spread of Nihilism in Kieff, Moscow, <fcc. , 

April, ,, 

Public depression : feeling against Bulgarians ; de- 
sire to get quit of the Eastern question 

May- June, „ 

Conference at Berlin {which see) meets 13 June ; 
treaty signed 13 July, ,, 

Gen. Kaufmann's advance on the Oxus to occupy 
Balkh; reported Aug. ,, 

Nihilists tried and condemned at Odessa ; riots 
ensued 5 Aug. ,, 

General disaffection to the government ; general De 
Mesentzoff, chief of police, assassinated in the 
street in St. Petersburg ... 16 Aug. ,, 

New s per cent, loan (300,000,000 roubles) issued on 
bonds 29, 30, 31 Aug. „ 

Ukase decreeing state offences to be punished by 
military law .... end of Aug. , , 

Gen. Drentelen made chief of police . . 6 Oct. ,, 

Students at a college in St. Petersburg present an 
address to the eesarevitch complaining of griev- 
ances, 11 Dec; they are attacked and punished 
by the police and cossacks, 12 Dec; they issue an 
address soon after Dec. „ 

Prince Demetrius Krapotkine, governor, assassi- 
nated while returning from a ball at Kharkoff, 

21 or 22 Feb. 1875 

Attempted assassination of Drentelen, 25 March ; and 
of the czar by Alexander Solovieff, a schoolmaster, 
with a revolver 14 April, ,, 

The poll tax abolished by ukase . . . April, ,, 

Riots at Rostoff on the Don suppressed by military, 

14 April, ,, 

Ukase establishing martial law in the provinces of 
St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kieff, Odessa, and War- 
saw, dated 17 April, ,, 

" Land and Liberty," a Nihilist newspaper, freely 
yet surreptitiously circulated . . . April, ,, 

Solovieff condemned, 7 June; executed . 9 June, ,, 

Discontent at the small results of the war . July, „ 

Trials, convictions, and executions of Nihilists at 
Kieff and Odessa .... May- Aug. „ 

Gen. Lazareff, commander of expedition against the 
Tekke Turkomans, dies at Tchat about 13 Aug. ,, 

Gen. Lomakine succeeds in command ; severe battle 
at Geok Tepe or Dengli Tepe ; Russians said to 
be victorious, yet retreat with heavy loss 

28 Aug. (o.s.), 9 Sept. „ 

Tergukasoff succeeds Lomakine in command, 25 Sept. ,, 

Leon Mirsky condemned to death for attempted 
assassination of gen. Drentelen, chief of police 

27, 28 Nov. ,, 

Count Schoiivaloff, ambassador at London, resigns, 
27 Nov. (succeeded by prince Lobanof). . . ,,. 

Attempted assassination of the czar, by undermin- 
ing railway train near Moscow ; none hurt ; bag- 
gage carriages destroyed . . 1 Dec. ,, 

The newspaper Golos suspended for 6 months, 4 Dec ,, 



Proclamation of the executive revolutionary com- 
mittee justifying the attempted assassination on 

1 Dec 4 Dec 1879 

Plot to blow up the Winter Palace, St. Petersburg, 

discovered 12 Dec. ,, 

"Will of the People" revolutionary paper freely 

circulated Nov. -Dee. „ 

Explosion in a guard-room filled with dynamite and 
gun-cotton under the dining-room of the Winter 
Palace, St. Petersburg ; the czar and family escape 
through being a little late for dinner ; 11 soldiers 
killed ; 47 wounded ; between 6.0 and 7.0 p.m., 

17 Feb. 1880 
Hartmann, owner of a house near the explosion, 

arrested at Paris .... about 20 Feb. , 
Panic at St. Petersburg ; ukase issued ; appointing 
supreme executive commission, gen. Loris Meli- 
koff, president, with extensive powers; virtual 

dictator 24 Feb. ,, 

Extradition of Hartmann requested by Russia ; 

declined March, „ 

Twenty-fifth anniversary of the czar's accession cele- 
brated at St. Petersburg ... 2 March, ,, 
Hippolyte Molodzoff (Mladetsky, or Wladitsky, or 
Mlodecki), a converted Jew, fires at gen. Loris 
Melikoff, 4 March ; hanged . . .5 March, „ 
Hartmann expelled from France ; goes to England ; 
Prince Orloff, ambassador, quits France, 

about 6 March, , 
Nihilist trials at St. Petersburg ; sentences to death 
and imprisonment (Dr. Weimar and others) ; com- 
muted May, ,, 

Death of the empress after a long illness, 3 June, ,, 
21 extreme Nihilists convicted at Kieff (capital sen- 
tences remitted) .... about 7 Aug. „ 
Ukase of 24 Feb. superseded ; Melikoff, who had 
governed well, appointed minister of the interior, 
with charge of the police . . . 18 Aug. ,, 
Count Loris Melikoff's scheme for administrative 
reform sanctioned by the czar ; announced 3 Oct. ; 
put into action . . . .25 Oct. et seq. „ 
" Russia," new national daily paper, published Oct. „ 
Great Nihilist trial at St. Petersburg for assassina- 
tions, explosion at Winter Palace, &c. ; sentences, 
Kviatofski and 4 others condemned to death : 
8 men and 3 women to imprisonment . 10 Nov. „ 
Kviatofski and Priessnakoff hanged . 16 Nov. ,, 

Gen. Skobeleff's expedition into Central Asia, 

24 Dec. ,, 
Severe conflicts with the Tekke Turkomans, 14 Jan. 1881 
Geok Tepe besieged ; taken . . .24 Jan. ,, 
Assassination of the czar Alexander II. by explosion 
of a bomb ; assassin himself killed ; Risakoff 

seized 2 p.m. 13 March, ,, 

A mine for explosion discovered in the middle of St. 

Petersburg .... about 15 March, „ 
Circular of the new czar Alexander III. to foreign 
powers ; he will aim at moral and material de- 
velopment of Russia, and a pacific foreign policy 

16 March. ,, 
Manifesto from the Nihilist executive committee to' 
the czar offering peace, if an amnesty with a legis- 
lative assembly to be elected by universal suffrage, 
" free press, &c, be granted . . 22 March, „ 

Sophie Peroffskaja, and other Nihilists, arrested 

23 March, ,, 
The czar's magnificent funeral at St. Petersburg ; 

the prince and princess of Wales present, 27 March, ,, 
A representative council for St. Petersburg elected 

about 31 March, ,, 
Trial of Risakoff, Sophie Peroffskaja, Jelaboff, Jessie 
or Hessie Heljmann, Kibaichick, and Michailoff 
(four men and two women), all condemned to 

death 8, 9 April, „ 

The Tekkes submit ; maraudings cease ; object of 
Skobeleff's expedition accomplished ; announced 

9 April, ,, 
Risakoff and others hanged ; Heljmann (enceinte) 

reprieved 15 April, „ 

Treaty of peace with China announced . April, ,, 
Nihilist manifesto styling the assassins " martyrs," 

&e. ..".... 16 April, „ 

Changes in ministerial offices ; tendency to reduce 

autocracy of the czar announced . about 4 May, ,, 
Ukase supplementary to that of 19 Feb. 1861, for 
emancipating serfs, remitting payments to many 
peasant proprietors ; announced . early May, ., 
Reactionary proclamations in favour of autocracy 



RUSSIA. 



1080 



RUSSIA. 



(29 April), 11 May ; resignation of count Loris 
Melikoff and other liberal ministers soon after, 

about 13 May, 1 

General Ignatieff, chief minister, issues manifesto, 
declaring for suppression of rebellion, and promis- 
ing reforms ; manifesto from Nihilists offering 
peace if reforms be granted . . 23 May, 

The czar, closely guarded, living in close seclusion ; 
continued policy of repression . . . June, 

The czar well received at Moscow, <fcc., 30 July; 
the czar meets the emperor of Germany at Dantzie 
3 Sept. ; stringent decree respecting public order 

21 Sept. 

Treaty with Persia signed ... 22 Dec. 

Nihilist trials at St. Petersburg; 10 sentenced to 
death, 28 Feb. ; commuted to penal servitude 
(except Suchanoff, to be shot) . . March, 1 

Gen. Strelnikoff, public prosecutor, assassinated at 
Odessa by two students, 30 March ; executed 

3 April, 

Retirement of the chancellor and foreign minister, 
Gortsehakoff (his policy war-like); succeeded by 
his assistant De Giers . . about 9 April, 

Mine discovered under Moscow cathedral ; 80 work- 
men arrested .... about 15 April, 

General Kaufmann died, aged 64 . ,16 May, 

Decree for the gradual abolition of the poll tax 
(imposed by Peter the Great) . beginning June, 

Ignatieff resigns ; succeeded by count Tolstoy 
about 12 June, 

Death of general Scobeleff, the hero of Plevna, aged 
39 7 Jlll y> 

General Tchernai'eff appointed to command in Cen- 
tral Asia 

Successful exhibition of Russian arts and manu- 
factures ....... summer, 

Revival of the Russian navy determined on . 

Tranquillity restored ; great festivities through the 
visit of the duke and duchess of Edinburgh 

Jan. — Feb. 1 

Death of prince Gortsehakoff, aged 85 11 March, 

Arrest of 200 persons at St. Petersburg 

about 20 March, 

Trial of Nihilists at St. Petersburg: some sentenced 
to death (remitted), others to imprisonment 

19 April, 

The emperor and empress crowned with great cere- 
mony at Moscow 27 May, 

Patriotic and pacific manifesto, and amnesty, 27 
May; and popular festival 2 June, 

Poll tax abolished for the poorest, reduced for 
others (1 Jan. 1884) on . . 8 June, 

The czar and the kings of Denmark and Greece 
breakfast with Mr. Gladstone on board the l'au- 
broke Castle, Copenhagen ... 18 Sept. 

Reported discovery of a great conspiracy at St. 
Petersburg ; many arrests . . about 27 Sept. 

Government projects lor re-modelling the com- 
munes published Oct. 

Orand funeral of Turgeniefl at St. Petersburg, 9 Oct. 

Foundation of memorial church at the place where 
Alexander II. was assassinated at St. Petersburg 
laid by the czar 16 Oct. 

63 Nihilists sentenced to Siberia . . 19 Oct. 

Lieut. Sudeikin, chief of secret police, and his 
nephew, M. Sadovsky, assassinated at St. Peters- 
burg ; attributed to Nihilists aided by Jablonsky, 
a subordinate, whose life lie had saved 

night of 28-29 Dec. 

57 students at Moscow arrested announced 9 Jan. 1 

Loyal address of the nobles to the czar, advocating 
union of nobles nod peasantry . . .25 Jan. 

Surrender of Merv to Russia, effected by general 
Komaroff .... announced T4 Feb. 

Proposals for state lean not taken up, Nov. 1883; 
another loan at 6 per cent , offered in open market 
about 3 Dec. 1883 ; taken up . . April, 

Convention with Persia for cession of Sarakhs 
(threatening to Afghanistan) reported 6 May, 

The majority of the cesarevitch (aged 16) declared 

18 May, 

Deatli of general Todleben, born 181S . 1 July, 

Alleged dynamite conspiracy against the czar lit 

Warsaw 8 Sept. 

Maria Wassilieona Kaliouchliain, at Odessa, sen- 
tenced to zo years' hard labour for attempt to 

shoot colonel Kntcusky . . .about 11 Sept. 



The czar meets the emperors of Germany and 
Austria at Skiernievice, near Warsaw 15, 16 Sept. 1S84 

The letters of "Stepniak" and others expose the 
cruel, dishonest, and unscrupulous conduct of 
government officials in prohibiting the diffusion 
of knowledge and literature ; proposed united op- 
position of the nobility and peasantry Sept.-Oct. „ 

The circulation of many religious books prohibited ,. r 

14 Nihilists (including 6 officers and 3 women, one,. 
Mary F. Figner) convicted by secret court martial ; 
8 sentenced to death at St. Petersburg, n Oct. ; 
two men executed 18 Oct. ,, 

The Nihilist journal, Narodnaia Volia, reappears 

about 27 Oct. ,, 

Sir Robert Morier, British ambassador at St. Peters- 
burg ,, 

Great discontent among workmen and»peasantry Jan. 1S85 

Mission of M. Lessar,engineer-diplomatistto London 
respecting central Asian boundaries . Feb. ,, 

Ship canal from St. Petersburg to Cronstadt com- 
pleted, Feb. ; opened . . . .27 May, ,, 

Russians advance to about 90 miles from Herat, 
and hold Zulttkar pass .... Feb. ,., 

Three courses before them : to retire ; to remain 
and negotiate ; to make war . . . 1 March, ,, 

(It was mainly through the urgent remonstrances 
of general Lumsden that a collision was 
avoided.) 

Arrangement that no further advance on the 
"debated or debatable ground" be made by 
Russians or Afghans (since termed a " solemn 
covenant') .... 16 or 17 March, ,, 

British government announce agreement to arbitra- 
tion (by Denmark) .... 4 May ct scq. „ 

The Russian general Komaroff, near the Kushk and 
Murghab rivers, commands the Afghans to 
retire ; on their refusal, attacks them at Ak- 
tapa (or Aktepe or Pul-i-khusti), near Penjdeh ; 
defeats them with much slaughter, and captures 
this important stragical position with artillery 
and stores ; many Afghans perish in the retreat 
through exposure 30 March, 53 Russians killed 
and wounded ; (sir Peter Lumsden reports the 
attack on the Afghans to have been unprovoked 
14 April) ,, 

The British government prepares for war with 
great energy ; strongly supported by ihe colonies 
and Indian princes ,, 

British government statement : new agreement 
with Russia ; arbitration respecting tight on 
March 30 accepted 4 May ; Denmark accepts 
work of arbitration .... May, 

Agreement on delimitation settled by earl Gran- 
ville and earl of Kimberley, with MM. de Staal 
and Lessar ; approval reported . 30 May, ,, 

Cordial meeting of the czar and the emperor of 
Austria at Kremsier in Moravia . 25, 26 Aug. ,, 

The Afghan boundary question settled 10 Sept. „ 

Discovery of plot against the czar ; arrest of 
military officers and others . . . April, 1886 

TcheSWle ironclad launched by Ihe czar at 
Sevastopol (other vessels constructing) 18 May, ,, 

Russia violates treaty of Berlin by declaring 
Batoum not to be a free port . . July. 

Honours and income of the younger members of 
the imperial family much diminished, announced 

July, ,, 

Russian interference in Bulgaria (which see) 

Sepl Dec. ,, 

Plot against the czar; students with dynamite 
and other explosives, detected 13 March ; 200 

arrested March. 1SS7 

Three plotters executed 31 March; seven political 
offenders sentenced to death, the rest to various 
terms of imprisonment, 1 May ; more arrests 
about iS May ; live executed . . 16 May, .. 

Prince Nicholas, the cesarevitch, made chief 
Ataman (Hetman) of all the Cossacks at Novo- 
Tcherkask 18 May, ,. 

N. Katkoff, journalist and politician, editor of the 
Moscow Gazette, Russophile, died, aged about 69, 

1 Aug. ., 

Statement in the Cologne Gazette of the existence of 
forged letters purporting to come from prince 
Bismarck (see Germany) . . . . Nov. „ 

Baron Eirsch's present of 2,000,000?. for the 
establishment of primary Jewish schools in 



RUSSIA. 1081 



KUSSIA. 



Russia, accepted by the czar ; the money to be 
paid into the bank of England, trustees, barons 
Rothschild and Henry de Worms, announced 
Nov. ; said to be premature . . . Dec. 18I 

Movement of troops on the Galician border causes 
excitement in Berlin and Vienna . Nov.-Dec. ,. 

The Involute Eicsse, a government organ, declares 
that Russia desires peace but is prepared for war, 

15 Dec. , 

The stringent restrictions on the studies of the 
universities lead to much insubordination among 
the students, and severe punishment ; the 
universities of Moscow, St. Petersburg, Odessa, 
and many other academical institutions closed ; 
nearly all the undergraduate class in a state of 
rebellion Nov.-Dec. , 

Lord Randolph Churchill visits Russia ; received 
by the czar 26 Dec. . , 

Reported conspiracy ; many arrests about 9 Jan. 18 

Reported surplus in the budget, yet a loan asked 
for ; unsuccessful at Paris and Berlin . Jan. , 

Moscow and other universities re-opened . Feb. , 

For prince Ferdinand's position (see Bulgaria) 

Feb.-March, , 

The highest courts of law decide against the claim 
of prince Hohenlohe to inherit the vast Wittgen- 
stein estates in Lithuania, as a foreigner (in 
accordance with the ukase, 14 March, 1887), 

March, , 

Attempted assassination of the czar by lient. 
TimofeiefT (mad ?) . . . ' . . May, , 

Visit of the emperor of Germany to the czar at 
Peterhof. 19-23 July, , 

Ninth centenary of the introduction of Christianity 
celebrated at Kieff .... 27 July, , 

Central Asian (or Transcaspian) railway opened ; 
promoted by general Anhenkofi' . . May, , 

Near Borki station in S. Russia, the engine of the 
imperial train (with the czar) ran off the line with 
four carriages (weak rails); 21 persons killed, 
the czar slightly injured ... 29 Oct. , 

Agreement for 20,000, oool. loan signed at St. Peters- 
burg, 18 Nov. ; chiefly taken up by the French 

Dec. , 

The grand council disapproves of the administrative 
changes proposed by count Tolstoi substituting 
centralization for local self-government which, 
however, are approved by the czar (i883); the 
Zemstvo, established about 1864, being virtually 
abolished, Feb. ig 

Loan of 700,000,000 francs concluded with the 
Rothschilds and other bankers for the conversion 
of five per cent, loans into four per cent. . Feb. , 

Captain Atchinotf, with a company of S. Cossacks 
(145 men with muskets and guns, also priests, 
women and children), evading French and 
Italian cruisers, landed at Tadjourah, in the bay 
of Obock, near the French settlement, on the 
Red Sea, on 18 Jan., professing to combine 
missionary and commercial enterprise in Abys- 
sinia. He took possession of a fort at Sagallo, and 
hoisted the Russian flag. After useless negotia- 
tion, the French admiral Olry on 18 Feb. bombarded 
the fort, killing 6 Russians ; the party then sur- 
rendered and were eventually conveyed to Russia. 
The French government virtually apologised for 
the precipitate conduct of the admiral Feb. ,, 

Alleged discovery of a dynamite conspiracy, 
especially in the south, originating in Zurich 
(discredited) March, ,, 

Death of count Tolstoy, minister of the interior, 

7 May, 

Second four per cent, loan announced, completing 

the financial scheme . . . . 13 May, ,, 
The czarewitch, aged 21, appointed to military and 

political office 18 May, ,, 

Marriage of the archduke Paul and the princess 

Alexandra of Greece . . . .16 June, ,, 
M. Dournovo, minister of the interior, continues 

count Tolstoy's reactionary policy . July, Aug. ,, 
Marriage of the grand duke Peta with princess 

Militza, of Montenegro . . . 7 Aug. ,, 
The czar visits Berlin . . . n-13 Oct. ,, 

Great epidemic of influenza among all classes in 

St. Petersburg, spread . . . Nov., Dec. ,, 
Capt. Solotouchine, chief of the Moscow secret 
police, assassinated by a female Nihilist, who 
commits suicide . . it Jan 1890 



Ukase for a conversion loan of 90,000,000 roubles, 

taken up, especially in France . . Feb. 1! 
Count Tolstoy's administrative changes carried 
into effect, together with increased Russification 
of the German provinces and Finland . Feb. 
The czar threatened (by letter, signed Maria 
Tshebrikova, a popular writer on education, &c), 
for continuing to suppress liberty, 5 March ; she 
is arrested, about 10 March ; transported to the 

Caucasus April, 

Strong demonstrations of the students of Moscow, 
St Petersburg, Kieff, Charkotf, and other uni- 
versities and schools, demanding changes ; many 
arrests and police supervision, about Feb., 

March, 
The czar releases about 60 imprisoned soldiers. 
The man chosen to assassinate the czar by lot, 
commits suicide, leaving a letter incriminating 
associates ; many arrests, reported . 31 March, 
Inquiry by special' commission ; some students ex- 
pelled and others set at liberty, at St. Peters- 
burg, etc. ; order restored ... 7 April, 
Great tires in the Ural district, iron works at 
Utaleisk and Newjansk, about 1,000 houses 
destroyed ; about 40 persons perish, about 

10 June, 

Revival of severe edict against the Jews (which see) 

reported July, 

The czar and the German emperor meet at Nava ; 

military manoeuvres . . 17 Aug. et seq. 

A monster literary protest against the persecution 

of the Jews iu preparation, headed by count 

Leon Tolstoy ; publication forbidden by the 

government Nov. 

Decree for the revision of all foreign titles of 

nobility about 15 Dec. 

Gregory Petrovitch Danilesky, historian and 

novelist, dies 24 Dec. 

Trial of 47 Nihilists . . . about n Jan. 1 
Coal-mine explosion near Jusoveja, about 40 men 

killed i7> 18 Jan. 

Arrest of Dedajeff, charged with the murder of 
col. Sudeikin in 1883 (see above), and other 
Nihilists, at Kostroma . . . end of Feb. 
New law for the legitimatising of bastards promul- 
gated April, 

Rescript from the czar, placing the great Siberian 
railway under the direction of the cesarevitch 

19 May, 

Cloudburst at Ekaterinoslav, great destruction of 

life and property ... .6 July, 

Count Tolstov's administrative changes relative to 

the peasantry effected at St. Petersburg and 

other provinces J u ly> 

A French naval squadron, under admiral Gervais, 
warmly received at Cronstadt, 23 July; the czar 
visits the fleet, 25 July ; which leaves . 4 Aug. 
Failure of crops ; exportation of grain (especially 
rye) forbidden (from 27 Aug.); relief works 
ordered and grants of money . about 11 Aug. 
The cesarevitch returns to Moscow after a tour 

16 Aug. 

[He visited Vienna, 6 Nov. ; at Athens, 12 

" Nov. ; at Cairo, 23 Nov. ; at Bombay, 23 Dec. 

1890 ; received by the viceroy at Calcutta, 26-28 

Jan. 1891 ; at Madras, 6 Feb. ; Ceylon, 13 Feb. ; 

Bankok, Siam, 26 March; travels in China, 

Japan, April, May ; at Otsu, in Japan, he is 

wounded by a fanatical officer in a theatre, 11 

May, 1891 ^traverses Siberia, June, July, 1891.] 

Great distress through famine in certain districts 

of the Volga and other places, about 2 Sept. et seq. 

New 3 per cent, loan for 500,000,000 francs (for 

railways) negotiated in Paris, about 17 Sept. ; 

opposed in Berlin, about 28 Sept. ; taken up well 

Oct. 
Ivan Alexandrovitch Gontcharoff, popular novelist, 

aged 80, dies 27 Sept. 

In order to relieve famine, the czar forbids all state 
balls and festivities ; great economy adopted by 

'ill clclSSGS ..-■••• OCt'. 

Disputes with Great Britain respecting the Pamir 
ridge (which see) • -Aug. 

The famine very severe in the central and eastern 
provinces vet. 

Discovery of a political conspiracy at Moscow , 60 
persons arrested, reported ... 12 Nov. 



RUSSIA. 



1082 



EUSSIA. 



Decree issued prohibiting the exportation of wheat 
and all its products .... 22 Nov. 18 

Tour of M. de Giers in Italy, France, and Germany 

Sept. — Nov. , 

The cesarevitch appointed president of a committee 
to deal with the effects of the famine by means 
of private charity, the ministry, the holy synod, 
and others, 5 Dec. ; public relief works estab- 
lished Dec. , 

The grand duke Constantine (brother of the czar, 
Alexander II.), learned, able and liberal, some- 
time viceroy of Poland, removed on suspicion 
of favouring the Poles, 1886 ; dies, aged 64 

24 Jan. iS 

Count Tolstoy (the novelist), active reliever of the 
distressed people . . . early March , 

Stoppage of the (baron) Gunzburg bank of St. 
Petersburg and Paris, 15 March et seq. ; liquida- 
tion arranged, reported . 21 March et seq. . 

Russian Jewish emigrants prohibited from entering 
Germany . . . . . 25 March, 

Large supplies of American wheat, flour, and pro- 
visions transmitted for the relief of the famine 
by the citizens of Philadelphia, in the Indiana ; 
from Minnesota, in the Missouri, arrive at Libau, 
Courland, March, April ; transmitted to the 
distressed districts .... 4 April, . 

Society of Friends famine fund : 35,989?. received 
up to 1 May, 

Meeting of the czar and German emperor at Kiel 

7 June, , 

About 125,370,500 roubles expended in relief of the 
sufferers by famine, Dec. 1891— May, 1892 ; re- 
ported 13 June, , 

Removal of the restrictions on the exportation of 
grain, except rye, 21 June ; of rye . 23 Aug. 
. See article Cholera. 
See Pamirs, 1892. 

Eurik, great ironclad cruiser, launched on the Neva, 
the czar present 3 Nov. . 

Tour of the cesarevitch in Greece, &c. ; heis received 
by the emperor at Vienna, 12 Nov. ; arrives at 
the Caucasus, about . . . .17 Nov. . 

" Darkest Russia," a periodical respecting persecu- 
tion, published throughout the world . autumn, , 

The grand duke Sergius and the grand duchess 
visit the queen at Windsor . 25 Nov. — 8 Dec. , 

Trial of 154 rioters against cholera regulations (at 
Saratoff, &c, 10 July); 23 sentenced to death, 
56 to imprisonment ; others acquitted 

4 Nov. — 3 Dec. , 

Cholera rioters at Tashkend, in July ; 20 at Astra- 
khan sentenced to death ; others to imprison- 
ment, 30 Dec. 1892 ; severe sentences mitigated 

Jan., Feb. 16 

Very severe winter . . . Dec. 1892, Jan. . 

A train on the Slatoust-Samara railway takes fire ; 
about 49 persons perish . . . 11 Jan. . 

The cesarevitch warmly received at Berlin ; leaves 

28 Jan. , 

Rescript of the czar for expediting the construction 
of the Siberian railway (see above, May, 1891), 
about 1 Feb. 

New internal loan, 100 millions of roubles, at 4J 
per cent, for 81 years ... 10 March, 

Cattle plague among the Don Cossacks ; opposition 
to compulsory slaughter ; reported . 12 April, . 

Panic through alarm of Are in a church at Roman- 
off Borisogliebsk, Jaroslav ; about 136 deaths 

17 June, 

Tariff war; duties on German imports raised; 
German reprisals ; mutual injury . . Aug. 

Loss of the JRoosalka, ironclad, see Wrecks, [9 Sept. 

A Russian squadron (5 vessels) under admiral 
Avellan arrive al Toulon, warmly received, 13 
Oct. ; official banquet ; grand ball at thearsenal, 
14 Oct.; the admiral and officers received by 
pres. Carnot ; banquet at the Elysee ; Paris 
decorated, 17 Oct. ; fetes, &c, 18-24 Oct. ; at 
Lyons, 25 Oct. ; Marseilles, -.'6 Oct. ; farewell 
banquet at Toulon. M. Carnot present, 27 Oct.; 
letter of thanks from the czar; the squadron 
leaves Toulon zoivt. 

The Admim! Chishakoff ironclad launched on the 
Neva, the czar present .... 8 Nov. 

Death of M. Tschaikowsky, musical composer; 
state funeral at S 1 . Petersburg . 9N0V. 



Death of sir Robert Morier, British Ambassador,' 
aged 66, at Montreux on the lake of Geneva 

16 Nov. 

Religious persecution in Lithuania ; reported 

3 Jan. 

Commercial treaty with Germany for 10 years, 
signed, 10 Feb. ; comes into force . 20 March, 

Sir Frank Cavendish Lascelles appointed British 
ambassador, about . . . .9 March, 

Conspiracy of nihilists and anarchists suspected ; 
many political arrests at St. Petersburg and other 
places April — May, 

Conversion of the 5 per cent, loans continued, May, 

Decree of the czar depriving his ministers and other 
officials of the power of appointing or dismissing 
their subordinates ; and re-establishing an im- 
perial committee of control, subject to himself ; 
to commence on 13 Nov. 

Sissoi the Great, battleship, launched at St. Peters- 
burg in presence of the czar . . 1 June, 

Serious illness of the czar ; he leaves for the 
Crimea, with the czarina and family . 30 Sept. 

Kwiatkowski, an officer, sentenced at Kieffto penal 
servitude for life for stealing official documents, 
and 26 others to varying terms of penal servitude ; 
reported 29 Sept. 

The Three Saints ironclad launched at Nicolaieff 

8 Oct. 

The princess Alix of Hesse is betrothed to the 
cesarevitch ; received by the czar . 22 Oct. 

Death of the czar, Alexander III., at Livadia, aged 
49 ; essentially a Russian conservative, orthodox , 
a promoter of peace . . . . 1 Nov. 

Accession of Nicholas II. ... 1 Nov. 

Preliminary funeral of the czar at Moscow ; the 
imperial family, the prince and princess of Wales 
and other eminent persons present, n Nov. ; 
solemn service and interment at St. Petersburg ; 
many royal personages present, including the king 
of Denmark, the prince of Wales, the duke of 
Saxe Coburg, the duke of York, and other dis- 
tinguished persons .... 19 Nov. 

Launch of the Poltava at St. Petersburg, and the 
Petropavlofsk, twin ironclads . . 6, 9 Nov. 

The czar assures foreign powers, in a circular, of 
his adherence to his father's pacific policy, 9 Nov. 

Death of Anton Rubinstein, aged 65, pianist and 
composer, at Peterhof, 20 Nov. ; state funeral at 
St. Petersburg 28 Nov. 

Marriage of the czar to princess Alix (Alexandra) 
of Hesse, at St. Petersburg . . 26 Nov. 

Imperial manifesto of clemency relating to political 
offences, debts to the crown, itc. . 26 Nov. 

New loan of 100,000,000 roubles at 3J per cent, 
(issued at 94J per cent., redeemable at par in 81 
years), 6 Dec. ; thoroughly taken up . 13 Dec. 

Death of M. de Giers, aged 74, minister of foreign 
affairs ; peaceful policy ; at St. Petersburg 

26 Jan. 

The czar to the representatives of 120,000,000 of 
his subjects of all classes, who came to offer their 
congratulations and homage, declares his inten- 
tion to maintain the principle of autocracy as 
firmly as did his father ... 29, 30 Jan. 

Delimitation of the Russo-Persian frontier, settled 
by commission Feb. 

Prince Lobanof, ambassador at Vienna, judicious 
and pacific, appointed foreign minister, 

19 March, 

Colonel Gregorieff sentenced to S years' penal servi- 
tude, in Siberia, for selling plans to the Austrian 
government ; 4 others exiled to Siberia, 24 March, 

Agreement with Great Britain respecting the 
Pamirs March, 

Relaxation of the press laws refused by the czar ; 
reported 20 April, 

The town of Brest-Litofsk destroyed by fire, 30 
deaths, 16 May ; other tires, reported . June, 

Sebastopol, battleship, launched on the Neva by the 
czar ....... 1 June, 

Russia guarantees a loan of 16,000,000?. for China, 
whicll see June, 

A Russian mission to Abyssinia returns with an 
embassy and presents to the czar from the Negus, 
29 June ; diplomatic relations proposed . July, 

The embassy leaves .... 7 Aug. 

sir Nicholas Roderick O'Conor appointed British 
ambassador ; announced . . .13 Sept. 



1805 



KTTSSIA. 



1083 



EUSSIA. 



Much suffering and loss of life by storms in the 
south Nov. 1895 

Increased development of the volunteer fleet for 
commerce, transport of troops and emigrants to 
the far East . . . ' . . . Nov. „ 

Capt. Roberofsky returns from a successful scien- 
tific expedition into Chinese Central Asia with 
rich collections Dec. ,, 

Serge M. K. Stepniak (Kravchinsky), author of 
"Underground Russia," &c, killed on the rail- 
way at Chiswick 23 Dec. „ 

Naval budgets for seven years, confirmed . Jan. 1896 

Sir Nicholas O'Conor (G.C.B.) arrives at St. 
Petersburg 2 April, „ 

Great increase of trade through influx of foreign 
capital April, ,, 

The Russia and the Gen. Adm. Apraxin, warships, 
launched by the czar at St. Petersburg . 12 May, ,, 

The czar enters Moscow with a 'grand procession, 
21 May ; coronation of the emperor and empress 
in the Cathedral of the Assumption, the royal 
family, foreign princes, including the duke and 
duchess of Connaught, Li Hung Chang, grand 
secretary, and other foreign representatives and 
dignitaries, the bishop of Peterborough, minis- 
ters of state, and others present . 26 May, , , 

Grand festivities and distribution of charities 
throughout the empire, imperial manifesto and 
general amnesty issued . . . 26 May et seq. ,, 

M. Witte appointed secretary of state . 27 May, ,, 

At a special fete for the lower classes held on the 
Khodinsky plain, Moscow, an imperial dole of • 
food, &c, was to be distributed among them ; 
eager crowds began to assemble the previous 
night, and early next morning became uncon- 
trollable, a great panic ensued through the 
broken ground and faulty arrangements, 1,429 
persons were crushed to death and 644 injured, 
30 May ; immediate relief (40,000?.) for the suf- 
ferers was ordered by the czar ; large public sub- 
scriptions " June, „ 

Grand review of troops on the Khodinsky plain, 

7 June, ,, 

Pan-Russian exhibition opened at Nijni-Novgorod 
by M. Witte 9 June, „ 

The czar and czarina enter St. Petersburg in state, 

4 Julv > .. 
The czar and czarina start on a foreign tour, 25 
■ Aug. ; at Vienna, 27 Aug ; Kieff, 2 Sept. ; Bres- 
lau (which see), 5 Sept. ; Kiel, 8 Sept. ; Copen- 
hagen, 9-20 Sept. ; received by the prince of 
Wales at Leith, and by the Queen at Balmoral 
(addresses of welcome presented on the way), 22 
Sept. ; at Portsmouth, 4 Oct. ; convoyed by a 
British squadron, met mid-channel by the French 
fleet, received by pres. Faure at Cherbourg, 5 
Oct.; Paris, much rejoicing, banquet at the Ely- 
see, &c, 6 Oct. ; visited Notre Dame, Pantheon, 
Invalides, &c, lays the corner stone of the 
Alexander III. bridge, and thereby of the exhibi- 
tion of 1900, 7 Oct. ; at the Louvre, Versailles, 
state banquet, 8 Oct. ; Chalons, review of 70,000 
troops, 9 Oct. ; at Darmstadt, 10 Oct. ; exchange 
visits of the czar and the German emperor .at 
Wiesbaden, leaves 29 Oct. ; at St. Petersburg, 

31 Oct. „ 
Sudden death of prince Lobanoff, able and firm 
foreign minister, while travelling with the czar 

at Scheptowka 30 Aug. , , 

Bostislav, battleship, launched at Nikolaieff, 

2 Sept. ,, 
Several dragoon officers degraded for coercing 
soldiers to violence against the Jews in Podolia, 
whereby 5 Jews were killed, and buildings looted 

and burnt 2 Sept. ,, 

Prince Khilkoff, minister of railways, &c. returns 

from his tour in the United States, &c. 30 Oct. ,, 
Ceremonies and fetes in memory of Catherine II., 

Nov. ,, 
Imperial edict issued sanctioning the formation of 
the Eastern Chinese railway company, share- 
holders to be exclusively Russians and Chinese ; 
line to be completed, 1,280 miles, in 6 yrs., 23 
Dec. ; subscription for shares largely over-sub- 
scribed 29 Dec. ,, 

Count Muravieff appointed foreign minister, it Jan. 1897 



Currency reform ;• resumption of specie payments, 
gold coins of 15 and 7^ roubles substituted for 
silver ...'... Jan. iE 

Explosion on the Cissoi Veliki warship in Crete, 21 

deaths 15 March, , 

Apollon Nickolaievitch Maikoff, eminent poet, 

died, aged 75 20 March, , 

Train wrecked, between Rockenhof and Elwa, 56 
soldiers and 2 guards killed, abt. 100 injured, 

14 May, , 
Visit of the German emperor and empress to St. 

Petersburg' 7 _I 3 Aug- . 

M. Nossiloff announces the discovery of a direct 
waterway between Siberia and Europe, and his 
exploration of the Yalmal peninsula . 17 Aug. , 
Pres. Faure received by the czar at Cronstadt, 
arrives at Peterhof, 23 Aug. ; warmly received at 
St. Petersburg, 24 Aug. ; great review at Krasnoe 
Selo, 25 Aug. ; leaves ... 26 Aug. 

Railway from Moscow to Archangel completed, 

30 Sept. 
Fire' panic in a church at Khmelovo (Kozloff), 74 

deaths 24 Oct. 

New currency established on a gold basis 26 Nov. 
A general fund opened by the czar in aid of the 

Cretans 2 Dec. 

The sale of spirituous liquors made a state mo- 
nopoly . . . . . ■ • J an - 1 
Explosion in a mine, Taganrog district, 53 deaths, 
and 30 horses killed . . . . 18 Jan. 
Budget : deficit, 106,291,706 roubles . 16 Jan. 
Russia demands from China 99 yrs. lease over Port 
Arthur and Ta-lien-wan, 3 March ; 25 yrs. lease 
of these ports, granted ; railway concessions, 23 
March ; China to retain sovereign rights, agree- 
ment signed ; Chinese garrisons withdrawn, 
Russian troops landed, 28 March ; adm. Stark 
appointed commandant .... July, 
Ta-lien-wan declared open to commerce, April, 
The disbursement of 9o,ooo,ooo-roubles (7 yrs.) for 
warships ordered .... 10 March, 
Hsu-Ching-Cheng, Chinese ambassador, received 

by the czar 15 March, 

Death of admiral Popoff, aged 77, inventor of 3 
circular ironclads (which see) . 20 March, 

Naval officers (100) charged with bribery and cor- 
ruption at Sebastopol, arrested, 5 commit suicide, 

23 March, 
Perovnoff (privy councillor) and his daughter (20) 
sentenced to life exile in Siberia ; 5 others to 
lighter sentences for high treason, at St. Peters- 
burg 12 April, 

Agricultural distress and famine in the interior 

and S.E. . . . • • Feb., April, 

Sir Chas. Stewart Scott (g.o.b. 1899) appointed 

British ambassad'-r June, 

Russo-Japanese convention respecting Corea, 

signed 25 April, 

Peresiviet, 1st class battleship, launched at St. 

Petersburg, the czar present . . .19 May, 

Relaxation of the tariff of 1891 (favourable to 

England) June, 

Rear-adm. Stark appointed commandant at Port 

Arthur July. 

Death of gen. Tchemaieff . . ■ i7 A ug. 

Circular of count Muravieff on behalf of the czar 

proposing a conference of the Powers for the 

preservation of general peace by disarmament, 

24 Aug. ; sympathetic replies . . Sept. -Oct. 

[Second circular to European cabinets, 11 Jan. 

See Peace Conference, 1899.! 
Famine through bad harvests . . . Aug. 
The czar reviews the troops and the Black sea 
squadron at Sebastopol . . ■ ■ 3 Sept. 
Osltiabya battleship launched on the Neva . 8 Nov. 
Labour strikes and riots frequent throughout the 

country Dec. 

Army pay increased J an - 

Severe famine in the central and S.E. provinces ; 
the czar gives 3,000,000, the czarina 50,000 
roubles ; great mortality in Kazan ; over 15,000 
deaths in Samara .... Jan. -May, 
Gen. Annenkoff, born 1835, constructed the Trans- 
caspian military railway ; died . . mid Jan. 
Russiflcation of Finland, which see . Feb. et seq. 
Students' agitation in the university at St. Peters- 
burg against oppressive restrictions, &c. ; the 
building cleared by the police and the students 



EUSSIA. 

brutally charged by mounted police, 20 Feb. ; 
general strike of students throughout the empire, 
March ; M. Witte lays their grievances before the 
czar; committee of inquiry; gen. Vannofsky 
(ex-minister of war) and others appointed ; many 
arrests in Moscow, 13 April ; riots at Kieff, troops 
called out, 400 arrests, reported . 17 April, 
Gen. Vannofsky's report condemns M. Bogolepoff, 
minister of public instruction, and others, and 
exonerates the students, May ; the czar censures 
both parties ; the students ordered to return, 

reported 5 June, 

Anti-Jewish riots, 1 death, shops wrecked, at 

Nikolaieff, 400 arrests . . . .1-4 May, 

Adm. Possiet, eminent officer and statesman, died, 

8 May, 
Severe measures against foreign as well as Russian 

L Jews 9 May, 

Strike riots at Riga, 12 deaths . . 15 May 
Centenary of the birth of Pushkin (poet and novA 
memorials raised . . . . 6, 7 June 
The cesarevitch, grand duke George, born 9 May', 
1871, dies suddenly at Abbas Tuman, in the 
Caucasus, 10 July ; laid in state in St. Peters- 
burg (see Molokani) .... 24-26 July, 
M. Delcasse, French foreign minister, received by 
count Muravieff, 4 Aug. ; by the czar, 6 Aug. ; 

l ea 7 es 9 Aug. 

Great fire at Grodno, in Lithuania, reported, 3 Aug. 
Measure passed imposing (1 to 3 yrs.) military ser- 
vice on rebellious students, reported . Aug. 
Educational system for the aristocracy, largely at 
government expense, established . . Aug. 
The czar and czarina visit the German emperor at 
Potsdam ...... 8 Nov. 

M. Witte's budget for 1900 ; growth of Russian in- 
dustries, reported n j an- , 

Flattering rescript from the czar to count Muravieff 

(foreign minister) .... 13 Jan. 

Trial of 43 officers and officials in the Russian^navy 

for bribery and corruption, at Sebastopol, 17 

Feb. ; 16 persons acquitted, 26 found guilty 

tt, 3 April, 

bkase announcing the final redemption of the debt 

of the imperial exchequer to the state bank to 

the amount of 50,000,000 roubles . . 19 May, 

Count Muravieff, foreign minister, born 1845, dies 

suddenly 21 June, , 

Mobilization of the E. Siberian army corps for 

China, ordered 25 j ulle 

Imperial ukase, largely abolishing banishment to : 

Siberia, issued , j u [y 

Visit of the shah of Persia, 17 July; grand review : 

at St. Petersburg lg July 

imperial ukase, reserves called out . ' 22 July.' ' 
Import duties of the common tariff increased from ' 

so to 100 per cent 4 Aug. , 

Anti-Jewish riots in Odessa and other districts 
reported 5 Aug ' 

Count Lanisdorff appointed foreign minister, 

„., ., . Aug. , 
Ihibetan envoy received by the Czar . 13 Oct 

Budget: net surplus for 1899, 84,000,000 roubles' ' 

passed „, 0ct ' 

illness of the czar in the Crimea . early Nov -Dec' ' 

Counl Tolstoi writes to the Czar appealing against ' 

religious persecutions . . isDec ' 

Budget for igof. estimated surplus. 73,44- 4=0 ' 

roubles, ISSUed . . t J in? „ 

I lie czai and czarina welcomed in St. Petersburg 

Gen. Gourko, distinguished commander, dies ' 
a g ed 73 29 .Ian.' , 

Famine due In railnre of crops, population of 
-l ,nl11 saffected ; government relief organized, 

M. Witte increases the duties on imports from the '' 

1 -S.A p eb 

Student disturbai sin si. Petersburg and all the " 

chief towns, many arrests . . Feb -March 

M. Bogoliepoff, minister ,,c public instruction' '' 
mortally wounded by Peter Karpovich (sentenced 
to 20 years' imprisonment, •,,> March) in SI 
Petersburg ' ,,,,,,• 

Students' demonstration in St. Petersburg ends hi " 
serious rioting in Kazan square, 700 arrests 

17 March, .. 



1084 



EUSSIA. 



Protest signed in Paris by 45 Russian authors 
against the cruel treatment of university students, 

22 March, 1 
Severe snowstorms in the south, many deaths, 

Jan. -March, 
Riots in Kieff quelled by the troops . 24 March, 
The czar's rescript to gen. Vannovsky, new minister 
of public instruction, orders revision and reform 
in the present system, reported . , 7 April, 
Count Tolstoi excommunicated for his opinions, see 
Times . . . .19 March and 9 April, 
M. Lagovski sentenced to six years' imprisonment 
for attempting the life of the Procurator of the 
Holy Synod (22 March) . . . . 9 April, 
Wholesale arrests, domiciliary visits in St. Peters- 
burg 1-4 May, 

Centenary of the council of the empire celebrated, 

the cesarevitch appointed a member . 20 May, 

Epidemic of scurvy in the famine-stricken southern 

districts May, 

Count Tolstoi appeals to the czar and government 
on the situation in Russia, 15 March ; see 7 ivies, 

31 May, 
Strike riots in St. Petersburg and elsewhere, 
20 May ; again troops called out in St. Peters- 
burg 14 June, , 

The czar intervenes ; many students pardoned, 

June, , 
Thibetan mission received by the czar . 6 July, , 
Moorish mission received by the czar . 5 Aug. , 
Many bank and factory failures in S. Russia during 

the summer, reported . . . .24 Sept. , 
Forest fires, villages destroyed, reported, 

12-19 Aug. , 
State of siege in the province of Moscow continued, 

reported 23 Aug. , 

The czar and czarina visit the king of Denmark, 
2-10 Sept. ; the czar meets the German emperor 
at Danzig, views the naval manoeuvres, 
11, 12 Sept. ; visit France, which see . 18 Sept. , 
Failure of crops, great distress in the east . Oct. , 
Marqu. Ito from Japan decorated by the czar, . 

27 Nov. , 
Student disorders, university at Kharkoff closed, 

n-i4Dec. ,. 
About 20 cities and towns placed under state of 
siege ....... mid Dec. ,. 

Death of M. de Bloch, state councillor, aged 66 ; 
his work on "War" helped 10 promote the 
Hague peace conference .... 7 Jan. 19 

Budget for 1902, about 144,000,000 roubles deficit, 

issued 13 Jan. ., 

American note protests against Russian aggres- 
sion in Manchuria 1 Feb. ,, 

The archduke Iranz Ferdinand received by the 

czar 7 Feb. ,, 

Riots at Kieff and other university towns . 15 Feb. ,, 
University of St. Petersburg closed owing to dis- 
orders, 2oFeb.-n March : further disturbances, 
repressed by the troops and police, 16 March ; 
riots and disorders in Moscow, 22 Feb. and 
2 March; 567 students and others convicted of 
riot and political disaffection imprisoned (from 3 
to 6 months, 05 banished to Siberia), announced, 

.5 March, ,, 
New Russian 4 per cent, loan subscribed over 100 

times in Germany, Holland, and Russia. 3 April, ., 
M. Sipiaguine, minister of the interior, a re- 
actionist, assassinated at st. Petersburg by 1'al- 
mascheff (executed 16 May). 15 April : state 
funeral, the czarpresent : M. dePlehve appointed 
minister of the interior . . . 17 April. .. 
Increasing distress and poverty due to bad harvests 

,-md oppressive taxation, greal economic and agri- 
cultural depression over the country, reported, 

April, ,, 
T\\b Zemstvos, local instil minus, forbidden in collect 

rural statistics in S. Russia . . . spring. ,, 

Hinting in Poltava and Kharkoff, many estates 
plundered (compensation granted by decree, 
27 .May) mid April. .. 

Great unrest in central and S. Russia ; much incen- 
diarism April, ,, 

Gen. Vannovsky, minister of education, resigns, 
19 April ; succeeded by M. Sanger . 25 April, ,, 

Martial law proclaimed in Poltava ■ 5 May, ,, 



EUSSIA. 



1085 



EUSSIA. 



Lieut. -gen. deWahl, governor of Vilna, shot at and 
wounded by Hirsch Lekert . . 18 May, 

Revolutionary ourbreak at Saratoff suppressed by 
troops 18 May, 

Pres. Loubet visits the czar, 20 May ; grand review 
of troops at St. Petersburg . . 21, 22 May, 

Lieut.-col. Grimm, charged with selling army 
secrets to a foreign power, sentenced to 12 years' 
imprisonment and life banishment to Siberia, 

13 June, 

Prince Ferdinand of Bulgaria visits the czar, 

10-14 June, 

Grave disturbances in Ekaterinoslaff, factories and 
farms sacked end June, 

The king of Italy visits the czar . 13-17 July, 

Visit of count Matsugata, Japanese statesman, 

25 July, 

Drought reported in the Trans-Caspian territory, 

5 Au S- 
The czar and the German emperor meet at Reval, 

6-S Aug. 

Prince Obolenski, the governor, wounded by 

Katchoor, a peasant (death sentence commuted, 

Nov.) at Kharkoff; M. Bessonoff, chief of police, 

also wounded it Aug. 

The students imprisoned at Smolensk freed by the 

czar's orders early Aug. 

Army manoeuvres at Kursk . . 13-16 Sept. 

The czar, at Kursk, exhorts the peasants to labour 

and thrift, &c, 14 Sept. ; state banquet to the 

shah 17 Sept. 

Nine battleships built, 1900-1902 ; the Knjaes 
Suwaroff launched before the czar at St. Peters- 
burg 25 Sept. 

Open discontent at existing systems, reported, 

10 Oct. 

Turkish mission received by the czar . . 30 Oct. 

Labour troubles in the south, conflict with troops, 

4 deaths, 102 arrests, 24, 30 Nov. ; great distress, 

continued arrests Dec. 

Grand duke Alexander Mikhailovitch appointed 
director of the new department of commercial 

marine . Nov. 

Severe weather in the south .... Dec. 
The czar pardons 62 exiles in Siberia, 26 Sept. ; 

and 58 19 Dec. 

Count Lamsdor.T, foreign minister, visits Belgrade, 
Sofia, and Vienna, on the Macedonian question, 

24-30 Dec. 
Special university commission of inquiry issue their 

report as to reforms, &c. . . about 5 Jan. j 
Russian press jubilee suppressed . . . Jan. 
Budget: 16,627,449 roubles surplus . . 13 Jan. 
Visit of the German crown prince . . 16-24 Jan. 
Lt.-col. Shavroff, chief of the Cronstadt police, 
sentenced to 2 years' imprisonment, and degraded 

for forgery 20 Feb. 

Manifesto from the czar, favouring religious free- 
dom, reform of peasant taxation . 11 March, 
Labour disturbances at Slatonst, workmen's dele- 
gates imprisoned, crowd fired on, 34 killed; about 
200 wounded, by order of M. Bogdanovitch, 
governor of Ufa ; reported . . 28 March, 
Factory riot near Nishni-Novgorod, mob fired on, 
many killed and wounded . . 8 April, 
Kishineff atrocities, S. Russia, houses and shops 
of the Jews sacked and pillaged, 45 Jews killed, 
84 seriously wounded, 500 crippled and injured, 
10,000 rendered destitute, "the soldiers looked 
■on, passive if not sympathetic spectators, till at 
last ordered to act " . . . 19, 20 April, 
[Gen. von Raahen the governor, the chief of the 
police, and other officials who had allowed the mob 
free play, dismissed, May-July, great agitation 
-abroad ; M. de Plehve, minister of interior, much 
•censured, the Bessarabetz and other anti-Semitic 
journals also held responsible for the outrages.] 
Loan of 72,000,000 roubles, 94 k, at 4 per cent., for 
landowners raised .... 30 April, 
Political arrests and domiciliary visits in St. Peters- 
burg,' reported 8 May, . 

Gen. Bogdanovitch, the governor, assassinated at 

Ufa 19 May, , 

Mr. D. D. Braham, Times correspondent- at St. 
Petersburg, arrested and ordered to leave Russia, 

28 May, , 



M. de Plehve issues a circular against the teaching 
of revolutionary doctrines among the peasants, 

3 June, 

Anti-Semitic disturbances at Berestechko reported, 

8 June, 

Expenditure more than doubled in ten years (1893- 
1903). M. Witte reports taxation to have reached 
its limit (Jan. 1903) ; estimated revenue for 1903, 
33,000,000/. ; Russian debt, 1902, 690,107,109/., 
reported 15 June, 

Jewish meeting at Lodz attacked by the police, 10 
killed, many seriously injured . . 15 June, 

Reform of district police in 46 provinces ordered, 

mid July, 

Agitation and unrest all over the empire, May 
et scq, ; general strikes in the south, riots at 
Baku, Odessa, Kieff, and elsewhere, trains 
wrecked, oil wells set on fire and various other 
acts of outrage ; murderous assaults on prince 
Urussoff in Tchernigoff, and on prince Gagarin, 
his wife, and prince Sherbatoff in Riazan, re- 
ported 27-31 July ; conflicts with the troops 
resulting in great loss of life . . 5-7 Aug. 

Imperial viceroyalty appointed in the "Far East," 
by ukase issued 12 Aug. 

The czar and czarina return to St. Petersburg after 
the canonization of St. Seraphim at Sarotf, Times, 

13 Aug. 

Strike troubles at Odessa and Kieff subside, many 
imprisoned 11-16 Aug. 

Disturbances at Ekaterinoslav, mob fired on, many 
killed 20 Aug. 

Gloomy economic condition of the country manu- 
factures generally stagnant, reported mid Aug. 

Army manoeuvres between Riga and St. Peters- 
burg 14-23 Aug. 

Battleship 6Zamlaunched at St. Petersburg, 29 Aug. 

Ministerial changes : M. Witte appointed president 
of the committee of ministers and members of 
the Imperial Council, M. Pleske, minister of 
finance ." 29 Aug. 

Serious strikes in Moscow . . .22 Sept. 

Anti-Semitic riots at Gomel, terrible excesses and 
loss of life ; houses wrecked 14-15 Sept. ; Moghi- 
leff and suburbs placed under siege, reported, 

26 Sept. 

The czar and czarina visit the emperor of Austria, 

30 Sept. 

Three socialists sentenced to death, 2 exiled, and 
7 imprisoned in connection with a strike demo. - 
stration at Rostoif, reported . . .8 Oct. 

New law of expulsion of foreigners issued by 
imperial decree ; special commission under the 
presidency of the czar appointed to consider 
affairs in the " Far East " . . . mid Oct. 

Russian substituted for Swedish at the opening of 
the Finnish senate .... 22 Oct. 

Muiderous attack on prince Galitzin, gov.-gt-neral 
of the Caucasus 27 Oct. 

Disturbances of a revolutionary character in S. 
Russia, revolutionary leaflets in great numbers 
distributed at Riesan, so many workmen arrested 
that accommodation for them could not be found 
in the prison ; house of the inspector of the 
gymnasium partly destroyed by a bomb ; many 
students arrested ; 25 teachers and zemstvo officials 
arrested at Kursk ; 74 male and female students 
arrested on the charge of socialism at Rostoff ; 
proclamations by the revolutionists issued to the 
soldiers calling on them not to fire upon the 
people Oct. -mid Nov. 

M. Metlenko, chief of the police, fired at and 
slightly wounded in a public street in Bialystok 
(G.-odno) 12 Nov. 

Sovereigns of Russia, 
dukes of kiow or kief. 

850? Ruric. 

879. Oleg. 

913. Igor I. 

945. Olga, widow ; regent. 

955. Swiatoslaw I. — victorious. 

973. Jaropalk I. 

980. Vladimir, Wladimir, the Great. 
1015. Swiatopalk. 
1018. Jaraslaw, or Jaroslaf I. 
1054. Isiaslaw I. 
1073. Swiatoslaw II. 



RUSSIA. 



1086 



RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 



1078. Wsewolod I. 
1093. Swiatopalk II. 
1113. Vladimir II. 
1 1 25. Mitislaw. 
1 1 32. Jaropalk II. 

1 138. J Wiatschelaw. 

1139. \ Wsewolod II. 

1-146. J Isiaslaw II. and Igor II. 
1 1 53. ( Rostislaw. 

1 149. June or George I. ; the city of Moscow was built 
by this duke. 

GRAND-DUKES AT WLADIMIR. 

1157. J Andrew I. until 1175 ; first grand-duke. 

1 1 75. ( Michael I. 

1177. Wsewolod III. 

1 2 13. ( Jurie or George II. 

1217-18. ( C'onstantine. 

1238. Jaraslaw II. ; succeeded by his son, 

1245. Alexander-Nevski or Newski, the Saint. 

1263. Jaraslaw III. 

1270. Vasali or Basil I. 

1275. Dmitri or Demetrius. 

1281. Andrew II. 

1294. Daniel- Alexandre vitz. 

1303. Jurie or George III. ; deposed. 

1305. Michael III 

1320. Vasali or Basil II. 

1325. Jurie or George III : restored. 

1327. Alexander II. 

[The dates are doubtful, owing to the difficulty 
that occurs at every step in early Russian 
annals.] 

CRAND-DUKES OF MOSCOW. 

1328. Ivan or John I. 
1340. Simeon, the proud. 
1353. Ivan or John II. 

1359. Demetrius II. prince of Susdal. 
1362. Demetrius III. Donskoi. 
1389. Vasali or Basil III. Temnoi. 
1425. Vasali or Basil IV. 

CZARS OF MOSCOW. 

1462. Ivan (Basilovitz) or John III. : took the title of 

czar, 1482. 
1505. Vasali or Basil V. obtained the title of emperor 

from Maximilian I. 
1533. Ivan IV. the terrible; a tyrant. 
1584. Feodor or Theodor I. ; and his son, Demetrius, 

murdered by his successor 
1598. Boris-Godonof, who usurped the throne. 

1605. Feodor II., murdered. 

1606. Demetrius, the Impostor, a young Polish monk ; 

pretended to be the murdered prince Demetrius ; 
put to death. • 

,, Vasali-Chouiskl, or Zouinski. 
1610. Ladislaus of Poland ; retired 1613. 
1613. Michael-Feodorovitz, of the house of Romanoff, 

descended from the czar Ivan-Basilovitz. 
1645. Alexis, son ; styled the father of his country. 
1676. Feodor or Theodor II. 
,„ J Ivan V. and 

I Peter I. brothers of the preceding. 

EMPERORS AND EMPRESSES. 

1689. Peter I. the Great, alone ; took the title of emperor, 

22 Oct. 1 72 1 ; founded St. Petersburg. 
1725. Catherine 1. his widow ; at first the wife of a 

Swedish dragoon, said to have been killed on the 

day of marriage. 
1727. Peter II. son of Alexis-Petrovitz, and grandson of 

IVtcr (he Great : deposed. 
1730. Anne, duchess of Courland, daughter of the czar 

[van, 

1740. Ivan VI. an infant, grand-nephew to Peter the 

Great : immured in a dungeon for 18 years, mur- 
dered in 1764. 

1741. Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great, reigned 

during Ivan's captivity. 

1762. Peter III. son of Anne and of Charles-Frederick, 
duke of 1 Lolstein Gottorp 1 deposed, and died 
soon after, supposed to have been murdered. 

1762. Catherine II. his consort : a great sovereign ; ex- 
tended the Russian territories on all sides ; died 
1 7 Nov. 1796. 

1796. Paul, her son, murdered, 34 March, 1801. 



1801. Alexander I. son (who, after many adverse battles, 
and a forced alliance with France, at length 
aided in the overthrow of Napoleon Bonaparte), 
died 1 Dec. 1825. 

1825. Nicholas I. brother ; died 2 March, 1855. 

1855. Alexander II. son, born 29 April 1818 ; married 28 
April, 1841, Mary princess of Hesse (she died 
3 June, 1880) ; said to have married (morganatic) 
princess Dolgorouki, 19 (31) July ; marriage 
announced, Oct. 1880 ; assassinated at St. 
Petersburg, 2 p.m., 13 March, 1881. 

1881. Alexander III., born 10 March, 1845 ; married Mary 
(formerly Dagniar), princess of Denmark (born 
26 Nov. 1847), 9 Nov. 1866 ; died 1 Nov. 1894. 

1894. Nicholas II. (termed Educator), son, born 18 May, 
1868 ; married Alexandra (formerly Alix), prin- 
cess of Hesse (born, 6 -June, 1872), 26 Nov. 
1894. Grand duchess Olga Nicolaevna, born 
15 . Nov. 1895. Tatiana, bom. 10 June. 1897 ; 
Marie, born 26 June, 1899 ; Anastasia, born 18 
June, 1901. 
Heir presumptive : (George, brother, born 9 May, 1871, 
dies 10 July, 1899); Michael Alexandrovitch, 
brother, born 4 Dec. 1878. 

RUSSIA COMPANY, see Russia, 1553-4. 
See America. 

RUSSIAN congress of naturalists and phy- 
sicians (10th), opened at Kieff, nearly 1,500 mem- 
bers, 3 Sept. 1898. 

RUSSIAN LANGUAGE is a copious branch 
of the Slavonic family. There are many dialects, 
the predominant literary language being that of 
Moscow. The earliest literature consists of legendary 
poems and tales. The ear-lies'", preserved MS. is the 
codex of the Ostromir Gospels, written at Novgorod 
by the deacon Gregory, 1056-57. The first Russian 
book was printed at Moscow, 1504. 

PRINCIPAL RUSSIAN AUTHORS. 

Bom. Died. 

Simeon Polotski, p. and d. 1628 ... 16S0 

Antiokli Kantemir, p 1708 ... 1744 

Michael Lomonosov, p. and hist. . . 1711 ... 1765 

Denis von Visin, d 1745 ... 1792 

Michael Kheraskov, d 1733 ... 1801 

Gabriel Derzhavin, p. .... 1743 ... 1816 

Nicholas Karamzin, hist. . . . 1766 ... 1826 

Alexander Pushkin, p 1799 ... 1837 

Ivan Krilof (fables) 1768 ... 1844 

Michael Lermontotf, p 1814 ... 1841 

Koltsov, p 1809 ... 1S42 

Nicholas Gogol, ph. . . . 1809 or 1810 ... 1852 

Ivan Turgenief, n 1818 ... 1883 

Count Leo Tolstoi, p., n. and;. . . 1828 ... 

James P. Polonsky, p 1820 ... 1S98 

Eduard Kunik, hist 1814 ... 1899 

RUSSO-TURKISH WAR.* The Russian 
and French governments having each taken a side 
in the dispute between the Greek and Latin 



* In 1S44. when the ezar was in England, he conversed 
with tin- duke of Wellington and lord Aberdeen (whom 
he had known many years) respecting the dissolution of 
the Turkish empire ; and on his return he embodied bis 
views in a memorandum drawn up by count Nesselrode, 
which was transmitted to London, but kept secrel till 
March, 1854. In January and February of that year the 
czar had several conversations on the subject with the 
British envoy at St. Petersburg, sir G. H. Seymour, in 
one of which (Jan. 14I he compared Turkey to a "sick 
man " in a state of decrepitude, on the point of death, 
and made proposals to the British government as to the 
disposal of his property. He stated frankly that he 
would not permit the British to establish themselves al 
Constantinople; but said in another conversation, he 
would not object to their possessing Egypt. The pur- 
port of these conversations was conveyed in despatches 
to lord John Russell, who replied that the British govern- 
ment declined to make any provision for the contingency 
of the fall of Turkey. The czar made similar proposals 
to the French government with the same result. 



EUSSO-TUEKISH WAE. 



1087 



EUSSO-TUEKISH WAE. 



churches as to the exclusive possession of the 
Holy Places (which see) in Palestine, the Porte 
advised 'the formation of a mixed commission, 
which decided in favour of the Greeks, and a 
firman was promulgated accordingly, 9 March, 
1853 : to this decision the French acceded, although 
dissatisfied. 
The Russians make further claims, and prince Men- 

schikoff (who arrived at Constantinople 28 Feb. 

1853), by various notes (between 22 March and 

18 May), demands that a convention should be 
signed by the sultan granting to the czar such a 
protectorate over the Greek Christians in Turkey, 
as the sultan considered inimical to his own 
authority . . . .22 March-18 May, 1853 

MenschikofTs ultimatum rejected; he quits Con- 
stantinople 21 May, 

The sultan issues a hatti-scherif confirming all 
the rights and privileges of the Greek Christians, 
and appeals to his allies .... 6 June, 

The English and French fleets anchor in Besika Bay, 

13 June, 

The Russians, under gen. Luders, cross the Pruth 
and enter Moldavia 2 July, 

Circular of count Nesselrode in justification, 2 July ; 
lord Clarendon's reply . . . .16 July, 

The conference of representatives of England, 
France, Austria, and Prussia meet at Vienna, 
agree to a note, 31 July ; accepted by the czar, 
10 Aug. ; the sultan requires modifications, 

19 Aug. ; which the czar rejects. . . 7 Sept. 
Two English and two French ships enter the Darda- 
nelles 14 Sept. 

The sultan (with consent of a great national council) 
declares war against Russia . . .5 Oct. 

The Turkish fortress at Issaktocha fires on a Russian 
flotilla (the first act of war) ... 23 Oct. 

The Turks cross the Danube at Widdin and occupy 
Kalafat 28 Oct. -3 Nov. 

Russia declares war against Turkey . . 1 Nov 

English and French fleets enter Bosphorus 2 Nov. 

Russians defeated at Oltenitza . , .4 Nov. 

Turks (in Asia) defeated at Bayandur, Atskur, and 
Achaltzik .... 14, 18, 26 Nov. 

Turkish fleet destroyed at Sinope . . 30 Nov. 

Collective note from the four powers requiring to 
know on what terms the Porte will negotiate for 
peace 5 Dec. 

Contests at Kalafat . . 31 Dec. 1853-9 J an - 

At the request of the Porte (5 Dec), the allied fleets 
enter the Black Sea 4 Jan. 

Russians defeated at Citate ... 6 Jan. 

Reply of the Porte to the note of Dec. 5, containing 
four points as bases of negotiation: viz., 1. The 
promptest possible evacuation of the principali- 
ties. 2. Revision of the treaties. 3. Maintenance 
of religious privileges to the communities of all 
confessions. 4. A definitive settlement of the 
convention respecting the Holy Places (dated 
31 Dec), — approved by the four powers 13 Jan. 

Vienna conferences close ... 16 Jan. 

Kalafat invested by the Russians . 28-31 Jan. 

Proposal in a letter from the emperor of the French 
to the czar (29 Jan.) declined . . .9 Feb. 

Turkish flotilla at Rustchuk destroyed by the 
Russians under Schilders . . .15 Feb. 

Ultimatum of England and France sent to St. 
Petersburg 27 Feb. 

The czar "did not judge it suitable to give an 
answer " 19 March, 

Baltic fleet sails, under sir C. Napier . 11 March, 

Treaty between England, France, and Turkey, 

12 March, 

Russians under Gortschakoff pass the Danube and 
occupy the Dobrudscha ; severe conflicts ; the 
Turks retire . . . . 23, 24 March, 

France and England declare war against Russia, 

27, 28 March, 

Rupture between Turkey and Greece 28 March, 

Gen. Canrobert and French troops arrive at Galli- 
poli, soon after followed by the English, 

31 March, 

Russians defeated by the Turks at Karakai 30 May, 

English vessel Furious, with a flag of truce, fired on 
at Odessa ...... 8 April, 



Four powers sign a protocol at Vienna guaranteeing 

the integrity of Turkey and civil and religious 

rights of her Christian subjects . . 10 April, 1854 
Russians defeated at Kostelli by Mustapha Pacha, 

10 April, ,, 
Offensive and defensive alliance between England 

and France 10 April, ,, 

Treaty between Austria and Prussia . . 20 April, ,, 
Bombardment of Odessa by allied fleet 22 April, ,, 
Russians, under gen. Schilders, assault Kalafat ; 

repulsed ; the blockade raised . 19-21 April, ,, 

The Tiger steamer run aground near Odessa, cap- 
tured by the Russians . . . .12 May, „ 
Russians defeated at Turtukai . . 13 May, ,, 
Siege of Silistria begun .... 17 May, ,, 
Allied armies disembark at Varna . 29 May, ,, 

Mouths of the Danube blockaded by allied fleets, 

1 June, ,, 
Russians repulsed at Silistria ; Paskiewitsch and 

many officers wounded .... 5 June, ,, 
Turks defeated at Ozurgheti (in Asia) . 16 June, ,, 
Severe conflict before Silistria ; the siege raised, 

18-26 June, ,, 
Batteries at the Sulina mouths destroyed by capt. 

Parker 26, 27 June, ,, 

Captain Parker killed .... 8 July, ,, 

Russians defeated at Giurgevo . . . 7 July, ,, 
10,000 French troops embark at Boulogne for the 

Baltic 15 July, ,, 

Turks defeated at Bayazid in Armenia, 29, 30 July ; 

and near Kars 5 Aug. ,, 

Surrender of Bomarsund . . . 16 Aug. ,, 
In July and August the allied armies and fleets in 

the east suffered severely from cholera. ] 
The Russians defeated by Schamyl in Georgia, 

about 28 Aug. ,, 
They evacuate the principalities . Aug.-2o Sept. ,, 
By virtue of a treaty with Turkey (June 14) the 

Austrians, under count Coronini, enter Bucharest, 

6 Sept „ 
Allies sail from Varna, 3 Sept. , and land at Old Fort, 

near Eupatoria* .... 14 Sept. ,, 
Skirmish at the Bulganac . . . -19 Sept. ,, 
Battle of the Alma (see Alma) . . 20 Sept. ,. 
Russians sink part of their fleet at Sebastopol. 

23 Sept. ,, 
Allies occupy Balaklava . . . .26 Sept. ,, 
Death of marshal St. Arnaud . 29 Sept. ,, 

General Canrobert, his successor . . 24 Nov. ,, 
Siege of Sebastopol commenced — grand attack 

(without success) 17 Oct. ,, 

Battle of Balaklava — charge of the light cavalry, 

with severe loss .... 25 Oct. „ 

Sortie from Sebastopol repulsed by generals Evans 

and Bosquet 26 Oct. , P 

Russian attack at Inkerman ; defeated . 5 Nov. ,, 
Miss Nightingale and nurses arrive at Scutari, 

6 Nov, ,. 
Great tempest in the Black Sea, loss of the Prince 

and store vessels .... 14-16 Nov. ,, 
Treaty of alliance between England, France, Austria, 

and Prussia— a commission to meet at Vienna ; 

signed 2 Dec. ,, 

. Russian sortie 20 Dec. ,, 

Omar Pacha arrives in the Crimea (followed by the 

Turkish army from Varna) ... 5 Jan. 1855 
Sardinia joins England and France . 26 Jan. ,, 

Great sufferings in the camp from cold and sickness, 

Jan. & Feb. ,, 
Russians defeated by the Turks at Eupatoria, 

17 Feb. „ 
Death of emperor Nicholas ; accession of Alex- 
ander II. (no change of policy) . . 2 March, ,, 
Sortie from the Malakhoff tower . . 22 March, ,, 
Capture of Russian rifle-pits . . . 19 April, ,, 
Arrival of Sardinian contingent . . . 8 May, ,, 
Resignation of gen. Canrobert, succeeded by gen. 

Pelissier 16 May, ,, 

Desperate night combats . . . 22-24 May, >> 
Expedition into the sea of Azoff (under sir E. Lyons 

and sir G. Brown) ; destruction of Kertch and 

large amount of stores . . 24 May-3 June, ,, 

Taganrog bombarded 3 June, ,, 

Massacre of an English boat's crew with flag of truce 

at Hango 5 June, ,, 

* 40,000 men, a large number of horses, and a powerful 
artillery, were landed in one, day, . ... 



RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 



1088 



EUSSO-TUEKISH WAR. 



Russians evacuate Anapa .... 5 June, 1855 
The White Works and Mamelon Vert taken, 

6,7 June, „ 
Unsuccessful attack on the Malakhoff tower and 

Redan ... . . 18 June, ,, 

Deathof lord Raglan; succeeded bygeneralSimpson, 

28 June, ,, 
Russians invest Kars in Armenia, defended by gen. 

Williams 15 July, ,, 

Bombardment of Sweaborg . . . 9 Aug. ,, 

Defeat of the Russians at the Tchernaya 26 Aug. ,, 
Ambuscade on the glacis of the Malakhoff taken ; 

Russian sortie repulsed . . . .18 Aug. ,, 

The French take the Malakhoff( which sec)by assault ; 

the English assault the Redan without success; 

the Russians retire from Sebastopol to the North 

Forts, and the allies enter the city ; the Russians 

destroy or sink the remainder of their fleet, 

8 Sept, &c. „ 
Tanan and Fauagorio captured . . 24 Sept. ,, 
The Russians assaulting Kars are defeated with 

great loss 29 Sept. „ 

Russian cavalry defeated ( 50 killed, 105 prisoners; 

at Koughil, near Eupatoria, by the French, 

29 Sept. ,, 

Kinburn taken 17 Oct. ,, 

Russians blow up Oczakoff ... 18 Oct. ,, 
Large stores of corn destroyed near Gheisk, in the 

seaofAzoff 4 Nov. ,, 

Defeat of the Russians, and passage of the Ingour 

by the Turks under Omar Pacha . . 6 Nov. ,, 
The czar visits his army near Sebastopol 10 Nov. ,, 
Sir Win. Codrington takes the command in room of 

gen. Simpson 14 Nov. ,, 

Explosion of 100.000 Hi. of powder in the French 

siege-train at Inkerman, with great loss of life, 

15 Nov. „ 
Sweden .joins the allies by a treaty . . 21 Nov. ,, 
Capitulation of Kars to gen. Mouravieff, after a 

gallant defence by gen. Williams . . 26 Nov. ,, 
Death of admiral Bruat .... 27 Nov. ,, 
Russian attack on the French posts at Bai'dar re- 
pulsed 8 Dec. ,, 

Proposals of peace fron Austria, with the consent 

of the allies, sent to St. Petersburg . 12 Dee. ,, 
Centre dock at Sebastopol blown up by the English, 

2 Jan. 1856 

Council of war at Paris 11 Jan. ,, 

Protocol signed accepting the Austrian propositions 

as a basis of negotiation for peace . 1 Feb. ,, 
Destruction of Sebastopol docks . . . 1 Feb. ,, 
Report of sir John M'Neill and col. Tulloch on 

state of the army before Sebastopol, published 

5 Feb. ,, 
Peace conferences open at Paris, an armistice till 

31 March agreed on .... 25 Feb. „ 
Suspension of hostilities . . . . 29 Feb. ,, 
Treaty of peace concluded at Paris . 30 March, ., 

Proclamation of peace in the Crimea, 2 April ; in 

London 29 April, ,, 

The Crimea evacuated . . . .9 July,* ,, 

RUSSO-TURKISH WAR. 1877. For the 

insurrections, Servian war, and the negotiations, 

see Turkey. 

The czar addresses the army near Kischeneff,saying 
that "he has done every thing in his power to a void 
war, and patience is exhausted;" tho Russian 
embassy quits Constantinople . . 23 April 1877 

War declared ; the czar's manifesto says that he 
is compelled, by the haughty obstinacy of t'le 
Porte, in proceed in more decisive acts ; a justifi- 
catory circular to foreignpowerssentout by prince 
GortsVliakiill '; tin' Russians enter the Turkish do- 
minions in Koumnnia ami Armenia . 24 April, ,. 

* The Englishlnst : killed in action ami died of wounds, 
.about 3500; died of cholera, 4244; of other diseases, 
nearly 16,000; total loss nearly 24,000 (including 270 
officers); 2873 were disabled. The war added to the 
national debt 41,041,000^. The French lost about 63,500 
men ; the Russians about halt' a million. The army 
.suffered greatly by sickness; see Scutari, rimes, ami 
Nightingale. The remains of the British soldiers and 
sailors were removed from Beicosto the Scutari Crimean 
Memorial cemetery with military honours, for which the 
queen returns thanks to the sultan, Feb. 1892. 



The sultan's circular protests against the war, and 
refers to Ins reforms and the treaty of Paris 

25 April, 
[Russian generals-in-chief in Bulgaria, grand duke 

Nicholas, in Armenia, grand duke Michael : 
Turkish generals, Abdul-Kerim in Europe ; 
Mukhtar Pacha, in Asia Minor. 
Russians defeated at Tchuruk Sou, near Batoum 

26 April, 
The. Russians, under the grand duke Michael and 

Loris Melikolf, advance into Armenia, defeat 
Turks and occupy Bayazid (deserted) 29,30 April, 

The Turks stop the passage of the Danube, and 
blockade the Black Sea . . . .3 May, 

The earl of Derby replies to the Russian circular ; 
he refers to the treaty of 1856 as broken ; does not 
consider that the war will benefit the Christians, 
and asserts that Russia has separated herself from 
European concert ; the British government gives 
neither concurrence nor approval to the war 

1 May, 

Kalafat occupied by Roumaniai s. . .3 May, 

Russians defeated in attacking Batoum . 4 May, 

The Lv/H-Djelil, Turkish monitor, with 300 men, 
blown up near Ibraila, or Braila, on the Danube 
(said to lie by Russian shells) . .11 May, 

Much artillery firing down the river . . May, 

Sukhum Khaleh, Russian fortress in the Caucasus, 
captured by Turks 14 May, 

Ardahan, near Kars, Armenia, stormed by Melikoff 

17 May, 

Insurrection in the Caucasus supported by the 
sultan 18 May et seq. 

Explosion of Turkish monitor Dar-Matoin, by 
lieuts. T. Daubassoff and Sheshlakoff, with tor- 
pedoes 26 May, 

Neutrality of the Suez Canal assured : correspond- 
ence May-June, 

Kars invested by Russians . . .3 June, 

The czar arrives at Plo.jesto(Ployesto) in Roumania 

6 June, 

Turks defeated at Tahir,or Taghir, Armenia, 16 June, 

Turks victors at Zewin Dooz, Eshek-Khalian, Deli- 
baba, and other places ; Russians retreating 

20 June, 

Turks successful in Montenegro ; country reported 
subdued 12-20 June, 

Russians cross Lower Danube by bridges at Galatz 
and Braila ; 6 hours' conflict ensues ; Turks re- 
tire, 22 June ; Russians occupy Matehin, 23 June, 
and Hirsova . . . . 25, 26 June, 

The grand duke Nicholas crosses the Danube at 
Simnitza by 208 pontoons, and enters Bulgaria ; 
the Turks retire after severe conflicts ; 289 Rus- 
sians said to be killed ... 27 June, 

The czar in his proclamation to Bulgarians en- 
courages Christians and warns Mahometans 

28 June, 

The Simnitza bridge destroyed by a storm or by 
Turks about 30 June, 

The British fleet arrives at Besika bay . 3 July, 

Biela, Bulgaria, taken by Russians about 5 July, 

Plevna, Bulgaria, occupied by Russians 6 July, 

Tirnova, ancient capital of Bulgaria, captured by 
Russians under gen. Gourko . . 6, 7 July, 

Bayazid re-occupied by Turks . . . 12 July, 

Russians compelled to retire from Kars by Mukh- 
tar Pasha 13 July, 

The invasion of Armenia considered a failure July, 

Gourko crosses the Balkans and enters Roumelia, 
13 July ; (this movement censured), several skir- 
mishes 14, 15, 20 July, 

Nicopolis (Nikopol) surrenders (after severe con- 
flicts, 12-14 July); capture of 2 pashas, 6000 men, 
2 monitors, and 40 guns . . 15, 16 July, 

The Turkish commander Abdul-Kerim replaced by 
Mehemet Ali (Jules Detroit, of French extrac- 
tion) ; Russians retreating . . . July, 

Suleiman Pasha brought from Montenegro to the 
Schipka Passes .... about 21 July, 

Aziz Pasha (able and popular) killed in a rash 
conflict at Esirje, near Rasgrad . 26 or 28 July, 

Russians severely defeated ; Plevna retaken by 
(ismau Pasha, 19, 20 July; Russians again de- 
feated 30, 31 July, 

Hostilities revive in Montenegro ; the Turkish 
fortress Niksich besieged .... July, 

The Roumanian army joins the Russians 9 Aug. 



1877 



EUSSO-TUEKISH WAE. 



1089 



EUSSO-TUEKISH WAE. 



Severe conflicts between Russians and Suleiman 
Pasha ; the Turks eventually victors : Eski 
Saghra and Yeni Sagra, July ; Kezanlik and 
Kalofer 30 July et seq. 1877 

Russians under Gourko expelled from Rouraelia ; 
retreat to Schipka passes . . about 11 Aug. 

Russians in the Schipka Passes relieved byRadetzky 

21 Aug. 

Russians defeated at Kara Silar, near Osman Bazar, 
14 Aug. ; in the valley of the Loin, by Mehemet 
Ali about 22-24 Aug. 

Russians defeated by Mukhtar Pasha at Kurukdara, 
or Kizil Tepe, between Kara and Alexandropol 

24, 25 Aug. 

Desperate fruitless attempts of Suleiman Pasha to 
gain the Schipka Pass held by Gourko and 
Radetzky ; great slaughter . . 20-27 Aug. 

Severe twelve hours' battle in valley of the Lom, 
near Szedina ; Karahassankoi taken and re-taken 
six times ; Russians (under the Czarewitch) retiie 
in good order 30 Aug. 

Prince Charles with Roumanians crosses the 
Danube about 31 Aug. 

Further successes of Mehemet Ali on the Lom at 
Katzelevo, Ablava, &e. . . . 4-6 Sept. 

Lovatz or Luftcha (important) captured by Prince 
Imeritinsky and Russians after a sharp conflict 

3 Sept. 

Niksich (left by Turks) captured by Montenegrines 

7 Sept. 

Sanguinary conflicts at Plevna, greatly strengthened 
by Osman Pasha ; artillery duel . 7-10 Sept. 

Pierce assault by Russians and Roumanians ; they 
gain the strong Gravitza redoubt (with others, 
which are re-taken) ; the czar present ; Russian 
loss about 20,000 . . . . 11, 12 Sept. 

Port St. Nicholas in Schipka Pass taken by Sulei- 
man Pasha and quickly lost ; much bloodshed 

17 Sept. 

Mehemet Ali repulsed in his attack on positions at 
Tchercovna, fifteen miles from Biela . 21 Sept. 

Siege of Plevna ; Chefket Pasha enters with re- 
inforcements after several skirmishes 22 Sept. 

Montenegrine successes continued . . Sept. 

Battles of the Yagni ; severe conflicts ; Russians 
repulsed near Ardahan, Asia about 27, 30 Sept. 

Russian losses, killed, wounded, and missing, 
47,400 reported . . . up to 20 Sept. 

Mehemet Ali retires to Kara Lom about 25 Sept. 

Gen. Todleben made chief of staff before Plevna 

28 Sept. 

Mehemet Ali replaced by Suleiman Pasha ; Raouf 
Pasha sent to Schipka . . . ■ 2, 3 Oct. 

Battles near Kars ; army of grandduke Michael 
attacks Turks under Mukhtar Pasha ; severely 
defeated 2-4 Oct. 

Turkish monitor in the Danube exploded by 
torpedoes ...... 8 Oct. 

Relief and supplies received by Turks at Plevna 

about 9 Oct. 

Battle of Aladja Dagh before Kars ; Russians, under 
grand duke Michael, and generals Loris Melikoff, 
Lazareff, and Heimann, totally defeat Ahmed 
Mukhtar, taking 10,000 prisoners . 14, 15 Oct. 

Gravitza battery, near Plevna, captured by Rou- 
manians, is quickly re-taken . . 19-20 Oct. 

Suleiman and his army said to be retreating from 
Kadikoi to Rasgrad .... 22 Oct. 

Battle at Gornij Dubnik, near Plevna ; Russians 
under Gourko said to be victorious ; losses about 
equal (2,500) 24 Oct. 

Russians said to be defeated near "Kara Ourgan, 
Armenia 24 Oct. 

Battle of Sofia Road, near Plevna ; Turkish position 
at Teliche captured . . . .28 Oct. 

Mukhtar Pasha defeated by Heimann and Tergu- 
kasoff at Deve-Boyun, Armenia, after nine hours' 
conflict 4 Nov. 

Russians severely defeated at Azizi, before Erze- 
roum, by Mukhtar Pasha ... 9 Nov. 

Change in Turkish generals : Suleiman ordered to 
command the army of Roumelia, replaced by 
Azli Paslia ; Mehemet Ali organises army to re- 
lieve Plevna .... early in Nov. 

Russian attack on Plevna repulsed . 12 Nov. 

Turks thrice repulsed near Plevna . 15 Nov. 



Kars taken by storm ; the Russians climbed steep 
rocks ; fierce conflict from 8 p.m. to 8 a.m. ; 300 
guns and 10,000 prisoners taken ; about 5000 
Turks killed and wounded ; Russian loss about 
2,500 ; the grand-duke Michael present 17-18 Nov. 

Russians said to be severely repulsed at Orchanie. 

16 Nov. 

Plevna said to be thoroughly invested (30 miles 
round, with 120,000 men) . . . Nov. 

Osman Pasha, invited to surrender at Plevna, re- 
fuses about 16 .Nov. 

Rahova on the Danube taken by Roumanians, 

21 Nov. 

Entrepol (fortified) near Plevna taken by Russians, 

24 Nov. 

Indecisive fighting in the valley of the Lom between 
the czarewitch and Mehemet Ali ; Russians said 
to be defeated 30 Nov. 

Turks capture Elena with guns and prisoners, after 
sharp conflict 4 Dec. 

Skirmishing on the Lom . . . 4-6 Dec. 

Osman Pasha endeavours to break out of Plevna, 
about 7 p.m. 9 Dec. ; six hours' fierce conflict ; 
surrounded ; unconditional surrender ; said to be 
30,000 prisoners, 128 officers, 100 guns ; great 
slaughter on both sides ... 10 Dec. 

The Servians declare war against Turkey, 12 Dec. ; 
cross the frontier and capture villages 1 5 Dec. et seq. 

Turkish circular note to the great powers, request- 
ing mediation, 12 Dec. ; merely acknowledged, 
action declined .... about 12 Dec. 

Montenegrines successful .... Dec. 

Suleiman made general of the army of Roumelia ; 
and Todleben of that of Rustchuk, about 19 Dec. 

Suleiman retires on the quadrilateral ; visits Con- 
stantinople ; armies concentrating near Adria- 
nople about 20 Dec. 

Servians said to have taken Ak Palanka after 3 
hours' fight 24 Dec. 

Erzeroum, Armenia, nearly invested ; brave resist- 
ance by Mukhtar Pasha . about 24 Dec. 

Many Turkish wounded prisoners perish from cold 
during removal Dec. 

Turkish steamer with 875 men, said to be captured 
in Black Sea .... about 25 Dec. 

Alleged Russian losses, 80,435 men ; Turkish much 
more, and 80,000 prisoners . . . Dec. 

Mukhtar Pasha recalled to Constantinople, about 

29 Dec. 

The sultan requests mediation of England ; the 
British government only convey to Russia the 
sultan's desire to make peace ; Russia declines 
mediation 26 — 31 Dec. 

Servians advancing successfully . end of Dee. 

Gourko crosses the Balkans and advances on 
Sofia ; Turks defeated in an engagement, about 

31 Dec. 

Col. Baker gallantly protects the retreating Turkish 
army, defeating the Russians. . . .1 Jan. 

Sofia taken by Russians after an engagement, 3 Jan. 

Russians said to be defeated near Erzeroum, about 

5 Jan. 

Servians defeated ; Kurschumli reoccupied by 
Turks 6, 7 Jan. 

Gen. Radetzky crosses the Balkans ; the Trojan 
pass taken about 9 Jan. ; the Turkish army 
(about 32,000) and cannon taken by Skobeleff and 
Radetzky, afterconfiicts, 8, 9, 10 Jan. (see Senova); 
Gourko advances towards Adrianople . n Jan. 

Nisch taken by the Servians ; Autivari by the Mon- 
tenegrines about 10 Jan. 

Russians advance successfully ; Turkish envoys 
proceed to treat for peace . about 16-18 Jan. 

Gourko advances toward Philippopolis ; totally 
defeats Suleiman Pasha, who retreats to the sea, 
losing many prisoners and much cannon, 

16, 17 Jan. 

Adrianople abandoned ; occupied by Russians, 

19, 20 Jan. 

Suleiman with remains of his army at Karala on 
the jEgean transporting his troops, about 21 Jan. 

Servians occupy nearly all Old Servia . 29 Jan. 

Russian attack on Batoum defeated . . 30 Jan. 

After much delay, an armistice signed at Adrianople 

31 Jan. 

Russian losses announced 89,879 men . Feb. 

4 A 



1877 



RUSSO-TURKISH WAE. 



1090 



RYSWICK. 



Continued advance of Russians towards Constanti- 
nople ; great panic ; flight of many Turks ; many 
deaths and great sufferings . . Jan., Feb. 1878 

Part of British fleet ordered to Constantinople to 
protect British life and property, 8 Feb. ; enters 
Dardanelles without permission of the Porte, 

13 Feb. „ 

Erzeroum evacuated by Turks . 17-21 Feb. „ 

Rustchuk occupied by Russians . . 20 Feb. ,, 

Treaty of peace signed at San Stefano (see Stefano), 
3 Maich ; ratified at St. Petersburg . 17 March, 

The war lasted 322days, 12 April, 1877, to 3 March, ,, 

Long negotiation respecting a European congress, 

March-May, ,, 

Grand duke Nicholas in Roumelia replaced by gen. 
Todleben, who assumes command . 30 April, ,, 

Conference at Berlin, meets 13 June ; treaty signed 
(see Berlin), 13 July ; ratified . . 3 Aug. ,, 

Grand review of about 80,000 Russians near Con- 
stantinople 17 Aug. ,, 

40,000 Russians have sailed for home . 12 Sept. ,, 

Definitive treaty of peace with Turkey signed at 
Constantinople 8 Feb. 1879 

Estimated cost of the war to Russia, 120,000,000?. 

RUSTCHUK, Turkish town on the Danube, 
one of the " quadrilateral" fortresses lost to Turkey 
with Bulgaria by treaty of Berlin, 13 Jul}', 1878. 

RUTHENIUM, a rare metal, discovered in 
an ore of platinum by M. Claus, in 1845. 

RUTHERFURD'S ACT, Lord (13 & 14 
Vict. c. 36), for simplifying law proceedings in 
Scotland, passed 1850. 



RUTHVEN, RAID OF, a term applied to the 
seizure of the person of James VI. of Scotland by 
William lluthven, earl of Gowrie, and other nobles, 
in 1582, to compel the king to dismiss his favourites, 
Arran and Lennox. Ostensibly for this, Gowrie 
was judicially put to death by his two opponents in 
1584. 

RUTLAND, Statute of, 10 or 12 Edw. I. 

1282 or 1284. 

RYE-HOUSE PLOT, a plot (some thinkj 
pretended) to secure the succession of the duke of 1 
Monmouth to the throne in preference to the duke; 
of York (afterwards James II.), a Roman catholic. | 
Some of the conspirators are said to have projected; 
the assassination of the king, Charles II., and his; 
brother. This design is said to have been frus-j 
trated by the king's house at Newmarket acciden-l 
tally taking fire, which hastened the royal party! 
away eight days before the plot was to take effect,! 
22 March, 1683 ; see Newmarket. The plot wasi 
discovered 12 June following. Lord Williami 
Russell on 21 July, and Algernon Sidney on 7 Dec.' 
following, suffered death for being concerned in this- 
conspiracy. Both were illegally convicted. TheJ 
name was derived from the conspirators' place oft 
meeting, the Kye-house at Broxboume, Hertford-' 
shire. 

RYSWICK (Holland), where the celebrated 
peace was concluded between England, Erance;/ 
Spain, and Holland, signed, by their representa-- 
fives, 20 Sept., and by the emperor of Germany], 

30 Oct. I697. j£ 



SAALFIELD. 



1091 



SACRAMENT. 



S. 



SAALFIELD (Saxony, N. Germany). Here 
the Prussians, under prince Louis of Prussia, were 
defeated and their leader slain by the French under 
Lannes, 10 Oct. 1806. 

SAARBRUCK, the Roman Augusti Muri or 
Sarce pons, an open town on the left bank of the 
Saar, in Rhenish Prussia, founded in the tenth 
century, long subject to the bishops of Metz, after- 
wards ruled by counts (about 1237), and by the 
house of Nassau about 1380. It was captured by 
the French and retaken by the Germans 1676, 
reunited to France 1794-1814, and ceded to Prussia, 
1815. On 2 Aug. 1870, it was bombarded by the 
French under Frossard (between 1 1 and I in the 
daytime), and the Prussians in small force were 
dislodged, and the town occupied by the French 
general Bataille. The mitrailleuses were said to be 
very effective. The emperor Napoleon, who was 
present with his son, said in a tslegram to the 
empress, " Louis has gone through his baptism of 
fire. He has not been in the least startled. We 
stood in the foremost rank, and the rifle balls were 
dropping at our feet, and Louis picked up one that 
fell near him. His bearing was such as to draw 
tears from the soldiers' eyes." On the 6 Aug. the 
Prussian generals Gceben and Von Steinmetz, with 
the first army, recaptured Saarbriick, after a 
sanguinary conflict at the village of Spicheren. 
The heights taken by the French on the 2nd are in 
Germany, those taken by the Germans on the 6th 
are in France, and both battles were fought between 
Saarbriick and the town of Forbach, which was 
captured, and has given a name to the second con- 
flict. The loss was great on both sides. The 
French general Francois was killed, and the 2nd 
corps under Frossard nearly destroyed. The French 
retreated to Metz. They were greatly superior in 
numbers at the beginning of the fight, but were 
badly commanded. 

SABBATARIANS. Traces exist of Sabba- 
tarii, or Sabbathaires, among the sects of the 16th 
century on the continent. Upon the publication of 
the "Book of Sports" in 1618, a violent contro- 
versy arose among English divines on two points : 
first, whether the Sabbath of the fourth command- 
ment was in force among Christians ; and 
secondly, whether, and on what ground, the first day 
of the week was entitled to be distinguished and 
observed as " the Sabbath." In 1628, Theophilus 
Brabourne, a clergyman, published the first work 
in favour of the Seventh-day or Saturday, as the 
true Christian Sabbath. He and several others 
suffered great persecution for this opinion ; but 
after the restoration there were three or four con- 
gregations observing the last day of the week for 
public worship in London, and seven or eight in 
the country parts of England. In 185 1 there were 
three Sabbatarian or Seventh-day Baptist congre- 
gations in England; but in America (especial ly 
in the New England states) they are more nume- 
rous. — Joseph Davis suffered imprisonment in 1670. 
He and his son bequeathed property to maintain 
the sect ; and litigation respecting its disposal was 
settled by vice-chancellor Stuart in conformity with 
their intention? in June. 1870. Very few Sabba- 
tarians then remained. The rev. Win. Mead Jones, 



an eminent seventh-day Baptist in London, a pro- 
found scholar ; died 22 Feb. 1895. 

SABBATH : ordained by God. Gen. ii. ; 
Exod. xx. 8 ; Isaiah lviii. 13. Jews observe the 
seventh day in commemoration of the creation of 
the world, and of their redemption from the bondage 
of the Egyptians ; Christians observe the first day 
of the week in commemoration of the resurrection 
of Christ from the dead, and the redemption of 
man ; see Sunday. 

SABBATH SCHOOLS, see Sunday Schools. 

SABBATICAL YEAR: a Jewish institution, 
1491 B.C. Exodus xxiii. During every seventh 
year the very ground had rest, and was not tilled ; 
and every forty-ninth year all debts were forgiven, 
slaves set at liberty, and estates, &c., that were 
before sold or mortgaged, returned to their original 
families, &c. 

SABELLIANISM, from Sabellius (of Ptole 
mais in Egypt), who flourished in the 3rd century 
and who taught that there was but one person in 
the Godhead, the other persons of the Trinity being 
but different names of the same person This 
doctrine was condemned at a council at Rome, 260. 

SABINES, an ancient people of central 
Italy, from whom the Romans, under Romulus, 
took away their daughters by force, having 
invited them to some public sports or shows 
on purpose. When the Sabines determined to 
revenge this affront, the women became mediators 
to their fathers in behalf of their husbands, the 
Romans, and a lasting peace was made between 
them, 750 B.C. The Sabines, who had supported the 
Samnites in their war with Rome, were thoroughly 
defeated by M. Curius Dentatus, and their lands 
annexed 290 B.C., and eventually the Sabines were 
combined with the Roman people. One of the 
ecclesiastical provinces is still called Terra Sabina ; 
chief town, Magliano. 

SACCHARINE, see Benzole. 

SACCHAROMETER, an instrument for de- 
termining the amount of sugar in solutions. 
Soleil, an optician, of Paris, in 1847 made use of 
rotary polarised light for this purpose in a saccharo- 
meter, since improved by Duboscq. 

SACHEVEREL RIOTS, see Riots, 17 10. 

SACKVILLE INCIDENT, see United 
States, Oct. 1888. 

SACRAMENT (from sacr -amentum, an oath, 
obligation, also mystery). The Christian sacra- 
ments are baptism and the Lord's Supper. The 
council of Trent, in 1547, affirmed the doctrine of 
the schoolmen that there are seven sacraments . 
baptism, the Lord's Supper, confirmation, penance, 
holy orders, matrimony, and extreme unction. The 
name was given to the Lord's Supper by the Latin 
fathers. The wine was restricted to the clergy about 
the beginning of the 12th century. Communion in 
one kind only was authoritatively sanctioned by the 
council of Constance, 15 June, 1415. Henry VII. 
of Germany was poisoned by a priest by the conse- 
crated wafer, 24 Aug. 1313. The sacramental wine 

4 A 2 



SACRAMENTO. 



1092 



SAGAS. 



was poisoned by the gravedigger of the church at 
Zurich, by which sacrilegious deed a number of 
persons lost their lives, 4 Sept. 1776. In 1614 
members of both houses of parliament were ordered 
to take the sacrament, as a guard against the intro- 
duction of Roman Catholics. In 1673 the test act 
was passed ; repealed in 1828 ; see Transubstantia? 
Hon. 

" Society of the Blessed Sacrament " (English church- 
men), London, founded, i860; "Confraternity of the 
Blessed Sacrament," founded 1862 ; the two united, 1867. 
Sacramentarians, followers of Zwingli (1487-1531), 
who differed from the Romanists and Lutherans in 
regard to the sacrament. 

SACRAMENTO, St., a Portuguese settle- 
ment in S. America, claimed by Spain in 1680, but 
relinquished in 17 13 ; several times seized ; ceded in 
1777 ; acquired by Brazil in 1825, see California. 

SACRED BAND, see Thebes. 

SACRED BOOKS of the East. The 

publication of translations of the sacred books of the 
religion of the Brahmans, Buddhists, and Moham- 
medans, and of the followers of Khung-fu-tze and 
Lao-tze, edited by professor Max M tiller, began in 
1879. About 30 volumes have been published. 

SACRED HARMONIC SOCIETY, see 

Music. 

SACRED HEART of Jesus ; a form of 
devotion said to have been instituted in England in 
the seventeenth century, and much promoted by 
Marguerite Marie Alacoque, an enthusiastic French 
nun, who asserted that Christ had appeared to her, 
and taken out her heart, placed it in his own, glow- 
ing in flame, and then returned it. She died in [690. 
.Her book " Devotion au Creurde Jesus," published 
in 1698, much advocated by father Joseph Gallifet 
about 1726; and introduced into France, by 

request I7 6 5 

A pilgrimage from England, specially blessed by 
the pope, and headed by the duke of Norfolk, 
went to the shrine of Marguerite, at Paray-le- 
Monial, and returned . . . 1-6 Sept. 1873 

The R.C. diocese of Salford dedicated to the Sacred 
Heart, 4 Sept. 1873 : and a church at Mont- 
martre, near Paris, founded for the same purpose, 

16 June, 1875 
The pope dedicated the universal church to "the 
Sacred Heart " 15 June, „ 

SACRED WARS— I. Declared by the Am- 
phictyons against Cirrha, near Delphi, for robbery 
and outrage to the visitors to the oracle, 595 B.C. 
Cirrha was razed to the ground, 1586. — II. Between 
the Phocians and Delphians for the possession of 
•the temple at Delphi, 448, 447.— III. The Phocians, 
on being fined for cultivating the sacred lands, 
seized the temple, 357. They were conquered by 
Philip of Macedon, and their cities depopulated, 
346. See Crusades. 

SACRIFICE was offered to God by Abel, 3875 
B.C. Sacrifices to the gods were introduced into 
Greece by Phoroneus, king of Argos, 1773 B.C. 
Human sacrifices seem to have originated with the 
Chaldeans, from whom the custom passed into other 
Eastern nations. All sacrifices to the true God wore 
to cease with the sacrifice of Christ, 33 A.n. Heb. 
x. 12-14. P' l g« n sacrifices were forbidden by the 
emperor Constantius II. 341. 

SACRILEGE. In 1835, the punishment (for- 
merly death) was made transportation for life. By 
23 & 24 Vict. c. 96, s. 50 (1861), breaking into a 
place of worship and stealing therefrom was made 
punishable with penal servitude for life. 

SACRIPORTUS (Ltttium, Italy). Here 
Sylla defeated the younger Yarius and 1'apirius 



Carbo with great slaughter, B.C. 82, and became 
dictator, 81. 

SADDLES. In the earlier ages the Romans 
used neither saddles nor stirrups. Saddles were in 
use in the 3rd century, and are mentioned as made 
of leather in 304, and were known in England about 
600. Side-saddles for ladies were introduced by 
Anne, queen of Richard II. in 1388. Stow. 

SADDUCEES, a Jewish sect, said to have 
been founded by Sadoc, a scholar of Antigonus, 
about 200 B.C., who, misinterpreting his master's 
doctrine, taught that there was neither heaven nor 
hell, angel nor spirit ; that the soul was mortal, and 
that there was no resurrection of the body from the 
dead. The Sadducees rejected the oral law, main- 
tained by the Pharisees. See Matt. xxii. 23 ; Acts 
xxiii. 8. 

SADLER'S WELLS (N. London), so called 
after Mr. Sadler, who built an orchestra to entertain 
the invalids who used the waters medicinally, 1683. 
In time the orchestra was enclosed, and the build- 
ing became a place for dramatic performances. 
The theatre was opened in 1765. Eighteen 
persons were trampled to death at this theatre, 
on a false alarm of fire, 18 Oct. 1807 ; see under 
Theatres. The theatre put up to auction and not 
sold, 31 Aug. 1875 ; and 30 July, 1878. 

SADOWA, see Koniggriitz. 

SAFES. A National Safe Company, London^ 
opened vaults for storage of valuables, 1876. 

SAFETY LAMP. One was invented in 1815J 
by sir Humphry Davy, to prevent accidents which! 
happen in coal and other mines. The safety-lamp 
is founded on the principle that flame, in passing 
through iron-wire meshes, loses so much of its heat 
as to be incapable of igniting inflammable gasesJ 
The father of all safety-lamps was Dr. Reid Clanny, 1 
of Sunderland, whose invention and improvements 1 
are authenticated in the Transactions of the Society 
of Arts for 1817. The " Geordy," constructed by 
George Stephenson, the engineer, in 1815, is said 
to be the safest. A miner's electric light, by MM, 
Dumas and Benoit, was exhibited in Paris on el 
Sept. 1862. On 14 Aug. 1867, safety-lamps were 
rigidly tested by several mining engineers, andj. 
serious doubts thrown upon their complete efficacy.! 
Col. Shakespear's safety lamp (light extinguished 
by opening) exhibited at Royal Institution, &eJ 
May, 1879. Messrs. Fleuss and Foster's new safety] 
mining lamp approved, Jan. 1884. 

Mr. J. Wilson-Swan's electric safety lamp, weighing 6} lb. 

exhibited at Aberdeen meeting of British Association* 

Sept. 1885. 
Mr. Charles D. Aria's safety lamp replied successful U 

the supply of mineral oil is isolated from the burner 

i8S9. 
The Thornbury miners' lamp tried at Aldwarke Malnj 

Collieries by Mr. C. E. Rhodes, and subjected tcj. 

experiments by prof. Dewar and sir Frederick Abel. 

who declare that this lamp fulfils the conditions re; 

quired by the royal commission in 1886. Paraffin am." 

other mineral oils may be used in this lamp, reported 

Nov. 1889. 

SAFFRON (saffiran, French; saffrano, Italian), 
the flower of crocus, was first brought to England ill 
the reign of Edward III. by a pilgrim, about 1339, 
probably from Arabia, as the word is from tht 
Arabic saphar. Miller. It was cultivated in Eng- 
land in 1582. 

SAGAS. Early Icelandic talcs, daled from the, 1 
ioth century, see hddas. 



SAGE. 



1093 



SALISBURY. 



SAGE (Sauge, French ; Salvia, Latin), a whole- 
some herb Mortimer. The Mexican sage, Salvia 
mexicana, was brought from Mexico, 1724. The 
blue African sage, Salvia africana, and the golden 
African sage, Salvia aurea, were brought to Eng- 
land from the Cape of Good Hope in 173 1. 

SAGUNTUM, or Zacyxthus, now Mur- 
viedro,- in Valentia, E. Spain, renowned for the 
dreadful siege it sustained, 219 B.C. The citizens, 
after performing incredible acts of valour for eight 
months, chose to be buried in the ruins of their city 
rather than surrender to Hannibal. They burnt 
themselves, with their houses, and the conqueror 
became master of a pile of ashes. 218 B.C. 

SAHARA, a great sandy desert, North Africa, 
south of Barbary States. A project for making an 
inland sea here was entertained in 1883, and the 
construction of a railway was proposed in Algeria, 
Oct. 1890. A large natural reservoir of water at 
El Golea in the desert, was discovered early 1891. 
M. Foureau's 12 years' exploration, rich in scien- 
tific results, see "French West Africa, 1898-1900. 
M. Blanchet's mission meets with many disasters; 
he dies, Oct. 1900. Twat, the region between 
Algeria and the Sudan, includes 3 districts, Gurara, 
Twat, and Tidikelt, occupied by the French ; see 
Algeria and Morocco, 1900. 

SAIGON, French colony in Cochin China, 
founded in i860, after a defeat of the Chinese, 17 
Feb. 1859. 

SAILORS' HOME, in Well-street, London 
Docks, established by Mr. George Green, 1830 ; 
opened, 1835 ; enlarged, 1865. In one year it 
admitted 5444 boarders, who, besides home, had 
evening instruction, the use of a savings' bank, kc. 
The establishment is self-supporting, aided by 
subscriptions. Similar institutions have since been 
established. Sailors' orphan girls' school and 
home, Hampstead, established 1829. Sailors' and 
Firemen's Union, see Shipping. The Passmore 
Edwards Sailors' Palace, Limehouse, opened by the 
prince and princess of Wales ; an "Ocean libraiy'' 
inaugurated (total 31,120?., 15,000/. additional 
promised), 19 May, 1903. 

SAINT. For names with this prefix, see the 
names themselves throughout the book. See Acta 
Sanctorum. 

SAKYA MUNI, see Buddhism. 

SALADO, a river, S. Spain; see Tarifa. 

SALADS are stated to have been in use in 
the middle ages ; lettuces are said to have been 
introduced into England from the Low Countries, 
1520-47. 

SALAMANCA (W. Spain), taken from the 
Saracens 861. The university was founded 1240, 
and the cathedral built 1513. Near here the British 
and allies, commanded by lord Wellington, totally 
defeated the French army under marshal Marmont, 
22 July, 1812. The loss of the victors was most 
severe, amounting in killed, wounded, and missing, 
to nearly 6000 men. Marmont left in the victor's 
hands 7141 prisoners, 11 pieces of cannon, 6 stands 
of colours, and 2 eagles. This victory was followed 
by the capture of Madrid. Population, 1887,22, 199. 

SALAMIS (near Athens) . In a great sea-fight 
here, 20 Oct. 480 B.C., Themistocles, the Greek com- 
mander, with only 310 sail, defeated the fleet of 
Xerxes, king of Persia; which consisted of 2000 
sail —Near Salamis, in Cyprus, the Greeks defeated 



the Persian fleet, 449 B.C.; and Demetrius Polior- 
eetes defeated the fleet of Ptolemy and his allies, 

306 B.C. 

SALASSI, a turbulent Alpine tribe, were 
thoroughly subdued by Terentius Varro, 25 B.C., 
and a Roman colony established in their territories 
(now Aosta). 

SALDANHA BAY, S. Atlantic Ocean; north- 
ward of the Cape of Good Hope. Here on 17 Aug. 
1796, a Dutch squadron, under admiral Lucas, was 
captured by vice-admiral sir George Keith Elphin- 
stone, without resistance ; sir George was created 
lord Keith. 

SALE OF FOOD AND DRUGS ACT, 

passed ir Aug. 1875; repeals all adulteration acts, 
and makes new arrangements. 

SALE OF GOODS ACT, codifying the 
law, passed 20 Feb. 1894. 

SALENCKEMEN, on the Danube. Here a 
victory was gained by the imperialists, under prince 
Louis of Baden, over the Turks, commanded by the 
grand vizier Mustapha Kiuprigli, 19 Aug. 1691. 

SALERNO (Salernum, S. Italy), an ancient 
Roman colony. Its university, with a celebrated 
school of medicine, reputed to be the oldest in 
Europe, was founded by Robert Guiscard the Nor- 
man, who seized Salerno in 1077. Salerno suffered 
much in the wars of the middle ages. 

SALFORD, near Manchester. Population, 
1881,176,235; 1891,198,136; 1901,221,587. 
An incendiary explosion at the barracks caused one 

death ; Fenians suspected . . .14 Jan. 1881. 
New technical school opened by the duke of York, 

25 March, 1896 

SALIQUE or SALIO LA"W, by which females 
are excluded from inheriting the crown of France, 
is said to have been instituted by Pharamond, 424, 
and ratified in a council of state by Clovis I., the 
real founder of the French monarchy, in 51 1. 
Henault. This law, introduced into Spain by the 
Bourbons 1700, was formally abolished by decree 
29 March, 1830 ; and on the death of Ferdinand VII. 
his daughter succeeded as Isabella II., 29 Sept. 1833; 
see Spain. By this law also Hanover was separated 
from England, when queen Victoria ascended the 
English throne, 1837. 

SALISBURY (Wilts), founded in the begin- 
ning of the 13th century, on the removal ot the 
cathedral hitl 1 er from Old Sarum . National councils 
or parliaments were repeatedly held at Salisbury, 
particularly in 1296, by Edward I. ; in 1328, by 
Edward III. ; and in 1384. Henry Stafford, duke of 
Buckingham, was executed here by order of Richard 
III., in 1483. — On Salisbury Plain is Stone- 
henge (which see). This plain was estimated at 
500,000 acres. On it were so many cross roads, and 
so few houses to take directions from, that Thomas, 
earl of Pembroke, planted a tree at each milestone 
from Salisbury to Shaftesbury, for the traveller's 
guide. The autumn military manoeuvres took place 
on Salisbury Plain, Aug., Sept. 1872 ; again 31 Aug., 
1898 ; see under Army. — The first seat of the Bishop- 
ric was at Sherborne, St. Aldhelm being prelate, 705. 
Herman removed the seat to Old Sarum, about 1072; 
and the see was removed to Salisbury by a papal 
bull, in 121 7. It has yielded to the church of Rome 
one saint and two cardinals. The building of the 
cathedral commenced 28 April, 1220, and was com- 
pleted in 1258. This edifice is reckoned one of our 
finest ecclesiastical erections. Its -spire, the loftiest 
in the kingdom, was considered in danger in April, 



SALISBURY ADMINISTRATIONS. 1094 SALISBURY ADMINISTRATIONS. 



1864, and subscriptions were begun for its im- 
mediate repair. .The choir was re-opened, alter 
restoration by sir G. G. Scott, 1 Nov. 1876 ; spire 
and turrets restored under sir Arthur Hlomfield, 
March, 1898. The bishopric is valued in the king's 
hooks at 1367Z. H5. 8d. Present income 5000/. 
Population, 1881, 14,792; 1891, 15,980; 1901, 
17,117. 

RECENT BISHOPS. 

1797. John Fisher, died 2 July, 1825. 

1825. Thomas Burgess, died iq Feb. 1837. 

1837. Edmund Denison, died 6 March, 1854. 

1854. Walter Kerr Hamilton, died 1869. 

1869. George Moberly, elected 9 Sept., died 6 July, 1S85. 

1885. John Wordsworth. Aug. 



SALIS] 



LY ADMINISTRATIONS-- 



Mr. Gladstone resigned in consequence of a defeat 
in the house of commons on the Budget Bill (264 — 
252), 8-9 June, and was succeeded by lord Salisbury, 
whose ministry received the seals, 24 June, 1885. 

Prime 'minister and foreign secretary — Robert Arthur 

Talbot Gascoigne-Cecil, marquis of Salisbury.* 
First lord of the treasury — Sir Stafford Northcote (earl of 

Iddesleigh). 
Lord chancellor — Sir Hardinge Giffard (lord Halsbury). 
Lord president of the council — Gathorne Gatliorne-Hardy, 

viscount Cranbrook. 
Lord privy seal — Dudley Ryder, earl of Harrowby. 
Secretaries : home — Sir Richard Assheton Cross. 

the colonies — Col. Frederick Arthur Stanley. 
India — Lord Randolph Henry Spencer- 
Churchill. 
war — William Henry Smith ; G. Gathorne 
Hardy, viscount Cranbrook, about 23 Jan. 
1886. 
Scotland— Charles Henry, duke of Richmond, 
about 14 Aug. 1885. 
First lord of the admiralty — Lord George Hamilton 
Chancellor of the. exchequer — Sir Michael Hicks-Beach. 
Lord lieutenant of Ireland — Henry H. M. Herbert, earl of 

Carnarvon ; resigned Jan. 1886. 
Lord Chancellor of Ireland — Edward Gibson (lord Ash- 
bourne). 
President of board of trade — Charles Henry Gordon- 
Lennox, duke of Richmond ; Edw. Stanhope, about 17 
Aug. 1885. 
Postmaster-general — Lord John Manners. 
Vice-president of the council — Edward Stanhope. 

The above form the cabinet. 
Chancellor of duchy of Lancaster — Henry Chaplin. 
President of local government board — Arthur J. Balfour. 
Chief secretary for Ireland — Sir William Hart-Dyke, 
resigned ; W. H. Smith, about 23 Jan. 1886. 



* He was born 3 Feb. 1830 ; married Georgina, 
daughter of baron Alderson, 1857, a lady of high 
intellect, she died 1899 > h>rd Cranborne, on the 
death of his brother, 1865 ; succeeded his father as mar- 
quis in 1868; M.P. for Stamford, 1853-68; secretary for 
India, July, 1866, to March, 1867 ; and Feb. 1874 to 
April, 187S : for foreign affairs, April, 1878, to May, 
1880; special ambassador to Constantinople, Nov.,^876 ; 
chancellor of the University of Oxford, 186a. Manifesto 
respecting the election issued, Times, 28 June, 1892 ; 
judicious speech on the eastern question, at the Guild- 
hall, 9 Nov. 1896; another, on international politics, q 
Nov. 1898 ; resigns the premiership, which he Had nobly 
and successfully held over 13J years, made k.c.c. of the 
Roy. Victorian order, u July, 1902. He sal 15 years in 
the commons, 34 years in the lords, and held important 
posts iii tlic cabinet about 20 years. He earned the 
gratitude and admiration of the nation as foreign secre- 
tary (four times held), ami through the " great contest 

over home rule." Under his able leadership the unionist 

party was developed ; "in Egypt, the Soudan, S. Africa 

and other African possessions lie has secured our rights 
for all time, and during his last years in office lias built 
up an excellent understanding between the empire and 
the United States, a fitting crown to a life devoted to 
the highest interests of the British people," 1'imes, 14 
July, 1902. He died at Hatfield, 22 Aug. 1903; buried 
there 31 Aug. 



First commissioner of works — David Robert Plunket. 
Attorney-general — Sir R. E. Webster. 
Solicitor-general — John E. Gorst. 
Resigned 27 Jan. , in consequence of Mr. Jesse Collings' 

amendment on the address being carried (329-250) 

26-27 Jan. 1886. 

Second Administration (26 July, 1886) — 

Prime minister ami foreign secretary (Jan. 1887) — Robert- 
Arthur Talbot Gascoigne-Cecil, marquis of Salisbury. 

First lord of the treasury and leader of the commons — Win. 
Henry Smith, 3 Jan. 1887 ; died 6 Oct. 1891. Arthur 
J. Balfour, 9 Nov. 1891. 

Lord chancellor — Hardinge Stanley Giftard, lord Halsbury. 

Lord president of the council — Gathorne Gathorne-Hardy, 
viscount Cranbrook. 

Chancellor of the evehequer — Lord Randolph Henry 
Spencer-Churchill ; resigned 22 Dec. 1886 ; * George 
Joachim Goschen, 3 Jan. 1887. 

Secretaries: home — Henry Matthews (R.C.). 

foreign — Stafford Henry Northcote, earl of 
Iddesleigh (died 12 Jan. 1887) ; marquis of 
Salisbury, Jan. 1887. 
the colonies — Edward Stanhope ; sir Henry 
Thurstan Holland (baron Knutsford), Feb. 
1888 (Jan. 1887). 
India — Sir Richard Cross (viscount Cross). 
war — William Henry Smith ; Edward Stan- 
hope, 6 Jan. 1887 ; died 21 Dec. 1893. 

First lord of theadmi rally — Lord George Francis Hamilton. 

Lord chancellor of Ireland — Edward Gibson, lord Ash- 
bourne. 

Chief secretary for Ireland — Sir Michael Edward Hicks- 
Beach ; resigns, but remains in the cabinet (retires Jan. 
1888); succeeded by Arthur J. Balfour, 5 March, 1887. 
Wm. L. Jackson, 9 Nov. 1891. 

Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster — Lord John Manners 
(duke of Rutland), 4 March, 1888. 

President of the board of trade — Sir Frederick Stanley 
(lord Stanley of Preston) ; succeeded by sir M. E. 
Hicks-Beach, 15 Feb. 1888. 

President of the board of agriculture, Henry Chaplin, 
5 Sept. 1880. 

The above form the Cabinet. 

Lord privy seal — George Henry Cadogan (earl Cadogan). 

Lord lieutenant of Ireland — Charles Stewart Vane 
Tempest Stewart, marquis of Londonderry : succeeded 
by Laurence Dundas, earl of Zetland, 30 May, 1889. 

Secretary for Scotland — Arthur J. Balfour; succeeded by 
Schoniberg Henry Kerr, marquis of Lothian, S March, 
1887, died 17 Jan. 1900. 

President of local government board — C. T. Ritchie. 

Postmaster-general — Henry Cecil Raikes, died 24 Aug. 
1891 ; sir James Fergusson, about 21 Sept. 1891. 

First commissioner of works— David Robert Plunket. 

Attorney-general— Sir Richard Everard Webster, Q.C. 

Solicitor-general— Sir Edward Clarke, Q.C. 

Resigned 12 Aug., in consequence of want of confidence 
voted by the commons, Mr. Asquith's amendment 
(350-310), 1 r Aug. 1892. For chief measures, see Educa- 
tion, Ireland, Local Government, Navy, and National Dt lit. 

Third Administration (25 June et scq. 1895) — 

Prime minister ami foreign secretary — the marquis of 

Salisbury. 
First lord of thr treasury ami leader of the commons — 

Arthur James Balfour. 
I.aeil high rhamrllor — Lord Halsbury: earl, r Jan. 1898. 
Lard president if the council — Spencer C. Cavendish (duke 

of Devonshire). 
I.niil /nicy seal — Richard Assheton (viscount Cross). 
Chancellor of the exchequer — sir Michael Hicks-Beach 

Secretaries : lurnu — sir Matthew White Ridley. 
./iir('/;7ii--mari|uis of Salisbury. 
colonial — Joseph Chamberlain. 
war — marquis of Lansdowue. 
India — lord George Hamilton. 
Cliancellor of the duchy of Lancaster — sir Henry James, 

lord .lames of Hereford. 
First lord of tin admiral— George J. Goschen, retired 

10 Nov. 1903. 
Secretary fm- Set Hand — Alexander H. Bruce (lord Balfour: 

of Burleigh). 
President of Hie hoard of trade— Charles T. Ritchie. 



The marquis of Hartington and the liberal unionists 
lined to form [ art of a coalition ministry, 30 Dec. 1886. 



SALISBUEY ADMINISTEATIONS. 1095 



SALT. 



President of the local government hoard— Henry Chaplin. 
Lord lieutenant of Ireland— George Henry, earl Cadogan. 
Lord chancellor of Ireland — lord Ashbourne. 
President of the board of agriculture— Walter Hume Long. 
First commissioner of works — Aretas Akers-Douglas. 
The above form the Cabinet. 

Postmaster-general— Henry F. Howard (duke of Norfolk), 
resigned March, 1900; succeeded by lord Londonderry, 
April. 
Vice-president of the committee of council on education — 

sir J. E. Gorst. 
Financial secretary of the treasury — Robt. Wm. Hanbury. 
Patronage secretary to the treasury — sir W. H. Walrond. 
Attorney-general— sir Richard E. Webster ; sir Robert 

Finlay, May, 1900. 
Parliamentary secretary to the board of trade — earl of 

Dudley. 
Solicitor-general— sir Robert B. Finlay, Aug. ; Sir E. 

Carson, May, 1900. 
Civil lord of -the admiralty — J. Austen Chamberlain. 
Secretaries : admiralty — W. E. Macartney. 

local government board — T. W. Russell 
Under secretaries : home — Jesse Collings. 

foreign — George Curzon, res. , Aug. ; 
succeeded by Wm. St. John 
Brodrick, Oct. 1898. 
colonial — earl of Selborne. 
India — earl of Onslow. 
■war — Wm. St. John Brodrick ; suc- 
ceeded by George Wyndham, Oct. 
1898. 
Chief secretary for Ireland — Gerald Wm. Balfour. 
Attorney-general for Ireland — John Atkinson. 
Solicitor-general far Ireland — William Kenny, Q.C ; Dun- 
bar Plunket Barton, Dec. 1897 ; Mr. George Wright, 
Jan. 1900. 
Solicitor-general for Scotland— Andrew Graham Murray ; 

Chas. Scott Dickson, May, 1896. 
Lord advocate for Scotland — sir C. Pearson ; Andrew 

Graham Murray, May, 1896. 
Paymaster-general — earl of Hopetoun ; duke of Marl- 
borough, Jan. 1899. 
For chief measures, see Australasia, Education, London 
Government Act, Ireland, Money Lending, Companies. 

Fourth Administration (reconstructed 12 Nov. et seq. 

1900-11 July, 1902, see Balfour Administration). 
Prime minister and lord privy seal — lord Salisbury (re- 
signed, 11 July, 1902, cabinet remained unchanged). 
First lord of the treasury and leader of the commons — 

Arthur James Balfour. 
Lord high chancellor — lord Halsbury. 
Lord president of the council — duke of Devonshire. 
Chancellor of the exchequer — sir Michael Hicks-Beach. 
Secretaries : home — Charles T. Ritchie. 
foreign — lord Lansdowne. 
colonial — Joseph Chamberlain. 
war — hon. St. John Brodrick. 
India — lord George Hamilton. 
Scotland — lord Balfour of Burleigh. 
First lord of the admiralty — lord Selborne. 
Lord lieutenant of Ireland — George Henry, earl Cadogan. 
Lord chancellor of Ireland — lord Ashbourne. 
President of the board of trade — Gerald Wm. Balfour. 
Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster — lord James of 

Hereford. 
President of the local government board — Walter Hume 

Long. 
President board of agriculture — Robt. Wm. Hanbury. 
First commissioner of works and public buildings — Aretas 

Akers-Douglas. 
Postmaster-general — lord Londonderry. 

The above formed the Cabinet. 

Chief secretary for Ireland — George Wyndham (in the 

cabinet). 
Attorney-general for Ireland — John Atkinson. 
Solicitor-general for Ireland — James H. Mussen Campbell. 
Vice-president of the committee of council on education — 

Sir John Gorst. 
Junior lords of the treasury — Henry T. Anstruther, 

William Hayes Fisher, hon. Ailwyn Fellows. 
Financial secretary to treasury — Austen Chamberlain. 
Patronage secretary to treasury — sir Wm. Walrond. 
Secretary to the admiralty — Hugh O. Arnold-Forster 
Civil lord of the admiralty — capt. E. G. Pretyman. 



Under secretaries : home — Jesse Collings. 

foreign — lord Cranborne. 

colonial — lord Onslow. 

India — lord Hardwicke. 

war— lord Raglan. 
Secretary board of trade — lord Dudley. 
Secretary local government board — John Grant Lawson. 
Financial secretary war office — lord Stanley. 
Attorney-general— sir Robert Finlay. 
Solicitor-general — sir Edward Carson. 
Lord advocate for Scotland— Andrew Graham Murray. 
Solicitor-general for Scotland— Charles Scott Dickson. 
Paymaster-general — duke of Marlborough. 

SALISBUEY' S ACT, see Artisans. 

SALLEE, a port of Morocco, long a haunt for 
pirates, destroyed by the British in 1632, and about 
300 captives released. 

SALLENTINI, allies of the Samnites, the 
only Italian tribe not subject to Rome, were over- 
come in war in 267 and 266 B.C., and Brundisium, 
their port, taken. 

SALMON FISHERIES. The laws relating 
to them were consolidated and amended in 1861, 
and the report of a commission of inquiry (in- 
cluding sir Wm. Jardine) was published, in Feb. 
1862. An act restricting the capture of salmon at 
certain times, passed in 1863, was amended in 1869- 
1870, and 1873. During the "salmon fence," 
14 Sept. to I Feb., it is unlawful to catch fish of 
the salmon kind. A salmon-fishery congress opened 
at South Kensington, 7 June, 1867. Salmon eggs 
sent to New Zealand, Jan. 1878. 
Salmon Ova, packed in boxes with moss, charcoal, 
and ice, to retard development— a plan suggested 
and proved practicable by Mr. E. H. Moscrop in 
!86 3 — adopted successfully by Mr. J. A. Youl, 
who sent ova to Australia in the " Norfolk," _ . 1364 
Salmon disease, in rivers, announced, 1879 ; commis- 
sion of inquiry appointed, Mr. F. Buck: and and 
others ....... Jan. 1880 

Mr. Henry Ffennell strongly recommends mea- 
sures for its promotion, Times, 30 Dec. 1892. 
Very great increase in the numberof salmon caught, 1883 
Royal commission appointed (the earl of Elgin, 
duke of Bedford, and others) to inquire into the 
deterioration of the fisheries in Great Britain, 20 
March, 1900 ; report issued, a central authority, 
local fishery boards, &c. recommended . 6 Aug. 1902 
Salmon introduced into the Thames, atTeddington, 
1901, and Feb » 

SALONICA, see Thessalonica. 

SALT (chloride of sodium, a compound rf the 
gas chlorine and the metal sodium) is procured from 
the rocks in the earth, from salt-springs, and from 
sea-water. The famous salt-mines of Wielitzka, 
near Cracow in Poland, have been worked 600 
years. The salt-works in Cheshire, called the 
wiches (Nantwich, North wich, and Middle wich), 
were, of great importance in the time of the Saxon 
heptarchy. The salt-mines of Staffordshire were 
discovered about 1670. Salt duties were first ex- 
acted in 1702; they were renewed in 1732; re- 
duced in 1823; and in that year were ordered to 
cease in 1825. During the French war tie duty 
reached to 30^. per ton. For the salt-tax in France 
see Gabelle. The government salt monopoly in India 
was atolished in May, 1863, by sir C. Ireyelyan. 
Since 1797 salt has been largely employed in the 
manufacture of chloride of lime or bleaching 
powder (by obtaining its chlorine), and soap (by 
obtaining its soda) . On this are based the chemical 
works of Cheshire, Lancashire, and other places. 
See under Alkalies. 
Much distress in the salt districts of Cheshire through 

the subsidence of land, 1887-8. The proprietors of 



SALTAIRE. 



1096 



"SALVATION AEMY." 



the Cheshire salt mines combined to form a "trust" or 
syndicate in the autumn of 1888 ; central office, 
Northwich ; the trade being nearly ruined by great 
competition, first meeting 27 Sept. 1888. 

Great advance in the price of salt Oct. 1888. 

A " salt museum " presented to the town of Northwich 
by Mr. Brunner, M.P., March, 1889. 

Salt exported from the United Kingdom: 1876, 865,804 
tons ; 1880, 1,051,240 tons ; 1885, 921,869 tons ; 1890, 
726,021 tons; 1896, 660,935 tons ; 1900,547,395^113; 
1901, 617,203 tons. 

SALTAIRE, see Alpaca. 

SALT LAKE, see Mormonites. 

SALT-PETRE (from sal petra, salt of the 
rock), or Nitre, is a compound of nitric acid and 
potash (nitrogen, oxygen, and potassium), and 
hence is called nitrate of potash. It is the explo- 
sive ingredient in gunpowder, many detonating 
powders, and lucifer matches. Boyle in the 17th 
century demonstrated that salt-petre was composed 
of aqua fortis (nitric acid) and potash ; the dis- 
coveries of Lavoisier (1777) and Davy (1807) showed 
its real composition . Its manufacture in England 
began about 1625. During the French revolu- 
tionary war, the manufacture was greatly increased 
by the researches of Berthollet. 

SALUTE AT SEA. It is a received maxim at 
sea, that he who returns the salute always fires 
fewer guns than he receives, which is done eveu 
between the ships of princes of equal dignity ; but 
the Swedes and Danes return the compliment with- 
out regarding how many guns are fired to them. 
The English claim the right of being saluted first 
in all places, as sovereigns of the seas; the Vene- 
tians claimed this honour within their gulf, &c. 
The admiralty issued a code of rules for salutes, 
Dec. 1876. See Flag, and Naval Salute. 

SALVADOR, SAN, one of the Bahamas, and 
the first point of land discovered in the West Indies 
or America by Columbus. It was previously called 
Guanahani, or Cat's Isle, and Columbus (in ac- 
knowledgment to God for his deliverance) named it 
San Salvador when he first saw it, n Oct. 1492. 
The capital, San Salvador, was destroyed by an 
earthquake, 16 April, 1854, and is now abandoned. 

SALVADOR, SAN, one of the republics of 
Central America, with a constitution established 
24 Jan. 1859. Capital, Libertade. General Barrios 
elected president I Feb. i860, was compelled to flee 
in Oct. 1863 ; when Francis Duenas became provi- 
sional president ; his formal election took place April, 
186;. The ex-president, Gerard Barrios, was sur- 
rendered by Nicaragua, tried and shot, Aug. 1865. A 
reattemptedrevolution failed; Zaldivarrled; general 
Gonzales president, 1 Feb. 1872 ; R. Zaldivar, May, 
1876 ; Gen. Menendez, June, 1885 ; re-elected 
I March 1887 for four years. Population, 
1886,651,130; 1901, estimated 900,000. The capital, 
San Salvador, was nearly destroyed by an earth- 
quake, 19 March, 1873. about 50 persons perished. 
The convulsion began 5 March and thus gave timely 
warning. A rebellion suppressed, 6-10 Sept. 1887. 
General Rivas and an insurgent army defeated by 
government troops, announced . '. 31 Dec. 1889 

Insurrection ended Jan. 1890 

Gen. Menendez dies suddenly, 22 June ; revolution, 
sen. Carlos Ezeta becomes provisional president, 

25 June ,, 
Guatemala and Honduras declare war against pre- 
sident Bzeta, several sanguinary battles; in- 
vading troops defeated, July ; Guatemala in- 
vaded, July ; gen. Hivas revolts against president 
Ezeta, and is, after a severe engagement, defeated 
by gen. A. Ezeta, captured, and publiclj shot, 

1 Auk. ,, 



Gen. Ezeta re-elected president . about 13 Sept. 1890 

Peace with Guatemala signed, announced 17 Nov. ,, 

Gen. Ezeta confirmed as president for four years, 

1 March, 1891 

Rebellion in the island of Amapala suppressed, 
and the leader, gen. Bardales, killed . 6 May, ,, 

Violent earthquake, great destruction of life and 
property 9 Sept. ,, 

About 40 persons killed in the capital ; Comasagua 
nearly destroyed ; shocks still continue 13 Sept. ,, 

Conspiracy suppressed ; gen. Narcisso Avilez and 
others executed ; reported . . 22 July, 1893 

Insurrection, with bloodshed, Santa Ana held by 
the rebels ; reported .... 13 May, 1894 

Great railway accident through the removal of the 
rails on a steep gradient by the insurgents ; about 
200 deaths ; reported .... 16 May, ,, 

Gen. Antonio Ezeta, with government troops, 
defeated and killed ; resignation and flight of 
president Ezeta ; reported . . . 4 June, ,, 

Gen. Rafael A. Guitierrez proclaimed president ; 
reported . .... 7 June, ,, 

Pres. Gutierrez deposed, in consequence of the pro- 
posed federation with Honduras and Nicaragua ; 
gen. Tomas Regalado made president . 19 Nov. 1898 

Sen. Escalon elected president ; reported . 15 Jan. 1903 

Dispute with Guatemala settled . 30 March, ,, 

" SALVATION ARMY," a name assumed 
by a body of persons terming themselves the 
" Christian Mission " (formed by the combination 
of several revival societies in 1865, for the evan- 
gelization of the very lowest classes). Mr. William 
Booth was nominated "general" of the army. 
Deeds constituting Mr. Booth general superin- 
tendent of the affairs of the " Christian Mission" 
with plenan powers, and trustee of its property and 
income, and also with power to name his successor, 
were enrolled in Chancery, Aug. 1878. 

A gi eat "Hosanna" meeting to celebrate the formation 
of the 104th corps at Northampton, was held at the 
headquarters (with prayers, addresses, and singing), 
272, Whitechapel-road, 30 June, 1879. 

Gen. Booth set forth his principles in the Contem- 
porary Review for August, 1882 ; he upholds the 
gospel, opposes sectarianism, and requires from 
his soldiers implicit obedience, aiming at the re- 
formation of drunkards and other reprobates.* 

The Eagle Tavern and Grecian Theatre, City Road, 
London, purchased; occupied, early 12 Aug.; de- 
voted, 14 Sept. 1882 ; conditions of sale not kept, 
ordered to quit 6 July, 1883 

Indian contingent (major Tucker and others), land 
at Bombay ; fined ; imprisoned on non-pavment, 

28 Sept. ,, 

Their "invasion" opposed by the authorities in 
Switzerland, Jan. et seq. ; severely opposed, June; 
Miss Booth imprisoned at Neufchatel, Sept.; ac- 
quitted, 1 Oct. ; expelled . . .11 Oct. ,, 

Great lighting between Salvation and Skeleton 
armies at Gravesend [and other places] 15 Oct. ,, 

"553 army brigades in the United Kingdom; 182 
abroad." — Gen. Booth .... April, 1884 

West-end centre building founded . . 14 June, ,, 

Severe rioting at Worthing; the army attacked by 
the Skeleton army, 18-20 Aug. ; a man wounded 
by a revolver fired by Mr. (.;. Head, 7 Sept.; 
rioting at Brighton .... 7 Sept. .. 

International congress in London 28May-aJune, 1886 

General Booth appeals to the army for a subscrip- 
tion of 5,000? 20 Aug. ,, 

Another appeal Dec. 1887 

lie reports "advance of the army " throughout the 
world with varying success, opposition and in- 
difference ; about 100,000?. received in . . . ,, 

Celebration of the 23rd anniversary of the organiza- 
tion of the army at the Alexandra Palace, o July, 1888 

Severe decree against the army in Berne, 2 Sept. ; 
unconstitutional persecution, Aug. -Sept. 1884, 
continued 1888-9. 

* The army has officers of various grades; head- 
quarters, i"i, Queen Victoria street, London ; publish- 
ing offices, &c, Paternoster Square ; official gazette, the 
War Cry, price \<\., in various languages, of which 
millions are sold The propagandist!! is very vigorous. 



SALZBACH. 



1097 



SAMOAN ISLES. 



Tlie offices in Queen Victoria Street, London, 
partly burnt 3 Dec. 1889 

17CI1 anniversary kept at the Alexandra Palace, 
3 July, 1882 ; 25th at Crystal Palace . . . 1890 

Death of Mrs. Catherine Booth, aged 61 . 4 Oct. ,, 

Great funeral demonstration at Olympia, 13 Oct. ; 
Abney Park 14 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Booth publishes his book " In Darkest 
England, and the Way Out," to renovate the 
very lowest classes ("the. submerged tenth") ; 
lie proposes the formation of city, farm, and over 
the sea colonies (cost about 1,000,000?.) . Oct. ,, 

Great meetings of the army at Exeter Hall, 43, 171?. 
contributed 17, 18 Nov. ,, 

Above 106,000?. subscribed or promised . Dec. ,, 

Great progress of the army in India and the colo- 
nies reported 13 Nov. ,, 

Force of the army : 9,416 officers, 1,375 corps at 
home, and 1,499 m the colonies, capital, 750,000?., 
reported Dec. ,, 

General Booth visits Copenhagen, Hamburg, Ber- 
lin, and other places to inspect his army, Feb. ; 
S. Africa, the East, and Australia, Aug. et seq. 
1891 ; his welcome home, 12 days' festivities, 

12 Feb. et seq. 1892 

Mrs. David Bell, of Glasgow, bequeaths about 
58,193?. and a hall in Dollar to gen. Booth in 
support of his work, announced . . 8 May, 1891 

Gen. Booth urgently appeals for funds . May, 1892 

A committee of inquiry respecting the expenditure 
of the funds (earl of Onslow, sir Henry James, 
Mr. Sydney Buxton, and others), 25 Oct. et seq. ; 
a good report issued .... 19 Dec. ,,. 

A lady leaves gen. Booth 20,000?. unconditionally ; 
reported 21 March, 1894 

Jubilee meeting at the Crystal Palace, 80,000 
British and foreign delegates present . 3 July, ,, 

In Aug. 1894, there were 10,740 officers and 28,893 
members ; 41 countries occupied, 54 training 
institutions and 27 languages used. 

Gen. Booth endeavours to establish peasant 
colonies, and village banks, 1895 et seq. 

Dissension ill the army, Mr. Ballington Booth, son 
of the " general," starts a separate army in the 
United States, N.A March, 1896 

Great exhibition (foreign and domestic) at the 
Royal Agricultural hall, Islington . 1-12 Aug. ,, 

32nd annual festival at the Crystal Palace (60,000 
present), commendatory letter from the queen, 
read by gen. Booth . . . .20 July, 1897 

Meeting at the Alexandra palace (50,328 officers, 
14,500 bandsmen in the army) . . 18 July, 189S 

Meetings at the Mansion house in aid of the social 
work of the army . . . . i April, ,, 

Mansion house meeting, Mr. Cecil Rhodes testifies 
to the good done in S. Africa, and subscribes 200?. 
to the funds ; lord Aberdeen praises the farm 
colony and the over-sea colony in W. Australia, 

21 April, 1899 

Salvation army international exhibition at the 
Agricultural hall (see Essex) . . . 24 July, ,, 

Army force: 4,164 corps; 15,509 officers ; 81 rescue 
homes in Gt. Britain, 407 abroad, about 20,000 
inmates in 1901 

Gen. Booth speaks at an inaugural meeting of the 
new temperance crusade at Exeter hall . 3 Feb. 1902 

Army force : 7,599 corps; 15,796 officers (302,000?. 
expended in 1902) 1 Jan. 1903 

SALZBACH (Baden) . Here the French gene- 
ral Turenne was killed, at the commencement of a 
battle, 27 July, 1675. 

SALZBURG, an ancient city of Germany, was 
annexed to Austria, 1805; to Bavaria, 1809; to 
Austria again 1815. It was the birthplace of 
Mozart, 1756. The meetings of the emperors of 
Austria and France here, 18 Aug. 1867, and the 
emperors of Austria and German}', 6 Sept. 1871, 
which caused some anxiety, were reported to be in 
favour of peace. Population, province, 1890, 
173,510; 1900, 193,247; city, 1890, 27,741; 1900, 
32,934- 

SAMAJ, or SOMAJ, see Deism. 

SAMANIDE DYNASTY, began with Ismail 



Samani. who overcame the army of the Safferides, 
and established himself in the government of 
Persia, 902 ; his descendants ruled till 999. 

SAMARCAND (in Tartary) was conquered by 
the Mahometans, 707 ; by Genghis Khan, 1220, and 
by Timur, or Tamerlane, who ruled here in great 
splendour. Samarcand was occupied by the Prus- 
sians under Kaufmann 26 May, 1868, after a con- 
flict on the previous day. The garrison left, resisted 
a fierce siege till relieved by Kaufmann, 13-20 June, 
1868. 

SAMARITANS. Samaria was built by Omri, 
925 B.C.; and became the capital of the kingdom 
of Israel. On the breaking up of that kingdom 
(721 B.C.), the conqueror Shalmaneser placed natives 
of other countries at Samaria. The descendants of 
these mixed races were abominable to the Jews, and 
much more so in consequence of the rival temple 
built on Mount Gerizim by Sanballat the Samaritan, 
332 B.C., which was destroyed by John Hyrcanus, 
130 B.C. ; see John iv. & viii. 48, and Luke x. ^. 
The Samaritan Pentateuch (of uncertain origin) 
was published in his Polyglot by Morinus, 1632. 
The Samaritan Free hospital, Marylebone ; memorial 

stone laid by the prince of Wales, 24 July, 1889. 

SAMNITES, a warlike people of S. central 
Italy, who strenuously resisted the Roman power, 
and were not subjugated till after three sangui- 
nary wars, from 343 to 290 B.C. They afterwards 
joined Pyrrhus, Hannibal, and other enemies of 
Pome, without benefit to themselves. Their brave 
leader, Caius Pontius, who spared the Romans at 
Caudium, 320, having been taken prisoner, was. 
basely put to death, 292. They did not acquire 
the right of citizenship till 88 B.C. See Caudine 
Forks and Rome. 

SAMOAN ISLES (or Navigators), (nine in- 
habited), near the Fiji islands; christianized by 
rev. John Williams, 1830. King Malietoa suc- 
ceeded, 8 Nov. 1880. The isles have a political con- 
stitution ; their parliament voted annexation to 
New Zealand, March, 1885. R. L. Stevenson died 
at Vaihma, 3 Dec. 1894. Population 1902, 33)700. 

King Malietoa deposed for alleged robbery and 
insult by Germans, and replaced by Tamate.se, 
the British and French consuls protest, announced 

8 Sept. 1887 
Insurrection against Tamatese, headed by Mataafa 

Oct, 1888 
Victory of Mataafa, after a fierce battle. 29 Nov. ,, 
A party of Germans land, attacked by Mataafa's 
. forces; 16 killed and the rest rescued 18 Dec. ,, 
Difficulties regarding Samoa have arisen between 
the German, British, and United States govern- 
ments Jan. 1889 

The Germans declare war against Mataafa ; 31 Jan. ,, 
Prince Bismarck yields to U. States claims Feb. ,, 
Cessation of hostilities rejiorted . 5 March, ,, 

By a great storm three German and three American 
war vessels were driven ashore at Apia on the 
island of Upola and destroyed ; about 50 
Americans and 96 Germans drowned ; H.M.S. 
Calliope escaped by steaming out 15, 16 March, ,, 
[Capt. Kane of the Calliope was thanked by the 
admiralty for his skill and seamanship.] 
Conference on Samoan affairs at Berlin; plenipoten- 
tiaries : England, sir Edward Malet ; Germany, 
count H. Bismarck ; United States, Mr. John 
Kasson ; first met 29 April ; closing conference, 
agreement signed subject to legislative ratification 

14 June, ,, 
The convention declares the Samoan Isles to be 
independent neutral territory ; the three powers 
to have equal rights ; Malietoa recognized as 
king ; a supreme court created, with other pro- 
visions. 



SAMOAN ISLES. 



1098 



SANCTUARIES. 



Mataafa supports Malietoa, who is warmly received 
on his return to Apia, n Aug. ; lie resigns king- 
ship to Mataafa 

Mataafa elected king, and Malietoa vice- king, an- 
nounced 14 Oct. 

Malietoa reinstated as king, with the assent of 
foreign powers 10 Dec. 

Death of Tamasese, reported . . 28 April, 

The powers promise the king needed help . Aug. 

Threatened war averted by intervention . Dec. 

A German white book, containing the diplomatic 
correspondence from spring, 1890, to 6 Dec. 1892 
(supporting the statements of Mr. Robert L. 
Stevenson and describing the troubles attributed 
to the misconduct of baron Senfft von Pilsach, 
adviser to the king, and Herr von Cederkrantz, 
chief justice), issued at Berlin . . 16 Jan. 

Herr von Senfft Pilsach and Herr von Cederkrantz 
dismissed ; reported .... 11 May, 

Disputes between the king and Mataafa ; reported 

14 June; fighting began, 7 July; stopped by 
foreign warships .... 19 July, 

Mataafa subdued and transported to kakaofo 
island ; reported 1 Sept. 

Mr. Henry Ide, an American citizen, appointed 
chief justice Sept. 

A rebellion against king Malietoa suppressed ; re- 
ported 30 Jan. 

Civil war, caused by the repressive measures of the 
chief justice, Mr. Henry Ide ; 35 men killed, 
many wounded .... 10 March et seq. 

A protectorate of the isles proposed by New Zea- 
land, April ; see New Zealand, Nov. 1894. 

Cessation of war through foreign influence ; reported 

25 April, 

Insurrection in Atua ; reported, 1 June et seq. ; 
intervention of British and German warships ; 
the rebel stronghold bombarded, 10 Aug. ; fight- 
ing continued, 12, 13 Aug. ; the rebels surrender, 

15 Aug. ; end of war . . .6 Sept. 
Death of Mr. Robt. Louis Stevenson, at Apia, 

aged 44, 4 Dec. ; much beloved by the Samoans, 
and buried by them on the top of Vaea mountain, 
1,300 feet above sea-level . . . . 5 Dec. 

Depression of trade, reported . . . April, 

Death of king Malietoa - ... 22 Aug. 

Combined demonstration of British and Germim 
warships against Mulinuu, reported . 24 Nov. 

Dispute over the election of a king ; chief justice 
Chambers decides in favour of Tanu, son of 
Malietoa, and against Mataafa (according to in- 
ternal compact, 14 June, 1889) . .31 Dec. 

Mataafa, encouraged by the Germans, rebels ; fight- 
ing ensues, houses looted and burnt in Apia ; 
capt. Sturdee lands with British marines ; Tanu, 
Mr. Chambers and others take refuge on H.M.S. 
Porpoise 1 Jan. 

Foreign consuls acknowledge Mataafa de facto 
king 4 Jan. 

Provisional government formed ; dr. Raffel, presi- 
dent of the municipal court, proclaims himself 
acting-chief justice ; British and U.S. consuls 
protest; capt. Sturdee, of H.M.S. Porpoise, 
threatens to open fire if any resistance is offered 
to chief justice Chambers, who resumes his court 
under escort 7 Jan. 

Negotiations between the British, American, and 
German governments Ian. 

German opposition to chief justice Chambers 

9 Jan. 

Robt. Louis Stevenson's house looted by the 
rebels ........ Feb. 

Dr. Raffel is recalled t<> Berlin ; leaves Apia, Feb. 

Adm. Kantz U.S. Philadelphia, arrives, 6 March; 
negotiations held; a proclamation issued, de- 
nouncing Mataafa's government as illegal under 
the Berlin treaty ,12 March ; a counter-proclama- 
tion issued by lien- Rose, German consul, u 
March ; Apia surrounded by rebels, 14 March ; 
British and American blue-jackets landed under 
capt. sturdee; the Tiv.ili hotel attacked by the 
rebels, \ British marines killed ; the warships 
open Are, 15 March ; rebels repulsed at the British 
consulate by blue-jackets under gen. Cutliffe, 17 
March ; Malietoa crowned king in presence of the 
foreign consuls (Germans excepted) . 23 March, 



1S93 



Much friction and anarchy ; 4 British marines, 1 
private and 1 American guarding the consulates 
killed ; German consul issues an aggressive pro- 
clamation : villages shelled by British and U.S. 
warships, brisk fighting . . .30 March, 1899 

An Anglo-American force ambuscaded while recon- 
noitring at Vailele, British lieut. Freeman and 2 
men, U.S. lieur. Philip Lansdale, ensign John 
Monaghan and 2 marines killed ; 100 rebels killed 
and wounded 1 April, ,, 

Rebel posts at Vailima and elsewhere captured by 
lieut. Gaunt's brigade, 12-17 April ; much skir- 
mishing ; ultimatum ; Mataafa and chiefs agree 
to keep outside boundary, 25 April ; and sur- 
render arms May, ,, 

Internat. commission : Mr. Bartlett Tripp (U.S.), 
president ; Mr. Eliot and baron Sternburg arrive 
at Apia 13 May, ,, 

Mr. Chambers' decision concerning the kingship 
confirmed ; Tanu voluntarily abdicates, 

10-13 June, ,, 

Further fighting, 3 chiefs arrested . . 4 July, „ 

Chief-justice Chambers resigns, and leaves Apia, 

14 July, „ 

Rival parties sign an agreement abolishing the 
kingship ; an administrator, with a council of 3, 
to be nominated by Great Britain, U.S. and 
Germany ; a native, assembly and high court of 
justice to be appointed, Mr. Osborne, U.S. con- 
sul, to act as chief justice, 17 July ; the commis- 
sioners leave, 18 July; their report issued, 13 
Oct. ; government in the hands of Dr. Solf, the 
municipal president, and 3 consuls . . Aug. ,, 

Samoa treaty : Anglo-German convention ; Samoa 
ceded to Germany ; the Tonga, Savage, and Solo- 
mon isles, &c. , to Great Britain; Tutuila and 
adjacent isles to U.S.N. A. ; Gold Coast and Togo- 
land (Hinterland) frontiers settled, signed 14 
Nov. 1899, ratified 16 Feb. 1900; German flag 
hoisted, Dr. Solf, governor . . .1 March, 1900 

Convention signed by England, U.S. and Germany, 
referring compensation claims to the arbitration 
of the king of Sweden, 7 Nov. 1899 ; Great 
Britain and U.S.N.A. pronounced liable for 
losses to foreigners incurred during the fighting ; 
award signed 14 Oct. 1902 

SAMOS, an island on the W. coast of Asia 
Minor. Colonised by Ionians about 1043 n.c. The 
city was founded about 986. Polycrates, ruler of 
Samos (532-22 B.C.), was one of the most able, 
fortunate, and treacherous of the Greek tyrants, 
and possessed a powerful fleet- He patronised 
Pythagoras (born here) and Anacreon. Samos was 
taken by the Athenians. 440 ; and, with Greece, 
became subject to Rome, 14O. It was taken by the 
Venetians, a.u. 1125, who here made velvet (samet), 
and became subject to the Turks, about 1459. Popu- 
lation, 1891, 44,953; 1900, 54,830. 

It was made a principality under Turkish suzerainty by 
sultan Mahmoud in 1832. 

New autonomous constitution granted, in 1850. 

Prince Constantine Adossides, born 23 Feb., 1822 ; 
appointed 4 March, 1879. Alexander Karatheodory, 
born 20 July, 1833, appointed 1885 ; Georgia Pasha 
Berovitch appointed, Jan. 1895 ; succeeded by Ste- 
phanaky Musurus Bey, about 28 June, 1896; Costaki 
Valganis Btfendi, March, 1899; Mihailaki Georgiadis, 
Aug. igoo ; Alexander Mavrogeno, March, 19C2. 

SAN- For names witli this prefix, sec the 
names themselves throughout, the book. 

SANATORIUM, see Tuberculosis. 

SAMPFORD COURTENAY (Devon). 
Here John, lord Russell, defeated the Cornish and 
Devonshire catholic rebels, the middle of Aug. 1 549. 

SANCTION, see Pragmatic. 

SANCTUARIES, Bee Asylums- Privileged 
places for the safety of offenders are said to have 
been granted by king Lucius to churches and 
their precincts. St. John's of Beverley was thus 



SANDALS. 



1099 



SANDWICH ISLANDS. 



privileged in the time of the Saxons. St. Burian's, 
in Cornwall, was privileged by Athelstan, 935 ; 
Westminster, by Edward the Confessor; St. Mar- 
tin's-le-Grand, 1529. Being much abused, the pri- 
vilege of sanctuary was limited by the pope in 1503 
(at the request of Henry VII.), and much reduced 
in 1540. In London, persons were secure from 
arrest in certain localities : these were the Minories, 
Salisbury - court, Whitefriars, Fulwood's- rents, 
Mitre-court, Baldwin's-gardens, the Savoy, Clink, 
Peadman's-place, Montague-close, and the Mint. 
This security was abolished 1697, but lasted in some 
degree till the reign of George II. (1727). 

SANDALS, see Shoes. 

SAND-BLAST. Gen. B. C. Tilghman, of 
Philadelphia, has invented a method of cutting stone 
or hard metal by a jet of quartz sand impelled by 
compressed air or steam. A hole of ik inch diameter 
and 1 5 inch deep was bored through a block of 
corundum, nearly as hard as diamond, in 25 
minutes. The invention was submitted to the Frank- 
lin Institute, Philadelphia, 15 Feb. 1871. It may 
be employed in the arts, for etching, &c. ; for this 
purpose a eompany was at work, 1874. 

SANDEMANIANS, see Glasites. 
SANDGATE, Kent, see Landslips. 
SANDHUEST, Royal Military 

COLLEGE, founded, first at High Wycombe, in 
1799 ; removed to Great Marlow in 1802, and to 
Sandhurst in 1812. It consists of the staff college 
and cadets' college. Competitive examination for 
entrance into the latter began in Feb. 1858. A wing 
of the college was destroyed by fire, 21 Jan. 1868; 
5 fires from unknown causes occurred, 23 April, 
7 May, 7, 25 June; 29 c;ulets rusticated, 3 .luly ; 
3 servants discharged, much indignation, see Times, 
8, 12 July; all but two cadets exonerated by lord 
Roberts after special inquiry, 25 July, 1902. 

SANDKINGHAM HOUSE, N.E. Norfolk, 
was purchased by the prince of Wales, 1861, re- 
built ; occupied, 1871; much injured by fire, 1 Nov. 
1891. Here the duke of Clarence and Avondale 
died, 14 Jan. 1892. York cottage, occupied by the 
duke and duchess of York, 6 July, 1893. An avenue 
(joining the Sandringham estate to the newly- 
acquired Anmer one) presented to the king by his 
tenants and labourers, 10 Nov. 193''. Fire in room 
over queen's bedroom, her majesty 'a happy escape, 
11 Dec. 1903. 

SANDWICH {Tortus Rutupensis, Kent). It 
suffered by Danish invaders in 851, 993, and 1014, 
but was rebuilt by Canute, and became prosperous ; 
it became chief of the cinque ports about 1066. It 
contributed 22 ships and 504 mariners to Jul ward 
III.'s French expedition. It was taken and plun- 
dered \>y the French under Breze in Aug. 1457. 
Flemish silk and woollen manufactories were set- 
tled here by Elizabeth in 1561. Disfranchised 
1885. Pop., 1881, 2,846; 1891, 2,796; 1901, 3,00c. 

SANDWICH ISLANDS or Hawaii Ar- 
chipelago, a group in the Pacific Ocean, discovered 
by captain Cook in 1778 ; but thought now to have 
been discovered by Juan Galtan, a Spaniard, 
about 1542. In Owhyhee or Hawaii, one of these 
islands, he fell a victim to the sudden resentment 
of the natives, 14 Feb. 1779. The king and queen | 
visited Lor'Ion in 1824, and died there in July. 
These penr/le have made great progress in civilisa- 1 
tioD and embraced Christianity before any mis- j 
sionarie3 were settled among them. Population 



in 1884, 80,578; 1890, 89,990; 1900, 63,592. 
Numbers of native population said to be stationary. 

King Kamehameha I., a chieftain of the island Hawaii, 
subdued the other isles, and ruled from 1789 to 1819. 

Idolatry gradually superseded by Christianity, 1819 ct 
seq. 

Kamehameha II., with his queen, visited England ; both 
died of measles in London in 1824. 

Kamehameha III. promulgation of constitution, 1840 ; 
independence of the state recognized by the great 
powers, 1843. 

Kamehameha IV. married Miss Emma Rooker, 1856 ; 
she came to England and was received by the queen, 
9 Sept. 1865. 

Bishopric of Honolulu constituted, 1861 ; Dr. Thomas 
Staley, constituted, 18 Aug. 1862. 

The king died ; Kamehameha V. king . Nov. 1863 

The duke of Edinburgh warmly received at Hono- 
lulu 21 July, 1869 

Bishop Staley resigns, Aug. 1870 ; bishop Alfred 
Willis consecrated 2 Feb. 1872 

Kame'hame'ha V. died, unmarried . n Dec. ,, 

Wm. C. Lunalilo crowned, 8 Jan. 1873 ; died, 3 Feb. 1874 

Reciprocity treaty concluded between Hawaii and 
the United States 1875 

David Kalakaua (born 16 Nov. 1836), elected king, 
in opposition to queen Emma 12 Feb. ; visits the 
president at Washington 12 Dec. 1876 ; visits 
Europe ; at Rome, 1 July ; received by the queen 
at Windsor, 12 July, 1881 ; crowned . 12 Feb. 1883 

Queen Kapiolani arrives at Liverpool to be present 
at the royal jubilee service 2 June ; arrives in 
London 8 June, 1887 

Revolution against a corrupt ministry 25 June ; 
the ministry deposed 30 June ; the king powerless 
appeals to the foreign representatives, who 
recommend the formation of a new constitution ; 
the king signs a new constitution 7 July ; new 
ministry formed .... 10 July, ,, 

Mr. Wilcox, a government military pupil, with 100 
men, attempts the seizure of the palace at Hono- 
lulu, 30 July ; fighting ensues, 6 rebels killed ; 
Wilcox surrenders .... 31 July, 1889 

Death of the king David Kalakaua at San Fran- 
cisco, 20 Jan. ; succeeded by his sister, Lydia 
Liliuokalani (who visited England in 1887), pro- 
claimed 29 Jan. 1891 

Political troubles : the late king's ministers refuse 
to resign, Feb. ; opposition to the queen ; Ameri- 
can intervention against civil war about 4 March, ,, 

The ministry resigns ; new one formed, 26 Feb. ; 
princess Kaiulani declared heir apparent, 9 March , , , 

The queen nominates her privy council of 40 mem- 
bers, including her husband, Mr. John Owen 
Dominis, March ; Mr. Lominis died . 27 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Robert Wilcox heads a native party against 
the government, desiring a republic . Dec. ,, 

Conspiracy of Wilcox and others suppressed, 20 May, 1892 

The queen, proposing to change the constitution, is 
dethroned, and a provisional government set up 
(.justice S. B. Dole and others), 17 Jan. ; order 
maintained by troops from the U.S. warship 
Boston ; the provisional government recognized 
by the British minister ... 19 Jan. 1893 

A mission sent to Washington desiring annexation, 
14-16 Jan. 1893 ; the commissioners received at 
Washington 4 Feb. et seq. 

Temporary protectorate established by Mr. John L. 
Stevens', the U. S. minister . . 1 Feb. 

Treaty for the annexation of the islands to the 
U.S.N. A. ; proposed 16 Feb. ; the treaty with- 
drawn from the senate by president Cleveland 

9 March, 

Commissioners from the queen oppose the treaty, 
Feb. ; appeal of the princess Kaiulani, published 
21 Feb. ; she arrives at New York . 1 March, 
Commissioner Blount sent to Honolulu from 
America, 20 March ; he withdraws the protec- 
torate and troops, 1 April ; made U.S. minister 

May, 
Sympathizing letter from queen Victoria to the 
ex-queen Liliuokalani ; reported . . April, 
The United States decline the annexation ; the 
restoration of the queen opposed by the pro- 
visional government ; reported . . Jan. : 



SANGIR ISLANDS. 



1100 



SAX JUAN ISLAND. 



U.S. admiral Walker authorized to establish an 
American naval station at Honolulu . 24 March, 1894 

The senate of U.S.N.A. affirm the sole right of 
Hawaii to fix its own form of government, 31 May, „ 

Establishment of a republic proposed, 3 June ; 
proclaimed ; Mr. Sanford B. Dole elected pre- 
sident 4 July, ,, 

Rising of the Hawaiians against the republican 
government ; desultory righting, Mr. C. L. 
Carter, late U.S. commissioner, killed ; martial 
law proclaimed, 6, 7, Jan. 1895 ; rebellion over ; 
many arrests, reported . . . 11 Jan. ,, 

The ex-queen arrested for complicity, 19 Jan. ; 
eloquent defence by the ex-queen before the 
military commission ; sentenced after trial to 5 
years' imprisonment and fine of 5,000 dollars ; 3 
of her adherents sentenced to death (remitted); 
many to long imprisonment . 24 Feb.-March, 1895 

Walker and Rickard, British subjects, arrested ; 
intervention of lord Kimberley, May, 1895 ; all 
political prisoners released . . .1 Jan. 1896 

The ex-queen and most of her supporters pardoned, 
reported, 13 Sept. 1895 ; the queen restored to 
civil rights, reported . . . .29 Oct. ,, 

Treaty for the annexation of Hawaii to the United 
States signed at Washington, 16 June, 1897 ; rati- 
fied by the Hawaii senate . . 10 Sept. 1897 

The ex-queen protests, announced . . 18 June, ,, 

The island annexed by the United States; 7 July, 1898 

Volcanic eruption of Mauna Loa, 4 July, 1899 ; 
violent eruption of Kilauea at Honolulu, 3 June, 1902 

SANGIR ISLANDS, a group lying between 
the Philippines and Celebes, subject to the Dutch. 
Great Sangir has suffered much by volcanic erup- 
tions. By one in 1856 about 2,000 persons perished, 
and by others, 7 June et seq. 1892, it was said that 
nearly all the population, about 12,000, was destroyed. 

SANHEDRIM. An ancient Jewish council 
of the highest jurisdiction, of seventy, or, as some 
say, seventy-three members, usually considered to 
be that established by Moses, Num.. xi. 16, — 1490 
B.C. It was yet in being at the time of Jesus 
Christ, John xviii. 31. A Jewish Sanhedrim was 
summoned by the emperor Napoleon I., 23 July, 
1806. A meeting of Jewish deputies was held 18 
Sept., and the Sanhedrim assembled, 9 March, [807. 

SANITARY INSTITUTE of Great 
BRITAIN, founded 13 July, 1876; president, the 
duke of Northumberland ; incorporated Aug. 1888. 
Congress at Leamington, 3 Oct. 1877; at Stafford, 
2 Oct. 1878; at Croydon, 21 Oct. 1879; at Exeter, 
1S80; opened a School of Hygiene in London. Nov. 
1879. Congress at Newcastle, 1882 ; at Glasgow, 
27 Sept. r883 ; at Dublin, 30 Sept. 1884 ; at Leices- 
ter, 22 Sept. 1885 ; York, 21 Sept. 1886: Bolton, 
20 Sept. 1887; Worcester, 24 Sept. 1889; Brighton, 
24 Aug. 1890; Ponsmouth, 12 Sept. 1892; Liver- 
pool, 24 Sept. [894; Newcastle-on-Tyne, 2 Sept. 
1896 : Leeds, 14 Sept. 1897; Birmingham, 27 Sept. 
1898; Southampton, 29 Aug. 1899; Manchester, 
9 Sept. 1902. See under Sanitation. 

SANITATION, the preservation of health. 
Strictcleanlinessisenjoined Ln the law of Moses, 1490 
b.c. Great attention has been paid to the public health 
in France since 1802. Tardieu published his"Dic- 
tionnaire de Hygiene," 1852-54. Sanitary com- 
missions were appointei I iii iS^Sand 1X44. To Dr. 
Southwood Smith is mainly attributable the honour 
of commencing the agitation on the subject, of public 
health in England about [832; his " Philosophy of 
Health" having excited much attention. Since 
1838 he has published numerous sanitary reports, 
having been much employed by the government. 
Professors of hygiene are now appointed. See 
Health, Public Health, and Hygiene (Congresses). 
Investigations of the Poor Lav Commissioners and con- 
sequent disclosures ami the reports of the registrar- 
general lead to legislation, iBj^etseq. 



Nuisances Removal act passed (repealed) . 1845-1860 
Baths and Washhouses act .... 1846-1847 
Public Health act (subsequent Supplemental acts). 

See Health, Board of 1848 

Common Lodging Houses act . . . 1851-1853 
Labouring Classes Lodging Houses act . . . 1851 
Smoke Nuisance Abatement act .... 1853 

Diseases Prevention act 1855 

Public Health act passed ,, 

Metropolitan Interments acts . . . 1850-1855 
International sanitary conferences at Paris, 1851 ; 

at Constantinople i860 

Labouring Classes Dwelling-house act passed, March, 1866 
New Sanitary act (stringent) passed Aug. 1866; 

amended 1868, 1870 

Public Health act passed ... 10 Aug. 1872 

National health society founded .... 1873 
International sanitary congress at Vienna, closed 

1 Aug. 1874 
Public Health act for Ireland passed . 7 Aug. „ 
Sanitary Laws Amendment act passed . 7 Aug. „ 
New Consolidated Public Health act passed . . 1875 
An international exhibition of objects relating to 
public health and safety was opened by the king 
of Belgium at Brussels, 26 June ; a congress met 

27 Sept. 1876 
See Hygiene and Sanitary Institute. 
Parkes "museum of hygiene," instituted 1876, at 
University college, London ; incorporated and 
removed to Margaret-street, Cavendish-square, 
1882; opened by the duke of Albany 26 May, 1883 ; 
incorporated with the Sanitary Institute of Great 

Britain Aug. 1888 

Sanitary Assurance Association, formed by sir Jo- 
seph Fayrer, Drs. Andrew Clark, Corfield, Tyn- 
dall, and others ; constituted . . .14 Dec. 1880 
London Sanitary Protection Association, founded by 

sir Wm. W. Gull, professor Huxley, and others . 1881 
International sanitary exhibition, royal Albert hall, 

16 July — 13 Aug. ,, 
National health society's exhibition opened 2 June, 1883 
International health exhibition, 1884 ; proposals 
adopted, Nov. 1883 ; opened by the duke of Cam- 
bridge, 8 May ; closed, 30 Oct. ; conferences held 
about 12 June ; the juries inaugurated by the 
prince of Wales, 17 June; admitted, 4,153,390; 
medalsawarded (242 gold, 5096 silver, and others), 
27 Oct. 1884; estimated surplus, 19,000?. . Feb. 1885 
International sanitary conferences at Washington, 

1881 ; at Rome ,, 

Stated result of fifty years' sanitation saving of 
about 501,000 lives ; death rate reduced from 
above 22 to 19 per thousand . . . Nov. 1886 
The College of State Medicine for the training of 
persons officially employed in matters relating to 
public health inaugurated ; address by Mr. 

Brudenell Carter 2 May, 1888 

Congress of Hygiene met at Paris . ■ • 4 Aug. 18S9 
Sir Edwin Chad wick, a great promoter of sanitation, 

died, aged 90 5 July, 1890 

International sanitary conference at Venice, 5 Jan. 
et seq. ; convention respecting quarantine, &e., 
signed by some of the delegates . 30 Jan. 1892 

Sanitary conference at Paris . . about 24 May, ,, 
Church Sanitary Association, established 1893 

(annual meetings) 1894 

International sanitary conference at Dresden re- 
specting cholera, &c, 11 March, 1803; closed 
15 April, 1893 ; at Paris, 7 Feb. ct seq. 1894 ; con- 
vention for the powers, 3 April, 1894, see Plague, 
1897; Leeds, 14 Sept. 1897; Paris . 17 Oct. 1903 

Sir Richard Thome Thome, K.C.B., a promoter of 
sanitary science and preventive medicine, died, 

aged 58 18 Dec. 1899 

Prof. W. H. Corfield died, aged 60 . 26 Aug. 1903 

SANITAS (health), an antiseptic and dis- 
infectant, invented by Mr. C. T. Kingzett, about 

1875- 

Having discovered that the salubrity of the air surround- 
ing certain trees, such as the Eucalyptus globulus and 
pines, is due to their volatile oils producing peroxide 
of hydrogen and camphoric acid, lie devised a method 
tor procuring these 1 re-agents by the decomposition of 
common turpentine, and in 1S77 they were manufac- 
tured and sold as " Sanitas." 

SAN JUAN ISLAND, see Juan. 



SANOSIN. 



1101 



SAEATOGA. 



SANOSIN, a new remedy for consumption, 
stopping coughing and fever and night sweats, and 
causing increase in weight. Papers on the new 
remedy read by Dr. Danelius and professor Soni- 
merfield at Berlin Medical society, 13 May, 1903. 

SAN SALVADOE, see Salvador. 

SANSCULOTTES, a term of reproach applied 
to the leaders of the French republicans about 179O1 
on account of their negligence in dress, and after- 
wards assumed by them with pride. The comple- 
mentary days of their new calendar were named by 
the Mountain party Sansculottides. 

SANSKEIT, the language of the Brahmans of 
India, spoken at the time of Solomon, bas been 
much studied of late years. Sir Wm. Jones, who 
published a translation of the poem Sakuntala, in 
1783, discovered that a complete literature had been 
preserved in India, comprising sacred books (the 
Vedas), history and philosophy, lyric and dramatic 
poetry. Texts and translations of many works have 
been published by the aid of the East India Com- 
pany, the Oriental Translation Fund, and private 
liberality. The professorship of Sanskrit at Ox- 
ford was founded by colonel Boden. The first pro- 
fessor, H. H. Wilson, appointed in 1832, translated 
part of the Rig-veda Sanhita, the sacred hymns of 
the Brahmins, and several poems, &c. Professor 
Monier "Williams (elected i860, knt. 1886, died 
II April, 1899) published an English and Sanskrit 
dictionary, 185 1. Professor Max Miiller published 
his history of Sanskrit Literature in 1859, and has 
edited the original text of the Vedas (he died 28 
Oct. 1900). Philologists have discovered an intimate 
connection between the Sanskrit, Persian, Greek, 
Latin, Teutonic, Slavonian, Celtic, and Scandi- 
navian languages. Prof. Buehler, eminent Oriental 
scholar, professor of Sanskrit at Vienna, drowned 
in the lake of Constance, 8 April, 1898 ; Dr. Peter 
Peterson, of Bombay, an eminent Sanscritist, dies 
Sept. 1899. Mr. Herbert Spencer's " Education" 
translated by Mr. H.Soobba Row into Sanskrit, 1 899. 

SAN STEFANO, see Stefano. 

SANTA CETJZ (Teneriffe, Canary Isles). Here 
admiral Blake, by daring bravery, entirely destroyed 
sixteen Spanish ships, secured with great nautical 
skill, and protected by the castle and forts on the 
shore, 20 April, 1657. Clarendon. In an unsuc- 
cessful attack made upon Santa Cruz by Nelson, 
several officers and 141 men were killed, and the 
admiral lost his right arm, 24 July, 1797.* See 
Virgin Isles. Isles annexed by Great Britain. 
August, 1898. 

SANTA FE DE BOGOTA, see New Gra- 



SANTA HEBMANDAD, see Hermandad. 

SANTANDEB. A thriving Spanish port in 
the Bay of Biscay ; it has suffered by war, and was 
sacked by Soult, 1808. Population, 1887, city, 
41,829; 1897, 50,640; province, 242,843; 1897, 
263,673. 

A vessel lying in the harbour caught fire, causing an 
explosion of dynamite, petroleum, &c, whereby other 
vessels were destroyed and part of the town burnt ; 

* Captain Fremantle, the friend of Nelson, and his com- 
panion in most of his brilliant achievements, was also 
wounded in the arm immediately before Nelson had re- 
ceived Ms wound in the same limb. The following note, 
addressed to the lady of Captain Fremantle (who was on 
board with her husband at the time he wrote), has been 
preserved, as being the first letter written by the hero with 
his left hand: — "My dear Mrs. Fremantle, — Tell me 
how Tom is, I hope he has saved his arm. Mine is off; 
but thank God ! I am as well as I hope he is. Ever yours, 
"Horatio Nelson." 



the death of 500 persons, about 2,000 injured, re- 
ported ; and much property destroyed, 3 Nov. ; the 
place visited immediately by the minister of finance, 
sen. Gamazo ; liberal subscriptions headed by the 
queen regent, sen. Gamazo and others, 7 Nov. 1893 ; 
see Mansion House Funds, 1893. 

A second explosion in the vessel, 18 workmen, &c. 
killed ; panic in the city, 21 March, 1804. 

The ship blown up by order, 30 March, 1894. 

SANTIAGO DE COMPOSTELLA(N.W. 

Spain), was sacked by the Moors in 995, and held by 
them till it was taken by Ferdinand III. in 1235. 
The order of Santiago, or St. James, was founded 
about 1 1 70 to protect pilgrims to the shrine of St. 
James the Greater (Acts, xii. 2), said to be buried in 
the cathedral. The town was taken by the French in 
1809, and held till 1814. — Santiago, the capital of 
Chili, S. America, founded by Valdivia in 1 541, has 
suffered much by earthquakes, especially m 1822 
and 1829. Population, 1885, 189,332; 1899, 320,638. 
See Spanish- American war. 

At a festival in honour of the Virgin Mary, 8 Dec. 1863, 
when the church of the Campania, brilliantly illumi- 
nated, was crowded, the combustible ornaments took 
fire, and above 2,000 persons, principally women, 
perished. On 20 Dec. the government ordered the 
church to be razed to the ground. See Chili, 1891. 

SAPPEES AND MINERS, a name given in 
1812 to the non-commissioned officers and privates 
of the corps of Royal Engineers. Brande. 

SAPPHIC VEESE, invented by Sappho, the 
lyric poetess of Mitylene. She was equally cele- 
brated for her poetry, beauty, and a hopeless passion 
for Phaon, a youth of her native country, on which 
last account it is said she threw herself into the sea 
from Mount Leucas, and was drowned, about 590 
B.C. The Lesbians, after her death, paid her divine 
honours, and called her the tenth muse. Some 
consider the story fabulous. 

SAPPHIEE, a precious stone of an azure 
colour, and transparent ; in hardness it exceeds the 
ruby, and is next to the diamond. One was placed 
in the Jewish high priest's breast-plate, 1491. 
Thamas Kouli Khan is said to have possessed a 
sapphire valued at 300,000/., 1733. Artificial sap- 
phires were made in 1857 by M. Gaudin. Equal parts 
of alum and sulphate of potash were heated in a 
crucible. Mr. Pierpont Morgan presents two 
sapphires, one reported to be the largest and the 
other the most beautiful in the world, to the Nat. 
Hist, museum, New York, July, 1902. 

SABABAND. A stately dance invented by 
Sarabanda, a dancer of Seville, in the 16th century. 

SAEACENS, a name of doubtful origin, popu- 
larly applied in the middle ages and since to the 
Arabs, Moors, and other Mahometans who conquered 
the East, Spain, Sicily, and parts of Africa, and re- 
sisted the Crusaders. See Mahometanism. 

SAEAGOSSA (N.E. Spain), anciently Caesarea 
Augusta, founded 27 B.C., was taken by the Goths, 
470 ; by the Arabs, 712 ; by Alfonso of Spain, 11 18. 
Here Philip V. was defeated by the archduke 
Charles, 20 Aug. 1710. On 17 Dec. 1778, 406 of the 
inhabitants perished in a fire at the theatre. Sara- 
gossa, after successfully resisting the French in 
1808, was taken by them after a most heroic defence 
by general Palafox, 20 Feb. 1809. The inhabitants, 
of both sexes, resisted until worn out by fighting, 
famine, and pestilence. Population, 18S7, 92,407 ; 
1897, 100,000. 

SAEAH SANDS, see Wrecks, 1857. 

SAEAKHS, see Russia, 1884. 

SAEATOGA (New York State, N. America). 
Here general Burgoyne, commander of a body of the 



SARAWAK. 



1102 



SARDINIA. 



British army, after a severe engagement with the 
Americans at Germanstown, in which he was vic- 
torious, 3, 4 Oct., being surrounded, surrendered all 
his army (5791 men) to the American general Gates, 
17 Oct. 1777. This was the greatest check the 
British suffered in the war. 

SARAWAK, see Borneo. 

SARDINIA, an island in the Mediterranean, 
successively possessed by the Phoenicians, Greeks, 
Carthaginians (about 500 B.C.), llomans (238), 
Vandals (a.d. 456), Saracens (720-40), Genoese 
(1022), Pisans (1165), Aragonese (1352), and 
fepaniards. From settlers belonging to these 
various nations the present inhabitants derive their 
origin. Victor Amadeus, duke of Savoy, acquired 
Sardinia in 1 720, with the title of king ; see Savoy. 
Population of the Sardinian dominions in 1858, 
5,194,807 ; of Sardinia alone, 1887, 723,833 ; 9 Feb. 
1901, 789,314 The king of Sardinia was recognised 
as king of Italy by his parliament in Feb. 1861 ; 
see Italy. 
Conquered by the English naval forces, under sir 

John Leake and gen. Stanhope . • • • i7°8 

Ceded to the emperor Charles VI 1714 

Recovered by the Spaniards . . 22 Aug. 171 7 

Ceded to the duke of Savoy with the title of king, 

as an equivalent for Sicily 17 20 

Victor- Amadeus abdicates in favour of his son . . 1730 
Attempting to recover his throne, he is taken, and 

dies in prison 173 2 

The court kept at Turin, till Piedmont is overrun 

by the French i79 2 

Charles-Emmanuel resigns to his brother, duke of 

Aosta 4 June, 1802 

Piedmont annexed to Italy ... 26 May, 1805 

The king resides in Sardinia .... 1798-1814 
Piedmont restored to its sovereign, with Genoa 

added Dec. „ 

King Charles-Albert promulgates a new code . . 1837 
Cavour establishes the newspaper "II Risorgi- 

mento "(" the Revival ") 1847 

The king grants a constitution, and openly espouses 

the cause of Italian regeneration against Austria, 

23 March, 1848 
Defeats the Austrians at Goito ; and takes Peschiera 

30 May, ,, 
Incorporation of Lombardy with Sardinia 28 June, 

and Venice 4 <* u h'> >. 

Sardinian army defeated by Radetzky . 26 July, „ 
Sardinians at Milan capitulate to Radetzky 5 Aug. „ 

Armistice signed 9 Atig. „ 

Hostilities resumed 12 March, 1849 

Radetzky defeats a division of the Sardinians, and 

occupies Mortara .... 21 March, ,, 
Complete defeat of the Sardinians by the Austrians 

at Novara 23 March, ,, 

Charles-Albert abdicates in favour of his son, 

Victor-Emmanuel .... 23 March, „ 
The Austrians occupy Novara, &c. . . 25 March, „ 
Another armistice .... 26 March, „ 
Death of Charles-Albert, at Oporto . 28 July, ,, 
Treaty of Milan between Austria and Sardinia, 

signed 6 Aug. ,, 

Adoption of the Siccardi law, which abolishes 

ecclesiastical jurisdictions . . . 9 April, i8.<-o 
Arrest of the bishop of Turin . . . 4 May, ,, 
He is released from the citadel . 2 June, „ 

Cavour minister of foreign affairs .... 1851 
Bill for suppression Of convents and support of 

clergy by the state passed . . . 2 March, 1855 
Convention with England and France signed; a 

contingent of 15,000 troops to be supplied against 

Russia 'o April, ,, 

10,000 troops under general La Mai mora arrive in 

the Crimea 8 May, ,, 

Who distinguish themselves in the battle of the 

Tchernaya 16 Aug. 1S55 

The king visits London. &C . . 30 Nov. &c. ,, 

[mportant note on lUily from count Cavour to 

England 16 April, 1850 

Rupture with Austria; subsequent war(see^i(s{rio, 

1857 ( '' *"/•) 
Cavour declares in favour of free trade . June, 1S57 



Prince Napoleon Jerome marries princess Clotilde 
(see Italy) 30 Jan. 1859 

Preliminaries of peace signed at Villa Franca, 11 
July ; count Cavour resigns, 13 July ; Rattazzi 
administration formed . . . -19 July, ,, 

The emperor Napoleon's letter to Victor-Emmanuel 
advocating the formation of an Italian confedera- 
tion : the latter declares it to be impracticable, 
and maintains his engagements with the Italians, 

20 Oct. ,, 
Treaty of peace signed at Zurich . . Nov. ,, 
Garibaldi retires into private life . . 17 Nov. ,, 
Count Cavour returns to office . . .16 Jan. i860 
The Sardinian government refers the question of 

annexation of Tuscany, &c, to the vote of the 

people ....... 29 Feb. ,, 

Annexation of Savoy and Nice proposed by the 

French government ; the Sardinian government 

refer it to the vote of the people . . 25 Feb. ,, 
Annexation to Sardinia voted almost unanimously 

by jEmilia, 14 March ; by Tuscany, 16 March ; 

accepted by Victor-Emmanuel . 18-20 March, ,, 
Treaty ceding Savoy and Nice to France, signed 

24 March, „ 
Prussia protests against the Italian annexations 

27 March, „ 
New Sardinian parliament opens . . 2 April, 
Annexation to France almost unanimously voted 

for by Nice, 15 April ; by Savoy . 22 April, ,, 
The government professes disapproval of Garibaldi's 

expedition to Sicily (which see) . . 18 May, „ 
The chambers ratify treaty of cession of Savoy and 

Nice 29 May, ,, 

The Sardinian troops enter the papal territories 

(see Italy and Borne) .... 11 Sept. „ 
Victor-Emmanuel enters the kingdom of Naples, 

15 Oct. ,, 
Naples and Sicily vote for annexation to Sardinia 

21 Oct. „ 
Railway from Sassari to the sea opened 9 April, 1872 
Great storm ; at Quarto, 200 houses, and at Quar- 

tuccie, 3 houses fell, about 15 people killed ; at 
Pizzi, 10 houses destroyed ... 7 Oct. 1889 

A destructive hurricane, four bridges and many 
buildings destroyed, 12 persons killed, reported, 

7 Dec 1890 

Destructive storm and floods, with loss of life, in 
the plain of Campedano, N. of Cagliari, 20 Oct. 1892 

Tortoli ravaged by brigands ... 12 Nov. 189+ 

Report of a commission on the state of the island ; 
recommendations : defences to be strengthened, 
garrisons and railways to be increased ; work 
begun Sept. 1896 

Visit of the king and queen, fetes, &c, at Cagliari, 
12 April, 1899 ; he lays the first stone of the new 
municipal buildings, 14 April ; gives 4,000?. to 
the poor ; unveils a monument to Victor Em- 
manuel at Sassari, 19 April ; reviews British and 
Italian fleet in Aranci bay, visits adm. sir H. 
Rawson on H.M.S. Majestic, 22 April ; Garibaldi's 
tomb at Caprera, and leave . . . 23 April, 

300 persons arrested as accomplices and harbourers 
of criminals 14. 15 May, 

Brigandage in the Moro district suppressed, 

10, 11 July, 

The forest of Anela 011 fire ... 24 Aug. 

[For the disputes, and war with Austria, and the 
events of 1859-61, see Austria, France, Rome, 
Sicily, and Naples.] 

[For later history see Italy.] 

kings of Sardinia. See Savoy. 
1720. Victor-Amadeus I. king (as duke II.) : resigned. in 

1730, in favour of his son ; died in 1732. 
1730. Charles-Emmanuel I. (III. of Savoy), son. 
1773. Victor-Amadeus II., son. 
1796. Charles-Emmanuel II., son; resigned his crown 

in favour of his brother. 
1802. Victor-Emmanuel I., brother; 4 June 
1805. [Sardinia merged in the kingdom of Italy, of which 

the emperor Napoleon was crowned king, 26 

May, 1805.] 
1814. Victor-Emmanuel restored ; resigned in March, 

1821 ; and died in 1824. 
1821. Charles-Felix. 
1831. Charles-Albert ; abdicated in favour of bis son, 23 

March, 1849. Died at Oporto, 28 July, 1849. 



iSoo. 



1905 



SAEDI& 



1103 



SAVINGS* BANKS. 



1849. Victor-Emmanuel II., son ; born 14 March, 1820 ; 
died, 9 Jan. 1878. 
Humbert, king of Italy ; born, 14 March, 1844 ; 
assassinated 29 July, 1900. See Italy, end. 

SAUDIS, see under Seven Churches. 

SABMATIA, the ancient name for the country 
in Asia and Europe between the Caspian Sea and 
the Vistula, including Russia and Poland. The 
Sarmatae or Sauromatse troubled the early Roman 
empire by incursions. After subduing the Scythians 
they were subjugated by the Goths, in the 3rd and 
4th centuries. They joined the Huns and other 
barbarians in invading Western Europe in the 5th 
century. 

SAENO (S. Italy). Near this river, Teias, king 
of the Goths, was defeated and slain by Justinian's 
general Narses, March, 553. 

SAEUM, OLD (Wiltshire), an ancient British 
town, the origin of Salisbury (which see). Although 
completely decayed, it returned two members to 
parliament till 1832. 

SASSANIDES, descendants of Artaxerxes or 
Ardishir, whose lathe: - , Babek, was the son of 
Sassan. He revolted against Artabanus, the king 
of Parthia ; defeated him on the plain of Hormuz, 
226 ; and re-established the Persian monarchy. This 
dynasty Avas expelled by the Mahometans, 652 ; 
see Persia. 

SATAN, see Devil Worship. 

SATELLITES, see Planets, Jupiter, Mars, 
Saturn. 

SATIEE. About a century after the introduc- 
tion of comedy, satire made its appearance at Home 
in the writings of Lucilius, called the inventor of it, 
1 16 B.C. IAvy. The Satires of Horace (35 B.C.), 
Juvenal (about a. d. 100), and Persius (about a.d. 
60), are the most celebrated in ancient times, and 
those of Churchill (1761) and Pope (1729), in 
modern times. Butler's " Hudibras," satirizing 
the presbyterian^, first appeared in 1663. Satire 
Menippee, a celebrated satirical pamphlet, partly 
in verse and partly in prose, attacking the policy of 
the court of Spain and the league, written in the 
style of the biting satires of the cynic philosopher 
Menippus. The first part, " Catholicond'Espagne," 
by Leroy, appeared in 1593 ; the second, "Abrege 
des Etats de la Ligue," by Gillot, Pithou, Rapin, 
and Passerat, appeared in 1594. Bouillet. 

SATEAPIES, divisions of the Persian empire, 
formed by Darius Hystaspes about 516 B.C. 

SATTAEA (W. India) was long a flourishing 
state, founded by Sevajee about 1646; subjugated 
by the Mahrattas about 1749; conquered by the 
British, 1818 ; ruled by a rajah under the protection 
of the company. The last rajah died without issue 
iu 1848 ; when the country was annexed. 

SATUBDAY (the last, or seventh day of the 
week; the Jewish Sabbath; see Sabbath). It was 
so called from an idol worshipped on this day by 
the Saxons, and according to Verstegan, was named 
by them Saterne's day. Pardon. It is more 
probably from Saturn, dies Saturni. Saturday 
Review, an independent literary weekly journal, 
was first published, 3 Nov. 1855. See Hospital and 
Lifeboat. 

SATUEN, the planet, ascertained to be about 
900 millions of miles distant from the sun, and its 
diameter to be about 77,230 miles. One of the 
9 satellites was discovered by Huyghens (25 
March, 1655) ; four by Cassini (1672-84) ; two by 



sir William Herschel (1789), one by Bond and 
Lassell (1848), and one by prof, dickering iii> 
Arizona, U.S. (18 March, 1899). The ring was 
observed by Galileo, about 1610 ; its annular form 
determined by Huyghens, about 1655. The notion 
that the discovery of the two-fold character of ther 
ring was by the Messrs. Ball, 1665, is exploded. 
Cassini discovered that the ring consisted in fact 
of two concentric rings, the inner brighter than 
the outer, in 1675. An inner ring was detected in 
1850 by Dawes in England (29 Nov.), and by Bond 
in America. The ring, or series of concentric rings, 
is now considered to be composed of a multitude 
of small satellites. A bright spot observed by 
prof. Hall, Dec. 1876 ; spots seen by Mr. Denning 
24 June, 9 July, 1903. 

SATUENALIA, festivals in honour of Saturn, 
father of the gods, were instituted long before the 
foundation of Rome, in commemoration of the 
freedom and equality which prevailed on the earth 
in his golden reign. Some, however, suppose that 
the Saturnalia were first observed at Rome in the 
reign of Tullus Hostilius (673-640 B.C.), after a 
victory obtained over the Sabines: whilst others 
suppose that Janus first instituted them in gratitude 
to Saturn, from whom he had learned agriculture. 
Others assert that they were first celebrated after a 
victory obtained over the Latins by the dictator 
Posthumius, when he dedicated a temple to Saturn, 
497 B.C. During these festivals no business was 
allowed, amusements were encouraged, and dis- 
tinctions ceased. Lenglet. 

SAVAGE CLUB, instituted by various 
literary men, in 1857, facetiously terming them- 
selves ''savages," on account of their freedom from 
conventionalism. On some occasions they gave a 
war-whoop. Sala. Mr. W. E. Gladstone was pre- 
sent at the 22nd anniversary, 14 June, 1879, and 
the king, then prince of Wales, was a visitor in 1882. 

SAVAGE ISLAND was discovered by capt. 
Cook in 1774, and so named because of the fierce 
attack made by the natives on his party. The 
island has long been a field of missionary enter- 
prise, the inhabitants, about 5,000, are now 
Christians, and it was ceded to Great Britain by 
the Samoa agreement, Nov. 1899. 

SAVANDEOOG or SEVERNDE.OOG (My- 
sore, S. India), a strong fortress, was captured by 
the British, 2 April, 1755, and 21 Dec. 1791. 

SAVANNAH, a city and port of Georgia on 
the river Savannah, U.S.A., founded in 1733, and 
incorporated, 1789; it was taken by the British in 
the American war in 1778, and by gen. Sherman, 
the northern general, 21 Dec. 1864. Pop. l88o ? 
30,709; 1890,43,189; 1900,54,244. 

SAVINGS' BANKS. The first of these was 
instituted at Berne, in Switzerland, in 1787, by the 
name of caisse de domestiques, being intended for 
servants only ; another was set up in Basel, in 1792, 
open to all depositors. The rev. Joseph Smith, of 
Wendover, began a Benevolent Institution in 1799; 
and in 1803-4, a" charitable bank" was instituted 
at Tottenham by Miss Priscilla Wakefield. The rev. 
Henry Duncan established a parish bank at Ruthwell 
in 1810. One was opened in Edinburgh in 1814. 
The benefit clubs, among artisans, having accumu- 
lated stocks of money for their progressive purposes, 
a plan was adopted to identify these funds with the 
public debt of the country, and an extra rate of 
interest was held out as an inducement ; hence were 
formed savings' banks to receive small Minis, re- 
turnable with interest on demand. 



SAVINGS' BANKS. 



1101 



SAVOY PALACE. 



Rt. hon. Geo. Rose developed the system, and brought it 
under parliamentary control, 1816. 

In 1840 there were 550 banks ; 766,354 depositors ; amount, 
22,060,904/. 

Acts to consolidate and amend previous laws relating to 
savings' banks were passed in 1828 and 1847 ; extended ' 
to Scotland in 1835 ; again consolidated and amended 
in 1863, 1880, and 1887. 

On 20 Nov. 1 85 1, the number of savings' banks in Great 
Britain and Ireland was 574, besides above 20,000 
friendly societies and charitable institutions. The j 
depositors (in the banks) were 1,092,581, while the ; 
societies embraced a vast but unknown number of I 

. persons : the amount of deposits was 32,893,511/. 

Amount of computed capital of savings' banks in the 
United Kingdom :— 1853, 33,362,260/. ; i860, 4 1,258, 368/. ; 
1870, 37,958,549/. — 1871, England, 31,413,002/. ; Wales, 
1,066,543/. ; Scotland, 4,119,735/. ; Ireland, 2,220,383/. , 
total, 38,819,663/. In 1877, England, 34,750,747/.; 
Wales, 1,189,254/. ; Scotland, 6,026,802/. ; Ireland, 
2,271,883/.; total, 44,238,686/. In 1883, England, 
34,441,787/.; Wales, 1,103,201/.; Scotland, 7,359,586/.; 
Ireland, 2,082,549/. ; total, 44,987,123/. In 1887, Eng- 
land's, 595, 889/. ; Wales, 915,171/.; Scotland, 8,688, 354/. ; 
Ireland, 2,062,808/. ; total, 47,262,222/. In 1890, Eng- 
land, 31,232,451/. ; Wales, 852,455/. ; Scotland, 
9,533,971/. ; Ireland, 2,011,675/. i total, 43,650,552?. 
Total in 1891, 42,858,434/. ; 1894, 44,464,936/. 4s. nd. ; 
1901, 52,680,000/. ; 1902, 51,950,404/. 

Received by Trustees. 
.£6,590,428 . 
. . 178,260 
2,090,480 



1877. 
England 
Wales 
Scotland 
Ireland 



England . 
Wales 
Scotland 
Ireland 

1893. 
England . 
Wales 
Scotland 
Ireland 

1899. 
England . 
Wales 
Scotland 
Ireland 



504,463 

9.363.631 

Received by Trustees. 
. £6,234,996 . 

• • 124,055 

. 2,824,391 . 
. . 38o.9 6 5 
Received by Trustees. 
• £5.677.539 

• • 9J.639 • 

■ 2.973.494 

• ■ 355.457 • 
Received by Trustees. 

■ £7,235.389 ■ 

89,207 

4.9<°,554 • 
• 472,495 



Paid. 

•^7,031,233 

224,434 

1,927,283 

472,185 

Paid. 

. £8,607,201 

165,502 

2,870,407 

483,290 

Paid. 
. £6,819,089 
. 203,111 
. 2,761,860 
• 500,552 
Paid. 

• £7,345,193 

95,745 

• 4.659.248 

469,765 



12,737,645 



12,569.951 



For Post-office Savings' Banks, established in 1861, see 
under Post-office. 

Savings' Banks Investment acts, passed March, 1866, 
and Aug. 1869. 

New Savings' Bank act, 43 & 44 Vict. c. 36, passed, 1880, 
came into effect, interest to depositors reduced to 
2/ 15s. per cent. 1 Nov. 1880. 

4490k! Savings' Banks in the United Kingdom, 1,506,714 
accounts, deposits, 43,797,805/., 1880; 380 banks in 
1888. 

Post-office and Trustee Savings bank deposits, 
197,105,000/. in 1902. 

The defalcations of the Cardiff savings' bank (which see), 
April, 1886, and irregularities in other banks, leads to 
demand for legislation ; a new Savings Banks act was 
brought in and withdrawn in 1890 ; passed, 3 July, 
1891 ; an inspection committee appointed, sir Albert 
Rollit, Mr. Lyulph Stanley, and others, April, 1893 ; 
first report issued, generally satisfactory, some laxity 
in regard to rules observed, April, 1893; Amendment 
act passed, 21 Dee. 1893. 

CLASSIFICATION OK THE FIRST 20,000 DEPOSITORS. 

Domestic servants 7245 

Persons in trade, mechanics, &o 7473 

Labourers and porters 672 

Miners 1454 

Friendly and charitable societies . . . . 58 
Persons not classed, viz., widows, teachers, sailors, 

&C 1098 



SAVONA (a manufacturing town, In. Italy, 
long- held by the Genoese) was captured by the king 
of Sardinia in 1746; by the French in 1809, and 
annexed ; restored to Sardinia at the peace. Pope 
Pius VII. was kept here by Napoleon I., 1809-12. 
Soap is said to have been invented here, and hence 
its French name savon. 

SAVOY, the ancient Sapaudia or Sabaudia, 
formerly a province in N. Italy, east of Piedmont. 
It became a Koman province about 118 B.C. The 
Alemanni seized it in a.d. 395, and the Franks in 
490. It shared the revolutions of Switzerland till 
about 1048, when Conrad, emperor of Germany, 
gave it to Humbert, with the title of count. Count 
Thomas acquired Piedmont in the 13th century. 
Amadeus, count of Savoy, having entered his 
dominions, solicited Sigismund to erect them into 
a duchy, which he did at Cambray, 19 Feb. 1416. 
Victor-Amadeus, duke of Savoy, obtained the 
kingdom of Sicily from Spauij by a treaty, in 1713, 
but afterwards exchanged it with the emperor 
for the island of Sardinia, with the title of king, 
1720. The French subdued Savoy in 1792, and 
made it a department of France, under the name of 
Mont Blanc, in 1800. It was restored to the king 
of Sardinia in 1814; but with Nice annexed to 
France in i860, in accordance with a vote by uni- 
versal suffrage, 23 April, i860. Savoy was visited 
by the emperor and empress of the French in 
August, i860. The annexation was censured in 
England. 

DUKES OF SAVOY. 

1391. Count Amadeus VIII. is made duke in 1416 ; he was 
named pope, as Felix V. He abdicated as duke 
of Savoy, 1439: renounced the tiara, 1449; died 
in 1451. 
Louis. 

Amadeus IX. 
Philibert I. 
1482. Charles I. 
1489. Charles II. 

1496. Philip II. 

1497. Philibert II. 
1504. Charles III. 

1553. Emmanuel-Philibert. 

1580. Charles-Emmanuel I. 

1630. Victor-Amadeus I. 

1637. Francis-Hyacinthe. 

1638. Charles-Emmanuel II. 

1675. Victor-Amadeus II. became king of Sicily, 1713 ; 
exchanged for Sardinia (which see) in 1720. 

SAVOY PALACE (London), was built by 
Peter of Savoy, uncle of Eleanor, queen of Henry 
III., in 1245, on land granted to him. He gave it 
to the fraternity of Mountjoy (Monte Jovis), from 
whom it was purchased by queen Eleanor for her 
son Edmund. Here resided John, king of France, 
when a prisoner, 1357 et seq. The Savoy was burnt 
by Wat Tyler and his followers, 1381. It was 
restored as an hospital of St. John the Baptist by 
Henry VII. about 1505. The fruitless Conference 
of bishops and eminent puritans for the revision of 
the liturgy was held at the Savoy, April-July, 1661. 
The hospital was dissolved in 1702. The buildings 
(used as a military prison) were removed to make 
way for Waterloo-bridge and its approaches, 1817- 
19. The privilege of sanctuary which the ancient 
Clin pel formerly possessed, and which was much 
abused, was abolished by parliament in 1697. The 
Chapel after several restorations, was destroyed 
by tire, 7 July, 1864, and was rebuilt at the queen's 
expense, and re-opened 26 Nov. 1865. The rev. 
Henry White, 30 years chaplain, died 7 Oct. 1890. 

Savoy Tlieatre, erected for Mr. D'Oyly Carte by Mr. C. 
J. Phipps, opened 10 Oct. 1SS1 ; lit by Swan's incan- 
descent electric light successfully (1194 lamps) ; 1000th 



1439 
1465 
1472 



SAW. 



1105 



SAXE-WEIMAR-EISENACH, 



performance of " Patience," by Sir A. Sullivan, libretto 

by W. S. Gilbert, 28 Dec. 1881. See Operas. 

A list of the operas produced by sir A. Sullivan and Mr. 
"W. S. Gilbert is given in the article Operas. The Gon- 
■dMers, j Dec. 1889-20 June, 1891 ; The Nautch Girl, 
30 June, 1891-16 Jan. 1892 ; The Vicar of Bray (re- 
vived), 28 Jan.-i8 June, 1892. 

Ha.ddon Hall, by sir A. Sullivan and Sidney Grundy 

24 Sept.-is April, 1892 

Jane Annie, or The Good Conduct Prize, by Mr. 
Ernest Ford, and Mr. J. M. Barrie and Dr. 
Conan Doyle . . . 13 May-i July, 1893 

Utopia (Limited): or, The Flowers of Progress, by W. 
S. Gilbert and sir Arthur Sullivan 

7 Oct. 1893-9 June, 1894 

Mirette, by Adrian Ross, music by Messager 

3 July-11 Aug. ; 6 Oct.-6 Dec. ,, 

The Chieftain, book by F. C. Burnand, music by 
sir Arthur Sullivan . 12 Dec. 1894-16 March, 1895 

Hansel and Gretel, fairy opera by Humperdinck 
(Carl Rosa Company) . . 16 April-16 June, ,, 

Eleanora Duse and company ; Magda and other 
pieces 27 June-13 July, ,, 

The Mikado . . . 6 Nov. 1895-4 March, 1896 

The Grand Duke, or The Statutory Duel, by W. S. 
Gilbert and Arthur Sullivan 7 March-10 July, „ 

The Mikado .... 11 July, 1896-17 Feb. 1897 

His Majesty, by F. C. Burnand and R. C. Lehmann, 
music by sir A. C. Mackenzie 19 Feb.-24 April, ,, 

Yeomen of the Guard, by W. S. Gilbert and Arthur 
Sullivan ; reproduced . 5 May-20 Nov. ,, 

The Grand Duchess of Gerolstein, music by Offen- 
bach .... 4 Dec. 1897-12 March, 1898 

The Gondoliers ; reproduced . 22 March-21 May, ,, 

The Beauty Stone, musical drama, by A. W. Pinero, 
J. Comyns Carr, and Arthur Sullivan, 1st time, 
^8 May-16 July ; The Gondoliers, .18 July-17 Sept.; 
The Sorcerer, 22 Sept.^i Dec. ; The Lucky Star, 
by Ivan Caryll, 7 Jan. 1899-31 May ; Pinafore, 
reproduced, sir Arthur Sullivan conducting, 
6 June-25 Nov. ; The Rose of Persia, by Basil 
Hood and Arthur Sullivan, 29 N0V.-28 June, 
1900 ; Pirates of Penzance, reproduced, 30 June- 
3 Nov. ; Patience, 7 N0V.-20 April, 1901 ; The 
Emerald Isle, by Basil Hood, music partly by 
the late sir Arthur Sullivan, completed by 
E. German, 27 April-9 Nov. ; 76 and Little 
Christina, by Basil Hood and Franco Leoni, 14- 
29 Nov. ; Tolanthc, 7 Dec. -29 March, 1902 ; Merrie 
England, by Basil Hood, composed by Edward 
German, 2 April-30 July (Miss Kitty Loftus's 
season) ; Naughty Nancy, musical comedy, 8 
Sept.-22 Nov. ; Merrie England, reproduced, 24 
N0V.-17 Jan. 1903 ; A Princess of Kensington, by 
Basil Hood and Edward German 21 Jan.-i6 May, 1903 

The Savoy Hotel on the Thames Embankment opened 
by a company, 6 Aug. 1889 ; the directors included the 
earl of Lathom, Mr. R. D'Oyly Carte, and sir Arthur 
Sullivan, who died suddenly, 22 Nov. 1900 ; Mr. 
D'Oyly Carte, died, aged 56, 3 April, 1901. 

SAW. Invented by Daedalus. Pliny. Invented 
by Talus. _ Apollodorus. Talus, it is said, having 
found the jaw-bone of a snake, employed it to cut 
through a piece of wood, and then formed an instru- 
ment of iron like it. Saw-mills were erected in 
Madeira in 1420 ; at Breslau in 1427. Norway had 
the first saw-mill in 1530. The bishop of Ely, 
ambassador from Mary of England to the court of 
Konie, describes a saw-mill there, 1555. The 
attempts to introduce saw-mills in England were 
violently opposed, and one erected by a Dutchman 
in 1663 was forced to be abandoned. Saw-mills 
were erected near London about 1770. The 
excellent saw-machinery in Woolwich dockyard is 
based upon the invention of the elder Brunei, 
1806-13. The circular saw was introduced into 
England about 1790. The saw-gin for separating 
cotton wool from the pod, invented by Eli Whitney, 
an American, in 1793, led to the immense growth of 
cotton in the southern states of the Union. Powis 
and James's band-saw was patented in 1858. 



SAXE-ALTENBURG (formerly Hildburg- 
hausen), a duchy in central Germany. The dukes 
are descended from Ernest the Pious, duke of 
Saxony. Ernest,the first duke, died in 1715. The 
duke, Ernest, born 16 Sept. 1826; succeeded 
his father, George, 3 Aug. 1853 ; he entered into 
alliance with Prussia, 18 Aug. 1866. Heir, brother, 
Maurice, born 24 Oct. 1829. Population, 1900, 
195,000. 

SAXE-COBUEG AND GOTHA (central 
Germany), capitals Gotha and Coburg. The reigning 
family is descended from John Ernest (son of Ernest 
the Pious, duke of Savony), who died in 1729. 
Population 1900, 229, "67. 



1826. Ernest I. duke of Saxe-Saalfeld-Coburg ; born, 2 
Jan. 1784 ; married Louisa, heiress 01 Augustus, 
duke of Saxe-Gotha, and became by convention 
duke of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, 12 Nov. 1826 ; died, 

29 Jan. 1844. 

[His brother, Leopold, married the princess Char- 
lotte of England, 2 May, 1816 ; became king of 
the Belgians, 12 July, 1831 ; and Ferdinand, the 
son of his brother Ferdinand, married Maria da 
Gloria, queen of Portugal, 9 April, 1836.] 

1844. Ernest II. son (brother of Albert, prince consort of 
Great Britain) ; born 21 June, 1818 ; married 
Alexandrina, duchess of Baden, 3 May, 1842 ; no 
issue ; died 22 Aug. 1893 ; funera 1 at Coburg ; 
present duke Alfred, the prince of Wales, the 
German emperor, and other princes, 28 Aug. 
He entered into alliance with Prussia, 18 Aug. 
1866. Published Memoirs, 3 vols. 1887-9. 

1893. Prince Alfred of England, duke of Edinburgh; 
born, 6 Aug. 1844 (in whose favour the prince of 
Wales resigned his rights, 19 April, 1863) , 
formally received by the emperor at Potsdam; 
28 Oct. 1893. Heir: Alfred, son, born, 15 Oct 
1874; died, 6Feb. 1899. Presumptiveheir : Arthur, 
duke of Connaught ; resigns in favour of his 
nephew, Charles Edward, the duke of Alb.my 

30 June, 1899. 

1900. Leopold Charles Edward, duke of Albany, bom 
19 July, 1884. 
Regent: Hereditary prince of 'Hohenlohe-Langen- 
burg, born, 1863. 

See England, issue. 
Grand reception of the duke and duchess at Gotha, 

31 Jan. 1894. 
Visit of queen Victoria, 17 April, 1894. 
Duke of Connaught and family visit Gotha, 20 April, 

1899. 
Equestrian statue of duke Ernest II. unveiled at 

Coburg, 10 May, 1899. 
Constitutional dispute of 6 years between Herr von 

Strenge, minister of state, and the diet, settled by 

duke Alfred in favour of the diet, 31 Jan. 1900 
Sudden death of duke Alfred, an able and judicious 

ruler, much lamented, at Castle Rosenau, 30 July, 1900 ; 

funeral at Coburg (present duke Charles Edward, 

the Regent, the prince of Wales, the German emperor, 

and other princes), 4 Aug. 
Tercentenary of the birth of duke Ernest the Pious, 

celebrated, the German emperor present, 26 Dec. 

1901. 

SAXE-MEININGEX (a duchy in central 
Germany). The dukes are descended from 
Ernest the Pious, duke of Saxony. The first duke, 
Bernard (1680), died in 1706. Bernard (duke, 24 
Dec. 1803, died 3 Dec. 1882), abdicated in 
favour of his son George II., 20 Sept. 1866, who 
professed his adhesion to the Prussian policy; he was 
born, 2 April, 1826. Heir, his son, Bernard, born 
1 April, 1851. By a fire at Meiningen, about 3000 
persons became houseless, 6 Sept. 1874. 

SAXE - WEIMAR - EISENACH (central 
German y). The grand-dukes are descended from 
John Frederic, the Protestant elector of Saxony, 
who was deprived by the emperor in 1548; see 

4 B 



SAXONY, 



1106 



SCAELET FEVEE. 



Saxony. The houses of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, Saxe- 
Gotha, Hilburghausen, and Saxe-Meiningen also 
sprang from him. They are all termed the senior 
or Ernestine branch of the old family. — Saxe- 
Weimar became a grand duchy in 1815. The dukes 
have greatly favoured literature and art, and their 
capital Weimar has been called the Athens of 
Germany. Statue of Liszt unveiled at "Weimar, 
31 May, 1902. 

GRAND-DDKES. 

1815. Charles Augustus. 

1828. Charles Frederic ; died, 8 July, 1853. 

1853. Charles Alexander; bom, 24 June, 1818. He 

entered into alliance with Prussia, 18 Aug. 

1866; died, 5 Jan. iyoi. 
Heir: Charles Augustus: born, 31 July, 1844; 

died, 20 Nov. 1894 ; son, William Ernest, born, 

10 June, 1876. ' 
1901. William Ernest, born, 10 June, 1876. 

SAXONY, a kingdom in N. Germany. The 
Saxons were a fierce warlike race, the terror of the 
inhabitants of the later western empire, frequently 
attacked France, and conquered Britain {which see). 
After a long series of sanguinary conflicts they were 
completely subdued by Charlemagne, who instituted 
many fiefs and bishoprics in their country. Witi- 
kind, their great lender, who claimed descent from 
Woden, professed Christianity about 785. From 
him descended the first and the present ruling family 
of W ettin (the houses of Supplinburg, Guelf, and 
Ascania intervened from 1106 to 1421). Saxony 
became a duchy, 880 ; an electorate, 1180; and a 
kingdom, 1806. It was the seat of war, 1813; the 
king being on the side of Napoleon. In the conflict 
of 1866 the king took the side of Austria, and the 
army fought in the battle of Koniggratz, 3 July. 
The Prussians entered Saxony 18 June. Peace 
between Prussia and Saxony was signed 21 Oct. 
1 subjecting the Saxon army to Prussia), and the 
king returned to Dresden, 3 Nov. Constitution of 
4 Sept. 1831 ; modified, 1849, 1851, i860, 1861, 1868, 
and 1874. Population, 1861. 2,225,240; 1871, 
2,556,244; 1880,2,972,805; 1885,3,182,003; 1890, 
3.500,513; 1900,4,199,758. 

Octocentenary of the house of Wettin was celebrated at 
Dresden with great magnificence 15-19 June, 1889 ; the 
many branches of the royal family and its connections 
were represented ; the emperor William II., prince 
Alfred of Edinburgh for England, and princes repre- 
senting Portugal and Belgium, and deputations from 
Austria and Russia were present. The festivities 
included church services, military equestrian per- 
formances, historical pageants and a procession of 
12,000 costumed characters. The people presented 
about 150,000^. to the king, for the restoration of his 
palace. 
Flight of the crown princess from Salzburg to Zurich, 
12 Dec. 1902 ; her renunciation of all royal rights, 
titles, and dignities, 9 Jan. ; confirmed by royal 
order, 14 Jan. ; she was also suspended from all rights 
and honours as an Austrian archduchess, 28 Jan. ; 
divorce of the crown prince and princess pronounced 
at Dresden, 11 Feb. 1903. 

ELECTORS. 

1423. Frederic I., liisl elector of the house of Misnia. 
1428. Frederic II. 

! 1 1 is sons Ernest and Albert divide the states.] 
1464. Ernest. 1464. Albert. 

i486. Frederick III. 1500. George. 

1525. John. 1539. Henry. 

1541. Maurice. 
1532. John Frederic ; deprived by the emperor Charles V. ; 

succeeded by 
1548. Maurice (of the Albertine line). 
1553. Augustus. 
1586. Christian I. 
1591. Christian II. 
1611. John Qeorge l. 
1656. John George II. 
1680. John George III. 
1691. John George IV. 



1694. Frederic Augustus I. , king of Poland, 1697. 
1733. Frederic Augustus II., king of Poland. 
1763. Frederic Augustus III. becomes king, 1806. 

KINGS. 

1806. Frederic Augustus I. ; increased his territories by 

alliance with France, 1806-9 ; suffered by peace 

of 1814. 
1827. Anthony Clement. 
1836. Frederic Augustus II., nephew (regent, 1830) ; died 

9 Aug. 1854. 
1854. John, brother (born 12 Dec. 1801) ; celebrated his 

golden wedding (50 years), 10 Nov. 1872; died, 

29 Oct. 1873. 
1873. Albert; born, 23 April, 1828; married, 18 June, 

1853, Caroline of Wasa ; he died, 19 June, 1902. 
1902. George, brother; born 8 Aug. 1832; married Maria 

Anna, infanta of Portugal, 11 May, 1859 ( sne 

died, 5 Feb. 1884). Heir : Friedrich August, 

born 1865. 

SCAFELL, a double-peaked mountain in 
Cumberland, the highest in England ; the higher, 
called Scafell Pike, is 3,210 ft., the other 3,161 ft, 
Prof. A. M. Marshall, biologist, was killed by 
falling down the Pike, 31 Dec. 1893, and four 
tourists (Messrs. Jupp, Garrett, Broadrick, and 
Eidsdale) fell while attempting to climb the peak ; 
three were killed outright. Mr. Ridsdale died 
while being carried down by a rescue party, who 
had made the ascent at night under circumstances 
of great difficulty, 21 Sept. 1903. 

SCANDALUM MAGNATUM, a special 
statute relating to any wrong, by words or in 
writing, done to high personages of the land, such 
as peers, judges, ministers of the crown, officers in 
the state, and other great public functionaries, by 
the circulation of the scandalous statements, false 
news, or horrible messages, by which any debate I 
or discord between them and the commons, or any | 
scandal to their persons, might arise. Chambers. ! 
This law was first enacted 2 Rich. II. 1378. 

SCANDINAVIA, the ancient name of Sweden, 1 
Norway, and great part of Denmark (which see), 
whence proceeded the Northmen or Normans, who 
conquered Normandy (about 900), and eventually 
England (1066). They were also called Sea-kings, 
or Vikings. They settled Iceland and Greenland, | 
and, it is thought, visited the northern regions of ' 
America, about the 9th century. A " National | 
Scandinavian Society" formed at Stockholm; see 1 
Sweden, Dec. 1864, Stockholm, 1897. Scandinavian j. 
Union, see JS T o?"icai/ and Sweden, 1898. 

SCAEBOEOUGH, Yorkshire (anciently 
Skardeburge), was ravaged by the Danes 1066. U 
Incorporated by Henry II. , 1181. The town was|; 
made a bonding port in 1841. A new drive and i 
promenade, a great engineering work, costing I 
50,000/., opened by the duke of Clarence and the"; 
archbishop of York, 27 June, 1890; new town- 1 ; 
hall opened and a statue of queen Victoria unveiled Ij 
by princess Henry of Battenberg, 28 July, 1903. |j 
Population, 1SS1,' 30,504; 1891, 33,776; 1901, 
38,160. 

SCAELET, or kermes dye, was known in the 
East in the earliest ages; cochineal dye, 1518. 
Kepler, a Fleming, established the first dye-house 
for scarlet in England, at Bow, 1643. The art of 
dyeing red was improved by Brewer, 1667. Beck- 
mann. 

SCAELET FEVEE, was very prevalent in 
the metropolis from August, 1887, to Feb. 1888. 
Patients admitted into the hospitals, April, 1887 — 
March, 1888, 7614. Arrangements for the crisis 
were made by the Metropolitan Asylums Board. 
[ncrease of fever in the metropolis; scarlet fever 

1,426, 8 Aug.; decreasing Dec. 1890 ; (scarlet fever; 

eases iu 1892, 13,093); (scarlet fever, 14,548 in 1893). [ 



SCEPTICS, 



1107 



SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS. 



Total of fever patients, 19,937 (deaths, 1,999), scarlet 
fever eases, 11,598, during 1894. Decreasing in 1895. 
4,133 scarlet fever cases week ending 24 Oct. 1896 ; 
15,113 patients during 1897 ; 18,381 cases notified, 
14,539 in hospitals in 1901 ; decrease in 1902-3. 

SCEPTICS, the sect of philosophers founded 
by Pyrrho, about 334 B.C. He gave ten reasons for 
continual suspense of judgment ; he doubted of 
everything, never made any conclusions, and when 
he had carefully examined the subject, and inves- 
tigated all its parts, he concluded by still doubting 
of its evidence. He advocated apathy and un- 
changeable repose. These doctrines were held by 
Bayle (died 1706). 

SCEPTRE, an emblem of royalty mentioned in 
the Bible {Gen. xlix. 10, Psalm xlv. 6, Esther 
iv. 11, &c), and in Homer. The sceptre, origi- 
nally a staff, was gradually ornamented till it 
assumed its present torm. 

SCHAFFHAUSEN (N. Switzerland), a fish- 
ing village in the 8th century, became an imperial 
city in the 13th ; w r as subjected to Austria, 1330 ; 
independent, 1415; became a Swiss canton, 1501. 
Population, 1888; canton, 37,783; city, 12,315; 
1901, 41,523 ; city, 15,430. 

SCHAUMBURG-LIPPE (Germany) was 
formed into a county by Adolphus, of Sondersleben, 
1033. In 1640, on the death of count Otho IV., 
his mother, Elizabeth, transferred the domains to 
Philip of Lippe, from whom descended the reigning 
prince (the title assumed in 1807). Adolphus, born 
I Aug. 1817, succeeded his father, 21 Nov. i860; 
died 8 May, 1893. Succeeded by his son, George, 
born 10 Oct. 1846. Population of the principality, 
1882, 35,753; 1885, 37,204; 1890, 39,163; 1900, 
43,132. 

SCHELDT TOLLS were imposed by the 
treaty of Minister (or Westphalia), 1648. The tolls 
were abolished for a compensation, 1867. The house 
of commons voted 175,650^. for the British portion, 
on 9 March, 1864. The Scheldt was declared free 
on 3 Aug. with much rejoicing at Antwerp and 
Brussels. 

SCHIEHALLION, a mountain in Perthshire, 
where Dr. Neville Maskelyne, the astronomer- 
royal, made his observations with a plumb-line, 
24 Oct. 1774, from which Hutton calculated that 
the density of the earth is five times greater than 
water. 

SCHIPKA PASSES, on the Balkans, Tur- 
key. Through these the Kussian general Gourko 
entered Roumelia. After his retreat, they were 
fortified, and desperately, but on the whole unsuc- 
cessfully, assailed by the Turks under Suleiman 
Pasha, with great slaughter on both sides, 20-27 
Aug. He took and lost fort St. Nicholas, 17 Sept. 
1877. The Russians re-entered Roumelia, Jan. 
1878. 

SCHISM, see Heresy and Popes. 

SCHISM ACT, 13 Anne, c. 7, introduced by 
lord Bolingbroke, 1713 ; repealed by 5 Geo. I. c. 4, 
in 1719- By it teachers were required to declare 
their conformity to the established church. 

SCHLESWIG, see Holstein, Denmark, and 

Gastein. 

SCHOOL BOARD, see Education. 

SCHOOLMEN or Scholastic Philoso- 
phy, began in the schools founded by Charlemagne, 
800-14; anu prevailed in Europe from the 9th to 
the 15th centuries ; see Doctors. 

SCHOOLS. Charity schools were introduced 
into London to prevent the seduction of the infant 



poor into Roman catholic seminaries, 3 James II. 
1687. Rapin. Charter schools were instituted in 
Ireland, 1733. Scully. In England there were, in 
1847, 13,642 schools (exclusively of Sunday schools) 
for the education of the poor ; and the number of 
children was 998,431. The parochial and endowed 
schools of Scotland were (exclusively of Sunday 
schools) 4836; and the number of children, 181,467. 
The schools in Wales were 841, and the number of 
children, 38,164; in Ireland, 13,327 schools, and 
774,000 children. In 1 851 there were 23 10 schools 
in connection with the Education Committee 
actually inspected in England and Scotland. They 
included : 17 13 church of England schools in 
England and Wales; 282 protestant dissenting 
schools in England and Wales; 98 Roman catholic 
schools in Great Britain; and 217 presbyterian 
schools in Scotland, whereof 91 were of the free 
church : the whole affording accommodation for 
299,425 scholars ; see Education, Design, Ascham, &c. 
For Schoolboy Strikes, see Strikes, Oct. 1889. 

SCHOOL SHIPS, see Chichester. Corn- 
wall, off Purfleet, established 1859 ; Shaftesbury, 
established, 18-78, for vagrant lads. 

SCHWARZBURG (the seat of two princi- 
palities, N. Germany). Gunther, count of Schwarz- 
burg, whose family dates from the 12th century, was 
elected emperor of Germany in 1349. From the 
two sons of count Gunther, who died 1552, sprang 
the present rulers. 

SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADT 

(a principality, 1697). 
1807. Albert (28 June), born 30 April, 1798 ; died 26 Nov. 

1869. 
1869. George (born 23 Nov. 1838), 26 Nov. ; died 19 Jan. 

1890. 
1890. Gonthier, brother (born, 21 Aug. 1852). 

SCH WABZBURG-SONDERSHA USEN 

(a principality, 17 10). 
1835. Gunther (19 Aug.), born 24 Sept. 1801 ; abdicated. 
1880. Charles, sou (born 7 Aug. 1830), 17 July. 

SCHWEIDNTTZ, Prussia, often besieged and 
taken in the thirty years' and seven years' wars. 
Near it Frederick II. defeated the Austrians under 
marshal Daun, 16 May, 1762. 

SCHWEIZ, a Swiss canton, which with Uri 
and Unterwalden renounced subjection to Austria, 
7 Nov. 1307. The name Switzerland, for all the 
country, dates from about 1440. 

SCIENCE, see Education, Chemistry, and 

other branches. 

Science and Art Department began as the Normal School 
of Design, 1 Jan. 1837, with a grant of 1,500?. See 
under Design. The grant in 1885-6 was 391,573?. ; 
1888-9, 445,303?. ; 1891-2, 530,000?. 

100,000?. voted for the purchase of a site for new build- 
ing, 25 Feb. 1890. 

The Normal School of Science and Royal School of 
Mines, were directed to be called the Royal College of 
Science, London, Oct. 1S90 ; the first dean, prof. Th. 
Huxley, died 29 June ; was succeeded by prof. Judd, 
July, 1895. 

Miss Marshall, of Warwick gardens, Kensington, be- 
queaths to the department 1,000?. for a scholarship 
and scientific books and instruments, 5 May, 1891. 

The 36th report stated that in 1888 the department sup- 
ported 1,952 schools, and 6,579 classes were examined 
in elementary science, with 112,808 pupils ; the S. Ken- 
sington museum is in the charge of the department. 

Estimates for 1894-5, 692, 122?. See Arts, Sept. 1896. 

Sir John Donnelly, k.c.b., inspector for science about 
1858-9, energetic promoter of scientific education, 
died 5 April, 1902. 

SCIENTIFIC APPARATUS. The Inter- 
national Loan Exhibition, at South Kensington, 
consisting of about 17,000 objects, many of 
great historical interest, from all countries except 

4 n 2 



SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION, 



1108 



SCOTLAND. 



America, was opened (by queen Victoria), 13 May, and 
closed 30 Dec. 1876. Conferences were held, 16 May 
— 2 June, and many free lectures given by eminent 
persons, lleopened 30 June, 1877. 

SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION, for pro- 
motion of research ; proposed at the meeting of the 
American Association at Philadelphia, Sept. 1884. 
Mrs. Elizabeth Thompson promised liberal support. 

SCIENTIFIC FRONTIER (in reference to 
Afghanistan), a term used by Lord Beaconsfield, 
9 Nov. 1878. 

SCIENTIFIC INDUSTRY, Society foe 

Promoting, established at Manchester, in 1873. 
It proposed setting up a library and museum, the 
delivery of lectures, and the publication of reports. 
Industries, a weekly scientific periodical, first pub- 
lished, 2 July, 1886, combined with Iron {which 
see), 1893. 

SCIENTIFIC PAPERS, published by emi- 
nent societies: of these a valuable catalogue has 
been prepared by the Eoyal Society of London, 
commencing with 1800, and continued to the present 
time; the 1st vol. appeared in 1867; 11 vols, 
issued, 1896. 

An international conference to consider proposals 
for an international catalogue was held at Bur- 
lington house, London, 40 delegates present, 
14 July, 1896 ; another at the Royal Society, 
lord Lister in the chair, 11-13 Oct. 1898 ; meet- 
ings held Aug. 1899 ' 3 r d conference, London, 
12, 13 June, 1900 ; an international council 
formed, 1st convention held Dec. 1900 ; the 
work started from 1 Jan. 1901 ; in 4 yearly in- 
stalments ; vols. i. and ii. issued June-Sept. 
1902 ; Dr. Ludwig Mond gives 8,000?. to the work, 
Mr. Carnegie, 1,000?., 3 Nov. 1902 ; Vol. viii., Feb. 1903 

SCIENTIFIC RELIEF FUND. In 1859, 
several fellows of the lloyal Society (Messrs. 
Gassiot, Wheatstone, Miller, Tyndall, and others) 
commenced the collection of subscriptions with the 
view of establishing a permanent fund to be ex- 
pended in aiding necessitous men of science and 
their families, in imitation of the " Literary Fund." 
In the spring of i860, 3365/. had been subscribed ; 
in Jan. 1865, 5320/. ; in 1867, 6052/. ; in 1877, 
64281?.; and many cases had been relieved. 

SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES' HOUSE 
COMPANY, proposed March, 1873. 

SCIENTIFIC SURVEYING EXPEDI- 
TION, see Deep Sea. 

SCILLY ISLES (the Cassitcrides or Tin- 
islands). They held commerce with the Phoenicians; 
and are mentioned by Strabo. They were con- 
quered by Athelstan, 936 ; and given to the monks. 
They were granted by Elizabeth to the Godolphin 
family, by whom they were fortified; the works 
were strengthened in 1649 by the royalists, from 
whom they were taken by Blake, 1651. Mr. Augus- 
tus Smith, the owner, and termed the king of these 
isles, after a long paternal rule, died in Aug. 1872. 
Mr. Dorrien Smith was the proprietor in 1892. The 
appointment of a county council for 1 April, 1891, 
was ordered bj the local government board, June, 
1890. Population, 1891, 2,044 ; 1901,2,096. 
A British squadron under sir Cloudesley Shovel was 
wrecked here, when returning from an expedition 
against Toulon : he mistook rocks for land, ;ind struck 
upon them. His ship, the Amoc.httitni, in which wcro 
persons of rank, and 800 brave men, went, instantly lo 
the bottom. The Eagle, captain Hancock and the 
Rornney and Firebrand, were also lost ; the rest oE the 
fleet escaped. 22 Oct. 1707. Sir ( lloudesley's body was 
conveyed to London, and buried in Westminster abbey, 
where a monument was erected to his memory. 
Visit of the king, 8 April, 1302. 



SCINDE, see Sinde. 

SCIO MASSACRE, n April, 1822, see Chios.\ 

SCLAVONIA, see Slavonia. 

SCONE (near Perth). The Scotch coronation 1 
chair was brought from Scone to Westminster abbey! 
by Edward I. in 1296. Here Charles II. was 
crowned, 1 Jan. 165 1. 

SCOPTZI, see White Doves. 

SCORE, MUSICAL, was written by the monk j 
Hucbald, who wrote "Enchiridion Musicae ; " he 
died 930. Specimens written in the 13th century i 
exist in the British Museum. 

SCOTTISH - IRISH CONVENTION, 

see United States, May, 1889. 

SCOTISTS. Those who adopted the doctrines! 
of John l>uns Scotus (who died 8 Nov. 1308) 
on divine grace, freewill, the origin of the moral | 
law, the Conception of the Virgin Mary, &c.,j 
strongly opposed by the Thomists, disciples of St. I 
Thomas Aquinas, who died 7 March, 1274. 

SCOTLAND, see Caledonia. At the death of| 
queen Elizabeth, 24 March, 1603, James VI. of: 
Scotland, as the most immediate heir, was called to I 
the throne of England, and proclaimed king of Great; 
Britain, 24 Oct. 1604. Each country had a separate j 
parliament till 1707, when the kingdoms were 
united; see England, Population, and Edinburgh. 
History of Scotland, hy P. Hume Brown, vol. i. 
published April, 1899 ; vol. ii., April, 1902; another, 
by Mr. Andrew Lang, vol. ii., Nov. 1902. 
Camelon, capital of the Picts, taken by Kenneth II. and 

every living creature put to the sword ordestroyed, 843 1 
The Norwegians occupy Caithness 9th century. 

Scotland ravaged by Athelstan 933 i 

The feudal system established by Malcolm II. . . 1004' 

Invaded by Canute 1031 1 

Divided into baronies 1032 

The Danes driven out of Scotland .... 1040' 
Duncan I. is murdered by his kinsman Macbeth, by 

whom the crown is seized ,, 

Malcolm III., aided by Edward the Confessor, de- 
feats the usurper at Dunsinane, 1054 ; Macbeth 

killed by Macduff 1056 or 1057! 

The Saxon-English language introduced into Scot- 
land by fugitives from England escaping from the 

Normans 1080 \ 

Siege of Alnwick : Malcolm III. killed . . . 1093 1; 
Reign of David I., a legislator .... 1124-53J 
Scotland invaded by Hacho, king of Norway, with 160 
ships and 20,000 men ; the invaders are defeated by | 

Alexander 111. , who now recovers the Western Isles 1263J 
Death of Margaret of Norway, heiress to the throne, 

7 Oct. 1290 
John Balliol and Robert Bruce contend for the 
throne, 1291 ; Edward I. of England, as umpire, 
decides in favour of John .... Nov. 
John Balliol, king of Scotland, appears to a sum- 
mons, and defends his own cause in Westminster 
hall against the earl of Fife 
Edward, wishing to annex Scotland to England, 
dethrones John, ravages the country, destroys 
the muniments of Scottish history, and seizes the 
prophetic stone (see Coronation) .... 1296! 
William Wallace defeats the English at Cambus 
Kenneth, and expels them, 1207 : ' s defeated at 
Falkirk, 22 July, 1298 ; taken by the English, and 
executed at Smithlield . . . -23 Aug. 1305J 
Robert Bruce, crowned. 1306: he defeats the Eng- 
lish, 1307; and takes Inverness, 1313; defeats the j, 
Bnglisn at Bannockburn ... 24 June, 13141- 
Edward Balliol gains the throne for a little time 
by his victory at Dupplin, n Aug. 1332; and 
by the victory at Ilalidon-hill . . 19 July, 1333 
David II. taken prisoner at the battle of Durham 

(and detained in captivity 11 years') . 
Battle of Chevy chase, between Hotspur Percy and 
earl Douglas (see Otterburn) . . 10 Aug 
Murder of duke of Rothesay, heir of Robert III., by 
starvation 3 April, 1401 



1292 



1 293 1 



1346 1 
1388' 



SCOTLAND. 



1100 



SCOTLAND. 



, The Scots defeated at Homildon-hill . 14 Sept. 1402 
! James I. captured by the English near Flamborough 
i head on his passage to France . . 30 March, 1406 
; St. Andrews university founded by bishop William 

Tivrnbull 1451 

< University of Aberdeen founded 1494 

i James IV. invades England, slain at Flodden Field, 
I and his army cut to pieces ... 9 Sept. 1513 
J James V. banishes the Douglases . . . . 1528 

He establishes the court of session .... 1532 
I Order of St. Andrew, or the Thistle, is revived . 1540 
I Mary, the queen of Scots, born 7 Dec. ; succeeds 
1 her father, James V., who dies . . 14 Dec. ,, 

. The regenc, cardinal Beaton, persecutes the re- 
i formers, 1539, 1546 ; he is assassinated at St. 

I Andrews 29 May, 1546 

, The Scots defeated at Pinkie . . 10 Sept. 1547 

! Mary marries the dauphin of France . April, 1558 
| The parliament abolishes the jurisdiction of the 
! pope in Scotland .... 24 Aug. 1560 
Francis II. dies, leaving Mary a widow . Dec. ,, 
j The Reformation in Scotland, by John Knox, and 

others, duringtheminorityofMary, between 1550& „ 
I Mary, after an absence of thirteen years, arrives at 

Leith from France . . . .21 Aug. 1561 

Upon an inquisition, which was officially taken, by 
order of queen Elizabeth, only 58 Scotsmen were 

found in London. Stow 1562 

Mary marries her cousin, Henry Stuart, lord Darn- 
ley -29 July 1565 

David Rizzio, her confidential secretary, murdered 

by Darnley in her presence . . 9 March, 1366 
Lord Darnley blown up by gunpowder, in his house 

(Mary accused of conniving at his death), 10 Feb. 1567 
James Hepburn, earl of Bothwell, carries off the 

queen, who marries him . . -15 May, » 
Mary made prisoner at Carberry hill by her nobles, 

15 Jum% „ 
Resigns her crown to her infant son James VI. ; 

the earl of Murray appointed regent . 22 July, ,, 
Mary escapes from prison, and collects a large 
army, which is defeated by the regent Murray, at 
the battle of Langside, 13 May ; enters England, 

16 May, 1568 
The regent Murray murdered ... 23 Jan. 1570 
The earl of Lennox appointed regent . 12 July, ,, 
The earl of Lennox murdered, 4 Sept. ; the earl of 

Mar chosen regent Sept. 1571 

Death of the reformer John Knox . 24 Nov. 1572 

[His funeral in Edinburgh is attended by most of 
the nobility, and by the regent Morton, who ex- 
claims, " There lies he who never feared the face 
of man ! "] 
The university of Edinburgh founded . . . . 1582 
The raid of Ruthven (see Ruthven) . . . . ,, 
Mary having taken refuge in England, 16 May, 1568, 
is after a long captivity, beheaded at Fotheringay 
castle (see Fotheringay) .... 8 Feb. 1587 
Gowrie's conspiracy fails .... 5 Aug. 1600 
Union of the crown of Scotland with that of Eng- 
land by the accession of James VI. . 24 March, 1603 
James proclaimed " king of Great Britain, France, 

and Ireland " 24 Oct. 1604 

Charles I. attempts in vain to introduce the Eng- 
lish liturgy ; tumult at Edinburgh . 23 July, 1637 
Solemn league and covenant subscribed 1 March, 1638 

A Scotch army enters England 1640 

Charles joins the Scotch army, 1646; betrayed into 

the hands of the English parliament . 30 Jan. 1647 
Marquis of Montrose defeated at Philiphaugh, 13 
Sept. 1645 ; defeated and taken prisoner, exe- 
cuted at Edinburgh 21 May, 1650 

Charles II. crowned at Scone, 1 Jan. ; defeated at 

Worcester 22 Aug. 1651 

Scotland united to the English commonwealth by 

Oliver Cromwell Sept. ,, 

Charles II. revives episcopacy in Scotland . . 1661 

Argyll beheaded 27 May, „ 

Scottish hospital, London, incorporated . . . 1665 
The Covenanters defeated on the Pentland hills . 1666 
Abp. Sharpe murdered near St. Andrews, by John 

Balfour of Burley and others . . 3 May, 1679 

The Covenanters defeat Claverhouse at Drumclog 

1 June ; are routed at Bothwell bridge 22 June, ,, 
Richard Cameron's declaration for religious liberty 

22 June, 1680 
Resolution of a convention in favour of William III. ; 
re-establishment of presbytery . . 14 March, 1689 



The "claim of right" accepted by William and 

Mary n May, 1689 

Insurrection of Claverhouse: killed at Killiecrankie, 

27 July, ,, 
Massacre of the Macdonalds at Glencoe 13 Feb. 1692 

Parish schools established by the parliament. 1697 

Legislative union of Scotland with England 1 May, 1707 
Insurrection under the earl of Mar in favour of the 

son of James II. (see Pretender) .... 1715 
The rebels defeated at Preston, 12 Nov. ; and at 

Dumblane (or Sheriffmuir) . . -13 Nov. ,, 
Captain Porteous killed by a mob in Edinburgh (see 

Porteous) 7 Sept. 1736 

Prince Charles Edward proclaimed at Perth, 4 
Sept. ; at Edinburgh, 16 Sept. ; with the High- 
landers defeats sir John Cope at Prestonpans, 21 
Sept. ; takes Carlisle, 15 Nov. ; arrives at Man- 
chester, 28 Nov. ; at Derby, 4 Dec. ; retreats to 

Glasgow. 25 Dec. 1745 

Defeats general Hawley at Falkirk, 17 Jan. ; is 
totally defeated at Culloden . . 16 April, 1746 
I The Highland dress prohibited by parliament, 12 Aug. 
Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino executed for high 
treason on Tower-hill .... 18 Aug. ,, 
j Simon Fraser, lord Lovat, aged 80, executed 9 April 1747 
Heritable jurisdictions abolished by parliament . ,, 
Thomson, the poet, dies . . . -27 Aug. 1748" 
1 The Old Pretender. "Chevalier de St. George," dies 

at Rome 30 Dec. 1765, 

Prince Charles Edward Louis Casimir, the Young 

Pretender, dies at Rome . . . -31 Jan. 1788. 
Death of Robert Burns .... 21 July, 1796. 
Scott's " Lay of the Last Minstrel" published . 1806 

Cardinal Henry duke of York (last of the Stuarts) 

dies 31 Aug. 1807 

The Court of Session is formed into two divisions . ,, 
Royal Caledonian asylum, London, founded . . 1813 

Scott's " Waverley " published 1814. 

The establishment of a jury court under a lord 

chief commissioner 1815 

Visit of George IV. to Scotland . . . Aug. 1822- 

Sir Walter Scott dies 21 Sept. 1832 

Seven ministers of the presbytery of Strathbogie are 
deposed by the General Assembly of the Church of 
Scotland for obeying the civil in preference to the 
ecclesiastical law. (Their deposition was formally 
protested against by the minority of ministers and 
elders, headed by Dr. Cook) ... 28 May, 1841- 
The General Assembly condemn patronage as a 
grievance to the cause of true religion that ought 

to be abolished 23 May, 1842- 

Visit of the queen, prince Albert, and the court ; 

she landed at Granton pier . . . 1-13 Sept. ,, 
Secession of the non-intrusion ministers of the 
church of Scotland (about 400) at the General As- 
sembly (see Free Church) ... 18 May, 1843 

Death of Jeffrey 26 Jan. 1850- 

National Association for vindication of Scottish 

rights formed Nov. 1853 

Forbes Mackenzie's act (16 & 17 Vict. c. 67), "for 
the better regulation of public-houses in Scot- 
land " ; it permits grocers to sell spirits, &c, but 
allows drinking on the premises only in duly 

licensed places, passed ,, 

Act for better government of the universities passed 

Aug. 1858 
Salmon Fisheries act passed . . . July, 1864 

The queen's visit to the borders, Kelso, Melrose, <fec. 

21-24 Au g- 1867 
Scotch Reform bill introduced into the commons, 

17 Feb., passed 13 July, 1868 

Procedure in court of session and justiciary and 

other courts amended July, , , 

Scotch Reform act passed . . . .13 July, ,, 
Land Registers and Titles to Land act passed J uly, , , 
Commission appointed to inquire into the adminis- 
tration of justice Oct. ,, 

Municipal elections amendment act passed, 9 Aug. 1870 
Act to unite counties for sheriffs' duties passed 

9 Aug. ,, 
Robert Chambers, author and publisher, died aged 69 

17 March, 1871 
Scott centenary celebrated in Edinburgh, &c. (Scott 

born 15 Aug. 1771) 9 Aug. ,, 

Scotch Education act passed . . 10 Aug. 1872 
Return of owners of land and heritages, 1872-3 (a 
kind of Domesday book), published by govern- 
ment April, 187 



SCOTLAND. 



1110 



SCOTLAND. 



Patronage in the established church (see 1842) 
abolished by act passed ... 7 Aug. 1874 

Scottish Church Disestablishment Association : first 
annual meeting 8 March, 1875 

Visit of the queen to Edinburgh ; the Scottish 
national monument, by J. Steell, to prince Albert, 
unveiled by her 17 Aug. 1876 

Romanist hierarchy revived by the pope ; arch- 
bishopric of Glasgow, bishopric of Dunkeld, &c. 
4 March ; the Scotch protestant bishops protest 
against this 13 April, 1878 

Public Parks act passed , . . 18 March, ,, 

Marriage Notice act passed ... 8 Aug „ 

Education act amended, by act . . 16 Aug. ,, 

Visit of Mr. Gladstone to Mid-Lothian, Edinburgh, 
Glasgow, &c, many speeches . 24 — 29 Nov. 1879 

About 40,000 Scottish volunteers reviewed in the 
Queen's Park, Edinburgh, by the queen 25 Aug. 1881 

Agitation respecting rents in Aberdeen, Banff, &c. 

Sept. -Oct. ,, 

Farmers' alliance founded at Aberdeen by delegates 
from above 4000 farmers . . . 1 Dec, ,, 

Movement for home rule (which set') begun 4 April, 1882 

Old Scottish regimental colours deposited in St. 
Giles's cathedral, Edinburgh, by the duke of 
Cambridge 13 Nov. 1883 

Death of Walter, duke of Buccleuch, aged 78 ; mu- 
nificent patron of public works, agriculture, 
science, literature, and art . . 15 April, 1884 

Agitation for the dis-establishment of the church 
(see Church of Scotland) . . . autumn, 1S85 

Secretary for Scotland act passed . 14 Aug. ,, 

Charles Henry, duke of Richmond, appointed 
secretary Aug. 1885; succeeded by G. O. Trevelyan 
about 6 Feb. ; by Arthur J. Balfour 26 July 1886; 
by Schomberg H., marquis of Lothian, 8 March. 1887 

Local government bill for Scotland introduced by 
J. P. B. Robertson, 8 April ; passed . 26 Aug. 1889 

Scotch universities bill, giving more freedom to 
teaching and increasing state grant to 42,000?. a 
year, passed 30 Aug. ,, 

New national portrait gallery for Scotland in Edin- ,, 
burgh, opened by the marquis of Lothian 15 July, ,, 

The new universities commission and the special 
commission on the Western Highlands and 
islands, meet in Edinburgh . . Jan. 1890 

Great railway strike, see Railways, 22 Dec. 1890 — 

31 Jan. 1891 

Death of lord justice-general John Inglis, eminent 
lawyer, aged about 8i, 20 Aug. ; succeeded by 
rt. lion. James P. B. Robertson about . 17 Sept. ,, 

Destructive plague of field-mice, or voles, in some 
agricultural districts, reported . April— June, 1892 

[The committee on the subject reported, suggesting 
remedies, burning grass, &c, March, 1893.J 

Education and Local Taxation Relief act passed 

27 June, ,, 

Sir George Trevelyan, secretary for Scotland, 18 Aug. ,, 

Death of the duke of Sutherland, aged 64 ; pro- 
moter of railways, &c. . . . 22 Sept. ,, 

Celebration of the jubilee of the free church, 1 8 May, 1893 

Resolutions in favour of home rule (which see) re- 
jected in the commons, 29 April, 1892 ; 23 June, ,, 

Wedding of the duke and duchess of York ; festive 
demonstrations at Edinburgh, Glasgow, &c. 6 July, ,, 

Resolution for the appointment of a standing com- 
mittee in the commons for Scotch affairs (70 
Scotch members, 15 others), carried, 232-20, 
27 April ; 1st meeting, 31 May, 1S94 ; committee 
again appointed 23 May, 1895 

Great "miners' strike (see Coal) . 26 June-22 Oct. 1894 
A Church Disestablishment bill read ist time, 

24 April (withdrawn). 
Local Government bill : royal assent . 25 Aug. ,, 
Severe snowstorms ; railways blooked . 6 Feb. 1895 
Death of lord Moncn'etf (lord justice clerk; emi- 
nent lawyer) ; aged 83 . . . 27 April, ,, 
Lord Balfour of Burleigh, secretary for Scotland, 

25 June, ,, 
Centenary of I In 1 death of Hubert Hums celebrated 

at Dumfries, and throughout bhecountry,a] duly, 1896 
20,000/.. voted by parliament for the relief bf the 

islands and Highlands of Scotland . 4 dune, 1807 
Public Health act (Scotland) passed . . 6 Aug. ,,' 
Scottish universities commission discontinued, 

31 Dec. „, 

Private legislation pri dure (Scotland), passed, 

g Aug. 1S99 



Death of the duke of Argyll, aged 76, orator and 
statesman (for 50 years the personal friend of 
the queen) 24 April, 1900 

New elementary code introduced into public 
schools in , 

Union of the Free and United Presbyterian 
churches 31 Oct. ,, 

The general election proved that the liberal party, 
strong since 1832, had lost its hold on the people, 

Nov. ,, 

Mr. Andrew Carnegie gives 2,000,000/. in trust to 
the universities for the benefit of poor students, 
May, 1901 ; committee appointed, the earl of 
Elgin, chairman, early June; charter of incorpora- 
tion granted 21 Aug. 1901 

Education (Scotland) act, royal assent given, 9 Aug. ,, 

Lands' valuation amendment act passed, 13 June, 1902 

Immoral traffic bill passed ... 4 July, ,, 

Free church of Scotland v. the United Free church, 
respecting funds, &c, lord Low's decision against 
the Free church claimants (9 Aug. 1901) upheld 
by the second division of the Edinburgh court 
of session 4 July, ,, 

Centenary of the birth of Hugh Miller celebrated 
at Cromarty 22 Aug. ,, 

The king and queen visit Brodick, Arran, 26, 27 Aug. ,, I 

Committee appointed in reference to the board 
of manufactures and the administration of 
parliamentary grants for art . . early Sept. ,, 

Mr. Balfour presented with the freedom of 
Haddington 20 Sept. ,, 

Royal commission (the earl of Mansfield chairman) 
on physical training . . . April-3 Oct. ,. | 

"Rapid increase in crime and disorder" since 
1897, reported Jan. 1903 j 

Visit of the king and queen, warmly welcomed, 

11-15 May ,. 

Licensing act passed royal assent . . 14 Aug. ,, | 

Death of Dr. Alex. Bain, eminent psychologist, 
aged 85 15 Sept. ., 

Great speeches by Mr. Chamberlain on the new 
fiscal policy, at Glasgow 6 Oct. ; Greenock 7 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Wm. Quarrier, founder of the Scottish orphan 
homes, died 16 Oct. ., ' 

Marriage of the duke of Roxburghe to Miss May 
Goelet, of New York .... 10 Nov. ,, 

KINGS OF SCOTLAND. 

BEFORE CHRIST. 

[The early accounts of the kings are in a great measure | 
fabulous. The series of kings is carried as far back as I 
Alexander the Great. ] 
330. Fergus I. : ruled 25 years ; lost in the Irish Sea. 

[Fergus, a brave prince, came from Ireland with an army! 
of Scots, and was chosen king. Having defeated the! 
Britons and slain their king Coilus, the kingdom of thei 
Scots was entailed upon his posterity for ever. He I 
went to Ireland, and, having settled his affairs there,! 
was drowned on his return, launching from the shore, 
near the harbour, called Carrick-Fergtis to this day,; 
36Q9 a.m. Anderson.] I 

AFTER CHRIST. 

357. Eugenius I. son of Fincormachus ; slain in battle] 
by Maximus, the Roman general, and the Picts. j 
V s With this battle ended the kingdom of the Scots. 
after having existed from the coronation of 
Fergus I., a period of 706 years ; the royal family 
fled to Denmark. Boea ; Buchanan. 
[Interregnum of 27 years. | 

404. Fergus II. (I.) great-grandson of Eugenius, and 1 
40th king ; slam in battle with the Romans. 

420. Eugenius II. or Evenus : reigned 31 years. 

451. Dongardus or Domangard, brother: defeated and 
drowned. 

457. Constantine I. brother: assassinated. 

479. Congallus I. nephew ; just and prudent. 

501. Gorauus. brother; murdered. Boece. Died while 
Donald of Athol was conspiring to take his life. 

535. Eugenius III. uephew; "none excelled him iu , 
justice." 

55S. Congallus II. brother. 

569. Kinnatellus. brother: resigned for 
Udanus or Aldan, son of Gorauus. 

605. Kenneth, son of Congallus II. 

606. Eugenius IV. son of Aidanus. 

621. Ferchard or Ferquhard I. son: confined for mis- 
deeds to his palace, where he laid violent hands 
upon himself. Scott, 



SCOTLAND. 



1111 



SCRIPTURE KNOWLEDGE. 



699. 



715- 

73°- 



831. 
834- 



S58. 
3 74. 



632. Donald IV. brother ; drowned in Loch Tay. 
646. Perchard II. son of Ferchard I. ; " most execrable. " 
664. Malduinus, son of Donald IV. ; strangled by his wife 
for his supposed infidelity, for which crime she 
was immediately afterwards burnt. 
684. Eugenius V. brother. 
688. Eugenius VI. son of Ferchard II. 
698. Amberkeletus, nephew ; fell by an arrow from an 
unknown hand. 
Eugenius VII. brother; some ruffians designing 
the king's murder, entered his chamber, and, he 
being absent, stabbed his queen, Spontana, to 
death. Scott. 
Mordachus, son of Amberkeletus. 
Etfinus, son of Eugenius VII. 
761. Eugenius VIII. son of Mordachus ; sensual and 

tyrannous ; put to death by his nobles. 
764. Fergus III. son of Etfinus ; killed by his jealous 
queen, who afterwards stabbed herself to escape 
a death of torture. 
767. Solvathius, son of Eugenius VIII. 
787. Achaius : just and wise. 
819. Congallus III. ; a peaceful reign. 
824. Dongal or Dougal, son of Solvathius ; drowned. 
Alpine, son of Achaius ; beheaded by the Picts. 
Kenneth II. son ; surnamed Mac Alpine ; defeated 
the Picts, slew their king, and united them and 
the Scots under one sceptre, and became the first 
sole monarch of all Scotland, 843. 
354. Donald V. brother : dethroned ; committed suicide. 
Constantine II. son of Kenneth II. : taken in battle 

by the Danes and beheaded. 
Eth or Ethus, surnamed Lightfoot ; died of grief in 
prison ; confined for sensuality and crime. 
,876. Gregory the Great ; brave and just. 
893. Donald VI. son of Constantine II. ; excellent. 
904. Constantine III. son of Ethus ; became a monk, and 

resigned in favour of 
944. Malcolm I. son of Donald VI. ; murdered. 
953. Indulfus or Gondulph ; killed by the Danes in an 

ambuscade. 
961. Duff or Duffus, son of Malcolm ; murdered by 

Donald, the governor of Forres castle. 
965. Cullen or Culenus, son of Indulfus ; avenged the 
murder of his predecessor ; assassinated 
Kenneth III. brother of Duffus ; murdered by 

Fenella, the lady of Fettercairn. 
Constantine IV. son of Cullen : slain. 
Kenneth IV. or Grimus, the Grim, son of Duffus ; 
routed and slain in battle by Malcolm, the 
rightful heir to the crown, who succeeded. 
Malcolm II. son of Kenneth III. ; assassinated on 
his way to Glamis ; the assassins in their flight 
crossing a frozen lake were drowned. 
1033. Duncan I. grandson ; assassinated by his cousin. 
E039. Macbeth, usurper; slain byMacduff, thethaneofFU'e. 
%* Historians so differ up to this reign, in the number 
of the kings, the dates of succession, and the 
circumstances narrated, that no account can be 
taken as precisely accurate. 
E057. Malcolm III. (Canmore), son of Duncan ; killed 

while besieging Alnwick castle. 
11093. Donald VII. (Donald Bane), brother; usurper; fled 
to the Hebrides. 
Duncan II. natural son of Malcolm ; murdered. 
Donald VII. again ; deposed. 
Edgar, son of Malcolm (Henry I. of England 

married his sister Maud). 
Alexander I. the Fierce, brother. 
David I. brother ; married Matilda, daughter of 

Waltheof, earl of Northumberland. 
Malcolm IV. grandson. 
1 165. William the Lion ; brother. 
1214. Alexander II. son; married Joan, daughter of John, 
king of England. 
Alexander III. married Margaret, daughter of 
Henry III. of England ; dislocated his neck, when 
hunting near Kinghorn. 
Margaret, the "Maiden of Norway," grand-daughter 
of Alexander, "recognised by the states of Scot- 
land, though a female, an infant, and a foreigner ; 
died on her passage to Scotland. 
A competition for the vacant throne ; Edward I. 

of England decides in favour of 
John Balliol, who afterwards surrendered his 
crown, and died in exile. 
[Interregnum.] 
1 306. Robert (Bruce) I. a great prince. 



970. 



994. 
995- 



C003. 



C094. 



007, 
ci 24. 



E153. 



E249- 



1292. 



1329. David (Bruce) II. son; Edward Balliol disputed 

the throne with him. 
1332. David II. again a prisoner in England, 1346-57 

(Edward Balliol king, 1332-4.) 
1371. Robert (Stuart) II. nephew ; died 19 April, 
1390. Robert (John Stuart) III. son ; died 4 April. 
1406. James I. second son ; imprisoned 18 years in Eng- 
land; set at liberty in 1424; conspired against, 

and murdered at Perth, 21 Feb. 
1437. James II. son ; killed at the siege of Roxburgh 

castle by a cannon bursting, 3 Aug. 
1460. James III. son ; killed in a revolt of his subjects at 

Bannockburn-field, 11 June. 
1488. James IV. son ; married Margaret Tudor, daughter 

of Henry VII. of England ; killed at the battle of 

Flodden, 9 Sept. 
151 3. James V. son; succeeded when little more than a 

year old ; a sovereign possessing many virtues ; 

died 14 Dec. 
1542. Mary, daughter; born, 7 Dec. 1542 ; succeeded 

14 Dec. ; see Annals, above. 
1567. James VI. son ; succeeded to the throne of England, 

and the kingdoms were united, 1603. 
See England. 
SCOTT CENTENARY, celebrated in London 
and throughout Scotland, 9 Aug. 1871. Sir Walter 
Scott was born 15 Aug. 1771 ; died, 1832. 

SCOTTISH CORPORATION, established 
1665. It is maintained by voluntary contributions, 
and supports the Scottish hospital which greatly 
helps necessitous natives of Scotland in London. 
Annual income about 6,000/. The old hall, Crane- 
court, Fleet-street, built by Wren, burnt 14 Nov. 
1877 ; new hall inaugurated 21 July, 1 880. 

SCOTTISH HISTORY society founded in 
Edinburgh in 1886. The earl of Rosebery, pre- 
sident, 23 Nov. 1897. 

SCOURERS, see Mohocks. 

SCOURING of the White Horse, see 

Ashdown. 

SCREW, was known to the Greeks. The 
pumping-screw of Archimedes, or screw-cylinder 
for raising water, invented about 236 B.C., is still 
in use. It is stated that with the assistance of the 
screw, one man can press down or raise up as much 
as 150 men can do without it. — The Screw-Pro- 
peller consists of two or more twisted blades, 
like the vanes of a windmill, set on an axis, run- 
ning parallel with the keel of a vessel, and revolving 
beneath the water at the stern. It is driven by 
a steam-engine. The principle was shown by 
Hooke in 1681, and since by Du Quet, Bernouilli, 
and others. Patents for propellers were taken ou + , 
by Joseph Bramah in 1784; by Wm. Lyttelton it 
1794; and by Edward Shorter in 1799. But these 
led to no useful result. In 1836 patents were ob- 
tained by Francis Pettit Smith (knighted July, 
187 1 ; died, 12 Feb. 1874) and captain John Erics- 
son (died, aged 86, March, 1889) ; and to them the 
successful application of the screw-propeller must 
be attributed. The first vessels with the screw were 
the Archimedes, built on the Thames in 1838 by 
H. Wimshurst, and the Rattler, built in the United 
States (1844), and tried in England in 1845. 
Double screw-propellers are now employed. A new 
form of screw-propeller invented by col. W. JEL 
Mallory, of U.S.A. army, was tried on the Thames 
and reported successful, Aug. 1878. 

SCRIBLERUS CLUB, a literary club, 
founded by Swift in 17 14, included amongst its 
members, Bolingbrpke, Pope, Gay, and Arbuthnot. 

SCRIPTURE KNOWLEDGE INSTI- 
TUTION, Bristol, wag founded by George Muller, 
a Prussian (born 1805, died 10 March, 1898). He 
came to Bristol as a minister of the "Brethren" in 



SCROFULA. 



1112 



SEA. 



1832, and on 5 March, 1834, founded this institu- 
tion, the objects of which are: 1. Assistance of 
schools giving instruction on scriptural principles ; 
2. Circulation of the scriptures; 3. Assistance to 
missions; 4. Circulation of tracts; 5. Provision 
for destitute orphans, see Orphan-houses. With- 
out application, Mr. Miiller. since he began, up to 
26 May, 1895, ^ a( l received by voluntary contribu- 
tion, 1,373,348?. 6s. 2\d. 

SCROFULA, see King's-evil. 

SCRUTIN (French for ballot). In scrutin tie 

liste the voter writes on his paper as many names 
as there are persons to be elected, for instance for 
the whole depai-tment. In scrutin d'arrondissernent, 
the members are elected separately. The adoption 
of one of these modes was much discussed in France 
in 1875- The conservatives prefer the latter, the 
radicals the former. See France, Nov. 1875. The 
scrutin de liste was adopted in the elections of 
1848, 1849, 1871, and 1875. 

M. Bardoux's bill for adopting the scrutin de liste (warmly 
advocated by M. Gambetta), was passed by the cham- 
ber of deputies (243-235), 18 May, 1881 ; rejected by 
the senate (148-114), 9 June, 1881 ; again rejected, Jan. 
1882. 
M. Welbeck Rousseau's bill for the scrutin de liste passed 
by the deputies (412-99), 24 March, finally passed, 
8 June, 1885. 
The bill for the restoration of the scrutin d'arrondissernent 
passed by the chamber n Feb. and senate 13 Feb. 
i88q. 
The scrutin de liste was adopted by the Italian chamber, 
14 Feb. 1882. 

SCULLABOGUE, see Massacres, 1798. 

SCULPTURE is said to have begun with the 
Egyptians. Bezaleel and Aholiab built the taber- 
nacle in the wilderness, and made all the vessels and 
ornaments, 1491 B.C., and their skill is recorded as 
the gift of God. Jixod. xxxi. 3. Dipoenus and 
Scyllis, statuaries at Crete, established a school at 
Sicyon. Pliny speaks of them as being the first 
who sculptured marble and polished it ; all statues 
before their time being of wood, 568 B.C. Alex- 
ander gave Lysippus the sole right of making his 
statues, 326 B.C. He left no less than 6co pieces, 
some of which were so highly valued in the age of 
Augustus, that they sold for their weight in gold. 
Sculpture did not flourish among the P.omans, and 
in the middle ages with some fine exceptions, was 
generally degraded. With the revival of painting, 
it revived also ; and Donato di Bardi, born at Flo- 
rence, a.d. 1383, was the earliest professor among 
the moderns. An institute of sculptors was estab- 
lished in 1861. See Royal Academy and Statues. 

EMINENT SCULPTORS. 

Phcidon flourished b c. 869 

Myron ' .' . ,180 

Phidias (the greatest) 442 

Praxiteles 3 6 3 

Lysippus . . . . . ' ! 323 

Chares . . .... 288 

Michael Angelo Bnonarotti . . . a.d. 1474-1564 

Benvenuto Cellini 1500-1570 

Giovanni L. Bernini 1598-1680 

Gains Gabriel Cibber 1630-1700 

Andreas Scblfltei' . .... 1662-1714 

Grinling Gibbons ...... 1648-1721 

Francis Bird \ 1667-1731 

John Henry Danneker 1758-1741 

Louis Roubilinn (statue of sir I. Newton) . died 176a 

Peter Schcemakers 16111-1769 

John M. Rysbrack 1693-1770 

John Bacon 1740-1799 

Thomas Hanks j.-^.jg" 

Joseph Nollekens ...... 17^7-1823 

Antonio Canova . 1757-18^? 

John Flaxman 1754-182(1 



Jean-Antoine Houdon 1741-1828 

J. C. F. Rossi 1762-1839 

Peter Turnerelli 1774-1839 

William Pitti 1790-1840 

Francis Chantrey 1781-1841 

Albert Thorwaldsen 1770-1844 

Sir Riehard Westmacott 1775-1856 

Christian Rauch 1777-1857 

Thos. Campbell. 1790-1858 

M. Cortes Wyatt 1777-1862 

John E. Jones 1806-1862 

John Thomas 1813-1862 

Wm. Behnes 1790- 1864 

C. Kiss 1802-1865 

John Gibson 1791-186& 

Edw. Hodges Baily 1788-1867 

Richd. Westmacott 1799-1872 

Hiram Powers 1805-1873 

John Henry Foley 181S-1874 

Alfred Geo. Stevens 1817-1875 

Matthew Noble 1820-187S 

Thos. Woolner 1826-1892 

Sir Joseph Edgar Boehm 1834-1890 

Mary Thornycroft (nee Francis) . . . . 1814-1895 
Hamo Thornycioft (her son) .... 1852 

Alfred Gilbert 1852 

John Mossman 1816-1890 

William Theed 1804-1891 

Sir John Steel 1807-1891 

Prince Victor of Hohenlohe (formerly count 

Gleichen) 1833-1891 

Charles Bell Birch 1832-1893 

Giovanni Guiseppe Fontana . . . . 1821-1893 

William Calder Marshall 1831-1894 

John Bell 1811-1895 

M. Chatrousse 1829- 1896 

Harry Bates 1850-1899 

Paul de Vigne 1844-1901 

Onslow Ford 1852-1903 

Jules Dalou 1838-1902 

Marc Antokolsky 1842-1902 

SCUTAGE or ESCTJAGE. The service of the 
shield (scutum) is either uncertain or certain. 
Escuage uncertain is where the tenant by his tenure 
is bound to follow his lord ; and is called Castleward, 
where the tenant is bound to defend a castle. 
Escuage certain is where the tenant is set at a 
certain sum of money to be paid in Keu of such 1111 - 
certain services. The first tax levied in England to 
pay an army, 5 Hen. II. 1 1 qg. Coicel. 

SCUTARI, Asiatic Turkey, opposite Constanti- 
nople, of which it is a suburb. It was anciently 
called Clirysopolis, golden eity, in consequence, it 
is said, of the Persians having established a treasury 
here when they attempted the conquest of Greece. 
Near here Constantine finally defeated Lieinius, 323. 
The hospital was occupied by the sick and wounded 
of the Anglo-French army, in 1854-5, whose suffer- 
ings were much alleviated by the kind exertions of 
Miss Florence Nightingale and a band of nurses' 
under her, aided by a large fund of money (15,000/.) 
subscribed by the public and placed in the care of 
the proprietors of the Times newspaper ; see Times. 
Explosion of powder magazine by lightning, about 
150 killed, 8 June, 1883. Population, 1901, about 
82,400. 

SCYTHIA, situate in the most northern parts 
of Europe and Asia. The boundaries were unknown 
to the ancients. 'J he Scythians made several irrup- 
tions upon the more southern provinces of Asia, 
especially 624 B.C., when they remained in posses- 
sion of Asia Minor for twenty-eight years, and at 
different periods extended their conquests in Europe, 
penetrating as far as Egypt ; see Tar tar y. 

SEA. Lieut. Maury first published his " Physi- 
cal Geography of the Sea" in 1S54, and other im- 
portant works since; he died Feb. 1873; see Beep 
Sea. 



SEA BIRDS. 



1113 



SEBASTIAN, ST. 



SEA BIEDS' PRESERVATION ACT, 
passed 24 June, 1869. 

SEA FIGHTS, see Naval Battles, 

SEA FISHERIES, see Fisheries, and 
Behring Straits. 

SEAL FISHERY ACT, passed 14 June, 
1875; another act, 29 June, 1S93, see Behring 
Straits. Seal fisheries (N. Pacific) act, relating to 
Russia, passed, 27 June, 1895. 

SEALS or SIGNETS. Engraved gems were used 
as such by the Egyptians, Jews, Assyrians, and 
Greeks; see Exod. xxviii. 14. Ahab s seal was 
used by Jezebel, 899 n.c. (1 Kings xxi. 8.) The 
Romans in the time of the Tarquins (about 600 B.C.) 
had gemmed rings. They sealed rooms, granaries, 
bags of money, &c. The German emperor, Frederick 
I. (a.d. 1 152) had seals of gold, silver, and tin. Im- 
pressions of the seals of Saxon kings are extant ; 
and the English great seal is attributed to Edward 
the Confessor (1041-66). "A seal with armorial 
bearings before the nth century, is certainly false." 
Fosbroke. The most ancient English seal with arms 
on it is said to be that of Richard I. or John. White 
and coloured waxes were used. Our present sealing- 
wax, containing shellac, did not come into general 
use in Germany and England until about 1556. 
Red wafers for seals came into use about 1624 ; but 
were not used for public seals till the 18th century. 
A seal acquired by the British Museum made of 
black hematite, thought to be Hittite, found at 
Yuzgat in Asia Minor, announced Nov. 1886. 
Seal Society, for publication of fac-similes of an- 
cient seals, was established in 1883. — For Sealed 
Letters, see Great Seal and Lettres de Cachet. 

SEAMEN. In consequence of the great loss of 
life by wrecks of merchant vessels, attributed to bad 
ships and overloading, a commission of inquiry was 
agreed to by parliament on 1he motion of Mr. S. 
ITimsoll (who published "Our Seamen: an Ap- 
peal"), a March, 1873. The duke of Edinburgh 
was on the commission ; the duke of Somerset, 
chairman. Mr. Plimsoll has been censured for 
exaggeration. 

The report issued in September tended to justify the 
public apprehensions, but suggested no remedy. The 
report presented to parliament, 2 July, 1874, con- 
demned the present insurance system, and recom- 
mended increased responsibility of owners and others, 
and strengthening the powers of the Board of Trade for 
investigation. 

The Merchant Shipping Survey bill was rejected 
(173 — 170) 24 June, 1874 

After much excitement, an act was passed to give 
further powers to the Board of Trade to stop un- 
seaworthy ships 13 Aug. 1875 

Another Merchant Shipping act (which see) passed, 

15 Aug. 1876 

Strong circular issued by the Board of Trade (Mr. 
Chamberlain) ; deaths of the employed in ships 
asserted to be 1 in 60 ; in coal mines 1 in 315 ; 
present system stated to be ineffectual . Jan. 1S84 

First annual congress of the National Seamen's and 
Firemen's union held at Cardiff, Mr. Plimsoll 
present (he died, aged 74, 3 June. 1898) . 8 Oct. 1889 
See Shipping. 

Seamen's hospital society, see Dreadnought. 

SEAS, Sovereignty of the. The claim 

of England to rule the British seas is of very ancient 
date. Arthur is said to have assumed it, and Alfred 
afterwards supported this claim. It was maintained 
by Selden, and measures were taken by government 
in consequence, 8 Chas. I. 1633. The Dutch, aftei 
the death of Charles I., made some attempts to 
obtain it, but were roughly treated by Blake and 



other admirals. Russia and other powers of the- 
north armed to avoid search, 1780; again, 1800; 
see firmed Neutrality and Flag. The international 
rule of the road at sea was settled in 1862 ; (new 
rules were issued in 1879 an -d '9 Au £- 1884) , yet near 
Great Britain alone there have been 13,000 collisions- 
in six years. Mr. Wm. Stirling Lacon proposed to 
reduce the rules from 749 words to 144, for sim- 
plicity and security. His form had been nine times- 
before parliament, 1873. Jievised rules issued by 
the, admiralty in a " Fleet Circular," Nov. 1885. 
The British Board of Trade appointed a committee, 
consisting of admirals N. Bowden Smith, sir 
Robert Molyneux, sir George S. Nares, and 
others, to consider measures for the establish- 
ment of a "new rule of the road at sea" ; first 

meeting 1 Aug. 18c© 

The committee adopted the regulations recom- 
mended by the Washington conference in 1889 
(see Navigation Laws), in spite of much opposition 
from the Chamber of Shipping of the United 
Kingdom, the General Shipowners' Society of 
London, the committee of Lloyd's, and other 
kindred bodies ; reported Dec. 1894. 
Committee appointed by the board of trade : sir 
Francis H. Jeune (chairman), and others, March, 
1895 ; report issued, the new rules supported but 
simplification recommended, April, 1896 ; another 
committee appointed respecting collisions at sea, 
May, 1897 ; final report concluded 13 May ; rules 

to be enforced 1 July, 189S 

Blue-book issued . . . . 29 June, ,, 

Load line committee, report issued . . Nov. ,, 
International maritime congresses, Antwerp, 2 Sept. 
1898; London, 1899; Paris, 1900; Hamburg, 
draft treaties as to collisions considered . Sept. 1902 

SEA SERPENT, GREAT, the name given 
to an animal popularly believed to exist, especially 
in deep tropical seas, but niurh controverted by 
zoologists, sir Richard Owen and others. 
Capt. M'Quhae described the appearance of such an 
animal in the South Atlantic ocean in 1848. Other 
descriptions have been since published, and many 
explanations have been suggested. "The Great Sea 
Serpent," by Mr. A. C. Oudemans, published in 1893, 
contains reports of 187 appearances, with 82 illustra- 
tions. 

SEASONS. The four natural divisions of the 
year. 

In the north temperate regions in 1884 the spring 
quarter began 20 March, 5 a.m., the summer, 21 June, 
1 a.m., the autumn, 22 Sept. 3 p.m., the winter, 21 Dec. 
10 a.m. See Lapland seasons under Year. 

James Thomson's "Seasons" published: "Winter,"' 
1726; "Summer," 1727; "Spring," 1728; "Autumn," 1730. 
Haydn's "Seasons" first performed, 1801. 

SEATS BILL, see under Reform. 

SEBASTIAN, ST. (N. Spain), was taken by 
the French, under the duke of Berwick, in 1719- 
It w r as besieged by the British and allied army under 
Wellington. Alter a most heavy bombardment, by 
which the whole town was laid nearly in ruins, it 
was stormed by general Graham (afterwards lord 
Lynedoch), and taken 31 Aug. 1813. — On 5 May, 
1836, the fortified works, through the centre of 
which ran the high road to Hemani, were carried 
by the English auxiliary legion under general 
Evans, after very hard righting. The British naval 
squadron, off St. Sebastian, under lord John Hay, 
lent very opportune aid to the victors in this con- 
test. — A vigorous assault was made on the lines of 
general He Lacy Evans, at St. Sebastian, by the 
Carlists, 1 Oct. 1836. Both parties fought with 
bravery. The Carlists were repulsed, after suffer- 
ing severely. The loss of the Anglo-Spanish force 
was 376 men and 37 officers, killed and wounded. 
General He Lacy Evans was slightly wounded. See 



SEBASTOPOL. 



1114 



SEDAN. 



under Leagues. The queen regent of Spain meets 
queen Victoria here, 27 March, 1889. Population, 
1887, 29,047. 

SEBASTOPOL or Sevastopol, a town and 

once a naval arsenal, at S.W. point of the Crimea, 
formerly the little village of Aktiar. The buildings 
were commenced in 1784, by Catherine II. after the 
conquest of the country. The town is built in the 
shape of an amphitheatre on the rise of a large hill 
flattened on its summit, according to a plan laid 
down before 1794, which has been since adhered to. 
The fortifications and harbour were constructed by 
an English engineer, colonel Upton, and his sons, 
.since 1830. The population in 1834 was 15,000. 
This place underwent eleven months siege, by the 
English and French in 1854 and 1855. Immediately 
after the battle of the Alma, 20 Sept. 1854, the allied 
army marched to Sebastopol, and took up its position 
on the plateau between it and Balaklava, and the 
grand attack and bombardment commenced 17 Oct 
1854, without success.* After many sanguinary 
encounters by day and night, and repeated bombard- 
ments, a grand assault was made on 8 Sept. 1855, 
upon the Malakhoff tower and the Redans, the most 
important fortifications to the south of the town. 
The French succeeded in capturing and retaining 
the Malakhoff. The attacks of the English on the 
<?reat Eedan and of the French upon the little Redan 
were successful, but the assailants were compelled 
to retire after a desperate struggle with great loss of 
life. The French lost 1646 killed, of whom 5 were 
generals, 24 superior and 116 inferior officers, 45CO 
wounded, and 1400 missing. The English lost 385 
killed (29 being commissioned and 42 non-commis- 
sioned officers), 1886 wounded, and 176 missing. 
In the night the Russians abandoned the southern 
and principal part of the town and fortifications, 
after destroying as much as possible, and crossed 
to the northern forts. They also sank or burnt the 
remainder of their fleet. '1 he allies found a very 
great amount of stores when they entered the place, 
9 Sept. The works were utterly destroyed in April, 
1856, and the town was restored to the Russians in 
July; gen. Todleben, the able defender, died 1 
July, 1884, and wa< buried here; his monument 
uncovered 28 June, 1890. See Russo- Turkish War. 
Population of Sebastopol, 1885, 33,803 ; 1897, 
50,710. Made a naval port, Sept. 1895 ; new dock, 
opened, 18 May, 1898. Monument to adm. Nakhim- 
olf unveiled by the czar, 30 Nov. 1898. 

SECEDEES; SECESSION CHTJKCH, 
see Burg Iters. 

SECONDAEY EDUCATION, see Educa- 
tion, 1893-4. 

SECONDAEY of London, an ancient 

office, resembling that of under-sheriff in counties. 
The place was purchaseable till early in thepresen 
century, when it was bought up by the corporation. 

* In consequence of the sufferings and disasters of the 
army in the winter of 1854-5, the Sebastopol inquiry 
Committee was appointed, and 1 lie Aberdeen administra- 
tion resigned, Feb. 185s The committee sat from 
1 March to 15 May, lord Aberdeen being the last person 
examined, its report was presented 18 June. Mr. Rbe- 
buck, the chairman, moved 011 17. July that the house 
should pass a vote of severe reprehension on every mem 
ber <>f the Aberdeen administration. On 19 July his 
motion was losl by a majoritj of 107 against it. In 1855 
the government sent sir. John M'Xcill and col. Tulloi fi 
to inquire into the state of the armies in the Crimea. 
Their report was presented to parliament in Feb. j8so. 
A commission was appointed to consider the statements 
in the report (which were verj unfavourable to mmiy 
officers), but the substance of the report was unshaken, 



SECEET SOCIETIES, Assassins, Fenians, 
Ribbonism, Vehmic Tribunal, Rosicrucians, Illu- 
utinati, Carbonari, Mary- Anne, Nihilists. 

SECEETAEIES of State. The earliest 
authentic record of a secretary of state is in the 
reign of Henry III., when John Maunsell is de- 
scribed as " Secretarius Noster," 1253. Rymer. 
Towards the close of Henry VIII. 's reign, two 
secretaries were appointed ; and upon the union 
with Scotland, Anne added a third as secretary for 
Scotch affairs; this appointment was afterwards laid 
aside ; but in the reign of George III. the number 
was again increased to three, one for the American 
department. In 1782 this last was abolished by act 
of Parliament ; and the secretaries were appointed 
for home, foreign, and colonial affairs. When there 
were but two secretaries, one held the poriefeuille 
of the Northern department, comprising the Low 
Countries, Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Poland, 
Russia, &c. ; the other, of the Southern department, 
including France, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, Portu- 
gal, and Turkey ; the affairs of Ireland belonging to 
the elder secretary; both secretaries then equally 
directed the home affairs. Beat son. There are now 
six secretaries — home, foreign, colonial, war, (in 
1858) India, andrin 1885) Scotland, all in the cabinet. 
Secretary of State for Scotland act passed 14 Aug. 
1885, amended 1887, explained 1889. See Adminis- 
trations, and separate articles. 
The Institute of Secretaries was started at a meeting 
in London, 4 July, 1890, to collect information 
respecting the position, duties, and responsi- 
bilities of secretaries to be applied tor their 
benefit. First dinner, 24 June, 1892. Annual 
meetings. 

SECTS, EELIGTOUS, see under Worship, 
and their respective titles. 

SECULAE GAMES {.Ludi Scrculares), very 
ancient Roman games, celebrated on important 
occasions. Horace wrote his " Carmen Saeculare " 
I for their celebration in the reign of the emperor 
I Augustus (17). They took place again in the reign 
of Claudius (47), of Domitian (88), and for the last 
time, of Philip (248), believed to be 2000 years after 
the foundation of the citj r . 

SECULAEISM, a name given to the prin- 
ciples advocated by G. J. and Austin Holyoake, 
about 1846, and subsequently by Mr. Bradlaugh. 
He die! 30 Jan. 1891. 

Its central idea is free, not lawless thought, and it con- 
siders scepticism to be scrutiny. It advocates liberty 
of action without injury to others. It is not against 
Christianity, but independent of it. Its .standard is 
utilitarian ; it is the religion of the present life only ; 
teaching men to seek morality in nature, and happi- 
ness in duty. Mr. Austin Holyoake and other secu- 
larists repudiated atheism 

SECUEITY from Violence Act, passed 

in 1863, appointed whipping as part of the punish- 
ment for attempts at garotting. 

SEDAN, an ancient fortified city in the valley 
of the Mouse, N.E of France, the seat of a princi- 
pality long held by the dukes of Bouillon. On 6 
July, I (>4 1 , ii victory was gained at La Marlee. mar 
Sedan, by the count of Soissons and the troops ot 
Bouillon and other French princes, over the royal 
army supporting Richelieu ; but the count was slain 
01123 June, 1642. The duke was arrested in the 
midst of his army, and was made to cede Sedan to 
tbe crown. The protestant university was al dished 
after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, 22 Oct. 
1685. Around this place a series of desperate con- 
flicts on 29, 30, and 31 Aug. between the French 



SEDAN CHAIES, 



11 15 



SELBOBNE SOCIETY. 



army of the north, under marshal MacMahon (about 
{50,000 men) and the greater part of the three 
German armies under the king and crown -prince of 
Prussia and the crown-prince of Saxony (about 
250,000 men) was brought to a close on 1 Sept. 1870. 

flie battle began with attacks on the French right and 
left about 5 a.m., and was very severe at 2 p.m. At 4 
p.m. the Germans remained masters of the field, and 

■ the crown-prince of Prussia announced a complete 
' victory, the chief part of the French army retreating 

into Sedan. 
The emperor Napoleon was present during the battle, 
and, it is said, stood-at Iges, near Sedan, exposed for 
four hours to the German grenades. The impossibility 
of further resistance was then evident. The Germans 
had contracted their circle close round Sedan ; their for- 
midable artillery held all the heights, from which they 
could at pleasure wholly destroy the town and the 

■ army, and only 2000 men were in a condition to 
respond to their commander's call, and to make a 
supreme effort to break through the enemy with the 
emperor and escape to Montmedy. 

At first general de Wimpffen (called to the command 

when MacMahon was wounded) indignantly rejected 

the terms ottered by the victor, and the emperor had 

a fruitless interview with count Bismarck to endeavour 

. to mitigate them. 

On 2 Sept. the emperor wrote in autograph to the king of 
Prussia, " Mon frere, n'ayant pu mourir a la tete de 
mes troupes, je depose mon epee an pied de votre 
majeste. Napoleon." A capitulation of Sedan and 
. the whole army therein was signed by generals Von 
Moltke and De Wimpffen at the chateau of Bellevue, 
near Frenois, at 11.30 a.m., and at 2 p.m. an interview 
took place between the king and the emperor, who 
was downcast but dignified. 

The conflict was principally carried on by the artillery, 
in which (according to the emperor) the Germans had 
the advantage, not only in number (600 to 500), but 
also in weight, range, and precision. The carnage was 
awful, and the field the next day was a mass of shat- 
tered bones, torn flesh, and coloured rags. 

About 25,000 French prisoners were taken in the battle, 
and 83,000 surrendered the next day, together with 
70 mitrailleuses, 400 field-pieces, and 150 fortress guns. 
About 14,000 French wounded were found lying in 
the neighbourhood, and about 3000 escaped into 
Belgium and laid down their arms. The great army 
of the north had ceased to exist. Among the killed 
was lieut.-col. Pemberton, a correspondent of the 
Times, who had approached too near the conflict. 

The French emperor and his suite arrived at Wilhelms- 
hohe, a castle near Cassel appointed for his residence 
(formerly inhabited by his uncle Jerome, when king 
of Westphalia), in the evening of 5 Sept. 

On 1 Sept. the village of Bazeilles was stormed by the 
Bavarians and burnt, it was said, because the inhabi- 
tants fired on the ambulances ; many women and 
children perished. The French denied the provocation. 
The place had been previously twice bombarded and 
stormed by the maddened combatants. 

In a letter dated 12 May, 1872, the emperor Napoleon 
took upon himself the whole responsibility of the 
surrender of Sedan. 

SEDAN CHAIES (so called from Sedan), 
were first seen in England in 1581. One used in 
the reign of James I., by the duke of Buckingham, 
caused great indignation, and the people exclaimed 
that he was employing his fellow-creatures to do 
the service of beasts. Sedan chairs came into 
London in 1634, when sir Francis Duncomb ob- 
tained the sole privilege to use, let, and hire a 
number of such covered chairs for fourteen years. 
They came into very general use in 1649. 

SEDANGS, a tribe dwelling on the borders of 
Annam.. M. de Mayrena, an ex-officer of the 
French navy, having made himself their king, came 
to Paris. He was set aside, and the Sedangs were 
brought under French protection by the French 
resident- general in Indo-China ; reported Oct. 1889. 



SEDGMOOB (Somersetshire), where the duke 
of- Monmouth (natural son of Charles II. by Luey ; 
Walters), who had risen in rebellion on the acces- 
sion of James II., was completely defeated by the 
royal army, 6 July, 1685. The duke was made a 
prisoner in the disguise of a peasant, at the 
bottom of a ditch, overcome with hunger and 
fatigue. He was tried and beheaded on 15 July 
following. 

SEDITION. Sedition acts were passed in the 
reign of George III. The proclamation against 
seditious writings was published May, 1792. The 
celebrated Sedition bill passed Dec. 1795. Sedi- 
tious societies were suppressed by act, June, 1797. 
The Seditious Meetings and Assemblies' bill passed 
31 March, 1817. In Ireland, during the Roman 
Catholic and Repeal agitation, acts or proclamations 
against sedition and seditious meetings were pub- 
lished from time to time until 1848. 

SEEDS. An act was passed to prevent the 
adulteration of seeds (a common practice), II Aug. 
1869; amended in 1878. 

SEEKEES, see Quakers. 

SEGEDIN, or SZEGEDIN, Hungary. Here 
was concluded a treaty between Ladislaus IV. and 
Amurath II., 12 July, 1444. It was treacherously 
annulled at the instigation of cardinal Julian, who 
withLadislaus perished in the fatal battle of Vama, 
10 Nov. 1444. See Varna. 

SEICENTO, see under Italian. 

SEIDLICE (Poland), where a battle was fought 
10 April, 1831, between the Poles and Russians. 
The Poles obtained the victory after a bloody con- 
flict, taking 4000 prisoners and several pieces of 
cannon ; but this success was soon followed by fatal 
reverses. 

SEISMOMETEE (from seismos, Greek for 
earthquake) , an apparatus for measuring the vio- 
lence of the shocks. One is described by Mr. Robert 
Mallet in his work on earthquakes, published in 
1858. Many described by Prof. J. A. Ewing, 1880-8. 
Further advances described by prof. J. Milne, at 
the Royal Institution, 12 Feb. 1897. Dr. Ehlert's 
apparatus auopted as the standard system forinter- 
natiinal investigations, see Switzerland, Jan. 1899. 
Drs. Vicen ini and Vacher improve their micro- 
seismograph for recording earthquake movements, 
vertical and horizontal, March, 1899. 
A seismological society founded in Japan in . . 1880 
First international seismological conference held at 
Strassburg, n-13 April, 1901 ; second held there 

24 July, 1903 

An earthquake investigation committee formed in 

Japan, prof. KikuchiandDr. F. Omori, president 

and secretary, June, 1892 ; 32 vols, published, 

valuable information of seismic x>henomena, &c, 

see Nature 18 April, 1901 

Prof. Milne's horizontal pendulums used in 40 
observatories, reported .... Aug. ,, 

SELA, see Petra. 

SELBOBNE SOCIETY, for the preserva- 
tion of birds, plants, and plea-ant places, originate I 
in the Selborne league (afterwards society) formed 
by Mr. and Mrs. G. A. Musgrave in Nov. 1885. It 
has included the plumage league since Jan. 1886 
(see under Birds). The society met at Selborne to 
celebrate the centenary of the death of the rev. 
Gilbert White, author of the " Natural History of 
Selborne," 24 (for 26) June, 1893. Roundell 
Palmer, earl Selborne, born 27 Nov. 1812, died, 
4 May, 1895, see Parliament, 20 May, 1S95. 



SELDEN SOCIETY. 



1116 



SENEGAL. 



SELDEN SOCIETY, founded 29 Jan. 1887, 
for the study of English legal history, and pub- 
lication of ancient MSS. and books, by lords 
justice Fry, Coleridge, and Lindley, and other 
eminent lawyers. John Selden, legal antiquary, 
born 16 Dec. 1584, died 30 Nov. 1654. 

SELECT-MEN, the earliest officers of the 
townships formed by the first colonists of New 
England about 1635/ 

SELECTION, Natural, see Species. 

SELENIUM, a grayish -white elementary sub- 
stance (chemically resembling sulphur), discovered 
in the stone riolite by lierzelius, in 181 7. 
The variation in its resistance to the electric current 
when subjected to light was observed by Mr. 
Willoughby Smith in 1873, and utilised in the photo- 
phone (which, sec). Dr. C. Win. Siemens constructed a 
"selenium eye." 

SELEUCIA (Syria), made the capital of the 
Syrian monarchy by its builder, Seleucus Nicator, 
312 B.C. On the fall of the Seleucidse, it became a 
republic, 65 B.C. It was taken by Trajan, a.d. 
116; several times given up and retaken; subju- 
gated by the Saracens, and united with Ctesiphon, 
636. 

SELEUCIDES, Era of the, dates from 
the reign of Seleucus Nicator. It was used in Syria 
for many years, and frequently by the Jews until 
the 15th century, and by some Arabians. Opinions 
vary as to its commencement. To reduce it to our 
era (supposing it to begin 1 Sept. 312 B.C.), sub- 
tract 311 years 4 months. 

SELF-DENYING OEDINANCE, which 
ordained that no member of parliament should hold 
any civil or military office or command conferred by 
either or both of the houses, or by authority derived 
from them, after much discussion, was passed 3 
April, 1645, by the influence of Cromwell, who thus 
removed the earl of Essex and other Presbyterians 
out of his way. A somewhat similar ordinance was 
adopted by the parliament at Melbourne in Aus- 
tralia, in 1858'. The name was given to an arrange- 
ment made respecting .British naval promotions and 
retirements in 1870. 

SELLASIA (Laconia). Here the Spartans 
under Cleomenes were defeated by Antigonus Doson 
and the Achseans, 221 B.C. 

SELSEY, see Chichester. 

SEMAPHOEE, see Telegraphs. 

HEMATOLOGY (Greek sema, a sign), the 
science of signs, a term proposed by 15. II. Smart, 
who died 1872. 

SEMINARA (Naples). Near here Gonsalvo 
de Cordova, the great captain, was defeated by 
the French, in 1495; but defeated them, 21 April, 

150}. 

SEMINARY-PRIESTS. A name given in 
the 16th and 17th centuries to English R. C. 
priests educated at Douay (which sir) or other 
foreign colleges; when they became Jesuits they 
were prosecuted as traitors. 

SEMINCAS, see Simancas. 

SEMPACH (Switzerland). Here the Swiss 
gained a great victory over Leopold, duke of 
Austria, 9 July, 1386, under Arnold vonWinckel- 
ried ; the duke and Arnold were slain, and the 
liberty of Switzerland was established. The day 
is still commemorated. Especially on 5 July, 1886. 



SEMPER EADEM ("Always the same"), 
one of the mottoes of queen Elizabeth, was adopted 
by queen Mary and queen Anne, 13 Dec. 1702. 

SEMPERINGHAM, see Gilbertines. 

SENATE (Senatus). In the ancient republics 
the government was divided between the senatus 
(from senis, old ; in Greek, gerousia, from geron, 
old), an assembly of elders, and the popular 
assembly (comitiu, Latin; ecchsia, Greek), the 
king being merely the executive. The Koman 
senate, said to have originally been composed of 
100 members, was raised to 300 by Tarquinius 
1'riscus; to about 600 by Sylla, about" 81 B.C.; and 
to 900 by Julius Ca'sar. ' It was reformed and 
reduced to 600 by Augustus ; and gradually lost its 
power and dignity under the emperors. The mere 
form existed in the reign of Justinian. A second 
senate, formed at Constantinople by Constantine, 
retained its office till the 9th century. S. I'.Q.H. on 
the Koman standard stood for "Senatus l'opulusque 
Uomanus," "the lloman senate and people." A 
senatus consultum was a law enacted by the senate. 

The French senate was created by the constitution of the 
year 8, promulgated 24 Dec. 1799, to watch over the 
administration of the laws. The number of senators 
was raised gradually from 60 to 137. The senate was 
replaced by the chamber of peers in 1814 ; re-estab- 
lished by Napoleon III. 14 Jan. 1852 ; and abolished, 
sSept. 1870. Itsre-establishmentwasproposedin 1873. 

Establishment of a senate of 300 voted ; 225 to be elected 
for 9 years by the departments ; 75 (for life) by notionai 
assembly, 22 Feb. 1875. 

The 75 elected, 9-21 Dec, 1875. 

The congress of 13 Aug. 1884, ordered the gradual abo- 
lition of life senators as vacancies occurred ; new 
senators were to be elected for 9 years by the depart- 
ments ; enacted, 5 Nov. ; bill passed by the deputies 
and senate, 4-9 Dec. 1884. See France. 

SENEFFE (Belgium). Near here was fought 
a severe but indecisive battle between the Dutch, 
under the prince of Orange (afterwards our William 
III.), and the French, led by the great Conde, 
11 Aug. 1674. 

SENEGAL, French colonies on the river of 

that name in Senegambia, W. Africa, settled about 

1626; several times taken by the British, but 

recovered by the French, to whom they were finally 

restored in 1814. 

The French opposed by two powerful chiefs, Samory 
and Ahmadou, sultan of Toucouleurs ; Samory, 
defeated by the French, makes a treaty . . 1885 

Very great loss of life and property by unexampled 
floods ; towns and villages wholly submerged 

Aug., Sept, 1890 

French war with the Sofas, 1890 ; the chief Ah- 
lnadou's army defeated in sharp battles ; the 
French, under col. Archinard, enter Nioro, 1 Jan. 1891 

Ahmadou again defeated by col. Archinard ; many 
prisoners taken ; Ahmadou fled ; Nioro restored 
to the chiefs, reported . . . iS Jan. „ 

The rebel tribes defeated, near Dienia ; 600 rebels 
killed, 24 Feb. Dienia and Kinian taken by 
col. Archinard, reported . . March, ,, 

War with Samory renewed ; he retires to his 
southern territories, after much carnage and 
desolation April-June, (> 

Intestine wars between the native chiefs. Ahmet- 
Saloum and Amar-Saloum, Ahmet-Saloum victor, 

reported Aug. ,, 

Expedition of colonel Humbert against Samory in 
French Soudan, 1 Jan.. whom he defeats, 
9, 11 Jan., and takes two strongholds, 25 Jan. ; 
fresh conflicts ; capt. Menard killed, reported 
6 April ; colonel Humbert victorious, 14 March; 
3 flying columns traverse the country ; 14 lights, 
reported Dec. 1892-March, 1S93 

Col. Archinard appointed chief commander in the 
French Saittltni. about 12 Nov. 1892 ; appointed 
governor; the tribes submit . . . April, „ 



SENEGAMBIA. 



1117 



SERAJEVO. 



Oapt. Blachere defeats Ahmadou, and dies, 31 May, 1893 
Col. Archinard divides the Preach Soudan into 3 
great regions (the Moro, Segu, and Siguiri cercles), 
and returns to France, reported . . Dec. ,, 
Succeeded by col. Bonnier (see Timbiictoo). 
For disasters with the British, see Sierra Leone, 

1894. 
M. Grodet governor of the French Soudan, reported, 

18 Feb. 1894 
Guerilla warfare against Saniory, reported . 8 Jan. 1895 
Samory's army routed at Nzo, many captured, 9 
Sept.; his fort at Guelemon seized, and lie and 
his followers captured 29 Sept. 1898 ; he died at 

Libreville 2 June, 1900 

Outbreak of yellow fever . autumn, 1900-Nov. iqoi 
Moors attack and burn a village . mid June, 1903 

SENEGAMBIA, see Gambia. 

SENESCHAL, a high officer of the French 
royal household. In the reign of Philip I. 1059, 
the office was esteemed the highest place of trust. 

SENLAC, see Bastings. 

SENONES (see Gauls), defeated by Camillus; 
367 B.C. They defeated Metellus the consul at 
Arretium, 284, but were almost exterminated by 
Dolabella, 283. They invaded Greece in 279; were 
defeated by Antigonus Gonatas. 278 ; and sued for 
peace. 

SENOVA, near Schipka, in the Balkans. 
Here Suleiman Pasha and the Turks were defeated 
by the Russian general Slvobeleff, 9 Jan. 187S. 
This victoiy virtually closed the war, and opened 
the road to Adrianople. About 26,000 Turks and 
283 officers were made prisoners, with 40 Krupp 
guns. About 8000 Turks and 2000 Russians were 
killed or wounded. 

SENTINUM (central Italy). The site of a 
great victory of the Romans under Fabius Maximus, 
over the Sanmites and Gauls, whose general, Gellius 
£gnatius, was slain, 295 B.C. P. Decius, the other 
consul, devoted himself to death during the conflict. 

SEPARATISTS, a term applied to the Irish 
National Party, headed by Mr. Parnell, about 
1883. In 1884 it vehemently attacked earl Spencer 
and the Irish executive. — The name is also assumed 
by a small Christian sect in Dublin, and some 
ether places; originated by John Walker, a clas- 
sical scholar, somewhat resembling the Glasites 
(Prov. xviii. 1) ; he died 25 Oct. 1833, aged 66. 
Mr. Lucas Chance, a philanthropic separatist, died 
at Birmingham, 24 Nov. 1897. 

SEPHARDIM, the name given to the descen- 
dants of the highly civilised Jews of Spain and 
Portugal, who tied from the persecutions of the 
Inquisition, 1492-1505. The Jews interpret Sepha- 
iai, in Obadiah 20, as Spain. 

SEPOYS (a corruption of sipdhi, Persian, a 
soldier), the term applied to the native troops in the 
British Service in India. The Turkish cavalry is 
named Spahis, a name also given to native cavalry 
in Algeria in the French service in 1834. Under able 
generals they greatly aided in establishing British 
rule in India. For their mutinies, see Vellore, 
1806; Madras, 1809; anu India, 1857. 

SEPTEMBER, the seventh Koman month 
reckoned from March (from Septimus, seventh) . It 
became the ninth month when January and 
February were added to the year by Numa ; 731 
B.C. The Roman senate would have given this 
month the name of Tiberius, but the emperor 
opposed it ; the emperor Domitian gave it his own 
name Gennanicus ; the senate under Antoninus Pius 
gave it that of Antoninus ; Commodus gave it his 



surname, Herculeus ; and the emperor Tacitus his 
own name, Tacitus. — " September 4 government," 
see France, Sept. 1870. 

. SEPTEMBRIZERS. In the French revolu- 
tion a dreadful massacre took place in Paris, 2-5 
Sept. 1792. The prisons were broken open, and the 
prisoners butchered, among them an ex-bishop, and 
nearly 100 non-juring priests. Some accounts 
state the number of persons slain at 1200, others at 
4000. The agents in this slaughter were named 
Septembrizers. 

SEPTENNALISTS, the party in France who 
supported the septennate orseven years'government 
of marshal MacMahon, enacted by the assembly, 
19, 20 Nov. 1873. See France, 1874. 
Septennate, in the German constitution, is the stipula- 
tion that every German fit for the duty is liable to 
serve for seven years in the Imperial army, 4 May, 
1S71. 

SEPTENNIAL PARLIAMENTS. Ed- 
ward I. held but one parliament every two years. 
In the 4th Edward III. it was enacted, "that a 
parliament should be holden every year once." 
This continued to be the statute-law till 16th 
Charles I. 1641, when an act was passed for holding 
parliaments once in three years at least ; repealed 
in 1664. The Triennial act was re-enacted in 1694. 
Triennial parliaments thence continued till the 
2 Geo. I. 1716, when, in consequence of the allega- 
tion that "a popish faction were designing to renew 
the rebellion in this kingdom, and the report of an 
invasion from abroad," it was enacted that "the 
then parliament should continue for seven years." 
This Septennial act, entitled " an act for enlarging 
the continuance of parliaments" (17 15 in the 
statutes, 4to, given as 1 Geo. I. stat. 2, c. 38), was 
passed 7 May, 1 7 16; see Parliaments. Several 
unsuccessful motions have been made for its re- 
peal; one in May, 1837; again 24 Feb. 1880, and 
8 April, 1892 (188-142). ' 

SEPTIMANIA, a Roman province, S. France ; 
see Languedoc. 

SEPTUAGESIMA SUNDAY; see Quad- 
ragesima Sunday and Week. Septuagesima is the 
season between Epiphany and Lont. 

SEPTUAGINT VERSION of the Bible, 
made from Hebrew into Greek, about 280-150 B.C. 
Seventy-two translators were shut up in thirty-six 
cells; each pair translated the whole; and on sub- 
sequent comparison the thirty-six copies did not 
vary by a word or letter. Justin Martyr. St. 
Jerome affirms that they translated only the 
Pentateuch ; others say they translated the whole. 
Ptolemy Philadelphus gave the Jews about a 
million sterling for a copy of the Old Testament, 
and seventy translators half a million more for the 
translation. Josephus. Finished in seventy-two 
days. Hewlett. The above statements are merely 
traditional ; see Bible and Alexandrian Codex. 

SEQUESTRATION of Benefices Act passed 
13 July, 1871. 

SERAING, Belgium, on the Meuse, near 
Liege, formerly the site of a palace of the prince 
bishops of Liege ; now containing great iron works, 
established in 1817, by John Cockerill, an English- 
man. His father, who had works at Liege, died 
in 1813. Nearly the whole town has been built 
by Cockerill. 

SERAJEVO, capital of Bosnia and Herzego- 
vina, with about 50,000 inhabitants, was founded 



SEEAPHINE. 



1118 



SEEVIA. 



in 1465 by two nobles. It was taken by Mathias, 
king of Hungary, in 1480, and by prince Eugene, of 
Savoy, in 1698. In pursuance of the treaty of 
Berlin, 13 July, 1878, the Austrians entered Sera- 
jevo after a sharp conflict with the Bosnians, and 
bombardment of the city, 19 Aug. 1878. By a fire 
8, 9 Aug. 1879, above 20,000 persons were rendered 
homeless. 

SEEAPHINE, a free-reed musical instrument, 
a precursor of Debainc's harmonium, brought out 
by John Green in London, 1833. 

SEEAPIS, TEMPLE OF (near Naples), was 
exhumed in 1 750. The remains of his temple at 
Memphis, termed Serapeum, were discovered by 
Mariette, 1850 et seq. 

SEEASKIEE, the Turkish minister of war. 

SEEFS, see Slavery (note), and Russia, 1861, 
1863. 

SEEINGAPATAM (S. India), the capital of 
Hyder Ali, sovereign of Mysore {which see) . The 
battle of Seringapatam, called also the battle of 
Arikera, in which the British defeated Tippoo Sahib, 
was fought 15 May, 1791. The redoubts were 
stormed, and Tippoo was reduced by lord Corn- 
wallis, 6 Feb. 1792. After this capture, prelimin- j 
aries of peace were signed, and Tippoo agreed to 
cede one half of Mysore, and to pay 33,000,000 of 
rupees (about 3,300,000/. sterling) to England, and 
to give up to lord Cornwallis his two eldest sons as 
hostages. — In a new war the Madras army, under 
general Harris, arrived before Seringapatam, 5 
April, 1799; it was joined by the Bombay army 14 | 
Api-il ; and the place was stormed and carried by 
major-general Baird, 4 May, same year. In this 
engagement Tippoo was killed. Serious plague 
riot, troops called out, 134 taken prisoners, 18 Nov. 
1898. See Mysore. 

SEEJEANTS-AT-LAW were pleaders from 
among whom the judges were ordinarily chosen, and 
who were called Serjeants of the coif. The judges 
called them brothers ; see Coif. Their exclusive 
rights of addressing court of common pleas sus- 
pended, 1834; restored, 1840; abolished, 1846. By 
the Supreme Court of Judicature act, judges on their 
appointment need not be made Serjeants, 1873. Mr. 
F. L. Spinks, the last serjeant-at-law, died, aged 
82, 27 Dec. 1899. See Inns of Court. 

SEEPENT, an ancient wind instrument, 
parent of the cornet family. A " contra serpent" 
was shown in the Exhibition, 1851, made by Jor- 
dan, of Liverpool. The " serpentcleid " was pro- 
duced by Beaeham in Jullien's orchestra about 1840. 
For H.M. cruiser Serpent, see Navy, 1887 and 1890, 
Mansion Ilouse Fund, and Sea-Serpent. 

SEEPENTLNE, see Hyde Park. 

SEEVANTS. An act levying a duty on male 
servants was passed in 1777, which was augmented 
in 1 781 et seq. A tax on female servants, imposed 
in 1785, was repealed in 1792. The tax on servants 
yielded in 1830 about 250,000/. per annum ; in 1840 
the revenue from it had fallen to 201,482/. ; in 1850 
it produced about the same sum. The licence duty 
for male servants is now 15s. each. It produced in 
the year 1876-7, 167,004/. ; 1877-8, 154,641/. ; 

1878-0, 146,061/. ; 1SS3-4, 139,631*. ; 18S7-8, 

136,287/.; 1901-2, 158,320/. The law respecting 

servants was amended by the Master and Servants' 
act passed in 1867. 

SEEVIA, an independent kingdom, south of 
Hungary.. The Servians or Serbs are of Slavonic 



origin. They embraced Christianity about 64CV 
The emperor Manuel subjugated them in 115° > 
but they recovered their independence in 1180. 
Population in 1854, 985,000 ; 1873, 1,338,505 ; 
1890,2,162,759; 1901,2,500,000. Belgrade is the 
capital {which see). Old Servia is still subject to 
Turkey. 

Stephen Nemanya, a Servian chief, founds the 
Racian dynasty, under whom the country pro- 
gressed iL$getseq. 

Stephen Dushan subdues Bulgaria, &c, and aims 
at resisting the Turks 1336-56 

The Servians, weakened by dissensions, defeated 
by the Turks 1371 

The sultan Amurath I. defeated the combined 
Christian army of Servians, Hungarians, Alba- 
nians, &c, and was himself killed by a wounded 
Servian soldier in the plain of Cossova, or Kos- 
sova 15 June, 1389 

Servia, subdued by the sultan Mahomet II. , is 
rigorously ruled, 1459 et seq. ; ceded to Austria, 
1718 ; regained by Turkey 1739 

The Servians aid Austria by free companies . 1788-90 

Again rebel, and capture Belgrade . . . . 1806 

Kara George, chosen leader, 1801 ; aided by the 
Russians, establishes a government . . 1807-1 1 

The Turks break a treaty, and Kara George flees . 1814 

Their governor Milosch rebels . . . March, 1815 

Kara George returning, is assassinated . . . 1817 

Alexander Milosch I. Obrenovitch recognised as 
hereditary prince by the sultan . . 15 Aug. 1829 

Milosch bec.oming despotic, made to abdicate, and 
a new constitution established . 13 June, 1839 

His son and successor Milan soon dies, whose bro- 
ther Michael also retires ; Alexander, son of Kara 
George, chosen prince . . . -14 Sept. 1842 

Alexander becoming unpopular, made to abdicate 
by the national party ; Alexander Milosch re- 
elected prince 23 Dec. 1858 

Plot against Milosch frustrated, n July; the 
Servian assembly meets . . -13 July, i860 

Milosch dies ; succeeded by his sou Michael Obre- 
novitch (born 4 Sept. 1825) . . 26 Sept. ,, 

Rising movement to render Servia independent of 
Turkey March, 1861 

Disputes between the Servians and the Turkish 
garrison at Belgrade, which lead to bloodshed ; 
the city bombarded, 15 June ; submits 17 June ; 
the Turkish pacha dismissed . . 19 June, 1862 

A conference of the representatives of the great 
powers at Constantinople, Aug. ; the Porte agrees 
to liberal concessions to the Servians, which their 
prince accepts 7 Oct. ,, 

Servians demand withdrawal of Turkish garrisons 
from Belgrade and other fortresses . 5 Oct. 1866 

Which are evacuated, March ; prince Michael, at 
■ Constantinople, thanks the sultan . 30 March, 1867 

Prince Michael assassinated in Belgrade 10 June, 1868 

Milan IV. grand-nephew of prince Michael, chosen 
his successor, 22 June ; 14 of the murderers were 
executed 28 July, ,, 

Constitution affirming the hereditary rights of the 
Obrenovitch family 1869 

Prince Karageorgevitch accused of complicity with 
murder ; imprisoned at Pesth, Jan. ; acquitted, 

May, 1871 

The regents surrender the government to prince 
Milan at Belgrade .... 22 Aug. 1872 

Excitement through insurrection in Herzegovina, 
new ministry hostile to Turkey, formed, about 
31 Aug. ; resign ; announced, 4 Oct. ; peace 
ministry formed 9 Oct. 1875 

Etistitch, premier, opposed to Turkey . . July, 1S76 
See Twrlcey, for the war declared . . 1 July, ,, 

M ilan proi lainied king by Tchernayeff and the army 
at . Deligrad ; not approved' . . . 16 Sept. 

Peace with Turkey ratified . . 4 March, 1877 

I Servian losses in the war, about 8000 killed, 20,000 
wounded.] 

Servians again declare war and enter Turkey (see 
Russo-Turkish war) ... 14, 15 Dec. „ 

Sultan deposes prince Milan . . 22 Dee. ,, 

Servia declared independent, with new frontiers, 
by treaty of San Stefano, 3 March, and of Ber- 
lin ..... ■ '3 July, 1878 



SEEVIA. 



1119 



SEEVIA. 



Execution of Markovitch and other rioters 

end of May, 
Proclamation of peace and national independence 

at Belgrade 22 Aug. 

The ministry re-modelled by Ristitch, about 15 Oct. 
Resignation of Ristitch (virtual dictator) announced 

25 Oct. 
Milan proclaimed king by the Assembly 

about 6 March, 

[Married Natalie Keschko(born 1859), 17 Oct. 1875.] 

Escaped assassination by mad. Markovitch 23 Oct. 

Resignation of the Pirochanitz ministry, 27 Sept. ; 
succeeded by Nicolas Christitch . . 3 Oct. 

New military organization leads to insurrection in 
S.E. Servia ; soon suppressed . announced 

5-10 Nov. 

Insurgents defeated . . . about 10 Nov. 

18 members of the Radical committee arrested Nov. 

General tranquillity reported . . -13 Nov. 

18 rebel leaders executed, about 19 Nov. ; many 
others reprieved Dec. 

Rebels enter Bulgaria ; disputes with that country 
ensue ; prospect of war .... June, 

M. Garaehanine, premier . . . .23 Oct. 

Dispute settled by arrangement . about 10 Nov. 

Political dissensions : Panslavist agitation by M. 
Ristitch Sept. 

Military movements consequent upon the coup 
d'etat in Roumelia Oct. 

Declaration of war against Bulgaria (which see) 

13 Nov. 

Invasion : success followed by disastrous retreat 

14-24 Nov. 

Royal decree calling out the army t i Feb. 

Peace between Servia and Bulgaria signed at 
Bucharest 3 March ; ratified by the sultan 

13 March, 

M. Ristitch fails to form a new ministry 

about 3 April, 

M. Garaehanine resigns ; succeeded by M. Ristitch 
(pro-Russian) about 13 June, 1887 ; by colonel 
Gruics 1 Jan. 

Strong independent speech of the king . 13 Dec. 

New ministry under M. Nicolas Christitch 

26-27 April, 

The king demands a divorce from the queen for 
disagreements ; he favours Austria, she Russia ; 
she refused the deed of terms offered ; she gives 
up the crown prince and goes to Paris . 18 July, 

Queen Natalie protests against the divorce 20 Aug. & 
30 Oct. ; the divorce decreed by the metropolitan 
Theodosius, abp. of Belgrade (authority question- 
able) Oct. 

A royal commission recommends universal suffrage, 
all electors eligible to the Skuptschina, indepen- 
dence of the church, all religions free and pro- 
tected, liberty of the press, &e. . . 24 Oct. 

The king proclaims coming constitutional changes 

26 Oct. 
Elections of the chambers annulled by the king as 

not free 28 Nov. 

New elections give majority to the radicals, headed 
by M. Ristitch, against the progressists under M. 
Christitch, the minister ... 16 Dec. 

The Skuptschina opened . . . -3° Dec. 

The king informs a deputation desiring changes in 
the proposed constitution that the deputies must 
accept it unaltered ; otherwise he will set it 
aside and rule absolutely ... 1 Jan. 

The, new constitution passed (494-73) 2 Jan.; the 
session closed 3 Jan. 

An amnesty proclaimed for political offences Jan. 

The Christitch ministry resigns but continues 
after others fail .... 8 Jan. el seq. 

The formation of a radical ministry stopped by the 
king on suspicion of conspiracy . 13 Feb. 

Abdication of the king ; his son Alexander pro- 
claimed ; liberal regency-M. Ristitch, gen. Boli- 
markovitch, and gen. Protitch ; radical cabinet 
headed by M. Taushanovitch . . 6 March, 

The Servians celebrate with mourning the quin- 
centenary of the battle of Cossova . 27 June, 

The king founds a monument in memory of the 
slain. The king was anointed by the metro- 
politan Michael in the church of Zitcha, near 
Kraljevo 2 July, 

Queen Natalie arrives at Belgrade, 29 Sept. ; inter- 
view with her son . ... . 13 Oct. 



Elections : a great radical majority, 1 Oct. ; new 
parliament meets . . . 13 Oct. 

Ministerial crisis averted by arrangement between 
radicals and liberals March, 

M. Patchitch, Russophil radical leader, president 
of the Skuptschina . . . . 20 March, 

Ministry re-constructed ; gen. Gruitch premier, 

28 March, 

The Servian vice-consul at Pristina, M. Marin- 
kovite, assassinated, 1 July. The arrested assas- 
sins confess and are tried ; the excessive de- 
mands of the Servian government refused by 
Turkey ; the affair arranged . about 28 July, 

Elections : radicals 113, liberals 18, progressists 2 

27 Sept. 

Queen Natalie agitates to annul her isolation from 
her son ; her memorandum (22 Nov.) to the 
parliament dismissed ... 8 Dec. et seq. 

Gen. Sava Gruitch's cabinet resigns, 29 Jan. , but 
remains, 1 Feb. ; again resigns . . 20 Feb. 

M. Ristitch writes to the queen, opposing her 
efforts to obtain political power ; increasing agi- 
tation against her ... 9 Feb. et seq. 

M. Patchitch forms a radical ministry . 23 Feb. 

King Milan agrees to live out of Servia, till his 
son's majority, on receipt of a sum of money and 
a pension, about 14 April ; he arrives at Vienna 

19 April, 

Queen Natalie requested by the government to 
leave the country, refuses about 10 May : at- 
tempted expulsion stopped by students and 
people ; 2 persons killed and several wounded by 
the troops, 18 May. The queen forcibly con- 
veyed to Semlin in Hungary, early . 19 May, 

The king starts for St. Petersburg, 22 July ; at 
Moscow, 29 July ; St. Petersburg, 4 Aug. ; at 
Vienna, 10 Aug. ; received by the emperor at 
Ischl, 11, 12 Aug. ; returns to Belgrade . 15 Sept. 

King Milan resigns definitely all his military and 
political rights, reported ... 18 Nov. 

The ministry resigns, 3 March ; re-constituted under 
M. Patchitch 2 April, 

Death of gen. Protitch, one of the regents ; minis- 
terial crisis 15 Aug. 

M. Avakumovitch forms a ministry . 21 Aug. 

Truce concluded between the liberals and pro- 
gressists headed by M. Garashanine . Oct. 

Election riots at Tchatchak and Semendria, with 
bloodshed ; many arrests, reported . 13 Jan. 

Reconciliation of king Milan and queen Natalie at 
Biarritz ; joy of the young king, announced, 

19 Jan. 

Parliamentary elections ; government majority, 

about 11 March, 

Severe earthquakes (which see) . . 8-10 April, 

Coup d'etat : king Alexander, after a banquet, and 
appealing to the army, 13 April, proclaims his 
majority and dismisses the regents and their 
ministry, and appoints a radical ministry (Dr 
Dokitsch premier) ; the parliament dissolved ; 
popular rejoicing .... 14 April' 

King Alexander meets queen Natalie at Kladova, 

19 May, 

The new parliament opened by the king ; he takes 
the oath of the constitution, 16 June ; the parlia- 
ment closed, 21 Aug. ; re-opened . 15 Nov. 

The impeachment of the Avakumovitch cabinet 
agreed to by the parliament . . Ig July 

Resignation of Dr. Dokitsch, the premier . 8 Sept! 

Reconciliation of the king and the liberal party ; 
public demonstration .... 15 Oct.' 

M. Georgevitch, the Servian minister in Paris! 
stabbed by Leauthier in a restaurant there ; not 
much injured, 13 Nov. 1893 ; Leauthier sentenced 
to life imprisonment . . . . 23 Feb. 

Ministerial crisis 25 Nov. 

New ministry ; gen. Gruitch premier . 6 Dec'. 

Death of Dr. Dokitsch, ex-premier . . 13 Dec! 

Trial of M. Avakumovitch and his former col- 
leagues ; began 21 Dec. ; suspended . 26 Jan. 

Resignation of the Gruitch ministry on the arrival 
of king Milan ; .nvited by his son . 21 Jan. 

New coalition ministry, under M. Georgsimitch, 
formed ; parliament prorogued . . 24 Jan. 

Amnesty to political offenders granted . 26 Jan! 

King Milan's divorce annulled by the episcopal 
synod, reported .... 18 March, 



1892 



SERVIA. 



1120 



SERVIA. 



Coalition ministry formed by M. Nicolaievitch, 

3 April, 

t'oup d'etat : the king suspends the constitution of 

1888 and re-establishes that of 29 June, 1869; 

despotic changes ; the press restricted, &c. ; M. 

Nicolas Christitch, president of the council of 

state 21 May, 

King Alexander warmly received at Berlin, 17 Oct.; 

at Vienna 21 Oct. 

M. Nicolaievitch resigns ; new ministry formed by 

M. Nicola Christitch .... 28 Oct. 

M. Ranko Taisitch and 3 others sentenced to 3 

years' and M. Czebiuatz to 2 years' imprisonment 

for treason, 12 Jan. ; pardoned . . July, 

Elections ; government majority . . 21 April, 

Return of queen Natalie to Belgrade ; warmly 

received 10 May, 

A pension of 12,000?. per annum voted to king 

Milan 12 May, 

Resignation of the Christitch ministry . 3 July, 
■Cabinet formed by M. Stojan Novakovitch, 7 July, 
Government conversion scheme adopted 19 July, 
M. Ristitch declared leader of the liberal party, 

16 Sept. 
The king visits Vienna, mid Nov. ; and Rome, re- 
ceived by the pope . . . .25 Nov. 
New cabinet formed by M. Simitch, foreign min- 
ister ; M. Velimirovitch, prime minister, 30 Dec. ; 
parliament dissolved ... 31 Dec. 
Many Albanian raids, 204 notes in 3 yrs. addressed 
to the porte, on the subject . . . July, 
The ex-king Milan appointed commander-in-chief 

of the army 6 Jan. 

General elections : decisive government victory 
(moderates) 4 June ; parliament opened by the 

king 1 July 

Note to the porte regarding the Albanian outrages 
in Kossovo, 31 Oct. 1898 ; claims disallowed by 

the porte 26 Jan. 

Albanian raids: Turkish troops engaged near 
Vrania, much bloodshed . . 14-16 June, 
Regulations for frontier service agreed to by a 
mixed commission . . . early Aug. 

The ex-king Milan shot at in Belgrade by Payitch, 
alias Knezevitch, a fanatic, 6 July (wholesale 
arrests followed); loyal demonstration in honour 
of the king and ex-king, 8 July; martial law 
proclaimed .... 9 July-2 Oct. 
State trial, 8-25 Sept. ; Knezevitch and 27 others 
charged with high treason (M. Angjelitch com- 
mits suicide in his cell, 8 Sept.) ; 22 found guilty ; 
Knezevitch and Ranko Tisitch (who escaped) 
sentenced to death, 10 others to 20 years' penal 
servitude, the rest to various terms of imprison- 
ment (M. Pasitch, radical leader, afterwards par- 
doned); Knezevitch (leaffirming the absolute 
innocence of 10 of the condemned) shot in 
public, 25 Sept.; the trial regarded unjust, the 
prisoners' defence having been entirely ignored ; 

see Times 26 Sept. 

M. Yesnitch, an able lawyer, prof. Paolovitch 
(without evidence), and 2 others accused of lese 
majesti, sentenced from 2 to 8 years' penal servi- 
tude 27 Sept. 

M. Ristitch, eminent statesman, dies, aged 68, 

4 Sept. ; state funeral at Belgrade . 6 Sept. 

Parliament opened withaspeech by the king, 4 Oct. 

Budget (surplus 1, 5oo,ooof.) adopted . 8 Feb. 

Betrothal of the king to Mdme. Draga Maschin 

(unpopular) ; ex-king Milan, commander-in-chief, 

resigns (lfterwards banished) . 21, 22 July, 

New cabinet formed by M. Jovanovitch . 25 July, 

Political amnesty to radicals announced . 5 Aug. 

Gen. Sretchkovitch appointed commander-in-chief, 

Aug. 

The shah received bj the king at Belgrade, 6 Oct. 

M. Genchitch, ex-minister, sentenced to 7 years' 

imprisonment for Use majesti . . 12 Dec. 

Parliament opened by the king . . . 12 Jan. 

Death Of ex-king .Milan at Vienna, aged 47, .1 Fell. 
Ministry resigns; M. Vuitch forms one, 2. 3 April, 
New liberal constitution promulgated; fuller civil 

liberties restored .... 19 April, 
Frequent Albanian affrays on the frontier June, 
Elections, 4 Aug. : no ministerialists, 14 radicals. 

and 6 liberals in the new house . . 12 Aug. 
Supreme council Of war (for 3 years) ordered, 

reported . < \ 4 Sept. 



1897 



New parliament opened by the king . 20 Oct. 1901 
Alavantich, a Servian agitator, is mortally wounded 

in a revolutionary attempt at iShabatz, 5 March, 1902 
George Schtrik sentenced to 15 years', and several 
others to varying terms of imprisonment, 

25 May, ,, 
The Vuitch ministry resigns, but is reconstructed, 

20 May, ,, 
Loan bill adopted, 28 — 7 ... 6 Aug. ,, 

Commercial agreements with Russia, reported, 

26, 31 Aug. ,, 
Vuitch ministry resigns, 14 Oct.; one formed by 
M. Velimirovitch, 20 Uct. ; another by gen. Mar- 
kovitch (assassinated 10 June, 1903). 20 Nov. ,, 
Political riots in Belgrade, 18 killed . 6 April, 1903 
Coup d'etat chamber dissolved, laws annulled, 

liberal constitution of 1901 restored . 7 April, ,, 
Elections, government victory, reported early June, ,, 
Military coup d'etat and revolution raised by the 
radicals at Belgrade ; col. Maschin, the queen's 
brotner-in-law, col. Misiteh and a band of officers, 
forced their way into the palace (col. Naumovitch 
killed by the explosion of a bomb, which himself 
had thrown at one of the doors) and massacred 
king Alexander and queen Draga, gen. Petrovitch, 
2 aides-de-camp, many of the guards and others 
who tried to defend them : gen. Markovitch, 
premier, gen. Pavlovitch (war minister), 2 other 
ministers, Nikodem (alleged heir to the throne), 
Nikola Lungevica, the queen's brothers, and 17 
others, murdered, and about 10 wounded in the 
town at night between . . 10-n June, ,, 

Provisional government formed, M. Avakumovitch 

premier, col. Maschin board of works . n June, ,, 
The king and queen privately buried at dawn, 

12 June ,, 
Col. Zivanovitch and lieut. Ivanovitch, loyalists, 

commit suicide 12 June, ,, 

Parliament meets, prince Peter Karageorgevitch 

elected king . . 15 June, ,, 

The new king by proclamation asserts " that he 
will be faithful to.the traditions of his ancestors, 
and that all that has pissed will be buried in 

oblivion" 15 June, „ 

Thanksgiving service at Belgrade, the metropolitan 
thanked, and praised the army for its recent 

action 16 June, ,, 

The liberal constitution of 188S (amended) adopted, 

17 June, ,, 
Cloudburst over Zerum, 54 houses destroyed, 38 

deaths 21 June, ,, 

Sir G. Bonham, British minister, recalled, 23 June, ,, 

King Peter enthusiastically received, Russian and 

Austrian the only foreign ministers present, 24 

June ; he takes the oath of the constitution, and 

holds a review of troops, the provisional ministry 

retained 25 June, ,, 

Political amnesty and perpetual indemnity for acts 

of treason up to the present time, issued, 28 June, ,, 
Parliament prorogued .... 30 June, ,, 
King Edward VH.'s reply to the king's message 
concludes, "Whilst expressing my sincere desire 
that your reign may bring to the people entrusted 
to your charge the blessings of peace and pro- 
sperity, I hope that your majesty will succeed in 
restoring the good repute of your country upon 
which recent events have left so regrettable a 

stain " 30 June 

MM. Pasitch and Venitch, councillors, resign: 

reported 6 July ,, 

Cabinet crisis, 12 Aug. ; ministry reconstituted; 

a "military triumph" .... 15 Aug. ,, 
Great meeting in Belgrade in favour of the Mace- 
donians, calls upon the government to intercede 

on their behalf 30 Aug. „ 

Rumours of unrest and conspiracies, col. Misitch 

removed from the war ministry . . 17 Sept. „ 
Continued unrest reported, the army divided 
between the "old conspirators" (assassins of 
the king and queen) still in power, and the "new 
conspirators," wholare opposed to them, reported, 

19 Sept. , 
Elections : 80 radicals, 65 independent radicals, 14 

liberals, 1 socialist .... 21 Sept. ,, 
Servian nationality in European Turkey settled, 

irade signed 26 Sept. ,, 

New cabinet: gen. Gruitch, premier, col. Andrej- 

viteh, war minister, reported . . 4 Oct. ,, 



SEEVILE WARS. 



1121 



SET EN SAGES. 



The Skupshtina opened by the king : he requests 
it to work in earnest for the advancement of the 
country, both as regards economy and finances, 

7 Oct. 1903 

Six officers sentenced to 13 months' imprisonment 
for conspiring against officers connected with the 
murder of the late king and queen, reported 

10 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Mashin, who took a prominent part in the 
assassination of king Alexander and queen 
Draga, appointed to the command of the Bel- 
grade-Danube division, reported . early Oct. ,, 

HEREDITABY PBINCES. 

1829. Milosch (Obrenovitch) I., recognised by Turkey, 
15 Aug. 1833 ; abdicates 13 June, 1839. 

1839. Michael II., son ; dies 1840. 

1840. Michael III., brother ; abdicates 1842. 

1842. Alexander (Karageorgevitch), son of Kara George ; 

chosen, 14 Sept. ; dej>osed 23 Dec. 1858 ; died 

3 May, 1885 ; his son, Peter, b. 1846. 
1858. Milosch (Obrenovitch), re-elected, 23 Dec; dies, 

i860. 
i860. Michael III., son ; succeeds, 26 Sept. ; assassinated. 

10 June, 1868. 
1868. Milan (Obrenovitch) IV., grand-nephew, born, 22 

Aug. 1854 ; married to Natalie Keschko, 17 Oct, 

1875 ; again proclaimed, 2 July, 1868 ; he abdi 

cated 6 March, 1889 ; died, n Feb. 1901. 
1889. Alexander, son, born 14 Aug. 1876 ; married Mme 

Draga, nee Lungevica, 5 Aug. 1900 ! both assas 

sinated 10 June, 1903. 
1903. Peter I. (Karageorgevitch), born 1846 ; married 

princess Zorka of Montenegro, Aug. i£~ 

elected king, 15 June, 1903. 

SEEVILE WARS, insurrections of slaves 
against their masters. Two were quelled in Sicily 
after much slaughter, 135-132 and 102-99 B.C., 
see Spartacus. 

SESSION COURTS in England were ap- 
pointed to be held quarterly in 1413, and the times 
for holding them regulated in 183 1 ; see Quarter 
Sessions and Court of Session. The kirk session in 
Scotland consists of the minister and elders of each 
parish. They superintend religious worship and 
discipline, dispense money collected for the poor, &e. 

SESTUS, on the Thracian Chersonesus; see 
Hellespont. .Near Sestus was the western end of 
Xerxes' bridge, across the Hellespont, 480 b.c. 
Sestus was retaken from the Persians by the Athe- 
nians, 478, and held by them till 404, giving them 
the command of the trade of the Euxine. 

SETTLED ESTATES ACT, 40 & 41 Vict. 
c. 18, consolidates and amends the law relating to 
their leases, sales, &c. (passed 28 June, 1877). 
Other acts passed, 1882, 1884, and 1890. 

In conformity with these acts, the earl of Radnor 
was authorised to sell pictures which were heir- 
looms for the National gallery, in 1890, which 
see. An appeal was disallowed by the court, 
7 Aug. 1890. — The marquis of Ailesbirry, on 
appeal, was authorised to sell the mortgaged 
family mansion, Savernake hall and estate, 12 Dec. 
1891 ; affirmed by the house of lords . 9 Aug. 1892 

SETTLEMENT, Act of, for securing the 
succession to the British throne, to the exclusion 
of Roman catholics, was passed in 1689. This name 
is also given to the statute by which the crown, 
after the death of William III. and queen Anne, 
without issue, was limited to Sophia, electress of 
Hanover, grand-daughter of James I., and her heirs 
being protestants, 1702. The Irish act of settle- 
ment, passed in 1662, was repealed in 1689; see 
Hanover and Accession. 



SETTLEMENT, the subject of many statutes 
since 1535, by which the destitute poor were 
directed to be removed from place to place till their 
proper settlement was found ; an act was passed in 
1662, mainly to relieve the cities of London and 
Westminster. The law was somewhat changed by 
the poor law act of 1834. 

SEVEN BISHOPS, see Bishops, 1688. 

SEVEN BROTHERS, martyrs at Rome, 
under Antoninus ; their feast is kept 10 July. 

SEVEN CHAMPIONS OF CHRISTEN- 
DOM, The, are: England, St. George; Scotland, 
St. Andrew ; Ireland, St. Patrick ; Wales, St. 
David ; • France, St. Denis ; Spain, St. James ; 
Italy, St. Anthony. 

SEVEN CHURCHES OF ASIA, to the 

angels (ministers) of which the apostle John was 
commanded to write the epistles contained in the 
2nd and 3rd chapters of Ms Revelation, viz., Ephesus, 
Smyrna, Pergamos, Thyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, 
and Laodicea, 96. 

1. Ephesus (which see). Paul founded the church here, 
57. In 59, he was in great danger from a tumult created 
by Demetrius ; to the elders of this church he delivered 
his warning address. 60 (Acts xix., xx.). Ephesus was 
in a ruinous state even in the time of Justinian (527), 
and still remains so. 

2. Smyrna. An ancient Greek city, claiming to be the 
birthplace of Homer ; was destroyed by the Lydians ; 
about 627 b.c, rebuilt by Antigonus and Lysimachus. 
Its first bishop, Polycarp, was martyred here about 
169. It has been frequently captured. It was sacked 
by Tamerlane in 1402 ; and finally taken by the Turks, 
1424. It is now the chief city of Asia Minor, and the 
seat of the Levant trade. Earthquake, above 2000 
perish, 12 May, 1875. Great fire ; about 700 houses 
destroyed, 18 July, 1882. Massacre by the Kurds of 
over 200 Armenian workmen and foreign engineers, 
buildings and stores burnt, near Smyrna, 7 June, 1896. 
Disorders between refugee Mahomedan Cretans and 
local Christians, murders, &c, at Scala Mirva and in 
the coast towns, reported, 20 Feb. 1899. Population, 
1896, 200,000. 

3. Pergamos. Capital of the kingdom of the same name, 
founded by Philetaerus, whom Lysimachus, one of 
Alexander's generals, had made governor, 283 b.c. He 
was succeeded by Eumenes I., 263; Attalus (who took 
the title of king), 241 ; Eumenes II. (who collected a 
great library), 197; Attalus II., 159; Attalus III., 138. 
He bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans, 133. It 
revolted, was subdued, and made the Roman province, 
Asia. Pergamos is still an important place, called 
Bergamo. Parchment is said to have been invented 
here. The explorations of the ancient citadel, insti- 
tuted by the German government in 1878, resulted in 
the discovery of Greek marble statuary, which has 
been deposited in the museum at Berlin. 

4. Thyatira. Now a mean town of 2000 houses, called 
Ak-hissar, " White Castle. " 

5. Sardis. Formerly the capital of Lydia, the kingdom 
of Crossus (560 b. c. ) ; taken by Cyrus, 548 ; burnt by the 
Greeks, 499 ; it flourished under the Roman empire ; 
was taken by the Turks ; and destroyed by Tamerlane 
about 1462 ; it is now a miserable village, named 
Sart. 

6. Philadelphia was built by Attalus (III.) Philadelphus, 
king of Pergamos (159-138B.C.); was taken by Bajazet I. , 
a.d. 1390. It is now called Allah Shehr, "The city of 
God," and is a miserable town of 3000 houses. 

7. Laodicea. In Phrygia, near Lydia ; has suffered much 
from earthquakes. It is now a deserted place, called 
Eske-hissar, "The old castle." 

SEVEN DAYS' WAR, see Army, 1871. 

SEVEN SAGES, see Greece, 590 b.c. 

4 c 






SEVEN-SHILLING PIECES. 



1122 



SHADOWING. 



SEVEN-SHILLING PIECES in gold were 
authorised to be issued 29 Nov. 1797. 

SEVEN SLEEPERS. According to an early 
legend seven youths, in 251, commanded to worship 
a statue set up in Ephesus by the emperor Decius, 
refused, and tied to a cavern in the mountain, where 
they were enclosed, and slept, according to Durandus, 
for 300 years. Other writers give shorter periods, 
and various accounts of the incidents which accom- 
panied the awakening. A festival in their honour 
is kept by the Komau church on 27 July. 

SEVEN WEEKS' WAP, see Prussia, 1866. 

SEVEN WONDERS OF THE WORLD, 

see Wonders. 

SEVEN YEARS' WAR, the conflict main- 
tained by Frederick II. of Prussia against Austria, 
Russia, and France, from 1756 to 1763; see Battles. 
He gained Silesia ; see Hubertsburg . 

SEVENTH-DAY BAPTISTS, see article 
Sabbatarians, Adventists, &c. 

SEVERN, see under Tunnels. 

SEVERNDROOG, see Savandroog. 

SEVERUS'S WALL, sec Roman Walls. 

SEVILLE (S.W. Spain), the Hispalis of the 
Phoenicians, and the Julia of the Romans, was the 
capital until Philip II. finally established his court 
at Madrid, 1563. It opened its gates to the Saracens 
in 712, and was taken from them by the Christians in 
1247, after an obstinate siege. The peace of Seville 
between England, France, and Spain, and also a 
defensive alliance to which Holland acceded, signed 
9 Nov. 1729. In the peninsular war, Seville sur- 
rendered to the French, 1 Feb. 1810 ; and was taken 
by assault hy the British and Spaniards, after the 
battle of Salamanca, 27 Aug. 1812. It was besieged 
but not taken by Espartero, July, 1843. Visit of 
prince of Wales, 20 April, 1876. The ancient 
cathedral was much renovated, 1889-90. Popula- 
tion, 1887, 143,182; 1897, 147,000. 

Destructive cyclone, many injured . . 28 Oct. 1896 
Death of the duchesse de Montpensier, daughter of 

Ferdinand VII. of Spain ; benefactor . 1 Feb. 1897 
Strike riots, state of siege proclaimed . 14 Oct. 1901 
The remains of Columbus brought from Havana, 

and interred here .... 17 Nov. 1902 

SEVRES, see Pottery. 

SEWERS, sec Cloaca Maxima. An act was 
passed in 1847 enforcing the conveyance of the 
sewage of houses in London into the public sewers. 
The commissioners of sewers in London were super- 
seded by the metropolitan commissioners of sewers, 
nominated by the government. They abolished the 
large brick sewers, introducing pipe drains, and 
turned the contents of 30,000 cesspools into the river 
Thames. The necessity lor purifying the defiled 
river led to the construction of a new system of 
drainage, under the superintendence of the Metro- 
politan Board of Works (which see). The main 
drainage (the plan of Mr. ,). W. Bazalgette) con- 
sists of the northern high-level, middle-level, and 
low-level, and southern high-leve! ami low- 
level. On 14 March, 1805, the works were said to 
be completed, except the tow-level sewer on the 
north side, which was waiting for the compLtion 
of the Thames embankment, &c. O114 April. [£65, 
the prince of Wales start; i the engines which com- 



menced lifting the waters of the southern outfall, at 
Crossness Point, near Erith.* The main drainage 
works of the metropolis (82 miles), were finally 
completed Aug. 1875. The sewage is carried 14 
miles down the river. Total cost, 4,500,000^. See 
Carbolic Acid. 

Royal commission on the Metropolitan Sewage discharge 
(lord Bramwell, sir John Coode, prof. A. W. William- 
son and others), appointed 22 June, 1882 ; reports on 
the great contamination of the Thames at the outfalls, 
and need of change ; approves of the combination of 
chemical precipitation with filtration through earth, 
June and Dec. 1884. 

Mr. Wm. Webster's method of decomposing London 
sewage by electricity set up at Crossness ; re- 
ported successful on inspection . March, 1889 

Mr. H. Wollheim's process, the "Amines" (or 
ammonia compounds), reported successful ; ex- 
hibited at Wimbledon Sewage farm, Aug. ; 
before the lord mayor and others . 18 Sept. ,, 

City Commission of Sewers, after 230 years existence, 
absorbed by the corporation of London, by act 
passed, 1897, final meeting ... 4 Jan. 1898 

Messrs. Stone & Co.'s system of sewer ventilation 
and purification reported successful at Deptford, 

1900-1901 

Royal commission appointed, May, 1898 ; third 
report, scientific investigation needed, 3 March, 1903 

SEWING-MACHINE. It is said that 
Thomas Saint patented one for boots and shoes in 
1790. Similar inventions are ascribed to llunean 
(1804) ; Adams and Dodge (American, 1818) ; 
Thimonnier (French, 1834); and Walter Hunt 
(1834). The first really practical sewing-machine 
was the invention of Elias Howe, an American 
mechanic, of Cambridge, in Massachusetts, about 
1841, who died at Brooklyn, 2 Oct. 1867, aged 47. 
It is now known under an improved form as 
Thomas's shuttle machine, by whom it was 
introduced into England in 1846. Many improve- 
ments have been since made and new machines I 
invented. 

SEXAGESIMA SUNDAY, see Quadra- \ 
gesima Sunday and Week. 

SEXTANT, an instrument used like a quadrant, i 

containing sixty degrees, or the sixth part of a ] 

circle, invented by Tycho Brahe, at Augsburg, in J 

1550. The Arabian astronomers are said to have j 

had a sextant of fifty-nine feet nine inches radius, | 
about 995. 

SEYCHELLES ISLES (Indian Ocean), | 
settled by the French about 1768 ; captured by the 
British, 1794 ; ceded to them, 1815. A dependency 
of Mauritius until 9 Nov. 1903, when the isles were 
proclaimed a separate colony by letters patent. 
First governor, Mr. E. B. Sweet, 9 Nov. 1903. ! 
Population, 1894, 17,000; 1902, 19,77^. 

SFAXEES, see Tunis. 

SHADOWING, a term applied in Ireland to j 

the practice of the police, closely following persons 



* The utilisation of disinfected sewage as manure is now 
much advocated. Great success is said to have been 
attained at Edinburgh, Carlisle, Croydon, and other 
places. Much hul controversy has arisen respecting this 
disposal of the London sewage. On 15 Nov. 1S64, the 
Metropolitan board accepted a contract For its disposal 
from .Messrs. Hope and Napier. Sewage Utilisation nets 
were passed in 1865 and 1SC7. and the Metropolitan 
Sewage and Essex Reclamation acts were passedin June, 
1865. The sewage faim, near Barking, Essex, was re- 
ported to be flourishing in 1S68 : good grass and corn 
crops raised. 



SHAFTESBURY'S ACT, LORD. 1123 



SHAKSPEARE'S PLAYS. 



suspected of boycotting, or intimidating persons 
opposed to the National League, 1889-91. 

SHAFTESBURY'S ACT, Lord, 18 & 19 
Vict. c. 86 (1855), relates to religiouo worship. 

SHAFTESBURY MEMORIALS, relating 
to the earl of Shaftesbury, celebrated for his life- 
long exertions to ameliorate the condition of the 
working classes, the poor and destitute, women and 
children. He died I Oct. 1885, aged 84. A large 
sum was subscribed for two statues and a national 
convalescent home, Oct. 1885. A statue uncovered 
in Westminster Abbey by the baroness Burdett- 
Coutts, 1 Oct. 1888. A memorial fountain and bust 
by Alfred Gilbert set up in Piccadilly circus, 
inaugurated by the duke of Westminster, 29 June, 
1893. The Shaftesbury training-ship established 
1878. See Rigged Schools, 1898. 
Shaftesbury-avenue murder (see Trials) . July, 1894 

SHAFTESBURY PARK ESTATE, near 
Wandsworth, London, S.W., a model village, and 
termed " a workman's city ; " built here for clerks, 
artizans, and labourers, by a company, was opened 
by the earl of Shaftesbury, 3 Nov. 1873, an d l % 
July, 1874. 

SHAKERS, an English sect, now chiefly found 
in America, arose in the time of Charles I., and 
derived its name from their voluntary convulsion. 
It existed for a short time only, but was revived by 
James Wardlaw in 1 747, and still more by Ann Lee 
{or Standless), expelled quakers, about 1757. The 
sect emigrated to America, May, 1772, and settled 
near Albany, New York, 1774. They denounce 
marriage as sinful, regard celibacy as holy, oppose 
war, disown baptism and the Lord's supper, and 
use dancing as part of their worship. Marsden. 
One of their elders, Fred. W. Evans, lectured in 
London, Aug. 1871. 

Above a hundred English persons, incorrectly termed 
shakers, settled in the New Forest, near Lymington, 
Hampshire, on property obtained for them by a Miss 
Wood in 1872 ; not paying the interest of a mort- 
gage they were ejected in severe weather, and 
suffered much ; end of Dec. 1874. They are called 
Girlingites, from Mrs. Girling, a leader among them, 
who died 18 Sept. 1886. The community then 
gradually dispersed. 

Goods seized for debt, about 27. July ; expelled, 22 Aug. ; 
permitted to remain in the neighbourhood, Oct. 1878. 

Miss Wood was confined as a lunatic, 27 Feb. 1875. 

20 men and 40 women half-starved in the New Forest ; 
will not work for hire, Jan. 1884. 

SHAKSPEARE'S PLAYS. William Shak- 

speare was born at Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwick- 
shire, (23) April, 1564, and died 23 April, 1616. [An 
act to incorporate the Trustees and Guardians of 
Shakspeare's birthplace was passed 26 March, 1891.] 
The first collected edition of his works is dated 1623 
£a facsimile of this edition was published, 1862-5] ; 
the second, 1632;* the third, 1664; the fourth, 



* In 1849, Mr. J. P. Collier, editor of an edition of 
Shakspeare, purchased a copy of the second folio, on 
which was written in pencil a number of corrections, 
supposed to have been made soon after publication. At 
first he thought little of these marks ; but in 1853 he 
wasinduced.to publish ' ' Notes and Emendations "derived 
from this volume. Much controversy ensued as to the 
authenticity of these corrections ; and in 1859 it was 
generally agreed that they were of modern date, and so 
of little value. Mr. Collier died, aged 94, 17 Sept. 1883. 
New Variorum edition by H. Howard Furness, vol. ii., 



£685 ; all in folio. Critical editions of the text, 
edited by Alexander Dyce, were published in 1857 
and 1864-6; Boydell's edition, with numerous 
plates, was published in nine vols., folio, in 1802. 
Ayscough's Index to Shakspeare was published in 
1790; Swiss's Index, in 1805, and Mrs. Cowden 
Clarke's Concordance, 1847, she died, aged 88, 12 
Jan. 1898; "Key to Shakspeare," 1879; Shak- 
speare-Lexicon, by Alexander Schmidt, 1874-5; 
"A Life of Wm. Shakespeare," by Sidney Lee. 
illustrated, published, Nov. 1898; new edition, 
portion of Macmillan's " Eversley Series,'' to be 
in 10 crown 8vo vols., editor, prof. C. H. Herford, 
published, Feb. 1899. 

Shakspeare's first plays were probably produced about 
1590, and soon after represented, himself frequently 
taking a part at the "Theatre," or the "Curtain," 
near Shoreditch, E. London, and after 1594, at the 
new " Globe " theatre, Bankside, Southwark, of which 
Shakspeare himself was part proprietor. It was of a 
horse-shoe form, partly covered with thatch. After it 
was licensed, the thatch took fire, through the negligent 
discharge of a piece of ordnance, and the whole build- 
ing was consumed, 29 June, 1613. The house was 
crowded to excess, to witness the play of Henry VIII. , 
but the audience escaped unhurt. 

Shakspeare's Jubilee, projected by David Garrick, 
was celebrated at Stratford-upon-Avon, 6-8 Sept. 1769. 
A similar festival was kept 23 April, 1836. The tercen- 
tenary of Shakspeare's birth was celebrated, with 
many festivities, at Stratford-upon-Avon, 23-29 April, 
1864. 

Shakspeare's House. In 1847, a number of persons of 
distinction interested themselves for the preservation 
of the house in which Shakspeare was born, then 
actually put up for sale : they held a meeting at the 
Thatched-house tavern, London, 26 Aug. in that year, 
and took measures for promoting a subscription set on 
foot by the Shakspearian Club at Stratford-upon-Avon ; 
and a committee was appointed to carry out their 
object. In the end Shakspeare's house was sold at 
the Auction Mart in the city of London, where it was 
" knocked down " to the United Committee of London 
and Stratford for the large sum of 3000Z. 16 Sept. 1847. 
In 1856, a learned oriental scholar, John Shakspeare 
(no relation of the poet), gave 2500L to purchase the 
adjoining house, that it might be pulled down, in 
order to ensure the poet's house from the risk of 
fire. 

His wife's (Anne Hathaway) cottage and furniture pur- 
chased for 3050?., 5 May, 1893. 

Mr. Matthias Mull, a remarkable emendator of Shakes- 
peare's text, died early Oct. 1893. 

Shakspeare Fund, established in Oct. 1861, to pur- 
chase Shakspeare's garden, birth-place estate, and to 
erect and endow a public library and museum at 
Stratford-upon-Avon. The catalogue of the library and 
museum was published, Feb. 1868. Books bequeathed 
by Mrs. Cowden Clarke and gifts by the late Mr. 
Halliwell-Phillips and others in 1897. 

Shakspeare Memorial Association established 1875 ; 
eleventh annual meeting at Stratford-upon-Avon 28 
April, 1886. A monument surmounted by a statue of 
Shakspeare, including statues of Shakspearian charac- 
ters, executed by lord Bonald Gower, presented by him 
to the association, set up at Stratford-upon-Avon, 
unveiled by lady Hodgson (the mayoress) 10 Oct. 
1888. 

Bronze statue of Shakspeare (presented by Mr. William 
Knighton) erected in the boulevard Haussmann, 
Paris, unveiled 14 Oct. 1888. 

The lion. Ignatius Donnelly, an American, reports his 
discovery of a cryptogram of Francis Bacon in the 
text of one of the plays in the folio of 1623, and 
thereon asserts his belief that Bacon was the author 
of the Shakspeare plays, autumn 1887. His book 
entitled " The Great Cryptogram : Francis Bacon's 
cipher in the so-called Shakspeare Plays " was 
published in 1888. Mr. Donnelly died, 2 Jan. 1901 ; 
controversy renewed, see Times, 6 Jan. 1902. 

The Shakspeare L'.brarv, at Birmingham, was founded 

4 c 2 



SHAMROCK. 



1124 



SHEFFIELD. 



in 1864, and formally opened, 23 April, 1868 ; burnt 11 
Jan. 1879. 

Shakspeare Forgeries, see Ireland. 

Shakspeare Gallery, see Boydell. 

Shakspeare Memorial Theatre, Stratford (capable of 
holding 800) ; foundation laid by lord Leigh, 23 April, 
1877 ; opened with ceremonies, 23 April, 187Q. Shak- 
speare memorial week, Mr. F. R. Benson and com- 
pany perform the entire play of Hamlet and other 
plays, 24 April e,t seq. 1899 ; held annually. 

Mdme. Sarah Bernhardt and company play Hamlet here, 
29 June, 1899. 

A fine copy of the first folio edition of Shakspeare, 1623, 

sold for 1,700k, 11 July, 1899; facsimile printed, 

Oxford, 1902. 
Revival of Shakspeare's plays, with splendid scenery, 

by Henry Irving, at the Lyceum {which see under 

Theatres, 1874 et seq.). 

Shakspeare Society, issued 20 volumes, 1841-53. 
New Shakspeare Society issues works, 1874 et seq. 

Shakspearian Show at the Royal Albert Hall, 30 May, 
1884. 

Halliwell-Phillipps, " Shakspearean Rarities " (por- 
traits, personal relics, books, &c), offered for sale, 
Jan. 1890. 

Stratford-on-Avon visited by the prince of Wales; 
18 May, 1895. 

A bronze bust of Shakspeare, by the late Wm. Page, of 
New York, presented by his family, unveiled by sir 
W. Treloar at Stratford-on-Avon, 23 June, 1900 ; a 
first folio Shakspeare sold for 1,720k, 16 July, 1901. 

Shakspeare commemorations : 338th anniversary of his 
birth celebrated, 23 April ; 9 plays performed, 14-26 
April, 1902 ; again, 23 April, 1903. 

London Shakspeare commemoration league ; committee, 
rev. Stopford Brooke, Mr. Wm. Poel, Mr. Walter 
Crane, and others, formed, early Aug. 1902. 

SHAMROCK. It is said that the shamrock 
used by the Irish was adopted by Patrick 
M 'Alpine, since called St. Patrick, as a simile of the 
Trinity, about 432. The shamrock to be worn by 
Irish troops on St. Patrick's day, to commemorate 
the bravery of the Irish in the South African war, by 
order of queen Victoria, 7 March, 1900. St. Patrick's 
day celebrated in London and elsewhere, 1 7 March, 
1900. See also Yacht. 

SHANGHAI, or SHANGHAE (China), 
captured by the British, 19 June, 1842 ; by the Tae- 
ping rebels, 7 Sept. 1853 ; retaken by the imperial- 
ists, 1855. The rebels were defeated near Shanghai 
by the English and French, allies of the emperor, 1 
March, 1862. Population, 1890, about 380,000; see 
China. 

Visit of the duke and duchess of Connaught ; he 

unveils a statue of sir H. Parkes . 9 April, 1890 
Great lire ; about 1,000 houses destroyed, 3 April, 1894 
Much trouble through the war (see Cored) . Oct. ,, 

SHARPSBURG (Maryland), see Antietam. 

SHAWLS, of oriental origin, were introduced 
into Paris after the return of Napoleon Bonaparte 
from Egypt, 1801. The manufacture was intro- 
duced by Barrow and Watson, in 1784, at Norwich. 
It began at Paisley and Edinburgh about 1805. 
Ure. 

SI I V1V1V were exported from England to Spain, 
and, the breed being thereby improved, produced 
the fine Spanish wool, which proved detrimental to 
our woollen manufacture, i.|<>7- Anderson. Their 
exportation was prohibited on pain of fine and im- 
prisonment, 1522. The number of sheep in the 
United Kingdom has been variously staled — by some 



at 43,000,000, by others at 49,000,000, and by more 
at 60,000,000, in 1840. In 1851 there were imported 
into England 201,859 sheep and lambs; in 1858, 
184,482; in 1864,496,243. See under Cattle. In Aug. 
and Sept. 1862, many sheep in Wiltshire died of 
smallpox ; and on Sept. n, government declared for 
enforcing the act for the prevention of contagion. 
The evil soon abated. In April, 1866, the disease 
reappeared and the regulations were re-issued. 
Mortality amongst sheep through flukes, &c, April, 1880 
In 1865, 914,170 sheep and lambs were imported ; 
in 1868, 341,155 ! in 1871, 916,799 ; 1874, 758,915 ; 
1875, 985,652 ; 1876, 1,041,329 ; 1877, 874,055 ; 1878, 
892,125; 1879, 944,888; 1880, 941,121; 1881, 
935,144; 1882, 1,124,391; 1883, 1,116,115; ^Ss, 
750,886; 1887, 971,404; 1888, 956,210; 1889, 
677,958 ; 1890, 358,458 ; 1891, 344>5°4 > l8 9 2 > 
79,048 ; 1893, 62,682 ; 1900, 382,833 ; 1901, 383,594. 

For number in Great Britain, see under Cattle. 

SHEEPSHANKS' DONATIONS. On 2 

Feb. 1857, Mr. John Sheepshanks, by a deed of gift, 
presented to the nation his valuable collection of 
paintings and drawings, valued at 6o,OOo£. In ac- 
cordance with the donor's directions, the pictures 
were placed in the South Kensington museum. The 
collection is rich in the works of Mulready, Land- 
seer, and Leslie. He died 5 Oct. 1863. — On 2 Dec. 
1858, the trustees of his brother, the late rev. 
Richard Sheepshanks, presented 10,000/. stock to 
Trinity college, Cambridge, for the promotion of 
the study of astronomy, meteorology, and mag- 
netism. 

SHEERNESS (N. Kent), a royal dockyard, 
planned by Charles II. in 1663, was taken by 
the Dutch, under De Ruyter, 9 June, 1667. Im- 
proved since 1815; new fortifications still in pro- 
gress. Population, 1881, 14,286; 1891, 13,281 ; 
1901, 14,492. 
The old dock church burned ; 3 persons killed, 

26 Nov. 1881. 

SHEFFIELD, on the river Sheaf, West 
Riding, Yorkshire ; renowned for cutlery, plated 
goods, &c. Sheffield thwytles are mentioned by 
Chaucer, in the time of Edward III. Sheffield in 
the time of the Conqueror was obtained by Roger de 
Buisli, and has since been held by the Lovetots, 
Nevils, Talbots, and Howards. See Population. 

St. Peter's church built temp. Henry I. 

Hospital and almshouses erected by the earl of 
Malmesbury 1616 

Cutlers' company incorporated .... 1624 

The castle (built in the 13th century) was taken by 
the parliamentarians in 1644, and demolished . 1648 

Cutlers' hall built 1726 

Plate assay office established 

Made a borough by the Reform act .... 

Wesley coUege opened 

Sheffield and Manchester railway opened 

Atheiucum and Mechanics' institution opened . 

John A. Roebuck (grandson of Dr. Roebuck of 
Sheffield), M. P. for Sheffield . . May, 1849-68 

Embankment of the Bradfleld water reservoir broke 
down, and flooded Sheffield and the country 1201- 
14 miles round ; about 250 lives were lost ; many 
buildings and much property destroyed ; esti- 
mated loss, 327,000/. ... 11 March, 1864 

The Atlas armour works constructed by sir John 
Brown in 1864, see Iron. 

52,751/. collected for the sufferers by . 29 April, 

The Surrey music hall burnt . . 25 March, 1865 

House of Fearnehough, a non-unionist saw-grinder, 
blown up (no deaths) .... 8 Oct. 1866 

Greal excitement ; meetings held; subscriptions 
made; a Sheffield manufacturers' protection 

formed ; and rewards offered, 12 Oct. &c. ,, 



1773 
1832 



1845 
1849 



SHELBURNE ADMINISTRATION. 1125 



SHIP-BUILDING. 



A commission (headed by Mr. Overend) to enquire 

into trade outrages met . . 3 June-8 July, 1867 
(Several murders and outrages (including the above) 
confessed to by Crookes, Hallam, and others, 
instigated and paid by Win. Broadhead, secretary 
to the saw-grinders' union ; indemnity granted.] 
A meeting of workmen expresses abhorrence, 8 July, ,, 
Mr. Roebuck loses his election (through opposing 

rattening) Nov. 1868 

Great loss of life and property by a gale 16 Dec. 1873 
Mr. Roebuck re-elected M.P. . . . Feb. 1874 
Five board schools opened by the abp. of York, 

Mr. Roebuck, Mr. Forster, and others, 18 Aug. ,, 
Prince and princess of Wales open Firth park, the 
gift of Mark Firth, the mayor ; most enthusiasti- 
cally received 16 Aug. 187s 

Public museum and hall opened . . 6 Sept. ,, 

Eighteenth Church Congress held here, 1-4 Oct. 1878 
Great distress through stoppage of work, winter, 1878-9 
Institution for the blind, endowed by Mr. Daniel 

Holy ; opened 24 Sept. 1879 

Firth College, built by Mr. Mark Firth, for 20,000?. ; 
endowed by the town ; inaugurated by prince 

Leopold 20 Oct. ,, 

Death of Mr. Roebuck, M.P. for Sheffield, 30 Nov. „ 

Euskin Museum of Art, &c, founded by Mr. John 

Ruskin, by gifts of historical sculpture, paintings, 

books, &c, 1 88 1 ; lent to the corporation for 20 

years ; removed from Walkley to Meersbrook hall ; 

re-opened April, 1890 

New corn exchange, built by the duke of Norfolk, 

cost 55,000?. , opened .... 13 Dec. „ 
Ruskin Society formed .... Feb. 1882 

Great conservative demonstration (marquis of Salis- 
bury and others) .... 22 July, 1884 
Returns five M.P's. by act passed . 25 June, 1885 
Technical school opened . . . . 1 Feb. 1886 
Explosion at Don steel works, Brightside, while 

casting a gun ; 9 killed ... 6 Sept. 1887 
Severe epidemic of small-pox March, 1887-April, 1888 
New municipal buildings founded . . 9 Oct. 1891 

Constituted a city 1893 

Premises of Messrs. Hovey and other establish- 
ments burnt ; 1 death . . . .21 Dec. 
The earl of Rosebery at the 271st annual cutlers' 

feast 25 Oct. 1894 

Visit of the duke and duchess of York 10-14 M av , 1895 
The town trustees vote 10,000?. towards the en- 
dowment of Firth college . . . July, ,, 
Mr. G. Woofenden bequeaths 120,700?. to charities, 

June, ,, 
Sheffield school system, groups of 15 pauper children 

isolated in cottages reported successful, 2 Dec. 1896 
Death of sir John Brown, pioneer of armour-plate 

manufacture for defence of ships . . 27 Dec. ,, 
Mrs. Jane E. Rodgers died, leaving 26,886?. and 

other charitable bequests to Sheffield . 11 Dec. ,, 
Visit of the queen ; received by the duke of Nor- 
folk, the mayor ; opened the new town hall ; re- 
viewed 50,000 children in the Norfolk park and 
visited the Cyclops works . . . 21 May, 1897 
Overhead electric tramway opened . . 4 Sept. 1899 
Lord Kitchener receives the freedom, &c.,3o Sept. 1902 
Musical festival ; the choir highly praised 1 Oct. ,, 
Foundation stone of the new University college 

laid by the lord mayor of London . 30 June, 1903 
Great conference of Nat. Union of Conservative 
and Constitutional associations, about 2000 dele- 
gates. Important speech on fiscal policy by Mr. 
A.J.BalfouratmeetingiiiArtillerydrillhall,i Oct. „ 
Lord Rosebery speaks on free trade at greal Liberal 
league demonstration in Albert hall . 13 Oct. „ 

SHELBURNE ADMINISTRATION, 

formed at the death of the marquis of Rockingham, 
July, 1782; teraiinated April, 1783; the " Coali- 
tion" administration followed. 

The earl of Shelburne* (afterwards marquis of Lans- 
downe),- first lord of the treasury. 

* William Petty, earl of Shelburne, born 1737 ; secre- 
tary of state under lord Chatham, July, 1766; premier, 
1782-3 ; created first marquis of Lansdowne, 1784 ; died, 
7 May, 1805. 



William Pitt, chancellor of the exchequer. 
Lord (afterwards earl) Camden, president of the council. 
Duke of Grafton, privy seal. 

Thomas, lord Grantham, and Thomas Townshend (after- 
wards lord Sydney), secretaries. 
Viscount Keppel, admiralty. 
Duke of Richmond, ordnance. 
Lord Tlmrlow, lord chancellor. 
Henry Dundas, Isaac Barre, sir George Yonge, <&c. 

SHELLEY SOCIETY, founded by Dr. F. 
J. Furnivall, and Messrs. H. Sweet, W. M. Rossetti, 
Todhunter, and others, 1885. In July, 1892, it was 
proposed by lord Tennyson and others, to celebrate 
the centenary of the birth of Shelley, by establish- 
ing a library and museum at Horsham, Sussex, 
near which place he was born. A mural tablet 
commemorating his birth, 4 Aug. 1792, and 
his death, 8 July, 1822, was set up publicly in the 
parish church 4 Aug., 1892. 

SHELLS, see Bombs. 

SHERIFF, or shire-reeve, governor of a shire 
or county. London had its sheriffs prior to 
William I.' s reign, but some say that sheriffs were 
first nominated for every county in England by 
William in 1079. According to other historians, 
Henry Cornhill and Richard Reynere were the first 
sheriffs of London, 1 Rich. I., 1189. The nomina- 
tion of sheriffs, according to the present mode, took 
place in 1461. Stoiv. Anciently sheriffs were 
hereditary in Scotland, and in some English coun- 
ties, as Westmoreland. The sheriffs of Dublin (first 
called bailiffs) were appointed in 1308, and obtained 
the name of sheriff by an incorporation of Edward 
VI. 1548. Thirty-five sheriffs were fined, and 
eleven excused in one year, rather than serve the 
office for London, 1734; see Bailiffs. The high 
sheriffs of the counties of England and Wales, ex- 
cept Middlesex and Lancaster, are nominated on the 
morrow of St. Martin, Nov. 12. This somewhat 
vice-regal office, of Saxon origin, has gradually 
lost much of its importance. 
The sheriffs' act passed 1887 

SHERIFFMUIR, see Dumblane. 

SHERIFF'S FUND, see Prisons. 

SHETLAND ISLES, see Orkneys. 

SHIBBOLETH, the word by which the fol- 
lowers of Jephthah tested their opponents the 
Ephraimites, on passing the Jordan, about 1143 
B.C. Judges xii. The term is now applied to any 
party watchword or dogma. 

SHIITES, the Mahometan sect predominating 
in Persia ; see Mahometanism. 

SHILLING. The value of the ancient Saxon 
coin of this name was fivepence, but it was reduced 
to fourpence about a century before the conquest. 
After the conquest the French solidus of twelve 
pence, in use among the Normans, was called 
shilling. The true English shilling was first coined, 
some say, in small numbers, by Henry VII., 1504. 
Ruding. A peculiar shilling, value nine pence, but 
to be current at twelve, was struck in Ireland, 
1560 ; and a large but very base coinage in England 
for the service of Ireland, 1598. Milled shillings 
were coined 13 Chas. II. 1662 ; see Coins. 

SHILOH, see Pittsburg. 

SHIP -BUILDING, &c, according to the 
Greek legends, began with the Egyptians, and 



SHIPKA. 



1126 



SHIPPING, BEITTSH. 



ancient drawings of their rude vessels are extant. 
The Greeks, Phoenicians, and Carthaginians were 
skilful shipbuilders, and Solomon's " navy of ships " 
(i Kings ix. 26), was doubtless constructed by 
Tyrians, 992 B.C. The ships of Tarshish (probably 
in Spain), are mentioned in Psalm xlviii. 7, 
Isaiah ii. 16, &c. The Romans built their first 
fleet of boats, by copying a Carthaginian vessel 
wrecked on their coast, 260 B.C. The dangers of 
navigation are described in Psalm cvii. 23-30 and 
Acts xxvii. Strong vessels were constructed by 
the Norsemen for invasion and piracy in the 5th 
century a. d. et seq., and by the Venetians and other 
Italians, for commerce and war in the Middle Ages. 
The first double-decked ship built in England was of 
IOOO tons burthen, by order of Henry VII., was 
called the Great Harry, and cost 14,000^. Stow. 
Port-holes and other improvements were invented 
by Descharges, a French builder at Brest, in the 
reign of Louis XII., about 1500. Ship-building 
was treated as a science by Hoste, 1696. Iron and 
steel are now greatly used in ship-building. 

A prehistoric ship cut out of solid oak, 48 feet 
long, 4 feet 4 inches wide, and 2 feet deep, was 
found by the Brigg gas company while excavating 
near the river Anoholme in Lincolnshire, April, 
1885. Mr. Justice Chitty decided 6 July, 1886, 
that the ship was the property of the owner of 
the land, Mr. Elwes. 

The France, a great sailing ship, was built on the 
Clyde by Messrs. Henderson for a Bordeaux firm ; 
five masts, 360 feet long, 48 feet wide, bowsprit 
50 feet long ; carrying power over 6,000 tons 

Sept. 1890 

Ships, originally made of wood, and latterly of 
iron, are now frequently made of steel. 

Internat. congress, 550 delegates (the earl of Glas- 
gow, lord Brassey, and others) opened by the 
crown prince at Diisseldorf ... 2 June, 1902 

See Navy, Steam, Carraclc, &c. 

SHIPKA, see Schipka. 

SHIP-MONEY was first levied about 1007, to 
form a navy to oppose the Danes. This impost, 
levied by Charles I. in 1634-6, was much opposed, 
and led to the revolution. He assessed London in 
seven ships, of 4000 tons, and 1560 men ; York- 
shire in two ships, of 600 tons or 12,000/.; Bristol 
in one ship of 100 tons ; Lancashire in one ship, of 
400 tons. Among others, John Hampden refused 
to pay the tax ; he was tried in the Exchequer in 

1636. The judges declared the tax legal, 12 June, 

1637. Ship-money was included in the grievances 
complained of in 1641. The five judges, who had 
given an opinion in its favour, were imprisoned. 
Hampden received a wound in a skirmish with 
prince Rupert, at Chalgrove, 18 June, and died 
24 June, 1643. 

SHIPPING, British. Shipping was first 

registered in the river Thames in 1786; and 
throughout the empire in 1787. In the middle of 
the 18th century, the shipping of England was but 
half-a-million of tons — less than London now. In 
1830, the number of ships in the British empire 
was 22,785. The merchant shipping act of 1854 
was amended in 1867; see Merchant Shipping 
Act, Navy, and Navigation Acts. Trials, 1893. 

General Shipowners - Shirty ; 57th annual nieetiiisr. 

London 18 Julv, 1893 

Shipwrights' Company International Exhibition, 

opened at Fishmongers' Hall, London, bj the 

duke of Edinburgh .... 2 May, 1S82 
Chamber of Shipping of the United Kingdom was 

established in 1878, mainly by ll. ,i. Atkinson, 



M.P., the first president. Meetings are held for 
discussing matters relative to shipping and to dis- 
seminate information. It holds annual meetings ; 
1878, Hull ; 1S79, Liverpool ; 1880, London ; 
1881, Cardiff; 1882, London; 1883, Sunderland; 
1884, London; 1885, Belfast; 1886, London; 
1887, Newcastle-on-Tyne ; London: 1888, 1889, 
1890 (13 Feb.), 1891 (20 Feb.), 18Q2 (10 Feb.), 18931 
(1 Feb.), 1894 (14 Feb.), 1895 (13 Feb.); 12 Feb. 
1896 ; 17 Feb. 1897 ; 16 Feb." 1398 ; 8 Feb 1899 ;. 
20 Feb. 1903. The chamber has an office in London. 

The London Shipping Exchange (sir D. Currie, 
chairman) opened by the lord mayor . 30 Jan. 189.3 

The National Seamen's and Firemen's Union estab- 
lished 1889 

Federation of shipowners of the United Kingdom, 
established to resist strikes and maintain free 
labonr, Sept. ; joined by the London Association 
of shipowners, Nov. 1890 ; and by those of Liver- 
pool Feb. 189.1 

Boycotting of free labour in the docks of London 
stopped by the Shipping Federation, Dee. 1890 — 

Feb. „ 

Cardiff: strike of the shipping trades; conflicts 
between the Shipping lederation and the Sea- 
men's Union; the latter defeated, Feb. ; rioters 
punished ; strike ends ... 14 March, ,_ 

The crisis on the Thames ends; work resumed 

March, ,, 

The Shipping Federation proposes a scheme for the 
insurance of the lives of its sailors and firemen 
against death by accident, about 14 April; the 
scheme adopted, May, 1891 ; carried into effect 

i Jan. 1892 

Strike at Hull (which see) . . .April — May, 1893 

Disputes in the trade begun by the Clyde engineers, 

29 March et seq. 1895 

Conference of Belfast and Clyde shipbuilders and 
their operative engineers, at Carlisle . 23 Oct. ., 

The master's terms temporarily accepted, except by 
the Belfast men, 25 Oct. ; (closed at Belfast by 
concessions to the men, 17 Dec. 1895.) 

Conference of employers at Glasgow, 1 Nov, ; many 
engineers locked out on the Clyde, 5 Nov. ; con- 
ference at Glasgow, under lord James of Hereford, 
10 Dec. ; the masters' proposals rejected by 
ballot, Dec. ; close of the strike by the decisive 
action of the executive council of the Amalga- 
mated engineers, 22 Jan. ; agreement signed, 

23 Jan. :Ss>6 

Advance of wages conceded on demand to work- 
men on the Tyne, Wear, and Tees . 1 April, .. 

Dispute revived on the Clyde, at Belfast, and on 
the Wear, Aug. — Sept. ; ended on the Clyde, 

S Sept. ,.. 

The London Docks, &c. association determine to 
abide by the Mansion house agreement (see 
Strikes, 14 Sept. 1889) . . . 16 Sept. .. 

The Shipping federation issue a notice urgently 
maintaining free labour . . . Sept. ,, 

North Atlantic Shipping Trust, see Steam, 19 April, igaa 

Internat. congress held at Dusseldorf . 30 June, ., 

Shipping exhibition at Whitcchapel opened, 6 Oct.; 
visited by the prince and princess of Wales, 

13 Oct. 1903 

NUMBER OF VESSELS REGISTERED IN THE BRITISH 
EMPIRE ON JAN. I, 1840. 



Country. 


Vessels. 


Tun none. 


Seanu n. 


England . 

Scotland 

Inland 


■ 15.83° 

■ 3>3i8 
. 1,889 


1,983,522 

37».i94 
169,289 


"4.593 
25.909 
11,288 


Guernsey, Jersey, and 

Man 
British Plantations 


• 633 
. 6,075 


30-63° 
497,79s 

3,o6S,433 


4>473 

35.020 


Total . 


• 27-745 


191,283 



The following are the numbers of the Registered 
Sailing and Steam Vessels (exclusive of Riveir 
Steamers) of the United Kingdom, engaged in the 

home and foreign trade : — 





SHIP-RAILWAY. 


• 


1127 






SHOT. 






1849. 


1861. 


1877. 


1887. 


1901. 




Vessels* 


Tonnage. 


Vesselst 


Tonnage. 


Vessels § 


Tonnage. 


Vessels!! 


Tonnage. 


Vessels J; 


Tonnage. 


Sailing . 
Steamers. 

Total . 


17,807 
414 


2,988,021 
108,321 


19,288 
997 


3,918,511 
441.184 


17,101 4,138,149 
3,218 1 1,977,489 


12,694 
5.° 2 9 


3."4>43° , 
4,009,324 


7,026 
7.548 


1,839,190 
7,685,306 


18,221 


3,096,342 20,285 


4.359. 6 95 


20,319 


6,115,638 


I 7.7 2 3 


7> I2 3>754 


14.574 


9,524,496 



1890: Sailing vessels, 14,181 ; Steamers, 7,410, 

1891 ,, ,, 13,823 ,, 7,720. 

1892 „ „ 13,578 ,, 7.95° 

1893 ,, „ 13,239 ,, 8,088 

1894 ,, ,, 12,943 ,, 8,263 

1895 ,, ,, 12,617 ,, 8,385 



1896 : Sailing vessels, 12,274 ; Steamers, 8,522. 

1897 ,, „ 11,911 .. 8,590. 

1898 „ ,, 11,566 „ 8,838. 

1899 ,, ,, 11,167 >> 9,029. 

1900 ,, ,, 10,773 ., 9, 2 °9- 

1901 ,, ,, 10,572 ,, 9,484. 



* Men employed— sailing vessels 
t 



144,165 ; steamers, 8,446; total, 152,611. 

144,949; „ 27,008; „ 171,957. 

123,563 : » 7 2 .999 ; .. I9°>5°2- 

81,442 ; „ 121,101 ; ,, 202,543. 

46,432; ,, 201,481; ,, 247,973. 



SHIP-RAILWAY, see Railways, Oct. 1889. 

SHIPWRECKS, see Wrecks. 

SHIRES, see Counties and under Horse. 

SHIRTS are said to have been first generally 
worn in the we>t of Europe early in the Sthcentury. 
Du Fresnoy. Woollen shirts were commonly worn 
in England until about 1253, when linen, but of a 
coarse kind (tine coming at this period from abroad), 
was first manufactured in England by Flemish 
artisans. Stow. 

SHODDY, a kind of soft woollen goods, manu- 
factured from old woollen rags, or the refuse, to 
which new wool is added, is stated to have been first 
manufactured about 1813, at Batley, near Dews- 
bury, Yorkshire. 

SHOEBLACK SOCIETY Brigades (Blue, 
Red, and fellow) were established at various times, 
especially in 1850, by Mr. John MacGregor, '* Rob 
Roy," in connexion with the Ragged School Union. 
In 1855, 108 boys had cleaned 544,800 pairs of 
boots and shoes, and thus earned 2270/. ; of which 
1235/. had been paid to the boys, 519/. to their 
bank, and 516/. to the society. The brigades earned 
4548/. in 1859; 11,031/. in 1871; 10,936/. (in nine 
districts) in 1886. Ragged School Union reported 
319 boys earning 6770/., 1895. There were eleven 
shoeblack societies in the metropolis in 1888. 

SHOEBURYNESS (Essex). Some ground 
here, purchased in 1842 and 1855, by an act of par- 
liament in 1862 was set apart as ''ranges for the use 
and practice of artillery," and a school for gunnery 
was established ; see Cannon, note. Experiments 
with Mr. Whitworth's projectiles on 12 Nov. 1862, 
showed their great improvement in form and mate- 
rial. Shells were sent through 55 inch plate and 
the wood-work behind it. It was objected, that 
they might not do this with ships in motion. The 
National Volunteer Artillery Association began 
their annual meetings here in July, 1865. 

During shell experiments with a now sensitive fuse, col. 
Francis Lyon (the inventor), col. Fox-Strangways, 
capt. Francis M. Goold-Adams, and four others were 
killed, 26 Feb. 1885. 

SHOES, among the Jews were made of leather, 
linen, rush, or wood. Moons were worn as orna- 
ments in their shoes by Jewish women. Isaiah iii. 
18. Pythagoras would have his disciples wear shoes 



made of the bark of trees; probably that they might 
not wear what were made of the skins of animals, as 
they refrained from the use of everything that had 
life. The Romans wore an ivory crescent on their 
shoes , and Caligula enriched his with precious 
stones. In England, about 146,2 the people wore 
the beaks or points of their shoes so long that thev 
encumbered themselves in walking, and were forced 
to tie them up to their knees; the tine gentlemen 
fastened theirs with chains of silver or silver gilt, 
and others with laces. This was prohibited, on the 
forfeiture of 20*. and on pain of being cursed by the 
clergy, 7 Edw. IV. 1467 ; see Dress. Shoes, as at 
present worn, were introduced about 1633. The 
buckle was not used till 1668. Stoiv ; Mortimer. 
The buckle-makers petitioned against the use of 
shoe-strings in 1791. A strike of London shoe- 
makers respecting wages, April, 1884. 

SHOOTING STARS, see under Meteors. 

SHOP HOURS' REGULATION ACT 

(Sir John Lubbock's), for the protection of young 
persons, passed, 1886, amended, 1892. His resolu- 
tion against long hours adopted by the commons, 
21 March, 1893. Amendment act passed, 21 Dec. 
1893; another bill, withdrawn, April, 1895 . stopped 
Aug. 1896. Shop assistants (seats) act passed, 
9 Aug. 1899 ; shop clubs act, royal assent, 8 Aug. 
1902 ; one passed (lords), 28 April, 1903. 

SHOP-TAX enacted in 1785; caused so great 
a commotion, particularly in London, that it was 
deemed expedient to repeal it in 1789. The statute 
whereby shoplifting was made a felony, without 
benefit of clergy, was passed 10 & 1 1 Will. III. 1699. 
This statute has been some time repealed. 

SHORE, JANE, the mistress of Edward IT. 
and afterwards of lord Blastings. She did public 
penance in 1483, and was afterwards confined in 
Ludgate; but upon the petition of Thomas Hymore, 
who agreed to marry her, king Richard III., in 
1484, restored her to liberty: and sir Thomas More 
mentions having seen her. Harleian MSS. 

SHORT-HAND, see Stenography. 

" SHORT - LIVED " ADMINISTRA- 
TION— that of William Pulteney, earl of Bath, 
lord Carlisle, lord Wlnchilsea, and lord Granville, 
existed from 10 Feb. to 12 Feb. 1746. 

SHOT. In early times various missiles were 
shot from cannon. Bolts are mentioned in 1413.; 



SHOWMEN'S SOCIETY. 



1128 



SIAM. 



and in 1418 Henry V. ordered his clerk of the ord- 
nance to get 7000 stone shot made at the quarries at 
Maidstone. Since then chain, grape, and canister 
shot have been invented, as well as shells , all of 
which are described in Scott'ern's work on " Pro- 
jectile Weapons of War, and Explosive Compounds," 
1858; see Bombs and Cannon. For Palliser's chilled 
shot, see Cannon. 

SHOWMEN'S SOCIETY held their first 
annual meeting and opposed the Movable Dwell- 
ings bill in 1892 ; second meeting, 25 Jan. 1893. 

SHREWSBURY ADMINISTRATION. 

Charles, duke of Shrewsbury, was made lord trea- 
surer, 29 July, 1 7 14, two days before the death of 
queen Anne. His patent was revoked soon after the 
accession of George I., 29 Oct. following, when the 
earl of Halifax became first lord of the treasury; see 
Halifax. The office of lord treasurer has been exe- 
cuted by commissioners ever since. 

SHEEWSBURY (Shropshire), arose after the 
ruin of the Eoman town Uriconium (see TFroxeter), 
and became one of the chief cities of the kingdom, 
having a mint till the reign of Henry III. Here 
.Richard II. held a parliament in 1397. — On 21 July, 
1403, was fought a sanguinar y battle at Hateley field, 
near Shrewsbury, between the army of Henry IV. 
and that of the nobles, led by Percy (surnamed 
Hotspur), son of the earl of Northumberland, who 
had conspired to dethrone Henry. Henry was seen 
in the thickest of the tight, with his son, afterwards 
Henry V. The death of Hotspur by an unknown 
hand gave the victory to the king. Hume. — Shrews- 
bury grammar school was founded by Edward VI. 
in 1551, endowed by Elizabeth, and opened 1562. 
Its arrangements were modified by the public school 
act, 1868. A statue of Charles Darwin unveiled, 10 
Aug. 1897. Population in 1881, 26,481; 1891, 
26,962 ; 1901, 28,395. 

250 voters deprived of franchise for receiving bribes 

at parliamentary election . . .24 Jan. 1903 
Sooth anniversary of Shrewsbury battle celebrated, 

19-22 July, „ 

SHROPSHIRE ; by battles in this county the 
Britons were completely subjugated, and Caractacus, 
the king of the Silures, became, through the 
treachery of the queen of the Brigantes, a prisoner 
to the Romans, about 50. 

SHROVE TUESDAY, the day before Ash- 
Wednesday, the first day of the Lent Fast; see 
Carnival. 

SIAM, a kingdom in India, bordering on 
the Burmese empire. Siam was governed by 
two kings, one inferior, till Jan. 1887, when 
the second king being dead, the dignity was 
abolished. Siam was re-discovered by the 
Portuguese in 151 1, and a trade established, in 
which the Dutch joined about 1604. A British 
ship arrived about 1613. In 1683, a Cephalonian 
Greek, Constantine Phaulcon, became foreign min- 
ister of Siam, and opened a communication with 
France; Louis XIV. sent an embassy in i(>85 with 
a view of converting the king without effect. After 
several ineffectual attempts, sir John Bowring suc- 
ceeded in obtaining a treaty of friendship and com- 
merce between England and Siam, which was 
signed 30 April, 1855, and ratified 5 April, 1856. 
Two ambassadors from Siam arrived in Oct. 1857, 
and had an audience with the queen ; they brought 
with them magnificent presents, which they de- 
livered Crawling, on Id Nov. They visited Paris 
in Juno, 1861. By a treaty with France, the French 



protectorate over Cambodia was recognised ; signed 
15 July, ratified 24 Oct. 1867. The king Chula- 
lonkoru, born 21 Sept. 1853, succeeded his father 
Mon^kout, 1 Oct. 1868; the king was entertained 
at Calcutta, 7-12 Jan. 1872 ; a political constitution 
was decreed, 8 May, 1874. Queen Victoria receives 
the order of the White Elephant from the Siamese 
minister at Windsor, 2 July, 1880. Population of 
Siam (1891) about 9,000,006. 

Various changes and political reforms were begun by the 
king, 16 Nov. 1873. On 9 Oct., 1874, he invited astro- 
nomers to Bangkok to view the eclipse of 5 April, 1875. 
Death of the able ex-regent Somdetch Chau, 19 Jan. 

1883. 
Telegraphic communication with France opened, 14 Julv, 

1883. 
Gradual abolition of slavery nearly completed, Aug. 1886. 
One of the king's sons (born 1878), declared the first 

crown prince, 1887. 
Rebellion in N. Siam, headed by Phya Phraph Song 

Kuam, Sept. 1889 ; revived, May, 1890. 
British boundary commission : complications, 1889-90 ; 

frontier question settled, reported Feb. 1893. 
The king and queen visit the Straits Settlements, May, 

.June, 1890. 
The king turns the first sod for the Bangkok-Paknam 
railway (other railways promoted), announced 16 July, 
1891 ; opened 11 April, 1893. 
Prince Damrong, half-brother of the king, minister of 
education (on a mission), arrives at Paris, 27 Aug. ; 
travels in Great Britain ; received by the queen at 
Balmoral, 24 Sept. ; arrives at Berlin, 6 Nov. ; 
received by the czar at Livadia, 15 Nov. ; by the 
sultan at Constantinople, 19 Nov. ; at Athens by the 
king, 28 Nov. ; at Rome by the king, 3 Dec. ; by the 
khedive at Cairo, 24 Dec. 1891 ; at Bombay, n Jan. ; 
at Rangoon, 12 March, 1892. 
Dispute with France ; conflict between a Franco- 
Annamite column and Laotian tribes on the Mekong 
river, subject to Siam ; the French lose 3 men, 3 May, 
1893 ; the Siamese retire from Cammon, reported 
3 June ; the French occupy Samit, an island, 13 June ; 
reparation for the murder of M. Grosgurin demanded ; 
Siam objects, about 18-20 June ; more islands occu- 
pied by the French, about 3 July ; admiral Humann, 
with French gunboats, goes up the Mekong ; skirmish, 
with bloodshed on both sides, 13 July ; French ulti- 
matum sent, requiring payment of 3,000, ooof. as an 
indemnity, and an enlargement of territory on the 
Mekong ; the ultimatum partly accepted by the 
Siamese, 18, 19 July ; M. Pavie, the French minister, 
recalled ; capt. Adam de Tillers takes Don-Dua and 
other forts; many Siamese killed, 19 July; Siam 
accepts the ultimatum unconditionally, 29 July ; 
blockade of Siamese coast, 26 July ; raised, 4 Aug. ; 
the French envoy received by the king, reported 
22 Aug. ; difficulties overcome ; a moderate draft- 
treaty signed, 3 Oct. ; the French envoy leaves, 
6 Oct. 1893. 
Messages from queen Victoria and other foreign powers 
to the king of Siam on the silver jubilee of his reign, 
6 Dec. 1893. 
Phra Yot sentenced to 20 years' penal servitude for the 

murder of M. Grosgurin in 1893, 13 June, 1894. 
Lamented death of the crown prince, aged 16 ; educated 
and trained after the English manner under Mr, 
Robert L. Morant, 4 .Ian. 1895. 
Royal decree, establishing a legislative council (ministers 

and nobles), 17 Jan. 1S05. 
Prince Damrong appointed chief minister, Jan. 1895. 
Prince Chowl'a Maha Vajiravudh, aged 16 (studying at 
Eton), proclaimed crown prince, 17 Jan. ; invested 
willi the honours at the Siamese legation, London, 
8 March, 1895. 
Dispute between England and France respecting the 

Mekong Mongsin territory, Aug. 1895. 
Boundary treaty signed, the Mekong to be the boundary 

of the French possessions; Mongsin given over to 
France, [5 Jan. ; evacuated 11 May, 1896. 
Railway from Bangkok to Khorat constructed by Mr. 
M. Campbell : ttrst half opened by the king at 
Bangkok, 27 March, 1S97 ; second half to Lopburi, 
opened, July, 1901. 



SIBERIA. 



1129 



SICILY. 



King Chulalonkom arrives at Rome, received by king 
Humbert, 3 June ; at Vienna, received by the em- 
peror, 23 June ; at Peterliof, 3 July ; received by the 
czar, 7 July ; at Copenhagen, received by the king, 
23 July ; received by the duke of York at Ports- 
mouth, and by the duke of Cambridge in London at 
Buckingham palace, 30 July ; with the queen at Os- 
borne, 4 Aug. ; Edinburgh, 10 Aug. ; lord Armstrong's 
at Newcastle, 12 Aug. ; received by the emperor at 
Potsdam, 26 Aug. ; the Hague, 7 Sept. ; Brussels, 9 
Sept. ; Paris, 11 Sept. ; grand review (60,000) at St. 
Quentin, 14 Sept. ; London, 17 Sept. ; Oxford, 28 
Sept. ; Windsor, 29 Sept. ; leaves London, 2 Oct. ; 
Madrid, 16 Oct. ; Lisbon, 21 Oct. ; Cairo, recep- 
tion by the khedive, 15 Nov. ; arrives at Bangkok, 
amid festivities, 16 Dec. 1897. 

" Five years in Siam," 1891-96, by H. Warington Smyth, 
published, May, 1898. 

Great progress and reorganisation under British officials ; 
Mr. Mitchell-Innes, financial adviser, leaves for Egypt ; 
succeeded by Mr. Rivett-Carnac ; Burmese village 
system introduced by prince Damrong, minister of 
finance, Prince Rabi, minister of justice, Jan. 1899. 

Death of the king's son, prince Sommotwongse, June. 
1899. 

Perak boundary dispute settled by Mr. Greville, British 
minister, 19 Dec. 1899. 

Mr. McCarthy, 12 years' exploration and map of Siam, 
completed, May, 1900. 

Steady yearly increase of revenue ; 65 gambling houses 
closed, 1899-1901. 

British treaty of 1856 revised as to the land revenue ; 
new agreement signed, early 1901. 

Shan rebellion in the north, troops defeated, 23 July ; 
Pray captured, buildings sacked, Siamese massacred, 
25 July ; Lakon abandoned by Europeans, early Aug. ; 
the British consul from Nan persuades the Shans to 
leave Pray and give up other positions, 24 Aug. 1902. 

Kelantan and Tringano virtually under British control, 
reported 3 Oct. 1902. 

France restores Chentabun, but secures Meluprey, 
Bassak, &c. ; treaty signed, 7 Oct. 1902. 

Mr. Black appointed vice-minister of justice, reported, 
28 Oct. 1902. 

500 Shans surrender to the French across the Mekong, 
15 Nov. 1902. 

Rebels dispersed in the north, order restored, reported, 
25 Nov. 1902. 

Gold standard scheme accepted by foreign banks, early 
Dec. 1902. 

Siamese Twins. Two persons born about 181 1, enjoy- 
ing all the faculties and powers usually possessed by 
separate and distinct individuals, although united to- 
gether by a short cartdaginous band at the pit of the 
stomach. They were named Chang and Eng, and were 

. first discovered on the banks of the Siam river by an 
American, Mr. Robert Hunter, by whom they were 
taken to New York, where they were exhibited. Cap- 
tain Coffin brought them to England. After having 
been exhibited for several years in Britain, they went 
to America, where they settled on a farm, and mar- 
ried two sisters. In 1865 they were in North Carolina 
in declining health. Their exhibition in London 
began again 8 Feb. 1869. They died in America, 
within two hoars of each other, 16, 17 Jan. 1874. 

SIBERIA (N. Asia). In 1580 the conquest was 
begun by the Cossacks under JermakTiniofejew. In 
1 7 10 Peter the Great began to send prisoners thither. 
An insurrection broke out among the Poles in Siberia 
in June, 1866, and was soon suppressed. Univer- 
sity founded, 1886. Population in 1885, 4,313,680. 
9 Feb. 1897, 6,731,732. 

Since 1863 efforts have been made to open up a sea route 
to central Siberia, especially by capt. Wiggins and his 
friends, 1874 et seq. In 1890 two vessels from London 
reached Karaoul on the Yenesei, stayed there 19 days, 
and returned in October. 

The construction of a railway to Siberia, in ten years, 
was authorised, Feb. 1890 ; (see Russia, May, i8qi). 

A party of about 30 political exiles, including women 
and children, at Yakutsk, N.E. Siberia, were sus- 



pected of mutiny, very severely treated, and some 
persons were killed, 4 April. The exiles were tried by 
court-martial in May, and all were convicted, 18 June. 
Three men were hanged, 20 Aug. 1889. The story 
printed in the Times, 26 Dec. 1889, was at first contra- 
dicted and afterwards said to be exaggerated, March, 
1890. 

About 300 convicts, on their way to a penal settlement, 
rise against their warders, and are subdued after a 
couflict, with much bloodshed, reported 28 March, 
1893. 

Eastern section of the Trans-Siberian railway opened, 
Sept. 1893. 

Capt. Wiggins' expedition through the Kara sea and up 
the Yenesei to deliver rails for the railway successful, 
reported 24 Jan. ; he receives a handsome present from 
the czar at St. Petersburg, Feb. 1894. 

Capt. Wiggins' steamship StjerrCen wrecked in Yugor 
straits ; all saved, 22 Sept. ; arrives at Archangel, 
15 Dec. 1894 ; arrives at St. Petersburg, 9 Jan. 1895 ; 
lectures to the London chamber of commerce, 18 March ; 
an expedition under him to the Yenisei leaves the 
Tyne, 12 Aug. 1895; reported successful, 1896; British 
expedition in the Glmmore and Scotia arrives at 
Krasnoyarsk, autumn 1897. 

Trans-Siberian railway, from Vladivostok to Nauraview 
Amurski (235 miles), opened for traffic, 20 Dec. 1894. 

Important judicial reforms introduced, 14 July, 1897. 

Successful expedition (11 steamers) of Mr. F. W. Pop- 
ham in the Naranja (capt. Tinkler) and a flotilla 
through the Ob (or Obi) Gulf and up the Ob river, 
left London 20 July ; returned 1 Oct. 1S97. 

The East Asiatic Ry. completed, 9 Nov. 1901. 

New Siberian' route from Port Arthur, S. Manchuria, 
to London in 18 days, opened 13 Jan. 1903. 

SIBYLS, Sibyllas, women believed to be in- 
spired, who nourished in different parts of the 
world. Plato speaks of one, others of two, Pliny 
of three, iElian of four, and Varro of ten. An Ery- 
threan sibyl is said to have offered to Tarquin II. 
nine books containing the Roman destinies, de- 
manding for them 300 pieces of gold. He denied 
her ; whereupon the sibyl threw three of them into 
the fire, and asked the same price for the other 
six, which being still denied, she burnt three more, 
and again demanded the same sum for those that 
remained, when Tarquin conferring with the pon- 
tiffs was advised to buy them. Two magistrates 
were created to consult them on all occasions, 531 
b.c. ; see Quindecemvirs. 

SICILIAN VESPERS, the term given to the 
massacre of the French (who had conquered Sicily, 
1266), commenced at Palermo, 30 March, 1282. 

On Easter Monday conspirators assembled at Palermo ; 
and while the French were engaged in festivities, a 
Sicilian bride passed by with her train. One Drochet, 
a Frenchman, used her rudely, under pretence of 
searching for arms. A young Sicilian stabbed him 
with his own sword ; and a tumult ensuing, 200 French 
were instantly murdered. The populace ran through 
the city, crying out, " Let the French die !" and, with- 
out distinction of rank, age, or sex, slaughtered all of 
that nation they could find, to the number of about 
8000. Even the churches proved no sanctuary, and 
the massacre became general throughout the island. 

SICILY (anciently Trinacria, three-cornered). 
The early inhabitants were the Sieani, or Siculi, a 
people of Spain, and Etruscans, who came from Italy. 
The Phoenicians and Greeks settled some colonies 
here (735-582) ; see Syracuse. In modern times 
its government has frequently been united with 
and separated from that of Naples {which see); the 
two now form part of the kingdom of Italy. Popu- 
lation of Sicily in 1856,2,231,020; 1871, 2,565,323; 
1887, 3,192,108; 1890, 3,285,472; 1901,3,529,266. 

Naxos built by the Greeks from Euboea, about . b.c. 735 
Syracuse founded by Archias from Corinth . 734 



SICILY. 



1130 



SICILY. 



Leontini and other cities founded. . . 730 et seq. 
Agrigentum founded by a Dorian colony, 579 ; ruled 

by Phalaris (see Brazen Bull), about . . . 563 
Gelon, tyrant of Gela, becomes supreme at Syra- 
cuse ; the Carthaginians enter Sicily to found 
colonies, but are severely defeated by Gelon, at 

Himera . . 480 

Gelon succeeded by his brother Hiero . . . 478 
Syracuse becomes predominant in Sicily . . 453 

Great Athenian expedition under Nicias, 315 ; de- 
feated by the aid of Gylippus, the Lacedemonian 413 
An excellent code of laws established by Diodes . 412 
Dionysius the elder, able and ambitious, becomes 
captain-general at Syracuse, 406 ; subdues the 
aristocracy, becomes tyrant, and gradually 
supreme in Sicily, 405 ; makes successful war 
with the Italian Greeks ; declares war against 

Carthage 397 

Syracuse closely besieged by the Carthaginians ; 
their army is crippled by a pestilence ; their 
fleet destroyed by Dionysius , a treaty made . 395 
War renewed, 393 ; peace made .... 392 
Dionysius plants colonies in Italy, 387 ; dies . . 367 
His dissolute son, Dionysius II., succeeds him, 
367; receives Plato and other philosophers ; he 
is dethroned by Dion, his banished relative, who 

becomes ruler 356 

Dion rules severely and becomes unpopular ; is 

assassinated by Calippus 353 

Dionysius II. (tyrant at Socri 10 years) recovers 
his authority at Syracuse, 346 ; rules till his ex- 
pulsion by Timoleon with a small Corinthian 
army, and retires to Corinth .... 343 

Timoleon restores the republic, deposes the other 
Sicilian tyrants, and becomes supreme, 343 etseq. ; 
totally del eats the Carthaginians at the Criinis- 
sus, 339 ; rules Sicily till his death . . . . 337 
Agathocles overthrows the republic with bloodshed, 
and becomes "autocrat," and afterwards king, 
317 ; defeated by the Carthaginians at the Himera, 
310 ; he invades Africa, gains victories over the 
Carthaginians, but is compelled to return to 

Sicily by revolts, 307 ; dies 289 

Political dissensions ; Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, 
enters Sicily, and defeats the Carthaginians, 278 ; 

retires 276 

Hiero II. made king of Syracuse, 270 ; makes war 

with the Romans, is defeated, and makes peace . 263 
The first Punic war begins, see Carthage . . . 264 

Hiero II. dies 216 

Hicronymus, his grandson, succeeds, 216; renounces 

the alliance with Rome ; and is assassinated . 214 
The Roman consul, Marcellus, invades Sicily, and 
besieges Syracuse, which is vigorously defended 
by the aid of Archimedes, 214 ; it is taken, when 

Archimedes is slain 212 

Sicily becomes a Roman province . . . . 210 
The Servile wars; much slaughter . . 135, 134, 132 
Tyrannical government of Verres (for which he was 

accused by Cicero) 73-71 

Sicily held by Sextus Pompeius, son of the great 
Pompey, 42 ; defeated ; expelled, 36 ; killed . 35 

Invaded by the Vandals, a.d. 440; by the Goths, 
493 ; taken for the Creek emperors by Belisarius, 

a.d 536 

Conquered by the Saracens anil held . . . 832-78 

Greatly recovered by the Greek emperor by the aid 
of Normans 1038 

The Greeks and Arabs driven out by a Norman 
prince, Roger I., son of Tancred, 105S; who takes 
the title of count of Sicily .... 1061-1090 

linger II., son of the above-named, unites Sicily 
witli Naples, and is crowned king of the Two 
Sicilies 1131 

Charles of Anjou, brother of st. Louis, king of 
Prance, conquers Naples and Sicily, deposes the 
Norman princes, and mokes himself king . . 1266 

The French massacred (see Sicilian Vespers) . . 1282 

Sicily seized by a licet m ,il by the kings of Aragon ; 
Naples remains to the house of Anjou . . . ,, 



Alphonso, king of Aragon, takes possession of 
Naples 1435 

The kingdom of Naples and Sicily united to the 
Spanish monarchy under Ferdinand the Catholic 1501 

Victor, duke of Savoy, by the treaty of Utrecht, 
made king of Sicily 1713 

Which he gives up to the emperor Charles VI. , and 
becomes king of Sardinia 1720 

Charles, son of the king of Spain, becomes king of 
the Two Sicilies 1735 

The throne of Spain becoming vacant, Charles, who 
is heir, vacates the throne of the Two Sicilies, in 
favour of his third son Ferdinand, agreeably to 
treaty 1759 

Dreadful earthquake at Messina, in Sicily, which 
destroys 40,000 persons 1783 

The French conquer Naples (which see) ; Ferdinand 
IV. retires to Sicily 1806 

Political disturbances 1810 

New constitution granted, under British auspices . 1812 

The French expelled ; kingdom of Two Sicilies re- 
established ; Ferdinand returns to Naples ; abol- 
ishes the constitution 1815 

Revolution at Palermo suppressed . . . .1820 

The great towns in Sicily rise and demand the con- 
stitution ; a provisional government proclaimed 

12 Jan. 1848 

The king nominates his brother, the count of Aquila, 
viceroy, 17 Jan. ; promises a new constitution 

29 Jan. ,, 

The Sicilian parliament decrees the exclusion of the 
Bourbon family, 13 April ; and invites the duke 
of Genoa to the throne . . . 11 July, ,, 

Messina bombarded and taken by the Neapolitans 

7 Sept. , , 

Catania taken by assault, 6 April ; Syracuse sur- 
renders 23 April ; and Palermo . . 15 May, 1849 

Insurrections suppressed at Palermo, Messina, and 
Catania, 4 April et seq. ; the rebels retire into the 
interior 21 April et seq. i8fo 

Garibaldi and his followers (2200 men) embark at 
Genoa, 5 May; and land at Marsala, 11 May; he 
abandons his ships ; and assumes the dictatorship 
in the name of the king of Sardinia 14 May, ,, 

He defeats the royal troops at Calatafimi, 15 May; 
storms Palermo, 27 May ; which is bombarded by 
the royal fleet, 28 May ; an armistice agreed to 

31 May, „ 

A provisional government formed at Palermo, 
June; which is evacuated bvthe Neapolitans, 

6 June, ,, 

Garibaldi defeats the Neapolitans at Melazzo, 

20, 21 July, ,, 

Convention signed, by which the Neapolitans agree 
to evacuate Sicily (retaining the citadel of Mes- 
sina) 30 July, ,1 

New Sicilian constitution proclaimed . 3 Aug. 

Garibaldi embarks for Calabria (sec Naples), 

19 Aug. ,, 

Trofessor Saffi (late of Oxford), a short time dic- 
tator Sept. ,, 

The Sicilians by universal suffrage vote for annexa- 
tion to Sardinia (432,054 against 667) 21 Oct. „ 

Victor-Emmanuel visits Sicily . . .1 Dec. ,, 

Citadel of Messina blockaded, 2S Feb. ; surrenders 
to general Cioldini .... 13 March, 1S61' 

King Victor-Emmanuel warmly received at Messina, 

May, 1862, 

Imprudent speeches of Garibaldi at Marsala, 19 
July; lie enters Catania, and establishes a pro- 
visional government, 19 Aug.; embarks for Italy, 

24 Aug. „ I 

Sicily placed under blockade; removed in Sept.; , 

tranquil Oct. ,, | 

Insurrection in Palermo, attributed to the priests 
and brigands, 16 Sept.; suppressed with blood- 
shed .by Italian troops . . . 21-26 Sept. 1866 

Revival of brigandage and murder . . Aug. 1872J 

Martial law established in some places . Sept. 1874) 

Aliano, a brigand, tried at Potenza, for numerous 
murders, and other crimes .... Nov. 



SICILY. 



1131 



SIEGES. 



Capraro, great brigand, killed during capture 

about 2 Oct. 1875 

Mr. Forester Rose carried oft' by brigands, 3 Nov. ; 
ransomed for about 4000?. . . . Nov. 1876 

Leone and other brigands surrounded and shot, 

1 June, 1877 

Five chief brigands surrender ; abatement of 
brigandage announced . . about 6 Nov. ,, 

Successful visit of the king and queen ; arrive at 
Palermo 4 Jan - 1880 

Explosion in sulphur mine at Gessolungo, near 
Caltanissetta, about 30 killed . . 12 Nov. 1881 

Violent cyclone in Catania, about 27 killed; 200,000?. 
damage 7 Oct. 1884 

Grand banquet to sig. Crispi, Italian premier, at 
Palermo 14 Oct. 1880 

Opening of the Italian National Exhibition at 
Palermo (which see) .... 15 Nov. 1891 

Increase of brigandage by secret societies ; many 
arrests 26 Sept. — 9 Oct. 1892 

Despatch of troops to suppress brigandage ; nearly 
a state of siege, reported ... 23 Oct. 1893 

Increase of socialism, 1893 (Fasci dei Lavoratori) . „ 

Violent rioting, with bloodshed (see Palermo), Dec. ; 
rioting in Trapani against the octroi dues; rein- 
forcements sent, 30 Dec. 1893 ; destructive rioting, 
with bloodshed, at different places ; gen. Morra 
di Lavriano invested with full powers to establish 
order 2 Jan. 1894 

State of siege in Sicily proclaimed at Palermo, 

4 Jan. ,, 

Frequent conflicts, with bloodshed . . 5 Jan. ,, 

The rising attributed to misgovernment and op- 
pression by the municipal authorities . Jan. ,, 

Sig. de Felice Giuffrida (deputy) sentenced to 18 
years, and 7 others to various terms of imprison- 
ment, for connection with rioting (see above) 

30 May, , , 

Order restored, reported .... 25 Sept. ,, 

Destructive earthquakes, with loss of life, at 
Messina, &c 16 Nov. ,, 

Severe shock in Catania ; many persons buried by 
the fall of a church . . . . 23 March, 1895 

Disaster at a mine at Casteltermini, 35 deaths, 

24 Sept. 1897 

Riot at Siculiana, town hall sacked -nd burnt ; 1 
death 2 Jan. 1898 

Jubilee celebration of the Sicilian revolution (184S) ; 
hearty welcome to the prince and prin3ess of 
Naples, and sig. Crispi, at Palermo 10 Jan. ,, 

A marble monument commemorative of the revo- 
lution, unveiled by the crown prince, at Palermo, 

12 Jan. „ 

Demonstrations in honour of sig. Crispi . 4 Oct. 1899 

The king and queen open the Sicilian agricultural 
exhibition at Palermo ; Britisli naval squadron 
well received .... 27, 28, 29 May, 1902 



Cyclone and floods in Modica and Catania ; 400 

deaths; the king sends 2000/. . 26-28 Sept. 1902 

Fatal riot at Giarra tana . . • . 13 Oct. ,, 
Visit of king Edward VII. . . 21, 22 April, 1903. 

SICK CHILDBEN, Hospital for, Great 

Orniond-street, London; established 1851. lne 
princess of Wales (now queen) laid the foundation 
of new buildings, n July, 1872. A branch has 
been set up at Jdighgate. 

" SICK MAN," an epithet applied to Turkey, 
by the czar Nicholas, 14 Jan. 1854; see Russo- 
Turkish War, note. 

SICYOIST, an ancient Grecian kingdom in the 
Peloponnesus, founded, it is said, about 2080 B.C. 
Its people took part in the wars in Greece, usually 
supporting Sparta. In 252 it became a republic 
and joined the Acha?an league formed by Aratus. It 
was the country of the sculptors Polycletes (436) 
and Lysippus (328 B.C.). 

SIDEBOSTAT (from sidus, Latin for a star),. 
an apparatus constructed by M. Leon Foucault, 
shortly before his death, 1 1 Feb. 1868, for observing 
the light of the stars in precisely the same way ui 
which the light of the sun may be studied in the 
camera obscura. It consists of a mirror moved by 
clockwork, and a fixed objective glass for concen- 
trating the rays into a focus. 

SIDON or ZlDON (Syria), a city of Phoenicia, 
to the north of Tyre. It was conquered by Cyrus 
about 537 B.C. ; and surrendered to Alexander, 332 
B.C. ; see Phoenicia. The town was taken from the 
pacha of Egypt by the troops of the sultan and ot 
his allies, assisted by some ships of the British 
squadron, under commodore Charles Napier, 27 Sept. 
1840 ; see Syria and Turkey. 

SIEGrES. Azoth, which was besieged by Psam- 
metichus the Powerful, held out for nineteen years. 
Usher. It held out for twenty-nine years. Hero- 
dotus. This was the longest siege recorded in the 
annals of antiquity. The siege of Troy was the 
most celebrated, and occupied ten years, 1 184 B.C. 
Other an icnt sieges: Tyre, 572 B.C., 332 B.C.; Syra- 
cuse, 414 B.C., 212 B c. ; Saguntum, 219 B.C.; Jeru- 
salem, 590 B.C. ; a.d. 70. The folio wins are the most 
memorable sieges since the 12th century ; for details 
of many of them see separate articles. 



Acre, 1192, 1799, 1832, 1840. 

Algesiras, 1341. 

Algiers, 1681 (Bomb vessels first used 

by a French engineer named Renau) ; 

1816. 
Alkmaer, 1573. 
Almeida, 27 Aug. 18 10. 
Amiens, 1597. 
Ancona, 1x74, 1799, i860. 
Antwerp, 1576, 1583, 1585, 1746, 1832. 
Arras, 1640. 
Azoff, 1736. 

Badajoz, 11 March, 181 1 : 6 April, 1812. 
Bagdad, 1258. 
Barcelona, 1697, 1714. 
Belgrade, 1439, 1456, 1521, 1688, 1717, 

1739, 1789. 
Belle-Isle, 1761. 

Bergen-op-Zoom, 1622, 1747, 1814. 
Berwick, 1333, 1481. 
Bethune, 1710. 
Bilbao by Carlists, 1874. 
Bois-le-Duc, 1603, 1794. 
Bologna, 151 2, 1796, 1799 



Boinmel : the invention of the covered 

way, 1794. 
Bonn, 1672, 16S9, 1703. 
Bouchain, 1711. 
Boulogne, 1544. 
Breda, 1625. 

Brescia, 1238, 1512, 1849. 
Breslau, 1807. 
Brisac, 1638, 1704. 
Brussels, 1695, 1746. 
Bomarsund, 1854. 
Buda, 1541, 2 Sept. 1686. 
Burgos, 1812, 1813. 
Cadiz, 1812. 
Calais, 1347 (British historians affirm 

that cannon were used at Cressy, 

1346, and here in 1347. First used 

here in 1388. Rymer's Fced.), 1558, 

1596. 
Calvi, 1794. 
Candia: the largest cannon thenknown 

■in Europe, -used here by the Turks, 

1667. 
Carthagena, 1706-7, 1740, 1873-4. 



Chalus, 1199. 

Charleroi, 1693. 

Charleston, U.S., 1864-5. 

Chartres, 1568. 

Cherbourg, 1758. 

Chitral Fort, which see, 1895. 

Ciudad Rodrigo, 1810, 1812. 

Colchester, 1648. 

Comorn, 1849. 

Compiegne (Joan of Arc), 1430. 

Conde, 1676, 1793, 1794- 

Coni, 1691, 1744- 

Constantinople, 1453. 

Copenhagen, 1658, 1801, 1807. 

Corfu, 1716. 

Courtray, 1646. 

Cracow, 1702. 

Cremona, 1702. 

Dantzic, 1734, 1793, 1807, 1813, 1814. 

Delhi, 1857. 

Douay, 1710. 

Dresden, 1756, 1813. 

Drogheda, 1649. 

Dublin, 1500. 



SIENA. 


1132 SIERRA LEONE. 


Dunkirk, 1646, 1793. 


Menin, 1706. 


St. Sebastian, 1813. 


Famagosta, 1571. 


Mentz, 1689, 1793. 


Saragossa, 1710, 1808, 1809 ; the two 


Flushing, 15 Aug. 1809. 


Messina, 1282, 1719, 1848, 1861. 


last dreadful. 


Frederickshald : Charles XII. killed, 


Metz, 1552-3, 1870. 


Sebastopol, 1854-5. 


1718. 


Mons, 1691, 1709, 1792. 


Schweidnitz : first experiment to reduce 


Gaeta, 1435, 1734, 1860-1. 


Montargis, 1426. 


a fortress by springing globes of com- 


Genoa, 1747, 1800. 


Montauban, 1621. 


pression, 1 757-1 762. 


Gerona, 1809. 


Montevideo, Jan. 1807. 


Scio (see Greece), 1822. 


Ghent, 1708. 


Mothe: the French, taught by a Mr. 


Seringapatam, 1799. 


Gibraltar, 1779, 1782-3. 


Mutter, first practised the art of 


Seville, 1247-8. 


Glatz, 1742, 1807. 


throwing shells, 1634. 


Silistria, 1854. 


Gottingen, 1760. 


Namur, 1692, 1746, 1794. 


Smolensko, 1632, 1812. 


Graves, 1674. 


Naples, 1435, 1504, 1557, 1792, 1799, 


Soissons, 1870. 


Grenada, 1491, 1492. 


1806. 


St. Quentin, 1557. 


Groningen, 1594. 


Newark, 1644-5. 


Stralsmid : the method of throwina red- 


Haerlem, 1572, 1573. 


New Orleans, 1814. 


hot balls first practised with certainty, 


Harfleur, 1415. 


Nice, 1706. 


I 7 I 5- 


Heidelberg, 1688 


Novogorod, 1478. 


StrasDurg, 1870. 


Herat, 1838. 


Nieuport, 160c. 


Tarragona, 1811. 


Humaita, 1868. 


Olivenza, 1S01, 1S11. 


Temeswar, 1716. 


Ismail, 1790. 


Olmutz, 1758. 


Therouenne, 1513. 


Kars, 1855. 


Orleans, 1428, 1563. 


Thionville, 1792. 


Khartoum, 1884. 


Ostend, 1601, 1798. 


Thorn, 1703. 


Kimberley, 15 Oct. 1899-15 Feb. 1900. 


Oudenarde, 1706. 


Tortosa, 1811. 


Kehl, 1733, 1796. 


Padua, 1509. 


Toulon, 1707, 1793. 


Ladysmith, 2 Nov. 1899-28 Feb. 1900. 


Pampeluna, 1813. 


Toulouse, 1217. 


Landau, 1702 et seq., 1792. 


Paris, 1420, 1594, 1870, 1871. 


Toumay, 1340, 1513, 1583, 1667, 1709 


Landrecy, 1712, 1794. 


Parma, 1248.' 


(this was the best defence ever drawn 


Laon, 988, 991. 


Pavia, 1524, 1655. 


from counter-mines), 1792. 


Leipsic, 1757 et seq., 1813. 


Pekin legations, 20 June-14 Aug. 1900. 


Treves, 1635, 1673, 1765. 


Leitb, 1560. 


Perpignan, 1542, 1642. 


Tunis, 1270, 1535. 


Lerida, 1647, I 7°7> 1810. 


Phalsbourg, 1814, 1815, 1870. 


Turin, 1640, 1706. 


Leyden, 1574. 


Philipsburg, 1644, 1676, 1688, first ex- 


Valencia, 1705, 1707, 1712. 


Liege, 1408, 1688, 1702. 


periment of firing artillery a ricochet, 


Valenciennes, 1677, 1793, 1794- 


Lille, 1708, 1792. 


r 734> 1799- 


Vannes, 1342. 


Limerick, 1651, 1691. 


Plevna, 1877. 


Venice, 1879. 


Londonderry, 1689. 


Pondicherry, 1748, 1793. 


Venloo, 1702. 


Louisbourg, 1758. 


Prague, 1741-1744. 


Verdun, 1792. 


Lucknow, 1857. 


Quebec, 1759-60. 


Vicksburg, U.S., 1863. 


Luxemburg, 1795. 


Quesnoy, 1793-1794. 


Vienna, 1529, 1683. 


Lyons, 1793. 


Rheims, 1359. 


Wakefield, 1460. 


Maestricht, 1579, 1673; Vauban first 


Rhodes, 1521. 


Warsaw, 1831. 


came into notice; 1676, 1748. 


Richmond, U.S., 1864-5. 


Xativa, 1246. 


Mafeking, 13 Oct. 1899-17 May, 1900. 


Riga, 1700, 1710. 


Xeres, 1262. 


Magdala, 1868. 


Rochelle, 1573, 1628. 


York, 1644. 


Magdeburg, 1631, 1806. 


Rome, 1527, 1798, 1849. 


Ypres, 1648. 


Malaga, 1487. 


Romorantin ; artillery first used in 


Zurich, 1544. 


Malta, 1565, 1798, 1800. 


sieges (Voltaire), 1356. 


Zutphen, 1586. 


Mantua, 1797, 1799. 


Rouen, 1419, 1449, I 59 1, 




Marseilles, 1524. 


Roxburgh, 1460. 





SIENA (the ancient Sena Julia), Italy, in the 

middle ages a powerful republic rivalling Florence 

and Pisa ; see Tuscany. It was incorporated with 

France, 1808-14. Population, 1881, 23,445. 

The Sienese thoroughly defeated 1he Florentines at 

Montaperto in 1260 ; placed themselves under the 

duke ot Milan, 1399 ; were ruled by Pandolfo Petrucci, 

1487-15 12 ; submitted to the emperor Charles V. 1524 ; 

rebelled, called in the French, 1555 ; were defeated 

and given up to Cosimo de Medici, 1557 ; who annexed 

Siena to Tuscany. 

SIERRA LEONE (W. Africa), discovered by 
the Portuguese navigator, P. de Cintra, in 1462. 
An attempt to form a settlement here made by the 
British government by sending out from London 
about 400 freed negroes and 60 whites, Dec. 1786, 
failed ; a second attempt by the Sierra Leone Com- 
pany in 1791, was not much more successful, and in 
1807 the settlement was given up to the crown. 
Capital, Freetown. Population in 1891,30,033. The 
settlement was attacked by the French, "Sept. 1704; 
by the natives, Feb. 1802. Sir Charles Macarthy, 
governor of the colony, was defeated and killed 
by the Ashantcc chief, 21 .Jan. 1824. — 16 & 17 Vict. 
c. 16, relates to the government, &c, of this colony, 
It was made a bishopric in 1K52; see Ashantees 
and West Africa. Population in 1891, 74,835; 
1893, 136,006; 1(101,76,655. 
Robarrie, the stronghold of the insurgcnl Yonnie 

tribe, captured bj sir Francis DeWinl .-i Nov. 1887 

The king was captured .'111.1 bhe rebellion suppressed 

Nov. -Dec. ,, 



The Gambia territory isolated and made an inde- 
pendent colony 22 Dec. 1888 

Largoh, capital of the chief Mackiah captured by 
the British under governor Hay ; 700 prisoners 
liberated ; announced ... 14 Feb. 1889 

In accordance with an agreement with the French 
government, 10 Aug. I8S9, a commission was ap- 
pointed for the delimitation of the British and 
French possessions in West Africa . . Oct. 1890 

Agreement signed 21 Jan. 1895 

Governors : sir James Shaw Hay, 1888 ; sir Francis 
Fleming, 1892 ; sir Frederick Cardew . Feb. 1894 

British expedition sent to punish aggressions in 
May, 1S91 ; fighting at Tambi ; the British re- 
treat ; Tambi taken and destroyed . 7 April, „ 

A British expedition, under col. A. B. Ellis, against 
the Sofas, a marauding tribe, are mistaken for the 
Sofas by a French force, under lieut. Maritz, at 
Warina (or Waima), on the British border, and 
attacked ; British loss : capt. Lendy ; lieuts. 
Liston. Wroughton ; serg. -major Carraher, and 2 
privates; French loss: lieut. Maritz and 10 
Sengalese ; many wounded . . 23 Dec. 1893 

[The collision attributed to the false state- 
ments i'f Corona, a chief, who was afterwards 
executed ; the British awarded 9000/. by arbi- 
tration, 1902.] 

Sub-inspector Taylor, at Tnngea, with a detach- 
ment of frontier police and some natives, defeat 
a body of about 4000 Sofas ; 50 killed, 150 taken 
prisoners 29 Dec. ,, 

The Sofas, after a destructive raid, severely de- 
feated by col. A. B. Ellis at Bagwema . 2 Jan. 1894 

Capture of Kerra-Yemma and rescue of 673 slaves, 

29 Jan. „ 

Another conflict between the British and French 



SIERRA LEONE. 



1133 



SIKKIM. 



(native police) on the borders of Sierra Leone ; 
several killed 3 Feb. 

Col. A. B. Ellis, author of "The History of the 
Gold Coast," &c, dies at Teneritfe . 5 March, 

' ' Human Leopard " society (men clothed in leopard 
skins) vow to kill people to be eaten ; efforts made 
for its suppression ; 3 men hanged, July, 1895 ; 
5 men hanged Sept. 

Great fire at Freetown .... 9-10 Jan. 

Delimitation of British and French territories, set- 
tled, May ; British protectorate proclaimed 

Serious rising due to the suppression of slavery, &c, 
and the hut tax in the Hinterland . . Feb. 

Conflicts between the natives and frontier police 
under major Tarbet at Karene, lieut. F. E. Yeld 
mortally wounded ; Quiah burnt by capt. Moore, 

March, 

Serious fighting : Ekuta and Tabira occtipied by 
the British 26 March, 

Death of col. Bosworth while on the march, April ; 
capt. Macdonald dies of wounds, 6 April, and 
major Donovan 17 April, 

Desultory fighting round Port Lokko, the rev. W. 
J. Humphrey killed ; Sorie Bunkey, the king, 
killed by Bai Bureh, rebel chief . . April, 

Bising spreading in the S.E., Benda in ruins ; Mr. 
Hughes, native commissioner, and over 200 in- 
habitants, massacred by the Mendis ; factories 
plundered in the Sherbro' district, April ; 5 
American missionaries massacred at Rotifunk ; 
2 others at Taiama May, 

British warships and reinforcements sent to Free- 
town, rebels repulsed at Kwellu by capt. Fairt- 
lough, 3 chiefs arrested, May ; col. Woodgate 
returns to Freetown, after successful operations 
against the rebels in Karene, 13 May ; H.M.S. 
Fox returns to Freetown, after burning several 
villages 14 May, 

Rotifunk occupied by col. Woodgate's punitive 
expedition (about 100 men) after desperate fights 
with hordes of Mendis, who were finally driven 
off with great loss, 1 June ; Bompeh, their strong- 
hold, taken by lieut. -col. Cunningham and lieut. 
Russell ; enemy's loss heavy . . 13 June, 

Col. Marshall's punitive operations in the Karene 
and Kwellu districts successful ; H.M.S. Alecto 
returns to Freetown with 41 natives rescued from 
Sherbro' district 18 June, 

Sir David Patrick Chalmers appointed royal com- 
missioner to inquire into the rising (computed 
loss of life about 1,000); arrives 18 July (leaves 
22 Nov.) 

The expeditionary force returns to Freetown after 
destroying 4 towns in the Bompeh and Shengeh 
districts 12 July, 

Nigua, chief of Panguma, charged with complicity 
in the rebellion ; brought to Freetown, 20 July, 

Rebels repulsed with loss at Songo Town, 21 July, 

The Mendis repeatedly defeated, the chiefs sue for 
peace, 10 Aug.; king of the Upper Mendis cap- 
tured, Port Lokko chiefs fined and released, 

Sept. 

Further operations against Bai Bureh, Oct. ; he is 
captured by capt. Goodwin, 14 Nov. (brought to 
Freetown with 4 other ringleaders, 25 Feb. 1899). 

Lahai, rebel chief, and followers surrender to capt. 
Robertson at Karene, Dec. (Bai Forkey captured, 
Jan. 1899). 

Hon. Colenso Bishop, mayor of Freetown, born in 
the colony, 1850; died. . . . 7 Dec. 

Frontier fighting (Meli river) ; Yebema occupied, 
enemy repulsed Dec. 

Judge Bonner tries 240 prisoners at Kwellu and 
elsewhere for murder during the rising (Aug.); 
151 sentenced to death, about half commuted ; 
he returns to England ... 12 Jan. 

General amnesty in Bandajuma district, with some 
exceptions; arrears of taxes remitted . Feb. 

The Sierra Leone railway (32 mi. to Songo town) 
opened by major Nathan, acting governor, 1 May, 

Col. Woodgate's (K.C.M.G. 1899) expedition to ex- 
plore unknown country and overawe the Mendi 
and Kissi tribes, very successful ; the Kissi chiefs 
submit after some days' continuous fighting, 
British loss slight . . Dec. 1898-1 March, 

Sir David Chalmers (died 5 Aug. 1899) issued his 
report condemning the hut tax, &c. . 26 July, 



Major Ronald Ross (K.C.B. 1902), head of the 
Liverpool malaria research expedition, arrives, 
10 Aug.; discovers the Anopheles malarial mos- 
quito (which see) in stagnant pools, &c. ; grubs 
killed by kerosene oil; leaves . end Sept. 1899 

Sir Chas. King-Harman, new governor, arrives, 

11 Dec. 190 j 

The governor well received in tours through 
southern districts, 5-23 Feb.; Karene district, 
April, 1901; Panguma, Jan.; good report issued, 

3 April, 1902 

Anti-malaria work in Freetown very successful, 
reported April, 

The governor leaves Freetown on a tour . 14 Jan. 1903 

SIGNALS are alluded to by Polybius. Eliza- 
beth had instructions drawn up for the admiral 
and general of the expedition to Cadiz, to be an- 
nounced to the fleet in a certain latitude ; this is 
said to have been the first set of signals given to 
the commanders of the English fleet. A system 
for the navy was invented by the duke of York, 
afterwards James II. 1665. Guthrie; see Fog- 
signals and Navigation Laws. 

Block system of signalling on railways, introduced 1853 
The tclephotos, an electrical system of signalling, 
invented by Mr.Claudius Victor Boughton, of New 
York state, was exhibited by him at a meeting in 
London ; lord George Hamilton in the chair ; 
incandescent lamps are employed . . 15 Dec. 1893 
A new naval signalling apparatus invented by 
prince Louis of Battenberg and capt. Percy Scott, 

announced 14 Sept. 1894 

Messrs. Thompson & Marsden's recording ship's 
indicator, an apparatus recording orders from 
the bridge to the engine-room, announced . Jan. 1895 
International code of signals committee, final report 
issued ; by the new code of 26 flags 375,076 signals 
can be made, April, 1897. See Telegraphs, June, 1897 
New international maritime code introduced, 1 Jan. 1901 

SIGNBOARDS were used by the Greeks and 
Romans. A "History of Signboards," by Jacob 
Larwood and John Hotten, was published in 1866. 

SIGNETS, see Seals. 

SIGN MANUAL,. EOYAL, a stamp, imitat- 
ing the royal signature, employed when the sove- 
reign was so ill as to be unable to write : in the 
case of Henry VIII. 1547 ; James I. 1625 ; and 
George IV., 29 May, 1830. Rosse. 

SIKHS, originally a Hindu religious sect (about 
1500), a people of N. India, invaded the Mogul 
empire, 1 703-8 ; see Punjab and India, 1849, 1897. 

SIKKIM, a small Himalayan State, joining 

Tibet, allied to the Indian government since 1814. 

By a treaty in 1861 free trade and passage through 

the country were secured. 

The erection of a fort by the Rajah under the 
influence of Tibetans in contravention of the 
treaty, led to a military demonstration ; 1,000 
troops sent ostensibly to repair the road to 
Tibet, Jan. ; the rajah proving contumacious, 
the viceroy intervened ineffectually, March ; 
about 2,000 men concentrated at Pedong, March ; 
Lingtu fort quickly captured ; flight of the 
Tibetans, 20 March ; destruction of the fort 
ordered 21 March ; slight skirmishes with the 
Tibetans, 24 killed, May ; col. Graham defeats 
the attacking Tibetans, who are said to have 
lost 200 men 23 May, 1888 

Troops ordered to return to Darjeeling 17 June, ,, 

Return to Sikkim on appearance of Tibetan 
aggression July, ,, 

The Tibetans defeated at Jelapla pass ; about 400 
killed and wounded, 25 Sept. ; col. Graham's 
advance suspended and the expedition recalled, 

Sept. „ 

A Chinese amban, or resident, at Lhassa, arrives 
with a large following at Calcutta, 11 March. A 
treaty signed at Calcutta, 17 March, 1890 ; Sik- 
kim is to be treated as a British feudatory state. 



SILCHESTEE. 



1134 



SILTJEES. 



The rajah goes secretly to Tibet ; arrested in 
Nepaul, April ; lives in retirement . . . 1S92 

Mr. Douglas Freshfield and prof. Garwood explore 
the glaciers of mount Kangchenjunga (28,156 feet 
high; Sept. -Oct. 1899 

SILCHESTEE, Hants. Here are the remains 
of the Roman town Calleva (built on the site of the 
British Caer Segeint or Segont) ; including walls of 
.excellent masonry, a basilica and forum, private 
dwellings. &c. Many discoveries during excavations 
made by the rev. Mr. Joyce, under the patronage 
■of the duke of Wellington, from 1864 till his deaih 
in 1878. Coins of Claudius I. and later emperors 
have been found. 

A systematic investigation of these remains was 
begun, 23 June, 1890, under the superintendance 
of Mr. G. E. Fox and other fellows of the Society 
of Antiquaries, London. 
Mr. Laurence Gomme, Mr. Hilton Price, gen. Pitt- 
Rivers, and Mr. St. John Hope co-operate in the 

work Sept. 1890 

Many vases, tools and implements discovered ; 
these remains constitute a veritable British and 

Roman Pompeii ,, 

Exhibition of relics, models, &c. . . . Jan. 1891 
'The work was recommenced . . . April, 1892 
The remains of a presumed Romano-British church, 

probable date 4th century, discovered in . June, ,, 
Annual exhibition of relics at Burlington house, 

March, 1893, et seq. ; the work still proceeding in 1092 
Remains of Roman public baths and an altar 
discovered in 1903 

SILESIA, formerly a province of Poland, was 
invaded by John of Bohemia, 1325, and ceded to 
him, 1355. It was taken by the king of Hungary, 
1478, and added to the Austrian dominion, 1526. It 
was conquered and lost several times during the 
Seven years' war by Frederick of Prussia, but was 
retained by him at the peace in 1763. The emperor 
William was most enthusiastically received during 
his visit, Sept. 1875. Population, 1900, 680,529. 
Strike of about 3,000 miners in the Strau district ; 

order kept by the military . . 24 Sept. 1890 
Another strike with rioting and bloodshed . May, 1894 
By explosions of fire damp in the coal mines of 

Karwin, about 232 persons perished . 14 June, ., 
Another at Zaborze, 14 deaths, 15 Feb. 1895 ; 

another at Troppau, 49 deaths . 16 March, 1895 
Fire in the Antonien colliery, 20 deaths . 10 June, ,, 
Explosion in the Wrangel colliery, Waldenburg, 

50 deaths 31 Dec. >, 

Explosion in the Hedwig-Wunsch colliery, Arnold 

Borsig, the owner, and 5 others killed, 1 April, 1897 
Fire in a colliery at Zabrze, about 32 deaths, 16 Jan. 1898 

SILICON or SlLICITJM (from silex, flint), a 
non-metallic element, next to oxygen the most 
abundant substance in the earth, as it enters into 
the constitution of many earths, metallic oxides, 
and a great number of minerals. The mode of pro- 
curing pure silicon was discovered by BerzeliuE in 
1823. Gmelin. See Water-glass [and Ransome's 
Stone. 

SILISTEIA, a strong military town in Bul- 
garia, European Turkey. It was taken by the 
Russians, 30 June, 1829, and held some years by 
them as a pledge for the payment of a large sum by 
the Porte ; but was eventually returned. In 1854 
it was again besieged by the Russians, 30,000 strong, 
under prince Paskiewiteh, and many assaults wire 
made. The Russian general was compelled to re- 
tire in consequence of a dangerous confusion. On 
2 June, Mussa Pacha, the brave and skilful com- 
mander of the garrison, was killed. On 9 June, 
the Russians stormed two forts, which were retaken. 
A grand assault took place on 13 June, under prime 
Gortschakoff and general Schilders, which was 
vigorously repelled. On the 15th, the garrison as- 



sumed the offensive, crossed the river, defeated the 
Russians, and destroyed the siege works. The siege 
was thus raised, and the Russians commenced their 
retreat as Omar Pacha was drawing near. The gar- 
rison was ably assisted by two British officers, 
capt. Butler and lieut. Nasmy th, the former of whom, 
after being wounded, died of exhaustion. They 
were highly praised by Omar Pacha and lord Har- 
dinge, and lieutenant Nasmyth was made a major. 
Population, 1888, 11,414; 1900, 12,133. 

SILK. Wrought silk was brought from Persia 
to Greece, 325 B.C. Known at Rome in Tiberius's 
time, when a law passed in the senate prohibiting 
the use of plate of massive gold, and also forbidding- 
men to debase themselves by wearing silk, tit only 
for women. Silk was at first of the same value 
wiih gold, weight for weight, and was thought to 
grow in the same manner as cotton on trees. Silk- 
worms were brought from India to Europe in the 
6th century. Charlemagne sent Oft'a, king of 
Mercia, a present of two silken vests, 780. The 
manufacture was encouraged by Roger, king of 
Sicily, at Palermo, 1146, when the [Sicilians not 
only bred the silk- worms, but spun and wove the 
silk. The manufacture spread into Italy and Spain, 
and also into the south of France, a little before 
the reign of Francis I. about 1510; and Henry IV. 
propagated mulberry -trees and silk-worms through- 
out the kingdom, about 1600. In England, silk 
mantles were worn by some noblemen's ladies at a 
ball at Kenil worth castle, 1286. Silk was worn by 
the English clergy in 1534. Manufactured in Eng- 
land in 1604; and broad silk wove from raw silk 
in 1620. Brought to perfection by the French 
refugees in London at Spitalfields, 1688. A silk- 
throwing mill was made in England, and fixed up 
at Derby, by sir Thomas Lombe, merchant of 
London, modelled from the original mill then in 
the king of Sardinia's dominions, about 17 14- He 
obtained a patent in 1718, and died 3 Jan. 1739. 
Six new species of silk-worm were rearing in France , 
1861.* 
The. Silk association of Great Britain and Ireland begun, 

1886-7 ; fu^ exhibition St. James's-square, London, 

S. W. (opened by the duchess of Teck), 6-21 May, 1S90 ; 

others since. See Italy, May, 1899. 

Silkworm Disease. In 1853 the annual produce of 
sericulture in South France was estimated at about 
4,68o,ooo£. Soon after a disease broke out in the 
worms, which reduced the value of the silk crop to 
about one-third that amount. In 1S58 a commission 
was appointed to inquire into the nature of the disease, 
then termed pibrine; and M. Quatrefages, in 1869, 
proved that it is hereditary, contagious, and infectious. 
M. Filippi discovered in the blood of the diseased 
worms a multitude of cylindrical corpuscles, since 
named panhistophyton, which Pasteur, who took up 
the study in 1865, lias demonstrated to be parasitical, 
and the cause of the disease. He has since devised a 
way by which, it is hoped, the organic germs may be 
got rid of, and the disease extirpated. 

The manufacture of a fabric from wood pulp, invented 
by count Hilaire de Chardonnet about 1S93, and car- 
ried on at Besangpn, reported very successful ; dress 
and other fabrics of this material sold in London, 
summer of 1896. 

SILOTVOE, a new explosive invented by M. 
Rouckteshell, who asked 50,000/. for the patent, 
1887. 

SILUEES, a British tribe, occupying the 
counties of .Monmouth and Hereford, was subdued 



* In 185S, M. Guerin Meneville introduced into France 
a Chinese worm termed the Cynthia Bombyx, which feeds 
en (he Ailanthiis glandidosa, a hardy tree of the oak kind. 
The cynthia yields a silk-like substance termed Ailantine. 
it was brought to Turin by Fantoni in 1856. 



SILVEE. 



1135 



SINALUNGA. 



by the Roman general Ostorius Scapula, 50 ; see 
Shropshire. From this tribe is derived the geolo- 
gical term " Silurian strata," among the lowest of 
the palasozoic or primary series, from their occur- 
rence in the above-mentioned counties. Murchison's 
" Siluria " was published 1849. 

SILVEE. exists in most parts of the world, and 
is found mixed with other ores in various mines in 
Great Britain. The silver mines of South America 
are far the richest. A mine was discovered in the 
district of La Paz in 1660, which was so rich that 
the silver of it was often cut out with a chisel. In 
1749, one mass of silver weighing 370 lbs. was sent 
to Spain. From a mine in Norway, a piece of silver 
was dug, and sent to the Royal Museum at Copen- 
hagen, weighing 560 lbs., and worth 1680/. In 
England silver plate and vessels were first used by 
Wilfrid, a Northumbrian bishop, a lofty and am- 
bitious man, 709. Tyrrell. Silver knives, spoons, 
and cups were great luxuries in 1300 ; see Mirrors. 
The act of 1816 restricted the use of silver as legal 
tender to 40*. In 1855, 561,906 oz., in 1857, 
532,866 oz., in 1865, 724,856 oz., in 1870, 784,562 
oz. ; in 1876, 483,422 oz. ; in 1882, 372,54.4 oz. ; 
in 1887, 320,345 oz. ; in 1888, 321,425 oz. ; in 
1889, 306J149 oz. ; in 1890, 291,724 oz. ; 1893, 
274,100 oz.; 1896, 283,826 oz. ; 1899, 191,927 oz. ; 
1900, 187,842 oz.; 1901, 173,724 oz. were obtained 
from mines in Britain. Estimated annual produc- 
tion of silver throughout the world. 1477 tons; 
value, 37,360,000/. (1892). Pattinson's process for 
obtaining silver from lead ore was introduced in 
1829. See Bimetallism, Bullion, Coins, Goldsmiths, 
Mirro?-s, Plate, India, 1876, United States, 1878, 
S890-5; Trials, Nov. Dec. 1895. 
Fall in price of silver through introduction of gold 

coinage in Germany, and increased produce from 

South American mines .... spring, 1876 
The report of a commission on the subject was 

issued in ...... July, ,, 

Another commission appointed, see under Currency, 

7 Sept. 1886 
Pure silver : United States, N. A., 1,000 ; England, 

925, alloy 75 ; Europe, 903, too alloy ; reported . 1890 
Value of the rupee (2s.)in India, 1892 : Jan., is. 51I. ; 

Dec, is. z%d. 
General fall* in silver caused by the Indian Currency 

act (see India) June, 1893 

For silver coinage, &c, see United States, March, 

1894, and May, 1895 

Average price in London, 1845-9, sgd. and a fraction 

per oz. ; 1850-72, 6ic7. ; 1871, 6o{ s d. ; 1875, 56^. ; 

1880, 52VL ; 1883, $o&d. ; price 49^. 7 May, 1885 ; 

1886, 461V?. ; 1887, 44P.; 1888, 43rV*.' "^89, Jan- 

Mareh, 42^d. ; 7 May, 42!$. ; 22 July, 42,%$. ; 

13 Sept., 42^1. ; 1890: 9 Jan., 443d. ; 3 April, 

43s'?- > 3 July, 47j(7. ; 4 Sept., 54-id. ; 1891 : 1 Jan., 

48 J<?. ; 2 April, 44§t7. ; 11 July, 45§d. ; 3 Sept., 

45tV^-> j %9 2 '■ 7 Jan., 43!^.: 1 April, 39g(7. ; 1 July, 

4o T \d.; 2 Sept., 38^^.; 6'Oct. 38§(7.; 3 Nov. 38^^.; 

3 Dec, 39(i\ ; 1893 : 5 Jan., 38^(7. ; 2 Feb., 38^.; 

9 March, 385^. ; 4 April, 37§(7. ; 3 May, 37fd. ; 

■2 June, 37zd. ; 1 July, 33517. ; 1 Aug. 32fjk7. ; 

t Sept., 34CJ.; 2 Oct. 38 Id. ; 2 Nov., 32*2. ; 2 Dec, 

4i-i6(7.; 1894: 1 Jan., 3ijc7. ; 1 Feb., 30 n-6d. ; 

1 March, 27!^. ; 2 April, 28|(7. ; 1 May, 2g^d. ; 

1 June, zS^fgd. ; 2 July, 28fr7. ; 1 Aug., 28f(7. ; 

1 Sept. 3oJd. ; 1 Oct., 2gf s d. ; 1 Nov., zgfgd. ; 

n Dec. 28^. ; 1895 : 1 Jan., 27!^. ; 1 Feb. 2j^d. ; 

1 March, 2-j^d. ; 1 April, 3of<7. ; 2 May, 30^1. ; 

1 June, 30I1S. ; 1 July, 30JA ; 1 Aug. 3oJc7. ; 2 
Sept. 3o T ' s d. ; 1 Oct. 30yJ<7. ; 1 Nov. 30yj(7. ; 2 
Dec. 3o|(i. ; 1896 : 1 Jan. 305(7. ; 1 Feb. 3ojt7. ; 

2 March, 3i^,c7. ; 1 April, 3i s c7. ; 2 May, 311VZ. ; 
1 June, 3iy\d. ; 1 July, 3ijc7. ; 1 Aug. 3i§c7. ; 1 
.Sept. soij-(i. ; 1 Oct. 30^. ; 2 Nov. 30& ; 1 Dec. 
■2g\d. 1897 : 1 Jan. 2§\%d. ; 1 Feb. 2g\^d. ; 1 Mar. 
29I& ; 1 April, i%\d. ; 1 May, 28^. ; x June. 
27|d. ; 1 July, 2jrfgd. ; 3 Aug. 26 3 <7. ; 1 Sept. 
23fd. ; 1 Oct. 26(1 ; 1 Nov. 27^. ; 1 Dec. 27§c7. 
1898 : 3 Jan, 26-^d. ; 1 Feb. 2S r y?. ; 1 March, 



2 5tV2- ; 1 April, 25ijd. ; 3 May, 25|d. ; 1 June, 
26\^d.; 1 July, 27^.; 2 Aug. 27 g c7. ; 1 Sept. 2-j\±d.; 
3 Oct. z8j%d.; 1 Nov. 28xV^-; 2 Dec 27^.; 1899: 
2 Jan. 2-> T \d. ; 1 Feb. 27J1L ; 1 March, 27^-d ; 4 
April, 27W. ; 2 May, 28 \d. ; 1 June, 2M. ; 1 July, 
27Jt7.; 1 Aug. 27fd.; 1 Sept. z-j^d.; 2 Oct. 2d\%d. ; 
1 Nov. 2b\d.\ 1 Dec. 27^.; 1900: 2 Jan. 27^.; 
1 Feb. 2-j\d. ; 1 March, 2-]f t Ji. ; 2 April, 27^. ; 
1 May, 2-j\d. ; 1 June, 2-jffd. ; 2 July, 281(7.; 1 Aug. | 
28^. ; 1 Sept. 28 T 7 ij d. ; 1 Oct. 2g\d. ; 1 Nov. 29|rf. ; 
1 Dec 29ft'. ; 1901 : 2 Jan. 2g^d. ; 4 Feb. 28 T 3 „d.; 
1 March, 28 T 3 ff & ; 1 April, 2jf\.d. ; 1 May, 2j T \d. ; 
1 June, 275(7.; 1 July, 27^7.; iAug. 26{*d.; 2 Sept. 
27c?. ; 1 Oct. 26Jrf. ; 1 Nov. 265(7. ; 2 Dec 25 T \c7. ; 
1902 : 1 Jan. 25§d. ; 1 Feb. 2$^d. ; 1 March, 25! d. ; 
1 April, 24fr7. ; 1 May, 23 T '^(7. ; 2 June, 23^|c7. ; 
1 July, 24ft,(7.; 1 Aug. 24 T 7 r d.; 1 Sept. 24^7.; 1 Oct. 
23IA ; 1 Nov. 23|d. ; 1 Dec 22-|c7. ; 1903 : 1 Jan. 
22j(7. ; 2 Feb. 22 r V(7. ; 2 March, 22JC?.. ; 1 April, 
22 [f (7. ; 1 May, 24j<7. ; 2 June, 24 T 9 ,;f7. ; 1 July, 
24\d. ; 1 Aug. 2$id. ; 1 Sept. 26^(7. ; i Oct. 
27 r %c7. ; 2 Nov. 27§(7. ; i Dec 26 r 7 5 c7. 

SILVEE BOOK (Codex Argenteus), see under 
Bible. 

SIMANCAS (Castile, Spain). Near it Rami- 
rez II. of Leon, and Fernando of Castile, gained a 
great victory over Abderahman, the Moorish king of 
Cordova, 6 Aug. 939. 

SIMLA CASE, see India, 1866. 

SIMJSTEL CONSPIEACY, see Rebellions, 
i486. 

SIMONASAKI or SHIMONOSEKI, see Japan, 
1864; Gorea, April, 1895. 

SIMONIANS, a sect named after the founder, 
Simon Magus, the first heretic, about 41. A sect of 
social reformers called St. Simonians, after their 
founder, Claude H. comte de St. Simon (born 1760), 
sprang up in France in 1819, and attracted consider- 
able attention; the doctrines were advocated in 
England, particularly by Dr. Prati, who lectured 
upon them in London, 24 Jan. 1834. St. Simon 
died in 1825, and his follower, Pere Enfantin, died 
I Sept. 1864. 

SIMONY (trading in church offices) derives its 
name from Simon desiring to purchase the gift of 
the Holy Spirit {Acts viii. 18, 19). It is forbidden 
in England by the canon law, and by statute 
31 Eliz. c. 6, "for the avoiding of simony and cor- 
ruption in presentations, collations, and donations 
of and to benefices," &c, 1588-9; and by statute of 

12 Aune 2, stat. 12 (1713). The rev. James John 
Merest was convicted of simony, 26-29 Nov. 1869, 
and deprived. 

The bishop of Peterborough (Dr. Magee), moved for 
a committee on the laws relating to simony ; ap- 
pointed 21 April, 1874 

SIMPLON, a mountain road, leading from 
Switzerland into Italy, constructed by Napoleon in 
1801-7. It winds up passes, crosses cataracts, and 
passes by galleries through solid rock, and has eight 
principal bridges. The number of workmen em- 
ployed at one time varied from 30,000 to 40,000. 
The new Simplon tunnel boring operations began 

13 Nov. 1898 ; Herr Brandt, the chief engineer, 
died, Nov. 1899. The tunnel to be completed, 
I July, 1905. 

SINAI, MOUNT. Here the ten command- 
ments were promulgated, 1491 B.C. Exod, xx. 
After much investigation and discussion by many 
persons, Dr. Beke stated that he had discovered the 
true Sinai, Feb. 1874. 

SINALUNGA or AsinALTTNGA (near Siena, 
Italy). Here Garibaldi, when about to enter the 
papal territory, was seized and conveyed to Ales- 
sandria, 23 Sept. 1867; see Italy. 



SINDE. 



1136 



SKUPTSCHINA. 



SINDE (N.W. India), was traversed by the 
Greeks under Alexander, about 326 B.C. ; conquered 
by the Persian Mahometans in the 8th century a.d. ; 
tributary to the Ghaznevide dynasty in the nth 
century; conquered by Nadir Shah, 1739; reverted 
to the empire of Delhi after his death, 1747 ; after 
various changes of rulers, Sinde was conquered by 
the English under Sir Charles Napier, see India and 
Meeanee, and annexed, March, 1843. Population, 
1901, 3,212,808. 

SINGAPORE, see Straits Settlements. 

SINGING, see Music and Hymns. 

SINKAT, see under Soudan, 1884. 

SINKING FUND. First projected by sir 
Kobert Walpole to redeem the debt to the bank of 
England ; act passed in 1716. The act establishing 
the sinking fund of Mr. Pitt, devised by Dr. Price, 
was passed in March, 1 786. A then estimated sur- 
plus of 900,000^. in the revenue was augmented by 
new taxes to make up the sum of 1,000,000/. which 
was to be invariably applied to the reduction of the 
national debt. The fallacy of the scheme was 
shown by Dr. Hamilton in 1813. In July, 1828, 
the sinking fund was limited to one-fourth of the 
actual surplus of revenue. 

A new sinking fund was established by act passed 
2 Aug. 1875. The annual charge of the national debt 
of the year ending 31 March, 1877, to be 27,700,000^. ; 
subsequent years to be 28,000,000^. This act was tem- 
porarily suspended in 1897 ; again during the 8. 
African war in 1900 and 1901 ; restored 1902. 

SINOPE, an important Greek colony on the 
Euxine, after resisting several attacks was con- 
quered by Mithridates IV., king of Pontus, and 
made his capital. It was the birth-place of 
Diogenes, the cynic philosopher. On 30 Nov. 1853, 
a Turkish fleet of seven frigates, three corvettes, 
and two smaller vessels, was attacked by a Russian 
fleet of six sail of the line, two sailing vessels, and 
three steamers, under admiral Nachimoff, and 
totally destroyed, except one vessel, which con- 
veyed the tidings to Constantinople. Four thou- 
sand lives were lost by fire or drowning, and Osman 
Pacha, the Turkish admiral, died at Sebastopol of 
his wounds. In consequence of this act (considered 
treacherous) the Anglo-French fleet entered the 
Black Sea, 3 Jan. 1854. 

SION COLLEGE and .Hospital, situated 

on the site of a nunnery, which, having fallen to 
decay, was purchased by William Elsynge, a citizen 
and mercer, and converted into a college and hos- 
pital, called from his name Elsynge Spital. In 
1340 he changed it to an Austin priory, which was 
afterwards granted by Henry VIII. to sir John 
Williams, master of the jewel-office, who, with sir 
Roland Hayward, inhabited it till its destruction 
by fire. In 1623, Dr. Thomas White having be- 
queathed 3000/. towards purchasing and building a 
college and alms-house on the ancient site, his 
executors erected the present college. It is held by 
two charters of incorporation, 6 Chas. I. 1630 and 10 
Chas. II. 1664. It contains a valuable library (easily 
accessible to the public), and an almshouse for ten 
men and ten women. New buildings erected on 
the Thames Embankment ; memorial stone laid 21 
April, 1885 ; opened by the prince of Wales, 15 
Dec, 1886. 

SIRENE, an instrument for determining the 
velocity of aerial vibrations corresponding to the 
different pitches of musical sounds, was invented 
by baron Cagniard de la Tour of Paris in 1819. 



The principle was shown in an apparatus exhibited I 
by Robert Hooke before the Royal Society, 27 July, I 
1681. 

SISTERHOODS in the English church were j 
begun by Lydia Priscilla Sellon about 1846, in \ 
Devonshire ; she died, Nov. 1876. 

SISTERS OF CHARITY, an order for the I 

service of the sick poor, was founded by Vincent de I 

Paul, in 1634. Their establishment in London : 
began in 1834. 

SIX ACTS, a term given to certain acts, also I 
named " Gagging Acts," 60 Geo. III. & 1 Geo. IV. I 
cc. 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, passed in 1819-1820 to suppress j 
seditious meetings and publications. 

SIX ARTICLES, see Articles. 

SIX CLERKS, officers of the court of chan- 
cery, who were anciently clerici or clergy. They 
were to conform to the laws of celibacy, and forfeit 
their places if they married; but when the consti- 
tution of the court began to alter, a law was made 
to permit them to marry; statute 24 & 25 Hen. 
VIII. 1533. The six clerks continued for many 
years officers of the chancery court, and held their 
offices in Chancery-lane, London, where proceed- 
ings by bill and answer were transacted and filed, 
and certain patents issued. Law Diet. The six 
clerks were discontinued by 5 &6 Vict. c. 103, 1841. 

SIXTEEN (seize), a large French political 
club, in the reigns of Henry III. and IV., sixteen 
members of which took charge of the sixteen 
quarters of Paris. They at first supported the 
catholic league, and attempted to overthrow Henry 
ILL, in 1587, but vacillating in their policy, and 
committing many crimes, their power was annihi- 
lated by Mayenne in 1591, and several of them 
were executed. 

SIXTY CLUB (constitutional), instituted by 
A. E. Southall, limited to 60 members ; president, 
the earl of Hardwicke; inaugural dinner, 13 Jan. 
1898. 

SKALITZ (Bohemia), was stormed by the 
Prussian general Steinmetz, 28 June, 1866; whereby 
the junction of the divisions of the Prussians was 
greatly facilitated. 

SKATING (with blunt skates) is said to have 
been practised in prehistoric times by northern 
nations. See Rinks. 
Mentioned by the Danish historian Saxo Gramma- 

ticus about 1134 

William Fitz Stephens speaks of it in London, about 1180 
Figures of skates in Olaus Magnus's history, printed 1555 

Edinburgh skating club, 1642 

Bladc-skatcs, probably introduced from Holland, 

about 1660, were 'seen hi St. James's-park by 

Evelyn and Pepys 1 Dec. 1662 

Robert Jones's "Art of Skating," published . . 1772 
London Skating club, 1830 ; Oxford club . . 1S38 
Severe frost, much skating .... Jan. 1880 
International skating contest at Vienna . Jan. 1882 
National Skating Association of Great Britain, 

established in 1890 

SKIERNIEYICE, Poland; see Russia, 15, 16 

Sept. 1884. 

SKINS- The raw skins of cattle were usually 
suspended 011 stakes and made use of instead of 
kettles to boil meat, in the north of England and 
in Scotland, 1 Edw. III. 1327. Lcland. 

SKUPTSCHINA, the Servian legislative 
assembly. 



SKYE, ISLE OF. 



1137 



SLAVEEY. 



SKYE, ISLE OF, N.W. Scotland. See Crofters. 
SKY SIGNS, see Advertisements. 

SLADE PEOFESSOESHIP of Fine 
Akt, Cambridge, established in pursuance of the 
will of Felix Slade, 24 June, 1869, sir Matthew 
Digbv Wyatt, the first professor, l8b9-73 ; Sidney 
Cohan, 1873-1885; Mr. J. H. Middleton, 1886; 
Dr. Waldstein, 1895 ; sir "Wm. Martin Conway, 
1901. 

SLANDEE of Women, act passed 5 Aug. 1891. 

SLANG, see Dictionaries. 

SLATE- Fifteen persons were killed by the fall 
of a mass of rock and rubble at the Delaboll slate 
quarries, Cornwall, 21 April, 1869. 
Great strike at lord Penrhyn's slate quarries 
Bethesda, Wales, in Sept.-Oct. ; end Nov. 1874 ; 
the management of the quarries entrusted to a 
committee of the men Nov. 1874 till 1885, when 
the committee was abolished; prosperous manage- 
ment of lord Penrliyn ..... 1885-1895 
The men publish their grievances, through a com- 
mittee, Aug. ; lord Penrhyn issues a stringent 
reply, 25 Sept. ; the committee of 71 men dis- 
missed, strike declared, 28 Sept. ; fruitless inter- 
vention of the board of trade . . . Dec. 1896 
The quarries closed ; pensions granted to loyal 

men (over 65 years) 31 Dec. ,, 

Lord Penrhyn invites the men to return on his 

terms 18 Jan. 1897 

Meeting without result . . . 18 March, ,, 
Dispute settled, 21 Aug. ; work resumed . Sept. ,, 
Fresh dispute, some rioting ; troops called in, 
partial lock-out, about 24 Oct. 1900 ; military 
withdrawn, 23 Nov. ; quarries closed, 9 Dec. ; 
work resumed, 11 Jan. 1901 ; fresh riots, 31 Dec, 
and 1 Jan. 1902 ; mass meeting, arbitration pro- 
posed, 30 Aug., rejected by lord Penrhyn ; over 
2,000 men at work, 4 Sept. ; conflicts between 
workers and strikers, 13 Sept. ; dispute con- 
tinued, Jan. 1Q03 ; work renewed by some, mid 
April ; meeting favouring the men held in Lon- 
don, 28 April ; strike subsequently ends . . 1903 

SLAUGHTEE HOUSES ACT for the 

metropolis, passed 7 Aug. 1874. 

SLAVEEY. The traffic in men came from 
Chaldsea into Egypt, Arabia, and all over the East. 
In Greece, in the time of Homer, all prisoners of 
war were treated as slaves. The Lacedaemonian 
youths, trained up in the practice of deceiving and 
butchering slaves, were from time to time let loose 
upon them to show their proficiency ; and once, for 
amusement only, murdered, it is said, 3000 in one 
night, see Helots. Alexander, when he razed Thebes, 
sold the whole people for slaves, 335 B.C. There 
were 400,000 slaves in Attica, 317 k.c. In Koine 
slaves were often chained to the gate of a great 
man's house, to give admittance to the guests in- 
vited to the feast. By one of the laws of the XII. 
Tables, creditors could seize their insolvent debtors, 
and keep them in their houses, till by their services 
or labour they had discharged the sum they 
owed. Caecilius Isidorus left to his heir 41 16 slaves, 
12 B.C. The first Janissaries were Christian slaves, 
1329. 

Slavery abolished in the French colonies by the 
agency of M. Schoelcher . . ... . 1848 

Serfdom was abolished by Frederick I. of Prussia 
in 1702 ; by Christian VII. of Denmark in 1766 ; 
by Joseph II. emperor of Germany, in his heredi- 
tary states in 1781 ; by Nicholas I. of Russia in 
the imperial domains in 1842 ; and by his suc- 
cessor, Alexander II. throughout his empire, 
3 March, 1861. 
Slavery ceased in the Dutch West Indies on 1 July, 1863 
Slavery abolished in Porto Rico . 23 March, 1873 

Immediate suppression of slavery in the colonies 
of St. Thomas, &c. by Portugal, announced, Feb. 1876 



Gradual emancipation in Cuba; bill passed in 
Spanish senate, 24 Dec. 1879 ; by deputies, 21 Jan. 
promulgated, 18 Feb. 1880 ; total abolition by 

decree 6 Oct. 1886 

Slavery to be abolished in Egypt . end of July, i8ii 
Abolition of slavery in Brazil (which see) . . 1867-88 
Slavery gradually diminishing in Zanzibar, Oct. 

1889 ; abolished by decree . . 6 April, 1897 
Anti-slavery Conference, at Brussels: meeting of 
foreign plenipotentiaries and delegates from 17 
states, 18 Nov. 1889. Conferences : 19 Nov.-Dec. 
1889 ; 27 Jan.-28 May, 1890. Regulations for the 
suppression of the slave trade, and rules relating 
to the traffic in spirit agreed to. After much 
negotiation, the general act was ratified by all 
the powers for immediate effect . 2 April, 1892 

The act accepted by the Egyptian government, 

25 June, 1895 

SLAVEEY IN ENGLAND. Laws respecting 
the sale of slaves were made by Alfred. The English 
peasantry were commonly sold for slaves in Saxon 
and Norman times ; children were sold in Bristol 
market like cattle for exportation. Many were sent 
to Ireland and to Scotland. Under the Normans 
the vassals (termed villeins, of and pertaining to 
the vill) were devisable as chattels during the 
feudal times. 

Severe statutes were passed in the reign of Richard 
II., 1377 and 1385; the rebellion of Wat Tyler, 
1 381, arose partly out of the evils of serfdom. 
A statute was enacted by Edward VI. that a runa- 
way, or any one who lived idly for three days, 
should be brought before two justices of the 
peace, and marked V with a hot iron on the 
breast, and adjudged the slave of him who bought 
him for two years. He was to take the slave and 
give him bread, water, or small drink, and refuse 
meat, and cause him to work by beating, chain- 
ing, or otherwise: and, if within that space, he 
absented himself fourteen days, was to be marked 
on the forehead or cheek, by a hot iron, with an 
S, and be his master's slave for ever ; second de- 
sertion was made felony. It was lawful to put 
a ring of iron round his neck, arm, or leg. A 
child might be put apprentice, and, on running 
away, become a slave to his master . . . . 1547 
Queen Elizabeth ordered her bondsmen in the 

western counties to be made free at easy rates . 1574 
Serfdom was finally extinguished in 1660, when 
tenures in capite, knights' service, &c, were 
abolished. 
A slave named Somerset, brought to England, 
was, because of his ill state, turned adrift by 
his master. By the charity of Mr. Granville 
Sharp he was restored to health, when his mas- 
ter again claimed him. A suit was the con- 
sequence, which established, by decision of the 
Court of King's Bench, in favour of Somerset, 
that slavery could not exist in Great Britain 

22 June, 1772 
Act for the abolition of slavery throughout the 
British colonies, and for the promotion of in- 
dustry among the manumitted slaves, and for 
compensation to the persons hitherto entitled to 
the services of such slaves by the grant from 
parliament of 2o,ooo,oooZ. sterlii t;, passed 

28 Aug. 1833 
Slavery terminated in the British possessions ; 

770,280 slaves became free . . .1 Aug. 1834 

Slavery was abolished in the East Indies 1 Aug. 1838 
British and Foreign anti-slavery society established, 183 j 
In 1853 John Anderson, a runaway slave, killed 
Septimus Digges, a planter of Missouri, who at- 
tempted to arrest him, and escaped to Canada. 
The American government claimed him as a mur- 
derer. The Canadian judges deciding that the 
law required his surrender, Mr. Edwin James, 
Q.C. (15 Jan.), obtained a writ of habeas corpus 
for his appearance before the court of queen's 
bench. Anderson was discharged on technical 

grounds 16 Feb. 1801 

Circular lrom the Admiralty concerning the sur- 
rendering fugitive slaves on board British ships 
to their owners, dated 31 July ; much censured 
by the public, Sept., Oct. ; withdrawn Nov. 1875 

4 D 



SLAVERY. 



1138 



SLAVE TEADE. 



A revised circular issued near end of Dec, 1875 ; 
met with much adverse criticism . . Jan. 1876 

Government commission appointed (the duke of 
Somerset, chief justice Cockburn, sir Henry 8. 
Maine, and others), Feb. ; report unfavourable to 
the circulars ; published . . -13 June, ,, 

New admiralty instructions : fugitive slaves to be 
received and not given up ; action left to captain's 
discretion ; breach of international faith and 
comity to be avoided ; issued . . 10 Aug. ,, 

Jubilee meeting to celebrate the abolition of slavery 
in the British colonies at Guildhall, London, the 
prince of Wales in the chair . . 1 Aug. 1884 

International congress on the "White Slave " trade 
opened at Frankfort .... 7 Oct. 1902 

SLAVEEY in United States. Before the 

war of independence all the states contained slaves. 
In 1783 the statement in the Massachusetts Bill of 
Rights, "All men are born free and equal," was 
declared in the supreme court at Boston to bar 
slave-holding in that state. Slaves in the United 
States in 1 790, 697,897; in 1810, 1,191,364; in 
1820, 2,009,031; in 1850, 3,204,313; in i860, 
4,002,996. In 1870, 4,889, 193, free coloured persons. 

Congress passes unanimously the celebrated ordin- 
ance "for the government of the territory to the 
N. W. of the Ohio, " which contained an ' ' unaltera- 
ble" article, forbidding slavery or involuntary servi- 
tude in the said state, 13 July, 1787; after 1800, 
several of the states prayed, without effect, to 
be relieved from this prohibition. 

Louisiana purchased, which was considered by 
many as fatal to the constitution .... 1803 

The enormous increase in the growth of cotton in 
the southern states (see Cotton) led to a corre- 
sponding increase in the demand for slave labour. 
The Missouri Compromise (drawn up by Henry 
Clay, by which slavery was permitted in that 
state, but was prohibited in all that part of it to 
the north of 36° 30' N. lat.), carried . Feb. 1820 

Contest between the slave-holders and their oppo- 
nents at the annexation of Texas ; a similar 
division to that of Missouri obtained 25 Dec. 1845 

Another compromise effected ; California admitted 
as a free state : but the Fugitive Slave act passed 
(which see) . ...... 1S50 

The Missouri compromise was abrogated by the 
admission of Nebraska and Kansas as slave- 
holding states; civil war ensued (see Kansas) . 1854 

Dred Scot's case (see United States) .... 1857 

John Brown's attempt to create a slave rebellion in 
Virginia failed (see United States) . , Nov. 1859 

Abraham Lincoln, the anti - slavery candidate, 
elected president of the United States 4 Nov. i860 

Secession of South Carolina (see United States), Dec. „ 

Slavery abolished in the district of Colombia 

16 April, 1862 

President Lincoln proclaims the abolition of 
slavery in the southern states, if they have not 
returned to the union on 1 Jan. 1863 22 Sept. ,, 

The total abolition of slavery in the United States 
officially announced .... 18 Dec. ,, 

Mr. William Lloyd Garrison, a fervent champion for 
emancipation, entertained at St. James's -hall, 
London (he started the Liberator in 1831, and 
had suffered much for his zeal) . . 29 June, 1S67 

A negro judge present in a court at New Orleans, 

18 Sept. ,, 

Negro equality with the whites completely recog- 
nised Feb. 1870 

Slavery revived in the south, peonage trials, July, 1903 

SLAVE TEADE. The slave trade from Con- 
gou and Angola was begun by the Portuguese in 
1481. The commerce in man 1ms brutalisea a tract 
fifteen degrees on each side of the equator, and forty 
degrees wide, or of 4,000,000 of square miles; anil 
men and women have been bred for sale to the 
Christian nations during the last 250 years, and 
war carried on to make prisoners for the Christian 
market. The Abbe Etaynal computed (1777) that, at 
the time of his writing, 9,000,000 of slaves had been I 



consumed bj r the Europeans. The slave-trade is 
now approaching extinction. 

In 1768 the slaves taken from Africa amounted to 
104,100. In 1786 the annual number was about 100,000. 

In 1807 it was shown by documents, produced by govern- 
ment, that since 1792 upwards of 3,500,000 Africans 
had been torn from their country, and had either per- 
ished on the passage or been sold in the West Indies. 

Slave Trade of England : begun by sir John Hawkins 
His first expedition, with the object of procuring 
negroes on the coast of Africa, and conveying them 
for sale at the West Indies, took place in Oct. 1562 ; 
see Guinea and Assiento. 

England employed 130 ships and earned off 42,000 slaves, 
1786. 

Thos. Clarkson, at a spot in Wadesmill, Hertford, de- 
votes his life to the abolition of the slave-trade, June, 
1785- 

The " Society for the Suppression of the Slave Trade," 
founded by Clarkson, Wilberforce, and Dillwyn, 1787. 

Slave-trade question debated in parliament, 1787. 

The debate for its abolition ; two days, April, 1791. 

Mr. Wilberforce's motion lost by a majority of 88 to 83, 
3 April, 1798. 

The question introduced under the auspices of Lord 
Grenville and Mr. Fox, then ministers, 31 March, 1806. 

The trade abolished by parliament, 25 March, 1807. 

Thomas Clarkson, died, aged 85, Sept. 1846. 

An obelisk as a memorial of Thos. Clarkson, erected by 
Mr. Arthur Giles Puller, at Wadesmill, inaugurated 9 
Oct. 1879. 

A statue unveiled at Wisbeach, Cambridge, 11 Nov. 1881. 

Foreign countries : the trade was abolished by Austria 
in 1782 ; by the French convention in 1794 ; by the 
United States in 1808. 

The allies at Vienna declared against it, Feb. 1815. 

Napoleon, in the hundred days, abolished the trade, 29 
March, 1815. 

Treaty for its repression with Spain, 1817 ; with the 
Netherlands, May, 1818 ; with Brazil, Nov. 1826 ; pro- 
hibition, 1831 ; not effected till 1852. 

Its revival was proposed in the congress of the United 
States of America, 14 Dec. 1856, and negatived by 183 
votes to 58. 

In June, 1857, the French government gave permission to 
M. Regis to convey free negroes from Africa to Guada- 
loupe and Martinido, French colonies. 

This having led to abuses and consequent troubles (see 
Charles et Georges), was eventually given up in Jan. 
1859. 

It is said that about 40,000 slaves were landed at Cuba in 
i860. 

A treaty between Great Britain and the United States for . 
the abolition of the slave trade, was signed 7 April ; 
ratified 20 May, 1862. 

The Spanish government denounce the slave trade as 
piracy, Nov. 1865. 

Sir Samuel Baker headed an expedition to put down 
slave-trading on the Nile (see Egypt), Jan. 1870 ; reported 
to be partially successful, 30 June, 1873. He pub- 
lished " Ismailia," a history of the expedition, 1874. 
He estimates that at least 50,000 are captured and 
sold as slaves, Nov. 1874. 

A species of slave trade arose in the South Seas conse- 
quent upon natives being enticed on board certain 
British vessels and shipped to Queensland, Australia, 
and the Fiji isles ; the subject was brought before par- 
liament (see Melanesia), 1871-2. 

The. ship Carl (owner, Dr. James P. Murray ; master, 
Joseph Armstrong') left Melbourne for South Sea isles ; 
it anchored oil' Malokolo, Solomon's and Bougainville 
islrs and kidnapped many natives as labourers for the 
Fiji isles : while about 20 miles from land, the prisoners 
rose and attempted to set tire to the ship; were fir-ed 
on ; about 50 killed and 20 wounded were cast into the 
sea. At, Melbourne Murray gave evidence, and Arm- 
strong was committed for trial, 16 Aug. ; the master 
and mate sentenced to death. Nov. 1S72. 

Sir Bartle Prere went t<> Zanzibar on a mission to suppress 
tin 1 Easl African slave trad.- : see Zanzibar, 1872-3. 

An act of parliament for consolidating with amendments 
the 1 its for irrying int. ctftrt treaties fcr the mere 
effectual suppression of the slave trade (36 & 37 Vict. 
c. 88), was passed 5 Aug. 1873. 



SLAVONIA. 



1139 



SMALLPOX. 



Several African kings and chiefs, at Cape Coast Castle, 
agreed to give up slave trade, at an interview with 
governor Strahan, 3 Nov. 1874. 

The slave trade on the Gold Coast abolished, by procla- 
mation of governor Strahan, 17 Dec. 1874. 

Convention with Egypt forbidding the traffic, 4 Aug. 
1877 : col. Gordon's efforts in the Soudan reported suc- 
cessful, 1879. 

Slave trade prohibited at West African conference, 7 Jan. 
1885. 

Slave trade in East Africa checked by British cruisers, 
1886. 

United action of England and Germany and other 
powers to check the maritime slave-trade and importa- 
tion of arms on the east coast of Africa, which is to 
be blockaded for that purpose from Suakin to 
Zanzibar, Oct. -Nov. ; proclamation of the commence- 
ment of the blockade, 2 Dec. 18S8. See Zanzibar. 

Mr. Sydney Buxton's resolution for urgent suppression 
of the slave trade passed in the house of commons, 
26 March, 1889. 

Slave trade reported nearly extinct in Egypt, and few 
slaves there, May, 1889. 

Law for the repression of the slave trade published in 
Turkey, 30 Dec. 1889. 

Dealing in slaves prohibited in Zanzibar, 1 Aug. 1890. 

For conflicts, see Congo. 

SLAVONIA or SCLAVONIA, a province of 
Austria, derives its name from the Slavs, a Samia- 
tian people who replaced the Avars in Pannonia 
early in the 9th century. In 864 Cyril and Metho- 
dius, Greek missionaries, preached here, and adapted 
the Greek alphabet to the Slavonian language ; the 
letters of which have since been a little altered. 
The country, after having been held at times by tbe 
Greeks, Turks, and Hungarians, and the cause of 
sanguinary conflicts, \va> ceded finally to Hungary 
in 1699, a * tbe peace of Carlowitz. Deputies from 
the Slavonian provinces of Austria were entertained 
at Moscow and St. Petersburg, May, 1867. The 
Croatian-Slavonian diet, at Agram, was dissolved, 
May, 1867. It protested against incorporation with 
Hungary. The Slavonian family of languages in- 
cludes Russian, Polish, Servian, Bohemian, Bul- 
garian, Wendie, Slovak, and Polabic. For the war, 
see Turkey, 1875-6. 

Estimated number of Slavs in Europe in 1875 : 90,365,633 ; 
Bussians and Buthenians, 66,129,590; Serbo-Croats, 
5,940,539; Bulgarians, 5,123,952; Slovenes, 1,260,000; 
Slovaks,2, 223,830 ; Czechs, 4,815, 154 ; Boles, 9,492,162. 
Lord Ilchester's bequest to promote the study of Slavo- 
nian literature at Oxford ; lectures given, May, 1876. 
Agitation against the Germans in Slavonic provinces of 

Austria, Aug. -Sept. 1883. 
Folitical agrarian excitement and arrests among the 
peasantry, April, 1897. 

SLEEP, see Seven Sleepers. M. Chauffat, 
awoke after a nineteen days' sleep at the Alexandra 
Palace, 28 Nov. 1888 ; many similar cases are 
reported. Johann Latus, at Myslowitz, in Silesia, 
is said to have slept four and a-half months, being 
kept alive by imbibing milk, reported 31 Jan. ; he 
awoke about 9 Feb., 1892. The case was ascribed 
to catalepsy. 

SLESWIG, see Holstein. 

SLLDING-SCALE, see Corn Laws. 

SLING. In Judges xx. 16, is mentioned the 
skill of the Benjamite slingers (about 1406 B.C.), 
and with a sling David slew Goliath 1063 B.C. (1 
Sam. xvii.). The natives of the Balearic isles 
(Majorca, Minorca, and Ivi<ja) were celebrated, 
slingers, and served as mercenaries in the Cartha- 
ginian and Roman armies. Slings are said to have 
been used by the Huguenots at the siege of San- 
cerre, in 1672, to economise their powder. 

SLOANE'S MUSEUM, see British Museum. 



SLOYD or SLOJD ASSOCIATION of 
Great Britain and Ireland, its object to 

promote the training of the eye and hand; first 
meeting held in London, the earl of Meath in the 
chair, 5 Dec. 1888. The "Sloyd" or " Slojd " 
system is reported successful in Scandinavia; 
August Abrahamson, founder of the Sloyd semi- 
nary at Naas, 1872, died, 6 May, 1898. Meeting 
in London; successful report, 10 Feb. 1894. 

SLOUGH, near Eton, Bucks, Mrs. Ann Reville, 
a butcher's wife, was barbarously murdered early 
in evening, n April, 1881. Alfred Payne, a lad, 
was tried and acquitted, same month. 

SLUTS (Holland), near which Edward III. 
gained a signal naval victory over the French. The 
English had the wind of the enemy, and the sun at 
their backs, and began this sanguinary action. Two 
hundred and thirty French ships were taken ; thou- 
sands of Frenchmen were killed, with two of their 
admirals ; the loss of the English was inconsider- 
able : 24 June, 1340. 

SMALCALD (Hesse), TREATY OF, entered 
into between the elector of Brandenburg and _ the 
other princes of Germany in favour of Protestantism, 
31 Dec. 1530; see Protestants. The emperor, ap- 
prehensive that the kings of France and England 
would join this league, signed the treaty of Passau, 
31 July, IS32, allowing liberty of conscience. 

SMALL HOLDINGS, See Agricultural. 

SMALLPOX, variola (diminutive of varus, a 
pimple), a highly contagious disease, supposed to 
have been introduced into Europe from the East by 
the Saracens. Rhazes, an Arabian, described _ it 
accurately, about 900. From Europe it was carried 
to America, soon after its discovery, and raged there 
with great severity, destroying the Indians by thou- 
sands. In 1694, queen Mary of England died of 
smallpox, as did in 1711 and 1 7 12 the emperor of 
Germany, the dauphin and dauphiness of France and 
their son, in 1730 the emperor of Russia, in 1 741 
the queen of Sweden, and in 1774 Louis XV. of 
France. It is stated that in the middle of the last 
century two millions perished by it in Russia. In 
London in 1723 one out of fourteen deaths was 
caused by smallpox, and in France in 1754 the rate 
was one in ten. For the attempts to alleviate this 
scourge, see Inoculation, introduced into England 
in 1722, and Vaccination, announced by Dr. Jenner 
in 1798. Smallpox Hospital, established 1746. 
Smallpox raged in parts of London, and 
thousands died, 1870-1 ; a temporary hospital was 
established at Hampstead {which see). Many 
parents have been fined for opposing the vaccina- 
tion of their children, 1 870-6. In Sept. and Oct. 
1862, a great many sheep died of smallpox in the 
West of England, till successful preventive measures 
were resorted to. Many cases and deaths, adults 
and children, in London, 1876-8 ; and in 1901-2. 
The Vaccination act of 1898, which remains in 
force until I Jan. 1904, modified in many im- 
portant particulars the law previously existing. 
It provides for domiciliary vaccination, the use of 
glycerinated calf lymph (supplied by the Local 
Government board), and exempts the conscientious 
objector from penalties, see Vaccination. 

Smallpox prevalent in London, 88 deaths 1—7 May; 103 
deaths 15—21 May; diminishing July, 1881. 

Deaths, June, 1880— June, 1881, 1532 deaths, 637 not 
vaccinated ; in N.E. London, May, deaths, about 36 a 
week, June, 1884; deaths decreasing reported, 24 
July ; reappears, but subsides, Dec. 1884. 

4 D 2 



SMALL TENEMENTS ACTS. 



1140 



SMOKE NUISANCE. 



Severe epidemic of smallpox at Sheffield and neighbour- 
hood, March, 1887 ; still prevalent, Jan. 1888 ; dis- 
appearing, April, 1888. 

Severe at Manchester and Leicester, about 16 Jan. 1893 ; 
at Gloucester, 1896. 

Epidemics in London, August et seq. ; 1,743 cases, 257 
deaths in 1901 ; severe in winter; 1,604 cases in 
hospitals, 11 March, total cases 9,659, deaths 1,663, 
1901-2. Outbreak at Cambridge, July, Aug. 1903 ; 
Newcastle-on-Tyne, Aug. ; isolation hosfjitals cost 
over 500,000?. ; subsides, June et seq. 1902 ; prevalent 
in United States, Feb. 1902. 

See Vaccination. 

SMALL TENEMENTS ACTS (59 Geo. III. 
c. 12, 1819) ; 1850 (13 & 14 Vict. c. 99), provided 
for owners paying rates of houses instead of the oc- 
cupiers. This was annulled hy the new Reform 
act, 30 & 31 Vict. c. 102, s. 7 (1867). Small Dwell- 
ings Acquisition act passed, 1899. 

SMECTYMNUUS, the initials of certain non- 
conformist writers against episcopacy in the seven- 
teenth century: Stephen Marshall, Edmund Cala- 
my, Thomas Young, Matthew Newcomen, William 
Spurstow. They were answered by bishop Hall in 
his " Divine Right of Episcopacy," 1640. 

SMITH'S CHARITY (for poor kin). 
Alderman Henry Smith, by will dated 26 April, 
1647, left 1000/. for relief of captives held by 
Turkish pirates, and ioocx'. for his poor kinsmen. 
The former object having become obsolete, an act was 
passed in 1772 to divert all the property to the poor 
kinsmen. In 1868 these were 412 in number. The 
value of the property was 17,000?. a year in 1889. 
The master of the rolls decided in Dec. 1877, 
that the funds should be applied to general chari- 
table purposes. On appeal, the decision was in favour 
of the " poor Smiths," 12 Feb. 1878. 

SMITHFIELD, WEST, in the heart of 
London, was once a favourite walk of the London 
citizens, outside the city walls. Sir W. "Wallace 
was executed here, 23 Aug. 1305. On 115 June, 
1381, Wat Tyler was met by Richard II. 'at this 
place, and was stabbed by Walworth the mayor. : 
Many tournaments were also held here. In the 
reign of Mary (1553-8), many persons perished by 
fire ; and Bartholomew Leggatt, an Arian, was 
burnt here, 18 March, 1612. — Bartholomew fair was 
held here till 1853. — This place is mentioned as the 
site of a cattle market as far back as 1150. The 
space devoted to this purpose was enlarged from 
about three acres to four and a half, and in 1834 to 
six and a quarter. The ancient regulations were 
called the " statutes of Smithfield." In one day 
there were sometimes assembled 4000 beasts and 
30,000 sheep. The annual amount of the sales was 
about 7,000,000^. 

Sold here 226,132 beasts, 1,593,270 sheep and lambs, 
26,356 calves, 33,531 pigs. (About 160 sales- 
men) j8 4 6 

The contracted space of the market, the slaughter- 
ing places adjoining, and many other nuisances, 
gave ground to much dissatisfaction, and after 
■investigation, an act was passed appointing 
metropolitan market commissioners with powers 
to provide a new market, slaughtering places, <fec. ; 
ana to close the market at Smithfield . 1 Aug. iSsi 
Smithfield was used as a cattle market for the last 
time on 11 June : and the new market in Copen- 
hagen-fields was opened on 13 June (see Metro- 
politan Market) 1S55 

A dead-meat and poultry market ordered to be 
erected in Smithfield, and Newgate market to 

cease 1S61 

A tender for its erection, from designs by Horace 
Jones, accepted from Messrs. Browne and Robin- 
son for 134,460? Nov. 1S66 

The market inaugurated by the lord mayor Law- 
rence, 24 Nov. ; opened to the public . 1 Dec 1868 



New poultry market, inaugurated by lord mayor 
Cotton 30 Nov. 1875, 

New central fruit and vegetable market determined 
on 14 July, 1879. 

A new poultry and provision market was opened in 
Farringdon road by lord mayor Isaacs, n Dec. 
1889 ; the new fruit and vegetable market opened 
by lord mayor Evans . . . 13 June, 1892: 

The Smithfield Club, to promote improvements in the 
breed of cattle, was established 17 Dec. 1798 ; first pre- 
sident, Francis, duke of Bedford ; first secretary, 
Arthur Young. The members established an annual 
cattle show, held first in Dolphin-yard, Smithfield. Dec-. 
1799 ; next in Barbican, 1805 ; in Goswell-street, 1806 ; 
removed to Baker-street, 1839 ; and to the new Agri- 
cultural hall, Liverpool road, Islington, 1862. 

The show, suspended in Dec. 1866, on account of the- 
cattle plague, was partially resumed Dec. 1867 ; wholly, 
Dec. 1868. 

Three of the highest prizes were awarded to queen 
Victoria; 110,000 visitors, 10-14 Dec. 1883. Large show- 
opened, 339 cattle, 221 sheep, no pigs through swine 
fever, 10 Dee. 1894; the show is held annually in. 
December. 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, "for the 
increase and diffusion of knowledge among men," 
a handsome building at Washington, U.S., was- 
founded in 1846, by means of a legacy of above 
100,000/. bequeathed for the purpose to "the United 
States government by James Smithson, illegitimate 
son of sir Hugh Smithson, who became duke ol 
Northumberland in 1766. It includes the U.S. 
national museum, the zoological park, and the 
astrophysical observatory, and publishes and freely 
distributes scientific memoirs and reports. The 
library was burnt on 25 Jan. 186^. Professor- 
Joseph Henry, the first secretary, died, 13 May,. 
1878 ; succeeded by Mr. Spencer F. Baird, died, 19 
Aug. 1887 ; succeeded by Professor S. P. Langley". 
The Hodgkins medal (Mrst gold medal given by tie 
institution for scientific work) awarded to prof. 
James Dewar for his discoveries in the liquefaetioa 
of air, April, 1899. 

SMOKE NUISANCE. An act was passed in 
1853 to abate this nuisance, proceeding from chim- 
ney shafts and steamers above London bridge. In 
1856 another act, obtained for its further application 
to steamers below London bridge, and to potteries 
and glass-houses previously exempted, came into 
operation, 1 Jan. 1858; enactments have been made 
for all the kingdom. 
Meeting at Mansion-house for the abatement of smoke m 

London, 7 Jan. 1SS1. 
An exhibition of appliances for this purpose in tin- J 

Royal Albert Hall, opened 30 Nov. 1881 ; closed 14 

Feb. 1882 ; opened at Manchester, 17 March, 1882. 
National Smoke Abatement Institution founded, and Mr. 

R. E. \V. Coles appointed smoke inspector, autumn, 

1882. 
Smoke abatement fund opened, 1883. 
The Thompson smoke consuming furnace tried success- I 

fully on the Thames, 15 July, 1886. 
Messrs. Ashworth and Kneen patent a furnace which 

saves about 35 per cent, of coal and consumes smoke, ! 

autumn, 1887. 
A bill to abate the nuisance was rejected by the lords, 

2 March, 1891. 

The London county council authorised to deal with the 
smoke nuisance by the Public Health Act of 1891. 

A smokeless fuel, invented by Herr Koopmann, was ex- 1 
hibited before the prince of Wales and others at 
Messrs. Brewis' premises, King's cross, London, N., , 
7 April, 1891. The fuel consists of coal-dust incor- ' 
potated with pitch and other mineral substances in j 
small proportions. 

Smoke abatement, committee appointed — the duke of 
Westminster, six Frederick Abel, lord Rayleigh, and >■ 
other scientists — at Manchester, S Nov. 1889. 

( Hher committees formed at Glasgow and other places ; 
many reports with recommendations issued {Times) \ 

3 Aug. 1896. 

I 



SMOLENSKO. 



1141 



SOCIALISM. 



Coal smoke abatement society formed through the 
exertions of sir W. B. Richmond, ; committee : the 
abp. of Canterbury, duke of Westminster and others, 
formed, 1898 ; some prosecutions, Nov. 1899 et seq. 

SMOLENSKO ( Russia) . The French in most 
sanguinary engagements here were three tunes re- 
pulsed, but ultimately succeeded in entering Smo- 
lensko, and found the city, which had been bom- 
barded, burning and partly in ruins, 16, 17 Aug. 
18 1 2. Barclay de Toily, the Russian commander- 
in-chief, incurred the displeasure of the emperor 
Alexander because he retreated after the battle, and 
Kutusoff succeeded to the command. 

SMUGGLING- The customs duties, institu- 
ted to enable the king to afford protection to trade 
against pirates, afterwards became a branch of 
public revenue, and gave rise to much smuggling. 
The Smugglers' act was passed in 1736, and its 
severity was mitigated in 1781 and 1784. A re- 
vision of these statutes took place 1826 and 1835. 
Lieut, the hon. H. N. Shore's " Smuggling Days 
.and Smuggling Ways," published 1892. 

SMYENA, see Seven Churches. 

SNEEZING. The custom of saying "God 
bless you " to the sneezer originated, according to 
•Strada, among the ancients, who, through an 
opinion of the danger attending it, after sneezing 
made a short prayer to the gods, as "Jupiter, help 
me." The custom is mentioned by Homer, the 
Jewish rabbis, and others, and is found among 
savages. Polydore Vergil says it took its rise at 
the time of the plague, 558, when the infected fell 
down dead sneezing, though seemingly in good 
health. 

SNIDEE GUN, see under Firearms. 

■SNOWDON, see Railways, 1896; Wales, 1902. 

SNUFF-TAKING took its rise in England 
from the captures made of vast quantities of snuff 
by sir George Rooke's expedition to Vigo in 1 702, 
and the practice soon became general. In 1839 
there were imported 1,622,493 lbs. of snuff, of which 
196,305 lbs. were entered for home consumption; 
the duty was 88,263/. ; see Tobacco. In 1853, 
2,573,925 lbs. of snuff and cigars, in 1861, 2,110,430 
lbs. ; in 1871, 3,852,236 lbs. ; 1877, 3,762,831 lbs.; 
1883, 3,121,174 lbs.; 1887, 3,595,071 lbs.; 1902, 
I37 lbs. (snuff only) were imported. 

SOANE MUSEUM, &c. No. 13, Lincoln' s-inn- 
fields, was gradually formed by sir J ohn Soane, the 
architect, who died m 1837, after making arrange- 
ments for its being open to the public by an act 
passed in 1833. It contains Egyptian and other 
antiquities, valuable paintings, rare books, &c. 
1 50/. are distributed annually to distressed archi- 
tects or their widows and children. 
One of two sealed closets in the museum was opened 

29 Nov. 1886 ; chiefly . private legal documents 

■discovered. 

SOAP is a salt, a compound of a fatty acid with 
an alkali, soda or potash. The Hebrew borith, 
translated soap, is merely a general term for 
cleansing substances. Job ix. 30 ; Jer. ii. 22. 
Pliny declares soap to be an invention of the Gauls, 
though he prefers the German to the Gallic soap. 
Nausicaa and her attendants, Homer tells us, 
washed clothes by treading upon them with their 
feet in pits of water. Odyssey, book vi. The 
Romans used fuller's earth. Savon, the French 
word for soap, is ascribed to its having been manu- 
factured at Savona, near Genoa. The manufacture 



of soap began in London in 1524, before which 
time it was supplied by Bristol at one penny per 
pound. The duty upon soap, imposed in 171 1, 
after several reductions from 3^. per pound, was 
totally repealed in 1853. It then produced, accord- 
ing to the chancellor of the exchequer, Mr. Glad- 
stone, about 1,126,000/. annually. Exported from 
the United Kingdom : 1876, 254,853 cwts. ; 1880, 
391,808 cwts.; 1885, 402,112 cwts.; 1890,496,930 
cwts. ; 1896, 719,700 cwts. ; 1900, 874,214 cwts. 

SOBEAON (N.W. India). The British army, 
35,000 strong, under sir Hugh (afterwards viscount) 
Gough, attacked the Sikh force on the Sutlej, 10 
Feb. 1846. The enemy was dislodged after a 
dreadful contest, and all their batteries taken ; and 
in attempting the passage of the river by a floating 
bridge in their rear, the weight of the masses that 
crowded upon it caused it to break down, and 
thousands of Sikhs were killed, wounded, or 
drowned. The British loss was 2338 men. 

SOCIALISM, which proposes the re-organisa- 
tion of society for the benefit of the community, 
and advocates the doctrine of the equal right of all 
to the material conditions of existence, was warmly 
advocated in London, 24 Jan. 1834, by Robert Owen. 
He had, beginning at New Lanark, in Scotland, 
about 1801, established a settlement at New Har- 
mony in America in 1824. He died 17 Nov. 1858, 
aged 90. The French socialists, termed Communists, 
became a powerful political body in that country, 
wei-e implicated in the revolution of 1848, and 
made an "insurrection at Paris, 187 1. See France, 
Germany, 1878 et seq., Positive Philosophy, and 
Working-men. See Individualism. Socialism in 
England is represented by the Social Democratic 
federation, the Fabian society, and the Indepen- 
dent Labour party, and in a modified form, by the 
Christian Social union ; in Germany by the Social 
Democrats; in France by the Workmen's party 
and the Republican socialists. Socialism is also 
active in Austria, Italy, rielgium, Denmark. The 
subject of municipal 'socialism is at the present 
time (1903) receiving considerable attention. 

The rev. Charles Kingsley, Mr. Thomas Hughes, 
and others, endeavoured to set up Christian 
Socialism, about 1855-60 

At a meeting of "Christian Socialists," including 
prince Johann Schwarzenburg, and prince Liech- 
tenstein, and other eminent persons, at Vienna, 
it was resolved to erect a monument to baron 
Vogelsang, their founder . . 13 March, 1893 

Count Tolstoi's " The Kingdom of God is within 
you," translated by Mrs. Garnett, published 
* ' Feb. 1894 

[He renounces for himself all nationality, govern- 
ment, and law, &c, and proposes the adoption of 
Christ's sermon on the mount.— Matt, v., vi. vii. ; 
he was excommunicated by the Greek church, 
March, 1901.] 

P. J. Proudhon, an eminent socialist, to whom is 
ascribed the saying "Lapropriete e'est le vol " ; died 

20 Jan. 1865 

Communist manifesto issued by Carl Marx, 1848 ; 
(he died 14 March, 1883). 

Social democratic party organised by Ferdinand 
Lassalle lS6 3 

International workmen's association formed . . 1864 

" Gotha programme" (exalting labour) . . . 1875 

A grand congress of socialists met at Ghent, Sept. 1877 

Socialism said to be increasing in Germany . . ,, 

Stringent, bill to repress it passed in the parliament ; 
socialists expelled from Germany by decree, Nov. 
many papers suppressed, Nov. , Dec, 1878. Ex- 
pulsions renewed .... autumn, 1880 
See Germany, 1890. 

Illegal meeting of socialists permitted in Dod- 
street, Limehouse, London . . 27 Sept. 1885 



SOCIAL SCIENCE. 



1142 



SOCIETIES. 



Social democratic federation holds meetings which 
tend to riots, see Riots . . 8 and 21 Feb. 1886 

Meetings held in Trafalgar-sq., 29 Aug. and 21 Nov. ,, 

About the end of 1886 they began "church parades" 
disturbing the service at several churches ; 
ineffectually at St. Paul's cathedral . 27 Feb. 1887 

The general council of the social democratic 
federation issues a manifesto exhorting to con- 
stant organized agitation for adequate relief 
works &c, to be provided by the government 
and local authorities ; see Hyde Park and Riots, 

13 Nov. ,, 

Mr. William Morris, poet, author of the " Earthly 
Paradise," Mr. H. M. Hyndman, Mr. H. H. 
Champion, and Mr. John Burns became leaders 
of the " socialist league " formed in 1886. 

A kind of state socialism instituted in Germany ; 
see under Working Men, 1889. 

The attempts of the federation to hold open-air 
meetings at Chelsea on Sunday evenings, pre- 
vented by the police, Oct., Dec. 1891, and Jan. 1892 

Socialist congress at Marseilles . . 25 Sept. „ 

Great social democratic congress at Berlin, met, 
14 Nov. et seq., 1892 ; at Cologne, end of Oct. 
1893 ; at Vienna March, 1894 

The Socialist union formed against the govern- 
ment at Paris by the combination of socialisls 
and anarchists at a meeting opened by " gen." 
Cluseret (a communist) ... 14 Jan. 1893 

International socialist congress at Ghent, 2 April ; 
at Zurich 6 Aug. ,, 

Socialist congresses held at Frankfort, 22 Oct. 1894 ; 
at Breslau, Oct. 1895 ; Gotha, 11 Oct. 1896 ; Stutt- 
gart, 3 Oct. 1898 ; Hanover, 8 Oct. 1899 ; Ltibeck, 
23 Sept. 1901 ; Munich, 15 Sept. 1902 ; Dresden, 

13 Sept. 1903 

Dissensions in Germany and France, between the 
moderates and ultras Nov. 1894 

Social democratic federation conference held at 
Birmingham (see Germany, 1S95-6) . 4 Aug. 1895 

Death of Frederick Engels, socialist leader Aug. ,, 

International congress at Lille broken up by riot- 
ing ; several arrests . . . .' 23 July, 1896 

International congress in London (see Hyde Fark), 

26 July et seq. „ 

National socialist congress, 1st meeting at Erfurt, 

23 Nov. ,, 

Socialist and labour conferences held at Leeds, 31 
March, 1899 ; at Glasgow . . -13 April, 1900 

Wilhelm Liebknecht, eminent socialist leader, 
editor of the Vorwilrts, born 1826; died . 7 Aug. ,, 

Intemat. socialist congress, Mr. H. M. Hyndman 
and sig. Costa, presidents, Paris . . Sept. ,, 

Nat. socialist and labour conference at Leicester, 

5 April, 1901 

Internal, meeting in Brussels, the treatment of the 
Poles in Prussia (which see) condemned, 30 Dec. ,, 

" Municipal socialism," 17 articles in the Times, 

mid Aug.-io Nov. 1902 

.SOCIAL SCIENCE. The National Asso- 
ciation for the Promotion of Social Science origin- 
ated in a meeting at lord Brougham's in May, 1857. 
Its object was to promote improvements in the 
administration of law, in education, in public 
health, and in social economy. It held annual 
meetings, and published its proceedings. 

Mr. Win. Ellis and Mr. John Stuart Mill began to 

promote the study about 1823 

Birmingham, meeting opened . . . 12 Oct. 1857 

Liverpool u Oct. 1858 

Bradford 10 Oct. i8 5 q 

Glasgow 24 Sept. t 86o 

Dublin 14 Aug. 1S61 

London 6 June, 1862 

Edinburgh 7 Oct. 1863 

York 22 Sept. 1864 

Sheffield 4 Oct. 1865 

Manchester 2 Oct .. 6fi 

Belfast 18 Sept 1867 

Birmingham 30 Sept 1868 

Bristol 29 Sept r86g 

Newcastle-on-Tyne 21 Sept, r 8 70 

Leeds 4 Oct 1871 

Plymouth ,, Sept 187a 

1 Oct, 1873 



Norwich 



1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 



Glasgow 30 Sept. 

Brighton 6 Oct. 

Liverpool n Oct. 

Aberdeen 19 Sept. 

Cheltenham . 23 Oct. 

Manchester 1 Oct. 

Edinburgh 5 Oct. 

Dublin 3 Oct. 1881 

Nottingham 20 Sept. 1882 

Huddersfield 3 Oct. 1883 

Birmingham (the last congress) . . . 17 Sept. 1884 

SOCIAL WAES, see Athens, and Marsi. 

SOCIETIES and Institutions, Lite- 
racy AND SCIENTIFIC, in Great Britain. 
Further details of many of these will be found 
under their respective heads. All in the list below 
are in London, except otherwise stated. An act 
was passed, 11 Aug. 1854, " to a ^ oru facilities for 
the establishment of institutions for the promotion 
of literature and science," by grants of land, &c. ; 
and for their regulation. The Hoyal and London 
Institutions were exempted from the operation of 
the act. See Scientific Papers. 

The "Year-Book of Scientific and Learned Societies" 

first appeared in 1884 

Royal Society Charter 1662 

Christian Knowledge Society 1698 

Spalding Gentlemen's Society 1712 

Society of Antiquaries . . . (Charter 1751) 1717 

Society of Dilettanti 1734 

Society of Arts (Charter 1847) J753 

Medical Society of London 1773. 

Bath and West of England Society .... 1777 

Gaelic Society of London „ 

Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society . 1781 
Royal Society of Edinburgh . (Charter'1783) 1782 

Highland Society 1785 

Royal Irish Academy .... Charter 1786 

Linnsean Society .... (Charter 1S02) 17S8 
Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Society . . 1793 
Royal Institution (Act of parliament, 1810) Charter 1800 

Glasgow Philosophical Society 1802 

Royal Horticultural Society . . (Charter 1809) 1804 
Royal Medical and Chirurgieal Society 

(Charter 1834) 1805 

London Institution „ 

Geological Society .... (Charter 1826) 1807 

Russell Institution 

Swedenborg Society 

Liverpool Literary and Philosophical Society 

Roxburghe Club 

Institution of Civil Engineers . (Charter 182 
Leeds Literary and Philosophical Society 

Egyptian Society 

Cambridge Philosophical Society . (Charter 1832 

Hunterian Society 

Royal Astronomical Society . . (Charter 1831 

Medico-Botanical Society 

Royal Scottish Society of Arts . 

Hull Literary and Philosophical Society 

Yorkshire Philosophical Society 

Sheffield Literary and Philosophical Society 



1810 
1812 



1819. 



1820. 
1821 



Royal Society of Literatur 

Roval Asiatic Society . 
Bannatyne Club. Edinburgh 
Mechanics' Institution, London 
Western Literary Institution 
Eastern Literary Institution 
Zoological Society . 
Incorporated Law Society 
Society for Diffusion of Useful Enowled 

Aslimolean Society, Oxford . 

Hoyal Geographical Society 



(Charter 1826) 1823 
(Charter 1S24) ,, 



. . 1825 

(Charter 1829) 1826 
(Charter 1831) 1827 



1828 
1830 



Institution (Charter i860) 1831 



183a 



Royal United 

Royal Dublin Society . 

Barveian Society 

British Association 
Marylebone Literary Institution 
British .Medical Association 

Entomological Society 
Statistical Society 

Westminster Literary Institution 
Surtees Society. Durham 

Hoyal Institute of British Architects (Charter 1S37) 



1834 



SOCIETIES. 



1143 



SOCIOLOGY. 



Leicester Literary and Philosophical Society . . 1835 

Numismatic Society 1836 

Ornithological Society 1837 

Electrical Society 1837-8 

English Historical Society .... 1838-56 
Royal Agricultural Society (Charter 1840) . . . 1838 

Camden Society „ 

Microscopical Society (Royal, 1866) . ... 1839 

Ecclesiologieal Society ,, 

Spalding Club, Aberdeen „ 

Royal Botanical Society of London . . . . ,, 

Parker Society 1840-55 

Percy Society 1840-52 

Irish Archaeological Society, Dublin . . . . 1840 

London Library ,, 

Shakespeare Society ,, 

Chemical Society 1841 

Pharmaceutical Society ,, 

Wodrow Society, Edinburgh .... 1841-7 

Philological Society 1842 

iElfrie Society 1843-56 

Chetham Society, Manchester 1843 

Spottiswoode Society, Edinburgh ....,, 
British Archaeological Association . . . . ,, 
Royal Archaeological Institute . . . . „ 

Sydenham Society ,, 

Ethnological Society ,, 

Law Amendment Society , 

Handel Society 1844 

Syro-Egyptian Society ,, 

Ray Society ,, 

Caxton Society 1844-54 

Celtic Society, Dublin 1845-53 

Pathological'Society 1846 

Sussex Archaeological Society, Lewes . . . ,, 
Cambrian Archaeological Association . . . . ,, 

Cavendish Society ,, 

Hakluyt Society , 

Palaeontographical Society 1847 

Institute of Mechanical Engineers (Birmingham) . ,, 
Institute of Actuaries .... . 1848 

Arundel Society ,, 

Philanthropic Society 1849 

British (now Royal) Meteorological Society 

(Charter 1866) 1850 

Epidemiological Society „ 

North of England Institute of Mining Engineers, 

Newcastle 1851 

Photographic Society (Royal, 1894) . . . . 1852 

Philobiblon Society 1853 

Juridical Society 1855 

Odontological Society 1856 

Genealogical Society 1857 

National Association for Social Science . . . ,, 

Horologieal Institute 1858 

Society for the Encouragement of Fine Arts . . ,, 
Institution of Naval Architects .... i860 

Clinical Society 1861 

Anthropological Society 1863 

Early English Text Society ; began to publish . 1864 

Victoria Institute 24 May, 1865 

London Mathematical Society ,, 

Aeronautical Society .... 12 Jan. 1866 

Dialectical Society 1866-88 

Chaucer Society ...'....,, 

Holbein Society 1868 

Royal Historical Society ,, 

Colonial Institute (Royal Charter, 1882) . . . ,, 

Iron and Steel Institute . 1869 

Harleian Society .... . . . ,, 

Amateur Mechanical Society ,, 

Christian Evidence Society 1871 

Biblical Archaeology Society ,, 

Anthropological Institute (which see) . . . . ,, 
Institution of Electrical Engineers (late Society of 

Telegraph Engineers) , 

Marine Engineers' Institution 1872 

Society for Organization of Academical Study . ,, 
London Anthropological Society (extinct) . 1873-5 
Palaeographical Society, 1873 ; dissolved . . . 1895 
English Dialect Society (see Wales, 1890) . . 1873 

(New) Shakspeare Society ,, 

Physical Society 1874 

Musical Association ,, 

Public Analysts ,, 

Psychological Society .... 1S75-79 

Education Society 1875 

Royal Aquarium Society . .' . . . . ,, 



Anti-Vivisection Society 1876 

Mineralogical Society „ 

Sanitary Institute of Great Britain . . . . ,, 
Philosophical Society (Birmingham) . . . . „ 

Purcell Society , 

Library Association 1877 

Index Society ,, 

Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain . . . „ 

Zetetical Society 1878 

Folk-Lore Society ,, 

Astrological Society 1879 

Carlyle Society ,, 

Hellenic Society ,, 

Society for promoting Hellenic Studies . . . „ 

Rabelais Club ,, 

Willoughby Society . . ....,, 

Institute of Bankers . . . . . ,, 

London Topographical Society ,, 

Balloon Society 1880 

Aristotelian Society ,, 

Wordsworth Society ,, 

Topographical Society of London . . . . „ 

Ascham Society ,, 

Chemical Industry Society i88e 

Browning Society ,, 

Dante Society, London ,, 

Society for Psychical Research .... 1882- 

Wycliffe Society ,, 

Seal Society 1883 

Marine Biological Association 1884 

Society of Authors ,, 

Pipe Roll Society ,, 

Middlesex County Record Society . . . . „ 

Society of Medallists 1885. 

Bacon Society ,, 

Selborne Society . . , . . . . „ 

Shelley Society ,, 

Goethe Society 1886 

Selden Society 1887' 

Neurological Society ,, 

Anatomical Society ,, 

Gilbert Club 1889 

Ruskin Society 1890- 

British Astronomical Society ,, 

Japan Society 1892 

British Records Society incorporated . . . . ,, 

Anglo-Russian Society J 893. 

Navy Records Society . ,, 

Anglo-Norman Records Society ,, 

Elizabethan Society 1894. 

Philosophical Society ....... 1896 

Romilly Society 1898 

International Association of Academies . . ' . 1900 
Irish Literary Society (see Irish language) . . . „ 

African Society 1901 

Royal Economic Society, incorporated . 2 Dec. 1902; 

SOCIETY ISLANDS, Pacific Ocean, dis- 
covered by De Quiros in 1606; re-discovered by 
capt. Wallis, 1767, who gave Otaheite or Tahiti 
the name of King George's Island. Capt. Cook, 
who visited them in 1769 and 1777, named them 
Society Islands in honour of the .Royal Society; 
they now belong to France. An insurrection in 
Rai'atea suppressed, 3 Jan. 1897. Destructive hurri- 
cane and huge wave ; about 1000 natives killed 
and islands devastated, 13 Jan. 1903. See Otaheite. 

SOCINIANS, persons who accept the opinions 
of Faustus Socinus (died 1562), and his nephew 
Laelius (died 1604), Sienese noblemen. They held 
— 1. That the Eternal Father was the one only God, 
and that Jesus Christ was no otherwise God than 
by his superiority to all other creatures; 2. That 
Christ was not a mediator ; 3. That hell will endure 
for a time, after which the soul and body will be 
destroyed ; 4. That it is unlawful for princes to 
make war. Hook. The Socinians established a 
church at Rakow, in Poland, and made proselytes 
in Transylvania, 1563. They were expelled from 
Poland in 1658. The Rakovian catechism was 
published in 1574; see Unitarians. 

SOCIOLOGY, a term applied by Comte to 
the study of mankind in their social relations; it 



SOCOTRA. 



1144 



SOLFERINO, 



recommends the prevention of national wars by 
arbitration, and the settlement of the war of classes 
by boards of conciliation. Schools or departments 
for the study of sociology are in operation in 
Edinburgh, Paris, and the United States. 
Herbert Spencer published The Study of Sociology, 

1872 ; Principles of Sociology, 1876-96, see Political 

Economy. 
International Institute of Sociology, first congress 

held at Paris, sir John Lubbock, president, 1 

Oct. 1894 ; Paris, 3 Oct. 1895 ; Paris 21 July, 1897 ; 

and 1903 

" Social England," a Record of the Progress of the 

People, by various writers, edited by H. D. 

Traill, vol. i. et seq 1894-5 

SOCOTRA (Dioscoridis insula), an island in 
the Indian ocean, belonging to the imam of Muscat, 
120 miles E. of cape Guardafui, Eastern Africa. 
In the summer of 1878, it was said to have been 
given up to the British ; formally annexed, Nov. 
1886. The island explored by Mr. Theodore Bent 
and Mr. E. N. Bennett, British resident, reforms 
needed, slavery existing, Times, 13 March, 189". 
Results of a scientific expedition under Mr. "W. R. 
Ogilvie-Grant and others, 7 Dec. 1898 — 22 Eeb. 

1899, reported in Nature, 1 June, 1899. 

SODIUM, a remarkable metal, first obtained 
in 1807 by sir Humphry Davy, from soda (which 
was formerly confounded with potash, but proved 
to be a distinct substance by Duhamel in 1736). 
This metal, like potassium, was obtained by the 
agency of the electric battery. In consequence of 
Deville's improved processes, sodium manufac- 
tured by Bell Brothers, of Newcastle, at 10s. a pound 
(1868). It is an important agent in the modern 
production of aluminium. Common salt (chloride 
of sodium) is a compound of sodium and chlorine. 
Mr. H. Y. Castner's (of New York) new process for 
the enlarged production of sodium, and through 
sodium of aluminium and magnesium, announced 
in June, 1887. His works were set up at Oldbury, 
near Birmingham ; he died Oct. 1899. See Alkalies 
and Aluminium. 

SODOM and Gomorrah (Palestine), with 

their inhabitants, were destroyed by fire from 
heaven, 1898 b.c, Gen. xix. 

SODOR, said to be derived from Sodor-eys, or 
south isles (the JEbrides or Hebrides) , in distinc- 
tion from Orkneys, the north isles. The southern 
or western isles were made an episcopal diocese by 
Magnus, king of Norway, 1098, and joined to the 
isle of Man about 1 1 13. See Man. 

SOFAS, a "West African tribe, see Sierra Leone 
and Senegal. 

SOFIA, a manufacturing town in Bulgaria; 
founded by Justinian on the ruins of the ancient 
Sardica ; became the capital of the new principality. 
A palace and other buildings were erected, Aug. 
1881. It contains 30 mosques and 10 churches. 
Destructive thunderstorm with loss of life, 31 May, 
1890; sec Bulgaria. Population, 1890, 42,006; 

1900, 67,920. 

SOFFARIDES DYNASTY reigned in Per- 
sia, 872-902. 

SOFTAS, Mahometan students devoted to the 
Koran only. Sec Turkey, May, 1876. 

SOHO BAZAAR and THEATRE, see 

Bazaars and Theatre?. 

SOISSONS (France), capital of the Gallic 
Suessiones, was subdued by Julius Csesar, 57 b.c. 



It was held bj r Syagrius, after his father iEgidius, 
till his defeat by Clovis, a.d. 486. Several councils 
have been held at Soissons (in 744, 1092, 1122). 
Its academy was established in 1674. During the 
Franco-Prussian war, Soissons, after three weeks' 
investment and four days' bombardment, surren- 
dered to the Germans under the grand-duke of 
Mecklenburg, 16 Oct. 1870. 99 officers, 4633 men, 
128 guns, &c, were said to be taken. The Germans 
thus obtained a second line of railway from Chalons 
to Paris. 

SOLAR SYSTEM, nearly as now accepted, 
is said to have been taught by Pythagoras of Samos, 
about 529 b.c. He placed the sun in the centre, 
and all the planets moving in elliptical orbits 
round it — a doctrine superseded by the Ptolemaic 
system {which see). The system of Pythagoras, 
revived by Copernicus (1543), is called the Coper - 
nican system. Its truth was demonstrated by sir 
Isaac Newton in 1687. See Planets. 

SOLDIERS' DAUGHTERS' HOME was 

established at Hampstead, near London, in Aug. 
1857, by the surplus of the money collected by the 
central association in aid of the wives and families 
of soldiers in active service during the Crimean war, 
and opened by the prince consort, 18 June, 1858. 
It has been much indebted to the exertions of major 
Powys. 

Soldiers' and Sailors' Families Association founded 1885 
In Nov. 1890 et seq. it received subscriptions for the 
sufierers by the wreck of H.M.S. Serpent, see Navy 

Nov. 1890 
The princess of Wales, president, appeals for funds, 
31 Dec. 1900; warmly seconded by lord Roberts, 
4 Jan. 1901 ; Mr. W. Astor, 5,000?., sir B. Cassel, 
2,500?., the king of Portugal, 200?., Feb. 1901 ; 
the queen presides at a meeting in the queen's- 
hall ; col. (knt. 1902) Gildea reports 1,310,019?. 
had been received since Oct. 1899 ; the queen 
gave 5,000?. from her war fund, over 1,250,000?. 
received ; 1,204,050?. expended to about 200,000 
families, reported, annual meeting . 26 June, 1903 

SOLEBAY or Soutbtwold BAY (Suffolk), 
where a fierce naval battle was fought between the 
fleets of England and France on one side, and the 
Dutch on the other, the former commanded by the 
duke of York, afterwards James II., 28 May, 1672. 
The English lost four ships, and the Dutch three ; 
but the enemy fled, and were pursued to their 
coasts. The earl of Sandwich was blown up, and 
thousands were killed and wounded. 

SOL-FA SYSTEM, see Music. 

SOLFERINO (in Lombardy), the site of the 
chief struggle on the great battle of 24 June, 1859, 
between the allied French and Sardinian army 
commanded by their respective sovereigns, and the 
Austrians under general Hess ; the emperor being 
present. The Austrians, after their defeat at 
Magenta, gradually retreated across the Alincio, 
and took up a position in the celebrated quadrila- 
teral, and were expected there to await the attack. 
But the advance of Garibaldi on one side, and of 
prince Napoleon and the Tuscans on the other, in- 
duced them to recross the Alincio and take the 
offensive, on 23 June. The conflict began early on 
the 24th, and lasted fifteen hours. At first the 
Austrians had the advantage; but the successful 
attack of the French on Cavriana and Solferino 
changed the fortune of the day, and the Austrians, 
after desperate encounters, were compelled to 
retreat. The French attribute the victory to the 
skill and bravery of their emperor and the generals 
MacMahon and Niel ; the Austrians, to the destruc- 



SOLICITOE. 



1145 



SOMALI-LAND. 



tion of their reserve by the rifled cannon of their 
adversaries. The Sardinians maintained a fearful 
contest of fifteen hours at San Martino, it is said 
against double their number. Loss of the Austrians, 
630 officers, and 19,311 soldiers; of the allies, 8 
generals, 936 officers, and 17,305 soldiers killed 
and wounded. This battle closed the war; pre- 
liminaries of peace being signed at Villa Franca, 
12 July. On 24 June, 1870, on the site of the 
battle, three ossuaries, containing the bones of 
thousands of the slain, were consecrated in the 
presence of representatives of Austria, France, and 
Italy. The Ossuary tower inaugurated, and a 
colossal statue of king Victor-Emmanuel, unveiled 
by king Humbert, 15 Oct. 1893. 

SOLICITOR, see Attorney. By the Supreme 
JudicatureAct, attorneys in future ai-e to be styled 
solicitors; an act for regulating their examination 
was passed, 23 July, 1877 ; amended in 1894 ; another 
b 11 passed, 6 June, 1899. See Trials, Jan. 1901. 

SOLICITOR-GENERAL, the legal officer 
next in rank, and deputy to the attorney-general, 
whom he frequently succeeds. 

1839. Sir Thomas Wilde (afterwards lord Truro), 5 Dec. 

1841. Sir William Follett (second time), 6 Sept. 

1844. Sir Frederick Thesiger (since lord Chelmsford), 17 

April. 
E845. Sir Fitzroy Kelly, 17 July. 
1846. Sir John Jervis, 4 July. 

,, Sir David Dundas, 18 July. 
1848. Sir John Romilly, April 4, aft. lord Romilly. 
1850. Sir Alex. J. E. Cockburn, 11 July. 
£851. Sir W. Page Wood, 28 March, aft. lord Hatherley. 
1852. Sir Fitzroy Kelly, Feb. 

„ Sir Richard Bethell, Dec, aft. lord Westbury. 

1856. Rt. Hon. James Stuart Wortley, Nov. 

1857. Sir Henry Keating, May. 

1858. Sir Hugh M. Cairns, 26 Feb., aft. earl Cairns. 

1859. Sir Henry Keating, 18 June. 
,, Sir William Atherton, Dee. 

1861. Sir Roundell Palmer, 27 June, aft. lord Selborne. 
1863. Sir Robert Porrett Collier, 2 Oct. 
e866. Sir William Bovill, 13 July. 
,, Sir John Burgess Karslake, 29 Nov. 

1867. Sir Charles Jasper Selwyn, July. 

1868. Sir Wm. Baliol Brett, Feb. (made judge, Sept.) 
„ Sir Richard Baggallay, 14 Sept. 

,, Sir John Duke Coleridge, 12 Dec. , aft. Id. Coleridge. 
E871. Sir George Jessel, Nov. 

1873. Sir Henry James, 26 Sept. 

,, Sir Wm. Vernon Hareourt, Nov. 

1874. Sir Richard Baggallay, Feb. 
,, Sir John Holker, 22 April. 

1875. Sir Hardinge Stanley Giffard, 25 Nov., aft. lord 

Halsbury. 
1880. Sir Farrer Herschell, 3 May, aft. lord Herschell. 

1885. John E. Gorst, June. 

1886. Sir Horace Davey, 15 Feb. 
1886. Sir Edward Clarke, 26 July. 
1892. Sir John Rigby, 18 Aug. 

1894. Sir Robert Threshie Reid, 1 May. 

,, Sir Frank Lockwood, 19 Oct. ; died, Dec. 1897. 

1895. Sir Robert Bannatyne Finlay, 23 Aug. 
igco. Sir Edward Carson, 12 Nov. 

SOLICITORS' ACT, passed 24 Dec. 18S8. 

SOLICITORS' REMUNERATION ACT, 

44 & 45 Vict. c. 44; passed in 1881. 

SOLIFIDIANS (from solus, only, and fides, 
faith) a name given to the Antinomians (which 



SOLOMON ISLANDS, discovered by Men- 
dafia in 1568 : the southern isles in the W. Pacific 
belong to Gt. Britain, agreement signed with 
Germany, April, 1886 ; high commissioner, Mr. 
C. M. "Woodford, 1897. The northern isles belong 



to Germany. Choisenl and Isabel, with surrounding 
isles, ceded to Gt. Britain, 8 Nov. 1899. 

Baron Foullon, Austrian scientist, De Beaufort, a 
midshipman, and 2 sailors massacred by the 
natives at Guadalcanal' . . . .10 Aug. 1896 

SOLOMON'S TEMPLE, see Temple. 

SOLWAY MOSS (Cumberland, bordering on 
Scotland). On 13 Nov. 1771, it swelled, owing to 
heavy rains. Upwards of 400 acres rose to such a 
height above the level of the ground, that at last 
it rolled forward like a torrent above a mile, sweep- 
ing along with it houses, trees, &c. It covered 600 
acres at Netherbv, and destroyed about 30 small 
villages. Near Solway Moss the Scots were defeated 
by the English, 25 Nov. 1542. 

SOMAJ, see Deism. 

SOMALI -LAND, termed the "Unknown 
Horn of Africa," a tract of laud opposite Aden, 
which derives from it its chief supply of cattle and 
sheep. The inhabitants, about half a million, are 
Mahometans. Treaties with native chiefs were 
made by the British in 1840 and 1854. TI13 
country was practically annexed by Egypt between 
1873-77, but was given up and eventually occupied 
by the British, who declared a protectorate in 1885 
to the great satisfaction of the people. The British 
resident at Aden has the governing power. British 
expedition authorised to suppress raids of the 
tribes, July, 1895. 

Successful expedition of Dr. Donaldson Smith 
(American), through new country, to lakes Ru- 
dolf and Stefanie, May, 1894 ; arrives at Aden, 

4 Nov. 1895 
Sig. Cecchi, Italian consul-gen., 7 offlcers, 6 Italians, 

and 18 Askaris (with a caravan) massacred by 
Wadans, 15 miles from Mukdishu, ontheBenadir 
coast 26 Nov. 1896 

Gezira, a village, bombarded by an Italian gunboat, 

2 Dec. ,, 

5 prisoners found guilty of the massacre, shot at 
Mukdishu ....... Dec. ,, 

Wadan villages destroyed ... 25 Feb. 1897 

About 50 Somalis killed by an Italian force, 

23 April, ,, 

Results of the Bottego Italian expedition to lakes 
Rudolf and Stefanie, and the Valley of the Nile, 
published . .... 10 Sept. ,, 

The Mullah raids British territory, proclaims him- 
self Mahdi and occupies Burao, Aug. ; his forces 
defeated by the British near Berbera, reported, 

5 Aug. 1859 
Dr. Donaldson Smith leaves Berbera 1 Aug. 1899, 

and explores new regions between the Omo and 
the Nile ; lake Rudolf reached 10 Dec. ; returns 
with valuable collections . . . June, 1900 

Mullah's power increasing; murderous raids fre- 
quent mid June, 

Mr. Jenner, inspector, attacked and murdered by 
Ogadens, and his escort cut up in Jubaland 

16 Nov. ,, 

Punitive expedition against Ogaden Somalis ; col. 
Ternan occupies Att'Madu, 5 Feb. 1901 ; enemy 
routed 16 Feb. 1901 

Sharp fighting, lieut.-col. Maitland and 17 others 
killed at Sannasa, 150 of tiie enemy killed, 16 Feb. ,, 

British post formed at Mfudu . . mid April, ,, 

Successful British and Abyssinian expedition ; the 
Mad Mullah is defeated and put to flight by col. 
Swayne and capt. MacNeill at Moyo, 30 May, and 
at Somali, 3, 4 June, and finally routed at Far- 
diddih, 17 July ; the Mullah again active, fresh 
operations successful, May-July, 1902 ; col. 
Cobbe defeats the enemy in the Nogal valley, 150 
killed, large captures of camels and sheep, July, 
again 8 Aug.-} Sept. 1902; again attacked in 
thick bush at Erego, capts. Phillips, Angus, and 



SOMBBEEO. 



1146 



SONNITES. 



99 men killed, enemy finally repulsed and 62 
killed, 6 Oct. (lieut.-col. Cobbe made V.C. for 
great bravery in this action, 20 Jan. 1903) ; British 
reach Bohotle safely, reported 22 Oct. ; fresh 
expedition decided on ; col. Swayne in ill-health 
leaves, gen. Manning arrives at Burao, 14 Nov. ; 
co-operation of the Italians, the Obbia-Mudug 
route agreed to 16 Dec. 1902 

Parliamentary paper, containing correspondence 
respecting the rising of the Mullah Muhammed 
Abdullah in Somali-land, and consequent military 
operations 1901-2, issued ... 28 Jan. 1903 

Yusuf Ali, sultan of Obbia, captured and removed 
to Aden end Jan. ,, 

Galkayn and Damot occupied, 3, 4 March, enemy 
driven off Lasakante, 15 killed, 16 captured ; 
Galadi occupied 30 March ; successful operations 
in the south, heavy loss of the enemy 2, 5 April, „ 

The Abyssinians inflict a severe defeat on the 
Dervishes at Burhilli, N.B. of Bori, 300 killed 

15 April, ,, 

British reverse : Col. Cobbe's reconnoitring column 
left Galadi 10 April ; a patrol was attacked near 
Gumburru, capt. Chichester killed, enemy re- 
pulsed, 16 April ; capt. Olivey was attacked on 
all sides by overwhelming numbers near Gumburru 
the British force fought with heroic courage 
until the last, only 40(34 of whom were wounded) 
escaped ; the colonel, 8 officers, 48 Sikhs and 
about 171 British were killed ; the Mullah's loss 
about 2,000, 17 April ; col. Cobbe relieved by 
gen. Manning .... 18, 19 April, ,, 

Force under gen. Gough attacked at Daratoleh, 
capts. Bruce and Godfrey and 13 men killed ; 
enemy's loss about 150 . . . 22, 23 April, ,, 

The Abyssinians under gen. Gabriz surprise and 
rout the Mullah's force at Zeyd, 1,000 killed, 

31 May, ,, 

The chief of the Ker Ali tribe deserts the Mullah 
and joins gen. Gabriz at Hahi, reported, 27 June, ,, 

The Ogaden Somalis defeated by the Abyssinians, 
reported 24 June ; Mullah's forces retreat to the 
N.E. end of June, ,, 

Maj.-gen. sir C. Egerton takes command, 15 July, ,, 

Col. Swaine returns to Berbera, reported, 2 Sept. „ 

Illig looted and the Mullah 6 miles from Obbia, 
reported IO Oct. „ 

Illig shelled by Italian cruiser Lombardia, 15 Oct. „ 

Forward movement under gen. Manning in prepara- 
tion, date and direction kept secret, reported, 

6 Nov. ,, 

SOMBBEEO (West Indies). On this desert 
isle, Robert Jeffery, a British man-of-war's man, 
was put ashore by his commander, the hon. captain 
W. Lake, for having tapped a barrel of beer when 
the ship was on short allowance. After sustaining 
life for eight days on a few limpets and rain-water, 
he was saved by an American vessel, 13 Dec. 1807 ; 
and returned to England. Sir Francis Burdett 
advocated his cause in parliament, and he received 
600^. as a compensation from captain Lake, who was 
tried by a court-martial, and dismissed the service, 
IO Feb. 1810. 

SOMEESET-HOU8E (London), formerly a 
palace, founded mi the site of several churches 
and other buildings levelled in 1549, by the pro- 
tector Somerset, whose residence fell to the crown 
after his execution, 22 Jan. 1552. Here resided at 
times queen Elizabeth, Anne of Denmark, and 
Catherine, queen of Charles 11. Old Somerset- 
house, a mixture of Grecian and Gothic, was de- 
molished in 1775, and the present edifice, from a 
design by sir William Chambers, was erected for 
public otlices. The Ltoyal Academy of Arts first 
assembled in the apartments given to the members 
by the king, 17 Jan. 1771. The ttoyal Society 
met here, 1 780-1 857 ; ami apartments here were 
also held by the Society of Antiquaries and the 
Geological Society ; all three now at Burlington 



House. Large suites of government buildings were 
erected in 1774. The Navy-office, Pipe-office, 
Victualling and other offices, were removed herein 
1788, and various government departments since. 
The east wing forming the King's College (see 
King's College) was completed in 1833. By an act 
passed in 1854, the offices of the duchy of Cornwall 
were transferred to Pimlico. 



CHIEF OFFICES AT 

Probate and Divorce Divi- 
sion of high court of jus- 
tice and Registry Offices. 

Appeals Registry Office. 

Register of Births, Deaths, 
and Marriages. 

Exchequer and Audit De- 
partment. 

Property and Income Tax 
Offices. 



SOMERSET HOUSE. 

Stamp Offices, &c. 
Excise and Tax-Offices. 
Legacies and Succession 

Duty Offices. 
Inland Revenue Offices. 
Bank Returns Office. 
Laboratory Department. 
Solicitors' Offices. 
Companies'Register Offices. 

&c, &c. 



SOMEESET THE BLACK, see Slavery in 

England. 

SOMEBS-TOWN, a populous district in St. 
Pancras parish, N. London : named after earl 
Somers, whose family acquired the property about 
1695. The building began about 1786; and many 
French refugees settled in it. Much of the district 
has been occupied by the railway companies. 

SOMMEEVILLE COLLEGE, seeWomen. 

SOMNATH GATES, the gates of an ancient 
Hindoo temple at Guzerat, which was destroyed by 
Mahmoud of Ghuznee in 1025. The priests wished 
to preserve the idol ; but Mahmoud broke it to 
pieces and found it tilled with diamonds, &e. He 
carried the gates to Ghuznee. When that city was 
taken by general Nott, 6 Sept. 1842, lord Ellen- 
borough ordered the gates to be restored after an 
exile of 800 years, and issued a proclamation much 
censured at the time. The gates are made of 
sandal wood, and are described and figured in the 
Archaeologia of the Society of Antiquaries, vol. 

XXX. 

SOMOFOEM, an anaesthetic composed of 
chloriue, bromide, and iodide of ethyl, possesses 
the proeer y of producing complete insensibility in 
30 to 60 seconds. First used 1902. No recorded 
case of accident from its use. 

SOMOEEOSTEO, see Spain, 1874. 

SONATA (Italian, sound-piece), the highest 
form of instrumental music, consisting of three or 
four movements, intending to express diverse kinds 
of human feelings. 

It was developed from the suite, varied dance music 
(Turtini, 1624, and others). The form fixed by Corelli 
(1653-1713), was adopted and modified by Scarlatti, the 
Bachs, Handel, Mozart, Haydn, and culminated in the 
master-pieces of Beethoven (1770-1S27). Fine sonatas 
have been composed by Dussek, M. Clementi, Weber, 
Schubert, Mendelssohn, Schumann, Win. Sterndale 
Bennett, Chopin, Liszt, and Rubinstein. 

SONDEEBUND, see Switzerland, 1846. 

SONNET, a poem in fourteen lines, with 
rhyns«H miiusted bv rules, was invented, it is said, 
by Guido d'Arezzo, about 1024. The most cele- 
brated sonnets are those by Petrarch (about 1327), 
Shakspeare (1(309), Milton (about 1650), and 
Wordsworth (1820). 

SONNITES. the orthodox Mahometans who 
now possess the Turkish empire ; see Maho- 
metantsm. 



SONS OF THE CLERGY. 



1147 



SOUDAN. 



SONS OF THE CLEEGY, see Clergy. 

SONTAY, see Tonquin, Dec. 1883. 

SONTHALS, a tribe of Northern India, 
brought to Bengal about 1830, where they pros- 
pered, till, partly from the instigation of a fanatic, 
and partly from the exactions of money-lenders, 
they broke out into rebellion in July, 1855, and 
committed fearful outrages. They were quite sub- 
dued early in 1856, and many were removed to the 
newly-conquered province of Pegu. 

SOOLOO, see Siilu. 

SOPHIA, ST. (in Constantinople). The first 
church was dedicated to St. Sophia (holy wisdom) 
by Constantius II., 360 ; this having been destroyed, 
the second, the present edifice, was founded by 
Justinian, 531, and dedicated 537. Since tbe 
Mahometan conquest in 1453, it has been used as 
an imperial mosque. Its length is 269 feet, and its 
breadth 243 feet. Six of its pillars are of green 
jasper, from the temple of Diana, at Ephesus ; and 
of porphyry, from the temple of the Sun, at Rome. 
Four minarets were added by Selim II., who reigned 
in 1566. The interior of the dome is beautifully 
ornamented with mosaic work. 

SOPHIA, see Sofia. 

SOPHISTS, teachers of youth in Athens, who 
were censured by Socrates, and consequently were 
instrumental in causing his judicial murder, 399 
B.C. The controversy against them was carried on 
by Plato and his disciples. 

SORBONNE, a society of ecclesiastics at 
Paris, founded by Robert de Sorbonne in 1252. 
The members lived in common, and devoted them- 
selves to study and gratuitous teaching. They 
soon attained a European reputation as a faculty of 
theology, their judgment being frequently appealed 
to, from the 14th to the 17th centuries. The influ- 
ence of the Sorbonne was declining when the society 
was broken up in 1789. The buildings are now 
devoted to education. The new Sorbonne build- 
ings were opened on 5 Aug. 1889 ; this is the virtual 
reconstruction of the university of Paris. Gymnastic 
education introduced, 1892. 

SORCERERS and Magicians. A law 

was enacted against their seductions, 33 Hen. VIII. 
1541; and another statute equally severe was 
passed, 5 Eliz. .1563. The pretension to sorcery 
was made capital, 1 James I. 1603; see Witchcraft. 

SORGHUM, see under Sugar. 

SOUDAN or SOTJJAH, the title of the lieu- 
tenant-generals of the caliphs, which they bore in 
their provinces and armies. The officers afterwards 
made themselves sovereigns. Saladin, general of 
the forces of Noureddin, king of Damascus, was the 
first that took upon him this title in Egypt, 1 165, 
after having killed the caliph Caym. 

SOUDAN or NlGRITIA, a region of Central 
Africa, partly subjected to the Khedive of Egypt 
since 1874, capital Khartoum. It was well governed, 
by col. Gordon, till 1879. See Egypt. For 
FRENCH SoTTDAN, see Senegal. 
Insurrection headed by Sheik Mahomed Ahmed of 

Dongola, ' declaring himself to be a prophet 

(Mahdi or Muhdi, foretold by Moslem prophets), 

July, 1881 
Defeated ; retires up the Blue Nile ; crosses White 

Nile with increased army . . . winter, ,, 



Defeats the Egyptians .... Nov. 1881 
Surrounds and massacres 6000 Egyptians under 
Yussuf Pasha, 14 June ; occupies Shala, July ; 
defeated at Bara, 19 Aug. ; at Duem, 28 Aug. ; 
repulsed at Obeid, 8, 14 Sept. ; defeats the 
Egyptians, 15 Sept. -24 Oct. ; rebels defeated at 
Bara, 4 Nov. ; Col. Stewart at Khartoum, 

16 Dec. 1882 
The Mahdi captures Bara and Obeid, 5 Jan. ; he is 

repulsed 23-26 Feb. 1885 

Col. Hicks pasha with an army starts for the Kor- 
dofan ; arrives at Berber, 1 March ; totally defeats 
the Mahdi with great loss ; the enemy pursued 

29 April, , , 
The Mahdi defeated at Khartoum about 14 May, ,, 
The Sennaar chiefs submit ; announced 25 June, ,, 
Hicks marches up the Nile, 9 Sept. ; arrives at 

Duem 20 Sept. ,, 

Surprise and defeat of Egyptian detachment at 
Tokar, near Suakin ; about 150 killed, including 
the brave and able British consul . . 6 Nov. „ 
Battle of El-Obeid, or Kashgal ; col. Hicks decoyed 
into a defile ; about 11,000 men attacked by over- 
whelming multitudes, they form squares and 
resist till nearly all are killed, including col. 
Hicks, col. Farquhar, and other European 
officers, only two said to have escaped ; reported 
desertion of some of Hicks' troops ; the Mahdi 
gains cannon and much ammunition 3-5 Nov. ,, 
Egyptian force concentrated at Khartoum under 

col. Coetlogon Nov. , T 

General rising throughout the country ; the British 
government sends gunboats to defend Suakin 
and Red Sea ports, about 23 Nov. ; attack on 
Suakin forts, 26 Nov.— 1 Dec. ; about 720 Egyp- 
tians surrounded and 682 killed (asserted) 2 Dec. ,, 
V. Baker pasha sent to Suakin with plenary powers 

about 18 Dec. ,, 
Khartoum garrison strengthened about 26 Dec. ,, 
Osman Digna, a ruined slave-dealer, commander 

for the Mahdi Dec. ,, 

General (Chinese) Gordon sent to the Soudan (to 
report) 18 Jan., starts 19 Jan. ; appointed 
governor-general of the Soudan by the Khedive 

25 Jan. 1884 
Sinkat closely besieged . . Nov. 1883— Jan. ,, 
Tokar besieged by rebels; surrenders, 21 Feb.; 
Baker pasha with 3500 men defeated near Tokar, 
loses about 2250 men (demoralised), with the 
remnant retreats to Trinkitat, 4 Feb. ; received 
by H.M.S. Ranger, 5, 6 Feb. ; reinforcements 
ordered to be sent to adm. Hewett at Suakin, 
6 Feb. ; Baker pasha recalled ; remains ; Suakin 
in state of siege ; adm. Hewett in full command, 
7-9 Feb. ; desperate sortie of the garrison, headed 
by Tewfik bey, from Sinkat, all killed ; women 
and children prisoners, town taken . 8 Feb. ,„ 
Reinforcements sent to Suakin . 11, 12 Feb. 
General Gordon arrives at Berber, 11 Feb. ; enthu- 
siastically received as a deliverer at Khartoum ; 
proclaims the Mahdi sultan of Kordofan ; remis- 
sion of half the taxes, and non-interference 
with the slave trade, releases prisoners, remits 

debts 18 Feb. „ 

Restoration of the former sultanate of Darfour 

proposed; Kassala besieged by Osman Digna Feb. ,, 
The Black troops at Suakin mutiny and disperse ; 

announced 25 Feb. ,, 

Battle of El-Teh, near where Baker pasha was 
defeated, 4 Feb. After fruitless attempt at 
negotiation, gen. Gerald Graham, with about 
4000 men (consisting of 10th and 19th Hussars, 
Gordon Highlanders, the Black Watch, Lanca- 
shire and Yorkshire battalions, and Marines), at 
11 a.m., advanced on the rebels, about 12,000, 
who, after a most desperate, heroic resistance, 
were totally defeated with the loss of about 2000 
men, at 2.30 p.m. ; the British loss was major 
M. M. Slade, lieuts. F. H. Probyn, F. A. Free- 
man, and Frank Royds, and quartermaster James 
Wilkins and 24 men killed, and 142 wounded, 

29 Feb. 1S84 
Tokar surrendered, and the rebel garrison fled 

1 March, „ 



SOUDAN. 



1148 



SOUDAN. 



Osman Digna at Tamanieb ... 3 March, 1884 

Several Arab sheikhs come into Suakin, 6, 7 March, ,, 

Osman Digna disregards gen. Graham's proclama- 
tion, about 8 March. Osman Digna disdainfully 
rejects British proposals, and proclaims death to 
infidels about 10 March, „ 

Battle of Tamanieb. The British advance to capture 
Osman Digna's camp at Tamasi, near El-Teb, 7.20 
a.m. ; the British were massed in oblong squares, 
one square broken into by a violent onslaught of 
hidden Arabs, who creep under and capture the 
Gatling and other guns, desperate hand-to-hand 
conflict ; the British driven back ; no panic ; col. 
"Wood with 700 cavalry charges the Arabs in flank, 
■and drives them back, the infantry rally and re- 
cover the guns, the other square perfectly success- 
ful; the camp taken, 12.30 p.m. The British loss, 
killed, capts. H. O. V. Ford, Walker, and Aitken ; 
lieuts. Montresor, Almack, and Houston Stewart, 
and 86 men, in wounded, and 19 missing; 2000 
of the enemy killed out of above 10,000. The 
Black Watch and Naval Brigade suffered much 

13 March, ,, 

Osman Digna's camp with stores captured on 
4 Feb. ; burnt .... 14 March, ,, 

Gordon defeats rebels and brings off garrison of 
Halfyeh . . . . about 15 March, „ 

Through cowardice and treachery Gordon's troops 
(1500) defeated by about 60 rebels with great 
slaughter 16 March, ,, 

(Reward of 5000 dollars offered for capture of 
Osman Digna, alive or dead, 15 March; counter- 
manded from home . . . .17 March, ,, 

Troops march to Handoub wells . 18 March, ,, 

Friendly sheikhs coming in . . . 20 March, ,, 

Hassan and Said pashas, Turko-Egyptian generals, 
tried and shot 23 March, „ 

'The Mahdi rejects Gordon's offers ; announced 

23 March, ,, 

General Graham advances on Tamanieb ; slight 
skirmish ; the Arabs flee ; Osman Digna's vil- 
lages burnt 27 March, ,, 

Three regiments at Suakin embark for home, &c. 

29 March, ,, 
March to Berber reported safe . 29 March, „ 
Gordon contending with the rebels, with varying 

success ; Kassala closely besieged, announced 

30 March, „ 
Khartoum said to be closely invested ; the rebels 

frequently defeated .... April, ,, 

General Gordon, col. Stewart, and Mr. Power, the 
Times correspondent, the only British there 

8 April, „ 

The Mahdi said to have been twice defeated by the 
Jagalla tribes ; reported . . . 9 April, ,, 

Egyptian troops arrive at Suakin . . 10 April, ,, 

Adin. Hewett's mission well received by RasAloola 

about 13 April, ,, 

The Marines depart . . . about 15 April, „ 

Shendy closely besieged ; 51 fugitives from it killed 
by Arabs; announced . . . . 19 April, ,, 

Berber said to be closely invested . 20 April, „ 

Reported evacuation of Berber; troops withdrawn 
to Korosko ; announced . . . 26 April, ,, 

The whole country in insurrection; Egyptian 
troops joining the Mahdi . . . April, „ 

The government declining to send help, Gordon 
writes to sir Evelyn Baring, "I shall hold on 
here as long as I can, and if I can suppress the 
rebellion, 1 will do so. If 1 cannot, 1 shall 
retire to the equator." 

Col. Stewart and Mr. Tower decide to remain with 
liim May, ,, 

Subscriptions proposed to support Gordon . May, ,, 

Adm. Hewett well received by the king of Abys- 
sinia at Adowa ; treaty signed . about 26 May, „ 

Fruitless attacks on Suakin checked by Marines, 

27, 28, 31 May, 2, 4, to June, ,, 

Gordon said to have been opposed by government 
in all his propositions . . . April, May. ,, 

Highly successful sally from KhartOUin ; major 
Chermside made governor of Suakin ; refugees 
from Korosko arrive a1 Assouan : reported rise of 
another Mahdi 2 s May, „ 



The Mudir of Dongola said to have defeated the 
rebels May, 

Advance of Egyptian troops . . . . May, 

Fall of Berber announced . . . . 10 June, 

Assouan fortified June, 

Rebels defeated at Debbeh with great loss, 

23-30 June, 

Advance of the Mahdi said to be checked by another 
Mahdi ; announced 2 July, 

Assouan occupied by the British . 12 July, 

Additional troops sent to Alexandria from Malta, 

July, 

Gordon dominant and successful at Khartoum ; re- 
ported 22 July, 

Continued desertion of Egyptian troops, announced 
July ; Gordon reports Khartoum and Sennaar 
holding out 2 Aug. 

Mudir of Dongola said to have greatly helped Gor- 
don July, Aug. 

Gen. Gordon repulses severe attack. 10 Aug. ; de- 
feats rebels 12 Aug. 

Osman Digna, near Suakin, frequently defeated, 

Aug. 

Preparation for the expedition to relieve Khartoum, 
gen. Earle commander ; British troops arrive at 
Wady Haifa 23 Aug. et seq. 

The expedition to ascend the Nile in about 800 flat- 
bottomed boats, navigated by Canadian Indians 
(voyageurs) ; Sarras .... Sept.- Oct. 

Defeat of the Mahdi's troops by the Mudir of Don- 
gola at Ambikol 8 Sept. 

Gen. Earle to be at Wady Haifa; col. Stewart and 
lord Airlie at Dongola ; col. Maurice at Assiout 

Sept. 

Another defeat of Mahdi's troops reported 15 Sept. 

Telegrams from Gordon requiring assistance Sept. 

Friendly tribes defeat rebels, and relieve Suakin, 
about 17 Sept. 

Victories of Gordon on 24 July and 30 Aug., and 
raising of the siege of Khartoum reported, 

20 Sept. 

British army in Egypt, 13,559 . about 22 Sept. 

Lord John Hay arrives with the fleet at Alexandria, 

24 Sept. 

Several camel corps start from Woolwich for the 
Soudan about 25 Sept. 

Mr. Power's journal of the siege of Khartoum, from 
April to 31 July published in the Times, 29 Sept. 

Lord Wolseley arrives at Wady Haifa . 5 Oct. 

Shendy taken 6 Oct. 

Col. J. D. Stewart, with Mr. Power and M. Herbin, 
and about 40 men in a steamer, wrecked near 
Wady Garna, fifth cataract ; land ; massacred by 
Arabs offering guidance ; announced about 6 Oct. 

Gordon defeats rebels and returns to Khartoum ; 
announced 1 Nov. 

Lord Wolseley arrives at Dongola . . 3 Nov. 

Attacks on Suakin repulsed . ■ 3, 4 Nov. 

Gordon reports all well at Khartoum . 4 Nov. 

Rebels often repulsed ..... Nov. 

Above 200 whalers on the Nile conveying troops,&c. 

15 Nov. 

Two steamers disabled by rebels near Khartoum ; 
announced 18 Nov. 

Lord Wolsclcy's proclamation to the soldiers and 
sailors issued 1 Dec. 

Two hours' attack of the rebels on Suakin without 
effect, 3 Dec. ; rebels defeated with loss S Dec. 

Lord Wolseley arrives at Korti . . 15 Dec. 

Successful sally of the garrison of Kassala, 26 Dec. 

forward movement of the army . . 28 Dec. 

Rapid marches of gen. sir Herbert Stewart . Dec. 

Successful march in the desert . . . Jan. 

Gen. Earle proceeding up the Nile, and gen. Stewart 
crossing the desert with troops, towards Metam- 
meli Jan. 

Near Aim Klea wells, about 120 miles from Khar- 
toum, gen. Stewart, with 1500 men, defeats about 
10,000 Arabs, who retire alter a fierce conflict 

within the square, leaving about Soo dead. The 
British lose 9 officers (col. Fred. A. Burnaby, 
majors AthertOll, Cannichael, and Gough, capts. 



SOUDAN. 



1149 



SOUDAN. 



Law and Darley, lieuts. Pigott, Delisle, and 
Wolfe), and 65 men killed, with 85 wounded 

17 Jan. iE 

Gen. Stewart, marching towards Metammeh, is 
severely wounded by hidden sharpshooters ; 12 
killed, including correspondents of the Morning 
Post and Standard, Thos. St. Leger Herbert, and 
John A. Cameron; sir Charles Wilson takes com- 
mand 18 Jan. , 

At Gubat, near Metammeh, fierce Arab onset on 
the British square is repulsed with very heavy 
loss 19 Jan. , 

Message from gen. Gordon received, dated 29 Deo. : 
"Khartoum is all right; could hold out for a 
year" about 19 Jan. , 

Communications opened with Khartoum . 24 Jan. , 

Gen. Earle with army marches to Handoub for 
Berber 24 Jan. , 

Successful skirmishes of gen. Earle . . Jan. , 

Gen. Stewart succeeded by sir Redvers Buller Jan. , 

Surrender -of Khartoum ; Gordon and his faithful 
followers killed .... early 26 Jan. , 

Sir Charles Wilson sails up the Nile . 28 Jan. , 

Reconnaissances of*gen. Fremantle ; heavy Arab 
loss, about 30 Jan. ; Handoub captured and burnt 
by a party which is intercepted by Arabs, and 
lose 12 men 2 Feb. , 

The Italian flag hoisted beside Egyptian at Masso- 
wah (which sec) 6 Feb. , 

Sir Charles Wilson and party, within 800 yards of 
Khartoum, fired upon ; retreats ; his steamer is 
wrecked by treachery of Arab pilots ; lands on an 
island ; is rescued from peril by the daring cour- 
age of lord Charles Beresford in face of batteries; 
arrives at Korti 9 Feb. , 

Victory at Kirbekan : the Arabs on a ridge, sur- 
rounded by gen. Earle's column (the Black 
Watch and Staffordshire regiments), many killed; 
gen. Earle and lieut.-cols. Eyre and Coveney, and 
nine others killed ; attack well planned and gal- 
lantly executed ; gen. Brackenbury takes the 
command 10 Feb. ,, 

Gen. Buller retreats from Gubat to Abu-Klea wells, 

13-15 Feb. ,. 

Death of sir H. Stewart at Gakdul . . 16 Feb. ,, 

Railway between Suakin and Berber ordered to be 
constructed Feb. , 

Near Abu-Klea, Arabs demoralised by skilful feat of 
major Wardrop, who takes the heights after much 
skirmishing ; Arabs flee . . . 17 Feb. , 

Sir Evelyn Wood arrives at Gakdul . . 17 Feb. ,, 

Gen. Gerald Graham, with Coldstream and Grena- 
dier Guards and others, start for the Soudan; fare- 
well given by the queen and prince of Wales, 

19-21 Feb. , 

Osman Digna massing his forces near Suakin, 

about 21 Feb. , 

Rebels' attack on Kassala garrison defeated with 
great loss ; announced . . . 22 Feb. ,-, 

Gen. Buller reaches Gakdul . . .26 Feb. , 

Gen. Bullet's column marches to Korti 1 March, , 

Gen. Graham's staff and 15th Sikh regiment arrive 
at Suakin 4 March, , 

Successful sally from Kassala announced 4 March, , 

The queen's address of thanks read to the army at 
Korti by lord Wolseley ... 7 March, , 

The 17th Bengal Infantry and the Royal Engineers 
balloon corps arrive at Suakin . 7 March, , 

Arab raids on Suakin camp ; sentries killed 

11 March, , 
The bulk of lord Wolseley's army at Korti, 

12 March, , 
Gen. Graham arrives at Suakin with 5th Lancers, 

12, 13 March, ,. 

The last of the desert troops arrive at Korti, 

16 March, , 

Gen. Graham calls on Osman Digna to surrender, to 
avoid bloodshed . . . about 16 March, ,. 

Battle of Hasheen : Graham, with part of his 
army, starts at daybreak ; several of Osman 
Digna's positions on the hills taken after cen- 
flicts : about 21 British killed . 20 March, , 

Gen. McNeil's brigade unexpectedly attacked by 
about 4500 Arabs, about 6 miles from Suakin ; 
they are repulsed with heavy loss (about 1500), 
after a severe fight; British loss about 100 killed, 
including lieuts. Swinton, Seymour, and New- 
man, capt. Romilly and others . 22 March, ,. 



Manifesto of the Mahdi claiming the caliphate pub- 
lished March, 

Fever at Korti ; evacuated by the army, 

about 28 March, 

Arab attacks repulsed by the guards 24 March, 

Attacks on British convoy repulsed 24-26 March, 

The last Egyptian troops leave Suakin 26 March, 

Zebahr Pasha arrested at request of lord Wolseley, 
14 March ; sent to Gibraltar . . 29 March, 
[Released under conditions, 3 Aug. 1887.] 

New South Wales contingent arrives at Suakin 

29, 30 March, 

Graham advances ; finds Tamai deserted ; burns it 
and returns to Suakin . . . 2, 3 April, 

The railway to Berber constructing under military 
protection April, 

Handoub (deserted) occupied by the British 8 April, 

Successful raid of capt. Briggs, capturing prisoners, 
cattle, &c I5 April, 

Numerous night attacks .... April, 

Rebellion against the Mahdi ; his troops said to be 
defeated near Kordofan . . . April, 

Lord Wolseley arrives at Suakin . . 2 May, 

Takool burnt and cattle captured by gen. Graham ; 
organised force of Arabs dispersed 

midnight, 5-6 May, 

Proposed armed defence, of line from Assouan 
to Wady Haifa announced . . n May, 

General Graham with British troops, and the 
Indian (part) and New South Wales contingents, 
quit Suakin . . . . 17 May et seq. 

Major-gen. sir G. Greaves assumes command at 
Suakin, 18 May ; leaves ... 15 June, 

Handoub evacuated by the British, 22 May ; occu- 
pied by the Arabs, many of whom join Osman 
Digna June, 

1 )( mgola evacuated .... 15 June 

Sir F. Stephenson commander-in-chief . 6 July] 

Lord Wolseley arrives in London . 13 July, 

Repulse of attack on Kassala, about 3,000 of the 
rebels killed ; the garrison capture much cattle 
in a sortie i 5 , 16 June, 

Death of the Mahdi by small - pox, reported 
June 20, 21, or 22 ; said to be succeeded by his 
kinsman Khalifa Abdullah .... June, 

Olivier Pain sent by the Irish in Paris to join the 
Mahdi at El Obeid, July, 1884; reported death, 
time uncertain ; Selikovitch, an interpreter dis- 
missed by the British, asserts without any 
evidence that Pain was executed by order of col. 
Kitchener in April, 1885 ; no British inves- 
tigation ; much excitement in Paris caused by M. 
Rochefort, Aug. -Sept. 

Sennaar surprised and taken . . 16 Aug. 

Rebels defeated and stores captured near Suakin, 

19 Aug. 

Major Chermside sent to relieve Kassala . Aug. 

Khalifa Abdullah El Taashi reported successor of 
the Mahdi autumn, 

Successful skirmish of the hussars and Egyptians 
with Arabs near Giniss ; fighting on the Nile ; 
announced , Dec. 

Advance of rebels northward ; two battalions sent 
from Britain .... about 10 Dec. 

Attack of 3,000 Arabs on Mograkeh, near Kosheh ; 
repulsed I2 Dec. 

6,000 Arabs defeated at Giniss, near Kosheh, 3J 
hours' fight ; one officer (lieut. Soltau) killed ; 19 
Egyptians killed and wounded ; about 600 Arabs 
killed 30 Dec. 

Attack on Suakin repulsed . . . 1 1 Feb. 

Osman Digna and the rebels active, about 2 March] 

Rebels defeated by friendly Arabs and the British, 

13 March, 

Sir C. Warren appointed governor at Suakin, about 
t6 Jan. ; [made commissioner of police, London] ; 
gen. Dixon left in command . . March, 

Country south of Wady Haifa abandoned by the 
Egyptians, announced .... April, 

General Watson nominated governor of the Red 
Sea territories about 14 April ; arrives 8 May, 

British evacuation of Suakin completed 16 May, 

Fighting near Sheik Barghut ; victory of friendly 

Arabs who take prisoners and recover captives, 

about 28 May, 

Major Kitchener succeeds general Watson, Aug. ; 
arrives 7 Sept. 



SOUDAN. 



1150 



SOUDAN. 



By judicious advice of gen. Watson and col. 
Kitchener, the Arabs combine to overthrow 
Osman Digna ; after serious losses he quits his 
stronghold at Tamai, which, with all its military 
stores is captured, with much slaughter of Ids 
followers 7 Oct. 1886 

Emin Bey (Austrian physician), an associate of gen. 
Gordon, holds Wadelai as governor of Equatorial 
Africa since 1878, with black troops ; news 
brought by Dr. Junker .... Nov. ,, 

Retreat of the rebels on British advance 3 Dec. ,, 

Expedition of Mr. Henry Morton Stanley on behalf 
of the Emin Pasha committee (which see), with a 
small armament with able volunteer officers, 
starts from London . . . .21 Jan. *i887 

Messengers from the new Mahdi with arrogant 
message, received and dismissed by the khedive, 

19 April, ,, 

Gol. Chermside, with the Egyptians, defeats the 
Dervishes at Sarras, near Wady Haifa, after 
stubborn resistance ; about 190 killed, 29 April, ,, 

Great defeat of the Dervishes announced about 

29 Aug. ,, 

Successful skirmish of col. Wodehouse with the 
Dervishes 24 Oct. ,, 

Arab attack on Wady Haifa repulsed, 25 Oct. ; 
reinforcements sent .... 27 Oct. ,, 

Expedition of the lion. Montague Kerr to Emin 
Pasha's station at Wadelai, starts . . Nov. ,, 
[He is struck down by fever ; returns to Europe ; 
dies in France, 23 April, 1888.] 

Osman Digna defeated with great loss by the 
friendly tribes 29 Dec. ,, 

Unsuccessful attacks on Suakin Dec. 1887.-3 Jan. 1888 

His camp at Handoub captured and his followers 
dispersed ; they return and retake the camp ; 
the friendly tribes forced to retreat, col. Kitchener 
and major McMurdo wounded . . 17 Jan. ,, 

Colonel Kitchener leaves for Cairo ; succeeded by 
col. Shakspear 19 Jan. ,, 

A band of Dervishes dispersed after fierce conflict 
near Suakin, col. Tapp killed . . 4 March, ,, 

Return of col. Kitchener to Suakin . 15 March, ,, 

Affairs quiet ; Osman Digna's followers dispersing, 

April, , , 

Col. Kitchener leaves for England . 26 May, ,, 

Defeat of the Dervishes near Wady Haifa 20 July, ,, 

The Dervishes severely defeated in an attack on 
Fort Khormoussa . . midnight, 27 Aug. ,, 

Attempted raid of Osman Digna checked 12 Sept. ,, 

Lt. col. Holled Smith succeeds col. Kitchener as 
governor-general and commandant at Suakin, 

13 Sept. ,, 

Continued investment of Suakin by Arabs (Der- 
vishes) with guns, &c. ; severe night attacks ; 
reinforcements ordered . . 22 Sept., Oct. ,, 

German expedition for the relief of Emin Pasha 
organized ; supported by prince Hohenlohe 
Langenburg and other nobles . . Sept. ,, 

A sharp attack on Suakin vigorously repulsed, 

30 Oct. ,, 

General Grenfell with reinforcements arrives at 
Suakin 5 Nov. ,. 

* They embarked with a number of natives at Zanzi- 
bar for the west coast, 25 Feb., and sailed up the river 
Congo. After undergoing great dangers and much 
suffering through famine, disease and native opposition, 
Mr. Stanley fell in with Emin Pasha on lake Nyanza, 
29 April, 1888 ; and eventually, with him and the re- 
mains of his party, arrived at the German station Boga- 
moya, 5 Dec. 1889. Mr. Stanley and his officers arrived 
at Cairo, 14 Jan. 1890; at Rome, 11 April; at Brussels. 
19 April ; in London, 26 April; dined with (lie queen, 
6 May ; with his companions, lieut. Stairs, surgeon 
Thomas H. I'ai'kc, rapt. Nelson, Mr. A. M. Jephson, 
and Mr. Bonny, received the gold medals of the Royal 
Geographical Society, from the prince of Wales, 5 May. 
Besides other honours Mr. Stanley was presented with 
the freedom of the city of London, 13 May ; of Edin- 
burgh, 11 June ; and of Glasgow, Dundee, Aberdeen, 
Newcastle-on-Tyne, and Manchester, in June. His 
book, entitled "In darkest Africa; or, the Quest, 
Rescue and Retreat of Emin, governor of Equatoria," 
was published, 28 June. He married Miss Dorothy 
Tennant at Westminster Abbey, 12 July, 1890; elected 
M.P. for Lambeth, July, 1895. 



Defeat of the nominal Mahdi by the sultan of 
Wadai's people ; gen. Grenfell reconnoitres ; 
the enemy very strong ; the Mahdi afterwards 
captures Wadai, and the sultan flees . Nov. : 

More British troops sent to Suakin . . Dee. 

The enemy's redoubts stormed by the black 
brigade under gen. Grenfell ; great slaughter, 
slight British loss ; total flight of the enemy 
with loss of about 400; 7.30 a.m. . 20 Dec. 

General Grenfell and part of his army leave Suakin, 

4 Jan. : 

Handoub abandoned and burnt . . 11 Feb. 

Suakin declared open to commerce . . 20 Feb. 

Dr. Carl Peters, with 100 soldiers, &c, starts to 
relieve Emin Pasha . . . .26 Feb. 

The Dervishes repulsed with loss after their 
attack on Haliab, 19 April ; again repulsed, 
29, 30 April ; again repulsed, and an outpost 
captured 2 June, 

Colonel Wodehouse, with three Egyptian black 
battalions, &c, defeats about 3,500 Dervishes at 
Arguin near Wady Haifa ; they lose about 500 
killed, Egyptian loss about -70 killed and 
wounded 2 July, 

The Dervishes repulsed with the loss of about 
100 men, 4 July ; they break up their camp, 7 
July ; which is occupied by the British 8 July 

Reinforcements from Malta ; which is proclaimed 
to the natives by gen. Grenfell, 10 July 

Reinforcements sent from Malta to strengthen the 
garrison at Assouan .... July, 

Dervish deserters come in ; prisoners sent to Cairo ; 
their loss estimated to be since 1 July 2,500 killed 
and wounded .... about 14 July, 

Gen. sir F. W. Grenfell arrives at Col. Wodehouse 's 
camp at Bellana ; the enemy hold a strong posi- 
tion at Khor ; their fighting force estimated at 
2,500 ....... 15 July, 

The R. Irish Rifles arrive at Assouan . 16 July, 

Gen. Grenfell summons Wad-el-N'jurai to sur- 
render, all lives to be spared ; the messenger 
beaten 17 July, 

Wad-el-N'junii calls on the Egyptians to surrender, 
and threatens them with the fate of gen. Gordon, 
reported 19 July, 

A large number of additional troops sent from Cairo 

20 July, 

British field force at Assouan commanded by 
major-gen. lion. R. H. de Montmorency, 23 July, 

Party of 300 Dervishes repulsed with loss ; re- 
ported 21 July, 

Frequent skirmishes ; many killed and prisoners 

25-31 July, 

Dervishes defeated with loss of 70 men by lieut. 
D'Aguilar at Anabi 31 July, 

Battle of Toski ; after seven hours' hard fighting 
about 3,000 Dervishes are defeated by gen. sir 
Francis Grenfell. Wad-el-N'jumi with his prin- 
cipal emirs, and about half his army are killed, 
the other half are either wounded or fugitives; 
the repeated desperate charges of the Dervishes 
are chiefly repulsed by the aoth Hussars and the 
Egyptian cavalry, who pursue them till they are 
utterly routed and their arms and standards 
captured. (The commanders under gen. Grenfell 
were col. Kitchener, mounted troops ; col. Wode- 
house, infantry ; Rundle, artillery, Irwin and 
Beech, English and Egyptian cavalry ; Settle, 
sen. start' officer) ; the British loss 17 killed 
(1 English 16 Egyptians) ; wounded, 131 ; above 
1,000 Dervishes prisoners and wounded; parts 
of the Shropshire and Lancashire regiments and 
the Royal Irish Rifles were engaged 3 Aug ; gen. 
Grenfell arrives at Cairo ... 17 Aug. 

The Egyptian troops occupy Matuka ; the British 
ordered to return to Cairo . . . 7 Aug. 

Emin Pasha, after a long illness, occasioned by a 
fall from a window at Bogamoya, 5 Dec, closely 
attended by Dr. Parke, arrives at Zanzibar, 2 
March ; accepts the offers of major Wissmann, 
enters the German service, and proceeds with a 
military expedition to Victoria Nyanza 

31 March et seq. 
[For his connection with capt. Casati, see Italy, 
14 July, 1890.] 

Military movements of the Mahdi, reported, 8 May, 



SOUDAN. 



1151 



SOUDAN. 



Famine and great distress in E. Soudan through 
drought, partly relieved by government and 

others Jan.— Aug. i 

The Khalifa Abdullahi reported supreme in the 

south July, 

Osman Digna's forces broken up by desertion, 

reported Oct. 

Emin Pasha, in good health at Tabora, Aug. ; his 
letter received at Brunswick, about 25 Nov. ; he 
establishes German stations on the shores of lake 
Victoria Nyanza, reported 7 Dec. ; recalled to the 
coast by major von Wissmann, the imperial com- 
missary, reported .... 19 Dec. 
A raid of the Dervishes on Suakin ; they are pur- 
sued and defeated, 27 Jan. ; after a sharp engage- 
ment, the governor-general takes possession of 
Handoub, 28 Jan. ; several Dervish leaders cap- 
tured, peace restored . . . about 4 Feb. 1 
Col. Holled Smith, governor-general of the Red Sea 
littoral, conducts an expedition of 2,000 Soudanese 
and Egyptian troops, aided by friendly Arabs ; 
El Teb occupied and fortified . . 17 Feb. 
Col. H. Smith, with brigade of Egyptian troops, 
advances at daybreak from El Teb against Tokar, 
strongly held by Osman Digna with 2,000 Der- 
vishes ; after a desperate tight of one and a half 
hours, Tokar is occupied ; all the principal emirs 
1 and about 700 Dervishes killed ; Osman Digna 
fled south with 30 horsemen. Our loss— capt. Hugh 
Lusada Barrow, of South Lancashire regiment, 
and 15 Egyptian soldiers killed ; the Egyptians 
fought bravely and steadily ; guns, ammunition 
and other stores captured. After the action, the 
troops advance 4 miles to Osman Digna's de- 
serted camp at Afafll, a large village, where 
about 100 Arabs surrender ... 19 Feb. 
The Red Sea littoral reported clear of rebels ; the 
sheikhs solicit and obtain pardon, general rejoic- 
ing, reported 23 Feb. 

Gen. Grenfell, col. Holled Smith, with the troops, 
&c, return to Suakin, 7 March ; an amnesty 
proclaimed ; joyfully received by the sheikhs 

8 March, 
Capt. Hackett Pain appointed governor of the 
Tokar sub-district . . . about 8 March, 
The country reported quiet and prosperous. 5 May, 
Defeat of the Dervishes by the Shilluks about the 
end of Nov. , reported . . . . 17 Dec. 
Father Ohrwakler and two R. C. sisters, long 
prisoners in the Mahdi's camp, Omdurman, Khar- 
toum, escape, 29 Nov., andarrive at Cairo, 2iDec. 
Rupture between Khalifa Abdullah and two other 

chiefs, reported 21 Jan. 1 

Incursion of about 100 Dervishes nearWady Haifa, 
led by Osman Azrak . . about 12 May, 
Archibald Hunter pasha, appointed governor- 
general of the Red Sea littoral in place of col. 
Holled Smith who resigned, reported . 17 Oct. 
Osman Digna encamped near Suakin with about 
300 followers, Oct. 1892 ; retires to Amet, 2 Nov. ; 
a raid on Tokar repulsed, reported . 24 Nov. 
A force of 400 dervishes defeated at the Temerin 

fort 23 Nov. 

Two dervish attacks at Gemai and Sarras near 

Wady Haifa, repulsed 31 Dec. 1892 and 1 Jan. 

Sharp engagement at Ambigol Wells, heavy loss on 

both sides ; capt. Pyne (adjutant) killed 2 Jan. 

Gen. Kitchener visits Wady Haifa about 16 Jan. 

Osman Digna, with a band moving about Suakin, 

Jan., Feb., defeated after a raid . 8 April 

Central Soudan : insurrection of Rabah, he takes 

Baghirmi ; fight with the troops of the sultan of 

Wady at Fizzan, reported . . .10 Sept. 

Osman Azrak with 300 Dervishes repulsed with 

loss after a severe engagement at Murhat Wells ; 

Saleh Bey the Egyptian leader and 12 other 

friendly Arabs killed . . . 10-12 Nov. 

Severe defeat of the dervishes by the Italians, at 

Fort Agordat. See Massowah . . 20 Dec. 

Col. Archibald Hunter appointed governor of the 

frontier province and col. George Lloyd governor 

of Suakin and Red Sea littoral . . Sept. 

Dervish raid near Wady Haifa . . 10 Dec. 

British advance up the Nile to check the Dervishes 

and to reconquer territory up to Dongola ; 

Akasheh occupied without resistance, 20 March, 

SirH. H. Kitchener, commander-in-chief, arrives 

at Wady Haifa . . 29 March, 



Osman Digna repulsed with loss at Erkowit, 8, 
11 April ; again by col. Fenwiek and major Sidney 

near Tokar 15 April, 18 

Dervishes severely repulsed by major Burn-Mur- 
doch, near Akasheh . . . . 1 May, , 
Murat wells occupied by the British after a march 

of 120 miles in 65 hours, 117 in the shade, 4 May, , 
Indian troops (4,341), under col. C. Egerton, arrive, 

June, , 
Akasheh fortified, railways constructed, Apr.-June, , 
The Dervishes surprised and defeated by gen. sir 

H. H. Kitchener at Ferkeh (which see)- 7 June, , 
Suarda, a strong position, occupied, Dervish camp, 
40 boats, &c, captured by col. Burn-Murdoch, 
road clear to Dongola . . .8 June, , 
Cholera at Kosheh ; major M. Fenwiek and surgeon- 
captain S. Trask died, 25 July ; 244 deaths among 
the troops between Assuan and Suarda up to 2 
Aug. ; decreasing .... mid. Aug. , 
Advance of the army ; Absarat occupied, 25 Aug. ; 
7 steamers successfully pass the cataracts and 
arrive at Kosheh, 23, 25 Aug. ; destructive 
storms, railway destroyed by a Hood, 25 Aug. ; 
cyclone in the camp .... 27 Aug. , 
Railway collision near Moghrat, 1 death, 22 in- 
jured .4 Sept. , 

Garrisons established along the route to Absarat, 
9 Sept. ; Fereig occupied, 14 Sept. ; Kubudeh, 
18 Sept. ; Kerman occupied unresisted ; a strong 
Dervish fort at Hafir bombarded by 3 Egyptian 
gunboats under commander Colville, and heavy 
fire of Maxims from the opposite banks ; a Der- 
vish gunboat sunk and the fort evacuated, 19 Sept. , 
Dongola found undefended ; grain and stores seized 
by the British, 20 Sept. ; the gunboat AbuKlea, 
under lieut. Beatty, bombards and dismantles 
the fort and works . . . . 21 Sept. , 

Dongola occupied with little resistance, the Der- 
vishes retreat into the desert ; several important 
emirs surrender ; all the guns and stores cap- 
tured ; about 200 Dervishes killed, 900 prisoners 
taken . . . . . . . 22, 23 Sept. , 

Dervish force completely disorganised . 25 Sept. 
Relatives of the Mahdi come in and are pardoned, 

28 Sept. , 
Col. Hunter left in command of the frontier ; the 
province of Dongola settled and clear of Der- 
vishes Oct. , 

SirH. H. Kitchener and staff arrives atCairo, i30ct. 
Rebel sheikhs tender submission to the govern- 
ment Oct. , 

Dervish raids near Tokar ; friendly Arabs orga- 
nised to guard the roads, &c. ; repulsed after a 

sharp fight Nov. 

Sir H. H. Kitchener arrives at Dongola abt. 18 Dec. 
Dervish raid on Beni Arner (Italian territory), 30 

Askaris killed j an . j 

Osman Digna appointed governor of Berber, "Emir 
of Emirs," by the Khalifa, summons 25,000 Der- 
vishes to rise 15 Jan. 

The Arabs defeat the Dervishes, and recapture 
women and cattle .... March 

Dervishes defeated by Egyptians, north of Don- 
gola, 1 June ; advance of sir Herbert Kitchener 
and the army to Merawi . . . I3 July, 
Dervishes defeat the Jaalin, 2,000 killed ; Metam- 
meh occupied, and massacres by the Dervishes 

1 July, 
Abu-Hamed held by 1,000 Dervishes, captured, 
after severe fighting, by major-gen. Hunter's 
column, major H. M. Sidney, lieut. Fitzclarence, 
and others killed ; eniir Mahomed Zein, Dervish 
commander, and 50 others captured . 7 Au". 
Berber evacuated by the Dervishes ; occupied by 
the Anglo-Egyptian troops, under gen. Hunter, 

7-13 Sept. 

Six garrisons along the river, and screen-posts 

across the desert, established . . . Sept. 

Many wells sunk along the route, Berber-Suakin 

road Sept. -Dec. 

All the E. Soudan tribes renounce Mahdism 2 Oct. 
Railway from Abu-Hamed to Wady-Halfa com- 
pleted ; Dervish raids opposite Berber repelled, 

Nov. 
Dervish grain boats (6) captured at Metammeh, 

8 Dec. 
Fashoda occupied by the French . . Dec. 



SOUDAN. 



1152 



SOUDAN. 



Es-Sofiyeh Mugatta captured from the Dervishes 

by col. Parsons' Kassala troops . . 13 Jan. 1898 
Gen. sir H. H. Kitchener returns to Wady-Halfa 
from a successful tour of inspection, 530 mi. in 

39 hrs 8 Feb. ,, 

Mahmud, the Dervish general, .joins Osman Digna 

at Shendy about 27 Feb. ,, 

Strong position of Anglo-Egyptian troops, from 
Berber to the Atbara ; march across the desert 
from Abu Dis to Berber . 25 Feb.-io March, ,, 
Dervishes driven from Shebaliya island by major 
Sitwell, 38 killed, 14 March ; repulsed again at 
Adarama, 42 killed, 18 March; Dervish cavalry 
repulsed with loss by Anglo-Egyptian cavalry, 
near Ras el Hudi . . . .21 March, ,, 
Shendy attacked, and forts destroyed by major 
Hickman and capt. Keppel, 160 Baggara killed, 
645 slaves freed, cattle, &c. captured ; Mahmud 
checkmated by gen. Kitchener . 26 March, ,, 

Successful cavalry reconnaissances at Ras el Hudi, 
30 March ; and up the W. bank of the Atbara to 
Mahmud's camp ; enemy's cavalry driven in, 8 
Dervishes captured, 3 April ; sharp fight outside 
the Dervish camp, 200 Dervishes and 6 British 

killed 5 April, ,, 

Battle of the Atbara, brilliant victory : rout of the 
Dervish army (16,000), Mahmud captured, flight 
of Osman Digna ; British loss, capt. Urquhart and 
major Napier (died, 24 May), capts. Findlay and 
Baillie(died,i8May), lieut. P. A. Gore, and 21 men 
killed : 18 Egyptian officers, and 51 men killed ; 
Dervishes, 3,000 (many emirs) killed ; 2,000 sur- 
rendered, 10 guns, and over 100 flags, &c. taken : 
Dervish camp ushed .... 8 April, ,, 
Triumphant entry of gen. sir H. Kitchener and the 
army into Berber, enthusiastic reception by the 
natives, 13 April ; further operations suspended 

till end of July, ,, 

A band of Dervishes defeated with loss on the 

Atbara, about 19 May. 
Dervish forces retreat from Shabluka to El Boga, 
about 40 mi. from Khartoum ; Anglo-Egyptian 
advance post formed at Shendy . . 3 June ,, 
The Khalifa's army concentrated at Omdurman, 

July, ,, 
Advance of the Anglo-Egyptian force under Sir H. 
Kitchener and the flotilla of gunboats up the Nile, 

31 Aug.-i Sept. ,, 
The battle of Omdurman (5.3c a.m. -11. 50 a.m.), 
2 Sept. ; total defeat of the Dervishes (50,000 ■> , after 
desperate resistance, and flight of the Khalifa 
Abdullahi ; Col. Hector Macdonald and others 
displayed fine leadership and heroism. Grand 
charge of the 21st Lancers, under col. Martin, 
against enormous odds, lieut. R. Grenf'ell and 23 
men killed ; capt. Guy Caldecott, the hon. Hubert 
Howard, Times correspondent, and 23 others 
killed ; 334 wounded, some mortally. Dervish 
loss, 10,800, and about 400 killed in the town, 
between 3,000 and 4,000 prisoners, about 150 
European prisoners released. The sirdar (Sir 
H. Kitchener) joyfully received at Khartum, 

3 Sept. ,, 
The British and Egyptian flags hoisted on the 

palace at Khartum 4 Sept. „ 

European congratulations . . . Sept. ,, 
Hostilities over, more surrenders, 8 Sept. ; Sir H. 
Kitchener finds major Marchand and a French 
force at Fashoda, which see, who refuse to retire 
without orders from their government, 19 Sept. ; 
sir II. Kitchener establishes garrisons at Fashoda 
and Sobat, and returns to Omdurman, 74 Sept. ,, 
Col. Parsons defeats the Dervishes (500 killed) and 
captures Geflarif, their last stronghold, after a 
desperate fight, 22 Sept. ; Ahmed Fedil, Dervish 
leader, defeated again, 28 Sept. his army broken 
up and followers surrender . 23 Oct. ei sey. ,, 
Major-gen. Sir II. Kitchener, K.C.B., created a 
peer of U.K. (lord Kitchener of Khartum). Sept. ; 
arrives in London, 27 Oct. ; received bythe queen 
at Balmoral, ji Oct.; many honours . Nov. ,, 
The khalifa attacked by " friendlies" on the frontier 
of Kordofan ; several emirs are brought to Om- 
durman 9 Nov. ,, 

The khalifa defeated near Sherltela, about 18 Nov. ,, 
Sudan honours and promotions announced, 1 Nov. ,, 
Col. Parsons welcomed by the natives at Suakin, 

10 Dee. ,, 



Lord Kitchener arrives at Khartum . 30 Dec. 189S 

Col. Lewis defeats Ahmed Fedil near Roseires, on 
the Nile; 500 Dervishes killed and 1,500 taken 
prisoners 26 Dec. „ 

Lord Cromer addresses the sheikhs at Omdurman, 
promises religious freedom, local government, &c. 

5 Jan. 1899 

Dervishes (2,000) surrender to lieut. Strickland, 

8 Jan. ,, 

Anglo-Egyptian convention signed at Cairo, 19 Jan. ,, 

Lord Kitchener appointed gov. -general of the 
Sudan 21 Jan. ,. 

The duke and duchess of Connaught arrive at Om- 
durman, 18 Feb. ; the duke reviews 9,000 troops, 
holds a levee, and visits Khartum . . 20 Feb. ,, 

The khalifa defeats and raids local tribes, reported, 

22 Feb. ,, 

The Sudan Gazette, in English and Arabic, first No. 
published at Omdurman . . .7 March, ;> 

Ibrahim Ali, with escort of 150 men, routed by 
Ali Dinar, the usurper of the sultan of Dar Fur, 
120 killed, reported 3 May, ,, 

Over 360 deserters from the khalifa surrender at 
the White Nile 3 May, , t 

Total expenditure for military operations in the 
Sudan charged on the public revenues of the 
United Kingdom, 1883-97, 7,890,112/., announced, 

19 May, ,. 

Thanks of parliament to the army, queen's message, 
and vote of 30,000/. to lord Kitchener, carried, 

5-8 June, „ 

Majors Maxse and Capper explore the Sobat river 
and its tributary the Pibor; favourable report 
issued June, ,. 

The Atbara bridge opened by lord Kitchener, 26 Aug. ,, 

Mahdist revolt on the Blue Nile ; sharp fighting ; 
2 sons of the Mahdi killed at Shukaba, 27 Aug. ,, 

" A Prisoner of the Khalifa : 12 Years' Captivity at 
Omdurman," by Chas. Neut'eld, published, Oct. ,, 

Sir Francis Reginald Wingate's Anglo-Egyptian 
force defeats Ahmed Fedil (about 2,400 men) at 
Abu Adil (White Nile) ; 400 Dervishes killed, 
many prisoners captured, reported, 23 Nov. ; 
the khalifa Abdullahi overtaken, defeated, and 
killed, "disdaining surrender," at OmDebrikat; 
Ahmed Fedil, 4 chief emirs, and many others 
died with him ; 1,000 Dervishes killed and 
wounded, and 9,400 prisoners, including women 
and children ; Egyptian loss slight . 24 Nov. ,, 

Egyptian government grants 10,000/. to cut the 
sudd of the White Nile, early . . . Dec. ,, 

Sir Francis (aft. Reginald) Wingate appointed 
sirdar and gov.-general .... 23 Dec. ,, 

Budget : total deficit estimated for 1900, 427,000/., 
reported 16 Dec. ,, 

Lord Kitchener leaves Khartum for S. Africa, 

18 Dec. „ 

The first through train from Cairo reached Khartum, 

10 Jan. 1900 

Osman Digna captured by capt. Burges near Tokar, 
19 Jan. ; taken to Suez .... 25 Jan. ,, 

Court of inquiry (4 Egyptian and 3 British officers) 
into alleged insubordination of Egyptian officers; 
10 degraded ; the khedive confirms the sentence, 

14 March, 

Lord Cromer addresses the sheikhs and notables, 
at Khartum and reports progress; law courts 
established, the land tax reduced, &c; reviews 
the Egyptian troops and receives chiefs of the 
Dinkas 24, 26 Dec. ,, 

Col. H. \V. Jackson appointed lieut. -gov. of the 
Soudan Jan. 1901 

Sultan Ibrahim of Wadai assassinated ; civil war 

over, reported 9 June, ,, 

The Bahr-el-Ghazal occupied by an Anglo-Egyptian 

force, end June, ,, 

Sir R. Wingate arrives at Cairo after a successful 
tour through the provinces . 31 Jan. -3 July, ., 

Major Austin's survey expedition from Omdurman 
to Mombasa underwent much suffering, 45 
Soudanese (lied . . . Dec. 1900-26 Aug. ,, 

Frontier quest ions lelaling to Erythrea settled 

26 Nov. ,, 
The khedive welcomed at Berber and Khartum; 
witnesses a sham light at Omdurman, 2, 3 Dec. ; 
holds a review at Khartum and opens the new 
mosque; leaves 5-7 Dec. ,, 



SOULAGES COLLECTION. 



1153 



SOUTH AFRICAN WAR. 



Agreement with Abyssinia re boundary signed, 
about 31 May, 1902 

Lord Cromer visits stations as far as Gondokoro, 
abt. 500 miles south of Khartum; finds order, 
.progress and content, but railways and other 
reforms needed Jan. 1903 

SOULAGES COLLECTION. About 1827, 
M. Soulages of Toulouse collected 790 specimens 
of Italian art and workmanship, &c. These were 
bought for 11,000/. by 73 English gentlemen, with 
the view of first exhibiting them to the public, and 
afterwards selling them to the government (who 
gradually purchased them between 1858 and 1865). 
They formed part of the " Art Treasures " exhibited 
at Manchester in 1857. 

SOUND, se3 Acoustics. 

SOUND DUTIES. Till the year 1857 no 
merchant ship was allowed to pass the Sound (a 
narrow channel separating Zealand from Sweden) 
without clearing at Elsinore and paying toll. 
These duties had their origin in an agreement 
between the king of Denmark and the Hanse towns 
(1348), by which the former undertook to maintain 
lighthouses, &c, along the Cattegat, and the latter 
to pay duty for the same. The first treaty with 
England in relation to this was in 1450; other 
countries followed. In 1855 the United States 
determined to pay the dues no more ; and in the 
same year the Danish government proposed that 
these dues should be capitalised ; which was 
eventually agreed to, the sum being 30,476,325 rix- 
dollars. In Aug. 1857, the British government 
paid 10,126,855 rix-dollars (1, 125,206/.) to the Danes 
as their proportion. — The passage of the Sound was 
effected, in defiance of strong fortresses, by sir Hyde 
Parker and lord Nelson, 31 March, 1801 ; see 
Baltic Expedition. 

SOUNDINGS AT SEA. Captain Boss, of 
H.M.S. (Edipus, in 1840, took extraordinary 
soundings at sea. In the latitude 33 S. and longi- 
tude 9 W. about 300 miles from the Cape of Good 
Hope, 2266 fathoms were sounded ; the weight 
employed amounted to 450 lbs. On 13 July, 1857, 
Heut. Joseph Dayman, in the North Atlantic Ocean, 
lat. 51 9' N., long. 40 2' W., in sounding, found 
a bottom at 2424 fathoms. The deepest sounding 
known (3875 faths.) was taken by the Challenger, 
capt. Nares, 24 March, 1873, in the North Atlantic, 
north of St. Thomas's. See Deep Sea Soundings. 

SOUTH AFRICAN ASSOCIATION, es- 
tablished Jul}', 1881, to promote the commercial 
and social interests of the South African colonies. 
A league formed to uphold British supremacy, with 
recognition of colonial self-government, April, 
1896; first annual conference at Port Elizabeth, 
II Eeb. 1897; 14° meetings held in Great Britain 
in 1897. The association accepts the co-operation 
of the South African league, Queen's Town, S. 
Africa (requested 1 June), 26 June, 1896. Mr. 
Cecil Rhodes, president, May, 1899; died 22 March, 
1902. 

South African Association for the Advancement 
of Science, sir David Gill, K.C.B., first president, 
started autumn, 1902 ; opened at Cape Town 
(762 ordinary members, 36 associates) 27 April, 1903 

SOUTH AFRICA COMPANY 

(BRITISH). See Zambesi and Rhodesia, 11 Aug. 

1896. 

South African Hospital Commission of Inquiry 
(Royal), see Mr. Burdett-Coutts' leiters, Times, 
27-29 June, 1900; lord justice Rem ?r, sir David 
Richmond, Dr. Church (knt. 1901), and others 
appointed, 23 July ; first meeting hsld at Cajye 



Town, 21 Aug. ; report, stating difficulties and 
urging reforms, issued .... 22 Jan. 1901 

SOUTH AFRICA CONFEDERA- 
TION : to comprise the three British colonies — 
Cape Town, Natal, and "West Griqualand (1873) 
— and the two Dutch republics, Orange River free 
state, and the South Africa or Transvaal republic 
(1852). The formation was proposed by the earl of 
Carnarvon, colonial secretary, in a despatch to sir 
Henry Barkly, governor of Cape Town, 4 May, 1875, 
and advocated by the historian, J. A. Froude, on a 
visit. It was much opposed at the Cape. See 
Cape. A conference of delegates in London was 
opened, 5 Aug. 1876. 

The South Africa Act "for the union under one govern- 
ment of such of the South Africa colonies and states 
as may agree thereto," was passed 10 Aug. 1877. 

South African customs union convention (preferential 
treatment for British imports) passed July, came into 
force, 15 Aug. 1903. 

SOUTH AFRICAN EXHIBITION, 

INTERNATIONAL, see Griqualand, 1892. 

SOUTH AFRICA REPUBLIC, name 
assumed by the Boers in the Transvaal {which 
see) in 1880-1, adopted by treaty Feb. 1884. 

SOUTH AFRICAN WAR (Boer Republics). 

For the origin of this war, see Transvaal, 1876 et seq. 

Boer ultimatum, demanding arbitration, with- 
drawal of troops from the frontier, compliance 
within 48 hours demanded, 9 Oct. 1899 ; rejected 
by Gt. Britain 11 Oct. 1899. 

Gen. sir George White arrives at Ladysmith, n Oct. ,, 

Natal train commandeered by Orange Free Staters, 

11 Oct. „ 
General advance of Boers, n Oct. ; they invade 

Natal at Laing's Nek and Van Reenen's pass, 

12 Oct. „ 
Armoured train under capt. Nesbit captured by 

Boers at Kraaipan 12 Oct. ,, 

British reconnaissance from Ladysmith . 13 Oct. ,, 
Newcastle occupied by the Boers . -15 Oct. ,, 
Mafeking invested : Boers, repulsed ; sorties under 
col. Baden-Powell, 2 British killed . 15, 16 Oct. 
Siege of Kimberley : garrison, 500 Lancashires 
and about 3,000 colonials, under col. Kekewich, 
aided by Mr. Cecil Rhodes ; successful sorties, 

15 Oct. et seq. ,, 
Patrols from Ladysmith have sharp encounter with 

Boers at Acton Homes .... 18 Oct. ,, 
Boers occupy Vryburg and Klipdam (under cover 

of the white flag) .... 19, 20 Oct. ,, 
Desultory skirmishing on the Limpopo, Rhodes 

Drift, and elsewhere .... Oct. ,, 
Battle of Glencoe or Dundee : Boers under 
coram. Lucas Meyer storm the British camp ; 
Talana hill captured by the King's Royal Rifles 
and the Irish Fusiliers, Boers routed and 6 guns 
taken ; gen. sir Wm. Penn Symons mortally 
wounded (died 23 Oct.), cols. Sherston and 
Gunning, 6 officers killed ; total casualties, 432 ; 
Boer casualties estimated, 500 . . 20 Oct. ,, 
A party of 18th Hussars under col. Mbller, in pur- 
suit of the Boers after the battle, was surrounded 
and the survivors captured and taken to Pretoria, 
22 Oct.] 
Gen. Joubert's combined force attacks Dundee 

without success 21 Oct. ,, 

Battle of Elandslaagte : French and Ian 
Hamilton rout the Boers under Ben ViLjoen, 
their guns, camp, and position taken ; col. Scott- 
Chisholme and 4 officers killed ; total casualties, 
223 ; Boer loss, gen. Koch mortally wounded, 208 
killed and wounded, 1S8 prisoners taken, 21 Oct ,, 
Mafeking bombarded ; Boers repulsed, 23 Oct. et seq. ,, 
Rietfontein : White routs the O.F.S. Boers, col. 
Wilford and 11 men killed ; total British casual- 
ties, in 24 Oct. ,, 

4 E 



SOUTH AFRICAN WAR. 



1154 



SOUTH AFRICAN WAR. 



Sortie from Kimberley ; coram. Botha and others 
killed ; British loss, 3 . . . .24 Oct. i 

Yule joins White at Ladysmith after a hard march, 

22-26 Oct. 

Plumer engages the Boers near Tuli . 26 Oct. 

Successful sortie from Mafeking . . 27 Oct. 

Lombard's Kop or Farquhar's Farm : position 
captured and Boers put to flight ; major Myers 
(eminent art collector) killed . . 30 Oct. 

Nicholson's Nek disaster: attempt to turn the 
Boers' position failed through a stampede of the 
battery mules, with the guns, &c. ; after despe- 
rate fighting, col. Carleton and 870 surrendered, 

30 Oct. 

[British casualties in these 2 actions, 1,227. Gen. 
White nobly took all the blame for last affair.] 

Brilliant sorties from Mafeking ; capt. Pechell, 
lieut. Marsham and 10 others killed ; Boer loss 
heavy 27-31 Oct. 

Gen. sir Redvers Buller lands at Cape Town, 31 Oct. 

Cape Colony invaded by Boers . . 1 Nov. 

Ladysmith isolated and bombarded : capt. Lamb- 
ton's naval guns used effectively on Boer camp ; 
lieut. F. 6. Egerton, of H.M.S. Powerful, mor- 
tally wounded ; treacherous use of the white flag 
by the Boers 2 Nov. 

British garrison evacuates Colenso, retires on Est- 
court ; Boers repulsed by the Dublin Fusiliers, 

2 Nov. 

British evacuate Naauwport and Stormberg 

3, 4 Nov. 

Successful cavalry action by Brocklehurst outside 
Ladysmith, near Dewdrop ... 6 Nov. 

Brilliant sortie from Mafeking . . .7 Nov. 

General attack on Ladysmith repulsed ; Boer 
casualties over 800 9 Nov. 

Reconnoitring force engaged near Belmont ; lieut.- 
col. Keith Falconer killed ... 10 Nov. 

Free Staters occupy Aliwal North . . 14 Nov. 

Boers capture an armoured train near Chieveley ; 
Mr. Winston Churchill, war correspondent Morn- 
ing Post (he escaped from Pretoria, 12 Dec), and 
over 100 British captured or missing . 15 Nov. 

Kuruman besieged ; Boers repulsed . 13-19 Nov. 

Estcourt in Natal isolated ... 19 Nov. 

Belmont : lord Methuen, advancing to relieve 
Kimberley, attacks the Boers under gen. Cronje 
and drives them with heavy loss from their posi- 
tions (grand charge of the Guards) ; British 
casualties, 270 (53 killed) . . . .23 Nov. 

Major Leuchars' Natal troops repulse the Boers at 
Tugela Drift 23 Nov. 

Hildyard repulses the Boers at Ulundi and near 
Estcourt 18, 23 Nov. 

Col. Kitchener encounters a strong Boer force and 
drives them back on Colenso . . 23 Nov. 

Successful sortie from Kimberley on Carter's Ridge, 

23 or 25 Nov. 

Enslin or Graspan : Methuen defeats the Boers 
witli heavy loss; commander Ethelston, R.N., 
killed ; total British casualties, 185 . 25 Nov. 

Gen. sir Redvers Buller arrives in Natal . 25 Nov. 

Naval brigade, under capt. E. P. Jones, follows 
Buller 26 Nov. et seq. 

Gatacro occupies Bushman's Hoek and Putter's 
Kraal 27 Nov. 

Modder River: Methuen attacks 11,000 Boers 
under Cronje and forces them to quit their posi- 
tions after 10 or 16 hours' tierce lighting ; cols. 
Northcott and Sloplord, 2 officers and 66 men, 
killed ; total casualties, 461 ; Boer loss unknown, 
70 captured 28 Nov. 

Gallant sortie from Kimberley, Boor redoubts 
rushed, major Scott-Turner and 22 British killed, 

28 Nov. 

Ciii. Plumer's column invades the Transvaal.3-8 Dec. 

Methuen repulses an attack <>n ins line ;tt Enslin, 

8 Dec. 

Successful sorties from T,:ul,\ smith under sir A. 
Hunter; Gun hill surprised, 2 guns destroyed 
ami 1 taken, 8 Dec. : Surprise bill captured and 
gun destroyed by col. Metcalfe's 2nd Rifle Brigade, 
ii:i\ 1 11 n ■ t charge, 28 Boei a and 1 2 Brit isli Killed. 

1 , I Ire. 



Stormberg reverse : Gatacre (misled by guides) 
attacks an impregnable position by night, aftera 
hard march, and is driven back ; complete disaster 
averted by the artillery; 31 killed, about 500 cap- 
tured ; total casualties, 702 . . .10 Dec. : 

Magersfontein : Methuen's attack on the Boer 
lines repulsed with loss ; grand courage shown 
by the Black Watch, Gordons, Yorks, and artillery 
under a terrific fire ; major-gen. Wauchope, lord 
Winchester, lieut. -cols. Downman, Coode, 19 
officers and 167 men killed ; total casualties, 
395 ; Boer loss estimated over 700 . 10, n Dec. 

Col. Porter repels the Boer advance on Naauwpoor, 
near Vaal Kop 13 Dec. 

Capt. Bradshaw killed in an action near the Orange 
river ; Boers fled to Goemansberg . . 14 Dec. 

Colenso, Natal : Buller's advance from Chieveley 
on the Boer lines repulsed ; attempt to cross the 
Tugela fails, 12 guns lost, lieut. F. Roberts, V.C. 
(lord Roberts' only surviving son), mortally 
wounded in trying to save the guns ; 6 officers and 
134 men killed ; total casualties, 1,100 . 15 Dec. 

[Sir Wm. MacCormac (died 4 Dec. 1901), in attend- 
ance on the wounded, reports fine work of the 
ambulance corps.] 

Lord Roberts appointed commander-in chief in S. 
Africa (lord Kitchener as chief of staff); leaves 
Southampton 23 Dec. 

Col. Dalgety occupies Dordrecht . . 24 Dec. 

The queen sends Xmas greeting to all the troops, 

25 Dec. 

Attack on Game Tree fort ; sortie from Mafeking 
repulsed, capts. Sandford and Vernon, lieut. 
Paton and 21 killed . . . .26 Dec. 

Skirmish near Dordrecht : small force under lieuts. 
Milford and Turner cut off, Dec. 30 ; rescued, and 
Boers defeated with heavy loss by capt. Golds- 
worthy and Cape police ... 31 Dec. 

Col. Pilcher, with colonials and regulars, captures 
Boer camp at Sunnyside, many killed and 48 
taken prisoners ..... 1 Jan. 

Mafeking bombarded, the hospital and women's 
laager shelled with loss . . 1 Jan. et seq. 

British garrison surrenders at Kuruman after sharp 
resistance 2 Jan. 

Boer attack repulsed near Molteno, Gatacre dis- 
lodges them from a strong position . . 3 Jan. 

French captures Boer outposts near Colesberg and 
again repulses them . . . . 1, 4 Jan. 

Ladysmith: Boer attack repulsed; "a soldier's 
battle," Cwsar's Camp and Wagon hill attacked, 
British intrenchments 3 times taken and again 
retaken, enemy finally driven off after 17 hours' 
fighting by bayonet charge of the Devons under 
col. Park, and' great gallantry displayed by the 
Imperial Light Horse (Boer casualties estimated 
1,700, over 200 killed); British loss, lord Ava 
(lord Dufferin's son)mortally wounded, lieut. -col. 
Dick-Cunyngham, 13 officers and 164 men killed; 
total casualties, 453 6 Jan. 

Suffolk regiment attacks a hill at Colesberg at 
dawn, but are overcome by treachery ; lieut. -col. 
Watson, 7 officers and 33 men killed, over 100 
captured 6 Jan. 

Successful British reconnaissance from Sterkstrom 
towards Stormberg 8 Jan. 

Lords Roberts and Kitchener arrive at Cape Town, 

10 Jan. 
Buller again advances towards Ladysmith ; Dun- 

donald surprises the Boers and occupies Zwart 
Kop 10 Jan. 

Cavalry reconnaissances into the Free State, 

7-1 1 Jan. 

Dundonald seizes Potgeiter's Drift on the Tugela. 

11 Jan. 
Buller again let ires on his lines . . 13 Jan. 
New Zealanders and Yorks repulse Boer attack on 

French's post near Kensburg . . .'15 Jan. 
New s. Males Lancers surprised, 13 captured, near 

Rensburg 16 Jan. 

Boer position shelled at Modder River . 16 Jan. 
British under Lyttelton and Warren cross the 

Tugela 16-1S Jan. 

Dundonald engages the Boers near Acton Homes, 

20 killed and 23 captured . . . 18 Jan. 
Clery's force captures ridge after ridge near Venter's 

spruit ... . . . 20 Jan. 



SOUTH AFRICAN WAR. 



1155 



SOUTH AFRICAN WAR. 



Warren attacks Boers on Tabamyama, capt. Hensley 
mortally wounded, major Childe and 16 others 
killed and missing . . . 20, 21 Jan. 1900 

Spion Kop captured by Buller's forces, 23, 24 
Jan. ; found untenable, being exposed to a raking 
shell fire, and evacuated, major-gen. sir Bdw. 
Woodgate mortally wounded (died 24 March), 
col. Buchanan Riddell killed ; total casualties, 
595 ; Boer loss about 53 killed . . 24, 25 Jan. ,, 

[British loss, Spion Kop, &c, 30 officers, 276 men 
killed ; total casualties, 1,437, 17-24 Jan. ; Spion 
Kop despatches issued, see Times, 18 April, 1902.] 

Buller's force retires across the Tugela, 26, 27 Jan. „ 

Loyal message to the queen from Mafeking on the 
ior>th day of siege 27 Jan. ,, 

British success, hills rushed and taken round 
Rensburg 2 Feb. ,, 

Hector Macdonald (knt. 1901), with Highland bri- 
gade, marches from Modder River and occupies 
Koodoesberg (died 25 March, 1903) . 2-4 Feb. ,, 

Potgieter's Drift : Buller again crosses the Tugela ; 
Vaal Krantz captured, 5 Feb. ; but evacuated 
after severe fighting, and the army again with- 
drawn 6, 7 Feb. ,, 

Boer attack on Gatacre's outposts at Penhoek 
repulsed, Brabant's patrol captured ; Edw. 
Dampier, wounded prisoner, shot by the Boers, 

7 Feb. „ 
Boers repulsed with heavy loss at Koodoesberg, 

8 Feb. ,, 
Lord Roberts arrives at Modder River ; Mac- 

donald's force recalled from Koodoesberg, 9 Feb. ,, 

British pickets driven in at Bastard's Nek and 
Hobkirk's farm 10 Feb. „ 

Boers attack Rensburg ; lieut.-col. Coningham mor- 
tally wounded, about 28 killed . . 12 Feb. ,, 

Operations for the relief of Kimberley at Magers- 
fontein successful ; col. Hannay marches to 
Ramdam from Orange River . . .12 Feb. ,, 

French leaves Modder River, 11 Feb., and by rapid 
marches seizes Dekiel's Drift, Riet River, capt. 
Majendie mortally wounded, 12 Feb. ; crosses the 
Modder at Klip's and Rondeval Drifts, 5 laagers 
captured, Boers fled .... 13 Feb. ,, 

Clements, hard pressed, retires from Rensburg on 
Arundel, grand charge of the Inniskillings ; 20 of 
the Victoria cavalry entrapped, died fighting to 
the last man ; Rensburg occupied by the enemy, 

14 Feb. ,, 
Buller moves from Chieveley and captures Hussar 

hill 14 Feb. „ 

Jacobsdal captured by the City Imp. Volunteers and 

others; lord Roberts enters . . 15 Feb. ,, 
Relief or Kimberley (total casualties during 
the siege since 15 Oct. 1899, 163 ; from other 
causes, 1,694): French with cavalry division 
marches rapidly from Klip Drift, joins col. 
Kekewich, drives the Boers out of Alexanders- 
fontein and the district, and enters Kimberley, 

15 Feb. ,, 
Cronje evacuates Magersfontein and Spytfontein 

and retreats towards Paardeberg . .15 Feb. ,, 
French routs the Boers S. of Kimberley 16 Feb. ,, 
Brabant's colonials capture a laager near Dordrecht, 

16 Feb. ,, 
Kelly-Kenny pursues Cronje's army (10,000) via 

Modder towards Bloemfontein, constant rear- 
guard action ; 2 laagers captured by Knox at 
Koodoosrand Drift . . . . 16, 17 Feb. ,, 
Paardeberg : Kelly-Kenny's and Colvile's divi- 
sions under lord Kitchener attack Cronje at 
Woolvekraal Drift, desperate fighting, cordon 
round the Boers completed by the Welsh regi- 
ment seizing the drift ; major Day mortally 
wounded, British casualties over 1,100 ; armistice 
24 hours granted to Cronje . . . 18 Feb. ,, 
Brabant with colonials enters Dordrecht . 18 Feb. ,, 
Buller advances steadily ; Dundonald captures 
Cingolo hill, 17 Feb. ; Monte Christo won by 
Lyttelton and Hildyard's brigades ; Colenso re- 
occupied 18 Feb. ,, 

Hlang wane -hill taken . . . -19 Feb. ,, 
Lord Roberts reaches Paardeberg, revokes armis- 
tice, issues a proclamation promising protection 
to the Free Staters if they cease hostilities, 19 
Feb. ; enemy repulsed with loss, about 50 
captured ; Cronje asks for 24 hours' armistice 



and is told to surrender ; he refuses, and his 
camp is heavily bombarded ... 20 Feb. 1900- 

Buller's 5th division crosses the Tugela, Boers 
driven back 21 Feb. ,, 

Cronje refuses lord Roberts's offer of safe-conduct 
for the women and children and' medical aid, 

21 Feb. ,, 

Buller advances again, Grobler's Kloof boldly taken 
by the Dublin Fusiliers ... 22 Feb. ,, 

Buller attacks Railway hill unsuccessfully, 3 offi- 
cers killed ; total casualties, 97 . .23 Feb. ,. 

[The queen sends a message of sympathy to her 
" brave Irish soldiers and her admiration for 
their splendid qualities," 24 Feb.] 

Boer reinforcements for Cronje defeated ; 88 pri- 
soners taken 23, 24 Feb. ,, 

Capt. R. de Montmorency, V.C., and lieut.-col. 
Hoskier and others killed in a reconnaissance on 
Stormberg 24 Feb. ,, 

Brabant occupies Jamestown ; Boeis routed, 

25 Feb. ,, 

Col. Sandbaeh finds a new passage of the Tugela ; 
Buller's army crosses ... 25, 26 Feb. ,, 

Pieter's Hill : Railway and Terrace hills ; Ttigela 
Heights: the Boer main positions between the 
Tugela and Ladysmith carried by Hildyard and 
Warren, 60 Boers captured ; British loss : lieut.- 
col. McCarthy O'Leary, maj. Lewis, capt. Sykes, 
and many others killed ... 27 Feb. ,, 

Clements drives the Boers back from Arundel and 
reoccupies Rensburg . . . 25-27 Feb. ,, 

Cronje surrenders unconditionally at Paar- 
drberg, 27 Feb. (the anniversary of Majuba); 
the British had drawn in closer each night, and 
a heavy bombardment had been kept up; at 3 
a.m. the Canadians, backed by the Gordons and 
Shropshires, rushed the enemy's trenches, thus, 
"clinching matters," for at 6 a.m. they surren- 
dered ; total Bo^r prisoners 4,000 (including 1,150 
Free Staters) and 46 officers, all afterwards sent 
to St. Helena. 

[British loss at Paardeburg, 18 officers, 245 men 
killed ; total casualties, 1,440, 16-27 Feb.] 

Buller, en route to Ladysmith, drives back Louis: 
Botha's forces, severe fighting ; British loss : 22 
officers, 241 men killed; total casualties, 1,782, 

19-27 Feb. ,. 

Relief of Ladysmith (besieged since 2 Nov. 1899; 
total casualties, 805) : Lord Dundonald, with 
Natal Carbineers and Imperial Horse, entered 
first, Buller arriving later ; reported complete 
defeat of the Boers and district clear to the 
south 28 Feb. ,. - 

[Queen's message to sir Redvers Buller: "Thank 
God for news you have telegraphed to me."] 

Colesberg occupied by gen. Clements . 28 Feb. ,, 

Colonial Dutch rising round Prieska, Kenhardt 
occupied 28 Feb. ,, 

Buller advances to Nelthorpe . . 1 March, ,, 

French shells and checks Boer advance near Osfon- 
tein, O.F.S 2, 3 March, ,, 

Brabant captures Labuschagne Nek, defeats and 
pursues the Boers . . . 4, 5 March, ,, 

Stormberg occupied by Gatacre . . 5 March, ,, 

Troops arrive in Carnarvon to stop Dutch rising, 

6 March, ,, 
Lord Roberts routs Delarey at Poplar Grove, 

7 March, ,, 
Driefontein : Boers defeated by lord Roberts, 102 

killed and about 20 captured ; British loss : col. 
Omphelby mortally wounded, 4 officers and 58 
men killed, 4 mortally wounded . 10 March, ,, 

Lord Roberts protests against the Boers' gros-? 
abuse of the white flag witnessed by himself at 
Driefontein 11 March, , ? 

Peace overtures made by the Boer president, 
5 March; rejected by lord Salisbury . 11 March, ,, 

Brabant occupies Aliwal North after sharp fight- 
ing 11 March, ,, 

French seizes the hills and railway commanding 
Bloemfontein ; maj. Hunter-Weston, with 10 
men, gets through the Boer lines, cuts the tele- 
graph, and blows up the railway N. of the town ; 
pres. Steyn escapes . . . 12 March, ,„ 

Lord Roberts enters Bloemfontein : Boers re- 
treat to Kroonstad . . . .13 March, ,, 

4 e 2 



SOUTH AFRICAN WAR. 



1156 



SOUTH AFRICAN WAR. 



Bai'kly East re-occupied by the Cape Police; rebel 
movement collapsing ... 13 March, icjco 

Methuen seizes Bishop, N.W. of Free State, 

14 March, ,, 

Proclamation issued at Bloemfontein ; surrender of 
arms ordered 15 March, „ 

Methuen, advancing towards Mafeking, seizes the 
ierry at Warrenton .... 16 March, ,, 

Plumer, after advancing to Lobatsi, is forced to 
retire to Crocodile Pools . . . 16 March, „ 

Boers repulsed at Fourteen Streams by Drummond 
and Peakman's column . . 16-18 March, „ 

Imperial military railways inaugurated at Bloem- 
fontein 18 March, ,, 

Lord Kitchener enters Prieska without resistance; 
200 rebels surrender, 33 prisoners taken, 

19 March, ,, 

Houxville and Zastron occupied by the British, 

19, 21 March, ,, 

Clements occupies Philippolis; Free Staters sur- 
render 23 March, ,, 

Lieut, the hon. Edw. Lygon killed and 3 officers 
wounded and captured, 13 mi. N. of Bloemfon- 
tein 23 March, ,, 

Mr. Fraser, member of the late Free State Govern- 
ment, appointed administrator of the Free State, 
announced 24 March, ,, 

Gen. " Piet" Joubert dies at Pretoria, aged 66, 

27 March, „ 
[Succeeded by coram. Louis Botha, 30 March.] 

JSir A. Milner, from Cape Town, received by Lord 
Roberts at Bloemfontein . . 27 March, ,, 

Methuen, at Warrenton, opposed by a large force 
of Boers, artillery duel, 21-27 March; he is re- 
called to Kimberl'ey . . . .28 March, ,, 

Sir George White leaves Cape Town for England, 

28 March, ,, 
Karee Siding, near Brandfort: Boers defeated and 

their position seized by Tucker ; British loss, 20 
men and 1 officer killed ... 29 March, ,, 
Col. G. H. Gough dies at Norval's Pont, 29 March, ,, 
Broadwood, hard pressed by comm. Olivier and 
about 10,000 Boers at Thabanchu, retires to 
Bloemfontein waterworks . . 30 March, ,, 

Sanna's Post or Koorn Spruit; De Wet attacks 
Broadwood; 2 batteries of R.H.A. and a large 
convoy were entrapped at Waterval Drift and, 
with 6 guns, lost; total casualties, 350; Boer 
loss unknown .... 30, 31 March, ,, 
Plumer lepulsed at Ramathlabama, near Mafeking, 

31 March, ,, 

Reddersburg, S. of Bloemfontein: a detachment 

of Irish Rifles and mounted infantry surrounded 

and captured when all their ammunition was 

gone; total casualties, 440 . . 3, 4 April, „ 

Clements arrives at Bloemfontein after a successful 

march 5 April, „ 

Methuen surrounds the Boers near Boshof and 
takes 51 piisoners; col. De Villebois-Mareuil and 

7 Boers killed 5 April, ,, 

Col. Dalgety and Cape Mounted Rifles isolated 

near Wepknek ; heavily engaged . 7, 9 April, „ 
Boers repulsed with great loss near Kenhardt, 

13 April, ,, 
Chermside leaves Keddersburg to relieve Wepener, 

15 April, ,, 
Bundle engages the Boers and seizes their position 
near Dewetsdorp .... 21 April, ,, 

Pole-Carew sriz s I UW Kop; Boers Med, 

22, i'3 April, ,, 
Ian Hamilton re-OCCUpies Bloemfontein water- 
works 23 April, ,, 

Maxwell's brigade seizes hills commanding the 

Modderal Kranz Kraal . . . 23 April, ,, 
Sir Charles Warren appointed military gov. of 

Griqualand West, leaves Durban . 23 April, ,, 
Pole-Carew reaches Roode Kop, driving the Boers 
back with loss 24 April, ,, 

Wepener relieved by Brabant and Hart, co- 
operating with Bundle; Louis Botha retreats 
North 25 April, ,, 

Ian Hamilton outflanks bhc enemy and drives them 
off the IVatenvorka and their position at Israel's 
Puort 24, 25 April, ,, 



Ian Hamilton and Smith-Dorrien defeat strong 
Boer force at Houtnek, 1 May (a day's halt 
ordered, his men having fought 7 out of 10 days) 1900 

Lord Roberts begs Mafeking to hold out until 18 
May, announced 2 May, ,, 

Brandfort captured by Pole-Carew . . 3 May, ,, 

Sir A. Hunter crosses the Vaal river at Windsorton, 

3 May, ,, 

Cavalry routs the Boers at Welkorn ; their right 
dislodged by Macdonald's Black Watch . 4 May, „ 

Barton routs the Boers at Ruidam . 5 May, ,, 

Lord Roberts advances : Hutton turns the enemy's 
right and crosses the Yet river, great gallantry of 
colonials; a maxim and 25 men captured, 5 May, ,, 

Winburg surrenders to Hamilton . . 6 May, „ 

Hunter defeats the Boers at Fourteen Streams, 

7 May, „ 

Boer white flan treachery : capt. Elworthy killed, 2 
officers and 21 men entrapped, near Kroonstad, 

10 May, ,, 

Lord Roberts crosses the Zand river ; Boers in full 
retreat 10 May, „ 

Lord Roberts enters Kroonstad without resist- 
ance ; pres. Steyn flies to Heilbron, which he pro- 
claims his new capital . . . .12 May, ,, 

Mafeking : Boers repulsed, comm. Eloff and 108 

Boers captured 12 May, ,, 

Col. Mahon, with Mafeking relief column, defeats 

the Boers at Koodoosrand . . 13 May, ,, 

Grenfell captures Newberry's mills, with stores, 

13 May, ,, 
Buller drives the Boers from the Biggarsberg, after 

a hard march over a waterless country, g-14 May, ,, 
Boer white flag treachery near Kroonstad ; officer 

wounded, 2 men killed . . . -14 May, ,, 
Buller occupies Dundee and Glencoe; Boer rout 

complete 15 May, ,, 

Hunter enters the Transvaal and occupies Chris- 

tiania 16 May, ,, 

Mahon marches rapidly from Barkly West and 

joins Plumer; they drive the Boers from their 

western positions, and by an action at Malopo 

river the advance to Mafeking is secured, 

14-16 May, ,, 
Methuen occupies Hoopstad ; gens. Duprez and 

Daniels, with 40 Boers, surrender . 17 May, ,, 
Ian Hamilton occupies Lindley, slight resistance; 

25 Boers captured by Hutton's M.I. . 17 May, ,, 

Relief of Mafeking, gallantly defended by maj.- 
gen. R. Baden-Powell and all under him since 
13 Oct. 1899; siege raised; Mahon, with a flying 
column, enters the town 4 a.m. . 17, 18 May, ,, 

Bethune's mounted infantry ambushed near Vry- 
heid; 66 casualties .... 20 May, ,, 

Ian Hamilton occupies Heilbron after several 
actions with retreating enemy . 22 May, ,. 

Lord Roberts advances ; French crosses the Rhe- 
noster 22, 23 May, ,. 

Hunter occupies Vryburg after forced march, 

24 May, .. 

French crosses the Vaal at Parys and pushes on 
towards Johannesburg; Rundle occupies Senekal, 

24 May, „ 

Ficksburg occupied, 24 May; Boer attack repulsed, 

26 May, .. 

Annexation of the Orange Free State, under the 
name of Orange River Colony, proclaimed at 
Bloemfontein 28 May, ,. 

Lord Roberts occupies Vereeniging . 27 May. .. 

Col. Adye defeats the Boers at Kheis . 27 May, ., 

Utrecht surrenders to Hildyard . . 27 May, .. 

Buller, sweeping eastwards, drives back the enemy: 
reaches Newcastle .... 28 May. ., 

Brabant's patrols (2) entrapped : 3 men killed, the 
rest taken prisoners, near Haminonia . 2S May, ,, 

Senekal: Rundle severely defeats the Boers; 38 
British killed 29 May, .. 

Sir II. Colvile's force reaches Heilbron from Yen- 
tersburg, after hard fighting . . 00 May. ,. 

British advance to Johannesburg: lord Roberts 
arrives at Germiston; Boers defeated and their 
positions carried by the Gordon Highlanders and 
City Imp. Volunteers, under French and Ian 
Hamilton,near Roodepoort . . . 29 May, ,, 

Comm. Botha, 100 men and Crerizot gnu captured 
al l toorukop 29 Maj . ., 



SOUTH AFRICAN WAR. 



1157 



SOUTH AFRICAN WAR. 



Warren defeats the enemy at Fabers ; col. Spence 
and about 17 killed . . .29, 30 May, 1900 

Pres. Kruger flies from Pretoria to Waterval- 
boven 30 May, 

Lord Roberts grants 24 hours' armistice to comm. 
Krause (see Trials, 18 Jan. 1902) at Johannes- 
burg 30 May, 

Johannesburg entered ; British flag hoisted, 

31 May, 

Col. Spragge, with Imp. Yeomanry (Irish), after a 

brave defence, captured by De Wet at Lindley ; 

British casualties, 78 . . . 27-31 May, 

Methuen's relief force defeats the Boers at Lindley, 

1, 2 June, 
Capt. Corballis with convoy surrenders to De Wet, 

4 June, 

Lord Roberts marches north, 3 June ; routs the 

Boers at Six Miles Spruit and bivouacs outside 

Pretoria 4 June, 

Pretoria entered ; British flag hoisted . 5 June, 
Buller advances in Natal; Talbot Coke seizes Van 

Wykhill 6 June, 

British reverse: 4th Derbyshires and Imp. Yeo- 
manry surrounded at Roodeval by De Wet ; 
lieut.-col. Baird-Douglas and 35 killed, 5 otlicers 
and in wounded, the rest captured . 6, 7 June, 

Botha's Pass captured by Hildyard; Buller's army 
through the Drakensberg . . . 8, 9 June, 

Methnen routs De Wet at the Rhenoster and 
seizes railway 11 June, 

Cans Vlei and Almond's Nek forced by Buller's 
forces; heavy Boer losses ; Langs Nek and Ma- 
juba evacuated . . . 10, n, 12 June, 

Gen. Villiers (French) mortally wounded and comm. 
Olivier killed at Rooikrantz, announced, n June, 

French, Ian Hamilton, and Pole-Carew attack 
Botha at Eerste Fabrieken; hard right on Dia- 
mond Hill, E. of Pretoria, Boers routed; the earl 
of Airlie, maj. Fortescue, lieut. the hon. Chas. 
Cavendish, and others killed ; great gallantry of 
the C.l.V.'s (lieut. Alt and 2 men killed) and 
troops 11, 12 June, 

Kelly-Kenny defeats the Boers at Honing Spruit, 

12 June, 

B-iller enters the Transvaal, occupies Volksrust, 

ii June, 

Wakkerstroom surrenders to Lyttelton . 13 June, 

Boer attack on Ficksburg again repulsed, 14 June, 

Knox defeats the Boers at Sand river ; maj. Sey- 
mour (American engineer) and 2 men killed; lieut. 
Harrison mortally wounded . . 14 June, 

Hunter occupies Klerksdorp ; comm. Andreas 
Cronje surrenders 9-15 June, 

Baden-Powell occupies Rustenburg ; comm. Steyn 
and 2 officers captured ... 15 June, 

Buller relieves Natal volunteers from service, with 
high praise . . . . . 15 June, 

Lord Roberts's offer of 5 days' armistice, 12 June, 
declined by gen. Louis Botha . . 15 June, 

Methuen defeats De Wet at Heilbron . 19 June, 

Hutton's M.I. capture 2 guns near Pretoria, 

19 June, 
Railway restored from Pretoria to Cape Town, 

20 June, 
De Villiers' commando surrenders to Warren in 

Cape Colony 20 June, 

Honing Spruit attacked by Boers; maj. Hobbs and 
5 others killed . . . . 22, 23 Juue, 

Ian Hamilton occupies Heidelberg after slight 
resistance ...... 23 June, 

Clements drives the enemy N. of the Zand, 24 June, 
British successes ; much skirmishing, 22-26 June, 
British convoy reaches Lindley after a heavy rear- 
guard action ; 10 killed, many wounded, 26 June, 
Senekal, Roodeval Spruit, and Hammonia at- 
tacked ; Boers repulsed . . 26, 27, 29 June, 
Clery occupies Greylingstad with slight opposition, 

2 July, 
Andries Wessels, head of the Afrikander Bowl, 
captured by Methuen, near Paardekraal, about 

2 July, 
Paget defeats the Boers near Leeuwkop, and pur- 
sues them towards Bethlehem ; flight of ex-pres. 
Steyn ... ..3,4 July, 



Roberts and Buller join at Vlakfontein ; i-ailway to 

Natal clear 4 July, 1900 

Boers' final attack on Ficksburg repulsed . 4 July, ,, 

Bethlehem captured by Clements and Paget ; 
British casualties about 100 . . .7 July, ,, 

Boer attack on Rustenburg repulsed ; 3 British 
officers and 4 men killed ... 7 July, ,, 

Guerilla warfare adopted by the Boers, early July, ,, 

Free State government officials surrender at Heil- 
bron 8-10 July, ,, 

Uitvals Nek : surrender Scots Greys and Lincolns; 
3 officers and 16 men killed; total casualties, 255; 
Boer loss also heavy . . . n July, ,, 

Mahon captures Boer positions near Rietfontein, 

11 July, ,, 

Boers lose severely at Derdepoort and Krugers- 
dorp 11 July, ,, 

Lord Roberts repulses the enemy in 2 actions near 
Eerste Fabrieken . . . n, 12 July, ,, 

Much skirmishing; Dundonald captures a laager, 

13-15 July, ,, 

Boers repulsed near Pretoria . . . 16 July, ,, 

Boers break through British cordon between Beth- 
lehem and Ficksburg, 17 July; overtaken and 
dispersed by col. Little ... 19 July, ,, 

Maj. English, with luiblin Fusiliers, repels a 
strong attack near Heidelberg . 21 July, ,, 

Methuen routs the Boers at Oliphant's Nek, re- 
lieves Rustenburg and joins Baden-Powell, 

21 July, ,, 

Bruce Hamilton seizes a strong post at Spitzray, 

21 July, ,, 
Ian Hamilton forces the Boers from Rusfontein, 

22 July, ,, 
Cols. Airey and Lushington rout the Boers at 

Magato Pass; British loss, capt. Robinson and 5 
men killed 22 July, ,, 

Hunter seizes a kopje S. of Bethlehem and forces 
Retiefs Nek at dusk . . . -23 July, ,, 

Lord Roberts's general advance east begins, 

23 July, ,„ 
Boers driven back ; Vredefort reached . 24 July, ,, 
Boers twice repulsed at Vlaklaagte . 26 July, ,, 

Gen. Pbinsloo and over 3,000 Boers surrender (Do 
Wet escaped) to Hunter at Naauwpoort, in 
Brandwater Basin . . . 29, 30 July, ,, 

Two sappers and 3 natives murdered by Boers near 
Frederickstad 30 July, ,, 

Collapse of Boer resistance in the Caledon valley 
and Basuto border Aug. ,, 

Ian Hamilton drives the Boers off the Magalies- 
berg 2 Aug. ,,. 

Maj. Gough routs the Boers near Standerton, 

4 Aug. ,, 

Harrismith surrenders to Maedonald - 4 Aug. „ 

De Wet crosses the Vaal, Kitchener in pursuit, 

6 Aug. et seq. ,, 

Guerilla warfare : desultory fighting . Aug. et seq. ,, 

Bergendal Farm : here Botha's force checked for 
24 hours the combined efforts of Buller, French, 
and Pole-Carew, but was finally routed on the 
arrival of lord Roberts . . . 7 Aug. „ 

Boer Plot in Pretoria to seize lord Roberts and 
murder British officers, discovered; 15 arrests, 

9, 10 Aug. ,, 
Field-cornet and 182 men surrender to Clery, 

12 Aug. ,, 
Col. Helyar murdered by the Boers, 31 July ; his 
body found by Col. Hickman . .13 Aug. ,, 

Euros River garrison of 300 Australians under 
col. Hore besieged by Delarey since 28 July (17 
killed), relieved by Kitchener . . 16 Aug. ,, 

Ian Hamilton captures 2 Krupp guns at Oliphant's 
Nek 17 Aug. ,, 

Baden-Powell attacks comm. Grobler's rearguard 
E. of Pienaar's river, lieut.-col. Spreckley and 4 
men killed ; Boer loss heavy . . 21 Aug. ,, 

Buller reaches Van Wyk's Vlei after sharp fighting, 

21 Aug. ,, 

Baden-Powell rescues 100 British and captures 25 
Boers near Warmbaths . . . .22 Aug. ,, 

Buller strongly opposed at Geluk's farm ; Liverpool 
regiment cut off, 10 killed and 32 missing, 

23 Aug. , 



SOUTH AFRICAN WAR. 



1158 



SOUTH AFRICAN WAR. 



Boer Plot to kidnap lord Roberts and the British 
garrison at Johannesburg ; Hans Cordua found 
guilty, 21 Aug., and executed . . 25 Aug. 1900 
Lord Roberts joins Buller at Belfast . 25 Aug. ,, 
Boers defeated at Winburg by Ridley and Bruce 
Hamilton ; gen. Olivier and his 3 sons captured 
by Queenstown volunteers . . .26 Aug. ,, 

Bergendal, N. Transvaal, captured by Buller 
from Louis Botha ; tine charge of Inniskillings 
and 2nd Rifles ; Boer general and 19 men taken, 
about 20 killed : British officer and 13 men 
killed 27 Aug. ,, 

Dalmanutha, sharp fighting . . 26, 27 Aug. ,, 
Maj. Brooke routs a Boer force at Kraai . 27 Aug. „ 

Machadodorp captured by Buller ; Botha retreats 
to the hills 28 Aug. ,, 

Lord Roberts takes Waterval Boven . 29 Aug. ,, 

French releases British prisoners at Nooitgedacht, 

30 Aug. ,, 

'Transvaal republic annexed to Gt. Britain by 
lord Roberts ; proclamation issued, 1 Sept. et seq. ,, 

Ladybrand garrison hard pressed ; relieved by 
Bruce Hamilton 4, 5 Sept. ,, 

Lydenburg taken by Buller and Ian Hamilton, 

6, 7 Sept. ,, 
Comm. Theron killed in a skirmish near Krugers- 

dorp, about 6 Sept. ,, 

Buller storms and captures the Mauchberg, 

8, 9 Sept. ,, 
Methuen scatters the Boers at Molopo and captures 

30 ........ 9 Sept. ,, 

Kruger and other officials fly to Lorenzo Marques, 

11 Sept. ,, 

Transvaal placed under martial law . n Sept. ,, 

Douglas defeats the Boers at Wonderfontein, 

11 Sept. ,, 

Hart captures many Boers and reoccupies Potchef- 
stroom 11 Sept. ,, 

Barberton occupied by French, over 100 Boers 
captured ; 74 British released . . 13 Sept. ,, 

Macdonald routs the enemy near Tapel Kop, Vet 
river 13 Sept. „ 

Roberts calls on burghers to surrender ; proclama- 
tion issued 13 Sept. ,, 

Boer peace delegates at the Hague issue an appeal 
to the powers for intervention . . 15 Sept. ,, 

Bultfontein garrison, under lieut. Slater, relieved 
after a gallant defence . . . .16 Sept. ,, 

Over 400 foreigners under suspect deported . Sept. ,, 

Lord Roberts occupies Nelspruit; further successes, 

17 Sept. et seq. ,, 

Lord Roberts returns to Pretoria from the front, 

21 Sept. „ 

Gen. Pienaar and 3,000 Boers surrender to the 
Portuguese, and are sent to Delagoa bay, 23 Sept. ,, 

Komati Poort ; Portuguese frontier, occupied by 

the Guards with slight opposition . 24, 25 Sept. ,, 
Bundle captures stores, &c. . . .26 Sept. „ 
Buller seizes Pilgrim's hill after a night march ; 

. Boers fled 27, 28 Sept. ,, 

Gen. Maxwell appointed administrator of the 

Transvaal 1 Oct. ,, 

Baden-Powell assumes command of the Transvaal 

and Orange river police . . . 2 Oct. ,, 
Skirmishes ; capt. Wiltshire killed near Lindley, 

4 Oct. ,, 
Reconnoitring party ambushed near Vlakfontein ; 

capts. Stewart and Pagel and others killed, 

8 Oct. ,, 
Col. de Lisle drives De Wet out of orange River 

Colony. N. of the Yaal .... 5-9 Oct. ,, 
Boers defeated ai Dwarsvlei and Frankfort, 

9, 11 Oct. ,, 
Lord Roberts issues army order thanking sir 

Redvers Buller I'm- ureal, services in Natal, 

11 Oct. „ 

Million's column lira\il\ attacked at Dalmanutha, 

3 officers and 8 men killed . . . 13 Oct. ,, 

Theunis Botha surrenders at Valksrusfc . 136011. ,, 
Settle enters Bloemhofand captures 50 Boers, 

14 Oct. „ 

Desultorj fighting; casualties on both sides, Oct. ,, 

Kroger Leaves Lorenzo Marques for Europe in 
the Gehierland, Dutch cruiser . . 2oOet. ,, 



Paget captures 65 Boers and 25,000 cattle near 
Pienaars river 21-23 Oct. ic 

Success near Zeerust, 20 Boers killed and 39 
captured 24 Oct. , 

Buller leaves Cape Town for England . 24 Oct. , 

Plucky defence of the little garrison under lieut. 
Tonkin at Philippolis until relieved by Kelly- 
Kenny 18-24 Oct. , 

Boers driven out of Jacobsdal, comm. Bosman 
killed 25 Oct. , 

Barton captures 2 guns and scatters De Wet's 
force with loss ..... 24, 25 Oct. , 

South African Boer republic formally annexed 
and styled Transvaal Colony . . 25 Oct. , 

Knox inflicts heavy loss on De Wet at Rensburg, 

27 Oct. . 

Prince Christian Victor of Schleswig-Holstein, an 
able soldier, aged 33, dies of enteric, at Pretoria ; 
much liked and lamented . . -29 Oct. . 

Further British successes . . 30 Oct.-3 Nov. 

Many natives shot in cold blood by the Boers, 

Oct.-Nov. 

De Wet and Steyn severely defealed by cols. Le 
Gallais .and De Lisle near Bon haville, 8 guns 
and 100 Boers captured ; col. Le Gallais, major 
Legge and 10 men killed .... 5 Nov. 

Smith-Dorrien drives the enemy near Belfast east 
of Komati river ; gen. Fourie and comm. Prinsloo 
killed 6, 7 Nov. 

Boers defeated near Edenburg . . 16 Nov. 

Suspected anarchist plot against lord Boberts, 
several arrests at Johannesburg . .16 Nov. 

Clements defeats Delarey at Baberspan . 18 Nov. 

De Wet captures Dewetsdorp after hard fighting, 

17-23 Nov. 

Paget defeats Viljoen and seizes Rhenoster Kop ; 
lieut. -col. Lloyd and 13 killed . . 27 Nov. 

Lord Kitchener takes supreme command, 29 Nov. 
Knox sharply engages De Wet east of Slick Spruit, 

2, 3 Dec. 
Lord Roberts's farewell army order testifies to the 

courage, endurance, and humanity of the troops, 

3 Dec. 
Delarey attacks a convoy near Rustenburg ; 15 

British killed and stock destroyed . . 3 Dec. 
De Wet's attempt on Cape Colony defeated by 

Knox ; Krupp gun captured near Bethulie, 

5-8 Dec. 
Mr. Kruger's appeal for European intervention 

fails . . . ... . . . Dec. 

Vryheid fiercely attacked ; Botha retreats with 

heavy loss 11 Dec. 

Lord Roberts leaves Cape Town for England, 1 1 Dec. 
Delarey and Beyers attack Clements before day- 
break at Nooitgedacht ; British outpost seized ; 

Clements retires on Commando Nek ; lieut. -col. 

Legge, 4 officers and 9 men killed, about 500 

captured ; Boer loss heavy . . -13 Dec. 
British successes in many places ; gen. Lenimer 

and many Boers killed . . . 4-13 Dec. 
Brabant's Horse trapped near Zastron, 8 killed. 

13 Dec. 
Knox drives De Wet in a running fight north of 

Helvetia 11,12 Dec. 

He Wet ami Steyn, alter being twice repulsed and 
2 guns seized, escaped through Springltaan's Pass, 

14 Dec. 
Boers defeated at Scheeper's Nek and elsewhere, 

13-18 Dec. 
Herzog and Kritzinger invade Cape Colony, 

16-19 Dec. 

French and Clements rout the Boers at Thorndale 

and drive them from the Magaliesherg ; about 

130 killed 19, 20 Dec. 

Martial law in northern districts of Cape Colony. 

,-o I tec. 

Lord Kitchener's offer of protection to the burghers 

on surrender well received at Preto] ia, 20,21 Dec. 
De Wet fails to get back into Cape Colony ; raiders 

driven back 26, 28 Dec. 

Helvetia: Boers capture gun and garrison, n 

British killed . . . . . .29 Dec. 

Colonial defence force called out in Cape Colony, 

1 Jan. 1 
Botha defeats British bodyguard near Lindley; 

lieut. -col. Laing, 2 officers and 15 men killed, 

3 Jan. 



SOUTH AFEICAN WAE. 



1159 



SOUTH AFEICAN WAE. 



Bruce-Hamilton relieves Bultfontein after 2 months' 
siege 4 Jan. 1901 

Disaster to the Imperial Light Horse after a 
gallant charge, 18 killed and 6 mortally wounded, 

6 Jan. 

Burgher peace committee at Pretoria issue earnest 
appeals to the Boers to surrender . early Jan. 

Boer night attacks on Belfast, Dalmanutha, 
Machadodorp, repulsed after fierce fighting and 
much loss along the Delagoa railway, British 
officer and 20 men killed . . . 7, 8 Jan. 

Farms burnt in South Africa up to . . Jan. 

Guerilla warfare continues : incessant raids, small 
victories and defeats ; slow but steady weakening 
of the enemy's forces ; Times . . Jan. et seq. 

Brmelo occupied, and Smith-Dorrien defeats Louis 
Botha at Bothwell, near lake Chrissie ; gen. 
Spruit and many Boers killed ; 23 British killed, 

28 Jan. 

Col. Grey routs Delarey near Ventersburg, 

17, 18 Jan. 

French (knt. May, 1901) drives Beyers from posts 
covering the Wilge river valley ; and Knox hotly 
engages De Wet on the Tabaksberg . 28, 29 Jan. 

King Edward wires to lord Kitchener : ' ' One of 
the queen's last inquiries was after yourself and 
the gallant army under your command," 30 Jan. 

M odder fontein : British post rushed, 2 officers and 
others killed 31 Jan. 

Mr. Piet De Wet, president of the Boer peace 
committee at Bloemfontein, urges his brother, 
gen. De Wet, to surrender, 11 Jan. ; announced, 

5 Feb. 

Morgendaal and De Kock (at Belfast, 12 Feb.), 
peace envoys, shot by the Boers ; natives flogged 
and murdered Jan. -Feb. 

De Wet again enters Cape Colony, 10 Feb. ; Plumer 
repulses him at Philipstown, 12, 13 Feb. ; cap- 
tures a maxim, 20 men and stock, at Wolvekuil, 

14, 15 Feb. 

Botha's attempt on Natal fails ; French inflicts 
heavy loss on the enemy ; Luneburg and other 
places occupied (major Howard, a Canadian, killed, 
17 Feb.) 11-22 Feb. 

De Wet, hotly pursued, is driven out of Cape 
Colony ; recrosses Orange river between Sand 
Drift and Colesberg, having lost guns, stock, 
200 prisoners and many killed . . 23-28 Feb. 

Peace conference between lord Kitchener and gen. 
Botha at Middelburg ... 27, 28 Feb. 

Delarey repulsed at Lichtenburg, maj. Fletcher 
and 15 others killed .... 3 March, 

Mr. Boyd and 4 others shot by Delarey 's orders at 
Wolmaranstad 9 March, 

Boers capture a train near Wilge river, Transvaal, 
and murder 10 unarmed natives . .11 March, 

Lord Kitchener's offers of peace and amnesty, 7 
March, rejected by Botha . . 15, 16 March, 

Philip Botha killed at Doomberg . mid March, 

Ventersdorp : Babington routs Delarey ; 3 guns 

and 6 maxims captured . . 22, 23 March, 
Dartnell and Alderson work successfully in east 

Transvaal ; 200 Boers surrender . end March , 
French's operations very successful; 11 guns, 

many men and stock, &c, captured in S.E. 

district, reported 5 April, 

Zelcoe river fight in Cape Colony ; British (about 

100) surrounded, 4 killed, 13 wounded, 25 escaped, 

6 April, 
Pietersburg captured by Plumer ; Bosnian Kop and 

16 men, &c, seized by Byng. . . 8 April, 
Maj. Twyford's small escort ambushed near Bad- 

fontein ; he was shot and the rest overpowered, 

mid April, 
Elerksdorp; Bawlinson captures a laager and 2 

guns 14 April, 

Sir Bindon Blood takes command in E. Transvaal ; 

train wrecking stopped . . . April, 

Lieut. Reid and 20 Australians seize a laager and 

41 Boers at Klipdam ... 24 April, 

The Tantesberg and Bothasberg cleared ; 1,081 

Boers taken or surrendered . . . April, 
Babington defeats the Boers at Hartebeestfontein 

and Lopfontein . . . . 27, 28 April, 
Boers defeated with loss, S. of Maraisburg and at 

Zwagershoek , . . -13 and 16 May, 



Zeerust relieved by Methuen after several months' 
siege 22 May, i 

British successes in Cape Colony and O. R. C. , comm. 
Swarts and others captured . . 22 May, 

Boers routed near Brandfort and Kenhardt, 

23 May, 

Vlakfontein: Dixon(K.C.B. 26 June, igo2)defeats 
Delarey, 41 Boers left dead on the field; 6 British 
officers and 51 men killed, 5 mortally wounded 
(Boers shot several of the wounded) . . 29 May, 

Laager at Pienaar's river rushed by Kitchener's 
Scouts, 27 Boers killed, 86 wounded ; 5 British 
killed and 21 wounded . . . .31 May, 

Jamestown, Cape Colony, taken by Kritzinger, 
2 June ; one of his forces is routed near Roodenek, 

6 June, 

Elliot defeats De Wet at Graspan, near Reitz, con- 
voy and 45 Boers captured (lieut. Mair and 2 
others shot in cold blood by the Boers), 6 June, 

Comm. Van Rensburg and force surrenderat Pieters- 
burg about 10 June, 

Disaster to Victorians (350), 18 killed, 42 wounded, 
2 guns lost at Wilmansrust, Transvaal, 12 June, 

Boers defeated with heavy loss near Zeerust, mid 
June ; at Orange Pan . . . -19 June, 

Cape Mounted Rifles severely defeated at Water- 
kloof 20 June, 

Boer attacks along the Delagoa railway repulsed, 

26 June, 

Train wrecked by Boers near Naboomspruit, lieut. 
Best, n soldiers and 7 others killed . 4 July, 

Kruger telegraphs to Botha, in reply to inquiries, 
to continue fighting 5 July, 

Broadwood captures 29 officials of the late Orange 
Free State ; ex-pres. Steyn escaped, but his 
papers were seized, at Reitz . . 12 July, 

French very successful ; drives Scheepers' com- 
mando out of the Camdeboos . . 8-15 July, 

Boers defeated near Jamestown . . 14 July, 

Lord Kitchener commutes 34 death sentences to 
penal servitude mid July, 

Gen. Spruyt killed near Vlakfontein . 20 July, 

Yeomanry (20) and some native scouts surrender at 
Doornriver, O.R.C ; a soldier and natives shot in 
cold blood by the Boers . . . .27 July, 

W. Kitchener captures gun and 32 men from 
Viljoen near Middelburg . . . 30 July, 

Many laagers captured in July ; comm. H. Steyn 
killed at Ficksburg . . . .31 July, 

Lord Kitchener reports shooting of unarmed 
natives by Boers 1 Aug. 

Van Rhyns Dorp captured by Boers after 7 hours' 
fighting . . . . . . 6 Aug. 

Jas^ Madhaila, native constable (unarmed), shot by 
Boers at Steytleville . . . .7 Aug. 

Comm. de Villiers and 2 field cornets surrender at 
Warmbaths 8 Aug. 

Gorringe routs Kritzinger's commandos near 
Steynsburg, 2 leaders mortally wounded and 
about 20 killed . . . . . 13 Aug. 

Proclamation, calling on the Boers to surrender be- 
fore 15 Sept. under pain of banishment and con- 
fiscation of property, issued . . 15 Aug. 

Laager rushed near Middlesburg by S.A. con- 
stabulary, over 23 Boers killed . 17 Aug. 

Lord Kitchener reports inefficiency of certain rein- 
forcements, published . . . 21 Aug. 

French's operations in Cape Colony result in 
expulsion of Kritzinger and disorganisation of 
other commandos Aug. 

Laager surprised at Doornberg, O.R.C. , Boer loss 
about 60 about 21 Aug. 

Boer attack on a convoy repulsed near Rooikopje, 
9 British killed, 23 wounded . . 24 Aug. 

Methuen, cols. Hickie and Williams clear district 
between Taungs and Mafeking, Krugersdorp and 
Magaliesberg regions, reported . 29, 30 Aug. 

Tea in wrecked and fired by Boers near Waterval, 
lieut. -col. Vandeleur, 13 men and 3 others killed, 
25 wounded 31 Aug. 

Concentration camps : 35,000 Boers and 74,589 
women and children .... Aug. 

Trains wrecked and looted by Boers in Cape 
Colony early Sept. 



SOUTH AFEICAN WAE. 



11G0 



SOUTH AFEICAN WAE. 



Lotter's commando near Petersburg, Cape Colony, 
captured by col. Scobell, 19 Boers killed ; Lotter 
and Breedt and 102 prisoners taken . 5 Sept. 

Methuen operates successfully in Great Maries 
valley, gen. Lemmer and 19 Boers killed, 44 
prisoners and stock seized . . 1-5 Sept. 

Scheepers' commando routed at Laingsburg by 
col. Crabbe, Van de Merwe killed, Du Plessis 
and 37 Boers captured ... 10 SejJt. 

Concentration camp at Middelburg visited by 
lieut. Malan, gen. Viljoen's aide-de-camp, and 
reported satisfactory . . . .11 Sept. 

Patrol of Guards surrounded, lieut. Rebow and 
others shot dead at close range . 16 Sept. 

[Boer leaders encouraged by pro-Boer speakers and 
press, reported, Sept.] 

Blood River Poort, near Utrecht: maj. Gough's 
force trapped by Botha, capt. Mildmay, lieuts. 
Blewitt, Lambton and 31 killed, 25 wounded, 

17 Sept. 

Lancers (17th) surprised at Elands River Poort by 
Smuts' commando, lieuts. R. Brinsley Sheridan, 
Morrilt and 24 killed, 33 wounded, 3 mortally; 
enemy, in khaki, also suffered heavily . 17 Sept. 

Boers attack an escort at Vlakfontein, lieut. Barry 
and s men killed, 2 guns captured (recovered, 

2 Oct.) 19 Sept. 

British successes : Williams captures 55 of Koch's 

force and transport, W. of Edenburg ; Benson 
captures, S.E. of Carolina, P. J. Botha, 53 men 
and transport 20 Sept. 

Lovat's Scouts rushed by Kritzinger, who fails 
to cross the Orange river, lieut. -col. and capt. 
Murray and 16 killed ; 20 Boers captured, 

20 Sept. 

Thorneycroft's men retake gun (captured 19 Sept.), 
1 Boer killed, 20 captured . . 22 Sept. 

Basutos attacked by Boers, severe fighting, 

24 Sept. 
Capt. R. Miers murdered by Boers bearing a white 

flag at Riversdraai .... 25 Sept. 

Forts Itala and Prospect, on the Zulu border, 
bravely defended by maj. Chapman and capt. 
Rowley ; Botha's army defeated and Natal saved 
from invasion ; 19 hours' heavy fighting, esti- 
mated Boer loss, 128 killed, 270 wounded; British 
loss, lieut. Kane and 11 others killed, many 
wounded 25, 26 Sept. 

Brigg's force surrounds Reitz and captures 21 
Boers, stock, &c 29 Sept. 

Moedwill: Delarey and Kemp's attack on Keke- 
wich defeated, heavy loss on both sides ; 1 British 
officer and 46 killed, 26 officers and 124 (some 
mortally) wounded ... 29, 30 Sept. 

Guerilla warfare, many engagements . early Oct. 

Martial law extended in Cape Colony . 8 Oct. 

Comm. Lotter convicted of murder, &c, executed, 

11 Oct. 

French captures comm. Scheepers at Kopjeskraal, 

11 Oct. 

Sir H. Rawlinson captures Meyer's transport, Boer 
loss 20 14 Oct. 

Many death sentences commuted : J. S. Kruger 
and lieut. Breda executed . . . 17 Oct. 

Many minor British successes ; Dawkins captures 

3 laagers and 76 Boers, W. of Nylstroom, without 
loss I7 - 20 Oct. 

Botha narrowly escapes capture, his papers seized 
by Rimington, E. of Ermelo . . 21-24 Oct. 

Badfontein blockhouse line attacked byVil.joen; 
Kemp repulsed by Von Donop's column, near 
Marico river, 40 Boers left dead, coram. Ouister- 
huysen mortally wounded; 2 British offlcersand 
26 men killed, 55 wounded . . 24 Oct. 

Byng's column, after n long nighl march from Coal- 
mine Drift, captures Spanneberg's laager; 
Daman t disperses the enemj Dear Villiersdorp, 

25 Oct. 
Convoy to Clanwilliani enpluied by Maritz, 29* let. 

Brakenlaagte : here Botha's force, about 1,000, at- 
tacked col. Benson's column, charging close under 
cover of violent rain and hail; Benson, lieut.-col. 
E. Guinness, maj. K. D. Murray, capts. Thorold, 
Eyre and 56 others killed ; m officers and 149 
wounded; about 44 Boers Killed, many wounded 



(Boers charged with cruel and brutal treatment, 
of the wounded), 30, 31 Oct. ; the fight lasted till 
the arrival of col. Barter's relief column, when 
the Boers retired . . . early 1 Nov. 1901 

Kekewich captures Van Albert's laager ac Beeste- 
kraal 1 Nov. ,. 

Dutoit's laager at Dooinhoek captured . 11 Nov. ,, 

Imp. Yeomanry from Brakspruit surrounded, 6 
killed, 16 wounded ; Boers driven off by relief 
column 13 Nov. ,. 

De Wet attacks Byng near Heilbron . 14 Nov. , r 

Bluebook issued on the concentration camps re- 
ports the ignorance and prejudice of the Boers 
on sanitation, &c 15 Nov. „ 

Plot discovered in Johannesburg to betray the 
town to Delarey, 20 arrests . . .19 Nov. ,,. 

Comm. Buys captured (after attacking railway 
pioneers' patrol near Villiersdorp, maj. Fisher 
mortally wounded) by Rimington's column, 

20 Nov. ,, 

Gens. Celliers and Andries Cronje form a volunteer 
burgher corps on the British side . . Nov. ,. 

Minor successes: Boer raids repelled, 13-20 Nov. ,, 

Knox's column capture comm. Joubert . 26 Nov. ,. 

Blockhouse system reported successful ; concen- 
tration of Boer forces prevented . Sept. -Dec. ,. 

Hon. col. A. Wools-Sampson (K.C.B. 26 June, 1902) 
captures a laager in Eimelo district . 3, 4 Dec. , 

Dawkins captures part of Beyer's laager near 
Nylstrom 4 Dec. ... 

National Scouts corps established . 7 Dec. ,, 

Extension of blockhouse lines . . . 11 Dee. ,_ 

Bruce Hamilton's columns, after a rapid march, 
capture nearly the uliole Bethel commando, 10 
Dec. ; also Piet Viljoen's at Witkranz, 16 killed, 
70 taken prisoners, gun recaptured . 12 Dec. ,. 

Comm. Badenhorst and 14 captured at Sterk- 
fontein 14, 15 Dec. ,. 

Comm. Kritzinger (wounded) and others captured 
near Hanover road .... 16 Dec. ,.. 

Comm. Haasbroek and 2 others killed in a fight 
near the Doom berg . . . .16 Dec. ,. 

Methuen surprises Potgieter near the Makwasi 
hills, captures his family and papers, 19 men, &c, 

18 Dec. „ 

Dartnell repulses De Wet with loss near Landberg, 

18 Dec. ,. 
Allenby captures Staats Artillerie under Pretorius, 

19 Dec. ,, 
Tafelkop, O.R.C. : col. Damant's force surprised, 

repels a tierce attack of Wessels, over 27 Boers 
killed ; 2 British officers and about 30 killed, 23 
wounded [Boers charged with cruelty] . 20 Dec. , r 
Kitchener's 2nd report of natives murdered by 
Boers, issued . ... . . 23 Dec. ,, 

Tweefontein disaster: col. Firman's camp on a hill 
slope rushed from the other side by De Wet with 
about 1,200 men (about 2 a.m.), maj. Williams, 
5 officers and 51 men killed, 88 wounded ; Boer 
loss about 30 killed and 50 wounded . 25 Dec. . . 

Mounted infantry corps organised in S. Africa, 

28 Dec. .. 

Bruce Hamilton, operating E. of Ermelo. captures 
105 Boers, also gen. Erasmus and 40 S. of Am- 
sterdam 29 Dec-2 Jan. 1902- 

Scots Greys ambushed near Bronkhorst Spruit, 7 
killed, enemy finally driven otf; reported, 4 Jan. ,,. 

Onverwacht: Plumer drives the Boers from their 
positions, gen. Opperman killed ; maj. Vallentin 
and 7 killed, 37 (2 mortally') wounded . 3, 4 Jan. „ 

Col. Wing surprises a laager N.W. of Ermelo, Wol- 
marans, Malan and 42 Boers captured . 10 Jan. .. 

Liebenberg, Boer leader, executed for the murder 

of lieut. Neumeyer, Aliwal North . 11 Jan. ._ 

Comm. Scheepers, convicted of murder, &c, exe- 
cuted at Graaf Reinet . • 18 Jan. ,. 

Maj. Whitehead and 4 men killed near Grinuatown, 
Boer loss severe ; reported. . . 18 Jan. ,. 

Gen, Hen Viljoen captured near Lydenburg, 25 Jan. .. 

Plumer, Pulteney and Colville capture 55 Boers 
between Spitzkop and Castrols Nek . 25 Jan. ,. 

Abraliam's Kraal, Riet river, Boers repulsed with 
loss ; lieut.-col. du Moulin and 8 men killed. 

2& Jan. ,, 



SOUTH AFRICAN WAE. 



1161 



SOUTH AFRICAN WAR. 



Laager captured by Price, comm. Vanzyl killed at 
Klaarfontein ; Marais, rebel leader, captured near 
Laingsburg 30, 31 Jan. 11 

Dutch government's proposals for negotiations with 
the Boers, 25 Jan. ; declined by the British go- 
vernment, 29 Jan. ; correspondence issued, 4 Feb. 

Successful British operations in the Liebenberg 
Vlei district, O.R.C. : Byng defeats comm. 
Wessels, 3 guns taken, 72 Boers captured, 3 Feb. ; 
maj. Leader captures comm. Alberts and 130 men 
from Delarey, near Krugersdorp, 4 Feb. ; British 
lines close round the Boers ; De Wet and a few 
others break through the Lindley-Kroonstad 
blockhouse lines 5> 6 Feb. 

Col. von Donop surprises Potgieter's laagers, S.W. 
Transvaal, 36 Boers taken . . .8 Feb. 

Sharp fighting near Fraserburg : Boers finally re- 
pulsed, 24 killed ; major Crofton and 12 British 
killed 8 Feb. 

Klip River, S. of Johannesburg : Mounted Infantry 
heavily engaged, lose n killed, 45 wounded, 

12 Feb. 

Parliamentary paper, list of natives (unarmed) 
murdered by the Boers, issued . . 12 Feb. 

Protest repudiating continental slanders on the 
British army signed by Germans in Natal ; 
similar meetings at Cape Town, Johannesburg 
and elsewhere .... 12, 14, 16 Feb. 

Col. Edw. Locke Elliot (K.C.B. 26 June) engages 
DeWetat Trommel, ioBoers captured, 16, 17 Feb. 

Judge Kock captured in Cape Colony . 17 Feb. 

Klipdam : disaster to Scots Greys, 2 killed, maj. 
Fielden and capt. Ussher mortally wounded, 46 
captured, afterwards released . .18 Feb. 

Col. Park surprises Trichardt's commando, 164 cap- 
tured at Nooiugedacht, no British casualties, 

20 Feb. 

Christian Botha, Natal rebel, sentenced coioyeais' 
imprisonment 21 Feb. 

Committee of ladies, Mrs. Fawcett, E. C. Scarlett, 
M.D., JaneWaterston, M.D. and others, appointed 
to visit the refugee camps, arrived in S. Africa, 
July ; report favourably as to food, hospitals, &c, 
over 100,000 men, women and children provided 
for ; the high mortality at one time, due to an 
epidemic of measles and the gross ignorance of 
the Boers themselves, 12 Dec. 1901 ; blue-book 
issued ; death-rate normal . . .21 Feb. 

Mackenzie captures Hans Grobelaar's force near 
Lake Chrissie 22 Feb. 

Klerksdorp : Yon Donop's convoy, under col. 
Anderson, captured by Delarey near Wolmaran- 
stad, 5 officers, 4S men killed . . 23 Feb. 

Successful movement against De Wet in the 
Harrismith district began about 16 Feb. ; the 
enemy's efforts to break through the British lines 
by night at Langverwacht, near Bothasberg (De 
Wet escaped, 24 Feb.), defeated by the gallantry 
of the New Zealanders, who lost 27 killed, 41 
wounded (out of 84); total Boer casualties, 819, 
25 Feb. ; on the last day of the operations, comm. 
Truther, being hemmed in between the Wilge 
river and Natal frontier, was granted an hour's 
armistice, and 600 surrendered . . 27 Feb. 

Court-martials held at Pietersburg, 16 Jan. and 5 
Feb. (resulting from evidence collected by the 
court of inquiry, held first 16 Oct. 1901) ; 4 Aus- 
tralian officers of the Bushveldt Carbineers (an 
irregular colonial corps recruited in N. Transvaal) 
tried and "found guilty as principals or acces- 
sories in 12 Boer murders " during Aug. 1901 ; 
lieuts. P. J. Handcock and H. H. Morant exe- 
cuted, 26, 27 Feb. [lieut. G. R. Witton sentenced 
to life imprisonment, lieut. H. Picton found 
guilty of manslaughter and cashiered, Times, 5 
April, 1902] ; meeting at Kroonstad condemning 
"slander and lies" against the British army, 
resolutions carried by gen. Piet de Wet, Mr. C. 
Born and others 25 Feb. 

Klip Drift or Tweebosch : lord Methuen's force, 
moving in 2 parties, was charged and routed by 
Delarey, Kemp, Cellier and 4 other leaders with 
about 1,500 men ; gallant stand made by North- 
umbrians and Lancastrians, lieuts. Nesham and 
Venning and their men were all shot down beside 
their guns ; 4 British officers and 64 men killed, 



10 officers and in men wounded ; lord Methuen 
wounded, captured by the Boers (but afterwards 
released and taken to Klerksdorp, 13 March), 

7 March, 1902 

Successful "drive" in the West against De Wet, 
190 Boers captured . . . . 9-15 March, ,, 

Bruce Hamilton captures gen. Cherry Emmett, 

15 March, ,„ 

Mr. Schalk Burger and other members of the 
" Boer government," with flag of truce, arrive at 
Pretoria, to treat, and then leave for Kroonstad to 
consult with the other leaders . . 23 March, ,, 

Combined movement against Delarey; W. Kitchener 
recaptures Methuen's 5 guns, 8 Boers killed, 165 
prisoners 23-25 March, ,„ 

Death of Mr. Cecil Rhodes ... 26 March, ,, 

Railway disaster hear Barberton, 42 soldiers and 3 
others killed, 38 injured . . 30 March, „ 

Brakspruit or Boschbult, Hart's Elver : Delarey, 
Kemp and 4 other leaders repulsed on all sides by 
cols. Keir and Cookson, great gallantry of the 
troops ; the Canadians (21) under lieut. Bruce 
Carruthers held their position bravely, the lieut. 
and 5 men killed and 12 wounded ; total British 
loss, 27 killed, 149 wounded . . 31 March, ,„ 

Boschman's Kop, near Leeuwlcop : severe action 
fought here by the Queen's Bays under lieut.-col. 
Fanshawe ; on the arrival of col. Lawley with 
reinforcements the Boers retreated with loss ; 13 
British killed, 5 officers and 59 wounded, 1 April, ,„ 

Comm. Erasmus killed near Boshof . . 3 April, 

Caspar Kruger, eldest son of the ex-president, and 
other burghers take the oath of allegiance; 
announced 5 April, 

Comm. Kritzinger acquitted of the charge of mur- 
dering native scouts . ... 6 April, 

Colenbrander captures Beyers' laager and over 100 
Boers near Pietersburg ... 8 April, 

Mr. Steyn, gens. Delarey and De Wet join the peace 
delegates at Klerksdorp. . . .9 April, 

Railway accident near Machavie, 13 New Zea- 
landers killed, 13 injured ... 12 April, 

Rooiwal: here Kekewich's column severely re- 
pulsed Kemp and Vermaas ; comm. Potgieter and 
43 Boers killled, and 30 and 2 guns captured, 

11 April, 

Death of commandant Theron . . 14 April, 

Bloemfontein-Sanna's Post railway extension 
opened 16 April, 

Schweizer Reneke captured . . .16 April, 

Maj. -gen. Bruce Hamilton's (K.C.B. 26 June) 
eastern move successful . . . 17-20 April, 

Boer peace delegates at Pretoria, 12 April ; consult 
the commandos .... 18-24 April, 

Vryheid and Utrecht districts added to Natal ; 
announced 3° -April, 

Col. Barker captures Manie Botha . . 1 May, 

John Potgieter's force raids and burns Sikobobo's 
kraals, 3 natives burnt alive ; the Zulus forth- 
with attacked him at Holkrantz ; 56 Boers and 
52 Zulus killed 6 May, 

Ookiep, Cape Colony, invested by rebels, 1 May ; 
relieved by col. Cooper ... 7 May, 

Operations in O.R. colony successful, 321 prisoners 
brought in 7 Ma y> 

Armoured train derailed near Pretoria ; lieut. 
Campbell and n men killed . 5 or 7 May, 

Ian Hamilton's drive on the Bechuanaland block- 
house line very successful, Van Zyl's convoy 
captured and many prisoners . . 7-13 May, 

Peace conference, 15, 16 May ; Louis Botha, De 
Wet, Delarey, Smuts and Hertzog leave Vereen- 
igingto confer with lords Milnerand Kitchener in 
Pretoria 18 May, 

Boers attack Aberdeen in Cape Colony, Van Heerden 
killed 18 May, 

Visaye, with 50 men, surrenders at Balmoral, 

20 May, 
Lord Lovat captures Fouche's laager at Stapleford, 

21 May, 
Jack Hi'ndon, train-wrecker, and his force surrender 

at Balmoral . . . .16 and 25 May, 
Comm. Malan, mortally wounded, captured at 

Ripon Road, Cape Colony . . -27 Ma y, 
British government's final answer received at 

Pretoria; Boer delegates return to Vereeniging, 

28, 29 May 



SOUTH AMEEICA. 



1162 



SOUTH AUSTEALIA. 



British terms : unconditional surrender, imperial 
grant of 3,000,000?. and loans for Boer repatriation, 
&c. ; no death penally on rebels ; Dutch language 
to be used in law courts when necessary ; accepted 
and signed by the Boers before lords Milner and 
Kitchener at Pretoria . . . .31 May, 1902 

The king sends a message of thanks to lord 
Kitchener 1 June, ,, 

Lord Kitchener congratulated the Boers on the 
good fight they had made ; welcomed them as 
citizens of the British empire . . 2 June, ,, 

Great goodwill and fellowship on both sides ; 
loyal speeches by Boer leaders, reported, during 
surrenders June, ,, 

Thanks of the king and parliament to the army 
and navy, colonials, Indian force, volunteers, 
&c. ; grant of 50,000?. to lord Kitchener (visct. 
26 June), ivlw had dealt with go moHle Boer 
columns over an area larger than the European 
states ; carried, 380-44 .... 4 June, „ 

Lord Kitchener sailed for England, leaving lieut.- 
gen. Lyttelton (K.C.B. 26 June), in command, 

23 June, ,, 

List of coronation (S. African honours), Times, 

26 June, ,, 

[Splendid service done during the campaign by 
the crews of the Terrible and Powerful.'] 

Total Boer force during the war about 75,000 ; 
about 3,700 killed or mortally wounded ; about 
32,000 prisoners of war, 700 of whom died, 
announced 8 July, ,, 

Boer archives delivered up to the British at 
Pilgrim's Rest, reported . . .8 July, ,, 

Total Boer surrenders: 21,256 (Transvaal, 11,166; 
O.R.C., 6,455 ! Cape Colony, 3,635). 

Cost of the war : 222,974,000?. up to end of financial 
year ,, 

Dr. (knt. 26 June, 1902) Conan Doyle's " Great 
Boer War" published, Oct. 1901, and his "Cause 
and Conduct of the War " published, Jan. 1902 ; 
widely circulated. 

The Times "History of the War," edited by L. S. 
Amery, vol. ii., 23 May; " Three Years of War," 
by Chris. De Wet and many others, published in „ 

Sudden death of gen. Lucas Meyer, aged 56, at 
Brussels 8 Aug. ,, 

Parliamentary paper, with telegrams and correspon- 
dence between gens, sir G. White and sir R. 
Buller, re the siege and relief of Ladysmith, 
issued, 19 Aug. ; Times . . 8 July, 20 Aug. „ 

Total British force in S. Africa, 9,940, 1 Aug. 1899 ; 
total sent there up to 31 May, 1902, 396,021 ; 
from home, 337,219; India, 18,534; Colonies, 
30,238; raised in S. Africa, 52,414; grand total, 
448,435; killed in action, 5,744; wounded, 22,829; 
died of wounds or disease in S. Africa, 16,168. 
Returned to England, sound, 68,531 ; invalided, 
about 75,430; to India, 10,134; to Colonies, 
regulars, 3,967 ; colonials, 12,294 ! total, 170,356 ; 
report issued 4 Sept. ,, 

Royal commission (lord Alverstone, Mr. Justice 
Bigham, and sir John Ardagh) to inquire into 
the sentences passed by martial law during the 
war, left for S. Africa, 9 Aug. ; 794 cases tried, 
26 Aug.-8 Oct.; 119 prisoners released, many 
sentences lightened; report signed, 28 Oct.; 
issued 2 Dec. ,, 

The Boers generals visit Europe and issue an 
appeal for the "General Boer Belief Fund " (Mr. 
II. Phipps, of U.S.N.A., gives 20,586?. 14.5. 5(?., 
20 Sept.) ; Times 25 Sept. ,, 

Boer meeting held a1 Pretoria to hear the report 
of the generals on their tour; total amount 
collected in Europe, 105,000?. . . 7 Jan. 1903 

Royal commission of inquiry into the conduct of 
the war up to the occupation of Pretoria; adni. 
sir John Hopkins, sir Henry Norman, sir George 
Goldie, lord Elgin, chairman, and others; holds 
many meetings, 7 Oct. et seq. 10 >.> : sittings re- 
sumed, 7 Feb.; report issued (see Addenda), 25 Aug. ,, 

SOUTH AMERICA, see America. 

SOUTHAMPTON, a seaport (S. England), a 

county of itself, near I he Roman Clausentuin and 
the Saxon Hamtune. It frequently suffered by 
Danish incursions: Canute, when king", occasionally 
resided here. The charter was granted by Henry 1. 



and confirmed by Kichard I. and John; and the free 
grammar school was founded by Edward VI. On 
17 July, 1861, a monument to Dr. Isaac Watts, 
a native, was uncovered; and on 15 Oct. 1862, the 
Hartley institution was opened by lord Pal- 
merston. The prince of Wales laid the foundation 
of the parish church of St. Mary, built as a memo- 
rial of Samuel Wilberforce, bishop of Winchester, 
12 Aug. 1878; consecrated 19 June, 1879. The 
British Association met here 1846 and 1882. Popu- 
lation 1881, 60,051; 1891, 65,325; 1901, 104,911. 
See Bocks, Aug. 1895. 
New deep-water dock inaugurated as the Empress 

dock, by the queen .... 26 July, 1890 
Great strike of clock labourers, seamen and firemen 
begun ; trade paralysed ; violent rioting ; conflict 
with the military, 8, 9 Sept. ; gun-boats sent for ; 
oi'der restored, 10 Sept. The strike, not recog- 
nized by London union, fails, n Sept. ; work 
resumed, 17 Sept. The Union Steamship com- 
pany import 46 foreign seamen from Hamburg as 
a check to strikes . . . . 21 Sept. ,, 
Arrival of the New York from New York, first 
steamer of the American line (6 days 2ii hours) 

4 March, 1893 
American and Italian warships in Southampton 
water, officers entertained by the mayor, 5 June 
et seq., 1895 ; the graving dock opened by the 
prince of Wales in 1895, and the deep-water 
quays opened by Mr. W.B. Beach, M.P., 12 Oct. 1898 
Princess Henry of Battenberg opens the Victoria 

wing of the South Hants hospital . . 7 Feb. 1900 
Sir Redvers Buller receives the freedom on his 

return from S. Africa ... 10 Nov. ,, 

Mr. A. Barlow gives 13,650?. to local hospitals and 

other charities .... end Aug. 1901 

Lord Kitchener receives the freedom on his return 

from S. Africa 12 July, 1902 

Dr. Lyttleton, bishop suffragan of Southampton, 
died 19 Feb.; succeeded by Dr. J. MacArthur, 
bishop of Bombay 9 Sept. 1903 

SOUTH AUSTEALIA was visited by capt. 
Sturt in 1830, and explored shortly after by capt. 
Parker and Mr. Kent, the former of whom was 
killed by the natives. The boundaries of the pro- 
vince were fixed by 4 & 5 Will. IV. c. 95 (1S34) ; 
and it was occupied 26 Dec. 1836, by capt. Hind- 
marsh, the first governor. It was colonised accord- 
ing to Mr. E. Gibbon Wakefield's scheme, which 
was carried out by the South Australian Colonisa- 
tion Association. The colony for several years 
underwent severe trials through the great influx 
of emigrants, land-jobbing, building speculations, 
&c, which produced almost universal bankruptcy 
in 1839. In five years after, by the energy and 
liberality of Sir George Grey, the colonists had 
overcome their difficulties, and the prosperity of 
the colony appeared fully established. In 1842 
the highly productive Burra Burra copper mines 
were discovered, and large fortunes were sud- 
denly realised; but in 1851 the discovery of 
gold in New South Wales and Victoria almost 
paralysed this province by drawing off a large 
part of the labouring population. Very little gold 
was found in South Australia ; but a reaction took 
place in favour of the copper mines and agricul- 
ture, &C. Before the discovery of gold, little 
trade existed between Adelaide (the capital of 
South Australia) and Melbourne ; but in 1852 
gold was transmitted from the latter to the former 
to the amount of 2,215,107/. principally for bread- 
stuffs, farm produce, &c. The bishopric of Ade- 
laide was founded in 1S47. Discovery of allu- 
vial gold at Tatulpa, Waukaringa, Oct.; favour- 
able report Dec. 1886. Sir Dominic Daly, 
appointed governor in Nov. 1861, died 19 Feb. 
1868 ; succeeded by sir James Fergusson, Dec. 
1868; by Anthony Musgrave, Jan 1873; by Wm. 



SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA. 



1163 



SOUTHEKN CONTINENT. 



Wellington Cairns, Jan. 1877 ! Sir W. F. D. Jer- 

vois, June, 1877 ; sir W. Robinson, Nov. 1882 ; 

the earl of Kintore, Dec. 1888; Sir Thos. Fowell 

Buxton, April, 1895 • su ' &• ^- Le Hunte, 1903. 

Population in 1855,85,821; in 1865, 156,605; in 

1871, 185,626; in 1877, 225,677; in 1882, 293,509; 

in 1891, 315,048; 1901, 362,604. 

See Adelaide. 1887, revenue, 2,014,102?. ; expendi- 
ture, 2,145,133?. Imports, 1887, 5,096,293?. ; 
exports, 5,330,780?.; 1890, imports, 8,262,673?.; 
exports, 8,827,378?.; 1893, revenue, 2,671,495?.; 
expenditure, 2,583,481?. ; imports, 7,934,200?. ; 
exports, 8,463,936?.; 1894, revenue, 2,424,385?.; 
1897, revenue, 2,561,520? ; 1900-1, revenue, 
2,818,712?. ; 1901-02, deficit, 239,000?. 

Resignation of the ministry ; new one formed by 
the hon. J. A. Cockburn . . 24, 25 June, 1889 

He resigns ; succeeded by hon. T. Playford, re- 
ported . - 18 Aug. 1890 

The earl of Kintore and party cross the continent 
from Port Darwin to Adelaide (see Australia) 

9 April-23 May, 1891 

Resignation of Mr. Playford, 17 June ; Mr. Holder 
forms a ministry .... 20 June, 1892 

Resignation of Mr. Holder, 12 Oct. ; cabinet formed 
by sir John Downer .... 14 Oct. ,, 

Income tax raised from 3d. to 5%d., &c. . 22 Nov. ,, 

A loan for 1,016,000?. for railways and waterworks 
authorized 9 Dec. ,, 

The ministry reconstructed, 11 May, 1893; resig- 
nation of sir John Downer, 14 June ; Mr. King- 
ston forms a ministry .... 15 June, 1893 

Income-tax doubled to make up the deficiency of 
57,000?. in the revenue for one year, 14 Dec; 
passed, 20 Dec ,, 

A loan of 850,000?. at 3^ per cent., passed 20 Dec. ,, 

Women's suffrage, increased taxation, and other 
bills passed 18 Dec. 1894 

Destructive storm at Adelaide and other places, 

9 Dec. 1895 

Federal enabling bill passed by the assembly, 17 Dec. ,, 

Exploring expedition, supported by Mr. Calvert, 
leaves Adelaide 22 May, 1896 

Failure of crops through drought in the north ; 
relief fund started at Adelaide . . . Oct. ,, 

Federal enabling bill passed by both houses, 

3 March, 1899 

The referendum results in 65,990 votes for, and 
17,053 against, the federation or commonwealth 
bill 29 April, ,, 

Lord Tennyson opens parliament . . 22 June, ,, 

Ministry defeated by majority of one, and resigns, 
28, 29 Nov. ; Mr. V. L. Solomon's cabinet, 30 Nov., 
defeated, 6 Dec. ; Mr. Holder forms a ministry, 

8 Dec. ,, 

Century (arts) exhibition opened by the governor 
at Adelaide 15 March, 1900 

Mr. Holder's 9th budget statement ; good report ; 
country prosperous . . . .23 Aug. ,, 

Mr. See, premier, issues a manifesto stating the 
policy of the state government . 26 April, 1901 

Mr. Jenkins forms a ministry . . .14 May, ,, 

Constitution bill passed, 17 Dec. ; Mr. Jenkins' 
ministry reconstituted, 31 March, 1902 ; parlia- 
ment opened 3 July, 1902 

Drought ends ; good rains reported . . 10 Sept. ,, 

SOUTHCOTT, JOANNA, a fanatic, born 
in 1750, came from Exeter to London, where her 
followers at one period amounted to many thou- 
sands. In 1792 she announced herself as the 
woman spoken of in Revelation, chap. xii. ; and 
a disease favoured the delusion that she would be 
the mother of the promised Shiloh. She died 27 
Dec. 1814. In 185 1 there existed in England four 
congregations, professing to expect her return. 
Her successor, Mrs. Peacock, died March, 1875. 

SOUTH-EASTERN EAILWAY, from 
London to Folkestone, opened, 28 June, 1843 ; to 
Dover, 7 Feb. 1844. 

SOUTHEND, Essex, at the mouth of the 
Thames, a watering-place, principally built by Sir 
S. Morton Peto (1809 — 89), has a pier above a mile 



in length with electric tramway and concert-room ; 
theatre burnt, 6 Jan. 1895. Population, 1851, 2,462 ; 
1871,4,561; 1891, 12,333; 1901, 28,793. $ ee Trials, 
Nov. 1894. Corporation act, passed 6 July, 1895. 
Statue of the queen presented by alderman Tol- 

hurst, unveiled by lady Rayleigh . 24 May, 1898 
Lord Avebury opens a new technical school, 24 Sept. 1901 
Westcliff hotel burnt down . . . 27 June, 1902 
Technical school (cost 20,000?.) opened by lady 

"Warwick 13 Sept. ,, 

SOUTHERN CONFEDERATE STATES, 
see Confederates. 

SOUTHERN CONTINENT. The Southern 
Ocean was first traversed by Magellan in 1520 ; 
and explored by Wallis and Carteret in 1766; and 
by Cook in 1773 and 1774. Of the southern con- 
tinent little more is known than that it is ice- 
bound, and contains active volcanoes. It was dis- 
covered in the first instance by capt. John Biscoe, 
on 27 Feb. 1831, in lat. 65 57' S., long. 47° 20'E., 
extending east and west 200 miles,— this he named 
Enderby Land, after the gentleman who had 
equipped him for the voyage. Capt. Biscoe also 
discovered Gi'aham's Land on 15 Feb. 1832, 
situated in lat. 67 1' S., long. 71 48' W. The 
Messrs. Enderby equipped three other expeditions 
in search of the southern continent, the last (in 
connection with some other gentlemen) in 1838, 
when capt. Balleny had command, who, on 9 Feb. 
1839, discovered the Balleny Islands, in lat. 67 
S., long. 165 E., and in March, 1839, Sabrina 
Land, in lat. 65 10' S., long. n8°30' E. In 1840, 
a French expedition, under the command of admiral 
D'Urville, and an American expedition, under the 
command of commodore Wilkes, greatly added to 
our knowledge in respect to the existence of a 
southern continent, and this was again increased 
by the expedition which sailed from England in 
1839, under the command of capt. sir James 
Clark Ross, who discovered Victoria Land in 1841, 
and subsequently penetrated as far south as 
78 II'. Antarctic expedition proposed by the Ar- 
gentine republic and the Genoese, Sept. 1881 ; the 
objects collected to be divided. Italian expedition 
under lieut. Booe, 1881-2. See Antarctic Pole. 
New South Polar expedition proposed by the 
Antarctic. Exploration committee at Melbourne, 
supported by the governor and others . Aug. 1890 
Th isum required for the expedition is 15,000?. 
Sir Thomas Elder subscribed 5,000?., other per- 
sons 5,000?. ; appeal for the other 5,000?. 
Committee appointed by the Roy. Geographical 

Soc. to promote Antarctic research . . Nov. 1893 
Meeting at the Royal Society to discuss Antarctic 
exploration ; addresses by Drs. John Murray, 
Nansen, and others, 24 Feb. ; the government 
declines to support further exploration ; the 
Roy. Geog. Soc. decides to send out an expedition, 
and to raise a fund of 50,000?., 9 June, 1898 ; the 
society gives 5,000?. and Mr^Harmsworth, 
5,000?., Nov. 1898 ; Mr. L. W. Longstaff, 25,000?. 
March ; 45,000?. from government, June ; total, 
90,000?.. autumn, 1899 ; an expedition was orga- 
nized by a joint committee of the Roy. Soc. and 
the Roy. Geo. Soc; the Discovery (Antarctic ship) 
launched at Dundee, 21 March, 1901 ; visited by 
the king and queen, 5 Aug.; leaves Spithead with 
capt. Robt. F. Scott, commander, Mr. George 
Murray, F.R.S., head of the scientific staff, and 
46 others, 6 Aug. 1901 ; leaves Port Chalmers, 
New Zealand, for Victoria Land . . 24 Dec. 1901 
The German government grants 6o,coo?. towards an 
Antarctic expedition under prof, von Drygalski, 
March, 1899 ; the Gauss launched at Kiel, 2 April ; 
leaves the Elbe, 15 Aug. 1901 ; and Kerguelen, 

31 Jan. 1902 

The Swedish expedition, under Dr. Otto Nordensk- 

jold, in the Antarctic, left Gothenburg, 16 Oct. 

1901 ; passes the S. Shetlands to Graham's Land, 

winters on the ice, and surveys district of the 



SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM. 1164 



SPA-FIELDS. 



unknown sea between Falkland isles and South 
Georgia, U.S.A. . . . April-4 July, 1902 

Morning, relief ship to the Discovery, under capt. 
Win. Colbeck, with crew 29 (total fund 23,000?., 
ioo?. from the king and 50?. from the prince of 
Wales, raised mainly through the exertions of 
sir Clements Markham, president of the Roy. 
Geographical Soc), leaves London 9 July, 1902 ; 
leaves Lyttelton, N.Z. , 6 Dec. ; Scottish Antarctic 
expedition in the Scotia, commanded by lieut. 
W. S. Bruce, reaches Kingstown . . 3 Nov. ,, 

SOUTH KENSINGTON MUSEUM, 

near Brompton old church (containing the pic- 
tures presented by Mr. Vernon, Mr. Sheepshanks, 
Mrs. Ellison, and those bequeathed by Turner, 
the great painter, as well as specimens of sculpture 
and art, educational collections, pi-oducts of the 
animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms, &c), was 
opened on 22 June, 1857. A special exhibition of 
works of art, of immense value, lent for the occasion, 
was opened here in the summer of 1862, and closed 
in November. In July, 1873, a testimonial to Mr. 
(aft. sir) Henry Cole, C.B., was proposed for his 
exertions in organizing this museum, and in pro- 
moting its objects. Directors, sir P. Cunliffe- 
Owen, 1873 — 93, died 23 March, 1894; major-gen. 
Festing and prof. J. H. Middleton, 1893 (prof. 
Middleton died from an overdose of morphia, 10 
June, 1896) ; Mr. C. Purdon Clarke, June, 1896. 
See Design and Arts, Sept. 1896. Needles. 
Mr. John Forster, biographer of Dickens, be- 
queathed his library of books, MSS., paintings, 
and drawings to this museum. He died 1 Feb. . 1876 
Scientific Apparatus Loan Exhibition (which see) 

opened 13 May, closed .... 30 Dec. ,, 
Mr. John Jones' bequeaths a collection of works of 

art, &c. ; estimated value, 500,000?. . . Jan. 1882 
Report of committee on the museum . May, 1897 
Queen Victoria lays the memorial stone of the Vic- 
toria and Albert museum . . . 17 May, 1399 
SOUTHPOBT, Lancashire, a watering place, 
founded in 1792 on a sandy waste, has rapidly pro- 
gressed, now possessing an esplanade 3 miles long, 
and many fine buildings. It was made a municipal 
borough in 1867, and received the British Associa- 
tion 19 Sept. 1883. Population, 1851, 4,765 ; 1871, 
18,085; 1891,43,026; 1901,48,083. 

SOUTH- SEA BUBBLE commenced with 
the establishment of the South-sea company in 
1710, which was at first unwisely and afterwards 
dishonestly managed. It exploded in 1720, ruining 
thousands of families; and the directors' estates, 
to the value of 2,014,000^., were seized in 1721 and 
sold. Mr. Knight, the cashier, absconded with 
100,000/J. ; but he compounded the fraud for 
10,000^., and returned to England in 1743. Almost 
all the wealthy persons in the kingdom had become 
speculators ; tire artifices of the directors having 
raised the shares, originally 100L, to the price of 
IOOO^. A parliamentary inquiry took place in 
Nov. 1720, and Aislabie, chancellor of the exche- 
quer, and several members of parliament were 
expelled the house in 1721 ; see Laiv's Bubble. 

SOUTHWARK (S. London) was governed by 
its own bailiffs till 1327. The city, however, found 
great inconvenience from the number of malefac- 
tors who escaped thither, in order to be out of the 
reach and cognizance of the city magistrates ; and 
a grant was made of Southwark to the city of 
London by the crown, for a small annuity. In 
Edward Vl.'s reign it was formed into a city ward, 
and was named Bridge Ward Without, 1550.— 
Southwark bridge was designed by John Bonnie, 
and built by a company, 1815-I9, at an expense 
of 800,000/. It consists id' three great cast-iron 
arches, resting on massive stone piers and abut- 
ments; the distance between the abutments is 708 



feet; the centre arch is 240 feet span, the two 
others 2 10 feet each ; and the total weight of iron 
5308 tons. The bridge was freed from toll on 8 
Nov. 1864, the company receiving a compensation 
from the city. An act for the payment of divi- 
dends to shareholders was passed in 1872. — South- 
ivark park was opened, 19 June, 1869. By the 
Seats act (1885), Southwark sends three members 
to parliament. 
City and South London Electric Railway (see 

TvMnels) opened . . 4 Nov. and 18 Dec. 1890 
The priory church of St. Marie Overie, dating from 
the 13th century, was leased from the crown to 
the united parishes of St. Margaret and St. Mary 
Magdalene, and became the parish church as St. 
Saviour's in 1540. Since then many changes have 
been made ; Mr. G. Gwilt repaired the tower, the 
lady chapel, and the choir, 1818 et seq. The roof 
of the nave was removed in 1831, and in 1839 re ~ 
placed by lath and plaster. The prince of Wales, 
laid the memorial stone of a new nave, 24 July, 
1890; the church re-opened after restoration at 
a total cost of 95,000?., the prince of Wales, the 
archbishop of Canterbury and others present, 
16 Feb. 1897 ; memorial windows to the prince 
consort and others unveiled, new clock and bells 
started by the duke of Connaught, 22 June, 1898. 
The prince and princess of Wales visit the Evelina 
hospital ; he lays the foundation stone of the 
new buildings of the R. S. London Ophthalmic 

Hospital 24 July, 1897 

Petition of Southwark for incorporation with the 
city, April, 1896 ; bill rejected by the commons, 

22 March, ,, 
St. Olave's and St. John's institute, Tooley-st., 

opened by the duke of Cambridge . 28 Nov. 1898 
King visits Southwark in royal progress through 

South London 25 Oct. 1902 

The prince and princess of Wales inaugurated new 
buildings of St. Saviour and St. Olave's Grammar 
school for girls in New Kent-road . 14 March, 1903 

SOUTHWELL, Nottinghamshire, an ancient 
Saxon town, where a church was founded by Pau- 
linus, archbishop of York, 627 ; made collegiate 
before the conquest, refounded by Henry VIII., 
and made a bishopric by Henry VIII. , 1541 ; dis- 
solved by Edward VI. Collegiate church restored 
by Elizabeth, 1586. Near here Charles I. surren- 
dered himself to the Scotch army in 1646. The 
Bishoprics act, authorising the establishment of a 
see at Southwell, was passed, 16 Aug. 1878. Con- 
stituted (to consist of the counties of Derby and 
Nottingham), 2 Feb. 1884. The restored minster 
re-openedas cathedral, 2 Feb. 1888. 
First bishop, George Ridding, consecrated 1 May, 1884. 

SOUTHWOLD, seeSolebag. 

SOVEREIGN, an ancient and modern British 
gold coin. In 1489 22 \ pieces, in value 20s., " to 
be called the sovereign,' ' were ordered to be coined 
out of a pound of gold. Ending. In 1542 sove- 
reigns were coined in value 20«., which afterwards, 
in 1550 and 1552 (4 & 6 Fd. VI.), passed for 24.S. 
and 30s. "Sovereigns" of the new coinage were 
directed to pass for 206'. I July, and half-sovereigns 
for 10s. 10 Oct. 1817; see Coin and Gold. By the 
Coinage act, 1S70, the weight of the sovereign is 
fixed at 123-27447 grains troy; specific gravity, 
T'Sr; (9 I( r67, gold being ioob) ; half-sovereigns, 
6r63723 grains. The dragon sovereigns were re- 
issued in 1871. 

SPA-FIELDS (N- London). Here about 
30,000 persons assembled to vote an address from 
the distressed manufacturers to the prince regent, 
i 15 Nov. 1816. A second meeting, 2 Dec. following, 
terminated in an alarming riot ; the shops of 
several gunsmiths were attacked for arms by the 
rioters ; and in the shop of Mr. Beckwith, on Snow- 
I hill, Mr. Piatt was wounded, and much injury was 



SPAHIS. 



1165 



SPAIN. 



done before the tumult was suppressed. For this 
riot, Cashman, a seaman, was hanged, 12 March, 
1817. Watson, the ringleader, escaped to America. 
Spa-fields Chapel, a dome building, originally a place 
of entertainment named the Pantheon, erected, 
1770, was after several changes purchased by the 
countess of Huntingdon and used as a place of 
worship for her " connection " (see Whitefieldites). 
This chapel was pulled down in 1887 

SPAHIS, see Sepoys. 

SPAIN (the ancient Iberia and Hispania), the 
S.W. peninsula of Europe. The Phoenicians and 
Carthaginians successively planted colonies on the 
coasts, which were all conquered by the Eomans, 
206 k.c. Population of Spain in 1857, 15,464,078 ; 
of the colonies, 6,333,887; 1883, total 25,022,880; 
in 1887, 17,564,588 ; 1897, 18,089,500. Kevenue : 
1822, about 6,006,000^. ; 1850, 12,722,200/.; 1871, 
about 26,000,000/. ; 1883-4, 32,095,075/. ; 1891, 
32,222,055/.; expenditure, 32,456,530/.; 1894, 
30,765,074/. ; 1901, revenue (budget), 35,486,166/.; 
expenditure, 36,184,930/. 

The Carthaginians, enriched by the mines of Spain B.C. 
(480 B.C. et seq.), form settlements . . . 360 
New Carthage (Carthagena) founded by Hasdrubal 242 
Hamilcar extends their dominions in Spain . 238-233 
At his death, Hannibal, his son, takes the com- 
mand, 221 ; prepares for war, 220 ; takes Sagun- 
tum, 219 ; crosses the Alps, and enters Italy . 218 
The Romans carry the war into Spain ; two Scipios 

defeated and slain by Hasdrubal . . . . 212 
Pub. Cornelius Scipio Africanus takes New Carthage, 

210 or 209 ; drives the Carthaginians out of Spain 207 
Celtiberian and Numantine war . . . 153-133 

Viriathus, general of the Celtiberians and Lusi- 
tanians, subdued all West Spain, 145 ; makes 
peace with the consul Fabius Servilianus, 142 ; 
assassinated by order of the Romans . . . 140 
Insurrection of Sertorius, 78 ; subdued by Pompey, 

and assassinated 72 

Julius Cassar quells an insurrection in Spain . . 67 

Pompey governs Spain 60-50 

Revolt through the rapacity of Crassus . . 48-47 

Era of Spain : conquest by Augustus begun, 1 Jan. 38 
The Vandals, Alani and Suevi, wrest Spain from 

the Romans a. d. 409 

Adolphus founds the kingdom of the Visigoths . . 414 
The Vandals pass over to Africa .... 429 
Theodoric I. vanquishes the Suevi . . . . 452 
Assassinated by his brother Euric, who becomes 

master of all Spain 466 

Recared I. expels the Franks 587 

He abjures Arianism, and rules ably . . till 601 
Wamba's wise administration ; he prepared a fleet 

for defence against the Saracens . . 672-677 

The Arabs invited into Spain against king Roderic . 709 

His defeat and death at Xeres 711 

Establishment of the Saracens at Cordova . . „ 

Victorious progress of Musa and Tarik . . 712-13 
Emirs rule at Cordova ; Pelayo, of Gothic blood, 

rules in Asturias and Leon 718 

The Saracens defeated at Tours by Charles Martel, 

732 or 733 
Abderahman the first king at Cordova . . . 755 

Invasion of Charlemagne 777-78 

Sancho Ifiigo. count of Navarre, &c. . . . 873 
Sancho of Navarre becomes king of Castile . . 1026 
The kingdom of Aragon commenced under Rami- 
rez 1 1035 

Leon and Asturias united to Castile . . . . 1037 
Portugal taken from the Saracens by Henry of 

Besangon (see Portugal) 1095 

The Saracens, beset on all sides by the Christians, 
call in the aid of the Moors from Africa, who seize 
the dominions they came to protect, and subdue 

the Saracens 1091 et seq. 

Exploits of the Cid Rodrigo ; dies . . about 1099 
Dynasty of the Almoravides at Cordova . 1094-1144 
The Moors defeated in several battles by Alfonso of 

Leon „ 

Dynasty of the Almohades at Cordova . 1144-1225 
Cordova, Toledo, Seville, &c, taken by Ferdinand 
of Castile and Leon 1233-48 



The kingdom of Granada begun by the Moors, last 

refuge from the power of the Christians . . . 1238 
The crown of Navarre passes to the royal family of 

France I274 

200,000 Moors arrive to assist the king of Granada . 1327 
They are defeated at Tarifa by Alfonso XI. of Cas- 
tile with great slaughter 1340 

Reign of Pedro the Cruel 1350 

His alliance with Edward the Black Prince . . 1363 
Defeated at Montiel and treacherously slain . . 1369 
Ferdinand II. of Aragon marries Isabella of Castile, 
18 Oct. 1469 ; and nearly the whole Christian 
dominions of Spain are united in one monarchy . 1479 
Establishment of the Inquisition . . . 1480-4 

Persecution of the Jews 1492-8 

Granada taken after a two years' siege ; and the 
power of the Moors is finally extirpated by Ferdi- 
nand I4 g 2 

Jews expelled 

Columbus is sent from Spain to explore the western 

ocean 17 April, „ 

Mahometans persecuted and expelled . . 1499-1502 

Death of Columbus 20 May, 1506 

Ferdinand conquers great part of Navarre . . 1512 
Accession of the house of Austria to the throne of 

Spain ; Charles I. of Spain 1516 

Able administration of Ximenes ; ungratefully 

used, 1516 ; his death 1517 

Charles elected emperor of Germany . . . . 1519 

Insurrection in Castile 1520-21 

Philip of Spain marries Mary of England 25 July, 1554 
Charles abdicates and retires from the world * . 1556 
War with France ; victory at St. Quentin 10 Aug. 1557 
Philip II. commences his bloody persecution of the 

protestants 1561 

The Escurial begun building 1563 

Revolt of the Moriscoes, 1567 ; suppressed . . . 1570 
Naval victory of Lepanto over the Turks 7 Oct. 1571 
Portugal united to Spain by conquest . . . 1580 

The Spanish Armada destroyed ; see Armada. . 1588 
Philip III. banishes the Moors (900,000) . 1598-1610 
Ministry of the duke of Lerma . . . . 1598-1613 

Ministry of Olivarez 1621-43 

Philip IV. loses Portugal 1640 

Death of Charles II. , last of the house of Austria ; 
accession of Philip V. of the house of Bourbon . 1700 

War of the Succession 1702-13 

Gibraltar taken by the English . . . . 1704 

Siege of Barcelona 1713 

Able government of cardinal Alberoni ; he re-estab- 
lished the authority of the king, reformed many 
abuses ; and raised Spain to the rank of a first 
power, 1715-20 ; ordered to quit Spain . . . 1720 
Charles, son of Philip V., conquers Naples . . 1735 
Charles III. king of the Two Sicilies, succeeds to 

the crown of Spain 1759 

War with England, 1762-3 ; and .... 1796 
Battle of Cape St. Vincent . . . 14 Feb. 1797 

Spanish treasure-ships, valued at 3,000,000 dollars, 

seized by the English .... Oct. 1804 

Battle of Trafalgar (see Trafalgar) . . 21 Oct. 1805 
Sway of Godoy, prince of the peace . . . . 1806 
The French enter Spain ; a Spanish army sent to 

the Baltic 1807 

Conspiracy of the prince of Asturias against his 

father 25 July, ,, 

Treaty of Fontainebleau .... 27 Oct. ,. 
The French take Madrid . . . March, i8o3 

The prince of the peace dismissed . 18 March, ,, 

Abdication of Charles IV. in favour of Ferdinand, 
ig March ; and at Bayonne, in favour of his 
"friend and ally" Napoleon, when Ferdinand 
relinquished the crown . . . 1 May, ,, 

Revolution : the French massacred at Madrid, 2 May, , , 
The province of Asturias rises en masse . 3 May, „ 
Napoleon assembles the notables at Bayonne 

25 May, „ 
Joseph Bonaparte enters Madrid as king of Spain, 

12 July ; retires 29 July, ,, 

Battle of Vimiera ; French defeated . 21 Aug. ,, 
Supreme junta installed .... Sept. ,, 
Madrid taken by the French, and Joseph restored 

2 Dec. ,, 
Napoleon enters Madrid . . . .4 Dec. ,, 
The royal family of Spain imprisoned in the palace 

of Chambery in Savoy .... 5 Dec. ,, 
The French defeated at Corunua, 16 Jan. ; take 
Ferrol, 27 Jan. ; Saragossa, 21 Feb. ; Oporto, 



SPAIN. 



1166 



SPAIN. 



29 Feb. ; Cordova and Seville, Nov. ; Gerona, 

12 Dec. 1809 
Ney takes Ciudad Rodrigo ... 10 July, 1810 
The Spanish cortes meet . . . .24 Sept. ,, 
Wellington defeats Massena at Fuentes de Onoro, 

5 May, 181 1 
Soult defeated at Albuera . . . 16 May, „ 
Constitution of the cortes (democratic) . 8 May, 1812 
Wellington takes Ciudad Rodrigo, 19 Jan. ; storms 
Badajoz, 6 April ; defeats Marmont at Salamanca, 

22 July, ,, 
He occupies Madrid, and totally defeats the French 
at Vittoria, 21 June ; defeats Soult in the Pyre- 
nees, 28 July ; takes St. Sebastian, 31 Aug. ; and 

enters France 8 Oct. 18 13 

Ferdinand VII. restored (constitution set aside), 

14 May, 1814 
Slave trade abolished for a compensation . . 1817 
Insurrection at Valencia repressed . . . . 1819 
Spanish revolution begun by Riego . . Jan. 1820 

Ferdinand swears to the constitution of the cortes, 

8 March, ,, 
The cortes remove the king to Seville, and thence 

to Cadiz March, 1823 

The French enter Spain, 7 April ; and invest Cadiz, 

25 June, ,, 
Battle of the Trocadero .... 31 Aug. ,, 
Despotism resumed ; the cortes dissolved ; execu- 
tions of liberals Oct. ,, 

Riego put to death 7 Nov. ,, 

The French evacuate Cadiz . . .21 Sept. 1828 
Cadiz made a free port . . . -24 Feb. 1829 
Salique law abolished, 29 March ; Carlist and 

Christina parties formed 1830 

Queen of Spain appointed regent during the king's 

indisposition ; change in the ministry, 25 Oct. 1832 
Don Carlos declares himself legitimate successor to 

the king 29 April, 1833 

Death of Ferdinand VII. ; his queen assumes the 
title of governing queen until Isabella II., her 
infant daughter, attains her majority 29 Sept. „ 
Constitution termed " Estatuto Real" granted by 

advice of Martinez de la Rosa ,, 

The royalist volunteers disarmed with some blood- 
shed at Madrid 27 Oct. ,, 

Queen Christina marries Ferdinand Munoz (after- 
wards duke of Rianzares) . 28 Dec. ,, 
The quadruple treaty establishes the right of 

Isabella to the throne . . . .22 April, 1834 
Don Carlos suddenly appears in Spain . 10 July, ,, 
The peers vote his exclusion . . 30 Aug. ,, 
Mendizabal, prime minister ; Mina and Espartero 
commanded the royalists ; the rebel leader, 
Zumalacarregui, killed near Bilbao . June, 1835 
Sir De Lacy Evans and others raise a British legion 

for the queen of Spain ,, 

They defeat the Carlists at St. Sebastian 1 Oct. 1836 
Espartero gains the battle of Bilbao . 25 Dec. ,, 
General Evans takes Iran ... 17 May, 1837 

Constituent cortes proclaimed ,, 

Dissolution of the monasteries ... ,, 

The Carlists under Maroto desert Don Carlos and 
conclude a treaty of peace with Espartero, at 

Vergara 31 Aug. 1839 

Don Carlos seeks refuge in France . 13 Sept. „ 
Surrender of Morello . . . .28 May, 1840 

Cabrera, the Carlist general, unable to maintain the 
war, enters France ... .7 July, ,, 

The British auxiliaries evacuate St. Sebastian ami 
Passages ...... 25 Aug. ,, 

Revolutionary movement at Madrid : the authorities 

triumphant 1 Sept. ,, 

Dismissal of the ministry, and dissolution of the 

cortes 9 Sept. ,, 

Espartero, minister, makes his triumphal entry into 

Madrid 3 Oct. „ 

Tlic queen regent appoints a new ministry, who are 
nominated by Espartero, 5 Oct.; she abdicates 

and leaves the kingd ; visits France and Sicily ; 

returns to Prance .... 12 Oct. „ 

Espartero, duke of Victory, expels the papal nuncio 

19 I 'ec. ,, 
The Spanish cortes declare Espartero regent during 

the queen's minority . . . 12 April, 1841 

Queen Christina's protest . . . 19 July, ., 
Insurrection in favour of Christina commenced at 
Pampeluna bj general O'DonneU and Concha, 

2 Oct. „ 



Don Diego Leon attacks the palace at Madrid ; his 
followers repulsed, and numbers slain by the 
queen's guards, 7 Oct. ; he is shot at Madrid, 

15 Oct. 

Zurbano captures Bilbao ... 21 Oct. 

Rodil, constitutional general, enters Vittoria, 21 Oct. 

Montes de Oca shot .... 21 Oct. 

General O'DonneU takes refuge in the French terri- 
tory 21 Oct. 

Espartero decrees the suspension of queen Chris- 
tina's pension 26 Oct. 

Fueros of the Basque provinces abolished 29 Oct. 

Borio and Gobernado, implicated in the Christina 
plot, put to death at Madrid . . 9 Nov. 

Espartero enters Madrid ... 23 Nov. 

General pardon of all persons not yet tried, con- 
cerned in the events of October . . 13 Dec. ,, 

The effective strength of the army fixed at 130,000 
men 28 June, 1842 

An insurrection at Barcelona ; the national guard 
.joins the populace, 13 Nov. ; battle in the streets 
between the national guard and the troops : the 
latter lose 500 in killed and wounded, and retreat 
to the citadel 15 Nov. ,, 

Barcelona blockaded, 26 Nov. ; Espartero arrives 
before it, 29 Nov. ; its bombardment and surren- 
der 3, 4 Dec. ,, 

The disturbances at Malaga ... 25 May, 1843 

The revolutionary junta is re-established at Barce- 
lona . 11 June, ,, 

[Corunna, Seville, Burgos, Santiago, and numerous 
other towns, shortly afterwards "pronounce" 
against the regent Espartero. ] 

Arrival of general Narvaez at Madrid, which surren- 
ders 15 July, ,, 

Espartero bombards SeviUe . . .21 July, ,, 

The siege is raised 27 July, ,, 

[The revolution is completely successful, and Espar- 
tero flees to Cadiz, and embarks on board her 
Majesty's ship Malabar.] 

The new government deprives Espartero of his 
titles and rank, 16 Aug. ; he arrives in Loudon, 

23 Aug. „ 

Reaction suppressed at Madrid . . . Aug. ,, 

Isabella II. 13 years old, is declared by the cortes to 
be of age ; Narvaez (friend of the queen-mother), 
lieutenant-general .... 8 Nov. „ 

The queen-mother returns to Spain . 23 March, 1844 

Zurbano's insurrection, 12 Nov. 1844 ; he is shot, 

21 Jan. 1845 

Don Carlos relinquishes his right to the crown in 
favour of his son . . . . 18 May, ,, 

Reactionary constitution ,, 

England removed from "favoured nation" clause 
(treaty of Utrecht, 1713) ,, 

Narvaez and his ministry resign, 12 Feb. ; return 
to power, 17 March ; again resign . 28 March, 1S46 

Escape of Don Carlos from France . . 14 Sept. ,, 

Marriage of the queen to her cousin, Don Francisco 
d'Assiz, duke of Cadiz, and marriage also of the 
infanta Louisa (she died 1 Feb. 1897)10 the due 
de Montpensier 10 Oct. ,, 

[The Spanish marriages disturb the friendly rela- 
tions of the French and English governments.] 

Amnesty granted to political offenders . 18 Oct. „ 

Two shots fired at the queen by an assassin. La Riva, 

4 May. 1S47 

He suffers " death by the cord " . . 23 June, ,, 

Espartero restored 3 Sept. ,, 

Sir Henry Lyttou Bulwer, British envoy, ordered 
to quit Spain in 4S hours ... 17 May, 1848 

Narvaez dismissed and recalled .... 1849 

Diplomatic relations with England restored, 18 Apr. 1850 

The queen of Spain delivered of a male child, which 
lives but ten minutes ... 12 July, 

The American expeditions under Lopez against 
Cuba (see Culm and the United States) . 1850, 1851 

Resigtiat i f Nan aez ... 10 Jan. 

The infante don Henrique permitted to return to 
Spain 2 Feb. 

Madrid-Aranjiuv. railway opened . . 9 Feb. 

Law respecting the public debt (which has since 
excluded Spain from the European money-mar- 
kets) 1 Aug. 

Death of G-odoy, prince of the peace . . 4 Oct. 

The queen pardons the prisoners taken in the 
attempt upon Cuba . . . .11 Dec. 

Her majestj gives birth to a princess . 20 Dec. 



SPAIN. 



1167 



SPAIN. 



Attempt made on the life of the queen ; she is 
slightly wounded by the dagger of Merino, a 
Franciscan 2 Feb. 

Gen. Castaiios, duke of Baylen, renowned in the 
French war, dies, aged 95 . . . 23 Sept. 

Narvaez exiled to Vienna .... Jan. 

Ministerial changes — Lersundi forms a cabinet, 
11 April ; resigns : Sartorius' cabinet . Sept. 

Birth and death of a princess . . 5 Jan. 

General O'Donnell, Concha, and others banished, 

17 Jan. 

Disturbances at Saragossa, &c. . . . Feb. 

Don Francisco (father of the king consort), marries 
an " unfortunate " woman . . . March, 

Military insurrection, under O'Donnell, near Madrid, 

28 June, 

The movement headed by Espartero ; Barcelona 
and Madrid pronounce against the government ; 
barricades in Madrid . . . 1-17 July, 

Triumph of the insurrection : resignation of the 
ministry ;-the queen sends for Espartero, 19 July, 

Peace restored : the degraded generals reinstated, 
&c. ; Espartero forms an administration, 31 July, 

The queen mother impeached ; she quits Spain 

28 Aug. 

Ministerial crisis ; Espartero resigns, but resumes 
office 21-30 Nov. 

New constitution of the cortes . . 13 Jan. 

The cortes vote that all power proceeds from the 
people ; they permit liberty of belief, but not of 
worship Feb. 

Don Carlos dies 10 March, 

Insurrection of Valencia .... 6 April, 

Resignation of Espartero ; new cabinet formed, 
headed by marshal O'Donnell ; insurrection in 
Madrid, 14 July ; O'Donnell and the government 
troops subdue the insurgents ; the national 
guard suppressed .... 15-16 July, 

Insurrection at Barcelona and Saragossa quelled by 
O'Donnell, as dictator . . 15-23 July, 

O'Donnell compelled to resign ; Narvaez becomes 
minister 12 Oct. 

Amnesty granted to political offenders . 19 Oct. 

Espartero resigns as senator ... 1 Feb. 

Insurrection in Andalusia ; quickly suppressed ; 
cruel military executions ; 98 insurgents shot (24 
at Seville) . . . June and July, 

Ministerial changes ; Armero minister . 26 Oct. 

Birth of the prince royal ... 28 Nov. 

Isturitz, minister, 14 Jan. ; O'Donnell, minister, 

1 July, 

Cessation of state of siege at Barcelona, &c. 20 Sept. 

Joint French and Spanish expedition against Cochin 
China announced 1 Dec. 

War with Morocco {which see) . . Nov. -Dec. 

An association for reforming the tariff, &c. , formed 

O'Donnell commands the army in Africa ; indecisive 
conflicts reported ; battle at Castillejos ; a Spanish 
" Balaklava " charge . . . . 1 Jan. 

The Moors defeated near Tetuan, which surrenders 

4 Feb. 

An ineffectual truce .... 16-23 Feb. 

The Moors defeated at Guad-el-ras . 23 March, 

Treaty of peace signed ; 400,000,000 reals to be 
paid by Moors, and Tetuan to be held till paid 

26 Mar. 

General Ortega, governor of the Balearic Isles, lands 
n nearTortosa, in Valencia, with 3000 men, and pro- 
claims the comte de Montemolin king, as Charles 
VI. ; his troops resist, and he is compelled to flee, 
with the comte and others, 3 April ; Ortega shot 

19 April, 

The comte de Montemolin and his brother Ferdi- 
nand arrested at Tortosa, 21 April ; renounce their 
claim to the throne . . . .23 April, 

An amnesty proclaimed . . . .2 May, 

Their brother Juan asserts his right, 5 June ; and 
they, when at Cologne, annul their renunciation, 

28 June, 

The emperor Napoleon's proposal to admit Spain as 
-a first-class power is opposed by England, and 
given up • Aug. 

The comte de Montemolin and his wife die at Trieste 

14 Jan. 

The annexation of St. Domingo to Spain ratified ; 
slavery not to be re-established . . 19 May, 

Insurrection at Loja suppressed . . . July, 



1852 
1853 
1854 



1855 



1856 



1857 



The queen said to be governed by the nun Patrocinio 

Dec. i 

Intervention in Mexico (see Mexico) . 8 Dec. 

Much church property in course of sale . April, i 

Jose Albania and Manuel Matamoras, protestant 
propagandists, sentenced to 10 years' imprison- 
ment 14 Oct. 

Don Juan de Bourbon renounces his right to the 
throne 8 Jan. ] 

Resignation of the premier, marshal O'Donnell, 
26 Feb. ; marquis de Miraflores minister, 4 March, 

Insurrection in St. Domingo ; war ensues (see Do- 
mingo) 1 Sept. 

Empress of France visits the queen . . Oct. 

Rupture with Peru (which see) . . . April, 1 

General Prim exiled for conspiracy . . 13 Aug. 

Arrazola ministry, Jan. ; Mon forms a ministry, 
1 March ; resigns, 1 3 Sept. ; Narvaez forms a 
cabinet Sept. 

Queen Christina returns to Spain . . 26 Sept. 

English government recognises the insurrectioi at 
St. Domingo ; Narvaez advises abandonment of 
the contest ; the queen refuses ; the ministry re- 
sign ; but resume office . . -14- 18 Dec. 

Peace with Peru, which has to pay aheavy indemnity 

27 Jan. ] 

The queen orders the sale of crown lando, giving up 
three-fourths to the nation . . 20 Feb. 

Student riots at Madrid ; several persons killed, 

10 April, 

[Bravo Murillo accused of cruelty on this occasion.] 

Decree relinquishing St. Domingo . . 5 May, 

Suppression of a conspiracy at Valencia to reunite 
Spain and Portugal .... 10 June, 

Resignation of Narvaez, 19 June ; O'Donnell forms 
a liberal cabinet 22 June, 

Kingdom of Italy recognised by Spain 26 June, 

Father Claret dismissed from court . 20 July, 

Dispute with Chili ; M. Tavira's settlement (20 
May) disavowed by the government . 25 July, 

Emperor Napoleon visits the queen at St. Sebas- 
tian, 9 Sept. : she visits him at Biarritz, 11 Sept. 

Disturbances at Saragossa suppressed . 3 Oct. 

Admiral Pareja, at Valparaiso, insults the Chilian 
government, 18 Sept. ; which declares war, 25 
Sept. ; Pareja declares a blockade . . Oct. 

The Chilian captain Williams captures the Spanish 
vessel Covadonga (Pareja commits suicide) 26 Nov. 

Intervention fruitless Dec. 

Claret returns to court .... 25 Dec. 

New cortes elected ; the great Progresista party 
still abstains from action in public affairs ; queen 
opens cortes 27 Dec. 

Military insurrection at Aranjuez, headed by gen. 
Prim, 3 Jan. ; martial law in Madrid, 4 Jan. ; 
Concha and Zabala march against rebels, 4 Jan. ; 
&c. ; riots at Barcelona, 9, 10 Jan. ; state of siege 
in New Castile, Catalonia, and Aragon 6-12 Jan. 

Prim enters Portugal and lays down arms ; the in- 
surrection ends 20 Jan. 

Queen Victoria, British sloop, seized by a guarda- 
costa . .... 15 Jan. 

Admiral Mendez bombards Valparaiso, destroying 
much property, 31. March ; he is rexmlsed atCallao 
with loss 2 May, 

The queen declares the campaign in the Pacific ended, 

15 June, 

Great military revolt in favour of Prim at Madrid ; 
about 1200 men, headed by non-commissioned 
officers, with cannon, quelled summarily by mar- 
shals O'Donnell and Narvaez, witn much blood- 
shed ; 200 prisoners shot, 22 June ; 21 sergeants 
shot ; (Sen. Castelar escaped to France) 26 June, 

Military revolts at Barcelona and at various other 
places 23 June, 

Resignation of O'Donnell as minister, succeeded by 
Narvaez and Bravo, who adopt severe measures 
against the liberals July, 

The queen said to be subject to the influence of 
the " bleeding nun," Patrocinio, and the priests, 

July, 

Freedom of the press abolished, and writers trans- 
ported to the colonies; a "reign of terror," 

Aug. -Sept. 

British screw steamer Tornado, com. E. Collier, 
seized by Spaniards (charged with aiding Chili), 
and carried to Cadiz .... 21-22 Aug. 



SPAIN. 

33 persons condemned to death, many of whom had 

fled 23 Sept. 18 

lie-establishment of tranquillity declared at Madrid 

3 Oct. , 
Public instruction placed under the clergy Oct. , 
Reform of the municipal institutions decreed on 

account of revolutionary proceedings . . Oct. , 
Crew of Tornado detained as prisoners, 31 Oct. 

the case referred to law .... Nov. , 
King and queen visit Lisbon . . . 11 Dec. , 
Taxes for 1867 received in advance . . Dec. , 
The queen dismissed the cortes (and imprisoned 
many eminent deputies for petitioning against it) 

30 Dec. , 
■O'Donnell and his colleagues residing in Paris, Jan. 18 
Decision in Tornado case — the ship a prize and the 
crew prisoners of war, 18 Dec. 1866 ; lord Stanley 
protests against the proceedings . . 8 Feb. , 
Decree for making secret publication of journals 

and pamphlets penal . . . .16 Feb. , 
The Tornado prisoners released . . . Feb. , 
State of siege raised .... 7 March, , 

•Queen Victoria sloop declared by Spain to have 
been wrongfully seized and reparation to be made, 

21 April, , 
Amnesty to revolters of June 1866 . 25 April, , 

Son of duchess of Montpensier bom . 1 May, , 
Attempted insurrection in different parts (attributed 
to Prim) failed through want of organisation, 

about is Aug. , 
Insurrectionary movements reported in Catalonia 

and Aragon .... July, Aug. , 

State of siege proclaimed .... 17 Aug. , 
Insurrection suppressed ; amnesty . . Sept. , 
Death of marshal O'Donnell, duke of Tetuan 5 Nov. , 

Martial law annulled 16 Nov. , 

Parliament opened by the queen in person 27 Dec. , 
An armament bill adopted by the chamber of de- 
puties 22 Jan. 18 

Proposed settlement with national creditors at 20 

per cent. of the debi . . . Jan. , 

General amnesty proclaimed ... 25 Jan. , 
Death of marshal Narvaez, duke of Valencia, aged 67) 

23 April, , 
New ministry formed by Gonzalez Bravo Murillo, 

24 April, , 
Marriage of pjrincess Isabella, the queen's eldest 

daughter, to the count of Girgenti, brother of ex- 
king of Naples . . . 13 Ma 5", » 

Law enacted abolishing normal schools and subject- 
ing education to the priests . . 2 June, , 

Ministerial changes 16 June, , 

Duke and duchess of Montpensier arrested and 
exiled 6 July, , 

Marshal Serrano, general Dolce, and others exiled , 

about 10 July, , 

Insurrection begins in the fleet, 18 Sept. ; joined by 
the garrison and city of Cadiz, 19 Sept. ; accepted 
by nearly all Spain .... 19-30 Sept. , 

Prim arrives at Cadiz, 17 Sept. ; announced a provi- 
sional government .... 19 Sept. ,. 

The ministers resign, 19, 20 Sept. ; Jose Concha be- 
comes president of the council, 22 Sept. ; Bravo 
Murillo and his colleagues flee to Bayonne 23 Sept. , 

( Tiiiyalint lenders: Jose Concha, marquis de Havana, 
Manuel Concha, marquis de Duero, at Madrid ; 
the marquis de Pezuela at Barcelona ; Eusebio 
de Calonge in the north ; Payia y Lacy, marquis 
de Novaliches in Andalusia.] 

Novalicb.es, the royalist general, defeated at Alcolea 
by Serrano, 27 Sept. ; surrenders . 2S Sept. , 

The queen flies to Bayonne and tlienee to Pan, and 
protests 29, 30 Sept. , 

The deposition of the queen declared at Madrid, 

29 Sept. 

A national guard organised . . . 30 Sept. , 
Don Juan, son of Don Carlos, renounces his heredi- 
tary rights in favour of his son, Carlos, 3 Oct. , 

Serrano enters Madrid, 3 Oct.; Serrano, Prim, 
and Olozaga constitute a provisional government, 

5 Oct. . 

Prim enthusiastically received .'it Madrid 7 Oct. , 

The education law of a Juue annulled ; the Jesuits 
and other religious orders suppressed ; the laws 
expelling the Jews abrogated ; freedom of reli- 
gious worship decreed aboul i2, 13 Oct. 

All the local juntas dissolved by manifesto of the 
provisional government . . . 20 Oct. , 



1168 



SPAIN. 



The provisional government recognised by Wie 

United States, 13 Oct. ; by England, France, and 

Prussia, 25 Oct. ; by Austria, Sweden, and Belgium 

about 31 Oct. 

Manifesto of the government declaring for universal 
suffrage, and free press and education 26 Oct. 

Prim created a marshal . . about 6 Nov. 

The queen arrives at Paris ... 6 Nov. 

The joint electoral committee at Madrid declare in 
favour of a limited monarchy . . 14 Nov. 

Decree for formation of a citizen force of the Volun- 
teers of Freedom 18 Nov. 

Loan of 20,000,000?. proposed by Figueras, minister 
of finance ; 4,000,000?. said to be undertaken by 
Rothschilds ; about 2,000,000 subscribed in 
Spain about 25 Nov. 

Insurrection against the provisional government 
breaks out at Cadiz, 5 Dec. ; murderous conflicts, 
6 Dec. ; the city invested ; surrenders ; entry of 
general Caballero de Roda, general of the army of 
Andalusia 12 Dec. 

Peaceful elections for constituent cortes, 19, 20 Dec. 

Manifesto of the due de Montpensier, justifying his 
recent entry into Spain . . dated 19 Dec. 

Violent insurrection at Malaga suppressed with 
much slaughter 31 Dec. 

Election of members for the cortes . 17 Jan. 

The Spanish envoy at Rome not received 23 Jan. 

Gutierez de Castro, civil governor of Burgos, mur- 
dered in the presence of priests while taking an 
inventory of the artistic treasures of the cathedral 

24 Jan. 

Insurrection in Cuba increasing . . Feb. 

Meeting of the cortes, n Feb. ; Rivero elected 
president 13 Feb. 

The provisional government resign ; Serrano re- 
appointed head of the government with same 
ministry 25, 26 Feb. 

Riots at Xeres on account of conscription, 16 March, 

Spanish Protestant religious service at Madrid 

28 March, 

Insurrection in Cuba fomented by Americans, April, 

61st anniversary of the Madrid revolution and mas- 
sacre of the French (1808) . . .2 May, 

The cortes vote for a monarch}' (214 to 71), 21 May, 

The new constitution promulgated . 6 June, 

Marshal Serrano elected regent by the cortes, 15 
June ; sworn 18 June, 

New ministry under Prim . . about 18 June, 

Carlist risings in La Mancha and at Ciudad Real, 
suppressed July-Aug. 

United States' overtures respecting Cuba indig- 
nantly rejected .... about 18 Sept. 

Candidature of the duke of Genoa discussed , Sept. Oct. 

Republican risings at Tarragona, Barcelona, and 
other places, suppressed with bloodshed, Sept. ; 
republicans defeated near Reus, 4 Oct. ; Saragossa 
cannonaded, 8 Oct. ; Valencia surrendered, 16 
Oct. ; tranquillity generally restored . 20 Oct. 

Warm discussions respecting the election of a king ; 
Topete, minister of marine, resigns . 2 Nov. 

General Dulce dies 23 Nov. 

Powerful republican speech of Castclar in the cortes 

about 18 Dec. 

Resignation of Prim and the ministry on the Italian 
government opposing the nomination of the duke 
of Genoa as king of Spain . . . 4 Jan. 

Prim resumes office with Topete and Rivero, 10 Jan. 

Majority in the assembly for Prim against the com- 
bined unionists and liberals . . 3 April, 

Conscription liots at Barcelona ; soon suppressed 

7. S April, 

The due de Montpensier. after great provocation, 
kills ilon Enrique de Bourbon, brother of the ex- 
king, in a duel, 12 March ; tried, condemned, and 
fined 12 April, 

The offered crown declined by Espartero . May, 

Bill for gradual abolition of slavery in the colonies 
presented to the cortes . .' . 28 May, 

Two Englishmen of Gibraltar seized by brigands; 
ransomed for 5^00/. ; brigands afterwards attacked 
by the Spanish civil guard; several of them killed, 
and part of the ransom recovered . . June. 

Kojo Arias carries a resolution requiring an abso- 
lute majority in the cortes for any proposed sove- 
reign (179 OUt Of 356); this excludes all present 
candidates June, 



1870 



SPAIN. 



1169 



SPAIN. 



Isabella II. abdicates in favour of her son Alfonso, 

25 June, 18 

Prince Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen nomi- 
nated king, accepted by the regent and ministry, 
6 July ; this justified by the government in a cir- 
cular, 7 July ; on the strong opposition of France 
he resigns 12 July, , 

Neutrality in the war announced . . 27 July, , 

Renewed agitation for a republic about 9 Aug. , 

Amnesty for all political offences since 29 Sept. 1868, 
published 10 Aug. , 

Irruption of Carlists into Navarre, 27 Aug. ; defeated, 

28 Aug. , 

The Basque provinces put into a state of siege, 

28 Aug. , 

The French republic warmly recognised . Sept. , 

Ministerial crisis 15 Sept. , 

Claret, the ex-queen's confessor, dies . . 4 Oct. , 

Amadeus, duke of Aosta(born 30 May, 1845), accepts 
the candidature for the crown . . 20 Oct. , 

Elected by the cortes by 191 votes : (63 for a repub- 
ic ; 27 for the due de Montpensier) . 16 Nov. , 

Proclaimed king 17 Nov. , 

The ex-queen, on behalf of her son Alfonso, protests 
against the election .... 21 Nov. , 

The duke accepts the crown from a deputation of 
the cortes at Florence, and says " that his honesty 
should rise above the struggle of parties, and that 
he had no other object than the peace and pros- 
perity of the nation" .... 4 Dec. , 

Stormy session in the cortes respecting arrange- 
ments for the new king, 19 Dec. ; Rivero, the pre- 
sident, resigns 25 Dec. , 

Prim fired at and wounded in his carriage by six 
men, who escaped ; great indignation at Madrid, 
27 Dec. ; Topete rejoins the ministry ; vote of con- 
fidence in it 28 Dec. , 

Prim dies in the evening (aged 56) ; the king received 
by Topete at Cartagena ... 30 Dec. , 

Funeral of Prim 31 Dee. , 

The king enters Madrid, visits the body of Prim, 
and takes the oath .... 2 Jan. 18 

New ministry under Serrano ... 5 Jan. , 

Warm reception of the queen at Madrid 19 March, , 

New cortes opened ; the king's speech much ap- 
plauded 3 April, , 

Del Castillo and other Alfonsists recognise the 
king . April, , 

Olozaga elected president of the cortes 4 April, , 

The Tornado difficulty settled (Avig.-Nov. 1866), 
compensation to be paid by the Spanish govern- 
ment . May, , 

Ministerial crisis through financial affairs ; settled 
by the king June, , 

Marshal Serrano fails in forming a cabinet, 23 July ; 
a ministry formed by Zorrilla . . 24 July, , 

The king visits the provinces ; warmly received, 
1 Sept. et seq. ; welcomed by Bspartero at Logrono, 

30 Sept. , 

Cortes opened, 1 Oct. ; Sagasta elected president in 
opposition to Rivero (123-113), 3 Oct. ; the Zorrilla 
ministry resigns, 4 Oct. ; Malcampo forms a 
ministry 5 Oct. , 

Republican meeting at Madrid ; strong resolutions 
passed. ...... 15 Oct. , 

Defeat of the ministry in the cortes; dissolution, 

24, 25 Nov. , 

Angulo, the finance minister, proposes to tax the 
foreign national creditors 18 per cent. 27 Nov. 

Suicide of the count of Girgenti . .27 Nov. . 

Ministry formed under Sagasta . . .21 Dec. . 

Espartero, duke of Victory, made prince of Vergara, 

Jan. 18 

Resignation of Sagasta and the ministry for a 
trifling defeat ; refused by the king, dissolution . 
of the cortes ; much excitement ; troops under 
arms 25, 26 Jan. , 

Ministry reconstituted by Sagasta and Topete, 

20 Feb. , 

Union of the opposition against the ministry, who 
determine to support the throne, about 8 March, , 

Elections ; majority of about 100 for ministers ; 
Madrid elects for the opposition . 4-6 April, , 

Insurrection of Carlists incited by priests in 

Navarre, Leon, &c. ; manifesto of don Carlos, 

duke of Madrid ; Diaz de Rada, his general 

about 20 April, 



The new cortes opened ; the king says, " I will never 
impose myself on the Spanish people, but neither 
will I allow myself to be accused of deserting the 
post which I occupy by their will " . 24 April, 
Navarre, &c. , in state of siege . . 25 April, 
Marshal Serrano enters Navarre with an army; 
don Carlos, calling himself Carlos VII., crosses 
the frontiers near Vera, and takes the command, 
Rada retiring, 2 May; totally defeated at Oro- 

quieta (which see) 4 May, 

The Carlists surrender by hundreds, or disperse, 
8, 9, 20, 21 May, 
Reported small defeats at Onate, &c. . 13, 20 May, 
Resignation of the Sagasta ministry . . 22 May, 
Band of Carlists defeated near Gerona, about 22 May, 
New ministry (supported by Serrano), adm. Topete 

president 25 May, 

Serrano offers amnesty to Carlists who surrender, 
25 May; it is accepted, 27 May; he is censured, 
but exonerated by the cortes, 8 June ; he assumes 
the presidency of the ministry . . 4 June, 
Carlism increases; the ministry propose martial 
law; the king opposes it; the ministry resign, 

12 June, 

Ruiz Zorrilla (who had just retired from political 
life) becomes president of a new ministry, 14 June, 

Letter of the due de Montpensier advocating the 
rights of prince Alfonso, 17 April ; published, June, 

Dissolution of the cortes ... 29 June, 

Don Carlos calls on Catalonia, Arragon, and Valen- 
cia, to rise, promising to restore their ancient 
liberties 16 July, 

Attempted assassination of the king and queen by 
about 15 men ; one assassin killed, two taken ; a 
little after midnight of . . . 18-19 July, 

The king's popular visit to the provinces, travelling 
nearly 2000 miles . . .26 July-24 Aug. 

Elections for the cortes ; highly favourable to the 
Zorrilla ministry . . . .25 Aug. et seq. 

The cortes opened by the king with a fine speech, 

15 Sept. 

Republican rising at Ferrol; red flag displayed; 
1500 men under Montojo and Bozas, 11 Oct. ; 
town captured by the captain-general of Galicia, 

13 Oct. 

The insurgents disperse or surrender; about 500 
prisoners 17 Oct. 

Impeachment of the Sagasta ministry for financial 
corruption proposedin the cortes ; much agitation, 

end of Oct. 

The country disturbed by Carlists and republicans, 

Nov., Dec. 

Gen. Hidalgo appointed to a military command ; 
the artillery officers resigned : punished . Nov. 

Outbreak in Madrid suppressed . .11 Dec. 

Chancres in the ministry announced . 20 Dec. 

Bill for abolition of slavery in Porto Rico, for com- 
pensation, brought into congress . 24 Dec. 

Carlist bands defeated and several generals killed, 

Jan. 

King Amadeus' message to the cortes, announcing 
his abdication ; he states that he sees Spain in a 
continual struggle, the era of peace more distant ; 
he sought for remedies within the law, and did 
not find them ; his efforts were sterile. The two 
chambers combine as the sovereign cortes of 
Spain, and vote for a republic (126-32) . 11 Feb. 

Reported success of the Carlists ; agitation for the 
due de Montpensier among the Orleanists in 
France 12 Feb. 

New ministry under Figueras . . 12 Feb. 

King Amadeus arrives at Lisbon . . 13 Feb. 

Irruption of Carlists ; they hold part of Catalonia ; 
demonstrations in favour of a federal republic, 

22, 23 Feb. 

Ministry reconstituted ; Figueras chief, 24, 25 Feb. 

Powerful circular to European powers from Castelar, 
foreign minister 27 Feb. 

Appointment of a permanent committee of the 
cortes 22 Mareh, 

Great dissensions between the radicals and repub- 
licans ; fighting with Carlists in the provinces, 
early ill March, 

Slavery in Porto Rico abolished . . 23 March, 

Proclamation of the government calling for volun- 
teers against the Carlists ... 25 March, 

Mutinous spirit in the army . . . April, 

4 F 



1873 



SPAIN. 



1170 



SPAIN. 



The Carlists beaten in several encounters ; don 

Alfonso de Bourbon re-enters France 23 April, 1873 
The old " monarchical volunteers " take possession 
of the bull-ring at Madrid ; are disarmed and dis- 
persed by the government troops ; the " perma- , 
nent committee" dissolved by the government, 
which assumes supreme power . . 26 April, ,, 

Serrano and Sagasta have left Spain . 20 April, ,, 

More defeats of the Carlists; Madrid tranquil, 

29, 30 April-4 May, ,, 

Elections for the cortes commence; monarchists 
abstain from voting . . . .10 May, ,, 

Mr. Bradlaugh, the English republican, entertained 
at Madrid 24 May, ,, 

More Carlist defeats reported ; their alleged cruelties 
denied by the Carlist committee . May, June, ,, 

The Intraiisigentes or Irreeoncilables (extreme re- 
publicans) very powerful . . . June, ,, 

The new cortes opened; a speech by Figueras, 

1 June, „ 

The federal republic voted by the cortes (210-2) and 
proclaimed, 8 June ; Pi y Margall, president of a 
new ministry, rejected ; Figueras and his ministry 
resume office 9 June, ,, 

Carlists besieging Irun .... 7 June, „ 

Ministerial crisis renewed, 10 June ; Pi y Margall 
becomes minister; Figueras quits Spain, 11 June, „ 

Carlists defeat Castanon near Murieta . 26 June, ,, 

Cadiz, Seville, Malaga, and Valencia very insub- 
ordinate 29 June, ,, 

The Intransigentes withdraw from the cortes, 1 July, , , 

Defeat and death of Calvinety by Carlists ; insur- 
rection at Alcoy, promoted by Internationalists ; 
the mayor and others killed, announced, 11 July „ 

Don Carlos (as Carlos VII.) enters Spain, " to save 
the country" 13 July, ,, 

Desperate fighting at Igualada, Catalonia 

17, 18 July, ,, 

Four prevailing parties : — 1. The government,highly 
democratic ; 2. The Intransigentes, or irreeoncil- 
ables : extremely democratic ; 3. The Interna- 
tional, or communists ; 4. The legitimists, 
Carlists. 

Murcia and Valencia proclaim themselves federal 
cantons 18 July, ,, 

Pi y Margall compelled to resign ; Salmeron forms ,, 
a ministry opposed to the Intransigentes, 18 July, ,, 

Igualada taken by the Carlists under Don Alfonso, 

T9 July, ,, 

The government determine to put down insurrec- 
tion . . . 24 July, ,, 

Don Carlos enters Biscay ... 31 July, ,, 

Carlists hold chief of N. Spain . . Aug. „ 

Insurgents repulsed in their attack on Almeria ; 
beaten in fights at Seville, 28-30 July ; gen. Pavia 
warmly received 31 July, ,, 

Cadiz surrenders to him .... 4 Aug. ,, 

Troops attack Valencia, 26 July ; it surrenders, 

8 Aug. „ 

New constitution printed, 27 July ; discussed, Aug. „ 

[118 Articles ; includes separation of church and 
state ; free religious worship ; nobility abolished ; 
15 states in and near peninsula ; 2 in the Antilles ; 
cortes (senate and congress) to have legislative 
power ; one deputy to 50,000 souls ; cortes to be 
renewed in 2 years; members to be paid ; execu- 
tive: president and ministry; president elected 
for 4 years.] 

Bombardment of Malaga stopped by the British 
and German admirals .... 1 Aug. ,, 

Alleged Carlist victories at Elgueta, &c. 5-10 Aug. ,, 

Reported total defeat of the insurgents at Chin- 
chilla, while marching on Madrid . . 10 Aug. ,, 

Cartagena, held by Intransigentes, besieged, 22 Aug. ,, 

The Deerlwund, English yacht, conveying stores to 
Carlists, seized by the Spaniards, 11J miles off 
Biarritz ; crew imprisoned, and captain sent to 
Ferrol 13 Aug. „ 

Capt. Werner, of German ship, Friiilricli Karl, cap- 
tures Almansa and Vittoria, Spanish ironclads, 
held by rebels, gives them up to adm. Yelverton, 
wlio prepares for action against [ntransigentes, 
claiming them, and sends them Io Gibraltar un- 
molested 1 Sept.' ,, 

Carlists defeat republicans at Arrichulegui, near 
Renteria, many killed . . . 21 Aug. ., 

They take Estclla after a conflict at Dirastillo, 

as Aug. ,, 



Castelar elected president of the cortes . 26 Aug. 1S73 
The ministry propose abolition of capital punish- 
ment in the army, defeated in the cortes ; resign 

5 Sept. „ 
Castelar heads a ministry; proposes calling out 

150,000 men, to end the war . . 7, 8 Sept. , r 
Carlists successful ; yet Jo not advance . 5-8 Sept. ,, 
Salmeron elected president of the cortes 9 Sept. ,, 
Castelar made virtually dictator . . 15 Sept. ,, 
Ferdinand Mufioz, duke of Rianzares, husband of 

queen Christina, dies at Havre . . 12 Sept. ., 
The Deerlwund and crew given up ; announced 

about 18 Sept. ,, 
Reported victories of Loma over Carlists 18 Sept. ,, 
Speech of Castelar, the cortes to be closed 2 Jan. 

1874 18 Sept. ,„ 

Carlist attack on Tolosa repulsed by Loma, 19 Sept. ,, , 
The cortes prorogued . . . .21 Sept. ,, 
The Carlist Merendon killed and his band dispersed, 

about 26 Sept. ,, 
The Vittoria and Almcmza given up to the Spanish 

government 26 Sept. ,, 

Carlists in Navarre defeated by Moriones, 27 Sept. ,, 
The Intransigentes' ironclads, Mendez Nunez and 
Numancia, bombarding Alicante, repulsed, 

28 Sept. ,„ 
Combination of parties to support Castelar, 

about 6 Oct. ,, 

Battle at Maneru, near Puenta de la Eeyna, in 

Navarre, between republicans, under Moriones, 

and Carlists, under Olio ; both claim a victory ; 

advantage with Carlists ... 6 Oct. ,-. 

Carlists said to be repulsed at La Juuquera, in 

Catalonia about 8 Oct. ,, 

Battle of Eseombrera bay ; the Intransigentes' ships 
attempt to break blockade of Cartagena ; repulsed 

by admiral Lobo n Oct. ,, 

Many Carlists escape into France . about Oct. „ 
Lobo declines to fight, and retires, pursued by the 
Intransigentes, 13 Oct. ; justifies himself at 

Madrid 22 Oct. ,, 

Collision of the Intransigentes' vessels Numancia 
and Fernando del Catolico, the latter sunk and 

66 drowned 18 Oct. ,, 

Unsuccessful sortie at Cartagena . . 21 Oct. , r 
Tristany, with 2,500 Carlists, defeated by Salamanca 

25 Oct. „ 
Death of Rios Rosas, statesman . . 3 Nov. „ 
The Murillo (see Wrecks, 1873) captured ; con- 
demned to be sold by the British court of ad- 
miralty Nov. ,, 

Indecisive conflicts at Monte JurreandMonjardin, 

victories claimed by Carlists . . 7, 8, 9 Nov. ,. 
Cartagena bombarded . . . 26 Nov. ei seq. ,, 
Reported victory of Moriones near Tolosa, 7 Dec. ,, 
Lopez Dominguez becomes commander before 

Cartagena 13 Dec. ,, 

Tctuan, insurgent vessel, at Cartagena, blew up 

(? purposely) 30 Dec. r> 

1'ronunciamento : — Meeting of the cortes ; speech 
of Castelar ; vote of confidence in him lost by 20 ; 
he resigns ; Salmeron attempts to form a ministry, 
2, 3 Jan. ; Pavia, captain-general of Madrid, 
forcibly dissolves the cortes . . . 3 Jan. 1874 
Marshal Serrano made president of a new ministry, 
including Topete ; the national guard of Madrid 

disarming 4 Jan. ,„ 

Insurrection at Saragossa, suppressed with blood- 
shed 4 Jan. .. 

The new government issue a moderate manifesto, 

9, 10 Jan. , , 

Cartagena captured by Lopez Dominguez,' 12 Jan. ,, 

insurrection at Barcelona quelled . 12, 13 Jan. ,, 

Niimancia ironclad, with Intransigentes leaders and 

convicts, escapes ; they land at Mers el Kebir, 

near Oran, on the African coast; are interned 

by the French 12 Jan. ,, 

Blockade of the coast of Spain announced 31 Jan. ,, 
Tic Carlists besiege Bilbao. Moriones defeated at 

Soinorrostro 25 Feb. ,, 

Marshal Serrano resigns presidency of the ministry, 
and becomes chief of the executive, succeeded 
by Zabala ; Serrano proceeds to Bilbao, 

2S Feb. el seq. ,, 

Serrano assumes command . . about 8 March, ,, 

The blockade of the coast (31 Jan.) raised, 2 March, ,, 

Asserted victory of the Carlists at San Felice, 

B.irgos ...... 15 March, .. 



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1171 



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Three clays' conflict at Somorrostro, near Bilbao ; 
the Carlists defeated, but retain their positions 
(about 2000 killed and wounded on both sides) 

25, 26, 27 March, 1874 
Armistice for three days ... 28 March, „ 
General Manuel da Concha joins Serrano at 

Santander .... about 8 April, „ 
Great national effort to relieve Bilbao ; union of 

parties ; hostilities resumed . . 20 April, „ 
After several days' conflict, Carlists retreat ; marshal 
Concha enters Bilbao, which is much injured by 
long bombardment .... 2 May, ,, 
A battle at Prats de Llusanes, indecisive 6 May, ,, 
New ministry formed under Zabala . . 13 May, ,, 
Carlists repulsed in severe attack at Ramales, 

about 20 May, „ 
Carlists defeated at Goudesa . about 6 June, ,, 
Republicans repulsed before Estella . 25-27 June, „ 
Concha killed (succeeded by Zabala) . 27 June, „ 
Carlists accused of butchering prisoners, June and 

July, „ 

Alleged Carlist victories at Pefia Mura (or Plata), 
near Abarzuza .... 25-27 June, „ 

Schmidt, a German correspondent, shot as a spy by 
Carlists about 28 June, „ 

German intervention for killing of captain Schmidt 
by Carlists July, „ 

Carlists hold Navarre, Guipuscoa, Biscay, and 
Alara July, ,, 

The Carlists capture Cuenca (about 80 miles from 
Madrid) 13 July, „ 

Don Carlos's manifesto promising constitutional 
government 16 July, „ 

Massacre of 86 republican prisoners by Carlists 
under Saballo at Valfogona . . 17 July, „ 

All Spain X'laced under martial law ; levy of 125,000 
men about 18 July, ,, 

Government circular to foreign courts respecting 
Carlist atrocities 29 July, ,, 

The government appeals to the French government 
respecting French assistance to Carlists ; justifi- 
catory reply 3 Aug. „ 

The British Mediterranean squadron under admiral 
Drummond sails from Malta for Barcelona, 4 Aug. „ 

Don Carlos appeals to the chief powers not to inter- 
vene ; justifies Dorregaray's severities, and the 
execution of Schmidt .... 6 Aug. ,, 

Moriones' alleged defeat of Mendiri and Carlists at 
Oteiza 12 Aug. „ 

Duty of 5<(. a ton on imported iron granted to 
Bilbao for repairs . . . . 13 Aug. „ 

Serrano's government recognised by Great Britain, 
Germany, France, and other powers (not by 
Russia) about 14 Aug. ,, 

Letter of sympathy and encouragement from the 
comte de Chambord to. do:i Carlos . Aug. „ 

185 prisoners of war at Olot said to be shot by 
Carlists Aug. „ 

Puycerda vigorously besieged by Carlists, 

Aug.-Sept. „ 

Zabala resigns ; ministry formed under Sagasta, 

4 Sept. „ 

Carlists fire on German gunboats Nautilus and 
Albatross near San Sebastian ; the Germans fire 
shells into the town . . . about 5 Sept. ,, 

Lopez Dominguez said to have defeated Carlists five 
times, and relieved Puycerda . about 6 Sept. ,, 

Carlists Are on German and Austrian ambassadors 
on the road to Madrid . . . . 6 Sept. ,, 

Carlists defeated by Lopez Pinto near Mora, about 
9 Sept.; by Moriones at Barasoam near Tafalla, 

about 25 Sept. „ 

The ruthless Carlist general Dorregaray retires to 
Bayonne ; said to have been superseded by Men- 
diri Oct. ,, 

Pavia superseded by Jovellar in Valencia, 

early in Oct. ,, 

Note sent to French government complaining of 
neglect respecting the Carlists on the frontiers, 

early in Oct. ,, 

Carlists said to have been defeated at Fortuna, in 
Murcia, 11 Oct.: and at Villa Fortuna, 30 Oct. „ 

Carlists begin to bombard Irun, 4 Nov. ; repulsed, 

10 Nov. ,, 

Serrano commander of the army in the north, Nov. ,, 

Prince Alfonso issues a manifesto in reply to 
address, declaring himself to be '"a true Spaniard, 
catholic, and liberal " . . . . 1 Dec. ,, 



The army at Murviedro pronounces in favour of 
Alfonso ; he is proclaimed king by gen. Martinez 
Campos, 29 Dec. ; recognised by the other armies 
and the navy, 30 Dec; proclaimed by gen. Primo 
da Rivera at Madrid ; Antonio Canovas del Cas- 
tillo head of a royal ministry . . 31 Dec. 

The president marshal Serrano withdraws to France, 

1 Jan. 

Proclamation of Carlos against Alfonso . 6 Jan. 

Alfonso XII. recognised throughout Spain; well 
received at Barcelona, 9 Jan. ; enters Madrid, 

14 Jan. 

Orders of knighthood re established ; payments to 
clergy to be renewed Jan. 

Increased barbarities of the Carlists reported, Jan. 

Alfonso reviews 30,000 troops near Tafalla, 22 Jan.; 
issues proclamation to northern provinces, pro- 
mising amnesty, and respect to local rights, 22 Jan. 

Serrano returns to Madrid .... Feb. 

Carlists surprise and defeat rovalists at Lucar, 

3 Feb. 

Carlists retreat from Pampeluna ; entered by the 
king, 6 Feb. ; he exchanges decorations with 
Espartero at Logrono . . . .9 Feb. 

Resignation of generals Moriones, Loma, and 
Blanco ; Concha sent for from Cuba . . Feb. 

Serrano received by the king . . .8 March, 

Cabrera, an old Carlist general (see 1840) publishes 
an address, declaring for Alfonso XII., 11 March, 

Several professors seized and exiled for liberal 
opinions March, April, 

Eight prisoners shot by Carlist general Mendiri, in 
reprisal 7 April, 

Papal nuncio received by the king . . 3 May, 

Aguirre, Carlist general, joins the royalists, 

about 9 May, 

Jovellar, commander of royal army, about 7 June, 

Martinez Campos said to have taken fortress of 
Miraveti 24 June, 

Vigorous action of the government troops ; Carlists 
expelled from Castile ; stringent measures or- 
dered against those who favour them . July, 

Carlists defeated by Quesada and others, 31 July, 

Strong citadel at Urgel surrendered by Carlists to 
Campos, after a gallant defence ; the bishop and 
the brave general Lizarraga captured, 26 Aug. 

New conscription ordered, 12 Aug; reported suc- 
cessful Sept. 

Resignation of "conciliation ministry,' n Sept; 
liberal cabinet headed by gen. Jovellar, 12 Sept. 

The papal nuncio issues a circular against toleration, 
about 13 Sept. 

Dorregaray said to be nominated to the chief com- 
mand ; declaration from don Carlos stating that 
his mission is " to quell the revolution, and that 
it will die " Sept. 

Bombardment of San Sebastian, 28 Sept. -2 Oct. ; 
resumed, n Oct. 

The government declare the civil war at an end, 
and purpose summoning the cortes to assist the 
king in re-organising the country, early in Oct. 

Reported defection of Mendiri from the Carlists, 
and trial of Dorregaray and Caballi for miscon- 
duct ; and Carlist successes . . . Oct. 

Reported interference of United States respecting 
Cuba Oct., Nov. 

Alleged victories of Quesada, near Pennacerada, 

4, 5, Nov. 

Correspondence of ministry with the pope respect- 
ing ecclesiastical affairs .... Nov. 

Letter from don Carlos to the king proposing a 
truce, and offering help if war occurs with the 
United States (not answered) . . 9 Nov. 

Formation of a new constitutional party under 
Sagasta Nov. 

New proclamation of don Carlos to encourage his 
supporters 23 Nov. 

Serrano and Sagasta greet the king on his birthday. 

28 Nov. 

Ministry reconstructed under Canovas del Castillo, 

27 Nov. 

Cortes elected, 364 nominal ministerialists out of 406, 

Jan. 

Cortes opened by the king . . .15 Feb. 

Carlists defeated at Estella, Vera, and Tolosa, by 
Quesada and Moriones . . . Feb. 

The king assumes command ; Estella surrenders to 
Primo da Rivera : severe loss . . iS Feb. 

4 F 2 



1874 



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1172 



SPAIN. 



Reported letter from the pope recommending Carlos 
to retire from the contest ... 22 Feb. 1876 

Many Carlists submit or flee into France, 24-26 Feb. „ 

Don Carlos with general Lizarraga and five batta- 
lions surrender to the governor of Bayonne, at 
St. Jean Pied de Port, 27 Feb. ; he lands with 
some officers at Folkestone, and proceeds to 
London 4 March, „ 

Triumphal entry of Alfonso XII. into Madrid, 

20 March, ,, 

Draft of new constitution submitted to the cortes, 

28 March, ,, 

The pope opposes moderate religious toleration in 
Art. 11 of the constitution . . . April, ,, 

The Jews (expelled in 1492) petition for re-admission 

April, ,, 

The prince of Wales at Madrid by invitation, 

25-30 April, ,, 

Outbreaks in the Basque provinces reported ; mar- 
tial law about 27 May, „ 

Dong debate in the cortes ; confidence in ministry 
voted (211-26) ; the constitution passed ; cortes 
adjourns about 21 July, ,. 

<Queen Isabella received by the king at Santander ; 
declares that " her share in public affairs is at an 
end " 3 1 July, .. 

Repression of public worship of protestants by 
authority Sept. „ 

Ex-queen Isabella quietly received at Madrid, 1 3 Oct. ,, 

Alleged federalist conspiracy of Buiz Zorrilla and 
Salmeron ; about 150 arrests . . . 23 Oct. ,, 

State of siege in Old Castile raised . . 1 Feb. 1877 

Treaty favoured nation clause in regard to England 
abrogated ,, 

Royal progress in the provinces ; the king well re- 
ceived March, „ 

■General amnesty to Carlists and others surrender- 
ing April, ,, 

Meeting of the new cortes ; cheerful royal speech, 

25 April, ,, 

The cortes suddenly closed . . . 11 July, „ 

New tariff passed ; customs duties raised in respect 
to Great Britain, France, and United States, 

17 July, » 

The ex-queen, after visiting her son, disapproves 
of his proposed marriage, and associates with don 
Carlos in Paris, who is privately forbidden to 
remain, and goes to England ; she is forbidden to 
return to Spain ; her pension stopped, end of Dec. ,, 
The king married to his cousin Mercedes, daughter 

of the due de Montpensier ... 23 Jan. 1878 
End of the insurrection in Cuba announced, 21 Feb. ,, 
Death of queen Mercedes, deeply lamented, 26 June, , , 
Budget receipts, 30,025,208?., expendit. 30,127,114!. 

announced Aug. ,, 

Death of the queen dowager Christina . 21 Aug. ,, 
The king fired at (not injured) by Juan Oliva Mon- 
casi, a member of the International Society, aged 

23 25 Oct- ,, 

Moncasi executed 4 Jan. 1879 

Espartcro, duque de Victoria, dies . . 8 Jan. ,, 
■Castillo ministry (1874) resigns ; marshal Campos 

forms a ministry 3 March, ,, 

The cortes dissolved, 16 March ; to meet, 1 June, „ 
Heavy rains, 14 Oct. ; consequent disastrous inun- 
dations in the provinces of Malaga, Almeria, 
Granada, Seville, and especially in Murcia and 
Alicante; about 1000 persons perish; about 
10,000 houseless .... 15-17 Oct. ,, 
Fresh storms and inundations ; 21 persons drowned 

at Vera, in Almeria .... 29, 30 Oct. ,, 
"1 he king married to the archduchess Maria Chris- 
tina of Austria 29 Nov. ,, 

Vines attacked by phylloxera in Malaga, &c. Nov. ,, 
Resignation of the Campos ministry ; Canovas del 

Castillo forms a cabinet 9 Dec. ,, 

Attempted assassination of the king and. queen by 

Francisco (Hero y Gonzalez by shooting, 30 D ec. „ 
Promulgation of law for gradually abolishing 

slavery in Cuba 18 Feb. 1880 

Manifesto from 279 senators and deputies claiming 

liberty of religion, the press. &c., .'Hid education, 

universal suffrage, &c. . . . 6 April, ,, 

Otero executed 14 April, ,, 

Resignation of ministry; Sagasta forms a ministry 

(liberal), 8 Feb. : the chambers adjourned, 9 Feb. 1S81 
Calderon centenary, Madrid, begins . 23 May, ,, 



Conference of advanced radicals at Biarritz to or- 
ganize the party 13 June, 1881 

Permission said to be given to about 60,000 Rus- 
sian Jews to come to Spain . . . June, ,, 
Don Carlos expelled from France for expressing sym- 
pathy with legitimists (goes to London) 17 July, ,, 
Elections ; majority for the ministry . . Aug. ,, 
The cortes opened by the king . . 20 Sept. ,, 
Consolidation of the National debt (6o,ooo,ooo£.) 

proposed, Sept.J; law published . 10 Dec. ,, 
The king invested with the orderof the Garter,7 Oct. ,, 
The kings of Spain and Portugal open a new rail- 
way between Madrid and Lisbon . . 8 Oct. ,, 
Great agitation against the free trade policy of the 
minister Camacho, in Catalonia, &c. (see Bar- 
celona) ,, 

Treaty with France passed by the cortes (237-65), 

22 April, 1882 
Continued disputes with England respecting tariff, 

Aug. et seq. ,, 
"Dynastic Left," a new party formed by marshal 
Serrano and others, constituted (dividing the 

liberals) 27 Oct. ,, 

Gen. Maceo and five Cuban insurgent leaders sur- 
rendered at Gibraltar to the Spaniards (they had 
escaped from Cadiz, 20 Aug.) ; they petition 
queen Victoria to ask for their release ; applica- 
tion made for inquiry ; gen. Baynes, colonial 
secretary at Gibraltar, and Mr Blair, the chief 
inspector of police, dismissed for exceeding their 
authority, announced .... 4 Dec. ,, 
The "Dynastic Left " in cortes pronounce in favour 

of advanced liberalism . . . 15 Dec. „ 
Majority for government in elections for councils 

general 17 Dec. ,, 

Resignation of the ministry . . .6 Jan. 1883 

New cabinet formed by Sagasta . . 8 Jan. ,, 
Socialist and anarchist disturbances in Seville, &c, 

Feb. ., 
A secret society, entitled the " Black Hand (Mano 
Negra)," reported; arrests, 28 Feb.; total sup- 
pression reported .... 4 March, ,, 
Release of two Cuban refugees ; Maceo retained, 

March, ,, 
The king and queen of Portugal at Madrid, 22 May, ,, 
Temporary republican military insurrection at 
Badajoz, said to be planned by Ruiz Zorrilla ; 
on the approach of troops, mutineers enter Por- 
tugal, and are disarmed . . 4, 5, 6 Aug. ,, 
Brief military outbreaks near Logroiio and at Bar- 
celona, 8 Aug. ; Seo-de-Urgel . . .9 Aug. ,, 
Spain reported tranquil ... 13 Aug. ,, 

The king's military tour, Valencia, Barcelona, Sara- 

gossa, &c, well received . . 17 Aug. et seq. ,, 
He visits Vienna, 10 Sept. ; Berlin, Homburg, and 

Brussels 27 Sept. ,, 

The king honourably received by president Grevy, 
but hissed and reviled by the Paris mob (on 
account of his having been made a colonel of 
Uhlans by the emperor William); behaved with 
dignity and courage . . 29, 30 Sept. 1 Oct. ,, 
Resignation of Sagasta and his ministry ; succeeded 

by Posada Herrera and others . 11-13 Oct. ., 
The crown prince ot Germany arrives at Madrid, 

23 Nov. ,, 
Amnesty granted to insurgent soldiers announced, 

27 Nov. „ 
Treaty for new commercial tariff signed . 1 Dec. ,, 
The king opens the cortes, with speech promising 

important reforms .... 15 Dec. ., 
Treaty with England condemned by the council of 

State : free traders indignant . . . .'an. 1884 
Government defeated in the cortes (221-126) 17 Jan. ., 
Ministry resigned ; Canovas del Castillo (conser- 
vative) forms a ministry . . . 18 Jan. ., 
Dissolution of the cortes . . . 31 March, ,, 
Sns) ected military insurrection : about 25 persons 
arrested, about 17 March; 7 of 15 condemned; 
Black Hand conspirators garrotted ;it Xeres, 14 
June; Commander Fernandez and licut. Telles 

shot as rebels 28 June, ,, 

fall of the Alcudia railway bridge near Badajoz, 
greal loss of lite (said to be oo) ; believed to lie 

due to criminal work of republicans . 26 April, ,, 
New coiies (three-fourths conservative) meets, 20 
May; business begun . . . 10 June, „ 



SPAIN. 



1173 



SPAIN. 



Sir Robert Morier, British envoy, 1881 ; succeeded 

by sir Francis Clare Ford 1884 

Last section of the Great Asturian railway opened 

by the king 15 Aug. ,, 

Indiscreet speech of sen. Pidal y Mon, minister 
of instruction, causes revival of agitation in 
favour of the pope ; resented by Italy ; apology 
made Aug. Sept. „ 

Speech of professor Moraytor against clericals ; 
university students at Madrid forbidden to attend 
his lectures by Sen. Pidal, resist : conflict with 
the police ; many wounded, 20 Nov. ; professors 
and students expelled from the university ; many 
liberal newspapers suspended ; other universities 
agitated Nov. ,, 

Passive resistance of the students . 1 Dec. et seq. „ 

Much sufferings by Eartliquakes, which see, 

25-31 Dec. ,, 

National subscription proclaimed by the king, 

3 Jan. 1885 

The king visits the afflicted districts, 11-23 Jan. ; 
liberal subscriptions in London . 11 Jan. ,, 

Protocol restoring Great Britain to position of 
most "favoured nation" in regard to commerce 
(lost since 1845) ; wine duties modified ; signed 
at Madrid, 21 Dec. 1884 ; gazetted . 6 Feb. ,, 

Commercial treaty with England ratified by the 
deputies, 11 March; by the senate, 28 March; 
by the king 1 April, ,, 

Failure of the negotiations for the treaty announced, 

18 May, ,, 

Break out of cholera in Valencia (see Cholera), May, ,, 

The ministers resign on account of the king's 
intention to visit Valencia ; he gives in ; they 
resume office . . . . 20, 21 June, ,, 

Riots at Madrid through the Germans occupying 
Yap, a Caroline isle ; the German legation 
attacked, 4, 5 Sept. ; quiet restored 6 Sept ; 
Spanish note of apology sent to Berlin about 26 
Sept. ; mediation of the pope accepted (see 
Caroline Islands) . . . about 26 Sept. 

British legation insulted by claim of taxes, 
about 29, 30 Sept. 

Attempted military insurrection at Cartagena, 
1 Nov. ; suppressed . . about 4, 5 Nov. 

Death of king Alfonso XII., 25 Nov, ; resignation 
of Canovas del Castillo ; ministry formed by 
senor Sagasta . . . . 26, 27 Nov. 

Death of marshal Serrano ... 26 Nov. 

Amnesty granted to press and political offenders, 

10 Dec. ,, 

Manifesto of the Spanish bishops to their dioceses, 
declaring the distinction to be observed between 
religion and politics, and the submission of the 
church to any lawful form of government, 
monarchical or republican ... 6 Jan. 1886 

50 soldiers at Cartagena mutiny ; most escape 
to a ship, 10, it Jan. ; general Fajardo wounded ; 
dies 27 Jan. ; ringleader of mutiny shot, 3 March, ,, 

Suspected intrigue of Zorrilla and his followers, 

Jan. ,, 

The duke of Seville sentenced to eight years' 
imprisonment, &c, for insulting, &c, the queen 
regent about 27 Feb. ,, 

Assassination of the bishop of Madrid (see Madrid), 

19 April, ,, 

The commercial treaty with England (till 1892) 
again accepted by the cortes, May ; ratified, 
24 July ; royal assent, 29 July ; comes into 
operation 15 Aug. ,, 

Destructive cyclone at Madrid (which see), 12 May, ,, 

Don Carlos protests against recognition of Alphonso 
XIII 20 May, „ 

Revolt of 300 of Madrid garrison under brigadier 
Villacampa ; unsupported, quickly suppressed ; 
three officers killed, 19 Sept. ; capital punish- 
ment of insurgents commuted . . Oct. ,, 

Republican manifesto of the duke of Seville issued 
at Tarbes about 30 Sept. , , 

Changes in M. Sagasta's cabinet . . 10 Oct. ,, 

Solemn commemoration of the death of king 
Alphonso XII 25, 26 Nov. ,, 

Attempted assassination by a Frenchman of 
marshal Bazaine .... 18 April, 1887 

The regent queen Christina visits the N. provinces ; 
well received Aug. ,, j 

The Philippine exhibition at Madrid ; the queen 
distributes the prizes . .. . . 17 Oct. ,, 



Opening of the cortes ; the infant king enthroned ; 
speech of the queen regent ; the country 
prosperous and quiet . . . . 1 Dec. 1887 

Sir Francis Clare Ford, British envoy, &c, nomi- 
nated ambassador ; received by the queen 
regent 21 Jan. 188& 

Rioting at the Rio Tinto mines suppressed with 
bloodshed 4, 5 Feb. 

Trial by jury introduced by the senate . 27 Feb. 

Ruiz Zorrilla's revolutionary manifesto issued, 
demanding a plebiscite for the form of national 
government 4 March, 

Resignation of the ministry . . -13 June, 

Senor Sagasta forms a new ministry . 14 June, 

Republican outbreak at Saragossa against con- 
servatives ; senor Canovas del Castillo attacked, 
20 Oct. ; outbreak at Seville, 7 Nov. ; outbreak 
at Madrid 11 Nov. 

Resignation of the ministry, 9 Dec. ; reconstituted 
by senor Sagasta 10 Dec. 

Amnesty to political offenders and mutinous 
soldiers decreed 23 Jan. 18 

The queen regent meets queen Victoria at San 
Sebastian 27 March, 

Long debate in the chamber, victory of ministers 
(227-65) 22 May, 

Trial by jury first put in force (at Madrid), 29 May, 

Parliamentary deadlock, the session closed by 
the queen regent 2 June, 

Powerful speech by senor Sagasta to his supporters, 
12 June ; the cortes reopened . . 14 June, 

Victory of senor Sagasta over senor Canovas del 
Castillo and the combined conservatives and 
dissentient liberals, reported . . 14 July, 

Dispute with Morocco (which see) settled 29 Sept. 

The cortes opened 29 Oct. 

Death of sen. Julian Gayarre, a popular tenor 
singer .2 Jan. 

Resignation of the ministry, 3 Jan. ; Senor Sagasta 
forms a slightly modified cabinet . 20 Jan. 

Illness of the king, 4 Jan. ; serious, 9 Jan. ; con- 
valescent 16 Jan. 

Death of the due de Montpensier, 4 Feb. ; buried 
. in the Escurial ..... 7 Feb. 

The duke of Seville, who had escaped from prison 
(see above, 1886), pardoned by the queen regent, 

27 Feb. 

Strike of about 40,000 workmen in Barcelona and 
other parts of Catalonia, chiefly for reduction of 
time of labour 30 March, 

Barcelona placed under martial law ; the anarchists 
and socialists opposed by the people, 1 May et 
seq. ; tranquillity restored . . 5 May et seq. 

Resignation of the Sagasta ministry . . 3 July, 

Sen. Antonio Canovas del Castillo (Castekir) forms a 
coalition ministry ... 5 July et seq. 

Strikes of workmen in Catalonia . 15 July et seq. 

Infanta Marie Teresa, first class belted cruiser, 
launched at Bilbao by the queen regent 30 Aug. 

Choleraic disease in Valencia and other places, 
about 2,840 deaths . . . May — Sept. 

The cortes dissolved 30 Dec. 

Death of sen. Alonzo Martinez, eminent statesman, 

14 Jan. 18 

Patrocinio, the "bleeding nun," who had been 
banished and returned 1875, lived in retirement, 
and died, aged 91 28 Jan. , 

Conservative majority at the general election — of 
the deputies 1 Feb., of the senate . . 15 Feb. , 

The cortes opened by the queen regent 2 March , 

Republican disturbances at Corunna, supported by 
the corporation ; its powers suspended, 8 Sept. ; 
affair settled 16 Sept. , 

Violent storms, causing great floods, especially in 
the province of Toledo ; all the towns and villages^ 
on the banks of the Amarguillo, especially Con- 
suegra, 30 miles S. E. of Toledo, inundated ;, 
deaths estimated at 2,000, 11, 12 Sept. et sec[.. 
The queen regent sends immediate relief, and 
orders a national subscription . 13 Sept. et seq. , 

Destructive storm at Valencia ; inundations at 
Almeria with loss of life ; grape harvest destroyed, 

15 Sept. , 

Consuegra nearly destroyed, above 1,781 deaths ; 
the minister of public works visits the place ; 
large subscriptions for relief, 16 Sept. ; railway 
and telegraphic communications greatly sus- 



SPAIN. 



1174 



SPAIN. 



pended ; the staple crops in many places almost 
annihilated u Sept. et seq. 1891 

Spanish inundation fund started in London, 

about 14 Sept. ,, 

Above 100,000 persons homeless through floods of 
the Amarguillo, Tagus, Guadalquivir, and other 
rivers ; palaces anil country houses open to re- 
ceive sufferers, reported . . .18 Sept. ,, 
See Railway accidents, 24 Sept. 1891 

Reported government financial difficulties ; the 
queen attends a meeting of the cabinet, 

about 14 Nov. ,, 

Resignation of the ministry, 21 Nov. ; reconsti- 
tuted by sen. Canovas del Castillo . 22 Nov. „ 

Decree for new loan of 250,000,000 pesetas, at 4 per 
cent., 18 Dec. ; opened ... 28 Dec. ,, 

Anarchist attack on Xeres suppressed with blood- 
shed, 9 Jan. ; 4 rioters sentenced to death, others 
to imprisonment, 4 Feb. ; executed . 10 Feb. 1892 

Sir Henry Drummoud Wolff succeeds sir Francis 
Clare Ford as British ambassador, about 15 Jan. „ 

Rupture with France through the new commercial 
tariff .1 Feb. ,, 

Anarchist disturbances at Barcelona ; evidence of 
plots at other places ; the military employed, 
about 10 Feb. ; 7 anarchists arrested at Reus, 
Catalonia 30 March, „ 

Alleged discovery of a plot to blow up the chamber 
of deputies, the palace, and other places ; Jean 
Marie Delboche, a Frenchman, and Manuel 
Ferriera, a Portuguese, arrested with documents, 
4 April ; 13 anarchists arrested at their club, 5 
April. Philip Munoz, an anarchist chief ar- 
rested, 10 April ; released . . 24 April, ,, 

Explosions or attempts at Barcelona and other 
places, arrests made . . .16 April et seq. ,, 

A commercial modus Vivendi with France signed 
by the queen . . . . . 28 May, ,, 

Celebration of the fourth centenary of the sailing 
of Columbus from Palos, near Huelva, 3 Aug. 
1492 ; ships from all nations present, 3 Aug. ; 
grand banquet at Huelva, 4 Aug. ; national 
holiday 12 Oct. „ 

National celebration of the discovery of America, 
especially at Huelva ; the queen regent, the 
king, and foreign dignitaries present 12 Oct. 
et seq. ; historical exhibition at Madrid, opened", 

30 Oct. ,, 

Visit of the king and queen of Portugal at Madrid, 

10-17 Nov. ,, 

Resignation of the minister of the interior and all 
the civil authorities at Madrid, 30 Nov. : re- 
appointments made .... 2 Dec. ,, 

Trial of anarchists : 18 sentenced to imprisonment, 
29 acquitted 5 Dec. ,, 

Resignation of sen. Canovas del Castillo, 7 Dec. ; 
succeeded by sen. Sagasta as prime minister, 

10 Dec. ,, 

The chambers dissolved . . . .6 Jan. 1893 

Jose Zorilla, poet and dramatist, died, aged 75, 
24 Jan. ; public funeral ... 25 Jan. ,, 

Elections ; majority for government . 5 March, „ 

The cortes opened by the queen regent, 5 April, ,, 

The government defeats the republicans in the 
(•handier (after sitting nearly 60 hours) 12 May, ,, 

Explosion at tin- house of sen. Canovas del Castillo; 
1 man killed 20 June, ,, 

Retirement of sen. Canovas del Castillo (Castelar) 
from political life . . . about 28 July, „ 

Much suffering by intense heat and drought; 
Madrid, ii2 deg. F. .... Aug. ,, 

Destructive floods, with great loss of life, in the 
province of Toledo ; \ illages destroyed and roads 
impassable .... about 15 Sept. „ 

Much damage in New Castile and other parts, re- 
ported 16 Sept. „ 

Anarchist movements in Catalonia; dynamite ex- 
plosions in Barcelona ; Pallas, a leader, who 

threw a bcmili amongst a group of officers, 

Sept. ; executed 6 Oct. ,, 

Fighting with the Moors at Melilla . . 2 Oct. „ 

Sir Morocco. 
Depression of the finances ; national subscriptions 

tn Support the War with Hie Mi 11 us, ,'1110111 7 Nov. „ 

Disastrous explosion at Santander (which see), 

3 Nov. ,, 
Destructive bomb explosion (by anarchists) at 
Barcelona (which sec) . * . . 7 Nov. ,, 



Close of dispute with Morocco (which see) . 23 Feb. 
Resignation of the cabinet, 8 March ; re-con- 
stituted under sen. Sagasta, 12 March ; meeting 

of the cortes ; legislation against anarchism, 

4 April, 
The marriage of don Carlos, duke of Madrid, to 

princess Maria Bertha of Rohan, celebrated at 

Prague 28 April, 

Anarchists' trial and execution . April, May, 

See Barcelona. 
Cortes closed by decree . . . n July, 

Senor Cabrera consecrated first bishop of the 

reformed church .... 23 Sept. 
See Spanish Reformed Church. 
Resignation of sen. Sagasta and cabinet, 30 Oct.; 

reconstituted by him, 4 Nov 

Opening of the cortes ; improvement of the 

finances, reported .... 12 Nov. 
Introduction of the budget for 1895-96, deficit, 1 Feb. 
Heavy snowfall, Madrid blocked . . 4 Feb. 
Reina Regetite cruiser, sunk during a storm between 

Cape Tarifa and Trafalgar ; over 400 lives lost, 

about 10 March, 

The Resumen, Madrid newspaper, accuses military 

officers of want of zeal in the royal cause. 
The offices of the Resumen and others attacked by 

officers and the staff ill-treated ; rioting sup- 
pressed by the capt.-gen. of Madrid, 16-17 March, 
Debate in the cortes, which favours the officers ; 

resignation of the Sagasta cabinet, 16-17 March, 
Sen. Canovas del Castillo (conservative) forms a 

cabinet 23 March, 

Marshal Martinez Campos appointed commander in 

Cuba ; arrives there .... 16 April, 
Attempted assassination of gen. Primo de Rivera, 

capt.-gen. of Madrid by capt. Primitivo Clavijo, 

3 June, 

Capt. Clavijo shot 5 June, 

A vote of censure passed in the chamber on the 

government 3 June, 

Railway communication with France, etc., stopped 

by a landslip 6 June, 

A loan of about 24,000,000?. authorized by the 

senate 12 June, 

Ruiz Zorrilla, the republican leader, died 13 June, 
Count Oasa Valencia appointed ambassador at 

London 2 July, 

Spanish fleet warmly received at Cherbourg, 16 

July; at Plymouth, 20-29 July; telegram of 

welcome from queen Victoria . . 22 July, 
Destructive floods in Andalusia . . Sept. 
Death of capt. gen. Concha, marquis de Habafia, 

eminent statesman, aged 87 . .5 Nov. 

Cortes dissolved 26 Feb. 

Much resentment against the United States (which 

see) for the resolutions of the senate, relating to 

Cuba 28 Feb. et seq. 

Duke of Tetuan appointed foreign minister, 

4 March, 
Sen. Canovas del Castillo defends his policy, and 

declines American intervention . . 7 March, 
Rioting at Valencia, and other towns . 8 March, 
The chambers opened by the queen-regent, reforms 

in Cuba promised ; increased expenditure and 

taxation, required 11 May, 

Budget presented, lai'ge deficit for 1895-6, 20 June ; 

ordinary budget adopted . . . n Aug. 

Reported conspiracy for the independence of 

Philippines, 25 arrests at Madrid . . 21 Aug. 
An Ui- Anarchist bill adopted by the senate Aug. 
Railway subventions bill granting concessions to 

the companies till 1980 in return for a large loan, 

passed 1, 3 Sept. 

New loan ordered, 10 Nov. ; largely taken up, 

16 Nov. 1 1 si >/. 
Cuban reform bill drawn up by sen. Canovas, 

Signed by the queen-regent (see Culm) . 4 Feb. 
Royal decree authorizing a war loan for Cuba and 

the Philippines S May. 

The United States senate recognize the Cubans as 

belligerents, great excitement in the cortes, 

21 May, 
Budget statement : new loan proposed 22 May, 

Deadlock: the Canovas ministry resigns, 2 June; 

but agree to remain in office . . 6 June, 

Sen. Canovas del Castillo assassinated at Santa 

Agueda, by Michele A. Colli, to avenge the Bar- 



1897 



SPAIN. 



1175 



SPAIN. 



celona anarchists), 8 Aug. ; state fuiwral at 

Madrid, 13 Aug. ; Golli executed . 20 Aug. 

<3en. Azcarraga appointed premier (same policy), 

9 Aug. ; the cabinet resigns . . .29 Sept. 

Sen. Sagasta forms a ministry . . .4 Oct. 

Disastrous floods in Saragossa, 15 deaths, 

early Nov. 

Rejoicing at Madrid at the end of the rebellion in 

the Philippines 16 Dec. 

Scarcity of food in the provinces, high price of 
wheat, bread riots in Salamanca . 24 Feb. 

Special performance at the Royal theatre in aid of 
the national navy fund, the queen-regent present ; 
large subscriptions ; great patriotism and enthu- 
siasm 31 March, 

United States proposals respecting Cuba : Spain 
to proclaim an armistice till Oct., to relieve the 
starvation and distress, and the United States to 
assist, 31 March ; Spain agrees to an armistice if 
asked for by the Cubans 1 April, 

Mediation of the pope, 6 April ; an armistice granted 
on the recommendation of the 6 powers, 9 April, 

Elections, large government majority ; demon- 
strations for Spain and the army, in Madrid, many 

arrests 10 April, 

See United States, 11-13 April, 1898. 

National patriotic fund for increase of the navy 
headed by the queen-regent, 14 April ; over 
22,000,000 pesetas ..... 22 June, 

The council rejects United States intervention, 14 
April ; note issued to the powers protesting 
against the resolution of U.S. congress 18 April, 

The Times correspondent requested to leave Ha- 
vana 19 April, 

The cortes opened with a firm speech by the queen- 
regent, the king present ; U.S. ultimatum sent, 
20 April ; diplomatic relations broken otf ; gen. 
Woodford leaves Madrid . . . 21 April, 

Spanish reserve (30,000) called out . . 22 April, 

Cortes united in support of the government, 25 
April : Budget : surplus estimated, 506,095 
pesetas 26 April, 

Martial law proclaimed in Madrid, city quiet, 2 
May ; riots at Valencia, Talavera, and elsewhere 
owing to the rise of bread, state of siege pro- 
claimed, 3 May ; corn duties reduced . 5 May, 

Riots at Murcia, the law courts pillaged and burnt, 
prisoners in the gaol set free, 5 May ; state of 
siege in Catalonia, Badajos, Alicante, Linares, 
and other places, with loss of life . 8-10 May, 

War expenditure bill passed by the chamber and 
senate, after a hot debate . 10, 12 May, 

Resignation of the ministry, sen. Sagasta com- 
missioned to reconstruct the cabinet 16 May, 

The senate meets, sen. Sagasta, the premier, de- 
nounces the conduct of the United States and 
declares that Spain will carry on the war a 
■outrance till an honourable peace be obtained, 

20 May, 

Bill passed to prevent the exportation of silver, 

31 May, 

Bank panic, arrangements for a loan of 1,000,000,000 
pesetas at 4 per cent 1 June, 

Serious mining agitation in Catalonia, over 17,000 
men out of work June, 

The cortes closed after an exciting debate on the 
political situation and the war . . 24 June, 

The government opens an issue of 5 per cent, trea- 
sury bonds 11 July, 

Decree suspending the constitutional guarantees 
(martial law) proclaimed . . .15 July, 

The cortes meets, 5 Sept. ; pease protocol 
adopted, 13 Sept. ; the cortes prorogued, 14 Sept. 

Destructive hurricane in Seville and Granada, 
many deaths 18 Sept. 

The National union formed by the middle classes, 
calling for financial and administrative reform, 

Nov. 

Carlist agitation in Catalonia and Bilbao, Nov. ; 
clubs closed, some arrests . . 19 Dec. 

Amnesty for press offences issued . . 6 Jan. : 

Col. San Martin, who surrendered Puertorico to 
the Americans, sentenced to life imprisonment, 

6 Jan. 

Colonial ministry abolished . . .7 Jan. 

Stormy debates in the cortes on the government 
policy and conduct f the late war, 20-25 Feb. ; 
theministry resigns .... 28 Feb. 



New cabinet, scii. Silvela, premier and foreign 
minister ; the cortes suspended . 5, 6 March, 

Army discontent ; meetings held ; some disoider in 
Madrid 6 March, 

The Saragossa commissioners' (chamber of com- 
merce) proposals for political and financial re- 
forms, &c, well received by sen. Silvela, 

10 March, 

Peace treaty with U.S. ratified, cortes dissolved, 

17 March, 

Election riots at Bilbao and elsewhere . 16 April, 

Carlist plot reported ; 5 arrests, arms, &c, seized, 
at Barcelona 21 April, 

General elections ; government majority about 40, 

23 April, 

Financial decree against existing abuses . 14 May, 

Don Emilio Castelar, eminent orator, leader of the 
republican party, born 1832, died 25 May ; public 
funeral in Madrid .... 29 May, 

The cortes opened by the queen-regent ; the Caro- 
linas, Pelews, Marianne, and Ladrones ceded to 
Germany for 837,500^., announced . 2 June, 

See Storms, 9 June, 1899. 

Budget, 1899-1900 : suspension of the sinking fund, 
reduction of interest on bonds, increased taxation 
proposed ; 5 per cent, loan of 300,000,000 pesetas 
to be issued 17 June, 

Anti-budget riots ; troops called out at Zaragoza, 
Valencia, and other towns ; martial law pro- 
claimed, 26, 27 June ; 1 death ; debate in the 
chamber, 28 June ; further rioting, see Barcelona 
and Badalona, 4 deaths, reported . 1 July, 

The queen-regent gives up another 2,000,000 pesetas 
of her civil list 13 July, 

Bill for reorganising internal debts passed by the 
chamber 28 July, 

Decree calling out 60,000 men for the army, signed, 

Aug. 

Catholic congress at Burgos ; many divisions ; 
recent prescriptions of the Vatican resisted, 

4 Sept. 

Regionalism, a desire for more self-government, 
active in Catalonia and other provinces, reported, 

Sept. 

Martial law decreed throughout Vizcaya, due to 
increase of Separatism . . . 13 Sept. 

Card. Cascajares and the bps. issue a statement 
demanding Catholic ascendancy in education and 
civil affairs 18 Sept. 

Clearance of goods through the customs stopped to 
non-payers of the new industrial tax at Barce- 
lona ........ Sept. 

Adm. Montojo, who surrendered to the Americans 
at Cavite, dismissed from the service by court- 
martial 22 Sept. 

Strike riots at the naval arsenal at Ferrol; town in 
a state of siege 23 Sept. 

Ministerial crisis regarding military expenditure ; 
gen. Polavieja resigns ; succeeded by gen. Azcar- 
raga 30 Sept. 

Anti-taxation riots at Barcelona, 13 Oct.; state of 
siege proclaimed ; press censorship . 17 Oct. 

Negotiations with trade guilds, .Nov. ; state of 
siege raised, but the " suspension of guarantees" 

still in force 22 Dec. 

Mass meetings of the "National Union" organised 
by the Spanish chambers of commerce ; whole- 
sale reforms demanded . . . -14 Jan. : 
Conversion of debt bill signed by the queen-regent, 

26 March, 

Cabinet reconstructed ; sen. Silvela, premier and 
minister of marine ; marquis of Aguilar Campo, 
foreign minister .... 18 April, 

Martial law proclaimed in Barcelona and Valencia, 

11 May, 

New consolidation loan subscribed for 25J times 
over, announced 6 June, 

Royal decree suspending constitutional guarantees 
in Madrid province ; city quiet . 21 June, 

Sir H. Mortimer Durand appointed ambassador at 
Madrid 7 Aug. 

Death of marshal Martinez de Campos, aged 66, 

23 Sept. 

Gen. Weyler appointed capt.-gen. of Madrid ; sen. 
Silvela, premier, resigns, 21 Oct.; gen. Azcarraga 
forms a cabinet 22 Oct. 



SPAIN. 



1176 



SPAIN. 



Cailist rising near Barcelona; fatal rioting at 
Badalona, 28 Oct.; the movement repudiated by 
don Carlos ; many arrests in Madrid . 2 Nov. 1900 

The Cagayan and Sibutu islands ceded to the U.S. 
for 100,000 dols. ; convention signed at Washing- 
ton 7 Nov. ,, 

Budget, 7,930,230 pesetas surplus for 1900, 22 Nov. ,, 

Mercedes, princess of the Asturias, married to 
prince Carlos of Bourbon, son of the count de 
Caserta, at Madrid .... 14 Feb. 1901 

Anti-Jesuit rioting (due to a law case) in Madrid, 
spreads to other towns ; monasteries, &c, at- 
tacked, 7-13 Feb. ; the case is decided against 
the Jesuits 19 Feb. 

Cabinet resigns, 26 Feb.; sen. Sagasta forms one; 
gen. Weyler (war), duke of Almodovar (foreign), 
sefi. Moret (interior) ... 6 March, 

Kioting against the octroi duties in Madrid ; strike 
riots in Barcelona and elsewhere, 10-18 March, 

Anti-clerical demonstrations in Barcelona, Valencia, 
and other places ... 31 March-April, 

Cortes dissolved 24 April, 

Elections : 238 ministerialists, 163 of the opposi- 
tion, returned 19 May, 

Fatal strike riots in La Corufia . . 31 May, 

Elections of senators .... 2 June, 

The cortes opened ; proposed reform of monetary 
circulation 11 June, 

Anti-clerical riots at Zaragoza . 17, 18 July, 

Convents and churches closed and guarded, 

19 July, 

Cortes suspended 22 July, 

Decree ordering the registration of religious asso- 
ciations, issued 19 Sept. 

Students' riots frequent in Madrid and Barcelona, 

19-22 Nov. 

Budget: revenue, 974,000,000 pesetas; expenditure, 
971,000,000 pesetas ; passed . . 31 Dec. 

General strike in Barcelona and neighbouring 
towns ; conflicts with troops ; over 40 deaths ; 
bill suspending the constitutional guarantees 
passed by the senate; martial law proclaimed in 
• Zaragoza and Tarragona . . 17-20 Feb. 1902 

Bill for the reconstruction of the Bank of Spain 
fails ; the ministry resigns . . 13 March, ,, 

Arbitration treaties signed between Spain and 
Spanish America .... March, 

Sen. Sagasta reconstructs the cabinet . 18 March, 

Bank of Spain bill passed by the chamber, 197 — 32, 

28 April, 

The queen-regent, after over 16 years' noble con- 
stitutional rule, bids farewell to her ministers, 
12 May (her letter published 18 May) ... 

Protest of don Carlos against the king's accession, 
published 13 May, 

Alfonso XIII. enthroned as a constitutional ruler 
in Madrid 17 May, 

Anarchist plot discovered; 6 arrested . 17 May, 

The king reviews the troops ; opens an exhibition 
of national portraits, 19, 20 May; present with 
the duke of Connaught and other foreign princes 
at a state bull-fight .... 21 May, 

Sen. Canalejas (agriculture) and other ministers 
later resign 27 May, 

Cortes suspended by royal decree . 30 May, 

Labour troubles ; rioting at Badajoz ; martial law, 

1 June, 

Total religious communities in Spain, 2,586 for 
women, with 40,188 members; 529 for men, with 
10,745 members ; announced . . 20 June, 

New 5 p.c. loan of 338,400,000 pesetas, issued, 
5 June ; well taken up, 16 times over . 23 June, 

Decree for the regulation of non-official instruction 
signed by the king .... 1 July, 

New bank law passed, May; convention signed by 
contracting parties for the loan . 16 July, 

Mine explosion at Camargo; 14 deaths, 5 houses 
destroyed; reported .... 7 Aug. 

The king visits Santander and San Sebastian, &c, 

8-14 Aug. 

Cabinet crisis : scfi. Sagasta forms a ministry 

11-14 Nov. 

Arrests of Carlists at Barcelona . . 17 Nov. 

Sen. Sagasta resigns (in a liost'lr division in the 

" chamber • ..-.-. . 2 Dec. 



Sen. Silvela, conservative, forms a cabinet; sefi'. 
Abarzuza (foreign), sen. Villaverde (finance), sen. 
Maura (interior), gen. Linares (war) . 6 Dec. 1902 

Cortes suspended by decree ... .9 Dec. ,, 

Sen. Sagasta, liberal leader, died, aged 75, 5 Jan.; 
public funeral 7 Jan. 1903 

The duke of Sotomayor shot at by a delusionist in 
Madrid 10 Jan. ,, 

Budget (1904): 31,656,729 pesetas (estimated) sur- 
plus, announced . .... 28 Jan. ,, 

Strikes in Barcelona begin 30 Dec, and Reus, Feb. ,, 

Duke of Tetuan, ex-minister (foreign), dies, 9 Feb. ., 

Fatal rioting at Bilbao between a religious proces- 
sion and an anti-clerical crowd ; 1 killed, 47 
injured 11 Oct. ,, 

Great strike of 40,000 miners and others at Bilbao ; 
dynamite and other outrages, several killed, 
many injured ; state of siege proclaimed, 

mid Oct. ,, 

Banquet in honour of the adm. and officers of H.M. 
battleship Prince George given by Spanish autho- 
rities at Ferrol . . . -- . . 21 Oct. ,, 

See Spanish- American war. 

Sovereigns of Spain, 
gothic sovereigns. 
411. Ataulfo ; murdered by his soldiers 
415. Sigerico ; reigned a few days onlj 

,, Valia, or Wallia. 
420. Theodoric I. ; killed in a battle, which he gained, 
against Attila. 

451. Thorismund, or Torrismund ; assassinated. 

452. Theodoric II. ; assassinated. 

466. Euric, the first monarch of all Spain. 

483. Alaric II. ; killed in battle. 

506. Gesalric ; his bastard son. 

511. Amalric, or Amalaric ; legitimate son of Alaric. 

531. Theudis, or Theodat; assassinated by a madman. 

548. Theudisela, or Theodisele ; murdered. 

549. Agila ; taken prisoner, and put to death. 
554. Atanagildo. 

567. Liuva, or Levua I. 

568. Leuvigildo ; associated on the throne with Liuva, 

in 568 ; and sole king in 572. 

586. Recaredo I. 

601. Liuva II. ; assassinated. 

603. Vitericus ; also murdered. 

610. Gundemar. 

612. Sisibut, or Sisebuth, or Sisebert. 

621. Recaredo II. 
,, Suintila ; dethroned. 

631. Sisenando. 

636. Chintella. 

640. Tulga, or Tulca. 

642. Cindasuinto ; died in 652. 

649. Keeesuinto ; associated ; in 653 became sole king. 

672. Vaniba, or Wamba ; dethroned, and died in a 
monastery. 

680. Ervigius, or Ervigio. 

687. Egica, or Egiza. 

698. Vitiza, or Witiza, associated ; in 701 sole king. 

711. Rodrigo, or Roderic ; slain in battle. 
[Six independent Suevic kings reigned 409-469 ; and 
Two Vandalic kings : Gunderic, 409-425 ; his successor 
Genseric with his whole nation passed over to Africa.} 

Mahometan Spain. 

CORDOVA. 

Emirs. The first, Abdelasis: the lost, Yussuf-el-Tehri : 

A.D. 714-755. 

Kings. The first, Abderahman I. ; the last, Abu Ali; 
755-I23S- 

GRANADA. 

Kings. The first, Mohammed I.; the l«*l, Abdalla; 
1238-1492. 

Christian Spain. 

kings of asturias and leon. 

71S. Pelagius, or Pelayo; overthrew the Moors, and 

checked their conquests. 
737. Favila ; killed in hunting. 
730. Alfonso the Catholic. 

757. Fi'oila ; liuirdcivd his brother Samaran, in revenge 
for which he was murdered by his brother, and 
successor, 



SPAIN. 



1177 



SPAIN. 



774- 
788. 
791. 
842. 

850. 



910. 
914. 
9 2 3- 
9 2 5- 
93°- 
95°- 
955- 
956. 
967. 
983- 
999. 
1027. 



873. 
885. 
9°5- 
924. 
970. 

i°35- 
1054. 
1076. 
1094. 
1104. 

"34- 
1 150. 
1 194. 
1234. 

1253- 
1270. 
1274. 
i3°S- 
1316. 

1322. 
1328. 
J 343- 
1349- 
1387- 
1425. 

1479- 

1483. 
1512. 



1035. 
1065. 

1072. 
1 109. 
1126. 
"57- 



1214. 
1217. 



1295. 
1312. 
135°' 



1379- 
1390. 
1406. 

1454- 
1474. 



the Monk ; abdicated, 
killed in battle. 



Aurelius or Aurelio. 

Mauregato, the Usurper. 

Veremundo (Bermuda) I. 

Alfonso II. , the Chaste. 

Ramiro I. : he put 70,000 Saracens to the sword in 

one battle. Rabhe. 
Ordono II. 
Alfonso III., surnamed the Great; relinquished his 

crown to his son, 
Garcias. 
Ordono II. 
Froila II. 
Alfonso IV. 
Ramii'o II. 
Ordono III. 
Ordono IV. 

Sancho I. , the Fat ; poisoned with an apple. 
Ramiro III. 

Veremundo II. (Bermuda), the Gouty. 
Alfonso V. ; killed in a siege. 
Veremundo III. (Bermuda) ; killed. 

KINGS OF NAVARRE. 

Sancho luigo. Count. 

Garcia I. , king. 

Sancho Garcias ; a renowned warrior. 

Garcias II., surnamed the Trembler 

Sancho II., surnamed the Great (king of Castile 

through his wife). 
Garcias III. 
Sancho III. 

Sancho IV., Ramirez, king of Aragon. 
Peter of Aragon. 
Alfonso I. , of Aragon. 
Garcias IV. , Ramirez. 
Sancho V. , surnamed the Wise. 
Sancho VI., surnamed the Infirm 
Theobald I. , count of Champagne 
Theobald II. 
Henry Crassus. 

Joanna; married to Philip the Fair of France, 1285. 
Louis Hutin, of France. 
John ; lived but a few days. 
Philip V., the Long, of France. 
Charles I. , the IV. of France. 
Joanna II., and Philip, count d'Evreux. 
Joanna alone. 
Charles II., or the Bad. 
Charles III. , or the Noble. 
Blanche and her husband John II. , afterwards king 

of Aragon. 
Eleanor. 

Francis Phoebus de Foix. 
Catherine and John d'Albret. 
Navarre conquered by Ferdinand the Catholic, and 

united with Castile. 

KINGS OF LEON AND CASTILE. 

Ferdinand the Great. 

Sancho II., the Strong, son of Ferdinand ; Alfonso 

in Leon and Asturias, and Garcias in Galicia. 
Alfonso VI., the Valiant, king of Leon. 
Uraca and Alfonso VII. 
Alfonso VII. , Raymond. 
Sancho III. , surnamed the Beloved. 
Alfonso VIII. , the Noble. 

[Leon is separated from Castile under Ferdi- 
nand II., 1157-88.] 
Alfonso IX. , of Leon. 
Henry I. 
Ferdinand III. , the Saint and the Holy. By him 

Leon and Castile were permanently united. 
Alfonso X. , the Wise (the Alphonsine Tables were 

drawn up under his direction). 
Sancho IV. , the Great and the Brave. 
Ferdinand IV. 
Alfonso XL 
Peter the Cruel : deposed ; reinstated by Edward 

the Black Prince of England ; slain by his 

natural brother and successor, 
Henry II. , the Gracious ; poisoned by a monk. 
John I. : he united Biscay to Castile. 
Henry III., the Sickly. 
John II., son of Henry. 
Henry IV. , the Impotent. 
Isabella, sister (had married Ferdinand of Aragon, 

18 Oct. 1469). 



1504. Joanna (daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella) and 
Philip I. of Austria. On her mother's death 
Joanna succeeded, jointly with her husband 
Philip ; but Philip dying in 1506, and Joanna 
becoming imbecile, her father Ferdinand con- 
tinued the reign ; and thus perpetuated the 
union of Castile with Aragon. 

KINGS OF ARAGON. 

1035. Ramiro I. 

1065. Sancho Ramirez (IV. of Navarre). 

1094. Peter of Navarre. 

1 104. Alfonso I. , the Warrior, king of Navarre. 

1134. Ramiro II., the Monk. 

1137. Petronilla, and Raymond, count of Barcelona. 

1163. Alfonso II. 

1 196. Peter II. 

1213. James I. ; succeeded by his son, 

1276. Peter III. ; conquered Sicily (which see) in 1282. 

1285. Alfonso III., the Beneficent. 

1291. James II., surnamed the Just. 

1327. Alfonso IV. 

1336. Peter IV., the Ceremonious. 

1387. John I. 

1395. Martin. 

1410. [Interregnum.] 

1412. Ferdinand the Just, king of Sicily. 

1416. Alfonso V., the Wise. 

1458. John II. , king of Navarre, brother of Alfons ; died 
1479- 

1479. Ferdinand II., the Catholic, the next heir; by 
marriage with Isabella of Castile (styled the 
Catholic kings), the kingdoms were united. 

SPAIN. 

1512. Ferdinand V. (of Castile), the Catholic; having 
conquered Granada and Navarre, became king 
of all Spain. 

1516. Charles I., grandson, son of Joanna of Castile and 
Philip of Austria (emperor of Germany, as Charles 
V., in 1519) ; resigned both crowns, and retired 
to a monastery. 

1356. Philip II., son, king of Naples and Sicily ; a merci- 
less bigot ; married Mary of Portugal, 1543, Mary 
of England, 1554, and Isabella of France, 1559. 

1598. Philip III., son, drove the Moors from Granada 
and. the adjacent provinces. 

1621. Philip IV., son : wars with the Dutch and French ; 
lost Portugal in 1640. 

1665. Charles II., son; last of the Austrian line; nomi- 
nated, by will, as his successor, 

1700. Philip V., duke of Anjou, grandson of Louis XIV. 
of France: hence arose the "war of the Succes- 
sion," terminated by the treaty of Utrecht in 
1713; resigned. 

1724. Louis I. , son ; reigned only a few months. 
,, Philip V. again. 

1746 FerdinandVL, the Wise, son; liberal and beneficent. 

1759. Charles III. , brother, king of the Two Sicilies, which 
he gave to his third son, Ferdinand. 

1788. Charles IV. , son ; the influence of Godoy, prince of 
the peace, reached to almost royal authority in 
this reign ; Charles abdicated in favour of his 
son in 1808, and died in 1819. 
Ferdinand VII., whom Napoleon of France also 

forced to resign. 
Joseph Bonaparte, brother of Napoleon ; forced to 

abdicate. 
Ferdinand VII. restored ; married Maria Christina 
of Naples, n Dec. 1829; died 29 Sept. 1833; 
succeeded by 
Isabella II., daughter (born, 10 Oct. 1830) ; declared 
of age, 8 Nov. 1843 ; married her cousin, don 
Francis d'Assisi, 10 Oct. 1846 (born 13 May, 
1822; died 17 April, 1902); deposed 30 Sept. 
1868 ; separated from her husband, March, 
1870; and abdicated, 25 June, 1870, in favour of 
her son, Alfonso, prince of Asturias (born, 
28 Nov. 1857). Visits queen Victoria at Windsor, 
20 May ; leaves England 2Q May, 1890. 

1873. Amadeol. (dukeof Aosta, son'of Victor-EmanuelH. 
Icing of Italy) ; bom, 30 May, 1845 ; married 
Maria Victoria of Pozzo della Cisterna, 30 May, 
1867; accepted the crown offered him by the 
cortes, 4 Dec. 1S70; abdicated n Feb. 1873; 
died 18 Jan. 1890. 

Republic founded, u Feb. 1873. Very unsettled, 
1873-4 



1808. 



513- 



1833- 



SPALATO. 



1178 



SPANISH- AMEBIC AN WAK. 



KINGS. 

1874. Alfonso XII., son of Isabella II. (born 28 Nov. 
1857); proclaimed 30 Dee. 1874; married 1st, 
his cousin Mercedes, daughter of the due de 
Montpensier (born 24 June, i860), 23 Jan. 1878 ; 
she died 26 June, 1878 ; 2nd, archduchess Maria 
Christina of Austria (born 21 July, 1858), 29 
Nov. 1S79. He died 25 Nov. 1885. 

1883. Maria Mercedes Isabella (princess of Asturias),born 
11 Sept. 1880; replaced by her brother; mar- 
ried jjrince Carlos of Bourbon (bom 1870), 14 
Feb. 1901 ; son, Alfonso, born 30 Nov. 1901. 

z886. Alplionso (Leon, &c.) XIII., [born 17 May; for- 
mally enthroned 17 May, 1902. 

CARLIST LEGITIMIST PRETENDERS. 

(See above 1833 et seq.) 
■Carlos V., brother of Ferdinand VII., born 29 March, 

1788 ; died, 10 March, 1855. 
Carlos VI., his son (conde de Montemolin), died 14 Jan. 

1861. 
Carlos VII. (son of don Juan, brother of Carlos VI., 

who renounced his right, 8 Jan. 1863) ; born, 

30 March, 1848 ; see above 1873-6. 

SPALATO (Dalmatia), the ancient Spalatum 
and Salona. At his palace here, Diocletian spent his 
last nine years, and died July, 313. It. Adam pub- 
lished the "Antiquities of .Diocletian's Palace," 
1764. 

SPANISH AMERICA, ARMADA, &c, 

see America, Armada, and Eras. 

SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, see Spain 

and United States, April, 1898. 

The Buenaventura and the Pedro, Spanish ships, 
captured by the New York, U.S. flagship, and the 
Nashville, cruiser 22 April, 1898 

Cuba, blockade of Havana and other ports, also 
San Juan in Puertorico, by rear-adm. Sampson, 
with the N. Atlantic squadron . 22 April, et seq. „ 

•6 Spanish vessels captured . . 23, 24 April, ,, 

Spanish circular to the powers accusing the United 
States of aggression .... 25 April, ,, 

Lieut. A. S. Rowan lands on the S.E. coast of 
Cuba to arrange co-operation with the insur- 
gents about 26 April, ,, 

Matanzas bombarded, batteries destroyed by adm. 
Sampson ; the Guido, Spanish steamer, captured, 

27 April, ,, 

The Argonauta, mail steamer, with 10 Spanish offi- 
cers and soldiers, captured by the Nashville, off 
Cuba 2g April, ,, 

Rear-adm. Sampson bombards San Juan, Puerto- 
rico, forts, &c, destroyed . . . 12 May, ,, 

American attempts to land at Cabanas, Cardenas 
and Cienfuegos repulsed ; forts destroyed by the 
U.S. gunboats 12 May, „ 

Santiago forts bombarded by 3 U.S. warships, t8 
May; Spanish squadron under adm. Cervera 
arrives, 19 May ; U.S. ships withdraw ; frequent 
.skirmishes; conflicting reports: bombardment 
of forts by U.S. ships checked by Spanish war- 
Ships, 31 May ; the U.S. Florida lands 400 Cubans, 
with stores and ammunition, on the N. coast of 
Santiago about 31 May, ,, 

The U.S. collier, Merrimac, sunk at night in the 
harbour channel of Santiago, to block the 
Spanish squadron in the harbour, through the 
heroism of Lieut. H. 1'. Hobson and 7 men ; they 

were afterwards taken up by a Spanish Ship, and 

made prisoners, 3 June (prisoners exchanged, 

7 July;; an American force lands, and joins 
insurgents in an attack on forts . . 6 June, ,, 

Bombardment of Puertorico l.\ tic l*.S. squadron, 
to Spaniards killed, re ported, 6 June; (I nan tana 11 10 
buy taken by rear-adm, Sampson, 7 June ; Ameri- 
can force, under liciit.-col. Huntingdon, occupies 
Guantanamo, earthworks, &c. destroyed; the 

U.S. Hag hoisted, to June; adm. Sampson with 

8 ships bombards Santiago; sharp fighting, the 
Spaniards repulsed, n .lime ; Caimamera shelled 

by U.S. squadron 15 June, ., 



Santiago bombarded, forts dismantled ; Americans 
repulsed on attempting to land at Punta Cabrera, 
W. of Santiago, by col. Aldea's column, 16 June ; 
again driven back with loss by Spanish infantry 
at Cabanas 17 June, 1 

Major-gen. Shatter arrives with 47 U.S. ships and 
troops, S.E. of Santiago, 21 June; 6,000 troops 
successfully landed at Baiquiri, under the direc- 
tion of adm. Sampson, gen. Shaffer, and gen. 
Lawton ; the country for 6 miles occupied by the 
Americans, with little or no resistance, 9 a.m., 
22 June — 1 a.m 23 June, 

Advance of American troops under gen. Lawton, 
24 June ; a severe engagement fought near 
Santiago between about 1,000 Americans, under 
gen. Wheeler, col. Wood, and gen. Young, and 
2,000 Spaniards, under gen. Linares and gen. 
Rubin ; Spaniards driven back from Sevilla, to 
the city ; eapt. Capron, serg. H. Fish, Mr. Edw. 
Marshall, newspaper correspondent, and about 
34 others killed ; Spanish loss 265 . 24 June, 

Sharp engagement between 2,000 Cubans, under 
Castillo, and the Spaniards at Guasima . 24 June, 

Calixto Garcia, with 5,000 Cubans, joins the 
Americans at Juragua ... 26 June, 

Extension of the blockade by U.S. ships 28 June, 

Gen. Shatter begins the attack on Santiago, 8 a.m. 
1 July ; El Caney and El Paso captured by the 
Americans ; gen. Linares severely wounded, gives 
up the command to gen. Toral ; San Juan cap- 
tured by the Americans, the Spaniards retreat 
to Santiago 2 July, 

Adm. Cervera's squadron (ordered to sea by the 
Madrid government) leaves Santiago harbour, 
and is destroyed by adm. Sampson's squadron 
(one ship only surrendered) ; Spanish loss 
about 600 ; adm. Cervera wounded, and 692 
Spaniards taken prisoners . . 3 July, 

Santiago summoned to surrender, 4 July ; armis- 
tice, till 9 July ; gen. Toral's offer of honourable 
surrender declined ; American reinforcements 
land to co-operate with Garcia, 10 July ; bom- 
bardment resumed, and the line of investment 
extended, 9 a.m. till about noon ; gen. Shatter 
sends a flag of truce, again demanding the un- 
conditional surrender of the city ; negotiations : 
gen. Miles arrives off Santiago ; truce extended 
till 16 July 11 July. 

Alfonso XII., warship, attempting to escape from 
Havana, destroyed near Mai iel . . 5 July, 

The abp. of Santiago appeals to Madrid, advising 
the surrender of the city ; the government de- 
termines on stubborn resistance . 5 July, 

Yellow fever (mild type) appears among the 
American troops ; several deaths ; Siboney, a 
suburb, ordered to be burnt for sanitary reasons, 
by gen. Miles ; 18,000 refugees starving ; re- 
ported 13 July, 

Surrender of Santiago and province, successfully 
concluded, 16 July; Santiago evacuated by the 
Spanish troops, 20,000 surrender, the U.S. flag 
hoisted noon . . . . . 17 July, 

Pres. McKinley issues instructions for the govern- 
ment, &C. of the province of Santiago . 19 July, 

Guantanamo and Caimamera surrender, iS, 19 July, 

Naval engagement off Manzanillo, 3 Spanish 
merchantmen and 5 gunboats destroyed, about 
100 Spaniards killed .... 18 July, 

Surrender of Spanish troops at San Luis and Dos 
Palmas 22 July, 

Expedition to Xipe successful, the Spanish cruiser. 
Jorge ■hunt, destroyed, reported . . 22 July, 

Jibara surrendered to the insurgents; Tunas and 
Zaza besieged by the Americans ; reported, 

24 July, 

Condition of Santiago improving . . 25 July, 

Cen. Miles lands at Gnanica, Puertorico 25 July, 

Castillo appointed military governor . 26 July, 

Philippines.— The Saranga, U.S. sailer, captured 
by a Spanish gunboat oil Manila, about 27 April, 

Battle Of Manila : the Spanish squadron, 11 ships. 

under adm. Montojo, attacked and destroyed by 

the A licaii licet, q ships, under commodore 

Dewey ; don Luis Cadarso, capt. of the Reina 

Christian, the chaplain, and about 400 Spaniards 
killed ; Spanish ships inefficient, none surren- 
dered, great bravery shown by the Spaniards 

under unequal conditions; no American loss; 



SPANISH- AMEEICAN WAE. 1179 SPANISH EEFOEMED CHURCH. 



Cavite bombarded, and fortifications destroyed ; 
blockade of Manila . . . i May et seq. 18 
Memorial from the British residenos at Manila to 
rear-adm. Dewey, pointing out their critical 
position, the population starving . 10 May, ,, 
Spanish gunboat, Leyte, captured off Iloilo, re- 
ported, 30 May ; Spanish position at Manila des- 
perate, the city surrounded by insurgents, 
Aguinaldo, their leader, brought back from Hong 
Kong, and supplied with arms, &c, by the 
Americans ; he captures the province of Cavite ; 
night and day fighting, Spanish outposts driven 
in ; Their 3,000 prisoners well treated by the 
rebels ; great scarcity of food, and suffering 
amongst the Spanish soldiers, 31 May-4 June ; 
Gen. Augustin, the capt.-gen., appeals to Madrid 
for help, holds a council of war ; proposes sur- 
render, and resigns to the general, second in 
command, 5 June ; the whole archipelago in re- 
volt, except the Visayas isles ; concerted attack 
by insurgents on all sides ; Aguinaldo issues a 
proclamation, independence of the Philippines, 
&c, declared at Cavite; 4,000 Spaniards and 1,000 
natives prisoners .... 12 June, , 
Three days' fierce fighting at Bulacan, north of 
Manila, 500 Spaniards surrendered ; rebel attack 
at Marabou, which was captured, reported, 

17 June, , 
The Ladrone islands seized by U.S. Charleston, the 
governor, officers and men surrender, 20 June ; 
U.S. sovereignty over the isles proclaimed, 22 
June ; the Charleston arrives at Manila, 30 June, , 
Gen. Peiia, with 1,000 soldiers, surrenders, re- 
ported 28 June, , 

The Bohul, Spanish sailing ship, captured in Kaya- 
bas bay ; the province of Bulacan occupied and 
the governor captured by the insurgents, re- 
ported 1 July, , 

Gen. Monet, with 1,000 men, at Bulacan, made 

prisoners by the insurgents, reported 10 July, , 
Spanish squadron under adm. Camara prohibited 
from coaling at Port Said by the Egyptian 
government ; called on to leave the harbour, 
30 June ; ordered to quit Suez, 6 July ; leaves, 

11 July, , 
Aguinaldo proclaims the Philippine republic, pro- 
visional government established . 3-8 July, 
Gen. Augustin's sortie from Manila repulsed with 

loss, reported 5 July, , 

The island taken, no resistance offered . 7 July, 
The gov. gen. issues a proclamation promising 
autonomy, &c, reported . . . 9 July, 
Heavy fighting round Malate . . 15-17 July, 
Provisional native government, Aguinaldo presi- 
dent, formed at Bacolor, reported . 21 July, 
Insurgents twice repulsed with loos ^00) at Manila, 

reported 23 July 

Spain sues for peace 26 July, 

Gen. Shafter's army leaving Santiago . Aug. 

Desultory fighting ; famine and disease reported 

Aug. 
Gen. Augustin retires .... 5 Aug. 
Protocol ; terms : Spain to evacuate Cuba, and to 
eede to United States Puertorico, her islands in 
the Antilles and one of the Ladrones ; United 
States to hold Manila temporarily ; Cuban rule 
to be established later ; signed by Mr. Day and 

M. Cambon 12 Aug. 

Manila surrenders 13 Aug. 

Gen. Blanco resigns . . . .15 Aug. 

Conference at Paris 7 Oct. 

Desultory fighting ; anarchy in the Southern isles, 

reported 20 Oct. 

Spanish evacuation of Puertorico completed, 

24 Oct. 
Spain abandons Cuba, the Philippines, and other 
islands for an indemnity of 20,000,000 dols., 28 
Nov. ; treaty signed 10 Dec, ratified 6 Feb. 1899. 
American loss in the war 336 men killed, 125 mor- 
tally wounded, 5,277 died of disease, 1 May, 1898- 
18 Feb. 1899. 
Spanish loss, 80,000 ; the majority dying from 
disease, reported ..... 25 Jan. 
General Chaffee appointed military, and judge Taft 
civil governor of the Philippines ; local govern- 
ment established in 765 towns, reorganisation of 
judicial administration, and a native police force 
established in ....••• 



Inquiries by a court-martial into the charges 
brought by maj. Gardener against the military 
administration of the islands, with allegations ot 
cruelty to the natives and the burning of their 
houses bv American officers . .25 April, 1902 
[Gen. Smith was admonished, and subsequently 

retired from the U.S. army.] 

Cost of operations in the Philippines to June 1902, 
170,326,586 dols. „ 

Philippines civil government bill passes house ot 
representatives 27 June, ,, 

Amnesty to all political prisoners, including 
Aguinaldo, proclaimed . . • ■ 4 Jnlv > " 

Import duties on goods to U.S. from Philippines 
reduced from 75 to 25 per cent, by bill passed by 
house of representatives . ■ ■ 19. Dec - " 

Further fighting at Cus and Surigao, March ; insur- 
gents routed 'with loss near Mariguma, reported, 
27 March, „ 

Gen. Miles's report confirming some American 
cruelties during the war, published . 27 April, „ 

A stronghold captured, 100 natives killed, reported 
10 April ; 10 forts captured, heavy loss of enemy, 
reported 7 Ma ) r > » 

Continuance of agricultural and commercial depres- 
sion, reported ° Au ° - " 

SPANISH EXHIBITION of Arts and In- 
dustries, Earl's Court, West Brompton, London, W., 
chairman, the duke of Wellington, a grandee ot 
Spain. 
The exhibition, although unfinished, was informally 

opened with a fine display of pictures, 1 June, 1889 
In July, 18S9, it included representations of the 
Alhambra, Madrid market-place, cosmorama ot a 
journey through Spain, a Spanish band and 
'strolling players, &c. closed . . 31 uct. „ 

SPANISH GRANDEES, the higher 

nobility, at one time almost equal to the kings ot 
Castile and Aragon, and often setting their autho- 
rity at defiance, were restrained 011 the union of the 
crowns by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella 
in 1474, who compelled several to relinquish the 
royal fortresses and domains winch they held. 
Charles V. reduced the grandees to sixteen families 
(Medina-Sidonia, Albuquerque, &c), dividing them 
into three classes. 

SPANISH LANGUAGE (Lengua Castel- 
lan a), is a dialect of Latin largely intermingled 
with Arabic, which was the legal language till the 
14th century. Spanish did not become general till 
the 16th century. See Drama. 

EMINENT SPANISH AUTHORS. 



Garcilasso de la Vega . 

Boscan 

Jorge de Montemayor . 

Las Casas . 

Ercilla . . . • ■ •■ 

Cervantes (author of Don Quixote) . 

Mariana 

Herrera 

Gongora 

Alarcon y Mendoza 
Lope de Vega . 

Quevedo 

Gabriel Tellez .... - lf_S 

Calderon 

Solis 

Feyjos 

Yriarte 

Leandro F. Moratin 

Jose de Larra .... 

Manuel Breton de los Herreros 

Jose Zorilla iol ° J,oy; * 

Antonio Oanovas del Castillo .... 183° 1897 
Ramon de Campoamor . i«i« 1901 

SPANISH EEFOEMED CHUECH, con- 
stituted at Gibraltar, 25 April, 1868. By permission 



Born 


Died 


1503 


1536 


1496 


1543 


1520 


1562 


1474 


1566 


1533 


1595 


1547 


1616 


i53 6 


1623 


1565 


1625 


1561 


1627 




1634 


1568 


1635 


1570 


1647 


158S 


1648 


1601 


1682 


1610 


1686 


1 701 


1765 


1750 


1798 


1760 


1828 


1809 


1837 


1796 


1873 



SPANISH SUCCESSION. 



1180 



SPEAKERS. 



of general Prim its missionaries entered Spain soon 
after the revolution, in Sept. following. 

15 congregations with about 2,500 membsrs ; at 
Madrid, Seville, and other places. 

The consecration of a church at Madrid by lord 
Plunket, archbishop of Dublin, proposed but 
strenuously opposed by the authorities ; he 
licenses the building and departs, Dec. 1892 ; 
permission granted under conditions, 3 Jan. 1893 ; 
the church opened . . . 18 March, 1893 

The church and senor Cabrera, the first bishop of 
the reformed church, consecrated by the arch- 
bishop of Dublin and the bishops of Clogher and 
Down 23 Sept. 1894 

SPANISH SUCCESSION and MAR- 
RIAGES, see Spain, 1700, and 10 Oct. 1846. 

SPARTA, the capital of Laconia (Greek, 
Laconica), or Lacodaemon, the most considerable 
republic of the Peloponnesus, and the rival of 
Athens. Though without walls, it resisted the 
attacks of its enemies by the valour of its citizens 
for eight centuries. Lclex is supposed to have 
been the first king. From Laccdaemon the fourth 
king, and his wife Sparta, who are also spoken of 
as the founders of the city, it obtained names. 
The Laceda3monians were' a nation of soldiers, 
and cultivated neither the arts, sciences, commerce, 
nor agriculture. The early history is traditional 
and the dates conjectural. 

Sparta founded. Pausanias. . . . b.c. 1490 
Tyndarus marries Leda : Helen born . . . 138S 
Helen stolen by Theseus, king of Athens, but re- 
covered by her brothers 1228 

The princes of Greece demand Helen in marriage ; 

she makes choice of Menelaus of Mycenae' . . 1216 
Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, carries off Helen 1204 

The Trojan war 1194 

After a war of ten years, and a disastrous voyage of 

nearly eight, Menelaus and Helen return to Sparta 11 76 
The kingdom seized by the Heraclidse . . .1104 
Establishment of two kings, Eurysthenes and 

Proeles, by their father Aristodemus . . . hoc 
Rule of Lycurgus, who establishes the senate, and 

enacts a code of laws. Eusebius. (Mythical) 884-S50 
Charilaus declares war against Polynmestor, king 

of Arcadia 

Alcainenes, known by his apophthegms, makes war 

upon the Messenians 

Nicander succeeds his father, Charilaus ; war with 

the Argives 

Theopompus introduces the Ephori . . about 
War declared against the Messenians, and Amphia 

taken 

The progeny of the Partheniae, the sons of Virgins . 

Battle of Ithome; Messenians beaten . 

Ithome taken ; the Messenians become vassals to 

Sparta, and the war of nineteen years ends . 
Conspiracy of the Parthehise with the Helots to 

take Sparta 

The Partheniae colonise Tarentiun .... 

The Messenians revolt, and league with Elis, Argos, 

and Arcadia, against the Lacedaemonians. [This 

war lasted fourteen years. J 

Carman festivals instituted . . . . . 675 

The Messenians settle in Sicily 669 

War with the Argives, and 'celebrated battle be- 
tween 300 select heroes of each nation . . . 547 

War with Alliens 5 o 5 

The Spartans resist the king of. Persia . . '. 491 

The states of (J recce unite against the Persians . 482 

Lepnidas, al the head of )oo Spartans, withstands 
the Persian arms at the defile of Thermopylae (see 
Thermopylae) ' . . 480 

Persians defeate. 1 by Pausanias, king of Sparta, at 
Platsea 470 

He is put to death for treason ; the Grecian armies 
choose an Athenian general 472 

An earthquake at Sparta destroys 30,000 persons ; 

rebellion of I he Helots . ,(,„ 

Sparta joins Macedon against Aliens. . . . 454 
Beginning of the Pelo] nesus war . . . 431 



848 
813 

800 

757 

743 
733 
730 



6S5 



Platsea taken by the Spartans . . . B.C. 428 
The Spartans, under Agis, enter Attica, and lay 

waste the country 426 

Agis (king 427) gains a great victory over the Argives 

and the Mantinasans 418 

The Lacedaemonian fleet, under Mindarus, defeated 

at Cyzicum, and Mindarus slain . . . . 410 
The Spartans, defeated by land and at sea, sue for 

peace, which is denied by the Athenians . . 409 

Reign of Pausanias 408 

The Athen ians defeated at iEgospotami by Lysander 405 

Athens taken by him ; end of Peloponnesian war . 404 

Agesilaus (king 398) enters Lydia . . . . 396 
The Athenians, Thebans, Argives, and Corinthians 
enter into a league against the Spartans, which 

begins the Corinthian war 395 

Agesilaus defeats the allies at Coronea . . . 394 
The Lacedaemonian fleet, under Lysander, defeated 
by Conon, the Athenian commander, near Cnidos; 

Lysander killed in an engagement . . . „ 

Peace of Antalcidas 387 

The Thebans drive the Spartans from Cadmea . 378 
The Spartans lose the dominion of the seas ; their 

fleet totally destroyed by Timotheus . . . 376 
The Spartans defeated at Leuctra . . . . 371 
Epaminondas, heading 50,000 Thebans, appears be- 
fore Sparta . . 369 

Battle of Mantinea ; the Thebans victors 27 June, 362 

Philip of Macedon overcomes Sparta . . . . 344 

Pyrrhus defeated before Sparta .... 294 

Agis IV. endeavours to revive laws of Lycurgus . 244 

Leonidas II. vacates the throne, and flies . . . 243 

Recalled ; becomes sole sovereign ; Agis killed . 241 

Reign of Cleomenes III. , the son of Leonidas . . 236 

He re-establishes most of the laws of Lycurgus . 225 

Antigonus defeats Cleomenes, and enters Sparta . 222 

Cleomenes retires to Egypt ,. 

The Spartans murder the Ephori . . . . 221 
Machanidas ascends the throne, and abolishes the 

Ephori 210 

He is defeated and slain by Philopoemen, praetor of 

the Achaean league 207 

Cruel government of Nabis ,, 

The Romans besiege Sparta ; Nabis sues for peace 197 

The iEtolians seize Sparta : Nabis assassinated . 192 

The laws of Lycurgus abolished .... 188 
Sparta, under the protection or rather subjugation 

of Rome, retains its authority for a short time . 147 

Taken by Alaric a.d. 396 

Taken by Mahomet II 1460 

Burnt by Sigismund Malatesta .... 1463 
Rebuilt as Misitra; it is now called Sparta, and is 

part of the kingdom of Greece. 
Ancient buildings discovered here during excava- 
tions by Dr. Waldstein . . . March, 1892. 

SPARTACUS'S INSURRECTION (or 
Servile War). Spartacus was a noble Thracian, 
who served in an auxiliary corps of the Koman 
army. Having deserted and been apprehended, he 
was reduced to slavery and made a gladiator. With 
some companions he made his escape, collected a 
body of slaves and gladiators, 73 u.c. ; ravaged 
southern Italy ; and defeated the Roman forces 
under the consuls sent against him. Knowing the 
impossibility of successfully resisting the republic, 
he endeavoure I to conduct his forces into Sicily, 
but was defeated and slain by Crassus, 71 B.C. 

"SPASMODIC SCHOOL" of poetry, a 
name sarcastically given to Philip James Bailey 
(" Festus," 1839), Alex. Smith, Sydney Dobell (died 
in Aug. 1874), and others (precursors of Morris, 
Algernon Swinburne, and Rossetti, sarcastically 
termed the "fleshly school"), ridiculed by professor 
Aytoun in his " Pirmilian," published 1854. 

SPEAKERS or the House of Commons- 
Peterde Monttord, afterwards killed at the battle 
of Evesham, was the first speaker, 45 Hen. III., 
1260 ; sir Tims. Hungerford is said to have 
been the first named " Speaker," 1372 ; but 
sir Peter de la Marc is supposed to have been the 
tirst regular speaker, 50 Edw. 111., 1376. The 



SPEAKER'S COMMENT AEY. 



1181 



SPECTRUM. 



king refused his assent to the choice of sir 
Edward Seymour, as speaker, 6 March, 1678; and 
serjeant William Gregory was chosen in his room. 
Sir John Trevor was expelled the chair and the 
house for taking a gratuity after the act for the 
benefit of orphans had passed, 12 March, 1694-5 i a 
deputy speaker was appointed Aug. 1853. 

RECENT SPEAKERS. 

1789. Henry Addington (aft. viscount Sidmouth), 5 June. 

1801. Sir John Mitford (aft. baron Redesdale), 15 Feb. 

1802. Charles Abbot (aft. lord Colchester), 10 Feb. 

1817. Charles Manners Sutton (afterwards viscount Can- 
terbury), 2 June. 

1835. James Abercroraby (afterwards baron Dunferm- 
line), 19 Feb. 

1839. Charles Shaw Lefevre (afterwards viscount Evers- 
ley), 27 May. 

1857. John Evelyn Denison, 30 April (afterwards viscount 

Ossington). 
1872. Sir Henry Win. Bouverie Brand (afterwards viscount 

Hampden), 9 Feb. -25 Feb. 1884. 
1884. Arthur Wellesley Peel, 26 Feb. ; resigned, 9 April ; 

created viscount Peel, 1895. 
1895. William Court Gully, 10 April ; re-elected, 12 Aug. 
The Speaker, a weekly liberal (Gladstonian) newspaper, 
edited by Mr. T. Wemyss Reid, first appeared 4 Jan. 
iSqo. 

SPEAKER'S COMMENTARY, a name 
given to an edition of the Bible with a revised text 
and a commentary by several bishops and other 
theologians, edited by F. C. Cook. The under- 
taking originated, it is said, chiefly with Mr. John 
Evelyn Donison, speaker of the house of commons, 
with the view of opposing the interpretations of Dr. 
Colenso, and was announced in Nov. 1863. The 
publication, begun in 1871, was completed in 1881. 
The Apocrypha published in 1888. 

SPEAKING-TRUMPET, used by ships at 
sea. One is said to have been used by Alexander, 
335 B.C. One was constructed from Kircher's de- 
scription by Saland, 1652 ; philosophically explained 
and brought into notice by Morland, 1670. 

SPECIAL COMMISSION ACT, passed 13 
Aug. 1888. A commission constituted to try 
certain charges and allegations against certain 
members of parliament. See Parnellites and 
Ireland, 1888. 

SPECIAL CONSTABLES are sworn in for 
the preservation of the public peace when disturb- 
ances are feared. The laws relative to their ap- 
pointment were amended in 1831 and 1835. Louis 
Napoleon, afterwards emperor, aided as a special con- 
stable in London, 10 April, 1848 ; see Chartists and 
London, Dec. 1867. Instructions for their organisa- 
tion were issued, 13 Jan. 1868. On 28 Jan. 52,974 
in the metropolis, and 113,674 in the United King- 
dom, had been sworn in. Their services were not 
required, and they were honourably dismissed by an 
order issued 31 March, 1868. 

Special constables were sworn in in relation to the 
disturbances in Trafalgar-square (see Riots) 17 Nov. 
et seq. ; 1,500 held Trafalgar-square, Sunday, 20 Nov. 
1887 ; served till 18 Jan. 1888, and thanked. 

SPECIES. Much controversy among natural- 
ists arose in consequence of the publication, in 1859, 
of Mr. Charles Darwin's " Origin of Species," in 
which he suggests that all the various species of 
animals were not created at one time, but have 
been gradually developed by what he terms ' ' natural 
selection," and the struggle for life in which the 
strong overcome the weak. 



" This preservation of favourable individual differences 
and variations, and the destruction of those which are 
injurious, I have called natural selection, or the sur- 
vival of the fittest." — Darwin. 

The idea was put forth by Lamarck in his " Philosophie 
Zooloqique," 1809. Similar views appear in the 
"Vestiges of Creation," 1844. Mr. Darwin says that 
he infers " from analogy that probably all the 
organic beings which have ever lived on the earth 
have descended from some one primordial form, into 
which life was first breathed by the Creator." See 
Development and Evolution. 

Charles Darwin was born 12 Feb. 1809 ; and died 19 
April, 1882. 

Statue of Darwin by J. E. Boehm, paid for by universal 
subscription, received at the British Museum of 
Natural History by the prince of Wales, and uncovered 
by professor Huxley, 9 June, 1885. 

His Life and Letters, edited by his son Francis Darwin, 
published Nov. 1887. 

Professor G. J. Romanes' elaborate work, "Darwin and 
after Darwin," was published in 1892. 

SPECIFIC GRAVITIES. See under 

Weights. 

SPECTACLES, unknown to the ancients, are 
generally supposed to have been invented by Alex- 
under de Spina, a monk of Florence, in Italy, about 
1285. According to Dr. Plott, they were invented 
by Eoger Bacon, about 1280. Manni attributes 
them to Salvino, who died 1317. On his tomb at 
Florence is the inscription, " Qui giace Salvino 
degli Armati, invcntore degli occhiali : Dio gli per- 
doni le peccata" (" Here lies Salvino degli Armati, 
inventor of spectacles : May God pardon his sins"). 

SPECTATOR. The first number of this peri- 
odical appeared on I March, 1711 ; the last was 
No. 635, 20 Dec. 1714. The papers by Addison have 
one of the letters c l 1 at the end. The most of 
the other papers are by sir Richard Steele, a few by 
Hughes, Budgell, Eusden, Miss Shephard, and 
others. — The Spectator newspaper (philosophical, 
whig), begun 5 July, 1828. Mr. Richard Holt 
Hutton, an able scholar, was editor from 1 86 1 for 
40 years, he died 9 Sept. 1897. 

SPECTRUM, the term given to the image of 
the sun or any other luminous body formed on a 
wall or screen, by a beam of light received through 
a small hole or slit, and refracted by a prism. The 
colours thus produced are red, orange, yellow, green, 
blue, indigo, and violet. The phenomena were first 
explained by Newton, whose "Optics" was pub- 
lished in 1704. Several of these colours are con- 
sidered to be compounds of three primary ones : by 
Mayer (1775), red, yellow, and blue ; — by Dr. Thos. 
Young (1801), red, green, and violet; — by Prof. 
Clerk Maxwell (i860), red, green, and blue. As 
the colour of a flame varies according to the sub- 
stance producing it or introduced into it, so the 
spectrum varies. This led to the invention of a 
method of chemical analysis by professors Bunseh 
and Kirchhoff (i860), by which they discovered 
two new metals, and drew conclusions as to 
the nature of the atmosphere of the sun and stars, 
and of the light of the nebula?, by comparing the 
spectrum with that produced by flames into which 
iron, sodium, and other substances have been intro- 
duced. For the invisible rays of the spectrum, see 
Galorescence, Fluorescence, Bolometer, and Rontgen 
Rays. 

Fraunhofer's Lines. In 1802 Dr. Wollaston observed 
several dark lines in the solar spectrum ; in 1815 Joseph 
Fraunhofer not only observed them, but constructed a 
map of them, giving 590 lines or dark bands. By the 
researches of Brewster and others the number observed 
is now above 2000, 



SPECULATIVE SOCIETY. 



1182 



SPIRITS. 



Mr. Fox Talbot observed the orange line of strontium in j 
the spectrum in 1826 ; ami sir David Brewster ob- j 
served other lines, 1833-42-3. In 1862-3 Mr. William 
Huggins analysed the light of the lixed stars and of 
the nebulas ; and in 1865 Dr. Bence Jones, by means of 
spectrum analyses, detected the presence of minute 
quantities of metals in the living body, introduced only 
a few minutes previously. 

A spectroscopic society in Italy published a journal early 
in 1872. 

H. Schellen's " Spectralanalyse " published 1870; new 
edition 1883. 

Sir H. Eoscoe's "Spectrum Analysis" published 1867-85. 

Lecoq de Boisbaudran's " Spectres Lumineux" . 1874 

Oxygen detected in the solar spectrum by Mr. 
Draper 1877 

The experiments of professor Dewar and others have 
shown that the spectra of various gases are affected by 
temperature and pressure, 1888-9. 

" The Michelson-Echelon spectroscope, by prof. Michel- 
son and Mr. A. Hilger. See Nature, 27 April, 1899. 

Spectrum of radium investigated, 1903. 

SPECULATIVE SOCIETY, Edinburgh 
(which had included among its members David 
Hume), celebrated its hundredth anniversary on 
14 Oct. 1863 ; see Philosophy. 

"SPELLING-BEES," meetings to test the 
proficiency in correct spelling ; introduced into 
London from the United States of America ; the 
first at Holloway, London, N., in the autumn of 
1875. Geographical, musical, and other bees 
followed, and all soon ceased. 

SPELLING REFORM. A resolution in 
favour of it was adopted by the London School Board, 
in 1877 ; a conference and public meeting were held 
at the Society of Arts, 29 May, 1877. 

A Spelling Reform Association formed : Dr Temple, 
bishop of Exeter (archbp. of Canterbury), Robert 
Lowe, E. B. Tylor, and Max Muller were among 
the members, 1879 ; another association formed 
in the United States ; professor P. A. March, 
president 1887 

Mr. T. B. Sprague's article on a Marriage and Mor- 
tality Table, in the Journal of the Institute of 
Actuaries, is printed according to phonetic spelling- 
July, 1879 

SPHERES. The celestial and terrestrial 
spheres and sun-dials are said to have been in- 
vented by Anaximander, 552 K.c. ; and the armil- 
lary sphere by Eratosthenes, about 225 B.C. The 
planetarium was constructed by Archimedes before 
212 B.C. Pythagoras maintained that the motions 
of the twelve spheres must produce delightful 
sounds, inaudible to mortals, which he called the 
music of the spheres. 

SPHYGMOGRAPH (from the Greek, sphyg- 
mos, a pulsation), an instrument for investigating 
disease, by showing the state of the pulse, invented 
by M. E. J. Marey, of Paris, and described by him 
in 1863. 

SPICES. Imported into Great Britain : cinna- 
mon and other spices, exclusive of pepper ; 1846, 
1,910,584 lbs.; 1856, 4,154,167 lbs.; 1867, 
I2,83i",953 lbs.; 1877, I7,'i86,572 lbs.; 1879, 
19,340,817 lbs.; 1883, 24,344,895 lbs.; 1887, 
23,783,960 lbs. ; 1890, 23,508,493 lbs. ; 1902, 
27,000,290 lbs. 

SPICHEREN, sec Saarbruck. 

SPINET, a clavichord or keyed instrument, 
used in the 17th century, a modification of the 
virginals, which see. Bull, Gibbons, 1'urcell, and 
especially Domenico Scarlatti composed fcr this 
instrument. 



SPINNING was ascribed by the ancients to 
Minerva, the goddess of wisdom. Areas, king of 
Arcadia, taught his subjects the art about 1500 B.C. 
Tradition reports that Lucretia with her maids was 
found spinning, when her husband Collatinus paid 
a visit to her from the camp, that the wife of Tar- 
quin was an excellent spinner, and that a garment 
made by her, worn by Servius Tullius, was pre- 
served in the temple of Fortune. Till 1767, the 
spinning of cotton was performed by the hand 
spinning-wheel, when Hargreaves, an ingenious 
mechanic, near Blackburn, made a spinning jenny, 
with eight spindles, and also erected the first card- 
ing machine, with cylinders. Ark Wright's machine 
for spinning by water was an extension of the prin- 
ciple of Hargreaves; but he also applied a large 
and small roller to expand the thread, for which h? 
took out a patent in 1769. At first he worked his 
machinery by horses ; but in 1771 he built a mill 
on the stream of the Derwent, at Cromford. In 
1774-9, Crompton invented the mule (which see). 

SPINTHARISCOPE, a contrivance for 
showing the scintillations of radium nitrate, ex.- 
hibited at Royal Society soiree, May 15, 1903. 

SPIRES (in Bavaria). The emperors held 
many diets at Spires since 1309, f.nd it was the seat 
of the imperial chamber till 1689, when the city 
was burned by the French, and not rebuilt till after 
the peace of Ryswick, in 1697. The diet to con- 
demn the reformers was held at Spires, called there 
by the emperor Charles V. 1529; see Protestants. 

SPIRIT-LEVEL. The invention is ascribed 
to J. Melchisedec Thevenot, who died 1692. 

SPIRIT-MOTOR, Mr. Yarrow explained to 
the Institute of Naval Architects his method of em- 
ploying vaporised spirit instead of steam in the 
propulsion of steam launches, thus dispensing with 
the use of a boiler, &c, March, 1888. Petroleum 
is used as fuel in some locomotives on the Great 
Eastern railway, and petrol as the generating- 
power for driving motor-cars. 

SPIRITS, see Distillation. In all nations 
spirituous liquors have been considered as a proper 
subject of heavy taxation for the support of the 
state; the duty imposed on spirits in 1746 led to 
much smuggling, which sec ; see Alcohol, Brandy, 
Rum, Methylated Spirits, Whisky, &c. 

In 1840 England made about ten millions of gallons of 
spirits, Scotland about seven millions of gallons, and 
Ireland about nine millions of gallons. 

In 18.51 the number of gallons on which duty was paid 
for home consumption was 23.976.596. The total 
amount paid was 6,017,218/., of which 3.758,186/. were 
paid by England, 1,252,297^^7 Scotland, and 1,006,7357. 
by Ireland. 

The total duty on home consumption paid in 1853 was 
6,760,422/. 

In 185S, 9,195,154/. were paid as duty on 27.370,934 
gallons. 

In 1855, methylated spirits of wine, for use in the arts ami 
Sciences, were made duty free. 

Ill 1S50, 27,657,721 gallons of spirits were distilled in the 
United Kingdom. The uniform duty of 8s. per gallon 
was paid on 24.254,403 gallons for home consumption, 
producing 9,701, 764J. In the year [865-6 the tax pro- 
duced about 13,055.000/., beingthelargest mho then ever 
raised by indirect taxation. In 1S71-2, 16.798,344/. 
(customs and excise); in 1875-6, 21.295,663/ ; in 1877-8, 
20,675,928/. ; in 1883-4, 18,435,957/. ; in 1887-8, 
17,312,550/. ; in 1888 9, 17,175,797/. ; in 18S9-90, 
1S.531.c77/. ; in 1890-1, 19,263,541/. 

In 1861 an act was passed repealing wholly or in part 
20 previous acts, and embodying all regulations for the 
guidani e of manufacturers and dealers in spirits. 



SPIRITS ACT. 



1183 



SPONGE. 



.OOO.OOOi 



In 1870, about 89,000,000^. spent in spirits 

by working classes. 
Proof spirits distilled in the United Kingdom in 1873, 

36,479,648 gallons (England, 9,531,058 ; Scotland, 

16,421,701; Ireland, 10,526,889) in 1874, 35,352,232 

gallons ; duty paid, 10s. a gallon. 
Exported from the United Kingdom : 1876, 1,308,456 

gallons; 1880, 2,060,193; 1885, 2,760,041; 1889, 

3,431,320; 1890, 3,658,658; 1893, 3,407,282; 1896 

4,678,862 ; 1900, 5,721,434. 
Additional duty of 6d. per gallon on spirits imposed, 17 

April, 1890; addition of 6d., June, 1894. 

SPIRITS ACT (43 & 44 Vict. c. 24), passed 
26 Aug., 1880, consolidated and amended the law 
relating- to the manufacture and sale of spirits. 

SPIRITUAL COMBATANTS (Dukho- 
bortsy). A Russian communistic religious sect 
formed by a quaker missionary near the end of the 
last century, now settled in the Caucasus, about 
20,000 members. Its leading tenet, the refusal of 
all military service, so important in a country like 
Itussia, has le"d to its repression and severe punish- 
ment. The sect also opposes legal tribunals, oaths, 
&c. Peter Veriguin, their energetic leader, was 
exiled to Siberia, 1894-5 > count Leo Tolstoi gave 
a description of the sect and its sufferings, Times, 
23 Oct. 1895. Continued prosecution of the sect, 
Oct. 1896. 1,129 exiles land at Larnaka, Cyprus, 
under British protection, 30 Aug. 1898; the climate 
being unsuitable about 7,000 leave for Manitoba, 
Canada. 1898-9 ; count Tolstoi gives 5,000 dols. for 
their relief, Dec. 1899 ; deeming it wrong to keep 
animals in servitude, they turn their horses, cows, 
&c, adrift, Aug. 1902 ; their petition for land to 
live in under no authority than that of God, refused 
by the British Columbian Government, 23 Oct. 
1902 ; they leave their homes to Christianize the 
■world, about 28 Oct. ; great suffering and distress ; 
their march stopped at Minnedosa by mounted 
police; all sent back by special trains to their 
homes, 9-12 Nov. 1902. 

SPIRITUALISM or SPIRIT-RAPPING. 

Spiritual manifestations (so called) began, it is said, 
in America about 1848, and attracted attention in 
this country about 1 85 1, in the shape of rapping 
table-turning, &c. Many inquisitive or credulous 
persons visited Mr. Daniel Dunglas Hume or Home 
and Mr. Forster, noted "spiritual mediums." Mr. 
Home, secretary of the Spiritual Athenasum, Sloane- 
street, Chelsea, published, in 1863, " Incidents of 
my Life," in which he states that the only benefit 
he derived from the "gift" was the convincing 
many unbelievers of the certainty of a life to come ; 
the Trials, April, May, 1868. The "Spiritual 
Magazine" began Jan. i860; the "Spiritualist," 
9 Nov. 1869. The London Dialectical society pub- 
lished a report on spiritualism in Nov. 187 1. Mr. 
(afterwards sir) Win. Crookes, in 1 871, investigated 
the phenomena, and ascribed them to "psychic 
force" ("Quarterly Journal of Science," July and 
Oct. 1871). Miss Kate Fox, said to be the earliest 
American medium (about 1852) was married to Mr. 
H. D. Jencken, in London, Dec. 1872. London 
Spiritualistic Alliance founded, 1884, incorporated 
1896; publishes Light, started in 1881. The first 
president of the Alliance and editor of Light was 
Mr. W. Stainton-Moses ; president and editor 
(1903), Mr. E. Dawson Rogers In connection 
with the Alliance is an extensive library of works 
on physic science. 

The impostures of the Davenport bros. exposed in 1865. 
In 1874 Messrs. Maskelyne and Cooke, and Dr. Lynn. 

exhibited tricks by which they said they demonstrated 

the imposture of spiritualism. 



Spiritualism discussed by a section of the British Asso- 
ciation at Glasgow (supported by Messrs. Win. Crookes, 
A. Russel Wallace, and other eminent men), without 
result, 12 Sept. 1876. 

20 spiritualist journals publishing, 1876. 

Dr. Henry Slade, a medium, and Geoffrey Simmons, his 
assistant, charged at Bow-street by prof. E. Ray Lan- 
kester and others, with "unlawfully using certain 
subtle and crafty means and devices to deceive";, 
dealt with under Vagrant Act ; 2, 10, 20 Oct. ; Sim- 
mons discharged, Slade sentenced to 3 months' im- 
prisonment with hard labour, 31 Oct. 1876; sentence 
quashed for a technical error, 29 Jan. 1877. 

Win. Lawrence sentenced to 3 months' imprisonment for 
receiving money as a "medium," 16 Jan. 1877. 

International congress of spiritualists, Mr. E. Dawsoa 
Rogers president, at St. James's hall, 21 June et sea. 
1898. 

See Trials, 1881. 

SPITALFIELDS (East London), so named 
from the priory of St. Mary Spittle, founded by 
Walter Brune and his wife Rosia, 1 197 ; dissolved 
1534. Here the French protestant refugees, after 
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, settled and 
established the silk manufacture in 1685. Incon- 
sequence of commercial changes the weavers en- 
dured much distress about 1829. Great poverty in 
1898. 

SPITHEAD, a roadstead near the Spit, a sand- 
bank between Portsmouth and the Isle of Wight. 
See Naval Reviews, under Navy of England. Here 
in 1797 the sailors of the channel fleet mutinied 
for higher pay. 

SPITZBERGEN, an archipelago in the 
Arctic ocean, discovered in 1553 by sir Hugh Wil- 
loughby, who called it Greenland^ supposing it to 
be a part of the western continent. In 1595 it was. 
visited by Barents and Cornelius, two Dutchmen, 
who pretended to be the original discoverers, and 
called it Spitzbergen, or sharp mountains, from the- 
many sharp pointed and rocky mountains with 
which it abounds ; see Phipps. 

A scientific expedition to Spitzbergen organized by 
Herr Stanglin of Stuttgart, left Bremen about 29 
July ; returned 26 Aug. 1891 

An expedition under sir Martin Conway, Mr. Trevor- 
Battye and others arrives at Advent Bay, 20 June ; 
crosses from west to east, reaching Agardh bay, 
17 July, 1896; Hornsuud Tind ascended, 17 Aug. ; 
arrives at Hammerfest, 18 Aug. 1896 ; another 
expedition June, 1897 

" The First Crossing of Spitzbergen," by sir W. M. 
Conway and others published, 1897. 

Russo-Swedish scientific expedition arrives at Horn 
Sound, reported 2 Aug. 1899 

SPITZCAP, see Majuba. 

SPITZER COLLECTION, formed by 
Frederick Spitzer, a Jew, consisted chiefly of 
articles of vertu connected with the Middle Ages 
and Renaissance with some antiques but no paint- 
ings. It included metal work, faience, and majolica 
ware, arms and jewelry. He built an hotel at Paris 
to receive them, and died in 1890, aged about 75. 
The collection, valued at about 500,000/., was sold 
for about 400,000/., 17 April — 17 June, 1893. 

SPONGE, the name applied to a class of 
animals, porifera, intermediate between the 
protozoa and c'celenterata. Sponges are in general 
composed of an internal supporting framework of 
horny fibres interlaced with calcareous or siliceous- 
spires (spicula) covered with a soft gelatinous- 
substance, called sarcode. Their food consists 
chiefly of microscopic organisms contained in the 
water which constantly circulates tlrrough the 
minute pores of the sponge, and finds its outlet by 



SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION. 1184 



STAFFOED. 



the larger apical openings. Sponges exist in a 
variety of forms; one is the beautiful Venus's 
flower-basket. Several species of sponges are used 
for economic purposes ; two species are i hiefly 
brought from the Levant, and one of a coarser kind 
from the "W. Indies and Florida. They are also 
artificially cultivated in the Adriatic by planting 
cuttings in waters favourable to their growth. A 
considerable trade is carried on in sponges, about 
600 boats and some 5,000 men being employed_ in 
the Levant, and a similar number in the "W. Indian 
trade, to the annual value respectively of 100,000/. 
and 70,000/. Ir. addition to its domestic and 
economic uses, sponges are employed in surgery, 
and burnt sponge was formerly used as a specific 
for scrofulous diseases and goitre; iodine and 
bromine (which gave it its therapeutic value) are 
now administered in other ways. 

SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION of the 
human body, declared by most chemists -to be im- 
possible, although some cases have been recorded. 
The case of the countess of Gorlitz, 1847, disproved 
by confession of her murderer, March, 1850. 

SPONTANEOUS GENEEATION. The 

origin of the germs of infusorial animalcules deve- 
loped during putrefaction, &c, has been warmly 
debated by naturalists. Spallanzani (about 1766). and 
especially M. Pasteur and others, assert that these 
germs are really endowed with organic life existing in 
the atmosphere. Needham (about 1747), and espe- 
cially M. Pouchet and his friends in our day, assert 
that these germs are spontaneously formed out of 
organic molecules. — Pouchet' s " Heterogenic" ap- 
peared in 1859. Bastian's '' Beginnings of Life," 
1872. The researches of professor Tyndall, supporting 
Pasteur, and opposing Bastian, were published 
1876-8. The late professor Huxley, in his presi- 
dential address to the British Association at Liver- 
pool, 1870, affirmed that the doctrine of biogenesis 
(that life proceeds only from life) " was victorious 
all along the line'' (see his article in Nineteenth 
Century, Jan. 1878). 

"Spontaneous generation " (also termed generatio cequi- 
voca, epigenesis, and abiagenesis) has been still further 
disproved by the laborious microscopic investigations 
of Dr. W. H. Dallinger, 1875-8. He found germs to 
stand a much greater heat than perfect organisms. 

SPOETING NEWSPAPEES : Bell's Life 
in London, began 1820; Sporting Life, 16 March, 
1859 ; Sporting Gazette, 1862 ; Sporting Times, 
1865 ; Sportsman, Aug. 1865 ; The Field, 1853 ; 
Illustrated Sporting and Dramatic News, 1874 ; 
Eeferee, 1877. 

SPOBTS. The first •'' Book of Sports," under 
the title of "The King's Majestie's Declaration to 
his Subjects concerning Lawful Sports to be used " 
on Sundays after evening prayers, was published by 
king James I., 24 May, 1618. The second "Book 
of Sports," with a ratification by his majesty Charles 
I., is dated 18 Oct. 1633. On the publication of the 
first "Book of Sports," there arose a long and 
violentcontroversy among English divines on certain 
points; see Sabbatarians, Sunday, &c. — The book 
was ordered to be burnt by the hangman, and the 
sports were suppressed by the parliament. The 
sportsman's annual exhibition, at the Agricultural 
Hall, London, began in 1882. The " Sporting 
League" established lo maintain British sports 
in opposition to the Anti-tlambling league, first 
meeting in London, earl of Coventry in the chair, 
19 Dee., 1894. "The Eri cyclopaedia of Sport," 
edited by the earl of Suffolk and others, Part I. 



published Feb. 1897. "The Sportman's Library " 
(Arnold), edited by sir Herbert Maxwell, 1899 
et seq. See Badminton Library. 

SPOTTSYLYANIA (Virginia), see United 
States, May, 1864. 

SPBLNGFIELD (Missouri), near which was 
fought the desperate battle of Wilson's Creek, in 
which the federals had the advantage over the con- 
federates, but lost their brave general, Nathaniel 
Lyon, 10 Aug. i86r. 

SPUES. Anciently the difference between the 
knight and esquire was that the knight wore gilt 
spurs (eques auratus), and the esquire silver ones. 
Two sorts of spurs seem to have been in use at the 
time of the Conquest, one called a pryck, having 
only a single point, the other a number of points of 
considerable size. Spurs nearly of the present kind 
came into use about 1400 ; see Plating. 

SPUES, BATTLE OF. Henry VIII. of Eng- 
land, the emperor Maximilian, and the Swiss, in 
1 5 13, entered into an offensive alliance against 
France. Henry VIII. landed at Calais in the 
month 'of July, and soon formed an army of 30,000 
men. He was joined by the emperor with a good 
corps of horse and some foot, the emperor as a mer- 
cenary to the king of England, who allowed him a 
hundred ducats a day for his table ! They invested 
Teroiienne with an army of 50,000 men ; and the 
due de Longueville, marching to its relief, was 
signally defeated on the 16th of August, at Guine- 
gate. This battle was popularly called the battle 
of Spurs, because the French used their spurs more 
than their swords. The name was really obtained 
from the village of Spours near which it was 
fought. Lodge. The English king laid siege to 
Tournay, which submitted in a few days. Henault. 
See Courtrai, for another "battle of spurs." 

S. S., see Collar. 

STABAT MATEE, a Latin hymn, by Jaco- 
pone, 14th century, sung during Passion week in 
Catholic churches. Rossini's music to this hymn 
(1842) is often performed. 

STADE DUES. At a castle near the town of 
Stade, in Hanover, certain dues on goods were 
charged by the Hanoverian government. The 
British government settled these dues in 1844. 
They were resisted by the Americans in 1855, 
and were abolished in June, 1861. Great Britain 
paid 160,000/. as her share of the compensation 
(3,000,000/.). 

STADION, see Athens and Olympic Games. 

STADTHOLDEE, see Holland. 

STAFFA, a small uninhabited island in the 
Hebrides, 6 miles distant from Iona, celebrated for 
its eaves and the columnar basalt cliffs. Here is 
the famous FingaVs Cave, the sides of which are 
formed of basaltic columns, while from the roof, 
66 feet in height, hang clusters of short columns, 
whitent d with calcareous stalactite. The cave ia 
227 ft. in length and 42 ft. wide at the entrance. 

STAFF COLLEGE (Sandhurst), for pro- 
viding an education to qualify military officers for 
the duties of the staff. The foundation stone was 
laid by the duke of Cambridge on 14 Dec. 1859. 

STAFFOED, Staffordshire, a municipal and 

parliamentary borough, returning, since 1885, one 



STAGE COACHES. 



1185 



STANDARD MEASURES. 



M.P. A castle was erected here by Ethelfleda, 
eouutess of Mercia, 913 ; taken by the parlia- 
mentarian forces in 1643, it was demolished; a 
new castle, not completed, built by sir G. Jerning- 
ham, 1810-15. A charter was granted by king 
John, 1207, and the grammar-school was rebuilt 
and endowed by Edward VI., 1550. The two old 
churches of St. Mary and St. Chad are of interest. 
Isaac Walton was baptised in the former. Princi- 
pal industries are boot and shoe manufacture and 
brewing. Population, 1881,19,977; 1891, 20,270; 
1901, 20,894. Fire at the workhouse infirmary, 
7 deaths, 16 May, 1901. 

STAGE COACHES, so called from the stages 
ov inns at which the coaches stopped to refresh 
and change horses. Bailey. The stage-coach duty 
act passed in 1785. These coaches were made sub- 
ject to salutary provisions for the safety of passen- 
gers, in 1810; to mileage duties, 181 5. The acts 
were consolidated in 1832, and amended in 1833 and 
1842. See Mail Coaches, &c. 

STAGYRITE, properly Stagirite, see Aris- 
totelian. 

STAMFORD BRIDGE (York). In 1066 
Tostig, brother of Harold II., rebelled against his 
brother, and joined the invading army of Harold 
Hardrada, king of Norway. They defeated the 
northern earls and took York, but were defeated at 
Stamford-bridge by Harold, 25 Sept., and were both 
elain. The loss by this victory no doubt led to his 
defeat at Hastings, 14 Oct. following. The claim of 
Mr. William Grey for the earldom of Stamford, 
was granted by the house of Lords, 3 May, 1892. 

STAMP-DUTIES. By 22 & 23 Charles II. 
{1670-1) duties were imposed on certain legal docu- 
ments. In 1694 a duty was imposed upon paper, 
vellum, and parchment. The stamp-duty on news- 
papers was commenced in 171 1, and every year 
added to the list of articles upon which stamp-duty 
was made payable. 

Stamp act, which ordered a stamp to be atflxed to 
all legal documents, in the colonies, and thereby 
to assist the revenue of Great Britain was passed, 
22 March, 1765. It excited great opposition in 
N. America, with rioting, and consequently was 
repealed, 21 Feb. 1766. The resistance of the 
colonists to taxation, without representation in 
parliament, led to the American war, 1775-83. 

Stamp duties in Ireland commenced . . . . 1774 

Stamps on notrs and bills of exchange in . . 1782 

The stamp-duties produced in England, in 1800, a 
revenue of 3, 126,535^. 

Many alterations made in 1853 and 1857. ln June, 
1855, the stamp-duty on newspapers as such was 
totally abolished ; the stamp on them being hence- 
forth for postal purposes. 

In July and Aug. 1854, 19,115,000 newspaperstamps 
were issued; in the same months, 1855, only 
6.870,000. 

Drafts on bankers to be stamped . . . 1858 

Additional stamp duties were enacted in i860 (on 
leases, bills of exchange, dock warrants, extracts 
from registers of births, &c.) ; in 1861 (on leases, 
licences to house-agents, &c.). 
tamp-duties reduced in 1864, 1S65. 

All fees payable in the superior courts of law, after 
31 Dec. 1865, are to be collected by stamps, by an 
act passed in June, 1865. Also in Public Becord 
office 1868 

144,623,014 inland revenue penny stamps sold, be- 
sides other stamps 1869 

By the Stamp acts, 10 Aug. 1870, newspaper stamps 
were abolished after 1 Oct. 1870 

New stamp duties imposed ; came into effect 1 Jan., 1871 
id. receipt and postage stamps used for each other 
after 1 June. 18S1 



Stamp-duties imposed on foreign or colonial share 

certificates, bonds, &c. by Customs Act, 1888. 
A new consolidating act relating to stamps passed, 

21 July, 1891 
Certain exemptions made by the Finance Act, 

31 July, 1894 
The changes are noticed in the Finance Act passed 
annually. 

AMOUNT OF STAMP DUTIES . RECEIVED IN THE 





UNITED KINGDOM 


1840 . 


. £6,726,817 


1888 . 


1845 • 


. . 7,710,683 


1889 


1850 . 


• 6,558,332 


1890 . 


1855 • 


. 6,805,605 


1891 


i860 (to 31 


Mar.) 8,040,091 


1892 . 


1865 


• • 9>54*>°45 


1S93 


1870 . 


. 9,288,553 


1894 . 


1876 


. . 11,023,374 


1895 


1880 . 


. 11,306,914 


1896 . 


i88i 


• ■ n,933>ii4 


1897 


1882 . 


. 12,348,175 


1898 . 


1883* . 


. . 11,691,025 


1899 


188 J . 


. 11,681,431 


1900 . 


1885 . 


. . 11,886,185 


1901 


1886 . 


. 11,600,614 


1902 . 


1887 


• • n,7 8 o,333 


1903 



£13,056, 
. 12,270, 
. 13,060, 

• 13.413: 

• I 3>73°: 



14,440. 

7>35o ; 
7>35o ; 
7. 6 50: 
7.°3o : 
8,500 
7-825: 
7,800 
8,200 



950 

000 
000 



633 

000 
000 
000 
000 
000 
oco 
ceo 
oco 
,oco 



STANDARD for gold and silver in England 
fixed by law, 1300. Standard gold is 22 parts out 
of 24 of pure gold, the other two parts or carats 
being silver or copper. The standard of silver is 
II oz. 2 dwts. of fine silver alloyed with 18 dwts. of 
copper, or 37 parts out of 40 pure silver, and three 
parts copper. In 1300 these 12 oz. of silver were 
coined into 20 shillings ; in 1412 they were coined 
into 30 shillings; and in 15271111.0 45 shillings. In 
1545 Henry VIII. coined 6 oz. of silver and 6 oz. of 
alloy into 48 shillings ; and the next year he coined 
4 oz. of silver and 8 oz. of alloy into the same sum. 
Elizabeth, in 1560, restored the old standard in 
60 shillings; and in 1601 in 62 shillings. The 
average proportions of silver to gold at the royal 
mint are 155 to 1. The standard of plate and silver 
manufactures was affirmed, 6 Geo. I. 17 19 et seq.; 
see Gold, Goldsmiths, Silver, Coinage, and Currency. 

STANDARD, BATTLE OF THE, see North- 
allerton. 

STANDARD MEASURES. In the reign 
of Edgar a law was made to prevent frauds arising 
from the diversity of measures, and for the esta- 
blishment of a legal standard measure to be used 
in every part of his dominions. The standard 
vessels made by order of the king were deposited in 
the city of Winchester, and hence originated the 
well-known term of " Winchester measure" of the 
time of Henry VII. (1487). The bushel so made 
is still preserved in the museum of that city. 
Henry I. also, to prevent frauds in the measure- 
ment of cloth, ordered a standard yard of the length 
of his own arm to be made and deposited at Win- 
chester, with the standard measures of king Edgar. 
The Guildhall contains the standard measures of 
succeeding sovereigns. Camden. — The standard 
weights and measures were settled by parliament 
in 1824. The pound troy was to be 5760 grains, 
and the pound avoirdupois 7000 grains. The 
" Standard yard of 1760," in the custody of the 
clerk of the house of commons, was declared to be 
the Imperial Standard yard and the unit of mea- 
sures of extension. This standard having been 
destroyed by the fire in 1834, a new commission 
was appointed to reconstruct it, and researches for 
this purpose, in conformity with the act, which 
directed the comparison of the standard with a 

* Fee and patent stamps now omitted. 
4 G 



"STANDAED." 



1186 



STARS, THE FIXED. 



pendulum vibrating seconds of time in the latitude 
of London, were begun by Francis Baily (died in 
1844), continued by the rev. R. Sheepsbanks till 
his death in 1855, and completed by G. B. Airy, 
astronomer royal. In 1855 was passed "an act for 
legalising and preserving the lost standards of 
weights and measures." The parliamentary copies 
of the standard pound and yard are deposited at 
the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. The standard 
weights and measures act was passed Aug. 1866. 
The Standard Commission published reports, 1866 
et seq. 

The old standard yard and other measures and weights, 
supposed to have been burnt at the Are of the parlia- 
ment houses in 1834, were discovered by Mr. Bull's 
agents in the Journal Office, where they had been 
deposited and left unnoticed, July, 1891. The rude 
standards of the reign of Henry VII. and Elizabeth 
are still in existence. 

" STANDARD," id. conservative newspaper ; 
begun, morning, 1827; evening, 29 June, 1857. 
It is the semi-official organ of the conservative 
party, and its church news, foreign intelligence, 
and articles on commerce are leading features of the 
paper. 

STANDARDS, see Banners, Flags, &c. The 
practice in the ami}' of using a cross on standards 
and shields is due to the asserted miraculous appear- 
ance of a cross to Constantine, previously to his 
battle with Maxentius; Eusebius says that he re- 
ceived this statement from the emperor himself, 
312. The standard was named Labarum. For 
the celebrated French standard, see Auriflamme. — 
Standakd of Mahomet; on this ensign no infidel 
dared look. Christians have been massacred by the 
Turkish populace for looking on it. — The British 
Imperial Standard was first hoisted on the Tower 
of LoLdon, and on Bedford Tower, Dublin, and 
displayed by the Foot Guards, on the union of the 
kingdoms, 1 Jan. 1801. 

STANFORD COURT, Worcestershire, the 
ancient mansion of sir Francis Wilmington, burnt 
5-7 Dec. 1882; valuable portraits, books, MSS. 
&c, destroyed. 

STANHOPE ADMINISTRATION was 

formed by James (afterwards earl) Stanhope and 
the earl of Sunderland, 15 April, 171 7. Stanhope 
was premier and chancellor of the exchequer; lord 
(afterwards earl) Cowper, lord chancellor; earl of 
Sunderland and Joseph Addison, secretaries of 
state, &c. In March, 1718, Addison resigned, and 
the earl of Sunderland became premier. 

STANHOPE DEMONSTRATOR, see 
Logic. 

STANLEY, and African Exhibition. 

Patrons, quern Victoria and the king of the Bel- 
gians; Mr. Joseph Thomson, the traveller, chief 
superintendent, opened at Victoria Gallery, Regent 
street, 24 March ; closed 8 Nov. 1890. 

The exhibition included pictures and portraits, African 
weapons, historical maps, and many interesting ob- 
jects collected by Livingstone, Grant, Speke, John- 
stone, and other travellers. 

Stanley Fund. Mr. Stanley's wish that the surplus 
of the receipts from the exhibition should form a fund 
for placing a steamer on the lake Victoria Nyanza 
(17 May), agreed to al a meeting at the Mansion 
house, s June; 50Z. given by the queen, 16 July; 
2,300'. received Oct. 1800. 

STANNARY COURTS of Devon and Corn- 
wall for the administration of justice among the 



tin miners, whose privileges were confirmed by 
35 Edw. I. 1305. They were regulated by parlia- 
ment in 1641, ana at many times since. A '' Stan- 
neries act" was passed in 1869; another act in 1887. 
The Stiinnaries court (abolition) act, passed, 14 
Aug. 1896, came into force, 1 Jan. 1897. 

STAPLE (literally that which is fixed). The 
chief English staple commodities which were traded 
in by privileged merchants, and on which customs 
were levied, were wool, skins, leather, tin. lead 
and sometimes cloth, butter, and cheese ; certain 
towns were appointed for the collection of the 
duties ; statutes relating to the staple were passed 
by Edwai'd III., Richard II., and Henry YI. 
Edward III. 's "ordinacio stapularum " (ordinance 
of the staple) was enacted in 1353. 

STARCH is a sediment produced at the bottom 
of vessels wherein wheat has been steeped in water : 
it is soft and friable, easily broken into powder, 
and is used to stiffen and clear linen, with blue ; 
its powder is employed to powder the hair. The art 
of starching linen was brought into England by Mrs. 
Dinghein, a Flemish woman, 1 Mary, 1553. Stow. 
Patents for obtaining starch from other substances 
have been taken out: from potatoes by Samuel 
Newton and others in 1707 ; from the horse-chest-- 
nut oy Win Murray in 1796; from rice by Thomas 
Wickham in 1823; from various matters by Orlando 
Jones in 1839-40. 

STAR-CHAMBER, Court of. So called 
haply from its roof being garnished with stars. Coke. 
This court of justice was called Star-Chamber, not 
from the stars on its- roof (which were obliterated 
even before the reign of queen Elizabeth), but from 
the Starra, or Jewish covenants, deposited there by 
order of Richard I. No star was allowed to be 
valid except found in those repositories, and here 
they remained till the banishment of the Jews by 
Edward I. The court was instituted or revived,. 
3 Hen. VII. i486, for trials by a committee of the 
privy council, winch was in violation of Magna 
Charta ; as it dealt with civil and criminal causes 
unfettered by the rules of law. In Charles I.'s 
reign it exercised its power upon several bold inno- 
vators, who gloried in their sufferings, and con- 
tributed to render government odious and con- 
temptible. It was abolished in 1640. There were 
in this court from 26 to 42 judges, the lord chan- 
cellor having the casting voice. The judicial com- 
mittee of the privy council is the Star-chamber 
revived under another name. 

STAR OF INDIA, a new order of knight- 
hood for India, instituted by letters patent 23 Feb., 
gazetted 25 June, 1861, enlarged in 1866 and 1903. 
It comprised the sovereign, the grand master, 25 
knights (Europeans and natives'), and extra or 
honorary knights, such as the prince consort, the 
prince of Wales. &c. Queen Victoria invested several 
knights on 1 Nov. 1861. The prince of Wales held 
a grand chapter at Calcutta, 1 Jan. 1876. 

STARS, THE FIXED- They were classed 
into constellations (which see), it is supposed, 
about 1200 B.C. Hicetas, of Syracuse, taught 
that the sun and the stars were motionless, 
and that the earth moved round them, about 
344 n.c. (this is mentioned by Cicero, and per- 
haps gave the first hint of this system to Coper- i 
oicus). Job) Hesiod, ami Homer mention several 
of the constellations. The Royal Library al Paris | 
contains a Chinese chart 1 f the heavens, made 
.iii. hii 600 B.C., in which 14(10 stars arc correctly 
inserted. The aberration of the stars was discovered 



STARVATION. 



1187 



STATISTICS. 



y Dr. Bradley, 1727; see Astronomy, and Solar 
System. Maps of the stars were published by the 

■iociety for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge in 
839, and a set of Celestial Maps, issued under the 
uperintendence of the Royal Prussian Academy, 

./as completed in 1859. See Photometer. 

'ycho Brahe discovered a new star in Cassiopeia in 

1572- 
temporary stars were observed in 1876 and 18S5. 

1 list of about 200 stars, which vary in their bright- 
ness and sometimes disappear, has been published 
by Mr. G. F. Chambers in his "Handbook on 
Astronomy," 1889-90. A variable star, named 
a Ceti, or Mira Ceti, observed by David Pabricius 
in Aug. 1596, disappeared in Oct. following. It 
was observed again in 1603 and 1638, and since. 

tlessel discovered the annual parallax of star 
61 Cygni (hence he calculated its distance from 
the earth to be about 60 billions of miles) 12 Feb. 1841 

itruve made it 40 billions [supported by Briinnow 
and R. S. Ball] 1853 

:'he calculations of T. Henderson (at the Cape) 1832 
supported by D. Gill and others showed that pro- 
bably a Centauri, is the star nearest to the earth 1883-4 

A new star in Auriga in the Milky Way was dis- 
covered at Edinburgh, by Dr. Anderson, 1 Feb. 
1892. It had been photographed by prof. 
Pickering, 1, 10, 20 Dec. 1891. It has been named 
Nova Auriga'. Its brilliancy diminished, May ; 
revived Aug. 1892 

Dr. (after sir) Wm. Huggins reported his spectro- 
scopic observations on the star to the Royal Insti- 
tution 3 May, ,, 

A new star in Centaurus discovered by Mrs. 
Fleming 12 Dec. 1895 

Four variable stars discovered by Mr. R. T. Innes 
at the Cape Observatory, reported, 26 Aug. 1897. 
A new one in Andromeda discovered by Mr. T. 
Anderson, reported 26 Jan. 1899. Another in 
Sagittarius, by Mrs. Fleming, from the Draper 
memorial photos, 1897 or early 1898 (5 by her 
since 1885), May, 1899. 

A new variable of Algol type discovered by photo- 
graphy by M. Ceraski in Cygnus, May-June, 
1899. Two new variables, one in Hercules and the 
other in Cygnus, 24 and 28 Aug. 1899, discovered 
by Dr. T. D. Anderson, Edinburgh. 

A new star, Nova Persei, of the first magnitude, dis- 
covered by Mr. Anderson, Edinburgh, in Perseus, 
and by M. Bonssiak, at Kieff, 21 Feb. 1901. 
Much studied and photographed. Gradual de- 
crease of magnitude ; in June, 1902, and since its 
spectrum showed the characteristics of planetary 
nebulae ; on Dec. 1 its magnitude had diminished 
to 9-5. 

Double stars discovered at the Cape of Good Hope 
from time to time, total reported, 259 up to Dec. 1901 

STARVATION : Deaths attributed to it in 
the metropolitan districts, 1873, I0 7 > 1875, 46; 
1879, 80; 1888, 29. In London, 1889, 27; 1891, 
30; 1892,31; 1893,51; 1894,39; 1895. 7i; 1896, 
43 ; 1897, 41 ; 1899, 68 , 1900, 53. In England and 
Wales: 1887, 250; 1888, 237. See Abstinence. 

STATE CHILDREN'S ASSOCIATION, 

a movement to obtain individual treatment for 
children under the state guardianship, to bring up 
children in families in place of existing aggregated 
schools ; to disassociate children with the work- 
house system and to secure further power for the 
state over neglected children. 

STATE MEDICINE, see under Sanitation, 

2 May, 1888. 

STATE PAPER OFFICE was founded in 
1578, now merged into the Public Record Office. 
In 1856 the British government began the publica- 
tion of Calendars of State Papers, invaluable to 



future historians; brought down to William and 
Mary, 1898. 

STATES-GENERAL op FRANCE. An 

ancient assembly of France, first met, it is said, in 
1302 to consider the exactions of the pope. Pre- 
vious to the Revolution, it had not met since 1614. 
The states consisted of three orders, the clergy, 
nobility, and commons. They were convened by 
Louis XVI., and assembled at Versailles, 5 May, 
1789 (308 ecclesiastics, 285 nobles, and 621 deputies 
or tiers e'tat, third estate). A contest arose whether 
the three orders should make three distinct houses, 
or but one assembly. The commons insisted upon 
the latter, and assuming the title of the National 
Assembly, declared that they were competent' to 
proceed to business, without the concurrence of the 
two other orders, if they refused to join them. 
The nobility and clergy found it expedient to con- 
cede the point, and they all met in one hall ; see 
National Assembly. Centenary, see France, 5 
May, 1889. 

STATESMAN'S YEAR-BOOK, statistical 
and historical annual of the states of the world, first 
published in 1864, edited by Frederick Martin. 
Present editor, J. Scott Keltie, assisted by T. P. A. 
Renwick, 1900-2. 

STATES OF THE CHURCH, see Pope, and 
Rome. 

STATIONERS. Books ard papers wer 
formerly sold only at stalls ; hence the dealers wer^ 
called stationers. The company of stationers oe 
London is of great antiquity, and existed longf 
before printing was invented, yet it was not in- 
corporated until 3 Philip & Mary, 1557. Their old 
dwelling was in Paternoster-row ; 500th anni- 
versary celebrated 10 June, 1903. 

STATISTICS, the science of the state, political 
knowledge, is said to have been founded by sir 
Wm. Petty (1623— 1687), in his " Political Arith- 
metic," published 1691. The term is said to 
have been invented by professor Achenwall of 
Gottingen in 1749. The first statistical society in 
England was formed at Manchester in 1833 ; the 
Royal Statistical Society of London, which pub- 
lishes a quarterly journal, was established 15 March, 
1834, for the purpose of procuring, arranging, and 
publishing " facts calculated to illustrate the condi- 
tion and prospects of society." Jubilee kept, 22, 
23, 24 June, 1885 ; incorporated, 1887. The gold 
medal presented to Mr. Robert Giffen (K.C.B. 
1895), the able government statistician, 20 Nov. 
1894 ; resigns office 30 Sept. 1897 ; succeeded by 
Mr. A. E. Bateman. Similar societies have been 
established on the continent. International 
Statistical Institute constituted in 1885, met at 
Rome, 12-16 April, 1887. International Statisti- 
cal Congresses are now held occasionally. The 
first at Brussels, chiefly through the agency of 
M. Quetelet, in 1853 ; 2nd at Paris, 1855 ; 3rd at 
Vienna, 1857 ; 4th at London, under the presidency 
of the prince consort, 16-21 July, i860; 3th at 
Berlin ; 6th at Florence ; 7th at the Plague ; 
8th at St. Petersburg, was opened 22 Aug. 1872 ; 
9th at Pesth, 31 Aug. 1876 and since; ..ie at 
Vienna 28 Sept. 1891. The eminent statistician, 
Dr. Wm. Farr, died 14 April, 1883. Statistical 
Abstracts have been published annually by the 
government for many years, gives much information 
respecting the revenue, expenditure, commerce, etc., 
of the empire for 15 years. Mr. M. G. Mulhall's 
" Dictionary of Statistics" published 189 1. 

4 G2 



STATUES. 



1188 



STEAM CARRIAGE. 



STATUES, see Sculpture, &c. Two statues of 
Barneses II. and one of his queen (about 1322 B.C.), 
10 feet high, discovered at Aboukir by Dauinos 
Pa^ha, Oct. 1891. Phidias, whose statue of 
Jupiter passed for one of the wonders of the world, 
was the greatest statuary among the ancients, 
440 B.C. He had previously made a statue of 
Minerva at the request of Pericles, which was 
placed in the Parthenon. It was made of ivory 
and gold, and measured 39 feet in height. Lysippus 
invented the art of taking likenesses in plaster 
moulds, from which he afterwards cast models in 
wax, 326 B.C. Michael Angelo was the greatest 
artist among the moderns. The first equestrian 
statue erected in Great Britainwasthatof Charles I. 
in 1678.* By 17 & 18 Vict.c. 10 (10 July, 1854), 
public statues were placed under the control and 
protection of the Board of Works. The following 
are the chief public statues in London: — 

Achilles, Hyde-park, in honour of the duke of Wel- 
lington, by the ladies of Great Britain 18 June, 1822 
Albert, prince consort, Royal Exchange, 1850 ; Hor- 
ticultural Society gardens, 1863; Holborn circus, 1873 
Anne, queen, St. Paul's Churchyard, 1712 ; replaced, 1886 

Barry, sir Charles, Westminster 1865 

Bedford, duke of, Russell-square .... 1809 
Bentinck, lord George, Cavendish-square . after 1848 
Bright, John, the palace, Westminster . 11 Feb. 1896 
Boadicea(by the late), Thos. Thornycroft, Westmin- 
ster Jan. 1902 

Burns, t Thames embankment . . 26 July, 1884 

Byron, lord, Hamilton-place, Hyde-park, 24 May, 1880 
Canning, Geo., New Palace-yard, Westminster . . 1832 
Carlyle, Thos., embankment, Chelsea . Oct. 1882 
Cartwright, major, Burton-crescent . . . 1831 

Charles I. , Charing-cross 1678 

Charles II., Soho-square *** 

Churchill, lord Randolph (bust), house of commons 

18 April, 1898 
Clyde, lord, Waterloo-place . . . . . . 1868 

Cobden, Richard, Camden-town . . June, 1868 
Cromwell (bust, by Bernini), given to the commons 

by Mr. Charles Wertheimer . . March, 1898 

Cromwell (by Hamo Thornycroft), Westminster, 

14 Nov. 1899 
Cumberland, duke of, Cavendish-square . . .1770 
Derby, Edward, earl of, Parliament-square . . 1874 
Disraeli, Benj., lord Beaeonsfield, Parliament- 
square 19 April, 1883 

Elizabeth, queen, St. Dunstan's, Fleet-street . . 1586 
Faraday, Michael, Royal Institution . . . . 1867 
Forster, W. E., Victoria embankment . 1 Aug. 1890 
Fox, Charles James, Bloomsbury-square . . . 1816 
Franklin, sir John, Waterloo-place . . . . 1866 

George I., Grosvenor-square 1726 

George III., Somerset-house 1788 

George III., Cockspur-street 1836 

Gladstone, William Ewart, Houses of Parliament 

(Central Hall) 19 May, 1900 

Gordon, gen. C. G., Trafalgar-square . 25 Sept. 1888 
Granville, earl, the palace, Westminster, 11 June, 1896 
Havelock, sir Henry, Trafalgar-square . . . 1861 
Herbert, lord, Pall Mall ... 3 June, 1867 
Hill, Rowland, Royal Exchange . . . .1882 
Howard, John ; first erected in St. Paul's . . . 1796 
James II., Whitehall [removed 1897 (?)] . . .1687 
Jenner, Edward, Trafalgar-square, 1S58 ; removed 

to Kensington-gardens 1864 

Kent, duke of, Paik-cres., Portland-place, between 

1820 and 1827 



* This statue is of brass, cast by Le Sueur, in 1635, 
at the expense of the Howard-Arundel family. During 
the civil war, the parliament sold it to John River, a 
brazier, in Holborn, with strict orders to break Lt to 
pieces; but he concealed it underground till the Restora- 
tion, when it was erected, in [678,011 a pedestal executed 
by Grinling Gibbons. The Brst equestrian statue of 
bronze, founded at our oast, was that of Louis XIV. of 
France, 1699; it was elevated about 1724. 

+ By sir John Stroll, the gift of Ml'. John Gordon 
Crawford. 



Lawrence, lord, Waterloo-place (a new statue since) 

April, 1885 
Maegregor, sir James, Chelsea hospital . . . 1868 
Mill, John Stuart, Thames embankment, 26 Jan. 1872 
Myddelton, sir Hugh, Islingcon-green . . . . r862 
Napier, gen. sir Chas. J., Trafalgar-square . . 1856 
Napier of Magdala, lord, Waterloo-place, uncovered 

8 July, 1391 
Nelson, lord, Trafalgar-square, by E. H. Baily [the 
iions at the base, designed by sir E. Landseer, 

were uncovered 31 Jan. 1867] 1843 

Outram, sir James, Thames embankment 17 Aug. 1871 
Palmerston, viscount, Parliament-street . 29 Jan. 1876 
Peabody, George, Royal Exchange .... 1869 
Peel, sir Robert, Cheapside, 1855 ; near Westminster 
abbey, 1868 ; Parliament-square . . . . 1877 

Pitt, William, Hanover-square 1831 

Queen Victoria, Royal Exchange, 1845 ; Temple-bar 
site, 1880 ; Kensington-gardens, 28 June, 1893 ; 
Royal Exchange, 19 June, 1896 ; Victoria em- 
bankment 21 July, 1896 

Raikes, Robert, Thames embankment . 3 July, 1880 
Richard Cceur de Lion, near Westminster abbey . i860 
Shakespeare, &c, Leicester-square . . . .1874 
Stephenson, Robert, Euston-road, uear L. & N. W. 

station ... 1871 

Strathnairn, lord, equestrian statue by Mr. E. 
Onslow Ford in Knights bridge, unveiled by the 

duke of Grafton 19 June, 1895 

Tyndale, Wm., Thames embankment . . . 1884 

Wales, Prince of, Temple-bar site, iS8o ; princess 
R. College of Music, by prince Victor of Hohen- 

lohe-Langenburg Oct. 1S93 

Wellington, duke of, Royal Exchange . . 1844 

Wellington, duke of, arch, Hyde-park -corner, 1846 ; 
equestrian statue, height 27 feet, weight 40 tons, 
chiefly gun metal (cannon taken by the duke) 
designed by Matthew Cotes Wyatt, set up 1 Oct. 
1846; taken down, 24 Jan., 1883; set up at 

Aldershot camp 1S4S 

Wellington, duke of, new equestrian statue with 
figures of four Waterloo soldiers at the base, by 
sir J. E. Boehm, facing Hyde Park Corner, set up 
13 Nov. ; unveiled by the prince of Wales 21 Dec. 1888 
William III. , St. James's-square . . . .1717 
William IV., King William-street . . . . 1845 
York, duke of, Waterloo-place 1834 

STATUTES, see Acts of Parliament, Clarendon, 
Merton, &c. Statute Law llevision acts were passed 
in 1863- 1894. The subject was referred to a joint 
committee of both houses, 14 March, 1892. Statute 
Law Bevision and Civil Procedure act, 44 & 45 Vict. 
c. 59, passed 27 Aug. 1881. "Statutes: Kevised 
Edition: (1325-1878)," in 18 volumes, published 
1870-85. The number of volumes since greatly re- 
duced. Select commons' committee on the subject, 
met 17 July, 1891. 

STATUTORY DECLARATIONS- By 5 & 
6 Will. IV. c. 02 (1835), persons objecting tooathsare 
permitted to make declarations before magistrates, 

judges, &C. ; commencing: "I , do solemnly 

and sincerely declare that" — an indulgence some- 
times abused. 

Alv. Alexander Chaffers having made a declaration 
against the Character of Lady Twiss, wife of sir 
Travel's Twiss, was prosecuted for libel. She with- 
drew during the examination, and the prosecution 
ceased : but Chatters was severely censured by the 

magistrate, and by the attorney general in parlia- 
ment . March, 1S72 

STEAM CARRIAGE (for ordinary roads), 
invented by the earl of Caithness, was said to be 
successful in i860. It travels over rough roads at 
the rate of 8 miles an hour, at a cost of less than id. 
per mile. His lordship made a journey of 140 miles 
in two days; see Road Steamers. 



STEAM ENGINE. 



1189 



STEAM ENGINE. 



EAM ENGINE* an i> NAVIGATION. 

i of Alexandria, in his " Pneumatics," describes 
as methods of employing steam as a power; 
o him is ascribed the JEoLopile, which, although 
, possesses the properties of the steam-engine : 
ourished about 284-241 B.C. ttoger Bacon ap- 
.. to have foreseen the application of steam- 
r ; see Railways, Locomotives, Road Steamers, 

ion de Caus, a French protestant, publishes a 
rk which Arago on insuflicientgrounds considers 
. have contained the germs of the steam-engine . 1615 
narquis of Worcester describes his steam-engine 
his " Century of Inventions " . . . . 1663 

I 11's digester invented 1681-2 

ain Savery's engine constructed for raising 

.ter 1698 

pin's engine exhibited to the Royal Society about 1699 
is said to have made a steamboat which was 
■stroyetl by boatmen of the Weser. ] 
imas Newcomen, of Dartmouth, is stated to have 
instructed "the first self-acting steam-engine ;" 
sed for nearly a century without alteration or 

nendment) 1712 

1 le died in London while endeavouring to obtain 
a patent, 1729.] 
it idea of steam navigation set forth in a patent 

ibtained by Jonathan Hulls 1736 

• It's invention of performing condensation in a 
separate vessel from the cylinder .... 1765 
His first patent, 1769 ; his engines erected in manu- 
factories, and his patent renewed by parliament . 1775 
Thomas Paine proposes steam navigation in America 1778 
Engines made to give a rotary motion . . . . ,, 

Watt's expansion engine ,, 

Double-action engines proposed by Dr. Falck on 

Newcomen's principle . - 1779 

Watt's double engine and his first patent for it . 1781 
Hornblower's double-cylinder engine . . . . ,, 

Claude comte de Jouffroy constructed an engine 

which propelled a boat (pyroscaphe) on the Saone. 1783 
Win. Patrick Miller patented paddle-wheels . . 1787 
[He and Mr. Symington are said to have constructed 
a small steamboat which travelled at about 4 miles 
an hour soon after. 
W. Symington made a passage on the Forth and 
Clyde canal ... .... 1790 

First steam-engine erected in Dublin by Henry 

Jackson 1791 

First experiment with steam navigation on the 

Thames 1801 

Trevethick's high -pressure, engine . . . . ,, 
Woolfs double -cylinder expansion engine con- 
structed 1804 

Manufactories warmed by steam 1806 

Fulton's steamboat Clermont on the Seine, 9 Aug. 
1803 ; at New York, 1806 ; started a steamboat 

on the river Hudson, America 1807 

Steam power to convey coais on a railway employed 

by Blenkinsop 181 1 

Comet, built by Henry Bell, sailed on the Clyde 
[John Robertson, who made the engine, died 
20 Nov. 1868, aged 86] ... 18 Jan. 1812 

The Comet sailed from Glasgow to Greenock three 
times a week ; fares. 3s. and 4s. ; speed, 7^ miles 
an hour. ] 
Steam applied to printing in the Times office (see 

Printing machines) . 1814 

There were five steam-vessels in Scotland (Pari. Re- 
turns) ....,, 

First steam-vessel on the Thames, brought by Mr. 

Dodd from Glasgow 181 5 

First steamer built in England (Pari. Returns) . . ,, 
Rising Sun, a steamer built by lord Cochrane, 

crossed the Atlantic 181 8 

The Savannah, aided by steam, of 350 tons, came 

from New York to Liverpool in 26 days 15 July, 1819 
First steamer in Ireland . . ... 1820 
Steamboats established between Dover and Calais 
and London and Leith 1821 



* '' The best known mechanical arrangement for con- 
vetting heat into work." A. Rigg, 1878. "Gas, Oil and 
Air Engines," by Bryan D'jnkit), iin., 1895. 



Steam-gun, invented by Perkins 1824 

Steam-jet applied by George Stephenson, 1814 ; by 

Timothy Hackworth, about 1825 

Captain Johnson obtained 10,000?. for making the 
first steam voyage to India, in the Enterprise, 
which sailed from Falmouth . . 16 Aug. 
The locomotive steam-carriages on railways at Liver- 
pool Oct. 1829 

The railway opened (see Liverpool) .... 1830 
The Royal William, steamship, built at Quebec by 
Mr. James Grondie in 1830-1, said to have crossed 

the Atlantic in 21 days ■ 1833 

Capt. Ericsson's screw steamer, " Francis Bogden," 
speed 10 miles an hour, constructed : see Screw- 
Propeller 1837 

The Sirius sailed from Queenstown 4 April ; 

arrived at New York ... 21 April, 1838 
The Great Western sails from Bristol to New York, 
being her first voyage . . . 8-23 April, ,, 

War- steamers built in England ,, 

War-steamers built at Birkenhead, named the Ne- 
mesis and Phlegethon, carrying each two thirty-two 
pounders, sent by government to China . . 1840 
Hall's method of economising fuel introduced about ,, 
The first Cunard steamer, the Britannia, sailed * 

4 July, ,, 
[Sir Sam. Cunard died 28 April, 1865, aged 78.] 
The Peninsular Company was formed in 1837 ; be- 
came the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Naviga- 
tion Company in „ 

[They possessed 53 steamers and a fleet of tugs, 
Dec. 1866.] 
The Great Britain sailed from the Mersey 26 July, 1845. 
[She arrived at New York 10 Aug. During her 
second voyage, she ran aground in Dundrum 
bay, Ireland, 22 Sept. 1846. Her passengers 
were landed ; and she was extricated with 
little injury, after long-continued and strenu- 
ous efforts, by I. Brunei, jun. and Breinner, 
27 Aug. 1847.] 

The Collins steamers began 1850* 

Iummi Company: began by Wm. Inman, first vessel 
City or' Glasgow, 1850 ; the company became the 
Liverpool, New York, and Philadelphia company, 
1S57 ; City of Richmond, sailed from Liverpool 
6 p.m. 15 July, arrived at New York 12.30 p.m. 

24 July, 1875. (Apparent time 7 days, 19 hours, 45 
minutes ; average 365 miles a day, 15 knots an hour. ) 

The Pacific crosses the Atlantic in 9 days, 19 hours, 

25 minutes, arriving at Holyhead . 20 May, 1851- 
The British India Steam Navigation Company 

initiated by Mr. (afterwards sir) Wm. Mackinnon, 

afterwards extended to Australia, 1855. [Had a 

fleet of no vessels, 1893.] 
Manchester Steam-Users Association established about 1855: 
Steam packets leave Galway for America . . . 1858 
The merits of an attacking vessel termed a stea.m- 

ram, advocated by sir G. Sartorius, discussed 1859-60- 
Giffard's valuable steam-injector invented about 1859, 
An iron-plated frigate, La Gloire, completed in 

France (see Navy, French) i860 

The Warrior, an iron-plated vessel, launched 29 Dec. ,, 
The Far East, a vessel with two screws, launched at 

Millwall 31 Oct. 1863 

A cigar ship, a steam yacht, designed by Mr. Winan, 

built by Hepworth, launched on the Thames 

19 Feb. 1866 
Trial trip of the Nautilus, with a hydraulic propeller 

worked by steam, Ruthven's patent ; no paddle or 

screw required 24 March, ,, 

Successful trial trip of the Wetter-witch, a govern- . 

ment hydraulic propeller iron-clad gun-vessel 

(Ruthven's patent), on the Thames . 19 Oct. ,, 

* Since then many great steamers have been wrecked 
or burnt : viz., Governor Fanner, 19 Feb , 1841 ; Presi- 
dent, March, 1841 ; Ocean Monarch, Aug. 1848 ; St. 
George, 24 Dec. 1852 ; George Canning, 1 Jan. 1855 ; 
Pacific, 1856 ; Austria, 13 Sept., 1858 ; Indian, 21 Nov., 
1859; Hungarian, Feb., i860; Anglo-Saxon, 27 April, 
1863; City of Boston, Feb., 1870; Germania, 21 Dec, 
1872; Atlantic, April, 1873; Vile de Havre, 22 Nov., 
1873 ; Cashmere, 5 July, 1S77 ; Eten, 15 July, 1877, &c. 



STEAM ENGINE. 



1190 



STEAM ENGINE. 



Mr. Ruthven patented his system in 1849, and exhibited 
his machinery at the International Exhibition in 1851. 
His object is to increase speed and save fuel. In the 
Water-witch a steam-engine gives the power of absorb- 
ing and expelling the water, and no screw or paddle is 
required. The water-wheel is 14^ feet in diameter. 
Trial trip of H.M. gun-boat Thistle; explosion of 

boiler, 8 killed 3 Nov. 1869 

Clumnel Steamers: "Twin-ship" Castalia, steamer (two 
hulls, separated by 26 feet), 290 feet long ; invented by 
capt. W. T. Dicey, for the English Channel steam com- 
pany, to prevent sea-sickness when crossing the 
Channel ; (really a single ship, with the middle part of 
her bottom raised out of the water throughout her 
whole length) ; launched, 2 June ; tried in calm wea- 
ther ; reported successful but slow, 2 Aug. 1875 ; suc- 
cessful, June, 1876 ; sold Nov. 1876. 
Bessemer, saloon steamer, designed by Mr. Bessemer and 
E. J. Reed ; built by the Earles company ; launched 
at Hull, 24 Sept. 1874 ; first voyage from Hull to 
Gravesend, 5 March, 1875 ; sailed to Calais, 10 April, 1875. 
[Success doubtful, 1876.] Modified by Mr. E. J. Reed ; 
trial near Hull, reported successful, 26 March, 1877. 
Express, twin steamer ; built by A. Leslie, of Newcastle ; 
sailed from the Tyne to Coquet Island. 22^ miles, 
in ih. 22m., reported satisfactory, 13 March, 1878. 
Eolkestone.twin steamer, launched at Hull, 23 March, 1878. 
Pizarro, steamer (the first built of Siemens-Martin steel ; 
340 feet long by 40 feet broad, 3400 tons), launched at 
Napier's yard, Govan, near Glasgow, 5 Aug. 1879. 
Livadia, a turbot-shaped steam yacht (broad and flat), 
built by Elder & Co. of Glasgow for the czar of Russia, 
launched on the Clyde, 7 July, 1880. 
Earculay, steam-ship (for laying electric cables, 
360 feet long, 52 feet wide, 36 feet deep, 5000 tons 
register ; to carry 6000 tons dead weight) ; next 
in size to Great Eastern ; built for Messrs. 
Siemens by Messrs. Mitchell, at Newcastle ; 
launched (much employed, 1881 et seq.), 17 Feb. 
1874; she laid cables from Nova Scotia to New 

York Dec. 1889 

■Orient, steamer, built by Elders of Glasgow, for 
Australian traffic ; length, 460 feet ; breadth, 
46 feet ; depth, 37! feet ; sailed from Greenock 
to West India Dock, London . . 10-12 Sept. 1879 
Servia, Cunard royal mail steamer, 530 feet long, 
52 feet broad, 44 feet depth ; gross tonnage, 8500 
tons ; 5 decks and promenade ; next in size to 
Great Eastern ; launched in the Clyde, 1 March, 
188] ; sailed from America to Liverpool (by long 
route) in 7 days, 8 hours, 15 min., quickest 
passage hitherto made ... 26 Jan. 1882 
City of Rome, mail steamer, length 586 feet, breadth 

52 feet, left the Clyde ... 28 Sept. 1881 
Alaska, Guion mail steamer crossed the Atlantic, 

6 days, 22 hours ... 31 May-6 June, 1882 
The Guion steamer Arizona, left Queenstown at 
2.10 p.m. Sept. 11, and reached Sandy Hook at 
6.20 p.m. on the 18th, which, including the dif- 
ference in time, 4 hours, 22 min., makes the 
passage 7 days, 8 hours, 12 min. On the return 
l>assage she made the voyage in 7 days, 7 hours, 
48 min. 
' The Guion steamer Alaska arrived at Sandy Hook en 

Sunday, in 7 days, 17 min. . . 31 July, ,, 
Black Star Line of steamers between Grimsby and 

America , 

Victoria, steamer (jubilee of the p. and O. company), 
built by Messrs. Caird & Co. ; length 465 feet, 
breadth 52 feet, depth 37 feet; sailed from 
Greenock In Southampton" . . . 16 July, 1S87 
Mr. Thomas Lishman's steam generator said to 
economize fuel without producing smoke, em- 
ployed at Elswick Winks, Newcastle, and other 

places , 

Arcadia (P. and 0. steamer), arrived at Albert 

Docks i3 May, iSSS 

BtritriftjCunardline, sailed from Roches Point, Cork, 
to New York in 6 day,s, 1 hour, 47 minutes 

2 June, ,, 

Parisian, boal of the Allan line, said to have 

crossed the Atlantic from land to land in 4 days, 

17 hours and 10 minutes . . . . Aug. ,, 

City of \nr Fork, length 560 feet, breadth 63} Feet, 

first voyage across Atlantic . . 1 Aug. 



Said to have crossed from New York to Queenstown 

in 5 days, 23 hours, and 14 minutes . 17-23 Sept. 1S90 
Campania,, twin-screw Cunard liner, with a gross 
tonnage of 12,500, 620 feet long by 65 feet 3 inches 
broad and 43 feet deep, launched on the Clyde, 
8 Sept. , 1892. She left New York 2 Sept. ; arrived 
at Queenstown, 8 Sept. 1893 (5 days, 14 hours, 
55 min.) ; Lucania, a similar vessel, launched 

2 Feb. 1893 
The Umbria, Cunard liner, captain M'Kay, with 380 
passengers, left Liverpool for New York, 17 Dec, 
endured bad weather and seas till 23 Dec, when 
the propeller-shaft broke and disabled her near 
Newfoundland ; the attempt of the Bohemia, 
Hamburg liner, to take her in tow, failed ; at 
length the injury was repaired by the exertions 
of chief engineer Toinlinson and his staff, the 
Umbria proceeded on her voyage, and arrived at 
New York, amid great rejoicing, noon 31 Dec. 1892 
The New York, the first steamer of the American 
line from New York, arrives at Southampton 

6 days, 21I hrs 4 March, 1893 

The Gothic, White Star line, exhibited in Royal 

Albert Docks, London . . 16 Dec. ,, 

Sir Thomas Sutherland at a meeting of the Institute 
of Marine Engineers stated that the Lucania, 
Cunard line, has attained an average speed of 25 
statute miles per hour or 600 miles per day, 
and that the mails are conveyed from Charing 
Cross to Bombay in 13 days . . .24 Oct. 1894 
The great cargo steamer Georgic (10,000 gross ton- 
nage) launched at Belfast . . .22 June, 1895 
The India, large P. and O. steamer, launched at 

Greenock 15 April, 1896 

The Ernest Bazin, new roller-ship, named after the 

inventor, launched at St. Denis . 19 Aug. ,, 

The Arabia, large P. and O. steamer, launched at 
Greenock, 10 Nov. 1897 ; the Jsis, launched, 9 
April ; the Osiris, launched 6 June . . . 1898 
The Oceanic, White Star liner, will carry, grand 

total, 2,104 persons, launched . . .14 Jan. 1899 
The Omrah, Orient liner, 507 ft. long, 56 ft. 9 in. 

broad, starts on first voyage . . 3 Feb. ,, 

Kinfauns Castle, twin screw Castle liner, 532 ft. 
long, 59 ft. 3 in. broad, launched at Gowan, 

12 May, ,, 
Amalgamation of the Union and the Castle lines 

of steamers, announced . . . .16 Dec. ,, 
Lord Inverclyde, head of the Cunard Co., died, 

aged 79 12 Feb. 1901 

Imperial direct service from Avonmouth, Bristol, 

to Jamaica, started 16 Feb. ,, 

The Celtic, White Star liner, 700 ft. long, 75 ft. 

wide, 49 ft. deep, will carry 2,859 passengers and 

crew of 335, launched at Belfast . . 4 April, ,, 

Deutschland, Hamburg-American liner, sails from 

New York to Plymouth in 5 days, 11 hrs. and 

5 min. 17 July, ,, 

Combination formed of the leading British and 
American North Transatlantic lines (no change 
of flag, &c, involved), Mr. Pierpont Morgan 
syndicate manager, reported, 19 April, 11,02; 
agreement with the Hamburg-American and the 
North-German Lloyd, issued, Times, 27 May, 1902 
Kaiser II ilhelm II., N. German Lloyd co., 20,000 
tons register, launched at Stettin, the emperor 

present 12 Aug. 

Messrs. Yarrow's new type of shallow draught 

steamer tried on the Thames . . 19 Aug. 

Cedric, White star liner, 700ft. long, 75ft. beam, 

launched at Belfast .... 21 Aug. 

Improved service to S. American ports (British and 

German combination), started . . 1 iSept, 

New monthly line from Canada to S. Africa to be 
Started by Ontario, Allan s.s. from Montreal. 

18 Oct. 

Satisfactorj agreements between the British 
government ami the X. Atlantic Shipping Com- 
bination and also with the Cunard line, formally 
incorporated at Trenton, New Jersey, F.S.A., 
and styled the tntcniat. Mercantile Marine CO. 
(capital about 24,000,000?.), Times . 1-3 Oct. ,, 

Death of Mr. John lVnn, M.P.. aged 55, head of the 

inarii ngineering linn ofPenn & Sons, 21 Nov. 1903 

See Navy, and Shipping. 



STEAM ENGINE. 



1191 



STEEL. 



LARGE STEAM VESSELS OF ENGLAND. 

Long. Broad. 

:eat Western .... 236 ft. 35 ft. 

nke of Wellington . . . . 240 ft. 60 ft. 

ritish Queen .... 275 ft. 61 ft. 

:eat Britain 322 ft. 51 ft. 

imalaya 370 ft. 43 ft. 

arsia 3qo ft. 45 ft. 

irvia 530 ft. 52 ft. 

ceanic 705ft. 6 in. 68ft. 4 in. 

altic 726 ft. 76 ft. 

beat Eastern, for a short time 
(1857-8) called Leviathan . . 692 ft. 83 ft. 

Horse Power: — Paddles, 1000 ; screw, 1600 : 
Weight of ship, 12,000 tons ; ordinary light 
draught, 12,000 tons ; said to have cost 732,000?. 
tie was designed by Mr. I. K. Brunei [who died 15 Sept. 
1859], and built by Messrs. Scott Russell and Co., at 
Millwall ; launching lasted from 3 Nov. 1857, to 31 Jan. 
1858. . 

he capital subscribed having been all expended, a new 
company was formed to fit her for sea. 
n 7 Sept. 1859, she left her moorings at Deptford for 
Portland-roads. On the voyage an explosion took place 
(off Hastings), through some neglect in regard to the 
easing of one of the funnels, when ten firemen were 
killed and manj persons seriously injured. After re- 
pairs she sailed to Holyhead, arriving there 10 Oct. ; 
she endured the storm of 25-26 Oct. well ; and pro- 
ceeded to Southampton for the winter, 4 Nov. 

She was fitted up to convey 5000 persons from London 
to Australia, a distance of 22,500 miles, with accom- 
modation for 800 1st class passengers, 2000 2nd class, and 
1200 3rd class. Her able captain (Harrison) was 
drowned in the Solent 22 Jan. i860, deeply regretted. 
She sailed for New York 17 June, under command of 
captain Vine Hall, and arrived there 28 June. After 
being exhibited she left New York 16 Aug. and returned 
to England 26 Aug. 

Owing to a lawsuit in April, the ship came into the hands 
of sheriffs officers ; but was released and sailed for New 
York on 1 May, 1861. On 12 Sept. she suffered much 
loss through a violent gale. 

In 1862 she performed several voyages to and from New 
York ; but in Aug. ran on a rock near Long Island and 
injured her bottom. 

She was repaired and arrived at Liverpool 17 Jan. 1863, 
and sailed to New York (16-27 May). 

She was bought by Glass, Elliot, and Co. in March or 
April, 1864, and was chartered to convey the Atlantic 
telegraph cable ; sailed from Sheerness 15 July ; and 
returned 19 Aug. 1865 ; see under Electric Telegraph. 

She sailed for New York, prepared for 2000 passengers, 

26 March, and returned with 191. She was seized by 
the seamen, claiming their wages, May, 1867 ; and the 
case was carried into Chancery in July. 

At the meeting of the shareholders 10 Feb. 1868, no divi- 
dend was declared. 

She conveyed the French Atlantic telegraph cable, 
successfully laid Oct. 1869 

Arrived at Bombay with Bombay and Suez cable, 

27 Feb. ; returned to Sheerness . . June, 1870 
Sailed with the fourth Atlantic telegraph cable 

8 June ; which was completely laid . 3 July, 1873 
Sailed with the fifth Atlantic telegraph cable : 

laid Aug., Sept. 1874 

Put up for sale at 30,000?. ; not bought 19 Oct. 1881 

{John Scott Russell died, aged 74] . 8 June, 1882 
Proposed to be employed as a coal hulk in Gibraltar 

Bay • April, 1884 

Sold by auction to Mr. Frederick de Mattos for 

26,200?. for the London traders (limited) 28 Oct. 1885 
The ship reported in good condition . 20 April, 1886 

Sold to Mr. Worsley for 26,000? ,, 

In the Mersey .... 12 May-12 Oct. ,, 
Largely visited ; drink licence refused . April, 1887 
Sold to Mr. Craik for 21,000?. . . 20 Oct. ,, 

In the Clyde, sold to Messrs. Henry Bath, metal 

brokers, for 16,500?. .... Dec. 1887 

Messrs. Henry Bath and Sons cause the vessel to 

be moved to the Mersey, where she is beached 

25 Aug. 1888 
Total receipts of the sale at Liverpool 58,000?. 

24 Nov. ,, 



STEAM GUN ; suggested by Wm. Murdoch, 
1803. One patented by Messrs. Perkins, in 1824, 
was ineffectual. 
In Oct. 1870, Mr. H. Bessemer proposed the application 

of steam power to artillery. 

STEAM HAMMEE, invented by Mr. James 
Nasmyth in 1838, and patented by him 18 June, 
1842. Its main feature is the absolutely direct 
manner by which the elastic power of steam is 
employed to lift up and let fall the mass of iron 
constituting the hammer, which is attached direct 
to the end of a piston-rod passing through the 
bottom of an inverted steam cylinder placed imme- 
diately over the anvil. 

In 1842, Mr. Nasmyth applied his steam-hammer to 
driving piles, which has importantly assisted in the 
execution of great public works. Owing to its vast 
range of power, forged iron-work can now by its means 
be executed on a scale, and for a variety of purposes, 
with an ease and perfection not previously possible. 
Parts of gigantic marine steam-engines, anchors, and 
Armstrong guns, as well as the most minute details of 
machinery, as in Enfield rifles, are executed by the 
steam-hammer. 
A steam-hammer, said to be the then largest in the 
world, completed at Woolwich : the falling portion 
weighs 40 tons, and when used with top steam (51 tons) 
has the force of 91 tons, April, 1874. One at Schneider's 
works, Creuzot, France ; weight between 75 and 80 tons, 
Dec. 1877. 
Mr. Nasmyth, aged 81, died 7 May, 1890. His Auto- 
biography, edited by Dr. S. Smiles, was published in 
1883. 

STEAM-MAN. A figure constructed to drag 
a phaeton received this name in New York in 
March, 1868. 

STEAM NAVIGATION, see under Steam. 

STEAM-PLOUGHS were patented by G. 
Callaway and E. A. Purkes, 1849; H. Cowing, 
1850 ; and others. John Fowler's of 1854 is much 
approved. 

STEAM-EAM (to be used in naval warfare), 
was invented by Mr. James Nasmyth in 1836, and 
communicated to the Admiralty in 1845. Steam- 
rams built by Mr. James Laird of Birkenhead for 
the Confederates in N . America, were stopped and 
eventually bought by the British government, 1864. 

STEAM-WHISTLES and STEAM- 
TRUMPETS, used in factories to summon or dismiss 
workmen, prohibited by an act passed Aug. 1872. 

STEAEINE (from stear, suet), that part of 
oils and fats which is solid at common temperature. 
The nature of these substances was first made 
known by Chevreul, in 1823, who showed that they 
were compounds of peculiar acids, with a base 
termed glycerine; of these compounds the chief are 
stearine, margarine, and elaine ; see Candles. 

STEEL, metal, a compound of iron and carbon, 
exists in nature, and has been fabricated from the 
earliest times. It was certainly used by the Egyp- 
tians, Assyrians, and Greeks. It now largely 
replaces cast iron in ship building, &c. 
Reaumur discovered the direct process of making 
steel by immersing malleable iron in a bath of 

cast iron J 7 22 

A manufactory for cast steel is said to have been 
set up by Benjamin Huntsman at Handsworth, 

near Sheffield 174° 

The manufacture of shear steel began in Sheffield, 

about 1800 
German steel was made at Newcastle previously by 
Mr. Crawley. 



STEEL PENS. 



1192 



STEPHEN'S CHAPEL, ST. 



The inventions of Mushat (1800), Lucas (1804), ami 
Heath (1839), were important steps in this manu- 
facture ; see Engraving. 

Reipe patented his " puddled steel " . . . 1850 

Mr. (aft. sir)H. Bessemer made steel by passing cold 
air through liquid iron, 1856. By this method 20 
tons of crude iron have been converted into cast 
steel in 23 minutes.* 

Tungsten steel was made in Germany, 1859 ; and M. 
Freniy made steel by bringing red-hot iron in con- 
tact with carbonate of ammonia .... 1861 

51. Alfred Krupp exhibited an ingot of steel weigh- 
ing 4500 lbs. in 1851, and one weighing 20 tons in 1862 
[about 15,000 men are employed at his works at 
Essen, 1887 ; 46,000 in 1902.] 

The subject much investigated by M. Caron, 1861-5 ; 
much attention was excited by cutlery made from 
a metallic sand, brought from Taranaki or New 
Plymouth, in New Zealand i860 

A steel bridge, in connection with the exhibition, 
constructed at Paris by M. Joret .... 1866 

Mr. John Heaton published his process . . 1867-8 

Dr. Siemens, by means of his " regenerative gas 
furnaces," produced excellent steel, cheaply, in 
large masses 1876, el seq. 

Cutlers' Company, London, opened an exhibition, 

1 May, 1879 

Messrs. Bolckow, Vaughan & Co. of Middlesbrough, 
by Thomas and Gilchrist's process, convert Cleve- 
land iron ore into Bessemer steel, by lining the 
furnace with radial bricks of magnesian limestone 
and adding cold basic material, phosphorus being 
thereby removed . . ,, 

The process reported successful . . Oct. 1880 

Mr. J. S. Jeans published his important work, 
"Steel: its History, Manufacture, Properties, 
and Uses" Feb. ,, 

The Garfield, a steel sailing ship, 2,220 tons, 292 ft. 
length, 24 ft. 9 in. depth, 41ft. breadth, launched 
at Belfast 7 Jan. 1S82 

Umbria, Cunard liner, above 8,000 tons, 520 ft. long, 
57 ft. 3 in. broad, 41 ft. deep, launched on the 
Clyde Sept. 1884 

Mr. B. H. Thwaite, of Liverpool, and Mr. A. 
Stewart, of Bradford, introduce an improved 
"rapid" process for the manufacture of steel, 

announced Oct. 1887 

New process of steel manufacture from Cleveland 
ironstone at Port Clarence on the Tees, reported, 

4 Jan. ,, 
See under Steam. 

STEEL PENS- "Iron pens" are mentioned 
by Chamberlayne in 1685. Steel pens, made long 
before, began to come into use about 1820, when the 
first gross of three-slit pens was sold wholesale for 
"jl. 4s. In 1830 the price was 8s., and in 1832, 65. 
A better pen is now sold for bd. a gross. Birming- 
ham in 1858 produced about IOOO million pens per 
annum. Women and children are principally em- 
ployed in the manufacture. Perry, Mitchell, and 
Gillott are eminent makers. Joseph Gillott, origin- 
ally a mechanic, made a large fortune by steel-pen 
making. He died 5 Jan. 1872, aged 72. 

STEEL-YARD. An ancient instrument, the 
same that is translated balance in the Pentateuch. 
The Statera Romana, or Roman steel-yard, is men- 
tioned in 315 B.C. — The Steel-takd or Still- 
yard Company, London merchants, who had the 
steel-yard in Thames-street assigned to them by 
Henry III., about 1232, were Flemings and Ger- 
mans, and the only exporters, for many years after, 
of the staple commodities of England. Anderson. 
The company lost its privileges, finally, in 1578; 
and the merchants were expelled from England in 
1597- 

STEENKIRK, see Enghien. 

* For this invention he had received by royalties 
1,507,748/. up to 1879; also many foreign honours'; 
knighted June, 1879; born 19 .Ian. [81 :, died 15 March, 



STEFANO, SAN, a small village on the sea 
of Marmora, S.W. of Constantinople ; here the 
grand duke Nicholas established his head quarters. 
24 Feb. ; and here was signed a treaty of peace 
with Turkey, 3 March, 1878, much modified by 
the treaty of Berlin, signed 13 July, following. 
The Russians quitted San Stefano, 22 Sept. 1878. 

It established independence of Montenegro, Servia, ami 
Roumania ; constituted Bulgaria a tributary princi'- 
pality ; required a heavy indemnity from Turkey fo» 
Russia, who was to gain a port on the Black Sea and 
Kars ; to exchange the Dobrudscha for Bessarabia ; to 
obtain rights for Christians ; to open the Bosphorus 
and Dardanelles in peace and war ; &.c. 

STELLA, see Wrecks, 30 March, 1899. 

STELLA-LAND, see Tram-vaal and Bech- 

uana-land. 

STENOCHROMY, see Printing in Colour*. 

STENOGRAPHY (from stems, narrow), thSe 
art of short-hand, said to have been practised by 
the ancients. Its improvement is attributed to the 
poet Ennius, to Tyro, Cicero's freedman, and still 
more to Seneca. The Ars Scribendi Characterise 
written about 1412, is the oldest system extant. 
Dr. Timothy Bright's " Characterie, or the Arte of 
Shorte, Swi'fte, and Secrete Writing," published in 
1588, is the first English work on short-hand. 
Peter Bales, the famous penman, published on 
stenography in 1590 ; and John "Willis published 
his "Stenographic" in 1602. Since then many 
systems and modifications have been produced. 
See Phonography. 

Edmund Willis's system, 1618 ; Thomas Sheltoh s 
system, 1620 (used by Samuel Pepys) ; Win. 
Caitwright's, 1642-69 (known as Rich's); Win. 
Mason's, 1672, improved by Thos. Gurney (1720) 
(known as Gurney's, officially used in parliament 
since 1813); John Byrom's, published after his 
death, 1767; Win. Mayor's, 1780; Sam Taylor's, 
on which are based ("Odell's and Harding's"). 
1786; Rev. Richard Roe's, 1820, first Script 
system ; James H. Lewis's, 1812-15 ; Isaac Pit- 
man's (phonographic), 1837, see Phonography ,- 
A. M. Bell's, 1849; Prof. Everett's, 1877; T. 
Cooper ("Parliamentary shorthand," Gurney's), 
1858; E. Pocknell's ("Legible shorthand"), 
1880 ; J. M. Sloan's, 1882 ; Thomas Anderson's, 
1884; "A text-book of the Gurney system," 
edited by W. B. Gurney and Sons, 18th edition, 
1884; J. Barker's, 1885; A. Jane's ("Shorthand 
without complication ") 1885-92 

Various systems are in use, in France, Germany, 
America, and the East ; Pitman's adapted to the 
Japanese language, and employed for reporting 
proceedings of the diet, in 7S70, 

Shorthand Society founded iSSo- 

Sig. A. Michela's stenographic machine for the 
graphic representation of phonetic sounds (about 
200 words per minute); like a harmonium with a 
key-board, exhibited at the Turin exhibition of 
1884, successfully adopted by the Italian Senate. 

International Shorthand Congress at the Geological 
Museum, London, S.W. (482 systems noticed) 
26 Sept.-i Oct. 1887; Paris, 18S9'; Munich, 1890; 
Berlin 30 Sept. iSjt 

Shorthand placed on the government education 
code, no lixed system 1890 

Mr. .1. I'. Hardy's shorthand writing machine 
(silent), reported successful . . .4 Jan. 1S97 

STEPHEN'S CHAPEL, ST. (Westminster), 
i built by king Stephen, about 1 135. It was rebuilt 
by Edward III. in 1347, and by him made a col- 
legiate church, to which a dean and twelve secular 
priests were appointed. Soon after its surrender to 
Edward VI., about 154.8, it was applied to the use of 
Parliament; Bee Parliament. It was destroyed by 
fire, 16 Oct. 1834. The Society of Antiquaries pub- 




STEPNEY. 



1193 



STICKLESTADT. 



lished memorials of it about 1810; and Mr. Mac- 
kenzie's work appeared in 1844. The restoration of 
the beautiful crypt was complete in Jan. 1870. 

STEPNEY, a parish, E. London, the Steben- 
hide of Domesday book. Edward I. summoned a 
parliament here, 1299. Stepney suffered severely 
by the plague, 1625 and 1665. Stepney- green was 
restored and opened as a park by the Metropolitan 
Board of Works, Aug. 1872. Stepney church, 
built 1470, restored 1899, much damaged by fire, 
12 Oct. 1901 ; re-opened 21 June, 1902. One of the 
divisions of the Tower Hamlets; returns one M. P. 
Constituted a municipal borough by London Govern- 
ment act 1899. (10 aldermen, 60 councillors). 
Population, 1881, 58,543; 1891, 57,599; 1901, 
298,600. 

STEREOCHEMISTRY, the chemistry of 
atoms, carbon, &c, in space, connected with the 
researches of M. Pasteur and his colleagues, Van't 
Hoff and Le Bel ; was so named about 1890 by 
Victor Meyer. Van't Hoff's " Chemistry in Space," 
translated by J. E. Marsh. " Handbueh der 
Stereochemie," by Dr. C. A. Bischoff and Dr. Paul 
Walden, published 1893. Prof. J. Wislicenus, one 
of its earliest exponents, died in 1902. 

STEREOCHROMY, a mode of painting in 
which water-glass (an alkaline solution of Hint, 
silex) serves as the connecting medium between tbe 
colour and the substratum. Its invention is ascribed 
to Von Fuchs, who died at Munich on 5 March, 
1856. Fine specimens of this art by Kaulbach and 
Echter exist in the M useum at Berlin, and also at 
Munich. 

STEREOMETER, by which is compassed the 
art of taking the contents of vessels of liquids by 
gauging, invented about 1350. Anderson. Si. Say's 
stereometer, for determining the specific gravity of 
liquids, porous bodies and powders as well as solids, 
was described in 1797. 

STEREOSCOPE (from stereos, solid, and 
skopein, to see), an optical instrument for repre- 
senting in apparent relief natural objects, &c, by 
uniting into one image two plane representations 
of these objects as seen by each e3 r e separately. The 
first stereoscope by refiection was constructed and 
exhibited by professor Charles Wheatstone in 1838, 
who had announced its principle in 1833. Since 
1854 stereoscopes have been greatly improved. By 
Mr. John Anderton's lantern stereoscope, remark- 
able effects were exhibited on a screen in the Koyal 
Society's lecture room, 7 June, 1893. 

STEREOTYPE, a cast from a page of mov- 
able printing-types, so named by the Parisian 
printer, Didot, 1798. It is said that stereotyping 
was known in 171 1. It was practised by ¥m. Ged 
of Edinburgh, about 1730. Some of Oed's plates 
are at the Royal Institution, London. A Mr. James 
attempted to introduce Ged's pi-ocess in London, 
but failed, about 1735.* Nichols. Stereotype print- 
ing was in use in Holland, in the last century ; and 
a quarto Bible and a Dutch folio Bible were printed 
there. Phillips. It was revived in London by 
Wilson in 1804. Since 1850 the durability of stereo- 
types has been greatly increased by electrotyping 
them with copper or silver. Stereotyping used for 
printing the Times, 1856, et seq. 

In the library of the Royal Institution is an edition of 
Sallust, with this imprint: "Edmburgi, Gulielmus 
Ged, auri faber Edinensis, non typis mobilibus, ut 
vulgo fieri solet, sed tabellis seu laminis fusis, excude- 

* It was hotly opposed by the journeymen printers. 



bat. 1744." (Printed at Edinburgh by William Ged of 
Edinburgh, goldsmith, not with moveable types, as is 
commonly done, but with cast tablets or plates.) 

STERLING (money). Ducange says (1733), 
" Esterlingus, sterlingus, are English words re- 
lating to money, and hence familiar to other 
nations, and applied to the weight, quality, and 
kind of money." " Denarius Angliae, qui vocatur 
sterlingus," stat. Edw. I. (The penny of England, 
which is called sterling.) Camden derives the word) 
from easterling or esterling, observing that the 
money brought from Germany, in the reign of 
Richard I., was the most esteemed on account of 
its purity, being called in old deeds "nummi easier- 
ling." Others derive the word from the Easterlings, 
the first money ers in England. 

STETHOSCOPE. In 1816 Lae'nnec, of Paris, 
by rolling a quire of paper into a kind of cylinder, 
and applying one end to the patient's chest and the 
other to his own ear, perceived the action of the 
heart in a much more distinct manner than by the 
immediate application of the ear. This led to his- 
inventing the stethoscope, or "breast-explorer," 
the principle of which, now termed "auscultation," 
was known by Hippocrates (357 B.C.), and by 
Robert Hooke, 16S1. See Water, 1895. 

STETTIN (Pomerania), an ancient city, for- 
merly held by the Sidini and Venedes, was taken, 
by Boleslas of Poland in 1 121. After being con- 
quered by the Swedes, Russians, and French, it was- 
awarded to Prussia in 1814. Population, 1890, 
116,239; 1900,210,680. 
Visited by emperor William during military 

manoeuvres 12 Sept. 1887 

A new harbour opened by the emperor, 23 Sept. 189S 
DeutscMand, Hamburg-American liner, launched ; 

the emperor present 10 Jan. 1900. 

STEWARD of England, Lord High. 

The first grand officer of the crown. This office 
was established prior to the reign. of Edward the 
Confessor, and was formerly annexed to the lord- 
ship of Hinckley, Leicestershire, belonging to the 
family of Montfort, earls of Leicester, who were, in 
right thereof, lord high stewards of England ; but 
Simon de Montfort, "the last earl of this family, 
having raised a rebellion against his sovereign, 
Henry III., was attainted, and his estate forfeited) 
to the king, who abolished the office, 1265. It is- 
now revived only pro hue vice, at a coronation, or 
the trial of a peer. The first afterwards appointed! 
was Thomas, second son of Henry IV. The first for 
the trial of a peer was Edward, earl of Devon, on 
the arraignment of the earl of Huntingdon, in 1400. 
The last was lord Denman at the trial of the earl of 
Cardigan, 16 Feb. 1841. The duke of Hamilton 
was lord high steward at the coronations of 
William IV. 1831, and Victoria, 1838. 

STEWARD of the Household, Lord 

(an ancient office), has the sole direction of the 
king's house below-stairs ; he has no formal grant 
of his office, but receives his charge from the 
sovereign in person, who, delivering to him a white 
wand, the symbol of his office, says, " Seneschal, 
tenez le baton de notre maison." This officer has- 
been called lord steward since 1 540; previously to 
the 31st of Henry VIII. he was styled grand master 
of the household. His function as a judge was 
abolished in 1849. 

STEWART, see Stuart. 

STICKLESTADT (Norway) . Here Olaf II. , 
aided by the Swedes, was defeated in his endeavours- 
to recover his kingdom from Canute, king of Den- 



STIPENDIARY MAGISTRATES. 1194 



STOCKS. 



mark, and slain, 29 Jul}', 1030. He was after- 
wards sainted, on account of his zeal for Christianity. 

STIPENDIARY MAGISTRATES, see 

Magistrates. 

STIRLING (S. Scotland). For the battle of 
Stirling (1297), see C ambus Kenneth . The strong 
castle was taken by Edward I. of England, 1 304. Here 
James II. stabbed the earl of Douglas, 13 Feb. 1452, 
and here James VI. was crowned, 24 July, 1567. 
Stirling surrendered to Monk, 14 Aug. 1651. The 
etatue of king Robert Bruce unveiled, 24 Nov. 1877. 

A gigantic bronze statue of sir William Wallace unveiled 

at the National Wallace Monument 25 June, 1887. 
Population, 1881, 16,013 ; 1891, 16,895 ; 1901, 18,403. 

STIRRUPS were unknown to the ancients. 
Gracchus fitted the highways with stones to enable 
the horsemen to mount. Warriors had projections 
on their spears for the same purpose. Stirrups 
were used in the 5th century, but were not common 
even in the 12th. 

STOCKACH, a town in Baden, near which 
the Austrians, under the archduke Charles, de- 
feated the French, 25 March, 1799; and Moreau 
defeated Kray, 3 May, 1800. 

STOCKHOLM, capital of Sweden (built on 
holmen, or islands), was fortified by Berger Jarl 
about 1254. Here the Swedish nobility were mas- 
sacred by Christian II. in 1520 ; see Sweden. 
Population, 1887, 227,964; 1890, 246,154; 1900, 
300,624. 

Peace of Stockholm, between the king of Great 
Britain and the queen of Sweden, by which the 
former acquired the duchies of Bremen and Ver- 
den as elector of Brunswick . . . 20 Nov. 1719 
Treaty of Stockholm, between Sweden and Russia, 
in favour of the duke of Holstein-Gottorp, 

24 March, 1724 
Another between England and Sweden . 3 March, 1813 
And one between England, France, and Sweden, 

21 Nov. 1855 
Great Are, 25 houses destroyed . . 21 Sept. 1892 
Scandinavian exhibition of arts and industries 
opened, end of Aug. 1897 

STOCKINGS of silk are said to have been first 
worn by Henry II. of France, 1547. In 1560 queen 
Elizabeth was presented with a pair of knit black 
silk stockings, by her silk-woman, Mrs. Montague, 
and she never wore cloth ones any more. Howell. 
He adds, " Henry VIII. wore ordinary cloth hose, 
except there came from Spain, by great chance, a 
paii- of silk stockings ; for Spain very early abounded 
with silk." Edward VI. was presented with a pair 
of Spanish silk stockings by his merchant, si- 
Thomas Gresham ; and the present was then much 
taken notice of. Idem. Others relate that William 
Rider, a London apprentice, seeing at the house of 
an Italian merchant a pair of knit worsted stockings 
from Mantua, made a pair like them, the first made 
in England, which he presented to the earl of Pem- 
broke, 1564. Stow. The art of weaving stockings 
in a frame was invented in England by the rev. 
Mr. Lee, of Cambridge, in 1 589, twenty-five years 
after he had learnt to knit them with wires or 
needles. Cotton stockings were first made in 1730 ; 
see Cotton. Digitated stockinets (like gloves), in- 
troduced 1882. 

STOCKPORT (in Cheshire) has become emi- 
nent on account of the cotton trade. Heaton 
Norris, in Lancashire, is united to it by a bridge 
over the river. Here the Manchester b'lanketeers 
were dispersed, 11 March, 1817; and here was a 
serious religious riot, when two Roman catholic 



chapels were destroyed, and the houses of man 
Roman catholics gutted, and their furniture an ' 
other contents smashed or burnt, 29 June, 185; 
Great mill fire, 9 deaths, 5 Nov. 1902. 

STOCKS, in which drunkards were placed 
The last in London was removed from St. Clemen. 
Danes, Strand, 4 Aug. 1826. 

STOCKS. The public funding system originate! 
in Venice, about 1 173, and was introduced into. 
Florence in 1340. The term stocks is applied tc 
money invested in public securities such as oui 
National Debt {which see). The Stock Exchange, 
in Capel Court, London, was established in 1801. 

The Forged Transfer of Stock Act was passed 

5 Aug. 1891 
"Bulls" are persons who buy stock and thus cause 
the market to rise ; "Bears" those who sell and cause 
it to fall. 
Act to prevent stock-jobbing passed March, 1734 ; 

repealed i860 

Stockbrokers' rents to the city of London abolished 

1884 ; came into effect .... Sept. 1886 
The foundation of the Stock Exchange, in Capel- 
court, the residence of the lord mayor, sir Win. 
Capel, in 1504, was laid on 18 May, 1801. It was 
stated on the first stone that the public debt was 
then 552,730,924?. Members, 1864, about 1100 ; 
above 2000 in 1878; 4,673 members and 3,147 

clerks in 1901 

The memorable Stock Exchange hoax, for which ad- 
miral lord Cochrane (afterwards lord Dundonald), 
Johnstone, and others, were convicted, 22 Feb. 
1814. Lord Cochrane was in consequence expelled 
the house of commons. His innocence was after- 
wards proved, and he was restored to his rank by 
king William IV., and to the honours belonging 
to it by queen Victoria. 
Stock-exchange coffee-house destroyed by fire, 1 iFeb. 1816 
Royal Commission (lord Penzance, justice Black- 
burn, Mr. Spencer Walpole, and others) to ex- 
amine into the constitution and management of 
the London stock exchange, agreed to, 20 March, 
1877 ; report issued ; the majority recommend 
incorporation and other changes ; signed 31 July, 1878 
The number of stock-holders in 1840 amounted to 

337,48i- 
Three per cent, annuities created .... 1726 

Three per cent, consols created 1731 

Three per cent, reduced 1746 

Three per cent, annuities, payable at the South Sea- 
house . . . . . . . . . 1 75 1 

Three-and-a-half per cent, annuities created . . 175S 

Long annuities 1761 

Four per cent, consols 1762 

Five per cent, annuities . . . 1797 and 1802 
Five per cents, reduced to four .... 1822 
Old four per cents, reduced to three-and-a-half in 1824 
Further reductions made in 1825, 1830, 183.1, l8 4 r > 
and 1844; the maximum being now three per cent. 
Further reductions proposed by Mr. Goschen (2 J to 
2! in 15 years under specified conditions) 9 March ; 
new threes all converted or paid off . 6 April, 188S 
Messrs. Thomas and Co., bankrupts, for a large 

amount, suspected frauds . . -31 Jan. 1884 
Three per cents, convertible into 2J, and 2J per 

cent, by Act of 2 Sept., 1884. 
The local loans stock exchangeable for the three 
per cents, consols created by the National Debt 
and Local Loans Act passed . . .12 July, 1887 
National War Loan (S. Africa) 30,000,000?. at 2J per 

cent, issued in consols .... March, 1900 
New issue of 60,000,000?. at 2§ per cent, in consols, 
amply and promptly taken up, 20 April, 1901 ; 
see B'idget. 
New loan in 32,000,000?. consols at 93J issued, and 

16,000,000?. placed, 16 April, closed . 18 April, 1902 
Lord Goschen stated that the country had borrowed 
practically 159,000,000 since 1899, leaving about 
122,000,000?. additional permanent debt, 6 June, 1902 

By a return of the average price of the public funds 
by the Commissioners for the reduction of the 
national debt, it appears that Consols (i.e., consoli 






STOCKS. 



1195 



STONEHENGE. 



dated 
a vera 

1749 

1780 

178s 



annuities, paying 3 per cent, per annum) 
fed in the year — 

• .£58 13 5 



100 





O 


181s 


63 


13 


6 


1820 


68 


6 


6 


182s 


7i 


^ 


6 


1S30 


74 


8 


6 


1840 


■>Q 


TO 





184s 


66 


3 


3 


1848 


S8 


14 





1850 


67 


16 


3 


1852 



15 



i8s2(Dec. 101I. ios.)q9 12 6 



The price of £100 stock varied 

1853, from £101 to £90! 

1854, „ 96 „ 85^ 

1855, „ 93f .. 86* 
96* „ 8 7 | 

1857. .. 95*. ». 86| 



1863 



1870 
1871 
1S72 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1S79 



97s 

94*. 

94l 

94 

9 1 ? 



94 



9°3 
90 



average 88 June 86J 
94* 
94l 
9 2 i 
92 1 

9 2 

9 2 5 

9 2 i 
9 2 ^ 

94k 
94* 
95l 
97l 



93 

93§ 

9 2 S 

9 2 t 

9 2 f 

9 2 5 

9 2 * 

9 2 *. 

93l 

95 

95f 

95^ 

975 



100 ,, 100; 

, average 100J June 100^ 

,, ioiyV „ iooj 

highest 102 1 ; lowest, 

31 Dec. 98 r , T . . 

1 average . . 99! 
ioo| ; 13 May, 
(highest price recorded) 

i°3i- 
1887, average . . . loif 

New Consols (2!) 
1888, 9 June . . 994 

Average 97H- 
1889, 2 Jan. 99! ; 28 June 

9§|. Average 98. 
1S90, 2 Jan. 
,, 10 April 
,, s June 
,, 3 July . 
,, 4 Sept. 
,, 2 Oct. . 
„ 15 Nov. (Barin 

difficulty) 
,, 4 Dec. 

Average 96J. 

1891, 2 Jan. . 
,, 5 March . 
„ 4 June . 
,, 2 July 
„ 1 Oct. . 
,, 3 Dec. 

Average 95 J. 

1892, 7 Jan. 
,, 1 April 
,, 5 May . 
,, 2 June 
,, 1 July . 
,, 3 Nov. 
,, 1 Dec. . 

Average 96IJ. 

1893, 5 Jan. 



4 April . 

1 Sept. 

2 Oct. . 
2 Nov. 

2 Dec. . 
Average 98J 



97S 



y7 



93S 



95b 

94l 
96 

94* 
95 

95f 

96*, 
97i 
96g 

97 , 
96I 

96s 



97s 



2 Jan. 

1 Feb. . 

2 May 

1 June . 
1 Aug. 
1 Sept. . 

1 Oct. 

2 Nov. . 
1 Dec. 
22 Jan. 

1 Feb. . 
1 March 

1 April . 

2 May 

4 June . 
1 July 

1 Aug. . 

2 Sept. 

1 Oct. . 

2 Nov. 

2 Dec. . 
2 Jan. 

1 Feb. . 
21 Feb. 

2 March 

1 April 

2 May . 
1 June 

1 July . 
1 Aug. 
1 Sept . 
1 Oct 

3 Nov. 

1 Dec. 

2 Jan. . 
1 Feb. 

1 March 
1 April 

3 May . 
1 June 

1 July . 

3 Aug. 

1 Sept. . 

1 Oct. 

2 Nov. . 
1 Dec. 

1 3 Jan. . 
1 Feb. 
1 March 
1 April 
1 June . 

1 July . 

2 Aug. 
1 Sept. 
1 Oct. . 
1 Nov. 

1 Dec. . 
, 3 Jan. 
1 Feb. . 

1 March 

4 April 

2 May 

1 June . 

3 July 

1 Aug. . 

1 Sept. 

2 Oct. . 
t Dec. 

, 2 Jan. . 
1 Feb. 

1 March 

2 April 
2 May . 
1 June 



99 

loo?, 
IOIH 
IOl| 

I02I 
101 1 
102 
io 3s 
i°5 
103I 
104^ 
104I 
T05I 
io6f s 
io 7to 
io 7» 
107I 

IO 7>l"0 

.107 

I06y 9 7, 

io6g 
107} J 

no 
i°8fi 
1 09 j J 

III§ 

113 

"3*i 

113* 



111 in 
Illyf 

II2 H 

Illyf 

112 in 
II2| 

II2S 

it3s 

III l Z 6 

TII 1K 

112 

II2s 

113 

II2 T 7 fl 

II2| 

1 1 it! 

iti ts 
112 
in 
no 
T095 
io8f 

IIO^ 

nof 
III 
1 io£ 
no| 

IlOj'jf 

io 9b" 

io 7tS" 

io5| 

i°5 

I02f 
I02J 

99-1 

IOO J 

IOOy 5 ^ 

101 ITT 

iooA 

102& 



I90I, 



1900, 2 July . 
,, 1 Aug. 
,, 1 Sept. . 
„ 1 Oct. 
,, 2 Nov. . 
,, 1 Dec. 

2 Jan. . 

4 Feb. 

1 March 

1 April 

2 May . 
1 June 
1 July . 

1 Aug. 

2 Sept. . 

1 Oct. 

2 Nov. . 
2 Dec. 
2 Jan. . 
1 Feb. 



1902, 



97 M3 

96H 

97 rV 

95A 

943 

94T.T 

93 nr 
93*. 
94ro 
93t,t 
9*if 
9U 
93rJ 
94'J 



j 902, 1 March 
„ 1 April 
,, 2 May . 
„ 2 June 
„ 1 July . 
,, 1 Aug. 
,, 1 Sept. 
,, 1 Oct. 
,, 3 Nov. . 
,, 1 Dec. 

2 Jan. . 

2 Feb. 

2 March 

1 April 

2 May . 
2 June 
1 July . 
4 Aug. 
1 Sept. 
1 Oct. 



1903, 



94*1 
94rs 
94iS 



95$ 
94 
93rV 
93*. 
9 2 l 
93! 
93*. 
92J 

9°i 
9i| 
91s 
9 2 § 
9*i 
90J 



"During the greatest crisis ever developed in the 
history of the world the funds remain day after day 
without a fractional movement." Times, n Oct. 1870. 

Purchase of stock for 10I. legalised, 1880. 

Mr. (aft. sir) H. C. Burdett's " Official Intelligence of 
British, American, and Foreign Securities," published 
under the sanction of the Stock Exchange Committee. 
1882 et seq. ; he was secretary at the Stock Exchange, 
1880-97. " The Story of the Stock Exchange, its His- 
tory and Position," by Chas. Duguid, pub. 1901. 

Consols lowest point (87H) since 1866, 29 Sept. 1903. 

STOICS, disciples of Zeno, the philosopher 
(about 290 B.C.) ; obtained the name because they 
listened to Ms instructions in a porch (Greek, stoa) 
at Athens. Zeno taught, that man's supreme hap- 
piness consisted in living agreeably to nature and 
reason, and that God was the soul of the world: 
Stanley. 

STOKE, EAST (near Newark, Nottingham- 
shire). Near here, on 16 June, 1487, the adherents 
of Lambert Simnel, who personated Edward, earl 
of Warwick, and claimed the crown, were defeated 
by Henry VII. John de la Pole, the earl of 
Lincoln, and most of the leaders, were slain. 
Simnel was afterwards employed in the king's 
household. 

STONE. Stone buildings erected in England by 
Benedict Biscop about 670. A stone bridge built at 
Bow, in the nth or 12th centuries, is accounted the 
first ; but a bridge exists at Crowland, which is said 
to have been built in 860 ; see Bridges. The first 
stone building in Ireland was probably a round 
tower ; see Building. Stone china-ware was made 
by Wedgwood in 1762. Artificial stone for statues 
was manufactured by a Neapolitan, and introduced 
into England, 1776. Stone paper was made in 
1776; see Ransome' s Artificial Stone, and Lithotomy '. 
For stone implements, see Flints, and Piano-forte. 
An orchestra composed of wind instruments made of 
terra-cotta appeared in London in 1874. 

STONEHENGE (on Salisbury Plain, Wilt- 
shire) is said to have been erected on the counsel of 
Merlin, by Aurelius Ambrosius, in memory of 460 
Britons, who were murdered by Hengist the Saxon 
about 450. Geoffrey of Monmouth. Erected as a 
sepulchral monument of Ambrosius, 500. Polydore 
Vergil. An ancient temple of the Britons, in which 
the Druids officiated. l)r. Stukeley. The Britons 
are said to have held annual meetings at Abury and 
Stonehenge, when laws were made and justice 
administered. The cursus near Stonehenge was 
discovered by Dr. Stukeley, 6 Aug. 1723. The 
origin and object of these remains are still very 
obscure. See W. M. Flinders Petrie's " Stone- 
henge : Plans, Description, and Theories." 1880. 
The thorough preservation of Stonehenge strongly 

advocated Aug. 1886. Fall of one of the uprights and 



STONEWALL BEIGADE. 



1196 



STORMS. 



capstone, 31 Dec. 1900, afterwards restored, Stone- 
henge enclosed within a fence, 1901. 

STONEWALL BEIGADE, see United 

States, 1862, uote. 

STONYHUEST COLLEGE, N.E. Lanca- 
shire. This institution for the education of lloman 
Catholics was begun by the arrival in 1794 of 18 
Jesuit fathers, with their pupils, of the seminary of 
St. Omer {which sec), by invitation of Mr. Titos. 
Weld of Lulworth, himself formerly a pupil. At 
first they were placed in an old mansion here. 
The undertaking; prospered, and during- this century 
the present spacious buildings were erected, includ- 
ing a chapel, library, museum, and observatory. 
In 1892 there were 300 pupils and 30 masters. In 
1840 the college was affiliated to the University of 
London. 

The chief of the observatory, Father Stephen 
Joseph Perry, F.R.S., at Kerguelen, an isle in 
the S. Indian Ocean, observed the transit of 
Venus, 8 Dec. 1874. lie died at Salut island, 
near Demerara, where he had gone to observe 
the eclipse of the sun . . . .22 Dec. 1889 

STOEM- WARNINGS, see under Meteor- 
ology. 

STORMS, see Meteorology, Cyclones, and 

Waterspouts, The following are recorded : — 

In London a storm raged which destroyed 1500 houses, 
944. 

In several parts of England, the sky being very dark, 
the wind coming from the S.W. ; many churches were 
destroyed ; and in London 500 houses fell, 5 Oct. 1091. 

On the coast of Calais, when Hugh de Beauvais and 
several thousand foreigners, on their voyage to assist 
king John against the barons, perished, 1215. Holin- 
shed. 

It thundered 15 days successively, with tempests of rain 
and wind, 1233. 

Storm with violent lightnings ; one flash passed through 
a chamber where Edward I. and his queen were con- 
versing, did them no damage, but killed two of their 
attendants, 1285. Hoveden. 

Violent storm of hail near Chartres, in France, which 
fell on the army of Edward III. then on its march. 
The hail was so large that the army and horses suffered 
very much, and Edward was obliged to conclude a 
peace, 1339. Matt. Paris. 

When Richard II. 's queen came from Bohemia, on her 
setting foot on shore an awful storm arose, and her 
ship and a number of others were dashed to pieces in 
the harbour, Jan. 1382. Holinshed. 

Richard's second queen also brought a storm with her to 
the English coasts, in which the king's baggage was 
lost, and many ships cast away, 1396. Holinshed. 

Hurricane, throughout Europe, which did very con- 
siderable damage, on 3 Sept. 1658, the day that 
Cromwell died. Mortimer. 

Storm on east coast of England : 200 colliers and coasters 
lost, with most of their crews, 1696. 

The "Great Storm," one of the most terrible that ever 
raged in England. The devastation on land was im- 
mense ; and in the harbours and on the coasts the loss 
in shipping and in lives was still greater, 26-27 Nov. 
1703. The loss sustained in London alone was calcu- 
lated at 2,000,000?. sterling. The number of persons 
drowned in the floods of the Severn and Thames, and 
lost on the coast of Holland, and in ships blown from 
their anchors and never heard of afterwards, is thought 
to have been 8000. Twelve men-of-war, with more than 
1800 men on board, were lost within sight of their 
own shore. Trees were torn up by the roots, 17,000 
of them in Kent alone. The Eddystone light-house 
was destroyed, and in it the ingenious contriver of it, 
Winstanley, and the persons who were with him. The 
Bishop of Bath and Wells and his lady were killed in 
bed in their palace in Somersetshire.* Multitudes of 
cattle were also lost : in one level 15,000 sheep 
were drowned. 

Snow-storm in Sweden, when 7000 Swedes, it is said, 
perished upon the mountains, in their march to attack 
Drontheim, 1719. 



One in India, when many hundreds of vessels were • : 
away, a fleet of Indiamen greatly damaged, and s on 
ships lost, and 30,000 persons perished, 11 Oct. 17; 

Dreadful hurricane at the Havannah : many pu 
edifices and 4048 houses were destroyed, and >... 
inhabitants perished, 25 Oct. 1768. 

Awful storm in the north of England, in which 11 
vessels were destroyed, and four Dublin pac 
foundered, 29 Oct. 1775. 

One at Surat, in the East Indies ; destroyed 7000 of,, 
inhabitants, 22 April, 1782. 

One hundred and thirty-one villages and farms laid w 1 
in France, 1785. 

One general throughout Great Britain : several hund E 
sail of shipping destroyed or damaged, 6 Oct. 1794. 

One which did vast damage in London, and througl 
almost the whole of England, 8 Nov. 1800. 

A tremendous storm throughout Great Britain a 
Ireland, by which immense damage was done, an 1 
many ships wrecked, 16-17 Dec. 1814. 

An awful gale, by which a great number of vessels v 
lost, and much damage was done to the shippiu 
general on the English coasc, 31 Aug. 1816. 

Dreadful hurricane, ravaged the Leeward Islands, fi 
the 20th to the 22nd Sept. 1819. At the island 
St. Thomas alone, 104 vessels were lost. 

Great storm along the coast from Durham to Comw 
many vessels lost, Nov. 1821. 

In Ireland, particularly in the vicinity of Dublin, m.i- 
houses were thrown down, aiid vast numbers unroo: ■ , 
12 Dec. 1822. 

Awful storm on the coast of England : many vessels L 
and 13 driven ashore and wrecked in Plymouth alone. 
12-13 Jan 182S. 

At Gibraltar, where more than 100 vessels were de- 
stroyed, 18 Feb. 1828. 

Dreadful storm at the Cape of Good Hope, where 
immense property was lost, 16 July, 1831. 

A hurricane visited London and its neighbourhood, 
which did great damage to the buildings, but without 
the destruction of human life, though many serious 
accidents occurred, 28 Oct. 1838. 

Awful hurricane on west coast of England, and in 
Ireland. The storm raged through Cheshire, Stafford- 
shire, and Warwickshire ; 20 persons were killed in 
Liverpool, by the falling of buildings, and 100 were 
drowned in the neighbourhood ; the coasts and har- 
bours were covered with wrecks, the value of two of 
the vessels lost being nearly half-a million sterling. 
In Limerick, Galway, Athlone, and other places, more 
than 200 houses were blown down, and as many more 
were burnt, the winds spreading the fires. Dublin 
suffered dreadfully ; London and its neighbourhood 
scarcely sustained any damage, 6-7 Jan. 1839. 

[The winter of 1852-3 (Dec. and Jan.) was one of storms, 
many of which were very destructive.] 

Great storm in the Black Sea, 13-16 Nov. 1854, causing 
much loss of life, shipping, and stores sent for the 
allied armies in the Crimea. 

Great storm on N. coast of Europe, <fec, 31 Dec. 1854. 

Great storm on N.E. coast of Scotland ; 42 fishermen 
lost, 23 Nov. 1857. 

Dreadful storm on the night 25-26 Oct. ; the Royal 
Charter totally lost, and many other vessels ; another 
storm, 31 Oct. and 1 Nov. 1859. 

Great storm in the channel, causing much loss of life 
and property, 1 Jan. i860. 

Dreadful gales, doing much mischief, 26, 27, 28 Feb. ; 
28 May ; and 2 June, i860. 

Great storm ; part of the Crystal Palace blown down 
Chichester cathedral steeple fell, 20-21 Feb. 1861. 

Great storm on British coasts, 143 wrecks, 28 May, 1861- 

Storm on the north-east ; 50 wrecks, 13-14 Nov. 1861. 

At Market Laverton, &c. ; much damage to crops by 
hail, 2 Sept. 1862. 

Storm on British coasts ; many wrecks, 19, 20 Oct. 1862. 

There were severe gales, doing much damage, and loss of 
life, 19 Jan. &c. 1863 ; and 14 Jan. <fcc. 1865 (see under 
Wrecks). 

Dreadful hurricane in the Indian Ocean, <fec. (see 
Calcutta), 5 Oct. 1864. 

Hurricane at Lisbon, causes much damage, worst for 
many years, 13 Dec. 1864. 

Severe gales : many vessels and lives lost (see Wrecks), 
6-11 Jan. 1866; 2-4 Dee. 1867: 22 Jan. and 31 Jan. and 
1 Feb. 1868: 11-12 Sept. 1869. 

Severe storm ; much damage ; barometer very low, 
24 Jan. 1872. 



STORMS. 



1197 



STORMS. 



After several days' intense heat, violent storms, and 
deluges of rain in midland and southern counties ; 
several persons killed, 24-26 June, 1872. 
Very stormy in July and August, 1872. 
Violent gale ; much destruction (wind, greatest velocity 

57 miles an hour), 8 Dec. 1872. 
Awful storms in Scotland, and N. England ; loss of life, 
and much damage, 22, 23 July ; in Lancashire and 
Yorkshire, 16 Dec. 1873. 
Awful storm, N. E. London ; several persons killed ; 
churches and buildings lired ; railways flooded, 11 
July, 1874. 
Violent gales, with destruction of life and property, 21 

Oct. ; Nov. 29 ; 7, 8, 10, n Dec. 1874. 
Much destruction by typhoon at Macao, Hong Kong, &c, 

22 Sept. 1874. 
Severe snowstorms in Scotland, several lives lost, 1, 3 

Jan. 1875. 
Destructive storms at Buda-Pesth, about 200 killed, 

26 June, 1875. 

On coast of Texas : Galveston, and other places much 

injured ; villages washed away by the sea ; great loss 

of life, 15-1S Sept. 1875. 

Severe snowstorm, south England ; destruction of life 

and property ; telegraph wires broken, 12 March, 1875. 

Severe storms; great loss of shipping, 11-13 Nov. ; 2,3, 

and 22-24 Dec. 1876, and 2 Jan. 1877. 
Most violent gale ; great destruction of property on land 
and shipping throughout England, with loss of life, 
14, 15 Oct. 1877. 
Again ; much damage on S.E. coast, &c, 24, 25 Nov. 

1877. 
Storm and heavy rain in London ; inundations, io, \i 

April, 1878. 
Many thunderstorms, destroying life and property in 

England, Aug. 1878. 
At Kew and neighbourhood, 2, 3 Aug. ; in Cheshire and 

Wales, 16, 17 Aug. 1879. 
Violent gale ; Tay bridge (which see) blown down, 28 Dec. 

1879. 
Destructive tornadoes, &c, western states North Ame- 
rica ; great loss of life and property, about 18 April, 
1880. 
Many thunderstorms in England, July, 1880. 
Severe storms in England, with much destruction by in- 
undations, 27, 28 Oct. 1880. 
Severe snowstorm, or blizzard ; railways and other traffic 
largely stopped ; greatloss of life at sea, 17-21 Jan. 1881. 
Violent hurricane in England : great destruction of life 
and property : houses thrown down or unroofed ; large 
trees torn up by the roots ; telegraph wires and poles 
blown down ; about 130 wrecks (105 British), &c, 14- 
19 Oct. 1881. 
Many wrecks on south and west coasts of England with 

much loss of life, 19-20 Oct. 1881. 
Great destruction of life and property by gales, 26, 27 

Nov. 1881. 
Lighthouse, Calf Rock, in Ban try Bay destroyed, 27 Nov. 

1881. 
Six men left on the rock got off, 9 Dec. 1881. 
By a typhoon in Haifong, &c, China, about 300,000 per- 
sons perished, 8 Oct. 1881. 
Destructive gales in England, &c. ; many wrecks and loss 

of life by sea and land, 17-21 Dec. 1881. 
.Severe gale ; much destruction in England and Scotland, 

6 Jan. ; another, 29 April, 1882. 
Tornado in Iowa, <fcc, Grinnell and other towns nearly 

destroyed ; great loss of life, about 16 June, et se.q. , 1882. j 
Violent gales with damage, 22, 23 Aug.; 24 Oct. 1882; 26, j 

27, 28 Jan., 10 Feb., 6 March, 1883. 
Tornadoes in southern states, U.S.A., about 150 killed, 

April, 1883. 
Violent gale in British channel, &c; many wrecks, 1-2 

Sept. 1883. 
Destructive gale on the Scotch and Irish coasts, 26 Sept. 

1883. 
Another with great loss of life and damage in London 

and other parts of Britain, morning, 12 Dec. 1883. 
Violent S.W. gales; destruction of life and property; 
23-24 Jan. 1884 ; very severe ; many disasters, 26, 27 
Jan. 1884. 
Tornadoes in southern states, U.S.A. ; about 600 killed, 

about 18 -Feb. 1884. 
Storm in Catania, Sicily (see Sicily), 7 Oct. 1884. 
Destructive snowstorms in Piedmont (see Italy), 16 Jan. 

et seq. 1885. 
Heavy storms on the Labrador coast, about 80 craft 
wrecked and about 300 lives lost 12-15 Oct. 1885 



Storm off Colon, Panama, 15 vessels -wrecked, 50 lives 

lost 2 Dec. 1885. 
Heavy snowstorm, N.E. England, &c. ; locomotion 

stopped 1, 2, 3 March, 1886. 
Destructive hurricane at Madrid, 32 lives lost, 320 

wounded 12 May, 1886. 
Destructive tornadoes in S. Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 

&c, U.S.A. 12-15 May, 1886. 
Violent storm N.E. France, much damage at Rheims, 

Nancy, &c. 10 Aug. 1886. 
Hurricane at St. Vincent ; great loss of life and 

property 16 Aug. 1886. 
Violent gale in Texas, &c, causing inundation, above 250 

persons drowned, 12 Oct. 1886. 
Severe gale ; very destructive on sea and land (see 

Wrecks) 15-.16 Oct. 1886. 
Destructive gale and storm, especially in S. & W. 

England ; many wrecks and loss of life 8, 9 Dec. 1886 

(see under Lifeboat). 
Destructive snowstorm, specially E. and S. England ; 

many wrecks ; telegraphic and railway communications 

stopped ; trees blown down, &c, 26-27 Dec. 1886. 
Destructive hurricane at Bordeaux and S. France with 

loss of life 16 Aug. 1887. 
Violent thunderstorm in London with destruction of 

property, several persons killed, about 5.30 p.m. ; 

lasted about 4 hours 17 Aug. ; many storms through- 
out the country, 17 Aug. et seq. 1887. 
W. gale ; destruction of life and property in France, the 

Channel, and S. England 30 Oct. , another gale on the 

W. coast, destruction at Holyhead, Liverpool and in 

the Bristol channel 31 Oct.-i Nov. ; another gale on 

the S.E. coast, 3 Nov. 1887. 
Snowstorm (blizzard) in N.W. of United States ; about 

2 35 persons perish and much cattle 11-13 Jan. ; 

another in New York 26 Jan. 1888. 
Cyclone in Illinois, U.S.A. ; great destruction of life and 

property 19 Feb. 1888. 
Violent gale ; several wrecks and loss of life, 9-11 March, 

1888. 
A destructive blizzard from the N.W. desolated the 

eastern coast of United States ; communication 

between New York, Philadelphia and Boston sus- 
pended ; many wrecks ; great loss of life (about 400) 

and property ; food at famine prices 11-13 March, 

1888. 
Town of Ninnescah in Kansas destroyed by a gale 27 

March, 1888. 
Great storm and a tidal w 7 ave, much destruction, near 

Wellington, New Zealand 28 March, 1888. 
Destructive hurricane in Dacca, N.E. India; about 69 

persons killed 7 April, 1888. 
Great storm in Ontario and Quebec, many persons killed 

by lightning and fright, estimated loss in Quebec, 

1,500,000 dollars 16 Aug. 1888. 
Destructive cyclone in the West Indies (Cuba, &c), 4 

Sept. 1888. 
Destructive gale ; Scotland, N. England and Ireland ; 

many shipwrecks ; Forth bridge damaged, 15-16 

Nov. 1888. 
Severe storm on the N. American E. coast ; more than 

50 vessels wrecked and about 45 lives lost 25 Nov. 

1888. 
Tornado in eastern states U.S., especially in Pennsyl- 
vania ; great destruction and loss of life in about 200 

miles, especially at Pittsburg (14 killed) and at 

Reading (24 kil'ed), through collapse of a silk-mill; 

suspension-bridge, Niagara, wrecked 9 Jan. 1889. 
Destructive gales over Britain ; wrecks and loss of life 

2, 3, 8 Feb. 1889. 
Violent hurricane in the Pacific (see Samoan Isles) 15, 16 

March, 1889. 
Destructive storm on the east coast of the United States 

10 May, 1889. 
Great storm in South Germany, especially in Austria, 

Bohemia, &c, great loss of life and property, 17 

May ; in Switzerland 3-4 June, 1889. 
Destructive storm, Flintshire, Cheshire and Lancashire ; 

heavy rain and large hail causing floods, crops much 

injured, buildings struck and fired 2 June, 1889. 
Great storms over the United Kingdom ; wrecks with 

loss of life, 21 Aug. and 5-7 Oct. 1889. 
Easterly gales on the Atlantic coast ; wrecks with loss 

of life off Long Island, New Jersey, &c, n-12 Sept. 

1889. 
29 vessels wrecked in Delaware Bay, about 31 lives lost, 
73 Sept. 1889. 



STORMS. 



1198 



STORMS. 



Great storm in Sardinia (which see), 7 Oct. 1889. 
Destructive storm on the coast of Carolina, 26, 27 Oct. 

1889. 
Destructive storms in the Western States, U.S.A., 12 
■ Jan. ; in Canada, 14 Jan. 1890. 

Destructive gale with loss of life in the Atlantic and on 
British coast, especially S. and S.W., high tides and 
floods, 17-27 Jan. 1890. 
Destructive storm on the continent from Paris to Vienna, 
23, 24 Jan. 1890. 
[68 British wrecks and 67 lives lost in Jan. 1890.] 
Tornadoes in the Ohio valley, from Cincinnati to Cairo ; 
very great destruction at Louisville, where about 93 
persons perish ; many places in Illinois, Missouri and 
Indiana, suffer greatly ; total loss of life about 175, 
27 March, 1890. 
Cyclone in Texas, much destruction, 15 persons killed, 

4 May, 1890. 
Tornado in Lee county, Illinois, 15 deaths, 20 June, 

1890. 
Great cyclone at Muscat, causing floods, about 700 per- 
sons said to have perished, reported 9 July, 1890. 
Terrible cyclone in Minnesota (xohich see), July, 1890. 
Destructive cyclone at Slonim, Russia, 19 lives lost, 20 

July, 1890. 
Cyclone in south Lawrence, Merrimac valley, Massa- 
chusetts, 100 buildings destroyed, 9 deaths, 26 July, 
1890. 
Destructive storms in Austria, Prance, Switzerland and 

in the United States, August, 1890. 
Violent gale over Great Britain and Ireland, great 
destruction of life and property, especially at sea ; 
114 lives saved by lifeboats ; viscount Cantelupe 
drowned and his yacht wrecked in Belfast Lough, 7 
Nov. 1890. 
Violent N. W. gale in the channel, several wrecks on the 

S.. coast, 23 Nov. 1890. 
Violent gales throughout Europe (see Inundations), 23- 

25 Nov. 1890. 
Gale in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, 40 vessels said to be 
wrecked, reported 3 Dec. ; much destruction of ship- 
ping and buildings, Newfoundland, reported 8 Dec. 
1890. 
Violent storms in the N. Atlantic, above 60 vessels lost, 

reported, 24 Dec. 1890. 
Violent blizzard in Nebraska, South Dakota, &c, U S.A., 

many perished, 7 Feb. et seq. 1891. 
Destructive cyclone over the Fiji and Navigation Isles, 

great loss of life and shipping, 12, 13 Feb. 1891. 
Another blizzard in Minnesota, Iowa, Illinois and Wis- 
consin, 8, 9 March, 1891. 
Great snow storm, or blizzard, throughout England, 
especially in the south and west ; railway traffic, post 
and telegraph greatly impeded, in some places 
totally stopped ; many wrecks and loss of life in the 
channel ; hurricanes near Dover and Plymouth ; 
wrecks of fishing boats at Hastings and other places. 
The Victoria (capi Shirley) had a long dangerous pas- 
sage from Dover to Calais. Great Western and 
South-Western railways disorganized ; 14 ships lost ; 
about 60 lives lost, 9-13 March, 1891. 
Destructive cyclone in S. Dakota, 2 June, 1891. 
By a cyclone, the village of Ponikwa in Galicia de- 
stroyed and about 30 persons killed, 10 June, 1891. 
Destructive storm in Iowa, Minnesota, and other states, 

about 24 June, 1891. 
Destructive storm and cloud-burst in the Rhine pro- 
vinces, 26 June ; and over a large part of Germany, 
chiefly in the Crefeld district and in Brunswick, 1 
July ; Salzburg, 9 July, 1891. 
Destructive storm at Baton Rouge, Louisiana, with loss 

of life, 6 July, 1891. 
Violent hurricane and rain in lower Austria, Moravia, 
and Upper Hungary ; the season's vintage destroyed, 
S Aug. T891. 
Cloud-burst at Kollmann, between Botzen and Brixen 
(Tyrol), the lowlands flooded, about 60 deaths, 18 
Aug. 1891. 
Destructive storms and floods in Great Britain, espe- 
cially on the N. W. coast, 24-26 Aug. 1891. 
Destructive storm off Nova Scotia, about 20 vessels 

wrecked, with loss of life, about Sept. 1891. 
Great storm throughout S. Spain (which see), 11-13 Sept. 

1891. 
Violent storms with loss of life in midland and northern 
English counties, and parts of Scotland, 20, 21 Sept. 



Violent cyclone over the British Isles ; much destru 

tion of houses, shipping, trees, &c. ; moderate loss 1 

life, 13-15 Oct. 1891. 
Severe storm on the S. and W. coasts of England, and ii 

Spain and S. France, 22-24 Oct. 1891. 
Destructive cyclone in the bay of Bengal, &c, with lo: 

of life (see Andaman Islands and Wrecks), 2 Nov. 189 
Destructive gale in England, especially on the S. and V 

roasts ; many wrecks, with loss of life, off Sandgat 

Dover, Folkestone, St. Leonards, Brighton, &c. 

telegraphic communication greatly suspended : 

(night), 11 Nov. 1891. 
Great damage by the gale at Boulogne, Paris, Havr 

Roubaix, Rouen, Bilbao, Madrid, and other place 

11 Nov. et seq. 1891. 
Violent gale at Liverpool and on the Irish coasts, wit ' . 

loss of life, 11 Nov. 1891. 
Violent gales in the channel, causing wrecks and loss ( I 

life, 7-11 Dec. 1891. 
Violent gales, causing wrecks and loss of life in tl I 

English Channel and France, 8, 9 Dec, over Ij.W 

Europe and the British Isles, 10-13 Dec. 1891. 
Violent blizzard in Omaha and other N. W. states, U. S. A 

26 Dec. 1891. 
Destructive cyclone in Georgia, 6 Jan. 1892. 
Disastrous blizzard in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Nort 

Dakota, 9, 10 March, 1892. 
Destructive tornado in the N.W. states, U.S.A., abo\ 

30 persons killed, 31 March, 1892. 
Disastrous hurricane in Mauritius (which see), 29 Apri 

1892. 
Destructive storms in Minnesota, <fcc., and in Canadt 

with great loss of life, 15, 16, June, 1892. 
Cyclone on the Cape Verd islands, houses, shipping 

plantations, and cattle destroyed, 12 Sept. 1892. 
Great storm in the Black Sea, 8 ships said to have bee 

wrecked, including the Lord Byron, about 7 Nov 

1892. 
Destructive storm in the Black Sea, loss of 30 steamers 

reported, including the City of Manchester, Dec. 1892. 
Destructive gale with loss of life through the United 

Kingdom, the Channels, and the North Sea, 10 Feb. 

1893. 
Violent cyclone in the United States, N. A., with great 

destruction of property and loss of life, especially in 

Mississippi and Georgia, 4 March ; another in the 

Mississippi valley, reported 24 March, 1893. 
Hurricane over New Caledonia and the New Hebrides ; 

great damage to property and loss of 18 lives, reported 

20 March, 1893. 
Destructive cyclone in Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Nebraska, 

Kansas, and Missouri, &c, many deaths, 11 April ; 

also in Illinois, Texas, and Oklahoma, 25-28 April, 

1893. 

Destructive cyclones in N.W. Iowa, about 100 persons 
killed and much property destroyed, 6 July ; on the 
coast of New Jersey, many wrecks with loss of life, 
23, 24 Aug. ; in Georgia, N. and S. Carolina and 
Virginia, 28, 29 Aug. 1893, see Georgia. 

Destructive storm at New Orleans (which see), and along 
the S.E. coast, about 1200 lives lost, 2 Oct. 1893. 

Violent gales over the British Isles and the continent, 
much property and shipping destroyed, 293 deaths 
reported, 16-19 Nov. 1893 > wrecks {which se<>), Hamp- 
shire, steamship, 18 Nov. ; Princess, of Sunderland, 
sunk off Flamboro', all lost, 18 Nov. ; many French 
fishing smacks off Calais, more than 300 lives lost, 
18 Nov. 1893. 

Destructive gale in London and S. and W. coasts, 12 
Dec. 1893. 

Captain Parry, collier, wrecked off Holyhead, 12 lives 
lost, 12 Dec. 1893. 

Violent blizzard in the west of United States, 12 Feb. 
1894. 

S.W. gale over the British isles, much damage on land, 
6 persons killed, many wrecks, n, 12 Feb. 1894. 

Great storm over Europe and the United States, N. A. , 
12, 13 Feb. 1894. 

Destructive storms in S. and S.W. United States, N. A., 
reported 20 March, 1894. 

Severe gale on the coast of New Jersey, and heavy tail 
of snow, 10, 11 April, 1894. 

Violent hailstorm at Vienna and other parts of Hungary, 
with loss of life, vineyards, &c, destroyed, 7 June, 
1894. 

Destructive cyclone at Herencia in Spain, great loss, 
12 Aug. 1894. 



STORMS. 



1199 



STOEMS. 



Disastrous cyclone over Iowa, Minnesota, and Wis- 
consin, towns destroyed and much loss of life, 21 
Sept. 1894. 
Violent gale off Newfoundland, many wrecks and loss 

of life, reported n Oct. 1894. 
Severe gale on the N. B. coast and in the channel, 
several vessels driven ashore with loss of life ; also in 
the Bristol Channel, 20-25 Oct. 1894. 
^ Destructive storms with much rain and floods in S.E. 
and W. of England, and on the continent ; telegraphic 
communication stopped, 11-13 Nov. 1894. 
Violent gale over the United Kingdom and Holland, 
Belgium, &c, great loss of life, much shipping and 
other property destroyed, especially in Liverpool, 
Hull, Leeds, Manchester, Belfast, Aberdeen, and 
other places, 21, 22 Dec. 1894. 
Another gale with loss of life, 28-30 Dec. 1894. 
Disastrous gale N. and S.E. coast, wrecks and loss of 

life, 12 Jan. 1895. 
Violent gale over S. France, N. Spain, and on the 

Portuguese coast, 15, 16 Jan. 1895. 
Destructive S.W. gale over the United Kingdom, very 
severe in London and midlands, with loss of life, 24 
March, 1895. 
Destructive cyclonic storms in Kansas, Iowa, Dakota, 

Sioux centre, with great loss of life, 1 May, 1895. 
Violent northerly gale in the channel, 15, 16 May, 1895. 
Destructive tornadoes in Kansas and Missouri, U.S., 

with loss of life, 6 July, 1895. 
Severe thunderstorms in London and S.W. counties, 
with loss of life and much destruction of property, 
17-22 Aug. ; again, a series of thunderstorms, 
especially over London and S. England, 6-7 Sept. 1895. 
Destructive gale on the W. coast of England, with loss 

of life, 1-2 Oct. 1895. 
Gale and floods in different parts of British isles, with 

loss of life, 10, 11 Nov. 1895. 
N.E. gale in the channel, with loss of life, 23-25 Nov. 

1895. 
Destructive storms in S. Russia and Black Sea, great 

loss of life, reported, 25 Nov. 1895. 
N.W. gale throughout the United Kingdom, 13 Dec. 1895. 
S.E. gale over the United Kingdom, great loss of life, 

23-25 Dec. 1895. 
Violent storms in the Black sea : 3 Russian, 4 foreign 
steamers, 18 sailing ships wrecked, over 100 lives lost, 
reported 19 Feb. 1896. 
Destructive cyclones, great loss of life at Sherman, 
Texas, 15 May ; and at St. Louis (which see), 27 May ; 
another at Seneca, Missouri, 30 deaths, 30 May, 1896. 
Tornado in Paris (which see), 10 Sept. 1896. 
Destructive gales over the S.W. of the United Kingdom, 
with loss of life, 25 Sept. ; again (see Wrecks and In- 
undations), 6, 7 Oct. 1896. 
Disastrous storm in the Eastern states, U. S. N. A., 
with much loss of life ; bridge at Columbia destroyed ; 
the town of Cedar Keys destroyed, 29 Sept. 1896. 
Destructive cyclone at Seville, 28 Oct. 1896. 
Destructive storm at Athens (which see), 26 Nov. 1896. 
Destructive gales on the E. and S. Channel coasts, 4, 5 
Dec. ; Bordeaux, Dieppe, and in the Mediterranean, 
6, 7 Dec. 1896. 
Port Darwin in Victoria wrecked by a hurricane, many 

deaths, reported, 7 Jan. 1897. 
Destructive S.W. gales, with great loss of life, 2, 3, 4 

March, 1S97. 
Destructive gale in Irish sea and W. coast of Gt. Britain 
(see Wrecks, Foudroyant, and Manchester), 15, 16 June, 
1897. 
Very destructive hailstorm and cyclone in central Essex : 
farmers ruined ; 70 sq. miles devastated, 24 June, 1897 
(see Mansion house fund, 1897). 
Cyclone near Brindisi, much damage, 45 deaths, 21 Sept. 

1897. 
Destructive gale over British isles, Norway, and Den- 
mark, many wrecks, with loss of life ; damage done 
at London, Woolwich, Margate, Sheerness, Whitstable, 
and other places, 28, 29, 30 Nov. ; again (see Lifeboat), 
3 Dec. ; relief funds started, Dec. 1897. 
Severe gales in the channel, and elsewhere, 29 Dec. 1897 ; 

another on the West and N.E. coasts, 1, 2 Feb. 1898. 
Destructive snowstorm in S.W. counties, 21-22 Feb. 

1898. 
Severe gales with snow, over United Kingdom, with loss 

of life, etc., 24-26 March, 1898. 
Destructive tornadoes with loss of life, in Iowa, Illinois, 
Minnesota, etc., about 18 May, 1898. 



Destructive tornado at St. Catherine's and Merriton 

Niagara, 5 deaths, 26 Sept. 1898. 
Severe gale round Gt. Britain, many deaths, 1= Oct. 

1898. 
Again, with loss of life, 2, 3 Nov. ; blizzard and floods 

in the Midlands and Channel, some deaths, 23-2? Nov 

1898. 
Violent gale off New England, 6 vessels wrecked, 180 

deaths, 27 Nov. 1898. 
Destructive S.W. gale over the United Kingdom, 26, 27 

31 Dec. 1898. 
Gale in the Channel and Irish sea, with loss of life, 2, 3 

Jan. 1899. 
Violent gales over the United Kingdom and continent,- 

some deaths, 12-16 Jan. 1899. 
Again, with floods in Wales and Thames valley, 20-24 

Jan. 1899. 
Destructive S.W. gale and tidal wave in Wales, 11-13 

Feb. 1899. 
Blizzard in New York and United States, 40 deaths, 

9-13 Feb. 1899. 
Destructive storm in Buenos Ayres, reported, 7 March, 

1899. 
Hurricane 111 Queensland, 411 persons drowned, n March. 

1899. 
S.W. gale over the United Kingdom, with loss of life, 

7 April, 1899. 

Cyclone at Kirkville, Newtown and Missouri, about 100 
deaths, 27, 28 April, 1899. 

Destructive hailstorms at Madrid, San Pedro and 
Toledo, with loss of life, 9 June, 1899. 

Tornado on the Upper Mississippi, Wisconsin and Min- 
nesota, New Richmond almost destroyed, about 200 
killed and many injured, 12, 13 June, 1899. 

Destructive storm off Florida, many deaths, 3 Au°-. 
1899. 

Fearful hurricane in the West Indies (which see), ico 
deaths, at Montserrat, 1,500 injured, 8,000 homeless 
total deaths about 2,000, 7-12 Aug. 1899. 

Destructive storms in S. America, see Chili, '8-15 Aug 
1899. 

Hurricane in the Azores, wrecks and loss of life 3 Sent 
1899. ' ° 

Gale off Nova Scotia, many deaths, 8 Sept. 1899, and oft' 
Newfoundland, 400 fishing vessels reported lost, ic 
16 Sept. 1899. ' 

Gale in the Channel, wrecks and loss of life, 20 30 Sent 
and 2 Oct. 1899. 

Typhoon in Central and E. Japan, train blown off a 
bridge, 50 deaths, 7 Oct. 1899. 

Destructive storm and floods in Salerno, about 40 deaths 

8 Oct. ; again in S. Italy, much damage and 3 deaths' 
20 Oct. 1899. 

Destructive storm in Jamaica, several deaths, 27-30 Oct 

1899. 
Gales and floods in the N., over 61 deaths, 13-17 Feb. 

1900. 
Cyclone in Huelva, Spain, with damage, reported 20 

April, 1900. ' 

Destructive cyclone at Mafeking, some deaths, 29 Au°\ 

1900. 
Destructive hurricane and tidal wave at Galveston . 

Texas, over 4,500 deaths, 8, 9 Sept. 1900. 
Storms and floods in Granada, Spain, with loss of life 

&c, reported, 2 Oct. 1900. 
Hurricane off Newfoundland and Prince Edward island 

French fishing fleet lost, great loss of life, 12 Sept.' 

1900. 
Heavy rainstorm and destructive floods in the New- 
castle district, 5 deaths, 26, 27 Oct. 190 ->. 
Gale with loss of life on the E., S. and W. coasts 6 7 

Nov. 1900. ' ' 

Destructive typhoon off Guam, Philippines, hundreds 

killed, 11-13 Nov. 1900. 
Typhoon at Hong-Kong, over 70 deaths, early Nov. 1900 
Destructive cyclone at Columbia, Tennessee many 

deaths, 20 Nov. 1900. 
Gale over United Kingdom, with loss of life (20Z. from 

the queen, Jan. 1901), 22 Shetland fishermen drowned . 

20, 21 Dec. 1 goo. 
Destructive gale over the United Kingdom, see Wrecks 

27, 29 Dec. 1900. 
Storm off the W. coast of Japan, 400 fishermen missino- 

10 Jan. 1901. 
Destructive hurricane over Herro, Norway, 35 deaths 

22 Jan. 1901. 
Severe westerly gale over the British isles, 27, 28 Jan. ■ 

1901. 



STORMS. 



1200 



STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 



Destructive gale over S. and W. of U.S.A., many 

deaths, 9, 10 March, 1901. 
Destructive hurricane at Levuka, Fiji isles, 13 March, 

1901. 
Destructive storms and floods in the United States, 

some deaths at Pittsburg, mid April, 1901. 
Disastrous gale on the Great lakes, U.S.A., 24, 25 May, 

1901. 
Destructive gale at St. Vincent, West Indies, reported, 

26 Aug. 1901. 

Hurricane along the coasts of Louisiana and Texas, 

much damage and several deaths, reported, 9 Sept. 

1901. 
Destructive gales and floods general over Gt. Britain, 

many wrecks and great loss of life, 12-14 Nov. ; again, 

over the United Kingdom, 12, 13 Dec. 1901. 
Destructive storms and floods, with some loss of life, in 

the United States, reported, 16 Dec. 1901 
N.E. gale in the Channel and North sea, with serious 

loss of life, 31 Jan. -3 Feb. 1902. 
Destructive windstorm, with loss of life, in Pennsyl- 
vania, 29 March, 1902. 
Terrific gale, herring fleet and 250 lives lost, off Yezo, 

Japan, 30 April, 1902. 
Fearful hurricane in Sinde, India, 40 miles of railway 

washed away, many deaths, much stock destroyed, 

mid May, 1902. 
Destructive tornado at Goliad, Texas, 98 deaths, 103 

injured, 18 May, 1902. 
Severe snowstorms in Cape Colony, sheep and cattle 

perish, reported, 16 June, 1902. 
Destructive cyclone over Karachi, mid June, 1902. 
Destructive storm at Kieff, 23 deaths, 20 July, 1902. 
Destructive storm and high wind over Cologne district, 

1 death, 26 July, 1902. 
Destructive cyclone in Majorca, several deaths, reported, 

27 Aug. 1902. 

Great gale, estimated loss of 51 lives in Algoabayand 

Port Elizabeth, 1 Sept. 1902. 
Severe thunderstorms and destructive floods, 2 deaths, 

S. England, 10 Sept. 1902. 
Cyclone and floods in Catania and Modica, E. Sicily, 400 

deaths, 26-28 Sept. 1902. 
Severe typhoon at Yokohama, about 200 deaths, shipping 

damaged, 29 Sept. 1902. 
Destructive hurricane at Diamante, Argentina, about 

15 deaths, reported, 24 Oct. 1902. 
Destructive hurricane over San Urbano, Argentina, 

5 deaths, 15 injured, reported, 24 Nov. 1902. 
Destructive gales in Newcastle' and N.E. coast and 

Copenhagen. 25 Dec. 1902. 
Severe westerly gales over Ireland and W. coast of Scot- 
land; numerous casualties to shipping, 27, 28 Dec. 1902. 
Heavy snowstorms in N. Wales, the greater part of 

Ireland, and parts of Scotland, 29 Dec. 1902. 
Hurricane in the Society Islands, Hao and Marakan 

depopulated, 800 to 1,000 lives lost, 13-15 Jan. 1903. 
Violent gale with much rain, in some parts heavy 

snowstorms, over the whole of Great Britain, 24 Feb. 

1903. 
Tornado in the southern states of U.S.; loss of 64 lives 

and great destruction of property at Gainesville, 

Georgia, 10 June, 1903. 
Hurricane in Jamaica, great destruction to crops, 10 

Aug. 1903. 
Violent S.W. gale over British islands and N.W. France, 

with heavy rains, causing great damage to property, 

trees, crops, &c, several lives lost, 10 Sept. 1903. 
Hurricane over Venetian provinces, much injury to 

crops and destruction of property at Vincenza, 13 Sept. 

1903. 
Hurricane in Florida and southern states U.S., later 

New York and district, great damage done ; worst 

storm experienced for many years along New Jersey 

coast; 40 houses and hotels unroofed at Atlantic city, 

reported, 16 Sept. 1903. 
Violent storm N.W. coast of Portugal, casualties to 

shipping, 11 lives lust, 72 men shipwrecked, end Sept. 

1903. 
Great storms and floods in the United States, 10 Oct. 

Magnetic storm in Great Britain, on the continent, and 
in the United States, telegraphic communication 
interrupted, 31 Oct. 1903- 

Gale in the Channel, several vessels wrecked, and much 
damage done at various inland places, 27 Nov. 1903. 



STORTHING, the Norwegian parliament, 
said to have been first held at Bergen by Haco Y. 
in 1223. 

STOVES. The ancients used stoves which 
concealed the fire, as the German stoves yet do. 
They lighted the fire also in a large tube in the 
middle of the room, the roof being open. Apart- 
ments were warmed by portable braziers. Stoves 
on this old principle, improved, continue in use in 
many houses and public establishments in England, 
and generally on the continent. Dr. Franklin and 
count Rumford (who invented a stove) pointed out 
the waste of fuel in our open fires ; and Dr. Neil 
Arnott patented his ''improvements in the produc- 
tion and agency of heat," 14 Nov. 182 1. Dr. C. 
William Siemens described his smokeless stove in 
" Nature" for 11 Nov. 1880. See Chimneys, and 
Cottager's Stove. 
Mr. T. Pridgin Teale publishes his inventions, in which 

he revives the principles of count Rumford with 

additions, 1885-6. 

STOWMARKET EXPLOSION, see Gun- 
Cotton, 1871. 

STRAIGHT-OUT DEMOCRATS, a party 
which advocated limiting the powers of a govern- 
ment to police purposes arose in the United States 
of America in 1872, and nominated Charles O'Connor 
for the presidency. A state convention was con- 
voked to meet at Harrisburg, 16 Oct. 1872. 

STRAITS SETTLEMENTS, including 
Malacca, Penang or Prince of Wales island, and 
Singapore, secured to Great Britain in 1824, were 
made a separate dependency in 1853, and placed 
under the governor-general of India. They were 
separated from India, and constituted an indepen- 
dent settlement by an act passed 10 Aug. 1866, 
which took effect April, 1867. Governor, sir Harry 
St. George Ord, 1867 ; sir Andrew Clarke, 1873 ; 
sir William F. D. Jervois, Oct. 1875 ; sir W. C. F. 
Robinson, 1877 ; sir Frederick A. Weld, 1880 ; sir 
Cecil Clementi-Smith, Aug. 1887; lieut.-col. sir 
Charles Bullen Hugh Mitchell, June, 1893; died, 
7 Dec. 1899; sir Fred. Cardew, 1900; sir Frank 
A. Swettenham, 1901. Population, 1891, 512,342 ; 
1901, 57 2 > 2 49- 

Singapore, the capital, founded by sir T. Stamford 
Rattles in 1819, who compiled the constitution, 
laws, &c. 
Traders complained to Sir H. Ord, governor, who 

said they must submit to their risks . . . 1S72 
Sir Andrew Clarke made a treaty establishing Ab- 
dullah as sultan in place of Ismail, and a 
British resident as his adviser, with plenary 

powers at Perak Jan. 1874 

Mr. J. W. Birch, the resident, issues a proclama- 
tion, 1 Nov. ; is suddenly attacked and killed, 

2 Nov. 1875 

The Malays rise, and besiege the residency, which 

is relieved by Capt. Innes, 6 Nov. He is killed in 

attacking a stockade . . . .15 Nov. ,, 

The Malays thoroughly defeated by troops from 

Hong Kong and Calcutta, under Gen. Colborne, 

7 and 22 Dec. ,, 
Kinti taken ; Ismail retreats . . . 17 Dec. ,, 
British power supreme at Perak . . .27 Dec. ,, 
Major Hawkins killed in an ambuscade ; the village. 

burnt 4 Jan. 1&76 

Ismail surrenders, about 21 March ; Birch's assassin 

hanged 20 May, ,, 

Great prosperity of the settlement reported, Aug. 18S4 
Secret societies successfully suppressed by the 

governor, reported .... June. 1890 

Five prosperous protected states on the Malay 

peninsula are subject to the governor . . . 1S91 
The neighbouring state of Paliang was much dis- 
turbed by turbulent miners and others in Dec. 
1891 et seq. Order only restored by the help of 
the British . . . * . Dec. 1S91— July, 1S92 



STRALSUND. 



1201 



STRELITZ. 



Substitution of the British rule for that of the 
sultan proposed July, 1892 

Arrival of sir Charles Mitchell at Singapore, 31 Jan. 1894 

Bising in Fahang, reported 18 June ; suppressed 
by col. Walker 29 July, ,, 

Members of the legislative council and others 
protest against changes in military contribution 
made by the home government, 4 Jan. 1895 ; lord 
Bipon's terms of 28 June accepted . 16 Oct. 1895 

The council allot 17^ per cent, of the revenue to 
military tribute May, 1896 

The British steamer Pegu raided by 10 Achinese 
passengers, capt. Boss and 13 others killed, July, 1897 

The duke and duchess of Cornwall visit Singapore 
(the sultan of Perak made G.C.M.G.), 

21-23 April, 1901 

Increasing prosperity, reported . . Sept. ,, 

STRALSUND (Pomerania), a strongly fortified 
Hanse-town, built about 1 230. It resisted a fierce 
siege by Wallenstein in 1628 ; was taken by Frede- 
rick William, of Brandenburg, in 1678; restored to 
the Swedes, 1679 ; re-captured by the Prussians and 
their allies, Dec. 1715. It surrendered to the French 
under Brune, 20 Aug. 1807 ; was awarded to Prussia, 
1815. 

STRAND (London). Houses were first built 
upon the Strand about 1353, at which period it was 
the court end of the town, or formed the communi- 
cation between the two cities of London and West- 
minster, being then open to the Thames and to the 
fields. Somerset and other palaces were erected 
1547-1605.— Stow. The Strand bridge was com- 
menced 11 Oct. 181 1 ; see Waterloo bridge. The 
Strand improvements were commenced in 1829. 

Strand returns one M.P. by act passed in 1885. 

Strand improvements bill proposed by the " London 

county council," much opposed Dec. 1889 and Jan. 

1890 ; the bill brought in, but withdrawn 15 Aug. 

1890 ; passed, 7 Aug. 1896. Widening of the Strand, 

1900-3. New roads, Aldwych and Kingsway, from 

Strand to Holborn, in progress, 1903. 

STRANGERS in house of commons ; see Par- 
liament, May, 1875. 

STRASBURG, the Roman Argentoratum, the 
capital of Alsace. Here Julian defeated the Ale- 
manni, 357, who captured it, 455. It was annexed 
to Germany, 870. Louis XIV. seized it 28 Sept. 
1681, and retained it by the treaty of Ryswick, 1697. 
The citadel and fortifications, which he constructed, 
have been so much augmented that Strasburg may 
be considered one of the strongest places in Europe. 
It was confirmed to France by the peace of Ryswick 
in 1697, but captured by the Germans, 28 Sept. 1870, 
and retained at the peace, May, 1871, The cathe- 
dral, an epitome of Gothic art, was founded by 
Clovis, and reconstructed by Pepin and Charle- 
magne. After destruction by lightning, 1007, it was 
principally rebuilt by Erwin de Steinbach and his 
son in the 14th century. The lofty tower was com- 
pleted in 1439. The celebrated astronomical clock, 
after a long stoppage, was repaired by M. Schwii- 
gue, and inaugurated t Jan. 1843. Population, 
1890, 123,499; 1900,150,26?. 

An attempt at insurrection in the city was made by 
prince Louis Napoleon (afterwards president of 
the French republic, and emperor), aided by two 
officers and some privates . 30 Oct. 1836 

It was instantly suppressed by their arrest, and the 
prince was shipped off to America by the French 
government. 

Strasburg invested by the Germans, principally from 
Baden, during the Franco-Prussian war 10 Aug. 1870 

Gen. von Werder assumed the command of the be- 
siegers, and the bombardment began 14 Aug., 
and a vigorous sally was repulsed . 16 Aug. ,, 

Gen. Ullrich, the commander, declared that he 
would not surrender except upon a heap of 



ashes ; but after a heroic resistance, and when a 
breach had been made and an assault was im- 
pending, notice was given, and the place surren- 
dered at 2 a.m.; at 8 a.m. 17,150 men and 400 
officers laid down their arms . . 27 Sept. 1870 

The German loss was said to be 906 men, of whom 
43 were officers 28 Sept. „ 

The Germans entered Strasburg on the anniversary 
of its surrender to the French in 1681 by a sur- 
prise . 30 Sept. „ 

Uhrich received the grand cross of the legion of 
honour Oct. ,, 

The invaluable library was destroyed and the cathe- 
dral much injured. About 400 houses were de- 
stroyed, and 8000 persons rendered homeless. 

Visit of the emperor of Germany well received ; 
but " France is still there " . . . 19 Sept. 1879 

William II. very well received, 20 Aug. 1889; 
again early Sept. 1899 

STRATFORD-UPON-AVON (Warwick- 
shire), see Shakspeare. 

STRATHCLUYD, a kingdom formed by the 
Britons, who retired northward after the Saxon con- 
quest, about 560. It extended from the Clyde to 
Cumberland. The Britons in it submitted to 
Ed ward the Elder, in 924. 

STRATHCLYDE CASE, see Wrecks, 1876 

STRATHFIELD-SAYE, in Hampshire, in 
which is situate the estate bought of lord Rivers 
by the nation for 263,000/., and presented to the 
duke of Wellington, 1817. An act to provide a 
suitable residence for his grace and his heirs was 
passed 11 July, 1815. 

STRATHMORE ESTATES. Mis* Bowes, 
of Durham, the then richest heiress in Europe, 
whose fortune was 1,040,000/., with vast additions 
on her mother's death and immense estates on the 
demise of her uncle, married the earl of Strathmore, 
25 Feb. 1766. Having, after the earl's death, mar- 
ried Mr. Stoney, she was forcibly carried off by him 
and other armed men, 10 Nov. 1786. She was 
brought up to the King's Bench by habeas corpus 
and released, and he committed to prison, 23 Nov. 
The lady recovered her estates, which she had as- 
signed to her husband under the influence of terror, 
in May, 1788. 

STRATTON-HILL, Battle of, in Corn- 
wall, 16 May, 1643, between the royal army under 
sir Ralph Hopton, and the forces of the parliament 
under the earl of Stamford. The victory was gained 
over the parliamentarians, who lost numbers in 
killed and wounded. 

STRAWBERRY, see Fruits. 

STRAWBERRY-HILL, Surrey, the Gothic 
villa of Horace Walpole, constructed 1750, at Twick- 
enham, near London. In April and May, 1842, his 
collection of pictures and articles of taste and 
virtu were sold by auction for 29,615/. 8s. gd. 
The villa was enlarged by Mr. Chichester For- 
tescue, created lord Carlingford, and the countess of 
Waldegrave, daughter of John Braham, the singer. 
She died 5 July, 1879. The place bought by baron 
H. de Stern, July, 1883. 

STREET MUSIC. An act was passed in 
1864 for the better regulation of street music in the 
metropolitan police districts. 

STREET RAILWAYS, see Tramways. 

STRELITZ, the imperial guard of Russia, 
sstablished by Ivan IV. about 1568. Becoming fre- 
quently seditious, it was suppressed by Peter the 

4 H 



STRIKES. 



1202 



STRIKES. 



Great ; great numbers were put to death, many by 
the czar's own hand, 1698-1704. 

STEIKES, see under Agriculture, Preston, 
London, Newcastle, Trials, Aug. 1867 ; Railways, 
Shipping and Coal, Cotton, Bristol, Slate, and 
other seaports and towns. 

Strikes in 1888, 504 (249 reported successful, 332 settled 
by conciliation). In 1889, 1,145; in 1890, 1,028; in 
1891, 893; in 1896, 926; in 1900, 648; in 1901, 642; in 
1892 : Jan. 63 ; Feb. 48 ; March, 39 ; April, 65 ; May, 93 ; 
June, 59 ; July, 35 ; Ang. 35 ; Sept. 54 ; Oct. 42 ; Nov. 44 ; 
Dec. 24 ; strikes termed Trade Disputes in the Board 
of Trade Journal; in 1893: Jan. 38 ; Feb. 37; March, 
59 ; April, 73 ; May, 87 ; June, 71 ; July, 55 ; Ang. 54; 
Sept. 54; Oct. 42; Nov. 34; Dec. 16; in 1894: Jan. 50; 
Feb. 57; March, 100; April, 13; May, 118; June, 85; 
July, 66 ; Aug. 86 ; Sept. 69 ; Oct. 55 ; Nov. 56 ; Dec. 
43 ; in 1895 : Jan. 57 ; Feb. 55 ; March, 49 ; April, 83 ; 
May, 84 ; June, 65 ; July, 49 ; Aug. 52 ; Sept. 66 ; Oct. 
77 ; Nov. 38 ; Dec. 37 ; in 1897 : Jan. 48 ; Feb. 66 ; 
March, 113 ; April, 85 ; May, 126; June, 53 ; July, 65 ; 
Aug. 66 ; Sept. 51 ; Oct. 49 ; Nov. 41 ; Dec. 28 ; in 
1898: Jan. 28 Feb. 25; March, 27; April, 44; May, 
56 ; June, 49 ; July, 62 ; Aug. 44 ; Sept. 52 ; Oct. 53 ; 
Nov. 44 ; Dec 29 ; in 1899 : Jan. 26 ; Feb. 36 ; March, 
53; April, 63 (none of great magnitude); May, 94; 
June, 59 ; July, 51 ; Aug. 33 ; Sept. 54 ; Oct. 38 ; Nov. 
32; Dec. 28; in 1900: Jan. 37; Feb. 33; March, 40; 
April, 52; May, 44; June, 45; July, 41; Aug. 32; 
Sept. 29 ; Oct. 30 ; Nov. 48 ; Dec. 20 ; in 1901 : Jan. 
29 ; Feb. 25 ; March, 52 ; April, 66 ; May, 64 ; June, 
39 ; July, 28 ; Aug. 32 ; Sept. 33 ; Oct. 26 ; Nov. 25 ; 
Dec. 14 ; in 1902 : Jan. 33 ; Feb. 18 ; March, 21 ; April, 
32 ; May, 23 ; June, n ; July, 25 ; Aug. 15 ; Sept. 18 ; 
Oct. 23 ; Nov. 24 ; Dec. 15 ; in 1903 : Jan. 

[United States: 1,115 ™ i 8q9 ; 1,164 m 1900]. 

The tailors of London struck for increase of wages ; 
they yield April, 1834 

The strike of the calico printers of Glasgow . „ 

Staffordshire potters' strike; obtained an advance 
after much loss . . Nov. i834-March, 1835 

The strike of the amalgamated engineers took place 1852 

Strike of the London cabmen . . 27-30 July, 1853 

Builders' strike Aug. -Oct. 1859 

A strike among the silk-workers at Coventry came 
to an end 30 Aug. i860 

An unsuccessful attempt to get up a strike in the 
building trade began . . . .23 March, 1861 

A strike of the puddlers in the iron trade occurred 
in the spring of (see Iron, and Railways) . . 1865 

Strike of London west-end tailors (about 2000), 
lasted 22 April-Oct. 1867 

Great strike of colliers near St. Helens, April, 1867 ; 
about 40,000 men on strike . . . April, 1868 

Colliery strike at Thorncliffe, near Sheffield ; dread- 
ful riots and devastation ... 21 Jan. 1870 

Strike of 10,000 miners at Le Creuzot, Burgundy, 
the property of M. Schneider ; soon over Jan. 1871 

Engineers' strike at Newcastle (see Newcastle) 

May-Oct. ,, 

Strike of builders employed by Messrs. Brass and 
Jackson &, Shaw, for a 9 hours' day, at gd. an 
hour, 1 June ; after negotiation led to a lock-out 
by the masters, beginning . . 19 June, 1872 

The lock-out of the masons ceased, the carpenters 
going on, 9 July ; arrangements were made, and 
strike ceased about 27 Aug. „ 

Strike of London .journeymen bakers, 23 Sept. -9 Oct. ,, 

Strike of firewood cutters .... Sept. „ 

Lock-out of miners in Wales for their excessive 
demands Oct. „ 

Strike of London gas-stokers (see Gas) . 2 Dec. ,, 

Strike of about 60,000 colliers in S. Wales, refusing 
to submit to 10 per cent, reduction in wages, 
i Jan. Strike ended . . about 25 March, 1873 

Powerful speech of earl Fitzwilliam to his colliers 
of Low Stubbin after a strike . . 5 June, ,, 

Strike of about 50,000 miners, South Wales, 2 Jan. ; 
led to a lock-out, 1 Feb. ; given up ; gradual re- 
turn of men to work end of . . . May, 1875 

Strike of Warwickshire miners . . May- Aug. „ 

Strikes at Oldham and Dundee . July-August ,, 

Strike of earl Fitzwilliam's colliers on account of 
the compulsory use of safety lamps ; he closes 
his mines and rejects their submission . Dec. ,, 



Erith, strike of workmen of Eastons and Anderson, 
engineers, in opposition to piece-work, 18 Dec. ; 
supported by amalgamated engineers, Dec, 1875 ; 
on trial for conspiracy, the men plead guilty ; no 
sentence passed .... 14 July, 1876 

Sti'ike of 1600 miners against 15 per cent, reduction 
of wages, Bolton . . . 24 Aug. , r 

" Operative Spinners' Association " of N. and N.E. 
Lancashire propose to set aside the " standard 
list of prices " after 1 Nov. The masters there- 
upon announced a lock-out of about 80,000 men 
(after 23 Nov.), 26 Oct. The association submits 

18 Nov. , r 

Strike of Doulton's bricklayers respecting employ- 
ment of others on terra-cotta work (settled) Oct. ,, 

Great strike and lock-out of about 10,000 ship- 
wrights, &c. , on the Clyde, May ; closed, Oct. ; 
the arbitrator, lord Moncrieff, decided against 
the men Nov. 1877 

Northumberland miners (about 12,000), began, 29 
May ; over about . . . . 12 June, ,, 

Great railway strike, see United States . July, , r 

Bolton cotton workers' strike, about 1 Sept. ; closed 
by agreement , r 

Railway strike on Great Southern and Western line, 
Ireland .... about 14-22 Sept. ,, 

181 strikes, result mostly against workmen . . ,, 

Lock-out of about 8000 miners in Northumberland, 
about 15 Dec. 1877 ; closed . . . Feb. 187S 

Strike of masons of London (employed on the law 
courts, &c), demanding increased pay and less 
working hours, 31 July ; some firms yield, about 
20 Sept. ; Germans and others engaged, Oct. — 
Dec. 1877. Strike ends (cost about 60,000?.) 

14 March, ,. 

Strike and lock-out of cotton spinners in N. and 
N.E. Lancashire (about 120,000 men); masters 
required reduction of 10 per cent, on wages ; be- 
gan about 18 April ; ended by the men submit- 
ting to arrangements . . about 17 June, ,, 

Partial strike and lock-out of labourers in Kent and 
Sussex Oct.-Dec. „ 

Cotton strike at Oldham, at reduction of wages 5 
per cent., 25 Nov. ; submission . . 28 Dec. ,, 

277 strikes in the year ,, 

Midland railway ; sudden strike of goods guards 

3-20 Jan. 1879 

London engineers, 18 firms, against reduction of 
wages, began about 7 Feb. ; closed . 4 Oct. ,, 

Durham coal miners, against reduction of wages, 
began 5 April ; stoppage of Cleveland and other 
iron works ; about 70,000 men unemployed, April ; 
settled by arbitration . . about 16 May, .,, 

Bristol builders' 2 months' sti'ike ends . 30 July, „ 

Strike of cotton-workers at Blackburn, 15 May et seq. ,, 

Strike of Lancashire miners ; about 40,000 out, 12 
Jan. ; rioting with loss of life near Bolton, 25-28 
Jan. ; strike reported over . . 21 Feb. 1SS3 

Sti'ike in the potteries, 70 firms and 30,000 men, be- 
gun about 25 Nov. ,, 

The men agree to arbitration ... 6 Dec. ,, 

Ironworkers' strike at Hopton and Darlington, 

2 Feb -9 June, 1S82 

Strike of Staffordshire colliers, about 8000, 12 May, 
ends about 3 Sept. 1S85 

Great strike of South Staffordshire ironworkers at 
reduction of wages . . . . about 5 July, „ 

Many submit, about 17 July ; strike closed, 24 July, „ 

Cotton weavers on strike, opposition to the reduction 
of wages, in the N.W. districts, about 18,500, t8 
Dec. 1883; men yield under conditions,about 8 Feb. 18S4 

Strike in the cotton trade ; mass meeting at Burn- 
ley reject the masters' terms . . 16 July, „ 

Determined to maintain the strike against reduction 
of wages 24 July, ,, 

End of Barnsley coal miners' long strike . 23 Dec. ,, 

Sti'ike of about 2000 miners in west Cumberland, 

16 March, 1SS5 

Sti'ike of about half the colliers in S. and W. York- 
shire .... 1 April-May, ,, 

Chcrley, Lancashire, about 3000 cotton weavers 

16 July, ,, 

Cotton weavers on strike at Oldham (25,000 out) 
against 10 per cent, reduction, 20 July et seq. ; 
compromise 5 per cent, accepted for three months 

about 16 Oct. „ 



STEIKES. 



1203 



STEIKES. 



Strike of 4,700 men at Elswick Iron Works, New- 
castle ; ascribed to two managers, 2 Sept. ; closed 

17 Sept. 7 
Close of engineers' strike (2J years) at Sunderland ; 
cost above 200,000/. .... Nov. 

Strike of shipwrights in the Tyne and Wear about 

Jan .-24 Feb. 1 
Increase of strikes in France, Belgium, Germany, 
and United States .... March, 
Shropshire ironworks strike (twenty weeks) ends ; 

masters yield 14 July, 

Northumberland miners' strike about 30 Jan. ; terms 
arranged at a conference, and work resumed, 
twelve weeks .... 23-28 May, 1 
Strike (wrought nail trade) in South Staffordshire 
of about 15,000 operatives . . 12 Sept. 
Strike of engineers at Bolton respecting wages, 
overtime, &c, 14 May ; intimidation and boy- 
cotting of men at work ; strike closes by con- 
ciliation 27 Oct. 

Shoemakers' strike at Northampton ; about 20,000 

out 3 Dec. ; closed by arbitration, about 24 Dec. 

Strike of engineers at Blackburn, 21 weeks, closed 

by compromise .... 12 March, 1 
Strike of match-girls at Bryant and May's factory 

(see Lucifers) 5 July, 

Colliery strikes begin 22 Oct. ; about 30,000 miners 
on strike in S.W. Yorkshire and the Midland 
counties 24 Oct. ; the colliers' demands, 10 per 
cent, increase generally, acceded to, the owners 
gradually yield .... 27-31 Oct. 
Strike of coal miners in Westphalia (which see) May, 
Strikes in Silesia, Bohemia, and Belgium, May, June, 
Temporary strikes of seamen and firemen in the 
steamers in the ports of Glasgow (ended 27 June), 
Leith, Aberdeen (ended), and Dundee for an 
advance of wages, end of May ; gradually col- 
lapsing, end of June etseq.; Liverpool, May-July, 
Strike of the dock labourers of the port of London, 
demanding not less than 4 hours' engagement, 
pay to be raised from $d. to 6d. per hour, and 
redress of other grievances, 15 Aug. ; they are 
joined by stevedores, lightermen, and nearly 
every class of riverside workers ; about 25,000 
men out, 22 Aug. ; negotiations of the London 
and India docks committee (for the directors, 
Mr. C. M. Norwood, Mr. H. Morgan, sec.) ; with 
the dock labourers' strikes committee (leaders, 
Messrs. John Burns, Benjamin Tillett, sec, 
Henry Champion, and Tom Mann), demands re- 
fused, 27 Aug. ; 80,000 said to be out, 30 Aug. ; 
dock directors reject the compromise rjroposed 
by shipowners and others, 31 Aug. Close of the 
strike ; greatly due to the intervention of the 
lord mayor Whitehead, cardinal Manning, the 
bishop of London, sir John Lubbock, Mr. Syd- 
ney, and others : terms of agreement, pay for 
ordinary work raised from 41?. to 6d. per hour, 
8cZ. per hour overtime, contract work to be 
changed to piece work, with other concessions, 
to begin on 4 Nov., 14 Sept. ; work at the docks 

resumed 16 Sept. : 

[During the strike there were many processions 
of labourers and sympathisers through the 
streets. Great meetings were held in Hyde 
park on Sundays 25 Aug., 1, 8, 15 Sept. There 
was much picketing ; the extreme distress in 
the east end was relieved by liberal public sub- 
scriptions, and the Australian colonies gave 
about 31,000/. ; received in December from 
Melbourne, 3,792/. ; from Sydney 720/., Dec. 
1889.] 
Great strike of Jewish tailors and other operatives 
in Bast London, 3 Sept., about 10,000 out; they 
demand an increase of pay, and reduction of time 
and labour to 12 hours daily ; settled by com- 
promise 2 Oct. 

Ridiculous strike of schoolboys for shorter hours 
and fewer lessons, in Hawick, Dundee, Aber- 
deen, Glasgow, Greenock, Edinburgh, Cardiff, 
Liverpool, Leeds, Northampton, parts of London 
and Brighton, and other places . . . Oct. 
Strike at Messrs. Silvers' india-rubber works at 

Silvertown Nov.-Dec. 

Many strikes and much agitation in London, and 
throughout the country . . Sept. -Dec. 



Strike of about 1,000 of the stokers and others em- 
ployed by the South Metropolitan gas company, 
against " the bonus " system successfully resisted 
by Mr. G. Livesey, the secretary, 12 Dec. 1889 ; 

the strike ends 5 Feb. 1890 

Strike of about 11,000 bootmakers, E. London, 

29 March-29 April, ,, 
Strike of Kentish bargemen and lock-out of brick- 
makers, early March ; closed . about 28 April, ,, 
Strike of Thames shipjoiners . 1 March-3 May, ,, 
Strike at Cardiff of the servants of the Taff Vale, 
Rhymney and Barry railways, dockers and others, 
respecting time-working ; the merchants and 
other employers, support the railway companies, 
7 Aug. ; traffic suspended, 8 Aug. ; great meet- 
ing, sir E. Read, M.P., president ; no result, 9 
Aug. ; about 50,000 men out, 10 Aug. ; com- 
promise effected, the strike ends . 15 Aug. ,, 
Strikes in Australia (see Melbourne and Sydney), 

Aug. et seq. , , 
Strike at Manningham Mills, see Bradford, 1891. 
Great strike of colliers in Durham, on account of 
the eviction of miners at Silksworth, lord Lon- 
donderry's colliery, 20 Feb. et seq. ; strike ends, 

20 March, 1891 
Five weeks' great strike of cotton-spinners at 

Huddersfield, closed . . . 20 March, ,, 
Close of the strike of the Scotch furnace men (21 

works) 5 March, ,, 

Strike in the building trades in London, leading 
firms ; mass meeting in Hyde park, 3 May ; re- 
ferred to arbitration, 20 Oct. ; award given (no 
increase of pay), about 19 Nov. ; work resumed, 

23 Nov. „ 
Strikes in Belgium, France, Austria, Westphalia, 

Great Britain April, May, ,, 

Many strikes in London and the provinces, 

May et seq. ,, 
End ot 11 weeks' strike at Messrs. Wostinholm, 

cutlers, Sheffield .... 27 June, ,, 
Strike of tailors at Southport, Liverpool, July ; the 
delegates of the Master Tailors' Association of 
the United Kingdom at Liverpool, order a 
general lock-out throughout the United King- 
dom unless the strikers return to work before 
the 29th, 22 July ; settlement . about 29 July, ,, 
End of the strike at Brooks' cotton mill, Clitheroe 

(25 weeks) 12 Aug. ,, 

Strike of Durham coal-miners, see under Coal, 

11 March, 1892 
End of three months' strike of seamen and firemen 

at Sunderland 13 June, ,, 

Strike of the workmen of the salt union in Cheshire 
closed, and threatened strike and lock-out of the 
tailors averted by compromises . . Sept. ,, 
Carmaux strike (see France) . . Aug. -Sept. ,, 

Bedminster district of Bristol, end of about 18 

months' stiike 30 Jan. 1893 

Disputes between employers and men of the boot 
and shoe trade (about 2c 0,000 persons interested), 
arranged at a national conference at Leicester, 
sir Henry James, M. P., appointed umpire, 10 Aug. 
1892 ; he meets the conference, 19 Aug. et seq. ; 
his award, advocating compromises, to last till 
1 Sept. 1896, issued 25 Aug. 1892 ; national con- 
ference at Leicester . . 17 April et seq. ,, 
Strikes against the employment of free labour in 

the docks, London, Hull, Bristol . April, May, ,, 
For strikes of coal miners, see Coed, 1890 et seq. 
Strike of 1,000 men in the shoe trade at Northamp- 
ton 1 Jan. 1894 

Pullman car railway strike . . . . July, ,, 

See United States. 
Strike of ironworkers on N.E. coast (1,500 

moulders) June-July, „ 

See Newcastle. 
Lock-out in the boot and shoe trade, Leicester and 

Northampton 6 March, 1895 

Strike ensues ; 200,000 men out . 8 March, ,, 

Defensive measures of employers in London, 14 M ar. , , 
London lock-out .... 16 March, ,, 

Mr. Labouchere's proposal for arbitration approved 

by Mr. Asquith ; rejected by both parties, March, ,, 
Strike in the building trade at Leicester, 30 March, ,, 

4 H 2 



STRIKES. 



1204 



STURGES BOURNE'S ACT. 



The employers' federation and the operatives' 
union accept the government proposal to send 

8 delegates to sir Courtenay Boyle at the board 
of trade ; preliminary conference . 4 April, 

Agreement arrived at . . .19 April, 

Sir Wm. Markby appointed arbitrator in the car- 
penters' and joiners' strike at Leicester, 1 June, 
See Shipbuilding, 1895-6. 

Strike in the London and Dublin building trades 
for advance of %d. per hour in wages and new 
code in working rules, 1 May; concessions to 
the men, 20 May ; closed by settlement, 1 July ; 
closed mainly by the mediation of archbishop 
Walsh in Dublin, 21 Aug. See Leeds and Belfast, 

Strike of tailors averted by concessions to the men, 

Sept. 

Strike in the flax-spinning trade Belfast . Jan. 
See Hamburg, 1896-7. 

Strike of men on the N.B. railway and general 
labour disputes, Newcastle district affected, 20 
Feb. ; arbitration accepted, 5 April ; award of 
lord James of Hereford, concessions to the men, 

9 Aug. ; address presented to lord James by the 
men 3 Dec. 

Strike of the Amalgamated Society of Engineers 
and allied trade unions for an eight hours' day, 
&c, throughout the country . . 3 July et seg. 

Federation of engineering and shipbuilding em- 
ployers issue a manifesto . . . .4 Aug. 

10th distribution of strike pay, 30,000?., 57,000 out, 
18 Sept. ; 70,000 out .... 8 Oct. 

Boilermakers' dispute, about 1,000 men in London 
strike work, 15 Oct. ; work resumed . 16 Nov. 

Letter of mediation from sir Courtenay Boyle 
(died 1901) (Board of Trade) proposing a joint 
conference .20 Oct. 

Preliminary conference between col. Dyer, Messrs. 
A. Henderson and Biggart for the employers. 
Messrs. Barnes and Sellicks (men), London 

17 Nov. 

Conferences, 24, 25, 26 Nov. ; the employers' ulti- 
matum rejected by ballot of the men, 11 Dec. ; 
80,000 men out Dec. 

Conf. of delegates at Westminster, 15, 17, 19 Dec. 

The federated employers meet at York and refuse 
to shorten the hours of labour . . 30 Dec. 

The demand for a 48-hours' week withdrawn by the 
men, ts Jan. ; work generally resumed . 24 Jan. 

Strike and lock-out closed, 28 Jan. ; 10 per cent, of 
the men re-engaged . . . . 1 Feb. 

S. Wales coal dispute, increase of wages demanded, 
50,000 men idle, 1 April et seq. ; defence state- 
ment of the employers issued, 27 April ; con- 
ferences : provisional committee appointed to 
negotiate, 26 May ; 10 per cent, advance refused, 
31 May; great distress in Cardiff; some dis- 
turbance at Tirphil, 21 June ; sir Edw. Fry ap- 
pointed to act as conciliator, 2 July ; declined 
by the masters, 13 July ; negotiations fruitless, 
22 July ; masters' terms accepted . 31 Aug. 

Dispute in Lancashire cotton trade closed, 2^ per 
cent, advance in wages adopted . 9 May, 

Taff Vale railway dispute, increase of wages and 
modification in hours of labour demanded, &c. ; 
a strike begins, 20 Aug. 1900 ; dispute provi- 
sionally settled through the medium of sir W. T. 
Lewis 29 Aug. 

Gt. Eastern railway dispute, Aug. (concessions 
granted, Jan. igoi)(see Trials, July, 1901, and 
Dec. 1902) ; concessions accepted by the men, 

mid Sept. 

Trawlers' dispute, see Grimsby . . July-Dec. 

Eviction of miners at Denaby, after strike lasting 
28 weeks at the Denaby and Cadeby collieries, 
S. Yorks 6 Jan. 

Dispute between Grimsby shore fishermen's society 
and the federated vessel owners closed . 12 Jan. 

Denaby miners return to work . . mid March, 

Strike of scholars in secondary schools (see Italy), 

mid March, 

Labour disturbances at Slatoust, Russia ; work- 
men's delegates imprisoned ; 34 workmen killed 
and 200 injured in conflict with the troops, 
reported 28 March, 

Great railway and dock strikes in Amsterdam (see 
Holland) ' 6-13 April, 



1901 
1903 



Strikes general in the south of Russia, riots at 
Odessa, Kieff, Baku, and other places, oil wells 
set on fire, trains wrecked, and other outrages, 
reported 27-31 July, 1903 

Strikes at Odessa and Kieff subside, many workmen 
imprisoned 11-16 Aug. ,, 

Employes of the 40 associated tin works in S. 
Wales cease work, the establishments closed 
down, throwing out of employment 16,000 hands, 
and affecting 40,000 other workpeople 29 Aug. „ 

Strike at Niagara in connection with the construc- 
tion works being carried on by three Canadian 
power companies, the contractors having issued 
an order reducing the wages of the men 25c. per 
diem, reported 3 Nov. ,, 

Strike at Bilbao, Spain ; much rioting, early Nov. ,, 

Mass meeting at Bethesda ; 161 vote in favour of 
continuing strike, 192 for returning to work at the 
Penrhyn quarry ; strike practically over after 
lasting for 3 years, costing the district in wages 
alone 364,000^. reported ... 7 Nov. ,, 

[Before the strike, which began Oct. 1900, the 
quantity of slates imported into England was 
practically nil. For the quarter ended 31 March, 
1901, 15,702 tons were imported, for the quarter 
ended 30 Sept. 31,581 tons.] 

Serious coal strike in Colorado, most important 
coalfield in the West; coal famine at Denver 

threatened, began 9 Nov. ,, 

See United States, 1903, and France, Oct. 1902. 

STROME CASE, see Trials, 1883. 

STRONTIUM. The native carbonate of 
strontia was discovered at Strohtian, in Argyll- 
shire, in 1787. Sir Humphry Davy first obtained 
from it the metal strontium in 1808. 

STRYCHNIA, a poisonous vegetable alkaloid, 
discovered in 1818 by Pelletier and Caventou in the 
seeds of the strychnos ignatia and nux vomica, and 
also in the upas poison. Half a grain blown into 
the throat of a rabbit occasions death in four 
minutes ; its operation is accompanied by lock-jaw. 
Much attention was given to strychnia in 1856, 
during the trial of William Palmer, who was exe- 
cuted for the murder of Cook, 14 June, 1856. 

STUART (properly Stewart), House of, 

see under Scotland-, England ; and Pretenders. 

A collection of portraits and relics of the house of 
Stuart was exhibited in the New Gallery, Regent- 
street, autumn, 1888. The surplus receipts amount- 
ing to about i,8oo2. were judiciously distributed. 

STUCCO "WORK was known to the ancients, 
and was much prized by them, particularly by the 
Romans, who excelled in it. — Lenglet. It was re- 
vivedby D'Udine, about 1550; and in Italy, France, 
and England in the 18th century. 

STUD Company, to improve the breed of British 
horses, held its first annual meeting, 20 Sept. 1873. 

STUHM (W. Prussia). Here Gustavus Adol- 
phus of Sweden defeated the Poles, 1628. 

STUNDISTS, a puritan sect in south Russia, 
said to be descendants of Russian soldiers converted 
from the Greek church by German missionaries ; 
some were cruelly persecuted by the bigoted pea- 
santry of Vossnessensk irj Kherson in 1879; thirteen 
of the ringleaders were tried for the crime, 8 Nov. 
1879. Strong repressive measures against the sect, 
with persecution, were taken by the government, 
autumn, 189 1 et seq. 

STURGES BOURNE'S ACT, 58 Geo. III. 
c. 69 (1818), relates to parish vestries. 



STUTTGART. 



1205 



SUEZ CANAL. 



STUTTGART (Wurtemburg), first mentioned 
in 1229, was made his residence by count Eberhard, 
\t,20 ; enlarged by Ulric, 1436 ; and made capital of 
the state, 1482. It has been greatly adorned during 
the last and present centuries. International rifle 
meeting here, 1 Aug. 1875. Theatre Royal, built, 
181 1, reconstructed, 1846 and 1883, burnt, 19 Jan. 
1902. Population, 1885, 125,901 ; 1890, 139,659 ; 
1900, 176,705. 

STYLE, see New Style. 

STYLE ROYAL, see England, King, Majesty, 
and Titles. The styles of the hnglish sovereigns 
are given in the later editions of Nicolas's " Chrono- 
logy of History." The Royal Style and 'Titles Act, 
giving power to add to the queen's titles "empress 
of India," after much opposition in the commons, 
received royal assent 27 April ; proclamation issued 
28 April; announced in India, by the viceroy, 19 
Aug. 1876; proclamation announcing the insertion 
of the words "and of the British dominions beyond 
the seas" in the king's style of titles, 4 Nov. 1901. 

STYLITES, see Monachism. 

STYRIA (Austria), part of the ancient Noricum 
and Pannonia, was held successively by the Romans, 
Ostrogoths, and Avars. It was conquered hy Charle- 
magne, and divided among his followers, styled 
counts, among whom the count of Styria, about 
876, was the most powerful. The count became 
margrave about 1030 ; and Ottocar VI., in 1 180, was 
made duke. At his death, 1 192, Styria was annexed 
to the duchy of Austria. In 1246 it was acquired 
by Bela IV. of Hungary ; in 1253, by Ottocar II. of 
Bohemia ; after whose defeat and death, at March- 
feld, in 1278, it reverted to Rudolph of Austria, and 
was annexed to his possessions. Population, 1890, 
1,282,708 ; 1900, 1,356,058. 

SUAKIN, a seaport town of the Red Sea on 
an island oft' its "W. coast. See Soudan, 1883, etseq. 
Under the rule of colonel Kitchener and lieut. 
Gordon, R.E., Suakin has become a nearly impreg- 
nable fortress and commerce has revived, 1888. 
Col. George Lloyd appointed governor of Suakin 
and of the Red Sea littoral, Sept. 1894. Lieut. -col. 
Parsons appointed gov. -gen. arrives at Suakin, 
17 Oct. 1896. 

SUBMARINE BOAT, see under Boats. 

.SUBMARINE LAMP, one invented by 
Siebe and Gorman, has been in use since 1850, 
especially at Cherbourg. Heinke and Davis's lamp 
was exhibited, 1871. 

SUBMARINE TELEGRAPH, see Tele- 
graph (under Electricity) , 1840 et seq. 

SUBSCRIPTION ACT, see Clerical Sub- 
scription Act. 

SUBSIDIES to the kings of England were 
formerly granted in kind, particularly in wools, 
30,000 sacks were voted to Edward III. on account 
of the war with France, 1340. — Anderson. Subsi- 
dies were raised upon the people of England by 
James I. 1624 ; but they were included in a bill for 
the redress of grievances, 1639. Four subsidies (the 
last) were granted to Charles II. in 1663.* 

SUBWAY, see Tunnels. 

SUCCESSION ACTS, see Settlement. 



* England granted subsidies to foreign powers in seve- 
ral wars, particularly in the war against the revolutionists 
in France, and against Bonaparte. 



SUCCESSION, War of (1702-1713), distin- 
guished by the achievements of the duke of Marl- 
borough and the earl of Peterborough, and their 
unprofitable results, arose on the question whether 
an Austrian prince or a French prince should suc- 
ceed to the throne of Spain. The British court 
opposed Louis, and Marlborough was victorious; but 
the allies withdrew one after another, and the French 
prince succeeded ; see S])ain and Utrecht. 

SUCCESSION DUTY ACT (16 & 17 Vict. 
c. 51), after much discussion, was passed 4 Aug. 
1853. Ity tms act tue l e 8 ac y duty was extended to- 
real estate, and was made payable on succession to 
both landed and personal property ; see Legacies^. 
Additional duties imposed by customs, &c, acts of 
1888 and 1889. The probate and succession duty- 
replaced by the estate duty, 1894 {which see). 

SUDAN, see Soudan. 

SUDBURY, in Suffolk, chartered by queens 
Mary, 1554, was disfranchised for bribery in 1844. 

SUEVI, a warlike Gothic tribe, which, with the 
Alani and the Visigoths, entered Spain about 408, 
were overcome by the latter, and absorbed into their 
kingdom about 584. 

SUEZ CANAL. The caliph Omar about 640 
opposed cutting the isthmus. A plan for a canal 
between the head of the Red Sea and the bay of; 
Pelusium was brought forward by M. Ferdinand de 
Lesseps in 1854. He undertook to cut a canal, 
through 90 miles of sand, to run out moles into the 
Mediterranean ; to deepen the shallow waters ; to 
create ports to receive the ships from India and 
Australia, and to adapt the canal to irrigation . The 
consent of the Egyptian, Turkish, Russian, French, 
and Austrian governments was gradually obtained, 
but not that of the British. M. Ferdinand de 
Lesseps visited the queen and prince Albert,. 
6 May, 1856. A company was formed, 1856, and 
the work commenced in 1859 b y Mr - Daniel Lange 
(knighted 1870). The cost was estimated at 
8,000,000/. Engineer, M. L. Monteit. 

M. Delacour, a French engineer, after viewing the 
works which were " employing 25,000 men in the 
desert," expressed his conviction that they would 
be completed in four or five years . . 7 Nov. 1862 

The waters of the Mediterranean admitted into a 
narrow channel communicating with Lake Tim- 
sah Dec. ,, 

The new town Timsah named Ismaila 4 March, 1863 . 

The works visited by the Sultan and by Mr. Hawk- 
shaw „. 

The company compelled by the Egyptian govern- 
ment to give up employment of compulsory 
labour ; litigation ensued . . . .Aug. „. 

M. de Lesseps reported that a vessel containing 30 
persons had been tugged along the canal the 
whole distance between the two seas . Feb. 1865, 

Delegates from the British chambers of commerce 
visited the works, and reported that the success 
of the scheme was only an affair of time and 
money 17 April, ,, 

The flood gates of the smaller Suez canal were 
opened, the fresh water of the Nile admitted ; a 
coal vessel passed from the Mediterranean to the 
Red Sea 15 Aug. ,, 

The Primo, 80 tons burden, passed through the 
canal from the Mediterranean into the Red Sea, 

17 Feb. 1867 

A loan raised in France ,, 

French and English vessels enter the canal Nov. 1868 

Mr. John Fowler, the engineer, reported the canal 
as suitable for steamers and mail traffic, but not 
for vessels requiring tugs . . . . 5 Feb. 1869 

Water of the Mediterranean admitted to the salt 
lakes 18 March, „ 

The works visited by the prince and princess of 
Wales . . .... 23 March, „ 



SUEZ CANAL. 



1236 



SUGAB. 



The canal successfully opened in the presence of the 
e nperor of Austria, the empress of the French, 
t!ie viceroy of Egypt, and others . . 16 Nov. 1869 

M. de Lesseps entertained in London . 4 July, 1870 

Traffic in 1870-1 doubled ..... .1872-3 

Charges upon vessels passing through the canal in- 
creased 50 per cent. ; the British appeal for a 
national conference April, 1873 

International conference on Suez dues met at Con- 
stantinople ; 21 sittings; leport dated 18 Dec. 
Proposals of the sultan accepted by European 
powers Dec. „ 

M. de Lesseps protests ; the lords of the admiralty 
informed (by D. A. Lange) that the canal will be 
closed unless the old dues are paid, 22 April ; he 
gives way about .... 26 April, 1874 

Col. Stokes, after a survey, reported to the earl of 
Derby that the canal generally was in a satisfac- 
tory state 20 April, ,, 

British government authorise Messrs. Rothschild to 
buy for 4,080,000^. the Khedive's shares (176,602 
shares of 20I. , out of 400,000) in the canal ; (5 per 
cent, to be paid till 1 July, 1894, after which divi- 
dends will be received) .... Nov. 1875 

M. de Lesseps in a circular says he regards "as a 
fortunate circumstance the powerful union be- 
tween English and French capitalists for the 
purely industrial and necessarily peaceful work- 
ing of the universal maritime canal " . 29 Nov. ,, 

'The subject discussed in the commons, 14 Feb. ; 
money (4,080,000^.) voted, 21 Feb.: act passed 

15 Aug. 1876 

^Neutrality of the canal claimed by Great Britain 

May, June, 1877 

Freedom of the canal secured by settlement of 
Egypt 1882-3 

Receipts about 5,000,000 francs, 1870; 60,523,815 

francs 1882 

.Second canal determined on by British shipowners ; 
Mr. (aft. sir) James Laing very efficient ; syndi- 
cate appointed 10 May, 1883 

Arrangements made by the government for the con- 
struction of the canal and advancement of capital, 
tn be virtually under control of De Lesseps' com- 
pany, announced, 11 July : great dissatisfaction 
.and opposition in England, 12 July ; the proposed 
convention withdrawn by the government, 

23 July, ,, 

Sir Stafford Northoote's resolution against De Les- 
seps' monopoly negatived (284-185) . 31 July, ,, 

De Lesseps visits London ; agrees with the steam 
shipowners to enlarge the present canal, or 
create a new one, giving additional power and 
influence in the direction of the company, and to 
reduce dues, &c 30 Nov. „ 

The agreement approved by the British government, 
25 Feb.; the shareholders at Paris protest against 
it, but ratify it (2608-556) . . .29 May, „ 

International commission sitsatParis ; English and 
French schemes discussed, April — May, 1885 ; 
parts of these schemes incorporated in treaty, 
May, 1885 ; last sitting . . . .13 June, 18S6 

"The widening of the present canal decided on, after 
investigation by commission, Dec. 1884 ; plans 
adopted by the commission 9 Feb. 1885; arrange- 
ments with the Egyptian government completed 

27 Dec. ,, 

'Convention signed at Paris for England and France 
neutralising the canal and placing it under a, joint 
< liiiission 24'Oct. i337 

Adhesion of the other powers announced July; 
ratified by the sultan 25 Oct. ; by the powers 

29 Oct. and 22 Dec. 188S 

M. Charles de Lesseps, manager and secretary, 
arrested for bribery in relation to the Panama 
canal (which see) 16 Dec. 1892 

A provisional board appointed ; M. Guichard, 
senator, appointed chairman . . 20 Dec. ,, 

M. Ferdinand de Lesseps nominated lion, chairman, 
13 Feb. 1894 ; pensions granted to him and his 
family, June ; he died .... 7 Dec. 1894 

Strike of the company's dredgermen . Aug.-Sept. „ 

M. Leinasson, chief engineer of the company, 
fatally stabbed at Suez, 29 Sept. ; strike ended 
by compromise 18 Oct. ,, 

Prince d'Arenberg elected president of the com- 
pany, at Paris, 3 Aug. 1896, 1897, and 1898. 



A statue of Ferdinand de Lesseps at Port Said 
unveiled by the Khedive . . .17 Nov. iE 

Traffic passed through canal : 



Year. 


No. of 
Ships. 


Gross Tonnage. 


Gross Receipts. 


1870 


486 


435,9n 


£255,488 


1871 


765 


761,467 


464,091 


1872 


1,082 


1,439,169 


758,659 


1873 


1.173 


2,085,073 


971,882 


1874 


1,264 


2,423,672 


1,029,492 


1875 


i>494 


2,940,709 


1,204,387 


1876 


1.457 


3,072,107 


1,229,157 


1877 


1,663 


3,418,950 


i,337> 6l 7 


1878 


1.593 


3,291,535 


1.272,435 


1879 


I >477 


3,236,942 


1,214,443 


Total | 
10 years. | 


12,454 


23,105,535 


£9,737,651 


1880 


2,026 


4,344,519 


£1,672,836 


1881 


2,727 


5,794,401 


2,187,047 


1882 


3.198 


7,122,125 


2,536,343 


1883 


3.307 


8,051,307 


2,645,506 


1884 


3.284 


8,319,967 


2,480,000 


1885 


3,624 


8,985,411 


2,601,998 


1886 


3,100 


8,183,313 


2,241,095 


1888 


3,444 


9,437,957 


2,680,000 


1S90 


3,389 


9,749,129 


2,679,340 


1894 


3,352 


8,039,175 


2,951,072 


1896 


3,409 


8,560,283 


3,255,061 


1899 


3,607 


9,895,630 


3>652,75i 


1900 


3.44 1 


9,738,152 


3,624,944 


190/ 


3,699 


10,823,840 


4,015,456 


1902 


3,7o8 


11,248,413 


4,148,800 



SUFFBAGAN BISHOPS. Power to ap- 
point them was given by parliament in 1534 to 
Henry VIII. as head of the church. Suffragan 
bistiops bill passed, 1 July, 1898. See Bishops and 
Supremacy . 

SUGAB* (Saccharum officii /arum) is supposed 
to have been known to the ancient Jews. Found in 
the East Indies by Nearchus, admiral of Alexander, 
325 B.C. — Strabo. An oriental nation in alliance 
with Pompey used the juice of the cane as a common 
beverage. — Lucan. It was pi-escribed as a medicine 
by Galen, 2nd century. Brought into Europe from 
Asia, a.d. 625 ; — in large quantities, 1 150. Attempted 
to be cultivated in Italy ; not succeeding, the Portu- 
guese and Spaniards carried it to America about 
1510. 

The sugar-cane transported from Syria to Cyprus 
about 1148 ; from Madeira about 1420 ; and to the 

West Indies about 1506 

It is not known at what date sugar was introduced 
into England, but it seems to have been prior to 
the reign of Henry VIII. Mr. Whittaker, in the 
History of Whalley, p. 109, quotes an instance in 1497 
A manuscript letter from sir Edward Wotton to 
lord Cobham, dated Calais, advertises him that 
sir Edward had taken up for his lordship twenty- 
five sugar-loaves at six shillings a loaf, "whiche 
is eighte pence a pounde" . . . 6 March, 1546 

Sugar first taxed (by James II.)' 16S5 

Duties on free and slave-grown sugars equalized, 

Aug. 1846 
Duties reduced and regulated .... Sept. 1848 

* Sugar, long considered a neutral substance, without 
congeners, has of late years become the head of a nume- 
rous family, viz. : Cane-sugar (sucrose, from the sugar- 
cane ; boiled with dilute acids it becomes glucose) Fruit- 
sugar (from many recent fruits) ; Grape-sugar (glucose, 
from dried fruits and altered starch) ; sugar of milk ; 
melitose (from eucalyptus, by Berthelot in 1856) ; sorbin 
(from the berries of the mountain ash, by Pelouze); inosite 
(from muscular tissue, Scherer) ; dulcose (by Laurent) ; 
mannite (from manna, obtained from the fraxinus ornus, 
a kind of ash) ; quercite (from acorns) ; to these have been 
added mycose, by M. Mitscherlieh, and melesctosc and 
rehalose, by M. Berthelot. 



SUICIDE. 



1207 



SUICIDE. 



1855 
1874 



1887 



Duty increased (war) 

Seduced, 1857, 1864 '• modified, 1867 ; greatly re- 
duced, 1 Aug. 1870 ; further reduced, May, 1873 ; 
abolished from 1 May, 

Sugar industries committee recommend a protective 
duty 011 the import of sugar from certain coun- 
tries Aug. 

Sugar-refining was made known to Europeans by a 
Venetian, J503, and was first practised in England 
in 1659, though some say we had the art a few 
.years earlier. The invaluable vacuum-pan was 
invented by Howard, 1812. Dr. Scoffern's pro- 
cesses were patented in 1848-50, but not adopted 
in Britain. 

Sugar manufactured from sorglmm in United States 
Dec. 1882 ; success reported . . March, 

Manufacturers and colonies protest strongly against 
French and German bounties on beet sugar . il 

Inter national Conference on Sugar Bounties, repre- 
sentatives from Germany, France, Austria and 
others, - not United States ; first meeting in 
London, baron H. de Worms chosen president. 
24 Nov. ; a protocol with a convention signed 
condemning bounties and recommending legisla- 
tion for their abolition . . . -19 Dec. 

'The mission of baron de Worms to various courts 
reported successful Feb. 

Another protocol with convention signed, 12 May, 

Finally signed for Great Britain, Germany, Austria- 
Hungary, Italy, Russia, Spain, Belgium, and the 
Netherlands , declined at present by France, 
Denmark, and Sweden ... 30 Aug. 

Internationa] commission to examine the laws to 
enforce the convention meet . . 1 May, 

Bill for the adoption of the convention brought into 
the commons May ; deferred by the government 

17 June, 

A secret process of refining sugar by electricity said 
to have been invented by prof. Henry C. Friend 
of New York, announced 1885. He succeeded in 
organizing the New York Electric Sugar Refining 
company to carry out the invention ; the scheme 
collapsed and occasioned much loss in America 
and England by credulous persons, the whole 
affair being an imposture . . . . 

It caused a temporary panic in Liverpool Jan. ; 
Mrs. Friend, then a widow, and her daughter 
were arrested in Michigan . Feb. 

William E. Howard, one of the company, was 
sentenced to imprisonment for "grand larceny," 

2i June, 

Sugar commission (royal), see We>t Indies, 1896-7. 

Great fluctuations in the price of sugar since 1884. 

International conference on sugar bounties at 
Brussels, 7 June et seq., adjourned 

Sugar cane experiments in Barbadoes and other 
islands, reported successful . . . Jan. 

Sugar bounties international conference held at 
Brussels, 16 Dec. ; bounties to be abolished Sept. 
1903, and maximum of the surtax limited ; con- 
vention signed 5 March, 

World's consumption of sugar, 9, 369, 685 tons, 1901-2. 
For Saccharine, see Benzole. 

Raw Sugar imported into U nixed Kingdom. —1853, 
7,284,290 cwts. ; i860, 8,817,277 cwts. ; 1865, 
10,250,524 cwts. ; 1871, 12,126,508 cwts. ; 1875, 
16,264,711 cwts.; 1877, 16,620,944 cwts. ; in 1879, 
17,734,223 cwts.; in 1883, 20,366,627 cwts.; in 
T887, 18,010,366 cwts. ; in 1890, 15,717,476 cwts. ; 
1893, 16,032,113 cwt. ; 1902, 13,221,492 cwts. 

Refined Sugar exported from the United King- 
dom : 1876, 1,192,277 cwts. ; 18S0, 965,446 cwts. ; 
1885, 994,353 cwts. ; 1890, 709,416 cwts. ; 1896, 
993,698 cwts. ; 1900, 606,353 cwts. 

See Beet-root. 



SUICIDE (from sui, self; ccedcre, to kill), the 
slayer of himsel f. The first instances recorded in 
Jewish history are those of Samson, about 1120, 
and Saul, 1055 B.C. The Greek and Roman philoso- 
phers deemed it a crime, and burned the offending 
hand apart from the rest of the bod)'. In the reign 
of Tai-quin I., the Roman soldiers, thinking them- 
selves disgraced by being ordered to make common 
sewers, destroyed themselves, 606 B.C. Cato com- 



mitted suicide, 46 B.C.* In the Roman catholic 
church, in the 6th century it was ordained that no 
commemoration should be made in the Eucharist 
for such as committed self-murder. 1 his ecclesias- 
tical law continued till the Reformation, when it 
was admitted into the statute law of England by the 
authority of parliament, with the confiscation of 
land and goods. Till 1823 the body of the suicide 
was directed to be buried in a cross-road, and a 
stake to be driven through it. A new act, suppress- 
ing the barbarous customs, was passed in 1882. It 
is now usually buried in consecrated ground with- 
out a religious ceremony. Tnomas Cooper, the 
eminent Chartist, author of " The Purgatory of 
Suicides," an epic poem, published in 184s, died, 
aged 87, 15 July, 1892. Dr. Henry Morselli pub- 
lished "Suicides: an Essay," 1881. There were 
7,572 suicides in France in 1887. 

MEMORABLE RECENT CASES OF SUICIDE. 

Gen. Pichegru 7 April, 1804 

Miss Champante '15 Aug. ,, 

Sellis, valet of the duke of Cumberland . 31 May, 1810 
Abraham Goldsmid, an eminent merchant . . . ,, 
Williams, supposed murderer of the Marr family 

and others 15 Dec. 181 1 

Lord French 9 Dee. 1814 

Marshal Berthier 1 June, 1815 

Samuel Whitbread, esq 6 July, ,, 

Sir Richard Croft 13 Feb. ,, 

Sir Samuel Romilly 2 Nov. 1818 

Christophe, king of Hayti ... 8 Oct. 1820 

Adm. sir George Campbell . . . .23 June, 1821 
Marquis of Londonderry . . . . 12 Aug. 1822 
Hon. colonel Stanhope . . . .26 Jan. 1825 
Mr. Montgomery in Newgate (see Prussia Acid), 

4 July, 1828 

Miss Charlotte Both 3 Jan. 1830 

Lord Greaves 7 Feb. ,, 

Colonel Brereton 13 Jan. 1832 

Major Thompson 13 June, ., 

Mr. Simpson, the traveller ... 24 July, 1840 
Lord James Beresford . . . .27 April, 1841 
Gen. sir Rufane Shaw Donkin . . .1 May, ,, 

The earl of Munster 20 March, 1842 

Lord Congleton 8 June, „ 

Laman Blanchard 15 Feb. 1845 

Colonel J. Gurwood, editor of "Wellington's De- 
spatches" 25 Dec. ,, 

Rear-admiral Collard . . . .18 March, 1846 
Haydon, the eminent painter . . 22 June, ,, 

Count Bresson 2 Nov. 1847 

Colonel King, in India . . . .12 July, 1850 
Walter Watts, lessee of Olympic theatre, 13 July, ,, 

Rev. Dr. Rice 20 Jan. 1853 

Lieut. -col. Layard 27 Dec. ,, 

Rev. T. Robinson (threw himself off Shakspere's 

Cliff, Dover) 16 Aug. 1854 

Dr. Franks, late editor of the Allgemeine Zeitung, 

after killing his son 3 Nov. 1855 

John Sadleir, M.P. (in 1852, a lord of the treasury), 

by prussic acid ; on Hampstead Heath. (He was 

found to have been guilty of enormous frauds upon 

the Tipperary bank, <&c.) ... 16 Feb. 1856 

A. Smart, a watchmaker, threw himself from the 

whispering-gallery in St. Paul's . 14 March, ,, 
Charles Russell, esq., late chairman of Great 

Western Railway 15 May, ,, 

Hugh Miller, geologist, author of The Old Ucd Sand- 
stone (insane, through overwork) . . 23 Dec. ,, 
Major-gen. Stalker, C.B., of Indian army (14 March), 
and commodore Ethersey, of the Indian navy. 
(Both through physical and mental depression 

* Three instances of self-destruction by fire : the philo- 
sopher Empedocles threw himself into the crater of Mount 
Etna ; a Frenchman threw himself, in 1820, into the 
crater of Vesuvius ; and an Englishman, who jumped 
into the furnace of a forge about the year 181 1. Plutarch 
relates that an unaccountable passion for suicide seized 
the Milesian virgins, from which they could not be pre- 
vented by the tears and prayers of their friends ; but a 
decree being issued that the body of every young maid 
who did self-murder should be drawn naked through the 
streets, a stop was soon put to the extraordinary frenzy. 



SUICIDE. 



1208 



SUICIDE. 



while on the expedition against Persia : see 

Bushire) 17 March, 1857 

Major Warburton, M.P. for Harwich, brother of 

Eliot, lost in the Amazon ... 23 Oct. ,, 
Henry M. Witt, a promising young chemist, at the 

Government School of Mines . . .19 June, 1858 
Dr. Sadleir, Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, 

July, „ 
Rev. G. Martin, chancellor of the diocese of Exeter, 

27 Aug. i860 
Lord Forth, son of earl of Perth . . . 8 Oct. 1861 
Wm. G. Prescott, banker . . . .29 April, 1865 
Admiral Robert Fitz-Roy (see New Zealand, and 

Meteorology) 30 April, ,, 

Col. Hobbs (connected with the suppression of 

Jamaica outbreak) on his way to England, 9 May, 1867 
G. W Green, merchant, jumped off Clifton Suspen- 
sion bridge 11 May, ,, 

Dr. A. W. Warder, murderer of his wife, at Brighton, 

12 July, ,, 
Thos. Lee, threw himself from the north tower of 

the Crystal palace 18 Feb. 1868 

Theodore, emperor of Abyssinia . . 13 April, ,, 
Mr. Stephenson, bettor on races ; the " leviathan 

bookmaker". 9 Feb. 1869 

G. H. Townsend, historical scholar . . 25 Feb. ,, 

Lord Cloncurry 3 April, ,, 

Sir Robert H. J. Harvey, Norwich banker, 15 July ; 

died 19 July, 1870 

M. Prevost-Paradol, the accomplished French 
minister at Washington, formerly a correspondent 

for the Times 19 July, ,, 

Mr. Robert K. Bowley, 15 years manager of the 
Crystal palace company . . . 25 Aug. 
Dr. Augustus Matthiessen, eminent chemist, pro- 
fessor at St. Bartholomew's hospital . 6 Oct. ,, 

Lord Walsingham 31 Jan. 1871 

Sir James Shaw Willes, justice of common pleas 

(overwrought mind) ... 2 Oct. 1872 

Earl Delawarr (insane) .... 22 April, 1873 
Rev. Arthur Holmes, dean of Clare College, Cam- 
bridge, a great scholar; (overwrought mind) 

17 April, 1875 
George Lord Lyttelton, eminent scholar ; tempo- 
rary insanity ; 18 April; died . . 19 April, 1876 
Abdul Aziz, sultan of Turkey, deposed 29 May ; said 
to have committed suicide (see Turkey, 1881), 

4 June, ,, 
Dr. Sam. Butcher, bishop of Meath ; insane, 29 July, ,, 
Harriet Mary, dowager countess Howe ; insane 

through grief . . . . . 29 Jan. 1877 
Raphael Brandon, architect . . .8 Oct. ,, 
J. W. Stevens, insane ; threw himself from whisper- 
ing gallery, St. Paul's ... 10 Jan. „ 
E. M. Ward, genre painter ; insane . . 15 Jan. 1879 
Isaac Fletcher, M.P., F.R.S.. . . 3 April, „ 
Rev. W. Gunson, able tutor of Christ's College, 

Cambridge (insane) . . . , 30 Sept. 1881 
Carl Engel (musical archaeologist) . 18 Nov. 1882 

Dr. William Whitfield Edwards, surgeon at Houns- 

low 27 Dec. ,, 

Count Wimpffen, Austrian ambassador at Paris, 

30 Dec. „ 
Morris Simeon Oppenheim, barrister . . 3 Jan. 1883 
Joseph Dimsdale, Gutter-lane, E.C. . 13 Jan. ,, 

Sir John Savage, formerly mayor of Belfast, 15 June, , , 
Rev. Alexr. Taylor, preacher of Gray's Inn 11 April, 18S4 
H. T. Edwards, dean of Bangor . . 24 May, ,, 
The eighth earl of Shaftesbury (insane) in a cab in 

Regent-street I3 April, 1886 

Fred Archer, celebrated jockey (insane) 8 Nov. ,, 
Louis II., king of Bavaria . . . 13 June, „ 
Nagayori Asana, Japanese prince, law student 

(melancholia), at south Kensington . 24 Dec. „ 
John K. Cross, formerly M.P. and under-seeretary 

for India (1883-5) .... 20 March. 1S87 
Dr. Ridley of Tullamore gaol (see under Ireland,) 

20 July, 1888 
Richard Pigott (see Ireland) . . 1 March, 1889 
M. Denfert-Rochereau, manager of the Comptoir 

d'Escompte (see France) . . . 5 March, ,, 
Sir Wm. Tmdal Robertson, M.P. . . 6 Oct. 
Sir Thos. Sidgreaves .... 23 Dec. 
Professor Lant Carpenter (insane) . . 23 Dec. 1890 
The duke of Bedford (Insane) . . 14 Jan. i8qi 
Charles Verrall Willett, M.D. (insane) . 6 March, „ 
Lord James E. Sholto Douglas (insane) 5 May, „ 



Sen. Jose M. Balmaceda, president of Chili 19 Sept. 1891 
Georges E. J. M. Boulanger (see France) 30 Sept. ,, 
Dr. Philip H. Carpenter, at Eton College 21 Oct. „ 
Arthur Goring Thomas, musical composer (insane), 

20 March, 1892 
Mr. J. H. Ferris, deputy-coroner of Cornwall, 

through grief 26 March, „ 

M. Henri Dupeyrier, African explorer . April, ,, 
M. Anatole de la Forge, French author . 6 June, ,, 
Dr. Alexander Woodburn Heron . . 25 Oct. ,, 
Mr. Hilton Cassenet Barker ... 22 Feb. 1893 
Dr. Lombard J. N. Tanner . . 28 April, ,, 

Mr. Scotton, eminent cricketer . . 9 July, „ 
Mr. Leo Percy, electrician, after killing Miss 
Montague and Mr. Samuel Garcia in Regents- 
square, W.C. (jealousy) . . . .21 Sept. ,, 
Mr. John L. G. Mowat, fellow and librarian of 

Pembroke College, Oxford . . .7 Aug. 1894 
Mr. Patrick Henderson (British consul at Cadiz), 

at the foreign office .... 10 Oct. ,, 
Mr. Arthur Dacre, actor, after killing his wife (for- 
merly Miss Amy Roselle), by agreement, at 

Sydney, N.S.W 17 Nov. ,, 

Dr. Daniel Robert Wynter, coroner (Warwickshire), 

24 Feb. ,, 
Mr. I. B. Barnato, aged 45, insane, mid June, see 

Cave ,, 

Mr. P. Scott Fishe, actor .... Aug. 1898 
Edith and Ida Bowyer(Yeoland), actresses, aged 28 

and 25 (unsound mind) ... 16 July, 1901 
Hugh Jervis Smith, It. 3rd batt. Somerset It. inf., 

aged 22 5 Feb. 1903 

Maj.-gen. sir Hector MacDonald, " Fighting Mac," 
33 years in army, distinguished service in India, 
Egypt, and S. Africa ; Paris . . 25 March, ,, 
Arthur Shrewsbury, noted cricketer . 19 May, ,, 
Miss Hickman, a lady doctor, disappeared mysteri- 
ously from the Free Hospital, Gray's-inn-road, 
15 Aug., her body found in Richmond park, 18 
Oct.; verdict of suicide by morphia poisoning 
during temporary insanity . . 12 Nov. ,, 
Mr. Andrew Pattullo, a member of the Ontario 
legislature 



INQUESTS 


ON SUICIDES 


IN ENGLAND AND 


9 uct;. 
WALES 




Males. 


Females. 


Total 


1858 


909 


366 


1275 


i860 


961 


396 


1357 


1861 


961 


363 


1324 


1862 


938 


346 


1284 


1863 


1048 


337 


1385 


1864 


978 


359 


1337 


1865 


1028 


369 


1397 


1866 


973 


387 


1360 


1867 


98s 


37i 


1356 


186S 


1138 


408 


1546 


1869 


1165 


397 


1562 


1870 


"35 


382 


1517 


1871 


■073 


39i 


1464 


1872 


1057 


398 


1455 


1873 


1099 


382 


1481 


1874 


1106 


383 


1549 


1875 


1 1 70 


407 


1577 


1876 


1270 


443 


1713 


1877 


1253 


383 


1636 


1878 


1279 


430 


1709 


1879 


1461 


480 


1941 


1880 


1450 


480 


1930 


1881 


1440 


478 


1918 


1882 


1388 


502 


1890 


1883 


J 437 


507 


19441 


1884 


J 537 


482 


2019 


1885 


1504 


4S4 


19SS 


1886 


1663 


559 


2222 


1887 


1672 


555 


2227 


1888 


1720 


577 


2297 


1889 


1603 


535 


2138 


1890 


1610 


544 


2154 


1891 


1851 


608 


2459 


1892 


1884 


661 


2545 


1893 


1880 


643 


2523 


1894 


2027 


684 


27H 


1895 


2059 


712 


277I 


1896 


1971 


668 


2639 


1898 


2163 


7M 


2877 


1899 


2077 


7°3 


2780 


jgoo 


213S 


725 


2863 



SUITORS' FUND. 



1209 



SUN. 



SUITOES' FUND (in the court of chancery) 
in 1862 amounted to 1,290,000/. As this money has 
no specific owner, a proposal was made by govern- 
ment to apply it to the building of new law-courts, 
payment of all legal claims being guaranteed, which 
was directed by the "Courts of Laws Fees" act, 
passed 20 Aug. 1867. 

SULPH UR has been known from the earliest 
times. Basil Valentine mentions its production 
from green vitriol. Sulphuric acid (vitriol), pro- 
duced by him from burning sulphur, was introduced 
into England about 1720. Sulphur has been the 
object of research of many eminent chemists during 
the present century, and many discoveries have 
been made, such as its allotropic condition, &c. It 
is the inflammable constituent in gunpowder, and a 
deleterious ingredient in coal gas. The sulphur 
mines of Sicily have been wrought since the 16th 
century, but the exportation was inconsiderable till 
about 1820 ; in 1838 the trade increased so much 
that Great Britain alone imported 38,654 tons. In 
that year the Neapolitan government was induced 
to grant a monopoly of the trade to a French 
company ; but a firm remonstrance from the British 
government led to a discontinuance of this impolitic 
restriction in 1 84 1, which, however, gave a great and 
lasting impetus to the British sulphur manufacture. 

SULPHUR YL FLUORIDE, a new colour- 
less, odourless gas, which can be liqueSed and 
solidified at low temperatures ; prepared by Moissan 
and Lebeau, by the action of fluorine on sulphur 
dioxide; reported, 17 Aug. 1901. 

SULTAN, or ruler, a Turkish title, from the 
Arabic, given to Mahometan rulers and especially 
to the grand signior or emperor of Turkey. 
For the wreck of H.M.S. Sultan, see Navy of 

England 1889 

SULU, Sooloo or Soluk Archipelago, a group of 
above 60 islands in the Malay Archipelago. The 
Spanish under colonel Arolas, the governor, defeated 
the rebels at Maiburg, and burnt the town, an- 
nounced 1 May, 1887. 

SUMATRA, an island in the Indian ocean, 
called Java Minor by Marco Polo, and visited by 
Nicolo di Conti prior to 1449. Mainly on account 
of the pepper trade, the Dutch formed a settlement 
at Padang about 1649, and the British at Bencoolen 
about 1685. The Dutch possessions with Java were 
acquired by the British in 1811 ; but were restored 
in 1816. In 1824 the Dutch acquired all the British 
settlements in Sumatra, in exchange for Malacca 
and some possessions in India. Restrictions on 
their progress in Sumatra were removed by treaty 
Feb. 1872. Severe fighting between the Dutch and 
the Achinese natives with varying results, mostly in 
favour of the Dutch, April 1873 to l8?9- Dutch 
successful in war, peace announced, Aug. 1879- 
New war ; great victory of the Dutch, 13 Sept. 
1882. Sumatra suffered much by the volcanic 
eruptions and earthquakes of 26-27 Aug. 1883. See 
Java and Holland, 1896 et seq. 

SUMMARY JURISDICTION Act, 42 & 

43 Vict. c. 49, 11 Aug. 1879. I* amends the law 
respecting the jurisdiction of magistrates, in regard 
to fines, imprisonments, &c. It came into operation 
I Jan. 1880. Amended 1881, 1884 and 1895 ; again, 
powers extended, 1899. Summary convictions in 
1893 in England and Wales, 649,371. 

SUMPTUARY LAWS restrain excess in 
dress, furniture, eating, &c. The laws of Lycurgus 
were severe against luxury, probablygth century B.C. 
Those of Zaleucus ordained that no sober woman 
should go attended by more than one maid in the 



street, or wear gold or embroidered apparel, 450 B.C. 
— Dioff. Laert. The Lex Orchia among the Romans 
(181 B.C.) limited the guests at feasts, and the 
number and quality of the dishes at an entertain- 
ment; and it also enforced that during supper, 
which was the chief meal among the Romans, 
the doors of every house should be left open. The 
English sumptuary laws, chiefly of the reigns of 
Edward III. and Henry VIII., were repealed in 
1856 ; see Dress. 

SUN.* Pythagoras taught that the sun was one 
of the twelve spheres, about 529 B.C. The relative 
distances of the sun and moon were first calculated 
geometrically by Aristarchus, who also maintained the 
stability of the sun, about 280 B.C. Numerous theories 
were ventured during fi fteen centuries, and astronom y 
lay neglected till about a.d. 1200, when it was 
brought into Europe by the Moors of Barbary and 
Spain. The Copemican system was made known in 
1530 ; see Copemican System and Solar System* 
Galileo and Newton maintained that the sun was an 
igneous globe. The transit of Mercury was observed 
by Gassendi, 1 631. For recent discoveries, see 
Eclipses, Spectrum, and Venus. 
By the observations of Dr. Halley on the spot which 
darkened the sun's disc in July and August, 1676, 
he established the certainty of its motion round 
its own axis. 

Parallax of the sun, Dr. Halley 1702- 

Solar spots were observed by Fabricius and Harriot 
in 1610. A macula three times the size of the earth 
passed the sun's centre, 21 April, 1766, and fre- 
quently since. 
Dr. Wilson observed the motion of a spot . . 1769 
Herschel measured two spots, whose length together 

exceeded 50,000 miles .... 19 April, 1779. 
Many sun spots observed . early 1892 and 1894. 

Schwabe discovered that a cycle of changes (from 
maximum to minimum and minimum to maxi- 
mum) in the number of spots occurs in 11 years, 
confirmed by Wolf and others . . . 1826-51 
Mr. Warren de la Rue took two photographs at the 

time of total obscuration . . . 18 July, i860' 
Mr. James Nasmyth discovers the lenticular-shaped 
objects on the sun (termed by him " willow- 
leaves," by Stone "rice-grains ") . . 28 Aug. ,, 
.Reel flames, or protuberances, during an eclipse of 
the sun, observed by eapt. Stannyan, 1706; by 
Halley, 1715 ; by F. Baily (hence termed " Baily's 
beads,") 1842. 
Determined by M. Janssen to be due to the accu- 
mulated hydrogen of the photosphere, at the solar 
eclipse (see Eclipses) .... 18 Aug. 1868 
Mouehot constructed a solar boiler for distillation, 

& C: Oct. i860 

Mr. Ericsson proposed condensation of the sun's 
ravs and their employment as a motive power, 

Oct. 186S 
The observations of the eclipse of 22 Dec. 1870 and 
12 Dec. 1871 led to the opinion that an unknown 
substance (represented in the spectrum by line 
1474) existed in the sun. 
" Solar physics " especially studied by Messrs. War- 
ren de la Rue, Balfour Stewart, <fec. . . 1865-6. 
Apparatus for cooking by the condensed solar rays 
in the Paris exhibition 187& 

* The estimated diameter is 840,000 miles, and the dis- 
tance from the earth, till lately given as 95,000,000 miles, 
has been recently corrected to 94,000,000, by the result of 
the experiments and calculations of MM. Fizeau and 
Foucault (1864). "The error corrected corresponds to 
the apparent breadth of a human hair at 125 feet, or of a 
sovereign 8 miles off."— Herschel. Distance computed 
by sir G. B. Airy from results of the observation of tran- 
sit of Venus (9'Dec. 1874), 93,321,000 miles, Oct. 1877; 
92,600,000, June, 18-8. From the transit of 1882 by- 
professor Harkness(an American), 92,385,000 miles, Octo- 
ber, 1888. The sun is now described as consisting of a 
solid or liquid nucleus, surrounded by a luminous en- 
velope (photosphere), over which is a dense atmosphere, 
containing the vapours of various metals and other ele- 
ments ; see Spectrum. 



SUNCION, TEEATY OF. 



1210 



SUNDEELAND. 



M. Mouchot at Algiers, by a mirror, collected solar 
rays, and boiled water, drove an engine, &c, 
March, 1880; see under Heat. 

Intensely red sunsets and after-glow, and very red 
sun-rises, seen in England and other parts of the 
globe, Nov. and Dec. 1883 ; attributed by Dr. 
Meldrum, Dr. Norman Lockyer and others, to 
the volcanic dust projected by the eruptions of 
Krakatoa (see Java, Aug. 1883), Dec. 1883 ; other 
causes, such as cosmic dust, were suggested. 
Similar sunsets in the autumn . 1884 and 1885 

Interesting photographs of the sun's corona exhi- 
bited by Dr. Huggins at the Royal Institution, 

20 Feb. ,, 

Photographic researches of sir W. and lady Huggins 
on the presence of calcium vapour in the sun's 
rays, reported to the Royal society . 17 June, 1897 

A sun spot, diameter 30,000 miles, observed by Mr. 
G. F. Chambers at Eastbourne . . 9 Aug. ,, 

A fine sun spot, connected with aurora and mag- 
netic disturbance, appeared, March ; another, 
with a train of small spots, appeared, 2 Sept. 
et seq. ; another outburst . . .22 Oct. 1898 

12 groups of spots, including 392 individual 
spots, observed in 1901 

Large sun spots, one 180,000 mi., visible, Oct.-Nov. 1903 

SUNCION, TREATY OF, between general 
Urquiza, director of the Argentine confederation, 
find C. A. Lopez, president of the republic of Para- 
guay, recognising the independence of Paraguay, 14 
July, 1852. 

SUNDA ISLES, include Java and Sumatra 
{which see). 

SUNDAY was the day on which, anciently, 
divine adoration was paid to the Sun. Among 
(Christians it is commonly called l)ies Dominica, or 
Lord's day, on account of our Saviour's appearance 
on that day, after his resurrection. The first civil 
law that was issued for the observance of this day, 
combined it with that of the seventh-day Sabbath 
and other festivals (Eusebhcs, Life of Constantine), 
and it was followed by several imperial edicts, in 
favour of this day, which are extant in the body of 
Roman law, the earliest being that of Constantine 
the Great, dated 7 March, 321. See Sabbath, Sab- 
batarians, Sports, Hook of, &c. — For Sunday 
Letter, see Dominical Letter. 

The council of Orleans prohibited country labour . 538 
The Sabbath-day was ordained to be kept holy in 
England, from Saturday at three in the afternoon 
to Monday at break-of-day, 4th Canon, Edgar . 960 
Act of parliament, levying one shilling 011 every 

person absent from church on Sundays, 3 James I. 1606 
James I. authorised certain sports after divine ser- 
vice on Sundays (see Sports) 1618 

Act restraining amusements, 1 Charles I. . . 1625 

Act restraining the performance of servile works, 

and the sale of goods except milk at certain hours 

and meat in public-houses* and works of necessity 

and charity, on forfeiture of five shillings, 29 

Charles II 1676 

The Sunday act (of bishop Porteus), 21 Geo. III. 

c. 49, passed 1781 

Lord Robert Grosvenor (aft. lord Ebury), in- 
troduced a bill to suppress Sunday trading. (It 
met with much opposition and was withdrawn), 

April-July, 1855 
The Jews released from the compulsory observance 

of Sunday began 28 May, 1871 

Sunday act (1676) amended . . -17 Aug. ,, 
Opening of public museums and galleries on Sun- 
day often proposed in parliament ; negatived 
(271-68), 19 May, 1S74 ; (229-87) . 8 June, 1877 

•'Sunday Society" established 6 Aug. 1875, "to 
maintain and enhance the value and importance 
of the English Sunday." Annual meeting ; Dr. 
A. P. Stanley, the dean of Westminster, pro- 
fessors Tyndall and Huxley, &c, present 12 May, ,, 
See Museum. 
The Brighton Aquarium Company lined for opening 
on Sunday, 27 April ; much agitation ; petitions 
to government for and against, May ; an act was 
passed to enable the Home Secretary to remit 



the penalties, 13 Aug., 1875; the company again 
lined 28 April, 1877 

Grosvenor gallery and other collections opened on 
Sundays, summer 1878 

Act for closing public-houses in Ireland on Sun- 
days, passed 16 Aug. ,, 

Free libraries opened on Sundays at Manchester 
and other places Sept. ,, 

Proposed opening of museums and galleries in Lon- 
don, negatived in the lords (67-59), 5 M a 3'> J 879 ; 
(34-41), 22 Feb. 1880 ; (91-67) 8 May, 1883 ; 
assented to (76-62), 19 March, 1886 ; agreed to by 
resolution — 178-93 — commons . 10 March, 1896 

Opening of Guildhall library on Sundays, negatived 
by the common council . . . .16 Oct. 1879 

Welsh Sunday Closing act passed . . . 1881 

Alexandra Palace religious services on Sundays for 
a time Sept. -Oct. ,, 

Jubilee memorial to the queen signed by 1,132,608 
women of England, requesting the prohibition of 
the sale of intoxicating liquors on Sundays, 
given in 30 Dec. 1887 

Protest of the bishops in convocation against 
increasing desecration of the Lord's day by the 
upper classes 2 March, 188S 

Closing of public houses in England on Sunday 
frequently negatived ; Sunday closing bill read 
second time in the commons . . 27 March, 1889 

Sunday Rest League formed at Paris . . . ,, 

National federation of Sunday societies ; second 
congress held in London . . .1 July, 1895 

SUNDAY LECTUEE SOCIETYwas^ 

founded 25 Nov. 1869. It began its proceedings by 
a lecture delivered by Dr. W. B. Carpenter at St. 
George's hall, Eegent - street, 16 Jan. 1870. Its 
success was reported at the first annual meeting, 
7 July, 1870. "Sunday concert society," formed 
for the promotion of Sunday concerts (carried on 
by Mr. Robert Newman, 1894 ci se( l- !lt tne Queen's 
hall), Sir E. Clarke chairman, duke of Newcast'e 
vice-pres., 9 Dee. 1898: the duke of Portland pre- 
sident, Jan. 1899. See Recreative Religionists. 

SUNDAY NEWSPAPERS, see Newspapers. 
SUNDAY SCHOOLS. Cardinal Sr. Charles 
Borromeo introduced Sunday instruction of children 
at Milan, about 1580; in the next century his example 
was followed in England by the rev. Joseph Alleine; 
by rev. David Blair, at Brechin, about 1760 ; by the 
rev. Theophilus Lindsey, at Catterick, Yorkshire, 
about 1763 ; and more especially organised by 
Robert Bailees, an eminent printer of Gloucester, 
conjointly with rev. Thos. Stock, 1780. Ludweek 
Hacker set up a Sabbath school at Ephrata, Penn- 
sylvania, between 1740 and 1747. 
Sunday-school buildings exempted from rates . 1S69 
Church of England Sunday-school Institute . .1843 
Sunday-school union was founded in 1802; it sup- 
ported 4204 schools, 1878 ; 6162 schools in . . 1892 
Monument in memory of twelve originators of Sun- 
day-schools, Essex-street, Strand (names in- 
scribed, 1st, cardinal Borromeo, Milan, 1580; 
last, rev. Thomas Stock and Robert Raikes, 
Gloucester, 1780) ; inaugurated by Henry Richard, 
M.P., the Italian ambassador, and others 26 June, 1880 
National centenary celebration of the establishment 
of Sunday-schools, in London, &c, promoted by 
the royal family, archbishop of Canterbury, the 
lord mayor, and others . 27 June— 3 July, ,, 
Grand reception of scholars at Lambeth palace-gar- 
dens by the archbishop ; prince and princess of 

Wales, &c, present 3 July, „ 

World's Sunday-school convention, 1st held in 
London, 18S9 ; 2nd at St. Louis, Missouri, 1S93 ; 
3rd, 2500 delegates present, London, 12-15 Jul.V> 189S 
Centenary of the Sunday-school Union, 2-8 July, 1903 
See Education and Sabbath Schools. 

SUNDEELAND, seaport, N.E. Durham, 
anciently South Wearmo', made a borough by Re- 
form bill, 1832. Returns two members (1885). 
The magnificent bridge over the Wear, designed 
by Wilson, 236 feet in span, was built 1793-6- 



SUNDERLAND ADMINISTRATION- 1211 



SUPREME COURT. 



Population, 1881, 116,542; 1891, 130,921; 1901, 

146,828. 

On 16 June, 1883, 186 children were crushed to death 
against a doorway whilst rushing down from a gallery 
iu Victoria-hall to obtain toys given away by Fay, a 
conjuror, at the close of his performances. 

Great distress of the unemployed . Sept. et seq. 1884 
Bee Strikes, 1892. 

Great tire, began at Mr. G. H. Robinson's, draper, 
Fawcett-st., business premises in High-st. and 
John-st. also destroyed . . 18, 19 July, 1898 

SUNDERLAND ADMINISTRATION, 

formed in 1718, arose out of a modification of the 

Stanhope ministry. After various changes, it was 

broken up in 1721. 

Charles, earl of Sunderland, first lord of the treasury. 

Earl Cowper, lord chancellor. 

Earl Stanhope and Mr. Craggs, secretaries. 

Mr. Aislabie, chancellor of the exchequer, &c. 



SUNDERLAND 

Libraries. 



LIBRARY, see under 



SUN DIALS, see Dials. 

■SUNNITES, or So-NNITES (lohich see). 

SUNSHINE RECORDER, a sphere of 
glass so disposed as to char a marked piece of paper, 
by concentrating the sun's rays. The instrument 
(invented by Mr. J. F. Campbell in 1857), in its 
present form was devised by sir G. G. Stokes (died 
I Feb. 1903) and made by Mr. E. J. Lecky (1880). 
A more delicate form of instrument for recording 
(photometrically the duration and intensity of sun- 
shine has been invented by Mr. J. B. Jordan, 1884 ; 
much improved, April, 1888. 

SUPERANNUATION ACTS for the Civil 
Service were passed in April, 1859, Aug. 1866, June, 
1892. 

SUPPER, see Lord's Supper. 

SUPREMACY over the church was claimed 
by pope Gelacius I. as bishop of Home, 494. On 
15 Jan. 1535, Henry VIII. by virtue of the act 26 
Hen. VIII. c. 1, formally assumed the style of ''on 
•earth supreme head of the church of England," 
which was retained by Edward VI., Mary I. (for a 
time), but was refused by Elizabeth, and has never 
been revived by succeeding sovereigns. The 
bishop of Eochester (Fisher) and the ex-lord 
chancellor (sir Thomas More) and many others 
were beheaded for denying the king's supre- 
macy in 1535 ; and in 1578, John Nelson, a priest, 
and Thomas Sherwood, a young layman, were 
executed at Tyburn for the same ott'ence. The " act 
of Supremacy," repealed by 1 & 2 Phil, and Mary, 
c. 8 (1554), was re-enacted 1 Eliz. c. 1 (1559). 

SUPREME COURT OF JUDICATURE 

was constituted by the Judicature act 36 & 37 
Vict. c. 66, passed 5 Aug. 1873, to come into opera- 
tion 1 Nov. 1874. In 1874 this was deferred to 
1 Nov. 1875. The " Council of Judges " appointed 
by this act met to consider questions relating to the 
reform of the law, 18 Jan. 1892. See under Judges. 

The existing courts were to be united into one 
Supreme Court, divided into the High Court of 
Justice and the Court of Appeal. The Higli Court 
to consist of the lord chancellor, the two lord chief 
justices, the vice-chancellors, and the other 
judges : (hereafter the court to consist of 21 judges. ) 

Five divisions : 1. Chancery, 2. Queen's Bench, 3. 
Common Pleas, 4. Exchequer, aud 5. Probata, 
Divorce, and Admiralty ; subject to alteration. 

The Court of Appeal to consist of five ex-officio 
judges (viz., lord chancellor, two lord chief jus- 
tices, lord chief baron, master of the rolls), and 
such others as may be appointed (§§ 20, 21, 22). 



Appeals to the house of lords or the judicial com- 
mittee of the privy council to be discontinued. 

Law and equity to be concurrently administered ; 
law terms abolished ; and sittings in vacation pro- 
vided for. See under Terms. 

The act passed n Aug., 1S75, suspended §§ 20, 21, 
and 55, converted the proposed court of appeal 
into an intermediate court till 1 Nov., 1876. (See 
below.) 

The Supreme Court of Judicature (comprising the 
High Court of Justice, Chancery division, Queen's 
Bench, Common Pleas, and Exchequer subdivi- 
sions, Probate, Divorce, and Admiralty division 
(all which see) began .... 2 Nov. 1875 

Alter one term, it was said in the Times, "Its opera- 
tion has tended to economise judicial power and 
to prevent delay of justice " . . 29 Nov. „ 

By the Appellate Jurisdiction act (1876) the house 
of lords retains its powers as a court of ultimate 
appeal ; the court to consist of the lord chancel- 
lor, two lords of appeal (to be created peers for 
life, with 6oooi. salary), and any peers who are or 
have been lawyers. Act to come into opera- 
tion 1 Nov. 1876 

The court may sit during prorogation of parliament. 
The statute relating to the judicial committee of 
tie privy council and to the intermediate court 
of appeal is amended ,, 

By this act also the Queen's Bench, Common Pleas, 
and Exchequer divisions of the Supreme Court 
are converted into 15 courts of first instance or 
primary courts. 

Additional judge for chancery division appointed. 

Style of ordinary judges : — of the court of appeal to 
be "lord justices of the appeal;" other judges, 
"justices of the high court;" by act passed 

24 April, 1877 

An amendment act (42 &, 43 Viet. c. 78), relating to 
offices, fees, <fec, passed ... 15 Aug. 1879 

At a meeting of the judges it was resolved to recom- 
mend the abolition of the exchequer and common 
pleas, and their consolidation into one, termed the 
"queen's bench division," under the lord chief 
justice of England, 30 Nov. ; order in council 

16 Dec. 1880 

Carried into effect ; old divisions at an end ; judi- 
cature act carried out for the first time 7 March, 1881 

Further changes made by the act 44 & 45 Vict. sec. 
68, passed 27 Aug. 1881, by it the master of the 
rolls was made a judge of appeal only, and the 
chief justice of England was endowed with the 
powers of the chief justice of common pleas and 
the chief baron of the exchequer. 

New code of rules of procedure issued about 9 
July ; came into force 24 Oct. 1883. See Circuits. 
Amendment act passed (combining other acts), 14 
Aug. 1884; other acts passed 14 Aug. 1890, 11 

May, and; Aug. 1891 and 1894 

New rules issued, published ... 3 July, ,, 

Commercial causes (398) tried in a court, queen's 
bench division March, 1895 

Decrease in business of the courts, attributed to 
acceleration in the proceedings ; reported June, „ 

Judicial statistics : published annually since 1893, 
in two parts [civil and criminal]. 

Supreme court (appeals) bill passed, 6 June, 1899; 
another passed in 1902 

SiUPREME COURT OF JUDICA- 
TURE FOR IRELAND constituted by act 
parsed 14 Aug. 1877. Amended by an net passed 
23 May, 1887, by which the titles of chief baron of 
the exchequer and chief justice of the common 
pleas are to be abolished at the next vacancies; 
again, 6 Aug. 1897. 

Court of Appeal : ex-officio members, lord chancellor, 
lord chief justice of Ireland, master of the rolls, lord 
chief justice of common pleas, and lord chief baron of 
exchequer. Ordinary members, two lords justices of 
appeal. 

High Court of Justice : Chancery division, lord chan- 
cellor, master of the rolls, vice chancellor and two 
land judges. 

Queen's Bench division : lord chief justice and three 

" judges. 



SUBAT. 



1212 SURVEYORS, INSTITUTION" OF. 



Common Pleas division : lord chief justice, and two 

judges. 
Exchequer division : lord chief baron, and two judges. 
Probate and Matrimonial division : one judge. 

See under Chancery and the other divisions. 

SURAT (E. Indies). Before the English East 
India company obtained possession of Bombay, the 
presidency of their affairs on the coast of Malabar 
was at Surat ; and they had a factory here estab- 
lished under captain Best in 1611. The Great 
Mogul had here an officer who was styled his ad- 
miral. An attack of the Mahratta chief Sivajee, 
on the British factory, was defeated by sir George 
Oxenden, 1664. The English were again attacked 
in 1670 and 1702, and often subsequently. The 
East India company, in 1759, fitted out an arma- 
ment, which dispossessed the admiral of the castle ; 
and, soon after, the possession of this castle was 
confirmed to them by the court of Delhi. Surat 
was vested in the British in 1800 and 1803. A 
fourth part of Surat was destroyed by fire 6, 7 
April, 1889. 

SURGEONS. Barbers and surgeons were united 
in one company in 1540 ; but it was enacted that " no 
person using any shaving or barbery in London shall 
occupy any surgery, letting of blood, or other matter, 
excepting only the drawing of teeth." In 174^ 
the surgeons and barbers of London were made dis- 
tinct corporations. The college of surgeons obtained 
charters in 1745, 1800, and 1843 (when it was styled 
the " Royal College of Surgeons of England"), 1852 
and 1859. Since that period, various legislative and 
other important regulations have been adopted to 
promote their utility and respectability ; and no per- 
son is legally entitled to practise as a surgeon in the 
cities of London and Westminster, or within seven 
miles of the former, who has not been examined at this 
college. The college in Lincoln' s-inn-fi elds was 
remodelled in 1836, and the interior completed in 
1837. The premises were enlarged in 1852-3. The 
museum began with the Hunterian collection, 1800; 
and the library was founded in 1801. Death of 
the president, Mr. J. W . Hulke, 19 Feb. 1895 ; 
succeeded by sir Wm. MacCormac; centenary of 
the college celebrated, 26 July, 1900 (he died, aged 
65, 4 Deo. 1901); H. G. Howse, knt., June, 1902. 
Mrs. Mary Emily Dowson, the first lady surgeon 
duly qualified to act, was invested with the letters 
testimonial of the Irish college of surgeons, June, 
1886. See Anatomy, Physic, and Medical Council. 

Royal college of surgeons, Edinburgh, received its charter 
from James V. 1505 ; another received in 1778, and a 
fuller one, 1851 ; Dublin, incorporated, 17S6. 

SURGERY. It was not until the age of Hip- 
pocrates that diseases were made a separate study 
from philosophy, &c, about 410 B.C. Hippocrates 
mentions the ambe, the ancient instrument with 
which they reduced dislocated bones. Celsus flour- 
ished about a.d. 17; Galen, 170; Aetius, 500; 
Paulus iEgineta, in 640. The Arabians revived 
surgery about 900; and in the 16th century a new 
era in the science began ; between these periods 
surgery was confined to ignorant priests and bar- 
bers. Anatomy was cultivated under Vesalius, the 
father of modern surgery, in 1538. Surgeons and 
doctors were exempted from bearing arms or serving 
on juries, 1513, at which period there were only 
13 in London ; see Physic and Photography, 1896. 
For antiseptic treatment see Germ Theory. Great 
improvements in surgery in the 19th century re- 
ported by sir Joseph (aft. lord) Lister in his address to 
the British association at Liverpool, 16 Sept. 1896. 



SURGICAL AID SOCIETY, founded 
1862 ; supplies the poor with instruments, water- 
beds, &c. 

SURINAM (Dutch Guiana), discovered by 
Columbus, 1498. The factories established by the 
English in 1640 were occupied by the Portuguese, 
1643; by the Dutch, 1654; taken by the British, 
1799, 1804; and restored to the Dutch, 1802, 1814. 

Plantation riot, Mavor the manager killed, troops 
fire on the rioters, 13 killed and 40 wounded, 
reported 31 July, 1902 

SURNAMES were introduced into England by 
the Normans, and were adopted by the nobility 
about 1 100. The old Normans used Fitz, which 
signifies son, as Fitz-herbert. The Irish used 0, 
for grandson, O'Neal, O'Donnell. The Scottish 
Highlanders used Mac, as Macdonald, son of Donald. 
The Welsh used Ap, as Ap Rhys, the son of Rhys ; 
Ap Richard. The prefix Ap eventually was combined 
with the name of the father, hence Prys, Pritchard, 
&c. The northern nations added the word son to the 
father's name, as Williamson. Many of the most 
common surnames, such as Johnson, Wilson, Dyson, 
Nicholson, &c, were taken by Brabanters and other 
Flemings, who were naturalised in the reign of 
Henry VI., 1435. M. A. Lower's " Dictionary of 
English Surnames" was published in i860. 

SURPLICES were first worn by the Jewish 
priests, and are said to have been first used in 
churches in the fourth century, and encouraged by 
pope Adrian, 786. " livery minister saying public 
prayers shall wear a comely surplice with sleeves," 
Canon 58. The garb prescribed by stat. 2 Edw. VI. 
1547 ; again 1 Eliz. 1558; and 13 & 14 Chas. II. 
1062. 

SURREY CHAPEL, Blackfriars-road, was 

built for Calvinistic dissenters in 1783; the rev. 
Rowland Hill, their minister, who died in 1833, 
was buried in a vault here. The congregation 
under the rev. Newman Hall (died 18 Feb. 1902) 
removed to Christ church, in Westminster-road, 
July, 1876. See Lincoln Tower. 

SURREY HOUSE MUSEUM, Forest 

Hill, containing the collections of Mr. F. Homiman, 
cost about ioo,OOOl., presented by him to the public, 
was opened by sir Morel! Mackenzie, 24 Dec. 1890. 

SURREY ZOOLOGICAL GARDENS 

(near London) were established in 1831, hy Mr. 
Edward Cross, who brought hither the menagerie 
formerly at Exeter change. Various picture models 
have been exhibited here since 1837, viz., Vesuvius, 
Iceland, &c, accompanied by fireworks. In 1856, 
a company which had taken Hie gardens, erected a 
large yet elegant building for concerts ; the archi- 
tect being Mr. Horace Jones. On 19 Oct. 1856, 
when the hall contained about 9000 persons, attend- 
ing to hear the rev. C. H. Spurgeon, seven were 
killed and thirty seriously injured, by a false alarm 
of fire. It was burnt II June, 1S61 ; see Fires. 
In 1862 the hall was temporarily taken for the re- 
ception of the patients of St. Thomas's hospital. 

SURTEES SOCIETY for publishing MSS. 
relating to the northern counties, established 1834 ; 
84 volumes have been published, 1889. 

SURVEY ACT, passed 12 May, 1870. See 
Ordnance Survey. 

SURVEYORS, INSTITUTION OF, Lon- 
don, founded in 1808, to promote the "knowledge 
which constitutes the profession of a surveyor." 



SUSA. 



1213 



SWAZILAND. 



Incorporated by royal charter as " The Surveyors' 
Institution" in 1881. The number of members, 
1,200 in 1886 ; about 3,000 in 1897. 

SUSA, or SHTJSHAN, capital of Susiana, a pro- 
vince of Persia, was taken by Alexander the Great, 

33I B.C. 

SUSPENDING POWEE, see Dispensing 
Power. 

SUSPENSION BEIDGrES are ancient in 
China. The Hungerford (or Charing- cross) suspen- 
sion bridge, opened May 1, 1845, was removed to 
Clifton and opened there, 8 Dec. 1864. Parliament 
empowered the commissioners of woods to erect 
(among other improvements there) a suspension 
bridge at Battersea, Sept. 1846 ; and many bridges 
of similar construction have been erected in various 
parts of the kingdom. Lambeth and Westminster 
suspension bridge was opened 10 Nov. 1862 ; see 
Menai Strait, Hungerford, Clifton, &c. 

SUSPENSOEY BILL, the name given to 
"a bill to prevent for a limited time [to I Aug. 
1869] new appointments in the church of Ireland ; 
and to restrain, for the same period, in certain 
respects, the proceedings of the Ecclesiastical Com- 
missioners for Ireland." This bill was introduced 
into the commons by Mr. Gladstone, 14 May, and 
passed through committee, 5 June; rejected by the 
lords (192 to 97), 30 June, 3 a.m., 1868. A similar 
bill, with limitations relating to Wales and Mon- 
mouth shire, introduced by Mr. Asquith, read first 
time (301 to 245), 23 Feb. 1893; withdrawn, Sept. 
1893 ; see Church of England, May, 1893. 

SUSSEX, see Britain. 

SUTLEJ, a river in N.W. India, the ancient 
Hyphasis or Hypana, on the banks of which were 
fought the desperate battles of Aliwal, 28 Jan., and 
Sobraon, 10 Feb. 1846 {which see). 

SUTTEE, the burning of widows. This cus- 
tom began in India from one of the wives of 
" Bramah, the Son of God," sacrificing herself at 
his death, that she might attend him in heaven. 
Seventeen widows have burnt themselves on the 
funeral pile of a rajah ; and in Bengal alone, 700 
have thus perished in a year. The English govern- 
ment, after long discouraging suttees, by the agency 
of lord William Bentinck, formally abolished them, 
7 Dec. 1829 ; but they have since occasionally taken 
place. The wife of the son of the rajah of Beygoon 
thus perished, June, 1864, and several wives of sir 
Jung Bahadoor, minister of Nepaul, 1 March, 1877. 
Suttees still occur ; one, voluntary, at Poona, Nov. 
1890. 

About 20,000,000 women in enforced widowhood ; 
much profligacy, 1885. Legislative interference 
with the Hindoo marriage laws declared by lord 
Dutferin, viceroy, to be ineffectual and un- 
necessary ; moral influence progressing (see 
Brahmo Soma j, under Deism) announced Oct. 1886 

SUWANOW, or (SUWOBOFF), a group of 
small uninhabited isles in the Pacific, about 450 
miles NNW. of the Samoan isles, annexed by 
Great Britain, 1889. 

SWABIA, a province in S. Germany; was con- 
quered by Clovis, and incorporated into the king- 
dom of the Franks, 496. After various changes of 
rulers, it was made a duchy by the emperor Conrad 
I., in 912, for Erchanger; according to some, in 
916, for Burckhardt. The duchy became hereditary 
in the house of Hohenstaufen in 1080. Duke 



Frederick III. became emperor of Rome, com- 
monly styled of Germany, as rrederick I. (usu- 
ally styled Barbarossa, red beard), in 1152. 
Conradin, his descendant, was defeated at the 
battle of Tagliacozzo (which see), in 1268, and 
beheaded shortly after. The breaking up of the 
ducny gave rise to many of the small German 
states ; part of Swabia is included in Wiirtemberg 
and Switzerland. Swabia was made a circle of the 
empire in 1387 and 1500. A league, composed of 
Swabian cities and states, about 1254, was the germ 
of the great Swabian league, formed for the preser- 
vation of the peace of Germany, under the auspices 
of the emperor Frederick, in 1488. 

SWAN EIVEE SETTLEMENT, see 
Western Australia. 

SWANSEA, Glamorganshire, an ancient 
Welsh town; seat of the copper trade since 1719. 
New dock opened by the prince of Wales, 18 Oct. 
1881. Population, 1881, 76,430; 1891, 90,423; 
1901, 94,5!4- 
The British association met here Aug. 1848, and 

Aug., Sept. 1880 
Lewis L. Dillvvyn, 37 years M.P. for Swansea, died 

suddenly 19 June, 1892 

Boating disaster in the bay, 14 persons drowned, 

7 Aug. 1893 
Lord Rosebery receives the freedom . . 21 Dec. 1901 
The Mumbles lifeboat capsized in the bay, 6 lives 

lost ! Feb. 1903 

British medical association met here, 28-31 July, 

SWAT, or SVAT, a river, N.W. India. The 
Akhond, Abdul Ghafur, originally an austere Ma- 
hometan fanatic, about 1822, gradually obtained 
temporal power over the tribes in the hills near 
Afghanistan, dying in high reputation, about 1878. 

SWAZILAND, South Africa, a tract of about 
8,000 square miles, nearly surrounded by the 
Transvaal territory; population, about 60,000 
natives and 600 whites, 1889. 

Great disorders through the weakness of the king, 
Umbandeni ; influenced successively by opposing 
white factions, English and Boers ; the king dies, 

6 Oct. 1889 

To settle the government of the country, sir Francis 
de Winton was appointed British commissioner, 
sailed 8 Oct. ; at Pretoria, about 12 Nov. ; Boer 
commissioners were appointed . about 21 Oct. 

Boon, eldest son of Umbandeni, elected king ; 
Mr. Shepstone appointed to take charge of Euro- 
pean affairs about 23 Oct. ,, 

Sir Francis de Winton and the Transvaal commis- 
sioners meet 100 head-men of the Swazis ; results : 
the independence of the nation to be preserved ; 
the accession of the king recognized ; the queen- 
mother to be regent during his minority ; Mr. 
Shepstone to be adviser ; the commissioners to 
govern the whites during their stay, to be suc- 
ceeded by 3 delegates; a legal tribunal to be 
appointed to enquire respecting concessions of 
land to the whites ... XI Dec. 

The queen-regent (by Mr. Shepstone) proclaims 
submission to the commissioners, about 16 Dec. • 
the commissioners appoint 3 delegates (British' 
Boer, and Swazi) to help the queen, pending the 
decision of the British and Transvaal govern- 
ments, and leave Dec. 

At a conference with president Kriiger at Blignauts 
Pont, it was agreed to defer the settlement for 
four months I2 March, 

Independence of the Swazis re-affirmed by a con- 
vention ; a joint administration over the white 
settlers to be established with other conditions ; 
signed by president Kriiger ; reported 4 Aug. ; 
ratified by the volksraad. . . .8 Aug. 

Conference of commissioners, sir H. B. Loch and 
president Kriiger at Colesberg, 18-20 April, 1893 ; 
sir H. B. Loch arrives at Pretoria, . 3 June, 

Convention of 1890 prolonged . . . 8 Aug. 



1890 



SWEABORG. 



1214 



SWEDEN. 



Convention transferring Swaziland to the Transvaal 
government, signed at Pretoria . . 13 Nov. 1893 

Renewed political complications, the queen-regent 
refuses to sign the convention, reported 13 April, 1894 

New convention agreed to, dual control extended 
for 6 months 29 June, ,, 

A deputation of 6 indunas (chiefs) from the queen, 
desiring a British protectorate for their country, 
accompanied by Mr. J. Stuart and Mr. Hulett, 
arrive at Plymouth, 27 Oct. 1894 ; interview with 
the marquis of Ripon, 31 Oct. ; entertained by 
the baroness Burdett-Coutts, 7 Nov., and others ; 
by the queen at Windsor, 15 Nov. ; leave South- 
ampton . . . . . ■ .17 Nov - >i 

Conference between sir Henry Loch and president 
Krtiger in the Transvaal, 7 Dec. ; a new conven- 
tion signed 10 Dec. „ 

Sir Henry Loch delivers the queen's message to the 
envoys 15 Dec. ,, 

British residents and others oppose annexation to 
the Transvaal 27 Nov. „ 

The Transvaal volksraad adopt the new convention 
without the consent of Swaziland . . 13 Feb. 1895 

Mr. T. Krogh appointed administrator, 19 Feb. ; 
the government taken over . . . 21 Feb. ,, 

Resignation of col. Martin, British commissioner, 

10 March, ,, 

King Bunu installed as chief captain . 16 March, ,, 

Financial agreement between the king and the 
Transvaal government Dec. ,, 

The Transvaal volunteer force, with an advance 
guard, crosses the border on the king disobeying 
an ultimatum summoning him to appear at 
Bremersdorp to answer for the murder of the 
headinduna, 21 June, 1898 ; fails to obey the sum- 
mons, 5 July ; an indaba held at Bremersdorp, 
commissioner Krogh president, gen. Joubert and 
the British consul present, the queen to stand 
in Bunu s place as chief of the Swazi nation, 

14 July, 1898 

Protocol of the convention, " a wise and satisfac- 
tory settlement," signed .... 5 Oct. ,, 

King Bunu fined 500Z. for allowing acts of rapine, 
he dies later Nov. 1899 

The queen-regent appoints Isitoso, her son, king ; 
reported April, 1900 

SWEABOEG, a strong fortress in Finland, the 
Gibraltar of the north, 3* miles south of Helsing- 
fors; it is situated on seven rocky islands; the 
fortifications were commenced by the Swedes in 1748, 
and completed after Finland was united to Russia 
in 1809. On 6 Aug. 1855, the English and French 
fleet anchored off Sweaborg, and bombarded it by 
mortar and gun-boats from the 9th to the nth, 
causing the destruction of nearly all the principal 
buildings, including the dockyard and arsenal. Few 
casualties and no loss of life ensued in the allied 
squadron, but this success was not followed up. 

SWEARING on the Gospels, first used 

about 528, and introduced in judicial proceedings 
about 600. — Rapin. Profane Swearing made 
punishable by fine ; a labourer or servant forfeiting 
is., others 28. for the first offence; for the second 
offence, 4s. ; the third offence, 6s. ; 6 Will. III. 
1695 ; see Oaths. 

SWEATING SICKNESS, see Plague. 

Sweating System, a term applied, especially in 
the east end of London, to the practice carried 
on by large tradesmen of entrusting orders to 
middlemen termed "sweaters," who employ 
men, women, and children (principally foreigners) 
to make up clothes, boots, and furniture in their 
own houses at excessively low wages with many 
evil consequences. Lord Dunraven's motion for 
a select committee of inquiry was carried in the 
lords, 28 Feb. ; archbishop Of Canterbury, earl of 
Derby, and others appointed 9 March, 1888. 
Painfully distressing evidence was obtained. 
The origin of the evil is attributed to the great 
competition in producing extreme cheapness. 
The new and foreign workmen are termed 
"greeners." It is stated that about 5s. are 



sometimes paid for a week of days of 14 hours', 
May. The sufferings of the Cradley Heath chain- 
makers, nailmakers, and others were disclosed 
to the committee .... March, 1889 
Anti-sweating league formed in London . 1 Oct. ,, 
The fifth and final report recommends, that where 
legislation cannot intervene capitalists should 
enquire into the way in which their work is 
carried on, with the view of improvement 5 May, 1890 
Blue Book published .... 19 May ,, 

SWEDEN (N. Europe). The ancient inhabi- 
tants were the Fins, now the modern inhabitants of 
Finland, who retired to their present territory on 
the appearance of the Scandinavians or Goths, who 
have ever since been masters of Sweden ; see 
Scandinavia, and Norivay, 1891. The internal 
state of this kingdom is little known previous 
to the nth century. By the union of Calmar 
in 1397, Sweden became a province of Denmark, 
and was not wholly rescued from this sub- 
jection till '1 52 1, when Gustavus Vasa recovered 
the kingdom from the Danish yoke. He became 
king in 1523, and his descendants ruled till 
1809. The government of Sweden is a limited 
monarchy. The diet consists of four orders, the 
nobles, the clergy, the peasants, and the burghers, 
and meet every three years. The king is, as in 
Britain, the head of the executive. There are two 
universities, Upsal and Lund ; and Sweden can 
boast, among its great men, Linnasus, Celsius, 
Scheele, Bergman, Berzelius, Thorwaldsen, and 
Andersen. Population (31 Dec. 1887) of Sweden, 
4,734.901 ; of Norway (1875), 1,806,900. Sweden, 
1890,4,784,675. Norway, 1891, 1,988997. Norway, 
1900, 2,239,81:0; Sweden, 1901,5.175,228. Sweden, 
1890-91, '4,911,894/. Norway, 1891-2, estimated 
revenue, 2,733,333/. ; expenditure, 2,738,889/. 

The mythical hero Odin said to arrive in the north, 

and died B.C. 40 

His son Skiold reigns 

The Skioldungs reign till Olaf the infant is baptized, 
and introduces Christianity among his people, 

about a.d. 1000 
Waldemar I. of Denmark subdues Rugen, and de- 
stroys the pagan temples 1 168 

Stockholm founded 1260 

Magnus Ladulses establishes a regular form of 

government I2 79 

The crown of Sweden, which had been hereditary, 
is made elective ; and Steenchel Magnus, sur- 
named Sma;k, or the foolish, king of Norway, is 

elected 1319 

Waldemar lays Gothland waste .... 1361 

Albert of Mecklenburg reigns 1363 

Treaty or union of Calmar (which see), by which 
Sweden is muted to Denmark and Norway, under 

Margaret 1397 

University of Upsal founded 1476 

Christian II. of Denmark, " the Nero of the North," 

massacres the Swedish nobility .... 1520 
The Swedes delivered from the Danish yoke by the 

valour of Gustavus Vasa 1521 

Gustavus Vasa raised to the throne .... 1523 
He introduces Lutheranism and religious liberty . 1527 

Makes the crown hereditary 1544 

Gustavus Adolphus heads the protestant cause in 

Germany 1628 

He takes Magdeburg and Munich, 1630 ; slain at 

Lutzen 16 Nov. 1632 

Rugen ceded to Sweden by Denmark . . . 1648 
Abdication of Christina . . . 16 June, 1654 

Charles X. overruns Poland 1655 

Arts and sciences begin to flourish . . . . 1660 

University of Lund founded 1666 

Charles XII., "the Madman of the North," begins 
his reign ; he makes himself absolute ; abolishes 
the senate, 1699 ; and defeats the Russians at 
Narva ....... 30 Nov. 1700 

Battle of Pultowa, where Charles is defeated by the 

czar of Russia (see Ptdtowa) . . . 8 July, 1709 
He escapes to Bender, where, after three years' pro- 
tection, he is made a prisoner by the Turks . . 1713 



SWEDEN. 



1215 



SWEDEN. 



He is restored ; and after ruinous wars, and fighting 
numerous battles, is killed at the siege of Frede- 

riekshald n Dec. 1718 

Queen Ulrica abolishes despotism .... 1719 
Bremen and Verden ceded to Hanover . . Nov. ,, 
Royal Academy founded by Linnanis - . . 1741 
Conspiracy of counts of Brahe and Home, who are 

beheaded 1756 

The Hats and Caps (French and Russian parties), 
1738-57 : put down by Gustavus III. . . . 1770 

Despotism re-established 1772 

Order of the Sword instituted ,, 

Assassination of Gustavus III. by count Anker- 

strom, at a ball, 16 March ; he expired 29 March, 1792 
The regicide was scourged with whips of iron 
thongs three successive days ; his right hand 
was cut off, then his head, and his body impaled, 

18 May, ,, 
Gustavus IV. dethroned and the government as- 
sumed by his uncle, the duke of Sudermania 
(Charles XIII.) .... 13 March, 1809 

Representative constitution established . 7 June, ,, 
Sweden cedes Finland to Russia . . 17 Sept. ,, 
Marshal Bernadotte, the prince of Ponte Corvo (one 
of Bonaparte's generals), chosen the crown prince 

of Sweden 21 Aug. 1810 

Gustavus IV. arrived in London . . .12 Nov. ' ,, 
Swedish Pomerania seized by Napoleon . 9 Jan. 1812 
Alliance with England ... 12 July, „ 

Sweden joins the grand alliance against Napoleon, 

13 March, 1813 
Norway is ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Kiel, 

14 Jan. ; carried into effect . . . Nov. 1814 

Bernadotte king, as Charles John XIV. . 5 Feb. 1818 

Canals and roads constructed 1822 

Treaty of navigation between Great Britain and 

Sweden 19 May, 1826 

Death of Charles John ; his son Oscar I. king, 8 Mar. 1844 
Alliance with England and France . 21 Nov. 1855 

Banishment decreed against catholic converts from 

Lutheranism Oct. 1857 

Demonstration in favour of Italy . . . 17 Dec. 1859 
Increased religious toleration . . . May, i860 

The king visits England and France . . Aug. 1861 
He is warmly received in Denmark . 17 July, 1862 
Treaty of commerce with Italy, signed . 14 June, ,, 
Demonstration in favour of Poland . . April, 1863 
Inauguration of free trade .... 1 Jan. 1864 
Sweden protests against the occupation of Sleswig 

by the allies 22 Jan. ,, 

Excitement throughout the country ; March : pre- 
paration for war ; (no result) . . . April, ,, 
Foundation of a " National Scandinavian Society" 
at Stockholm to obtain by legal means a confede- 
ration of the three kingdoms for military and 
foreign affairs, reserving independent interior ad- 
ministration ....... Dec. 

New constitution passed by the chambers, 4-8 Dec. 
Commercial treaty with France approved . Feb. 1866 
Severe famine in North Sweden . . Oct. -Dec. 1867 
Resignation of ministers, 9 April ; new ministry 

under M. Wachtmeister ... 4 June, 1868 

Princess Louisa was married to Frederic, crown- 
prince of Sweden .... 28 July, 1869 

Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war was pro- 
claimed 4 Aug. 1870 

The queen dies 13 March, 1871 

Prince Oscar visits England ; lays foundation of a 

Scandinavian church at Rotherhithe 27 July, ,, 
Re-organization of the army proposed, Aug. ; nega- 
tived Oct. ,, 

Death of king Charles XV. . . . 18 Sept. 1872 

The diet opened by king Oscar II. . 20 Jan. 1873 

The king and queen crowned . . . 12 May, ,, 
Ministry under baron de Geer . . 11 May, 1875 
The king and queen visit Copenhagen and Beriin ; 

warmly received .... 26-28 May, ,, 
Ministry under Dr. Forssell . . . 19 April, 1880 
The king with the queen at Bournemouth for his 

health . . . May, 1881 

Ministry of count Posse defeated on the army bill, 

resigns 25 May, 1883 

M. Thyselius appointed premier . .13 June, ,, 
The crown prince made viceroy of Norway 

19 March, 1884 
M. 0. R. Themptander appointed premier 16 May, ,, 
The king visits Britain, July, Aug. 1884 ; at Con- 
stantinople 9 April, 1885 



New ministry formed under baron Bildt, 6 Feb. 188S 

Prince Oscar married to Miss Munck at Bourne- 
mouth, England ; his mother present 15 March, ,, 

The king visits England . . . early June, ,, 

Norway agitates for autonomy in foreign affairs ; 
opposed by Sweden Feb. 1892 

Extraordinary session of the diet to consider the 
national defences . . . .22 Oct. et seq. ,, 

Bills for the reorganization of the army adopted by 
the legislature 27 Nov. ,„ 

The parliament opened by the king with a cheerful 
speech 18 Jan. 1893 

A national assembly of radicals (130) elected by 
non-electors, meets at Stockholm . 13 March, ,, 

Sir Spenser St. John appointed British minister, 

May, , „ 

Telephonic communication opened between Stock- 
holm and Christiania . . .2 Sept. 

The 300th anniversary of the Swedish reformation 
celebrated at Upsala, the king present, 5-7 Sept. „. 

General election, 145 grain free traders and 83 pro- 
tectionists 30 Sept. ; , 

Revision of the constitution of the two chambers, 

1 March, 1894 

Celebration of the birth of Gustavus Adolphus (9 
Dec. 1594) throughout Sweden . . .9 Dec. ,,, 

The king receives the committee of Union, and de- 
precates change 5 Dec. 1895 

The king in opening parliament, maintains the 
union with Norway, announces a large surplus of 
revenue, provision for national defence proposed, 

18 Jan. 1896 

The hon. F. Pakenham appointed British minister, 

Jan. ,, 

Karl Herman Satherberg, poet and physician, born 
1812, died 9 Jan. 1897 

Parliament opened by the king . . 19 Jan. ,, 

Celebration of the 25th anniversary of the acces- 
sion of Oscar II., at Stockholm 18 Sept. et seq. ,, 

Parliament opened by the king . 18 Jan. 189S 

Report of the Swedish committee on the Union, to 
Parliament 7 March, ,,. 

Swedish Arctic (scientific) expedition, under Dr. A. 
G. Nathorst, to explore the region between Spitz- 
bergen and Franz Josef Land, starts spring, ,,. 

Parliament opened with a speech from the throne, 

18 Jan. 1899, 

Parliament opened by the king ; budget introduced, 

18 Jan. 1900. 

l.aige sums voted for the army and navy, 19 April, ,, 

The king heartily received at Cambridge ; made 
D.C.L., 14 May ; visits Woolwich arsenal, 25 
May ; visits Paris ; leaves . . .16 June, , r 

Johan P. Nordlund sentenced to death for murder- 
ing 7 persons and wounding 5 others on board a 
steamer near Quicksund (7 May) . . 30 June, ,,. 

M. Bostrom, premier, resigns, succeeded by adm. 
von Otter mid Sept. „ 

Illness of the king, the crown prince regent, 17 
Oct. ; the king resumes his office . . 21 Jan. 1901 

Army reorganisation and military service law, 
ratified 25 June, ,,, 

Prof, baron von Nordenskjold, great Arctic ex- 
plorer, dies, aged 69 . . . . 12 Aug. ,,. 

Dr. Otto Nordenskjold's S. Polar expedition leaves, 

16 Oct. „ 

Universal suffrage demonstrations" in Stockholm 
and other towns 20 April, 1002.- 

Ministry resigns, 28 June ; M. Bostrijm turms one, 

5 July, ,, 

Sir Wm, Curzon Barrington appointed British 
minister 14 Oct. ,, 

Parliament opened, extension of the franchise 
proposed 17 Jan. 1903, 

The council meets ; in consequence of the con- 
tinued ill-health of the king, the crown prince 
assumes the regency . . . .27 Jan. ,,, 

Expedition for the relief of Dr. Nordenskjold's. 
south polar expedition, under command of capt. 
Glyden, of the Swedish navy, leaves Stockholm 
on board the " Frithjof " . . . 17 Aug. ,,, 

kings of sweden (previously Kings of Upsal). 
1001. Olaf Schotkonung, or Olif Schostkonung the Infant, 

is styled king, 1015. 
1026. Edmund Colbrenner. 
1051. Edmund Slemme. 
1056. Stenkill. 



SWEDEN. 



1216 



SWEET-BAY. 



1066. 
1090. 
1112. 
1118. 
1129. 

"55- 
1161. 
1167. 
1 199. 
1 2 10. 
1216. 
1222. 
1250. 

I27S- 
1290. 
1319. 
i35°- 
*359- 
1363- 



of Denmark, styled 
deposed for his cruel - 



Hals tan. 

Ingo I. the Good. 

Philip 

Ingo II. 

Swerker or Suercher I. 

St. Eric IX. 

Charles VII. ; made prisoner by his successor. 

Canute, son of Eric I. 

Swerker or Suercher II. ; killed in battle. 

Eric X. 

John I. 

Eric XI. the Stammerer. 

Birger Jarl, regent. 

Waldemar I. 

Magnus I. Ladulses. 

Birger II. 

Magnus II. Smsek ; dethroned 

Eric XII. 

Magnus restored ; deposed 1363. 

Albert of Mecklenburg : his tyranny causes a re- 
volt of his subjects, who invite Margaret of Den- 
mark to the throne. 

Margaret, queen of Su'eden and Norviay now also 
of Denmark, and Erie XIII. 

[Union of Calmar, by which the three kingdoms 
are united under one sovereign. ] 

Eric XIII. governs alone ; deposed. 

Christopher III. 

Charles VIII. Canuteson, king of Sweden only. 

[Interregnum.] Sten Sture, Protector. 

John II. (I. of Denmark). 

[Interregnum.] 

Swante Sture, Protector. 

Sten Sture, Protector. 

Christiern, or Christian II. 
the " Nero of the North ; : 
ties. 

Gustavus I. Vasa ; by whose valour the Swedes are 
delivered from the Danish yoke. 

Eric XIV., son ; dethroned and slain by 

John III., brother. 

Sigismund III., king of Poland, son ; disputes for 
the succession continued the whole cf this 
reign. 

Charles IX. brother of John III. 

Gustavus II. Adolphus, the Great, son ; fell at the 
battle of Lutzen, 16 Nov. 1632. 

[Interregnum.] 

Christina, daughter of Gustavus. Resigned the 
crown to her cousin, 16 June, 1654 ; died at 
Rome in 1689. 

Charles X. Gustavus, son of John Casimir, count 
palatine of the Rhine. 

Charles XI. son ; the arts and sciences flourished in 
this reign. 

Charles XII., son ; styled the "Alexander "and the 
" Madman of the North ;" killed at Fredericks- 
hall, 11 Dec. 1718. 

Ulrica Eleanora, sister, and her consort, Frede- 
rick I. landgrave of Hesse Cassel. Ulrica relin- 
quishes the crown, and in 

Frederick reigned alone. 

Adolphus Frederick of Holstein Gottorp, descended 
from the family of Vasa. 

Gustavus III. Adolphus, son ; assassinated by 
count Ankarstrbm at a masked ball, 16 March ; 
died 2Q March, 1792. 

Gustavus IV. Adolphus, son ; dethroned, and the 
government assumed by his uncle, the duke of 
Siulermania. 

Charles XIII. duke of Sudermania. 
[Treatv of Kiel (1814), by which Norway falls under 
the sovereignty of Sweden.] 

Charles (John) XIV. Bcrnadotte, the French prince 
of Ponte Corvo ; died 8 March, 1844. 

Oscar I., son ; born 4 July, 1799 ; died 8 July, 1859. 

Charles XV., son ; born 3 May, 1826 ; died 18 Sept. 
1872 ; a poet ; brave and impulsive ; much be- 
loved. 

Oscar II., brother ; born 21 Jan. 1829 ; married 

princess Sophia of Nassau, 6 June, 1857. 
Heir : Gustavus, son, born 16 June, 1858 ; married 
to Victoria of Baden, 20 Sept. 1881. 

PRINCIPAL SWEDISH AUTHORS. 

Olaus Petri, 1497-1552, and his brother Laurentius, 
1499-1573, translated the Bible into Swedish in 1541. 



1412. 
1440. 
1448. 
1471. 

1483- 
1502. 

i5°3- 
1512. 
1520. 



1500. 
1569. 
1592. 



1604. 
1611. 

1632. 
1633. 



1654. 
1660. 
1697. 

1718. 



1741. 
1751- 



177c 
1792. 



1S44. 
1859- 



1872. 



Bo n. Died. 

Liniiceus, not 1707 1778 

Karl Fredrik Dahlgren, p. and hum. . 1791 1844 

Geijer, p. and hist. . . . . . 1783 1S47 

Tegner, p 1782 1846 

Almqvist, m 1793 1866 

Johan Ludvig Runeberg, p. 1804 1877 

Frederika Bremer, n 1801 1865 

Wetterbergh, " Uncle Adam". . . 1804 1889 

Magnus Jakob Crusenstolpe, n. and h. . 1795 1865 
August Strindberg, n. .... 1849 

Fryxell, hist 1795 1881 

Johan Jakob Berzelius, ph. . . . 1779 1848 
Baron Nordenskiold, nat. and explorer . 1832 

SWEDENBORGIANS is the name given 
to those who adopt the theological teachings of 
Emanuel Swedenborg, but the organisation these 
have formed they call the New Church, or New 
Jerusalem Church. 

Swedenborg was born in Stockholm, 29 January, 1688, 
died in London 29th March, 1772 ; interred in a vault 
of the Swedish church in Prince's-square, near the 
Tower of London. 

Assessor in the Swedish Royal College of Mines, 1717- 
1747, with a seat in the Upper House of the Legis- 
lature. 

Ennobled by queen Ulrica Eleanora, 1719. 

Wrote many scientific and philosophical works, his 
P7~incipia, Economy of the Animal Kingdom, &c., being 
published at the expense of the duke of Brunswick. 

In 1743 he began his work as a theologian, writing Arcana 
Ccelistia, Heaven and Hell, True Christian Religion, 
Divine Lore and Wisdom, Divine Piovidence, Apoca- 
lypse Revealed, &e., &c. 

In London meetings of his followers began in 1783 ; 
they organised for public worship 1787. 

Swedenborg Society for publishing his works founded 
1810. 

Missionary and Tract Society of the New Church, 1821. 

National Missionary Institution, 1857. 

New Church Orphanage, i83i. 

In 1903 there were 71 churches in Great Britain con- 
nected with the General Conference, and 9 indepen- 
dent congregations. In America there were 81 
connected with the General Convention, and many 
important circles in affiliation. In Canada there were 
5 places of worship, and others in Australia, New 
Zealand, and South Africa. Also in France, Germany, 
Austria, Hungary, Sweden, Denmark, &c. 

Their belief is that the whole Godhead is centred in 
Jesus Christ, who is Father, Son, and Holy Spirit ; 
Creator, Redeemer, and Saviour ; one in essence and 
person ; in whom is a Trinity of Love, Wisdom, and 
Power, answering to the trinity in man of soul, body, 
and their operation ; that Salvation is effected by 
faith in Him and obedience to Him, the Lord 
operating with the man, and the man co-operating 
with the Lord, and that Charity and Faith are 
together in good works ; that the Sacred Scripture is 
the Word of God or the Divine Truth itself, the literal 
sense being the basis and continent of a spiritual 
sense in all and every part, and that the word is in all 
the heavens and the wisdom of the angels is thence 
derived ; that man is a spiritual being fitted for life in 
the spiritual world, clothed temporarily with a 
material body for life in this world, which at 
"death" he lays aside for ever; that the last 
Judgment was effected in the spiritual world during 
Swedenborg's lifetime ; and that the Lord's Second 
Coming has taken place in the revelation to man by 
the Lord, through the instrumentality of Sweden- 
borg, of a new system of truth derived from the 
inner or spiritual sense of Scripture, based upon the 
literal sense when properly understood, and having 
special application to the spiritual life and needs of 
man , here and hereafter. Publishing house, 1 , Blooms- 
bury -street, W.C. 

SWEET-BAY, Laurus nobilis, was brought to 
these realms from Italy before 1548. Laurus indica, 
or Royal Bay, was brought from Madeira in 1665. 
The Sweet-Fern bush, Comptonia asplemfolia, came 
from America, 1 7 14. Laurus aggregata, or the 
Glaucous Laurel, came from China in 1806. 



SWIMMING. 



1217 



SWITZERLAND. 



SWIMMING- Leander is said to have swum 
across the Hellespont, between Sestos and Abydos, 
about one mile ; and Lord Byron and lieut. Eken- 
head did the same, 3 May, 1810. On 24 Aug. 1872, 
Mr. Johnson, styled the "hero of London-bridge," 
and swimming champion of the world, attempted to 
swim from Dover to Calais, but was prevented by 
cold. He was said to have swum seven miles in 
about sixty-five minutes. " Swimming," by Archi- 
bald Sinclair and William Henry (Badminton 
Library), 1894, contains remarkable records. 
Public swimming bath on the Thames opened, 

6 July, 1875 
€apt. Matt. Webb swam from Blackwall to Graves- 
end, 20 miles, in 4 hours 53 minutes, 3 July ; and 
from Dover to Calais (22 J miles) in 23J hours, 24-25, 
Aug. 1S75 ; drowned while attempting to cross 
the rapids of Niagara ... 24 July, 1882 

Agnes Beckwith, aged 14, swam from London 

bridge to Greenwich, 5 miles, in 1 h. 8min.i Sept. 1875 
Emily Parker, aged 15, swam from London bridge 

to Blackwall, 7 miles, in 1 h. 35 min. . 4 Sept. ,, 
Mr. Cavill swam from Dover to Calais in 12 hours, 

20, 21 Aug. 1877 
Miss Beckwith said to have swum 30 continuous 

hours 7, 8 May, 1880 

Taylor wins the amateur swimming championship 

of Great Britain at Birmingham . 19 Aug. 1882 
Davis Dalton, an American, aged 38, swam on his 
back across the Channel, accompanied by a life- 
boat from Boulogne to Folkestone 17-18 Aug. 1890 
Willie Beckwith, an eminent swimmer, aged 36, 

dies 13 Dec. 1892 

World's swimming championship won by J. A. 
Jarvis, 500 metres in 8 nun. 33 3-5 sec. at Paris, 

16 Aug. 1903 
William Finney, a professional diver, aged 28, died, 
at Walsall hospital, from injuries received in 
diving from a platform 30 feet high into a tank 
containing 4 feet of water. He was engaged for 
some years at the Westminster Aquarium, where 
he dived in a burning sack into a shallow tank ; 
lie performed three years in Berlin (his brother 
James was champion swimmer of the world at 
nearly all distances from 1883 to 1889), end of Aug. ,, 
Mr. Montague Holbein makes his fourth attempt 
to swim across the Channel, Dover to Calais ; 
when within about 7 miles of the French coast, 
he abandons the attempt, after being 17^ hours 
in the water (his best performance was on 27 Aug. 
1902, from Cape Grisnez to Dover, when he got 
within 2 miles of Dover, after remaining in the 
sea 22^ hours) . . . . . 1,2 Sept. „ 
Boytori s Apparatus, see under Life Boat. 

SWING. Between 1830 and 1833 many hay- 
stacks and barns were fired in the rural districts of 
England, and attributed to an imaginary person 
named " Swing." Many persons were caught and 
punished. The probable cause was disputes between 
the farmers and their dissatisfied labourers. 

SWISS GUAEDS, Royal, in France, formed 
in 1616 ; massacred while defending the Tuileries, 
10 Aug. 1792; re-organised Sept. 1815 ; defeated 
during the insurrection, 28 July, 1830 ; dismissed 
by Charles X. Aug. 1830. 

SWITHIN'S DAY, ST., 15 July. St. Swithin 
lived in the 9th century; and, having been the 
preceptor to king Ethelwulf, was made bishop of 
Winchester in 852, and died 2 July, 862. The 
tradition states that it rained forty clays in conse- 
quence of the proposed removal of his remains from 
the churchyard to the cathedral. 

SWITZEELAND was in ancient times in- 
habited by the Helvetii {which see). The country 
was colonised by the Romans after Csesar's victory 
over the Helvetii in their invasion of Gaul, 58 B.C., 
and the people were gradually combined _ with the 
Romans and partook of the fortunes of their empire. 



The canton Schweitz has given name to the whole 
confederacy. — The present national council is 
elected every third year, at the rate of one mem- 
ber for 2000 persons. The president of the con- 
federation of the 22 cantons is elected annually. 
The revised federal constitution was voted 19 April, 
1874. See Referendum. — Population, Dec. i860, 
2,507,170; 1870,2,669,147; 1880,2,846,102; June 
1888, 2,917,754; Dec. 1900, 3,313,817. Revenue, 
1890, 2,704,850/. ; expenditure, 2,667,535/. ; 1900, 
revenue, 4,041,348/; expenditure, 4,110,313/. 
" The Swiss Confederation," by sir F. O. Adams 
and C. D. Cunningham ; published by Mac- 
millan & Co 1889 



SWISS CONFEDERATION OF 1815. 



Uri, 1307 

Schweitz 

Unterwalden 

Zurich 

Berne 

Lucerne 

Solotlmru 

Basle 

Grisons 

Aargau 

Thureau 



first con- 
federa- 
tion. 



Schaffhausen 

Appenzell 

St. Gall , 

Glaris 

Zug 

Freiburg 

Tessins 

Pays de Vaud 

Valais 

Neufchatel 

Geneva 



1306 



1307 



Helvetia ravaged by the Huns 909 

Becomes subject to Germany 1032 

Friburg built by Berthold IV 1179 

Berne built 1191 

Tyranny of Gesler, heroism of William Tell, and re- 
volt (demonstrated to be mythical), dated . 
Confederation against Austria ; declaration of Swiss 

independence 4 Nov. 

The men of Uri, Unterwalden, and Schwytz made 
a solemn defensive league and covenant for ever 
against the Austrians ; this is regarded as the 
foundation of the Swiss Confederation, 1 Aug. 
1291 ; said to have been confirmed by the leaders, 
Werner Stauffacher (of Schwytz), Walter Fiirst 
(Uri), and Arnold von Melchthal (Unterwalden), 
determined to free their country from a foreign 

yoke 17 Nov - » 

A malignant fever carries off, in the canton of Basle, 

1100 persons 13H 

Form of government made perpetual . . . . 1315 
Leopold of Austria defeated at Morgarten, 15 Nov. ,, 

Lucerne joins the confederacy 133 2 

The canton of Zurich joins and becomes head of the 

league i35° 

Berne, Glaris, and Zug join 1351 

8 cantons form a perpetual league . . . . 1353 
Leopold II. of Austria defeated and slain at Sempach, 

9 July, 1386 
The Austrians defeated at Nafels, 9 April, 1388 ; 

make peace 1389 

The Grisons league (see Caddee) .... 1400 

Second league of the Grisons 1424 

The third league of the Grisons .... 1436 

Battle of St. Jacobs on the Birs, near Basle (1600 

Swiss resist 30,000 French, and are all killed, the 

enemy losing 10,000) .... 26 Aug. 

The Swiss defeat Charles the Bold at Granson, 5 

March ; and at Morat .... 22 June, 1476 
And aid the duke of Lorraine at Nancy, where 

Charles is slain 5 Jan. 1477 

Swiss soldiers first enter into the pay of France, 

under Louis XI 1480 

Fribourg and Soleure join ; confederation formed . 1481 
Maximilian I. emperor, acknowledges Swiss inde- 
pendence 

Schaffhausen and Basle join the union 

Confederation of 13 cantons 

The Swiss invade Milan and defeat the French at 

Novara 6 June, 

Defeated by them at Marignano . 13, 14 Sept. 
The Swiss confederacy acknowledged by France and 

other powers iS 1 ^ 

The Reformation begins at Basle ; the bishop com- 
pelled to retire i5 I 9 

The Reformation adopted by some cantons ; battle 
of Cappel, Zwingli killed and reformers defeated, 

12 Oct. 1531 
The Grison leagues join the Swiss confederacy as 

allies 1544 

4 I 



1444 



1499 
1 501 
1513 



1515 



SWITZERLAND. 



1218 



SWITZERLAND. 



Appenzel joins the other Cantons . . . . 1597 

Charles Emanuel of Savoy attempts Geneva by sur- 
prise, scales the walls, and penetrates the town, 
but in the end is defeated 1602 

[This circumstance gave rise to an annual festival 
commemorative of their escape from tyranny.] 

Independence of Switzerland recognised by the 
treaty of Westphalia (see Westphalia) . . . 1648 

Peace of Aargau, end of religious war . . Aug. 1712 

[From this period until the French revolution the 
cantons enjoyed tranquillity, disturbed only by 
the changes arising out of their various constitu- 
tions.] 

Alliance with France 25 May, 1777 

trife in Geneva, between the aristocratic and demo- 
cratic parties ; France interferes . . . . 1781 

1000 fugitive Genevese seek an asylum in Ireland 
(see Geneva) 1782 

Swiss guards ordered to quit France . . . . 1792 

Helvetic confederation dissolved ; its subjugation 
by France 1798 

Helvetian republic formed ,, 

Switzerland the seat of war .... 1799-1802 

The number of cantons increased to 19 ; the federal 
government restored ; and a landamman appointed 
by France 12 May, „ 

Uri, Schweitz, and Underwald separate from the 
republic 13 July, ,, 

Switzerland .joins France with 6000 men 24 Aug. 1811 

The allies entered Switzerland in the spring of . 1814 

The number of cantons increased to 22, and the in- 
dependence and neutrality of Switzerland 
secured by the treaty of Vienna . . . . 1815 

Revision of the constitution of the cantons . . . 1839 

Law to make education independent of the clergy . 1830 
leads to dissensions between the catholics and 
protestants 1840-4 

Dispute about the convents of Aargau, 1844 ; to put 
education into the hands of the Jesuits, <&c. ; op- 
position of the protestant cantons . . . 1846 

Lucerne, Uri, Schweitz, Unterwalden, Freiburg, 
Zug, and Valais (Roman catholic cantons), form a 
separate league (Sonderbund) to support educa- 
tion by the Jesuits, &c ,, 

Insurrection at Geneva against Jesuit teaching ; a 
temporary provisional government established, 

7 Oct. ,, 

The diet declares the Sonderbund illegal, and dis- 
solves it, 20 July ; the seven cantons protest, 22 
July ; the diet orders the expulsion of the Jesuits, 
3 Sept. ; communal assemblies held to resist it, 
26 Sept. ; 3, 10 Oct. ; appeal to arms . 21 Oct. 1847 

The diet prepares to repress the Sonderbund, 4 
Nov. ; Friburg surrenders, 14 Nov.; civil war; 
the Sonderbund defeated by gen. H. Dufour, near 
Lucerne, 23 Nov. ; end of the Sonderbund ; it sub- 
mits to the expulsion of the Jesuits, and the secu- 
larisation of monastic property. . 29 Nov. ,, 

New federal constitution . . . .12 Sept. 1848 

Dispute about Neufchatel (which see) . . . . 1857 

Declaration of neutrality in the coming Italian war, 

14 March, 1859 

Mutiny and punishment of the Swiss mercenary 
troops at Naples ; the confederation forbid foreign 
enlistment July and Aug. ,, 

Swiss government protests against the annexation 
of Savoy to France . . . . 15 March, i860 

150 Swiss attempt to enter Savoy ; stopped by 
Genevese government ... 30 March, „ 

M. Thorel, a Swiss, obtains a prize at the national 
shooting match at Wimbledon . . July, „ 

The government forbid the Swiss to enlist in foreign 
service without permission . . .30 July, ,, 

Proposed European congress to preserve Swiss 
neutrality, put off . ... July, ,, 

Glarus destroyed by fire ... 3 May, 1861 

French troops occupy Vallee des Dappes, 28 Oct. ; 
the Swiss announce the violation of their territory, 

5 Nov. ,, 

Treaty of France settles the question of the Vallee 
des Dappes by mutual cession of territory ; no 
military works to be constructed on territory 
ceded ; signed 8 Dec. 1862 

Serious election riots at Geneva, with bloodshed, 
22 Aug. ; federal troops arrive . . 23 Aug. 1864 

Federal troops quit Geneva . . . n Jan. 1865 

International Soo 'il Science Congress meets at 
Berne 28 Aug. „ 



Revision of the constitution ; deliberations begin 

23 Oct. 1865 

Nearly all the revised articles of the federal consti- 
tution rejected by the vote of the Swiss burgesses 

14 Jan. 1866 

J. J. Stehlen elected president . . 1 July, 1867 

Workmen's international congress at Lausanne, 

2-7 Sept. ,, 

Meeting of the federal assembly . 6-25 July, 1S68 

Queen Victoria visits Lucerne . . Aug. Sept. ,, 

International peace and liberty congress, at Geneva, 
9-12 Sept. 1867 ; at Berne, 22-26 Sept , 

Neutrality in the Franco-Prussian war proclaimed, 

July, „ 

New constitution adopted by Zurich . 18 April, 1869 

The French army under Clinchant (84,000), crosses 
the frontiers and is disarmed . . .1 Feb. 1871 

The French soldiers interned at Zurich, and oppose 
German demonstrations . . g-12 Mar. ,, 

Extraordinary session of the federal assembly to 
revise the constitution ... 6 Nov. ,, 

Plebiscite respecting a new constitution, re-organ- 
izing the army, and promoting uniform educa- 
tion, &c, rejected by majority of 4967 out of 
509,921 . ... 12 May, 1872 

M. Favre engaged to construct a tunnel through St. 
Gothard in 8 years, lor 2,ooo,ooo£. . . 8 Aug. ,, 

The papal nuncio, Mermillod, expelled . 16 Jan. 1873 

Revised federal constitution voted (321,870 for, 
177,800 against) 19 April, 1874 

Swiss national catholic church constituted June, ,, 

19 Catholic priests dejirived for refusal to take 
constitutional oath .... .5 Sept. ,, 

International postal congress at Berne, 15 Sept. ; 
protocol signed (see Postal Convention) 9 Oct. ,, 

Civil marriage law and registration adopted by uni- 
versal suffrage (212,854 — 204,700) . . 23 May, 1875 

President of the national council for three years, 
J. Philippin, elected .... 6 June, 1877 

Continued deficit in revenue, announced, 16 March, 1878 

Death of James Fazy, eminent statesman, 6 Nov. ,, 

National voting for St. Gothard, railway and tunnel 
(161,000 majority) 19 Jan. 1879 

Suicide of Herr Anderwert, the president elect, 

27 Dec. 1880 

Opening of St. Gothard railway from Milan to 
Lucerne 20, 21 May, 1882 

Invasion of the salvation army (which see), autumn, 
1883, much resisted at Berne.Geneva, &c.,Jan.e<seg. 1884 

The watch-tool making village, Vallorbes, almost 
destroyed by fire .... 7 April, ,, 

National exhibition at Zurich . 1 May — 27 Dec. ,, 

M. Schenck elected president . . . Dec. ,, 

Village of Mulligan, Aargau,dest royed by fire, 23April, 1 885 

Fifth centenary of the battle of Sempaeh (9 July, 
1386), celebrated 5 July, 1886 

Grand funeral of Mr. Hertenstein, the president at 
Berne, who died after a surgical operation, 30 
Nov. ; vice-president Bernard Hammer elected 
president. 13 Dec. 1888 

The German government protests against the 
expulsion of its police officer, Wohlgemuth, 
from Switzerland, May ; the great powers pro- 
test against the asylum given to political 
criminals ; the Swiss propose new legal measures, 
June ; the Swiss government repels the charge, 
but prepares legal measures for redress, June, 1889 

The Swiss government in a reply note to Berlin, 
stands firm 14 July, ,, 

Loan for 25,000,000 francs, to supply new arms for 
the federal troops, subscribed for by Berne 
alone reported 23 July, „ 

M. Ruchonnet elected President for 1890 

about 10 Dec. ,, 

Destructive storms in the poorest districts, much 
distress 18-23 Aug. 1890 

Insurrection at Ticino (which see) . 12-14 Sept. ,, 

Railway accident near Biile ; by the collapse of a 
bridge several carriages of an excursion train 
were thrown into the river Birse. Above 70 

persons perish 14 June, 1891 

600th anniversary of the foundation of the Swiss 
confederation celebrated in the province of 

Scliwytz 1-2 Aug. ,, 

Meiring'en, canton of Berne, totally burnt; 2 deaths, 
about 2,000 1 'rsons homeless . . 25 Oct. ,, 



SWITZERLAND. 



1219 



SYDNEY. 



President, A. A. Laehenal . . . i June, 1891 

Bill for giving effect to the popular vote of July, 
affirming the right of the people to take the 
initiative in constitutional reforms, considered 
by the national council ... 7 Dec. ,, 

Dr. B. Welti, president of the confederation, 
resigns in consequence of a plebiscite on 6 Dec, 
refusing to purchase the Swiss railways 

reported 8 Dec. ,, 

M. Walter Hauser, president . . .1 Jan. 1892 

The commercial treaties with Germany and Austria- 
Hungary adopted by the states council 28 Jan. ,, 

Great fire at Grindelwald, near Interlachen ; the 
Bear hotel, the English church, the telegraph 
office and other buildings destroyed ; estimated 
damage, 2,000,000 francs ... 18 Aug. „ 

Rejection of the Franco -Swiss convention by 
France ; duties on French goods increased, 1 Jan. 1893 

Carl Schenk president of the Swiss confederation, 

1 Jan. ,, 

Extreme socialists defeated in national elections, 

29 Oct. ,, 

Col. Emile Frey elected president of the Swiss 
confederation for 1894 . . . .14 Dec. ,, 

A state loan of 20,000,000 f. authorized 21 Dec. ,, 

Decree for a referendum respecting representation 
of Switzerland abroad . . . .30 Oct. 1894 

M. Zemp elected president of the confederation for 
1895 13 Dec. ,, 

A Franco-Swiss liberal commercial agreement 
signed . .... 25 June, 1895 

Carl Schenk, 6 times president of the confederation, 
death by an accident . . . .18 July, ,,« 

M. Laehenal, of Geneva, radical, elected president 
for 1896 12 Dec. ,, 

National exhibition opened at Geneva . 1 May, 1896 

Railway traffic suspended through floods, reported 

11 Aug. ,, 

Prof. Grunert and 2 guides killed on the glacier 
while descending the Lyskamm, near Zermatt, 
10 Sept. ; and Mr. Gilbert Betjemann killed on 
the Grindelwald glacier . . .10 Sept. „ 

M. Adolphe Deucher, radical, elected president for 
1897 17 Dec. ,, 

M. Ruffy, radical, elected president for 1898, 15 Dec. 1897 

Archaeological discoveries at Windisch, 30 Nov. 
1897 ; an ancient Roman hospital, &c, near 
Zurich discovered June, 1898 

Travelling from Basle to London (595 miles) accom- 
plished in 14 hrs. 35 mins. . . . July, ,, 

Dr. John Hopkinson, electrician, with his son and 
two daughters, perished by a fall while ascend- 
ing the Petite Dent de Veisivi, 27 Aug. (see 
Cambridge, Feb. 1900). Mr. Norman Neruda, 
experienced climber, killed by a fall on the 
Schmidkamin, Dolomites, n Sept. ; Mr. Aston- 
Binns and a guide killed on the Aiguille de 
Gharmoz 16 Sept. ,, 

Expulsion of anarchists .... Sept. ,, 

Unification of civil and penal codes accepted by a 
referendum Nov. ,, 

M. MUller, radical, elected president for 1899, 15 Dec. ,, 

See Landslips , 

Switzerland admitted by America as a favoured 
nation 31 Dec. ,, 

M. Welti (6 times president) died, aged 73, 24 Feb. 1899 

M. Guyer-Zeller, banker, "railway king," died, 

3 April, ,, 

Prof. Socin, eminent orientalist, born 1844, died, 

June, ,, 

Mr. Jones and 3 guides killed by a fall while ascend- 
ing the Dent Blanche ; Mr. Hill, one of the 
party, reached Zermatt after having passed 48 
hours on the mountain, reported . . 30 Aug. ,, 

M. W. Hauser, elected president . . 15 Dec. ,, 

Mr. J. G. Cockin, an experienced climber, killed 
by a fall on the Weisshorn ; a guide killed and 
others injured on the Matterhorn . 27 July, 1900 

Two Americans killed on the Engadine . 2 Aug. ,, 

The "double initiative," viz., the election by 
proportional representation of members of the 
national council and the election of the federal 
council by the people, rejected by the nation, 

4 Nov. ,, 
M. Breuner, radical, elected president for 1901, 

12 Dec. ,, 
M. Zemp (catholic conservative) elected president 
for 1902 12 Dec. 1901 



New palace of the Swiss parliament begun, 1894 > 
opened ....... 1 April, 1902 

Museum of war and peace founded by the late 
M. de Block at Lucerne, opened . . 7 June, ,, 

Rupture with Italy (which see), 10 April ; relations 
resumed 30 July, ,, 

The king of Italy received by the president at 
G6schenen 26 Aug. ,, 

Dr. Largin, chief judge of the Berne court, killed 
on the Nadelhorn, about 15 Aug. ; many fatal 
Alpine accidents, reported . . . Aug. ,, 

Elections : strong radical-democratic majority, 

26 Oct. „ 

Dr. Adolph Deucher elected president . 11 Dec. ,., 

Bomb explosion at entrance to Geneva cathedral, 
Machetto, an Italian, arrested . . 24 Dec. ,, 

Swiss government give one year's notice to ter- 
minate the commercial treaty, dated 19 April, 
1^92, between Switzerland and Italy, but is pre- 
pared to negotiate a new treaty, reported, 

mid Sept. 1903 

Subvention for construction of the projected Jura 
tunnel for a line between Soleure and Mti'ister 
agreed to by grand council of Berne ; also agree- 
ment between federal council and the Simplon 
tunnel company .... early Oct. ,, 

Swiss Literatt/be is included either in German or 
French literature. Chambers. To the German division 
belong Huldreich Zwingli, theo., 1484-1531 ; Heinrich. 
Bullinger, theo. and hist., 1504-1575 ; Tschudi Bodmer, 
p., 1698-1783; Salomon Gessner, p., 1730-1788; Johann 
Zimmermann, ph., 1728-1795 ; Albrecht von Haller, 
p. and phy., 1708-1777; Johann Kaspar Lavater, p., 
1741-1801 ; Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi, educational 
theorist, 1745-1827 ; Johannes von Muller, hist., 1752- 
1809; Gottfried Keller, p. and n., 1819-1890; Albert 
Bitzius "Gotthelf," n., 1797-1854; Conrad Ferd 
Meyer, p., 1825-1898 ; to the French : Francois de 
Bonivard, hist., 1496-1570; Jean Jacques Rousseau, 
m., 1712-1778 ; Chas. de Bonnet, nat. and ph., 1720- 
1793; Benj. Constant de Rebecque, e. and n., 1767- 
1830; Jean Sismondi, hist., 1773-1842; Jacques 
Necker, e., 1732-1794 ; and his daughter, mdme. de 
Stael, c. and n., 1766-1817 ; Pierre Dumont, e., 1759- 
1829 ; Rudolf Topffer, n 1799-1846 ; Alex. R. Vinet, 
theo. and c, 1797-1847 ; Victor Cherbuliez, n. and e., 
born, 1829. 

SWORDS- The Roman swords were from 20 
to 30 inches long. The broadsword and scimitar are 
of modern adoption. Damascus steel swords were 
most prized ; the next the sword of Ferrara steel. 
The Scotch Highlanders, from the artificer Andrea 
di Ferrara, called their swords Andrew Ferraras. 
The large sword shown at Dumbarton castle as 
Wallace's was transferred to the Wallace monu- 
ment (which see), 17 Nov. 1888. The broadsword 
was forbidden to he worn in Edinburgh in 1724. 
International sword-play competitions in Gray's- 
inn-garden, London, 17 June, 1901. New cavalry 
sword for British army adopted, 1903. 

SYBAEIS, a Greek colony in S. Italy, founded 
about 720 B.C. ; destroyed by the Crotonians about 
^10 b.c. The people were greatly addicted to luxury; 
hence the term Sybarite. 

Archaeological investigations disclosed evidences 
of the existence of a great city and civilization 
anterior to the Greek invasion . . . .1888 

SYCAMORE, or SYCOMORE TREE, 

In Mrs. Jameson's "Memoirs of Female Sove- 
reigns" we are told that Mary queen of Scots 
brought over from France a little sycamore tree, 
which she planted in the garden at Holyrood, and 
that from this have sprung all the beautiful groves 
of sycamore now to be seen in Scotland. 

SYDNEY, capital of New South "Wales; 
founded by governor Phillip, on a cove on Port 
Jackson, 20 Jan. 1788, as a British settlement for 
the colony of convicts originally intended for Botany 

4 I 2 



SYLLABUS OF EEEOES. 



1220 



SYEIA. 



bay. It was named after lord Sydney, secretary 
for the colonies. Population 1891, 386,400; 1901, 
488,968. See Australia, New South Wales, 
Convicts. 

A legislative council first held . . 13 July, 1829 
Sydney erected into a bishopric (afterwards an arch- 
bishopric) 1S36 

Lit with gas, the first place so lit in Australia, May, 1841 
Bishop of Australia made bishop of Sydney and 

metropolitan 1S47 

University founded 1852 

Roman Catholic cathedral burnt, and valuable pro- 
perty destroyed .... 29 June, 1865 
Visited by the duke of Edinburgh . Feb. 1868 
At Port Jackson he narrowly escaped assassination ; 
O'Farrell, a Fenian, who shot him in the back on 
12 March, was convicted on 31 March, and exe- 
cuted 21 April, ,, 

The duke sailed for England 4 April, and arrived 

26 June, ,, 
New cathedral consecrated 30 Nov. „ 

Foundation of capt. Cook's monument laid by the 

duke of Edinburgh .... 28 March, 1869 
A conference of delegates from the Australian 
colonies met here for customs, postal and railway 
purposes, without effect .... Jan. 1873 
Exhibitions opened here, April, 1873, and 11 April, 1874 
Captain Cook's statue uncovered . . 2 Feb. 1878 

International exhibition opened by the governor, 

lord A. Loftus 17 Sept. 1879 

Direct railway to Melbourne completed . June, 1883 
Canon Barry consecrated bishop of Sydney and 

metropolitan 1 Jan. 1884 ; resigns, . . Dec. 1888 
Meetings of loyalists opposing the home rule 
delegates (Mr. Dillon, sir Thomas Esmonde, and 

Mr. Deasy, M.P.'s) May, 1889 

Death at Sydney of Mr. J. B. Watson (aged 64) 
termed the Australian "quartz reef king," said 
to have left to his family about 30,000,000?. the 
results of gold digging at Bendigo, Victoria, and 
other places and of railway and other specula- 
tions about 12 July, ,, 

Rev. canon William Saumarez Smith, D.D., an- 
nounced as the new bishop and metropolitan of 
Australia, 9 Aug. 1889, elected 21 March 

arrived 30 Sept. 1890 
Strike of men connected with shipping, about 
5,000 ; reported 20 Aug. ; rioting in Newcastle 
checked by military .... 27 Aug. ,, 
Conference of Australian employers, 9 Sept. ; 

labour conference . . . 11-24 Sept. „ 
Great fire in Pitt-street and other streets ; esti- 
mated damage 750,000? 1 Oct. ,, 

Departure of lord Carrington ; grand demonstra- 
tion in his honour .... 1 Nov. ,, 
The strike practically closed . . . 5 Nov. ,, 
Reception of the earl of Jersey . . 15 Jan. 1891 
Meeting of the National Australasian Federation 

Convention, see Australasia . . 2 March, ,, 
Sir Alfred Roberts, eminent surgeon, promoter 
of the prince Alfred hospital, the Australian 
museum, &c, born 1823, died . . 24 Jan. 1899 
Outbreak of bubonic plague, spring et seq. ; total 
cases, 303 ; total deaths, 103, 1 Sept. ; town free, 

8 Sept. 1900 
The new Australian commonwealth inaugurated ; 
lord Hopetoun sworn in as gov. -gen. ; great re- 
joicings and celebrations . . 1 Jan. et seq. 1901 
Messrs. Hordern's premises burnt down, 4 deaths ; 

over 500,000?. damage . . . .10 July, ,, 
Loyal demonstration • resolutions carried express- 
ing confidence in the British government, &c, 

10 Feb. 1902 
Her majesty's theatre burnt, properties, &c, 

valued, 14,000?. lost . . . .23 March, ,, 
Death of dean Cowper, aged 92, reported, 16 June, ,, 
University jubilee celebrated . . .1 Oct. ,, 
The prefix lord conferred on the mayor . 23 Nov. ,, 
Bronze statue of Burns on pedestal of granite, 
executed by Mr. F. W. Pomeroy, to be erected on 
site given by government, and set up in . . 1904 

SYLLABUS OF EEEOES in modern times. 
80 paragraphs divided into 10 chapters, issued by 
pope Pius IX., with an encyclical letter, 8 Dee. 
1864. It condemned heresy, modern philosophy, 



and liberalism in politics; was forbidden to be' read 
in French churches, and was generally opposed, but 
was adopted by the council at Eome 1870. 

SYMPHONIES. Short pieces of instru- 
mental music between songs in operas ; early in the 
17th century. These were gradually developed by 
the great masters, such as Lulli, into independent 
pieces ; of these the symphonies of Corelli, Handel, 
Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven are eminent 
examples. 

SYMPHONION, an improved form of the 
musical box capable of performing many more 
tunes, invented by Mr. Ellis Parr, 1887. 

SYMPIESOMETEE, a species of barometer 
invented by Adie of Edinburgh in 1819. 

SYNAGOGUE (literally an assembly), a con- 
gregation of the Jews, and the place where such 
assembly is held for religious purposes. When 
these meetings were first held is uncertain ; some 
refer them to the times after the Babylonish cap- 
tivity. In Jerusalem were 480 synagogues. In 
185 1 there were in London 10 synagogues, in 
England and Wales, 53. A magnificent synagogue 
was consecrated at Berlin, 5 Sept. 1866; see Jews. 

SYNDICATE, originally a body of syndics, 
officers of a government or any ruling body ; the 
term is now frequently used as synonymous with a 
company or body of trustees, 1888. See Trusts. 

SYNOD. The first general synods were called 
by emperors, and afterwards by Christian princes ; 
but the pope ultimately usurped this power, one of 
his legates usually presiding; see Councils. The 
first national synod held in England was at Hert- 
ford, 673 ; the last was held by cardinal Pole in 
1555. Made unlawful to hold synods but by royal 
authority, 25 Henry VIII. 1533; see Dort and 
Thurles. 

SYNONYM, a word having the same or 
nearly the same meaning as another, as valour, 
courage. Books of Greek and Latin synonyms were 
early compiled. G. Crabbe's dictionary appeared, 
1816 ; Dr. P. M. Eoget's excellent "Thesaurus of 
English Words and Phrases," 1852. 

SYPHILIS, a disease said to have been intro- 
duced into Europe at the siege of Naples, 1495 ; but 
was probably known to the ancients. 

SYEACUSE, S.E. Sicily, founded by Archias, 
734 B.C. Tbe city gradually included five towns, 
Ortygia (an island, containing the citadel, or 
acropolis), Achradina, Tyche, Neapolis, andEpipolae. 
The ancient history is given in the article Sicily. 
Syracuse taken by the Saracens and ransomed 669 ; 

burnt by them 87S 

Retaken by count Roger, the Norman . . . 10S8 
Destroyed by earthquakes in 1542, Jan. 1603; and 

nearly destroyed "o Aug. 1757 

In the insurrection, Syracuse surrendered to the 

Neapolitan troops 8 April. 1849 

Remains of an ancient city discovered by Dr. Orsi 

at Pantalica, reported .... Dec. 1895 
Further discoveries reported ... 14 Feb. 1897 

SYEEN, see Sirene. 

SYEIA, a country of W. Asia. The capital was 
originally Damascus; but after tbe battle of Ipsus, 
Seleucus founded Antioch. 
Alliance of David king of Israel and Hiram king of 

Syria b.c. 1049 

Syria conquered by David 1040 

Liberated by Rezin 980 

Benhadad, king of Syria, makes war on the Jews 898 

Benhadad II. reigns about 8jo 

Syria subjugated by Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria 740 



SYEIA. 



1221 



SZEGEDIN. 



Syria conquered by Cyrus 

And by Alexander 

Seleucus Nicator enters Babylon 

iEra of the Seleucidee {which see) .... 

Great battle of Ipsus ; death of Antigonus, defeated 
by Ptolemy, Seleucus, and Lysimachus . . . 

The city of Antioch founded 

Antiochus, son of Seleucus, falling in love with his 
father's queen, Stratonice, he pines away nearly 
to death ; but the secret being discovered, she is 
divorced by the father, and married by the son . 

Battle of Cyropedium ; Lysimachus slain by Seleu- 
cus . . . . 

Seleucus foully assassinated by Ceraunus ; Anti- 
ochus I. king 

Antiochus I. (Soter, or Saviour) defeats the Gauls . 

Antiochus II. surnamed by the Milesians Theos 
(God) king 

Poisoned by Laodice 

Seleucus II. (king, 246) makes a treaty of alliance 
with Smyrna and Magnesia 

Seleucus III. Ceraunus (or Thunder), king 

Antiochus III. the Great (king, 223), conquers Pales- 
tine, but is totally defeated at Raphia 

Again conquers Palestine, 198 ; but gives it to 
Ptolemy 

Enters Greece, 192 ; defeated by the Romans at 
Thermopylae, 191 ; and at Magnesia 

Makes peace with the Romans, giving up to them 
Asia Minor 

Seleucus Philopator, king 

Antiochus IV. king, who assumes the title of Theos- 
Epiphanes, or the illustrious God 

He sends Apollonius into Judea ; Jerusalem is 
taken ; the temple pillaged ; 40,000 inhabitants 
destroyed, and 40,000 more sold as slaves . . 

Antiochus V. Eupator (king, 164), murdered by De- 
metrius Soter, who seizes the throne 

Demetrius is defeated and slain by his successor 
Alexander Bala, 150; who is also defeated and 
slain by Demetrius Nicator 

Antiochus VI. Sidetes (son of Demetrius Soter) 
rules during the captivity of his brother Deme- 
trius Nicator (after slaying the usurper Trypho) . 

Antiochus grants peace to the Jews, and placates 
the Romans, 133 ; invades Parthia, 129 ; and is 
defeated and slain 

Demetrius Nicator restored 

Cleopatra, the queen, murders her son Seleucus with 
her own hand 

Her son Antiochus VII. Grypus (king, 125), whom 
she attempts to poison ; but he compels his 
mother to swallow the deadly draught herself 

Reign of Antiochus VIII. Cyzicenus at Damascus, 
and of Grypus at Antioch 

Seleucus, king 

Antiochus IX. Eusebes, king 

Dethroned by Philip 

Tigranes, king of Armenia, acquires Syria 

Antiochus X. Asiaticus, solicits the aid of the 
Romans 

Defeat of Tigranes by Lucullus, 69 ; he submits to 
Pompey, who enters Syria, and dethrones Anti- 
ochus Asiaticus . . . . . . . 

Syria made a Roman province 



175 



*37 
128 



in 
95 
94 



Syria invaded by the Parthians . . . a.d. 162 

By the Persians 256 

Violent earthquakes 341 

Invaded by the Saracens, 497, 502, 529 ; by the Per- 
sians 607 

Conquered by the Saracens 638 

Conquest of Syria by the Fatimite caliphs . a.d. 970 
Revolt of the emirs of Damascus .... 1067 

The emirs of Aleppo revolt 1068 

The crusades commence (see Crusades) . . . 1095 
Desolated by the Crusades (which see) . 1096-1272 

Noureddin conquers Syria iif~6 

Saladin dethrones the Fatimite dynasty . . . 1171 

The Tartars overrun all Syria 1259 

The sultans of Egypt expel the Crusaders . . . 1291 

Syria overrun by Tamerlane 1400 

Syria and Egypt conquered by the Turks . . 1516-11 
Syria continued in possession of the Turks till the 
invasion by the French, 1799; Bonaparte overruns 
the country, Gaza and Jaffa taken . March 1799 
Siege of Acre begun by the French, 16 March; 
raised 20 May, „ 



Bonaparte returns to France from Egypt 23 Aug. 1799 
Egypt and Syria evacuated by the French army, 

10 Sept. 1 801 
Mehcmet Ali attacks and captures Acre, and over- 
runs the whole of Syria . ... 1831 
Ibrahim Pacha, his son, defeats the army of the 

grand signior at Konieh ... 21 Dec. 1832 

Numerous battles and conflicts follow with various 
success ; the European powers intervene, and 

peace is made 6 May, 1833 

The war renewed, May; Ibrahim defeats the Turks 
at Nezib ... ... 24 June, 1839 

The Turkish fleet deserts to Mehemet Ali, and ar- 
rives at Alexandria .... 14 July, ,, 

The five powers unite to support the Porte July, ,, 
Death of lady Hester Stanhope . . 23 June, 1840 
Treaty of London (not signed by offended France), 

15 Ju'y, .. 
Capture of Sidon (see Sidon) . . . 27 Sept. ,, 
Fall of Beyrout (see Bey rout) . . 10 Oct. ,, 

Fall of Acre (see Acre) .... 3 Nov. ,, 

Long negotiations ; the sultan grants hereditary 

rights to Mehemet, who gives up Syria . Jan. 1841 
The Druses said to have destroyed 151 Christian 
villages and killed 1000 persons (see Druses), 

29 May-i July, i860 
The Mahometans massacre Christians at Damascus; 
about 3300 slain ; many saved by Abd-el-Kader, 

9 July, <fce. „ 
The English and French government intervene ; a 
convention signed at Paris ; 12,000 men to be sent 

by France 3 Aug. ,, 

Vigour of Fuad Pacha ; he punishes the Mahome- 
tans implicated in the massacres at Damascus 
very severely ; 167 of all ranks, including the 
governor, executed . . . 20 Aug. ct seq. ,, 
4000 French soldiers, under general Hautpoul, land 

at Beyrout 22 Aug , r 

Lord Dufferin, the British commissioner in Syria, 

arrives at Damascus . . .6 Sept. ,, 

The French and Turks advance against Lebanon ; 

14 emirs surrendered .... Oct ,, 

Pacification of the country effected . Nov. ,, 

The French occupation ceases . . 5 June, 1861 

Prince of Wales visits Syria . . . April, 1862- 
Insurrection of Joseph Karam, Maronite, in Le- 
banon; suppressed . March, i866< 
Another suppressed Karam flies to Algeria, 

31 Jan. 1867 
Midhat Pasha appointed governor-general to in- 
augurate reforms, Nov. 1878 ; experiences great 
difficulty, Oct.; resigns, but continues, 

Oct. iS79-June, 1880- 
Hamed Pasha, governor of Smyrna, and Midhat 

Pasha change places Aug. ,, 

Midhat Pasha, charged with complicity in the 
murder of the sultan Abdul Aziz, surrenders 
(see Turkey, 1881) . . . about 17 May, 1881 
Dr. Robert Payne-Smith, dean of Canterbury, 
author of a great Syriac dictionary, died, aged 76, 

31 March, 1895, 
Disturbances between the Druses and the Mutualis 
in the Lebanon ; agitation at Damascus against 

the Christians 16 Oct. ,,. 

Conflicts and pillaging, Nov. ; the Druses routed 
by Circassians and Arabs, aided by the Turks ; 
villages burned, women and children killed, 1 
Dec. ; again defeated, 19, 21 Dec. 1895. (The 
Turks suffered much by the incapacity of their 
generals, and deficient commissariat, Times, 17 
Feb. 1896.) 
Turkish troops totally defeated by the Druses and 

Arabs, near Damascus .... June, 1896 
Indecisive fighting ; mutiny of troops, Aug. ; ces- 
sation of hostilities Sept. , , 

Abdullah pasha appointed commander-in-chief, 

Oct. ,, 
The German emperor visits Syria . 25 Oct. -No v. 1898 

SYSTON, see under Libraries. 

SZEGrEDIN (Hungary), on the Theiss at its 
junction with the Maros, the seat of revolutionary 
government, 1849. Rebuilt under superintendence 
of Ludwig Tisza. Grand festival, the emperor 
present, 16 Oct. 1883. See Inundations, 1879 and 
1887. Population, 1900, 100,552. 



TABEBNACLE. 



1222 



TAMMANY FEAUDS. 



T. 



. TABEBNACLE, the Holy Place of the Israel- 
ites, till the erection of Solomon's temple, was con- 
structed by Divine direction, 1491 B.C. The taber- 
nacle set up at Shiloh by Joshua, 1444 B.C. was 
replaced by the temple erected by Solomon, 1004 
B.C. The chapel erected for George Whitefield ill 
Moorfields in 1741, being of a temporary nature, 
received the name of Tabernacle, which was after- 
wards given to their chapels by the Calvinistic 
Methodists. Whitefield' s Tabernacle in Totten- 
ham-court-road was erected in 1756, and enlarged 
in 1760. His lease expired in 1828; the chapel was 
opened by the Independents in 1830, and taken down 
in 1890. A large metropolitan tabernacle, erected 
for the ministrations of Eev. C. H. Spurgeon, 
in Newington Butts, was opened on 31 March, 1861 ; 
burnt down, 20 April, 1898; rebuilt, 1899. 

TABINET, see Poplin. 

TABLES, see Decemvirs. 

TABLET, Eoman Catholic weekly paper, esta- 
blished 1840. 

TABLE TUBNING- This delusion, which 
came from America, and was popular in 1853, was 
attributed by Faraday and others to involuntary 
mechanical action. See Spirit- Rapping . 

TABOE, in Bohemia, was founded by Ziska in 
[420, and became a chief seat of the Hussites; see 
Hussites. 

TADMOE, see Palmyra. 

TAEPINGS, see China, 1851, note. 

TAFFETY, an early species of silken manu- 
facture, more prized formerly than now, woven 
'very smooth and glossy. It was worn by our 
elder queens, and was first made in England by 
John Tyce, of Shoreditch, London, 41 Elk. 1598. 
— Stow's Chron. 

TAGLIACOZZO, in the Abruzzi mountains, 
••S. Italy, where, on 23 Aug. 1268, Charles of Anjou, 
the usurping king of Naples, defeated and made 
prisoner the rightful monarch, young Conradin 
(the last of the Hohenstaufens, and grandson of the 
emperor Frederick II.), who had been invited into 
Italy by the Ghibellhie or Imperial party; their 
opponents, the Guelfs, or papal party, supporting 
Charles. Conradin was beheaded, 29 Oct. fol- 
lowing. 

TAGLIAMENTO, a river in Lombardy, N. 
Italy, near which the Austrians, under the arch- 
duke Charles, were defeated by Bonaparte, 16 
March, 1797. 

TAHEEITES, a dynasty of Persia, 813-872. 

TAHITI. The French abbreviated name for 
Otaheite ; see Otuheite. 

TAILLEBOUEG (W. France). Near here 
Henry III. of England was defeated and nearly 
captured by Louis IX. of France, 20 July, 1242. 

TAKU FOETS, China, taken by the allies, 
21 Aug. i860; again, 17 June, 1900. 

TALAVEEA DE LA EEYNA (central Spain), 
was taken from the Mahometans by Ordoflo, king 
of Leon, 913. Here a battle was fought 27, 28 
July, 1809, between the united British and Spanish 
armies under sir Arthur Wellesley, and the French 



army commanded by marshals Victor and Sebas- 
tiani. After a conflict on the 27th, both armies 
remained on the held during the night, and the 
French at break of day renewed the attack, and 
were again repulsed by the British with great 
slaughter. At noon Victor charged the whole 
British line, was repulsed at all points, and retreated 
with a heavy loss. As Soult, Ney, and Mortier 
were in the rear, the British retired after the 
victory. 

TALBOTYPE, see Photography. 

"TALISMAN" affair, see Peru, 1874-6. 

TALKING-MACHINE, see Automatons. 

TALLY OFFICE in the Exchequer took its 
name from the French word tailler, to cut. A tally 
is a piece of wood written upon both sides, contain- 
ing an acquittance for money received ; which, 
being cloven asunder by an officer of the exchequer, 
one part, called the stock, was delivered to the 
person who paid, or lent, money to the government ; 
and the other part, called the counter-stock, or 
counter-foil, remained in the office, to be kept till 
called for, and joined with the stock. This manner 
of striking tallies is very ancient. — Beatson. The 
practice was ordered to be discontinued in 1782. 
See Fjxchequer. On 16 Oct. 1834, the houses of 
parliament were burnt down by too many of these 
tallies being used in heating the stoves in the house 
of lords. 

TALMUD (from lamad, to teach), the compen- 
dium of ancient Jewish oral or unwritten law, as 
distinguished from the Pentateuch, or written law ; 
its origin is coeval with the return from the Baby - 
lonish captivity, 536 B.C. Its compilation in 
Hebrew was begun by the Scribes, and by their 
successors the work was carried on till 220 B. c. It 
is composed in prose and poetry, and contains two 
elements, legal and legendary; The morality 
resembles that of the New Testament, and the 
philosophy is rather Platonic than Aristotelian. 
The Misclma, comprising the work of the rabbis, termed 
Thanaim, was compiled by Jehuda Hanassi, in the 
middle of the second century, a.d., and forms the 
Jerusalem Talmud, written at Tiberias, in Palestine, 
about 230. The Babylonian Talmud contains also the 
Geinera or Ghemara, the work of the rabbis termed 
Amoraim, criticisms and comments on the Misclma. 
The part named Halacha, is dogmatic, legal, and 
doctrinal ; the Agaba, is illustrative, narrative, and 
legendary. 
After being almost universally condemned, and the MSS. 
often burnt, the defence of the Talmud was undertaken 
by the German reformer Reuehlin, in the 16th century, 
and between 1520 and 1523, the "Talmud tiabyloni- 
cum," in 12 vols, fol., and the "Talmud Hierosolyta- 
liiun," in one vol. fol., were printed at Venice. A 
discourse on the Talmud was given at the Royal Insti- 
tution, 15 May, 1868, by Mr. Emanuel Deutseh, whose 
article in the "Quarterly Review," Oct. 1867, had 
attracted much attention. 
Vol. I. of the first English translation of the Jerusalem 
Talmud by Dr. Moise Schwab, appeared in 1S85 ; he 
had published part of a French translation. 

TAMANIEB, or TAMASI, battle of, 13 
March, 1884; see Soudan. 

TAMATAVE, see .Madagascar, 1883. 

TAMMANY FEAUDS, see New York, 187 1, 
and Nov. 1897. 



TANAGEA. 



1223 



TAEIFA. 



TANAGEA (Boeotia). Here the Spartans 
defeated the Athenians 457 B.C., but were defeated 
by them in 456 and in 426, when Agis II. headed 
the Spartans and Nicias the Athenians. 

TANCEED'S CHAEITIES. Valuable ex- 
hibitions for students at Cambridge are maintained 
by Christopher Tancred's endowment, 1721 ; esta- 
blished by chancery, 1757. 

TANDY AEEEST. James Napper Tandy 
proposed a plan of reform in 179 1. In the French 
expedition against Ireland he acted as a general, 
Aug. 1798. After its failure he fled to Hamburg, 
and was there delivered up to the English, 24 Nov.; 
for which Bonaparte declared war upon Hamburg, 
15 Oct. 1799. Tandy was liberated after the peace 
of Amiens in 1802. 

TANGIEE (Morocco, N. W. Africa), besieged 
by prince Ferdinand of Portugal, who was beaten 
and taken prisoner, 1437. It was conquered by 
Alfonso V. of Portugal in 147 1, and given as a dower 
to princess Catherine, on her marriage with Charles 
II. of England, 1662 ; who, in 1683, caused the 
works to be blown up, and the place abandoned. 
Tangiers afterwards became a piratical station. See 
Morocco. 
Great storm, about 40 vessels destroyed 9 March, 1895 

TANISTEY (in Ireland), the equal division of 
lands, after the decease of the owner, amongst his 
sons, legitimate or illegitimate. If one of the sons 
died, his son did not inherit, but a new division was 
made by the tanist or chief. Abolished 1604. 



TANJOEE (W. India). About 1678, Vencajee, 
a Mahratta chief, brother of the great Sevajee, 
made himself rajah. In 1749 a British expedition 
endeavoured to restore a deposed rajah without 
success ; the reigning prince bought them off by the 
cession of territories. Much intervention ensued. 
In 1799 the company obtained possession of the 
country, engaging to support the raj ah with nominal 
authority. The last is said to have died in 1855. 

TANNENBEEG (E. Prussia). Here Ladis- 
laus V. Jagellon of Poland defeated the Teutonic 
knights with great slaughter, the grand master being 
among the slain, 15 July, 1410. The order never 
recovered from this calamity. 

TANNHAUSEE, the name of one of 
Wagner's operas, founded on the German legend 
of the hero of that name. 

TANNING leather with the bark of trees was 
early practised. Great improvements have been 
made in tanning by chemical processes. 

TANTALUM, a rare metal, discovered in an 
American mineral by Hatchett, in 1801, and named 
by him columbium ; and in a Swedish mineral by 
Ekeberg, who gave it its present name. Wollaston 
pointed out the identity of the two metals in 1809; 
and Berzelius prepared pure metallic tantalum in 
1824. In 1846 Rose discovered that tantalum was 
really a mixture of three metals, which he named 
tantalum, niobium, and pelopium. — Gmelin. 

TANZIMAT, see Turkey, 1839-44. 

TAOISM, one of the three religions of China. 
The name is derived from the Tao, or "Way," a 
treatise written by Li Urh, a contemporary of Con- 
fucius in the sixth century B.C. The "Way" is 
the quiet, passionless discharge of all our duties, 
" Heaven " not being a ruler, but a pattern. Taoism 
was modified by the introduction of Buddhism. 



TAPESTEY. An art of weaving borrowed 
from the Saracens, and hence its original workers in 
France were called Sarazinois. The invention of 
tapestry hangings belongs [the date is not men- 
tioned] to the Netherlands. — Guicciardini. Manu- 
factured in France under Henry IV. by artists 
invited from Flanders, 1606. The art was brought 
into England by William Sheldon; and the first 
manufactory of it was established at Mortlake by 
sir Francis Crane, 17 James I. 1619. — Salmon. 
Under Louis XIV. the art of tapestry was much 
improved in France ; see Gobelin Tapestry. Very 
early instances of making tapestry are mentioned by 
the ancient poets, and also in Scripture ; so that the 
Saracens' manufacture is a revival of the art. For 
the tapestry said to have been wrought by Matilda, 
queen of England, see Bayeux Tapestry. 

Tapestry manufactory established at Windsor by Mr. H. 
Henry, supported by the royal family, and others ; ex- 
hibition opened in the town-hall, 6 December, 1878 ; 
works said to be closed, June, 1892. 
Manufacture revived by Messrs. Troll ope of London, 

1882-3 
TAPIE, the American water-hog, a pachyder- 
matous animal. The first born in England at Zoo- 
logical Gardens, London, 12 Feb. 1882. 

TAE- The chemist Becher first proposed to make 
tar from pit- coal ; the earl of Dundonald's patent 
was granted 1781. The mineral tar was discovered 
at Coalbrookdale, Shropshire, 1779; and in Scot- 
land, Oct. 1792. Tar- water was first recommended 
for its medicinal virtues by Dr. Berkeley, bishop 
of Cloyne, about 1744. From benzole, discovered 
in coal-tar, many brilliant dyes are now pro- 
duced; see Benzole, 

TAEA, a hill in Meath, Ireland, where the early 
kings of Ireland were inaugurated. Near here, on 
26 May, 1798, the royalist troops, 400 strong, 
defeated the insurgent Irish (4000 men), 500 killed. 
On 15 Aug. 1843, Daniel O'Connell held a monster 
meeting here (250,000 persons said to have been 
assembled) . 

TAEBES (S. France, near the Pyrenees), 
capital of Bigorre, the property of the English kings 
in the middle ages. The French, under Soult, 
were forced from their position at Tarbes, with con- 
siderable loss, by the British army commanded by 
Wellington, 20 March, 18 14. See Toulouse. 

TAEENTUM (now Taranto, S. Italy), was 
founded by the Greek Phalantus, B.C. 708. The 
people of TareDtum assisted by Pyrrhus, king of 
Epirus, supported a war which had been undertaken 
B.C. 281 by the Romans, to avenge the insults the 
Tarentines had offered to their ships when near 
their harbours ; it was terminated after ten years ; 
300,000 prisoners were taken, and Tarentum became 
subject to Rome. Except the citadel, Tarentum 
was captured by Hannibal, 212, but recovered by 
Fabius, 209 B.C. Tarentum has shared in the 
revolutions of Southern Italy, and only ruins 
remain. 

TAEGUMS or EXPLANATION'S, names given 
to certain ancient Chaldee paraphrases of the Old 
Testament. The most remarkable are those of 
Onkelos, Jonathan-ben-Uzziel, and Joseph the Blind. 
The Targum of ODkelos is referred by some writers 
to the first century a.d. 

TAEIFA (S. Spain), the ancient Joza and Ju'.ia 
Traducta, where Muza landed when invading Spain, 
712. It was taken from the Moors by Sancho IV. 
of Castile, 1291 or 1292; and was relieved, when 
besieged by them, after a great, victory over the 



TARIFF. 



1224 



TAXES. 



kings of Morocco and Granada, by Alfonso XI. of 
Castile and Alfonso IV. of Portugal, 28 or 30 Oct. 
1340. The conflict is called the battle of Salado, 
having been fought on the banks of that river. 
Tarifa was taken by the French in 1823. 

TARIFF (said to have been derived from 
Tarifa, where duties were formerly collected), a 
book of duties charged on goods exported or imported. 
Our tariff in 1840 comprised 1042 articles; the 
number was reduced (by sir Eobert Peel) in 1845 
and 1847. It comprised 439 articles in 1857 ; this 
number was greatly reduced in i860. For Mr. 
McKinley's tariff bill, see United States, Oct. 1890. 

What is called "the war of tariffs," very injurious 
to free trade, began in . . Oct. 1890 

International office for the publications of all 
customs tariffs, in the five principal European 
languages at Brussels, begins the work of transla- 
tion, &c T April, 1891 

TARIFF REFORM LEAGUE, inaugu- 
rated 21 July, 1903, for the employment of the 
tariff with a \ievf to its use to consolidate and 
develop the resources of the Empire, and to defend 
the industries of the United Kingdom. The league, 
which is independent of political parties, carries 
on its propaganda by means of meetings, lectures, 
and literature on the subject ; it also supports 
members of parliament and parliamentary candi- 
dates who are in favour of tariff' reform. Branches 
of the league are being formed in every constituency 
in England and Wales, with the exception of the 
counties of Worcestershire, Warwick, Shropshire, 
and Staffordshire, which form the area worked by 
the Imperial tariff committee at Birmingiiam. 
President of the league, the duke of Sutherland. 

TARPEIAN ROCK (Rome), owed its name 
to the tradition that Tarpeia, daughter of Tarpeius, 
the keeper of the Roman citadel, was here crushed to 
death by the shields cast on her by the Sabines, 
whom she treacherously admitted, having bargained 
for the gift of what they wore on their left anus, 
meaning their bracelets; about 750 B.C. 

TARRAGONA (N.E. Spain), occupied as a 
naval station by the British before their capture of 
Gibraltar in 1704. It was stormed and sacked by 
the French under Suchet, 29 Jan. 1811, and the 
inhabitants put to the sword. Population, 1887 
27,225. " 

..TARTAN" or Highland Plaid, the dress of 

the Scottish Highlanders, said to have been derived 
from the ancient Gauls, or Celtae, the Galli non 
braccati. 

TARTARIC ACID is said to have been the 
first discovery of the eminent chemist, Scheele, 
who procured it in a separate state by boiling tar 
with lime, and in decomposing the tartrate of lime 
thus formed by means of sulphuric acid, about 1770. 
In 1859 baron Liebig formed tartaric acid from 
other sources. 

TARTAR Y, a name given in the middle ages 
to a part of Central Asia and Eastern Europe, see 
Turkestan and Crimea. The Tatars, or Tartars, or 
Mongols, or Moguls, were known in antiquity as 
Scythians. During the decline of the Roman 
empire, these tribes began to seek more fertile 
regions; and the first who reached the frontier of 
Italy were the Huns, the ancestors of the modern 
Mongols. The first acknowledged sovereign of this 
vast country was the famous Genghis Khan. His 
empire, by the conquest of China, Persia, and all 
central Asia (1206-27), became one of the most 



formidable ever established ; but it was split into* 
parts in a few reigns. Timur, or Tamerlane, again 
conquered Persia, broke the power of the Turks in 
Asia Minor (1370-1400), and founded the Mogul 
dynasty in India, which began with Baber in 1525, 
and formed the most splendid court in Asia till the 
close of the 18th century ; see Golden Horde. The- 
Calmucks, a branch of the Tartars, expelled from 
China, settled 011 the banks of the Volga in 1672, 
but returned in 1771, and thousands perished on the 
journey. 

TASIMETER, see Micro-tasimeter. 

TASMANIA, the name now given to the 
British settlement in Van Diemen's Land {which 
see) . 

TATE GALLERY, see National Gallery; 
July, 1897 ; new rooms added, Nov. 1899. 

TATTERS ALL'S, see Races. 

TAUNTON (Somerset) was taken by Perkin 
Warbeck, Sept. T497 ; an d nere ne was surrendered 
to Henry VII. 5 Oct. following. The duke of 
Monmouth was proclaimed king at Taunton, 20 
June, 1685; and it was the scene of the "bloody 
assize" held by Jeffreys upon the rebels in August. 
The castle restored and a fine museum opened by 
lord Cork, 21 May, 1902. Population, 1881, 16,614"; 
1891, 18,026; 1901, 21,078. 

TAVERNS may be traced to the 13th century. 
"In the raigne of king Edward the Third, only- 
three taverns were allowed in London : one in 
Cliepe, one in Walbrok, and the other in Lombard- 
street."— Spelman. The Boar's Head, in East- 
chtap, existed in the reign of Henry IV., and was. 
the rendezvous of prince Henry and his dissolute 
companions. Shakspeare mentions it as the resi- 
dence of Mrs. Quickly, and the scene of Falstaff's- 
merriment. — Shakspeare, "Henry IV." TheWhite 
Hart, Bishopsgate, established in 1480, was rebuilt 
in 1829. Taverns were licensed in 1752. 
Taverns were restricted by 7 Edward VI. 1552-3, to 40 in. 
London, 8 in York, 4 in Norwich, 3 in Westminster, 6 
in Bristol, 3 in Lincoln, 4 in Hull, 3 in Shrewsbury, 4 
in Exeter, 3 in Salisbury, 4 in Gloucester, 4 in Chester, 

3 in Hereford, 3 in Worcester, 3 in Southampton, 4 in 
Canterbury, 3 in Ipswich, 3 in Winchester, 3 in Oxford, 

4 in Cambridge, 3 in Colchester, 4 in Newcastle-upou- 
Tyne. 

TAXES were levied by Solon, the Athenian legis- 
lator, about 594 B.C. The first class of citizens paid! 
an Attic talent of silver, about 55/. of our money* 
Darius, the son of Hystaspes, levied a land-tax by 
assessment, which was deemed so odious that his 
subjects styled him, by way of derision, Darius the- 
Trader, 480 B.C. — D'Eon. Taxes in specie were 
first introduced into England by William I., 1067, 
and he raised them arbitrarily; yet subsidies in 
kind, as in wool, leather, and other products of the 
country, continued till the accession of Richard II., 
1377. — Camden; see Revenue and Income Tax* 
" Taxes on Knowledge " (see Advertisement 
Duty, Newspaper Stamp, and Taper Duty) . For his- 
exertions ill repealing these, a testimonial was pre- 
sented to Mr. T. Milncr Gibson in 1861. The as- 
sessed taxes now include land tax, house duty, and 
property and income tax. The Taxes Management 
act, 43 & 44 Vict. c. 19, passed 6 Aug. 1880 (see 
below). Mr. Stephen Dowell's " History of Taxa- 
tion and Taxes in England," published'in 1884-8.. 
The elder Wm. Pitt, in his great speech on the 
Stamp act imposed on the colonies without their 
consent, 1765 — 66, said that taxation and represen- 
tation should go hand in hand. See Stamp Duliesu 



TAY BRIDGE. 



1225 



TEA. 



The Statistical Abstract published annually by the 
government gives much information respecting 
taxation, i - evenue, and expenditure for 15 years. 
Keoeipts from general taxation, 1887-8, 75,660.000/. 



Assessed Taxes. 

800 . . . £3,468,131 

805 . . 4,508,752 

810 . . . 6,233,161 

815 . . 6,524,766 

820 . . . 6,311,346 

825 . . . 5,176,722 

830 . . . 5,013,405 

83S • • • 3.733.997 

840 . . . 3,866,467 



1810 
1815 
1820 
1825 
1830 
1835 



Land Tax 

. £1,307,941 

. . 1,596,481 

• 1,418,337 

1,084,251 

1,192,257 

. . 1,288,393 

1,189,214 

. . 1,203,579 

1,298,622 



855 

S60 
S65 
866 
867 



870 
871 
872 

873 

S74 

875 
876 

877 



892- 



Assessed Taxes. — Gross Amount. 

(to Jan. 5) 

(year ending March 31). 



f Land tax and house duty only, ) 
t see Licences. j 



3% 
160 
232 
292 

35° 

408 
S09 

494: 

5°°: 

^,7 2 5 
:>33°. 

'■337: 

,324: 

; .44°: 
,49°: 
,532, 
,670, 
,720, 
,670. 



See House Duty and Land Tax. 



,970 
:,6oo 
,450 
1,460 



°33 
641 
000 
000 
000 
000 
000 
000 
,000 
,000 

,000 

000 
000 
000 
,ooo 
,000 
,oso 
,000 
,000 

1154 
223 

000 
000 
,000 
000 
,000 



TAY BRIDGE at Dundee, above two miles 
across the Tay ; act passed 1870, work begun June, 
187 1 ; Mr. JJe Bergue, first contractor, died, suc- 
ceeded by Messrs. Hopkins, Gilke & Co., of Middles- 
brough. Engineer, sir Thomas Bouch. It was 
much injured by a gale, 4 Feb. 1877 ; completed, 
30 Aug.; tried, 25 Sept. 1877; opened, 31 May, 
1878. Length, 10,612 feet ; it consisted of 85 
spans, some above 90 feet above water level; cost 
said to be 350,000/. Above 20 lives lost during its 
construction. 

The bridge was partly destroyed by a gale, while a 

N. British maii-traiu was passing over it ; a gap 

of about 3,000 feet was made ; between 75 and 90 

persons perished ; about 7.15 p.m. Sunday, 28 Dec. 1879 

46 bodies were recovered . . up to 27 April, 1880 

Liberal collections were made for sufferers by the 

loss of relatives. 
After the Board of Trade inquiry, Mr. H. C. Rothery, 
in the report, stated "that the bridge had been 
badly designed, badly constructed, and badly 

maintained" 3 July, ,, 

Sir Thomas Bouch died . ... 30 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Barlow's (died, aged 90, 12 Nov. 1902) plans for 

a new bridge approved .... May, 1881 
Plans for new bridge approved . . . Jan. 1882 

Fourteen piers erected Dec. 1885 

Opened for public traffic . . . .20 June. 1887 

TCHERNAYA, a river in the Crimea. On 
16 Aug. 1855, the lines of the allied arcny at this 
place were attacked by 50,000 Russians under prince 
Gortschakoff, who was repulsed with the loss of 
3329 slain, 1658 wounded, and 600 prisoners. The 
brunt of the attack was borne by two French 
regiments under general D'Herbillon- The loss of 
the allies was about 1 200 ; 200 of these were from 
the Sardinian contingent, which behaved with great 
gallantry, under the command of general La Mar- 
mora. The Russian general Read, and the Sardinian 



general Montevecchio, were killed. The object of 
the attack was the relief of Sebastopol, then closely 
besieged by the English and French. 

TEA was brought to Europe by the Dutch, 1610. 
It is mentioned as having been used in England on 
very rare occasions prior to 1657, and sold for 61. 
and even 10/. the pound. Price of inferior kinds, 
1801,4s. 2hd. the pound; in 1871, is. I0d.\ in 1903, 

For TAeinc, see Cafeine. 
Samuel Pepys records his first " cup of tea," 25 Sept. 1660 
A duty of 8d. was charged upon every gallon of tea 

made for sale (12 Cli. II. c. 13) . . . . ,, 
The East India Company first import it . . 1669, 

Brought into England in 1666, by lord Ossory and 
lord Arlington, from Holland : and being admired 
by persons of rank, it was imported from thence, 
and generally sold for 60 shillings per pound, till 
our East India Company took up the trade. — 
Anderson. 

Green tea began to be used 171 5 

Price of black tea per lb. 13s. to 20s. ; of green, 12s. 
to 30s. ......... 1728. 

The duty imposed on tea in America, 1767: this tax 
occasioned the destruction of 17 chests at New 
York, and 340 at Boston, Dec. 1773, and ulti- 
mately led to the American war (see Boston). 
The tea-plant brought to England . . about 1768. 
Tea-dealers obliged to have sign-boards fixed up, 

announcing their sale of tea . . . Aug. 1779/ 
Commutation act for reducing the duty on tea from 

50 to i2j percent. ; taxing windows in lieu, June, 1784, 
" Millions of pounds' weight of sloe, liquorice, and 
ash-tree leaves, are every year mixed with Chinese 
teas in England." — Report of the House of Commons, 1818. 
"The consumption of the whole civilised world, 
exclusively of England, is about 22,000,000 of 
pounds, while the annual consumption in Great 
Britain is 30,000,000." — Evidence in House of 

Commons 1830 

The first tea-sale in London on the abolition of the 
exclusive privilege of the East India Company 
took place in Mincing-lane ... 19 Aug. 1834, 
New duties were charged, 1796 ; the duty was 96 and 

100 per cent. , made 2s. ill per pound . . . 1836 
The duty derived from the import of tea in 1850 
amounted to 5,471,461! ; and the amount was 

5,902,433! in 1852 

Various changes made in 1854, 1855 . . and 1856 
Duty of is. 5(1 per pound begun . . April, 1857 

Duty upon tea gradually reduced from 2s. z^d. to 
is. per pound; reduced to 6rf. per pound, 1 June, 1865 

Licences to sell tea abolished 1869 

Tea duty 6d. , continued 1871 

Produced, 3,709,450! year 1875-6 ; 4,002,210! 

1877-8:4,268,734! 1883-4; 4,613.311! . . 1887-8- 
The duty reduced to 4(1 per pound . 17 April, 189c 

Tea duty raised to 6d 9 April, 1900 

Area under tea cultivation in India at end of 1902, 
525,252 acres ; nine-tenths of total in Assam and 
Bengal ; government report issued . . Sept. 1903 

TEA IMPORTED INTO ENGLAND. 



1726 . 


lb 700,000 


1875 


lb 197,505,316 


1766 


7,000,000 


1876 


• • 185,536,371 


1792 . 


. 13,185,000 


1877 


. 187,515,284 


1800 


. 23,723,000 


1878 


. 204,872,899 


1805 . 


. 24,133,000 


1879 


. 184,076,472 


i8to 


. 25,414,000 


1880 


. . 206,971,57© 


181s . 


. 26,368,000 


1881 


. 209,801,522 


1820 


. . 25,662,474 


1882 


. . 210,663,133 


1825 . 


. 24,803,668 


1883 


. 222,262,431 


1830 


• ■ 30,544,404 


1884 


• • 213,877,759 


183S ■ 


. 44,360,550 


1885 


. 212,143,820 


1840 


• • 38,068,555 


1886 


. . 230,669,292 


1845 - 


■ 44, I 93.433 


1887 


. 221,841,490- 


1850 govt. 


retns. 50,512,384 


1889 


. 222,147,661 


1856. 


. 86,200,414 


1890 


• 223,494,511 


1858 . 


• • 75.432,535 


1892 


• • 239,445,467 


1861 . 


• 9 6 .577.383 


1893 


• 249,546,451 


1864 . 


• • 124,359,243 


1S94 


. 244,310,500, 


1866. 


. 139,610,044 


1895 


. 255,360,128 


1868 . 


• • 154,845,863 


1896 


. . 265,394,12c? 


1870 . 


. 141,020,767 


1898 


• 271,593,683 


1871 . 


. . 169,898,303 


1900 


. 298,900,200 


1872 . 


. 184,927,128 


1901 


. 229,000,00a 


1873 • 


163,765,269 


1902 


. . 236,000,000 



TEACHEES. 



1226 



TELEGRAPHS. 



The importation of tea grown in India has very 
greatly increased. 

A consignment of tea from the Gallebodde Estate, 
Ceylon, was sold in London at the rate of 87s. 
per pound, 13 Jan. ; re-sold for nos. per pound, 
to the United Kingdom Tea Company, Jan. ; 
some tea, Ceylon, sold for 10'. 12s. 6d. per pound, 
10 March ; 17I. per pound, 5 May ; 25Z. 10s. per 
pound 7 May, 1891 

TEACHEES, National Union of Ele- 
mentary, established about 1869. The Teachers' 
Association held their 3rd annual conference at 
University College, London, 9 Jan. 1878. The 
Teachers' Guild held its first public meeting, Mr. 
Mundella in the chair, 23 Jan. 1884. Conferences 
held annually ; the duke and duchess of York re- 
ceive 9,000/. for the benevolent fund at Brighton, 
9 April, 1896. 1901, 35,000 members. 

TEACHING, see Apostles and University . 

"TEARLESS VICTORY," was won by 
Archidamus III , king of Sparta, over the Arcadians 
and Argives, without losing a man, 367 B.C. 

TEA-ROOM MEETING of members of the 
house of commons, 8 April, 1867. See Reform, 1867 

TEB, Battle of, 29 Feb. 1884. See Soudan. 

TECHNICAL EDUCATION, defined as 
" science and art applied to industry." Polytechnic 
schools in Darmstadt established 1830 ; in Hanover 
J 835 ; the trade association of the grand duchy of 
Hesse, 1836; Berlin working mens' union, 1843; 
Wurtemburg workmen's school, 1848 ; society for 
promoting the interests of the working classes at 
Amsterdam, 1854. The first real practical technical 
school in England was formed in the Chester 
Diocesan Training College, by the rev. Arthur 
Rigg, principal, 1839-69. 

Conference of masters of city companies at the 
Mansion-house to promote technical education 

S Nov. 1869 

National university for industrial and technical 
training, proposed Oct. 1870 

City and Guilds of London Institute for the ad- 
vancement of technical education formally con- 
stituted, 11 Nov. 1878 ; foundation laid by prince 
Leopold 10 May, 1881 

Central Institution of City and Guilds Institute, 
South Kensington ; foundation laid by the prince 
of Wales 18 July, „ 

A royal commission (Mr. B. Samuelson, prof. H. E. 
Roscoe (since knighted) and others) to inquire as 
to technical instruction in foreign countries, Aug. ,, 

Technical college, Pinsbury, opened . 19 Feb. 1883 

Technical schools (Scotland) act passed . . . 1887 

Royal commission on technical instruction ap- 
pointed (Mr. Bernhard Samuelson, prof. H. E. 
Roscoe, and four others), to inquire abroad and 
at home, 5 Aug. 1881 ; reports (reassuring as to 
English work), about 17 Feb. 1882, and 16 May, 1884 

Technical instruction bill introduced in Parlia- 
ment ; dropped 10 July, 1888 

Great meeting at the Mansion House to promote 
technical education in the metropolis, 27 March, 1889 

The technical instruction act, authorising local 
authorities to supply aid for the purpose, passed 
30 Aug. 1889 ; another act passed . 26 March, 1891 

Technical and Industrial Institutions act passed . 1892 

National association for the promotion of technical 
education formed, lord Hartington (since duke 
of Devonshire), president, 1 July, 1887 ; annual 
meetings 1893 

Association of technical institutions constituted at 
the Society of Arts .... 26 Jan. 1894 

Mr. T. H. Adams, of Newport, bequeathes about 
50,000?. for technical education in agriculture, 
announced 27 Jan. „ 

International congress on technical education at 
the Society of Arts . . . .15 June, 1897 



New mining and technical college at Wigan opened 
by the countess of Crawford . . .12 Jan. 1903 
See Polytechnic Institution and Whitworth. 

TE DEUM, a song of praise used by the Romish 
and English churches, beginning " Te Deum Lau- 
damus — We praise thee, OGod," supposed to be the 
composition of Augustin and Ambrose, about 390. 
The original music is very ancient. 

TEETOTALER, a term applied to an ab- 
stainer from all fermented liquors, originated with 
Richard Turner, an artisan of Preston, who, con- 
tending for the principle at a temperance meeting 
about Sept. 1833, asserted "that nothing but te-te- 
total will do." The word was immediately adopted. 
He died 27 Oct. 1846. These facts are taken from 
the " Staunch Teetotaler," edited by Joseph Live- 
sey, of Preston (an originator of the movement in 
1832, he died, aged 90, 2 Sept. 1884), Jan. 1867. 
See Encratites, Good Templars, Temperance, and 
United Kingdom. 

TEELIS, see Tiflis. 

TEGYRA, Bceotia. Here Pelopidas defeated 
the Spartans, 375 B.C. 

TEHERAN became capital of Persia about 1 79c; . 
Estimated population, 210,000. 

TELEGRAPHONE, a development of the 
telephone and phonograph invented by Mr. 
Poulsen, a Dane, by which the voice may be 
directed to any number of points simultaneously, 
Nature, 17 May, 1900; another by Mr. Kuniberg, 
reported, 27 Oct. 1900. 

TELEGRAPHS (from the Greek, tele, afar, 
an&grapho, I write). JSschylus, in his Agamemnon 
(b.c. 500), describes the communication of intel- 
ligence by burning torches as signals. Polybius, 
the Greek historian (who died about 122 B.C.), calls 
the different instruments used by the ancients for 
communicating information, pyrsice, because the 
signals were always made by fire. In 1663, a plan 
was suggested by the marquis of Worcester, and a 
telegraph was suggested by Dr. Hooke, 1684. M. 
Amontons is also said to have been the inventor of 
telegraphs about this period. James II., while duke 
of York, originated a set of navy signals, which 
were systematised by Kempenfeldt in 1780; and a 
dictionary was compiled by sir Home Popham. 
M. Chappe then invented the telegraph first used 
by the French in 1 792, and two were erected over 
the Admiralty-office, London, 1796. The sema- 
phore was erected there 1816. The naval signals 
by telegraph enabled 400 previously concerted sen- 
tences to be transmitted from ship to ship, by 
varying the combinations of two revolving crosses. 
Baron Reuter's telegraph agency founded at Aix la 
Chapelle, 185 1. Acts relating to telegraphs were 
passed in 1863 and 1866. The telegraph act, passed 
31 July, 1868, enabled the postmaster-general to 
purchase existing electric telegraphs (not less than 
is. for a telegram, 20 words). Mr. Scudamore was 
appointed director, Jan. 1872. The principle of a 
6d. telegram adopted by the commons, 29 March, 
1883, and enacted to come into operation I Oct. 
1883, deferred; bill introduced by Mr. Shaw- 
Lefevre 30 March ; act passed 14 Aug. ; came into 
operation 1 Oct. 1885. Another telegraph act passed 
28 June, 1892, and 1899. See Telephone. Great 
destruction of telegraph posts and wires by gale 
and snowstorm; London streets blocked by fallen 
wires 26-27 Dec. 1886. The Society of Telegraph 
Engineers founded 1871; held first general meet- 
ing, 28 Feb. 1872, Chas. Wm. Siemens, president; 



TELEKOUPHONON. 



1227 



TELEPHONE. 



incorporated 1883. Present title "Institution of 
Electrical Engineers" (1903). See Electric Tele- 
graph and Wireless Telegraphy, under Electricity 
and Telegraphs, under Post Office, 1869 et seq. 
The Telegraphic Journal began 15 Nov. 1873 

International Telegraph Conferences (commercial), 
have been held at Brussels, 1858 ; Paris, March, 
1865; Vienna, 1868; Rome, 1871-2 ; St. Peters- 
burg, 1 June, 1875 ; London, 18 June, 1879 ; 
Paris, 16 Oct. 1882 ; Berlin, 10 Aug.-i7 Sept. 
1885 ; Paris (114 delegates, representing 38 states 
and 23 great companies) . 15 May-21 June, 1890 

Telautog raphy : successful experiments made with 
prof. Elisha Gray's machine ; messages trans- 
mitted in facsimile writing between the General 
Post-office, London and St. Margaret's Bay (83 
miles), 22 July, 1894 ; further improvements in 

1898 and 1900 

Prof. Rowland's multiplex system of printing to 
telegraphy, successful .... April, 1900 

TELEKOUPHONON, or speaking tele- 
graph, consisted of piping of gutta percha, 
caoutchouc, glass, or earthenware, with a terminal 
mouthpiece of ivory, bone, wood, or metal. It was 
used for dockyards and large establishments. It 
was described by Mr. Francis Whishaw at the 
meeting of the British Association at Swansea, 
August, 1848. 

TEL-EL-KEBIE, Egypt, the site of the en- 
trenched camp of the rebel general, Arabi Pasha, 
his force being about 17,500 regular infantry, 2500 
cavalry, 6000 Bedouins and other irregulars, and 70 
guns ; captured by the British 13 Sept. 1882. 

Sir Garnet Wolseley broke up his camp at Ismailia on the 
night of 12 Sept. and began his advance at 1.30 a.m., 
his force being about 11,000 infantry, 2000 cavalry, and 
40 guns ; the troops marched rapidly in the dark, each 
regiment endeavouring to be first. At daybreak they 
arrived at the camp. The surprised Egyptians filled 
the trenches and fought well under cover ; but when 
the British scaled the parapets, they at first resisted 
bravely, but afterwards fled, being hotly pursued by 
the British cavalry, leaving all their guns, ammuni- 
tion, &.c. , in the hands of the victors. Thousands 
were killed or made prisoners. Arabi Pasha fled to- 
wards Cairo. Among our killed were majors Colville, 
Underwood, and Somervell, and lieut. McNeill. The 
British general's masterly plans of the campaign were 
thus successfully carried out by his efficient staff and 
gallant army, which included many young soldiers ; 
the Irish and Highland regiments and the Guards 
being specially distinguished. Arabi Pasha's army 
was completely broken up, and the British entered 
Cairo the next day, 14 Sept. British killed about 52, 
and 380 wounded ; Egyptian killed and wounded about 
1500. The Highlanders bore the brunt of the action. 

TELEMETEE, &c, an instrument for deter- 
mining the distance between a gun and the object 
tired at. Lieut, von Ehrenberg and major Alon- 
taudon, in Baden, constructed a telemeter the size 
of a watch, by which the distance is determined and 
shown on a dial by the action of sound, 1878-85. 
Teletopometer, another apparatus for ascertaining 
the distance from point to point, invented by Dr. 
Luigi Cerebotani, was announced in Sept. 1885 ; 
two telescopes are employed. 

TELEPATHY, ' ' the supersensory transference 
of thoughts and feelings from one mind to another" ; 
the principal subject of " Phantasms of the Living," 
edited by Messrs. Edmund Gurney, Frederie Myers, 
and Frank Podmore, and issued by the society for 
psychical research about 30 Oct. 1886. See Psy- 
chology, 1897. 

TELEPHONE (from Greek, tele, afar, phone, 
voice, sound), a name now given to apparatus for 



transmitting articulate and musical sounds, by 
means of wire, vibrating rods, threads, or magneto- 
electricity. See Electrophone [in article Electri- 
city], Phonograph, Microphone, Phonopore. 

Robert Hooke conveyed sounds to a distance by dis- 
tended wire 1667 

Wheatstone conveyed the sounds of a musical-box 
from a cellar to upper rooms by means of a deal 
rod (termed " Enchanted Lyre ") . . . 1821 

Page produced galvanic musical tones by magnetis- 
ing and demagnetising an iron bar . . . . 1837 
The principle advanced by De la Rive . . . 1843 
Professor Pepper lectured on Wheatstone's tele- 
phone before the queen at the Polytechnic, 10 May 1855 
Philip Reis exhibited a partially articulate electric 

telephone at Frankfort . . . .25 April 1861 
Cromwell Varley produced a musical one, 1870 ; 
played on at the Queen's theatre, Long-acre, 

12 Feb. 1877 
Elisha Gray improved Reis's telephone, and is said 

to have anticipated prof. Bell's discovery . 1873 

Professor A. Graham Bell's articulating telephone 
produced : (he employs a thin disk of iron vibrat- 
ing in front of a permanent magnet, surrounded 
by a coil of insulated copper wire ; the sound 
or voice causes the vibration of the disk, thereby 
generating a current of electricity which, sent 
round a similar coil on a distant magnet, sets 
vibrating another disk, and thus the sound is 
reproduced ; sound is converted into electricity 
and electricity reconverted into sound ;) experi- 
ments at Boston and Salem, United States _ (18 
miles apart) ; speech, music, singing, laughing, 
&c, distinctly heard .... 12 Feb. 1877 
This telephone exhibited by Mr. W. H. Preece before 
the British Association, Plymouth, 23 Aug. 1877 ; 
before the queen at Osborne, Isle of Wight, 

14, 15 Jan. 1878 
Debates in the house of commons, reported by it 

for Daily News (unsuccessful) . . 22 Jan. „ 
Telephone company established . . summer ,, 
Edison's carbon "loud speaking" telephone ; con- 
versation heard between London and Norwich ; 
115 miles of wire .... n Nov. ,, 
Mr. Frederick Allen Gower improves Bell's tele- 
phone ; shown at Royal Institution, London, 

20, 21 March, 1879 
Telephone Exchange (Edison's system), Lombard- 
street ; ten offices connected ; private conversa- 
tion between two persons in either a loud or low 
tone carried on ; successfully tried . 6 Sept. ,, 

New building in Lime-street 1894 

The Bell and Edison companies become the United 

Telephone Company ; announced . 26 July, 1880 
The telephone tried by lord Elphinstone in his 

coalmines near Carberry, Scotland . Sept. ,, 
Telephone communication established between 
Liverpool and Manchester ; exchange of mes- 
sages between the mayors ... 9 Nov. „ 
20,000 Gower-Bell telephones said to have beeu 

ordered by the post-office . . . Dec. ,, 
The attorney-general applies for injunction against 
the Telephone company and the Edison telephone 
company; case deferred ; the companies directed 
to keep accounts, 20 Jan. 1880 ; decision that 
the Telephone company is an infraction of the 
electric telegraph monopoly bought by the act of 
1868, 20 Dec. 1880; legal arrangements with the 

company n April, 1881 

The postmaster-general now grants licences . . ,, 
Professor Dolbear of Tuft's college, Massachusetts, 
announced a new system, with improved tele- 
phone receiver (an articulating air condenser), 
different to Bell's and Edison's . . . Aug. „ 
Opera at Royal Comedy theatre, Panton-street, 
London, heard at Bristol hotel, Burlington- 
gardens 21 Dec. ,, 

National Telephone company 2nd annual meeting, 
report gross revenue 30 June, 1881, 15,050^. ; 
30 June, 1882, 26,9962. ; dividend 6 per cent. 

announced Aug. 1882 

Telephonic communications between Brighton and 

London established 21 Deo. ,, 

The system largely developed in Europe and 
America >> 



TELEPHONE. 



1228 



TELESCOPES. 



United Telephone company v. Harrison, Cox, 
Walker &. Co., for infringements of patents 
(Gordon, Bell and Edison) ; verdict for plaintiffs 
on appeal 6 Feb. 

Distinct communication between New York and 
Chicago iooo miles (by steel wire coated with 
copper) reported 24 March, 

Sermons at churches and chapels transmitted at 
Bradford Aug. 

The post-office makes large concessions to the 
companies Sept. 

Successful experiments between Uxbridge and 
Liverpool (200 miles) .... 9 July, 

Simple mechanical telephone of Messrs. A. A. 
Knudson and T. G. Ellsworth of New York 
announced Aug. 

Telephonic communication between Brussels and 
Paris opened by means of Dr. Cornelius Herz's 
micro-telephone 2 Feb. 

A telephone palace at Stockholm . . Feb. 

Communication by telephone between Paris and 
Marseilles opened .... 6 Aug. 

Proposed amalgamation of the United Telephone 
company with other companies opposed by the 
postmaster-general in regard to their licences 
from government June, 

The Pulsion telephone, in which sounds are com- 
municated by an ordinary wire, without elec- 
tricity, invented by Mr. Lemuel Mellett, 
successfully used on railways in America, 1888 ; 
tried with good results on the Midland railway 
near London Dec. 

Mr. Edison, said to have invented a process of 
combining photography with the telephone, Feb. 

Telephonic communications open between London, 
Birmingham, and Li verpool, 11 July; Manchester 

30 Sept. 

The telephone almost universally adopted . iE 

Telephone communication between London and 
Paris, proposed by the French, and assented to 
by the English Government; the necessary works 
were completed by the construction of the first 
sub-marine telephonic cables, and their submerg- 
ing by the Monarch, 14 March ; officially tested 
by the engineers, 17 March ; the first communi- 
cations were from the prince of Wales and presi- 
dent Carnot exchanging congratulations ; others 
followed between Mr. Raikes, the postmaster- 
general, and M. Roche, French minister of com- 
merce, and other officials, 18 March ; opened to 
the public (day and night) . . 1 April, 

Telephonic communication from London to Mar- 
seilles and Brussels, completed 19 April, 1891 ; 
■between Dublin and Belfast, opened . 5 April, 

Treasury minute to promote the development of 
the telephone system in the United Kingdom 
by promoting the co-operation of the post-office 
and the telephone companies, &c. . 23 May, 

The government authorised to raise 1,000,000?. to 
purchase the trunk lines of the telephone com- 
panies, by the telegraph act passed . . June, 

Telephone from New York to Chicago (950 miles) 
opened Oct. 

A "Manual of Telephony," by W. H. Preece and 
A. J. Stubbs, published .... Dec. 

Telephone from Berlin to Vienna (410 miles) opened, 

29 Nov. 

Telephone between the post-office, London, Edin- 
burgh, and other principal towns of the kingdom 
inaugurated 12 June, 

The Apostoloff automatic telephone, system de- 
scribed in the Times . . . .17 Aug. 

All the trunk telephone lines in the United King- 
dom transferred to the post-office . 6 Feb. 

Second telephone cable — 24 miles long — between 
Abbot's-cliff, near Dover, and Sangatte, near 
Calais, laid S May, 

Telephone communication with and through Ire- 
land begun 9 Sept. 

Report of telephone committee issued . 12 Aug. 

Communication between farms by instruments on 
wire fences used in Australia, announced, Sept. 

The history of the telephone service, from 1877- 
1892, Times 20, 23 Jan. 

Telegraphs (telephonic communication) act passed, 

4 Aug. 



1897 



Successful experiments with the Brussels-London 
telephone (cable between Ostend and St. 
Margaret's bay, near Dover), reported . 3 Oct. 1900 

Telephone convention between Gt. Britain and 
France signed 29 July, 1902 

TELEPHOTOGRAPHY, a process for 
transmitting to a distance images of objects by the 
agency of electricity and selenium, was invented by 
Mr. Shelford Bid well, early in 188 1. 

TELEBADIPHONE, an arrangement of 
apparatus in which M. Mercadier has adapted prof. 
Graham Bell's photophone to telegraphy, announced 
Jan. 1882. 

TELESCOPES. Their principle was de- 
scribed by Boger Bacon about 12^0, and Leonard 
Digges (who died about 1573) is said to have 
arranged glasses so that he could see very distant 
objects. 

Telescopes constructed by John Lipperhey and 
Zacharias Jansen, spectacle-makers of Middle- 
burg, and James Metius of Alkmaer . . about 1608 

Galileo (from a description of the above) constructed 
telescopes (May, 1609), gradually increasing in 
power, till he discovered Jupiter's satellites, &c. 

Jan. 1610 

The telescope explained by Kepler . . . .1611 

Huyghens greatly improved the telescope ; dis- 
covered the ring and satellites of Saturn, &c. 1655-6 

Telescopes improved by Gregory . . about 1663 

Reflecting telescope invented by Newton . . 1668 

Achromatic telescopes made by Chester More Hall, 
about 1723 ; re-invented by John Dollond . . 1758 

Sir ffm, Herschel (originally an organist at Bath) 
greatly improves telescopes, and discovers the 
planet Uranus (which see), 21 March, 1781, and a 
volcanic mountain in the moon, in 1783 ; he com- 
pletes his forty-feet focal length telescope in 
1789, and he discovers two other volcanic moun- 
tains ; he lays before the Royal Society a cata- 
logue of 5000 nebulas and clusters of stars . . 1802 

A telescope made in London for the observatory of 
Madrid, which cost 11, 000L, in ,, 

Telescopes improved by Guinand and Fraunhofer. 

1805-14 

The great telescope taken down, and one of twenty- 
feet focal length erected by sir John Herschel 
(who afterwards took it to the Cape of Good 
Hope, and made with it his observations) . . 1822 

The earl of Rosse erected at Parsonstown, in Ire- 
land, a telescope (at a cost exceeding 20,000/.) 
6 feet in diameter, and 54 feet in length ; it is 
moved with ease 1828-45 

Mr. Lassell constructed a telescope by which he 
discovered the satellite of Neptune, 1846 ; and the 
eight satellites of Saturn 1848 

One of gigantic size, 85 feet in length (very imper- 
fect), completed at Wandsworth by the rev. John 
Craig 1852 

Magnificent equatorial telescopes set up at the 
national observatories at Greenwich and Paris . 1860 

M. Foucault exhibits at Paris a reflecting telescope, 
the mirror 31J inches in diameter ; the focal 
length 17J feet . . .... 1862 

Mr. R. S. Newall's telescope (with object glass 25 
inches diameter ; tube nearly 30 feet), set up at 
Gateshead by Cookes of York 1870 

One at United States Observatory, Washington ; 
object-glass, 26 inches diameter, 33 feet length 1881 

Mr. A. Ainslie Common's reflecting telescope ; spe- 
culum 37^ inches diameter ; length, 20 feet ; said 
to be the most powerful in existence ; Eal- 
ing, Middlesex ; completed, Sept. 1879 ; a paper 
on a new form of his reflecting telescope read by 
Dr. Common at the Roy. Astron. Society, 11 Jan. 1895 

The largest refracting telescope yet made ; by 
Howard Grubb at Dublin (for Vienna), approved 
by the commissioners . . . 16 March, 1881 

A very large refracting telescope by Messrs. Clark 
of America was set up in the observatory at 
Mount Hamilton, California, named after Mr. 
Lick (who left money for its foundation) . . 1888 



TELL, WILLIAM. 



1229 



TEMPLE. 



A giant telescope, largest in the world, due to M. 
Francois Deloncle, erected at the Paris exhibi- 
tion (see Nature) n Oct. 1900 

The Victoria telescope, the gift of Dr. Frank 
McClean, F.B.S.,of Kent, mounted at the Cape, 
June, 1898 ; unveiled Sept. 1901 

Great telescope erected in the Yerkes observatory 
in ,, 

TELL, "WILLIAM. The popular stories re- 
specting him were demonstrated to be mythical by 
Professor Kopp of Lucerne, 1872. 

TELLERS, see under Exchequer. 

TELLURIUM, a rare metal, in its natural 
state containing small quantities of iron and gold, 
was discovered by Miiller of Keichenstein, in 1782, 
and named by Klaproth. 

TELODYNAMIC TRANSMITTER, in- 

vented by M. Him, is an arrangement of water- 
wheels, endless wires, and pulleys, for conveying 
and using the power of water-falls at a distance, 
and has been much used since 1 850. The apparatus 
was shown at Paris in 1862. 

TELPHERAGE, an application of electrical 
motion, invented by professor Fleeming Jenkin, 
aided by professors Ayrton and Perry, for conveying 
heavy goods, 2d. a ton per mile, 4 miles an hour, 
shown at Millwall, 1884. 

A Telpherage company was formed. A Telpher line 
at the estate of lord Hampden at Glynde near 
Lewes, opened 17 Nov. 1885 

TEMESWAR (Hungary), capital of the Banat, 
often besieged by the Turks. On 10 Aug. 1849, 
Haynau totally defeated the Hungarians besieging 
this town, and virtually ended the war. 

TEMNOGRAPH, an instrument designed to 
plot to any accurate scale a section of the ground 
over which it travels. It works by frictional 
motion governed b} r two pendulous weights. In- 
vented by A. M. Eymer-Jones in 1879. 

TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES originated 
with Mr. Calhoun, who, while he was secretary of 
war in America, in order to counteract the habitual 
use of ardent spirits among the people, prohibited 
them altogether in the United States' army, 1818. 
See Teetotaler and Permissive Bill. 

The first public temperance society in America was 

projected in 1825, and formed . . 13 Feb. 1826 
Many temperance societies immediately afterwards 

formed in America, England, and Scotland. 
British and foreign temperance society formed, 

29 June, 1 83 1 

The "Rechabites" (see Jer. xxxv.) began ." about 1838 

In Ireland, the rev. Dr. Edgar, of Belfast, published 

upon temperance in 1S29-31 ; and Father Theobald 

Mathew, a Roman catholic clergyman, affirmed 

that he had made more than a million of converts 

to temperance . . 1841 

Father Mathew arrived in America in July, 1849 : 

was not so successful there ; he died, aged 66, 8 Dec. 

1856 ; centenary of his birth celebrated, 10 Oct. 

et seq. 1890 ; his statue at Dublin unveiled, 8 Feb. 1893 

Anti-alcohol congress at the Hague . .16 Aug. ,, 

In England, the National temperance society, 

formed 1843 

London temperance league 1851 

The United Kingdom alliance for the legislative 
suppression of the sale of intoxicating liquors, 
1 June, 1853 ; annual meetings up to 1896 et seq. 
The National Temperance league, formed . . 1856 
Mr. J. B. Gough lectures in London, &c. . . ,, 

United Kingdom Band of Hope Union formed 1855, 
by Mr. Stephen Shirley (died 24 Feb. 1897) ; 
11,400 societies with 1,414,900 members, 1888 ; 
26,881 societies, and 3,308,988 members . . 189 



The National union for suppression of intemperance 
by means of " few houses, shorter hours, and 
better provisions," established end of . . . 1871 

Church of England temperance society inaugurated 
by the archbishop of Canterbury and others at 
Lambeth 18 Feb. 1873 

A Temperance hospital, where no alcoholic drinks 
are to be given for disease, was opened . 6 Oct. ,, 

British Women's temperance association inaugu- 
rated at Newcastle-on-Tyne . . . April, 1876 

Mr. J. B. Gough lectures in London, 

Sept. 1878 ; Oct. 1879 

London Temperance hospital, Hampstead-road, 
London, building (21,000?. out of 30,000!. sub- 
scribed) Sept. ,, 

International exhibition of objects connected with 
temperance opened at the Agricultural hall, Is- 
lington 22 Aug. 1881 

The Green and Blue Ribbon Armies of persons advo- 
cating temperance were prominent in . . . 1882 

A Yellow Army of moderate drinkers proposed (gen. 
Hicks) about Sept. „ 

National Temperance Jubilee at the Crystal palace; 
above 50,000 present [other fetes since] . 5 Sept. ,, 

International temperance conferences : Brussels, 
1880; London 1882; Antwerp 1885; London, 
June, 1895 ; Vienna .... 9 April, 1901 

Mr. J. B. Gough dies in Philadelphia, aged 69, 

about 17 Feb. 1886 

British and colonial congress in London, bishop 
of London president . . . 14-16 July, ,, 

" National Prohibition Party," Mr. Alex. Gus- 
tafson, in the Christian Commonwealth, strongly 
urges the total abolition of alcohol . April, 1887 

The African anti-alcoholic international conference 
meets at Brussels .... 20 April, 1899 

A world's temperance congress, theabp. of Canter- 
bury president, in London . . .11 June, 1900 

See Licenses, 1899-1902. 

Temperance demonstrations in the parks, London, 

15 June, 1901 

The abp. of Canterbury inaugurates a week's 
temperance mission at Leicester . 14 Oct. ,, 

Salvation army temperance campaign started by a 
meeting at Exeter hall .... 3 Feb. 1902 

Band of Hope jubilee building, foundation-stone 
laid by the lord mayor in Old Bailey . 18 Feb. ,, 

New association against drinking between meals, 
earl Roberts and lord Alverstone president and 
vice-president, reported ... 6 Feb. 1903 

Mr. W. S. Caine, M.P., prominent spokesman of 
advanced temperance views in the house of 
commons, died, aged 59 . . 17 Mar. ,, 

TEMPERED GLASS, see Glass. 

TEMPLARS. The military order of " soldiers 
of the Temple," to protect pilgrims, was founded 
about II 18 by Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem, 
confirmed by pope Honorius II., 1128. The Tem- 
plars were numerous in several countries, and came 
to England before 1 185. Their wealth having ex- 
cited the cupidity of the French kings, the order 
was suppressed by the council of Vienne, and part 
of its revenues was bestowed upcn other orders about 
1312. Numbers of the order were tried, condemned, 
and burned alive or hanged in 1308- 10, and it 
suffered much persecution throughout Europe ; 68 
knights were burnt at Paris, 1310. Pope Clement 
V. abolished the order, April, 1312. The grand 
master Molay was burnt alive at Paris, 18 March, 
1314. Their property in England was given to the 
Hospitallers, and the head of the order in England 
died in the Tower. See Good Templars. 

TEMPLE (London), the dwelling of the 
Knights Templars, consecrated by Heraclius, patri- 
arch of Jerusalem, 1185, at the suppression of the 
order, was purchased by the professors of the 
common law, and converted into inns, 131 1, after- 
wards called the Inner and Middle Temple. Essex 



TEMPLES. 



1230 



TERMS OF LAW. 



house, alsT a part of the house of the Templars, 
was called the Outer Temple, because it was 
situated without Temple-bar. 

The Temple hall was built in 1572 

St. Mary's, or the Temple church, situated in the 
Inner Temple, is a Gothic stone building, erected 
by the Templars in 1240, and is remarkable for its 
circular vestibule, and for the tombs of the 
crusaders, who were buried here. The church 
was recased with stone by Mr. Smirke in 1828 ; 
resignation of Dr. Charles John Vaughan, dean 
of Llandaff, Master of the Temple in 1869 ; suc- 
ceeded by the rev. Canon Alfred Ainger, formerly 
reader (26 years) June, 1894 

The Middle Temple new library was opened by the 
prince «f Wales, 31 Oct. 1861 ; he becomes trea- 
surer of the Middle Temple . . . Nov. 1886 

New Inner Temple hall opened by princess Louise, 

14 May, 1870 

Temple bar, erected outside the gates ; ordered to 
be rebuilt 27 June, 1669 ; erected by sir C. Wren ; 
completed March 1672-3; cost 1397Z. 10s. ; room 
above contained books of Child and Co. for 200 
years ; reported dangerous March, 1868 ; began 
to sink 30 July ■. shored up 1868 

Its removal voted by the common council, 27 Sept. 
1876 ; the removal began 2 Jan., 1878 ; last stones 
removed 13 June, 1879 

The stones, &c, given to sir H. B. Meux to be 
erected at Theobald's park, near Cheshunt, June, 
1887 ; the bar set up Nov. 1888 

The memorial to mark the site (including statues 
of the queen and prince of Wales) ; cost about 
ii,S5o2. ; inaugurated by prince Leopold, 8 Nov. 1880 

" Temple" at Paris, formerly an asylum for debtors, 
and a prison during the republic, was made the 
site of a market in 1809, and rebuilt in 1864. 

The " City Temple," a dissenters' chapel (minister, 
Dr. Parker, died 28 Nov. 1902), Holborn Viaduct, 
was opened 19 May, 1874 

TEMPLES- The Egyptians were the first 
who erected temples to the gods. — Herodotus. The 
first erected in Greece is ascribed to Deucalion. 
— Apollonius. 

The temple of Jerusalem built by Solomon, 1012 B.C. 
consecrated 1004 ; pillaged by Shishak, 971 ; repaired 
by Joash, 856 ; profaned by Ahaz, 740 ; restored by 
Hezekiah, 726 ; pillaged and fired by Nebuchadnezzar, 
588, 587 ; rebuilt, 536 ; pillaged by Antiochus, 170 ; 
rebuilt by Herod, 18 ; destroyed by Titus, a.d. 70. 

The temple of Apollo, at Delphi, first a cottage with 
boughs, built of stone by Trophonius, about 1200 B.C. ; 
burnt by the Pisistratidse, 548 ; a new temple raised by 
the family of the Alcmseonidai, about 513. 

Temple of Diana at Ephesus, built seven times ; planned 
by Ctesiphon, 544 B.C. ; fired by Eratostratus or 
Ilerostratus, to perpetuate his name, 356 B.C. ; to re- 
build it employed 220 years ; destroyed by the Goths, 
a. p. 260. 

The temple of Piety was built by Acilius, on the spot 
where once a woman had fed with her milk her aged 
father, whom the senate had imprisoned, and excluded 
from all aliments. — Vol. Max. 

Temple of Theseus, built 480 B.C., is at this day the most 
perfect ancient edifice in the world. 

Most of the heathen temples were destroyed throughout 
the Roman empire byConstantine the Great and Theo- 
closius, 331-392, See separate articles. 

_ TENANT, see Rent. Bills to amend the posi- 
tion of Irish tenants in relation to their landlords 
were brought into parliament by Mr. Sharman 
Crawford, 1835, s "" J° se ph Napier, 1852, Mr. Card- 
well, i860, Mr. Chichester Fortescue, 1866, Lord 
Naas, 1867. The Irish land bill settling the ques- 
tion passed 8 July, 1870. See Ulster. 

The Tenants' Defence Association was formed in con- 
sequence of a declaration by Mr. Parnell and his 
party, at a meeting in the house of commons, that a 
new league was necessary to defend the Irish tenant 
farmers against their landlords, 14 July, 1889. The 



tenants were invited to contribute to the fund, and 
preliminary meetings were held. The association was 
inaugurated at Thurles, Tipperary, by Mr. Sexton, 
Mr. Redmond, and other M.P.'s., 600 delegates being 
present, 28 Oct. 1889. 40,000^ had been subscribed 
up to 30 Jan. 1890. In April, 1891, the scheme was 
reported unsuccessful. 

TENASSERIM (N.E. India), ceded by Bur- 
mah to the British, 24 Feb. 1826. 

TENERIFFE (Canaries, N.W. coast of Africa). 
The peak of Teneriffe, 12, 198 feet above the level of 
the sea, was ascended in 1856 by professor C. Piazzi 
Smyth for astronomical observations. An earth- 
quake in this island destroyed several towns and 
many thousands of people in 1704. See Santa Cruz. 
The governor, col. Pedro Bastanica, was hanged for 
murder of his mother-in-law, 28 Oct. 1890. 

TEN MINUTES' BILL, see Reform. 

TENNESSEE, a southern state of North 
America, was settled about 1760, and admitted into 
the union 1 June, 1796. An ordinance of secession 
from the union was passed — it is asserted illegally 
— on 6 May, 1861. On 23 Feb. 1862, the federal 
general Nelson entered Nashville, and in March, 
Andrew Johnson (afterwards the president of the 
United States) was made military governor over a 
large part of Tennessee. In Sept. 1863, Kosencrans 
expelled the confederate government. The repre- 
sentatives of Tennessee were re-admitted to the 
congress, July, 1866. Population, 1880, 1,542,359; 
1890, 1,767,518; 1900, 2,020,616. Capital, Nash- 
ville. 

Riots at Knoxville, through the employment of con- 
victs in the mines ; about 500 liberated by the mob, 
30 Oct. etseq. ; recaptured, 4 Nov. 1S91. 
See United States, 1892. 

TENNIS- This game, brought from France, in 
the middle ages, became fashionable in England in 
the reign of Charles II. 1660-85 > see ^ eu d e Paume. 
"Lawn Tennis" became fashionable in 1877, re- 
placing croquet. Julian Marshall's "Annals of 
Tennis" published June, 1878. " Ping Pong," 
table tennis, very popular, 1901 et seq. 
A National Lawn Tennis Association started Jan. 1888 
Winners of the amateur championship, sir Edward 

Grey, 1889, 1891, 1895, 1896, 1898 ; Mr. F. B. Curtis, 

1890 ; Mr. H. E. Crawley, 1892, 1S93, 1894 ; Mr. J. B. 

Gribble, 1897 ! Mr - E - H. Miles, 1899-1903. 

TEN TABLES, see Decemvirs. 

TENTERDEN'S ACT, Lord, 2 & 3 Will. IV. 
c. 71, for shortening the time of prescription in 
certain cases (such as rights of way, and use of 
light), passed 1 Aug. 1832. 

TEN THOUSAND, see Retreat. 

TENTHS, see Tithes. 

TENURES, the mode in which land is held. 
Military tenures in England were abolished in 
1660. Lyttelton's book on Tenures is dated 1481. 

TERBIUM, a metal sometimes found with 
yttrium (which see). 

TERCEIRA, see Azores. 

TERMS of Law and Vacations. They 

were instituted in England from the Norman usage, 
the long vacation being suited to the time of the 
vintage in France, 14 Will. I. 1079. — Glanville de 
Leg. Anglic. They were gradually formed. — Spel- 
man. The terms were fixed by statute 11 Geo. IV. 
and 1 Will. IV. 22 July, 1830 : Hilary Term to 



TERNOVA. 



1231 



TEXAS. 



begin II Jan. and end 31 Jan.; Easter, 15 April, 
to end 8 May; Trinity, 22 May, to end 12 June ; 
Michaelmas, 2 Nov. to end 25 Nov. This act was 
amended 1 Will. IV. 15 Nov. 1830. New law terms 
(now sittings) were appointed under the Supreme 
Court of Judicature act, passed 5 Aug. 1873. 

Michaelmas sittings: 2 Nov. to 21 Dec. 

Hilary : 11 Jan. to Wednesday in Passion week. 

Easter : Thursday in Easter week to Friday before Whit- 
Sunday. 

Trinity : Tuesday after Whit-Sunday to 8 Aug. 

The new legal vacations ordered to be as follows : — 
Christmas : 24 Dec. to 6 Jan. Easter : Good Friday 
to Easter-Tuesday. W hitsun : Saturday before Whit- 
Sunday to Whit-Tuesday. Long vacation : 10 Aug. to 
24 Oct. 

TERNOVA, see Tirnova. 

TERRITORIAL WATERS JURISDIC- 
TION ACT, passed, 16 Aug. 1878. It regulates 
the law relating to the trial of offences committed 
on the sea within a certain distance of the coasts of 
her majesty's dominions. 

TERROR, seeBeignof. 

TERRY ALTS, insurgents of co. Clare, who 
committed numerous outrages after the union, 
1801. They resembled the " Thrashers " of Con- 
naught, the " Carders," the followers of "capt. 
Rock," 1822, and the Fenians (which see). Brewer. 

TEST ACT, directing all officers, civil and mili- 
tary, under government, to receive the sacrament 
according to the forms of the church of England, 
and to take the oaths against transubstantiation, 
&c. ; enacted 29 March, 1673. The Test and Cor- 
poration acts were repealed, 9 May, 1828 See 
University Tests. 

TESTAMENT, see Bibles and Wills. 

TESTER, testone, a silver coin struck in France 
by Louis XII. 151 3 ; and also in Scotland in the 
time of Francis II. and of Mary, queen of Scots, 
1559. It was so called from the head of the king, 
stamped upon it. In England the tester was of 123. 
value in the reign of Henry VIII., afterwards of 
6d. (still called a tester) . 

TESTRI (N. France). Pepin d'Heristal, in- 
vited by malcontents, here defeated and captured 
Thierry III., king of Austrasia, and established 
himself as duke, 687. 

TETTENHALL (Staffordshire). It was pro- 
bably at this place, then named Teotenheal, that 
the Danes were defeated by the Saxon king, Edward 
the Elder, 6 Aug. 910. 

TETUAN (Morocco) was entered by the Span- 
iards 6 Feb. i860, after gaining a decisive victory 
on 4 Feb. The general O'Dbnnell was made a 
grandee of the first class. 

TEUTOBERG FOREST (theTeutobergiensis 
saltus, Tacitus), probably situate between Detniold 
and Paderborn, where Hermann, or Arminius, and 
the Germans defeated the Romans under Varus, 
with very great slaughter, a.d. 9. Varus and many 
of his officers preferred suicide to captivity. This 
defeat was regarded at Rome as a national calamity, 
and Augustus, in agony, cried, "Varus, give me 
my legions!" 

TEUTONES, a people of Germany, who with 
the Cimbri made incursions upon Gaul, and cut to 
pieces two Roman armies, 113 and 105 B.C. They 



were at last defeated by the consul Marius at Aix, 
and a great number made prisoners, 102 B.C. (see 
Cimbri), with whom authors commonly join the 
Teutones. The appellation came to be applied to 
the German nation in general (hence Deutsche) . 

TEUTONIC ORDER, military knights estab- 
lished in the Holy Land about 1191, through the 
humanity of the Germans (Teutones) to the sick 
and wounded of the Christian army in the Holy 
Land, under Guy of Lusignan. before Acre. The 
order was confirmed by a bull of pope Coeles- 
tine III. On their return to Germany, the knights 
were invited to subdue and christianise the country 
now call&i Prussia and its neighbourhood which 
they gradually accomplished. Their territories were 
invaded, and their army was defeated, with great 
slaughter, near Tannenberg, in East Prussia, by 
Jagellon, duke of Lithuania, 15 July, 1410, when the 
grand master and many of the knights were slain. 
A. large part of their possessions was incorporated 
into Poland in 1466, and into Brandenburg about 
1521. In 1525, the grand master was made a 
prince of the empire, and the order much weakened. 
Its remaining possessions were seized by Napoleon I. 
in 1809. Marienburg cattle (about 1274) and 
chapel restored and dedicated by the emperor, 5 
June, 1902. hee Prussia, &c. 

TEWKESBURY (Gloucestershire), where Ed- 
ward IV. gained a decisive victory over the Lan- 
castrians, 4 May, 1471. Queen Margaret, the consort 
of Henry VI., was taken prisoner, and her son killed. 
The queen was conveyed to the Tower of London, 
where king H enry expired soon after this fatal engage- 
ment; being, as is generally supposed, murdered 
by the duke of Gloucester, afterwards Richard III. 
The queen was ransomed in 1475 by the French 
king, Louis XL, for 50,000 crowns. Population, 
1881,5,100; 1891,5,269; 1901,5,500. 

The abbey, founded by Robert Fitz-Hamon, cousin of 
William I., completed and consecrated 1123 ; grandly 
altered, 14th century ; a monastery destroyed by 
Henry VIII. ; the abbey spared ; restored by G. G. 
Scott, 1877-9. 

TEXAS (N. America) was settled by the French, 
1687, who were expelled soon after. It revolted 
from Mexico in 1835 ; was helped by the Americans 
in 1836. Its independence was acknowledged in 
1840. Its proposed annexation led to war between 
Mexico and the United States. It was admitted 
into the Union by the latter in 1845 ! seceded from 
it in 1861 ; submitted in 1865 ; re-admitted to state 
rights, March, 1870. The coast was desolated by a 
great storm, 15-18 Sept. 1875. Population 1880, 
1,591,749; 1890, 2,235,523; 1900, 3,048,710; 
capital, Austin. See Storms. 

Great fire at Galveston, above 700 residences burnt, 
loss about 8oo,oooZ I3 Nov. 1885 

About 1 ,000 Mexicans entered Rio Grande and caused 
disturbances, soon quelled, . . . Sept. 1888 

Diplomatic correspondence respecting the conduct 
of Mr. Lyall, British consul at Galveston, in re- 
lation to an Englishman convicted of burglary ; 
he defends himself Dec' 1800 

Hurricane and great wave, 38 deaths, at Port 
Arthur and Sabine Pass . . . 12 Sept. 1897 

Overflow of the Brazos river ; great damage ; esti- 
mated deaths, 100 to 300 . 30 June-5 July, 1899 

Great cloud-burst and floods, about 40 deaths and 
vast loss of property, reported . . 7 April, 1900 

Hurricane and tidal wave, Galveston wrecked, 
nearly 8,000 perished ; enormous loss, 9 Sept. ; 
much looting, troops called in, about 25 persons 
shot, reported I2 s e pt. „ 

Tornado at Goliad, 98 deaths, 103 injured ; esti- 
mated damage, 200,000 dol. . . 18 May, 1902 



TEXEL. 



1232 



THAMES. 



•Oilfields discovered in Eastern Texas in 1900 ; 

rapid development, reported . . June, 1902 
-Rapid rise of the seaport La Porte, San Jacinto 

bay, reported Dec. ,, 

TEXEL (at the mouth of the Zuyder Zee, Hol- 
land). Its vicinity has been the scene of memorable 
naval engagements. An engagement between 
the English under Blake, Dean, and Monk, and 
the Dutch under Van Tramp and De Ruyter, in 
■which the latter were worsted and admiral Van 
Tramp was killed, 31 July, 1653. Again, in the 
mouth of the Texel a sharp indecisive action took 
place between the allied English and French fleets 
under prince Rupert and comte d'Estrees, and the 
Dutch fleet under De Ruyter, 11 Aug. 1673. The 
Dutch fleet was vanquished by admiral Duncan 
on II Oct. 1797 ; see Camper down. The Dutch fleet 
of 12 ships of war and thirteen Indiamen surren- 
dered to admiral Mitchell, who, entering the Texel, 
possessed himself of them without firing a shot, 30 
Aug. I79Q. 

TEXTILE. International conference, met at 
Manchester, 179,000 operatives represented, 24 July, 
1894. 

THALLIUM, a metal, occurring in the sulphu- 
ric acid manufacture, discovered by Mr. "Wm.Crookes, 
by means of the spectrum analysis, March, 1861. 

THAMES (London), the Roman Tamesis or 
Tamesa, Saxon Temese, Temesa, rises in four 
springs, at Ullen farm, near Coates, Gloucestershire. 
The head of the river in Wiltshire is about 170 
miles from London bridge, and its whole course 
from source to mouth about 220 miles. See London, 
London-bridge, and Frosts. 
The river rose so high at Westminster that the 

lawyers were brought out of the hall in boats . . 1235 
It rose to a great height, 1736, 1747, 1762 . . 1791 

The conservation of the Thames was given to the 

mayors of London 1489 

The Thames was made navigable to Oxford . . 1624 
It ebbed and flowed twice in three hours, 1658 ; 
again, three times in four hours, 22 March, 1682 ; 
again, twice in three hours ... 24 Nov. 1777 
An act of parliament gave the conservation of the 
Thames to the corporation of London ; twelve 
conservators were to be appointed — three by the 

government 1857 

In consequence of the great contamination of the 
Thames by the influx of the sewage of London, 
and the bad odours emanating from it in the 
summer of 1858, an act was passed empowering 
the Metropolitan Board of Works {which see) to 
undertake its purification by constructing new 

drainage 1858 

The Thames Angling Preservation Society (estab- 
lished about 1838) is revived in . . . . 1863 
Mr. Leach, engineer of the conservators, reported 
that "'the river is dreadfully mismanaged from its 
source to its mouth " . . . .23 July, ,, 
The Thames navigation acts, appointing five more 
conservators, &c. , and prohibiting pollution by 
sewage, &c. , passed .... Aug. 1866 

The powers of the act extended up to Staines . 1867 
New bye-laws to protect the fish in the Upper 

Thames passed by the conservators . 14 June, 1869 
Highest tide known for many years ; river over- 
flowed from Gravesend to its tidal limit ; great 
damage and distress in Blackfriars and Lambeth ; 
Woolwich arsenal flooded and suffered ; river 
said to have risen above 29 feet . . 15 Nov. 1875 
The lord mayor and others (with carriages and 
horses) cross by ferry from Rotherhitlie to Wap- 

ping 1 Nov. ,, 

Thames Steam Ferry ; first pile of a landing-place at 
Wapping struck by Lord Mayor Stone, 11 Oct., 
1875 ; first steam ferry boat, Jessie May, 

launched 26 Feb. 1876 

In consequence of the wreck of the saloon steamer 



Princess Alice, by collision with the Bywell Castle, 
3 Sept., a committee appointed by the Board of 
Trade to inquire into matters connected with 
safety of navigation, &c, in the river . Sept. 1878 

Thames traffic committee of the Board of Trade 
appointed 1879 

Floods on the south side, through heavy rains and 
high tides, 2, 3, Jan. 1877 ; during severe frost, 

18, 19 Jan. 1881 

Very high tide, 19 Feb. ; another, very destructive, 
Charing-cross pier carried away . . 28 Oct. 1882 

Appointment of committee to inquire into the acts 
for preserving the Thames for recreation agreed 
to 11 March, 1884 

Thames Preservation act passed . . 14 Aug. 1885 

Greenwich great steam ferry formally opened 13 
Feb. 1888 ; one between North and South Wool- 
wich (free) formally opened by lord Rosebery 

23 March, 18S9 

Thames Conservancy act, repealing previous acts, 
passed 1894 

Destructive overflow of the Thames (see Inunda- 
tions) . • Nov. ,, 

The upper Thames frozen over at Windsor, &c. ; 
navigation impeded at Sheerness and London, 

Feb. 1895 

Appeal respecting prevention of floods by a depu- 
tation to the Board of Trade . . 19 March, 1896 

New works undertaken at Teddington, Staines, &c. „ 

Lower Thames navigation commission appointed, 
Nov. 1894 ; report presented . . April, ,, 

The Thames Conservancy open a new channel at 
Teddington and other improvements at Maiden- 
head 22 Nov. 1897 

Salmon (600) placed in the river at Teddington In 
1901 ; other consignments in .... 1902 

Thames Tunnel. One proposed, 1799 ; shaft 
sunk, 1804. The present one proposed by I. K. 
Brunei to form a communication between 
Kotherhithe and Wapping, 1823. The bill re- 
ceived the royal assent ... 24 June, 1824 

The shaft was begun, and the first brick laid by Mr. 
Smith, 2 March ; the excavation commenced, 1 
April ; the first horizontal excavation in Dec. 1825 

At a distance of 544 feet from the shaft, the first 
irruption took place . . . .18 May, 1827 

The second irruption, by which six workmen 
perished 12 Jan. 1828 

The tunnel was opened throughout for foot-passen- 
gers, 25 March, 1843. [The length of the tunnel 
is 1300 feet ; its width is 35 feet ; height, 20 feet ; 
clear width of each archway, including foot-path, 
about 14 feet ; thickness of earth between the 
crown of the tunnel and the bed of the river, about 
15 feet.] 

The Thames Tunnel company was dissolved in . 1S66 

The tunnel, transferred to the East London railway 
company, was closed . . . .21 July, ,, 

The Tower subway, an iron tube tunnel beneath the 
Thames, constructed by Messrs. Barlow, was 
begun 16 Feb. 1869, and privately opened, April, 
1870. It was said to have cost only 16,000?. 

A tubular Tliamcs tunnel, chiefly for workmen, be- 
tween North and South Woolwich, begun 23 Aug. 1876 

Blackball Tunnel (see Tunnel) 1891 

New Greenwich and Millwall tunnel opened to the 
public ....... 4 Aug. 1902 

New bridge at Kew opened by the king . 20 May, 1903 

Widening of London bridge, commenced 1901, com- 
pleted 1904 

New bridge to replace Southwark bridge, 

announced 1903 

Thames Embankment : recommended by sir 
Christopher Wren, 1666, and by Wm. Paterson, 
founder of the bank of England, about T694. The 
corporation embanked a mile in 1767. It was 
further recommended by Gwynne, 1767 ; by sir 
Frederick Eden, 1798 ; by sir Frederick Trench, 
1824 ; by James Walker ; by the duke of New- 
castle, 1844 ; and by John Martin the painter. 
1856. In i860, the Metropolitan Board of Works 
recommended that the north bank of the Thames 
should be embanked, whereby the bed of the 
river would be improved ; a low-level sewer 
could be easily constructed beneath a broad 
roadway ; ducks to he constructed within the 
embankment wall ; the expense to lie defrayed by 



THANE. 



1233 



THEATRES. 



the city duties on coal, and by means provided by 
government. The principle of this recommenda- 
tion was approved by parliament, and a committee 
was appointed, which sat for the first time, 

30 April, 186: 

An act for " embanking the North side of the 
Thames from Westminster bridge to Blackfriars 
bridge, and for making new streets in and near 
thereto," passed 7 Aug. ; the work begun in Nov. 186: 

First stone of the northern (Victoria) embank- 
ment (designed by Mr. [aft. sir] Joseph W. Bazal- 
gette) laid by Mr. Thwaites near Whitehall stairs, 
20 July, 1864 ; the footway opened to the public, 
30 July, 1868 ; the roadway opened by the prince 
of Wales 13 July, 187c 

The proposal to build public offices upon the re- 
claimed land negatived by the house of commons, 

July, „ 

" Cleopatra's Needle " (see Obelisk), set up on the 
embankment 12 Sept. 1878 

Mr. J. W. Bazalgette (aft. sir) presented a report, 
with a plan for embanking the South side of the 
Thames, 6 Nov. 1862 ; act for carrying it out 
passed 28 July, 1863 

Southern (Albert) Embankment. First stone laid by 
Mr. (aft. sir Wm.) Tite, 28 July, 1866 ; partially 
opened 24 Nov. 1869 

Thames Mystery. See London, 1873. 

Chelsea (Victoria) Embankment. Authorised by 
parliament, 13 July, 1868; commenced 5 Aug., 
1871, opened by the duke of Edinburgh 9 May, 1874 

Kingston, Kew, Hampton Court, and other bridges 
freed from the toll by acts passed 1869 and 1874, 

1870-1878 

Avenue theatre opened ... 11 March, 1882 

The Thames at Windsor and other places frozen, 

end of Dec. 1890 

Steamboat service stopped, about 26 Dec. 1S90 ; 
resumed about 30 Jan. 1891 

The Thames, from Westminster to London Bridge, 
nearly closed by ice 6 Jan. ,, 

Thames Embankment tramways act passed, 

27 June, 1892 

Memorial to sir Joseph Bazalgette unveiled, 6 Nov. 1901 

THANE, a Saxon title of nobility, abolished in 
England at the conquest, upon the introduction 
of the feudal system, and in Scotland by king Mal- 
colm III., when the title of earl was adopted, 1057. 

THANET (Kent) was the first permanent 
settlement of the Saxons, about 449. The Danes 
held a part of it, 853-865, arid ravaged it 980, 988 
et seq. 

THANKSGIVINGS, special national, were 
offered up at St. Paul's cathedral for the defeat of 
Spanish .Armada, queen Elizabeth present, 8 Sept. 
and 24th Nov. 1588; for Marlborough's victories, 
12 Nov. 1702, and 7 Sept. 1704; for George III.'s 
recovery from illness, 23 April, 1789; for Duncan's 
and other naval victories, 19 Dec. 1797 ; for the 
recovery of the prince of Wales, 27 Feb. 1872 ; for 
the 60th year of the queen's reign, 22 June, 1897 ; 
for the conclusion of peace in S. Africa, 8 June, 1902 ; 
and for the recovery of the king 26 Oct. 1902. 

THAPSUS (N. Africa). Near here Julius 
Caesar totally defeated the army of the party which 
supported the policy of Pompey, Feb. 46 B.C. The 
suicide of Cato followed soon after. 

THEATINES, a religious order, the first who 
assumed the title of regular clerks, founded by 
Caraffa, bishop of Theate, or Chieti, in Naples 
(afterwards, pope Paul IV.), 1524, to repress heresy. 
They first established themselves in France, ac- 
cording to Henault, in Paris, 1644. The Theatines 
vainly endeavoured to revive among the clergy the 
poverty of the apostles. 



THEATEE (Greek theatron, "a place for see- 
ing"). Greek theatres for the exhibition of the 
drama and musical performances were gradually 
developed from the ring in which songs and choruses 
were performed in honour of Dionysus or Bacchus. 
Greek theatres are well described and illustrated 
in Mr. Kobert W. Lowe's article Theatre in 
Chambers's Encyclopedia, 1892. The theatre of 
Dionysus at Athens could contain 30,000 spectators, 
and that at Megalopolis (which see), 44,000. The 
revival of the drama in the 16th century led to the 
construction of modern theatres on Greek models 
such as that at Rome by Bramante, 1580; the 
Teatro Olimpico at Vieenza by Palladio, 1584. 
" Modern Opera Houses and Theatres," by Edwin 
0. Sachs, Vol. II., published Jan. 1898. See Am- 
phitheatres, Com e die Fraiiqaise, and Operas. 

. THEATRES in England. The first royal 

licence for a theatre in England was in 1574,. to 
master Burbage and four others, servants of the 
earl of Leicester, to act plays at the Globe, Bank- 
side. It is stated the first play-house in London 
was erected at Shoreditch, andcalled the "Theatre " 
in 1576, and that the Curtain near it, was erected 
in 1577. The Blackfriars was built in 1596. The 
other London theatres in Elizabeth's reign were 
Whitefriars, Rose, Hope, Swan, Bed Bull, Cockpit 
or Phcenix, and several others. Shakespeare and 
his fellow actors erected the Globe theatre on Bank- 
side, about 1594. The prices of admission are said 
to have been — gallery, 2d. ; lords' rooms, is. ; see 
Drama, Drury Lave, and other theatres. The 
theatres were closed by parliament, 1642-60. 

The first play-bill was dated 8 April, 1663, and 
issued from Drury-lane ; it runs thus : "By his 
Majestie his company of Comedians at the New 
Theatre in Drury-lane, will be acted a comedy 
called the Humovrous Lievtenant." After detailing 
the characters, it concludes thus : " The play will 
begin at three o'clock exactly " . .8 April, 

Lincoln's-inn theatre (the Duke's theatre) opened by 
sir Wm. Davenant's patent, 25 April, 1662 ; 
rebuilt 



Acts for licensing plays and play-houses (placing 
them under the lord chamberlain) 10 Geo. II. 



Act for regulating theatres (6 & 7 Vict. c. 



1663 

1695 
^737 



22 Aug. 1843 



See Independent Theatre, 1891-2. 
See Trials, 1843. 

Marionettes or Puppets produced at the Adelaide 
gallery 

Several of the theatres first opened on Sunday 
evenings for religious worship, and filled . Jan. 

Lord Chamberlain warned managers against inde- 
cent dances and scanty dresses 28 Jan. 1869 and 

21 Dec. 

Introduction of the queue, as at French theatres, 
by Mr. D'Oyly Carte, at the Savoy . 29 Dec. 

The employment of children under ten years of 

age forbidden in theatres by the Home Secretary 

about 5 Dec. 

Theatres in Great Britain, 166 ; in London, 33, 
summer of 

In London, Jan. 1876, 45 ; Jan. 1885, 43 ; Dec. 1891, 
55 ; Dec. 1894, 60. 

Actors' Association (protective) initiated at Man- 
chester, constituted at the Lyceum, London, 

16 March, 

Parliamentary committee on theatres and music- 
halls appointed, March ; recommend in their 
report that the lord chamberlain's control be 
continued 2 June, 

Mr. Henry Irving, in a lecture at the Royal Institu- 
tion, claims for acting the position of a fine art, 

1 Feb. 

Mr. Wm. Archer's "Theatrical World," 1893-4-5, 
published ..-,.. . . 18 

4 K 



1852 
i860 



1874 



THEATEES. 



1234 



THEATEES. 



DRURY LANE. 

Killigrew's patent 25 April, 1662 

Opened 8 April, 1663 

Nell Gwynn performed 1666 

Theatre burnt down with 60 houses . . Jan. 1672 
Rebuilt by sir C. Wren, and opened 26 March, 1674 

Cibber, Wilkes, Booth i7 12 

Garrick's debut here 1742 

Garriek and Lacy's tenure (revival of Shakspeare) . 1747 
Theatrical fund founded by Mr. Garriek, 1766; in- 
corporated 177S 

Interior rebuilt by Adams ; opened . 23 Sept. ,, 

Garrick's farewell 10 June, 1776 

Sheridan's management ,, 

Mrs. Siddons' debut as a star ... 10 Oct. 1782 
Mr. Kemble's debut as Hamlet . . 30 Sept. 1783 

The theatre rebuilt on a large scale, and re-opened, 

12 March, 1794 
Charles Kemble's first appearance (as Malcolm in 

Macbeth) 21 April, „ 

Dowton's first appearance (as Sheva in the Jew), 

11 Oct. 1796 
Hatfield fired at George III. . . . 11 May, 1800 

The theatre burnt 24 Feb. 1809 

Rebuilt by Wyatt, and re-opened with a prologue 

by lord Byron . . ... 10 Oct. 1812 

Edmund Ke'an's appearance (as Shylock) 26 Jan. 1814 

Mr. Elliston, lessee 3 0ct - l8 i9 

Madame Vestris's first appearance . 19 Feb. 1820 

Real water introduced in the Cataract of the Ganges, 

27 Oct. 1823 

Mr. Price, lessee July, 1826 

Ellen Tree's appearance (as Violante) . 23 Sept. ,, 
Charles Kean's appearance (as Norval) . 1 Oct. 1827 
Mrs. Nisbet's first appearance (as the Widow Cheerly) 

9 Oct. 1829 
Mr. Alexander Lee's and captain Polhill's manage- 
ment 1830 

Mr. Alfred Bunn, lessee 1831 

Mr. Forrest's first appearance (as Spartacus), 

17 Oct. 1836 

Mr. Hammond's management 1839 

German operas commenced here . . 15 March, 1841 

Mr. Macready's management ,, 

Mr. Bunn again lessee 1843 

Miss Clara Webster burnt on the stage, 14 Dec. ; 

and died 16 Dec. 1844 

Mr. Anderson's management 1849 

Mr. Macready's farewell . . . ' 26 Feb. 1851 

Mr. Bunn, lessee and manager 1852 

Mr. E. T. Smith 1853-9 

English opera (Mr. Harrison and Miss Pyne) . . 1S58 

Italian opera, part of 1859-78 

Opened by Mr. E. T. Smith . . . . 15 Oct. i860 

Suddenly closed 20 April, 1861 

Mr. G. V. Brooke appears (as Othello) . 27 Oct. ,, 
[Drowned in the London: see Wrecks, 11 Jan. 1866.] 

Mr. Falconer Dec. 1862-1865 

Messrs. Falconer and Chatterton, managers, Jan. 1866 
Re-opened with Halliday's King of Scots, 26 Sept „ 
Re-opened with Antony and Cleopatra . 20 Sept. 1873 
Balfe's posthumous Talisman produced 11 June, 1874 
Balfe's statue uncovered .... 25 Sept. ,, 
Salvini as Othello 1 April ; as Hamlet . 31 May, 1875 
Wagner's Lohengrin . . . .12 June, ,, 

Boucicault's new drama the Shaughraun produced 

4 Sept. „ 
Manager and lessee, F. B. Chatterton . . 1876-78 

Re-opened with Richard III. . . 23 Sept. 1876 

Mr. Wills's Charles II 24 Sept. 1877 

Theatre suddenly closed ; strike of actors, &c. 

4 Feb. 1879 
Saxe-Meiningen Court Company (Germans), Julius 

Ca:sar 30 May et seq. 1881 

Mad. Ristori as Lady Macbeth . . . July, 1882 
Mr. (afterwards sir) Augustus Harris, lessee and 

manager Sept. 1879-92 

Carl Rosa's opera company . . . part of 1883-5 
Re-opens the house (Lc Nozze de Figaro) 31 May, 1886 
Re-opens with the The Spanish Armada by Messrs. 

H. Hamilton and A. Harris . . 22 Sept. 18S8 
The Royal Oak performed . 23 Sept. — 30 Nov. 1889 
Jack and the Beanstalk ... 26 Dec. et sen. ,, 
Carl Bosa company, Mr. Henry Bruce, director, 

Gounod's Romeo and Juliet, &c. 5 April— 10 May, 1890 
Mr. Cowen's new opera Thorgrim 22 April et seq. „ 
House closed . . . . • • 7 June, ,, 



Re-opened ; A Million of Money . 6 Sept. et seq: 1890- 
Beauty and the Beast . 26 Dec. 1890 — 4 April, 189a 

Never too Late to Mend . . n April — 23 May, ,.,, 
Boucicault's Formosa . . . 26 May et seq. , r 

Drink 23 June — 4 Aug. , r 

House closed. 

A Sailor's Knot, new drama by Henry Pettitt, 

5 Sept.— 5 Dec. ,, 
Special English opera performances on Saturdays, 

26 Sept. — 17 Oct. „ 
Humpty-Dumpty . . 26 Dec. 1891 — 9 April, 1892 
Overflow from Covent Garden, foreign operas, 

occasionally . . 13 June — 29 July, , r 

The Prodigal Daughter, by H. Pettitt and sir A. 

Harris 17 Sept.-io Dec. ,, 

Little Bo-Peep, Little Red Riding-Hood, and Hop 0' 

My Thumb ... 26 Dec. 1892-25 March, 1893 
Operas : The Bohemian Girl, Carmen, and others, 

3-29 April, , T 
Comedie Franchise : Plays by Racine, Moliere 

(Windsor Castle, 27 June) . 12 June-12 July, , r 
Operas: Wagner's Die Walktire, &c. . 15-24 July, ,, 
The duke of Bedford renews the lease for 7 years, 

July, ,, 
A Life of Pleasure, by Henry Pettitt and sir 
Augustus Harris ... 21 Sept-9 Dec. , r 
[See Princess's, below.] 

The Bohemian Girl brought out, 27 Nov. 1843 ; per- 
formed in memory of Balfe . . 27 Nov. ,, 

Genoveoa, opera by Robt. Schumann, performed 
by students (Royal College of Music) . 6 Dec. ,, 

Robinson Crusoe (pantomime), by Harry Nicholls 
and sir Augustus Harris, 26 Dec. 1893-10 March, 1894 

English opera : Maritana, &c. 24 March et seq. ,, 

Gentleman Jack (American drama), 21 April-12 May, ,, 

German opera : 8 performances (Tuesdays and 
Saturdays) .... 19 June-21 July, ,, 

The Derby Winner . . . 15 Sept.-is Dec. ,, 

Dick Whittington (pantomime), 

26 Dec. 1894-16 March, 1895 

English opera : Bohemian Girl, &c, 

13 April-i June, ,, 

Eight performances by Eleonora Duse and com- 
pany x . 3 June, ,, 

Coburg court company ; comic operas, &c, 

17 June-13 July, ,, 

Cheer, Boys, Cheer . . . 19 Sept. -14 Dec. ,, 

Cinderella, (pantomime) . 26 Dec. -21 March, 1896 

English opera season : Faust, etc. 4 April-9 May, ,, 

Cheap summer season : Chas. Dickens' Jo, 13 May; 
closed 29 May, ,, 

Sir Augustus Harris, born 1852, died . 22 June, , ? 

Autumn season : Mr. John Coleman, manager, Tlv, 
Duchess of Coolgardie, by Messrs. Euston Leigh 
and Cyril Clare, 19 Sept.-26 Nov. ; The Kiss of 
Delilah, by George Grant and James Lisle, 

27, 2S Nov. , r 

Aladdin (pantomime) : manager, Mr. Oscar Barrett, 

26 Dec-end of March, 1897 

Mr. Arthur Collins becomes managing director, on 
behalf of a company (limited) . . 29 March, ,, 

The White Heather, by Cecil Raleigh and Henry 
Hamilton, 1 st time . . 16 Sept. et seq. ,, 

The Babes in the Wood (pantomime), 

27 Dec. -26 March, 1S9S I 

Performance (selections) for the benefit of Miss 
Nellie Farren, over 6,000?. realised . 17 March, ,, 

The White Heather (revived) . 12 May-25 June, ,, | 

The Great Ruby, by Cecil Raleigh and Henry Hamil- 
ton 15 Sept.-io Dec. 189S I 

The Forty Thieves, pantomime, 26 Dec.-iS March, 1899 

Hearts are Trumps, spectacular drama, by Cecil 
Raleigh, first time . . 16 Sept.-9 Dec. ,, 

Jack and the Beanstalk, pantomime, 

26 Dec-21 March, 19001 

Marsac of Gascony, by Edward Yroom, 

21 April-ti May, ,, 1 

Grand dramatic and musical matinee for Homes of 
Rest for Soldiers . . . . 15 May, ,, 

Canadian matinee : Ottawa fire fund . 19 June, ,, ! 

1'he Price of Peace, by Cecil Raleigh, first time, 

22 Sept-12 Dec. ,, I, 

The Sleeping Beauty and the Beast, pantomime, 

26 Dec. -30 March, 1901! 

77u- Great Millionaire, by Cecil Raleigh, first time, 

19 Sept.-7 Dec. „ j 



THEATRES. 



1235 



THEATRES. 



Blue Beard, pantomime . 26 Dec-19 March, 1902 
Bcn-Hur, by gen. Lew Wallace, dramatised by Win. 

Young 3 April-18 July, ,, 

The Best of Friends, by Cecil Raleigh, first time, 

18 Sept. -6 Dec. ,, 

Mother Goose, pantomime ... 26 Dec. ,, 

COVENT GARDEN. 

The theatre opened by Rich ... 7 Dec. 1732 

Beef-steak Society, founded by Rich and Lambert . 1735 

Theatrical fund instituted 1760 ; incorporated . 1764 

Mr. Harris's tenure 1767 

Lewis's first appearance (as Beleour) . 15 Sept. 1773 
Miss Reay killed by Mr. Haekman, coming from 

the house 7 April, 1779 

Jack Johnstone's first appearance inlrish characters 

3 Oct. 1783 

Munden's appearance .... 2 Dec. 1790 

Fawcett's first appearance (as Caleb) . 21 Sept. 1791 

G. F. Cooke's appearance (as Richard III.), 31 Oct. 1800 

Braham's appearance .... 9 Dec. 1801 

Mr. Kemble's management 1802 

Appearance of Master Betty, the Infant Roscius, 

1 Dec. 1804 
Lewis's last appearance (as the Copper Captain), 

28 May, 1 80S 

Theatre burnt down 20 Sept. ,, 

Rebuilt by R. Smirke, R.A., and re-opened with 

Macbeth 18 Sept. 1809 

The O. P. Riot {which see) . 18 Sept. to 10 Dec. ,, 

Horses first introduced ; in Bluebeard . 18 Feb. 1811 
The farewell benefit of Mrs. Siddons (immense house) 

29 June, 18*2 
Mrs. Siddons performed once afterwards, in June, 

1819, for Mr. and Mrs. C. Kemble's benefit. 
Miss Stephens' first appearance (as Mandane), 

7 Sept. 1813 
Miss Foote's appearance here (as Amanthis), 

26 May, 1814 

Miss O'Neill's appearance (as Juliet) . 6 Oct. ,, 
Miss Kelly fired at by George Bamet, in the house, 

7 Feb. 1816 
Mr. Macready's first appearance (as Orestes), 

16 Sept. ,, 
Mr. J. P. Kemble's farewell (as Coriolamis), 

23 June, 1817 

Henry Harris's management 1818 

Charles Kemble's management .... 1823 

Miss Fanny Kemble's appearance (as Juliet), 5 Oct. 1829 

Mr. Fawcett's farewell .... 21 May, 1830 

Charles Young's farewell . . . -30 May, 1832 

Mr. Macready's management 1837 

Madame Vestris's management .... 1839 
Miss Adelaide Kemble's appearance (as Norma), 

2 Nov. 1841 

Charles Kemble again . . . .10 Sept. 1842 

Mr. Laurent's management . . . .26 Dec. 1844 

Opened by F. Gye for Italian opera . 6 April, 1847 
Destroyed by fire (during a bed masque, conducted 

by Anderson the Wizard) ... 5 March, 1856 
New theatre (by Barry) opened by Mr. F. Gye (Les 

Huguenots) . .... 15 May, 1858 

English opera (Miss Pyne and Mr. Harrison), Oct. 1859 
All principal actors perform parts of plays for the 

benefit of the Dramatic College . 29 March, i860 

Balfe's Bianca brought out ... 6 Dec. ,, 

Italian opera (Mr. Gye) .... April, 1861 

Last appearance of Grisi .... 3 Aug. ,, 

English opera (Pyne and Harrison) . . 31 Oct. ,, 

Italian opera (Mr. Gye) . . . April, 1862 

English opera (Pyne and Harrison) . 25 Aug. ,, 

Italian opera (Mr. Gye) .... 7 April, 1863 

Gounod's Faust July, ,, 

English opera (Pyne and Harrison . . 12 Oct. ,, 

Italian opera (Mr. Gye) .... April, 1864 
English opera, &c. (Opera Company, Limited), 

17 Oct. „ 

Italian opera (Mr. Gye) ... 28 April, 1865 
Becomes the property of a company, Mr. Gye, 

manager Aug. ,, 

Reopened (Mr. Gye) April, 1866 ; 2 April, 1867 ; 

31 March, 1868 

Opened by M r - Mapleson's company . 24 Oct. ,, 

Opera season (Gye and Mapleson) . 29 May, 1869 

Mr. Dion Boucicault lessee and manager 29 Aug. 1872 

Italian opera 1873-8 

Mr. F. Gye, many years lessee, died through acci- 
dent with gun 5 Dec. 1878 



A. <& S. Gatti, managers .... Dec. 

Mr. Lionel Gye, lessee 1:87 

" Royal English opera" under Mr. T. H. Friend ; 
short season 7 Jan. 

Sig. Salvini's company, Othello, &c. . 28 Feb. 

Grand International cirque . . 26 Dec. et seq. 

William Holland, lessee and manager . . .18 

Mr. Mapleson, with Italian opera June and July, 

Grand demonstration to Madame Adelina Patti 

25 July, 

Revival of Italian opera, signor Bevignani, con- 
ductor 25 May, 

Italian opera, opened under Mr. Mapleson (Verdi's 
Traviata performed) ... 12 March, 

Donizetti's La Favorita performed . 24 May, 

Donizetti's Lucrezia Borgia performed 14 May ; 
successful season ; closed . . 21 July, 

Italian opera season, Mr. A. Harris, director, 

20 May-27 July, 

Promenade concerts, Mr. F. Thomas Sept.— Nov. 

Cinderella and grand circus . 26 Dec. et seq. 

Italian opera, Gounod's Faust, &c. 

19 May— 28 July, 

Promenade concerts (Mr. F. Thomas), 

9 Aug. — 4 Oct. 

Italian opera (Sig. Lago) . . 18 Oct.— 29 Nov. 

Million of Money . . 15 Dec. 1890— 17 Jan. 

Carnival balls . . . 3, 17 Feb. ; 4, 8 March, 

Lent oratorios, Elijah, &c. ~ . 14 Feb.— 7 March, 

Italian opera (Mr., afterwards sir, A. Harris), Orfeo 
&c. . . . • . 6 April— 27 July, 

Promenade concerts . . .12 Sept.— 10 Oct. 

Opera season : Borneo et, Juliette, &c. 20 Oct. — 20 Nov. 

Carnival balls, 30 Dec. 1891 ; 13 Jan., 10 Feb., 
1 March, 23 March, 20 April, 1892. 

Italian Opera ...... 16 May, 

Cavalier ia Rusticana, by Mascagni, and other pieces, 

16 May, 

German opera, &c. ... 8 June— 28 July, 

Opera season : Orfeo and Cavalleria Rusticana, &c, 

10 Oct.-Dec. 

The Prodigal Daughter . 12 Dec. 1892-14 Jan. 

Carnival season : fancy dress balls, 25 Jan., 8 Feb., 
22 Feb., 8 March, 21 March, 12 April . 

Opera season : dress recitals . 28 Jan. -4 Feb. 

Operas : Lohengrin, &c. . 15 May-29 July, 

[State performance of Gounod's Romeo et Juliette, 

4 July, 1893 ; The Veiled Prophet, by Mr. Villiers 

Stanford ; libretto by Mr. Barclay Squire, 

26 July, 1893.] 

Promenade concerts ; Farley Sinkins, manager ; 
Mr. Cowen, conductor .... 9 Oct. 

William Holland's Noah's Ark, 26 Dec. 1893-March, 

Carnival season : fancy dress balls, 31 Jan., 14 Feb., 
28 Feb., 14 March, 4 April, 18 April 

Royal opera season : Manon Lescaut, by Puccini 
(1st time) 14 May, 

Verdi's Falstaff 19 May, 

House closed 30 July, 

Fancy dress balls, 30 Nov., it Dec, 14 Dec, 31 Dec. 
(juvenile fancy fete, 26 Dec. 1894), 18 Jan. 1, 15, 
26 Feb., 15, 29 March, 24 April .... 

Royal opera season: Verdi's Otello, 13 May, &c. ; 
F. H. Cowen's Harold ; libretto by sir Edward 
Malet ; 1st performance, 8 June ; closed 29 July, 

English opera season : Tannhduser, Valkyrie, etc., 
12 Oct. -9 Nov. 

Fancy dress balls . . . Dee. ; Jan.-April, 

Royal opera season : Romio et Juliette, etc., 

11 May-28 July, 

Fancy dress balls . . . .18 N0V.-9 April, 

Grand concert : in aid of the prince of Wales's 
hospital fund 8 May, 

Royal opera season : Faust, etc. . 10 May-July, 

State performance : Tannhduser, etc. 23 June, 

Carl Rosa opera season (see Opera, English) : Puc- 
cini's new opera La Boheme, 2 Oct. ; Tannhauser, 
4 Oct., etc. ; closed .... 30 Oct. 

Fancy dress balls ... 17 Nov. -5 April, 

Royal opera season : Lohengrin, etc. . . 9 May. 

Wagnerian cycle : DasRheingold,&c, 6 June-26 July, 

Fancy dress balls . . 4 Nov. 1898-10 March, : 

Royal opera : special Wagner performances : Lohen- 
grin, 8 May et seq., and other operas ; Romeo et 
Juliette ...... 23 July, 

Promenade concerts .... 2 Sept. -Oct. 

Fancy dress balls . . 27 Oct. 1S99-23 March 

4 K 2 



THEATEES. 



1236 



THEATRES. 



Opera season : Faust, 14 May; other operas; Wagner 
cycle, 6 June et seq. ; Puccini's La losca, first 
time here, 12 July; other operas . 30 July, 1901 
Fancy dress balls . . 26 Oct. 190C-29 March, ,, 
Royal opera : Romeo et Juliette, 13 May ; Much Ado 
About Nothing, by Dr. Villiers Stanford, first 
time, 30 May; closed ... 29 July, ,, 

Fancy diess balls . . 11 Oct. 1901-14 March, 1902 
Popular c< ncerts, Sonsa's band, begin . 23 Nov. ,, 
Opera season : Wagnerian cycle : Lohengrin, &c. 

(and other operas) ... 8 May, ,, 

Der Wald, by Miss E. M. Smyth, first time, 18 
July; closed with Rigoletto . . 28 July, ,, 

Domino ball 8 Aug. „ 

Moody-Manners' opera season : Carmen, &c, 

25 Aug.-27 Sept. ,, 
Fancy dress balls (Fridays) . . 10 Oct. et seq. ,, 

HIS MAJESTY'S THEATRE, OR ITALIAN OPERA-HOUSE. 

Opera-house opened. Pennant. (See Opera-house). 1705 
Madame Rachel's appearance . . 10 May, 1841 

Mr. Lumley's management 1842 

Jenny Lind's first appearance . . .4 May, 1847 
Association formed for conducting financial affairs 

of the house 1852 

Jullien's concerts Oct. 1857 

Festive performances on the marriage of the prin- 
cess royal Jan. 1850 

Macfarren's Robin Hood brought out . .11 Oct. i860 

[Not opened in 1861.] 
Italian opera (Mr. Mapleson) .... 1862-67 
Durnt down ; great loss . . . .6 Dec. 1867 
Rebuilt— its affairs in Chancery .... 1872 

Sold for 31,000? 20 May, 18.74 

[Lease to earl Dudley, till 1891.] 
Opened for Italian opera by Mr. Mapleson 1877 et seq. 
Carl Rosa's company, Wagner's operas, &c.,part of 1879-80 
Carl Rosa, Wagner's Lohengrin . 14 Jan. et seq. 1882 

Sig. Rossi as Lear 10 June, ,, 

■Opened by M. Carillon (Cargill) ; Gounod's Faust; 
performance stopped by strike of unpaid com- 
pany, carpenters, &c. , riot . . 6 March, 1886 
Mr. Mayer, lessee ; appearance of madame Sarah 
Bernhardt in Fedora, &c. . 26 April, et seq. ,, 

French opera 22 Nov. ,, 

Promenade concerts inaugurated by colonel Maple- 
son 20 Aug. ; by Mr. Van Biene . .12 Nov. 1887 
Italian opera season begins (under Mr. Mapleson) 

1 June, 1889 

The establishment of a company "Her Majesty's 

Theatre (limited)," with a capital of 40,000?. to 

restore the theatre to its original position, 

proposed by lord Hay, Mr. Henry J. Leslie, and 

others June, „ 

Promenade concerts ... 17 Aug. — Oct. ,, 
Opera company (lessees), Cinderella 26 Dec. et seq. ,, 
The house suddenly closed ; the company bank- 
rupt 29 Jan. 1890 

French plays. Gymnase company, including S. 
Bernhardt, 2-16 June. Mr. M. L. Mayer, mana- 
ger 

House closed, 12 July, 1890 ; pulled down, 1892-3 ; 
new theatre on the same site designed by Mr. C. 
J. Phipps (died 25 May, 1897). 
House opened, proprietor and manager, Mr. H. 
Beerbohm Tree, The Seats of the Mighty, by 
Gilbert Parker, 28 April-5 June ; short runs : 
Trilby, 7 June ; The Red Lamp, 12 June ; The 
Silver Key, adapted from the French by Sydney 
Grundy, 10 July-n Aug : Hamlet, 12 and 13 Aug. ' 1897 
The Hedmondt opera season : .Rip Van Winkle, 
opera by Wm. Akerman and F. Leoni, 1st time, 
4 Sept. ; Humperdinck's Hansel and Gretel, 
22 Sept. ; new one-act opera, The Prentice Pillar, 
by Guy Eden and Reginald Somerville . 24 Sept. ,, 
The Silver K ey, by Sydney Grundy . 1-20 Nov. ,, 
A Man's Shadow, revival . . 27 Nov. -15 Jan. 1898 
Julius Caisar (scenery and costumes under the 
supervision of Mr. Alma Tadema, R.A.) 

22 Jan. -18 June ,, 
Ragged Rohhb, Mr. Louis Parker's version of La 

Chemineau, produced . . . 23 June, ,, 
The Termagant, by L. N. Parker and Murray 

Carson (short run) 1 Sept. ,, 

The Musketeers, adapted by Sydney Grundy from 

Dumas' novel .... 3 Nov.- 7 April, 1899 
(Revived, 17 June-7 July). 



Carnac Sahib, by Henry Arthur Jones, first time, 
12 April-12 May ; Capt. Swift, by Haddon Cham- 
bers (revival) .... 13 May-June, 1899 
King John, Mr. Tree's company ; Constance, Miss 

Julia Neilson . . .20 Sept. 1899-6 Jan. 1900 
Midsummer Night's Dream . . 10 Jan. -26 May, „ 
Rip Van Winkle, new version . 30 May-21 July, ,, 
Julius Ccesar (revival) . . . 6 Sept.-27 Oct. ,, 
Herod, by Stephen Phillips (first time), 

31 Oct. 1900-21 Jan. 1901 

Twelfth Night 5 Feb.-3i May, ,, 

Mme. Sarah Bernhardt season ; M. Coquelin French 

plays L'Aiglon 3 June, ,, 

Twelfth Night : Mr. Tree's company . 7-19 Oct. ,, 
The Last of the Pandies, by Clyde Fitch, first time, 

24 Oct. 1901-25 Jan. 1902 
Ulysses, by Stephen Phillips ; music by Coleridge 

Taylor, first time . . .1 Feb-31 May, ,, 
Twelfth Night, 2-9 June ; Trilby . 21 June-5 July, ,, 
Merry Wives of Windsor (Mrs. Kendal and Ellen 

Terry) 10 June-8 Aug. ,, 

House styled " His Majesty's Theatre " . 23 Aug. ,, 
The Eternal City, by Hall Came . 2 Oct.-i6 Jan. 1903 
Merry Wives of Windsor .... 17 Jan. ,, 
Resurrection (Tolstoy), by H. Bataille and H. 

Morton 17 Feb. ,, 

See Addenda. 

HAYMARKET. 

Built 1702 

Opened by French comedians ... 29 Dec. 1720 

Fielding's Mogul company 1734-5 

A French company prohibited from acting by the 

audience 1738 

Mr. Foote's patent 1747 

The Bottle-conjuror's dupery (see Bottle Conjuror), 

16 Jan. 1748 

The theatre rebuilt 1767 

Mr. Colman's tenure 1 Jan. 1777 

Miss Farren's apx>earance here (afterwards countess 

of Derby) ,, 

Royal visit — great crowd — 16 persons killed and 

many wounded 3 Feb. 1794 

Mr. Elliston's debut here ... 24 June, 1796 
First appearance of Mr. Mathews (as Lingo) 16 May, 1803 

Mr. Morris's management 1805 

Appearance of Mr. Liston (as Sheepface) . 8 June, „ 

The tailors' riot 15 Aug. ,, 

Appearance of Mr. Young (as Hamlet) . 22 June, 1807 
Of Miss F. Kelly (as Floretta) . 12 June, 1810 

Present theatre rebuilt by Nash ; opened 4 July, 1821 
Miss Paton's (Mrs. Wood) appearance (as Susannah), 

3 Aug. 1822 
Mr. Webster's management ... 12 June, 1837 
Mr. Charles Kean's appearance here . . . 1839 

Mr. Webster's management (16 years) terminated 

with his farewell appearance . . 14 March, 1853 
First appearance of Our American Cousin (said to be 
by Tom Taylor, and to have been acted 800 times 
in America), Mr. Sothern, Lord Dundreary (played 

496 nights) 11 Nov. 1861 

Mr. Buekstone's management . . . 1853-76 

Mr. John S. Clarke 1878 

Re-opened ; pit removed, and other changes ; tem- 
porary riot ...... 31 Jan. 1880 

Mr. S. B. (knt. June, 1897) & Mrs. Bancroft . 1879-S5 
Grand closing performance . . .20 July, 1885 
Opened by Messrs. Russell and Bashford 26 Sept. ,, 
Interior re-constructed and re-opened by Mr. Beer- 
bohm Tree, lessee . . Sept. 18S7-9 
A Man's Shadow (from the French), by Mr. R. 

Buchanan . . 12 Sept. 1889 — 29 March, 1890 
A Village Priest, by Mr. S. Grundy, 3 April— 12 

July ; 6 Oct- 6 Nov. „ 
Beau Austin, by W. E. Henley and R. L. Steven- 
son 3 Nov. et seq. ,, 

Called. Back, by Hugh Conway and Comyns Carr, 10 
Nov., and other pieces on different days, Nov., 

Dec. 1890 — Jan. 1891 
The Dancing Girl . . .15 Jan. — 27 June, ,, 
House closed, 27 June. ; re-opened with The Dancing 

Girl 5 Oct. 1891— 15 Jan. 1892 

Mr. Beerbohm Tree, lessee and manager . Jan. ,, 
Hamlet, with Peril occasionally in the afternoon, 

2i Jan. — 27 May, ,, 
Peril, with Hamlet occasionally in the afternoon, 

28 May— 5 July, ,■ 



THEATEES. 



1237 



THEATRES. 



Hamlet, season terminates .... 6 July, 1892 
Mrs. Langtry, manager: The Queen of Manoa, by 
Messrs. Haddon Chambers and Outram Tristram, 

15 Sept-17 Oct. ,, 
Agatha Tylden, Merchant and Shipowner, by Edwd. 

Rose 18 Oct.-io Dec. ,, 

Hypat ia (adapted from Kingsley), 2 Jan. -25 March ; 

1-15 April, 1893 
A Woman of No Importance, by Mr. Oscar Wilde, 

19 April-16 Aug. ,, 
Ibsen's play, An Enemy of the People (afternoon), 

14, 21 June ; 20, 21, 22 July, ,, 
The Tempter, by Henry A. Jones . 20 Sept.-i Dec. ,, 
Captain Sivift, by Haddon Chambers, 2 Dec-17 Jan. 1894 
The Charlatan, by Robert Buchanan, 

18 Jan.-i7 March, ,, 
Once Upon a Time (adapted from the German), by 

Mr. Louis N. Parker . . 28 March-21 April, ,, 
A Bunch of Violets, by Sydney Grundy (adapted 

from the French) . . -25 April-19 July, ,, 
An Enemy of the People, by Henrik Ibsen, 20 July, ,, 
House closed. 
[The Ballad-monger, by Walter Besant and Walter 
Pollock, and The Red Lamp, by W. Outram 
Tristram, at Balmoral, 24 Sept. ; after a rapid 
journey of 591 miles, A Bunch of Violets at 
Dublin, 25 Sept.] 
A Bunch of Violets (London) . . 8 Oct. -3 Nov. ,, 
John a' Dreams, by Mr. C. Haddon Chambers, 

8 N0V.-27 Dec. „ 

Hamlet 28-29 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Beerbohm Tree and company go to New York, 

Jan. 1805 
An Ideal Husband, by Mr. Oscar Wilde (under the 
management of Messrs. Morell and Waller), 

3 Jan. -6 April, 
Mr. Tree's company : John a' Dreams . 2-22 May, 
Fedora, by Sardou ; translation by Herman 

Merivale .... 25 May-20 July, 
Trilby, by George Du Maurier 30 Oct.-28 March, 
and 4 April-15 July, 
Special matinees, etc. : King Henry IV., 

8 May-10 July, 
Retirement of Mr. Tree from the management, 

15 July, 
Under the lied Robe, produced by Mr. Fred Har- 
rison and Mr. Cyril Maude . 17 Oct. -2 June, 1897 
A Marriage of Convenience (Alex. Dumas), adapted, 
by Sydney Grundy, 5 June-24 July ; resumed, 

4 Sept. -4 Nov. ,, 
The Little Minister, by J. M. Barrie 6 N0V.-22 July, 1898 
(Revived, 3 Sept.-26 Oct. 1898). 

The Manoeuvres of Jane, comedy, by Henry A. Jones, 

first time, 29 Oct. ; preceded by the Golden 

Wedding (one-act), by Mr. Eden Philpotts and 

Mr. Charles Groves . . 30 Nov. 189S-21 July, 1899 

The Degenerates, by Sydney Grundy ; Mrs. Langtry 's 

company 31 Aug. ,, 

'Hie Black Tulip (by Alex. Dumas pere), adapted 

by Sydney Grundy . . 28 Oct. 1899-6 Jan. 1900 
Sh". Stoops to Conquer (Goldsmith), 9 Jam-24 March ,, 
The Rivals (Goldsmith) . . 27 March-16 June, ,, 
School for Scandal . . . 19 June-21 July, ,, 
Sweet Nell of Old Drury, by Paul Kester, 

30 Aug.-i3 Oct. ,, 
The School for Scandal . . . 16 Oct.-24 Nov. ,, 
The Second in Command, by Robt. Marshall, first 
time, 27 Nov. 1900-20 July, 1901 ; again, 

14 Oct. 1901-1 Jan. 1902 
Frocks and Frills, adapted from the French of 
Scribe and Legouv6, by Sydney Grundy, 

2 Jan. -25 April, ,, 
Caste, by T. W. Robertson . . 26 April-5 July, ,, 
(The Little Minister, special (charity) matinee), 

6 May, ,, 
" There's many a Slip," adapted from the French 
of Scribe and LegouvS, by Robt. Marshall, 

2; Aug. -29 Nov. ,, 
The Unforeseen, new play, by Robt. Marshall, 2 Dec. ,, 
The Clandestine Marriage, by Geo. Colman and 
David Garrick, revived .... March, 1903 

LYCEUM, FORMERLY ENGLISH OPERA-HOUSE. 

Built by Dr. Arnold 1 794-5 

Winsor experiments with gas-lighting . . . 1803-4 

Opened as the Lyceum in 1809 

Appearance of Mr. Wrench (as Belcour) . 7 Oct. ,, 
Re-opened with an address by Miss Kelly 15 June, 1816 



House destroyed by lire .... 16 Feb. 1830 
Rebuilt, and re-opened .... 14 July, 1834 
Equestrian performances . . . .16 Jan. 1844 
Mrs. Keeley's management ... 8 April, „ 
Madame Vestris and Mr. C. Mathews' management, 

Oct. 1847-56 
Retirement of Mr. C. Mathews . . . March, 1855 
Appearance of Madame Ristori . . . June, 1856 
Taken by Mr. Gye for Italian opera for forty nights, 

14 April, 1857 
Opened for English opera by Miss Louisa Pyne and 

Mr. Harrison 21 Sept. ,, 

Balfe's opera, Rose of Castile, produced . . Oct. „ 
Mr. B. Webster and Mr. Falconer, July, 1858 ; closed, 

April, 1 859" 
Opened by Madame Celeste Nov. 1859, an( i Oct. i860- 
The " Savage Club" perform before the queen and 

prince 7 March, ,, 

Italian opera 8 June, i86». 

Mr. Falconer, manager (English comedy) 19 Aug. ,, 
Peep o'Day brought out .... 9 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Fechter 10 Jan. et seq. 1863,, 

Japanese troupe Spring, 1868 . 

Lord Lytton's Rightful Heir brought out 3 Oct. ,, 
Mr. H. Irving as Hamlet (long run) . . 31 Oct. 1874. 
,, Macbeth . . . 25 Sept. 1875.. 

,, Othello . . . .14 Feb. 1876 ■• 

Tennyson's Queen Mary performed 19 April, ,, 

Mr. H. L. Bateman, lessee and manager . . 1873-6 
Mrs. Bateman, ditto . . . 1876-8' 

Mr. H. Irving, lessee and manager (knt. 1895), Sept. 

et seq 1878; 

Re-opens with Hamlet . . . .30 Dec. ,, 
Mr. Chippendale's benefit (68 years on the stage), 

24 Feb. 1879 . 
Much Ado about Nothing ; grand scenery . 11 Oct. 1882 
Miss M. Anderson and American actors . 1 Sept. 1883 
Faust, adapted by W. G. Wills, 19 Dec. 1885 ; 250th 

performance 22 Nov. 1886 

Miss Mary Anderson, autumn season . 10 Sept. 1887 
Revival of Macbeth with new rendering by Mr. 

Irving and Miss E. Terry . . .29 Dec. 1888 
His company performs the Bells before the queen 

at Sandringham 26 April, 1885 

Mr. Mayer with Italian opera and French plays : 
Verdi's Otello, 5 July-27 July ; Madame Sarah 

Bernhardt in Lena 9 July, ,, 

The Dead Heart revived .... 9 May, 1890, 

The Bells, Louis XI., Olivia . . . May, ,, 
Mr. Augustin Daly's company, from New York, 

10 June— 16 Aug. ,,. 
Ravenswood, by Herman Merivale . 20 Sept. et seq. ,., 
Much Ado About Nothing, Charles I., Corsican 

Brothers, and other pieces . 5 Jan. — 25 March, 1891 
Mr. Augustin Daly's company . 9 Sept. — 13 Nov. ,, 
King Henry VIII., with Richelieu occasionally in 
the afternoon or evening . . 5 Jan. — 30 July, 1892 • 

The Bells 24 Sept. et seq. ,, 

King Henry VIII. . . . 1 Oct.~5 Nov. ,, 

King Lear .... 10 Nov. 1892-1 Feb. 1893^ 
Becket, by lord Tennyson . . 6 Feb.-25 March, ,, 

[At Windsor Castle, 18 March.] 
Becket (other plays occasionally), afternoons and 

evenings April-22 July, ,,.. 

[The coinpany went to America.] 
Cinderella, pantomime ; Mr. Oscar Barrett, 

26 Dec. 1893-17 March, 1894. 
Return of the Lyceum company. 
Faust ..... 14 April-7 July, ,, 

Becket 9 July-20 July, , r 

Merchant of Venice, 21 July. House closed . . ,, 
Under direction of Henry E. Abbey and Maurice 
Grau: The Queen of Brilliants, comic opera; 
adapted by Brandon Tnomas ; music by Edwd. 
Jakobowski .... 8 Sept.-i8 Oct. , r 
Santa Claus ; Mr. Oscar Barrett, 26 Dec. ; after- 
wards daily, till March, 1895 

Return of Mr. Irving and Miss Ellen Terry. 
King Arthur, by J. Comyns Carr ; choral and inci- 
dental music by Arthur Sullivan, 12 Jan. -6 April, ,, 
Closed; re-opens . . . 15 April-3 May, ,, 
A Story of Waterloo, by Conan Doyle ; Don Quixote, 
by the late W. G. Wills; Bygones, by A. W. 

Pinero 4 May-i June, ,, 

Nance Oldfeld, The Bells, &c. ... 3 June, ,, 
Testimonial to sir Henry Irving from 4,000 profes- 
sionals . . . . . . 19 July, ,, 



THEATRES. 



1238 



THEATRES. 



The company sail to America . . . 31 Aug. 1895 
Romeo and Juliet (under the management of Mr. 
Forbes Robertson and Mr. Frederick Harrison), 

21 Sept. -21 Dec. ,, 
The Pubcell commemoration : his opera, Dido 
and JEneas, performed by pupils of the Royal 

college of Music 20 Nov. „ 

Reception of and presentations to Mrs. Robert 
Keeley, on her 90th birthday ; her reply to_ an 

address, etc 22 Nov. ,, 

Pantomime matinees : Mr. Oscar Barrett's Robin- 
son Crusoe, twice daily . . 26 Dec-22 Feb. 1896 
Michael and his Lost Angel, by Henry Arthur Jones, 

15-22 Jan. ,, 
For the Crown (from the French), adapted by John 
Davidson, 27 Feb. -30 May ; Magda, by Hermann 
Sudermann, translated by Louis N. Parker, 3-19 
June ; School for Scandal, 20 June-24 July ; end 
of tenancy of Mr. Forbes Robertson and Mr. 
Frederick Harrison . . ■ -25 July, ,, 
Cyrribeline (Lyceum company), 22 Sept.-n Dec. ; 
■ The Mils, 25 Nov., 5, 12, 14, 15 Dec. ; Richard 
III., 19 Dec. (closed) ; Cymbdine, 26 Dec, 29 Jan. 
1897; Olivia, 30 Jan.; Richard III., 27 Feb.-6 
April; Madame Sans Gene, by M.M. Sardon and 
Moreau, adapted by J. Comyns Carr, 10 April- 
23 July ; The Bells, Merchant of Venice, 

Saturdays in June-22 July, 1897 
31r. Forbes Robertson's season : Hamlet, 

11 Sept.-i8 Dec. ,, 
.Peter the Great (new play), by Laurence Irving, 

1 Jan.-i4 Feb. 1898 
. Don Giovanni (Mozart), performed by the students 

of the Royal college of music ; matinee 27 Jan. ,, 
_Madame Sans Gene . . . . -15 Feb- » 
Merchant of Venice, and other plays, 

17 Feb.-26 April, ,, 
The Medicine Man, new melodramatic comedy, by 
H. D. Traill and R. S. Hichens, first performance, 
4-27 May ; Waterloo and The Bells, and other 
plays, 28' May-i July ; M. Coquelin and French 
company, Cyrano de Bergerac, by Rostand, 4 July, ,, 
.Macbeth, Hamlet, and Pellcas and Melisande, by 
M. Maeterlinck (Mr. Forbes Robertson and Mrs. 
Patrick Campbell) . . . 17 Sept.-io Dec. ,, 
Royal Carl Rosa company : Tannhauser, &c, 

2 Jan. et seq. 1899 
"The Only Way, adapted by Freeman Wills, from 
Dickens's novel, " A Tale of Two Cities," 

16 Feb.-25 March, ,, 
Robespierre, written by M. Victorien Sardou for Sir 
Henry Irving, Mr. Laurence Irving's translation, 
first time . . . .15 April-29 July, ,, 

.Lydia Thompson, farewell matinee . . 2 May, ,, 
M. Jules Claretie, director of the Theatre Francais, 
gives an address on Shakespeare and Moliere, 

i3 Jul y. » 
Mr. Wilson Barrett's season : The Silver King, by 
Henry A. Jones and Henry Herman, 

2 Sept.-5 Oct. ,, 
Man and his Makers, by Wilson Barrett and Louis 

N. Parker, 7-17 Oct. ; Sign of the Cross, by 
Wilson Barrett, 19 Oct.-i8 Nov. ; matinees, &c, 
The Silver King, Othello, Hamlet, 20 N0V.-16 Dec. ,, 

The Snow Man, a fairy play, adapted from the 
French by Arthur Sturgess, music by Walter 
Slaughter . . . .21 Dec. 1899-31 Jan. 1900 

Mr. F. K. Benson's Shakespeare season : Henri/ 
the Fifth 15 Feb- „ 

Midsummer Night's Dream, 22 Feb. ; Hamlet in its 
en1 iri'ty, 9 March ; The Rivals, 13 March ; Richard 
the Second, &c 15 March-5 May, ,, 

Signpra Eleonora Duse's season: Magda and other 
pieces, 10 May-is June ; matinee oif Magda, 

18 June, ,, 

Olivia, revival, by W. G. Wills (Henry Irving and 
Ellen Terry) 16 June, „ 

Waterloo and The Bells, 30 June and 4-7 July ; and 
other plays 28 July, ,, 

Mr. fra. Mollison's season: For Auld Lang Syne, 
by Seymour Hicks and K. (!. Latham, first time, 

6 0ct.- 3 iOct. ,, 

The Thres Musketeers (Henry Hamilton's version), 

3 N0V.-15 Dec. ,, 
Henry the Fifth . . 22 Dec. 1900-16 March, 1901 
Coriolanus (Henry Irving and Ellen Terry), 

15 April, ,, 



Waterloo and The Bells, 22 May ; Robespierre. 27 
May ; King Charles I., 24 June ; and other plays, 

20 July, 1 901 

Sherlock Holmes, by Conan Doyle, 

9 Sept. 1901-12 April, 1902 

Faust (Henry Irving), 26 April-n July ; matinees, 
King Charles I., 28 June, 5 July ; Louis XL, 14- 
16 July ; Waterloo and The Bells . 17, 18 July, ,, 

Merchant of Venice, 7, 14, 21 June ; 12, 19, 26 July; 
closed ,, 

ADELPHl THEATRE 

Formerly called the Sans Pareil, opened under the 

management of Mr. and Miss Scott . . 27 Nov. 
Under Rodwell and Jones, who gave it the present 

name, 1820-21 ; Terry and Yates . . . . 
Messrs. Mathews and Yates' management join 

{Mathews at Home) 

New front 

Madame Celeste's management . . 30 Sept. 1R44 
Rebuilt and opened, with improved arrangements, 

27 Dec. 
Colleen Bawn represented 

[Immense run ; above 360 nights.] 
Miss Bateman appears as Leah, 1 Oct. 



1806 



1825 



182a 
1840 



10 Sept. i860 



'3. to 
June, 1864 
Messrs. F. B. Chatterton and B. Webster, 

lessees 1844-73 

Messrs. Gatti, lessees and managers . . 18796*562. 
London Day by Day, by G. R. Sims and Mr. Pettitt, 

14 Sept. et seq. 1889 
Green Bushes revived ... 19 April et seq. 1890 
The Bride of Love, by R. Buchanan . May et seq. „ 
The English Rose, by G. R. Sims and R. Buchanan, 

2 Aug. 1890 — 2 May, 1891 
The Streets of London, by D. Boucicault 7 May et seq. ,, 
The Trumpet Call, by G. R. Sims and R. Buchanan, 

1 Aug. 1 891 — 21 April, 1892 
The White Rose, by G. R. Sims and R. Buchanan, 

23 April — 10 June, ,, 
Lights of Home, by same authors 30 July-17 Dec. ,, 
The Lost Paradise, by Henry C. de Mille, from 

Ludwig Fulda . . 22 Dec. 1892-11 March, 1893 
The Black Domino, by G. R. Sims and R. Buchanan, 

1 April-27 May, ,, 
A Woman's Revenge, by Henry Pettitt, 

1 July-16 Nov. ; 26 Dec. 1893-3 March, 1894 
The Cotton King, by Sutton Vane, 10 Mareh-8 May, ,, 
The Two Orphans . . . 12 May-18 June, ,, 
Shall We Forgive Her ? by Frank Harvey, 

20 June-18 Aug. ,, 
The Fatal Card, by C. Haddon Chambers and B. C. 

Stephenson .... 6 Sept.-i6 March, 1895 
77ie Girl I Left Behind Me, by Franklin Fyles and 

David Belasco . . . 13 April-10 Aug. ,, 
The Swordsman's Daughter . 31 Aug. -30 Nov. ,, 

One of the Best, by Seymour Hicks and George 

Edwardes 21 Dec-6 June, 1896 ; closed . . ,, 
Boys Together, by Haddon Chambers and Comyns 

Carr 26 Aug.-Dec. 1896 

Black Ey'd Susan, by Douglas Jerrold, 23 Dec,-8 
May, 1897 (Mr. Agostino Gatti, manager, died 14 
Jan. 1897). 
Secret Service, by Wm. Gillette, New York com- 
pany . . 15 May-mid June, again 22 July, 1S97 
French plays, Mdme. Sarah Bernhardt, Lorcnzarcio, 

etc iS June-July, ,, 

In the Days of the Duke, by Haddon Chambers and 

Comyns Carr ... 9 SepL-20 Nov. ,, 

Secret Service (revival), 24 Nov.-mid Jan. 1898. 
Mr. Wm. Terris (Lewin), aged 49, leading actor, 
fatally stabbed by Richard Archer Prince (32), 
actor, at the private stage door, Maiden-lane, in 
revenge for non-employment, about 7 p.m. 16 
Dec. ; buried at Brompton, thousands present, 
21 Dec. (theatre closed till 27 Dec). See Trials, 

13 Jan. 1898 

Charlotte Corday 21 Jan. ,, 

Lady of Lyons . . . 12 Feb.-i7 March, ,, 
The' Heart of Man/land, by David Belasco (New 

York company) .* . . .9 April-25 June, ,, 

The Gipsy Karl, by G. It. Sims . 31 Aug.-io Dec. „ 

Diclc Whittington . . . 26 Dec. 1898-18 Feb. 1899 
The M<ni with the Iron Mask (Mr. Norman Forbes' 

season) n Mar.- 2 o May, „ 



THEATEES. 



1239 



THEATEES. 



Freitch plays : Sarah Bernhardt, La Toscn, 8, g June ; 
La Dame awe Camellias, 10 June ; Hamlet, 12-24 
June ; M. Coquelin as Cyrano de Bergcrac, Tar- 
titfe, &e 26 June-15 July, 1899 

With Flying Colours, by Seymour Hicks and Fred 
Latham, first time . . . 19 Aug.-6 Nov. ,, 

■Children of the Ghetto, by I. Zaugwill (short run), 

11 Dec. „ 

Brink, revived (Mr. Clias. Warner), 

26 Dec. 1899-13 Jan. 1900 

Two Little Vagabonds, by G. R. Sims and A. Shirley, 
revived . . . . .15 Jan. -3 Feb. ,, 

The Better Life, adapted from the rev. Chas. Shel- 
don's book In His Steps, by Arthur Shirley and 
Sutton Vane 5-17 Feb. ,, 

Bomii-e Dundee,by Laurence Irving, 10 March-April, ,, 

Quo Vadis, adapted from Sienkiewicz's novel, by S. 
Stange 1 May-i June, ,, 

j[The theatre re-opened under the name of the 
Cextdrv, but resumed its old name, 2 Feb. 1902.] 

The Whirl of the 'town, by Hugh Morton, music by 
Gustav Kerker 11 Sept. 1901 

The Belle of New York, 27 Nov. et seq. 

Arizona, by Augustus Thomas (American company) 

2 Feb. -26 April, 1902 

■Saphn, adapted from Daudet's novel, by Mr. Clyde 
Fitch (Miss Olga Nethersole's season), 

t May- 1 2 July, ,, 

Magda, Camillc, &c. (Miss Nance O'Neil's season), 

1-20 Sept. ,, 

€apt. Kettle, adapted from Cutcliffe Hyne's story by 
M. Watson and Murray Carson, produced, 23 Oct.. ,, 

The Christian King, by Wilson Barrett ; Silver 
King, Manxman , . 18 Dec. 1902-31 Jan. 1963 

A Queen of Society, by Cecil Raleigh . . 5 Feb. ,, 

The Worst Woman in London, by W. Melville, 

7 March, ,, 

ST. JAMES S, LATE PRINCE'S. 

"ffhis theatre was built by and opened under the 

management of Mr. Braham . . .14 Dec. 1835 
German operas performed here under the manage- 
ment of Mr. Bunn 1840 

Mr. Mitchell's tenure ; performance of French plays, 

22 Jan. 1844 

German plays 1852 

Mrs. Seymour's tenure . . . .22 Oct. 1854-5 

French plays 1857 

Neapolitan buffo-opera Nov. ,, 

Italian plays 1858 

French operas Jan. 1855 

French plays May, „ 

English comedy, under Mr. F. Chatterton, manager, 

Oct. „ 

French plays 28 May, i860 

English plays 12 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Wigan, manager 1860-2 

French plays .... May, 1868, April, 1869 

French plays 1871-3 

The Ironmaster 17 April, 1884 

Messrs. Hare &, Kendal, lessees and managers . . 1885 

Mr. Rutland Barrington 18S8 

Mrs. Laugtry March, 1890 

As You Like It April, ,, 

Esther Sandraz, by Sydney Grundy . 3 May et seq. ,, 
House closed, 7 June ; re-opened (Mr. Bourchier, 

manager), Your Wife .... 26 June, ,, 
Mr. Mayer, French relays . . 27 Oct. et seq. ,, 
Mr. G. Alexander (from the Avenue) lessee and 

manager 15 May, ,, 

Sunlight and Shadow, 100th time . . 31 Jan. 1891 

The Idler 26 Feb.— 17 July, ,, 

Moliere, new piece .... 17 July, ,, 
The Idler (Moliere sometimes) . 30 Sept. — 4 Nov. ,, 
Lord Anerley, by Mark Quinton and Henry Hamil- 
ton 7 Nov. — 23 Dec. ,, 

Forgiveness, by J. C. Carr . 30 Dec. 1891 — 10 Feb. 1892 
Lady Windermere's Fan, by Oscar Wilde^ 

20 Feb. — 29 July, ,, 
Lady Windermere's Fan . . 31 Oct.~3o Nov. ,, 
Liberty Hall, by R. C. Carton, 3 Dec. 1892-20 May, 1893 
The Second Mrs. Tanqueray, 27 May-28 July ; 11 

Nov. -20 Dec. ; begins 26 Dec-21 April . . 1894 
The Masqueraders, by Henry Arthur Jones ; 28 

April-28 July ; 10 N0V.-22 Dec ,, 

Guy Domville, by Henry James . 5 Jan. -5 Feb. 1895 
The Importance of being Earnest, by Oscar Wilde, 

14 Feb. -10 April ; 15 April-8 May, ,, 



The Triumph of the Philistines, by Henry Arthur 

Jones 11 May-19 June, 1 

The Second Mrs. Tanqueray . 20 June-3 July, 
The Idle", by C. Haddon Chambers . 4-10 Julv, 
Bogey, by H V. Esmond . . . .10 Sept. 
Liberty Hall, by R. C. Carton . 7 N0V.-22 Nov, 
The Mysngynist, by G. W. Godrey ; Tlie Divided 
Way, by H. V. Esmond . 23 N0V.-14 Dec - 
The Prisoner of Zenda (Anthony Hope), 7 Jan.- 

18 July . ' . . . .20 Oct. -28 Nov. 1 
As You Like It .... 2 Dec. -20 March, 1 
The Prinxss and the Butterfly, by A. W. Pinero, 
29 March-30 June, 
The Prisoner of Zenda . T-31 (?) July, 

The Tree of Knowledge, byR. C. Carton, 

25 Oct.-5 Feb. 1 
Much Ado About Nothing . 17 Feb.-2 April, 

The Conquerors, by Paul M. Potter, 14 April-28 May, 
The Ambassadors, comedy, by John Oliver Hobbes, 
2 June-22 July, 
The Elder Miss Blossom, by Ernest Hendrie and 
Metcalfe Wood (Mr. and Mrs. Kendal's season), 
22 Sept. -23 Dec. 
The Ambassador (revived) . . 9 Jan.-2i April, ] 
A Repentance (one-act drama), by John Oliver 
Hobbes; overture and incidental music by sir 
Hubert Parry ; first performance . .28 Feb. 
In Days of Old, by Edward Rose ; first time, 

26 April-23 June, 
Rupert of Hentzau, by Anthony Hope (Mr. George 

Alexander's company) . 1 Feb.-27 March, : 

The Man of Forty, by Walter Frith, 

28 March-6 June, 
A Debt of Honour, by Sydney Grundy, 

1 Sept. -1 7 Nov. 
The Wisdom of the Wise, by John Oliver Hobbes, 
first time . . . .22 Nov. 1900-11 Jan. 
The Awakening, by C. Haddon Chambers, 

6 Feb.-i April, 
The Wilderness, by H. V. Esmond ; produced , 

11 April-n July, 
The Elder Miss Blossom (Mr. and Mrs. Kendal's 
season), 16 Sept.-26 Oct. ; The Likeness of the 
Night, by Mrs. W. K. Clifford, first time, 28 Oct.- 
21 Dec. ; The Wilderness and Liberty Mall (re- 
vived) 26 Dec. 1901-4 Jan. 

The Importance of being Earnest, by Oscar Wilde, 

7 Jan-28 Feb. 

Paolo and Francesco, by Stephen Phillips ; music 

by Percy Pitt ; first time . 6 March-5 July, 

If I were King, by Justin Huntly McCarthy; first 

time .... 30 Aug. 1902-21 Feb. 

Old Heidelberg, English version of Meyer-Foster's 

comedy, by R. Bleichmann . . -19 Mar. 

ROYAL PRINCESS'S THEATRE, OXFORD STREET. 

First opened for concerts .... Sept. 
Sold for 16,400?. 9 Sex>t. 



Opened for plays by Mr. J. Maddox 

Mr. Bartley's farewell here 

Mr. Charles Kean's management, 



1850 



26 Dec. 
18 Dec. 
closed, 
29 Aug. 
29 Sept. 
23 July, 



Mr. A. Harris's management ; opened 
Zouave Crimean company . 

Mr. Harris, lessee 1 

Mr. Fechter appears (as Hamlet) . . 20 March, 1861 
Mr. Lindus, manager .... 20 Oct. 1862 
Mr. G. Vining, lessee and manager . . May, 1863-66 

Mr. F. B. Chatterton, lessee 1872-78 

Carl Rosa's Opera company 1875 

Mr. Walter Gooch, lessee and manager . . 1878-81 
Closed for rebuilding, 19 May: rebuilt; opened (1st 

appearance of Edwin Booth) . . 6 Nov. 1880 
G. R. Sims' Lights 0' London . . . Sept. 1881 
Mr. Wilson Barrett, lessee and manager . . Aug. 18S3 
Claudian, by Herman and Wills . . .6 Dec. „ 

Miss G. Hawthorne, lessee . . . Jan. 1888-9 
Mr. Wilson Barrett closes his season, going to 

America for a year .... 18 May, 1889 

Sole lessee, Miss Grace Hawthorne ; manager, Mr. 

W.W.Kelly 

Gold Craze 30 Nov. — 14 Dec. ,, 

Theodora, by Sardou .... 5 May, 1890 
Mrs. Laugtry, sole lessee and manageress . Nov. „ 
Antony and Cleopatra . . iS Nov. 1890 — Feb. 1891 
Lady Barter, by Mr. Coghlan . 28 Feb.— 20 March, ,, 



THEATRES. 



1240 



THEATRES. 



Linda Grey 8 April, 189 1 

House closed 17 April, „ 

Manager, Mr. Sidney Herberte- Basing ; Fate and 

Fortune .... 27 July— 28 Aug. ,, 

Revival of Arrah-na-Pogue . 29 Aug. — 7 Nov. ,, 

After Dark, by D. Boucicault . 9 Nov.— 19 Dec. ,, 

Alone in London . . 21 Dec. 1891— 16 Jan. 1892 

The Swiss Express . . . 18 Jan.— 3 Feb. ,, 

The Great Metropolis . . 11 Feb.— 9 April, ,, 

The Life we Live .... 16 April et seq. „ 

Stralhlogan, new piece ... 9 June et seq. „ 

House to let, advertised . . . .22 June, ,, 
Royal Divorce, altered by Miss Grace Hawthorne 

25 July et seq. „ 

Mr. W. W. Kelly, manager . 15 July-26 Oct. „ 
Mr. Rollo Balniain, lessee and manager ; Uncle 

Tom's Cabin (an American combination), by 

Charles Hermann . 29 Ot.-i9 Nov. (closed), „ 

Hoodman Blind .... 26 Nov. -3 Dec. ,, 
Eagle Joe, by Mr. Henry Herman 26 Dec. 1892- 

7 Jan. 1893 

Advertised to be let or sold . . . 10 Jan. ,, 
Reopened, Mr. John Hollingshead, director ; Miami, 

new melodramatic opera, by Haydn Parry, 

16-28 Oct. ,, 

A Life of Pleasure (for Drury Lane) . 11 Dec. ,, 
The World, by Paul Meritt, Henry Pettitt, and sir 

Augustus Harris ... 24 Feb-14 April, 1894 
Jean Mayeux, mimo-drama, by Blanchard de la 

Bretesche (French company) . 12-19 May, ,, 

The Texan, by Tyrone Power . 20 May-29 June, ,, 
Mrs. Harriet Gooch, proprietress ; Odette, adapted 

from Sardou . . . . 29 Sept.-i 3 Oct. ,, 
Robbery under Arms, a composite entertainment, 

22 Oct. -Nov. ,, 

The Derby Winner . . 22 Dec. 1894-16 Feb. 1895 
Hansel und Gretel, a fairy opera by Humperdinck 

(Carl Rosa company) . 2 March-is April, >> 

Reopened, at reduced prices . 3 Aug. et seq. ,, 
Shirley and Landeck's Saved from the Sea, 3 Aug.- 

7 Sept. ,, 

[Plays with short runs.] 
A Dark Secret, 14 Nov. -24 Jan. 1896 ; The Colleen 
Lawn, 25 Jan. et seq. ; The Star of India, by G. 
R. Sims and Arthur Shirley, 6 April-16 May ; 
The Span of Life, by Sutton Vane, 19 May-27 
June; The Grip of Iron, 29June-u July ; Drink, 
13-30 July ; In Sight of St. Paul's, by Sutton 
Vane, 3 Aug. -19 Sept. ; Two Little Vagabonds 
(adapted from the French), by G. R. Sims and A. 
Shirley, 23 Sept.-29May, 1897 ; The County Fair, 
by Chas. Barnard, 5 June et seq. ; In Sight of St. 
Paul's, 26June-i7 July ; Tommy Atkins, 31 July- 
2 Oct. ; Two Little Vagabonds, revival, 4 Oct.- 
18 Dec. ; How London Lives, by Marty n Field 
and Arthur Shirley (from the French), 27 Dec. ; 
closed 16 April, 1898 ; The Crystal Globe, by 
Sutton Vane, 26 Dec. 1898 ; White Heather 
(revived), 30 Jan. 1899. Short seasons, 1899 
et seq. 

OLYMPIC, NOW NEW OLYMPIC. 

Erected by the late Mr. Astley, and opened with 

horsemanship 18 Sept. 1806 

Here the celebrated Flliston (1813), and afterwards 
Madame Vestris, had managements ; the latter 

until 1839 

Mr. George Wild's tenure 1840 

Miss Davenport's tenure . . . .11 Nov. 1844 

Mr. Watts's management 1S48 

The theatre destroyed by fire . . 29 March, 1849 
Rebuilt and opened — Mr. Watts resumes his man- 
agement 26 Dec. „ 

Mr. William Farren's management .... 1850 
Lessee and manager, Mr. A. Wigan . 17 Oct. 1853-7 
Messrs. Robson and Emden's management, 

Aug. 1857-62 
Mr. Horace Wigan, manager .... 1864-68 

Lessee, Mr. B. Webster 1868 

Lessee and manager, Miss Ada Cavendish . . 1873 
Mr. Wills's Buckingham produced . . .Dec. 1875 

Mr. Henry Neville 1873-78 

Mrs. A. Conover, lessee 1885 

Mr. J. Pitt-Hardacre 1889 

Opened by Mr. Wilson Barrett ; The. People's Idol, 
and other pieces, by Mr. Barrett and Mr. V. 
Wednell 4 Dec. et seq. 1890 



Lights 0' London 9 Feb.' 1891 

Hamlet 13-18 April, „ 

The Acrobat, or Belphegor . . .21 April, „ 
House closed, 9 May ; re-opened by Mr. Charles 

Wilmot; manager, Mr. W. W. Kelly . . . ,, 
Theodora, by Sardou 1 Aug. — 8 Sept. ,, 

A Royal Divorce, by W. G. Wills 10 Sept. — 19 Dec. ,, 

Oliver Twist 21 Dec. et seq. „ 

East Lynne . .2 Feb. — 5 March, 1892 

The Black Flag .... 7 March et seq. „ 
Called Back . . . .22 March — 2 April, ,, 
Theodora revived .... 4 April et seq. „ 
Lessee and manager, Mr. Edmund Tearle ; Julius 

Cazsar, Richard III., Virginius, Othello, 

16 April— 28 May, ,, 
Royal opera season, by signor Lago, 17 Oct. -3 Nov. „ 
Closed. 
Mr. Win. Hogarth, acting manager : Dick WhUUng- 

ton (pantomime) . . 26 Dec. 1892-March, 1893 
Made a music-hall ... 7 Aug. et seq. ,, 

Opened by sir Augustus Harris, Cheer hoys, Cheer ! 

19 Dec. et seq 1895 
True Blue (and other plays with short runs), by 

Leonard Outram and lieut.-Stuart Gordon, R.N. 

19 March, 1896 
Tlie Free Pardon, by Messrs. F. E. Philips and 

Leonard Merrick 28 Jan. 1897 

The Mariners of England, by Messrs. Robert 

Buchanan and " Charles Marlowe " . 9 March, ,, 
Mr. Ben Greet's Shakspearean season : Hamlet, 

etc 10 May-12 June, ,, 

Savoy Theatre, see under Savoy. Opened 10 Oct. 1881 

STRAND THEATRE. 

First opened — Mr. Rayner and Mrs. Waylett . . 1831 
Mr. William Farren's management . . . . 1849 
Lessee, Mr. F. Allcroft; manager, Mr. T. Payne . 1855 

Lessee, Miss Swanborough 1858-61 

Mr. Swanborough, sen Dec. 1862 

Mrs. Swanborough, 1865-88 ; she died (aged 84) 

6 Jan. 1889 

Rebuilt ; re-opened 18 Nov. 1882 

Mr. J. S. Clarke, lessee Jan. 1888 

Re-opens ; Mr. C. Wyndham and Mr. Wm. Duck, 

managers 6 Feb. 1889 

Mr. Arthur Rousbey's opera company perform 

Figaro 14 March, ,, 

Lessee, J. S. Clarke Sept. ,, 

Mr. Willie Edouin 13 March, 1890 

Our Flat, 645th and last performance . 3 Jan. 1891 
Private Inquiry, by F. C. Burnand 7 Jan. — 13 Feb. ,, 
Turned Up . . .14 Feb. — 18 April, „ 

Our Daughters . . . .22 April— 9 May, ,, 
A Night's Frolic .... 1 June et seq. 1891 

Katti 27 June, ,, 

The Late Lamented . . .1 Aug. 1891 — 8 Jan. 1892 
The Neiv Wing, by H. A. Kennedy 9 Jan. — 9 April, „ 
Niobe (All Smiles), a mythological comedy, by H. 

and E. Paul ton (550 performances) . 11 April, 

1892-21 July 1893 

Our Flat (revived) . . . 2 July-n Oct. 1894 
Babes (burlesque) ; Willie Edouin, lessee, 

30 Jan. -4 Feb. 1895 
Fanny, by George R. Sims and Cecil Baleigh, 

15 April-i June, ,, 

[Plays with short runs.] 
In a Locket, 16 Sept -30 Oct. 1895 ; The Lord Mayor, 
by H. and E. A. Paulton, 1-5 Nov. ; Niobe, by 
H. and E. A. Paulton, 14 N0V.-7 Feb, 1896; On 
'Change, 15 Feb. et. seq. ; Josiah's Dream, by Chas. 
Rogers, 21 May-10 June ; Playing the Game, 
musical farce, by W. Younge, A. Flaxman, F. 
Eplett, 12-16 June ; Teddy's Wires, by Fergus 
Hume, 24 Sept., et seq. ; The Prodigal Father, 
Mr. J. S. Clarke, manager, 1 Feb. 1897 ; The 
Queen's Proctor, adapted from the French, by 
Herman Merivale, 17 April-8 June ; John Gabriel 
Borkman, by Ibsen, 5 matinees by the New 
Century theatre association, 3-7 May; All Alive, 
Oh! farce, 16 June et seq. ; The Purser, by John 
T. Day, 13 Sept.-i6 Oct. ; Tlie Fanatic, by John 
T. Day, 21 Oct. ; A Brace of Partridges, farce, 
by Robt. Ganthony, 10 Feb.-mid March, 1S98 ; 
The "J. P.," farce, 9 April -2 July ; What, happened 
to Jones, 12 July, 189S-22 April, 1899 ; Why Smith 
Left Home, by Geo. W. Broadhurst . 1 May, 1899 



THEATRES. 



1241 



THEATRES. 



A Chinese Honeymoon, by Geo. Dance and Howard 
Talbot, 6o8th performance . . 31 March, 1903 

ROYAL ENGLISH OPERA HOUSE. 

Erected for Mr. D'Oyly Carte by Mr. T. E. Col- 
cutt in Cambridge Circus, Shaftesbury Avenue, a 
magnificent fireproof building to accommodate 
2,000 persons, opened with Ivanhoe, music by sir 
Arthur Sullivan, libretto by Mr. Julian Sturgis, 

31 Jan. — 31 July, 1891 
House closed . . ... 31 July, ,, 

The Basoche, composer M. Andre Messager ; libret- 
tist, M. Albert Carre ; Ivanhoe (on some inter- 
vening days), 3-28 Nov. 1891 ; 5 Dec. 1891 — 

16 Jan. 1892 
House closed. 

Madame Sarah Bernhardt ; Sardou's Cleopatra, &c. 

28 May — 23 July, ,, 
Named the Palace Theatre of Varieties by a 
company, to whom it was sold ; managing 
director, sir Augustus Harris, Oct. ; opened, 

10 Dec. ,, 

ASTLEV'S AMPHITHEATRE. 

Built by Philip Astley, and opened .... 1773 
Destroyed by fire, with numerous adjacent houses, 

17 Sept. 1794 

Rebuilt •.. 1795 

Burnt again, with forty houses . . 1 Sept. 1803 

Ducrow's management 1825 

Again destroyed by fire .... 8 June, 1841 

Rebuilt and re-opened by Mr. Batty . 17 April, 1843 
Lessee and manager, Mr. W. Cooke . . . 1855-60 

Mr. W. Cooke's farewell benefit . . .30 Jan. i860 

A man killed by a lion .... Jan. 1861 

Opened by Mr. Batty 6 Dec. ,, 

Opened by Mr. Boucicault, as the Theatre Royal, 

Westminster ... .26 Dec. 1862 

Horsemanship and opera (under Mr. E. T. Smith), 

June, 1865 
Sold by auction 1868 

SURREY THEATRE (FORMERLY CIRCUS). 

[Originally devoted to equestrian exercises, under 

Mr. Hughes] 4 Nov. 1782 

Opened for performances . . . 4 Nov. 1783 

Destroyed by Are 12 Aug. 1805 

Mr. Elliston's management 1809 

Mr. Elliston again 4 June, 1827 

Mr. Davidge's tenure 1833 

Mr. Shepherd and Mr. Anderson, managers, 

12 Sept. 1863-5 
Destroyed by fire, 31 Jan. : rebuilt and opened, 

26 Dec. 1865 
Used for melodramas pantomimes, &c. at low prices, 

1889 et seg. 

VICTORIA (FORMERLY COBURG). 

[The erection was commenced under the patronage 
of the late princess Charlotte and the prince Leo- 
pold of Saxe-Coburg] . . . . . . 1816 

The house was opened 1818 

Messrs. Egerton and Abbott had the management in 1833 

Mr. Osbaldiston's tenure 1840 

Alarm of Are, sixteen persons killed . 27 Dec. 1858 
Now Victoria Hall, used for popular lectures, 
concerts, &c. 1889 

SADLER'S WELLS. 

Opened as an orchestra 1683 

Present house opened 1765 

Eighteen persons trampled to death on a false 

alarm of fire 15 Oct. 1807 

Management of Mrs. Warner and Mr. Phelps, 

20 May, 1844-59 
Management of Mr. Josephs . . . 25 March, 1861 
Re-opened by Mr. Phelps .... 7 Sept. ,, 
Lessee, Miss C. Lucette ... 27 Sept. 1862 

Miss Marriott, manager . 5 Sept. 1863 -20 May, 1864 

Miss C. Lucette, for opera 1865 

Miss Marriott, legitimate drama (with intervals) 1865-8 
Miss Hazlewood, Miss Marriott, and others . 1868-73 
Opened by. Mrs. Bateman as New Sadler's Wells 

9 Oct. 1879 
Mrs. Bateman dies (Miss I. Bateman succeeds), 

13 Jan. 1881 
Opened by Miss Roze de Vane . . 12 April, 1884 



Closed and re-opened occasionally . . i887eiseg. 
Renovated and reopened by Mr. F. Macnaghten, 

10 Nov. 1902 

OTHER THEATRES. 

Queen's Theatre, Tottenham-court-road . . . 1828 
Garrick Theatre, Goodman's-flelds .... 1830 

City Theatre, Norton-Folgate 1837 

Miss Kelly's Theatre (since named Soho and New 

Royalty) 1840 

Marylebone, opened 1842 

Standard Theatre, built 1854 ; burnt, 21 Oct. 1866 ; 

rebuilt 1868 

Pavilion Theatre burnt .... 23 Feb. 1856 
Alhambra, Leicester-square, opened, 1858 ; burnt, 

7 Dec. 1882 ; and re-opened ... 3 Dec. 1883 

New Royalty (Soho) 31 Aug. 1863 

Holborn Theatre (afterwards called the Mirror, and 

the Duke's), opened, 16 Oct. 1866; burnt, 4 July, 1880 
Royal Amphitheatre (for horses, &c), Holborn, 

opened 25 May, 1867 

New East London, opened ... 12 Oct. „ 
" New Queen's Theatre," formerly St. Martin's hall, 

opened by Alfred Wigan . . . .24 Oct. „ 
St. George's Opera-house, Langham-place, opened 

by Mr. German Reed . . . . 18 Dec. ,, 
The Globe, Strand, opened ... 28 Nov. 1868 
The Gaiety, Strand, opened ... 21 Dec. ,, 
Charing Cross, opened . . . .19 June, 1869, 
Vaudeville, opened . . . .16 April, 1870 

Opera Comique, 299, Strand, opened (for Mdlle. 

Dejazet) 29 Oct. ,, 

Court Theatre, Chelsea, opened . . 25 Jan. 187] 

Royal Alexandra Theatre, Park-street, Camden- 

town, opened, 31 May, 1873 ; burnt . 10 Sept. 1881 
Criterion, Regent's-circus, Piccadilly, opened by 

Spiers and Pond, 21 March, 1874; closed, Feb. 

1883 ; re-opened, 4 Oct. 1884 ; Mr. (aft. sir) 

Charles Wyndham's last appearance here, after 

23 years' management ; David Garrick, one of his 

greatest triumphs, produced here in 1886 ; special 

performance of hosemary, by Louis N. Parker 

and Murray Carson, 21 July, 1899 (1,474?. P r0 " 

ceeds for the prince of Wales's Hospital fund). 
National Opera-house (which see), founded 7 Sept. 

and 16 Dec. 1875 
Charing Cross re-opened as the " Folly " . 16 Oct. 1876 
"Imperial theatre," at Westminster Aquarium . 1878 
Holborn theatre reopened as the " Royal Connaught 

theatre " 1 Nov. 1879 

Savoy Theatre opened (which see) . . 10 Oct. 1881 
Toole's Theatre, formerly the Folly, opened in . 1882 
Avenue Theatre, Thames Embankment, opened, 

11 March, ,, 
Prince's Theatre, Coventry - street (Mr. Bruce), 

opened 18 Jan. 1883 

New Alhambra Theatre opened . . 3 Dec. ,, 
Empire Theatre, formerly Pandora, opened 14 April, 

afterwards music hall 1884 

Mr. Terry's new theatre, Strand, opened 17 Oct. 1887 
Grand Theatre, Islington, opened 4 Aug. 1883 ; 

burnt 29 Dec. 1887 ; rebuilt 1888 

New Court Theatre opened . . . 24 Sept. ,, 
Shaftesbury Theatre, London, opened . 20 Oct. ,, 
Lyric Theatre, London . . . .17 Dec. „ 
Garrick Theatre, Charing-cross-road, opened by 

Mr. Hare 24 April, 1889 

Trafalgar Theatre, St. Martin's-lane, opened 10 Sept. 

1892 ; named Duke of York's, 1895. 

Daly's Theatre, Leicester-square (American com- 
pany), opened (The Taming of the Shrew), 27 June, 

1893 [death of Mr. Augustin Daly, 7 June, 1899]. 
Borough Theatre at Stratford ; proprietor, Mr. 

Albert Fredericks; opened by Mr. Beerbohm 
Tree and the Haymarket company with King 
Henry IV 3* Aug. 1896 

Grand Theatre, Fulham, opened by George 
Edwardes' Geisha Company on Monday, 23 Aug. 1897 

Alexandra Theatre and Opera-house, Stoke New- 
ington-road, N, opened .... 27 Dec. ,, 

Coronet Theatre, at Notting-hill-gate, opened, 

28 Nov. 189S 

Princess of Wales's Theatre, Kennington, opened, 

28 Nov. „ 

The Century, formerly the Novelty, opened, Oct. 1899 

Royal Duchess Theatre, Balham, opened by Mr. 
Chas. Wyndham (knt. June, 1902) . 16 Sept. ,, 



THEATRES. 



1242 



THEATRES. 



Wyndham's Theatre, Charing-cross-road, Mr. Chas. 
Wyndham (knt. June, 1902), sole proprietor, 
•opened with a performance of David Garrick ; 
proceeds of first night; (4,000^.) given to Transvaal 
War relief fund . . 16 Nov. 1899-7 Feb. 1900 
Camden Theatre, High-st., Camden-town, erected 
by Mr. E. G. Saunders, to seat 3,000 persons, 
cost 5o,oooL, opened by Miss Ellen Terry, 

21 Dec. „ 
Apollo Theatre, Shaftesbury-avenue, opened, 

21 Feb. 1901 
Elephant and Castle (reconstructed), opened, 

4 Aug. 1902 

INew Theatre, St. Martin's-lane, proprietor, sir 
Chas. Wyndham, opened with a revival of 
M.osemary ; receipts of the first night given to 
the British Soldiers' wives and families assoc, 

12 March, 1503 

DUBLIN THEATRES. 

Werburg-street, commenced 1635 

Orange-street, now Smock-alley .... 1662 

Aungier-street (Victor) 1728 

Ditto, management of Mr. Hitchcock . . .1733 

Crow-street Music-hall 173 1 

Eainsford-street Theatre J 732 

Smock-alley Theatre, rebuilt 1735 

Fishamble-street Music-hall 1741 

Capel-street Theatre . . . . ' . . . 1745 

Crow-street, Theatre Koyal 1758 

Peter-street, Theatre Koyal 1789 

Hawkin's-street, Theatre Koyal .... 1821 

Destroyed hy fire • 9 Fe1:> - l88 ° 

■Queen's Theatre, Brunswick-street . . . . 1844 

EDINBURGH THEATRES. 

Theatre of Music 1672 

Allan Ramsay's 1736 

The Caledonian Theatre 1822 

Adelphi Theatre burnt down . . -24 May, 1853 

Royal Theatre burnt down (several lives lost), 

13 Jan. 1865, again 6 Feb. 1875 

FIRST OR LAST APPEARANCES. 

■Quin's first appearance . 1716 

Macklin at Lincoln's-inn-fields 1725 

■Garrick's at Goodman's-fields, as Richard III., 

19 Oct. 1741 
Miss Farren (afterwards countess of Derby) first ap- 
pears at Liverpool 1773 

Garriek's last appearance . . . .10 June, 1776 
Mrs. Robinson, Perdita : her last appearance, 24 Dec. 1779 
Braham's first appearance at the Royalty, 20 April, 1787 
Madame Storace ; her first appearance in London, 

24 Nov. 1789 

Incledon's first appearance 1790 

Miss Mellon, her first appearance as Lydia Languish, 

31 Jan. 1795 
Master Betty (Infant Roscius) debut in London, en- 
thusiastically received . . . .1 Dec. 1804 
Liston's first appearance in London . 1 June, 1805 
Miss F. M. Kelly's first appearance .... 1807 
Romeo Coates appears as Lothario . 10 April, 1811 

Mrs. Jordan's last appearance, as Lady Teazle, 

1 June, 1814 
Miss O'Neill, as Juliet .... 6 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Macready's first appearance at Bath, as Romeo, 

29 Dec. „ 
Booth's first appearance . . . .12 Feb. 181 7 

W. Farren's first appearance 1818 

Munden's last appearance .... May, 1824 
Fanny Kemble's first appearance . . 5 Oct. 1829 
Edmund Kean's last appearance, as Othello, 

25 March, 1833 
Liston's last appearance . . 31 May, 1838 

Adelaide Kemble's first appearance . . 2 Nov. 1841 
Jenny Lind's first appearance . . 4 May, 1847 
Mrs. Glover's farewell . . . .12 July, 1850 

Mr. Bartley's farewell .... 18 Dec. 1852 

Mr. W. Farren's farewell 1855 

Clara Novello's farewell .... 21 Nov. i860 
Adelina Patti's first appearance at Covcnt Garden, 

14 May, 1861 

Miss Bateman appears as Leah 1 Oct. 1863 

Her farewell at H.M.'s theatre . . . 22 Dec. 1865 

Madlle. Nilsson's first appearance at H.M.'s theatre 

as Violetta . .... 8 June, 1867 



Miss Kate Terry's last appearance (Juliet at the New 
Adelphi) 31 Aug. 

Madlle. Kellogg's debut at Drury-lane . 2 Nov. 

Mr. Bandmann's dibut .... 17 Feb. 

Mr. Paul Bedford's farewell at New Queen's theatre, 

16 May, 

Madlle. Marimon's debut, as Amino, . . 6 May, 

Mario's farewell in La Favorita at Italian opera, 

19 July, 

Miss Isabella Bateman's debut . . .12 Sept. 

Mr. and Mrs. Alfred Wigan's last appearance (at 
Drury Lane) 6 July, 

Mr. H. Irving first appears as Hamlet, 31 Oct. 1874, 
200th performance 29 June 

Our Boys by H. J. Byron, 1st time 16 Jan. 1875 
(at the Vaudeville); 1350th, 1 April; and last 

18 April, 

Mr. Byron's The Girls, 1st performance 19 April, 

Mr. Sims Reeves' farewell at the R. Albert Hall, 1 1 
May, 1891 ; appeared again at intervals, and died, 
aged 82 25 Oct. 



1879 



1900 



1040 



1843 
1847 



MEMORANDA. 

Richard Burbage 1567-1619 

Edward Alleyn 1566-1626 

Thomas Betterton 1635-1710 

Mrs. Elizabeth Barry 1658-1713 

Mrs. Pritchard 1711-1768 

Mrs. Jordan 1762-1816 

David Garrick 1717-79 

Charles Macklin died 1797 

Mr. Palmer died on the stage at Liverpool, 2 Aug. 1798 

Bannister retired from the stage 1815 

John P. Kemble died 1823 

Talma died in Paris 1826 

Weber came to London Feb. ,, 

The Brunswick theatre fell, owing to the weight of 
a newly-erected roof, and numbers of persons 
were wounded and some killed . . 29 Feb. 1828 

Sarah Siddons died, 183 1 ; her statue at Padd in gton 
Green unveiled by sir H. Irving on . 14 June, 1897 

Edmund Kean died 1833 

Charles Mathews died . . . .28 June, 1835 
Madame Malibran died at Manchester . 23 Sept. 

Paganini died 27 May, 

Power lost in the President steamer, about 13 March, 
Elton lost in the Pegasus . . . 18 July, 
Madlle. Mars died at Paris ... 23 March, 
Madame Catalini died at Paris . . . 13 June, 
W. C. Macready retired ... 26 April, 1851 

Alexander Lee died 9 Oct. ,, 

Mrs. Warner died 5 Sept. 1854 

Charles Keinble died .... 12 Nov. ,, 
John Braham died .... 17 Feb. 1856 

Madame Vestris died .... 8 Aug. 

Madlle. Rachel died 4 Jan. 1858 

Mrs. Nisbet (lady Boothby) died . . 16 Jan. ,. 
Louis Lablache (buffo singer) died . . 23 Jan. ,, 
John Pritt Harley died .... 22 Aug. ,, 
Flexmore, celebrated clown, died . . 20 Aug. i860 

Mrs. Yates died 30 Oct. ,, 

Alfred Bunn died 20 Dec. „ 

William Farren died 25 Sept. 1861 

Mr. Vandenhoffdied 4 Oct, ,, 

M. Tree (Mrs. Bradshaw) died .... Feb. 1862 
Subscription testimonial (value 200 J.) presented to 

C. J. Kean : Mr. Gladstone in the chair, 22 March, „ 
Sheridan Knowles died .... 30 Nov. ,, 
Mrs. Wood (Miss Paton) died . . .21 July, 1S64 
Mr. F. Robson died . . . . 11 Aug. „ 
Madame Pasta died, aged 66 . . . 1 April, 1865 
Charles J. Kean died .... 23 Jan. 1868 

Robert Keeley died, aged 74 . .3 Feb. 1869 

Madame Grisi died .... 25 Nov. ,, 

Wm. Brough, burlesque-writer, died, aged 44, 13 Mar. 1870 

Paul Bedford died 11 Jan. 1871 

T. W. Robertson, dramatist, died . . . 3 Feb. ,, 
Lady Wrixon Becher (Miss O'Neill, Juliet), died 

29 Oct. 1872 

William C. Macreadv died ... 27 April, 1873 
Wm. Hy. West Betty (the Infant Roscius) died, 

aged S2 Aug. 1874 

Charles James Mathews died . . 24 June, 1878 

Alfred Wigan died 29 Nov. ,, 

Frederick Bye, died (accidentally shot), nearly 30 
years lessee and manager of Royal Italian Opera, 
Covent Garden 5 Dec. „ 



THEATEICAL FUNDS. 



1243 



THELLUSSON'S WILL. 



Wm. H. Seliofleld Payne, "King of Pantomime" 

(aged 70), died 18 Dec. 1878 

Mrs. Wybert Rousby died . . .19 April, 1879 

J. B. Buckstone died .... 31 Oct. ,, 
Mrs. Charles Kean (Miss Ellen Tree), died 20 Aug. 1880 
Countess of Essex, formerly Miss Stephens, died, 

22 Feb. 1882 
Benjamin Nottingham Webster died . 8 July, ,, 
Miss Francis M. Kelly, aged 92, died . . 6 Dec. ,, 
Grand dinner to Mr. H. Irving . . .4 July, 1883 
Miss Mary Anderson's debut . . . 1 Sept. ,, 
Sig. Giuseppe Mario, aged 75, died . .11 Dec. ,, 
H. J. Byron, author, died ... 11 April, 1884 
Mr. Frederick Balsir Chatterton, lessee of Drury 

Lane, &c. died 18 Feb. 1886 

Jenny Lind (Madame Lind Goldschmidt) died, aged 

67 2 Nov. 1887 

Mrs. Swanborough died .... 6 Jan. 1889 
Mrs. Dallas, known as Miss Glyn, died, aged 66 

18 May, ,, 
James Albery, dramatist, died . about 16 Aug. ,, 
H. B. Farnie, dramatist, died . . 22 Sept. ,, 
Frederic Ernes Clay, operatic composer, died, 

about 24 Nov. ,, 
Westland Marston, dramatist, died . . 6 Jan. 1890 
John Barnett, operatic composer, died, aged 87, 

17 April, ,, 
Dion Boucicault, dramatist, died . .18 Sept. ,, 
Wm. Gorman Wills, dramatist, died, announced, 

15 Dec. 1891 
Maddison Morton, dramatist, author of " Box and 

Cox," &c, died 19 Dec. ,, 

Samuel Brandram, M.A., able reciter; died, aged 

68 7 Nov. 189*2 

Mrs. Frances Ann (Kemble) Butler, daughter of 

Charles Kemble, died aged 83 . .15 Jan. 1893 
Eleanor Button (aft. Mrs. Arthur Swanborough), 

died about n April, ,, 

Mr. Edwin Booth, American actor, died . 7 June, ,, 
Mr. David James (Belasco), comedian, aged 54, died, 

2 Oct. ,, 
Miss Ada Swanborough, of the Strand Theatre, 

died 12 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Henry Pettitt, dramatist, died . . 24 Dec. ,, 
Mr. James Anderson, tragedian ; born 18 19, died 

3 March, 1895 
Priscilla Horton, actress, 1832 et scq. ; married Mr. 

German Reed ; died .... 18 March, ,, 
Mr. Corney Grain died . . . . 19 March, ,, 

Ada Cavendish died 5 Oct. ,, 

Amy Roselle (Mrs. Arthur Dacre), boru 1854 ; 

died (see Suicide, 1895) .... 17 Nov. ,, 
Lady Gregory (Mrs. Stirling, died, aged 79, 30 Dec. ,, 
Mr. Henry Howe, died aged 84 . . .9 March, 1896 
Mr. Temple E. Crozier (aged 24) accidentally killed 

while acting at the Novelty theatre by Wilfrid 

Moritz Franks, also acting . . .10 Aug. ., 
Mr. William Chas. Jas. Terriss (Lewin), aged 49, 

assassinated at the Adelphi (which see) . 16 Dec. 1897 
The collections of Edmund Kean and his son 

Charles, realized 1,653?. us. . . 24 June, 1898 

Lady Martin (Helen Faucit), born, 11 Oct. 182c; 

died . . . . . . . .31 Oct. ,, 

Mrs. Keeley (Mary Ann Goward), born, 22 Nov. 

1805 ; died 12 March, 1899 

Mrs. Sara Lane, over 50 years manager of the 

Britannia theatre, for which she wrote many 

plays, died, aged 76 ... Aug. ,, 

Mr. Franklin McLeay, a clever Canadian actor, 

died, aged 33 early July, 1900 

Mr. George Conquest, a pantomimist and manager 

of the Surrey theatre, died . . . 14 May, 1901 
Edith and Ida Yeoland, aged 26 and 21, died (see 

Suicide 1901) 16 July, ,, 

.Mrs. Hermann Vezin (Mrs. Chas. Young) died, 

10 April, 1902 

THEATEICAL FUNDS. The Theatrical 
fund of Covent Garden was established in 1 760, 
incorporated 1774; that of Drury Lane by Garrick 
1766; incorporated 1 775. They grant pensions to 
membersandtheirfamilies. The Koyal GeneralThea- 
trical fund was established in 1839, incorporated 1853. 
The Theatrical Mission and Institute for the benefit of 

theatrical employes, started in 1876. The princess 

Christian inaugurated for them "Macready" house, 

Covent Garden 30 Nov. T887. 



THEATBOGBAPH, see Kinetoscope, March, 
1896. 

THEATEOPHONE, a form of the telephone 
specially adapted for hearing theatrical perform- 
ances at a distance. The apparatus of the " com- 
pagnie du theatrophone " of Paris was exhibited at 
the Savoy hotel, and by its means the performance 
of the "Rautch Girl" at the Savoy theatre was 
said to be well heard, 11 Dec. 1891. 

THEBAN LEGION, according to tradition, 
was composed of Christians, and submitted to martyr- 
dom rather than attack their brethren during the 
persecution of the emperor Maximin, or sacrifice 
to the gods, about a.d. 286. Their leader Maurice 
was canonised. 

THEBES or LuxOR, in Upper Egypt, called 
also Diospolis, as being sacred to Jupiter. Homer. 
Its foundation is mythically attributed to Osiris. It 
is said to have been the magnificent capital of 
Egypt about 1600 B.C., having a circuit of about 14 
geographical miles. It was then the chief seat of 
the worship of Amnion, or Ammun, the Zeus Amnion 
of the Greeks, and the Jupiter Amnion of the 
liomans, and hence was called No Amnion by the 
Hebrews. Thebes was ruined by Cambyses, king 
of Persia, 525 B.C., and by the foundation of 
Alexandria, 332 B.C.; it rebelled and was taken by 
Ptolemy Lathyrus, 86 B.C., and few traces of it 
were seen in the age of Juvenal ; see Memnoneium. 
After centuries of neglect, its wonderful ruins have 
been greatly visited since the explorations of Bel- 
zoni, 1817. — The tombs of Amenophis II. abt. 
1500 B.C., XVIII. dynasty, and 7 other royal mum- 
mies, discovered by M. Loret in perfect preserva- 
tion, March, 1898. Thebes, N. Greece (the capital 
is mythically said to have been founded by Cadmus.) 
The legendary history of GEdipus and his family, cele- 
brated by the Greek tragic poets, belongs to Thebes. 
It became a republic about 1 120 B.C., and flourished 
under Epaminondas 378-362 B.C. The '_' sacred 
band" formed by him, 377 B.C., was revived in 1877. 
Thebes' seven gates are mentioned by Homer. See 
Bceotia and Greece. Thebes suffered much by 
earthquake shocks, end of May, 1893, and was 
nearly destroyed by earthquakes, 20 April et scq. 
1894 ; active relief measures were organized. 

THEFT was punished by heavy fines among 
the Jews ; by death at Athens, by the laws of Draco ; 
see Draco. The Anglo-Saxons nominally punished 
theft with death, if above 120I. value; but the 
criminal could redeem his life by a ransom. _ In the 
9th of Henry I. this power of redemption was 
taken away, 1108. The punishment of theft was 
very severe in England, till mitigated by Peel's 
acts 9 & 10 Geo. IV. 1829. The laws respecting 
theft were consolidated in 1862. Earceny act passed 
14 Aug. 1896 ; another passed, 2 Aug. 1901. 

THEINE, see Cafeine. 

THEISTS (Theos, God), a name given to deists 
about 1660. — Dean Martin. See Deism, Unitarians, 
and Voysey. 

THELLUSSON'S WILL, a most singular 
document. Mr. Peter Isaac Thellusson, a Gene- 
vese and an affluent merchant of London, left 
100,000/, to his widow and children; and the re- 
mainder of his property, more than 600,000/., he 
left to trustees, to accumulate during the lives of 
his three sons, and the lives of their sons ; then 
the estates, directed to be purchased with the pro- 
duce of the accumulated fund, were to be conveyed 
to the eldest lineal male descendant of his three 



THEOCEACY. 



1244 



THEEMOPYL^E. 



ecn^, with the benefit of survivorship. Should no 
heir then exist, the whole was to be applied, by 
the agency of the sinking fund, to the discharge of 
the national debt. It is said that Mr. Thellusson 
held much property in trust, and that he desired a 
sufficient interval of time to elapse for the appear- 
ance of just claimants. He died 21 July, 1797. 
His will incurred much public censure, and was 
contested by the heirs-at-law, but finally estab- 
lished by a decision of the house of lords, 25 June, 
1805. The last surviving grandson died in Feb. 
1856. A dispute then arose whether the eldest male 
descendant or the male descendant of the eldest 
son should inherit the property. The question was 
decided on appeal by the house of lords (9 June, 
1859), in favour of the latter, lord. Rendlesham 
and Charles S. Thellusson confirming the decision 
of the Master of the Rolls in 1858. In consequence 
of the legal expenses the property is said not to ex- 
ceed greatly its value in the testator's lifetime. On 
28 July, 1800, the Thellusson act was passed, re- 
straining testators from devising their property for 
purposes of accumulation for longer than 21 years 
after death ; any other direction to be void. 

THEOCEACY, government by God, existed 
among the Israelites till Saul was made king, about 
1095 b.c. (Sam. viii. 7.) 

THEODOLITE, an instrument for measuring 
horizontal angles, used in surveying, consists of a 
telescope and a divided circle. It was probably 
first constructed in the 1 7th century. Jesse Hams- 
den, in 1787, completed the great theodolite em- 
ployed in the trigonometrical survey of England and 
Wales by general Roy. 

THEODOSIAN CODE, see Codes. 

"THEOLOGIA GEEMANICA," or 

" Teutsche Theologey " (printed 1528; Latin and 
French editions, 1558), a German mystical work, 
written about the 14th century. In it the "good 
man," disgusted with the corruptions in church 
and state, is led to seek for God in the temple of 
the heart. Luther is said to have placed the work 
next to the Bible and St. Augustin. 

THEOLOGY (from the Greek Theos, God), 
the science which treats of the nature and attributes 
of God, of his relations to man, and of the manner 
in which they may be discovered. It is generally 
divided into two heads. 1. Inspired, including the 
Holy Scriptures, their interpretation, &c. 2. 
Natural; which lord Bacon calls the first part of 
philosophy. — Butler's "Analogy of Religion" 
(1736) and Paley's "Natural Theology" (1802) 
are eminent books on the latter subject. — Abelard 
(died 1 142) wrote "Theologia Christiania." The 
" Summa Totius Theologi;e" by Thomas Aquinas 
(born about 1224), a standard Roman catholic work, 
■was printed with commentaries, &c, in 1^96. 
Modern theology much influenced by the results of 
the higher criticism. 
Death of prof. A. IS. Davidson, eminent British 

Hebraist 2 Feb. 1902 

THEOPHILANTHEOPISTS (lovers of God 

and man), a sect formed in France in 1796; and 
headed by one of the five directors, Lepaux, in 
1797; was dissolved in 1802. 

THEOSOPHY (theon, God; sophid, wisdom), 

divine wisdom, a name that has been given since 
the time of Ammonitis Saccas,in the third century, 
to various schools of philosophy and their mystical 
tenets respecting the spiritual nature of man and 



his relation to the universe. Followers of Giordano 

Bruno and Paracelsus, in the 16th century, are 

termed theosophists. 

The Theosophical Society was founded in America by 
Madame Blavatsky, aided by colonel Olcott, about 
1875-6. Aims at universal brotherhood, the study of 
Eastern philosophy, and to investigate unexplained 
laws of nature and powers latent in man. It has a 
station in London, and 350 branches in India (head- 
quarters, Madras, 1879), America, and the colonies. 
Mrs. Anna Kingsford, M.D., president in 1883, died 
22 Feb. 1888. Annual conventions. 

Mrs. Besant's lecture on Theosophy and Occultism at 
St. James's hall, London, 9 Oct. 1891, related especially 
to " Esoteric Buddhism" as described by Mr. Sinnett- 

Prof. Max Mtiller's " Theosophy or Psychological 
Religion " (a sequel to Psychical and Anthropological 
religion, all combined in Christianity), published 
April, 1893. 

THEEMIDOE EEVOLUTION. On the 

9th Thermidor of the 2nd year (27 July, I794)> 
the Convention deposed Robespierre, and on the 
next day he and twenty-two of his partisans were 
executed. 

THEEMO-ELECTEICITY and Thermo- 
pile, see under Electricity, and Heat. 

THEEMOMETEE. Freezing point: Fah. 

32° ; R. o"; C. 0°. Boiling point: Fah. 212°, £. 

80°, C. ioo°. 

Invented by Galileo, before 1597. Libri. 

Invented by Drebbel of Alcmaer, 1609. Boerhaave. 

Invented by Paulo Sarpi, 1609. Fulgentio. 

Invented by Sanctorio in 1610. Borelli. 

Fahrenheit's thermometer invented about 1726; Reau- 
mur's and Celsius's (the latter now termed centigrade) 
soon after. [Fahrenheit's scale is usually employed in 
England, and Reaumur's and the centigrade on the 
continent. 

The mode of construction by substituting quicksilver for 
spirits was invented some years subsequently. Halley 
proposed it in 1697. 

Mr. L. M. Casella issued a minimum thermometer in 
Sept. 1861. It registers degrees of cold by means oi" 
mercury. Mr. Casella made many improvements in 
thermometers, &c, and died, 23 April, 1897. 

Negretti and Zambra's registering minimum thermo- 
meters, adapted for deep-sea purposes, made known 
early in 1874. 

Letter from Mr. James J. Hicks, of London, stating; 
that since 1861, he makes about 250,000 or more ther- 
mometers of all kinds, annually, hundreds of which 
are tested at the Kew Observatory, and are superior 
to those of foreign manufacture, Times, 23 March, 
1897. 

THEEMOPHONE, in which sonorous vibra- 
tions are produced by the expansion of heated bo- 
dies connected with an electro-magnet. The appa- 
ratus was constructed by Theodor Wiesendanger 
and described by him in October, 1878. 

THEEMOPYL^E (Doris, N. Greece) . Leoni- 
das, at the head of 300 Spartans and 700 Thes- 
pians, at the defile of Thermopylae, withstood the 
whole force of the Persians during three days, 7, 
8, 9 Aug. 480 B.C., when Ephialtes, a Trachinian, 
perfidiously leading the enemy by a secret path 
up the mountains, brought them to the rear of the 
Greeks, who, thus placed between two assailants, 
perished gloriously on heaps of their slaughtered 
foes. One Greek only returned home, and he was 
received with reproaches for having tied.* Here 
Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, was defeated 
by the Romans, 191 b.c. 

* The distich, in the Greek Anthology, by Simonides, 
their contemporary, is thus translated by Bowles : — 
" Go, tell the Spartans, thou that passest by, 
That here, obedient to their laws, we lie." 



THEKMUM. 



1245 



THIMBLES. 



THERMUM, Thermits, or Therma 

(Greece), a strong city, the Acropolis of ^Etolia, N. 
Greece, was captured and ravaged by Philip V. 
of Macednn, 218 and 206 B.C., on account of its 
favouring the Romans. 

THESAURUS (treasury), a title given in the 
17th and 18th centuries to large collections of small 
works on history and archaeology. The most cele- 
brated are — 
'• Thesaurus Antiquitatum Grseeorum," by J. Grono- 

vius. 13 vol. fol 1697-1702 

" Thesaurus Antiquitatum Romanorum," by J. G. 

Grsevius. 12 vol. fol 1694 

" Thesaurus Antiquitatum et Historicum Italise, 

Sieilite," &c. , by G. Grsevius and P. Burmannus. 

45 vol. fol. 1725 

' Thesaurus Antiquitatum Sacrarum," by B. Ugo- 

linus. 34 vol. fol. . . . ■ *.,.. 1744-09 

THESPIvE. a city of Rceotia, N. Greece. 700 
of its citizens perished with Leonidas at Thermo- 
pylae, Aug. 480 B.C. It suffered through the jealousy 
of the Thebans, who destroyed its walls in 372 B.C. 

THESSALONICA (now Salonica), a city in 
Macedonia, N. Greece, originally Thernie, but re- 
built by Cassander, and said to have been named 
after his wife, Thessaloniea, daughter of 1'hilip, 
after 315 B.C. Here Paul preached, 53 ; and to the 
church here he addressed two epistles in 54. in 
consequence of seditions, a frightful massacre of 
the inhabitants took place in 390, by order of the 
emperor Theodosius. Thessalonica partook of the 
changes of the Eastern empire. Thessalonica was 
taken by the Saracens, with great slaughter, 30 
July, 904; by the Normans of Sicily, 15 Aug. 1 185; 
and after various changes was taken from the 
Venetians by the Turks under Amurath, 1430. 
Population, 1885, 159,000; 1901, about, 105,000. 

A young Bulgarian Christian girl, said to be an unwilling 
convert to^Mahometanism, was rescued from the Turks 
and taken to the American consul's, 5 May ; riots en- 
sued ' on 6 May ; the German and "French consuls, 
Abbott and Moulin, were murdered ; the Western 
powers intervened ; reparation was ordered by the 
Sultan ; several murderers were executed 16 May ; 
other persons were imprisoned ; and 40,000^. said to be 
paid to the families of the victims, Aug. 1876. 

Destructive fire ; 10,000 persons homeless ; the mosque 
and church, *c, destroyed ; estimated loss, 8oo,oooL, 
4 Sept., see Mansion House Fund, 1890. 

Dynamite plot and outrage, Ottoman bank, and other 
buildings destroyed by bombs, many people killed 
and injured, 28 April, 1903. 

THESSALY (N. Greece), the seat of many of 
the adventures described by the poets. The first 
king of whom we have any certain knowledge was 
Hellen, son of Deucalion, from whom his subjects 
were called Hellenists, a name afterwards extended 
to all Greeks. From Thessaly came the Achseans, 
the JEtolians, the Dorians, the Hellenes, &c. The 
two most remarkable events in the early history 
of this country are the deluge of Deucalion, 1548 B.C., 
and the expedition of the Argonauts, 1263 B.C. ; 
see them severally. Thessaly long aimed at neu- 
trality in Grecian affairs, but became involved 
through its rulers, the tyrants of Pherse ; — Lyco- 
phron, about 404 B.C. ; his son Jason, 374, assassi- 
nated 370; Alexander, the most eminent, defied 
Athens and Thebes; assassinated 359. Philip of 
Macedon, after a defeat (353 B.C.), gamed a victory 
over the tyrants, 352 ; and subjugated the country 
wholly, 343. The Romans gave a nominal freedom 
to Thessaly after their victory at Cynoscephalse, 
197. It is now included in the kingdom of Greece 
by the treaty of 24 May, signed 2 July, and occu- 
pied Aug. — Sept. 1881. Eailway from Volo to 



Larissa the capital, opened by the king, 4 May, 
1884. See Inundations, 1883 ; Greco-Turkish 
War and Greece, 1897-8. 

THETFORD (Norfolk), said to have been the 
Roman Sitomagus, and an important Saxon town, 
was a bishopric from 1075 to I0 9 I > wnej i the see 
was removed to Norwich. It was made a suffragan 
bishopric by H enry VIII.; the power given him 1534. 
Dr. A. T. Llojd (bp. of Newcastle. 1903); Dr. 
J. P. A. Bowers, 29 June, 1903. Pop. 1891, 4,247 ; 
1901, 4,600. 

THIBET or TIBET (central Asia), is said to 
have been a kingdom 313 B.C., conquered by 
Genghis Khan 1206, and gradually subdued by and 
annexed to China, 1255-1720. Buddhism, intro- 
.luctd about 639, became the dominant religion 
about 905 ; and the Lamas have absolute power in 
religious and temporal affairs. Thibet was visited 
l.y Marco Polo, 1278 ; by Jesuits about 1661-2 ; 
Rogle and Hamilton, 1774; and Thomas Manning, 
1 8 10. An astronomical survey was carried on sur- 
reptitiously by two pundits of semi-Thibet origin, 
under the superintendence of capt. Montgomerie, 
1865-7. War with Nepaul, May; peace, June, 
[884. Hon. Column .N<acaulay's expedition to 
Lachen valley, to promote commerce ; well received, 
announced 30 Nov. 1884. 

A mission to Tibet, including Mr. Macaulay with scien- 
tific assistance, organised in India ; scheme suspended 
July, 1886. See Sikkim.. 

The progress of the Russian exploring expedition under 
colonel Pevtsoff reported, summer 1890. 

Much geographical knowledge has been obtained, and 
maps constructed. The Chinese oppose the expedi- 
tion. 

M. Gabriel Bonvalot, prince Henry of Orleans, and 
father Dedeken, gave an illustrated account of their 
recent exploration of Thibet, &c, to the French 
Geographical society, at Paris, 31 Jan. 1891. 

" Across Thibet," by M. Bonvalot, published, 1891. 

Capt Bower, Dr. Thorold and party cross Thibet, June, 
1891, and arrive at Simla, April, 1892. 

See Nepaul, 1896. 

Mahometan rebellion, much slaughter, Oct. 1895 ; des- 
perate fighting, Mahometan forts destroyed, rebellion 
crushed, Feb. 1S96. 

" Through Unknown Tibet, 1896," by capt. M. S. Wellby, 
published 1898 ; he died of his wounds in S. Africa, 
5 Aug. 1900. 

Capt. Deasy successfully explores W. Thibet f see Asia, 
1896-99. 

Mr. Douglas Freshfield explores the Kanchenjunga 
glaciers, autumn, 1899. 

Capt. Kozloff explores unknown lands ; the source of the 
Hoang-ho, the Yang-tse, and the Mekong ; May, 1900- 
Oct. 1 901. 

Dr. Sven Hedin's successful explorations, 1899-1902 ; see 
Asia. 

Mission under col. Younghusband despatched by the 
Indian government to meet the Tibetan and Chinese 
officials to discuss questions of trade, reaches Kanba 
Jong, July, 1903. 

Advance of the British mission to be made, the Chumbi 
valley, "the key of Tibet," to be occupied, and an 
advance made to Gyangtse, 150 miles from Lhassa, 
reported mid Nov. 1903. 

THIEVES' ISLAND, see Ladrones. 

THIEVES' SYNOD, at Ephesus, 349 or 449, 
where the doctrines of Eutyches respecting Christ's 
incarnation were approved, received the name 
because his opponents were silenced or excluded. 

THIMBLES are said to have been found at 
Herculaneum, and long ago used by the Chinese. 
Their invention in Europe is traditionally ascribed 
to Nicolas van Benschoten, of Amsterdam, in the 
17th century. The art of making them was 



THIONVILLE. 



1246 



THORN. 



brought to England by John Lofting, a mechanic, 
from Holland, who set up a workshop at Islington, 
near London, and practised the manufacture in 
various metals with profit and success, about 1695. 

A Thimble League patronised by queen Victoria t886 ; the 
object being to provide employment for distressed 
needlewomen ; there was a sale of the work at lady 
Winchilsea's house, 23, Ennisniore-gardens, 24-25 Oct. 
t888. 

THIONVILLE, the ancient Theoclonis villa, 
a fortified city on the Moselle, N. E. France. It 
was the occasional residence of Charlemagne and 
his successors, and on the extinction of his race it 
■was successively held by private lords, the counts 
of Luxemburg, the dukes of Burgundy, the house 
of Austria, and the kings of Spain. It w r as taken 
by the duke of Guise, 23 June, 1558, after an 
obstinate defence, and returned to Philip II. by the 
peace of Cateau-Cambresis. It successfully resisted 
the marquis de Feuquieres in 1637, but was taken 
after four months' siege by the due d'Enghien, 10 
Aug. 1643, and remained with France. It success- 
fully resisted the Austrians in 1 792, and the Prussians 
in 1814. It was invested by the Germans in Aug. 
1870, and after bombardment, being in flames, 
surrendered 24 Nov. following. 

THIRTEEN CLUB, about 130 members, 
formed in London, Oct. 1889, to counteract vulgar 
prejudices respecting unlucky numbers, days, &c. 

THIRTY-NINE ARTICLES, see Articles. 

THIRTY TYRANTS, a term applied to the 
governors of Athens, in 404 B.C., who were ex- 
pelled by Thrasybulus, 403; and also to the 
numerous aspirants to the imperial throne of Home 
during the reigns of Gallienus and Aurelian, a.d. 
259-274. 

THIRTY YEARS' WAR, in Germany, 
between the catholics and protestants. It began 
in Bohemia in 1618, and ended with the peaje of 
"Westphalia in 1648. It is renowned for the 
victories of Wallenstein and Gustavus Adolphus 
of Sweden, and for its history by Schiller, published 
1790-93. See Battles, 1618-48. 

THISTLE,* Order of the, Scotland, 

founded by James V. 1540. It consisted originally 
of himself, as sovereign, and twelve knights, in 
imitation of Christ and his twelve apostles. In 
1542, James died, and the order was discontinued, 
about the time of the Keformation. The order was 
renewed by James VII. of Scotland and II. of Eng- 
land, by making eight knights, 29 May, 1687 ; 
increased to twelve by queen Anne in 1703 ; to 
sixteen by George IV. in 1827. The original knights 
of 1687 were 
George, duke of Gordon. 
John, marquis of Athol. 
James, earl of Arran, afterwards duke of Hamilton ; 

killed in a duel, 1712. 
Alexander, earl of Moray. 
James, earl of Perth ; attainted. 

* Some Scottish historians make the origin of this 
order very ancient. The abbot Justinian says it was 
instituted by Achaius I. of Scotland, 809, when that 
monarch made an alliance with Charlemagne, and then 
took for his device the thistle. It is stated that the king 
Hungus, the Pict, had a dream, in which St. Andrew 
made a midnight visit, and promised him a sure victory 
over his foes, the Northumbrians ; and that the next 
day St. Andrew's Cross (x) appeared in the air, and the 
Northumbrians were defeated. On this story, it is 
said, Achaius framed the order more than 700 years be- 
fore James V. 



Kenneth, earl of Seaforth ; attainted. 
George, earl of Dumbarton. 
John, earl of Melfort ; attainted. 

THISTLEWOOD'S CONSPIRACY, see 

Cato -street Conspiracy . 

THOMAS'S HOSPITAL, ST. (Southwark), 
was founded as an almshouse by ltichard, prior of 
Bermondsey, in 1213, and surrendered to Henry 
VIII. in 1538. In 1551 the mayor and citizens of 
London, having purchased of Edward VI. the 
manor of Southwark, including this hospital, 
repaired and enlarged it, and admitted into it 260 
poor, sick, and helpless objects; upon which the 
king, in 1553, incorporated it, together with Beth- 
lehem, St. Bartholomew's, &c. It was rebuilt in 
1693. In 1862, the site w r as sold to the South- 
eastern railway company, and the patients were 
removed to the Surrey music hall. The foundation 
stone of the new hospital, erected at Stangate, near 
the Surrey side of Westminster-bridge, was laid by 
queen Victoria, 13 May, 1868; and the new hospital 
was opened by her majesty, 21 June, 1871. 

The appointment of a paid resident treasurer, instead of 
an honorary one, and other changes recommended by 
committees, were negatived by the general committee, 
Nov. 1877. 
Establishment of wards for paying-patients . Nov. 1878 
Meeting at the Mansion-house to raise 100,000?. to 
increase the accommodation, the duke of Con- 
naught present, 13 Feb. 1895 ; the queen gave 
100?., 15 Feb. ; 1000?. from Messrs. Barclay & 
Perkins; 1000L from lord Iveagh, &c, April, 
26,249?. 13s. yd. received up to Dec. 1895 ; 35,000?. 
bequeathed by sir Robert Rawiinson, announced, 
4 July, 1898 ; over 500,000?. bequeathed by Mr. C. 
Gassiot . • May, 1902 

THOMAS, ST., see Virgin Isles. 

THOMISTS, see Scotists. 

THOMITES or TOMITES, a body of enthu- 
siasts who assembled at Boughton, near Canter- 
bury. An insane Cornish publican named John 
Nicholls, called Thorn, or Tom, assumed the name 
of sir W. Courtenay, knight of Malta and king of 
Jerusalem, came into Kent, was an unsuccessful can- 
didate for parliament, and incited the rabble against 
the Poor Law act. On 31 May, 1838, a fanner of 
the neighbourhood, w r hose servant had joined the 
crowd which attended Thorn, sent a constable to 
fetch him back ; but on his arrival on the ground 
he was shot dead by Thorn. The military were then 
called out, and lieut. Bennett proceeded to take the 
murderer into custody ; but Thorn advanced, and, 
firing a pistol, killed the lieutenant on the spot. 
One of the soldiers fired at Thorn, and laid him dead 
by the side of lieut. Bennett. The people then 
attacked the military, who were compelled to fire, 
and eight more persons were killed before the mob 
dispersed. 

THORACIC DUCT, discovered first in a 
horse, by Eustacliius, about 1563 ; in the human 
body, by 01. Uudbec, a Swedish anatomist. Thomas 
Barthofine, of Copenhagen, and Dr. Jolifl'e, of 
England, also discovered it about 1654. See 
Lactcals. 

THORINUM, a very rare metal (a heavy gray 
powder), discovered by Berzelius in 1828. 

THORN (on the Vistula, Poland) was founded 
by the Teutonic Knights in 1231. Here they 
acknowledged themselves to be vassals of Poland in 
1466. Thorn was taken by Charles XII. of Sweden 
in 1703. Many protestants were slain here (after a 



THOEOUGH. 



1247 



THUNDEEEE. 



religious riot) at the instigation of the Jesuits, 7 
Dec. 1724. Thorn was acquired by the Prussians in 
1793; taken by the French in 1806; restored to 
Prussia at the peace in 1815. Population, 1890, 
27,007. 

THOEOUGH. The name given by Thos. 
Wentworth, earl of Strafford, to his unsuccessful 
scheme for making Charles I. an absolute monarch. 
He was attainted and beheaded, 12 May, 1641. 

THOEPE, see Railway Accidents, 1874. 

THOUGHT EEADING. In 1881 Mr. W. 
Irving Bishop professed to be able to read a person's 
thoughts by touching some part of the skin. On 
June 1 1 in the presence of Mr. G. J. Eomanes, pro- 
fessor E. Ray Lankester, Mr. F. Galton, and others ; 
he was successful with some persons, and failed 
with others {Nature, No. 608). 

In 1883 he was challenged by Mr. Labouchere, M.P., to 
operate under certain conditions, at St. James's Hall 
on 12 June, but virtually declined the tests. Other 
experiments by Mr. Bishop, 3, 4 June, 1884 ; success 
doubted. 

Mr. Bishop sentenced to pay 10,000?. damages to Mr. 
Maskelyne for libel in Truth (23 July, 1884), 15 Jan.; 
appeal disallowed, 28 Jan. ; damages reduced to 500Z., 
2 July, 1885. He died of catalepsy at New York, 13 
May, '1889. 

Experiments by Mr. Stuart Cumberland reported success- 
ful on the prince of Wales and others, 19 July, 1884 ; by 
sefi. Odrap, London, 15 Oct. 1902. 

THEACE (now Roumelia, in Turkey) derived 
its name from Thrax, the son of Mars. — Aspin. The 
Thracians were a warlike people, and therefore 
Mars was said to have been born and to have had 
his residence among them. — Euripides. See 
Odn/see. 
Byzantium, the capital, founded by the Megarians, 

about b.c. 675 
Invasion of Darius I. 513 ; Thrace subdued by 

Megabazus 508 

Xerxes marches against Greece through Thrace, and 

retreats . . 480 

Other Greek colonies established . . . 450-400 

Wars between Macedon and the Odrysse (which see) 

429-343 
Philip II. acquires Amphipolis, 358 ; and gradually 

all the Greek colonies .... 357-341 

Death of Alexander ; Thrace allotted to Lysima- 

chus, 323 ; who builds Lysimachia . . . 309 
Lysimaehus defeated and slain by Seleucus at Coru- 

pedion 281 

Thrace overrun by the Gauls 279 

Lysimachia and the chief towns seized by the fleet 

of Ptolemy Euergetes 247 

Recovered by Philip V. of Macedon . . 205-200 

Lost by him to the Romans 196 

Seized by Antiochus III. of Syria, who is defeated 

at Magnesia, 190 ; and surrenders Thrace . . 188 
Perseus defeated in his attempt to regain Thrace, 

171-16S 
The Thracian kings rule nominally under the Romans 

148 et seq. 
Rebellion of Vologajsus quelled .... 14 
Rhcemetalces II. last king . . . . A.D. 38 
Thrace made a Roman province, about ... 47 

Invaded by the Goths 255 

Settled by Sarmatians 334-376 

Ravaged by Alaric, 395 ; by Attila .... 447 
Conquered by the Turks, who made Adrianople 

their capital 1341-53 

Constantinople captured by Mahomet II. , 29 May, 1453 

THEASHING-MACHINES. The flail was 
the only instrument formerly in use for thrashing 
corn. The Romans used a machine called the 
tribulum, a sledge loaded with stones or iron, 



drawn over the corn-sheaves by horses. The firsfl 
machine attempted in modern times was invented! 
by Michael Menzies, at Edinburgh, about 1732; 
Andrew Meikle invented a machine in 1776. Many 
improvements have been since made, and steam 
is employed. An act for the prevention of accidents- 
by these machines was passed in 1879. 

THBASYMENE or Trasimene (more- 
correctly Trasimenus), a lake (N. Italy). A 
most bloody engagement took place near the 
Trasimene lake between the Carthaginians under 
Hannibal and the Romans under Flaminius, 217 
b.c. No less than 15,000 Romans were left dead 
on the field of battle, and 10,000 taken prisoners - T 
or, according to Livy, 6000 ; or Polybius, 15,000' 
The loss of Hannibal was about 1500 men. Aboui 
10,000 Romans made their escape, all covered with 
wounds. Flaminius was killed during the fight. 
—Livij; Polybius. On the same day, an earthquake 
occurred, which desolated several cities in Italy. 

THEEATENING LETTEES. Sending 
letters, whether anonymously written, or with a 
fictitious name, demanding money, or threatening 
to kill a person, or fire his house, was made punish- 
able as a felony, without benefit of clergy, by the 
Black Act, in 1722. Persons extorting money by 
threatening to accuse others of such offences as are 
subjected to death, or other infamous punishments, 
were to be adjudged imprisonment, whipping, or 
transportation, by 30 Geo. II., 1756, and other acts ; 
another, 24 & 25 Vict. cc. 96, 97 (1861). 

THEEE DENOMINATIONS, see Denomi- 
nations. 

THEEE CHOIES (Gloucester, Worcester, 
and Hereford). Festivals held in 1724, if not 
earlier, at Gloucester, for the performance of cathe- 
dral music on a grand scale for charitable purposes- 
still continued. 

THEEE F.'s, see~F. 

THEEE ACEES AND A COW, see Land, 

1885. 

THEIFT, see under National. 

THEOAT AND EAE DISEASES, a 

hospital for them opened near Gray's-inn-road, 
March, 1874 > foundation of a new building laid by 
madame Adelina Patti, marchesa de Caux, 16 Sept. 
I875- 

THUGS, organised secret fanatical murderers- 
in India, who considered their victims to be sacri- 
fices to their goddess Kali or Bhowain. The English 
commenced suppressing them about 1810, but did 
not succeed till about 1830, when a plan for the pur- 
pose was adopted by lord Win. Bentinck. 

THUMB-SCEEW, an instrument used in the 
first stages of torture by the Spanish inquisition. 
In Great Britain, rev. fm. Carstares, a presbyterian 
minister, was the last who suffered by it, before 
the Scotch privy council, to make him divulge 
secrets entrusted to him, which he firmly resisted. 
After the revolution in 1688, the thumb-screw was 
presented to him by the council. King William 
expi-essed a desire to see it, and tried it on, bidding 
the doctor to turn the screw ; but, at the third turn, 
he cried out "Hold— hold! doctor: another turn 
would make me confess anything." 

THUNDEEEE, see- Navp of England, 1872, 
1876, 1879. 



THUNDERING LEGION. 



1248 



TICONDEROGA. 



THUNDERING LEGION. Turing a con- 
test with the invading Marcomanni, the prayers of 
some Christians in a Roman legion are said to 
hare been followed by a storm of thunder, light- 
ning, and rain, which tended greatly to discomfit 
the enemy; and hence the legion received the 
name, 174. 

THURII or THURIUM, a Greek city, S. Italy, 
founded after the fall of Sybaris, about 443 b.c. 
It suffered from the incursions of the Lucanians, by 
whom the Thurians were severely defeated, 39c 
B.C. It became eventually a dependent ally oi 
Rome; was ravaged by the troops of Hannibal, 
204 ; was established as a colony by the Romans. 
194; and was captured by Spartacus in the Ser- 
vile war, who levied upon it heavy contributions, 
72. 

THURINGIA, an early Gothic kingdom in 
central Germany, was overrun by Attila and the 
Huns, 451 ; the last king, Hermanfried, was 
defeated and slain by Thierry, Icing of the Franks, 
who annexed it to his dominions, 530. It formed 
two duchies, 630-717, and 849-919; a margraviate, 
960-1090; landgraviate and county, 1130-1247 ; 
and was, after various changes and many conflicts, 
absorbed into Saxony in the 15th century. In 1815 
it wa> surrendered to Prussia. 

THURLES (S. Ireland). Here was held a 
synod of the Roman catholic archbishops, bishops, 
inferior clergy, and religious orders, under the 
direction i- f archbishop Cullen, the Roman catholic 
primate, 22 Aug. 1850. It condemned the Queen's 
Colleges, and recommended the foundation of a 
Roman catholic university, 10 Sept. following. The 
acts were forwarded to Rome for approval of the 
pope, Pius IX., and published, 1 Jan. 1852. 

THUROT'S INVASION. Thurot, an Irish 
commodore in the French service, became a terror 
to all the merchant-ships of this kingdom. He had 
the command of a small armament, and landed 
IOOO men at Carrickfergus in Ireland, and plun- 
dered the town. He reached the Isle of Man, and 
was overtaken by captain Elliot, with three frigates, 
who engaged his little squadron, which was taken, 
and the commodore killed, 28 Feb. 1760. Thurot's 
true name was O'Farrell. His grandfather had 
followed the fortunes of James II. ; but his mother 
being of a family of some dignity in France, he 
assumed her name. — Burns. 

THURSDAY, the fifth day of the week, named 
from Thor, the most valiant son of Odin, a deified 
hero worshipped by the northern nations, particu- 
larly by the Scandinavians and Celts. His autho- 
rity was said to extend over the winds, seasons, 
thunder and lightning, &c. Thursday is in Latin 
dies Jovis, or Jupiter's day. 

THYATIRA (Asia Minor), the place assigned 
for the battle at which the rebel Procopius was 
defeated by the army of the emperor Valens, 366. 
See Seven Churches. 

THYMBRA (Asia Minor). Here Cyrus the 
Great defeated the confederate army aiding Croesus, 
and obtained supremacy in Asia, B.C. 548. 

TIARA, head ornament of the ancient Persians. 
The name is given to the triple crown of the pope 
(anciently called regnuni), indicative of his civil 
rank, as the keys are of Iris ecclesiastical jurisdic- 
tion. The right to wear a crown is said to have 
been granted to the bishops of Rome by Constantine 
the Great, and by Clovis, founder of the French 



monarchy. Their ancient tiara was a high round 
cap. Pope Damasus II. first caused himself to be 
crowned with a tiara, 1048. "Boniface VIII. 
encompassed the tiara with a crown; Benedict 
XII. added a second ; and John XXIII. a third." , 
— Eees. 

TIBER (central Italy), the river on whose 
banks Rome was built. In the flourishing times of 
the city the navigation of the river was enormous. 
Livy states that the Tiber was frozen over, 398 
B.C. A commission was appointed to dredge the 
bed of the river near Rome, Dec. 1871. Garibaldi's 
scheme for improving the river, making a new port, 
&c, laid before the Italian parliament, 25 May, 1875 ; 
works begun, March, 1877. 

TIBERIAS, a city in Palestine, built by 
Herod Antipas, and named after the emperor 
Tiberius, 39. Near it Guy de Lusignan, king of 
Jerusalem, and the crusaders, were defeated by 
Saladin, 3, 4 July, 1187; and Jerusalem fell into 
his hands. 

TIBET, see Thibet. 

TIBUR (now Tivoli), a Latin town more ancient 
than Rome, and frequently at war with it. The 
Tiburtines were defeated 335 B.C., and the subjec- 
tion of all Latium followed ; for which Furius 
•Jamillus obtained a triumph and an equestrian 
statue in the forum. 

TICHBORNE CASE, see Trials, 187 1-4. 
Dr. Kenealy, the claimant's counsel, elected M.P. 
for Stoke, moves for a royal commission to inquire 
into the trial; rejected, 433 to 3 (Dr. Kenealy, Mr. 
Whalley, and the O'Gorman) ; 26 April, 1875. 
See Englishman. 

TICINO or TESSIN, a Swiss canton south of 
the Alps, conquered by the Swiss early in the 16th 
century; made a separate canton in 1815. It 
suffered by internal disputes 1839 and 1841. Popu- 
lation, 1888, 126,751. 

Insurrection in Bellinzona and Lugano, the con- 
servative ultramontane government overthrown 
by the liberals, and a provisional government 
formed. M. Rossi, director of the interior, found 
killed. Revision of the constitution demanded, 
11 Sept. Intervention of federal troops. The 
insurrection suppressed ; the provisional govern- 
ment superseded by a federal commission, 

12-14 Sept. 1890 

Change in the constitution voted by the people, 3 
Oct. ; the conservative government reinstated, 

14 Oct. „ 

Angelo Castioni, accused of the murder of council- 
lor Rossi, arrested in London, 3 Oct. ; extradition 
demanded by Switzerland, not granted by the 
queen's bench division . . . .11 Nov. ,, 

Reconciliation of the parties effected . 26 Nov. ,, 

Revised ultramontane constitution accepted by 
popular vote 8 March, 1891 

Trial of the revolters of 1890, 30 June ; acquitted, 

14 July, ,. 

TICINUS, a river, N. Italy. Here Hannibal 
defeated the Romans, 218 B.C. 

TICKETS OF LEAVE, see Transportation, 
and Crime. 

TICONDEROGA (N. America). The French 
fortress here was unsuccessfully besieged by Aber- 
cromby in July, 1758; taken 26 July, 1759. The 
Americans took it 10 May, 17715, but retired 
July, 1777. The British retired from it shortly 
after. 



TIDES. 



1249 



TIMES NEWSPAPEE. 



TIDES. Homer is the earliest profane author 
who speaks of the tides. Posidonius of Apamea 
accounted for the tides from the motion of the 
moon, about 79 B.C. ; and Caesar speaks of them in 
his fourth book of the Gallic war. The theory of 
the tides was first satisfactorily explained by Kepler, 
1598; but the honour of a complete explanation of 
them was reserved for sir Isaac Newton, about 
1683 ; see Thames. Sir Wm. Thomson, at the Eoyal 
Institution, 9 April, 1875, described a valuable 
tide-calculating machine. 

TIEN-TSIN, see China, June, 1858-Jan. 1861, 
1870, and 1900. 

TIEEBA DEL FUEGO, see under Missions. 

Tiebra del Fuego (The Land of Fire) — A group of five 
large islands, and many smaller ones, the extreme 
S.W. of South America, misnamed by Magellan from 
the fires" seen on the coast 1520. Recent discoveries 
have shown that the country is not so inhospitable and 
the natives not so degraded as was formerly supposed. 

Expedition under M. Otto Nordenskjold arrives in San 
Sebastian bay, 5 Dec. 1895. 

TIERS-ETAT, see States-General. 

TIFLIS (Asiatic Russia), built about 469 by 
Vakhtang ; became the capital of Georgia. It was 
taken by Genghis Khan in the 12th century; by 
Mustapha Pacha, 1576 ; by the Persians, 1796 ; and 
by the Russians, 1801, who have made it the capital 
of their Trans-caucasian possessions. Population 
in 1885, 89,551 ; 1900, 160,000. 

By the fall of a temporary bridge over the river 
Kura, during a religious ceremony, a number of 
persons were drowned or crushed to death, 

18 Jan. 1892 
Collision of two petroleum trains on the Trans- 
caucasian railway ; 6 men burnt to death, 

21 Jan. ,, 

TIGBANO-CEETA, capital of Armenia, 
built by Tigran.es the Great, and taken by Lucullus 
and the Romans, after a great victory, B.C. 69. 

TIGEIS, a river forming the eastern boundary 
of Mesopotamia, celebrated for the cities founded 
on its banks : Nineveh, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, and 
Bagdad. It was explored by an English steamer 
in 1838. Colonel Chesney, in 1850, published an 
account of his survey in 1836-7. 

TILBUEY (Essex). The camp formed here 
in 1588 to resist the Spanish invasion was visited 
by queen Elizabeth. See Docks, 1886. 

TILES are said to have been first made in 
England about 1246. They were taxed in 1784. 
The number of tiles taxed in England in 1820 was 
81,924,626 ; and in 1830, 97,318,264. The tax was 
repealed in 1833. 

TILSIT (on the Niemen) , on which river, on a 
raft, the emperors of France and Russia met, 25 June, 
1807. By a treaty concluded between France and 
Russia, signed 7 July, Napoleon restored to the 
Prussian monarch one-half of his territories, and 
Russia recognised the Confederation of the Rhine, 
and the elevation of Napoleon's three brothers, 
Joseph, Louis, and Jerome, to the thrones of Naples, 
Holland, and Westphalia. 

TILTS, see Tournaments. 

TIMBEE. The annual demand of timber for 
the royal navy, in war, was 60,000 loads, or 40,000 
full-grown trees, a ton each, of which 35 will stand 
©nan acre; in peace, 32,000 tons, or 48,000 loads. 



A 74 gun ship consumed 3000 loads, or 2000 
tons of trees, the produce of 57 acres in a century. 
— Allnutt. Iron is now largely used in pre- 
ference to timber. In 1843 we imported 1,317,645 
loads of timber (cut and uncut) ; in 1857, 2,495,964 
loads; in 1866, 3,638,344 loads ; in 1871, 4,497,136 
loads; in 1875, 5>°9 2 >394 loads; in 1877, 6,788,789 
loads ; in 1883, 6,609,942 loads ; in 1887, 5,653,791 
loads. In 1866, we imported 53,458 tons of 
mahogany; in 1871, 29,256 tons; in 1875,80,705 
tons; in 1877, 53,600 tons; in 1883, 50,158 tons ; 
in 1887, 37,650 tons. The duties on timber were 
modified in 1851. Annual estimated excess of im- 
ports over exports, Britain, 20,523,758/., reported, 
1901. 

TIMBEE BENDING. Apparatus was in- 
vented for this purpose by Mr. T. Blanchard, of 
Boston, U.S., for which a medal was awarded at 
the Paris Exhibition of 1855. -A- company was 
formed for its application in this country in 1856. 

TIMBUCTOO (N.W. Africa), S. edge of the 
Sahara, a eity built by Mansa Suleiman, a Maho- 
metan, about 1214, and frequently subjugated by 
the sovereigns of Morocco. Since 1727 it has been 
partially independent ; recently it has been 
governed by a council. 

Timbuctoo visited by major Laing, who was 
murdered, on his return journey, in . . . 1826 

Bene Caillie wrote an account of the town, 1828 ; 
Dr. Barth, 1853 ; Lenz 1880 

Col. Flatter's surveying expedition massacred by 
the tribes 1881 

A French flotilla at Kabara, on the Upper Niger, 
attacked by Tuaregs ; navy-ensign Aube and 
others killed Jan. 1894 

Col. Bonnier, commander in the French Soudan, 
with two gunboats, proceeds to and enters 
Timbuctoo without resistance . . 10 Jan. ,, 

Col. Bonnier's flying column annihilated by the 
Tuaregs, near Timbuctoo ; himself, 10 Europeans, 
and 70 natives killed, about 13 Jan. ; another 
column, under commandant Jofl're, capture a 
village, 100 natives killed, 23 Jan. ; enters Tim- 
buctoo 12 Feb. ,, 

Several bands of Tuaregs surprised and defeated by 
the French between Lake Fati and Goundam ; 
about 400 Tuaregs surrender ; peace made March, ,, 

Two French officers and 29 natives killed in arising 
of the Hogar Tuaregs near Bacho . . July, 1897 

The Tuaregs routed by the French and 300 prisoners 
released Sept. ,, 

The Tuaregs defeated and their leader killed at 
Emmela Nov. 189S 

TIME- See Hour, Bay, Month, Year, Geodesy, 
Dials, Clock-*, and Watches. 

TIMES NEWSPAPEE. On 1 Jan. 1785, 
Mr. John Walter published the first number of the 
Daily Universal Register, price 2\d., printed on the 
logographic system (invented by Henry Johnson, a 
compositor), in which types containing syllabli s 
and words were employed instead of single letters. 

On 1 Jan. 1788, the paper was named the Times. 

In 1803, when Mr. John Walter gave up the paper to his 
son John, the circulation was about 1000 ; that of the 
Morning Post being 4500. 

Mr. John Walter (I.), born, 1739 ; died, 16 Ncv. 1812. 

Dr. Stoddart (satirised as Dr. Slop by Moore the pott) 
became editor in 1812, but five years after retired and 
set up in opposition the New Times, an unprofitable 
speculation. Thomas Barnes became next editor. He 
died 7 May, 1841, and was succeeded by his assistant 
John Thaddeus Delane (son of W. F. A. Delane, 
financial manager) who retired in 1877, and died 22 
Nov. 1879. 

On 28 Nov. 1814, the Times was first printed by steam 
power (the invention of F. Konig), 1200 per hour, 
afterwards increased to 2000 and 4000. 

4 L 



TIMES NEWSPAPER 



1250 



TIN. 



Itis asserted that the Times was termed the "Thunderer " 
in consequence of an article by Edward Sterling in 
which are the words, " We thundered forth articles 
on reform, &c." when Barnes was editor. 
On 19 Jan. 1829, the first double number appeared. 
In July, 1834, an attack of Mr. O'Connell in the house ot 
commons on the correctness of the reports of the 
debates in the Times was signally defeated. 
Shortly after began the convenient summary of the de- 
bates, written in the first instance by Mr. Horace 
Twiss. 
In 1841 the Times was instrumental in detecting and expos- 
ing a scheme organised by Allan George Bogle and 
others, to defraud by forgery all the influential bankers 
of Europe. This brought on the proprietors an action for 
libel (in the case Bogle v. Lawson). The jury found the 
charge to be true, giving a verdict ofo ne farthing damages, 
but the judges refused costs. Subscriptions were set on 
foot at the Mansion-house and in all parts of Europe to 
reimburse the proprietors for the immense outlay in 
defending the action. This they firmly declined ; and 
the money was expended in establishing Times Scholar- 
ships at Oxford and Cambridge, and at Christ's Hospital, 
and other schools; a marble tablet also, commemorating 
the event, was set up in the Royal Exchange and at the 
Times office. These were the greatest honours ever 
conceded to a newspaper. 
In Oct. 1845, the Times express was for the first time 
conveyed to India overland, by the agency of lieut. 
Waghorn. 
Of the number of the Times containing the life of the 
duke of Wellington for 19 Nov. 1852, 70,000 were sold— 
the ordinary number being then 36,000 ; the circula- 
tion is stated to vary from 50,000 to 60,000 (1868). 
The Times (a slip) announcing permission to relax re- 
striction of issue of bank-notes, published 24 Oct. 
1847. 
Mr. John Walter (II.) died 28 July, 1847. 
In 1854, the proprietors sent Mr. W. H. Russell as their 
special correspondent to the seat of war in the Crimea ; 
in 1857 to India. 
Times Fund. — On the 12th of Oct. 1854, sir Robert Peel 
originated by a letter in the Times a subscription for 
the sick and wounded in the Crimean war, and in less 
than a fortnight 15,000^. were sent to the Times office 
to be ttius appropriated. Mr. Macdonald was sent out 
by the proprietors as special commissioner to adminis- 
ter the fund, from which large quantities of food and 
clothing were supplied to the sufferers, with inestimable 
advantage ; see Scutari and Nightingale. 
In Dec. 1858, the Times drew attention to the state of the 
houseless poor of London ; and in a few days 8000L 
were subscribed for their relief. 
In 1851, 13,000,000 copies were sold ; in"i8s7, 16,100,000; 

in 1859, 16,900,000 ; in i860, 16,670,000. 
The Times of 21 June, 1861, contained 4076 advertise- 
ments (about 1810 it contained 150 advertisements). 
Stereotypes from papier-mache moulds introduced, 

7 856 ; much improved i860. 
The "Walter press "invented by John Cameron Mac- 
donald (aft. manager) and Joseph Calverley, prints 
about 15,000 an hour, perfected, 1862-71. 
A list of the contents, inserted over the first leader, ap- 
peared first, 3 Feb. 1869. 
3^ pages tables of metropolitan charities appeared 

"11 Feb. i860. 
John Walter (IV.) drowned 24 Dec. 1870. 
Sjneeial train for conveying the Times, North-Western 

Railway, began to run, 4.55 a.m., 16 Feb. 1875. 
Annual summaries, 1851-75, reprinted, price is. (type 

set-up by composing-machines). 
12,000 perfect sheets per hour printed by " Walter 

press," Jan. 1876. 
Weekly issue, price 2d., began, 5 Jan. 1877. 
The Rapieff electric lamp adopted in the machine-room, 

Nov. 1878. 
Summary of the Times published daily, §d. about 26 

July, 1883 ; stopped, Oct. 1884. 
Death of Thomas Chenery, six years editor, long cor- 
respondent, 11 Feb.; succeeded by G. E. Buckle, Feb. 
1884. 
Death of Chas. Ross, aged 84, 63 years a parliamentary 

reporter and 30 years a chief, 6 Dec. 1884. 
Edwin Murray (watch dealer) v. Times, libel case, farthing 

damages, 26-27 Oct. 1886,, 
Articles " Parnellism and Crime," published 7, 10, 14 
March ; article on Mr. Dillon, 2 May, declared by the 
commons mil to bea breach of privilege, 4-6 May, 1SS7. 



Centenary of the publication of the Times; special 
leader 2 Jan. 1888. 

O'Donnell v. Walter and another (see under Parnellites) ; 
verdict for the defendant, 2-5 July, 1888. 

No. 31,725 (5 April, 1886) published as a book at Leipsic 
with German notes by Dr. F. Landmann, Oct. 1888 ; 
the number for 14 Nov. 1888, published as a book at 
Paris, with French notes by M. M. A. & G. Elwall. 
Dec. 1889. 
For the trial by the special commission see under 
Parnellites. 

Rev. lord Sidney G. Osborne (S.G.O.), long a philan- 
thropic writer to the Times, dies 9 May, 1889. 

Death of Mr. J. C. Macdonald, aged 67, successively 
reporter, writer, and manager (see above, 1854 et seq.), 
10 Dec. 1889. 

Walter v. Steinkoppf, see Trials, 2 June, 1892. 

Death of Mr. J. S. Oswald from cholera while assisting 
patients at Jeddah (formerly correspondent at 
Suakin), 4 July, 1893. 

Capt. H. J. Borrow, war correspondent, killed (see 
Mashonaland), about 5 Dec. 1893. 

Mr. John Walter (III.) born 1818, able and successful 
during 50 years ; died (succeeded by his son and 
associate Arthur) 3 Nov. 1894. 

Sir George Dasent, sub-editor 1845-70, died 11 June, 
1896. 

The " Times Atlas " (formerly " Universal Atlas "), pub- 
lished April et seq. 1895 ; new edition, 21 May, 1900. 

The Times consisted of 24 pages 21, 26 June, 1861 ; 14 
June, 1884 ; 5 times in 1886 ; 3 times in 1887 ; 6 times 
in 1888 ; 11, 18, 25 May, 1, 22, 29 June, 1889 ; 3, 10, 17 
May, 7, 14 June, 1890 ; 30 May, 6, 13, 20, 27 June, 
1891 ; 7, 14, 21, 28 May, 4, 11, 18, 25 June, 2 July, 1892 ; 
5, 19, 26 May, 29, 16, 23, 30 June, 1894; 11, 18, 25 May, 
15, 22 June, 6, 13 July, 1895 ; 2, 9, 16, 23 May, 6, 13, 
20 June, 1896 ; 10 April, 22, 29 May, 12, 21, 23 June ; 
10, 17 July 1897 ; 25 June, 1898 ; 6, 13 May, 1899 ; and 
once early July, 1901 ; 26 April, 3 May, 30 Sept. 1902. 

Mr. Palmer's " Index to the Times " was begun 1867, and 
has been continued backward to 1817, and forward to 
1898. (Mr. Palmer died 26 Aug. 1899.) 

Walter v. Central News, for supplying telegrams, fab- 
ricated, altered, or expanded, 1894-5, a breach of 
contract : verdict for plaintiff ; charge of fraud with- 
drawn, nominal damages with costs, 14 April, 1896. 

Facsimile of the Times, 9 Nov. 1796, produced by photo- 
zincograph, issued, 9 Nov. 1896. 

First number of Miss Nancy Bailey's annual index to 
the Times appeared Feb. 1899 (issued in monthly 
instalments). 

Mr. Fred. Hawkins, born 1849, sub-editor 1876-1894, and 
dramatic critic, died 30 June, 1900. 

Walter v. Lane, see Trials, Aug.-Nov. 1899 ; Aug. 1900. 

The Times of 31 Dec. 1900, and of 1 Jan. 1901 et seq., con- 
tained extracts from the paper for every year of the 
19th century. 

Mr. W. J. Siillman, an eminent American correspondent, 
died aged 73, 6 July, 1901. 

The Times "Life of Queen Victoria " published 9 Nov. 
1 901. 

Weekly literary supplements, first one 17 Jan. 1902. 

The Times " History of the War in S. Afiica," edited by 
L. S. Amery, Vol. II., May, 1902. 

M. de Blowitz, Times correspondent in Paris, 31 Dec. 
1871-Dec. 1902, died, aged 78, 18 Jan. 1903. 

Mr. D. D. Braham, Times correspondent at St. Peters- 
burg, ordered to leave Russia, 28 May, 1993. 

Mr. L. Ashe, army tutor, wins xoool. prize in the Times 
competition, announced 1 Dec. 1903. 

Encyclopedia Britannica, with Times supplement, issued 
on the instalment system at half-price until 19 Dec. 
1903. 

TIN- The Phoenicians traded with England for 
more than I IOO years before the Christian era. 
Under the Saxons, our tin mines appear to have 
been neglected ; but under the Normans, they pro- 
duced considerable revenues to the earls of Corn- 
wall, particularly to Richard, brother of Henry III. 
A charter and various immunities were granted 
by Edmund, earl Richard's brother, who framed the 
Stannary Laws (which see), laying a duty on the 
tin. Edward III. confirmed the tinners in their 
privileges, and erected Cornwall into a dukedom, 
with which he invested his son, Edward the Black 



TINCHEBBAY. 



1251 



TITLES EOYAL. 



Prince, 1337. Since that time the heirs-apparent 
to the crown of England, if eldest sons, have en- 
joyed it successively. Tin mines were discovered 
in Germany, which lessened the value of those in 
England, till then the only tin mines in Europe, 
1240. — Anderson. Discovered in Barbary, 1640 ; 
in India, 1740; in New Spain, 1782; near Cape 
Town, Feb. 1903. In 1857, 9783 tons; in i860, 
10,462 tons ; in 1864, 10,108 tons; in 1865, 10,039 
tons ; in 1870, 10,200 tons ; in 1874, 994 2 tons '■> 
in 1876, 8500 tons ; in 1879, 953 2 tons '> l %% 2 , 9 l 5% 
tons ; in 1884, 9,574 tons ; in 1887, 9,282 tons ; in 
1888, 9,241 tons; in 1889, 8,912 tons; in 1890, 
9,602 tons; 1893, 8,837 tons; 1896, 4,838 tons; 
1899, 4,013 tons ; 1900, 4,268 tons of metallic tin 
were procured from British mines. Of tin plates 
we exported in value, in 1847, 484,184/. ; in 1854, 
1,075, 531/.; in i860, 1,500,812/.; in 1864, 1,263,246/. ; 
in 1866, [,896,192/. ; in 1871, 2,900,625/.; in 1873, 
3,953,042/.; in 1877,3,033,126/.; in 1879,3,507,977/.; 
in 1883, 4,705,403/. ; in 1887, 4,792,854/. ; in 1888, 
5,546,228/.; in 1889, 6,030,005/.; in 1890, 6,361,477/.; 
in 1893, 4,991,300/. ; 1900, 3,976,796^ 

The great tin-plate manufacture in S. Wales suffered 
greatly by the operation of the McKinley tariff, 1 July 
et seq. 1891. 

TINCHEBEAY (N.W. France), where a 
battle was fought between Henry I. of England 
and his brother Robert duke of Normandy. Eng- 
land and Normandy were reunited under Henry, 
at the decease of William Rufus, who had already 
possessed himself of Normandy by a mortgage from 
his brother Robert, at his setting out for Pales- 
tine. Robert, on his return, recovered Normandy 
by an accommodation with Henry; but having 
afterwards quarrelled, Robert was defeated in the 
battle of Tinchebray, 28 Sept. 1106, and Normandy 
was annexed to the crown of England. — Henault. 

TINTOMETEB, an apparatus invented by 
Mr. J. "W. Lovibond, to determine the purity, &c. 
of a given substance by means of tinted glasses, 
reported, Nov. 1895. 

TIPPEEAEY, S. Ireland, made a county by 

king John, 12 10. 

The shopkeepers of the town of Tipperary, tenants 
of Mr. Smith Barry, accepted the plan of cam- 
paign, paid no rent, and were evicted. New Tip- 
perary, built to receive them, was inaugurated 
by Mr. W. O'Brien, M.P., and others 12 April, 1890 

Some of the tenants make terms and return to 
their homes .... Dec, 1890, Jan. 1891 

Failure of New Tipperary, the. property put up for 
sale, June ; buildings pulled down . . Aug. 1892 

Mr. Smith Barry warmly received by his tenants, 

16 Sept. ,, 

TIPPEEMUIE (near Perth). Here the mar- 
quis of Montrose defeated the covenanters under 
lord Elcho, 1 Sept. 1644. 

TIBNOVA on the Jantra, a tributary of the 
Danube, capital of the ancient kingdom of Bulgaria, 
and the seat of a patriarch. It was occupied 
without resistance by general Gourko, 6, 7 July, 
1877, and made the Russian head-quarters. 

TIBYNS, an ancient city of Greece, S.E. of 
Argos, with massive cyclopoean remains. Excava- 
tions of Dr. Schliemann in 1884 led to the discovery 
of what he termed " the Prehistoric Palace of the 
kings of Tiryns." His book on Tiryns was 
published in 1886. As Byzantine remains are also 
found some of his conclusions are disputed by 
eminent antiquaries. 



TITANIUM, a rare metal, discovered by Gregor 
in menaccanite, a Cornish mineral, in 1791, and in 
1 794 by Klaproth. 

TITHES, or TENTHS, were commanded to b3 
given to the tribe of Levi, 1490 B.C. {Lev. xxvii. 
30) . Abraham returning from his victory over the 
kings {Gen. xiv.), gave tithes of the spoil to 
Melchisedek, king of Salem, priest of the most 
high God (1913 b.c.) For the first 800 years of 
the Christian church they were given purely as 
alms, and were voluntary. — Wickliffe. "I will 
not put the title of the clergy to tithes upon any 
divine right, though such a right certainly com- 
menced, and 1 believe as certainly ceased, with the 
Jewish theocracy." — Blackstone. They were estab- 
lished in France by Charlemagne, about 800, and 
abolished 1789. Tenths were confirmed in the 
Lateran councils, I2i^.—Rainailda. The payment 
of tithes appears to have been claimed by Augustin, 
the first archbishop of Canterbury, and to have been 
allowed by Ethelbert, king of Kent, under the term 
"God's fee," about 600. 
The first mention of them in any English written law 

is a constitutional decree made in a synod strongly 

enjoining tithes, 786. 
Offa, king of Mercia, gave unto the church the tithes of 

all his kingdom, to expiate the death of Ethelbert, 

king of the East Angles, whom he had caused to be 

basely murdered, 794. 
Tithes were first granted to the English clergy in a gene- 
ral assembly held by Ethelwold, 844. Henry. 
In England, in 1545, tithes were fixed at the rate of 2s. gd. 

in the pound on rent; since then, many acts have 

been passed respecting them. 
The Tithe Commutation act, passed 13 Aug. 1836. It 

was amended in 1837, 1840, 1846, i860, and 1878. 
A rector is entitled to all the tithes ; a vicar to a small 

part only, frequently to none. 
Several acts relating to tithes in Ireland have been passed 

in 1832-47, altering and improving the tithe system. 
Tithe redemption trust appointed, 1846. 
Agitation against "extraordinary tithes," n Aug. et seq, 

1881. 
An Anti-Extraordinary Association existed in 1882. 
Extraordinary Tithe Redemption act passed 1886. 
Riotous opposition to tithes in Wales, Aug. ; anti-tithe 

league formed Sept. 1886 ; riots (see Wales) 1887. 
Tithe bill brought in ; dropped Aug. 1887. 
Much agitation against tithes in Wales, 1889. A tithes 

recovery bill withdrawn, 16 Aug. 1889. 
Royal commission on Tithe Redemption nominated : 

lord Basing and others, 30 Jan ; met 6 March et seq. 

1891. 
An act for the recovery of tithe rent charge in England 

and Wales passed, 26 March, 1891. The liability for 

the payment of tithes is transferred from the tenant 

to the landowner. 
Tithe rent-charge (rates) act, over 10,000 clergy bene- 
fited, passed, 1 Aug. 1899. 
Tithe rent-charge (Ireland) act passed, 8 Aug. 1900. 

TITHING. The number or company of ten 
men with their families knit together in a societ}', 
all of them being bound to the king for the peace- 
able and good behaviour of each of their society ; 
of these companies there was one chief person, who, 
from his office, was called (toothingman) tithing- 
man ; but now he is nothing but a constable, 
formerly called the headborough. Cowel. 

TITLES EOYAL. Henry IV. had the title 
of "Grace" and "My liege," 1399. Henry VI., 
"Excellent Grace," 1422. Edward IV., "Most 
High and Mighty Prince," 1461. Henry VII., 
" Highness," 1485 ; Henry VIII. the same title, 
and sometimes " Grace," 1509 et seq. Francis I. of 
France addressed Henry as " Your Majesty" at their 
interview in 1520 ; see Field of the Cloth of Gold. 
Henry VIII. "and James I. were styled "Dread 
Sovereign" ("Bible" dedication, 1611). James I. 

4 l 2 



TITLES TO LAND ACT. 



1252 



TOKIO. 



coupled to " Majesty " the present " Sacred," or 
" Most Excellent Majesty." "Majesty" was the 
style of the emperors of Germany ; the first king 
to whom it was given was Louis XI. of France, 
about 1463. Eoyal titles act passed, by royal 
assent, 17 Aug. 1901 ; see Style. 

TITLES TO LAND CONSOLIDATION 

ACT (Scotland), passed 31 July, 1868, and amended 



TIVOLI, see Tibur. 

TOBACCO,* Nicotiana tabacum, received its 
name from Tabacco, a province of Yucatan, New 
Spain ; some say from the island of Tobago, one of 
the Caribbees ; others from Tobasco, in the Gulf of 
Florida. It is said to have been first observed at St. 
Domingo, in Cuba, 1492 ; and to have been used 
freely by the Spaniards in Yucatan in 1520. 
Tobacco was either first brought to England in 
I565j by sir John Hawkins; or by sir Walter 
Kaleigh and sir Francis Drake, in 1586. It was 
manufactured only for exportation for some years. 
Stow's Chron. The Pied Bull inn, at Islington, is 
said to have been the first house in England where 
tobacco was smoked. In 1584 a proclamation was 
issued against it. James 1. published "A Counter- 
blaste against Tobacco," and the star-chamber 
ordered the duties to be 6.?. \od. per pound, 1614. 
Its cultivation was prohibited in England by 
Charles II., 1684. Act laying a duty on the im- 
portation was passed 1684. 'Ihe cultivation was 
allowed in Ireland, 1779. The tax was increased 
and put under the excise, 1789. Anderson; Ashe. 
Various statutes have passed relative to tobacco. 
Act to revive the act prohibiting the culture of 
tobacco in Ireland passed 2 Will. IV., Aug. 1831. 
Act directing that tobacco grown in Ireland be pur- 
chased in order to its being destroyed, 24 March, 
1832. _ The quantity consumed in England in 1791 
was nine millions and a half of pounds, and in 1829 
about fifteen millions of pounds. We imported in 
'850, 35,166,358 lbs., and 1,557,558 lbs. manufac- 
tured (cigars and snuff) ; in 1855, 3(3,820,846 lbs., and 
2,651,544 lbs. manufactured; in i860, 48,936,471 
lbs., and 2,110,430 lbs. manufactured; in 1864, 
61,042,667 lbs., and 6,578,707 lbs., manufactured; 
in 1866, 54,374,800 lbs., and 3,171,906 lbs. manu- 
factured; in 1871, 73,042,305 lbs., and 3,852,236 
manufactured; in 1876, 76,814,974 lbs., and 
3,818,682 lbs. manufactured ; in 1879, 38, 861, 220lbs., 
and 3.591,558 lbs. manufactured; in 1883,56,475,199 
lbs., .and 3,121,174 lbs. manufactured; in 1887, 
72,178,994 lbs. and 3,595,071 manufactured; in 
1890. 65,729,970 lbs. ; and 3,678,846 lbs. manu- 
factured ; 1896, 83,558,757 lbs. and 5,037,198 lbs. 
manufactured; i8g:>, 79,631,955 ll>s. and 4,621,230 
lbs. manufactured; 1900, 98,34^,500 lbs. and 
6,362,140 lbs. manufactured. The tobacco duties 
were modified in 1863; raised April, 1878. 2d. a 
lb. extra duty on cigars added, April, 1879. Net 
customs duties paid for tobacco and snuff in the year 
I&75-6, 7,744^977^-; 1877-8, 8,006,836;.; 1883-4, 
8,991,205;.; 1886-7,9,367,186/.; 1887-8,8,713,944;.; 
1888-9,8,858,781;.; 1889-90,9,061,984;.; 1890-91, 
9,533,888;.; 1895-6,7,350,000;.; 1901-2, 10,585,^19;. 

Permission to grow tobacco in England with conditions 
granted by the Board of Trade, April, 1886. 

Tobacco successfully cultivated by Messrs. James 
Carter and Co., near Bromley, Essex, Sept. 18S6 ; and 
by others in 1S87. 

* British Anti-Tobacco Crusade, originated by the late 
Thos. Reynolds in 1853. 60,000 of its publications had 

1ip.hu circulated gratuitously iu 1876. 



Duty per lb on unmanufactured tobacco reduced from 
3s. 6d. to 3s. 2d. ; cigars 5s. ; snuff 3s. 9^. or 4s. 6d. 
1887 ; i8q8-9, tobacco reduced 6d. per pound. 

TOBAGO (West Indies), discovered by Colum- 
bus in 1498; settled by the Dutch 1642. Taken by 
the English, 1672 ; retaken, 1674. In 1748, it was 
declared a neutral island ; but in 1763 it was ceded 
to the English. Tobago was taken by the French 
under De Grasse in 1781, and confirmed to them 
in 1783. Again taken by the English, 14 April, 
1793, but restored at the peace of Amiens, 6 Oct. 
1802. The island was once more taken by the 
British under general Grinfield, 1 July, 1803, and 
was confirmed to them by the peace of Paris, in 
1814. Population in 1887, 19,937. Tobago is one 
of the Windward isles, which see. Tobago was 
united with Trinidad by parliament in 1887. 
Population of Tobago, 1891, 18,353. 

TOBITSCHAU (Moravia). In a sharp action 
here, on 15 July, 1866, the Austrians were defeated 
by the army of the crown prince of Prussia with 
the loss of 500 killed and wounded and 500 prisoners, 
and seventeen guns. 

TOBOGGANNING, the name of a sport very 
popular in Canada and the northern United States. 
The toboggan in popular use for "coasting" is 
formed of a single plank curved backward in front 
and held in position by leather cords, and is 
guided by the foot of ihe steerman, which drags 
behind with the toe turned downward. Inter- 
national contest at Davos ; the Symonds shield won 
by Mr. J. A. Bott of Aloritz, Jan. 1903. 

TOGOLAND, a large German West African 
territory between the Gold Coast and Dahomey, 
extending inland. Anglo-German delimitation 
expedition began work, autumn, 1901 ; finished, 
Aug. 1902. 

TOISON D'OE or Goldex Fleece (which 

see). 

TOKAR, in the Soudan. Here Osman Digna's 
forces were defeated by col. Holled Smith, 19 Feb. 
1891 ; see under Soudan. 

TOKAY, a town in Upper Hungary, celebrated 
for its wines, made here by dressers, brought from 
Italy by Bela IV., kimr, 1235-70. The wine is 
principally used by sovereigns, and 50 bottles were 
presented to queen Victoria at her jubilee, 1887. 

The town, with its six churches and public buildings, 
was destroyed by fire, 26 Aug. 1S90. About 4,000 
persons rendered homeless. 

TOKENS, BANK, silver pieces issued by the 
Bank of England, of the value of 5*., 1 Jan. 1798. 
The Spanish dollar had a small profile of George III. 
stamped on the neck of the Spanish king. They 
were raised to the value of 5*. 6d. 14 Nov. 181 1. 
Bank tokens were also current iu Ireland, where 
those issued by the bank passed for 6s. and lesser 
sums until 1817. They were called in on the revi- 
sion of the coinage. Tradesmen were permitted to 
issue tokens as small coins from 1648 till 16 Aug. 
1672, when their circulation was prohibited by royal 
proclamation. These tokens are figured and de- 
scribed in a work by Wm. Boyne, 1858. 

TOKIO, the name given to Jedo, the capital of 
Japan, about 1S69. Great tire ; 5,000 houses de- 
stroyed, and 45 persons perish, 10 April, 1892. 
Another great tire, 600 houses destroyed; reported 
14 Nov. 1892. See Jedo. Population, 1887, 
I )55 2 >457- 



TOLBIAC, 



1253 



TONQUIN. 



TOLBIAC (now Zulpich), near the Rhine, 
•where Clovis totally defeated the Allemanni, 496. 

TOLEDO, the ancient Toletum (Central Spain) , 
made capital of the Visigothic kingdom by Atliana- 
gild, 554 ; taken by the Saracens, 712. 'ioledo was 
taken after the war begun 108 1, by Alfonso I. of 
Castile, 25 May, 1085. In 1088 the archbishop was 
made primate of Spain. The university was founded 
in 1499. Toledo sword-blades have been famed 
since the 15th century. Population, 1887, 20,837. 

The alcazar, ancient Moorish palace, used by the 
emperor Charles V., destroyed by lire, 9-10 Jan. 1887. 

TOLENTLNO (Italy, formerly in the Papal 
states), where a treaty was made between the pope 
and the French, 19 Feb. 1797. Here Joachim Murat, 
having resumed arms agaiust the allies, was de- 
feated by" the Austrians, 3 May, 1815, taken pri- 
soner, and shot. 

TOLERATION ACT, passed in 1689, to re- 
lieve Protestant dissenters from the church of Fng- 
land. Their liberties were, however, greatly en- 
dangered in the latter days of queen Anne, who 
died on the day that the Schism bill was to become 
a law, 1 Aug. 17 14. 

The toleration granted was somewhat limited. It 
exempted persons who took the new oath of allegiance 
and supremacy, and made also a declaration against 
popery, from the penalties incurred by absenting 
themselves from church and holding unlawful conven- 
ticles ; and it allowed the quakers to substitute an 
affirmation for an oath, but did not relax the provi- 
sions of the Test act (which see). The party spirit of 
the times checked the king in his liberal measures. 

TOLLS were first paid by vessels passing the 
Stade on the Elbe, 1109. They were first demanded 
by the Danes of vessels passing the Sound, 1341 ; see 
Stade and Sound. Tollbars in England originated 
in 1267, on the grant of a penny for every waggon 
that passed through a certain manor ; and the 
first regular toll was collected a few years after for 
mending the road in London between St. Giles's 
and Temple-bar. Gathered for repairing the high- 
ways of Holborn-inn-lane and Martin' s-lane (now 
Aldersgate-street), 1346. Toll-gate or turnpikes 
were set up in 1663. In 1827, 27 turnpikes near 
London were removed by parliament ; 81 turnpikes 
and toll-bars ceased on the north of London on 
I July, 1864; and 61 on the south side, ceased on 
31 Oct. 1865; and many others on the Essex and 
Middlesex roads ceased on 31 Oct. 1866; the re- 
mainder on the north of London ceased 1 July, 1872. 
The tolls on the Commercial roads, London, E., 
were abolished 5 Aug. 187 1. The tolls on Waterloo 
and other metropolitan bridges abolished, 1878-9. 
The high road from Brighton to London free from 
toll, 31 Oct. 1881. Many private gates and bars in 
London since removed, several in Nov. 1893. See 
Wales, 1843 and 1889. 

TOLOSA. On the plain named las Navas de 
Tolosa, near the Sierra Morena, S. Spain, Alfonso, 
king of Castile, aided by the kings of Arragon and 
Navarre, gained a great victory over the Moors, 
16 July, 12 12. This conflict is sometimes termed 
the battle of Muradal. 

TONGA ISLES, the name now given to the 
Friendly isles (which see). 

TONIC SOL FA System. See Music. 

TONK, Rajpootana, India. The nawab and his 
minister, for a massacreof Hindoo chiefs, 1 Aug. 1867, 
were deposed by the British. In 1872 he demanded 



investigation, and his case came before parliament 
without any issue. 

TONNAGE. The Tonnage Act of 1694 esta- 
blished the Bank of England {which see). See 
Tunnage. 

TONOMETER, a delicate apparatus (consist- 
ing of 52 forks) for tuning musical instruments, by 
marking the number of vibrations, was invented by 
H. Scheibler of Crefeld, and described in his " Ton- 
messer," 1834. It received little notice till Dr. 
Rudolph Koenig removed some of the difficulties 
opposed to its successful use, and exhibited it at 
the International Exhibition of 1862. 

TONQUIN, S.E. Asia, the delta of the river 
Songkoi, formerly a province of Annam, subject to 
France. Here a French missionary bishop, Mel- 
cliior, was murdered with great barbarity 27 July, 
1858 : the abbe Neron was also murdered, 3 Nov. 
i860 ; see Annam and Indo-China. 

Successful attack and death of lieut. Garnier . . 1873 

Naomdink captured by the French announced, 

11 April, 1883 

Lin-Yang- Fu declares war against French aggres- 
sors, 8 May ; a new expedition voted for 15 May, ,. 

Commander R. T. Riviere (French), and 32 others 
besieged by the Black Flags* at Hanoi ; captured 
and killed in a sortie .... 20 May, ,, 

[He was bui ied at the Madeleine, Paris, 30 Jan. 1885. J 

Gen. Bouet arrives 7 June ; fortifies Hanoi 16 June, ,, 

China firmly opposed to French aggression ; Tu 
Due, emperor of Annam, opposed to the French, ,, 

Successful French sortie from Nam JJin ; much 
slaughter 19 J ulv > » 

Proclamation of eapt. Morel Beaulieu offering pro- 
tection to the people, deserted by Annam, an- 
nounced 20 July, ,, 

The Black Flags severely defeated . 7 Aug. ,, 

French advance, under gen. Bouet, checked at 
Cachao 15 Aug. ,, 

Bombardment and capture of the Hue forts, great 
slaughter of natives .... 18-20 Aug. ,, 

Armistice granted, submission of the Annamite 
government ; treaty signed, recognising French 
protectorate, ceding province of Biii-Huam, &c. 

21 Aug. „ 

The Black Flags defeated at Phokhai by gen. Bouet 
with great loss, the French suffer severely, 1-2 Sept. „ 

Negotiations of Jules Ferry and Mandarin Tseng re- 
specting the protectorate of Tonquin .Sept. ,, 

Disbandment of the Annamite troops, yellow flags 
opposed to the b'rench . . about 15 Sept. „ 

Gen. Bouet replaced by adm. Courbet as commander 
of the French forces . . announced 20 Sept. ,, 

Admiral Courbet begins actual occupation of 
Tonquin about 3 Nov. ,, 

Ninh-Binh and Kuang-Yen occupied by the French 
without resistance . . . announced 4 Nov. ,, 

The Black Flags repulsed in a violent attack on the 
French gun-boat Carabine and on Haidzuong, 

17 Nov. ,, 

The Yellow book on Tonquin, published . 5 Dec. ,, 

The French take forts on the Red river opposite 
Sontay . ... . abmti6Dec. „ 

Sontay captured, the Black Flags retire, alleged 
French loss, about 77 killed, 231 wounded 

16, 17 Dec. ,, 

Sontay fortified and left .... Dec. ,, 

The unarmed native Tonquinese suffer on all sides 
by the war Aug.-Dec. ,, 

Namdinh attacked by pirates, houses burnt, people 
killed 1, 2 Jan. 1884 

Arrival of Chinese troops to defend Hainan against 
the French about 20 Jan. ,, 

* The Black Flags originated with Li-Hung-Chang, 
an able leader of the Canton rebels, wlio about 1863 with 
his followers took refuge in Tonquin, where he was at 
first tolerated by the emperor of Annam, but afterwards, 
being strengthened by many adherents, established an 
independent despotic government. He strenuously op- 
posed the French. 



TONQUIN. 



1254 



TOBBANEHILL MINEBAL. 



Gen. Millot (successor in command to adm. Courbet) 
captures Bacninh, after hard righting Chinese 
flee, 25 French killed ... 12 March, 

Gen. Briere de L'Isle captures citadel of Thai- 
Nguyen 22 March, 

Rainy season .... March — Oct. 

Honghoa fired by the Chinese and quitted, 

about 9 April, 

Treaty signed by capt. Founder and Li-Hung- 
Chang at Tientsin ; French protectorate of Ton- 
quin and Annam recognised . . 11 May, 

The Chinese garrison of Langson resist capt. Du- 
genne and a French column (700), (unauthorised), 
advancing to occupy it ; 10 killed ; a violation 
of the treaty of 11 May . . . 23 June, 

The French appeal to Pekin for indemnity ; the 
Chinese deny the ratification of the treaty about 
1 July ; but order the evacuation of Langson and 
other places, announced . . . 18 July, 

Gen. Millot resigns, succeeded by gen. Briere de 
l'lsle 30 Aug. 

Fighting resumed Oct. 

Chinese regulars, attacks repulsed with great loss ; 
French suffer little (at Kep) ; gen. Negrier in 
command 6-8 Oct. 

Victory of col. Donnier, great Chinese loss ; 20 
French killed . . . . io, 11 Oct. 

Chinese hold strong camps with reinforcements ; 
their attacks repulsed at Tuguen Quan-hung with 
great loss 13 Oct. 

Fighting : the Black Flags defeated about 20 Nov. 

Chinese pirates said to be severely defeated, an- 
nounced Dec. 

Gen. Negrier defeats 12,000 Chinese E. of Chu, 
announced 6 Jan. 

Dong Song camp captured by the French after 
severe conflict 5 Feb. 

Several forts captured . . . 10-25 Jan. 

Severe conflict with about 10,000 Chinese, who are 
compelled to retreat 12 Feb.; the French flag 
placed on the captured citadel of Langson 13 Feb. 

Mutiny on the Bayard on account of deficient 
rations, &c; 12 sailors shot ; announced 

end of Jan. 

39 French killed and many wounded 9-12 Feb. 

Chinese 18 days' siege of Thuyen-Quan raised after 
18 desperate assaults ... 2 March, 

The Chinese defeated by col. Duchesne, 4-7 March, 

French attack Dong-dang, successful 22 March, 

Heavy Chinese attack on French positions ; gen. 
Negrier wounded, compelled to retreat ; Lang- 
son evacuated 28 March, 

Preliminaries of peace signed at Pekin ; Tonquin 
to be abandoned by the Chinese, &c. . 5 April, 

Lull Vinh Phuoc, chief of the Black Flags, re- 
warded for his services by the Chinese govern- 
ment April, 

The Chinese troops retiring . . . May, 

Reported massacre of christians . . Aug. 

The Black Flag bands very troublesome, Oct. ; 
defeated by Negrier .... Dec. 

Reported massacre of 700 christians ; and destruc- 
tion of 30 villages Aug. 

Renewed warfare ; French successes . Nov. 

M. Paul Bert, French resident, appointed 21 Jan. ; 
dies 11 Nov. 1886 ; succeeded by M. Bibourd, Jan. 

Much fighting ; insurgents defeated by the French 

Jan. 

Col. Bosc captured Muong losing 9 men 19 April, 

Establishment of the civil native guard for sup- 
pression of piracy, and other organizations 
reported Sept. 

Renewed fighting by pirates ; defeated by gen. 
Borgnis des Bordes with French loss 17 Jan. 

Surrender of Doivan, chief of the Bac Ninh pirates ; 
country reported quieter . . .16 March, 

French success against the pirates March, April, 

Pirates defeated in several engagements, followed 
by executions, 21 April — 28 July ; again 15 Dec. 

Sharp fighting with the pirates, who are dispersed 
with heavy loss, reported, 2 July ; 3 French 
officers and 10 men killed in a sharp conflict, 

9 Jul y> 

Due, a noted pirate chief, with some of his followers, 

surrenders 5 Nov. 

Renewed Chinese attacks ; results vary . April, 



1S93 



The delta entirely flooded ; heavy rains and hurri- 
cane June-Aug. 1893 

The hill country in revolt ; reported . 12 Nov. ,, 

De Tham, a pirate chief, killed, and his bands 
defeated 19, 25 May, 1894 

Railway opened 25 Dec. ,, 

Fight between the French Duclonin column and 
pirates at Panai, 40 French killed . . Oct. 1895 

The Raphael steamer sunk in collision with a 
Chinese junk near Nam-Dinh, 30 deaths, reported, 

13 Oct. 1897 

M. Breugnot's force captures Lasa Sor, a noted 
pirate Aug. 1899 

Rebellion in Laos, French posts attacked, reported, 

24 Sept. 1902 

TONSUBE, the clerical crown, adopted, it is 
said, in imitation of St. Peter, or of Christ's crown 
of thorns, was disapproved of in the fourth century 
as pertaining only to penitents, and not made 
essential till the end of the fifth or beginning of the 
sixth century. 

TONTINES, loans given for life annuities with 
benefit of survivorship, invented by Laurence Tonti, 
a Neapolitan. They were first set on foot at Paris 
to reconcile the people to cardinal Mazarin's 
government, by amusing them with the hope of 
becoming suddenly rich, 1653. Voltaire. Tonti died 
in the Bastile after seven years' imprisonment. A 
Mr. Jennings was an original subscriber for a IOO^. 
share in a tontine company; and being the last 
survivor of the shareholders, his share produced 
him 3000^. per annum. He died aged 103 years, 
19 June, 1798, worth 2,115,244^. ; see Alexandra 
Park. 

By the termination of a tontine begun by M. Lafarges 
in 1791 to diminish the national debt the French 
government received 1,218,000 francs Dec. 1888 

TOOLS. Many of the tools in common use 
are described and represented in Eosellini's magni- 
ficent work, " Monumenti dell' Egitto e della 
Nubia," 1832-44. The tools used by Bezaleel and 
Aholiab in the construction of the tabernacle, 
described in Exodus xxxi. and xxxv. B.C. (1491), 
were doubtless Egyptian or Phoenician. In build- 
ing Solomon's temple (1014-04) B.C., "there was 
neither hammer nor axe nor any tool of iron 
heard," the stone and other materials being pre- 
viously prepared (1 Kings vi. 7). The invention 
of many tools is mythically ascribed to Dcedalus, the 
Athenian artificer in tbe 14th century B.C. The 
multimplement invented by lord Weniyss combines 
many tools in a small compass, April, 1902. 

TOPLITZ (Bohemia). Here were signed, in 
1813, two treaties — one between Austria, Russia, 
and Prussia, 9 Sept. ; and one between Great Britain 
and Austria, 3 Oct. 

TOPOGBAPHICAL SOCIETY of Lon- 
don was founded 1879 ; inaugurated at the Man- 
sion-house, 28 Oct. 1880; reconstituted, the earl of 
Rosebery president, annual meetings, 9 March, 
1899, et seq. 

TOBBANEHILL MINEBAL. Mr. Gil- 
lespie, of Torbanehill, granted a lease of all the 
coal in the estate to Messrs. Russell. In the course 
of working, the lessees extracted a combustible 
mineral of considerable value as a source of coal- 
gas, and realised a large profit in the sale of it as 
gas-coal. The lessor then denied that the mineral 
was coal, and disputed the right of the lessees to 
work it. At the trial in 1853 there was a great 
array of scientific men and practical gas engineers, 
and the evidence was most conflicting. One side 
maintained the mineral to be coal, the other that 



TOEDESILLAS. 



1255 



TOTNES. 



it was a bituminous schist. The judge set aside the 
scientific evidence, and the jury pronounced it to 
be coal. The authorities in Prussia have since 
pronounced it not to be coal. Percy. 

TOEDESILLAS (near Valladolid). Here was 
signed, 7 June, 1494, a treaty modifying the 
boundary line which pope Alexander VI. had as- 
signed, in May, 1493, in his division of the new 
world between Spain and Portugal. 

TOEGAU (Saxony, N. Germany), the site of a 
battle between Frederick II. of Prussia and the 
Austrians, in which the former obtained a signal 
victory ; the Austrian general, count Daun, being 
wounded, 3 Nov. 1760. He had, in 1757, obtained 
a great victory over the Prussian king. Torgau 
was taken by the allies in 1814 ; and given to 
Prussia, 1815. 

TOEIES, a term given to a political party 
about 1678 ; see Whig. Dr. Johnson defines a Tory 
as one who adheres to the ancient constitution of 
the state, and the apostolical hierarchy of the 
Church of England. The Tories long maintained 
the doctrines of "divine hereditary indefeasible 
right, lineal succession, passive obedience, prero- 
gative," &c. Bolingbroke ; see Conservatives. For 
the chief Tory administrations, see Pitt, Perceval, 
Liverpool, Wellington, Peel, Derby, Disraeli, §j. 
For Tory Democracy see Fourth Party. 

TOENADOS. See Storms. 

TOE ONTO, the capital of Canada West, 
now Ontario, founded in 1 794 as York ; it received 
its present name in 1834. It was made a bishopric 
in 1839. Population 1886, 118,403; 1891, 181,220; 
1901, 208,040. 

Opera-house burnt, 8 Feb. 1883. 

Industrial exhibition opened by marquis of Lome, 12 
Sept. 1883 ; another opened by lord Lansdowne, 6 
Sept. 1887. 
The university, with its hall, library, and museum, 
destroyed by fire, 14 Feb. ; a committee was 
formed in London, including the marquis of 
Salisbury, the archbishop of Canterbury, repre- 
sentatives of the universities, the lord mayor, 
and other eminent persons, to restore the 
library, March ; an appeal was liberally re- 
sponded to, the queen being among the con- 
tributors ; donations were received from other 
countries .... reported 15 May, 1890 
Tbe duke and duchess of Connaught warmly re- 
ceived at Toronto .... 29 May, ,, 
Meeting of the British association . . t8 Aug. 1897 
Visit of the duke and duchess of Cornwall and 
York 10 Oct. 1901 

TOEPEDO SHELLS, a name given to ex- 
plosives placed under ships, an invention ascribed 
to David Bushnell, an American, in 1777. His at- 
tempt to destroy H.M.S. Cerberus failed. 'I he 
action of Fulton's torpedoes was successful in 
Britain 1805 ; but their use was declined by the 
government. Torpedo shells ignited by electricity 
were successfully employed in the war in the 
United States, 1861-5. On 4 Oct. 1865, Messrs. 
M'Kay & Beardslee tried them at Chatham before 
the duke of Somerset and others. An old vessel, 
the Terpsichore, was speedily sunk. Torpedoes, 
made by professor (aft. sir Frederick) Abel, of Wool- 
wich, were tried in May, 1866. A torpedo invented 
by Mr. Wightman and an Austrian, tried and re- 
ported successful at Sheerness; an old hulk was sunk, 
S Oct. 1870. Torpedoes to be ignited from a dis- 
tance by an electric battery are now made at 
Woolwich. A Turkish monitor in the Danube was 
blown up by a torpedo (see liusso- Turkish ivar, II.) , 



26 May, 1877. Whitehead's fish torpedoes, pro- 
jected by compressed air from a boat ; very destruc- 
tive if skilfully directed ; described Nov. 1884. 

The first fast torpedo-boat built by Messrs. Donald- 
son & Thornycroft, at Chiswick, for Norway, in 
1873 ; Mr. Donaldson, an able engineer, dies, 
aged 57 4 Oct. 1899 

The new torpedo boat Peacemaker invented by prof. 
J. H. L. Tuck announced . . . Aug. 1886 

Nordenfelt's submarine torpedo boat tried in South- 
ampton Water (see under Boats) . 19, 20 Dec. 1887 

Several severe accidents with torpedo boats July, 1888 

Mr. A. Lege's torpedo, based upon the principle of 
a flying kite, announced . . 16 March, 1889 

See under Cannon 1889. 

The powerful Brennan Torpedo, with the Watkin 
position finder, successfully tried at Cliff End 
Fort, on the western side of the Solent . 5 July, 1890 

The controllable torpedo of Mr. Scott Sims and 
Mr. Edison tried at Portsmouth and reported 
successful 3, 15 Feb. 1892 

Lieut. Padillo and several others killed by a tor- 
pedo explosion at Cadiz ... 3 July, 1901 

TOEQUAY, a seaport in Devonshire. The 
pier harbour was made in 1803-7, and enlarged in 
1870. Torre abbey was founded in 1196. The 
prince of Orange landed at Torbay, 5 Nov. 1688. 
Population, 1881, 24,767; 1891, 25,534; I 9 0r > 
33.6H- 

In Kent's Hole, a cavern near Torquay, the rev. Mr. 
McBnery discovered a quantity of bones of extinct 
and recent animals, 1825-9. The investigations were 
continued by Mr. Godwin- Austen, 1840 ; by the Tor- 
quay Natural History Society, and by a committee 
of the British Association, 1865, by whom the results 
were published. Mr. William Pengelly, of Torquay, 
was actively engaged in the researches. 
The princess Louise laid the memorial stone of the new 

pier and harbour works, 6 May, 1890. 
Charter granted to Torquay, Aug. 1892. 
Mr. Wm. Pengelly, founder of the Torquay Natural 
History society and of the Devonshire association for 
the advancement of science, literature, and art in 
1862, died, aged 82, 16 March, 1894. 

TOEEES STEAIT, dividing Australia from 
Papua or New Guinea, was discovered by Torres, 
a Spaniard, in June, 1606. Anthropological expe- 
dition from Cambridge, conducted by Dr. A. 
Haddon, arrived at Murray island, and was heartily 
welcomed by the natives, mid May-Dec. 1898. 

TOEEES VEDEAS (a city of Portugal). 
Near here Wellington, retreating from the French, 
took up a strong position, called the Lines of Torres 
' '.as, 10 Oct. 1810. 



TOETOLA, see Virgin Isles. 

TOET UEE was only permitted by the Romans 
in the examination of slaves. It was applied to 
heretics by the Roman catholic clergy, and was 
used in England so late as 1640 (when Archer, 
who took part in an attack on Laud's palace, was 
racked), and in Scotland until 1690. The trial by 
torture was abolished in Portugal, 1776 ; in France, 
by Louis XVI., in 1789; and in Sweden by Gus- 
tavus III., 1786. General Picton was convicted of 
allowing Louisa Calderon to be tortured in Trini- 
dad, in accordance with the old law of the island, 
at his trials, 21 Feb. 1806, and 11 June, 1808. 

TOSKI, battle of, see Soudan, 3 Aug. 1889. 

TOTAL ABSTINENCE, see Teetotaller. 

TOTNES (Devon) : thought to be the Roman 
Ad Durium Amnem. It was held by Judhael de 
Totneis, who built the castle about 1085. It was 
disfranchised for gross corruption and bribery, by 
the Reform act, 15 Aug. 1867. 



TOUGHENED GLASS. 



1256 



TOUltNAY. 



TOUGHENED GLASS, see Glass. 

TOUL, the Roman Tulli Leucorum, a fortified 
town on the Moselle, N.E. France, one of the most 
ancient in the empire. The city and diocese ac- 
quired great privileges from Charles the Simple, 
?25, when it was united with the German empire. 
t was reunited with France, 1552. The fortifica- 
tions, begun in 1238, were rebuilt and enlarged in 
1700, according to the plans of Vauban. After a 
vigorous resistance to the Germans, commencing 
14 Aug. 1870, Toul surrendered with its garrison of 
3000 men, 23 Sept., when the town was burning in 
twenty-three places. The Germans thus acquired 
an uninterrupted railway communication to Paris. 

TOULON, the ancient Telo Martins (S. France) , 
an important military port. It was taken by the 
constable of Bourbon, 1524, and by the emperor 
Charles V. in 1536. In 1707 it was bombarded by 
the allies, both by land and sea, by which almost 
the whole town was reduced to a heap of ruins, and 
several ships burned; but the allies were at last 
obliged to raise the siege. It surrendered 27 Aug. 
1793, to the British admiral, lord Hood, who took 
possession both of the town and shipping, in the 
name of Louis XVII., under a stipulation to assist 
in restoring the French constitution of 1789. A 
conflict took place between the English and French 
forces, when the latter were repulsed, 15 Nov. 1793. 
Toulon was retaken by Bonaparte, 19 Dec, when 
great cruelties were exercised towards such of the 
inhabitants as were supposed to be favourable to 
the British. — A naval battle off this port was fought 
11 Feb. 1744, between the English under Mathews 
and Lestock, against the fleets of France and Spain : 
in this engagement the brave captain Cornewall 
fell. The victory was lost by a misunderstanding 
between the English admirals. Mathews was after- 
wards dismissed for misconduct. Population in 
1901, 101,172. See Cholera, 1884. 

Visit of Queen Victoria • 13 April, 1892 

Destructive fire in the arsenal . . . 9 July, 1894 
The Lagouban naval magazine exploded ; over 50 

deaths 5 March, 1899 

Pres. Loubet entertains the duke of Genoa and 

officers of the Italian squadron . 10 April, 1901 
Bones of more than 1,000 persons (supposed victims 

of 1793) discovered in layers, reported . 3 Sept. 1902 

TOULOUSE, the ancient TOLOSA (S.France), 
founded about 615 B.C.; was the capital of the 
Visigothic kings in a.d. 419 ; and was taken by 
Clovis in 508. The dukes of Aquitaine reigned 
here, 631-761. A university was established here, 
1229, and a parliament, 1302. The inquisition was 
established here to extirpate heretics, 1229. The 
troubadours, or rhetoricians of Toulouse, had their 
origin about 850, and consisted of a fraternity of 
poets, whose art was extended throughout Europe, 
and gave rise to the Italian and French poetry; 
see Troubadours. The allied British and Spanish 
army entered this city on 12 April, immediately 
after the Battle of Toulouse, fought between 
the British Peninsular army under lord Welling- 
ton, and the French led by marshal Soult, 10 April, 
1814. The French were forced to retreat, after 
twelve hours' fighting. Neither of the com- 
manders knew that Napoleon had abdicated the 
throne of France. Population, 1886, 147,617; 
1891, 148,220; 1901, 147,696. 

TOULOUSE. The county was created out of 
the kingdom of Aquitaine by Charlemagne, in 778. 
It enjoyed great prosperity till the dreadful war of 
the Albigenses (which see), when the count Ray- 



mond VI. was expelled, and Simon de Montfort 
became count. At his death, in 1218, Raymond VII. 
obtained his inheritance. His daughter Jane and 
her husband, Alphonse (brother of Louis IX. of 
France), dying without issue, the county of Toulouse 
was united to the French monarchy in 1271. A 
large part of Toulouse destroyed by an inundation, 
of the Garonne ; St. Cyprien like a sepulchre ; 23 
June, 1875. 

TOUBAINE, the garden of France, was con- 
quered by the Visigoths about 480. It was ceded 
to Geoffroy count of Anjou, 1044, and thus became 
the property of the Plantagenet kings of England. 
It was seized by Philip Augustus in 1203, and was 
made a duchy by John, 1360. It was finally united 
to the crown on the death of the duke of Anjou. 
1584. 

TOUENAMENTS, or Jotjsts, were martial 
sports of the ancient cavaliers. Tournament is 
derived from the French word tourner, " to tuna 
round." Tournaments were frequent about 890; 
and were regulated by the emperor Henry I., about 
919. Tournaments were introduced into England 
early in the 12th century ; prohibited by Henry IL, 
but revived by Richard I., his son. Solemn tourna- 
ments were held by Edward III., 25 Sept. 1329, in 
London; and 19 Jan. 1344, at Windsor; and by 
Richard II. in Smithfield, London, 10 Oct. 13 19; 
and also by Henry VIII., in May 1513. The 
Lateran council published an article against their 
continuance in 1136. Henry II. of France, in a 
tilt with the comte de Montgomery, had his eye 
struck out, an accident which caused the king's 
death in a few days, 29 June, 1559. Tournaments 
were then abolished in France. — A magnificent 
feast and tournament, under the auspices of Archi- 
bald, earl of Eglintoun, took place at Eglintoun 
castle, 29 Aug. 1839, and the following week : 
many of the visitors (among whom was the late 
emperor of the French) assumed the characters of 
ancient knights, lady Seymour, aft. duchess of 
Somerset, being the " Queen of Beauty." She died 
14 Dec. 1884. Among the festivities at the marriage 
of prince Humbert, at Turin, was a tournament, 
24 April, 1868. Tournaments held at the Agricul- 
tural hall, London, N. (for benefit of soldiers' 
widows, &c), 21 June et sea. 1880 ; 11 June, 1887 ; 
14 June, 1888: 20 June, 1889; 18 June, 1890; 26 
May, 1891 ; 17 May, 1892 ; 25 May, 1893; 3 1 Ma J? 
1894 : . 2 3 Ma y- 1895 ; 28 May, 1896. Opened by 
the prince of Wales, 27 May, native Indian (22) 
officers and other colonials present, prizes given by 
the duchess of Connaught, 10 June, 1897 ; 19 May, 
1898; (amount received 28,992^. 3s. "jld.); 25 May, 
1899; 18 May, 1900; 30 May, 1901, opened^by the 
king and queen; 22 May, 1902. In Oct. 1883, these 
tournaments were organized as " Royal Military 
Tournaments" for development of skill in arms in 
the army. Tournaments on Woolwich common, 
directed by col. Curzon, 21-23 -Aug. 1889. Man- 
chester, 9 Oct. 1901. 

Historical tournament at Rome in relation to the 
silver wedding of the king and queen and the 
house of Savoy 25 April, 1893 

Grand military tournament at the Crystal palace, 

March, 1894. 

Volunteer tournament at the Crystal palace, S Aug. 
1896 ; again 3 July, 1897 ; and 20 July, 1898. 

, TOURNAY (S. Belgium) was very flourishing 
till it was ravaged by the barbarians in the 5th 
century. It has sustained many sieges. Taken by 
the allies in 1709, and ceded to the house of Austria 
by the treaty of Utrecht ; but the Dutch were 



TOURNIQUET. 



1257 



TRACTION-ENGINES. 



allowed to place a garrison in it, as one of the 
barrier towns. It was taken by the French under 
general La Bourdonnaye, 8 Nov. 1792. Several 
battles were fought near Tournay in May, 1793, 
and May, 1794. Population, 1890, 35,403; 1900, 
37,069. 

TOURNIQUET (from tourner, to turn), an 
instrument for stopping the flow of blood into a 
limb, by tightening the bandage employed in ampu- 
tations, is said to have been invented by Morel li at 
the siege of Besanqon, 1674. J. L. Petit, in France, 
invented the screw tourniquet in 1718. 

TOURS, an ancient city, central France, near 
which Charles Martel gained a great victory over 
the Saracens, and saved Europe, 10 Oct. 732, and 
from which he acquired the name of Martel, signi- 
fying hammer. This conflict is also called the battle 
of Poitiers. When Paris was invested by the Ger- 
mans, M. Cremieux and several of the members of 
the Fretich government of defence went to Tours, 
together with the representatives of foreign powers, 
18 Sept. 1870. On 9 Oct. these were joined by 
Gambetta, minister of the interior, afterwards of 
war (who escaped from Paris by a balloon, 7 Oct.). 
In consequence of the defeat of the army of the 
Loire near Orleans, the government removed to 
Bordeaux, 11 Dec. 

TOWERS. That of Babel, the first of which we 
read, built in the plains of Shiuar {Gen. xi.) 2247 
B.C. ; see Babel. The Tower of the Winds at 
Athens, built 550 B.C. The Tower of Pharos (see 
Pharos), 280 B.C. The round towers in Ireland 
were the only structures of stone found at the 
arrival of the English, 1169, except some buildings 
in the maritime towns founded by the Danes. 
These towers are tall hollow pillars, nearly cylin- 
drical, but narrowing towards the top, pierced with 
lateral holes to admit the light, and covered with 
conical roofs. Fifty-six of them still remain, from 
50 to 130 feet high ; see Pisa. 

TOWER OF LONDON. The tradition that 
Julius Cucsar founded a citadel here (about 54 B.C.) 
is very doubtful. A royal palace, consisting of no 
more than what is now called the White Tower, 
which appears to have been first marked out by 
William the Conqueror, 1076, was commenced in 
1078, and completed by his son, William Pufus, 
who, in 1098, surrounded it with walls and a broad 
deep ditch. Several succeeding princes made addi- 
tions to it, and king Edward III. built the church. 
In 1638, the old White Tower was rebuilt; and 
under king Charles II. it was thoroughly repaired, 
1680-5, and a great number of additional build- 
ings made to it. Here are the Armoury, Jewel- 
office, and various other divisions and buildings of 
peculiar interest. Here took place many executions 
of illustrious persons, and many murders (king 
Henry VI., 147 1 ; king Edward V. and his brother, 
1485; sir Thomas Overbury, 16 13). The armoury 
and 280,000 stand of arms, &c, were destroyed by 
fire, 30 Oct. 1841. The "New Buildings" in the 
Tower were completed in 1850. See Blood; for 
Tower-Subways, see Thames. The more recent 
constables of the Tower have been the duke of Wel- 
lington, lord Combermere, and sir John Burgoyne. 
Sir George Pollock, constable Oct. 1871, died 6 
Oct. 1872 ; sir Wm. Gomm, 31 Oct. 1872, died 15 
March, 1875 ; sir Charles Yorke, April, 1875, died 
20 Nov. 1880; sir W. Fen wick Williams, April, 
1881 ; gen. sir K. J. Dacres, Aug. 1881, died 6 Dec. 
1886 ; lord Napier of Magdala, Dec. 1886, died 14 
Jan. 1890; gen. sir Daniel Lysons, 3 March, 1890, 



died 29 Jan. 1898, aged 81 ; gen. sir Frederick C. 

Stephenson, 2 March, 1898. 

The menagerie, long here, was removed to the Zoological 
Gardens, 1831 ; the state papers were removed to the 
Record Office, 1857. 

Opened free to the public (Mondays and Saturdays) from 
3 April, 1875. 

Lanthorne Tower rebuilt and other restorations, 1884-5. 

The White Tower and other parts greatly damaged by an 
explosion of dynamite ; about 16 visitors seriously 
hurt, about 2 p.m. 24 Jan. John Gilbert Cunningham 
and Harry Burton apprehended, 24 Jan. ; committed 
for trial, 27 March, 1885. See Trials. 

Tower Bridge act passed, 14 Aug. 1885 ; foundation of 
the bridge laid by the prince of Wales, 21 June, 1886. 

The work practically completed, 27 March, 1894. 

The bridge is a compound suspension and bascule bridge 
of three spans, of which the centre opening is fitters 
with a bascule or drawbridge ; Mr. J. Wolfe Barry, 
engineer, K.C.B., 1897; the bridge opened by the 
prince and princess of Wales ; a procession of vessels 
passed under the bridge, 30 June, 1894. 

Opened to the public, 9 July, 1894, et seq. 

Cost of bridge and approaches, reported to be nearly 
i,ooo,oooZ. 

TOWN HOLDINGS in Great Britain and 
Ireland. A commitree appointed in 1886-9 (Mr. 
Lewis Fry, sir H. James, sir Wm. Marriott, and 
others), to" enquire into terms of occupation, faci- 
lities for purchase by tenants, rating, improvements, 
&c. The report issued 13 July, 1889, was stated to 
be a compromise. 

Report of the committee, dealing with questions 
relating to local taxation, the liability of ground 
rents, &c., published . . . 20 May, 1892 

TOWNLEY MARBLES, in the British 
Museum, were purchased in 1805 and 1814. 

TOWTON (Yorkshire), where a sanguinary 
battle was fought, 29 March, 1461, between the 
houses of fork (Edward IV.) and Lancaster (Henry 
VI.), to the latter of whom it was fatal, and on 
whose side more than 37,000 fell. Edward issued 
orders to give no quarter, and the most merciless 
slaughter ensued. Henry and his queen, Margaret, 
fled to Scotland; and Edward IV. was settled on 
the throne. 

TOXOPHILITES (from toxon, a bow, and 
philos, a lover), a society established by sir Aston 
Lever in 1781. The Toxophilites formed a division 
of the Artillery Company about 1784-1803. In 1834 
they took grounds in the inner circle of Eegent's- 
park, and built the archery lodge. They possess a 
very curious piece of plate, given by Catherine, queen 
of Charles II., to be shot for by the Finsbury archers, 
of whom the Toxophilites are the representatives. 

TOYNBEE HALL, see under University 
Teaching. 

TRACT SOCIETIES. The Society for Pro- 
moting Christian Knowledge was founded in 1698 ; 
the Beligious Tract Society, London, in 1799; and 
other similar societies since. 

TRACTARIANISM, a term applied to certain 
opinions on church matters propounded in the 
"Tracts for the Times," of which ninety numbers 
were published, 1833-41. The principal writers 
were the revs. Dr. E. Pusey, J. H. Newman, 
J. Keble, J. Fronde, and I. Williams — all of the 
university of Oxford; see Puseyism. The tracts 
(specially No. 90, ascribed to rev. J. H. Newman) 
were condemned by the authorities at Oxford, 15. 
March, 1841. 

TRACTION-ENGINES were used on com- 
mon roads in London in i860, but afterwards re- 



TRADE OF GREAT BRITAIN. 1258 



TRAFALGAR. 



stricted. In Aug. 1862, one of Bray's traction- 
engines conveyed through the city a mass of iron 
which would nave required 29 horses ; see Road- 
steamers and Railways. 

TRADE of GREAT BRITAIN, see Ex- 
ports and Imports. In 1861 the value of the two 
amounted to 377,017,522/. ; in 1871 to 614,590,180/.; 
in 1875 to 655,551,900/. ; in 1877, to 646,765,702/. ; 
in 1879, 611,775,239/.; in 1881, 694,105,264/.; in 
1883, 732,328,649/.; 1884, 685,986,152/.; 1885, 
642,442,263/. ; 1886, 618,822,935/. ; 1887, 
643,490,449/. ; 1888, 686,213,284/. ; 1890, 
748,944,115/.; 1901,869,854,466/. See Commerce. 

Trade with the United States doubled in. value in ten 
years. 1877, 77,805,000?. ; 1878, 89,070,000?. 

Royal commission for enquiry into causes of depression 
of trade, 31 Aug. 1885. Earls of Iddesleigh and 
Dunraven, Mr. G. Sclater Booth, prof. Bonamy 
Price, and twenty others. First meeting 7 Oct. 
1885 ; final report issued Feb. 1887. The majority 
refer to over-production, rise in value of gold, and in 
regard to agriculture, fall of prices, as probable causes ; 
improved condition of the working classes noted, Jan. 
1887. 

See blue book on British trade and industry, issued 
16 Sept. 1903. 

TRADE AND PLANTATIONS, Board 

OF. Cromwell seems to have given the first notions 
of a board of trade : in 1655 he appointed his son 
Richard, with many lords of his council, judges, 
and gentlemen, and about twenty merchants of 
London, York, Newcastle, Yarmouth, Dover, &c, 
to meet and consider by what means the trade and 
navigation of the republic might be best promoted. 
Thomas' s Notes of the Rolls. Charles II., on his 
restoration, established a council of trade for keep- 
ing a control over the whole commerce of the 
nation, 1660 ; he afterwards instituted a board of 
trade and plantations which was remodelled by 
William III. This board was abolished in 1782; 
and a new council for the affairs of trade on its 
present plan was appointed, 2 Sept. 1786. 

The parliamentary recommendation in 1880 to appoint a 
"minister of trade and commerce" was dropped by 
Mr. Gladstone in March, 1881. 

Board of trade journal of tariffs, &c. published, 15 Sept. 
1886 etseq. For the presidents, see successive Admini- 
strations : Sir M. E. Hicks-Beach, 15 Feb. 1888 ; Mr. 
A. J. Mundella, Aug. 1892. (Secretary, Mr. Thomas 
Burt,'originally a coal-hewer, Dec. 1892.) Mr. Charles 
T. Ritchie, 25 June, 1895. (Secretary, sir Courtenay 
Boyle, 1893 ; died, 19 May, T901.) 

Lord Farrer, nearly 40 years secretary, died, aged 80, 
11 Oct. 1899. 

TRADE CONGRESSES, see Working-men. 

TRADE MARKS REGISTRATION 

ACT, passed 13 Aug. 1875. The registration office, 
Quality-court, Chancery-lane (Mr. H. Reader Lack, 
registrar), was opened' 1 Jan. 1876; a similar act 
passed in the United States, 1881. 3,118 trade- 
marks registered in 1879; 3,522 in 1S93; 3,358 in 
1897. See Merchandise Marks Act. 

TRADES MUSEUMS. The formation of 
one was undertaken in 1853, jointly by the com- 
missioners of the Great Exhibition of 1851, and the 
Society of Arts. The animal department was opened 
117 May, 1855, when a paper on the mutual rela- 
tions of trade and manufactures was read by pro- 
fessor E. Solly. The contents of this museum were 
removed to the South Kensington Museum, which 
was opened 24 June, 1857. The French " Con- 
servatoire des Arts et Metiers " was established 
•795- 



TRADE, NATIONAL CHAMBER OF, 

inaugural meeting at Manchester, Mr. R. Thorn- 
ton- Varley elected president (from 8,000 to 10,000 
members), 24 Nov. 1897. 

TRADES UNIONS defined as " continuous 
associations of wage-earners, for the purpose of 
maintaining or improving the conditions of their 
employment," were gradually formed after the 
repeal of the ''combination laws" in 1825, to 
withstand the undue influence of capital and 
competition. As trades unions formed for main- 
taining the rate of wages, &c, are not recognised 
by law, a commission (including lord Elcho, 
Thomas Hughes, and others, with sir Wra. Erie 
as chairman) was appointed to enquire into their 
constitution, 14 Feb. 1867, and an act to facili- 
tate their proceedings was passed 5 April follow- 
ing. Their reports were issued during the year, 
disclosing the existence of murderous practices, 
with great intimidation ; see Sheffield and Man- 
chester. An act to protect union funds from em- 
bezzlement was passed in 1869. A trade union act 
passed 29 June, 1871, amended by act passed 30 
June, 1876. To counteract the influence of trades 
unions, the IS ational Federation of Employers was 
formed Dec. 1873 ; see Employers and Working- 
men. Trades unions were legalised in France in 
1884. Trades unions in the United States, N.A., 
previously local, were legalised in 1845, and were 
gradually consolidated and became very powerful. 
See United States. " History of Trade Unionism," 
published 1894, and "Industrial Democracy," by 
Sidney and Beatrice Webb, published 1897. 

207 trades unions in England in 1885 ; 1,330 in 1896 ; 
1,236, 1901. 

Trades Union Congress opened at Liverpool, 18 Jan. 
1875, 1876 ; at Leicester, 17 Sept. 1877 ; at Bristol, 
9 Sept. 1878 ; at Edinburgh, 15 Sept. 1879 ; Dublin, 
13 Sept. 1880; London, 12 Sept. 1881 ; Manchester, 18 
Sept. 1882 ; Nottingham [134 unions, 552,091 mem- 
bers], 10 Sept. 1883 ; Aberdeen, 8 Sept. 1884 ; South- 
port, 7 Sept. 1885 ; Hull, 6 Sept. 1886 ; Swansea, 
5 Sept. 1887 ; Bradford, 3 Sept. 1888 ; Dundee, 2 
Sept. 1889 ; Liverpool, 1 Sept. 1890 ; Newcastle-on- 
Tyne, 7 Sept. 1891 ; Glasgow, 5 Sept. 1892 ; Belfast, 
4 Sept. 1893 ; Norwich, 3 Sept. 1894 ; Cardiff, 2 Sept. 
1895 ; Edinburgh, 7 Sept, 1896 ; Birmingham, 6 Sept. 
1897 ; Bristol, 29 Aug. 1898 ; Plymouth, 4 Sept. 1899 ; 
Hudderstield, 3 Sept. 1900; Swansea, 2 Sept. 1901 ; 
London, 1 Sept. 1902 ; Leicester, 7 Sept. 1903. 

A special congress (280 delegates) in favour of national 
trade federation, at Manchester, 24-26 Jan. 1899. 

Internat. congress at Stuttgart, mid June, 1902. 

Amalgamated society of railway servants hold special 
meetings at Holborn Town hall and discuss the 
verdict and judgment given in favour of the Taft" 
Vale rly. co. (see Trials 22, July, 1901). Resolution 
not to appeal, but to support trade unions if they 
decide to appeal and. to bear proportion of cost. 
Gen. -secretary estimates total cost of dispute to the 
society at 50,000?. ; rules revised, and resolution 
carried in favour of direct labour representation in 
parliament, 6-8 Jan. 1903. 

Conference at the offices of Taff Yale rly. co., Cardiff, 
between the manager and solicitor of the company and 
a deputation of the Amalgamated Society of Railway 
Servants on the question of damages in the action 
against the society. Agreed that the society should 
pay 23,000?. for damages and cost, 11 Feb. 1903. 

Trade Union Congress at Leicester passes a resolution 
in favour of the legislative limitation of hours of 
labour to 8 hours per diem, and of making this a test 
question at all elections, 10 Sept. 1903. 

TRAFALGAR (Cape S. Spain), off which a 
great naval victory was gained by the British, under 
Nelson, over the combined fleets of France and 
Spain, commanded by admiral Villeneuve and two 



TRAFFIC. 



1259 



TEAM-EOADS. 



Spainsh admirals, 21 Oct. 1805. The enemy's force 
was eighteen French and fifteen Spanish vessels, 
all of the line : that of the British, twenty-seven 
ships. After a protracted fight, Villeneuve and the 
other admirals were taken, and nineteen of their 
ships captured, sunk, or destroyed. Nelson was 
killed, and admiral Collingwood succeeded to the 
command. Nelson's ship was the Victory ; and his 
last signal was, " England expects every man will 
do his duty ;" see Nelson. The day specially cele- 
brated in London, 21 Oct. 1896 et seq. Trafalgar- 
square, London, begun 1829; completed 1845. Act 
passed in 1844, declaring that the square is Crown 
property, the charge of it placed in the hands of the 
Commissioners of Woods and Forests and under 
police regulations. In 185 1, the charge was trans- 
ferred to the Commissioners of Works. The right 
of preventing public meetings in the square by the 
executive affirmed by the commons (316 — 224), 2 
March, 1888. Grand Hotel opened by Lord Mayor, 
29 May, 1880. See Riots. 

Public meetings in the square on Saturday after- 
noons, Sundays, and bank holidays, subject to 
regulations, 31 Oct. 1892, were resumed, 5 Nov. 
Generally the unemployed met. Louise Michel 
there 11 Dec. 1892 

Meeting of 1,000 anarchists to protest against the 
employment of military and police in strike riots, 
17 Sept. 1895 ; meeting on behalf of the midland % 
coal- strikers 1 Oct. 1893 

Anarchist meeting in memory of the executions in 

Chicago 12 Nov. ,, 

See United State*, 1887. 

A meeting of anarchists proposed for 3 Dec. pro- 
hibited ,, 

A meeting of the Bermondsey vestry and several 
M.P.s against the house of lords' action on the 
Parish Councils bill on Sunday . . 18 Feb. 1894 

Demonstration in favour of Crete and Greece, 

14 March, 1897 

Demonstration against the S. African war fails 
completely; the speakers refused a hearing by 
the crowd 24 Sept. 1899 

Demonstration of shop assistants, clerks, and ware- 
housemen; resolution carried against the "living- 
in" system, long hours, and low pay . 28 Sept. 1902 

Mass meeting to consider the distress ; resolution 
passed in favour of a permanent national system 
to provide work for every deserving citizen, 

21 Dec. ,, 

Demonstration of the unemployed . . 14 Feb. 1903 

TEAFFIC in the metropolis is now regulated 
by the Metropolitan Streets act, passed 20 Aug. 
1867. 

London Traffic Commission, appointed 1903 to in- 
quire into the subject of metropolitan locomotion. 
Evidence is being taken of the London County 
Council, and of witnesses from the municipal borough 
councils and other authorities in the vicinity of 
London who are interested in the question of metro- 
politan traffic, including the great railway companies 
and tube railway companies. The commission pro- 
pose to personally examine the means of transit 
existing in the chief cities of Europe and in the 
United States. A sub-commission of six members 
visited (Sept. -Oct.) New York, Boston, Philadelphia, 
and Chicago to investigate the methods adopted 
in these cities with special reference to the 
merits of subways and tube railways. The report of 
the commission will probably be presented to 
parliament towards the end of 1904. 

TEAGEDY, see Drama. 

TEAINING SCHOOLS, begun by the Na- 
tional Society, 181 1. One was founded at Battersea in 
1840, by sir J. Kay Shuttleworth, and Mr. £. C. 
Tufnell ; the latter, who was then in the Poor Law 
Commission, devoting a year's salary towards the 
expenses. Mr. Mann stated, in 1855, that there 



were about forty of these schools in different parts 
of the country. 

Maria Grey training college, established 1878 ; extension 

fund started, 1891. 
Finsbury training college established about 1883. 

TEAINING SHIPS, see Marine Society, 
Chichester, and Shaftesbury Memorials. 

TEA JAN'S COLUMN (in Home), erected 
114, by the Boman senate and people, to com- 
memorate his victories, and executed by Apollo- 
dorus. It was built in the square called the Forum 
Trajanum ; it is of the Tuscan order, and from 
its base, exclusive of the statue and pedestal, is 
127I feet high. 

TEAM-EOADS. The name is probably de- 
rived from being made of trams or bars of wood ; the 
statement that it was derived from Mr. Benjamin 
Outram (the father of sir James Outram, the Indian 
general), who improved the colliery railroads about 

1800, is very doubtful. The iron tram-road from 
Croydon to Wandsworth was completed on 24 July, 

1801 . The Preston Outram-way was opened 1 June, 
1803. Street railways or tramways for omnibuses 
drawn by horses, previously established by Mr. Train 
in New York, were opened by him at Birkenhead, 
Cheshire, 30 Aug. i860, and at Bayswater, London, 
23 March, 1861. (See Ireland, 1868.) A street rail- 
way bill was rejected by the house of commons in 
April, 1861. Several of these railways existed for a 
time in various parts of the metropolis in 1861, but 
were all taken up in 1862. An act to facilitate the 
construction of tramways passed 9 Aug. 1870. Tram- 
ways from Brixton to Kennington, and from White- 
chapel to Bow, were opened 9 May, 1870 ; and 
others since. Their introduction into the city was 
much recommended but opposed, March- May, 
1873. Dividend of the North Metropolitan tram- 
ways company, 8 per cent. Aug. 1876. The use of 
steam locomotives proposed : approved in Paris, 
July, 1876. 

Elevated street railways erected in New York, 1877-8. 

233 miles of tramways constructed in England and Wales, 
1870-80. 

Steam cable tramway on Highgate Hill, N. London (the 
first in Europe), opened 29 May, 1884; stopped Dec. 
1892 ; cars again running (1898). 

Steam employed by the North London Tramways com- 
pany, 1 April, 1885. See under Air. 

886 miles of tramways in the United Kingdom in 1887; 
904 miles in 1S88 ; 1889, 949 miles; 811,943?. net 
receipts in 1890 ; 1893, 768,649?. net receipts, 960 
miles ; 189s, 982 miles : 855,200?. net receipts ; 1896, 
1009 miles : 1,046,505?. net receipts ; 1901, 1305 miles : 
net receipts, 1,435,883?. ; 1902, 1484 miles: net 
receipts, 1,861,418?. 

An international tramway congress opened at Brussels; 
5 Sept. 1888. 

Mr. Lineff's mode of traction on tramways by magneto- 
electricity was tried at Chiswick, 25 June, 1890. His 
patent has been purchased by a syndicate. 

Overhead electric tramway opened at Leeds, 29 Oct. 
1891. 

The Connelly tramcar motor in which the Vapour of 
mineral oil is employed, adopted by tramcars on part 
of the Loudon and Greenwich system, March, 1893. 

London Street Tramways, valued at 64,540?., proposed 
purchase by the London County Council, March, 1893. 

Propulsion of tramcar by compressed coal-gas success- 
fully tried at Croydon, 19 June, 1894. 

London Tramways act passed 31 July, 1894. 

All night service from Stratford to Aldgate (Metrop. 
Tram, co.) begins, Jan. 2 ; further extensions, Feb. 
et seq. 1899. 

Internat. tramways and light railways exhibition opened 
at the Agricultural hall, 22 June, 1900 ; another con- 
gress opened by Mr. Gerald Balfour, 30 June, 1902. 



TRANQUEBAR. 



1260 



TRANSVAAL REPUBLIC. 



First section of South London electric system opened 
by the prince of Wales, 15 May, 1903. 

TRANQUEBAR (East Indies), the Danish 
settlement here, founded in 1618, was purchased by 
the English in 1845. 

TRANSCASPIAN RAILWAY, see under 
Railways, 1888. 

TRANSFIGURATION. The change of 
Christ's appearance on Mount Tabor, in the pre- 
sence of Peter, James, and John, a.d. 32 {Matt. 
xvii.). The feast of the Transfiguration, kept on 
6 Aug., was instituted in the East before 700, and 
seems to have been observed in the West as earl} 7 as 
450. Pope Calixtus III. in 1456 issued a bull 
making it a " feast of obligation " to be generally 
observed in honour of the defeat of the Turks at 
Belgrade in that year. 

TRANSFORMATION PRINTS. A 

method of printing one picture over another, the 
former being easily effaced, patented by Mr. 
Andrew Reid of Newcastle-on-Tyne, and others, 
1885. 

TRANSFUSION OF BLOOD, see Blood. 

TRANSIT, see Mercury and Venus. 

TRANSLATION TO HEAVEN- The trans- 
lation of Enoch to heaven at the age of 365 years, 
3017 B.C. The prophet Elijah was translated to 
heaven in a chariot of fire, 896 B.C. — The possibility 
of translation to the abode of eternal life has been 
maintained by some extravagant enthusiasts. The 
Irish house of commons expelled Mr. Asgill from 
his seat, for his book asserting the possibility of 
translation to the other world without death, 1703. 

TRANSPADANE REPUBLIC, comprising 
Lombardy and part of the Venetian territories, was 
established by Bonaparte after his victory at Lodi, 
10 May, 1796. With the Cispadane republic, it 
merged into the Cisalpine republic, Oct. 1797. 

TRANSPORTATION, see Banishment. 
Judges were given the power of sentencing offenders 
to transportation "into any of his majesty's domi- 
nions in North America," by 18 Charles II. c. 3 
(1666), and by 4 Geo. I. c. 11 (1718). Transporta- 
tion ceased in 1775, but was revived in 1786. The 
reception of convicts was successfully refused by the 
Cape of Good Hope (in 1849) and by the Australian 
colonies (1864). Transportation, even to West 
Australia, where labour is wanted, ceased after a 
few years, through the fierce opposition of the 
eastern colonies. In consequence of the difficulty 
then experienced in transporting felons, 16 & 17 
Vict. c. 99 was passed to provide other punishment, 
namely, penal servitude, empowering the qieen 
to grant pardon to offenders under certain condi- 
tions, and licences to others to be at large : such 
licences being liable to be revoked if necessary ; 
and many have been. These licences are termed 
"tickets of leave." The system is said to have 
originated in Australia under the superintendence 
of captain Maconochie. It was much assailed 
in Oct. and Nov. 1862, on account of violent crimes 
being traced to ticket-of-leavers ; and was modified 
by the Penal Servitude Act, 1864; and the Pre- 
vention of Crimes Acts, 1871 and 1879. It is now 
considered successful. See Crime. 

John Eyre, esq., a man of fortune, was sentenced to 
transportation for stealing a few quires of paper. 
— Phillips 1 Nov. 1771 



The Rev. Dr. Halloran, tutor to the earl of Chester- 
field, was transported for forging a frank (iod. 
postage) 9 Sept. 1818 

The first transportation of felons to Botany Bay was 
in May, 1787 ; where governor Phillip arrived 
with about 800 on 20 Jan. 1788 ; convicts were 
afterwards sent to Van Diemen's Land, Norfolk 
Island, &c. 

Transportation superseded by penal servitude . 1853 

Returning from transportation was punishable with 
death until 5 Will. IV. c. 67, Aug. 1834, when an 
act was passed making the offence punishable by 
transportation for life. 

A shipment of convicts to West Australia (which 
had already received 10,000) in 1867. 

TRANSUBSTANTIATION, the doctrine of 
the " real presence." That the bread and wine in 
the Eucharist are changed into the very flesh and 
blood of Christ by the consecration, was broached in 
the days of Gregory III. (731), and accepted by 
Amala.rius and Radbertus (about 830), but rejected 
by Rabanus Maurus, Johannes Scotus Erigena, 
Bcrengarius, "Wicliff'e, and others. In the Lateran 
council, held at Rome by Innocent III., the word 
" Transubstantiation " was used to express this 
doctrine, which was decreed to be incontrovertible ; 
and all who opposed it were condemned as heretics. 
This was confirmed by the council of Trent, 18 Jan. 
1562. John Huss, Jerome of Prague, and other 
martyrs of the reformation, suffered for denying 
this dogma, which is renounced by the church of 
England (28th article), and by all protestant dis- 
senters. The declaration against transubstantia- 
tion, invocation of the saints, and the sacrifice of 
the mass, on taking any civil office, was abolished 
by an act passed 25 July, 1867 ; see Sacrament. 

Luther maintained the doctrine of con-substantiation, 
viz., that after consecration the body and blood of 
Christ are substantially present in the bread and wine. 
He was opposed by Bucer, Carlstadt, Zwingle, and 
others (termed saeramentarians), who asserted that the 
Lord's supper is only a commemorative rite. 

TRANSVAAL REPUBLIC, named South 
African Republic in 1883, founded by Dutch Boers 
(farmers) in 1848, after several years' severe con- 
flict with the natives. Its independence was de- 
clared 17 Jan. 1852, S. J. P. Kriiger elected presi- 
dent 7 May, 1853 ; and its constitution proclaimed 
13 Eeb. 18*58 ; capital Pretoria. President for four 
years, T. F. Burgers, 27 May, 1872. Population 
about 38,000 Boers, 5000 English settlers, 770,000 
blacks (1881) ; 1894 (estimated), 800,000, of whom 
about 90,000 are whites ; 1895 (estimated), 15,000 
Boers, 60,000 Uitlanders, "outsiders" (mixed), 
250,000 Kaffirs. Estimated revenue, 4,886,499/. 
1897-8. The republic was annexed to Gt. Britain, 
1 Sept., and styled TbatvSvaal Colony, 25 Oct. 
1900. SeebelownndSouthAfrican Jl'ar. Estimated 
revenue, 4,000,000?. ; expenditure, 3,702,765/. 
1902-3; imports, 13,067,671/. 1902. 

War with the Kaffirs begun ; Cetewayo, king; Seco- 
cceni (Sickakuni), an eminent chief July, 1876 

Republican government blamed ; its troops defeated ; 
Sir Theophilus Shepstone sent to mediate Sept. „ 

Dutch boers assisted by the Amazwasies, a warlike 
tribe, who check Kaffirs . . . Sept. ,, 

Severe dispatch of the earl of Carnarvon, censuring 
burgers for aggression on Kaffirs . . Oct. ,, 

Seeocceni threatening Leydenburg . . Nov. ,, 

Schlickman, the Dutch general, killed in an attack, 

17 Nov. ,, 

Sir T. Shepstone well received ; a desire expressed 
for federation, Feb. ; opposition to it March, 1S77 

Anarchy in the Transvaal ; annexation of the 
Transvaal (for protection) to theBritish dominions 
proclaimed by sir T. Shepstone, 12 April ; he is 
sworn in as administrator . . 30 May, „ 



TRANSVAAL REPUBLIC. 



1261 



TRANSVAAL REPUBLIC. 



Conflict with Secocooni (disapproved) ; some volun- 
teers killed 17 June, 

Sir Win. Owen Lanyon made governor of the 
Transvaal March, 

Great opposition to the British rule ; appeased 
after much discussion . . .12 April, 

Sir G. Wolseley appointed governor of Natal , &c. , May 

War with Secocceni continues . Aug. et seq. 

His stronghold captured by col. Baker Russell 

(under sir Garnet Wolseley), with British and 

native troops 28 Nov. 

Secocceni surrenders .... 2 Dec. 

The Transvaal declared a crown colony Dec. 

The Boers meet and claim independence ; Bok, 
Kruger, and Pretorius arrested for signing a 
document issued by the Boer committee, 

Dec. 1879, and Jan. 

The Boers seize Heidelberg, 16 Dec. ; establish the 
South Africa republic, Paul Kruger president 

17 Dec. 

A party of Boers stop at Bronker's Spruit about 250 
British troops of the 94th regiment, who resist ; 
some killed or wounded ; others disarmed and 
dismissed 20 Dec. 

Potchefstrom seized by Boers, who retire when 

the place is shelled ; col. Bellairs besieged in it, 

27 Dec. ei seq. 

Capt. J. M. Elliot said to be treacherously killed 
while fording the Vaal ... 29 Dec. 

The South Africa Republic proclaimed by a trium- 
virate ; Kruger, Joubert, and Pretorius 30 Dec. 

Troops sent from Britain, &c, Dec, 1880, and Jan. 

Sir George P. Colley (appointed governor of Natal 
1880) takes command in the war . . Jan. 

Gen. Colley's attack on Laing's Nek, a pass, re- 
pulsed with heavy loss ; col. Bonar Millet Deane, 
majors Ruseombe Poole and Win. Hunt Hin- 
geston killed 28 Jan. 

Severe conflict on the Ingogo river ; the British 12 
hours under lire ; repulsed with heavy loss, 

8 Feb. 

Sir Evelyn Wood arrives with reinforcements and 
joins gen. Colley 17 Feb. 

The Orange Free State proclaim neutrality and 
mediation .... about 22 Feb. 

Gen. Colley marches in the night to Majuba hill 
(which sec) ; defeated and killed after a desperate 
conflict . . . 26-27 Feb. 

Gen. sir F. Roberts sent to Africa . . 28 Feb. 

Armistice proposed by the Boers ; accepted for 6-14 
March ; armistice extended, 14 March ; Boers 
agree to British terms, 21, 22 March ; peace pro- 
claimed ; the Boers disperse ; gen. Roberts recalled 

24 March, 

Potchefstrom surrenders with honours of war, 21 
March ; given up as occupied by mistake April, 

Vote of censure on the Government policy in the 
commons negatived (314-205) . 25, 26 July, 

Commissioners to carry out treaty of peace ap- 
pointed 5 April, agree to convention ceding virtu- 
ally all the territory to "The Transvaal State" 
on 8 August, subject to suzerainty of the Queen, 
and a British resident ; with debt of about 
420,867?.. &c. ; independence of the Swazies 
guaranteed ; signed by Royal commissioners and 
Martin W. Pretorius and Peter J. Joubert 
(Stephen J. P. Kruger not present), 3 Aug. ; 
etlected 8 Aug. 

Meeting of the volksraad, 21 Sept.; treaty confirmed, 

25 Oct. 

Mr. G. Hudson appointed first British resident, 

Nov. 

Departure of the British troops . about 28 Dec. 

Fighting with the natives .... Feb. 

Secocoeni killed by a rival chief . . . Aug. 

War with the insubordinate chief Mapoch . Oct. 

Renewed troubles with the natives . Sept -Oit-. 

Fighting with the natives, who are repulsed, under 
their chief Mapoch . . . 16-17 Nov. 

Agaiu defeated Jan. 

Combination of chiefs against the Boers announced, 

March, 

Negotiations for peace begun by Mapoch announced, 

5 April, 



1879 



Paul Kruger, president . 9 May, 1883, and 8 May, 

Peace concluded July, 

Transvaal deputies. Taul Kruger and others, re- 
ceived by lord Derby .... 7 Nov. 

Definite .proposals submitted to the government, 
22 Dec. ; amended boundary lines accepted, 
2 Feb. ; convention signed, the republic to be 
styled the "South Africa Republic" under 
British suzerainty .... 27 Feb. 

The convention adopted by the Transvaal assembly, 

8 Aug. 

The filibustering settlers of Goshen and Stellaland 
break the convention ; seize and annex Montsioa's 
lands in Bechuanaland ; sanctioned by a pro- 
clamation ; withdrawn on remonstrance, 

Sept., Oct. 

Sir H. Robinson's ultimatum from Cape Town 
requiring protection of the frontiers . about 

14 Oct. 

Short war with the natives, refusing to pay taxes ; 
Maniusa taken ; battle . . . .2 Dec. 

Johannesburg founded through the development 
of gold mining ; inhabitants chiefly English 

Defensive treaty with the Orange Free State, 
about 13 March, 

A great commercial development of commerce 
since the discovery of goldfields, rapid growth 
of Johannesburg . . . reported Sept. 

Famine in Johannesburg, relieved by government, 

about 23 Oct. 

Visit of president Kruger to Johannesburg, resisted 
by a violent crowd .... 4 March, 

He signs the agreement for Swaziland, about 4 Aug. 

Geu. joubert entertained in London . Dec. 

Heavy rains and destructive floods ; Johannesburg 
suffers greatly, .... middle Jan. 

About 100 Boers prevented by the police from 
crossing the Limpopo . . about 2 July, 

Destructive storm and inundation, about 10, 11 Feb. 

Paul Kruger re-elected president, 7,881 ; gen. 
Joubert, 7,009; M. Kotze, 76; reported 12 April, 

Malaboch's stronghold in Zoutpausberg stormed 
by the Transvaal forces ; reported . 20 June, 

Sir Plenry B. Loch, the high commissioner, visits 
Pretoria to obtain redress of the grievances of 
British and foreign residents . . 26 June, 

British subjects exempted from military service 
by the Transvaal government ; friendly agree- 
ment 28 June, 

Destructive revolt of the Kaffirs (Zoutpausberg 
district), reported . . . . 13 Aug. 

Malaboch and 200 followers imprisoned at Pretoria, 

18 Aug. 

The Kaffirs defeated after severe fighting and sue 
for peace 29 Aug. 

The chiefs surrender ; reported . . 13 Sept. 

The Swaziland convention passed by the Volksraad ; 
see Swaziland 13 Feb. 

Rebellion in Zoutpausberg suppressed after severe 
fighting 11 June, 

The Delagoa railway opened at Pretoria, sir Hercules 
Robinson and other British governors present ; 
much festivity 8 July, 

Protest of the British government at the closing of 
the Vaal river drifts as contrary to the conven- 
tion of London, 4 Nov. ; agreed to . 8 Nov. 

Increased opposition to the despotic government of 
pres. Kruger; Mr. Esseleu, state "attorney, Mr. 
Christian Joubert, and other officials resign ; the 
Uitlanders (settlers) demand a voice in public 
affairs, <fec, reported .... 16 Dec. 

The National union, chairman, Mr. Chas. Leonard, 
issues a liberal manifesto ... 26 Dec. 

Dr. Jameson having received an appeal for help 
from the Uitlanders in Johannesburg, crosses the 
frontier with a force from Pitsani Pitlogo, 29 
Dec. ; col. Grey and others start from Mafeking, 
with about 460 men (volunteers) of the British 
S. Africa company's troops . . .30 Dec. 

Sir Hercules Robinson telegraphs to Dr. Jameson 
to retire 30 Dec. 

Mr. jChamberlain and sir H. Robinson intervene 
to stop hostilities, and offer co-operation to pres. 
Kruger 31 Dec. 



1893 



TRANSVAAL EEPUBLIC 



1262 



TRANSVAAL REPUBLIC. 



Dr. Jameson's party, outnumbered and without 
resources, defeated by the Boers near Krugers- 
dorp i Jan. 

They surrender conditionally, after another fight 
at Vlakfontein, 2 Jan. ; British loss, 21 killed, 46 
wounded ; 9 officers and 550 men prisoners at 
Pretoria 3 Jan. 

Johannesburg surrenders unconditionally, on the 
advice of the British government . . 2 Jan. 

The German emperor congratulates pres. Kruger, 
2 Jan. ; who replies gratefully . . 5 Jan. 

Correspondence between Mr. Chamberlain and 
pres. Kruger respecting the prisoners, 3, 4, 5 Jan. 

Sir H. Robinson, sir Graham Bower, capt. Daw- 
kins, and others arrive in Pretoria . . 5 Jan. 

Some of the Reform committee at Johannesburg 
arrested 6 Jan. 

Dr. Jameson and other prisoners handed over to 
sir H. Robinson* 7 Jan. 

The British South Africa company in London request 
a judicial inquiry relating to Dr. Jameson's entry 
into the Transvaal (29 Dec.) ... 9 Jan. 

General amnesty (with exceptions) at Johannes- 
burg 9 Jan. 

Between 50 and 60 members of the Reform com- 
mittee of the Uitlanders, col. Rhodes, sir Drum- 
mond Dunbar, Mr. Lionel Phillips, and others, 
arrested, and sent to Pretoria . . 10 Jan. 

The parliament votes thanks to the Orange Free 
State and to sir H. Robinson, and adjourns, 

13 Jan. 

Sir Hercules Robinson leaves Pretoria 14 Jan. 

Preliminary trial of the Reform leaders begins at 
Pretoria, 3 Feb. ; confiscation of property ad- 
judged 25 Feb. 

Pres. Kruger invited to London . . .4 Feb. 

Explosion of shunted trucks of dynamite, at Vre- 
dendorp, a suburb of Johannesburg ; the whole 
district in ruins, thousands homeless, about 80 
deaths ; vigorous measures of relief adopted, 

19 Feb. 

1,000?. contributed by the Cape government to the 
relief fund ; total, 104,000?. . . .22 Feb. 

Friendly but firm despatch from Mr. Chamberlain 
to the president, insisting on redress of Uit- 
lander's grievances, and requesting an answer to 
the invitation, 1 April ; pres. Kruger defers his 
visit for the present .... 24 April, 

Trial of the Reform leaders : they plead guilty of 
high treason, sentence of death passed on Mr. 
Lionel Phillips, Mr. Hays Hammond, George P. 
Farrar, and col. Frank Rhodes (commuted to 
imprisonment and banishment, 29 April), 

24-28 April, 

[59 principal men of the Rand, sentenced to 2 yrs. 
imprisonment, 3 yrs. banishment, and heavy 
fines, 28 April, 1896.] 

The volksraad opened by pres. Kruger, who refers 
to the drought, locusts, and rinderpest . 4 May, 



* Dr. Jameson and his party (350 officers and men) 
sail from Durban, 21 Jan. 1896 ; arrive in London, 25 
Feb. ; charged, after examination, before sir John Bridge 
at Bow st., 25 Feb. et seq. ; Leander Starr (Dr.) Jameson 
and 5 others were committed, and bailed, 15 June ; trial 
at bar, before lord chief justice Russell, Mr. baron 
Pollock, and Mr. justice Hawkins : counsel for the 
crown, attorney-gen. sir R. Webster, sol. -gen. sir R. B. 
Finlay, and others : for Dr. Jameson and defendants, 
sir Edward Clarke, and others ; South Africa Republic 
represented by Mr. Cohen, and others ; verdict, guilty 
of offences under the Foreign enlistment act : appeal 
for new trial declined by defendants ; sentences : im- 
prisonment without hard labour : Dr. Jameson, 15 
months [ill ; released, 2 Dec. 1896] ; sir JohnWilloughby, 
10 months ; major Robt. White, 7 months ; col. Henry 
White, col. Grey, and major Coventry, 5 months : 20-28 
July, 1896. Major Coventry, ill, released, 22 Aug. 1S06 ; 
the 5 officers permitted to retire from the army, SoMieers 
unconvicted, reprimanded, and return to duty, reported, 
15 Sept. 1896. [A trooper awarded 500?. damages from 
the B. S. A. company as compensation for losses, 
July, 1898.] 



Resignation of sir Jacobus de Wet, British agent 
in Pretoria 11 May, 

Dr. Jameson and major Robt. White write to the 
Times emphatically denying the receipt of any 
message from Mr. Cecil Rhodes directing them 
to move to Johannesburg . . .12 May, 

Mr. Grey, one of the reform committee, became in- 
sane and commits suicide in prison, 16 May ; 9 
released and shorter sentences on the others, 
20 May ; insanitary condition of the gaol ; illness 
among the prisoners, 45 released under conditions, 

30 May. 

The executive decide to release the reform leaders 
on payment of 25,000?. each, or in default 15 
years' banishment ; fines paid ; col. Rhodes, not 
accepting conditions, banished . 11 June, 

Bill for the education of Uitlanders' children 
passed by the volksraad . . . .4 Aug. 

Mr. Wm. Conyngham Greene appointed British 
agent at Pretoria, Aug. ; arrives . . 1 Dec. 

Aliens (dangerorxs) expulsion bill comes into force, 
30 Sept. ; aliens immigration restriction law 
passed, 26 Nov. (comes into operation, 1 Jan. 1897) 

Pacific speech of pres. Kruger at a banquet in 
Pretoria 27 Nov. 

Pres. Kruger opens the new railway from Krugers- 
dorp to Potchefstroom . . . .22 Jan. 

Volksraad opened, 1 Feb. ; 826 Uitlanders admitted 
to the franchise n Feb. 

Collision between the volksraad and the high court 
of justice ; deadlock, Feb. ; the new high court 
law passed, 25 Feb. ; the judges (high court) 
adjourn, 5 March ; compromise, negotiations, 19 
March ; court resumed pro teni. 14 July, Aug. ; 
[compromise ended, 5 Feb. 1898]. 

Firm conciliatory despatches of Mr. Chamberlain, 
6 March ; and again . . . . 16 Oct. 

Indemnity claimed for the Jameson raid, 
677,938?. 3s. 3d., "moral or intellectual damage, 
1,000,000?.," total, 1,677,938?. 3s. 3d. . 19 March, 

Dr. Jameson examined by the S. Africa com- 
mittee (see Rhodesia) . . 26 March et seq. 

Defensive alliance with the Orange Free State, 

June, 

Construction of forts round Pretoria April et seq. 

Alien immigration bill repealed . . 7 May, 

Epidemic in the north attributed to the pollution 
from the rinderpest ; great mortality . June, 

Suicide of Mr. I. B. Barnato (temporary insanity), 
see Cape of Good Hope .... June, 

Messrs. Sampson and Davies, Uitlander reformers, 
who refused pardon, not accepting conditions, 
released on Jubilee day ... 22 June, 

Pres. Kruger, in the volksraad, denies the suze- 
rainty of Great Britain, but maintains the con- 
vention of 1884 and desires peace . 24 Aug. 

Diamond mine near Pretoria discovered . Sept. 

Presidential election, candidates : Mr. Kruger, gen. 
Joubert, and Mr. Burger, 4 days' poll, closed, 
22 Jan. ; Mr. Kruger re-elected, majority, 9,005, 
announced 10 Feb. 

Chief Justice Kotze (see above, Feb.) dismissed 
from office (unconstitutional) ; succeeded by 
state-attorney Gregorowski . . . 16 Feb. 

Mr. Kotze supported by the lawyers, 12 March 
(over 5,000?. subscribed for him, April) ; his 
manifesto issued, 16 March ; Times, 7 April ; 
entertained in London ... 20 June, 

The volksraad opened by the president . 2 May, 

The government's reply to Mr. Chamberlain's 
despatch of 16 Oct. 1897, to the effect that it 
cannot recognise British suzerainty since the 
convention of 1884, but that it will abide by the 
stipulations of that convention, and re-affirms 
its right to arbitration, published . 24 May, 

Aliens expulsion amendment bill passed . 13 June, 

Mr. Kotze, ex-chief justice, allowed to practise as 
advocate Nov. 

Punitive expedition under gen. Joubert against 
Mpefu, Kaffir chief, in the Zoutpansberg district, 
much lighting, 21 Oct. ; Magato's mountain 
captured 16 Nov. 



1897 



TEANSVAAL EEPUBLIC. 



1263 



TEANSVAAL EEPUBLIC. 



Mpefu captured by the Chartered company's force 
and sent to Bulawayo, reported . . 30 Dec. 1898 

Mr. Edgar, British subject, shot dead by Jones, a 
policeman, 19 Dec. 1898 ; Jones is acquitted, 

25 Feb. 1899 
Stormy British meeting at Johannesburg to protest 

against the arrest of Messrs. Webb and Dodd, of 
the S. African league, 14 Jan. ; the British vice- 
consul refuses to appear at the trial, which is 
adjourned, 19 Jan. ; prisoners discharged, 

14 April, „ 

A petition to the queen, signed by 23,000 Uitlanders, 
stating their grievances (the franchise, dynamite 
monopoly, &c), 24 March, forwarded by sir 
A. Milner, 3 April (over 40,000 signatures, July). 

Negotiations : Mr. Chamberlain declares the dyna- 
mite monopoly to be a breach of the convention, 

April, ,, 

Much intimidation of Uitlanders . April et seq. „ 

Mrs. Applebee, wife of a Wesleyan minister (who 
had denounced the illegal liquor traffic), mur- 
dered, 28 April ; 2 other murders near Johannes- 
burg, May, July (crimes unpunished). 

Volksraad opened by pres. Kruger, 1 May ; hot 
debate ; some slight concession in respect to the 
franchise proposed 23 May, ,, 

The British government, through Mr. Conyngham 
Greene, British agent at Pretoria, expresses 
sympathy with the Uitlanders, and hopes for a 
speedy change in their position, announced, 

27 May, ,, 

Bloemfontein conference : sir A. Milner's fran- 
chise proposals rejected by pres. Kruger ; 
negotiations fail ; see Orange Free State, 

30 May-5 June, ., 

Mass meeting at Johannesburg, the Uitlanders 
assert sir A. Milner's proposals to be the irre- 
ducible minimum they could accept . 9 June, ,, 

Gen. Joubert opens the Pietersburg railway, 

31 May, ,, 

Pres. Kruger's franchise proposals adopted by the 
raad, 14 June, see below. 

Blue-book relating to the wrongs of the Uitlanders, 
issued 14 June, ,, 

Boer meetings throughout the country endorse 
pres. Kruger's franchise proposals . . June, ,, 

Exodus of miners begins . . 19 June et seq. „ 

Firm speech of Mr. Chamberlain at Birmingham, 

26 June, ,, 

See Cape Town 28 June, ,, 

Despatches on the suzerainty of Great Britain, 

published at Pretoria ... .3 July, ,, 

Great meeting at Johannesburg endorsing sir A. 
Milner's policy 4 July, ,, 

Ministers from the Cape and Orange Free state 
confer with pres. Kruger on sir A. Milner's fran- 
chise proposals at Pretoria, 5, 6 July ; secret 
session of the raad, pres. Kruger, Mr. Fischer 
(O.F.S.), present 6 July, ,, 

Green-book published, protesting against the an- 
nexation of Zambaansland by Great Britain, 

July, „ 

Trial of 4 alleged Johannesburg conspirators 
against the government (May), a " bogus affair" ; 
charge withdrawn and prisoners discharged, 

25 July, ,, 

Draft franchise law, 7 years' prospective and re- 
trospective franchise to Uitlanders, passed by 
the raad, 11 July ; ratified . . .26 July, ,, 

The British government adhere to sir A. Milner's 
minimum franchise scheme . . .13 July, ,, 

Blue-book, with despatches, sir A. Milner declares 
the new franchise law inadequate, issued, 27 July, , , 

Overflow meeting in Johannesburg against the new 
franchise law, reforms demanded, guaranteed by 
the imperial government . . .26 July, ,, 

Mr. Chamberlain proposes a joint inquiry into the 
new law, 31 July ; Mr. Conyngham Greene asks 
the Transvaal government to appoint delegates, 
2 Aug. ; rejected ; pres. Kruger proposes a five 
years' retrospective franchise, 10 members from 
the goldfields, renunciation of British suzerainty, 
and international arbitration . . 19 Aug. ,, 



Mr. Chamberlain proposes an inquiry by the 
British agent, and insists on the terms of the 
conventions 1881 and 1884 . . . 28 Aug. 1 

Mr. Chamberlain's firm, warning speech at Bir- 
mingham, 26 Aug., hailed with satisfaction by 
the Uitlanders 28 Aug. 

Crisis, business suspended at Johannesburg . Aug. 

Military preparations amongst the Boers ; ammuni- 
tion for the Transvaal stopped at Delagoa bay ; 
released 31 Aug. 

The Transvaal withdraws its proposal of a 5 years' 
and returns to the 7 years' franchise . 2 Sept. 

Attempted arrest of Messrs. Pakeman and Money- 
peny, press editors 2 Sept. 

Boer troops gathered on the frontiers . . Sept. 

Panic and exodus of Uitlanders from Johannesburg, 

3 Sept. et seq. 

Urgent British despatch, demands 5 years' fran- 
chise, a quarter representation for the goldfields, 
and equality of Dutch and English in the volks- 
raad, 8 Sept. ; Boer reply, negative and incon- 
clusive 17 Sept. 

Two firm despatches from Mr. Chamberlain main- 
taining the terms of previous despatches, and 
announcing that the imperial government would 
now formulate its own proposals . . 22 Sept. 

Boer troops (about 30,000) mobilised, posted along 
the frontier 2 Oct. et seq. 

Exodus of Uitlanders ; mail train from Natal 
stopped by Government order, passengers sent 
back at Volksrust, 30 Sept. ; another stopped 
and 8oo,oooL worth of Uitland gold confiscated, 

2 Oct. 

The raads prorogued .... 2 Oct. 

Boer Ultimatum presented by'Mr. Beitz (secre- 
tary of state) to Mr. C. Greene, at Pretoria, 
demanding arbitration ; withdrawal of British 
troops on the border, &c, 9 Oct. ; due compli- 
ance to be intimated by 5 p.m., 11 Oct. ; British 
reply states that these demands are such as are 
impossible to be discussed . . n Oct. 

Martial law proclaimed at Pretoria . .11 Oct. 
Mr. C. Greene recalled ; leaves Pretoria . 12 Oct. 
War proclaimed in Johannesburg, Boer manifesto 
issued to the Afrikanders . . .12 Oct. 
See South African War. 
Mr. A. F. Hay appointed U.S. consul at Pretoria, 

Dec. 
Special war tax in accordance with the volkraad 
resolution (28 Sept. 1899), levied, reported, 

3 Feb. ] 
Cartridge factory at Modderfontein blown up, 70 

deaths, reported .... 15 Feb. 

The Robinson bank at Johannesburg seized by 
Boer officials, reported, 8 Feb. ; cash and 
securities restored and bank re-opened, reported, 

25 Feb. 

Pres. Kruger arrives in Pretoria from the front 
and holds a hurried meeting of the executive, 

9 March, 

The government's appeal to the powers for inter- 
vention, declined . . . .12 March, 

Death of gen. Piet Joubert, an able general and 
politician, aged 66 . . . .27 March, 

The Rand mines closed and all British expelled 
from the republic . . . .29 March, 

The Boer peace mission received at the Hague, 19 
April-2 May ; at Washington, 18 May ; neutral 
policy to be maintained, announced, 21 May ; at 
Paris 7 July, 

Commandant Prinsloo sentenced to 9 months' 
imprisonment for treason . . .24 April, 

Begbie's foundry, under the management of the 
Creuzot firm, wrecked by explosion at 
Johannesburg, 30 deaths and 54 injured, many 
arrests, 24 April ; Mr. Begbie, jim., and 3 
others acquitted, charges withdrawn by the 
state prosecutor .... 24 May, 

Volksraad opened by pres. Kruger, 7 May ; his 
speech approved, session closed . . 9 May, 

Rev. Adrian Hofmeyr imprisoned 7 months without 



TRANSVAAL REPUBLIC. 



1264 



TRANSYLVANIA. 



trial for speeches in favour of the progressives ; 
released at Pretoria .... 14 May, 1900 
For other events see S. African War. 
Transvaal annexed to Great Britain ; proclama- 
tion issued by lord Roberts, 1 Sept. ; formal 
annexation took place ... 25 Oct. ,, 
Transvaal concessions commission (the hon. A. 
Lyttelton, Mr. A. M. Ashmore, and Mr. R. K. 
Loveday) met in S. Africa, end of Aug. ; public 
sittings at Pretoria during . . . Oct. „ 
Sir A. Milner, high commissioner for S. Africa, 
appointed governor of the Transvaal, Jan. 1901 ; 
arrives at Pretoria .... 4 March, 1901 
Civil jurisdiction re-established in Pretoria and 4 
chief towns ; military tribunals abolished in 
Pretoria and Johannesburg . . 10 April, „ 
Mine accident at Johannesburg, 26 natives killed, 

13 April, ,, 
The Meyer and Charlton mine re-started, lord 

Kitchener and others present . 4, 6 May, ,, 

Municipal government started in Johannesburg, 

8 May, ,, 
Frequent breaches of the oath of neutrality ; 

stricter regulations enforced . . June, ,, 
Blue-book, with report of Transvaal concessions 
commission issued, n June; and sir David 
Barbour's report on the finances of the Trans- 
vaal and Orange River colony, considered just 
and generous, total expenditure of the home 
government, estimated, 64,332,000?., Tirms, 

12 June, ,, 
Mrs. Kruger dies at Pretoria, aged 67 . 20 July, ,, 
Major O'Meara appointed administrator in 
Johannesburg, Sept. 1900; made government 
commissioner and chairman of the new town 
council, March ; good report . . 20 July, ,, 
Blue-book issued relating to cruel treatment of 
natives by the late republic, limes, 1 Aug. 1901 ; 
laws modified. 
Seven Rand mines in operation . . 23 Aug. ,, 
Mr. Broeksma, ex-public prosecutor (tried and 
sentenced to death for treachery and treason, 
13-29 Sept.), shot at Johannesburg . 3c Sept. ,, 
<S. African Compensation Commission, Mr. Milvain, 
chairman (sir John Ardagh and others for the 
imperial government) ; long negotiations : total 
foreign claims, 1,631 ; amount claimed, 1,116,450?.; 
amount awarded, 106,050?. ; Holland claimed, 
706,355?. ; amount awarded, 37,500?. ; sittings 
closed in London .... 9 Nov. ,, 
"Werneck, a surrendered burgher, convicted of high 

treason, &c, shot at Johannesburg . 22 Nov. ,, 
The British return to the owners 23,000 oz. of gold 
commandeered by the late Boer government and 
found in the Pretoria mint . . 26 Nov. ,, 
A commission appointed to inquire into the work- 
ing of the Gold Law ; sir Richard Solomon, 

chairman 27 Nov. „ 

Proclamations issued prohibiting betting houses 
and abolishing various laws of the late republic 
relating to the High Court, the franchise, &cv, 

about 30 Nov. ,, 
Regulations controlling native labour ; flogging, 
forced labour, &c, strictly forbidden, published, 

11 Dec. ,, 
Growth of revenue, financial prospects good, 

11 Dec. ,, 
Johannesburg stock exchange re-opened, 

17 Dec. ,, 
Education and industries gradually re-established, 

Jan. -Dec. ,, 
Blue-book issued relating to treatment of natives 
(lord il ilner's despatch and policy, 6 Dec. 
approved, 27 Jan.) .... 30 Jan. 1902 
Mining industry progressing, influx of natives, 

7 Feb.-Maich, ,, 
Military governorship of Pretoria relinquished by 

sir J. Maxwell .... 19 March, ,, 

First general meeting of the chamber of mini's 
since the war; estimated li>ss due to the war, 

over 6,000,000? 3 April, ,, 

Transvaal high eoiut in the new palace of justice 
at Pretoria, opened . . . - 10 May. ., 



New mining tax, 10 per cent, on net produce, 
issued 9 June, 1902 

Lord Kitchener (made visct. and gen., June) and 
troops enthusiastically received at the end of 
the war ; banquet at Johannesburg, speeches by 
lords Milner and Kitchener . . 17 June, „ 

Lord Milner installed governor of the Transvaal 
and commander-in-chief at Pretoria . 21 June, ,, 

German banquet at Johannesburg, lord Milner 
(made a peer, 26 June) present . 25 June, ,, 

Teachers' conference, Mr. Sargant, director of 
education, president, at Johannesburg, 2 July; 
received by lord Milner ... 8 July, „ 

Sir Percy Girouard appointed railway commis- 
sioner, line to be styled Central S. African 
railway early July, „ 

Advocates Smuts, Jacobs, and De Wet (of the staff 
of the late government) admitted into the 
supreme court, reported ... 4 Aug. ,, 

Gens. Botha, De Wet, and Delarey announced their 
intention to start a Boer fund abroad, 4 Aug. 
(see end of 6'. African War). 

Transvaal political association to support loid 
Miluer meets 14 Aug. „ 

Outbreak of redwater ; precautionary measures 
issued 29 Aug. „ 

Sir Arthur Lawley appointed lieut.-gov. ; arrives, 

31 Aug. „ 

Customs tariff revised .... 8 Oct. ,, 

Lord Milner tours successfully through the west 
and north Sept. -Oct. ,, 

J. P. Fitz-Patiick, author of "The Transvaal from 
Within," and Jeorge Fanar (sentenced to death, 
28 April, 1896), knighted . . . Oct. „ 

Grant of 8,000,000?. for the Transvaal and Orange 
River colony voted in the commons . 5 Now ,, 

70,000 persons repatriated . . June-Nov. ,, 

Martial law withdrawn . . . .19 Nov. ,, 

Land department established . . 21 Nov. ,, 

Coal struck, 30 ft. thick, at Grootvlei . mid Dec. ,, 

Mr. Chamberlain's successful tour to promote 
reconciliation and unity ; grand reception and 
banquet at Pretoria, 5, 6 Jan. ; Boer address 
received, their demands refused ; the Yereeniging 
treaty to be kept, 8 Jan. ; at Johannesburg : 
Transvaal war contribution, 30,000,000?., to be 
raised in 3 years, agreed to by the mine leaders ; 
an imperial loan of 35,000,000?. for the new- 
colonies guaranteed, 13 Jan. ; visits many 
villages ; at Mafeking . . . .28 Jan. 1903 

Report (majority and minority) of the commission 
appointed 1901 to inquire into the working of 
the gold law, issued .... end Jan. ,, 

Ordinance issued empowering municipality of 
Johannesburg to raise loans . . end Jan. ,, 

Sir William Harcourt writes letter to Times on , 
native labour in the Transvaal . . 5 Feb. ,, 

Report on labour immigration commission issued ; 
legislative council approves Asiatic labour, 

30 Dec. ,, 

TRANSYLVANIA, an Austrian province, 
was part of the ancient L)acia {which see). In 
1526, John Zapoly rendered himself independent of 
the emperor Ferdinand I. by the aid of the Turks. 
His successors ruled with much difficulty till Jan. 
1699, when the emperor Leopold I., by the treaty 
of Carlowitz, finally incorporated Transylvania 
into the Austrian dominions. The Transylvanian 
deputies did not take their seat in the AusJxian 
parliament till 20 Oct. 1863. A decree for the 
convocation of the Transylvanian diet was issued 
12 Sept. 1S65. The inhabitants are about 1, 100,000 
ignorant Roumans, 1,500,000 Saxon colonists, and 
SsO,000 Magyars, the last being the ruling class, 
lhe union of Transylvania with Hungary in 184S, 
which has caused much discontent, was ratified by 
the Transylvanian diet, 25 Dec. 1866. 

Serious agrarian riots at Foeldvar suppressed with 
bloodshed, 27 June, 18S8. 



TRAPPISTS. 



1265 



TREATIES. 



1526. 
1540. 
1571- 
1576. 
1581. 
1602. 
1605. 
1607. 
1608. 
1613. 
1.631. 



1690 



PRINCES OF TRANSYLVANIA. 

John Zapoly. 
John Sigismund. 
Stephen Zapoly I. Bathori. 
Christopher Bathori. 
Sigismund Bathori. 
Emperor Rodolph. 
Stephen II. Bottskai. 
Sigismund Ragotzski. 
Gabriel I. Bathori. 
Gabriel II. (Bethlem Gabor). 
George I. Ragotzski. 
George II. Ragotzski. 
John Kemin. 
Michael I. Abaffi. 
99. Michael II. Abaffi. 



TRAPPISTS. The first abbey of La Trappe 
in Normandy was founded, in 1140, by Eotrou, 
comte de Perche. The present order of 'Trappists 
owes its origin to trie learned Jean le Boiithillier 
de la Eance (editor of Anacreon when aged 14), 
who renounced the world, and sold all his property, 
giving the proceeds to the abbey of La Trappe, to 
which he retired in 1662, to live there in great 
austerity. After several efforts he succeeded in 
reforming the monks, and in establishing a new 
rule, which commands silence, prayer, reading, and 
manual labour, and which forbids study, wine, fish, 
&c. Eance was bom in 1620, and died in 1700. 
The Trappists' new building was consecrated ill 
Aug. 1833. 

A number of these monks, driven from France in the 
revolution of 1790, were received by Mr. Weld, of Lul- 
worth, Dorsetshire, who gave them some land to culti- 
vate and a habitation, where they remained till 1815. 
This order was charged with rebellion and conspiracy 
in Prance, and sixty-four English and Irish Trappists 
were shipped by the French government at Paimbceuf, 
19 Nov., and were landed from the Hebe, French 
frigate, at Cork, 30 Nov. 1831. They established them- 
selves at Mount Melleray, county of Waterford. 

TRASIMENE, see Thrasymene. 

TRAUTENAU (Bohemia). On 27 June, 1866, 
the first corps of the army of the crown-prince of 
Prussia seized Trautenau, but was defeated and 
repulsed by the Austrians under Gablenz ; on the 
28th, the Prussians defeated the Austrians with 
great loss. 

TRAVELLERS' CLUB (Pall-mall), estab- 
lished in 1 81 5. A member must have "travelled 
out of the British islands to a distance of at least 
500 miles from London, in a direct line." 

TRAVELLING in England. In 1707 it 

took in summer one day, in winter nearly two days, 
to travel from London to Oxford (55 miles). In 
18 1 7 the journey was accomplished in six or seven 
hours. By the Great Western Eailway express (63 
miles) it is done in \\ hour. In 1828, a gentleman 
travelled from Newcastle to London (273 miles) 
inside the best coach in 35 hours, at an expense of 
61. 15s. $d. or 6d. per mile (including dinner, &c). 
In 1857, the charge of the Great Northern railway 
(275J miles) first-class express (6 hours) was 
50s. gd. ; in 1903, 38s. 3d. 

TRAWLING-. Deep-sea fishing with a boat 
(sometimes driven by steam) having a very large 
net attached to it, and thereby catching the fish 
which mostly live at the bottom of the sea ; princi- 
pally practised on the N.E. coast of Britain. 
Commissions reported in 1864 and since, that trawling 
was not injurious to the supply of fish as suggested ; 
but another commission, with scientific advice, re- 
ported in Feb. 1885, that there was some ground for 
the fishermen's complaints. 



TREAD-MILL, an invention of the Chinese, 
to raise water for the irrigation of the fields. The 
complicated tread-mill introduced into the prisons 
of Great Britain is the invention of Mr. (afterwards 
sir William) Cubitt, of Ipswich. It was erected at 
Brixton gaol, 1817, and soon afterwards in other 
large prisons. 

TREASON, see High Treason. Petty 
TREASON (a term abolished in 1828, defined by 
the statute of 25 Edw. III. 1352) was a wife's mur- 
der of her husband ; a servant's murder of his mas- 
ter; and an ecclesiastical person's murder of his 
prelate or other superior. Misprision of treason, 
knowledge and concealment of the crime, punish- 
able with forfeiture of goods and imprisonment for 
life. 

TREASON-FELONY. By the Crown and 
Government Security Act, 11 Vict. c. 12 (1848), 
certain treasons heretofore punishable with death 
were mitigated to felonies, and subjected to trans- 
portation or imprisonment. The Fenians in Ire- 
land were tried under this act ; see Trials, 
1865. 

TREASURER of England, Lord High, 

the third great officer of the crown, a lord by virtue 
of his office, having the custody of the king's trea- 
sure, governing the upper court of exchequer, and 
formerly sitting judicially among the barons. The 
first lord high treasurer in England was Odo, earl 
of Kent, in the reign of William I. This great 
trust is now confided to a commission, and is vested 
in five persons, called "lords commissioners for 
executing the office of lord high treasurer," and of 
these the chancellor of the exchequer is usually 
one ; the first lord being usually the premier ; see 
Administrations, for a succession of these officers. 
Sir Stafford Northcote (aft. Earl of Iddesleigh) was 
first lord of the treasury and not premier, 24 June, 
1885, as was Mr. W. H. Smith, 26 July, 1886 ; see 
Salisbury Administrations. A third lord of the 
treasury (Mr. Stansfeld) was appointed, Dec. 1868, 
succeeded by Mr. W. H. Gladstone, Dec. 1869. 

The first of this rank in Ireland was John de St. John, 
Henry III. 1217 ; the last, William, duke of Devon- 
shire, 1766 ; vice-treasurers were appointed till 1789 ; 
then commissioners till 1816, when the revenues of 
Great Britain and Ireland were united. 

The first lord high treasurer of Scotland was sir Walter 
Ogilvie, appointed by James I. in 1420 ; the last, in 
1641, John, earl of Traquair, afterwards commissioners 
were appointed. 

TREASURER of the Chamber, for- 
merly an officer of great consideration, and always 
a member of the privy council. He discharged the 
bills of all the king's tradesmen, and had his office 
in Cleveland-row, in the vicinity of the royal 
palace. His duties were transferred and the office 
suppressed at the same time with the offices of 
master of the great wardrobe and cofferer of the 
household in 1782. Beatson. 

TREATIES. A formal and written treaty 
made in England with any foreign nation was 
entered into at Kingston between Henry III. 
and the dauphin of France (then in England and 
leagued with the barons), 11 Sept. 1217. The first 
commercial treaty was with Guy, earl of Flanders, 
2 Edw. 1274 ; the second with Portugal and Spain, 
1308. Anderson. The chief treaties of the nations 
of Europe will be found described in their respec- 
tive places : the following forms an index ; see 
Coalitions, Commerce, Leagues, &e. Hertslet's 
" Commercial Treaties," 16 vols. 1820-85. 

4 M 



TEEATIES. 



1266 



TREATIES. 



Abo, peace . . 7 Aug. 
Adrianople, peace . 14 Sept. 
Aix-la-Cliapelle . 2 May, 
Aix-la-Chapelle, peace 
Akermarm, peace . 4 Sept. 
Allahabad (Bahar, &c. , ceded to 

E. I. Company) 
Alt Radstadt, peace 24 Sept. 
America, peace . . 3 Sept. 
Amiens, peace . 25 Mar. 

Ancon (Chili and Peru) 20 Oct. 
Anglo- Abyssinian, frontiers, &c. 

15 May, 
Anglo-Chinese, commercial 

5 Sept. 
Anglo-French, etc. agreements, 
which see 1890 . . . . 
Anglo-Japanese agreement 

30 Jan. 
Anglo-Spanish convention, 

29 July, 
Anglo-Turkish convention, 

4 June, 
Antananarivo(Madagascar), iOct 
Antwerp, truce . . 4 April, 
Armed Neutrality, convention, 

16 Dec. 

Arras . .- . 22 Sept. 

Arras 

Augsburg, league of . . 

Austria with England, conven- 
tion ; the latter agrees to 
accept 2,500,000^ as a compo- 
sition for claims on Austria, 
amounting to 30,000,000^ ster- 
ling ...... 

Baden, peace . . . Sept. 
Bagnalo (Venice, Naples, &c.) . 
Balta Liman . . 1838 and 
Barcelona (France and Spain) . 
Barrier treaty . . 15 Nov. 
Barwalde (France and Sweden) . 
Basel, peace (France and Spain) 
22 July, 
Bassein (Great Britain and Mah- 

rattas) 
Bayonne 
Belgrade, peace 
Berlin, peace 
Berlin, decree 
Berlin convention 
Berlin, peace (Prussia & Saxony) 
21 Oct. 
Berlin treaty (Russia, Turkey, 

&c.) ... 13 July, 
Berlin (Russia and Germany, 

commercial) . . March, 
Beyara . . . 31 Aug. 
Breda, peace . . 25 July, 
Bretigny, peace . 8 May, 

Bucharest, 28 May, 1812 ;(Servia 

and Bulgaria) . . 3 March, 
Cambray, league . 10 Dec. 
Cambray, peace . . . 5 Aug. 
Campo Formio . 17 Oct. 
Canton . . . .29 Aug. 
Capua, convention . 20 May, 
Carlowitz, peace . 26 Jan. 
Carlsbad, congress of 1 Aug. 
Cateau-Cambresis, peace . 
Chaumont . . . 1 Mar. 
Chefoo, convention 17 Sept. 
China and Japan, peace (see 

Corea) . . .17 April, 
Chunar, India . . . . 
Cintra, convention . 22 Aug. 
Closterseven, conventions Sept. 
Coalition, first, against France 
26 June, 
Coalition, second 22 June, 

Coalition, third . 8 Sept. 

Coalition, fourth . 6 Oct. 
Coalition, fifth . 9 April, 

Coalition, sixth . . 1 March, 
Commerce (Great Britain and 

Turkey) . . 16 Nov. 
Commerce (Great Britain and 

the Two Sicilies) 25 June, 



5 May, 
18 Sept. 
28 June, 
29 Nov. 

5 Nov. 



1743 
1829 
1668 
1748 
1826 

1765 
1706 
1783 
1802 
1883 

1902 

1902 

1903 

1902 



1609 



I BOO 

1435 

1482 



781 



1810 



Concordat, with France, 15 July, 1801 

Conflans 1465 

Constantinople, peace, 16 April, 1712 
Constantinople . 8 July, 1833 

Constantinople . . 8 May, 1854 
Constantinople (Russia and Tur- 
key, definitive) . . 8 Feb. 1879 
Constantinople (settling boun- 
daries of Greece) 

24 May and 2 July, 1881 
Constantinople (peace between 

Turkey and Greece) 4, 19 Dec. 1897 
Copenhagen, peace 27 May, 1660 

Copenhagen (composition for 
Sound dues) . 14 March, 1857 

Crecy 1544 

Dover 1670 

Dresden, peace . 25 Dec. 1745 
Egypt, viceroy and admiral Cod- 

rington, convention 6 Aug. 1828 
Eliot convention . April, 1835 
England, convention with Aus- 
tria, Russia, Prussia, and Tur- 
key, for settlement of the East 
15 July, 
England and United States, 

convention . . 13 Nov. 1826 
Evora Monte . . 26 May, 1834 
Family Compact . .15 Aug. 1761 
Fommanah (Ashantee war) 

13 Feb. 1874 
Fontainebleau, peace 2 Sept. 1679 
Fontainebleau . . 8 Nov. 1785 
Fontainebleau, concordat 

25 Jan. 1813 
France and England, convention 
respecting the slave trade 

29 May, 1845 
France and Italy, convention 
respecting the occupation of 
Rome . . .15 Sept. 1864 
France and Siam, convention 

7 Oct. 1902 
Frankfort (peace between Ger- 
many and France) 10 May, 1871 
French commercial treaty, 

23 Jan. i860 
Friedwald . . .5 Oct. 1551 
Fuessen, peace . . 23 April, 1745 
Gandamak (with Afghanistan), 

26 May, 1879 
Gasteiu convention 14 Aug. 1865 

Ghent, pacification . 8 Nov. 1576 
Ghent, peace (America) 24 Dec. 1814 
Golden Bull .... 1356 
Grand alliance . 12 May, 1689 
Hague . . .21 May, 1659 

Hague ... 7 May, 1669 

Halle 1610 

Hamburg, peace . .2 May r , 1762 
Hanover ... 3 Sept. 1725 
Hanover and England 22 July 
Holy alliance 
Hubertsburg, peace 
Hue (France and Annam) 

25 Aug. 1883 
" Interim " . . -15 May, 1548 
Italo-Abyssinian . . Oct. 1889 
Japan and Great Britain 26 Aug. 1858 
Jay's treaty . . 19 Nov. 

Kaynardji, or Koutschoue-Kay- 

nard.ji . . .21 July, 1774 
Kiao-chau (Germany and China) 

6 March, 1898 
Kiel ... 14 Jan. 1814 

Laybach, congress . 6 May, 1821 

League, holy 1576 

Leipsic, alliance . . April, 1631 
Leoben, peace . . . 1797 

Lisbon, peace . . 13 Feb. 1668 
London (settlement of Greece) 

6 July, 1829 
London (separating Belgium 

from Holland) . 15 Nov. 1831 
London (convention respecting 

Belgium) . . 19 April, 1839 
London (Turkey and Egypt) 

July, 1840 



26 Sept. 1815 
15 Feb. 1763 



1794 



London (succession to crown of 

Denmark) 
London (neutrality of Luxem- 



burg settled) 
London, Alaska awaird 
Liibeck, peace . 
Luneville, peace . 
Madrid, concord 
Methuen treaty 
Milan decree 
Milan (Austria and Sardinia) 

6 Aug. 
Munster, peace . 24 Oct. 
Nankin, peace . 29 Aug. 

Nantes, edict . . 13 April, 

Naumberg 

Nice 



11 May, 
20 Oct. 

12 May. 
, 9 Feb. 



17 Dec 



Nimeguen, peace . 10 Aug. 
Noyon . . .16 Aug. 
Nuremberg . . 2 Aug. 

Nystadt ... 30 Aug. 
Oliva, peace . . 3 May, 
Paris, peace (Paris) . 10 Feb. 
Paris ... 20 June, 
Paris . . . .15 May. 
Paris, peace (Sweden) 6 Jan. 
Paris . . .11 April, 
Paris . . . .10 June, 
Paris .... April, 
Paris (settlement of Neufchatel 

affair) . . .26 May, 
Partition, first . n Oct. 

Partition, second 
Passarowitz, peace . 13 Mar. 
Passau . . .12 Aug. 
Pekin, peace, 24 Aug. i860 ; 

5 April, 
Persia, peace . . 3 March, 
Petersburg, St., peace 5 May, 
Petersburg, St. . 5 Aug. 

Petersburg, St. . .8 April, 
Peterswald, convention 8 July, 
Pilnitz, convention . 20 July, 
Poland, partition . 25 Nov. 

Pragmatic sanction . 
Pragmatic sanction 17 April, 
Prague, peace . . 30 May, 
Prague (peace between Austria 

and Prussia) . 23 Aug. 
Presburg, peace . . 26 Dec. 
Pretoria (see Transvaal) 3 Aug. 
Pretoria, peace . . 31 May, 
Public good, league for the 
Pyrenees, peace . . 7 Nov. 
Quadruple alliance . 2 Aug. 
Radstadt, peace . 6 March, 
Radstadt, congress . 9 Dec. 
Ratisbon, peace . 13 Oct. 

Ratisbon . . 1 Aug. 

Reichenbach, treaties . June, 
Religion, peace of 
Rhine, confederation . 1 Aug. 
Ryswick, peace . 20 Sept. 
Samoa, conventions . 16 Feb. 
St. Cloud, convention 3 July, 
St. Germains, peace . . . 
St. Gennain-en-Laye. peace 

29 June, 
St. Ildefonzo, alliance 19 Aug. 
San Stefano (peace between Rus- 
sia and Turkey), see Berlin 

3 March, 
Shimonoseki (peace between 

China and Japan) . 17 April, 
Siorcid, peac'f . . . . 
Sistowa, peace . . 4 Aug. 
Smalcald, league . 31 Dec. 

Spain, pacification . 22 April, 
Spain, convention, satisfying 

British claims . . 26 June, 
Spain (peace with America), 10 

Dec. 1898; ratified . 6 Feb. 
Stettin, peace . 13 Dec. 

Stockholm, peace . 20 Nov. 
Stockholm . . 24 March, 
Stockholm . . .3 March, 
Stockholm, treaty of (Sweden 

and allies) . . 21 Nov. 



TBEBIA. 



1267 



TEIALS. 



Suneion ... 15 July, 

Temeswar, truce . 7 Sept. 
Teselieu, peace . 12 May, 
Teusin, peace . . 18 May, 
Tien-Tsin, China, peace 26 June, 
1858; . . . 11 May, 
Tilsit, peace . . 7 July, 
Tolentino . . .19 Feb. 
Toplitz ... 9 Sept. 
Triple alliance . . 28 Jan. 
Triple alliance . . 4 Jan. 
Triple alliance (Austria, Ger- 
many, and Italy), 13 March, 
1887; 2S June, 
Troppeau, congress . 20 Oct. 
Troyes ... 21 May, 
Turin (session of Savoy and 
Nice . . -24 March, 
Turkmauchay, peace 22 Feb. 
Uhn, peace . 3 July, 

Unkiarskelessi . . 8 July, 



1852 



1779 
1595 



1807 
1793 
18 1 3 



1820 
1420 



1620 
1833 



Utrecht, union . 22 Jan. 

Utrecht, peace . 11 April, 

Valencay ... 8 Dec. 

Verona, congress . . 25 Aug. 
Versailles, peace . 20 Jan. 
Vienna . . .30 April, 

Vienna, alliance . 16 March, 
Vienna, peace . . 18 Nov. 
Vienna, peace . . 14 Oct. 
Vienna, convention . 28 Sept. 
Vienna, 25 March ; 31 May ; 

9 June, 
Vienna (Austria and Prussia), 

commercial . .19 Feb. 
Vienna ... 30 Oct. 
Vienna (Austria & Great Britain, 

commercial) . . 16 Dec. 
Vienna (peace between Austria 

and Italy) . . 3 Oct. 
Villa Franca (prelim.) 12 July, 
Vossem, peace . .16 Jan. 



1579 
1713 
1813 
1822 
1783 
i7 2 5 
1731 
1738 
1809 
1814 



1865 

1866 

1859 
1673 



Warsaw, alliance . 31 March, 1683 
"Warsaw. . . ". 24 Feb. 1768 
Washington, reciprocity treaty 
between Great Britain and the 
United States, respecting New- 
foundland fishery, commerce, 
<fcc. ... 2 July, 1854 

Washington (settling Alabama 

claims, &c.) . 8 May, 1871 

Washington (fishery dispute), 

15 Feb. i3S3 
Westminster, peace . 19 Feb. 1674. 
Westminster (with Holland) . 1716 
Westphalia, peace . 24 Oct. 1648 
Wilna, treaty of . . . 1561 

Wurms, edict of 1521 

Wurtzburg league . . . . 16 10 
Zurich, convention . 20 May, 1815 
Zurich (Austria, France, and 
Sardinia) . . 10 Nov. 1859 



TEEBTA, now Trebbia, a river in North Italy, 
near which Hannibal defeated the Roman consul 
Sempronius, 218 B.C. : and Suvarrow, after a 
struggle, defeated the French marshal Macdonald 
and compelled him to retreat, 17-19 June, 1799. 

TBEBIZOND, a port of Asia Minor in the 
Black Sea, was colonised by the Greeks, and became 
subject to the kings of Pontus. It enjoyed self- 
government under the Roman empire, and when 
the Latins took Constantinople in 1204, it became 
the ssat of an empire which endured till 1461, 
when ir, was conquered by the Turks under Ma- 
homet I. Population in 1885, 45,000. 





EMPERORS. 


T204. 


Alexis I. Comnenus. 


1332. Manuel II. 


1222. 


Andronicus I. 


,, Basil. 


1235- 


John I. 


1340. Irene. 


7 238. 


Manuel I., great cap- 


1341. Anna. 




tain. 


1343. John III. 


I263. 


Andronicus II. 


1344. Michael. 


1266. 


George. 


1349. Alexis III. 


I28o. 


John II. 


1390. Manuel III 


I2RS. 


Theodora. 


141 7. Alexis IV. 




John II. 


1446. John IV. 


I207. 


Alexis II. 


annes). 


133°- 


Andronicus III. 


1458-61. David. 



(Calo-Jo- 



TBECENTO, see Italian. 

TEEES in London. Many were planted by 
John Evebyn in the Mall, St. James's, &c. He re- 
commended this in his " Fumifugium," published 
1661. The planting of rows of trees in suburban 
roads began in 1875. 

Trees of Liberty were planted in Paris and other parts 
of France during the revolutionary eras, 1790 and 
184S. These trees were cut down in Paris in Jan. 
1850, when riots ensued, put down by the military. 

The celebrated tree B'evrier, planted in 1789 near the 
National Library, Paris, was felled early in 1884. 

English arboricultural society founded at Hexham in 
1880, about 420 members in 1897. Annual meetings. 

TRENT (the ancient Tridentum), in the Tyrol, 
belongs to Austria. The council held here is 
reckoned in the Roman catholic church as the 18th 
general council. Its decisions have been implicitly 
received as the standard of faith, morals, and disci- 
pline in that church. It first sat 13 Dec. 1545, 
and continued (with interruptions) under pope 
Paul III.. Julius III., and Pius IV. to 4 Dec. 1563 ; 
its last sitting (the 25th). A jubilee in relation to 
this council was celebrated in June, 1863. Trent was 
several times taken during the French war. Popu- 
lation, 1890, 21,653. 

At the council was decreed, with anathemas : the 
canon of scripture (including the apocrypha), and the 



church its sole interpreter ; the traditions to be equal 
with scripture; the seven sacraments (baptism, con- 
firmation, the Lord's supper, penance, extreme unction, 
orders, and matrimony); transubstantiation ; purgatory; 
indulgences; celibacy of the clergy ; auricular confes- 
sion. &c. 

TEENT STEAMEE, see United States, Nov.- 
Dec. 1861. 

TEEVECCA, see Cheshiint. 

TBEVES, or TEIEE, the Roman Treviri, in 
Rhenish Prussia, was a prosperous city of the Gauls, 
12 B.C. The emperor Gallienus held his court here 
a.d. 255. The church of St. Simeon dates from the 
4th century. Treves was made an electorate in the 
14th century, and became subject to the archbishop 
in 1585. Councils held here, 385-1423. The arch- 
bishopric is said to have been founded before the 
7th century and to be the oldest in Germany. 
After various changes, Treves was acquired by 
Prussia, June 1815. In 1844 much excitement was 
occasioned by miracles said to have been wrought 
by a " Holy Coat" in the cathedral. The coat was 
exhibited to thousands, Aug., Sept. 1891. Popula- 
tion, 1S90, 36,162; 1900,43,324. 

" TRIA JUNCTA IN UNO" (three joined 
in one), the motto of the knights of the military 
order of the Bath, signifying "faith, hope, and 
charity ;" see Bath. 

TEIAL AT BAB, signifies by the whole court 
or a plurality of judges. This plan was adopted at 
Bristol after the riots in 1832; also at O'ConneH's 
trial, 1844 ; and arranged for the trial of the 
claimant of the Tichborne estates for perjury, in 
April, 1873. See Juries. 

TEIALS. Regulations for conducting trials 
were made by Lothaire and Edric, kings of Kent, 
about 673 to 680. Alfred the Great is said to have 
begun trial by jury; but there is good evidence of 
such trials before his time. Arrangements were 
made for more speedy trials by " the Winter As- 
sizes Act," 1876. See Appeal. 

remarkable trials. 

King Charles I. : 20 Jan. ; condemned . 27 Jan. 1649 

Oath's Popish Plot: Edward Coleman, convicted, 
27 Nov. ; Wm. Ireland and other priests 17 Dec. 1678 

Robt. Green and others, 10 Feb. ; Thos. Whit- 
bread and other Jesuits, 13 June; Richard 
Langhorne, counsellor, 14 June ; convicted . . 1679 

Sir George Wakeman, the queen's physician ; ac- 
quitted i3J u 'y. .. 

Viscount Stafford : convicted . 30 N0V.-7 Dec. 1681 

4 M 2 



TEIALS. 1268 



TEIALS. 



Rye House Plot : convicted ; William lord Russell, 
13 July; Algernon Sidney ... 21 Nov. 1683 

The Seven Bishops ; acquitted . . 29 June, 1688 

Captain Porteous, for murder, see Porteous,ii June, 1736 

Jenny Diver, for felony, executed . 18 March, 1740 

William Duell, executed for murder at Tyburn, but 
who came to life when about undergoing dissec- 
tion at Surgeons' Hall ... 24 Nov. ,, 

Lords Kilmarnock and Balmerino for high treason 

28 July, 1746 

Mary Hamilton, for marrying with her own sex, 14 
wives 7 Oct. „ 

Lord Lovatt, 80 years of age, for high treason ; 
beheaded 9 March, 1747 

Preney, the celebrated Irish robber, who surren- 
dered himself 9 July, 1749 

Amy Hutchinson, burnt at Ely, for the murder of 
her husband 5 Nov. 1750 

Miss Blandy, the murder of her father (hanged) 

3 March, 1752 

Ann Williams, for the murder of her husband, 
burnt alive 11 April, 1753 

Eugene Aram, for murder at York ; executed 

13 Aug. 1759 

Earl Ferrers, for the murder of his steward ; exe- 
cuted 16 April, 1760 

Mr. MacNaughten, at Strabane, for the murder of 
Miss Knox 8 Dec. 1761 

Ann Bedingfleld, for the murder of her husband ; 
burnt alive 6 April, 1763 

Mr. Wilkes, alderman of London, for an obscene 
poem (" Essay on Woman ") . . 21 Feb. 1764 

Murderers of captain Glas, his wife, daughter, 
mate, and passengers, on board the ship Earl of 
Sandwich, at sea .... 3 March, 1766 

Elizabeth Brownrigg, for the murder of one of her 
female apprentices ; hanged . . 12 Sept. 1767 

Lord Baltimore, the libertine, and his female accom- 
plices, for rape .... 28 March, 1768 

Great cause between the families of Hamilton and 
Douglas 27 Feb. 1769 

Great Valencia cause in the house of peers, in Ireland 

18 March, 1772 

Cause of Somerset the slave (see Slavery) 22 June ,, 

Elizabeth Herring, for the murder of her husband ; 
hanged, and afterwards burnt at Tyburn 13 Sept. 1773 

Messrs. Perreau brothers, bankers, forgery ; hanged 

17 Jan. 1776 

Duchess of Kingston, for marrying two husbands ; 
guilty (see Kingston) , . . .15 April, ,, 

Dr. Dodd, for forging a bond of 4200L in the name 
of the earl of Chesterfield, 22 Feb. (see Forgery) 
executed 27 June, 1777 

Admiral Keppel, by court-martial ; honourably ac- 
quitted 11 Feb. 1779 

Mr. Hackman, for the murder of Miss Reay, when 
coming out of the theatre-royal, Covent-garden 

16 April, ,, 

Lord George Gordon, on a charge of high treason ; 
acquitted 5 Feb. 1781 

Capt. John Donellan, for murder of sir Theodosius 
Boughton ; executed . . . .2 April, ,, 

Mr. Woodfall, the celebrated printer, for a libel on 
lord Loughborough, afterwards lord chancellor 

10 Nov. 1786 

Lord George Gordon, for a libel on the queen of 
France ; guilty 28 Jan. 1788 

Mr. Warren Hastings : a trial which lasted seven 
years and three months (see Hastings, Trial of), 
commenced 13 Feb. „ 

The printer of the Times newspaper, for libels on 
the prince of Wales, and dukes of York and Cla- 
rence ; fined 200Z. and imprisoned one year, 3 Feb. 1790 

Renwick Williams, called the " Monster," for stab- 
bing women in London . . . .8 July, 1790 

Barriugton, the pickpocket, most extraordinary 
adept ; transported . . . .22 Sept. ,, 

Thomas Paine, political writer and deist, for libels 
in the Rights of Mam ; guilty . . . 18 Dec. 1792 

Louis XVI. of France (see France) . . . 1792-3 

Archibald Hamilton Rowan, for libel; imprisoned 
and fined 29 Jan - 1794 



Mr. Purefoy, for the murder of colonel Roper in a 
duel : acquitted 14 Aug. 1794 

Mr. Robert Watt and Downie, at Edinburgh, for 
treason 3 Sept. ,, 

Messrs. Hardy, Home Tooke, Thelwall, and Joyce, 
for high treason ; acquitted . 29 Oct. „ 

Earl of Abingdon, for his libel on Mr. Serman ; 
guilty 6 Dec. ,, 

Major Semple, alias Lisle, for felony . 18 Feb. 1795 

Redhead Yorke, at York, libel . . .27 Nov. ,, 

Lord Westmeath v. Bradshaw, for crim. con. ; dam- 
ages, io,oooJ 4 March, 1796 

Lord Valentia v. Mr. Gawler, for adultery, damages, ,. 
2000L ....... 16 June, ,, 

Daniel Isaac Eaton, for libels on kingly government ; 
guilty 8 July, ,, 

Sir Godfrey Webster v. lord Holland, for adultery ; 
damages, 6000J 27 Feb. 1797 

Parker, the mutineer at the Nore, called admiral 
Parker (see Mutinies) . . . 27 June, ,, 

Boddington v. Boddington, for crim. con. ; damages, 
io,ooo£. ....... 5 Sept. ,, 

William Orr at Carrickfergus, for high treason ; 
executed 12 Oct. ,, 

Mrs. Phepoe, alias Benson, murderess . 9 Dec. ,, 

The murderers of col. St.. George and Mr. Uniacke, 
at Cork 15 April, 1798 

Arthur O'Conner and O'Coigley, at Maidstone, for 
treason ; latter hanged . . . .21 May, ,, 

Sir Edward Crosbie and others for high treason ; 
hanged 1 June, 

Beauchamp Bagenal Harvey, at Wexford, for high 
treason 21 June, ,, 

Two Messrs. Sheares, at Dublin, for high treason ; 
executed 12 July, „ 

Theobald Woulffe Tone, by court-martial (lie com- 
mitted suicide, died on the 19th) . 10 Nov. , 

Sir Harry Brown Hayes, for carrying off Miss Pike 
of Cork 13 April, 1800 

Hatfield, for shooting at George III. (see Hatfield) 

26 June, ,, 

Mr. Tighe of Westmeath v. Jones, for crim. con. ; 
damages, io,oooJ 2 Dec. ,, 

Mutineers at Bantry Bay, hanged (see Bantry Bay) 

8 Jan. 1802 

Governor Wall, for cruelty and murder, twenty years 
before (tried under 33 Hen. VIII. c. 23) (see Goree) 

20 Jan. ,, 

Crawley, for the murder of two females in Peter's- 
row, Dublin 6 March, ,, 

Colonel Despard and his associates, for high treason ; 
hanged on the top of Horsemonger-lane gaol (see 
Despard) 7 Feb. 1803 

M. Peltier, for libel on Bonaparte, first consul of 
France, in I'Ambigue : guilty . . 21 Feb. ,, 

Robert Aslett, cashier at the bank of England, for 
embezzlement and frauds ; the loss to the bank, 
320,000^ ; found not guilty, on account of the in- 
validity of the bills . . . .18 July, „ 

Robert Emmett, at Dublin, for high treason ; exe- 
cuted next day 19 Sept. ,, 

Keenan, one of the murderers of lord Kilwarden ; 
hanged 2 Oct. „ 

Mr. Smith for the murder of the supposed Hammer- 
smith Ghost 13 Jan. 1804 

Lockhart and Laudon Gordon for carrying off Mrs. 
Lee 6 March, „ 

Rev. C. Massy v. marquis of Headfort, for crim. 
con. ; damages, io.oooZ. ... 27 July, ,, 

William Cooper, the Hackney Monster, for offences 
against females 17 April, 1805 

General Picton, for applying the torture to Louisa 
Calderon, to extort confession, at Trinidad, tried 
(under 42 Geo. III. c. 85) in the court of King's 
Bench; guilty [new trial, same verdict, 11 June, 
1808] . . . . ' . . . 24 Feb. 1806 

Mr. Patch, for the murder of his partner, Mr. 
Bligh 6 April, ,, 

Lord Melville, impeached by the house of com- 
mons ; acquitted .... 12 June, ,, 

Hamilton Rowan, in Dublin ; pleaded the king's 
pardon 1 July, „ 



TEIALS. 



1269 



TRIALS. 



The Warrington gang, for unnatural offences ; 
executed 23 Aug. i8< 

Palm, the bookseller, by a French military com- 
mission at Brennau .... 26 Aug. „ 

Judge Johnson, for a libel on the earl of Hard- 
wicke ; guilty 23 Nov. „ 

Lord Cloncurry v. Sir John B. Piers, for crim. con. ; 
damages, 2o,oooJ. .... 19 Feb. 18c 

Holloway and Haggerty, the murderers of Mr. 
Steele ; thirty persons were crushed to death at 
their execution, at the Old Bailey . 20 Feb. ,, 

Sir Home Popham, by court-martial; repri- 
manded 7 March, ,, 

Knight v.. Dr. Wolcot, alias Peter Pindar, for crim. 
con. ....... 27 June, „ 

Lieut. Berry, of H.M.S. Hazard; for an unnatural 
offence 2 Oct. „ 

Lord Elgin v. Ferguson, for crim. con. ; damages, 
io,oooi. ...... 22 Dec. ,, 

Simmons, the murderer of the Boreham family, at 
Hoddesdon 4 March, 18c 

Sir Arthur Paget, for crim. con. with Lady Bor- 
rington . . . . . . 14 July, ,, 

Major Campbell, for killing Captain Boyd in a duel ; 
hanged 4 Aug. ,, 

Peter Finnerty and others, for a libel on the duke 
of York 9 Nov. ,, 

The duke of York, by inquiry in the house of 
commons, on charges preferred against him by 
colonel Wardle from 26 Jan. to 20 March . . iSc 

"Wellesley v. Lord Paget, for crim. con. ; damages, 
2o,oooL . . . . . . 12 May, * ,, 

The king v. Valentine Jones, for breach of duty as 
commissary-general .... 26 May, „ 

Wright v. colonel Wardle, for Mrs. Mary Ann 
Clarke's furniture 1 June, ,, 

The earl of Leicester v. Morning Herald, for a libel ; 
damages 1000Z 29 June, „ 

William Cobbett, for a libel on the German legion ; 
convicted 9 July, „ 

Hon. captain Lake, for putting Robert Jeffery, a 
British seaman, on shore at Sombrero ; dismissed 
the service (see Sombrero) ... 10 Feb. 18] 

Mr. Perry for libels in the Morning Chronicle ; ac- 
quitted 24 Feb. „ 

The Vere-street gang, for unnatural offences ; 
guilty 20 Sept. ,, 

Peter Finnerty, for a libel on lord Castlereagh ; 

31 Jan. 183 

The king v. Messrs. John and Leigh Hunt, for 
libels ; guilty 22 Feb. ,, 

Ensign Hepburn, and White the drummer ; both 
were executed 7 March, ,, 

Walter Cox, in Dublin, for libels ; he stood in the 
pillory 12 March, ,, 

The king v. W. Cobbett, for libels ; convicted 

15 June, ,, 

Lord Louth, in Dublin ; sentenced to imprison- 
ment and fine, for oppressive conduct as a ma- 
gistrate 19 June, ,, 

The Berkeley cause, before the house of peers, 
concluded 28 June, „ 

Dr. Sheridan, physician, on a charge of sedition ; 
acquitted 21 Nov. ,, 

Gale Jones, for seditious and blasphemous libels ; 
convicted 26 Nov. „ 

William Cundell and John Smith, for high treason 
(see High Treason) .... 6 Feb. 18 1 

Daniel Isaac Eaton, on a charge of blasphemy ; 
convicted 6 March, „ 

Bellingham, for the murder of Mr. Perceval, prime 
minister 15 May, ,, 

The king v, Mr. Lovell, of the Statesman, for 
libel; guilty 19 Nov. ,. 

Messrs. John and Leigh Hunt, for libels in the 
Examiner; convicted .... 9 Dec. ,. 

Marquis of Sligo, for concealing a sea-deserter 

16 Dee. ,. 

The murderers of Mr. Horsfall ; at York ; exe- 
cuted 7 Jan. 18 

Mr. Hugh Fitzpatrick, for publishing Scully's His- 
tory of the Penal Laws .... 6 Feb. , 

The divorce cause against the duke of Hamilton 
for adultery 11 April, , 

Mr. John Magee, in Dublin, for libels in the Even- 
ing Post; guilty 26 July, , 



Nicholson, the murderer of Mr. and Mrs. Bonar ; 
hanged 21 Aug. 18 

Tuite, murder of Mr. Goulding ; executed 7 Oct. , 

The celebrated Mary Ann Clark, for a libel on the 
right hon. Wm. Vesey Fitzgerald, afterwards lord 
Fitzgerald 7 Feb. 18 

Lord Cochrane, Cochrane Johnstone, Berenger, 
Butt, and others, for frauds in the public funds, 
22 Feb. ; convicted (see Stocks) . 8, 9 June, , 

Admiral Bradley, at Winchester, for frauds in ship 
letters 18 Aug. , 

Colonel Quentin, of the 10th Hussars, by court- 
martial 1 Nov. , 

Sir John Henry Mildmay, bart., for crim. con. 
with the countess of Rosebery ; damages, 
15,000? 5 Dec. , 

George Barnett, for shooting at Miss Kelly, of 
Covent Garden theatre 8 April, 18 

Captain Hutchinson, sir Robert Wilson, and Mr. 
Bruce, in Paris, for aiding the escape of count 
Lavalette (see Lavalette) ... 24 April, , 

" Captain Grant," the famous Irish robber at Mary- 
borough 16 Aug. , 

Vaughan, a police officer, Mackay, and Browne, for 
conspiracy to induce men to commit felonies to 
obtain the reward ; convicted . . 21 Aug. , 

Colonel Stanhope, by court-martial, at Cambray, 
in France 23 Sept. , 

Cashman, a seaman,, for the Spafields riots and 
outrages on Snowhill ; convicted and hanged (see 
Spafields) 20 Jan. i£ 

Count Maubreuil, at Paris, for robbing the queen 
of Westphalia 2 May, , 

Mr. R. J. Butt, for a libel on lord chief-justice 
Ellenborough 23 May, , 

Mr. Wooler, for libels on the government and 
ministers 6 June, , 

Thistlewood, Dr. Watson, Hooper, and others, for 
treason 9 June, , 

The murderers of the Lynch family at Wildgoose- 
lodge, Ireland 19 July, 

Mr. Roger O'Connor, on a charge of robbing the 
mail ; acquitted 5 Aug. 

Brandreth, Turner, and others, at Derby, for high 
treason 15 Oct. 

Hone, the bookseller, for parodies ; three trials 
before Lord Ellenborough : extemporaneous and 
successful defence ... 18, 19, 20 Dec. 

Mr. Dick, for abduction and rape of Miss Crockatt 

21 March, : 

Appeal of murder case; Ashford, the brother of Mary 
Ashford, against Abraham Thornton, accused 
of her murder (see Appeal) and acquitted 16 April, 

Rev. Dr. O'Halloran, for forging a frank (see Trans- 
portation) 9 Sept. 

Robert Johnston, at Edinburgh ; his dreadful exe- 
cution 30 Dec. 

Sir Manasseh Lopez, for bribery at Grampound 
(see Bribery) 18 March, : 

Mosely, Woolfe, and other merchants, for conspiracy 
and fraud 20 April, 

Carlile, for the publication of Paine's Age of 
Reason, &c 15 Oct. 

John Scanlan, at Limerick, for murder of Ellen 
Hanly 14 March, 1820 

Sir Francis Burdett, at Leicester, for a seditious 
libel 23 March, 

Henry Hunt, and others, for their conduct at the 
Manchester meeting ; convicted (see Manchester 
Reform Meeting) .... 27 March, 

Sir Charles Wolseley and rev. Mr. Harrison, for 
sedition ; guilty .... 10 April, 

Thistlewood, Ings, Brunt, Davidson, and Tidd, for 
conspiracy to murder the king's ministers ; com- 
menced (see Cato-street) . . . 17 April, 

Louvel, in France, for the murder of the duke de 
Berri 7 June, 

Lord Glerawley v. John Burn, for crim. con. 

18 June, 

Major Cartwright and others at Warwick, for sedi- 
tion 3 Au S- 

"Little Waddington," for a seditious libel; ac- 
quitted 19 Sept. 

Lieutenant-colonel French, 6th dragoon guards, by 

court-martial 19 Sept. 

Caroline, queen of England, before the house of 



TRIALS. 



1270 



TRIALS. 



lords, for adultery, commenced 16 Aug. ; it ter- 
minated (see Queen Caroline's Trial) . 10 Nov. 1820 
The female murderers of Miss Thompson, in 

Dublin: hanged 1 May, 1821 

David Haggart, an extraordinary robber, and a man 
of singularly eventful life, at Edinburgh, for the 
murder of a turnkey .... 9 June, ,, 
Samuel D. Hayvvard, the favourite man of fashion, 

for burglary 8 Oct. ,, 

The murderers of Mrs. Torrance, in Ireland, con- 
victed and hanged .... 17 Dec. ,. 
Cussen, Leahy, and others, for the abduction of 

Miss Gould . 29 July, 1822 

Barthelemi, in Paris, for the abduction of Elizabeth 

.Florence 23 Sept. ,, 

Cuthbert v. Browne, singular action for deceit 

28 Jan. 1823 
The famous " Bottle Conspirators," in Ireland, by 

ex-officio 23 Feb. ,, 

The extraordinary "earl of Portsmouth's case" 

commenced 18 March, „ 

Probert, Hunt, and Thurtell, murderers of Mr. 
Weare ; Probert turned king's evidence ; after- 
wards hanged for horse-stealing (see Executions) 

5 Jan. 1824 
Mr. Henry Fauntleroy, banker of London, for for- 
gery; hanged 30 Oct. ,, 

Foote v. Hayne, for breach of promise of mar 

riage ; damages, 3000L . . . 22 Dec. ,, 
Mr. Henry Savary, a banker's son at Bristol, for 

forgery . • 4 April, 1825 

O'Keefe and Bourke, murderers of the Franks 

family 18 Aug. „ 

The case of Mr. Wellesley Pole and the Misses 

Long ; commenced .... 9 Nov. ,, 
Captain Bligh v. the hon. Win. Wellesley Pole, for 

adultery 25 Nov. ,, 

Fisher v. Stockdale, for libel in Harrictte Wilson 

20 March, 1826 
Edward Gibbon Wakefield, and others, for abduc- 
tion of Miss Turner ... 24 March, 1827 
Bev. Bobert Taylor for blasphemy ; found guilty 

24 Oct. ,, 
Bichard Gillan, or the murder of Maria Bagster, 

at Taunton 8 April, 1828 

Mr. Montgomery, for forgery ; he committed suicide 
in prison on the morning appointed for his exe- 
cution 4 July, ,, 

Brinklett, for the death of lord Mount Sandford 

by a kick 16 July, ,, 

William Corder, for murder of Maria Marten ; exe- 
cuted 6 Aug. ,, 

Joseph Hunton, a quaker merchant, for forgery ; 

hanged 28 Oct. „ 

Burke, at Edinburgh, for the Burking murders ; 
Hare, his accomplice, became approver (see 

Burking) 24 Dec. ,, 

The king v. Buxton, and others, for fraudulent 
marriage ...... 21 March, 1829 

Jonathan Martin, for setting fire to York minster 

31 March, „ 
Stewart and his wife, noted murderers, at Glasgow; 

hanged 14 July, ,, 

Beinbauer, the Bavarian priest, for murders of 

women 4 Aug. ,, 

Captain Dickenson, by court-martial, at Ports- 
mouth ; acquitted .... 26 Aug. ,, 
Mr. Alexander, editor of the Morning Journal, for 

libels on the duke of Wellington; convicted 10 Feb. 1830 
Clune, &c. , at Ennis, for cutting out the tongues of 

the Doyles 4 March, ,, 

Mr. Comyn, for burning his house in the county of 

Clare; hanged 6 March, ,, 

Mr. Lambrecht, for murder of Mr. Clayton in a 

duel 2 April, „ 

Captain Moir, for murder of William Malcolm ; 

hanged 30 July, „ 

Captains Smith and Markham, for killing Mr. 

O'Grady in a duel .... 24 Aug. ,, 
Captain Helsham, for murder of lieut. Crowther in 

a duel 8 Oct, „ 

Mr. St. John Long, for manslaughter of Miss 

Cashin (see Quacks) .... 30 Oct. ,, 
Polignac, Peyronnet, and others, ministers of 

France (see France) . . . . 21 Dec. ,, 
Bichard Carlile, for a seditious libel, inciting to a 
riot; guilty ... . 10 Jan. 1831 



Mr. D. O'Connell, for breach of proclamation ; 

pleaded guilty 12 Feb. 1831 

St. John Long, for manslaughter of Mrs. Lloyd (see 

Quacks) 19 Feb. ,, 

Major Dundas, for the seduction of Miss Adams ; 

damages, 3000Z 26 May, ,, 

Bev Robert Taylor (who obtained the revolting 
distinction of "the Devil's Chaplain "), for reviling 
the Redeemer : convicted . . . 6 July, ,, 
Mr. Cobbett, for a seditious libel ; the jury could 

not agree 7 July, ,, 

Mr. and Mrs. Deacle v. Mr. Bingham Baring, M. P. 

14 July, „ 
John Any Bird Bell, 14 years of age, for the murder 
of Bichard Taylor, aged 13 ; hanged at Maidstone 

1 Aug. „ 
The great cause, earl of Kingston v. lord Lorton ; 

commenced 9 Nov. ., 

Bishop and Williams, for murder of the Italian boy 

(see Burking) 3 Dec. „ 

Earl of Mar, in Scotland, for shooting at Mr. 

Oldham 17 Dec. ,, 

Elizabeth Cooke, for murder of Mrs. Walsh, by 

"Burking" 6 Jan. 1832 

Colonel Brcreton, by court-martial, at Bristol (see 

Bristol) 9 Jan. ,, 

The murderers of Mr. Blood, of Applevale, county 

of Clare 28 Feb. „ 

William Duggan, at Cork, for murder of his wife 

and others 26 March, ,, 

Mr. Hodgson (son of the celebrated Miss Aston) v. 

Greene 26 July, ,, 

Mayor of Bristol, for neglect of duty in the 

Bristol riots 26 Oct. ,, 

Rev. Mr. Irving, by the Scots church, for heresy 

13 March, 1833 
Lord Teynham, and Dolan, a tailor, for swindling ; 
guilty ....... 10 May, ,, 

Attorney-general v. Shore (lady Hewley's charity, 

which is taken from the Unitarians) . 23 Dec. ,, 
Captain Wathen r i5th hussars, by court-martial, at 
Cork ; honourably acquitted ; his colonel, lord 
Brudenell, cashiered .... Jan. 1834 

Proprietors of the True Sun, for libels; guilty, 6 Feb. ,, 
Mary Ann Burdock, the celebrated murderess, 

•at Bristol 10 April, 1835 

SirJolmdeBeauvoir, for perjury ; acquitted, 29 May, ,, 
Fieschi, at Paris, for attempting the lite of the 
king, Louis Philippe, by exploding an infernal 
machine (see Fieschi) .... 30 Jan. 1836 
Hon. G. dNorton v. lord Melbourne, in court of 
Common Pleas, for crim. con. with the hon. Mrs. 
Norton ; verdict for defendant . . 22 June, ,, 
Lord de Boos v. dimming, for defamation, charg- 
ing lord de Boos with cheating at cards ; verdict 
in favour of Mr. dimming ... 10 Feb. 1S37 
James Greenacre and Sarah Gale, for the murder of 
Hannah Browne ; Greenacre convicted and 
hanged ; Gale transported . . 10 April, ,, 
Bolam, for murder of Mr. Millie ; verdict, man- 
slaughter 30 July, ,, 

Rev. Mr. Stephens, at Chester, for inflammatory 

language 15 Aug. ,, 

John Frost, an ex-magistrate, and others, for high 
treason; guilty: sentence commuted to transpor- 
tation (see Newport) .... 31 Dec. ,, 
Benjamin Courvoisier, for murder of lord William 

Russell ; hanged .... 18-20 June, 1840 
Gould, for murder of Mr. Templeman ; transported 

22 June, ,, 
Edward Oxford, attempted the life of the queen ; 
adjudged insane, and confined in Bethlehem (sje 

Oxford) 9, 10 July, ,, 

Madame Lefarge, in France, for the murder of her 

husband ; guilty 2 Sept. ,, 

Prince Louis Napoleon, for his descent upon France 

(see France) 6 Oct. ,, 

Captain J. W. Reynolds, nth hussars, by court- 
martial ; guilty : the sentence excited great popu- 
lar displeasure against his colonel, lord Cardigan 

20 Oct. ,, 
Lord Cardigan before the house of peers, capitally 
charged for wounding captain Harvey Tucket in 
a duel ; acquitted .... 16 Feb. 1841 
The Wallaces, brothers, merchants, for having wil- 
fully caused the destruction of the ship Dryad at 
sea, to defraud the underwriters ; transported 

4 March, ,, 



TRIALS. 

Josiah Mister, for attempting the life of Mr. 
Maekreth ; guilty .... 23 March, ii 

Bartholomew Murray, at Chester, for the murder of 
Mrs. Cook 5 April, 

Earl Waldegrave and captain Duff, for an aggra- 
vated assault on a police constable ; guilty : judg- 
ment, six months' imprisonment, and fines of 
200I. and 20I. " ..... 3 May, 

Madame Lefarge again, for robbery of diamonds 

7 Aug. 

The great case, Allen Bogle v. Mr. Lawson, pub- 
lisher of the Times newspaper, for an alleged 
libel, in stating the plaintiff to be connected with 
numerous bank forgers throughout Europe in 
their schemes to defraud Messrs. Glyn and Com- 
pany, bankers of London, by means of fictitious 
letters of credit : damages, one farthing. This 
exposure, so honourable to the Times, led to the 
Times Testimonial . . . . 16 Aug. 

Mr. MacLeod, at Utica, America, for taking part 
in the destruction of the Caroline, commenced : 
acquitted after a triaFthat lasted eight days, 4 Oct. 

Robert Blakesley, for murder of Mr. Burdon, of 
Eastcheap ; hanged .... 28 Oct. 

Mr. Beaumont Smith, for forgery of Exchequer 
bills to an immense amount ; he pleaded guilty, 
and was sentenced to transportation for life 4 Dec. 

Sophia Darbon v. Bosser ; breach of promise of 
marriage ; damages, 1600L ... 8 Dec. 

Mr. John Levick and Antonio Mattei, principal and 
second in the duel in which lieut. Adams was 
killed at Malta : both acquitted . 10 March, ii 

Vivier, courier of the Morning herald, at Boulogne, 
for conveying the Indian mail through France, 
for that journal, contrary to the French regula- 
tions 13 April, 

Daniel Good, for murder of Jane Jones ; the Roe- 
hampton murder ; found guilty, and sentenced to 
be hanged 13 May, 

John Francis, for attempting to assassinate the 
queen (see Francis) .... 17 June, 

Thomas Cooper, for the murder of Daly, the police- 
man ; hanged 4 July, 

Xicholas Suisse, valet of the late marquis of Hert- 
ford, at the prosecution of that nobleman's exe- 
cutors, charged with enormous frauds ; acquitted 

6 July, 

M'Gill and others, for abduction of Miss Crellin ; 
guilty 8 Aug. 

Nicholas Suisse again, upon like charges, and again 
acquitted 24 Aug. 

Bean, for pointing a pistol at the queen : 18 months' 
imprisonment 25 Aug. 

The rioters in the provinces, under a special com- 
mission, at Stafford . . . . 1 Oct. 

The Cheshire rioters, under a special commission, 
before lord Abinger .... 6 Oct. 

The Lancashire rioters, also under a special com- 
mission 10 Oct. 

Alice Lowe, at the prosecution of lord Frankfort ; 
acquitted - . 31 Oct. 

Mr. Howard, attorney, v. sir William Gosset, ser- 
jeant-at-arms 5 Dec. 

Mr. Egan, in Dublin, for the roLbsry of a bank 
parcel; acquitted .... 17 Jan. ii 

Rev. W. Bailey, LL.D., for forgery; guilty: trans- 
portation for life 1 Feb. 

MacNaughten, for the murder of Mr. Drummond, 
secretary to sir Robert Feel : acquitted on the 
ground of insanity .... 4 March, 

The Rebeccaites, at Cardiff, under a special com- 
mission . . . . . . 27 Oct. 

Samuel Sidney Smith, for forgery ; sentenced to 
transportation for life ... 29 Nov. 

Edward Dwyer, for the murder of his child at 
Southwark ; guilty . . . . 1 Dec. 

Mr. Holt, of the Age ; libel on the duke of Bruns- 
wick ; guilty 29 Jan. ii 

Lieut. Grant, second to lieut. Munro, in his duel 
with col. Fawcett ; acquitted . . 14 Feb. 

Fraser v. Bagley, for crim. con. ; verdict for the de- 
fendant 19 Feb. 

Lord William Paget v. earl of Cardigan, for crim. 
con. ; verdict for defendant . . 26 Feb. 

Mary Furley, for the murder of her child in an 
agony of despair . . . . 16 April, 

The will-forgers, William Henry Barber (since de- 
clared innocent), Joshua Fletcher, Georgiana 



1271 



TRIALS. 



Dorey, William Saunders, and Susannah his wife : 

all found guilty, 15 April : sentenced 22 April, 1844 

[In 1848 Mr. Barber returned to England with a 
free pardon, and an acknowledgment of his inno- 
cence by his prosecutors : he was re-admitted to 
practise as an attorney; and on the 3rd of 
August, 1859, ' n conformity with the recom- 
mendation of a select committee of the house of 
commons, the sum of 5000L was voted him " as 
a national acknowledgment of the wrong he had 
suffered from an erroneous prosecution."] 

Crouch, for the murder of his wife ; found guilty, 
8 May; hanged 27 May, ,, 

Messrs. O'Connell, sen., O'Connell, jun., Steele, 
Ray, Barrett, Grey, Duffy, and rev. Thomas 
Tierney, at Dublin, for political conspiracy : the 
trial commenced 15 Jan., and lasted twenty-four 
days : all the traversers were found guilty, 12 Feb. 
' Proceedings on motions for a new trial, &c, ex- 
tended the case into Easter term ; and sentence 
was pronounced upon all but the clergyman, on 
whom judgment was remitted . . 30 May, „ 

Augustus Dalmas, for the murder of Sarah Mac- 
farlane ; guilty 14 June, ,, 

Wm. Burton Newenhain, for the abduction of Miss 
Wortham ; guilty .... 17 June, ,, 

Bellamy, for the murder of his wife by prussic 
acid; acquitted 21 Aug. ,, 

John Tawell, for murder of Sarah Hart ; hanged 

13, 14 March, 1843 

Thomas Henry Hocker, for murder of James De- 
larue n April, ,, 

Joseph Connor, for murder of Mary Brothers, 1 6 May, , , 

The Spanish pirates, for murder of ten Englishmen 
at sea . 26 July, „ 

Rev. Dr. Wetherall, for crim. con. with Mrs. Cooke, 
his own daughter .... 16 Aug. ,, 

Captain Johnson, of the ship Tory, for the murder 
of several of his crew .... 5 Feb. 1846 

Miss M. A. Smith v. earl Ferrers ; breach of pro- 
mise of marriage 18 Feb^ „ 

Lieut. Hawkey, for the murder of Mr. Seton, in a 
duel ; acquitted 16 July, ,, 

Richard Dunn, for perjury and attempted fraud on 
Miss A. Burdett Coutts ... 27 Feb. 1847 

Mitchell, the Irish confederate ; transported for 14 
years (see Ireland) .... 26 May, 1848 

Wm. Smith O'Brien, Meagher, and other confede- 
rates, sentenced to death ; the sentence after- 
wards commuted to transportation (pardoned in 
1856) 9 Oct. „ 

Bloomfield Rush, for murder of Messrs. Jenny, at 
Norwich ; hanged .... 29 March, 1849 

Gorham v. the bishop of Exeter ; ecclesiastical 
case ; judgment given in the court of Arches 
against the plaintiff .... 2 Aug. ,, 

[The bishop had refused to institute the rev. Mr. 
Gorham into the living of Brampton-Speke, in 
Devonshire, alleging want of orthodoxy in the 
plaintiff, who denied that spiritual regeneration 
was conferred by baptism ; the court held that 
the charge against the plaintiff of holding false 
doctrine was proved, and that the bishop was 
justified in his refusal. Mr. Gorham appealed to 
the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, 
which pronounced its opinion (8 March, 1850) 
that " the doctrine held by Mr. Gorham was not 
contrary or repugnant to the declared doctrine of 
the church of England, and that Mr. Gorham 
ought not, by reason of the doctrine held by him, 
to have been refused admission to the vicarage of 
Brampton-Speke." This decision led to subse- 
quent proceedings in the three courts of law, suc- 
cessively, for a rule to show cause why a prohi- 
bition should not issue, directed to the judge of 
the Arches court, and to the archbishop of Can- 
terbury, against giving effect to the judgment of 
her majesty in council. The rule was refused in 
each court, and in the end Mr. Gorham was insti- 
tuted into the vicarage in question, 7 Aug. 1850.] 

Manning and his wife, for murder of O'Connor ; 
guilty : death 27 Oct. „ 

Walter Watts, lessee of the Olympic theatre, for 
forgery, &c. 10 May, 1850 

Robert Pate, a retired lieutenant, for an assault on 
the queen 11 July, ,, 

The Sloanes, man and wife, for starving their ser- 
vant, Jane Wilbred 5 Feb. 1851 



TEIALS. 



1272 



TEIALS. 



The Board of Customs v. the London Dock Com- 
pany, on a charge of defrauding the revenue of 
duties ; a trial of n days ended in a virtual ac- 
quittal 18 Feb. 

Sarah Chesham, for murder of husband, by poison ; 
she had murdered several of her children and 
others by the same means ; hanged . 6 March, 

Thomas Drory, for the murder of Jael Denny: 
hanged 7 March, 

Doyle v. Wright, concerning the personal custody 
of Miss Augusta Talbot, a Roman catholic ward 
of chancery, before the lord chancellor : pro- 
tracted case 22 March, 

The murderers of the rev. George Edward Holiest, 
of Frimley, Surrey ; guilty . . 31 March, 

Achilli v. Newman, for libel ; tried before lord 
chief justice Campbell in the Queen's Bench : 
verdict for the plaintiff, Nov. 1851 . 31 Jan. 

Miller v. aid. Salomons, M.P. , for voting as a mem- 
ber without having taken the required oath ; ver- 
dict against the defendant . . 19 April, 

The case " Bishop of London v. the rev. Mr. Glad- 
stone :" judgment of the Arches court against 
the defendant 10 June, 

Lord Frankfort, for scandalous and defamatory 
libels ; guilty 3 Dec. 

Richard Bourke Kirwan, for the murder of his wife ; 
guilty 10 Dec. 

Eliot Bower, for murder of Mr. Saville Morton, at 
Paris ; acquitted 28 Dec. 

Henry Horler, for murder of his wife ; hanged at 
the Old Bailey 15 Jan. 

James Barbour, for murder of Robinson : hanged 
at York 15 Jan. 

George Sparkes and James Hitchcock, for the mur- 
der of William Blackmore at Exeter ; guilty 

19 March, 

Five Frenchmen (principal and seconds) for the 
murder of a sixth Frenchman in a duel at Egham ; 
verdict, manslaughter ... 21 March, 

Moore and Walsh, for the murder of John Black- 
burn, at Stafford ; hanged . . 21 March, 

Saunders, for murder of Mr. Toler ; hanged at 
Chelmsford 30 March, 

The Stackpole family, four in number ; two of them 
females, and wives to the others, for the murder 
of their relative, also a Stackpole ; hanged at 
Ennis 28 April, 

Case of Holy Cross Hospital, Winchester, decided 
against rev. earl of Guildford . . 1 Aug. 

Smyth v. Smyth, ended in the plaintiff being com- 
mitted on a charge of forging the will on which 
he grounded his claim . . 8, 9, 10 Aug. 

The Braintree case respecting liability to church- 
rates, decided by the house of lords, against the 
rate 12 Aug. 

Case of Lumley v. Gye, respecting Mdlle. Wagner ; 
decided 22 Feb. 

Mr. Jeremiah Smith, mayor of Rye, convicted of 
perjury 2 March, 

Duchess of Manchester's will case . . April, 

Mr. Carden, for abduction of Miss E. Arbuthnot, 
and assault upon John Smithwick ; convicted 

28, 29 July, 

Mary Anne Brough, for murdering her six children; 
not guilty (insanity) .... 9 Aug. 

Case of Pierce Somerset Butler v. viscount Mount- 
garret; verdict for plaintiff, who thus came into 
a peerage, defendant being proved illegitimate 

Aug. 

Courts-martial on lieuts. Perry and Greer; sen- 
tences reversed by lord Hardinge 29 July-Aug. 

Courts-martial on sir E. Belcher, captain McClure, 
&c, for abandoning their ships in the Arctic 
regions ; acquitted Oct. 

Emanuel Barthelemy, for murder of Charles Col- 
lard and Mr. Moore (executed) . . 4 Jan. 

Handcock v. Delacour, otherwise De Burgh (cruelty 
to Mrs. Handcock, and charges against lord 
Clanricarde) ; compromised 

Earl of Sefton v. Hopwood (will set aside) 

3-10 April, 

Luigi Baranelli, for murder of Joseph Latham (or 
Lambert) ; (executed 30 April) . 12 April, 

Charles King, a great thief-trainer ; transported 

13 April, 
Wm. Austin (governor), for cruelties in Birming- 
ham gaol ; acquitted .... 3 Aug. 



1853 



Sir John Dean Paul, William Strahan, and Robert 
M. Bates, bankers, for disposing of their cus- 
tomers' securities (to the amount of 113,625?.): 
convicted 27 Oct. 1855 

Joseph Wooler, on charge of poisoning his wife ; 
acquitted 7 Nov. ,, 

Westerton v. Liddell (on decorations, &c, in 
church in Knightsbridge ; decision against them) 

5 Deo. „ 

[Decided again by privy council, partly for both 
parties ; each to pay his own costs, 21 March, 

1857-] 

Celestina Sommers, for murder of her child ; 
convicted (but reprieved) . . . 6 March, 1856 

Wm. Palmer, for murder of J. P. Cook by poison 

14-27 May, „ 

[He was executed at Stafford on 14 June, in the pre- 
sence of 50,000 persons. If he had been ac- 
quitted, he would have been tried for the murder 
of his wife and brother.] 

Wm. Dove, for murder of his wife (executed 9 Aug.) 

ig July, „ 

Ditcher v. archdeacon Denison, respecting the doc- 
trine of the eucharist ; defendant deprived, and 
appeal disallowed [verdict set aside by privy 
council] 22 Oct. ,, 

W. S. Hardwicke and H. Attwell ; convicted of 
forgery 31 Oct. ,, 

Wm. Robson, for frauds of Crystal Palace Com- 
pany (to the amount of about 28,000?.) ; trans- 
ported for twenty years . . . 1 Nov. ,, 

Earl of Lucan v. Daily News, for libel ; verdict for 
defendant 3 Dec. ,, 

Pearce, Burgess, and Tester (see Gold Robbery) 

14 Jan. 1857 

Leopold Redpath, for forgeries (to the amount of 
150,000?.) upon Great Northern railway com- 
pany : transported for life ... 16 Jan. „ 

Jem Saward, a barrister (called the Penman), Wm. 
Anderson, and others, convicted of extensive 
forgery of bankers' cheques . . 5 March, „ 

Miss Madeline Smith, on charge of poisoning 
Emile L'Angelier, at Glasgow; not proven 

30 June-9 July, „ 

Thos. Fuller Bacon, for poisoning his mother, con- 
victed 25 July, „ 

[He was acquitted on a charge of murdering two 
children, 13, 14 May, same year. His wife con- , 
fessed the murder, but appeared to be insane.] 

James Spollen, on charge of murder of Mr. Little, 
near Dublin ; acquitted . . . 7-11 Aug. ,, 

W. Attwell and others, convicted of stealing the 
countess of Ellesmere's jewels (value 15,000?.) 
from the top of a cab .... 15 Dec. ,, 

Strevens v. Campion, for slander, in charging the 
plaintiff with complicity in the murder of his 
aunt, Mrs. Kelly ; damages 6d. . . 31 Dec. „ 

The directors of the British Bank, Humphry Brown, 
Edw. Esdaile, H. D. Maeleod, alderman R. H. 
Kennedy, W. D. Owen, James Stapleton, and 
Hugh Innes Cameron, for fraud (see under Banks) ; 
convicted .... 13-27 Feb. 1858 

Rev. S. Smith and his wife, for murderous assault 
on John Leech ; convicted . 6-7 April, „ 

Edw. Auchnmty Glover, M.P., for false declaration 
of qualification of M.P 9 April, ,, 

Simon Bernard, as accessory to the conspiracy 
against the life of the emperor Napoleon ; acquitted 

12-17 April, ,, 

The earldom of Shrewsbury case ; earl Talbot's claim 
allowed 1 June ,, 

James Seal, for the murder of Sarah Guppy; con- 
victed (and executed) . . . .23 July, „ 

The Berkeley peerage case, see Berkeley ,, „ 

Patience Swynfen v. F. H. Swynfen ; a will case ; 
the will affirmed 27 July, ,, 

[The plaintiff was Patience Swynfen, widow of Henry 
John Swynfen, son of the testator, Samuel Swyn- 
fen. Her husband died 15 June, 1854, and his 
father on 16 July following, having made a will 
10 days before his death, devising the Swynfen 
estate (worth about 60,000?.) to his son's wife, 
but leaving a large amount of personal estate un- 
disposed of. The defendant, F. H. Swynfen, son 
of the testator's eldest half-brother, claimed the 
estate as heir-at-law on the ground of the testator's 
insanity. The issue was brought to trial in March, 
1856; but proceedings were stayed by Mrs. Swyii. 



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1273 



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fen's counsel, sir P. Thesiger, entering into an 
agreement with the opposite counsel, sir Alex- 
ander Cockburn, without her consent, and in de- 
fiance of her instructions. After various pro- 
ceedings, the court of chancery ordered a new 
trial. She gained her cause, mainly through the 
energy of her counsel, Mr. Chas. R. Kennedy, to 
whom she had promised to pay 2o,ooo2. for his 
extraordinary services. Mrs. Swynfen, however, 
married a Mr. Broun, and repudiated Mr. Ken- 
nedy's claim. The latter, in an action against 
her, obtained a verdict in his favour on 29 March, 
1862, which was. on appeal, finally reversed in 
Feb. 1864. Mrs. Swynfen was non-suited in an 
action brought against her counsel (afterwards 
lord Chelmsford and lord chancellor), in July, 
1859, and June, i860.] 

Lemon Oliver, a stockbroker, convicted of exten- 
sive frauds 10 Nov. 

Marchmont v. Marchmont ; a disgraceful divorce 
case, begun 30 Nov. 

W. H. Guernsey, for stealing Ionian despatches 
from the Colonial Office ; acquitted . 15 Dec. 

Evans v. Evans and Rose, divorce case . Dec. 

Lieut. -col. Dickson v. earl of Wilton, for libel ; ver- 
dict for the plaintiff .... 14 Feb. 

Black v. Elliott, 850 sheep poisoned by a sheep- 
wash sold by defendant ; damages 1400I. 23 Feb. 

Wagner, Bateman, and others, a gang of bank 
forgers ; convicted 13 May, 

Earl of Shrewsbury v. Hope Scott, and others ; the 
earl gains the Shrewsbury estates . 3 June, 

Thellusson will case decided (see Thellusson) 9 June, 

T. R. Marshall, E. A. Mortimer, and H. S. Eieke, 
convicted of illegal sale of army commissions, 

29 June, 

Thomas Smethurst, a surgeon, for the murder by 
poison of Isabella Bankes, whom he had married 
during his wife's lifetime ; convicted 15-19 Aug. 

[He was reprieved on the ground of insufficient evi- 
dence ; but was tried and found guilty of bigamy, 
16 Nov. 1859. O n IJ Nov. 1862, he proved Miss 
Bankes's will, and obtained her property.] 

Oakley v. the Moulvie Ooddeen, "ambassador of 
the king of Oude. " Verdict for the defendant, 
who seems to have fallen among bill-sharpers, 

17 Dec. 

David Hughes, an attorney, convicted of gross 
frauds upon his clients .... Jan. 

George Pullinger, cashier of the Union Bank of 
London, sentenced to 20 years' imprisonment for 
fraud (see Banks, foot-note) . . 15 May, 

Eugenia Plummer, aged n years, convicted of per- 
jury against rev. Mr. Hatch . . -14 May, 

Mr. W. H. Leatham, M.P., convicted of bribery at 
Wakefield 19 July, 

Thomas Hopley, a schoolmaster, convicted of man- 
slaughter of Reginald Cancellor, by flogging, 

23 July, 

Nottidge v. Prince (see Agapemone) . 25 July, 

Rev. J. Bonwell, of Stepney, degraded for immorality, 

29 Aug. 

James Mullens, convicted for the murder of Mrs. 
Elmsley ; by endeavouring to inculpate one Ems, 
he led to his own conviction . . 25 Oct. 

Miss Shedden v. Patrick. (The plaintiff ably 
pleaded her own cause when the case was opened ; 
her object, to prove the legitimacy of her father, 
was not attained) . . . .9 Nov. et seq. 

Hooper v. Ward ; disgraceful profligacy of a magis- 
trate; verdict for plaintiff . . . 19, 20 Dec. 

Constance Kent inquiry ; trial refused (see Road 
Murder) Jan. 

Thelwall v. hon. Major Yelverton. The plaintiff 
sued for expenses incurred by defendant's wife ; 
the major denied the validity of his marriage 
with Miss Longworth, having since married the 
widow of professor Edward Forbes, the eminent 
naturalist. The court in Dublin supported the 
first marriage ... 21 Feb. to 4 March, 

[Miss Longworth endeavoured to establish her 
marriage. On appeal, the Scotch court annulled 
the marriage, July, 1862, and this judgment was 
affirmed by the house of lords, 28 July, 1864, and 
again finally, 30 July, 1867. An attempt to set 
aside the judgment of the house of lords rejected 
by the court of session, 29 Oct. 1868.] 

Brook v. Brook; see Marriage with Wife's Sister. 



1859 



The house of lords on appeal decided against the 
validity of such marriages, even when celebrated 
in a foreign country ... 18 March, j 

Reade v. Lacy ; the dramatising a novel restrained, 

17 April, 

Beamish v. Beamish ; the lords on appeal decide 
that a clergyman cannot perform the ceremony of 
marriage for himself . . . .22 April, 

Emperor of Austria v. Day; verdict for plaintiff. 
The defendant hail printed 100 million florin 
notes on the bank of Hungary, for Louis 
Kossuth. The notes were ordered to be destroyed 
within one month, 6 May ; judgment affirmed 

12 June, 

Cardross case. John MacMillan, a free-church 
minister, was expelled for drunkenness and mis- 
conduct, May, 1858. The Glasgow synod and 
the general assembly of the free church affirmed 
the sentence. He appealed to the court of 
session, which set aside the decree (which in- 
volved temporalities), asserting that the assembly 
had only spiritual authority . . . July, 

W. B. Turnbull v. Bird, secretary of protestant 
alliance ; libel ; verdict for defendant 8-10 July, 

J. C. Charlesworth, M.P., convicted of bribery at 
the Wakefield election . . . .20 July, 

Baron de Vidil; convicted of wounding his son; the 
latter refused to give evidence against his father, 

23 Aug. 

Vincent Collucci : convicted of obtaining money on 
false pretences, from Miss F. Johnstone 23 Oct. 

John Curran, a Dublin cabman; convicted of a 
violent assault on Miss Jolly, who heroically de- 
fended herself 25-30 Oct. 

Patrick McCaffery; shot col. Crofton and capt. 
Hanham, at Preston; convicted . . 13 Dec. 

Inquiry into sanity of Win. Fred. Wyndham (on 
behalf of his relatives), with a view of annulling 
an injudicious marriage ; trial lasted 34 days : 140 
witnesses examined ; verdict sane mind (see 
Lunacy) . . .16 Dec. 1861, and 30 Jan. : 

[Each party adjudged to pay its own costs, March, 
1862.] 

Capt. Robertson, by court-martial; convicted of 
submitting to ungentlemanly conduct from his 
brother-officers : — 30 days' inquiry : ended, 

24 March, 

[The court was much blamed by the public and the 
sentence was annulled. ] 

Mrs. A. C. Vyse for poisoning her two children ; 
acquitted as insane .... 9 July, 

Roupell v. Waite; during the trial, W. Roupell, 
M.P., a witness, confessed himself guilty of 
forging a will, and other frauds . 18, 19 Aug. 

Jessie McLachlan; convicted for the murder of 
Jessie Macpherson, at Glasgow ; she confessed to 
being accessory after the murder, which she im- 
puted to Mr. Fleming, a gentleman 80 or 90 years 

old 17-20 Sept. 

[She was respited 27 Oct. 1862.] 

Wm. Roupell, M.P. , for forgery; convicted on his 
own confession (released Sept. 1876) . 24 Sept. 

Catherine Wilson, convicted of poisoning Mrs. 
Soames in 1856 25-27 Sept. 

27 indictments and 24 convictions for savage per- 
sonal outrages in the streets of the metropolis 
during the month Nov. 

Wm. Digby Seymour, M.P. v. Butterworth; libel; 
verdict for plaintiff, damages 40s. . . 3 Dec. 

Hall v. Semple; verdict for plaintiff, who had been 
consigned to a lunatic asylum through his wife's 
getting the defendant to sign a certificate of lunacy 
with culpable negligence; damages 150I. 10 Deq. 

George Buncher, Wm. Burnett, Richd. Brewer, and 
James Griffiths, for forging bank-notes, printed 
on paper stolen from the paper-mill at Laver- 
stoke; convicted 7-12 Jan. 

Clare v. The Queen ; petition of right for infringe- 
ment of a patent ; verdict for defendant 2-6 Feb. 

Rev. John Campbell v. Spottiswoode (as printer of 
a libel in Saturday Revieiv) : verdict for plaintiff, 

27 Feb. 

Queen on appeal of earl of Cardigan v. col. Calthorpe 
for libel, charging the earl with deserting his 
men at Balaclava, 25 Oct. 1855 ; verdict for de- 
fendant (who, however, admitted his error), 

9, 10 June, 

Attorney-general v. Sillim and others, for having 



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1274 



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built the Alexandra for the Confederates, against 
the Enlistment act; verdict for defendants, 

25 June, 
(Decision finally affirmed on appeal to the house of 

lords, 6 April, 1864.] 
Col. Lothian Dickson v. viscount Combermere, earl 
of Wilton, and gen. Peel, for conspiracy to expel 
him from the army ; verdict for defendants, 

27 June et seq. 

Morrison (Zadkiel) v. sir Edward Belcher; libel; 

verdict, 20s. damages .... 29 June, 

Richard Roupell v. Haws : arising out of Roupell 

forgeries ; no verdict . 16-24 July, 

Woolley v. Pole, for Sun Fire Office; verdict for 

plaintiff, awarding him his claim for 29,000?. for 

his insurance of Campden-house ; burnt 23 March, 

1862 29 Aug. 

George Victor Townley, for murder of Miss Good- 
man, through jealousy ; convicted . . 12 Dec. 
He escaped execution through a certificate of in- 
sanity, too hastily signed : and committed suicide 
in prison, 12 Feb. 1865.] 
Lieut. -col. Crawley, by court-martial at Aldershot, 
for alleged oppression and cruelty to sergeant- 
major John Lilley, in consequence of a court- 
martial at Mhow, in India ; honourably acquitted, 
17 Nov. -23 Dec. 
Franz Muller, for murder of Mr. Briggs in a railway 
•carriage, 9 July ; convicted . . 27-29 Oct. 
Gedney v. Smith, a supposititious child detected 
and deprived of much property . . 10 Nov. 
E. K. Kohl, for murder of Theodore Fuhrkop ; con- 
victed . . . . . . . 11, 12 Jan. 

Queen v. Win. Rumble, for infringement of Foreign 
Enlistment act, in equipping the Rappahannock 
for the Confederate government ; acquitted, 

4 Feb. 
Woodgate v. Ridout (for Morning Post), for libel 
respecting the great will case of the earl of Eg- 
mont v. Darell ; verdict for plaintiff, 1000?. , 10 Feb. 
Bishop Colenso's appeal to privy council against 
decision of bishop of Capetown, deposing him, 
which is annulled . . . . 21 March, 

Roberts, Jeffery, Casely, and others, for jewel rob- 
beries in London; convicted . . 13 April, 
J. W. Terry and Thos. Burch, for misdemeanor 
in connection with the Unity Bank; acquitted, 

April, 
Edw. Wm. Pritchard, M.D., for murder of his wife 
and her mother, by poisoning; guilty 3-7 July, 
Charlotte Winsor, a child-murderer, convicted on 
the evidence of an accomplice . . July, 
(On account of legal Irregularities in her trial, her 
execution was long deferred, and her sentence was 
commuted to life-imprisonment, 23 May, 1866.] 
Constance Kent tried (see Road Murder) 21 July, 
Trials of Fenians for treason-felony ; Thos. Clarke 
Luby, convicted and sentenced to 20 years' penal 
servitude, 28 Nov.-i Dec. ; O'Leary and others 
convicted ; O'Donovan Rossa (previously con- 
victed) sentenced to imprisonment for life, 1 3 Dec. ; 
others convicted at Cork .... Dec. 

Stephen Forwood (or Ernest Southey), for murder 

of his wife and children: guilty . 20-21 Dec. 

Other Fenians convicted at Dublin (see Fenians), 

Jan. 
Breadalbane peerage : succession decided in favour 
of Campbell of Glenfalloch . . 26 Jan. 

Ryves and Ryves v. the attorney-general ; an en- 
deavour to prove the marriage of king George III. 
with Hannah Wilmot, and that of his brother 
Henry, duke of Cumberland, with Olive Wilmot; 
the jury decided that the claim was not made out, 
and that Olive Serres, the alleged mother of Mrs. 
Ryves, was not the legitimate daughter of the 
duke of Cumberland, and that the 82 documents 
brought in evidence were forged (Mrs. Ryves died 

7 Dec. 1871) 13 June, 

Banda and Kirwee prize case (Indian mutiny); 
court of admiralty decide that 700,000/.. are to be 
divided between the soldiers commanded by 
generals Whitelocke, Rose, Roberts, and others, 

30 June, 

Bishop Colenso v. Gladstone and others, trustees of 

colonial bishopric fund (for withholding his 

stipend) ; verdict for plaintiff, with costs 6 Nov. 

Hunter v. Sharpe (Pcdl Mall Gazette), for libel 



1865 



(charging him with quackery) ; one farthing 
damages gained by plaintiff . . 1 Dec. 1866 

James F. Wilkinson, manager of joint stock discount 
company, convicted of fraud . 9 et seq. Jan. 1867 

[Liberated with free pardon, after investigation, 
July, 1868.] 

Bryant v. Foot ; decision against prescriptive right 
of a rector to claim a marriage-fee . 23 Jan. ,, 

C. W. Lee Webb, Lionel Holdsworth, and others, 
convicted of fraud (scuttling a ship, and claiming 
insurance) 4 Feb. ,, 

C. Anderson, a Swede ; convicted of murdering a 
mulatto, from superstition . . 12 April, ,, 

Breadalbane peerage ; Wm. J. Campbell declared 
heir, on appeal to house of lords . 16 July, „ 

Smith v. Tebbitt and others ; a will case, disposing 
of upwards of 400,000?. ; verdict for defendants, 
annulling the will of Ann Thwaites, who is de- 
clared of unsound mind, after a long trial, in 
April and May ; judgment given . . 6 Aug. ,, 

Oakes v. Turquand, and others ; appeal case, house 
of lords ; decision affirming liability of share- 
holders of the company of Overend, Gurney, and 
Co. (limited) 15 Aug. ,, 

Geo. Druitt, M. Lawrence, and John Anderson, 
leaders of the operative tailors' association, con- 
victed of a misdemeanor (organising the system 
of "picketing," or watching men on strike; and 
intimidating non-unionists ; which began 24 
April, 1867) 21 Aug. ,, 

13 tailors convicted of " picketing" . 22 Aug. „ 

Fenian trials at Manchester, Allen, &c. (see 
Fenians) 30 0ct.-i2 Nov. ,, 

Frederick Baker convicted of brutal murder of a 
child . .... 6 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Rigby Wason v. Walter (for publication of an 
alleged libel in the Times ; viz. , a correct report 
of a debate in the house of lords, &c.) ; verdict 
for defendant, settling that such a report is 
privileged . . . ... 18-20 Dec. „ 

[Verdict affirmed again, 25 Nov. 1868. Mr. Wa- 
son died July, 1875.] 

Martin v. Mackonochie (for ritualistic practices) ; 
before dean of arches, 4 Dec. 1867, and. 14 days ; 
recommenced; closed . . . 18 Jan. 1868 

Flamank v. Simpson ; similar case ; begun 5 Feb. ; 
verdict condemning elevation of sacrament, use 
of incense, and mixture of water with the wine in 
the communion service . . 28 March, ,, 

Crossley i>. Elsworthy for fraudulent misrepresen- 
tation ; verdict for plaintiff, damages 35,000?. 

18 Feb. „ 

Trial of Fenians for Clerkenwell outrage (see 
Fenians), begun 20 April ; all acquitted except 
Michael Barrett .... 20-27 April, „ 

Richard Burke (alios Geo. Berry, &c), Theobald 
Casey, and Henry Shaw (alios Mullady), Fenians, 
for treason felony, at Old Bailey ; Burke and 
Shaw convicted, Casey acquitted 2S-30 April, ,, 

Mornington v. Wellesley, and Wellesley v. Morning- 
ton, a 29 years' suit in chancery, decided (costs 
above 30,000?.); 22,000?. awarded to the countess 
of Mornington 7 May, ,, 

Lyon v. Home (the spiritual medium). The plain- 
tiff, a widow, sought to recover 60,000?. stock, 
given to Home at the alleged command of her 
deceased husband's spirit, between Oct. 1866 and 
Feb. 1867; suit instituted 15 June, 1867; trial, 
21 April to 1 May, 1868 ; verdict given for 
plaintiff, by the vice-chancellor, sir G. M. Giffard, 

22 May, ,, 
[The judge, in concluding, said, regarding 
spiritualism, that " the system, as presented 
by the evidence, is mischievous nonsense ; 
well calculated on the one hand to delude 
the vain, the weak, the foolish, and the 
superstitious ; and on the other to assist the 
projects of the needy and the adventurer."] 

Esmonde will case, Dublin ; Lady Esmonde 
bequeathed property to support protestantism in 
Ireland, by endowing a college, &c. : will disputed 
by her family : no verdict by jury 3-13 June, ,, 

[New trial; will affirmed, Aug. 1869.] 

Thomas Edgeley, convicted of fraud against Leeds 
Banking Company . . . 11-13 June, „ 

Risk Allah v. Whitehurst (for Daily Telegraph): 
libel case ; damages for plaintiff, 960?. , 19 June, „ 

Attorney-general v. Dakin : appeal case ; decision 



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that privilege of exemption from execution of 
legal process does not extend to Hampton Court 
palace . . . . . . .20 June, i8< 

Madame Sarah Rachel Leverson convicted of con- 
spiracy 25 Sept. ,.. 

[Writ of error : new trial refused, n May, 1869.] 

Chornford v. Lingo : female suffrage declared illegal 

7-9 Nov. ,. 

Baxter v. Langley : Sunday evening lectures 
declared not illegal . . . . 19 Nov. ,, 

Martin v. Mackonochie : see Church of England, 

23 Dec. , 
Phillips v. Eyre : verdict for defendant ; see 

Jamaica 20 Jan. 18' 

Saurin v. Star and another (convent case ; a sister 
sued her mother superior, for ill-usage and ex- 
pulsion) ; verdict for plaintiff, damages 500L 

3-26 Feb. , 
[Case compromised, April, 1870.] 

James Thos.- Gambier, admiralty clerk, and Win. 
Rumble, engineer, convicted of fraud and seeking 
bribes from contractors . . .9 April, , 

Cooper v. Gordon : verdict for plaintiff ; the vice- 
chancellor decides that the majority of a congre- 
gation of dissenters may dismiss their minister 
for any cause 28 May, , 

Major Frederick Beswick, constable of Birkenhead, 
convicted of forgery . . . .10 June, , 

Farrer (president of the Amalgamated Carpenters' 
Society) v. Close (the secretary), for misappro- 
priation of money. In 1867 the justices dismissed 
the charge because the society had illegal rules. 
At the trial at the Queen's bench the court was 
equally divided, and no verdict given . 3 July, , 

Fanny F. M. Oliver convicted of murder of her 
husband 20 July, , 

Lyons v. Rev. N. Thomas and others, for abduction 
of Esther Lyons, a Jewish girl, a proselyte ; 
damages 50Z 31 July, , 

Frederick Hinson convicted of murder of his para- 
mour, Maria Death, and Wm. Douglas Boyd 

24 Nov. , 
Rev. James John Merest, convicted of simony ; 

deprived 26-29 Nov. 1 

Martin v. Mackonochie : before judicial committee 
of privy council, defendant censured for evading 
verdict, and condemned in costs . . 4 Dec. , 

Mrs. Kelly v. Rev. J. Kelly ; judicial separation for 
ill usage (not violence) decreed . . 7 Dec. , 

Messrs. Gurney and others, for conspiring to de- 
fraud ; acquitted .... 13-23 Dec. , 

Smith v. Earl Brownlow : after long litigation de- 
cision against the enclosure of the common at 
Berkhampstead by lord of the manor 14 Jan. iS 

James Clifford, a retired artilleryman, convicted of 
" sweating" sovereigns by the voltaic battery, 

1 Feb. , 

Jacob Spinass, a Swiss, convicted of murder of 
Cecilia Aldridge, an unfortunate . . 3 March, , 

Dr. Kinglake convicted of bribery on behalf of his 
brother at Bridgewater ... 26 March, , 

Wicklow peerage case : claim for an infant declared 
to be unfounded by house of lords (remarkable 
evidence) .'.... 31 March, , 

Demetrius Pappa, a bank manager, sentenced to 
5 years' penal servitude for embezzlement, 6 May, , 

Sir Charles Mordaunt v. lady Mordaunt, and others, 
for divorce: preliminary trial of her sanity (de- 
clared insane on 30 April, 1869), 16-25 Feb. 1870; 
appeal, 27 April, 1870; judgment affirmed 2 June, , 

Bishop Goss (R.C.) v. Hill and Whittaker: will 
case; Mr. Moreton's will, bequeathing the chief 
of his property to the bishop, set aside 16 June, , 

Phillips v. Eyre, for imprisonment during Jamaica 
rebellion ; verdict for defendant . . 23 June, , 

Chelsea Murders : Walter Miller convicted of murder 
of Rev. Elias Huelin and Anne Boss, his house- 
keeper (8 or 9 May, 1870) . . . 13, 14 July, 

Michael Davitt and John Wilson, treason felony ; 
see Fenians 18 July, , 

John Jones or Owen, convicted of murder of Ema- 
nuel Marshall and family (7 persons, early 22 May, , 
1870), at Denham, near Uxbridge . 22 July, 
Shepherd v. Bennett (Arches); decision that defen- 
dant had retracted heresy; appeal to privy council, 

23 July, 
Margaret Waters convicted of murder of John 



Cowen, infant; her sister and accomplice, Sarah 
Ellis, was convicted of fraud, 22 Sept. (baby 
farming case; see Infanticide) . 21-23 Sept. '870 

Rev. C. Voysey v. Noble: appeal to privy council 
judicial committee against condemnation for 
heresy 10 NOv. „ 

Ebdy v. McGowan : verdict against an architect for 
refusing to give up the plans of a building he was 
about to erect 16 Nov. „ 

Catch v. Shaen: for libel on master of Lambeth 
workhouse; verdict for plaintiff, 600I. damages; 
execution stayed .... 15 Dec. „ 

Diamond Robbery : London and Ryder's man made 
insensible and robbed of diamonds, 12 Jan.; Mar- 
tha Torpey acquitted, 1 March ; James Torpey 
pleaded guilty (sentenced to 8 years' penal servi- 
tude) 1 May, 1871 

E. Boulton, L. C. Hurt, F. W. Park, and others 
(frequently dressed as women) tried for a conspi- 
racy; acquitted .... 9-15 May, ,, 

Tichborne v. Lushington : the plaintiff declared 
himself to be sir Roger Charles Tichborne, sup- 
posed to have been lost at sea ; and claimed the 
baronetcy and estates, worth about 24,000!. 
a year. 

Roger Charles Tichborne, son of sir James, born . 1829 

Educated in France till .... about 1843 

Entered the army 1849 

Proposed marriage to his cousin Kate Doughty; 
declined Jan. 1852 

Sailed from Havre for Valparaiso (March), and ar- 
rived there 19 June, 1853 

Sailed from Rio Janeiro in the Bella, which foun- 
dered at sea 20 April, 1854 

[A Chancery suit was instituted, and his death legally 
proved.] 

His mother advertised for her son . 19 May, 1865 

The claimant (found by Gibbes and Cubitt in Aus- 
tralia) asserted that he and eight of the crew were 
saved from the wreck of the Bella; that he went 
to Australia, and lived there, roughly, 13 years 
under the name of Castro; married as Castro, 
Jan. ; as Tichborne 3 July, 1866 

He set up his claim ; and was accepted by the dow- 
ager lady Tichborne as her son at Paris . Jan. 1867 

[No others of the family accepted him ; but sir 
Clifford Constable and some brother-officers did.]* 

His claim was resisted on behalf of sir Henry (a 
minor), son of sir Alfred Tichborne ; and after 
chancery proceedings (begun March, 1867) a trial 
began in the court of common pleas before chief 
justice Bovill 11 May, 1871 

The claimant was examined 22 days ; the trial ad- 
journed on 40th day, 7 July; resumed, 7 Nov.; 
case for claimant closed ... 21 Dec. ,, 

Trial resumed, 15 Jan.; the attorney-general, sir J. 
D. Coleridge, spoke 26 days; on 4 March the 
jury expressed themselves satisfied that the claim- 
ant was not sir Roger ; on the 103rd day he was 
declared nonsuited 6 March, 1872 

The law proceedings are said to have cost the estate 
nearly 92,000!. 

He was lodged in Newgate to be tried for perjury, 
7 March; indicted as Thos. Castro, otherwise 
Arthur Orton, for perjury and forgery 9 April, „ 

The court of queen's bench decide that he may be 
admitted to bail, 23 April; released . 26 April, „ 

The trial of the claimant for perjury and forgery 
begun before chief justice Cockbum, and justices 
Mellor and Lush at bar 23 April ; ease for the 
prosecution closed, 10 July : resumed (for defence) 

21 July, ,, 

Lady Doughty, mother of sir Henry Tichborne, dies 

13 Dec. ,, 

[Up to 27 June (47th day of the trial), out of 150 
witnesses above 100 had sworn that the claimant 
was not Tichborne ; and about 40 that he was 
Arthur Orton.] 

The claimant forbidden to attend public meetings, 

19 Sept. 1873 

Case for the defence closed on 124th day, 27 Oct. 
adjourned from 31 Oct. to 17 Nov., then to 
27 Nov. ; rebutting evidence heard, 27, 28 Nov. ,, 



* Mr. Guildford Onslow, who spent about 15,000*. in 
supporting the claimant, died 20 Aug. 1882. 



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Dr. Kenealy's summing-up,* 2 Dec-14 Jan. 1874 ; 

Mr. Hawkins's reply ... 15 Jam-28 Jan. 1874 
[Mr. Whalley, M.P., fined for contempt of court, 

250?., 23 Jan.] 
The chief-justice's summing-up, 29 Jan. -28 Feb. „ 
Verdict : that the claimant did falsely swear, — that 
he was Roger Charles Tichborne, that he se- 
duced Catherine N. E. Doughty in 1851, and that 
he was not Arthur Orton ; t sentence, 14 years' 
imprisonment with hard labour . . 28 Feb, ,, 
[Longest trial known in England.] 
New trial refused by the judges . . 29 April, „ 
On appeal, sentence affirmed by the house of lords, 
10, 11 March, 1881 ; released on ticket of leave, 
20 Oct. 1884 ; his confession printed in the 
People, May, 1895 ; born 1835 ; died . 1 April, 1898 

Eltham Murder: E. W. Pook for murder of Jane 
Maria Clousen ; acquitted . . 12-15 July, 1871 

Hannah Newington, or Flora Davey; convicted of 
manslaughter of Frederick Moon; she was his 
mistress, and excited by insult . . 15 July, ,, 

Capt. H. Hamilton Beamish and others tried for 
stranding the Agincourt (see Navy), 26 July ; re- 
primanded by the court ... 8 Aug. ,, 

Robert Kelly: for murder of Talbot (a police-con- 
stable and informer against Fenians) on night of 
12 July; acquitted (extraordinary verdict) 

30 Oct.-io Nov. „ 

Peek v. Gurney and others (Overendand Co.) plain- 
tiffs claim for loss incurred through misrepresen- 
tations in the company's prospectus ; disallowed 
by master of rolls on account of his neglecting to 
verify the prospectus and his too late claim; 
costs refused to defendants . . .6 Nov. „ 

Mr.Pigott condemned to imprisonment for illegal 
comments on a trial, in the Irishman . 13 Nov. „ 

Rev. John Selby Watson, eminent scholar, killed 
his wife in a fit of passion, 8 Oct. ; convicted and 
imprisoned for life .... 10-12 Jan. 1872 

Christiana Edmunds; convicted of poisoning at 
Brighton; she purchased chocolate creams, and 
returned poisoned ones to the confectioner, and 
thus caused death to one child and nearly killed 
other persons ; reprieved as insane 15, 16 Jan. ,, 

The Queen v. the Lords of the Treasury : for not 
repaying expenses for prosecutions to the county 
of Lancaster; mandamus refused . . 29 Jan. ,, 

Park-lane Murder: Margaret Dixblancs, a Belgian 
emigrant, murdered her mistress, madame Riel, 
on Sunday, 7 April; escaped; taken at Paris; 
confessed to killing her mistress in a quarrel; 
convicted, but recommended to mercy, 11-14 
June ; sentence commuted to penal servitude for 
life 21 June, „ 

Ellen Kettel : charged with poisoning her husband's 
first wife in order to marry him ; acquitted, 

24, 25 Oct. „ 

Chelsea Tragedy: Hermann Nagel and Paul May, 
young Prussians, came to London to avoid con- 
scription ; their money being spent, they agreed 
to commit suicide; after wounding May, Nagel 
shot himself dead, 21 Aug.; May recovered, and 
was indicted for murder, tried, and acquitted, 

21 Nov. ,, 

[He was convicted and punished for forgery at 
Berlin, Feb. 1873.] 

Baker v. Loader: widow, to whom 107,000?. had 
been bequeathed ; in ten years is reduced to 
poverty by imposition ; she sues the widow of 
her friend Loader and solicitors ; verdict of vice- 
chancellor Malins, ordering deeds to Loader to 
be cancelled ; the solicitor to pay his own costs, 

20 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Hepworth Dixon v. Smith (Pall-Mali Gazette), 
for libel ; damages, one farthing . 26-29 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Guildford Onslow and Mr. G. H. Whalley, 
M.P.'s, fined for contempt of court in speeches 
respecting the Tichborne case, 20 Jan. ; Mr. 
Skipworth, barrister, for same offence, condemned 
to three months' imprisonment and lined; the 
claimant made to give securities for ioooJ., for a 
similar offence 29 Jan. 1873 

Parke v. Harvey Lewis, sir Joseph McKenna, and 



* See Englishman. 

t Charles Orton declared the claimant to be his 
brother Arthur, at the Globe office, 10 March, 1874. 



others: for misuse of a company's funds while 
directors; 10 days 'trial; verdict for plaintiff, 30 Jan. 1873 

Omagh Murder: (of Mr. Glass, 29 June, 187 1); 
sub-inspector Montgomery tried; 12 days; strong 
evidence ; jury not agreed . . . 19 March, „ j 

Broughton v. Knight : will of Mr. Knight set aside 
on account of unsound mind . 31 March, ,, i 

Andrews v. Salt : decision by lord-chancellor that a 
child shall be educated as a protestant by grand- 
mother, not by Roman catholic uncle; confirmed 
on appeal 6 May, „ 

Rev. O'Keeffe v. Cardinal Cullen (for libel, and 
virtually suspending him from his office) ; consi- 
deration of demurrer; judges (at Dublin) divided 
in opinions ; three decide that the papal ordi- 
nance on which the cardinal relied was prohi- 
bited by the statutes of Elizabeth ; demurrer set 
aside, 7 May; the trial begun 12 May; verdict for 
plaintiff; the jury gave one farthing damages, 

27 May, „ 

[Mr. O'Keeffe submitted to the cardinal, May, 1876.] 

Sub-inspector Montgomery, at his third trial for 
the brutal murder of Mr. Glass, at Newton- 
Stewart, Ireland, on 8 June, 1871 ; convicted and 
confessed, 28 July [executed, Aug. 26] . . ,, 

Great jewellery frauds ; Michael and Rebecca 
Goldsmid convicted . . . .8 July, „ 

Farrell v. Gordons ; much property left to R. C. 
church ; will affirmed .... 9 July, „ 

Todd v. Lyne (father Ignatius) ; son of the plaintiff 
rescued from convent (where he had taken vows) 
by chancery 25 July, ,, 

Bank Forgery : Austin Biron Bidwell, George Mac- 
donnell, George Bidwell, and Edwin Noyes, 
Americans, forged bills for discounting at the 
Bank of England, West-Branch, and obtained 
102,217?. ; detected through not dating one bill; 
convicted ; penal servitude for life [their plot to 
escape by bribing the warders failed] 18-26 Aug. „ 

Rev. John Benington (after 30 years' swindling) 
sentenced to 15 years' penal servitude 22 Aug. ,, 

Cheltenham Chronicle fined 150/. for commenting on 
trial of the Tichborne claimant . . 23 Sept. ,, 

Marshal Bazaine ; see France ... 6 Oct. „ 

Gilbert v. Enoch (for Pall Mall Gazette) for libel in 
.critique on " The Wicked World," a play ; verdict 
for defendant (both regarded harmless) 27 Nov. ,, 

Capt. Charles S. Maunsell sentenced to a month's 
imprisonment with hard labour for assaulting 
the duke of Cambridge on 6 Jan. . 4 Feb. 1874 

Miss Fairland gave her fortune to St. Mary's Domi- 
nican convent, Belfast ; her trustees oppose the 
transfer ; the master of the rolls affirms the gift, 

24 Feb. „ 

Dr. Hayman v. the governing body of Rugby 
school ; judgment for the defendants . 21 March, ,, 

JeanLuie (Lindgren) and "capt." Brown convicted 
of perjury in the Tichborne case (7 years' and 
5 years' penal servitude) . . . 9, 10 April, ,, 

Mordaunt case (see 1870), divorce court ; 3 judges 
hold that insanity is no bar to suit for divorce ; 
2 judges hold that it is . . . .15 May, „ 

Callan, M.P., v. O'Reilly Dease ; for libel (termed 
"wilful and malicious " by ch. -just. Whiteside), 
Dublin ; damages one farthing . 2 July, „ 

E. Welby Pugin, convicted of libel against J. R. 
Herbert, R.A., 23 Sept. ; not sentenced 24 Sept. „ 

Epping forest case ; decision against the enclosures 
of the lords of the manors as illegal {see Commons) 

10 Nov. „ 

Frederick v. Attorney-General : col. Charles Edward 
Frederick declared heir to baronetcy ; the validity 
of the marriage of his grandparents affirmed in 
divorce court 18 Dec. „ 

Rubery v. baron Albert Grant and M. B. Sampson 
(long city editor of the Times') for libel ; the article 
in Times, 18, 20 Nov. and 20 Dec. 1872, charged 
Rubery with connection with a fraud in a certain 
. diamond mine in Colorado ; 10 days' trial ; Grant 
cleared ; Sampson fined 500/. . . .18 Jan. 1875 

[By these articles the public were protected from a 
bad scheme.] 

Alleged False Prospectus Case : (Canadian Oil-Work.* 
Corporation), Charlton v. sir John Hay, Mr. East- 
wick, and others grossly deceived ; 17 days' trial ; 
jury divided ; discharged ; no verdict 24 Feb. ,, 

[Oil-wells in Ontario, Canada, property of Prince's 
company got up to buy them, by Longbottom ; 



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1277 



TRIALS. 



scheme not accepted in the city ; taken up at 
west-end ; sir John Hay, Mr. M'Cullagh Torrens, 
Mr. Bastwick, and others induced to become 
directors ; wells bought ; company collapsed.] 

Philpotts v. Boyd : see Rereclos : settled by judicial 
committee of privy council ... 24 Feb. 

Mordauut v. Mordaunt and viscount Cole (see 
above, May, 1874); divorce granted n March, 

Terry v. Brighton Aquarium Company, for opening 
on Sundays ; verdict ; penalty 200!. (see Sunday) 

27 April, 

Jackson v. Grand Junction Canal Company (see 
Gunpowder Explosion, 2 Oct. 1874); company ad- 
judged responsible for damages . 14 May, 

Keith Johnston v. Proprietors of Athenmum, for 
libel in criticism of an atlas ; Edinburgh ; 
damages, 1275L : 24 March, new trial ; damages 
reduced to 100I 16 June, 

John Neave, Arthur Keen (or Murrell) and Annie 
Bolwell, convicted of coining and uttering false 
coin at railway stations . . . 12, 13 July, 

Jenkins v. Rev. Flavel Cook (for excluding him 
from the communion for heresy (denying per- 
sonality of Satan and eternal punishment) ; ver- 
dict for defendant in Court of Arches . 16 July, 

Col. Valentine Baker sentenced to tine of 500L, and 
i2months' imprisonment for indecently assaulting 
Miss Dickenson in a railway carriage 2 Aug. 

Mrs. Gladstone v. capt. Gladstone (long case con- 
cluded) ; divorce granted . . . .6 Aug. 

Win. Thompson Hunt convicted of manslaughter 
for administering strychnia to Mrs. Hudson (who 
died) and others, as a remedy for intoxication ; 
5 years' penal servitude . . . .25 Sept. 

Wm. Talley, a solicitor, for dissuading a person 
bound over to prosecute from fulfilling his en- 
gagement ; sentence 1 year's imprisonment 

25 Sept. 

Sugden and others v. St. Leonards, will case (lord 
St. Leonards' will missing ; many codicils left) ; 
verdict for plaintiffs, affirming the lost will on 
his daughter's, Miss Sugden's, recollection of its 

provisions 17-26 Nov. 

[Verdict affirmed on appeal, 14 March, 1876.] 

Whiteahapel Murder (which see). 

Henry Wainwright for murder of Harriet Lane, and 
his brother Thomas as accessory before and after 
the fact ; before chief justice Cockburn (nine 
days) ; Henry sentenced to death ; Thomas, as 
accessory after fact, to 7 years' penal servitude 
22 Nov.-i Dec. 

Smith v. Union Bank of London (see Drafts) ; ver- 
dict for defendants .... 29 Nov. 

Rev. H. Keet v. Rev. G. E. Smith (see Reverend) ; 
appeal to privy council ; verdict for the plaintiff 

21 Jan. 

Persons representing the parish of Folkestone v. 
Rev. C. J. Ridsdale, vicar (for ritualistic prac- 
tices) ; verdict for plaintiffs ; the vicar to be ad- 
monished and pay costs ... 3 Feb. 

Jenkins v. Rev. F. S. Cook, appeal from the dean of 
Arches to the privy council judicial committee ; 
verdict for plaintiff (Rev. F. Cook resigned) 

16 Feb. 

Eupion Gas Company (1874) ; Queen v. Aspinall and 
others, directors, for fraud ; long trial ; verdict, 
Aspinall and another convicted of improperly 
obtaining settlement of quotation on Stock Ex- 
change ; acquitted of charge of fraud . 17 Feb. 

[The lord chief justice declared the company to be 
"a fiction and a sham from beginning to end; " 
sentence, Joseph Aspinall and Charles Knocker, 
12 months' imprisonment, John Saunders Muir 
and William Whyte, 2 months' imprisonment, 1 
July, 1876.] 

W. K. Vance and Ellen Snee, conspiracy to murder 
(ostensibly herself) ; singular case ; sentenced to 
imprisonment .... .1 June, 

Robert Buchanan, the poet, v. P. A. Taylor, M.P., 
proprietor of Examiner, libels in papers 27 Nov. 
and 1 Dec. (letter said to be by Mr. A. Swinburne, 
the poet) ; damages, 150?. . . . 1 July, 

Twycross. (representing many others) v. baron 
Albert Grant and others, to recover money paid 
for shares in Lisbon tramway company, promoted 
by defendant and others ; long trial ; able speech 
of Grant ; verdict, 700L damages . 13 July, 
[Judgment affirmed on appeal, 2 June, 1877.] 



1875 



Buckhurst peerage, claimed by earl Delawarr and by 
his brother, Mortimer Sackville West ; house of 
lords decide in favour of the earl . 18 July, 1876 

Blackburn Murder ; Wm. Fish convicted of murder 
and violation of Emily Mary Holland, aged 7 (28 
March) ; pleaded temporary insanity . 28 July, ,, 

Richard Banner Oakley, manager of Co-operative 
Credit Bank, convicted of obtaining money by 
false pretences ; much credulity in victims ; 5 
years' penal servitude .... 9-12 Aug. ,, 

Will Frauds : Charles Howard (count von Howard, 
<&e.), sentenced to 5 years' penal servitude for ob- 
taining 380?.. from J ohn Harvey, for a pretended 
will (other cases) .... 26 Oct. „ 

Frederick Henry Vane v. sir Henry Ralph Vane 
(his nephew) ; verdict for defendant, maintain- 
ing his father's legitimacy ; chancery division 

25 Nov. ,, 

Lewis v. Higgins, for alleged slander in speech as 
counsel ; verdict for defendant, affirming privi- 
lege of counsel 4 Dec. „ 

Coe (stage manager, Haymarket, dismissed as ac- 
cused of receiving payments from actors engaged) 
v. Sothern and Buckstone : verdict for plaintiff ; 
damages, 1035? 13 Dec. ,, 

Lord Longford v. Wellington Purdon ; will giving 
property to the plaintiff's young son set aside ; 
the testator, Cooke, having been under the undue 
influence of Rev. Wm. Lyster (plaintiff not 
blamed) ; 25 days' trial .... Feb. 1877 

Lynall Thomas v. the Queen (petition of right) ; 
for patent of cannon, <fce. ; verdict for plaintiff, 
with damages .... 10 March, „ 

Great Turf Frauds : forgery of cheques for 10,000?., 
&c. ; about 13,000?. obtained ; five sentenced to 
penal servitude ; Henry Benson, 15 years ; Wm. 
and Fred. Kerr and Chas. Bate, 10 years ; Ed- 
win Murray, accessory, 18 months 12 — 23 April, ,, 

Cresswell and others v. Walrond ; will of Bethell 
Walrond set aside by arrangement (he had be- 
queathed his property to strangers and dogs, had 
been cruel to his children, decorated his bed 
with skulls and hearse plumes, &c.) 13 June, „ 

Queen v. Charles Bradlaugh and Annie Besant, for 
publication of "Fruits of Philosophy," by Dr. 
Knowlton, which they defended, on grounds of 
humanity, in long speeches ; verdict, the book 
calculated to deprave, but not intended, 18 — 21 
June ; sentence (through the defendants not sub- 
mitting to the court), 6 months' imprisonment, 
200?. fine for both, 28 June ; appeal, on ground 
of legal informality, disallowed by queen's bench 

16 Nov. ,, 

Nathaniel Druscovitch, John Meiklejohn, andWm. 
Palmer, police inspectors, and Edward Froggatt, 
solicitor, charged with conspiracy to defeat the 4 _^ 
ends of justice in respect to turf frauds (see abomf^- 1/ 
12—23 April) ; examination began, 12 July**"**'*^ 
Froggatt committed, 6 Sept.; chief inspector 
Clarke arrested, 8 Sept. ; 28 days' examination ; 
committed, 22 Sept. ; trial began, 24 Oct. ; all 
convicted except Clarke ; sentence, 2 years' im- 
prisonment with hard labour . . 20 Nov. ,, 

Wm. Swindlehurst, secretary, and Dr. John Baxter 
Langley, director of Artisans' Dwelling Com- 
pany, and Edward Saffery, convicted of defraud- 
ing shareholders of about 24,312?.; officers sen- 
tenced to 18 months', Saffery 12 months' impri- 
sonment 23-26 Oct. ,, 

Thos. Hyslop (aged 19) and John Denham (aged 18) 
convicted of highway robbery at Blackheath 23 Oct. ,, 

Penge Case: Louis A. E. Staunton, Patrick L. 
Staunton his brother, and Eliz. Ann, his wife, 
and her sister, Alice Rhodes, mistress of Louis ; 
tried for murder by starvation of Harriet, wife of 
Louis (a woman of weak intellect, married for 
her property, and soon deserted), 19 Sept. ; all 
convicted, 26 Sept.; respited, 13 Oct.; Alice 
Rhodes pardoned ; the others sentenced to penal 
servitude for life ; announced . . 3° 0ct - >> 

Coote (solicitor) v. Kenealy ; for payments ; ver- 
dict for plaintiff .... 14 Nov. „ 

Forged Leases: Frederick Dimsdale, solicitor, Chas. 
Burrell Moore, clerk, and others ; forged leases, 
and borrowed money on them (above 300,000?.); 
many lenders did not appear ; pleaded guilty ; 
sentence, Dimsdale, penal servitude for life ; 
Moore, 7 years ; others less . 16, 17 Jan. 1878 



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1278 



TEIALS. 



Madame Rachel (Levison, or Leverson), convicted 
of misdemeanour ; obtained money and jewels 
from Mrs. Pearce, for " beautifying ;" 5 years' 
penal servitude ... 10, 11 April, 1878 

Eugene Marie Chantrelle, Frenchman, convicted of 
murder of wife, at Edinburgh ; much cruelty 

disclosed 10 May, ,, 

Will case, Dublin ; Christopher Neville Bagot, 
made a fortune in Australia ; made will, disin- 
heriting his son as illegitimate ; died, 2 j May, 
1877 ; trial, 23 days ; painful disclosures ; the 
will set aside (see below, 1879) . . 20 May, ,, 
Harrington v. Victoria Graving Dock Company ; 
he claimed remainder of commission for obtain- 
ing an order from Great Eastern railway com- 
pany ; nonsuited ; such commissions declared 
illegal by queen's bench ... 4 June, „ 
Jas. T. Northcott, Geo. Thompson, Thos. G. Wood 
(of the Albion Life Insurance company) ; sen- 
tenced to 5 years' penal servitude for conspiracy, 
and obtaining money on false pretences ; subor- 
dinates sentenced to less imprisonment 8 June, ,, 
Charles Marvin, copying-clerk of foreign office, ex- 
amined for copy of an Anglo-Russian agreement 
published in Globe, 14 June, 27 June; discharged 

16 July, ,, 
Taylor v. Gwyn ; claim for Jermy estates (see 
Jenny murders by Rush, Trials, 1849) ; claim 
denied ; trial set aside by statute of limitations 

5 Aug. ,, 
7)i re Agar Ellis ; the husband's promise before 
marriage that his children should be brought up 
Romanists, permitted to be withdrawn by chan- 
cery . 6 Aug. ,, 

The Board of Works v. rev. F. G. Lee, of All Saints, 
Lambeth ; queen's bench division decide that the 
incumbent of a church is not its owner, and 
therefore not responsible for keeping it in repair. 

11 Nov. ,, 
Annie Louisa lady Gooch (with Ann Walker) ; she 
tried to pass a child as her own and her husband's, 
committed for trial 30 Nov., indictment ignored, 

11 Dec. „ 
Paul and others v. Summerhayes ; appeal ; sentence 
against plaintiffs affirmed (foxhunters may not 
trespass), queen's bench . . . .16 Nov. ,, 
Queen v. liandmann (for assault on Mrs. Rousby), 

not guilty 19-20 Nov. „ 

Henry Sturt Marshall, asst. sec. of curates' augmen- 
tation fund, convicted of embezzling about 7,000?. ; 
confessed . ... 24 Oct. ,, 

Whistler v. Ruskin, for libellous criticism in "Fors 

Clavigera," one farthing damages . 25, 26 Nov. „ 
Hill and others v. managers of Metropolitan Asylums 
District 1 1 (days), verdict, that Hampstead small- 
pox hospital was a nuisance (verdict affirmed on 
appeal, 28 Jan. 1879) . . . .29 Nov. „ 
Mr. Wybrow Robertson (manager of Westminster 
Aquarium) v. Labouchere, for libel in Truth, 
27 Nov., verdict for defendant . . 20 Dec. „ 
Muir and others ; court of session, decides that trus- 
tees who have invested in the "City of Glasgow 
bank," are responsible [affirmed on appeal to house 
of lords, 7 April, 1879 1 . . . 20 Dec. ,, 
Stephen Gambrill for murder of Mr. Arthur Gillow 
(on 5 Dec. when defending agricultural ma- 
chinery), at Wednesborough, near Sandwich, Kent, 

convicted 14-15 Jan. 1879 

Long firm forgeries, Kettle and others convicted, 
sentenced to various terms of imprisonment, 

16-17 J an - " 
City of Glasgow Bank directors and managers (see 

under Banks, note) convicted . 20 Jan. -1 Feb. ,, 
Charles Peace (or John Ward), committed many 
burglaries in skilful manner, convicted of at- 
tempting life of policeman, 19 Nov. ; convicted of 
murder of Arthur Dyson, at Bannercross near 
Sheffield, 29 Nov. 1876 . . . .4 Feb. „ 
[He jumped from a moving railway train near Shef- 
field, and was nearly killed, 22 Jan. ; confessed to 
murders, <fcc. ; exonerated William Habron, con- 
victed as an accomplice, in a murder (therefore 
released, 18 March); executed at Leeds, 25 Feb.] ,, 
Dr. Julius v. Bishop of Oxford (for not prosecuting 
rev. T. T. Carter of Clewer for ritualistic prac- 
tices), queen's bench, (verdict for plaintiff, set 
aside on appeal, 30 May, Mr. Carter resigned 24 
March, 1880 .... 8 March, „ 



Kentish Town murder, Thomas Perryman convicted 

of murder of his mother . . 2 April, 1879 

Queen v. Booker &, Wyman (for libel in Truth, 
against Mr. Lambri), verdict against Wyman ; long 

trial 30 April, 

Duke of Norfolk v. Arbuthnot, claiming ownership 
of Fitz-alan chapel in Arundel church, verdict for 
plaintiff, common pleas . . . 17 May, 
[Decision affirmed on appeal, 7 June, 1880.] 
Bagot will case, appeal, new trial ordered 5 June, 
Shepherd v. Francis (for libel in a review in the 
"Athenaeum"), damages, 150Z. . . 16 June, 
The Queen v. sir Charles Reed ; the queen's bench 
decide that the metropolitan school board have 
power to borrow money . . .27 June, 
Sturla v. Freccia : Antonio Mangini, born 1735, con- 
sul here about 1771, died 1803 ; his daughter 
married Aquila Brown, 1792 ; after 8 years 
contest established her disputed legitimacy, 
1811 ; died intestate in London, aged 93, 1871, her 
property, after a trial, awarded to the Freccia 
family, 1876. the claim of Madame Sturla set 
aside by vice-chancellor . . .24 June, 

Richmond murder, Katherine Webster, convicted of 
murder of Mrs. Julia Martha Thomas (see Rich- 

moivl) 8 July, 

Edmund Galley convicted of murder, by error, 
and transported ; declared innocent by the house 

of commons 25 July, 

Euston -square mystery, Hannah Dobbs, for murder 
of Matilda Hacker, acquitted . . 23 July, 

The mutilated remains of Matilda Hacker, eccentric, 
about 50 years old, were found in a coal-cellar, 
No. 4, Euston-square. Hannah Dobbs was maid- 
servant there. She published her autobiography, 
in which she attacked her former master, Sewerin 
Bastendorff, who, after bringing an action for 
libel, was convicted of perjury . . Dec. 
(He was awarded by consent 500Z. damages for the 

libel, 27 Jan. 1881.) 

Rev. Christopher Newman Hall v, Mrs. Hall, and 

Mr. Richardson, long trial, divorce granted, 8 Aug. 

Jonathan Gaydon (or Geyden), for murder of Miss 

Mary White at Chingford, 21 June, 1857, confessed, 

retracted, convicted (reprieved) . . 24 Oct. 

Adolphus Rosenberg, for libel against Mrs. Langtry 

and Mrs. West, in Town Tcdk, convicted, 18 

months' imprisonment . . .25, 27 Oct. 

Tranmere baby-farming case (near Birkenhead), John 

and Catherine Barns, convicted of manslaughter ; 

(they received illegitimate infants with premiums 

of 30L, &c.) 28, 29 Oct. 

Dr. Arthur H. Nowell v. George Williams (for plac- 
ing him in a lunatic asylum), verdict for the de- 
fendant, medical men censured by the jury, 13 Nov. 
Phillips, surgeon, v. S. W. railway company, for 
injury, awarded 7000Z. by justice Field ; new 
trial, awarded 16,000?. by lord ch. justice Cole- 
ridge, common pleas, new trial refused 6 Dec. 
Smee v. Smee and corporation of Brighton, will set 
aside, Brighton loses a free library bequeathed, 

S Dec. 
Hilliard v. Rose & Todd, will affirmed, singular case, 

12 Dec. 
Edward Froggatt (see above, 20 Nov. 1877), sen- 
tenced to 7 years' penal servitude for fraudulent 
conversion of trust property (8000?.) . 17 Dec. 
James Lewis Paine and Fanny Matthews, for mur- 
der of Miss Annie Maclean, aged 34, daughter of 
col. Maclean, C.B., a deformed lady of property, 
by starving, administering spirits, and ill-usage, 
committed 15 Dec. ; Fanny Matthews acquitted 
16 Feb., Paine sentenced to penal servitude for 

life 24 Feb. 

Railway commissioners, powers limited (see Kail- 
ways, 1880) 13 Jan. 

Martin v. Mackonochie, new action for deprivation, 
first movement, see Public Worship . 17 Jan. 
Alexander Schosser attempted to kill priests in the 
Italian chapel, Hatton-garden, 10 Jan., tried, sen- 
tenced to imprisonment for life . 10, n Feb. 
Win. Henry Walter, forger by chemicals, &c, sen- 
tenced to 20 years' penal servitude . 23 March, 
Dr. Caleb Charles Whitefoord sentenced to 2 
months' imprisonment and tine of 50/. for forging 
letter to stop execution of Charles Shurety, 

24 March, 
West of England bank directors (Jerome Murch 



TRIALS. 1279 



TEIALS. 



and others), for publishing false balance-sheets, 
acquitted .... 28 April — 5 May, 

Lambri v. Labouchere, for libel in Truth, verdict 
for defendant 15 May, 

Tichborne case, writ of error before court of appeal, 
granted 13 Jan., sentence affirmed . 24, 25 June, 

Northern Counties Insurance Company, James E. 
Crabtree, manager, Geo. Edw. Nesbitt, ac- 
countant, and four directors, sentenced to impri- 
sonment for making and circulating false accounts, 

22 July, 

Pleasance Louisa Ingle, nurse at Guy"s hospital, 

. convicted of manslaughter (she putting Louisa 
Morgan, a patient, into a cold bath and leaving 
her), 3 months' imprisonment . . 9 Aug. 

Henry Perry, for robbing Clarence Lewis in a Ken- 
sington railway carriage, and attempting to throw 
him out of the carriage, &c. ; whipping and 20 
years' penal servitude . . . 15 Sept. 

Thomas Wheeler for murder of Edward Anstee at 
Marshall's Wick farm, near St. Albans, 22 Aug. 
convicted 6, 8 Nov. 

Sergeant Wm. Marshman (by court-martial), for 
alleged fraudulent marking at the volunteer rifle 
meetings at Wimbledon, 1878, 1879, 1880, ac- 
quitted . . . . 13 Aug. — 16 Sept. 

George Pavey convicted of murder of Ada Shepherd, 
aged ten (Acton murder), and Wm. Herbert, con- 
victed of murder of Jane Messenger in Finsbury 
park 24 Nov. 

Mr. P. Callan, M.P., convicted of libel against Mr. 
A. M. Sullivan, M.P. (fine 50L) . . 30 Nov. 

Debenham & Freebody v. Mellon, appeal, house of 
lords decide that a husband is not responsible 
for wife's debts if he allow her sufficient means, 

27 Nov. 

Attorney-general v. Edison Telephone company, 29 
Nov. et seq., verdict against company, establish- 
ing monopoly bought by Government 20 Dec. 

Trial of Charles Stewart Parnell, Thomas Sexton, 
Timothy Daniel Sullivan, John Dillon, Joseph 
Gillis Biggar, all M.P.'s, Thomas Brennan, Pat- 
rick Egan and Michael O'Sullivan, secretary, 
treasurer, and assist, secretary of the land league, 
Michael Boyton, Patrick Joseph Gordon, Matthew 
Harris, John W. Mally, John W. Walsh, and 
P. J. Sheridan, indicted for conspiracy to prevent 
tenants paying rent, <&c. Queen's Bench, Dublin ; 
lord chief justice May retires, as having been 
alleged to have given an opinion on the case 
previously ; trial began 28 Dec. 1880, jury dis- 
agreeing were discharged . . . 25 Jan. 1 88 1 

Jones and others (trustees) v. rev. John Turner 
Stannard, nonconformist minister, and others, to 
dismiss him for doctrine contrary to trust deed ; 
verdict for plaintiffs, chancery division 1 Feb. ,, 

Mary Annie Wilmot, nurse, attempt to poison Mrs. 
Booth (whose son and daughter had died under 
doubtful circumstances), at Sheffield, strong 
case, acquitted 16 Feb. „ 

Hampstead small-pox hospital case (see above, 
1878-9), on appeal, to the house of lords, preced- 
ing judgments reversed . . . 7 March, ,, 

Dysart peerage legitimacy case, Wm. John Manners 
claims by an English marriage of lord Hunting- 
tower, Albert Edwin Tollemache by a Scotch mar- 
riage, which is declared not proved, house of 
lords (painful details) ... 7 March, „ 

Clarke v. Bradlaugh, suit for penalty of $ool. for 
sitting and voting as M.P. without taking the 
oath, on July 2, 1880; verdict for plaintiff ; ap- 
peal, sentence confirmed* . . 30, 31 March, ,, 

Edward Levi Lawson r. Labouchere, M.P. for libels 
in Truth, seven days' trial, jury disagree, no 
verdict 28 March, ,, 

Spiritualist case, Susan Wills Fletcher (wife of a 
spiritualist doctor in America, who was concerned 
in the case), convicted of obtaining by false pre- 
tences about io,oooZ. (in jewellery, <fec), of Mrs. 
Hart-Davies, long trial, twelve months' imprison- 
ment with hard labour . . .12 April, „ 

* Verdict affirmed (see Barratry), 22 July ; Bradlaugh 
appeals, 12 — 14 Nov. ; new trial granted, 2, 3 Dec. 1881 ; 
appeal allowed by lords justices, 22 — 24 Feb.; sentence 
confirmed, 30 March 1S82 ; sentence reversed by the 
ords, 9 April, 1883. 



Johann Most, convicted of libel against Alexander 
II. of Russia, and incitement to murder in the 
Freiheit for 19 March, 25 May ; sentence 
affirmed on appeal, 18 June ; 16 months' impri- 
sonment with hard labour . . 29 June, 

Saunders v. Richardson, 5 judges decide that pa- 
rents must either pay board-school fees for child 
beforehand or apply for pecuniary help ; coming 
without fee considered non-attendance 27 June, 

Bend Or libel, Barrow v. Morning Post for accu- 
sation of doctoring the horse, verdict for plain- 
tiff, damages 1750? 27, 28 June, 

Big Ben libel, Stainbank (for Mears) v. sir E. C. 
Beckett, 27 June, verdict for plaintiff, 200I. da- 
mages 5 July, 

Percy Lefroy alias Mapleton committed for trial 
for murder of Mr. Fk. I. Gold on the London and 
Brighton railway (27 June), 21 July ; convicted, 8 
Nov. ; confessed ; executed . . -29 Nov. 

Notting Hill Fire, William Nash and. Maria Wright, 
for murder of Elizabeth Jane Clark and others by 
fire, 30 May; he sentenced to death (reprieved), 
she acquitted 3, 4 Aug. 

Ledru Rolin Reynolds, adventurer, with many 
aliases, convicted of remarkable frauds connected 
with the silver mine company, two years' penal 
servitude 15 Sept 

Mabel Wilberforce, an adventuress, convicted of 
gross perjury in action against Mr. Philip; nine 
months' hard labour .... 24 Oct. 

Kate Dover, for murder of Chas. Skinner, artist, 
at Sheffield, convicted of manslaughter . 7 Feb. 

Dr. G. H. Lamson, for murder of Percy M. John 
(see Wimbledon) ; convicted, 8 — 14 March ; exe- 
cuted 28 April 

Roderick Maclean, for shooting at the queen, ac- 
quitted as insane .... 19 April, 

Esther Pay, for murder of Georgiana Moore (see 
Pimlico), acquitted . . . 27—29 April, 

Albert Young, for threatening to shoot at the 
queen, 10 years' penal servitude . 26 May, 

Mr. Thomas Scrutton v. Miss Helen Taylor, a libel 
concerning St. Paul's industrial school ; damages 
1000?. ....... 30 June, 

Sir Henry Tyler, M.P., v. Wm. Jas. Ramsey, Geo. 
Wm. Foote, and Edwd. Wm. Whittle, also Chas. 
Bradlaugh, for blasphemous libel in the Free- 
thinker (lord mayor, n July), committed for trial, 

21 July, 

Next rf Kin Fraud, J. E. Rogers, A. McKenzie, 
J. H. Shakspear, and W. Evans sentenced to 
imprisonment 21 July, 

Thomas Walsh, for treason felony (see Fenians), 7 
years' penal servitude . . . 7 — 9 Aug. 

John Saunders, desperate ruffian, convicted of bur- 
glary and attempt to murder at Stamford-hill ; 
penal servitude for life ... 19 Oct. 

Charles Soutar, for stealing the body of the earl of 
Crawford ; Edinburgh ; 5 years' penal servitude, 

23, 24 Oct. 

Wm. Meager Bartlet, a manager of mines, con- 
victed of murder of illegitimate child, Exeter, 

27 Oct. 

Charles Brookshaw, for threatening to kill the 
prince of Wales, 10 years' penal servitude, 

21 Nov. 
St. Luke's Mystery, Franz Felix Stum, convicted of 

forgery of signature of Urban Napoleon Stanger, 
baker, who had disappeared ; 10 years' penal 
servitude n Dec. 

Plumstead Murder, Louisa Jane Taylor, convicted 
of poisoning Mary Ann Tregillis, aged 81, 15 Dec. 

Richard Claude Belt (sculptor) v. Charles Lawes 
(sculptor), for libel in Vanity Fair, 20 Aug. i88r, 
et seq. ; (charges of fraudulent imposture, &c.) 
before Baron Huddleston, Exchequer division, 
21 June et seq., 14 Nov. et seq. ; verdict on 431-0! 
day for plaintiff, damages 5000L . 28 Dec. 

Goodacre v. Watson, to restrain deposition of pes- 
tilential refuse on building ground, as a nuisance 
at Fulham ; injunction granted with costs, 

22 Feb. 
Bethell v. Sir Percy Shelley, for infringement of 

the Theatre act, verdict for defendant, is. damages 

23 Feb. 
G. W. Foote, editor, W. J. Ramsey, printer, and 



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H. A. Kemp, publisher, sentenced to imprison- 
ment for blasphemous libels in the Freethinker, 

5 Mar. 

Clarke v. Bradlaugh, verdict for defendant on ap- 
peal to lords (see above, March, 1881) 9 April, 

C. Bradlaugh, for blasphemy in the Freethinker, 
10 April, acquitted . . . .14 April, 

Bradlaugh v. Ncwdegate, for supporting an action 
by a common informer, verdict for plaintiff with 
costs 23 April, 

Phoenix park murders (see under Ireland) . April, 

May, 

Belt v. Lawes : appeal for new trial, 24 May — 9 June, 

Dynamite Plot (see Birmingham, England, and 
London, 1883), Thomas Gallagher, Henry Wilson, 
John Curtin, and Alfred Whitehead, for treason- 
felony, sentenced to penal servitude for life ; 
William Ansburgh and Bernard Gallagher, ac- 
quitted 11 — 14 June, 

Strome Ferry Case. Ten men were sentenced to 
four months' imprisonment for violently stopping 
the transmission of fish by Highland railway on 
Sunday, 3 June 23 July, 

Dynamite consjriracy, Timothy Featherstone, and 
three other Fenians, convicted at Liverpool, 

7—9 Aug. 

Wm. Gouldstone convicted of murder of his five 
children at Walthamstow (on 8 Aug.), 14 Sept. ; 
respited as insane .... 3 Oct. 

Bournemouth case. Mrs. Miller, the Joy breach of 
promise ; conflicting evidence ; damages for 
plaintiff, 2350? 15 Nov. 

French Date Coffee Co.. Bellairs v. Haymen and 
others, promoters ; misleading prospectus, ver- 
dict for plaintiff . . . . . 22 Nov. 

London and River Plate Bank robbery, George Warden 
pleads guilty to robbery of securities (about 
116,000?.), 26 Nov., and John Davis Watters con- 
victed of receiving the same ; both sentenced to 
12 years' penal servitude . . .27 Nov. 

Dobbs v. Grand Junction water works co. ; on ap- 
peal the house of lords decides that houses are to 
be rated for water on the rated, not the gross 
value 30 Nov. 

Patrick O'Donnell, convicted of murder of James 
Carey, the informer (see Ireland), 30 Nov., 

1 Dec. 

Priestman v. Thomas; Whalley will case; incredi- 
ble incidents ; verdict for plaintiff ; a forged will ; 
fraudulent compromise proposed by defendant ; 
15 days' trial 4 Dee. 

Central News v. Judy, for libel respecting telegrams, 
verdict for defendant . . . 13 Dec. 

Belt v. Lawes, again ; the judges decide for a new 
trial unless Mr. Belt accepts 500L instead of 
5,oooJ. ; Belt accepts, defendant objects, 21 Dee. 

Wm. Wolff and Edwd. Bondurand, for plot to blow 
up German embassy, arrested in Westminster, 
22 Nov. 1883 ; jury disagree, 14 — 19 Jan. ; 
prisoners discharged . . . .28 Jan. 

Bradlaugh v. Gosset ; verdict for defendant (see 
Parliament) 9 Feb. 

Attorney-general v. Birkbeck, for contravention of 
the Bank act of 1844 ; verdict for the crown, 

9 Feb. 

Liverpool poisoning case, Catherine Flanagan and 
Margaret Higgins, convicted of the murder of 
Thomas Higgins ; other charges, 16 Feb. ; exe- 
cuted 3 March, 

Belt v. Lawes, appeal before Master of the Rolls 
and others, 3 March, sentence of the other court 
affirmed with costs ... 17 March, 

London Financial Association v. Kelk and others ; 
case dismissed (see Alexandra park) 8 March, 

Earl v. countess of Euston, divorce sought on 
ground that she had a husband living when she 
married ; as it was proved that this man had a 
wife living when he married her, and that thus 
she was free, divorce was refused . 4 April, 

Parks-place Club declared by the Queen's Bench to 
be a gaming-house ; Mr. Jenks, the proprietor 
and others fined .... 24 June, 

Mrs. Weldon v. Dr. Semple, for signing certificate 
of lunacy ; ten days ; verdict for plaintiff, 1000/. 
damages 28 July, 

Daley and Egan, Aug. 18S4 (see Dynamite) . May, 

Thomas Henry Orrock, convicted of murder of 



policeman Cole (on 1 Dec. 1882) ; remarkable 
evidence 19, 20 Sept. : 

Tichborne Claimant (see above, 1871 — 4) released on 
ticket-of-leave 20 Oct. 

Mignonette Case (see Wrecks) . . . 6 Nov. 

Miss Finney v. viscount Garmoyle ; breach of pro- 
mise of marriage ; a verdict by consent for io,oooZ. 

20 Nov. 

Defence society for innocent prisoners ; Morley 
Jervis sentenced to 2 years' penal servitude, 
Vernon Garland 15 months' and Charles Kemp 
9 months', for fraud . . . . 21 Nov. 

Adams v. Hon. B. Coleridge, for libel in a letter to 
Miss M. Coleridge ; verdict of jury for plaintiff, 
3,oooZ. ; verdict by judge Manisty for defendant, 
the letter being privileged . . 21, 22 Nov. 

Whalley Will Case (see Dec. 1883), Charles Thomas 
and Thomas William Nash, convicted of forgery, 
15 years' penal servitude, Edward Gunnell ac- 
quitted 24 Nov. — 2 Dec. 

Mrs. Weldon v. Dr. Forbes Winslow, for treating 

her asa lunatic, 500Z. awarded to plaintiff, 4th trial, 

25 — 29 Nov. 

Eliz. Gibbons, for murder of husband ; she asserted 
his suicide, 18-19 Dec. ; life imprisonment^ Dec. 

Mr. Edmund Yates sentenced to 4 months' im- 
prisonment, for libel against the earl of Lonsdale 

■ (in The World), July, 1883-April, 1884; appeal dis- 
allowed . . . . . . 16 Jan. 

Mr. Irving Bishop fined, io,oooZ. for libel (reduced 
to 500J. on appeal) (see Thought Reading) 15 Jan. 

John Lee, footman, convicted of murder of Miss 
Emma A. W. Keyse, his mistress (at Babbicombe, 
near Torquay, 15 Nov.), 2-4 Feb. ; when about to 
be hanged at Exeter, the drop failed three times, 
and Lee was removed and reprieved . 23 Feb. 

The earl of Durham's petition for annulling his mar- 
riage, on account of his wife's alleged insanity 
at the time of their union dismissed with costs 
by sir James Hannen, after 8 days' trial, 

to March, 

Mrs. Georgina Weldon sentenced to 6 months' im- 
prisonment for libel on M. Jutes Prudence Ri- 
viere 30 March, 

James Lee, convicted of murder of Inspector bim- 
mons at Romford (25 Jan.) . . 28 April 

John Gilbert Cunningham and Harry Burton con- 
victed of treason-felony (see under Tower), and 
for complicity with criminal explosions (25 Feb. 
et seq.) ; sentenced to penal servitude for life, 

11-18 May, 

Weldon v. Gounod for libel ; io,ooo£. awarded 7 May, 

Eugene Loraine, engraver, an accomplished 
swindler, and chief of a seminary of crime, 
convicted of attempted fraud by forgery, 

22 May, 

Benj. Warburton's will ; Warburton v. Childs, 
Hobson & Moss ; testator declared insane and 
intestate ; legacies lost by Royal Society and 
others ; seven days' trial ... 23 June, 

Mrs. Lotinga v. Commercial Union Insurance Co. 
Policy of her husband Isaac for 2,oooL estab- 
lished ; conflicting evidence respecting his death 
and temperance (14 days' trial) . . 2 July, 

James Malcolm (otherwise capt. Macdonald) for 
bigamy (gross case), Emma Dash, at Brighton, 4 
April ; doubtful identity ; jury disagree 25 Sept.; 
second trial, 16 Oct.; convicted, seven years' 
penal servitude 24 Oct. 

W. T. Stead, editor of Pall Mall Gazette, (2) 
Sampson Jacques (assistant) (3), Bram well Booth, 
of Salvation Army, (4) Rebecca Jarrett, and (5) 
Louise Mourey, connection with abduction of 
Eliza Armstrong, under 16, and indecent assault: 
(1) three months' imprisonment, (2) one month, 
(3) acquitted, (4) six months', (5), six months' 
with hard labour ... 23 Oct.-io Nov. 

Mrs. Weldon v. sir Henry De Bathe for slander, 
19 Nov. ; i,oooZ. damages awarded . 23 Nov. 

Anthony Benjamin Rudge, James Baker, and 
John Martin convicted for burglary at Netherby 
Hall, Cumberland 28 Oct., and murder of police 
constable Byrnes at Plumpton, 29 Oct. (captured 
by railway servants) . . . 18-20 Jan. 

John Magee, photographer, sentenced to seven years' 
penal "servitude for threatening the princn of 
Wales 15 Jan. 

Richard Belt, sculptor, sentenced to twelve 



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1281 



TRIALS. 



months' imprisonment with hard labour for 
fraudulent sale of jewellery to sir Win. Abdy ; 
his brother Walter acquitted . . 15 March, iE 

John Burns, Henry Hyde Champion, Henry 
Mayers Hyndman, and John Edward Williams, 
for seditious words ; acquitted but censured, 

6-10 April, , 

Mrs. Adelaide Bartlett tried for the murder of her 
husband by chloroform ; (Rev. George Dyson 
charged as an accessory before thefactdischarged, 
12 April) ; Mrs. Bartlett acquitted 12-17 April, , 

Dr. Lyell, for heirs-at-law, v. Kennedy, agent for 
Anne Duncan, intestate ; long litigation re- 
specting property ; verdict for plaintiff, 22 June, , 

Crawford v. Crawford ; divorce of Mrs. Crawford, 
decreed, 12 Feb. ; confirmed ; serious charges 
against sir Charles Dilke, denied by him but 
accepted by jury . . - . . 23 July, , 

Diamond robbery with violence to Mr. Julius 
Tabak, the owner, 25 March ; conviction and 
sentences : Adolphe Weiner, instigator, seven 
years' penal servitude ; James Palmer, perpe- 
trator ten years' ; accomplices, Leon Weiner, 
Daniel Jacoby, and Samuel Scandland, each live 

years, 1-4 Nov. , 

[Principal witness, Toussaint or Denuncis, who 
was sentenced to 15 years' penal servitude in 
June for his joint action with Palmer, who 
escaped when Toussaint was taken.] 

Mary Lena Sebright (formerly Scott) v. Arthur 
Sebright ; a merely formal marriage contract 
entered into by the terrorised plaintiff annulled, 

16 Nov. 1 

Adams v. lord Coleridge and his son, the hon. B. 
Coleridge, for libel in letters sent to an arbitrator 
(lord Monkswell), wrongly delivered ; verdict 
for defendants with costs . . 17-25 Nov. , 

Lord and lady Colin Campbell divorce, double 
suit (previous judicial separation ; numerous 
charges on both sides not proved) ; suits for 
divorce dismissed ... 27 N0V.-20 Dec. , 

Miss Allcard v. Miss Skinner (superior of the 
"Sisters of the Poor", an Anglican convent, 
Rev. Henry Nihill, director), to recover property 
given as under undue influence ; verdict for 
defendant, 31 Jan. ; appeal rejected . 9 July, 18 

Thomas William Carroll convicted for atrocious 
murder of Lydia Green, at 8, Baches -street, 
Hoxton, 5 Feb. ... 30 M.irch-2 April, , 

Mr. Dillon and other M.P.'s for conspiracy; jury 
disagree (see Ireland) . . . 14-24 Feb. , 

Col. Sandoval sentenced to one month's imprison- 
ment and fined 500?. for fitting out vessel 
against Venezuela .... 21 March, , 

Mr. James Davis, proprietor of the Bat, convicted 
for libel against Mr. Robert Peck ; three months' 
imprisonment, and fine of 500?. . 30 March, , 

Mr. Edwaiit St. John Brenon v. Messrs. Ridgway, 
publishers of the "Black Pamphlet" (relating 
to Irish republican brotherhood &c.) ; 500?. 
awarded as damages .... 3 May, . 

Professor Caird v. Syme (a bookseller) ; after 
differing decisions of the courts, the house of 
lords, on appeal, decides against the publication 
of university lectures without the consent of the 
lecturers 13 June, , 

Beyfus v. Jonas and others, charge of fraudulent 
conspiracy ; thirteen days' trial ; verdict for 
plaintiff, 40s. damages .... 5 July, , 

Samuel Taylor, driver, and Robert Davis, fireman, 
tried for manslaughter (see Railway Accidents, 
Doncastei) 14 Oct. , 

Police constable Endacott acquitted of perjury 
(see under Police) ... 31 Oct.-i Nov. , 

Joyce (the marquis's agent) v. the marquis of 
Clanricarde, for libel in a letter ; verdict for 
plaintiff ; damages 2,500?. . . 6, 7 Dec. , 

Long firm fraud ; thirteen men convicted ; sentenced 
to various terms of imprisonment . 21 Dec. , 

Cuninghame Graham, M.P., and John Burns 
tried for assaulting police, &c, on 13 Nov. 1887 
(see Mots) ; convicted of taking part in an 
unlawful assembly ; six weeks' imprisonment 
without hard labour . . . 16-18 Jan. 18 

Dynamite conspiracy (see under Dynamite), Thomas 
Callan and Michael Harkins sentenced to fifteen 
years' -penal servitude .... 3 Feb. , 

Slater v. Slater ; a chancery forgery cass ; the 



court defrauded of about 4,000?., the property of 
Miss Rose Maud Maxwell, by the forgeries of 
William Bowden, a solicitor's clerk : the money 
ordered to be paid to her by the court of 
chancery ; Bowden in Nebraska ; John Francis 
Lidiard, a solicitor, his friend, ordered to repay 
the money to the court ... 4 Feb. 1888 

Marquis of Abergavenny v. bishop of Llandaff, 
after much litigation, verdict for the bishop who 
had refused to induct the Rev. Robert W. Gosse 
into a living, being ignorant of the Welsh 
language 22 Feb. „ 

Major Borrowes fined 400?. and costs for assaulting 
his brother-in-law, lord Howard de Walden, 

10 March, ,, 

Major Templer honourably acquitted of charge of 
divulging secret information concerning military 
ballooning, &c 9 April, ,, 

Mr. Samuel Peters v. Mr. C. Bradlaugh, M.P., for libel 
respecting cheques given him by lord Salisbury 
ancl others for the relief of the unemployed ; 
300?. awardei to the plaintiff . . 18 April, ,, 

Warne & Co. v. Seebohm (see Copyright), 10 May, ,, 

Hutt and another v. The governors of Haileybury 
college (see under Haileybury) . . 19 June, ,, 

Wood v. Cox (see under Itaces) . . 29 June, ,, 

O'Donnell v. Walter and another (for libel in the 
Times) ; verdict for the defendants (see under 
Pamellites) 2-5 July, ,, 

Trials respecting electric light patents (see under 
Electricity) 1886-8 

George and Kelynge Greenway, bankers, of 
Warwick and Leamington, sentenced to imprison- 
ment, &c, for frauds. . . . 31 July, 1888 

Trial of Regent's park murderer (see Regent's Park), 

July, „ 

R. P. B. Frost and his presumed wife, Annie 
Frost (clever and fascinating), who as Mrs. Gordon 
Bailie and other names, had carried on a long 
series of frauds at home and abroad by means of 
fictitious cheques, convicted of cheating trades- 
men of goods and money ; he sentenced to eigh- 
teen months' imprisonment with hard labour, she 
to five years' penal servitude . . .24 Oct. ,, 

Anthony Isiclor Glika sentenced to ten years' penal 
servitude for defrauding his employers, Messrs. 
Vagliano Bros., and the Bank of England, of 
71,500?., 27 June, -7 July ; in a subsequent trial 
the Queen's Bench Division adjudged the bank 

to bear the loss 2 Nov. ,, 

[Sentence confirmed by court of appeal, 21 May, 
1889 ; reversed by the House of Lords, 5 March 
1891.] 

Mrs. Weldon v. M. Riviire and others ; verdict for 
defendants 15 Nov. ,, 

Charles Richardson and Edgell, who had con- 
fessed to burglary at Edlingham vicarage, near 
Alnwick, on 7 Feb. 1879 '> sentenced to five years' 

penal servitude 24 Nov. ,, 

[Michael Brannagham and Peter Murphy, who 
had been wrongfully convict :d for this crime, 
and attempt to murder, had been sentenced to 
penal servitude for life, April, 1879 ; each 
received 800?. as compensation, Dec. 1888 ; the 
police were acquitted of perjury, and doubts 
were thrown on the confession of Richardson 
and Edgell, Feb. 1889.] 

Lyster, Burdett, and Clarke convicted of burglary 
and attempt to murder Mr. George Atkin at 
Muswell Hill ; sentenced to penal servitude for 
life 7 March, 1889 

Mrs. Sophia Irwin v. Pall Mall Gazette for libel ; 
damages awarded, 1,000?. ... 4 April, „ 

Sir George Chetwynd v. the earl of Durham, for 
libels relating to racing transactions, the damages 
claimed, 20,000?. After some litigation and 
much discussion, the case was referred to the 
arbitration of the stewards of the jockey 
club, Mr. Jas. Lowther, M.P., the earl of March, 
and prince Soltikoff; they awarded sir George 
Chetwynd \d. damages, each person to pay his 

own costs 29 June, ,, 

[Sir George Chetwynd, who was exonerated from 
the graver, but censured for the lighter charges, 
quitted the club, 5 July, 1889.] 

W. O'Brien, M.P. v. the marquis of Salisbury for 
libel in a speech at Watford, 10 March ; charging 
him with inciting to crime in a speech at 

4 N 



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Ballyneale, near Clonmel, 30 Sept. 1S88 ; damages 
claimed, 10,000?.; trial at Manchester; verdict 

for defendant 20 July, 

[New trial refused by the queen's bench, 21 Dec. 
1889 ; appeal disallowed, 8 May, 1890.] 

Mrs. Florence Elizabeth Maybfick charged with 
poisoning her husband, James Maybrick, at 
Aigburth, by arsenic, tried at Liverpool by Mr. 
justice Stephen ; convicted 21 July-7 Aug. ; 
sentence of death commuted to penal servitude 
for life 22 Aug. 

Gweedore trials, see Ireland . . . Oct. 

John Watson Laurie (at Edinburgh) convicted of 
the murder of Edwin Robert Rose, his fellow 
traveller, in the Island of Arran (on 15 July), 
8, 9 Nov. 1889 ; respited as of unsound mind, 
28 Nov. ; penal servitude for life . about 1 Dec. 

Rev. Percy G. Benson, vicar of Hoo, Kent, sus- 
pended from duty for one year for excluding 
Mrs. Swayne from the communion, for schism, 
25 Oct. ; directed by the bishop of Rochester to 
receive her, yields 29 Nov. 

Mr. Herbert J. Gladstone v. Colonel George B. 
Malleson, for libel in Allahabad Morning Post, 
damages awarded 1,000?. ... 16 Jan. 

Mr. Ernest Parke, sentenced to one year's imprison- 
ment for libel against the earl of Eiiston in the 
North London Press . . . .16 Jan. 

Parnell v. Walter (see under Parnellites) . 3 Feb. 

Trial of the bp. of Lincoln, see Canterbury 4 Feb. 

Crewe murder ; Richard and George Davies, youths, 
aged 19 and 16, convicted of the murder of their 
father, Richard Davies, a clothier, on 25 Jan. 
while riding home in a pony chaise, 20, 21 
March ; Richard executed, George reprieved 
(penal servitude for life) ... 8 April, 

Miss Florence Jennie Day v. Mr. Morris Roberts, 
for breach of promise of marriage, Birmingham ; 
damages awarded, 2,500?. . . 26 March, 

Miss Emily Mary Hairs v. sir George Elliot, M.P. 
(aged 75), for breach of promise of marriage ; 
damages claimed 5,000?. ; jury disagree, 18 April, 

Lord Dunlo (son of the earl of Clancarty) v. lady 
Dunlo and Mr. T. E. Wertheimer, six days' triaf ; 
divorce refused ..... 30 July, 

Miss Gladys Knowles v. Mr. Leslie Duncan, pro- 
prietor and editor of the Matrimonial Neivs, for 
breach of promise of marriage ; damages awarded, 
10,000? 11, 12 Aug. 

Reginald John Birchall convicted of the murder of 
Mr. F. J. Benwell, see Canada, 29 Sept. ; exe- 
cuted 14 Nov. 

Capt. O'Shea v. Mrs. C. O'Shea, and Mr. C. S. 
Parnell, m.p. ; divorce granted . . 15-17 Nov. 

Catherine Theresa Riordan sentenced to six years' 
penal servitude for attempting to kill Dr. James 
Frank Bright, master of University College, 
Oxford (6 Nov.) 15 Nov. 

Mr. R. Buchanan v. Mrs. Langtry, respecting a non- 
accepted play ; damages awarded, 150?. 21 Nov. 

Mary Eleanor Wheeler (otherwise Pearcey) con- 
victed of the murder of Mrs. Phoebe Hogg and 

infant 1-3 Dec. 

[Mrs. Wheeler had been connected with her 
victim's husband, Frank S. Hogg, before their 
marriage ; she invited Mrs. Hogg to her rooms 
at No. 2, Priory-street, Kentish-town, and there 
murdered her; she then in a perambulator con- 
veyed the body of the mother to near Crossfield- 
road, Hampstead, and that of the child to a field 
near Finchley-road, 24 Oct. 1890; her motive ap- 
pears to have been jealousy, executed 23 Dec. 1890.] 

Bellamy v. Wells, proprietor of the Pelican Club, 
Gerrard-street, Soho, to restrain a nuisance by 
noise caused by boxing matches, concerts, &c. ; 
justice Romer, in the chancery division, forbids 
the assembling of crowds and calling cabs be- 
tween midnight and 7 a.m. . . . 6 Dec. 

Thomas Macdonald, convicted on his own confes- 
sion of the murder of Miss Elizabeth Ann Holt, 
at Belmont, near Bolton . . . 12 Dec. 

Mr. Harry H. Marks (editor of the Financial News) 
v. Mr. George Washington Butterfleld, for libel 
respecting gold mines ; verdict, not guilty ; 
libel proved, but publication justified 8-17 Dec. 

Walter Alfred llargau, tried for minder, convicted 



of manslaughter, for killing two roughs in Kings- 
land, London, N.E., in alleged self-defence; 
sentenced by Mr. justice Charles to 20 years' 
penal servitude, 8 Sept.; commuted to 12 months' 

17 Dec. 

Charles Lyddon, acquitted of the murder of his 

half brother, William Reeks-Lyddon, of Faver- 

sham, who had been much ill-used 18-21 March, 

Clitheroe case (see under Wives) 

Baccarat case ; sir William Gordon-Cumming v. 
Mr. and Mrs. Lycett Green and others, for 
slander, charging him with cheating in the game 
of baccarat, in the house of Mr. Arthur Wilson, 
Tranby Croft, near Doncaster, Sept. 1890 ; counsel 
for plaintiff, sir Edward Clarke ; sol. gen. for the 
defendants, sir Charles Russell, and others ; 
queen's bench division, lord Coleridge ; evidence 
was given by the prince of Wales ; verdict for 
the defendants .... 1-9 June, 

Coombs v. Barber and others, in relation to the 
Great Eastern Steamship company ; queen's 
bench division ; the case stopped ; Mr. Barber 
exculpated from criminal charges . 26 June, 
The Cathcart case ; atter 17 days' investigation, 
Mrs. Cathcart is declared to be of sound mind 
by Mr. Bulwer, a master in lunacy, and a special 
jury, and ordered to be released from custody 

23 July, 
Berkeley Peerage case, which see ; decision 31 July, 
Mr. Francis Du Bedat, president of the Dublin 
Stock Exchange, pleads guilty to charges of 
fraud relating to bankruptcy and breaches of 
trust ; sentence, one year's imprisonment with 
hard labour, and seven years' penal servitude 

20 Oct. 
The rev. James C. Clutterbuck, D.C.L., an in- 
spector of workhouse schools, convicted of ob- 
taining money on false pretences, on his own 
confession ; sentenced to 4 years' penal servitude ; 
Wells [he died 18 Nov. 1892] . . 21 Nov. 
The petitibn of Mabel Edith, countess Russell, to 
the divorce court, for, judicial separation from 
earl Russell, on account of cruelty- dismissed 

with costs . 1-4 Dec. 

Pinnock v. Chapman <fe Hall, for libel in " West 
African Stories," by major A. B. Ellis ; 200?. 
damages awarded .... 7-9 Dec. 
Miss Ethel Florence Elliot (afterwards Mrs. Os- 
borne) v. major and Mrs. Hargreaves, for slander 
in charging her with stealing jewels while their 
guest at Torquay, 9-18 Feb. ; verdict by consent 
for the defendants . . . 15-22 Dec. 
[It was proved that Miss Elliot sold the jewels 
to Messrs. Spinks, in Gracechurch street, for 
550?., 19 Feb. ; that she cashed the cheque at 
the bank of Messrs. Glyn, Mills & Co., receiv- 
ing gold, 23 Feb. ; that through Messrs. Benja- 
min, of Conduit street, W., she changed gold 
for bank notes, at the National and Provincial 
bank, in St. James's square, early in March ; 
and that she endorsed one of these notes for 
50?., and paid it to Messrs. Maple, which note 
was passed into the Bank of England. Infor- 
mation was given to the judge, Mr. Justice 
Denman, and the trial was suspended, 19 Dec. 
It was admitted by all the parties concerned 
that capt. Osborne, the plaintiff's husband, 
had acted throughout as an honourable and 
chivalrous gentleman. Mrs. Osborne, at her 
trial for larceny and perjury, was sentenced to 
9 months' imprisonment, with some hard la- 
bour, 9 March ; released in the summer, 1892. 
The jewels were sold by auction for major Har- 
greaves for 1,076?., 29 March, 1892.] 
Mr. Alexander Jacob, a jeweller of Simla, charged 
at Calcutta by the Nizam of Hyderabad of cri- 
minally misappropriating 23 lakhs of rupees 
(above 100,000?.) deposited by his highness as 
earnest money for the purchase of the gem known 
as the "imperial diamond," after a long trial, 

was acquitted 22 Dec. 

Nettlefold (limited), Birmingham screw-makers, v. 
Reynolds, an American agent, for alleged in- 
fringement of patent ; 14 days' trial ; verdict for 
defendant with costs .... 22 Jan. 
Mr. George W. Hastings, M.P., misappropriating 
to himself, a trustee, about 20,000?. , the prop^rry 



1892 



TEIALS. 

of the children of major John Brown, pleaded 
guilty ; sentenced to 5 years' penal servitude, 

11 March, 

Maitland Francis Morland, a law tutor at Cam- 
bridge, not connected with the university, 
charged with sending threatening letters to 
extort money, pleaded guilty ; sentenced to 10 
years' penal servitude . . . n March, 

Miss Mary E. T. Knox v. canon Hayman, D. D., and 
co-directors of the Canadian Pacific Colonization 
corporation ; verdict for plaintiff ; to be repaid 
258?., the amount claimed . . 25 March, 

Concha, pauper, v. Concha and wife ; a series of 
intricate suits respecting property, which com- 
menced in 1858, closed by the house of lords 
varying the decision of the court of appeal, 

28 March, 

Frederick Charles, Victor Cailes, John Westley, 
William Ditchfield, Joseph Thomas Deakin, and 
Jean Battolla, anarchists, tried for unlawfully 
possessing explosive substances (with evil inten- 
tions) at Walsall, 1 Nov. 1891 — 7 Jan. ; Charles, 
Battolla, and Cailes, at Stafford, sentenced to 

10 years' penal servitude, Deakin to 5 years' 
penal servitude, Westley and Ditchfield acquitted, 

30 March — 4 April, 

Hansard Publishing Union, sir Henry and Mr. 

Joseph M. Isaacs, Mr. Charles Dollman, Mr. 

Horatio Bottomley, directors, charged with de- ' 

frauding the company and applicants for shares ; 

1 1 days' examination ; committed for trial, 6 April, 
[Trial, 24 days ; against §ir Henry Isaacs and Mr. 

Joseph Isaacs no case, 20 April ; Mr. Dollman 
and Mr. Bottomley acquitted ; Mr. Justice 
Hawkins and the jury urgently affirm the 
necessity of amendment of the law relating to 
the directors of public companies, 30 Jan. — 
28 Feb. ; 17-26 April, 1893.] 

Mr. Lane Fox v. Kensington Electric Lighting 
company for infringement of patent ; verdict for 
defendants with costs . . -30 March, 

Mrs. Montagu sentenced at Dublin to one year's 
imprisonment for cruel manslaughter of her 
daughter, aged 3«^ears ... 4 April, 

David John Nicoll, journalist, sentenced to 18 
months' imprisonment, with hard labour, for 
inciting persons to murder Mr. H. Matthews, the 
home secretary, and others, by writing in the 
Commonweal, condemning the punishment of the 
Walsall anarchists (Jan.) ... 6 May, 

Walter (the Times) v. Steinkoppf (the St. James's 
Gazette), to restrain the copying of articles ; ver- 
dict for plaintiff with some of the costs, 

13, 17 May ; 2 June, 

Buckley v. Edwards, see under Judges . 21 May,. 

Mr. Henry de. Vere Vane's claim to the ancient 
barony of Barnard in Durham, vacant by the 
death of the duke of Cleveland, granted by the 
house of lords 30 May, 

Mrs. Carlill v. the Carbolic Smoke Ball company, 
claiming 100L, which the company had engaged 
to give to any person who had tried the smoke 
ball as a preventive of influenza without suc- 
cess (by advertisement, 13 Nov. 1891) ; verdict 
for plaintiff 4 July, 

Mr. Bottems, contractor, v. corporation of York ; 
the court of appeal decides (against the plaintiff) 
that the terms of a ruinous contract must be 
fulfilled 16 July, 

"International Society of Literature, Science and 
Art " started Dec. 1890 ; 4 days' trial for frauds ; 
sir Gilbert E. Campbell, bart., sentenced to 18 
months' imprisonment, with hard labour, for 
conspiracy ; Win. James Morgan and Joseph S. 
Tomkins (organizers), 8 and 5 years, for fraud ; 
Win. H. Steadman, 15 months ; David Tolmie, 
6 months ; Charles M. Clarke, 4 mouths, 27 Sept. 

Margaret J. Smith sentenced to 10 years' penal 
servitude for forging a deed, in which she claimed 
part of the property of the late Mr. Park ; her 
accomplices : Wm. Micklethwaite, 7 years ; John 
Paul, 5 years ; Thomas Allistone, 12 months ; 
Sarah Ingram, 6 months ... 27 Sept. 

Thomas Neill, alias Cream, M.D. Am., convicted of 
the murder of Matilda Clover (an unfortunate) 
by strychnine, 21 Oct. ; executed . . 15 Nov. 
[He was accused of the murder of 3 other women.] 



1283 



TRIALS. 



Mrs. Claudine Olivia Leader (wife of lieut. H. P. 
Leader) v. Mrs. Eleanor C. Smyth (wife of major- 
general J. G. Smyth), for slander, in accusing her 
of stealing a diamond brooch ; Mr. Justice Day, 
queen's bench ; Mr. Lockwood for plaintiff ; sir 
Edward Clarke for defendant ; verdict for plaintiff, 

500I. damages 1-4 Nov. 1 

[For comments adverse to the plaintiff in the 
Morning, 31 Oct., 1 Nov., Mr. Bennett, editor, 
was fined 100L, and Mr. Boyle, publisher, 50?., 
2 Nov.] 

Manslaughter of Dr. Wm. P. Kirwan, 12 Oct., at 
Whitecross-st., S.E. ; Edward Waller and Charles 
Balch sentenced to penal servitude for 20 years ; 
John James Noble to 14 years . 18-19 Nov. 

Mr. Charlewood, registrar to the bishop of Man- 
chester v. the rev. J. P. Foster, for libel ; verdict 
for plaintiff, 200Z. damages . . . 26 Nov. 

Will of Miss Ellen Roe, sometimes a lunatic, sus- 
tained against medical opinions . . 9 Dec. 

Mr. Harry Parminter (a promoter of the unsuccess- 
ful Edison phonographic toy and automaton 
company) v. London stereoscopic company, for 
alleged slander ; verdict for defendants, with 
costs 13 Jan. : 

Rev. Wilding v. canon Hayman and Mr. Fortescue 
Harrison (similar case to that of Miss M. E. T. 
Knox, 25 March, 1892) ; verdict for plaintiff, 450L, 

23 Jan. 

Messrs. Samuel Hope Morley and Arnold Morley 
(executors of their brother Henry Morley an epilep- 
tic, who, when insane, committed suicide) v. Mr. 
William H. Loughnan, and his brothers, Alfred 
and Henry Loughnan, members of the "close 
order " of the Plymouth brethren, and Mr. Charles 
Sleeman, not called, to recover about 140,000?., 
alleged to have been obtained at various times by 
undue influence ; 7 days' trial ; painful evidence ; 
verdict for the plaintiffs ... 27 Jan. 

For the Yelverton and Moseley case, see Bahama, 
Isles, 2 Feb. 1893. 

Missing Word Competition, see Lotteries, 9 Feb. 1893. 

Coxon (family) v. Mrs. Schofield ; the voluntary- 
settlement in 1879 on a boy, falsely asserted by 

1 Mrs. Schofield to be the son of herself and her 
late husband, Fi C. Coxon (killed while hunting, 
March, 1877), set aside, and the money received 
by her ordered to be repaid to the Coxon family ; 
Chancery division .... 16 Feb. 

Charles Wells, engineer (a large winner at Monte 
Carlo), for fraudulently obtaining money (about 
30,445?.) for bogus patents ; sentenced to 8 years' 
penal servitude .... 9-15 March, 

Lord Howard de Walden's suit for divorce from 

his wife rejected, and judicial separation granted 

• to her and custody of the child . 8-1 1 March, 

Worth (the celebrated Paris costumier firm, estab- 
lished 1858) v. Mrs. Bradley, for inserting in her 
advertisement " Worth et Cie ;" compromise, 

17 March, 

Edward S. W. de Cobain sentenced to 1 year's im- 
prisonment for gross misdemeanour at Belfast, 

21 March, 

Liberator building society, see under Building 
societies : trials, 17 March ct seq. ; James W. 
Hobbs and Horace Granville Wright sentenced 
to 12 years' penal servitude for forgery, and to 

5 years (concurrently) for fraud (J. Hobbs re- 
leased on medical grounds, Jan. 1898) ; George 
Newman to 5 years for fraud . . 27 March, 

The dowager duchess of Sutherland ordered to pay 
a fine of 250?. and costs, and to be imprisoned for 

6 weeks, for contempt of the probate division in 
burning a letter brought to her for inspection (on 
12 April), 18 April ; arrested . . 21 April, 

Hansard publishing union (see above, April, 1892) 
trial closed 26 April, 

.Charles T. Gatty v. Henry R. Farquharson, M.P. 
for W. Dorset, for libel ; queen's bench ; damages 
awarded 5000?., 20 June ; appeal . 21 June, 

The dowager duchess of Sutherland v. the duke of 
Sutherland, respecting leases ; her case dis- 
missed 21 June, 

Aime H. Meunier convicted of the murder of 
Charlotte Pearcey, aged 71, at Longeye, near 
Bromsgrove, on 13 Jan. ... 28 June, 

Mr. Hormuzd Rassam (see Abyssinia, 1864, British 
Museum, 1884, Nineveh, 1854) v. Mr. E. A. Budge, 

4 N 2 



TEIALS. 



1284 



TEIALS- 



for libel and slander in 1891 ; verdict for plaintiff, 
damages 50/ 28 June— 3 July, 1893 

Dr. Edwin W. Alabone (American) v. Mr. Henry 
E. Morton, at first associates, afterwards rivals 
in professing to cure consumption by bogus 
remedies; verdict for plaintiff; Mr. Justice 
"Wright hopes that further legal notice will be 
taken of the case in regard to both parties, 8 July, ,, 

Mr. J. H. Wilson, M.P., general secretary of the 
Seamen's and Firemen's union v. Spottiswoode 
and another, for libel in the Shipping GazHte; 
verdict for defendants ... 26 July, ,, 

Messrs. Allan & Co., steamship owners, v. Mr. J. H. 
Wilson, M.P., for libel in a handbill and 
pamphlet ; damages awarded to the plaintiffs, 
200I 9 Aug. „ 

Daniel Phelan and his wife Constance sentenced to 
6 and 9 months' penal servitude for brutal cruelty 
to their 2 children, aged 3 years and 21 months, 
Chester I9 , 20 Oct. ,, 

Miss J. Mighell v. the sultan of Johoie (see Johore), 

Nov. „ 

James Barber Edwards (a trustee), 76, pleaded 
guilty of defalcation of yo,oool. ; sentence, 8 years' 
penal servitude 21 Nov. 

Baul Joly, aged 25, and Celestan Joly, aged 17 
(French), sentenced to 20 years' and 5 years' penal 
servitude respectively, for extorting 650L from 
Mr. Pardoe, of Brighton, by threats of false 
accusation 29 Nov. 

Alfred John Monson tried at Edinburgh for the 
murder (or attempt) of lieut. W. C. Hambrough, 
at Ardlamont, Argyllshire, in Aug. ; a mysterious 
case connected with insurance; verdict, not 
proven . . . . . . 12-22 Dec. „ 

^Zierenberg and wife v. Labouchere, for libel in 
Truth respecting St. James' home for female 
inebriates, charging the plaintiffs with cruel 
tyranny ; 20 days' trial ; verdict for defendant, 

13 Dec. ,, 

'The Nobel's Explosives company v. Dr. Anderson 
(see Cordite) .... 30 Jan.— 14 Feb. 1894 

Martin and wife v. trustees of British museum • 

(which see) 27 Feb. 

'Trial respecting the collision of the Ibis and the " 
Fortuna; 6 days; verdict, not caused by wilful 
action of Henry Rumbell or incitement of Mr. 
Henry Smethurst .... 19 March, 

.Anarchists possessing explosives ; Farnara sen- 
tenced to 20 years' and Francis Polti to 10 years' 
penal servitude 4 May 

New Zealand loan and mercantile agency company 
(which see) in chancery . . April May, 

Hopegood v. French (will case) ; 7 days' trial ; 
settled by arrangement . s June 

The case of the duke of Sutherland and the " 
dowager duchess in the probate division settled 
by arrangement 7 June 

Mr. Henry J. B. Montgomery (author of The " 
British Navy, published in 1885-6) v. prof. 
Laughton and others, for libel ; Mr. Montgomery's 
book is described in prof. Laughton's article in 
the Army and Navy Gazette as "a mass of impu- 
dent and scurrilous falsehoods ; " verdict for the 
defendants, with costs ... 12 June, 

Ella Gillespie, nurse, sentenced to 5 years' penai ' 
servitude for cruelty to children in the Hackney 
workhouse school at Brentford . . 20 June, 

Miss Trebelli-Bettini v. the Royal Academy of " 
Music ; Madame Trebelli's will, bequeathing 
property to the academy, affirmed, with recom- 
mendations ; 10 days' trial . . . 28 June, 

Paul Koczula and George Schmerfeld, accessory " 
(respited), sentenced to death for murder of 
Sophia F. M. Rasch, keeper of a restaurant in 
Shaltesbury-avenue, 28 July ; Koczula executed, 

„, . , 14 Aug. ,, 

Trial of 30 anarchists begins . . . 6 Au" 

James Canham Bead (very depraved), for murder " 
of Florence Dennis, one of his victims, at Prittle- 
well, Southend, 24 June ; Chelmsford, 12-15 Nov. • 
executed . \) ec ] 

HaufSteng] v. Daily Graphic, see Copyright, 1894 

Mr. Geo. Edwd. Brock, Mr. Geo. Dibley, Mr. 
Worrell Theobald, major John Thos. Wright and 
Mr. Frank M. Cold wells (died 29 July), "the 
Balfour group" directors of Liberator building 
society and the Lands allotment company, &c, 



prosecuted for conspiracy and fraud, n Feb. 
1895 ; committed and bailed . . 4 April, 

Patrick A. Chance v. Win. O'Brien, M.P., for debt ; 
verdict for plaintiff, 407L os. nd. . . 14 Feb. 

Henry Fredk. Nash, secretary of Bayswater and 
Kensington building society, pleads guilty of 
misappropriating 196/. 17s. gd. ; sentenced to 5 
years' penal servitude ... 26 March, 

The marquis of Queensberry charged with publish- 
ing a libel against Mr. Oscar Wilde, author ; 
acquitted, the case being withdrawn . 3-5 April, 

Mr. Oscar Wilde and Alfred Taylor tried for mis- 
demeanours, 19 April ; partial acquittal ; jury 
disagree ; new trial ordered, 1 May ; Mr. Wilde 
bailed, 7-May ; Alfred Taylor convicted, 21 May, 
and Oscar Wilde, 25 May ; both sentenced to 2 
years' imprisonment with hard labour . 25 May, 

Dunham v. Russell ; claim for 40,183/., the pro- 
perty of Mrs. Mabel L. Theobald, an intestate 
widow of Mr. James Theobald, M.P. ; an intricate 
case ; verdict for the defendant, .Miss Kate 
Russell, sister of Mrs. Theobald . . 9 April, 

Countess Russell v. earl Russell ; verdict for 
defendant ; judicial separation decreed, April, 
1894 ; her appeal dismissed and separation 
annulled 7 Aug. 

Jabez Spencer Balfour, ex-M.P., prosecuted for 
conspiracy and fraud (see Building Societies) at 
Bow-street, 6 May ; committed for trial, appeal 
set aside 1 July, 

House of lords : appeal of Mr. Osgood Hanbury 
Mackenzie for divorce from his wife, Minnie Amy, 
for desertion (4 years) ; appeal dismissed, the 
desertion being justified by her husband's great 
cruelty 16 May, 

Georgina Priestly Salisbury, infant (born April, 1894), 
claiming property of alleged father, George Henry 
Salisbury (died 7 Jan. 1894) v. Rawson (chancery 
division), 23 May et seq. ; on 14th day a statement 
was read from Dr. Capon asserting that the 
claimant was the daughter of Miss Florence 
Wright; Mr. Jelf, the plaintiff's counsel, gave up 
her case, and Mr. Justice Hawkins adjourned the 
trial, 17 June ; verdict for defendant (18th day), 
7 Aug. ; case dismissed, 30 Nov. ; appeal re- 
jected 9 Dec. 

Mr. W. T. Stead lined 100I. for contempt of court 
for an article in Review of Reviews against Jabez 
Balfour ; appeal set aside . . . 1 July, 

Michael Cleary and others tried for murder (see 
Witchcraft) 5 July, 

John Lyncheliaun, a bailiff, for attempt to murder 
his mistress, Mrs. Agnes M'Donnell, in Achill 
island, Ireland, by thrusting her into a burning 
building, &c, sentenced to penal servitude for 
life . 17 July, 

Messrs. Wright & Co. v. Mr. Daniel Hennessy, sec. 
of Nat. association of plasterers, for interierence 
with their business and libel ; verdict for plain- 
tiffs, Zool. damages .... 26 July, 

Frances Rose, lady Gunning, sentenced to 1 year's 
hard labour for forgery . . . .10 Sept. 

Robt. A. Coombes (13), murderer of his mother, 
acquitted as insane .... 17 Sept. 

Jabez Spencer Balfour and four others (see above), 
4 April, 1895, tried for fraud in relation to the 
Liberator building society, and the Lands allot- 
ment co. and other companies, Ac, before Mr. 
justice Bruce ; counsel for the crown, sir Richard 
Webster, the attorney-gen., and 5 others, 25 Oct.; 
all convicted, except Dibley, on whom the jury 
disagreed, 20 Nov. ; 2nd trial of Balfour, 21 Nov.; 
convicted, 27 Nov. ; sentences, imprisonment : 
Balfour, 14 years' penal servitude [public exami- 
nation as to his affairs, 27 Jan. 1898] ; Brock, 9 
months ; Theobald, 4 months ; the others dis- 
charged 28 Nov. 

Henry Wright, lodger, convicted, 4 Dec, of the 
murder of Mrs. Beynolds, her two sons, Win. and 
Charles Reynolds, and grandson, Win. Peck (11 
Aug.) ; executed .... 24 Dec. 

Henry Bailey, sentenced to 3 years and 6 months' 
penal servitude, for stealing 31 ingots of silver, 
value 4,900/., the property of the Midland rail- 
way co., in Ossulston-street, N.W., 19 Nov. ; 
Alexander Edw. Sarti, sentenced to 3 years' penal 
servitude for robbing Messrs. Elkington <Si Co., 
silversmiths, his employers, and for complicity 



TEIALS. 



1285 



TRIALS. 



in the silver robbery, 20 "Dec. ; George Barratt 
sentenced to 5 years' penal servitude, and Henry 
Gray to 18 months' hard labour for receiving the 
stolen bigots 22 Dec. 1895 

John Skates and others convicted of fraud (see 
Marriage) 5 March, 1896 

John Havelock Wilson, M.P. v. Collison and Rogers, 
for libel ; verdict for plaintiff, one farthing dama- 
ges 14 March ; his request for parliamentary 
inquiry, refused by the commons, 17 March (see 
above. July, Aug. 1893). 

Mrs. Arthur Kitson v. Dr. William S. Playfair and 
wife, for libel and slander ; verdict for plaintiff, 
damages awarded by jury, 12,000/. ; 7 days' trial, 
21-27 March (execution stayed by consent ; sum 
to be paid unconditionally) . . 30 March, ,, 

Tower Hamlets (St. George's division) election 
petition ; Mr. Marks retains his seat, 40 days' 
trial, before baron Pollock and justice Bruce, 

13 Feb. — 1 April, ,, 

Albert Millsom, 32, and Henry Fowler, 31, charged 
with tlie murder of Mr. Henry Smith, at Mus- 
well-hill, on 13 Feb. ; captured at Bath, after a 
desperate fight, 12 April ; convicted, 21 May ; 
executed ... ... 9 June, ,, 

Walter v. Central News, see Times . 14 April, ,, 

William Seaman, convicted of the murder of John 
Goodman Levy, 75, and Sarah Ann Gale, servant, 
at Mile-end 18 May, ,, 

Amelia E. Dyer, convicted of infanticide (which 
sec), 22 May ; executed .... 10 June ,, 

Mrs. Langtry v. the Union bank of London (see 
Jewels) 5 May, ;l 

Trollope and others v. the London Building Trades 
Federation and others, for posting a placard with 
a black border, containing a list of names of men 
charged with working ; " Trollope's black list " ; 
verdict, that the list is vindictive and malicious, 
and a perpetual injunction granted ; damages, 
. 500/ 24 April— 4 May, „ 

Dr. Jameson and others, see Transvcud, Dec. 1895, 
July, 1896, footnote ; and Rhodesia, Aug. 1896, 
Jan. 1897. 

Elijah Galley, sentenced to 20 years' penal servitude, 
for killing Mr. and Mrs. Riley, in a fit of passion, 
in North-street, Pentonville, on 4 July, 

11 Sept. ,, 
See Companies' Acts, 16 Nov. 1896. 

Mary Selina Elizabeth, lady Scott, John Cockerton, 
Fred. Kast (died, 11 Dec), and Wm. Aylott, 
tried for libel (17 Sept.) against earl Russell, lady 
Scott's son-in-law, 23 Nov. ; convicted, 7 Jan. 
1897 ; sentence, 8 months' imprisonment without 
hard labour, 8 Jan. 1897. 

Stiven v. Welsford, medical slander, 7 days' trial, 
verdict for the plaintiff, 75Z. damages . 17 Dec. „ 

Messrs. Bailey & Co. v. the Officials of the Glass- 
bevellers' Union for malicious interference with 
their trade by picketing with violence, verdict 
for plaintiffs, 674Z. 13s. damages . . 13 Jan. 1897 

Hugh Campbell Browning v. Mostyn and others, 
6 days' trial, verdict for the plaintiff, sustaining 
the will of Chas. Stuart Coningham, an impor- 
tant judgment . . . • • 27 Jan. ,, 

Maxim v. Anderson, see Cordite. . . 4 March, ,, 

The will of Mr. E. Hunter, bequeathing between 
8o,oooZ. and go,ooo(. &c, for ecclesiastical pur- 
poses, set aside as indefinite, 6 March [decision 
reversed by the court of appeal, 21 May; their 
finding reversed by the house of lords, and that 
of the court below" restored. 18 May, 1899] . . ,, 

Havvke v. Dunn, see Betting Houses . 13 March, ,, 

Catherine Kempshall, 32, sentenced to death, 19 
March, for the murder of Edgar S. Holland, 
merchant, Liverpool (29 Oct. 1896), respited, as 
insane 31 March, „ 

Mr. Samson Fox v. Mr. Jerome K. Jerome and 
others for alleged libels in To-Day, 31 March ; 
16 days' trial; verdict for plaintiff, farthing 

damages 7 May, ,, 

The will of Mr. T. P. Hounsell, of Chertsey, who 

died in 1894, set aside by the probate court, on 

account, of his gross delusions, described in 

papers found after his death . . 1 April, ,, 

Joseph Yates, solicitor, convicted of fraud, perjury, 

&c. penal servitude for life . . . 21 May, „ 
Capt.' Hill Kennedy sentenced to 5 years' penal 
servitude for perjury in a libel action . 2 June, ,, 



Earl and countess Russell, judgment of court of 
appeal (see above, 1895) affirmed by the house of 

lords July, 1897 

Charlton v. Phillips, disputed will, verdict for the 
plaintiff (5 days trial), testator not insane, 

25 Nov. ,, 

Labouchere v. H. Hess, proprietor of the African 
Critic, for an injunction to restrain the publica- 
tion of his letters to the late G. A. Sala, granted, 
with costs as regards Mr. Hess, but refused with 
costs in regard to Mrs. Sala . . 27 Nov. ,, 
Allen v. Flood and Taylor, see Times . 16 Dec. ,, 

Flood and Taylor v. Allen, shipwrights, for 
malicious injuries (dismissal from employment), 
verdict for plaintiffs in 1895 ; verdict upheld in 
court of appeal, 1895 ; verdict reversed by the 
house of lords, 6 judges against 3 (much dis- 
cussed) 14 Dec - » 

Lewis v. Clay, 11,113/. 1 5 s - claimed by the plaintiff 
on two promissory notes, endorsed by defendant 
on assurances by lord Wm. Nevill that he was 
only witnessing a document, which he did not 
see ; verdict for the defendant . . 18 Dec. ,, 

Richard Archer Prince, 32, actor, convicted of the 
wilful murder of Wm. Charles Lewin, see 
Adelphi, Dec. 1897; detained as a criminal 
lunatic 13 Jan. 1898 

Queen's bench : Jay (a money lender) v. sir Tatton 
Sykes, to recover 15,872'. odd, advanced on 5 
promissory notes, signed by sir Tatton and lady 
Sykes ; lady Sykes admitted her signature : ver- 
dict for the defendant, signatures to the other 
notes being forgeries ; 5 days' trial . 18 Jan. „ 

Vladimir Bourtzeff, journalist, sentenced to 18 
months, and Kleiuent Wierzbicki, printer, to 2 
months' imprisonment for publishing incitements 
to kill the czar . . . v . . n Feb. ,,, 

Lord William Nevill (37), sentenced to 5 years' penal 
servitude for fraud respecting securities (against 
Mr. Jas. Spender Clay) .... 15 Feb. ,, 

Mr. Russell Spokes for the Grosvenor Hotel com- 
pany v. the directors, manager, and Mr. R. C. 
-.Drew, for conspiracy ; verdict for plaintiff, with 
arrangements (9 days' trial) . . 19 Feb. , y 

Mrs. Camilla Micholls convicted of the man- 
slaughter of her servant, Jane Popejoy, by ill- 
treatment and starvation (5 days' trial) ; sen- 
tenced to 7 years' penal servitude . 2 May, ,,. 

Thomas Edw. Brinsmead, and 5 other directors 
and promoters of the compauy of Thomas Edw. 
Brinsmead & Sons (Ltd.), convicted of con- 
spiracy to defraud, and sentenced to various 
terms of imprisonment . . . .7 May, , T 

Walter Horslqrd convicted of the murder of Annie 
Holmes, by strychnine .... 6 June, ,, 

John Trodd, bootmaker, charged with attempting 
to minder count Arco- Valley, of the German 
embassy, and police-constable Whitefield by 
shooting them at Carlton House terrace, 15 June; 
prisoner certified to be a lunatic . 22 June, ,, 

Wm. Maunsell Collins, 48, surgeon, charged with 
the wilful murder of Emily Edith Uzielli, 27 
June; convicted of manslaughter, sentenced to 
7 years' penal servitude . . . 2 July, ,, 

The hypnotic will case— Kingsbury v. Howard. 
The will ot Mrs. Howard (who died Dec. 1897), 
devising to Dr. Kingsbury, her medical atten- 
dant and friend (who had" in her case applied 
hypnotism up to 1894), her residuary estate (a 
vast sum), was declared to be valid by the pio- 
bate court *3-i9 Jal J"> >> 

Fred. Tomlinson, 34, sentenced to life imprison- 
ment for attempts to wreck trains . 18 Nov. ,, 

John Lloyd Whitrrarsh, surgeon, convicted of the 
murder of Alice Bayley, sentenced to death, 26 
Oct.; commuted to 12 years' penal servitude, 

25 Nov. ,, 

Albert Davies sentenced to 3 years' penal servi- 
tude for fraud and forgery respecting col. Ship- 
way's pedigree, &c 23 Ivov. „ 

Mrs. Athalie Mills, Christian science "healer," and 
Kate Lyon charged with the manslaughter of the 
late Harold Frederic, author, by neglecting to 
provide him with proper medical treatment ; 
both found not guilty and discharged for want ot 
evidence .... . • • 5 Dec. » 



TBIALS. 

Robert John (lieut.) Wark, tried for the imvrder of 
Jane Yates, sentenced to death, with a strong 
recommendation to mercy, 8 Dec. 1858 ; re- 
prieved, 10 Dec. ; petition to the Home Office, 
54,000 signatures, 5 Jan. 1899 ; sentence com- 
muted to 3 years' penal servitude . . 9 Jan. 
See Blackmailing, 1899. 

Miss Bertha Petersen charged with the murder of 
John Whibley (whom she shot at Biddenden), 
S Feb. ; proved insane ... 12 July, 

George R. Birt charged with falsifying the half- 
yearly balance-sheets of the Millwall docks co., 
sentenced to 9 months' hard labour . 13 May, 

Mrs. Keighley, palmist, v. printers and publisher 
of the Society newspaper, for libel ; 1,000?. 
damages for plaintiff ... 14 June, 

Joseph Slater and Robt. James sentenced to 20 
years' penal servitude for manslaughter of a 
policeman at Harwell, Berks (3 April), 16 June, 

Mostyn v. Atherton : an action by sir Pyers Mos- 
tyn and G. Chator and Co., for an injunction to 
restrain the defendant from diverting or abstract- 
ing water from St. Winifred's well and the Holy- 
well stream, Flintshire, and from interfering 
with the flow of water in the stream through the 
plaintiffs land; injunction granted, with costs, 

29 June, 
George and Sigmund Wolff, convicted of keeping a 

common lottery, and of fraud in connection with 
bogus "missing word" competitions, sentenced 
respectively to 10 and 4 months' imprisonment, 

30 June, 
Mary Ann Ansell, convicted of murdering her 

sister (inmate of an asylum), by sending her by 
post poisoned cake, found guilty, after 2 hours' 
consultation, and sentenced to death . 30 June, 
Arthur Kirby and Morris Clifford charged with 
conspiracy to defraud in connection with the 
Coolgardie mint and Iron King gold mines 
(limited), sentenced to 6 months' hard labour 

each 4 July, 

See Glasgoiv, Oct. 1899. 

Walter v. Lane. Mr. Justice North grants an in- 
junction restraining Mr. John Lane from further 
publication of "Appreciations and addresses of 
lord Rosebery," containing reports of speeches 
taken from the Times, 10 Aug. 1899; his decision 
reversed in the court of appeal, 9 Nov. [the last 
judgment reversed and Mr. Justice North's deci- 
sion restored by the house of lords, 6 Aug. 1900]. 

Beall, Singleton, Lambert, and Wain tried (15 days) 
for conspiring to defraud in connection with the 
London and Scottish banking and discount cor- 
poration ; Lambert acquitted ; Beall sentenced to 
4 years' imprisonment ; Singleton to 18 and Wain 
to 12 months' imprisonment . . 18 Nov. 

Dum bell's bank trial, see Man, isle of, Nov. 1900. 

Sir Robt. Peel's application for leave to sell certain 
heirlooms, pictures, &c, for provision for lady 
Peel and her child, granted, in court of appeal; 
lord Peel, on whose appeal against a former 
order the action took place, ordered to pay the 
costs 4 Dec. 

Louise Masset, 36, a governess, convicted of the 
murder of her illegitimate son, aged 3^ years, at 
Dalston railway station, and sentenced "to death, 

18 Dec. 

Wm. Chard Williams, 41, and Ada Chard Williams, 
24, charged with the murder of Selina Ellen 
Jones, 21 months old (entrusted to the care of 
the female prisoner, Aug. 1899); the woman found 
guilty and sentenced to death, the man acquitted, 

17 Feb. 1 

Mr. B. Vizetelly, journalist, v. Mudie's library 
(limited), for a libel in "Emin Pasha, his Life 
and Work"; plaintiff awarded 100I. damages, 6 
March (appeal dismissed with costs, 27 April) . 

Howard Gray charged with contempt of court in 
regard to a scurrilous article on Mr. Justice 
Darling in the Birmingham Daily Argus, fined 
100?. and 25?. costs . . . ! 28 March, 

Reg. v. Stoddart: Mrs. Ada Stoddart fined 50?., 
with costs, under the Betting Act, 1853, for keep- 
ing or using a house or office for betting or re- 
ceiving money in lieu of payment of money 
dependent on the result of a race . 21 Nov. 



1286 



TBIALS. 



Reg. v. Cockerton, see Education . . 20 Dec. 

Benjamin Green Lake, 62, solicitor of high stand- 
ing, sentenced to 12 years' imprisonment for con- 
verting to his own use trust funds . 22 Jan. 

Thos. Sismey, 37, solicitor, pleaded guilty to con- 
spiring to defraud a Mrs. Clarke of 14,000?., and 
J. Arnold, 39, solicitor, pleaded guilty to appro- 
priating trust funds ; Arnold sentenced to 10 
years' imprisonment and Sismey to 15 months' 
hard labour ; James Greenfield, 56, solicitor, 
sentenced to a year's imprisonment for convert- 
ing 960?., a client's money, to his own use 
(pleaded guilty) 25 Jan. 

Barnet Abrahams, 41, sentenced to 20 years' im- 
prisonment for the manslaughter of a constable, 

5 Feb. 

Mr. Justice Byrne's decision re the ownership of 7 
tapestries in the late Mme. de Falbe's drawing- 
room at Luton Hoo reversed in court of appeal, 
her executors' appeal granted, as the tapestries 
were affixed as chattels and not for the improve- 
ment of the freehold .... 7 Feb. 

[This decision upheld by the lords, appeal dismissed 
with costs, 6 Feb. 1902.] 

Chas. B. Smith pleads guilty to converting trust 
funds to his own use, sentenced to 6 months' 
imprisonment 8 Feb. 

Maidstone election petition : election of Mr. J. 
Barker, liberal, declared void for bribery, by 
Messrs. Justices Kennedy and Channell, 13 Feb. 

Robt. Porteous, solicitor, sentenced to 3 years' 
imprisonment for conspiracy to defraud, in con- 
nection with a bogus firm of stockbrokers, 

15 Feb. 

Yarmouth murder: Herbert John Bennett, con- 
victed of the murder of his wife on the beach, 
Yarmouth (22 Sept. 1900), 6 days' trial before the 
lord chief justice ; sentenced to death, 2 March, 

Mr. Arthur Chamberlain, brother of Mr. Joseph 
Chamberlain, colonial secretary, v. the Star news- 
paper co. for libels in reference to firms and com- 
panies with which the plaintiff was connected : 
verdict for plaintiff, with 200?. damages, 

20-26 March, 

Mr. Neville Chamberlain, son of Mr. Joseph Cham- 
berlain, v. the same defendants, for libel in the 
Morning Leader; apology, and 1,500/. accepted for 
damages and costs .... 26 March, 

Countess Russell v. earl Russell, suit undefended, 
divorce granted, 28 March [made absolute, 28 
Oct.] 

Charles McCarthy v. the Evening News, for libel, 
verdict for plaintiff, 1,000/. damages . 24 April, 

Mr. Joseph Stoddart, proprietor of Sporting Luck, 
sentenced to 6 months' imprisonment and sogs. 
costs for infringing the Betting Acts, 30 April 
(his appeal dismissed with costs 6 Nov.) 

The Daily Mail (newspaper) ordered to pay 2,500?. 
damages to Miss Hettie Chattell, for libel, 15 
July (damages 1,000?. on appeal, or a new trial 
ordered, 12 Dec.) 

Earl Russell tried by the house of lords for bigamy, 
and sentenced to 3 months' imprisonment, 

18 July, 

Taff Vale Railway v. the Amalgamated Railway Ser- 
vants' Society : the house of lords decide that a 
trade union can be sued in its registered name as 
a corporate body, restoring a judgment of Mr. 
Justice Farwell given in Sept. 1900 (reversed in 
Nov. by court of appeal) ... 22 July, 

The proprietor of Sporting Luck, a journal, fined 
50Z. and sentenced to 3 months' imprisonment for 
publishing an advertisement of a " Derby" 
sweepstake to be drawn in Holland . 25 July, 

The house of lords upholds the decision of the court 
of appeal, allowing lord Cowley's late wife, who 
had obtained a divorce from him, to style herself 
countess Cowley .... 30 July, 

Quinn v. Leathern (case of appeal), re the boy- 
cotting case at Lisburn, near Belfast ; verdict 
for Leathern, the plaintiff, in the first trial, with 
200?. damages, and 50?. additional damages 
against 4 others concerned in the publication of 
"black lists "; the decision con firmed by the Irish 
appeal court, and again by the house of lords, 

5 Aug. 



TEIALS. 



1287 



TEIALS. 



George Stephens, ulias Thompson, and Chas. 
McNelly, alias McMay, sentenced to 5 years' 
imprisonment for conspiring to obtain money, 
&c, from Mrs. Annie Renwick, widow, 18 Sept. 1901 

Chas. Tibbets and Chas. Windust found guilty at 
Bristol assizes of conspiring to prevent the due 
course of justice by publishing certain articles 
in the Weekly Dispatch, 13 July ; the convictions 
confirmed by lord Alverstone and others, 9 Nov. ,, 

Rev. Joseph Nesbitt v. Mr. Mercer, of Rodmersham 
house, and another, for libel; damages 1,100'., 

end Nov. ,, 
Marais case : see Cape Colony, 18 Dec. 1901. 

Frank and Laura Jackson, alias Horos, tried for 
offences under the Criminal Law Amendment act, 
18 Dec; the man sentenced to 15 years', the 
woman to 7 years' penal servitude . 20 Dec. ,, 

Samuel Stanton, ex-manager of a branch of Messrs. 
Foster's bank, pleaded guilty to embezzling bank 
money, and was sentenced to 3 years' imprison- 
ment - 30 Dec. ,, 

Dr. Fred. E. Krause, 33, barrister-at-law (special 
commandant of Johannesburg when it surren- 
dered to lord Roberts), arrested 2 Sept.; sen- 
tenced to 2 years' imprisonment for attempting to 
solicit Cornelius Broeksma to" murder Mr. J. D. 
Forster in the Transvaal . . . 18 Jan. 1902 

King v. the abp. of Canterbury and C. A. Cripps, 
esq., K.C. (vicar-general); see Church of England, 

10 Feb. 
Chas. Bank Nelson, ex-director of Dumbell's bank, 

Isie of Man, which sec, appeals against a convic- 
tion and sentence of 5 years' imprisonment for 
applying to his own use the money of the bank, 
granted by the lords, and that part of the convic- 
tion set aside 12 Feb. „ 

Mr. J. D. Forster, barrister, of the Transvaal, v. 
A. B. Markham, M.P., for libel in a letter in the 
Times, 25 Feb. 1901 ; damages 2,000'. . 12 Feb. „ 

Goudie, clerk (pleaded guilty), Burge, Kelly, and 
Stiles charged with forgery, fraud, conspiracy, 
and false pretences, whereby the bank of Liver- 
pool was robbed of over 160,000'., 17 Feb. ; 
Goudie and Burge sentenced to 10 years', Kelly 
and Stiles (who pleaded guilty to conspiracy to 
defraud) to 2 years' imprisonment . 22 Feb. „ 

Bottomley v. Hess, for libel ; verdict for plaintiff, 
i,oooL damages 8 March, ,, 

Arthur S. Francis, solicitor, pleaded guilty to ap- 
propriating, as trustee, 6,500'. of the countess of 
Orkney's lunds ; sentenced to 5 years' imprison- 
ment 13 March, „ 

Cowen v. Labouchere and another, libel action, 
1 May ; jury unable to agree, discharged, 13 May, „ 

Countess Cowley awarded 100I. damages and costs 
in a libel action v. the editor and publishers of 
the paper Candid Friend . . . . 13 May, „ 

Bank of England forgery case ; see Forgery, 

16 May, „ 

Rosalie Mansell v. the proprietors of the Sun news- ■ 
paper for an alleged libel; damages 600'., king's 
bench 27 May, „ 

Father Bernard Vaughan, a Jesuit, v. the proprie- 
tors of the Rock newspaper, for libel published 
in a letter; damages 300'. . . . 3 June, „ 

Mr. Le Mesurier v. Mr. Van Cuylenberg, proprietor 
of a Ceylon newspaper, for libel; damages 1,500'., 

11 June, „ 
London and Globe Finance Corporation v. Basil 

Montgomery & Co. and others, king's bench 
(9 days' trial), verdict for all defendants, on the 
jury answering in the negative two questions : 
" Did the defendants agree not to sell the Lake 
View shares deposited with them below 17'. a 
share ? " " Was there an agreement that the pro- 
fits of the sale of such shares should be divided 
with the plaintiff's ?" etc. . . 12-16 June, „ 

[The attorney-gen. refused to instruct the public 
prosecutor to take the case up, see Times, 29 
Dec. 1902]. 

Henry Beels, 21, a rough, see Hooligan, sentenced 
to 7 years' imprisonment for the manslaughter of 
Mr. Herbert Murray Spicer (2 June) in Upper 
Wo'burn-place 3 July, ,, 

Henry White, 22, sentenced to 10 years' imprison- 
ment for blackmailing Mr. Austin Neame, 

16 Sept. ,, 



Gerald and Herbert Kennaway sentenced to 7 
years' imprisonment for various elaborately- 
schemed forgeries .... 16 Sept. 1902 
Mrs. Watt v. lady Violet Beauchamp, for libel ; ver- 
dict for plaintiff, with 5,000'. damages . 30 Oct. ,, 
Mr. T. C. McQuire, actor and theatrical manager, 
awarded ido'. damages, with costs, from the 
Western Morning News co. (limited) re a dis- 
paraging criticism (25 June, 1901) on The Major, 

a musical piece 3 Nov. ,, 

Mr. J. C. Kenworthy, author and lecturer, v. the 
Sun newspaper, for alleged libel, 140'. damages 

for plaintiff' 13 Nov. ,, 

Cowen v. Labouchere, libel action, 11 days' trial ; 

verdict for defendant . . . .17 Nov. ,, 
Central criminal court : John Goodfellow, analyti- 
cal chemist, pleaded guilty to forgery, sentenced 
to 3 years' imprisonment ; Wm. Armstrong, late 
manager of the Richmond branch (London, City 
and Midland bank), pleaded guilty to embezzle- 
ment, sentenced to 4 years' imprisonment, 

18 Nov. „ 
Walter Butters, cashier, Bayswater branch (Union 
of London and Smith's bank), pleaded guilty to 
embezzlement, sentenced to 4 years' imprison- 
ment 19 Nov. ,, 

Mrs. Annie Elizabeth Penruddocke, 38, of Compton- 
park, Wilts, tried for alleged cruelty and neglect 
of her daughter Constance, aged 6, found guilty 
on two counts of the charge, and fined 50'., cen- 
tral criminal court (Dr. C. Penruddocke en- 
trusted with the care of the child, 27 Feb. 1903), 

21 Nov. ,, 
John M'Keever charged with the murder of the 
late Mr. John Kensit, see Public Worship, ac- 
quitted, Liverpool 11 Dec. ,, 

Robt. Milward, 64, solicitor, sentenced to 6 years' 

imprisonment for frauds, Birmingham . n Dec. ,, 
Mary Spillane, 28, sentenced to death for murder 
of her illegitimate infant, n Dec. ; reprieved, 

18 Dec. ,, 
The Bootle Murder : Ethel Rollinson, 20, and Eva 
Eastwood, 17, sentenced to death for the murder 
by suffocation of Miss Eliza Marsden, 71 (com- 
muted to life imprisonment 22 Dec.) . 13 Dec. ,, 
Ada Kirk, 25, laundress, convicted of the murder 

of infant daughter (but found insane) . 16 Dec. ,, 
Emma "Kitty" Byron, 24, sentenced to death, 
but recommended to mercy, for the murder of 
Arthur Reginald Baker, stock-jobber (in Post- 
office court, Lombard-street, 10 Nov.), 17 Dec. 
(commuted to life-imprisonment, 22 Dec.) . . ,, 
Taff Vale railway co. v. Amalgamated soc. of rail- 
way servants, concerning the strike, Aug. 1900, 
which see ; verdict for plaintiffs (with damages 
23,000'., settled 23 Feb. 1903) . . T9 Dec. ,, 
Philip Bernstein, Solomon and William Barmash 
sentenced respectively to 20, 15 and 10 years' im- 
prisonment tor forging bank of England notes 
(Solomon Barmash committed suicide in the cell 

the same day) 7 Jan. 1903 

"Col." Lynch (see High Treason) . 23 Jan. „ 

Peasenhall murper : Wm. Gardiner, 35, carpen- 
ter, charged with the murder of Rose Harsent, 
on 1 June, 1902 ; the jury, unable to agree after 
5 hours' deliberation, were discharged, 10 Nov. ; 
and again at the second trial, after over 2 hours', 
24 Jan. 1903 ; a nolle prosequi was decided on. 
and Gardiner was released at Ipswich . 29 Jan. ,, 
Annie Walters, 54, Amelia Sach, 29, sentenced to 
death for baby-farming murders, 16 Jan. ; 

executed ' . 23 Feb. „ 

Edgar Edwards, 44, convicted of the murder of Mr. 
and Mrs. Darby and infant child, in Oamberwell, 
sentenced to death, 13 Feb. (executed 3 March) ,, 
Court of Session, Edinburgh : the Spanish minister 
of marine and others v. the Clydebank engineer- 
ing and shipping co., for failure to deliver 4 
torpedo-boat destroyers, which the defendants 
had contracted to build for the Spanish govern- 
ment ; plaintiffs awarded 67,500'., with interest, 

18 Feb. „ 
Mr. S. H. Wallace sues Tenessee, lady Cook, for re- 
muneration for services, and damages for an 
alleged libel and slander ; granted 550'. 3 March, ,, 
[Application for new trial allowed by court of ap- 
peal, 15 June, 1903.] 



TRIALS. 



1288 



TEIALS. 



Divorce suit, Gordon v. Gordon and Gordon, pre- 
sident of the court refuses to vary previous order 
directing the child Cecily Margot to he given into 
the custody of her father, 10 March ; writ of at- 
tachment and order for contempt o" court against 
lady Granville Gordon, who had given an under- 
taking not to remove the child from her residence 
in Hereford-square without leave of the court, 
but had taken her over to Dunkirk in a tug irom 
Tilbury, 8 March .... 12 March, 1903 

Bethesda Libel Case: Lord Penrhyn awarded 500?. 
damages in action for libel against Mr. W. J. 
Parry, formerly secretary of the Quarrymen's 
union 13 March, „ 

Southwark 1'oisoning Case: Severino Klosowski 
(George Chapman) convicted of the murder, by 
antimonial poisoning, of Maud Marsh (19), at the 
"Crown" public-house, Borough High-street; 
two other hidictments for antimonial poisoning > 
of Isabella Spink in 1897, and Elizabeth Taylor 
in 1901 ; (executed 7 April) . . . 19 March, „ 

Court of Appeal upholds decision that the bicycle 
toll for crossing the Cressage bridge over the river 
Severn is id., a bicycle not being a "two-wheeled 
carnage" ; the trustees demanded 6d., 23 March, ,, 

The landlord of the " Royal Crescent " hotel, Filey, 
Yorks, fined 20s. for permitting a party of ladies 
and gentlemen to use a room in the hotel for a 
progressive whist drive, in which prizes were com- 
peted for 27 March, ,, 

Mr. Richard Ganthony recovers 200/. damages from 
proprietors of Daily Express, owing to paragraph 
ascribing the success of his play "A Message 
from Mars "to its alleged re-writing by Mr. G. 
Hawtrey 3 April, ,, 

Cavendish v. Strutt and others, to annul a volun- 
tary settlement on the ground of improper influ- 
ence through the medium of a "planchette," end 
Feb. ; judgment for plaintiff . . . 13 May ,, 

Otto Monson, Gustav Rau, and AVillem Smith, 
found guilty of the murder of the captain and 6 
of the crew of the barque Veronica while on a 
voyage from Ship island, Mississippi to Monte- 
video 14 May, ,, 

Henry George, private detective, sentenced to 5 
years' penal servitude for perjury in divorce suit 
of Worsley v. Worsley . . . 25 May, ,, 

Stewart v. Webber and others, the defendants (ex- 
cluding Webber) found guilty of fraudulent re- 
presentations to induce the public to buy shares 
of the Anglo-Dutch exploration company, 26 May, ,, 

Head v. Morning Post, for alleged libel in connec- 
tion with his candidature lor a directorship of 
the Royal Steam Packet company ; verdict for 
defendants 27 May, ,, 

Mr. Hugh Watt non-suited in action against Mr. 
Horatio Bottomley to recover 7,160/. interest on 
65,000?.; both parties to pay own costs, 28 May, ,, 

Moat Farm Murder, Samuel Herbert Dougal, ex- 
soldier, convicted of the murder of Miss Camille 
Cecile Holland, with whom he had resided, at 
Moat farm, Clavering, near Chelmsford. Miss 
Holland mysteriously disappeared 19 May, 1899 ; 
the discovery of the murder was occasioned by 
the prosecution of Dougal on the charge of 
forging a cheque in the name of his victim ; 
sentenced to death 23 June ; executed 14 July, ,, 

Rev. Chas. Garnett, a nonconformist minister, non- 
suited in his action against the Christian World 
for alleged libel, imputing that various degrees he 
held from the university of Harrinian, Tennessee, 
U.S., were " bogus and worthless," . 16 June, ,, 

Alfred Samuel Nelson, 26, a cabinetmaker, found 
guilty of the murder of Edith Alice Fitt, at 
Lakenham ; recommended to mercy on ground 
of his mental condition . . . mid June, ,, 

Crown V. British Museum, to establish the right of 
the crown to certain gold articles as treasure* 
trove, discovered in 1896 on the shores of lake 
Foyle, Ireland, and bought by the trustees of 
the British Museum ; judgment in favour of the 
crown 20 June, ,, 

Committee of privileges reject petition for the 
Poulett peerage presented by William Tumour 
Thos. Poulett, declaring him to be illegitimate, 

mid July, ,, 

Springfield v. Evening Standard, for alleged in- 



fringement of copyright in a paragraph published 

in the Daily Mail; suit dismissed . 27 July, 1903. 

Judicial committee of the privy council on appeal 
of Messrs. H. Graves & Co. printsellers, Pall 
Mall, decided with the Canadian court that the 
Fine Art Copyright act of 1862 is limited to the 
United Kingdom .... 28 July, ,, 

Resolution of the Royal Aquarium company direct- 
ing that on its liquidation 7,800/. should be 
distributed among its officers and servants, set 
aside 29 July, ,,. 

Demetrius S. Constantinidi having sought a 
divorce from his wife, Julia, nee Ralli (from 
whom in 1889 he was judicially separated on the 
ground of her desertion), is awarded by the jury 
damages assessed at 25,000/. (Mrs. Constantinidi 
in 1902 obtained a divorce in S. Dakota, U.S., and 
married the co-respondent, Dr. H. W. Lance), 

29 July, ,_ 

Injunction granted to Miss Olga Nethersole to 
prevent Mr. and Mrs. Bell infringing her play 
Sappho, adapted from Daudet's novel by Mr. B. 
Espinasse 30 July, ,., 

The purchase of certain gold mining shares by the 
British America corporation Irom the London 
and Globe Finance corporation, declared not to 
be, binding on the former corporation, 31 July, , r 

Arthur Wilkes, 21, soldier, sentenced to death for 
the murder of John James, at Altcar, on 16 May, 

31 July, ,„ 

Court of Appeal allows appeal of the Glamorgan 
coal company against decision in favour of the 
North Wales Miners' federation, who were sued 
for inducing the workmen in plaintiff's collieries 
to break their contract of service . . n Aug. , ? 

Judgment on appeal in favour of Messrs. Barclay, 
bankers, against the corporation of Sheffield to 
recover 11,487/. 17s. 5c/. on loss by a forged trans- 
fer which the corporation had to make good, 
and sought to recover from Messrs. Barclay, 

11 Aug. ,, 

Chancellor of the Consistory court refuses to grant 
a faculty to the vicar and churchwardens of St. 
Sepulchre's church, Holborn viaduct, to enlarge 
their schools on the ground that, although 
desirable, it would be a contravention of the 
Disused Burial Grounds act . . 17 Aug. ,, 

Jacob Blitz, 35, committed for trial for the alleged 
attempted murder of John Lang, the prisoner 
having stabbed Lang with a kniie, the point of 
which penetrated his heart ; the wounded man 
was taken to the London hospital, his chest 
opened, and the wound in his heart sewn up, 
effecting a complete recovery . . 18 Aug. .,. 

G. E. T. Edalji sentenced to 7 years' penal servi- 
tude for maiming cattle . ' . -23 Oct. ,„ 

Richard Palmer, 24, labourer, found guilty of the 
murder of Esther Swinford, a barmaid, whom he 
shot with a revolver . . . .28 Oct. ,, 

The editor of Lloyd's Weekly Nctrs lined 50/. for 
contempt of court in publishing comments on 
case of G. L. James, charged with murder, 3 Nov. ,. 

Saghitiel Sagouni, an Armenian, murdered at 
Nunhead, 26 Oct. ; two more Armenians shot at 
Peckham, the assasin, Dakran, commits suicide, 
4 Nov. ; inquest, verdict of murder and suicide, 

9 Nov. ,, 

Whitaker Wright Case : Mr. Wright, formerly 
the managing director of the London and Globe, 
British America, and Standard Exploration cor- 
porations, was prosecuted by the official 
receiver in companies liquidation (order granted 
70 March) on the alleged charge of manipulating 
the balance sheets of these corporations so as to 
show large profits and cash balances which had 
no real existence, the total loss to the share- 
holders and creditors being estimated at. 
5,000,000/. Mr. Wright, who had lelt England 
lor America, was arrested at New York on land- 
ing 15 March ; extradition proceedings taken ; 
Mr. Wright voluntarily returns to England ; 
charged at the Guildhall, committed for trial 17 
Sept.; bail allowed, 25,000/. himself, two sureties- 
25,000/.; rule nisi made absolute in King's Bench 
division for removing the indictment from the 
Central Criminal court to the crown side of the 
King's Bench division . . . 17 Nov. ,, 



TRIBUNES. 



1289 



TEINIDAD. 



Dr. W. M. Bayliss, assist, prof, of physiology at 
University college, London, obtained 2,oooL 
damages from hon. S. Coleridge for libel and 
slander, imputing cruelty to a dog on which Dr. 
Bayliss was performing an operation . 18 Nov. 1903 

Aldershot murder: W. Brown and J. Dunbar, 
soldiers, and T. Cowdrey, labourer, were tried at 
Winchester for the murder of Esther Atkins, an 
unfortunate, on 6 Oct. Brown and Cowdrey 
were sentenced to death ; Dunbar was acquitted, 

27 Nov. ,, 

W. Haywood, at Hertford assizes, charged with 
the murder of his wi.e on 11 July, sentenced to 
death 28 Nov. ,, 

6. F. Robinson, 27, a mining engineer, charged 
with firing a revolver at Mr. K. Grahame, secre- 
tary of the Bank of England, 24 Nov. ; jury re- 
turn verdict of insanity, Robinson ordered to be 
detained in a lunatic asylum . . 17 Dec. „ 

Miss Bertha Cave's application to be admitted to 
Gray's inn, which bad been refused, considered 
by a special tribunal of .judges, the lord chancellor 
presiding; her appeal was rejected on the ground 
that there was no precedent for ladies being 
called to the English bar ... 2 Dec. „ 
See Executions and Addenda. 

TRIBUNES of the People (ZVi'iiwwi'feM, 

magistrates of Koine, first chosen from among the 
commons to represent them, 494 ji.c., when the 
people, after a quarrel with the senators, had retired 
to Mons Sacer. The first two tribunes were (J. 
Licinius and L. Albinus; but their number was 
soon after raised to hve, and 37 years after to ten, 
which number remained fixed. The office was 
annual, and as the first had been created on the 4th 
of the ides of December, that day was chosen for 
the election. In a.u. 1347, Nicolo di Rienzi 
assumed absolute power in Rome as tribune of the 
people, and reformed many abuses ; but committing 
extravagances, he lost his popularity and was com- 
pelled to abdicate. He returned to Rome and was 
assassinated, 8 Sept. 1354. 

TRICHINIASIS, a fatal disease, occasioned 
by eating raw or underdone pork containing a 
minute worm named Trichina spiralis. Professor 
Owen discovered these worms in cysts, in human 
muscle, in 1832. The trichina? are thoroughly 
destroyed bj r proper cooking. The disease excited 
much attention in 1865, and Dr. Thudichum lec- 
tured on it at the Society of Arts on 18 April, 1866. 

TRICOLOR FLAG (red, white, and blue, 
white representing the ancient monarchy ; red and 
blue, Paris) invented by La Fayette, adopted by 
France, 1789. 

TRICOTEUSES (knitters), a name given to 
a number of French republican females, who zeal- 
ously attended political meetings and executions in 
1792, knitting at intervals. 

TRIDENTINE, see Trent, and Catechism. 

TRIENNIAL PARLIAMENTS. On 15 
Feb. 1641, an act was passed providing for the meet- 
ing of a parliament at least once in three years. 
This law was broken by the Long Parliament, and 
was repealed in 1664. Another triennial bill, passed 
in 1694, was repealed by the Septennial act, 1716 ; 
see Parliaments, and Septennial Parliaments. 

TRIESTE, an Austrian port on the Adriatic, 
declared a free port by the emperor Charles VI., 
1719, confirmed by Maria Theresa in 1750. It was 
held by the French in 1797 and 1805. Since the 
establishment of the overland mail to India, it has 
risen to great commercial importance. After 
various changes of rulers it was restored to Austria 
in 1814; see Lloyd's, note. The emperor and em- 



press were warmly received here mid Sept. 1882. 
Population of city and territory in 1890, 157,466; 
1900, 176,672. 

Cordial reception of the duke of Edinburgh and 
the Mediterranean fleet ... 15 Sept. 1887 

The city suffered much by an earthquake 

14, 15, 17 April, 1895 

Strike riot, mob fired on by the troops, about 12 
killed, many wounded, 14, 15 Feb. ; martial law 
proclaimed 16 Feb. 1902 

TRIGONOMETRICAL SURVEY, see 

Ordnance. 

TRIMMER, a term applied to Geonre Savile, 
marquis of Halifax, and others who held similar- 
political opinions, midway between those of the 
extreme Whigs and Tories, about the latter part of 
the 17th century. He assumed the title as an 
honour, asserting that it could be rightly given to 
the British constitution and church. Macaulay 
says that Halifax was a trimmer on principle, and 
not a renegade. He died in 1695. See Opportunists. 

TRINACRIA, a name of Sicily. The title 
"King of Trinacria," w r as temporarily assumed by 
Frederick II. (1302), and Frederick III. (1373). 

TRINCOMALEE (Ceylon), was taken from 
the Dutch, by the English, in 1782 ; it was retaken 
by the French the same j'ear ; but was restored to 
the Dutch by the peace of 1783. It surrendered to 
the British, under colonel Stewart, 26 Aug. 1795, 
and was confirmed to England by the peace of Amiens,, 
in 1802 ; see Ceylon. Of a series of actions off Trin- 
comalee between sh- Edward Hughes and the French 
admiral Suffren, one was fought 18 Feb. 1782, 
the enemy having eleven ships to nine ; on 12 April 
following, they had eighteen ships to eleven, 
and on t> July, same year, they had fifteen ships- 
to twelve. In all these conflicts the French were 
defeated. 

TRINIDAD, an island in the West Indies^ 
discovered by Columbus in 1498, was taken from the 
Spaniards by sir Walter Raleigh in 1595 ; by the 
French from the Fngiish in 1676. Taken by the 
British, with four ships of the line, and a military 
force under command of sir Ralph Abercromby, to 
whom the island capitulated, 18 Feb. 1797; they 
captured two, and burnt three Spanish ships of war 
ill the harbour. ' This possession was confirmed to 
England by the peace of Amiens in 1802. The in- 
surrection of the negroes occurred 4 Jan. 1832. 
Population in 1861, 84,438; in 1881, 153,128; 
in 1891, 196,172 ; 1901, 253,250. The capital Port, 
of Spain nearly destroyed by fire, 5 March, 1895. 
Governor : lion. Arthur H. Gordon, 1866; James- 
R. Longden, 1870; sir II. T. Irving, 1874; sir 
Sandford Freeling, 1880; sir Wm. Robinson, Aug. 
1885; sir Fredeiick Napier Broome. Jul}-, 1891., 
died, 26 Nov. 1896 ; sir Hubert Jerningham, Jan. 
1897 ; sir Alfred Moloney, Oct. 1900. Trinidad 
united with Tobago by pailiament in 1887. 

Port of Spain nearly destroyed by fire 28 Jan. et seq. 1884, 

The Indian coolies at San Fernando forbidden to 
go in festival procession to cast their taboots 
(small shrines) on the last day of Mohurrum, dis- 
obey, and are fired upon by the police and 
soldiers ; 12 killed, and many woundtd 30 Oct. ,, 

This course was justified, after clue investigation, 
by sir Henry Norman, governor of Jamaica ; blue 
book published .... 14 April, 1885 

Reciprocity treaty (reduced duties) with United 
States signed at Washington . . 14 Feb. 1900 

Good report, island prosperous . . . Jan. 1903 



TEINITY AND TEINITAEIANS. 1290 



TEIPOLI. 



Great riot at Port of Spain, arising out of an 
organised struggle for right of public entry 
during proceedings of legislative council : popular 
feeling having been aroused by the denial ol this 
right during debate by the legislative council on 
the second reading of a new waterworks ordinance, 
March 16. Mob stoned council chamber, includ- 
ing law courts and other government offices, and 
set it on fire. Dispersed by police 1 ; 18 people 
killed, 40 wounded ... 23 March, 1903 

Commissioners appointed to inquire into the riot- 
ing arrived in England . . . . 3 June, „ 

Parliamentary paper and blue book report of 
commission of inquiry published . . 22 July, „ 

Trinidad— A small desolate island in the S. Atlan- 
tic, 700 miles east of Rio de Janeiro, which has 
successively belonged to Portugal and Brazil. 
To obtain a place for telegraph cables a party 
from H.M.S. Barracouta landed on the isle and 
formally annexed it to the British empire, Jan. 
1895, the gunner being nominated governor, as 
reported by lieut. Ryan. The affair caused much 
indignation at Rio July, 1895 

The island given up to Brazil according to the 
award of Portugal Aug. 1896 

. TEINITY and Trinitarians. Theophilus, 

bishop of Antioch, who flourished in the 2nd cen- 
tury, was the first who used the term Trinity, to 
express the three sacred persons in the Godhead. 
His "Defence of Christianity" was edited by 
Gesner, at Zurich, in 1546. IVatkins. An order of 
the Trinity, termed Mathurins, was founded about 
1 198 by John de Matha and Felix de Valois. See 
Grutched Friars. The Trinity fraternity, origin- 
ally of fifteen persons, was instituted at Home by 
St. Philip Neri, in 1548. The act to exempt from 
penalties persons denying the doctrine of the Trinity 
(such as Unitarians and Swedenborgians) passed in 
1813. Trinitarian Bible Society founded, 1831. 

TEINITY COLLEGES, see Cambridge, 
Oxford, Dublin, Olenalmond, &c. Trinity College, 
Dublin, called the University : grant of the 
Augustine monastery of All Saints within the 
suburbs for erecting this college, conferred by queen 
Elizabeth, 1591 . First stone laid by Thomas" Smith, 
mayor of Dublin, 1 Jan. 1593. New charter, 1637. 
Made a barrack for soldiers, 1689. Bums. The 
principal or west front erected, 1759. Library 
erected, 1732. This college grants degrees upon 
examination without residence. The Eoman 
Catholics desire exemption from mixed education 
and special privileges. Great changes were pro- 
posed by the Irish University bill, which was 
brought into parliament Feb. 1873, but withdrawn. 
Religious tests were abolished in the same year. 

A proposal to establish a Roman catholic college 
within the university was negatived by the 

senate. (74-7) 18 May, 1874 

The church choral society incorporated as Trinity 

College, London 1875 

Report of Irish University commission, n March, 1903 
Degree of Litt.D. conferred on lord Roberts, 31 May, ,, 
Women admitted to degrees . . . June, ,, 

TEINITY HOUSE, London, founded by 

sir Thomas Spert, 151 2, as an "association for 
piloting ships," was incorporated in 1514, and re- 
incorporated in 1604, 1660, and 1685. The present 
Trinity House was erected in 1795. Ity their charter 
the brethren of the Trinity House have the power 
of examining, licensing, and regulating pilots, and 
of erecting beacons and lighthouses, and of placing 
buoys in the channels and rivers. Spert, the first 
master, died 8 Sept. 1541. — Trinity Houses, 
originally guilds or fraternities, founded at Dept- 
ford, Hull, and Newcastle, were incorporated by 
Henry VIII., 1536-41. 



The Trinity almshouses, Mile-end-road, London, B., 
erected by sir Christopher Wren, for decayed 
mariners, containing statuary, tablets, stained 
glass and other relics, transferred from the 
Trinity house, Deptford, about a century ago. 
The proposed sale of the land, demolition of the 
buildings with a suitable provision for the pen- 
sioners, was successfully opposed . . Nov. 1895 

RECENT MASTERS. 

William Pitt 1790 

Earl Spencer 1806 

Duke of Portland 1807 

Earl Camden 1809 

Earl of Liverpool 1815 

Marquis Camden 1828 

Duke of Clarence 1829 

Marquis Camden 1831 

Duke of Wellington 1836 

The Prince Consort 1852 

Viscount Palmerston . . . .16 June, 1862 
Duke of Edinburgh .... 15 March, 1866 
Duke of York (prince of Wales, re-elected 26 May, 1902), 

21 May, 1894 
Scientific adviser — lord Rayleigh, Jan. 1896. The office 

was successively held by profs. Faraday and Tyndall. 

See Lighthouse. 

TEINITY SUNDAY, the Sunday following 
Whitsunday. The festival of the Holy Trinity was 
instituted by pope Gregory IV. in 828, on his 
ascending the papal chair, and is observed by the 
Latin and protestant churches on the Sunday next 
following Pentecost or Whitsuntide, of which, 
originally, it was merely an octave. The observance 
of the festival was first enjoined in the council of 
Aries, 1260. It was appointed to be held on the 
present day by pope John XXI. in 1334- 

TEINOBANTES, a British tribe which occu- 
pied Middlesex and Essex, and joined in opposing 
the invasion of Julius Cassar, 54 B.C. , but soon 
submitted. They joined Boadicea and were defeated 
by Suetonius Paulinus near London, a.d. 61. 

TEIPAETITE TEEATY, name given to 
treaty of Paris, 1856. 

TEIPLE ALLIANCE was ratified between 
the States-General and England against France, for 
the protection of the Spanish Netherlands ; Sweden 
afterwards joining the league, it was know r n as the 
Triple Alliance, 23 Jan. 1668. — Another Triple 
Alliance was that between England, Holland, and 
France against Spain, Jan. 1 7 1 7. — Another between 
Great Britain, Russia, and Austria, 28 Sept. 1795. 
Another between Germany, Austria, and Italy, said 
to have been proposed June, 1882, and adopted 
[883, and signed 13 March, 1887: lo expire 1892; 
renewed for six years, 28 June, 1891. The alliance 
was strengthened by commercial treaties, ratified 
Dec. 1891 ; again renewed, 28 June, 1902. 

TEIPOLI (three cities). I., in Syria, com- 
prised three quarters built by the Tyrians, Sidonians, 
and Arabians ; was taken by the Crusaders 1 109, 
and made a county for Raymond of Toulouse. It 
was conquered by the Egyptians in 1832 ; restored 
to the Porte 1835"; surrendered to the British 1841. 
II., a Turkish province, N. Africa, comprised the 
cities Sabrata, Qia (the present Tripoli, the capital), 
and Leptis (the ancient Tripolitana), after having 
been held by Greeks, Romans, Vandals, and Sara- 
cens, was conquered and annexed by the Turks 
155 1 . Hamet Bey, pacha in 1741, made himself 
independent, and the government remained in his 
family till 1835, when Tripoli was restored to nonii- ' 
mil subjugation to the sultan. Population (1884) i 
about 1,000,000. Panic through fear of insurrec- j 
tiou about 20 July, 1882. In conflicts with the 



TRIPOLITZA. 



1291 



TEOY WEIGHT. 



troops, about 160 natives were killed, reported 19 
Dec. 1891. Severe drought in the country, Dec. 
1892 el seq. Gov. -gen., Ahmed Rassim, 1881 ; 
succeeded by Ismail Bey, Jan. 1895 ; Namyk Bey, 
June, 1896; Hasheni Bey, March, 1899; Hafiz 
Mehemet, July, 1900. 

TRIPOLITZA (Greece), was stormed by the 
Greeks, who committed dreadful cruelties, 5 Oct. 
1821 ; retaken by the Egyptians, 30 June, 1825 ; 
given up to the Greeks, 1828. 

TRIREMES, galleys with three banks, of oars, 
are said to have been invented by the Corinthians, 
784 or 700 b.c. 

TRISTAN D'ACUNHA, a small island in 
the S. Atlantic, inhabited by about 100 persons. 
Before the opening of the Suez Canal, the island 
prospered, through the visits of ships, now very 
rare ; the duke of Edinburgh was there in 1867, and 
showed great kindness to the people. Patriarchal 
government under Mr. Peter Green, who received 
a portrait from queen Victoria in 1897 ; 64 inhabi- 
tants in Nov. 1897, 

TRIUMPHS were granted by the Eoman senate 
to generals of armies after they had won great vic- 
tories. They were received into the city with great 
magnificence and public acclamations. There were 
the great, called the Triumph; and the less, the 
Ovation; see Ovation. 

TRIUMVIRATES, Roman. In 60 b.c, 
Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus formed a coali- 
tion to rule the state. This lasted ten years, and 
the civil war ensued. The second triumvirate, 43 
B.C., was formed by Octavius Cassar, Mark Antony, 
and Lepidus, through whom the Romans totally lost 
their liberty. Lepidus was expelled in 36 ; Antony 
was subdued in 31, and Octavius made himself 
absolute ; see Rome. In Feb. 1849, a triumvirate 
was appointed at Home, consisting of Joseph Maz- 
sini, Armellini, and Saffi, which resigned on 1 July, 
1849, when the city was taken by the French. 

TRIVIUM, see Arts. 

TROCADERO, Paris, a mount on the right 
bank of the Seine, so named in memory of a fort 
near Cadiz, captured by the French while sup- 
pressing the insurrection in 1823. On this ground 
was erected the palace of the " Trocadero," in con- 
nection with the international exhibition of 1878 ; 
see Paris. 

TROGLODYTES, or " cave dwellers," the 
name given by the ancient Greeks to various 
savage races inhabiting natural caverns or holes 
in the earth which they had excavated. This term 
was more especially applied to the cave dwellers 
on the coast of the Red Sea, and along the banks 
of the Upper Nile in Nubia and Abyssinia, this 
district being callel Troglodgtike, The Troglo- 
dytes are mentioned by Herodotus, Aristotle, and 
Diodorus. Mr. Chamberlain, in his speech on 
"fiscal reform" at Tynemouth, 21 Oct. 1903, 
applied the term to the Cobden club and free trade 
party. 

TROPICAL DISEASES. Medical schools 
for the study of these diseases founded, see Liver- 
pool, April, 1899, and Sierra Leone, Aug. 1899. 
One established at the Dreadnought hospital, 
London (1,000^. from lord George Hamilton, 3,500^. 
from the colonial office, 200/. from the king of the 
Belgians), spring, 1899; others since. 



TROPPAU, Congress of, in Austrian 

Silesia. The emperors Francis of Austria and 
Alexander of Russia met at Troppau, 20 Oct. 1820. 
The congress between them and the king of 
Prussia, against Naples, took place 10 Nov. ; and 
the conference was transferred to Laybach, as nearer 
to Italy, 17 Dec. 1820; see Laybach. 

TROUBADOURS and Trouveres (from 
troubar, trouver, to find or invent), the poets of the 
middle ages (from the nth to the 15th century). 
The former flourished in the south of France and 
north of Spain, and used the Langue d'oil (that is, 
oc for oui, yes) ; the latter flourished in the north of 
France, and used the Langue d'oil (that is, oil for 
oui). The Troubadours produced romances, but 
excelled chiefly in lyric poetry ; the Trouveres ex- 
celled in romances, several of which are extant ; as, 
the Brut oV Angleterre, and the Sou, by Wace ; the 
"Romance of the Rose," by Guillaume de Lorris 
and Jean de Meung. The Troubadours were usually 
accompanied by Jongleurs, who sang then - masters' 
verses, with the accompaniment of the guitar. 
Histories of these French poets, and specimens of 
their works, have been published in France. These 
poets, although frequently very licentious, tended 
to promote civilisation during those warlike times. 

TROY (or Troja), the common name of IlIUM, 
capital of the Troas, Asia Minor ; see Homer. Its 
history mythical, and dates conjectural. 
Teucer succeeds his father . . . . b.c. 1502 
Dardanus succeeds ; builds Dardania . . . 1480 

Reign of Erichthonius 1449 

Reign of Tros ; from whom the people are called 

Trojans, and the city Troas 1374 

Ilus, his son, reigns ; the city called Ilium . . . 1314 

Reign of Laomedon 1260 

Arrival of Hercules in Phrygia. Hesione delivered 

from the sea monster. Blair ; Usher . . . 1225 
War of Hercules and Laomedon .... 1224 

Reign of Priam or Podarces ,, 

Rape of Helen, by Alexander Paris, son of Priam, 
20 years before the sacking of Troy. Horner's 

Iliad, book xxiv . 1204 

Commencement of the invasion of the Greeks to 

recover Helen 1193 

Troy taken and burnt in the night of the nth of 
June, i.e., 23rd of the month Thargelion. Parian 
Marbles. 408 years before the first Olympiad. 
Apollodorvs, Hales, and Clinton, 1183 ; others . . 1184 
Mr. W. E. Gladstone dates the war . . 1316-1307 

iEneas arrives in Italy. Lenglet 1183 

[Some time after the destruction of Troy, a new 
city was built with the same name, about thirty 
stadia distant from the old site. It was favoured 
by Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expedition, 
but never rose to much importance, and in the 
age of Strabo was nearly in ruins. Priestley.] 
Dr. H. Schliemann, during his excavations at Hissar- 
lik in the Troad, discovered the remains of a very 
ancient city with temples, which he named 

"Novum Ilium" a.d. 1872-3 

He published Troy and its Remains (trans, by Dr. P. 

Smith) . 1875 

His Trojan antiquities arranged at South Kensing- 
ton Museum, for exhibition . . . Dec. 1877 
Dr. Schliemann resumes excavations at Hissarlik ; 
discovers Trojan houses and many antiquities, a 
dagger, earrings, bracelets, idols, shells, &c, 

30 Sept. -1 Dec. 1878 
Again with professor Virchow and M. Burnouf, 1 
March ; makes fresh discoveries described in letter 
5 June, 1879 ; desists investigation ; published 
his book Ilios, 1880, and Troja .... 1883 
Excavations renewed by the Germans at Hissarlik ; 
the city wall, buildings, &c. discovered . Sept. 1894 
See Mycence, 26 Dec. 1890. 

TROY "WEIGHT. The Romans introduced 
their ounce, our avoirdupois ounce, into Britain. 
The present ounce was brought from Grand Cairo 



TEOYES. 



1292 



TUAM. 



into Europe, about the time of the Crusades, 1095, 
and was first adopted at Troves, a city of France, 
whence the name. It is used to weigh gold, silver, 
and precious stones. The Troy weight, Scots, was 
established by James XI. (our James I.) in 1618; 
see Standard. 

TEOYES (Central France), where a treaty was 
concluded between England, France, and Burgundy, 
whereby it was stipulated that Henry V. should 
marry Catherine, daughter of Charles VI. , be ap- 
pointed regent of France, and, after the death of 
Charley should inherit the crown, 21 May, 1420. 
Troyes was taken by the allied armies, 7 Feb. ; re- 
taken by Napoleon, 23 Feb. ; and again taken by 
the allies, 4 March, 1814. 

TEUCE OP GOD (Frera or Treuga Dei), a 
term given to a cessation of the private feuds and 
conflicts so general during the middle ages all over 
Europe, said to have been strongly advocated by the 
bishop of Aquitaine, in 1032. The clergy strenu- 
ously exerted their influence for the purpose. A 
synod at Roussillon, 1027, decreed that none should 
attack his enemy between Saturday evening (at 
nones) and Monday morning (at the hour of prime). 
Similar regulations were adopted in England, 1042 
(sometimes Friday and Wednesday being chosen for 
the time). The truce of Cod was confirmed by 
many councils of the church, especially the Lateran 
Council, in 11 79. 

TEUCK SYSTEM of paying workmen's 
wages in goods (sold at " tommy shops") instead 
of money, was prohibited by parliament in 1831. 
By the Truck act a commission to inquire into its 
alleged prevalence was appointed ; act passed 10 
Aug. 1870; amended 1887 and 1896. 

TEUMPET. Some of the Greek historians 
ascribe the invention of the trumpet to the Tyr- 
rhenians, and others to the Egyptians. It was in 
use in the time of Homer. First torches, then 
shells of fish sounded like trumpets, were the 
signals in primitive wars. 2'otter. The Jewish 
feast of trumpets was appointed 1490 B.C. {Lev. 
xxiii. 24). Oll'a, king of Mercia, is said to have 
had trumpets sounded before him when travelling, 
about A.n. 790. The speaking trumpet is said to 
have been used by Alexander the Great in 335 n.c. ; 
improved by lurcher in a.d. 1652 ; by Salland, 1654 ; 
and philosophically explained by Morland, 1671. 

Trumpet blasts employed for railway signalling in 
Scotland ■ . 1887 

Thomas Harper, celebrated trumpeter, died (aged 
Si) 27 Aug. 1898 

TEUMPET-FLOWEE, Bignonia rad icons, 
was brought hither from North America, about 
1640. The Trumpet Honeysuckle, Lonieera semper- 
virens, came from North America in 1656. The 
Bignonia capensis was brought to England from the 
Cape in 1823. The Lnrge - flowered Trumpet- 
flower, or Bignonia grandijtora, was brought from 
China in 1800. 

TEUEO, W. Cornwall. The town was founded 
by Kichard do Lucy, chief justice of England m 
the 1 2th century, and chartered by Reginald, earl 
of Cornwall, illegitimate son of Henry I. An act 
to provide for the foundation of a bi.-hopric of Truro 
passed 11 Aug. 1876, and money sufficient for its 
endowment having been subscribed, the see was 
constituted by order in council, 9 Hec. same 3 ear. 
Act amended in 1887. Truro was made a city, Aug. 
1877; absorbed into the county, 1885. Population, 
1881,10,619; 1891,11,131; 1901,11,562. 



Foundation of new cathedral (St. Mary's) laid by 
the prince of Wales, 20 May, 1880 ; it includes 
part of the old parish church ; the eastern part 
erected, consecrated and opened for public 
worship in the presence of the prince of Wales 
and the archbishop of Canterbury, 3 Nov. 1887 ; 
architect, Mr. Pearson, died 11 Dec. 1897 ; the first 
cathedral erected since St. Paul's, London. Canon 
Richard F. Wise, a munificent contributor to the 
cathedral, died, aged 80, April, 1896. An anony- 
mous gift of io,ooo?. for the cathedral, received, 

March, igor 
Mr. J. H. Dennis gives 15,000?. for the tower, May, „ 
Dedication of the nave, prince and princess of 

Wales present 15 July, 1903 

See Mansion House Fund. 

BiSHors. 

1877. Edward White Benson, consecrated, 25 April ; 

trans, to Canterbury, Dec. 1882. 
1883. George Howard Wilkinson, consecrated 25 April ; 

resigned 1891. 
1891. John Gott, D. D., June. 

TEUSS. A transverse spring-truss for ruptures 
was patented by Kobert Brand in 1771, and by 
many other persons since. The National Truss 
Society to assist indigent persons, was established 
in 1786 ; and many similar societies since. 

TEUSTEES, sec Fraudulent. 
Trustees' act passed, 1888, and Trust Funds' act . 1889 
The Trustees' Appointment act (1850 to 1890), 

25 July, 1S90 
The Trustees' and Executors' Association initiated, 

Aug. 1 89 1 
The Trustee (Consolidation) act passed 22 Sept. 

1893 ; amended 1894 

Trusts (Scotland) act, 1867 ; amended, 1887 and 1897 

TEUSTS and COMBINES. Terms applied in 
the Lnitcd States 10 the union of manufacturers 
and traders as corporate bodies for the purpose of 
creating and maintaining strict monopolies and 
thereby controlling the output and the prices of 
goods of all kinds and the wages of workmen, a 
system injurious to all classes of society. 

In the autumn of 1888, legislation for the re- 
pression of the evil was urgently demanded. 
There is a petroleum trust, a cotton trust, a 
steel rail trust &c. (see Corner). The proprietors 
of the salt mines in Cheshire combined to form a 
"trust "in the autumn of 1888. Similar trusts 
have been projected and opposed. Central 
Publichoiise trust association, formed iqot (lord 
Grey, president; Mr. Chambeilain and the bp. 

, of Chester, vice-presidents), to promote temper- 
ance, &c. ; 37 companies reported . . Feb. 1903 

TEUTH, " a society journal," established by 
Mr. H. Labouchere in 1877. S.e Trials, 1893. 

TSAE, see Czar. 

TSUNG-LI-Y-AMftN or Yamen, the 

Chinese imperial parliament. 

TUBE EAILWAYS. Soe Railways and 
Tunnels. 

TUAM (W. Ireland), St. Jarlath, the son of 
Loga, who lived about 501, is looked upon as the 
first founder of the cathedral of Tuam, though the 
abbey is said to have been founded in 487. The 
church was anciently called Tuaim-du-Oualand 
In 1151, Edan O'Hoisin was the first archbishop, at 
least the first who received the pall, for some of his 
predecessors are sometimes called bishops of Con- 
naught, and sometimes archbishops, by Irish his- 
torians. The see of Mayo was annexed to Tuam in 
1559. Tuam is valued in the king's books, by an 
extent returned anno 28 Eliz., at 50/. sterling per 



TUBERCULOSIS. 



1293 



TUDELA. 



annum. Beatson. It ceased to be archiepiscopal, 
conformably with the statute 3 & 4 Will. IV., 1833; 
and is now a bishopric only, to which Killala and 
Achonry, a joint see, has been added ; see Arch- 
bishops. New protestant cathedral of St. Mary, 
consecrated by the bishop, the Hon. Dr. Charles 
B. Bernard, 9 Oct. 1878. 

TUBERCULOSIS, a disease caused by the 
development of tubercles, small masses of diseased 
matter in the lungs (phthisis or consumption), in 
the face and other parts (lupus) . 

Dr. Robert Koch, of Berlin, discovered and isolated 
a minute organism, named bacillus tuberculosis, 
to whose action he attributed the disease, 
15 Aug. 1881. In the autumn of 1890, he re- 
ported his invention of a lymph (see below, 
15 Jan. 1891), by the injection of which into 
the system, as in vaccination, he hoped to 
cure the diseases. In Berlin he made many 
experiments on tuberculosed guinea-pigs and 
human beings, with some success in respect 
to lupus, but not to phthisis. Dr. Koch was 
much honoured by the emperor, and was aided 
by the state. Dr. Koch's full account of his 
method was published in the British Medical 
Journal, London, 15 Nov., and other papers. 
Medical men flocked to Berlin from all parts of 
the world, to obtain the lymph. Exaggerated 
cases of successful application were published, . 
and it soon appeared that time was required to 
test the efficacy of the remedy. Much discus- 
sion ensued. Dr. Koch, on 15 Jan. 1891, published 
the statement that his lymph, named tubercu- 
line, was a glycerine extract from the pure culti- 
vation of the tubercle bacilli. 
Royal commission on tuberculosis (Dr. Koch's 
method, &c), actively inquiring at home and 
abroad (lord Basing (died), profs. Brown, Burdon 
Sanderson, Dr. Payne, sir George Buchanan), 
Dec. 1890 etseq. ; re-constituted, sirG. Buchanan 
chairman, Nov. 1894 ; died 5 May, 1895 ; special 
researches respecting animals, and much evi- 
dence reported, 1895 ; the continent visited, 

1897 ; report issued April, 1898 

Professor Badenheuer, of Cologne, asserted that 
out of 100 surgical cases no perfect cure had 
been effected by the lymph . . end of Jan. 1891 
Prof. Virchow, Berlin, in regard to 21 cases of in- 
jection of the lymph, reported unfavourable re- 
sults Jan. ,, 

Dm. Bertin, Picq, and Bernheim proposed the cure 
of tuberculosis by the transfusion of goat's blood, 

Jan., Feb. ,, 
Dr. Lannelongue at Paris, proposed a new remedy, 
which he explained and illustrated to the mem- 
bers of the second congress for the study of 

tuberculosis 27 July, ,, 

Dr. Koch appointed director of the Institute for 

Infectious Diseases at Berlin . . July, ,, 
He acknowledges the failure of his remedy, and 
proposes an improvement by the addition of 

alcohol 22 Oct. „ 

National association for the Prevention of Tuber- 
culosis founded, meeting at Marlborough house, 
the prince of Wales in the chair, lord Salisbury 
and many scientists present ; Messrs. Wernher, 
Beit & Co. give 20,000?. for a new sanatorium, 
20 Dec. 1898. Annual meetings (lord Derby, 
chairman), branch societies formed at Belfast 

and Dublin April-May, 1899 

Internat. congress at Berlin (180 delegates) opened 
by the duke of Ratibor, the empress present, 
24-27 May, 1899 ; report issued, Times 13 July, ,, 
Internat. congress, over 1,000 delegates, opened at 

Naples, the king and queen present . 25 April, 1900 
The light cure of lupus (discovered by Dr. Finsen, 
of Copenhagen, about 1896) started at the London 
hospital through the generosity of queen Alex- 
andra, and proved successful (Mr. Alfred Harms- 
worth gives io,ooo?.) . . . May, 1901 
Internat. congress in London, opened by the duke 
of Cambridge with a message from the king ; lords 
Lansdowne, Cadogan, Derby, Lister, Strathcona, 



and sir William Broadbent among the speakers ; 
profs. Koch, Brouardel, 148 foreign delegates, and 
others, 22 July ; prof. Koch speaks hopefully of 
the scientific treatment of the disease, believes it 
to be not hereditary, that human and bovine tuber- 
culosis are not interchangeable, 23 July ; prof. 
Brouardel states alcoholism to be the most potent 
factor in propagating the disease, and commends 
England's efforts since 1836 in improving artisan's 
dwellings, &c, 24 July ; closed . 26 July, 190 

Royal (scientific) commission appointed (profs. 
Woodhead, Martin, McFadyean and Boyce), sir 
Michael Foster, K.C.B., chairman, to inquire 
whether tuberculosis is the same disease in ani- 
mals and man, whether it is communicable from 
animals to man, and if so, how the transmission 
occurs 3 Sept. , 

Sir Ernest Cassel presents the king with 200,000?. 
for charitable or utilitarian purposes, which the 
king devotes to provide additional sanatoria for 
tuberculous patients, announced . 6 Jan. 1902 

Internat. congress at Berlin . . 23-26 Oct. ,, 

Meeting held at Vienna to found an Austrian anti- 
tuberculosis union .... 4 Jan. 1903 

Foundation - stone of the king Edward VII. 
Sanatorium, near Midhurst, Sussex, for the open- 
air treatment of tuberculosis, laid by the king, 

3 Nov. ,, 

Church costing 20,000?. for the Midhurst Sanatorium 
to be built by Mr. J. Brickwood, announced, 

end Nov. ,, 

TUBINGEN SCHOOL of historico-philoso- 
phical theology was founded by professor F. C. 
Baur about 1835. 

TUBMAN, see Postman. 

TUBULAR BRIDGES. The Britannia Tu- 
bular Suspension Bridge, then the most wonderful 
enterprise in engineering in the world, was con- 
structed, 1846-50 (Mr. 11. Stephenson and Mr. Fair- 
bairn, engineers), about a mile southward of the 
Menai Strait Suspension Bridge.* 

On the Britannia rock, near the centre of the Menai 
Strait, the surface of which is about ten feet 
above low water level, is built a tower two hun- 
dred feet above high water (commenced building, 
May, 1846), and on which rest two lines of tubes 
or hollow girders strong enough to bear their 
weight and laden trains in addition, the ends 
resting on the abutments on each shore ; each 
tube being more than a quarter of a mile in. 
length. The height of the tube within is thirty 
feet at the Britannia tower, diminishing to 
twenty-three feet at the abutments. The lifting 
of these tubes to their places was a most 
gigantic operation, successfully performed, 

27 June, 1849 
The first locomotive passed through . March, 1850 
The Conway tubular bridge, a miniature copy of 
the Britannia (principal engineers, Mr. Robt. 
Stephenson and Mr. Fairbairn) erected . . 1846-8 
At Chepstow, a railway tubular bridge . . . 1852 
A bridge or viaduct on the tubular principle (called 
the Albert viaduct) over the river Tamar at Ply- 
mouth, opened by the prince consort . 2 May, 1859 
See Victoria Railway Bridge and Tay Bridge. 

TUDELA (N. Spain). Near here marshal 
Lannes totally defeated the Spaniards, 23 Nov. 
1808 ; see Ebro. 

* The Britannia tubular bridge was intended to supply 
the place of one of the finest bridges in the kingdom ; 
and the raihvay, of which the tubular bridge forms a 
part, is in like manner a substitute for one of the finest 
mail-coach roads ever constructed. The road from 
London to Holyhead has been long regarded as the 
highway from the British metropolis to Dublin ; and the 
late Mr. Telford was applied to by the government to 
perfect this route by the London and Holyhead mail- 
coach road, which he did by erecting a beautiful suspen- 
sion bridge over the river Conway and over the Menai 
Strait ; commenced in July, 1818, and finished in July, 
1825. 



TUDOR SOVEREIGNS. 



1294 



TUNIS. 



TUDOR SOVEREIGNS ; see England, 1485- 
1603. 

Tudor Exhibition, New Gallery, Regent street ; 
patron, the queen ; committee, the prince of 
Wales, and other eminent persons. The collec- 
tion included portraits and miniatures by Hol- 
bein and others, armour and weapons, personal 
relics, plate, bibles, prayerbooks, Shakespeare's 
and other books. Opened 1 Jan. 1890, and con- 
tinued several months. A similar exhibition 
was opened at the British Museum about 22 Jan. 1890 

Another opened by the duke of Devonshire at Man- 
chester 29 April, 1897 

TUESDAY, in Latin Dies Mart is, the day of 
Mars, the third day of the week, so called from 
Tuisto, Tiw, or Tuesco, a Saxon deity, worshipped 
on this day. Tuisto is mentioned by Tacitus ; see 
Week Days. 

TUGENDBUND ("league of Virtue"), 
formed in Prussia soon after the peace of Tilsit, 
June, 1807, ostensibly for relieving the sufferers by 
the late wars, and for the revival of morality and 
patriotism. Its head-quarters were at Konigsberg. 
It excited the jealousy of Napoleon, who demanded 
its suppression in 1809. It was dissolved at the 
peace in 1815. 

TUILERIES (Paris), the imperial palace of 
France, commenced by Catherine de Medicis, after 
the plans of Philibert del'Orme, 1564; continued 
by Henry IV. ; and finished by Louis XIV. This 
palace was stormed by the mob, 10 Aug. 1792 ; 
and ransacked in the revolutions of July, 1 830, and 
Feb. 1848. Louis Napoleon made it his residence 
in 1 85 1, and greatly renovated it. The restoration 
of the Tuileries (much injured by fire by the com- 
munists, May 1871) was determined on, Oct. 1872 ; 
not proceeded with. The ruins were sold for 
32,200^ to M. Picard, 4 Dec. 1882. 

TULCHAN BISHOPS; a mere nominal 
episcopacy set up in Scotland by the regent Morton, 
who, with other nobles, absorbed the larger por- 
tion of the revenue, 1572-3. Tulchan was a stuffed 
calf's skin set before a cow to facilitate milking. 

TULIPS, indigenous in the east of Europe, came 
to England from Vienna about 1578. It is recorded 
in the register of Alkmaer in Holland, that in 1639, 
120 tulips, with the offsets, sold for 90,000 florins : 
and that one, called the Viceroy, sold for 4203 
guilders ! The States stopped this ruinous traffic. 
The tulip tree, Liriodendron tulipifera, was brought 
to England from America, about 1663. 

TUMUT, New South Wales, a small town on 
the Tumut river, a tributary of the Murrumbidgee, 
264 miles S.W. of Sydney. It is the centre of a 
rich agricultural district, and mines are worked. 
Tumut was placed first on the list of places by the 
committee appointed to consider the choice of a site 
for the federal capital of Australia. Committee's 
selection rejected by the senate, Oct. 1903. 

TUNBRIDGE WELLS (Kent). The springs 
were discovered, it is stated, by Dudley, lord North, 
who, when very ill, was restored to health by the 
use of the waters, 1606. The wells were visited by 
the queens of Charles I. and II., and by queen 
Anne, and soon became fashionable. Population, 
1S81, 24,119; 1891,27,895; 1901,35,000. 

The town was incorporated by royal charter 
early in 1SS9 

Mr. John Stone- Wigg, the first mayor, a great bene- 
factor, died, end of .... Dec. 1897 



TUNGSTEN (also called wolfram and schee- 
lium), a hard whitish brittle metal. From tungstate 
of lead, Scheele in 1781 obtained tungstic acid, 
whence the brothers De Luyart in 1786 obtained 
the metal. In 1859 it was employed in making a 
new kind of steel. 

TUNIS (N. Africa) stands nearly on the site of 
Carthage. Tunis was besieged by Louis IX., of 
France, who died near it 25 Aug. 1270. It remained 
under African kings till taken by Barbarossa, for 
Solyman the Magnificent, 1531. Barbarossa was 
expelled by the emperor Charles V., when 10,000 
Christian slaves were set at liberty, June, 1535. 
The country was recovered by the Turks under 
Selim II. 1575. The bey of Tunis was first appointed 
in 1574; Tunis was reduced by admiral Blake, on the 
bey refusing to deliver up the British captives, 
1655. The Hussein dynasty was founded 1705. In 
July, 1856, the bey agreed to make constitutional 
reforms. He died 22 Sept. 1859 ; and his brother 
and successor Mohamed-es-Sadok took the oath of 
fidelity to the constitution. He died, and was suc- 
ceeded by his brother Sidi Ali, 28 Oct. 1882 ; died, 
II June, 1902; succeeded by his son Mohamed. 
Tunis is now under French protection. Estimated 
total population, 1,800,000, 1902. 

Insurrection, 18 April ; ships of war sent to protect 
Europeans May, 1864 

Tunis decreed to be an integral part of the Turkish 
empire 25 Oct. 1871 

Commercial treaty with Great Britain, 1875 et seq. 



A dispute with France settled by submission of the 
bey Jan. : 

The bey, embarrassed by debt (5,000,000?.), places his 
finances in hands of an international commission : 

Disputes between France and Italy respecting rail- 
way concessions Aug. 

Dispute between a British subject here and a French 
company respecting purchase of the Enfida estate, 
decision left to the legal tribunals . . Feb. : 

Disriute with France ; predatory incursions of the 
Kroumirs, nomadic shepherd tribes, on Algerian 
territory, March: the bey appeals to Turkey, 11 
April ; and the Great Powers, 27 April : military 
expedition sent from France ; lands in Tabarka, 
bombards fortress, and occupies Bizerta, 30 April, 

The Kroumirs said to be enclosed by the French ; 
the bey's army retreats . . . early May, 

Alleged battle with the Kroumirs . about 2 May, 

The French approach Tunis, alleging the object to 
be to restrain warlike tribes and protect their 
frontier 11 May, 

Treaty with France signed ; it assures to France the 
right to occupy the positions which the French 
military authorities might deem necessary for the 
maintenance of order and the security of the fron- 
tier and the coast, and to send a resident minister 
to the capital. The French government guaran- 
tees to the bey the security of his person, his 
states, and his dynasty, and the maintenance of 
existing treaties with the European powers ; while 
the bey undertakes not to conclude any interna- 
tional convention without a previous understand- 
ing with the French government, and to prevent 
the introduction of arms into Algeria through 
Tunis. The financial system of the regency to be 
regulated by France in concert with the bey, 

12 May, 

Reported conflict between the French under gen. 
Breart and the Arabs ; the French enter Mater, 

iS May, 

The Sultan of Turkey protests against the treaty, May, 

M. Seguin, a news correspondent, murdered at Beja 
by a fanatic (who is executed) . . 2S May, 

M. Brangard, inspector of telegraphs, and assistants, 
murdered by Arabs, near Oran . about 5 June, 

M. Roustan, the consul, appointed French resident 
minister (said to be virtual ruler, replacing bey), 
French army returning home . June, 

Mustapha Ben Ismail, the bey's chief minister, re- 
ceived by president Grevy, at Paris . 21 June. 



:8 79 



TUNNAGE. 



1295 



TUNNELS. 



Insurrection at Sfax, revolt of great chief Ali Ben 
Khalifa, announced .... 30 June, 

Europeans attacked, nearly all flee to ships, alleged 
massacres 31 July, 

Sfax bombarded by the French, 5 July, et seq. ; 
captured after severe conflict , . .16 July, 

Arabs revolting ; anarchy reported . 20 July, 

Enfida case; decision against the English, Mr. 
Levy Aug. 

Collapse of bey's authority . . about 15 Aug. 

Asserted conflict at Hammamet, the French re- 
pulsed about 3 1 Aug. ; the French retreating about 

8 Sept. 

Arrival of 2,000 French troops at Goletta 9 Sept. 

General Sabattier with troops at Zaghouan sur- 
rounded by Arabs . . . about 13. Sept 

28,000 men sent to Tunis announced . 26 Sept. 

Alleged defeat of the bey's troops under Ali Bey ; 

■ 4 hours' conflict .... about 25 Sept. 

Ali Bey's army surrounded . about 4 Oct. et seq. 

Union of the French and Ali Bey's army, about 

8 Oct. 

Tunis occupied by the French . . .10 Oct. 

Gen. Sabattier defeats the Arabs ; six hours' con- 
flict ; 800 killed, French loss slight . . 13 Oct. 

Continued fighting .... about 22 Oct. 

The French under Gen. Etienne enter Kairwan, 
without resistance 26 Oct. 

The French treaty with the bey (n May) confirmed 
by the chambers 9 Nov. 

Alleged defeat of Arabs, near Gerid, by Gen. 
Logerot about 16 Nov. 

Gen. Saussier reports his capture of a large rebel 
convoy about 17 Nov. 

The insurrection virtually suppressed ; army of 
occupation to be 20,000 . announced 29 Nov. 

M. Levy (see Aug. 1881) expelled . about 14 Dec. 

M. Roustan in Paris ; M. H. Rochefort acquitted of 
bitter libel against M. Roustan . . 15 Dec. 

M. Roustan returns . . . about 29 Dec 

Transferred to Washington . 

Victory of insurgents 

Enfida case amicably settled 

Treaty with France (taking over debt about 
5,ooo,ooo£.) draft July, 

Renewed Arab incursions . . about 3 Oct. 

French courts of law established ; foreign consular 
jurisdictions abolished (capitulations) 1 Jan. 

Tunis made a seaport by the construction of a 
canal 

Meeting of the French association . . 1-4 April 

The rev. Mr. Leach, eminent missionary, and family 
murdered at Sfax 6 May, 

The marquis de Mores murdered by Tuaregs in the 
Tunisian Sahara . . . about 8 June, 

Treaty between France and Italy signed . 30 Sept. 

Railway.between Tunis and Susa completed, 6 Nov. 

Visit of the princess of Wales . . 14 May, 

Sir Harry Johnston's report on Tunis describes the 
"Mosque of the Olive Tree," an Arab university, 
about 400 students and 100 professors . June, 

Haflz Mehmet Pasha, Bey of Tunis . . July, 

M. Pichon, new resident-gen., arrives . Dec. 

French residents, 1891 about 10,000 ; about 25,000, 
and over 75,000 Italians .... Feb. 



about 23 Feb. 
about 1 April, 
May, 



885-93 



1900 
1901 



TUNNAGE and Poundage were ancient 
duties levied on every tun of wine and pound of 
other goods, imported or exported, and were the 
origin of our "customs." They commenced in 
England about 1346, and were granted to the kings 
for life, beginning with Edward IV. Charles I. 
gave great offence' by levying them on his own 
authority, 1628. They were granted to Charles II. 
for his lifetime, 24 June, 1660. By the act 27 
Geo. III. c. 13, these and other duties were repealed, 
1787, aud a' new arrangement of excise and customs 
was introduced. 

TUNNELS, for drainage,' are ancient. The 
earliest tunnelfor internal navigation was executed 



by M. Riguet, in the reign of Louis XIV., at Bezieres 
in France. The first in England was by Mr. 
Brindley, on the duke of Bridgewater's canal, 
near Manchester, about 1766. Project of the 
Gravesend tunnel, 1800 — the report upon it, 1801. 
The Thames Tunnel was projected by Mr. Brunei 
in 1823, and opened for foot passengers, 25 March, 
1843 ; see Thames Tunnel. Innumerable tunnels 
have been made for railways. The railway tunnel 
at Liverpool was completed in the middle of 1829, 
lit up with gas, and exhibited once a week. On the 
London and Birmingham railway there are eight 
tunnels (the Primrose-hill, Watford, Kilsby, &c), 
their total length being 7336 yards. Smiles. It 
was computed by Mr. Fowler, that there were 80 
miles of tunnels in the United Kingdom in 1865, 
which cost about 6,500,000/., at the average of 45/. 
a yard; see AIjjs [Mont Cenis, etc.] and Thames. 

Tunnel between Dover and Calais, suggested by M. 
Mathieu about 1802 

Tunnel for a railway beneath the channel from 
Dover to Calais, proposed by Messrs. J. F. Bate- 
man and J. Revy .... 30 Aug. 1869 

M. Thomd de Gamond, after many years' study, ex- 
hibited his plans in Paris, 1867 ; his scheme re- 
vived in France, July, 1871 and Nov. 1873 ; a 
convention in its favour was signed for France 
by M. Michel Chevalier, Jan., 1875 ; engineers, 
sir John Hawkshaw and M. Lavally ; monopoly 
for 30 years granted ; chairman for English com- 
pany, lord Richard Grosvenor ; plan of boring 
through 20 miles chalk by Mr. D. Brunton. 

M. ThornS de Gamond died .... Feb., 1876 

Boring at Sangatte, near Calais, begun 25 Feb. ; 200 
feet deep 3 June, „ 

Memorandum of basis of proposed treaty between 
England and France issued . . . Aug. ,, 

Other plans have been proposed by G. Remington, 
P. J. Bishop, A. Austin, &c. 

The French government's concession for prelimi- 
nary works granted in 1875, renewed for 3 years 

from 2 Aug. 1880 

Experimental boring going on, April, 1881 ; 800 
metres from the coast . . May, 1883 

Meeting of Channel Tunnel Company 2 Feb. ; of 
submarine Continental railway company 3 Feb. 1882 

Channel Tunnel near Dover ; about 1 mile exca- 
vated ; visited by Mr. Gladstone and others 

11 March, ,, 

The Channel Tunnel disapproved of by sir G. 
Wolseley, and other officers, British and foreign 

March, et seq. ,, 

The works stopped by government about 1 May ; 
by order of Mr. Justice Kay . . . 6 July, ,, 

Two channel tunnel bills discharged in the commons 

16 Aug. ,, 

Report of a commission on the channel tunnel (sir 
A. Alison, chairman) unfavourable on political 
grounds issued 11 Oct. ,, 

The question referred to a committee of lords and 
commons 4, 6 April, which meets 24 April ; decide 
against the tunnel (6-4) . . about 10 July, 1883 

The company resolutely determine to wait 17 Aug. ,, 

Bill rejected by the commons (222-84) 14 May, 1884; 
(281-99) 12 May, 1885 

Boring of the Channel tunnel still continued, 2 Feb. 1887 

The Channel tunnel bill again rejected by the 
commons (153-107) .... 3 Aug. ,, 

Sir E. Watkin's bill for experimental works 
opposed by the government and rejected in the 
commons (307-165), 27 June, 1888 : again rejected 
(234-153) 5 June, 1890; bill withdrawn . 20 July, 1893 

Mersey tunnel, between Liverpool and Birkenhead, 
one mile long, projected 1866, execution fre- 
quently suspended, boring renewed by the energy 
of major Samuel Isaac, 1880, boring completed 
under his superintendence, 17 Jan. 1884 (he died, 
22 Nov. 1886) ; tunnel opened, 13 Feb. 1S85 ; first 
passenger train run through, 22 Dec. 1885 ; 
formally opened by the prince of Wales, 20 Jan. 1886 



TURAN. 



1296 



TURKEY. 



The Severn tunnel near Bristol, eonstructed by 
W. C. Richardson, for the Gt. Western company's 
railway begun, March, 1873 ; official train passed 
through, 5 Sept. 1885 ; opened for traffic, 1 Sept., 
for passengers 1 Dec. 1886 

" Joseph II. mining adit," Schemnitz, begun 1782, 
after many delays, finished, 16,538 metres long, 

5 Sept. 1878 

Arlberg tunnel, Austria, 10,270 metres long ; begun 
June, 1880; completed, and train passed through, 

13 Nov. 1883 

Two tunnels for the City and South London Elec- 
tric Railway, from the Monument to Stock well, 
completed, March ; the railway opened by the 
prince of Wales, 4 Nov. ; to the public 18 Dec. 1890 

The construction of a tunnel under the Irish Chan- 
nel recommended by sir Roper Lethbridge at the 
Society of Arts 11 Feb. 1891 

Tunnel between Blackwall and Charlton reaches, 
on the Thames, constructed by the London 
county council(Messrs. S. Pearson & Son's tender, 
57r,oooL), designed by Mr. A. R. Binnie, lent., 
June, 1897, length, 6,200 ft., 19 ft. wide, 80 ft. 
depth from high water level, with road and foot- 
paths, begun the end of 1891 ; opened by the 
prince and princess of Wales, 22 May, 1897 ! 
opened for traffic 10 p.m. . . .24 June, 1897 

Central London (tube) railway, Shepherd's Bush 
to the Bank, opened for traffic by the prince of 
Wales 27 June, 1900 

Tunnel between Millwall and Greenwich con- 
structed at a cost of about 120,000/. by the 
London County Council as a footway tunnel for 
passenger traffic between Greenwich and the Isle 
of Dogs, opened 4 Aug. 1902 

Tunnel gardens, Poplar, opened by the mayor, 

30 Aug. ,, 

Simplon Tunnel (21,576 yds.) in course of construc- 
tion by the Jura -Simplon company, at the esti- 
mated cost of 2,800,000/., to which the Swiss 
government, the Swiss cantons and the Italian 
government contribute, was commenced at Iselle, 
15 Aug. 1898 ; its completion expected in 1904. 

TURAN, see Turkestan. 

TURCKHEIM, see Tiirkheim. 

TURIN, the ancient Augusta Taurinorum in 
Piedmont, capital of the Sardinian States, and of 
the kingdom of Italy, till 1864, when it was super- 
seded by Florence. Its importance dates from the 
permanent union of Savoy and Piedmont in 1416. 
The French besieged this city ; but prince Eugene 
defeated then- army, and compelled them to raise 
the siege, 7 Sept. 1706. In 1798, the French 
republican army took possession of Turin, seized all 
the strong places and arsenals of Piedmont, and 
obliged the king and his family to remove to the 
island of Sardinia. In 1799, the French were 
driven out by the Austrians and Russians ; but the 
city and all Piedmont surrendered to the French, 
June 1800. In May 18 14, it was restored to the 
king of Sardinia; see Italy, 1864. Here prince Hum- 
bert was married to his cousin Margherita amidst 
great rejoicing, 22 April, 1868. The monument to 
Cavour was inaugurated, 8 Nov. 1873. An exhibition 
opened by the king, 25 April,' 1880; another 
opened by the king, 1 Slay, 1898. Monuments 
to prince Amadeus of Savoy (ex-king of Spain) and 
to king Humbert, inaugurated, 7, 8 May. Internat. 
art exhibition opened by the king, 10 May ; closed, 
12 Nov. 1902. See Treaties, and Italy, 1884. 
Population, 1890,320,808; 1900,335,539. 

TURKESTAN, called by the Persians Turan, 
formerly Independent Tartary {which see), the 
original country of the Turks, in Central Asia, was 
reached by Alexander, 331 B.C., and has since 
undergone many changes, forming successively 



part of the empires of Genghis Khan and Tamer- 
lane (see Tartary). For Eastern or Chinese 
Turkestan, see Kashgaria ; for Western, see 
Bokhara and Khiva. The Russians gradually 
encroached on this country ; on 14 Feb. 1865, a new 
province, Turkestan, was created by decree, and 
gen. Kauffmann made governor, 26 July, 1867; 
died 16 May, 1882. The rule of the czar accepted 
by the chief tribes at Merv {which see), announced 
8 Feb. 1884. Gen. Dukhofski appointed gov.-gen. 
of Turkestan and the Transcaspian territory, April, 
1898. Explorations and discoveries by Dr. Sven 
Hedin in 1895, and by Dr. Stein, June-Dec. 1900. 
Severe earthquake shocks at Andijan, in Ferghana, 
10,000 deaths, 15,000 houses destroyed, 16 Dec. 
1902. 

TURKEY. The Turks were originally a 
tribe of Tartars ; but, by incorporation with the 
peoples they have conquered, have become a mixed 
race. About 760, they obtained possession of a 
part of Armenia, called from them Turcomania. 
They gradually extended their power ; but in the 
13th century, being harassed by other Tartar tribes, 
they returned to Asia Minor. The Turkish empire 
till 1878 comprehended the almost independent 
principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, Servia, 
and Montenegro, the hereditary vice-royalty of 
Egypt, and Tunis. The Turkish quadrilateral for- 
tresses were Shumla, Varna, Silistria, and Rust- 
chuck. The population of the empire was estimated 
in 1887 at 32,978,100; (immediate Possessions, 
21,633,000, tributariesandproteel orates, 11,345,100); 
in Europe, 8,987,000; Asia, 16,174,100; Africa, 
7,817,000; 1901, in Europe, about 6,000,000; total, 
including Asia, &c, about 39,732,900. By the treaty 
of Berlin (13 July, 1878) Turkey is said to have 



Ceded to Roumania . . 
., Servia . 
,, Montenegro . . 
,, Austria . 
,, Greece (?) . . . 
To be occupied and adminis- 
tered by Austria 
Formed into the Principality 
of Bulgaria . ... 
Included in Eastern Rou- 
melia 13,646 

If we exclude the provinces " indefinitely " to be 
occupied by Austria, Bulgaria, and Eastern Roume- 
lia, there remain to Turkey in Europe only 74,790 
square miles, with 4,779,000 inhabitants, of whom 
2,521,500 are Mohammedans. In Armenia Russia 
takes 10,000 square miles, with about 350,000 in- 
habitants. Cyprus, entrusted to the keeping of 
England, has an area of 3,584 square miles, and 
186,173 inhabitants in 1881. Thessaly ceded to 
Greece by convention, 24 May ; treaty signed, 
2 July, 1881. See Greco-Turkish War, May, 1897. 

Alp Arslan and the Turks conquer Armenia and 

Georgia 1065-8 

Asia Minor conquered, 1074-84 ; Jerusalem taken . 1076 
Soliman Shah drowned in the Euphrates, while on 
the inarch ; his son Ertoghul, granted territories 

near Angora, dies 1283 

Osman, or Othman, his son, emir of the sultan of 
Iconium, whose followers were named Osmanlis, 
founded the Ottoman empire at Prusa, Bithynia, 

by policy and conquest, in 1299 

Organisation of Janissaries by Orcan about . . 1330 
Nicsea conquered, 1330 ; and the Morea . . . 1346 
The Turks enter Thrace, and take Adrianople . 1361 
Amurath I. remodels the Janissaries . . . . 1362 
Bajazet I. overruns provinces of the Eastern empire 

1389 et scq. 



Square 


Inhabi- 


Moham- 


Miles. 


tants. 


medans. 


5^935 


246,000 


142,000 


4.326 


264,000 


75,000 


i,549 


40,000 


9,000 


15 


2,000 


— 


5,300 


750,000 


40,000 


28,125 


1,061,000 


513,000 


24,404 


I »773.°°° 


681,500 



746,000 265,000 



TUEKEY. 



1297 



TUEKEY. 



He defeats Sigismund of Hungary at Nicopolis, 

2S Sept. 1396 
He besieges Constantinople ; but is interrupted by 
the approach of Tamerlane (or Timour), by whom 
he is defeated and made prisoner, at Aneyra, 28 July, 1402 

Macedonia annexed 1430 

Ladislas of Hungary defeated and slain at Varna 

by Amurath 10 Nov. 1444 

Amurath defeats John Huniades at Kossova Oct. 1448 
The Turks, invading Hungary, repelled by Huni- 
ades 1450 

Constantinople taken by the Turks under Mahomet 
II. , which ends the Eastern Roman empire, 

2Q May, 1453 
Belgrade relieved by Huniades' victory over the 

Turks July, 1456 

Greece subjected to the Turks (see Greece) . 1458-60 
The Turks take Otranto, diffusing terror through- 
out Europe 1480 

Selim I. raised to the throne by the Janissaries ; 

murders his father, brothers, <fcc 1512 

He takes the islands of the Archipelago . . . 1514 

He overruns Syria 1515 

Gains Egypt by defeat of Mamelukes . . Aug. 1516 
Solyman takes Belgrade, Aug. 1521 ; and Rhodes, 

Dee. 1522 
Defeats Hungarians at Mohatz . . 29 Aug. 1526 
Repulsed before Vienna . . . . Oct. 1529 

Peace with Austria 1533 

Cyprus taken from the Venetians . . Aug. 1571 
Great battle of Lepanto (which see) . . 7 Oct. ,," 
Treaty of commerce with England . . . . 1579 
Turks driven out of Persia by Shah Abbas . . 1585 
Great Are in Constantinople . . . . 1606 

War with the Cossacks, who take Azof . . . 1637 
The Turks defeat the Persians and take the city of 

Bagdad 1638 

Candia (Crete) taken from Venice, after a 25 years' 

siege . . 1669 

Vienna besieged by Mahomet IV. but relieved by 

John of Poland 12Se.pt. 1683 

Peace of Carlovitz 26 Jan. 1699 

Mustapha II. deposed by Janissaries . . . . 1703 
The Morea retaken by the Turks .... 1715 
The Turks defeated at Peterwardein . . . . 1716 
They lose Belgrade ; and their power declines . 1717 

Peace of Erivan (with Persia) 1732 

Belgrade taken from Austria ; and Russia relin- 
quishes Azof 1739 

The Turks defeated at Kars 1745 

Insurrection of Wahabees 1749 

Great sea-fight in the channel of Scio ; the Russian 

fleet defeats the Turkish 1770 

The Crimea ceded to Russia .... Jan. 1784 
Disastrous war with Russia and Austria, the Turks 
lose more than 200,000 men . . . 1787-91 

Cession of Oczacow 1791 

War with the French, who invade Egypt . . . 1798 
Insurrection of Mamelukes at Cairo .... 1803 
War against Russia and England . 7 Jan. 1807 
Passage and repassage of the Dardanelles effected 
by the British fleet, but with great loss ; see Dar- 
danelles 19 Feb. „ 

Murder of Hali Aga 25 May, ,, 

The Janissaries massacre the newly disciplined 

troops 1808 

The Russians defeated at Silistria .... 1809 
Treaty of Bucharest (which see) . . 28 May, 1S12 
A caravan consisting of 2000 souls, returning from 
Mecca, destroyed by a pestilential wind in the 
deserts of Arabia ; 20 saved . . 9 Aug. ,, 
Subjugation of the Wahabees (which see) . 1818-19 
Ali Pacha of Janina, iu Greece, declares himself 

independent 1820 

Insurrection in Moldavia and Wallachia, 6 March, 1821 
Persecution of Christians, 6 March ; the Greek 
patriarch put to death at Constantinople, 

23 April, ,, 
[For the events in connection with the independ- 
ence of Greece, see Greece. ] 
Horrible massacre at Scio (see Chios) . 23 April, 1822 
Sea-fight near Mitylene ; Turks defeated . 6 Oct. 1824 
New Mahometan army organised . . 29 May, 1826 



Insurrection of the Janissaries at Constantinople ; 

they are suppressed and massacred, 14-16 June, 1826 
6000 houses burnt at Constantinople . 30 Aug. „ 
Battle of Navarino ; the Turkish fleet destroyed 
by the fleets of England, France, and Russia (see 

Navarino) 20 Oct. 1827 

Banishment of 132 French, 120 English, and 85 
Russian settlers from the empire . 5 Jan. 1828 

War with Russia 26 April, ,, 

The czar Nicholas. takes the field . . 20 May, ,, 
Capitulation of Brahilow .... 19 June, ,, 
Surrender of Anapa .... 23 June, ,, 
Eminences of Shumla taken by Russians, 20 July, „ 
The czar arrives before Varna . . 5 Aug. ,, 

Battle of Akhalzic 24 Aug. ,, 

Fortress of Bajazet taken . . . 9 Sept. ,, 
The sultan proceeds to the camp with the sacred 

standard 26 Sept. ,, 

Dardanelles blockaded 1 Oct. ,, 

Surrender of Varna ..... n Oct. ,, 
Russians retreat from Shumla . . .16 Oct. „ 
Surrender of the castle of the Morea to the French, 

30 Oct. ,, 
Siege of Silistria raised by Russians . 10 Nov. ,, 
Victory of the Russians at Kuleftscha, near Shumla 

11 June, 1829 
Battle near Erzeroum .... 2 July, , , 
Adrianople is entered by the Russians, 20 Aug. ; 

armistice agreed on . . . .29 Aug. ,, 
Treaty of peace at Adrianople . . 14 Sept. ,, 
Fire at Constantinople ; extinguished by the men 

of H. M.S. Blonde .... 22 Jan. 1830 

The porte acknowledges the independence of Greece, 

25 April, ,, 
Treaty with America .... 7 May, ,, 
Great fire at Pera ; British embassy destroyed, 

2 Aug. 1831 
New military " order of glory " (Nischan) founded, 

19 Aug. „ 
St. Jean d'Acre taken by Ibrahim Pacha, son of 

Mehemet Ali 2 July, 1832 

He defeats the army of the sultan at Konieh, 

21 Dec. „ 
Ibrahim Pacha marches within eighty leagues of 
Constantinople, and the sultan asks the aid of 
Russia . . .... Jan. 1833 

The Russians enter Constantinople . 3 April, „ 
Treaty with Russia, offensive and defensive, 

8 July, „ 
Office of grand vizier abolished . . 30 March, 1838 
Treaty of commerce with England, concluded by 

lord Ponsonby, ratified ... 16 Aug. ,, 
[For the events of 1839 and 1840 in relation to 

Syria ; see Syi'ia.] 
Hatti-sherif promulgated decreeing many reforms, 
termed the Tanzimat (regulations), 3 Nov. 1839 ; 
again, at Rhodes 6 Jan. 1840; again 1844. 
Christians admitted to office in Turkey ,, June, 1849 
The Turkish government refuses to surrender the 
Hungarian and Polish refugees on the joint de- 
mand of Russia and Austria . . 16 Sept. „ 
[The porte (countenanced by England) firmly resists 

this demand.] 
Russia suspends intercourse with the Porte. 

12 Nov. „ 
The British fleet, under sir W. Parker, anchors in 

Besika bay 13 Nov. „ 

Diplomatic relations between Russia and the porte 
resumed, 31 Dec. ; the latter sending the refugees 

to Konieh Jan. 1850 

Turkish Croatia in a state of rebellion . . Jan. 1851 
Treaty with France respecting the holy places 

(ivhich see) 13 Feb. 1852 

Imperial order of Medjidie founded . . Aug. ,, 
Prince Menschikoff repairs to Constantinople as 
Russian negotiator, 28 Feb. ; his peremptory 

demands rejected 19 April, 1853 

Resehid Pacha becomes foreign minister; the 
ultimatum being rejected, Menschikoff quits 

Constantinople 21 May, ,, 

Hatti-sheriff issued, confirming the rights of the 

Greek Christians 6 June, ,, 

Russian manifesto against Turkey . . 26 June, ,, 
Russian army crosses the Pruth . . 2 July, ,, 

Grand national council — war to be declared if the 

principalities are not evacuated . . 26 Sept. . ,, 
War declared against Russia . . 5 Oct. ,, 

[See Russo-Iurkish War.] 

4 



TUEKEY. 



1298 



TUEKEY. 



Commencement of national debt (see Loans, 1854) . 1853 
Insurrection in Epirus and Albania, favoured by 
the Greek government at Athens — Hellenic em- 
pire proclaimed 27 Jan. ,, 

Volunteers from Athens join it . . 14 March, ,, 
Rupture between Greece and Turkey 28 March, „ 

[Several conflicts ensue with varied success.] 
Osman Pacha storms Peta, the central point of the 

insurrection 25 April, „ 

English and French governments, after many 
remonstrances, send troops, which arrive at the 
Piraeus ; the king of Greece submits, and pro- 
mises strict neutrality : the Greek volunteers 
are recalled .... 25 and 26 May, „ 
Abdi Pacha and Fuad Effendi take the intrenched 
camp at Kolampaka, and the insurrection shortly 
after ceases . . . . . 18 June, ,, 
Rescind Pacha, having retired (3 June), resumes 

his office 1 July, ,, 

Convention between Turkey and Austria 14 June, ,, 
The Russians retire from the principalities, which 
are thereupon occupied by the Austrians, Sept. ,, 

Turkish loans Aug. 1855 

[See Loans 1854-5.] 
Firman authorising free exercise of religion 18 Feb. 1856 
Peace with Russia by treaty of Paris . 30 March, ,, 
Great Britain, France, and Austria guarantee integ- 
rity of Turkish empire . . . 15 April, ,, 
Austrians quit the principalities . . March, 1857 
Misunderstanding among the allied powers re- 
specting Moldavian elections, which are annulled, 

July, „ 

Death of Rescind Pacha . . . .7 Jan. 1858 

Massacre of Christians at Jedda (ivhich see), 

15 June, ,, 

Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, many years English 
ambassador at Constantinople, returned to Eng- 
land, Jan. ; he is succeeded by sir H. Lytton 
Bulwer; accredited .... 12 July, „ 

Indecisive conflicts in Montenegro between the 
natives and the Turks .... July, „ 

Turkish financial reforms begun . . Aug. „ 

The first Turkish railway opened (from Aidan to 
Smyrna) 19 Sept. ,, 

Base coinage called in ; a fictitious Turkish coinage 
begun at Birmingham suppressed . . Oct. „ 

The allied powers determine the Montenegrine 
boundaries 8 Nov. „ 

Prince Alexander Cousa elected hospodar of both 
Moldavia and Wallaohia . . 5 and 7 Feb. 1859 

[The porte at first objects, but afterwards accedes 
to the double election.] 

Electric telegraph completed between Aden and 
Suez May, ,, 

Great fire at Constantinople ; 1000 houses destroyed , 

10-14 Sept. ,, 

Conspiracy against the sultan, 17 Sept.; his brother 
implicated ; several condemned to die ; reprieved, 

Sept. and Oct. „ 

Great agitation for financial reform . . Oct. 

Alleged ill treatment of Christians in Turkey ; pro- 
posed intervention of the great powers, 5 May ; 
the Turkish government promises investigation 
and redress, 30 May ; all the powers satisfied 
except Russia June, i860 

War between the Druses and Maronites in Lebanon ; 
massacres (see Druses) .... June, ,, 

Massacre of Christians at Damascus (see Damascus 
and Syria) 9-1 1 July, „ 

Convention on behalf of the great powers at Paris ; 
armed intervention of the French agreed to, 

2 Aug. „ 

Inundations at Galatz ; loss about 175,000^. 

24 Feb. 1 86 1 

Christians revolt in the Herzegovina, aided by the 
Montenegrins March, „ 

Great need of financial reform : the British am- 
bassador, sir H. Lytton Bulwer, proposes a 
scheme April, ,, 

Discussion respecting the French occupation of 
Syria; it ceases 5 June, ,, 

Death of the sultan, Abdul-Medjid ; accession of 
Abdul-Aziz, his brother . . . 25 June, ,, 

Economical reforms begun ; Fuad Pacha made 
president of the council . . . . July, ,, 

The late sultan's jewels sold in London . Aug. ,, 

Imperial order of knighthood (Osmaneh) to include 
civil as well as military persons, founded, Sept. „ 



Imperial guard reorganised . . . Oct. i86e 

Fuad Pacha made grand vizier . . 22 Nov. „ 
He puts forth a budget ; treaties of commerce with 

Sweden, Spain, &c. .... March, 1862 

A Turkish loan (8,ooo,oooL) taken up in London, 

May, ,, 
Secularisation of the property of the mosques, 

(value about 3,000,000?.) said to be determined on, 

Oct. „ 
Insurgents in the Herzegovina submit ; peace made 

with Montenegro .... 23 Sept. ,, 
Dispute with Servia (which see) settled . 7 Oct. ,, 
Ministerial crisis through the sultan's attempt at 

reaction ; Fuad Pacha and others resign, but 

resume office 7 Jan. 1863 

A new bank established .... 28 Jan. ,, 
Fuad Pacha becomes seraskier . . 12 Feb. ,,. 

The sultan visits Egypt . . . 7-17 April, „ 
Fuad Pacha made grand vizier . . 1 June, ,, 
Exhibition of the produce of the empire opened in 

March; closed 26 July, ,, 

Great immigration of the Caucasian tribes April, 1864 
Financial reforms ; conversion and verification of 

the Turkish debt Aug. 1865 

Cholera rages at Constantinople, nearly 50,000 

deaths, Aug. : cholera subsides, Sept. ; great fire 

there, about 2500 buildings (mosques, dwellings, 

&c.) destroyed 6 Sept. ,, 

Fuad Pacha proposes confiscation of the property 

of the mosques : opposition of the Sheikh-ul-Islam 

21 Sept. ,, 
Lord Lyons, ambassador at Constantinople . Oct. ,, 
Revolt of the Maronites under Joseph Karam, 

30 Dec. ,, 
The grand vizier, Fuad Pacha, superseded by 

Mehemet Ruchdi .... 5 June, 1866 

Revolution in Bucharest (see Danubian x>rinci- 

palities). 
Insurrection in Candia (which see) . . Aug. , r 
International conference respecting cholera at Con- 
stantinople . . . . 13 Feb -26 Sept. ,, 
European Turkey very unsettled . . Jan. 1867 
Maronite revolt, under Joseph Karam, suppressed ; 

his flight, Jan. ; Turks leave . . 28 March, ,, 
Ministerial changes : Ali Pacha becomes grand 

vizier; Fuad Pacha, foreign minister 11 Feb. ,, 

The recommendation of the European powers to 
the sultan to give up Candia finally declined, 

31 Mar. „ 
Omar Pacha, commander-in-chief of the Turkish 

army April, ,, 

Destruction of the dockyards in the Golden Horn by 
fire 2 April, ,, 

The sultan, with his son and nephew, visits Paris, 
1-12 July ; arrives at Buckingham Palace, 
London, 12 July; entertained by the queen at 
■Windsor, 13 July; by the lord mayor, 18 July ; 
at a ball at New India House, 19 July ; gives 
2500?. to the poor of London, 22 July ; sails from 
Dover, 23 July ; at Vienna, 27 July-i Aug. ; re- 
turns to Constantinople ... 7 Aug. ,, 

The sultan declines the proposition of Russia for 
the suspension of hostilities in Crete, and an in- 
ternational commission . . . 4 Sept. ,, 

Ministerial crisis ; Fuad Pacha resigns, but re- 
sumes his office Jan. 1868 

Meeting of the new council of state (including 
Jews and Christians), with legislative, but not 
executive, functions . . . . 18 May, ,, 

Arrival of prince Napoleon Jerome at Constanti- 
nople 26 June, ,, 

Arrests on account of a supposed plot against the 
sultan 30 Sept. ,, 

Dispute with Greece for intervention in the Cretan 
insurrection ; see Greece .... Dec. 

Fuad Pacha dies Feb. 1S69 

The prince and princess of Wales's visit April, ,, 

Memorial of the porte to the European powers de- 
siring the abolition of the consular jurisdictions 
termed "capitulations" . . . June, ,, 

The khedive or viceroy of Egypt censured for 
assuming sovereign powers encroaching on those 
of the sultan Aug. ,, 

System of compulsory education promulgated, Oct. „ 

Arrival of the empress of the French at Constanti- 
nople 15 Oct. „ 

Inauguration of the. Suez canal . . 17 Nov. ,, 

The khedive submits to the sultan . . Dec. ,, 



TURKEY. 



1299 



TURKEY. 



Modification of the "capitulations" . April, 1870 
Great fire at Pera ; British embassy and about 7900 

houses destroyed ; great loss of life . 5 June, ,, 
Another fire at Constantinople : about 1500 houses 
burnt ...... 11 July, ,, 

Change in the cabinet ; Mustapha Fazyl, finance 

minister 14 Aug. „ 

Reported treaty between Turkey and Greece to re- 
sist European aggression in the East . 21 Oct. „ 
Russia repudiates the treaty of Paris, 1856, 31 Oct. ,, 
A note delivered to the porte (see Russia), 15 Nov. ,, 
The sultan agrees to a conference on the Black Sea 

question alone .... about 3 Dec. ,, 
Mustapha Fazyl, replaced by Mehemet Ruchdi, 

about 15 Jan. 1871 
The Black Sea question settled by the conference 

at London (see Russia) ... 13 March, ,, 
Omar Pacha, general, dies ... 18 April, ,, 
Insurrection in Yemen, subdued . . May, ,, 
Great fires at Constantinople . . 7 June, „ 

Aali Pacha, grand vizier, an able statesman, dies 

6 Sept. „ 
Mahmoud Pacha, grand vizier . . . Sept. ,, 
Tunis made an integral part of the empire, by de- 
cree 23 Oct. ,, 

Political reforms inaugurated by the new ministry 

Nov. ,, 
Important speech of the sultan to his council re- 
specting the finances .... 16 May, 1872 
Mahmoud Pacha, grand vizier, having made 
enemies through dismissing foreign employes, &c. , 
is dismissed and replaced by Midhat Pacha, 

about 30 July, ,^ 
Midhat Pacha, who favoured Austria, dismissed ; 

replaced by Mehemet Ruchdi . . -19 Oct. „ 
Essad Pacha, grand vizier, 15 Feb.; Mehemet 

Ruchdi again April, 1873 

The Roumelian railway connecting Constantinople, 

Adrianople, &c, opened . . . 17 June, ,, 
The sultan's jewels, &c. (valued at 8,000,000?.) ex- 
hibited at Vienna Aug. ,, 

The shah of Persia arrives at Constantinople 

19 Aug. ,, 
Inability to raise a loan : the sultan gives up a large 

sum ;" great financial reforms proposed . Oct. ,, 
Turkish aggressions on South Arabia checked by 

Great Britain Nov. ,, 

Great improvements in the army ; formation of re- 
serves ,, 

Hussein Avni, pacha made grand vizier . Feb. 1874 
Improved financial arrangements reported April, ,, 
The sultan ill ; he recognises his nephew Murad 

as successor about 5 Oct. ,, 

Austria, Germany, and Russia inform Turkey that 
they consider they have the right to conclude 
separate treaties with Roumania . . 20 Oct. „ 
Mesondive or Mesoudiyc, Turkish ironclad, launched 

at Black wall 28 Oct. ,, 

Turkish debt 3,000,000?. in 1854 ; 180,000,000?. . ,, I 
Budget : estimated receipts, 21,711,764?. ; expendi- 
ture, 26,299,178? June, 1875 

Insurrection in Herzegovina (luhich see) ; great ex- 
citement in Bosnia, Servia, and Montenegro, 

July- Aug. ,, 
Mahmc ud Pacha made grand vizier, with a strong 

ministry, about 25 Aug. ,, 

Decree (in consequence of the deficit of 5,000,000?. 
in the budget) that for 5 years half the interest on 
the debt be paid in cash and half in 5 per cent. 

bonds 6 Oct. ,, 

Circular note remitting taxes and promising eco- 
nomical and commercial reform, 7 Oct. ; another 
stating object of the government to stop onerous 
loans, develop the resources of the empire, &c, 

20 Oct, „ 
Remonstrances of British and Russian ambassadors 
with the government respecting expenditure and 
treatment of Christian subjects . Sept.-Nov. ,, 
Raschid Pasha new foreign minister . . Nov. ,, 
Midhat Pasha, reformer, resigns . . 4 Dec. : , 
Firman issued ; ordering great reforms, equality 

of rights to Christians, &c. . . . Dec. ,, 
Note of Andrassy, Austrian minister, respecting 
reforms, 30 Dec, ; adopted by Germany and Russia, 
Jan.; by Great Britain, 18 Jan.; transmitted 
to the porte, about 7 Feb., agreed to . 10 Feb. 1876 



Payment of April dividends deferred to July 

April 11, iE 
Insurrection in Bulgaria, promoted by foreign 
agitators, 1, 2 May ; quickly suppressed by troops 
sent 7 May; about 65 villages burnt by theBashi- 
bazouks and other Turkish troops ; several towns 
destroyed ; about 15,000 persons killed ; atrocious 
cruelties to women and children ; a few Turks 
killed by Bulgarians in self-defence (report by 
Mr. Schuyler, see below) .... May, , 
Riots at Constantinople ; the softas, fanatical stu- 
dents, and others, demand reforms; their cry, 
"Turkey for the Turks ;" ministerial changes; 
Mahmoud Pacha, the grand vizier, replaced by 
Mehemet Ruchdi ; Europeans much alarmed, 

10 May et seq. , 
British fleet arrives in Besika Bay . .26 May, , 
Meeting at Berlin of ministers of Austria, Germany, 
and Russia ; they agree to a note to Turkey, re- 
quiring an armistice of two months, and other 
measures, 11, 12 May; the note accepted by 
France and Italy, not by Great Britain, 19 May ; 
not presented through the revolution . 30 May, , 
The grand vizier Mehemet Ruchdi, Hussein Avni, 
and Midhat Pacha, request the sultan to give up 
some of his treasure to save the nation from 
ruin ; he refuses and is deposed, 29 May ; his 
nephew proclaimed as Murad V. ; joyfully ac- 
cepted by the people, and recognised by the 
western powers ... 30 May et seq. , 
Manifesto recognising the danger of the empire 
through misgovernmeut, and promising amend- 
ment 2 June, , 

Abdul-Aziz recognises Murad ; said to have com- 
mitted suicide by cutting arteries in the arm ; 
said to be insane ; (decided, by trial, to have been 
murdered ; see below, June, 1881) . 4 June, . 
Assassination of Hussein Avni, the war minister, 
Raschid Pacha, the foreign minister, and others, 
by Hassan, a disgraced Circassian officer, 15 June, 

who is hanged 17 June, 

Declaration of war by Servia, 1 July ; by Monte- 
negro 2 July, 

Tchernayeff and Servians enter Turkey ; battle at 
Saitschar or Zaicar ; Turks said to have the advan- 
tage 3 July, 

Severe conflict of Turks with Servians at Yavor, 
near Novi Bazar, 6 July ; with Montenegrins at 

Nevesinje 27 July, 

League in aid of Turkish Christians formed in Lon- 
don 27 July, 

Mukhtar Pacha defeated by prince Nikita at Urba 

or Urbitza in Herzegovina . . 28 July, 

Issue of paper money announced . . 28 July, 

Several days' conflict ; the Turks enter Servia, and 

capture Gurgosavatz ; Servians retreat 7 Aug. . 
Turkish barbarities in Bulgaria reported by Daily 
News' correspondent, substantiated by report of 
Mr. Schuyler, the American commissioner from 
Constantinople, dated . . . .10 Aug. 
Asserted victory of prince Nikita at Medun, near 

Kutchi, about 14 Aug. 

Advance of the Turks under Abdul-Kerim Pacha 
upon Alexinatz ; severe fighting . . 9 Aug. 

iq-30 Aug. 
Servia invites the mediation of the guaranteeing 
powers ... . about 24 Aug. 
Murad V. deposed on account of bad health ; his 
brother Abdul-Hamid II. proclaimed 31 Aug. 
The great powers propose an immediate armistice, 
the restoration of the status quo u/ii.te bellum, pay- 
ment of an indemnity by Servia, &c. ; memoran- 
dum presented 3, 4 Sept. 

Servians said to be severely beaten before Alexinatz 

1, 2 Sept. ; continued indecisive fighting 
Armistice till 25 Sept. agreed to about 17 Sept. 
Prince Milan proclaimed king by the army at Deli- 
grad ; disapproved .... 16 Sept. 
Report of Mr. Baring, the British commissioner in 
Bulgaria, published . . . .19 Sept. 
[It establishes the facts " that a ferocious Mussul- 
man soldier}", in revenge for a feeble and abortive 
insurrection, were let loose on the inhabitants of a 
large province ; that the population were bar- 
barously massacred, men, women, and children 
included ; and that during the storm of savage 
fury crimes of all descriptions and outrages un- 

4 2 



TTJKKEY. 



1300 



TUEKEY. 



mentionable were perpetrated on the inhabi- 
tants."— Times.] 
Firm incisive despatch from Lord Derby to Sir H. 
Elliot, referring to Mr. Baring's report, proposing 

longer armistice, &c 21 Sept. 1876 

The porte receives the propositions of the six great 

powers 26 Sept. „ 

Lord Derby informs the deputation from the city 
of London that, in regard to the Eastern question, 
the government is labouring for local self-govern- 
ment for the Turkish provinces in Europe, equal 
treatment of Mahometans and Christians, better 
administration for both, security for life and pro- 
perty, and effectual guarantees against repetition 

of outrages 27 Sept. ,, 

Servia rejects the renewal of the armistice ; Tcher- 
nayeff and army dominant ; fighting renewed, 

26, 27 Sept. ,, 
Servian attacks on the Turks near Alexinatz severely 

repulsed 28, 29 Sept. ,, 

In reply to the great powers the porte declines an 
armistice, opposes administrative autonomy to 
the provinces as impracticable, proposes a senate, 
and guarantees incisive reforms . . 2 Oct. ,, 
Mukhtar Pacha said to defeat Montenegrines, 7 Oct. ,, 
Montenegrine victory at Danilograd . 13 Oct. ,, 

Turkey's proposal of an armistice for 6 months, 
10 Oct. ; declined by Bussia, who proposes 4 to 
6 weeks, longer being injurious to commerce, 

<fec 14 Oct. ,, 

Continued fighting, generally unfavourable to Ser- 
vians 15-19 Oct. „ 

Alexinatz bombarded .... 16-19 Oct. ,, 
Medun surrenders to Montenegrines . 20 Oct. ,, 
Krevet taken by Turks . . . . 21 Oct. ,, 

Besult of fighting very favourable to Turks, 19-24 Oct. „ 
Alleged conspiracy at Constantinople against the 

reform ministry ; many arrests . about 23 Oct. ,, 
Important Turkish successes in the valley of the 

Morava 19-24 Oct. ,, 

■Servians and Bussians defeated ; armies under 
Tchernayeff and Horvaritch divided, 19-24 Oct. ; 
Djunis taken by Turks ; Deligrad untenable ; 
severe Bussian loss . . . -29 Oct. , , 

ISeutral despatch of lord Derby . dated 30 Oct. ,, 
Alexinatz captured by Turks ; Bussian ultimatum 
given, demanding 6 weeks' armistice within 48 

hours dated 31 Oct. ,, 

Armistice for two months signed . . 1 Nov. „ 

Deligrad captured by Turks, now virtually masters 

of Servia 1 Nov. ,, 

Pacific declaration of the czar to lord Aug. Loftus, 

2 Nov. „ 
Deligrad evacuated by Turks ; farewell address of 
Tchernayeff to officers, exhorting to constancy, 

4 Nov. ,, 
•Czar's speech at Moscow ; he will act independently 

if guarantees are not obtained . . 10 Nov. ,, 
Marquis of Salisbury appointed special ambassador 
for conference at Constantinople ; he arrives at 
Paris, 18 Nov. ; Berlin, 20 Nov. ; Vienna, 24 Nov.; 
Borne, 29 Nov. ; Constantinople . . 5 Dec. ,, 
Alleged abortive conspiracy to restore Murad, about 

8 Dec. ,, 
Preliminary meetings of conference of representa- 
tives of six great powers begin (Great Britain, 
Bussia, Austria, Germany, France, and Italy), 

12 Dec. „ 
Euchdi Pacha, grand vizier, replaced by Midhat 

Pacha, a reformer .... 19 Dec. „ 
Armistice extended to Feb. 1877 • • T>ec. ,, 
New political constitution proclaimed : (chief 
provisions : indivisibility of the empire ; the sultan 
supreme; individual liberty; freedom of all creeds, 
of the press, and of education ; equal legal taxa- 
tion ; a senate and two chambers ; general elec- 
tions by ballot every fourth year ; irremovable 

judges, &c.) 23 Dec. , 

Opening of the conference ... 23 Dec. , 
Financial decree of 6 Oct. 1875, abrogated, 27 Dec. , 
Armistice extended to 1 March . . 28 Dec. , 

The great national council of Turkey rejects the 
propositions of the conference, 18 Jan.; it closes, 
20 Jan. ; chief ambassadors leave soon after 

22 Jan. ,, 
Negotiations for peace opened with Servia and Mon- 
tenegro about 26 Jan. ,, 



Midhat Pacha, the grand vizier, dismissed and 
banished ; succeeded by Edhem Pacha (educated 
at Paris) ; reforms to go on . . . 5 Feb. 1876 

Gortschakoff 's circular to great powers, inquiring 
what they intend to do, signed 19 Jan. ; pub- 
lished about 7 Feb. ,, 

Protocols of the conference published in Times, <&e. 

early in Feb. ,, 

In Turkey " there is no aristocracy, no governing 
class ; no organised democracy ; no representa- 
tive government" (marquis of Salisbury), 20 Feb. ,, 

Peace with Servia signed . . .1 March, ,, 

First Turkish parliament opened : 30 senators, 90 
deputies ; speech from the sultan read, 19 March, ,, 

Gen. Ignatieff visits Berlin, Paris, London, Vienna, 
&c March, ,, 

Protocol signed for six powers : principles — to wait 
for Turkish reforms and watch ; conditional dis- 
armament in Bussia and Turkey (voidable under 
certain conditions) . . . . 31 March, „ 

Protocol rejected by Turkey, 12 April; justificatory 
circular sent to the powers ; Mr. Layard sent as 
temporary ambassador to Turkey . . April, ,, 

Insurrection of Mirdites or Miridites, April ; armis- 
tice with Montenegro not renewed . 13 April, ,, 

Arrival of Mr. Layard as ambassador, at Constanti- 
nople ; he affirms the neutrality of Great Britain, 

about 24 April, ,, 

War declared by Bussia (see Russo-Turkish war, 
1877) 24 April, ,, 

Biotous manifestation by the softas, soon subsides, 

24 May, ,, 

A. jihad or holy war against Bussia propounded by 
the sheikh-ul-islam . . . about 28 May, ,, 

Suleiman Pacha successful in Montenegro ; relieves 
Nicksics, besieged . . . May et seq. ,, 

Miridite leaders captured .... June, ,, 

The parliament closed without a speech . 28 June, „ 

Safvet Pacha, foreign minister, replaced by Aarifi 
Pacha about 18 July, ,, 

Other ministerial changes .... July, ,, 

Protests against alleged Bussian atrocities, July 

—Aug. ,, 

Bosnian revolt reported to be ended . . Aug. ,, 

Proclamation for increase of army by 150,000 — 
Christians and others to serve . . 26 Nov. ,, 

Beported intrigues at Constantinople by peace and 
war parties Nov. ,, 

The sultan issues a rather vague proclamation of 
amnesty to Bulgaria . . about 27 Nov. 1877 

Surrender of Plevna, 10 Dec. ; circular note to the 
great powers requesting mediation . . 12 Dec. ,, 

Parliament opened ; the sultan's speech censures 
the war, and praises his generals and soldiers, 

13 Dec. „ 

The ministry censured, resigns ; still holds office ; 
Suleiman dismissed ; crisis at Constantinople, 

5, 6, 7 Jan. 1878 

Hamed Pacha, grand vizier . . . 11 Jan. ,, 

New ministry under Ahmed Nefik ; grand viziership 
abolished 4, 5 Feb. ,, 

British fleet enter the Dardanelles without permis- 
sion of the sultan .... 13 Feb. ,, 

The parliament dissolved by the sultan . 14 Feb. „ 

Insurrection in Crete, Thessaly, Epirus, &c. (see 
Greece) Feb., March, „ 

Treaty of peace with Bussia signed at San Stefano 
(see Stejaiio), 3 March ; ratified at St. Petersburg, 

17 March, ,, 

Osman Pacha honourably received by the sultan, 

24 March, ,, 

Grand-duke Nicholas and the sultan exchange visits 
at Constantinople . . . .26 March, „ 

Ahmed Nefik replaced by Sadyk as prime minister, 

about iS April, ,, 

Insurrection near Bhodope, in Boumelia, against 
Bussians going on ; see Ehodope . . April, ,, 

Insurrection (said doubtfully to be in favour of the 
ex-sultan Murad) in Constantinople, suppressed ; 
Ali Suavi, a softa and fanatical reformer, with 
others, killed 20 May, ,, 

Public offices, &c, at Constantinople destroyed by 
fire ; attributed to incendiaries . 22 May, ,, 

Office of grand vizier revived for Mehemet Euchdi, 
May ; soon replaced by Safvet . . 29 May, ,, 

Secret agreement between the marquis of Salisbury 
and count Schouvaloff, Bussian ambassador, 

30 May, 



TUEKEY. 



1301 



TUEKEY. 



Secret British convention with Turkey (defensive 
alliance) : if by the treaty of Berlin, Russia ac- 
quires Kars, Ardahan, or Batoum, Great Britain 
is to join the sultan in arms in defending his 
dominions, he engaging to reform his government ; 
Cyprus to be held by Great Britain till Russia 
returns its acquisitions ... 4 June, 1S78 

Cyprus ceded to Great Britain . . 3 July, „ 

Berlin conference meets, 13 June ; treaty signed 
(see Berlin) 13 July, ,, 

A conspiracy against the sultan suppressed, about 

10 July, ,, 

A ministerial crisis ends ; the vizier Safvet Pacha's 
policy approved by the sultan, who gives him a 
present ; ratification of the treaty of Berlin an- 
nounced 4 Aug. „ 

Trial of Suleiman Pacha for misconduct during the 
war begun Aug. „ 

The Turks said to be grossly ill-treated in Bulgaria, 
and other surrendered places . . . Aug. ,, 

Safvet Pacha's circular to foreign powers refusing 
to recognise Greek proposal for annexation of 
Candia, Thessaly, <fec 8 Aug. ,, 

Murder of Mehemet Ali Pacha at Ipek, near Scutari, 
by Albanian rioters .... 6 Sept. ,, 

Alleged conspiracies on behalf of the ex-sultan 
Murad ; instigated by the ulemas, about 10 Sept. „ 

Albanian leader with 40,000 men said to be ruling 
from Janina to Montenegro . . . 12 Sept. „ 

German circular to the powers on Turkish delays 
in carrying out the Berlin treaty . middle Sept. ,, 

The sultan accepts the reforms proposed by the 
British government ; announced . 24 Oct. ,", 

Insurrectionary movements in Macedonia Oct. „ 

Midhat Pacha appointed governor-general of Syria, 
to inaugurate reforms . . about 11 Nov. ,, 

Suleiman Pacha sentenced to degradation and im- 
prisonment, 2 Dec. ; absolved by the sultan 4 Dec. ,, 

New ministry ; Kherediue Pacha (grand vizier) ; 
Caratheodori, and others ... 4 Dec. „ 

Macedonian insurrection ended . . .3 Jan. 1879 

Definitive treaty of peace with Russia, signed, 

8 Feb. „ 

British fleet leaves the sea of Marmora • March, ,, 

Definitive treaty with Austria, published 26 May, „ 

Mahmoud Nedem, old statesman, returns to Con- 
stantinople on invitation ... 30 June, ,, 

Kheredine, Caratheodori, and others compelled to 
resign through opposition of the assembly of 
ulemas (their policy said to be against the 
Khoran) ; succeeded by Aarifi Pacha 

28, 29 July, ,, 

The Russians evacuate Turkey . July, Aug. „ 

New ministry under Said Pacha . . 18, 19 Oct. ,, 

Pressure for reforms put upon the government by 
the British ; admiral Hornby and the fleet enter 
Turkish waters ; quit . . early in Nov. ,, 

Baker Pacha appointed inspector-general of gen- 
darmerie in Asia Minor . announced 18 Nov. ,, 

Great financial depression . . Nov., Dec. ,, 

Official relations with Great Britain temporarily 
suspended on account of the imprisonment of Dr. 
Roller, a German missionary, and Ahmed Tewfik, 
who assisted him in translations . 31 Dec. ,, 

Successful intervention of sir A. H. Layard, 

i-ioJan. 1880 

Note of Savas Pacha to the powers acknowledging 
corruptions in judicial affairs and promising effi- 
cient reforms (in Times) ... 30 Jan. ,, 

Col. and Mrs. Synge (distributors of relief to Mus- 
sulmans) captured by Greek brigands, near Salo- 
nica, about 19 Feb. ; released for 10,000/. 

about 24 March, „ 

Mr. Goschen sent as temporary ambassador ; 
arrives at Constantinople ... 28 May, ,, 

New ministry under Kadri Pacha about 8 June, ,, 

Identic note from European powers, 11 June; 
given in 12 June, ,, 

Osmau Pacha, war minister, dismissed 

about 10 July, ,, 

Naval demonstration by the European powers at 
Dulcigno, suggested by earl Granville , July, ,, 

Collective note of the Berlin conference presented, 

is July, ,> 

Madame Skobeleff, mother of the Russian general, 
robbed and murdered near Philippopolis by 
Ouzalis, a Russian .... 18 July, ,, 



Midhat Pacha, governor of Syria, and Hamed 
Pacha of Smyrna exchange offices . . Aug. 188. 

Collective note from the powers urging cession of 
Dulcigno, &c, to Montenegro, and proposing to 
aid the prince in taking possession . 3 Aug. „ 

The ministry modified under Said Pacha, premier, 

12 Sept. „ 

A final note from the powers respecting cession of ,, 
Dulcigno to Montenegro, delivered . 15 Sept. ,, 

Admiral Beauchamp Seymour, commander of com- 
bined fleet at Ragusa, sent to make a demonstra- 
tion near Dulcigno .... 20 Sept. ,, 

The sultan refuses to surrender Dulcigno ; the 
French decline to partake in attack on the town, 

about 27 Sept. ,, 

Note from the sultan limiting his concessions and 
resisting coercion ; presented . . 3 Oct. „ 

Immediate cession of Dulcigno ordered by the 
sultan, about 23 Oct. ; effected . . 26 Nov. ,, 

The combined fleet disperses ... 4 Dec. ,, 

Note from the sultan to the powers respecting the 
Greeks arming 14 Dec. ,, 

Circular from the powers recommending arbitra- 
tion, 24 Dec. 1880 ; declined by Turkey and 
Greece early in Jan. 188 

Circular from Turkey proposing conference at Con- 
stantinople, &c. . . . about 15 Jan. ,, 

Notes from the powers presented . . 21 Feb. „ 

Conference at Constantinople ; agreement between 
Turkey and the powers ; proposals referred to 
Athens 30 March, „ 

Mr. Henry Suter, engaged in mines, seized by 
brigands at Cassandra, in Salonica, about 8 April, „ 

Rebellion in Albania (which see) suppressed May, ,, 

Midhat Pacha's palace surrounded by soldiers ; he 
escapes and appeals to the powers . 17 May, ,, 

The sultan protests against French invasion of 
Tunis {which see) May, ,, 

Midhat surrenders, claiming a fair trial, 

about 17 May, ,,, 

Turkey protests against the Tunis treaty of 12 May, 

May, ,,. 

Mr. Suter's release for 15,000/. ransom announced, 

23 May, ,,. 

Convention between Turkey and Greece arranged at 
Constantinople settling frontiers ; Thessaly ceded 
by Turkey 24 May, ,,. 

Mr. Goschen leaves Constantinople ; his mission 
successful ; succeeded by lord Dufferin, 26 May ; 
who arrives at Constantinople . 15 June, ,, 

Trial of Midhat Pacha and others for murder of the 
late sultan Abdul-Aziz ; convicted ; Mustapha 
Fahri Bey and Hadj Mehmed actual assassins ; 
others, Mahmoud and Nouzi Pachas, the sultan's 
brothers-in-law, Midhat Pacha, and others ac- 
complices 27, 28 June, ,, 

Sentence ; death to all, except two subordinates to 
imprisonment 29 June, ,, 

Turco-Greek convention ceding Thessaly to Greece, 
signed at Constantinople ... 2 July, „ 

The trial of Midhat and others said to be a mockery ; 
punishment commuted to exile on intercession 
of the British Government ; announced 31 July, ,, 

The captors of Mr. Suter taken in Greece, about 

IS AU g- »! 

Turkish mission at Cairo .... 7-18 Oct. ,, 
Continued negotiations at Constantinople respect- 
ing national debt .... Oct. et sey. ,, 
The German vessel Vulcan laden with dynamite 
(said to belong to Russia) cargo unshipped near 

Constantinople about 8 Oct. ,, 

Decree signed for a satisfactory settlement of the 

national debt 28 Dec. , 

Capt. Selby, R.N. , wounded by Albanians at Artaki, 

announced 16 Feb. ; died ... 20 Feb. 18I 
Mehemet Ruchdi Pasha dies . . 26 March, , 
Russian-war indemnity convention ratified, 6 May, , 
The minister Said Pasha dismissed, succeeded by 
Abdurrahman Pasha, about 2 May ; who resigns, 

7 J ul y> 1 

Said Pasha reinstated . . . about 8 July, , 

Sultan protests against bombardment of forts at 
Alexandria (see Egypt) . . about 11 July, , 

Protractive negotiations respecting a military con- 
vention ; agreed to 29 Aug. , 

Alleged conspiracy of Fuad Pasha and others to 
dethrone the sultan . . . about 28 Nov. , 



TUKKEY. 



1302 



TURKEY. 



Said Pasha dismissed ; Circassian guard dismissed, 

29 Nov. 

Frontier disputes with Montenegro . . Nov. 

Said Pasha restored with honours, made grand 
Vizier 3 Dec. Fuad Pasha restored to favour, 

7 Dec. 

Excitement of the sultan through dread of assas- 
sination about 13 Dec. 

Fight among 1h; sultan's body guard (Albanians 
and Negroes), about 30 killed or wounded 17 Jan. 

Turkish note to the powers against British Egyp- 
tian circular about 23 Jan. 

Difficulties with the Greek church respecting poli- 
tical reforms; resignation of the (Ecumenical 
patriarch Yoachim II. ; not accepted ; concilia- 
tion proposed . . . .29 Dec-3 Jan. 

Resignation maintained . . . .9 Jan. 

Amicable settlement of dispute, announced April, 

The Imperial prince and princess of Austria hospi- 
tably entertained by the sultan . . April, 

Death of Midhat Pasha, great statesman and re- 
former in exile, aged 62 ... May, 

Circular to the six great powers announcing the 
stoppage of the post offices in Constantinople, 
20 July, resisted ; the Turkish arrangements fail, 
and are withdrawn Alio-. 

Sir Edward Thornton appointed to succeed lord 
Dufferin Sept. 

Greek patriarch elected . . . . 13 Oct. 

Mutiny of troops at Monastir, for want of pay and 
clothing ; settled by concession . about 21 Nov. 

Petitions to the sultan from Macedonia respecting 
Turkish atrocities signed . . . . I2 Oct. 

Hassan Fehmy Pasha sent to London to confer on 
the Egyptian question ; his proposals not re- 
ceived, end of Jan. 

Turkey protests against Italian occupation of Mas- 
sowah on the Red Sea . . about 23 Feb. 

New tariff with England signed . . 9 July, 

Sir H. D. "Wolff arrives at Constantinople on a 
mission respecting Egypt, 22 Aug. ; well received 
by the sultan 29 Au°\ 

Revolution in Roumelia {which see), 18 Septf; 
firm Turkish note to the powers about 22 Sept.' 

Said Pasha, grand vizier, and other ministers 
dismissed ; succeeded by Kiamil Pasha, 24 Sept. 

Conference of ambassadors, 4 Oct. ; the ambassadors 
present a collective note condemning the revolu- 
tion in Roumelia as breaking the treaty of Berlin, 

14 Oct'. 

Decree for Turkish commission to go with sir 
H. D. Wolff to Cairo, about 12 Oct. ; convention 
signed 24 0c t. 

Turkey asks assistance of the powers to settle the 
Roumelian affair 19 Oct. 

Conference of ambassadors at Constantinople; 
5 Nov. ; collective declaration for maintenance 
of status quo ante, about 7 Nov. ; division of 
opinion as to enforcement . . . 11 Nov. 

Rustem Pasha succeeds Musurus Pasha (1856-85) 
as ambassador in London . . . Nov. 

The Sultan ratifies the treaty between' Bulgaria 
and Servia 13 March 

Sir Edward Thornton, British ambassador, received 
by the Sultan „ March 

Hobart Pasha, Turkish admiral, dies, aged 64' 

Sir William White appointed British ambassador 
Oct. ; received 2 \ ov ' 

Four English gentlemen captured near Smyrna by 
brigands who demand 3,000/. ransom, 24 Sept. • 
released by payment of a ransom of 750?. 26 SepV 

Reported deficit of 1,000,000/. in the budget ; 
increase of brigandage .... Nov' 

After the celebration of the feast of Me'vlud the 
Sultan delivers an optimist speech to' the 
officials on the state of the empire . 27 Nov. 

Direct railway communication between London 
and Constantinople via Dover and Calais in 94 
hours ; first train from Vienna . 12-14 Air". 

The government contracts a loan for 1,35000c! 
from the "German " bank ; consequent rupture 
with the Ottoman bank, its usual financial agent, 

Oct. 

80,000 men of the reserve called out . . Au"' 

The Ottoman bank, sir Edgar Vincent, director 
lends the sultan 150,000/., reported 28 Oct.' 



18S7 



1ESS 



1889 



Trial of Moussa Bey, see Armenia 23 Nov. et seq. 

The German emperor and empress warmly received 
by the sultan at Constantinople, 2 Nov. ; a 
review, <fec 3-6 Nov. 

Five new war vessels launched at Constantinople, 

30 Jan. 

New 5 per cent, conversion loan at 93, successfully 
effected by the grand vizier, aided by sir Edgar 
Vincent ; agreement signed . . 30 April, 

The Russian government demands payment of the 
arrears of the Russo-Turkish war indemnity, 

about 15 May, 

Troubles in Old Servia by bands of Arnauts ; severe 
fight, with much slaughter . . . June, 

Turkey defers payment of indemnity till Nov., 

Russia demands immediate payment ; note sent, 

about 18 June, 

British cotton and woollen yarn-spinning factory 
opened at Constantinople ... 22 June, 

For Armenian troubles see Armenia, 1S89-90. 

The government frigate Ertogrul founders on the 
S. coast of Japan, during a gale ; out of 653, 584 
persons perish, including vice-admiral Osman 
Pasha 18 Sept. 

Sir Edgar Vincent thanked by the leading mer- 
chants of Constantinople for his services to 
them 12 Jan. 

Arnaut revolt in Old Servia ;* the government 
buildings in Drenitza burnt, reported, 

about 4 Feb. 

Death of Musurus pasha, diplomatist, aged 84 ; 33 
years ambassador in London . . 12 Feb. 

The Arnauts again attack the Christians in Old 
Servia, who bravely resist, but are defeated with 
loss . . . . . about 14 May, 

Railway train at Tcherkesskeni, near Constanti- 
nople, attacked by brigands ; two persons killed ; 
five carried off for ransom, 1 June ; active mea- 
sures taken by the porte, June ; captives liberated, 

4-8 June, 

M. Eugene de Raymond, sub-manager of a vineyard 
company captured by brigands atOrmoud.ja, 7 
Aug. ; ransomed by the sultan . . 12 Aug. 

Dismissal of Kiamil pasha, president of ministry 
or grand vizier (appointed 1890) by the sultan, 
3 Sept. 1891 ; succeeded by Djevad pasha. 

Sir William A. White, the able British ambassador, 
dies at Berlin, while en a visit, 28 Dec. 1801 ; 
succeeded by the right hon. sir Francis Clare 
Ford ...... about 8 Jan. 

Payment of the war indemnity resumed, reported, 

27 Jan. 

Sir Francis Clare Ford arrives at Constantinople, 
26 Feb. ; received by the sultan . 8 March, 

The Russian government remonstrates against the 
reception of M. Stamboloff, the Bulgarian 
premier, 18 Aug. ft seq. ; the ] orte replies cour- 
teously that this is not a violation of the treaty 
of Berlin 18 Oct. 

Russia again demands payment of war indemnity 

about 7 Nov. 

The retreat of the robbers of the railway train in 
June, 1891, discovered ; about 2,000/. recovered 
by the police, reported ... 14 April, 

Sir Philip Currie appointed British ambassador 

20 Dec. 

Arrival of the khedive in Constantinople, 25 June, 
and of the king of Servia . . .27 June, 

Earthquake at Constantinople, &c. (which see) 

10, 11 July, 

Six war vessels launched in the Golden Horn, 

autumn, 

Further instalment of the war indemnity paid to 
Russia 8 Nov. 

Diplomatic relations with the powers suspended in 
relation to Armenia (which see) . . 9 Dec. 

Financial deficit ; economical reforms proposed, 

April, 

The grand vizier, Djevad pasha, opposed to 
Armenian reforms ; dismissed ; succeeded by Said 
pasha; Turkhan pasha, 1 resident of the Ar- 
menian commission, appointed foreign minister, 

8 June, 

The great powers demand the disarmament of the 
Beduin and indemnity for the attacks at Jedda 
(which see) 10 June, 



1E94 



TURKEY. 



1303 



TURKEY. 



Reply of the porte accepting in principle the pro- 
posed reforms, but objecting to supervision of 

the powers 17 June, 

A commission appointed for reforms in Armenia ; 
Turkhan pasha to be inspector of certain pro- 
vinces 29 June, 

Scheme submitted to the sultan ; reported 

15 July, 
Shakir pasha appointed to supervise the carrying 
out of reforms in Armenia . . . 20 July, 
Approved by the powers ... 31 July, 
Visit of the khedive to the sultan 18 July-i6 Sept. 
The porte rejects the control of the powers in the 
administration of Armenia, reported, 19 Aug. ; 
and appeals to France and Russia against Eng- 
land, without effect, about 29 Aug. ; the porte 
communicates some concessions . 7 Sept. 
An Armenian demonstration at Constantinople re- 
sisted by the mob and police with much cruelty ; 
172 killed, 30 Sept., 1 Oct. ; churches filled with 
Armenian destitute refugees ; a fierce fight at 
Scutari ; massacre of Armenians at Pera ; the 
ambassadors of 6 powers remonstrate with the 
porte ; Kiamfl pasha appointed grand vizier in 
place of Said pasha ; Rifat pasha, minister of 
interior, resigns, 3 Oct. ; Said pasha, a Kurd, re- 
appointed foreign minister ; 95 corpses delivered 
up to the patriarchate, 6 Oct. ; conflicts and 
massacre of 800 Armenians at Trebizond, by 
Turkish soldiery, 8 Oct. ; refugees quit the 
churches, under protection of the dragomans, 
10-12 Oct. ; over 700 killed, injured and missing 
during the riots ; British fleet at Lemnos, re- 
ported 10 Oct. 

Armenians attacked by Mahometans at Ak Hissar, 

45 killed 9 Oct. 

Armenian reform scheme accepted and decreed by 

the porte 17, 20 Oct. 

Decree authorizing the conversion of the 5 per cent, 
customs loan into 4 per cent. . . .18 Oct. 
Financial crisis : run on the Ottoman batik, 

2, 3 Nov. 

The ambassadors urgently demand that immediate 

measures be taken to suppress anarchy and 

bloodshed 5 Nov. 

The "Young Turkey" party in Paris demand gene- 
ral reforms Nov. 

Kiamil pasha, grand vizier, superseded, 6 Nov. ; 
appointed gov.-gen. of Aleppo ; Halil Rifat 
pasha appointed grand vizier ; a palace anti-re- 
form c.ibi net appointed . . . . 7 Nov. 
Evil influence of the "palace party" : needful in- 
tervention of the diplomatic body ; arrests of 
Armenians in Constantinople . 9 Nov. et seq. 
Arrival of gold, end of financial crisis . 14 Nov. 
•Gradual formation of the Constitutional party, de- 
siring reform, rational government, &c. ; their 
views published .... i5 Nov. 

Extra powers and forces granted by the powers to 
their ambassadors, for the defence of Christians, 

t8 Nov. 

Insurrection in Arabia (which see) . . Nov. 

Death of Rustem pasha, ambassador in London, a 

Christian and patriot, 20 Nov. ; succeeded by 

Costaki pasha Dec. 

Foreign naval demonstration in the Levant, 

26 Nov. 

The sultan, after delay, accedes to the entrance of 

extra foreign despatch boats, 10 Dec. ; martial 

law decreed 14 Dec. 

Newspaper started by the " Young Turkey " reform 

party in Paris Dec. 

Many Armenians in Constantinople released, 21 
Dec. ; 182 arrests for disaffection to the sultan, 

Jan. : 
Contract for a loan of 3,000,000^ sanctioned by 

the Porte 18 Feb. 

Scheme for administrative reform in European pro- 
vinces, published 28 April, 

Despatches of vice-consul Fitzmaurice describing 
the atrocities and misery at Orfa, and other 
places, in Armenia, received at Constantinople, 

April, 
Successful intervention of sir Philip Currie and 
the ambassadors regarding the forced conversions 
of Armenians at Biredjik, and elsewhere, 

7-15 May, 



1S95 



Circulation of British journals prohibited, 

Jan. — May, 18 
Increased persecution of Armenians in Constan- 
tinople ; many Turkish students sentenced to 10 
years' penal servitude for aiding the Armenians 

at Zeitun 16 May, ,, 

Sir Philip and lady Currie leave Constantinople 

for London 18 May, , 

Conference of ambassadors respecting Crete, 20 
June ; the Porte accedes to all their recommen- 
dations, conditionally, 3 July ; again 25 Aug. ,. 
The Armenian revolutionary committee, with the 
view of inciting the ambassadors to more active 
measures on behalf of the Armenians, take pos- 
session of the Ottoman bank at Constantinople. 
Dynamite and bombs were secretly introduced 
into the building by a band of about 25 armed 
men; and at 1.30 p.m. revolvers were fired and 
bombs thrown, 'many gendarmes and 5 of the 
conspirators were killed ; the staff of the bank 
took refuge in the upper rooms, from which sir 
Edgar Vincent, the governor, and several di- 
rectors, escaped by a balcony. The conspirators, 
after threatening to destroy the building if their 
demands were not granted, sent a message to the 
palace, where sir Edgar Vincent and others 
were consulting, offering to surrender, if per- 
mitted to leave the country ; their terms were 
agreed to ; and 15 of them were taken on board 
sir Edgar Vincent's yacht at night, 26 Aug. 
(thence they were conveyed to Marseilles by the 
(Jironde, 4 Sept.). 

A great massacre of Armenians (estimated between 
5,oooand6,ooo)by Mahometans ensued, 26-3oAug. ,, 

Remonstrance of the ambassadors to the sultan re- 
specting the conduct of the troops in promoting 
the massacres ; energetic action of the hon. 
Michael Herbert and the consuls ; British and 
foreign marines landed to protect the embassies, 
&c 29 Aug. ,, 

Judicial committee of inquiry appointed, 400 
persons arrested 30 Aug. „ 

The embassies abstain from celebrating the sultan's 
accession ; collective note to the Porte, respect- 
ing the massacres, 31 Aug. ; the Porte replies, 
practically denying the truth of their state- 
ments 12 Sept. ,, 

Extraordinary tribunal appointed for the trial of 
the rioters, 3 Sept. ; many Armenians trans- 
ported ; some Mahometan murderers acquitted, 

Sept. ct seq. ,, 

Return of sir Philip Currie ; British embassy in- 
tercedes 5-8 Sept. „ 

Bomb factory discovered at Scutari, 2 leaders and 
14 ofthe Armenian revolutionaries arrested, Sept. ,, 

Disorder and panics at Constantinople, trade 
paralysed, foreign merchants ruined ; collective 
note from the embassies tj the porte; 3000L 
sent to sir Philip Currie from England for Arme- 
nian relief 15 Sept. ,, 

Repression of the " Young Turkey" party, arrests 
and deportation in Constantinople . 16 Sept. ,, 

3000 Armenian refugees leave under consular as- 
sistance up to 19 Sept. ; exodus of all races con- 
tinues 26 Sept. ct seq. ,, 

Extraordinary tribunal condemns Mahometan 
murderers to 15 years' imprisonment; Armenians 
suspected of having taken part in the Armenian 
coup at the bank sentenced to death . 29 Sept. ,, 

Armenian circular letter of complaint received by 
the embassies 1 Oct. ,, 

Continued arrests and injustice to Armenians ; the 
porte demands the right to search foreign vessels 
for Armenians, 6 Oct. ; rejected by the embassies, 

9 Oct. ,, 

The ambassadors complain to the porte ofthe non- 
execution of its promises to Crete . 10 Oct. „ 

Note from the Italian embassy to the porte de- 
manding an indemnity for the massacre of an 
Italian at Constantinople and Father Salvatore 
in a convent near Marash in 1895, early . Oct. ,, 

The Austrian embassy demands the punishment of 
those in command of the soldiers who recently 
murdered M. Zlatko and an indemnity of 6000?. 
12 Oct. ; paid 22 Oct. ,, 

Death of Mr. W. H. Wrench, British consul, able 
and upright, deeply lamented, 13 Oct. ; public 
funeral 14 Oct. „ 



TUBKEY. 



1304 



TUEKEY. 



Decree ordering the return of Armenian emigrants 

under pain of confiscation of property, &c. , 10 Oct. 1896 
Poll tax, &c, 0:1 Mahometans decreed . 21 Oct. ,, 
Great destitution in Constantinople . Oct., Nov. ,, 
French intervention ; release of innocent Arme- 
nians in Constantinople and provinces ordered ; 
the vali of Diarbekr dismissed ; execution of 
reforms in Armenia, &c., promised, 7 Nov. ; de- 
layed 19 Nov. ,, 

Total, 55,000^. from the Armenian relief fund re- 
mitted to sir Peter Currie . . . Nov. ,, 
Special tribunal dissolved by decree . 17 Nov. ,, 
Many members of the " Young Turkey" party and 

others exiled Dec. ,, 

All London newspapers of 30 Nov. refused entry, 

Dec. ,, 
Manifesto issued by the "Ottoman liberal com- 
mittee" denounces the sultan, and demands the 
restoration of the constitution of 1876 . 6 Dec. ,, 
Anglo-Russian agreement concerning the execu- 
tion of reforms in Turkey, announced . 6 Dec. ,, 
Recall of Saadeddin pasha from Crete (within 48 
hours) granted on demand of the ambassadors, 

15 Dec. ,, 
Amnesty to Armenians and Mahometans ; death 
sentences to 100 Armenians commuted to impri- 
sonment 21 Dec. ,, 

Sir Edgar Vincent's financial report to the sultan 
on the revenue and expenditure (with recom- 
mendations) ; shows a yearly deficit since 1890 of 

i,ooo,oooZt 26 Dec. ,, 

Ato Jossef, the emperor Menelik's envoy, received 

by the sultan and decorated . . . 1 Jan. 1897 
Col. Mazhar Bey acquitted at Marash of the 
murder of Father Salvatore ; new trial ordered 
by the sultan at Aleppo, Jan. ; sentenced to life 

imprisonment 3 March, ,, 

Anarchy reported in N.E. provinces of Asia Minor, 

12 Jan. ,, 
Irade issued accepting the demands of the Arme- 
nian patriarch with certain modifications, 20 Jan. ,, 
Arrests of Armenians in Constantinople recom- 
menced 6 Feb. ,, 

Collective note from the six powers presented to 
the porte (see Crete), and the porte calls on the 
powers to abide by the treaty of Paris, 1856, 

2 March, ,, 
The porte agrees to the establishment of Cretan 
autonomy ; 2nd note from the powers calling on 
Turkey to withdraw her troops from the interior, 

5 March, ,, 
Disturbed condition of Asia Minor, bloodshed at 

Everek and Tokat March, ,, 

Mobilization of the fleet in the Bosphorus, 22 Mar. „ 
The powers declare that the aggressor on the Greek 
frontier in case of conflict shall be held respon- 
sible and shall derive no advantage . 5 April, „ 
War declared against Greece (the aggressor) (see 

Greco-Turkish War) . . . .17 April, ,, 
Bomb outrages in Constantinople, one death, 18 

Aug. ; 8 men sentenced to death . 2 Sept. „ 
Peace preliminaries signed at Constantinople, 

18 Sept. ,, 
Prince Mavrocordato appointed Greek minister, an- 
nounced 6 Oct. ,, 

Sir R. Hamilton Lang appointed director-general 

of the Ottoman bank at Constantinople . Oct. ,, 
Peace conferences at Constantinople, 8 articles 
agreed to, 23 Oct. ; the Turkish protocol 

accepted 2 Dec. ,, 

Rnptuie between Austria and Turkey concern- 
ing the severe ill-usage of Herr Brazzi- 
folli, agent for the Austrian-Lloyd at Mersina, 
Asia Minor, Oct. ; reparation promised b\' the 
porte but delayed ; ultimatum . 15-18 Nov. ,, 
Full submission of Turkey . . . iS Nov. „ 
Indemnities claimed by the powers for injuries to 
their subjects during the troubles in Anatolia 
and Constantinople . .... 29 Nov. „ 
Treaty of peace signed at Constantinople, 4 Dec. 
(text in Times, 11 Dec. 1897) ; ratified by the 

sultan k5 Dec. )( 

Memorial presented by the Armenian patriarch to 

the sultan 23 Dec. „ 

Sir Vincent Caillard's special report on the Ottoman 
public debt (1892-93 to 1896-97, Times, 20 Dec. 
1897) ; he is decorated by the sultan . 24 April, 1898 



An Abyssinian mission received with honours by 
the sultan 28 Jan. 1898 

The sultan demands the application of autonomy 
to Crete as existing in Lebanon and Samos, with 
a Christian governor (Ottoman subject), 27 Mar. „ 

Collective note from the powers notifying the 
evacuation of Thessaly from 6 May, the Greek 
war indemnity to be completed after the evacua- 
tion ; presented to the porte . . .6 M a y> » 

Russian note demanding payment of the arrears of 
the Russo-Turkish war indemnity, presented 
May ; 3oo,ooo£t. paid, the rest guaranteed by the 
Ottoman bank 30 June, ,, 

Note to the porte from the British embassy com- 
plaining of grievances of British merchants, &c. 
18 May ; some compensation paid . . July, ,, 

Sir Philip Currie leaves Constantinople (succeeded 
by sir Nicholas O'Conor) . . .26 May, „ 

Turco-Greek frontier settled, the foreign delegates 
return to Volo 31 May, ,„ 

Russian note to the porte demands the repatriation 
of 40,000 Armenians in the Caucasus 13 June, ,, 

The Porte refuses compensation for losses suffered 
by British, French and Italian subjects during 
the massacres in Constantinople . 18 July, ,, 

Visit of the German emperor and empress, 

18-22 Oct. „ 

Visit of the grand duke Nicholas of Russia, monu- 
ment to Russian soldiers who fell in 1878 un- 
vailed at Galataria . . . . 17, 18 Dec. ,, 

Ghani Bey, Albanian col. and the sultan's aide-de- 
camp, shot at Pera by Hafyz pasha . 22 Dec. ,, 

Alleged plot to assassinate the sultan, 4 arrests, 
26 Jan. ; 50 Softas arrested for seditious 
language mid Feb. 1899 

Kurdish outrages, the superior of the Pirnaschen 
monastery and 2 monks assassinated, Seronkand 
5 villages burnt, many killed, reported, 12 June, ,, 

Over 100 fires in Constantinople since 1 June ; 
commission of inquiry appointed . 11 July, ,, 

Russian note demanding cessation ; of frontier raids, 
often assisted by Hamidian cavalry . 29 July, „ 

Visit of the prince and princess of Montenegro, 
honoured by the sultan . . . 2-6 Sept. ,. 

Frequent arrests- among the young Turks, Sept ; 
40 week ending 7 Oct. ,, 

Sir Nicholas O'Conor's proposals regarding the 
quay arrangement agreed to by the porte, 

26 Oct. „ 
32 Mussalmans implicated in the Tokat massacres 

(1897) pardoned Oct. ,, 

Mahomedan officials banished to Yemen for sedi- 
tion, and many young Turks arrested, reported, 

27 Nov. ,, 
Baghdad railway concession granted to a German 

syndicate end Nov. ,, 

Flight of Mahmud pasha, the sultan's brother-in- 
law 14 Dec. ,, 

Italian ultima' um to the porte, demanding the 
restoration of a kidnapped Italian girl, promptly 
acceded to 30, 31 Jan. 1900 

Rebellion against the spy system at the military 
school of medicine at Stambul, 16 April; 14 
students exiled without trial . . 23 April, ,, 

Russian demands for railway concessions in Asia 
Minor; accepted by the porte . 31 March, ,, 

Death of Osman pasha, the defender of Plevna ; 
state funeral at Constantinople . 4, 5 April, ,. 

The powers protest against the proposed 3 per cent, 
increase of the customs duties (14 May), 

27 May, 7 and 18 April, ,, 

The Seham, torpedo boat, sunk by explosion at 
Beirut, 27 deaths .... 21 April, ,, 

Many young Mahomedans, denounced by spies, 
exiled 30 April, ,, 

Manifesto by the Young Turks, urging the powers 
to put an end to the sultan's n iiiun , presented to 
the embassies 23 June, ,, 

About 100 Armenians arrested . . 7 July, ,, 

The sultan's jubilee, adm. sir John Fisher received 
with honours, the British fleet illuminated, in 
Constantinople ... 31 Aug., 1 Sept. ,, 

11 Armenian relief agents pardoned^ due to British 
intervention . . . . ' . . Sept. ,, 

Major Maunsell, British vice-consulatVan, attacked 
and robbed by Turks .... mid Aug. „ 



TUEKEY. 



1305 



TURKEY. 



Kurds defeated by Turks at Elk, reported, 6 Sept. 

The shah received by the sultan at Constantinople, 

30 Sept. 

Armenian persecution continues, arrests daily, 
Oct. ; many released through Russian interven- 
tion 22 Oct. 

Russian note demands punishment of Kurds who 
attacked the Russian vice-consul at Erzerum, 

3 Oct. 

Greek notes respecting the frequent murders of 
Greeks in Macedonia, indemnity demanded, 

22, 31 Dec. 

Destitution in the army, desertions, increased 
brigandage, reported . . . .26 April, 

The porte seizes foreign mail-bags, 5 May ; regular 
service resumed after negotiations . 23 May, 

Money scarce, financial trouble . June, July, 

America claims 95,000 dols. for losses in Armenia, 
April ; again, 23 June ; paid, reported, 10 July, 

Settlement of monetary claims demanded by 
French bankers in the quays company, 

early Aug. 

M. Constans leaves Constantinople . . 26 Aug. 

Diplomatic rupture .... 3 Sept. 

Flight of adm. Faik pasha, disgusted with the 
government early Sept. 

French ultimatum presented ... 4 Nov. 

Adm. Caillard's fleet seizes the custom-houses at 
Mytilene 7 Nov. 

French demands conceded by the porte, ratified by 
the sultan ; diplomatic relations resumed, 

7, 11 Nov. 

Death of Halil Rifat pasha, grand vizier, aged 94, 

9 Nov. 

French fleet leaves Mytilene for Syra . . 12 Nov. 

Austro-Hungarian affairs settled . . 10 Nov. 

British claim for i6,oooL, respecting the Sariyeri 
mines, paid 12 Nov. 

Said pasha, grand vizier in 1895, reappointed, 

17 Nov. 

Foreign notes presented re mining regulations, 

16, 17 Dec. 

Mutinies of unpaid Albanian troops, reported, 

Dec. 

Mubarakh, sheikh of Koweyt in the Persian Gulf, 
shakes off the Turkish yoke . . . Dec. 

Congress of Ottoman liberals held in Paris, 

4-10 Feb. 

Miss Stone, an American missionary, and mine. 
Tsilka kidnapped by brigands in Macedonia, Sept. 
1901 ; ransomed by subscription and released, 

23 Feb. 

Collective note (British, French, Russian, and 
Italian) protesting against hindrances to com- 
merce, &c, in Crete .... 6 March, 

The sultan under the sway of spies and evil 
favourites, reported . . . end March, 

Marshal Fuad pasha (loyal and honourable) charged 
with conspiracy, March ; sentenced to life-impri- 
sonment by irade issued (fate unknown), 5 June, 

M. Rouvier's project for the unification of the 
Ottoman debt with British, French, and German 
syndicates, adopted, 2 July; irade issued, 2 Aug. 

The Porte demands the suppression of Cretan money 
with prince George's effigy . . 12 July, 

Budget statement : advance of about 3 millions 
needed 15 July, 

Commission appointed to consider'reforms, &c, for 
Macedonia ; report issued with recommendations, 

24 July, 

Alleged plot against the sultan's life, reported, 

23 July, 

Afium Karahissar, a commercial town in Anatolia, 
nearly destroyed by fire, reported . 30 Aug. 

Muzafier pasha (Tchaikowsky) appointed governor 
of the Lebanon ; made field marshal and vizier, 

27, 30 Sept. 

Visit of the grand duke Nicholas . . 2 Oct. 

Visit of the Khedive . . .20 Sept.-n Oct. 

Circular note to the powers asserting the bad 
frontier supervision by Bulgaria, 12 Oct. ; satis- 
factory replies received ... 13 Oct. 

Frequent ■violations of the Aden frontier, sir 
Nicholas O Conor's demand for the withdrawal 
of Turkish troops agreed to . .30 Oct. 

Death of Costaki pasha, a christian, ambassador in 
London, aged 70, 10 Nov. ; succeeded by Musurus 
bey (pasha Jan. 1903), a christian . .12 Dec. 



The powers urge effective reforms in Macedonia, 
Nov., 10, 13 Dec. ; sir Nicholas O'Conor again 
calls attention to the reports of cruelty by the 
Turks 30 Dec. 1 

Italian indemnity, i2,oooZ. for losses, in 1896 ; paid, 

29 Dec. 

Said pasha, grand vizier, resigns ; succeeded by 
Ferid pasha, president of the Macedonian reforms 
commission 12, 13 Jan. 1 

British embassy protests against the passage of 
Russian torpedo boats through the Dardanelles ; 
afterwards dropped Jan. 

Mgr. Ormanian, Armenian patriarch, wounded in 
the Kurn Kapu cathedral, 19 Jan. ; 2 men sen- 
tenced to death (one escaped), 2 others to life 
imprisonment 7 Feb. 

Turco-German convention for Konia-Baghdad rail- 
way concluded 10 Feb. 

Austro-Russian reform scheme for Macedonia ; 
recommending an inspector-gen., with wider 
powers, an effective gendarmerie organised by 
European officers, . political amnesty, &c. ; ac- 
cepted by the powers, mid Feb. ; presented to 
the porte, and agreed to by the sultan, 21, 23 Feb.); 
ordered to be applied also to 6 Rumelian vilayets, 

25 Feb. 

Sultan orders the application of the Austro-Russian 

reforms to all six Rumelian vilayets, reported, 

early March, 

Violent revolt of Albanians against the reform 
scheme; sultan promises Russian ambassador 
that he will deal firmly with the revolutionaries, 

27 March, 

Attack by an Albanian soldier, Ibrahim, on M. 
Stcherbina (who died by his injuries, 10 April), 
the Russian consul at Mitrovitza, 31 March ; 
sultan tenders his regret to the Russian ambas- 
sador 1 April, 

Russian and Austrian ambassadors urge the 
immediate military occupation of all the Alba- 
nian centres, to which the sultan promises com- 
pliance .v 3 April, 

[For development of the revolutionary movement 
and its cruel suppression in the Macedonian 
vilayets, see Macedonia. ] 

Earthquake in the vilayet of Van (see Earthquakes). 

Turkish note addressed to the Bulgarian govern- 
ment by the porte respecting the dynamite 
outrages by Bulgarians at Salonica, 28 April, 

early May, 

Serious outbreak at Monastir ... 6 May 

Bulgarian government opens direct negotiations 
with the porte on the Macedonian question, 

mid May, 

Imperial irad<5 promulgated approving of scheme of 
Ottoman bank for the unification of the debt, 

2 June, 

Turkish forces occupy strategic positions in 
Kossovo, Monastir, and Adrianople districts ; 
Bulgaria calls the attention of the great powers 
to this occupation .... end June, 

First section of Baghdad railway begun at Konia, 

27 July, 

Circular issued by the porte on "the subject of 
Macedonia to its representatives abroad, end July, 

Russian consul at Monastir, M. Roskowsky, shot 
dead by a gendarme ; full satisfaction demanded 
by the Russian ambassador ... 8 Aug. 

Strained relations between Bulgaria and Turkey, 

Sept. 

The sultan expresses regret to the Russian ambas- 
sador for excesses committed by the Turkish 
troops, and states that orders had been given to 
prevent their recurrence ; irade issued purporting 
to embody the reforms for Macedonia already 
communicated verbally to the Bulgarian govern- 
ment ; instructions given to Hilmi pasha to carry 
out reforms without delay and ordering punitive 
measures against the Bulgarians to be discon- 
tinued 18 Sept. 

New Turkish cruiser Abdul Hamid launched at 
Elswick 25 Sept. 

Identical note sent by Austrian and Russian 
governments to Turkey and Bulgaria statingtheir 
intention to institute "a more efficacious mode 
of control" in connection with Macedonia, 5 Oct. 



TUEKEY. 



1306 



TUSCAN OEDEE. 



Eefusal of the sultan to receive the identical note ; 
irade issued stating the resolution of his ministers 
with respect to reforms in Macedonia and relief 
for refugees 17 Oct. 1903 

Austro-Russian instructions for the execution of 
the reforms in Macedonia presented to the sultan. 
The chief items are : the appointment of Austrian 
and Russian civil agents to direct the inspector- 
general ; the reorganisation of the gendarmerie 
by a foreign general in the service of the porte 
assisted by officers of the Great Powers ; the 
changing of the territorial division of the adminis- 
trative districts to facilitate a more regular 
grouping of the various nationalities ; mixed 
commission to be appointed in the chief towns 
composed of an equal number of Christian and 
Mohammedan delegates ; the reorganisation of 
administrative and judicial institutions, and the 
dismissal of the second-class reserves or Ilavehs 
and .Bashi-Bazouks ; these reforms to be carried 
without delay by the Turkish government 
(additions made subsequently by Austria and 
Russia reserving their right to increase their 
consular establishment in Macedonia, and to 
demand ah amnesty for the insurgents) . 22 Oct. „ 

British, French, German, and Italian embassies 
receive instructions from their governments to 
support the scheme ; reply of the porte (practi- 
cally a rejection of the scheme) communicated to 
the embassies 3 Nov. ,, 

Pressure put by Austrian and Russian ambassadors 
on the Porte to accept the scheme . 10 Nov. „ 

The Porte assents to all points of the amended 
scheme, but stipulates that anything in its appli- 
cation calculated to humiliate Turkey shall be 
avoided 25 Nov. „ 

See Cauclia, Egypt, Greece, Montenegro, Servia, Mace- 
donia, and Addenda. 

TURKISH SULTANS. 

E299-1301. Othman, Osman, or Ottoman, founded the 

empire, retained the title emir, but ruled 

despotically. 
1326. Orehan, son, took the title "sultan." 
1360. Amurath (or Murad), I. ; stabbed by a soldier, of 

which wound he died. 
1389. Bajazet I., Iklerim, son: defeated by Tamerlane, 

and died imprisoned. 
1403. Solyman, son : dethroned by his brother. 
1410. Musa-Chelebi : strangled. 
1413. Mahomet I., son of Bajazet. 
1421. Amurath II., son. 

1451. Mahomet II., son : took Constantinople, 1453. 
1481. Bajazet II., son. 
1512. Selim I., son. 

1520. Solyman I. or II., the Magnificent, son. 
1566. Selim II., son. 
1574. Amurath III., son : killed his five brothers ; their 

mother, in grief, stabbed herself. 
1595. Mahomet III. , son : strangled all his brothers, 

and drowned his father's wives. 
1603. Ahmed (or Achmet) I., son. 

1617. Mustapha I., brother : deposed by the Janissaries 

and imprisoned. 

1618. Osman II., nephew ; strangled by Janissaries. 

1622. Mustapha I. again : again deposed, sent to the 

Seven Towers, and strangled. 

1623. Amurath IV., brother of Osman II. 

1640. Ibrahim, brother: st rangled by the Janissaries. 

1648. Mahomet IV. , son: deposed by 

1687. Solyman II. or III., brother. 

1691. Ahmed (or Achmet) II., son of Ibrahim, nephew. 

E695. Mustapha II., eldest son of Mahomet IV. : de- 
posed. 

1703. Ahmed (or Achmet) III., brother: deposed, and 
died in prison in 1736. 

1730. Mahmud I. (or Mahomet V.), son of Mustapha II. 

1754. Osman III., brother. 

1757. Mustapha III., brother. 

1774. Abdul- Ahmed or llamid I. (or Achmet IV.) 
brother. 

1789. Selim III., son of Mustapha III. ; deposed by the 
Janissaries. 

1807. Mustapha IV., son of Abdul-Ahmed; deposed, 

and, with the late sultan Selim, murdered. 

1808. Mahmud II., or Mahomet VI., brother. 



1839. Abdul-Medjid (son), 2 July (born 23 April, 1823) ; 

died 25 June, 1861. 
1861. Abdul-Aziz, brother, born 9 Feb. 1830, deposed 29 

May ; alleged suicide 4 June, 1876 (see 1881). 
1876. Amurath V. (Murad) son of Abdul-Medjid, born 

21 Sept. 1840; proclaimed 30 May; deposed for 

bad health, 31 Aug. 
„ Abdul-Hamid II., brother, 31 Aug. born 21 Sept., 

1842. 
Son: Mehemed Selim, born 11 Jan. 1870. 

TUEKEY TEADE, commenced in the year 
1550. The Turkey or Levant Company of London 
was instituted by charter of Elizabeth, in 1579. 

TUEKEYS and Guinea Fowls, first 

brought to England about 1523, and to France in 
1570. Turkeys are natives of America, and were 
consequently unknown to the ancients. 

TUEKHEIM (E. France). Here the elector 

of Hrandenburg and the Imperialists were defeated 
by the French under Turenne, 5 Jan. 1675. 

TURKISH BATHS, see Baths. 

. TUEKISH COMPASSIONATE FUND, 

instituti d bv the Daily Telegraph, and supported 
by lady Burdett-Coutts, the abp. of Canterbury, and 
others, to relieve sufferers by the war, Aug. 1877. 

TUEKOMANS, see White Sheep, and Tur- 
kestan. 

TUENEE'S ACT, 13 & 14 Vict. c. 35 (1850), 
relates to the court of chancery. 

TUENEE'S LEGACIES. Joseph M. TV. 
Turner, a great landscape painter, was born in April, 
1775, and died 19 Dec. 1851. He bequeathed to the 
nation all the pictures and drawings collected by 
him and deposited at his residence, 47, Queen Anne- 
street, London, on condition that a suitable gallery 
should be erected for them within ten years ; and 
directed his funded property to be expended in 
founding an asylum at Twickenham for decayed 
artists. The will was disputed by his relatives, but 
a compromise was made. The oil-paintings (100 in 
number) and the drawings (1400) were obtained by 
the nation, and the engravings and some other pro- 
perty were transferred to the next of kin. The 
drawings were cleaned and mounted under the 
careful superintendence of Mr. Buskin, and the 
pictures were sent to Marlborough-house for ex- 
hibition. In 1 86 1, many of the pictures were re- 
moved from the South Kensington Museum to the 
National Gallery, others in 1869. The sketches, 
plates, &c, of Turner's Liber Studiorum, were 
sold for about 20,000^. 28 March, 1873. 

TURNING, see Lathe. In our dockyards, 
blocks and other materials for our ships of war are 
now produced by an almost instantaneous process, 
from rough pieces of oak, by the machinery of Mr. 
(afterwards sir Mark Isainbard) Brunei (died 1849) ; 
see Bloelcs. 

TUENPIKES, see Tolls. 

TUEPENTINE TEEE, Fistacia Terebinthus, 
came from Barbarv, before 1656. Spirits of turpen- 
tine were first applied, with success, to the rot in 
sheep ; one-third of the spirit diluted with two-thirds 
water, 1772. 

TUEEET SHIPS, see Navy of England. 

TUSCAN OEDEE of Architecture,, a 

debased Doric, used in Tuscany for buildings in 
which strength is chiefly required. Wotton. 



TUSCANY. 



1307 



"TYBURNIA." 



TUSCANY, formerly a grand duchy in Central 
Italy, the northern part of the ancient Etruria 
(which see). It formed part of the Lombard king- 
dom, after the conquest of which by Charlemagne, 
774, it was made a marquisate for Boniface about 
828. His descendant, the great countess Matilda, 
bequeathed the southern part of her domains to the 
pope (11 15). In the northern part (then called 
Tuscia) , the cities, Florence, Pisa, Sienna, Lucca, &c, 
gradually became flourishing republics. Florence 
became the chief under the government of the 
Medici family ; see Florence. The duchy in that 
family began in 1531 ; and the grand-duchy in 
1569. After the extinction of the Medicis in 1737, 
Tuscan j T was given by the treaty of Vienna (1738) 
to Francis, duke of Lorraine (married to Maria 
Theresa of Austria in 1736), who had ceded his 
hereditary estates to France. Population in 1882, 
2,226,265; 1890,2,274,191; 1901,2,548,154. 

The French enter Florence . . 28 March, 1799 
The grand-duke is dispossessed, and his dominions 
given to Louis duke of Parma (of the royal house 
of Spain), with the title of king of Etruria . 1801 

Tuscany incorporated with the French empire . 1807 
The grand-duchy given to Eliza, sister of Napoleon 1808 
Ferdinand III. restored . . ... . . 1814 

Lucca united to Tuscany 1847 

Leopold II. grants a free constitution . 15 Feb. 1848 
Insurrection at Florence ; republic proclaimed ; the 

grand-duke flies 11 Feb. 1849 

He is restored by the Austrians . . July, 1850 
Rigorous imprisonment of the Madiai, husband 
and wife, converts to protestantism, for reading 

the Bible . May, 1852 

The earls of Shaftesbury and Roden and others in 

vain intercede for them at Florence . Oct. ,, 
They are released after the intervention of the 

British government .... March, 1853 
[An annuity was provided for them by subscription.] 
The Tuscan army demand alliance with the Sar- 
dinians ; the grand-duke refuses, and departs to 
Bologna ; the king of Sardinia is proclaimed dic- 
tator, and a provisional government formed 

27 April, 1859 
The king assumes the command of the army, but 

declines the dictatorship . . . 30 April, ,, 
The Sardinian commissary Buoncompagni invested 

with the powers of government . 11 May, ,, 
Prince Napoleon arrives at Leghorn, addresses the 

Tuscans, and erects his standard . 23 May, ,, 
The grand-duke Leopold II. abdicates in favour 

of his son Ferdinand . . . 21 July, ,, 
Tuscan constituent assembly meets . n Aug. ,, 
It declares against the house of Lorraine, and 

votes for annexation to Sardinia . . Sept. ,, 
Prince Eugene of Savoy-Carignan elected governor- 
general of central Italy ; he declines : but recom- 
mends Buoncompagni, Nov. ; who is accepted by 

the Tuscans 8 Dec. „ 

Annexation to Sardinia voted by universal suffrage, 

it, i2Ma,rch; decreed . . . 22 March, i860 
Prince Eugene appointed governor . 26 March, ,, 
Florence made the capital of Italy, by decree pub- 
lished . . . ._ . . 11 Dec. 1864 
(See Italy, and Florence.) 

SOVEREIGNS OF TUSCANY. 

DUKES. 

1531. Alexander I. 
1537. Cosmo I. 

GRAND-DUKES. 

1569. Cosmo I., Medici. 

1574. Francis I. 

1587. Ferdinand I. 

1608. Cosmo II. 

1621. Ferdinand II. 

1670. Cosmo III. (visited England, and wrote an ac- 
count of his travels). 

1723. John Gaston (last of the Medici). 

1737. Francis II. (duke of Lorraine), became emperor of 
Germany in 1745. 

1765. Leopold I. (emperor in 1790). 

1790. Ferdinand III. (second son of Leopold I.) ; ex- 
pelled by the French in 1800. 



KINGS OF ETRURIA. 

1801. Louis I., duke of Parma. 
1803. Louis II. 

GRAND-DUCHESS. 

1808-14. Eliza Bonaparte (married to Bacciochi, made 
prince of Lucca). 

GRAND-DUKES. 

1814. Ferdinand III. restored. 

1824. Leopold II., 18 June (born 3 Oct. 1797 ; abdicated 
21 July, 1859), died 29 Jan. 1870. 

1859. Ferdinand IV., 21 July (born 10 June, 1835); pro- 
tested against the annexation of his grand 
duchy, 26 March, i860. 
Son, Leouold Ferdinand, born 2 Dec. i£63. 

TUSCULUM (now Frascati), a city of Latium 
(S. Italy). The Tusculans supported Tarquinius 
Superbus against the Pomans, by whom they were 
totally defeated, 498 B.C. The Tusculans, on ac- 
count of their friendship with Rome, suffered much 
from the other Latins, who took their city, 374, but 
were severely chastised for it. Here Cicero during 
his retirement wrote his "Tusculanas Disputationes," 
about 46 B.C. 

TWELFTH-DAY, the feast of the Epiphany, 
or manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles, 6 Jan.; 
see Epiphany. 

TWENTIETH CENTURY MILLION 
GUINEAS EUND, see under Wesley an 
Methodists. 

"TWENTIETH CENTURY LEAGUE," 

founded to promote the welfare of the youthful 
working classes by healthy recreation, &c. ; meet- 
ing held at the Mansion house, 22 Feb. 1901 ; first 
annual meeting, 50,000 out of 1,500,000 catered 
fur, reported, 28 Jan. 1903. 

TWELVE TABLES, see Decemviri. 

TWINS, joined together, have been bom fre- 
quently, but seldom lived long. Helen-Judith, 
joined Hungarian twins, were bom in 1715, and 
died in 1723. Millie-Christine, negro twins, born 
in North Carolina in 185 1, were wholly distinct in 
the upper part of the body, but one in the lower 
part of the spinal column and pelvis ; the four legs 
obeying nerves from a common centre. They sang 
and danced well, and were named the " Two-headed 
Nightingale." The will, understanding, and con- 
science were distinct. Exhibited in London 17 
Feb. 1885. See Siamese Twins. 

TWIN-SHIP, see under Steam. 

"TWOPENNY TRASH," a term given to 
W. Cobbett's Weekly Political Register, after 2 Nov. 
1816, when he reduced the price from \2'_d. to 2d., 
the sale greatly increased. 

TYBURN ("W. London), at the west end of 
Oxford-road (now street), the chief place in London 
for the execution of malefactors till 1783. Pennant 
(who died 1798) remembered Oxford-street as "a 
deep, hollow road, and full of sloughs, with here and 
there a ragged house, the lurking-place of cut- 
throats." 

In conformity with an act passed in 1697, a so-called 
" Tyburn ticket" was given to the prosecutor of a cri- 
minal executed at Tyburn. The ticket gave exemption 
from serving on juries and j'aroehial offices. The act 
was repealed in 181 8. 

"TYBURNIA" (aN.W. suburb of London), 
was built between 1839 and 1 850, on the green 
fields and nursery grounds in Paddington belonging 
to the see of London. 



TYLER'S INSURRECTION. 



1308 



TYRRHENE 



TYLER'S INSURRECTION, in opposition 
to the poll-tax imposed on all persons above 15, 
5 Nov. 1380. One of the collectors, acting with in- 
decent rudeness to Wat Tyler's daughter, was struck 
dead by the father, June, 1 381. His neighbours 
took arms, and in a short time almost the whole of 
the population of the southern and eastern counties 
rose, extorting freedom from their lords, and plun- 
dering. On 12 June, 1381, they gathered upon 
Blackheath to the number of 100,000 men, and on 
14 June murdered Simon of Sudbury, archbishop of 
Canterbury, and sir Robert Hales, the royal trea- 
surer. The king, Richard II., invited Tyler to a 
parley, which took place on the 15th at Smithfield, 
where the latter addressed the king in a menacing 
manner, now and again lifting up his sword. On 
this the mayor, Walworth, stunned Tyler with a 
blow of his mace, and one of the king's knights 
named Cavendish, dispatched him. Richard tem- 
porised with the multitude by promising a charter, 
and thus led them out of the city, when sir R. 
Knollys and a band of knights attacked and dis- 
persed them with much slaughter. The insurrection 
in Norfolk and Suffolk was subdued by the bishop 
of Norwich, and 1500 of the rebels were executed. 

TYNDALE MEMORIAL. A statue of 
William Tyndale, protestant martyr, translator of 
the new testament, published 1525, was set up on 
the Thames Embankment in 1883. Sculptor, Mr. 
J. E. Boehni. 

TYNEMOUTH, Northumberland. Here are 
remains of a monastery built by king Edwin, 625 ; 
destroyed by the Danes; rebuilt by king Egfrid, 
671-85; often ravaged by Danes, 795-993; re- 
founded and made a castle, by Rob. de Mowbray, 
1090; plundered by Scots, I3i6and 1389; fortified 
for Charles I., 1642; taken by Scots, 1644; finally 
ruined, 1665; and made a depot, 1783. The cha- 
pel has been restored. Tynemouth was made a 
borough, returning one member to parliament, 
1832. An aquarium, winter-garden, &c, was 
opened, 27 Aug. 1878. Population, 1881,44,118; 
1891,46,267; 1901,51,514. 

Mr. Chamberlain addresses a great meeting on 
" fiscal reform " 21 Oct. 1903 

TYPE-COMPOSING MACHINES, see 
under Printing. 

TYPE-FOUNDING, see under Printing, 
1452, 1720. 

TYPE-WRITERS. M. Foucault sent to the 
Paris exhibition of 1855, a writing-machine for the 
blind ; and several were invented by Wheatstone. 
After successive improvements, Messrs. Remington, 
in America, in 1873, contracted to construct 25,000. 
The standard speed is between 60 and 70 words per 
minute, the record 208. 

The action of the type-writer somewhat resembles that 
of a pianoforte. Pressure upon a key marked with a 
letter causes a hammer with a type-cut letter, to 
press upon paper ; provision is made for inking the 

' type, shifting, &e. 

The Hall type- writer exhibited in London, 1883. 

Mr. E. Peacock's new compact and expeditious type 
writer exhibited in April, 1885. 

T. G. and H. Daw's type-writer for reporters com- 
mended May, 1885. 

Hammond type-writer 1886. 

The "Simplex" type-writer (cost about 10s. 6d.) intro- 
duced into London by a company April, 1887. 



A speed contest with the Remington type-writer at St. 
James's Hall ; several prizes awarded by the proprie- 
tors, Messrs. Wyckoff & Co., Jan. 1889. 

The Bar-lock type-writer exhibited by Messrs. Richard- 
son & Co., in London, 14 Dec. et seq., 1889. 

The pneumatic type-writer introduced, Nov. 1894. 

Other well-known machines in general use are the Yost, 
Smith-Premier, Oliver, Blickenderfer, &c. 

TYRANT. In early Greek history, the term 
was applied to any man who governed with irre- 
sponsible power. Solon objected to the term, and 
chose the name Archon (ruler), 594 B.C. The 
earliest tyrants were those at Sicyon, beginning 
with Cleisthenes, in the 7th century B.C. Tyranny 
declined in Greece about 490 B.C., and revived after 
the close of the Peloponnesian war, 404 B.C.; see 
Thirty Tyrants. 

TYRE (Phoenicia), a great city, said to have 
been first built by Agenor. Another city was built 
1257 (about 2267, Hales) B.C. It was besieged by 
the Assyrians, who retired from before it, after a 
siege of upwards of five years, 713 B.C. Taken by 
Nebuchadnezzar, 572 B.C., and the city demolished, 
when the Tyrians removed to an opposite island, 
and built a new and magnificent city. It was taken 
by Alexander with much difficulty, after a siege of 
seven months, July, 332 B.C. He joined the island 
to the continent by a mole. Strabo. Tyre was 
captured by the Crusaders, 7 July, 1 124; by the 
French, 3 April, 1799; and by the allied fleet, 
during the war against Mehemet Ali, 1841. 

TYRE, ERA OF, began on 19 Oct. 125 B.C., 

with the month of Hyperberetasus. The months 
were the same as those used in the Grecian era, 
and the year is similar to the Julian year. To 
reduce this era to ours, subtract 124; and if the 
given year be less than 125, deduct it from 125, and 
the remainder will be the year before Christ. 

TYROL, the eastern part of ancient Rhaetia, 
now a province of the Austrian empire, was ceded to 
the house of Hapsbur'g in 1363 by Margaret, the 
heiress of the last count. It became an appanage 
of the younger (or Tyrol) branch of the imperial 
house, which came to the throne in the person of 
Maximilian II., in 1618. The French conquered 
the Tyrol in 1805, and united it to Bavaria ; but in 
1809 an insurrection broke out, headed by Andreas 
H ofer, an innkeeper, who drove the Bavarians out 
of the Tyrol, thoroughly defeated some French de- 
tachments, but laid down his arms at the treaty of 
Vienna. He was subsequently accused of corre- 
sponding with the Austrians, captured and sent to 
Mantua, and there shot by order of the French 
government, 20 Feb. 1810. The Austrian emperor 
ennobled his family in 1819, and erected his statue 
in Innsbruck in 1834; another statue on the Isel- 
I erg was unveiled in the presence of the emperor 
Francis Joseph, 28 Sept. 1893. The Tyrolese rifle- 
men were very effective in the Italian war in 1859. 
The Arlberg tunnel railway from Innsbruck to 
Bregenz inauguurated by the emperor 20 Sept. 
1884. Population in 1896, 812,696; 1900,850,062. 

TYRONE (near Ulster, N. Ireland), formerly 
the territories of the O'Neills, and the seat of the 
insurrection in 1641. 

TYRRHENI, included the ancient Etruscans, 
and other tribes, said to have come from Lydia, Asia 
Minor. 



UBIQUITAKIANS. 



1309 



UGANDA. 



U. 



UBIQUITAKIANS or Ubiquarians,. a 
small German sect, originated by John Brentius 
about 1560, who asserted that the body of Christ 
was present everywhere {ubique). 

UGANDA. A kingdom in Equatorial Africa, 
near the head of the Nile ; capital, Mengo. 

Missionaries sent out by the Church Missionary 
society July, 1877 

French R. C. missionaries arrive 1879 

The king Mtesa, friendly to Grant, Stanley, and 
other travellers and missionaries, dies . 10 Oct. 1884 

His son M'wanga, jealous and suspicious, kills 
bishop Hannington, for advancing by a new 
route about 29 Oct. 1885 

Persecutions well endured ; native Christians killed, 

June et seq. 1886 

Revolution with bloodshed, Sept. 1888 ; M'wanga 
deposed and replaced by his brother Kawewa 
(Oct.), whose attempts to revive his father's 
policy are frustrated by the Arab slave-dealers ; 
much persecution ensues ; the Europeans flee and 
their settlements are destroyed Nov. 1888. King 
Kawewa resists the Arabs, and is expelled, they 
set up his brother Kalema ; civil war . Nov. 1888 

M'wanga defeated in an attempt to recover his 
crown ; Kalema burns his own relatives, reported, 

2 Sept. 1889 

M'wanga severely defeats the Arabs, 4 Oct. ; takes 
Rubaga, 5 Oct., and re-establishes his power; 
Kalema a fugitive .... 11 Oct. ,, 

M'wanga professes himself a Christian, and ap- 
points Catholic officials, reported . 5 March, 1890 

He places Uganda under the influence of the 
British East African company, by treaty with 
Mr. Jackson, reported . . . -30 April, ,, 

M'wanga driven from the capital by Kalema ; re- 
tires with the missionaries to Sesse island, re- 
ported • 9 May > » 

Final defeat of Arabs by M'wanga, who regains all 
his kingdom, reported . . . 15 June, ,, 

Uganda placed within the sphere of British in- 
fluence by the Anglo-German treaty . 1 July, ,, 

Capt. (now brig. -gen. sir) F. D. Lugard and capt. 
W. H. Williams lent by the British war-office to 
assist the company ; they arrive . .31 Dec. ,, 

They strenuously endeavour to maintain peace 
between the French Catholics and British Pro- 
testant missionaries and their converts ; they 
hold Kampala, a fortified station near Mengo ; 
capt. Lugard constructs and garrisons several 
forts in the country ; about 1450 Soudanese 
placed there (about 450 being soldiers), who after- 
wards, under Selim bey, join capt. Lugard 

Jan. et seq. 1891 

Revival of religious feuds and outrages ; a Pro- 
testant murdered in the street, 20 Jan. ; capt. 
Lugard demands redress, the king refuses it, and 
threatens him and his party ; fruitless negotia- 
tions ; other murders of Protestants ; the Catho- 
lics arm and attack Kampala, and are repulsed 
with severe loss by capt. Williams, who is com- 
pelled to use Maxim guns, 24 Jan. ; the Catholic 
houses wrecked ; bishop Hirth and the priests 
taken to Kampala, 24 Jan. ; the king, with 300 
of the Catholic party, flees to the isle of Buren- 
guge, where he is joined by the bishop ; the isle 
is taken by capt. Williams, with bloodshed ; the 
king and bishop flee to Sesse . . .30 Jan. 1892 
[Reported in capt. Lugard's letter of 11 Feb., 
received ,15 July.] 

Letters received from bishop Hirth by the French 
government, accusing the British of outrages, 
and claiming compensation ; on appeal, the 
British government promises investigation, 

June, July, ,, 



The king rejoins the Protestants; order restored at 
Mengo, about 30 March ; the company predomi- 
nant, reported 27 July, 

The Imperial East Africa company accepts the 
offered support of the government in postponing 
the evacuation of Uganda from 31 Dec. 1892, to 31 
March, 1893 3 Oct. 

Capt. Lugard arrives in London (capt. Williams 
left in command) 4 Oct. 

King M'wanga and the native Christians in Uganda 
petition against British evacuation (16 June) re- 
ceived Oct. 

The retention of Uganda strongly advocated at 
various public meetings . . 5 Nov. et seq. 

Capt. Lugard's reply to French charges against 
him, Times 13 Dee. 

Bishop Hannington's remains found and interred in 
the new church, bishop Tucker present ; 31 Dec. 

British commission, headed by Sir Gerald Portal, 
starts for Uganda via Mombasa, 1 Jan. 1893 ; he 
arrives at Mengo, 17 March, and is received by 
the king, 20 March ; engages the Soudanese 
troops and leaves capt. Macdonald in command 
at Kampala early April, 

The Imperial East Africa company evacuates 
Uganda 31 March, 

Major Eric Smith and capt. W. H. Williams arrive 
at Kikuyu ; the company's officers and stores 
taken over by government . . 15 May, 

Dispute between Mahomedans and Christian 
natives respecting escaped slaves . April, 

Insurrection of Mahomedans, joined by Selim Bey ; 

the Catholics and Protestants united under 

capt. Macdonald defeat and expel the insurgents 

from Uganda, the Soudanese remaining faithful, 

17 June et seq. 

Selim Bey takeD prisoner 20 June, and dies in 
exile Aug. 

Capt. Macdonald reports peace in Uganda, 25 Aug. 

Sir Gerald Portal arrives at Zanzibar, 22 Oct. 1893 ; 
leaves for England with Mr. R. Rodd 4 Nov. ; 
arrives in London .... 27 Nov. 

Col. Colvile(adminstratr.) arrives in Uganda 4 Nov. 

Kabarega, king of Unyoro, an aggressive slave 
raider, severely defeated about . . 13 Dec. 

Wadelai taken by Major Owen 4 Feb. ; he leaves for 
Mombasa 24 March ; in London . . 5 June, 

Death of Sir Gerald Portal, 25 Jan. ; his report 
published April, 

Lord Rosebery announces a future British pro- 
tectorate 12 April, 

5o,oooZ. voted for expenses . . . 1 June, 

The protectorate formally announced in the London 
Gazette 19 June ; proclaimed at Mengo with 
good effect 29 Aug. 

"Sir Gerald Portal's mission to Uganda " published 

June, 

Kabarega's assault on Fort Hoima repulsed by 
capt. Thurston and garrison . . end Sept. 

Col. sir Henry Colvile arrives in London ; reports 
peace about 26 March ; his book published, Oct. 

Mr. (knt. 1897) E. L. Berkeley (from Zanzibar) ap- 
pointed commissioner of Uganda, &c. about 11 
May ; arrives at Kampala . . .24 Aug. 

Kabarega's forces annihilated, reported . 13 Aug. 

Slaughter of a government caravan party (1200) 
in the Eldoma ravine by the Masai ; Mr. Andrew 
Dick killed by them on the Uganda road, 

26 Nov. 

Uganda railway act passed, 14 Aug. 1896 ; progress- 
ing ; station at Mombasa . . . Sept. 

Unyoro made a British protectorate ; the road to 
Victoria Nyanza completed . . . March, 

Revolt in the Buddu district, 20 July; king M'wanga 
defeated by major Ternan at Kiango, 24 July ; 
again at Marongo, 28 July ; Mr. Grant's force 
attacked, rebels driven off, 23 Aug. ; M'wanga 
surrenders to the Germans . about 26 Aug. 



1897 



UGANDA. 



1310 



ULSTER. 



Chowa, infant son of M'wanga, made king with a 
regency at Mengo Nov. 

Soudanese troops (Nubians) refuse to go with an 
expedition, under major Macdonald, to explore 
and delimit the boundary near the Italian sphere 
fixed by treaty (1891) ; mutiny ensues . 23 Sept. 

Fort Lubwas, in Usoga, betrayed by the Soudanese 
garrison to the mutineers, 17 Oct. ; major A. B. 
Thruston, Mr. N. Wilson, and Mr. W. Scott 
massacred by them, 19 Oct. ; the fort besieged 
by major Macdonald's forces, 18 Oct. ; heavy 
fighting, lieut. Fielding and 15 others killed, 
enemy's loss severe iq Oct. 

Severe 10 hours' fight, heavy loss on both sides, 

10 Nov. 

Sir Arthur Hardinge reviews loyal Soudanese 
troops at Ravine . . . . 17 Nov. 

Several engagements, lieut. Macdonald and the 
rev. Geo. L. Pilkington, eminent missionary (33), 
killed 11 Dec. 

M'wanga escapes from the Germans and attacks 
Koki, missions, &c. burnt, Jan. ; his force routed 
by major Macdonald in Ankoli . . 19 Jan. 

The mutineers escape from fort Lubwas, 15 Jan., 
and cross the Nile, Feb. ; overtaken by major 
Macdonald and capt. Harrison, their stockades at 
Kabagambi, lake Kioga, captured after severe 
fighting, capt. Maloney mortally wounded, British 
loss 15, rebels' loss about 55, survivors dispersed, 

23 Feb. 

The country still very unsettled ; much raiding in 
Buddu and Koki March, 

New railway (100 miles) opened from Kilindini to 
Voi mid May, 

Revolt in Unyoro ; the ex-king M'wanga ravaging 
the west of Uganda, churches burnt, &c, March, 

Mr. Berkeley, British commissioner, enters Kam- 
pala fort with great ceremony, country settling 
down ....... 11 April, 

Major Macdonald reports 280 killed (30 Europeans 
and regulars), 1,300 rebels (estimated) in 7 months' 
fighting 30 May, 

Soudanese rebels totally defeated at Mruli by lieut - 
col. Martyr, 40 killed, 34 taken prisoners, 4 Aug. 

Col. Macdonald's B. African expedition, to explore 
unknown country N. of Uganda, starts, 3 May, 
1898 (divided into 3 columns) ; capt. Kirkpatrick 
and 7 men treacherously murdered at Nakwai 
by natives, who are afterwards routed by col. 
Macdonald, Nov. 1898 ; major Austin's and lieut. 
Han bury- Tracy's columns, after adventurous 
marches with good results, join col. Macdonald, 
and all return to Mombasa . . . 5 March, 

Lieut. Hannyngton's party attacked at Kisiliza, 
13 British and 100 rebels killed, 10 Oct. 1898 ; 
further fighting, 7 British killed, early Nov. ; 
Bilal (major Thurston's murderer) killed in action, 
mutineers dispersed by Cole's force . 6 Dec. 

Major Martyr's expedition down the Nile ; Wadelai 
and other posts occupied as far as Rejaf, Sept. 
1898 ; Fort Berkely, the last built by the ex- 
pedition, early 1899 ; further progress stopped 
by sudd (river swamps) .... March, 

Col. Bvatt's force defeats and captures Kabarega 
and M'Wanga in Unyoro . . . 9 April, 

The Macupa railway bridge, between Mombasa and 
the mainland, opened .... 8 July, 

Mr. Berkely resigns; sir H. H. Johnston appointed 
special commissioner .... July, 

Uganda railway act passed ... 25 June, 

Caravans attacked and telegraphs cut by natives 
in the Xandi district Aug. 

Col. Bvatt's punitive expedition reaches Nandi, 

24 Sept. 

Dr. J. Sherlock and 10 natives killed in action, 
13 Oct. ; the tribes submit . . . . Oct. 

Sir H. Johnston tours through the Torn and Nkole 
districts and the western districts; ascends 
mount Kuwenzori (probably the highest in Africa) 
to 14,800 ft. alt., May et seq., reported . Dec. 

Operations against the raiding Suk and Turkana 
tribes well conducted June, 

Sir H. Johnston's interesting and satisfactory 
report issued, Times .... 29 July, 

Maj. DelmS-Radcliffe's operations against raiding 
LangO tribes, sonn' Soudanese mutineers, May ; 
successfully completed . . . . 24 Aug. 

Mr. Kiihlewindt explores unknown country north 



1897 



of Satuka ; journeys from Mombasa to Khartoum 

in 10 months, reported . . . - 23 Oct. 1901 

Lieut. -col. Sadler appointed commissioner and 
consul-general Dec. ,, 

Uganda railway, 584 miles, completed, to lake 
Victoria Nyanza ; estim. cost, 5,550,000?., 20 Dec. ,, 

"The Uganda Protectorate," 2 vols., by sir Harry 
Johnston, published in 1902 

Eastern Province annexed to the E. Africa Pro- 
tectorate 1 April ,, 

The Katikiro (prime minister) of Uganda received 
by the king, London .... 8 Aug. ,, 

Epidemic of sleeping sickness rapidly extending ; 
great mortality ; isolation and other schemes in 
operation, reported . . .20 Dec. et seq. ,, 

Uganda railway practically finished, early March, 1903 

M'wanga, ex-king of Uganda, died . 8 May, ,, 

Great commercial development of the couutry as 
result of the newrailway, present working stated 
to represent a saving to Uganda and E. Africa 
protectorates of 31,000?. per annum in transport 
expenses. 

(See Addenda.) 

UHLANS, the German lancers, very effective 
in the war in 1870. 

UKRAINE (Polish for a frontier), a vast 
fertile plain in Russia, ceded to the Cossacks by 
Poland in 1672, and obtained by Russia in 1682. 
The country was divided, Poland having the west 
side of the Dnieper, and Russia the east. The 
whole country was assigned to Russia by the treaty 
of partition in 1795. 

ULM, in Wiirtemberg, S. Germany, where a 
peace was signed, 3 July, 1620, by which Frede- 
rick V. lost Bohemia (having been driven from it 
previously). Ulm was taken by the French in 
1796. After a battle between the French and 
Austrians, in which the latter, under general Mack, 
were defeated with dreadful loss by marshal Ney, 
Ulm surrendered with 28,000 men, the flower of the 
Austrian army, 17-20 Oct. 1805. The cathedral was 
built 1 377- 1494 ; the spire, 530 feet high, said to be 
the loftiest in the world, was completed Aug. 
1894, with great rej'oicings. Population, 1890, 
36,201 ; 1900, 42,985. 

ULPHILAS'S BIBLE, see under Bible. 

ULSTER, the N. division of Ireland. After 
the death of Strongbow, n 76, John de Courcy was 
made earl of Ulster; Hugh de Lacy was earl, 1243 ; 
and Walter de Burgh, 1264; whose descendant, 
Elizabeth, married Lionel, son of Edward III., 
1352. He thus became earl of Ulster. In 1611, 
the British colonisation of the forfeited lands 
(termed the Ulster settlements or plantations') 
began, much land being granted to the corpora- 
tion of London; see Irish Society. The consequent 
rebellion of the Irish chieftains, Roger More, Phelim 
O'Neale, McGuire, earl of Inniskillen, and others, 
broke out on 23 Oct. 1641 (see Ireland). — Ulster 
King of Arms appointed for Ireland, 1553. — By the 
ancient "Ulster tenant-right," the outgoing tenant 
of a farm received from his successor a sum of money 
for tbe privilege of occupancy. A modified form 
of this right was adopted in the Irish land act, 
passed 8 July, 1870. 

The Ulster Convention, proposed 8 April, met at 
Belfast 17 June, 1S92, in a large pavilion erected for 
the purpose. 12,000 delegates of various classes and 
opinions, from all parts of the province, with many 
other persons, were present, the duke of Abercorn 
being in the chair. The proceedings, which were of a 
grave, earnest character, began with a prayer and the 
singing of part of psalm xlvi. Five resolutions for 
firmly maintaining the Union o f . Great Britain and 
Ireland in opposition to the scheme for home rule 
were passed unanimously. 
Ulster Convention League formed (2,000?. sub- 
scribed) 2 Aug. 1R92 



ULTEAMONTANISTS. 



1311 



UNEMPLOYED. 



Great 7neetings at Belfast and Armagh, 17 Jan. ; 
Dungannon, 20 Jan.; Omagh, 21 Jan.; Derry, 
23 Jan.; Ballymena, 24 Jan. ; Newry, 25 Jan.; 
Monaghan, 1 Feb. 1893 (annual meetings). 

Meeting at Belfast to get up petitions from all parts 
of Ulster against the home rule bill 24 Feb.; mass 
meeting at Belfast (15,000) . . 28 Feb. 1893 

Manifesto of the Ulster Defence Union, signed by 
the Duke of Abercorn, Marquis of Londonderry, 
and others, issued 16 March ; 169,870 signatures 
up to June, „ 

Mr. A. J. Balfour, instead of the marquis of 
Salisbury, arrives at Belfast 3 April ; after a 
march past of about 80,000 persons, gives an 
address ; all classes and creeds represented, 
4 April ; leaves 5 April, „ 

Visit of the marquis of Salisbury ; great demon- 
strations and speeches at Belfast and other places, 
23 May ; address in Ulster hall, 24 May ; at Lon- 
donderry 26, 27 May, ,, 

Joyful demonstrations at the rejection of the home 
rule bill by the lords .... 9 Sept. „ 

ULTEAMONTANISTS (from ultra mantes, 
beyond the mountains), a term originally applied in 
France to those who upheld the extreme authority 
of the pope in opposition to the freedom of the 
Gallican church, which had been secured by various 
bulls, and especially by the concordat of 15 July, 
1801. Ultramontanists now are those who main- 
tain the official infallibility of the bishop of Rome. 

ULUNDI, Zululand, South Africa. On 4 July, 
187c), the Zulus, commanded by their king, Cety- 
wayo, who had refused the conditions of pi ace, were 
totally defeated near here by lord Chelmsford, after 
a severe conflict. Capt. Wyatt-Edgell, 17 Lancers, 
and 9 men were killed, and about 53 wounded. The 
British were attacked in the open country by the 
Zulus, who enveloped our hollow square and charged 
on all sides up to within 60 yards, when they broke 
and tied under the heavy fire. They were pursued 
and routed by cavalry. About 23,000 Zulus engaged, 
1,500 killed. The British showed much firmness 
and the Zulus displayed great courage. The royal 
kraal at Ulundi and other military kraals were burnt. 

UMBRELLA, described in early dictionaries 
as "a portable pent-house to carry in a person's 
hand to screen him from violent rain or heat." 
Umbrellas appear in the carvings at Persepolis. 
Niebuhr saw a great Arabian prince returning from 
a mosque, he and each of his family having a large 
umbrella carried by his side. Old chinaware shows 
the Chinese shaded by umbrellas. It is said that 
the first person who generally used an umbrella in 
the streets of London was the benevolent Jonas 
Hanway, who died in 1 786. 

John Macdonald, a footman, who wrote his own life, in- 
forms us that he had " a tine silk umbrella, which he 
brought from Spain ; but he could not with any comfort 
to himself use it, the people calling out, ' Frenchman ! 
why don't you get a coach ? ' " The hackney-coachmen 
and chairmen were clamorous against their rival. The 
footman says he " persisted for three months, till they 
took no further notice of this novelty. _ Foreigners 
began to use theirs ; and then the English." 1778. 
Mr. Samuel Fox, inventor of the hollow-steel paragon 
frame, strong, light, and elastic, having made a great 
fortune, especially at Lille in France, died 25 Feb. 1887. 
In 1885 Mr. Gladstone's political programme was termed 
his umbrella, by lord Rosebery. 

UMBBIA, an ancient division of Italy, west of 
Etruria, tinallv subjugated by the Romans at 
Sentinum (which see), 295 n.c. For the steamer 
fimbria, see Steam Engine, 1892-3. 

UNCLAIMED MONEY, &c, a pamphlet 
with this title, by Mr. Edward Preston, was pub- 
lished in 1883, describes six classes and recommends 



legislation to facilitate publication for the benefit 
of claimants. 

1. — Dividends on government, East India and Colonial 
stocks (government stocks 4 Jan. 1887, 537, 815?.). 

2. — Dividends of companies, surplus assets in bank- 
ruptcy, &c. 

3. — Army and navy prize-money. 

4. — Funds in chancery (28 Feb. 1886, 77,677,581?.). 

5. — Intestates' estates in the United Kingdom, India, 
and the colonies. 

6. — Deposits in banks (including plate, jewellery, &c). 

Mr. Sidney H. Preston published similar returns in the 
Times, 22 Aug. 1890, 8 Oct. 1892, and 22 Aug. 1896. 

" UNCLE TOM'S CABIN," a story by 
Mrs. H. Beecher-Stowe (born, 1812, died, 1 July, 
1896), published in portions in a newspaper in 
1850; complete in March, 1852; setting forth the 
evils of negro slavery. The sale was enormous, 
and the translations numerous, and it greatly 
contributed to emancipation. The Rev. Josiah 
Henson, the original "Uncle Tom," was received! 
by the queen at Buckingham palace, 2 March, 
1877, and was much benefited by his visit to 
Britain ; he died May, 1883, aged 93. 

UNCTION, EXTREME, see Anointing. 

UNDULATOEY THEOBY of Light, 

supposes a progressive wave-like motion between 
the eye and the luminous body seen. It is said to 
have been suggested by Francisco Grimaldi about 
1665, and was propounded by Robert BTooke and 
Huvghens, about 1672 ; opposed by Newton ; but 
confirmed bv Thomas Young by experiments in 
1801, and is now generally adopted. "Die "Wellen- 
lehre auf Experimente gegrundet," by Ernst and 
Wilhelm Weber, published in 1825 ; see Emission, 
and Light. 

UNEMPLOYED, see under Riots, 1886-7, 
and Mansion House Funds, 1886. 

A plan for providing work proposed by the bishops of 
London, Rochester and Bedford, cardinal Manning, Mr. 
Spurgeon and Mr. Reaney Nov. 1886. A conference 
of poor-law guardians at Exeter Hall declare that 
there is no exceptional distress in the country 8 Dec. 
1886. 

Disorderly demonstrations of so-called unemployed in 
London early Oct. 1887 ; conference at Memorial Hall,, 
lord Herschel in the chair 5 Dec. 1887. 

Deputation (not unanimous) to lord Salisbury recom- 
mending public works, inquiry, and registration, 
state-aidecl emigration and repression of alien pauper 
immigrants 1 Feb. 1888. 

Lord mayor de Keyser, aided by the earl of Meath and 
rev. Harry Jones, puts forth a scheme for employ- 
ment of the London poor in making open space?, 
gardens and recreation grounds with due stipulations 
(20,000?. wanted) Times 22 Dec. 1887. 

The Gardens and Pleasure Grounds Fund started (see 
under Mansion House) about 24 Dec. 1887. 

The scheme in action reported partially successful Aug. 
1888. 

Meeting of the unemployed at Tower hill, led by Mr. 
Power (after an attempt at the Royal Exchange), 4 
Oct. 1890. 

Attempt in St. Paul's Churchyard, Power arrested, n 
Oct. 1890. 

Meetings at Tower hill renewed, 8 April et seq. 1892, and 
at Trafalgar-square, 5 Nov. 1892. 

See Clearing-house (for the unemployed), 1892. 

Letter from the rev. Samuel A. Barnett, Mr. Sydney 
Buxton, M.P., and 15 others, suggesting a system of 
relief, Times, 29 Dec. 1892. 

Circular issued to local authorities, by the local govern- 
ment board, recommending the setting up relief 
works, 2 Oct 1893. 



UNIFICATION. 



1312 



UNIONISTS. 



Manifesto issued by the central unemployed organisa- 
tion committee, stating that there are nearly two 
million unemployed in the United Kingdom, demand- 
ing legislation for the exclusion of foreigners, pre- 
vention of sweating, amendment of the poor laws, 
grants for public works, &c, 29 Oct. 1893. 

Conference respecting the unemployed, at the Mansion 
house : the lord mayor, bishop of London, M.P.'s, 
Cardinal Vaughan, the chief rabbi present; a com- 
mittee for relief appointed, 31 Oct. 1893. 

Meeting of between 2000 and 3000 men on Tower hill. 

12 Dec. 1893. 

Disorderly procession and meeting at Trafalgar square ; 
Mr. J. Williams the leader, 3 Feb. 1894. 

The works at the Abbey mills, West Ham, of 1893, re- 
sumed through liberal subscriptions, Feb. ; reported 
successful, Dec. 1894 ; work resumed, March, 1895. 

Select committee of the commons appointed on the 
unemployed ; sir H. Campbell-Bannerman, chairman, 

13 Feb.; interim report, 11 March; 3rd report, with 
recommendations, issued July, 1895 ; final report 
issued, Feb. 1896 ; committee reappointed, Mr. T. W. 
Russell, chairman, 17 April, 1896. 

Metropolitan visiting and relief association largely 
supported ; the queen gave 250I. Feb. 1895. 

Number of paupers registered in London 2nd week of 
Feb. 144,116 ; 37,623 excess of 1804. 

Demonstration of about 5,000 unemployed in Hyde-park, 
23 Jan. ; another in Trafalgar-square, 14 Feb., 1903. 

Conferences at the Guildhall, sir A. Rollit, sir John 
Gorst, and delegates from all parts present ; restriction 
of alien immigration, labour bureaus, &c, recom- 
mended, 27, 28 Feb. 1903. See Addenda. 

UNIFICATION, see London, March, 1893, 
et seq. Mr. John Leighton's ingenious plan pub- 
lished, 1895. 

UNIFOBMITABIANS, see Continuity. 

UNIFORMITY ACTS- That of 2 & 3 Ed- 
ward VI., 15 Jan. 1549, ordained that the order of 
divine worship, drawn up by Cranmer and others, 
" with the aid of the Holy Ghost," should be the 
only one used after 20 May. The penalties for 
refusing to use it were fine and imprisonment. 
This act was confirmed in 1552; repealed by Mary, 
15154; and re-enacted by Elizabeth in 1559. The 
act of Uniformity, 14 Charles II. c. 4, was passed in 
1662. It enjoined uniformity in matters of religion, 
and obliged all clergy to subscribe to the thirty- 
nine articles, and use the same form of worship, 
and same book of common prayer. Its enforcement 
on 24 Aug. 1662, termed Black Bartholomew's day, 
caused, it is said, upwards of 2000 ministers to quit 
the church of England. This day was commemo- 
rated by dissenters in 1862. The Act of Uniformity 
Amendment act, whereby shortened services were 
authorised, and other changes made, was passed 18 
July, 1872. The Uniformity of Process act, which 
made many law changes, was passed 23 May, 1832. 

UNIFORMS. Military uniforms were first 
used in France, "in a regular manner " by 
Louis XIV. about 1668. In England the uniform 
was soon afterwards adopted in the military service, 
but with little analogy to the modern dress. See 
under Navy. 

UNIGENITUS, see Bull. 

UNINFLAMMABLE SALTS. At the 
British Association, 15 Sept. 1859, MM. Versmann 
and Oppcnheim announced their discovery that 
fabrics steeped in solutions of tungstate of soda, or 
sulphate or phosphate of ammonia, burn without 
flame. 

UNION CHAPEL, see under Islington. 

UNION OF CALMAR, 1397; of Utrecht, 1579. 

UNION of England and Scotland by 

the accession of James VI. of Scotland as James 1. 



of England, 24 March, 1603. The legislative union 
of the two kingdoms (as Great Britain) was at- 
tempted, but failed in 1604 and 1670 ; in the reign 
of Anne, commissioners were appointed, the articles 
discussed, and, notwithstanding a great opposition 
made by the Tories, every article in the union wa9 
approved by a great majority, first in the house of 
commons, and afterwards by the peers, 22 July, 
1706; was ratified by the Scottish parliament, 16 
Jan. 1707, and became law, 1 May, same year. 

UNION of Great Britain and Ireland 
effected, 2 July, 1800. 

Proposed in the Irish parliament . . 22 Jan. 1799 

Rejected by the commons of Ireland, the votes 
being 105 for, to 106 against the union, 24 Jan. ,. 

Passed 7 June, 1800 

The English house of commons on the same question 
divided, 140, 141, and 149 for the union ; against 
it, 15, 25, and 28 respectively ....,, 

Lord Castlereagh detailed his plan of the union, in 
the Irish house of lords, founded on the resolu- 
tions of the British parliament thereon 5 Feb. ,, 

Votes of the commons agreeing to it, 161 against 
115, 17 Feb. ; and again, 152 against 108 21 Feb. ,, 

The houses of lords and commons wait on the lord- 
lieutenant with the articles of union, 27 March, ,, 

The act passed in the Irish parliament, 13 June, and 
in the British parliament ... 2 July, „ 

The imperial united standard first displayed at 
the tower of London, and upon Bedford Tower, 
Dublin Castle, on the act of legislative union be- 
coming an operative law . . . . 1 Jan. 1801 

For attempts to dissolve this union, see Repeal, 
Ireland 1886 

National Union Club, Albemarle Street, London, 
established 18 Jan. 1887 

UNION JACK. The original flag of England 
was the banner of St. George, i.e., white with a red 
cross, which, 12 April, 1606 (three years after 
James I. ascended the throne) was incorporated with 
the banner of Scotland, i.e., blue with a white 
diagonal cross. This combination obtained the name 
of " Union Jack," in allusion to the union with 
Scotland, and the word Jack is considered a corrup- 
tion of the word Jacobus, Jacques, or James. This 
arrangement continued until the union with Ire- 
land,! 1 Jan. 1801, when the banner of St. Patrick, 
i.e., white with a diagonal red cross, was amalga- 
mated with it, and forms the present Union flag. 
Mansion house meeting in aid of a '' Union Jack " 
club in memory of the soldiers and sailors who 
died in the S. African war, 25 Feb. 1903. 

UNION CHARGEABILITY ACT, pro- 
viding for the better distribution of the charge for 
relieving the poor in unions, was passed in June, 
1865. One object of the act is the improvement of 
the dwellings of agricultural labourers. 

UNION BELIEF ACT, passed in 1862, con- 
tinued in 1863, to enable boards of guardians of 
certain unions to obtain temporary aid to meet the 
extraordinary expenditure for relief occasioned by 
the distress in the cotton manufacturing districts. 

UNION REPEAL ASSOCIATION, Ire- 
land, see Repeal of the Union. 

UNIONIST LIBEBALS, opposed to Mr. 
Gladstone, see Liberals, 1886, et seq. ; Ireland and 
Ulster, 1892 ; Salisbury Administration, 1895, 
et seq. 

Irish Unionist Alliance formed in Dublin . April, 1891 
Liberal Unionist Association, 3rd annual meeting 

of the council at Westminster . . 16 Feb. 1892 

UNIONISTS. A Spanish political party, long 
headed by marshal Serrano. In 1869 they advocated 



UNIONS. 



1313 



UNITED STATES. 



the election of the due de Montpensier as king. See 
Progresistas and Spain. 

UNIONS, see Poor and Trades. 

UNION GENERALE, see France, Dec. 1882. 

UNIT, a gold coin, value 20s., issued by James I. 
in 1604. 

UNITARIANS, termed Socinians from Laelius 
Socinus, who founded a sect in Italy about 1546. 
They profess to believe in and worship one only 
self-existent God, in opposition to those who wor- 
ship the Trinity in unity. They consider Christ to 
have been a mere man ; and do not admit the need 
of an atonement or of the complete inspiration of the 
Scriptures. Michael Servetus printed a tract in dis- 
paragement of the doctrine of the Trinity. In 1553, 
proceeding to Naples through Geneva, Calvin in- 
duced the magistrates to arrest him on a charge of 
blasphemy and heresy. Servetus, refusing to re- 
tract his opinions, was condemned to the flames, 
which sentence was carried into execution, 27 May, 
1553. Servetus is numbered among those anato- 
mists who made the nearest approach to the doctrine 
of the circulation of the blood, before Harvey estab- 
lished that doctrine. Matthew Hamont was burnt 
at Norwich for asserting Christ not to be the Son 
of God, 1 June, 1579. The Unitarians were nume- 
rous in Transylvania in the 17th century ; they 
came to England about 1700, and many of the 
original English presbyterian churches became 
Unitarian about 1730. They were not included in 
the Toleration act till 1813. There were 229 con- 
gregations in England in 185 1. Their tenets re- 
semble those of the Arians and Socinians (which see) . 
The Unitarian marriage bill was passed, June, 1827. 
In Dec. 1833, by a decision of the vice-chancellors 
the Unitarians (as such) lost the possession of lady 
Hewley's charity ; the decision was affirmed on ap- 
peal in 1842. British and Foreign Unitarian 
Association founded, to promote Unitarianism, 
1825 ; meeting in London, 64th anniversary kept 
in London, 12 June, 1889. There were 320 Unitarian 
churches in the United Kingdom in Feb. 1884 ; 
364 in Jan. 1903. The rev. Dr. Martineau, LL.D., 
an eminent preacher and writer, died, aged 94, 
II Jan. 1900. The internat. Unitarian council 
met in London, 27 May; received by the lord 
mayor, I June, 1901 ; in Amsterdam, Sept. 1903. 

UNITED BRETHREN, see Moravians. 

UNITED EMPIRE TRADE LEAGUE, 

formed for the advancement of British industry 
throughout the world, by abandoning free trade 
doctrines, and substituting a differential tariff for 
colonial produce. This scheme, which was originated 
by Mr. Hofmeyr, was opposed by sir Thomas Farrer 
and others in London, March, 1891. First annual 
report by col. Howard Vincent; 5,120 members 
April, 1892. 

UNITED IRISHMEN, a political society 
founded in 1791, was at first loyal, but afterwards 
met secretly, to establish a republic, became active 
in 1795. Theobald Wolf Tone, the founder, was 
captured by sir John "Warren in the Hoche, one of 
six frigates destined to support the rebellion, in Oct. 
1798. He anticipated his punishment by suicide in 
prison Nov. 1798. 

United Ireland 7:owspaper first published July 1881. 
See under Ireland. 

UNITED KINGDOM. England and Wales 
were united in 1283 ; Scotland to both in 1707 ; and 



the British realm was named the United Kingdom 
on the union of Ireland, 1 Jan. 1801 ; see Union 
and article Population — The United Kingdom 
Alliance, for the total suppression of liquor traffic, 
was founded, 1 June, 1853. See Permissive Bill. 
The subscribed manifesto of this alliance occupied 
a page of the Times, 11 Dec. 1871. Annual 
reports. United Kingdom Beneficent Association, 
founded 1863, grants annuities to poor persons of a 
better class. 

. UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH, 
in Sxotland, was formed 13 May, 1847, see 
Burghers and Relief Church. The United Pres- 
byterians formed a union with the Free Church of 
Scotland (which s-e), 31 Oct. 1900, the two bodies 
now being designated the United Free Church of 
Scotland. 

UNITED PROVINCES (Holland, Zealand, 
Utrecht, Friesland, Groningen, Overyssell, and 
Guelderland), the deputies of which met at Utrecht, 
23 Jan. 1579, and signed a treaty for their mutual 
defence ; see Holland. 

UNITED SERVICE INSTITUTION, 
ROYAL, Whitehall, London, initiated as a naval 
and military library and museum in June, 1831, 
named the United Service Ins'itation in 1839, re- 
ceived the royal charter in i860. The institution 
has been warmly supported by the duke of Cam- 
bridge and by capt. B >ughey Burgess, the able 
serTttary. Its museum contains many remarkable 
military and naval relics. The lectures given are 
reported in its journal, which first appeared in 1857. 
The institution met in the Whitehall Chapel Koyal 
(which see) 7 March, 1891. The memorial stone of 
the new buildings was laid by the prince of Wales, 
6 June, 1893 ; opened by him, 20 Feb. 1895. 
The United Service Gazette first published 9 Feb. 1833. 

UNITED STATES of AMERICA were 
so styled by the congress of the revolted British 
provinces, 9 Sept. 1776. Their flag was declared^ 
to be thirteen stripes, alternately red and white 
and thirteen stars in a blue field, corresponding with 
the then number of states of the union, 20 June, 
1777. There are now 45 states. The government 
of the United States is a purs democracy. Each 
of the states has a separate and independent legis- 
lature for the administration of its local affairs, but 
all are ruled in matters of imperial policy by two 
houses of legislature, the senate, elected for six 
years, and the house of representatives (356 
members in 1891) elected for two years, to wh oh 
delegates are sent from the different members of the 
confederac)'. The president of the United States is 
elected every fourth year by the free voice of the 
people. He and his ministers have no seat in the 
legislative assembb>s. His veto may be nullified 
by the vote of two-thirds of the house. The election 
of Abraham Lincoln as president on 4 Nov. i860, 
was followed by the secession of eleven slaveholding 
states, and led to the great civil war, 1861-5; see 
Confederates, English Language, Cuba, 189 . 

The thirteen states of the union at the declaration of 
independence in 1776 : the italics indicate the then 
slaveholding states ; those with a * prefixed seceded 
from the federal government in i860 and 1861, and 
were subdued in 186s. 



New Hampshire. 
Massachusetts. 
Rhode Island. 
Connecticut. 
New York. 
New Jersey. 
Pennsylvania. 



Delaware. 
Maryland. 
* Virginia. 
*North Carolina. 
*South Carolina. 
*Georgia. 
See separate articles. 

4 p 



UNITED STATES. 



1314 



UNITED STATES. 



The following have been added : — 

Vermont (from New York) 1791 

^Tennessee (from North Carolina) . . . . 1796 

Kentucky (from Virginia) 1792 

Columbia district (under the immediate government 
of congress) contains Washington, the seat of 

government 1700-1 

Ohio (created) 1802 

*Louisiana (bought from France in 1803) . . . 1812 

Indiana (created) 1816 

* Mississippi (from Georgia) 1817 

Illinois (created) 1818 

* Alabama (from Georgia) 1819 

Maine (from Massachusetts) 1820 

Missouri (from Louisiana) 1821 

*Arkansas 1836 

Michigan 1837 

*Florida (ceded by Spain, 1820) ; made a state . 184s 

*Texas ,, 

Iowa 1846 

Wisconsin 1848 

California 1850 

New Mexico (state) 1902 

Minnesota (territory, 1849) ; state . ... 1858 



Oregon (territory, 1850) ; state .... 1859 

Kansas (territory, 1854) ; state 1861 

Utah (territory), 1850; state 1896 

Washington (territory 1853) ; state . . . . 1889 

Nevada (territory, 1861) ; state .... 1864 

Colorado (territory 1861) ; state 1876 

Dakota (territory 1861) ; north and south state . 1889 

Arizona (state) . 1902 

Idaho (territory 1863); state 1890 

West Virginia (from Virginia) ; state . . . . 1863 

Montana (territory 1864) ; state .... 1889 

Nebraska (territory 1854) ; state 1867 

Wyoming (territory 1868) ; state .... 1890 

Alaska (territory) 1868 

I Oklahoma (state) 1902 

Hawaii 1898 

Puerto Rico , 

Philippine islands ,, 

Guam ,, 

Samoan islands 1899 

Electoral College in 1872, 366 members ; 40 for New 
England, 95 for the southern States, 12 for the Pacific 
States, 84 for the middle States, and 135 for the 
western States. 



Population. 



1776 
1800 
1810 

l8qo 



1,191,364 
2,009,050 



Total. 
2,614,300 
5,309.756 
7,239,903 
12,858,670 



1850 



See Slavery in America 
Slaves. Total. 

. 17,069,453 
3,204,313 23,191,876 
3,952,801 . 31,445,980 



1900 



Slaves. 
no slaves 



Total. 
. 38,558,371 
• 5o,497,o57 
. 62,622,250 
. 76,891,220 



The Census of 1880 thus classifies the population: Males, 
25,518,820 ; females. 24,636,963. Native born, 43,475,840; 
foreign born, 6,679,043. Whites, 43,402,970 ; coloured, 
6,580,793. The remaining 339,098 are composed of 
Indians not in tribal relations and under Government 
care, Chinese, and other Asiatics. The Chinese are esti- 
mated at 105,613. 

The senate is composed of 2 members for each state, 
elected for 6 years. The representatives in congress 
were formerly elected for 2 years in the ratio of 1 in 
93>4 2 3 persons (five slaves were counted as three per- 
sons); but this system ended with the abolition of 
slavery. In 1872 the number of representatives was 
raised from 233 to 283, to commence 3 March, 1873 ; 
increased to 386 by bill passed, 8 Jan. 1901. 



Revenue. — 
Total receipts, 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 



year ending 30 June, 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto . 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 



Expenditure — 

Year ending 30 June, 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 
ditto 



1855 



1875 
1877 
18S0 



1S97 
iRoo 



1855 



i8 7 5 ; 
1877, 



1900. 
1901, 
1902, 



Dollars. 
65,003,930 

53,405,071 
888,082,128 
1,273,960,215 
284,020,771 
269,000,586 
333,526,610 
348,519,869 
379,266,072 
"388,591,675 
392,612,447 
390,000,000 
390,373,203 
409,475,409 
347)721,705 
567,240,852 

587,685,337 
684,326,280 

Dollars. 

56,365,393 
66,346,226 
714,709,996 
1,141,072,666 
274,623,392 
238,660,008 
267,642,957 
244,126,244 
267,924,801 
300,064,795 
355,372,684 
433,000,000 
433,178,426 
434,678,654 
365,774,160 
700,093,564 
544,258,348 



Expenditure — Dollars. 

Year ending 30 June, 1901 . . . 566,452,044 
ditto 1902 . . . 593,038,904 

Public Debt— 

June, 1867, 2,515,615,936 dollars. 
June, 1871, 2,292,030,835 dollars. 
June, 1875, 2,237,813,048 dollars. 
June, 1876, 2,176,947,758 dollars. 
June, 1880, 2,120,415,370 dollars. 
June, 1884, 1,830,528,923 dollars. 
Dec. 1888, 1,690,975,251 dollars. 
June, 1891, 1,610,620,103 dollars. 
Nov. 1894, 1,690,777,469 dollars. 
Nov. 1895, 985,713,148 dollars. 
Nov. 1896, 1,044,926,743 dollars. 
Nov. 1897, 1,817,672,666 dollars. 
Oct. 1901, 1,106,170,671 dollars. 
Nov. 1902, • 958,507,722 dollars. 



£112,361,676 
109,013,805 
117,933,898 
164,789,270 
144,992,970 

§683,862,104 
884,480,810 
892,140,572 

1,023,300,000 

1,394,483,082 

• 1,487,764,99! 
t 381,719,401 

Army.— That which achieved independence was dis- 
banded at the end of the war. In 1789, a war depart- 
ment was established, and in 1790 the army consisted 
of 1216 men for the Indian frontier. In 1808, the 
militia was newly equipped. When war with Great 
Britain was declared on 18 June, 1812, 35,000 men were 
voted ; and this army was disbanded at the peace in 
1815. Armies were voted for the wars in 1833 and 
1835, afterwards disbanded. 

In 1855, Army, 11,658. Militia, 1,873,558. Fleet, 72 
vessels (2290 guns). 

In i860, the United States Militia were 3,070,987. Fleet, 
92 vessels (of all kinds); in Oct. 1862, 256 vessels of war. 

Federal Army, 29 July, 1861, estimated at 660,971. In 
Dec. 1862, nearly 1,000,000 men. In April, 1S65, about 
1,500,000, at the end of the war, when the reduction 
began at once. Number of soldiers in 1867, 54,890 ; in 
July, 1871, 32,135: 1875, 27,525 men; in 1883, 25,478 
men ; in 1888, 26,270 men ; in 1891, 26,073 men ! r 9 OI i 
84,513 men ; 1902, 63,686 men. 



YEAR ENDING 




30 June. 






1872 


£114,502,161 


187s 


106,600,905 


1877 


90,261,510 


1880 


133,590,660 


1884 


^s^g^s 


1888 


• §723,957, 114 


1891 


844,916,196 


.1894 


654,994,622 


1896 


842,000,000 


1900 


849,941,184 


1901 


823,172,165 


1902 


903,320,948 



UNITED STATES 



1315 



UNITED STATES. 



Fleet, in July, 1867, 261 vessels of all kinds, 2218 guns ; 
Jan. 1871, 179 vessels, 1440 guns ; 1875, 155 vessels, 1203 
guns ; 1884, 92 vessels ; 1888, 66 vessels ; 1901, 307 
vessels. 

In 1890 and 1891, the congress authorised the construc- 
tion of three battleships, two protected cruisers, and 
one torpedo cruiser, and one torpedo boat. The Texas 
battleship was launched, 28 June, 1892. 



1839, 23 ; 1861, 31,286 ; 1873, 73,533 ; 
iu t888, 150,710; in 1902, 200,000. 



Railways, miles : 
in 1884, 121,532 

Act of the British parliament, imposing new heavy 

duties on imports . . . .11 March, 1764 
Obnoxious stamp-act passed . . 22 March, 1765 
First American congress held at New York, June ; 

the stamp-act resisted . . . .1 Nov. ,, 
Stamp-act repealed .... 18 March, 1766 
British act, levying duties on tea, paper, painted 

glass, &e 14 June, 1767 

Gen. Gage sent to Boston .... Oct. 1768 

840 chests of tea destroyed by the populace at 

Boston, and 17 chests at New York . 18 Dec. 1773 
Boston port bill (port rights annulled) 25 March, 1774 
Deputies from the states meet at Philadelphia, 

5 Sept. ; Declaration of Rights issued 4 Nov. „ 

First action between the British and Americans, at 

Lexington ; British retreat . . .19 April, 1775 
Act of perpetual union between the states 20 May, „ 
George Washington appointed commander-in-chief, 
May; battle of Bunker hill, the Americans 
retire after a severe conflict, 17 June ; petitions 
from the colonists for reconciliation, styled the 
"Olive Branch," rejected by the British govern- 
ment, contrary to the counsel of the earl of 
Chatham and other eminent statesmen . Nov. „ 
America declared "free, sovereign, and inde- 
pendent " . ' . . . 4 July, 1776 
General Howe takes Long Island, 27 Aug. ; new 
York, 15 Sept. ; victor at White Plains, 20 Oct. ; 

takes Rhode Island 8 Dec. „ 

The Hessians surrender to Washington 25 Dec. ,, 

La Fayette and other French officers join the 

Americans ■ . . . 1777 

Washington defeated at Brandy wine . 11 Sept. ,, 
Lord Cornwallis takes Philadelphia . . Sept. „ 
Burgoyne victor at Germantown, 3, 4, Oct. ; sur- 
rounded; capitulates at Saratoga . . 17 Oct. „ 
A federal government adopted by congress 15 Nov. ,, 
The states recognised by France . . 16 Dec. ,, 

Alliance with France 6 Feb. 1778 

The king's troops quit Philadelphia . . June, ,, 
Americans defeated at Brier's Creek . 3 March, 1779 
Charleston surrenders to the British . . 13 May, 1780 
Cornwallis defeats Gates at Camden . 16 Aug. ,, 
Major Andre hanged as a spy ... 2 Oct. „ 
Andre (born 1751) was an adjutant-general in the 
British army, and was taken in disguise on his 
return from a secret expedition to the traitorous 
American general Arnold, 23 Sept. 1780. He was 
sentenced to execution as a spy by a court of 
general Washington's officers at Tappan, New 
York, and suffered death, 2 Oct. following. His 
remains were removed to England in a sarco- 
phagus, 10 Aug. 1821, and interred in Westminster 
abbey. Impartial judges justify the severity of 
this punishment. ] 
American Academy of Arts and Sciences at Boston 

founded „' 

The federal government accepted by all the states, . 

1 March ; congress assembles . . 2 March, 1781 
Cornwallis defeats Green at Guildford, 15 March ; 

Arnold defeats the Americans at Eutaw 8 Sept. ,, 
Surrender of lord Cornwallis and his whole army of 
7000 men to generals Washington and Roeham- 

beau, at Yorktown 19 Oct. ,, 

Arrival of sir Guy Carleton to treat for peace, 5 May ; 
provisional articles, signed at Paris by commis- 
sioners . . ... 30 Nov. 1782 
Definitive treaty of peace signed at Paris, 3 Sept. 

1783; ratified by congress . . . 4 Jan. 1784 
Samuel Seabury consecrated bishop of the episcopal 

church in America at Aberdeen . .14 Nov. „ 
John Adams, first American ambassador's first in- 
terview with the king of England . . 1 June, 1785 
The cotton plant introduced into Georgia . . 1786 



New constitution signed by a convention of states, 

17 Sept. 1787 
The same ratified .... 23 May, 1788 

The quakers of Philadelphia emancipate their slaves, 

1 Jan. ,, 
New government organised, 4 March ; George Wash- 
ington, 1st president, 6 April ; present depart- 
ments of state established . . . 27 July, 1789 

An act protecting native industry passed . . „ 
Death of Benjamin Franklin . . . _ 17 April, 1790 
Bank instituted ; capital, 10,000,000 dollars, 7 June, 1791 
City of Washington chosen the capital of the states, 

8 July, 1792 
Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton-gin gives an 
immense impetus to the growth of American 

cotton 1793 

Re-election of general Washington as president, 

4 March, 1793 ; resigns . . . 17 Sept. 1796 
John Adams. 2nd president . . . 4 March, 1797 
Washington dies ; universal sorrow . 14 Dec. 1799 
The seat of government removed to Washington . 1800 
Thomas Jefferson, 3rd president . . .4 March, 1801 
Louisiana purchased from the French . 30 April, 1803 
Discussion between England and America respect- 
ing the rights of neutrals 1807 

American ports closed to the British, July ; trade 

suspended 9 Dec. „ 

Importation of slaves abolished . . .1 Jan. 1808 
James Madison, 4th president . . .4 March, 1809 
War with Great Britain (New England States 

opposed to it, threatened to secede) . 18 June, 1812 
Action between the American ship Constitution, and 
the British frigate Gnerriere, an unequal contest, 

19 Aug. „ 

Fort Detroit taken 21 Aug. „ 

The British sloop Frolic taken by the American 
sloop Wasp, 18 Oct. ; the privateer Defiance also 

captured by the Wasp ,, 

The ship United States of 54 guns, great calibre 
(commodore Decatur), captures the British frigate 

Macedonia 25 Oct. ,, 

Battles of Frenchtown {which see) . . -2-24 Jan. 1813 
Theffor net captures the British sloop of war Peacock, 

25 Feb. „ 
Fort Erie and Fort George abandoned by the British, 

27 May, „ 
The American frigate Chesapeake captured by the 

Shannon frigate, captain Broke . . 1 June, ,, 
At Burlington Heights, Americans defeated, 

6 June, ,, 
H.M. sloop Pelican takes the sloop Argus 14 Aug. ,, 
Buffalo town burnt by the British . . Dec. „ 
American frigate Essex taken by the Phcebe and 

Cherub 29 March, 1814 

The British defeat the Americans in a severe conflict, 

2 July, ,, 
[Several engagements with various success followed.] 
The British, under Ross, defeat the Americans at 

Bladensburg ; the city of Washington taken and 
public edifices burnt .... 24 Aug. ,, 

The British sloop of war Avon sunk by the American 

sloop Wasp 8 Sept. „ 

The British squadron on Lake Champlain captured, 

11 Sept. ,, 
Attack on Baltimore by the British ; general Ross 

killed 12 Sept. „ 

Treaty of peace with Great Britain, signed at Ghent, 

24 Dec. ,, 
The British repulsed at New Orleans . 8 Jan. 1815 
The British ship Endymion captures the President, 

15 Jan. ,, 

The Ghent treaty ratified .... 17 Feb. „ 

James Monroe, $th president ... 4 March, 

Treaty with Canada respecting fisheries . 

Centre foundation of the capitol of Washington laid, 

24 Aug. „ 

The "Missouri Compromise" of Henry Clay, re- 
garding slavery, passed .... Feb. 1820 

Spain cedes Florida to the American States 24 Oct. ,, 

The States acknowledge the independence of South 
America 8 March, 1822 

Treaty with Columbia . . . .3 Oct. 182^ 

4 p 2 



1817 

1818 -1 



UNITED STATES. 



1316 



UNITED STATES. 



John Quincey Adams, 6th president . 4 March, 1825 
Death of the two ex-presidents, Adams and Jeffer- 
son, on the 50th anniversary of the independence 
of the American States . . . .4 July, 1826 
Convention with Great Britain concerning indemni- 
ties for war 1812-14 13 Nov. ,, 

American Tariff Bill imposing heavy duties on 
British goods, termed the : ' tariff of abominations " 

13 May, 1828 
General Jackson, yth president . . .4 March, 1829 
Treaty between the United States and the Ottoman 

Porte 7 May, 1830 

Ports re-opened to British commerce . 5 Oct. ,, 

First railway made ,, 

New tariff laws 14 July, 1832 

Commercial panic „ 

Great fire at New York, 674 houses and many public 
edifices burnt ; loss estimated at 20,000,000 dol- 
lars 16 Dec. 1835 

National debt paid off 1836 

Martin Van Buren, 8th president . . 4 March, 1837 
In the Canadian insurrection, many Americans 

assist the insurgents . . . Oct. to Dec. ,, 

The American steamboat Caroline is attacked and 
burnt by the British, near Schlosser, to the east 
of the Niagara, on the territory of the United 

States 29 Dec. ,, 

Proclamation of the president against American 

citizens aiding the Canadians ... 5 Jan. 1838 
The Great Western steam-ship first sails from Bristol 

to New York 8-15 April, „ 

American banks suspend cash payments . Oct. 1839 

Alexander MacLeod, charged with aiding in the 
destruction oftheCaroline; true bill found against 
him for murder and arson . . . . 6 Feb. 1841 
The United States bank again suspends payment, 

7 Feb. „ 
Gen. W. H. Harrison, gth president . . 4 March, ,, 

Died 4 April, „ 

Mr. Fox, British minister, demands the release of 

Mr. MacLeod 12 March, ,, 

John Tyler, 10th president .... April, ., 
The case of MacLeod removed to supreme court at 

New York 6 May, ,, 

A party of British volunteers from Canada carry off 

col. Grogan 9 Sept. ,, 

Besignation of all the United States ministers, with 

the exception of Mr. Webster . . . n Sept. ,, 
President's proclamation against lawless attempts of 
American citizens to invade British possessions, 
and to suppress secret lodges, clubs, and associa- 
tions 25 Sept. „ 

Grogan restored to the Americans . . 4 Occ. , , 
Trial of MacLeod at Utica, 4 Oct. ; acquitted, 12 Oct. ,, 
Colossal statue of Washington placed in the capitol 

at Washington 1 Dec. ,, 

Affair of the Creole; dispute with England Dec. ,, 
[This American vessel was on her voyage to New 
Orleans with a cargo of slaves : they mutinied, 
murdered the owner, wounded the captain, and 
compelled the crew to take the ship to Nassau, 
New Providence, where the governor, considering 
them passengers, allowed them, against the pro- 
test of the American consul, to go at liberty.] 
Announcement of lord Ashburlon's mission to the 

United States .1 Jan. 1842 

Arrest of Hogan, implicated in the Caroline affair, 

2 Feb. ,, 
Lord Ashburton arrives at New York . 1 April, ,, 
Washington treaty, defining the boundaries between 
the United States and the British American pos- 
sessions, and for suppressing the slave trade, and 
giving up fugitive criminals ; signed at Washing- 
ton, by lord Ashburton and Mr. Webster, 9 Aug. ,, 

The tariff bill is passed 30 Aug. ,, 

Lord Ashburton leaves the United States . 5 Sept. ,, 
Death of Dr. Charming .... 2 Oct. ,, 

James Knox Polk, nth president . . 4 March, 1845 
War declared against the United States by Mexico, 
on account of the proposed annexation of Texas, 

4 June, „ 
[Several actions are fought between the belligerents, 

adverse to Mexico.] 
Resolution of the senate and house of representa- 
tives for terminating the joint occupancy of 
Oregon .20 April, 1846 



Annexation of New Mexico to the United States, 
after a protracted war . . . .23 Aug. 

Mexicans defeated by Taylor at Palo Alto, 8, 9 May, 

Treaty fixing the north-west boundary of the U.S. 
at the 49th parallel of latitude, and giving the 
British possession of Vancouver's island, the free 
navigation of the Columbia river, &c., signed 

12 June, 

Treaty with Columbia guaranteeing neutrality of 
the isthmus of Panama 

The Mexicans defeated by general Taylor, at Bueno 
Vista 22, 23 Feb. 

Vera Cruz taken by storm, 29 March ; the Mexicans 
everywhere worsted. Great battle ofS i e rra Gorda : 
the Mexicans signally defeated by general Scott, 

18 April, 

Treaty between Mexico and the United States, rati- 
fied 19 May, 

Gen. Zachary Taylor, 12th president . 4 March, 

Biot at the theatre, New York, occasioned by the 
dispute between Mr. Forrest and Mr. Macready, 

10 May, 

Proclamation of the president against the maraud- 
ing expedition to Cuba .... 11 Aug. 

[Lopez, a Spanish adventurer, landed 600 men at 
Cuba ; after a short but obstinate struggle they 
took the town of Cardenas ; and soon after had a 
land engagement with some Spanish soldiers, in 
which many of them were killed or taken pri- 
soners ; the others embarked with Lopez in the 
Creole steamer, and thus escaped from a Spanish 
war steamer, the Pizarro, May, 1850.] 

The French ambassador dismissed from Washington . 

14 Sept. 

Treaty with England for a transit way across Pana- 
ma (see Bidwer). io April : ratified . 4 July, 

President Zachary Taylor dies ; death of M. Cal- 
houn ....... 31 March, 

Millard Fillmore, 13th president. . . March, 

California admitted a state ... 15 Aug. 

Fugitive slave bill passed .... Aug. 

President Fillmore issues a second proclamation 
against the promoters of a second expedition to 
Cuba, and the ship Cleopatra, freighted with 
military stores destined for that island, is seized, 

25 April, 

Census of the United States taken, the population 
ascertained to amount to 23,347,884, in the whole 
union 16 June, 

Henry Clay, American statesman, dies . 29 June, 

Failure of the second expedition against Cuba by 
Lopez and his followers ; they are all defeated and 
taken : 51 are shot by the Cuban authorities, 
Lopez is garotted, and the rest are sent prisoners 
to Spain, where, after some negotiation, they are 
mercifully set at liberty (see Cuba) Aug.-Sept. 

J. F. Cooper, American novelist, dies . 14 Sept. 

The president issues a proclamation against the 
sympathisers with the revolutionary movement 
in Mexico 22 Oct. 

Part of the capitol of Washington, and the whole of 
the library of the United States congress, de- 
stroyed by fire 24 Dec. 

M. Kossuth, the Hungarian chief, arrives at Wash- 
ington, on the invitation of the United States 
legislature 30 Dec. 

Publication of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," by Mrs. 
Stowe 20 March, 

The dispute with England relating to the Fisheries 
occurs about this time ; Mr. Webster's note upon 
the subject 14 July, 

Lone Star Society (see Lone Star). . . Aug. 

The United States Ship Crescent Citu boarded at 
Havannah, and not allowed to land her mails or 
passengers 3 Oct. 

Death of the eminent statesman Daniel Webster in 
his 70th year 24 Oct 

Expedition to Japan 

Address to the women of America on slavery 
adopted by the duchess of Sutherland and other 
ladies (signed afterwards by 576,000 English- 
women) . . . . . . .26 Nov. 

Gen. Franklin rierce, 14th president . 4 March, 

Affair of Koszta at Smyrna (see Koszta) 21 June, 

Crystal palace opens at New York . .14 July, 

Duel between M. Soule (American minister at 
Madrid) and M. Turgot . . 18 Dec. 



*h 



1850- 



1851 



185 



1853 



UNITED STATES. 



1317 



UNITED STATES. 



Great fire at New York— Great Republic clipper de- 
stroyed 26 Dec. 1853 

Astor Library, New York, opened . . 9 Jan. 1854 

William Walker proclaims the republic of Sonora 
divided into two states — Sonora and Lower Cali- 
fornia 18 Jan. ,, 

American steamer Black Warrior seized at Cuba. 

28 Feb. „ 

The Spanish government remitted the fine, but con- 
sidered the seizure legal .... April, „ 

Commercial treaty concluded between Japan and 
United States by commodore Perry (sent there 
for the purpose) 23 March, ,, 

Reciprocity treaty between Great Britain and 
United States (respecting Newfoundland fishery, 
international trade, &c.) concluded . 7 June, ,, 

Captain Hollins in American sloop Cyane, bombards 
San Juan de Nicaragua . . . . 13 July, ,, 

Negotiation for the annexation of the Sandwich 
Islands Oct. ,, 

Dreadful election riots in Kansas, March and April, 1855 

Indian war : they are defeated . 25, 29 April, ,, 

Dispute with British government on enlistment (see 
Foreign Legion) July ,, 

{Jen. Harney gains a victory over the Sioux Indians, 

3 Sept. ,, 

Senator Charles Sumner savagely assaulted by 
-sagtrtjjAET-Preston Brooks in the senate-house for 
speaking against slavery ... 2 May, 1856 

Mr. Crampton, British envoy, dismissed, 28 May, ,, 

John C. Fremont nominated the "Republican " can- 
didate for the presidency . . .17 June, ,, 

Battle in Kansas ; the slavers (under Capt. Reid) ,, 
defeat Brown and the abolitionists . 30 Aug. ,, 

■James Buchanan, elected 15th president . 4 Nov. ,, 

The Resolute presented to queen Victoria (see Frank- 
lin) 12 Dec. ,, 

Lord Napier appointed British envoy to United 
States (16 Jan.) ; warmly received 18 March, 1857 

Central American question settled . . March, ,, 

Judgment given in the "Dred Scott" case in the 
supreme court. (He was claimed as a slave in a 
free state : 2 judges declared for his freedom, 5 
against it, which causes great dissatisfaction 
throughout the free states) . . . March, ,, 

Disorganised state of Utah ; troops march to sup- 
port new governor . . . May and June, ) „ 

Kiots in Washington against Irish electors ; and in (_ 
New York on account of changes in the police { 
arrangements June, ,, 

Insurrection in Kansas quelled . . July, ,, 

Commercial panic in New York . . . Aug. „ 

Outrage at Sta/ten Island ; quarantine house burnt, 

V Sept. „ 

The import duties of the protective tariffs reduced 
from 23 to 15 per cent ,, 

Dispute respecting right of search, settled May, 1858 

Tranquillity restored in Utah . . . June, „ 

Creat rejoicing at the completion of the Atlantic 
telegraph (see Electric Telegraph) . . Aug. ,, 

A massacre of emigrants at Mountain Meadows, 
Utah (Mormons suspected) . . . 18 Sept. ,, 

Lieut. Moffat seizes the American slave ship Echo 
and takes her to Charleston . . . Sept. ,, 

Death of W. H. Prescott, the historian . 28 Jan. 1859 

Daniel Sickles, a government official, killed Ph'lip 
Barton Key, for adultery with his wife ; acquitted 
of murder 26 Feb. ,, 

The American commodore Tatnall assists the Eng- 
lish at the Chinese engagement on the river Peiho, 
saying, " Blood is thicker than water," 25 June, ,, 

Gen. Ward, the United States envoy, goes to Pekin, 
but does not see the emperor . . . July, ,, 

Gen. Harney sends troops to San Juan Island, near 
Vancouver's Island, "to protect the American 
settlers ; " moderation of the British, who have a 
naval force at hand ; governor Douglas also sends 
troops 27 July, ,, 

Insurrection at Harper's Ferry . . .16 Oct. ,, 

[John Brown, called captain Brown and old Brown, 
was a prominent leader in the violent conflicts in 
Kansas, during the agitation respecting the ques- 
tion of its becoming a slave state. He was a 
monomaniac on the slavery question, and con- 
tended that all means for annihilating slavery were 
justifiable. He gathered together a band of despe- 



rate characters, who so much annoyed Missouri 
and other slave states, that a reward was offered 
for his head. He had arranged for the successful 
issue of the insurrection above mentioned, so far 
as to devise a provisional government and a new 
constitution. On 16 Oct. he and his band, aided 
by a mob, seized the arsenal at Harper's Ferry, a 
town on the borders of Virginia and Maryland, 
stopped the railway trains, and cut the'°teTegraph 
wires ; a conflict with the military ensued, when 
many of the insurgents were killed. Temporary 
panic in southern states.] 

Gen. Harney superseded by Gen. Scott at San Juan, 
who makes conciliatory overtures ; accepted by 
governor Douglas Nov. 1859 

Death of Washington Irving . . 28 Nov. „ 

John Brown capmred and tried ; executed 2 Dec. ,, 

Great agitation in the congress, Nov. 1859 ; no 
speaker elected till 1 Feb. i860 

President Buchanan protests against a proposed in- 
quiry into his acts .... 28 March, „ 

Companions of John Brown executed . March, ,, 

The national republican convention meet at 
Chicago ; Abraham Lincoln chosen as candidate 
for the presidency .... 16 May, „ 

Japanese embassy "received by the president at 
Washington 17 May, ,, 

Fresh disputes at San Juan, through gen. Harney, 
who is recalled May, ,, 

William Goodrich (Peter Parley) dies . May, „ 

The national democratic convention meet at Balti- « 
more ; a large number of delegates secede ; the (^ 
remainder nominate Stephen Douglas as presi- . 
dent ; the seceders nominate John Breckinridge, ' 

18 June, ,, 

The Great Eastern arrives at New York 23 June, ,, 

The prince of Wales arrives at Detroit, in the United 
States, 20 Sept. ; visits Washington, 3 Oct. ; 
Philadelphia, 9 Oct. : New York, 11 Oct. ; Bos- 
. ton, 17 Oct ; embarks at Portland . 20 Oct. ,, 

Abraham Lincoln, the republican candidate, elected 
1.6th president (see Southern Confederacy), 6 Nov. ,, 

[303 electors are appointed to vote for a president ; 
152 to be a majority. The numbers were, for A. 
Lincoln, 180 ; John C. Breckinridge, 72 ; John 
Bell, 39; Stephen A. Douglas, 12.I 

Intense excitement at Charleston, South Carolina, 
and in other southern states . . . Nov. ,, 

South Carolina secedes from the union . 20 Dec. „ 

Major Anderson, of United States army, occupies 
Fort Sumter in Carolina . . . . 26 Dec. ,, 

Delegates from South Carolina not received by the 
president 30 Dec. „ 

Vacillating policy of president Buchanan ; the secre- 
taries Cass, Cobb, Floyd, and Thompson resign, 

Dec. 1860-Jan. 1861 

New York and other northern states protest against 
the secession ; a general fast proclaimed ; observed 
on 4 J an - )> 

Vicksburg, Mississippi, fortified . . .12 Jan. ,, 

Kansas admitted a state . . . .21 Jan. ,, 

Secession (by convention) of Mississippi, 8 Jan. ; 
Alabama, Florida, 11 Jan. ; Georgia, 19 Jan. ; 
Louisiana, 26 Jan. ; Texas (by legislature), 

1 Feb. „ 

Jefferson Davis, elected by the six seceding states, 
8 Feb. ; is inaugurated president of the "southern 
confederacy," at Montgomery, Alabama, 18 Feb. ,, 

New (Morrill) tariff bill passed (nearly prohibits 
commerce with England) . . .2 March, „ 

President Davis prepares for war (100,000 men to 
be raised) March, ,, 

Abm. Lincoln, inaugurated president at Washing- 
ton, says, "the central idea of secession is the 
essence of anarchy " . . . . 4 March. ,, 

Southern commissioners not received by the presi- 
dent at Washington . . . .12 March, „ 

Gen. Winfield Scott, in a letter to president Lin- 
coln, sets before him four courses : either, I., to 
surrender to slavery half the territory acquired or 
to be acquired ; II. , to blockade all revolted ports ; 
III., to say to seceding states, "Wayward sisters, 
go in peace ! " or IV-, to conquer the south, which 
would require 300,000 men and afterwards a resi- 
dent army [the letter became public Oct. 1862] 

March, ,, 
(Statement denied in 1874.) 



UNITED STATES. 



1318 



UNITED STATES. 



Great excitement at the operation of the new 
Morrill tariff, which begins . . . i April, i 

The war begins : Major Anderson refuses to surren- 
der Fort Sumter, Charleston, when summoned, n 
April; it is taken by the secessionists, after a 
bloodless conflict .... 13 April, 

President Lincoln summons the congress to meet 
on 4 July ; issues a proclamation, calling on the 
states to furnish a contingent of 75,000 men, &c. 

15 April, 

Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, and 
other states zealously respond, with vigorous 
preparations for war ; Kentucky, North Carolina, 
Virginia, Tennessee, and Missouri decidedly re- 
fuse, asserting the proposed coercion to be wicked, 
illegal, and unconstitutional . . April, 

The mob in Baltimore, Maryland, attack some 
Massachusetts regiments on their way to Wash- 
ington ; several persons killed in the conflict, 

19 April, 

President Davis issues letters of marque, 17 April ; 
president Lincoln proclaims the blockade of the 
ports of seceding states . . • 19 April, 

U.S. Arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia, fired by 
command, and 15,000 stand of arms destroyed, 
18 April ; 9 ships of war and naval stores in the 
navy yard, Norfolk, Va., burnt to prevent them 
falling into the hands of the southern confede- 
rates, who occupy the place . . 21 April, 

Virginia (except West Virginia) secedes by ordi- 
nance (the 8th state) ... 25 April, 

Lincoln calls for 42,034 volunteers for three years, 
3 May, and informs foreign powers of his inten- 
tion to maintain the union by war . 4 May, 

The confederates under Beauregard and Johnston, 
in Virginia, threaten Washington, defended by 
the federals under generals Winfleld Scott and 
George McClellan May, 

The British queen commands her subjects to be 
neutral in the ensuing war . . 13 May, 

The federals enter Virginia ; Beauregard calls on 
the Virginians to rise and expel them 1 June, 

Formal secession of Arkansas, 6 May ; North Caro- 
lina, 20 May; Tennessee (9th, 10th, and nth), 

8 June, 

Several British vessels seized while endeavouring to 
break the blockade ; the southern privateer 
Savannah captured .... June, 

Neutrality announced by the French emperor 10 June, 

Fast-day in confederate states . . 13 June, 

Missouri. — Gen. Lyon raises a federal army, and 
defeats the state troops, 17 June ; the federals 
successful at Carthage, 5 July; Fremont takes 
command in West Missouri, 26 July ; federals 
victorious at Athens, 5 Aug. ; at Wilson's Creek 
(gen. Lyon killed), 10 Aug. ; Fremont proclaims 
martial law, and freedom to slaves or rebel's, 31 
Aug. ; Lexington surrenders to confederates, 20 
Sept. ; Fremont blamed, retires ; succeeded by 
Hunter 2 Nov. 

Virginia. —Federals defeated at Big Bethell, 10 
June ; occupy Harper's Ferry, evacuated by the 
confederates, 16 June ; col. Pegrim and 600 con- 
federates surrender at Beverley . 13 July, 

[Very many skirmishes, with various results.] 

McClellan defeats confederates at Rich Mountain, 
11 July; Paterson permits the junction of the 
confederates under Johnston and Beauregard 
near Manassas, 15 July ; who are repulsed at 
Blackburn's Ford, near Centreville . 18 July, 

Battle of Bull Hun (which sec) or Manassas, Vir- 
ginia; the federals, seized with panic, flee in 
utter disorder 21 July, 

Meeting of U.S. Congress, 4 July ; a loan of 250 
million dollars authorised . . . 17 July, 

Meeting of confederate congress at Richmond, 
Virginia 20 July, 

Passport system introduced into the northern 
states, and the liberty of the press greatly re- 
stricted Aug. 

The charges in the Morrill tariff greatly raised ; 
the confederates prohibit exportation of cotton 
except by southern ports . . . Aug. 
Battle of Springfield or Wilson's Creek ; confede- 
rates defeated 10 Aug. 



McClellan assumes command of the army of the 
Potomac .......... 20 Aug. 

Federal gen. Butler takes Fort Hatteras, N. Carolina 
(700 prisoners and 1000 stand of arms), 29 Aug. 

Fast-day in federal states . . ■ . 26 Sept. 

Garibaldi declines command in the federal army, 

Sept. 

Battle of Ball's Bluff; federals defeated and gen. 
Baker killed, near Leesburg, Virginia ; hundreds 
drowned 21 Oct. 

The federals and confederates enter Kentucky ; 
the governor protests; mi n/skirmishes.Sept.-Deo. 

Resignation of lieut.-gen. Scott, 31 Oct. ; George 
McClellan made commander-in-chief of the 
federal army 1 Nov. 

The federal general Sherman takes Port Royal forts, 
S. Carolina 7, 8 Nov. 

Capt. Wilkes, of federal war steamer San Jacinto, 
boards the Royal British mail packet Trent, 
and carries off Messrs. Mason and Slidell, con- 
federate commissioners, and their secretaries, 8 
Nov., and conveys them to Boston . 19 Nov. 

Great rejoicings in the northern states at the 
capture of Mason and Slidell . . . Nov. 

McClellan reviews 70,000 men . . .20 Nov. 

Capt.' Pegram, of confederate steamer Nashville, 
burns the federal ship Harvey Birch, 19N0V., and 
brings the crew on to Southampton . 21 Nov. 

A secession ordinance passed by a party in Mis- 
souri, 2 Nov. ; the same in Kentucky . 30 Nov. 

Dissensions increase between the republicans (abo- 
litionists) and the democrats in New York, <fec. 

Nov. 

Jefferson Davis elected president of confederate 
states for six years .... 30 Nov. 

President Lincoln states that the federal armies 
comprise 660,971 men . . . . 2 Dec. 

Meeting of congress, which votes thanks to capt. 
Wilkes, 2 Dec. ; the foreign envoys at Washington 
protest against his act .... 3 Dec. 

The federals commence sinking hulks filled with 
stones to block up Charleston harbour (S. Caro- 
lina) [much indignation in England] 21 Dec. 

Banks at New York, <&c, suspend cash payments, 

30 Dec. 

A firm despatch from the British government 
arrives, 18 Dec. 1861 ; Mason, <fcc, surrendered, 
sail for Europe 1 Jan. 

Phelps' fruitless expedition to Ship Island, Missis- 
sippi Sound . . . .3 Dec. 1861-Jan. 

Confederate general Zollicoffer defeated by Thomas 
and slain at Mill Springs or Somerset, Kentucky, 

19 Jan. 

Tennessee. — The federals (Grant) take Fort Henry, 
6 Feb. ; Fort Donnelson, with 15x00 prisoners, 
16 Feb. ; and Nashville . . 23 Feb. 

Confederates defeated at Pea Ridge, Arkansas, 
6, 7, 8 March, 

Confederate iron-plated ship Merrvmac destroys 
federal vessels Cumberland and Congress in Hamp- 
ton roads, 8 March ; is repulsed by federal iron- 
clad floating battery Monitor . . 9 March, 

McClellan and his army (ioo.oco) cross the Potomac 
and find the confederate camp at Bull Run 
evacuated 10 March, 

McClellan resigns general command, and assumes 
that of the army of the Potomac only ; Fremont 
that of the Mountain department; and Halleck 
that of the Mississippi . . . n March, 

Burnside's expedition sails, n Jan. ; takes Roanoke, 
N. Carolina, 7, 8 Feb. ; Newbern . 14 March, 

Capt. Wilson (British) boldly rescues his vessel, 
Emily St. Pierre, a merchantman, from the federals 

21 March, 

[She was sailing from Calcutta to New Brunswick, 
and while attempting to inquire whether a block- 
ade existed, was captured nil' Charleston bar by a 
federal ship of war. Her captain, and his cook 
and steward, were permitted to remain on board 
on her voyage to Philadelphia. On 21 March, 
Wilson with his two associates succeeded, by 
stratagem and courage, in recovering the com- 
mand of the vessel, overcoming two U.S. officers 
and 13 sailors, and brought her into Liverpool. 
The owners of the ship gave him 2000 guineas, 
and the Liverpool merchants presented him with 
a magnificent testimonial of their admiration of 



UNITED STATES. 



1319 



UNITED STATES. 



his gallantry. The British government refused 
to restore the vessel when claimed by the 
Americans.] 

Confederates defeated at 'Winchester 23 March, 1862 

General Burnside occupies Beaufort and Fort Macon 

1 April, ,, 

Slavery abolished in district of Columbia, 4 April, ,, 

McClellan advances into Virginia, with the view of 
taking Richmond ; he besieges Yorktown, held 
by 30,000 confederates 5 April, „ 

Correspondents of English newspapers excluded 
from federal army 5 April, ,, 

Great battles of Shiloh or Pittsburg Landing, near 
Corinth, Tennessee ; confederates victorious, but 
lose their able gen. Albert Johnston ; they retire 

6, 7 April, ,, 

Treaty between Great Britain and the United 
States for the suppression of the slave trade, 

7 April, ,, 

Federals take Fort Pulaska on the Savannah, 11 
April ; and New Orleans . . 25-28 April, „ 

Yorktown evacuated by confederates . 3 May, ,, 

The Seward-Lyons treaty between Great Britain 
and the United States, for suppression of the 
slave trade, signed 7 April ; ratified . 20 May, ,, 

Confederates repulsed at Williamsburg, 5 May ; their 
naval depot at Norfolk, Virginia, surrenders, 10 
May ; they burn the Merrimac . . 11 May, „ 

Commodore Farragut with a flotilla ascends the 
Mississippi May, ,, 

Little Rock, Arkansas, taken by federals . May, ,, 

Stonewall Jackson defeats Banks at Winchester, 

18 May, „ 

McClellan takes Hanover court-house . 27 May, ; , 

Skirmishes in Virginia ; success varying . May, ,, 

Severe battles of Fair Oaks, before Richmond 
(indecisive) .... 31 May, 1 June, „ 

Beauregard and the confederates retreat froni 
Corinth, Tennessee, 30 May ; pursued by Halleck 
and the federals June, „ 

Memphis, on the Mississippi, taken . 6 June, „ 

Federals defeated near Charleston . . 16 June, „ 

Federal forces under Fremont, Banks, and 
McDowell, placed under Pope ; Fremont resigns. 

27 June, ,, 

Federals suffer through several severe engagements 
in Virginia 25-30 June. „ 

General Butler excites great indignation by his 
military rigour at New Orleans May and June, ,, 

Seven days' conflict on the Chickahominy before 
Richmond ; the confederate gen. Lee compels 
McClellan to abandon the siege and retreat 17 
miles, taking up a position at Harrison's Land- 
ing, on James's river . . 25 June-i July, ,, 

The tariff still further raised . . . . July, „ 

Many conflicts in Kentucky, Missouri, and Ten- 
nessee, through confederate guerilla parties. 

June and July, ,, 

Lincoln visits and encourages the army of McClellan, 
and calls for 300,000 volunteers . . July, ,, 

Lincoln's assent to a bill confiscating the property 
and emancipating the slaves of all rebels in arms 
after 60 days . . . . -17 Jul y- » 

Halleck supersedes McClellan as commander-in-chief 

26 July, „ 

Slow volunteering ; many emigrations to Canada 
and Europe ; habeas corpus suspended ; the pre- 
sident ordains a draft if the volunteers are not 
ready by 15 Aug July, ,) 

Public debt of United States estimated at 
1,222,000,000 dollars . . . . 1 July, ., 

Pope takes command in Virginia . . 14 July, ,, 

Lincoln's proclamation of confiscation of property 
of rebels 26 July, „ 

Fierce attack of Breckenridge (confederates) on 
Baton Rouge ; the federals soon after retire, 5 Aug. , , 

Pope's troops ravage Virginia ; Banks, his subordi- 
nate, defeated at Cedar Mountain by gen. Thos. 
" Stonewall " Jackson .... 9 Au S- » 

[According to some accounts he obtained the name 
by promising Beauregard, at the battle of Bull 
Run, that his brigade should stand like a " stone 
wall ; " others say that Beauregard gave the name 
himself.] 
McClellan retreats from Harrison's Landing (said 
to have lost 70,000 men, killed, wounded, prison- 
ers, and deserters) . . . . 16 Aug. ,, 



The federals surprised, and Pope loses his baggage, 

25 Aug. 1E 
Jackson turns the flank of Pope's army, and attacks 
him at Groveton, 29 Aug. ; and when reinforced 
by Lee, defeats him and McDowell at Bull Run, 
30 Aug. ; Pope retreats to Centreville 1 Sept. , 

The remains, of Pope's army flee behind the lines 
of Washington, 2 Sept. ; he is removed to the 
north-west to act against the Indian insurrection 

3 Sept. , 
McDowell superseded ; charged with treachery, he 

claims a trial Sept. , 

McClellan appointed commander-in-chief, saves 
Washington, and marches against the confede- 
rates under Lee, who have crossed the Potomac 
and entered Maryland . . . 5, 6 Sept. 
Severe conflicts at South Mountain Gap (or Middle- 
town), 14-16 Sept. ; confederates, after a great 
fight near Antietam Creek and Sharpsburg road, 

retreat J 7 ^P*- 

Harper's Ferry surrendered to Jackson, 15 Sept, ; 
he crosses Potomac and joins Lee's army, 17 Sept. 
FederaTcause declining in the west ; they lose 
Lexington, Aug. ; and Munsfordville . 17 Sept. 
Thanksgiving-day in southern states . 18 Sept. 
Rosencrans defeats the confederates at Iukai, 9 Sept. 
Confederates re-enter Virginia laden with stores 

22 Sept. 
Lincoln proclaims freedom to the slaves in the con- 
federate states, on 1 Jan. 1863, if the states have 
not returned to the union . . 22 Sept. 

Secret convention of 16 governors of states at 
-Utoona, Pennsylvania, approve Lincoln's policy 

24 Sept. 
Draught of 40,000 men ordered in New York state 

bvi 2 0ct Sept,..; 

Lincoln suspends habeas corpus writ, and authorises 

severe measures against disloyal persons , 2 5-27 Sept, 

Desperate but indecisive conflicts near Corinth, 

Tennessee, 3-5 Oct. ; and at Perrysville, Kentucky 

8, 9 Oct. 

Confederate gen. Stuart crosses Upper Potomac, 

and enters Pennsylvania ; enters Chambersburg 

and other places, carrying off horses, ammunition, 

&c. ; rides round the federal army, and returns to 

his eamp 1°. 13 0ct - 

Gold at 29 premium at New York . . Oct. 

Great democratic meeting at New York, condemning 

the president's policy .... 12 Oct. 

At New Orleans Butler compels all persons who 

refuse to take the oath of allegiance to send in 

their names and register their property to the 

provost marshal . . . ■ 12 Oct. 

McClellan's head-quarters at Harper's Ferry, 17 Oct. 

Raid of confederate gen. Morgan in Kentucky ; he 

carries off 80 federal waggons of ammunition, &c, 

18 Oct. 
Ten confederate prisoners at Palmyra shot by order 
of gen. McNeil in consequence of the disappear- 
ance of Abraham Allsman . . 18 Oct. 
Rosencrans supersedes Buell in the west 30 Oct. 
Elections for next congress ; great majority for the 
democratic (opposition) candidates in New York 
and several other states ... .4 Nov. 
McClellan, while advancing towards Richmond, 
is superseded by gen. Burnside, 5 Nov., who 
advances towards Richmond . . 7 Nov. 
M. Drouyn de Lhuys, on behalf of the French, 
government, proposes joint mediation in the 
American conflict to Great Britain and Russia, 
30 Oct. ; declined by Gortschakoff, 8 Nov. ; by 

earl Russell • 13 Nov ' 

The confederate steamer Alabama, capt. Semmes, 
captures many U.S. vessels, and excites much 
alarm at New York . . . Oct. -Dec. 

President Davis threatens reprisals if general 
McNeil is not surrendered (see 18 Oct.) 17 Nov. 
Burnside summons Fredericksburg to surrender; 
confederate gen. Lee with about 80,000 men near 

22 Nov. 

100,000 federal soldiers on the sick list . Nov. 

Great honour shown to McClellan ; he is proposed 

as the next president .... Nov. 

The federal government orders release of disaffected 

persons in prisons . . . -25 Nov. 



I 



UNITED STATES. 



1320 



UNITED STATES. 



Annual session of U.S. congress; the president 
recommends compensated emancipation of all 
slaves in the loyal states before the yean 900, i,Dec. 

Battle of Fredericksburg (which see) ; Burnside 
crosses the Rappahannock, 10 Dec. ; bombards 
Fredericksburg, 11 Dec. ; a series of desperate 
attacks on the confederates ; Burnside totally 
defeated, 13 Dec. ; recrosses the river 15 Dec. 

Engagements in Tennessee with varying results, Dec- 
Discovery of frauds in the U.S. army financial 
accounts ; public dissatisfaction with the govern- 
ment ; secretaries Chase and Seward resign, but 
resume office Dec. 

Homestead and Pre-emption act (relating to settle- 
ment of free land) passed 

Battles near Murfreesboro', or Stone River, between 
Rosencrans and the federals and Braxton Bragg 
and the confederates : begin 29 Dec. ; severe but 
indecisive, 31 Dec. ; battle continued, t Jan. ; 
Bragg defeated, retreats ... 2 Jan. 

[" There have been about 2000 battles and skirmishes 
since the commencement of the war." — American 
Almanack.] 

President Lincoln proclaims the freedom of slaves 
in the rebel states, except in parts held by the 
U. S. army 2 Jan. 

Burnside superseded by Joseph Hooker in com- 
mand of army of the Potomac . . 26 Jan. 

The French government's offer of mediation, 9 Jan. 
declined 6 Feb. 

The George Griswold, a vessel containing provisions 
and other relief for the distressed cotton workers 
in Lancashire, arrives ... 9 Feb. 

A conscription bill (for men between 18 and 45) 
passed . . . . . . .25 Feb. 

The congress authorises the suspension of the 
habeas corpus act, 3 March ; and establishes a 
National Academy of Sciences at Washington 

4 March, 

Confederate loan for 3,000,000?. well taken up in 
Europe March, 

Charleston, South Carolina, attacked by monitors 
and gunboats ; the Keokuk, a monitor, sunk 

7 April, 

Battle of Chancellorsville (which see) ■ the federals 
under Hooker cross the Rappahannock, 28 April ; 
defeated (gen. Stonewall Jackson is ' mortally 
■wounded), 2-4 May ; Hooker recrosses the Rappa- 
hannock 5 May 

rStonewail Jackson dies ... 10 May, 

' Grant's successful campaign in Tennessee ; he defeats 
the confederates under Joseph Johnston at 
Jackson, 14 May ; and under Pemberton at 
Champion Hills, 16 May ; and invests Vicksburg, 
Mississippi, which is strongly fortified, 18 May, 
a dreadful assault on it repelled . . 22 May, 

• Great peace meeting at Norfolk . 5 June, 

Confederate invasion under Lee ; invade Maryland 
and Pennsylvania, and take various towns 

14 June el seq. 

' The federal gen. Hooker superseded by George 
H. Meade 27 June, 

Meade advances against Lee ; great battle of 
Gettysburg, jndeeisive ; but the confederates 
evacuate Pennsylvania and Maryland 1-3 July, 

Vicksburg bombarded, 3 July; surrendered by 
Pemberton to Grant and Porter . 4 July, 

iPort Hudson, a confederate fortress on the 
Mississippi, surrenders ... 8 July, 

Fierce riots at New York against the conscription ; 
many negroes murdered, and much property 
destroyed 13-16 July, 

The Sioux defeated, 7 Aug. ; gen. Pope reports that 
the Indian war is ended .... Aug. 

New York rioters tried and convicted, 12 Aug. ; 
conscription going on peaceably . . 21 Aug. 

Siege of Charleston ; defended by Beauregard ; 
attacks with varied success, July ; Fort Sumter 
bombarded and destroyed (and so-called Greek 
fire employed) ; attacks on the ruins repulsed 

21, 22 Allg. 

Knoxville occupied by Burnside . . 10 Sept. 

A Russian squadron warmly received ar New York 

Sept. and Oct. 

Battles of Chickamauga, Tennessee; Rosencrans 

defeated by Bragg . . . . 19, 20 Sept. 



1863 



Mason, the confederate commissioner in England, 
protests against the mode of his reception, and 
quits 22 Sept. 1863 

Confederates defeated at Blue-Springs, Tennessee 

10 Oct. „ 

Lincoln calls for 300,000 volunteers . 17 Oct. „ 

Rosencrans' command of the federal army in Tennes- 
see superseded by Grant, and Thomas, and 
Sherman 19 Oct. „ 

The steam rams El Tousson and El Monassir, built 
by Mr. Laird at Birkenhead, and suspected to be 
for the confederates, are placed uuder charge of a 
government vessel in the Mersey . 31 Oct. ,, 

British consuls dismissed from southern states Oct. ,, 

Meade captures a part of Lee's army on the N. side 
of the Rappahannock .... 7 Nov. ,, 

The chief justices Lowrie, Woodward, and Thomp- 
son declare that the Conscription act is uncon- 
stitutional 12 Nov. „ 

Longstreet defeats Burnside, and compels him to 
retire into Knoxville . . . 14-17 Nov. ,, 

Sherman and Thomas defeat Bragg at Chattanooga 

23, 24 Nov. „ 

Longstreet's attack on Knoxville, defended by 
Burnside, fails, and he retreats into Virginia 

29 Nov. and 1 Dec. ,, 

The confederate general Bragg superseded by 
Hardee 2 Dec. ,, 

Lincoln's message to congress warlike ; he proffers 
amnesty to all except heads of governments, &c, 
4 Dec. : Davis's message, firm, but acknow- 
ledging reverses 7 Dec. ,, 

Gen. Joseph Johnston takes command of the con- 
federate army in Georgia ... 27 Dec. ,, 

President Lincoln orders a draft of 500,000 men in 
3 years 1 Feb. 1864 

Federal expedition into Florida ;* " defeated at 
Olustee 20 Feb. „ 

Failure of attack of Kilpatrick and Dahlgren on 
Richmond .... 27 Feb. -4 March, ,, 

Ulysses Grant made commander-in-chief, succeeding 
Halleck 12 March, „ 

Confederate raids into the Western states March, „ 

Sherman's expedition against Mobile, 2 March, 
defeated by Kirby-Smith . . .5 April, „ 

James E. Stuart, the celebrated confederate cavalry 
officer, killed n May, ,, 

Campaign in Virginia ; the army of the Potomac 
crosses the Rapidan ; advance of Lee (now sup- 
ported by Longstreet), 2 May ; severe battle in the 
" Wilderness" (near Chancellorsville), indecisive, 
5, 6 May; battle of Spottsylvania ; the federals 
remain on the field ; much carnage 10-12 May, ,, 

Sherman (in Georgia) beats the confederates at 
Resacca, 14 May, and at Dallas . 28 May, ,, 

Fugitive slave act repealed by the house of represen- 
tatives 13 June, ,, 

After a succession of attacks on both sides, Grant 
compels Lee to retire gradually, and by a flank 
movement marches to the other side of Richmond, 
and faces Petersburg, 15 June ; where, having 
taken the first intrenchments after desperate 
assaults, he is repulsed with considerable loss 

18 June, 

The confederate steamer Alabama (capt. Semmes) 
attacked and sunk by the U.S. corvette Kearsage 
(capt. Winslow) near Cherbourg, France, 19 June, 

Mr. Chase, secretary to the U.S. treasury, resigns; 
succeeded by Mr. Fessenden . . July, 

Part of Lee's army invades Maryland, 1 July ; 
defeats Wallace near Monocracy river, 9 July ; 
threatens Baltimore and Washington, and retreats 

12, 13 July, 

Sherman's 3 battles at Atlanta (Georgia), 20, 22 July ; 
victory remains with the federals . 28 July, 

Confederates again invade Maryland and Pennsyl- 
vania, and destroy Chambersburg . 30 July, 

Grant orders the explosion of a mine at Petersburg, 
whereby 250 confederates are killed : but the 
assault following is repulsed with great slaughter 

30 July, 

The Tallahassee confederate steamer(built in London) 

destroys many U.S. merchantmen July, Aug. 

Severe conflicts in the Shenandoah valley : the 

federals victors . ... Aug. 

The confederate flotilla near Mobile destroyed by 

Farragut, 5 Aug. ; Fort Gaines taken 8 Aug. 



UNITED STATES. 



1321 



UNITED STATES. 



McClellan nominated for the presidency by the 

" Democratic" Chicago convention i Sept. 

Sherman occupies Atlanta ; the confederate general 

Hood retires i Sept. 

Sherman orders the depopulation of Atlanta, 

7 Sept. 

McClellan declares for maintaining the union ; the 

democratic party divided . . 13 Sept. 

Sheridan (federal) defeats Early at Winchester, in 

the Shenandoah valley, but with very great loss 

19 Sept. 
Longstreet replaces Early in the command of the 

confederates Oct. 

Longstreet defeats the federals at Cedar Creek ; 

Sheridan arrives, rallies his troops, and defeats 

the confederates .... 19 Oct. 

St. Alban's Raid. — Between 20 -and 30 armed men 

enter St. Alban's, Vermont ; rob the bank and 

carry off horses and stores ; fire on and kill 

several persons, and flee to Canada, 19 Oct. ; 

where 13 of them are arrested . .21 Oct. 

Lincoln re-elected president ; McClellan resigns his 

command in U.S. army ... 8 Nov. 

Sherman destroys Atlanta and begins his march 

through Georgia to Savannah . -13 Nov. 

Hood's attack on Thomas (federal), at Franklin, 

repulsed with severe loss . . .30 Nov. 

Lincoln's message to congress considered " bold " 

6 Dec. 

The St. Alban's raiders discharged by Judge 

Coursol ; general Dix issues an intemperate order 

for reprisals (disannulled by the president) 

14 Dec. 

Hood defeated by Thomas (federal) near Nashville 

14-16 Dec. 
Sherman storms fort M'Allister, 13 Dec. ; enters 

Savannah 21 Dec. 

Wilmington bombarded ; the attack of general 

Butler and admiral Porter repulsed 24, 25 Dec. 

The. St. Alban's raiders recaptured and committed 

for trial 27 Dec. et seq. 

The federal congress abolishes slavery in the United 

States 1 Feb 

Fruitless meeting of president Lincoln and secretary 
Seward with the confederate secretary Stephens 
and 2 commissioners to treat for peace at Fort 

Monroe 2, 3 Feb. 

The Canadian government surrenders Burley, a 

raider, to the federals .... Feb. 

Lee takes the general command of the confederate 

armies ; he recommends enlistment of negroes , 

18 Feb. 
Wilmington captured by Schofield ; Charleston 
evacuated by the confederates ; retreat of Beaure- 
gard 22 Feb. 

The confederate congress decree the arming of the 

slaves 22 Feb. 

Abraham Lincoln and Andrew Johnson inaugurated 
as president and vice-president . . 4 March, 
A new stringent tariff comes into operation, 

i April, 
Three days' sanguinary conflict at Five Forks, be- 
gan 31 March; Sheridan turns Lee's front, and 
totally defeats him, 1 April ; Lee retreats, 

2 April, 
Richmond and Petersburg evacuated by the con- 
federates and occupied by Grant . 2, 3 April, 
Sheridan overtakes and defeats Lee at Sailor's 
Creek, 6 April ; Lee surrenders with the army of 
Northern Virginia to Grant, at Appomatox court- 
house 9 April, 

Mobile evacuated by the confederates 12 April, 

The Union flag replaced at Fort Sumter, Charleston, 

14 April, 

President Lincoln shot at Ford's Theatre, 
Washington, about 11 o'clock, p.m., 14 April, 
by Wilkes Booth, who escapes ; Mr. Seward, the 
foreign secretary, and his son, wounded in his 
own house by an assassin about the same time ; 
Lincoln dies at 7.30 a.m., 15 April; Andrew 
Johnson, vice-president, sworn in as 17th president, 

15 April, 

The convention between Sherman and Johnston 
(favourable to confederates), 17 April, disavowed 
by the government, 21 April; Johnston surren- 
ders on same terms as Lee 26 April, 



1865 



Wilkes Booth shot, and his accomplice Harrold 
captured, in a farmhouse . 26 April, 1865 

The confederate general Dick Taylor (near Mobile) 
surrenders 4 May, „ 

President Jefferson Davis captured at Irwinsville, 
Georgia; imprisoned .... 10 May, „ 

The confederate general Kirby Smith, in Texas, 
surrenders; end of the war . . 26 May, ,, 

President Johnson proclaims the opening of the 
southern potts, 22 May; and an amnesty with 
certain exemptions . . . . 29 May, „ 

Solemn fast observed for death of president Lincoln, 

1 June, „ 

The armies on both sides rapidly disbanding ; fierce 
riots at New York between whites and negroes, 

June, ,, 
[Registered loss of the Federals 359,496 ; of which 
officers 9,584.] 

Galveston, Texas, the last seaport held by the 
south,. surrendered by Kirby-Smith . 5 June, ,, 

The British and French governments rescind their 
recognition of the confederates as belligerents, 

2. 6 June, ,, 

President Johnson, uniting with the democrats, 
and acting leniently towards the south ; reorgan- 
isation of the state governments . . June, ,, 

Close of the long trial of the assassination conspira- 
tors, 29 June; execution of Payne, Atzerott, 
Harrold or Herold, and Mrs. Suratt 7 July, „ 

The president declines recognition of the emperor 
of Mexico 18 July, „ 

All southern prisoners of war to be released on 
parole on taking oath of allegiance . 29 July, ,, 

Federal debt declared 2,757,253,275 dollars, 

•— ' 31 July, „ 

The confederate privateer Shenandoah (captain 
Waddell) captures and destroys many federal 
vessels (about 30) Aug. ,. 

Pacific policy of president Johnson; he declares 
himself opposed to centralisation and in favour 
of state rights ; and is bitterly opposed by the 
radicals Sept. „ 

Correspondence between earl Russell and Mr. 
Adams (U.S. minister, London) respecting the 
Alalama. confederate privateer; proposal of a 
commission to whom claims for reparation shall 
be referred .... 7 April-18 Sept. „ 

Alex. Stephens and other southern officials par- 
doned 11 Oct. „ 

Great meeting of Fenians at Philadelphia ; the Irish 
republic proclaimed - 16-24 Oct. ,, 

Much public discussion respecting equal negro 
suffrage July-Oct. „ 

The national debt stated to be 600,000,000.'. Oct. ,, 

General Robert Lee becomes president of Wash- 
ington College, Virginia ... 2 Oct. „ 

Several southern states pass ordinances annulling 
secession, abolishing slavery, and renouncing 
confederate debt . . . . Sept. Oct. Nov. „ 

National thanksgiving for the peace . 2 Nov. „ 

Captain Waddell arrives at Liverpool, 6 Nov. ; sur- 
renders the Shenandoah to the British govern- 
ment, stating that he had not heard of the end of 
the war till 2 Aug. ; he and his crew paroled, 
8 Nov. ; the vessel given up to the American 

consul 9 Nov. „ 

Capt. Wirz, after long military trial, executed for 
cruelty to the federal prisoners at Andersonsville, 

10 Nov. ,, 

A negro convention at Charleston, appeals for jus- 
tice and generosity . . . .25 Nov. ,, 

Ex-president Buchanan publishes his justification, 

Nov. ,, 
Habeas corpus act restored in N. states . 1 Dec. „ 

Close of correspondence between the British and 
U.S. governments respecting depredations of 
Alabama, Shenandoah, <fcc. The earl of Clarendon 
maintains that " no armed vessel departed during 
the war from a British port, to cruise against the 
commerce of the United States" . . 2 Dec. „ 
Congress and government protest against the French 

intervention in Mexico, Nov. ; . 6, 16 Dec. ,, 
Opening of 39th congress; president Johnson's 
message conciliatory and firm (he requires from 
the southern states— repeal of their act of seces- 
sion, abolition of slavery, and repudiation of 
confederate debt) 4 Dec. „ 



UNITED STATES. 



1322 



UNITED STATES. 



The radical party, opposed to the president, and to 
clemency to the south, predominate in the con- 
gress, and move violent resolutions against resto- 
ration of southern states to the union . Dec. 

Estimated federal debt, 6oo,ooo,oooZ. ; revenue, 
80,000,000?. ...... Dec. 

85 members for the southern states excluded from 
congress ; the conservative party support the 
president in his endeavours to reconstruct the 
union ; the radicals violently oppose his policy, 
requiring the south to undergo previously a 
severe probation; the president has restored 
state government to all the southern states ex- 
cept Texas and Florida ... 29 Dec. 

The radicals demand for the negroes, personal, 
civil, and political rights, equal to those of the 
whites; the president proposes gradual enfran- 
chisement, in separate states . . Feb. 

The president vetoes the Freedmen's Bureau bill, 
21 Feb.; and the bill for the civil rights of the 
blacks . . ■ . . . .27 March, 

The president fiercely opposed by the radicals ; the 
conservatives and democrats unite to support 
him March, 

He proclaims the rebellion at an end . 3 April, 

The Civil Rights bill passed in spite of the veto, 

9 April, 

The veto on the admission of Colorado as a state, 
15 May; set aside May, 

Fenian raids in Canada . . 31 May-7 June, 

The radical reconstruction clause termed the " con- 
stitutional amendment" (granting negro suffrage 
to be enforced by the different states ; the whites 
and the blacks to be equal in the sight of the 
law, <&c), passed by the senate . 13 June, 

Death of general Winfield Scott, aged 80, 29 May; 
and of Lewis Cass, aged 83 . . .17 June, 

Continued dissension between the president and 
the congress July, 

The representatives of Tennessee re-admitted to 
the congress (10 states still excluded) . July, 

The Atlantic telegraph completed (see Electric 
Telegraph) 27 July, 

The congress adjourns .... 28 July, 

Great meeting at Philadelphia of the National 
Union Convention, consisting of delegates (the 
moderate men of all the parties, in every state, 
north and south, now termed the conservative 
party), whose object is to establish the national 
union, restore the south to its rights, and vindi- 
cate the president's policy . . 14 Aug. 

Tour of the president ; he visits Philadelphia, New 
York, Chicago, &c; he is very enthusiastically 
received ; and speaks warmly, and often injudi- 
ciously .... 28 Aug.-i8 Sept. 

Elections for congress go in favour of the republi- 
cans Oct. 

[They demand that three-fifths of the blacks in the 
south shall be entitled to vote ; that where negro 
suffrage is not established, only whites shall 
count; and that all persons who have taken any 
part in the rebellion shall be disqualified to 
vote.] 

Death of Martin Van Buren, ex-president Oct. 

Trial of Jefferso'n Davis deferred till spring Oct. 

Elections in all the states except Delaware and 
Maryland in favour of the radicals (about 2,200,000 
to 1,800,000); two coloured deputies elected in 
Massachusetts Oct. -Nov. 

Government policy declared to be " dead " Nov. 

Meeting of congress; president's message; he de- 
clares that he adheres to his policy . 3 Dec. 

Bills to provide territorial governments in southern 
states; and restriction of president's appointing 
powers proposed 3 Dec. 

The president charged with being " silent and mo- 
tionless;" congress absorbs all the power Dec. 

A bill admitting negroes to the suffrage in district 
of Columbia passed .... 13 Dec. 

Veto of president set aside .... Jan. 

Supreme court decides that congress has not power 
to appoint military tribunals . . . Jan. 

Impeachment of president by a judicial committee 
agreed to 7 Jan. 

Division among the radicals ; Stevens successfully 
opposed by Ashley .... 20 Jan. 

Debt of the United States reported 2.543,000.000 
dollars 1 Feb. 



1S67 



Nebraska admitted as the 37th state, over presi- 
dent's veto 9 Feb. 

Bill for establishing military government in the 
southern states, divided into five districts, dis- 
cussed 13-15 Feb. 

Modified and passed, 20 Feb.; vetoed by the presi- 
dent 28 Feb. 

Mr. Peabody gives 1,000,000 dollars to promote 
education in the south .... Feb. 

40th congress opened .... 4 March, 

Supplementary reconstruction bill for the south 
passed 20 March, 

Tenure of Office act passed . . . March, 

Russian America purchased for 7,000,000 dollars ; 
treaty ratified by the senate . . .9 April, 

"Protection" rife: taxation on British manufac- 
tures 80 per cent. ; much smuggling ; public debt 
not diminishing; many strikes amongst opera- 
tives April, 

Jefferson Davis released on bail, 13 May; pro- 
ceeded to New York, and thence to Canada. 

20 May, 

Supplementary reconstruction bill adopted over 
the president's veto . . . .15 July, 

Long trial of John H. Suratt, for complicity in 
assassination of president Lincoln; jury not 
agreed on verdict (discharged, 6 Nov. 1868), 

y 10 Aug. 

Insubordination of gen. Sh erid an, favoured by 
Edw. Stanton, secretary of war, who refuses to 
resign at the requisition of the president, 5 Aug. ; 
suspended; succeeded by gen. Grant 12 Aug. 

General amnesty proclaimed by the president, 

9 Sept. 

Removal of gen. Sheridan from the government of 
Louisiana, and of Sickles from N. Carolina, for 
insubordination to the president . Aug. -Sept. 

National cemetery at Antietam (which see) dedi- 
cated in presence of the president . 17 Sept. 

Sir Fred. Bruce, British ambassador, died at Boston, 

9 Sept. 

Russian America ceded . . . .8 Oct. 

Jefferson Davis's trial adjourned . . 26 Nov. 

Elections in the south give supremacy to the ne- 
groes; in the north, great majorities for the 
democrats Oct. -Nov. 

President's message, maintaining his principles on 
reconstruction 3 Dec. 

Revenue of the states fallen off; public debt about 
520,000, oool. . .... Dec. 

Proposed impeachment of the president negatived 
in congress (108 to 57) . . . .8 Dec. 

Treaty for purchase of Danish West Indies (St. 
Thomas and St. John), for 7,500,000 dollars, 
signed Dec. 

Great general storm of snow and sleet; many 
perish; many wrecks . . . 11-15 Dec. 

President Johnson censured; and gen. Sheridan 
thanked by house of representatives (see Aug. 
1S67) 4 Jan. 

General Grant replaced by Stanton (by the senate), 

14, 15 Jan. 

The house of representatives declare that there is 
no valid government in the south ; and transfer 
the jurisdiction from president Johnson to Grant, 
as general of the army . . . 21 Jan. 

Great commercial depression; Mr. Wells, the revenue 
commissioner, recommends " peace, retrench- 
ment, and reform " .... Jan. 

The inland cotton tax repealed . about 1 Feb. 

Edward Thornton, new British ambassador, and 
Charles Dickens received by the president, 7 Feb. 

Angry correspondence between the president and 
gen. Grant .... 2S Jan. -14 Feb. 

President Johnson orders dismissal of Stanton, 
and appoints gen. Thomas secretary of war, 21 
Feb.: declared illegal by the senate . 22 Feb. 

The impeachment of the president voted by house 
of representatives (126 to 47), 24 Feb.; reported 
at the bar of the senate by Thaddeus Stevens and 
Bingham 25 Feb. 

Nine articles of impeachment (for issuing order for 
removal of E. M. Stanton from war-office, and 
following proceedings) adopted by representa- 
tives (127 to 47) ..... 2 March. 

Bill of impeachment of Johnson sent up to the 
senate by the house of representatives, 4 March, 



867 



A 



UNITED STATES. 



1323 



UNITED STATES. 



^ 



Judicious speech of lord Stanley in the British 
house of commons on the Alabama claims, 

6 March, i 

Trial of president Johnson comes before the senate, 

23 March, 

Impeachment opened by gen. Butler 30 March, 

Mr. Dickens sails from New York, after most affec- 
tionate parting 22 April, • 

National republican convention at Chicago; an- 
nounce their "platform"; approving the con- 
gress reconstruction policy; severely condemning 
president Johnson ; denouncing repudiation of 
the debt ; declaring for protection of naturalised 
citizens, &o. , 20 May ; and proposing general 
Ulysses Grant as the next president, and Mr. 
Colfax as vice-president ... 21 May, 

The senate reject the nth article of the impeach- 
ment 16 May, 

Reject 2nd and 3rd articles ; and adjourn sine die; 
intense excitement among republicans, 26 May, 

Mr. Stanton resigns, 27 May ; succeeded by gen. 
Sehofield 30 May, 

Death of the ex-president James Buchanan, 1 June, 

Chinese embassy received by the president, 5 June, 

Bill for re-admitting North and South Carolina, 
Georgia, Louisiana, Florida, and Alabama, to 
representation in congress, passed by the senate, 

11 June, 

Mr. Reverdy Johnson nominated ambassador to 
Great Britain 12 June, 

Arkansas re-admitted over the president's veto, 

20 June, ' 

The democratic convention nominate Horatio Sey- 
mour for president, and Francis P. Blair for vice- 
president 4-7 July, 

General amnesty (with exceptions) issued 4 July, 

Wyoming territory organised ... 22 July, 

Act for protection of naturalised citizens abroad 
passed 27 July, 

Thaddeus Stevens dies .... 12 Aug. 

Total debt declared, 2,641,002,572 dollars . 1 Nov. 

General Ulysses Grant, elected i&th president 3 Nov. 

General Sheridan's victory over insurgent Indians ; 
a village burnt 27 Nov. 

Any repudiation of debt renounced by the house of 
representatives (154 to 6) . -14 -Dec. 

General pardon issued . . . -25 Dec. 

Cornell university (which see) founded 

Convention respecting Alabama claims signed by 
lord Clarendon and Mr. Reverdy Johnson, 14 Jan. 

Prosecution of Jefferson Davis dropped ; a nolle 
prosequi entered 6 Feb. 

Indian war reported over .... Feb. 

Alabama treaty rejected by committee of senate, 

18 Feb. 

Suffrage bill, abolishing all distinctions of race, 
colour, and property, passed . . 21 Feb. 

General Scheak's bill, declaring that all national 

"""-TJbligatioTis "shall be paid in coin, passed 3 March, 

Adjournment of 40th congress ; meeting of 41st 
congress ; gen. Grant assumes office . 4 March, 

Schenk's bill for cash payments passed by senate, 
^ 15 March, 

bnvention respecting Alabama claim rejected by 
the senate 13 April, 

John Lothrop Motley appointed minister at London, 

April, 

Naturalisation treaty with Great Britain ratified by 
senate 15 April, 

Great peace jubilee held at Boston ; colossal eon- 
cert (10,371 voices, 1094 instruments, with anvils, 
bells, &c.) began .... 15 June, 

Wm. Pitt Fessenden, financier, died . 8 Sept. 

Steam-boat, Stonewall, burnt or the Mississippi ; 
about 200 persons perish . . . 27 Oct. 

Free-trade agitation prevalent . - . Oct. -Dec. 

Adm. Charles Stewart, "old iron-side," aged 92, died 

6 Nov. 

Correspondence respecting Alabama claims, &c, 
between lord Clarendon and Mr. Hamilton Fish 
(June— Oct. 1869), published . . . Dec. 

Renewal of the reciprocity treaty with Canada re- 
jected by congress .... 13 Dec. 

U.S. corvette Oneida sunk by collision with British 
P. & O. steamer Bombay; 112 lives lost, 24 Jan. 

[Capt. Eyre, of the Bombay, severely censured for 
not waiting to give succour. ] 



ise 9 



July, „ 
1 Jan. 

4 Aug'. Z /-< 



1870 



Darien canal scheme approved by congress, Jan. ; 

treaty signed 26 Jan. 

Virginia (15 Jan.) and Mississippi re-admitted to 

congress 3 Feb. 

Prince Arthur presented to president Grant, 24 

Jan. ; attended Mr. Peabody's funeral . 8 Feb. 

Bill for purchase of St. Thomas's isle rejected by 

senate v . .23 March, 

Texas (15 Mar.) and Georgia re-admitted to congress, 

20 April, 
By amendments of the constitution, negroes ad- 
mitted to equal rights with whites . April, 
The tariff bill opposed by freetraders . . May, 
Non-recognition of Cuba affirmed . . June, 
Lincoln state (out of New Mexico) constituted, 

June, 
Strong opposition to Chinese immigration ; citizen- 
ship refused by the senate . . .4 July, 
Admiral J. A. Dahlgren died . . 12 or 13 July, 
Session of congress closed . . . 15 July, 

J. L. Motley, minister to Great Britain, recalled 

July 
New tariff bill passed (new rates take effect 

1871) 

Admiral David Farragut died, aged 70 . 
Strict neutralityTn—the Franco-Prussian war pro- 
claimed Aug. 

Senator Oliver P. Morton accepts the embassy to 

Great Britain 23 Sept. 

Great loss of life and property through floods in 

Virginia and Maryland, end of . Sept. -2 Oct. 

Total public debt, the principal and interest, 

2,346,913,652 dollars . . - 1 Oct. 

Great reduction of the heavy internal taxation 

begins 1 Oct. 

Movement against the Mormons on account of their 

polygamy 1 Oct. 

Meeting of the southern convention at Cincinnati 

for political and commercial affairs . 4 Oct. 

General Robert Lee dies, aged 62 . . .12 Oct. 

President Grant issues a proclamation against 

Fenianism, and attacks on Cuba . . 13 Oct. 

Mr. Morton declines the embassy to Britain for 

party reasons .... about 25 Oct. 

The republican majority in the congress greatly 

reduced by the "fall" election (the first in which 

all races are duly represented) . . Nov. 

Gen. Cox, secretary of interior, dismissed ; quarrel 

between him and the president . . Nov. 

Total debt, 2,334,308,494 dollars . . 1 Dec. 

Annual message of the president : he regrets 

failure of proposal for annexing St. Domingo; 

and of the non-settlement of the Alabama claims ; 

and complains of Canadian aggression . 5 Dec. 

Population: 33,581,680 whites ; 4,879,323 coloured; 

Indians, 25,733; Chinese, 63,196 ; Japanese, 55 ; 

total, 38,549,987 Dec. 

Mr. Motley terms his recall " an outrage " 7 Dec. 
Gen. Robert Schenck appointed minister in Lon- 
don ; accepts 21 Dec. 

New tariff in operation 1 Jan. 1 

George Ticknor, historian, dies . . .26 Jan. 
Statue of Abraham Lincoln in the capitol at Wash- 
ington, unveiled 25 Jan. 

42nd congress meets (senate, 47 republicans; 15 

democrats) 4 Maxell, 

Proclamation against the Ku Klux in N. Carolina, 

5 March, 
Commission to settle disputes with Great Britain 
respecting the Alabama, &c, fishery question, and 
the San Juan affair : for the British, the earl de 
Grey (since marquis of Ripon), sir Stafford North- 
cote, and others ; for the Americans, secretary 
Fish, gen. Schenck, and others ; announced 10 
Feb. ; meet at Washington, 27 Feb. ; sign treaty, 
agreeing to arbitration at Geneva, <fcc. (see Ala- 
bama and San Juan), 8 May ; ratified . 26 May, 
General Schenck warmly received at Liverpool, 

3 June, 
An American fleet, accompanied by English and 
. French and German ships, arrives at Corea to 
conclude a treaty for protection of mariners ; on 
attempting to explore the island the Europeans- 
are assailed from masked batteries , the Corean 
forts are then attacked and destroyed ; and nego- 
tiations renewed June. 



UNITED STATES. 



1324 



UNITED STATES. 



Formation of the " new departure " democrat party 

'/ advocating perfect freedom of all males irrespec- 

II tive of race and colour, full political restoration 
of the southern states, and free trade ; about July, 1871 

Chicago destroyed by fire ; great exertions to re- 
lieve the sufferers ; see Chicago ; about 2000 lives 
lost by fires in RW. forests . . . 8-1 1 Oct. „ ■ 

Col. Hodge, paymaster of the regular army, con- 
fesses great defalcations since 10 Sept. 1864 ; con- 
demned to long imprisonment . . . Nov. ,, 

European and North American railway opened at 
Bangor, Maine, by lord Lisgar and gen. Grant, 

18 Oct. „ 

Dispute between the U.S. foreign minister, Hamil- 
ton Pish, anil the Russian envoy Katakazy (for 
undue interference) ; Katakazy dismissed Nov. ,, 

Grand duke Alexis of Russia warmly received at 
New York 18 Nov. „ 

Congress opened ; president in his message refers to 
peace abroad and prosperity at home . 4 Dec. „ 

Formal meeting of the Alabama arbitration commis- 
sion at Geneva (adjourned to 15 June) . 18 Dec. ,, 

Gen. Halleck died Jan. 1872 

General amnesty bill passed . . . 16 Jan. „ 

American case under the treaty of Washington ; 
claims indirect damages by Alabama and other 
vessels ; much excitement in England . Jan. ,, 

Despatch from the British minister sent 2 Feb. ; 
reply received (not divulged to parliament), 14 
March ; further correspondence (see Alabama), 

March, April, ,, 

Formation of Yellowstone National Park (which see) 
authorised by congress .... March, ,, 

Horace Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, 
nominated president by many republicans, 

4 May, ,, 

New tariff, reduced duties to begin from 1 Aug. ; 
passed 4 June, „ 

General Grant nominated for re-election as president 
by the republicans at Pennsylvania . 6 June, ,,, 

Continued negotiations respecting the Alabama 
affair, May ; nothing settled ; congress adjourns 
to December 10 June, ,, 

Dispute with Spain respecting unjust imprison- 
ment of Dr. Howard, an American citizen, in 
Cuba since 13 Dec. 1870 ; settled ; Dr. Howard 
released . June, „ 

Formation of " straight-out " democrat party, about 

June, „ 

Great international musical peace jubilee at Boston, 

17 June-4 Jul}', ,, 

Coalition between the democrats and the liberal 
republicans at Baltimore to support Greeley, 

10 July, ,, 

Trial of Edward S. Stokes for murder of James 
Fisk of the Erie Ring (see New York, 1872), 

15 July, ,, 

United States squadron at Southampton, England, 
visited by the prince of Wales . . 13 Aug. „ 

Judge Barnard convicted of corruption, and removed 
from office and disqualified . . .19 Aug. „ 

The "straight-out democrats" nominate Charles 
O'Connor for president .... Sept. ,, 

Announcement of the award of the Geneva arbitra- 
tion on the Alabama, <fcc. (about 3,229,1662.) Sept. ,, 

Win. Henry Seward, statesman, died . 10 Oct. ,, 

The emperor of Germany, arbitrator in the San 
Juan difficulty, awards the island to the United 
States 23 Oct. „ 

Total debtof the States, 2,276,828,101 dollars, 1 Nov. ,, 

Gen. Grant re-elected president (by 300 electoral 
votes ; 68 for Greeley) .... 5 Nov. ,, 

Death of Horace Greeley, aged 61 . 29 Nov. ,, 

Sergeant William Bates walked from Gretna Green 
to London, carrying the American Hag; warmly 
received everywhere (the feat originated in a 
wager); arrived 29 Nov. ; rode through London to 
Guildhall 30 Nov. ,, 

Gen. Grant in his message says that the results of 
the arbitration leave Great Britain and the United 
States without a shadow upon their friendly rela- 
tions 2 Dec. ,, 

Modoc Indians, near Oregon, defeat troops sent to 
expel them 17 Jan. 1873 

Visit of professor Tyndall ; he lectures in Boston, 
Philadelphia, Washington, New York, <fcc, 

Sept. i872-Feb. 



Vice-president Colfax accused of perjury . Feb. 1873 

Civil war in Louisiana, fighting at, New Orleans, 

Feb. „ 

The congress opened, great Credit Mobilier scandal, 
members accused of bribery . . . March, ,, 

Death of chief justice Chase . . . . 7 May, ,, 

General Canby and others massacred (see Modocs), 
11 -April; capt. Jack and others captured; end 
of the war 1 June, „ 

Hiram Powers, sculptor of "the Greek Slave," 
died at Florence 27 June, ,, 

Steamer IVawasset takes fire on the Potomac ; about 
70 perish 8 Aug. ,, 

Cash payments (in silver) resumed . . 28 Oct. ,, 

Great excitement through the execution of Ameri- 
cans taken in the Virginius (see Cuba) Nov. ,, 

Public debt (less money in treasury) 2,141,833,476 
dollars (about 4s. gold per dollar) . 1 Nov. ,, 

President Grant's message : (calm) . . 2 Dec. ,, 

Great deficiency in the revenue (about 1 7,000, oool.) 
announced Dec. ,, 

Alex. H. Stephens, the great confederate leader, re- 
turns to political life and the legislature Dec. ,, 

Women's whisky-iuar in S. Ohio : endeavour to sup- 
press the liquor traffic by prayers, singing, <fec, 
opposite the shops, Feb. : in New York 27 Feb. 1874 

Ex-president Fillmore died . . . " 8 March, „ 

Charles Sumner, senator, died . . n March, „ 

Women's whisky-war resisted ; subsides March, 

April, „ 

President Grant's veto of the currency bill for creat- 
ing inconvertible paper money, advocated by the 
Butler party 22 April, ,, 

Total debt, 2,285,786,818-89 dollars 1 Aug. „ 

Fierce white and black riots at Austin, Mississippi, 
quelled by the military (after loss of 15 lives) 

12 Aug. ,, 

Great excitement respecting the Beecher-Tilton 
scandal ; the rev. H. Beecher, a great preacher, t, 
accused of adultery with Mrs. Tilton, July ; ac- N 
quitted by a committee of his church . 27 Aug. ,, 

Pennsylvania Republican Convention choose go- 
vernor John F. Hartranft for next president 

Aug. „ 

Insurrection of negroes at Trenton, Tennessee ; sup- 
pressed ; leaders hanged .... Aug. ,, 

Centenary of the meeting of delegates at Philadel- 
phia celebrated Sept. „ 

Insurrection of whites at New Orleans against R. 
D. Kellogg, the governor of Louisiana, whom 
they depose, 15 Sept. ; they submit to the presi- 
dent ; and Kellogg is restored . . 18 Sept. „ 

Great fire at Fall River cotton mills, Mass., about 
60 lives lost 19 Sept. „ 

Reported massacre of whites by Indians in N.W. 
provinces .... Oct. ,, 

The Republic, new government paper, started, -Oefc — rr~ 

Lincoln monument, Springfield, Illinois, inaugu- 
rated 15 0ct - » 

Triennial convention of the episcopal church ; canon 
passed against ritualism ... 27 Oct. ,, 

Majority for democratic party in elections for con- 
gress reported 4 Nov. ,, 

President Grant's message, moderate . 7 Dec. ,, 

The senate passes a bill for the resumption of cash 
payment, 1 Jan., 1879 .... Drr. ,, 

Disturbances in New Orleans : government troops 
eject conservative members from the legislative 
assembly as unduly elected . . . 4 Jan. 1875 

New York, Boston, and other cities protest ; the 
president's excuse in his message . . Jan. ,, 

Senate rejects new reciprocity treaty with Canada 

4 Feb. ,, 

Colorado and New Mexico to be made states Feb. ,, 

Civil rights (of negroes) bill passed . Feb. ,, 

The 44th congress conies into office, 4 March ; (to 
meet on 6 Dec.) ,, 

Centenary of battle of Lexington celebrated 

19 April, ,, 

Centenary of battle of Bunker's hill celebrated 

June, ,, 

Trial of Tilton v . Beecher ends : jury disagreeing, 
discharged 2 July, „ 

Andrew Johnson, ex-president, dies . 31 July, ,, 

Democratic conventions of New York declare in 
favour of hard money and resumption of cash 
payments . .... 16 Sept. „ 



n 



UNITED STATES. 



1325 



UNITED STATES. 



John McCloskey, R. C. archbishop of New York^ 
made the first North American cardinal, received 
in his church at Rome .... 30 Sept. 

President Grant, in addressing the Tennessee army 
in Iowa, protests against Roman catholic aggres- 
sion 30 Sept. 

Democratic inflationists defeated at elections for 
governor in Ohio and Iowa . about 12 Oct. 

Virginia city destroyed by fire (see Nevada) 26 Oct. 

State official elections give large majority for repub- 
licans about 2 Nov. 

President Grant's message ; alludes to attacks on 
and defends unsectarian education ; notices un- 
satisfactory state of Cuba, and hints at ultimate 
intervention 7 Dec. 

Centennial year begun with great demonstrations 
at Philadelphia, &e 1 Jan. 

General Babcock, secretary to president, acquitted 
of complicity in " Whisky frauds ;" (resigned) 

24 Feb. 

Mr. Belknap, secretary at war, accused of selling 
official places ; resigns ; impeached by congress 

2 March, 

General Schenck, minister in London, charged with 
complicity in " Emma Mine frauds ; • resigns and 
proceeds to America ; R. H. Dana appointed in 
his room (opposed) ; John Walsh appointed next; 
John Walsh conies . . . March et seq. 

Salary of next president proposed to be reduced 
from 50,000 to 25,000 dollars . . March, 

Increased opposition to Chinese immigration,Mareh, 

Dana's appointment as minister to Britain rejected* 
by the senate .... about 5 April, 

Lincoln monument, Washington ; (erected by co- 
loured people ;) unveiled . .14 April, 

Other scandals in government offices reported, April, 

The president vetoes the bill for reduction of presi- 
dent's salary 19 April, 

Issue of silver coin for small notes . . . May, 

Dispute with Great Britain respecting the extradi- 
, tion of Winslow, an American forger March-May, 

Mr. Pierrepoint, attorney-general, nominated minis- 
^ terTorTondoh" 5 May, 

International exhibition opened (see Philadelphia) 

10 May, 

Political conferences at Philadelphia urge reforms 

May, 

Governor Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, nominated 
president, and Wm. A. Wheeler vice-president, by 
the republican convention, Cincinnati x6 June, 

The arrangements for surrendering fugitive crimi- 
nals in the treaty of 1842 nullified by the release 
of Winslow and Brent (see Extradition) . June, 

General Custer and his army attack the Sioux In- 
dians, fall into an ambuscade, and are nearly all 
killed 25 June, 

Mr. Tilden nominated president by the democratic 
convention, St. Louis ... 29 June, 

Centenary of the foundation of the republic 4 July, 

Massacre of negro militiamen by whites at Ham- 
burg, S. Carolina, 9 July ; 53 whites indicted for 
murder Aug. 

Mr. Belknap's case in the senate : 35 vote him 
guilty of official corruption ; 25 not ; acquittal 

1 Aug. 

Death of gen. Braxton Bragg . . . Sept. 

The president's proclamation against unlawful com- 
binations (of whites) in S. Carolina . 17 Oct. 

He declines to receive a centennial address from 
Irish home-rulers Oct. 

Election of electors for the president . 7 Nov. 

International Exhibition at Philadelphia closed 

10 Nov. 

President Grant's message ; he declares the elec- 
toral system to have failed ... 5 Dec. 

Election for president by delegates ; Mr. Tilden, 
184; Mr. Hayes, 185;' (some votes challenged) 

6 Dec. 

End of dispute with the British Government an- 
nounced (see Extradition) .... Dec. 

Electoral tribunal (to settle the election for presi- 
dent) chosen in congress . . .30 Jan. 

President in his message urges a speedy return to 
cash payments 3 Feb. 



1875 



1877 



Mr. R. B. Hayes' election confirmed ; Mr. Wm. A. 
Wheeler, vice-president, 2 March ; sworn, 4 March ; 
inaugurated ; in his message he professes impar- 
tial devotion to the public good, 5 March ; and 
forms an impartial ministry . . . March, 1877 

Gen. Grant visits Britain. . . 28 May et seq. ,, 

" Molly Maguire," murderous terrorist rioters in 
Pennsylvanian coal-fields ; subdued ; several 
executed June, ,, 

Strike of railway servants on Baltimore and Ohio 
railway through reduced pay ; violent riots in 
West Virginia ; reign of terror ; successful resis- 
tance to the military ; many killed and wounded 
at Pittsburg ; held by rioters ; sheriff killed ; 
cannon used 16-22 July, ,, 

Strike extending to New York railways (not in New 
England) 24 July, ,, 

Mob (many foreign communists) beaten by military 
at Chicago(i5 killed, about 100 wounded), 26 July, ,, 

Gen. Sheridan sent to Pittsburg, 22 July ; damage 
about 8,ooo,ooo£. ; tranquillity restored about 

4 Aug. ,, 

Death of Brigham Young . . . 29 Aug. ,, 

General movement for the rights of labour during 
the year ,, 

President Hayes warmly received in the south, Sept. ,, 

Formation of a Cuban league on behalf of insur- 
gents, announced Sept. „ 

Opposition to the president in Ohio, and other 
states ; in elections .... Oct. „ 

The new congress opened (democratic majority in 
the house of representatives ; gaining in the 
senate) ; Sam. J. Randall, democrat, re-elected 
speaker 15 Oct. ,, 

Many suspicious failures of commercial companies 
and others Sept. , Oct. „ 

Reduction of the federal army from 25,000 to 20,000 
voted by congress, refused by senate Oct. Nov. ,, 

Anti-resumption bill passed by house of represen- 
tatives 23 Nov. ,, 

President Hayes' message ; recommends resumption 
of cash payments on 1 Jan. 1879 ; pacification of 
the south ; good treatment of the negroes, 3 Dec. ,, 

The government defeated in the senate by Conkling 
and party ; opposing civil service reform, cash 
payments, &c. 12 Dec. ,, 

Bland's " silver bill," making silver the standard 
instead of gold ; (injurious to fundholders, &c.,) 
passed by senate, veto of the president, (specie 
payments in silver to be resumed 1 Jan. 1879 ;) 
dollar 412^ grains said to be 8 per cent, less value 
than gold 16 Feb. 1878 

Committee appointed to investigate charges of cor- 
ruption against boards returning delegates to 
elect the president June, ,, 

Gen. Butler secedes from the republicans, and 
joins a new "National party" connected with 
Kearney, a violent agitator from California ; 
(they are popularly termed " Greenbackers," as 
contending for soft money, and opposing return to 
cash payments) .... Aug. et se</. „ 

Desire expressed for a new reciprocity treaty with 
Canada Aug. 

American association meet at St. Louis . 21 Aug. 

Many deaths by yellow fever in southern states 
Aug., Sept., Oct. 

Autumn elections (mostly on 5 Nov.) 

46th congress elected ; 149 democrats, 130 repub- 
licans, 10 greenbackers .... Nov. 

President's address to congress expresses gratitude 
" for countless blessings " . . . 2 Dec. 

Gold at par (1st time since 1862) . . 18 Dec. 

Resumption of cash payments ; no great demand 

2 Jan. 187-91 

Death of Caleb Cushing, U.S. minister at Madrid ; 
aged about 79 11 Jan. 

Meeting of 46th congress ... 4 March, 

Great emigration of negroes from the southern to 
the western states . . . March, April, 

30,000,000?. 5 per cents, converted into 4 per cents. 
at par April, 

Mr. John Walsh, minister in London, resigns, July ; 
leaves England [succeeded by James Russell 
Lowell the poet] 19 Aug. 

" Knights of Labour," a secret society for protec- 
tion and advancement of workmen, active in the 
middle states 

Largest grain crops for many years . autumn, 



UNITED STATES. 



1326 



UNITED STATES. 



Public debt, 2,027,202,452 dollars . . 1 Oct. i! 

Elections specially favour republicans . . Oct. , 

Much distress of freed negroes in Kansas, &e. 1 Jan. ij 
The republican convention at Chicago choose gen. 
Garfield and Mr. Arthur as president and vice- 
president, 9 June ; the democratic convention at 
Cincinnati choose gen. Winfield Scott Hancock 
and Win. H. English ... 24 June, , 

Gen. Garfield sets forth his proposed policy in a 
letter ; says, " We legislate for the people of the 
United States, not for the whole world ; " proposes 
a check for Chinese immigration, (fee. . 12 July, , 

97,000 office holders said to be liable to change Aug. , 

Public debt reduced to 1,915,594,813 dollars 1 Oct. , 

Gen. Garfield elected president ; Mr. Chester A. 
Arthur vice-president (213-156) . . 2 Nov. , 

Treaty with China 17 Nov. , 

Dispute between the president and senator Conk- 
ling respecting appointment of collector of cus- 
toms at New York ; Conkling resigns . May, ii 

Assassination of president Garfield by Charles 
Jules Guiteau, a lawyer of Chicago, at railway 
station, Washington ; two pistol shots ; ball enters 
the body 2 July, , 

Destructive forest fires in Michigan ; about 500 
persons perish ; 10,000 homeless . . 5 Sept. , 

General Garfield, after much suffering, died 19 Sept. , 

Queen Victoria's message to Mrs. Garfield : " Words 
cannot express the deep sympathy I feel with 
you at this terrible moment. May God support 
and comfort you as He alone can " . 20 Sept. 

After lying in 'state at Washington the general is 
buried at Cleveland, in Ohio . . 23 Sept. 

Court mourning in_Great Britain . 21-28 Sept. 

334,000 dollars collected for Mrs. Garfield up to 

30 Sept. 

Centenary of the capture of Yorktown celebrated 
(English flag saluted) . . 16 Sept. et seq. 

Mr. Blaine's letter to the European powers asserting 
the treaty respecting neutrality at Panama in 
1846 to be sufficient, and protesting against their 
interference 25 Oct. 

The hon. Sackville West, the new British minister, 
warmly received at Washington . . 4 Nov. 

Guiteau's trial begins . . . .14 Nov. 

Meeting of Congress 5 Dec. 

Mr. Frelinghuysen succeeds Mr. Blaine as foreign 
minister 12 Dec. 

Guiteau in the prison van shot at by Wm. Jones ; 
his head grazed, 19 Nov. 1881 ; verdict, guilty 

25 Jan. 1 

Chinese immigration suspended for 20 years ; bill 
passed by senate about 10 March ; vetoed by 
■representatives, March ; by the president about 

4 April, 

Bill abolishing polygamy passed . 23 March, 

Great floods in the west (see Mississippi) March, 

United States constitution translated into Chinese 
by Tsai Sih Yung, completed 

Representatives pass immigration bill excluding 
Chinese for ten years .... 17 April, 

Great strike of iron- workers (about 150,000) in 
Pennsylvania begun 1 June ; going on 13 July, 

Meeting of masters at Pittsburg to organise resist- 
ance 7 June, 

Guiteau executed 30 June, 

The Chinese exclusion act comes into operation 

4 Aug. 

Act imposing a tax of 2s. per head (opposed by 
government) comes into operation . . Aug. 

One of only two copies of a life of general Garfield 
presented to queen Victoria ; the other to Mrs. 
Garfield 

End of the iron-workers' strike . about 12 Sept. 

Robert E. Lee steamer burned on the Mississippi ; 
about 20 deaths 29 Sept. 

Elections greatly in favour of the Democrats 

7 Nov. 

Death of Thurlow Weed, politician and journalist, 
aged about 85 22 Nov. 

Meeting of Congress ; president's address ; com- 
ments on financial prosperity; recommends re- 
duction of taxation and tariff . . 4 Dec. 

Civil service reform bill adopted by the senate 

27 Dec. 
Immigration, 1SS1, about 719,000 ; 735,000 in 
Presidential succession bill passed . . 9 Jan. 1 
National debt, net, 1,607,543,676 dollars 1 Jan. 



The marquis of Lome visits Washington . 26 Jan. 1883 

Reduction in internal revenue and revision of the 
tariff by the senate and congress . . 3 March, ,, 

Last sitting of the congress ... 4 March, ,, 

Great East River bridge, connecting New York and 
Brooklyn, opened 24 May, ,, 

Great strike ot telegraph clerks in various states 

July, ends about 15 Aug. ,, 

Visit of chief justice Coleridge"? very warmly re- 
ceived Sept. — Oct. ,, 

Gen. Sheridan succeeds gen. Sherman in command 
of the United States army . . . 31 Oct. ,, 

Autumn elections ; favour republicans . Nov. ,, 

The new congi ess meets .... 3 Dec. ,, 

Death of Wendell Phillips, energetic abolitionist, 
aged 72 4 Feb. 1884 

Excitement concerning the wreck ■ of the Daniel 
Steinmann (see Wrecks) ; investigation 8 April, ,, 

Financial embarrassment of gen. Grant through 
endeavouring to support his son [relieved by 
government, 1885] May, ,, 

Mr. James G. Blaine and gen. Logan nominated 
republican candidates for the presidency and 
vice-presidency at Chicago, 6 June ; great dis- 
satisfaction thereat June, ,, 

Meetings at New York, and other cities, about 

21 June, ,, 

Colossal statue of Liberty, by Bartholdi, the gift of 
the French to the United States, delivered at 
Paris by M. Jules Ferry, 4 July [received at New 
York, 19 June, 1885] . . , 

Mr. Grover Cleveland, governor of New York, and 
Mr. Thomas A. Hendricks, nominated democrat 
candidates for the presidency and vice-presidency 
at Chicago n, 12 July, ,, 

Gen. Butler offers himself as people's candidate 

19 Aug. ,, 

Great strike of miners in Hocking valley, Ohio, on 
account of foreigners ; rioting . 1 Sept. et seq. ,, 

Governor Cleveland, president, and Mr. Hendricks, 
vice-president,, elected (defeat of the republicans) 

4 Nov. ,, 

Roman Catholic plenary council at Baltimore 
(about 70 archbishops and bishops) opened 9 Nov. ,, 

Cattle-men s convention at St. Louis (see under 
Cattle) ' 18-22 Nov. ,, 

About 56,000,000 acres appropriated by the Home- 
stead act of 1862, up to 1880 ; announced Jan. 1885 

Public indignation at the criminal explosions in 
London ; stringent dynamite bill introduced in 
the senate by government . . . 26 Jan. ,, 

Public debt, 1,409,128,325 dollars, announced 

2 Feb. ,, 

The Chinese expelled from California ; indemnity 
to be claimed by their government ; announced 

Feb. „ 

Memorial obelisk of George Washington, 555 feet 
high, at Washington, inaugurated . 21 Feb. ,, 

President Cleveland installed amid great acclama- 
tions f. 4 March, ,, 

A new ministry ; secretary of state, Thomas F. 
Bayard 4 March, ,, 

Mr. Edward J. Phelps appointed U.S. minister in 
London, March; arrives at Southampton 16 May, „ 

Currency crisis ; the banks oppose the Bland Act, 
and the compulsory coinage of silver . July, ,, 

Death of gen. Grant, 23 July ; he lies in state at 
New York, 5, 6, 7 Aug. ; funeral procession 6 
miles long includes the family, president Cleve- 
land, government officials, gen. Hancock, and 
others of U.S. army ; gen. Johnson (confederate), 
soldiers, marines, &c. ; about 400 carriages ; starts 
at 9 a.m. ; arrival at the temporary tomb in 
Riverside Park on the Hudson 5 p.m. . 8 Aug. ,, 

Murderous attacks on the Chinese workmen at 
Rock Springs in Wyoming territory 29 Aug. ; 
quelled by government . . about 3 Sept. ,, 

Violent action against Chinese capitalists and work- 
men in Washington territory ; proclamation for 
its suppression by the president . 9 Nov. ,, 

Death of gen. G. B. McClellan, com. -in-chief Nov. 
1861, aged 59 28 Oct. ,, 

Death of T. A. Hendricks, vice-president U.S., 
aged 66 25 Nov. ,, 

.Gen. Sherman elected vice-president . 7 Dec. ,, 

Wm. H. Vanderbilt, aged 64, "railway king," dies 
suddenly at New York ; said to be worth about 
50 million pounds 8 Dec. ,, 







^js^sSiste^ 



UNITED STATES. 



1327 



UNITED STATES. 



Meeting of congress S Dec. 

Much money subscribed for promoting Irish Home 
Rule . iSi 

Great ovation of Jefferson Davis through the 
Southern States April, : 

German socialist agitation, eight hours' movement ; 
riots at Chicago ; dynamite employed ; mob dis- 
persed by police after fighting, 4 May ; riots at 
Milwaukee 5 May; 10 killed, 115 wounded; 25 
arrests, about 6 May ; Herr Most (anarchist) 
arrested at New York, 12 May ; convicted of in- 
citing to riot, May ; sentenced to fine and im- 
prisonment 2 June, 

Gradual cessation of strikes in different states 

about 24 May, 

Chinese Indemnity Bill passed . . June, 

Large subscriptions to the Parnellite fund for 
elections, &c June et seq. 

The president promotes civil service reform ; 
political action of officials checked . July, 

Election tour of Mr. James G. Blaine in Pennsyl- 
vania, &c. ; strongly advocating Protection i60ct. 

Bartholdi Statue of Liberty, 150 feet high, set up at 
the harbour of New York, 305 feet above the sea 
level, on Bedloe Island, publicly dedicated by the 
president 28 Oct. 

Alien's Landlord's Bill (almost limiting holding of 
land and mines in "territories" to citizens) 
passed 2 Aug. 

Ex-president Arthur dies . . . .18 Nov. 

Great increase of speculation in railway stocks and 
trade Nov. -Dec. 

Mr. Henry George (see under Land) propagates his 
doctrines of Land Nationalisation ; much opposed 

18 

Edmunds' Canadian Fisheries Bill passed senate 
(46-1) 24 Jan. 

Fisheries Retaliation Bill passed . . 3 March, 

American Exhibition (which see) opened in London 

9 Ma >'. 

Seven socialists sentenced to death for murders 
during riots at Chicago, May, 20 Aug. 1886 ; 
ordered for execution .... 14 Sept. 

Centenary of the adoption of the Federal con- 
stitution celebrated at Philadelphia ; five miles' 
procession illustrating the progress of trade and 
industry ; fall of a great stand, many spectators 
injured, 15 Sept. ; review of the army by the 
president, &c '.17 Sept. 

After great efforts for remission of sentence four of 
the Chicago anarchists executed (two sentenced 
to life imprisonment, one committed suicide) 

11 Nov. 

Mr. Barnum's menagerie at Bridgport, Connecticut, 
burnt (see Menagerie) . . . .10 Nov. 

Mr. J. Chamberlain warmly received at New York ; 
grand dinner at the chamber of commerce, 15 Nov. 

President Cleveland's message strongly urges fiscal 
reform, large reduction of protective duties and 
other taxation ; surplus income 1886-7 above 
11,000, 000L (annually increasing) 6 Dec; approved 
by the Democrats, opposed by the Republicans, Dec. 

Naturalization of British emigrants increasing ; 
strongly advocated by the British American 
newspaper to neutralize Irish influence (see 
George, St.) autumn 

The Knights of Labour order strikes of colliers and 
railway men ; total on strike about 50,000, end 
of Dec. ; end of railway strike reported 28 Dec. 

Snowstorm in the N.W. states ; about 235 persons 
perish and many cattle . . . n-13 Jan. 

Reform club at New York to support tariff reform ; 
first banquet 21 Jan. 

Treaty respecting fisheries signed at Washington 
(see Fisheries) . . ■. . . .15 Feb. 

Destructive blizzard (see Storms) . 11- 13 March, 

Deadlock in the House of Representatives on the 
Direct Tax Bill ; ended ... 13 April, 

Mr. James G. Blaine announces positively his re- 
tirement from his candidature for the presidency 

17 May, 

Mr. Cleveland nominated by acclamation for re- 
election as president by the Democratic conven- 
tion at St. Louis, 6 June ; gen. Benjamin Harrison 
(born 20 Aug. 1833) nominated candidate by the 
Republican convention at Chicago . 25 June, 

Lock-out of about 100,000 ironworkers near New- 
York 30 June, 



President. Cleveland at New York declares vigor- 
ously for reduced import duties and fiscal reform 

5 Ju iy. 1 

American Tariff Bill passed lower House 21 July, 

Death of gen. Philip Henry Sheridan, commander- 
in-chief of the army, aged 57, 5 Aug. ; succeeded 
by gen. John M. Schofield . . .14 Aug. 

Treaty with China to prohibit Chinese immigration 
for 20 years 14 March ; bill passed . 20 Aug. 

The senate refuses to ratify the fisheries treaty 

21 Aug. 

The president in a message censures this, but 
declares for a policy of retaliation against Canada 

23 Aug. 

Retaliation Bill passed by the House . 8 Sept. 

Agitation against "Trusts and Combines" (which 
see) autumn, 

Chinese Exclusion Bill approved by president 
Cleveland Oct. 

Chinese Exclusion Act vigorously carried out at 
San Francisco and at other places middle Oct. 

Lord Sackville, British minister at Washington, 
dismissed by president Cleveland for conver- 
sations with a reporter, and for writing a private 
" reply to an alleged " naturalised Englishman in 
California respecting the presidential election 30 
Oct. ; lord Sackville admitted indiscretion but 
repudiated other charges ... 26 Oct. 

Gen. Benjamin Harrison elected president, Mr. 
Levi P. Morton, vice-president ; great defeat of 
the Democrats (233-168) ... 5 Nov. 

Resolution introduced into the House proposing 
negotiations for the annexation of Canada, 13 Dec. 

The American Commonwealth, by professor James 
Bryce, M.P., an elaborate work published . 

Destructive tornado in the Eastern ■ states (see 
Storms) 9 Jan. 1 

Bill introduced in the House for stringent repres- 
sion of immigration, especially labourers and 
criminals 19 Jan. 

New Tariff Bill passed by the senate . 22 Jan. 

The Anglo-American Extradition Treaty rejected 
by the senate (38-15) . . . .1 Feb. 

The senate and house pass the Nicaragua Canal 
BiU 7 Feb. 

Explosion at Park Central Hotel in Hartford, U.S. ; 
about 40 persons killed . . . .18 Feb. 

Gen. Harrison assumes office ; his cabinet formed ; 
Mr. Blaine, secretary of state . . 4 March, 

Demonstrations and subscriptions in honour of Mr. 
Parnell at Philadelphia and other places (see 
Ireland) March, 

Storm at Samoa ; three American war- vessels with 
loss of 4 officers and 46 men (see Samoa), 16 March, 

Oklahoma (which see) reserved lands (virgin soil) 
near Kansas, Arkansas, and Texas, proclaimed 
open to settlers ; thousands of farmers and others 
with their goods, cattle, &c, migrate thither; 
riotous proceedings with bloodshed precede and 
attend the entering .... 22 April, 

Sir Julian Pauncefote becomes British minister at 
Washington, Feb. ; arrives . . 23 April, 

Guthrie and two other towns founded 23 April, 

Order maintained by the military and lynch law 
24 April et seq. 

Many unsuccessful settlers return, reported April, 

Celebration at New York of the centenary of gen. 

Washington's inauguration as first president 

29 April-i May, 

Naval procession ; 300 vessels sail round the har- 
bour 29 April ; military procession (65,000 men) 
30 April , civic and industrial procession 1 May, 

A convention met at Columbia, Tennessee, and 
organized an American-Scottish-Irish Association 
to perpetuate race memories and history 8 May, 

Cyclone from Maryland to Connecticut, much 
damage 10 May, 

Mr. Robert T. Lincoln, son of Abraham, appointed 
minister to Great Britain, March ; arrives in 
London 22 May, 

Dr. Patrick Henry Cronin, Irish dynamite nation- 
alist (expelled from the Clan-na-Gael, and de- 
nounced as a spy by Alex. Sullivan and the 
leaders, termed the " Triangle," and condemned 
to death by them for accusing them of embezzling 
funds allotted for dynamiting in England, Feb.) 
4 May ; found murdered at Lake View, Chicago 
22 May ; several men arrested . 29 May et seq. 



UNITED STATES. 



1328 



UNITED STATES. 



The coroner's jury declare the murder to be the 
result of a conspiracy of which Alexander Sulli- 
van, P. O'Sullivan, Daniel Coughlin and Frank 
Woodruff' (connected with the Clan-na-Gael) 
were the principals. Alex. Sullivan and others 
arrested 12 June ; Alexander Sullivan released 
on high bail 15 June, 1 

Martin Burke arrested at Winnipeg, Canada, 
indicted about 20 June. The grand jury at 
Chicago after 16 days' investigation, presents an 
indictment against Martin Burke, John F. Beggs, 
Daniel Coughlin, Patrick O'Sullivan, Frank 
Woodruff, Patrick Cooney, and John Kunz, with 
others unknown, of conspiracy and of the murder 
of Patrick Henry Cronin . . . 29 June, 
[The conspiracy is said to have originated in camp 
20 of the Clan-na-Gael.] 

About 6,000 persons perish by the overflow of the 
dam of a lake in Conemaugh valley (see Pennsyl- 
vania) 31 May, 

Destructive floods in the eastern states ; 8 persons 

drowned at Harper's Ferry, Virginia, and 13 

at Corning, New York ; estimated loss at 

Washington, 1,000,000 dollars ; floods subsiding 

end of May, and 1, 2 June, 

Message of sympathy from queen Victoria to the 
president 8 June, 

Visit of American civil, mechanical, mining, and 
electrical engineers ; well received in Loudon, &c. ; 

early June, 

Death of Simon Cameron, aged 90, war secretary 
during the civil war .... 26 June, 

Great public meeting at Chicago impeaching the 
Clan-na-Gael as "an association of assassins," 
"existing under the protection of the United 
States, usurping the highest acts of government, 
in that it decrees death, exacts fealty, and levies 
war "....... 2 July, 

A meetingof Irish- Americans at Chicago propose the 
formation of an "Irish-American Republican As- 
sociation," to be settled in Lower California 5 July, 

Inundation in Mohawk Valley, New York ; 14 
persons drowned at Johnstown . . 9 July, 

Martin Burke (otherwise Frank Williams) at 
Winnepeg ordered for extradition 10 July ; given 
up 3 Aug. 

The British sealer, Black Diamond, seized by the 
U.S. revenue cutter Rush (captain Shepard), in 
Behring sea (see Behring Straits) . 30 July, 

Reception at Liverpool of 50 representatives of 
American industries (on a tour of trade observa- 
tion in Europe) 1 Aug. 

The national monument at New Plymouth, Mas- 
sachusetts, commemorating the landing of the 
" Pilgrim Fathers " {which see) dedicated 1 Aug. 

The Sioux and the Chippewa Indians sell a large 
part of their reservations, which are to be opened 
for settlement .... A ug. 

David Terry, formerly a judge, shot dead at La- 
thorp, California, by Marshal Nagle, for striking 
judge Field in revenge ... 14 Aug. 
[Nagle was exonerated, 17 Sept.] 

Destructive storm on the east coast (see Storms), 

11, 13 Sept. 

Pan-Anglican Congress {which see), meeting of dele- 
gates at Washington .... 30 Sept. 

Maritime conference {which see) at Washington, 

16 Oct. 

Fine evolutionary fleet (4 vessels) sails from New 
York for the Mediterranean under rear-admiral 
Walker 10 Nov. 

President Harrison's message, moderate and pacific, 

3 Dec. 

Death of Mr. Jefferson Davis, aged 81, late presi- 
dent of the Confederate States, 6 Dec. ; solemnly 
buried at New Orleans . . n Dec. 

[Re-interred at Richmond, Virginia, 31 May, 
1893.] 

The new Anglo-American extradition treaty ratified 

by the senate ..... 18 Feb. 1 
Mr. Blaine and sir J. Pauneefote agree to refer the 
Behring sea affair to arbitration, reported, 

25 Feb. 
Inundations in the west through excessive rains, 
destructive snowstorms on the east coast, 

end of Feb. 



A national convention of the delegates of the 
coloured citizens of the U.S., at Washington, 
issues an address 7 Feb. 

Cronin trials. The ease called on 26 Aug. 1889 ; 
1,115 talesmen were examined before a jury of 12 
could be obtained (a plot to corrupt the jury 
having been discovered, 4 persons pleaded guilty, 
one convicted, Feb. 1890) ... 23 Oct. 

The trial began at Chicago before judge. M'Conuell : 
Mr. Longenecker, state attorney, counsel for the 
prosecution, Mr. Forrest for the defence, 24 Oct. ; 
the jury acquitted John F. Beggs ; found Daniel 
Coughlin, Patrick O'Sullivan, and Martin Burke 
guilty of murder, and sentenced them to im- 
prisonment for life ; John Kunz, as accessory, 
to 3 years' imprisonment . . . 16 Dec. 
[Frank Woodruff discharged, April, 1890.] 

A new trial granted to John Kunz, the other 
sentences confirmed .... 14 Jan. 

"World's Fair " ordered to be in 1893 . March, 

Bills introduced for greatly raising the minimum 
of the coinage of silver, fixed by the Bland act of 
1878 ; bills dropped through disagreement, re- 
ported 19 April, 

The World's Fair bill passed ; signed by the presi- 
dent 25 April, 

Congress votes 150,000 dollars for relief of sufferers 
by the Mississippi floods ; sent to the president, 

25 April, 

Naval Supply bill passed by the senate ; three 
battleships to be built . . . .27 May, 

The president proclaims the Behring sea closed to 
unlicensed seal-fishing . . .25 March, 

The president approves of the new silver bill passed 
to enlarge the currency ... 14 July, 

John C. Fremont, scientist, explorer, statesman, 
&c, dies, aged 77 13 July, 

The British sealing schooners, George R. White and 
Ariel, seized in Behring seas reported . 31 July, 

Silver purchase circular issued by the secretary of 
the treasury, ottering to sell silver bullion in lots, 
not under 10,000 ozs., to mints, on and after 13 
Aug 1 Aug. 

Strikes of workmen, railway men, &c, in New 
York, Chicago, &c Aug. 

Labour clay, orderly demonstration in New York, 
Chicago, and other cities . . .1 Sept. 

Mr. McKinley's tariff bill, highly protectionist, to 
encourage home manufactures, after long discus- 
sion and opposition from the democrats, passed 
by the congress, 30 Sept. ; approved by the pre- 
sident, 1 Oct. ; conies into operation . 6 Oct. 
[The bill greatly affected Great Britain, Canada, 
France, Austria, and other states ; the act in- 
cludes a policy of retaliation and reciprocity.] 

The count of Paris arrives at New York, 3 Oct. ; 
at Philadelphia, 6 Oct. ; at Washington, 7 Oct. ; 
Richmond, 9 Oct. ; New York, 17 Oct. ; leaves 
for Canada 21 Oct. 

Elections for the 52nd congress ; great majority for 
the democrats .... 4 Nov. et seq. 

For Indian rising, see Indians . Nov. et seq. 

The president's message to congress, defending the 
McKinley tariff, &c 1 Dec. 

Convention at Ocala, Florida, to organize a new 
political party to be named the National Union 
party, to include the Farmers' Alliance, the 
Knights of Labour and similar bodies, early Dec. 

A free silver coinage bill hastily passed by the 
senate 15 Jan. 

Great distress in the west attributed to the McKin- 
ley act Jan. 

Death of George Bancroft, historian and diplo- 
matist, aged 90 17 Jan. 

Destructive snowstorm on the Atlantic coast, 
starting from Alabama (see New Fort) 24, 25 Jan. 

Death of admiral David Dixon Porter, eminent com- 
mander in the Civil war, aged 76 . 13 Feb. 

Gen. Win. Tecumseh Sherman, commander-in-chief 
(1869-84) dies, aged nearly 71, 14 Feb. ; funeral 
ceremony at New York ; present, president 
Harrison and state officials, chief army officers 
with about 10,000 troops, 19 Feb. ; burial at St. 
Louis, Missouri 21 Feb. 

Mr. Charles Foster appointed secretary of the 
treasury 21 Feb. 



UNITED STATES. 



1329 



UNITED STATES. 



Thesenate's free coinage bill defeated by the house, 
22 Feb. ; end of the great speculation in Wall- 
street, New York, termed the "silver pool," or 
syndicate 24 Feb. 

Gen. Joseph Johnston, confederate, aged 87, dies, 

21 March, 

President Harrison's tour to the Pacific coast ; 
visiting the S. and W. states . April, May, 

The Farmers' Alliance form a "third party" to 
oppose the republicans and democrats, 

end of May, 

Mr. John Bardsley, city treasurer of Philadelphia, 
sentenced to 15 years' solitary confinement, and 
heavy fine, for defalcations . . 2 July, 

Threatened revolt of the Indians (which see), 

12 July, 

James Kussell Lowell, statesman and popular 
writer, dies, aged 72 . . . . 12 Aug. 

Dispute with Chili (which see) . . . Oct. 

Fight between supporters of the Farmers' Alliance 
and their opponents, 5 deaths at Bucksport, 
Arkansas 28 Oct. 

Destructive storm over the city of Washington, 
and a waterspout, much damage done at Balti- 
more, and along the coast ... 23 Nov. 

Meeting of the 52nd congress ; republican majority 
lost; president Harrison's message . 9 Dec. 

A new "reciprocity " party formed, headed by Mr. 
Blaine, about 80,000 members . . 9 Jan. : 

The arbitration treaty respecting the Behring seas 
signed at Washington, (see Behring Straits) 29 Feb. 

Death of Walter Whitman, national poet, author of 
" Leaves of Grass," aged 72 . . 26 March, 

Destructive tornado in the N.W. states ; about 30 
persons killed 3 April, 

The difficulty with the Italian government closed 
(see New Orleans) .... 14 April, 

Above 450,000,000 of silver dollars in the treasury 
vaults, reported .... 25 April, 

The corner stone of general Grant's monument in 
Riverside-park, New York, laid by president 
Harrison 27 April, 

The. invitation to an international conference on the 
silver question, accepted by Great Britain and 
other powers (see Monetary Conferences) 

May, June, 

The National Bi-metallic League formed in Wash- 
ington May, 

Resignation of Mr. Blaine as secretary, 4 June ; 
succeeded by Mr. John W. Foster . 29 June, 

President Harrison nominated for re-election by 
the republican convention at Minneapolis, Mr. 
Whitelaw Reid as vice-president . . 10 June, 

Mr. Grover Cleveland (president 1885) nominated 
for election as president at Chicago, Mr. Adlai 
E. Stevenson as vice-president . 23 June, 

The Texas, battleship, launched at Norfolk, Vir- 
ginia 28 June, 

The "Prohibition" (temperance) Convention at 
Cincinnati nominates gen. John Bidwell for 
president 1 July, 

Senator W. M. Stewart's Free Silver bill passed the 
senate, 1 July ; rejected by the house . 13 July, 

The "People's Party" convention at Omaha, 
nominates gen. James B. Weaver for president, 
and gen. J. G. Field for vice-president . 5 July, 

Great heat throughout the greater part of the 
United States, about 23 July ; many deaths ; 
99°-io2°, 28 July ; the hottest day for 21 years, 
29 July ; traffic impeded by death of horses, 29 
July ; 107°, 223 deaths at New York, 29 July ; 90 
deaths, 30 July ; 296 deaths, 31 July ; cooler, 

31 July, 

The congress adjourns till Dec. 1892 . 6 Aug. 

The Marblehead, warship, launched at Boston 

u Aug. 

Great strike on several railways in New York State, 
13 Aug. ; severe conflicts between strikers and 
non-strikers ; about 150 cars burnt, 14, 15 Aug. ; 
the Buffalo railway guarded by troops ; traffic 
suspended ; troops massed ; more strikes, with 
conflicts like civil war, 17 Aug. et seq. ; traffic 
resumed under military protection, 18, 19 Aug. ; 
end of strike reported . . . . 24 Aug. 

Rising of miners in Tracy City, Tennessee, against 
the employment of convicts in state labour, 
13 Aug. ; convicts attacked and expelled and 
their stockades demolished ; fighting between 



the convict guard and the strikers ; the strikers 
victors at Coal Creek ; much slaughter ; progress 
of troops on the line temporarily stopped ; the 
miners surrender to gen. Carries after severe 
fighting ; order restored at Coal Creek 

18, 19 Aug. : 

Western Reserve, steamer, wrecked on Lake Supe- 
rior ; 26 lives lost . . . .30 Aug. 

Hattie, U.S. fishing schooner, seized by the Cana- 
dian cruiser Curlew, while unlawfully fishing in 
the Bay of Fundy . . . reported 6 Sept. 

Death of John Greenleaf Whittier, eminent poet, 
and opponent of slavery, aged 84 . .7 Sept. 

Cholera panic on Long Island, New York ; the 
landing on Fire Island of passengers from foreign 
vessels violently resisted by an armed mob, 
causing much distress ; the landing only effected 
by governor Flower and the military, 11-13 Sept. 

Grand celebration of the discovery of America by 
Columbus (12 Oct. 1492) at New York, Phila- 
delphia, and throughout the union, 12 Oct. et seq. 

Solemn dedication of the buildings of the World's 
Columbian exposition at Chicago (ivhich see), 

21 Oct. 

Death of Mrs. Caroline Scott Harrison, wife of the 
president ; an accomplished lady ; aged 58, 

25 Oct. 

General drought throughout the country, Aug.-Oct. 

Grover Cleveland re-elected president, 277 ; Harri- 
son, 145 ; Weaver, 22 ; total, 444 ; Mr. Adlai E. 
Stevenson vice-president . . .8 Nov. 

Coinage in year 1891-2 : gold, value 35,506,978 
dollars ; silver dollars, 8,329,467 ; total coinage, 
51,792,976 dollars ; mint report . about 18 Nov. 

Mr. Jay Gould, successful speculator in railways 
and telegraphy, realizes between 72,000,000 
dollars ; termed "little wizard of Wall-street ;" 
dies at New York, aged 56 . . .2 Dec. 

Congress opened by president Harrison, 5 Dec. ; his 
message very cheerful .... 6 Dec. 

Death of gen. Benjamin Franklin Butler, aged 75 ; 
energetic republican .... Jan. 

Death of ex-president gen. Rutherford B. Hayes, 
aged 70 17 Jan. 

James Gillespie Blaine, statesman and orator ; born 
31 Jan. 1830, died 27 Jan. ; state funeral, 30 Jan. 

The commissioners from Honolulu received (see 
Sandwich Isles) 11 Feb. 

Treaty for the annexation of the Sandwich isles 
proposed 

Gen. Pierre G. T. de Beauregard, confederate (see 
above, 1861), dies, aged 75, reported . 22 Feb. 

The president hoists the U.S. flag on the mail 
steamer New York .... 22 Feb. 

Judge Walter Q. Gresham as secretary of state ; 
Mr. John G. Carlisle, secretary of the treasury ; 
Daniel S. Lamont, war ; Hilary A. Herbert, navy ; 
Mr. Hoke Smith, interior ; Mr. Richard Olney, 
attorney-general ; appointed . . . Feb. 

Indiana, great battleship, launched at Philadelphia, 

28 Feb. 

Inauguration of Grover Cleveland as president ; in 
his address, he declares for a stable currency, 
condemns protection and state paternalism and 
favouritism ; proposes reform of the civil service 
and the tariff, and justice and humanity to the 
Indians 4 March, 

Sir Julian Pauncefote, British minister at Washing- 
ton ; Mr. Robert T. Lincoln, U.S.A. minister in 
London ; nominated " ambassadors " . March, 

Mr. Thomas F. Bayard appointed first "ambassa- 
dor" for London ; (died 28 Sept. 1898), 30 March, 

Grand international naval review at New York ; 
2 columns of war-ships, extending about 3 miles ; 
present : president Cleveland and his cabinet, 
American superior officials, diplomatic body, &c, 
the duke of Veragua, and many eminent persons ; 
many presentations to president Cleveland ; all 
operations successful ; in the evening, illumina- 
tions and fireworks and parade of troops and 
seamen in the city . . . . . 27 April, 

New immigration law comes into effect, 3 May ; the 
Chinese exclusion act much opposed . 5 May, 

Launch of the Massachusetts, great battleship, at 
Philadelphia 10 June, 

Fall of price of silver through the Indian currency 
act, end of June ; silver mining and works sus- 
pended in Colorado and other places . 29 June, 

4 Q 



UNITED STATES. 



1330 



UNITED STATES. 



Extra session of congress opens . . 7 Aug. 

President Cleveland, in his message, referred to the 
silver troubles S Aug. 

Award of the arbitrators at Paris issued (see 
Behring Straits) 15 Aug. 

Two compulsory silver purchase repeal bills : Mr. 
Voorhees' before the senate, 28 Aug.; Mr. Wilson's 
passed by the house, 28 Aug. ; prolonged discus- 
sion in the senate Oct. 

Cherokee Strip, near Arkansas {which see), given up 
for settlement 16 Sept. 

The world's fair closed (see Chicago) . 30 Oct. 

The silver purchase repeal bill passed by the 
senate (victory of pres. Cleveland) 43-32, 30 Oct. ; 
signed by him 1 Nov. 

The Chinese exclusion bill passed by the senate, 

2 Nov. 

Death of Francis Parkman, historian of French 
America, aged 70 . . . . -9 Nov. 

President Cleveland's message to congress firm, 
liberal and pacific 4 Dec. 

Out of work in New York, 80,000 ; Chicago, 120,000 ; 
Philadelphia, 60,000, reported . . 21 Dec. 

The tariff bill, with internal revenue bill and 
income-tax clause, passed (204-140) by the house, 

1 Feb. 

The Kearsage (battle-ship) wrecked in the Caribbean 
sea, on Roncadore reef ; all saved . . 2 Feb. 

Mr. Bland's silver seigniorage coinage bill, author- 
izing a large coinage of silver, passed by the 
house, 1 March ; by the senate, 15 March ; vetoed 
by pres. Cleveland .... 29 March, 

Decline of the democratic party through ministerial 
mismanagement respecting the finances and 
currency (not due to president Cleveland), 

Feb., March, 

The Behring sea treaty bill passed . . 7 April, 

Great stiike of colliers (about 126,600) in Penn- 
sylvania, Ohio, Maryland, and other coal districts, 
reported, April ; rioting, with bloodshed, in 
Illinois and other places, May ; troops called out, 
27 May et seq. ; subsidence of the coal strike 
through compromise, reported . 10 June, 

Coxey's commonweal, and other " industrial 
armies," formed by Mr. Coxey, of Ohio, through- 
out the states, proceeding to Washington to 
demand legislation for work and better payment ; 
conflict with the railway authorities at Omaha, 
Council Bluffs, Nebraska, 20 April ; 1st section 
arrives, 21 April ; trains seized and successfully 
held against the authorities in Montana and 
Indiana ; some re-captured by troops in Dakota, 
&c, April ; total of Coxeyite bands, 7,250 ; the 
main body of Coxeyites (about 400) arrive at 
Washington 29 April, 

Messrs. Coxey, Browne and Jones committed for 
illegal acts, 2 May; imprisoned and fined, about 
21 May ; the movement collapsing, reported, 

11 May, 

Settlement of the claims against Chili {which see, 
1894) 

Arrival of rear-admiral Erben anil capt. A. T. 
Mahan (naval historian) in the U.S. war-ship 
Chicago in the Thames, a May ; banquet given to 
them in St. James's hall, 24 May ; reception and 
dance on the Chicago off Gravesend . 11 June, 

Capt. Mahan made LL.D. at Cambridge, 18 June ; 
D.C.L. at Oxford .... 20 June, 

Railway strikes: "Pullman ear," reported, 28 
.June; above 60,000 men out ; service partially 
■blocked throughout the states, 29 June ; the 
government orders the military to raise the 
blockade of the railways and quell rioting; Mr. 
Edward Phelan, strike leader, arrested at Cincin- 
nati, 3 July ; conflicts ensue, reported . 6 July, 
[See Chicago.] 

Martial law proclaimed in Illinois and other states, 

9-10 July, 

Strike subsides 13 July, 

Collapse of the railway union . . . 15 July, 

Senator Gorman's new tariff bill passed by the 
senate 3 July, 

Disagreement between the senate and house respect- 
ing tariff bill, 19 July ; long conference of dele 
gates fruitless, 8 Aug. ; compromise ; the senate's 
tarifl bill, favouring free trade, passed by the 
house (181-105), 13 Aug. ; conies into force, 

27 Aug. 



1893 



Bill for the exclusion and deportation of anarchists 
passed 16 Aug. 18 

New treaty between United States and China rati- 
fied, reported 28 Aug. , 

Session closed Sept. , 

Nine weeks' drought leads to great forest fires in 
Minnesota, Wisconsin and Michigan ; 13 tow r ns 
and many villages destroyed, 31 Aug.~3 Sept. ; 
400 deaths, reported .... 4 Sept. , 

Oliver Wendell Holmes, M.D., physiologist, poet, 
novelist and essayist ; "Autocrat of the Breakfast- 
table ;" born 29 Aug. 1809 ; died . . 7 Oct. , 

Gen. Schofield advocates increase of the army to 
support the authority of the federal government, 

Oct. ,, 

Autumn elections : 248 republicans ; 95 democrats ; 
13 populists, in the house . . 7 Nov. et seq. ,, 

Congress opens with the president's message, 

3 Dec. , 

Message from the president to the congress re- 
specting the withdrawal of gold . . 28 Jan. 18 

Gold received from Philadelphia, Cincinnati, &c, 

Jan. ,, 

The national board of trade vote confidence in 
president Cleveland's financial proposals, 30 Jan. ,, 

Pres. Cleveland's bond bill for the relief of the 
treasury rejected by the house . . 7 Feb. ,, 

The president's 2nd message to congress, stating 
that he has made arrangements to issue a 3 per 
cent, gold bond at par in place of the 4 per cent., 

8 Feb. „ 

The 3 per cent, gold bill rejected by the house, 

14 Feb. ,, 
The bond syndicate deposits in the treasury over 

30,000,000 dollars in gold (1,000,000 from Canada), 

15 Feb. „ 
Death of Fredk. Douglass at Washington, aged 78 ; 

half-negro ; abolitionist orator . . 21 Feb. ,, 

The supreme court at Washington decides that the 
imposition of an income-tax (2 per cent.) on rents, 
estates, &c, to meet the deficit is unconstitu- 
tional 8 April, ,, 

General opposition to the tax increasing ; collection 
begun 12 April, ,, 

Dr. James Dwight Dana, born 12 Feb. 1813 ; 
eminent naturalist, geologist and writer ; Silli- 
man professor at Yale university ; attached to 
the U.S. exploring voyage under capt. Wilkes to 
the South seas in 1838 ; illustrated reports of his 
observations, &c, published 1846 et seq. ; died, 

15 April, ,, 

Increased agitation for and against free coinage of 
silver April, „ 

A silver convention of 17 states W. of the Missis- 
sippi to increase the use of silver, held at Salt 
Lake city ; formation of a bimetallic union pro- 
posed 15-18 May, ,, 

The supreme court decides the entire income-fax 
to be unconstitutional . . .20 May, „ 

A " sound money " convention at Memphis, 
Tennessee, opposing unlimited silver coinage, 
opened; pres. Cleveland's policy commended, 

23 May, ,, 

Mr. W. Q. Gresham, secretary of state ; born 17 
March, 1832 ; died 28 May, 1895 ; state funeral, 
29, 30 May ; succeeded by Mr. Richard Olney ; 
Mr. Judson Harmon, att.-gen. . . 7 June, ,, 

Agitation in favour of bimetallism . . May, ,, 

Proclamation of strict neutrality in regard to Cuba, 

13 June, ,„ 

Much agitation throughout the states on the silver 
question June, „ 

The bond syndicate complete the transfer of gold 
to the treasury ; gold balance, 107,553,774 dollars ; 
cash balance, 192,620,422 dollars, reported, 

28 June, „ 

Death of Howell Edmunde Jackson, eminent judge, 
aged 63, reported 9 Aug. „ 

The Irish-American convention to promote com- 
plete Irish independence, John F. Finerty, 
president, held at Chicago . . -24 Sept. ,, 

Chicago Fenians adopt the name of "Irish national 
alliance of the world" .... 26 Sept. „ 

Win. Wetmore Story, sculptor and author, died in 
Italy, aged 75 7 Oct. ,, 



UNITED STATES. 



1331 



UNITED STATES. 



Pres. Cleveland declares in favour of a vigorous 
democratic state platform . . .31 Oct. 

Congress meets, 2 Dec. ; the president's message, 
relating to finance (new measures), Argentine, 
China, Hawaii, Japanese treaty, Mosquito strip, 
Nicaragua, Russia, Armenia, Behring Sea dispute, 
Venezuela, &c 3 Dec. 

For dispute with Great Britain see Venezuela, 189s. 

The president's views on the Monroe doctrine much 
censured ; heavy falls in the New York stock 
market 20 Dec. 

Message of peace and goodwill to the American 
people from the prince of Wales and the duke of 
York in response to an appeal of the New York 
World, 24 Dec. ; cordially received in most parts, 

26 Dec. 

New tariff bill increasing the revenue passed by the 
house of representatives . . .26 Dec. 

The president's policy severely censured by the 
New York chamber of commerce . . 2 Jan. 

Resolution of the senate and the house deprecating 
the civil war in Cuba, asserting the rights of the 
insurgents to good civil government and to be 
regarded as belligerents . . . .29 Jan. 

State loan (100,000,000 dollars) fully taken up, an- 
nounced 6 Feb. 

The free silver bill of the senate rejected by the 
house (216 — 91) 14 Feb. 

Arbitration conference held at Philadelphia, an ap- 
proving letter from pres. Cleveland read, 22 Feb. 

Concurrent resolution in the senate recognising 
the Cuban insurgents as belligerents and re- 
questing the Spanish government to recognise 
the independence of Cuba, 28 Feb. ; adopted by 
the house, 2 March ; resented in Spain . March, 

The Washington arbitration conference appoint a 
permanent committee, and urge action in favour 
of arbitration between the U.S. and other 
countries 23 April, 

Presidential campaign : candidates — Mr. Win. 
McKinley, republican, Mr. Reed, and others, May, 

The senate passes Mr. Butler's bill prohibiting the 
further issue of interest-bearing bonds against a 
gold standard and favouring the silver party, 

2 June, 

Mrs. Harriet Beecher-Stowe, born 1812, died 1 July, 

A silver vase from the president presented to capt. 
A. Nicholl, at Manchester, for saving 8 men from 
the schooner Eiisha Gibbs, of New Bedford, Massa- 
chusetts, 6 March, 1896 . . .12 Aug. 

" Coin's Financial School" (a mixture of fiction and 
truth), published in 1894 by a company support- 
ing a silver standard, and opposed by "Sound 
Money " in 1895, much controversy . Aug. 

Law congress at Saratoga Springs, N.Y. ; address 
of lord Russell, chief justice of England, on in- 
ternational arbitration and mediation, warmly 
received . 20 Aug. 

Mr. William McKinley elected president, over 
7,123,234 votes ; majority, 1,000,000, . 3 Nov. 

General revival of trade ; great rise in the price of 
wheat 9 Nov. 

B ncreased agitation on behalf of Cuba . Nov. 

Thanksgiving on the result of the elections, 26 Nov. 

Pres. Cleveland's dignified message to the last 
session of the 54th congress ; refers to Armenia, 
Turkey, Cuba, Venezuela, financial reforms, and 
foreign relations 7 Dec. 

Senate committee on foreign relations report their 
recognition of the independence of the republic 
of Cuba, and that the United States will use its 
friendly offices to close the war between Spain 
and Cuba 18 Dec. 

Many bank failures in the west . Dec. 1896-Jan. 

Gen. Walker, eminent economist, dies . . Jan. 

Arbitration treaty (5 years) between Great Britain 
and United States signed by Mr. Olney and sir 
Julian Pauncefote (peer, 1899) at Washington, 
11 Jan. ; text in Times . . . 19 Feb. 

Modified and referred to the senate, 31 Jan, ; vir- 
tually nullified by amendments, 23 March ; 
senate refuses to ratify the treaty as amended, 

5 May, 

Capt. Hart, ownerof the Laurada, steamer, convicted 
of filibustering, appeals for new trial, released on 
bail, 23 Feb. ; sentenced to 2 years' imprisonment 
and a fine (pardoned, June 1898) . 8 March, 



1895 



Bill passed for an international monetary con- 
ference 3 March, 

Mr. McKinley's cabinet : Mr. John Sherman, secre- 
tary of state ; Mr. Lyman J. Gage, treasury ; Mr. 
Russell A. Alger, war ; Mr. John D. Long, navy ; 
Mr. Cornelius R. Bliss, interior ; Mr. Joseph 
M'Kenna, attorney-general ; Mr. James Gary, 
postmaster-general .... 3 March, 

Inauguration of William McKinley as president ; in 
his address he recommends a revision of the 
coinage, higher tariff, currency laws, protection, 
arbitration, etc. 4 March ; message to congress, 
financial review, 15 March ; new tariff,. Times, 

15 March, 

The Dingley tariff bill passed by the house, 31 
March ; passed by the senate, 7 July, and be- 
comes law 24 July, 

National monument to gen. Grant at Riverside, 
New York, inaugurated by pres. McKinley, 27 Apr. 

Col. John Hay, diplomatist and author, received 
by the queen at Windsor as U.S. ambassador, 

3 May, 

Resolution recognising Cuban belligerency passed 
by congress (41 — 14) .... 20 May, 

International commercial congress at Philadelphia 
opened by president McKinley . 2 June, 

Treaty for the annexation of Hawaii (Sandwich 
islands) to the United States signed at Washing- 
ton, 16 June (annexed 7 July, 1S98) 

Congratulations to the queen on her diamond 
jubilee, 28 May ; presented . . . June, 

Coalminers strike for increase of wages in 5 states, 

July, 

Gen. Neal Dow, philanthropist, born, 1804, died, 

2 Oct. 

International fur seal conference ; see Behring 
Straits, 23 Oct. 1897. 

Sir Wilfrid Laurier's unofficial visit to Washington, 

1 1 Nov. ei seq. 

Pres. McKinley's message to congress ; currency 
reform ; Hawaii ; Cuban question . 6 Dec. 

Mr. Teller's resolution for free silver, adopted in 
the senate, 47 — 32, 29 Jan. ; rejected in the house, 
182 — 132, 31 Jan. 1898. (The republican party 
unsettled.) 

Destructive blizzard in New York and New Eng- 
land, with loss of life, railways blocked, etc., 

31 Jan. 

Sen. Dupuy de Lome, Spanish minister at Wash- 
ington, resigns on the publication of a private 
letter, reflecting against pres. McKinley ; leaves 
15 Feb. ; regret expressed by Spain . 16 Feb. 

Explosion on the cruiser Maine (which see), 15 Feb. 

Bill for 2 new regiments of artillery passed, 

7 March, 

Appropriation bill for 50,000,000 dollars for national 
defence, passed by the house, 8 March, and the 
senate, becomes law . . . .9 March, 

Sen. de Bernabe well received as Spanish minister, 

12 March, 

Two warships bought from Brazil, March ; the 
Kearsarge and Kentucky battleships, launched at 
Newport 24 March, 

The hon. Blanch K. Bruce, born a slave in Virginia, 
1 March, 1841 ; self-educated ; elected senator, 
1875-81 ; register of the treasury ; died, 17 March, 

Message to Spain, regarding Cuba (which see), 

31 March, 

An appeal for peace to the president from the 
powers 7 April, 

An armistice in Cuba granted by Spain 9 April, 

The president's message to congress, requiring the 
end of the war, and the establishment of a stable 
government in Cuba . . . .11 April, 

The Spanish ministry in a semi-official note declares 
the message incompatible with the rights of 
Spain 12 April, 

Great revival of prosperity in the west after 4 yrs. 
depression, 1897-8. 

The foreign committee's resolutions : the Cubans 
right to be free and independent, Spain to with- 
draw her forces ; that the U.S. president be em- 
powered to give effect to these resolutions, agreed 
to by both houses, after a stormy scene, 13 April, 

Debates in the senate, 14-16 April ; conferences 
between the senate and house, the resolutions of 
13 April, passed, senate, 40-35 ; house, 310 — 6, 
18, 19 April ; signed by the president, and an 

4 Q 2 



1897 



UNITED STATES. 



1332 



UNITED STATES. 



ultimatum sent to Spain ; the Spanish minister, 
sen. Polo de Bernabe, received his passports, and 
left Washington, 20 April ; diplomatic relations 
at once broken oft' ; gen. Woodford left Madrid, 

21 April, 185 
President McKinley calls out 125,000 volunteers for 

2 years, service 23 April, ,, 

The president's message to congress declares that 
war exists between Spain and United States, 

since 21 April 25 April, „ 

Mr. Sherman, the secretary of state, resigns, suc- 
ceeded by Mr. Day . . . 23, 26 April, ,, 
Commodore George Dewey thanked by congress, 
and promoted, for the victory at Manila (see 
Spanish- American war, \ May) ; a sword to be 
presented to him, and medals to his officers and 

men . 2, 9 May, ,, 

International commission to settle differences 
between Canada and United States agreed on, 
31 May ; see Behring Straits, and Canada, June, ,, 
War revenue bill (increased tonnage dues), passed 

by congress ...*.. 9 June, ,, 
Count Cassini received as Russian ambassador, 

23 June, ,, 
Thanks of congress voted to lieut. Hobson and his 
crew, 29 June ; and message of thanks to adm. 
Sampson on the destruction of the Spanish fleet 
at Santiago, 4 July ; congress adjourns, 8 July, ,, 
Mr. John H.iy nominated secretary of state, 16 Aug. ,, 
Controversy respecting the conduct of the war ; 
gen. Miles publishes his statement, criticising 

the war office 8 Sept. ,, 

Mr. Hay, U.S. ambassador, leaves London, 14 Sept. ,, 
The Illinois battleship launched . . 4 Oct. ,, 
Elections : republican majority . . 8 Nov. , ; 

Society founded at Boston against imperialism 
and annexation of foreign territory ; Mr. Andrew 
Carnegie contributes 1,000 dollars . 19 Nov. ,. 
Spanish-American treaty signed at Paris, see 

Spanish-American War ... 10 Dec. , 

Congress meets : the president's message, proposed 
increase of the army and navy, and occupation 
of Cuba, s Dec. 1898 ; meets 4 Jan. 1899 ; debate 
on expansion policy . . . . 9, 10 Jan. 18 
Mr. Joseph H. Choate appointed ambassador to 

Great Britain 11 Jan. , 

Mr. N. Dingley, supporter of a protective tariff 

policy, died, aged 66 . . -13 Jan. , 

The Albany, U.S. cruiser, launched at Elswick, 

Newcastle-on-Tyne . . . .14 Jan. , 

The Nicaragua canal bill (U.S. control and neu- 
trality guaranteed) passed by the senate 21 Jan. , 
Army reorganization (increase) bill passed by the 
house, 31 Jan. ; amended temporary increase 
till 1901, passed senate . . . .28 Feb. , 
Peace treaty with Spain ratified (57-27), 6 Feb. ; 
bill passed by the house for payment of 20,000,000 
dollars to Spain for the Philippines (219-34), 

21 Feb. , 
Destructive storm and heavy snow-fall, 30 to 38 
deg. of frost ; great distress throughout the 

States 9-14 Feb. , 

War commission appointed (Sept.) to investigate 
alleged abuses ; report issued, acquitting Mr. 
Alger, sec. for war, and all officials, of blame, 

12 Feb. , 
Lord Charles Beresford, in New York, advocates 
the co-operation of the powers for keeping the 
"open door," which see, in China . . 23 Feb. , 

Congress closed 4 March, , 

Diplomatic relations with Spain resumed, 3 June, . 
Algerism, a term expressing the inefficiency of the 

war office, see Times .... 14 July, , 
Reciprocity treaties with Great Britain and France 

signed .... 16 June and July, , 

Mr. Alger, sec. of war, resigns ; succeeded by Mr. 

Elihu Root 1 Aug. , 

Mr. Cornelius Vanderbilt, benefactor and financier, 
director of 34 railway companies, dies suddenly, 

aged 56 12 Sept. , 

Demonstrations in honour of adm. Dewey, "the 
hero of Manila," in New York, 29, 30 Sept. ; Mr. 
McKinley presents him with a sword of honour 
at the .capitol, Washington . . . 3 Oct. , 

Mr. Carrel llolnrl. virr-pres. U.S.X.A., highly 
esteemed died 21 Nov. 



Great Britain's S. African policy warmly approved, 

Oct., Nov. 1899 

The president's message to congress : prosperity 
reported ; the existing gold standard, a canal 
uniting the Atlantic with the Pacific, and a cable 
to Manila, advocated .... 5 Dec. ,, 

The currency bill passed by the house . 18 Dec. „ 

Maintenance of the " open door " policy in China ; 
negotiations with the powers successfully con- 
cluded by Mr. Hay, reported . . .2 Jan. 1900 

Death of Mr. R. B. Osborne, aged 85, an eminent 
civil engineer, and author of "Lyons' Tables," 
&c. about 8 Jan. ., 

Convention revising the Clayton-Bulwer treaty of 
1850 respecting a canal across the Central Ameri- 
can isthmus, signed by lord Pauncefote and Mr. 
Hay at Washington .... 5 Feb. ,, 

Gold standard bill, favouring bimetallism, passed 
by the senate 15 Feb. „ 

Mr. E. J. Phelps, ex-minister to Great Britain, 
1885-9, born 1822, died . . . 9 March, ,, 

Financial bill signed by pres. McKinley, reported, 

14 March, ,, 

Boer delegates received by pres. McKinley ; their 
mission fails ; neutrality maintained . 22 May, ,, 

Congress adjourns sine die . . - . 7 June, ,, 

Presidential campaign : Mr. McKinley nominated 
republican candidate at Philadelphia ; col. Theo- 
dore Roosevelt, vice-president, 21 June ; Mr. W. 
J. Bryan, democratic candidate, nominated, 

5 July. » 

Coal strikes (70,000 men) in Pennsylvania, mid 
Sept. ; martial law proclaimed at Shenandoah, 
about 22 Sept. ; 10 per cent, advance in wages 
from Oct. till April, and abolition «f the sliding 
scale, accepted by the men . . . 23 Oct. ,, 

Mr. McKinley re-elected president, large majority, 

6 Nov. , , 
The Cagayan and Sibutu islands ceded by Spain 

for 100,000 dols 7 Nov. ,. 

Pres. McKinley at Philadelphia ; speaks in favour 
of the gold standard, "open door" in China, 
reciprocal trade, U.S. sovereignty in the Philip- 
pines, &c 24 Nov. ,, 

The president's message to congress : U.S. pacific 
policy as to China, protection of foreign rights 
by treaty ; recommends the reduction of internal 
revenue taxes, maintenance of the army at 
100,000 men, and the Hay-Pauncefote treaty, 

3 Dec. „ 

Deep sympathy with England on the death of 
queen Victoria ; the exchanges closed in New 
York and other cities on the funeral day ; me- 
morial services held . ... 2 Feb. 1901 

The president's policy maintaining the statvs quo 
in Cuba and the Philippines, carried in both 
houses 1 March, ,, 

Inauguration of Mr. McKinley as president : in his 
address he recommends broader trade with other 
countries, fulfilment of obligations imposed by 
the war with Spain, moderate Chinese policy, &c. 

4 March, ,, 

The senate's three amendments to the Hay-Paunce- 
fote treaty of 5 Feb. 1900, 20 Dec. 1900, rejected 
by Great Britain 11 March, ,, 

Death of ex-president Harrison, aged 68, 13 March, ,, 

Mr. Andrew Carnegie gives 5,200,000 dollars, for 
libraries in New York, and 1,000,000 dollars for 
one in St. Louis, see Pittsburg (his total gifts 
22,563,252 dollars) .... 12 March, ,, 

Prof. H. A. Rowland, eminent scientist, born 27 
Nov. 1848, died .... mid April, ,, 

Cuban commission received by the president, de- 
mands refused ... . 25 April, ,, 

The president's tour begins, 29 April ; stopped at 
San Francisco by the illness of Mrs. McKinley, 

15 May, ,, 

Strike riots at Albany, troops called out, two 
deaths ..'.... 16 May, „ 

Great coal strike begins 12 May, and others, 

20 May et scq. ,, 

The supreme court's decision on the "insular 
cases " regarding the levying of duties on imports 
from (he Spanish acquired territories; legalises 
expansion in any direction appioved by congress, 

27 May, ,, 



UNITED STATES. 



1333 



UNITED STATES. 



Heat wave ; many deaths, io6°F., 28 June; drought 

ends about 29 July, 1901 

Steel strike in Pittsburg, 1 July ; ends in defeat 

of the men 14 Sept. „ 

Pres. McKinley shot in the exhibition at Buffalo, 
by Czolgosz, who was at once seized, 5 Sept. 
[executed by electricity, 29 Oct.] ; Mr. McKinley 
dies at 2.15 p.m. ; Theodore Roosevelt, vice-presi- 
dent, sworn in as president . . . 14 Sept. ,, 
World-wide sympathy expressed on the president's 
death ; the lying-in-state in Buffalo and at the 
capitol, Washington, attended by thousands, 
15-X7 Sept. ; funeral at Canton, Ohio, over 
70,000 present ; general suspension of business 
in London, and memorial services held, 19 Sept. „ 
Mr. Choate, American ambassador, presents the 
thanks of the nation to the king and queen of 
England for their sympathy . . 27 Sept. ,, 

Johann Most, an anarchist, sentenced to a year's 
imprisonment for an article in his journal inciting 
to the murder of rulers .... 14 Oct. ,, 
Naval estimates for 1902, 99,000,000 dollars, Oct. „ 
The new Hay-Pauncefote isthmian canal (connect- 
ing the Gulf of Mexico with the Pacific ocean) 
treaty, superseding the Clayton-Bulwer treaty, 
signed by Mr. Hay and lord Pauncefote at 

Washington 18 Nov. ,, 

National reciprocity convention opened at Wash- 
ington 19 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Hay, secretary of state, expounds the Monroe 
doctrine, the creation of an isthmian canal under 
American ownership and control, but for the use - 
of all nations, and a fair field and no favour in 
commerce, as American foreign policy . 19 Nov. ,, 
Congress opened, the president's message ; the ex- 
clusion and deportation of anarchists strongly 
urged ; favours reciprocity, but yet maintains 
protection in commerce ; upholds the Monroe 
doctrine ; commends the isthmian canal (Hay- 
Pauncefote) treaty ; emphasises the need of a 
strong navy ; re-enactment of the Chinese ex- 
clusion law, &c 2, 3 Dec. ,, 

Governor Shaw of Iowa appointed minister of 

finance Dec. „ 

Gifts to education in the States amount to over 
15,000,000?. in .......,, 

Danish W. Indies, proposed purchase by treaty, 
signed 24 Jan. ; ratified, 17 Feb. (rejected by 

Denmark, 22 Oct.) 1901 

Epidemic of smallpox Feb. ,, 

Hay-Pauncefote canal treaty finally ratified, 

21 Feb. ,, 
Russian government, in reply to Mr. Hay's note, 
1 Feb., states that Manchuria will always be 

open to U.S. trade, &c 23 Feb. „ 

Philippines tariff bill passed by the senate, 

25 Feb. „ 
Pres. Roosevelt informs the Boer delegates that the 
United States cannot interfere in the war in 

South Africa 5 March, ,, 

Prince Henry of Prussia visits New York, Washing- 
ton, St. Louis, Chicago, Niagara ; made LL.D. of 
Harvard university, Philadelphia, 

23 Feb.-n March, ,, 
Gen. Wade Hampton, who distinguished himself in 

the civil war, died, aged 84 . . 11 April, ,, 
The president's visit to South Carolina and 

Columbia very successful, reported . 11 April, ,, 
Munificent gifts to universities from Mr. J. D. 

Rockefeller and others . . March- April ,, 
The rev. Dr. Talmage, eminent Presbyterian 

preacher, died, aged 72 . . .13 April, ,, 
Democratic victory in the house of representatives ; 
the Cuban reciprocity bill, with amendment 
removing the differential duty on sugar, passed 

(majority 195) 18 April, ,, 

Major Gardener, civil governor of Tayabas, reports 
cruelty and outrages of American troops, 16 Dec. 
1901 ; investigation ordered, 19 Feb. and 2 April ; 

see Philippines April, ,, 

Mr. W. H. Moody appointed naval secretary in 

succession to Mr. 1 ong, resigned . 29 April, „ 
Chinese exclusion bill ratified. . . 30 April. ,, 
Adm. Sampson, eminent naval commander, died, 

aged 62 6 May, ,, 

Mr. E. L. Godkin, eminent publicist and editor, 
died, aged about 6S .... 21 May, „ 



Lord Pauncefote(British minister, 1 889 ; ambassador, 
1893 et seq) died, much regretted, aged 74, 24 May ; 
state funeral at Washington, 28 May (his body 
conveyed to England on the Brooklyn, U.S. man- 
of-war ; interred at Stoke, 15 July); hon. (aft. 
sir) Michael Herbert appointed British ambassa- 
dor 4 June, 1902 

The president's message to congress urging recipro- 
city to Cuba (on the sugar question), failed, 

13 June, ,, 
Increase of shipping, 2,087 vessels constructed in 

1900, reported June, ,, 

Mr. Spooner's Panama canal bill passed by con- 
gress, 26 June ; signed . . . 28 June, ,, 
Congress adjourns t July, „ 

Philippines civil government bill passed, 26 June ; 
signed 2 July, ,, 

Pres. Roosevelt tours in New England ; he strongly 
advocates the repression of "trusts," 23 Aug. 
[declares the Monroe doctrine to be the belief of 
Americans that " the nations on that continent 
must be left to work out their own destinies, 
and that America was not to be regarded as the 
colonizing ground of any European power," 
26 Aug.] „ 

Naval manoeuvres ; blue squadron captures white 
squadron off Magnolia ... 24 Aug. ,, 

Narrow escape of the president ; two men killed 
in his coach by collision with an electric car near 
Pittsfield 3 Sept. ,, 

Forest fires in Oregon and Washington ; about 38 
deaths, many missing, reported . . 15 Sept. ,, 

Death of Mr. Horace Gray, eminent judge, aged 
74, reported 27 Sept. ,, 

Coal famine due to the strike ; colliery near Mt. 
Carmel, New York, attacked by strikers, troops 
called out, reported .... 30 Sept. ,, 

Pres. Roosevelt's warm appeal at a conference in 
Washington with the mine owners and strike 
leaders to come to a settlement, fails, 3-10 Oct. ,, 

Visit of the crown prince of Siain . . 11 Oct. ,, 

Conferences between pres. Roosevelt rind Mr. Pier- 
pont. Moigan and Mr. Mitchell, the miners' 
leader 13-15 Oct. ,, 

Coal strike (158 days) ends ; arbitration commis- 
sion appointed, 16 Oct. ; miners' convention 
accepts pres. Roosevelt's proposals, 20, 21 Oct. ,, 

Californian pious fund case, see Mexico. . Oct. ,, 

Elections ; republican majority over 20 . 4 Nov. ,, 

Mr. Mosely's British industrial commission received 
by pres. Roosevelt . . . .26 Nov. ,, 

Congress meets ; the president's message similar 
to that of Dec. 1901 .... 2 Dec. „ 

Death of Mr. Thos. B. Reed, eminent statesman, 
aged 63 7 Dec - >> 

Coal famine ; great distress .... Dec. ,, 

Commercial treaty with Cuba, signed . 12 Dec. ,, 

Death of Mr. Thos. Nast, the caricaturist, aged 62, 

Dec. „ 

Pres. Roosevelt declines to act as arbitrator in the 
Venezuelan dispute ; arbitration by the Hague 
tribunal agreed to by the powers . . 25 Dec. ,, 

Battleships : Maine, Illinois, Alabama and Wis- 
consin launched during the year . . . . ,, 

Bill passed repealing the duties on anthracite coal, 
and reducing other coal duties, for a year, 

14 Jan. 1903 

Panama canal treaty, between U.S. and Colombia, 
signed 22 Jan. „ 

Forty lives lost, many injured, by three railway 
collisions and a boiler explosion, about 25 Jan. ,, 

Coal miners' convention accepts 12J per cent, aver- . 
age increase in wages in Illinois and elsewhere, 
reported 8 Feb. „ 

Alaska boundary treaty signed, 24 Jan. ; ratified, 

11 Feb. , 

Venezuela dispute settled ; foreign protocols signed, 
Washington I3" 1 ? Feb- , 

Mr. Root, secretary for war, and senator' <■ Lodge 
and Turner selected as U.S. members of the 
Alaska boundary arbitration tribunal; Mr. Cor- 
telyou officially appointed to the new post of 
secretary of commerce, reported . mid Feb. ,, 

The supreme court's decision in the lottery cases 
virtually settles the power of congress to exercise 
control over inter-state commerce . 23 Feb 

Philippine currency bill passed . . .25 Feb. „ 



UNITED STATES. 



1334 



UNITED STATES. 



SirM. Herbert, British ambassador, made K.C.M.G., 

26 Feb. 1903 
The president defends his negro policy in a letter 
to Mr. Clark Howell, editor of the Atlanta Consti- 
tution, reported .... 2 March, ,, 
Navy bill, 81,000,000 dollars credit, agreed to, 

3 March, ,, 

Extra session of the senate, president's message, 
urging the ratification of the Cuban and Panama 

canal treaties 5 March, ,, 

Coal strike commission appointed by president 
Roosevelt awards anthracite miners increase of 
10 per cent, from 1 Nov. 1902 ; decrees working 
day of nine hours, and fixes a sliding-scale ; 
award to remain in force until March, 1906, re- 
ported 25 March, ,, 

Labour troubles, epidemic of strikes : strikes among 
employees of the American bridge co. extending ; 
great cotton mills at Lowell (Mass.), closed, re- 
ported 1 April, ,, 

President Roosevelt begi n s hi s great journey through 
the States, 1 April ; speaks at Chicago on the 
Monroe doctrine (which see), makes an appeal for 
a strong navy on the ground that it is necessary 
to support the doctrine by force ; recited course 
of recent events in Venezuela acknowledging 
fully the loyal conduct of the Powers to the U.S., 
2 April ; speaks on trusts at Milwaukee, 3 April ; 
at Minneapolis on the tariff, practically abandon- 
ing the idea of its revision . . .4 April, 

Anthracite miners' unions refuse to work nine 
hours daily as ordered by the commission, re- 
ported 6 April, 

Ex-president Cleveland declares against president 
Roosevelt's attitude on the negro question, 

early April, 

Lock-out at most of the collieries of the Phila- 
delphia and Reading coal company, affecting 
30,000 men, reported . . . mid April, 

Strike of some 30,000 labourers employed on the 
Rapid transit railway, New York, leave work ; 
strikes among the millwrights, ironworkers, and 
teamsters, reported . . . . 1 May, 

Attempt to blow up the Cunard liner Umbria with 
dynamite at New York . . about 13 May, 

Sir Michael Herbert, the British ambassador, 
entertained by Society of Pilgrims, speech by 
Mr. Roob, secretary of war, " England is our 
true friend, war between England and the United 
States would not only be a crime, but would 
argue an incapacity of the governing powers 
worse than crime " . . . -25 May, 

Celebration of the centenary birth of Emerson, 

25 May, 

250th anniversary of the foundation of the civic 
government of New York . . .26 May, 

Permanent treaty with Cuba signed (see Cuba), 

end May, 

90,000 textile workers strike in Philadelphia for 
shorter hours and increased wages . end May, 

Tornado at Gainsville, Georgia, 64 persons killed ; 
great floods in the west, causing enormous damage 
and serious loss of life, especially at Topeka, re- 
ported 30 May, 

Cloud-burst in Oregon, the greater part of the town 
of Heppner destroyed, about 300 lives lost ; 
forest tires in New England and in other eastern 
states ; much damage done . . early June, 

90 per cent, of building operations in New York 
at a standstill owing to strikes, 1 10,000 mechanics 
and labourers unemployed ; building capital 
unemployed estimated at 200,000,000 dols., re- 
ported 8 June, 

Sir Thos. Lipton's Shamrock III. and Shamrock I. 
arrive at New York .... 14 June, 

Explosion at Hanna, Wyoming, at Union Pacific 
coal company's mine, 75 killed . . 30 June, 

Trial of landlords, constables, and others charged 
with cruelties in connection with the "peonage" 
system of virtual slavery in Georgia and Ala- 
bama 30 June, 

Russian government refuses to receive from presi- 
dent Roosevelt the Jewish petition of the execu- 
tive council of the B'nai B'rith requesting better 



treatment for Russian Jews ; also refuses to 
recognise American passports to American Jews, 

end June, 1903, 

Lynching riots at Evansville and elsewhere (see 
Lynching) . . . ... • early July, , x 

Negotiations for opening the ports demanded by 
United States and Japan reported successful; 
prince Ching refuses on behalf of Chinese govern- 
ment to open towns in Manchuria for foreign 
trade ; American treaty negotiations opened by 
Chang-Chi-tung, who asks for modifications of 
articles relating to mining rights and protection 
of patents mid July, 

Builders' lock-out at Pittsburg, 25,000 men affected, 

end July, 

Meeting under auspices of the Clan-na-Gael ; Mr. 
Redmond denounced for accepting the Irish 
Land bill 30 July, 

President Roosevelt on lynching, letter to Mr. 
Durbin, governor of Indiana (see Lynching), 

early Aug. 

Collision between two sections of a circus train on 
the Grand Trunk railway, 19 killed, 30 injured, 

7 Aug. 

Judge Taff to become secretary of war on the re- 
tirement of Mr. Roob in Jan. 1904, reported 

end Aug. 

Attempt by Weilbrenner, a lunatic, to shoot presi- 
dent Roosevelt at his home at Sagamore hill, 
Oyster bay 1 Sept. 

Sir Thos. Lipton ill with appendicitis at Chicago, 

early Sept. 

President Roosevelt at the State fair at Syracuse, 
reviews a great labour parade ; delivers address, 
urging as watchwords tor all, "honesty, decency, 
fair dealing, and common sense " . .7 Sept. 

Hurricane in New York, Florida, and the southern 
states 16 Sept. 

The period during which the congress of Columbia 
might decide affirmatively respecting the Panama 
canal treaty having expired, 22 Sept. ; the treaty 
becomes dead 23 Sept. 

The United States government denounce the action 
of the Dominican government in sending a pro- 
ject to congress for establishing the neutrality of 
the Dominican waters, and making certain ports 
free, and refuses to permit the establishment of 
coaling ports in San Domingo, or cession of any 
of its territory to any European power, or any 
territory to be classed as " neutral " . end Sept. 

Death of sir Michael Herbert, 30 Sept. ; memorial 
service at Washington, president Roosevelt and 
members of his cabinet present . . 6 Oct. 

Greatest rainfall recorded by the New York 
weather bureau since its foundation in 1867 ;- 
streets flooded, traffic disarranged, 50 houses 
swept away at Paterson, many bridges on the 
Delaware river carried away, great damage on 
the coast from Virginia, to Rhode Island by 
hurricanes and high tides, beginning . 8 Oct. 

Delegation of hon. artillery company of London 
arrive at Boston ; city elaborately decorated, 
British flag seen for the first time on Bunker's 
hill monument, 2 Oct. ; received by president 
Roosevelt at the White House . . 10 Oct. 

Special reception in honour of the Mosely educa- 
tional commission at the White House . 20 Oct. 

Tammany victory in the New York municipal 
elections, Mr. Geo. B. McClellan elected mayor, 

3 Nov. 

Mr. A. H. Green, " the father of Greater New 
York," fatally shot by a negro . . 13 Nov. 

M. Varilla received by president Roosevelt as 
minister of the new republic of Panama (which 
sec) 13 Nov. 

Labour riots and outrages in Chicago, Colorado, 
and Denver, reported . . . mid Nov. 

Sir M. Durand, new British ambassador, received 
by president Roosevelt ... 2 Dec. 

Great excitement and speculation in the cotton 
market early Dec. et scq. 

Report of Mr. Shaw, secretary of the Treasury, 
shows a surplus ofover54,297,667dols.fbr the fiscal 



UNITED STATES. 



1335 



UNIVERSITIES. 



year 1903: revenue, 694,621,117 dols., increase, 
10,294,837 dols. ; expenditure, 640,323, 45odols., in- 
crease, 47,284,545 dols.; surplus, 54,297,667 dols.: 
estimates for 1904: revenue, 674,767,664 dols.; 
expenditure, 660,767,664 dols. ; surplus, 
14,000,000 dols. : estimates for 1905, revenue, 
704,472,060 dols.; expenditure (not including sink- 
ing lund), 727,474,206 dols.; deficit, 23,002,146 
dols., submitted to congress . . 7 Dec. 
See Addenda. 



1903 



PRESIDENTS OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 

1789 & 1793. General George Washington, elected first 

president. 6 April. 
1797. Jonn Adams. 4 March. 
1S01 &, 1805. Thomas Jefferson 4 March. 
1809 & 1813. James Madison. 4 March. 
1817 & 1821. James Monroe. 4 March. 
1825. John Quincy Adams. 4 March. 
1829 & 1833. General Andrew Jackson. 4 March. 
1837. Martin Van Buren. 4 March. 
1841. General William Henry Harrison. 4 March. Died 

4 April, succeeded by 
„ John Tyler (formerly vice-president). 
1845. James Knox Polk. 4 March. 

1849. General Zachary Taylor. 4 March. Died 9 July, 

1850, succeeded by the vice-president, 

1850. Millard Fillmore. 

1853. General Franklin Pierce. 4 March. 

1857. James Buchanan. 4 March. 

1861 &; 1865. Abraham Lincoln. 4 March. Shot 14 April; 

died 15 April, 1865; succeeded by vice-president, 
1865. Andrew Johnson. 15 April. 
1869 & 1873. Ulysses S. Grant. 4 March. 
1877. Rutherford Birchard Hayes. 4 March. 
1881. Gen. James Abram Garfield. 4 March. Shot 

2 July ; died 19 Sept. 1881. 
„ Gen. Chester A. Arthur. 19 Sept. 
1885. Grover Cleveland. Dem. 4 March. 
1889. Gen. Benjamin Harrison. 4 March (grandson of 

the president of 1841); died 13 March, 1901. 
1893. Grover Cleveland. Dem. again. 
1896. William McKinley. Republican ; re-elected 6 

Nov. 1900 ; shot 5 Sept. ; died 14 Sept. 1901. 
Theodore Roosevelt, Republican. 14 Sept. 



1 901. 

Aberdeen founded 

Abo, Finland . . . . 

Adelaide, Australia . 

Andrews, St. , Scotland . . . 

Angers, chiefly law 

Anjou, 1349 ; enlarged . . . 

Athens 

Barcelona, revived . . . . 
Basle, Switzerland 

Berlin 

Berne 

Besangon, Burgundy . . . 
Birmingham .... 
Bologna, Italy . . . . 
Bonn .... 1784, 

Bordeaux 

Bourges 

Breslau 

Bruges, French Flanders . 

Brussels 

Caen, Normandy, 1436 ; revived . 
Cambridge, 12th century. 
Cambridge, New England, pro- 
jected 

Christiania 

Cologne, n Germany, refounded 
Compostella, Spain . 
Coimbra, Portugal. . . . 
Copenhagen .... 
Cordova, Spain . . . . 

Corfu 

Cracow, Poland, 700 , revived . 

Dijon, France 

Dillingen, Swabia 

Dole, Burgundy . . . . 

Dorpat . . . 

Douay, French Flanders . . 

Dresden, Saxony . 

Dublin (see Trinity College) . . 

Dublin College (catholic) . 

Durham . .... 

Edinburgh, founded by James VI. 

Erfurt, Thuringia ; enlarged 



UNIVERSALISTS, who believe in the final 
salvation of all men. This doctrine, declared in the 
Talmud, and ascribed to Origen, about 230, was 
advocated by other early fathers, but opposed by 
St. Augustin, about 420; and condemned by the 5th 
general council at Constantinople, May, June, 553. 
It was received by the Unitarians in the 17th cen- 
tury, and avowed by numerous clergj men of the 
church of England. James Kelly, who published 
his " Union" in 1760, founded the sect of Univer- 
salists in Britain; and John Murray, in America, 
about 177°- The sect flourishes in America. 

UNIVERSAL REVIEW, edited by Mr. 
Harry Quilter, devoted to tine art, literature, &<•., 
first published 15 May, 1888. Publication ceased 
Dec. 1890. 

UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE (Flebiseitum), 
one of the six points of the charter (see Chartists), 
was adopted by the French in their constitution of 
1 79 1 ; and used in the election of their president in 
1851, and of their emperor in 1852; and by the 
Italian States in voting for annexation to Sardinia 
in i860, 1861, 1866, and 1870. 

UNIVERSAL TIME, see under Day. 

UNIVERSITIES. The most ancient in 
Europe are said to be those of Bologna, Oxford, 
Cambridge, Paris, and Salamanca. In old Aberdeen 
was a monastery, in which youths were instructed in 
theology, the canon law, and the school philosophy, 
at least 200 years before the university and King's 
College were founded ; see Degrees. Mr. Hastings 
Bashdall's " Madiayval Universities,'' an important 
work, published in 1895. The following dates are 
generally given, many traditional : 



1494 
1640 
1876 
1411 
1364 

1836 
1841 
1460 
1810 

1834 
1676 
1900 
1116 
1818 
1472 
1465 
1702 
1665 
1834 



1630 
1811 
138s 
1517 
1279 



1823 
1364 
1722 
1565 
1422 
1632 
1568 
1694 
1591 
1851 
1831 
1582 
1390 



Erlangen 

Evorri, Portugal . . . . 

Florence, Italy, enlarged . 

Frankfort-on-the-Oder . . . 

Franeker 

Fribourg, Germany . . . 

Geneva 

Ghent 

Glasgow 

Gottingen 

Granada, Spain .... 

Gripswald 

Groningen, Friesland . 

Halle, Saxony . . . . 

Harvard, U.S 

Heidelberg 

Helmstadt 

Ingolstadt, Bavaria . . . 

Irish new 

Jena, or Sala, Thuringia . . 

Kiel, Holstein .... 

King's College, London (which 
see) 

Konigsberg, Prussia . 

Leipsie, Saxony . . . . 

Leyden, Holland 

Liege 

Lima, in Peru .... 

Lisbon, 1290; removed to Coim- 
bra 

London University (which see) . 

Louvaine, Flanders, 926 ; en- 
larged 

Lyons, France . . 30, 

Madrid 

Mantua 

Marburg ..... 

Mechlin, Flanders . . . . 

Melbourne, Victoria . 

Mentz 

Milan 

Montpellier 

Moscow, 1754; again . 



1743 
1533 
1439 
1506 

1585 
1460 
1368 
1816 
1450 
1735 
1537 
1547 
1614 
1694 
1638 
1386 
1575 
J 593 
1879 

1547 
1665 

1829 
1544 



I39i 
1826 

1426 
1300 
1836 
1625 

1527 
1440 

185S 
1477 
1565 



Munich 

Minister 

Nancy 

Nantes . . . . . . 

Naples 

Orange 

Orleans, France . . • . 
Oxford (see Oxford) . ■ . . 
Paderborn . . . . 

Padua, Italy 

Palenza, 1209; removed to Sala- 
manca 

Palermo 

Paris, 792 ; renovated . 

Parma 

Pau . . . . 

Pavia, 1360; enlarge'd . . . 

Perpignan 

Perugia, Italy . . . . 

Petersburg, St., 1747; again 
Pisa, 1343 ; enlarged . 
Poitiers . . 

Prague 

Queen's University (Ireland) . . 
Rheims, 1 145; enlarged 

Rome 

Rostock, Mecklenburg 

Salamanca 

Salerno 

Salzburg! 

Saragossa, Aragon 

Seville ... . . . . 

Sienna. ... 

Siguenza, Spain . . . . 

Sorbonne, France 

Strasbourg . . . . , 

Stutcardt ... 
Sydney, N. S. W. . . ... , 

Toledo, Spain . 

Toulouse . . . . , 

Treves, Germany 
Tubingen, Wurtemberg 
Turin .... 



1826 
1492 
1769 
1460 
1224 
1365. 
1305 
1879 
1592 
1228. 

1249 
1447 
1200- 
1482 
1722 
1599 
1349- 
1307 
1819 
1552 
1431- 
1348 
1850 
IS48 
1245 
1419 
1239 
1233 
1623 
1474 
1504 
1380 
J5i7 
1253 
IS38 
1775 
1852 
1499 
1229 
1473 
J 477 
i4°5 



UNIVERSITIES. 



1336 



URICONIUM. 



Upsal, Sweden . 
Utrecht, Holland . 
Valence, Dauphiue 
Valencia . 
Valladolid . 



1476 I Venice .... 
1634 Victoria, N. England . 

1454 Vienna 1365 

1209 Wales 1893 

1346 I Wittenburg 1502 



1592 1 Wiirtzburg . ... . . 1403 

Wilna 1803 

Yale, United States . . . 1701 
Zurich 1832 



UNIVERSITIES OF OXFORD AND 
CAMBRIDGE. Royal commission appointed to 
inquire into their income and property, in 1872 ; 
reported in Oct. 1874, that the united income for 
1871, was 754,405^. 5*. i\d. ; see Cambridge and 
Oxford. The Universities Act passed, 10 Aug. 
1877, appoints commissioners with power to make 
statutes and other provisions. 

UNIVERSITY BOAT-RACE. The contest 
between the universities of Oxford and Cambridge, 
at first near Oxford, afterwards on the river Thames, 
began 10 June, 1829, and has been annual since 
1856. In 1864, after 20 contests, the opposing 
parties were equal; but on 8 April, 1865, 24 March, 
1866, 13 April, 1867, 4 April, 1868, and 17 March, 
1869, Oxford won ; the last time being the 9th in 
succession. Cambridge won, 6 April, 1870, 1 April, 
187 1, 23 March, 1872, 29 March, 1873, an< ^ 2 & March, 
1874. Oxford won, March 20, 1875 ; Cambiidge 
won, 8 April, 1876. Dead heat ; neither won, 24 
March, 1877 ; Oxford won, 13 April, 1878 ; Cam- 
bridge won, 5 April, 1879; Oxford won on Monday, 
22 March, 1880 ; Friday, 8 April, 1881 ; Saturday, 1 
April, 1882; and Thursday, 15 March, 1883; Cam- 
bridge, Monday, 7 April, 1884; Oxford, Saturday, 
28 March, 1885 ; Cambridge, Saturday, 3 April, 
1886 ; 26 March, 1887 ; 24 March, 1888. (E. T. 
Campbell killed at Cambridge, 24 Feb. 1888) ; 
30 March, 1889 ; Oxford, 26 March, 1890, 21 March, 
1891, 9 April, 1892; 22 March, 1893; 17 March, 
1894; 30 March, 1895; 28 March, 1896; 3 April, 
1897; 26 March, 1898; Cambridge, 25 March, 
1899; 31 March, 1900; Oxford, 30 March, 1901 ; 
Cambridge, 22 March, 1902 ; Cambridge, 1 April, 
1903. In the international boat-race between the 
universities of Oxford and Harvard, Massachusetts, 
U.S., Oxford won, 27 Aug. 1869. 

The Oxford crew rowed from Dover to Calais in 4J 
hours 25 July, 1885 

UNIVERSITY COLLEGES (London), see 
London University, and Oxford. 

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION (Ireland) 
Act, 42 & 43 Vict. c. 85, passed 15 Aug. 1879. It 
provides for the dissolution of the " Queen's Univer- 
sity,'" and the foundation of the " Royal University 
of Ireland" the charter of which was signed by the 
queen, 19 April, 1880. 

UNIVERSITY ELECTIONS, see Dodson's 
Act. 

UNIVERSITY TEACHING, Society for 
its extension formed in London about 1875, and 
supported by Cambridge, Oxford, and London uni- 
versities ; great meeting for its support at the 
Mansion-house, 19 Feb. 1879. Courses of lectures 
given in various parts of London, Oct. 1879. 

Proposed establishment of a settlement in east 
London, by university men of Oxford and Cam- 
bridge, to improve social intellectual condition, 
May, 1884 ; at Twjnbec Hall, Whitechapel, volun- 
teer lectures on science, art, &c given ; also 
instruction in music, athletic sports &c. ; and a 
social club formed. The hall was organized by 
the rev. S. A. Barnett and others as a memorial 
of Arnold Toynbee, an earnest supporter of the 
movement, who died in 1883, aged about 31. 

Oxford House, at liethnal Green ; a kind of club for 
social and intellectual improvement, and for I he 



extension of university teaching, opened by the 
archbishop of Canterbury ... 18 Feb. 1888 

The new buildings, founded 30 Nov. 1891, were 
opened by the duke of Connaught . 23 June, 1892 

Congress held at the university of London 22 June, 1894 
See Passtrwre, Edwards' Settlement. 

UNIVERSITY TESTS (Religious). A bill 
for their abolition was rejected by the lords, 19 July, 
1869, and 14 July, 1870; passed, and received royal 
assent, 16 June, 187 1. A similar act for Trinity 
College, Dublin, was passed in May, 1873. In 
April, 1878, on trial it was affirmed, that an endow- 
ment with a religious test at Hertford college, 
Oxford, was valid. 

UNKNOWN TONGUES, see Irvingites, 
note. 

UNLEARNED PARLIAMENT, see Par- 
liament, 1404. 

UNSEAWORTHY SHIPS COMMIS- 
SION, see Seamen and Merchant Shipping Act. 

UPSAL (Sweden). The Swedish rulers were 
kings of Upsal till 1001. The university was 
founded in 1476, by Sten Sture, the "protector," 
and opened 21 Sept. 1477. Celebration of founda- 
tion of university, Sept. 1877. 

URANIUM, a brittle grey metal discovered by 
Klaproth in 1789, in the mineral pitch-blende. It 
has lately been employed in the manufacture of 
glass for certain philosophical purposes. 
The discovery of a new lode in the Union mine, 
Granipound Eoad, Cornwall, Sept. 1889, and 
improvements in treating the ore, have greatly 
cheapened the metal . ... Feb. 1890 
Its radio-activity discovered by M. Henri Becquerel 
in 1896, studied by lord Kelvin, Mdme. and M. 
Curie and others 1897 et seq. 

URANUS, a planet discovered by sir "William 
Herschel, 13 March, 1781, first called Georgium 
Sidus, after George III.; next Herschel; and, 
finally, Uranus. It is about twice as distant from 
the sun as the planet Saturn. The anniversary of 
its first revolution (in 84 years 7 days) since its 
discovery, was celebrated on 20 March, 1865. Its 
perturbations led to the discovery of Neptune, in 
1846. Uranus has 4 satellites ; 2 discovered by 
Herschel in 1787, and 2 by Lassell, 1 of which 
almost simultaneously by Struve, in 1847. Herschel 
was mistaken in supposing that he had discovered 
other satellites, 2 in 1790 and 2 in 1794; they 
were probably faint stars. 

URBANISTS, see Clementines, and Clare. 

URBINO, the ancient Urbinum Hortense, 
central Italy, capital of a duchy created for 
Malatesta, 1474. It was treacherously seized by 
Cresar Borgia, 1502 ; captured by Julius II., 1503 ; 
and given to Borgia, 1504; given to Lorenzo de' 
Medici by Leo X. 1516; after many vicissitudes re- 
covered by the duke Francesco, 1522; on the duke's 
resignation annexed to the papal states, 163 1 ; an- 
nexed to Italy, i860. 

URGENCY, see Parliament, 1881. 

URICONIUM, see WroxtUr. 



URIM AND THUMMIM. 



1337 



USHANT. 



URIM AND THUMMIM, Light and 
PERFECTION {Exodus xxviii. 30), words con- 
nected with the breastplate worn by the high priest 
when he entered into the holy place, with the view 
of obtaining an answer from God (1490 B.C.). 

URSULINE NUNS (so called from St. 
Ursula), founded originally by St. Angela of 
Brescia), about 1537. Several communities existed 
in England; and some still exist in Ireland. 

URUGUAY, Banda Oriental, a republic 

in South America, formerly part of the vice-royalty 
of Buenos Ayres; declared its independence, 25 Aug. 
1825; recognised 4 Oct. 1828; constitution pro- 
claimed 18 July, 1830. Capital, Montevideo. 
Population in 1886 (estimated) 632,250 ; 1893, 
728,447; 1901,964,577. 

The president of the executive, G. A. Pereyra, 
elected in 1856 ; succeeded by B. P. Berro . . i860 

Civil war broke out in consequence of the invasion 
of the ex-president, general Veuancio Flores, 

26 June, 1863 

The vice-president Aguirre became president, 

1 March, 1864 

He refused to modify his ministry according to the 
desire of general Flores, who marched towards 
the capital June, ,, 

Flores became provisional president. . Feb. 1865 

F. A. Vidal elected president . . 1 March, 18*66 

Two opposing parties in the state, Blancos and 
Colorados „ 

During an insurrection of the Blanco party (headed 
by Berro), at Montevideo, general Flores was 
assassinated ; the troops remained faithful ; in- 
surrection soon suppressed, and Berro shot, 

19 Feb. 1868 

Gen. Lorenzo Battle elected president . 1 March, ,, 

Blanco insurrection repressed, July, 1871; ended, 

Jan. 1872 

Revolution at Montevideo ; Ellazio's government 
overthrown ; Pedro Varela provisional president, 
about 15 Jan. 1875 

Col. L. Latorre president . . .11 March, 1876 

Dr. F. A. Vidal, president, died, 17 March 1880 ; 
gen. Maximo Santas, president . 1 March, 1882 

Insurrection by general Arredondo, 29 March ; 
reported defeat of government troops, 30 March, 1886 

Flight of general Arredondo to Brazil, March-April, ,, 

Insurgents completely defeated . . 2 April, ,, 

Resignation of general Santas, 18 Nov. ; general 
Maximo Tajes as president. . . 18 Nov. ,, 

Dr. Herrera y Obes, president . . 1 March, 1890 

State financial difficulties ; run on the banks for 
gold ; paper currency authorised, not accepted, 

8-19 July, ,, 

Conversion of the state debt and reduction of 
interest proposed by the government, accepted 
by the creditors in London . .. . 31 Aug. 1891 

Attempted revolution at Montevideo by the Blanco 
party suppressed with bloodshed; martial law 
set up 11 Oct. ,, 

Don Juan Idiarte Borda (a Colorado, and despotic) 
elected president . . . .21 March, 1894 

The new chambers opened with a message from the 
president, improved financial and commercial 
arrangements, announced . . .55 Feb. 1897 

Revolt of the Blancos : state of siege in Monte- 
video, proclaimed .... 3 March, ,, 

Severe righting at Paysandu, much slaughter, re- 
treat of government troops . . 17 March, ,, 

Desultory fighting : insurgents routed in 2 engage- 
ments, by gen. Muniz, March-April ; and again, 
by gen. Villar, near San Fructuoso . . 16 May, ,, 

War loan authorized, 6 per cent. 4,000,000 pesos, 

18 May, „ 

Government troops repulsed, at Rivera, in May, 
and at Canudos July, ,, 

Pres. Borda assassinated in Montevideo, by Avelino 
Arredondo [released on public appeal, Aug. 1899], 

25 Aug. , , 

Sen. Juan Cuestas becomes president (till March, 
1898) 10 Sept. „ 



Compromise concluded with the insurgents ; peace 
signed, 15 Sept. ; ratified by the chambers, 

18 Sept. 1897 
Drs. Herrera and Aguirre and gen. Tajes exiled to 

Argentina, on a charge of conspiracy, 30 Nov. ; 
rescinded 31 Dec. ,, 

Coup d'Etat : sen. Cuestas assumes a dictatorship, 

8 Jan. 1898 

New council of state : important administrative 
changes, 12 Feb. ; favourable report . 18 Feb. ,, 

Revolutionary conspiracy suppressed, col. Lamas, 
the leader, killed by a fall from his horse ; re- 
ported 31 May, ,, 

Revolt of 2 regiments, in favour of ex-pres. Julio 
Herrera ; the arsenal seized, and lighting in Monte 
Video, about 50 killed ; a state of siege declared ; 
British marines landed to defend the consulate, 

4 Jul Y> i. 
The ringleaders, military and civilian, submit on 
condition of an amnesty being granted, and are 
deported to Buenos Ayres, order restored 

5-6 July ,, 
Revolt quelled, country tranquil . early Feb. 1899 
Sen. Juan Cuestas elected president . 1 March, ,, 
Amnesty granted to political offenders, 8 March, ,, 
Treaty of commerce, &c. (1885) renewed with Great 

Britain 15 July, „ 

Chambers meet, president's message, good report, 

15 Feb. 1900 
Arbitration treaty with Argentina, announced, 

mid March, 1901 
First stone of the new port works laid at Monte- 
video 18 July, ,, 

Parliament opened by the president, good report, 

18 Feb. 1902 
Alleged plot against pies. Cuestas, some arrests, 
2 senators banished, mid July ; but withdrawn, 

19 July, ,, 
Chambers meet, sound financial and administra- 
tive progress since 1897, reported 15 Feb. 1903 

Sen. Batele elected president . . 1 March, ,, 

New cabinet formed, sens. Romieu and Martinez, 
foreign and finance ministers, reported, 5 March, ,, 

Nationalist rebellion in six departments of the 
interior, railway at Montevideo destroyed, 8000 
men prepare to attack the city, reported, 

mid March, ,, 

End of Nationalist rising ; rebels accept terms 
offered by the president, amnesty granted, re- 
ported 25 March, ,, 

Budget, revenue and expenditure balanced at 
3,483,300? mid June, ,, 

Customs revenue for T902, 2,130,000?.; increase 
over 1901, 85,000? mid July, ,, 

Decision of government to construct harbour at 
Paysandu, and piers at Salto and other places, 
and further development works, reported, Oct. ,, 

USEFUL KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY; 

see Diffusion. 

USES, Statute of, 27 Hen. VIII. c. 10 

(1535-6) ; see Charitable Uses. 

USHANT, an island near Brest, N.W. France, 

near which two naval battles were fought between 

the British and French fleets. 

(1.) On 27 July, 1778, after an indecisive action of three 
hours, the French, under cover of the night, withdrew 
into the harbour of Brest. Admiral Keppel com- 
manded the English fleet ; the count d'Orvilliers the 
French. The failure of a complete victory was attri- 
buted to admiral sir Hugh Palliser's non-compliance 
with the admiral's signals. Palliser preferred articles 
of. accusation against his commander, who was tried 
and acquitted, and the charge against him declared to 
be " malicious and ill-founded." 

(2.) Lord Howe with 25 ships signally defeated the 
French fleet (26 ships, under Villaret-Joyeuse), taking 
six ships of the line, and sinking one (the Vengeur*), 



* Various French histories, on the authority of the 
French demagogue Barrere, state that the English had 
36 ships of the line, and the French only 26, and that 
the crew of the Vengeur sang the Marseillaise while the 
ship sank, displaying the tricolor flag. All this was 
denied in 1802, and disproved by rear-admiral Griffith in 



USUKY. 



1338 



UXBKIDGE. 



i June, 1794. While the two fleets were engaged in 
this action, a large fleet of merchantmen, on the 
safety of which the French nation depended for its 
means of prosecuting the war, got safely into Brest 
harbour, which gave occasion to the enemy to claim 
the laurels of the day, notwithstanding their loss in 
ships, and in killed and wounded, which was very 
great. The day was long termed in England the 
' ' glorious first of June. " The victory commemorated, 
1 June, 1894. 

USURY from a stranger was permitted to the 
Jews, but forbidden from their brethren, 1491 B.C. 
(Exod. xxii. 25., Deut. xxiii. 13.) This law was 
enforced by Nehemiah, 445 B.C. (Neh. v.) Usury 
was prohibited by the English parliament, 1341. 
Until the 15th century, no Christians were allowed 
to receive interest of money, and Jews were the 
only usurers, and therefore often banished and per- 
secuted; see Jews. By the 37th of Henry VIII. 
the rate of interest was fixed at 10 per cent., 1545. 
This statute was repealed by Edward VI., but re- 
enacted 13 Eliz. 1570. For later legislation, see 
Interest. 

UTAH, a western territory of North America, 
was organised 9 Sept. 1850 ; the capital, Salt Lake 
City, became the chief seat of the Mormonites 
(which see). Population in 1880, 143,963; 1890, 
207,905 ; 1900, 276,749. Salt Lake city, 1890, 
44,843; 1900,53,531. 
Gold discovered near the Colorado river, about 

22 Dec. 1892 
Utah admitted as a state, 13 July, 1894 ; pro- 
claimed 4 Jan. 1896 

Fresh polygamy prohibited ... 4 Jan. „ 
Emigration of Mormons to N.W. Canada, reported, 

May, 1899 
Colliery explosion at Schofield, over 200 deaths, 

1 May, 1900 

UTICA (N. Africa), an ancient Tyrian colony, 
an ally of Carthage, named in the treaty with the 
Eomans 348 B.C. Here Cato the younger, after the 
defeat of the partisaus of Pompey at Thapsus, com- 
mitted suicide, 46 B.C. Utica flourished greatly 
after the fall of Carthage, and was made a Roman 
city by Augustus on account of its favouring Julius 
Caesar. It suffered by the invasion of the Vandals, 
439 ; and of the Saracens, about 700. See New 
York, 1895. 

UTILITARIANISM, termed the "greatest 
happiness principle," the philosophy which pro- 

Nov. 1838. The Vengeur surrendered to the British, 
who exerted themselves to save the. crew. The French 
statement was accepted by Alison, and at first by Carlyle, 
but afterwards contradicted by both. 



poses the attainment of the greatest happiness of 
the greatest number ; a doctrine ascribed to Priestley 
by Bentham. The doctrine is found in the writ- 
ings of Locke, Hartley, Hume, and Paley ; but 
was chiefly propounded by Jeremy Bentham in his 
"Introduction to the Principles of Morals and 
Legislation," 1780-89, by John Stuart Mill, who 
died 9 May, 1873, an| i D 3 r sir Edwin Chadwick, 
who died 5 July, 1890. Mill founded a small 
" utilitarian society," in 1822. He took the name 
from an expression in Gait's "Annals of the Parish." 
"The English Utilitarians," 3 vols., by Leslie 
Stephen, tee AtKenceum, 8 & 15 Dec. 1900. 

UTOPIA, the name given by sir Thomas More 
to an imaginary isle, representing the "best state 
of a public weale," described in a boolc written in 
Latin, published 1548. The work is considered to 
be an ironical satire on the state of Europe at the 
time, Utopia signifying " Nowhere." An English 
translation w.is published in 155 1; the rev. J. H. 
Lupton's edition was published by the Clarendon 
Press, Nov. 1895. For the loss of the Utopia, 
emigrant steamer, see Wrecks, 17 March, 1891. 

UTRAQUISTS, see Calixtins. 

UTRECHT (the Roman Trajectum ad Rhenum) 
became the seat of an independent bishopric about 
695. The last prelate, Henry of Bavaria, weary of 
his turbulent subjects, sold his temporal govern- 
ment to the emperor Charles V. in 1528. The 
union of the Seven United Provinces began here 
(see United Provinces) ; signed 23 Jan. 1579 ; 300th 
anniversary celebrated 23 Jan. 1879. The treaty of 
Utrecht, which terminated the wars of queen Anne, 
was signed by the ministers of Great Britain and 
France, and all the other allies, except the ministers 
of the empire, 11 April, 1 7 13. This treaty secured 
the Protestant succession in England, the separation 
of the French and Spanish crowns, the destruction of 
the works of Dunkirk, the enlargement of the 
British colonies and plantations in America, and a 
full satisfaction for the claims of the allies. Utrecht 
surrendered to the Prussians, 9 May, 1787! was 
acquired by the French, 18 Jan. 1795, ant ^ restored 
at the peace, 1814. Population, 1887,81,39s; 1890, 
86,116; 1897,96,349; 1900, 104,194. 

UXBRIDGE (W. Middlesex). On 30 Jan. 
1645, commissioners met here to discuss terms of 
peace between Charles I. and the parliament; they 
separated without effect, 22 Feb. The latter re- 
quired absolute contr-ol of the army and navy, the 
abolition of the episcopacy, liturgy, &c. Us bridge 
murder, see Trials, Dec. 1884. 



VACATIONS. 



1339 



VAGRANTS. 



V. 



VACATIONS, see Terms. 

VACCINATION (from Variola Vaccina, the 
cow-pox), discovered by Dr. Edward Jenner. He 
was born in 1 749, and educated for the medical 
profession, partially under John Hunter. Having 
heard that milkmaids who had had the cow-pox 
never took the small-pox, he, about 1780, conceived 
the idea of vaccination. He made the first experi- 
ment by transferring to a healthy child on 14 May, 
1796, the pus from the pustule of a milkmaid who 
had caught the cow-pox from the cows. He an- 
nounced his success in a memoir published 1798, 
and vaccination, begun 21 Jan. 1799, soon became 
general, after much opposition, lor this Dr. Jenner 
received 10,000/. from parliament, 2 June, 1802, and 
20,000^. in 1807. The first national institution for 
vaccination, the Royal Jennerian Institution, was 
founded 19 Jan. 1803. The emperor Napolewn 
valued Dr. Jenner so highly, that he liberated Dr. 
Wickham, when a prisoner of war, at Jenner' s re- 
quest, and subsequently whole families of English, 
making it a point to refuse him nothing that he 
asked. Vaccination, although much opposed, was 
practised throughout all Europe previously to 18 16. 
Dr. Jenner died suddenly, 26 Jan. 1823. 

Royal Jennerian and London Vaccine Institution, 
founded 1802 

The Vaccination act, 3 & 4 Vict, passed . 23 July, 1840 

An important blue-book, entitled " Papers on the 
History and Practice of Vaccination," edited by 
Mr. John Simon, was published by the board of 
health in 1857 

A statue, subscribed for by all nations, was erected 
to Jenner's memory in Trafalgar-square 30 April, 1858 

It was removed to Kensington in .... 1862 

Vaccination was made compulsory in England in 
1853, alm i' 1 Ireland and Scotland . . . . 1863 

A statue was erected by the French at Boulogne, 
and inaugurated ... n Sept. 1865 

These laws were consolidated and amended by 
30 & 31 Vict. c. 84, 12 Aug. 1867 (see Small-pox 
and Inoculation), and amended in 1871 

Much opposition to vaccination ; an anti-vaccina- 
tion society formed, 1870-71 ; a parliamentary 
commission appointed ... 13 Feb. ,, 

A government bill respecting punishment for com- 
pulsory vaccination dropped . . . Aug. 1880 

Vaccination direct from the cow or calf advocated 
and practised in Brussels, &c. . . 1879 et seq. 

Successful vaccination of 68,900 sheep by M. Pas- 
teur of Paris . . . . up to 1 Oct. 1881 

The Grocers company of London offer prize of 
ioooi. for a plan for propagating vaccine conta- 
gium apart from the animal body . 30 May, 1883 

Great anti-vaccination demonstration at Leicester 
(many persons had been fined) . . 23 March, 1885 

London society for abolition of compulsory vaccina- 
tion, held 7th annual meeting . . 11 May, 1887 

Estimated : 750,000 infants vaccinated annually ; 
50 die of disease in consequence ; stated Oct. ,, 

Royal commission of inquiry appointed 29 May, 1889 

Interim report issued .... 1892 and 1893 

Amendment bill read 1st time, commons, 
11 May; withdrawn, Sept. 1893. 

Increase of small-pox, especially in parts of London, 
attributed to anti- vaccination . June-Aug. 1894 

Report presented to the queen, 13 Aug. ; the delay 
said to have been injurious, see Small-pox, 1896, 
and Jennerian Institution ; final report issued 

Nov. 1897 



Vaccination act passed (experimental for 5 years) ; 
glycerinated lymph authorised ; conscientious ob- 
jections recognised with conditions . 12 Aug. 189S 

(203,413 conscientious objectors down to Dec. 
1898 ; 32,341 in 1899.) 

Nat. anti-vaccination league meets at Eastbourne, 

5 Dec. 1900. 

Imperial vaccination league formed, 30 June, 1902, 
first meeting, London, duke of Northumberland, 
president, 12 Dec. 1902 ; report issued with re- 
commendations 9 Jan. 1903 

Deputation from the Imperial vaccination league 
on president of the Local government board to 
urge the amendment of the Vaccination Act, to 
ensure more efficient primary vaccination, to 
require revaccination at school age, and to make 
better provision for the supply of pure lymph, 

14 Jan. ,, 

Very important report by Dr. G. S. Buchanan on 
an epidemic of small-pox in union of Orsett, 
1901-2, containing much evidence that small-pox 
hospitals may become grave sources of danger to 
the inhabitants in their vicinity ; issued by the 
Local government board . . . March, ,, 

VACUUM, is produced by reducing the pres- 
sure of the atmosphere, whereby its power of ab- 
sorbing moisture is greatly increased. The Aris- 
totelian philosophers asserted that " nature abhors 
a vacuum." It has been proved that an absolute 
vacuum cannot be obtained by the air pump, a 
small residuum of gaseous matter remains after 
extreme exhaustion. To study the effects of the 
projection of an electric discharge upon this matter, 
prof. W. Crookes (knt. June, 1897) invented his- 
celebrated vacuum tubes, which he exhibited with 
interesting experiments at the lloyal Institution, 
4 April, 1879. At the same place, on 21 Jan. 1881, 
Dr. Warren De La Hue exhibited splendid results 
which he had obtained with the assistance of Dr. 
Hugo M uller, by means of an electric discharge 
from a battery of 14,400 chloride of silver cells into 
vacuum tubes. See Rbntgen Bays. 32 forms of 
vacuum tubes are described in Nature, 28 Jan. 
1897. The power of absorbing moisture possessed 
by a vacuum has been utilised by M. Emil Pass- 
burg, of lh-eslau, in his drying apparatus which has 
been successfully employed for drying grains by 
Messrs. Guinness, of Dublin, since the spring of 
1888. 

VADIMONIS LACUS, the Vadimonian lake, 
Umbria, central Italy, near which the Etruscans 
were totally defeated in two severe engagements by 
the Roman consuls : r, by Fabius Maximus, 309 15. c. ; 
2, by Cornelius Dolabella, 283. 

VAGRANTS. By law, after being whipped, a 
vagrant was to take an oath to return to the place 
where he was born, or had last dwelt for three 
years, 1 530. A vagrant a second time convicted 
was to lose the upper part of the gristle of his right 
ear, 1535 ; a third time convicted, death. A vaga- 
bond to be branded with a V, and be a slave for 
two years, 1547. If he absconded and was caught, 
he was to be branded with S, and be a slave 
for life. Vagrants were punished by whipping, 
gaoling, boring the ears, and death for a second 
offence, 1572. The milder statutes were those of 
17 Geo. II.; 32, 35, and 59 Geo. III. The present 



VALDENSES. 



1340 



VANCOUVER S ISLAND. 



Vagrant Act (5 Geo. IV. c. 83) was passed in 1824 ; 
amendment act passed, 12 Aug., 1898. There were 
about 33,000 tramps in England and Wales in 1865. 
For vagrants in London, see under Poor. 

VALDENSES, see Waldenses. 

VALENCAY, a chateau near Chateauroux, 
central France, where Napoleon I. imprisoned 
Ferdinand of Spain from 1808 to 1813. His king- 
dom was restored to Ferdinand by a treaty signed 
8 Dec. 1813. 

VALENCIA (E. Spain), the Yalentia Edeta- 
norum of the .Romans, became the capital of a 
Moorish kingdom, 1000 ; annexed to Aragon 1238. 
Its university, founded, it is said, in the 13th 
century, was revived in the 15th. Valencia was 
taken by the earl of Peterborough in 1705, but 
submitted to the Bourbons after the unfortunate 
battle of Almanza, in 1707. It resisted the attempts 
made on it by marshal Moncey, but was taken from 
the Spaniards with a garrison of more than 16,000 
snen, and immense stores, by the French under 
Suchet, 9 Jan. 1812. Population of the city, 1887, 
170,763; 1897, 204,768. 

VALENCIENNES (N. France). This city 
(the Roman Valentiantc), after many changes, was 
taken by Louis XIV. in 1677, and annexed 1678. 
It was besieged from 23 May to 28 July, 1793, when 
the French garrison surrendered to the allies under 
the duke of York. It was retaken, together with 
Conde, by the French, 27-30 Aug. 1794 ; on capitu- 
lation, the garrison and 1 100 emigrants were made 
prisoners, with immense stores. 

VALENTIA, a Roman province, including the 
country between the walls of Severus and Adrian, 
was reconquered from the Picts and Scots by Theo- 
dosius, and named after Valentinian I. the reigning 
emperor, 368. 

VALENTINE'S DAY (14 Feb.). Valentine 
is said to have been a bishop, who suffered martyr- 
dom under Claudius TI. at Rome ; others say under 
Aurelian, in 271. 618,000 letters passed through 
the post-office on 14 Feb. 1856. 530,300 was the 
estimated number of valentines delivered in 1864; 
in 1870, 1,545,755. The origin of the ancient 
custom of ''choosing a valentine" has been much 
controverted ; see Pott. 

VALENTINIANS, followers of Valentine, a 
priest, who, on being disappointed of a bishopric, 
forsook the Christian faith, declaring there were 
thirty gods and goddesses, fifteen of each sex, which 
he called iEones, or Ages. He taught in the 2nd 
century, and published a gospel and psalms : his 
followers added other errors, 

VALLADOLID (Spain), the Roman Pintia 
and the Moorish Belad Walfd : was recovered for 
the Christians by Ordnno II. , the first king of Leon, 
914-23. It became capital of Castile in the 15th 
century. It was taken by the French Jan. 1808 ; 
and captured by the Kngiish, 4 June, 1813. Here 
died Christopher Columbus, 20 May, 1506." Popula- 
tion, 1887, 62,012 ; 1897, 68,746. 

VALLOMBROSA (Central Italy). A Bene- 
dictine abbey was founded here by John Gualbert, 
about 1038. The monks were termed Vallam- 
brosians. 

VALMY (N.K. France). Here the French, 
commanded by Kellermann, defeated the Prussians, 
commanded by the duke of Brunswick, 20 Sept. 



1792. The victory was of immense moral advan- 
tage to the republicans ; and Kellermann was made 
duke of Valmy in 1808. 

VALOIS, a county (N. France) given by 
Philip III. to his younger son Charles, whose son 
Philip became king as Philip IV. in 1328; see 
France. 

VALOR ECCLESIASTICUS, a report of 
the annual value of church property, made by order 
in 1534, was published by the Record Commission 
in 1810-34. 

VALPARAISO, principal port of Chili, South 
America, was bombarded by the Spanish admiral 
Mendez Nunez, on 31 March, 1866, when much 
property was destroyed. It suffered by earthquakes 
in 1822, 1829, and 1851. Population, 1895, 
122,447; 1900,143,022. See Chili, 1891. 

VALTELLINE (N. Italy), a district near the 
Rhsetian Alps, seized by the Grison league, 1512, 
and ceded to it, 1530. At the instigation of Spain, 
the catholics rose and massacred the protestants, 
19-21 July, 1620. After much contention between 
the French and Austrians, the neutrality of the 
Valtelline was assured in 1639. It was annexed to 
the Cisalpine republic in 1797; to Italy, 1807 ; to 
Austria, 1814; to Italy, i860. 

VALUATION OF PROPERTY ACT, 

to provide for the uniform assessment of rateable 
property in the metropolis, was passed 9 Aug. 1869. 

VALVASOR (or "Vavasor"). Camden 

holds that the " Vavasor" was next below a baron. 
Du Cange maintains that there were two sorts of 
vavasors: the greater, who held of the king, such 
as barons and counts ; and the lesser, called " val- 
vasini," who held of the former, such as vassals 
holding land under a nobleman himself a vassal. 
Valvasors are mentionedin the Domesday book, 1086. 

VANADIUM (from Vanadis, the Scandina- 
vian Venus), metal discovered by Sefstrom, in 1830, 
combined with iron ore. A similar metal, dis- 
covered in lead ore by Del Rio in 1801, and named 
Erythroniwm, was proved by Wohler to be Vana- 
dium. Vanadium was discovered in the copper - 
bearing beds in Cheshire, in 1865, by Mr. (aft. Sir) 
H . E. Roscoe, by whom its peculiarities were further 
studied, and published in 1867-8. It is useful in 
photography and dyeing. 

VANCOUVER'S ISLAND, North Pacific 
ocean, near the main land. Settlements were made 
here by the English in 178 1, which were seized by 
the Spaniards in 1789, but restored. By a treaty 
between the British government and that of the 
United States in 1846, this island was secured to 
the former. It has become of much greater im- 
portance since the discovery of gold in the neigh- 
bouring main land in 1858, and the consequent 
establishment of the colony of British Columbia 
(which see). Victoria, the capital, was founded in 1857. 
The island was united with British Columbia by 
act passed in Aug. 1866; and on 24 May, 1868, 
Victoria was declared the capital. Lord Duft'erin, 
governor-general of Canada, was warmly received 
here, 15 Aug. 1876. See Juan, San. Chinese 
immigrants are virtually excluded by a poll-tax, 
1878. 
Vancouver nearly destroyed by fire, about 15 June ; 

again . . ' 6 July, 1886 

Wellington colliery explosion ; 76 lives lost, Jan. 1888 
Visit of the duke and duchess of Cornwall, 30 Sept. 1901 



VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. 



1341 



VATICAN. 



VANCOUVER'S VOYAGE. Captain Van- 
couver served as a midshipman under captain Cook, 
and was appointed to command during a voyage 
of discovery, to ascertain the existence of any 
navigable communication between the North Pacific 
and North Atlantic oceans. He sailed 7 Jan. 1791, 
and returned 24 Sept. 1795. He compiled an ac- 
count of this vo}'age of survey of the north-west 
coast of America, and died in 1798. 

VANDALS) a Germanic race, attacked the 
Roman empire in the 3rd century, and began to 
ravage Germany and Gaul, 406-14 ; then- kingdom 
in Spain was founded in 411 ; under Genseric they 
invaded and conquered the Roman territories in 
Africa, 429, and took Carthage, Oct. 439. They 
were subdued by Belisarius in 534. They were 
driven out by the Saracen Moors. The dukes of 
Mecklenburg style themselves princes of the 
Vandals. 

VANDAL KINGS IN AFRICA. 

429. Genseric (see Mecklen- 496. Thrasimund. 

burg). 523. Hilderic. 

477. Hunneric, liis son. 531. Gelimer. 
484. Gundamund. 

VAN DIEMEN'S LAND (called Tasmania 
since 1853), was discovered by Abel Jansen Tasman, 
24 Nov. 1642, and named after the governor of -the 
Dutch East Indies. Capital, Hobart Town, now 
Hobart. 

Population, 1857, 81,492 ; 1865, 95,201 (only four 
remained of the aborigines) ; 1870, 99,328 ; 1880, 
114,762; 1891, 146,667; 1901, 172,475. Revenue, 
1887-S, 594, 976?. ; expenditure. 668,759?. ; im- 
ports, 1887, 1,449,371?. ; exports, 1,596,817?. 
1890: Revenue, 753,305?. ; expenditure, 718,604?. 
Imports, 1,897,512?.; exports, 1,486,992?. 1893: 
revenue, 706,972?. ; expenditure, 836,417?. ; im- 
ports, 1,057,683?. ; exports, 1,352,184?. 1896 : 
revenue, 807,696?., 1898, surplus, 109,000?. 1901 : 
revenue, 954,000?. 
Visited by Furneaux, 1773; Cook . . . . 1777 
Proved to be an island by Flinders, who explored 

Bass's Straits 1798-9 

Taken possession of by lieut. Bower . . . . 1803 
Arrival of col. Collins, the first governor, with con- 
victs; Hobart Town founded .... 1804 
Bishopric of Tasmania established . . . . 1842 

Transportation abolished 1853 

Representative government granted . . . . 1855 
Col. Thos. Gore Brown, governor .... 1862 
Visited by the duke of Edinburgh . . 7-18 Jan. 1868 
Charles Ducane, governor .... Aug. ,, 
Fred. Aloysius Weld, governor .... 1874 

Gen. sir John Henry Lefroy, governor . 21 Aug. 1880 
Sir George C. Strahan, governor . . Dec. i88r 
Discovery of gold at Mount Lyell . . July, 1886 
Sir Robert G. Hamilton, governor . . Nov. ,, 
Silver-field discovered in the Zeehan country about 
1885 or 1886 ; about 200 mining companies es- 
tablished ; the town Zeehan established ; about 
6,000 people settled in the district . . 1889-90 
Loan of 6,000,000?. authorized . ... 1891 

The Tasmanian exhibition, Launeeston ; the fine 
arts section opened by sir Robert Hamilton, 
25 Nov. 1891 exhibition closed . 22 March, 1892 
Resignation of Mr. Fysh, 12 Aug. ; Mr. Henry Dob- 
son forms a new ministry ; retrenchments pro- 
posed to meet deficit .... 16 Aug. ,, 
Great discovery in Maria island of carboniferous 
limestone, from which Portland cement is made, 

reported 13 Feb. 1893 

Viscount Gormanston appointed governor, March, ,, 
An income-tax bill rejected ... 6 Oct. ,, 
Probate duties passed by 1 vote . . 10 Oct. ,, 
Budget, 363,243?. deficit . . . . 2 March, 1894 
The ministry, under Mr. Dobson, defeated on the 
land-tax proposals by 1 vote, 10 April ; resigns, 

11 April, ,, 
Sir Edward Braddon forms a ministry . 12 April, „ 
A conference of Australian premiers (sir E. C. 
Braddon, president) meets at Hobart (see 
Australasia) .. ' 29 JaH - l8 95 



Weather observatory erected on Mount Wellington, 

reported 22 May, 1895 

Federal enabling bill passed . . .9 Jan. 1896 
Bush fire in co. Montagu, Pengana nearly destroyed, 

many homeless 13 Dec. ,, 

Diamond jubilee celebrations throughout the 

country 20 June et seq. 1897 

Serious bush fires, many lives lost . . Feb. 1898 

Referendum on the commonwealth (bill 10,000 for 

and 712 against the bill) ... 27 July, 1899 
General election : strong government majority, 

reported 10 March, 1900 

The duke and duchess of Cornwall visit Hobart 

(see Australasia) 3-6 July, ,, 

Budget: 131,000?. surplus, announced . 8 Aug. ,, 
Sir J. S. Dodds, administiator . . autumn, ,, 
Sir Arthur E. Havelock appointed governor, May ; 

arrives 8 Nov. ,, 

Budget : deficit for 1901, 97,000?. . . 25 July, 1902 
Expenditure reduced by 30,000?. ; revenue and 

expenditure equalised at about, 865,000?. for 1903, 

reported 13 Dec. ,, 

VANGUARD, see Wrecks, 1875. 

VARANGIANS, or VARAGIANS, a 

name given to northern pirates, who invaded 
Flanders, about 813 ; France, about 840; Italy, 
852. Their leader, Ruric, invited by the Novgo- 
rodians to help them", founded the Russian mon- 
archy, 862. 

VARENNES, a town in N.E. France, is cele- 
brated for the arrest of Louis XVI., his queen, 
sister, and two children. They fled from the 
Tuileries on 21 June, 1791 ; were taken here the 
next day, and conducted back to Paris, mainly 
through Drouet, the postmaster, who, at an inter- 
mediate town, recognised the king. 

VARNA, a fortified seaport in Bulgaria, for- 
merly European Turkey. A great battle was fought 
near this place, 10 Nov. 1444, between the Turks 
under Amurath II. and the Hungarians under their 
king Ladislaus and John Hunniades. The latter 
were defeated with great slaughter : the king was 
killed, and Hunniades made prisoner, who had 
opposed the Christians breaking the truce for ten 
years, recently made at Szegedin. The emperor 
Nicholas of Russia arrived before Varna, the head- 
quarters of his army, then besieging the place, 
5 Aug. 1828. The Turkish garrison made a vigorous 
attack on the besiegers, 7 Aug. ; and another on 
the 2 1st, but were repulsed. Varna surrendered, 
after a sanguinary conflict, to the Russian arms, 
n Oct. 1828. It was restored at the peace in 1829; 
its fortifications were dismantled, but have since 
been restored. The allied armies disembarked at 
Varna, 29 May, 1854, and sailed for the Crimea, 
3 Sept. They suffered severely from cholera. In 
"conformity with the treaty of Berlin, Varna was 
evacuated by the Turks, and occupied by Russians, 
autumn, 1878. Population, 1888, 25,256 ; 1900, 
33.443- 

VASSALAGE, see Feudal Laivs, and Slavery. 

VASSAR COLLEGE (on the east bank of 
the Hudson, United States), for the higher education 
of women, was founded by Matthew Vassar in 1 86 1. 

VASSY (N.E. France). The massacre of the 
protestants at this place by the duke of Guise on 
1 March, 1562, led to desolating civil wars. 

VATICAN (Rome), the ancient Mons Vati- 
canus, a hill of Rome. The commencement of the 
palace is ascribed to Constantine, Liberius, and 
Symmachus, and also to pope Eugenius III., 
1 146. It became the residence of the pope at 
his return from Avignon, 1377. The palace is 



VAUD. 



1342 



VELOCIPEDES. 



said to contain 7000 rooms, rich in works of art, 
ancient and modern. The library, founded by pope 
Nicholas V., 1448, is exceedingly rich in printed 
books and MSS. — Pistolesi's description of the 
Vatican, with numerous plates, was published 
1829-38. — The phrase " Thunders of the Vatican" 
was first used by Voltaire, 1748. — The ancient 
Vatican Codex of the Old and New Testament in 
Greek was published at Home in 1857. For 
<l Vatican Decrees," see Councils. See Observatories. 

Theft of bonds, &c, value over 14,000?., from the 

pope's private safe .... 2 Oct. 1900 
Fire in room over the library . . .1 Nov. 1903 

VAUD, a Swiss canton, after having been suc- 
cessfully held by the Franks, the kings of Burgundy, 
emperors of Germany, dukes of Zahringen, and 
dukes of Savoy, was conquered by the Bernese, Jan. 
8536, and annexed, 1554. Vaud, made independent 
in 1798, joined the confederation in 1815. A new 
constitution was obtained in 1830, after agitation. 

VAUDOIS, see Waldenses. 

VATTXHALL BRIDGE, constructed of iron 
under the direction of Mr. Walker, at an expense of 
150,000/. (to be defrayed by a toll). The first stone 
was laid 9 May, 181 1, by prince Charles, eldest son 
of the duke of Brunswick ; and the bridge was 
opened on 4 June, 1816 ; freed from toll, 24 May, 
1879. Design for a new bridge to be built of 
granite backed with concrete approved by London 
County Council, Feb. 1898 ; parliamentary e>timate 
of cost, 380,000/. Owing to difficulties, revealed by 
boring, due to softer clay, the council adopted, 
25 Nov. 1902, tbe design of a steel elliptical-arch 
bridge with ornamental facings. 

VAUXHALL GARDENS (London), were 
so denominated from the manor of Vauxhall, Falkes- 
hall, Fox-hall, or Faukeshall, said to have been the 
property of Fulke de Breaute about 1282. The 
premises were the property of Jane Vaux in 1615, 
•and the mansion-house was then called Stockden's. 
From her it passed through various hands, till it 
became the property of Mr. Tyers in 1732. The 
New Spring Gardens at Vauxhall are mentioned 
by John Evelyn in his diary 2 July, 1661, Pepys 
29 May, 1662,' Wyeherley 1672, and in the Spectator 
171 1, as a place of great resort. The gardens were 
opened for a "ridotto al fresco" 7 June, 1732, by 
Jonathan Tyers. The greatest season was in 1823, 
when 133,279 persons visited the gardens, and the 
receipts were 29,590/. The number on the then 
supposed last night, 5 Sept. 1839, was 1089 persons. 
Vauxhall was sold by auction, 9 Sept. 1841, for 
20,200/., and again 20 Aug. 1859. The last per- 
formances at Vauxhall took place on 25 July, 1859. 
The ground has been sold for building purpose*. 
Six persons killed and many injured bv fall of stack 
of wood at Bucldey's saw-mills, 25 Feb. 1880. 

Vauxhall park (formerly the lawn, &c, including 
the residence of Mr. H. FaWcett, M.P., pur- 
chased for 45,oooZ.) opened by the prince of 
Wales 7 July, 1890 

J'he statue of professor Fawcett, by Mr. Tinworth, 
the gift of sir Henry Doulton, was unveiled by 
the archbishop of Canterbury . . 7 June, 1893 

VAVASOR, see Valvasor. 

VEDAS, the sacred books of the Hindoos, in 
Sanskrit, were probably written about tbe sixth or 
Hoventh century B.C. Veda means knowledge. 
These books comprise hymns, prayers, and liturgical 
formula;. The edition' by professor Max Miiller, 
printed under the patronage of the Fast India Com- 



pany, appeared in 1849-74. Four volumes of a 

translation by H. H. Wilson appeared in 1850-67. 

Vol. V. & VI., edited by professor Cowell & W. F. 
Webster, completing the work, appeared in 1889. 

In 1887 the Maharajah of Vizianagram proposed to bear 
the expense of a new edition of the text, edited by 
professor Max Miiller. Two vols, of this edition, 
printed at Oxford, appeared in 1890. He died, 28 Oct. 
1900. 

VEGETABLES for the table were brought 
from Flanders about 1520 ; see Gardening . 

VEGETARIAN SOCIETY, founded 1847, 
whose members restrict themselves to a vegetable 
diet, held their fifteenth anniversary in London, 4 
Sept. 1862. A federation of societies throughout 
the world known as the Vegetarian Federal Union 
is active in the propaganda of the doctrines of 
vegetarianism. 
Meetings held at Manchester, 14 Oct. 1874, and other 

places since. 
" Fraternia," a settlement of vegetarians, existed in 

California in 1880. International Congress in London, 

11 Sept. 1890 ; again, Mr. A. F. Hills president, 13 

Sept. et se.q. 1897. See China, Aug. 1895. 
London vegetarian association, annual meetings ; 14 

societies reported in London, 28 Jan. 1898. 
A national congress and exhibition at the Memorial hall, 

London, 12-17 Sept. 1898; again, mid Sept. 1899. 
Oriolet (vegetarian) hospital at Loughton, founded by 

Mr. A. F. Hills, the president, in 1895, reported 

successful, 16 Sept. 1899. 
Internet, congress held in London, 26 June, 1901. 

VEHMIC TRIBUNALS : Vehmgerichte, 
Fehmgerichte, or Femgertchte, secret tribunals estab- 
lished in Westphalia to maintain religion and the 
public peace, had their origin in the time of Charle- 
magne, and rose to importance in 1182, when 
Westphalia became subject to the archbishop of 
Cologne. Persons of the most exalted rank were 
subjected to their decisions, being frequently seized, 
tried, and executed. The emperors endeavoured to 
suppress them, but did not succeed till the 16th 
century. Their last court, it is said, was held in 
1568. Sir W. Scott has described them in "Anne 
of Geierstein." A remnant of these tribunals was 
abolished by Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia, 
in 181 1. 

VEIL an independent Etruscan city near Bome. 
There were frequent wars between Veii and Rome, 
for above three centuries ; see Fab it. Veii was 
taken by the dictator Camillus, it is said, after a 
siege of ten years, 396 B.C. When Bome was des- 
troyed by the Gauls in 390, the Romans, who had 
fled to Veii, desired to remain there, and make it 
their capital, but were dissuaded from it by the 
entreaties of Camillus, and Veii was abandoned. It 
was restored by the Emperor Augustus, but had 
fallen into decay, at the time of Hadrian. 

VELLORE (S.E. India) became the residence 
of the family of the dethroned sultan of Mysore, and 
was strongly garrisoned by English troops, 1799. 
The revolt of the sepoys, in which the family of the 
late Tippoo took an active part, took place 10 July, 
1806. The insurgents were subdued by colonel Gil- 
lespie, and mostly put to the sword; about 800 
sepoys were killed. 

VELOCIPEDES. A machine of this kind was 
invented by Blanehard the aeronaut, and described 
in the Journal de Fan's, 27 July, 1779; and one 
was invented by Nicephore Niepce in 1818. The 
"dandy -horse" or " Draisena, a machine called a 
velocipede," was patented for the Baron von Draise 
in Paris and London in 1818, and described in 
" Ackermann's Repository," Feb. 1819. These 



VELOCIPEDES. 



1343 



VENEZUELA. 



machines came again into use in 1861 ; and since 
1867 have been very common under various forms, 
termed bicycles and tricycles. M. Michaux, of Paris, 
introduced the bicycle proper in 1866, and it was 
imported into England about 1869. The chief in- 
ventor in England, James Starley, an ingenious 
mechanic of Albourne, Sussex, was buried at 
Coventry, June, 1881. The popular " Otto " bicycle, 
first patented in 1881, much improved since. 
Velocipede races took place at the Crystal Palace, 
26 May, 1869, and frequently since." Mr. John 
Mayall and two friends travelled to Brighton on 
velocipedes, 17 Feb. 1869. 

Mr. Stanton went from London to Bath, 106 miles, 
on a. bicycle, in 8 h. 28 min. . . 17 Aug. 1874 

Similar feats since performed. Ordinary speed 
with bicycles 8 (now 10) miles an hour ■ with tri- 
cycles 10 miles may be attained. — Field. Oct. ,, 

A gentleman said to have travelled 1000 miles in 
Ireland and Wales ; expenses 25/. ,, 

Bicycle clubs formed in London, &c 1875 

Above 1500 velocipedes at a meeting at Hampton 
Court 26 May, 1877 

Middlesex magistrates decide that a bicycle is a 
carriage, and fine a rider for damage . 31 July, 1878 

John Rankin went from Kilmarnock to London 
and back to Glasgow, with stoppages (112 miles 
one day) . . .23 July-io Aug. ,, 

The Bicycle Union, the National Cyclists' Union, 
and the Cyclists' Touring club founded . . ",, 

Six days' contest, Agricultural Hall, Loudon, Mr. 
George Waller won prize-belt (100?.) and 105L, 
rode 1172 miles, 28 April — 3 May. Mr. Waller 
again won, rode 1404 miles (6 days of 18 hours), 

1-6 Sept. 1879 

Ivan Zmertych, Hungarian, travelled on his veloci- 
pede from Ostend to Pesth (about 1200 miles), 

10-30 June, 1880 

Mr. Alfred Nixon, lion. sec. London tricycle club, 
on 'Premier' tricycle from John o' Groat's to 
Land's End in 13 days, 23 hours, 55 minutes, 
16-30 Aug. 1882 ; Mr. E. Oxborrow did the 
reverse in a week, 1-8 June, 1885 ; Mr. H. R. 
Goodwin, on a bicycle, did the double journey, 

1-16 June, 1885 

F. J. Lees, of Sheffield, covers 20 miles within an 
hour with a bicycle . . . .18 Aug. 1883 

Switzerland crossed by bicycles and tricycles 

Aug.-Sept. „ 

17th annual exhibition of bicycles, &c, at the 
Floral Hall, Co vent Garden . . .4 Feb. 1884 

Mr. Alfred Nixon went from London to Edinburgh 
on a tricycle in three days . . 28-31 Aug. ,, 

Crypto-dynamic gearing invented by Mr. W. T. 
Shaw 1885 

Annual congress of cyclists held at Colchester, 

2 June, 1886 

The cycling championship of Europe gained by 
Mr. E. Hall of Gainsborough at Berlin, 

16 Aug. ,, 

Mr. Thomas Stevens, on a bicycle, travelled 11,700 
miles through America, across Europe to Asia, 

April, i8S4-Jan. 1887 

Messrs. Wilkins' bicycle for travelling rough roads 
and up hills exhibited at Han well, Middlesex, 

8 Sept. ,, 

The Rev. Hugh Callan, of St. Andrews, Glasgow, 
travelled to Jerusalem, through Europe and Asia 
Minor, and back on a bicycle . . autumn, 1888 

The use of bicycles, &c, regulated by local govern- 
ment act of 1888, Part I., sect. 84. 

The 13th annual show of the Stanley Cycle Club 
(at the Crystal Palace), 1,500 cycles exhibited, 
Jan. 1890; Islington, 20 Nov. 1896; 26th, Isling- 
ton 21 Nov. 1902 

1036 cyclists observed on the Brighton Road, 

Good Friday, April, 1892 

Under the heading, " tyranny of the road," a great 
many letters complaining of the danger caused 
by the excessive speed of cyclists, appeared in 
the Times April-July, ,, 

Speed and length of rides much increased . 1889-92 

The first national cycle show at the Crystal Palace- 
opened, 20 Jan. 1893 ; others since. 

International cyclist congress at Antwerp . 13 Aug. 1894 



895-97 



190 1 
1902 



The property of the Dunlop company sold at 
Dublin to the new Pneumatic Tyre company for 
3,000,000 8 May, 

Cycles largely manufactured in America, 1894-96, 
and specially at Birmingham and Coventry in 
England l8 , 

" Cyclist Year Book" states the capital of limited 
companies to be nearly 6,000,000?. up to end of 
1895. 

"Bicycles and Tricycles," by Archibald Sharp, 
published 

Miss Jane Yatman (24) completed 700 miles of 
cycling in Long island ; total time taken, 81 hours 
and 5 minutes 20 Sept. 

Mr. J. Kemp Starley, inventor of the safety bicycle, 
died, aged 46 29 Oct. 

J. Michael accomplished 46 miles in an hour at the 
Pare des Princes, Paris . . . .7 Sept. 

Winners of world's championships, 1902 : at Rome, 
I'xso metres (amateur), Picard (France), 2 min. 
i6| sec. ; (professional), Ellegaard (Denmark), 
3 min. 54J sec. At Berlin, 100 kilometres (ama- 
teur), Goerneman (Germany), ihr. 24 min. 23 sec. ; 
(professional), Robl (Germany), ihr. 42 min. 49sec. 
These last two performances are world's records. 

VELVET. The manufacture, long confined to 
Genoa, Lucca, and other places in Italy, was carried 
to France, and thence to England, about 1685. 
Velvet is mentioned by Joinville in 1272; and our 
king Richard II., in his will, directed his body to be 
clothed "in velveto," 1399. Jerome Lanyer in 
London patented his " velvet paper" in 1634. 

VENAISSIN COMTAT, or Comtat (S. 
France) , after various changes, was ceded to pope 
Gregory X. 1274 ; and retained by his successors 
till 1791, when, with Avignon, it was re-united to 
France. 

VENDEE, see La Vendee. 

VENDEMIAIKE, 12, 13, 14 (3, 4, 5 Oct.), 
1795, Barras and Napoleon Bonaparte suppress a 
royalist revolt against the convention. 

VENDOME COLUMN (132 feet 2 inches 
high), erected in the Place Vendome, Paris, by 
Napoleon I. in 1806, to commemorate his successful 
campaign in Germany in 1805. On its side were 
bas-reliefs by Launay. It was pulled down by the 
communists ' ' in the name of international frater- 
nity," 16 May, 1871 ; restored by the national 
assembly, 31 Aug. 1874; statue of Napoleon I. on 
the top, replaced 28 Dec. 1875. 

VENETI, maritime Gauls inhabiting Armorica, 
N.W. France. They rose against the Romans 57 
B.C., and were quelled by Julius Caesar, who defeated 
their lleet, 56, and cruelly exterminated an active 
commercial race. 

VENETI A, see Venice. 

VENEZUELA, the seat of a South American 
republic. When the Spaniards landed herein 1499, 
they observed some huts built upon piles, in an 
Indian village named Cora, in order to raise them 
above the stagnated water that covered the plain ; 
and this induced them to give it the name of Vene- 
zuela, or Little Venice. This state in July, 1814, 
declared in congressional assembly the sovereignty 
of its people, which was recognised in 1818. It 
formed part of the republic of Columbia till it 
separated from the federal union, Nov. 1829. The 
population in 1881, 2,075,245 ; in 1891, 2,323,1527 ; 
capital, Caracas. 

Its independence was recognized by Spain . . 1845 
General D. T. Monagas was elected president . . 1855 
A new constitution promulgated . . . Dec. 1858 



VENEZUELA. 



1344 



VENEZUELA. 



Revolution ; Jose Castro became president, March, 
1858 ; compelled to resign in Aug. 1859 ; and 
Dr. Pedro Gual assumed the government . Aug. 

General Jose Paez elected president . . 8 Sept. 

He resigned ; and Juan E. Falcon succeeded, 

17 June, 

General Pebres Cordero protested, and set up a 
rival government at Porto-Cabello . . Oct. 

Marshal J. C. Falcon proclaimed president, 

18 March, 

A revolution in Caracas ; president Falcon fled, 

22-26 June, 

The president Monagas dies, 18 Nov. , and Pulgar 
becomes provisional president . . . Dec. 

Caracas captured by general Guzman Blanco, after 
three days' conflict 27 April, 

He is made president, virtually dictator 13 July, 

A rebel general, Salazar, tried and shot about 17 May, 

Blanco re-elected president . . .20 Feb. 

Severity towards the church for opposition to civil 
marriages ; bishop of Merida expelled . July, 

Renunciation of papal authority announced Sept. 

Gen. F. L. Alcantara president, elected . 27 Feb. 

Gen. A. Guzman Blanco, president, elected 12 May, 

Gen. Joaquin Crespo, president, elected . 20 Feb. 

Gen. A. Guzman Blanco elected president (died, 
28 July, 1899) 14 Sept. 

Dispute respecting territories containing gold 
mines ; diplomatic relations broken off with 
Great Britain Feb. 

Dr. J. Pablo Rojas Paul, president, elected 

29 June, 

The dictatorship of Don G. Blanco (envoy at 
Paris) set aside by the congress, about 10 June, 

Senor Palazio elected president, 20 Feb. 1890 ; in- 
surrection against him as a dictator, headed by 
gen. Crespo, with about 8,000 men, March ; 
guerilla warfare in the provinces, reports un- 
certain, April, 1892 ; the government troops 
massed at Valencia and Puerto Cabello 22 April, 

Junction of gen. Crespo's forces with those of gen. 
Mora 27 April, 

The government general, Juan Quevedo, killed by 
the people at Los Teques . . .18 April, 

Valencia besieged by the insurgents ; sorties de- 
feated about 6 May, 

Outbreaks in Caracas against the president, about 
12 May ; his troops join the insurgents in Bolivia, 
after several conflicts .... May, 

Gen. Crespo's army increased by desertions from 
the president's army, near Caracas, reported, 

12 June, 

Several conflicts ; president Palacio resigns, and 
leaves the country ; sen. Villegas provisional 
president, reported ... . iq June, 

Gen. Crespo defeats the government troops and 
advances towards Caracas, reported . n-14 Aug. 

Civil war continues ; generals Urdaneta and 
Luciano Mendoza declare themselves dictators, 
Aug. ; ex-president Villejas imprisoned, Aug. ; 
congress dissolved . . . about 26 Aug. 

Sen. Pulido said to have formed a cabinet at 
Caracas, reported 6 Sept. 

Gen. Luciano Mendoza at Caracas with 6,000 men, 
reported .... .6 Sept. 

Gen. Mendoza, dictator, proclaims blockade of 
Ciudad - Bolivar and Puerto Cabello ; gen. 
Mendoza defeats gen. Martin Vegas near Petare, 
reported 10 Sept. 

Gen. Mendoza's attempted confiscations resisted 
by the foreign consuls at La Guayra ; he resigns 
the dictatorship and proclaims sen. Pulido 
president, reported . . . .11 Sept. 

Negotiations between gen. Pulido and gen. Crespo, 
reported 24 Sept. 

Troops of gen. Urdaneta board British brig Chisle- 
hurst, carry off 3 passengers, and imprison several 
merchants reported .... 26 Sept. 

Government army defeated at Los Teques, about 
5 Oct. ; gen. Crespo enters Caracas, is proclaimed 
provisional president, and appoints a cabinet, 
7 Oct. et seq. ; recognized by the United States 

N.A 25 Oct. 

I Reports uncertain.] 



1859 
1861 

1863 



1870 

1872 
1873 

1874 
1876 
1877 



Disastrous floods, with great loss of life, S.E. of 
Caracas about 19 Oct. 1852 

Gen. Crespo disbands his army . about 5 Dec. ,, 

Gen. Crespo resigns ; succeeded by gen. Guzman 
Alvarez, reported .6 Oct. 1893 

Gen. Crespo assumed office . . .14 March, 1894 

Government troops defeated by rebels near 
Bolivar, reported . . . . .11 Aug. ,, 

Rupture with France, Germany, and other powers 
respecting claims of their subjects for losses sus- 
tained during the war of 1892 . . 9 March, 1895 

Boundary dispute with British Guiana, continued, 

autumn, ,, 

Lord Salisbury's ultimatum demanding reparation 
for insults to British officials at Uruan, in British 
Guiana. Dec. [1.500Z. indemnity paid, Jan. 1897.] 

A United States commission of inquiry on the 
boundary question : chief justice Alvey, justice 
Brewer, Mr. Andrew D. White, and others, ap- 
pointed, 1 Jan. 1896 ; the British government 
supplies information Feb. 1896 

Attempted assassination of pres. Crespo at Caracas, 
during a bull-fight ; the assassin killed . 2 Feb. „ 

Resignation of Mr. Boulton, the British consul, at 
Caracas, announced .... 19 Feb. ,, 

Conciliatory message to congress by pres. Crespo, 
reported . . . . . . .26 Feb. ,, 

Blue book containing diplomatic correspondence 
on the Venezuelan case since 1822, presented to 
the commission at Washington, 10 March ; com- 
mission sat at New York, 14 April et seq. 

The Mariscal Ayacuche warship, burnt, off Mar- 
garita, 8 deaths .... 22 March, ,, 

The British and American governments agree to a 
form of arbitration, announced . 18 June, ,, 

Mr. Harrison, crown surveyor of British Guiana, 
arrested by Venezuelans, 15 June ; a colonial 
force despatched to protect the surveyors, on 
the Cuyuni river, at Acarabisco . -24 June, ,, 

Negotiations resumed, between sir Julian Paunce- 
fote and Mr. Olney .... 23 Oct. ,, 

Lord Herschell and Mr. justice (aft. sir R.) Henn 
Collins, British members of the tribunal to 
decide the boundary question ; treaty signed, by 
sir Julian Pauncefote and sen. Andrade at 
Washington, 2 Feb. 1897 ; ratified by congress, 
5 April, 1897. 

Diplomatic relations with Gt. Britain suspended 
in 1887 ; restored, announced . . 2 March, 1897 

Dr. Juan Pietri appointed British minister, 

12 March, 

The Anglo-American Venezuelan boundary treaty, 
ratified at Washington ... 14 June, 

New ministry, sen. Luis Castillo, treasurer, re- 
ported .... . . 28 June, 

Gen. Andrade elected president . . 16 Sept. 

Revolutionary plot suppressed, 500 arrests at 
Caracas, 185 arrests elsewhere . 27, 29 Oct. 

Financial crisis : trade paralyzed, etc., 31 Oct. ; 
end of the crisis n Dec. 

New ministry, under ex-pres. Crespo formed, 28 Dec. 

The Venezuelan Amazon territory, with privileges, 
granted to an English syndicate, reported, 9 Feb. 

Ex-president Crespo killed in a skirmish with 
rebels, under gen. Hernandez, abt. 18 April ; 
Hernandez captured, end of the rising. 12 June, 

Lands ceded by the government for 15 yrs. to an 
Italian colonization society . . . June, 

Revolt in the province of Los Andes, reported, 

g June, 

Government troops defeated near Barquisimeto, 
23 Aug. ; gen. Castro captures Valencia and 
Maracay, 15, 16 Sept. ; defeats pres. Andrade's 
force near Valencia, and invests Caracas, re- 
ported 28 Sept. 

British Guiana boundary dispute, see above: 
arbitration tribunal meets at Paris, 25 Jan. 1899 ; 
lord Russell of Killowcn succeeds lord Herschell 
(died March), April ; case opened, prof. Martens 
(Russia) president, 15 June et seq. ; British case 
ably stated by sir Richard Webster (bart. Nov. 
1899), 13 July-19 Sept. ; 32 days occupied by the 
Venezuelan and 23 by the British case, closed, 
27 Sept. ; goldfields, &c, settled within British 
territory : Barima Point and month of the Orinoco 
given to Venezuela . . 3 Oct. 



VENEZUELA. 



1345 



VENICE. 



Ultimatum from gen. Castro delivered at Caracas, 
18 Oct. ; pres. Andrade flies to La Guayra, peace 
proposals accepted, 20 Oct. ; gen. Castro, pro- 
visional president, and a new ministry formed, 

reported 24 Oct. 1899 

Puerto Cabello taken by gen. Castro after severe 

fighting, reported 12 Nov. ,, 

Insurgents occupy Maracaybo, reported . 3 Dec. ,, 
Mr. James Lyall, British consul, assassinated at 

Bolivar 28 Feb. 1900 

Rebels defeated near Bolivar city . 22 March, ,, 
Peace proclaimed ; political prisoners released, 

24 July, ,, 
The Venezuela and British Guiana boundary com- 
mission, demarcation begins . . Nov. „ 
Government's troops defeated near Giuria, 

mid Jan. 1901 
Rebels defeated near Carupano, reported, 30 Jan. ,, 
Tachira district invaded from Colombia, rebels 

defeated at San Cristobal . . 29, 30 July, ,, 
Further fighting, the Venezuelans invade Colombia 

and are severely routed at La Hacha . 14 Sept. ,, 
Gen. Castro elected president . . 28 Oct. ,, 

[Ratified by congress for 6 years, Feb. 1902.] 
Continued fighting, conflicting reports, Dec-Jan. 1902 
Seii. Pulido, ex-minister, and others arrested in 

Caracas 27 Jan. ,, 

Convention (customs) settled with France . Feb. ,, 
Colombian invaders severely repulsed near Lafrias, 

reported 1 March, ,, 

Revolutionary rising, government troops defeated 
near Carupano, and near El Pilar, 3, 4 April ; 
again near San Antonio, gen. Castillo mortally 
wounded, 22 April ; rebels repulsed at La Guaira, 
7 June ; vice-pres. Ayala and 1,744 men sur- 
render to the rebels at Coro, 20 June ; rebels 
capture Barquisimeto, about 4 July ; and Bar- 
celona after hard fighting and great slaughter, 
3-9 Aug. ; Carupano reoecupied by troops, 22 
Aug. ; rebels defeated at Taguay, 28 Aug. ; 550 
of the troops desert to the enemy near Ocumare, 
600 others defeated and Los Teques captured, 
29 Aug. ; troops defeated near Tinaquillo, 

11-15 Sept. ,, 
Two bridges blown up on the English railway at 

La Guaira by the insurgents . . 18 Sept. ,, 
Severe fighting near La Victoria, n-17 Oct. ; pres. 
Castro occupies La Victoria ; further fighting, 

26 Oct. ,, 
Rebels attack Carupano, and retreat after hard 

fighting 26, 27 Oct. ,, 

Four British merchant ships seized . . Nov. ,, 
British and German cruisers arrive . early Dec. ,, 
British notes urging claims for outrages on persons 
and property (Jan. 1901-Oct. 1902), presented, 

July, Aug. and 2 Dec. ,, 
British and German ultimatums presented, the 

ministers leave Caracas . . . 7, 8 Dec. ,, 
5 Venezuelan gunboats seized . . .9 Dec. ,, 
Pres. Castro proposes arbitration . . 12 Dec. ,, 
Topaze, British s.s., seized at Puerto Cabello, 10 
Dec. ; released, the fort and custom - house 

bombarded 13 Dec. „ 

Pres. Castro forbids reprisals on foreigners, 14 Dec. ,, 
Claims urged by other powers . 15-19 Dec. ,, 

Blockade of ports proclaimed . . 20 Dec. ,, 
Armistice with insurgents ends . . 24 Dec. ,, 
Severe fighting at Barquisimeto . . 27 Dec. ,, 
Arbitration by the Hague tribunal agreed by the 

powers, 25 Dec. ; and by pres. Castro, early Jan. 190; 
Insurgents defeated at Guatire and at Cumana, 

4, 6 Jan. ,, 
Mr. Bowen, U.S. minister, leaves to act for 

Venezuela at Washington . . . n Jan. ,, 
Insurgents attack Coro, but eventually retire with 

heavy loss 19 Jan. ,, 

Fort San Carlos shelled by German cruisers, the 
village burnt, many killed (great indignation in 
U.S.A. and elsewhere) . . 17, 21-23 J an - » 
Insurgents defeated near Camatagua, 250 captured, 

reported 3 Feb. ,, 

Guatire captured by the troops . . .9 Feb. ,, 
Settlement of British and German first-class 
claims agreed to, other questions to be referred 
to the Hague ; protocols signed at Washington, 

13 Feb. ,, 
Blockade of ports raised . . . 14, 15 Feb. ,, 
Insurgents capture Carupano, reported . 28 Feb. ,, 



I Other foreign protocols signed . Feb. -March, 1903 
Venezuelan warships returned by the British, 

3 March, ,, 
British minister protests against the closing of 
ports on the Orinoco ; government troops re- 
capture Ciudad Bolivar from insurgents after 
three days' fighting . . . mid June, ,, 
Formal presentation of the claims of the Powers 
against Venezuela : United States, 10,900,000 
dols.; Great Britain, 2,500,000 dols. ; Germany, 
1,417,000 dols.; France, 16,040,000 dols.; Italy, 
8, 300,000 dols. ; Belgium, 3,o93,8oodols. ; Holland, 
1,048,451 dols.; Spain, 600,000 dols.; Sweden, 
200,000 dols.; Mexico, 500,000 dols., reported 

mid Sept. ,, 
Sittings of Venezuelan arbitration court at the 

Hague Oct. ,, 

(See Columbia; Trials, 21 March, 1887.) 

"VENGEUK STOKY," see Ushant, note. 

VENI, VIDI, VICL— " I came, I saw, I con- 
quered ; " 'see Zela. 

VENICE (N. Italy) . The province of Venetia, 
held by the Veneti, of uncertain origin, was invaded 
by the Gauls about 350 B.C. The Veneti made an 
alliance with the Romans, 215 B.C., who founded 
Aquileia, 181, and gradually acquired the whole 
country. Under the empire, Venetia included 
Padua, Verona, and other important places. Popu- 
lation of the city of Venice in 1857, 118,173; in 
1881, 129,445; i° J 893, 158,019; 1901, 151,841; 
of the province Venetia, 1890, 2,985,036; 1901, 
400,030. New line of steamers for the east started 
from Venice by the Peninsular and Oriental Com- 
pany, July, 1872. 

Venice, founded by families from Aquileia and 

Padua fleeing from Attila . . . about a. d. 

First doge (or duke) chosen, Anafesto Paululio . . 

Bishopric founded 

The doge Orso slain ; an annual magistrate (maestro 

di militi, master of the militia) appointed . . 

Diodato, son of Orso, made doge .... 

Two doges reign : Maurizio Galbaio, and his son 

Giovanni 

The Rialto made the seat of government . 

Venice becomes independent of the eastern empire, 

and acquires the maritime cities of Dalmatia and 

Istria 997 

Its navy and commerce in orease . . . iooc-iioo 
The Venetians aid at the capture of Tyre and ac- 
quire the third part, 1124 ; and ravage the Greek 

archipelago 1125 

Bank of Venice established 1157 

Ceremony of wedding the Adriatic instituted, about n 77 
Zara captured by the Venetians . . 24 Nov. 1202 
The Venetians aid the crusaders with men, horses, 

and ships ,, 

Crete purchased 1204 

Venice helps in the Latin conquest of Constanti- 
nople, and obtains power in the East . . 1204-5 
The four bronze horses by Lysippus, brought from 
Constantinople, placed at St. Mark's by the doge 

Pietro Ziani, who died 1229 

The Venetians defeat the Genoese near Negropont, 1262 

War with Genoa 1293 

The Venetian fleet severely defeated by the Genoese 
in the Adriatic, 8 Sept. 1298 ; peace between 

them 1299 

Louis of Hungary defeated at Zara . . 1 July, 1346 
Severe contest with Genoa .... 1350-81 
The doge Marino Faliero, to avenge an insult, con- 
spires against the republic ; beheaded 17 April 1355 
The Venetians lose Istria and Dalmatia . . . 1358 
War with the Genoese, who defeat the Venetians at 
Pola, and advance against Venice, which is vigor- 
ously defended 1377 

The Genoese fleet is captured at Chio^za . . . 1380 

And peace concluded 1381 

Venice flourishes under Antonio Vernieri . 1382-1400 
War with Padua ; conquest of Padua and Verona . 1404 
War against Milan ; conquest of Brescia 14:5 of 

Bergamo 1428 

The city suffers from the plague . ' . . . 1447 

4 u 



452 
697 

733 

737 
742 

777 
811 



VENLOO. 



1346 



VEEA CRUZ. 



War against Milan, 1430 ; conquest of Ravenna . . 1454 
War with the Turks ; Venice loses many of its 

eastern possessions 1461-77 

The Venetians take Athens, 1466 ; and Cyprus . . 1475 
Venice excommunicated, 1483 ; joins league against 
Naples, 1493 ; helps to overcome Charles VIII. of 

France 1495 

Injured by the discovery of America (1492), and the 

passage to the Indies 1497 

The Venetians nearly ruined by the league of Cam- 
bray formed against them 1508 

They assist in defeatingthe Turks at Lepanto, 7 Oct. 1571 

The Turks retake Cyprus , 

Destructive fire at Venice 1577 

The Rialto bridge and the Piazza di San Marco 

erected . .... about 1592 

Paul V.'s interdict on Venice (1606) contemptuously 

disregarded 1607 

Naval victories over the Turks ; at Scio, 1651 ; and 

in the Dardanelles 1655 

The Turks take Candia, after 24 years' siege . . 1669 
Venice recovers part of theMorea, 1683-99 • loses it, 1715-39 
Venice occupied by Bonaparte, who, by the treaty 
of Campo Formio, gives part of its territory to 
Austria, and annexes the rest to the Cisalpine re- 
public i 79 7 

The whole of Venice annexed to the kingdom of 
• Italy by the treaty of Presburg . . 26 Dec. 1805 
All Venice transferred to the empire of Austria . 1814 
Venice declared a free port . . . .24 Jan. 1830 
Insurrection begins 22 March, 1848 ; the city, de- 
fended by Daniel Manin, surrenders to the Aus- 
trians after a long siege ... 22 Aug. 1849 
During the Italian war in 1859, the country was 
much disorganised, and many persons emigrated 
in 1860-1.] 
Venetian deputies will not attend the Austrian par- 
liament at Vienna May, 1861 

Venetia surrendered to France for Italy (by the 
treaty of Vienna, signed 3 Oct.), and transferred 

to Italy 17 Oct. 1866 

Plebiscitum : 651,758 votes for annexation to Italy ; 

69 against 22 Oct. „ 

Result reported by Venetian deputies, and the iron 
crown given to the king at Turin . . 4 Nov. „ 

He enters Venice 7 Nov. „ 

Masterpiece of Titian ("Death of Peter Martyr") 

destroyed at the burning of a chapel . 15 Aug. 1867 
The remains of Daniel Manin (brought from Paris) 

buried in St. Mark's . . . .23 March, 1868 
His statue unveiled . . . 22 March, 1875 

The emperor of Austria and king of Italy at Venice 

5-7 April, „ 
The bronze equestrian statue of Victor Emmanuel II. 
by Ferrari unveiled in the presence of the king and 
queen of Italy ; great festivities . . 1 May, 1887 
Art exhibition opened by the king . 2 May, ,, 

The restoration of the palace of the Doges was com- 
pleted, and the building exposed to view in Nov. 1889 
Launch of the ironclad Sicilia, the royal family 

present 6 July, 1891 

Representations of Venice at the Olynvpia, London 

(which see) . . .26 Dec. 1891 ; 7 Jan. 1893 
Visit of the emperor of Germany ; received by king 

Humbert, 8 April, 1894 ; again in . . April, 1896 
International art exhibition, opened by the king 
and queen, 30 April, 1895 ; another opened by 
the prince of Naples . . . .28 April, 1897 
Sanitary convention signed, see Plague. 19 March, „ 
The king and queen of Italy arrive to visit the 

exhibition 22-25 Oct. 1899 

Intermit, art exhibition opened by the duke of the 

Abruzzi 27 April, 1901 

Fall of the campanile (bell tower) of St. Mark, 

323 ft. high, 42 ft. wide at base . . 14 July, 1902 
2o,oooZ. voted by the municipality for its recon- 
struction ; also 40,000?. for repairing monuments 
of the city; crack in two arches of the Procu- 
ratie Vecchie on the Piazza of St. Mark occa- 
sions alarm Jan. 1903 

[Venice has had 122 doges ; Anafcsto, 697, to Luigi 
Manin, 1797.] 

VENLOO (Holland), surrendered to the allies, 
under Marlborough, 23 Sept. 1702; and to the 
French, under Piohegru, 26 Oct. 1794. 



VENNER'S INSURRECTION, see Ana- 
baptists, 1 66 1. 

VENTILATORS were invented by the rev. 
Dr. Hales, and described to the .Royal Society of 
London, May, 1741 ; and the ventilator for the use 
of ships was announced by Mr. Triewald, in Novem- 
ber, same year. The marquis of Chabannes' plan 
for warming and ventilating theatres and houses for 
audiences was applied to those of London about 
1 8 19. The systems of Dr. Reid (about 1834) and 
others followed, with much controversy. Dr. 
Arnott's work on this subject was published in 1838. 
A commission on wanning and ventilation issued a 
report in 1859. 
New air machine in the house of commons started 

5 June, 1874 
Mr. Tobin's plan, a horizontal tube from without 
communicating with vertical tube inside ; suc- 
cessful at Leeds ; described (in Times), 12 April, 1875 
Mr. D. G. Hoey's system was exhibited at Messrs. 
Barclay's bank, Lombard-street, London, and 
reported successful Jan. 1891 

VENTRILOQUISM (speaking from the 
stomach), was known to the Greeks, who termed 
ventriloquists "belly-prophets." The name is a 
misnomer, as the sounds are produced by regulating 
the breathing and organs of voice, without motion 
of the lips. Among eminent ventriloquists were 
baron Mengen and M. Saint Gille, about 1772 
(whose experiments were examined by a commission 
of the French Academy) ; Thomas King (about 
1716) ; Charles Mathews (1824) ; andM. Alexandre 
(1822) ; others since. 

VENUS, the Koman goddess of love and beauty 
(the Greek Aphrodite). Statues : Venus de Medicis, 
found near Tivoli and removed to France, 1680 ; 
the Verms found at Milo or Melos, 1820, placed in 
the Louvre, Paris, 1834. The transit of the planet 
over the sun was predicted by Kepler to take place 
6 Dec. 1631, but was uot observed; he died 15 Nov. 
1630. The first transit observed, was by the 
rev. Jeremiah Horrox, or Horrocks, and his friend, 
Wm. Crabtree, on 24 Nov. 1639, as predicted by 
Horrox in 1633. The astronomer-royal Maskelyne 
observed her transit at St. Helena, 6 June, 1761. 
Capt. Cook made his first voyage in the Endeavour, 
to Otaheite, to observe a transit of Venus, 3 June, 
1769 ; see Cook's Voyages. The diurnal rotation of 
Venus was discovered by Cassini in 1667. This is 
contested by Schiaperelli and others, who assert 
her rotation to be as long as her revolution in her 
orbit. See Sun, note. 

Halley suggested the observation of the transit as 
a means of estimating the distance of the earth 
from the sun, and devised a method for this pur- 
pose 1716 

Another method was invented by Delisle about . 1743 

Both plans were used in ... Dec. 1874 

Expeditions for the accurate observation of the 
phenomena, on 8 Dec. astronomical day ; ordi- 
nary day, 9 Dec. 1874, were sent to different parts 
of the globe by all the great powers, and favour- 
able results have been reported . . . 1875-6 

The transit, on 6 Dec. 1882, was observed at Bath, 
Penzance, Cork, Cape Town, Washington, Mel- 
bourne, and many other places. The next transits 
will take place 8 June, 2004, and 6 June, 2012. 

Venus was both a morning and evening star, rising 
43 min. before the sun, and setting 43 niin. after 
it 14 Feb.' 1894 

Dr. W. R. Brooks obtained some good photographs 
by the light of Venus when a morning star, Sept. 1900 

VERA CRUZ (Mexico), built about 1600; was 
taken by the Americans in 1847, and by the allies 
on 17 Dec. 1861, during the intervention; retaken 
by the liberals, under Juarez, 27 Juue, 1867. 



VEECELLI. 



1347 



VEESE. 



VEECELLI, the ancient Vercellse, Piedmont, 
near'Which Marius defeated the Cimbri, 101 B.C. It 
was the seat of a republic in the 13th and 14th cen- 
turies. It was taken by the Spaniards, 1630; 
French, 1704; and allies, 1706; and afterwards 
partook of the fortunes of Piedmont. 

VEEDEN (Hanover). Here Charlemagne 
massacred about 4500 Saxons, who had rebelled and 
relapsed into idolatry, 782. 

VEEDTJN (the ancient Yerodunum), a first- 
class fortress on the Meuse, N.E. France, made a 
magazine for his legions by Julius Caesar. It was 
acquired by the Franks in the sixth century, and 
formed part of the dominions of Lothaire by the 
treaty of Verdun, 843, when the empire was divided 
between the sons of Louis I. It was taker) and 
annexed to the empire by Otho I. about 939. It 
surrendered to France in 1552 ; and was formally 
ceded in 1648. It was taken and held by the Prus- 
sians 43 days, Sept. — Oct. 1792. Gen. Beaurepaire, 
the commandant, committed suicide before the sur- 
render, and 14 ladies were executed on 28 May, 
1794, for going to the king of Prussia to solicit his 
clemency for the town. Verdun surrendered to the 
Germans 8 Nov. 1870, after a brave defence ; two 
vigorous sallies being made 28 Oct. Above 4000 
men were captured, with a large number of arms 
and ammunition. It was the last place held by 
the Germans; and was given up 15, 16 Sept. 1873, 
and the troops retired. 

VEEGAEA, N. SPAIN. Here the Carlist 
general, Maroto, made a treaty, termed " The paci- 
fication of Vergara," with Espartero, 31 Aug. 1839. 
The monument to celebrate it was destroyed by the 
Carlists in Aug. 1873. 

VEEMANDOIS (N. France), a county given 
by Charlemagne to his second son Pepin, whose 
family held it till the nth century; in 1156 it 
came, by marriage, to the counts of Flanders ; and 
in 1 185 it was seized by Philip II., and incorporated 
with the monarchy in 1 2 15. 

VEEMONT, a northern state in North America, 
was settled by the French, 1724-31; and ceded to 
Great Britain in 1763. It was freed from the autho- 
rity of New York, and admitted as a state of the 
union in 1791. Population 1880, 332,286: 1890, 
332,422 ; 1900, 343,641 ; capital, Montpelier. 

VEENEUIL (N.W. France), the site of a 
battle fought 17 Aug. 1424, between the Burgundians 
and English under the regent duke of Bedford, and 
the French, assisted by the Scots, commanded by 
the count de Narbonne, the earls of Douglas and 
Buchan, &c. The French at first were successful ; 
but some Lombard auxiliaries, who had taken the 
English camp, commenced pillaging. Two thousand 
English archers came then fresh to the attack ; and 
the French and Scots were totally defeated, and 
their leaders killed. 

VEENON GALLEEY. The inadequate 
manner in which modern British art was repre- 
sented in the National Gallery was somewhat 
remedied in 1847 by the munificent present to the 
nation, by Mr Robert Vernon, of a collection of 157 
pictures, all but two being by first-rate British 
artists. They were first exhibited at Mr. Vernon's 
house in Pall-mall, next in the vaults beneath the 
National Gallery, afterwards at Marlborough house, 
and are now at the South Kensington Museum. In 
1857, Mr. John Sheepshanks followed Mr. Vernon's 
example ; see Sheepshanks' Donations. 



VEEONA (N. Italy) was founded by the Gauls 
or Etruscans; see Campus Eaudius. The amphi- 
theatre was built by Titus, a.d. 82. Verona has 
been the site of many conflicts. It was taken by 
Constantine3i2 ; and on 27 Sept. 489 Theodoric de- 
feated Odoacer, king of Italy. Verona was taken 
by Charlemagne 774. About 1260 Mastino della 
Scala was elected podesta, and his descendants (the 
Scaligeri) ruled, till subdued by the Viseonti, dukes 
of Milan, 1387. Verona was conquered by the 
Venetians 1405, and held by them with some inter- 
missions till its capture by the French general Mas- 
sena, 3 June, 1796. Near to it Charles Albert of 
Sardinia defeated the Austrians 6 May, 1848. 
Verona is one of the four strong Austrian fortresses 
termed the Quadrangle, or Quadrilateral (which see), 
and here the emperor Francis Joseph, on 12 July, 
1859, in an order of the day, announced to his army 
that he must yield to circumstances unfavourable to 
his policy, and thanked his people and army for 
their support. It was surrendered to the Italian 
government, 16 Oct. 1866; and the king was re- 
ceived by 70,000 persons in the amphitheatre, 18 
Nov. 1866. Above $0,000 coins of Gallienus and 
other emperors, chiefly bronze, discovered near 
Veroiia, Jan. 1877. Population, 1881, 60,768 ; 1901, 
74,261. 

\nEESAILLES (near Paris) was a small vil- 
lage, in a forest thirty miles in circuit ; where Louis 
XIII. built a hunting-seat about 1632. Louis XIV. 
between 1661 and 1687 enlarged it into a magnificent 
palace, which became the usual residence of the- 
kings of France. By the treaty between Great 
Britain and the revolted colonies of British North 
America, signed at Paris, the latter power was ad- 
mitted to be a sovereign and independent state, 3 
Sept. 1783. On the same day a treaty was signed 
at Versailles between Great Britain, France, and 
Spain, by which Pondicherry and Carical, with other 
possessions in Bengal, were restored to France, and 
Trincomalee restored to the Dutch. Here was held 
the military festival oi the royal guards 1 Oct. 
1789, which was followed (on the 5th and 6th) by 
the attack of the mob, who massacred the guards 
and brought the king back to Paris. Versailles 
became the residence of Louis-Philippe in 1830. 
The historical gallery was opened in 1837. Ver- 
sailles, with the troops there, surrendered to the 
Germans 19 Sept. 1870, and the crown prince of 
Prussia entered the next day; and on 26 Sept. he 
awarded the iron cross to above 30 soldiers at the 
foot of the statue of Louis XIV. The palace was 
converted into a hospital. The royal head-quarters 
were removed here from Ferrieres 5 Oct. After the 
peace, Versailles became the seat of the French 
government (see France), March, 187 1. Removed 
to Paris 27 Nov. 1879. The congress for the revi- 
sion of the constitution met here 4 — 13 Aug. 1884. 
See France, 1889. Visited by the members of the 
British parliamentary party, 28 Nov. 1903, on the 
occasion of their visit to Paris. 

VEESE, see Poetry, Hexameter, Elegy, Iambic, 
&c. Surrey's translation of part of Virgil's JEneid, 
into blank verse is the first English composition of 
the kind, omitting tragedy, extant in the English 
language (published in 1547). The verse previously 
used in our grave compositions was the stanza of 
eight lines, the ottava rima (as adopted with the 
addition of one line by Spenser in his Faery 
Queene), who probably borrowed it from Ariosto and 
Tasso. Boccaccio introduced it into Italy in his 
Teseide, having copied it from the old French chan^ 
sons. Trissino is said to have been the first intro- 
ducer of blank verse among the modems, about 
1508. Vossius. 

4 11 2 



VERULAM. 



1348 



VICE-CHANCELLOR. 



VERULAM, see Aldan's, St. 

VERVINS (N. France). Here was concluded 
the peace between Philip II. of Spain and Henry 
IV. of France, with mutual concessions, 2 May, 
1598. 

VESERONCE (S.E. France), near Vienne. 
Here Gondemar, king of the Burgundians, defeated 
and killed Clodomir, king of Orleans, and revenged 
the murder of his brother Sigismond and his family, 
c|24. This conflict is called also the battle of 



VESPERS, see Sicilian Vespers. In the house 
of the French ambassador at Blackfriars, in Lon- 
don, a Jesuit was preaching to upwards of three 
hundred persons in an upper room, the floor of which 
gave way with the weight, when the whole congre- 
gation was precipitated to the street, and the 
preacher and more than a hundred of his auditory, 
chiefly persons of rank, were killed. This catas- 
trophe, termed the Fatal Vespers, occurred 26 Oct. 
1623. Stoiv. 

VESTA. The planet Vesta (the ninth) was dis- 
covered by Dr. Olbers, of Bremen, on 29 March, 
1807. She appears like a star of the sixth magni- 
tude. 

VESTALS, virgin priestesses, took care of the 
perpetual tire consecrated to Vesta. The mother of 
Itomulus was a vestal. Numa is said to have ap- 
pointed four, 710 B.C., and Tarquin added two. 
Minutia was buried alive for breaking her virgin 
vow > 337 K - c - > Sextilia, 273 B.C. ; and Cornelia 
Maximiliana, a.d. 92. It is said that only eighteen 
vestals had been condemned since the time of Numa. 
The order was abolished by Theodosius, 389. 

"VESTIGES of the Natural History 

OF CREATION," a work which upholds the doctrine 
of progressive development as a hypothetic history 
of organic creation, ascribed to Robert Chambers, 
and other persons, first appeared in 1844, and occa- 
sioned much controversy. See Origin of Species. 

VESUVIUS, MOUNT, S. Italy. Near it, the 
Latin confederacy were totally defeated by the 
Romans, whose' general, P. DeciusMus, had devoted 
himself to death, 340 B.C. By an eruption ot Mount 
Vesuvius, the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum 
(which see) were overwhelmed 24 Aug. 79 a.d., and 
more than 200,000 persons perished, among them 
Pliny the naturalist. Numerous other disastrous 
eruptions have occurred. Torre del Greco, with 
4000 persons, was destroyed, 17 Dec. 1631. There 
was a dreadful eruption, took place suddenly, 24 
Nov. 1759, and another 8 Aug. 1767. The violent 
burst in 1767 was the 34th from the time of Titus. 
One in June, 1794, was most destructive : the lava 
flowed over 5000 acres of rich vineyards and culti- 
vated land, and Torre del Greco was a second time 
burned ; the top of the mountain fell in, and the 
crater is now nearly two miles in circumference. 
A great eruption in Oct. 1822, and others in May, 
1855, May and June, 1858, caused great destruction. 
A series of violent eruptions causing much damage 
occurred in Dec. 1861, and in Feb. 1865. Torre 
del Greco was again destroyed in Dec. 1861. 
Another eruption began 12 Nov. 1867, and con- 
tinued increasing in grandeur and danger, March, 
1868. The phenomena were observed by professors 
Tyndall and Miller, sir John Lubbock, and other 
scientific men, in April, 1868. A great eruption 
began 8 Oct. 1868, 'and continued, causing much 
destruction, 19, 20 Nov. A severe eruption began 



■23 April and ended about 3 May, 1872 ; above 60 
lives were lost. The mountain was disturbed in 
1876; and another eruption began about 20 Sept. 
1878 ; lava was spouted to the height of 300 feet; 
an eruption began 11 June, 1879; im intermittent 
eruption 2 May, 1885. A new crater formed 7 
June; continued flowing of lava, 11 June; ceases 
16 June, renewed ; a Brazilian tourist fell into the 
crater, July, 1891. Increasing eruptions, 9 June 
et seq. ; active, 13 Sept. 1892. Professor John 
Phillips' "Vesuvius" was published 1869. 

Vesuvius was ascended by the princess of Wales 
and her family .... 25 March, 1893 

A fissure on the N.W. side of the great cone, in- 
creased activity, reported (Nature, 8 Aug.) 3 July, 1895 

Active eruption, lava streams, 8 Nov. 1897 ; again, 
Aug. ; violent eruption, 7 new craters, 15-17 
Sept. ; again, 31 Dec. 1898-Jan. 1899 ; and again 
4-7 May; new eruptive cone formed, 

Sept. 1900-April, igor 

VETERINARY COLLEGES. The Royal 
College of Veterinary Surgeons, at Ked Lion-square, 
London, which alone grants diplomas, was char- 
tered in 1844. The Veterinary Surgeons act, 44 
& 45 Vict. sec. 62 ; passed 27 Aug. 1881, deals only 
with this college ; amendment act | assed, 30 July, 
1900. The Royal Veterinary College at Camden 
Town, London, N.W., was founded in 1791. Cen- 
tenary festival, the duke of Cambridge in the 
chair, the prince of Wales present, 19 Oct. 1891. 
There are veterinary colleges in Edinburgh and 
Glasgow ; new one opened at Ballsbridge, Dublin, 
1 Oct. 1902. 

Internat. congress of veterinary surgeons at Baden- 
Baden, 6-12 Aug. 1899. 

VETO. See Permissive Bill. 

VEXATIOUS ACTIONS Act passed; 14 
Aug. 1896. Act for Scotland passed, Aug. 1898. 

VICE, an instrument of which Arehytas of 
Tarentum, disciple of Pythagoras, is said to have 
been the inventor, along with the pulley and other 
implements, 420 B.C. Society for the Suppression 
of Vice, established 1802. Internat. federation 
congress for the abolition of state regulation of vice, 
meets in London, 12-15 July, 1898. 

VICE-ADMIRALTY COURTS ACT, 1863, 
was extended and amended in 1867. 

VICE-CHANCELLOR of ENGLAND, 

an equity judge, appointed by parliament, first took 
his seat 5 May, 1813. A new court was erected for 
him about 1816 contiguous to Lincoln' s-inn-hall. 
Two additional vice-chancellors were appointed 
under act 5 Vict. c. 5, 5 Oct. 1841. The office of vice- 
chancellor of England ceased in August, 1850, and 
a third vice-chancellor was appointed in 1851, when 
two more equity judges, styled lords justices, were 
appointed. 

VICE-CHANCELLORS OF ENGLAND. 

1813. Sir Thomas Pluiner, 13 April. 

1818. Sir John Leach, 13 Jan. 

1827. Sir Anthony Hart, 4 May. 

1827-50. Sir Lancelot Shadwell. 1 Nov. the last. 

VICE-CHANCELLORS. 

1812. Sir John Stuart, sat last, 27 March, 1871. 

Sir Win. Page Wood, made a .justice of appeal, 

1868 ; lord chancellor, Dec. 1868. 
Sir Geo. Markham Gin'ard, died 1870. 
Sir Wm. M. James, Jan. ; made a lord justice of 

appeal, June, 1870. 
Sir John Wickens, April; died, 23 Oct. 1873. 
Sir Richard Malins, resigned 18S1 ; died 15 Jan. 1882. 



1853- 



1871. 
1S66. 



VICENZA. 



1349 



VICTORIA. 



now included in the 
chancery division. 



1870. Sir James Baeon, the last~\ 

of the vice-chancellors, 

resigned 10 Nov. 1886 ; 

died, aged 97, 1 June, 

1895. 
1873. Sir Charles Hall, Nov. ; 

died 12 Dec. 1883. 

VICENZA (the ancient Vicentia, N. Italy) was 
the seat of a republic in the 12th century. It 
greatly suffered by the ravages of Alaric, 401, and 
Attila, 452. Having joined the Lombard league, it 
was sacked by Frederic II. 1236. After many 
changes it was subjected to Venice, and with it fell 
under the French domination, 1 796 ; and was given 
to Austria in 18 14. Having revolted, it was re- 
taken by Radetzky, 11 June, 1848. It was annexed 
to the kingdom of Italy, Oct. 1866. 

VICE-PRESIDENT of. the Board of 
TRADE. This office was abolished in 1867, and a 
secretary with a seat in parliament substituted. 

V1CKSBURG, see United States, 1863. 

VICTORIA, formerly PORT PHILLIP 

(Australia), situated between New South "Wales and 
(South Australia. In 1798, Bass, in his whale-boat 
expedition, visited Western Port, one of its harbours ; 
and in 1802 Flinders sailed into Port Phillip Bay. 
Governor, col. sir George Clarke, Aug. 1895. 

Population of the colony in 1836, 224 ; in 1841, 
11,738; in 1846, 32,879 ; in 1851, 77,345 ; 31 Dec. 
1852, about 200,000 ; in March 1857 there were 
258,116 males and 145,403 females ; in all 403,519. 
In 1859, m a U 5171366; m 1861, 540,322; Dee. 
1865, 626,630 ; in 1871, 729,654 ; 1877, 849,021 ; 
in 1881,858,582; 1891, 1,140,411; 1901, 1,200,914. 
1886-7, revenue, 6,733,867?. i expenditure, 
6,665,863?.; 1889-90, revenue, 8,519,159?.; expen- 
diture, 9,811,251?.; imports, 22,954,015/.; exports, 
13,266,222?. 1892-93, revenue, 6,959,229?. ; ex- 
penditure, 7,989,757?. ; imports, 13,283,814?. ; 
exports, 13,308,551?.; revenue, 1899, 7,450,676?.; 
expenditure, 7.318,945?. (war, 63,000/.); 1900-1901, 
8,087,2^4?.; expenditure, 7,709,033?. 

Colonel Collins land 1- with a party of convicts with 
the intention of founding a settlement at Port 
Phillip, but afterwards removed to Van Diemen's 
Land 1804 

Messrs. Hume and Hovell, two stock-owners from 
New South Wales, explore part of the country, 
but do not discover its great advantages . . 1824 

Mr. Edward Henty (of a Sussex family), comes 
from Tasmania with cattle, sheep, shepherds, &c, 
and settles in Portland Bay ; his brothers, 
Stephen George and John, follow soon . . 1832 

Mr. John Batman enters between the heads of 
Port Phillip, and purchases a large tract of land 
from the aborigines for a few gewgaws and 
blankets : he shortly after, with fifteen associates 
from Hobarton, took possession of 600,000 acres 
in the present Geelong country . . May, 1835 

The Launceston associates and Mr. John Pascoe 
Falkner ascend the Yarra-Yarra (or everflowing) 
river, and encamp on the site of Melbourne . „ 

The colonists (450 in number) possess 140,000 
sheep, 2500 cattle, and 150 horses ; sir R. Bourke, 
governor of New South Wales, visits the colony, 
determines the sites of towns, and causes the 
land to be surveyed and resold, setting aside 
many contending claims ; he appoints captain 
Lonsdale chief-magistrate (see Melbourne) . . 1837 

The colony named Victoria 1839 

Mr. C. J. Latrobe appointed lieutenant-governor 
under sir G. Gipps ,, 

Its prosperity brings great numbers to it, and in- 
duces much speculation and consequent em- 
barrassment and insolvency .... 1841-2 

The province declared independent of New South 
Wales ; a reward of 200?. offered for the discovery 
of gold in Victoria, which was soon after found 
near Melbourne, and was profitably worked Aug. 1851 

7000 persons were at Ballarat, Oct. ; 10,000 round 
Mount Alexander . Nov. ,, 



From 30 Sept. to 31 Dec. 1851, 30,311 ounces of 
gold were obtained from Ballarat ; and from 29 
Oct. to 31 Dec. 94,524 ounces from Mount 
Alexander — total 124,835 ounces 

The production was still very great .... 

Immense immigration to Melbourne (see Melbourne) 

Sir Charles Hotham, governor . . . June, 

A representative constitution granted . . . 

Sir Henry Barkly appointed governor . 

The parliament was opened ... 26 Nov. 

Four administrations had been formed in . 1857- 

Exhibition of the products of the colony opened by 
the governor 1 Oct. 

Sir Charles Darling appointed governor, May : 
arrives 10 Sept. 

Great opposition to reception of convicts in any 
part of Australia ; a ship containing them sent 
back Oct. 

Important land act passed . . 22 March, 

The assembly passes the new government tariff, 
Jan., which is rejected by the legislative council ; 
the governor raises money for the public service 
irregularly July, 

Tne crisis still continues ; appeal to the queen pro- 
posed Oct. 

Parliament prorogued .... Dec. 

Sir Charles Darling recalled ... 26 Feb. 

Ministerial difficulties : Mr. M'Culloch becomes 
premier April, 

The assembly votes 20,000?. to lady Darling ; sir 
Charles departs May, 

New governor, sir John H. T. Manners Sutton, 
(viscount Canterbury in 1869) arrived 13 Aug. 

Intercolonial Exhibition opened . . 25 Oct. 

Vote of 20,000?. to lady Darling rejected by legisla- 
tive council 20 Aug. 

Ministerial crisis ; dispute continues between the 
assembly and the council . . . Oct. 

Duke of Edinburgh arrives ; great rejoicings 23 Nov. 

An address presented to him by Mr. Edward 
Henty, the first settler, and others 

Parliament dissolved .... 30 Dec. 

New parliament ; ministry resigned because the 
governor objected to insertion of the Darling- 
grant in the appropriation bill . 12 March, 

First woollen and paper manufactories established 

May, 

The M'Culloch ministry arrange the Darling affair 

July, 

The M'Pherson ministry announced . . Oct. 

Mr. M'Culloch forms a ministry including Mr. 
M'Pherson, April ; is knighted . . May, 

Mr. M'Culloch resigns ... 14 June, 

The federation of the Australian colonies, proposed 
by Mr. Gavan Duffy in 1857, revived by him and 
discussed in the legislative assembly . June, 

Industrial Museum at Melbourne, opened 8 Sept. 

Mr. Chas. Gavan Duffy minister (knt. 1873), July, 

He resigns on a vote against him . . 29 May, 

Mr. Francis forms a ministry . . . June, 

Payment (300?. a year) to M. P. s begins . 

Sir George Ferguson Bowen succeeds viscount Can- 
terbury Feb. 

Ministerial crisis : Mr. Kerford premier ; Mr. Ser- 
vice's budget; expenditure, 4,500,000?. ; deficit, 
about 340,000?. ; he proposes a moderate free- 
trade policy ; reduction of taxation and a loan ; 
rejected by the parliament ; Mr. Kerford resigns, 
as sir Win. Stowell, the acting governor, would 
not dissolve Aug. 

Mr. Graham Berry, premier ; would continue pro- 
tection and tax the richer colonists heavily (a 
financial coup d'etat) ; defeated ; resigns Oct. 

Sir James M'Culloch forms a coalition ministry, 
Oct. ; proposing tax 011 income, land, and 
realised property Nov. 

Passes his income-tax bill with a majority of 3 

announced June, 

Dispute of government with Messrs. Stevensons, 
respecting their alleged undervaluing goods for 
payment of duties ; their letters opened 

March-June, 

Elections ; triumph of protectionists ; sir James 
M'Culloch resigns ; Mr. Berry again premier, 
May ; a land-tax enacted .... Oct. 

Legislative council rejects Mr. Berry's appropria- 
tions, defence, and exhibition bills, end of Oct. 



1859 



1854 
1855 



1857 



1864 
1865 



1S67- 



1868. 



1870 



1873 



1875 



1876 



1877 



VICTOKIA. 



1350 



VICTOKIA. 



County court and other judges dismissed by the 
council ; sir G. Bowen, the governor, supports 
the ministry Jan. 

The lower house overrules the council ; orders 
public creditors to be paid on its sole vote, about 

13 Feb. 

Berry ministry and the lower house predominant 

March-Aug. 

The marquis of Normanby appointed governor, Feb. 

Mr. Berry's fruitless visit to England . . „ 

He introduces a reform bill, Sept. ; which is with- 
drawn Dec. 

Parliament dissolved about 9 Feb.; elections give 
majority against Mr. Berry, 28 Feb. ; his cabinet 
resign, 2 March ; new ministry under Mr. James 
Service 3 March, 

Mr. Service's reform bill rejected, 24 June ; dissolu- 
tion of the assembly, 29 June ; the ministry re- 
signs 14 July, 

Mr. Berry forms a cabinet . . .28 July, 

Ned Kelly and some of his gang of bush-rangers 
after committing many murders and robberies 
(since autumn of 1878) captured and sent to 
Melbourne .... 27, 28 June, 

International exhibition at Melbourne, open 1 Oct. 

Kelly hanged 11 Nov. 

Vote of confidence in Mr. Berry in parliament lost ; 
sir Brien O'Loghlen forms a ministry . July, 

The marquis of Normanby resigns, March ; sir 
Henry Brougham Loch succeeds . . April, 

Mr. Service, premier, promotes a confederation bill 
about 30 June, 

•Chinese immigrants are now virtually excluded 

Prosperity budgets; surplus 392,000?., 22 July, 
1885 ; 837,415? 24 July, 

New ministry under hon. Duncan Gillies, formed 

18 Feb. 

Naval defence act passed with royal assent, 

21, 25 Nov. 

Prevalence of strikes among workmen and oppo- 
sition to Chinese immigration . . autumn, 

Parliament opened by Mr. W. C. F. Kobinson, 
acting governor. 

(Continued three years prosperity reported), 4 June, 

The earl of Hopetoun appointed governor about 
, 22 July, 

'The government submits -to the protectionists ; 
the import duties increased, and new ones im- 
posed about 13 Sept. 

'The irrigation works of Messrs. Chaffey Bros., an 
American firm on the Murray river, reported suc- 
cessful ; sir Henry Parkes protests, claiming 
both sides of the river for New South Wales, 

about 13 Sept. 

Large subscriptions for the dock labourers of 
London subscribed, 22,000?. up to . . Oct. 

The new tariff bill passed by the council, under 
protest about 31 Oct. 

The protectionist budget passed . . 5 Nov. 

Departure of sir Henry B. Loch, much honoured 
(diamond tiara presented to lady Loch by the 
ladies of Victoria) .... 15 Nov. 

Arrival of the earl and countess of Hopetoun, 

28 Nov. 

Irrigation conference at Melbourne (25 trusts estab- 
lished, 280,000?. advanced by the state), 

25 March et seq.- 

Mr. D. Gillies' prosperous budget . . 1 Aug. 

His ministry defeated by a majority of 20, 30 Oct. ; 
Mr. James Munro forms a ministry . 4 Nov. 

Failure of the British Bank of Australia at Mel- 
bourne (established April, 1888), reported lia- 
bilities, 640,440'. 14 Sept. 

The loan bill for 6,000,000?. passed . . 30 Oct. 

Brief monetary crisis at Melbourne . early Dec. 

Resignation of Mr. James Munro; new ministry ; 
hon. William Shiels, premier . . 3 Feb. 

Distress through want of work ; relief works 
ordered 4 Feb, 

Parliament dissolved, 7 April; new parliament 
supports the ministry ; the labour party de- 
feated, 20 April ct seq. : parliament opened, 

11 May, 

Failure of the Mercantile bank of Australia (Mel- 
bourne) ; about 1,000,000?. due to English 
creditors ; 2 liquidators appointed at a meeting, 

6 Oct. 



1879 



Deadlock ; difference between the two houses re- 
specting new stamp duties, about 19 Oct. ; 
terminated . . . . 29 Nov. 1 

Death of sir James MacBain, president of the 
legislative council, aged 64 . . -4 Nov. 

Death of chief justice George Higinbotham, states- 
man, &c, aged 65, reported 2 Jan. ; succeeded 
by Mr. Madden 6 Jan. 1 

The Shiels ministry defeated (45-42), 18 Jan. ; 
resigns 19 Jan. ; Mr. J. B. Patterson forms a 
ministry, 20 Jan. ; policy of retrenchment, 1 Feb. 

Tour of the earl of Hopetoun in Australia, &c, 

24 Jan. 

Messrs. Charles Staples and Sydney Allright, 
directors of the Anglo-Australian bank, and 
others, sentenced to imprisonment (Staples, 
5 years ; Allright fined 100?. ; Robert Dilley, 
2 years) 8-24 March, 

Directors, manager, and auditors of the Mercantile 
bank of Australia charged with conspiracy to 
defraud, 8 March ; all acquitted, except sir 
Matthew Davies and Mr. F. Millidge, 3 May, who 
are committed for trial, 11 May; prosecution 
stopped, nolle prosequi . . . 17 May, 

Suspension of London Chartered bank of Australia, 

25 April, 

Banking crisis in Melbourne ; 5 bank holidays pro- 
claimed, 30 April ; disregarded by some banks, 

May, 

The City of Melbourne bank stopped payment, 

16 May, 
[See Australia, May, 1893.] 

Sir M. Davies escapes ; Mr. Millidge detained, 
31 May ; sir M. Davies arrested at Colombo, 16 
June ; both committed for trial . 26 June, 

Estimated financial deficit in 1892-3 about 
1,068,000?. ; balance of debtj 960,000?. . 30 June, 

The bank of Victoria and the City of Melbourne 
bank re-open 19 June, 

Meeting of parliament ; retrenchment proposed by 
the governor 28 June, 

Other banks re-open . . .29 June and July, 

Sir M. Davies at Melbourne, July ; proceedings 
stopped ...... 3 Aug. 

The annual budget shows a deficit of 960,188?., 
19 July ; the issue of 1,250,000 treasury bonds 
authorized 17 Oct. 

The trial of sir Matthew Davies, Mr. F. Millidge, 
and Mr. Muntz, on charges of fraud, begun, 
19 Feb. 1894 ; acquitted ... 7 March, 

Annual budget : revenue, 6,719,000?. ; expenditure, 
7,384,000?. ...... 31 July, 

The parliament prorogued . . . .29 Aug. 

General election ; opposition majority ; defeat of 
free-traders 20 Sept. 

Resignation of sir James Patterson ; ministry 
formed by Mr. George Turner . . 27 Sept. 

Parliament re-opened ; the earl of Hopetoun pro- 
poses financial reform and revision of the tariff, 
<&c. ....... 30 Oct. 

Mr. (aft. sir) G. Turner's budget ; 528,000?. deficit 
on the year, to be met by direct taxation on 
land and incomes, &c 7 Nov. 

The government defeated on a motion for reduc- 
tion of salaries of members and others . 8 Jan. 

The proposed land and income tax bill rejected, 

10 Jan. 

Salary of future governors reduced to 7,000?., 

24 Jan. 

Lord Brassey appointed governor . . Jan. 

The income-tax bill passed, iS Jan. ; by the council, 

23 Jan. 

Parliament prorogued ... 19 March, 

Departure of the earl and countess of Hopetoun 
from Melbourne ; much regretted . 26 March, 

Expenditure to be reduced to avoid extra taxation 
announced . . . . . . April, 

Revenue for 1894, 6,719,151?., reported . 30 June, 

Immediate liquidation of the Melbourne bank 
ordered 6 Aug. 

Tariff reform bill passed (new duties and some re- 
ductions) 15 Oct. 

Arrival of lord and lady Brassey . . . 25 Oct. 

Death of sir James Patterson, statesman . 25 Oct. 

One man one vote and woman's suffrage bill, passed 
by the legislative assembly . . 28 Nov. 

Women's suffrage bill rejected by the legislative 
council . . . ... .12 Dec. 



VICTORIA. 



1351 



VICTORIA NYANZA. 



Federal enabling bill passed by both houses, 28 Feb. 

Parliament opened by lord Brassey with a cheerful 
speech 23 June, 

Deficit for 1895-96, 76,829?. ; reported . 16 Sept. 

Constitution amendment bill (female suffrage and 
one man one vote) read 2nd time, after an all 
night sitting, 9 Oct. ; bill passed by the assembly, 
29 Oct. ; suspended by the council . Dec. 

Sir Ferdinand von Mueller, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., born 
June, 1825, eminent botanist, explorer, 1847 et 
seq., died 9 Oct. 

Strike of marine engineers ; traffic suspended, 

Dec-Jan. 

Sudden death of sir Win. John Clarke, benefactor, 
aged 65, at Melbourne ... 15 May, 

Diamond jubilee celebrations . . 20 June et seq. 

Parliament opened by lord Brassey, congratulatory 
addresses to the queen ■ . . .23 June, 

Long drought relieved by rain, announced 5 July, 

Australian commonwealth bill passed by the as- 
sembly 20 Aug. 

Parliament dissolved, 28 Sept. ; opened . 26 Oct. 

Several towns in the Wimmera district wrecked by 
a cyclone 19 Nov. 

A conference of premiers meets at Melbourne, 13 Jan. 

Acute distress on account of bush fires, relief fund 
opened 16 Jan. 

Great heat, renewed bush fires, many homeless, 
reported 4 Feb. 

General rains, end of the drought . . ■' 25 May, 

100,520 votes for, 22,099 against the Commonwealth 
bill ; reported 17 June, 

Sir James Service, ex-premier, died, aged 76, 

12 April, 

Sir Frederick McCoy, K.C.M.G., eminent geologist, 
scientist (founded lhe Melbourne museum), born, 
1823, died 16 May, 

Sir John Madden appointed governor . June, 

Royal commission appointed to inquire into tech- 
nical education June, 

Parliament opened by the governor; federal en- 
abling bill passed by the assembly, 29 June ; by 
the council 5 July, 

The referendum on the Commonwealth bill results 
in 151,000 for and 9,000 against federation, 

about 27 July, 

Sir G. Turner's budget, surplus 351, 427?., income- 
tax to be reduced one-eighth all round . 9 Aug. 

The ministry defeated after an all-night sitting ; 
lord Brassey declines to dissolve parliament; sir 
G. Turner, premier, resigns . . . 1 Dec. 

Bush fires in the west; great destruction of sheep, 
reported 29 Jan. 

Parliament prorogued . . . .20 Feb. 

Victoria subscribes 67,000?. to the S.A. war funds, 
reported .... .12 March, 

Parliament opened by the governor . 27 June, 

Budget statement: surplus for 1899, 131,731?., 

15 Aug. 

Parliament proiogued, 17 Oct.; sirG. Turner's vote 
of want of confidence carried (51 — 42), 14 Nov.; 
he forms a cabinet . . . . 17 Nov. 

Old-age Pension bill {10s. weekly to the indigent, 
over 65) passed by both houses . . 20 Dec. 

Federal cabinet meets first in Melbourne, 

11 April, 

The duke and duchess of Cornwall arrive in Mel- 
bourne, see Australasia . . 6 May et seq. 

Sir John Madden opens parliament . 18 June, 

Col. sir George Clarke appointed governor, Aug.; 
arrives 11 Dec. 

Death of lieut.-gen. sir Andrew Clarke, eminent for 
his services to the colony . . 29 March, 

State meeting 250 delegates, urging economy in 
parliamentary and other expenditure, 18 April, 

Parliament opened by sir George Clarke, 27 May, 

Mr. Irvine forms a cabinet . ... 9 June, 

Hailway strike averted by the premier . 15 Aug. 

Ministry defeated on the Retrenchment bill (44 — 
33) ; parliament dissolved ... 9 Sept 

Good rainfall reported . . . 10-26 Sept. 

The premier issues a manifesto appealing for sup- 
port in retrenchment and reform . 15 Sept. 

Elections: government majority 36, announced, 

1 Oct. 

Parliament opened by Sir George Clarke . 15 Oct. 

Mr. Shiels reports 830,000?. deficit for 1902. 



1897 



Reform bill passed by the assembly; budget deficit 1903. 
356,278?.; increase of income-tax, probate duties, 
&c, proposed 18 Dec. 

Ministry reconstructed; Mr. Irvine, premier, att.- 
gen., and sol. -gen. . ... . .7 Feb. 1903 

Official statistics show population of Victoria on 
31 Dec. 1902, to be 1,205,513, a decrease in 12 
months of 3,192, chiefly due to the emigration of 
young men of the farming class ; efforts being 
made by the minister of lands to stop the exodus 
by opening up crown lands for selection, 29 April, ,, 

Parliament opened by sir George Clarke, who re- 
ferred to the improved financial position of the 
colony, the copious rainfall, the railway strike, 
and various legislative measures, including in- 
dustrial legislation, and the establishment of a 
court of industrial appeal ; irrigation work on a 
large scale to be pushed forward . . 7 Sept. „ 

VICTORIA, on Vancouver's island, founded 
1857 ; declared capital of British Columbia, which 
see. Mining convention held here, Feb. 1903. 

VICTORIA, see Hong Kong, Vancouver's 
Island, Locks, Thames 1870, Wrecks 1852, British 
Columbia, Navy of England, 22 June, 1893, and 
Mansion-house Fund, 1893, 1901-03. 

VICTORIA, a British colony in Ambas bay, on 
the West African coast, originally a Baptist mis- 
sionary settlement, annexed 19 July, 1884. 

Ceremoniously transferred to Germany by consul 
Hewett and annexed to Cameroons . 28 March, 1887 

VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, 

see South Kensington Museum. 

VICTORIA COUNTY HISTORY, edited 
by Mr. Doubleday, vol. i., of Norfolk, issued, Aug. 
1901. 

VICTORIA CROSS, an order of merit, 
instituted to reward the gallantry of persons of all 
ranks in the army and navy, 29 Jan. 1856. It is a 
Maltese cross made of Russian cannon from Sebas- 
topol. The queen conferred the honour on 62 
persons (of both services) on Friday, 26 June, 1857; 
and on many of the Indian army, 2 Aug. 1858, 
and on many since in relation to recent wars. 
Victoria and Albert Royal Order of Knighthood 
for ladies, India, instituted 10 Feb. 1862, enlarged 
1864, 1865, and 1880. Royal Victorian Order of 
Knighthood, England, instituted by queen Victoria, 
to confer honour on persons, British and foreign, who 
have rendered service to herself, 23 April, 1896. 

VICTORIA EMBANKMENT, &c, see 

under Thames. 

VICTORIA INSTITUTE, or Philosophi- 
cal Society of Great Britain, established 

22 June, 1865; its primary object being the attempt 
to reconcile apparent discrepancies between Chris- 
tianity and science. Annual meetings. 

VICTORIA NYANZA, a lake in E. Central 
Africa, 300 miles long, 90 miles broad, discovered 
by capt. John H. Speke in 1858, and explored by 
him and capt. J. A. Grant in 1862 ; circumnavigated 
by Mr. H. M. Stanley in 1875. Co1 - J - H - Speke 
was accidentally killed by his own gun, 15 Sept. 
1864. Col. J. A. Grant died 11 Feb. 1892. The 
steamer William Mackiwnon launched on the lake, 
15 Nov. 1900. The Uganda railway completed 
here, 19 Dec. 1901. 

Albert Nyanza, 140 miles long and 40 miles broad, 
situated 80 miles N.W. of Victoria Nyanza. It was 
discovered by capts. Speke and Grant, 1862, and 
visited by Mr. (afterwards sir) Samuel White Baker in 
1864 (see Nile and Africa}, 



VICTORIA PARK. 



1352 



VIENNA. 



Albert Edward Nyanza was discovered by Mr. H. M. 
Stanley in 1887, and named in 1889. These lakes are 
considered to be reservoirs from which the Nile flows. 

VICTORIA PARK (E. London), was origi- 
nated by an act passed in 1841, which enabled her 
majesty's commissioners of woods and forests to 
purchase certain lands for a royal park, with the 
sum of 72,000^. raised by the same act, by the sale 
of York-house to the duke of Sutherland. The 
act described the land to be so purchased, contain- 
ing 290 acres, situate in the parishes of St. John, 
Hackney ; St. Matthew, Bethnal-green ; and St. 
Mary, Stratford-le-bow. The park was completed 
and opened to the public in 1845. Lady (then Miss) 
Burdett-Coutts presented a handsome drinking 
fountain, and was present at its inauguration, 28 
June, 1862. The park was visited by queen Victoria, 
2 April, 1873 > an< l i 11 memory of her reception, she 
presented a clock and peal of bells to St. Mark's 
church; recognition service, 21 May, 1874. See 
Parks. 

VICTORIA RAILWAY BRIDGE (tubu- 
lar), over the St. Lawrence, Montreal, erected by 
Mr. James Hodges, under the superintendence of 
Mr. .Robert Stephenson and Mr. A. M. Ross, 
engineers, was begun 24 May, 1854, and formally 
opened by the prince of Wales, 25 Aug. i860. It 
forms part of the Grand Trunk railway, which con- 
nects Canada and the seaboard states of North 
America. The length is about sixty yards less than 
two English miles, and about "]h times longer than 
Waterloo bridge, and ten times longer than new 
Chelsea bridge ; the height sixty feet between the 
summer level of the river and the under surface of 
the central tube. It is supported by 24 piers. The 
cost was 1,700,000^. On 5 Jan. 1855, while con- 
structing, the bridge was much injured by floating 
ice, but the stonework remained firm. 

VICTORIA REGIA, the magnificent water- 
lily brought to this country from Guiana by sir 
Kobert Schomburgk, in 1838, and named after the 
queen. Fine specimens are at the Botanic Gardens 
at Kew, Regent's Park, &c. It was grown in the 
open air in 1855, by Messrs. Weeks, of Chelsea. 
Mr. J. B. Sowerby, sec. of the Boy. Botanic son., 

Begent's Park, was jjhotographed seated on a leaf 

floating on the water, Sept. 1895. 

VICTORIA STEAMER ; sunk ; see Wrecks, 
24 May, 1881. 

VICTORIAN EXHIBITION, illustrating 
the reign of queen Victoria from 1837 to 1887, was 
opened in the New Gallery, Regent street, 2 Dec. 
1891, and closed 2 April, 1892. The queen was 
patron, and the prince of Wales was active in the 
management. It succeeded the Tudor, Stuart, and 
Guelph exhibitions, which see. 

The Victorian exhibition illustrated events in the life of 
the royal family, and the progress of the nation in 
politics, philanthropy, literature, science, art, and 
manufactures, by means of portraits, pictures, statues, 
relics, books, models, costumes, &c. 

VICTORIAN ERA Exhibition at Earl's- 
court, fine art, &c, opened by the duke of Cam- 
bridge, 24 May, 1897. Another opened, see Crystal 
Palace, 6 May, 1897. 

VICTORIA UNIVERSITY constituted for 
men and women with identical privileges ; com- 
bines Owens college, Manchester, and others; the 
charter was granted in April; the first council 
met, 14 July, 1880. 
Jubilee fund closed 31 May, 1902; nearly 103,000/.; total 

capital, 1,070,363/. 



VICTORY, Man-of-Wab, of ioo guns, the- 
finest first-rate ship in the navy of England, was 
lost in a violent tempest near the race of Alderney, 
and its admiral, sir J ohn Balchen, and 100 gentle- 
men' s sons, and the whole crew, consisting of IOOO 
men, perished, 8 October, 1744. — The Victory, the 
flag-ship of Nelson, at the battle of Trafalgar, 21 
Oct. 1805, has been kept in a condition of fine- 
preservation at Portsmouth. The historic old vessel 
was much damaged by the Neptune, an old iron- 
clad, colliding with her, 23 Oct. 1903 (see Nary),. 

VICTUALLERS, an ancient trade in Eng- 
land. The Vintners company of London was 
founded 1437 ; their hall rebuilt in 1823. 

None shall sell less than one full quart of the best 
beer or ale for id. and two quarts of the smaller 
sort for id. ... .... 1603 

The power of licensing public-houses was granted 

to sir Giles Mompesson and sir Francis Mitchel . 1621 
The number in England then was about 13,000 . ,, 
In Great Britain about 76,000 public-houses . . 17901 
England, 59,335 ; Scotland, 15,081 ; Ireland, 

14,080 ; total, 88,496 in 1850 

In England and Wales, 23,028 in 1889- 

Public-houses allowed to be opened on Sundays 
from 1 o'clock till 3, and from 5 till n p.m. . . 1828 

The prescribed time enlarged 1855 

127,352 licences were issued for the sale of beer, 
cider, and perry in the United Kingdom, produc- 
ing a revenue of 304,688/. ; and 93,936 licences 
for the sale of spirits : revenue 560,557/. . . 185S 
Licensed Victuallers' School established . . . 1803 
Licensed Victuallers' Asylum established 11 Feb. 1827 
Between ioc,ooo,oooZ. and 150,000,000/. said to be 
invested in the liquor trade. The licensed vic- 
tuallers actively opposed Mr. Bruce's licensing 
bill, which was withdrawn . . summer of 1873 
Licensed Victuallers in the United Kingdom 

99-465 l8 2 3 

New licensing act, regulating hours of opening and 
shutting, &c, passed and came into execution 

10 Aug. „ 
[It caused much irritation, and was said to have conduced 

to the fall of the Gladstone ministry, 1874.] 
Public-houses in Ireland closed on Sundays, by act 

passed 16 Aug. 187S 

Payment for licenses raised . . . June, 1880. 

Sale of intoxicating liquors to children act . . 1901 

Important licensing act, igo2(royal assent, 8 Aug.), 

containing provisions respecting the sale of liquor 

to habitual drunkards, and the control of retail 

off-licences by the licensing justices, came into 

operation 1 Jan. 1903 

Public-house trust movement active, 1901-3 ; 34 
public-house trust companies registered in Great 
Britain and Ireland in 1902. 

VICTUALLING OFFICE (London), for 
managing the victualling of the royal navy, was 
instituted Dec. 1663. The number of commis- 
sioners was five, afterwards seven, and then reduced 
to six. The various departments on Tower-hill, St. 
Katharine's, and Rotherhithe, were removed to 
Deptford in Aug. 1785, and the office to Somerset- 
house, 1783. In 1832 the office of commissioners 
was abolished, and the victualling-office made one 
of five departments under the lords of the ad- 
miralty. 

VIENNA (the Roman Yindoboiia), was capital 
of the margraviate of Austria, 984 ; virtual capital 
of the German empire, 1273; since 1806, capital of 
the Austrian dominions only. Population in 1857, 
476,222; 1872, 901,000; 1880, 1,103,857; 1890,, 
1,304.548 ; 1900, 1,656,662 ; see Austria. 

Vienna made an imperial city 1136 

Walled and enlarged with the ransom paid for 
Richard I. of England, 40,000/ 1194 



VIENNA. 



1353 



VIENNA. 



853-5 
857-8 



Besieged by the Turks under Solyman the Magnifi- 
cent, with an army of 300,000 men ; but he was 
forced to raise the siege with the loss of 70,000 of 
his best troops . . . ..•■... . . 152Q 

Besieged by the Turks July, 1683 

The siege raised by John Sobieski, king of Poland, 

who defeats the Turkish army of 100,000, 12 Sept. ,, 
Vienna taken by the French under prince Murat, 

14 Nov. 1805, evacuated ... 12 Jan. 1806 
Captured by Napoleon I. . . .13 May, 1809 

Kestored on the conclusion of peace . 14 Oct. ,, 
Congress of sovereigns at Vienna . . Nov. 1814 
Imperial Academy of Sciences founded . . . 1846 
The revolt in Hungary induces an insurrection in 

Vienna 13 March, 1848 

Conferences respecting the Busso-Turkish war held 

at Vienna* 1 

The fortifications demolished, and the city enlarged 

and beautified 1 

The imperial parliament (Beichsrath) assembles 

here . " 31 May, i860 

The Prussians encamp near Vienna ; state of siege 

proclaimed July, 1866 

Visited by the sultan .... 27 July, 1867 
New palace of the fine arts founded by the emperor 

about 18 Sept. 1868 
The great international exhibition opened by the 
emperor ; the prince of Wales and many digni- 
taries present 1 May, 1873 

[The enormous building with annexes was designed 
by Mr. Scott Bussell, most ably supported by the 
Austrian engineers ; the grand central rotunda 
312 feet in diameter, with lofty dome, is an 
exaggerated Pantheon, suspended on Iron girders 
in place of masonry, and dwarfs St. Peter's at 
Borne.] 
Great financial failures ; affect all Europe. 9 May, „ 
Visit of the czar, 1-7 June ; of the shah of Persia 

30 July, „ 
Prizes to exhibitors presented by the archduke 

Albert 18 Aug. „ 

Visit of Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy, 17-22 

Sept.; of the emperor of Germany 17-23 Oct. ,, 
Waterworks inaugurated by the emperor 24 Oct. ,, 
The exhibition closed .... 2 Nov. ,, 
New bed of the Danube inaugurated . 30 May, 1876 
Johann Zich throws a stone at Bussian ambassador 

19 Jan. 1882 
International art exhibition opened . 1 April, ,, 
The Bing theatre destroyed by fire, caused by the 
fall of a large spirit lamp, 447 persons 
perished out of about 2000, 8 Dec. 1881 ; [accusa- 
tions of culpable negligence] ; imprisonment 

decreed 16 May, ,, 

Biot of shoemakers and others suppressed by mili- 
tary 7-8 Nov. ,, 

International exhibition of graphic art, &c. 

15 Sept.-i Nov. 1883 
Electric exhibition . . . 16 Aug.-3 Nov. „ 
Anarchist conspiracy to burn Vienna on the nights 
of 3, 4 Oct. ; detected ; premises in the suburbs 

* A conference of the four great powers, England, 
France, Austria, and Prussia, was held 24 July, when a 
note was agreed on and transmitted for acceptance to St. 
Petersburg and Constantinople, 31 July. This note was 
accepted by the czar, 10 Aug., but the sultan required 
modifications, which were rejected by Bussia, 7 Sept. 
The sultan's note (31 Dec.) contained four points : — 
1. The promptest possible evacuation of the princi- 
palities. 2. Revision of the treaties. 3. Maintenance 
of religious privileges to the communities of all con- 
fessions. 4. A definite settlement of the convention re- 
specting the holy places. It was approved by the four 
powers, and the conferences closed on 16 Jan. 1854. — A 
new conference of plenipotentiaries, from Great Britain 
(lord John Russell), France (M. Droviyn de l'Huys), 
Austria (count Buol), Turkey (Arif Effendi), and Bussia 
(count Gortschakott), took place, March, 1854. Two 
points, the protectorate of the principalities and the free 
navigation of the Danube, were agreed to ; but the pro- 
posals of the powers as to the reduction of the Bussian 
power in the Black Sea were rejected by the czar, and the 
conference closed, 5 June, 1854. The English and French 
envoys' assent to the Austrian propositions was not ap- 
proved of by their governments, and they both resigned 
their official positions. 



fired, 27 Sept. ; 17 men arrested and houses 
searched, bombs, &c, discovered, and police 
disguises ; announced . . . . 10 Oct. 1883 

Great international hygienic congress opened by 
crown prince Budolph . . . .26 Sept. ,, 

Bi-centenary of the siege raised by John Sobieski, 
king of Poland, celebrated . . 12 Sept. „ 

The imperial parliament meets in its new grand 
house early in Dec. ,, 

Much disaffection ; see Austria . . . Jan. 1884 

Awful storm ; destruction of life and property 

10 Dec. ,, 

Joseph Pircher, a gilder, secretly climbs up the 
steeple of St. Stephen's cathedral and places a 
banner on the cross (432 German feet high) and 
descends safely . . . . 17, 18 Aug. 1886 

The emperor retires, 17 May ; returns . Aug. ,, 

A second insurrection : Count Latour, the war 
minister, is murdered .... 6 Oct. ,, 

The emperor again takes flight . . .7 Oct. ,, 

Vienna is bombarded by Windischgratz and 
Jellaehich, 28 Oct. ; its capitulation . 30 Oct ,, 

International art exhibition opened . 3 March, 1888 

Grand monument of the empress queen Maria 
Theresa inaugurated in the presence of the 
emperor and empress .... 13 May, ,„ 

National industrial exhibition opened in honour of 
the 40th year of the emperor's reign, 14th May ; 
closed 31 Oct. ,,. 

Grand funeral of Beethoven on the removal of his 
remains from Wahring cemetery to the central 
cemetery at Simmerung . . .22 June, ,, 

Goldsmiths' exhibition opened . . 22 April, 1889 

Strike of tram-car men, anti-semitic rioting sup- 
pressed by the military ; close of strike, 

22-24 April, , r 

The grand Natural History museum opened by the 
emperor 10 Aug. ,, 

Strike of about 15,000 masons for increased pay, 

31 March, 1890 

General agitation, with intimidation, of workmen, 

April, ,, 

Biots suppressed by military . 8 April et seq. ,, 

The great enlargement of the city by the incorpora- 
tion of the suburbs ordered, Dec. 1890 ; com- 
pleted Dec. 1893 

Frank Schneider and Rosalie his wife, sentenced to 
death for the cruel murder of several servant 
maids, whom they decoyed into a wood near 
Vienna, June et seq., 16-29 Jan. ; he is executed 
(she is imprisoned for life) . . 17 March, 1892 

International musical and dramatic exhibition, 
president, arch-duke Charles Louis, opened by 
the emperor 7 May, ,, 

Visit of prince Bismarck, 19-23 June ; marriage of 
his son Herbert . . . . 21 June, ,, 

Many strikes, early May ; labour riots, 22 Aug. 1893 

International fine art exhibition, opened, 

6 March, 1894, 

International exhibition, relating to military and 
sporting affairs, &c, opened by the emperor 

20 April, ,, 

About 50,000 men on strike . . . May, ,, 

Destructive hailstorm, 4 deaths, much property 
and trees destroyed, birds killed . 7 June, ,, 

Monumental triumphal arch commemorating the 
deliverance of Vienna by John Sobieski in 1683 ; 
unveiled by the emperor Francis Joseph in St. 
Stephen's cathedral . . . 13 Sept. ,, 

Municipal election ; Dr. Liiger, anti-semitic leader, 
elected burgomaster, anti-semitic demonstra- 
tions against the liberals ; the council dissolved ; 
an imperial commission appointed ; re-election 
deferred ; government censures of demonstra- 
tions, 29, 30 May, 1895 ; Dr. Liiger re-elected, 
29 Oct. ; his election not sanctioned by the em- 
peror 5 Nov - I 895 

Dr. Liiger re-elected ; the town council dissolved ; 
Dr. Friebeis appointed imperial commissary ; 
rioting suppressed .... 13 Nov. ,, 

Disorderly scene in the reichsrath . . 16 Nov. ,, 

Municipal election : anti-semite victory, 

5 March, 1896 

Dr. Liiger re-elected burgomaster, 18 April ; re- 
signed 27 April, ,, 

Socialist demonstrations in the Prater, suppressed 
by the military 1 May, „ 



VIENNE. 



1354 



VILLETA. 



Herr Strobach elected burgomaster ; Dr. Liiger, 

deputy 6 May, 1896 

Visit of the czar . . . .27 Aug. et seq. ,, 
Agrarian conference, 10,000 present . 13 Sept. ,, 
Exhibition commemorative of the centenary of the 
birth of Franz Schubert, opened by the emperor, 

20 Jan. 1897 
Municipal elections : defeat of the anti-semites, 

22 March, ,, 
Dr. Liiger re-elected burgomaster . . 8 April, „ 
Exhibition of M. Verestchagin's pictures (Napoleon 

series) Nov. ,, 

Fire at the Stock exchange . . .20 April, 1S98 
Jubilee of the emperor's reign, he opens the ex- 
hibition . ... 8 May, ,, 
Anti-semitic demonstration, over 5,000 present, 

2 Oct. ,, 
Bubonic plague in the Pathological institute, some 
deaths ; Dr. Mtiller died, age 32 . 23 Oct. ,, 

Visit of the czar 29 Sept. 1903 

Death of Dr. Falb, eminent meteorologist, 30 Sept. ,, 

TREATIES OF VIENNA. 

i. The treaty between the emperor of Germany and the 
king of Spain, by which they confirmed to each 
other such parts of the Spanish dominions as they 
were respectively possessed of; and by a private treaty 
the emperor engaged to employ a force to procure the 
restoration of Gibraltar to Spain, and to use means 
for placing the Pretender on the throne of Great 
Britain. Spain guaranteed the Pragmatic Sanction, 
30 April, 1725. 

2. Treaty of alliance between the emperor of Germany, 
Charles VI., George II., king of Great Britain, and 
the states of Holland, by which the Pragmatic Sanc- 
tion was guaranteed, and the disputes as to the 
Spanish succession terminated. (Spain acceded to 
the treaty on the 22nd of July.) Signed 16 March, 

173*- 

3. Treaty of peace between the emperor Charles VI. of 
Germany and the king of France, Louis XV., by which 
the latter power agreed to guarantee the Pragmatic 
Sanction, and Lorraine was ceded to France. Signed 
18 Nov. 1738 ; see Pragmatic Sanction. 

4. Treaty between Napoleon I. of France and Francis 
(II. of Germany) I. of Austria, by which Austria ceded 
to France the Tyrol, Dalmatia, and other territories, 
which were shortly afterwards declared to be united 
to France under the title of the Illyrian Provinces, and 
engaged to adhere to the prohibitory system adopted 
towards England by France and Russia. 14 Oct. 
1809. 

5. Treaty between Great Britain, Austria, Russia, and 
Prussia, confirming the principles on which they had 
acted by the treaty of Chaumont, 1 Mar. 1814. Signed 
25 March, 1815. 

6. Treaty between the king of the Netherlands on the 
one part, and Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and 
Prussia on the other, agreeing to the enlargement of 
the Dutch territories, and vesting the sovereignty in 
the house of Orange. 31 May, 1815. 

7. Treaty by which Denmark ceded Swedish Pomerania 
and Rugen to Prussia, in exchange for Lauenburg, 
4 June, 1815. 

8 Commercial treaty for twelve years between Austria 
and Prussia. Signed at Vienna, 19 Feb. 1853. 

g. Treaty for the maintenance of Turkey, by the repre- 
sentatives of Great Britain, France, Austria, and 
Russia. Signed 9 April, 1854. 

10. Treaty between Austria and Prussia and Denmark, 
by which Denmark ceded the duchies. 30 Oct. 1864. 

ir. Treaty of peace between Austria and Italy ; Venetia 
given up to Italy. 3 Oct. 1866. 

VIENNE, the ancient Vienna Allobrogum 
(S.E. France). Here the emperor Valentinian II. 
was put to death by Arbogastes, 15 May, 392, and a 
short reaction in favour of paganism followed. 
Vienne was capital of the kingdom of Burgundy in 
432 and 879, and sometimes gave its name to the 
kingdom. A general council was held here in 
1311. Vienne was annexed to the French monarchy, 
1448- 

VIGILANCE ASSOCIATION, see under 
National. 



VIGILANCE Murder Association, see 

Ireland, 1883. 

VIGO (N.W. Spain) was attacked and burned 
by the English, under Drake and Norris in 1589. 
Sir George Rooke, with the combined English and 
Dutch fleets, attacked the French fleet and the 
Spanish galleons in the port of Vigo, when several 
men-of-war and galleons were taken, and many 
destroyed, and abundance of plate and other 
valuable effects fell into the hands of the conquerors, 
12 Oct. 1702. Vigo was taken by lord Cobham 
in 1 7 19, but relinquished after raising contribu- 
tions. It was again taken by the British, 27 March, 
1809. 

VIKINGS. Scandinavian chiefs, Swedes, 
Danes, and Norsemen, who in the 4th century 
migrated— eastward, to the countries beyond the 
Baltic ; westward and southward, chiefly to the 
British isles. 

M. Paul B. Du Chaillu (died 30 April, 1903), in his 
" Viking Age," describes the Vikings as the an- 
cestors of " the English-speaking nations," Oct. 1889 

VIKING CLUB, founded in 1892 as the 
Orkney, Shetland, and Northern Society, to pro- 
mote an interest in the North, and its literature 
and antiquities. To promote these objects, meet- 
ings are held for the discussion of papers on 
Northern history, literature, art, music, archeo- 
logy, folk-lore, and anthropology ; the formation 
of a library of books, MSS , maps, &c, relating to 
Northern history and antiquities, and the transla- 
tion of Sagas and other works on Northern 
subjects, and the exhibition of Northern antiquities. 
Proceedings (Saga-book) are published; vol. Hi., 
part ii., Jan. 1903. 

VILLA FRANCA. Near here, and Llerena, 
Spain, the British cavalry, under sir Stapleton 
Cotton, defeated the French cavalry under marshal 

Soult, 11 April, 1812. — Villa Franca, a small 

port on the Mediterranean, near Genoa, was bought 
for a steam-packet station by a Bussian company, 
about Aug. 1858, which caused some political 
excitement.— At VlLLA FRANCA, in Lombardy, 
the emperors of France and Austria met, on 11 July, 
1859 (after the battle of Solferino), and on 12 July 
signed the preliminaries of peace, the basis of the 
treaty of Zurich (which see). 

VILLA VICIOSA. 1. in Portugal. Here 
the Portuguese, under the French general Schom- 
berg, defeated the Spaniards, 1665. 2. in Castile, 
Spain. Here the struggle for the Spanish crown 
was decided in favour of Philip V. by Vendome's 
victory over Staremberg and the Austrians, 10 Dec. 
1710. 

VILLAIN, or VlLLEIN, see Slavery in 
England. 

VILLE DU HAVRE, French Atlantic mail 
steamer, 5,100 tons, sailed from New York for 
Havre, 15 Nov. 1873 ; was run into by a Glasgow 
clipper, Lochearn, aoout 2 a.m., 22 Nov., and sank 
in twelve minutes ; 226 out of 313 persons perished. 
The crew of the Lochearn rescued 87, who were 
conveyed to Cardiff by the American vessel Tre- 
mountain, capt. Urquhart, arriving there 1 Dec. 1873 
The Lochearn, beginning to sink, 28 Nov., was aban- 
doned by her crew, who were rescued by the 
British Queen, and brought to Plymouth 7 Dec. „ 
On judicial examination, the Lochearn was exone- 
rated in England, but censured in France Jan. 1874 

VILLETA (Paraguay, South America). Here 
Lopez and the Paraguayans were totally defeated 



VIMIEEA. 



13§5 



VIRGINALS. 



by the Brazilians and their allies, n Dec. 1868. 
Lopez and 200 men fled ; 3000 prisoners were made ; 
and the war was considered to be ended. 

VIMIEEA (in Portugal), where the British 
and Spanish forces, under sir Arthur Wellesley, 
defeated the French, under marshal Junot, duke of 
Abrantes, 21 Aug. 1808. The attack, made with 
great bravery, was gallantly repulsed ; it was 
repeated by Kellermann at the head of the French 
reserve, which was also repulsed. The French, 
charged with the bayonet, withdrew on all points 
in confusion, leaving many prisoners. 

VINCENNES a strong castle near Paris; a 
residence of the French kings from the 12th to the 
14th centuries. Henry V. of England died at the 
Bois de V-incennes, 31 Aug. 1422. At the fosse of 
the castle, Louis due d'Enghien was shot by order 
of Napoleon, after a hasty trial, early on the morn- 
ing of 22 March, 1804. 

VINCENT, Cape St. (S. W. Portugal). 
See Gape St. Vincent and Rodney's Victories. 

VINCENT, ST. (West Indies), long a neutral 
island ; but at the peace of 1763, the French agreed 
that the right to it should be vested in the English. 
The latter soon after engaged in a war against the 
Caribs, on the windward side of the island, who 
were obliged to consent to a peace, by which they 
ceded a large tract of land to the British crown. In 
1779 the Caribs greatly contributed to the reduction 
of this island by the French, who, however, restored 
it in 1783. In 1795 the French landed some 
troops, and again instigated the Caribs to an insur- 
rection, which was not subdued for several months. 
Mt. Soufriere (abt. 3,623 ft. high) erupted 24 April, 
1718; and again, 1 May, 1812, a violent eruption 
took place, 3 craters opened, 1,295 dead bodies found, 
total deaths, 1,565, 100 hopelessly injured, 3,000 
homeless, 16 sq. miles covered with lava, ash fell on 
Barbadoes, 90 miles oft'; 7 May, 1902, disturbances 
took place in the adjoining islands, and earthquake 
shocks were frequent at Kingstown and Georgetown, 
whilst the village of Wallibon partly sank, and that 
of Kichmond rose, 17 May {Nature, 27 May, 1902) ; 
eruptions continued, violent, 18, 24 May ; earth- 
quake shocks and another eruption, 10 July (see 
Martinique,S May, 1902); slighter ones, 21 July 
et seq.; violent, 3, 5, 21 Sept., 16 Oct.; Messrs. 
Quinton, Powell, and Fostei ascended the mountain, 
while in a state of activity, 28 Oct. 1902. Popula- 
tion in 1861, 31,755; in 1881, 40,548; in 1891, 
41,054; in 1901, 47,548; see Windward Isles. 
Great destruction of life and property by a hurricane, 

16 Aug. 1886 ; again, 300 deaths, 10-12 Sept. 1898. See 

West Indies. 

VINCENT DE PAUL, ST., Charitable 

SOCIETY founded in 1833, in F ranee, by twelve 
young men. It extends its extremely beneficial 
operations into Britain. Its power excited the 
jealousy of the French government, which sup- 
pressed its central committee of Paris, in Oct. 1861.. 
St. Vincent de Paul was born, 1576; established 
the congregation of Lazarists, or Vincentines, 1625 ; 
Sisters of Charity, 1634 ; a foundling hospital, 1648. 
He died 1660. 

VINCY, N. France. Here Charles Martel 
defeated the Neustrians, 21 May, 717, and acquired 
their country. 

VINE. The vine was planted by Noah, 2347 
B.C. Gen. ix. 20. A colony of vine-dressers from 
Phocea, in . Ionia, settled at Marseilles, and in- 



structed the South Gauls hi tillage, vine-dressing, 
and commerce, about 600 B.C. Some think that 
vines are aborigines of Languedoc, Provence, and 
Sicily, and that they grew spontaneously on the 
Mediterranean shores of Italy, France, and Spain. 
The vine was carried into Champagne, and part of 
Germany, by the emperor Probus, about a.d. 279. 
The vine and sugar-cane were planted in Madeira 
in 1420. In the gardens of Hampton-court palace 
is an old and celebrated vine, said to surpass any 
known vine in Europe ; see Grapes and Wine. 
The Tokay vines were planted in 1350. 
Vine Disease. In the spring of 1845, Mr. E. Tucker, of 
Margate, observed a fungus (since named Oidium 
Tuckeri) on grapes in the hot-houses of Mr. Slater, of 
Margate. It is a whitish mildew, and totally destroys 
the fruit. 
The spores of this oidium were found in the vineries at 
Versailles in 1847. The disease soon reached the trel- 
lised vines, and in 1850 many lost all their produce. 
In 1852, it spread over France, Italy, Spain, Syria, and 
in Zante and Cephalonia attacked the currants, reduc- 
ing the crop to one-twelfth of the usual amount. 
Through its ravages, the wine manufacture in Madeira 

ceased for several years. 
Many attempts have been made to arrest the progress of 
this disease, but without much effect. Sulphur dust is 
the most efficacious remedy. 
The disease had much abated in France, Portugal, and 
Madeira, in 1863 In 1862 Californian vines were 
introduced into the two latter. 
New malady (microscopic insect, phylloxera vastatrix) 

in S. France, observed 1865 

Remedy, sulphuret of carbon, recommended by 

M. Dumas Aug. 1873 

Not successful ; great destruction ; i2,ooo£. offered 

for a remedy July, 1876 

Phylloxera prevalent in Malaga and France; reported 
July, Aug. 1878; Portugal, Italy, Spain ; Sept.- 
Nov. 1879 ; appears in Victoria, Australia, Nov. 1880 
Phylloxera congress at Bordeaux . 10-15 Oct. 1881 
The phylloxera is said to be exterminated in Swit- 
zerland by file Nov. 1882 

Phylloxera ravaging vines on the Douro ; conse- 
quent emigrations to Brazil ... 7 Feb. 1884 
Disappearance of the phylloxera in W. France 
through the experimental researches of M. Pas- 
teur : prosperous vintages reported . . 1883-91 

VINEGAR. The ancients had several kinds, 
which they used for drink. The Roman soldiers 
were accustomed to take it in their marches. The 
Bible represents Boaz. a rich citizen of Bethlehem, 
as providing vinegar for his reapers (1312 B.C.), a 
custom still prevalent in Spain and Italy. 

VINEGAE-HILL (near Enniscorthy, in 
Wexford, S.E. Ireland). Here the Irish rebels, 
headed by father John, a priest, encamped and com- 
mitted many outrages on the surrounding country. 
They were gradually surrounded by the British 
troops, commanded by Lake, 21 June, 1798, and 
after a fierce struggle, with much slaughter, totally 
dispersed. 

VINTNEES, see Victuallers. 

VIOL AND VIOLIN. The lyre of the Greeks 
became our harp, and the viol of the middle ages 
became the violin. The violin is mentioned as early 
as 1200, in the legendary life of St. Christopher. It 
was introduced into England, some say, by Charles 
II. Straduarius (or Stradivarius) of Cremona, was 
a renowned violin-maker (1700 to 1722). The 
eminent violinist Paganini visited England, 1831 ; 
died at Nice, 27 May, 1840. Mr. J. T. Carrodus, 
an eminent English violinist, died, aged 59, 
12 July, 1895. "Old Violins," by the rev. H. R. 
Haweis (died 29 Jan. 1901), published 1899. 

VIEGINAL/S; an early keyed instrument of 
the kind termed clavichords; used in the i6thand 



VIRGINIA. 



1356 



VIVISECTION. 



17th centuries; played on by queen Elizabeth and 
Mary queen of Scots. According to Johnson, it 
owed its name to young women being the usual 
performers. Tallis, Mor.ey, Purcell, Gibbuns, and 
Bull composed for this instrument. 

VIRGINIA, see Home, 449 b.c. 

VIRGINIA, the first British settlement in 
North America, was discovered by John Cabot in 
1497, and was taken possession of for Haleigh, and 
named after the virgin-queen Elizabeth, 13 July, 
1584. Vain attempts were made to settle it in 1585. 
Two expeditions were formed by patent in 1606, and 
others in 1610. In 1626 it reverted to the crown; 
and a more permanent colony was established soon 
afterwards. George Washington was delegate for 
Virginia in the congress of 1774. Eastern Virginia 
seceded from the Union, 25 April, 1861, but "Western 
Virginia declared for the Lnion, 13 Feb. and elected 
a governor, 20 Feb. 1861 ; became a state 1863. 
Virginia was a chief seat of the war. The state was 
readmitted to the congress, Jan. -Feb. 1870; see 
United States and Richmond. Population in 1880, 
1,512,565; 1S90, 1,655,980; 1900, 1,854,184; capital, 
Richmond. Western Virginia, population, 1880, 
618,457; 1890, 762,794; 1900, 518,103; capital, 
Wheeling. By the overflowing of a lake near Staun- 
ton, houses were swept away and many lives lost, 
reported 1 Oct. 1896. Cloudburst and bursting of a 
dam in the west, about 100 deaths, about 22 June, 
1 901. 

VIRGINIA CITY, see Nevada. 

VIRGIN ISLANDS (West Indies), an eastern 
group discovered by Columbus (1494) : Virgin 
Gorda, Tortola, Anegada, &c, and the Jjanish Isles, 
St. Thomas, Santa Cruz, and St. John. Population 
of the British possessions in 1891 was 4,639; 1901, 
4,908. See Leeward Isles. 

Tortola settled by Dutch buccaneers about 1648 ; 
expelled by the English (who have held it since) . 1666 

St. Thomas settled by Danes 1672, and St. John 
a few years after ; held by the British 1801-2 ; 
1807-15 ; proposed sale to the United States for 
1,500,500?. to be made a "territory." Danish 
proclamation, 25 Oct. 1867 ; purchase declined 
by U.S. senate ... 23 March, May, 1870 

By a dreadful hurricane off St. Thomas, the Royal 
Mail steamers Rhone and Wye were entirely 
wrecked ; the Conway and Derwent, and above 50 
other vessels, driven ashore ; about 1000 persons 
said to have perished . . . .29 Oct. 1867 

Much suffering was occasioned in Tortola ; houses 
blown down or unrooted, <fec. (a report reached 
London that the isle was submerged). 

Earthquake at St. Thomas's and other isles ; much 
damage ; few lives lost . . . Nov. ,, 

Santa Cruz. A negro insurrection, in which M. Fon- 
taine, a planter, was killed ; Predrikstadt and 36 
out of 50 sugar plantations were burnt, and about 
3000 whites rendered homeless. During the sup- 
pression by col. Garde, the governor, about 200 
negroes were killed . . . .1-5 Oct. 1878 

VIRGINIUS, American blockade-runner, see 
Cuba, 1873. 

VIRGIN MARY. The Assumption of the 
Virgin is a festival in the Greek and Latin churches, 
in honour of the miraculous ascent of Mary into 
heaven, according to their belief, 15 Aug. a.d. 45. 
The Presentation of the Virgin is a feast celebrated 
21 Nov., said to have been instituted among the 
Greeks in the nth century; its institution in the 
West is ascribed to pope Gregory XL 1372 ; see 
Annunciation and Conception, Immaculate. 

VIRTUE, LEAGUE OF, see Tugendbund. 



VISCONTI, the name of a noble Italian 
family, which ruled in Milan from about 1277 to 
1447 ; the heiress of the family was married to 
Francesco Sforza, who became duke 1450. 

VISCOUNT {Vice Comes), anciently the name 
of the deputy of an earl. The first viscount in 
England created by patent was John, lord Beaumont, 
whom Henry VI. created viscount Beaumont, giving 
him precedence above all barons, 10 Feb. 1440. 
Aslimolc. This title is of older date in Ireland and 
France. John Barry, lord Barry, was made vis- 
count Buttevant, in Ireland, 9 Rich. II. 1385. 
Bejlson. 

VISIBLE SPEECH, a term applied bv Mr. 
Alex. Melville Bell to his " Universal Self- Inter- 
preting Physiological Alphabet," comprising thirty 
symbols representing the conformations of the 
mouth when uttering sounds. He stated that about 
fifty different types would be required to print all 
known languages with these symbols. He ex- 
pounded his system to the Society of Arts, London, 
14 March, 1866; and published a book in 1867. 

VISIGOTHS, separated from the Ostrogoths 
about 330; see Goths. The emperor Valens, about 
369, admitted them into the Boman territories upon 
the condition of their serving when wanted in the 
Boman armies ; and Theodosius the Great permitted 
them to form distinct corps commanded by their own 
officers. In 400, under Alaric, they invaded Italy, 
and in 410 took Bome. They founded their king- 
dom of Toulouse, 414; conquered the Alani, and 
extended their, rule into Spain, 414 ; expelled the 
Bomans in 468; and finally were themselves con- 
quered by lhe Saracens under Muza, in 711, when 
their last king, Roderic, was defeated and slain ; see 
Spain for a list of the Visigothic kings. Their rule 
in France ended with their defeat hy Clovis at 
Vougle, in 507. 

VISITATIONS, see Heralds. 

VITAL FORCE, defined by Humboldt "as an 
unknown cause preventing the elements from obey- 
ing their primitive affinities." This theory is now 
opposed by many physiologists, and animal motion 
is attributed to muscular and nervous irritability, 
illustrated by the researches of Galvani, Humboldt, 
sir Charles Bell, Marshall Hall, and others. The 
subject has been much discussed by the late pro- 
fessor Huxley and other eminent physiologists. 

V1TI ISLES, see Fiji. 

VITTORIA (N. Spain), the site of a victory 
obtained by Wellington over the French army com- 
manded by Joseph Bonaparte, king of Spain, and 
marshal Jourdan, 21 June, 1813. The hostile armies 
were nearly equal, from 70,000 to 75,000 each. 
After a long and fearful battle, the i rench were 
driven, towards evening, through the town of Vit- 
toria, and in their retreat were thrown into irre- 
trievable confusion. The British loss was 22 officers 
and 479 men killed ; 167 officers and 2640 men 
wounded. Marshal Jourdan lost 151 pieces of can- 
non, 451 waggons of ammunition, all his baggage, 
provisions, cattle, and treasure, with his baton as a 
marshal of France. Continuing the pursuit on the 
25th, Wellington took Jourdan' s only remaining 
gun.' Population, 1887, 27,660; 1897/30,514. 

VIVARIUM, see Aquavicarium. 

VIVISECTION, physiological experiments 
upon living animals, as practised by William 
Harvey, John Hunter, and other eminent physiolo- 



VIZIANAGRAM. 



1357 



VOLTAIC PILE. 



gists, it is said, with good results. The societies 
for the prevention of cruelty to animals in 
Dresden and Paris in 1859 requested the opinion of 
a committee of eminent scientific men on the merits 
of the knowledge thus acquired. Their judgment 
was not unanimous. The London society took up 
the question in i860 ; and printed a pamphlet by 
Mr. G. Macilwain against vivisection, in Aug. 
1862 an international conference to discuss the 
question was held at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham. 
The subject was discussed in 1866, and a prize 
awarded by the London society. Sir Charles Bell's 
opinion of vivisection was, that it either obscured 
the subject it was meant to illustrate, or misled men 
into practical errors of the most serious character 

Discussion revived in consequence of the prosecu- 
tion of Dr. Schiff in Florence, who justified vivi- 
section when chloroform or any other anaesthetic 
is used 1873-6 

Rival societies : 1. Society for the abolition of 
vivisection, 1875 ; Mr. G. R. Jesse, the founder 
(died June, 1898), leaves io,oooL to the society ; 
2. International Association for total suppression 
of vivisection 1876 

Commission (viscount Cardwell, professor Huxley, 
and others) to inquire into the practice, appointed 
23 June, 1875 ; report signed, 8 Jan. ; published, 
March, 1876 ; a bill to regulate vivisection (cruelty 
to animals act) brought into parliament; strongly 
opposed by the medical profession in general, 
June, July ; passed, 15 Aug. 1876. Vivisectors 
are to have a licence or certificate. 

Resolution in favour of vivisection passed by the 
International Medical Congress, London 9 Aug. 1881 

The prosecution of prof. Feriier (who had experi- 
mented on the brains of monkeys under anaes- 
thetics) and others failed .... Nov. „ 

Dr. Koch, of Berlin, demonstrates that tubercular 
disease can be propagated by organisms termed 
bacilli 1882 

Mr. R. T. Reid's bill to prohibit vivisection, talked 
out 4 April, 1883 

Report for 1883 : Great Britain, 44 licences ; 535 
experiments ; Ireland, 8 licences ; 34 experiments ; 
amestheties employed when required. 

441 experiments in Great Britain in . . . . 1884 

Report for 1886 and 1887 : Great Britain 64 
licences. In 1888 55 licences and 1,069 experi- 
ments. 

Instructed by Dr. Ferrier's vivisection experiments, 
Dr. Hughes Bennett localized in a man's brain a 
tumour, which was removed by Mr. Godlee 

25 Nov. „ 

The publication of the "Nine Circles, or the Hell of 
the Innocents," by the Anti-Vivisection society, 
occasioned much controversy at the church con- 
gress at Folkestone and sharp correspondence 
between prof. V. Horsely and Miss Frances M. 
Cobbe and others Oct. 1892 

Prof. Virchow in the Crooniau lecture warmly ad- 
vocates vivisection .... 16 March, 1893 

Controversy revived in theTimes . . March, 1902 
See Trials, 18 Nov. 1903. 

VIZIANAGRAM, a town in Madras presi- 
dency, formeily a kingdom, among the last bul- 
warks against the Mahomedan invasion, and a 
refuge for Hindoo learning. The sovereigns date 
from the 14th century. See Vedas. 

VIZIER, GRAND, an officer of the Ottoman 
Porte, said to have been first appointed by Amu- 
rath I., about 1386. The office was abolished in 
1838 ; but since been frequently revived and sup- 
pressed ; see Turkey. 

VLADIMIR (central Russia), a city founded in 
the 1 2th century, and the capital of a grand duchy 
from 1 157 to about 1328. 

VOCALION, a new musical instrument in 
which tones are produced from strings .made to 



vibrate by currents of air, the joint invention of Mr. 
James Baillie Hamilton and Mr. John Farmer 
assisted by Mr. Hermann Smith, described and 
illustrated by Mr. Hamilton at the Koyal Institu- 
tion, 21 May, 1875, and tried successfully at 
Harrow, 23 March, 1882, and soon alter at West- 
minster Abbey ; and at other places. 

VOICE FIGURES, in a variety of beautiful 
forms, such as trees, flowers, ferns, stars, &c, are 
produced by directing the voice against an elastic 
membrane upon which powder, paste, or some 
similar substance has been placed. The Eidophone, 
an apparatus used for this purpose, w r as invented by 
Mrs. Watt-.-Hughes, and many interesting specimens 
of voice figures were exhibited by her at the Royal 
Society about 1885. 

VOIRON, see Veseronce. 

VOLAP (JK (from ' world ' and ' speak ') , univer- 
sal commercial language invented by M. Schleyer, 
who taught it in Paris in Feb. 1886. The Philological 
Society of London advocated its use in diplomacy 
and science, in 1887. Tlie roots chiefly borrowed 
from Romanic, Germanic, and especially English 
languages shortened. There is a Volapiik Academy 
at .Munich, and about 500,000 people are using or 
learning it. 
Mr. C. E. Sprague's handbook of Volapiik 

published Jan. 1888 

Volapiik reported successful and spreading in 

Europe and America ,, 

Mr. P. Hoinix publishes his "Anglo Franca" in 

opposition to Volapiik . . . March, 1889 

VOLCANOES. In different parts of the earth 
there are above 200 volcanoes wliich have been 
active in modern times ; see Etna, Vesuvius, New 
Zealand, Owhyhee, and Iceland. In Mexico, a plain 
was filled up into a mountain more than a thousand 
feet in height by the burning lava from a volcano, 
in 1759. A volcano in the isle of Ferro broke out 
13 Sept. 1777, which threw out an immense quantity 
of red water, that discoloured the sea for several 
leagues. A new volcano appeared in one of the 
Azore islands, 1 May, 1808. Lectures on vulcan- 
ology delivered by l)r. H. J. Johnston-Lavis, in 
Naples, in 1894. "The Ancient Volcanoes of 
Great Britain," by Archbd. Geikie, published 
April, 1897. "Volcanoes," by T. G. Bonney, 
F.R.S., 1899. Much volcanic activity in 1902; see 
Martinique and Vincent St. 

VOLHYNIA, a Polish province, annexed to 
Russia 1793. 

VOLSCI, an ancient Latin people, frequently at 
war with the Romans. From their capital, Corioli, 
Caius Martius (who defeated them about 490 B.C.) 
derived his name Coriolanus. The story of his 
banishment by his ungrateful countrymen; of his 
revenge on them by bringing the Volsci to the gates 
of Rome, yet afterwards sparing the city at the 
entreaties of his mother, Volumnia (487 B.C.), is 
considered by many as a poetical legend. The 
Volsci and their allies were totally defeated at 
Sutrium by the consul Valerius Corvus (346), and 
incorporated with the Roman people about 338. 

VOLSINII, the inhabitants of an Etrurian city, 
who, after a sharp contest, were completely over- 
come by the Roman consul Titus Coruncanius 
280 B.C. 

VOLTAIC PILE or Battery, was con- 
structed by Galvani ; see Galvanism in article 
Electricity. The principle was discovered by Ales- 
sandro Yolta, of Coino (born 1745), for thirty years 



VOLTURNO. 



1358 



VOLUNTEERS. 



professor of natural philosophy at Pavia, and an- 
nounced by him to the Royal Society of London in 
1793. The battery was first set up in 1800. Volta 
was made an Italian count and senator by Napoleon 
Bjnaparte, and was otherwise greatly honoured. 
While young he invented the electrophorus, electric 
pistol, and hydrogen lamp. He died in 1826, aged 
81. The form of the Voltaic battery has been greatly 
improved by the researches of modern philosophers. 
The nitric acid battery of sir W. 11. Grove was 
constructed in 1839 ; Alfred Smee's battery in 1840 ; 
the carbon battery of professor Robert Bunsen (died 
16 Aug. 1899) in 1842. The first is very much used 
in this country ; that of Bunsen on the continent ; 
see Copper-Zinc Couple and Italy, 1899. 

VOLTURNO, a river in S. Italy, near Uapua, 
near to which Garibaldi and his followers held a 
strong position. This was furiously assailed by the 
royal troops on 1 Oct. i860, who were finally re- 
pulsed after a desperate struggle, the fiercest in 
which Garibaldi had yet been engaged. He was 
aided greatly by a band of Piedmontese from 
Naples. On 2 Oct. general Bixio completed the 
victory by capturing 2500 fresh Neapolitan troops 
and dispersing others. 

. VOLUNTARY CONTRIBUTIONS. Pub- 
lic contributions for the support of the British 
government against the policy and designs of 
France amounted to two millions and a half ster- 
ling in 1 798. About 200,000^. were transmitted to 
England from Ilndia in 1799. Sir Robert Peel, of 
Bury, among other contributions of equal amount, 
subscribed 10,000^. Annual Register; see Pa- 
triotic Fund. In 1862 nearly a million pounds were 
subscribed in the British empire for the relief of the 
Lancashire cotton spinners ; see Cotton and Mansion 
House, where voluntary contributions for beneficent 
purposes are continually received. 

VOLUNTARY SCHOOLS, see Education. 

VOLUNTEERS were enrolled in England for 
the American war, 1778, and especially in conse- 
quence of the threatened invasion of revolutionary 
France, 1793-4. Besides our large army, and 
85,000 men voted for the sea, we subsidised 40,000 
Germans, raised our militia to 100,000 men, and 
armed the citizens as volunteers; the yeomanry 
formed cavalry regiments. Between 1798 and 1804, 
when this force was of greatest amount, it num- 
bered 410,000, of which 70,000 were Irish ; * Yeo- 
manry in 1884, 11,400. On 26 Oct. 1803, king 
George III. reviewed in Hyde Park 12,401 London 
volunteers, and on 28 Oct. 14,676 more. The Eng- 
lish volunteers were, according to official accounts, 
341,600 on 1 Jan. 1804 ; see Naval Volunteers. In 
May, 1859, in consequence of the prevalence of the 

* The first regiment of Irish volunteers was formed 
at Dublin, under command of the duke of Leinster, 12 
Oct. 1779. They armed generally to the amount of 
20,000 men, and received the unanimous thanks of the 
houses of lords and commons in Ireland, for their 
patriotism and spirit, for coming forward and defending 
their country. At the period when the force appeared 
Irish affairs bore a serious aspect ; manufactures had 
decreased, and foreign trade had been hurt by a pro- 
hibition of the export of salted provisions and butter. 
No notice of the complaints of the people had been taken 
in the English parliament, when, owing to the alarm of 
an invasion, ministers allowed the nation to arm, and an 
immense force was soon raised. The Irish took this 
occasion to demand a free trade, and government saw 
there was no trifling with a country with arms in its 
hands. The Irish parliament unanimously addressed the 
king for a free trade, and it was granted. 1779. 



fear of a French invasion, the formation of volun- 
teer corps of riflemen commenced under the auspices 
of the government, and by the end of the year 
many thousands were enrolled in all parts of' the 
kingdom. The volunteers were said to be " a force 
potentially the strongest defence of England," 19 
April, 1870. Dr. J. C. Bucknill, regarded as the 
originator of the movement, knighted, May, 1894 ; 
see Artillery Association and Naval Artillery 
Volunteer Force. 

Yeomanry were enrolled by lord Chatham in 1761. 
The present 49 regiments of cavalry (about 300 
each) cost 80,000?.. 1870 

The number of yeomanry- 1876, 12,093; 1880, 
11,598; 1885, 11,590; 1890, 10,697; I 894, 10,014 > 
1897, 10,184. 

By War-office regulations the whole yeomanry force 
was re-organized and appointed a definite place 
in the mobilization scheme (commencing 1 April), 

4 Jan. 1893 

Volunteer (military service) act passed . 6 July, 1895 

[The first Middlesex volunteers were formed in 
1803 as the duke of Cumberland's sharpshooters. 
They retained their organisation as a rifle club, 
when other volunteers were disbanded. In 1835 
they were permitted by the duchess of Kent to 
take the name of the Royal Victoria Rifle Club.] 

Circular letter from col. Jonathan Peel, proposing 
organization of National Volunteer Association for 
promoting the practice of rifle-shooting, 12 May, 
1859. It was established in London, under the 
patronage of the queen and prince consort, Mr. 
Sidney (afterwards lord) Herbert, secretary at 
war, president, and the earl of Derby, earl Spencer, 
lord Elcho, and other noblemen vice-presidents. 
(Annual subscription one guinea, or a composition 
for life of ten guineas) . . . 16 Nov. 1859 

2500 volunteer officers presented to the queen ; a 
dinner followed, with the duke of Cambridge in 
the chair; and a ball .... 7 March, i860 

The queen reviews about 18,450 volunteers in 
Hyde-park 23 June, ,, 

[Mr. Tower, of Wealdhall, Essex, aged 80, was pre- 
sent as a private; he had been present as an 
officer in a volunteer review in 1803.] 

First meeting of the National Association for rifle- 
shooting held at Wimbledon. The queen fired the 
first shot, a " centre " ; captain Edw. Ross (North 
York) obtained the queen's prize of 250?. and the 
gold medal and badge of the association, 2-7 July, ,, 
[M. Thorel, a Swiss, obtained a x^ize.] 

Successful sham-fight at Bromley, Kent . 14 July, „ 

Above 20,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at 
Edinburgh 7 Aug. ,, 

Above 10,000 Lancashire volunteers reviewed by 
the earl of Derby at Knowsley . . 1 Sept. „ 

Lord Herbert stated that the association had a 
capital of 3000?. and an annual income 01 1500/-., 

16 Feb. 1861 

Volunteers in Britain estimated at about 160,000, 

May, ,, 

Second meeting at Wimbledon ; Mr. Jopling (S. 
Middlesex) gains the queen'* prize and the asso- 
ciation medal 4-10 July, ,, 

Review of 11,504 volunteers at Wimbledon, 13 July; 
of 9000 at Warwick .... 24 July, „ 

Registered number of volunteers, 162,681 t April, 1862 

20,000 volunteers reviewed by lord Clyde at 
Brighton 21 April, ,, 

Third meeting at Wimbledon ; Mr. Pixley (S. Vic- 
toria) gains the queen's prize, &c. 1-14 July. ,, 

A commission recommends that an annual grant of 
either 20s. , 30s. , or 34s. , be given to each volun- 
teer according to circumstances . . Oct. ,, 

Fo urth meeting at Wimbledon, 7 July, &e. ; queen's 
prize, &c, won by sergeant Roberts (12th Shrop- 
shire) 14 July, r863 

An act to amend and consolidate the acts relating 
to the volunteer force of Great Britain was passed, 

21 July, ,, 
[Annual grant of 30s. to each volunteer autho- 
rised.] 

22,000 volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales 
in Hyde-park (great improvement noticed), 

2S May, 1864 






VOLUNTEERS. 



1359 



VOLUNTEERS. 



Fifth meeting at Wimbledon, n July, &c. ; the 

■ queen's prize, (fee, won by private John Wyatt 
(London rifle brigade) ... 23 July, 1864 

Volunteers estimated at 165,000 in 1864. 

Sixth meeting at Wimbledon, began n Jaly; the 
queen's prize was won by private Sharman (4th 
West York), 18 July; the meeting ended with a 
review by the duke of Cambridge . 22 July, 1865 

Seventh meeting at Wimbledon, began 9 July; 
queen's prize won by Angus Cameron (6th Inver- 
ness), 17 July; the value of about 7000J. distri- 
buted in prizes; and review by duke of Cam- 
bridge 21 July, 1866 

The volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales at 
Brighton, 2 April; at York, n Aug.; by duke of 
Cambridge at Hyde-park ... 23 June, „ 

Estimate of volunteers : 135,000 infantry, 27,000 
artillery, and 4000 engineers. — Times . 9 Oct. ,, 

About 1 100 volunteers visit Brussels, headed by col. 
Loyd Lindsay : warmly received ; first prize 
gained by Curtis, of the nth Sussex rifles, 

1 1-22 Oct. „ 

Parliamentary vote for volunteers, 361,009!. 

6 June, 1867 

Metropolitan and Berkshire volunteers reviewed in 
Windsor Great Park . . . .10 June, „ 

Eighth meeting at Wimbledon, began 8 July ; Bel- 
gian Garde civique and volunteers (above 2000) 
received by prince of Wales, 13 July; resignation 
of lord Elcho, chairman of the council ; succeeded 
by earl Spencer, 18 July; grand review by prince 
of Wales, the sultan, &c; the queen's prize given 
to sergeant Lane (Bristol) by the princess of Teck, 

20 July, ,, 

Grand review in New Sefton park, Liverpool, 5 Oct. „ 

About 28,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at 
Windsor 20 June, 1868 

Review of regulars and volunteers at Edinburgh, 

4 July, ,, 

Ninth meeting at Wimbledon, 13 July; the queen's 
prize gained by lieut. Carslake (5th Somerset), 

25 July, „ 

Lord Elcho re-elected chairman of the council (earl 
Spencer resigned) Feb. 1869 

Memorial to government respecting the capitation 
grant ; signed by noblemen and gentlemen, 

19 Feb. ,, 

Volunteers reported to number 170,000 . . . ,, 

Review of volunteers of southern and western 
counties at Portsmouth . . .26 April, ,, 

Tenth meeting at Wimbledon 3 July ; queen's prize 
gained by corporal Angus Cameron (6th Inver- 
ness), 2nd time, 13 July ; grand review 24 July, „ 

Volunteers act, 1863, amended . . 9 Aug. „ 

"Army Service Corps" to be composed of volun- 
teers ; established by royal warrant 12 Nov. ,, 

Eleventh meeting at Wimbledon, 11 July; queen's 
prize won by corporal Humphries (6th Surrey), 

19 July, 1870 

Letter from the lord mayor recommending the en- 
largement of the volunteer system, and its greater 
efficiency 22 Sept. „ 

Establishment of an extensive rifle range, drill 
ground, armoury, <&c. , for the London volunteers 
resolved on 3 Oct ,, 

Distribution of breech-loaders commenced Nov. ,, 

The volunteers recognised as part of the national 
army . 1S71 

Lord Elcho (chairman) resigned ; succeeded by che 
earlofDucie June. ,, 

Twelfth meeting at Wimbledon, 8 July; queen's 
prize won by ensign A. P. Humphry, undergra- 
duate (Cambridge university), aged 19 18 July, ,, 

Vote for volunteer force, 1872-3, 473,200!. 24 June, 1872 

Thirteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 8 July; queen's 
prize won by colour-sergeant Michie (London 
Scottish) 16 July, „ 

The Elcho shield, the International trophy, and the 
Irish International trophy (all won by the Eng- 
lish) placed in the custody of the lord mayor, 

27 July, ,, 

Some volunteers visit Ghent . . 14-21 Sept. ,, 

Fourteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 7 July ; queen's 
prize won by sergeant Robert Menzies (1st Edin- 
burgh) 15 July, 1873 

Volunteers visit Havre ; shoot for prizes ; 50 obtain 
prizes, end of May ; given 29 June. 1874 



Fifteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 6 July ; queen's 
prize won by private W. C. Atkinson (1st Durham) 

14 July, 1874 

An "efficient volunteer" defined by order in 
council (substitute for schemes of 27 July, 1863, 
and 15 Oct. 1872) Aug. ,, 

Resignation of earl of Ducie as chairman . April, 1875, 

Sixteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 12 July ; queen's 
prize won by capt. George Pearse (15th Devon) 

20 July, ,, 

175,387 enrolled volunteers 1874 ; 181,080, . . ,, 

30,000 volunteers reviewed by the prince of Wales 
in Hyde Park (" complete success." — Times) 

1 July, 1876 

Seventeenth meeting at Wimbledon, 10-22 July ; 
queen's prize won by sergeant Pullman, 2nd 
(South) Middlesex .... 18 July, ,, 

185,501 enrolled volunteers ,, 

Eighteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 9-21 July ; 
queen's prize won by private George Jamieson 
(a Scot), of 15th Lancashire corps (Liverpool) 

17 July, 1877 

Nineteenth meeting at Wimbledon, 8-20 July ; 
queen's prize won by private Peter Ray (a Scot), 
nth Stirling 16 July, 1878 

203,213 enrolled volunteers . . . Nov. ,, 

Twentieth meeting at Wimbledon, 14-26 July ; 
queen's prize won by corporal George Taylor, 
47th Lancashire 22 July, 1879 

International trophy won by England . 19 July, „ 

Standard of efficiency : 69 per cent. 1863 ; 85 per 
cent. 1868 ; 96 per cent. 1880 

Earl Stanhope elected chairman in room of earl 
Wharncliffe May, ,, 

Twenty-first meeting at Wimbledon, 12-24 July ; 
Queen's prize won by Alexander Ferguson, private 
1st Argyll 21 July, „ 

East York volunteer artillery corps resign on ac- 
count of dismissal of col. Humphrey (through 
continued personal disagreements), 16 June ; 
resignations said to be illegal . . 29 June, „ 

Sergeant Wm. Marshman, tried by court-martial for 
alleged fraudulent marking at the rifle meetings, 
1878, 1879, 1880, acquitted ■ x 3 Aug. -16 Sept. ,, 

Earl Stanhope, chairman, succeeded by earl Brown- 
low 4 May, 1881 

Above 52,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at 
Windsor, 9 July. ["A magnificent success ; the 
crowning achievement of the volunteer move- 
ment." — Times, n July] ,, 

About 40,000 Scotch volunteers reviewed by the 
queen, in Queen's-park, Edinburgh . 25 Aug. „ 

Tiventy-seeond meeting at Wimbledon, 11-23 July; 
queen's prize won by private Thomas Beck, 3rd 
Devon 19 July, „ 

Twenty-third meeting at Wimbledon, 10-22 July ; 
queen's prize won by sergeant Lawrence, 1st 
Dumbarton 18 Jul}', 1882 

Enrolled volunteers, 207,336 . . .1 Nov. „ 

Twenty -fourth meeting at Wimbledon, 9-21 July; 
queen's prize won by sergeant Mackay, 1st 
Sutherland 17 July, 1883 

International rifle match between British and 
Americans : won by British . . 21 July, ,, 

Twenty-fifth meeting at Wimbledon, 14-26 July ; 
queen's prize won by private Gallant, 8th Mid- 
dlesex 22 July, 18S4 

Volunteers exercised in camping out ; sham conflicts 
in Berkshire and other counties . . Aug. „ 

Volunteers Forces' Benevolent Association, inau- 
gurated 6 July, 1885 

Twenty-sixth meeting at Wimbledon, 13-25 July; 
queen's prize won by sergeant Buhner, 2nd Lin- 
coln. 21 July, „ 

Tiuenty-seventh meeting at Wimbledon, 12-24 July ; 
nueen's prize won by private Jackson, of 1st 
V. B. Lincoln (one of three ties) . 21 July, 1886 

Enrolled volunteers, 224,012, Nov. 1885 ; 226,752 

Nov. ,, 

28,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen at Bucking- 
ham palace ; march past in ij hours . 2 July, 1887 

Twenty-eighth meeting at Wimbledon, 11-23 July ; 
queen's prize won by lieut. R. O. Warren, 1st 
Middlesex, (Victoria) rifles, Middlesex 19 July, „ 

Lord Wantage elected chairman, 1887 ; active in 
search of a site in place of Wimbledon . . 1888 



VOLUNTEEKS. 



1360 



VOLUNTEEKS. 



Order issued for the formation of 95,000 volunteers 
into 19 brigades for immediate mobilization for 

home defence 3 July, 18I 

Twenty-ninth meeting at Wimbledon, 9-21 July ; 
queen's prize won by private Fulton, 13th 
Middlesex (queen's Westminsters) rifles, 17 July , 
Brookwood, to be called Bisleycommon, chosen for 

1890 28 Feb. 18 

Estimated grant for 220,000 men, 742,700?. April, , 
Thirtieth meeting at Wimbledon . . 8-20 July, , 
Queen's prize won by sergeant Reid (1st Lanark 

engineers) 16 July, , 

Patriotic volunteer fund started by lord mayor 
Whitehead in the spring ; he appeals for sub- 
scriptions for the full equipment of a citizen 
army, equal to that of the regulars. The prince of 
Wales 105/., 1 June ; the queen 200/. 2 July ; many 
others ; about 42,000/. subscribed . . 20 Nov. , 
Enrolled volunteers, 224,021 . . . 1 Nov. , 
Capt. St. John Mildiuay, secretary since i860, re- 
signs, 6 Sept. ; succeeded by Mr. A. P Humphry, 

Nov. , 
The council determines to appeal to the public for 
funds, and to obtain a charter of incorporation, 
11 Feb. ; this was granted and signed by the 

queen 25 Nov. , 

Parliament votes 100,000/. for volunteer equipment, 

17 April, 18 

Thirty-first meeting (the first at Bisley common), 

12-26 July ; the camp opened, the prince and 

princess of Wales and the duke of Cambridge 

present ; the princess fired the first shot, a 

"bull's eye" 12 July, , 

Queen's prize won by sergeant Bates (1st Warwick), 

22 July, ,, 

Meeting very successful 

[The Rifle Association, includes 76 county asso- 
ciations in Great Britain, 4 in Ireland, and 64 
in India and the colonies.] 
Enrolled volunteers, 221,048 ... 31 Oct. ,, 
Review of about 25,000 volunteers at Wimbledon 

by the German emperor . . . n July, 1891 
Thirty-second meeting (the second at Bisley com- 
mon) .... . 13-24 July, ,, 
(Queen's prize won by private D. Bear (Queen's 

Edinburgh) 21 July, ,, 

Thirty-third meeting (the third at Bisley common*, 
11-23 July ; queen's prize won by major Pollock 

(3rd Renfrew) 23 July, 1892 

About 13,000 volunteers engaged in the army 

manoeuvres Aug. ,, 

"The Volunteer Officers' Decoration" (an oak 
wreath in silver tied with gold, having in the 
eentre the royal cipher and crown in gold) for 
commissioned officers who have served 20 years, 
instituted by the queen, 25 July ; conferred on 
certain officers, Nov., Dec. 1892 ; decorations 
granted to non-commissioned officers, 12 Sept. 
1893 ; to the rank and file after 20 to 34 years' 

service Sept. 1894 

Thirty-fourth meeting Bisley 10-22 July ; queen's 
prize won by Serjeant Davies (1st. V. B. Welsh) ; 

22 July, 1893 
Thirty-fifth meeting, Bisley 10-21 July ; queen's 

prize won by private Rennie (3rd Lanark) 21 July, 1894 
Enrolled volunteers; 231,328 (1894) reported; April, 1895 
Total volunteer vote for 1895 ; 824,200/. April, ,, 
Thirty-sixth meeting, Bisley, 8-20 July ; queen's 
prize won by private Hayhurst, queen's hundred 
Canada, formerly private of the 1st. V. B. Lan- 
cashire 20 July, „ 

Enrolled volunteers, officers and men, 235,977, 

31 Oct. „ 
Special army order granting new and increased 

allowances to officers and men . . 16 May, 1896 
Thirty-seventh meeting, Bisley, 13-25 July ; queen's 
prize won by lieut. J. L. Thomson (Queen's Edin- 
burgh) 25 July, ,, 

Volunteer act of 1863, amended .... 1897 
Capitation grant of 250,000/. agreed to . 29 Jan. ,, 
Thirty-eighth mining, Bisley, 12-24 July ; queen's 

prize won by private Ward (1st Devon), 24 July, ,, 
Enrolled volunteers, officers and men, 231,798 in ,, 
Thirty-ninth meeting, Bisley, 11-23 July; queen's 

prize won by lieut. D. Yates(3i'd Lanark) 23 July, 1898 
Review of 25,965 metropolitan volunteers by the 
prince of Wales on t!:e Hoise (1 nan's' parade, 

8 July, 1899 



Fortieth meeting, Bisley, 10-22 July ; queen's prize 
won by private Priaulx (Guernsey) . 22 July, 1899 

Enrolled volunteers, officers and men, 249,968, 

31 Oct. „ 

Regulations issued for a contingent for South 
Africa 19 Dec. ,, 

Enrolment of the city imperial volunteers for South 
Africa, 25,000/. voted by the city, 20 Dec; 1st 
draft formed at the Guildhall, 1 Jan. 1900; em- 
bark, 13 Jan. ; 2nd and 3rd drafts sailed, 20 and 
27 ;Jan. 1900 ; see London, 12-27 Jan. 1900 ; im- 
perial yeomanry, about 1,000, leave for South 
Africa 27, 28 Jan. 1900 

Volunteer fund : prince of Wales 100 guineas ; total, 
117,643/ ,, 

Reinforcements, 3 officers and 147 men, for South 
Africa, leave 12 July, ,, 

Forty -first meeting, Bisley, 7-21 July ; queen's prize 
won by private Ward (1st Devuii) . . 21 July, ,, 

Volunteers' act passed .... 6 Aug. ,, 

Return of the C.I.V.'s : total sent 59 officers, 1,667 
men (lieut. Alt and 13 men killed, 48 died of 
wounds or disease), see Loudon, 29 Oct. T900 
(total volunteers who served in the war, about 
700 officers and 25,000 others, besides some 7,000 
who enlisted in the army — Times, 20 June, 1902). 

Forty-second meeting, Bisley, 8-20 July ; king's prize 
won by lance-corporal H. Ommundsen (Queen's 
Edinburgh) 20 July, 1901 

Mr. Astor gives 10,000/. to the national rifle asso- 
ciation, Dec. 1901 ; the duke of Cambridge re- 
elected president ; Mr. Astor, vice-president, 

5 Feb. 1902 

Revised volunteer regulations issued . 22 April ,, 

Forty-third meeting, Bisley, 14-26 July ; king's prize 
won by lieut. E. D. Johnson (London rifles), 

26 July, ,, 

Forty-fourth meeting, Bisley, 10-25 July ; king's 
prize won by col.-serg. T. Davies (3rd Glamorgan), 

25 July, 1903 

Enrolled volunteers, total of all ranks for year 
1902, 268,550 against 288,476 in 1901. 

EASTER MONDAY REVIEWS AND SHAM FIGHTS. 

(Operations from Good Friday to Easter Monday.) 
Brighton . . 21 April, 1862, and 5 April, 1863 

Guildford 28 March, 1864 

Brighton . . 17 April, 1865; and 2 April, 1866 

Dover 22 April, 1867 

Portsmouth (the most successful hitherto, 29,490 

volunteers present) . . . .13 April, 1868 
Dover (bad weather) .... 29 March, 1869 
Brighton, 18 April, 1870; (considered a failure) 

10 April, 1871 

— Mock battle between sir Arthur Hors- 

ford (12,180 men, 22 guns) and gen. Lysons (11,082 

men, 20 guns) 1 April, 1872 

Small reviews at Wimbledon and other places, 
14 April, 1873 ; 6 April, 1874 ; 29 March, 1875 ; 
atTring, &c, 17 April, 1876 ; at Dunstable, die, 2 
April, 1877; at Staines, &c, 22 April, 1878; at 
Dover, Reigate, Wimbledon, &c, 14 April, 1879; 
Brighton, battle, successful ; 29 March, 1880 ; 
18 April, 1881 ; Portsmouth, 20,000 ("Genuine 
success," Times), 10 April, 1882 ; Brighton (evolu- 
tions very successful), 26 March, 1883 ; Dover, 
Portsmouth, <fce, (i2-)i4 April, 1884; Brighton 
and Dover, 6 April, 1885 ; at Dover, Portsmouth, 
Colchester &c, 26 April, 1886; successful mili- 
tary operations at Dover, Eastbourne, and 
Aldershot, 11 April, 1887 ; campaign operations 
and battles, invasions, &c. at Portsmouth, 
Dover, Eastbourne &c. , 30, 31 March; battles: 
invaders successful at Portsmouth . 2 April, i883 
Meetings for brigade drill, &c, Eastbourne, Ports- 
mouth, Dover, Brighton, and other places, 
22 April, 1889 ; Folkestone, Eastbourne, Ports- 
mouth, dec., 7 April, 1890. Portsmouth, Dover, 
Brighton, die, 30 March, 1891. At Dover, battle 
of St. Margaret's ; invaders under col. J. C. 
Russel, defenders under col. J. B. Sterling. At 
Chatham, battle of the Bells ; invaders under 
lieut. gen. Goodenough, defenders under major- 
gen. Dawson Scott .... 18 April, 1892 
Sham lights at Eastbourne, Canterbury, Chatham 
and Brighton, die 3 April, 1893 



VOSSEM, 



136J 



VULGATE. 



1900 

IQOI 
1902 



Manoeuvres at Dover, Canterbury, Chatham; Guild- 
ford, and Winchester ... 26 March, 

Great improvement in order and efficiency since 
1888 ; reported 

Manoeuvres at Windsor, Canterbury, and Marden 
Park, Surrey .... 12-15 April, 

Field days at Winchester, Canterbury, Folkestone, 
Brighton, etc 6 April, 

Manoeuvres, sham -lights, etc., at Winchester, 

Shorncliffe, Dover, Folkestone, Brighton, etc. 

17, 19 April, 

Manoeuvres, abt. 16,000 men left London, 7 April ; 
sham fights, etc., near Canterbury, Aldershot, 
Chatham, Dover, Colchester, 9-1 1 April; many 
injured in a railway collision at Bisley . 11 April, 

Manoeuvres at Aldershot, Canterbury, Winchester, 
Chatham, Gravesend, etc., tactical operations, 
etc 1- April, 

Manoeuvres at Winchester . . 12-16 April, 

Manoeuvres betweeen London and Colchester, and 
other places 5-8 April, 

Manoeuvres at Bisley, Wimbledon, and elsewhere, 

28-31 March, 

Elcho Challenge Shield, shot for by teams, 
and kept by the winning nation : 

Won by England : 1862, 1863, 1865, 1867, 1868, 1870, 
1871, 1872, 1876, 1881 (July 22), 1882 (July 20), 
1S85 (July 23), 1887 (July 21), 1891 (July 23), 1893 
July 15), 1895 (July 13); 1896 (July 18) 1897 
(July 17); 1898 (July 16); 1899 (July 15); 1901 
(July 12) ; 1902 (July 18). 

Scotland: 1864, 1866, 1869, 1874, 1879 (July 24), 1892 
(23 July), 1894 (July 14). 

Ireland : 1873, 1875, 1877. 1878, 1880 (July 22), 1883 
(19 July), 1884 (24 July), 1886 (22 July), 1888 
(19 July), 1889 (18 July), 1890 (24 July), 1900 
(13 July), 1903 (17 July). 

Volunteer Medical Staff Corps established, 23 March, 



VOSSEM, PEACE OF, between the elector of 
Brandenburg and Louis XIV. of France ; the latter 
engaged not to assist the Dutch against the elector ; 
signed 6 June, 1673. 

VOTING- PAPERS. SeePodson's Act. The 
proposal to use them was negatived in the debates 
on reform in 1867 ; adopted by the ballot act in 1873. 
A bill against plural voting was read first time in 
the commons, 30 April, 1895. See Ballot. 

VOUGLE or VOUILLE, S.W. France^ (near 
Poitiers), where Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, 
was defeated and slain by Clovis, king of France, 
507, who subdued the whole country from the Loire 



to the Pyrenees. A pe.ice followed between the 
Franks and Visigoths, who had been settled above 
one hundred years in that part of Gaul called 
Septimania. Clovis soon afterwards made Paris 
his capital. 

VOYAGES. It is mythically stated that by 
order of Pharaoh-Necho, of Egypt, some Phoenician 
pilots sailed from Egypt down the Arabian Gulf, 
round what is now called the Cape of Good Hope, 
entered the Mediterranean by the Straits of Gib- 
raltar, coasted along the north of Africa, and at 
length arrived in Egypt, after a navigation of 
about three years, 604 B.C. Herodotus. The first 
voyage round the world was made by a ship, part 
of a Spanish squadron which had been under the 
command of Magellan (who was killed at the 
Philippine Islands in a skirmish) in 1519-20 ; 
see Circumnavigators, North-West Passage, and 
Periplus. 

VOYSEY ESTABLISHMENT FUND. 

The Eev. Charles Voysey having been deprived for 
heresy (see Church of England, i87i),beganaseries 
of services at St. George's hall, Langham-place, 1 Oct. 
187 1 . The fund for their maintenance was supported 
by Bp. Hinds of Norwich (retired), Sir John Bow- 
ring, and other eminent liberals. Services now 
(1903) held in Swallow-street, Piccadilly, the 
congregation worshipping as the "Theistic 
Church." 

VULCAN, see Planets. The Greek god He- 
phaistos answered to the Eoman Vulcan. 

VULCANITE (vulcanised india-rubber), also 
termed Ebonite. 

VULGATE (from vulgatus, published) , a term 
applied to the Latin version of the Scriptures 
which is authorised by the council of Trent (1546), 
and which is attributed to St. Jerome, about 384. 
The older version, called the Italic, is said to have 
been made in the beginning of the 2nd century. A 
critical edition was printed by order of pope Sixtus V. 
in 1590, which, being considered inaccurate, was 
superseded by the edition of pope Clement VIII. in 
1592. The earliest printed vulgate is without date, 
by Gutenburg and Fust, probably about 1455, the 
first dated (Fust and Schoeffer) is 1462. 



4 s 



WACHT. 



1362 



WAHABEES. 



W. 



WACHT DES DEUTSCHEN VATER- 
LAND ("Watch of the German Fatherland"). 
German national hymn, by Reichardt, first per- 
formed 2 Aug. 1825. Very popular during the war 
1870-71. 

WADHAM COLLEGE (Oxford). _ Founded 
by Nicholas Wadham, and Dorothy, his wife, in 
1613. In this college, in the chambers of Dr. Wil- 
kins (over the gateway), the founders of the Royal 
Society frequently met prior to 1658. 

WAGER of BATTLE, see Appeal. 

WAGES in ENGLAND. The wages of 
sundry workmen were first fixed by act of parlia- 
ment 25 Edw. III. 1350. Haymakers had but one 
penny a day. Master carpenters, masons, tilers, 
and other eoverers of houses, had not more than 3d. 
per day (about gd. of our money) ; and their ser- 
vants i\d. Viner's Statutes.* 

By the 23 Henry VI. the wages of a bailiff of hus- 
bandry was 23s. 41?. per annum, and clothing of 
the price of 5s. with meat and drink ; chief hind, 
carter, or shepherd, 20s., clothing, 4s.; common 
servant of husbandry, 15s., clothing, 40^. ; woman- 
servant, ios., clothing, 4s 1444 

By the, 11 Henry VII., a like rate of wages with a 
little advance : as, for instance, a free mason, 
master carpenter, rough mason, bricklayer, mas- 
ter tiler, plumber, glazier, carver or joiner, was 
allowed from Easter to Michaelmas to take 6d. a 
day without meat and drink ; or, with meat and 
drink, 4c?. ; from Michaelmas to Easter, to abate 



if?. A master having under him six men was 
allowed id. a day extra 1495 

Agricultural labourers per week : Warwickshire, 
3s. 6d. and 4s. ; Devonshire, 5s. ; Suffolk, 5s. and 
6s. ; wool-weavers, about 3s. and 4s. (Macaulay) 

about 1685 

In 1866 the annual amount of wages paid in the 
United Kingdom was estimated by Mr. Gladstone 
at 250,000,0001. ; by Mr. Bass at 350,000,000/. ; and 
by professor Leone Levi at 418,300,000?., earned 
by 10,697,000 workers, ages 20 to 60. 

In 1872-8 many trades struck for increase of wages 
and frequently were successful ; in 1877-9, unsuc 
cessful. 

In 1878 professor Levi estimated that 503,000,000?. 
were earned (by men, 390,000,000?. ; by women, 
113,000,000?.); after deducting for holidays, &c.,. 
422,700,000?. 

He says, that "In no other country are wages more 
liberal, but in no other country are they more 
wastefully used." See Strikes. 

Payment of wages in public-houses prohibited by- 
act passed in 1883 

Classified census of wages paid in the United King- 
dom in 1885, published by the Board of Trade at 
various times; part iv. in 1892; decrease in the 
weekly wages bill for 1901, 1,584,000?. against 
6,000,000?. increase in iqoo, reported . 27 Aug 



1902 



LAllOURKRS WAIIES 



Year. 
In 1350 
1460 
1568 
1632 



s. (?. 
per diem o 1 



Year. 
In 1716 
1740 
1760 
1788 
1794 









PER WEEK. 


PER QUARTER 








S. 


f?. 


S. 


d. 


1824 






• 7 


7 • 


. 62 





1837 






. 8 


. 


- 55 


10 


i860 






• 9 


6 . 


• 53 




1869 






. II 


. 


. . 48 


7 


1872 






. II 


9 • 


• 57 


1 


D AT DIFFERENT PERIODS. 








s. 


d. 


Year. 






s. 


•per diem 






,1 


In 1800 
1811 




. per d 


em 2 
2 


,, 


1 





1850 




11 


3 


„ 


1 


4 


. 1857 




• ■ ), 


5 



6 I Since then increased. 



WAGGONS were rare in the 18th century. 
They, with carts, &c, not excepting those used in 
agriculture, were taxed in 1783. The carriers' 
waggons are now nearly superseded by the i~ail- 
ways. 

WAGHOEN'S NEW OVERLAND 
ROUTE TO INDIA.. Lieut. Waghorn devoted 
a large portion of his life to connect India with 
England. On 31 Oct. 1845, he arrived in London, 
by a new route, with the Bombay mail of the 1st of 
that month. His despatches reached Suez on the 
19th, and Alexandria on the 20th, whence he pro- 
ceeded by steamboat to a place twelve miles nearer 
London than Trieste. He hurried through Austria, 
Baden, Bavaria, Prussia, and Belgium, and reached 
London at half-past four on the morning of the 
first-mentioned day. The authorities of the differ- 
ent countries through which he passed eagerly 
facilitated his movements. The ordinary express, 
via Marseilles, readied London 2 Nov. following. 
Mr. Waghorn subsequently addressed a letter to 
the Times newspaper, in which he stated that in a 
couple of years he would bring the Bombay mail to 
London in 21 days. He died 8 Jan. 1850. On 
3 Feb. 1884, at a meeting at the Mansion-house, 

* Mr. J. E. Thorold Rogers, "Six Centuries of Work 
and Wages," published in 1884. 



London, it was determined to erect a national 
monument to his memory. 

The Overland Mail, which had left Bombay on 1 Dec. 
1845, arrived early on the 30th in London, by way of 
Marseilles and Paris. The speedy arrival was owing 
to the great exertions made by the French government 
to show that the route through France was shorter 
and better. 

WAGNERISM, see under Music. 

WAGRAM, a village near Vienna, where 
Napoleon I. totally defeated the archduke Charles, 
5, 6 July, 1809. The slaughter on both sides was 
dreadful; 12,000 Austrians were taken by the 
French, and the defeated army retired to Moravia. 
An armistice was signed on the 12th; aud on 24 
Oct., by a treaty of peace, Austria ceded all her 
sea-coast to France ; the kingdoms of Saxony and 
Bavaria were enlarged at her expense ; part of 
Poland in Galicia was ceded to Russia ; and Joseph 
Bonaparte was recognised as king of Spain. 

WAHABEES. OR WAHABITES, a warlike 
Mahometan reforming sect, considering themselves 
the only true followers of the prophet, established 
themselves in Arabia about 1750, under the rule of 
Abd-el-Wahab, who died 1787. His grandson, 
Saoud, in 1801, defeated an expedition headed by 
the caliph of P-rgdad. In 1S03 this sect seized 



WAHLSTATT. 



1363 



WALKS. 



Mecca and Medina, and continued their conquests, 
although their chief was assassinated in the midst 
of his victories. His son, Abdalluh, long resisted 
Mahommed Ali, pa ha of Egypt, but in 1818 was 
defeated and taken prisoner by Ibrahim Pacha, who 
sent him to Constantinople, where he was put to 
death. The sect, now nourishing, is well described 
by Mr. W. Gifi'ord Palgrave, in his " Journey and 
Residence in Arabia in 1862-3,'' published in 
1865. It is influential in India, and is suspected 
of a tendency to insurrection. 

WAHLSTATT, see Katzbaeh. 

WAIFS and STRAYS (children). Church 
of England Central Society for providing Homes 
for Waifs and Strays, founded 1882. The society 
was very active in 1892, being supported by the 
bishops and clergy; 71,551/. received 1896, 73,679/. 
in 1901. 

Miss Rye, a pioneer in promoting the emigration of 
neglected children to Canada, since i860, pre- 
sents to the society her training homes at Peck- 
ham and Niagara and 600L Aug. 1897 

WAITS, the night minstrels who perform shortly 
before Christmas. Tne name was given to the 
musicians attached to the king's court. We find 
that a company of waits w;is established at Exetw 
in 1400 to '' pipe the watch." The waits in London 
and Westminster were long officially recognised by 
the corporation. 

WAKEFIELD (W. Yorkshire), an ancient 
town. Near it a battle was fought between the ad- 
herents of Margaret, the queen of Henry VI., and 
the duke of York, in which the latter was slain, and 
3000 Yorkists fell upon the field, 31 Dec. 1460. The 
earl of Warwick supported the cause of the duke's 
son, the earl of March, afterwards Edward IV., 
and the civil war was continued. An ai t and indus- 
trial exhibition was opened at Wakefield, 30 Aug. 
1865. The Bishoprics act, authorising the establish- 
ment of a see at Wakefield, was passed 16 Aug. 1878. 
The required funds subscribed Jan. 1888. Popula- 
tion, 1881, 30,854 ; 1891,33,146; 1901,41,413. 
Bishopric founded by queen Victoria, 17 May, 1888 ; 
Rev. W. W. How (suffragan bishop of Bedford) 
first bishop, Feb. 1888; died . . n Aug. 1897 
George Rodney Eden, suttragan of Dover, succ. Aug. ,, 
New municipal buildings opened by the marquis of 

Ripon 22 Feb. 1898 

Anonymous gift of 3,000?. for enlarging the 
cathedral, u.oooL promised, Jan. 1899; founda- 
tion-stone laid by the abp. of Canterbury, 

18 June, 1901 

WAKES, the ancient parish festivals on the 
saint's day to commemorate the dedication of the 
church; regulated in 1536, but gradually became 
obsolete. 

WALBROOKCHUECH (London), a master- 
piece of Sir Cnristopher Wren, completed in 1679. 
There was a church here in 1 135, and a new church 
was erected in 1429. 

WALCHEREN (an island at the mouth of the 
Scheldt, Holland). The unfortunate expedition of 
the British to this isle in 1809 consisted of 35 ships 
of the line, and 200 smaller vessels, principally 
transports, and 40,000 land forces, the latter under 
the command of the earl of Chatham, and the fleet 
under sir Richard Strachan. For a long time the 
destination of the expedition remained secret ; but 
before 28 July, 1809, when it set sail, the French 
journals had announced that Walcheren was the 
point of attack. Flushing was invested in August ; 
a dreadful bombardment followed, and the place was 
taken 15 Aug. ; but no suggestion on the part of the 



naval commander, nor urging on the part of the 
officers, could induce the earl to vigorous action, 
until the period of probable success was gone, and 
necessity obliged him to return with as many of the 
troops as disease and an unhealthy climate had 
spared. The place was evacuated, 23 Lee. 1809. The 
house of commons instituted an inquiry, and lord 
Chatham resigned his post of master-general of the 
ordnance, to prevent greater disgrace ; but the 
policv of ministers in planning the expedition was, 
nevertheless, approved. The following epigram, of 
which various readings exist, appeared at the 
time: — 

" Lord Chatham [or the warrior earl\ with [his] sabre 
drawn, 

Stood waiting for sir Richard Strachan ; 

Sir Richard, longing [or eager] to be at 'em, 

Stood waiting for the earl of Chatham." 
A ly ehgate erected by queen Victoria at Dovercourt pai ish 

church, in memory of British soldiers who died there 

of disease contracted during the expedition 1809-n, 

was opened by gen. Gatacre, 22 Sept. 1899. 

WALDECK and PYRMONT, united Ger- 
man principalities, established in 1682. 'Ihe late 
reigning family claim descent from the Saxon hero. 
Witikind, who flourished about 772. Prince George 
Victor, born 14 Jan. 1831, succeeded his father, 
George, 15 May, 1845; died May, 1893; succeeded 
by Frederic, son, born 20 Jan. 1865. On 22 Oct. 
1867, the states approved a treaty of annexation, 
and the administration was transferred to Prussia, 
1 Jan. 1868. Population, 1900, 57,918. 

WALDENSES (also called Valdenses, Val len- 
ses, and Vaudois), a sect inhabiting the Cottian 
Alps, derives it name, according to some authors, 
from Peter de Waldo, of Lyons ( 1 1 70) . They h;id a 
translation of the Bible The Waldenses settled in 
the valleys of Piedmont about 1375, but were fre- 
quently dreadfully persecuted, especially in the 1 7th 
century, when Charles I. of England interceded tor 
them (1627-9) and Oliver Cromwell by threats 
(1655-6) obtained them some degree of toleration. 
All the Waldensian barbes or pa-tors, save two, 
died 111 the great plague of 1630. Gilles and Gros 
went to Geneva and Lausanne for Swiss Calvinist 
ministers to fill the vacancies. The new ministeis 
were no sooner inducted than they deposed the 
surviving Barbes and abolished all the distinctive 
teaching and usages of the community, substituting 
the Genevese model. They were permitted to have 
a church at Turin, Dec. 1 853. They became French 
subjects when Savoy was annexed by Napoleon III. 
in i860. In March, 1868, it was state 1 that there 
were in Italy 28 ordained Waldensian ministers, 
and 30 other teachers. 

Mr. Thos Morton, a British merchant, who died 11 Sept. 
1897, besides other bequests to religious bodies, left 
a large sum to the " Waldensian Church in Italy." 

WALES, Cambria, Cymru, the land of the 
Cymry, called by the Romans Britannia Secunda. 
V\ elsh and Wales are corruptions of Teutonic 
epithets applied to foreigners, especially Gauls. 
After the Roman emperor Honorius gave up Britain, 
Vortigern was elected king of South Britain. He 
invited over the Saxons to defend his country 
against the Picts and Scots; but the Saxons per- 
fidiously sent for reinforcements, consisting ot 
Saxons, Danes, and Anglers, by which they made 
themselves masters of feouth Britain. Many of the 
Britons retired to Wales, and defended themselves 
against the Saxons, in their inaccessible mountains, 
about 447. In this state Wales remained uncon- 
queredtill Henry II. subdued South Wales in 1 157 ; 
and in 1282 Edward I. entirely reduced the whole 
country,an end being puttoitsindependencebytlie 

4 s 2 



WALES. 



1364 



WALES. 



death of Llewelyn, the last prince.* In 1284 the 
queen gave birth to a son at Caernarvon, whom Ed- 
ward styled prince of Wales, now title of the heir to 
the crown of Great Britain. "Wales was united and 
incorporated wiih England by act of parliament, 
1536; see Britain, Bards and Population: 1891, 
1,518,914; 1901, 1,693,148. 

Ostorius Scapula, propraetor of Britain, defeats the 

Cymry a.d. 50 

The supreme authority iu Britannia Secunda in- 
trusted to Suetonius Paulinus, who caused deso- 
lating wars 5 8 "6i 

Conquests by Julius Frontinus 70 

The Silures totally defeated , 

The Roman, Julius Agricola, commands in Britain . 78 
Bran ab Llyr, the Blessed, dies about . . . . 80 
The Druidical class gradually dissolved by the influ- 
ence of Christianity in 300-400 

The Britons defeat the Saxons .... 447-448 

Vortigern king 44 s 

The renowned Arthur elected king . . about 500 

Defeats Saxons about 527 

Cadwallawn, king of Gwynedd, defeated and slain 

by the Saxons at Denisburn . . . about 634 
Dyvnwal Moelnmd, said to have come from Armo- 
rica, and to have established his authority west 
of the Tamar and Severn as king of the Cymry 

about 640 

Reign of Roderic the Great 844 

He unites the petty states into one principality; 

his death 877 

Division of Wales— into north, south, and central 

(or Powys-land) ,, 

The "Welsh princes submit to Alfred . . . 885 

The Danes land in Anglesey ... . . 900 

Laws enacted by Howel Da, prince of all Wales, 

about 920 

Athelstan subdues the Welsh 933 

Civil wars at his death . . . . . about 948 
Great battle between the sons of Howel Da and 
the sons of Idwal Voel ; the latter victorious . 954 

Edgar invades Wales about 973 

Devastations committed by Edwin, the son of 

Eineon ■ . • 980 

Danes invade Wales ; lay Anglesey waste, <fec. 

980-1000 
The country reduced by Aedan, prince of North 

Wales 1000 

Aedan, the usurper, slain in battle by Llewelyn . 1015 
Part of Wales laid waste by the forces of Harold . 1063 
William I. claims feudal authority over Wales . . 1070 
Rhys ab Owain kills king Bleddyn, 1073 ; defeated 

and slain 1077 

Ravaging invasion of Hugh, earl of Chester . 1079-80 
Invasion of the Irish and Scots .... 10S0 

William I. invades Wales 1081 

Battle of Llechryd 1087 

[In this conflict the sous of Bleddyn ab Cynvyn 
were slain by Rhys ab Tewdwr, the reigning 
prince.] 
Rhys ab Tewdwr slain ; S. Wales conquered by the 

English 1090 

Invasion of the English under William II. . 1095-7 
The settlement in Wales of a colony of Flemings . 1106 
Violent seizure of Nest, wife of Gerald de Windsor, 

by Owain, son of Cadwgan ab Bleddyn . . . 1108 
Cardigan conquered by Strongbow .... 1109 

Cadwgan assassinated 1112 

Gruffydcl ab Rhys lays claim to the sovereignty . n 13 
Another body of Flemings settle in Pembrokeshire ,, 
[The posterity of these settlers are still distinguished 
from the ancient British population by their lan- 
guage, manners, and customs.] 
Civil war in South Wales and Powysland leads to 
the subjugation of the country by the English ; 
Henry I. erects castles in Wales . . . 1114 et seq. 

* The statute of Wales, enacted at Rhuddlan, 19 March, 
1284 (or March, 1283), alleges that — " Divine Providence 
has now removed all obstacles, and transferred wholly 
and entirely to the king's dominion the land of Wales and 
its inhabitants, heretofore subject unto him in feudal 
right." The ancient laws were to be preserved in civil 
causes ; but the law of inheritance was to be changed, 
and the English criminal law to be put in force. Annals 
of England. 



Owain killed in battle with Gerald de Windsor . 1116 
Revolt of Owen Gwynedd on the death of Hen. I. ; 

part of South Wales laid waste .... 113s 
The English defeated in several battles . . . 1136 
Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, invested with the 

powers of a count palatine in Pembroke . . 1138 
Henry II. invades Wales, receives a stout resistance 

from Owen Gwynedd, but subdues S. Wales . . 1157 
Confederacy of the princes of Wales for the recovery 

of their independence 1164 

Prince Madoc said to have emigrated to America 1169 
(Southey's epic "Madoc" is based on the tradi- 
tion.) 

Anglesey devastated 1173 

The crusades preached in Wales by Baldwin, arch- 
bishop of Canterbury 1188 

The earl of Chester's inroad into North Wales . . 1210 
King John invades Wales, laying waste a great part 
of the principalities ; exacts tribute and alle- 
giance 1211 

The pope incites the Welsh to resist John . . 1212 

Revolt of the Flemings 1220 

Llewelyn, prince of North Wales, commits great 

ravages ; overcomes Henry III 1228 

The earl of Pembroke and othernobles join Llewelyn 

against Henry III., 1233 ; a truce . . . . 1234 
Prince David ravages the marches, &c. . . . 1244 

Invasion of Henry III 1245 

Anglesey cruelly devastated by the English Sept. „ 
Llewelyn ap Griffith, the last prince . . . 1246 
Welsh princes combine against the English . . 1256 
Great invasion of the English ; threatened extermi- 
nation of the Welsh, compelled to retreat with 

loss 1257 

Welsh offers of peace refused . . . 1257-62 

Llewelyn's incursions into English territory . . 1263 
Reported conference between him and Simon de 

Montfort against the Plantagenets . . . 1265 
Llewelyn does homage to Henry III. for a treaty 

Sept. 1267 
Edward I. summons Llewelyn to Westminster ; 
on his refusal to come, deposes him, 1276 : and 

invades Wales June, 1277 

Llewelyn submits and obtains good terms 10 Nov. ,, 
He marries Eleanor de Montfort . . 13 Oct. „ 
The sons of Gruffydd treacherously drowned in the 
river Dee, by the earl Warrenne and Roger 
Mortimer ; great insurrection .... 1281 
Hawarden castle taken by surprise by Llewelyn and 
his brother David, 21 March ; they destroy Flint 
and Rhuddlan castles. Fruitless negotiations 

Nov. 1282 
Battle between Llewelyn and the English near Aber 
Edw : Llewelyn slain, after the battle, by Adam 

Frankton 11 Dec. ,, 

Prince David surrenders, and is executed . . 1283 

Wales finally subdued by Edward I ,, 

The first English prince of Wales, son of Edward, 
born at Caernarvon castle (see Princes of Wales, 

next page) 25 April, 1284 

Statute of Wales (see footnote, preceeding column) 

enacted 19 March, „ 

Many insurrections suppressed and the leaders 

executed 1287-1320 

Great rebellion of Owain Glyndwr, or Owen 
Glendower (descendant of the last prince, 

Llewelyn), commences 1400 

Radnor and other places taken by Owain Glyndwr 1401 
Allies with the Scots and the Percies ; besieges 

Caernarvon 1402 

And seizes Harlech castle 1404 

Makes a treaty with France ... to May, „ 
Harlech castle retaken by the English forces . . 1407 
Loses his allies by their defeat at Bramham moor 

19 Feb. 1408 
Ravages the English territories .... 1409 
Refuses to ask for terms or submit ; dies . 21 Sept. 1415 

His son submits 24 Feb. 1416 

Margaret of Anjou, queen of Henry "VI., takes 

refuge in Harlech castle 1459 

Town of Denbigh burnt 1460 

The earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII., lands 

in Pembroke, and is aided by the Welsh . Aug. 1485 
Palatine jurisdictions in Wales abolished by Henry 

VIII 1535 

Monmouth made an English county; counties of 
Brecknock, Denbigh, and Radnor formed . . ,, • 



1 



WALES. 



1365 



WALES. 



Act for " laws and justice to be administered in 
Wales in same form as in England," 27 Henry 

VIII 1535 

Wales incorporated into England by parliament . 1536 

Divided into twelve counties 1543 

Dr. Ferrar, bishop of St. David's, burnt at the stake 

for heresy 30 March, 1555 

Lewis Owain, a baron of the exchequer, attacked 

and murdered while on his assize tour . . . „ 
The bible and prayer-book ordered to be translated 
into Welsh, and divine service to be performed in 

that language 1562 

Welsh bible printed 1588 

First congregation of dissenters assembled in Wales ; 

Vavasour Powel apprehended while preaching . 1620 
Beaumaris castle garrisoned for king Charles I. . 1642 
Powys castle taken by sir Thos. Myddelton . Oct. 1644 
Dr. Laud, formerly bishop of St. David's, beheaded 

on Tower hill 10 Jan. 1645 

Surrender of Hawarden castle to the parliament 

general Mytton ,, 

Charles I. takes refuge in Denbigh ....,, 

Rhuddlan castle surrenders ,, 

Harlech castle surrenders to Cromwell's army under 

Mytton 1647 

Battle of St. Fagan's ; the Welsh defeated by col. 

Horton, Cromwell's lieutenant . . 8 May, 1648 

Beaumaris castle surrenders to Cromwell . . „ 
Pembroke castle taken ; Colonel Poyer shot, 25 Apr.* 1649 
The lords marchers court suppressed . . . 1688 
" Charitable society of Ancient Britons " and Welsh 

charity schools, established (now at Ashford) . 171 5 
Cymmrodorion Society (for charitable purposes), 

established 1751-81 

The French land in Pembrokeshire, and are made 

prisoners Feb. 1797 

" Rebecca and her daughters," a name taken from 
Gen. xxiv. 60, by bands of rioters in female dress, 
who destroyed the toll-gates and houses in parts 
of S. Wales, Feb. et seq. ; an old woman, a toll- 
keeper, was murdered, 10 Sept. ; many persons 
were tried and punished .... Oct. 1843 
Cambrian Archaeological Association founded . 1846 

Subscriptions begun for a university in Wales Dec. 1863 
A national unsectarian University college at 

Aberystwyth opened . . . . 9 Oct. 1872 

Great strike of colliers in S. Wales, 1 Jan. ; ends 

about 27 March, 1873 

Cymmrodorion society, to promote literature and 

art, re-established 1877 

Great distress in South Wales through decay of 

coal trade by strikes and commercial depression 1877-8 
"Rebecca" riots ; people of Rhayader on the Wye 
capture fish out of season illegally ; and resist the 
water bailiffs . . . . Dec. 1878-Jan. 1879 

Welsh Sunday closing act 1881 

A Cambrian academy of arts settled to be esta- 
blished at Llandudno .... Jan. 1882 
A university college of South Wales and Monmouth- 
shire established at Cardiff ; professors appointed 

6 Sept. ; opened 4 Oct. 1883 

North Wales university college, Bangor, opened, 

18 Aug. 1884 
The college at Aberystwith burnt; prof. Mac- 
pherson and three others perish ; damage about 
5o,oooL ... . . night, 8, 9 July, 1885 
Proposed disestablishment of the church negatived 
in the commons (241-229) . . 9 March, 1886 

* At the commencement of the civil war, Pembroke 
castle was the only Welsh fortress in the possession of 
the parliament, and it was entrusted to the command of 
col. Laugharne. In 1648, he, and colonels Powel and 
Poyer, embraced the cause of the king, and made 
Pembroke their head-quarters ; after the defeat at 
St. Fagan's, they retired to the castle, followed by an 
army led by Cromwell. They capitulated, after having 
endured great sufferings from want of water. Laugharne, 
Powel, and Poyer were tried by a court-martial, and 
condemned to d'eath ; but Cromwell having been induced 
to spare the lives of two of them, it was ordered that 
they should draw lots for the favour, and three; papers 
were folded up, on two of which were written the words, 
" Life given by God ; " the third was left blank. The 
latter was drawn by colonel Poyer, who was shot in 
London accordingly on the above-mentioned day, after 
long imprisonment. Fennrmt. 



Anti-tithe league formed ; intimidation of payers, 

Aug. -Sept. 1886 

Tithe riots at Mochdre, Clwyd ; many injured ; 
suppressed by military and police . 16 June, 1887 

Three weeks' fire on Ruabon and Berwyn mountains; 
extinguished after much destruction of life and 
game 25 July, ,, 

Inauguration of the national council of Wales at 
Aberystwith; disestablishment and disendow- 
ment of the church, home rule &c, advocated, 
Stuart Rendel, M.P. president, 7 Oct. 1887 ; 
annual meeting at Newtown . . 8 Oct. ,, 

Formation of a Welsh land league advocated in 
America ; this league issues a manifesto 24 Dec. ,, 

A Welsh clergy defence association formed about 

Nov. ,, 

Marquis of Abergavenny v. bishop of Llandaff; 
after much litigation, verdict for the bishop who 
had refused to induct the rev. Robert W. Gosse 
into a living, being ignorant of the Welsh 
language 22 Feb. 1888 

Death of Henry Richard " M.P. for Wales," ardent 
nonconformist and peace advocate . 20 Aug. ,, 

1,000 miles of road freed from toll in S. Wales by 
local government act . . . . 2 April, 1889 

Mr. Dillwyn's motion for disestablishment of the 
church in Wales, rejected by the commons 
(284-231) 14 May, „ 

The Welsh Intermediate Education act passed, 

12 Aug. ,, 

Visit of the queen; arrives at LlanderfcK, .Merio- 
nethshire (resides at Pale, seat of Mr. Henry 
Robertson), 23 Aug. ; went to Bala, 23 Aug. ; to 
Wrexham, 24 Aug. ; leaves Llangollen . 27 Aug. ,, 

Welsh Dialect society, prince Louie Lucien Bona- 
parte, president, established, reported . April, 1890 

Great strike of railway servants at Cardiff (see 
Strikes) 7-15 Aug. ,, 

Tithes collected by the help of the military . Aug. ,, 

The duke of Clarence visits South Wales, 15-18 Sept. ,, 

Dr. Edward Thomas, of Manchester, bequeaths 
39,500?. to University College of North Wales, 
announced Oct. ,, 

Mr. David Evans, the first Welsh lord mayor of 
London in the century . . . 9 Nov. ,, 

Proposed disestablishment of the church in Wales 
negatived by the commons (235 — 203), 20 Feb. 
1891 ; again negatived (267 — 220) . . 23 Feb. 1892' 

The Welsh national council met at Rhyl, 10 Nov. ,, 

The Suspensory bill {which see) read first time, 
23 Feb.; opposed at Anglesey, Swansea, &c, 
14 March et seq., at a great meeting at St. James's 
hall, London, 24 April ; bill withdrawn, 18 Sept. 1893. 

University of Wales charter signed by the Queen, 

23 Nov. ,, 

The queen's prize at Bisley common first won by a 
Welshman, Serjeant Davies . . 22 July, ,, 

Diocesan conferences protest against the Welsh 
disestablishment bill .... June, 1894 

A conference at Grosvenor house in defence of the 
Welsh church, the duke of Westminster chairman, 
5, oool. subscribed .... 18 June, ,, 

Welsh land commission appointed, lord Carrington 
chairman, March, met 23 May, 1S93 . Nov. ,, 

Welsh church disestablishment bill, introduced 
26 April, withdrawn ; 18 July, Mr. Asquith in- 
troduces another bill, commons, read 2nd time ,, 
(304-260) 1 April ; committee stage, 6 May et seq. ; 
stopped by the dissolution . . . 8 July, 1895 

Lord Aberdare, " father of Welsh education," 
elected chancellor of the Welsh university 25 Jan. 
died 25 Feb. „ 

Daniel Owen, popular novelist in Welsh, died Oct. ,, 

Death of the rev. Richard Parry, aged 95, eminent 
bard 8 Feb. 1897 

Land tenure (Wales and Monmouthshire bill), to 
establish a land court, rejected by commons, 
278—154 19 Ma y> » 

Sir G. Osborne-Morgan, liberal politician, born 
8 May, 1826 ; died 25 Aug. ,, 

S. Wales coal strike, see Strikes . 1 April 31 Aug. 1898 

See Liberals . 1899 

The duke and duchess of York visit N. Wales, 

24-28 April, ,, 

The duchess of York and the duke of Connaught 
open a new pier at Tenby, see Yachts . 9 May, 

Death of principal Viriamu Jones, of Cardiff, a 
promoter of higher education . , . . . spring, 1901 



WALES. 



1366 



WALES. 



The king, chancellor of the Welsh university, 
resigns, but assumes the title of "Protector," 
22 Nov. ; Mr. W. Jones's resolution for disesta- 
blishment of the Welsh church, rejected, 218-177, 

4 Feb. 1902 

Local government (Wales and Monmouthshire) 
bill, 2nd reading rejected by commons, 201-163, 

16 April, ,, 

Prince and princess of Wales visit N. Wales, the 
prince installed chancellor of the university, 
lays the first stone of a new wing to the in- 
lirmarv at Bangor, and opens the new Alexandra 
hospital at Rhyl . . . 8, 9, 12 May, „ 

University of Wales (graduates) act, royal assent, 

22 July, ,, 

Coal crisis in S. Wales, end of sliding scale agree- 
ment 31 Dec. ,, 

Resolution in house of commons to grant self 
government to Wales negatived, 146-74, 25 March, 1903 

End of the Penrhyn quarriesdispute, reported 7 Nov. ,, 

SOVEREIGNS OF WALES. 

630. Cadwallawn, king of Gwynedd. 

634. Cadwaladr, his son. 

661. Idwal, son. 

728. Rhodri, or Roderic ; heroic defender. 

755. Cynan and Howel, sons ; incessant war. 

818. Mervyn ; son-in-law, and Essyllt (wife). 

S44. Roderic the Great, son. 

(Early dates uncertain.) 

PRINCES OF GWYNEDD OR NORTH WALES AND FREQUENTLY 
OF ALL WALES. 

877. Anarawd, son of Roderic. 

915. Idwal Voel. 

943. Howel Da the Good, prince of all Wales. 

.948. Iefan and Iago ; sons of Idwal. 

972. Howel ap Iefan, the Bad. 

984. Cadwallon, brother. 

■985. Meredith ap Owen ap Howel Da. 

992. Idwal ap Meyric ap Idwal Voel : able, brave. 

998. Aedan, a usurper. 
11015. Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt, good sovereign. 
1023. Iago ap Idwal ap Meyric. 
1039. Griffith ap Llewelyn ap Sitsyllt ; killed. 
1067. Bleddyn. 
1073. Trahaern ap Caradoc. 

1079. Griffith ap Cynan ; able ; warlike ; generous. 
1137. Owain Gwynedd ; energetic, successful warrior. 
1 169. Howel, son. 

,, David ap Owain Gwynedd, brother ; married sister 
of Henry II. 
1 1 94. Llewelyn, the Great. 
j 240. David ap Llewelyn. 

•1246. Llewelyn ap Griffith, last prince of the blood ; slain 
after battle, 11 Dec. 1282. 

ENGLISH PRINCES OF WALES.* 

1284. Edward Plantagenet (afterwards king Edwaid II.), 
son of Edward I., born in Caernarvon Castle on 
the 25th April, 1284. It is asserted that imme- 
diately after his birth he was presented by his 
father to the Welsh chieftains as their future 
sovereign, the king holding up the royal infant 
in his arms, and saying, in the Welsh language, 
" Eich Dyn," literally in English, "This is your 
man," but signifying, "This is your countryman 
and king." See, however, " Ich Dien." 
Edward of Carnarvon made prince of Wales and 

earl of Chester. 
Edward the Black Prince. 
Richard, his son (afterwards Richard II.). 
Henry (afterwards Henry V.), son of Henry IV. 
Edward, son of Henry VI. ; slain at Tewkesbury, 

4 May, 1471. 
Edward (aft. Edward V.), son of Edward IV. 
Edward, son of Richard III. ; died in 1484. 
Arthur, son of Henry VII. ; died in 1502. 
1503. Henry, his brother (afterwards Henry VIII.). 

Edward, his son (afterwards Edward VI.) was duke 
of Cornwall, and not prince of Wales. 
* Wales, Princess of. This title was helu, some 
authors say, during the early period of her life, by the 
princess Mary of England, eldest daughter of Henry VIII., 
and afterwards queen Mary I. She was created, they state, 
by her father princess of Wales, in order to conciliate the 
Welsh people and keep alive the name, and was the only 
princess of Wales in her own right ; a rank she enjoyed 
until the birth of a son to Henry, who was afterwards 
Edward VI., horn in 1537. This is denied by Banks. 



1301. 

1343' 
1376. 
1399. 
1454' 

1471, 
1483. 



1610. Henry Frederic, son of James I. ; died 6 Nov. 1612. 
1616. Charles, his brother (afterwards Charles I.). 

Charles, his son (afterwards Charles II.), never 
created prince of Wales. 
1 714. George Augustus (afterwards George II.). 
1729. Frederic Lewis, his son ; died 20 March, 1751. 
1751. George, his son (afterwards George III.). 
i762.George,hisson (afterwards George IV.): born 12 Aug. 
t 841. Albert Edward, son of queen Victoria (afterwards 
Edward VII.) : born 9 Nov. ; baptized, king of 
Prussia a sponsor, 15 Jan. 1842. 

Travelled on the continent, and studied at Oxford 
and Edinburgh, in 1859. 

Visited Canada, with the dignity of a viceroy, and 
the United States, i860. 

Entered the university of Cambridge in Jan. ; 
attended the camp at the Curragh, Kildare, July 
to Sept. ; opened New Middle Temple Library, 
31 Oct. 1861. 

Ordered to be prayed for as Albert Edward, 
8 Jan. ; visited the continent, Syria, and Egypt, 
March-June; Germany and Italy, Aug-Dec. 1862. 

Admitted to the house of peers, 5 Feb. ; a privy 
councillor, 8 Dec. 1863. 

Married to princess Alexandra of Denmark, 10 
March, 1863. 

Visited Denmark and Sweden, Sept. -Oct. 1864 ; 
Russia, Nov.-Dec. 1866. 

Visited International Exhibition, Paris, May, 1867. 

Visited Ireland ; arrived at Dublin, 15 April, 1868. 

Installed knight of St. Patrick, 18 April, 1868. 

Opened Leeds Fine Arts Exhibition, 19 May, 1868 

With the Princess at Glasgow, laid foundation of 
new university, 8 Oct. 1868. 

Sailed for the continent, 17 Nov. ; called at Paris ; 
arrived at Copenhagen, 29 Nov. ; visited Berlin, 
Vienna, and arrived at Cairo, 3 Feb. 1869. 

Examined the Suez canal, Feb. ; arrived at Constan- 
tinople, 1 April; at Sebastopol, 13-17 April; at 
Athens, 19-24 April; landed at Dover, 13 May, 
1869. 

Inaugurated Victoria Embankment (Thames), 13 
July, 1870. 

Opened Workmen's International Exhibition, 
Islington, 16 July, 1870. 

Attacked with typhoid fever, about 19 Nov. ; greatest 
danger, 6-13 Dec. ; amendment began i4Dec.,i87i. 

Went to St. Paul's with the queen for thanksgiving, 
27 Feb.; sailed for the continent, 11 March; 
visited the Pope, 27 March ; opened new grammar 
school at Yarmouth, 6 June ; the Bethual Green 
Museum, 24 June, 1872. 

At the opening of the great exhibition at Vienna, 
1 May, 1873. 

At the duke of Edinburgh's wedding at St. Peters- 
burg, 23 Jan. ; visit to France : entertained by 
the due de Rochefoucauld Bisaccia, due d'Au- 
male, and others,about 17 Oct. ; at Birmingham, 
3 Nov. 1874. 

Installed grand master of the freemasons of Eng- 
land, 28 April, 1875. 
112,000?. voted for his visit to India [more than 
sufficient] July, 1875. 

Sailed from Dover, 11 Oct. ; warmly received at 
Athens, 18 Oct. ; at Cairo, invested Mohammed 
Tewfik, the son of the Khedive, with the Star of 
India, 25 Oct. 1875. 

Arrived at Bombay, 8 Nov. ; Poonah, 13 Nov. ; 
Goa, 27 Nov. ; Colombo, Ceylon, 1 Dec. ; Madras, 
13 Dec. ; Calcutta, 23 Dec. 1875. 

At Benares, 5 Jan. ; Lucknow, 6 Jan. ; Delhi, 11 
Jan. ; Lahore, 18 Jan. ; Jummoo, Cashmere, 20 
Jan. ; Agra, 25 Jan. ; Gwalior, 31 Jan. ; in Ne- 
paul, 12 Feb. ; at Allahabad, 7 March ; saileil 
from Bombay, 1 3 March ; arrived in Malta, 6 April ; 
Gibraltar, 15 April; Seville, 21 April; Madrid, 25 
April ; Lisbon, 1 May ; London, with about 500 
animals for the Zoological gardens, 11 May ; 
banquet at Mansion house, 19 May ; reviewed 
30,000 volunteers in Hyde Park, 1 July. 1876. 
President of the British commissioners at the 

Paris exhibition, 1878. 
Presided at National Water Supply conference, 
21 May; laid foundation of St. Mary's, Wilberforce 
memorial church, Southampton, 12 Aug. 1878. 

L lid foundation of new hospital, Norwich ,27 June; 
opened new dock at Great Grimsby 22 July, 
1879. 






WALES. 



1367 



WALLACE COLLECTION. 



Laid foundation of new cathedral at Truro, 20 

April ; opened new dock at Holyhead, 17 June, 

1880. 
Laid foundation of central Institution of City and 

Guilds of London Institute, South Kensington, 

18 July, 1881. 
■Opens the Royal College of Music, 7 May, 1883. 
Opens the International Fishery Exhibition, 12 

May ; closes it 31 Oct. 1883. 
Inaugurated the juries at the Health Exhibition, 

17 June, 1884. 
Visits Newcastle and opens Armstrong park, mu- 
seum, <fcc, 20, 21 Aug. 1884. 
Visit to Dublin (enthusiastically received), 8 April ; 

Cork, 15 April ; Killarney, 16 Ajiril ; Limerick 

(warmly received), 20 April ; from Dublin to Bel- 
fast (warm reception), 23 April ; Londonderry, 

25 April ; sailed from Larne, 27 April, 1885. 
Opens art gallery, &c, at Birmingham, 27, 28 Nov. 

1885. 
Formally opens the Mersey tunnel, 20 Jan. 1886. 
Kept his silver wedding, 10 March, 1888. 
Opens the international exhibition at Glasgow, 

8 May, 1888. 
Founds a technical school at Blackburn, 9 May, 

1888. 
Visits Austria and Hungary, Sept. ; Roumania, &c. 

4 Oct. ; returns to London, 22 Oct. 1888. 
•' Speeches and Addresses," 1863-1888 ; published 

12 Jan. 1889. 
Uncovers several Jubilee statues of the queen, &c. 

(see Jubilee), 1887-9. 
Visits the universal exhibition at Paris, June, 1889. 
Acts for the queen at the royal agricultural show 

(see Windsor), 24-29 June, 1889. 
Receives and attends the Shah of Persia, 1 July 

et seij. 
Annual payment of 36,000^. to the prince as a 

provision to his family, voted by the commons 

29 July, 1889. Act passed (see Royal Grants), 

12 Aug. 1889. 
The prince and princess at the marriage of the 

duke of Sparta, 27 Oct. 1889. 
Visits the Khedive at Cairo, 1 Nov. et seq. 1889. 
Lays foundation stone of the new municipal 

buildings, &c, Westminster, 18 March, 1890. 
Visit to Berlin with prince George, 21-28 March, 

1890 ; unveils statue of the duke of Albany at 

Cannes, 6 April, 1890. 
Visits Southwark (which see), 24 July, 1890. 
Opens new town hall at Portsmouth, 9 Aug. 1890. 
Opens the City and S. London Electric Railway, 

4 Nov. 1890. 
Many similar acts noticed under their respective 

headings, 1891 et seq. 
The princess of Wales with the duke of York and 
her daughters, travel in Italy, Greece, etc. 
March et seq. 1893. 
Welsh prebent to the duke and duchess of York, a 
centre piece weighing 3,000 oz. made of Welsh 
gold and silver ; 16 Dec. 1893. 
The visit of the prince and princess of Wales and 
the duke of York to Russia (which see) Nov. 1894. 
Opens the Blackwall tunnel (see Tunnel), 22 May, 

1897. 
Created great master and principal knight, grand 

cross of the order of the Bath, 21 June, 1897 (see 

Hospitals, 1897). 
" H.R.H. The Prince of Wales," by Grant Richards, 

published, Jan. 1898. 
By a tall fractures his knee-cap, 18 July ; recovery 

reported, 6 Aug. i§98. 
Shot at by Sipido, aged 15, at the Nord station, 

Brussels, while travelling with the princess, 

4 April, 1900; widespread sympathy; Sipido 
and 3 accomplices tried at Brussels, 1 July; 
3 acquitted, Sipido held irresponsible, to be 
kept in government charge till he becomes 21, 

5 July, 1900. 

(See England, 22 Jan. et seq. 1901.) 
1901. George Frederick, son of Edward VII., born 3 June, 
1865 ; created duke of York, earl of Inverness, 
and baron Killarney, 24 May, 1892 ; capt. b.n. 
2 Jan. ; married princess Victoria Mary (May) 
of Teck (see England), 6 July, 1893 ; appointed 
capt. of the Crescent cruiser, 12 May, 1898 ; made 
rear-adm., and takes the title of duke of Corn- 
wall, Jan. T901. 



With the duchess sailed for the colonies, 16 March ; 

at Gibraltar, 20-22 March ; at Malta, opens arts 

and crafts exhibition, 25-27 March ; at Ceylon, 

12-16 April (see Australia and other colonies); 

travelled, 50,718 miles ; warmly received in 

London, 2 Nov. 1901. 
The title of prince of Wales and earl of Chester, 

&c, conferred by the king, 9 Nov. 1901. 
Visited St. Bartholomew's and received as presi- 
dent of the hospital, 3 Dec. 1901. 
Entertained with the princess at the Guildhall, 

5 Dec. 1901. 
Visited the German emperor, 25-29 Jan. 1902. 
Admitted as a Fellow of the Royal Society, 6 Feb. 

1902. 
Reviewed 12,000 lads of the Boys' Brigade, 14 June, 

1902. 
Entertained over 2,400 children from London 

charities, 26, 27 June, 1902. 
Acts for the king at the grand reviews of colonial 

and Indian troops, 1, 2 July ; receives the Indian 

princes and other distinguished guests, 4 July, 

1902. 
Charity children's entertainments at Marlborough 

house in June and 9 Aug. 1902. 
Receives and attends the shah of Persia, 18 Aug. 

et seq. 1902. 
Issue: Edward Albert Christian, born, 23 June, 
1894; Albert Frederick, b. 14 Dec. 1895; Vic- 
toria Alexandra, b. 25 April, 1897 ; Henry 
William, b. 31 March, 1900; George Edward 
Alexander Edmund, b. 20 Dec. 1902. 

WALES, University of, comprehending 

colleges at Aberystwith, Cardiff, and Bangor, 
charter signed by the queen, 23 Nov. 1893 ; 
equality of the sexes in regard to professors, &c. ; 
annual government grant, 3,000^., 200,000^. sub- 
scribed; first court held in London, earl of Rose* 
bery, chairman, 6 April 1894 

Meeting of the court at Shrewsbury, lord Aberdare 
elected chancellor, 25 Jan. 1895 ; he died, 25 Feb. 
1895, succeeded by Albert Edward prince of Wales, 

2 July, 1895 ; installed, 26 June, 1896 ; succeeded by 
George Frederick prince of Wales, 1902 ; installed 

3 May. 

WALHALLA or Valhalla (the Hall of 

Glory), a temple near Katisbon, erected by Louis, 
king of Bavaria, to receive the statues and 
memorials of the great men of Germany, com- 
menced 18 Oct. 1830, and inaugurated 18 Oct. 1842. 
The name is derived from the fabled meeting-place 
of Scandinavian heroes after death. 

WALKEEITES, see Separatists. 
WALKING, see Pedestrianism. 

WALKING-STICKS, a term satirically ap- 
plied to candidates for the house of commons nomi- 
nated by political associations, and subject to them 
in their parliamentary votes, 1878. 

WALLACE COLLECTION, The, of 

paintings and other works of art in Hertford house, 
Manchester-square, London, W., formed by the 
marquis of Hertford, who resided chiefly in Paris 
from 1842, till his death, 25 Aug. 1870 ; spending 
his large fortune in the acquisition of about 700 
pictures and other art treasures. 

His heir, Mr. (aft. sir) Richard Wallace, lent a 
portion of these treasures to the Bethnal Green 
museum (which sec). He died 20 July, 1890. His 
widow, lady Julie Amelia Charlotte Wallace 
(daughter of M. Bernhard Castlenau), died, 16 
Feb. 1897, having bequeathed the whole of the 
priceless collection to the British nation on 
certain conditions. Will, dated 20 May, 1894, 
published, Times .... 30 March, 1897 

A committee appointed, lord Lansdowne chairman, 
recommends the purchase of Hertford house, and 
the retention of the collection in it ; Mr. (aft. 
sir) John Murray Scott (trustee by the will), 



WALLACE MONUMENT, 



1368 



WAR. 



the earl of Rosebery, sir E. Malet, and others, 
appointed trustees ; and Mr. Claude Phillips 
keeper, announced, 31 July ; report issued, 

2 Aug. 1897 
Hertford house, after reconstruction as the reposi- 
tory of the collection, opened by the prince of 
Wales 22 June, 1900 

WALLACE MONUMENT, at Abbey Craig, 
near Stirling, was inaugurated 27 Aug. 1869, and 
soon after given into the charge of the magistrates 
of Stirling. It cost about 13,000/. "Wallace's sword 
was transferred from Stirling castle, by order of the 
secretary of state for war, to the custodians of the 
"Wallace monument, 17 Nov. 1888. The telescope 
there was presented by the Scotch inhabitants of 
Ipswich, 24 June, 1865. 

WALLACHIA, see Banubian Principalities. 
On 23 Dec. 1861, the union of Wallachia and 
Moldavia, under the name of Roumania, was pro- 
claimed at Jassy and Bucharest. 

WALLER'S PLOT. Edmund Waller, the 
poet, and others, conspired to disarm the London 
militia and let in the royalists, May, 1643. The 
plan was detected and punished, June-July, 1643. 
Waller betrayed his confederates, and was suffered 
to emigrate. 

WALLIS'S VOYAGE. Captain Wallis 
sailed from England on his voyage round the world, 
26July, 1766; and returned to England, igMay,i768. 

WALLOON. This name was given to those 
inhabitants of the low countries who retained the 
ancient German language, and to those who adopted 
the Walloon language (based on the Gaulish), 
which though surviving as a patois, has been sup- 
planted in France by the modern French. The 
language of the Walloon protestant refugees in 1556 
was French. 

A church was given to Walloon refugees by queen Elizabeth 
at Sandwich, and they still have one at Canterbury. 
" The History of the Walloon and Huguenot church 
at Canterbury," by Francis W. Cross, published, 
Sept. 1898. 
The frontier line of Flemish and German towns may be 
traced from the north through Gravelines to Luxem- 
burg ; that of the Walloon towns from Calais to Metz. 

WALLS, see Roman Walls, China. 

WALNUT-TREE has long existed in Eng- 
land.* The black walnut-tree (Juglans nigra) was 
brought to this country from North America before 
1629. 

WALPOLE'S ADMINISTRATIONS. 

Mr. Walpole (afterwards sir Kobert, and earl of 
Orford) was born in 1676 ; became secretary-at-war 
in 1708 ; was expelled the house of commons on a 

* Near Welwyn, in Hertfordshire, there was the largest 
walnut-tree on record ; it was felled in 1627, and from it 
Were out nineteen loads of planks; and as much was 
sold to a gunsmith in London as cost io?i carriage ; 
besides which there were thirty loads of roots and 
branches. When standing it covered 76 poles of ground ; 
a space equal to 2299 square yards, statute measure. 



charge of misappropriating the public money, 1711 ; 
committed to the Tower, 17 Jan. 1 7 12; became 
first lord of the treasury and chancellor of the 
exchequer in Oct. 1715. He resigned, on a disunion 
of the cabinet, in 171 7, bringing in the sinking 
fund bill on the day of his resignation. On the 
earl of Sunderland retiring in 1721, he resumed his 
office, and held it till Feb. 1742. He died 18 
March, 1745. 

SECOND WALPOLE ADMINISTRATION (APRIL, 1721). 

Sir Robert Walpole, first lord of the treasury. 

Thomas, lord Parker, created earl of Macclesfield, lord 
chancellor. 

Henry, lord Carleton (succeeded by William, duke of 
Devonshire), lord president. 

Evelyn, duke of Kingston (succeeded by lord Trevor), 
privy seal. 

James, earl of Berkeley, first lord of the admiralty. 

Charles (viscount Townshend), and John, lord Carteret 
(the latter succeeded by the duke of Newcastle), secre- 
taries of state. v 

Duke of Marlborough (succeeded by the earl of Cadogan), 
ordnance. 

George Treby (succeeded by Henry Pelham), seeretary-at- 
war. 

Viscount Torrington, &c. 

WALRUS. One placed in the Zoological Gar- 
dens in 1853 lived a few days only, another was 
placed there in the autumn of 1867, and died 21; 
Dec. 

WALTZ, the popular German national dance, 
was introduced into England by baron Neuman and 
others in 1813. Bailees. 

WANDEWASH (S. India). Here the French, 
under Lally, were severely defeated by colonel Eyre 
Coote, 22 Jan. 1760. 

WANDSWORTH, Surrey. Here was organised 

a "presbytery," 20 Nov. 1572. In Garratt-lane, 
near this place, a mock election of a mayor of 
Garratt was formerly held, after every general elec- 
tion of parliament, to which Foote's dramatic piece, 
The Mayor of Garratt (1763), gave no small cele- 
brity. The iron bridge here was opened 26 Sept. 
1873. Constituted a municipal borough by London 
Government act, 1899 (10 aldermen, 60 council- 
lors). Population, 1881,103,172; 1891, 155,524; 
1901, 232,034. 

Wandsworth returns one M.P. by act passed 25 June, 
1885. 

WAR, called by Erasmus "the malady of 
princes." Osymandyas of Egypt, the first warlike 
king, passed into Asia, and conquered Bactria, 
2IOO B.C. Usher. He is supposed by some to be 
the Osiris of the priests. It is computed that, up to 
the present time, no less than 6,860,000,000 of men 
have perished on the field of battle ; see Battles ; 
Secretaries ; Neutral Poivers. An international 
conference on " usages of war" began at Brussels, 
27 July, 1874, and closed without important results. 
See Brussels Conference. In 1880, about 4,000,000 
men in arms, annual cost, 500,000,000/. 







FORE 


War with 


Peace. 


Scotland 


. 1068 . 


. 1092 


France 


. . 1116 


. . 1118 


Scotland 


. 1138 . 


■ "39 


France 


. . 1161 


. . 1186 


France 


. 1 194 . 


• "95 


France 


. . 1201 


1 . 1216 


France 


. 1224 . 


• I2 34 


France 


. . 1294 


• 1299 


Scotland 


. 1296 . 


• J 3 2 3 


Scotland 


• • I 3 2 7 


• 1328 


France 


• 1339 • 


• 1360 


France 


. . 1368 


. 1420 



ION WARS OF ENGLAND SINCE THE CONQUEST. 



War with 
France 
Scotland . 
France 
France 
France 
Scotland . 
Scotland 
Scotland . 
France 
France 
Scotland 
France 



1422 
1480 
1492 
1512 
1522 
1522 
154* 
»547 
1549 
1557 
1557 
1562 



Peace. 

• M7 1 
. i486 

• M9 2 

• 1514 

• i5 2 7 

• i54 2 
■ 1546 

• iSSO 

• 1550 

• 1559 

• 1560 

• 1564 



War with 
Spain . 
Spain 
France 
Holland . 
Spain . 
France 
Denmark 
Holland . 
Algiers 
Holland . 
France 



1624 
1627 . 
1651 
1655 • 
1666 
1666 . 
1666 
1669 . 
1672 



Peace. 

. 1604 

. 1629 

. 1629 

• 1654 

. 1660 

. 1668 



1671 

167 

169 



Peace of Ryswick, 20 Sept. 169 



WAE AFFAIRS. 



1369 



WARSAW. 



War of the Succession, commenced 4 May, 1702. Peace 

of Utrecht, 13 March, 1713. 
War with Spain, 16 Dec. 1718. Peace concluded, 1721. 
War ; Spanish War, 23 Oct. 1739. Peace of Aix-la-Cha- 

pelle, 30 April, 1748. 
War with France, 31 March, 1744. Closed also on 30 

April, 1748. 
War; the Seven Years' War, 9 June, 1756. Peace of Paris, 

10 Feb. 1763. 
War with Spain, 4 Jan. 1762. General peace, 10 Feb. 1763. 
War with the United States of North America, 14 July, 

1774. Peace of Paris, 30 Nov. 1782. 
War with France, 6 Feb. 1778. Peace of Paris, 20 Jan. 

1783- 
War with Spain, 17 April, 1780. Closed same time, 20 

Jan. 1783. 
War with Holland, 21 "Dec. 1780. Peace signed, 2 Sept. 

1783- 
War of the Revolution, 1 Feb. 1793. Peace of Amiens, 27 

March, 1802. 
War against Bonaparte, 29 April, 1803. Finally closed, 

18 June, 1815. 
War with America, 18 June, 1812. Peace of Ghent, 24 

Dec. 1814. 
War with Russia, 27 March, 1854. Peace of Paris, 31 

March, 1856. 
War with the Boer republics (Transvaal and Orange 

Free state), n Oct. 1899. Peace signed at Pretoria, 

31 May, 1902. 
For the wars with India, China, Persia. Abyssinia, 

Ashantee. Afghanistan, Zululand, Burmah, Mashona- 

land, Soudan, Somaliland, see those countries. 

WAR AFFAIRS. On account of the war with 
Russia, the duke of Newcastle, previously colonial 
secretary, was appointed a secretary for war affairs, 
and a cabinet minister, 9 June, 1854 ; see Secre- 
taries. War Office act, passed 20 June, 1870, ap- 
points a financial secretary (who may sit in parlia- 
ment) and other officers. An act for the protection 
of war department stores was passed in 1867. By 
the warrant abolishing purchase in the army, in 
1871, Mr. Cardwell became virtually uncontrolled 
minister of war. For VVak Office Charge, see 
under Army and Admiralty. 
New war offices erected by virtue of the Public 

Offices site act, passed . . . .24 July, 1882 
War Exhibition of trophies, &c. , from Egypt, 

opened at Knightsbridge . . 14 Feb. 1883 
Important changes in the war office announced ; 
increased responsibilities of heads of depart- 
ments, &c Feb. 1888 

Mr. Cainpbell-Bannerman, war secretary, reported 
to the commons important changes to be made in 
the war office, based on the recommendations of 
the Hartington commission of 1888 : establish- 
ment of distinct departments with administra- 
tive, consultative and executive functions, the 
whole to form a deliberative council responsible 
to the minister ; this led to the resignation of the 
duke of Cambridge, commander-in-chief; 21 June, 1895 
War secretary, the marquis of Lansdowne, 

. 25 June, ,, 
The order in council of 1870 assigned the adminis- 
tration of the army to the commaiider-in-chief, 
the surveyor-general of the ordnance, and the 
finan. secretary of the war office ; in 1888 the sur- 
veyor-general was removed. By an order in 
council, 21 Nov. 1895, the administration "was 
consigned to 6 officers — the commander-in-chief, 
adjutant-gen., quartermaster-gen., inspector-gen. 
of fortifications, inspector-gen. of ordnance, and 
the financial secretary, all responsible to the 
secretary of state. 
War secretary, Mr. St. John Brodrick . 12 Nov. 1900 
Committee on war office reform- appointed, Mr. ' 
Clinton Dawkins (K.C.B., June, 1902), chairman, 
sir Chas. Welby, and others, Dec. 1900 ; col. 
Ward, permanent under- sec, April; report 
issued, Times, n June; by an order in council, 
4 Nov. 1901, the adjutant-gen., the director-gen. 
of mobilization, &c, and the military sec, were 
placed under the control of the commander-in- 
chief, the others to be under his supervision, but 
' aire to advise the secretary of state direct. 
War seretary, Mr. Arnold Forster . .5 Oct. 1903 



WAR, GAME OF (German, KriegspicF) , based 
on the game of chess, was described in a pamphlet 
in 1780, and rules for it laid down by Domiinen- 
rathe von Reisswitz about 1820, and published by his 
son in 1824-8. Capt. (earl Cromer, 1901) Evelyn 
Baring published a translationof works on thesubject 
in 1872. A society (including von Moltke) was formed 
at Magdeburg to study it. Prince Arthur (now duke 
of Connaught) lectured on this game at Dover, 13 
March, 1872. A home district war society has 
since been established. 

WARBECK'S INSURRECTION. Perkin 
Warbeck, the son of a Florentine Jew, to whom 
Edward IV. had stood godfather, was persuaded by 
Margaret, duchess of Burgundy, sister to Richard III. > 
to personate her nephew Richard, Edward V.'s 
brother, which he did first in Ireland, where he- 
landed, 1492. The imposture was discovered by 
Henry VII. 1493. Some writers consider that "War- 
beck was not an impostor. 

Warbeck attempted to land in Kent, with 600 men, 169 

were taken prisoners, and executed, July, 1495. 
Recommended by the king of France to James IV. of 

Scotland, who gave him his kinswoman, lord Huntley's 

daughter, in marriage, when he assumed the title of 

Richard IV. James IV. invaded England in his favour, 

1496. 
Left Scotland, and went to Bodmin, in Cornwall, where 

3000 joined him, Sept. 1497. 
On the approach of Henry took sanctuary at Beaulieu ; 

surrendered ; taken to London, Oct. 1497. 
Said to have been set in the stocks at Westminster and 

Cheapside, and sent to the Tower, June, 1499. 
Accused of plotting with the earl of Warwick to escape 

out of the Tower, by murdering the lieutenant, Aug. ; 

the plot failed, and he was hanged at Tyburn, 23 Nov.; 

the earl beheaded, 28 Nov. 1499. 

WARBURG (N. Germany). Here the French 
were defeated by the duke of Brunswick and the 
allies, 31 July, 1760. 

WARDIAN CASES- In 1829, Mr. N. B. 
Ward, from observing a small fern and grass grow- 
ing in a closed glass bottle, in which he had placed 
a chrysalis covered with moist earth, was led to con- 
struct his well-known closely glazed cases, which 
afford to plants light, heat, and moisture, and ex- 
clude deleterious gases, smoke, &c. They are par- 
ticularly adapted for ferns. In 1833 they were first 
employed for the transmission of plants to Sydney, 
&c, with great success, and professor Faraday 
lectured on the subject in 1838. 

WARDMOTES, meetings of the citizens off 
London in their wards, where they elect annually 
their common councilmen. The practice is said to 
have begun in 1386. They had previously assembled 
in Guildhall ; see Plough Monday. 

WARRANTS, GENERAL, do not specify 
the name of the accused. They were declared to be 
illegal by lord chief justice Pratt, 6 Dec. 1763, in 
relation to the seizure and committal of Mr. Wilkes 
for a libel on the king ; see North Briton. 

WARRIOR, see under Navy of England, i860. 

WARSAW, the metropolis of Poland. The die* 
was transferred to this city from Cracow in 1566, and 
it became the seat of government in 1689. Popula- 
tion in 1890, 443,426 ; 9 Feb. 1897, 638,208. 
The Poles defeated in three days' battle by the 
Swedes . . . . . . . 28-30 July, 1656 

Alliance of Warsaw, between Austria and Po- 
land, against Turkey, in pursuance of which, John 
Sobieski assisted in raising the siege of Vienna 
(September following), signed . . 31 March, 1683 
Warsaw surrenders to Charles XII 1703 



WARTBURG. 



1370 



WASTE LANDS. 



Treaty of Warsaw between Russia and Poland, 

24 Feb. 1768 

The Russian garrison here expelled with the loss of 
2000 killed and 500 wounded, and 36 pieces of 
cannon 17 April, 1794 

The Poles defeated by the Russians at Maciejovice, 

4 Oct. „ 

The king of Prussia besieges Warsaw, July ; com- 
pelled to raise the siege, Sept. ; it is taken by the 
Russians with great slaughter, especially of the 
armed citizens 9 Nov. ,, 

Warsaw constituted a duchy, and annexed to the 
house of Saxony Aug. 1807 

The duchy overrun by the Russians ; Warsaw made 
the residence of a Russian viceroy . . . 1813 

The last Polish revolution commences at Warsaw, 

29 Nov. 1830 

Battle of Grochow, near Warsaw, in which the Rus- 
sians were defeated, and forced to retreat with the 
loss of 7000 men 25 Feb. 1831 

Battle of Warsaw, when, after two days' hard 
righting, the city capitulated, and was taken, pos- 
session of by the Russians ; and great part of the 
Polish army retired towards Plock and Modlin, 

6-8 Sept. ,, 

The czar meets the emperor of Austria and the 
regent of Prussia ; no result . . 20-25 Oct. i860 

Panic in a church ; great loss of life . 25 Dec. 1881 

Alexander III. visits Warsaw; great precautions, 

8 Sept. 1884 

Suspected conspiracy, arrest of 30 students and a 
novelist named Smolnicky . about 30 Dec. 1891 

Railway collision at the terminus (Pushto-Warsaw 
line), 11 deaths 30 Nov. 1897 

Statue of Adam Mitskevitch, poet and patriot, 

unveiled 24 Dec. 1898 

(See Poland, 1861-5.) 

WARTBURG, a castle in Saxony (N. Ger- 
many) , where Luther was conveyed for safety after 
the diet of Worms, April, 1521, and where he trans- 
lated the Bible into German. 

WARWICK CASTLE (Warwickshire), the 
seat of the iJeauchamps, Nevilles, Plantagenets, 
Dudleys, .Riches, and Grevilles, successively, and 
frequently besieged ; suffered much ;by fire, 3^Dec. 
1871 ; some of the more ancient part was destroyed. 
The town, incorporated in 1553, was nearly destroyed 
by fire in 1694. The show of the Agricultural 
society here was opened by the prince of i\ ales and 
the duke of York, 20 June, 1892. Visit of the 
prince of Wales to the castle, 17 May, 1895. 
" Warwick Castle," by the counters of Warwick, 
published Oct. 1903. Population, 1881, 11,800; 
1891, 11,903; 1901, 11,889. 

WASH-HOUSES, see Baths. 

WASHING MACHINES. Several have been 
invented by Americans. At an hotel in New York 
hundreds of garments are washed in a few minutes 
by steam, and dried by a centrifugal machine 
(1862). The ingenious machines of Messrs. Horns- 
ty, of Norwich, appeared in the great exhibition 
of London, 1862; many improvements since. 

WASHINGTON. A northern state of the 
American Union, first settled in 1845, organized as 
a Territory in 1853, as a State 1889 ; population in 
1880,715,116; 1890,349,390; 1900,958,^00. Capital, 
Olympia. 

The flourishing town of Seattle, was nearly de- 
stroyed by lire about 6 June, 1889; estimated 
loss about $15,000,000; few lives lost. 

Ellensburg, a small town also nearly destroyed by 
lire, 4 July, 1889 ; estimated loss, §2,000,000 ; also 
Spokane Falls, loss about §10,000,000, about 4 Aug. 18S9 

Coal mine explosion near Roslyn, 43 deaths, 

10 May, 1892 

Fire in the Franklin mine near Seattle, 37 lives 
lost 24 Aug. 1S94 

Forest fires, loss of life, &C, reported . 15 Sept. 1902 



WASHINGTON (in Columbia district, partly 
in Virginia and partly in Maryland, on the bank of 
the Potomac, N.E. Virginia), the capital of the 
United States, founded in 1791, and made the seat 
of government in 1800. The capital was founded in 
1793. Population, 1880, 147,293; 1890, 230,392; 
1900, 278,718. 

The house of representatives opened . . 30 May, 1808 
Washington was taken by the British forces under 

general Ross, after his victory at Bladensbufg; 

its superb structures and national library burnt, 

24 Aug. 18 14 
General Ross killed by some American riflemen, in 

a desperate engagement at Baltimore 12 Sept. „ 

Naval observatory founded 1842 

Smithsonian institute (ivhich see) founded . . . 1846 
Part of the capitol and the whole of the library of 

the United States congress destroyed by fire, 

24 Dec. 1851 
The prince of Wales entertained by the president 

here ........ Oct. i860 

Washington fortified in . . . . April, 1861 

President Lincoln shot by Booth in Ford's theatre, 

14 April; died 15 April, 1865 

Memorial obelisk to George Washington, 555 feet 

high, inaugurated 21 Feb. 1885 

National theatre Vmrnt down . . . 27 Feb ,, 
Fire at the house of the hon. Benjamin Tracy, sec- 
retary of the navy ; he escapes, but his wife, 

daughter, and a servant perish . . 3 Feb. 1890 
Collapse of government offices, formerly Ford's 

theatre, through excavations, 23 persons killed 

and many injured .... 9 June, 1893 
(pal. Frederick Ainsworth and others censured for 

negligence). 
Fire at the capitol through an explosion of gas, 

6 Nov. 1898 
Peace celebrations (Spanish-American war), 

23 May, 1S99 
Mr. A. Carnegie gives 2,ooo,oooZ. for a scientific 

research institute .... 29 Jan. 1902 
The German emperor offers a statue of Frederick 

the Great . . . . . .14 May, ,, 

Marshal Recambeau's statue unveiled . 24 May ,, 
Pres. Roosevelt lays first stone of the new army 

college 21 Feb. 1903 

See United States. 

IMPORTANT TREATIES OF WASHINGTON. 

Fixing N.W. boundary of British America and 
United States, &c 12 June, 1846 

" Reciprocity " treaty regulating trade with Canada, 

7 June, 1854 

Referring the Alabama claims and the San Juan 
boundary question to arbitration ; settling dis- 
putes respecting fisheries (see Alabama and Juan), 
and laying down three rules ; asserting that it is 
the duty of a neutral state, which desires to re- 
main at peace with belligerents, and to enjoy the 
rights of neutrality, to abstain from taking any 
part in the war by affording military aid to one 
or both of the belligerents ; and to take care that 
no acts which would constitute such co-operation 
in the war be committed by any one within its 
territory 8 May, 1871 

WASIUM (named from the royal house of 
Wasa or Vasa), a supposed new metal, discovered by 
F. Bahr, of Stockholm, in 1862. In Nov. 1863 Nickles 
declared it to be a compound of didymium, yttrium, 
and terbium. 

WASTE LANDS- The inclosure of waste 
lands and commons, in order to promote agriculture, 
tirst began in England about the year 1547, and gave 
rise to Ket's rebellion, 1549. Inclosures were again 
promoted by the authority of parliament, 1785. The 
waste lands in England were estimated in 1 794 to 
amount to 14 millions of acres, of which there were 
taken into cultivation, 2,837,476 acres before June, 
1801. In 1841, there were about 6,700,000 acres of 
waste land, of which more than half was thought to 
be capable of improvement ; see Agriculture. 



WATCH OF LONDON, 



1371 



WATER. 



WATCH OF LONDON, at night, appointed 
1253, proclaimed the hour with a bell before the in- 
troduction of public clocks. Hardie. The old watch 
was discontinued, and a new police (on duty day 
and night) commenced, 29 Sept. 1829 ; see Folice. 

WATCHES are said to have been first invented 
at Nuremberg, 1477, although it is affirmed that 
Robert, king of Scotland, had a watch about 1310. 
Watches first used in astronomical observations Tjy 

Purbach 1500 

Authors assert that the emperor Charles V. was 
the first who had anything that might be called a 
watch, though some call it a small table-clock . 1530 
Watches first brought to England from Germany in 1577 
A watch which belonged to queen Elizabeth is pre- 
served in the library of the Royal Institution, 
IiOndon. 
Spring pocket- watches (watches properly so-called) 
have had their invention ascribed to Dr. Hooke 
by the English, and to M. Huyghens by the Dutch. 
Dr. Derham, in his Artificial Clockmaker, says that 
Dr. Hooke was the inventor ; and he appears cer- 
tainly to have produced what is called the pendulum 
watch about 1658 ; manifest, among other evi- 
dences, from an inscription on one of the double- 
balance watches presented to Charles II., "Rob. 
Hooke, inven. 1658 ; T. Tompion, fecit, 1675." 
Repeating watches invented by Barlowe . . . 1676 
Harrison's first time-piece produced (see Harrison), 1735 
Watches and clocks were taxed in . . 1797 

The tax was repealed in 1798. See Clocks. 
Arrangements made at Kevv observatory for testing 
high-class watches, and granting graduated cer- 
tificates ; fees, iZ. is., 10$. 6(2., &c. ; announced 

April, 1884 
Great revival of the old manufacture by the Lan- 
cashire watch company, at Prescot, near Liver- 
pool Jan. 1893 

WATER. Thales of Miletus, founder of the 

Ionic sect, considered water to be the original 

principle of everything, about 594 B.C. Stanley. 

Cavendish and Watt demonstrated that water is 
composed of 8 parts of oxygen and 1 part of hy- 
drogen 17S1-4 

Water was decomposed into oxygen and hydrogen 
gases by Lavoisier, 1783 ; by the voltaic battery 
by Nicholson and Carlisle, 1800 ; by the heat of 
the oxy-hydrogen flame by W. R. Grove . . 1846 

In freezing, water contracts till it is reduced to 42 
or 40° Fahr. ; it then begins to expand till it be- 
comes ice at 32 . 

Water was first conveyed to London by leaden pipes, 
21 Henry HI. 1237. Stmv. It took nearly fifty 
years to complete it ; the whole being finished, 
and Cheapside conduit erected, only in . . . 1285 

The New River water (which see) brought to 
London from Chadwell and Am we 11 in Hertford- 
shire, at an immense expense, by sir Hugh 
Myddelton, in 1609-13 

The city was supplied with its water by convey- 
ances of wooden pipes in the streets and small 
leaden ones to the houses, and the New River 
Company was incorporated, 1620. So late as queen 
Anne's time there were water-carriers at Aldgate- 
pump. 

The water-works at Chelsea completed, and the 
company incorporated 1722 

London-bridge ancient water-works destroyed by 
fire 29 Oct. 1779 

An act to supply the metropolis with water, 15 & 16 
Vict. c. 84, was passed, 1 July, 1852. This act was 
amended by an act passed 21 Aug. 1871. The 
companies were bound to provide a constant 
supply when required ; the owner or occupier of 
the house to provide the prescribed fittings. 

[The supuly is now considered to be much improved 
in quality and quantity.] 

Since 1829 filtration gradually adopted ; made com- 
pulsory in 1856. 
A company was formed to carry out Dr. Normandy s 

patent for converting salt water into fresh, in Jan 1857 
Messrs. Pamphlett & Ferguson's process for pro- 
ducing fresh from salt water was exhibited at 



Messrs. George Wailes & Co., Euston Road, Lon- 
don, and considered successful . . 15 Oct. 1889 

Commissioners for metropolitan water supply ap- 
pointed, 27 April, 1867 ; report signed 9 June, 1869 

London supplied by nine companies : the New River 
(the. best), East London, Chelsea, Grand Junction, 
Southwark and Vauxhall, Kent, West Middlesex, 
Lambeth, and South Essex ; who deliver about 
108,000,000 gallons daily, 1867 ; about 116,250,000 
gallons 1877 

New schemes for supplying London with water, 
1867 :— 

1. Mr. Bateman ; from the sources of the Severn. 

2. Messrs. Hemans and Hassard ; from the Cum- 

berland lakes. 

3. Mr. Telford Macneill ; Thames water filtered 

through Bagshot sand. 

4. Mr. Bailey Denton ; storage reservoirs near the 

sources of the Thames. 

5. Mr. Remington ; from the Derbyshire and 

Staffordshire hills. 
The water from the first two sources analysed and 
highly approved by professors Fraukland and 

Odling April, 1868 

Water from the chalk districts softened by Homer- 
sham's process strongly recommended, Jan, 1871 

Aug. 1878 
Metropolitan Board of works undertook to supply 
water from the chalk districts and also from the 
Thames above Teddington, for 12,000,0002. . . ,, 
Conference on the national water supply at So- 
ciety of arts (suggested by the prince of Wales, 

president) 21, 22 May ,, 

Letter from the prince of Wales to the earl of 
Beaconsfield suggesting the appointment of a 
commission on water supply, dated 24 March, 1879 
National Water Supply Exhibition, Alexandra Pa- 
lace ; opened 14 Aug. ,, 

Government proposal to buy companies' works for 
34,398,700^. (New River company, 9,146,000^.), 

dropped April, 1880 

Negotiations with the water companies by Mr. 

Smith, begun Oct. 1879 ; proposals not accepted, „ 
London water supply commission (Sir William 
Harcourt, chairman) appointed 3 June ; reported, 
recommending water supply to be placed under 
control of some responsible public body, signed 

3 Aug. „ 
Annual revenue, according to Mr. E. J. Smith's cal- 
culations, above 1,500,000?. . I °° I 
Atkins' process for softening hard water an improve- 
ment upon Clarks' process, announced July, 1882 
Metropolitan water bill, checking the systems of 
the companies, rejected in the 001111110118(197-152) 

11 March, 1884 
Water companies (regulation of powers) act, passed 1887 
The purchase of the companies' works recom- 
mended by the London County Council, 1890, 
and by a committee of the London corporation ; 

report published 17 Oct. l8 9° 

At a conference of representatives of the district 
boards of London, it was resolved to support sir 
Algernon Borthwick's bill, which proposes to 
confer upon an elected Water Trust the exclusive 
powers of supplying water within the metropoli- 
tan area, with an equalization of charges, &c, 

27 Feb. 1891 
Hybrid committee in the commons on the London 
Water Commission appointed : sir M. White- 
Ridley, sir H. E. Roscoe, sir A. Borthwick, and 

six others 20 March, „ 

Report disapproving of the two bills before parlia- 
ment, and requiring further information 14 July, ,, 
London Water act passed . . • -27 June, 1892 
Royal commission on the metropolitan water 
supply appointed : lord Balfour of Burleigh, sir 
G. Barclay Bruce, prof. James Dewar, sir A. 
Geikie, Dr. Win. Ogle, and others (frequent meet- 
ings up to July), reported . . . 14 March, ,, 
Twenty -ninth and last sitting, 15 Feb.; report with 
statistics and recommendations presented about 
15 Sept. 1893 ; existing sources of supply from the 
Thames, Lea, etc. sufficient for 40 years ; 8 bills 
for the acquisition of the undertakings of the 
Metropolitan water companies by the London 
county council deposited at private bill office, 

J 21 Dec. 1894 



WATEE-BED, CLOCKS. 



1372 



WATERLOO BRIDGE. 



Scarcity of water in London through severe frost, 
board of trade inquiry . . Feb.-March, 1895 

Progress of the water (transfer) bills stopped by the 
dissolution. 8 July, ,, 

Water famine in east London . . June- Aug. ,, 

Increased supply through new works, reported Feb. 1896 

Lord James's metropolitan water bill instituting a 
representative body (30 members) for inner and 
outer London read 1st time, 16 March; with- 
drawn Aug. „ 

Water famine in B. London much relieved by rain, 
3 Sept. et seq. (another famine, Aug. 1898) . . ,, 

Chelsea water bill rejected in the commons, 258 — 
123 ; 7 other water bills withdrawn . it March, 1897 

New Royal commission : vise. Llandaff, Mr. J. W. 
Mellor, sir J. Dorington, sir J. Bruce, and others, 
April ; 1st sitting 22 Nov. ,, 

Proposed formation of a "sinking fund'' by the 
London water companies, trustee, the chamber- 
lain of the city of London . . . May, ,, 

The Metropolitan water act passed ; brought into 
action Oct. ,, 

Constant service in B. London begins . 7 Dec. 1898 

Metropolitan water companies bill passed, 6 June, 1899 

Roy. commission's report issued, 19 Jan. 1899 ; 
central water board to acquire the undertakings 
of the companies recommended in report, issued, 

22 Jan. 1900 

County council's London water (purchase) bill 
rejected 26 March, 1901 

Conference on water supply and river pollution in 
London ...... 16 Oct. 1901 

London water bill (see above, Jan. 1900) passed, 

16 Dec. 1902 

Local government board's inquiry as to lead poi- 
soning through, reports issued 1887, 1895, and 

16 Feb. 1903 
See Artesian Wells, Aqueducts, Birmingham, Liverpool, 
and Metropolitan Water Supply. 

WATER-BED, CLOCKS, see Beds, Clocks. 

WATER-COLOUR PAINTING was gra- 
dually raised from the hard dry style of the last 
century to its present brilliancy, by the efforts of 
Nicholson, Copley Fielding, Sandby, Varley, the 
great Turner, Pyne, Cattermole, Prout, George 
A. Fripp, born 1813, died 17 Oct. 1896, and George 
Price Boyce, born 24 Sept. 1826, died 9 Feb. 
1897 ; George Henry Andrews, born 1816, died 
31 Dec. 1898; Birket Foster, born 1825, died 27 
March, 1899. David Law, died 28 Dee. 1901, &c, 
within the past century. The Water - colour 
Society's exhibition, which began in 1805, was 
made Royal in 1881, the diplomas were to be 
signed by the queen after Nov. 1882. The Institute 
of Painters in Water-colours, established about 1831 
(made Royal in 1883), open new galleries in Piccadilly, 
and propose to give free instruction, 27 April, 1883. 
Dr. John Percy's unique historical collection of 
water-colour drawings was sold for 8,230^., re- 
ported 26 April, 1890 

WATERFORD (S. Ireland), built about 879, 
was totally destroyed by fire in 98 1 . Rebuilt and con- 
siderably enlai-ged by Strongbow in 1171, and still 
further in the reign of Henry VII., who granted 
considerable privileges to the citizens. Richard II. 
landed and was crowned here in 1399 ; in 1690, 
James II. embaiked from hence for France, after 
the battle of the Boyne ; and William III. resided 
here twice, and confirmed its privileges. Memorable 
storm here, 18 April, 1792. The cathedral of Water- 
ford, dedicated to the blessed Trinity, was first 
built by the Ostmen, and by Malchus, the first 
bishop of Waterford, after his return from England 
from his consecration, 1096. This :-ee was united 
with that of Lismore in 1363. It was valued in 
the king's books, by an extent returned 29 Henry 
VIII., at 72^. 8s. id. Irish per annum. By stat. 
3 & 4 Will. IV., c. 37 (the Irish Church Tempo- 
ralities act), the see of Waterford and Lismore was 



united with the see of Cashel and Emly, 14 Aug. 
1833. The interior of the cathedral, organ, &c, 
were destroyed by fire, 25 Oct. 1815. Population, 
1891, 21,693; 1901,26,743. 

Waterford returns three M.P.s by act passed 

25 June, 1885 
Mr. John Redmond, M.P., presented with the free- 
dom 12 Sept. „ 

WATER GAS, see Gas-lights. 

- WATER-GLASS, a name given to a liquid 
mixture of sand (silex) and one of the alkalies, 
(potash or soda). Glauber (De Lithiase) mentions 
a similar mixture in 1644. Dr. Von Fuchs, the 
modern inventor, gave an account of his process in 
1825 ; and Mr. Frederick Ransome, of Ipswich, 
ignorant of Von Fuchs' s discovery, patented a mode 
of preparing water-glass in 1845, which he afterwards 
greatly improved upon. In 1857, M. Kuhlmann, of 
Lille, published a pamphlet setting forth the 
advantageous employment of water-glass in harden- 
ing porous stone and in stereochromy (which see). 
It has been applied to the exterior of many buildings 
in France and England. The memoirs of Von 
Fuchs and Kuhlmann translated and printed in 
England, 1859, by direction of the prince consort. 

WATERING STREETS. Mr. Cooper's plan 
for using solutions of chloride of lime or of sodium 
(which dry slowly and attract moisture and ammonia 
and other gases, and combine them with thematerial 
of the road) was partially used in the parish of St. 
Mary-le-bone in 1868, and also in Liverpool, Boston, 
and other towns. The plan whs ordered to be tried 
in Westminster in July, 1870. 

WATERLOO, in Belgium, the site of the 
great battle, on Sunday, 18 June, 1815, between the 
French army, of 71,947 men and 246 guns, under 
Napoleon, and the allies, commanded by the duke 
of Wellington; the latter, with 67,661 men and 
156 guns, resisted the various attacks of the enemy 
from about ten in the morning until five in the 
afternoon. About that time, 16,000 Prussians 
reached the field of battle ; and by seven, the force 
under Blucher amounted to above 50,000 men, with 
104 guns. Wellington then moved forward his 
whole army. A total rout ensued, and the carnage 
was immense. Of the British (23,991), 93 officers 
and 19 16 men were killed and missing, and 363 
officers and 4560 men wounded — total, 6932 ; and 
the total loss of the allied army amounted to 4206 
killed, 14,539 wounded, and 4231 missing, making 
22,976 hors de combat. Napoleon, quitting the wreck 
of his army, returned to Paris ; and, finding it 
impossible to raise another, abdicated. P. Nicolas. 

Napoleon attributed his defeat to the failures of marshal 
Grouchy, Wellington said unjustly. 

Proposed monument over the British officers and men 
who died of their wounds, 7 Jan. 1S88. 

By the side of the chapel of Waterloo, which was un- 
injured by shot or shell on 18 June, 1815, Marlborough 
cut off a large division of the French forces, 17 Aug. 
1705. The conquerors on the same field are the only 
British commanders whose career brought them to 
dukedoms. 

Waterloo monument over the officers and men who 
fell in the "campaign of 1815, in a cemetery at 
Brussels, erected by queen Victoria, unveiled by 
the duke of Cambridge . . . .26 Aug. 1890 

Gen. George Whichcote, born 21 Dec. 1794, who 
fought in the Spanish campaigns and at Water- 
loo, died 26 Aug. 1891 

German emperor congratulates the German legion 
" on having saved the British army from destruc- 
tion at Waterloo " 19 Dec. 1903 

WATERLOO BRIDGE, London. Abridge 
over this part of the Thames was repeatedly sug- 






WATEELOO CUP. 



137c 



WAX. 



gested during- the last century, but no actual pre- 
parations to carry it into effect were made till 1806, 
when Mr. G. J)odd procured an act of parliament, 
and gave the present site, plan, and dimensions of 
the bridge ; but, in consequence of some disagree- 
ment with the committee, he was superseded by 
Mr. John Eennie, who completed this noble struc- 
ture. It was commenced n Oct. 181 1, and opened 
18 June, 1817, on the anniversary of the battle of 
Waterloo, when the prince regent, the duke of 
Wellington, and other distinguished personages, 
were present. Its length within the abutments is 
1242 feet; its width within the balustrades is 42 
feet ; and the span of each arch, of which there are 
nine, is 120 feet. Bought for 475,000^. by metro- 
politan board of works ; opened toll free, 5 Oct. 1878; 
lit by electric light from 10 Oct. 1879. 

On Oct. 9, 1857, two youths, named Kilsby, found on 
one of the abutments of the "bridge a carpet bag, con- 
taining human bones and flesh, which had been cut up, 
salted, and boiled, and some foreign clothes. No clue 
could be found respecting these remains, which were 
interred in Woking cemetery. 

WATEELOO CUP, see Dogs, 187 1 and 1903. 

WATEELOW PAEK, S. Hampstead or 
Highgate, was presented to the metropolis with 
6,000?. to the London county council, by sir Sydney 
H. Waterlow, 12 Nov. 1889. The park was opened 
to the public by sir John Lubbock (lord Avebury, 
1900^ chairman of the council, 17 Oct. 1891. A 
statue of sir Sydney Waterlow unveiled by princess 
Louise, duchess of Argyll, 28 July, 1900. 

WATEE-MILLS, used for grinding corn, are 
said to have been invented by Belisarius, the general 
of Justinian, while besieged in Borne by the Goths, 
555. The ancients parched their corn, and pounded 
it in mortars. Afterwards mills were invented, 
which were turned by men and beasts with great 
labour ; yet Pliny mentions wheels turned by water. 
See Telo-dynamie transmitter. 

WATEESPOUT. Two waterspouts fell on the 
Glatz mountains in Germany, and caused dreadful 
devastation to Hautenbach and many other villages ; 
many persons perished, 13 July, 1827. A water- 
spout at Glanflesk, near Killamey, in Ireland, 
passed over a farm of Mr. John Macarthy, destroy- 
ing farm-houses and other buildings ; seventeen 
persons perished, 4 Aug. 1831. The estimated 
length of one seen near Calcutta, 27 Sept. 1855, was 
1000 feet. It lasted ten minutes, and was absorbed 
upwards. One seen on 24 Sept. 1856, burst into 
heavy rain. The town of Miskolcz, Hungary, 
destroyed by a waterspout ; great loss of life and 
property, 30 Aug. 1878. 61 persons said to have 
been killed by a waterspout in Algeria, Oct. 1881. 
A waterspout at Arequipa, Peru, caused immense 
damage, several persons drowned, 14 Feb. ; one at 
Pachuca, Mexico, 30 deaths, 27 Sept. 1884 ; another 
near Lagos, very destructive, 6 or 7 June, 1885. 
Destructive waterspout at Swansea 4 Sept. 1886; 
another on Batcombe hills, Dorsetshire, greatly 
damaged the villages of Chatnole, Cerne, and 
Mintern, 7 June, 1889. By the bursting of a 
waterspout at Voiron, near Grenoble; France, much 
damage was done with loss of life, 5 June, 1897 ; 
Steelville, Missouri, nearly destroyed by one, 13 
deaths, 8 July, 1898. At Saffi, Morocco, about 100 
deaths, great damage, 29 Dec. 1901 , See Wurtem- 
burg, June, 1895. 

WATEE TOFANA, see Poisoning. 

WATKIN TOWEE, Wembley Park, near 
Harrow, N.W. of London. In 1889, the Metro- 



politan tower company was formed, sir Edward 
W. Watkin, chairman, for the erection of a tower 
resembling the Eiffel tower, see Paris, 1889. 
Premiums were offered for designs, and 500 guineas were 
awarded to Messrs. A. D. Stewart, J. M. MacLaren, 
and W. Dunn, joint authors. The designs were ex- 
hibited at Drapers' Hall, 29 April et seq., 1890. Part 
of the Wembley Park estate was leased by a new 
company for 999 years, from 21 Oct. 1892, at a rental 
of 2,oool. a year. The structure, solely of steel, to be 
erected by Messrs. Heenan and Froude of Manchester 
(Dec. 1892), under the direction of Sir Benjamin 
Baker. Work proceeding, base 90,000 sq. ft., Oct. 
1893. 
Wembley Park opened, 12 May, 1894. 
Erection of the tower stopped, Aug. 1894 ; the first plat- 
form opened, 155 feet from the ground, 18 May, 1896. 

WATLING-STEEET, see Roman Roads. 

WATTIGNIES (N. France). Here Jourdan 
and the French republicans defeated the Austrians 
under the prince of Coburg, and raised the siege of 
Maubeuge, T4-16 Oct. 1793. 

WAT TYLEE'S INSUEEECTION, see 
Tyler. 

WAVE PEINCIPLE (in accordance with 
which the curves of the hull of a ship should be 
adapted to the curves of a wave of the sea) formed 
the subject of experiments begun by Mr. John Scott 
Russell in 1832, with the view of increasing the 
speed of ships. Colonel Beaufoy is said to have 
spent 30,000?. in researches upon this matter. It 
was also taken up by the British Association, who 
have published reports of the investigations. The 
principle has been adopted by naval architects ; see 
Undulatory Theory and Yacht. 

WAVEELEY NOVELS. The publication 

of the series began with " Waverley ; or, 'Tis Sixty 
Tears since," in 1814, and closed with " Tales of 
my Landlord," fourth series, in 1831. The author- 
ship was acknowledged by sir Walter Scott, at a 
dinner, 23 Feb. 1827. The original MSS. of several 
of Scott's poems and novels were sold by auction by 
Christie and Manson for 1255 guineas, 6 July, 1867. 

WAWZ or WAWER (Poland). The Poles 
under Skrzynecki attacked the Russians at Wawz, 
and after two days' hard fighting, all the Russian 
positions were carried by storm, and they retreated 
with the loss of 12,000 men and 2000 prisoners, 
31 March, 1831. The loss of the Poles was small, 
but their triumph was soon followed by defeat and 
ruin. 

WAX came into use for candles in the 12th 
century; and wax candles were esteemed a luxury 
in 1300, being but little used. In China, candles of 
vegetable wax have been in use for centuries ; see 
Gandleberry. The wax tree, Lignstrum lucidum, 
was brought from China before 1794. — Sealing- 
Wax was not brought into use in England until 
about 1556. Its use has been much superseded by 
the introduction of adhesive envelopes, about 1844. 

Waxwork.— Exhibition of models in wax were popular 
in the 17th and 18th centuries. The collection of wax 
figures exhibited by Mrs. Salmon at Aldgate, early in 
the last century, were removed to Fleet-street and 
shown there till 1812, when they were sold, it is said, 
for sol. Madame Tussaud, a skilful modeller, exhi- 
bited her remarkable collection of models and casts of 
eminent persons with costumes and other interesting 
relics in the boulevard du Temple, Paris, 1785. In 1802 
she exhibited her collection at the Lyceum, Strand, 
London, and afterwards at other places. The interest 
■ of the exhibition has been energetically sustained for 
many years at Baker-street, London, W., and latterly at 



WE. 



1374 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES, 



Marylebone-road, by raadame Tussaud and her family ; 
she died 15 April, 1850, aged go. Early in 1889 the 
collection was purchased by a company, Mr. John 
Tussaud being engaged as manager. The exhibition 
well sustained, 1898. 
Mr. Louis Tussaud opened a new exhibition of wax- 
works at 207, Regent-street, 24 Dec. 1890 ; it was 
destroyed by fire, 20 June, 1891, estimated loss, 
io,oooi. 

See Trials, Jan. 1894. 

WE- Sovereigns generally use we for 7, which 
style began with king John, 1199. Coke. The 
German emperors and French kings used the plural 
about 1200. 

WEALD of Kent and Sussex, the site of 
very large, ancient forests ; St. Leonard's still 
remaining ; near which, in the "VVealden formation, 
Dr. G. A. Mantell discovered the remains of huge 
extinct animals, 1825 et seq. Mr. E. Furley 
published an exhaustive "History of the Weald of 
Kent," 1 87 1 -4. 

WEATHER, see Meteorology. 

WEAVING appears to have been practised in 
China more than a thousand years before it was 
known in Europe or Asia. The Egyptians ascribed 
the art to Isis ; the Greeks to Minerva ; and the 
Peruvians to the wife of Manco Capac. Our 
Saviour's vest, or coat, had not any seam, being 
woven from the top throughout, in one whole piece. 
The print of a frame for weaving such a vest may 
be seen in Cahaet's Dictionary, under the word 
Vestments. Two weavers from Brabant settled at 
York, where they manufactured woollens, which, 
says king Edward, " may prove of great benefit to 
us and our subjects" (1331). Flemish dyers, cloth 
drapers, linen-makers, silk -throwsters, &c, settled 
at Canterbury, Norwich, Colchester, Southampton, 
and other places, on account of the duke of Alva's 
persecution, 1567 ; see Loom and Electric Loom. 

WEDDINGS. Silver weddings are celebrated 
after a union of 25 years ; golden weddings after a 
union of 50 years ; and diamond weddings after a 
union of 6b years, some apply it to 75 years. John, 
king of Saxony, celebrated Ms golden wedding, 10 
Nov. 1872. 

WEDDING-RINGS were used by the 
ancients, and put upon the wedding finger, from a 
supposed connection with a vein there with the 
heart. According to Pliny they were made of iron ; 
in the time of Tertullian of gold. Wedding-rings 
are to be of standard gold, by statute, 1855 ; see 
Adriatic. 

WEDGE-LIKE Characters, see Cunei- 
form. 

WEDGWOOD WARE, pottery and porce- 
lain produced by Mr. Josiah Wedgwood, of Stafford- 
shire, in 1762. His potteries, termed Etruria, were 
founded in 1 77 1 . Previously to 1763, much earthen- 
ware was imported from France and Holland. 

WEDNESDAY, the fourth day of the week, 
so called from the Saxon idol Woden or Odin, 
worshipped on this day. Woden was the reputed 
author of magic and the inventor of all the arts, 
and was thought to answer to the Mercury of the 
Greeks and Romans. 

WEEDON INQUIRY (Northamptonshire). 
Commissioners were appointed to inquire into the 
accounts of Mr. Elliot, superintendent of the great 
military clothing establishment at this place, in 
July, 1858, and commenced sitting in September. 
Many of the statements were afterwards disputed, 
and caused much dissatisfaction. 



WEEK, the space of seven days, supposed to be 
first used among the Jews, who observed the 
sabbath every seventh day. They had three sorts of 
weeks — the common one of seven days ; the second 
of years, seven years ; the third of seven times 
seven years, at the end of which was the jubilee. 
All the present English names are derived from 
the Saxon : — 

Latin. French. 

Dies Solis, Day of the Sun, Dimanche. 

Dies Lunse, Day of the Moon, Lundi. 

Dies Martis, Day of Mars, Mardi. 

Dies Mercurii, Day of Mercury, Mereredi. 

Dies Jovis, Day of Jupiter, Jeudi. 

Dies Veneris.. Day of Venus, Vendredi. 

Dies Saturni, Day of Saturn, Samedi. 

English. Saxon. German. 

Sunday, Sun's day, Sonntag. 

Monday, Moon's day, Montag. 

Tuesday, Tiw's day, Dienstag. 

Wednesday, Woden's day, Mittwoche. 

Thursday, Thor's day, Donnerstag. 

Friday, Priga's day, Freitag. 

Saturday, Saterne's day, Samstag, or Sonn- 

abend. 

WEEKLY DISPATCH, liberal weekly 
Sunday paper, established 1801. 

WEIGHTS and MEASURES. These and 
the stamping of gold and silver money, are attributed 
to Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, 895 B.C.; see Arun- . 
delian Marbles. Weights were originally taken 
from grains of wheat, the lowest being still called a 
grain. Chalmers. See Crith. 

Much information is given by Mr. H. W. Chisholm 
in his work "On the Science of Weighing and 
Measuring," 1877. 

The Jews ascribed weights and measures to Cain ; 
the Egyptians to Theuth, or Thoth ; the Greeks, 
to Hermes (the Roman Mercury). 

The basis of ancient measures was the natural pro- 
portions of the human body ; the digit, or breadth 
of the middle part of the first joint of the fore 
finger, being the lowest unit of the scale. 

The Egyptian cubit (six palms), under the Pha- 
raohs, was about 18.24 English inches ; the cubit 
of Ptolemy about 21.87 inches; he determined 
the length of a stadium, and of a degree. 

The sacred cubit of the Jews (Newton), 247 inches. 

Assyrian weights are described by Mr. Layard in 
his "Nineveh." 

The standard measure was originally kept at Win- 
chester by the law of king Edgar .... 972 

Standards of weights and measures were provided 
for the whole kingdom of England by the sheriffs 
of London, 9 Rich. I. 1197 

A public weighing-machine was set up in London, 
and all commodities ordered to be weighed by the 
city-officer, called the weigh-master, who was to 
do justice between buyer and seller, stat. 3 Edw. 
II. (Stow) 1309 

Edward III. ordered that there should be "one 
weight, measure, and yard, "throughout the king- 
dom 

First statute, directing the use of avoirdupois 
weight, of 24 Hen. VIII. 

Weights and measures ordered to be examined by 
the justices at quarter-sessions, 35 Geo. III. . . 

Again regulated 

Statute for establishing a uniformity of weights and 
measures, 1824, took effect throughout the United 
Kingdom 1 Jan. 

New acts relating thereto passed in 1834, 1835, 1855, 
and in 

16 & 17 Vict. c. 29, regulates the weights to be used 
In the sale of bullion, and adopts the use of the 
Troy ounce 

A commission (consisting of Mr. G. B. Airy, gen. 
E. Sabine, lord Rosse, Mr. T. Graham, and others), 
appointed to examine the standards . 9 May, 
d report of the Standards commission states that 
errors exist in official standards, dated 24 July, 



'JO J 

1532 



1795 
iSuo 



IS26 
1859 



1867 



WEI-HAI-WEI. 



1375 WELLINGTON'S VICTORIES 



A new Weights and Measures act passed to enforce 
uniformity in all markets in the United Kingdom, 
and abolish local measures, 8 Aug. 1878 ; this 
act was combined with another passed 26 July, 
i88q ; another act passed . . . 29 June, 1893 

Weights and Measures (metric system) act passed, 1897 

Specific gravities (unit, pure water): iridium, 22"38; 
platinum, 21 "45 ; osmium, 21 a ; gold, i9'32 ; lead, 
ii"35; silver, io'si ; copper, 8'94 ; iron, 7'87 ; 
tin, 7-29 ; zinc, 7 - i9 ; iodine, 4"95 ; carbon, 3-52 ; 
aluminium, 2's6 ; sulphur, 2; sodium, 097; 
lithium, o'59 ; oxygen, o'ooi43i ; nitrogen, 
o "001257; hydrogen, o '0000896, Dr. 0. J. Broch . 1878 

The 15th annual report of the international com- 
mittee of weights and measures was published at 
Paris 1892 

Internat. congress (third sitting) meets in Paris, 

18 Oct. 1901 
(See Standard and Metrical System.) 

WEI-HAI-WEI, see England, April, 1898. 
Population, 1902, about 123,750. 

WEIMAR, capital of the grand-duchy of Saxe 
Weimar {which see). 

WEINSBERG, see Guelphs. 

WEISMANNISM, see Heredity. 

WEISSENBURG, see Wissembourg. 

WELLINGTON, a town in New Zealand, 
North Island, settled in 1840, made a bishopric in 

1858, became a seat of government, 24 Dec. 1864. 
Population in 1891, 33,224 ; 1901, 49.344. 

WELLINGTON ADMINISTRATION, 

succeeded that of viscount Goderich, Jan. 1828. The 
duke resigned 16 Nov. 1830. 

Duke of Wellington, first lord of the treasury. 

Lord Lyndhurst, lord chancellor. 

Henry Goulburn, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Earl Bathurst, president of the council. 

Lord Bllenborough, privy seed. 

Mr. (afterwards sir) Robert Peel, earl Dudley, and Mr. 

Wm. Huskisson, home, foreign, and colonial secretaries. 
Viscount Melville, board of control. 
Mr. Charles Grant, board of trade. 
Lord Palmerston, secretary -at-war. 
J. C. Hemes, master of the mint. 
Earl of Aberdeen, duchy of Lancaster. 
Mr. Huskisson, earl Dudley, viscount Palmerston, and 

Mr. Grant quitted the ministry, and various changes 

followed in May and June same year. 
The earl of Aberdeen and sir George Murray became, 

respectively, foreign and colonial secretaries. 
Sir Henry Hardinge, secretary-at-icar. 
Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald (afterwards lord Fitzgerald), India 

board. 
Lord Lowther, first commissioner of land revenues, <fec, 

May and June, 1828. 
Mr. Arbuthnot, Mr. Vesey Fitzgerald, &c. 

WELLINGTON COLLEGE (Sandhurst), 
was erected by subscription in memory of the great 
duke of Wellington, for the support and education 
of orphan sons of commissioned officers. The first 
stone was laid by queen Victoria on 2 June, 1856; and 
the building was opened by her majesty on 29 Jan. 

1859. Out of the 159,000/. subscribed, 55,000/. were 
expended on the building, and the rest invested for 
the maintenance of the institution. 

A controversy respecting its management ; certain 
charges explained or rebutted" . . Aug. -Oct. 1878 

Proposal for royal commission of inquiry nega- 
tived in the commons . . . . 1 April, 1879 

Commission appointed ; lord Penzance, bishop of 
Exeter, Mr. R. Lowe (afterwards lord Sher- 
brooke), col. Chesney, &c, June, 1879; report 
recommending greater economy and improve- 
ment of income .... Aujr. 1880 



Much illness among the boys, 3 deaths ; investiga- 
tion of the premises made during 1891 ; the 
scholars were temporarily transferred to Malvern, 
early in 1892 ; good report . . .18 June, 1898 

Queen Victoria visits the college and reviews the 
boys 19 May, 1900 

WELLI NGTONIA GIGANTE A (sequoia), 
the largest tree in the world, a native of Ualifornia T 
was discovered by W. Whitehead, June, 1850 ; a 
specimen first gathered by Mr. W. Lobb in 1853, 
and described by Dr. John Lindley. When full 
grown it is about 450 feet high, and 116 feet in 
circumference. The prince consort (5 June, 1861) 
and the queen (24 July, 1861) planted Welling- 
tonias at the new gardens of the Royal Horti- 
cultural Society. The trees did not live ; the 
gardens were given up in 1887. 

WELLINGTON'S VICTORIES, &c. For 

details see separate articles. 

Arthur Wellesley was born, according to some 
authorities, in March or April (baptized 30 April); 
incorrectly said by others . . 1 May, 1769 

Appointed to command in the Mahratta war in 
India, takes Poonah and Ahmednuggur, 12 Aug. ; 
gains his first victory at Assaye, 23 Sept. ; defeats 
Scindiah at Argaum, Nov. ; and at Gawalghur 

13 Dec. 1803 

Becomes secret ary for Ireland 1807 

Takes the command in Portugal, defeats Junot at 
Vimiera 21 Aug. 1808 

Passes the Douro and defeats Soult . 12 May, 1809 

Defeats Victor at Talavera, 28 July; created 
viscount Wellington .... 4 Sept. ,, 

Repulses Massena at Busaco, 27 Sept. ; and occupies 
the lines at Torres Vedras . . 10 Oct. 1810 

Defeats Massena at Fuentes de Onoro, 5 May ; takes 
Almeida 10 May, i8. r i 

Storms Ciudad Rodrigo, 19 Jan. ; and Badajos, 
6 April ; defeats Marmont at Salamanca, 22 
July ; enters Madrid . . . .12 Aug. 18 12 

Defeats Joseph Bonaparte and Jourdan at Vittoria, 
21 June ; (St. Sebastian stormed by gen. Graham 
(aft. lord Lynedoch), 31 Aug.); enters France, 

8 Oct. 1813 

Defeats Soult at Orthez, 27 Feb. ; and at Toulouse 

10 April, 1814 

Created duke of Wellington, with an annuity of 
13,000?. and a grant of 300,000?. . . May, „ 

First appeared in the house of lords ; his patents 
of creation as baron, earl, marquis, and duke being 
read at the same time . . 28 June, „ 

Commands the army in the Netherlands ; repulses 
an attack of Ney at Quatre Bras, 16 June : defeats 
Napoleon at Waterloo, 18 June ; invests Paris 

3 July, 1815 

Commands the army of occupation in France 

July, 1815, till Nov. 1818 

His assassination attempted by Cantillon, who 
escapes 10 Feb. ,, 

Appointed master-general of the ordnance . . 1819 

The Wellington shield and supporting columns 
designed by Stothard, commemorating all the 
above-mentioned victories, presented to the duke 
by the merchants and bankers of London. (It 
was manufactured by Green and Ward, and cost 
11,000?..) J 16 Feb. 1822 

The duke appointed commander-in-chief, 22 Jan. ; 
resigns 30 April, 1827 

Becomes first minister .... 8 Jan. 182S 

Aids in carrying the Catholic Emancipation bill 

April, 1829 

Asserts that no reform in parliament is needed, 2 
Nov. ; resigns t6 Nov. 1830 

Transacts all the business of the country, after the 
resignation of lord Melbourne, till the arrival of 
sir R. Peel from Italy, Nov. ; and becomes foreign 
secretary under sir R. Peel, Dec. 1834; resigns 

April, 1835 

Again commander-in-chief ... 15 Aug. 1842; 

Dies at Walmer castle* .... 14 Sept. 1852 

* His favourite old horse, Copenhagen, (born 1808. at 
Waterloo), died 1836. 



WELLS. 



1376 



WESLEYAN METHODISTS. 



Removed to Chelsea hospital, where he lay in state 

10 Nov. 1852 

Removed to the Horse Guards . . 17 Nov. ,, 

Public funeral at St. Paul's cathedral . 18 Nov. ,, 

A multitude of all ranks, estimated at a million and a 
half of persons, were congregated in the line of route, 
a distance of three miles, to witness and share in the 
imposing spectacle. 

The military consisted of the household regiments of 
horse and foot guards, the 2nd battalion of the rifles, a 
battalion of the Royal Marines, the 33rd regiment, the 
17th Lancers, and the 18th Light Dragoons, the regi- 
ment of Scots Greys ; a body of Chelsea pensioners, and 
men of different arms of the Indian army. 

The body was placed upon a sumptuous funeral car, 
drawn by twelve horses richly caparisoned, and the 
coffin was thus seen by the whole of the crowd. 

The procession moved about seven o'clock, and it was 
three o'clock before the body was lowered into the 
vault beside the remains of Nelson, under the dome of 
St. Paul's cathedral. 

Memorial by Marochetti erected by the then duke, his 
son, the late duke of Wellington, and tenants at Strath - 
. fieldsaye, July, 1866. 

See Statues. 

Wellington Monument, in St. Paul's. 

A number of models exhibited in Westminster hall ; none 
chosen, 1857. 

The execution of the monument entrusted to Mr. Alfred 
Stevens, sculptor, and Mr. Penrose, architect. The 
stone sarcophagus was completed in 1858. 

In Aug. 1870, above ij,oool. had been expended, and it 
was stated that 15,0002. more were required. Parlia- 
ment had granted 20,000^. Fresh arrangements were 
made with Mr. Stevens. He died 1 May, 1875. Mo- 
nument reported complete, 1 Feb. ; uncovered, 20 
April, 1878. 

The removal of the monument to a different part of the 
cathedral, and the addition of the equestrian statue 
modelled by Mr. Stevens, proposed in April, 1892 ; 
work completed Jan. 1894. 

WELLS were dug by Abraham, 1892 B.C., and 
Isaac, 1804 (Gen. xxi. 30, and xxvi. 19). Danaus 
is said to have introduced well-digging into Greece 
from Egypt. Norton's "tube-well," patented Oct. 
1867, is said to be the invention of Hiram J. 
Messenger, Stephen Brewer, and Byron Mudge, 
Americans of the state of New York. The appa- 
ratus consists of an iron tube perforated with holes 
at the lower end, and shod with a steel point, which 
readily enters the hardest soil when forcibly driven. 
It was used with great advantage during the civil 
war 1861-4; by the British in then campaign in 
Abyssinia in 1867-8 ; and by the Russians in Khiva, 
1873- 
Messrs. Meux, brewers, New Oxford-street, London, 

boring, found water beneath the greensand, about 

1000 feet deep, April, 1S77. 

WELLS (Somerset). The cathedral church 
was built by Ina, king of the West Saxons, 704, and 
by him dedicated to St. Andrew. Other West 
Saxon kings endowed it, and it was erected into a 
bishopric in 909, during the reign of Edward the 
Elder. The present church was begun by Robert, 
18th bishop of this see, and consecrated in 1148, and 
completed by his successors and finally consecrated 
by Jocelin. The first bishop was JEthelm or 
Adelmus (afterwards bishop of Canterbury). The 
see was united with Bath (which see) in 1088. 
Population, 1881, 4,634; 1891,4,822; 1901,4,849. 

WELSH CHARITY SCHOOLS; esta- 
blished in Uray's-inn-road, London, 1715; removed 
to Ashford, near Staines, Middlesex, 1852. Welsh 
National Council, see Wales, Oct. 1887 et seq. 

WELSH CHURCH, see Wales, 1893, 
ct seq. Welsh Land Commission appointed, lord 
Carrington, chairman, March; met 23 May, 1893; 
sittings concluded Nov. 1894; report, with recom- 



mendations, including the establishment of a land 
court, issued, Oct. 1896. Welsh University, see 
Wales, University of. 

WEMBLEY PARK, see Watldn Tower. 

WENDS- a branch of the Slavonic family which 
spread over Germany in the 6th century, and settled 
especially in the north-eastern parts. 

WESLEYAN METHODISTS, a sect 

founded by John Wesley (bom 1703, died 1791) 
and his brother Charles, who in 1727 with a few 
other students formed themselves into a small society 
for the purpose of mutual edification by religious 
exercises. From their strictness of life they were called 
Methodists, in 1729. John Wesley went to Georgia 
in America, in 1735, with a view of converting the 
Indians. On his return to England, in 1738, a great 
change took place in his mind (24 May), he 
commenced itinerant preaching, and gathered many 
followers. On finding many churches shut against 
him, he built spacious meeting-houses in London, 
Bristol, and other places. The Wesleyan Methodist 
society, as such, began in 1 739. For some time he was 
united with George Whitetield; but differing with 
him respecting the doctrine of election, they sepa- 
rated in 1 741; see White field. Wesley was almost 
continually engaged in travelling through the 
United Kingdom. His two leading doctrines were 
the instantaneousness of conversion, and Christian 
perfection, or deliverance from all sin. His society 
was well organised, and ho preserved his influence 
oyer it to the last. " His genius for government 
was not inferior to that of Richelieu." Macaulay. 
The deed of declaration, establishing the conference, 
is dated 28 Feb. 1784. In 185 1 there were 428 
circuits in Great Britain, with between 13,000 and 
14,000 local or lay preachers, and about 920 itine- 
rant preachers, and 6,579 chapels ; 8,993 chapels in 
1902. 

The Conference, the highest Wesleyan court, till 
lately, composed of 100 ministers, who meet 
annually. It was instituted by John Wesley in . 1784 

At the centenary of the existence of Methodism 
216,000^. were collected, to be expended on the 
objects of the society 1839 

An oecumenical conference to be held in the autumn 
of 1881, settled 31 July, 1880 

138th annual conference opened . . 19 July, 1881 

Out of the original connexion have seceded : — 

Chapels in 1851 
New Connexion (1796) 301 ; (1902) . . . 42,929 
Primitive Methodists (1810) 2,871 ; (1902) . 195,651 
Bible Christians, or Bryanites (from Win. O'Bryan) 

(1815) 403 ; (1902) 28,877 

Wesleyan Methodist Association (1834) . . . 329 
Wesleyan Methodist Reformers (1849) • • • 200 ° 
The last arose out of the publication of " Fly 
Sheets," advocating reform in the body (1844-8). 
The suspected authors and their friends were ex- 
pelled. By these disruptions the main body is 
thought to have lost 100,000 members. — This 
sect in America numbered about a million in 
1844, when a division took place on the slavery 
question. 
The United Methodist Free Churches, an amalgamation 
of the Protestant Methodist (1828), Wesleyan 
Methodist Association (1834) and the Wesleyan 
Reform Association (1849), effected in . . 1857 

Wesleyan Methodist church members in Great Bri- 
tain in 1868, 342,380; in 1872, 346,580; in 1876, 
372,538 ; 1878, 380,867 (1412 ministers) ; 1885, 
413,163; March, 1SS9, 421,784; 1892, 424,959; 
1894, 433,350 ; 1902, 525,360. 
Letter from Dr. Pusey requesting aid in opposing 
Coleridge's bill for admitting dissenters to the 
universities, read at the conference, but not 
received . . 13 Aug. 1868 



WESSEX. 



1377 



WESTEEN AUSTEALIA. 



The establishment of a high school for Wesleyans 
at Cambridge (to prepare for the university) pro- 
posed May 

The chapel in the City-road, London, founded by 
John Wesley, i April, 1777, was nearly destroyed 
by Are 7 Dec. 

CEcumenieal Methodist conference (at City-road 
chapel, London), of 400 delegates, ministers, and 
laymen from all parts of the world (representing 
nearly 4,000,000) . . . .6 Sept. el seq. 

Centenary of the death of the celebrated John 
Wesley ; his statue by Mr. Adams Acton, in 
front of the City-road chapel, unveiled by the 



1872 
1879 



Rev. 


D. 


Moulton . . . . 


2 March, 


Confer 


ence at Newcastle-on-Tyne . 


21 July 


,, 




,, Camborne, Cornwall 


. 24 July 


,, 




,, Sheffield (146th) 


23 July 


,, 






July, 


,, 




,, Nottingham (148th) 


21 July, 


,, 




,, Bradford (149th) 


1 Aug. 


,, 




,, Birmingham 


• 23 Jul y, 


,, 




,, Plymouth . 


• 23 July, 


,, 




,, Liverpool 


. 21 July, 



Leeds . ... 20 July 

,, ,, Hull 20 July, 1898 

,, ,, London 24 July, 1899 

,, ,, Burslem .... 30 July, 1900 

,, ,, Newcastle-on-Tyne . . . 23 July, 1901 

,, ,, Manchester (159th) . . 22 July, 1902 

,, ,, Camborne . . . . 21 July, 1903 

^Ecumenical conference at Washington, U.S., 7 Oct. 1891 
The chapel in the City-road, London (restored 
since 2 March, 1891), re-opened by lord Strathcona; - 
a bust of the late Dr. W. F. Moulton unveiled by 
sir Henry Fowler, 7 July, 1899; memorial window 
to bp. Simpson unveiled by Mr. Choate, U.S. 

ambassador 14 Nov. 1902 

Dedication and endowment of John Wesley's house 

in the City-road 2 March, 1898 

The rev. James Hocart, father of the French Wes- 
leyan conference, died, aged 87, end Feb. 1899 ; 
the rev. Hugh Price Hughes, popular preacher, 

died, aged 55 17 Nov. 1902 

The Twentieth Century Million Guineas fund 
started Nov. 1898 ; 944,000^. received up to 2 Feb. 
1903 ; Roy. Aquarium, Westminster, acquired, 
celebration meeting held . . .2 Feb. 1903 

Bicentenary of Wesley's birth celebrated in Wesley's 
chapel, City-road, London, and at Epworth, 

17 June, ,, 
WESSEX, see Britain. 

WEST AFEICAN SETTLEMENTS- 

Sierra Leone, Gambia, &c. Governor, sir Arthur 
S. Kennedy, 1867 ; sir Garnet Wolseley, Aug. 1873 ! 
Cornelius H. Kortright, 1875 ; Dr. Samuel Rowe, 
1876; capt. Arthur E. Havelock, 1881 ; sir 
Samuel Rowe, 1884, died 1888. See Ashantees. 
Turbulent chiefs subdued .... June, 1883 
International conference at Berlin, on West 
African affairs.* Freedom of trade on the Congo ; 
Rights of States occupying open territory ; pro- 
posed by Germany, accepted by France, England, 
Portugal, Spain, Holland, Belgium, the United 

States, and Turkey 8 Oct. 1884 

Conference- opened, prince Bismarck president, 

15 Nov. ,, 
The conference declares free trade in the Congo 
valley and affirms British protectorate over the 
Niger, and recognises the International African 

Association Dec. ,, 

Prohibits slave trade 7 Jan. 1885 

Approves rules for future annexations on the coast 

1 Feb. ,, 
Result of the conference embodied in a general act 

signed 26 Feb. ,, 

International limitations on the lower Congo, settled 

15 Feb. „ 
Delimitation treaty between Great Britain and 
Germany signed at Berlin ... 15 Nov. 1893 

WESTEEN AUSTEALIA, formerly Swan 
Eiver Settlement, which was projected by 

colonel Peel in 1828. Regulations issued from the 
colonial office, and Captain (aft. sir J ames) Stirling, 

'-- • - ■'■••- * Mr. H. Stanley, at Berlin. 



appointed lieut.-gov., Jan. 17, 1829, arrived at the 
appointed site in August following. The three 
towns of Perth, Freemantle, and Guildford were 
founded same year. In March, 1830, fifty ships, 
with 2000 emigrants, with property amounting to 
1,000,000/., had arrived before hardly any dwellings 
had been erected or land surveyed. The more 
energetic settlers left for home, or the neighbouring 
colonies, and the colony languished for twenty years 
for want of suitable inhabitants — the first settlers, 
from their previous habits and rank in life, proving 
unfit for the rough work of colonisation. In 1848, 
the colonists requested that convicts might be sent 
out to them, and in 1849 a band arrived, who were 
kindly received and well treated. The best results 
ensued. By 1853, 2000 had arrived, and the in 
habitants of Perth had requested that 1000 should 
be sent out annually. The reception of convicts is 
to cease in after-years, in consequence of the ener- 
getic opposition of the other Australian colonies 
(1865). — The settlement of King George's Sound 
was founded in 1826 by the government of New 
South Wales. It was used as a military station for 
four years. In 1830, the home government ordered 
the settlement to be transferred to Swan River. 
Since the establishment of steam communication, 
the lit tie town of Albany here, employed as a coal- 
ing station, has become a thriving sea-port. It 
possesses an excellent harbour, used by whalers. A 
journal called the Freemantle Gazette was published 
here in March, 1831. Bishopric of Perth founded 
1857. Population of Western Australia in 1859, 
14,837; Dec. 1883, 31,233; April, 1891,49,782; 1901, 
187,660; 1887, revenue, 377,903/.; expenditure, 
456,897/.; imports, 832,213/.; exports, 604,656/.; 
1890, revenue, 414,314/. ; expenditure, 401,737/. ; 
imports, 874,447/.; exports, 671,813/.; 1893, re- 
venue, 570,651/.; expenditure, 640,801/.; imports, 
1,494,438/.; exports, 918,147/.; 1895-6, revenue, 
2,440,390/.; 1896-7, revenue, 2,842,751/.; expen- 
diture, 2,839,453/. ; 1901-02, surplus, 123,194/. 
Governor John Stephen Hampton, appointed 1861; 
sir Benjamin C. C. Pine, May, 1868; Frederick A. 
Weld, 1869; Wm. C. F. Robinson, 1874; major- 
gen, sir Harry St. George Ord, 1877; sir W. F. 
Robinson, 1880; sir Frederick Napier Broome, 1882; 
sir William C. F. Robinson, Aug. 1889; col. sir 
Gerard Smith, Sept. 1895 > sir Arthur Lawley, Jan. 
1 90 1 ; ad in. sir F, Bedford, Jan. 1903. 

New gold field at Perth discovered, May ; gold dis- 
covered in N.W. Australia. . . (?) May, 1886 

The legislative council petition for responsible 
self-government instead of being a crown colony, 
autumn, 1887 ; a bill granting this was passed by 
the house of lords, 16 July, withdrawn in the 
commons, Aug. 1889 ; re-introduced and received 
the royal assent, 25 July ; proclaimed at Perth, 
with great rejoicings .... 22 Oct. 1890 

The hon. John Forrest forms the first ministry, 28 
Dec. ; the first parliament meets . 20 Jan. 1891 

Bill granting virtual manhood suffrage passed 

6 Oct. 1893 

Prosperous budget : revenue, 961, 670Z. ; expendi- 
ture, 934,5082 28 Sept. 1894 

The Gold Fields National league formed at Perth, 

Nov. 1895 

Railway opened from Perth to Coolgardie, by the 
governor ..... 23 March, 1896 

Constitutional Reform bill read 2nd time in the 
legislative assembly . . . 31 July, ,, 

The Mueller botanical society established at Perth, 

June, 1897 

Death of Mr. Wm. E. Powell Giles at Coolgardie, . 
successful explorer . . . .23 Nov. ,, 

Foundation-stone of the Gold Fields cathedral laid ,, . 
by sir Gerard Smith at Coolgardie . 30 Nov. „ 

New railway line from Coolgardie to Menzies, . 
opened . ... . 22 March, 1898 

4 T 



WESTERN CHURCH. 



1378 



WEST INDIES. 



Early closing act passed by the assembly, 28 Oct. 1898 
Exhibition at Coolgardie opened by the governor, 

21 March, 1899 
Federation proposals rejected by the legislative 

council early Dec. ,, 

Federal Enabling bill passed by the council, 

7 June, 1900 
Commonwealth bill adopted on the referendum. 

by 44,704 — 19,691, the federation of Australia 

thereby completed 1 Aug. ,, 

Sir J. Forrest's budget statement, 1899; surplus, 

79,900?. ....... 9 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Throssel succeeds sir J. Forrest as premier, 

Feb. 1901; Mr. G. Leake forms a cabinet, 

27 May, 1901 
The ministry, defeated, resigns, 10, 12 Nov.; Mr. 

Morgan forms one, 18 Nov., resigns, and Mr. 

George Leake premier, 20 Dec; dies 24 June, 

1902; succeeded by Mr. James . 30 June, ,, 

Good rains, revenue increasing, reported, 11 Sept. ,, 
The Coolgardie water supply inaugurated by sir 

J. Forrest 24 Jan. 1903 

WESTERN CHURCH (called also the 
Latin or .Roman) broke oil' communion with the 
Greek or Eastern Church, 653 ; see Greek Church. 
Its history is mainly comprised in that of the popes 
and of the European kingdoms ; see Popes. This 
church was disturbed by the Arian heresy about 
345 and 500 ; by Pelagianism, about 409 ; by the 
introduction of image-worship about 600; by the 
injunction of the celibacy of the clergy and the rise 
of the monastic orders about 649 ; by the contests 
between the emperors and the popes respecting 
ecclesiastical investitures between 1073 and 1 173; 
by the rise and progress of the Reformation in the 
15th and 16th centuries; by the contests between 
the Jesuits and Jansenists in the 17th and 18th 
centuries; and by the progress of modern philosophy 
and rationalism, and by ultramontanism, in the 
19th; see Roman Catholics. 

WESTERN EMPIRE. The Roman empire 
was divided into Eastern and Western by Dio- 
cletian in 296; but was reunited under Constans 
in 340. It was again divided into Eastern and 
Western by Valentinian and Valens, the former 
having the Western portion or Rome, 364; see 
Eastern Empire, Italy, and Rome. 

EMPERORS. 

364. Valentinian, son of Gratian, takes the Western, and 
his brother Valens the Eastern empire. 

367. Gratian, a youth, son of Valentinian, made a col- 
league in the government by his father. 

375. Valentinian II., another son, also veiy young, is, on 
the death of his father, associated with Gratian, 
who is assassinated by his general, Andragathius 
in 383. Valentinian murdered by one of his officers, 
Arbogastes, in 392. 

392. Eugenius, a usurper, assumes the imperial dignity ; 
he and Arbogastes are defeated by 

394. Theodosius the Great, who becomes sole emperor. 
[Andragathius threw himself into the sea, and Arbo- 
gastes died by his own hand.] 

395. HoJiorius, son of Theodosius, reigns, on his father's 

death, in the West, and his brother Arcadius in 
the East. Honorins dies in 423. 

423. Usurpation of John, the Notary, defeated and slain 
near Ravenna. 

425. Valentinian III., son of the empress Placidia, daugh- 
ter of Theodosius the Great : murdered at the in- 
stance of his successor 

455. Maximus : he marries Eudoxia, widow of Valen- 
tinian, who, to avenge the death of her first 
husband and the guilt of her second, invites the 
African Vandals into Italy, and Rome is sacked. 
Maximus stoned to death. 

455. Marcus Mseeilius Avitus ; forced to resign, and dies 
in his flight towards the Alps. 

457. Julius Valerius Majorianus ; murdered at the instance 
of his minister, Ricimer, who raises 

461. Libius Severus to the throne, but holds the supreme 
power; Severus poisoned by Ricimer. 



465. [Interregnum. Ricimer retains the authority! with- 
out assuming the title of emperor.] 

467. Anthemius, chosen by the joint suffrages of the 
senate and army ; murdered by Ricimer, who dies 
soon after. 

472. Flavius-Anicius Olybrius : slain 1>y the Goths soon 

after his accession. 

473. Glycerius : forced to abdicate by his successor, 

474. Julius Nepos : deposed by his general, Orestes, and 

retires to Salome. 

475. Romulus (called Augustulus, or Little Augustus), 

son of Orestes. Orestes is slain, and the emperor 
deposed by 

476. Odoacer, king of the Heruli : takes R©me, assumes 

the style of king of Italy, and completes the fall of 
the Western empire. 

See Italy, Home, and Germany. 

WEST HAM, S.W. Essex (called London 
over the border), parish containing Plaistow, Strat- 
ford, &c, the population in 1841, 12,738; owing to> 
the large increase of factories and other works rose 
to 99,142 in 1871, and 200,7152 in 1881 ; 1891, 
365,130; 1901,367,308. 

West Ham returns two M.P.'s by the act of 1885 ; and 
was incorporated by royal charter, July, 1886. West 
Ham is outside of the jurisdiction of the metropolitan! 
board of works. The dreadful sanitary condition of 
1855 gradually improved by the action of a new local 
board, now succeeded by a municipal corporation. 
Rateable value 79,000?. in 1856; nearly 700,000/. in 1886. 

The Essex museum of Nat. History opened, and 
the Municipal Technical institute, recently 
burnt down, reopened by Mr. Passmore Edwards, 

18 Oct. 1900 

The 8th free picture exhibition opened by Mr. 
Seymour Lucas, R.A. ... 26 April, 1902 

WESTERN ISLES of Scotland. Royal 

commission to inquire into extreme destitution ap- 
pointed 20 March, 1883 (lord Napier and Ettrick, 
Mr. Donald Cameron, M.P., and others). See 
Mansion House. 

WESTERN PACIFIC ISLANDS ; under 
a high commissioner, the governor of Fiji {which 
see). 

WESTERN TERRITORIES, North British 
America, contain four districts, Assiniboia, Saskat- 
chewan, Alberta, and Athabasca, formed by the Do- 
minion government in 1882. They were part of the 
Hudson Bay territories till 1870, when they were an- 
nexed to Canada. The Yukon, Mackenzie, Frank- 
lin, and Ungana annexed 1895. Population in 
1891, about 67,554; 1901,220,000. Capital, Regina. 
Lieut. -gov., Joseph Royal (1891 ; died, 23 Aug. 
1902); C. H. M'Intosh (1894); M. C. Cameron, 
May (1898), died Sept. ; Amadee E. Forget, 1898. 

The north-west territories constituted a province, 

Oct. 1897 
The legislature opened at Regina . . 28 Oct. ,, 
Visit of the duke and duchess of Cornwall, 27 Sept. 1901 

WEST INDIES, islands discovered by Colum- 
bus, St. Salvador being the first land he made in 
the New World, and first seen by him in the night 
between the nth and 12th Oct. 1492. The largest 
are Cuba, Hayti (or St. Domingo), Jamaica, Porto 
Rico, Trinidad, and Guadaloupe ; see the Islands 
respectively ; Denmark, 24 Jan. 1902. 

A royal commission to inquire into their condition ap- 
pointed in 1882, reported on their great need of im- 
portant judicial and fiscal reforms April, 1884 : De- 
pressed condition|through increased use of beet sugar ; 
inadmissible remedies proposed by deputation to 
lord Derby, 28 Aug. 1884. 

A royal commission of inquiry appointed, sir Henry 
Wylie Norman, sir Edw. Grey, sir David Barbour, and 
others, Dec. 1896 ; began taking evidence in British 
Guiana, end of Jan. 1807; 'depressing report as to 
sugar, 1 Oct. 1897 ; the islands sutler through sugar 



WEST INDIAN SETTLEMENTS. 1379 



WESTMINSTER ABBEY. 



bounties in foreign countries ; grants in aid annually I 
voted by parliament. 

Terrible hurricane, tremendous rain and tidal 
wave, great loss of life and destruction of pro- 
perty, thousands homeless, over 300 deaths at 
St. Vincent, 87 deaths at Barbadoes, Guadaloupe, 
and St. Lucia .... 10-12 Sept. 1898 

Relief fund opened at the Mansion house, and 
at Kingston, Jamaica, 17 Sept. ; 250L from the 
queen and 1052. from the prince of Wales, 27 Sept. ,, 

Government grants for the restoration of damaged 
property, 40,000?. to Barbadoes, 25,000?. to St. 
Vincent, and a loan of 50,000'. to each island, 
announced 10 March, 1899 

Treaty for reciprocal trade between United States 
and West Indies signed at Washington, 16 June, ,, 

Dreadful hurricane, Monserrat devastated; great loss 
of life and destruction of property throughout 
the islands, 7-14 Aug. ; relief works opened, see 
Mansion house Aug. ,, 

West Indian agricultural (2nd) conference opened 
at Barbadoes 6 Jan. 1900 

Grand Bourg in the French island of Marie Galante 
nearly destroyed by fire . . 18, 19 Aug. 1901 

Fearful volcanic eruptions, see Martinique and 
Vincent, St May, 1902 

Imperial government grants 250,000?. to the West 
Indies July, ,, 

Hurricane, causing great damage . . 10 Aug. 1903 

Government grant of 50,000?. for relief of planters, 

end Aug. ,, 

WEST INDIAN SETTLEMENTS, see 

Jamaica. 

WESTMINSTER, so called on account of its 
western situation with regard to St. Paul's cathe- 
dral, or from there being formerly a monastery 
named East Minster, on the hill now called Great 
Tower-hill. This city joins London at Temple-bar. 
Formerly Westminster was called Thorney, or 
Thorn ey Island: and in ancient times Canute had 
a palace here, burnt in 1263. Westminster and 
London were one mile asunder in 1603, when the 
houses were thatched, and there were mud walls in 
the Strand. It is said that the great number of 
Scotsmen who came over after the accession of 
James I. occasioned the building of Westminster, and 
united it with London. Jfowel's Londinopolis. 
See Parliament, 1834-52, 1884. By the Seats act 
of 1885, Westminster returns one M.P. Population, 
Westminster (borough), 1881, 46,549; 1891, 37,295, 
Strand, 1881, 32,587; 1891,25,107. St. George's, 
Hanover-sq., 1881, 149,748; 1891, 134,122; 1901, 
182,977. Westminster reconstituted a city under 
the London Government act, 1899 (10 aldermen, 
60 councillors) ; the duke of Norfolk first mayor, 
his portrait unveiled in the council chamber, 12 Feb. 
1903. See under Roman Catholics. 
Earl Grosvenor created marquis of Westminster, 

1831 ; the marquis created duke . . . . 1874 
Westminster industrial exhibition, opened 24 May, 

closed 9 Au 8- l8 ?9 

Baroness Burdett-Coutts lays foundation of New 
Town Hall, near Victoria Street, 29 March, 1882 ; 

opened 19 July, 1883 

The prince of Wales lays the foundation stone of 
St. Martin's municipal buildings, &c, 18 March, 
1890; which are opened by Mr. A. J. Balfour, 16 
July, 1891 ; bust of Mr. W. H. Smith unveiled 
by Mr. A. J. Balfour ... 13 June, 1893 

Foundation stone of the R. C. Cathedral laid by 

cardinal Vaughan 29 June, 1895 

Collapse of Abbey mansions, Orchard-st., 7 men 

killed : . 21 April, 1898 

Bill for the improvement of Westminster and exten- 
sion of the embankment, rejected by the commons, 

336—84 26 April, ,, 

New municipal building, formerly St. Martin's 
town-hall, enlarged, &c, opened by the duke of 
Cambridge 29 May, 1902 

WESTMINSTER ABBEY. Christopher 
Wren, in his survey of the present edifice, found 



nothing to countenance the belief that it was erected 
on the ruins of a pagan temple. The erection of 
the first abbey in the 7th century is ascribed to St. 
Sebert, king of Essex. 

The church becoming ruinous, splendidly rebuilt by 
Edward the Confessor (1055-65) and filled with 
monks from Exeter (Pope Nicholas II. constituted 
it the place for the inauguration of the kings of 
England); dedicated .... 28 Dec. 1065 

Rebuilt in a magnificent style by Henry III. 1220-69 

In the reigns of Edward II. , Edward III. , and- • 
Richard II. the great cloisters, abbot's house, and 
principal monastic buildings, erected . . 1300-1400 

The western parts of the nave and aisles rebuilt 
between 1340 and 1483 

The west front and the great window built by 
Richard III. and Henry VII. ; the latter com- 
menced the chapel which bears his name ; the first 
stone laid 24 Jan. 1502-3 

The abbey dissolved and made a bishopric . . 1540 

Made a collegiate church by Elizabeth . . . 1560 

Made a barrack for soldiers (Mereurius Rusticus), 

July, 1643 

The great west window and the western towers re- 
built in the reigns of George I. and II. . . 1714-60 

The choir injured by fire . . . .9 July, 1803 

Mr. Wyatt commenced restoring the dilapidated 
parts at an expense of 42,000/. in . . . . 1809 

A fire, without any serious injury . 27 April, 1829 

The evening services for the working classes, when 
a sermon was preached by the dean, Dr. Trench, 
commenced on 3 Jan. 1858 

The 800th anniversary of the foundation celebrated, 

28 Dec. 1865 

7000?. voted by parliament to restore the chapter- 
house (G. Gilbert Scott employed), 1 May, 1866 ; 
l'f.-opened 29 April, 1872 

Lectures in the Abbey on foreign missions : pro- 
ff ssor Max Miiller, a layman, 3 Dec. 1873 ; prin- 
cipal Caird, of Scotch church, 30 Nov. 1874 ; rev. 
Robert Moffat, father-in-law of Livingstone 

30 Nov. 1875 

Sir Charles Lyell, sir Wm. Sterndale Bennett, and 
bishop Connop Tliirlwall, buried in the Abbey, 
1875 ; G. E. Street, 29 Dec. 1881 ; C. K. Darwin, 
26 April, 1882 ; Robert Browning, 30 Dec. 1889 ; 
lord Tennyson, 12 Oct. 1892 ; W. E. Gladstone, 

28 May iSoS 

Repairs connected with the principal entrance after 
uesigns by Gilbert Scott, completed at a cost of 
about 20,000?. ...... Nov. 1881 

New Abbey gardens opened . . .12 April, 1882 

New organ set up ..... May, 1884 

Thanksgiving jubilee services for the queen ( see 
Jubilee) 21, 22 June, 1887 

Proposed transfer of the charge of restoring and 
maintaining the abbey to the ecclesiastical com- 
missioners who are to advance 10,000?. March; 
legalised by act passed . . . 28 June, 1888 

Royal commission appointed to inquire in regard 
to the facilities for the interment of illustrious 
persons : the dean Bradley, sir F. Leighton, Mr. 
Alfred Waterhouse, and others, 29 April ; report 
indecisive June, 1891 

Restoration of the extei ior of the north transept, as 
designed by sir Gilbert Scott, completed June, 1890 

Special service on the death of sir John Macdonald, 
premier of Canada . . . .12 June, 1891 

Memorial window and a bust to James Russell 
Lowell in the chapter house unveiled by Mr. 
Leslie Stephen 28 Nov. 1893 

Mr. H. Yates Thompson offers 38,000?. for the 
erection of a monumental chapel, under certain 
conditions Feb. 1894 

Houses in Old Palace Yard ordered to be de- 
molished June, 

New " Celestial organ " with electric action (con- 
nected with the other in the choir), built by 
Messrs. W. Hill and Son, presented by Mr. A. D. 
Clarke, inaugurated by prof. J F. Bridge (knt. 
June, 1897) 16 July, ,. 

"Annals of Westminster Abbey," by Mrs. A. Murray 
Smith, daughter of Dean Bradley, published, Nov. 
(" The Roll of the Abbey," by her, July, 1902) . „ 

A bust of sir Walter Scott unveiled by the duke of 

Buccleuch 21 May, 1897 

4 T 2 



WESTMINSTER AQUARIUM. 1380 



WESTPHALIA. 



Medallion of John Ruskin unveiled by Mrs. Arthur 
Severn 8 Feb. 1902 

A fine " annexe " of the Abbey, designed by Mr. A. 
Y. Nutt, built and used for the coronation (June), 
9 Aug ; the statues of the seven Edwards re- 
moved to Windsor castle .... Aug. ,, 

Coronation of king Edward VII. and queen Alex- 
andra .... . . 9 Aug. , , 

The abbey and coronation fittings viewed by 96,907 
persons (receipts over 4, 949Z.) . . 12-19 Aug. » 

Memorial window to the late duke of Westminster, 
s. transept dedicated . . . .26 Sept. ,, 

WESTMINSTER AQUARIUM, see 

Aquarium. 

WESTMINSTER . BISHOPRICS and 
DEANERY. At the dissolution of monasteries, 
Westminster » bbey was valued at 3977^. per annum ; 
king Henry VIII. in 1539 erected it into a deanery ; 
and in 1540 into a bishopric, and appointed Thomas 
Thirlby prelate. B e was translated to Norwich in 
1550, and with him ended the bishopric of West- 
minster; Middlesex, his diocese, being restored to 
London. The dean presided until the acctssion of 
Mary, who restored the abbot. Elizabeth displased 
the abbot, and erected the abbey into a colleg'ae 
church of a dean and twelve prebendaries, as it 
still continues. On the revival of the order of the 
Bath, in 1725, the dean of Westminster was ap- 
pointed dean of that order, which honour has been 
•continued. Dr. Nicholas Wisemsn was created arch- 
bishop of Westminster by the pope Pius IX. 30 Sept. 
1850; sec Papal Aggression. Dr. Wiseman died 
8 Feb. 1865 ; Henry Manning w^s consecrated his 
successor 8 June, following; he died 14 Jan. 1892, 
and was succeeded by Dr. Herbert Vaughan about 
30 March : enthroned 8 May ; invested with the 
pallium, the first since 155b, 16 Aug. 1892 ; died 
19 June, 1903, succeeded by Dr. Bourne, Aug. 24, 
enthroned 24 Dec. 1903. See Roman Catholics. 

RECENT DEANS. 

793. Samuel Horsley ; bishop of St. Asaph, 1802. 
802. William Vincent ; died 21 Dec. 1815. 
815. John Ireland ; died 21 Sept. 1842. 
842. Thomas Turton ; bishop of Ely, 1845. 

845. Samuel Wilberforce ; bishop of Oxford, 1846. 

846. William Buckland ; died 14 Aug. 1856. 

856. Richard C. Trench ; abp. of Dublin, 1 Jan. 1864. 
864. Arthur Penrhyn Stanley ; died 18 July, 1881. 
881. George Granville Bradley, 14 Sept. ; resigned, 1902 ; 
died, 13 March, 1903. 
1902. Joseph Armitage Robinson, 28 Oct. 

WESTMINSTER BRIDGES. The hand- 
some old bridge was begun (after a design of M. 
Labelye), 13 Sept. 1738, the first stone laid 29 Jan. 
1738-9; opened for passengers 18 Nov. 1750; cost 
426,650^. It was built of Portland stone, and crossed 
the river where the breadth is 1223 feet. 
Owing to the sinking of several of its piers, most 
of the balustrades on both sides were removed, to 
relieve the structure of its weight. 
By 16 & 17 Vict. c. 46 the estates of its commis- 
sioners were transferred to her majesty's commis- 
sioners of works, who were empowered to remove 
the then existing bridge, and build a new 
bridge (near the old one) . . . .4 Aug. 1853 

The contract required the completion of the works 
by ... . .... 1 June, 1857 

The works were suspended for a time, in conse- 
quence of the failure of Messrs. Mare the contrac- 
tors. The government eventually undertook the 
building, which they entrusted to Mr. Thomas 
Page, the engineer. One half of the new bridge 
was opened for use early in i860; the whole on 

24 May, 1862 

WESTMINSTER Confession of Faith 

AND CATECHISMS were drawn up by the "Assem- 
bly of Divines" (partly consisting of laymen), who 
sat by authority of parliament in Henry VII. 's 



chapel, Westminster, from 1643 to 1647. These 
have ever since been the doctrinal standards of 
Scotch Presbyterians. 

WESTMINSTER HALL (London), first 
built by William Eufus in 1097, for a banqueting- 
hall; and here in 1099, on his return from Nor- 
mandy, "he kept his feast of Whitsuntide very 
royally." The hall became ruinous before the 
reign of ltichard II., who repaired it in 1397, raised 
the walls, altered the windows, and added a new 
roof, as well as a stately porch and other buildings. 
In 1236 Henry III. on New-year's day caused 6000 
poor persons to be entertained in this hall, and in 
the other rooms of his palace, as a celebration of 
queen Eleanor's coronation; and here Richard II. 
held his Christmas festival in 1397, when the num- 
ber of the guests each day the feast lasted was 
10,000. Stow. The courts of law were established 
here by king John. Idem. Westminster hail was 
stated to be the largest room in Europe unsupported 
by pillars (except a hall of justice at Padua) ; it is 
270 feet in length, 74 feet broad. The hall under- 
went a general repair in 1802. Concurrently with 
the erection of the palace of Westminster, many 
improvements and alterations have lately been 
made in this magnificent hall. The Volunteer 
Rifle corps were drilled in the hall in the winter of 
1859, and since. The courts of law removed to the 
new buildings in the Strand Jan. 1883. Restora- 
tions proposed by Mr. J. L. Pearson, R.A., July, 
1884. The roof and windows greatly damaged by an 
explosion of dynamite (?) about 2 p.m. 24 Jan. 1885. 

WESTMINSTER HOSPITAL, founded, 
1719; chartered, 1836. 

WESTMINSTER PALACE, see under 

Palace of Westminster and Parliament. 

WESTMINSTER REVIEW, liberal in reli- 
gion and politics, first appeared, 1824, as the organ 
of the philosophic radicals, termed the Westminster 
school, friends of Jeremy Bentham. See Utili- 
tarianism. 

WESTMINSTER SCHOOL or St. Peter's 

COLLEGE, was founded by queen Elizabeth in 1560, 
for the education of forty boys, denominated the 
Queen's scholars, who are prepared for the univer- 
sity. It is situated within the abbey enclosure. 
Besides the scholars on the foundation, many of the 
nobility and gentry send their sons to Westminster 
for instruction. The annual performance by the 
scholars of a Latin play is in conformity- with the 
statute of queen Elizabeth. A proposal in i860 to 
remove the school was disapproved of in 1861. 
Westminster Schools, United, comprise Emanuel and 
St. Margaret's hospitals, and rev. James Palmer's and 
Emery Hill's school charities, which were abolished 
by the endowed school commissioners 27 June, 1873. 
New schools are to be erected. 
Bicentenary celebration of the death of Dr. Richard 
Busby, 6 April. 1695 (headmaster 1638-95); exhibi- 
tion of portraits, &c, iSNov. 1S95. 

WESTMINSTER, Statutes of, are 3 and 

13 Edward I., 12715-90 ; see Acts of Parliament. 

WESTMORELAND. This county and Cum- 
berland were granted as a fief to Malcolm of Scot- 
land by Edward the Elder in 945 ; but resumed by 
Henry III. in 1237. Neville, earl of Westmore- 
land, revolted against Elizabeth in 1569, and was 
attainted in 1570. Woodland and meadows acquired 
by the National Trust declared open by the princess 
Louise, 15 Oct. iqo2. 

WESTPHALIA (Germany). This duchy be- 
longed in former times to the dukes of Saxony, and 
afterwards became subject to the archbishop of 



WESTPHALIA, PEACE OF. 



1381 



WHEAT. 



Cologne. On the secularisation in 1802, it was 
made over to Hesse Darmstadt; and in 1814 was 
ceded for an equivalent to Prussia. The kingdom 
of Westphalia, one of the temporary kingdoms of 
Bonaparte, composed of conquests from Prussia, 
Hesse-Cassel, Hanover, and the smaller states to 
the west of the Elbe, was created by decree 18 Aug. 

1806, and Jerome Bonaparte appointed king, 1 Dec. 

1807. Hanover was annexed to it, 1 March, 1810. 
The kingdom was abolished in 1813, and the coun- 
tries were restored to their former rulers. 

Through strike of the coal miners for increased pay 
and shorter hours of labour, Herr Krupp, of Essen, 
had to stop his iron and steel works at several places 
for want of coal about 4 May. A conflict took place 
near Gladbeck between the troops and miners, and 
three miners were killed, 7 May ; the owners stand Arm ; 
about 39,000 men on strike, 8 May ; nearly 100,000 
strikers out, 13 May ; the government intervenes to 
effect a compromise, about 13 May ; the emperor 
receives three delegates from miners, 14 May, and 
advises both parties to come to a compromise, about 
15, 16 May; strike spreading to Silesia &c, 15 May; 
strikers in Westphalia about 110,000, in Silesia 10,000, 
16 May — 20 May ; 40 members of the striking com- 
mittee arrested 26 May ; strike ends by a com- 
promise, 31 May, 1889. Fresh demands of the miners 
(increase of 50 per cent, of wages, shorter hours, &c), 
rejected by the masters, 23 Jan. 1890. 

Explosion at the Hibernia pit, near Gilsenkirchen," 
about 44 deaths, reported ... 25 Jan. 1891 

Great strike of coal miners near Essen, about 15,000 
men out, 19 April ; close of strike, reported, 

3 May, ,, 

Colliery explosion at Hamme, 115 deaths, 17 Feb. 1898 

Rhenish -Westplialian exhibition at Diisseldorf 
opened by the crown prince . . 1 May, 1902 

WESTPHALIA or Munster, Peace of ; 

the treaties signed at Osnaburg 6 Aug., and at 
M iinster 24 Oct. 1648, between France, the emperor, 
and Sweden ; Spam continuing the war against 
France. By this peace (ending the thirty years' 
war) the principle of a balance of power in Europe 
was first recognised ; Alsace given to France, and 
part of Pomerania and some other districts to 
Sweden ; the Lower Palatinate restored to the 
elector palatine ; the religious and political rights 
of the German states established ; and the inde- 
pendence of the Swiss Confederation recognised by 
Germany. 

WEST SAXONS, see Wessex, in Britain. 

WEYMOUTH, Dorsetshire, Was given by 
Henry I. to St. Swithin's, Winchester. Taken 
from Charles L, by the parliamentarians, 1644; 
visited and brought into note by George III., 1789. 
First Dorset industrial exhibition was opened here, 
25 July, 1878. Statue of queen Victoria unveiled 
by princess Henry of Battenburg, 20 Oct. 1902. 
Princess Christian Sanitorium (cost 15,000/.), 
opened, 19 Nov. 1902. Population 1901, 22,000. 

WHALE-FISHERY, it is said, was first 
carried on by the Norwegians in the ninth century. 
Lenglet. Whales were killed at Newfoundland and 
Iceland, for their oil only, 1578; the use of their 
fins and bones was not yet known, consequently (a 
writer adds) no stays were worn by the ladies. The 
English whale-fishing commenced at Spitzbergen in 
1598; but the Dutch had been previously fishing 
there. The fishery was much promoted by an act of 
parliament passed in 1749. From 1 800 to 2000 
whales have been killed annually on the coast of 
Greenland, &c. The quantity of whale-oil imported 
in 1814 was 33,567 tuns ; in 1826, when gas-light 
became general, 25,000 tuns; in 1840, about 22,000 



tuns; in 1850, 21.360 tuns; in 1861, 19,176 tuns; 
in 1864, 14,701 tuns; in 1867, 15,945 tuns; in 187 1, 
24,679 tuns: in 1872 18.719 tuns; in 1878, 20,656 
tuns; in 1883, 17,156 tuns; in 1887, 17,698 tuns; 
in 1890, 20,307 tuns. A living whale from Labrador, 
9 feet 6 inches long, placed in the Westminster 
aquarium, 26 Sept., died 29 Sept. 1877. White 
whale (Beluga) , arrived 28 May ; died in latter part 
of June. 159 bottlenosed whales cnptured at Barns, 
Tankerness, near Kirkwall, 20 Nov. 1889; 166 
captured at Hillswick, Shetland, 6 Sept. 1902. 

WHARNCLIFFE MEETINGS of public 
companies (held to give enlarged powers under 
certain prescribed conditions) are so called because 
the standing orders of the house of lords, under 
which they are held, were introduced by lord 
Wharncliffe, about 1846. 

WHEAT. The Chinese ascribe to their empe- 
ror, Ching-Noung, who succeeded Fohi, the art of 
husbandry, and method of making bread from 
wheat, about 2000 years before the Christian era. 
Wheat was introduced into Britain in the 6th cen- 
tury, by Coll ap Coll Frewi. Roberts. The first 
wheat imported into England of which we have a 
note was in 1347. Various statutes have regulated 
the sales of wheat, and restrained its importation, 
in order to encourage its being raised at home. 
In 1862 attention was drawn to the probable 
utility of considering the pedigree of wheat. In 
1871 it was estimated that 3,571,894 acres in the 
United Kingdom were devoted to wheat; in 1876,. 
3,124,342. See Bread and Corn Lava. Greatest 
producers (in order), United Stores, Russia, France, 
Great Britain, &c. The wheat crop for Great 
Britain is said to have yielded 71,939,647 bushels in 
1888; 37,176,257 in 1895. See Corner, 1898, and 
Agriculture, 1843. "The Wheat Problem," by 
sir Wm. Crookes, published, 1899. Steady shrink- 
age of area assigned to wheat, reported, Sept. 1901. 



IMPORTED INTO THE 

Wheat. 
354, 2,656,455 qrs. 
861, 29,955,532 „ 
864, 23,196,714 civts. 

., 23,156,329 „ 

868, 32,639,768 ,, 

. 39-389.803 ,, 

874, 41,527,638 ,, 

877, 54,269,800 ,, 

9. 59»59 1 '795 „ 

o, 55,261,924 „ 

; i, 57,147.933 .. 



884, 47,306,156 

885, 6i : 

886, 47 

887, 55 
57 



1890, 60, 
66, 

892, 64. 

893, 65 

894, 7°: 

895, 8l 

896, 70 

897, 62, 

;,6 5 , 

899, 66 

900, 68 
1901, 69, 
902, 81, 



435,806 
,802,518 
,261,363 
,551,887 
,474,180 
,312,962 
,901,799 
,461,988 
,126,232 
,749,955 
025,980 
740,180 
227,930 
636,078 
669,490 

747, 8 3o 
002,227 



UNITED KINGDOM. 

Flour. 
6,329,038 outs. 
6,152,938 
4,512, 391 
4,972,280 
3,093,022 

3,977,933 
6,236,044 

7,377,303 

10,728,252 
10,558,312 
n,357,38i 
16,329,312 
i5,o95,3 01 
15,832,843 
14,689,560 
18,063,234 
16,910,442 
14,672,082 

15,773,33° 
16,723,003 
22,106,009 
20,408,168 
19,134,605 
18,368,410 
21,320,200 
18,680,669 
21,017,109 
22,945,708 
21,548,131 
22,575,230 
i9>3 86 ,34 T 



WHEEL, BREAKING ON THE. 1382 



WHITEBAIT DINNER. 



VALUE OF WHEAT IMPORTED INTO THE t'NITED KINGDOM. 



1854 
l85S 
l8 5 6 
1857 



1S62 

J 863 



1865 
1866 



1871 
1872 
1873 

1874 
1875 



£".093.737 
9,679,578 
12,716,349 
9,563,099 
9,050,467 
8,713,532 
16,554,083 
19,051,464 
23,203,800 
12,015,006 
10,674,654 
9,775,616 
12,983,090 
24,985,096 
22,069,353 
19,515.758 
16,264,027 
2 3 ,3'8,88 3 
26,169,185 
28,538,746 
25,236,932 
27,510,469 



1876 
1877 



1900 
1901 



£23,178,011 
33,885,437 
27,433,444 
31,468,171 
30,621,711 

3i.53i.535 

34,259,126 
31,454,481 
19,901,794 
24,085,913 
17,909,630 
21,337,918 
21,995,974 
22,510,502 
23,583,844 
29,448,204 
24,857,902 
21,070,028 
18,760,505 
22,281,219 
23,345,929 
23,081,372 



Average Annual Price per Quarter in England and Wales. 

s. d. 



1805 
1810 
1815 
1820 
1825 
1830 
J 835 
1840 
i'8 4 5 
1850 
1855 



s. d. 

119 6 

89 9 
106 5 

65 7 

67 10 

68 6 

66 4 

39 4 
66 4 
50 10 

40 3 
74 



'875 
1S76 

53 3 I 1877 



s. d. 

41 10 I 1878 
49 11 ! 1879 
64 5 1880 
63 9 ; 1881 
48 2 1882 
46 10 ' 1883 

56 8 1 1884 

57 o j 1885 

58 8 1886 

55 8 I 1S87 

45 2 : 1888 

46 2 1889 

56 9 I 1890 



s. d. 

46 5 

43 10 

44 4 



41 7 

35 8 
32 10 

31 o 

32 6 
31 10 

29 9 
31 11 [ 



1893 26 4 



1898 34 



1 goo 
1901 
1902 



7894, 17s. 6d. ; 22s. iorf. ; 26s., at different places. 

1896, 33s. 4<1, 28 Nov. 

1897, 34s. 4d., 25 Dec. 

189S, 35s. Sd. 19 wks., 42s. 4<7., 7 May, 40s. Sd., 25 June. 

WHEEL, Breaking on the. A barbarous 

imodo of death, of great antiquity, ordered by 
Francis I. for robbers, about 1535 ; see Ravuillac. 

■" The Great Wheel," made of steel (300 ft. high, axle 7 ft. 
in diameter, supported on 8 columns 150 ft. high). 40 
cars are swung round the wheel, each capable of 
holding about 40 persons, with adjuncts ; the wheel 
was designed and constructed by Mr. Bassett. The 
wheel was named by lady Dowell, and started, carry- 
ing several hundreds of people at the Empire of India 
exhibition, Earl's Court, the revolution being success- 
fully accomplished in about 40 minutes, 6 July, 1895. 
Through a stoppage of the machinery, between 60 and 
70 persons were detained 16 hrs. in the upper cars, 
21-22 May, 1896. 

WHIGS. In the reign of Charles II. the name 
Whig was a term of reproach given by the court 
party to their antagonists for holding the principles 
of the "whigs," or fanatical covenanters in Scot- 
land ; and in return the name Tory was given to 
the court party, comparing them to the Tories, or 
popish robbers in Ireland. Baker. The distinction 
arose out of the discovery of the Meal-tub plot 
(which see) in 1678. Upon bringing up the meal 
plot before parliament, two parties were formed : 
the ones who doubted the plot styled those who 
believed in it Whigs ; these styled their adversaries 
Tories. In time these names, given as marks of 
opprobrium, became honoured distinctions. JJuwc. 
The Whigs brought about the revolution of 1688-9, 
and established the protestant succession. They 
were chiefly instrumental in obtaining the abolition 
of the slave trade and slavery, the repeal of the 
Test and Corporation act. Catholic emancipation, 
parliamentary and municipal reform, the repeal of 
the com laws, and similar measures. The Whig 
Club was established by Charles James Fox ; one of 



its original members was the great Francis, duke of 
Bedford, who died in 1802. See Liberals. For the 
principal Whig ministries, see Halifax, Walpo/e, 
Rockingham, Grenville, Grey, Melbourne, Russell, 
Palmerston, and Gladstone. 

WHIP, the popular title of the patronage secre- 
tary of the treasury, whose dutyitisto collect men. - 
bers to make a house on important occasions, &c. Sir 
Wm. Hayter, the liberal "whip," 1850-8, received 
a testimonial for his energetic services, early in 1861 . 
1 he right hon. Wm. P. Adam, an able whip, died 
governor of Madras, 24 May, 1881. It is the duty 
of both conservative and liberal whips to promote 
the interest of their party in every conceivable 
way. 

The management of the house of commons by bribery is 
said to have begun with Clifford of the " Cabal " minis- 
try, and continued by Whigs and Tories. Mr. Roberts 
(under Henry Pelham), is said to have paid members 
sums of i,oooL, $ool., &c., to each at the close of a 
session for their support. Wraxall. 

WHISKY, the spirit distilled from malt and 
other corn in Scotland and Ireland, of which about 
eight millions of gallons have been distilled 
annually in the former, and upwards of nine mil- 
lions of gallons in the latter. The duty upon this 
article once produced annually about three millions. 
The distillation of whisky is referred to the 16th 
century ; but some authors state it to have been 
earlier ; see Distillation. In 1855 the duties on 
spirits distilled in Scotland and Ireland were 
equalised with those distilled in England ; additional 
duty of 6d. per gallon imposed, 1894. Women's 
Whisky War, see United /States, 1874. 

WHIST, a game at cards, became general at the 
end of the 17th century. 

Edmund Hoyle, who published his "Short 
Treatise " about 1742, died in 1769, aged 97 ; 
lord Peterborough introduced short whist early 
in the past century ; the laws were revised in 1S64 

"Whist," a poem 1791 

James Clay, M.P., an eminent player, died 26 Sept. 1S71 
Mr. Henry Jones, "Cavendish," his " Laws and 
Principles of Whist," published 1862, died, 

aged 68 10 Feb. 1899 

A committee formed to revise the laws of whist; 
first meeting 12 May, „ 

WHITBY, N.R. Torkshire. The monastery 
here, under St. Hilda, founded by king Oswy, 657, 
destroyed by the Danes 876, was restored by William 
de Percy about I IOO. The Cholmleys established 
alum works here in 1615. Whitby was made a 
borough in 1832, and absorbed into the county in 
1885. Population, 1881, 14,086; 1891, 13,274; 
1901, 11,748. 

WHITEBAIT DINNER, when the cabinet 
ministers met, at the end of each session, is 
said to have begun at the end of the iSth 
century, through sir llobert Preston and Mr. 
George Pose inviting Mr. Pitt and his colleagues 
to dine at Dagenham, and afterwards at Green- 
wich. Another account dates its origin in 1 72 1 . The 
annual whitebait dinner, stopped by the Gladstone 
ministry, was revived by the Disraeli ministry, 
I Aug." 1874, and continued by the Gladstone, 1 
Sept. 1880. No dinner since 1883; was revived 
by the llosebery ministry, 15 Aug. 1894. The white- 
bait (clapea alba) is a subject of controversy. Albert 
Gunther, of the British Museum, in his Catalogue 
of Fishes, says the whitebait is " a purely nominal 
species," and that all the examples which he has 
examined were young herrings (186S). 



WHITEBOYS. 



1383 



WHITE HATS. 



At the inquiry in June, 1878, James Henry Cannon, 
fisherman, claimed the discovery ot the fish for his 
grandfather, Richard, who named it 1780. It was 
mentioned in a letter in the life of lord Malmesbury, 
2 July, 1763. 

WHITEBOYS, a body of ruffians in Ireland, 
so called on account of their wearing linen frocks 
over their coats. They committed dreadful outrages 
in 1 761, but were suppressed by a military force, 
and their ringleaders executed in 1762. They rose 
and were again suppressed in 1786-7. The insurrec- 
tion act was passed on their account in 1822. 

WHITE CAPS, a self-constituted organisa- 
tion in the United States, which professes to take 
■cognizance of offences against morality and social 
order, punishing the offenders by severe whippings. 
Called " White caps" from the members wearing 
white hoods to conceal their faces when visiting 
the houses of alleged delinquents. 

WHITECHAPEL, a parish in East London, 
was part of (Stepney till 1329. The church, built 
in 1673, was replaced by one consecrated 2 Feb. 
1877, which was burnt 26 Aug. 1880. Population, 
■1881, 7I,3 6 3; 1891,74,462. 

Annual Loan Art exhibitions, 4 April, 1882, et seq. 
"Free library and museum, gift of Mr. Passmore 

Edwards, opened by the earl of Rosebery, 25 Oct. - 

1892. He also gave 4,250?. to establish a free 

library in Shoreditch, which was opened by the 

duke of Devonshire, 10 May, 1893. 
London hospital medical college, new buildings 

opened by lady Knutsford . . 18 July, 1.899 
lord Rosebery opens a new art gallery, the gilt of 

Mr. Passmore Edwards and others . 12 March, 1901 
"Whitechapel and Bow railway opened . 31 May, 1902 

_ WHITECHAPEL MUEDEBS,&c. Henry 

r/'ain wright, abrushmaker, murdered Harriet Lane, 

his mistress, on his premises, 215, Whitechapel-road, 

and buried the bod}', Sept. 1874. 

While conveying the mutilated remains to be con- 
cealed in his cellars in Southwark, Wainwright 
and Alice Day were apprehended, through the 
courage and activity of Alfred Philip Stokes, 11 
Sept. Day was discharged ; Henry and his 
brother Thomas were committed for trial 13 Oct. 1875 

Nine days' trial before chief justice Cockburn ; 
Henry convicted of murder ; Thomas as accessory 
after the fact (seven years' penal servitude), 22 
Nov. -1 Dec. ; Henry executed . . 21 Dee. ,, 

J1232;. subscribed for Henry's family. 

30I. awarded to Stokes. 

Much excitement was caused by the murder and 
brutal mutilation of unfortunate women at differ- 
ent times — Smith, 3 April; Martha Turner, 7 Aug. ; 
Nichols, 31 Aug. ; Chapman, 7, 8 Sept. Coroners 
return open verdict. The evidence showed the 
(murderer possessed surgical knowledge, his 
•object being to get possession of certain organs. 
'Two more women murdered in a similar manner 
aiear Commercial Road and Aldgate ; E. Watts 
or Stride and C. Conway or Eddowes between 1 
and 2 a.m. 30 Sept. The lord mayor offers 500?. 
reward in relation to the murder near Aldgate ; 
Mary Jane Kelly's body found dreadfully muti- 
lated in 26. Dorset Street, Spitalfields . 9 Nov. 1 888 

Rose Milett or Davis (?) strangled at Poplar, 28 Dec. ,, 

Alice MoKenzie found with throat cut, &c, in 
Castle Alley, Whitechapel . . 17 July, 1889 

The mutilated trunk of a woman discovered under 
a railway arch in Ruchin-street . . 10 Sept. ,, 

Frances Coles found murdered in an archway, 
Orma n -street, Whitechapel-road . 1; Feb. 1891 

James Thomas Sadler arrested, 16 Feb.; dis- 
charged . .... 3 March, ,, 

Marie Damyon, Thomas Street . . 17 Nov. 1894 

Olga M. Wysocka (27) and Clement Kuezmierowich 
(22), shot dead by Frederick Karacrewski (39) ; 
Ada Varinski injured at 115, Brick-lane 5 Feb. 1898 

WHITE CEOSS ARMY, the shorter title of 
the Church of England Purity Society, established 



by Miss Ellice Hopkins, suppoi-ted by the bishops of 
Durham and Lichfield and. other prelates, highly 
successful at Oxford, Edinburgh, Liverpool, and 
other places, 1884. 

WHITE DOVES, a South Russian religious 
sect, said to be wealthy and superstitious, strongly 
advocating celibacy: under a chief named Kou- 
drine. Members were tried for moral offences about 
April, 1876. 

WHITEFIELDITES. George Whitefield, 
the founder of the " Calvinistic Methodists," born 
1714, was the son of an innkeeper at Gloucester, 
where he received his first education. He was ad- 
mitted a servitor at Oxford in 1732, became a com- 
panion of the Wesleys there, and aided them in 
establishing Methodism. He parted from them in 
1741, on account of their rejection of the doctrine 
of election. He was the most eloquent preacher of 
his day. His first sermon was preached in 1 736, and 
he commenced field preaching in 1739. He is said 
to have delivered 18,000 sermons during his career 
of 34 years. He visited America in 1737, 1739, and 
1744. His followers are termed "the countess of 
Huntingdon's connexion," from his having become 
her chaplain in 1748, and from her energetic support 
of the sect, by establishing a college at Trevecca, 
1767. See Spafields. There were 109 chapels of this 
connexion in 185 1 ; 36 chapels in 1896, but many 
of his followers have joined the Independents. He 
died 30 Sept. 1770, and the countess died 17 June, 
1791; see Tabernacle. 

WHITE FLAG, see Flag. 

WHITE EEIAES, see Carmelites aud Sanc- 
tuaries. 

WHITEHALL (London), built by Hubert de 
Burgh, earl of Kent, before the middle of the 13th 
century. It afterwards devolved, by bequest, to the 
Black Friars of Holborn, who sold it to the arch- 
bishop of York, whence it received the name of 
York-place, and continued to be the town residence 
of the archbishops till taken by Henry VIII. from 
cardinal Wolsey, in 1530. At this period it became 
the residence of the court. Queen Elizabeth, who 
died at Richmond in 1603, was brought from thence 
to Whitehall, by water, in a grand procession. It 
was on this occasion, Camden informs us, that the 
following quaint panegyric on her majesty was 
written : 
" The queen was brought by water to Whitehall, 
At every stroke the oars did tears let fall. 
More clung about the barge : fish under water 
Wept out their eyes of pearl, and swam blind after. 
I think the bargemen might, with easier thighs, 
Have rowed her thither in her people's eyes ; 
For howsoe'er thus much my thoughts have scann'd, 
She had come by water, had she come by land." 

Whitehall was partly burnt 9-10 April, 1691 ; 
totally destroyed by fire, 4 Jan. 1697-8, except the 
banqueting-house, which had been added to the 
palace of Whitehall by James L, according to a 
design of Inigo Jones, in 1619. In the front of 
Whitehall Charles I. was beheaded 30 Jan. 1649. 
George I. converted the hall into a chapel 1 723-4. 
The exterior of this edifice underwent repair be- 
tween 1829 and 1833. The chapel was ordered to 
be permanently closed, 28 Oct. 1890; lent during 
queen Victoria's reign, to the Royal United Service 
Institution, from I Jan. 1891 ; first meeting held, 
7 March, 1891. 

WHITE HATS, a party in the Low Countries 
formed about 1377, against Louis, count of Flanders. 
The struggle lasted till 1384, when it was settled by 
Philip, duke of Burgundy. 



WHITE HOODS. 



1384 



WIGAN. 



WHITE HOODS, see Catechumens. 

WHITE HORSE, see Ashdown. 

WHITE HOUSE (Washington), built of free- 
stone, the residence of the president, gives name to 
the United States government, as St. James's palace 
does to that of Great Britain. 

WHITE LEAD, see Lead. 

WHITE LEAGUE, formed in Louisiana and 
other southern states of North America, to resist the 
aggressions of the emancipated negroes and their 
friends, termed " carpet-baggers." Bee New Orleans. 
1874. 

WHITE PASHA, see Soudan, July, 1888. 

WHITE PLAINS (N. America), where a 
battle was fought 28 Oct. 1776, between the revolted 
Americans and the British iorces under sir William 
Howe. It terminated in the defeat of the Americans, 
who suffered considerable loss in killed, wounded, 
and prisoners. 

WHITE ROSE, Order of the, include? 
men and women of many shades of opinion, who 
regard the revolution of 1688 as a national crime, 
and Jacobitism as true loyalty. The order has no 
religious test, its sole object being to maintain the 
doctrine cf the divine right of kings, and revive 
public interest in the sufferings of the house of 
Stuart. 

WHITE SHEEP, a name given to the Turco- 
mans who conquered Persia about 1468, and perse- 
cuted the Shiites, but were expelled by Ismail, who 
founded the Sophi dynasty in 1501. 

WHITE TOWER, the keep or citadel in the 
Tower of London, a large, square, irregular building, 
erected in 1070 by abbot Gundulph, afterwards 
bishop of Bochester. It measures 116 feet by 96, 
and is 92 feet in height : the walls, which are 1 1 
feet thick, having a winding staircase continued 
along two of the sides, like that in Dover Castle. It 
contains an extensive armoury. Within this tower 
is the ancient chapel of St. John, originally used by 
the English monarchs. The turret at the N.E. 
angle, the highest of the four by which the White 
Tower is surmounted, was used for astronomical 
purposes by Flamsteed previously to the erection of 
the royal observatory at Greenwich. 

WHITSUNTIDE, a festival appointed to com- 
memorate the descent of the Holy Ghost upon the 
apostles : the newly-baptized persons, or catechu- 
mens, are said to have worn white garments on 
Whitsunday. This feast is movable, being always 
exactly seven weeks after Easter. Rogation week 
{which see) is the week before Whitsunday. Whit- 
sunday 1892, 5 June; 1893,21 May; 1894, J 3 May! 
1895, 2 June ; 1896, 24 May ; 1897, 6 June ; 1898, 
29 May; 1899, 21 May; 1900, 3 June; 1902, 18 
May; 1903, 31 May; 1904,22 May; 1905, 11 June. 
Whitsunday, a Scotch quarter-day, is always on 

15 May, as settled by an act of 1693, but local usage 

varies. 

WHITTINGTON'S CHARITIES. Sir 

Richard Whittington, a citizen and mercer of Lon- 
don, served the office of lord mayor three times, the 
last in 1419. Many false stories are connected with 
his name, and his munificent charities are little 
known. He founded his college, dedicated to the 
Holy Ghost an (the Virgin Mary, in 1424 ; and his 
almshouses in 1429 ; the latter, originally built in 
London, now stand on Highgate-hill (built 1808) near 
the supposed site of the supposed famous stone which 
commemorated the legend of his return to London, 
after leaving it in despair. 



WHITWORTH FOUNDATIONS. Mr. 

(aftd. sir) Joseph Whitworth, the eminent engi- 
neer (boni 21 Dec. 1803 ; died 22 Jan. 1887), 
in a letter to the first lord of the treasury, dated 18 
March, 1868, ottered to found 30 scholarships of the 
annual value of 100/. each, to be applied for the 
further instruction of young men, natives of the 
United Kingdom, selected by open competition for 
their intelligence and proficiency in the theory anil 
practice of mechanics and its cognate sciences, with 
a view to the promotion of engineering and mechani- 
cal industry in this country ; and he expressed hopes 
that means might be found for bringing science and 
industry into closer relation with each other than 
at present obtains here. This otter was accepted by 
the lords of the committee of the privy council, 28 
March, 1868. In 187?, sir Joseph assigned an estate 
to support these scholarships. For the results of sir 
Joseph Whitworth's will, see Manchester, 1888-90. 

WHO ? WHO ? ADMINISTRATION, 

Derby's, earl of, Feb. 1852 {which see). 

"WHOLE DUTY of Man;" (the author- 
ship doubtfully attributed to abps. Sancroft, 
Frewen, and Sterne ; to bishops Fell and Chapel ; 
to Dorothy, lady Packington, and others;) first 
published," 1659. Loivndes. It is attributed by 
some to John Ischam. 

WTCKLIFFITES, the followers of John 
Wicklift'e (born 1324), a professor of divinity in the 
university of Oxford and rector of Lutterworth in 
Leicestershire. He was a forerunner of the reforma- 
tion of the English Church from popery, being 
among the first who opposed the authority of the 
pope, transubstantiation, the celibacy of the clergy, 
&c. Wickliffe, protected by John of Gaunt, Ed- 
ward's son and Richard's uncle, was virulently 
persecuted by the church, and only saved from mar- 
tyrdom by a paralytic attack, which caused his 
death, 31 Dec. 1384, in his 60th year. The Council 
of Constance, in 1414, decreed his bones to be disin- 
terred and burnt, which was done by the bishop of 
Lincoln, and his dust was cast into the river Swift, 
1415. Wickliffe's English version of the Bible 
was commenced in 1380 ; a noble edition of it was 
printed at Oxford in 1850. Wy cliff Society, founded 
in 1882 to publish his works. Quincentenary of 
his death celebrated in London, &c, 21 May, 1884. 
See Lollards. A band of protestauts organised by 
the late Mr. Kensit under the name of Wicklifiites 
has been active in carrying on an anti-ritualistic 
propaganda. 

WIDOWS. The Jewish law required a man's 
brother to marry his widow if without children (1490 
h.c.). For the burning of widows in India, see Sut- 
tee. Among the numerous associations in London 
for the relief of widows are, one for the widows of 
musicians, instituted in 1738; for widows of naval 
men, founded in 1739 : for widows of medical men, 
1788 : a law society, for widows of professional gen- 
tlemen, 1817; and a society for artists' widows, 1827. 
— Widowers were taxed in England as follows: a 
duke, 12^. I Os. ; Lower peers, smaller sums; a com- 
mon person, is. ; 7 Will. III. 1695. 

WIEN, see Vienna. 

WIFE, see Wives. 

WIG, see Peruke. 

WIGAN (Lancashire). The king's troops, com- 
manded by the earl of Derby, were defeated and 
driven out of the town in 1643 by the parliamentary 
forces under sir John Smeaton. The earl was again 
defeated by colonel Ashton, who razed the fortifica- 
tions of Wigan to the ground, same year ; and once' 



WIGHT, ISLE OF. 



1385 



WILLS. 



more by a greatly superior force commanded by 
colonel Lilburne, 165 1. In this last engagement, 
sir Thomas Tildesley, an ardent royalist, was slain ; 
a pillar was erected to his memory in 1679. The 
colliers in the neighbourhood struck, and acting 
riotously 17, 18 April, 1868, were quelled by the 
military. Arrangements were soon after made with 
the employers. The prince and princess of Wales 
at their visit, 4 June, 1873, opened a new hospital, 
&c, and received a hearty welcome. See Railway 
Accidents, 2 Aug. 1873. Population, 1881, 48,194; 
1891, 55,013; 1901,60,774. 

WIGHT, ISLE OF, the Roman Vecta or Victis, 
was conquered by Vespasian in the reign of Clau- 
dius. It was conquered by the Saxons under Cerdic 
about 530 ; by the Danes, 787, and in 1001, when 
they held it for several years. It was invaded by 
the French, July, 1377, and has several times 
suffered from invasion by them. In 1442, 
Henry VI. alienated the Isle to Henry de 
Beauchamp, first premier earl of England and 
then duke of Warwick, and afterwards crowned him 
king of the Isle of Wight, with his own hands ; but 
djing without heirs male, his regal title died with 
him, and the lordship of the isle returned to the 
crown. Charles I., after his flight from Hampton- 
court, was a prisoner in Carisbrook castle, in 1647. 
In the time of Charles II. timber was very plentiful. 
In this isle was queen Victoria's marine residence, 
Osborne-house, which she bequeathed to king 
Edward VII. ; he gave it to the nation to be used 
as a convalescent home for officers in the navy and 
army, 9 Aug. 1902. Population, 1901, 82,387. 
Prince Henry of Batten berg appointed governor 
Jan. 1889 ; died, 20 Jan. 1896 ; the princess ap- 
pointed governor 1 May, 1896 

As a national memorial to lord Tenuyson, a resi- 
dent on the island, the erection of " the Tennyson 
Beacon " on Freshwater Down, designed by Mr. 
Pearson, R.A. ; subscriptions of 750T. (200?. from 
United States) have been received, 1895. The 

beacon unveiled 6 Aug. 1897 

Royal infirmary at Ryde, new children's wing, 

opened by the queen, and bust of the queen 

unveiled by princess Beatrice . . 28 July, 1899 

"Battenberg" block of the Royal Consumptive 

hospital at Ventnor opened by princess Beatrice, 

9 Aug. ,, 
Capt. Bray and several others killed by a gun 

accident at Freshwater . . . 25 June, 1901 
The king visits the island, end March ; Ventnor 

hospital, Carisbrooke . . . 1,2 April, 1902 
Princess Henry opens the new Western (Jubilee, 
1897) esplanade at Ryde, 25 July ; and a recrea- 
tion-ground, the gift of Mr. Tankerville Chamber- 
layne, at Newport .... 28 Aug. ,, 
Royal naval college at Osborne opened by the 
king 4 Aug. 1903 

WILD BIRDS' PROTECTION ACTS, 

passed 10 Aug. 1872, 24 July, 1876, and 7 Sept. 
1880; amendment, 1894, passed, 14 Aug. 1896; 
amendment act passed, 12 June, 1902. Inter- 
national conference at Paris, 25 June, 1895- 

WILDERNESS BATTLES, see United 
States, May, 1864. 

WILHELMSHAFEN, at Hippens, bay of 
Jahde, Oldenburg, the first German military port, 
was inaugurated by William, king of Prussia, 
17 June, 1869. Since 1871 it has become the 
Chatham of Germany. By explosion of a gun on 
the Mars, 8 men killed and 20 injured, 27 April, 
1881. Visit of the emperor, 3 March, 1903. 

WILKES'S NUMBER, 45, see North Briton, 
and also Warrants, General. 

WILLIAMS' LIBRARY, see Libraries. 

WILLIS'S ROOMS, see Almack's. 



WILLOW-LEAVES, see Sun. 

WILLS AND TESTAMENTS are of very high 
antiquity, see Genesis xlviii. The private will of 
Sennacherib, king of Assyria, 680 B.C., found at 
Nineveh, is translated in Records of the Past, 
Vol I. Solon introduced them at Athens, 578 
B.C. There are regulations respecting wills in 
the Koran. Trebatius Testa the civilian, intro- 
duced codicils to wills at Rome, 31 B.C. The- 
power of bequeathing lands by the last will and 
testament of the owner was confirmed to English 
subjects 1 Henry I. 1100; but with great restric- 
tions and limitations respecting the feudal system, 
which were taken off by the statute of 32 Hen. VIII . 
1541. Blackstone's Commentaries. The first will 
of a sovereign on record is stated (but in error) to 
be that of Richard II. 1399 ; Edward the Confessor 
made a will, 1066. Various laws have regulated 
the wills and testaments of British subjects. All' 
previous statutes were repealed by the " Wills Act," 
7 Will. IV. & 1 Vict. c. 26, 1837, and the laws 
with relation to wills amended.* The present 
Probatk Court {which see) was established in 
1857. An office for the reception of the wills of 
living persons was opened in Jan. 1861. See Thel- 
lusson's Will, Legacies, Estate, Succession Duties, 
Trials, 1 April, 1897. In 1869 twenty probates 
of wills or letters of administration were stamped 
for personal property, each exceeding a quarter 
of a million; one had a stamp of 21,000^. The 
Wills Office, removed from Doctors' Commons to 
Somerset House, was opened 24 Oct. 1874- 
The will of Peter the Great, described in the " Memoires 
de la Chevaliere d'Eon," as a " plan for compassing 
European supremacy," left for his successors, and de- 
posited in the archives of the palace of Peterhoff near 
St. Petersburg. It advocated "approach as near as 
possible to Constantinople, and towards the Indies : 
wars with Turkey and Persia ; possession of the shores 
of the Black Sea, and the Baltic ; " &c. The existence- 
of the will (denied by the czars) was first announced 
by M. Lesur in his " Progres de la Puissance Rvsse," 
published at Paris in 1812. In 1863, Dr. Berkholz of 
Riga asserted that the will was a forgery, probably 
dictated by Napoleon I. Mr. W. J. Thorns, the anti- 
quary, and others, contend for the genuineness of the 
will, June, 1878. 

EXTRACTS FROM THE LAST WILL OF NAPOLEON I., 
EMPEROR OF FRANCE, t 

[He died 5 May, 1821, eleven days after he had signed; 

these documents. The original in French occupies 

about twenty-six pages in Peignot's " Testamens Re- 

marquables," 1829.] 

"This day, 24 April, 1821, at Longwood, in the islancS 
of St. Helena. This is my testament, or act of my last 
will : 

" I leave to the comte de Montholon 2,000,000 francs 
as a proof of my satisfaction for the attentions he has 
paid to me for these six years, and to indemnify him wi- 
the losses which my residence in St. Helena has occa- 
sioned him. I leave to the comte Bertrand 500,000. 
francs. I leave to Marchand, my first valet-de-chambre, 
400,000 francs ; the services he has performed for me are 
those of a friend. I desire that he may marry a widow, 
sister, or daughter of an officer or soldier of my old 
guard. To St. Denis, 100,000 francs. To Novarre, 100.000 
francs. To Pijeron, 100,000 francs. To Archambaud, 
50,000 francs. To Cuvier, 50,000 francs. To Chandellc , 
idem. j 

* By this act the testator must be above 21, not a 
lunatic or idiot, not deaf and dumb, not drunk at the 
time of signing, not an outlawed or unpardoned felon 
All kinds of property may be devised. The will must be- 
written legibly and intelligibly, and signed by the 
testator, or by his direction, in the presence of two or 
more witnesses, who also must sign, and not be legatees. 

t These documents, dated from 15-24 April, deposited 
since 1821 in England, have been given up to the autho- 
rities at Paris, at the request of the French Govern- 
ment. 



WILLS. 



1386 WILMINGTON ADMINISTRATION. 



"To the Abbe Vignali, 100,000 francs. I desire that 
he may build his house near Ponte Novo de Rossino. To 
the comte Las Casas, 100,000 francs. To comte Lava- 
lette, 100,000 francs. To the surgeon-in-chief, Larrey, 
eoo,ooo francs. He is the most virtuous man I have 
known. To general Brayer, 100,000 francs. 

" To general Lefevre Desnouettes, 100,000 francs. To 
general Drouet, 100,000 francs. To general Cambronne, 
100,000 francs. To the children of general Muton Du- 
vernais, 100,000 francs. To the children of the brave 
Labedoyere, 100,000 francs. To the children of general 
Girard, killed at Ligny, 100,000 francs. To the children 
•of general Chartrand, 100,000 francs. To the children of 
the virtuous general Travost, 100,000 francs. To general 
Lallemand, the elder, 100,000 francs. To general Clausel, 
100,000 francs. To Costa Bastilica, also 100,000 francs. 
To the baron de Menevalle, 100,000 francs. To Arnault, 
author of Marius, 100,000 francs. 

"To colonel Marbot, 100,000 francs : I request him to 
continue to write for the defence and glory of the French 
armies, and to confound the calumniators and the apos- 
tates. To the baron Bignon, 100,000 francs : I request 
him to write the history of French Diplomacy from 1792 
to 1815. To Poggi de Talaro, 100,000 francs. To the 
surgeon Emmery, 100,000. 

"These sums shall be taken from the six millions 
which I deposited on leaving Paris in 1815, and from the 
interest at the rate of 5 percent, since July, 1815; the 
account of which shall be adjusted with the bankers by 
the counts Montholon and Bertrand and by Marchand. 

" These legacies, in case of death, shall be paid to the 
widows and children, and in their default, shall revert to 
the capital. I institute the counts Montholon, Ber- 
trand, and Marchand my testamentary executors. This 
present testament, written entirely by my own hand, is 
signed and sealed with my arms. 

" NAPOLEON. 

" 24 April, 1821, Longwood." 

The following are part of the eight Codicils to the pre- 
ceding will of the emperor : — 

"On the liquidation of my civil list of Italy — such as 
money, jewels, plate, linen, coffers, caskets of which the 
viceroy is the depository, and which belong to me, I dis- 
pose of two millions, which I leave to my most faithful 
servants. I hope that without their showing any cause, 
my son Eugene Napoleon will discharge them faithfully. 
He cannot forget the forty millions which I have given 
him in Italy, or by the right (parage) of his mother's 
inheritance. 

" From the funds remitted in gold to the empress 
Maria Louisa, my very dear and well-beloved spouse, at 
Orleans, in 1814, there remain due to me two millions, 
which I dispose of by the present codicil, in order to 
recompense my most faithful servants, whom I beside 
recommend to the protection of my dear Maria Louisa. 
I leave 200,000 francs to count Montholon, 100,000 francs 
of which he shall pay into the chest of the treasurer (Las 
Casas) for the same purpose as the above, to be employed 
according to my dispositions in legacies of conscience. 

" 10,000 francs to the sub-officer Cantillon (died July, 
1869), who has undergone a prosecution, being accused 
of a desire to assassinate lord Wellington, of which he 
has been declared innocent. Cantillon had as much right 
to assassinate that oligarch, as the latter had to send me 
to perish on the rock of St. Helena," &c. <fec. &c. 

LETTER TO M. LAFITTE. 

" Monsieur Lafitte,— I remitted to you in 1815, at 
the moment of my departure from Paris, a sum of nearly 
six millions, for which you gave me a double receipt. I 
have cancelled one of these receipts, and I have charged 
comte de Montholon to present to you the other receipt, 
in order that you may, after my death, deliver to him the 
said sum with interest at the rate of live percent., from 
the 1st of July, 1815, deducting the payments with which 
you have been charged in virtue of 'my order. I have 
also remitted to you a box containing my medallion. I 
beg you will deliver it to comte Montholon. 

" This letter having no other object, I pray God, Mon- 
sieur Lafitte, that He may have you in His holy and 
worthy keeping. 

"NAPOLEON. 

"Longwood, in the island of St. Helena, 25 April, 
1821." 



The following Will of Napoleon III. was published 
in the Times, 30 April, 1873 : - 

" April 24, 1865. 

"This is my will. I commend my son and my wife to 
the high constituted authorities of the state (aux grands 
corps de l'Etat), to the people, and the army. The em- 
press Eugenie possesses all the qualities requisite for 
conducting the regency well, and my son displays a dis- 
position and judgment which will render him worthy of 
his high destinies. Let him never forget the motto of the 
head of our family, 'Everything for the French people.' 
Let him fix in his mind the writings of the prisoner 
of St. Helena; let him study the emperor's deeds and 
correspondence ; finally, let him remember, when circum- 
stances so permit, that the cause of the peoples is the 
cause of France. Power is a heavy burden, because one 
cannot always do all the good one could wish, and be- 
cause your contemporaries seldom render you justice, so 
that, in order to fulfil one's mission, one must have faith 
in, and consciousness of, one's duty. It is necessary to 
consider that from heaven on high those whom you have 
loved regard and protect you ; it is the soul of my illus- 
trious uncle that has always inspired and sustained me. 
The like will ai>ply to my son, for he will always be 
worthy of his name. I leave to the empress Eugenie all 
my private property. It is my desire that on the ma- 
jority of my son she shall inhabit the Elysee and Biar- 
ritz. I trust that my memory will be dear to her, and 
that after my death she will forget the griefs I may have 
caused her. With regard to my son, let him keep as a 
talisman the seal I used to wear attached to my watch, 
and which comes from my mother; let him carefully 
preserve everything that comes to me from the em- 
peror, my uncle, and let him be convinced that my heart 
and my soul remain with him. I make no mention of my 
faithful servants. I am convinced that the empress and 
my son will never abandon them. I shall die in the 
Catholic, Apostolic, and Roman religion, which my son 
will always honour by his piety. Done, written, and signed 
with my hand at the palace of the Tuileries, the 24th of 
April, 1865. (Signed) "NAPOLEON." 

The Will of Prince Louis Napoleon was written 
with his own hand, and signed 26 Feb. 1879, the night 
before he sailed for South Africa (where he was killed 
while on a reconnoitring party, 1 June, 1879). He states 
that he dies in the Catholic religion ; expresses his love 
for his country, his mother the empress, and his friends ; 
and his gratitude to the queen and royal family of Eng- 
land, and to the English people for their cordial hospi- 
tality. He constitutes his mother sole legatee ; bequeaths 
legacies and memorials to prince J. N. Murat, M. F. 
Pietri, baron Corvisart, M. Rouher, and others ; and 
assigns to Victor, the eldest son of prince Napoleon 
Jerome, the task of continuing the work of Napoleon I. 
and Napoleon III. Executors, MM. Rouher and Pietri. 

WILLTTGHRY SOCIETY, devoted to the 
study of birds ; founded in 1879 ; was named after 
Francis Willughby (1635-72), who wrote Orni- 
thologia, published 1676. 

WILMINGTON (N. Carolina, U.S.) was held 
by the confederates ; resisted severe attacks of the 
federals in Dec. 1864. Fort Fisher was taken by 
assault on 15 Jan., and Wilmington was evacuated 
by the confederates, 22 Feb. 1865. 

WILMINGTON ADMINISTRATION, 

succeeded that of sir llobert Walpole, Feb. 1742. 

Earl of Wilmington, first lord of the treaswy. 

Lord Hardwicke, lord chancellor. 

Earl of Harrington, president of the council. 

Earl Gower, lord privy seal. 

Mr. Sandys, chancellor of the exchequer. 

Lord Carteret and the duke of Newcastle, secretaries of 
state. 

Earl of Winchilsea, first lord of the admiralty. 

Duke of Argyll, commander of the forces and master-general 
of the ordnance. 

Mr. Henry Pelham, paymaster of the forces. 

With several of the household lords. 

[On lord Wilmington's death, 26 July, 1743, Mr. Pel- 
ham became prime minister; and in Nov. 1744, he 
formed the " Broad - bottom " administration; see 
Pelham.} 



WILMOT'S ACT. 



1387 



WINDOWS. 



WILMOT'S ACT (Sir E.), 3 & 4 Vict. c. 77 
(1840) relates to schools. 

WIMBLEDON", ancient village 8 miles S.W. 
of London. See Volunteers, 1860-89. Population, 
1881,15,950; 1891,25,758; 1901,41,604. 
Percy Malcolm John, student at Blenheim house, 
died suddenly at his school at Wimbledon, 3 Dec. 
1881 ; his brother-in-law Dr. George Henry Lam- 
son suspected of poisoning him, with aconitine, 
2 Dec. ; was convicted of the murder, 14 March, 
confessed his guilt 27 April, and was executed 

28 April, 1882 

WINCHESTER (Hampshire), a most ancient 
city, whose erection may reasonably be ascribed to 
the Celtic Britons, with the fabulous date 392 B.C. 
It was made the capital of the West Saxon king- 
dom under Cerdic, about 520 ; and of England by 
Egbert, 82"; it became the residence of Alfred, 
879-991. In the reign of William I. London be- 
gan to rival it ; and the destruction of religious 
houses by Henry VIII. almost ruined it. Several 
kings resided at Winchester, and many parliaments 
were held there. Memorials of its ancient superi- 
ority exist in the national denomination of measures 
of quantity, as Winchester ell, Winchester bushel, 
&c, the use of which has but recently been replaced 
by imperial measures. The cathedral church was 
first founded and endowed by Cynegils, or Kene- 
gilsus, the first Christian king of the West Saxons. 
Becoming ruinous, the present fabric was begun 
by bishop Walkelyn, the 34th bishop, 1073 ; re- 
pairs to the roof began March, 1896; '"omplcted 
(cost, i2,6jol. 10*. lid.) Dec. 1898. The church 
was first dedicated to St. Amphibalus, then to 
St. Peter, and afterwards to St. S within, once 
bishop here. Dedicated to the Holy Trinity by Henry 
VIII. St. Birinus was the first bishop of the West 
Saxons, his seat Dorchester, 636; Wina, in 660, 
was the first bishop of Winchester. The see is 
valued in the king's books at 2793/. 4s. 2d. annually. 
Present income, 6,500*!. Population, 1881, 17,780; 
1891, 19,073; 1 901', 20,919. 

Taken by the Danes, 871-3 ; ravaged by Sweyn . 1013 

William Rufus buried here 1100 

Hospital of Holy Cross, founded by bishop Henry 

de Blois 1132 

"Almshouse of Noble Poverty," engrafted on the 
Holy Cross by cardinal Beaufort, revived in 1883. 
Winchester school, founded by bishop William of 
Wykeham 1382-7 ; the 500th anniversary of the 
laying of the first stone of New College, 26 March, 
1387, celebrated 26 March, 1887. 
Winchester several times taken and re-taken, 1641-3 ; 

taken by Cromwell and the castle dismantled . 1645 
Charles II. began a palace here by Wren . . . 1683 
Charitable Society of Natives founded . . . 1699 

Winchester Cross restored 1866 

New Guildhall opened by lord Sel borne 11 May, 1873 
700th anniversary of the incorporation of the city, 

celebrated 3, 4 July, 1884 

800th anniversary of the consecration of the cathe- 
dral celebrated, 8 April, 1893 ; subscriptions for 
restoration of the roof of the cathedral ; from 

the queen, 150^ April, 1896 

The queen, in passing, receives an address from 

the mayor 20 July, 1897 

Large meeting at the Guildhall in connection with 
the millenary of king Alfred to take place in 
1901, early June ; other meetings held . . 1898 

The prince of Wales lays the first stone of the new 

barracks 8 June, 1899 

The king Alfred millenary celebration ; delegates 
from the colonies, United States and all parts of 
the kingdom ; lectures by Mr. Fred. Harrison 
and sir John Evans, and a Tennyson reading by 
sir Henry Irving ; reception at the Guildhall ; the 
king's statue, by Mr. Hamo Thornycroft, unveiled 
by lord Rosebery . . .18, 19, 20 Sept. 1901 
Indian princes received by the mayor and lord 
Northbrook 12 June, 1902 



Lord Roberts presented with the freedom, 9 Oct. 1902 

recent bishops. (Prelates of the Order of 
the Garter.) 

1781. Brownlow North, died 12 July, 1820. 

1820. George Pretyman Tornline, died 1827. 

1827. Charles Richard Sumner, resigned 1869 ; died, 15 
Aug. 1874. 

1869. Samuel Wilberforce, elected Nov. ; killed, through 
the fall of his horse, 19 July, T873. 

1873. Edward Harold Browne, translated from Ely, Aug. 
1873 ; resigned, 1890 ; died, 17 Dec. 1891. 

1891. Anthony Wilson Thorold, translated from Ro- 
chester, Jan. ; died, 25 July, 1895. 

1895. Randall Thomas Davidson, translated from Ro- 
chester, Aug ; translated to Canterbury, Jan. 
1903. 

1903. Herbert E. Ryle, translated from Exeter, Feb. 
1903. 

WINCHESTER SCHOOL, the oldest of our 
great schools, " Seinte Marie College of Wyn- 
chestre," the charter of which is dated Oct. 1382, 
was founded in 1387 by William (Long) of Wyke- 
ham, bishop of Winchester, who had established a 
school here in 1373. The ancient statutes were 
revised in 1855 ; and still further altered by the 
Public Schools act of 1868. In Nov. -Dec. i872there 
was much published correspondence respecting the 
titnding — the excessive punishment of the boys by 
boy prefects. In May, 1892, it was arranged that 
the quincentenary of the school should be celebrated 
25 July, 1893. 

Erection of memorial buildings determined on 4 
May, 1893 ; buildings opened by the warden, the 
rev. Godfrey Bolles Lee, 16 June, 1897. 

The quincentenary of the foundation of the school 
(or college) was celebrated . . .25 July, 1893 

[Besides special services in the buildings, there 
was a solemn service in the cathedral, pro- 
cessions, meetings, and festivities. Among the 
visitors were the prince of Wales and the duke 
of Connaught (part of the day), the archbishops 
of Canterbury and York, bishops of Winchester, 
London, Salisbury, and other prelates, a great 
number of Wykehamists, old and young, dating 
from 1821, and many eminent persons.] 

"Winchester College," 1393-1893 ; prose, verse, 
and illustrations ; edited by A. K. Cook, pub- 
lished Dec. 1893 

WINDING-UP ACTS (to facilitate the 
winding up the affairs of joint - stock companies 
which are unable to meet their engagements) were 
passed in 1848, 1849, 1857, and 1862. Cases are 
tried by one of the judges of the chancery division. 

WINDMILLS are of great antiquity, and 
stated to be of Roman or Saracen invention. They 
are said to have been originally introduced into 
Europe by the knights of St. John, who took the 
hint from what they had seen in the crusades. 
Buker. Windmills were first known in Spain, 
France, and Germany, in 1299. Anderson. Wind 
saw-mills were invented by a Dutchman, in 1633, 
when one was erected near the Strand, in London. 

WINDOWS. There were glass windows in 
Pompeii, a.d. 79, as is evident from its ruins. It 
is certain that windows of some kind were glazed 
so early as the 3rd century, if not before, though 
the fashion was not introduced until it was done by 
Benedict Biscop, about 674. Windows of glass 
were used in private houses, but the glass was im- 
ported 1 177. Anderson. In England, in 1851, 
about 6000 houses had fifty windows and upwards in 
each; about 275,000 had ten windows and up- 
wards ; and 725,000 had seven windows, or less 
than seven. 

Window-tax first enacted in order to defray the 
expense of and deficiency in the re-coinage oi silver 1695 



WINDSOE. 



1388 



WINE. 



The tax increased, 5 Feb. 1746-7; again in 1778; 

and again on the commutation-tax for tea 1 Oct. 1784 
The tax again increased in . 1797. 1802, and 1808 

Reduced 1823 

The revenue derived from windows was in 1840 

about a million and a quarter sterling; and in 

1850 (to April 5), 1,832,6842. 

The tax repealed by act 14 & 15 Vict. c. 36 (which 

act imposed a duty upon inhabited houses in lieu 

thereof) 24 July, 1851 

International Window Cleaning Company, adver- 
tising May, 1892 

WINDSOE (Berkshire). The Castle, a resi- 
dence of the British sovereigns, begun by William 
the Conqueror, and enlarged by Henry I. about 
1 1 10. Edward III., who was born here, 13 Nov. 
1312, caused the old building, with the exception of 
three towers at the west end, to be taken down, and 
re-erected the whole castle, under the direction of 
William of Wykeham, 1356, and built St. George's 
chapel. He assessed every county in England to 
send him workmen. James I. of Scotland was im- 
prisoned here, 1406-23. Several additions were 
made by Henry VIII. Elizabeth made the grand 
north terrace ; and Charles II. repaired and beauti- 
fied it, 1676-80. Population, New Windsor, 1881, 
12,273; 1891, 12,327; 1901, 13,958. 

The chapel repaired and opened . . . Oct. 1790 

The castle repaired and enlarged, 1824-8; George 
IV. took possession 8 Bee. 1828 

Royal stables built 1839 

A serious Are in the prince of Wales's tower, owing 
to some defect in the heating apparatus, 

19 March, 1853 

Our sovereigns have here entertained many royal 
personages, as the emperor and empress of the 
French, in April, 1855 

Here died the prince consort . . . 14 Dec. 1861 

The Albert memorial chapel, on the site of Wolsey 
chapel, was opened . . . .30 Nov. 1875 

Windsor Forest, situated to the south and west of 
the town of Windsor, was formerly 120 miles in 
circumference; in 1607, it was 77^ miles round, 
but it has since been reduced in its bounds to 
about 56 miles. It was surveyed in 1789, and found 
to contain 59,600 acres. 

Virginia Water and the plantations about it were 
taken out of the forest. 

The marshes were drained and the trees planted for 
William, duke of Cumberland, about 1746; and 
much was done by George IV. , who often resided 
at the lodge. 

On the south side is Windsor Great Park ; it con- 
tains about 3800 acres. 

The Little Park, on the north and east sides of the 
castle, contains about 500 acres. The gardens are 
elegant, and have been considerably improved by 
the addition of the house and gardens of the duke 
of St. Albans, purchased by the crown. 

Cumberland Lodge partially destroyed by fire ; pic- 
tures burnt 14 Nov. 1869 

Albert Institute, Windsor, opened by the prince of 
Wales 10 Jan. 1880 

About 52,000 volunteers reviewed by the queen, 

9 July, 1881 

Jubilee fetes and illuminations ; the queen uncovers 
a statue of herself near the castle ; torchlight 
procession of the Eton boys . . 22 June, 1887 

The queen being here her 70th birthday is kept with 
great enthusiasm . . . . ' 24 May, 1889 

Royal Agricultural Society to meet here ; the queen 
president , 

The Royal Agricultural Society held its jubilee 
show, the greatest one of the kind in the century 
in Windsor Great Park . . 24-29 June, ,, 

The prince of Wales acted on behalf of the queen, 
who was president for the year ; her majesty 
visited the show . . . . 27, 28 June, „ 

The weather was very fine during the week, and the 
show was reported to be a great success 

Mr. Jacob Wilson, the hon. director of the show, 
knighted 30 June, ,, 



[A fund was started at the Mansion House, 
London, in aid of the expenses 24 June ; 5,516?. 
had been received up to 1 Aug., 1889.] 

The royal pavilion with its decorations was pre- 
sented to the queen by Mr. Charlton Humphreys 
and Messrs. Shoolbred and accepted about 29 June, 1889 

The bronze equestrian statue of the prince consort 
(see under Jubilee) in the great park uncovered 
by the queen 12 May, 1890 

Sir A. Sullivan's opera, "The Gondoliers," per- 
formed before the queen and court, by Mr. R. 
D'Oyly Carte's Savoy company, 6 March, 1891 ; 
Lord Tennyson's "Becket," Lyceum company 

18 March, 1893 
Other performances, 1892 et seq. 

Visit of the German emperor and empress . 4 July, ,, 

Silver wedding of the prince and princess Christian, 
5 July ; marriage of their daughter, princess 
Louise, to prince Aribert of Anhalt, 6 July ; 
state banquet in St. George's hall . 7 July, ,, 

Military funeral of the duke of Clarence and Avon- 
dale 20 Jan. 1892 

The marquis of Lome appointed constable of 
Windsor castle 22 Jan. ,, 

The Comedie Franchise company perform 27 June, 1893 

" La Locandiera" performed by Signora Eleonora 
Buse's company ; the queen presents her with a 
diamond brooch 18 May, 1894 

Gounod's " Faust" performed by the Royal Opera 
company 19 Jan. ,, 

Bestructive overflow of the Thames through heavy 
rains ; Eton school closed ; stoppage of traffic ; 
much distress ; relieved by the queen and others 

mid Nov. ,, 

Sudden death at the castle of sir John Thompson. 

See Canada. 12 Bee. „ 

"The Governor's Guide to Windsor Castle," by 
the marquis of Lome, issued . . April, 1895 

The queen's 80th birthday celebrated with great 
enthusiasm; a serenade by Eton and o+her choirs, 
under sir Walter Parratt, in the quadrangle ; Mr. 
J. T. Soundy, the mayor, knighted ; feu de joie, 
military parade ; the queen plants a commemora- 
tion oak ; thanksgiving service in St. George's 
chapel, 24 May, 1899 ; she reviews the Honour- 
able artillery company in the park, 1 July, 1899 ; 
visits the Victoria barracks, inspects the Grena- 
dier guards and kindly addresses the wives and 
families of soldiers on service in S. Africa, 

29 Nov. 1899 

Colonial and Indian troops visit the castle, &c, 

2, 19 July, 1902 

Princess Christian opens the Alexandra gardens, 

15 July, ,, 

Lease (19 years) of Windsor racecourse sold for 
22,000?. ...... 30 Sept. 1903; 

WINDSOE KNIGHTS, see Poor Knights. 

WINDWAED ISLES (West Indies)-Bar- 
badoes, St. Vincent, Grenada, Trinidad, Tobago, and 
St. Lucia {which see). Governor, Rawson W. 
Bawson, 1868; J. Pope Hcnnessy, Feb. 1875; capt. 
Strahan, Nov. 1876; sir Henry Bulwer, April, 1880; 
William Bobinson, 1 88 1 ; Walter J. Sendall, May, 
i88t; ; hon. sir Walter Uely Hutchinson, Sept, 1889; 
sir Charles Bruce, Aug. 1893; sir C. A. Moloney, 
Jan. 1897 ; sir Bobt. B. Llewelyn, Oct. 1900. 
Population, 1901, about 160,881. 

WINE. " Noah planted a vineyard, and drank 
of the wine," 2347 b.c. {Gen. ix. 20); see Vine. 
Christ changed water into wine at the marriage of 
Cana in Galilee, a.d. 30. John ii. 3-10; see Vine. 
Wine sold in England by apothecaries as a cordial 
in 1300, and so continued for some time after, 
although there is mention of " wine for the king" 
so early as John. 
The price regulated by statute, 5 Richard II . . 138a 
The price was twelve shillings the pipe in . 1400 

A hundred and fifty butts and pipes condemned, 
for being adulterated, to be staved and emptied 
into the channels of the streets, by Rainwell, 
mayor of London. Stow's Chron. . . . . 1427 
An act for licensing sellers of wine in England 
passed .a; April, 1661 



WINNIPEG. 



1389 



WITCHCRAFT. 



By the Methuen treaty, Portuguese wines, port, 
&c, were highly favoured, and French wines dis- 
couraged by heavy duties 1703 

Wine duties to be 2s. gd. per gallon on Cape wine, 
and 5s. 6d. on all other wines . . . . . 1831 

In year ending 31 March, 1856, the customs duties 
oh wines produced 1,856,120/. ; in 1858, 1,733,729/.; 
1867, 1,391,192/. ; 1876, 1,755,710/.; 1884, 1,268,842/.; 
1888, 1,085,046/.; 1890, 1,302,160/.; 1891,1,318,006/. 

By the French treaty of commerce, i860, the duty 
on wines was reduced from 5s. gd. to 2s. 6c/. and 
is. according to the alcoholic strength . Jan. i860 

Licences granted to refreshment houses by an act 
passed in ,, 

The Oporto Wine Company (a monopoly), estab- 
lished in 1756, and abolished 1865 

Commission on the wine duties appointed by the 
commons April, 1879 

The ancient duties on wine paid to the corporation 
on its entering the port of London, 4s. g\d. per 
tun of 252 gallons amounted to 8,488/. net, in 1885 

The abolition of these dues was discussed in 1889 ; 
the city dues on coal were abolished by parliament 

8 July, 1889 

Additional import duties on wine imposed by 
customs 1888 

The ad valorem duty of 2s. 6d. and is. per gallon on 
sparkling wines, altered to 2s. all round 14 April, 1892 



1815 
1830 
1839 
'84s 
1850 

1854 
1857 
1859 



1870 
1871 
1875 



WINE IMPORTED INTO UNITED KINGDOM. 

Gallons. 
■ 3»3°7>46o 

. . 4,306,528 



6,879,558 

9,909,056 
8,469,776 
9,304,312 
10,875,855 
10,336,485 

8,195.513 
11,052,436 

15.451.593 
16,953.429 
17,184,330 
17.774.782 

18,224,000 

18,429,305 
19,950,723 



1900 
1901 



Gallons. 
15,162,857 
i7.3 8 5. 49 6 
15.715.813 
15,559.795 
15,106,271 
14.629,739 
14,552,864 
15,383.641 
i4.745,i6i 
15,900,749 
16,194,107 

i7,3!9,477 
14,675,201 
16,695,560 
18,139,652 
16,803,829 
16,546,206 



WINNIPEG, capital of the province of Mani- 
toba, Canada, lias recently risen to great impor- 
tance. The population, which was 215 in 1870, 
had risen to 20,238 in 1891 ; 1902, 55,000. A 
period of depression from 1882 to 1884 has been 
followed by great prosperity, especially since the 
suppression of Kiel's rebellion in 1885 ; large 
numbers of immigrants reported in 1903. See 
Canada. 

WINTER. Eeeent mild winters, 1862, 1868, 
1873, 1876, 1881. See Frosts. 

WINTER ASSIZES ACT, 39-4» Vict. o. 57. 
(11 Aug. 1876), gives power, by order in council, 
to unite counties for the purpose of winter assizes, 
for more speedy trials of prisoners. 

WIRE. The invention of drawing wire is 
ascribed to Kodolph of Nuremberg, about 1410. 
Mills for this purpose were first set up at Nurem- 
berg in 1563. The first wire-mill in England was 
erected at Mortlake in 1663. Mortimer. 

WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY, see Elec- 
tricity, page 413. 

W1RTEMBERG, see Wiirtemberg. 

WISCONSIN, a N.W. state of N. America, 
was organised as a territory in 1836; and received 
into the union, 29 May, 1848. Population in 1880, 
'1,315,497; 1890,1,686,880; 1900,2,069,042. Capi- 
tal, Madison. Destructive forest fires, see United 
States, 31 Aug. -Sept. 1894; and storms, 1899. 

WISSEMBOURG, or Weissenbitrg, N.E. 



France, in the department of the Lower Rhine, 
situate on the right bank of the river Lauter, the 
boundary of France and the Palatinate. It was 
formerly an imperial city of Alsace, and was seized 
by Louis XIV. in 1673, and annexed to France by 
the treaty of Ryswick, 1697. The "lines" of Wis- 
sembourg, erected by Villars 1705, were taken by 
the Austrians and retaken by the French, 1793, 
after Hoche's victory at Geisberg. On 4 Aug. 
1870, the crown - prince of Prussia crossed the 
Lauter and gained a brilliant but bloody victory 
over the French (a part of MacMahon's division), 
storming the lines and the Geisberg. General Abel 
Douay was mortally wounded, and about 800 pri- 
soners were made. The killed and wounded on 
both sides appear to have been nearly equal. The 
German army, composed of Prussians, Bavarians, 
and Wiirtembergers, were, it is said, about 40,000, 
against about 10,000 French, who fought with des- 
perate bravery. 

WITCHCRAFT. The Jewish law {Exodus 
xxii. 18), 1491 B.C., decreed, " Thou shalt not 
suffer a witch to live." Saul, after banishing or 
condemning witchcraft, consulted the witch of 
Endor, 1 056 B.C. (1 Sam. xxviii.) Reginald Scots' 
" Disco verie of Witchcraft" (against its existence) 
published 1584. Reprinted, 1886. Bishop Hutch- 
inson's historical "Essay on Witchcraft" was pub- 
lished in 1718. Pope Innocent VIII. issued a bull 
against witchcraft in 1484. Thousands of innocent 
persons were burnt, and others killed by the tests 
applied. 

Many Templars burnt at Paris for witchcraft, <fec, 1309. 
Joan of Arc burnt at Rouen as a witch, 30 May, 1431. 
About five hundred witches burnt in Geneva, in three 

months, 1515. 
Many burnt in the diocese of Como in a year, about 

1524- 
A great number in France, about 1520, when one sorcerer 

confessed to having 1200 associates. 
Nine hundred burnt in Lorraine, 1580-1595. 
One hundred and fifty-seven burnt at Wurtzburg, old 

and young, learned and ignorant, between 1627 and 1629. 
Grandier, the parish priest at Loudon, burnt on a charge 

of having bewitched a whole convent of nuns, 1634. 
In Bretagne, twenty poor women put to death as witches, 

1654. 
Disturbances commenced on charges of witchcraft in 

America, at Massachusetts, 1648-9 ; and persecutions 

raged dreadfully in Pennsylvania in 1683. 
At Salem, in New England, nineteen persons hanged (by 

the Puritans) for witchcraft, eight more condemned; 

fifty confessed themselves to be witches and were 

pardoned, 1692. 
Maria Renata burnt at Wurtzburg in 1749. 
At Kalisk, in Poland, nine old women charged with 

having bewitched and rendered unfruitful the lands 

belonging to that palatinate, were burnt 17 Jan. 1775. 
Five women condemned to death by the Brahmins, at 

Patna, for sorcery, and executed, 15 Dec. 1802. 

WITCHCRAFT IN ENGLAND. 

A statute enacted declaring all witchcraft and sor- 
cery to be felony without benefit of clergy. 33 Hen. 

VIII. 1541. Again, 5 Eliz. 1562, and 1 James I. 1603. 
The 73rd canon of the church prohibits the clergy from 

casting out devils, 1603. 
Barrington estimates the judicial murders for witchcraft 

in England in 200 years at 30,000. 
Matthew Hopkins, the " witch-finder," causes the judicial 

murder of about 100 persons in Essex, Norfolk, and 

Suffolk, 1645-7. 
Sir Matthew Hale burnt two persons for witchcraft in 

1:664. 
Seventeen or eighteen persons burnt at St. Osyths, in 

Essex, about 1676. 
Two pretended witches were executed at Northampton 

in 1705, and five others seven years afterwards. 
In 1716, Mrs. Hicks, and her ' daughter, aged nine, were 

hanged at Huntingdon. 
Northamptonshire and Huntingdon preserved tile super- 
stition about witchcraft later than other counties. 



WITENA-MOT. 



1390 



WOERTH. 



In Scotland, thousands of persons were burnt in the 
period of about a hundred years. Among the victims 
were persons of the highest rank, while all orders in 
the state concurred. James I. even caused a whole 
assize to be prosecuted for an acquittal. The king 
published his Dcemonologie in Edinburgh, 1597. The 
last sufferer in Scotland was at Dornoch in 1722. 

The laws against witchcraft had lain dormant for many 
years, when an ignorant person attempting to revive 
them (by finding a bill against a poor old woman in 
Surrey for the practice of witchcraft), they were repealed, 
10 Geo. II. 1736. 

Credulity in witchcraft still abounds in the country dis- 
tricts of England. On 4 Sept. 1863, a poor old para- 
lysed Frenchman died in consequence of having been 
ducked as a wizard at Castle Hedingham, Essex, and 
similar cases have since occurred. 

Ann Turner, old ; killed as a witch by a half-insane man 
at Long Compton, Warwickshire, 17 Sept. 1875. 

Bridget Cleary, aged 27, burnt to death as a witch at 
Baltyvadhen, co. Tipperary, 15 March, 1895. 

The husband sentenced to 20 years', and 5 others to 
different terms of imprisonment, 5 July, 1895. 

WITENA-MOT or WlTENA-GEMOT, the 
assembling of the wise men, the great council of the 
Anglo-Saxons. A witena-mot was called in Win- 
chester by Egbert, 800, and in London, 833, to 
consult on the proper means to repel the Danes ; 
see Parliament. 

WITEPSK (in Russia), where a battle was 
fought between the French under marshal Victor, 
duke of Belluno, and the Russians commanded by 
general Wittgenstein. The French were defeated 
after a desperate engagement, with the loss of about 
3000 men on both sides, 14 Nov. 1812. 

WITNESSES. Two or more witnesses were 
required by the law of Moses, 145 1 B.C. (Deut. 
xvii. 6), and by the early Christian Church in cases 
of discipline (2 Cor. xiii. 1), a.d. 60. The evidence 
of two witnesses required to attaint for high treason, 
25 Edw. III. 1352. In civil actions between party 
and party, if a man be subpoenaed as a witness on a 
trial, he must appear in court on pain of 100^. to be 
forfeited to tbe king, and 10/., together with the 
damages equivalent to the loss sustained by the 
want of his evidence to the party aggrieved. Lord 
Ellenborough ruled that no witness is obliged to 
answer questions which may tend to degrade him- 
self, 10 Dec. 1802. New act relating to the exam 
ination of witnesses passed 13 Geo. III. 1 773- 
Act to enable courts of law to order the examination 
of witnesses upon interrogations and otherwise, 
1 Will. IV. 30 March, 1831. The Witnesses Protec- 
tion act (see under Parliament, April, 1892), passed 
28 June, 1892. 

WITTENBERG, the capital of Upper Saxony, 
Prussian since 1815, the cradle of the reformation, 
suffered much during the thirty years', seven 
years', and Napoleonic wars. Here are the houses, 
tombs, and statues of Luther and Melanchthon. 
On the wooden door of the castle church (conse- 
crated 1499) Martin Luther, an Augustinian 
monk, then a professor at the university, affixed 
his theses against the sale of indulgences, and 
thus inaugurated the protestant reformation 

31 Oct. 1517 
The church, restored by the emperor William I. and 
his successors, was solemnly re-opened by the 
emperor William II. in the presence of the 
protestant princes of Germany and representa- 
tives of those of Europe, including the duke of 
York and other dignitaries, during the Luther 
celebration 31 Oct. 1892 

WITU, or Titu. See Zanzibar, 1890. 

WIVES, see Marriage. By the Divorce and 
Matrimonial Causes Act, passed in 1857, the con- 



dition of married women has been much benefited. 
When ill-used they can obtain a divorce or judicial 
separation ; and while in the latter state any 
property they may acquire is secured to them per- 
sonally, as if unmarried. By another act passed in 
1857, they are enabled to dispose of reversionary 
interests in personal property or estates. An act 
to amend the law relating to the property of married 
women was passed 9 Aug. 1870. By it the separate 
earnings of a wife were secured to her own use, as 
well as personal and freehold property bequeathed 
to her. She may maintain an action at law, and 
acquires other rights. The husband is declared not 
liable for debts contracted by his wife prior to 
marriage, and she may be sued for them. This act 
was amended in 1874. Husband and wife may be 
jointly sued for her debts before marriage. By the 
Matrimonial Causes Act, 1878, a magistrate can 
grant judicial separation, with maintenance, to a 
wife suffering from her husband's ill-usage. 

House of lords decide that the husband is not re- 
sponsible for his wife's debts if he allow sufficient 
for dress, &c. Debeuham v. Mellon . 27 Nov. 1880 

Married Women's Property Act, 45 & 46 Vict, 
c. 75, passed 18 Aug. 1882, making their powers 
almost equal to those of single women, and in- 
creasing their responsibilities in regard to debt, 
&(•,., came into effect, 1 Jan. 1883 ; amended 

S Dec. 1893 

Provision made for deserted wives made by Act 
passed in 1886 

Ctitheroe ra.se. — Miss Emily Hall (born i860) was 
married to Mr. E. Haughton Jackson at Black- 
burn, 5 Nov. 1887. They never lived together; 
she returned to her friends, and he soon after 
went to New Zealand. He returned to England, 
17 July, 1888. After some correspondence and 
one interview (16 Jan. 1889) she steadily refused 
to live with him. Some litigation ensued, and a 
decree against her was obtained, 30 July, 1889. 
On 8 March, 1891, Mr. Jackson and others seized 
her when coming from church at Clitheroe, and 
carried her off to his house at Blackburn, where 
she was closely confined in charge of a nurse. 
By means of a writ of habeas corpus, she was 
brought before the court of appeal, who decided 
that a husband has no legal power to detain his 
wife against her will, 19 March. Mrs. Jackson 
then returned to her friends 

Summary Jurisdiction (Married Women) Act passed 

6 July, 1895 

WIVES' POISON or Water Tofana see 
Poisoning. 

WIZARD: Wizard of the North, n 

name given to sir Walter Scott, on account of his 
romances ; also to Mr. Anderson, the conjurer, 
who died 3 Feb. 1874, see Covent Garden and 
Witchcraft. 
Robert - Houdin's Confidences d'un Prestidigitatear 

published in 1859. 
Herr Hermann, an eminent rich beneficent conjurer 

or prestidigiteteur, died at Carlsbad aged 71, June, 

1887. See Automaton Figures. 
The feats of Maskelyne and Cooke in recent years are 

well known. 

WOERTH SUR SAUER, a town in the depart- 
ment of the Lower Khine, N.E. France. After 
storming Wissembourg (which sec) on 4 Aug. 1870, 
the crown-prince of Prussia, witli the 3rd army 
(about 150,000) marched rapidly forward and 
surprised part of the French army under Marshal 
MacMahon, including the corps of Canrobert and 
part of that of Failly (about 47,000), and defeated it 
in a long, desperate, and sanguinary engagement 
near this place 6 Aug. The battle lasted from 9 a.m. 
till 4 p.m. The chief struggles occurred in the 
country round Reiehshofl'en and in the village of 
Froeschweiller ; the French are said to have charged 



WOLVERHAMPTON. 



1391 



WOMEN. 



the German line eleven times, each time breaking 
it, but always finding- a fresh mass behind. The 
ridge on which Woerth stands was not captured 
until the French were taken in flank by the 
Bavarians and Wurtembergers. Nearly all Mac- 
Mahon's staff' were killed, and the marshal himself, 
unhorsed, fell fainting into a ditch, from which he 
was rescued by a soldier. He then, on foot, directed 
the retreat towards Saverne, to cover the passes of 
the Vosges. The victory is attributed to the very 
great numerical superioi-ity of the Germans as well 
as to their excellent strategy. The French loss has 
been estimated at 5000 killed and wounded, and 
5000 prisoners, 2 eagles, 6 mitrailleuses, 35 can- 
non, and much baggage. The Germans are stated 
to have had above 8000 men put hors de combat. 
It was admitted that MacMahon had acted as an 
able and brave commander. 

WOLVERHAMPTON (Staffordshire), an old 
town formerly named Hamton ; owes its present 
name to the foundation of a college here by 
Wulfrana, sister of king Edgar, and widow of 
Aldhelm, duke of Northampton, 996. The queen 
was present at the inauguration of the prince con- 
sort's statue here, 30 Nov. 1866, and the church 
congress was opened here 1 Oct. 1867. Wolver- 
hampton is eminent for its manufactures in metal. 
Statue of hon. C. P. Villiers (its M.P., 1835-98) 
was uncovered, 6 June, 1879; he voted personally, 
when aged 90, for confidence in the Salisbury 
ministry, II Aug. 1892; died 16 Jan. 1898. Popu- 
lation, 1881, 75,766; 1891, 82,680; 1901,94,179. 

Wolverhampton returns three M.P.'s by act passed 25 

June, 1885. 
Mr. Edwin Butler bequeaths 10,000?. for a public reading- 
room, music for the parks, &c. , Sept. 1893. 
Celebration of the 900th anniversary of lady Wulfrana 

(sister of Ethelred II.), charter to the town, &c., 

24 June et seq. 1894. 
Wrottesley hall, with valuable library, burnt down, 

16 Dec. 1897. 
The duke and duchess of York open a new infirmary, 

and lay the stone for the new free library, 23 July, 

1900 (opened, Mr. A. Carnegie presents i,oooZ., 11 

Feb. 1902). 
Fine art and industrial exhibition opened by the duke 

and duchess of Connaught, 1 May, 1902 ; deficit of 

34,oooL reported, 5 Dec. 1902. 
Sir Joseph Dimsdale, lord mayor of London, presented 

with the freedom, 25 July, 1902. 
Boiler explosion at Messrs. Tupper's ironworks, Bilston ; 

4 deaths, 12 injured, 20 Jan. 1903. 

WOLVES were once very numerous in England. 
Their heads were demanded as a tribute, particu- 
larly 300 yearly from "Wales, by king Edgar, 961, 
by which step they were falsely said to be totally 
destroyed. Carte. Edward I. issued his mandate 
for the destruction of wolves in several counties of 
England, 1289. Ireland was infested by wolves for 
many centuries after their extirpation in England ; 
for there are accounts of some being found there so 
late as 1 7 10, when the last presentment for killing 
wolves was made in the county of Cork. Wolves 
still infest France, in which kingdom 8384 wolves 
and cubs were killed in 1828-9. They were trouble- 
some in the Vosges, Oct. 1875 ; premiums intro- 
duced by the state for their destruction, 1,316 
killed in 1883; 171 in 1896; 197 in 1898; 207 
in 1899; 115 in 1900. 

WOMEN. The employment of women is regu- 
lated by the Factory and Workshop Regulation Ac. s 
(which see) . 

(See Degrees, Female Medical School, Jubilee, Marriage, 
Wives, and Clubs.) 



Mary Wollstonecraft's Vindication of the Rights of 

Women, published 1791 

Women disfranchised by the insertion of the word 

(male) before person in the Reform bill of . . 1832 
Great advances in the legal rights, position, and 

employment of women 1837-89. 

Women's hospitals founded : Soho . . . . 1842: 
J. S. Mill's Subjection of Women, published . 1869. 

Female medical society and obstetrical college 
founded about 1864 

Female suffrage for members of parliament was pro- 
posed by J. S. Mill, and negatived by 196 against 
73 20 May, 1867 

Lily Maxwell, a shopkeeper at Manchester, voted 
for Jacob Bright 26 Nov. ,, 

First annual meeting of the Manchester national 
society for women's suffrage . . 30 Oct. 1868 

Female suffrage decided to be illegal, by the court 
of common pleas . . . . 7, 9 Nov. ,, 

Women's Club and Institute, Newman-street, 
London, W. opened .... Jan. 1869 

Women's Disabilities removal bill rejected by the 
commons (220^094) 12 May, 1870; (222-143) 1 
May, 1872 ; (223-155) 30 April, 1873 ; withdrawn, 
1874 ; (187-152) 7 April, 1875 ; (239-152) 26 April, 
1876 ; hustled out, 6 June, 1877 ; (219-140) 
19 June, 1878 ; (217-103) 7 March, 1879 ; (130-114) 

6 July, 1883 

Miss Garrett and Miss Davies elected members of 
the metropolitan school-board . . 29 Nov 1873 

Medical school for women opened (see Physic, 1876) 

Oct. 1874 

Working women's college (see under Working-men), 

12 Oct. , r 

Women's Protective and Provident League founded 
by Mrs. Paterson and others, Great Queen Street, 
(out of this has arisen several independent trade 
unions, book-binders, upholsterers, &c.) . . , r 

Women's Whisky War, see United States, 1874. 

Miss Merington elected guardian of the poor for 
Kensington (the first case in London) . April, 1876 

Women's Education Union, president, the princess 
Louise, founded at the Society of Arts, in 1871, 
to promote the better education of women ; said 
to be languishing in .... Oct. 1877 

University of London : senate vote for granting 
degrees to women, 28 Feb. : convocation vote 
against it, 8 May and July, 1877 ; vote for a sup- 
plemental charter granting it (242-132), 15 Jan. ; 
charter granted 28 March, 187S 

Great meeting for female suffrage ; St. James's Hall, 

6 May, 1880 

Elective suffrage granted to women in the Isle of 
Man . ,, 

Women excluded from government employment 
in the United Stares, by order . about 27 Dec. 1881 

Women to Vie admitted to examinations for honours 
at Oxford ; by statute . . . .29 April, 1884. 

Female householders' suffrage (widows and spins- 
ters), proposed by Mr. Woodall in the commons, 
10 June ; negatived (271-135) 12-13 June ; in con- 
sequence Miss H. Miiller refuses to pay queen's 
taxes, and her goods are distrained . 2 July, „ 

Women's suffrage bill ; lords read 1st time, 3 July ; 
negatived 10 July, 1884; again 28 July, 1885; 
read second time commons 18-19 Feb. ; blocked 
March; negatived by the lords 16 March, 1886; 
again 13 Sept. 1887; 13 April, 1888 ; and 18 March, 
1889; again 1891 and 1892 

Female suffrage granted in Madras presidency 

announced 28 Sept. 1885 

Enactments for the protection of women and girls 
formed part of the Criminal Law Amendment 
Act passed 14 Aug. „ 

Women's National Suffrage Society annual meetings, 
July, 1886, et seq. 

Many women's liberal associations (Unionist and 
Gladstonian) formed 1886-9S 

Miss A. F Ramsay and Miss B. M. Hervey obtain 
high university honours(see Cambridge), 18 June, 
1887 ; and Miss G. P. Fawcett . . 7 June, 1890 

International "council of women," advocating 
women's rights, met. at Washington, U.S. 25 
March, 1888 ; a similar one at Paris 25 June, 1889 

Suffrage granted to female ratepayers, under the 
local government act, passed . . 13 Aug. i8£8 



WOMEN. 



1392 



WOMEN. 



Women's hospital with female practitioners begun 
in Marylebone 1871 ; the new building in Euston 
Road founded by the princess of Wales 7 May, 

Mrs. Scharlieb made M.D. . . . 16 May, 

Two ladies elected for the London County Council ; 
this declared illegal, a bill to legalise it rejected 
by the lords, 20 May, 1889, and 9 June, 1890 ; by 
the commons 26 May, 

Women's trade union association, proposed by the 
bishop of Bedford and others at a meeting held 
in the Assembly-hall in the Mile-End-road 8 Oct. 

Another meeting at Piccadilly ... 10 Feb. 

Women in New Zealand authorized to serve in 
parliament and vote at elections ; bill passed, 4 
Sept. ; rejected by the legislative council, 

10 Sept. 

Slander of Women Act passed . . 5 Aug. 

Discrimination of sex in elections abolished by act 
passed in New York .... 15 April, 

Bill for the extension of the parliamentary fran- 
chise to women, rejected by the commons (175 — 
152), 27 April, 1892 ; by the lords, 11 Sept. 1893 ; 
withdrawn, commons, May, 1895 ; read 3rd time, 
lords, 1896 ; read 2nd time, commons, 3 Feb. 
1897 ! bill withdrawn, commons, 14 July, 1898. 

Conferences at Bristol and other places, respecting 
women's suffrage, &c Nov. 

Association of women pioneer lecturers ; public 
meeting in London .... 8 March, 

MissMaria M. Ogilvie made D.Sc. of London uni- 
versity June, 

Act passed in New Zealand conferring elective 
franchise on women . . . .29 Sept. 

Women sanitary inspectors, under the factory and 
workshop act, Jan. 1892 ; reported very efficient 
in Kensington Jan. 

The national women's council organize*! by lady 
Aberdeen at Ottawa reported successful, 13 
April, 1894 ; meetings in London, 12 Dec. 1895, 
and 19 July, 1897. 

A great meeting held in the Queen's hall, Langham- 
place, W., in favour of the parliamentary franchise 
to women 9 June, 

Women's suffrage appeal started, June, 1893 ; re- 
ceived 249,000 signatures . . . July, 

Women's christian education league, active . iE 

By the act passed 1894, women declared eligible 
for parish councils, &c. 

Death of the dowager lady Stanley of Alderley, aged 
87, anactivepromoteroffemale education ; 7 years 
president of the women's liberal unionist associa- 
tion r 6 Feb. 

Election manifesto issued by the women's franchise 
league 2 July, 

The proposal to admit women to the B.A, degree 
rejected at Oxford (215-140), 3, 10 March, 1896; 
rejected at Cambridge, 12 March, 1S96 ; degrees 
by diploma recommended to the Cambridge 
senate, by the syndicate, 2 March, 1897 ; much 
controversy ; rejected, 21 May, 1897. 

Poor law Guardians (Ireland) Women act passed, 

31 March, 

Women's international congress at Berlin, 21 Sept. 

The National union (since termed council) of 
women workers, conference at Manchester, 27 
Oct., 1896. Annual meetings. 

Women's suffrage bill passed in Victoria 29 Oct. 

Women admitted to the bar by benchers of the 
Ontario law society, under act of Provincial 
legislature z 8 Nov. 

Mathilde Blind, poet, novelist, and critic, born 21 
March, 1847, died 26 Nov. 

" Woman under the English law, from the Saxons 
to the present time," by Arthur R. Cleveland, 
published 

Miss Frances E. Willard, great worker in the tem- 
perance movement ; born 28 Sept. 1839, died, 

18 Feb. 

Miss Gulvin and Miss Hutchings, from the Horti- 
cultural college, Swanley, Kent, employed as 
gardeners at Kew ; 28 professional appointments 
held by women Feb. 

Women's local government society, annual meetings 
in London, lady Frederick Cavendish presiding, 
18 March, 1898 (lady Aberdeen presided 21 
March, 1901). 

Women's liberal federation annua] meeting at St. 
James's hall . . ... . . 22 June, 



1895 



Women's international congress (about 28 countries 
represented) opened at Westminster ; lady Aber- 
deen, president ; public meetings at the Queen's 
hall, many questions discussed ; 1,250,000 mem- 
bers 26 June-4 July, iE 

Mrs. Ellen Johnson, governor of the Massachusetts 
Women's reformatory prison, died suddenly at 
the congress, aged 69 . . . .28 June, 

About 150 delegates received by the queen at 
Windsor . . 7 July, 

Women'sinteraational Christian temperance league, 
founded in America, 1874 ; 40 countries repre- 
sented in 

Miss F. M. Skene, born 23 May, 1821, philanthro- 
pist and writer, died 5 Oct. 

Miss Anna Swanwick, writer and transcriber of 
iEschylus and Goethe, leader in social and educa- 
tional reforms, died, aged 86 . . .2 Nov. 

Women's institute, founded by Mr. Wynford 
Philipps (.1898), over 45 societies associated and 
3oo members ; weekly conferences, &c. ; great 
progress, reported . . . .15 March, 1900 

An exhibition, "women of all nations," at Earl's 
court, opened by the lady mayoress, 5 May, 1900 ; 
closed ....... 13 Oct. ,, 

Miss Mary Kingsley, traveller, writer and lecturer, 
"West African Studies," &c, died, aged 37, of 
fever, while nursing Boer prisoners, at Simons- 
town, S. Africa 3 June, ,, 

Women admitted as members to the committees of 
the British association, by resolution passed, 

12 Sept. ,, 

Law, in France, enabling women to practise as 
barristers, published 4 Dec. ; Mme. Petit sworn 
in at Paris 5 Dec. ,, 

Mansion house meeting in support of lady War- 
wick's agricultural scheme for women ; see 
Reading 12 July, 1901 

Mrs. Elizabeth Hanbury, philanthropist, active in 
the anti-slavery movement, died, aged jo8, 31 Oct. ,, 

Full suffrage for the federal parliament granted to 
the women of Australia . . . May, 1902 

The maharajah Sindhia of Gwalior speaks warmly 
in favour of female education in India, London, 

17 June, ,, 

Women's suffrage granted by parliament of New 
South Wales Aug. ,, 

Miss Cornelia Sorabji, B.C.L. , Oxford, appeals for 
female legal assistance for purdah women in 
India ; Times 26 Sept. ,, 

Great progress of women in the medical and other 
professions 1870 el- seq. ,, 

Mrs. Elizabeth Stanton, of New York, who, with 
others, inaugurated the first woman's rights con- 
vention and the woman suffrage movement (1848), 
died, aged 86 26 Oct. ,, 

Death of Miss Helen Blackburn, sec. and subse- 
quently hon. sec. to the central committee for 
women's suffrage in London, also edited the 
Englishwoman's Review . . . early Jan. 1903 

Death of Louisa lady Ashburton, philanthropist, 
aged 76, 2 Feb. ; and of " Edna Lyall," Miss Ada 
Bayly, novelist and able exponent of women's 
social and political rights . . . .7 Feb. ,, 

The king and queen receive from the committee of 
the Queen's Nurses' Endowment Fund, 71,914/., 
collected as a women's memorial to the late 
queen Victoria mid May, ,, 

Senate of Dublin University decides by large majo- 
rity to open its degrees to women . mid June, ,, 

Hon. degree of Mus.D. conferred on the princess of 
Wales by University of London . . 24 June, ,, 

Mdlle. Marguerite Dilhan called to the oar at 
Toulouse 13 July, 1903, briefed as counsel for the 
defence of prisoner in a murder case of that 
town ; first instance on record in France of a 
feminine barrister pleading in a criminal court, 

26 Nov. ,. 

Special tribunal of judges, house of lords, the lord 
chancellor presiding, considered the case of Miss 
Bertha Cave, who had been refused admission to 
Gray's Inn ; the tribunal decided against the 
applicant on the ground that there was no prece- 
dent for women being called to the English bar, 
and that the tribunal was unwilling to create 
such precedent . ...... . 2 Dec. ,, 



WONDEKS. 



1393 



WOOLLEN CLOTH. 



.WONDERS OF THE WORLD, i. The pyra- 
mids of Egypt. 2. The mausoleum or tomb built for 
Mausolus, king of Curia, by Artemisia, his queen. 
3. The temple of Diana, at Ephesus. 4. The walls 
and hanging gardens of the city of Babylon. 5. 
The vast brazen image of the sun at Rhodes, called 
the Colossus. 6. The ivory and gold statue of 
Jupiter Olympus. 7. The pharos or watch-tower, 
fcuilt by Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt; 
see separate articles. 

WOOD (see Silk, i8g5, and Paper) rendered non- 
inflammable by a chemical process, adopted in the 
United States, successfully tried on a building at 
Millbank, London, the surface being only charred, 
the prince of Wales and others present, 11 May, 
1897. 

WOOD-CUTS, see Engraving on Wood. 

WOODHALL SPA, Lincolnshire, celebrated 
for mineral waters, especially containing iodine. 
On 22 May, 1888, Mr. E. Stanhope, M.P., sir 
Richard Webster, M.P. (lord Alverstone 1900), and 
others, inspected the pump-room, baths, hotel, and 
other buildings erected to promote the use of the 
waters by all classes of invalids. A hospital was 
opened 29 May, 1890. 

WOODITE, a combination of india-rubber, 
«ork, and other substances for the coating of life- 
boats and other vessels to defend them against 
collision and attacks of guns, &c. invented by 
Mrs. A. M. Wood, recommended by sir E. J. Reed, 
July, 1886. 

WOODS. Forests, &c, see Forests. The 
board of woods, forests, and land revenues was con- 
stituted in 1810. The oversight of works and 
public buildings was added to its duties in 1832, but 
transferred to a separate board of commissioners in 
185 1. See Works. In 1874 the annual revenue of 
the crown woods and forests was 487,695/. ; 1882-3, 
308,000/.; 1886, 492,624/.; 1901, 666,109/.; l 9° 2 , 
618,356/. Repor: of a commission issued, Nov. 1897. 

WOOD'S HALF-PENCE, for circulation in 
Ireland and America, were coined by virtue of a 
patent, passed 1722. Against them, Dr. Jonathan 
Swift, by his letters signed M. H. Drapier pub- 
lished about 1 723, raised such a spirit of opposition 
that the patent was withdrawn. Wood received a 
compensation, but was virtually banished the king- 
dom. The half-pence were assayed in England by 
sir Isaac Newton, and proved to be genuine, in 1724. 

WOOD PAVEMENT was laid down at 
Whitehall in 1839; and in Oxford-street, the 
Strand, and other streets. The principal part was 
soon taken up. In Nov. 1872, the improved wood 
pavement company put forth a prospectus ; and 
in May, 1876, wood \\ r as laid down in many 
places. It is said to be the best pavement in 
London, and its use has diminished the noise of the 
traffic. 

Oxford-street was paved by Henson's street paving 
company, with a compound of wood, asphalt, felt, and 
Portland cement in 1876 ; with wood, 1878. Bond-street 
and many other streets paved with wood, 1879-81. Wood 
is now (1903) generally adopted as the paving for the 
principal thoroughfares of the metropolis. 

WOODSTOCK (Oxfordshire). In Wood- 
stock, now Blenheim-park, originally stood a 
royal palace, in which king Ethelred held a par- 
liament, and Alfred the Great translated Boethius 
de Consolatione Philosophise, 888. Henry I. beau- 
tified the palace; and here resided Rosamond, 



mistress of Henry II. 1 154. In it were born 
Edmund, second son of Edward I., 1301, and 
Edward, eldest son of Edward III., 1330 ; and here 
the princess Elizabeth was confined by her sister 
Mary, 1554. A splendid mansion, built at the 
expense of the nation, for the duke of Marlborough, 
was erected here to commemorate his victory at 
Blenheim in 1 704. At that time every trace of the 
ancient edifice was removed, and two elms were 
planted on its site ; see Blenheim. Scott's romance, 
'' Woodstock," was published, June, 1826. Mar- 
shall's " History of Woodstock," 1873. 

WOOL. From the earliest times to the reign 
of queen Elizabeth the wool of Great Britain was 
not only superior to that of Spain, but accounted 
the finest in the universe ; and even in the times 
of the Romans a manufacture of woollen cloths was 
established at Winchester for the use of the em- 
perors. Anderson. In later times wool was manu- 
factured in England, and is mentioned 1 185, but 
not in any quantity until 133 1, when the weaving 
of it was introduced by John Kempe and other arti- 
zans from Flanders. This was the real origin of 
our now unrivalled manufacture, 6 Edw. III. 1331. 
Ei/mer's Feeder a. 

Duties on exported wool were levied by Edw. I. . 1275 

The exportation prohibited 1337 

Staples of wool established in Ireland, at Dublin, 

Waterford, Cork, and Drogheda, 18 Edw. III. . . 1343 
Sheep were first permitted to be sent to Spain, 

which has since injured our manufacture. Stow. 1467 
First legislative prohibition of the export of wool 

from Ireland 1521 

The exportation of English wool, and the importa- 
tion of Irish wool into England, prohibited . 1696 
The export forbidden by act passed . . . . 1718 
Bill to prevent the running of wool from Ireland to 

France 1738 

The duty on wool imported from Ireland taken off 1739 

Woolcombers' act, 35 Geo. Ill 1794 

The non-exportation law was repealed, 5 Geo. IV. . 1824 

In 1851 we imported 83,311,975 lb. of wool and 
alpaca, &c. ; in 1856, 116,211,392 lb. ; in 1S59, 
133,284,6341b. ; in 1861, 147,172,841ft. ; in 1864, 
206,473,645 ft. ; in 1866, 239,358,689 ft. ; in 1871, 
323,036,299 ft. ; in 1875, 365,065,578 ft. ; in 1879, 
417,110,099 ft. ; in 1881, 450,141,735 ft. ; in 1883, 
495,946,779 ft. ; in 1888, 639,267,975 ft. ; in 1889, 
700,903,057 lb. ; in 1890, 633,028,131 ft. ; in 1893, 
677,947,464 ft. ; in 1898, 689,446,139 lb. ; in 1901, 
692-374-231 ti>- 

We imported from Australasia, in 1842, 12,979,856 ft. ; 
in 1856, 56,052,139 ft. ; in 1861, 68,506,222 ft. ; in 
1866, 113,773,694 ft. ; in 1871, 182,710,567 ft. ; in 
1875, 238,631,824 ft. ; in 1877, 281,247,190 ft. ; in 
1879, 287,831,804 ft.; in 1881, 329,665,855 ft.; in 
1883, 351,685,606 ft. ; in 1887, 383,506,395 ft. ; in 
1889, 431,303,391 ft. ; in 1890, 418,771,604 ft. ; in 
1893, 472,367,225 ft. ; in 1900, 386,367,117 ft- ! i' 1 
1901, 334,355.00° lb. 

WOOL-COMBEES in several parts of Eng- 
land have a procession on 3 Feb., in commemoration 
of bishop Blaise, who is reported to have discovered 
their art. He is said to have visited England, rnd 
to have landed at St. Blazy, in Cornwall. He was 
bishop of Sebaste, in Armenia, and is said to have 
suffered martyrdom in the Diocletian persecution, 
289. Sir Isaac Holden, a great inventor of 
machinery and proprietor, died, aged 90, 13 Aug 
1897. 

WOOLLEN CLOTH. Woollen cloths were 
made an article of commerce in the time of Julius 
Caesar, and are familiarly alluded to by him see 
Weaving. 
The Jews were forbidden to wear garments of 

woollen and linen together .... B.C. 1451 

4 u 



WOOLSACK. 



1394 WOECESTEE, BATTLE OF. 



70 families of cloth-workers (from the Netherlands) 
■ settled in England by Edward III. Rymer. a.d. 1331 

Worsted manufacture in Norfolk . . . . 1340 

A kind of blankets were first made in England. 
(Camden) ...... about 1340 

Woollens made at Kendal . . . ... 1390 

No cloth but of Wales or Ireland to be imported 
into England . . .... 1463 

Medleys, or mixed broad-cloth, first made . . . 1614 

Manufacture of fine cloth began at Sedan, in France, 
under the patronage of Cardinal Mazarin . . 1646 

Broadcloth first dressed and dyed in England, by 
Brewer, from the Low Countries . . . . 1667 

British and Irish woollens prohibited in France . 1677 

All persons obliged to be buried in woollens, and 
the persons directing the burial otherwise to for- 
feit 5?,, 29 Charles II. 1678 

The manufacture of cloth greatly improved in Eng- 
land by Flemish settlers 1688 

Injudiciously restrained in Ireland, 11 Will. III. . 1698 

The exportation from Ireland wholly prohibited, 
except to certain ports of England . . 1701 

English manufacture encouraged by 10 Anne, 1712, 
and 2 Geo. 1 1715 

Greater in Yorkshire in 1785 than in all England at 
the revolution. Chalmers. 

Value of woollen manufactures of all kinds exported 
• in 1847, 6,896,038?. ; in 1854, 9,120,759?. ; in 1861, 
11,118,692?. ; in 1864, 18,569,089?. ; in 1871, 
27,182,385?. ; in 1875, 21,659,325?. ; in 1877, 
I 7i343>2°3^; in 1879, 15,861,166?. ; in 1881, 
18,128,756?.; in 1883, 18,315,575?.; in 1887, 
20,594,962?. ; in 1889, 21,324,892?. : in 1890, 
' 20,418,482?.; in 1891, 18,446,640?.; in 1892, 
17,906,608?. ; in 1893, 16,404,035?. ; in 1900, 
15,682,154?. ; in 1901, 17,725,014?. 

International Woollen Exhibition at the Crystal 
Palace, Sydenham, opened by the duke of Con- 
naught 2 June, 1881 

Association for the encouragement of British 
woollen manufactures founded by the countess 
of Bective and about 200 other ladies . . . „ 

Dr. Jagers "Sanitary Woollen System of Cloth- 
ing " was published in 1887 

WOOLSACK, the seat of the lord high chan- 
cellor of England in the house of lords, so called 
from its being a large square bag of wool, without 
back or arms, covered' with red cloth. Wool was 
the staple commodity of England ;in the reign of 
Edward III., when the woolsack first came into 
use. 

WOOLWICH (Kent), the most ancient mili- 
tary and naval arsenal in England. Its royal 
dockyard, where men-of-war were built in the 
reign of Henry VIII., was closed, 1 Oct. 1869. Here 
Marry Gruce de Dieu was built, 1512 ; and here 
she was burnt in 1552. The royal arsenal was 
formed about 1720, on the site of a rabbit-warren; 
it contains vast magazines of great guns, mortars, 
bombs, pow r der, and other warlike stores; a foundry, 
with many furnaces, for casting ordnance ; and a 
great laboratory, where fireworks, cartridges, gren- 
ades, &c, are made for the public service. The 
Royal Military Academy was erected in the royal 
arsenal, but the institution was not completely 
formed until 19 Geo. II. 1745. "Woolwich returns 
one M.P., by act of 1885. Constituted a municipal 
bjrough by London Government act, 1899 (6 
aldermen, 36 councillors). Population, 1881,80,845; 
1891, 107,324; kjoi, 131,000. 

The arsenal, storehouses, &c, burnt (loss of 200,000?.) , 

20 May, 1802 
Another great fire .... 30 June, 1805 

Fatal explosion of gunpowder . . 20 Jan. 1813 
The hemp-store burnt down . . . 8 July, 1813 
Another explosion by gunpowder . 16 June, 1814 

The Royal Military Academy nearly destroyed by 

fire ; loss about 100,000?. . . . 1 Feb. 1873 
Visited by the shah of Persia . 21 June, ,, 



Subway beneath the Thames between North and 
South Woolwich, begun ... 23 Aug. 1876 

Explosion in the rocket factory ; the town bom- 
barded, with little damage ; the armoury burnt, 
only two men killed in the factory,io a.m. 24 Sept. 1883 

Construction of great free steam ferry authorized 
by the commons 1 May, 1885 

Free steam-ferry (between North and South Wool- 
wich) inaugurated in great state by lord Rosebery 

23 March, 1889 

(Woolwich Infant, see Cannon, 1872.) 
Extensive fire in the arsenal, saw mills, cork shop, 
&c. 6 Dec. ; and at Messrs. Arnold and Co., 
timber merchants . . . . 20 Dec. 1896 

Explosion in a rocket factory averted . 12 May, 1898 
Queen Victoria visits wounded soldiers at the 

Herbert hospital .... 22 March, 1900 
Grand theatre, erected by Mr. Clarence Sounes, 

opened by sir Henry Irving . . 18 Oct. ,, 
Lord Avebury opens a free library . . 8 Nov. 1901 
Visit of the king and queen ; a new nursing depart- 
ment at the Herbert hospital opened . 16 Feb. 1903 
Explosion in the arsenal, 14 killed, 17 injured, 

iS June, ,, 
Royal Artillery theatre burnt down . . 18 Nov. ,, 

WOECESTEE, successively an important 
British, Koman, and Saxon towTi, was burnt by 
the Danes (1041) for resisting the tribute called 
Danegelt. William I. built a castle, 1090. The 
city was frequently taken and retaken during the 
civil wars of the middle ages, and by Cromwell in 
1651. — The Bishopric was founded by Ethelred, 
king of the Mercians, 680, and taken from the see 
of Lichfield, of which it composed a part. The 
married priests of the cathedral were displaced, and 
monks settled in their stead, 064. The church was 
rebuilt by St. Wulstan, 25th bishop, 1030 ; the 
remains of his hospital are described by the rev. T. 
H. Marsh, in its " Annals," published in 1890. The 
see has yielded to the church of Rome four saints, 
and to the English nation five lord chancellors and 
three lord treasurers. It is valued in the king's 
books at 1049^. 16s. T,\d. per annum. Present 
income, 5000/. Population, 1881, 38,270; 1891, 
42,905 ; 1901, 47,000. 

The renovated cathedral opened . . 8 April, 1874 
Much excitement through the refusal of the dean 
and chapter to permit the cathedral to be used as 
a concert room for the three choirs festival 

Oct.-Nov. ,, 
The festival held as strictly religious services 

22, 23 Sept. 1875 
The foundation stone of the. jubilee Victoria insti- 
tute laid by the duke of York, 3 April, 1894 ; 
opened by the mayoress, lady Mary Lygon, 1 Oct. 1896 
Severn End-house, the ancient seat of the Lech- 
mere family, near Worcester, destroyed by fire, 

24 Oct, „ 
Theatre (enlarged) reopened by lord Coventry, 

19 Jan. 1903 

RECENT BISHOPS. 

1781. Richard Hurd, died 28 May, 1808. 

1808. Folliott H. Cornwall, died 5 Sept. 1831. 

1831. Robert James Carr, died 24 April, 1841. 

1841. Henry Pepys, died 13 Nov. i860. 

1861. Henry Philpott, resigned Aug. 1890, died 10 Jan., 

1892. 
1890. John James Stewart Perowne, Oct. ; resigned 

Nov. 1901. 
901. Charles Gore, appointed n Jan.; consecrated 23 

Feb. 1902. 

WOECESTEE, Battle of, 3 Sept. 1651, 

when the Scots army which came to England to 
reinstate Charles II. was defeated by Cromwell, 
who called it his crowning mercy. Charles with 



WORDSWORTH SOCIETY. 



1395 



WORKING MEN. 



difficulty escaped to France. More than 2000 of the 
royalists were slain, and of 8000 prisoners most 
■were sold as slaves to the American colonists ; see 
Boscobel. 

WORDSWORTH SOCIETY, formed "as 
a bond of union among those who are in sympathy 
with the general teaching and spirit of Wordsworth" 
and " to promote and extend the study of the poet's 
works," &c, was inaugurated at Grasmere, West- 
moreland, 30 Sept. 1880. First President, Dr. 
Charles Wordsworth, bishop of St. Andrews. The 
society dissolved 7 July, 1886. 

WORKHOUSES, see under Poor. 

. WORKING MEN. Since the great Exhibi- 
tion of 185 1, much has been done to benefit the 
labouring classes by organisation. See Artisan. 

Jerking Men's Clubs considered to have begun with 
the Working Men's Mutual Improvement and 
Recreation Society, established in Lancaster by 
the instrumentality of the rev. H. Solly in . . i860 
The Westminster Working Men's Club, in Duck-lane, 
originated with Miss Adeline Cooper ; opened in 

Dec. „ 

The Working Men's Club and Institute Union for 
the promotion of clubs, institutes and similar 
societies for the instruction and recreation of the " 
working classes, was mainly established by the 
strenuous exertions of the rev. Henry Solly 
(died 27 Feb. 1903, aided by lord Lyttelton, sir 
Harcourt Johnstone, sir Hugh Owen, lord Frede- 
rick Cavendish, and others ; the Union was 
constituted at a meeting, lord Brougham in the 
chair, 14 June, 1862. It has been eminently 
successful. The new Central hall in Clerkenwell- 
road opened by lord Brassey, 15 Sept. 1893. 

The Working Men's Club and Lodging-house, Old 
Pye-street, Westminster, was opened 20 April, 1866 

Working Men's Colleges, &c. The first, established in 
Sheffield, by Mr. Bayley in 1842, and reconstituted 
by some of the students in 1848. The second, in 
GreatOrmond-street, London, by the rev. professor 
Frederick D. Maurice, as principal, in Oct. 1854 
(died 1 April, 1872), succeeded by Thos. Hughes, 
"Tom Brown" 1873-83, and sir John Lubbock, 
1883 (lord Avebury 1900), resigns ; succeeded by 
prof. A. V. Dicey, 16 Feb. 1899; average number of 
students risen from 130 to over 1,000 per annum, 
reported, July, 1899. A third in Cambridge, 
1855, Wolverhampton, 1857, Manchester, 1858, 
and elsewhere, but have not all survived ; all 
wholly for the working classes, and undertaking 
to impart such knowledge as each man feels he 
is most in want of. The colleges engage to 
find a teacher wherever 10 or 12 members agree 
to form a class, and also to have lectures given. 
There were eleven classes at the one in Blooms- 
bury, London, in 1856 ; Mr. Buskin gave lessons 
in drawing. Some of these colleges have been 
found to be self-supporting. 

A Working Women's College, begun at Queen's-square, 
Bloomsbury, 1864 ; afterwards changed to the 
" New College for men and women," inaugural 
meeting 12 Oct. 1874 

Working Wome7i's College, Fitzroy-street, inaugu- 
rated 16 Oct. ,, 

Act to establish councils of conciliation, to adjust 
: differences between masters and workmen, passed 

20 Aug. 1867 

The Arbitration (Masters and Workmen) Act passed 

6 Aug. 1872 

Working Men's Institute, for South London, opened 
with a lecture by professor Huxley . 4 Jan. 1868 

The Samuel Morley Memorial College for working 
men and women at Victoria hall in connection 
with the Borough-road Polytechnic, was opened 
in 1889. See Polytechnic. 

Workmen's International Exhibition proposed by 

' the duke of Argyll, lord Elcho, and others, 

March, 1868 ; meeting for arrangements, 10 Jan. 



1870, held in the Agricultural Hall, Islington (16 
classes and a fine arts department) ; opened by 
the prince of Wales, 16 July ; closed by Mr. Glad- 
stone . .■■'.. . . . .31 Oct. 1870 

National trades societies congress meet at Man- 
chester, 1868 ; at Birmingham . . . Aug. 1869 
Demonstration of working men in Hyde park 
against certain clauses relating to masters and 
servants in the Criminal Law Amendment Act, 

2 June, 1873 
International Working Men's Association (termed 
the International) owes its origin to some German 
socialists in London, 1847, and was much pro- 
moted by the foreign visitors to the great exhibi- 
tion in 1862. It was definitely organised, 28 Sept. 
1864, George Odger first president. Its professed 
object is the complete emancipation of labour 
from the tyranny of capitalists. It has held 
congresses at Geneva, Sept. 1866 ; Lausanne, 
Sept. 1867 ; Brussels, 6-13 Sept. 1868 ; Basel. 6-11 
Sept. 1869 ; Barcelona, June, 1870 ; at the Hague, 
when great dissensions arose between the "autho- 
ritarians," who consider a government needful, 
and the "anarchists," who deny it. One party 
including the council seceded from the trade 
portion, and adjourned to New York, 3-10 Sept. 1872 
Four of its members were elected into the French 

national assembly Feb. 1871 

The association took part in the communist insur- 
rection at Paris Dec. ,, 

It made a demonstration at New York . 18 Mar. 1872- 
It is said to have about 2,500,000 members in all 
countries, and to be allied with several secret 
societies, such as Fenians, the Mary Anne, <fcc. 
A proposal from Spain that European governments 
should combine for its suppression, 9 Feb., was 
declined by Great Britain, 8 March. It was pro- 
scribed in France by the national assembly, 

14 March, ,, 
The British section met at McQueen's club-house, 

Parliament-street . . . . 21 July, ,, 
One party took the name of International Associa- 
tion, and held annual congresses : Geneva, Sept. 
1873 ; Brussels, 7 Sept. 1874 ; Berne, 1876 ; Ver- 
viers, 7 Sept. 1877. A congress of socialists met 
at Ghent (partly united the two divisions), 

Sept. 1878 
International congress, Paris, assembled, 

2-12 Sept „ 
Report of an alliance between conservative peers 
and the working men for the improvement of the 
condition of the latter, about 15 Oct. ; explained 
by Mr. Scott Russell {Times, 14 Nov. 1871), who 
issued a programme .... Jan. 1872 

Workmen's Peace Association held its first annual 

meeting in London . . . .20 Sept. 1871 
A " Workman's city," Shaftesbury Park, Clapham, 
was inaugurated by the earl of Shaftesbury, 

3 Nov. 1873 
Annual trade congress at Sheffield . 12- 1-7 Jan. 1874 
Alex. Macdonald and Thos. Burt, working-men, 

elected M. P. 's for Stafford and Morpeth . Feb. ,, 
Royal commission on labour laws appointed (chief 
justice Cockburn, lord Winmarleigh, Messrs. 
Roebuck, T. Hughes, Alex. Macdonald and 

others) March, ,, 

Dwellings of working classes protected from rail- 
way bills by new standing orders . 30 July, ,, 
Employers and Workmen Act passed . 13 Aug. 1875 
Annual trade congress at Glasgow . n-16 Oct. ,, 
Church of England Working Men's Society founded 

at St. Alban's, Holborn ... 5 Aug. 1876 
Working-Lads' Institutes, London ; meeting at the 
Mansion House to found them, 27 Oct. ; first in- 
stitute opened at Whitechapel . . 14 Nov. „ 
Workmen's Social Education League, founded 
June, 1879 ; professor J. R. Seeley, president, 
announced . . . . . . 10 June, 1879 

Employers' Liability Act (to compensate workmen 

for injuries) passed 7 Sept. 1880 

International conference of workmen at Paris 
closes . . ' . ' . . .29 Oct. 1883 

4 U 2 



WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION. 1396 WORSHIP IN ENGLAND. 



International trades union congress at Paris ; main 
objects, shorter hours, safety and comfort ; 
British, most moderate 29 Oct. et seq. 1S83 ; again 
23 Aug. 1886; London (79 English and 44 foreign 

delegates) 6 Nov. 188S 

Workmen, &c, of the United Kingdom, about 

9,000,000 ; average wages each igl. per annum 

( I 835); about 13,000,000, average wages each nearly 

42I. per annum (1885). It. Giffen . 19 Jan. i88e 

Working Men's Jubilee Festival held at the Crystal 

Palace . .... 25 June 1876 

Accounts of a new International formed to replace 
the old one, which had gradually disappeared, 
were published in the autumn of 1888. It was 
stated to have branches in the United States, and 
in various cities in Europe. 
The German parliament, influenced by prince 
Bismarck, passed bills to compel the working 
classes, witli the assistance of their employers 
and the state, to provide for sickness (1883), for 
accidents (1884), for old age and infirmity 24 May, 1889 
International congress of workers, respecting acci- 
dents, etc., at Paris .... 14 July, ,, 
[Second congress at Berne, 21 Sept. 1891.] 
The grand council of the National Federation of 
all Trades and Industries, recommends that a 
demonstration be made to promote improvement 
in the condition of working men on i May, to be 
termed "Labour day," 15 April. A moderate 
demonstration was made at the Victoria-embank- 
ment and Hyde-park ; a very large and orderly 
meeting was held at Hyde-park, Sunday 
(speakers, Messrs. M. Davitt, John Burns, Cun- 
inghame Graham, Mrs. Aveling, and others), 

4 May, 1890 
The great May-day demonstration of the working 
classes throughout Europe in favour of an eight- 
hours' labour day and other improvements in 
their condition, passed off with general tran- 
quillity, adequate precautions having been taken 
at Paris, Vienna, Berlin, and other towns, 

i May, ,, 
International congress of miners at Jolimont, Bel- 
gium (see Mineralogy) . . 20 May et seq. „ 
Formation of the " Factory, Operative, and General 
Labour union " projected by Messrs. John Burns 

and Tom Mann Aug. 

First congress of Dock, Wharf, and Riverside 

Labourers' union ... 30 Sept.— 4 Oct. „ 
"Labour day" generally peaceably observed 
throughout Europe, except in France and Rome 
(which see), 1 May ; meetings in Hyde-park 

(which see) t _ 3 May, 1891 

International Labour Congress at Brussels, 16-22 
Aug. 1891 ; London, 27 July-i Aug. 1896 ; Zurich, 

23 Aug. 1897 
"Labour day" on the continent peaceably kept 
through precautionary measures (see Hyde-park), 
Sunday, 1 May, 1892; partially kept, 1 May, 
1893, 1894, 1895, 1899 ; in United States, 4 Sept. 1893 
National workmen's exhibition, Islington, opened 
by the prince of Wales, 1 July ; prizes distributed 
by the lord mayor, 26 July, awards declared by 

Mr. Gladstone 5 Au<*. 

Eleventh labour conference in Paris . . 7 Oct. 

Labourers' congress at Leeds . . May, 1894 

Rev. Henry Solly, founder, 1862, of the Working 

Men's Club and Institute Union, which now has 

900 affiliated clubs and 300,000 members, died, 

aged 89 March 1903 

See Co-operative Societies, Employers, and Trades- 
Unions. Berlin conference, 1890. 

WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION for 

Accidents bill, royal assent, 6 Aug. 1897 ; the 
act, faulty and inconsistent, leads to much liti- 
gation ; extension (agriculture) bill act passed, 
30 July, 1900. See Employers. 

WORKS and Public Buildings. Board 

of commissioners appointed in 1851. Commissioners 
of Works ait of 1852 amended, 1894. Public 



works and buildings estimates, 1894-95, 1,737,720/. 
See Woods. 

WORKSHOPS, see Ateliers and Factories. 

WORKSHOP REGULATION ACT, sup- 
plement to Factory Acts, passed 21 Aug. 1867 ; 
amended, 187 1. 

WORLD, see Creation, and Globe. World 
weekly society newspaper began 8 July, 1874; Mr. 
Edmund Yates, the editor (joined by Mr. Henry 
Labouchere, M.P., in 1875), died suddenly, 20 May, 
1894; see Trials, 1884-5. '^ e World's Columbian 
Jixposition, see Chicago, 1890 et seq. 

WORLD'S WOMEN'S CHRISTIAN 
TEMPERANCE UNION, a movement 
founded by the late Miss Frances Willard, to 
unify and consolidate women's work in temperance 
and social reform in the various countries of the 
world. The union also seeks to suppress the trade 
in opium. Its badge is a knot of white ribbon. 
Convention held at (ieneva, June, 1903. 

WORMS, a city on the Rhine, in Hesse-Darm- 
stadt. The Roman citj r , Borbetomagus, was 
plundered by the Alemanni, 354, and by Attila, 
451 ; rebuilt by Clovis I. about 475. Here Charle- 
magne resided in 806. Here was held the 
imperial diet before which Martin Luther was 
summoned, 4 April, 1521, and by which he was 
proscribed. Luther was met by 2000 persons on 
foot and on horseback, at the distance of a league 
from Worms. When Spalatin sent to warn him of 
his danger, he answered, "If there were as many 
devils in Worms as there are tiles upon the roofs 
of its houses, I would go on." He appeared before 
the emperor, the archduke Ferdinand, six electors, 
twenty-four dukes, seven margraves, thirty bishops 
and prelates, and many princes, counts, lords, and 
ambassadors, 17 April, acknowledged his writings 
and opinions, and left Worms, in fact, a conqueror. 
Yet, to save his life, he had to remain in seclusion 
under the protection of the elector of Saxony for 
about a year. The edict putting him under the 
ban of the empire was issued 26 May, 1521. 
Worms was burnt, by order of Louis XIV., 1689, the 
cathedral excepted ; and was taken by the French, 
under Custine, 4 Oct. 1792. A memorial statue of 
Luther at Worms was uncovered, 25 June, 1868, 
in the presence of the king of Prussia and other 
sovereigns. Population, 1890,25,504; 1900,40,705. 

WORSEMENT, see Betterment, 1895. 

WORSHIP. The first worship mentioned is 
that of Abel, 3872 B.C. {Gen. iv.) "Men began 
to call on the name of the Lord," 3769 B.C. {Gen: 
iv.) The Jewish order of worship was set up by 
Moses, 1490 B.C. Solomon consecrated the temple, 
1004 B.C. Athotes, son of Alenes, king of Upper 
Egypt, is supposed to be the Cops of the Egyptians, 
and the loth, or Hermes, of the Greeks, the 
Mercury of the Latins, and the Teutatte of the Celts 
or Gauls, 2112 B.C. Usher. 

WORSHIP IN ENGLAND. The Druids were 
the priests here, at the invasion of the Romans 
(55 B.C.), who eventually introduced Christianity, 
which was almost extirpated by the victorious 
Saxons (455), who were pagans. The Roman 
catholic form of Christianity was introduced by 
Augustine, 590, and continued till the Reformation 
{which see). See Hymns, Liturgies, Prayers, 
Public Jf'orship, Ritualists. 



WORSTED. 



1397 



WRECKS. 



PLACES OF WORSHIP IN ENGLAND AND WALES 
IN 1851. 

Places of Worship. Sittings. 

Church of England .... 14,077 5,317,915 

Wesleyan Methodists . . . . 6,579 2,194,298 

Independents 3,244 1,067,760 

Baptists 2,789 752,343 

Roman Catholics .... 570 186, 111 

Society of Friends . . . . 371 91,559 

Unitarians 229 68,554 

Scottish Presbyterians . . . 160 86,692 

Latter-day Saints (Mormonites) . 222 30,783 

Brethren (Plymouth) . . . . 132 (?) 18,529 

Jews 53 8,438 

New Church (Swedenborgians) . . 50 12,107 

Moravians 32 9,305 

Catholic and Apostolic Church | 

(Irvingites) . j 3 2 7,437 

Greek Church 3 291 

Countess of Huntingdon's Con- ) 

nexion ...... J io 9 35,2io 

Welsh Calvinistic Methodists. . 828 198,242 

Various small bodies, some with- ) , 

out names .... 1 546 105,557 
June, 1884, total sittings in the metropolis (population 

4,019,361), 1,388,792 ; Church of England, 677,645. 

See Wesleyan Methodists, note. 

116 sects having 20,330 places of worship, Oct. 1871. 

Certified Places of Worship, registered, 4 Nov. 1884, 23,341 ; 
1 Nov. 1891, 27,253 ; 23,388 (6,000 cancelled), an- 
nounced, 1 Nov. 1897. 

WORSTED, spun wool, obtained its name from 
having been first spun at a town called Worsted, in 
Norfolk, in which the inventor Lived, and where 
manufactures of worsted are still extensively carried 
on, 14 Edw. III. 1340. Anderson. " A worsted- 
stocking knave "is a term of reproach, or contempt 
used by Shakspeare. Great increase of manufac- 
ture in W.R. Yorkshire, 1895 et seq. 

WORTH, see Woerth. 

WORTHIES, NINE, a term long ago given 
to the following eminent men : — 

Jews. Died. 

Joshua .b.o. 1426 

David 1015 

Judas Maccabseus 161 

Heathens. 

Hector of Troy 11S4 

Alexander the Great ....... 323 

Julius Ctesar 44 

Christians. 
King Arthur of Britain . . . . a.d. 532 

Charlemagne of France 800 

Godfrey of Bouillon 1 100 

In some lists, Gideon and Samson are given, instead 
of Hector and Arthur. In Shakspeare's Love's Labour's 
Lost, act v. sc. 2, Hercules and Pompey appear as 
worthies. 

WOTHLYTYPE, see under Photography. 

WOUNDED IN BATTLE, see Geneva 

Convention, and Aid to Hick and Wounded. 

WOUNDING. Malicious wounding of another 
was adjudged death by the English statutes. The 
Coventry Act was passed in 1671 ; see Coventry Act. 
By lord Ellenborough's Act, persons who stab or 
cut with intent to murder, maim, or disfigure 
another were declared guilty of felony without 
...nefit. of clergy. Those guilty of maliciously 
shooting at another in any dwelling-house or other 
place, are also punishable under the same statute 
in the. same degree, 43 Geo. III. 1802. This offence 
is met by some later statutes, particularly the act 
for consolidating and amending the acts relating to 



offences against the person, 9 Geo. IV., June, 1828. 
This last act is extended to Ireland by 10 Geo. IV., 

1829. An act for the prevention of maliciously 
shooting, stabbing, &c, in Scotland, 6 Geo. IV., 
1825; amended by 10 Geo. IV., 4 June, 1829, 
for the prevention and punishment of assaults on 
women and children. 

WRECKS. The loss of merchant and other 
ships by wreck upon lee-shores, coasts, and disasters 
in the open sea, was estimated at Lloyd's, in 1800, 
to be about an average of 365 ships a year. In 

1830, it appeared by Lloyd's Lists that 677 British 
vessels were totally lost, under various circum- 
stances, in that year. The laws respecting wrecks 
were consolidated in 1846 and 1854. See Seamen 
(commission of inquiry) . 

Abstracts of the returns made to the Board of Trade of 
shipping casualties on or near the coast, &c, of the 
United Kingdom, and also of the casualties to British 
vessels elsewhere, and also to foreign vessels, pub- 
lished annually since 1855. 

Wrecks on British coasts : July, 1887 — July 1888, 4,004 ; 
1888-9, 4,272; 1889-90, 4,344*, 1890-1, 4,198; 1891-2, 
4,710; 1893-4, 4,95 T ; I 894-5, 4,917 (740 lives lost) ; 
1895-6, 4,620(458 lives lost); 1898-9, 5,040 (520 lives 
lost). 

Between 1861 and the 30th June, 1890, 4,742 British, 
colonial, and foreign vessels were wrecked on our 
coast, 21,426 lives lost. 

British vessels wrecked in 1848, were, sailing vessels, 
501 ; steamers, 13 ; tonnage, 96,920. 

In 1851, there were wrecked 61 1 vessels, of which number 
11 were steamers : the tonnage of the whole being 
111,976. 

The year 1852-3, particularly the winter months (Dec. 
and Jan.), was very remarkable for the number of 
dreadful shipwrecks and fires at sea : but a few of them 
are recorded. Wrecks in 25 years (1854-79), 49, 322 ; 
lives lost, 18,319. 

Many vessels were lost in the great storms, 25, 26 Oct. 
1859; 28 May, 1861 ; 19, 20 Oct. 1861 ; and 13, 14 Nov. 
1862 : by a cyclone, India, 5 Oct 1864 ; in the West 
Indies, Oct. 1867. 

See under Life Boat. 



British vessels (exclusive of the Royal N 

TOTALLY LOST AT SEA : 



avy) 





Vessels. 


Lives 
lost. 




Vessels. 


Lives 
lost. 


s 7 ^. 


■ 657 • 


■ 1,694 


1889. 


■ 447 • 


• 1,045 


876 


. 661 . 


• 1,976 


1890 


. . 528 . 


• i,544 


877. 


• 677 . 


• 1,732 


1891 . 


• 537 • 


. 1,926 


878 


• 637 • 


• i,3° 2 


1892 


. 416 


• *>3 2 9 


870. 


. 621 . 


• 1,652 


1893. 


• 523 • 


■ 1,487 


880 


• 835 • 


• 2,075 


1894 


■ • 539 • 


• 2,735 


8SI . 


• 973 • 


• 3,165 


1895 . 


. 478 . 


• 1,443 


882 


• 733 • 


• 1,927 


1897 


• • 475 • 


. 876 


883. 


• 793 • 


. 2,698 


1898 . 


• 4*3 • 


• 97 2 


884 


. 616 . 


• 1,644 


1899 


• • 397 • 


. 1,308 


885. 


■ 557 • 


• 1,431 


1900 . 


• 34 1 • 


• 1,044 


886 


. 644 


. 1,340 


1901 


. . 546 . 


. 1,280 


887 . 


• 500 . 


. 1,888 


1902 


■ • 556 • 


. 2,348 


888 


• 543 • 


• 1,917 









REMARKABLE CASES OF BRITISH VESSELS WRECKED 
OR. BURNT. 

Mary Rose, 60 guns, going from Portsmouth to Spit- 
head, upset in a squall ; all on board perished, 

20 July, 1545 

Coronation, 90 guns, foundered off the Ramhead ; 
crew saved : Harwich, 70 guns, wrecked on 
Mount Edgcumbe ; crew perished . 1 Sept. 1691 

Royal Sovereign, 100 guns ; burnt in the Medway, 

29 Jan. 1696 

I Stirling Castle, 70 guns ; Mary, 70 guns ; Northum- 
berland, 70 guns, lost on the Goodwin ; Vanguard, 
7 o guns, sunk at Chatham ; York, 70 guns, lost 
near Harwich ; all lost but four men ; Resolution. 
60 guns, coast of Sussex ; Newcastle, 60 guns^ at 
Spithead, 193 drowned ; Reserve, 60 guns, at Yar- 
mouth, 173 perished ; in the night of 26 Nov. 1703 



WRECKS. 



1398 



WRECKS. 



Association, 70 guns, and other vessels, lost with 
admiral sir C. Shovel, off the Scilly isles (which see) 

22 Oct. 1707 

Solebay, 32 guns, lost near Boston neck ; crew 
perished 25 Dec. 1709 

Edgar, 70 guns, blew up at Spithead ; all on board 
perished 15 Oct. 1711 

Wager, part of commodore Anson's South Sea 
expedition ; wrecked on desolate island, lat. 47° S. 

14 May, 1741 

Victory, 100 guns, uear the isle of Alderney ; all 
perished 5 Oct. 1744 

Colchester, 50 guns, lost on Kentish Knock ; 50 men 
perished ... ... 21 Sept. „ 

Namitr, 74 guns, foundered near Fort St. David, 
East Indies ; all perished except 26 persons ; 
Pembroke, 60 guns, near Porto Novo ; 330 of her 
crew perished 13 April, 1749 

Prince George, 80 guns, burnt in lat. 48 N. , on way 
to Gibraltar ; about 400 perished . 13 April, 1758 

Lichfield, 50 guns, lost on the coast of Barbary ; 130 
of the crew perished .... 29 Nov. , , 

Tilbury, 60 guns, lost off Louisbourg ; most of the 
crew perished 25 Sept. 1759 

Ramilies, 90 guns, lost on the Bolt-head ; only 26 
persons saved ; Conqueror, lost on St. Nicholas's 
Island, Plymouth . . . . 15 Feb. 1760 

Ducd'Aquitaine, 64 guns, and Sunderland, 60 guns, 
lost off Pondicherry ; all perished . 1 Jan. 1761 

Raisonnable, 64 guus, lost at the attack of Marti- 
nique 3 Feb. 1762 

Repulse, 32 guns, foundered off Bermuda ; crew 
perished 1775 

Thunderer, 74 guns ; Stirling Castle, 64 ; Defiance, 
64 ; Phoenix, 44 ; La Blanche, 32 ; Laurel, 28 ; 
Shark, 28 ; Andromeda, 28 ; Deal Castle, 24 ; Pene- 
lope, 24 ; Scarborough, 20 ; Barbadoes, 14 ; Came- 
leon, 14 ; Endeavour, 14 ; and Victor, 10 guns : all 
lost in the same storm, in the West Indies, in 

Oct. 178c 

Gen. Barker, Indiaman, off Scheveling . 17 Feb. 1781 

Grosvenor, Indiaman, coast of Caffraria . 4 Aug. 1782 

Swan, sloop of War, off Waterford ; 130 drowned, 

4 Aug. ,, 

Royal George ; above 600 perished . 29 Aug. ,, 

CentoMr, 74 guns, foundered on her passage from 
Jamaica ; capt. Inglefield and n of the crew saved 

21 Sept. „ 

Ville de Paris, of 104 guns, one of admiral Rodney's 
prizes ; the Glorieux, of 74 guns, lost in the West 
Indies 5 Oct. ,, 

Superb, 74 guns, wrecked in Tellicherry roads, East 
Indies 5 Nov. 1783 

Cato, 50 guns, admiral sir Hyde Parker, on the 
Malabar coast ; crew perished . . . . ,, 

Count Belgioioso, Indiaman, off Dublin Bay ; 147 

souls perished 13 March, ,, 

Menai, ferry-boat, in the Menai Strait 60 drowned, 

5 Dee. 1785 
Hclsewell, E. Indiaman ; 386 persons perished, 

6 Jan. 1786 
Hartwell, Indiaman, with immense wealth on board 

24 May, 1787 
Charlemont, packet, from Holyhead to Dublin ; 104 

drowned .2,: Dec. 1790 

Pandora, frigate, on a reef; 100 perished . 28 Aug. 1791 
Union, packet of Dover, lost off the port of Calais ; 
a similar occurrence had not happened for 105 

years before 28 Jan. 1792 

Winlerton, E. Indiaman : many perished 20 Aug. ,, 
Impitueux, 74 guns, burnt at Portsmouth 24 Aug. ,, 
Scorpion, 74 guns, burnt at Leghorn . 20 Nov. 1793 
Ardent, 64 guns, burnt off Corsica . . April, 1794 
Boyne, by fire, at Spithead (see Boyne) . 4 May, 1795 
Conrageux, 74 guns, capt. B. Hallowell, near Gib- 
raltar; crew, except 124, perished . 18 Dec. 1796 
La Tribmic, 36 guns, off Halifax ; 300 souls perished 

16 Nov. 1797 
Proserpine, frigate ; in the Elbe ; 15 lost . 1 Feb. 1798 
Resistance, blown up in the straits of Banca, 

24 July, ,, 



Royal Charlotte, East Indiaman, blown up at Culpee, 

1 Aug. 1798 
H.M.S. Lutine, 32 guns, was wrecked off Vlieland, 
coast of Holland ; only one saved, who died be- 
fore reaching England * . . . 9-10 Oct. 1799 
Impregnable, 98 guns, wrecked between Langstone 

and Chichester 19 Oct. „ 

Nassau, 64 guns, on the Haak Bank ; 100 perished, 

25 Oct. „ 
Sceptre, 64 guns, wrecked in Table Bay, cape of Good 

Hope; 291 of the crew perished . . 5 Nov. ,, 
Ethalion, frigate, 38 guns, on the Penmarks, 

24 Dec. „ 
Queen, transport, on Trefusis Point ; 369 souls 

perished 14 Jan. 1800 

Mastiff, gunbrig, on the Cockle Sands . 19 Jan. ,, 
Repulse, 64 guns, off Ushant . . .10 March, ,, 
Queen Charlotte (which see), burnt ; 673 perish 

17 March, ,, 
Queen, W. Indiaman, by fire, off Brazil . 9 July, „ 
Brazen, sloop of war, off Newhaven ; all lost except 

one man ,, 

Invincible, 74 guns, near Yarmouth ; capt. John 
Rennie, and the crew, except 126 souls, perished, 

16 March, 1801 
Margate, Margate-hoy, near Reculver ; 23 persons 

perished 10 Feb. 1802 

Bangalore, E. Indiaman, Indian Sea . 12 April, ,, 
Active, West Indiaman, in Margate Roads 10 Jan. 1803 
Hindostan, East Indiaman, went to pieces on the 

Culvers 11 Jan. ,, 

La Determinee, 24 guns, in Jersey Roads ; many 

drowned 26 March, ,, 

Resistance, 36 guns, off Cape St. Vincent . 31 May, „ 
Lady Hobart, packet, on an island of ice 

28 June, ,, 
Seine, frigate, 44 guns, off Schelling . 31 July., „ 
Antelope, capt. Wilson, off Pelew Islands 9 Aug. ,, 
Victory, Liverpool ship, at Liverpool ; 27 drowned, 

30 Sept. ,, 
Circe, frigate, 32 guns, off Yarmouth . 16 Nov. „ 
Nautilus, E. Indiaman, on Ladrones . 18 Nov. „ 
Fanny, in Chinese Sea: 46 souls perish 29 Nov. ,, 
Suffisante, sloop, 16 guns, off Cork . . 25 Dec. „ 
Apollo, frigate, on coast of Portugal . 1 April, 1804 
Cumberland, packet, on Antigua coast . 4 Sept. „ 
Romney, 50 guns, on Haak Bank, Texel 18 Nov. „ 
Venerable, 74 guns, at Torbay ; lost 8 men 24 Nov. ,, 
Severn, on a rock, near Grouville . . 21 Dec. ,, 
Doris, frigate, on the Diamond Rock, Quiberon Bay, 

12 Jan. 1805 
Abergavenny, East Indiaman, on the Bill of Port- 
land ; more than 300 persons perished 6 Feb. ,, 
Naias, transport, on Newfoundland coast 23 Oct. „ 
^Eneas, transport, off Newfoundland ; 340 perished, 

23 Oct. „ 
Aurora, transport, on the Goodwin Sands ; 300 

perished . . . ' . . . .21 Dec. , 
King George, packet, from Park-gate to Dublin, lost 
on the Hoyle bank ; 125 persons, passengers and 

crew drowned 21 Sept. 1806 

Athenien, 64 guns, near Tunis ; 347 souls perished, 

27 Oct. „ 
Glasgow, packet, off Farm Island ; several drowned, 

17 Nov. „ 
Felix, 12 guns, near Santander ; 79 souls lost 

22 Jan. 1807 
Blenheim, 74 guns, admiral sir T. Troubridge, and 
Java, 23 guns, foundered near island of Rodriguez, 
East Indies 1 Feb. 



* La Lutine was a French ship captured by admiral 
Duncan. She contained much bullion and money, be- 
longing to merchants ; a great loss to the underwriters 
at Lloyd's. The Dutch government claimed the wreck, 
and granted one third of the salvage in 1801 to the 
bullion fishers. After much discussion, and occasional 
recoveries, the king of the Netherlands ceded to Great 
Britain (lor Lloyd's) half the remainder of the wreck. A 
Dutch salvage company began operations in Aug. 1857. 
At the end of 1859, Lloyd's had received 22,162?. 6s. yd. 
About 99,893/. recovered; about 1,175,000/. remaining. 
A chair and table at Lloyd's were made of the rudder, 
recovered in 1S59. Martin's History oj Lloyd's. 



WEECKS. 



1399 



WEECKS. 



Ajax, 74 guns, by Are, off the island of Tenedos ■ 
250 perished I4 Feb. 1807 

Blanche, frigate, on the French coast; 45 men 
perished 4 March, ,, 

Ganges, East Indiaman, off the Cape of Good Hope, 

29 May, ,, 

Prince of Wales, Park-gate packet, and Rochdale, 
transport, on Dunleary point, near Dublin; nearly 
300 souls perished .... 19 Nov. ,, 

Boreas, man-of-war, upon the Hannois rock in the 
Channel 28 Nov. ,, 

Anson, 44 guns, wrecked in Mount's Bay; 60 lives 
lost . 29 Dec. ,, 

AgutliM, near Memel; lord Royston and others 
drowned 7 April, 1808 

Astrea, frigate, on Anagada coast . . 23 May, ,, 

Frith, passage-boat, in the Frith of Dornoch; 40 
persons drowned .... 13 Aug. 1809 

Foxhound, 18 guns, foundered on passage from 
Halifax ; crew perished .... 31 Aug. „ 

Sirius, 36 guns, and Magieienn'e, 36 guns, wrecked 
when advancing to attack the French, off Isle of 
France 23 Aug. 1810 

Satellite, sloop of war, 16 guns, upset, and all on 
board perished 14 Dec. ,, 

Minotaur, of 74 guns, wrecked on the Haak Bank ; 
360 persons perished .... 22 Dec. ,, 

Pandora, sloop of war, off Jutland ; 30 persons 
perished 13 Feb. 1811 

Saldanha, frigate, on the Irish coast; 300 persons" 
perished 4 Dec. ,, 

St. George, of 98, and Defence, of 74 guns, and the 
Hero, stranded on the coast of Jutland, adm. 
Reynolds and all the crews (about 2000 persons) 
perished, except 18 seamen . . -24 Dec. ,, 

Manilla, frigate, on the Haak Sand; 12 persons 
perished ...... 28 Jan. 

Atalante, H.M. frigate, off Nova Scotia . 10 Nov. 

British Queen, packet, from Ostend to Margate, 
wrecked on the Goodwin Sands, and all on board 
perished . . . . . . .17 Dec. 

Duchess of Wellington, at Calcutta, by fire 21 Jan. 

Seahorse, transport, near Tramore Bay; 365 persons, 
chiefly soldiers of the 59th regiment, and most of 
the crew, drowned .... 30 Jan. ,, 

Lord Melville and Boadicea, transports, with up- 
wards of 200 of the 82nd regiment, with wives and 
children, lost near Kinsale ; almost all perished, 

31 Jan. ,, 

Harpooner, transport, near Newfoundland ; 200 per- 
sons drowned 10 Nov. „ 

William and Mary, packet, struck on the Willeys 
rocks, near the Holmes lighthouse, Bristol Chan- 
nel ; nearly 60 persons perished . . 23 Oct. 1817 

Queen Charlotte, East Indiaman, at Madras; all on 
board perished .24 Oct. 18 18 

Ariel, in the Persian Gulf; 79 souls perished, 

18 March, 1820 

BlendonHall, on Inaccessible Island, many perished, 

23 July, 1821 

Earl of Moira, on the Burbo Bank, near Liverpool 
40 drowned 8 Aug. , , 

Juliana, East Indiaman, on the Kentish Knock; 40 
drowned 26 Dee. ,, 

Thames, Indiaman, off Beachey Head; several 
drowned 3 Feb. 1822 

Drake, 10 guns, near Halifax; several drowned, 

20 June, ,, 

Ellesmere, steamer; 11 persons lost . 14 Dec. ,, 

Alert, Dublin and Liverpool packet; 70 souls 
perished 26 March, 1823 

Robert, from Dublin to Liverpool ; 60 souls perished, 

16 May ,, 

Kent (which see), East Indiaman ; burnt . March, 1825 

Fanny, in Jersey Roads; lord Harley and many 
drowned 1 Jan. 1828 

Venus, packet, from Waterford to Dublin, near 
Gorey ; 9 persons drowned . . 19 March, ,, 

Newry, from Newry to Quebec, with 360 passengers ; 
cast away near Bardsy, about 40 persons were 
drowned 16 April, 1830 



1B12 
1S13 



1814 
1816 



Lady Sherbrooke, from Londonderry to Quebec; lost 
near Cape Ray ; 273 souls perished ; 32 only were 
saved 19 Aug. 1831 

Experiment, from Hull to Quebec; wrecked near 
Calais 15 April, 1832 

Hibernia, burnt in W. long. 22°, S. lat. 4°; 150 per- 
sons (out of 232) perished . . . 15 Feb. 1833 

Earl of Wemyss, near Wells, Norfolk : the cabin filled, 
and 11 ladies and children were drowned; all on 
deck escaped 13 July, ,, 

Amphitrite, ship, with female convicts to New South 
Wales; lost on Boulogne Sands; out of 131 per- 
sons, 3 only were saved . . . .30 Aug. ,, 

United Kingdom, W. Indiaman, with rich cargo ; run 
down by the Queen of Scotland steamer off North- 
fleet, near Gravesend . . . . 15 Oct. ,, 

Waterwitch, steamer, on the coast of Wexford; 4 
drowned 18 Dec. ,, 

Lady Mnnro, from Calcutta to Sydney; of 90 
persons on board, not more than 20 were saved, 

9 Jan. 1834 

Cameleon, cutter, run down off Dover by the Castor 
frigate ; 13 persons drowned . . 27 Aug. „ 

EarlofEldon, East Indiaman; burnt . 27 Sept. ,, 

Killarne.y, steamer, off Cork ; 29 persons perished, 

26 Jan. 1838 

Forfarshire, steamer, from Hull to Dundee ; 38 per- 
sons drowned. Owing to the courage of Grace 
Darling and her father, 15 persons were saved (see 
Forfarshire) 6 Sept. ,, 

Protector, E. Indiaman, at Bengal ; of 178 persons on 
board, 170 perished .... 21 Nov. ,, 

Diligence, naval cutter, capt. sir J. Reid, bart., and 
56 souls perish in the Irish channel . 7 Jan. 1839 

William Huskisson, steamer, between Dublin and 
Liverpool ; 93 passengers saved by capt. Clegg, of 
the Hiuklersfield n Jan. 1840 

Lord William Bentinck, off Bombay; 58 recruits, 
20 officers, and 7 passengers perished ; the Lord 
Castlereagh also wrecked, most of her crew and 
passengers lost 17 June, „ 

H.M.S. Fairy, captain Hewitt ; sailed from Harwich 
on a surveying cruise, and was lost next day in a 
violent gale, off the coast of Norfolk . 13 Nov. ,, 

City of Bristol, steam packet, 35 perished 

18 Nov. „ 

Thames, steamer, captain Gray, from Dublin to 
Liverpool, wrecked off St. Ives ; the captain and 
55 persons perished . . . .4 Jan. 1841 

Governor Fenner, from Liverpool for America ; run 
down off Holyhead by the Nottingham steamer out 
of Dublin ; 122 iiersons perished . 19 Feb. ,, 

A melia, from London to Liverpool ; lost on the 
Heme Sand 26 Feb. ,, 

President, steamer, from New York to Liverpool, 
with many passengers on board ; sailed on 11 
March, encountered a terrific storm two days 
afterwards, and has never since been heard of, 

13 March, ,, 

[In this vessel were, Mr. Tyrone Power, the come- 
dian ; a son of the duke of Richmond, &.c] 

William Browne, by striking on the ice ; 16 passen- 
gers who had been received into the long boat 
were thrown overboard by the crew to lighten her 

19 April, ,, 

Isabella, from London to Quebec ; struck by an 
iceberg 9 May, „ 

Solway, steamer, on her passage between Belfast 
and Port Carlisle ; crew saved . . 25 Aug. ,, 

Amanda, off Metis ; 29 passengers and 12 of the 
crew lost 26 Sept. ,, 

James Cooke, of Limerick, coming from Sligo to 
Glasgow 21 Nov. ,, 

Abercrombie, Robinson and Waterloo transports, in 
Table Bay, Cape of Good Hope : of 330 persons 
on board the latter vessel, 189, principally con- 
victs, perished 28 Aug. 1842 

Spitfire, war-steamer, off Jamaica. . 10 Sept. „ 

Reliance, East Indiaman, from China to London, off 
Merlemont, near Boulogne : of 116 persons on 
board, seven only were saved . . 13 Nov. ,, 

Hamilton, on the Gunfleet sands, near Harwich; 11 
of the crew perished .... 15 Nov. ,, 

Conqueror, East Indiaman, homeward bound, near 
Boulogne ; crew and passengers lost . 13 Jan. 1843 



WEECKS. 



1400 



WEECKS. 



Jessie Logan, East Indiaman, on the Cornish coast; 

many lives lost 16 Jan. 1843 

Svlway, royal mail-steamer, near Corunna ; 28 lives 

lost, and the mail .... 7 April, ,, 
Catherine, trader, blown up off the Isle of Pines ; 

most of the crew were massacred by the natives, 

or afterwards drowned . . . 12 April, ,, 

Amelia Thompson, near Madras, part of crew saved 

23 May, ,, 
Albert, troop-ship, from Halifax, with the 64th 

regiment on board, which was miraculously saved 

13 Jul y, » 

Pegasus, steam-packet, from Leith ; off the Fern 
Islands ; of 59 persons (including Mr. Elton, the 
actor), 7 only were saved ... 19 July, ,, 

Phoenix, in a terrific snow-storm, off the coast of 
Newfoundland ; many lives were lost 26 Nov. ,, 

Elbcrfeldt, iron steam-ship, from Brielle 22 Feb. 1844 

Manchester, steamer, from Hull to Hamburg, off the 
Vogel Sands, near Cuxhaven about 30 lives lost, 

16 June, ,, 

John Lloyd, by collision, in the Irish sea ; several 
lives lost . . . . . .25 Sept. 1845 

Margaret, Hull and Hamburg steamer ; many lives 
lost 22 Oct. „ 

Tweed, steamer ; off Yucatan . . 12 Feb. 1846 

Great Britain, iron steam-ship, grounded in Dun- 
drum bay (see Great Britain) . . .22 Sept. ,, 
[Recovered by Brunei, &c, 27 Aug. 1847.] 

Tweed, W. India mail-packet; 72 souls perished, 

19 Feb. 1847 
Exmouth, emigrant-ship, from Londonderry to 

Quebec ; of 240 persons on board, nearly all were 

drowned 28 April, ,, 

Carriek, brig; a gale in the St. Lawrence; 170 

emigrants perished .... 19 May, „ 
Avenger, H.M. steam-frigate; off N. coast of 

Africa; officers and crew (nearly 200) lost 

20 Dec. ,, 
Ocean Monarch (which see) . . . .24 Aug. 1848 
Forth, steamer ; offCampeachy . . 13 Jan. 1849 
Caleb Grimshaw, emigrant-ship, fire ; 400 persons 

miraculously escaped .... 12 Nov. ,, 

Royal Adelaide, steamer, wrecked on the Tongue 
Sands, off Margate, above 400 lives lost, 

30 March, 1850 

Orion, steam-ship, off Portpatrick (see Orion), 

18 June, ,, 

Rosalind, from Quebec ; a number of the crew 
drowned 9 Sept. „ 

Edmnnd, emigrant-ship, with nearly 200 passengers 
from Limerick to New York (of whom more than 
one-half perished), wrecked off the Western coast 
of Ireland 12 Nov. ,, 

Amazon, W. India mail-steamer (see Amazon), 

4 Jan. 1852 

Birkenhead, troop-ship, iron paddle-wheeled, and 
of 556 horse-power, sailed from Queenstown, 
7 Jan. 1852, for the Cape, having on board detach- 
ments of the 12th Lancers, 2nd, 6th, 12th, 43rd, 
45th, and 60th Rifles, 73rd, 74th, and 91st regi- 
ments. It struck upon a pointed pinnacle rock 
off Simon's bay, South Africa, and of 638 persons 
only 184 were saved by the boats ; 454 of the crew 
and soldiers perished . . . .26 Feb. ,, 

Victoria, steam-packet, wrecked near Wings beacon 
off Gottenburg ; many lives lost . 8, 9 Nov. ,, 

Lily, stranded and blown up by gunpowder, on the 
Calf-of-Man ; by which more than 30 persons 
lost their lives 24 Dec. ,, 

St. George, steam-ship, bound from Liverpool to 
New York, with 121 emigrant passengers (chiefly 
Irish), and a crew consisting of twenty -nine sea- 
men (the captain inclusive), was destroyed by fire 
at sea. The crew and seventy of the passengers 
were saved by the American ship Orlando, and 
conveyed to Havre, in France; 51 supposed to 
have perished 24 Dec. ,, 

Queen Victoria, steam-ship, bound from Liverpool, 
was wrecked oil' the Bailey lighthouse, near Dub- 
lin ; mistook her course in a snow-storm : 67 lost 
out of 120 15 Feb. 1853 

Independence, on the coast of Lower California, and 
which afterwards took fire : 140 persons were 
drowned or burnt to death, a few escaping, who 
underwent the most dreadful additional sufferings 
on a barren shore .... 16 Feb. ,, 



Duke of Sutherland, steamer, from London to Aber- 
deen ; struck on the pier at Aberdeen, and the 
captain (Edward Howling) and 16 (of the crew 
and passengers) perished . . .1 April, 1853 

Rebecca, on west coast of Van Diemen's Land, capt. 
Shephard and many lives lost . . 29 April, „ 

William and Mary, an American emigrant ship, 
near the Bahamas. She struck on a sunken rock ; 
about 170 persons perished . . . 3 May, ,, 

Aurora, of Hull ; sailed from New York, 26 April, 
and foundered ; about 25 lives lost . 20 May, ,, 

Bourneuf, Australian emigrant vessel ; struck on a 
reef near Torres Straits ; the captain (Bibby) and 
six lives lost 3 Aug. „ 

Annie Jane, of Liverpool, an emigrant vessel, 
driven on shore on the Barra Islands, on west 
coast of Scotland ; about 348 lives lost 29 Sept. ,, 

Harwood, brig, by collision with the Trident 
steamer, near the Mouse light near the Nore ; 
foundered ; six of the crew perished . 5 Oct. „ 

Dalhousie, foundered off Beachey Head ; the cap- 
tain (Butterworth), the passengers, and all the 
crew (excepting one), about 60 persons in all, 
perished ; the cargo was valued at above 100,000?. 

19 Oct. ,, 
Marshall, screw-steamer, in the North Sea, ran 

into the barque Woodhouse ; about 48 persons 
supposed to have perished . . 28 Nov. ,, 

Tayleur, emigrant ship, driven on the rocks off 
Lambay Island, north of Howth ; about 380 lives 

lost 20 Jan. 1854 

Favourite, in the Channel, on her way from Bremen 
to Baltimore, came into violent contact with the 
American barque Hesper, off the Start, and imme- 
diately went down ; 201 persons were drowned 

29 April, ,, 

Lady Nugent, troop-ship, sailed from Madras, 10 
May, 1854; foundered in a hurricane; 350 rank 
and file of the Madras light infantry, officers, and 
crew, in all 400 souls, perished . . May, „ 

Forerunner, African mail-steamer, struck on a 
sunken rock off St. Lorenzo, Madeira, and went 
down directly afterwards, with the total loss of 
ship and mails, and 14 lives . . 25 Oct. „ 

Nile, iron screw-steamer, struck on the Godevry 
rock, St. Ives' Bay, and all perished . 30 Nov. „ 

City vf Glasgow, a Glasgow steamer, with 480 persons 
on board, disappeared in ,, 

In the storm which raged in the Black Sea, 13-16 
Nov. 1854, eleven transports were wrecked and 
six disabled. The new steamship Prince was lost 
with 144 lives, and a cargo worth 500,000?. indis- 
pensable to the army in the Crimea. The loss 
of life in the other vessels is estimated at 340 . ,, 

George Canning, Hamburg and New York packet, 
near the mouth of the Elbe : 96 lives lost, and 
Stately, English schooner, near Neuwiek, in a great 
storm 1 Jan. 1855 

Mercury, screw-steamer, by collision with a French 
ship: passengers saved . . . 11 Jan. 

Janet Boyd, bark, in a storm off Margate Sands ; 28 
lives lost 20 Jan. 

Will 0' the Wisp, screw-steamer, on the Burn Rock, 
off Lambay ; 18 lives lost . . .9 Feb. 

Morna, steamer on rocks near the Isle of Man ; 21 
lives lost 25 Feb. 

John, emigrant vessel, on the Muncles rocks off 
Falmouth ; 200 lives lost . . . .1 May, 

Pacific, Collins steamer, left Liverpool for New 
York, with 186 persons on board ; never since 
heard of (supposed to have struck on an iceberg) 

23 Jan. 1856 

Josephine Willis, packet-ship, lost by collision with 
the screw-steamer Mangerton, in the Channel ; 
about 70 lives lost 3 Feb. „ 

John Rutledge, from Liverpool to New York, ran on 
an iceberg and was wrecked ; many lives lost 

20 Feb. ,, 
Many vessels and their crews totally lost 1-8 Jan. 1857 
Violet, royal mail-steamer, lost on the Goodwin ; 

many persons perished ... 5 Jan. ,, 

Tyne, royal-steamer, stranded on her way to South- 
ampton from the Brazils . . . 13 Jan. ,, 
St. Andrew, screw-steamer, totally wrecked near 

Latakia ; loss about 145,000?. . . 29 Jan. ,„ 
Charlemagne, iron clipper, wrecked by the coast of 
Canton : passengers saved ; loss, about 1 10,000?. 

20 March. 



WRECKS. 



1401 



WRECKS. 



H.M.S. Raleigh, 50 guns, wrecked on south-east 
coast of Macao 14 April, 1857 

Catherine Adamson, Australian vessel, wrecked 
25 miles from Sydney, 20 lives lost 

about 3 June, , , 

Erin, P. & 0. Co.'s steamer, wrecked on coast of 
Ceylon June, ,, 

H.M.S. Transit, wrecked on a reef in the Straits of 
Banca 10 July, „ 

Dunbar, clipper wrecked on the rocks near Sydney : 
121 persons, and cargo valued at 22,000?., lost; 
one person only saved, who was on the rocks 30 
hours 20 Aug. ,, 

Sarah Sands, an iron screw-steamer, sailed from 
Portsmouth to Calcutta, in Aug. 1857 ; 300 soldiers 
on board. On n Nov. the cargo (government 
stores) took tire. By the exertions of major Brett 
and captain Castle, the master of the vessel, who 
directed the soldiers and the crew, the flames 
were subdued, although a barrel of gunpowder 
exploded during the conflagration. A new danger 
then arose — the prevalence of a strong gale ; water 
was shipped heavily where the port quarter had 
been blown out. Nevertheless, after a fearful 
struggle, the vessel arrived at the Mauritius, 21 
Nov., without losing a single life 11-21 Nov. ,, 

Windsor, emigrant-ship, struck on a reef near the 
Cape de Verde Islands . . . .1 Dec. ,, 

Ava, Indian mail-steamer, with ladies and others 
from Lucknow on board, wrecked near Ceylon 

16 Feb. 1858 

Eastern City, burnt about the equator on her way to . 
Melbourne ; by great exertions all on board were 
saved 23, 24 Aug. ,, 

A astria, steam-emigrant ship, burnt in the middle 
of the Atlantic. Of 538 persons on board, only 
67 were saved. The disaster due to carelessness 

13 Sept. ,, 

St. Paul, captain Pennard, from Hong Kong to 
Sydney, with 327 Chinese emigrants, wrecked on 
the island of Rossel, 30 Sept. 1858. The captain 
and eight of the crew left the island in search of 
assistance, and were picked up by the Prince of 
Denmark schooner. The French steamer Styx was 
despatched to the island, and brought away one 
Chinese, 25 Jan. 1859. A U the rest had been 
massacred and devoured by the natives . . „ 

Czar, steamer, wrecked off the Lizard ; 14 lives lost 

23 Jan. i8sg 

Eastern Monarch, burnt at Spithead ; out of 500, 
eight lives lost. The vessel contained invalid 
soldiers from India, who, with the crew, behaved 
admirably 2 June, „ 

Alma, steamer, grounded on a reef near Aden, Red 
Sea, about 35 miles from Mocha ; all persons 
saved ; after 3! days' exposure to the sun, with- 
out water, they were rescued by H.M.S. Cyclops: 
sir John Bowring, who was on board, lost valu- 
able papers 12 June, ,, 

Admella, steamer, running between Melbourne and 
Adelaide, struck on a reef ; of about 72 persons, 
only 23 were saved; many perished through ex- 
posure to cold 6 Aug. ,, 

Royal Charter, screw-steamer, captain Taylor, totally 
wrecked off Moelfra, on the Anglesea coast : 446 
lives lost. The vessel contained gold amounting 
in value to between 700,000?. and 800,000?. ; much 
of this has been recovered night of 25-26 Oct. „ 

Indian, mail-steamer, wrecked off the coast of 
Newfoundland; out of 116, 27 lives lost 21 Nov. ,, 

Blervie Castle, sailed from London docks for 
Adelaide ; lost in the Channel and all on board, 
57 persons ; last seen on . . . 25 Dec. „ 

Northerner, steamer, wrecked on a rock near Cape 
Mendorino, between San Francisco and Oregon ; 
38 lives lost 6 Jan. 186c 

Endymion, sailing-vessel, burnt in the Mersey ; loss 
above 20,000?. 31 Jan. ,, 

Dreadful gales and many wrecks on the coast, 

15-19 Feb. ,, 

Ondine, steamer; lost through collision with the 
Heroine, of Bideford, abreast of Beachy Head ; 
the captain and about 50 persons perished 19 Feb. ,, 

Luna, American emigrant vessel, wrecked on rocks 
off Barfleur ; about too lives lost . 19 Feb. ,, 

Hungarian, new mail-steamer, wrecked off coast of 
Nova Scotia ; all on board (205) lost on the night of 

19-20 Feb. 



Nimrod, steamer, wrecked on rocks near St. David's 

Head ; 40 lives lost 28 Feb. i860 

Malabar, iron ship, on her way to China, with lord 
Elgin and baron Gros : wrecked off Point de Oalle, 
Ceylon. The ambassadors displayed much heroism ; 
no lives lost. Of much specie sunk, a good deal 

was recovered 22 May, , , 

Lady Elgin, an American steamer, sunk through 
collision with schooner Augusta on lake Michigan ; 
of 385 persons on board, 287 were lost, including 
Mr. Herbert Ingram, M. P. , founder of the "Illus- 
trated London News," and his son; morning of 

8 Sept. „ 

Arctic, Hull steamer, wrecked off Jutland; many 

persons saved by Mr. Earle, who lost his own life 

while endeavouring to save others . . 5 Oct. ,, 

Connaught, steamer, burnt; crew saved through 

the gallantry of the crew of an American brig. 

7 Oct. ,, 
Juanita, wrecked through collision with an Ameri- 
can vessel, Joseph Fish, 13 lives lost . 15 March, 186s 
Canadian, steamer, struck on a field of ice in the 
straits of Belle-isle, and foundered in half an hour ; 

35 lives lost 4 June, ,, 

H.M.S. Conqueror, stranded on Bum Cay, near 

Bahamas, and lost [the captain and master were 

censured for neglect of duty] . . 29 Dec. ,, 

Harmony, lost with all hands off Plymouth 27 Feb. 1862 

Ocean Monarch, 2195 tons, sailed from New York, 

5 March, laden with provisions ; foundered in a 

gale 9 March, „ 

, Upwards of 60 merchantmen lost during gales in 

March, ,» 
Mars, Waterford steamer, struck on a rock near 

Milford haven; about 50 lives lost. . April, ,, 
Bencoolen, East Indiaman, 1400 tons; struck on 
sands near Bude haven, Cornwall ; about 26 lives 

lost 19 Oct. ,, 

Lotus, merchantman, off Chale Bay, in the great 

storm; crew all lost except two . . 19 Oct. ,, 
Many vessels lost during storm . . .19 Oct. ,, 
Colombo, East India mail steamer, in thick weather, 
wrecked on Minicoy Island; 440 miles from Point 
de Galle, Ceylon ; no lives lost (the crew and pas- 
sengers taken off by the Ottawa from Bombay, 

30 Nov.) 19 Nov. ,, 

Lifeguard, steamer, left Newcastle, with about 41 
passengers; never since heard of; supposed to 
have foundered off Flamborough head 20 Dec. ,, 
Orpheus, H.M.S. steamer, new vessel, 1700 tons; 
commander Burnett ; wrecked on Manakau bar, 
W. coast New Zealand ; 70 person's saved ; about 

190 perished 7 Feb. 1863 

Anglo-Saxon, mail steamer, captain Burgess, in 
dense fog, wrecked on reef off Cape Race, New- 
foundland; about 237, out of 446, lives lost, 

27 April, „ 
All Serene, Australian ship ; gale in the Pacific ; 
above 30 lives lost (the survivors suffered much 
till they reached the Fiji isles in a punt) 21 Feb. 1864 
Many shipwrecks in consequence of the cyclone at 

Calcutta 5 Oct. „ 

H.M.S. Racehorse, off Chef 00 Cape, Chinese coast; 

99 lives lost 4 Nov. ,, 

The Stanley, Friendship, &c, in the gale off' Tyne- 
mouth ; and the Dalhousie, screw steamer, mouth 
of the Tay ; same gale ; 34 lives lost . 24 Nov. ,, 
H.M.S. Bombay, burnt off Flores Island, near 

Monte Fideo; 91 lives lost . . . 14 Dec. ,, 

Lelia, cutter, off Great Orme's Head, during a gale ; 
several lives lost ; 7 persons drowned by upsetting 

of the lifeboat 14 Jan. 1865 

Eagle Speed, emigrant vessel, foundered near Cal- 
cutta; 265 coolies drowned; great cruelty and 

neglect imputed 24 Aug. ,, 

Duncan Dunbar, wrecked on a reef at Las Rocas, 

S. America ; no lives lost . . . 7 Oct. ,, 
Samphire, mail-steamer ; collision with an American 

barque; several lives lost . . . 13 Dec. ,, 
Ibis, steamer, machinery damaged, off Ballycroneen 

bay ; 15 lives lost; sailed from Cork . . 18 Dec. ,, 
London, steamer, on her way to Melbourne ; foun- 
dered in Bay of Biscay; about 220 persons 
perished (including captain Martin, Dr. Woolley, 
principal of the university of Sydney, G. V. 
Brooke, the tragedian); about the same time the 
Ainalia steamer went down with a cargo worth 
200,000?. ; no lives lost . . . .11 Jan. 1866 



WEECKS. 



1402 



WEECKS. 



Many wrecks and much loss of life during gales, 
especially off Torbay . . . . 6-n Jan. 1866 

Spirit of the Ocean, steamer; wrecked on a rock 
near Dartmouth ; all lost except 4 . 23 March, ,, 

General Grant, on voyage from Melbourne to London, 
wrecked off Auckland isles; only 13 out of about 
100 saved May, ,, 

Amazon, H. M. screw sloop, and screw steamer 
Osprey, sunk by collision near Plymouth ; several 
passengers and sailors drowned . 10 July, „ 

Bruiser, steamer, sunk by collision with the Has- 
well, oft Aldborough ; about 15 lives lost 19 Aug. ,, 

Bhima, Indian steamer; foundered through collision 
with Nana, steamer, between Bombay and Suez ; 
19 lives lost 11 Sept. ,, 

H.M.S. Berenice, burnt in Persian Gulf; none 
perished 13 Oct. 

Ceres, near Carnsoe, Ireland; about 36 lives lost 
[captain Pascoe censured for neglecting to sound] 

10 Nov. ,, 

Many wrecks in the Channel . . . 5, 6 Jan. 1867 

James Crosfield, iron ship ; wrecked off Langness, Isle 
of Man ; all on board lost . . . .5 Jan. ,, 

Singapore, Peninsular and Oriental steamer, struck 
on a sunken rock, and went down ; no lives lost, 

20 Aug. ,, 

Rhone and Wye, Royal Mail steamers, totally lost, 
and about 50 other vessels driven ashore ; great 
loss of life by a hurricane, off St. Thomas (see 
Virgin Islands) 29 Oct. ,, 

Hibernia, screw steamer; the shaft of screw pro- 
peller broke, 600 miles off coast of Ireland ; many 
lives lost . . . . 24 or 25 Oct. or Nov. i8dV> 

Many wrecks on the Cornish coast during a gale, 

19-20 March, 1869 

Italian, merchant steamer, struck on a rock near 
Finisterre; about 26 lives lost about 21 March. ,, 

Camatic, Peninsular and Oriental steamer, wrecked 
off Shadwan in the gulf of Suez ; about 25 lives lost, 

13 Sept. ,, 

Oneida, American vessel, rundown by collision with 
P. & O. steamer Bombay off Yokohama ; about 115 
lives lost (captain of Bombay suspended for 6 
months) 24 Jan. 1870 

City of Boston, sailed from New York, long miss- 
ing; a board stating that she was sinking 
found in Cornwall .... n Feb. ,, 

Normandy, S.W. company's steamer, by collision 
with the steamer Mar y, off the Isle of Wight, sunk ; 
the captain, C. B. Harvey, and 33 others perish, 

17 March, ,, 

H.M.S. Slaney, wrecked by a typhoon near Hong 
Kong; about 42 lives lost . . . .9 May, „ 

H.M.S. Captain, iron-clad, sank in a squall off 
Finisterre (see Captain & Navy of England) 7 Sept. ,, 

Cambria, iron screw-steamer, lost in a storm off 
Inishtrahul island, N.W. Ireland; about 170 lives 
lost 19 Oct. ,, 

Queen of the Thames, magnificent vessel, sailed from 
London to Sydney by the Cape in 58 days ; re- 
turning, was lost by striking on sands off Cape 
Agulhas, Africa ; 4 lives and valuable cargo lost ; 
the captain was censured ... 18 March, 1871 

Cornwall, wrecked by collision with the Himalaya 
steamer off Hartlepool ... 19 March, „ 

Megcera, government iron screw-steamer, sailed 
with about 400 on board for Australia, Feb. 1871: 
sprang a leak, 8 June; when it was discovered 
that her bottom was nearly worn away by corro- 
sion ; she was beached on St. Paul's isle, in the 
Indian ocean, 16 June ; huts were erected, and the 
crew settled, and stores landed ; lieut. Jones was 
taken on board a Dutch vessel, 16 July; the 
Oberon brought provisions, 26 Aug. ; the crew was 
carried off during a storm, the stores being left 
behind, by the Malacca ... 3 Sept. „ 
[The vessel was reported unfit for service in 
1867; capt. Thrupp was tried and acquitted 
of blame, 17 Nov.; sir Spencer Robinson and 
various admiralty officials were censured by a 
government commission, 6 March, 1872.] 

Rangoon, Peninsular and Oriental steamer, valued 
at 78,000?., wrecked on Kadir rock, oft' Point de 
Galle; eargolost; no lives lost . . 1 Nov. ,, 

XorfoUc Hero, fishing lugger, lost off Norfolk coast, 

2 Dec. ,, 



Delaware, large steamer ; wrecked off Scilly rocks ; 
only 2 out of 47 saved .... 20 Dec. 1871 

Severe gales many wrecks, and lives lost 

Kinsale, steamer, off Waterford ; Albion, schooner, 
offLooe; Dee, schooner, &c. . . 22-23 Nov. ^T 2 

Royal Adelaide, emigrant vessel; went ashore on 
Chesil beach, between Weymouth and Portland ; 
5 lost 25 Nov. „ 

Germahia, mail packet; wrecked off La Rochelle; 
about 24 perished . . . . 21 Dec. ,, 

Northfleet, vessel laden with railway iron for Van 
Diemen's Laud, and railway navvies, run into by 
a foreign steamer (probably the Murillo, * a 
Spanish vessel) off Dungeness, about 10.30 p.m.; 
about 300 lost ...... 22 Jan. 1873 

Chacabuco, iron ship; sunk in the Channel, 15 miles 
from Orme's head, by collision with the Torch 
steamer ; 24 lost 1 March, „ 

Boyne, barque ; wrecked off Mohilo bay, Cornwall ; 
about 20 lost 1 March, „ 

Atlantic, steamer, of White Star company, struck 
on Meagher rock, west of Sambro ; said to have 
fallen short of coals steaming for Halifax; 442 
(including capt. Williams) saved ; about 560 lost, 
1 April, 1873; many on the rigging perished 
through cold and want. The case was investi- 
gated, and the captain was suspended for two 
years 18 April, „ 

Eden, ship, with 150 tons of gunpowder, sailing for 
Valparaiso ; set on fire by her mad captain, and 
blew up : (the crew in a boat were rescued by the 
Juanita) 7, 8 Nov. „ 

Nagpore, from Calcutta, took fire and ran into Kings- 
town harbour, doing much damage till it went to 
pieces ; the captain of the Echo and some sailors 
were drowned 9 Nov. ,, 

Lochearn lost, through collision with the Ville du 
Havre {which see), 22 Nov. ; quitted by her crew 

28 Nov. „ 

Ella, London and Hamburg steamer ; crew, 32 ; left- 
Thames 14 Dec, supposed to have foundered in a 
gale 16 Dec. ,, 

Queen Elizabeth, Glasgow steamer from India ; went 
ashore near Tarifa ; about 20 perished ; middle of 

March, 1874 

Tacna, steamer, from Valparaiso ; foundered ; about 
19 lost (see Chili) March, „ 

Liberia, British and African Steamship Co. ; 
wrecked by collision with Barton steamer, off 
Scilly isles ; probably all lost on board both vessels 

about 13 April, ,, 

British Admiral, emigrant ship ; wrecked on King's 
island, Bass's strait ; about 80 out of 89 lost 

23 May. .. 

Milbanke, iron steamer ; laden with zinc from Car- 
thagena ; sunk through collision with Hankow 
steamer off Dungeness ; 14 perish ; 1.30 a.m. 

28 July, „ 

Calcutta, ship, from Shields to Aden; took fire; 
nearly all lost .... about n Sept. „ 

Malvern, barque, from Sunderland ; foundered off 
Singapore ; all hands lost ... 23 Sept. „ 

Kingsbridge, iron ship, sunk off the Lizards, by col- 
lision with the Candahar, iron ship ; the master, 
his wife and daughter, and 8 of the crew perish 

14 Oct. „ 

Maju, iron ship, of London ; new clipper ; wrecked 
off the Hebrides in a gale ; crew, about 24, lost 

20 Oct. ,, 

Cli nsan, from Glasgow for Shanghai ; sunk in a gale 
off Ardrossan ; about 7 lost . . .20 Oct. „ 

Cutter of H.M.S. Aurora swamped in the Clyde; 
15 lost 19 Nov. ,, 

La Plata, steamer (capt. Dudden), 1600 tons ; sailed 
from Gravesend with telegraph cable for Brazil, 
26 Nov. ; foundered in a gale in the Bay of Biscay ; 
17 escape out of 85 . . . -29 Nov. ,, 

Cospatrick, emigrant vessel (capt. Emslie), on her 
way to Auckland, New Zealand ; took fire, mid- 
night, 17-18 Nov. ; only 5 or 6 (out of 476) escaped ; 
picked up, 27 Nov. ; arrived at St. Helena 

6 Dec. ,, 

Japan, Pacific Mail steamer, from Yokohama ; took 
fire off Hong Kong ; many lost about 17 Dec. „ 

* This vessel was captured near Dover, 22 Sept. and 
condemned by the court of admiralty to be sold; (the 
officers severely censured ;) 4 Nov. 1873. 



WEECKS. 



1403 



WEECKS. 



Delfine, steamer ; struck on sunken rock, west coast 

<<f Africa; nearly all lost 1874 

Scorpio, steamer, from Cardiff to Charente ; not 

heard of, 30 Dec 4 Dec. ,, 

Cortes (s), of London, foundered in Bay of Biscay ; 
laden with coal for Aden ; capt. E. King ; about 

25 lost 16 Dec. ,, 

Hong Kong, steamer ; wrecked on sunken rock near 

Aden ; about 12 lost .... 22 Feb. 1875 
Stuart Hahnemann, sailed from Bombay, 4 April; 
capsized ; about 40 drowned ; (some 1 eseued by 
Blandina, Austrian barque, 27 April) . 14 April, ,, 
Cadiz, London steamer ; wrecked on Wizard Rock, 

Brest ; about 62 lost 8 May, ,, 

Vicksburg, steamer, left Quebec, 27 May ; struck on 
ice, 30 May ; sank, 1 June ; between 40 and 50 

lost . .1 June, „ 

Strathmore, emigrant vessel, wrecked in a fog near 
the Crozet isles, South Indian ocean, on way to 
New Zealand ; 45 out of 89 lost . . 1 July, ,, 
Bo-yne, mail steamer, from Brazil ; ran on a rock 
during a fog, 15 miles off Ushant ; 2 lives lost 

13 Aug. ,, 
Mistletoe, Mr. Heywood's pleasure yacht ; sunk by 
collision with H M.'s steamer Alberta (the queen 
on board), in the Solent, near Isle of Wight; 
Miss Annie Peel and two others drowned 

1 8 Aug. „ 
[Coroner's inquest on Nathaniel Turner ; ver- 
dict, accidental death, with a note alleging 
error of navigating officers, 10 Sept. ; another 
inquest, closed without verdict, 7 Dec. 1875 ; - 
captain Welch, of the Alberta, was repri- 
manded ; 3000J. paid to Mr. Heywood, and 
others compensated ; announced, April, 1876.] 
See under Navy of England. 
H.M.S. Vanguard, double-screw iron-clad, 3774 
tons ; cost about 350,000?. (captain Dawkins) 
struck by ram of the Iron Duke during a fog off 
the coast of Wicklow ; crew (about 400) saved ; 

50 in. past noon t Sept. ,, 

Pacific, steamer, from Victoria, British Columbia, to 
California ; foundered off Cape Flattery ; abov 

150 lost about 4 Nov. ,, 

Goliath, old man-of-war, fitted up as a training-ship 
for poor boys ; burnt through a lamp falling on 
the dirty floor of the lamp-room ; about a dozen 
lives lost out of about 500 ; the boys were highly 
commended for their courage and discipline under 
the command of captain Bourchier . 22 Dec. ,, 
Many wrecks autumn and winter, 1875. 
Warspite, old training-ship of the Marine Society's 
boys, on the Thames between Woolwich and 
Charlton, burnt ; no loss of life ; good discipline 

shown 3 Jan. 1876 

Strathclyde, Glasgow steamer, sunk by collision with 
Hamburg ship Franconia, in Dover bay, in day- 
!ight; about 17 lost; (verdict of manslaughter 
against Kuhn, captain of Franconia*) . 17 Feb. ,, 
Edith, steamer, sunk by collision with the Duchess 
of Sutherland (both owned by the London and 
North-Western Railway Company) off St. John's 
Point, Ireland ; 2 lives lost. . . 8 Sept. „ 
Shannon, mail steamer ; struck on a shoal, 80 miles 
S.S.W. of Port Royal, Jamaica ; no lives lost, 

8 Sept. „ 
Western Empire, in Gulf of Mexico ; a leak sprung, 

13 Sept. ; vessel left (10 lost) . . 18 Sept. „ 

Great Queensland, with .impure patent gunpowder, 
and ordinary gunpowder ; 569 persons on board ; 
sailed for Melbourne, 5 Aug. ; supposed to have 
exploded (pieces of wreck found), near Finisterre 

after 12 Aug. ,, 
[Verdict of wreck commission against owners, 
21 July, 1877. ]„ 
St. Lawrence, troopship, capt. Hyde ; ran aground 

in St. Helena's bay, Africa ; no loss of life 8 Nov. „ 
Ambassador, steamer ; sunk by collision with an 
American ship, George Manson, returning from 
Calcutta; lat. 58° 6' N., Ion. 73° 27' B. ; 23 lost 

(crew, 43) 25 Dec. ,, 

Cairo, iron ship ; bound for Australia ; carried 
much gunpowder ; (said to have been wrecked 
off Tristan or Gough island) ; disappeared about 
middle of Jan. 1877 

* Verdict quashed on appeal ; 7 judges (against 6), 
decide against British jurisdiction, 13 Nov. 1876. 



Cashmere, steamer (British India Steam Navigation 
company) ; wrecked off Guardafui ; 7 drowned 

12 July, 1877 
Eten, steam ship (English Pacific Steam Navigation 
company) ; wrecked about 70 miles N. of Valpa- 
raiso ; about 100 (of 160) lost; many rescued by 
H.M.S. Amethyst .... 15 July, „ 
Avalanche, emigrant iron vessel ; from London to 
New Zealand ; above 100 on board ; struck by 
Forest (of Windsor, Nova Scotia), 21 crew ; both 
sank ; about 12 lives saved ; in channel, 15 miles 
S. by W. of Portland, 9.15 p.m. . 11 Sept. „ 

Many losses by severe gale . . 14, 15 Oct. „ 
Knapton Hall, steamer ; sank through collision with 
Lochfyne, to whose assistance she was coming ; 9 

perish 15 Oct. „ 

Atacama, steamer ; wrecked 22 miles S. of Caldera, 

near Copiapo ; about 104 lost . end of Nov. ,, 
European, Clyde steamer, from Algoa Bay ; wrecked 

off Ushant ; diamonds, &c, lost ; no lives, 5 Dec. „ 
Mizpah, steamer ; sunk by collision with unknown 
vessel, 15 miles S.W. of Beachy Head ; above 6 

lost ; early 6 Dec. „ 

C. M. Palmer, steamer, of Newcastle ; lost by colli- 
sion with Ludworth steamer, near Harwich ; about 
14 lives lost; fog, 10 a.m.. . . 17 Feb. 1878 

Eun/dice, H. M.S., frigate ; training ship ; returning 
from Bermudas ; founders off Dunnose headland, 
near Ventnor, Isle of Wight ; through a squall ; 
capt. A. S. Hare, lieut. Tabor, and about.300 men 

perish 24 March, „ 

[Raised with much skill and labour, and taken 
into Portsmouth, Aug.] 
Childivall Hall, Hull steamer ; wrecked near Cape 

St. Vincent, Portugal ; about 14 lost 11 April, ,, 
Princess Alice (which see), run into by the screw 
steamer, Bywell Castle, in the Thames, near Wool- 
wich, and sunk ; between 600 and 700 lost ; 

about 7.40 p.m 3 Sept. ,, 

Fanny, coastguard cruiser ; run down by National 
steamer Helvetia, off Tuskar, Irish channel ; 17 

lost 31 Oct. „ 

Much damage and loss of life by gales . 8-10 Nov. ,, 
Mesopotamia, steamer, run ashore at Peniche, coast 

of Portugal ; 8 perished . . . 18 Dec. „ 
Ava, British India Navigation Steam company 
steamer, sank by collision with sailing ship Brun- 
hilda, in the Bay of Bengal ; capt. Dickenson 
and about 70 perish ... 24 April, 1879 

City of London, Aberdeen steamer ; run down and 
sunk by the Vesta(s), in the Thames, near Barking 
Reach; no lives lost .... 13 Aug. ,, 
Borussia, a Dominion steamer, left Liverpool 20 
Nov. ; sprang a leak in the Atlantic after leaving 
Corunna, 1 Dec. ; went down ; about 160 lost ; 
10 out of 184 saved by boats ... 2 Dec. ,, 
Valentine foundered in a gale near Falmouth ; 

about 16 lost 8 Feb. 1880 

Many wrecks in the North Atlantic during terrific 

gale (see A tala nta) .... 12-16 Feb. ,, 
Strathnairn, of Dundee : collision with Edith 

Hough, steamer, off Ushant ; all lost 13 Feb. „ 
Hindoo, steamer, from New York ; loaded with 
grain, which shifted ; abandoned ; three officers 
lost and much cattle . . . .22 Feb. ,, 
Viiigorla, steamer ; sprang a leak 70 miles N. of 
Bombay ; captain and 65 persons perish : an- 
nounced 1 March, „ 

Barita, British steamer, sunk in a fog by collision 
with an Australian mail steamer near Galatz ; 16 

perish 9 April, „ 

American, steamer (Union Steamship company), 
capt. Maclean Wait, foundered off Cape Palmas ; 
all passengers and crew escaped in boats : (picked 
up by vessels, and carried to Madeira, St. Paul 
de Loanda, the Canaries, <fce.) . . 23 April, ,, 
Hydaspes, sailing ship ; sank by collision with Cen- 
turion, screw steamer, off Dungeness, in a fog; 
both blamed ; no lives lost . . 17 July, ,, 
James Harris, steamer, loaded with iron ; sunk by 
collision with the Andalusia, steamer, off the 

Feme isles 14 April, 1881 

H.M.S. Doterel destroyed by explosion in the 

Straits of Magellan (see Navy) . . 26 April, „ 
Tararua, Union company's steamer, wrecked off 
Waipara Point, New Zealand, 130 lives lost, 

28 April, ,, 



WRECKS. 



1404 



WRECKS. 



Victoria, steamer, on the Thames, Canada ; over- 
loaded ; ui>set ; several hundreds drowned ; be- 
tween 600 and 700 on hoard . . 24 May, 

Ten fishing boats sunk off the Shetland isles in a 
storm ; about 58 lives lost . . . 20 July, 

'Teuton, Union Company's mail screw steamer, struck 
on a rock near Cape Agulhas, Cape of Good Hope ; 
and foundered a few hours after ; of above 203 
persons, not many saved ; capt. E. Manning 
and most of the officers lost . . 30 Aug. 

[Inquiry : attributed to the captain's imprudent 
navigation 19 Sept.] 

Govino, British steamer ; about 13 perished, 7 Oct. 

130 wrecks (105 British) with great loss of life and 
property by the gales . . . 10-15 Oct. 

Corsica, steamer ; stranded near mouth of the 

Tagus ; 21 deaths 11 Oct. 

[The captain exonerated, 8 Nov.] 

Cyprian, iron steamer, lost in Carnarvon bay ; capt. 
Strachan and another drowned . . ,14 Oct. 

, Glasgow steamer, wrecked in the Irish sea ; 

many lost .... about 20-22 Oct. 

Clan Macduff, steamer, capt. Webster ; foundered 
off the Irish coast (over-loaded) 32 lives lost 
[captain censured] . . . 21 Oct. 

Albion,- steamer, wrecked on the Atlantic coast of 
Columbia ; 32 lost 5 Nov. 

Crown, British steamer, stranded near Jutland ; 
7 drowned 15 Nov. 

Solway, channel steamer, capt. W. Fry ; during a 
storm off the Skerries ; greatly burned through 
ignition of naphtha oil flooding the decks 
through bursting of casks, about 14 burned, and 
5 drowned (the steamer got back to Kingston 
harbour) ; officers exonerated from blame 

16 Nov. 

Culzean, iron steamer ; capt. Pirnie, while being 
towed to be repaired during a gale, stranded on 
rocks in the sound of Java; crew of 17 lost 

22 Nov. 

Many wrecks with loss of life and property during 
a gale 26-27 Nov. 

Kildare, barque, stranded oft Aberdeen coast in 
gale . Dec, 

Helenslea, barque, collision with Catalonia, Cunard 
steamer ; 9 of the crew lost . . 25 Dec. 

Lanarkshire, screw steamer, stranded off Codling 
Bank, Wicklow ; some of the crew lost 15 Jan. 

Bahama, steamer, foundered between Porto Rico 
and New York ; 20 lives lost . . .4 Feb. 

Kvsmos, steamer, sank oft Kilia ; captain and 20 of 
crew drowned Feb. 

Livadia, steamer, from Shields, sunk off Yarmouth ; 
23 lives lost 28 Feb. 

Douro, royal mail steamer ; collision with Spanish 
steamer, Yurrac Bat, both sunk ; about 23 Eng- 
lish and 36 Spanish lost, about 11 p.m. (captain 
of Douro blamed) . . . . 1 April, 

Novara, ship ; on voyage from Newcastle to San 
Francisco, burned ; 19 missing . . 13 April, 

AJexandrina, Liverpool ship, wrecked oft Swan- 
age ; crew all lost . . . early in May, 

Peru, iron steamer ; foundered 30 miles S.W. Cape 
Race ; about 10 men lost . . .10 June, 

Escambia, British screw steamer, wrecked at Es- 
cambia, near San Francisco ; crew (about 20) 
lost, announced .... 20 June, 

Alice, steam-tug, wrecked on Bondecao rocks, Nor- 
thumberland ; 16 lives lost . . 29 June, 

Fleurs Castle, steamer, run aground, near Cape 
Guardafui, N.E. Africa; several perished, 9 July, 

/•;/// iopia, African mail steamer, run on a reet',28 July, 

Armenian, Liverpool steamer, lost in the Baltic ; 
crew about 23 perish, announced . . 23 Aug. 

Ponoma, Glasgow iron ship, foundered off Yar- 
mouth ; about 20 perish, announced 9 Sept. 

Conslantia and City of Antwerp, steamers, sunk by 
collision off the Eddystone ; about 14 lives lost 

16 Oct. 

Winton, lost oil' Ushant : 24 perish . 16 Nov. 

Wearmouth, steamer, lost off Magdalen Island 

21 Nov. 

Cambronne, steamer, sunk by collision with Marion, 
near Lundy 26 Nov. 

St. George, steamer ; lost oil' Portreath, Cornish 
coast; 11 perish 29 Nov. 

Cedar timer, stcMiner, lost off Cape Canto, Nova 
Scotia ; 17 persons missing about 30 Nov. 



Many wrecks, with loss ot life . . . Dec. 
Langrigg Hall, barque, wrecked off Wexiord ; 

24 deaths 15 Dec. 

35 wrecks during a storm off Newfoundland 

about 19 Dec. 
British Empire, ship, burnt off Aleppo ; several 

persons perish 5 Jan. 

City of Brussels (s), sunk by collision with the Kirby 

Hall(s), in the Mersey ; 10 drowned . 7 Jan. 
Kenmure Castle, steamtr, wrecked in Bay of Biscay ; 

30 drowned about 1 Feb. 

King Arthur, Hull steamer, sunk near the mouth 

of the Bosphorus ; 14 lost . . . 22 Feb. 
Wrecks through gales in North sea, 382 lives lost, 

6 March, 
Navarre, Scotch steamer ; sunk near Christian sand ; 

about 45 lost 7 March, 

Dunstaffnage, Liverpool ship, wrecked off Aber- 

deeu; 23 perished .... 17 March, 
IVykeham, steamer, of Whitby, foundered near 

Lisbon ; 22 drowned ; sailed from Cardiff, March, 
British Commerce, sunk by collision with County of 

Aberdeen, off Selsey Bill ; 25 perish . 24 April, 
Grappler burnt near Bute Inlet (Vancouver Island), 

about 70 perish .... about 3 May, 
H.M.S. Lively stranded on rocks off Stornoway, 

7 June, 
[Commander Parr dismissed, 28 June.] 
Waitara, sunk by collision with Huruuui (New 

Zealand Steamship Co.,) off Beachy Head ; 25 

perish 22 June, 

Daphne, coasting steamer, heeled over, during 

launch in the Clyde ; about 124 drowned 3 July, 
79 wrecks on British coasts reported through 

violent gale 1-2 Sept. 

Holyhead, L. & N. W. railway's cattle steamer and 

German barque, Alhambra, sailing vessel, sunk 

by collision between Dublin and Holyhead ; 

15 deaths ; midnight . . . .31 Oct. 
Iris, sunk off Cape Villano ; about 35 perish ; an- 
nounced 8 Nov. 

Auk, Liverpool steamer, at South Henden ; 22 lives 
lost . . . . . . . .11 Dec. 

Simla, wrecked by collision with the City of Luck- 
now, both of Glasgow, Australian sailers, near the 
Needles, English channel ; about 20 perish ; 3 p.m. 

25 Jan. 

Very many wrecks .... 23-27 Jan. 

Nakomis, barque, struck on Black Rock, Antrim ; 

16 perish 26 Jan. 

Juno, iron ship, stranded in the Mersey by a gale ; 

the crew (30) perish . . . . 26, 27 Jan. 

State of Florida, Glasgow steamer, and Ponema, 
barque, sunk by collision in mid-ocean oft' the 
Canadian coast ; about 123 perish . 18 April, 

Laxham (capt. Lothian), English steamer, and Gijon, 
Spanish steamer, sunk by collision in a fog off 
Cape Finisterre ; about 130 perish ; many picked 
up by Santo Domingo (s) . night, 21 July, 

Dione, steamer, sunk by collision with Camden, 
steamer, near Gravesend ; about 17 drowned ; 
soon after midnight . . . -2-3 Aug. 
[capt. of the Dione punished for reckless navi- 
gation, Aug.] 

.Wasp, H.M. gun-boat (see under Navy). 

" Little Beck," stranded near the mouth of the 
Maas ; 14 drowned .... 26 Oct. 

Indus, P.i& O. company's steamer, wrecked on coast 
of Ceylon 8 Nov. 

Durango, screw steamer, run down by Luke Bruce, 
iron barque, in the English channel; 20 lives lost 

27 Nov. 

Pochard, steamer, foundered off Holyhead ; crew 
lost 7 Bee. 

Mignonette, yacht ; sailed from Southampton to 
Australia, 19 May ; loundered in a storm about 
1600 miles Ironi the Cape ; 3 men and a boy 
escaped in a boat, without provisions, 5 July; 
proposed killing of one by lot rejected by 
Bnfoks, buy (Richard Parker) killed by captain, 
and eaten, 20th day, et scq. ; men picked up by 
German barque, Montezuma, 24th day, and 
carried to Falmouth ; capt. Thos. Dudley and 
Edwin Stephens, mate, tried lor murder at 
Exeter ; facts affirmed, 6 Nov. ; affirmed by lord 
chief justice and other judges in Queen's bench, 
4 Dec. ; sentence of death passed, 9 Dec. ; 



1SS4 



WRECKS. 



1405 



WRECKS. 



reprieved, 6 months' imprisonment without 
labour 13 Dec. 1 

Admiral Moorsom, L. and N. W. R.'s steamer, sunk 
near Holyhead by collision with Santa Clara 
(American) ; capt. Weeks, and about 4 perish 

15 Jan. 1 

Cheerful, Liverpool steamer, collision with H.M.S. 
Heda in the Bristol channel, 13 lives lost in a 
fog, 4 a. m 21 July, 

Yarra Yarra, Liverpool barque, 27 lives lost, 
announced n Sept. 

Dolphin., steamer (Gen. Nav. St. Co.), sunk by 
collision with the Brenda, eight perish, 18 Sept. 

Merchantman-, lost on Sand Heads ; about 70 lives 
lost ........ Sept. 

Altnila, British ship, wrecked during typhoon off 
Loochoo islands, 10 perish ... 14 Oct. 

Algoma, Canadian steamer, foundered in lake 
Superior ; 45 lives lost .... 7 Nov. 

Corinth, Union line steamer, sunk by collision 
with H.M.S. Firebrand . . . March, 1 

Oregon, Cunard steamer, foundered (without loss of 
life), by collision with an unknown schooner 

^ near Long Island in America ; schooner sunk with 
all on board 14 March, 

Ly-ee-Moon, an iron steamer, Australasian steam 
navigation company, wrecked off Green Cape, 
between Melbourne and Sydney ; 76 persons 
drowned 30 March, 

Ferntower, British steamer, foundered near Saigon ; 
about 50 lives lost .... 26 Aug. 

Malleny, Liverpool iron steamer, foundered on the 
Tuskar reef, Bristol channel ; all hands lost in 
the gale (about 20) .... 15 Oct. 

Many vessels lost, many injured, and great loss of 
life during a severe gale . . 14-16 Oct. 

Teviotdcde, steamer of Glasgow, lost on the Carmar- 
then coast ; 18 lives lost . . . 15 Oct. 

Keilaivarra and Helen Nicholl collision (42 lives 
lost) off the coast of Queensland; announced 

9 Dec. 

Sultan, British ironclad, and Ville de Victoria, 
French steamer, collision in Lisbon harbour ; 
the latter vessel sunk ; 35 lives lost . 23 Dec. 

Kapunda, emigrant ship for Australia, said to have 
foundered by collision with Ada Melmore off 
Brazil ; about 298 perish, 3 a.m. 20 Jan. ; officers 
of the-i ida Melmore censured . . 29 March, 1 

Victoria, London & Brighton company's steamer, 
during fog struck on rock at Point D'Ailly ; no 
fog horn" sounded, about 16 lives lost out of 
90 passengers through panic and recklessness ; 
the rest caved by skill and courage of the captain 
and officers 13 April, 

Tasmania, P. & O. steamer wrecked on Monachi 
rocks, Corsica ; 23 lives lost, including captain 
Perrin 17 April, 

Volta, Eastern Telegraph company's steamer, 
wrecked off Mycouos, Greece ; 12 lives lost, 

18 April, 

Benton, steamer, of Singapore, foundered, with 
collision ; about 150 lives lost, announced 

28 April, 

Destruction of a Pearl fishing fleet, N.E. coast of 
Australia, with a loss of 550 lives, in a hurricane 
on 22 April : reported ... 28 April, 

John Knox, British steamer, wrecked at St. John's ; 
27 lost 4 Ma y> 

City of Montreal (cotton ship), Inman steamer, 
burnt 400 miles off Newfoundland on her way 
from New York to Liverpool . . 10 Aug. 

Monarch, pleasure yacht, founders near Ilfracombe ; 

11 lives lost 26 Aug. 

Falls of Brnar, of Glasgow, sunk off Yarmouth ; 

24 lives lost 2 Sept. 

Lvdia, British schooner, lost in a hurricane in 

'the North Atlantic; 15 lives lost . Sept. 

Lanoma, iron barque, wrecked near Weymouth ; 

12 lives lost .... 8 March, 1 
City of Corinth sunk by collision with Tasmania 

near Dungeness .... 9 March, 

Smyrna, sailing vessel, loses 12 men by collision 

with the Moto, steamer, off Dorset coast, 

28 April, 
Trevelyan, emigrant ship, sunk off Cape Agulhas, 

all on board lost . . . 3 June, 



Star of Greece wrecked in Aldinga Bay, near 
Adelaide ; 17 lives lost ... 13 July, 18 

Earl of Wemyss and Ardencaple, Glasgow barques, 
collision, 16 lives lost .... 8 Sept. , 

Collision between Glasgow steamer Neptune and 
Russian steamer Archangel at Christiania ; 18 
lives lost 19 Oct. , 

Nor, Norwegian barque, and Saxmundham, steamer 
from the Tyne ; collision ; 12 lives lost, 4 Nov. , 

Steamer Ho,rtlepool wrecked on a rock at Naalevig ; 
17 lives lost 6 Dec. , 

British steamer Priam, wrecked near Cape Finis- 
terre ; about five lives lost . . 12 Jan. 18 

Nereid, steamer, of Newcastle, collision with the 
Scotch ship Killochan off Dungeness ; 23 lives 
lost 3 Feb. , 

Collision of ship Larjo Bay with steamer Glencoe 
which founders off Beachy Head ; all hands lost, 

4 Feb. , 

Wreck of the Grimsby fishing fleet ; 73 lives lost, 

9 Feb. , 

Cotopaxi, Pacific steamer, struck on unknown reef, 
Smyth's channel, straits of Magellan, and 
foundered ; no lives lost ... 15 April, , 

Altmore, British steamer, struck on rocks off 
Fiji islands ; about 12 persons drowned 

22 April, . 

The German Emperor, screw steamer, ran into the 
Beresford, anchored off Dover, in a fog, and sank ; 
nine missing 21 May, , 

Gettysburg, barque, of Aberdeen, wrecked on a coral 
reef off Morant Cayes, 33 miles from Jamaica, 
with a crew of 16 hands, 30 March-i April ; 
by very great exertions, the captain and part of 
the crew succeeded in getting on the desolate 
isle, where they stayed, living on shell-fish, &c. 
On 22 April two men on a raft started for 
Jamaica and landed seven miles from Morant 
Bay, 24 April. On their reaching Kingston, 
H.M.S. Forward was sent off, and brought the 
captain and the rest of the crew to Kingston, 
27 April, whence they were conveyed to England, 
having lost seven of their number, where they 
arrived 18 May, , 

Isaac Houston, British schooner, foundered in a 
storm off Milwaukee ; 16 lives lost ; reported 

14 June, . 

The Rapel steamer wrecked on Huamblin island, 
S. American coast ; 11 men drowned, reported, 

2 Aug. , 

Earnmore, Newcastle steamer, foundered in a 
cyclone off the Bahamas ; the crew entered two 
boats, the captain, with 18 men, not heard of 
since— the first mate and 6 men nearly starving, 
were picked up and landed at Nassau, New 
Providence, 30 Sept 5 Sept. . 

H.M.S. Lilly wrecked off Labrador coast (see Navy), 

16 Sept. , 

The Florence, screw steamer, foundered off Calf of 
Man, 10 lives lost .... about 17 Sept. , 

Minnie Swift, a Nova Scotian sailing ship, sunk 
by collision with the Geographique, off St. Pierre, 
France, 15 persons drowned . . 20 Oct. . 

Santiago, British screw steamer, on her way from 
New York to Hull, burnt; all hands saved by 
A. J. Fuller . . . 29 Nov. 

CUddy, steamer, sank after collision with Isle of 
Cyprus, steamer, off St. Catherine's, about 13 
lives lost 20 Dec. 

Ovington, steamer, sunk by collision with Queen 
Victoria, near Greenock, six lives lost . 29 Dec. , 

Loch Moidart, British iron ship, run ashore at 
Callandzoog, near Dieppe ; 30 lives lost, reported, 

27 Jan. 1E 
[See Storms in Jan. 1890.] 

Highgate, steamer, and Sovereign, ship, both sunk 
by collision off Lundy Island, 12 lives lost 

19 Feb. 

Quetta, Queensland liner, struck on unknown rock, 
off cape York, Torres strait, and sank ; about 
133 lives lost out of 282 ; captain exonerated, 

28 Feb. 
Virent, steamer, wrecked off Ferrol, 15 lives lost, 

about 22 March, 

Ethel Gwendoline, steamer, foundered off Rattray- 

head, Aberdeenshire ; 7 men drowned 21 March, 



WRECKS. 



1406 



WRECKS. 



City of Paris, Inman Atlantic steamer, with above 
680 passengers and 370 crew, left New York, 19 
March, and was clue at Queenst.own, 26 March ; 
on 25 March, about 5.45 p.m., the starboard en- 
gine broke down ; the inflow of water stopped 
the other engine, and eventually tlie vessel was 
without machinery or sailing apparatus, a help- 
less log; a lifeboat was launched on 27 March, 
help arrived on 28 March, and without losing a 
single life, the vessel was towed into Queenstown 

29 Ma/ch, 

Dacca, British India company's steamer, foundered 
on a reef of rocks 400 miles from Suez ; passen- 
gers, mostly emigrants to Queensland , got on to 
the reef, the officers and crew remained on board, 
were saved by the Susario steamer ; the Palam- 
cotta took those on the reef to Suez 

16 May et seq. 
[The disaster attributed to the unskilful naviga- 
tion of the chief officer, 30 June.] 

Gulf of Aden, steamer, foundered on the way from 
Liverpool to Valparaiso ; 73 lives lost . 12 May, 

Ethel, barque, bound for Brisbane, sunk in the 
channel near Portland, by collision with the 
Umbilo, screw steamer ; 4 lives lost . 25 June, 

The fishing fleets on the north and west coasts of 
Scotland suffered much by disasters ; about 60 
persons perished, reported . . 28 June, 

Egypt, Atlantic liner, of Liverpool, left New York 
10 July ; burnt at sea, 17, 18 July ; all hands (95) 
saved by the Gustav Oscar ; carried to Dover by 
the Manhattan 24 July, 

Halcyon, British steamer, sunk by collision with 
Rheubina, off coast of Spain ; 13 lives lost, re- 
ported 11 Aug. 

The Portuense, Liverpool steamer, founders during a 
cyclone, 250 miles from Barbadoes, the captain 
and most of the crew drowned . . 28 Aug. 

The Melmerby, Liverpool barque, wrecked off Roys 
Island; 15 men in the longboat drowned . 5 Oct. 

H.M.S. Serpent, cruiser, wrecked off the coast ol 
Corunna ; about 173 lives lost (see Navy), 11 Nov. 

Calypso, Bristol screw steamer, sunk by collision 
with the Pinzon, Spanish steamer, off Folkestone, 

24 Nov. 

Uppingham, Cardiff steamer, bound for China, 
struck on a rock below Hartland Quay, Corn- 
wall ; about 7 men drowned . . 23 Nov. 

Westbourne, Hull steamer, wrecked off Theodosia, 

Black Sea ; 18 lives lost ... 24 Nov. 

■Talookdar, British steel ship, sunk by collision 

with the Libussa, German ship, between the Cape 

de Verde and Cape Rocque ; 22 lives lost 13 Dec. 

Shanghai, China Navigation Co.'s steamship (capt. 
Martin) ; near Ching Kiang, burnt ; nearly 300 
lives said to be lost .... 25 Dec. 

Bear, steamer, sunk by collision off St. Abb's Head, 
Firth of Forth ; 13 men drowned . 11 Jan. 

Chisudck, London steamer, struck on a reef off 
Scilly ; 11 out of 19 men drowned . . 5 Feb. 

The Queen, British barque, sunk by collision with 
the Ipswich, between Antwerp and Cardiff; the 
captain and 6 men drowned . 5 a.m. 21 Feb. 

Bay of Panama, steel ship, from Calcutta, for Dun- 
dee (about 27 lives lost) ; Marana, iron steamer 
(about 22 lives lost), and about 13 other vessels 
(about 40 persons drowned), all wrecked off the 
Falmouth coast, during the great snowstorm, 

9, 10 March, 

The Utopia, British steamer, capt. M'Keague, con- 
veying 830 Italian emigrants, with 50 crew, from 
. Naples to New York, sunk during a gale by col- 
lision with H.M.S. ironclad Anson, at anchor in 
the Bay of Gibraltar; about 538 passengers and 
26 of the crew drowned. Heroic exertions were 
promptly made by the crews of all the ships in 
the harbour, to save life ; of these, two brave 
men of the./ mmortalit6, James Croton and George 
Hales, were drowned, 7 p.m. 17 March ; above 
1,150^. (Italian government, 200!.) subscribed for 
the relief of the survivors . . . March, 

The marine court censures capt. M'Keague for 
grave error of judgment, . . 25 March, 
[The Utopia was raised under the direction of Mr. 
Armit, 8 July, 1891.] 



Stratliairly, British steamer, wrecked off the coast 
of North Carolina ; 19 lives lost, reported, 

26 March, 1891 
Chapman, missionary schooner, wrecked off the 
coast of Tahiti : 16 persons drowned, reported, 

30 March, „ 

Glamorgan, steamer, sunk by collision with P. 
Caland, Dutch American steamer, in mid- 
channel, between Dover and Folkestone, 

15 April, ,, 
1890 J gj_ Catharis, steamer, wrecked off the Caroline 

Islands, reported ; 90 persons drowned . April, „ 

LestrU and Mersey, two steamers, sunk by collision 
in the Mersey ; several lives lost . 23 May, ,, 

Dunholme, steamer, of W. Hartlepool, sunk by 
collision with the Glasgow steamer Klnloch, near 
Dover; 17 lives lost . . 2.30 a.m. 7 July, „ 

Gambler, screw-steamer, sunk by collision with 
the Easby in Port Phillip Bay, Melbourne ; 
about 21 lives lost .... 28 Aug. ,, 

Dunmurry, British steamer, sunk during a hurri- 
cane, 250 miles from Halifax, Nova Scotia; 8 
lives lost about 1 Sept. ,, 

Wolvistone, steamer, left Bristol for New York, n 
Sept. ; disabled by a gale, crew takes to life- 
boats, 22 Sept. ; 9 men rescued, the captain and 
11 men missing 15 Oct. „ 

30 vessels wrecked off the coast of Labrador, and 
about 50 lives lost during a gale, reported, 

23 Oct. ,, 

Charlwood, barque, sunk by collision with the 
Boston, near the Eddystone lighthouse ; 15 lives 
lost 4 a.m. 26 Oct. ,, 

Moselle, royal mail steamer, struck on a reef, 10 
miles from Colon ; totally wrecked, only the 
captain drowned 28 Oct. ,, 

Parsee, schooner, coming from Funck island, 
wrecked on a reef ; 7 lives lost, reported 6 Nov. „ 

Enterprise, Indian marine steamer, founders off 
Port Blair, Andaman islands, during a cyclone ; 
about 70 lives lost, 6 saved . . . 2 Nov. ,, 

Benvenue, full-rigged ship, bound for Sydney, 
wrecked off Sandgate ; 27 persons suspended in 
the rigging for 16 hours, were saved with great 
difficulty by the Sandgate lifeboat, and taken to 
Folkestone ; capt. James Moddrel and 4 men 
drowned 11 Nov. ,, 

Many wrecks during gales . . 10 Nov. et seq. ,, 

Enterkin, steel sailing ship sunk off Ramsgate, 
near Galloper sands, during a gale ; about 27 
lives lost 11 Dec. ,, 

Abyssinia, Guion screw-steamer, burnt, 5 days out 
from New York ; the passengers and crew rescued 
by the Spree 18 Dec. ,, 

Childwall, barque, sunk by collision with Noord- 
land, steamer, off Flushing ; 15 men drowned, 

2 Jan. 1892 

Namchow, a British steamer, foundered off Cupchi 
Point, China ; about 509 lives lost, about 14 Jan. ,, 

Forest Queen, steamer, sunk by collision with the 
Loughborough, steamer, near Flamborough Head ; 
about 14 lives lost .... 24 Feb. ,, 

County of Salop, steamer, stranded in 'Widemouth 
Bay, Cornwall ; the 30 persons on board saved 
by the Bude Rocket Brigade . . 10 March, ,, 

Walmer Castle, Deal lugger, foundered near the 
Isle of Wight during a gale ; 7 men drowned, 

15 March, ,, 

Earl of Aberdeen, barque, wrecked on the Pem- 
brokeshire coast ; 16 lives lost . . 15 May, ,, 

Petrolea, British petroleum steamer, blown up in 
Blaye harbour, near Bordeaux ; 18 deaths, 14 June, ,, 

City of Chicago, Inman Atlantic liner, run ashore 
near Old Head of Kinsale, during a fog ; pas- 
sengers, &c, landed, 1 July; totally wrecked, 7 
July ; Mr. Arthur Bedford the master's certifi- 
cate suspended for 9 months . . 21 July, ,, 

Peter Stuart, British ship, struck on a rock near 
Yarmouth, Nova Scotia ; 14 deaths . 4 July, ,, 

Ajax, steamer, sunk by collision with Kundeberg, 
steamer ; 35 deaths .... 9 Aug. . ,, 

Thracia, barque, capsized near Port Erin, Isle of 
Man; 17 lives lost 14 Aug. ,, 

Anglia, Anchor Line steamer, capsized near the 
mouth of the Hooghly ; 12 lives lost . 24 Aug. ,, 

Stranger, British schooner, capsized in the Gulf of 
Mexico; 16 deaths "... 10 Sept. ,, 



WRECKS. 



1407 



WRECKS. 



Cashier, British schooner, sunk by collision with 
an uiiKnown ship, on the Grand Bank of New- 
foundland ; 19 lives lost,, reported . 20 Sept. ] 

The Premier, Canadian steamer, crushed by col- 
lision with the steam-collier Williamette off 
Whidby Island in the Pacific ; five deaths, 8 Oct. 

The Bokhara, Peninsular and Oriental steamer, on 
her way from Shanghai to Hong Kong, during a 
typhoon, wrecked off Sand Island, in the Pesca- 
dores group ; the fires were put out and the 
engines stopped ; Capt. Sams and- about 125 
persons drowned ; 23 persons saved . 10 Oct. 

Roumania, British Anchor line steamer, wrecked 
during a gale, off Gronho, on the coast of Portu- 
gal, on her way from Liverpool to Bombay ; 
about 106 persons drowned, 9 saved . 28 Oct. 

The Chishima, Japanese cruiser, sunk in collision 
with the Ravenna, P. & O. steamer, in the Gogo 
Shima straits, 75 deaths, Nov. 1892 ; much litiga- 
tion, 1892-5 ; appeal of the company to the 
judicial- committee (privy council) allowed, and 
suit dismissed with costs ... 20 July, : 

Greystroke, Hartlepool steamship, wrecked outside 
Cuxhaven ; the crew, about 24, lost, about 

28 Nov. ■ 

Dllsberg, Glasgow steamer, wrecked on the Long 
Sands, Kent ; about 7 deaths . . 9 Dec. 

Trinacria, Glasgow steamer, wrecked off Cape 
Vilano, Spain ; about 31 persons drowned 7 Feb. 

Pomeranian, Glasgow steamer, left Greenock for 
New York on 27 Jan., damaged during a gale ; 12 
deaths, 4 Feb. ; returned to Greenock 11 Feb. 

Coanza, British steamer, wrecked on Baiyah Bock, 
near Sinou, W. Africa ; many lives lost, reported 

22 Feb. 

Countess Evelyne, Cardiff screw steamer, sunk by 
collision with the City of Hamburg near Trevose 
Head ; about 24 lives lost ... 3 May, 

H.M.S. Victoria disaster, see Navy of England, 

2? June, 

Many wrecks through gales . . 16-19 Nov. 

Hampshire steamer, of London, owners Messrs. 
MacBeth and Grey of Glasgow (Capt. Weir and 
22 men), sunk off St. Ives, Cornwall ; all lost ex- 
cept Mr. James Swanson, chief officer 18 Nov. 

Jason, from Calcutta to Boston, U.S., off Eastham, 
Massachusetts ; 27 deaths . reported 6 Dec. 

Colleen, Belfast barque, wrecked off Ballycotton, 
Ireland; capt. Bartlett and 10 men drowned 

7-8 Jan. 

Allonby, steamer, in the bay of Biscay ; 1 1 lives lost 

14 Jan. 

Clytha, sunk by collision with the Cadoxton in the 
Barry Roads ; 7 deaths . . . 17 Feb. 

Port Yarrock, a Glasgow barque, left Cardiff for 
Mexico, 27 Oct. 1893, insufficiently manned and 
badly provisioned ; the crew suffered greatly 
during the voyage ; on her return, she was driven 
ashore in Brandon bay, co. Kerry, and the 
crew of /!i perished, 29 Jan. 1894 ; the court of 
inquiry severely blamed Robert John Rowat, 
the managing owner, for neglect of duty, and 
fined him 75Z 27 March, 

The Valkyrie, cutter, formerly belonging to lord 
Dunraveu, foundered off the coast of Africa ; all 
hands lost .... reported 16 May 

Cambuswallace, barque, from Glasgow, wrecked off 
Stradbroke island ; 5 deaths . reported 4 Sept. 

Brandon, British barque, driven on the Caicos reef 
off U.S.A. ; the capt. and 13 sailors drowned 

26 Sept. 

Tormes, steamer, from Malaga to Liverpool, wrecked 
off Crow rock, near Pembroke ; 21 lives lost 

30 Oct. 

Wairarapa, Union steamer, from Sydney to Auck- 
land, wrecked on Gt. Barrier island off New 
Zealand ; the captain and 125 lives lost 29 Oct. 

Cidmore of Londonderry, from Hamburg to Barry, 
wrecked off Spurn Head ; 22 deaths . 14 Nov. 

Earl of Zetland, iron ship from London to Melbourne, 
went ashore off Dungeness . . . 4 Dec. 

Abydos, steamer, of Glasgow, foundered off Isle of 
Man ; 19 lives lost . . . about 22 Dec. 

Many wrecks in the gale . . . 21-22 Dec. 

Ossco, iron barque, wrecked at Holyhead ; 26 lives 
lost 30 Dec. 



Reported loss of the British steamer Prescott, from 
Sunderland to Marseilles ; capt. Hind and 22 
others drowned 29 Dec. 1894 

Escurial, steamer, of Glasgow, wrecked off Cornwall ; 
11 lives lost 25 Jan. 1895 

Coliina, Pacific company's steamer from San Fran- 
cisco to Panama, wrecked off S.W. coast of Mexico; 
108 deaths 27 May 

Dundrennan, of Liverpool, sunk off Struis point ; 25 
deaths .... reported 11 April, 

Maritana, steamer, of Sunderland, sunk by collision 
off Brest with the Esmeralda of Glasgow ; 1 1 deaths 

13 May, 

Cleveland, steamer, from Newcastle, sunk in collision 
with the Duffield off Dover, crew saved 27 July, 

Catterthun, steamer from Sydney to Hong Kong, 
wrecked on the Seal rocks off Cape Hawk ; 65 
deaths 8 Aug. 

Seaford, Channel steamer, on her way from Dieppe 
to Newhaven, sunk by collision with the Lyon, 
cargo steamer, in a fog ; all saved . 20 Aug. 

Iona , Scotch steamer, by a fire off Gunfieet, Thames ; 
6 women and a child perished ; fire extinguished 
by the crew . . . 1.20 a.m. 16 Sept. 

Livonia, British steamer, sunk by collision with 
the Napier, British steamer, off Oeland ; 11 
deaths, reported 10 Oct. 

Leo, British steamer, wrecked off Stalman, Den 
mark ; 15 deaths, reported . . .16 Nov. 

Joseph, schooner, sank off the Lizard ; the captain 
and 2 of the crew drowned . . about 24 Nov. 

Principia, steamship (capt. Stannard), from Dun- 
dee to New York, after a fire, wrecked off the 
Faroe isles ; 28 lives lost, only one of the crew 
saved 21 Nov. 

Alicia, steamer, of West Hartlepool, sunk in col- 
lision with the Netley Abbey, off Cromer ; 4 
deaths, reported 23 Dec. 

Moresby, Liverpool schooner, wrecked in Dungarvan 
bay, Waterford ; 19 lives lost . . 24 Dec. 

Fortuna, schooner, sunk in collision with the 
Barnstaple steamer, off Highland Light, Cape 
Cod, U.S., 9 deaths .... 13 Jan. 1896 

Matadi, British steamer, destroyed by an explosion 
of gunpowder, at Boraa, Congo State ; 25 deaths 

7 March, ,, 

The Queen of Mistley, sunk in collision with the 
steamer Sagn, of Rotterdam, off Newhaven ; the 
captain and 3 others drowned . 12 March, „ 

Firth of Solway, barque, sunk in collision with the 
Marsden steamer, in Dublin bay ; 15 deaths, 

19 April, „ 

Bertha, steamer, sunk in collision with the Claverley, 
steamer, off South wold ; 6 deaths . 14 June, „ 

Drummond Castle (which see), wrecked off Ushant, 
France, 247 deaths . . . .16 June, ,, 

Royalist, schooner, foundered in a gale, at Holy- 
head ; 1 man saved 8 Oct. ,, 

Moss Brow, British steamer, wrecked off Finland ; 
the captain and 14 men perish . . 21 Oct. ,, 

P. H. Dawscn, British schooner, wrecked off Point 
Barfleur ; the captain, his wife, and crew drowned, 

8 Nov. ,, 

Memphis, steamer, from Montreal, ran ashore on 
Mizen Head ; 9 deaths ... 17 Nov. ,, 

Warren Hastings, troopship, wrecked off the Isle of 
Reunion ; 2 deaths .... 14 Jan. 1897 

John 0' Gaunt, Liverpool barque, burnt ; captain 
killed by an explosion, at Tocopilla . 23 Jan. „ 

City of Agra, British steamer, wrecked off Corunna ; 
capt. Frame and 55 out of 75 persons saved ; re- 
ported 6 Feb. „ 

Cyanus, Glasgow steamer, from Bilbao, wrecked 
near Ushant ; 20 deaths ; reported . 12 Feb. ,, 

Zuleika, British ship ; capt. Bremmer and 11 men 
drowned off Palliser, New Zealand ; announced, 

21 April, „ 

Collynie, steamer, sunk in collision with the Gir- 
nigoe, near Aberdeen ; 11 deaths . . 3 May, „ 

Pearl, schooner, sunk in the channel by the And, 
steamer ; 4 deaths 5 June, ,, 

Susannah Kelly, steamer, sunk in a gale in Belfast 
Lough ; the captain and 9 men drowned 16 June, ,, 

Aden, P. and O. steamer, wrecked off Socotra, 
Indian ocean ; the captain, 13 officers, the crew 
(20 Europeans, and 33 natives), and 25 passengers 
drowned (45 saved by the Mayo steamer), 9 June, ,, 



WRECKS. 



1408 



WRECKS. 



Tasmania, steamer, from Wellington to Sydney, 
wrecked orf North island, New Zealand ; 10 

deaths 29 July, 1 

Cordillera, British barque, wrecked after leaving 
Valparaiso ; capt. Everitt and 16 men drowned, 

7 Nov. 

The Labarroaere, Cardiff steamer, sunk in collision 

with unknown sailing vessel, off Lundy island ; 

capt. Young and 4 others drowned . 25 Nov. 

Cleveland, steamer, from San Francisco, wrecked 

in Barclay sound ; 9 deaths ; reported 16 Dec. 

Cktrissa Radcliffe, Card iff steamer, wrecked off Cape 

St. Vincent ; 16 deaths . . . . 1 Jan. 1 
Channel Queen, steamer, from Plymouth, wrecked 
on the Black Rock, off Guernsey ; 12 passengers 
and some of the crew drowned . . 1 Feb. 
Legislator, steamer, from Liverpool for Colon, 
burnt ; 4 deaths .... 13 Feb. 

Asia, British ship, from Manila, wrecked off Nan- 
tucket ; 15 deaths ; reported . . 23 Feb. 
Midas, sailing ship, capt. Messenger a2id 22 men 

lost off Japan Feb. 

Helen W. Almy, barque, from San Francisco to 
Copper river, capsized, 41 deaths, about 23 Mar. 
Leechmere, steamer, lost in a gale, capt. Lawson and 
crew, about 18, perished . . 24-26 March, 
Marlborough, British ship, wrecked in the N. 
Atlantic, 15 deaths .... 3 April, 
Maitland, steamer, wrecked, 18 deaths and 28 miss- 
ing, and the Merksworth, steamer, 9 deaths, off 

Sydney 8, 9 May, 

Benholm, steamer (Liverpool), sunk in collision 
with the Klondyke, steamer (Antwerp), off the 
Skerries, 10 deaths .... 14 May, 
Mecca, steamer, sunk by collision with the Lindula, 
in the Bay of Bengal, capt. Parkman and about 
52 others drowned .... 24 May, 
Gypsy Princess, Nova Scotia schooner, sunk in col- 
lision witli the German steamer Ems ; 6 deaths ; 

reported 15 June, 

A number of fishing-boats wr.ecked in the Baltic, 

about 120 deaths .... 19 Sept. 

The Bheubina, British steamer, sunk in collision 

with the Cartagena, Spanish steamer, 15 deaths, 

22 Sept. 
Atlanta, sailing vessel, wrecked off Newport, 
Oregon, 28 deaths . . ■ . . t8 Nov. 
Mohega.n, Atlantic Transport co. steamer, wrecked 
on the Manacles, off Cornwall (error of naviga- 
tion), capt. R. Griffith and 106 drowned, 14 Oct. 
Blengfell, petroleum ship, from New York to 
London, burnt by an explosion off the N. Fore- 
land, capt. J. Johnston and 8 others killed, 

17 Oct. 
Many wrecks in the North Sea, with loss of life, 

17-20 Oct. 

FitzJames, steamer, wrecked off Beachy Head, the 

capt. and 8 men drowned . . .24 Nov. 

Clan Drummond, Clan Line steamer, wrecked in 

the Bay of Biscay, capt. Crockett and 36 others 

drowned , 28 Nov. 

Village Belle, schooner, wrecked off Havana, the 

capt. and 7 men drowned, reported . 2 Dec. 

Londonian, liner of Hull, wrecked off the Fastnet, 

17 deaths. ...... 29 Nov. 

Jlios, steamer, sunk by collison with the Pierremont 
steamer off Soutar, South Shields, 20 deaths, 

16 Dec. 
Collision between the Du Guesclin, French steamer, 
and the linss-shire, steamer, 12 deaths 4 Jan. 

lVoolUr, steamer, wrecked off Ushant, 19 deaths, 

2 Jan. 

Andelana, British ship, capsized off Tacoma, the 

capt. and 18 men lost ... 14 Jan. 

Arno, steam collier, wrecked near Selsey Bill, 13 

deaths 11 Feb. 

Many wrecks during gales . . . . Feb. 

Missing steamers in the Atlantic through storms : 

8 British, 1 American, 1 German, 255 deaths, 

reported 16 March, 

Stella, excursion steamer, from Southampton to 
Guernsey (S.W. Ry.), wrecked while going at 
full speed in a log, at 4 p.m., on the Black rock, 
mear the Casquets, 8 miles off Alderney (140 
passengers, ciew 40), capt. Reeks and 104 others 
drowned; no panic, great heroism shown (she 
.sank in 8 minutes), 30 March ; the queen's mes- 



sage and French sympathy expressed, 4 April ; 

fund closed, grand total, 15,605?. 5s. gd., Sept. 1 
General Whitney, steamer, sunk off Florida, 27 

deaths, reported .... 23 April, 
Loch Sloy, barque, wrecked on Kangaroo island, S. 

Australia ; 30 deaths . . . .24 April, 
Resolute, steamer, sunk in collision with the 

Scindia steamer, off Calcutta in the Hooghli, the 

captain and 53 of the crew drowned . 14 Aug. 
Scotsman, Dominion liner, wrecked off Belle isle, 

Newfoundland ; 15 deaths . . 21 Sept. 
Niagari, Canadian steamer, wrecked near Long 

Point, Lake Erie, 16 deaths . . 5 Dec. 

Ariosto, steamer, wrecked off N. Carolina, U.S., 

21 deaths 24 Dec. 

Planet Mercury, steamer, of Liverpool, wrecked off 

Yarmouth, N.S. ; crew of 40 and several others 

and about 160 cattle lost . . end of Feb. i 
Clubine, pilgrim ship to Mecca, wrecked in the 

Red sea with loss of life ... 8 March, 
Cuvier, Glasgow steamer, sunk in collision with 

an unknown steamer, 27 deaths . 9 March, 
Glenelg, Melbourne steamer, wrecked off Gipps- 

land, 30 deaths .... 25 March, 
Embleton, sailer, sunk in a fog by the Campania 

Cunard 1 ner, in St. George's channel, ti deaths, 

21 July, 
Dromedary, steamer, run into in a fog by the 

Alligator steamer, in Belfast lough, 12 deaths 

and 50 injured 21 July, 

Gordon Castle, Glasgow steamer, and the Hamburg 

steamer Stormarn, sunk by collision during a fog 

in Cardigan bay ; capt. Casey and 19 others of 

the Gordon Castle lost ... 16 Sept. 
Charkieh, Khedivial Co.'s steamer, wrecked near 

the isle of Andros, about 50 deaths, reported, 

21 Sept. 
City of Vienna, Dublin steamer, sunk in collision 

with unknown steamer (believed to have also 

sunk) off Land's End, 20 deaths . 7 Nov. 

Monticello, steamer, sunk off Nova Scotia, 36 deaths, 

10 Nov. 
St. Olaf, steamer, wrecked off the mouth of the St. 

Lawrence, 26 deaths .... 21 Nov. 
Rossgull, steamer, wrecked off Jersey ; capt. Blam- 

field and 9 of the crew drowned . . 4 Dec. 
Mobile, steamer, with 26 hands, lost in the Atlantic 

Dec. 
Primrose Hill, a sailing ship, wrecked near Holy- 
head, 33 deaths 28 Dec. 

Kaisari, steamer, of London, wrecked off Reunion, 

25 deaths 23 Nov. 

Holland, steamer, wrecked in the Nieuwe Water- 

weg, Rotterdam, 15 deaths . . .28 Jan. 
Lucerne, steamer, lost off Newfoundland, 24 deaths, 

reported 13 Feb. 

Homer, steamer, sunk in collision with the Hopper, 

Russian barque, off Spurn Head, 16 deaths, 

15 Feb. 
Rydalmere, sailer, lost off Cape de Gata, 25 deaths, 

19 March, 
Tay, steamer, sunk in collision with Gorman 

steamer Chemnitz o.l J lushing, 16 deaths, 

21 March, 
Taller, steamer, wrecked at Port Louis, Mauritius, 

20 deaths 22 March, 

Falkland, barque, wrecked off the Scilly isles, 6 

deaths 22 June, 

Kincora, steamer, sunk in collision with the 

Oceanic, Atlantic liner, in St. George's channel, 

7 deaths S Aug. 

Islander, steamer, Canadian Pacific liner, sunk off 
Douglas island, Alaska, 65 deaths, no panic, 

15 Aug. 
Noranmore, steamer, sunk in a gale in the Black 

sea, 39 deaths ..... 25 Aug. 
Perseverance, barque, with 14 men, lost in the Arctic 

regions after 22 Oct. 

Cobra, disaster, over 60 lost, and Active, wrecked 
at Granton, 19 lost (see Nary). 

18 Sept. and 12 Nov. 

Many shipping disasters and great loss of life 

round the coast .... 12-14 Nov. 

Alfonso, steamer, run into in a fog by a Spanish 

collier, s. of Finisterre ; both sank, is British and 

1 of tlie Spanish steamer drowned . 4 Jan. 



WBECKS. 



1409 



WKECKS. 



Hwronicm, Allan steamer, lost at sea, left the 
Clyde ii Feb. 1902 

Tiber, steamer, lost off Halifax, U.S., 21 deaths, 
reported 4 March, ,, 

Athena, steamer, wrecked off Campana island, 
Patagonia, capt. Jones and 16 men lost, 

22 March, ,, 

Cambrian Princess, sunk in a fog in collision with 
the Alma, Channel steamer, 11 deaths, 

end March, ,, 

Cwmorta, steamer, lost in a cyclone, in the Bay of 
Bengal ; crew 89 and 650 native passengers, 

6 May, ,, 

IligAfields, barque, sunk in collision with the Ger- 
man steamer Kaiser, at Cardiff, 23 deaths, 

17 Aug. ,, 
'Elliott, barque, crew 16, missing since 19 Dec, 

reported 27 Aug. ,, 

'Great gale in Algoa bay, S. Africa ; loss of shipping 

and about 51 lives . . . . 1 Sept. ,, 
Bewick, steamer, sunk in a gale in the North sea, 

11 deaths 12 Sept. ,, 

Ventnor, steamer, struck off Cape Egmont, New 

Zealand, and sunk, 12 deaths . 26, 27 Oct. ,, 
Defender, fishing-boat, wrecked at Lowestoft, 6 

deaths .... . . 4 Nov. „ 

Elingamite, steamer, from Sydney for Auckland, 

wrecked on Three Kings island, over 38 lost ; 

great heroism shown, 149 saved . 9 Nov. ,, 

Sylvanus J. Macy, steamer, sunk in a gale on lake 

Brie, 15 deaths 28 Nov. ,, 

Marlay, steam collier, sunk in Dublin Bay, 14 

deaths 16 Dec. „ 

Grecian, steam trawler, lost in the North Sea, 9 

deaths about 31 Dec. ,, 

Manchester Merchant, steamer, with 7,000 bales of 

cotton on fire, scuttled in Dingle Bay, Kerry, 

14, 15 Jan. 1903 
Collision between the cruiser Pioneer and the 

torpedo-boat destroyer Orwell, off Corfu, 15 

deaths 30 Jan. ,, 

Mumbles lifeboat capsized in Swansea Bay, 6 lives 

lost . .1 Feb. ,, 

Olive, steamer, sunk in a gale near Edenton, N. 

Carolina, 18 deaths .... 10 Feb. ,, 
Kelvinside, steamer, sunk at the mouth of the Para, 

Brazil, the captain and 8 men drowned, 18 Feb. „ 
Ottercaps, steamer, wrecked in a gale at Feuntenot, 

near Audierne, about 30 deaths . 26 Feb. ,, 

- Huddersfield, steamer, Antwerp to Grimsby, with 

foreign emigrants, sunk in the Schelde, 22 pas- 
sengers drowned .... 26 May, ,, 
Asequipa, of the Steam Navigation co., foundered 

at Valparaiso, 17 out of 80 persons reported 

saved ....... 2 June, ,, 

Rosa, with cargo of benzine, burnt at Vlaardingen, 

death of captain, 3 of crew injured . 21 Aug. „ 
Sutlej, cruiser, collides with and sinks barque 

Charles Chalmers, in North Sea, 4 drowned, 

18 Sept. ,, 
David Watson, with 200 passengers, on the St. 

John river (N.B.), totally burnt, 3 deaths, 

20 Sept. ,, 
Lady Bead, Hudson's Bay co. ship, wrecked on the 

Gasket Shoal, in Hudson's Bay . . 25 Sept. „ 
Hardwick Hall, Ellerman steamer, Delagoa Bay to 

Calcutta, struck on Farquhar Island . 18 Oct. „ 
Loch Maree, Dundee steamer, founders near Cape 

Serrat, 9 of officers and crew missing . 31 Oct. „ 
Ovalau, steamer, burnt, near Lord Howe Island, 

18 Nov. „ 
Spennymoor, steamer, foundered in open sea, 7 Dec. ,, 

REMARKABLE CASES OF FOREIGN VESSELS WRECKED OR 
BURNT. 

Arctic, U.S. mail steamer, by collision in a fog with 
the Vesta, French steamer, off Newfoundland; 
above 300 lives lost . . . .27 Sept. 1854 

Northern Belle, a large American vessel, was 
wrecked near Broadstairs. The American 
government sent 21 silver medals and 270L to 
be distributed among the heroic boatmen of the 
place, who saved the crew . . 5-6 Jan. 1857 

Pomona, an American ship, captain Merrihew (419 
persons on board, from Liverpool to New York), 
was wrecked on Blackwater Bank, through the 



master mistaking the Blackwater for the Tuskar 
light, only 24 persons saved, night of 

27-28 April, 1859 

Lima, American barque with emigrants, wrecked 
offBarfleur; above 100 lives lost, 17 Feb. i860. 
On the same rock, on 25 Nov. 1120, was wrecked 
the Blanche Nef, containing the children of 
Henry I. and a large number of attendants ; in 
all 363 persons perished. 

Schiller, Hamburg mail steamer, wrecked in a fog, 
on rocks off the Scilly isles ; about 331 drowned, 

7 May, 1875 

Deutschland, fine Atlantic steamer, from Bremen 
to New York, during a gale, went on sandbank, 
the Kentish Knock, at mouth of the Thames ; 
about 70 lost (many emigrants), 6 Dec. 1875. 
The Liverpool, tug steamer, saved a great many 
lives ; on investigation, it was shown that there 
had been no delay in helping, and no jobbery, 
31 Dec. The captain censured for error in navi- 
gation, and want of .judgment. 

Grosser Kwrfnrst, the German ironclad, sunk by 
collision with Kbnig Wilhelm ; about 300 lost, 

31 May, 1878 

Pomerania, Hamburg-American mail steamer, sunk 
off Folkestone, by Moel Eilian, iron bark, of Car- 
narvon ; 162 saved by boats ; about 48 missing ; 
a little after midnight . . . 25 Nov. ,, 

French steamer Byzantin sunk (losing above 200 
lives) by collision with English steamer Rinaldo, 
in Dardanelles, during a fearful gale . 18 Dec. ,, 

Arrogante, French ironclad battery, sank off 

Hyeres isles ; 47 drowned . . 19 March, 1879 
Vera Cruz, U.S. steamer, foundered through hurri- 
cane in N. Atlantic, 30 miles from shore ; 11 out 

of 82 saved 4 Sept. 1880 

Oncle Joseph, French steamer, sunk by collision 
with Ortigia, Italian steamer, off Spezzia ; about 
50 out of 300 saved .... 24 Nov. ,, 

Asia, N.W. transit service steamer, foundered near 
Lonely Island, in the Georgian bay, 20 miles 
from Point au Barrie ; about 98 lost . 14 Sept. 1882 

Cimbria, Hamburg steamer, sunk by collision with 
English steamer, Sultan, off coast of Holland ; 
about 454 perish .... 19 Jan. 1883 

City of Columbus, U.S. passenger ship, ran on reef, 
coast of Massachusetts ; 29 lives saved ; about 
97 perish : alleged negligence . . 18 Jan. 1884 

Daniel Steinmann, White Cross steamer, struck 
on rock oft' Sambro' Isle, Nova Scotia ; about 
120 perish .... about 3 April, ,, 

Senorine, French brig, wrecked off Great Bank, 
Newfoundland ; about 62 perish . 6 May, ,, 

W. A. Scholten, Dutch steamer, sunk by collision 
with Bosa Mary of Hartlepool, at anchor off 
Dover ; about 130 persons perish, many saved 
by the crew of the Ebro of Sunderland, 19 Nov. 1887 

Alfred D. Snow, American vessel, wrecked off 
Waterford ; 28 perish .... 4 Jan. 1888 

Collision between Thingvalla and Geiser, German 
steamers, off Sable Island, N. Atlantic ; 105 lives 
in the Geiser, lost .... 14 Aug. ,, 

Collision between steamers La France (French) and 
Sud America (Italian) off the Canary Islands ; 
about 87 lives lost . . 13 Sept. ,, 

John Banna, steamer, laden with cotton, burnt on 
the Mississippi ; about 20 persons perish, 24 Dec. ,, 

German and American war vessels wrecked off 
Samoa (see Storms) ... 16 March, 1889 

The Comtesse de Flandre cut in half by collision 
with the Princess Benriette, both Belgian mail 
boats ; the captain and 14 others killed, prince 
Napoleon Bonaparte escapes ; about 1*45 p.m. 

20 March, , 

Danmark, Danish emigrant vessel, sank in the Atlan- 
tic abo\it 800 miles from Newfoundland ; captain 
Murrell of the Missouri, Atlantic transport line, 
and his crew, with great energy rescued all on 
board (735). [He landed part on the Azores and 
part in Philadelphia.]'" ... 6 April, ,, 



* At the Mansion House, on 24 May, 1889, captain 
Murrell, in the presence of distinguished company, 
received from the lord mayor a silver salver with 
an inscription, and a purse of money (about 5ooZ.)from 
the citizens of London; Ihe officers and crew also 
received testimonials. 

4 x 



WRECKS. 



1410 



WRECKS. 



Prins Frederik, Dutch mail steainer, outward bound 
for Java with troops and specie, sunk by collision 
with the Marpessa, British steamer, in a dense 
fog in the Channel. Great order maintained 
on the Prins Frederik; only 7 Dutch soldiers 
perished, out of the 170 persons on board, 
25 June ; the Marpessa, much injured, got to 

Falmouth 27 June, 

Ertogrul, Turkish government cruiser, and the 
Musasha Mam, Japanese mail steamer (crews 
lost), founder in Japanese waters during a heavy 
gale (see Turkey and Japan) . . 18 Sept. 
Collision of the Spanish steamer Vizcaya with the 
Crirnelivs Hargraoes, schooner, off New Jersey ; 
both vessels sunk ; the captain and about 60 
persons of the Vizcaya drowned . 30 Oct. 

The Taormina, Italian mail steamer, sunk by colli- 
sion with the Greek steamer Thessalia, off Cape 
Suniuin ; about 60 lives lost, 2 a.m. . 12 Sept. 
Eider, German iron-screw steamer, six-masted 
(North German Lloyd's), from New York to 
Bremen, struck on rocks near the Isle of Wight 
during a fog, 31 Jan ; capt. Heineke, crew 166, 
and 227 passengers, together with the mails, bars 
of silver, and other parts of the cargo saved by 
the great exertions of the lifeboats, 1-3 Feb. ; 
the Eider lifted off the rocks about 7 March, 
and floated to Southampton* . 29 March, : 

Roosalka, Russian ironclad, foundered off the 
Finnish coast, possibly through an explosion ; 
deaths reported 12 officers, 166 men, capt. 
Yenish, commander, total deaths about 200, 

19 Sept. : 
The Vladimir (Russian), sunk by collision with 
the Columbia (Italian), midnight off Tarhankut ; 
about 100 deaths .... 8 July, j 

Elbe, N. German Lloyd steamer, from Bremen to 
New York, sunk in collision with the Crathie of 
Aberdeen off Lowestoft about 6 a.m. ; 334 lives 
lost, including capt. von Gossel. the watch ; 20 
saved by Mr.Wm. Wright of the smack Wildflower, 
30 Jan., 1895. The Crathie arrested at Rotter- 
dam. Coroner's inquest at Lowestoft, the mate 
and look-out man of the Crathie censured for 
negligence ; the captain exonerated, 1 May ; the 
mate's certificate cancelled by the board of 
trade, 17 June, 1895. The court at Rotterdam 
declare the Crathie to be solely in fault, and 
adjudge 565,500/?. damages, with interest, 

15 April, i 
Reina Regente, Spanish cruiser, sunk off Cape Trafal- 
gar ; 400 lives lost (see Spain) . 10 March, : 
Gravina, Spanish coasting steamer, wrecked off 
the Philippine isles in a cyclone ; 168 drowned, 

3 saved, reported .... 22 May, 
Don Pedro, French steamer from Havre to La 

Plata with emigrants, wrecked off N. W. coast 
of Spain, 87 deaths .... 27 May, 

Maria P., Italian emigrant steamer to Brazil, sunk 
in collision with the Ortigia at the mouth of 
the Gulf of Spezzia ; 148 deaths . 21 July, 

Sanchez Barcaiztegui, Spanish cruiser, sunk in 
collision with the Mortera steamer ; about 29 
deaths, including adni. Parejo, dr. Martin, and 

4 officers 19 Sept. 

Pacific, coal barque, of Dunkirk, sunk by collision 

with the Emma, German steamer; the captain, 
pilot, and 10 men drowned . . 14 Oct. 

Solferino, Italian emigrant steamer, wrecked off 
Ceuta ; 20 deaths, reported . . 17 Nov. 

On Wo, steamer, sunk by collision with the steamer 
Newchwang, at Woosung, China ; capt. Stessar 
and 5 English officers drowned ; total deaths 200, 

30 April, 

Alexandra, Swedish steamer, sunk by collision 
with the Goole, steamer, from Rotterdam, in the 
Humber ; 10 lives lost ... 8 Oct. 

Salter, North German Lloyd steamer, wrecked 
off Cape Corrubedo, N. Spain ; capt. Wempe and 
280 lives lost 7 Vec. 

Rajah, German ship of Bremen, foundered off 
Lundy island ; 17 deaths . . . 8 Dec. 



* The German emperor presented zool. to the Lifeboat 
Institution, and gold watches to some of the masters of 
lifeboats, April 1892. 



Marie Fanny, French steamer, wrecked off the 
Casquets ; 15 deaths .... 14 Dec. 1896 

Siracusa, of Hamburg, wrecked off Newquay ; all 
(24) lost 3 March, 1897 

Utrecht, steamer, from Rotterdam to Java, wrecked 
off Ushant ; about 100 deaths . 4 or 5 March, , r 

Ville de St. Nazaire, French liner, lost off Cape 
Hatteras ; about 65 deaths . . 8 March, rr 

Henri, French steamer, lost ; 30 deaths, reported, 

26 April, ,„ 

Vaillant, French fishing vessel, foundered off the 
Grand Banks, Newfoundland ; 65 deaths, 

14 April, , 7 

Roedvar, Norwegian barque, and the Firdene, 
Dutch steamer, sunk in collision in the North 
sea ; 19 deaths n May, ,, 

Ville de Malaga, French steamer, wrecked off the 
Casquets ; 6 deaths .... 14 Aug. ,, 

The Ika, Austrian pleasure steamer, sunk in 
collision with the Tyria, British steamer, off 
Fiume ; 30 or 40 deaths ... 20 Sept. ,, 

The Jolcai, Austrian steamer, sunk by collision 
with the Baron Ardrossan, in the Channel ; 4 
deaths 25 Nov. ,,. 

Elachat (s), French liner, from Marseilles to Colon, 
wrecked off Point Anaga, Tenerifl'e ; about 77 
deaths 16 Feb. 1898 

Lydie, French steamer, lost in the Channel, 30 
deaths . ... 24 March, ,„ 

La Bovrgogne, French liner, bound from New York 
to Havre (160 miles N. of her true course and 
going at great speed), sunk in collision, during 
a dense fog, with the Cromartyshire, British 
barque, some 60 miles off Sable island, Nova 
Scotia ; capt. Deloncle, and 545 passengers and 
crew drowned ; 165 saved — including 1 woman, 
104 of the crew, and 61 passengers* . 4 July, ,, 

Portland, steamer, wrecked off Cape Cod, U.S. 
157 deaths; 56 other vessels and barges lost 
along the New England coast ; total deaths 
about 180 27 Nov. P 

Algerois, French steamer, foundered near Bona 1 1 
deaths 5 Dec. ,, 

Voorwaarts, Italian steamer, wrecked off Trevose 
Head, Cornwall, about 13 drowned . 2 Jan. 1899 

Esperanza, Norwegian barque, wrecked off Corn- 
wall, crew about 12 lost . . . 2 Jan. ,„ 

Idraet, Norwegian steamer, foundered in the North 
sea, 12 deaths 10 March, „ 

Hoche, French fishing boat, wrecked off Mizen 
Head, 24 deaths .... 11 April, ,, 

Pierre le Grand, lost in a gale in the Mediterranean, 
about 60 drowned . mid Dec. „ 

Fanillac, Atlantic steamer, from New York to 
Havre, lost, 37 deaths . . . mid Feb. 1900 

Faidherbe, steamer, sunk in collision with the 
Mitidja, 24 deaths, reported . . 24 Oct. ,, 

Gntisenau, German training-ship, wrecked off 
Malaga, 38 deaths .... 16 Dec. ,„ 

Sente, Japanese dredger (built at Renfrew), wrecked 
off Queenstown, 12 deaths . . . 26 Dec. „ 

City of Rio de Janeiro, Pacific mail steamer, U.S., 
wrecked off San Francisco, 122 deaths, 79 saved, 
panic among Chinese .... 22 Feb. 1901 

Asian, Turkish transport, wrecked in the Red Sea, 
over 180 deaths 1 April, „ 

City of Paducah, Mississippi steamer, sank off 
Grand Tower, 23 deaths ... 13 May, ,, 

City of Golconda, steamer, capsized in a squall on 
the Ohio, about 40 deaths . . 19 Aug. ,, 

Ville d' Ys, a pleasure - boat, lost off Treguier, 
Brittany, 14 deaths, including 5 near relatives of 
M. Anatole le Braz, the Breton poet . 21 Aug. „ 

Polarstjcrnen, Danish steamer, lost on a sand- 
bank in the North sea, 22 deaths, reported, 

1 Jan. 1902 

Wcdla Walla, San Francisco steamer, sunk by 
collision with Mar, a French barque, 9 deaths, 
33 missing 2 Jan. ,, 

* Relief fund started ; 500/. from pres. Faure, 10,000/. 
from Havre, 10 July ; official inquiry at Halifax, Nova 
Scotia, 12 July ; capt. Henderson, of the Cromartyshire, 
exonerated from blame, 28 July, 1898. The Bovrgogne held 
alone to blame for the collision, 12 Jan. 1899; again 
on appeal, 11 May, 1899, 



WRECK COMMISSION". 



1411 



WURTEMBERG. 



Chanaral, sailer, of Dunkirk, sunk off Ushant, 21 
deaths 31 Jan. 1902 

Luga, steamer, capsized on the Luga, Russia, 
about 30 deaths .... 15 July, ,, 

Primus, pleasure steamer, sunk in collision with 
Hausa, on the Lower Elbe, 112 deaths, 21 July, ,, 

Prins Alexander sunk in collision with the Ban 
Hire Guam, off Malacca, 40 deaths, reported, 

30 July, ,, 

Enero, Spanish steamer, sunk in collision with 
the St. Regulus, steamer, off Dungeness, 22 
deaths 31 Oct. ,, 

Knud, Danish steamer, sunk in collision with 
the Swaledale steamer, off the Tyne, 8 deaths, 

20 Nov. ,, 

Neptuno, Spanish steamer, sunk in the Bay of 
Biscay, about 29 deaths, reported . 3 Dec. ., 

Parthenon, lost on the Asiatic coast near the Bos- 
phorus, 28 deaths, reported . . 22 Dec. ,, 

Prince Arthur, Norwegian barque, sunk off Cape 
Flattery ^ U.S.A., 18 deaths . . . 2 Jan. 1903 

Santa Pologna, barque, foundered off Spanish coast, 
all hands lost 13 Jan. ,, 

Van Stabel, French barque, lost off the Outer 
Hebrides, 27 deaths .... Jan. ,, 

Luna, of Hamburg, lost on the Brissons, off Long- 
ships, 17 deaths .... 1 March, ,, 

Norwegian barque Tabitha, totally lost by Are, 

r March, ,, 

Collision off Hastings, between steamship Povena 
and Mirajlores, both of Bilbao, 3 killed 14 March, ,, 

Liban, steamer, of Fraissinet co., with 150 passen- 
gers, sunk by collision with steamer Insulaire, of 
same co., near Mareeilles . . . June 7 ,, 

Total loss of the King line steamer Mexicano on 
voyage from Philadelphia to Vera Cruz, reported 

mid Sept. ,, 

French barque Francois Coppee, from Newcastle, 
N.S.W., for San Francisco, wrecked near Tonali 
Bay, Solomon Is., captain and 19 of crew missing, 
reported 24 Nov. ,, 

Norwegian barque Capella of Arendal, bound for 
Table Bay with timber cargo, wrecked off 
Bovbjerg, Jutland, crew of 15 drowned 22 Nov. ,, 

WRECK COMMISSION, a court esta- 
blished to inquire into the causes of shipwrecks ; 
first sat, 30 Oct. 1876, Mr. H. C. Rothery, presi- 
dent. 

WREXHAM, S. E. Denbighshire, the Saxon 
Wrightesham, given to earl Warren by Edward I. ; 
made a borough by the reform act, 1832. An ex- 
hibition of art treasures of North Wales, and the 
border counties, was opened here by the duke of 
Westminster, 22 July, 1876. Musical festival here 
1883, et seq. Population, 1881, 10,978 ; 1891, 
12,552; 1901, 14,966. 

WRITING- Pictures are considered to be the 
first essay towards writing. The Egyptian papyri 
are very ancient, see head, Book of the. The most 
ancient remains of writing are upon hard sub- 
stances, such as stones and metals, used by the 
ancients for edicts, and matters of public notoriety. 
Cadmus, the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B.C., is 
mythically said to have brought the Phoenician 
letters into Greece. Vossius. The commandments 
were written on two tables of stone, 1491 B.C. 
Usher. The Greeks and Romans used wax table- 
books, and continued the use of them long after 
papyrus was known ; see Papyrus, Parchment, 
Paper. Thos. Astle's " History of Writing" was 
first published in 1784 ; Natalis de VVailly's 
" Elemens de Paleographie," 1838 ; E. M. Thomp- 
son's " Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeo- 
graphy"; see Hieroglyphics, Cuneiform inscrip- 
tions, Bible, Diplomatics, Palceography and Type- 
Writers.* 

* " I would check the petty vanity of those who slight 
good penmanship, as below the notice of a scholar, by 
reminding them that Mr. Fox was distinguished by the 



WROXETER (in Shropshire), the Roman city 
Vriconium. Roman inscriptions, ruins, seals, and 
coins were found here in 1752. New discoveries 
having been made, a committee for further investi- 
gation met at Shrewsbury on 11 Nov. 1858. Exca- 
vations were commenced in Feb. 1859, which were 
continued till May. Large portions of the old town 
were discovered; also specimens of glass and pottery, 
personal ornaments and toys, household utensils and 
implements of trade, cinerary urns, and bones of 
man and of the smaller animals. A committee was 
formed in London in Aug. 1859, with the view of 
continuing these investigations, which were re- 
sumed in 1 86 1, through the liberality of the late 
Beriah Botfield, M.P. The investigations, stopped 
through want of funds, were resumed for a short 
time in 1867. Mr. Thomas Wright published 
" Uriconiuni" in 1872. 

WURSCHEN, see Bautzen. 

WUNTHO, see Burmah, 1891. 

WURTEMBERG, originally part of Swabia, 
was made a county for Ulric I., about 1265, and a. 
duchy for Eberhard in 1494. The dukes were pro- 
testants until 1722, when the reigning prince became 
a Roman catholic. Wurtemberg has been repeatedly 
traversed by armies, particularly since the great 
French revolution of 1793. Moreau made his cele- 
brated retreat, 23 Oct. 1796. The political consti- 
tution is dated 25 Sept. 1819. Wurtemberg opposed 
Prussia in the war, June, 1866, but made peace, 
13 Aug. following ; in Oct. 1867, joined the Zoll- 
verein {which see), but sent a contingent to Prussia 
in the war, 1870. Population of Wurtemberg in. 
1871, 1,818,539; 1880, 1,971,118; 1885, 1,995,185; 
1890, 2,035,443 ; 1900, 2,300,000. 
Elections for 70 members of the diet ; 47 by man- 
hood suffrage 1 Feb. 1895 

The diet demands revision of the constitution and 

other reforms March, „ 

Much destruction by a cloud-burst in the Black 
Forest district, 50 lives lost, 5 June ; visit of the 
king to organize relief ... 8 June, ,, 

DUKES. 

Eberhard I. 

Eberhard II. 

Ulric ; deprived of his states by the emperor 

Charles V. ; recovers them in 1534. 
Christopher the Pacific. 
Louis the Pious. 
Frederic I. 
John Frederic ; joined the protestants in the Thirty 

years' war. 
Eberhard III. 
William Louis. 
Eberhard Louis ; served under William III. in 

Ireland ; and with the English armies on the 

continent. 
Charles Alexander. 
Charles Eugene. 

Louis Eugene (joins in the war against France). 
Frederic I., makes peace with France, 1796. 
Frederic II. marries Charlotte, princess royal of 

England, 18 May ; made elector of Germany, 

1803; acquired additional territories, and the 

title of king in 1805. 

KINGS. 

1806. Frederic I. supplies a contingent to Napoleon's 
Russian army ; yet joined the allies at Leipsicin 
1813. Died in 1816. 

1816. William I., 30 Oct. ; son ; born 27 Sept. 1781. He 
abolished serfdom in 1818 ; instituted represen- 
tative government in 1819; entered into a con- 
cordat with Rome in 1857 ; was the oldest living 
sovereign, 1862 ; died 25 June, 1864. 

clearness and firmness, Mr. Professor Porson by the cor- 
rectness and elegance, and sir William Jones by the ease 
and beauty of the characters they respectively employed.' 
Dr. Parr. 

4x2 



1494. 
1496 



1628 
1674. 
1677. 



I733^ 
1737- 
1793- 
I79S- 
1797- 



WURZBURG. 



1412 



WYOMING. 



1864. Charles I. , son ; born 6 March, 1823 ; married 
princess Olga of Russia, 13 July, 1846. No 
issue ; died 6 Oct. 1891. 

1891. William II., cousin; born, 25 Feb. 1848; married, 
1. Marie, princess of Waldeck and Pyrmont, 15 
Feb. 1877; 2. Charlotte, princess of Schaumburg 
Lippe, 8 April, 1886 ; attempt on his life by 
Martin Miiller, lunatic anarchist, 20 Oct. 1889. 

Heir presumptive (William, born 20 July, 1828, 
died 6 Nov. 1896; Nicolous, born 1 March, 1833, 
died 23 Feb. 1903), next in succession, duke 
Philip and his son Albrecht. 

WUEZBURG (in Bavaria), was formerly a 
bishopric, and its sovereign one of the greatest 
ecclesiastic princes of the empire. It was given as 
a principality to the elector of Bavaria in 1803 ; and 
by the treaty of Presburg, in 1805, was ceded to the 
archduke Ferdinand of Tuscany, whose electoral 
title was transferred from Salzburg to this place. In 
1814 this duchy was again transferred to Bavaria, 
in exchange for the Tyrol, and the archduke Ferdi- 
nand was reinstated in his Tuscan dominions. 
Ministers from the second-rate German states met 
at Wiirzburg to promote union amongst them, 21-27 
Nov. 1859. Near here the archduke Charles de- 



feated the French under Jourdan, 3 Sept. 1796; and 
the Prussians defeated the Bavarians, 28 July, 1866. 

WYATT'S INSURRECTION, see Rebel- 
lions, 1554. 

WYCLIFFITES, see Wickliffites. 

"WYOMING, a western territory of the United 
States of America, constituted in 1868, admitted 
a state 1890. Capital, Cheyenne. Lynch Law has 
not long been superseded. "Women have been 
enfranchised. It includes Yellowstone park (which 
see) . The desolation of "Wyoming, in Pennsylvania, 
by an incursion of Indians allied with the British, 
3 July, 1778, forms the subject of Campbell's poem, 
"Gertrude of Wyoming " published 1809. "Wyo- 
ming abounds in iron, coal, natural soda, mineral 
oil, &c. Explosion in a coal mine at Bed Canyon, 
about 68 deaths, 21 March, 1895 ; another at 
Hanna, 175 killed, 30 June, 1903. The U.S. 
settlers attack the Bannock Indians on their hunt- 
ing grounds ; several killed ; troops sent, 24 July, 
1895. Population 1880, 20,789; 1890, 60,705; 
1900, 9 2 ,53i- 



XANTHIAN MAEBLES. 



1413 



XYLOTECHNOGBAPHICA. 



X. 



XANTHIAN MAEBLES, see British 



XANTHICA, a military festival observed by 
the Macedonians in the month called Xanthicus 
(our April), instituted about 392 B.C. 

XANTHUS, Lycia, Asia Minor, was taken by 
Harpagus for Cyrus, about 546 B.C., when the in- 
habitants buried themselves in the ruins. It was 
besieged by the Romans under Brutus 42 B.C. After 
a great struggle the inhabitants set fire to their city, 
destroyed their wives and children, and perished. 
The conqueror wished to spare them, and offered 
rewards to his soldiers if they brought any of the 
Xanthians into, his presence, but only 150 were 
saved. Plutarch. 

XENOPHON, see Retreat of the Greeks, 

XEEES DE LA FBONTERA (S.W. Spain), 
the Asta Regia of the Romans, and the seat of the 
wine-trade in Spain, of which the principal wine is 
that so well known in England as Sherry, an 
English corruption of Xeres. The British impor- 
tations of this wine in 1850 reached to 3,826,785 
gallons; and in the year ending 5 Jan. 1852, to 
3,904,978 gallons. Xeres is a handsome and large 
town, of great antiquity. At the battle of Xeres, 
26 July, 711, Roderic, the last Gothic sovereign 
of Spain, was defeated and slain by the Saracens, 
commanded by Tarik and Muza. 

XEEXES' CAMPAIGN. Xerxes crossed the 
Hellespont by a bridge of boats, and entered Greece 
in the spring of 480 B.C., with an army which, 
together with the numerous retinue of servants, 
eunuchs, and women that attended it, amounted 
(according to some historians) to 5,283,220 souls. 



Herodotus states the armament to have consisted of 
3000 sail, conveying 1,700,000 foot, besides cavalry 
and the marines and attendants of the camp : This 
multitude was stopped at Thermopylae [which see) 
by the valour of 300 Spartans under Leonidas, 7-9 
Aug. 480 B.C. The fleet of Xerxes was defeated at 
Artemisium and Salamis, 20 Oct. 480 B.C. ; and he 
hastened back to Persia, leaving behind Mardonius, 
the best of his generals, who, with an army of 
300,000 men, was defeated and slain at Plataa, 22 
Sept. 479 B.C. Xerxes was assassinated by Arta- 
banus, 465 B.C. 

XESIBELAND, a district in S. Africa, situ- 
ated between Griqualand East and Pondoland; 
annexed in 1886 to Cape Colony. 

XIMENA (S. Spain), the site of a battle be- 
tween the Spanish army under the command of 
general Ballasteros, and the French corps com- 
manded by general Regnier, 10 Sept. 181 1. The 
Spaniards defeated their adversaries ; the loss was 
great on both sides. 

XYLOIDINE, an explosive resembling gun- 
cotton. It is produced by treating starch or some 
material of a fibrous, woody nature with strong 
nitric acid. 

XYLONITE, a celluloid preparation used as 
a substitute for ivory, bone, coral, &c, for making 
combs, pianoforte keys, napkin rings, card cases, 
and numerous other articles, for which lightness 
and durability, combined Avith cheapness, are 
required. 

XYLOTECHNOGEAPHICA, a process for 
staining wood various colours, invented and patented 
by Mr. A. E. Brophy ; announced early in 1875. 



YACHT. 



1414 



YACHT. 






Y. 



YACHT (from the Dutch jaght) ; a light vessel 

for pleasure or races. 

Queen Elizabeth had a yacht built at Cowes, Isle 
of Wight, 1588, and in 1660 one was presented by 
the Dutch to Charles II., who soon after had 
others constructed, and yacht races began. 

The principal royal yachts : the Royal George, 
launched at Deptford by the Duke of York in 
1817 (still used at Portsmouth as a depot ship 
1899) ; Victoria and Albert, first royal steam 
yacht, designed by sir W. Symonds, launched 
in 1843 ; second of the same name launched at 
Pembroke, 16 Jan. 1855 ; third, designed by sir 
Wm. White (larger and with all the latest im- 
provements) launched by the duchess of York 
(the duke of Connaught, Mr. Goschen, and others 
present) at Pembroke, 9 May, 1899. 

First royal cup presented to the Royal Yacht 
Squadron by king William IV. . . . . 1834 

Yacht Races. — The America, an American yacht 
schooner, built on the wave principle, 171 tons ; 
at Cowes regatta, in a match round the Isle of 
Wight, open to all coiners, came in first by 8 
miles, gaining the Royal Yacht Squadron's In- 
ternational queen's cup worth 100L . 22 Aug. 1851 

Three American yachts, the Henrietta, Vesta, and 
Fleetwing, sailed from New York, 11 Dec. 1866, at 
1 p.m. The Henrietta arrived at Cowes at 5. 40 on 
25 Dec. , the quickest voyage ever made in a sailing 
vessel. Her rivals were only a few hours after her. 

In a contest off the Isle of Wight, between the 
American vessel Sappho and the English cutters 
Aline, Cambria, Oimara, and Condor, the Oimara 
won 25 Aug. 1868 

In a triangular race between Sappho and Cambria, 
Sappho won, 10 May; no race, 14 May; won 17 May, 1870 

In a yacht race off Staten island, New York, for the 
squadron or queen's cup, the Magic won, Cambria 
being the 8th in 16 Aug. , , 

In a series of matches off Staten island between 
Mr. Ashbury's Livonia, and the vessels of the 
New York Club, she was beaten by the Columbia, 
16, 18 Oct. ; by the Dauntless, 21 Oct. The two 
vessels were disabled by a gale in attempting the 
race 25 Oct. 1871 

In consequence of the collision of Mr. Heywood's 
yacht, Mistletoe, with her majesty's steam 
yacht, Alberta, 18 Aug. 1875 (see under Wrecks), 
a letter was written on behalf of the queen to the 
marquis of Exeter, commodore of the Royal 
Victoria Yacht Club, desiring yachts not to be 
brought too near to her majesty's, whether from 
loyalty or curiosity Sept. 1875 

Yacht Racing Association formed as a court of 
appeal 17 Nov. ,, 

Death of George Inman, of Lymington, head of 
the firm which built the Alarm, and many other 
swift sailing yachts .... 20 Oct. 1883 

Match between the British Genesta and the 
American Puritan ; the Puritan won by ij- 
minutes 16 Sept" 1885 

Genesta beat the Dauntless in a race, 26-28 Sept. 
1885; the Mayflower beat the Galatea, n Sept. 1886. 

Ocean yacht race from New York to Roche's Point, 
Quee'nstown, Ireland, between Coronet and Daunt- 
less (American), 12 March; Coronet arrives at 
Roche's Point, o'so a.m. 28 March ; Dauntless 
arrives 6'45 p.m 28 March, 1887 

Jubilee yacht race; twelve yachts start from 
Southend, 14 June ; the Genesta (sir Richard 
Sutton) arrives at Dover at 5 a.m. ; the Sleuth- 
hound 11 '45 p.m. 27 June ; first prize i,ooogs. 

Race between the Scotch yacht Thistle and 
American yacht Volunteer for America cup 
over the New York yacht club course ; Volunteer 
wins first race 27 Sept. ; second race 30 Sept. ,. 



The German emperor's yacht Meteor gained much 
distinction ; but Mr. West's Queen Mab was most 
successful in regard to prizes in the season of 

The prince of Wales's yacht Britannia wins prizes 
on the Thames, 25, 26 May, and wins the Victoria 
gold challenge cup at Ryde . 11 Sept. 

International race for the America cup, Sandy 
Hook, New Jersey ; won by the Vigilant (Ameri- 
can) against lord Dunraven's Valkyrie, after a 
desperate struggle . . . .13 Oct. 

Second international exhibition of historical, 
modern, and scientific pictures and models of 
yachts, <fec.,at the Royal Aquarium, Westminster, 

Feb. 

The prince of Wales's yacht Britannia 1st in an 
international match at Cannes, 13 March (again 
victor, 23 Feb. 1895) ; victorious over the Ameri- 
can Vigilant in the Clyde ; lord Dunraven's 
Valkyrie sunk by collision ... 5 July, 

"Yachting," in the Badminton series, published . 

Col. Lewis Conway-Gordon, R.E., an eminent 
yachtsman, drowned in the collision of ss. Pen- 
zance with his yacht Scotia . . .25 June, 

Victory of the Vigilant over the Britannia on the 
Solent 4 Aug. 

The queen's cup won by adm. Montague's Carina, 
against the Britannia, Meteor, and others, 7 Aug. 

The Britannia wins the Meteor shield at the royal 
regatta, Cowes 9 Aug. 

The America cup won by the Defender (American) 
against lord Dunraven's Valkyrie at New York, 7 
Sept. 1895; disputes respecting the race, Sept.- 
Nov. ; lord Dunraven's charges declared un- 
proved by a committee appointed by the New 
York Yacht Club, 18 Nov. ; report issued, 21 Jan. 

The Britannia beaten by the German emperor's 
Meteor at Gravesend, 4 June ; again at Cowes, 11 
June ; Ryde, 12, 13 Aug 

Royal Minister Y. C. match won by Satanita at 
Queenstown 19 June, 

Britannia wins at Southampton, 13 June ; at Ram- 
say Bay, 25 June ; Clyde . . .27 June, 

Roviil Mersey Y. C. at Liverpool, match won by 
Ailsa 23 June, 

The queen's cup won by capt. Orr-Ewing's Mohawk 
on her time allowance . . . .4 Aug. 

The German emperor's Meteor shield won by Ailsa 
at Cowes 7 Aug. 

The Albert cup won by the Meteor, Southsea, 

17 Aug. 

Collision of the Meteor with the Isolde in the Solent, 
the owner, baron von Zedtwitz, killed . 18 Aug. 

The German emperor's Jubilee cup, race from 
Dover to Heligoland, won by Mr. W. Cook's Freda, 
25 June, 1897 ; by the Merry Thought 24 June, 

Britannia beats the Meteor in the race for the 
queen's cup, Cowes 3 Aug. 

Isolde wins the big yachts race, Cowes ; Latona wins 
the German emperor's cup . . .5 Aug. 

Britannia wins the emperor's Meteor shield, 6 Aug. 

The Jubilee cup won by Latona at Southampton, 

9 Aug. 

The duke d'Abruzzi's Bona wins several races for 
big yachts, Aug. 1S97 ; wins the queen's cup, 
2 July ; again 20 July, 

Annual yachting exhibition (6th) at the Westminster 
aquarium 1 Feb. 

Lord Dunraven wins the Vasco da Gama cup at 
the international regatta at Lisbon . May, 

Queen's cup won by the German emperor's Meteor, 
at Cowes 1 Aug. 

America cup won by the Columbia (American) 
against the Shamrock (sir Thos. Lipton's) 

16, 17, 20 Oct. 

Queen's cup won by sir M. Fitzgerald's Satanita, 
defeating the German emperor's Meteor, 7 Aug. 

America cup won by Columbia (American) against 
sir Thos. Upton's newyacht Shamrock II., 4 Oct. 



1397 



1900 
1901 



YANKEE. 



1415 



YEAE. 



German emperor's new yacht Meteor launched at 
Jersey city, New York ... 25 Feb. 191 

Lasca wins the German emperor's cup (Heligoland 
to Dover) 16 July, ,, 

King's cup won by Mr. W. P. Burton's Lacida, 

5 Aug. ,, 

Coronation cup won by Bona . . 26 Aug. ,, 

Launch of sir Thos. Lipton's yacht Shamrock III. 
at Leven shipyard, Dumbarton . . 17 Mar. 19. 

America cup won by Reliance (American) against 
sir Thos. Lipton's new yacht Shamrock III., 

3 Sept. ,, 

Yacht clubs : — The Cork harbour water club, now 
the Royal Cork yacht club, 1720; Royal Yacht 
.Squadron, Cowes, 1812 ; Royal Albert, 1864; 
Alfred, 1864 ; Barrow,i87i ; Channel Islands, 1863; 
Cinque Ports, 1872 ; Clyde, 1856 ; Cork, 1720 ; Corn- 
wall, 1871 ; Dartmouth, 1866 ; Dorset, 1875 ; R. 
Eastern, 1835 ; R. Forth, 1868 ; R. Harwich, 1843 ; 
R, Highland, 1881 ; R. Irish, 1846; R. London 
(Arundel, 1838), 1849; R. Mersey, 1844; R. 
Northern, 1824 ; R. Portsmouth, 1880 ; R. 
St. George, 1838 ; R. Southampton, 1875 ; R. 
Southern, 1843 ; R. Thames, 1823 ; R. Torbay, 
1875 ; R. Ulster, 1867 ; R. Victoria, 1844 ; R. 
Welsh, 1847 ; R. Western of England, 1827 ; 
R. Yorkshire, 1847 ; Solent, 1879, made Royal, 
1902 ; Temple, made Royal, 1897, and a few 
■others. 

YANKEE, from " Yengees," a corruption of 
*' English," the name originally given by the Mas- 
sachusetts Indians to the colonists : applied solely 
to the New Englanders hy the British soldiers in the 
American war (1775-81); afterwards by foreigners 
to all natives of the United States ; and by the 
•confederates of the south to the federals of the 
north during the war 1861-64. 

YARD. The word is derived from the Saxon 
geard, or gyrd, a rod or shoot, or from gyrdan to 
enclose, being anciently the circumference of the 
body, until Henry I. decreed that it should be the 
length of his arm ; see Standard Measures. 

YARKAND, the chief town and ccmmercial 
capital of Eastern Turkestan, situated on the river 
Yarkand, an affluent of the river Tanim, which 
enters Lob Nor, in the midst of a fertile oasis, 100 
miles S.E. of Kashgar. The town is surrounded 
by a strong mud wall, inside which are numerous 
rich and well- watered gardens. The inhabitants 
are chieliy Persians, who are enterprising merchants. 
Near to Tarkand are mountains abounding in 
minerals. Yarkand was visited by Marco Polo, but 
comparatively little was known of it until Mr. R. 
Shaw, who resided there for a time, published in 
1871 an account of the town and its people. 
Population about 60,000. 

YARMOUTH, GREAT (Norfolk), was a royal 
demesne in the reign of William I., as appears from 
Domesday Book, 1086. It obtained a charter from 
John, and one from Henry III. In 1348, a plague 
here carried off 7000 persons ; and did much havoc 
again in 1579 and 1664. The parish church of St. 
Nicholas, founded bybp. Herbert de Losinga, 1101, 
is one of the largest churches in Great Britain; 
restored 1847-84 A feature of Yarmouth are its 
narrow lanes or ''rows," 145 in number, which 
intersect the main streets; a monument, 144 feet 
high, was ei-ectcd here to Nelson in 1818. There are 
numerous public buildings and institutions, some 
of which are of considerable architectural merit. 
Yarmouth is the chief seat of the English herring 
fishery, . and the curing of this fish, known as 
"Yarmouth bloaters," constitutes an important 
industry; a considerable trade is also carried on 
in connection with mackerel fishing. Associated 
with the town is Chas. Dickens' charming creation 



"Peggotty." Returns one m.p. by act of 1885. 

Population, 1881, 46,767; 1891, 49,318; 1901, 

5I.3I6. 

Theatre built 1778 

Nelson's pillar, a fluted column 140 feet in height, 
erected 1817 

Suspension chain bridge over the Bure, built by Mr. 
R. Cory, at an expense of about 4000L ; owing to 
the weight of a vast number of persons who 
assembled on it to witness an exhibition on the 
water, it suddenly gave way, and seventy-nine 
lives (mostly children) were lost . . 2 May, 1845 

Yarmouth disfranchised for bribery and corruption 
by the Reform Act Aug. 1867 

The prince of Wales opened a new grammar school, 

6 June, 1873 

Aquarium and winter garden opened . 5 Sept. 1876 

New municipal buildings opened by the prince of 
Wales 31 May, 1882 

Created a county borough 1888 

The prince of Wales received by the mayor, 25 
May ; reviews the Norfolk artillery, &c, 26 May, 1899 

Duke of York opens seamen's institute, 26 April, 1900 

Mary Jane Bennett murdered here on the beach, 
22 Sept. 1900 ; see Trials ... 25 Feb. 1901 

Lady Claud Hamilton opens the new Britannia 
pier, length 810 faet, cost 70,000^. . 21 June, 1902 

YARMOUTH, a small seaport in the Isle of 
Wight, 10 miles W. of Newport. Prior to the 
Reform bill of 1832 it returned two members to 
parliament. The name also of a seaport in Nova, 
Scotia, and the chief shipbuilding centre of the 
province ; situated 205 miles S.W. of Halifax. 
Population, 1901, about 7000. 

YASHGAR, a country, Central Asia; Yakoob, 
its able despotic chief, was contending with China 
and Russia, 1875. 

YEAR. The Egyptians, it is said, were the 
first who fixed the length of the year. 

The Roman year introduced by Romulus, 738 B.C. ; cor- 
rected by Numa, 713 B.C. ; and again by Julius Ceesar, 
45 b.c. (see Calendar). 

The solar or astronomical year was found to comprise 365 
days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 51 seconds, and 6 decimals, 
265 B.C. 

The lunar year (twelve lunar months, or 354 days, 8 
hours, 48 minutes) was in use amongst the Chaldean's, 
Persians, and Jews. Once in every three years was 
added another lunar month, so as to make the solar 
and the lunar year nearly agree. But though the 
months were lunar, the year was solar; that is, the 
first month was of thirty days, and the second of 
twenty-nine, and so alternately : and the month added 
triennially was called Ve-Adar or the second Adar. 
The Jews afterwards followed the Roman manner of 
computation. 

The sidereal year, or return to the same star, is 365 clays, 
6 hours, 9 minutes, 1 1 seconds. 

The Jews dated the beginning of the sacred year in 
March, and civil year in September; the Athenians 
began the year in June ; the Macedonians on 24 Sept. ; 
the Christians of Egypt and Ethiopia on 29 or 30 Aug. ; 
and the Persians and Armenians on n Aug. Nearly 
all Christian nations now commence the year on 1 
January. 

In France, the Merovingian kings began the year with 
March ; the Carlovingians sometimes began the year 
with Christmas, 25 Dec. ; and sometimes with Easter, 
which, being a movable feast, led to much confusion. 

Charles IX. of France, in 1564, published an arret, the 
last article of which ordered the year for the time to 
come to be constantly and universally begun, and 
written on and from 1 January. 

The beginning of the year has been reckoned from the 
day celebrating the birth of Christ, 25 Dec. ; his cir- 
cumcision, 1 Jan. ; his conception, 25 March ; and his 
resurrection, Easter. 

The English began their year on the 25th of December, 
until the time of William the Conqueror. This prince 
having been crowned on 1 Jan. gave occasion to the 



YEAR-BOOKS. 



1416 



YEOVIL. 



English to begin their year at that time, to make it 
agree with the then most remarkable period of their 
history. Stow. Until the act for altering the style, 
in 1752 (see Style), when the year was ordered to 
begin on Jan. 1, it did not legally and generally 
commence in England until 25th March. In Scotland, 
at that period, the year began on the 1st of January. 
This difference caused great practical inconveniences ; 
and January, February, and part of March sometimes 
bore two dates, as we often find in old records, 1745- 
1746, or 1745-6, or 1741. Such a reckoning often led 
to chronological mistakes ; for instance, we popularly 
say the " revolution of 1688," as that event was com- 
pleted in February, 1688, according to the then mode 
of computation : but if the year were held to begin, as 
it does now, on the first of January, it would lie the 
revolution of 1689. 
The year in the northern regions of Siberia and Lapland 
is described in the following calendar, given by a 
traveller : — "23 June, snow melts. 1 July, snow gone. 

9 July, fields quite green. 17 July, plants at full 
growth. 25 July, plants in flower. 2 Aug., fruits ripe. 

10 Aug.; plants shed their seed. 18 Aug.. snow." 
The snow continues upon the ground from 18th Aug. 
of one year to 23rd June of the year following, being 
309 days out of 365 ; so that while the three seasons of 
spring, summer, and autumn are together only fifty-six 
days, or eight weeks, the winter is of forty-four weeks' 
duration in these countries. 

See New Style, Platonic Year, Sabbatical Year, Mahomet- 
anism, French Revolutionary Calendar. 

Yeah of our Lord ; see Anno Domini. 

Year of the Reign. From the time of William the 
Conqueror, 1066, the year of the sovereign's reign has 
been given to all public instruments. The king's 
patents, charters, proclamations, and all acts of parlia- 
ment have since then been generally so dated. The 
same manner of dating is used in most of the European 
states for all similar documents and records ; see List 
of Kings under England. 

Year and a Day. A space of time in law, and in many 
cases establishes and fixes a right ; as in an estray, on 
proclamation being made, if the owner does not claim 
it within the time, it is forfeited. The term arose in 
the Norman law, which enacted that a beast found on 
another's land, if unclaimed for a year and a day, be- 
longed to the lord of the soil. It is otherwise a legal 
space of time. 

YEAE-BOOKS contain reports in Norman - 
French of cases argued and decided in the courts 
of common law. The printed volumes extend from 
the beginning of the reign of Edward II. to nearly 
the end of the reign of Henry VIII., a period of 
about 220 3'ears ; but in this series there are many 
omissions. These books are the first in the long 
line of legal reports in which England is so rich, 
and may be considered as, to a great extent, the 
foundation of our unwritten law, u Zex non scripta." 
In 1863 et seq. various year-books of Edward I. 
(1292-1304) edited by Mr. A. J. Horwood, for the 
series of the Chronicles and Memorials, were pub- 
lished at the expense of the British government. 
Tear-books 16 Edward III., published, 1897 ; the 
17th year, 1342-3, published 1902. " Year-Book 
of Science," published 1892 et seq. "The Eng- 
lishwoman's Year-book," published 1881 et seq. 

YEAST, a substance causing fermentation, was 
discovered by Cagniard de la Tour and Schwann, 
independently, in 1836, to be a vegetable cell or 
fungus. 

YELLOW FEVER, an American pestilence, 
made its appearance at Philadelphia, where it 
committed great ravages, 1699. It appeared in 
several islands of the West Indies in 1732, 1739, 
and 1745. It raged with unparalleled violence at 
Philadelphia in Oct. 1762 ; and most awfully at 
New York in the beginning of Aug. 1 791. This 
fever again spread great devastation at Philadelphia 
in July 1793; carrying off several thousand persons. 



Hardie. It again appeared in Oct. 1 797 ; and spread 
its ravages over the northern coast of America, 
Sept. 1798. It reappeared at Philadelphia in the 
summer of 1802 ; and broke out in Spain, in Sept 
1803. The yellow fever was very violent at 
Gibraltar in 1804 and 1814; in the Mauritius, July 
1815 ; at Antigua, in Sept. 1816 ; and it raged with 
dreadful consequences at Cadiz, and the isle of St. 
Leon, in Sept 1819. A malignant fever raged at 
Gibraltar in Sept. 1828, and did not terminate until 
the following year. Yellow fever raging in the 
southern of the United States, Sept. Oct. 1878 ; at 
Memphis, autumn, 1879 ; in Florida (specially in 
Jacksonville) and other southern states, autumn 
1888. Mr. R. A. Proctor, the astronomer, died of 
it at New York on his way from Florida to Eng- 
land, 12 Sept. 1888 ; the epidemic abating Oct. 
1888 ; 4,583 cases, and 396 deaths in Jacksonville to> 
Nov. 17, 1888; slight outbreak, with some deaths, 
July-Sept. 1899; and at Senegal, autumn, 1900; 
Messrs. Reed, Carroll, and Agromonte investigate 
into the cause of the fever in Cuba during 1900, 
and finally prove the disease to be conveyed 
by a species of mosquito [Culex fasciatus), re- 
ported Feb. 1901. l)r. "W. Myers, one of the 
commission, died of the fever, 22 Jan. 1901 ; maj. 
Reed died mid Dec. 1902. 

YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK, 

about 3300 square miles, in territory of Wyoming. 

It includes Yellowstone lake, about 330 square miles, 
with numerous geysers, volcanic and other grand 
natural phenomena, rugged mountains, forests, mea- 
dows, rivers, and much beautiful scenery. Its forma- 
tion was authorised by congress in March, 1872. 

YELVERTON CASE, see Trials, 1861. 

YEMEN, a province of Asiatic Turkey, on the 
Red Sea, the Arabia Felix of the Romans; see 
Arabia. 

YENIKALE, see Azof. 

YEOMANRY, see under Volunteers. 

YEOMEN OF THE GUARD, a peculiar body 
of foot guards to the king's person, instituted at 
the coronation of Henry VII. 30 Oct. 1485, which 
originally consisted of fifty men under a captain. 
They were called beef-eaters, a corruption of buffc- 
tiers, being attendants on the king's buffet or 
sideboard ; see Battle- Axe. They were of a larger 
stature than other guards, being required to be 
over six feet in height, and were armed with 
arquebuses and other arms. The band was in- 
creased by Henry's successors to one hundred men, 
and seventy supernumeraries ; and when one of the 
hundred died, it was ordered that his place should 
be supplied out of the seventy. They were clad 
after the manner of king Henry VIII. Ashmole's 
Instit. This is said to have been the first perma- 
nent military band instituted in England. John 
earl of Oxford, was the first captain in i486. Beat- 
son's Pol. Index. 

YEOVIL, a municipal borough in Somerset, 
situated on the river Yeo, 22 miles S.E. of Bridge- 
water and 40 miles S. of Bristol. The parish 
church, St. John's, called the " Lantern of the 
"West," is a fine cruciform structure of the perpen- 
dicular style, dating from the 15th century, re- 
stored 1864. The town was formerly noted for its 
woollen industry; at the present time (1903) it 
carries on an extensive trade in gloves manufac- 
tured here. In 1449 a great fire destroyed 11" 
houses. Population, 1 89 1, 9,648; 1901,9,861. 



YERMUK. 



1417 



YORK. 



YERMUK (Syria). Near here the emperor 
Heraclius was totally defeated by the Saracens, after a 
fierce engagement, Nov. 636. Damascus was taken, 
and his army expelled from Syria. 

YEW-TREE (Tazus). The origin of planting 
yew-trees in churchyards was (these latter being 
fenced) to secure the trees from cattle, and in this 
manner preserve them for the encouragement of 
archery. A general plantation of them for the use 
of archers was ordered by Richard III. 1483. Stow's 
Chron. Near Fountains Abbey, Yorkshire, were 
seven yew-trees, called the Seven Sisters, supposed 
to have been planted before 1088 ; the circum- 
ference of the largest thirty-four feet seven inches 
round the trunk. In 185 1 a yew-tree was said to 
be growing in the churchyard of Gresford, North 
Wales, Avhose circumference was nine yards nine 
inches, being the largest and oldest yew-tree in the 
British dominions ; but tradition states that there 
are some yews in England older than the introduc- 
tion of Christianity. The old yew-tree mentioned 
in the survey taken of Richmond palace in 1649, is 
said to be still existing. 

YEZIDIS, an eastern tribe, living near the 
Euphrates, visited by Mr. Layard in 1841 : see 
Devil Worship. 

YEZDEGIRD, or Persian Era, was 

formerly universally adopted in Persia, and is still 
used by the Parsees in India, and by the Arabs, in 
certain computations. This era began on the 26th 
June, 632, when Yezdegird was elected king of 
Persia. The year consisted of 365 days only, and 
therefore its commencement, like that of the old 
Egyptian and Armenian year, anticipated the J ulian 
year by one day in every four years. This difference 
amounted to nearly 112 days in the year 1075, 
when it was reformed by Jelaledin, who ordered 
that in future the Persian year should receive an 
additional day whenever it should appear necessary 
to postpone the commencement of the following 
year, that it might occur on the day of the sun's 
passing the same degree of the ecliptic. 

YNGEINGS (youths, or off-shoots), descend- 
ants of the Scandinavian hero Odin, ruled Sweden 
till 830, when the last of the pontiff kings, Olaf 
Traetelia, being expelled, led to the foundation of 
the Norwegian monarchy. 

YOKE is spoken of as a type of servitude. The 
ceremony of making prisoners pass under it was 
practised by the Samnites towards the Romans, 
321 B.C.; see Caudine Forks. This disgrace was 
afterwards inflicted by the Romans upon their van- 
quished enemies. Dufresnoy . 

YOKOHAMA, see Japan. 

YORK (N. England), a town of the Brigantes, 
named Evrauc, settled by the Romans during the 
second campaign of Agricola, about 79, and named 
Eboracum or Eburacum, and became the metropolis 
of the north. See Population. 

The emperor Severus died here . . 4 Feb. 211 
Here Constantius Chlorus died, and his son Con- 

stantine the Great was proclaimed emperor, 

25 July, 306 
Abbey of St. Mary's, founded by Seward the Dane 1050 
York burnt by the Danes, allies of Edgar Atheling, 

and all the Normans slain 1069 

The city and many churches destroyed by fire, 

3 June, 1137 
Massacre and suicide of many Jews . . 1190 



York received its charter from Richard II. , and the 

mayor was made a lord 1389 

The Guildhall erected 1446 

Richard III. crowned again here . . 8 Sept. 1483 
At a parliament held here Charles I. professed his 

intention to govern legally . . 13 June, 1642 

York taken for the parliament, after the battle of 

Marston-moor 16 July, 1644. 

Injured during the civil war by Fairfax . April, ,, 
The corporation built a mansion-house for the lord 

mayor 1728- 

The castle was built by Richard III., 1484, and was 

rebuilt as a gaol 174* 

The York petition to parliament, to reduce the 

expenditure and redress grievances . . Dec. 1779. 
Yorkshire Philosophical Society established . . 1822 
First meeting of the British Association held here 

27 Sept. 1831 
British Association (2nd time) .... 1844. 

Population, 45,385 1861 

Fall of the iron bridge over the Ouse ; five persons 

killed 27 Sept. „ 

Social Science Association met here . 22 Sept. 1864 

Fine Arts and Industrial Exhibition opened, 

24 July, 1866 
Visit of prince and princess of Wales . 9-1 1 Aug. ,, 
Meeting of the Church Congress . . 9 Oct. ,, 
The provincial mayors gave a festival to the lord 

mayor of London, &c, at York . 25 Sept. 1873 

Permanent Fine Art Exhibition opened by the 

archbishop ...... 7 May, 1879 

British Association jubilee meeting 31 Aug. -8 Sept. 1881 
Royal Agricultural Society's annual meeting, 

16 July, 1883 
Yorkshire Institute, memorial stone laid by the 

prince of Wales 18 July, 1883 ; opened by the 

marquis of Lome . . ... 10 June, 1885 
Yorkshire college of science opened 26 Oct. 1874 ; 

new building opened by the prince of Wales, 

15 July, „ 
New Courts of Justice, memorial stone laid by the 

duke of Clarence, 16 July, 1890 ; opened by the 

lord mayor, John Close ... 19 Oct. 1892 
Visit of the duke and duchess of York ; he receives 

the freedom of the city .... 5 Oct. 1893 
Mr. W. F. Rawdon bequeaths valuable pictures to 

the city, and about 9000L to various institutions, 

Jan. 1895 
Death of the rev. James Raine, D.C.L., chancellor 

and canon of York, antiquary . . 20 May, 1896 
The Yorkshire Agricultural society's show visited 

by the duke and duchess of York . . 24 July, ,, 
Sir Joseph Terry, born 1828, benefactor and thrice 

lord mayor, died .... 12 Jan. 1898 

The prince of Wales'reviews about 4000 militia, 5 July, , , 
Strike in S. Yorkshire, June, 1902, et seq., followed 

by evictions at Denaby ... 6 Jan. 1903. 

DUKES. 

1385. Edmund Plantagenet (fifth son of king Edward 
III.) ; created duke, 6 Aug. ; died 1402. 

1406. Edward (his son), was degraded by Henry IV. in 
1399, but restored in 1414 ; killed at Agincourt. 
1415 ; succeeded by his nephew, 

1415. Richard (son of Richard, earl of Cambridge, who 
was beheaded for treason in 1415) ; became 
regent of France in 1435 ; quelled the rebellion 
in Ireland in 1449 ; claimed the throne, and was 
appointed protector in 1454 : his office was an- 
nulled, and he began the civil war in 1455, and 
was slain after his defeat at Wakefield in 1460. 

1460. Edward (his son) afterwards king Edward IV. 

1474. Richard (his second son), said to have been mur- 
dered in the Tower, 1483. 

1494. Henry Tudor, afterwards Henry VIII. 

1605. Charles Stuart, afterwards Charles I. 

DUKES OF YORK AND ALBANY. 

1643. James Stuart ' (his second son), afterwards 

James II. 
1716. Ernest (brother of George I.) ; died 1728. 
1760. Edward (brother of George III.) ; died 1767. 



YOEK. AECHBISHOPEIC OP. 



1418 



YOEK TOWN. 



1784. Frederic (son of George III.), born 16 Aug. 
Marries princess Frederica of Prussia, 

29 Sept. 

Commands the British forces at Antwerp, 

8 April, 

Present at the siege of Valenciennes 23 May, 

Defeated at Dunkirk ... 7 Sept. 

At Bois-le-Due, 14 Sept. : and at Boxtel, 

17 Sept. 

Appointed commander-in-chief . . . 

Defeated near Alkmaar, 19 Sept. and 6 Oct. 

Accused by colonel Wardle of abuse of his 

patronage ; he resigns . . 27 Jan. 

Becomes again commander-in-chief . 

Strongly opposes the catholic claims . . 

Dies 5 Jan. 

See Albany. 
Prince George of Wales created duke of York, 

24 May, 
See under Wales (princes of). 



YOEK, Archbishopric of. The most an- 
cient metropolitan see in England, being, it is 
said, so made by king Lucius about 180, when 
Christianity was first partly established in England. 
The bishop Eborius was present at the council of 
Aries, 314. The see was overturned by the Saxons, 
and was revived by pope Gregory on their con- 
version, and Paulinas is said to have been conse- 
crated archbishop, 21 July, 625. York and Dur- 
ham were long the only two sees in the north 
of England, until Henry I. erected a bishopric at 
Carlisle, and Henry VIII. another at Chester. 
York was the metropolitan see of the Scottish 
bishops ; but during the time of archbishop Nevil, 
1464, they withdrew their obedience, and had arch- 
bishops of their own. Much dispute arose between 
the two English metropolitans about precedency, as 
by pope Gregory's institutions it was thought he 
meant, that whichever of them was first continued, 
should be superior : appeal was made to the court 
of Home by both parties, and it was determined in 
favour of Canterbury. The archbishop of York was 
allowed to style himself primate of England, while 
the archbishop of Canterbury styles himself primate 
of all England. The province of York now con- 
tains the dioceses of York, Carlisle, Chester, Dur- 
ham, Sodor and Man, Manchester, Liverpool, 
jSTewcastle, "Wakefield and Ripon {which see) . York 
has yielded to the church of Rome eight saints 
and three cardinals, and to England twelve lord 
chancellors, two lord treasurers, and two lord presi- 
dents of the north. It is rated in the king's books, 
39 Henry VIII. 1546, at 1609/. 19s. 2d. per annum. 
Beatson. Present income 10,000/. 



1763 


1714 




1724. 


1791 


1743 


1793 


1747- 


,, 


1757- 




1761. 


1794 


1777 


1798 


1808. 


1799 


1847. 




i860. 


1809 




1811 


1862. 


182s 




1827 


1891 



1501. 

1508. 

1514. 
1531- 

1545- 
1555- 
1561. 
I57°- 

*577- 
1589. 
'595- 
1606. 



1632. 
1641. 

1 660. 
1664. 
1683. 

1688. 
1691. 



1554- 



ARCHBISHOPS. 

Thomas Savage, died, 3 Sept. 1507. 

Christopher Bainbrigg, poisoned at Rome, 14 July, 

1514- 
Thomas Wolsey, died, 29 Nov. 1530. 
Edward Lee, died, 13 Sept. 1544. 
Robert Holgate, deprived, 23 March, 
Nicholas Heath, deprived. 
Thomas Young, died, 26 June, 1568. 
Edmund Grindal, translated to Canterbury, 10 Jan. 

1576- 
Edwin Siinds or Sandys, died, 10 July, 1588. 
John Piers, died, 28 Sept. 1594. 
Matthew Hutton, died, 16 Jan. 1606. 
Till lias Matthew, died, 29 March, 1628. 
George Mountaigne, died, 24 Oct. 1628. 
Samuel Harsnet, died, 25 May, 1621. 
Richard Neyle, died, 31 Oct. 1640. 
John Williams, died, 25 March, 1650. 

[See vacant ten, years.] 
Accepted Frewen, died, 28 March, 1664. 
Richard Sterne, died, 18 June, 1683. 
John Dolben, died, n April, 1686. 
[See vacant two years.] 
Thomas Lamplugh, died, 5 May, 1691. 
John Sharp, died, 2 Feb. 1714. 



Sir William Dawes, died, 30 April, 1724. 
Launcelot Blackburn, died, 23 March, 1743. 
Thomas Herring, translated to Canterbury, Oct. 

1747- 
Matthew Hutton, translated to Canterbury, March, 

1757- 
John Gilbert, died, 1761. 
Robert Hay Drummond, died, 10 Dec. 1776. 
William Markham, died, 3 Nov. 1807. 
Edward Venables Vernon, died, 5 Nov. 1847. 
Thomas Musgrave, died, 4 May, i860. 
Charles T. Longley, translated to Canterbury (from 

Durham), 1862. 
William Thomson, translated from Gloucester ; 

died 25 Dec. 1890. 
Win. Connor Magee, translated from Peterborough, 

elected Feb., died 4 May, 1891. 
William Dalrymple Maclagan, translated from 

Lichfield, May. 



YOEK MINSTEE (dedicated to St. Peter). 
The first Christian church erected here, which 
appears to have been preceded by a Roman temple, 
was built by Edwin, king of Northumbria, of wood, 
about 625, and of stone about 635. It was damaged 
by fire in 741, and was rebuilt by archbishop 
Albert, about 780. It was again destroyed by tire 
in the year 1069, and rebuilt by archbishop 
Thomas, of Bayeux. It was once more burnt down 
in 1 137, with St. Mary's abbey, and 39 parish 
churches in York. Archbishop Roger built the 
choir, 1 154-81; AV alter Gray added the south 
transept in 1227 ; John de Romayne, the treasurer 
of the cathedral, built the north transept in 1260. 
His son, archbishop Romanus, laid the foundation 
of the nave in 1291. In 1330, William de Melton 
built the two western tow r ers, which were finished 
by John de Birmingham in 1342. Archbishop 
Thoresby, in 1361, began to rebuild the choir, in 
accordance with the magnificence of the nave, and 
he also rebuilt the lantern tower. The minster was 
set on fire by Jonathan Martin, a lunatic, and the 
roof of the choir and its internal fittings destroyed, 
2 Feb. 1829; the damage, estimated at 60,060/., 
was repaired in 1832 under sir Robert Smirke. An 
accidental fire broke out, and in one hour reduced 
the belfry to a shell, destroyed the roof of the 
nave, and much damaged the edifice, 20 May, 
1840. This was restored by Sidney Smirke, at a 
cost of 23,000/., 1841. 

YOEK and Lancaster, Wars of, see 

Roses. 

YOEK (Upper Canada), founded in 1794 ; since 
1834 named Toronto. In the war between the 
United States and Great Britain, the United States' 
forces made several attacks upon the province of 
Upper Canada, and succeeded in taking York, the 
seat of the government, 27 April, 1813 ; but it was 
soon afterwards evacuated by the Americans. 

YOEKSHIEE Exhibition of Arts and Manu- 
factures, opened at Leeds, by the duke of Edin- 
burgh, 13 May, 1875. The Yorkshire Begistries 
Act passed 7 Aug. 1884. 

YOEK TOWN (Virginia, United States). 
Lord Cornwallis had taken possession of York town 
in Aug. 1 78 1 ; but after sustaining a disastrous 
siege, he was obliged to surrender his army, con- 
sisting of about 7000 men, to the allied armies of 
France and America, under the command of general 
Washington and count Rochambeau, 19 Oct. 1 781. 
This mischance was attributed to sir Henry 
Clinton, who had not given the garrison the 
necessary succour they expected; and it mainly 
led to the close of the war. The centenary was 
celebrated 16 Oct. 1881 et seq. On 19 Oct. the 



YOUNG ENGLAND. 



1419 



YVEES. 



British flag was saluted generally. The town was 
strongly fortified by the confederates in the American 
civil war, but surrendered to M'Clellan, May, 1862. 

YOUNG ENGLAND, a name given to a 
number of young tory gentlemen earnestly opposed 
to the repeal of the corn laws and other liberal 
measures, and very desirous of reviving the old 
relations between the upper and lower classes 
mixing in rural sports, &c, yet preserving the due 
distinctions (1842-6). Lord John Manners (duke 
of Rutland, 1888), and the hon. G. Smythe, were 
eminent leaders, and their ideas were favoured by 
Mr. Disraeli (lord Beaconsfield) in his novel "Con- 
ingsby," published 1844. 

YOUNG IRELAND, see Ireland, Young. 

YOUNG ITALY, see Italy, 1831. 

YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSO- 
CIATION, for improvement of young men by 
means of classes, meetings, &c, founded 1844; 
jubilee celebrated, with the 13th triennial inter- 
national conference in London ; about 1,700 
delegates present ; sir George Williams, president ; 
meetings at Guildhall, &c, 1 June, et seq. 1894; 
15th at Christiania, dean Christian Hall, pres., 
20 Aug. 1902. Exeter-hall, Strand, was bought 
for the association about July, 1880. It met there, 
29 March, 1881. The Young Men's Christian In- 
stitute bought the Polytechnic Institute, about 
Dec. 1881. In 1902 there were 7505 centres of the 
Association in various parts of the world, numbering 
620,721 members; in the United Kingdom 1512 
centres, 120,550 members; in London 65 csntres 
with 13,000 members. The Young Women's 
Christian Association, founded 1857, has 
branches all over the world with a membership 
(1902) of some 500,000 ; in London about 14,000 
members. In connection with the Association are 
various institutes and homes, including holiday 
homes at seaside resorts where board and lodging 
is provided for the members at a small cost. There 
is also a teachers' department, a nurses' union, a 
home for barmaids and other organisations for 
meeting the various requirements of its members. 



Head offices 25 and 26 George-street, Hanover- 
square. The World's Young Women's Christian 
Association for extending the movement in all parts 
of the world, held its second triennial international 
conference at Geneva, July, 1902. 

YOUNG PEOPLE'S SOCIETY OF 
CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOUR, founded 1881, 
by the rev. F. E. Clark, d.d., in connection with 
tho Congregational church in Portland, Maine, 
U.S., of which he was the minister. Its objects 
are " to promote an earnest christian life among its 
members, to increase their mutual acquaintances, 
and to make them useful in the service of God." 
The society has rapidly increased, in 1885 it 
numbered 11,000 members, now (1903) the total 
number of members is 3,750,000, associated, with 
66,000 societies, including about 8000 societies in 
the United Kingdom. 

YOUNG TURKEY, see Turkey, 1895. All 
students abroad ordered to return to Turkey, 
April, 1896. 

YOUTHFUL OFFENDERS' ACT, mak- 
ing a parent liable for the misdeeds of his child, 
passed 1901. 

YTTRIUM, a rare metal. The earth yttria 
was discovered by professor Gadolin in a mineral at 
Ytterby, in Sweden, 1794. The metal was first 
obtained by Wohler in 1828. It is of a dark grey 
colour, and brittle. 

YUCATAN, Mexico, discovered by Hernandez 
Cordova, 1517 ; conquered by Bernal Diaz, 1522; 
declared for independence, 1813. Its ancient cities 
are described in works by the American traveller 
Stephens, 1838 and 1842. 

YUKON GOLDFIELDS, see Canada, 1897. 

YVRES (now Ivry, N. W. France), where a 
battle was fought, 14 March, 1590, between Henry 
IV. of France, aided by his chief nobility, and 
the generals of the catholic league, over whom the 
king obtained a complete victory. 



ZAGEAB. 



1420 



ZAMBESI. 



Z. 



ZAGEAB (Hungary). Here Andrew III. de- 
feated the invader Charles Martel, to whom the 
pope had assigned his crown, 1292. 

ZAHEINGEN (Baden), the seat of dukes, 
ancestors of the grand dukes of Baden, descended 
from Herman I., margrave, 1074; see Baden. 

ZAMA (near Carthage, N. Africa), the scene of 
the battle between the two greatest commanders in 
the world at the time, Hannibal and Scipio 
Africanus. The victory was won by Scipio, and 
was decisive _ of the fate of Carthage^ 202. It led 
to an ignominious peace, which closed the second 
Punic war, 201 B.c The Romans lost about 2000 
killed and wounded, while the Carthaginians lost 
in killed and prisoners more than 40,000; some 
historians make the loss greater; 202 B.C. 

ZAMBAANSLAND, territory between 
Swaziland and the sea, annexed by Gt. Britain, 
1899. 

ZAMBESI, river of E. Africa, explored by 
Livingstone 1851-6, 1858-64; the beautiful Victoria 
Falls, 900 mi. from the sea, discovered and named 
by him in 1855, are i£ mi. wide and nearly 400 ft. 
high. His b'ook published Nov. 1865. 

British Zambesi a.— A charter was granted to 
the British South Africa company 15 Oct., 
signed 29 Oct., 1889, to settle the immense area 
lying between Lower and Central Zambesi on the 
north, and the Transvaal border on the south. 
The company included Mr. Cecil J. Rhodes, the 
African explorer, the duke of Abercorn the 
duke of Fife (resigned about 1896), earl Gifford, 
and other eminent persons. The Portuguese 
exploring expedition under lieut. Cordon ; he 
receives the allegiance of several tribes ; the 
limits of the districts sanctioned by royal decree, 
and the province named Zumbo . . 7 Nov. 1889 

The marquis of Salisbury protests against the as- 
sumption of Zumbo by the Portuguese, referring 
to the agreement of Great Britain with Loben- 
gula, ruler of Mashona and Makalakaland, of 11 
Feb. 1888, and also to British agreements with 
other tribes (referred to by consul Johnston, 26 
Aug., and by consul Buchanan, 30 Sept. 1889), 
and to the results of British explorations, 

21 Nov. ,, 

Senhor de Barros Gomes, Portuguese foreign minis- 
ter, in his reply sustains the claims of Portugal, 
based on discoveries and consequent effective 
occupation of the territories in question for 
centuries, relics of which still remain . 29 Nov. „ 

Major Serpa Pinto, with about 4,000 men with can- 
non, forms a camp in the Makololo country, 
quarrels with the natives, conquers them, and 
calls on the British settlers to submit to Portu- 
gal, reported by bishop C. A. Smythies 5 Dec. „ 

Lord Salisbury telegraphs to the Portuguese 
government in relation to major Serpa Pinto's 
action, that they should not permit any such 
attacks on British settlements, or on any other 
settlement under British protection or influence, 

17 Dec. „ 

Sen. Barros Gomes, in his reply, justifies the 
actions of major Serpa Pinto, by referring to the 
disturbed state of the country . . 20 Dec. ,, 

Lord Salisbury, in a despatch, declines to recog- 
nise the claims of Portugal as antiquated, and 
unsupported by action in modern times 26 Dec. 



A peremptory note sent by lord Salisbury, re- 
quiring immediate withdrawal of major Serpa 
Pinto, delivered 6 Jan. iE 

Sen. Barros Gomes' reply being deemed unsatisfac- 
tory, lord Salisbury declares that his government 
will order that no acts of force be committed 
against any British settlements or others speci- 
fied by him, and requests that the matters in 
dispute be referred to a conference of the powers, 
in accordance with the treaty of Berlin 8 Jan. , 

Lord Salisbury, by telegram, requires to know that 
explicit instructions have been sent from Mozam- 
bique for the immediate withdrawal of Portu- 
guese forces from the territories in question ; 
sen. Barros Gomes informs the British minister, 
Mr. Petre, that such instructions had been sent 
9 Jan. Lord Salisbury, having learned from 
consul Churchill at Mozambique, that major 
Serpa Pinto's forces still occupied his positions, 
and treated Nyassaland as a conquered country, 
directs Mr. Petre to require acceptance of the 
British demands before 10 p.m. ii Jan. ; if not 
accepted he is to order H.M.S. Enchantress, at 
Vigo, to enter the Tagus, and to prepare for the 
withdrawal of the British legation from Lisbon, 

10 Jan. , 

The council of state decide to yield under protest, 
reserving all Portuguese rights . . 12 Jan. , 
[All the correspondence, from 16 Nov. 1889 to 13 
Jan. 1890, was published in the London Gazette, 
17 Jan. 1890.] 

The surveying expedition under Mr. Selous, on 
behalf of the British South Africa company, 
starts Feb. , 

The Portuguese evacuate the disputed territory in 
the Shire district, reported . . 8 March, , 

Telegraph lines rapidly constructed, reported, 

11 June, , 

Expedition of the South Africa company into 
Mashonaland under lieut. -col. B. G. Pennefather, 
with other military men, July ; favourable pro- 
gress, Aug. ; arrives at its goal at mount Hamp- 
den, well received by the natives, reported, 12 
Sept. ; the force disbands to occupy the land 
granted them .... about 24 Oct. , 

Part of the Manica country ceded to the company 
by the chief Umtasa, by treaty . 14 Sept. , 

H.M.S. gunboats, the Herald and Musquito, enter 
the Zambesi, accompanied by other vessels with 
stores 8 Oct. , 

H.M.S. Redbreast, man-of-war, leaves Zanzibar, 3 
Sept., amid many difficulties and some Portu- 
guese opposition, with other vessels, proceeds up 
the Zambesi, reaches Zumbo, and returns to 
Zanzibar 17 Oct. , 

Mr. Colquhoun, the administrator of the company, 
assumes the government at Fort Salisbury, 

10 Oct. , 

The Anglo-Portuguese agreement of 20 Aug. with- 
drawn, and a modus rireiidi agreed on 14 Nov. , 

Col. Paiva d'Andrade and the baron de Rezendi, 
with Gouveia, a half-breed native chief, and about 
300 followers, seize Umtasa's kraal at Massi 
Kesse, and replace the British by the Portuguese 
flag, 8 Nov. ; major Forbes, with the company's 
police, re-takes the kraal, restores the British 
flag, and temporarily imprisons the Portuguese 
officers ; Gouveia, with his men, flee . 15 Nov. , 

The South Africa company ordered by the British 
government to withdraw from Manica, 

about 19 Dec. , 

Gungunhama, nominal king of Manica, said to have 
replaced the Portuguese flag by the English, 
reported 31 Dec. , 

Gold discovered in Mashonaland; many claims 
for working and tracts assigned . Dec. it seq. , 



ZAMBESI. 



1421 



ZANZIBAE. 



Col. Paiva d'Andrade arrives in Lisbon, and com- 
plains of the conduct of major Forbes and others 
. (in Nov.), and denies the truth of the company's 
statements respecting it . . 19 Jan. 

Mr. H. H. Johnston appointed British resident of 
the district N. of the company's territories, to be 
called " British Central Africa " . . March, 

The Countess of Carnarvon, steamer, conveying 
Messrs. Jameson, Doyle, Stevens, and Moodie to 
Cape Town, to meet Mr. C. Rhodes, captured by 
a Portuguese customs' steamer on the river 
Limpopo, which was declared open by the chief, 
Gungunhama, free to British commerce, about 
8 March ; Gungunhama repudiates vassalage to 
Portugal 14 March, 

Mr. Jameson and others at Delagoa Bay set free, 
17 March ; go to Cape Town . . March, 

The British steamer, Norseman, containing sir John 
Willoughby and party, with the imperial British 
mail for Mashonaland, stopped by the Portuguese 
at Port Beira, in the Pungwe river, although the 
prescribed duty of 3 per cent, on the stores had 
been offered, according to the modus vivendi ; the 
British flag replaced by the Portuguese.- Two 
steam launches seized, and the crews imprisoned, 
reported by sir John at Delagoa bay, 20 April ; 
on the remonstrance of lord Salisbury the Portu- 
guese government declares the Pungwe river 
open to British subjects ; three of H.M.'s ships 
sent to the Pungwe, announced . 23 April, 

Massi Kessi evacuated by the British by govern- 
ment orders, reported . . . -30 April, 

Gungunhama, king of Gazaland, sends an embassy 
to queer. Victoria, soliciting perpetual alliance, 

April, May, 

Two envoys honourably received, May, June; by 
the Queen at Windsor . . . .10 July, 

Portuguese attack on the company's police post, 
W. of Massi Kesse, repulsed . 11 May, 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes, commissioner, arrives at Fort 
Salisbury 16 Oct. 

First annual meeting of the British South Africa 
company, the duke of Abercorn in the chair ; 
report and balance-sheet accepted . 22 Dec. 

The British parliament votes 20,000?. for a survey 
for the construction of a railway from Mombasa 
to the Victoria Nyanza ... 10 March, 

Agreement between Great Britain and Portugal 
respecting the navigation of the Zambesi, 

about 19 March, 

Second annual meeting of the company in London ; 
prosperity reported by Mr. Cecil Rhodes (tele- 
graph between fort Salisbury and Cape Town 
completed ; railway constructing to the coast ; 
territories enlarged (N. and S.) . . 29 Nov. 

War with Lobengula (see Mashonaland) 

Extraordinary meeting of the company in London, 

confirming the agreements between the company 

and the United Concessions company and other 

companies (1890, et seq.), 20 Nov. 1893 ; 3rd annual 

. meeting held in London ; report adopted, 19 Dec. 

Governing ordinances gazetted . . 16 March, 

Mr. Cecil Rhodes, Dr. Jameson, and others, arrive 
in England 16 Nov. 

Agreement between the British government and 
• the company relating to administration north of 
the Zambesi, signed .... 24 Nov. 

Satisfactory report of the company for 1894 ; 
speeches by Mr. Cecil Rhodes (died 26 March, 
1902), Dr. Jameson, and others . . 18 Jan. 

Creation of 500,000 il. shares (issue price 70s.) to 
redeem debentures, at a meeting in London, 

12 July, 

The directors of the company disapprove of Dr. 
Jameson's entering the Transvaal (which see) and 
order him to retire 2 Jan. 

Frontier arrangements with Portugal prolonged till 
1898, reported 7 Feb. 

Report issued by the directors of the company for 
1895; revenue, 118,883?.; expenditure, 142,423?. 
, See Rhodesia, 1896 et seq., Times . 27 Feb. 

Portuguese gunboat captured and crew massacred 
by natives at Chinde .... July, 

Satisfactory report of the company for 1899; a 
supplemental charter and deed of settlement 
approved 14 Dec. 



1897 



The Middle Zambesi navigated first by steam, and 
its source discovered by maj. Gibbons, reported, 

20 Aug. igoo 

Col. Arnold's exploring expedition successful ; the 
chief Macombi submits to the Portuguese, 

8 Dec. „ 

Barotseland under British protection' since 1890 ; 
definite agreement signed, king Lewanika grant- 
ing administrative powers to the chartered com- 
pany, and receiving an annual subsidy, in 1897 "> 
he arrives in England 24 May ; is received by 
the king in London .... 30 May, 1902 

Livingstone, the first steamship launched on the 
Upper Zambesi, above the Victoria Falls, 19 Aug. ,, 

Portuguese expedition routs Macombi, chief of 
Barue, reported 27 Aug. ,, 

ZAMOBA (Spain). Here Alphonso the Great 
defeated the Moors, in 901. 

ZANTE. One of the Ionian Islands (which see) . 

ZANZALEENS. This sect rose in Syria, 
under Zanzalee, 535 ; he taught that water baptism 
was of no efficacy, and that it was necessary to be 
baptized by fire, with the application of a red-hot 
iron. The sect was at one time very numerous. 

ZANZIBAE or ZANGUEBAE, an island, 
east Africa, metropolis of the possessions of the 
Imaum of Muscat, and chief market for ivory, 
gum, coral, and cloves, and also for slaves. At the 
death of the Seyyid (or lord), miscalled " imaum " 
and "sultan," of Muscat, 1856, his dominions 
were divided between his sons ; see Muscat. Majid 
obtained Zanzibar, after a contest with his brother, 
Barghash Seyyid, who, however, succeeded at his 
death, 7 Oct. 1870. An expedition for the pur- 
pose of suppressing the slave trade was sent to 
Zanzibar, under the command of sir Bartle Frere, 
20 Nov. 1872, arrived about 12 Jan. 1873. After 
some delay and negotiation by Dr. Kirke, a treaty 
was signed, abolishing the trade, 5 June, 1873. The 
contract for the mail to Zanzibar was censured as 
too expensive in July, 1873, and altered. The 
Seyyid Barghash visited England in 1875, arrived 
9 June; received by the queen, 21 June; received 
freedom of London, 12 July; sailed for France, 
15 July. He decreed confiscation of slaves brought 
to Zanzibar, 18 April, 1876. The sultan's offer to 
concede large territories on the mainland to sir ffra. 
Mackinnon (founder of the British East Africa Com- 
pany, [888) , not accepted by the British government, 
1878. The sultan made knight of St. Michael and 
St. George, 14 Sept 1883. Zanzibar and Pemba, 
population 250,000, about 1904. 

Treaty with Germany comes into force, 19 Aug. 
1886. The sultan's rights recognised by Anglo- 
German treaty ... 29 Oct. & 1 Nov. 1886 

Rupture with Portugal respecting non-cession of 
territories (see Mozambique) . Feb. -March, 1887 

Seyyid Barghash died ; succeeded by his brother 
Seyyid Khalifah .... 26 March, 1888 

Dispute with Italy respecting cession of territories 
by the late sultan .... 6 June, ,, 

Territories ceded to the British East Africa com- 
pany ; treaty signed .... 9 Oct. ,, 

Lieut. Cooper captures a dhow but is killed : 
much regretted 17 Oct. ,, 

The universities' mission warned to retire from the 
mainland of Africa by government on account or 
operations against slave traders by England and 
Germany Oct. ,, 

The coast blockaded by Germany and England, 
2 Dec. ; the Germans make war on the chiefs 
who burn Bagamoyo and retire . . 7 Dec. ,, 

The Arab slave dealers attack some German 
stations and carry off the freed slaves ; eight 
missionaries killed . . . . n-13 Jan. 1889 

Mr. Brooks and 26 others, missionaries, murdered 
near Saadani . . . . 21 Jan. ,, 



ZANZIBAR. 



1422 



ZELL. 



Meeting of the sultan's bodyguard stopped by the 
intervention of Mr. Portal and gen. Mathews, 

19, 20 July, 1 

The sultan signs a concession of territory to the 
British East Africa company (headquarters 
Mombasa) 1 Sept. 

The blockade on the coast abandoned after 1 Oct. 

Ordered that all native children born in Zanzibar 
afteri Jan. 1890, to be free subjects of the sultan Oct. 

The marquis of Salisbury receives the two envoys 
from Zanzibar, 25 Oct. ; they are taken by Mr. 
Berkeley and capt. Gissing to Windsor and other 
places, 26 Oct. ; received by the queen at Bal- 
moral 29 Oct. 

Mr. Gerald Portal, much respected by the sultan 
and Europeans, leaves Africa . . 14 Nov. 

Mr. Stanley and party arrive at Zanzibar . 6 Dec. 

The sultan receives grand cross of St. Michael and 
St. George, and grand cross Red Eagle . 16 Dec. 

The sultan surrenders all control over the British 
East Africa company's territory for an annual 
payment, reported .... 26 Dec. 

Twelve H.M.'s ships at Zanzibar . . 8 Jan. 1 

Expedition from Aden to Harrar under gen. Hogg, 
to chastise the Eesa tribe for a murderous raid 
on Bulhar, Somaliland, a place under British 
protection (17 Aug. 1889) on 11 Jan., reported 
successful, with some loss . . . 16 Feb. 

Adm. Fremantle, with 11 men-of-war, at Mom- 
basa 31 Jan. 

Death of the sultan, Seyyid Khalifah,by apoplexy, 
succeeded by his brother, Seyyid Ali, 13 Feb. ; 
duly recognised 17 Feb. 

The protectorate of Zanzibar, Witu, &c, assumed 
by Great Britain with the consent of the sultan, 
in conformity with the Anglo-German conven- 
tion, announced . . . . 18 June, 

Adm. Fremantle with fleet at Zanzibar ; the sultan 
received by the admiral on the Boadicea 25 July 

Decree of the sultan against slavery ; the sale, 
purchase, or exchange of slaves strictly pro- 
hibited ; slaves of persons dying without lawful 
heirs, declared free ; slaves not to be disposable 
by will, &c 1 Aug. 

6 houses of slave-brokers permanently closed, 2 Aug. 

Herr Kiintzel and a party of Germans in Witu, or 
Vitu, disarmed by the sultan . . 14 Sept. 

Kuntzel's violent conduct leads to the massacre by 
the natives of all the party except Menschel, 

15 Sept. 

Redress demanded by the British and Germans ; 
the sultan of Witu refuses to surrender the 
criminals 23 Oct. 

An expedition under captain Curzen-Howe and 
commander M'Quhae; certain evacuated villages 
on the coast burnt ; adm. Fremantle at Kipini ; 
the admiral, with nearly 1,000 men, advances on 
Witu 25, 26 Oct. 

Witu captured and destroyed, the enemy disperse ; 
there were 13 British wounded ; the success of 
the expedition was mainly attributed to capt. 
Curzon-Howe, the chief of the staff ; between 80 
and 90 natives were killed . . . 27 Oct. 

Col. C. B. Euan-Smith, consul-general, made 
K.C.B., announced .... 10 Nov. 

The grand cross of the Star of India conferred on 
the sultan of Zanzibar, invested . 14 Nov. 

Death of the deposed sultan of Witu, reported, 

14 Jan. 

Sir C. B. Euan-Smith makes terms with the Witu 
chiefs ; a younger brother of the late sultan 
elected successor, announced, 26 Jan. ; peace and 
amnesty proclaimed . . . about 29 Jan. 

Sir C. B. Euan-Smith leaves for Europe (succeeded 
by Mr. Gerald Portal, (K.C.M.G., 1892) consul- 
general 6 March, 

The sultan opens the Cooper Royal Naval Institute, 

8 July, 
Tipoo Tib at Zanzibar, received by the sultan, 

20 July, 
Great increase of commerce under British pro- 
tectorate March— Sept. 

New government formed, gen. Mathews, president, 

20 Oct. 

Import duties, except on alcohol and dangerous 

objects, abolished .... 20 Dec. 

Zanzibar declared a free port . . . 1 Feb. 



The international bureau, for the suppression of 
the slave trade, first meeting at Zanzibar; sir 
Gerald Portal, president ... 9 Nov. 1892 

Sir Gerald Portal sent to Uganda {which see). 

Mr. Rennell Rodd, deputy . . about 12 Dec. ,, 

Death of the sultan ; succeeded by Said Hamed bin 
Thwain, grand-nephew, proclaimed by Mr. Rodd ; 
the king's son set aside . . . 5 March, -1893 

Rescue of 60 children from an Arab dhow, with 
French colours, by Philomel, an English cruiser, 
reported .... 10 April, 2 May, ,, 

The Benadir ports and territories conceded to Italy 
for 3 years 12 July, ,, 

Capt. Filouardi starts an Italian trading company, 
headquarters at Magadoxo, reported . 22 Nov. ,, 

Death of sir Gerald Portal, consul-general, 25 Jan. ; 
succeeded by Mr. Arthur Henry Hardinge, Feb. 1894 

British E. Africa company's territory transferred 
to the British government under the jurisdiction 
of Mr. (aft. sir) A. Hardinge, K.C.M.G. 1897 

1 July, 1895 

Four slavers captured by H.M.S. Barossa, and the 
persons implicated imprisoned . . May, 1896 

Death of the sultan, aged about 40 ; Said Khalid, 
his cousin, at once takes possession of the palace, 
and proclaims himself sultan . . 25 Aug. ,, 

British ultimatum, sent by rear-adm. Rawsou, 7 
a.m., bombardment began, 9 a.m. ; firing ceased, 
9.40 a.m. ; sultan's corvette, Glasgow, sunk ; 
usurper Khalid surrenders to the German consul ; 
enemy's loss heavy ; the late sultan's brother, Said 
Hainud bin Mahomed, proclaimed sultan, and 
saluted by the warships ; looting, &c. in the 
town suppressed by the British . . 27 Aug. „ 

The sultan in full accord with the British ; the 
military, financial, and executive departments 
placed under their control . . . Sept. ,, 

The usurper, Said Khalid, taken on board the 
German sloop, Seeadler .... 2 Oct. ,, 

Slavery abolished, with compensation, by the 
sultan's decree 6 April, 1897 

British judicial system introduced, by orders in 
council 9 July, ,, 

Heavy rainfall and gale; bridges and native houses, 
&c, destroyed 23 April, 1899 

New 5 per cent, duty on imports, with a few excep- 
tions 15 Sept. ,, 

Gen. sir Lloyd Wm. Mathews, prime minister and 
treasurer, dies, aged 51, deeply regretted by all, 
11 Oct. 1901; succeeded by Mr. Rogers . Nov. 1901 

Death of the sultan Hamud, aged 51 . 18 July, 1902, 

Seyyid Ali, aged 18, proclaimed sultan ; Mr. Rogers, 
regent 20 July, ,, 

Visit of Mr. and Mrs. Chamberlain . 21 Dec. „ 

ZARA, capital of Dalmatia, a Roman colony 
under Augustus. It revolted from Venice and was- 
recaptured, 18 Nov. 1202; unsuccessfully besieged 
by the Turks 1572, 1577 ; given up to Austria, 1 791. 

ZE, ZOW, ZIERES, for ye, you, and yours. 
The letter 2 was retained in Scotland, and was 
commonly written for the letter y so late as the 
reign of queen Mary, up to which period many 
books in the Scottish language were printed in 
Edinburgh with these words, 1543. 

ZEALAND, one of the 13 provinces which 
formed the League of Utrecht, 1579 ; see Holland, 
and New Zealand. 

ZELA, N.E. Asia Minor, where Julius Ccesar 
defeated Pharnaces, king of Pontus, son of 
Mithridates. Caesar, in announcing his victory, 
sent his famous despatch to the senate of Rome, in 
these words : " Veni, ridi, vici," — " I came, I saw, 
I conquered" (perhaps the shortest despatch on 
record). This battle ended the war; Pharnaces 
escaped into Bosporus, where he was slain by his 
lieutenant, Asander ; Pontus was made a Roman 
province, and Bosporus given to Mithridates of 
Pergamus, 47 B.C. 

ZELL (Hanover), see Denmark, 1772. 



ZEMSTVOS. 



1423 



ZOLLVEREIN. 



ZEMSTVOS, local representative councils in 
Russia established by Alexander II., 1855-81. 

ZEND-AVESTA, ancient sacred books of the 
Parsees; of which 3 out of 21 are extant. The 
age of these books is much disputed. Professor 
Max Miiller says that the MSS. had been preserved 
by the Parsee priests at Bombay, where a colony 
of fire-worshippers had fled in the 10th century. 
Anquetil Duperron's French translation, from a 
modern Persian version, was published in 1771 ; 
edition by Eugene Burnouf, 1829-43. A French 
translation was published by prof. James Darmes- 
teter, professor of Zend, in Paris ; he died 19 Oct. 
1894, aged 45. Zend, a language akin to Sanskrit 
and the Afghan tongue, has been studied by Bopp 
and other philologists. 

ZENO or ZENON", see Stoics. 

ZENOBIA, Queen of the East, see Palmyra. 

ZENTA, in Hungary, the scene of a battle 
where the Germans, under prince Eugene, defeated 
the Turks, 11 Sept. 1697. This victory led to the 
peace of Carlowitz, ratified January, 1699. 

ZETETICAL SOCIETY, established in 
1878, to afford opportunities for the unrestricted 
discussion of a variety of questions. 

ZETUNIUM. After defeating Samuel king of 
Bulgaria here, 29 Jul) 7 , 1014, the emperor Basil II. 
blinded his 15,000 prisoners, except one in a hun- 
dred, to whom he left one eye. The king died of 
grief. 

ZHOB VALLEY, see Belooehistan. 

ZIDON, see Sidon. 

ZIEGLER EXPEDITION, see N.E. and 

N. W. Passages. 

ZINC. The ore of zinc, calamine or spelter, 
known to the Greeks, who used it in the manufac- 
ture of brass. It is said to have been known in 
China also, and is noticed by European writers as 
early as 123 1 ; though the method of extracting it 
from the ore was unknown for nearly five hundred 
years after. The metal zinc is mentioned by 
Paracelsus (died 1 541). A mine of zinc was dis- 
covered on lord Ribblesdale's estate, Craven, York- 
shire, in 1809. Zincography was introduced in 
London shortly after lithography became known in 
England, in 1817 ; see Lithography. Zinc is much 
used in voltaic batteries ; and its application in 
manufactures has greatly increased of late years ; 
see Photozincography . 

ZINC OBTAINED IN THE UNITED KINGDOM. 

tons. value. 

1875. . . . 6,713 • • • 162.790/. 

1880. . . . 7,162 . . . 123,544/. 

1882. . . . 16,130 . . 286,710/. 

1885. . . . 9,778 . . . 146,100/. 

1888. . . . 10,002 . . . 191,455/. 

1890. . . . 8,582 . . . 203,358/. 

1893. . . . 9,284 . . . 167,770/. 

1896. . . . 7,no . . . 123,240/. 

1899. . . . 8,698 . . . 220,132/. 

1000. . . . 9,066 . . . 188,573/. 

ZIONIST CONGRESS, to acquire Palestine 
by purchase from Turkey with a view to establish- 
ing the Jews in the Holy Land, 200 European 
delegates present, Dr. Herzl and Herr Nordau, presi- 
dents, opened at Basel, 29 Aug. 1897 ; again 28 
Aug. 1898 ; London, 13 Aug. 1900 ; Basel, 26 Dec. 
1901 ; Basel, 23 Aug. 1903. 



The Chovevi Zion association of England, 8th 
annual conference, 200 delegates present ; at 
Clerkenwell Town hall . . . .6 March, 189S 

English Zionist federation, sir Francis Monteflore, 
chairman, inaugurated ... 22 Jan. 1899 

Zionist congress at Basel pass resolution, 295-177, 
to send a committee to Uganda to investigate 
its suitability for Jewish colonization, 25 Aug. ; 
National fund to end of Aug. 1903, 18,668/., fund 
to be raised to 200,000/. to acquire land in Pales- 
tine and Syria, 27 Aug. 1903 ; Jewish Coloniza- 
tion act, royal assent .... 14 Aug. 1903 

Public mass meeting, great assembly hall, Mile- 
end road, under auspices of English Zionist fede- 
ration s Sept. ,, 

ZIONISTS, the name given to the adherents, 
of lhe rev. Dr. Dowie, previously a presbyterian 
minister in Australia, who, in 1894. founded the 
" Christian Catholic Church" at Chicago, where is 
the huge building, called the Ziou tabernacle, 
from which his followers derive their name. Dr. 
Dowie, who claims to be the second Elijah foretold 
by the prophet Malathi (Mai. iii. 1), professes to 
reform the church on the model of the primitive 
aposto ic t'mes, and claims to possess the apostolic 
gift of healing. The Zionists give tithes of all their 
possessions, and abstain from eating pork ; and in 
sickness depend solely for their cure on faith and 
prayer ; connected with the Zionist settlement are 
lace and candy manufactures, which carry on an 
extensive business. In Oct. 1903, Dr. Dowie and 
a large number of his followers, calling themselves 
" the Zionist Restoration league," visited New York 
with the view to its conversion ; Dr. Dowie"s 
meetings in Madison-square were the scene of 
much confusion and derision, and the expenses and 
losses connected with the propaganda led to finan- 
cial difficulties with his creditors. Mrs. Dowie, 
with her son, visited London, and conducted a 
service at Caxtonhall, 8 Nov. 1903.- 

ZIRCONIUM, the metallic base of the earth 
Zirconia, discovered by Klaproth in 1789; from this 
Berzelius obtained the metal in 1824. Zirconia is 
found in the sand of the rivers of Ceylon. The 
metal exists in the form of a black powder. 

ZIZYPHTJS VULGARIS. A shrub brought 
from the south of Europe about 1640. The 
Zizyphus Paliurus shrub (Christ's Thorn) was 
brought from Africa before 1596 ; see Flowers. 

ZODIAC. Its obliquity was discovered, its 
twelve signs named, and their situations assigned 
them by Anaximander, about 560 B.C. The Greeks 
and Arabians borrowed the zodiac from the Hindus. 
Sir W. Jones. The zodiacal light was observed 
by Tycho Brahe, Descartes, and others, and named 
by Cassini, 1683. 

ZOLLVEREIN (Customs' Union), the name 
given to the German commercial union, pro- 
jected by Prussia 1818, and gradually joined by 
nearly all the German states except Austria. On 
19 Feb. 1853, an important treaty of commerce and 
navigation, between Austria and Prussia, to last 
from Jan. 1854 to Dec. 1865, was signed, to which 
the other states of the Zollverein gave in their ad- 
hesion on 5 April, 1853. In Nov. 1861, Prussia 
threatened to withdraw unless certain changes 
were made. By the treaty of 8 July, 1867, be- 
tween the North German confederation, and the 
southern states (Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, Baden, and 
Hesse), various changes were made, and by other 
treaties signed in Oct. these states agreed to send 
delegates to a customs parliament to be held at 
Berlin. A session of this parliament was opened 
by the king of Prussia, 27 April, and closed 23 May. 



ZOOLOGY. 



1424 



ZULU. 



s868. Federal chancellor, the count von Bismarck. 
Imports, 1882, valued at 158,235,000/. ; exports, 
C882, 162,235,000/. 

ZOOLOGY (from soon, Greek for animal) is 
the division of biology which treats of animals ; 
Aristotle (322-284 B.C.) the founder of the science. 
Systems of classification have been made by John 
Kay (1628-1705), Charles Linne (1707-78), G. 
Ruffon (1707-88), and George Cuvier (1769-1832). 

Linnasus divided the animal kingdom into six classes. 
— Mammalia, which includes all animals that suckle 
their young ; Aves, birds ; Amphibia, or amphibious 
animals; Pisces, fishes; Insecta, insects; Vermes, 
worms ; 1741. 

Cuvier (died in Paris, 13 May, 1832), in his great work, 
Regne Animal, published in 1816, distributed the 
animals into four great divisions, the Vertebrata (back- 
boned) ; the Mollusca (soft-bodied) ; the Articulata 
(jointed) ; and the Radiata (the organs disposed round 
a centre). 

In 1859, professor Owen made known a system of 
arranging the class Mammalia according to the nature 
of their brains. 

The Zoological Society of London (originally the 
Zoological Club) was founded in 1826 ; the society was 
mainly founded by sir Stamford Baffles, sir H. Davy, 
and its gardens in the Regent's Park were opened in 
April, 1827 ; the society was chartered 27 March, 
1829. 2072 animals in the gardens, 31 Dec. 1871 ; 
about 500 animals from India given by the prince of 
Wales, May, 1876 ; 15 animals from the late queen 
Victoria's menagerie, received 4 April, 1901. 2,585 

., animals, 31 Dec. 1887. 1 Jan. 1892, 2,985 members ; 
total receipts, 24,054?. : 3,158 members ; 28,713?. 
receipts, 31 Dec. 1897 ; 2,922 animals, 1901 ; 3,413 
members ; 29,077?. receipts, 31 Dec. 1902. 

Dr. James Murie was appointed by the society to be 
their first "anatomical prosector," 3 May, 1865. 

New reptile house opened, 6 Aug. 1883. 

On the demolition of Exeter 'Change, in 1829, the 
menagerie of Mr. Cross was temporarily lodged in the 
King's Mews, whence it was removed to the Surrey 
Zoological Gardens, 1832. 

The Zoological Gardens of Dublin were opened, 1832. 

Zoological Station for study, open to the public, esta- 
blished at Naples by professor Anton Dohrn, opened 
1 Oct. 1873. 

Wombwell's (latterly Edmonds') great collection of 
trained animals sold, 29, 30 July, 1884. Bought by Mr. 
B. T. Barnum, Jan. 1888. 

Mr. Charles Jamrach, who succeeded his father, an 
eminent importer of wild animals, which he supplied 
to the Zoological Society, and menageries, &c, died, 
6 Sept. 1891. 

International zoological congresses, Paris, 1889 ; Moscow, 
1892 ; Leyden, 16-21 Sept. 1895 ; Cambridge, 22 Aug. 
1898; Berlin, 12 Aug. 1901. 

Mr. W. E. de Winton succeeds Mr. C. Bartlett, for 
many years superintendent of the Zoological gardens, 
Jan. 1903. 

Reorganisation of the gardens, rebuilding of houses for 
giraffes, hippopotami, bears' dens, and other improve- 
ments and alterations, reported at annual meeting, 
22 April 1903. 

Dr. Chalmers Mitchell, on retirement of Dr. P. L. 
Sclater, elected secretary of the Zoological society, 
29 Jan. 1903. 

See Aquarium, Hippopotamus, Giraffe, and Acclimatiza- 
tion, Olympia, &c. 

ZOOPRAXISCOPE, optical apparatus in- 
vented by Mr. Eadweard J. Muybridge to exhibit 
photographs of moving animals, about 1881. 
The apparatus was successfully employed at the Royal 
Institution (in the presence of the prince of Wales) 13 
March, 1882, and again in March and May, 1889; also 
at the Royal Society and other places in the same year. 
His great work on the subject was published in 1887-9, 
and his "Animals in Motion," in 1899. 

ZORNDORFF, Prussia, where a battle was 
fought between the Prussian and Russian armies ; 
the former, commanded by the king of Prussia, 
obtained a victory over the forces of the czarina, 



whose loss amounted to 21,529 men, while that 
of the Prussians was about 11,000 : 25, 26 Aug. 
1758. 

ZOUAVES and Foot Chasseurs. When 

the French established a regency at Algiers, in 
1830, they hoped to find the employment of native 
troops advantageous, and selected the Zooaouas, a 
congregation of daring Arab tribes. In time, 
numbers of red republicans, and other enthusiastic 
Frenchmen, joined the regiments, adopting the 
costume, &c. ; eventually the Africans disappeared 
from the ranks, and no more were added. Among 
their colonels were Lamoriciere and Cavaignac. 
The French Zouaves formed an important part of 
the army in the Crimean war, 1854-5.* 

ZUG, the smallest canton of Switzerland, joined 
the confederation, 1352, and the Sonderbund, 1846. 
Population, 1888, 23,029. 
Many persons killed by fall of about 27 houses into 

the lake of Geneva .... 5-7 July. 1887 

ZUIDER ZEE, or South Sea, a large gulf 

in the Netherlands, about 60 miles long, 210 miles 
in circumference, and some 40 miles at its greatest 
breadth, Texel, Vlieland and other islands separate 
it from the North sea, with which it communicates 
by various channels. The greater part of it was 
formerly covered with forests and towns, and was 
inundated in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. 
In 1875, the Dutch chamber voted 9,500,000/. to 
reclaim the submerged land by drainage, and to 
erect a dyke, 26 feet high above the water, and 
25 miles long ; thus adding 759 square miles to the 
country; the new canal was inaugurated by the 
late king, 1 Nov. 1876. The Dutch Texel fleet 
here surrendered to admiral Mitchell, 30 Aug. 
1799. A royal commission, appointed Sept. 1892, 
endorsed the proposals for reclaiming land from the 
sea, &c, set forth in the report of the Zuider Zee 
association, and in May, 1901, a bill was introduced 
by the government, but a change of ministry 
caused its subsequent withdrawal. The scheme 
comprises the union of the coasts of North Holland 
and Friesland by a great sea-wall or dyke, re- 
claiming an area of 478,720 acres of cultivable land, 
at an estimated cost of 29,625,296/., its worth will 
extend over a period of 36 years. 

ZUINGLIANS, or Zwinglians, the followers 
of the reformer, Ulric Zuingli, who at Zurich 
declaimed against the church of Rome, and effected 
the same separation for Switzerland from the papal 
dominion which Luther did for Saxony. He pro- 
cured two assemblies to be called ; by the first he 
was authorised to proceed, by the second, the 
ceremonies of the Romish church were abolished 
15 19. Zuingli died in arms, being slain in a 
skirmish against his popish opponents, n Oct. 1531. 
The Zuinglians were also called Sacramentarians. 

ZULLICHAU (Prussia). Here the Russians, 
under Soltikow, severely defeated the Prussians 
under Wedel, 23 July, 1759. 

ZULPICH, see Tolbiac. 

ZULU CELIBATE MILITARY SYS- 
TEM, founded by Godongwana, confirmed by 
Chaka and Dingaan ; completed by Cety wayo. 

* The Zouave organization and drill were introduced 
into the federal army in the great civil war in America, 
by Epluaim E.' Ellesworth, early in 1861. He was 
assassinated on 24 May same year, at Alexandria, just 
after taking down a secession flag. 



ZULU LAND. 



1425 



ZULULAND. 



ZULULAND, South-east Africa ; capital, 
Eshowe ; near the British colony, .Natal, to which 
it has been annexed. In the last century, the Zulus 
were a peaceful pastoral people.. Population about 
205,000. 

Godongwana, a chief, (termed Dingiswayo, "the 
Wanderer," from his early life,) began a military 
organisation by forming a celibate army ; killed 
in battle and succeeded by his vigorous and merci- 
less ally, Chaka, styled king, by whom Zulu 
supremacy was mainly established over the Pin- 
goes and other tribes about 1812 

Chaka assassinated ; succeeded by his brother Din- 
gaan, crafty, treacherous, and cruel ; at first 
friendly with the British at Natal (which see) ; 
made treaty with capt. Allen Gardiner . 6 May, 1835 

Massacres Betief, 70 Boers, and their servants 
(who had recovered his stolen cattle), 2 Feb., and 
about 600 afterwards ; defeats the British and 
Dutch in several encounters ; but is severely 
beaten by Andries Pretorius . . . Dec. 1838 

Dingaan again defeated ; killed by one of his chiefs ; 
succeeded by his brother Umpanda, peaceful and 
crafty ; who keeps peace with the English and 
Dutch 1840, et seq. 

Cetywayo (pronounced Ketchwayo) his eldest son, 
kills his brothers ; succeeds at his father's death ; 
organizes still further his army, named by Frere 
"the celibate man-slaying war-machine" . Oct. 1872 

Recognized on behalf of the British by Mr. Shep- 
stone ; crowned 1 Sept. 1873 

Opposes missionaries ; organizes armed resistance 
to the British ; when remonstrated with for out- 
rages, defies them 1876 

Sir Bartle Frere, governor of the Cape, requests 
help from England ; 90th regiment and a battery 
sent . Jan. 1878 

Cetywayo refuses to give up leaders of a raid on 
British territory (in July) ; and tenders a fine ; sir 
Bartle Frere demands, as an ultimatum, their 
surrender within 30 days .... Dec. , , 

The time (extended) having elapsed, n Jan., the 
British, under lord Chelmsford, cross the Tugela 
and enter Zululand . . . .12 Jan. 1879 

Col. Pearson defeats the Zulus and advances to 
Echowe (which he fortifies) . . 21 Jan. ,, 

British camp at Isandula or Isandlwana, about 10 
miles from Rorke's Drift (on the Tugela), sur- 
prised and attacked by about 15,000 Zulus ; 5 com- 
panies of the 24th regiment, and many natives 
killed, with cols. Durnford and Pulleine, and 
other officers ; total loss about 837 ; 2000 Zulus 
said to have been killed ; (lieuts. Melville and 
Coghill perished while preserving the colours) 

22 Jan. 

Rorke's Drift severely attacked ; successfully de- 
fended by lieuts. Chard and Bromhead 22 Jan. 

Zulus attack Inkanyana ; defeated by col. Evelyn 
Wood . • 24 Jan. 

Reinforcements requested ; troops rapidly sent off 
from England . . . .19 Feb. et seq. 

Prince Louis Napoleon requesting to join the 
British, permitted to go as a guest ; sails 27 Feb. 

Arrival of the Tainar with Soo men, &c, at Pieter- 
maritzburg u March, 

British convoy near Itombi river cut to pieces by 
Zulus ; waggons and stores captured ; capt. 
David Moriarty killed . . . .12 March, 

Cetywayo's brother Oham, with 600 men, joins the 
British ; announced ... 18 March, 

Col. Evelyn Wood attacks the Zulus on the Zlobani 
mountains ; suffers much loss, 28 March ; gains 
victory at Kambula . . . .29 March, 

British advance to relieve Echowe . 29 March, 

Zulus defeated at Ginghilovo . . .2 April, 

Col. Pearson marches out of Echowe . 2, 3 April, 

Sir Garnet Wolseley appointed commander-in-chief, 
governor of Natal, &c. , sails for the Cape May, 

British total loss ; 1186 killed ; 86 died of disease ; 
announced 27 May, 

Cetywayo said to have suppressed an insurrection, 
and retired to his kraal (or village) at. Ulundi, 

May, 

Reconnoitring party, under capt. J. Brenton 
Carey, on Imbabani, near the Mozani river, sur- 



prised ; prince Louis Napoleon (acting as com- 
mander) killed 1 June, 

Ultimatum sent to Cetywayo, requiring restitution 
of cannon, and total submission ; time expired, 

12 June, 

Sir G. Wolseley arrives at the Cape . 23 June, 

Stafford House South African aid committee formed, 

June, 

Zulu raid on cattle ; which are recovered 25 June, 

Sir Garnet Wolseley sworn in as high commissioner 
at Pietermaritzburg . . .28 or 29 June, 

Cetywayo totally defeated at Ulundi (which see), 

4 July, 

Sir G. Wolseley receives chiefs 12 July, et seq. 

Lord Chelmsford resigns . . . .15 July, 

Sentence upon capt. Carey, respecting death of 
prince Napoleon, quashed . . .22 Aug. 

Pursuit of Cetywayo : captured by major Richard 
Marter 28 Aug. 

Meeting of Sir G. Wolseley with Zulu chiefs ; settle- 
ment by treaty ; Zululand to be divided into 13 
independent districts ; John Dunn to be a chief ; 
lands reserved for the British ; British residents 
in each district (to be eyes and ears) ; celibate 
military system abolished ; no arms to be im- 
ported ; ancient laws and liberties retained ; 
[John Dunn, 20 years in Zululand ; conformed to 
Zulu ways] 1 Sept. 

Sir G. Wolseley's despatch, announcing end of the 
war, dated 3 Sept. 

Cetywayo arrives at Cape Town . .15 Sept. 

His petition to the Queen for restitution declined, 
about 11 July, 

John Dunn energetically subdues a revolting chief 
about 30 July, 

Cost of Zulu war, 4,922, 141I. 

Sir Evelyn Wood visits Zululand and makes im- 
portant changes Sept. 

Reported fighting among the chiefs . . Nov. 

The country reported quiet by John Dunn . Dec. 

Cetywayo lands at Plymouth and proceeds to 
London 3 Aug. 

Visited Mr. Gladstone 9 Aug. ; received by the 
Queen, 14 Aug. ; by the prince of Wales 16 Aug. 

His restoration to part of his kingdom with restric- 
tions, proposed by the British government Aug. ; 
sails from Southampton . . . .1 Sept. 

Changes made in the territories previous to Cety- 
wayo's return, announced , . .29 Dee. 

Cetywayo's restoration accepted; proclaimed at 
Ulundi 29 Jan. 

Struggle between Cetywayo and chiefs, announced 

25 April, 

Cetywayo defeated by Oham and others with heavy 
loss, announced 16 May, 

Mr. Fynn, British resident, resigns, announced 

June. 

Cetywayo is attacked at Ulundi, by Usibepu, 20 
July ; and said to be killed . . .21 July, 

Usibepu said to be all-powerful, Cetywayo a living 
fugitive, announced . . . .8 Aug. 

Great battle ; Usibepu defeated by Cetywayo's 
supporters, announced . . .16 Aug. 

Cetywayo demands a British enquiry into his 
treatment, announced . . . .20 Aug. 

Cetywayo surrenders to Mr. Osborn, and is taken 
to Durban, about 15 Oct. ; at Ekowe . 5 Nov. 

Defeats of Usibepu by other chiefs . . Nov. 

Flight, and recapture of Cetywayo . 27, 28 Jan. 

Zibedu defeats Usutus . . about 31 Jan. 

Cetywayo dies of heart disease . . 8 Feb. 

Much warfare . . . . . March-May, 

Dinizulu, son of Cetywayo, crowned king by the 
Boers, in presence of 10,000 people ; grants an 
amnesty, and promises fidelity to the British, 

21 May, 

Usibepu, severely defeated by the Boers and 
Usutus, flies, announced . . .14 June, 

A Boer republic established ; Joubert, president, 

Aug. 

British flag hoisted at St. Lucia's bay . . Dec. 

Quietness in Zululand reported . . . Jan. 

Proposed annexation of Zululand to Natal declined, 
Oct. ; British protectorate over the Zulu terri- 
tories planned by government . . Nov. 

Agreement with the Boer republic announced, 

4 Nov. 
4 Y 



1S79 



ZURICH. 



1426 



ZWITTAU. 



Annexation of Zululand as a British possession ; 
the governor to rule by proclamation, May ; 
proclaimed at Durban . . . 21 June, 

Troubles with Dinizulu announced 5 Nov. ; his 
uncle Undabuko and others submit to sir Arthur 
Havelock, announced 7 Nov. ; military prepara- 
tions ; Dinizulu submits, 13 Nov. ; Usibepu 
reinstated in his lands ... 15 Nov. 

The chiefs attacked by the police and military 
for stealing cattle .... 2 June, 

Zulu rebels under Ishingana defeated after a severe 
conflict 2 July, 

Rebellion of Dinizulu announced . . 11 July, 

Soinkeli, the rebel chief, surrenders ; announced 

1 Aug. 

Dinizulu and about 1,000 rebels with cattle enters 
into the Transvaal territory, 10 Aug. ; revolt 
ended ; reported .... 29 Aug. 

Dinizulu surrenders conditionally to the Transvaal 
government Sept. 

Surrender of Undabuko, 19 Sept ; his trial began 

27 Sept. 

Ishingana, rebel chief, surrenders . 12 Nov. 

Trial of Undabuko and Somkeli for treason, began 

15 Nov. 

Dinizulu surrenders to the British . . Nov. 

Somhlolo sentenced to five years' hard labour for 
high treason 22 Nov.. 

Several chiefs convicted of high treason and 
sentenced to imprisonment for five years, 1 Dec. 

Dinizulu sentenced to ton years', Undabuko to 15 
years', and Ishingana to 12 years' imprisonment, 

27 April, 

Douglas M'Kenzie, appointed bishop of Zululand 
in 1880, dies, announced ... 15 Jan. 

Dinizutu, Undabuko, and others, transported to 
St. Helena 7 Feb. 

Genera] tranquillity of the country, reported, 

2 April, 

Annexation of the Trans-Pongolo territories, 

30 May, : 

Death of John Dunn, announced . . 6 Aug. 

Report of the resident commissioner for 1896; rin- 
derpest, crops destroyed by drought and locusts ; 
European population, estimated, i,ioi ; native, 
about 180,000, announced . . .20 Sept. 

Rev. Wilmot Vy vyan appointed bishop of Zululand 
on translation of Dr. Carter to diocese of Pre- 
toria Jan. : 

Col. Mills's report on fight between Boers and 
Zulus at Holkrantz (see S. African war, 6 May, 
1902) exonerates the Zulus, published . end Jan. 

Engineer's report on the scheme for a harbour in 
Zululand condemns St. Lucia Bay, and recom- 
mends Umlatoosi lagoon . . . early Feb. 

Zulu railway extension opened at Hlabisa, 17 Sept. 
See South African War. 



ZURICH was admitted a member and made 
head of the Swiss confederacy, 1351, and was the 



89s 



first town in Switzerland that separated from the 
church of Rome ; see Zuinglians. A grave-digger 
at Zurich poisoned the sacramental wine, by which 
8 persons lost their lives and many others were 
grievously injured, 4 Sept. 1776. The French, 
under Massena, after repelling an attack of the 
Austrians, retired from Zurich, 5 June, 1799. The 
Imperialists were defeated by Massena, the former 
losing 20,000 men in killed and wounded, 2$, 
26 Sept. 1799; see Switzerland. A new democratic 
constitution was adopted, 18 April, 1869. Popula- 
tion, 1888; canton, 337,183; city, 90,088; 1901, 
152,942. 

On 24 June, 1859, the Austrians were defeated by the 
allied French and Sardinian army at Solferino. 

Preliminaries of peace were signed at Villa Franca by 
the emperors of Austria and France on 12 July 
following. 

A conference between the representatives of the powers 
concerned having been appointed, the first meeting 
took place at Zurich, on 8 Aug. 

After many delays a treaty was signed 10 Nov. Lom- 
bardy was ceded to Sardinia ; the formation of an 
Italian Confederation, under the presidency of the 
pope, was determined on, and the rights of the ex- 
sovereigns of Tuscany, Modena, and Parma were re- 
served. 

The formation of the kingdom of Italy in 1861 annulled 
the treaty of Zurich. 

Swiss National exhibition, 1 May — 27 Dec. 1883. 

The theatre destroyed by fire, no fatality ; attributed to 
an incendiary, 1 Jan. 1890. 

Rioting between Swiss and Italians suppressed by 
police and military . . . 25-29 July, 1896 

National Swiss museum inaugurated by M. Rutty, 
president of the Confederation . 25 June, 1898 

ZUTPHEN, in Holland. _ At a battle here 
22 Sept. 1586, between the Spaniards and the Dutch, 
the amiable sir Philip Sidney, author of "Arcadia," 
was mortally wounded. He died 7 Oct. He was 
serving with the English auxiliaries, commanded 
by the earl of Leicester. 

ZUYDER ZEE, see ZuiderZee. 

ZUYPER SLUYS (Holland). Here sir 
Ealph Abercromby defeated an attack of the French 
under Brune ; the' latter suffered great loss, 9 Sepr. 
1799. 

ZWITTAU, Moravia. Here the Prussians de- 
j feated the Austrians and captured provisions, 
I 10 July, 1866. 



INDEX. 



The references are to articles in the body of the work ; the italics refer to articles in this Index. The year' 
a.d. when b.c. is not mentioned ; 6., born ; d., died ; m., murdered ; k., killed. 



Abbadies expl. Ethiopia, 1837-45 
Abbas, Persia, Egypt 
Abbot, abp. ; Canterbury, 161 1 
Abbot, Charles ; speaker, 1802 
Abbot & Moulin ; Thessalonica, 1876 
Abbott, E. ; concordance to Pope, 1875 
Abd-el-Kader ; Algiers, 1835 
Abderahman I. — V., caliphs, 755- 

1023 
Abdul-Aziz ; Turkey, 1830 
Abdul-Hamid ; Turkey, 1774, 1876 
Abdul-Kerim ; Russo-Turkish War, 

II. 1877 
Abdul-Medjid : Turkey, 1839-61 
Abdullah, pasha ; Arabia, 1899-1902 
Abdul-Rahman (or Abdur-rahman) ; 

Afghanistan, 1863, et seq. 
Abel, sir F. A., glyoxiline, 1866, gun 
cotton, explosives, Imperial Inst, 
•cordite ; England, 1827-1902 
Abelard, d. 1142; Abelard, theology 
Abercom, Jas. marquis of, 181 1- 
1885; Ireland. Id. lieut., i866;(duke) 
1874 ; Church of Ireland, 1869 
Abercromby, Jas. ; speaker, 1835 
Abercromby, sir R. , 1738 - 1801 ; 

Trinidad, Alexandria 
Aberdare, Id.; see Bruce, index 
Aberdeen, earl of, 1784-1860; Aber- 
deen adm. , note ; Gladstone Adm. 
1886 ; Canada, 1893, 1898 
Abernethy, J., surgeon, 1764-1831 
Abingdon, earl of; trials, 1794 
Abinger, Id., att.-gen., 1827; ex- 
chequer 
Abney, eapt. ; photography, 1882 
Abou Saoud ; Egypt, 1872 
About, Edm. F. C, nov. 1825-85 ; 

France, 1872 
Abrahams, Barnet; trials, igoi 
Abrantes, duke of; see Jxmot 
Abruzzi, duke of, N.E. and N.W. 

passages, 1900 
Absalom, killed 1023 B.C. 
Abubeker; Ali, 632 
Acacius, Acacians, henoticon, 482 
Accum, F. ; adulterations, 1822 
Achilli v. Newman; trials, 1852-3 
Achmet; see Ahmed 
Ackermann, R.; lithography, 1817 
Acland, Arthur, Gladstone adm. 

1892 ; Rosebery adm. 1894 
Acton, Mrs., Royal Inst., 1838 
Aetuarius; purgatives, 1245 
Adalbert, St.; Prussia, 997 
Adam; duels, 1779 
Adam, R. and bros., architects, 

1728-92 
Adam, W. M. ; mensuration 
Adam, W. P. ; Madras, 1880, whip 

Gladstone adm., 1880 
Adams v. Coleridge, trials, 1886 
Adams, J. C, mathemat. 1819-92 ; 
Neptune, 1845. 



Adams; J. (1797) and J. Q. (1825), 

United States {presidents) 
Adams v. Dundas; trials, 1831 
Adderley, Mr.; Birmingham, 1856 
Adderley, sir C. ; Disraeli adminis- 
tration, 1874 

Addington, H., 1 757-1844; Addington 

Addison, Joseph, 1672-1719, Spec- 
tator, 1711; Stanhope administra- 
tion, 1717; allegory, Clio, clubs 

Adeane, sir Edw. S., adm., d. 1902 

Adelais ; Adelaide ; England, queens 
(Henry I., William IV.) 

Adeodatus ; pope, 672 

Adolphus, Frederic ; Sweden, 1751 

Adrian, Rome; emperor, 117; edicts, 
persecutions ; popes 

Adye, gen. sir John ; England, 1819- 
1900 

Aetius, Aetians 

iEgeus; Athens, 1283 B.C. 

/Egineta, Paulus; surgery, 640 

yEgisthus; Mycense, 1201 B.C. 

yEneas; Italy, 1182 b.c. 

/Eschines, Gk. orator, 389-314 b.c. 

yEsehylus, Greek tragedy, 525-456 
B.C.; drama 

iEsop; fables (about 600 b.c.) 

Afranio, bassoon 

Africanus ; see Scipio 

Agamemnon; Mycense, 1201 b.c. 

Agathocles, d. 289 b.c; Carthage, 
Sicily, Syracuse 

Age, proprietor of; trials, 1844 

Agesander ; Laocoon 

Agesilaus; Sparta, 398 B.C. 

Agis; Sparta, 427 B.C. 

Agnew, Mr. Vans; India, 1848 

Agricola; Britain, d. 93; Lancaster, 
Caledonia, Roman wall 

Agricola,' J ohn.'ti 1566; Antinomians 

Agrippa, d. 12 B.C.; Pantheon, 27 b.c. 

Aguinaldo, chief; Philippine Isles, 
1898-1902 

Ahlwardt, Germany, 1892 

Ahmed I.— III.; Turkey, 1603, et seq. 

Ahmed ; Egypt, 189S : Africa, 1902 

Ahmed Vefik, Turkey, 1878 

Aholiab; sculpture 

Ainsworth, W. H., nov. 1805-82 

Aird, sir John ; Egypt, 1901 

Airy, Sir G. B., 1801-92; Greenwich, 
1835 ; pendulum, standard, Royal 
Society, 1871 ; Albert medal, 1876 ; 
sun 

Aislabie, Mr.; Sunderland adminis- 
tration, 1718 ; South Sea 

Aitchison, sir Charles U., Indian 
statesman, 1832-96 

Aitken, Mr. T. ; Edinburgh, 1900 

Akbar, India; 1556 

Akenside, Mark, poet, 1721-70 

Alacoeque, M. M. ; sacred heart 
Alamayou, Abyssinia, 1868 



Alaric, d. 410; Rome, France 

Alban, Dr., gov. of Panama ; Colom- 
bia, (?. 1902 

Albemarle, Geo. Monk, duke of, 1608- 
70; administration, 1660; guards 

Alberoni, card., 1664-1752 ; Spain, 

*7 r 5 

Albert; Austria, Bohemia, Germany, 

Hungary 
Albert I. ; assassinations, 1308 
Albert (prince consort), 1819 - 61 ; 
England, 1840; regency bill, duel- 
ling 
Albert Edward; England (royal 
family), Wales ; see also Edward 
VII., index 
Albert, Saxony, king of, d. 1902 
Albert Victor, prince, duke of Clar- 
ence and Avondale, 1864-92 ; Wales 
Albertus, Magnus ; automatons 
Alboin the Longobard, killed 573 
Albrecht; Austria, 1866; Custozza 
Albuquerque (viceroy), d. 1515 ;India, 

iS°3 

Alcantara, gen.; Venezuela, 1876 
Alcibiades, killed 404 b.c. ; Athens 
Alcock, Mr. ; duelling, 1807 : sir 
Rutherford, surgeon and diplo- 
matist, d. 1897 ; Japan, 1858; 
China, 1865 
Alcuin (theologian), about 725-804 
Aldebert; impostors, 743 
Aldhelme; Salisbury, 705; ballads 
Aleko pasha, Roumelia 
Alengon, due d'; Agincourt, 1415 
Alexander, grand duke; Bulgaria, 

1901 
Alexander, lieut. Boyd ; Birds, 1902 
Alexander of Paris ; Alexandrine 
Alexander the Great, 356-323 b.c. • 

Macedon, Egypt, Gordian, Tyre^ 
Alexander Severus ; Rome, em., 21 
Alexander I., d. 1825; Russia, iSa\ 

Austerlitz, 1805; Leipsic, 1813 
Alexander II., Russia, 1855, assassi- 
nations 
Alexander III. ; Russia, 1881-94 
Alexander; Scotland (kings); Pope 
Alexander, prince ; Bulgaria, 1879-86, 

d. 1893 
Alexander, sir W. ; Nova Scotia, 

1622 
Alexius, East (emperors), 1081-1203 
Alrieri, Victor, Ital. poet, 1749-1803 
Alfred the Great, 849-901 ; Ashdown, 
England, councils, clocks, crown, 
militia 
Alfred, Edinburgh, duke of, 1844- 
1900 : aquarium, England (royal 
family), music, Plymouth, Eddy- 
stone 
Alibaud ; France, 1836 
Alice, princess, 1843-78 ; England 
(royal family) ; Hesse ; diphtheria 
4 y 2 



1428 



INDEX. 



Ali Pacha ; Eosetta ; Turkey, 1820 ; 

Albania, Armenia, 1900 
Alison, Arch., hist., 1792-1867 ; — 

sir A. (soldier), Ashantees, 1S74 ; 
Egypt, 1882 
Allcard v. Skinner, trials, 1887 
Allen, Grant, author, English lan- 
guage, 1848-99 ; burning the dead, 
1899 
Allen, R., post-office, 1720 
Allen and others ; Fenians, 1867 
Alleyne, Edwd. ; d. 1617 ; Dulwich 
AlMbone, Dr. ; bibliography, 1859 
Allman, prof. Geo. J., m.d., f.r.s., 

1812-1898 ; Nat. his. 
Alma-Tadema, sir L. ; sestheticism ; 

painting, 1903 
Almagro ; Abancay, 1537 
Al Mansour ; Bagdad, 762 
Almeida, L. ; Madagascar, 1506 
Almgvist, author ; Sweden, 1 793-1 866 
Alonso ; Bolivia, 1899 
Alphonso ; Sicily, Spain, Portugal 

(kings) 
Alt-geld, ex-gov. ; Illinois, 1902 
Althaus, Dr. Julius; neurological 

soc. ; d. 1900. 
Al thorp, vise; Grey adm., 1830; 

Melbourne, 1835 
Alumayu, Abyssinia, 1868-79 
Alva, duke of, 1508-82 ; Antwerp, 

Holland 
Alvanley, lord ; duel, 1835 
Alvarez, Luis ; 1836-1901, painting 
Alverstone, Id. ; S.A. war (Royal 

Commission), 1902 ; children, 1903 
Alvinzi, marshal ; Areola, 1796 
Alyattes ; Lydia, 761 B.C. 
Amadeus, Savoy ; annunciation 
Amadeus, duke of Aosta, 1845-90 ; 

king of Spain, 1870-3 
Amalric, pantheism 
Amberg, Wilhelm, 1823-1899; paint- 
ing 
Ambrose, St., d. 397; anthems, Te 

Deum, liturgies 
Americus Vespucius, 1451-1516; 

America, note 
Amherst, lord ; China, 1816 ; India, 

1823 
Ammianus Marcellinus ; Lat. hist., 

d. 390 
Amontons, W. ; 1663-1705, telegraphs 
Amos ; prophesies about 787 b.c. 
Ampere, 0. M., 1775-1836; electricity 

(galvanism and telegraph) 
Amulius ; Alba, 794 B.C. 
Amurath ; Turkey, Beyrout 
Amyntas : Macedon, 540 B.C. 
Anacharsis, 592 b.c. ; anchors, 

bellows 
Anacletus ; pope, 78 
Anacreon; Gr. poet, fl. abt. 557 B.C. 
Anastasius ; pope ; East ; emperors 
Anaxagoras, 480 b. c. 
Anaximander, 547 b.c. ; charts 
Anaximenes, 530 b.c. ; air 
Andersen, Hans C, Dan. novelist, 

1805-75 
Anderson, Dr. John ; Nile, 1833-1900 
Anderson, J. ; slavery (U.S.), 1853 ; 

Wizard of the North, masquerade, 

1856 
Anderson, Mrs. physic, 1865 
Anderson, sir Win.', K.C.B., 1835-9S ; 

Army, cordite 
Anderssen, chess, 1851-70 
Anderwert, M. ; Switzerland, 1880 
Andrassy, count Julius, 1823-90 ; 

Hungary, 1867 
Andre, raaj. ; united States, 1780 
Andivc, N.E. and N.W. passages, 

1 899- 1 900 
Andrew ; Hungary, kings 
Andrews, Fred. ; executions, 1899 
Andrews, (Jen. Hen. ; water-colour 

painting, 1S16-98 
Andrews, II., </. 1S20; almanacs 



Andronicus, 240 B.C. ; drama 
Audronicus ; Eastern empire, 11T3, 

1328 
Angela, St. ; Ursuline nuns, 1537 
Angelus, Theodorus, Aetolia 
Angerstein, J., d. 1823; National 

Gallery 
Anglesey, H., marquis of, 1768- 

1854 : Ireland (lord-lieutenant), 

1830 
Angus, earl of ; Linlithgow 
Anjou, Plantagenet, Jarnac, 1569 ; 

Naples, 1266 
Ankerstrom (kills Gustavus III.), 

Sweden, 1792 
Anna, Santa ; Mexico, 1853-76 
Anne of Brittany, d. 1514 ; maids of 

honour 
Anne of Austria, d. 1666 ; iron 

mask 
Anne, queen, b. 1664 ; England, 1702- 

14 ; semper eadem 
Annenkoff, gen. ; Russia, 1 835-1899 
Ansell, G. ; fire-damp, 1865 
Ansell, Mary Ann ; trials, 1899 
Anselm, abp. ; Canterbury, 1093 
Anson, admiral; Acapulco, 1744; 

naval battles, 1747 
Anson, general ; India, 1857 
Anson, sir Wm. ; Balfour adm. 1902 
Anstruther, Mr. ; Balfour adm., 

1902 ; Salisbury adm., 1900 
Anthony ; monachism, 4th century ; 

—arson, 1871 
Antigonus ; Ipsus, 301 B.C. ; profiles 
Antiochus I. — X., 280-65 B - c - ; Syria, 

Jews, 170 or 168 B.C. 
Antipater ; Cranon, 322 b.c 
Antisthenes ; cynics, 396 B.C. 
Antokolsky, Marc ; sculpture, 1842- 

1902 
Antonelli, card., 1806-76 ; Rome, 1848 
Antonelli case, Italy, 1877-8 
Antoninus Pius, Rome, emperors, 

138 ; Roman wall 
Antony, Mark, d. 30; Rome, 43 B.C.; 

Armenia, Philippi, 42 B.C. ; Actium, 

31 B.C. 
Anviti, col., killed; Parma, 1859 
Apelles, painter, 352-308 B.C. 
Aplix, capt. ; Ashantees, 1900 
Apollodorus ; Trajan's column, 114 
Apollonius ; Syria, 168 B.C. 
Appiau, hist.,/, about 147 
Appius Claudius ; aqueducts, decem- 
viri, 449 b. c. ; Virginia 
Applegath ; printing machines 
Appleton, Dr. ; academy, 1869-79 
Apries ; Egypt, 572 B.C. 
Apsley, Id. ; North adminis., 1770 
Apted, Harold ; executions, 1902 
Apuleius, Latin novelist, d. 174 
Aquinas, Thos. , theol., d. 1274 
Arabi Bey ; Egypt, 1881-2 
Arabi Pasha ; Egypt, 1901 
Arago, D. F., nat. phil., 1786-1853 
Aram, Eugene ; trials, 1759 
Aratus ; Achaia, 245 B.C. 
Arbogastes ; Aquileia, 394 
Areadius and Honorius ; eastern and 

western empire, 395 
Arch, J. ; agriculture, 1872 
Archdale, J., quaker, 1699 
Arehelaus ; Cappadocia, 20 B.C. ; 

Macedon, 413 B.c. 
Archemorus ; Nenuvan games 
Archer, F. S. , collodion, 1851 
Archidamus; Sparta, 648 B.C. 
Archilochus, 70S b.c ; Iambic verse 
Archimedes, 287-212 b.c. ; circle, 

cranes, mechanics, mensuration, 

organs, reflectors, screw, spheres 
Archytas ; math., about 400 b.c; 

1 >iii 1 < ■ > 
Arco, electricity (wireless tele- 
graphy). 1902 
Ardagh, sir John; S.A. war (Royal 

commission), 1902 I 



Arditi, sig. ; music, d. 1903 

Arenberg, prince Prosper; Africa 
(Ger. K), 1901 

Aretin, Gui ; musical notes, 1025 

Arfastus, chancellor, 1067 

Arfwedson, Mr. ; lithium, 181 7 

Argyll, duke of; Dunblane, 1715 ; 
George Douglas Campbell (8tli 
duke), 1823-1900; Gladstone adm., 
1868, 1880 ; — evolution theory, 
1890 ; Canterbury, 1900 ; Alexandra 
park, 1902 ; Barnardo homes, 1903. 

Ariarathes ; Cappadocia (kings) 

Ariobarzanes, 322 b.c ; Cappadocia^ 
93B.C 

Ariosto, L. Ital. poet, 1474-1533 

Aris, gov. ; prisons, 1800 

Aristarchus, 156 B.C. ; sun, globe 

Aristasus ; conic sections, 330 B.C. 

Aristides the Just, d. 468 B.C. ; 
Athens 

Aristippus ; Cyrenaie sect, 392 b.c. 

Aristocrates ; Arcadia, 715 B.C. 

Aristodemus; biarchy, 1102 B.C. 

Aristophanes, d. 380 B.C. ; comedy 

Aristotle, 384-322 b.c. ; Aristotelian 
philosophy, acoustics, botany, 
Macedon, mechanics, metaphysics, 
philosophy 

Arius, d. 336 ; Arians 

Arkwright, R., 1732-92 ; cotton, Man- 
chester, spinning 

Arles-Dufour ; see Dufour 

Arlington, lord ; cabal 

Armati ; Rome, T875 

Arminius, or Hermann ; Teutoburg, 9 

Arminius, J., d. 1609; Arminians, 
Dort 

Armitage, capt. ; Ashantees, 1900 

Armitage, sir E. ; Manchester, 1876 

Armstrong, sir Alex. ; Arctic explor. r 
surgeon, nat., 1818-99 

Armstrong, sir W. G. 18 10- 1900 (lord 
1887); electricity, 1840; cannon, 

1859 
Armstrong, Mr. Watson ; Newcastle, 

1901 (created peer, 1903) 

Arne, T., musical composer, 1710-78 ; 

" Rule Britannia" 
Arnim, H. ; Germany, Prussia, 1874-81 
Arnold, Arthur, (knt. 1895), 1S35- 

1902 
Arnold, col. ; Zambesi, 1900 
Arnold, gen. ; United States, 1780 
Arnold, Matthew, poet, 1822-88 ; 

culture 
Arnold, Dr. Thos., hist., 1795-1S42 
Arnold-Forster, Mr. ; Balfour adm. 

1902 ; Salisbury adm. 1900 
Arnott, Neil, 17SS-1874; stove, 1821 ; 

bed, 1830 ; ventilators 
Arrhenius, prof. ; Nobel bequest, 

1903 
Arrian, hist.,jffi. 148 
Arsaces ; Arsacidoj, Parthia, 250 B.C. 
Arsenius, Arsenians, 1261 
Artabazus ; Pontus, 487 B.C. 
Artaxerxes ; Persia (kings) 
Artemisia; mausoleum, 350 B.C. 
Artemon ; battering-ram, 441 b.c. 
Arthington, Mr. Robt. ; Leeds, 

1900 
Arthur, king ; Britain, 500 
Arthur, prince ; Connaught, 1874 
Artois, count d' ; duelling, 1778 
Arundel, abp. ; Canterbury, 1397-9 
Arundel, Henry, earl of; adminis- 
trations, 1547; Thos., Arundelian 

marbles 
Ascanius ; Alba, 1052 B.C. 
Ascham, Roger, 1515-156S ; archery 
Asdrubal ; see Hasdrnbal 
Aselli, G. ; lacteals (1622), lymphatics 
Asgill, Mr. ; translation, 1703 
Ash, Dr. ; Birmingham, 1766 
Ashbourne, Id. chancellor- (Ireland), 

1S85-1886, 1895 : Salisbury adm., 

1895, 1900 ; appeals, 1903 



INDEX. 



1429 



Ashburton, lord ; Ashb. treaty, 1842 
Ashburton, Louisa, Lady ; women 

d. 1903 
Ashe, gen. ; Briar's creek, 1779 
Ashe, Mr. L. ; Times newspaper, 1903 
Ashford, Mary ; appeal, 1818 
Ashley, lord ; cabal, 1670 
Ashley, sir A. ; cabbages 
Ashman, Mr. Herb. ; Bristol, 1S99 
Ashton, colonel ; Wigan, 1643 
Aske ; pilgrimage of grace, 1536 
Aslett, Rob. ; exchequer bills, 1803 
Aspden, J. ; Portland cement 
Aspinall ; trials, 1876 
Asquith, H.; Gladstone adm., 1892; 

Rosebery adm., 1894; England, 

190 1 ; Alexandra park (speech), 

1902 ; Free Trade, 1903 
Assheton, Wm. ; clergy charities 
Astley, lord ; Naseby, 1645 
Aston, sir A. ; Drogheda, 1649 
Astor, Mr. W. ; Cambridge, 1900; 

Rifle Corps, 1901 ; London Uni- 
versity, 1902 ; London Cancer Re- 
search Fund, 1903 
Astyages; Media, 594 B.C. 
Athanasius, d. 373 ; Athan. creed 
Athelstan ; England (king), 924 ; 

mint, 928 
Athen*us, Greek, fl. 228, quotations 
Atherton, sir Wm., att. gen., 1861 
Athol, duke of; Man, sold by, 1765 
Athotes ; hieroglyphics 
Atkinson, Mr. ; Salisbury adm. 1900 ; 

Balfour adm. 1902 
Atlay, bp., Hereford, 1868 
Atossa ; marriage by sale 
Attalus, d. 197 b.c. ; seven churches 

(Pergamus), parchment 
Atterbury, bp. F. ; banished, 1723 
Attila ; Hungary, Chalons, 451 
Attwood, B. ; hospitals 
Attwood, T. ; chartists, 1838 
Atwood, G., d. 1807 ; Atwood's ma- 
chine 
Atwell, W. ; trials, 1857 
Auber, D., music composer, 1784-1871 
Auchmuty, sir Samuel ; Batavia, 

1811; Montevideo, 1807 
Auckland, Id. bp. ; Bath and Wells, 

1854 
Auckland, lord ; Grey administration, 

1830 ; India, 1835 
Audiffret, see D' Audiffret 
Audran, Edmond ; France, d. 1901 
Audubon, J. J., 1780-1851 ; birds 
Auerbach, B., Ger. nov., 1805-82 
Augereau, gen. ; Castiglione, 1796 
Augustenburg, duke of; Denmark, 

1863 
Augustin, St. (of Hippo), 354-430 
Augustin the monk, abp. Canterbury, 

602 ; Rochester 
Augustus (emperor) ; Rome, 27 b.c. ; 
prastorian guards ; calendar ; see 
Cassar Octaviiis 
Aulus Gellius, Latin misc.,/. 169 
Aumale, due d' ; 1822-97 ; France, 
1871-2 ; Orleans ; assassinations, 
1341 
Aurelian ; Rome, enip. 270 : Ale- 

manni 
Aurelius ; Rome, emp. t6i 
Aurelle de Paladines, Franco-German 

war ; d. 1877 
Aurungzebe ; India, 1658 
Ausonius, Lat. poet, d. 394 (?) 
Austen-Roberts, Wm. ; 1843-1902 ; 
K.C.B., 1899; metallurgist, mint 
Austin, Alfred, poet laureate, 1896 
Austin, capt. ; Franklin 
Austin, maj. ; Abyssinia, London, 

1901 
Austin ; see Augustin 
Austin, W. ; trials, 1855 
Austria, Eliz., empress of; Austria 

1837-1898 
Austria, John of; Lepanto, 1571 



Avalon, Id. Hood of, adm. d. 1901 
Averoff, M. G., d. 1899; Alexandria, 

Athens, Bombay 
Averroes, med. writer, fl. 1149-1198 
Avicenna ; med. andph.il., 980-1037 
Ayesha, Mahomet's widow ; camel, 

day of, 656 
Ayoob or Ayoub Khan ; Afghanistan, 

Herat, Candahar 
Ayrton, A. A. ; Gladstone adm., 1868 

— W. harmonica 
Azeglio, marchese d' ; Italian patriot, 

1800-66 
Azim ; Afghanistan, 1863 



B. 

Babbage, C, 1792-1871 ; calculating 

machine 
Babcock, gen. ; U.S., 1876 
Baber; India, 1525 
Babeuf, d. 1791 ; agrarian law 
Babington; S. A. war, 1901 
Babrius ; fable 
Babyngton (which see), 1586 
Bach, A. ; resonator 
Bach, J. Sebastian ; passion music ; 

music, 1685-1750 
Bache, Con. ; librettist, 1846-1903 
Bache, F. E. ; composer, 1833-58 
Bache, Wal. ;. pianist, 1842-88 
Bachelier, M. ; encaustic, 1749 
Bacciocchi, princes Piombino 
Bachmeier, A.; pasigraphy, 1871 
Back, G. ; N.W. passage, 1833 
Bacon, Francis, lord Verulam, 1561- 
1626'; Baconian philosophy, lawyers 
Bacon, sir Jas., vice-chan., 1870-86 
Bacon, John, sculptor, 1740-99 
Bacon, sir Nicholas; keeper, Id., 

1558 ; baronet 
Bacon, Roger, 1214-1292; astrology, 
camera lucida, loadstone, magic- 
lantern, magnet, optics, spectacles 
Bacon, T. F. ; trials, 1857 
Badcock, Mr. ; vaccination 
Badenhorst ; S. A. war, 1901 
Baden-Powell, S. A. war, 1899 ; Cape 
of G. Hope, 1900 ; Mafeking, 1900- 
1902 
Baden-Powell, sir Geo. S., 1847-98; 
diplomatist in the Colonies, 1880 
et seq. ; eclipse 
Baedeker, M. ; guide books 
Baez, B. ; Hayti, 1859-68 
Baffin, W. M.; Baffin's Bay, 1616 
Bagehot, Walter, essayist, 1826-77 
Baggallay, sir R. ; solicitor-gen., 1873 ; 
att.-gen., 1874 ; justices, lords, 1875 
Bagnal, lieut. ; duel, 181 2 
Bagot, bishop; Oxford, 1829 
Bagot will case, trials, 1878 
Bagration, pr. ; Mohillev, 1812 
Bagster, Miss M. ; trials, 1828 ; E. lon- 
gevity, 1877 
Bailey, Philip J., d. 1902; England 
Bailey, rev. W.; trials, 1843 
Baillie, col.; Arcot, 1780 
Baillie, general; Alford, 1645 
Baillie, Joanna, poet, 1 762-1851 
Bailloud, gen. ; China, 1900 
Bailly, M., philos., executed, 1793 
Bain, A., 1818-1903 : education 

society, philos. 
Bainbridge, col. army Brit., 1899 
Bainbridge, W. ; flageolet 
Bainbrigg, abp., York, 1508 
Baines, Mr. Fred. Cruden ; life-boat, 

1898 
Baines, sir Edward ; Leeds, 1890 
Baines, M. T. ; Palmerston adm., 1855 
Baird, Mr. Jas., Baird lectures, 1871 
Baird, sir David; Cape, 1806; Seringa- 

patam, 1799 
Bajazet; Turkey, 1389 
Baker, sir B., K.C.B. 1902, Forth 
bridge ; Egypt, 1901 ; Nile, 1902 



Baker, colonel ; Bull's Bluff, 1861 
Baker, H. ; Bakerian lecture, 1765 
Baker, sir R. ; Australasia, 1901 
Baker, sir S. White, 1821-93 ; Africa, 
1864; Egypt, slave trade, 1869-74 ! 
trials, 1875 ; Russo-Turkish war II., 
1878 ; Turkey, 1879 ; Egypt, 1882 ; 
Soudan, 1883-4 
Baker v. Loder; trials, 1872 
Baker, gen. ; Char-asiab 
Bakewell, F. C. ; aerated waters, 1832, 

1847 
Balarcl, M. ; amylene, 1844 
Balchan, admiral; Alderney, 1744 
Baldwin I. — V. ; Jerusalem, 1100-85; 

East Flanders 
Baldwin, Jas. M. : dictionary, 1902 
Baldwin, prof. ; balloons, 1887-8 
Baldwin, Ziegler ; N.E. and N.W. 

passages, 1902 
Bales, P. ; caligraphy 
Balfe, M. W., mns. comp., 1808-70 
Balfour, A. J., b. 1848; Salisbury 
adm.,' 1885, 1886, 1895, 1900, and 
1902 ; Glasgow, Westminster ; 
Dundee, 1899 ; B. Academy, 1902 ; 
Conservatives, 1902-3 ; Cancer Re- 
search Fund, Free Trade, 1903 
Balfour of Burleigh ; Salisbury adm., 

1895,1900; Balfour adm. 1902 
Balfour, Gerald; Salisbury adm., 
1895, 1900 ; Belfast, 1899 ; Balfour 
adm., 1902 
Balfour, Jabez Spencer ; building, 

1894 ; trials, 1895 
Balfour, John; Scotland, 1679 
Balfour, Lady Betty ; Ireland, 1899 
Ball, John ; Alps 

Ball, J. T., 1815-98 ; chancellor (Ire- 
land), 1874 
Ballard, John; Babyngton's con- 
spiracy, 1586 
Ballasteros, gen. ; Ximena, 1811 
Balliol, Edw.; Scotland, kings, 1329 
Balliol, John; Scotland, 1293; Ox- 
ford, Dunbar 
Balmaceda, Jose M. ; Chili, 1886-91 
Balmain, W. H. ; luminous paint 
Balmerino, lord ; rebellion, Scotland, 

1745; trials, 1746 
Baltimore, lord ; America, 1632 ; 

trials, 1768 
Baluchi, Michel; Poland, (Polish 

language), 18^7-1901 
Bamberger, Ludwig author, 1823-99 
Bancroft, abp. ; Canterbury, 1604 
Bancroft, G., Am. hist., b. 1800 



Mrs 



theatres 



Bancroft, Mr. and 

(Haymarket) 
Bandmann, M. ; trials, 1878 
Banks, sir J., 1743- 1820; hort. soc, 

Royal Institution, 1799 
Bannerman, sir H. Campbell ; Glad 
stone adm., 1880, 1886, 
Rosebery adm. , 1894 ; G.C.B 
Alexandra park speech, 1902 ; Free 
Trade, Education, 1903 
Bannister, Mr., actor; retired, 1815 
Bar, due de; Agincourt, 1415 
Baradseus ; Eutychians, Jacobites 
Baranelli, L. ; trials, 1855 
Barante, A. G. de,Fr. hist., 1787-1866 
Barantz, N.W. passage, 1594 
Baratieri, gen. 1841-1901; Italy, 1896; 

Massowah, 1894-96 
Barbarossa, Fred. I. ; emp. Germany, 

1152-90 
Barbarossa, d. 1546; Tunis, Algiers 
Barbauld, Mrs. A. L., 1 743-1825 
Barber, Fletcher, Saunders, and 

Dorey : trials, 1844, and note 
Barber, Mr. H. ; Birmingham, 1901 
Barberini ; Portland vase 
Barbey, M.; France, 1883 
Barbou; printers, 1539-1813 
Barbour, J.; trials, 1853 
Barbour, John, Scot, poet, 1316-95 
Barclay, capt. ; pedestrianism, 1809 



1430 



INDEX. 



Barclay, Messrs., bankers ; trials, 

i9°3 
Barclay, Perkins, <& Co. ; porter 
Barclay, Rob., 1648-90; quakers 
Bardsley, John W., bp. ; Carlisle, 

1891 
Barham, lord ; admiralty, 1805 
Baring, Alex.; Peel administ. 1834 
Baring, sir F. ; London Inst. 1805; 

Russell adm. 1846 
Baring, Mr. ; Egypt, 1879 
Baring-Gould, Sabine, Eng. lang. 

1834 
Barings (firm) ; London, 1890, 1894 
Baring, sir Evelyn, vise. 1899 (aft. Id. 
Cromer), Earl, 1901 ; India, 1880 ; 
Egypt, 1883 et stq. 
Barker, J. T. ; Beaumont trust 
Barker, Robert; panorama, 1788 
Barkly, sir H. ; cape, 1870 
Barlow, P. R. S. ; engineer, d. 1902 
Barlow; clocks, 1676 
Barlow, rev. J.; Royal Institut., 1842 
Barlow, sir G. ; India gov., 1805 
Barlowe, William; compass, 1608 
Barnard, general; India, 1857; judge, 

United States, 1872 
Barnardo, Dr. ; Barnardo's homes 
(named Nat. Waifs Assoc. 1899), 
coffee-palaces 
Barnato, B. I., speculator, 1852-97, 

Cape of Good Hope 
Barnato Bros. ; C. of Good Hope, 1903 
Barnes, sir Hugh S., 1903 
Barnes, T., 1785-1841 ; Times 
Barnett, Geo.; trials, 1816 
Barnett, Mr. Wm. ; Argentine, mur- 
dered, 1902 
Barnum, P. T., 1810-90; American 

showman, elephants, menagerie 
Baroux, M. ; scrutin 
Barrand and Lund : clocks, 1878 
Barre, Isaac ; Rockingham adminis- 
tration, 1782 
Barrett ; Cumberland, naval battles, 

181 1 ; Fenians, 1868 
Barrie, capt. ; naval battles, 1811 
Barrie, J. M. ; Eng. language, i860 
Barrington, bp. ; Durham, 1791 
Barrington, Mr.; duel, 1788 
Barrington, sir Vincent H. Kennett ; 

burning the dead, 1903 
Barrington; trials, 1790 
Barrios, gen. R.; Guatemala, 1873; 

America, Central, 1885 
Barron, sir H. ; charities, 1900 
Barrot, Odilon, 1791-1873 ; France, 

1848 
Barrow, col. John, F.R.S. : Nat. 

Portrait Gallery, 1899 
Barrow, Isaac, theol. and philos., 

1630-77 
Barrow, Thos. F. ; executed, 1902 
Barry, sir Charles, architect, 1795- 
1860; parliament, note; Reform Club 
Barry, James Wolfe, K.C.B., 1897 ; 

Tower (bridge) 
Barth, Dr. ; Africa, 1849 
Bartheleiny, E. ; trials, 1855 
Bartholdi, M. ; sculptor ; U. S., 1884; 

Congo river, rf. 1898 
Bartlet, W. M.; trials, 18E2 
Barton, Bernard, poet, 1784-1849 
Barton, Dr.; insurance, 1667 
Barton, Elizabeth ; impostor, 1534 
Barton, sir E. ; Canada, 1902 ; Aus- 
tralasia, 1901-3 
Baschi, Matt,; Capuchins, 1525 
Bashford, Dr. E. T. ; Cancer Re- 
search Fund, 1903 
Basil; East. emp. 867; Russia 
Basil, St., rf. 380; Basilians 
Basilowitz ; Russia, czars, 1462 
Bass, M. T., Derby 
Bastendorff ; trials, 1879 
Bastian, Dr., spontaneous generation 
Bateman, ,1. P.; Glasgow, 1859; tun- 
nels. 1869; water, 1867 



Bates, H. ; sculpture, 1850-99 
Bates, M. van Buren : giants. 1871 
Bates, W. ; United States, 1872 
Bath, earl of; Bath admin., 1746 
Bathou; Transylvania, 1851 
Bathurst, bp.; Norwich, 1805 
Bathurst, earl ; Liverpool administra- 
tion, 1812 
Bathyllus; pantomimes 
Batman, J.; Victoria. 1835 
Battenberg, prince Henry M. 1858- 

96 ; England (royal family), Aslian- 

tees, Wight 
Batthyany; Hungary, 1848 
Battus ; Cyrene, 630 b. c. 
Baud-Bovy ; painting, 1848-99 
Baudin, M. Chas. ; France, 1851 
Baumbos, C. E. ; mutinies, 1876 
Baume, areometer, 1768 
Baumgarten; aesthetics, 1750 
Baxter, sir D. 1793-1872 ; Dundee, 

1863 
Baxter, G. ; printing in colours, 1836 
Baxter, Miss M. A.; Dundee, 1882 
Baxter, Rd., theologian, 1615-91 
Baxter v. Langley ; trials, 1868 
Bayard, chevalier, killed, 1524 
Bayle, P., 1647-1706; dictionary, 1697 
Bayley, lieut. ; duel, 1818 
Bavliss, Dr. Wm. : trials, 1903 
Bayly, Miss Ada (Edna Lyall) ; 

women, rf. 1903 
Baynard, Geoffrey; combat 
Bazaine, marshal, 1811-1888; Mexico, 

1863-6 ; Franco - Prussian war, 

1870-1 ; Metz ; France, 1873-4 ! 

1883 
Bazalgette, J. W., 1819-91 ; sewers, 

Thames 
Beach, sir M. H., Disraeli adm. 1878 ; 

Salisbury adm., 1885, 1886, 1895, 

1900 ; coal, 1901 
Beaconsfield ; see Disraeli 
Beadon, bishop ; Bath, 1802 
Beamish, capt. ; trials, navy, 1871 
Bean ; trials, 1842 
Beaton, card. ; assassinations, 1546 
Beattie, Jas. ; poet, 1735-1803 
Beauchamp, earl : N. S. Wales, 1899 ; 

children, 1502 
Beauchamp, Henry de ; Wight 
Beauchamp, John de ; barons 
Beauclerc, Id. Chas. ; drowned, 1861 
Beaufort, cardinal, rf. 1447 
Beauharnais, Eugene, 1781-1824 ; 

Italy, 1805 ; Mockern — Hortense, 

" Partant pour la Syrie " 
Beaulieu, general; Lodi, 1796 
Beaumont, col.; air, 1880 
Beaumont, sir G., painter, 1753-1827 ; 

National Gallery 
Beaumont, Mr.; duel, 1821-1826 
Beaumont ; viscount, 1440 
Beau Nash ; Bath, ceremonies 
Beauregard, P. G., 1818-93; United 

States, 1861 
Beaurepaire, gen.; Verdun, 1794 
Beauvoir, sir J. de; trials, 1835 
Beck, T. ; volunteers, 1881 
Becket (Denison), sir E. (aft. lord 

Grimthorpe) ; bells, locks, trials, 

1881, Albans, St. 
Beckett, T., m. 11 70; Becket 
Beckford, W. ; Fonthill abbey 
Beckwith, Agnes ; swimming, 1S76 
Becqne, M. Henry, dramatist and 

.journalist; 1837-99 
Bedborough, A. ; aquarium, 1876 
Beddoes ; Ashantees, 1900 
Bede, Venerable, d. 735 
Bedford, duke of; duel. 1822 ; Ireland, 

lord-lieutenants, 1490-1757 ; France, 

1422; admiralty, 1744; nobility, 1470 
Bedford, adm. 'sir Fred., G.C.B., 

1902: Gambia, 1S94; Oil rivers, 

1894; W. Australia, 1903 
Bedford, .In., executed, 1902 
Bedingfiekl, Ann; trials, 1763 



Beecher, rev. H. ; U.S. 1874-5 

Beeching, J.; lifeboat, 1851 

Beels, Henry; trials, 1902 

Beers, Dr. ; la Crosse 

Beethoven, L., mus. eomp.,1770-1827; 
sonata 

Begum charge; Chunar, 1781 

Behem, Martin ; Azores 

Behmeu ; see Bohme 

Behnes, Wm., sculpt., 1S00-64 

Behring, dr.; Nobel bequest, igoo 

Behring, d. 1741 ; Behring's straits 

Bela; Hungary, kings 

Belasyse, lord L. ; adm., 1687 

Belcher, sir E. , 1799-1877 ; circum- 
navigation, 1836; Franklin 

Belcredi, count Rd. , 1823-1902; Aus- 
tria, 1865 

Belisarius, rf. 565 ; Africa, east emp. 

Belknap, gen. ; U.S., 1876 

Bell, A. Graham ; telephone, 1877 ; 
photophone, gramophone, phono- 
graph 

Bell, A. Melville ; visible speech 

Bell, And., 1752-1832; Lancasteriarj 
schools 

Bell, capt. Maurice ; Congo river, 
rf. 1899 

Bell, sir C. , 1774-1842 ; nerves 

Bell, Ed.; executed, 1899 

Bell, Henry; steam, 1812 

Bell, John Any Bird, the boy 
trials, 1831. 

Bell, rev. P. ; reaping machine, 1S26 

Bell, Mr. ; cattle, 1873 

Bellamont, lord; duel, 1773 

Bellamy; trials, 1844 

Bellarmine. card., 1542-1621 

Bellingham, John, assassin ; Perceval 
adm., 1812 ; executions, 1812 

Bellingham, sir Daniel (mayor oi 
Dublin), 1665 

Bellini; Ital. music, 1802-35 

Bellot, lieut., rf. 1853; Franklin 

Bellows, Mr. John, rf. 1902 ; Glouces 
ter 

Beltv. Lawes ; trials, 1S81 etseq., 1S86 

Beltcheff, M. ; Bulgaria, 1891 

Belus; Assyria, 2245 B.C. 

Belzoni, J. B., traveller, rf. 1S23 ; 
Egypt, 1815 

Bern, gen. Joseph, d. 1850; Hungary 

Benbow, adm.; naval battles, 1702 

Benckendorff, count, England, 1902 

Benedek, L., 1804-81 ; Kbniggratz 

Benedetti, count ; France, rf. 1900 

Benedict, Benedictines; popes, 574- 
1758 

Benedict, sir Julius, mus., 1804-S5 

Bennet, Herb. John ; trials, 1901 

Bennett, James ; Africa, 1872 

Bennett, sir John ; alderman, 1877, 
London, 1877 

Bennett, sir Wm. Sterndale ; mus., 
1816-75 

Benoit, Peter; music, 1834-1901 

Benson and others ; trials, 1877 

Benson, bp. ; Truro, 1877 ; Canter- 
bury, 1883 

Benson, Ed^F. ; Eng. language 1S67 

Benson and Gourlay, the Misses; 
Egypt, 1899 

Bent, Theodore, 1S52-97 ; Abyssinia, 
Mashona 

Bentham, Jer., 1748-1832; savings' 
banks; deontology; panopticon; 
utilitarianism 

Bentinck, lord G., 1802-1848; protec- 
tionists 

Bentinck, G. A. F. C. ; judge advo- 
cate, 1875 

Bentinck, Id. W. ; Assam, India, 1827 ; 
Suttee 

Bentley, Rd., scholar, 1662- 1742 

Beranger, J. P. de, poet, 17S0-1857 

Berengaria, queen of Richard I., d. 
1230 

Berengarius ; fete de Dieu 



INDEX. 



1431 



Berenger, Butt, lord Cochrane, and 

others: trials, 1814 
Beresford, lord; Albuera, 1811 
Beresford, lord Chas., k.c.b., 1903; 
Soudan, 1885; China, 1898; navy, 
1903 
Beresford, lord J.; suicide, 1841 
Beresford, Win; Derby adm., 1852 
Beresford, lord Wm., 1847-1900; 

soldier and sportsman 
Berg, gen. ; Poland, 1863 
Bergeret, gen. ; France, 1871 
Bergin, Jas., executed, 1900 
Beriot, Chas. A. de ; mus. , 1802-70 
Berkeley; trials, 1811, 1858 
Berkeley, hon. C. ; duel, 1842 
Berkeley, G.; Antigua, Leeward Is., 

1874 
Berkeley, lord; admiralty, 1717 
Berkeley, lord; America, N.,'1644; 

Brest, 1694 ; Carolina 
Berlioz, L. H., Fr. mus., 1803-69 
Bernadotte, 1764-1844; Dennewitz, 

Sweden (king) 
Bernard, Claude, Fr. physiologist, 

1813-78 
Bernard, St., 1091-1153 
Bernard, S. ; trial, 1858 
Bernard, sir Thomas ; British Inst., 

1805 ; Royal Inst, 1799 
Berners, lord; chronicles, igor 
Bernini, G. L., Ital. artist, 1598-1680 
Bernstein, Phil.; trials, 1903 
Berri, duke and duchess of; France, 

1820, 1833, assassinations 
Berrington, rev. J. ; trials, 1873 
Berry, lieut. ; trials, 1807 
Berry, rev. Chas. A.; D.D., indepen- 
dents, 1852-99 
Berry, G. ; Victoria, 1875 
Berryer, P. A., Fr. advt. , 1790-1868 
Berthelot, P. AL, 5. 1827; acetylene, 

defiant gas, 1862 
Berthier, gen. ; marshal, 1753-1815 
Berthollet, C. L., Fr. chemist, 1748- 

1822 ; chlorine 
Berthon, rev. E. L., 1813-1899; life- 
boat, 1882 
Bertie, lady G. C. ; lord great cham- 
berlain 
Bertrand, Jos., mathem., 1823-1900 
Berwick, duke of, d. 1734; Landen, 

Almanza, Newry 
Berzelius, Jas., 1779-1848; chemistry, 

silicium 
Berzelius, Johan. Jakob, author, 

Sweden, 1779-1848 
Besant, Mrs. A. ; trials, 1877 
Besant, Walter, 1836-1901 ; novelist; 
knt., 1895 ; Atlantic Union, 1900 
Bessel, F. ; stars 
Bessemer, sir H., 1813-98; iron, 

steel, steam, steam-gun 
Bessus ; Persia, 331 B.C. 
Best, capt. ; duel, 1804 ; Surat, 1811 
Beswick, F. ; trials, 1869 
Bethell, bp. ; Gloucester, 1824 
Bethell, commander, marriage, 1888 
Bethell, sir R, solicitor-gen., 1852, 
attorney-gen., 1859 (see IVestbury) 
Bethencourt ; Canaries, 1400 
Betty, master ; theatres, 1804 ; 

Roscius 
Betty, Thos. Henry, 1820-97 
Beule ; France, 1874 
Beust, F. F. v., 1809-1886; Austria, 

1866 
Bevern, prince; Breslau, 1757 
Bevignani, sig. B., 1841-1903 ; 25 yrs. 

mus. conductor at Cov. Garden 
Bewick, T., 1753-1828 ; wood en- 
graving 
Bexley, Vansittart, lord; Liverpool 

administration, 1812 
Bey, dr. Schiess ; Alexandria, 1899 
Beyers ; S.A. war, 1900 
Beza, Theodore, theol., 1519-1605 
Bialobrzeski, abp. ; Poland, 1861 



Bianeoni, C, d. 1875 ; carriages 
Bickerstetb, E. H., bp. ; Exeter,i88s 
Bickersteth, R., bp. ; Ripon, 1856 ■ 
Bidder, George P., 1806-78 ; the 

calculating boy 
Biddulph, sir R. ; Cyprus, 1881; 

Gibraltar, 1894 
Bidwell, S. ; telephotography 
Bidwells and others ; trials, 1863 
Biela, W. von, comet, 1826 
Bigham, Mr. Justice ; S.A. war (roy. 

commission), 1902 
Big Sam ; giants, 1809 
Biliotti, sir A.; Candia, 1898 
Bille, M. ; Denmark, d. 1898 
Billot, gen., Dreyfus case, 1899 
Bingley, lord ; Oxford adm. 1711 
Binney, rev. Thos., 1798-1874 
Binnie, A. R., knt. 1S97 ; tunnels, 

1897 
Birch, C.M.G., Mr. E. W., gov. 

Borneo, 1901 
Birch, J. W. ; Straits. 1875 
Birch, S., 1813-85 ; biblical 
Birchall, J. R. ; Canada, 1890 
Bird, I. ; Japan 
Birde, W. ; canon 

Birkbeck, Dr. G., 1776-1841 ; mecha- 
nics' institutes 
Biscoe, capt. ; southern continent, 

1832 
Bishop ; burking, 1831 
Bishop, A. ; derrick, 1857 
Bishop, sir H., 1786-1855 ; music, 

ancient concerts ; home 
Bishop, Irving ; thought reading 
Bishop, J. F. ; Italy, 1862 
Bismarck, O. von, 1815-98 ; Prussia, 
1862-76; France, 1870-3 ; Franco-P. 
War, Germany ; Do ut des, 18 
March, 1890 
Bjornson, M. B. ; drama, Scandi- 
navia ; Nobel, bequest, 1903 
Black, Dr. ; duel, 1835 
Black, Jos. ; chemist, 1728-99 ; mag- 
nesia, air, balloon 
Black, William, author ; English 

language, 1841-98 
Blackall, Mr. ; Queensland, 1868 
Blackburn, abp. , York, 1724 
Blackburn, capt. H. ; boats, 1901 
Blackburn, Colin, lord justice, 1813-96 
Blackburn, Miss Helen ; women, 

d. 1903 
Blackie, prof. John Stuart, scholar, 

1809-95 ; Edinburgh, Celts 
Blackmore, R. D., novelist, 1825- 

1900 ; Eng. lang. 
Blackstone, sirW, 1723-80; law 
Blackwood.S. A.; post-office secretary 
Blades, Wm. ; printing 
Blaine, Jas., 1830-94; Panama, U.S., 

1884-92 
Blair, Hugh, 1717-1800 ; rhetoric; 

— John, chronologist, d. 1707 
Blair, Mr. ; Canada, 1903 
Blake, adm. R., 1599-1657; Algiers, 
Dover straits, Portland isle, Santa 
Cruz 
Blakesley, Robt. ; trials, 1841 
Blanc, Louis, 1811-82 ; France, 1848 
Blanchard; balloon, 1784-1819 
Blanchard, Laman ; suicide, 1845 
Blanchard, T. ; timber bendings, 1855 
Blanchet, M. ; Sahara, d. 1900 
Bland's Silver Bill, U. States, 1878 
Blandy, Miss ; trials, 1752 
Blanqui, France, 1872-79 
Blaskowitz, lieut. ; duel, d. 1901 
Blewett, Chas.; executions, 1900 
Bligh, captain ; bread fruit tree ; 

Adventure bay, Bounty mutiny 
Bligh, captain, v. Mr. Wellesley Pole ; 

trials, 1825 
Blitz, Jacob ; trials, 1903 
Blizard, sir W. ; Hunterian soc. 
Blomfleld, Chas. Jas., bp. ; Chester, 
1824 ; London, 1828 



Blomfield, sir A. ; architecture, 

1829-99 
Blondin, 1824-97, acrobat ; crystal 

palace, 1861 ; Niagara, 1859 
Blood, col., d. 1680; Blood, crown 
Blood, Mr. ; trials, 1832 
Blood, sir Bindon ; S.A. war, 1901 
Bloomer, Mrs. ; dress, 1818-94 
Bloomfield, Robt., poet, 1766-1823 
Blouet, Paul ; Paris, d. 1903 
Blowitz, see de Blowitz 
Blucher, marshal, d. 1819 ; Jan- 

villiers, Ligny, Waterloo 
Blum, R., shot in 1848 
Blumenbach, J. F. ; physiol., 1752- 

1840 
Blundell, lieut. ; duel, 1813 
Blunt, Wilfred ; Egypt, 1882-3 
Boabdil, Abencerrages 
Boadicea, d. 61 ; Britain, Iceni 
Boardinan, capt.; duel, 1811 
Bobrikoff, gen. ; Finland, 1898-1903 
Boccaccio, 1313-75 ; Decameron 
Boccold, John, anabaptists, 1534 
Boddington ; trials, 1797 
Boden, col.; Sanskrit, 1832 
Bodley, T. ; Bodleian library, 1602 
Bodmer, Tschudi ; Switzerland, lite- 
rature, 1698-1783 
Boecklin, Arnold ; painting,i827-i9oi 
Boehm, J. E., Tyndale mem. 
Boerhaave, H., med. writ., 1668-173S 
Boethius, killed, 524 
Boettcher (Bbttcher) ; Dresden china, 

1709 
Boggiani, sig., explor. ; Paraguay, 

killed, 1903 
Bogle, rear-adm. A. G., d. 1903 
Bogle v. Lawson ; trials, 1841 
Boguslawski ; Poland, literature, 

1759-1829 
Bohnie, or Behmen, J., mystic, 1612 
Bohemia, king of, "Ich Dien;" 

Crecy, 1346 
Boileau, Nic, Fr. poet, 1636-1711 
Bois de Chene, Mdlle. ; beards, 1834 
Bolam, Mr. ; trials, 1839 
Bolckow, H. W. ; Middlesbrough 
Boldero, capt. ; duel, 1842 
Boleslas : Poland (kings), 992 
Boleyn, Anne ; England (queen Hen. 

VIII.) 
Boleyn, earl of Wiltshire; adminis- 
trations, 1532 
Bolingbroke, lord ; Oxford adminis- 
tration, 1 711; deism; schism act, 

I 7 I 3 
Bolivar, gen., 1783-1830 ; Columbia 
Bolland, Acta Sanctorum, 1643 
Bolton, Wm. J., executions, 1902 
Bonaparte family ; Bonaparte, 

France, 1799 et seq. 
Bonaparte, P.; France, 1870;— Napo- 
leon, Jerome ; France, 1859-72 
Bonaventura, 1221-74 ; conclave 
Bond, E. A. ; Brit. Museum, 1S78 
Bond, prof. ; photography, 1851 
Bonelli ; electric loom, 1854 
Bonheur, Marie Rosalie (Rosa) ; 

painting, 1822-99 
Bonnechose, Emile de, Fr. hist., 

1801-74 
Bonner, bp. of London ; adm., 1554 
Bonnet, C, Fr. naturalist, 1720-93 
Bonnet-Duverdier ; France, 1877 
Bonny castle, J., mathematician, d. 

1821 
Bonpland, A., naturalist, 1773-1858 
Bontou and others ; France, 1882 
Bonwell, rev. J. ; trials, i860 
Boole, G. ; logic 
Boon, colonel ; America, 1754 
Boosey: copyright, 1854; Dunmow, 

1876 
Booth, B. ; book-keeping, 1789 
Booth, Ed., Am. actor, 1833-93 
Booth, Wilkes, assassin ; U. States, 



1432 



INDEX. 



Booth, gen., Salvation army, 1902 
Bopp, F., Ger. linguist, 1781-1867 
Borchgrevink, C. B., explorer, b. 

1864 ; Antarctic 
Borde, Andrew ; Merry-andrew 
Borden, Gail ; milk, meat 
Borelli ; mechanics, 1679 
Borelly, M. ; astron. comets, 1900 
Borgia, Casar, killed, 1507 
Boroimhe, Brian ; Ireland, 1014 
Borowlaski, ct. ; dwarf, 1739-1837 
Borromeo, abp. €arlo, 1538-84 ; Milan, 

1576 
Borrow, Geo., 1803-81 ; gipsies. 
Borrowes, major ; trials, 1888 
Borton, sir A.; Malta, 1878 
Boscan, Span, poet, about 1496- 

1544 
Boscawen, aclm., 1711-60 ; Lagos 
Bosquet, marshal, 18 10-61 ; Inker- 

mann, 1854 
Bossuet, J., Fr. theol., 1627-1704 
Bostock, Mr., elephant, 1903 
Boswell, sir A. ; duel, 1822 
Boswell, Jas., 1740-95 ; biography 
Bosworth, rev. Jos. , Ang.-Sax. schol., 

1790-1876 
Botha, Christian ; S.A. war, 1902 
Botha, Louis ; S.A. war, 1899 ; Eng- 
land, Transvaal Repub., Cape of 
Good Hope, 1902 
Bothwell, earl of ; Scotland, 1567 
Bott, Mr. J. A. ; tobogganing, 1903 
Bottomley v. Hess ; trials, 1902 
Bouch, sir T. ; Forth ; Tay bridge 
Bouchet, Anthony ; illuminati 
Bouchier ; Canterbury, abp. 1454 
Boufflers, Fr. marshal; 1644-1711 
Bougainville, d. 181 1 ; circumnavi- 
gation, New Hebrides 
Bouille, marquis de ; Eustatia, 1781 
Boulanger, gen. G., 1837-91 ; France, 

1886-91 
Boulby, Mr. ; China, i860 
Boulton, Mat., d. 1809 ; Birmingham 
Boulton and others, trials, 1871 
Boulton and Watt ; coining, 1788 
Bourbaki, gen., 1816-97; Frauco-Pr. 

war, 1870-1 
Bourbon, duke of; duels, 1778 
Bourgeois, sir F. ; Dulwich, 1813 
Bourgeois, M. ; France, 1895 
Bourke, sir R. ; Victoria, 1837 
Bourke, hon. R., 1827-1902 (aft. 
lord Connemara); Madras, 1886-90 
Bourmont, marshal ; Algiers, 1830 
Bourne, Dr., bp. of South wark ; abp. 

Westminster, 1903 ; Rom. Cath. 
Bourne, Sturges ; Canning adminis- 
tration, 1827 
Bousfield, W. ; executions, 1856 
Bovill, sir W., 1814-73 ; com. pleas, 

1866 ; trials, 1871-72 
Bowdler, C. A. ; balloons, 1874 
Bowen, Chas., S.C., 1836-94 ; Mauri- 
tius, 1879 ; Hong "Kong, 1882 ; 
appeals 
Bowen, sir G. F., 1821-99; Queens- 
land, 1859 ; N. Zealand, 1867 ; 
Victoria, 1873 
Bower, Mr. Elliott; trials, 1852 
Bower, G.; gas light, 1884 
Bowes, John ; executions, 1900 
Bowes, Miss; Strathmore, 1766 
Bowley, R. ; crystal palace, 1870 
Bowman, sir William, 1816-92 ; oph- 
thalmia, Royal Institution 
Bowring, sir John, scholar, &<.:. , 

1792-1872 ; Canton, China, Siam 
Bowstead, bp.; Lichfield, 1843 
Bnwyrr, lip. ; Kly, Chester, 1812 
Boxall, sir \V. ; national gallery 
Boyd, captain ; duel, 1808 
Boyd, Andrew K. 11., essayist, 

1825-09 
Boydell, aid., d. 1804 ; Brit, [nstit. ; 

Shakespeare's plays, 1802 
Boyle, carl of Orrery ; Orrery 



Boyle, sir Courtenay, 1845-1901 ; 
strikes, 1891-5 ; trade, board of 

Boyle, Henry ; Godolphin adminis- 
tration, 1702 

Boyle, Rob., 1626-91 ; phosphorus, 
Royal Society 

Boyton, capt. , life-boat, &c. , 1875 

Brabazon, lord (aft. earl of Meath); 
hospital Saturday, 1874 ; play- 
grounds 

Brackenbury, sir Harry ; Army, 
Brit., 1899 

Bradbury, H. ; nature-printing, 

Braddock, gen. ; Fort Duquesne 
Bradford, col. sir Ed. R., bart. 1902 ; 

police 1890-1903 
Bradlaugh, C. ; Northampton, 1874 ; 

trials, 1877, et seq. ; parliament, 

1880-4; oaths, 1880-9; d. 1891 
Bradley, admiral; trials, 1814 
Bradley, dr. G. G. ; Westminster ; 

London ; Church of England ; 

1821- 1903 
Bradley, Jas., 1693-1762 ; aberration, 

astronomy, Greenwich 
Bradley, Mr. and Mrs. ; boats, 1902 
Bradshaw, capt., S.A. war, killed, 

1899 
Bradwardine, abp. ; Canterbury, 

1349 
Brady, capt. ; China, 1874 
Braganza, John of ; Portugal, 1640 
Bragg, gen. ; United States, 1862-3-76 
Braham, John, singer, 1774-1856 
Brahe, Tycho, 1546-1601 ; astronomy, 

globe 
Braidwood, James ; fires, Tc. 1861 
Brake, col.; A'-hantees, 1900 
Bramah, J., 17^-1814 ; hydrostatics, 

planing-machine, lock 
Brampton, lord ; appeals 
Bramseii, M., statesman ; Denmark, 

1899 
Bramwell, sir Fred. J., 1818-1903 ; 

Royal Institution, gas-engine 
Bramwell, baron George ; judge, 

1808-92 
Brand, H. B., speaker, 1872-84 ; 

visct. Hampden, 1884 
Brande, W. T., chemist, 1788-1866 ; 

Roy. Inst.; London Inst. 
Brandreth, the Luddite ; Derby 

trials, 1817 
Brandt, count; Denmark, 1772 
Brandt; cobalt, phosphorus, 1667 
Branley, M. Rigid; electricity (wire- 
less telegraphy), 1902 
Brantome, P., historian, 1527-1614 
Brassey, lady, book (cheap); d. 1887 
Brassey, Thos., Id. ; naval annual ; 

Victoria, 1895 ; Canada, 1903 
Brassey, Thos. ; rail, eng., 1805-70 
Brasidas ; killed, Amphipolis, 422 

B.C. 

Braun, K. ; nephoscope, 1S6S ; elec- 
tricity (w. telegraphy), 1902 
Breadalhane peerage ; trials', 1866-7 
Breakspeare, Nicholas; pope, 1154 
Brederode, H. de ; gueux, 1566 
Bremer, sir Gordon ; China, 1840 
Bremer, Frederika, Swed. auth., 

1801-65 
Brendon, SI. ; Clonfcrt, 55S 
Brennus ; Rome, 390 B.C. 
Brereton, col. ; Bristol, 1832 
Brereton cases; railways, 188 1-4 
Bresci, regicide; Italy, d. 1901 
Bresson, count; suicide, 1847 
Brett, John ; painting, 1832-1902 
Brett, .1. W. ; electricity (submarine 

telee'raph), 1S47 
Brett, sir W. B. (lord Esher, 1885; 
visct. 1897), 1815-09; solic.-gen., 
1868 ; master of the rolls, 1883 
Brewster, sir David, nat. phil., 17S1- 
1868 ; kaleidoscope, British asso- 
ciation ; lithoscope 



Brie, Mr. ; duel, 1826 

Bridges, Mr.; pecul. people 

Bridgeman, Laura, blind 

Bridgewater, duke of, 1736-1803 
Bridgewater Canal 

Bridgewater, earl ; admiralty, 1699 

Bridport, lord ; L'Orient, 1795 

Brienne, M. de; notables, 1788 

Bright, corpulency, 1809 

Bright, sir Charles T. ; electrician, 
1832-1902 

Bright, John, 181 1-89 ; England; 
Anti-corn-law league, Adullam, 
agitators, peace congress ; Glad- 
stone adm., 1868-80 

Bright, Mr. Jacob ; burning the 
dead, 1899 

Bright, T. ; stenography, 1588 

Brindiey, Jas., 1716-72; tunnels, 
Bridgewater canal, Barton 

Brinklett ; trials, 1828 

Brinton, Daniel G., 1836-99; anthro- 
pologist 

Brinvilliers, madame de, executed, 
1676 ; poisoning 

Brisson, M. ; France, 1898 

Bristol, John, earl of ; administ. 1621 

Brix ; oleometer 

Broad, E. F., stockbroker ; England, 
1903 

Broad wood ; S.A. war, 1901 

Brock, C. F., fireworks 

Brodie, sir C. B., surgeon, 1783-1862; 
— (son) chemist, 1817-80 ; graphite, 
1862 ; ozone, 1872 

Brodrick, G. C, 1831-1903, journalist 

Brodrick, hon. Wm. Saint John ; 
Salisbury adm. 1 895-1902 ; sec. for 
war, army Brit., 1900 ; army 
scheme, 1901 ; England, 1902 ; 
Balfour adm. , 1902 

Brodzinski, Kasimir ; Poland (Pol. 
lang.), 1791-1835 

Broglie, due de ; France, 1873, 1879 

Broke, captain ; Chesapeake, 1813 

Brome, Adam de ; Oriel, 1337 

Bromley, sir Thomas ; administra- 
tions, 1579 

Brongniart, A., geol., 1770-1847 

Brooke, sir James; Borneo, 1S03-68 

Brooke, Mr. Vyner ; Borneo, 1902 

Brooks, rev. M. , China, assass. 1900 

Brooks, Mr., astron.; comets, Venus, 
1900, 1902 

Brothers, R., d. 1824 

Brough, M. A. ; trials, 1854 

Brougham, H., 1779-1868 ; chancellor, 
charities, impeachment, social 
science 

Brougham, lord, Cannes, 1834 

Broughton v. Knight, trials, 1873 

Broughton, lord, 1786-1869 ; Russell 
adm., 1846, 1851 

Brown, gen. ; Prague, 1751 

Brown, "Miss Eliz. ; astronomy, d. 
1899 

Brown, Hanbury, K.C.M.G. ; Nile, 
1902 

Brown, H., trials, 1858 

Brown, sir John, 1816-96; iron, 1867 

Brown, captain John ; United States, 

1859 
Brown, J. A., geology, 1831-1903 
Brown, Mrs. ; fountain, 1875 
Brown, R., d. 1630; Brownists, 

independents 
Brown, Rob., botanist, 1773-1858; 

Browiiian 
Brown, Robt., savant and traveller, 

1842-95 
Brown, W., 1783-1864; Liverpool, 1857 
Brown, W. ; trials, 1903 
Brown-Scquard, 1S17-94 ; French 

physiologist 
Browne, American gen. ; Chippawa, 

1814 ; Fort Erie 
Browne, Chas. F. (Artemus Ward) ; 

Eng. lang., 1833-67 



INDEX. 



1433 



Browne, Mrs. Forrest ; burning the 

dead, 1903 
Browne, col. H., China, 1874 
Browne, Hannah ; trials, 1837 
Browne, sir Samuel, 1824-1901, dis- 
tinguished general 
Browning, Mrs. E., 1 809-1 861 
Browning, B., poet, 1812-89 
Brownlie, lieut., Ashantees, 1900 
Brownrigg, Eliz. ; trials, 1767 
Brownrigg, gen. ; Candy, 1815 
Brozik, Vasclav ; painting, 1851-1901 
Bruce, David; Scotland, king, 1328; 

Nevill's cross, 1346 
Bruce, Edward ; Dundalk, 1318 
Bruce, H. A. (aft. Id. Aberdare) ; 
1815-95 ; Gladstone adm. 1868 
Niger, Welsh university, 1895 
Bruce, Michael ; Lavalette, 1816 
Bruce, Bobert, d. 1329 ; Scotland, 

king, 1306 ; Bannockburn, 1314 
Bruce, com. ; Lagos, China, 1851 
Brucher, Antoine ; coining, 1553 
Bruck, baron ; Lloyd's 
Brudenell ; trials, 1834 
Brueys, admiral; Nile, 1798 
Brugsch, Heinrich Karl, 1827-94 ; 

Egypt 
Brunck, anthology, 1772-6 
Brunei, I. K., 1769-1S49 ; blocks, 

steam, Thames tunnel 
Brunei, I. K, junr., 1806-59; steam 
Brunetti, prof. ; burning the dead, 

1873 
Bruno, d. 1101 ; Benedictines, Char- 
treuse, Cologne, turnery 
Brunswick, duke of ; Valmy, 1792 : 

Quatre Bras, 1815 
Brunt, Davidson, Thistlewood, Ings, 

and Tidd ; Cato-street, 1820 
Brush, C. P. ; electric light, 1878-9 
Brutus, Lucius Junius ; consuls. 

Borne, 509 B.C. 
Brutus and Cassius ; Philippi, 42 B.C. 
Bryan (or Brian) Boroimhe ; harp, 

Clontarf, Ireland, 1014 
Bryant, Win. C. , Amei ican poet, 1784- 

1878 
Bryce, James ; Ararat, United 
States, 1888 ; Gladstone adm. 1892 ; 
Bosebery adm. 1894 
Brydon, J. M. ; architecture, 1840- 

1901 
Bruce, rev. J. B. ; China, assass. 

1902 
Brunner, sir J. ; alkalies, 1S73 
Bubb ; opera-house, 1821 
Buccleuch, duke of ; Granton 
Buchan, captain ; N.-W. passage, 

1819-22 
Buchan, M. ; Buchanites, 1779 
Buchanan, Dr. G. S. ; vaccination, 

1903 
Buchanan, J., 1791-1868 ; pres. "U. 

States, 1856 
Buchanan v. Taylor ; trials, 1876 
Buchanan, sir Geo., M.D., 1831-95; 
preventive medicine, tuberculosis 
Buckhurst, Thomas, lord; adminis- 
trations. 1599 
Buckhurst peerage ; trials, 1876 
Buckingham, G. Villiers, duke of; 
administrations, 1615, 1621; dress : 
killed, 1628 
Buckingham, duke of ; cabal ministry, 
1670 ; Peel administrations, 1841 ; 
duel, 1822 ; — B.; Disraeli adm., 
1868 ; Madras, 1875 
. Buckingham, marquis of; Ireland, 
lord lieutenant, 1787 
Buckinghamshire, earl of; Liverpool 

administration, 181 2 
Buckland,' P. ; fisheries, 1863 
Buckland, rev. W., 1784- 1856; geology 
Buckle, H. T. ; historian, 1822-62 
Buckle, capt. , Amoaful, 1874 
Bucknill, sir John Chas., physiology, 
1817-97 



Bufalmaco ; caricatures, 1330 

Buffet ; France, 1873-6 

Buffon, G., 1707-88 ; geology, zoology, 

1749 
Buffum, W. A. ; amber, 1896 
Bugeaud, marshal, 1784-1849 ; Mo- 
rocco, T844 
Bulatovitch, capt. ; Abyssinia, 1900 
Bulgaria, prince Ferdinand of; Aus- 
tria, 1899 
Bulkele; bishop; Bangor, 1553 
Bull, J , " God save the King," 

1606 
Bull, G., bishop, 1634-1710 
Buller, gen. sir Beavers ; Enfield, 
1901 ; S. A. war, 1899 et seq. ; C. of 
Good Hope, 1899, 1900 
Buller, sir Alex., a^m., 1834-1903 
Bullinger, Heinrich ; Switzerland, 

lit., 1504-1575 
Bulwer, see Lytton, Id. 
Bulwer, sir H. E. ; Natal, 1S75 
Bunbury, E. H. (aft. sir), 181 1-95 ; 

geography 
Bunning, J. B. ; coal-exchange, i34y 
Bunsen, baron C. J. ; Germ. hist. 

and phil., 1791-1860 
Bunsen, B., 1811-99 ; voltaic pile, 

1842 ; spectrum, 1S60 
Bunyan, J., 1628-88; Bedford, alle- 
gory, pilgrim's progress 
Buonarotti, Michael Angelo, 1474- 

1564 
Burbage, James ; drama 
Burdeau, Auguste, statesman ; 

France, 1894 
Burdett, sir F., 1770-1844; duel 
1807; riots, trial, 1820. See Coutts 
Burdett, Henry, K.C.B., 1897, hos- 
pitals, nurses, stocks 
Burdock, Mary Anne ; trials, 1S35 
Burdwan, rajah of; Calcutta, 1878 
Burger, G. ; Germ, poet, 1748-94 
Burgers, T. F. ; Transvaal, 1872 
Burgess, bishop ; David's, St. 1825 ; 

Salisbury 
Burgh, Hubert de ; Whitehall 
Burgoyne, gen. ; Saratoga, 1777 ; sir 
J. F., 1782-1871 ; capt. H., Captain, 
1870 
Burian, Baron ; Bosnia, 1903 
Burke, Edmund, 1729-97 ; Rocking- 
ham administrations, 1782 ; Canada, 
1791, Junius 
Burke, sir J. B., 1815-92; armorial 

bearings, heraldry 
Burke, B. ; Fenians, 1867-8 
Burke and Wills ; Australia, 1860-3 
Burleigh, lord ; administrations, 1558 
Burlington, Rd. earl of, 1695-1753 : 

Wm. Devonshire, 1858 
Burmann, P., thesaurus 
Burn, H. & others, trials, 1886 
Bumaby, col. F. A., killed 1885; 
balloons, 1874 ; Khiva ; Soudan, 
1885 
Burne-Jones, sir Edward, artist, 

1833-98, arts, painting 
Burne-Jones, P. ; sestheticism 
Burnes, sir A., murdered; India, 

1841 
Burnet, bp. Gilbert, 1643-1715 
Burnett, Mr., d. 1784; Burnett prizes 
Burnham, Id. ; Daily Telegraph 
Burnie, B. W., Church of England, 

1899 
Burns, John; strikes, 18S9 (M.P. 

1892) 
Burns, B., Scot, poet, 1759-96 ; Glas- 
gow, 1896 
Burnside, gen. A. ; U. States, 1862 
Burr, colonel ; duel, 1804 
Burrett, Wm. ; executions, 1900 
Burroughs, Col. ; Ashantees, 1900 
Burrows, gen. J. ; Afghanistan, 1880; 

Mai wand 
Burton, sir F. W., 1816-1900; painting 
national gallery, 1874 



Burton, Richd. F., sir, 1821-90; 

Arabian Nights ; Midian 
Burton, Bobt. (Anat, of Melancholy), 

1576-1640 ; quotations 
Bury, Richard de ; libraries, 1341 
Bussey, G. G. ; air-gun, 1876 
Bute, earl of, 1713-92; Bute adm., 

marquis of, 1847-1900, Cardiff ; 

St. Andrews 
Butler, gen. ; C. of Good Hope, 1898 
Butler, captain ; Silistria, 1854 
Butler, A. E. ; Abyssinia, 1903 
Butler, gen. B. ; New Orleans, 1862 ; 

d. 1893 
Butler, F. A. Kemble, 1809-93; 

actress 
Butler, bp. J., 1692-1752 
Butler, bp. S. ; Lichfield, 1840 
Butler, Sam (Hudibras), abt. 1612-80 
Butt, Mr. ; trials, 1871 
Butt, I., d. 1879; Ireland, home-rule, 

1871-8 
Butterfiekl, Wm. ; architecture, 1814- 

1900 
Butters, Walter ; trials, 1902 
Buttevant ; viscount, 1385 
Button, sir Thomas; N.E. and W. 

passage, 1612 
Buxton, Mr. ; trials, 1829 
Buxton, E. N., metropolitan school 

board, 1881 
Buxton, sir T. F., 1786-1845 ; prisons, 

1815 
Byng, adm. J., exec. 1757 ; Gibraltar, 

Byng 
Byng, S. A. war, 1901 
Byrne, Mr. Justice ; trials, 1901, 

diamonds, 1899 
Byron, comm. ; port Egmont, 1765 
Byron, Emma, " Kitty " ; trials, 1902 
Byron, George, lord, poet, 1788-1824 ; 

Greece, Missolonghi, swimming; 

Byron national memorial, 1875 
Bysse, Dr. ; music (festivals) 



C. 

Cabot, Sebastian and John; Ame- 
rica, 1497 

Cabral, Alvarez de ; Brazil, 1500 

Cabrera, general ; Ramon, 1810-77 ; 
Spain, 1840 

Cadbury, Mr. Richard ; Birmingham, 
about 1836-89 

Cadell, Captain : Australia, 1867 

Cadge, Mr. Wm. ; Norwich, d. 1899 

Cadmus ; alphabet, Bceotia 

Oadogan, earl; Salisbury adm., 1886, 
1895, 1900, Ireland ; Dublin, 1902 

Cadogan, captain ; duels, 1809 

Cadwallader ; Britain, 678 

Cfficilius Isidorus ; slavery in Rome, 

12 B.C. 

Credmon ; Anglo-Saxons, 680 

Csesar, Julius, 100-44 b.c; Rome, 
Britain, calendar, ides, Dover, 
Pharsalia, Rubicon, Zela 

Csesar, Octavius, 63 B.C.-14 a.d. ; 
Rome, Actium, massacres, tri- 
umvirate, Philippi, emperor 

Ctesalpinus: blood, circulation, 1569 

Cagliostro, a. 1795; diamond neck- 
lace 

Cahill, Jas. ; Fenians, d. 1902 

Cailletet, air, gases, 1877 ; hydrogen 

Caine, Mr. Hall ; Deemster 

Caine, Mr. W. S., M.P. ; temperance 
society, 1903 

Caird, sir James, agriculturist, 1816-92 

Caird v. Syme ; trials, 1887 

Cairns, Hugh, earl, 1819-85, att.-gen. 
1S66, lord chan. 1868-1874 

Cairns, W. W. ; Queensland, South 
Australia 

Cairoli ministry, Italy, 1878, 1879-81 

Caithness, earl of; steam-carriage, 
i860 



1434 

Galas, J., judicially murdered, 1761 
Calder, sir Robt. ; naval batt.. 1805 
Calderon, P., Span, dramatist, 1601-87 
Calderon, Peru, 1881 
Calepino; dictionaries, 1500 
Calhoun, Mr.; temperance soc, 1818 
Caligula; Rome, emperor, 37 
Calippus; Calippic period, 330 b.c. 
Calixtus, pope; Calixtins, 1656 
Callaghan, Jere. ; executed, 1902 
Callaghan, T. ; Falkland isles, 1876 
Callan ; trials, 1874, 1880 
Callcott, J. W. ; music. 1766-1821, 

glee-club 
Callicrates ; calligraphy 
Callin melius; abacus, architecture, 

Corinthian, 540 B.C. 
Callinicus; Greek fire, wildfire 
Callisthenes ; Chaldean, Macedon, 

328 B.C. 

Calocherino, Mr. L. A. ; Candia, 

killed, 1898 
Calonne; notables, 1788 
Calthorpe, Id. ; Birmingham, 1857 
Calverly; mute, 1605 
Calvert, P. Crace, d. 1873 I carbolic 

acid 
Calvert and Co. ; porter, 1 760 
Calvin, John, 1509-64; Calvinism 
Oambaceres; directory, 1799 
Cambon, M. Paul ; England, 1898 
Cambridge, George, duke of, 6. 1819; 

com. -in-chief, 1856; army, 1872 
Cambyses; Egypt, Persia, 525 B.C. 
Camden, lord; chancellor, Perceval 

adm., 1809; exchequer, Ireland 

(lord-lieut.) 
Camden, W. , antiquary, 1551-1623 
Camelford, lord ; duel,* 1S04 
Cameron, H. I.; trials, 1858 
Cameron, M. C. ; W. Territories, 

d. 1898 
Cameron, V. L., 1S44-94; Africa, 

1872-1882 
Cameron, consul; Abyssinia, 1863 
Camillus, Rome; 396 B.C. 
Camoens, Port, poet, 1524-79 
Campbell, bishop; Bangor, 1859 
Campbell, sir C. ; see Clyde 
Campbell, Jas. H. Mussen ; Salisbury 

adm., 1900; Balfour adm. 1902 
Campbell, John, lord i 77 9(?)-i86i ; 

attorney - general, king's bench, 

chancellor, Palmerston 
Campbell, J. P., sunshine recorder 
Campbell, Rev. J. ; trials, 1863 ; 

Campbellites, 1831 
Campbell, Thos. , poet, 1777-1844 
Campbell, major; duel, trials, 1808 
Campbell, capt; marriages (forced), 

1690 
Campbells; disciples of Christ, 

1812 
Camper, Peter, 1722-89; facial angle 
Campion ; trials, 1857 
Campos, Martinez de, 1834-1900 

Carthagena, 1873 ; Spain, 1874, 

Cuba 
Canaletti, Ven. painter, 1697-1768 
Canaris ; Greece, 1863-4-77 
Canby, gen.; killed, Modoc, 1873 
Canevaro, adm. ; anarchy, 1898 
Canning, George, 1770-1827; Can- 
ning, duel, 1809; grammarians, 

anti -jacobin 
Canning, viscount, 1812-62; India, 

1855 
Canova, A., sculptor, 1757-1822 
Canovas del Castillo, Antonio, states- 
man, 1828-97 ; Spain, 1864-97 
Canrobert, Francois, 1809-95 ; Prance, 

1895 
Cantiilon; wills (Napoleon's), iS2i 
Canton, J., rf. 1772; phosphorus, 

phosphorescence, magnetism 
Cantor, Theod. ; Cantor lectures, 

'853 
Canute; England, 1017; Alney 



INDEX. 

Capel, H. ; admiralty office, 1679 

Capet family ; France, 987 

Cape Town, Gray, bp. of; Africa, 
1866 ; Church of England 

Capo d'Istria, count; Greece, 1831 

Caprivi, G. von, count, 1831-99; Ger- 
many, 1890-99 

Caracalla; Rome, emp. 211 ; Ale- 
manni 

Caracci, L., painter, 1555-1619; An., 
1568-1609 

Caraccioli, adm., executed, Naples, 
1799 

Caractacus ; Britain, 50 

Caraffa, bishop; Theatines, 1524 

Carapanos, M.; Dodona 

Carausius; Britain, 286 

Cardan, J., 1501-76; algebra 

Carden, Mr.; trials, 1854 

Cardigan, lord; duel, 1840; trials, 
1841 and 1863 ; Balaklava, 1854 

Cardross case ; trials. 1861 

Carducci, auth. ; Ital. lang., 1836 

Cardwell, Edward, viset., 1813-86 
Palmerston adm., 1855-59; Glad- 
stone adm. 1868 ; army, 1872 

Carey, bisliop; St. Asaph, 1830 

Carey, James ; Ireland, 1883 

Carleton, sir Guy ; U. States, 1782 

Carlier, fire-annihilator 

Carlile, R.; atheist; trials, 1819, 
1831 

Carlingfcrd, lord ; Gladstone adm., 
1880 

Carlisle, earl of; Ireland, lord-lieu- 
tenant, 1859 

Carlos, don ; Spain, 1833-73 

Carlyle, Thos., phil. and hist., 
1795-1881 

Carlyle, rev. W., church army 

Carmarthen, marquis of; adminis- 
trations, 1689 

Carnarvon, earl of; Salisbury adm., 
1885 ; Disraeli admin., 1874 

Carnegie, Andrew; Edinburgh, 1890; 
coal ; explosions, 1900 ; Dundee, 
Glasgow, Pittsburg, 1901, Belfast, 
ch. of Scot., Leeds, 1902 

Carnot, L., French mathematician, 
1753-1823 

Carnot, M. Sadi ; president, 1837-94; 
France, 1886-94 

Caroline; queen (George II.), parks 

Caroline; queen (George IV.), Bran- 
denburg-house, delicate investiga- 
tion 

Carpenter, W. B., physiologist, 
1813-85 ; deep sea 

Carpenter, W. Boyd ; bp. Ripon, 
1884 

Carpenter, gen.; Preston, 1715 

Carr, bishop; Worcester, 1831 

Carr, Howell ; national gallery, 1824 

Carr, J. Comyns ; Savoy Palace, 1898 

Carre; congelation, i860 

Carrington, gen. sir Fred. ; Rhodesia, 
1900 

Carrol, balloons, 1S78 

Carroll, Lewis (rev. Chas. Lutwidge 
Dodgson), author of "Alice in 
Wonderland," etc., 1833-98 

Carson, sir Ed. ; Salisbury adm. 1900 ; 
Balfour adm. 1902 

Carstares, rev. W. ; thumbscrew 

Carte, D'Oyly ; 1845-1901, Savoy 

Carteret ; circumnavigator, 1766 

Carteret, lord; Walpole adm., 1721 

Carthage, St.. Lismore, 636 

Carticr; America, 1534 
('artier, Richard; alchemy, 1476 
Cartwright, sir R. ; Canada, 189S 
Cartwright, Mr., editor ; C. of Good 

Hope, 1901 
Cartwright, major; trials, 1820 
Carus, .1. V. ; bibliographer and zoo- 
logist. 1823-1903 
Can ilius, Spurius; divorces, 234 b.c 
Caryll, Ivan ; Savoy Palace, 189S 



Casati, G. ; 1838-1902, Africa, 1891 
Case, Mr. Ed. ; engineers, d. 1809 
Casella, L. ; thermometer, 1861 

Cashin, Miss ; quackery, 1830 

Cashman; Spalields, riots, 1816 

Casimir; Poland 

Casimir-Perier, Jean P. P. ; presi- 
dent ; France, 1874-6, 1893, 1894 

Cassagnac, P. de; duels, France, 1877 

Cassander; Macedon, 316 b.c 

Cassini, 1625-1712; astronomy; Bo- 
logna, latitude, Saturn, 1655 

Cassius; Phiiippi, 42 B.C. 

Cassivelaunus ; Britain, 54 ; chariots 

Castanos ; Spain, 1852 

Castelar, Emilio, orator and republi- 
can 1832-99; Spain, 1869-73 

Castelli ; electricity (w. telegraphy), 
1902 

Castlereagh, lord : union with Ire- 
land, 1800: Pitt admin., 1S04; 
Liverpool admin., 1812; duel, 1S09; 
suicide, 1822 

Castner, H. Y. ; d. 1899 ; solium, 
aluminium 

Castro, gen. ; Colombia, 1902 

Catch v. Shaen, trials, 1870 

Catesby, Rob.; gunpowder, 1605 

Cathcart, Id. ; Copenhagen, 1807 

Cathcart, general; Kaft'raria; Inker- 
mann, 1854 

Cathcart, Mrs. ; trials, 1891 

Catherine ; England (queens, Hen. 
V., VIII., Charles II.) 

Catherine ; Russia, 1725 ; Odessa ; 
Sebastopol 

Cato (the censor) ; agriculture, 149 
b.c ; Carthage ;— (the tribune), kills 
himself, 46 B.C. 

Cator, Adm. R. P., d. 1903 ; inventor 
of an "alarm buoy." 

Catullus, poet, d. abt. 47 b.c. 

Catulus; Cimbri, 101 b.c 

Cauchois, M. Felix ; Canoe, 1900 

Caulaincourt ; Chatillon, 1814. 

Caus, S. de ; steam-engine, 1615 

Cautley, sir P., 1802-71 ; Ganges, 
1854 

Cavagnari, L. ; Afghanistan, 187S-9 

Cavaignae, general ; France, 1848 

Cavalier, camisards 

Cavaliere, EmUio di ; opera, recita- 
tive, 1600 

Cave, Bertha ; women, trials, 1902 

Cave, S.,judge-advocate,i874; Egypt, 
1875-6. 

Cavendish v. Strutt ; trials, 1903 

Cavendish ; whist, 1899 

Cavendish, circumnavigator, 1586 

Cavendish, lord Frederick ; Glad- 
stone adm., 1880 ; murdered, Ire- 
land, 1882 

Cavendish, H., 1731-1810 ; balloons, 
electricity, chemistry, nitrogen, 
hydrogen, water 

Cavendish, lord John ; Portland ad- 
ministration, 1783 

Cavendish, John de ; judges, 1382 

Cavendish, W. ; Devonshire, 1618 

Cavill, Mr. ; swimming 

Cavour, Camille de, 1809-61 ; Sar- 
dinia, Austria, Italy 

Caxton, Wm., about 1412-91 ; print- 
ing 

Cayley, sir G. ; heat 

Caylus, count ; encaustic painting, 
1765 

Cecil, Wm. (aft. lord Burleigh); 
administrations, 1551 

Cecrops ; Athens, 1556 B.C. 

Celakovsky, L. ; botanist, 1836-1903 

Celeste, niadame ; theatres (Adelphi), 
1S44 

Cclestin ; popes, 1143 

(elirourt, sir A. A. ; Mauritius, i3i8- 
1899 

Celnian, Dr. ; Argentine republic, 
1890 



INDEX. 



143-5 



Celsus ; midwifery, &c, 37 
Cerdic ; Britain (Wessex) 
Cerinthus ; apocalypse ; cerinthians 
Cenmschi, H. ; bi-metallism 
Cervantes, M. S., 1547-1616 ; don 

Quixote 
Cervera ; elec. (w. telegraphy), 1902 
Cespedes, C. M. de ; Cuba, 186S 
Cetywayo (Zulu chief) ; Transvaal, 

Zululand, 1872-81, Uhmdi 
Chabannes, ecorcheurs, 1438 
Chacornac ; planets, 1853 
Chad wick, sir E., 1800-90; sanitation 
Chaffers, Alexander, statutory decla- 
ration 
Challeinel - Lacour, M., 1827-96; 

Prance, 1893 
Challoner, T. ; alum, 1608 
Chalmers, Dr. T., 1780-1847 
Chalmers, sir David ; Sierra Leone, 

d. 1899. 
Chamberlain, Austen, b. 1863 ; Salis- 
bury adm. 1895, 1900 ; Balfour 
adm., 1902 ; Transvaal, 1901 ; 
Exchequer, 1903 
Chamberlain, Joseph, b. 1836 ; Glad- 
stone adm. 1S80, 1886 ; bankrupts ; 
Merchant shipping Act ; fisheries, 
United States, 1887 ; radical pro- 
gramme ; Salisbury adms., 1895, 
1900 ; Balfour adm. , 1902-3 ; Trans- 
vaal, 1896 et seq. ; Cape Colony, 
1902-3 ; colonies, 1895, 1902 ; 
England, 1903, Cobden club, free 
trade, 1903 
Chamberlain, sir X. 1820- 1902; 
Afghanistan, 1878, Kliyber ; field- 
marshal, 1900 
Chamberlain, Mr. Rich. ; Birming- 
ham, 1899 
Chambers, W. O., fish, 18S4 
Chambers, bishop ; Peterborough, 1 54 1 
Chambers ; encyclopaedia, 1728, 1859 ! 
Chambers' journal; — R., 1802-71; 
— W.. 1800-83 ; Edinburgh, 1S83 
Chambers, John Gray ; Aberdeen, 

1890 
Chambers, sir T. ; recorder, 1878- 

1891 
Chambers, sir William ; Somerset- 
house, 1775 
Chambers, Win. ; executed, 1902 
Chambord, comte de, 1820-83 ; Prance, 

1870-6 ; flag 
Chance, sir Jas. ; Birmingham, d. 

1902 
Chancellor, R. ; north-east passage 
Changarnier, general, 1793-1877 ; 

France, 1851, 1873 
Chang-chih-tung ; china, 1902 
Chang-yin-huan, G.C.M.G. ; china ; 

d. 1900 
Channing, W., 1780- 1842 
Chantrelle, E. M. ; trials, 1878 
Chantrey, P., sculpt., 1782-1841 ; 

Royal Academy 
Chanzy, Fr. gen., 1823-83 ; Franco- 
Prussian war, 1870-1 ; Algiers, 1878 
Chaplin, IT. ; Salisbury adm., 1885, 

1889, 1895, Agriculture 
Chapman, Mr. ; armada sermon 
Chappe, M. ; telegraphs, 1792 
Chappell, Thos ; d. 1902, music ; 

James's, St., Hall, 1859 
Chard and Bromhead, lieuts. ; Zulu- 
land, 1879 
Chares ; colossus, 288 B.C. 
Charlemagne, 742-814 ; academy, 
couriers, Avars, Bavaria, Chris- 
tianity, France, Germany, Navarre 
Charles Albert ; Sardinia, 1831 ; No- 

vara, 1849 
Charles ; England, France, Spain, 
Savoy, Germany, Sweden, Sicily, 
<fec. 
Charles V. ; emperor, 1500-58; Spain, 

Austria, Germany, Spires 
Charles V. ; Bastille, 1369 



Charles VI. ; picquet, 1390 

Charles XII., 1682-1718 ; Sweden, 

Frederickshald 
Charles the Bald, Fontenaille 
Charles the Bold ; Burgundy, 1468, 

Nancy, Liege 
Charles, archduke, 1771-1847; As- 

perne, Eeknmhl, Essling 
Charles of Anjou ; Naples, 1266 
Charles of Hohenzollern, prince (aft. 
king) of Roumania, b. 1839 ; Danu- 
bian principalities ; Russo-Turkish 
war II. 1877 
Charles of Lorraine ; Lissa, 1757 
Charles Stuart, prince ; pretender, 

Culloden, 1746 
Charle-s, Elizabeth Rundle, religious 

novelist, etc., 1828-96 
Charlesworth, J. C. ; trials, 1861 ; — 
Charlesworth, Mr. and Mrs. ; con- 
valescent, 1866 
Charlotte, queen, England (Geo. 

III.) 
Charlotte, princess of Wales, 1796- 

1817 ; Claremont 
Chasse, gen. ; Antwerp, 1832 
Chateaubriand, viscount, French 

writer, 1768-1848 
Chatham, earl of, 1708-78 ; Newcas- 
tle admin., 1757 ; Chatham admin., 
1766 ; Walcheren, 1809 
Chattell, Miss Hettie ; trials, 1901 
Chatterton, T.", poet, 1752-70 
Chaucer, G., 1328-1400; Canterbury 

tales 
Chaves, marq. of; Portugal, 1826 
Che-kiang ; China, 1900 
Chelmsford, Id. ; Derby adm., 1858 ; 

Zululand, 1879, Ulundi 
Cherbuliez, Victor, 1829-1899 ; Swit- 
zerland, lit. ; France. 
Chermside, sir H. ; Candia, 1898 
Cherubini, music, comp., 1760-1842 
Chesham, Sarah ; trials, 1851 
Cheshire rioters ; trials, 1S42 
Chesney, gen. F. R., 1 789-1872 ; 

Assyria, 1835 ; Euphrates, 1850 
Chesney, gen. sir George T., 1830-95, 

Dorking, India, 1895 
Chetwind, capt.; oil on waters 
Chetwynd, sir G. v. Durham ; trials, 

18S9 
Chevallier, M. , 1806-79 ; Albert medal, 

1875, Liverpool, 1875 
Chevki, col. ; Candia, 1898 
Chevreul, E., chemist, &c, 1786-1889 : 
candles, glycerine, Albert medal, 
1873 
Chicheley, archbishop ; Canterbury, 

1414-1443 
Chi-hsiu ; China, 1901 
Childe, H. L. ; dissolving views 
Childeric ; France (kings) 
Childers, H. C.„ 1827-96, admiralty ; 
Gladstone adms., 1868, 1880, 1886 ; 
Greenwich schools. 1870 ; nat. debt 
Chi-li ; China, 1902 
Chillingworth, W., theol., 1602-44 
Ching, prince, 1901 
Chiniquy, Father; Canada, 1809- 

1899 
Chisholm, Mr. Hugh; ency., 1903 
Chisholm, H. W. ; weights, 1877 
Chitty, Joseph William, lord justice, 

1828-99 
Chladni, E., 1756-1827; acoustics 
Choate, Mr. Jos. ; England, U.S. 
Choiseul, E., due de, 1719-85 
Cholmeley, sir R., Highgate 
Cholmondeley, gen. ; horseguards, 

1693 
Chopin, F., Polish mus., 1810-49 
Chosroes I. ; Persia, 531 
Chou-fu ; China, 1002 
Chrimes, Richard, etc. ; blackmail, 



Christensen, 
1901 



Auguste ; abstinence, 



Christian, Mr. F. W. ; Ca.oli ie Is., 
1898. 

Christian ; Denmark, Sweden, 144S 

Christian IV. ; Christiania, 1624 

Christian VII. ; Denmark, 1775 ; 
Oldenburg 

Christie, life-raft, &c, 1875 

Christie, R. C. ; writer and biblio- 
phile, 1830-1901 

Christie, W. H. ; Greenwich (astro- 
nomer royal) ; eclipses, igoi 

Christina ; Sweden, 1633 ; Spain, 

Christine, M., twins 
Christophe ; Hayti, 181 1 
Christopher ; Denmark (kings), 1252-, 

1320 
Christopher, Robt. Adam ; Derby, 

adm., 1852 
Chrysostom ; fathers, 354-407 
Chuang, prince ; China, 1901 
Chubb, Mr., locks 
Chun, prince ; China, 1901-3 
Church, dean, Church of England, 

1881 
Church, Fred. Edwin ; painting, 

1 826- 1 900 
Church, Wm., bart. (K.C.B. 1902); 

physicians, 1899 
Churcher, Wm. ; executed 1902 
Churchill, C. ; satires, 1731-64 
Churchill, Id. R., 1849-95; fourth 
party, 1880; Salisbury adm. 1885-6 
Churchill, Lady R. ; reviews, 1899 
Churchill, Mr. Winston ; corres., 

S. A. war, 1899 
Chylesmore, Id. ; nat. gal., 1902 
Cialdini, gen. ; Italy, 1S160 ; Castel 

Fidardo, Gaeta 
Cibber, C, 1671-1757; poet-laureate. 
Cicero. 106-43 BC - '• Athens, Rome 

Catiline, philippics 
Cid (Spanish hero), d. 1099 
Cimabue, painter, 1240-1300 
Cimarosa, musician, 1754-1801 
Cimon ; Eurymedon, 466 B.C. 
Cincinnatus, dictator, 458 B.C. 
Cinna, consul, killed, 84 B.C. 
Clanny, Dr. Reid ; safety lamp, 

1S17 
Clanricarde, marq. of; postmaster, 
1846 ; Russell administration. 
1851 ; Palmerston administration, 
1855 
Clapperton, Hugh, traveller, 1788- 

1827 
Clare, John, poet, 1793-1864 
Clare, earl of; duel, 1820 
Clarendon, earl of, see Hyde;— earl 
of, G. F. Villiers, 1800-70 ;— Ire- 
land, lord-lieut.; Aberdeen, Pal- 
merston 
Clark, sir Andrew, 1826-93 ; physi- 
cians, 1888 
Clark, Edwin, 1814-94 > engineers 
Clark, Latimer, electrical engineer., 

1822-98 
Clark, sir James, phys., 1788-1S70 
Clarke, Adam, theol., 1760-1832 ; — 
Sam., theol., 1675-1729 ;— Edw. D. ? 
traveller, 1768-1822 
Clarke, col. sir Geo. ; Victoria, 1895 
Clarke, lieut.-gen. sir Andrew, 1824- 

1902 ; Straits, 1874 
Clarke, sir E. ; sol. -gen., 1886 
Clarke, gen. ; Cape, 1795 
Clarke, Hyde ; philologist and en- 
gineer, 1815-95 
Clarke, J. Algernon ; automaton 
Clarke, M. A. ; trials, 1814 
Clarke, M. C, b. 1809; Shakspeare, 

concordance, 1847 
Clarkson, Thos., 1760-1846 ; slave- 
trade, slavery 
Clarv, count ; Austria, 1899 
Claude Lorraine, painter, 1600-82 
Claudian, Latin poet, d. about 
408 



1436 



INDEX. 



Claudius; Rome, emperor, 41 ; II., 

Goths, 269 ; Naissus 
Claudius, App. ; decemviri, 451 B.C. 
Claughtou, bp. ; Rochester, Albans, St. 
Clausel, marshal ; Algiers, 1836 
Clausius, R. J., physicist, 1822-28 
Claussen, chev. ; flax, 1851 
Claverhouse ; Bothwell, 1679 
Clay, F., mus. comp., 1840-89 
Clay, Mr.; slavery, U. S., 1820; 

Liberia ; whist 
Claydon, Alick ; executed, 1901 
Clayton, Dr. ; gas, 1739 
Clayton, Mr. ; duel, 1830 
Cleaver, bishop ; Bangor, St. Asaph, 

1806-1815 
Cleisthenes ; ostracism, 510 B.C. 
Clemenceau, M., Fr. polit. ; France, 

1882 et seq. 
Clemens Romanus ; popes, 662 ; — 

Alexandrinus, d. abt. 213 
Clemens, Sam. (Mark Twain), Eng. 

lang., 1835 
Clement ; popes, 91 ; VII. ; pontiff, 

benefices, Clementines, 1378 ; — 

VIII. ; index ;— XIV. (Ganganelli), 

1769 ; Jesuits 
Clement, C. G. ; nat. gall., 1899 
Clement, Jacques; France, 1589; — 

Joseph ; planing machine, 1825 ; — 

Julian ; midwifery, 1663 
Clementi, M., nrusic, cl. 1832 ; sonata 
Clements, gen. ; S. A. war, 1900 
Cleomenes ; Sparta, 236 B.C. 
Cleon, Athenian demagogue, killed 

422 B.C. ; Amphipolis 
Cleopatra ; Egyjit, 69-30 b.o. et 

seq. 
Clery ; S. A. war, 1900 
Cleveland, Grover, b. 1837; president 

United States, 1884, 1892 ; Chicago 
Clifford, lord ; Roman Catholics, 

1829 ;— sir Tho., cabal, 1670 
Clifford, Dr. ; dissenters, 1902 
Clifford, C. ; life-boat, 1856 
Clifford, Mr. Hugh Geo. ; Borneo, 

1900 
Clifford, J. ; trials, 1870 
Clifford, W. X. , mathemat. ; dynamics 
Clinton, Geoffrey de ; Kenilworth, 

1 1 20 
Clinton, H. Fynes, 1781-1852 ; chro- 
nology 
Clinton, sir H. ; Yorktown, 1781 
Clive, Robt., lord, 1725-74; Arcot, 

India, Plassey 
Cloncurry, lord, v. Piers ; trials, 1807 
Cloots, Anacharsis, exec. 1794 
Close, Mr. ; duels, 1836 
Clotaire ; France (kings), 558 
Clouet ; gas 
Clovis (Chlodowig, Ludwig, Ludo- 

vicus. Louis) ; France, 481 ; Nor- 

mandy, Paris, Clovis, Salique, 

fleur-de-lis, Alemanni 
Clune, &c. ; trials, 1830 
Cluseret, gen. 1823-1900; Lyons, 1870; 

France, 1871 ; Fenians, 1872 
Clutterbuck, rev. J. ; trials, 1891 
Clyde, lord, 1792-1863 ; India, 1857 
Clymcr; printing-press, 1814 
Coats, Joseph, M.D. ; pathologist, 

1846-99 
Cobbett, William, 1762-1835; trials, 

1809, 1811, 1831 
Cobden, R., 1804-65: anti-corn-law 

league, free trade, French treaty, 

peace congress 
Cobham, Id. ; Lollards, 1418 
Cobiirg, prince of; Fleurus, i794(see 

,S<i.rc-( 'ubiiiy) 

Cochrane, lord (afterwards Dun- 

donald), <l. t86o; Basque 1 is, 

slocks, trials, 1814 
Cochrane, Mr. ; Balfour adm. 1902 
Cockburn, sir A., 1802-80 ; solicitor- 
general, 1858 ; attorney-general, 
king's bench, eh. j., Alabama 



Cocker-ill, J. : Seraing 

Cockerton ; Education, 1900 ; trials, 

1900 
Cocking, Mr. ; balloons, 1837 
Codrington, admiral sir E. ; Nava- 

rino, 1827 ; — sir W. J., 1804-84 ; 

Crimea 
Codrus ; Athens, 1092 B.C. 
Coe ; trials, 1876 
Coggia ; comets, 1874 ; planets, 1868, 

1878 
Cohn, Dr., germ theory 
Cohorn, B. van, military engineer, 

1641-1704 
Coke, sir Edw., 1550-1634; parlia- 
ments, 1592 
Colbert, J. B, 1619-83 ; tapestry 
Colborne, sir John ; Canada, 1838 
Colclough, Mr. ; duels, 1807 
Colcutt, T. E. ; imperial institute 
Cole, Vicat ; painter, 1833-93 
Cole andCox(police); parliament, 1885 
Coleman, Mrs. ■; actress, 1656 
Coleman, St. ; Cloyne, 6th cent. 
Colenso, bp., 1814-83 ; church of 

England, 1863 ; trials, 1866 ; Natal 
Colenso, Rev. Wm., F.R.S. ; N. Zea- 
land, 1899 
Coleridge, Id. ; Atlantic union, 1900 
Coleridge, sir J., soli c. -gen. ; att.- 

gen., 1871, com. pleas, 1873 ; 

king's bench, 1880 
Coleridge, Samuel T., poet, &c. , 

1772-1834; method 
Coles, capt. Cowper, 1831-70 ; navy 

of England, 1855-70 ; Captain 
Colet, J. : Paul's school, 1512 
Coley, Coley's fluid 
Coligni, admiral, killed, 1572 
Collard, dwarf, 1873 
Collard, rear-adml. ; suicide, rS46 
Colley, sir G. P. ; Transvaal, Natal, 

Ma.juba 
Collie, Alex. ; London, 1875 
Collier, J. P., 1789-1884; Shakspeare, 

1849 
Collier, Jeremy; eccles.-hist., 1650- 

1726 
Collier, sir R. P.; att.-gen., 186S ; 

baron Monkswell, 1885 
Collings, Jesse ; restitution bill ; 

Salisbury adm. 1900 
Collingwood, lord, 1748-1810 ; Trafal- 
gar, 1805 ; naval battles, 1809 
Collins, govr. ; Hobart Town, 1804 
Collins, sir R. H. ; master of the 

rolls ; 1001 
Collins, Wm. W., nov. 1824-89 
Collinson, Ar. ; arson, 1898 
Collinson, sir R., 1811-83 ; Franklin, 

1850 
Collucci, V. ; trials, 1861 
Colman, G., cl. 1794 ;— G., jun., 1762- 

1836 
Colman, Mr. J. J. ; Norwich, 1899 
Colomb, adm., 1831-99 ; fog 
Colonna family flourish, 1288-1555 
Colonna, V., poetess, 1490-1547 
Colpoys, admiral; mutinies, 1797 
Colt, colonel ; pistols, 1853 
Columba, St., 521-97 ; isles 
Columbanus, d. 614 or 615 
Columbiere : armorial bearings, 1639 
Columbus, Bartholomew; charts, 

1489 
Columbus, Chr., 1436 or 1442-1506 ; 

America, Bahama, Caraccas, 

Christopher's, Salvador, Domingo; 

Chicago, 1893 
Columella, medical writer, abt. 46 
Colvile, col. Henry Edw., K.C.M.G., 

1895 : Uganda 
Coh ille, sir ( '. ; Cambray, 1815 
Colville, sir Wm., 1827-1903 
Colvill, sir A.; India and Egypt. 

1883 
Colvin, prof. S. ; ancient buildings; 

Slade prof. 



Combe, G., 1788-1858 ; craniology 
Combermere, Id. ; Bhurtpore, 1826 
Comines, Ph. de, Fr. hist., 1445-1509 
Commerell, sir J. E. adm., 1829-1901 ; 

Ashantees, 1873 
Commodus ; Rome, emperor, 180 
Common, Dr. A. A. ; astronomer, 

1841-1903, telescopes 
Comneni ; eastern emperors, 1057 ; 

Pontus, Trebizond, 1204 
Compton, Id. A., bp.; Ely, 1885 
Comte, A., 1798-1857 ; calendar, posi- 
tive philosophy 
Comyn, Mr. ; trials, 1830 
Concha, gen. ; Spain, 1868, 1874, Es- 

tgUa 
Conde, Louis ; Jarnac, 1569 
Conflans ; Quiberon, 1759 
Confucius, 551 — 477 B.C. ; Confucian- 
ism ; China 
Congleton, lord ; suicide, 1842 
Congreve, R., 1818-99; positive phil. 
Congreve, W., dramatist, 1670-1729 
Congreve, sir Wm., 1772-1828 ; fire- 
works, 1814 
Connetf, T. ; running, 1895 
Conolly, J., 1795-1866; lunatics, 

1839 
Conon ; Sparta, 394 B.C. ; Arginusse 
Conquest, Mr. Geo., actor ; theatres, 

d. 1 901 
Conrad ; Germany, emperor, 911 
Conrad II. ; Germany, 1024 ; Bur- 
gundy 
Conradin ; Naples, Germany, 1268 
Constans ; Aquileia, 340 
Constans, M. ; France, 1889 
Constant, Ben. ; 1845-1902 ; France, 

painting 
Constantine ; Rome, emp., 323 ; 
Adrianople, haruspices, banner, 
Britain, Eastern empire, Rome, 
York, Scotland 
Constantine II. ; Aquileia, 340 
Constantine IV. ; monasteries 
Constantinidi, Demetrius ; trials, 

1903 
Constantius ; Rome, emps. , 305 
Contarini (doges at Venice), 1041- 

1694 
Conway, sir Edw. ; administrations, 
1621 : — general, Chatham adminis- 
tration, 1766 
Conway, sir M. ; Andes, 1900 ; Slade 

prof., 1 90 1 
Coode, sir John ; breakwater, 1S90 
Cook, Mrs., murdered ; trials, 1841 
Cook, capt James, 1728-79 ; Austra- 
lia, Cook's voyages, Behring's 
Straits, Botany Bay, Flattery Cape, 
New Hebrides, New Zealand, Nor- 
folk Island, Otaheite, Owhyhee, 
Port Jackson, Society isles 
Cook, Mr. J. M. ; Cook s excursions, 

d. 1899 
Cook, J . P. , murdered ; trials, 1856 
Cooke, E. W., R.A., 1810-80 
Cooke, Eliz. ; trials, 1S32 
Cooke, sir George ; Chatham 1766 
Cooke, Geo. Fred., actor, 1755-1812 
Cooke, W. F., electric teleg., 1837 
Cooper, Astley, surgeon, 176S-1841 
Cooper, J. Fe'nimore, Am. novelist, 

1789-1851 
Cooper, 1'., philan.; New York, 1883 
Cooper; trials, 1S05, 1842 
Coote, sir Eyre; India, Arcot, 1760; 

Carnatic, Cuddalore, Porto Novo 
Cope, sir John: Prestonpans, 1745 
Copeland, rev. 15. A. ; Ceylon, 1903 
Copernicus, Nic, 1473-1543; astro- 
nomy, attraction, solar system 
Copleston, bishop ; Llaudatf, 1827 
Copley, J., painter, 173S-1815 
Coram, capt. Tims., d. 1751; found- 
ling hospital, 1739 
Corday, Charlotte; France, 1793 
Cordeaux.John, ornithologist, 1831-99 



INDEX. 



1437 



Corder, William; trials, 1828 
Cordes, Mr. T. ; Newport, d. 1901 
Cordova, general de ; Granada, 1492 
Corelli, A., musician, 1653-1713 
Corelli, Marie, novelist ; 1864 ; trials, 

1903 
Coriield, prof. W. H., 1843-1903 ; 

writer on hygiene, sanitation, &c. 
Corin; libertines, 1525 
Coriolanus; Rome, Volsoi, 490 B.C. 
Cormac ; Cashel, 901 
Corneille, P.; Pr. dram. 1606-84 
Cornelius ; Spitzbergen, 1595 
Cornelius, P. von; Ger. paint., 1787- 

1S67 
Cornell, E. ; Cornell miiv., 1868 
Cornliill, Henry; sheriff, 1189 
Cornu, Alfred, scientist, 1841-1902 ; 

light 
Cornwall, bp. ; Worcester, 1808 
Cornwallis, abp.; Canterbury, 1768; 

Lichfield, 1781 
Cornwallis, marquis, 1738-1805; ad- 
miralty, India, America, Banga- 
lore, Ireland (lord-lieut. ), Seringa- 

patam 
Cornwallis, B.; Halifax, N.S. 
Coroebus; Olympiads, 776 B.C. 
Correggio, A., painter, 1494-1534 
Corry; duel, 1800 
Corry, H. T. L., 1803-83; admiralty, 

1867 
Cort, H. ; iron, 1781 
Corte Real ; America, north-west 

passage, 1500 
Cortez, P., 1485-1554; Mexico, 1521 
Coryate, Thomas ; forks, 1608 
Cosmo, I.; Port Ferrajo, 1548 
Costa, Giovanni, painter, 1826-1903 
Costa, M. (aft. sir), 1810-84 ; musician 
Coster, L. ; printing 
Cottenham, lord; chancellor, lord 

high, 1836 
Cottenot, planets, 1878 
Cottington, lord ; administrations, 

1635 
Cotton, J. S. ; academy, the, 1881-96 
Cotton, M. A.; poisoning, 1873 
Cotton, sir Rich. ; London, d. 1902 
Cotton, R. ; Cottonian library, 1600 
Cotton, sir Stapleton; Villa Franca, 

1812 
Cotton, W. J. R. ; (knt. 1892), 1822- 

1902 ; mayor, lord, 1875 ; city 

chamberlain, 1892 
Coulomb, C, 1736-1806; electricity, 

1785 
Courbet ; China, 1884 ; Tonquin 
Courier, P. L. ; pamphlets 
Courtanvaux; ether, 1759 
Courtenay, abp. Canterbury, 1381 
Courtenay; Thomites, 1838 
Courtenay, sir Wm. ; Exeter, 1469 
Courtois, M. de ; iodine, 1812 
Courvoisier; trials, 1840 
Cousin, V., Pr. philos., 1792-1867 
Coutts, baroness A. Burdett, 6. 1814 ; 

trials, 1847; Columbia market, 1869; 

Chichester, 1874; Edinburgh, 1873 ; 

flower-girl brigade, 1880; children, 

1884; Baltimore 
Coventry; administrations, 162S-1672 
Coverdale, Miles, b. 1487 ; Bible, 1535 
Cowan, Mr. ; Kookas, 1872 
Cowell, prof. E. B., orientalist, 1826- 

1903 
Cowen, J., Newcastle, 1871 ; demo- 
' cratic federals 

Cowen v. Labouchere ; trials, 1902 
Cowie, Dr., bp. ; N. Zealand, d. 1902 
Cowles, E. ; aluminium 
Cowley, Abraham, poet, 1618-67 
Cowley, countess ; trials, 1901-2 
Cowper, dean ; Sydney, d. igo2 
Cowper, lord ; Burford, Halifax, 

1714 
Cowper, earl ; Gladstone adm., 1880 
Cowper, E. ; printing-machine, 1815 



Cowper, E. A. ; electric telegraph, 

1879 
Cowper, Wm., poet, 1 731-1800 
Cox, John ; blackmail, 1899 
Cox, Walter; trials, 1811 
Coxon (family) case ; trials, 1893 
Coxwell, Mr., 1819-1900 ; balloons, 

1862-73 
Coyle, Mr. Bernard ; duel, 1802 
Cozens-Hardy, sir H. H. ; justices, 

lords, 1901 
Crabbe, Geo., poet, 1754-1832 
Crabtree, W. ; Venus 
Craggs, Mr. ; Sunderland admin., 

1718 
Craig, Isa, p., d. 23 Dec. 1903 
Craik, Henry, K.C.B. 1897 (educatn.) 
Crampton, Mr.; United States, 1856 
Cranborne, lord, 6. 1861 ; Salisbury 

adm., 1900-2; Balfour adm., 1902 
Cranbrook, lord; Salisbury adm., 

1885, 1886 
Crane, sir Francis ; tapestry, 1619 
Cranfield, Lionel, lord.; administra- 
tions, 1621 
Cranmer, archbp., 1489-1356; Can- 
terbury, administrations, 1529 ; 
homilies, martyrdom 
Cranworth, lord; chancellor, 1852 
Crassus, Marcus, slain; ovation, 53 

B.C. 

Craterus; Crannon, 322 

Crawford, eaii of ; Dunecht, trials, 

1882 
Crawford, divorce case ; trials, 1886 
Crawford, A. T. ; India, 1889 
Crawford, P. Marion ; English lang., 

1845 
Crawfurd, earl of; Brechin, 1452 
Crawley, Mr. H. E. ; tennis, 1892-4 
Crawley; trials, 1802, 1863; steel 
Creighton, Mandell, 1843-1901 ; bp., 
Peterborough, 1891 ; London, 1896 
Crellin, Miss; trials, 1842 
Cremer, Mr. Wm. Randall, M.P. ; 

Nobel bequest, 1900 
Cremona, Luigi, 1830-1903 ; mathe- 
matician 
Crespigny, Mr.; duel, 1828 
Cresswell, sir C., 1794-1863; probate, 

1857 
Cresswell v. Walrond ; trials, 1877 
Creswick, T.; paint., 1811-69 
Crete, prince Geo. of; Austria, 1901 
Crewe, bp.; Bamborough, 1778 
Crichton-Browne, sir Jas. ; children, 

1903 
Crichton, Jas. (the admirable), about 

1560-1583, m. ; London, 1896 
Crillon, due de; Gibraltar, 1782 
Cripps, M.P. ; church discipline act, 

1903 
Cripps, W. J., 1841-1903 ; plate ; 

o.b. 1889 
Crispi, Francesco. 1819-1901 ; Italy, 

1887-95 . 
Cristofalli, pianoforte 
Cristovitch ; Roumelia, 1884 
Crockatt v. Dick; trials, 1818 
Crockett, Messrs. ; leather-cloth 
Croesus ; Lydia, 560 b. c. 
Croft; impostors, 1553 
Croft, sir Richard; suicide, 1818 
Crofts, Mr.; dwarfs, 1653 
Croke, abp.; Ireland, 1881 
Crollius; calomel, 1608 
Croly, Geo.; poet, 1780-1860 
Cromer, Id. ; London 
Crompton, Sam., 1753-1827; cotton; 

mule, 1779 
Cromwell, Oliver, 1599-1658; admin- 
istrations, 1653 ; Amboyna, agita- 
tors, commonwealth, England, 
Drogheda, Dundalk, mace, Ire- 
land, Marston Moor, Naseby, Wor- 
cester, Manchester, 1875 
Cromwell, Richard ; administrations, 
1658; England 



Cromwell, T., lord Essex; adminis- 
tration, 1532; registers 

Cronin, Dr. ; murder ; United States, 
1889 

Cronje, gen. ; S.A. war, 1899 et seq. 

Crookes, Wm. ; knt. 1897, thallium,, 
1861 ; spiritualism, radiometer, 
light, otheoscope , elements, vacuum 

Crosbie, sir Edward; trials, 1798 

Crosbie, Mr. Wm. Talbot ; Ireland, 
d. 1899 

Cross, E. ; Surrey Gardens, 1831 

Cross, sir R. A. , viscount ; Disraeli 
administration, 1874 ; Salisbury 
adm. 1885, 1886, 1895 

Crossley, F. ; Halifax, 1857 

Crossley, sir Saville ; England, 
Balfour adm., 1902 

Crouch; trials, 1844 

Crowse, E. ; needles 

Crowther, bishop ; Niger 

Crowther, lieut. ; duel, 1829 

Crozier, capt. ; N.-W. passage, 1845 

Crozier, Sam. ; executed, 1899 

Cruden, Alex.; concordance, 1737 

Cruikshank, G., 1792-1878; wood-en- 
graving 

Crusenstolpe, auth. ; Sweden, 1795- 
1865 

Ctesias; hist., 398 B.C. ; Assyria 

Ctesibius, 140 b.c. ; clock, organ, 
pump 

Cubitt, Mr. ; treadmill, 1817 ; J., 
Blackfriars, 1867 

Cullen, Paul, cardinal ; 1803-78 ; 
Dublin, 1878 

Cullen, W, physician, 1712-90 

Culme-Seymour, sir M. ; see Sey- 
mour 

Cumberland, duke of; Closterseven, 
Culloden, Fontenoy, 1745 ; Cumber- 
land 

Cumberland, R. ; comedies, 1732- 
1811 

Cumberland, S. ; thought reading 

dimming, Gordon; lion 

Cumming, rev. Dr. John, 1810-81 

Cummins, Dr. ; reformed episcopal 
church 

Cunard, Sam., 1787-1865; steam 

Curci, Father ; Italy, 1877 ; Jesuits 

Curie, M. ; Nobel bequest, 1903 ; 
England ; radium 

Curio; amphitheatres, 76 B.C. 

Curran, John Philpol;, Irish orator, 
1750-1817; duel, 1790 

Currell, T. W. ; trials, 18S7 

Currie, sir Donald, engin., G.C.M.G. 
1897 

Currie (bart. 1899), sir Philip 
Turkey, 1896-8 ; Italy, 1898 ; 
anarchy, 1898 

Cursor, Papirius; dials, 293 B.C. 

Curtis, F. B. ; tennis, 1890 

Curtius, prof. E. ; Olympieium, 1875 
philology 

Curtius, Marcus, Rome, 362 B.C. 

Curzon, lord ; India, Calcutta, 
i9°3 

Curzon, G. N., India. 1898 

Gushing, C, United States, 1878 

Custer, gen. ; Indians, 1876 

Cuthbert, St. , d. 686 ; Canterbury 

Cuthbert v. Browne; trials, 1829 

Cuvier, G., naturalist, 1769 -1832; 
zoology 

Cuyp, A., painter, 1606-67 

Cyprian, father, m. 258 

Cyriacus ; Abrahamites 

Cyril, father, d. 386 

Cyril, grand duke of Russia ; China,. 
1902 

Cyrus the Great, killed, 529 b.c. ; 
Bactriana, Cyprus, Jerusalem, 
Media, Persia ; Achasmenid® 

Cyrus the younger ; Cunaxa, 40L 

B.C. 

Czermak, Dr. ; laryngoscope, 1861 



143S 



I). 



Daeier, mad., 1654-1720; Delphin 
Dacre, lady Anne; Emmanuel hos- 

pital, 1594 
Dffidalus ; labyrinth, tools 
Daft, Rd. ; cricket, 1900 
Dagobert; Denis, St., 673 
Daguerre, M., 1789-1851; photo- 

graphy 
Dahl, professor ; dahlias 
Dahlgren, J. A.; engin., 1809-70' 
Dahlgren, K. P., author; Sweden, 

1791-1844 
Dale, Rev. T. P. ; public worship, 

1877-1881 
D'Alembert, Fr. phil., 1717-83; acous- 
tics, encyclopaedia 
Daley, Thos. ; executed, 1898 
Dalgety, col. ; S. A. war, 1899 
Dalhousie, marquis of; India (gov.- 
gen.). 1848 ; Gladstone administra. 
1886 
Dalling, H. Bulwer, Id.; 1805-72 
Dallinger, W. H. ; animalcules, spon- 
taneous generation 
Dalmas, A; trials, 1844 
Dalou, Jules ; sculp. 1838-1902 
Dalrymple, sir Hew; Cintra, 1808 
Dalton, John, chemist, 1766-1844; 
atomic theory, 1808 ; meteorology, 

I 793 
Dalton, Miss Emily ; Leicester, 1900 
Daly, Mr. Augustin ; libraries, 1900 
Damasus, pope, 366 ; pontiff, crown, 

pope, tiara 
Damian, accordion 
Damien, father; leprosy 
Damiens, Damiens' attempt, 1757 
Dampier, bishop; Ely, 1808 
Dampier; circumnavigator, 1689 
Damremont, marshal; Algiers, Con- 

stantia, 1837 
Dana, Jas. Dwight, naturalist, 1813- 

95 ; United States, 1895 
Dana, R. H. ; United States, 1876 
Danaus; Greece, 1485 B.C.? 
Danby, earl of ; administrations, 

1673 ; physic garden 
Daneff, M. ; Bulgaria, 1902 
Dangerfleld ; meal-tub plot, 1679 
Danican, chess, concerts 
Daniel prophesies, 606 B.C. 
Daniel, Sam.; poet-laureate, 1619 
Danneker, J., sculptor, 1758-1841 
Dannehberg, gen.; Oltenitza, 1854 
Dante, Alighieri, Italian poet, 1265- 

1321 
Danton, G., exec. 1794; clubs, Pren. 
D'Arblay, mad. (Burney), novelist, 

1752-1840 
Darbon v. Rosser; trials, 1841 
Darboy, abp. of Paris ; killed, France, 

1871 
D'Arcon, M.; Gibraltar 
Dardanus, Troy 
Dargan, W., d. 1867; Ireland, Dublin 

exhibition, 1853 
Darius; Persia, 521 b.c; Greece 
Darley, bp. of Kilmore; ch. of 

Ireland, 1874 
Darling, sir C; Jamaica, 1857; Vic- 
toria, 1S63 ; d. 1870 
Darling, Grace ; Forfarshire, 1838 
Darmes; France, 1840 
Darmesteter, James, Oriental scholar; 

Zend-Avesta 
Darnley, lord ; Scotland, 1565 
Dartmouth, earl of; Oxford adminis- 
tration, 1711 ; Rockingham admin., 

1766 
Darwin, Dr. ; atavism, 1868 
Darwin, Charles It., naturalist, 1809- 

82 ; origin, species, development 
Darwin, Erasmus, naturalist, 1731- 

1S02 ; lunar society 
Darwin, Maj. L. ; bi-metallism, 1S98 



INDEX. 

Dasent, sir George W., Norse scholar, 
1817-96 ; Times, Eddas 

Dashwood, sir Fr. ; Bute adm., 1762 

Daubeny, C; 1795-1867; atomic the- 
ory, 1850 

DAubigne, Merle, ecclesiastical hist., 
1794-1872 

Daudet, Alphonse, French novelist, 
1840-07 

D'Audift'ret Pasquier ; France, 1875-6 

Dauglish, Dr.; bread, 1856 

Daun, count, d. 1766, Hochkirchen, 
Torgau 

Davenant, William; drama, opera, 
1684 

Davenport, Miss; theatres, 1844 

Davenport Hill, Miss Rosamund ; 
education, 1902 

Davey, Id. ; betting-houses ; games ; 
appeals 

Davey v. Hinde ; ch. of England, 1900 

Davey, sir H., sol. gen., i836 

David; Jews, 1065 B.C. 

David, George; impostors, 1556 

David I.; Scotland, 1124; Carlisle 

David, J., painter, 1748-1825 

Davidson, prof. A. B. ; theology, d. 
1902 

Davidson, RandallT.,bp. ; Rochester 
1891 ; Winchester, 1895 ; Canter- 
bury, 1903 

Davidson, Samuel, D.D., biblical 
critic, 1807-98 

Davidson, rev. Thos. ; dictionary, 
1901 

Davies, C. L. phonopore. 

Davies, sir L. H. ; Canada, 1898 

Davies; trials, 1890 and Nov. 1898 

Davila, E. C, Italian historian, 1576- 
1631 

Davis, Jefferson, 1808-89 ; confede- 
rate states ; United States, 1861-86 

Davis, sir John F., diplomatist, 
1795-1890 ; China, 1844 

Davis, J. ; trials, 1887 

Davis; N.-W. passage, 1585; quad- 
rant, China 

Davis, N. ; Carthage, 1861, 1876 

Davitt, M., and Wilson; trials, 1870 ; 
Fenian, 1870, 1881-1893 ; Ireland, 
1882 ; parliament, 1882-1893 

Davoust, marshal ; Krasnoi, Mo- 
hilow, Jena, Eckmuhl, 1809 

Davy, sir Humphry, chemist, <fec, 
1 778-1829 ; Penzance, Royal Institu- 
tion, barium, electricity, calcium, 
magnesium, potassium, sodium, 
safety lamp, strontium 

Davys, bp. ; Peterborough, 1839 

Dawes, abp.; York, 1714 

Dawkins, capt. ; navy of England, 

1875 
Dawkins, W. B. ; caves 
Dawson, lieut. ; Africa, 1872 
Dawson, C. ; billiards, 1899 
Dawson, Dr. Geo. Mercer ; Canada, 

1849-1901 
Dawson, Mr. J., d. 1903 ; horse 
Dawson, J. W. ; Eozoon. 
Dawson, sir Wm. ; nat. phil. and 

geologist, 1820-99 ; Canada, 1809 : — 

Geo. M. Dawson, son ; scientist, 

1849-1901 
Day (Kossuth's notes case), trials, 

i860 
Day, Mr. ; Fairlop fail- 
Day, Dr. Maurice ; ch. of Ireland, 

1872 
Daza, H., Bolivia, 1S76 
D'Azcglio, Massimo; author; Ital. 

hint;-., 1798-1865 or 1866 
Deacle v. B. Baling; trials, 1831 
Deacon, Mr. Thos. ; Roy. Inst., 1902 
Peak, F. ; Hungary, 1S65-75 
Deakin, Mr., att.-gen. ; Australasia, 

1901 
Deane, abp.; Canterbury, 1501 
Deane, adml. ; naval battles, 1653 



Deane, sir Thos. ; architecture ; 

Ireland, 1828-99 
Debain ; harmonium 
De Balton; duels, 1811 
DeBeaurepaire,M. Quesnay ; Dreyfus 

case, 1899 
De Blignieres, M. ; Egypt, 1879 
De Bloch, M. : Russia, d. 1902 
De Blowitz, M., 1825-1903 ; Times; 

Paris 
De Boisdeffre, gen. Gonse ; Dreyfus 

case, 1899 
De Bonivard, F. ; Switzerland, lit., 

1496-1570 
De Bonnet, Chas. ; Switzerland, lit., 

1 720- 1 793 
De Brazza; France, 1882; Congo, 

1883 
De Broglie, France, 1879 
De Burgh, Hubert ; Whitehall 
De Candolle, Auguste P., botanist, 

1778-1841 ; — Alphonse, 1806-93; 

botany 
Decazes, due ; France, 1873-6 
De Chambrun, comte ; Fiance, d. 

1899 
De Chandordy, comte ; France, 1S26- 

1899 
De Chavannes, Pierre ; painting, 

1826-1898 
De Clam, col. du Paty ; Dreyfus 

case, 1898 
De Courcy, baron; peers, 1181 
Decrais, Albert M., France, 1893 
Dee, Dr. J., d. 1608; astrology 
Deeming, F. B. ; Melbourne, 1892 
Deerfoot, pedestrianism, 1861 
D'Etrees, see D'Estrees. 
De Fallieres, M.; France, 1883 
De Foe, Daniel, 1663-1731- Robinson 

Crusoe, Juan, plague 
De Foix, Gaston; Ravenna, 1512 
De Gasparis, A.; planets, 1849 
De Genlis, mad., 1746-1830 
De Giers, chancellor, Russia, 18S2 
De Grasse, admiral; Chesapeake. 

naval battles, Tobago, 1781 
De Grey, earl; Ireland, lord lieu- 
tenant, 1 84 1 
De Grey, Gladstone adm., 1868 
De Groof, V. ; balloons, 1874 
De Haven, lieut. ; Franklin, 1850 
De Horsey, adm., Peru, 1877 
Delabeche, sir H, 1796-1855 ; geology 
De la Clue, admiral ; Lagos, 1759 
Delafontaine, M., decipium 
Delambre, J., Fr. mathemat., 1749- 

1822 
De Lamornaix, adm. S. ; France, 

1840-1899 
Delarey, gen. ; S. A. war, 1900 ; C. of 

Good Hope, England, Transvaal, 

1902 
De la Rive ; Swiss nat. phil., d. 1873 
De la Roche, Paul, Fr. paint., 1797- 

1856 
DelaRonciereleXourv.adm. ; France, 

1875 
De la Rue; trials, 1845 
De la Rue, Warren, physicist, 1815 

S9 ; envelopes ; electric bat- 
tery ; photography, 1857; eclipse, 

i860 ; Royal Institution 
De la Vigne, C. ; Parisienne 
Delbriick, Dr. Rud. ; Germany, d. 

1903 
Dulcasse, Thcophile, h. 1S52 ; France, 

1894, 1898 
De l'Epee, abbe, 1712-89; deaf 
De Lesseps, F. ; Suez, 1857; Panama, 

1879 
De Ligne, prince Louis ; Belgium, 

1900 
Delille, J., Fr. poet, 1738-1S13 
Delisle ; Venus 
De Lotibiniere, Henri Joly ; B 

Colombia, 1900 
De Louudres, Henry ; Dublin, 1205 



INDEX. 



1439 



De Mallet, Paul ; draughts, 1668 
Demange, M. ; Dreyfus case, 1899 
De Meritens, electric light, 1879 
Demetrius ; Athens, Macedon, im 

posters, Poland 
Democritus, about, 400 B.C. ; atoms 
De Moivre ; annuities, 1724 
De Montmorency, cap. R., V.C. 

S. A. war, d. 1900 
De Morgan, A., mathemat., 1806-71 

almanacs, 1851 ; paradoxes, 1872 
Demosthenes, about 382-322 B.C. ; 

philippics 
De Munkacsy, Michel ; painting, 

1844-1900 
De Nayer, M. de S. ; Belgium, 1899 
Denayrouze, M. ; aerophore, 1875 
Denison, hon. Alb. S. Denison ; 

adm., d. 1903 
Denison, George Anthony, archdea- 
con ; 1805-96 ; trials, 1856 ; auri- 
cular confession, 1873, Church of 
England, 1873 
Denison, bishop; Salisbury, 1801 
Denison, E. B. (aft. lord Grimthorpe); 

bells, 1856 
Denison, J. E. ; speaker, 1857 
Denman, lord, 1779-1854; att.-gen., 

king's bench 
Denmark, prince George, admiralty, 

1702, queens (Anne) 
Denner, J., clarionet, about 1690 
Dennery, M. Adolphe Philippe, 

dramatist ; Prance, d. 1899 
Dennis, W. ; fire engine 
Denny, J.; trials, 1851 
Depretis, A. ; Italy, 1876, 1884 
De Quincey, Thos., essayist, 1875- 

1859 
Derby, countess of; Lathom-house, 

1644 
Derby, earl of, races, 1779 
Derby, Edward, earl of, 1799-1869 ; 

Derby admin., 1852, 1858, 1866 
Derby, earl of; Man, Wigan, Derby 
Derby, Edward Henry, earl of, 1826- 
93 ; see Disraeli adm. (Stanley), 
1868, 1874 ; Edinburgh, 1874 ; Brus- 
sels conference, 1874 ; Turkey, 
1876; Berlin, 1876; Russo-Turkish 
war, II. 1877 ; Turkey, 1876-7 ; 
Gladstone adm., 1880 
Derby, P. A., earl of, see Stanley 
De Rebecque, Ben Const. ; Switzer- 
land, lit., 1767-1830 
De Renzis, baron Prancesco ; Eng- 
land, 1898 
De Reuter, baron Paul Julius ; 

Reuter's internat., &c, 1816-99 
De Roos, lord, v. Cuniming; trials, 

1S37 
De Rossi, catacombs 
De Ruyter, adml.; Sheerness, 1667; 

Chatham, Texel 
Dervish pasha, Albania, Dulcigno 
Derwentwater, earl of, executions, 

1716; Greenwich 
Des Cartes, Rene, 1596-1650; carte- 
sian, rainbow 
Desmoulins, Camille, exec. 1794; 

clubs, 1782 
Desneux, M. ; Congo r., d. 1898 
Desnoyers, L. ; charivari 
Dessaix, general; Marengo, 1800 
Dessalines; Hayti, 1803 
De Stael, madame, 1766-1817 
D'Estaign, count; Bencoolen, 1760; 

Georgia 
D'Esterre, Mr.; duels, 1815 
D'Estrees, adml. ; Texel, 1673 
De Strongbow, Gilb. ; Aberystwyth, 

nog 
Deuntzne'r, prof. ; Denmark, 1901 
Be Vere, Aubrey; English lang., 

1814-1902 
De Veres, earls of Oxford; Id. gt. 

chamberlain, marquis, duke 
Devigne, Hen.; billiards, 1571 



De Vigne, Paul ; sculp., 1844-1901 
Deville, H. St. C. ; aluminium, 1856; 

platinum, 1S59 
Devon, W. R., earl of; Disraeli, 1868 
Devonshire, duke of; Devonshire ad- 
ministration, 1756 ; Cavendish col- 
lege 
Devonshire, Spencer C, b. 1833 (see 
Hartingtori) ; Salisbury adm., 1895, 
1900 ; Balfour adm., 1902-3 ; educa- 
tion, 1900 ; B. empire, 1902-3 ; 
England, free trade, 1903 
Dewar, prof. J. , Z>. 1842 ; gases ; Royal 
Institution, 1877; elements, 1880-1; 
oxygen; cold; alcohol; cordite; 
air, 1902 : hydrogen, 1900 
De Wet, gen. ; S. A. war, 1900 ; C. of 
G. Hope ; England ; O. F. State ; 
Transvaal rep. 1902 
De Wet, Piet ; S. A. war, 1901 
De Wimpffen, gen.; Sedan, 1870 
De Windt, H. ; Overland mail, 1901-2 
De Winter, adm.; Camperdown, 1797 
De Winton, sir F., 1835-1901 ; Congo, 

1884 ; Africa (British E.), 1890 
De Witt; chain shot, 1666; (pen- 
sionary) murdered, 1672 ; Hague 
De Worms, baron (lord Pirbright, 

1895), 1840-1903 ; sugar bounties 
Deyrn, count ; London, Austria ; d. 

1903 
D'Eyncourt, aim. Edw. C. T. d. 

1903 
Dhavis, baron ; Congo r. 1899 
Dhuleep Singh, 1838-93; India, 1849; 

Punjab 
Diaz, B., discovers Cape of Good 

Hope, 1487 
Diaz, P. ; Mexico, 1867-84 
Di Bardi, Donato; sculpture, 1383 
Dibdin, C, 1745-1814; ballads 
Dibutades ; models 
Dicey, W. T. ; steam, 1875 
Dick, Mr.; trials, 1818 
Dick-Cunyngham, lieut.-col. ; S. A. 

war ; d. 1900 
Dick, Mr. Jas. ; Glasgow, d. 1902 
Dickens, Chas., novelist, 1812-70 ; 

Daily Neivs 
Dickinson, capt.; trials, 1829 
Dicksee, Margaret Isabel ; painter, 

1858-1903 
Dickson, col.; trials, 1859, 1863 
Dickson, Chas. Scott ; Salisbury 

adm., 1900; Balfour adm., 1902 
Dickson, sir J. R. ; Queensland, d. 

1901 
Diderot, D., philos., 1713-84 
Didius Julianus ; Rome, emp. 193 
Dido ; Carthage 

Didot, M. ; paper-making, stereotype 
Diebitsch, gen.; Balkan, 1829 
Diefenbach, L. ,1806-83 ; philology 
Diesbach; prussic acid, 1709 
Digby, E. ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
Digges, L. ; optics, 1671 
Diggle, E. ; billiards, 1895, 1902 
Dilham, Mdlle. Mgt. ; women, 1903 
Dilke, C. W.; Athenceum 
Dilke, sir C, b. 1843 ; Gladstone 

adm. 1880 ; corporations 
Dilke, lady ; burning dead, 1874 
Dillon, Mr. Luke ; trials, 1831 
Dillon, Mr., Ireland, 1880-1, et seg.; 

criminal law procedure, 1899 
Dimsdale and others ; trials, 1878 
Dingley, Mr. N. ; U.S., d. 1899 
Diocletian; Rome, emp. 284; Dal- 

matia 
Diodati, J., theologian, 1576-1649 
DiodorusSiculus, 50B.C.-13A.D. ; Etna 
Diogenes, cynic, d. 323 b.c 
Dionysius Halicarnassus, Gr. poet, 

fl. 30 B.C. 
Dionysius ; Portugal, anno domini, 

catapultse 
Dionysius; Sicily, 406-367 B.C. 
Diophantus ; algebra, 370 



Dipcenus ; sculpture, marble 

Dircks, H.; ghosts, 1858 

Disraeli, I., 1767-1848 ; — Benjamin 

(earl of Beaconsfield, 1876), 1804-81 ; 

Derby admin. , 1852, 1858; Disraeli 

admin., 1868, 1874 ; cottage ; 

people's tribute 
Ditmir, C. ; dualin, 1870 
Diver, Jenny; trials, 1740 
Dixblancs, M. ; trials, 1872 
Dixon, Hepworth, 1821-79 '• Ebelians, 

mormonites; — v. Smith (Pall Mall 

Gazette); trials, 1872 
Dixon, J. ; obelisks (Cleopatra's 

needle), 1877-8 
Dixon, Mr. ; education, 1874, 1876 
Dobell, Sydney ; poet, 1824-74 
Dobereiner, J. W. , nat. phil., 1780- 

1849; diffusion, philos. lamp 
Doble, C. E. ; Academy, the ; 

1879-81 
Dockwra, Mr. ; penny post, 1683 
Dodd, Dr.; trials (executed for for- 
gery), 1777; Magdaleus, forgery 
Dodd, Mr.; steamer, 1815 
Dodd, H. P. ; epigrams 
Doddridge, Philip, theol., 1702-51 
Dodds, Alfred A., gen., b. 1842; 

Dahomey, 1892-3 
Dodsley, R. ; annual register, 1758 
Dodson, sir John ; admiralty court, 

1857; — John George, lord Monk- 

Bretton, 1825-97 > Gladstone adm., 

1880 
Dolbear, prof.; telephotography 
Dolben, abp. ; York, 1683 
Dolce, gen.; Spain, 1868-9 
Dolci, C., painter, 1616-86 
Dolling, "Father" Wm. ; ch. of 

England, d. 1902 
Dollinger, Dr.; papal infallibility, 

old catholics, 1871 
Dollond, John, 1706-61; achromatic 

telescopes, 1753 ; optics 
Domenichino, Z., painter, 1581-1641 
Domingue, M. ; Hayti, 1874 
Dominguez, L. ; Carthagena, Spain, 

1873-4 
Dominic, St. ; Dominicans, 1215 
Domitian ; Rome, emp. 81 
Donald of the Isles; Harlaw, 141 1 
Donaldson, George ; music(museum), 

1894 
Donaldson, John, 1842^ ; torpedo 
Donaldson, W. J. ; balloons, 1875 
Donatus, grammarian, fl. 355 
Donders, phenophthalmoscope, 1870 
Donizetti, G. ; music, 1798-1848 
Donkin, sir R. ; suicide, i8ai 
Donne, W. B., examiner (of plays), 

1857 
Donoughmore, lord ; 6. 1875, Balfour 

adm. 1903 
Donovan; duels, 1779 
Dore, Gustave, artist, 1832-83 
Doria, And. , Genoese adml. , 1468-1560 
Dorregaray, gen. ; Spam, 1874-5 
Dorrington, sir John ; conservatives, 

1903 
Dorset, duke of; administrations, 
1689; Pelham administration, 1744 
D'Orvilliers ; Ushant, 1778 
Dost Mahomed ; Afghanistan, 1829-42 
Douay, gen. A.; Wissembourg, 1870 
Dougal, Sam. H. ; trials, 1903 
Douglas, earl of; Homildon, 1402 
Douglas, Akers- ; Salisbury adm., 

1895 ; Balfour adm. 1902 
Douglas, James; British Columbia, 

1858 
Douglas, Wm. ; Otterburn, 1388 
Douglass, Fredk., negro abolitionist, 

1815-95 ; United States, 1895 
Douglass, sir John ; delicate investi- 
gation, 1806 ; — sir James, i?25- 
98, Eddystone lighthouse 
Doulton, Henry, sir, 1820-97; pot- 
tery strikes, 1876, Vauxhall 



1440 



INDEX. 



Douw, Gerard, Dutch paint., 1613-74 
Dove, H. , 6. 1S03; dichroscope, i860 
Dove, W. ; trials, 1856 
Dowdeswell, William ; Rockingham 

administration, 1765 
Dowdle, Mich. ; execu'ed, 1899 
Dowie, Dr. ; imposters, 1903 
Doyle, A. Conan, nov. ; knt. 1902 ; 
English lang. , 1859; atlantic union, 
1900 
Doyle, sir John; Portugal, 1828 
Doyle, J.; caricatures ; — R., 1826- 

83 ; Punch 
Doyle v. Wright; trials, 1851 
Draco, Athens, 621 B.C.; laws, Draco 
Draga, queen (lime. Draga Maschin) ; 

Servia, 1900 ; ass. 1903 
Drake, Francis, 1545-96; Armada, 
Cadiz, California, Chatham, circum- 
navigators, Drake's circumnaviga- 
tion, Deptford, New Albion 
Drake, Mr. J. ; Australasia, 1901 
Drayton, M., poet, 1563-1631 
Drebbel ; optics, 1621 ; microscope, 

thermometer 
Dred Scott case ; slavery, U. S. 
Drentelen, Russia, 1878 
Dreyfus case, France, 1894, 1897-9 
Dreyse, J. N., 1788-1867 ; needlegun 
Drouet; Varennes, 1791 
Druitt, G. ; trials, 1867 
Drummond, abp. ; York, 1761 
Drummond, gen.; Chippawa, 1814 
Drummond, lieut.; lime-light, about 

1826 
Drummond, Mr., m.; trials, 1840 
Drummond, Andrew ; banks, 1746 
Drummond, Henry, prof, scientist, 

theologian, traveller, 1851-97 
Druscovitch, N. ; and others (police) ; 

trials, 1877 
Dryden, John, poet, 1631-1701 ; poet 

laureate 
Drysdale, Dr. ; animalcules 
Dubois, cardinal, 1656-1723 
Du Bois-Reymond, Emil, 1818-96, 

physiologist and physicist 
Duboscq, M.; electric lamp, 1855 
Du Breil de Rays ; Port Breton 
Dubritius, St. ; Caerleon, Llandaff, 

612 
Du Cane, sirEdm., K.C.B.; England, 

d. 1903 
Du Chaillu, Paul, 1835-1903 ; Africa, 

1856, 1863 
Duchesne, Dr. ; Boulogne, 1899 
Duchesne, Pere, see Hubert 
Duchesne ; Belgium, 1875 
Duckworth, sir J.; Dardanelles, 1807 
Duclerc, M.; France, 1882-3 
Ducretet ; electricity (w. telegraphy), 

1902 
Ducrot, gen., France, 1878 ; Franco- 
German war, 1871 
Ducrow; theatres, Astley's, 1825 
Dudley, earl of Leicester; adminis- 
trations, 1558 ; Salisbury adm. 
1900 ; Balfour adm. 1902 ; Dublin, 
1902 
Dudley, lord; administrat, 1551 
Dudley, Mi's. L. Y.; Fenians, 1885 
Dudley, W., Birmingham, 1876 
Duell, William; trials, 1740 
Dul'aure, J. A. S., France, 1876-9 ; 

1798-1881 
Dufay; electricity, 1733 
Duff, captain; trials, 1841 
Dufferin, Id. 1826-1902: Gladstone 
adm., 1868, 1880; Canada, 1872; 
Egypt, 1883 ; Turkey, 1881-4 ; 
India, gov. gen., 1884; Italy, 1890; 
France, 1891-96 
Dufferin, lady ; India, 1887 
Duffy, Ch. G. 1816-1903 ; knt. 1873 ; 
Victoria, 1870-72; Ireland (Young) 
Duffey, sir George, M.D. ; 1S43- 

1903 
Dufour- Aries, J. B.; France, 1870-2 



Dugdale, W., antiquary, 1605-86 
Duggan, Wm. ; trials, 1832 
Du Guesclin, B.; Montiel, 1369 
Duilius defeats Carthaginians, 260 

B.C. 

Dulong, P. L., 1785-1838; acids 
Dumas, A. D., Fr. nov., 1803-70 
Dumas, Alexandre (flls), dramatist 

and novelist, 1824-95 
Dumas, J. B., Fr. chemist, 1800-84 : 

Faraday medal, 1869; Albert medal, 

1877 
Du Maurier, George, artist and 

author, 1834-96, Punch 
Dumont, Pierre, Switzerland lit. ; 

1759-1829 
Dumouriez, gen., 1739-1823; Jem- 

mappes, 1792 
Dunant, H , Geneva convention 
Dunant, M. Henri ; Nobel bequest, 

1900 
Duncan, admiral lord ; Camperdown, 

1797; Texel 
Duncan, Dr. : ichnology, 1828 
Duncan, H. ; savings-banks, 1810 
Duncan I. ; Scotland, 1033 
Duncan; Burmah, 1875 
Duncannon, viscount ; Melbourne ad- 
ministration, 1834-5 ; England, 

1902 
Duncombe, F. ; sedan chairs, 1634 
Dundas, gen. ; Kilcullen, 1798 
Dundas, lieut. -col. ; Prescott, 1838 
Dundas, major ; trials, 1831 
Dundas, sir D. ; com. -in-chief, 1809 
Dundas, sir David ; solicitor-general, 

1846 
Dundas, Henry ; Pitt administration, 

1804 
Dundas, sir R. ; Baltic, 1855 
Dundee, vise. ; Killiecrankie, 1689 
Dundonald, earl, 1775-1860 (see Coch- 
rane) 
Dundonald, Id. ; S. A. war, 1900 ; 

Canada, 1902 
Dunkin, Edwin ; astronomer, 1821-98 
Dunlop, Mr. ; bicycle, 1888 
Dunmore, Id. ; riding, 1893 
Dunn, sir David, vice-adm., 1786-1859 
Dunn, John, Zululand, 1879 
Dunn, Richard; trials, 1847 
Dunsmuir, Mr. J. ; B. Columbia, 

1900 
Duns Scotus, d. 1308; burying alive, 

Scotists 
Dunstan, abp. d. 988 ; Canterbury, 

959; coronation 
Dupanloup, F. A. P., bishop of 

Orleans, 1802-78 
Dupetit- Thouars ; Otaheite, 1843 
Duplessis, Rev. H. ; O. F. State, 

1902 
Dupont, gen. ; Baylen, 1808 
Dupuy, M., France, 1893 
Durand, lieut. -col. ; India, 1891 
Durand, Mme., novelist ; France, d. 

1902 
Durand, sir H.; India, 1871 
Durand, sir Mortimer,) Afghanistan, 

1893 ; Persia, 1894; Spain, 1900 ; 

United States, 1903 
Durazzo, Charles of, m. 1386; Naples, 

kings, 1381 
Diirer, A., 1471-1528; engraving 
Durham, earl of, 1792-1840; Grey 

admin., 1830; Canada, 1838 
Durham, Joseph, sculptor, 1813-77 
Durnford, R. D., bp. ; Chichester, 

1870 
Duroc, marshal ; Baurzen, 1813 
Duruof ; balloons, 1870-74 
Dussand, M. ; blind, 1902 
Dutiochct, II. J. H., 1776-1847; en- 

dosmosis 
Du Val, Claude ; robbers, 1670 
Duvernois, C. ; France, 1874 
Dwyer; trials, 1843 
Dycc, Wm.; painter, 1S06-64 



Dyke, sir W. H. ; racquets, 1862 ; 

Salisbury adm. 1885 
Dymocke family ; championship 
Dysart peerage, trials, 1881 
Dyson, Mr. ; eclipses, 1901 



E. 



Eadbald; convents, 630 
Earl, Chas. Robt. ; executed, 1902 
Earle, gen.; Soudan 1885 
Eastlake, sir C, 1793-1865; Royal 

Academy ; National Gallery, 1850 ; 

— C. national gallery, 1878 
Eaton, Daniel; trials, 1796, 1812 
Ebdy v. McGowan ; trials, 1870 
Ebury, lord (Robert Grosvenor), 

philanthropist, 1801-93 
Eckart ; mystic, 1251-1329 
Edalji, G. E. T. ; trials, 1903 
Eddis, Eden Upton ; painting, 1812- 

1901 
Eddy, Mrs. ; mind cure 
Eden, bp. ; Man, 1847 
Edgar; England, kings, 958 
Edgar, rev. Mr.; temperance, 1829 
Edgar, sir Jas. D. ; poet ; Canada, 

1841-1899 
Edge, Mr. S. F. ; carriages, 1902 
Edgeley, T. ; trials, 1868 
Edgeworth, Maria ; novels, 1767-1849 
Edliem, pasha ; Candia, 1898 
Edinburgh, duke of, see Alfred ; adm. 

1876-1900 
Edison, T. E. ; electric pen, &c, 

microphone, micro-tasimeter, pho- 
nograph, telephone 
Edlin, sir Peter, 1819-1903 
Edmonds ; zoology 
Edmund ; England, 940, 1016 
Edmunds, Christiana ; poisoning, 

trials, 1872 
Edmunds, Mr. ; patents 
" Edna Lyall" (Miss A. E. Bayly) ; 

Nov. 1858-1903 
Edward the Confessor; England, 

kings, 1042 ; Danegeld 
Edward I.; England, kings, 1272; 

Lewes, Scotland, Wales 
Edward III.; England, kings, 1327, 

Cressy, Sluys, garter 
Edward IV. ; England, kings, 1461 ; 

Barnet, Tewkesbury, Towton 
Edward VI.; England, kings, 1547; 

Christ's hospital 
Edward VII. ; England, kings, 1901 
Edward, Black Prince, 1330-76; duke, 

Cressy, Poitiers 
Edwardes, lieut; India, 184S 
Edwards, A. G., bp.; Asaph, St., 18S9 
Edwards, Edgar ; trials, 1003 
Edwards, Edward ; libraries, 1812- 

1886 
Edwards, rev. J., public worship ; 

—Miss A. B., Nov., d. 1892; Egypt 

Exploration Fund 
Edwy ; England, 955 
E^an. Mr.; trials, 1843 
Egan, Patrick ; Chili, 1891 
Egbert; England, kings, 828 
Egbert, col. ; Philippine isles, k. 1899 
Egerton, sirThomas ; chancellor, lord 

high, 1596 
Egerton, Mr. ; burnt, Dublin, 1880 
Egg, Aug., painter, 1816-63 
Eggleston, Edw. ; am. hist, and nov. 

1837-1902 
Eglinton, earl of; Ireland, lord-lieu- 
tenant, 1852 ; tournament 
Egmont, lord ; administrations, 1763 
Egremont, earl of ; Grenville adminis- 
tration, 1762 
Ehrenberg, C, naturalist, 1795-1S76 
Eiek, H.; trials, 1859 
Eirinus, Dr., asphalt, 1712 
Ekenhead, lieut.; .swimming 
Elbe ; wrecks, Jan. 1895 



INDEX. 



1441 



Elcho, Id. (aft. earl of Wemyss), i>. 
1818 ; AduUam, 1866 ; cabs, volun- 
teers ; liberty and reform, 1884 

Elder, John ; Glasgow, 1883 

Eldon, lord, 1751-1838; chancellor, 
1801 

Eleanor; cross, queens (Edward I., 
Hen. II. and III.) 

Elgar, Dr. ; Birmingham, 1903 

Elgar, Ed. ; music, 1S57 

Elgin, lord ; Elgin marbles ; d. 1841 ; 
— James, lord, 1811-63; Canada, 
1846; China, 1857; Japan, Palmer- 
ston, India, 1861 ; govr.-gen., 1861 

Elgin, earl of ; Gladstone adm. 1886 ; 
India, 1893 ; Burmah, 1898 ; army 
(royal commission), 1902 

Elgin, lord, v. Ferguson ; trials, 1807 

Elijah prophesies about 910 B.C. 

Eliott, gen. ; Gibraltar, 1781 

Eliott, sir -Gilbert ; North adminis- 
tration, 1770 

Elisha prophesies, 896 B.C. 

Elizabeth, queen, 1533-1603; England, 
1558; poor laws, Richmond, White- 
hall 

Elizabeth ; England, queens (Edward 
IV. and Henry VII.) 

Elizabeth; France, trials, 1794 

Elkington; gilding, electrotype 

Ellenborough, lord; att.-gen., 1801 ; 
king's bench, delicate investiga- 
tion: lord (son). 1790-1872; Wel- 
lington admin., 1828; India, govr.- 
gen., 1842, 1858, note ; Derby adm., 
1858 

Ellesmers, lord ; administrations, 
1615 ; chancellors, 1 1., 1603 

EUice, E. ; Melbc ur.13 administra- 
tion, 1834 

Ellicott, C. J., bp.; Gloucester and 
Bristol, 1863 

Elliot, captain ; China, 1840 

Elliot, sir Chas. ; Africa, B. East, 
1901 

Elliot, col. Locke Edw. ; S. A. war, 
1901-2 

Elliot, Mr. A. R. D. ; Balfour adm., 
1902 

Elliot, adm. sir G., d. 1901 

Elliotson, Dr. J., 1785-1868 

Ellis, Agar ; trials, 187^ 

EUis, sir H., lib. Brit. Mus. 1777- 
" 1S09 

Ellis, A. J., 1S44-90; philol.; musical 
pitch 

Ellis, Mr. Thos. E. ; liberals, 1859-99 

EUis, Wellbore ; Grenville adminis- 
tration, 1770 

Elphinstone, lord; electric light, 1879 

Elphinstone, admiral ; Cape of Good 
Hope, 1795; Saldanha 

Elsynge, Win. ; Sion college, 1340 

Elyot, sirT., "governour" 

Elzevir family, printers, 1583-16S0 

Emerson, R.W.; essayist.poet, 1803-82 

Emin Bey (Dr. Eduard Schnitzer), 
German savant, 1840-92 ; Emin 
pasha relief, Africa, German East ; 
Soudan, 1886 

Emmanuel III., king ; Italy, 1900 

Emmet, Robert ; rebellions, conspi- 
racies, trials, 1803 ; press 

Empedocles ; suicide, note 

Encke, J. F., 1791-1865 ; comets, 
1818 

Enderby, Messrs. ; southern conti- 
nent, 1838 

Engels, Fredk., socialist, 1820-95 

Engels, prof. ; lithofracteur, 1869 

Enghien, due d', executed, 1804 

En-hai ; China, ex. 1900 

Ennuis, 239-169 B.C. ; stenography 

Enraght, rev. R. ; public worship, 
1880 

Eotvos, Joseph ; Hung. nov. 1813-71 

Epaminondas, 371 b.c ; Leuctra, 
Mantinea 



Epictetus, philosopher, J?. 118 
Epicurus, 342-270 b.c. ; atoms; phi- 
losophy 
Epiphanius, St. ; abstinence, heresy 
Erasistratus ; anatomy, ab. 303 b.c. 
Erasmus, D., 1467-1536 ; Greek lan- 
guage, Rotterdam 
Eratosthenes; degree, 250 B.C. ; ar- 

millary sphere 
Eratostratus (or Herostratus) fires 

Diana's temple, 356 b.c 
Erechtheus ; Athens, 1383 B.C. 
Eric ; Denmark 

Erichthonius ; Troy, 1449 B.C., ear 
Ericsson, capt. ; heat, 1853 
Erie, sir W. ; common pleas, 1859 
Ermeland, bp. of; Prussia, 1871 
Ernley, sir John; administrations, 

1685 
Erroli, earl of; constable of Scot- 
land, lord high 
Errzuriz, pres. ; Chili, 190 r 
Erskine, lord ; chancellor, lord ; 

Grenville administration, 1806 
Erskine, adm. sir Jas. E., 1902 
Erskine, gen. ; India, 1795 
Bsdade, E. ; trials, 1858 
Esher, lord ; army (roy. comm.), 

1902 
Esuionle case ; trials, 186S 
Espartero, marshal, Spain, 1841-75; 

Bilbao, 1836;/?. 1879 
Esquirol, E. ; lunatics, 1810 
Essex, earl of ; administrations, 1532, 

1579 ; Newbury, 1643 
Este, sir Augustus d' ; marriage act, 

royal, 1844 
Esterhazy, maj. ; Dreyfus case, 

1897-9 
Estevez, sen. ; Cuba, 1901 
Uthelbert, 560, Canterbury 
Etheldreda ; Ely, 673 
Ethelred, 979 ; coronation, Danegeld 
Ethsridge, R. ; geologist, 1818-1903 
Ethersey, com. ; suicide, 1857 
Etty, W., painter, 1787-1849 
Euchidas ; pedestrianism 
Euclid ; geometry, 300 B.C. 
Eugene, prince, 1663-1736 ; Belgrade, 

Turin, Zenta 
Eugenie, empress ; France, 1853 ; 

Marseilles, 18S2 
Eugenius ; popes, Aquileia 
Eulenburg, count, Prussia, 1873 
Eulenstein, Jew's harp 
Euler, L., 1707-83; acoustics 
Eumenes; seven churche3(Pergamos); 

parchment, 190 B.C. 
Eumolpus ; Eleusinian mysteries 
Eupion gas co. ; trials, 1876 
Euripides, 480-406 b.c ; drama 
Eurysthenes ; biarchy, 1102B.C. 
Eurystheus ; Myeente, 1289 B.C. 
Eusden, L. ; poet laureate, d. 1730 
Eusebius, of Csesarea, ab. 275-340 
Eustaahius ; thoracic duct, 1563 
Euston divorce case ; trials, 1884 
Eutyches, jl. 447 
Evandsr ; Circensian games 
Evans, general de Lacy ; British 

legion, 1S35 ; Spain, 1835 ; Irun, 

Sebastian 
Evans ; trials, 1858 
Evans, J. ; man, 1872 
Evans, M. (G. Eliot), novelist, 

1820-80 
Evans, rev. H. Myddleton ; Ch. of 

E., 1903 
Evans, W. E. ; harmonium, 1841 
Evelyn, J.,. 1620-1706; horticulture, 

lime-tree, trees 
Ewart, lieut.-gen., 1827-1903 ; Jersey 
Examiner, the ; trials, 1812 
Exmouth, lord; Algiers, 1816 
Eyre, E. J., 1S15-1901 ; Jamaica, 

1864-7 
Eyre, John; transportation, 1771 
Ezekiel prophesies about 595 B.C. 



F. 



Faber, F. ; oratorians, 1848 

Fabius, Quintus ; painting, 291 b.c. ; 

— Maximus; Allobroges, 121 B.C. 
Fabre, M.; France, 1883 
Fahrenheit, G. D., 1686-1736; ther- 
mometer, about 1726 
Faidlierbe, gen. ; Franco-Pruss. war, 

1871 ; St. Quentin, 1871 
Fairbairn, Mr. ; tubular bridge, 1849 
Fairbanks, Mr. Charles ; Canada, 

1898 
Fairfax, T. ; Naseby, 1645 
Fairland, Miss ; trials, 1874 
Faithfull, Emily, philanthropist and 

author, 1835-95 ; printing, i860 
Falck, Dr. ; steam-engine, 1779 
Falconbridge ; London, 1471 
Falconer, H. ; geologist, d. 1865 
Falieri, Marini ; Venice, 1335 
Falk, Dr., 1827-1900 ; Prussia, 1873; 

Germany, 1879 
Falkener, Edward, archi., i8n(?)-9& 
Falkenhagen, Herr ; duelling, 1902 
Falkland, viset. ; Newbury, 1643 
Fal staff, sir John ; taverns 
Fancourt, Samuel ; circulating li- 
braries, 1740 
Faraday, Michael, 1791-1867 ; Royal 
Institution, chemistry, electricity, 
gas, magnetism, magneto-electri- 
city, ice, Albert medal, Faraday 
Faraday, Miss Isabel ; Faraday mem- 
orials, 1901 
Farewell, lieut.. Natal, 1823 
Farjeon, B. L. ; novelist, d. 1903 
Farmer and Wallace, electric light, 

1879 
Farquhar, George, dramatist, 1678- 

1707 
Farr, Dr. W., 1807-83 ; annuities, 

1864 ; statistics 
Farragut, D., 1861-79, admiral, i860: 

United States, 1864 
Farrar, F. W. ; dean of Canterbury, 

1831-1903 
Farrell v. Gordons ; trials, 1873 
Farren, Miss, actress, retires, 1797 
Farren, Miss Nellie, theatres, Drury- 

lane, 1898 
Farrer; trials, 1S59, 1869 
Farrer, lord, Thos. Henry, 1819-99 

(bart., 1883); trade 
Fatima ; Mahometanism 
Faugeron, marshal ; executed, 1901 
Faulkner, G. ; newspapers, 1728 
Fauntleroy, H. ; forgery, 1824 
Faure, Francois Felix, 1841 - 99 ; 

president, France, 1895 
Faure, Jules, electric battery, 1881 
Faust or Fust, John ; printing, 1442 
Faustin I. ; Hayti, 1849 
Faustulus ; Alba, 770 B.C. 
Faux, Guy ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
Favier, mgr. ; China, 1900-1902 
Favre, Jules ; France, 1870-2, d. 1880 
Fawcett, col. ; duel, 1843 
Fawcett, H., 1833-84 ; Gladstone 
adm., postmaster, i88o;parcel post, 
Vauxhall 
Faye-Herve, French astron., 1814- 

1902 ; comets, 1843 
Fazy, J. J. ; Switzerland, 1878 
Felix, popes, 269 et seq. 
Fellowes, Mr. Ailwyn ; Balfour adm. 

1902 
Fellows, C. ; Lycia, 1840 
Felton assassinates Buckingham at 

Portsmouth, 1628 
Fenelon, abp., 1651-1715 ; Cambray 
Fenning, Eliza; executions, 1815 
Fenwick, J. ; executions, 1697 
Feramoz ; Afghanistan, 1871 
Ferdinand ; Austria, Naples, Portu- 
gal, Sicily, Spain, Tuscany, Castile, 
Cordova, Bulgaria 

4 Z 



1442 



INDEX. 



Ferdinand, Franz, archduke, Austria, 

1893 
Ferdinand of Brunswick, Minden, 

1759 

Fergus ; Scotland, coronation 

Ferguson, J. ; planets, 1854 

Fergusson, sir J. ; Bombay, 1880 ; 
Salisbury 2nd adm. 

Fergusson, James, 1808-86 ; archi- 
tecture, 1874-76I 

Fermat ; probability 

Ferrand ; France, 1874 

Ferre ; France, 1871 

Ferrero, gen.; Italy, d. 1902 

Ferrers, earl ; trials, 1760 

Ferrers, rev. Norman McLood, D.D. ; 
burning the dead, 1903 

Ferrier, Dr. J., 1811-82 ; vivisection 

Ferry, J., 1832-93; republican states- 
man, France, 1870-93 

Fessel ; gyroscope, 1852 

Festing, col. ; Ashantees, 1873 

Festing, J. W., bp., 1837-1902 ; 
Albans, St., 1890 

Fichte, Germ, philos., J. G., 1762- 
1814 ; Im. H. , son, T797-1879 

Field, Cyrus, 1819-1892 ; electric tele- 
graph, 1868 

Field, Edward ; air, 1891 

Field, J., nocturne 

Field, Rogers, engineer, 1831-1900 

Fielding, H., novelist, 1707-54; 
magistrates 

Fielding, Mr.; Canada, 1900, 1902 

Fieschi ; France, 1836 

Figueras ; Spain, 1873 

Figueroa ; Spain, 1868 

Fillmore, M. ; United States, presi- 
dent, 1850 ; d. 1874 

Finch, D. ; admiralty, 1680 

Finch, sir John ; chancellor, lord ; 
administrations, 1640 ; Heneage, 
chancellor, 1673 

Findley, Mr. Jno. ; Edinburgh, d. 
1898 

Finiguerra ; engraving, 1460 

Finlay, sir Rbt. ; att.-gen.; Salisbury 
adm., 1900; Balfour adm., 1902 

Finlay, R. B., sol. -gen., 1895 

Finnerty, Peter; trials, 1808, 1811 

Finney, Win.; swimming, d. 1903 

Finnis, T. ; mayor, 1856 

Finnis, col. ; India, 1857, note 

Finsen, dr. ; tuberculosis, 1901 ; 
Nobel bequest, 1903 

Firth, M., Sheffield, 1879 

Fischer; Transvaal; O.F. State, 1899 

Fish, W. ; trials, executions, 1876 

Fisher, bp. ; administrations, 1509 ; 
Salisbury ; executed, 1535 

Fisher ; duels, 1806 

Fisher, adm., sir John ; navy, 1903 

Fisher, Mr. Hayes; Balfour adm., 
1902 

Fisher; oleometer 

Fisk, James ; New York, 1871 

Fiske, John, phil. ; lust. ; English 
lang., 1842-1901 

Fitch, Joshua, 1824-1503 ; kt. 1896 ; 
education, 1885 

Fitzgerald, H. ; life-boat, 1856 

Fitzgerald, lord ; attainder, 1798 

Fitzgerald, lord, v. Mrs. Clarke. ; 
trials, 1814 

Fitzgerald, lord ; Wellington adminis- 
tration, 1830 
Fitzgerald, prof. G.; Dublin, </. [901 

Fitzpatriek Grenville administra- 
tion, 1806 

Fitzpatriek, Hugh : trials. 1813 

Fitzpatriek, J. P. ; Transvaal R., 
1902 

Fitz-Roy, R., 1805-65 : circumnavi- 
gation, 1826; New Zealand, 1843; 
meteorology, 1857 : s ""' vice-adm. 
sir Robt. O'Brien Fitz-Roy, 1839-96 

Fitzsimmons ; boxing, 1S00 

Fitzwalter, Robert de ; Duninow, 1244 



Fitzwilliam, earl; Grenville admin., 
1806; Ireland (lord-lieut.) ; strikes, 

187s 
Flad, Mr. ; Abyssinia, 1866 
Flaminius ; Thrasymene, 217 B.C. 
Flamm, A. L. ; cryptography, 1875 
Flammock ; rebellions, 1497 
Flamsteed, J. ; Greenwich, 1745 
Flanagan, Cath.; poisoning, 1884 
Flavius ; Rome, emperors Vespasian, 

Titus, Domitian, 69-96 
Flaxman, J., sculptor, 1754-1826 
Fleischer, E.; hydrostatics 
Fleming, Mr. W. S., missionary ; 

China, mur., 1898 
Fleming, sir Sandford ; electricity, 

1901-2 
Fleuss, diving, safety lamp 
Fletcher of Saltoun, ft. 1700 ; ballads 
Fletcher, will forger ; trials, 1S44 
Fletcher, Oliver ; blackmail, 1899 
Fletcher, S. W., trials, 1881 
Fliedner, pastor; deaconesses, 1836 
Flight and Robson ; apollomcon, 

1817 
Flinders, captain, explores New Hol- 
land, 1801 
Flood, Mr. ; absentees, 1773 
Floquet, M. ; statesman, 1828-96; 

France, 1883, 1888 
Florence, Eliz. ; trials, 1822 
Flores, gen. ; Uruguay, 1863-8 
Floras, Rom. historian, /.. 106 
Flotow, F. F. A. von ; Ger. mus., 

1812-83 
Flourens, M. J. P., philos., 1794- 

1867 ; — Gustave ; France, 1870- 1 
Flower, sir Wm. H., naturalist, 

1831-99 ; British museum 
Foix, Gaston de ; Ravenna, 15 12 
Folengo, Theo. ; macaroni 
Foley, J. H., sculp., 1818-1886 ; Al- 
bert mem., Faraday mem. 
Folkestone, lord : arts, soc. of, 1754 
Folkestone v. Ridsdale ; trials, 1876 
Follett, sir Wm. ; solicitor-gen., at- 
torney-gen., 1844 
Folliott, bp. ; Hereford, 1S03 
Fonblanque, Edw. Barrington de, 

author, 1821-95 
Fonseca, Deodoro da Marshall ; 

Brazil, 1889-92 
Fontaine, M., electric light, 1877 
Fontana, Mars, 1636 
Fontecilla, sen. ; Chili, 1900 
Foord, Mr.; Rochester, 1903 
Foote, Sam., comedian, 1721-77 
Foote v. Hayne ; trials, 1824 
Forbes, Archibald, war correspon- 
dent, 1838-1900 
Forbes, Edwd. , naturalist, 1815-54 
Forbes, Jas. ; Edinburgh, d. 1902 
Forbes, lord ; horse guards, 1702 
Forbes, J. D., nat. philos., 1809-68 
Ford, sir F. C, diplomatist, 1828-99; 
Spain, 1884; Turkey, 1892; Rome, 
1893-8 
Ford, Onslow, sculp., 1852-1901 
Forester-Walker, gen. sir F. ; C. of 

Good Hope, 1899 
Forrest, sir John; Australasia, 1901; 

Canada, 1902 
Forster, abp. ; Prussia, 1875 
Forster, Mr. ; Preston, 1715 
Forster, John ; South Kensington 

Museum, 1S76 
Forster, Mr. .1. D. ; trials. 1902 
Forster, M. ; planets, i860 
Forster, W. E. ; 1818-86 ; Gladstone 
adm., 1868, 1880; imperial fed.; 
Ireland : education 
Forster, Arnold-, b. 1855; Balfour 

adm., 1903 
Forsyth, sir D., Burmah, 1875 
Forsythe, Rev. Mr. ; tire-arms, 1S07 
ForteSCUG, lord; Ireland, lord-lieu- 

tenant, 1839 
Fortescue, C. S. : Gladstone, 1868 



Forwood, S. (Southey) ; executions, 

1866 
Forwood, rt. hon. sir A. B., M.P., 

Liverpool, d. 1898 
Foscaro, doge ; Venice, 1457 
Foster, Birkett; water-col. painting, 

1825-99 
Foster, John, essayist, 1770-1843 
Foster, Michael, K.C.B., 1899; Brit. 

assoc, 1899 
Foster, Mr. Vere ; education, Ireland, 

d. 1 goo 
Fottrell, capt. ; duels, 1817 
Foucault, J. B. L., 1819-68; pendu- 
lum, siderostat 
Fouche, J., due d'Otranto, 1763-1820 
Fould, Achille, 1800-67 ; France, 

1861 
Foulis, R. & A., printers, 1740-76 
Fouquier, M.,journ. ; France, d. 1901' 
Fourdrinier, M. ; paper, 1807 
Fourie, gen.; S.A. war, d. 1900 
Fourier, C, d. 1837; Fourierism 
Fournier, M.; carriages, 1901 
Fourtou, M. de ; France, 1877 
Fowke, capt. ; exhibition, 1862 ; Al- 
bert hall 
Fowler, H. ; Gladstone adm., 1892; 

Rosebery adm., 1894 
Fowler, Mr. ; canoe, 1878 
Fowler, sir John, 1817-98, engineer, 
Metropolitan ry. , Forth bridge ; 
painting, 1899 
Fox & Henderson ; crystal palace, ' 

1851 
Fox, bishop of Winchester ; adminis- 
trations, 1509 ; privy seal 
Fox, Samuel ; umbrella 
Fox, Charles James, 1749-1806 ; duel, 
1779 ; Portland admin., 1783; India' 
bill, people 
Fox, George, 1624-90 ; quakers 
Fox, Henry ; Newcastle administra- 
tion, 1757 
Fox, sir Stephen ; Chelsea, 1628 
Fox, St. G. Lane ; electricity (lamp- 
lighting by), gas 
Fox, S. , 1838-1903 ; music college, 1889 
Foxe, John, martyrologist, 1517-87 
Foxwell, prof.; libraries, 1901 
Francia, Dr., 1755-1840; Paraguay 
Francis, A. S. ; trials, 1902 
Francis, St., 1182-1226; Cordeliers 
Francis I., emperor ; Germany, 1745 ; 

Austria, 1804 
Francis I. ; France, 1515 ; duelling, 
cloth of gold, Marignan, Pavia, 
Sicily 
Francis Joseph ; Austria, 1848 ; as- 
sassinations, Hungary, 1848 
Francis ; trials, 1842 
Francis, John, Athenwum (journal) 
Francis, sir Philip, 1 740-1818 ; Ju- 
nius 
Francis de Sales, St., 1567-1622, "De- 
vout Life " 
Francisco d'Assise ; Spain, 1846 
Francke, A. ; orphan houses, 1698 
Frankfort, lord, v. AliceLowe ; trials, 

1842, 1852 
Frankland, Edw., 1825-99; K.C.B., 

1897 ; amyl, ethyl, methyl, 1849 
Franklin, Benjamin, 1706-90 ; elec- 

tricity, 1752 ; lightning 
Franklin, sir John; north-west pas- 
sage, 1825 ; Franklin 
Franklin, S. ; copyright, 1899 
Franks; suicide, trials, 1S25 
Fran/, Ferdinand, archduke; Aus- 
tria, 1Q3I 

Fraser v. Bagley; trials, 1844 

Fraser, Mr.; Borneo, 1899 

Fraser, sir Wm., d. 1898, Edinburgh 

University 
Frazer, dr. Wm, ; Dublin, 182^-1899 
Frederick, trials, 1874 
Frederick, duke of York, 1762-1S27; 

York 



Frederick II. ; Corte Nuova, 1237 
Frederick II. the Great, 1712-86 ; 

Prussia, 1740 et seq. 
Frederick ; Germany, Prussia, Hesse, 

Nuremberg, Palatinate, Prague, 

Hochkirchen, Torgau 
Frederick III. ; Germany, 1888 
Frederick Augustus ; Poland, 1697 
Frederick Charles, prince of Prussia, 

Franco-Pruss. war, 1870-1 ; Metz, 

1870 
Frederick Lewis, prince ; Wales, 1729 
Frederick William, I.— IV. ; Prussia ; 

assassinations 
Freeling, S.; Grenada, 1871 
Freeman, B. A., historian, 1823-92; 

conquest, 1870-6 
Freeman, Mr. F. T. ; charities, 1902 
Frelinghuysen, Mr.; United States, 

1881 
Fremantle," Rev. W. H. ; dissenters, 

1875 
Fremont, J. C., 1813-90; U. States, 

1856 
Fremy, M. ; steel, 1861 
French, col. ; trials, 1820 
French, gen. ; S.A. war, 1900 ; knt., 

1901 
Freney; trials, 1749 
Frere, sir Bartle, 1815-84 ; slave 

trade, Zanzibar, 1872 ; cape, 1876 ; 

Kaffraria, 1S78, celibacy 
Frere-Orban ; statesman, 1812-96 ; 

Belgium, 1868, 1878 
Fresenius, Carl Reniigius, analytical 

chemist, 1818-97 
Frewen, abp. ; York, 1660 
Freyeinet, M. de, France, 1879 et seq. 
Frichot, ophieleide 
Frith, W. P., painter, b. 1819 
Frivell, Wm., post-office, 1631 
Frobisher, sir Martin, d. 1594; north- 
west passage, 1576 
Froggatt, E. ; trials, 1877-1879 
Froissart, historian, 1 337-1410 
Frost, John, chartist ; Newport, 1839 
Frost, W. E. R. A., 1810-77 
Froude, J. A., historian, 1818-94 ; 

South African confederation, 1875 
Frumentius ; Abyssinia, 329 
Fryer, sir F. ; Burmah, 1900-1 
Fryxell, hist. ; Sweden, 1795-1881 
Fuad, prince ; Egypt, 1898 
Fuad Pasha, 1814-69 ; Damascus, 

Turkey, 1860-9 
Fuller, J. ; Royal Institution, 1833 
Puller case ; India, 1876 
Fulton, R., 3765-1815; steam-engine, 

1803 
Furley, Mary ; trials, 1844 
Furneaux, capt. ; Adventure Bay, 

New Holland ; returns, 1774 
Furness, Mrs. H; concordance, 1876 
Fuseli, H, painter, 1741-1825 
Fust ; printing, 1442 



G. 



Gabelentz, H. C. von der ; language, 

1874 
Gage, gen. ; America, 1775 
Gains, W. ; parchment paper, 1857 
Gainsborough, Thomas, painter, 1727- 

88 
Galba ; Rome, emp. , 68 
Gale, balloons, gunpowder, 1865 
Gale, Sarah, and Greenacre ; trials, 

1857 « 
Galen, 130-200 ; physic 
Galgacus, 84 ; Grampians 
Galileo di Galilei, 1564-1642 ; acous- 
tics, astronomy, falling bodies, 
harmonic curve, ice, inquisition, 
pendulum, planets, sun, tele- 
scopes 
Galimberti, Luigi, cardinal, able 
diplomatist, d. 7 May, 1896 



INDEX. 

Galitziu, prince ; Caucasus, 1899 
Gall, J., 1758-1828 ; craniology 
Gallagher, J.; trials, 1883 
Galle, Dr. ; Neptune, 1846 
Gallenga, Antonio, politician and 

author, 1810-95 
Gallien ; balloons, 1755 
Gallienus ; Rome, emp. 260 
Galloway, countess of ; burning the 

dead, 1903, 
Galloway, R. L. ; "Annals of Coal 

Mining," coal, 1899 
Gait, Alex. ; Canada, 1901 
Gait, sir Thos. ; Canada, 1893 
Galton, sir Douglas, 1822-99 \ engi- 
neer 
Galton, F. ; composite portraits, 1877 ; 

heredity ; atavism, 1889 
Galvani, Louis, 1737-98 ; electricity, 

1791 ; voltaic pile 
Galway, earl of; Almanza, 1707 
Gama, Vaseo de, d. 1525 
Gambetta, L. 1838-82; France, 1870-81; 

opportunists, scrutin 
Gambier, lord ; Basque Roads, 1809 ; 

Copenhagen 
Gambier and Rumble, trials, 1869 
Gambrill, trials, 1878 
Gamgee, A.; Roy. Inst. 1884 
Gamgee, J. ; glaciarium, 1876 
Gamond, Thome de ; tunnels, 1867 
Ganganelli ; Clement XIV., popes, 

1769 
Gangeland ; apothecary 
Ganthony, Mr. R. ; trials, 1903 
Gardiner, A. ; Natal, 1835 
Gardiner, bp. ; administrations, 1529 
Gardiner, bout. Alan ; missions, 1850 
Gardiner, Mr. S. ; Ceylon, 1899-1900 
Gardiner, S. R. ; English lang., 

1829-1902 
Gardiner, Wm. ; trials, 1903 
Gardner, Herbert ; agriculture, 1894 
Garfield, gen. J. A., United States, 

1880-1 
Garibaldi, Joseph, 1807-82 ; Italy, 

1859-76 ; Solferino, Sicily, Naples, 

Volturno ; Franco-Prussian war, 

1870 
Garibaldi, Menotti (son), 1845-1903 
Garnerin, M. ; balloons, 1802 
Garnet; gunpowder plot, 1605 
Garnet, Dr. Thos. ; Royal Institu- 
tion, 1 801 
Garnett, rev. Chas. ; trials, 1903 
Garnett, Dr. Rich.; Nobel bequest, 

1902 
Garrett- Anderson, Mrs. ; physic, 1865 
Garrick, David, 1716-79; theatres 

(Drury-lane), jubilees 
Garrison, W. L., 1804-79; slavery in 

United States, 1831 
Garrod, A. H. ; Royal Institution, 1875 
Garrow, Wm. ; att.-gen., 18 13 
Garstang, Mr. ; Eg. explor. fund, 

1 900- 1 
Garstin, sir Wm., G.C.M.G. ; Egypt, 

1898 ; Nile, 1902 
Garth, Dr. ; Kit-Cat club, 1703 . 
Gasalee, gen. ; China, 1900-1 
Gaskell, Mrs. E. C. novelist, 1811-65 
Gassendi, 1592-1655 ; atoms, sun, 

sound 
Gassiot, Mr. C, arts, 1900; charities, 

Thomas's hosp., 1902 
Gaston de Foix : Ravenna, 1512 
Gaston, M., scholar; France, d. 1903 
Gatacre, gen.; S.A. war, 1899 
Gates, gen. ; Saratoga, 1777 ; Camden, 

1780 
Gatling, R. J., inventor, 1818-1903 ; 

Gatling gun 
Gauden, bp. ; eikon basilike, 1649 
Gauden, M. ; sapphire, 1857 
Gaunt, John of, b. 1340 ; Ghent, 

Lancashire, 1362, wars 
Gausius, 335 B.C. ; caustic 
Gavarni, French caric. 1801-66 



1443 

Gavestons, beheaded, 1312 ; rebellions 
Gay, John, 1688-1732 ; fables, operas 
Gay-Lussac, J., 1778-1850 ; balloons 
Gayer, J., lion-sermon 
Ged, William; stereotype, 1730 
Geffcken, Dr. ; Prussia, 1888 
Geffrard, gen. Fabre ; Hayti, 1858 
Geijer, auth. ; Sweden, 1783-1847 
Gelasius I. ; popes 492 ; breviary, 

pall ; Candlemas 
Gellert, C. F., Germ, fabulist, 1715-69 
Gellius, Aulus, Latin miscellany,/. 

117-180 
Gelon : Sicily, 480 B.C., Him era 
Genghis khan; Tartary, 1206; Hun- 
gary ; India 
Genseric lands in Africa, 429 
Gentil, M. ; Africa, 1898 
Geoffroy, M. B. ; asbestos 
George, David, d. 1536 ; family of love 
George, Henry ; trials, 1903 
George, St. ; garter 
George I. — IV., England ; kings, 

assassinations 
George I. — V. ; Hanover (kings) 
George I. ; accession, 171 4 
George II. ; Dettingen, 1743 
George, H. ; 1839-97 ; land nationali- 
zation, Unite! States, 1886-7; New 
York, 1897 
George, king, Bonny 
Georgi ; dahlia, 1815 
Geramb, baron ; aliens, 1812 
Gerard, J. ; physic garden, 1567 
Gerbert, d. 1003 ; arithmetic 
Germaine, lord George Sackville ; 

Minden, 1759 
German, Ed. ; Savoy palace 
Gerstenzweig, general ; Poland, m. 

1861 
Gervinus, G. G., Germ. hist. 1805-71 
Gesler ; Switzerland, 1306 
Gessner, Salomon; Switzerland, lit., 

1730-88 
Geta ; Rome, emp. 211 
Gholam Hussein, Afghanistan, 1878- 

81 ; India, i88t 
Giacobini, M., astron. ; comets, 

1899-1903 
Gibbins, Mr., killed; riots, 1831 
Gibbon, Edward, 1737-94 ; Gibbon 

comm., 1894 
Gibbons, maj. ; Africa, 1900 
Gibbons, Grinding, sculptor, 1648-1721 
Gibbons, Orlando ; music, 1583-1625 
Gibbs, J., architect, 1674-1754 
Gibbs, sir V. ; attorney-gen., 1807 

common pleas, 1814 
Gibbs, W. ; Keble college, Christ's 

hospital, 1877 
Gibbs, W. A. ; corn, 1S68 ; hay, 1875 
Gibson, J., sculptor, 1791-1866; Royal 

academy ■ 
Gibson, T. ; concordance, 1535 
Gibson, T. M., 1807-84; Palmerston 

administration, 1859 
Giers, de, 1820-95 : statesman, 

Russia 
Giesmar, general ; Praga, 183 1 
Giffard, sir Hardinge S. ; solicitor- 
general, 1875 ; chancellor, Id., 
Halsbury, 1885 
Giffard, Paul; air-gun, 1872; can- 
non, 1890 
Giffen, Robt. ; statistics, 1894 ; 

K.C.B. 1895 
Gilford, lieut. ; Kildare, 179S 
Gilford, R. ; attorney-gen., 1819 
Gilford ; steam-injector 
Gifford, Wm., 1757-1826; Quarterly 

Review, 1809 
Gilbert v. Enoch (Pall Mall Gaz.), 

trials, 1873 
Gilbert, archbp. ; York, 1757 
Gilbert, sir Humphry, 1539 - 84 ; 

Newfoundland 
Gilbert, Dr. J. H, knt., 1817-190: ; 
agriculture, 1843 

A z 2 



1444 

Gilbert, Dr., 1540-1603 ; electricity, 

1 600 ; magnetism 
Gilbert, gen. ; Ferozeshah, 1845 
Gilbert, G. ; executions, 1862 
Gilbert, W. G. ; operas, 1881-91 
Gilchrist, earl (of Angus), 1037 
Gilchrist, steel 
Gildas, historian, 516-570 
Gill, D.; star 
Gill, Mr. David, K.C.B. ; C. of Good 

Hope, 1 goo ; S.A. assoc. 1902 
Gillam, Rd. ; trials, 1828 
Gillespie, col. ; Vellore, 1806 
Gillespie, gen. ; Kalunga, duel, 1788 
Gillott, J. ; steel pens 
Gillray, J., 1785-1815 ; caricatures 
Gilman, Dr. Jno. ; Cancer hos., 1901-3 
Ginckel, gen. : Aughrim, 1691 
Gintl, Dr.; electric telegraph(duplex). 

1853 
Gioberti, Italian writer, 1801-52 
Gioja, P. ; compass, 1302 
Giotto, painter, 1276-1336 
Giovanni, Valeri ; executed 1901 
Girouard, sir Percy ; Transvaal, 1902 
Gissing, George, 1856-1903, novelist 
Giudetti, passion music 
Gladstone, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1852 
Gladstone, J. H., 1827-1902; F.R.S., 

1853 ; copper-zinc couple, 1872 ; 

physical society, 1S74 ; education 

society 
Gladstone v. Gladstone ; trials, 1875 
Gladstone, W. E. ; 1809-98, Gladstone 

adm. 1868, 1880, 1886, 1892 ; sus- 
pensory act ; England, 1877-8 ; 

Dublin, 1878 ; parliament, 1881 : 

Kilmainham ; Hyde park, 1808 
Gladstone, Mr. S. S. ; Bank of Eng., 

1900 
Gladstone, Herbert ; Rosebery adm., 

1894 
Glaisher, J. , 1809- 1903; meteorology, 

1850 ; balloons, 1862 
Glanville, B. de, encyclopaedia 
Glas, capt. , murdered; trials, 1766 
Glas, John, 1 698-1 773 ; Glasites, 1727 
Glasse, H. ; cookery, 1747 
Gleichen, count, 1833-91 ; England, 

1877 ; Leiningen 
Glendower, Owen ; "Wales, 1400 
Glenelg, lord (Charles Grant), d. 1866 ; 

Wellington adm., 1828 
Glerawley, lord, v. Burn; trials, 1820 
Glorie, lient.; Congo r., 1898 
Gloucester, duke of; marriage act, 

1772 
Glover, col. ; Ashantees, 1874 
Glover, E. A. ; trials, 1858 
Glover, sir H.; Leeward Isles 
Gluck, C. ; music, 1714-87 
Glynn, hon. Edw. Carr, Peter- 
borough, 1896 
Gobby ; oleometer 
Godfrey, lient. " Dan," bandmaster, 

1831-1903 
Godfrey, M. ; bank of England, 1694 
Godfrey of Bouillon ; Jerusalem, 1099 
Godkin, E. L.; U.S., d. 1902 
Godoy, M., prince of the peace; 

Spain, 1806 ; d. 1851 
Godwin, sir G. ; Pegu, 1852 
Godwin, Win., hist, and nov., 1756- 

1836 ; politics 
Goethe, or Gothe ; German miscel. 

1749-1832 
Goffart, M.; ensilage 
Gog and Magog; Guildhall 
Gold, P. I. ; railways, 1881 ; trials, 

1881 
Goldie, sir Geo. Taubman, Niger 

Coast, 1897; d. 1898 
Goldoni, Ch., Ital. dramatist, 1707-93 
Goldsehmidl (Jenny Lindl, 1821-87; 

Nightingale fund 
Goldschmidt, Dr. Hans; lieat, 1901 
Goldschmidt, H., 1S02-56: planets, 

1852 



INDEX. 

Goldsmids ; trials, 1873 

Goldsmith, Oliver; poet,miscel. 172S- 

74 
Gomez, gen.; Cuba, 1899 

Gomez, sen. H. B. ; Portugal, d. 
1898 

Goncourt, naturalism 

Gonsalvo de Cordova, gen., d. 1515, 
Garigliano 

Gonzales, F. O., Spain, 1879, Mexico, 
1880 

Gooch, lady, trials, 1878 

Good, Daniel ; trials, 1842 

Goodenough, gen. sir W. ; C. of Good 
Hope, d. 1898 

Goodenough, lient. ; massacres, 1875 ; 

Goodfellow, Jno. ; trials, 1902 

Goodrich, bp..; administrations, 
JSSi 

Goodwin, bp. , H. , Carlisle, 1870 

Goodyear, C. ; caoutchouc 

Gordian ; Rome, emperors 

Gordon, col.; duels, 1783 

Gordon, lord G., d. 1793 ; riots, libel 
trials, 1781, 1788 

Gordon, gen. Charles George ; China; 
1863; Egypt, 1874; Abyssinia, 
Basil to, Congo, Khartoum, Soudan, 
1883-4 > Gordon memorial 

Gordon v. Gordon ; trials, 1903 

Gordon, sir A. H., 1S33-85 ; Fiji, 1875 ; 
N. Zealand, 1880 

Gordons, L. and L. ; trials, 1804 

Gore, bp. of Worcester ; Ch. of Eng- 
land, 1901-2 

Gijrgey, gen. ; Hungary, 1849 

Gorham v. bishop of Exeter ; trials, 
1849 

Gorst, E. G. ; Salisbury adm., 1885 

Gorst, sir John ; Salisbury adm. 1900; 
education, 1901 

Gortschakoff, gen. ; Kalafat, 1854 ; 
Silistria, Tchernaya 

Gortschakoff, prince A., statesman, 
1798-1883 ; Vienna conference, 
1853 ; Poland, 1861 ; Russo-Turkish 
war, II. 1877-8 ; Russia, 1856-83 

Goschen, J. G., 6. 1831 ; Gladstone 
adm., 1868 ; Egypt, 1876; Turkey, 
1880-1 ; parliament, 1883 ; Salis- 
bury adm., 1887, 1895 ; peer 1900 

Goss v. Whitlake, trials, 1870 

Gosset, F. ; parliament, 1885 

Gosset, R. A. ; parliament, 1885 

Gossett, sir W. ; trials, 1842 

Got, M., Edmond ; France, d. 1901 

Gott, John, bp. ; Truro, 1891 

Goudie ; trials, 1902 

Gough, sir Hugh, 1772-1869 : China, 
1841 ; India, 1846 ; Goojerat, So- 
braon, Ferozeshah 

Goulard ; France, 1874 

Goulburn, H. ; Wellington admin- 
istration, 182S 

Gould, J., 1804-81 ; birds, works on, 
1832-78 ; humming-birds, 1862 

Gould, Jay, New York, 1872 ; United 
States, 1892 

Gould, Miss ; trials, 1822 

Gould, murderer; trials, 1840 

Gounod, C. F. ; musical composer, 
1818-93 

Gourko, gen., 1828-1901 ; Russo- 
Turkish war, II. 1878 ; Schipka, 
Poland, gov. -gen. 1883-94 

Gourlay, captain ; duels, 1824 

Gowcr, earl ; Wilmington adm., 1742; 
North adm., 1770 

Gowcr, F. A., telephone, balloons, 
1885 

Gower, J., poet; d. 1402 

Gracchus, Tiberius, slain, 133; 
Caius slain, 121 b.c. 

Grady, Mr. ; duel, 1827 

Gnebe and Liebermann, alizarine 

Grsevius, J. G. and G. : thesaurus 

Grafton, <lukr of; Rockingham adm., 
1765: Grafton adm., 1767 



Graham, bp. ; Chester, 1848 

Graham of Claverhouse, 1650-89 ; 
Killiecrankie 

Graham, A. ; planets, 1848 

Graham, C. C. ; Grenada 

Graham, gen. ; Barossa, 1811 ; Se- 
bastian, Bergen-op-Zoom 

Graham, maj. Geo. ; registers, paixv 
chial, 1838 

Graham, gen. sir Gerald ; Egypt, 
1882 ; Soudan, 1884 

Graham, sir James, 1792-1861 ; Grey, 
Peel 

Graham, Mr. ; pendulum, 1715 ; 
magnetism, 1722 

Graham, Mr. ; duels, 1791 

Graham, H. C, and others ; trials. 
1886 

Graham, Thos. , 1805-69; mint, dif- 
fusion, dialysis, atmolysis 

Grainger, Stewart, sir Thos. ; Edin- 
burgh, d. 1900 

Gramme, 1826-1901 ; electricity 

Grammont, due de, Dettingen, 1743 

Granard, Arthur, earl of; Kilmain- 
ham, 1675 

Granby, marquis of; Chatham ad- 
minis., 1766 

Grant, Alb. 1830-99, baron ; Italy, 
1S68 ; Leicester square, 1874 ; trials, 
1875-6 ; painting, 1877 

Grant, sir Colquhoun ; duel, 1835 

Grant, lient. C. J. W. ; Manipur 

Grant, sirF., i8oo-78;Royal Academy, 
1866-78 

Grant, G. B. ; calculating machine, 
1874 

Grant, capt. John ; cookery, 1857 > 
cottager's stove 

Grant, col. J. A. ; Central Africa, 
1863 ; Victoria Nyanza 

Grant, Robert; astron. 1814-92 

Grant, gen. Ulysses, 1828-85 • United 
States, 1863-73 : Pittsburg, 1862 

Grant, see Glenelg 

Grantham, Id. ; Sherburne adm. 1872 

Grantley, F. Norton, Id. ; attorney- 
gen., 1763 

Granville, earl, 1815-91 ; Russell, 
Palmerston admin., 1851 ; Glad- 
stone adm. 1868, 1880, 1886 ; ch. of 
Ireland, 1869 

Gratian ; canons, 1140 

Gratian, Rome, emp. 367-83 

Grattan, Henry, orator, 1750-1S20; 
duelling, 1800, 1820 

Grattan, T. Colley, novelist, 1796- 
1864 

Grattoni, Alps (tunnel) 

Grau ; Argentine, 1902 

Graves, adm. sirT., Basseterre, 17S2 

Graves & Co. ; trials, 1903 

Gray, bp. ; Bristol, 1827 ; see Cape- 
town 

Gray, Id. mayor, E. D.; Ireland, 18S2 

Gray, E., 1835-1901 ; telephone, 1S73 

Gray, H. J. ; racquets, 1863 

Cray, Mr. Horace; U.S., d, 1902 

Gray, Howard ; trials, 1900 

Gray. Thomas, poet, 1 716-71 

Greathead, Mr. ; life-boats, 1789 

Greatrix, Val. ; impostors, 1606 

Greaves, lord ; suicide, 1830 

Grechi, prof. ; lire-detector 

Greece, k. of; Austria, 1901 

Greece, prince George of ; Candia, 
1898-1903 

Greeley, Horace, 1811-72; United 
States, 1872 

Greeley, lient.; N. E. &, W. pass., 
1S81-4 

Green, .Mr. A. II. ; U.S. d. 1903 

Green, Charles, 1786-1870; balloons, 

Green, Everett-, Mrs., hist. 1818-95 
Green. J.; seraphine 
Green, J. R.; hist, 1S37-83 
Green, rev. S., public worship, 18S0 



Greenaere, J. ; trials, 1837 
Greenaway, Kate ; artist, 1846-1901 
Greonbank, Harry ; song-writer, d. 

1899 
Greene, general ; Camden, 1781 
Greene, Mr. Conyngnam ; Transvaal, 

1899 
Greenwell, canon ; Barrows, 1877 
Greenwood, T. ; file, i860 
Greer, lieut. ; Ashantees. 1900 
Gregoire, M. ; national convention, 

1792 
Gregory the Great ; chanting 
Gregory L — XVI. ; popes, 590 et seq. 
Gregory VII. ; Italy, 237 
Gregory XI. , pope ; pallium 
Gregory XIII. ; calendar, 1582 
Gregory Nazianzen, Greek father, 

326-390 ? 
Grekoff, M. ; Bulgaria, 1899 
Grenfell, gen. sir If. ; Soudan, 1888 ; 

Malta, 1899 ; peer, 1902 
Grenville, F. ; British Museum, 1846 
Grenville, George ; Newcastle ad- 
ministration, 1754 ; Grenville ad- 
ministration, 1763 
Grenville, lord; Grenville admin., 

1806 ; delicate investigation 
Greshavn., sii'T., d. 1579; Gresham 
Grevy, Jules, 1807-91, France, 1871-8 
Grey, Albert H. G., earl, Rhodesia, 

1896-7 
Grey, bp. ; Hereford, 1832 
Grey, Charles, earl, 1764-1845 ; Grey, 

reform 
Grey, Henry, earl, 180294; Mel- 

bourne administration, 1835 ; 

Russell adm., 1846; Palmersion 

adm., 1855 
Grey, lady Jane, exec. 1554 ; Eng- 
land, queens 
Grey, lord ; Pomfret castle, 1483 
Grey, sir Ed. ; tennis, 1889-98 
Grey, sir George 1812-98 ; colonial 

governor, South Australia, 1839 ; 

New Zealand, 1845 ; again, i85i ; 

Cape, 1856 ; buried in St. Paul's, 

26 Sept. 1893 
Grey, Stephen ; electricity, 1 720 
Gribble, Mr. J. B. ; tennis, 1897 
Griesbach, J., critic, 1745-1812 
Griffiths, R. T. H. ; Rimayana ; 

1870-75 
Grimaldi, Joseph, clown ; retires, 

1828 
Grimm, Jacob, 1785-1863 ; Wilhelm, 

1786-1859 ; dictionary (German) ; 

Grimm's law ; Hermann, 1828-1901 
Grimm, J. B. ; composer, 1827-1903 
Grimthorpe, lord ; see Beckett 
Grimwood, F., and Mrs. ; Manipur 
Grindall, abp. ; York, 1570; Canter- 
bury, liturgy 
Grinfield, general ; Demerara, 1803 ; 

Tobago 
Grinnell, Mr. ; Franklin expedition, 

1850 
Grinstead, Capt. ; Princess Alice 
Grisi, madame, d. 1869 
Grissell, C. E., parliament, 1879-80 
Grocyn, Wm. ; Greek, 1490 
Grogan, col., captured; U. States, 

1841 
Grogan, E. S. ; explor. ; Africa, 1898- 

1900 
Gronovius, J., thesaurus, 1657-1702 
Gros, baron ; China, 1858 
Grote, G. , historian, 1794-1861 
Groth, prof. Klaus, poet ; Germany, 

d. 1899 
Grotius, H., 1583-1645 ; philosophy 
Grove, sir G. 1820-1900 ; crystal 

palace, 1874; music (diet.), 1878 
Grove, H. ; executed, 1900 
* Grove, sir W. R. , nat. phil. & judge 

1811-96 ; voltaic battery, 1839 

•correlation, 1842 ; continuity, 1866 

antagonism 



INDEX. 

Groves, W., electric balance, 1879 

Growse, Elias ; needles 

Guarini ; electricity (w. telegraphy), 

1902 
Gubbins, J. ; Derby day, 1902 
Guelph ; Bavaria, Brunswick 
Guerazzi, auth. ; Ital. lang., 1804-74 
Guericke, Otto von, 1602-1686 ; air, 

electricity, 1647 ; Magdeburg 
Guerin-Meneville, silk (ailantine), 

1858 
Guernsey, W. H. : trials, 1858 
Guesclin, B. du, d. 1380 
Guibert, abp.; France, 1876 
Guibord, J. ; Montreal, 1875 
Guicciardini, F., hist., 1482-1540 
Guido, Aretino, fl. 1030 
Guido, Reni, painter, 1575-1642 
Guilford, earl of ; trials, 1853 
Guillemin, A. ; comets 
Guillenno ; Hayti, 1877 
Guillon, R. C. bp. ; China, burned, 

1900 
Guinness, sir B. , 1798-1868; Patrick, 

St., 1863 
Guinness, sir E. (baron Iveagh); arti- 
sans' dwellings 
Guinness, lieut. -col. E. ; S.A. war; 

d. 1901 
Guisard, capt. ; Algiers, 1901 
Guiscard ; Naples, 1059 ; conspira- 
cies, 1710 
Guise, dukes of ; Guise 
Guiteau, C. J., assassin, United 

States, 1881-2 
Guizot, F., 1787-1874; France, 1840- 

48-70 
Gully, Wm. Court ; speaker, 1895 ; 

parliament, 1900 
Gurney, G. ; Bude light, 1841 
Gurney, Messrs. ; trials, 1869 
Gurney, Russell ; recorder, 1856-78 
Gurwood, colonel ; suicide, 1845 
Gussteld, Dr. ; Atrica, 1873 
Gustavus Aclolphus, killed, Lutzen, 

1632 ; Sweden, Munich 
Gustavus Vasa ; Sweden, 1521 
Gustavus I. —IV. ; Sweden 
Gutenberg, J., d. 1467; printing 
Guter, of Nuremberg ; air, 1659 
Gutierrez, T., Peru, 1872 
Guy Faux ; gunpowder plot, 1605 
Guy, Thos. ; Guv's hospital, 1721: 
Gu'yer-Zeller, M. ; Switzerland, d. 

1899 
Guyton-Morveau ; balloons, 1784-04 
Guzman, Dominic de ; beads, 1202 
Guzzi, Dr. Remo ; cattle, 1901 
Gwynne, Nell ; bell-ringing, 1687 
Gyges ; Lydia, 718 b.c. 
Gylippus, 413 b.c. ; Sicily 



H. 

Habakkuk, prophet, abt. 326 b.c. 
Habibullah, son of Ameer, Afghanis- 
tan, 1 90 1 
Hachette, Jeanne de la; Beauvais, 

1472 
Hacker, L. ; Sunday schools, 1740 
Hacker, Matilda, trials, 1879 
Hackett, Wm. ; impostors, 1591 
Hackworth, T. ; steam, 1825 
Haddington, earl of; Ireland (lord- 

lieut.), 1834 
Haden, Seymour ; burials, 1875 
Hadley ; pres. Yule university ; 

ency., 1903 
Hadley ; quadrant, 1731 
Hadrian; Rome, emperor, 117 
Hseckel, prof. ; development 
Hsecker ; magnetism, 1851 
Hatfkiue, Dr., Bombay, 1895 etseq.] 

cholera, 1895 
Hafiz, Persian poet, fl. 14th century 
Haggai prophesies about 630 b. c. 



1445 



Haggard, H. Rider; English lang., 

1856 
Haggart, David ; trials, 1821 
Haggarty and Holloway ; trials, 1807 
Hahnemann, Sam, 1755-1843! 

homoeopathy 
Hakluyt, R. ; geog. , 1553-1616 
Hakon ; Iceland 

Hale, sir Matthew, judge, 1609-76 
Hales, Stephen, philosopher, 1677- 

1761 
Halevy, J. E. F. , mus. comp. 1799- 

1862 
Ha'ifax, earl of ; Halifax administra- 
tion, 1714 ; Halifax, George Savile, 
marquis of, trimmer ; see Wood, 
Halil Rifat pasha ; Turkey, d. 1901 
Hall, A. ; astronomy ; Mars, 1877 ; 

almanacs 
Hall, sir B. ; health, Palmerston ad- 
ministration, 1855 
Hall, sir C, vice-chancellor, 1873 
Hall, sir Chas., 1843-1900 ; recorder 

of London, 1892 
Hall, Mr. John ; Newcastle, d. 1899 
Hall, John ; lead 

Hall, Marshall, physiol., 1790-1857 
Hall, Rev. Robert, 1764-1831 
Hall, Sam., d. 1862 ; lace 
Hall ; steam, 1840 
Hall v. Semple ; trials, 1862 
Hallam, Henry, hist., 1778-1859 
Haller, A. von; physiol., 170S-77 
Halley, Edmund, astronomer ; Green- 
wich, 1719 ; Venus 
Halloran, Dr. , transported for forging 

a frank, 1818 
Halsbury, Id. ; Salisbury adm., 1885, 
1886, 1895. 1900 ; Balfour adm., 
1902 ; earl, 1898, chancellor 
Hamdi Pasha ; Turkey, 1878 
Hamel, J. ; Mont Blanc, 1820 
Hamilcar; Carthage, 247-29 b.c. 
Hamilton, duke of; duelling, 1712 ; 

trials, 1813 
Hamilton; duels, 1748, 1804 
Hamilton, bp. ; Salisbury, 1854 
Hamilton, Bruce ; S.A. war, 1900 
Hamilton, F. W., guards 
Hamilton, Id. George ; Salisbury 
adm., 1885, 1886, 1895; Balfour 
adm. 1902-3 ; India, 1900 
Hamilton, lady Geo. ; Deal, 1899 
Hamilton, Ian ; S. A. war, 1899 ; 

England, 1902 
Hamilton, James, marquis of; ad- 
ministrations, 1640 
Hamilton, J. ; court of honour 
Hamilton, capt. J. de Courcy, fire 

brigade ; London, 1903 
Hamilton, J. B. ; vocalion 
Hamilton, Mary; trials, 1736 
Hamilton, sir W. ; Herculaneum 
Hamilton, sir W. ; quaternions 
Hamilton, W. R. ; Elgin marbles 
Hamilton and Douglas cause ; trials, 

1769 
Hamley, sir Edw. B. ; strategist, 

&c., 1824-93 
Hammond, Mr. ; ambassadors, 1791 
Hampden, John, killed, 1643 ; ship- 
money, Chalgrove 
Hampden, Richard ; administrations, 

1690 
Hampton, gen. Wade, U.S., d. 1902 
Hanbury, Mrs. Eliz. ; women ; d. 1901 
Hanbury, R. W., 1845-1903 ; Salis- 
bury adm., 1895, 1900 ; Balfour 
adm., 1902 
Hancock, T. ; caoutchouc, 1843 
Handcock ; trials, 1855 
Handel, G. F., 1684-1759 ; Handel, 
opera, oratorios, Judas, Joshua, 
Messiah, Rule Britannia 
Hanlan, E.; boat race, 1882 
Hannen, sir James (aft. lord), 1821- 
94; divorce ct., 1872; Parnellites, 
1888 ; appeal ; Behring Straits 



1446 

Hannibal, Carthaginian, 247-183 B.C. ; 
Rome, Bernard, Saguntum, Spain, 
Cannae, Carthage, Zama 
Hans Sachs, 1494-1578 ; minne- 
singers 
Hansom, Joseph ; cabs 
Hanson, capt. ; duels, 1776 
Hanson, Dr. Armaner ; leprosy, 1901 
Hanway, Jonas, d. 1786 ; marine 

society ; umbrella 
Harcourt, lady ; fete de vertu 
Harcourt, lord ; Oxford administra- 
tion, 1711 
Harcourt, sirW. V., solicitor-general, 
1873 ; Gladstone admin., 1880, 
1892 ; London Municipal Bill ; 
Rosebery adm., 1894 ; Transvaal 
rep., 1903 
Hardicanute ; England, 1039 
Hireling, prof. ; planets, 1804 
H irdinge, sir Henry (aft. lord), 1846 ; 

India 
Hardinge, Mr. ; journals, 1752 
Hardwicke, earl of; Pelham admin., 
1744; Derby admin.. 1852 ; Ireland 
(lord-lieut.). 1801 ; Salisbury adm. , 
1900; Balfour adm., 1903 
Hardy, Gathorne, vise. Cranbrook, h. 
1814 ; Disraeli adm., 1868 and 1874 ; 
Salisbury adm., 1885, 1886 
Hardy, Thos. ; English lang., 1840 
Hare, Augustus, 1834-1903 ; author 
Hare, R. ; blowpipe, 1802 
Hargan, W. A. ; trials, 1890 
Hargreaves, E. ; Australia, 1851 
Hargreaves, J. ; cotton, 1767 
Harley, Robert ; Godolphin a [minis- 
tration, 1702 ; Harleian library, see 
Oxford 
Harley, R. W. ; Tobago, if 7 5 
Harmodius kills Hipparchus, Athens, 

514B.C. 
Harney, gen. ; United States, 1855 
Harold II. : Hastings, 1066 
Haroun-al-Raschid, caliph, 765-809 
Harpur, W. ; Bedford, 1561 
Harrington, c ipt*. ; Borneo, 1900 
Harrington, lieut. ; Abyssinia, 1898 
Harrington, earl of ; Pelham admin- 
istration, 1744 
Harrington, J. ; oceana, 1656 
Harrington v. Victoria Graving Dock 

Co.; trials, 1878 
Hamngton, T. C, M.P. ; Dublin, 

1901-3 
Harriot, T., algebra, 1631 
Harris, lord ; Bombay, 1889 
Harris, sir Augustus, 1852-96, 

theatres, opera 
Harris, Mr.; organs, 1682 ; clocks, 

apples, fluxions, pendulum 
Harris, sir Robt. H. ; navy, 1903 
Harris, sir W. S., 1792-1867; light- 
ning conductors, 1820-54 
Harrison, gen. ; United States, presi- 
dent, 1 84 1 
Harrison, Mr.; congelation, 1857, 

1873 
Harrison, B., 1833-1901 ; United 

States, 1888-93 
Harrison, F.; positive phil. 
Harrison, Jno. ; executed, icoi 
Harrison, J. ; pneumatic loom, 1864; 

Harrison, 1714 
Harrowby, earl nf; Pitt administra- 
tion, 1804 et seq. 
Harrowby, Dudley F., ear] of, 1831- 

1900; Salisbury adm., 1885 
Harsnet, arclibp. ; York, 1628 

Hart, En, est, 1 lieal journalist, 

&c. ; 1836-98 
Hart, sir Robt. ; China, 1900-2 
Harte, Bret ; hum. nov. ; Eng. lang., 

1839-1902 
Hartinger, Mr. ; duels, 1820 
Hartiugton, marquis of; Gladstone 
administration, 186S, 1880, 1882; 
Dei onshire 



INDEX. 

Hartland, sir R. ; Madras, 1771 
Hartman, maj. ; Dreyfus case, 1899 
Hartinann, Russia, 1880 
Harvey, B. Bagenal ; trials, 1798 
Harvey, Dr. William, 1578-1657 ; 

blood, anatomy, midwifery, gene- 
ration 
Harwood ; porter, 1730 
Hasdrubal ; Carthage, Spain ; Me- 

taurus, 207 b.c. 
Hassall, A. H. ; food 
Hassan and Hussan, drama 
Hastings, marquis of; India, gov.- 

gen. 1813 
Hastings, Warren, 1733-1S18 ; India, 

1772 ; Chunar, Hastings 
Hatchell, Mr. ; duels, 1814 
Hatfield fires at George III. ; trials, 

1800 
Hatfield ; executions, 1803 
Hatherley, Id. chancellor, 1868 
Hatton, sir Christopher, d. 1591 ; 

chancellor (lord high), master in 

chancery 
Hatzfelt, count ; d. 1901 ; England ; 

Germany 
Hauer, F. R. von ; geologist, 1822-99 
Haughton, Samuel, M.D., philoso- 
pher, naturalist, &c. ; 1821-97 
Hausniann, 1809-91 ; Paris, France, 

1870 
Hairy, R., 1743-1822; crystallography 
Hatiy, V. ; blind school, 1804 
Havelock, sir Henry, gen., 1795-1857; 

India, 1857 : Cawnpore ; son, 

major-gen. sir Henry Havelock- 

Allan, M.P. ; 1830-97; India, 1897 
Haweis, rev. H. R., 1839-1901 ; writer 

and lecturer ; violins 
Hawke, adm. ; naval battles, 1747 
Hawkesbury, lord ; administrations, 

1807 ; Amiens 
Hawkesley, Thomas ; engineer, 1807- 

93 
Hawkey, lieut. ; duels, trials, 1846 
Hawkings, Jno. ; press, assoc, d. 

1899 
Hawkins, Anthony Hope ; Bug. 

lang. 1863 
Hawkins, Mr. Fred. ; Times, 1849- 

1900 
Hawkins, I. ; piano 
Hawkins, sir Henry ; barrister, Tich- 

borne case, 1871-4 ; judge, 1876 ; 

resigns, Dec. 1898 ; made a peer, 

baron Brampton, Jan., 1899 
Hawkins, sir John, d. 1595 ; Guinea, 

slave trade, 1562 ; potatoes, 

tobacco, Chatham 
Hawthorne, Nat., Amer. nov. 1804-64 
Hay, lord John ; British legion, 

1835 ; Sebastian's, St. 
Hay, Mr. ; sec. U.S.A. ; China, 1900 ; 

open door ; Bulwer-Clayton treaty, 

1901 ; Panama, 1903 
Hayashi, baron, visct. ; 1902 
Haydn, Joseph [first compiler of this 

book], d. 1856 
Haydn, Joseph, mus. comp. ; 1732- 

1809 ; Creation, Emperor's hymn 
Haydon, Benj., painter, 1786-1846 
Hayes, sir H. B. ; trials, 1800 
Hayes, Mr. ; duels, 1728, 1806; trials, 

1802 
Hayes, R. B., ; United States, 1876 ; 

d. 1893 
Hayman, Dr. II. ; Rugby ; trials, 

1874, 1892, 1893 
Haynau, gen. ; Hungary, 1S49 
Hayter, sir U. ; painter, 1792-1871 
Hayter, sir Win,, whip 
1 [ayward ; trials, 1S21 
Haywood, \V. ; Holborn, 1869 
Haywood, \V. ; trials, 1903 
11. r,. ; caricatures 
Head, sir Francis : Canada, 1836 
Head v. Morning Post; trials, 1903 

Headfort, marquis of; trials, 1805 



Hearn, north-west passage, 1769 
Heath, archbp. ; York, 1555 
Heath,' Vernon, landscape photo- 
grapher, 1820-95 
Heberden, Dr. ; Humane Society, 

1774 
Hebert, J. R. (pere Duchesne), exe- 
cuted, 1794 
Hector of Troy, slain, 1183 B.C. (?) 
Heenan, J. ; boxing, i860 
Hegel, G. , philosopher, 1770-1831 
Held ; animal magnetism, 1774 
Heiberg ; Scandinavia, drama 
Heine, H. , German poet, 1799-1856 
Heincke, Dr. ; Rontgen rays, 1903 
Helena, St. ; cross, 328 ; Bethlehem 
Heliodorus, ft. 398 ; romances 
Heliogabalus ; Rome, emp. 218 
Hellriegel, Hermann, agricultural 

chemist, 1831-95 ; nitrogen 
Helmholtz, H. , univ. genius, 1821-94 ; 

ophthalmoscope, 1851; acoustics 
Heloise. d. 1164 ; Abelard 
Helps, sir Arthur, hist, and miscel., 

1811-75 
Helsham, capt ; duels, 1829 
Helyar, col. ; S. A. war ; it. 1900 
Hely-Hutchinson, sir W. F. ; C. of 

Good Hope, 1901-2 
Hemans, Felicia, poet, 1794-1835 
Hencke ; planets, 1845 
Henderson, sir E., police, 1869-1886 

A. ; proverbs 
Henderson, lieut. -col. F. R. ; Eng- 
land, d. 1903 
Henderson, T. ; stars 
Heneage, E. ; Gladstone adm., 1886 
Hengist ; Britain, 454 
Henley, lord; Grenville admin., 1763 
Henley, Jos. ; Derby adm., 1852 
Henley, orator, d. 1756 
Henley, W. E. ; poet, editor, etc., 

1849-1903 
Hennessy, sir J. P., 1832-91 ; Bahama, 

1874 ; Bavbadoes, 1875-6, etc. ; 

Mauritius, 1882 ; Ireland, 1890 
Henniker, sir Brydges Powell ; 

registers parochial, 1880 
Hennis, Dr. ; duels, 1833 
Henrietta ; queens (Charles I.) 
Henriot, Mile. ; actress, Comedie 

Franchise, d. 1900 
Henry ; kings ; England, France, 

Germany, Spain 
Henry I. ; Tinchebray, 1106 
Henry V. ; Agincourt, 1415 ; Cher- 
bourg 
Henry VII. ; Bosworth, 1485 
Henry VIII. ; England, 1509 ; age, 

defender, field, monasteries, spurs 
Henry II., France ; tournaments, 

1559 
Henry III., France ; assassinations 
Henry IV. ; France, 1589 ; Nantes, 

Ravaillac, Yvres, assassination 
Henry, col. ; Dreyius case, d. 1898 
Henry the Lion ; Brunswick, 1139 
Henry, Edw. R. H., C.S.I. ; police, 

1903 
Henry, Joseph, Am. nat. phil. 1797- 

1878 
Henry, Paul and Prosper 1S49-1903 ; 

planets, 1S72-8 ; photography, 1S85 
Henshaw, Mr. ; duels, 1820 
Henty, Mr. ; Victoria, 1834 
llenty, Mr. G. A ; England, d. 1902: 
Hepburn, ensign; trials, 1811 
Heraclitus, philosopher,/. 500 b.c. 
Heraclius ; cross, 615 
Herbert, adm. ; Bantry Bay, 1689 
Herbert, George, ch. poet, 1593- 

1633 
Herbert of Cherbury, lord, 1581- 
1648; deism 

Herbert, Sidney (aft. lord), 1810-61;- 

Peel, I'almerston admins. 
Herbert, sinM., 1S57-1903, K.C.M.G., 

1903 ; United States, 1902 



Herbert, sir Robt. ; Africa, B. Sth. , 

1902 
Herbert, W., trials, 1880 
Hercules Tyrius ; purple 
Herder, J. G. von, philosopher, 1744- 

1803 
Hereford, Id. Jas. of ; Salisbury adm. , 

1900 ; coal, 1900, 1902 ; appeals, 

1903 
Heriot-Maitland, sir J. N. ; d. 1902 
Herkomer, H.;arts, 1883-1896 
Hermann (Arminius), Germany, 9 
Hero of Alexandria, /{. 284-221 B.C. 
Herod ; Jews, 42 B.C. 
Herodian, hist. , fl. 173 
Herodotus, b. 484 B.C. ; history 
Herophilus ; anatomy, 302 b. c. 
Herostratus fires the temple at 

Ephesus, 356 b. c 
Herrera, gen. ; Colombia, 1902 
Hemes, J'. C. ; Peel adm. 1834 
Herring, abp. ; Canterbury, 1747 • 
Herring, Mrs. ; trials, 1773 
Herrmann, R. ; ilmenium 
Herschel, J. P., 1792-1871 ; actino- 

meter, photography 
Herschel, W., 1738-1822 ; Saturn, 

astronomy, telescope, sun, Uranus, 

nebular hypothesis 
Herschell, Id., 1837-99; sol. -gen.-, 

1880; chancellor, Id., 1886,1892; 

Canada, 1898-99 ; Venezuela 
Hertford, earl of; administrations, 

1547; Pinkey 
Hertford, marquis of ; his executors 

v. Suisse, trials, 1842 
Hertz, Mr. ; Burmah, 1900 
Hertz, James ; cheque bank, 1873 
Herve, Edouard ; French journalist, 

1835-99 
Hervey, Id. A. C, bp. ; Bath and 

Wells, 1869 
Hervie, H. ; doctors' commons, 1568 
Herz, Cornelius, Dr., 1845-98. 

Panama 
Herzog ; S. A. war, 1900 
Hesiod, Greek poet, fl. 850 b.c. 
Hess, gen. ; Solferino, 1859 
Hewett, adm., Sir Wm.; Congo, 1875 ; 

Egypt, 1882 ; Soudan, 1884 
Heytesbury, lord ; ' Ireland (lord 

lieut.), 1844 
Heywood, Mrs. ; Manchester, 1875 
Hey wood ; pub. worship reg. act, 1883 
Hibbs, Geo. ; executions, 1902 
Hickens, Robt. S. ; English lang., 

1864 
Hickman, Miss, lady doctor ; body 

found ; London, 1903 
Hickman, S. F. ; London, 15 Aug. 

1903 
Hicks ; life-boat, &c, 1874 
Hicks, col.; Soudan, 1883 
Hicks, Dr. Henry, 1837-99 ! geologist 
Hiddingh, Dr. W. ; C. of Good Hope, 

1900 
Hiero, Syracuse, 478-216 B.C. 
Hieronymus, see Jerome ; Sicily, 216 
Hilary ; hymns, 431 
Hill, lord ; commander-in-chief, 1828 
Hill, rev. R., 1744-1833; Surrey chapel 
Hill, Rowland, 1 795-1879; post-office 
Hill, bp. R. ; Man 
Hill, Mr. A. ; astron. ; comets, 1901 
Hillsborough, lord ; North adminis- 
tration, 1770 
Hilsner, Leo. ; Austria, 1900 
Hilton, H. H. ; golf, 1898 
Hilton, James ; chronogram 
Hime, sir A. ; Dublin, 1902 
Hind, C. L. ; Academy, the, 1896-1903 
Hind, J. R. , astronomer, 1823-95; 

planets^ 1847 : comets 
Hinde v. Davey ; ch. of England, 1900 
Hindes, lieut. ; duel, 1817 
Hinds, bp. ; Norwich, 1849 
Hinrichs, professor ; atomic theory, 
1855 



INDEX. 

Hipkins, A. J., 1826-1903 ; pianoforte 
Hipparchus, fl. 162 B.C. ; astronomy, 
Canary, constellation, degrees, 
latitude, longitude 
Hippias ; ostracism, 510 B.C. 
Hippocrates, d. 357 B.C. ; anatomy, 

surgery 
Hirsch, baron, 1831-96 ; Russia, 1887 ; 

Jews 
Hirsch, baroness de ; Hampstead, d. 

1899 
Hirsch, Mme. ; hydrophobia, 1899 
Hoadley, B., bp., d. 1761 ; Ban- 

gorian 
Hobart, lord ; Addington adm. , 

1801 
Hobart, Mr. Garret ; U. S., d. 1899 
Hobart, Pasha ; admiral, 1823-86 
Hobbema, painter, ft. 1681 
Hobbes, T., philos.', 1 588-1679 
Hobhouse, Id. ; appeals, 1903 
Hobhouse, sir J. C. (aft. lord 
Broughton), 1869 ; Melbourne 
adm., 1834 
Hocart, rev. Jas. ; wes. methodist, d. 

1899 
Hoche, gen. ; Dunkirk, 1793 
Hochstade, C. von, Cologne, 1248 
Hocker, murderer ; trials, 1845 
Hodel ; Germany, Prussia, 1878 
Hodgson, gen. ; Belleisle, 1761 
Hodgson v. Greene ; trials, 1832 
Hodgson, sir Fred. ; Ashantees, 

Barbadoes, 1900 
Hodgson, Houghton Brian, oriental 

scholar, 1803-94 
Hofer, Andrew ; Tyrol, 1809-10 
Hoffmann, A., Kladderadatsch 
Hofmann, Dr. A. W., 1818-92; chemis- 
try, ammonia, aniline, crith, Fara- 
day 
Hofmeyer, rev. Adrian ; Transvaal 

rep. 1900 
Hogarth, Mr. ; Egypt, explor. fund, 

1899 
Hogarth, W., painter, 1697-1764 
Hogg, Jabez, ophthalmic surgeon, 

microscopist, 1S17-99 
Hogg, James, Sc. poet, 1772-1835 
Hogg, Quintin, 1S45-1903 ; philan- 
thropist, polytechnic 
Hogsbro, Sophus ; Denmark, d. 

1902 
Holienlohe, prince, 1819-1901; Alsace, 

1885 ; Germany, 1894 
Hohenwart, count Karl ; Austria, d. 

1899 
Holbein, Hans, Ger. paint. 1498- 

*543 . 

Holbein, Montague ; swimming, 1903 
Holberg, dramatist ; Scandinavia 
Holcombe, lieut. ; India, 1875 
Holcroft, T., 1745-1809 ; melodrama, 

'793 

Holder, Mr. F. W. ; Australasia, 1901 

Holdernesse, earl of ; Devonshire ad- 
ministration, 1756 

Holdich, sir Thos. ; Chili, 1901 

Hole, James, Yorks. philanthropist, 
1820-95 

Holgate, abp. ; York, 1545 

Holinshecl, Ralph, hist. ; d. about 1580 

Holkar ; India, 1804 

Holker, sir J. ; solicitor-gen., 1874 ; 
att.-gen., 1875 

Holland, lord; trials, 1797; Mel- 
bourne adm., 1835 et seq. 

Holland, sir H, 1788-1873 ; pres. 
Roy. Inst., 1865-73 

Holiest murderers ; trials, 1851 

Holmes, adm. ; Cape Coast, 1663 

Holmes, Augusta, composer, 1847- 
1903 

Holmes, O. W., Am. writer, 1809-94 ; 
United States, 1894 

Holt, sir John ; king's bench, 1689 

Holt ; trials, 1844 
Holtz ; electricity, 1865 



144 j - 

Holub, Dr. Emil, explor. ; Africa, d. 

1902 
Holwell, Mr. ; suttees, 1743 
Holy oak e ; secularism 
Home or Hume, D. ; spiritualism ; 

trials, 1868 
Home, lieut. ; Delhi, T857 
Homer, fl. 962 B.C. (Clinton) ; poetry 
Hompesch, baron ; duels, 1806 
Hone, Wm., 1779-1842; trials, 1817 ; 

almanacs 
Honey and Francis ; riots, 1821 
Honorius ; West, empire, 395 
Hood, admiral ; Madeira, 1S07 ; 

Toulon 
Hood, sir Alex. Acland ; Balfour 

adm., 1902 
Hood, Basil; Savoy palace, 1898; 

opera, 1900 
Hood, Thomas, comic writer, 1798- 

1845 ; Tom, son, 1835-74 
Hook, Theodore, novelist, 1788-1841 
Hook, W. F. J. D., dean, hist., 1798- 

l8? 5 . r. •-,• 

Hooke, Rob., 1635-1702; air, boiling, 

camera, clocks, geology, mechanics, 

microscope, telegraphs 
Hooker, Rich., theol., 1553-1600 
Hooker, W. , botanist, 1785-1865; — J. 

D. (son), b. 1816 ; Kew, 1865 ;— Gen. 

R., United States, 1862-3 ; Fre- 
dericksburg 
Hooley, Mr. E. T. ; bankrupt, 1898 
Hopetoun, Id. ; Australia, 1900 ; 

made a marquis, 1902 
Hopkins, sir J. ; army (roy. comm.), 

1902 
Hopkins, miss Ellice ; white cross 

army 
Hopkins, Matthew ; witches, 1645 
Hopkinson, Dr. J., electrician, b. 

1849 ; killed by fall in the Alps, 

27 Allg., 1898 

Hopley, T. ; trials, i860 

Horace, 65-8 B.C. , Latin poet ; Athens, 

satires 
Horler, H. ; trials, 1853 
Hormisdas ; Persia, 272 
Horn, count ; Nordlingen, 1634 
Hornby, adm. sir W., 1812-99 
Home, G., bp. ; Norwich, 1790 
Home, rev. T. H., bibl. critic, 1780- 

1862 
Horner, Fr. ; bullion, 1810 
Horniman, F.; Surrey Museum;; 

Horniman museum, 1901 
Hornor, Mr. ; Colosseum, 1824 
Hornsby, Dr. ; Radcliti'e, observa- 
tory, 1771 ;— Messrs., washing-ma- 
chine, 1862 
Horos, see Jackson, Frank and Laura 
Horrebow ; astronomy, 1659 
Horrocks or Horrox, Jer., d. 1641 

astronomy, Venus 
Horsfall, Mr. ; trials, 1813 
Horsfall, Messrs. ; cannon, 1856 
Horsley, bp. ; Asaph, St., 1802 
Horsley, J. C, painter, 1817-1903 
Horsley, Victor, prof, pathologist, b. 

1857 ; knt. 1902 
Horsman, Edwd., 1807-76 (sec. for 

Ireland, 1855-7) : Adullam, 1866 
Hosea prophesies about 785 B.C. 
Hoskins, adm. sir A. ; d. 1901 
Hoste, capt. Wm. ; Lissa, 1811 
Hotham, adm. ; naval battles, 1795 
Hotham, adm. sir Chas. F. ; navy, 

1903 
Hotspur ; Otterburn, 1388 
Houblon, sir J. ; bank of England, 

1695 
Houdin, R. J. E., conjuror, 1815-71 ; 

("Confidences," pub. 1859) 
Houghton, lord ; ancient buildings 
Houghton, lord ; Gladstone adm. 1892; 

earl, 1895 
Houghton, John, executed, 1535; 
Charterhouse 



1448 

Houldsworth, Mr. Wm. ; Glasgow, 

1898 
Houston, Mr. ; Parnellitcs, j888 
How, W. Walsham, bp. ; Wakefield, 

1888 
Howard, C. ; trials, 1876 
Howard, adm. sir Edward; naval 

battles, 151 3 
Howard, John, 1726-go; prisons; — 

potatoes ; Bedford, 1894 
Howard, col. J. E.; quinine 
Howard, Luke, d. 1864 ; clouds 
Howard of Effingham, lord ; armada, 

1588 
Howard v. Gossett ; trials, 1842 
Howards, ploughs 
Howe, lord, 1784 ; Pitt, 1783 ; Brest, 

Ushant 
Howe, sir William ; Long Island, 1776 
Howe, Mr. W. H. ; ballot, 1901 
Howel Da ; Wales, 920 
Howells, Wm. D. ; English lang., 

1837 
Howitt, Wm., author, 1795-1879 
Howley, Dr., abp. ; Canterbury, 

1828 ; Lambeth 
Hoyle, W., drunkards 
Hsu-Cheng-yu ; China ex., 1901 
Huber, F., 1750-1831 ; bees'* 
Hudson, C. T., 182S-1903 ; F.R.S., 

1889 
Hudson, H. ; Hudson's Bay 
Hudson, sir James, 1810-1885; Italy, 

1863 " 

Hudson, Jeffrey, 1626 ; dwarf 
Hugelmann, G. ; France, 1874 
Huggins, Wm., K.C.B. 1897; spec- 
trum ; sun (corona), astronomy ; 

astrophysics 
Hughes, D. E., 1831-1900 ; micro- 
phone ; audiometer 
Hughes, sir E. ; Trincomalee, 1782 
Hughes, J., bp., Asaph, 1870 
Hughes, T., 1823-96; socialism, 

Ashdown, Rugby, New Rugby 
Hugo, Victor, Fr." poet and novel., 

1802-85; France, 1876; literary 

congress ; France, 1902 
Hugues, mad.; France, 1884 
Hullah, J., 1812-84; music, 1840 
Humbert I., 1844-1900; Italv, 1878 ; 

Naples, 1884 
Humbert, gen. ; Killala, 1798 
Humbert -Crawford case ; France, 

rgo2-3 
Humboldt, A. de, Ger. phil., 1769- 

1859 ; Andes 
Humboldt, W. de, Ger. lit., 1767- 

1835 
Hume, David, hist., 171T-76 ; — Jos., 

politician, 1 777-1855 ; see Home 
Humphrey, duke of Gloucester, d. 

at Bury, 1447 
Hungerford, sir T. ; speaker, 1377 
Ilunniades, J. ; Hungary, 1442 

Turkey, Varna 
Hunt, Alfred Wm., artist, 1830-96 
Hunt, Geo Ward, 1825-77 ; Disrael 

administrations, excheq., 1868 

admiralty, 1074-7 
Hunt, Henry, reformer; trials, 1820 

Clerkcnwell. Manchester 
Hunt, John and Leigh; trials, 1811 

1812; James, d. 1S69, anthro 

l'"l<W 
Hunt, J. H. Leigh, essayist, 1784 

1859 
Hunt, Wm. ITolman, painter,/). 1827 

pre-Raphaelite ; sestheticism 
Hunt, W. T. ; trials, 1875 
Hunter, sir A.; S. A. war, 1899; 

navy, 1903 
Hunter, John, surgeon, 1728-93 ; — 

W., 1718-83 
Hunter, Robt., lexicographer, 1824- 

97 
Hunter, sirW., 1840-1500; historian 

of India 



INDEX. 

Huntingdon, countess of, 1707-91 ; 

Chesliunt, Whitelieldites 
riuntingford. bp. ; Hereford, 1802 
Huntly, earl of , Brechin, 1452 
Hunton, Jos., forgery; executions, 

1828 
Hurd, bishop ; Worcester, 1781 
Huskisson, Wm., 1770-1830; Wel- 
lington admin., 1828; Liverpool, 
1830 
Huss, John, burnt. 1369-1415; 

Hussites ; Abrahamites 
Hutchinson, Amy; trials, 1750 
Hutchinson, John, d. 1737; Hutch- 

insonians 
Hutchinson, J. H. ; Lavalette's 

escape, 1815 
Hutchinson, Mr. J. ; leprosy, 1902 
Hutchinson, major; Alexandria, 1801 
Hutton, abp. ; Canterbury, 1757 
Hutton, sir John, 1841-1903 ; London 

county council 
Hutton, W., d. 1815 ; geology 
Huxley, T. H., naturalist; 1825-95; 
abiogenesis, bathybius, biology, 
Birmingham, 1874; germ, mini- 
misers, oysters, Roy. Soc. pres. 
1883 
Huyghens, d. 1695 ; astronomy, 

optics, pendulum 
Hu Yu Fen ; China, 1899, 1902 
Hya.cinthe (Loyson) father, France, 

1869 
Hyde, capt. ; Chili, 1874 
Hyde, sir Edward (earl of Clarendon), 
1608-74 ; administrations, 1660, 
1685 ; chancellor, lord high, 1660 
Hyde, Laurence; administrations, 

1689 et seq. 
Hyder Ali, d. 1782 ; India, Areot, 

Carnatic, Mysore 
Hyginus, pope, 139; martyr 
Hylard ; firearms, 1901 
Hyndman, H. M. ; socialism, 1900 
Hypatia, philosopher, m. 415 ; hydro- 
meter 
Hyperides ; Cranon, 322 B.C. 
Hyrcanus, John, d. 106 B.C. ; Sa- 
maritans 
Hyslop and Denham : trials, 1877 
Hyslop, Dr. ; drunkards, 1903 



I. 



Ibn Rashid, king ; Arabia, 1899-1902 
Ibrahim Pacha, 1789-1848 Autioch, 

Beyrout, Egypt, Greece, Syria, 

Turkey, Damascus, Wahabces 
Ibsen, dram. ; Scandinavia 
Iglesias ; Mexico, 1S76-7 ; Peru, 

18S3-4 ; Costa Rica, 1902 
Ignatief, M.; Russia; resigned, 1882 
Ignatius, St., mart., 115; liturgies, 

250 
Ilchester, Id. ; Oxford univ. ; Sla- 

vonia, 1876 
Imchessetsky, col. ; fire annihilator, 

1902 
Impey, major; duels, 1S01 
Inachus ; Argos 
[ncledon, C, d. 1826 
Inez de Castro ; Coimbra, 1355 
Ingham, sir J. T. ; magistrate, 1876 
Ingle, L., trials, 1880 
Inglefleld, capt., aft. adm. sir, 1S19- 

94 ; Franklin, 1852 
[nglis, col. ; Albuera, 1811 
[ngram, Herbert, <t. i860; Illust. 

London News, 1S42— \V. J., print- 
ing machine, 1877 
Inman, W. ; steam, 1850 
Innocent I. — XII. ; popes, ^oietseq. 
Innocent III., pope, 1198; transub- 

stantiation 
lonides, Mr. Constautine ; arts, 1900 



Irenams, martyr, 202 

Irving, E., 1 792-1834 ; Irvingites, 

trial, 1832 ; unknown tongues 
Irving, H., h. 1838 ; knt. 1895 ; 

theatres, 1895 (Lyceum), 1874 et 

seq. ; Shakespeare 
Irving, H. T. ; Antigua, 1873 ; Lee- 
ward Isles, 1873 
living, Washington. 1783-1859 
Isaac, major, tunnel, Mersey 
Isabella ; salique law, Spain, 1469, 

1833 
Isaiah prophesies about 760 b. c. 
Islip, abp. ; Canterbury, 1349 
Ismail Bey ; Candia, 1898 
Ismail pasha, 1830-95 ; Egypt 
Ismay, T. H., d. 1899 ; Liverpool, 

Belfast 
Isocrates, Gr. orator, 436-338 B.C. 
Ito, marquis ; China, 1898 ; England, 

Germany, Japan, Russia 
Iturbide ; Mexico, 1821-1865 
Ivan ; Russia, 1462 ; czars 
Ivantchoff, M. ; Bulgaria, 1899, 1901 
Iveagh, Id. ; Dublin, 1898, 1902 
Iyer, sir Sheshadri ; Mysore, d. 1901 



Jabloehkoff ; electricity (electric 

candles) ; rf. 1894 
Jablonsky ; assassin ; Russia, 18S3 
Jack, capt. ; Modoc, 1873 
Jackson, bp. ; Oxford, 1812; Lin- 
coln, 1852; London, 1869-18S5 ; 
auricular confession, 1873 
Jackson, gen. ; United States, 1829 
Jackson, 0. T. ; ether, 1846 
Jackson, Frank, and Laura ; trials, 

1901 
Jackson, Mr. F. J., commissioner; 

Africa, B.E., 1901 
Jackson, Harry ; burglary, 1902 
Jackson, sir H. M. ; Fiji, 1902 
Jackson, col. H. W. ; Soudan, 1900 
Jackson, J. B. ; printing in colours, 

1720 
Jackson, Mason, 1818-1903, journalist 
Jackson, Thos., "Stonewall," 1826- 
63 ; Manassas, United States, 1S62 ; 
Chancellorsville, Richmond, 1875 
Jackson, T. ; executions, 1861 . 
Jackson, Wm. L. ; Ireland, 1892; 
Salisbury 2nd adm. ; made a peer, 
lord Allerton, June, 1902 ; coal, 
1901 ; railways, 1902 
Jacob, Mr. A. ; trials, 1891 
Jacob, Dr. ; Christ's hospital, 1854 
Jacob, Edgar, bp. ; Alban's, St., 1903 
Jacobi ; Baltic, note, electrotype 
Jacobs, S. ; abstinence 
Jacobs ; Transvaal, 1902 
Jacobsen, M. Carl ; Copenhagen, 1899 
Jacoby, Dr. ; apocrypha, 1900 
Jacquard loom, 1806 
James ; England, Scotland, Spain 

(kings) ; assassinations 
.lames IV. ; Flodden, 1513 
James, sir H., 1803-77; photozin- 
cography, i860; ordnance survey 
James, sir H. ; sol. -general, att.-gen., 
1873, 1880; Salisbury adm. (baron), 

1895 
James, Hen. ; English lang., 1843 
James, W. H., companies, 1876 
Jameson, L. S., Dr.; Mashonaland, 
1893-4 ; Transvaal, 1895-6 ; Rho- 
desia, 1896-7 ; C. of Good Hope, 
1902-3 
Jamieson, G. ; volunteers (18th meet- 
ing). 1S77 

.lainsetjee ; racquets, 1903 

.lane, England, queens, 1554; Sicily 
Janisch, II. R. ; Helena, 1873 
Jansen, C, 1585-1638; Jansenism 
Janson, M. ; Belgium, 1899 
Janssen, M. ; eclipse, 1868 



Janvier de la Motte ; France, 1872 

Jardine, sir fm. , naturalist, 1800-74 

Jarnac, comte de ; France, 1874-5 

Jarvis, J. A. ; swimming, 1903 

Jason, argonautic exp. 

Jayne, F. J., bp.; Chester, 1888 

Jeans, J. S. , steel 

Jebb, Joshua, prison reformer, 1793- 

1863 
Jeffcott, sir John W. ; duels, 1833 
Jefferson, Thos., 1743-1826; United 

States, president, 1801-8 
Jeffery, Robert ; Sombrero, 1807 
Jeffrey, Francis, critic, 1773-1850 ; 

Edinburgh review 
Jeffreys, George (afterwards lord) ; 
administrations, 1685; king's bench, 
chancellor, lord high, bloody as- 
size ; d. i68q 
Jeffreys of Ohio ; boxing, 1899 
Jeffries,- Br. J., colour blindness 
Jejeebhoy ; Bombay, 1859 • Parsees 
Jejeehov, sir J. ; Africa, B. South, 

1902 
Jellachieh ; Hungary, Vienna, 1848 
Jenkin, F., telpherage 
Jenkins v. Cook ; trials, 1875-6 
Jenkins, Henry ; longevity, d. 1670 
Jenkinson, bp. ; David's, St., 1825 
Jenks, games, 1884 
Jenner, Mr. ; Africa, B.E. ; Somali- 
land, mur., 1900 
Jenner, E. , 1 749-1823 ; vaccination 1 
Jennings, Mr. T. ; horse, d. 1900 
Jennings, Mr. ; tontines, 1798 
Jeremiah prophesies about 629 B.C. 
Jerningham, Mrs. ; blue-stockings, 

1760 
Jerome, St., Latin father, 345-420 

ascension, liturgies 
Jerome of Prague ; burnt, 1416 
Jerome, Jerome K., writer, b. 185Q 
Jerrold, Douglas, nov. dram., 1803- 

1857 ; W. B., 1826-84 
Jersey, countess of; delicate investi- 
gation, 1806 
Jervis, sir John, 1734-1823 ; Cape St. 
Vincent ; — solicitor-gen., att.-gen., 
common pleas, d. 1S56 
Jervois, sir W. F. D. ; Straits, and 

South Australia 
Jessel, sir Geo. 1824-83 ; master of 

rolls, 1873 
Jeune, sir Francis ; Balfour adm. 

1902 
Jevons, W. Stanley ; polit. economy, 
coal, <&c. 1835-82' ; abecedarium, 
1874 ; method 
Joachim, Geo. (visct. Goschen) ; 

Oxford U., 1903 
Joan of Arc, burnt, 1431 ; Joan 
Joan ; queens (Henry IV.), Naples 
Joel prophesies about 800 B.C. 
Johanni ; Abyssinia, 1872 
John, St., d. 100 ; baptism, accusers, 

evangelists, gospels 
John, I.— XXIII. ; popes, 523 et seq. 
John of Austria ; Lepanto, 1571 
John, king ; Bohemia, Portugal, 

Spain, France, Poitiers 
John, king ; England (1199), charter 

of forests, magna charta, " We'" 
John of Leyden ; anabaptists, 1534 
John the Fearless ; Burgundy, 1404 
Johnson, capt. ; trials, 1846 
Johnson, Mr. ; swimming, 1872 
Johnson, A. ; boats 
Johnson, Andrew, 1809-75 ; United 

States, 1865-8 
Johnson, Mrs. Ellen ; women, d. 1899 
Johnson, Sam., 1709-84 ; dictionary, 

literary club, 1764 
Johnston, capt. ; steam, 1825 
Johnston, gen. ; New Ross, 1798 
Johnston, Albt, Jc. Pittsburg, 1862; 

—Jos.. U. S., 1863 
Johnston, Alex. K. , geographer, 1804- 
71 ; trials, 1875 ; Africa, 1878 



INDEX. 

Johnston, H. H., K.C.B. 1896; Africa 

(Central) 
Johnston, sir Harry ; Okapi, 1901 
Johnston,sirJohn;marriages(forced), 

1690 
Johnston, Robert ; trials, 1818 
Johnston, Mr. Wm., M.P. ; Belfast, 

Liverpool, d. 1902 
Johnston, W. ; orangemen, 1868 
Joinville, Jean de, French historian, 

1224-1318 
Joinville, prince de, 1818-1900; Ocean 

Monarch, 1848 
Jokai, Moritz ; Hungary, 1894 
Jomini, baron H., strategist; 1779- ' 

1869 ; Brussels conf., 1874 
Jonah prophesies about 862 B.C. 
Joncieres, Victorien, composer, 1839- I 

1903 
Jones, colonel ; Dungan, 1647 ; Rath- j 

mines 
Jones, Mr. ; riots, 1819 
Jones, sir Alfred ; Africa, B. S., 1902 
Jones, Gale; trials, 1811 
Jones, H. Bence, 1813-73; Royal 
Institution, 1S60 ; fluorescence, 
spectrum 
Jones, H. ; whist, 1899 
Jones, sir Horace, 1819-1887 ; Billings- 
gate, foreign cattle market, guild- 
hall 
Jones, Inigo, architect, 1572-1652 ; 

Whitehall - 
Jones, Jane ; trials, 1842 
Jones, J., South Kensington Museum 
Jones, J. ; trials, 1870 
Jones, J. W. ; Brit. Museum, 1866- 

1878 
Jones, sir Lewis Tobias, 1797-1895 
Jones, Owen, 1809-74, Ailmmbra, 

1842 ; James's-hall, St. 
Jones, T. ; book-keeping, 1821 
Jones, Mr. Todd ; duel, 1S02 
Jones, sir Wm., 1746-94; Asiatic, 

chess, Menu, Sanskrit 
Jones, W. B. T., bp., Davids, St., 

1874 
Jones v. Stannard, trials, 1881 
Jonson, Ben, 1574-1637 ; poet-laur. 
Jocpiemin, M. ; picqnet, 1390 
Jordan, Mrs., actress, d. 1816 
Jordan, J. B., barometer; sunshine 
Jordan, R., gold 

Joseph ; Germany, Namur, Portugal 
Josephine, empress, 1763-1814 ; 

France, 1809 
Josephus, Jewish hist., 38-100 
Jotham ; fables, 1209 B.C. 
Joubert, gen. ; Novi, 1799 
Joubert, gen. Petrus J., 1834-1900 ; 
Transvaal, 1880-1900 ; S. African 
war 
Joule, J. P., 1818-89, heat 
Jounart ; Algiers, 1901 
Jourdan, marshal ; Cologne, Fleurus, 

Vittoria, 1813 
Jovellar ; Spain, 1874-5 
Jovian, Rome, emps., 363 . 
Jowett, Benjamin, rev., scholar, 

1817-93 ; Oxford, Platonic 
Joyce, family murdered, 1882 
Joyce, Jno. ; executed, 1901 
Juarez, B. ; Mexico, 1858-72 
Judas Maccab»us rules, 168-160 B.C. 
Judith ; Abyssinia, 960 
Jugurtha, d. 104 B.C. : Numidia., 

Jugurthine war 
Julian ; Rome, emp. , 360 ; edicts, 

Paris 
Julianus Salvius ; edicts, 132 
Julius v. bishop of Oxford, trials, 

1879 
Julius Coesar ; see Ccesar, Julius 
Julius, Mr. ; duels, 1791 
Julius II.; popes, 1503; Rome, 

Bologna, Laocobn, Cambray 
Jullien, M., concerts, 1850 
Jung Bahadoor ; Nepaul, 1857-60 



1449 

Junot, marshal, 1771-1813; Cintra, 

Vimiera, 1808 
Jussieu, A. L. de ; Fr. botanist, 1748- 

1836 
Jirstin, emp. ; Rome, 518 and 565 
Justin Martyr, 164 
Justin, St. ; Rochester, 604 
Justinian : eastern empire, 527 
Juvenal, 59-128 ; satires 
Juvigny, flageolet 
Juxon, abp. ; administrations, 1640 

Canterbury, 1660 



K. 

Kabba Rega ; Egypt, 1872 
Kalakaua, Sandwich Islands, 1874 
Kalkoff, N., journalist; Russia, 

1887 
Kalnoky, count G., 1832-98 ; Austria, 

1881-95 
Kamptz, capt. ; Cameroons, 1899 
Kane, capt. ; Samoan isles, 1889 
Kane, Dr. ; Franklin, 1&43 
Kane, Dr.; Belfast, d. 1898 
Kang Yi ; China, igoo 
Kant, Imman., 1724-1804; metaphy- 
sics 
Kantcheff, M. ; Bulgaria, ass. 1902 
Karaman, Joseph; Syria, 1866-7 
Karaveloff, M.; Bulgaria, d. 1903 
Karslake, sir J., 1S21-81 ; att.-gen., 

1867-74 
Karslake, W. C, rear-adm., 1842- 

1903 
Kas'pary; humanitarians 
Kassa; Abyssinia, 1871 
Kastenbein ; printing, 1872 
Kastner, F. ; pyrophone 
Kautfman, harmonica 
Kaufmann, gen. ; Samarcand, 1868 
Khiva, 1873 ; Khokand, 1875 ; d. 
1882 
Kaunitz, prince W. A. , Aust. states- 
man, 1711-94 
Kaye, bishop ; Bristol, 1820 ; Lincoln 
Kean, Charles, 1811-68 ; theatres 

(Princess's) 
Kean, Edmund, actor, 1787-1833 
Keane, lord ; Ghiznee, 1839 
Kearney, D. ; California, 1878 
Keats, John ; poet, 1796-1821 
Keble, rev. John ; poet, 1792-1866 ; 

Iveble college 
Keeley, . Mrs., actress, 1805-99 ; 

theatres 
Keenan ; trials, 1803 
Keet v. Smith ; reverend, trials, 1876 
Keiller, Mr. Jno.; Dundee, d. 1899 
Keighley, Mrs.; trials, 1899 
Keith, George; earl-marischal of 

Scotland, Aberdeen, 1593 
Keith, George ; quakers, 164.6 
Kekewich, Geo.; education, 1900 
Kekule, Friedrich A., German che- 
mist, 1829-96 
Keller, Augustin ; Aargau, d. 1883 
Keller, Dr. ; lake dwellings, 1865 
Keller, Gottfried, 1819-90 ; Switzer- 
land, lit. 
Kellerman, gen. ; Valmy, 1792 
Kellet, capt. ; Franklin, 1S48 
Kellogg ; United States, 1874 
Kelly; trials, 1869, 1871 
Kelly, Miss F. A., actress, abt. 1790- 

1882 ; trials, 1816 
Kelly, Ned, Victoria, 1880 
Kelly, Thos.; executed, 1899 
Kelly, sir Fitzroy, 1796-1880; sol.- 
general, att.-gen., eh. baron, 1866-80 
Kelly-Kenny, gen.; S.A. war, 1900; 

England, 1902 
Keltic, J. Scott; Statesman's year- 
book, 1902 
Kelvin, lord, see Thomson 
Kemble, Charles, actor, 1775-1854 



1450 



INDEX. 



Kemble, Frances Ann (Mrs. Butler), 

actress, 1811-93 
Kemble, John P., actor, 1757-1823 
Kembles ; examiners (of plays) 
Kemp, abp. ; Canterbury, 1452 
Kempe, John ; wool, 1331 
Kempenfeldt, adm. ; Royal George, 

1782 
Kempis, T. a, 1380-T471 ; imitation, 

theology 
Kenealy, Dr. ; " Englishman" ; trials, 

1874 • 
Kennaway, Gerald and Herbert ; 

trials, 1902 
Kennedy, alderman ; trials, 1858 
Kennedy, Mr. ; Franklin, 1851-53 
Kennedy, C. B. ; trials, 1858 
Kennedy, sir A. E. ; Hong Kong, 

1872 
Kenny, private ; executions, 1898 
Kensit, Mr. John, d. 1902 ; Ch. of 
Eng., 1898 ; public worship regu- 
lation, 1902 
Kent, Constance, Road murder 
Kent, Edw. duke of, 1767-1820 
Kent, Odo, earl of; treasurer, 1066 
Kent, G. ; knives (cleaner), 1844 
Kentigern, St. ; Glasgow, Asaph, 

560-83 
Kenworthy, Mr. J. C. ; trials, 1902 
Kenyon, lord ; attorney -general, 1782 ; 

king's bench 
Kepler, J., 1571-1630; optics, plane- 
tary motions, 1609 ; rainbow, tides, 
Venus 
Keppel, adm. ; Belleisle, Ushant, 
trials, 1799 ; coalition, naval battles 
Keppel, adm. sir Henry, d. 1904 
Keppel, commodore ; China, 1857 
Keratry, gen. ; Franco-Pruss. war, 

1870 
Kerford, Mr., Victoria, 1875 
Kern ; davyum 
Kerr, comm. B. M., d. 1902 ; London 

county courts 
Keshub Sen, deism 
Kettel, E. ; trials, 1872 
Kettlewell, C. ; Bartholomew's, St., 

1881 
Keying ; China, 1842-58 
Kiazim, pasha ; Albania, 1901 
Kiddle, maj.; Burmah, d. 1900 
Kiepert, prof., 1818-99; geography 
Kikuchi, prof.; seismometer, 1903 
Kimberley, lord ; K.G., England, 

1902 
Killigrew, Thos. ; drama, 1662 
Kilmarnock, lord ; rebellions, trials, 

executions, 1746 
Kilwarby, abp. ; Canterbury, 1272 
Kihvarden, lord ; king's bench ; trials, 

1803 
Kimberley, earl of, 1826-1902 ; see 
Wodelwuse ; Gladstone adm., 1868, 
1880, 1886, 1892; Rosebery adm., 
1894; London university, 1899 
King, col. ; suicide. 1S50 
King, C. ; trials, 1855 : gems, i860 
King, Dr. ; Csesarean operation 
King, E., lip. ; Lincoln, 1885 
King, G. A.; Guy's hosp., 1903 
King, Mr. Locke ; administrations, 

1851 
King, Thos. ; ventriloquism, 1716 
Kinglake, Dr. ; trials, 1870 
Kinglake, A. W. ; hist., 1812-91 
Kingsbury v. Howard ; trials, 1898 
Kingsford, A. ; hermetic soc. 
Kingsley, Rev. C ; novels, &c, 1819- 
75; socialism; — Henry, no v. 1830-76; 
—Mary, traveller and writer, 1865- 
1900 ; women 
Kingston, duchess of ; trials, 1776 
Kingston, Evelyn, duke of ; Walpole, 

1721 
Kingston, Mr. ; Australasia (re- 
signed), 1903 
Kingzett, C. T. ; sanitas 



Kinnaird, lord ; Ch. of England, 1899 
Kinnaird, A. ; cabmen's rest, 1875 
Kintore, earl of; Australia, 1891 
Kipling, Rudyard, miscellaneous 
writer, . 1865 ; C. of Good Hope, 
1903 
Kirby and Wade, capts., shot, 1702 ; 

naval battles, note 
Kirby, Ar.; trials, 1889 
Kircher; iEolianharp, 1653 ; philoso- 
pher's stone, trumpet 
Kirchkoff, G. R. (1824-1887) ; spec- 
trum 
Kirk, Ada ; trials, 1902 
Kirkman ; pianoforte 
Kirwan, Richard B. ; trials, 1852 
Kiss, Karl, Ger. sculptor, 1802-65 
Kitchener, sir H. H. ; lieut.-gen. 
1899 ; Soudan, 1885 et seq. ; Egypt, 
1896-8 ; made a peer, Sept. 1898 ; 
London, Nov. 1898 ; S. African 
war, 1900 et seq. ; vise, and gen., 
1902 
Kitto, preb. Ch. of England, d. 1903 
Klapka, general G. , 1820-92 ; Komorn, 

1849 
Kleber. i. B.. Fr. gen., 1754-1800 ; 

El Arisen 
Klein, E. ; histology, germ theory 
Kleist ; electricity, 1745 ; Leyden 
Klopstock, F. T., Germ, poet, 1724- 

1803 
Klosowski, Geo. Chapman; trials, 

1903 
KIuImt ; cryptography 
Kmety, gen. (Ismail Pacha), d. 1865 ; 

Hungary, Kars 
Knatchbull, sir E. ; Peel administra- 
tions, 1834-5 
Kneller, sir Godfrey, painter, 1648- 

1723 
Knight, Chas., 1791-1S73 ; hist., &c; 

diffusion soc, 1827 ; England 
Knight, G. ; magnetism, 1756 
Knight, Mr. ; north-west passage, 
1602 ; South Sea bubble, bribery ; 
free church 
Knight v. Wolcot ; trials, 1807 
Knowles, James ; Nineteenth Century 
Knowles, J. S., dramat., 1784-1862 
Knox, Edm. Arbuthnot, bp. of 

Manchester, 1903 
Knox, gen.; S.A. war, 1900 
Knox, John, 1505-72 ; Presbyterians, 

congregation, queen, Scotland 
Knutsford, Id. (visct. 1895) (H. T. 

Holland) ; Salisbury adm., 188 j 
Knutzen, Matthias ; atheism, 1674 
Koch, Bobt. Dr. ; germ theory ; vivi- 
section, tuberculosis 
Kochanowski, J., 1530-84; Polish 

lang. 
Kock, Charles Paul de, Ft. novelist, 

1794-1871 
Kock, de ; S.A. war, d. 1901 
Koffee Kalcalli ; xVshantees, 1874 
Kohl, F. ; execution, 1865 
Komaroff, gen. : Bussia, 18S5 
Komatsu, prince ; Japan, d. 1903 
Komocki, Dr. S. S. von, phosphorus, 

1898 
Konig, F. ; printing machine, 1814 
KSnig, Budolph, philosopher, 1833- 
1901 ; phonoscope, tonometer, 1862 
Korner, Th., Germ, poet, 1791-1813 
Kortright, C. ; Demerara 
Kosciusko ; Poland, 1794 ; Cracow 
Kossuth, L., 1802-94 ; Hungary, 1849- 

94 ; United States, 1851 
Roster, Laurence ; printing, 143S 
Kotze, judge ; Transvaal, 18,7-8 
Kotzebue, Aug. ; north-west passage, 
1815 ; dramatist, assassinations, 
1S19 
Kouli Khan; Moguls, India, Persia, 

1730 
Krapiilknic, prince, Russia, 1S78 ; 
France, 1883 



Krasicki, Ignacy, 1735-1801 ; Polish 

lang. 
Krause, Dr. F. E. ; trials, 1902 
Kreli ; Kaffraria, 1877 
Kritzinger ; S.A. war, 1900 
Kruger, Mrs.; d. 1901 
Kruger, P., Transvaal, 1879-93 ; S. 

African war, 1899-1900; France, 

Holland 
Krivpp, Alfred, 1810-1887 ; cannon, 

steel, Essen ; son, Friedrich Alfred, 

1854-1902 
Kuenen, prof. ; Hibbert fund 
Kullmann ; attempt to kill Bismarck, 

Prussia, 1874 
Kunekel, J., 1630-1703 ; phosphorus, 

1670 
Kutusoff, gen. M., 1745-1813; Russia, 

Borodino, Smolensko, 1812 
Kyhl, P. ; nature-printing, 1833 



Laborde, A. de, " Partant pour la 

Syrie" 
Labnri, M.; Dreyfus case, 1899 
Labouchere, Henry, lord Taunton; 

Russell administration, 1846; Pal- 

merston administration, 1855 
Labouchere, Henry; Truth, trials, 

1893 ; Mashonaland, 1894 
Labourdonnaye ; Tournay, 1792 
La Bruyere, French essays, 1639-96 
Lacaita, sir J. P.; Italy, 1895 
La Chaise, Pere, 1624-1709; cemetery 
Lacon, W. S. ; seas 
Lacordaire, Pere H. D., 1802-61 
Lacroix ; Congo r., 1900 
Lactantius, d. abt. 325 ; fathers 
Ladislas ; Bohemia, Hungary 
Ladmirault ; France, 1873 
Laennec, B., physician, 1781-1826 
Lafarge, Madame ; trials 1840 
Lafayette, marq. ; 1757-1183; United 

States, 1777 ; France, 1834 
Latitte, d. 1844 ; wills (Napoleon's) 
Lafitte, Pierre, 1823-1903 ; positivism 
La Fontaine, J., Fr. fabulist, 1621-95 
Lafurge ; Tontine 
Lagava, &c. ; execution, 1856 
Lagden, sir Godfrey ; Ba'sutoland, 

t ,8 " • 1 
Lagny, circle, 1719 

La Grange, J. L., 1736-1813 ; acous- 
tics, astronomy, 1780 
Lagree, Doudart de ; Cambodia, 

1866-8 
Laing, sir James, 1823-1901 ; Suez 

canal, 1883 
Laing, Sam., 1810-97, cryst. pal. 1852 ; 

India, 1861-2 ; railways, 1S97 
Laird, Mr. Wm., 1831-99; Birken- 
head, Alabama, navy, 1870 
Lake, Benj. Green ; trials, 1901 
Lake, gen. ; Bhurtpore, 1805 ; Delhi, 

Lincelles 
Lake, capt. ; Sombrero, 1807 
Lalande, J., astron., 1732-1807 
Lalanne ; abacus 

Lally, gen. Thos. de ; beheaded, 1766 
Lamarck, 1744-1829 ; species 
La Marmora, gen. A.,iSo4-7S ; Tcher- 

naya, 1S55 ; Italy, 1S62 
Lamartine, A. de, 1792-1S69, miscel. 

writer ; France, 1848 
Lamb, C, 1775-1834 ; essays 
Lamb, Dr., killed, 162S ; riots 
Lamballe, princesse de; France, 

1792 
Laniberg, ct. ; Austria. 1S4S 
Lambert, Mr., d. 1809 ; corpulency 
Lambert (Latham), J. ; trials, 1855 
Latiibivcht, Mr. ; duels, trials, 1830 
Lambroso, Dr.; criminology, 1875 
Lambton, rear-adm.; navy, 1903 
Lambton, Mr. : duels, 1826 



INDEX. 



1451 



iiamennais, Pere, F. R. de, 1782- 

1854 
Lamington, lord ; Bombay, 1303 
Lamirande, M. ; extradition, 1866 
Lamm, earl ; bellite 
Lamoriciere, gen., 1806-65 ; Prance, 

1851 ; Rome, i860 
Lamothe, M. ; Dreyfus case, 1899 
Lampman, Archie, poet, 1861-1899 ; 

Canada 
Lamplugh, arelibp. ; York, 1688 
Lamsdorff, count ; Bulgaria, 1902 
Lamson, Dr. G. H. ; trials, 1882 
Lancaster, capt. ; Bantam, 1603 
Lancaster, duke of; Lancashire 
Lancaster, Joseph, 1771-1838; Lan- 

casterian schools, education 
Lanchester, Mr. F. ; carriages, 1899 
Lander, Richard, 1804-34 : Africa 
Lan Dute ; China, 190 1 
Lane, B. W., orientalist, 1801-76 
Lane, Win.; executed, 1902 
Lane, Mrs. Sarah, actress ; theatres, 

d. 1899 
Landseer, sir E., painter, 1803-73 
Lanfranc, archbp. Canterbury, 1070 
Lanfrey, Pierre, Fr. hist. 1828-77 
Lang, Andrew ; English lang., 1844 
Lang, Dr., bp. of Stepney; Ch. of 

England, 1903 
Langalibalele ; Cape ; Natal, 1873 
Langara, adm. ; naval battles, 1780 
Laugdale, Id. ; master of rolls, 1836 
Laugdale, sir M. ; Naseby, 1645 
Lange, sir D. ; Suez, 1858 
Langewin, sir H. S. ; Canada, 1891 
Langham, abp. ; Canterbury, 1366 
Langiewicz, M. ; Poland, 1863-5 
Laugley, Dr. Baxter ; recreative reli- 
gionists ; artisans, trials, 1877 
Langley, prof. S. P. ; bolometer ; 

flying, artificial, 1903 
Langton, abp. ; Canterbury, 1206 
Langworthy, E. R. ; Owens College, 

1874 
Lankester, E. Ray ; spontaneous 

generation, 1876-7 ; spiritualism 
Lannes ; marshals, Asperue, 1809 
Lansdowne, marquis of, 1780-1863 ; 
see Petty, Shelbume; Goderich 
adm. 1827; Russell adm. 1846, 1851; 
Aberdeen adm. 1852 ; Palmerston 
adm. 1855, et seq. ; Salisbury adm. 
1900 ; Balfour adm. 1902 
Lansdowne, Henry Charles K. F. , 
marquis of ; Canada, 1883 ; India, 
1888 ; Salisbury adm. 1895 ; Bal- 
four adm. 1902 
Lanyon, sir W. O. , Transvaal, 1879 
Laomedon; Troy, 1260 B.C. 
Laplace, P. de; Fr. mathemat., 1749- 

1827 ; nebulae 
Lartigue, M. ; railway (balance) 
Lasker ; Germany, 1884 
Lassalle, Ferdinand ; socialism, 1863 
Lateau, L. ; abstinence 
Latham, J. ; birds 
Latham, P. ; racquets, 1 887-1902 

(retired) 
Latham, R. G. ; philologist, 1812- 

88 
Lathom, Edw., earl of, 1837-98 ; 

chamberlain, lord 
Latimer, bp., burnt, 1555; Pro- 
testants 
Latimer, viscount; administrations, 

1672-3 
Latorre, col. ; Uruguay, 1876 
Laud, William, abp., 1573-1645: Can- 
terbury, administrations, church 
of England, 1895 
Lauderdale, duke of; cabal, 1670 
Laura; Petrarch, 1327 
Laurent ; carbolic acid, 1846 
Laurier, sir Wilfred ; France, 1902 ; 

Canada, 1898-1903 
Lautrec, Fr. gen., d. 1528 
Lavater, J., 1741-1801; physiognomy 



Lavater, Johann Kaspar, 1741-1801 ; 

Switzerland, lit. 
Lavigerie, cardinal, France, 1890-2 
Lavoisier, A., 1743-94 ; carbon, hydro- 
gen, nitric acid, phlogiston, water 
Law, bishop ; Chester, Bath, 1824 
Law, Mr. Bonar ; Balfour adm. , 1902 
Law, David, water-colour painter, 

d. 1901 
Law, sir Ed., financier; Canada, 1899 
Lawes, H. , mus. comp., 1600-6; 
Lawes, sir John B., 1814-1900 ; agri- 
culture, 1843 
Lawless, Mr. ; riots, 1828 
Lawley, sir Ar. ; Transvaal, 1902 
Lawrence, gen. H., 1800-57; India, 

1S57 
Lawrence, sir J. (aft. Id.), 1811-79; 

India, 1863 
Lawrence, sirT., painter, 1769-1830 
Lawson, John Grant ; Salisbury 

adm., 1900; Balfour adm., 1902 
Lawson, sir Wilfrid ; permissive bill 
Layard, sir A. Henry, 1817-94 ; Nine- 
veh ; Gladstone, 186S ; Turkey, 1877 
Lazaretf, Russia, 1879- 
Lazzai-etti, David ; Italy, 1878 
Leake, adm., d. 1720; admiralty, Gib- 
raltar, Mediterranean, Minorca 
Le Blanc, Nicholas, 1753-1806 ; 

alkalies 
Le Clerc ; critics, 1696 
Lecky, R. J.", sunshine recorder 
Lecky, W. E. H., hist,, 1838-1903 
Lecomte, gen. ; France, 1871, 1876 
Lecoq de Boisbaudran ; gallium, 1875 
Ledochowski, card., 1821-1902; Prus- 
sia, 1873-6 
Ledru Rollin, A. A., 1808-74; France, 

1848, 1874 
Lee, abp. ; York, 1544 
Lee, Alexander ; theatres (Drury 

Lane), 1830 
Lee, Ann, shakers 

Lee Boo, prince; Pelew Islands, 1783 
Lee, C. C; Leeward isles 
Lee, bp., J. D. ; massacres, 1858 ; 

Mormonites 
Lee, John ; trials, 1885 
Lee, gen., Robt., 1808-70; United 

States, 1862 
Lee, W. ; stocking-frame, 1589 
Leech, John, 1817-64; caricatures ; 

Punch 
Leeds, duke of; administrations, 1689 
Leeke, H. ; Bushire, 1856 
Leeuwenhoek, 1632-1723 ; animal- 
cules, polypus 
Lefebre ; oleometer 
Lefevre, C. Shaw (Id. Eversley) ; 

speaker, 1839-57 
Lefevre, G. S.; Gladstone adm., 1885, 

1892 ; Rosebery adm., 1894 
Lefroy, al. Mapleton, railways, 1881 
Leggatt, B.; burning, 1612 
Legge, bishop ; Oxford, 1827 
Legge, lieut-col.; S.A. war, d. 1900 
Legge, Augustus, bp.; Lichfield, 1891 
Legge, H. B., Newcastle adm., 1754 
Legge, James, prof, of Chinese, 

1S15-97 
Leggett, capt. ; Ashantees, 1900 
Legouvre, M. Ernest; France, d. 1903 
Le Gros, Raymond; Dublin, 1171 
Leibnitz, Gottfried, 1646-1716; mathe- 
matics, fluxions 
Leicester, earl of ; administrations, 

1558 ; national associations 
Leicester, earl of, v. Morning Herald ; 

trials, 1809 
Leigh, Marian ; charities, 1900 
Leighton, Fred. ; artist, 1830-96 ; 

Royal Academy, England, 1896 
Leighton, J. & A. ; Christmas cards ; 

printing surface, ballot, 1886 
Leighton, abp. Robt., 1613-84 
Leighton, G. C, 1827-95; printing in 
colours, 1849 



Leitner, Dr. G. W., linguist, 1831-99; 
. Oriental, Punjaub 
Leitrim, earl of; murd., Ireland, 

1878 
Le Jay; polyglot, 1628-45 
Leiewel; Poland, 1863 
Lely, sir P., painter, 1617-80 
Le Maire; circumnavigator, 161 5 
Le Mesurier ; trials, 1902 
Lemoinne, J. ; France, 1873-6 ; d. 1892 
Lemon, Mark, humorist, 1809-70 ; 

Punch 
Lennox, col. ; duels, 1789 
Lennox, lord H. ; Disraeli adm., 

1874-6 
Lenoir; gas, 1861 
Le Notre; James's-piark, St., 1668 
Leo ; popes, 440 ; Eastern empire, 457 
Leo IV. ; Leonine city 
Leo X.; popes, 1513; indulgences 
Leo XIII., 1810-19 3; pope, 1878 
Leon, Diego de; Spain, .1841 
Leon, Ponce de; America, 1512 
Leonarda of Pisa; algebra, 1220 
Leonardo da Vinci, painter, 1452-1519 
Leonidas; Thermopylae, 480 b.c. 
Leopardi, Italian orat. 1798-1837 
Leopold, Germany; Morgarten, 1315; 
Sempach, 1386; Belgium, 1830; 
Spain, France, 1870-84 
Leopold, prince, 1853-84 ; England, 

end. ; Albany, 1881 
L'Epee, abbe de, 1712-89, deaf 
Lepidus; triumvir, 43 B.C. 
Le Pique, M.: duels, 1808 
Lepsius, K. R., 1810-84 ; Egypt 
Lerdo de Tejado ; Mexico, 1872 
Lerner, HerrTheodor,N.E.aud N.W. 

passages, 1898 
Lerothodi, Basuto 
Le Sage, French novelist, 1668-1747 
Leslie, C. R., painter, 1794-1859 
Leslie, H., music ; 1822-96 
Lesseps, Ferdinand M., b. 1805-94; 
Suez, 1852 ; Corinth, 1881 ; Panama, 
Lessing, G. E., German philosopher, 

1729-81 
Lestock, admiral ; Toulon, 1744 
L'Estrange, sir R. ; newspapers, 1663 
Letheby, Henry, M.B., chemist, 

1816-70 
Lettsom, Dr. ; Humane soc, 1774 
Lever, sir Ashton ; museum 
Lever, C. J., Irish novelist, 1809-72 
Leverrier, U., 181 1-77 ; Neptune, 

1846 
Leverson, S. R. ; trials, 1868, 1878 
Levy, Leoni ; statistician, 1821-88 ; 

wages 
Levy, Mr. Lyon ; monument, 18 10 
Lewes, Geo. Hen., philosopher, &c, 

1817-78 
Lewis, Mr. ; theatres (Covent-garden), 

1773 
Lewis, sir G. Cornewall, 1806-63 ; 

Palmerston adm., 1855 
Lewis, John Fred., R.A., 1805-76 
Lewis, R., bp.; Llandaff, 1883 
■Lewis, Mr. S.; charities, 1901 
Lewis, Thos. Hayter, 1818-1898; 

architecture 
Lewis, sir Wm. Thos. ; coal, 1899 J 

strikes, 1902 
Lewis v. Higgins, trials, 1876 
Lewishain, vise. ; Addington adm., 

1801 
Leybourne, William de ; admiral, 1297 
Le'yds, Dr.; Germany, 1901 
Liakut, Ali ; India, 1871-2 
Libanius, Gr. orator, 314-390 
Lick, Jas. ; observatories 
Liddell, Henry George, dean, 1811- 

98 ; dictionary, 1843 
Lidderdale, Wm., 1832-1902 ; Lon- 
don, 1890 
Liddon, H. P., canon, 1829-90 
Liddon, lieut. ; north-west passage, 
1819 



H52 



INDEX. 



Lieber, T. ; Erastianism, 1523-84 
Liebig, J., 1803-73; acids, agricul- 
ture, chemistry, chloroform, 
chloral 
Liebnecht, Wilhelm ; socialism, 19=0 
Liebreich, O. ; chloral, 1869 
Light, F. ; Penang, 1786 
Lightfoot, Joseph B., 1828-89, Dur- 
ham, 1879 
Ligonier, lord ; Bute, 1762 
Li Hung Chang, China, 1867 et seq. ; 

d. 1901 
Lilburne, col. ; levellers, Wigan, 1651 
Lilly, Wm., 1602-81 ; astrology, 1647 
Lily, George, d. 1559; charts 
Lily, Wm., grammarian, d. 1523 
Lin ; China, 1840 
Linacre, Br., d. 1524; gardening, 

lectures, physicians 
Lincoln, Abm., 1809-65 ; United 

States, 1860-5 
Lincoln, bp. of; Canterbury, 1890-2 
Lincoln, earl of ; administrations, 

1759 
Lincoln, R. T. ; United States, 11889 
Lind, Br. ; anemometer, wind 
Lind, Jenny (Goldschmidt), 1820- 

87 ; theatres 
Lindley, John; bot., 1799-1865; 

horticulture 
Lindsay, earl of; Edgehill, 1642 
Lindsay, sir C. ; Grosvenor gallery 
Lindsay, sir John ; Madras, 1770 
Linfield, H. C. ; flying 
Lingard, J., 1771-1851 ; historian 
Linlithgow, lord ; guards, 1660 
Linnaeus ; author, 1707-78 ; Sweden 
Linne ; — Linn (Linnaeus), C. von, 

1707-78: botany, Linneean, zoology 
LianelL, John ; painter, 1792-1882 
Linton, H. B., wood engraver, 

1815-99 
Linus, poet,,/?. 12S1 B.C. 
Lippmann, F., 1840-1903 
Liprandi; Balaklava, Eupatoria, 1855 
Lipton, yacht, 1899, 1901, 1933 ; U.S. 

1903 
Lisle, lord; administrations, 1544 
Lisle, sir G. ; Colchester, 1648 
Lisle, visct. ; Portsmouth, 1545 
bister, sir J. ; baron, 1897 ; germ 

theory ; royal society, 1895 
L'ston, J., actor, retires, 1838 
Liszt, F. ; music, 1811-86 
Little John ; Robin Hood 
Littleton, Mr. ; Melbourne adminis- 
tration, 1834 
Littre.M. O. E., 1801-81 ; dictionaries, 

positive philosophy 
Liverpool, earl of, 1770-1828 ; — Liver- 
pool adm., 1812 
Livingstone, B., 1813-77 ; Africa, 

1856 ; Edinburgh, 1876 
Livius, Titus, Roman hist., d. 18 
Lizarraga, gen. ; Spain, 1875-6 
Llewelyn ; Wales, 1194 
Llewellyn, Mr. Evans ; Llewellyn 

gift, 1899 
Llewellyn, sir Rout. B. ; Windward 

Isles, 1900 

Lloyd, bishop: Oxford, 1827 
Lloyd, Catherine : quackery, 1831 
Lloyd, (Jlitlonl ; Egypt, 1884 
Lloyd, D. L., bp.; Bangor, 1890 
Lloyd, Ed. ; Daily Chronicle, 1S77 

ct seq. 
Lloyd-George, M.P. ; Birmingham, 

1901 
Lloyd, W. ; Portland vase, 1845 
Lloyd, Wm. W.; scholar, 1813-93 
Lobauof, Alexis, prince, Russian 

statesman, 1824-96 
Loch, sir H. B. 1827-1900; Man, 1863 ; 
Victoria, 1884; Cape, 1889 (baron, 
r 1895) 

Locke, J., 1632-1704 ; physics, car- 
tesian, ruin 
Locke, W. ; ragged schools, 1844 



Locker, Fredk. (latterly Lampson), 

poet, 1821-95 
Loekhart, sir Wm., 1841-1900 ; India, 

1 89 1 et seq. 
Lockwood,"F., 1846-97; sol. -gen., 

1894 
Lockyer, major; duel, 1817 
Lockyer, J. N, K.C.B. 1897 ; eclipse, 

1866; Nature, 1869; elements, 1878; 

meteors, astronomy, sun 
Lorlge, prof. Oliver, scientist, h. 1851 ; 

Birmingham, 1901 ; electricity 

(w. telegraphy) 1902 ; knt. 1902 
Lofting, John ; thimble, 1695 
Loftus, Id. A., New S. Wales, 1879 
Logeman ; magnetism, 1851 
Logier, J. B. ; chiroplast 
Lohmanri, Geo. ; cricket, d. 1901 
Lollard, Walter ; Lollards, 1315 ; 

burned, 1322 
Lomakine, gen. , Russia, 1879 
Lombe, sir Thomas ; silk, 1714 
Lond, T. ; piano, 1802 
London dock company ; trials, 1851 
Londonderry, lord ; see Castlereagh ; 

suicide, 1822 
Londonderry, marquis of ; Ireland, 

Id. lieut., 1886; Salisbury adm., 

1900; Balfour adm., 1902 
Long, sir R. ; administrations, 1660 
Long, St. John ; quack, trials, 

1830-1 
Long, Misses Tilney ; trials, 1825 
Long, Walter ; Salisbury adm., 1895, 

1900; Balfour adm., 1902 
Longden, J. R. ; Bemerara, 1874 
Longfellow, H.W. ; Am. poet, 1807-82 
Longford v. Pardon ; trials, 1877 
Longinus, Gr. philos., killed, 273 
Longley, abp. York, i860 ; Ripon 
Longman, W. ; Paul's, St., 1873 ; Pub- 
lishers' Circular 
Longstaff, LI. W. ; antarctic pole, 

1901 
Longstreet, gen., 1821-1904 (3 Jan.); 

Chicamauga, 1863 ; U. States 
LGnnten, M. E. ; Finland 
Lonsdale, bishop ; Lichfield. 1843 
Lonsdale, earl of; duels, 1792; Berby 

administration, 1852 
Lopez ; Cuba, 1850 ; United States 
Lopez, gen. ; Paraguay; Aquidaban, 

1870 
Lopez, sir Manasseh ; Grampound, 

trials, 1819 
Lorenz, J. F. ; cryptography, 1806 
L'Ornie, Philibert de ; Tdileries, 1564 
Lome, marquis of, England, end. 

1870-1; psalms, 1877 ; Canada, 1878 ; 

United States, 1882 
Lorraine, cardinal ; assassination, 

1588 
Lorraine, duke of; Crecy, 1346 
Lorraine, Chas. of; Lissa, Mohatz, 

1687 
Lorraine, Claude, painter, 1600-82 
Losinga, H. ; Norwich, 1091 
Lothaire, capt., Congo, 1895-6, 1899 
Lothian, marquis of, 1833-1900; Salis- 
bury adm., 1887 
Loubet, M. ; France, 1887, 1892, 1899 

(president of the senate, 1893); 

Denmark, Algiers, Boulogne, Eng- 
land 
Loudon, C. J., 1783-1843; botany 
Lough, John <;., sculptor, iSo4?-76 
Loughborough; att.-gen., coalition, 
T 1783 
Louis; France, kings; Spain, 1724; 

Portugal 
Louis I. IV. : landgrave, Hesse 
Louis XI.; "Christian;" blood, 

posts, 1.(70 : Provence 
Louis XII. ; tester, 1513 
Louis .XIII. ; Louis d'or, 1640 
Louis XIV. : Dieu-donne, Nantes, 

1685 
Louis XV. : France, 1757 ; Damiens 



Louis XVIII. ; Hartwell, 1807-14 ; 

France 
Louis, king ; Hungary, Buda, 1526 
Louis, prince of Conde ; Jarnac, 1569 
Louis Bonaparte ; Holland, 1806 
Louis Napoleon ; Bonaparte ; France, 

1848-70 ; see Napoleon III. 
Louis Napoleon, France, end ; Zulu- 
land, 1879 
Louis Philippe ; France, 1830 ; assas- 
sinations 
Louisa Maria, infanta ; Spain, 1846 
Louise, princess ; England, end 
Louise, queen ; Belgium, 1832 ; d. 

1850 
Louth, lord; trials, 1811 
Loutherbourg, Mr. ; panorama 
Lovat, lord ; conspiracy, trials, 1747; 

— S. A. war, 1902 
Lovell ; trials, 1812 
Lover, Sam., Irish nov., 1797-1868 
Lovett, W. ; chartists 
Low, Dr. Bruce ; plague, 1902 
Low, sir Robert ; Chitral, 1895 
Lowe, Alice ; trials, 1842 
Lowe, R. (aft. viscount Sherbrooke), 
1811-92 ; Gladstone, 1868 ; London 
univ. 
Lowell, J. Russell, Amer. sat. poet, 

1819-91 
Lowenthal, J. J. ; chess, 1S76 
Lower, M. A., antiquary, 1813-76; 

names 
Lowne ; electricity, 1903 
Lowther. vise. ; Wellington adm., 

1828 
Loyd ; see Overstone. 
Loyola, Ignatius, 1491-1556; Jesuits, 

1534 
Lubbock, sir J. W.,mathemat., 1803- 
65 ; — sir John, ft. 1834 ; made 
baron Avebury, Jan, igoo ; ancient 
monuments; bank holidays, bees, 
proportional representation, bio- 
logy, pre-historic ; early closing ; 
shop 
Luby, Thos., about 1825-1901 ; 

Fenian, trials, 1865 
Lucan, earl of; trials, 1856 
Lucan, M. A., poet, killed, 65 ; Rome, 

Cordova 
Lucas, Mr. ; steel, 1804 
Luccheni, Luigi ; Austria, 1S9S 
Lucian, Gr. satirist, about 120-200 
Luciani ; Rome, 1875 
Lueilius ; satire, 116 B.C. 
Luco, sen. Barros ; Chili, 1901-3 
Lucretia. d. 47 B.C. ; Rome, spinning 
Lucretius, Lat. phil. poet, d. 52 B.C. ; 

atoms 
Ludlow, J. M. ; Christian socialism, 

1848 
Lueger, Dr. ; Austria, 1901 
Lugard, capt. F. D. (after, sir), Nyasa- 
land, 1888 ; Uganda, 1891 ; Niger 
Coast, 1900-1902 
Luie ; trials, 1874 
Lully ; nitric acid, 12S7 : (music), 

1633-72 
Lumby ; Athauasian creed, confes- 
sions, 1874 
Lumley v. Gye : trials, 1854 
Lumsden, sir P. ; Afghanistan, 1SS4 ; 

Russia, 18S5 
Lunardi, M. ; balloons, 1784 
Lushington, sir Godfrey ; anarchy, 

1898 
Lushington, S. ; admiralty court, 183S 
Lusk, A. ; mayor, id. 1S73 
LutatillS ; naval battles, 241 B.C. 
Luther, Martin, 14S3-1546 ; Angus- 
tins, Lutheranisni, Dort, Protes- 
tantism. Augsburg, Calvinists, 
Worms, Wittenberg 
Luther, R. ; planets, 1S52 
Luvini. G. dietheroscope, 1876 
Luxemburg, marshal ; Eughien, 1692 
Lnxmoore. bishop; Bristol, 1807 



INDEX. 



1453 



Lyall, Mr. Jas. ; Venezuela, d. 1899 

Lycurgus ; Sparta, 884 B.C. 

Lyell, sir Charles, 1797-1875 ; geo- 
logy, man 

Lyell v. Kennedy ; trials, 1886 

Lygon, lieut., the hon. Ed. ; S. A. 
war, d. 1 goo 

Lyly, W. ; euphuism, 15S1 

Lyhall, Thomas ; trials, 1877 

Lynch, murder; trials, 1817 

Lynch, "col."; high treason, 1903 

Lyndhurst, lord, 1772-1863; chancel- 
lor; Canning adm. 1827"; Welling- 
tonadm. 1828 ; Peel adm., 1834, 1841 

Lyne, sir Win. ; Australasia, 1901, 
1903 

Lynedoch, lord ; Barrosa, 181 1 ; Ber- 
gen-op-Zoom, Sebastian, St. 

Lynn Linton, Elizabeth, novelist, 
1822-98 

Lyon, -capt. ; north-west passage, 
1821 ; — general Nathaniel, Spring- 
field, 1861 

Lvon, col. P., killed ; Shoeburyness, 
1885 

Lyon, John ; Harrow school, 1571 

Lyons, lord ; Paris, 1887 

Lyons, sir A. M. ; navy, 1903 

Lyons v. Thomas ; trials, 1869 

Lysander ; Sparta, 405 b.c. 

Lysimachus ; Ipsus, 301 b.c ; Corus 

Lysippus ; Lysistratus, sculpture, 
busts, 328 b. c. 

Lyte, H. C. Maxwell, K.C.B., 1897, 
antiquary 

Lyttelton, lord; chancellor, Id., 1641 

Lyttelton, Alfred, b. 1857 ; Transvaal, 
1900; Balfour adm., 1903 

Lytton, E. Btilwer, Id., novelist and 
poet, 1805-73 : guilds 

Lytton, R. B., lord, 1831-91 ; India, 
1876 ; France, 1891 

Lyveden, Id. ; Canada, 1903 



M. 



Macadam, J. ; macadamising, 18.9 
Macalister, Mr. Stewart ; Palestine, 

1902 
Macarius, bp. ; Alexandria, 1899 
Macarthy, sir Charles ; Sierra Leone, 

Ashantees, 1824 
Macartney, earl ; duel, 1786 ; China, 

1793 ; India 
Macauiay, T. B., Id., 1800-185') ; Mel- 
bourne adm., 1837 
Macbeth ; Scotland, 1057 
McCabs, abp., Ireland, 18/9-80 ; car- 
dinal, 1882 ; d. 1885 
MacCabe ; robbers, 1691 
McCarthy, Justin; home rule, 1880 ; 

Parnellites, 1890 ; English lang., 

1830 
McHale, abp., 1791-1881 
MaoClelian, gen. George B., 1826-S5; 

United States, 1861-4 
Macclesfield, earl of; chancellor, lord 

high, 1718 
MacCormac, sir Wm., pliys. , 1836-1901 
MaeCoriuack ; reaping machine, 1831 
Macdonald, marshal ; Parma, Trebia, 

1799 
Macdonald, Mr. ; Times, 1854-89, 

printing 
Macdonald, capt. ; Prussia, 1861 • 
Macdonald, sir J., 1815-91; Canada, 

1873 
Macdonald, sir Claude ; China, 1899- 

1900 
Macdonald, sir Hector, 1853-1903 ; 

Soudan, 1898 ; S. A. war 
Macdonalds massacred ; Glencoe, 1692 
Macdonnel, quotations 
MacDowell, gen. J. ; Manassas, 1861 
Macduff, Mr. ; duel, 1790 
Maceo, gen. ; Spain, 1882 



Macfarlane, S. ; trials, 1844 

Macfarren, sir George, 1813-87; royal 
academy of music, oratorio, opera 

MacGrath ; dogs 

Macgregor, J. ; bank (British), 1849 : 
canoe, 1865 

Machiavelli, ST., 1469-1527 

Machiewicz, abbe ; Poland, 1863 

Mack, gen. ; Uhn, 1805 

Mack, Hen. ; executed, 1902 

Mackay, gen. ; Killiecrankie, 1689 

Mackay, sir Jas. ; China, 1902 

Mackay and Vaughan ; trials, 1816 

Mackenzie, sir Alex., 1842-1902 ; 
central pro v. 1887 ; Burma!) , 1890 ; 
Bengal, 1895 

Mackenzie, Alex. ; Canada, 1892 

Mackenzie, bp. C. F. ; Africa, i860 

Mackenzie, G. S. ; Africa (British E.) 
1890 

Mackenzie, Henry, novelist, 1745- 
1831 

Mackenzie, sir Morell ; Germany, 
1887-9. 

Mackenzie, Win.; Africa (British E.), 
188S 

Mackie, A. ; printing, 1871 

Mackinder, Mr. H. J., explor. ; 
Africa B.E., 1899 

Mackinnon, sir Win., 1823-93 > Zanzi- 
bar, Africa (British E.) 

Mackintosh, sir James, 1765-1872 

Macklin, C." actor, d. 1797 

Macklin's bible ; books 

Mackonoehie, rev. Mr. ; Church of 
England, 1867-76; trials, 1867; 
ritualists, public worship, holy 
cross ; Church Reform League 

MacLachlan, Jessie ; trials, 1862 

Maclagan, bp. ; Lichfield, 1878 ; 
York, abp., 1891 

Maclagan, Dr. ; germ theory 

Maclean, R. ; trials, 1882 

Macleod, Dr. ; glaciarium 

Macleod, Mr. ; United States, 1841 

Macleod, H. D. ; trials, 1858 

Macleod, Norman, D.D., 1812-72 

Macleod, Mr. Reg. ; registers, paro- 
chial, 1900 

Maclagan, sir Douglas, surgeon, 1812- 
1900 

Maclise, D. , painter, 181 1-70 

M'Clure, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 ; 
north-west passage 

MacMahon, marshal, 1808-93 ; Ma- 
genta, 1859 ; Franco-Prussian, 
Sedan, France, 1873-8 

MacMahon, rnaj. ; air, 1901 

Macmillan, Alexander, eminent pub- 
lisher, 1818-96 

McMillan, J. ; 'trials, 1861 

Macnaghten, Id. ; appeals, 1903 

MaeNamara, capt. ; duels, 1803 

McClean, Dr. Frank, F.R.S. ; tele- 
scopes, 1901 

McCoy, sir Fred., K.C.M.G. ; Victoria 
1823-99 

M'Culloch, J. R., polit. econ., 1789- 
1864 

McCulloeh, sir Jas., Victoria, 1875-6 

M'Hugh, King »'., 1901 

M'Hugh, Mr. P. A., M.P. ; Dublin, 
1932 

M'Neill, sir J. ; Sebastopol, 1855 

McCarty, gen. ; Enniskillen, 1689 

McClintock, capt. ; Franklin, 1859 

McGill, Mr. ; trials, 1842 

Mclnnes, T. R. ; B. Columbia, 1897 

McKeever ; trials, 1902 

McKendrick, J. G. ; Roy. Inst., 
1881-4 

McKenzie, Mr. ; duel, 1788 

McKinley, William, 1843-1901 ; presi- 
dent U.S. 1S96 ; re-elected 6 Nov., 
1900, assassinations ; Chicago, 
Cuba 

McLeay, Mr. Franklin, actor; 
theatres, d. 1900 



McMahon, maj. ; Afghanistan, 1903 
MeNaghten, sir W., killed, 1841 
McNaughten, Mr. ; trials, 1761, 1843 
McNeill v. Taylor ; billiards, 1891 
McQuire, T. C. ; trials, 1902 
McSwiney, Mr. Ireland, 1875 
Macready, W. ; actor, 1793-1873 
Macreath, Mr. ; trials, 1841 
Macrobius ; Lat. writer, d. 415 
Madan, bp. ; Peterborough, 1794 
Madiai. the ; Tuscany, 1852 
Madison, James ; United States 

(president), 1809 
Maecenas, d. 8 ; dedications 
Majlzel, J. ; metronome, 1815 
Maeterlinck, Maurice ; Belgian 

author, b. 1862 
Magee, J. ; trials, 1813 ; Guatemala, 

1874 
Magee, W. C, bp. ; Peterborough, 

1868 ; York, abp., 1891 
Magellan : killed, 1521 ; circumnavi- 
gation, Philippine 
Magnin, C. ; puppets, 1872 
Magnus ; king, Norway, Sweden 
Maguire, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 ; 

Ashantees, d. igoo 
Magus, Simon ; Simonians, heretics 
Mahomet, 570-632 ; Hegira, 622 ; 
Mahometanism, Mecca, Medina, 
Beder, Turkey, Koran 
Mahomet II., d. 1481 ; eastern empire, 
Turkey, Adrianople, Constanti- 
nople, Albania 
Mahomet, Abdul ; Egypt, 1898 
Mahon ; S. A. war, 1900 
Mahony, F. (Prout), d. 1866 
Maidment, Chas. ; executed, 1899 
Mai'monides (Maimoun), Moses, 

Jewish writer, d. 1208 
Maine, sir H. J. S. ; jurist, 1822-S8 
Maitland, capt. ; France, 1815 
Maitland, sir Fred. ; China, 1838 
Majendie, bp. ; Chester, 1800 
Majendie, col. V. D., 1836-98, ex- 
plosives; K.C.B., 1895 
Major ; conchology, 1675 
Majorian, coronation 
Ma'kart, J. ; painter, 1840-1S84 ; 

Austria 
Makoino, Kaffraria, 1873 
Malachi prophesies about 397 B.C. 
Malan, rev. S. C, 1812-94 ; Indian 

institute, scholar 
Malan, comm. ; S.A. war, d. 1902 
Malan, Mr., editor; C. of Good 

Hope, 1901 
Malcolm ; Scotland, kings, clanships, 

Alnwick, Dunsinane 
Malcolm, Jas. ; trials, 1885 
Malebranehe, N. ; philos., 1638-1715 
Malet, sir E. ; Egypt, 188 r ; Ger- 
many, 1884 
Mallierbe ; Fr. poet, 1556-1628 
Malibran, madame ; singer, 1808-36 
Malleson, col., G. B., Indian histo- 
rian, 1825-9S 
Mallet, R. ; earthquakes, seismo- 
meter, 1858 
Mallory, W. H. ; screw-propeller, 

1878 
Malmesbury, lord ; Derby and Dis- 
raeli adms. 1852, 1858, 1S74 
Malou ; Belgium, 1871 ; 1884 
Malpighi, M. ; anatomist, 1628-94 
Maltby, bp. ; Durham, 1836 
Malthus, T., 1 766-1834, polit. econ. 
Manasseh, Ben Israel ; Jews, 1657 
Manby, capt. ; life-preserver, 1809 
Mance, H., heliography 
Manchester, bp. of, pub. worship 

reg. act, 1883 
Manchester, earl of ; adminis., 1620 
Manchester will ; trials, 1854 
Mandeville, visct. ; administrations, 

1620 
Manes, killed, 274 ; Manicheans 
Manfred, killed, 1266 ; Naples 



1454 

Mann, Win,, air (compressing), 1829 
Manners, lord John, 6. 1818; Derby 
adm., 1852, 1858, 1866; Disraeli 
administrations, 1868, 1874 ; Re- 
form, 1884 ; Salisbury adm., 1885, 
1886 (duke of Rutland, 1888) 
Manning, H., cardinal, 1809-92 ; 

archbishop, 1865 ; Westminster 
Mannings ; murderers, trials, 1849 
Manny, sir W. ; charter-house, 1371 
Mansel, bishop ; Bristol, 1808 
Mansell, Rosalie ; trials, 1902 
Mansell, T. ; executions, 1857 
Mansfield, earl of; att.-gen. 1754 
fictions in law, king's bench, 1756 
Mansfield, C. B. ; benzole, 1849 
Manson, Dr. ; plague, 1902 
Mantegazza, marchese, Italy, 1876 
Mantell, G. A., weald 
Manteuffel, gen., Franco-Pruss. war, 

1870-1 
Manuel : Eastern empire, Trebizond 
Manuel, Eugene ; France, d. igoi 
Manutius, see Aldus 
Manzoni, A., Ital. nov., 1784-1873 
Maple, sir J. B. 1845-1903 ; hospitals, 

1897- 
Mapleson, J. H. 1828-1901 ; national 

opera house, 1875 
Mar, earl of; Harlaw, 1411 : Dum- 

blain, 1715 
Mar, earl of; trials, 1831 
Marais ; C. of Good Hope, 1901 
Marat, stabbed ; France, 1793 
Marbeck, J., concordance, 1550 : 

chanting 
Marceau, gen., killed, Altenkirehen, 

1796 
Marcel, S. ; communes, 1356 
Mareellus; Rome, 212 B.C. 
March, H. ; executions, 1877 
March, Roger, earl of; rebellions, 

1398 

March, R. ; rope-making, 1784 

Marchand, maj. ; Africa, 1896-9 ; 
France, 1899 

Marchand, F. G., pres. ; Quebec, (/. 
1900 

Marchmont ; trials, 1858 

Marcion ; Marcionites, 140 

Marconi, sig. ; electricity ; wireless 
telegraphy 

Marcus Aurelius ; Rome, emp. 161 

Marcus Curtius ; Rome, 362 B.C. 

Mardonius ; Mycale, Platsea, 497 B.C. 

Margall, Pi y ; 1824-1901 ; Spain, 
1873 

Margaret ; England, queen of Ed- 
ward I. 

Margaret of Anjou, England (queen 
of Henry VI.), d. 1481 ; Tewkes- 
bury, Towton, Wakefield 

Margaret of Norway ; C'almar, 1393 

Margaret (governess of the Nether- 
lands, 1559) ; beards 

Margary, Mr., killed; China, 1875-7 

Margratf; beet -root, 1747 

Maria da Gloria ; Portugal, 1826 

Maria Louisa, d. 1847 ; France, 1810, 
first empire; wills (Napoleon's) 

Maria Theresa ; Germany, 1711 

Marie Antoinette ; France, 1793 ; 
diamond necklace 

Marie Louise ; Bulgaria, d. 1899 

Marindin, sir Marindin ; railways, </. 
1900 

Marino, Hayti, 1880 

Mario, G. ; Italian singer, i8o8(?)-83 

Marius, d. 86 b.c. ; Cimbri 

Marius ; pianoforte 
Marlcham, abp. ; York, 1776 

Markham, Cle ids Unlit., K.C.B., 

1896 ; geography 

Marks, I. ; execution, 1877 
Marlborough, earl of j administra- 
tions, 1628 ; Salisbury adm., [899, 

Marlborough, duchess of, [reland, 



INDEX. 

Marlborough, duke of, 1650-1722 ; 
com. -in-chief, marshals, Blenheim, 
Douay, Liege, Lisle, Malplaquet, 
Oudenarde, Ramilies 
Marlborough, John, duke of; Derby 
adm., 1867; Disraeli adm., 1868, 
1878, gems ; Balfour adm., 1902 
Marlier, M. ; duelling, d. 1900 
Maroczy ; chess, 1903 
Marlowe, Chr. ; dramatist, d. 1593 
Marmont, marshal; Salamanca, 1812 
Marmontel, J. F., Fr. novel. 1723-99 
Marot, Clement ; Fr. poet, 1495-1544 
Maroto, gen., Spain, Vergara, 1839 
Marroquin, J. M. ; Colombo, igoo 
Marryat, capt. Fred., 1792-1848 ; 

English lang. 
Marryat, Florence ; nov., d. 1899 
Marsden, Win. ; cancer hospital 
Marsh, bp. ; Llandaff, 18 16 
Marsh, Catherine, convalescent insti- 
tution, 1866 
Marsh, prof. Othniel C. ; palaeon- 
tologist, 1831-99 ;. Indians, 1875 
Marshal, T. R. ; trials, 1859 
Marshall, capt., naval battles, 1778 
Marshall, Mr. ; California, 1847 
Marshall, A. M. ; biol., 1852-93 
Marshall, John, physiol., 1818-91 ; 

Royal Institution 
Marshall, Julian, d. 1903 ; tennis 
Martel, Charles ; France, 714 
Martel, France, 1S79 
Marten, Maria ; trials, 1828 
Marth ; planets, 1854 
Martial ; epigrams, fl. 100 
Martin ; popes, 640 et seq. 
Martin, Lady, actress, 1820-1898 ; 

theatres 
Martin, rev. G. ; suicide, i860 
Martin, John, painter, 1790-1854 
Martin, Jon. ; York minster, 1829 
Martin, L. H. ; Fr. hist., 1810-1883 
Martin, Rd. ; animals, 1822 
Martin, sir Theodore, b. 1816 ; Albert 
Martin v. Mackonochie, Church of 

England, 1867-76 
Martin case, British Museum, 1894 
Martineau,, Harriet, hist, novelist, 

&c. , 1802-76 
Martino, sig. ; China, 1899 
Martyn, Mr. Edw. ; Dublin, 1902 
Martyr, Peter, reformer, 1500-62 
Marvell, And. , d. 1678 ; ballot 
Marvin, C. ; trials, 1878 
Marx, C., socialists 
Mary I., 1516-58 ; England (queen), 

1553 ; Calais 
Mary II., 1662-94; England (queen'), 

1689 
Mary, queen of Scots, 1542-87 ; 
Scotland, Carlisle, Edinburgh, 
sycamore, Langside, Lochleven- 
castle, Fotheringay 
Maryborough, lord ; postmaster, 1835 
Masaniello ; Naples, 1647 
Maskelyne, J. N., automaton, 1875 
Maskelyne, N. , astronomer, 1732-181 1 ; 
Greenwich, 1765 ; almanacs, Schie- 
hallien, Venus 
Mason, Mr. ; U. States, 1861 
Mason, Josiah, orphan houses, Bir- 
mingham, 1869-75 
Mason and Hamlin ; American organ 
Massena, gen. ; Zurich, 1799 ; Al- 
meida, Busaco 
Masset, Louise; trials, 1S99 
Massey, Fred. H., eminent engineer, 

1812-97 
Massey,' W. ■ India, 1865 
Massiilon, J. B. ; Fr. preacher, 1663 

1742 
Massy r. Ileadfort ; trials, 1804 
Masupha, Basuto 
Mathew, sir Jas. Chas. ; justices, 

lords, 1901 
Mathew, Theobald, d. 1S56; tem- 
perance 



Mathews, Chas. ; actor, 1776-1835 ; 
(son) C. J., 1803-78 

Mathews, gen. sir Lloyd Wm. ; 
Zanzibar, d. 1901 

Mathias ; anabaptists, 1534 

Mathys ; Congo r., 1900 

Matilda ; England (queen of Wil- 
liam I.) ; Bayeux tapestry, 1066 

Matilda ; England (queen of Stephen) 

Matilda (empress) ; England, 1135 

Matilda; Denmark, 1772 ; Zell 

Matilda, countess ; Canossa, 1077 ; 
Italy 

Matthew, T., abp. ; York, 1606 

Matthews, adm. ; Toulon, 1744 

Matthews, H. (visct. Llandaff, 1895) ; 
Salisbury adm. , 1886 

Maud ; see Matilda 

Maud, liet. Vernon Maud ; navy, 1901 

Maule, Fox (lord Paumure); Russell 
administration, 1846 

Maule, J. B., prosecutor 

Maunder ; eclipses, 1901 

Maunsell, bookseller ; meal-tub plot, 
1679 

Maunsell, capt. C. S. ; trials, 1874 

Maupertuis, P. L. de, 1698-1759 ; 
latitude 

Maurer, J. and G. (German enthu- 
siasts), killed ; Brazil, 1874 

Maurice, rev. F. D., 1805-72; broad 
church,; working-men's college, 

1854 
Maury, lieut. M., 1806-73; sea 
Mausolus, 377 b.c. ; mausoleum, 

wonders 
Maxentius ; indiction, 312 
Maxim, Hiram Stevens ; bart., 1901 ; 

cannon, 1884 
Maximilian ; emperors, Germany, 

1493 ; Mexico, 1864-67 ; Bavaria, 

1806-48 
Maxiinin ; Rome, emp. 235 ; giants, 

persecutions 
"Max O'Rell," Paul Blouet, author, 

1848-1903 
May, G. A. C. ; king's (or queen's) 

bench, 1877 
May, Phil, 1864-1903, caricaturist, 

Punch 
May, S. E. ; parliament, 1886 
Maybri .? Mrs. ; trials, 1889 
Mayhew, H. (1812-1887); poor, 

1851-2 
Mayne, sir Richd., 1796-T868 ; police, 

1829 
Mayo, earl of, b. 1822 ; Disraeli adm. 

1868 ; assassinated, 1872 ; India, 

Andaman 
Mazarin, cardinal ; France, 1643 ; 

tontines ; printing 
Mazzini, auth., 1805-72 ; Ital. lang. 
Mazzini, J., Ital. patriot, 180S-72 ; 

Rome, 1831 ; triumvirate, 1849 
Mazzuoli, F. ; engraving, 1532 
Mead, Ceo., gen., 1816-72 ; United 

States, 1863 
Mead, Dr. Rich. , 1673-1754; inoculation 
Meagher; Ireland, 1848 
Mecklenburg, grand duke, Franc 0- 

Pruss. war, 1870-1 
Medail, M. ; Alps (tunnel), 1848 
Medicis, Catherine de, d. 15S9 ; Bar- 
tholomew, St. 
Medina-Sidoiiia, duke of; armada 
Medon ; Athens, 1044 B.C. 
Mehemet Ali : Egypt, Syria 
Mehemet Ali ; Russo-Turkish war, 

II., 1877 
Mehemet Ruchdi, Turkey, 1871-2 
Meikle, A., threshing machine, 1776 
Mediae, Henri, dramatist, 1830-97 
Meissonier, J. L. E. ; French painter, 

1815-91 ; France, 1893 
Melanchthon, Philip, 1497-1560 ; 

adiaphorists, Augsburg confession 
Meline, M., Pres.; France, 1899; 

Dreyfus case, 1897 



INDEX. 



1455 



Melas, general ; Marengo, 1800 
Melbourne, viscount, 1779-1849 ; Mel- 
bourne ; trials, 1836 
Melikotf, L. Alad.ja Dagh ; Russo- 

Turkish war, II.,- 1877 ; Russia, 

1880-1 
Mello, adm. de ; Brazil, 1893-4 
Mellon, Miss (afterwards duchess of 

St. Albans), first appearance, 1795 
Melloni, M , 1798-1854 ; electricity 
Melson, Dr. John Barritt, scientist, 

1812-98 
Melville, lord ; impeachment, 1806 
Menabrea, count L. P. ; Italy, 1867 
Menander, d. 291 B.C. ; drama 
Mendeleeff, D., elements (footnote) 
Mendelssohn, F. Bartholdy, 1809-47 
Mendiri ; Spain, 1874-5 
Mendizabal : Spain, 1835 
Mendoza, Pedro de; Buenos Ayres. 

1535- 
Mends, adm. sir W. R., 1812-97 
Menier ; balloons, 1874 
Menou, general ; Alexandria, 1800 
Menschikoff, prince ; holy places, 

1853 ; Russia, Alma, Russo-Turk- 

ish war 
Mereadier, M., teleradiophone 
Mercator, Ger., 1512-94 ; charts 
Mercedes (queen) ; Spain, 1878 
Mercier, C. H. ; hospital Saturday, 

1874 
Mercier, Houore, 1840-94 ; Quebec, 

1891-3 
Merimee, Prosper, Fr. hist., 1803-70 
Meroveeus ; Merovingians, France, 447 
Merriam, Dr., explor. ; California, 

1898-9 
Mesentzoff, gen. ; assassinated, 

Russia, 1878 
Mesmer, Frederic Ant.; mesmerism, 

1766 
Metastasio, Pet., It. poet, 1698-1782 
Metellus; Achaia, 147 B.C. 
Metford, Wm. S. ; firearms, 1899 
Methuen, lord ; lieut.-gen., 1898 ; S. 

African war, Oct. 1899 
Metius; telescopes, 1590-1609 
Meton ; golden number, 432 b.c. 
Metternich, prince, Aust. statesman, 

1773-1859 
Metz, M. de ; reformatory, 1839 
Meux and Co. ; porter 
Meyer, Conrad Ferd., 1825-98; 

Switzerland lit. 
Meyer, gen. Lucas ; S. A. war, d. 1902 
Meyer, H. dr. ; Kilima Njaro, 1889 
Meyer, H. von, archseopteryx, 1861 
Meyer, Simon ; Saturn, 1608-9-10 
Meyerbeer, J. M., Germ. 111ns., 1794- 

1864 
Meye.rstein, E.; printing (in colours), 

1876 
M'Hugh, Kingv., 1901 
M'Hugh, Mr. P. A., M.P. ; Dublin, 

1902 
Miall, E., 1809-81 ; nonconformists 
Micali, prophesies about 750 B.C. 
Michael Angelo Buonaroti, Ital. ar- 
tist, 1474-1564 
Michael; eastern empire, assassina- 
tions, Servia, 1860-8 
Michael, grand duke ; Russo-Turkish 

war, 1877 
Miehaelis, J. W., bib. critic, 1717-91 
Michaud, abbe ; old catholics, 1872 
Michaux ; bicycle, 1869 
Michel, Louise ; France, 1883 
Michelet, J., Fr. hist., 1 798-1874 
Michelson, prof. ; spectrum, 1899 
Middlesex, earl of; administrations, 

1621 
Middleton, Con.; (Cicero), 1683-1750 
Middleton, gen., Canada, 1885 
Middleton; N.W. passage, 1742 
Middleton (or Myddelton), sir Hugh, 

1565-1631 ; New River 
Middleton, John; giants, 1578 



Middleton, rev. T. ; Manchester, 

1876 
Midhat Pasha, Turkey, 1878-81, Syria 
Miecislas; Poland, 962 
Mieroslawski, L. ; Poland, 1863 
Miers, capt. R. ; S. A. war, d. 1901 
Mignet, Frangois, Fr. hist., 1796- 

1884 
Miguel, dom, 1802-66; Portugal, 1824 
Milan ; Servia 

Mildmay, sir J. H.; trials, 1814 
Mildmay, sir Walter; administra- 
tions, 1579 
Miles, Mr. E. H. ; tennis, 1899-1903 
Miles, sir Cecil ; painting, 1899 
Mill, Jas., hist, of Ind., 1773-1836 
Mill, John Stuart, 1806-1873, logic ; 

political economy 
Millais, J. E., painter, &. 1829; pre- 

Raphaelites 
Miller, Hugh; geology, suicide, 1856 
Miller, Jas. ; Derby day, 1903 
Miller v. Salomons; trials, 1852 
Miller, W. ; trials, 1870 
Millis ; Ashantees, 1900 
Mills, Mrs. Athalie ; trials, 1898 
Mills, sir Charles ; Cape, 1895 
Milman, Arch. ; parliament, d. 1902 
Milman, H. H, 1791-1868; poet and 

hist. 
Milne, prof. ; seismometer, 1901 
Milne, adm. sir Alex., G.C.B., 1806-96 
Milner, sir" Alfred, Cape of Good 
Hope, 1897 ; made a peer, 1901 ; 
vise. 1902 ; Transvaal, 1902 ; Orange 
River Colony, 1902 ; S. A. war, 
19 20 ; Austria 
Milosch; Servia, 1815 
Miltiades; Marathon, 490 b.c. 
Milton, John, 1608-74; Paradise Lost, 

Cripplegate ; press, liberty of 
Mma, gen., d. 1836; Spain, 1835 
Miughetti ministry ; Italy, 1873-6 
Minos ; Candia 

Minto, earl of; India, gov.-gen., 1807 
Minto, Id., gov. ; Canada, 1898-1933 
Miramon, gen.; Mexico, 1859; exe " 

cuted, 1867 
Mires, M.; Mexico, 1861 
Mirsky, L., Russia, 1879 
Mister, Josiah; trials, 1841 
Mitchell, adm.; Bantry bay, 1801-2 
Mitchell, D.; aquarium, 1853 
Mitchell, sir F. ; monopolies, victual- 
lers, 1621 
Mitchell, J. ; Ireland, 1848, 1874 
Mitchell, hon. Peter, 1818-99 \ Canada 
Mitchell, sir C, 1836-99; colonial 
governor, 1870-99 ; Natal, 1889 ; 
Straits, 1893 
Mitchell, Dr. Chalmers ; zoology, 

1903 
Mitchell, S. ; Glasgow, 1874 
Mitchell, W. ; billiards, 1885 
Mitford, sir John ; att. -general, 1800 ; 
speaker, 1801 ; — W., hist, of Greece 
1744-1827 
Mithridates the Great, 131-63 B.C. ; 
Pontus, comets, electuary, mas- 
sacres, omens 
Mitre, gen. B. ; Buenos Ayres, 1859-75 
Mivart, prof. St. George ; biologist 

1827-1900 
Moffat, colonel; wrecks, 1857 
Moffat, Dr. C. ; ammoniaphone 
Moffat, Rev. R., 1 790-1 882 ; mission- 
ary ; Africa 
Mohamed Dudu ; Africa, 1902 
Mohun, lord; duels, 1712 
Moir, capt.; trials, 1830 
Moira, earl of; India, gov.-gen., 1813 
Moiroso, Basuto 
Mole, count, d. 1855 
Molesworth, sir William ; Aberdeen ; 

adm., 1852 
Moliere, Fr. comic dram., 1622-73 ; 

comedie Frang. 
Molinos, 1627-96 ; quietists 



Molteno, Mr. ; Cape, 1875 

Moltke, Hellmuth, strategist, 1800- 
91 ; Franco-Prussian war ; Ger- 
many, 1890 • 

Molyneux, adm. sir R. H. M. ; navy, 
1903 

Molyneux, Mr.; absentee, 1738 

Mommsen, Theodor ;hist. 1817-1903 ; 
Germany, 1893 

Mompesson, Giles ; monopolies, vic- 
tuallers, 1621 

Monasterio, mad. ; France, 1883 

Moncasi, J. O., Spain, 1878 

Monck, visct. C. S., 1819-94; Canada, 
1861 

Moncrieff, capt.; cannon, 1868, 
1872 

Mond, Ludwig, chemist ; Royal In- 
stitution, 1887-94 ! gaslights, 1901 ; 
alkalies, 1903 

Monge, gas 

Monk, general ; see Albemarle 

Monk, bishop; Gloucester, 1830 

Monmouth, duke of, 1649-85 ; Mon- 
mouth, Bothwell, Sedgemoor 

Monro, James ; police, 1888 

Monroe, Mr.; United States, presi- 
dent, 1817-21 

Monson, sir Edward ; Austria, 
1893 ; France, 1896 

Monson, Otto ; trials, 1903 

Monstrelet, E. de, French- historian, 
d. 1453 

Montacute, marquis of ; Man, 1314-43 

Montagu, lord ; administrations, 
1660-89 

Montagu, lady M. W. ; inoculation, 
1718 

Montague, Charles, earl of Halifax, 
coins, national debt 

Montague, Mrs., d. 1800; May-day 

Montaigne, M. de, Fr. essayist, 

I533-9 2 
Moutalembert, comte de; 1810-70; 

France, 1858 
Montanus ; iviontanists, polyglot, 1559 
Monteliore, sir Moses, 1784-1885 ; 
Jews, 1837; 1883-4; sir Josephs., 
1822-1903 
Montemolin, comte de; Spain, 1860-1 
Montero, pres. Peru, 1882 
Montesquieu, C. de L., Fr. phil, 

1689-1755 
Monte verde ; opera, 1607 
Montfort, Simon de; barons' war, 
commons, Kenilworth, steward, 
lord high, speaker, Lewes; killed 
at Evesham, 1265 
Montgolfier, M. ; balloons, 1782 
Montgomerie, adm. sir J. E., d. 1902 
Montgomery, Basil, & Co. ; trials, 

1902 
Montgomery, comte de ; tourna- 
ments, 1559 
Montgomery, Mr. ; suicide, 1828 ; 

— Col., duels, 1803 
Montholon, comte de; will (Napo- 
leon's), 1821 
Monti, Ital. poet, 1754-1828 
Montpensier; France, Spanish mar- 
riage, 1846 ; Spain, 1868-72 
Montrose, duke of; Pitt adm. 1804, 

Derby adm., 1866 
Montrose, marquis of, executed, 1650 ; 
Corbiesdale, Scotland, Alford, 
Pliiliphaugh 
Montt, J. ; Chili, 1891 
Moody and Sankey ; revivals, 1875 
Moon, sir Rich., 1814-99 ; railways 
Moore, abp. ; Canterbury, 1783 
Moore; almanac, 1698-1713 
Moore, capt. ; Franklin, 1848 
Moore, murdered ; trials, 1853 
Moore, Serjeant; lease, 1535 
Moore, Anne; abstinence, 1808 
Moore, Geo. ; mansion house fund, 

1871 
Moore, sir John, fc. at Corunna, 1809 



1456 



INDEX. 



Moore, sir Jonas ; Greenwich 

Moore, Thos., poet, 1780-1852 

Moorhouse, James, bp. ; Manchester, 
1886 ; ch. of England, 1903 

Morales, H. A., Bolivia, 1872 

Mordaunt, Charles, viscount; ad- 
ministrations, 1689 

Mordaunt divorce; trials, 1870, 1874-5 

More, Hannah, 1745-1833 

More, sir Thomas, 1478 -1535; ad- 
ministrations, 1529 ; chancellor, 
supremacy ; Utopia 

More, Roger; rebellion, 1651 

Moreau, general, 1763-1813 ; Ales- 
sandria, Augsburg, Wurtemberg, 
Dresden 

Morelli ; tourniquet, 1674 

Moreton, John, earl of; Ireland, 1177 

Morgan ; buccaneer, 1668 

Morgan, colonel ; Lincoln 

Morgan, confederate general ; U. 
States, 1862 

Morgan, Mr. M., "Chess Digest"; 
chess, 1903 

Morgan, Mr. Pierpont ; sapphire, 
1902 ; U. S., 1902 

Morgan, Pritchard ; gold, 1887 

Morgendaal ; S. A. war, d. 1901 

Moriarty, bp. Ireland, 1877 

Morier, sir R. ; Spain, 1881 ; Prussia, 
1888; Russia, 1884-93 

Moriones, gen. ; Spain, 1875-5 

Morland, Geo., animal painter, 1763- 
1804 

Morland, Sam., d. 1695 ; capstan, 
speaking-trumpet 

Morley, Arnold; Gladstone adm., 
1892; Rosebery adin., 1894 

Morley case ; trials, Jan. 1893 

Morley, Henry; English scholar and 
professor, 1822-94 

Morley, J., b. 1838 ; anti-aggressive ; 
Pall Mall; Gladstone adm., 18S6, 
1892; Rosebery adm., 1894 ; O.M., 
1902 ; Cambridge, 1902 ; F. trade, 
1903 

Morley, Id. ; Gladstone adm., 1886 

Morley, T. ; music; d. 1604 

Morning Chronicle ; trials, 1810, 1830 ; 
France, 1862 

Morning Herald; trials, 1809 

Morning Post; libel, 1792 

Mornington, lord ; India, 1798 

Morpeth, viscount (aft. earl of Car- 
lisle); Melbourne adm., 1835; Ire- 
land, lord-lieut. 

Morreau, M. ; Dante's Divina Corn- 
media, 1903 

Morris, George; flowers, 1792 

Morris, Mr.; theatres (Haymarket), 
1805 

Morris, Lewis, poet ; b. 1832 ; knt. 
1895 

Morris, William, poet, 1834-96, arts 

Morrison, E. ; Australia, 1882-3- 

Morse, S. F. B., Am. electrician, 
1791-1872 

Mortara, E. ; Jews, 1858 

Mortier, mar.; Bomainville, 1814 

Mortimer, earl of March ; Berkeley, 

J 3 2 7 
Mortimer, E. A.; trials, 1859 
Mortimer, Jas. ; Dreyfus case, 1901 
Morton, arch.; Canterbury, i486 
Morton, earl of, regent of Scotland, 

1572 ; Tulchan bishops 
Morton, sir Albert; administrations, 

1628 
Morton, Thomas; ether, 1846 
Morton ; trials, 1852 
Moryson, Fynes; forks 
Moscrop, E. II., salmon ova 
Moseley, Wolf, &c. ; trials, 1819 
Moses, 1572-1451 B.C. 
Moshesh, cape of G. II., 1870 
Mosquera, gen.; New Granada, 1861 
Moss, bishop; Oxford, 1807 
Mosse, Dr.; lying-in hospital, 1745 



! Mossol, M., plethvsmograph 
Most, J., trials, 1881 
Mostyn v. Atherton ; trials, 1899 
Mothe-Guyon, madame de la ; quiet- 

ists, 1697 
Motley, J. L., Am. historian, 1814-77 
Mouchot, M., sun, 1880 
Moule, Rev. H. ; Kimmeridge 
Mountaigne, abp. ; York, 1628 
Mount-Sandford, lord, killed ; trials, 

1828 
Mount-Stephens, Id. ; ch. of Scot., 

1 goo 
Mouravieff; Kars, 1855 
Mourzoufle ; Constantinople, eastern 

empire, 1204 
Mowat, Sir Oliver ; Canada, d. 1903 
Mowbray, sir Jno. Robt., 1S15-99 ; 

Oxford un. 
Mozart, W. A.; music, 1756-91 
Mozley, rev. T. ; theologian, 1S06-93 ; 

Times 
Mudie, C, 1818-90; circulating li- 
brary, 1842 
Mueller, F. von, botanist, 1825-96; 

Victoria, 1896 
Muirhead, J. G. ; trials, 1825 
Mukhtar Pasha, Turkey, 1876 ; Russo- 

Turkish war, II. 1877-8 
Mulgrave, earl ; Liverpool adm. ,1812; 

Ireland, lord-lieut. 
Mullah, the Hadda ; Afghanistan, 

1902 
Mullens, J.; trials, i860 
Miiller, F. ; execution, 1864 
Miiller, F. Max, 1823-1900; right hon. 
1896 ; Vedas, Sanskrit, language, 
Hibbert fund 
Miiller, Friedrich, 1834-98, ethnolo- 
gist, philologist 
Miiller, Geo. ; 1805-98; orphanhouses ; 

scripture knowledge 
Mulot, M.; Artesian well, 1841 
Mulready, Win; painter, 1786- 1863 
Mummius, L. : Corinth, 146 B.C. ; 

painting 
Mundella^A. J., 1825-97 ! Gladstone 
adm., 1886, 1892; Rosebery adm., 
1894 
Mundy, R. M., Honduras, 1874 
Munich, marshal; Perekop, 1736 
Munoz, duke; Spain, 1833, 1873 
Munro. H. ; Buxar, 1764 
Munster earl of: suicide. 1842 
Munster, prince ; Germany, d. 1902 
Munzer, T. ; an ibaptists, 1524-5, level- 
lers ; Frankenhausen 
■Murat, Joachim, 1771-1815; Erfurt, 

Naples 
Muratori, L. ; hist., 1672-1750 
Muravieff, count, 1845-1900 ; Russia 
Murchison, sir Roderick 1., 1792- 

1871 ; geology, Brit. Assoc. 
Murdoch, Mr.; gas, 1792 
Murillo, Bravo, Spain, 1865, 1868 
Murillo, B. S., Sp. painter, 1618-S2 
Murphy, Mr. Justice ; Ireland, d. 

1901 
Murray, A. Graham, b. 1S49 ; Salis- 
bury adm. 1891 at seq. ; Balfour 
adm., 1902 
Murray, B. ; trials, 1841 
Murray, bishop; David's, St., 1800 
Murray, Dr. J. H. ; dictionaries, 1S79 
Murray, earl of ; Scotland, 1567 
Murray, James, earl of, Scotland, 

1567 ; assassinations 
Murray, John ; lighthouse 
Murray, lady Aug. ; marriage act, 

1793 
Murray, Mr. G. ; deep sea soundings, 

1898; Balfour adm., 1902 
Murray, Mr. John ; academy, the, 

1 869; Publishers' Circular; southern 

coast, 1901 
Murray, K. ; post-office, 1681 
Murray, sir Chas. Aug., traveller, 

diplomatist and author, 1807-95 



Murray, sir Geo. ; Peel adm., 1S34 
Murray, sir James ; Tarragona, 1813 
Murrell, capt. ; wrecks, 1889 
Musa; Spain, 712 
Musgrave, abp. ; Hereford, 1837 
Musgrave, sir Richard; duel, 1802 ;— 
sir A., Jamaica, 1876 ; Queensland, 
1883 
Mushat, Mr.; steel, 1800 
Muswell Hill, burglary; trials, 1889 
Muybridge, E. J. ; photography 

1881 ; zoopraxiseope 
M'wanga, ex-king ; Uganda, d. 1903 
Myall, rhubarb 

Myddelton, sir Hugh, see Middleton 
Myers, F. H., poet, 1843-1901 ; 

psychology 
Myers, Dr. W. ; yellow fever, igoi 
Mylue, R. ; architect, 1734-181 1 ; Black- 
friars 
Myron, sculptor,/. 480 B.C. 
Mytton, general; Wales, 1645 



N, 



Nabis ; Sparta, 206 b. c. 

Nabonasser, Jl. 747 B.C. ; astronomy 

Nachimoff, admiral ; Sinope, 1853 

Nadar; balloon, 1863 

Nadir Shah ; Persia, 1732 ; Delhi, 
Afghanistan, Cabul 

Nagel, H., trials, 1872 

Naliiim proiihesies about 713 B.C. 

Nairne, lieut.-gen. sir Chas. ; Bom- 
bay, d. 1899 

Nana Sahib ; Cawnpore, India, 1857 

Nanopi, Hen. ; Caroline Is., 1898 

Nansen, Dr. ; Greenland ; N.E. pas- 
sage, 1893-7 ; Norway, 1895 ; Lon- 
don, 1897 ; southern com,., 1901 

Napier, lord; China, 1834: — son, 
Francis, lord of Merchiston ; diplo- 
matist, 1819-98 ; United States. 
1856 ; Russia, 18&0 ; Madras, i366 ; 
India, 1872 ; baron Ettrick, 1872 

Napier of Merchiston ; logarithms 

Napier, admiral sir C., 1786-1860 ; 
Portugal, Sidon, cape St. Vincent, 
Baltic, 1854 

Napier, gen. sir C. , 1782-1853 ; 
Meeanee, 1843 

Naxner, Mr. ; coin, 1844 

Napier, sir R., aft. lord (of Magdala), 
1810-90; Abyssinia, 1867 ; Arogee, 
Magdala, Gibraltar, 1876 

Napier, R. H., vice-adm. 1837-1903 

Napoleon, Jerome, 1784-1860; son, 
1822-91, France, 1861-76; Bonaparte 

Napoleon I., 1769-1821, France, abat- 
toirs, Bonaparte, confederation, 
legion of honour, models, notables, 
Cairo, Egypt, Elba, Fontainebleau, 
Malta, Mamelukes, St. Helena, 
Simplon, vaccination ; his battles: 
Acre, Areola, Asperne, Auerstadt, 
Austerlitz, Bautzen, Borodino, 
Castiglione, Charleroi, Dresden, 
Eckniuh), Essling, Eylau, Fried- 
land, Hanau, Italy, Jena, La 
Rothiere, Leipsic, Ligny, Lodi, 
Lutzen, Marengo, Montereau, 
National guard, Pultusk, St. 
Dizier, Simplon, Tilsit, Troyes, 
Vienna, Waterloo, Wurtzburg 

Napoleon II., king of Rome; France, 
end. 

Napoleon III., 1S0S-73 : France 
(sovereigns) ; Boulogne. Strasburg, 
Cherbourg, Italy, Magenta, Sol- 
ferino, Sedan, wills, assassinations 

Napoleon, imperial prince, 1856-79 ; 
Bonaparte ; France, 1873-6, Saar- 
briick 

Naves, capt., deep sea, 1872; north- 
west passage, 1874-S ; soundings 

Narses ; East, empire, 552 ; Goths 
Italy, Rome 



INDEX. 



1457 



Narvaez, gen. Eamon, 1800-1868 ; 

Spain, 1846 
Nash, Beau, 1674-1761 ; Bath, cere- 
monies 
Nash, John, 1752-1835 ; parks, 1818 
Nash, Jos., architect, 1812-78 
Nasmyth, J., 1758-1840; steam- 
hammer, 1838 ; moon 
Nasmyth, lieut. ; Silistria, 1854 
Nasr-ed- Din ; Persia, 1848-73 
Nast, Thos.; U.S., d. 1902 
Nathan, maj.; Ashantees, 1901 
Nathorst, Herr ; N.B. and N.W. pas- 
sages, 1898 
Navarro, sen.; Chili, 1898 
Naville, M. ; Egypt, expl. fund 
Neale, Vansittart ; Christian so- 
cialism, 1848 
Nearchus ; sugar, 325 B.C. 
Neave and others, trials, 1875 
Nebuchadnezzar ; Babylon, Jews, 

605 b. c. ; Tyre 
Nechar, Jaques ; 1732-94 ; Switzer- 
land, lit. 
Necho; Egypt, 612 B.C. 
Nedley, Dr. Thos. ; Dublin, d. 1899 
Neil, col. ; India, 1857 ; Allahabad, 

Benares 
Neild ; legacy to the queen, 1852 
Neill, Thos., murderer; trials, 17-21 

Oct., 1892 
Neison, Edm. ; moon, 1876 
Neilson, J., 1792-1865 ; blowing- 
machine, 1828 
Nelson, Alf. Sam.; trials, 1903 
Nelson, Chas. Bank ; trials, 1902 
Nelson, Horatio, admiral lord, 1758- 

1805 ; Nelson 
Nernst, prof.; electricity, 1899 
Nero ; Rome, emperor, 54 
Nesselrode, comte de, Russian states- 
man, 1780-1862 
Nethersole, Miss Olga ; trials, 1903 
Nettlefold, Mr. ; trials, 1892 
Newall, R. S. ; electric telegraph, 

1840 
Newcastle, bp. of; Cli. of England, 

1903 
Newcastle, marquis of; Marston- 

moor, 1644 
Newcastle, Juke of; Pelham adm., 
1749 ; Newcastle adm., 1754 ; Aber- 
deen adm. , 1852 ; Ch. of England, 
1899 
Newcoinb, prof. S. ; photo-tacho- 
meter, light 
Newcomen, T. , steam, 1712 
Newenham, W. B. ; trials, 1844 
Newington, H. (Flora Davey), trials, 

1871 
Newman, cardinal John Henry, 
1801-90; trials, 1852; Tractarians 
Newman, Francis Win., scholar and 

theologian, i>-os-97 
Newport, sir John ; exchequer, 1834 
Newsham, R. ; Preston, 1883 
Newton, sir C. T., archaeologist, 

1816-94 > mausoleum 
Newton, sir Isaac, 1642-1727; air, 
binomial, coin, diamond, astro- 
nomy, royal society, hydrostatics, 
gravitation, mechanics 
Ney, marshal, 1769-1815; Dennewitz, 

France, Quatre-Bras, Ulm, Ney 
Neyle, archbp. ; York, 1632 
Niccoli, Nicholas ; libraries, 1436 
Nicephori, emperors ; east, empire, 

802-963 
Nicholas I., Russia, 1825-55 
Nicholas II., Russia, 1894 
Nicholas V. ; popes, 1447-55 ; St. 

Peter's, Rome 
Nicholas, grand duke, Russo-Turkish 

war II., 1877 
Nicholls, comm. navy, 1884 
Nichols, col. ; New York, 1664 
Nichols, H., Manchester, 1875 
Nicholson; trials, 181 3 



Nicholson, prof. Alleyne, nat. phil., 

1844-99 
Nicholson, sir Chas., Australian 

statesman, 1810-1903 
Nicoloff, col.; Bulgaria, 1902 
Niebuhr, B. G. ; Rome, d. 1903 
Niebuhr, B. H. ; hist, 1776-1831 
Niepce ; photography, 1814, veloci- 
pedes, 1818 
Niger, P. ; Rome, emp. ; killed, 127 
Nightingale, F., b. 1820; Scutari, 

Nightingale 
Nikita, Montenegro, i860 
Nillson, Mr., prehistoric archeology 
Ninus ; Assyria, 2069 b. c. 
Nisbet, sir John; advocates, 1685 
Nixon, Alf. ; velocipede, 1882 
Nixon, Jno., 1815-99, engineer 
Noad, H. M. ; electricity, 1855 
Noah, 2347 b.c. ; ark, Armenia 
Noailles, marshal ; Dettingen, 1743 
Nobel, Alf. ; d. 1896 ; nitro-glycerme, 
1864, dynamite, 1868 ; blasting 
gelatine ; Nobel bequest 
Nobel, L. & R. ; petroleum, 1875 
Nobert, F. A. ; ruling machine 
Nobiling, Dr. ; Germany, 1878 
Noble, Matt., sculptor, 1820-76 
Nocard, Edm., bacteriologist, 1853- 

1903 
Noel, adm., K.C.M.G.; Candia, 

1898 
Nordenskjold, professor, 1832-1901 ; 
baron, 1879 ; north-east, &c. , 1872-3 
Norfolk, duke of; administrations, 
1540 ; people ; Roman catholic 
union, 1871; Salisbury adm., 1895 ; 
Anglo-Norman Record Soc, 1893 
Norman, sir H. ; Jamaica, 1883 ; Co- 
lonies, 1903 
Norman, sir J. ; mayor, 1453 
Norman, Robert ; magnetism, 1576 
Norman, justice, murdered, India, 

1 87 1 
Normanby and Buckingham, duke 

of; Godolphin adm., 1702 
Normanby, marquis of, b. 15 May, 
1797 ; d.28 Jnly, 1863 ; Ireland (lord- 
lieut.), 1835 ; Queensland, 1871 ; N. 
Zealand, 1874-8; Victoria, 1879 
Normandy, Dr.; filterers, water 
North, bishop ; Winchester, 1781 
North, lord ; North adm., 1770 
North, sir F. ; king's counsel, 1663 
North, miss M. ; Kew, 1882 
Northampton, Henry, earl of; ad- 
ministrations, 1609 
North brook, lord ; parks, 1903 
Northbrook, Id., India, 1872; earl of, 

admiralty, 1880, 1885 
Northcote, sir Staftbrd, 1818-S7 ; 
Derby adm., 1866; Disraeli adm., 
1868, 1874 ; parliament, 1881 ; Suez, 
1883 ; earl of Iddesleigh, Salisbury 
adm. 1885, 1886 ; Bombay, 1899- 
1903 
Northcott and others, trials, 1876 
Northcott, col. ; Gold coast, d. 1899 
North more, gas 

Northumberland, Algernon, duke of; 
Derby administration, 1852 ; — ■ 
Algernon George Percy, 1810-99 ; 
Disraeli administration, 1878 ; 
Royal Institution, Life Boat 
Northumberland, Dudley, duke of; 

administrations, 1551 
Northumberland, Hugh, duke of; 

Ireland (lord-lieut.), 1763 
Northumberland, earl of; coaches, 

Man 
Norton, sir Fletcher ; att.-gen., 1763 
Norton, Jeffrey de ; recorder, 1298 
Norton v. lord Melbourne; trials, 

1836 
Nostradamus; almanacs, 1566 
Nott, gen. ; Ghiznee, 1842 
Nottingham, earl of; administra- 
tions, 1684 



Novaliches, marquis de, Spain, 1868, 

Aleolea, 1868 
Novello, Joseph A., music publisher, 

1810-Q6 
Nubar Pacha, 1825-99 ! Cairo, Egypt, 

1876-9, 1894-5 
Numa Pompilius ; Rome, kings, 715 

B.C. ; calendar 
Numitor, Alba, 794 B.C. 
Nunez. A. : Paraguay, 1535 
Nuttall, Dr.; malaria, 1901 



(). 



Oakeley, sir Herbert S., 1S30-1903; 

mus. doc, 187 1 
Oakley, sir Charles ; Madras, 1792 
Oakley, R. B., trials, 1876 
Obadiah prophesies about 587 B.C. 
Obeid-ullah, Kurdistan 
O'Brien, king ; Limerick, 1200 
O'Brien, sir J. T., 1830-1903 ; Heli- 
goland, 1881 ; Newfoundland, 
1888-95 
O'Brien, Wm., judge, 1832-99; Ire- 
land, 1887, et seq. 
O'Brien, W. ; Ireland, 1886 et seq. ; 

trials, 1889 
O'Brien, W. S. ; Ireland, 1846, 1848 
O'Brien, giants, 1785 
Ochus : Persia. 359 B.C. 
O'Connell, Daniel, 1775-1847 ; duels,, 
1815 ; agitators, emancipation, 
repeal, trials (1831, 1844), Ireland ;- 
Dublin, 1S83 
O'Connell, Mr! Morgan ; duels, 1835 
O'Connor, Arthur ; press, riots-,. 

trials, 1798 
O'Connor, Fergus, d. 1855 ; chartists- 
O'Connor, Roger; trials, 1817 
O'Conor, sir Nicholas, Russia, 1896 

Turkey, 1898 
Octavius ; Rome, 37 B.C. 
Odo, abp. ; Canterbury, 941-58. 
Odo, earl of Kent ; treasurer 
Odoacer ; Italy, 476, Heruli 
O'Donnell, marshal Leopold, 1808-67 

Spain, 1841 
O'Donnell, Mr. ; parliament, 1882 
O'Donnell v. Walter; Parnellites, 

1888 
GSdipus ; Bccotia 

Oersted, H. C, 1777-1851 ; elec- 
tricity, 1819 
Ofenheim (financier), Austria, 1875, 
Ogle, George; duel, 1802 
Oglethorpe, gen. ; Georgia, 1732- 
O'Grady, Mr. ; duels, 1803 
Ogyges ; deluge 
O'Hagan, lord chancellor (Ireland)' 

1868 ; Roman catholics ; d. 1883 
O'Halloran, Dr. ; trials, 1818 
O'Keefe ; trials, 1825 
O'Keeffe v. Cullen, trials, 1873 
O'Kelly, Mr. ; parliament, 1883 
Oken, German union, 1822 
Okubo, Japan, 1878 
Olbers, M. ; planet, 1802 
01dcastle,sir J. .burnt, 1418 ; Lollards 
Oldenburg, Henry, 1615-77 ; Royal 

society 
O'Leary, pedestrianism, 1877 
Oliphant, Margaret, novelist, nee 

Wilson, 1828-97 
Oliphant, sir Wm., advocate 
Olivarez governs Spain, 1621-43 
Oliver ; trials, 1858, 1869 
Ollendorff, H. G. (linguist); 1803- 

65 
Ollivant, bp. ; Llandaff, 1849 
Ollivier, E. ; France, 1870 
O'Loghlen, sir M. ; Roman catholics, 

1836 
Olozaga, Spain, 1871 
O'Mahony, Fenians, 1877 
Omar, caliph, 634 : Alexandria, Ali 
5 A 



1458 



INDEX. 



Omar Pacha ; Citate, Montenegro, 
Oltenitza, Ingour, Eusso-Turkish 
war, 1855 

Ommaney, capt. ; Franklin, 1850 

■O'Moore, Rory ; Carlow, 1577 

Omnri, Dr. F. ; seismometer, 1903 

•O'Neil, rebellion ; massacre, Black- 
water, 1598 

•O'Neil, Miss (lady Becher), appears 
at Covent Garden, 1814 ; d. 1872 

Onslow, lurd; New Zealand, 1888-92; 
Salisbury adm. , 1895-1900; Balfour 
adm., 1903 

Onslow, G. and Whalley, G. H. ; trials 
1872 

Onslow, sir R. ; Halifax adm., 1714 

Opie, John ; painter, 1761-1807 

Opoku ; Ashantees, 1900 

Oppian, poet,/. 171 

Orange, William, prince of; Holland, 
Maestricht, revolution, 1572 ; Eng- 
land, 1689 ; assassinations 
•Orange, prince of; Quatre Bras, 1815 

Orbelliana ; Circassia, 1857 

Ord, sir H. St. G., West Australia, 
1S77 

Orellana ; Amazon, 1540 

Orestes ; Mycenae, Sparta 

Orflla, M. J. ; physician, 1787-1853 

Orford, earl of; admiralty, 1709 

Orleans, Henry of, explor. ; France, 
d. 1901 

Orloff, count ; diamonds, 1772 

Ormerod, Miss E. A., 1828-1901 ; 
entomology 

Ormond, James, duke of; Ireland, 
lord-lieuts. , 1643 et seq. 

•Ormond, earl of; combat, 1446 

Ormond, marquis of ; Rathmines, 
1649 

Orr, Jas. ; Glasgow, d. 1899 

Orr, Wm. ; trials, 1797 

Orrery, earl of ; Orrery 

Orrock ; trial, 1884 

Orsini, Felix, 1819-58 ; France, 1858 

Ortega, gen. ; Spain, i860 

Ortelli, G. B., phil.; Italy, d. 1898 
•Osborn, Sherard ; Franklin, 1854. 

Osborne, Mrs. (Miss E. F. Elliot), 
trials, 1891 

Osborne, Mr. R. B. ; U.S., d. 1900 

Osborne, sir Thomas ; administra- 
tions, 1672 

Osborne, T., Ireland (Young) 

Oscar; Sweden, 1844, 1872 

•Osgodeby, Adam de ; master of the 
rolls, 1295 

Osier, A. F., 1808-1903, anemometer 

Osman Digna ; Soudan 

Osman Pacha, d. 4 April, 1900 ; 
Plevna, Russo-Turkish war II. ,1877 

Ospina ; New Grenada, 1857 

Ossory, lord ; tea, 1666 

Oswell, W. C. ; Africa, 1893 

Othman ; Turkey, 1298 

Otho ; Rome, emp., 69; Germany, 
036 ; Greece, 1832-62 

Otto, gas (engine) 

Otto, M. ; Amiens, 1802 ; ozone, 1902 

Ottocar ; Bohemia, 1197 

Oudinot, marshal ; Rome, 1849 

Oudry, cafeine 

Outram, sir James; 1803-63; Mo- 
hammerah, India, 1857 

Ouvry, F. ; antiquaries, 1876 

Overbury, sirT., poisoned, 1613 

Overdank ; assassin., Austria, 18 Si 

Overend, Gurney, & Co. ; trials, 
1867 

Overstone, S., Jones Loyd, lord, 
financier, 1796-1883 ; metric sys- 
tem, 1855 

Overton, canon, 1838-1903, bio- 
grapher 

Ovid; poet, d iS 

Owdcn, .). s., mayor, 1877-8 

Owen, Dame, almshouses ; Owen's 
school 



Owen, sir P. C, 1828-94; South 
Kensington, 1873 ; colonial exhibi- 
tion 1886 

Owen, Richard, 1804-92 ; odonto- 
logy, palaeontology, zoology ; 
British museum 

Owen, Robert ; socialists. 1834 

Owen, W. D. ; trials, 1858 

Owens, J., Owens college 

Oxenden, sir George ; Surat, 1664 

Oxford, earl of ; Godolphin adm. , 
1702 ; Oxford adm. 

Oxford, Edward ; trials, 1840 

Oxford, John, earl of ; yeomen, 
i486 

Oxley ; Brisbane, Queensland, 1823 



Paciolo ; algebra, 1494 

Paddon, lieut., takes Cerbere, 1800 

Paderborn, bp. of ; Prussia, 1874 

Page, Flood, crystal palace, 1874 

Page, telephone, 1837 

Paget, lord ; duels, trials, 1809 

Paget, sir A. ; trials, 1808 

Paget, sir James, surgeon, 1814-99 

Paget, J. ; paradoxes 

Paget, sir William; administns., 

1547 
Paget, lord Wm., v. Cardigan ; trials, 

1844 
Pailleron, M., dramatist, 1834-99 
Pain, O. ; Soudan, 1885 
Paine, Thomas ; trials, 1792 
Pakington, sir John ; Derby and 

Disraeli adm. 
Palafox, gen. ; Saragossa, 1809 
Palamedes ; backgammon,battle,jdice 
Palestrina, 1529-94 ; music ; requiem 
Palgrave, Francis T., poet and es- 
sayist, 1824-97 
Palisa, J. ; planets 
Palladio, A. ; architect, 1518-80 
Pallavicino, G., Italy, 1878 
Palles, Christ. ; exchequer (Ireland), 

1874 
Palliser, capt., cannon, 1866 
Palliser, sir Hugh ; Ushant, 1778 
Palm, the bookseller ; trials, 1806 
Palm, cardinal, shot : Rome, 1848 
Palmer ; duels, 1815 ; trials, 1856 
Palmer, prof., and others murdered ; 

Egypt, 1882 ; Paul's, St. 
Palmer, sen., Estrada ; Cuba, 1901-2 
Palmer, sir Edwin ; Egypt, 1898 
Palmer, Elwin (sir 1892); Egypt, 1889 
Palmer, J. ; mail coaches, 1784 
Palmer, Rich. ; trials, 1903 
Palmer, Roundell ; see Selbome 
Palmer, S. , Times (index) 
Palmer, Wm. Waldegrave ; see Sel- 
bome, earl oj 
Palmerston, Henry, vise. ; 1784-1865 ; 

Palmerston, lady, d. 1869 
Panekoucke, C. J. ; Moniteur, 1789 
Pando, gen.; Bolivia, 1899 
Panitza, major ; Bulgaria, 1890 
Panizzi, sir Antonio ; British Mu- 
seum, 1859 
Panmure, lord ; Russell adm., 1851 
Pansa, sig. Albert ; England, 1901 
Paoli, Pascal; Corsica, 1753 
Papachin, adm. ; flag, 168S 
Papin ; steam-engine, 1681 
Papineau ; Canada, 1837 
Papirius Cursor; sun-dial, 293 B.C. 
Pappa, D. ; trials, 1870 
Paprikoff, gen.; Bulgaria, 1903 
Paracelsus, 1493-1541 ; alchemy, phy- 
sic, 1 llroscipllists 

Pardo, president, Peru, 1879 
Pareja, adm. ; Chili, 1865 
Parini, Guis., Ital. poet, 1729-99 
Paris, count of, 1838-94; Orleans, 
France 



Park, Mungo, d. 1805 ; Africa, Park 
Parke v. Lewis and others ; trials, 

1873 
Parker, adm. ; Copenhagen, 1801 
Parker, capt. ; Boulogne 
Parker (mutineer) ; trials, 1797 
Parker, Corn.; executed, 1899 
Parker, Emily ; swimming, 1875 
Parker, sir Gilbert; English lang. , 

1862 
Parker, Dr. Joseph, 1830-1902; temple 
Parker, J. H., Rome 
Parker, abp. Matthew ; Canterbury, 

1558 ; liturgy, Nag's Head 
Parker, sir Peter ; Bellair, 1814 
Parker, Thomas, lord ; chancellor, 

lord, 17 18 
Parkes, sir Harry, 1828-85 ; consul ; 

China, 1860-1883 
Parkes, sir Henry, 1815-96; New 

South Wales, 1882 ; Australasia 
Parma, prince of ; Antwerp, 1585 
Parmenio ; Macedonia, 329 B.C. 
Parnell, C. S., 1846-91 ; Biggar, and 

others ; parliament (obstructives), 

1877-81; home rule, 1880; trials, 

1880-1 ; Ireland, 1883, et seq. ; Kil- 

mainham ; Parnellites 
Pamell, sir Henry (aft. lord Congle- 

ton) ; suicides, 1842 
Parr, Jno. ; executed, 1900 
Parr, Thomas; 1483-1635? longevity 
Parrhasius; painting : fl. 397 B.C. 
Parrot, Dr., Ararat 
Parry, E. ; north-west passage, 1818 
Parry, Joseph, mus. doc, 1842-1903 
Parsons, bp. ; Peterborough, 1813 
Parsons, P. M., brass, manganese, 

bronze 
Parsons family ; cock-lane ghost, im- 
postors, 1762 
Pascal, B. ; 1623-62 ; air, calculating 

machine, barometers, probability, 

hydrostatics 
Paskiewiteh ; Silistria, 1854 
Passaglia, father, 1814-87 ; Italy^ 

1862 
Passanante, G., Italy, 1878 
Passy, M. F. ; Nobel bequest, 1900 
Pasta, mad., vocalist, 1798-1865 
Pasteur, Dr. L. ; 1822-95 ; fermenta- 
tion, 1861 ; germ theory ; hydro- 
phobia ; vaccination 
Patch, Mr. ; trials, 1806 
Pate, lieut. ; trials, 1850 
Paterculus, Rom. hist, d. 31 
Paterson, W. ; bank, 1694 ; Darien 
Patmore, Coventry, poet, 1823-96 
Paton, Dr. ; pyroleter 
Paton, Miss, at Haymarket, 1822 
Paton, Jos. Noel, 1821-1901, painting 
Patrick, St., 373-433?; Ardagh, 

Armagh, Dublin, isles, shamrock 
Fatrocinio, nun ; Spain, 1861, 1866, 

1891 
Patten, col. John W. ; Disraeli adm. 
Patteson, J. C, Melanesia, murdered, 

1871 
Paul, St., martyred, 65 
Paul, see Sarpi 
Paul I. ; Russia, 1796 
Paul II. ; popes, 1464 ; purple 
Paul, sir J., <fec. ; trials, 1855 ; 

fraudulent trustees 
Paulinus ; bells, 400 
Paul], Mr. ; duels, 1S07 
Paululio, Anafesto ; doge, 697 
Paulus ; Abrahaniites 
Paulus, /Emilius ; Canuai, 216 B.C. 
Paulus, Marcus ; compass, 1260 
Pauncefote, sir Julian, 1828- 1902 ; 

baron Pauncefote of Preston, 18 

Aug. 1899 ; United States, 1889 ; 

peace conference, 1899 ; U.S. 

1901-2 ; Bulwer-Clayton treaty, 

iqoi ; England 
Pausanias ; Sparta, 480 b.c. ; Platsea, 

Macedon, 336 b.c. 



INDEX. 



1459 



Pausias of Sieyon, 360-330 b.c. ; 

painting 
Pavey, G., trials, 1880 
Pavia, gen. ; Spain, 1873-4 
Paxton, sir Joseph, 1803-65 ; exhibi- 
tion of 1 85 1 ; crystal palace 
Payn, James, novelist and essayist, 

1830-98 
Payne, Mr. G. ; duels, 1810 
Payne, J. H. ; "home" . 
Payne, L., trials, 1879 
Peabody, G., 1 795-1869; Peabody 
Peace, C., trials, 1878 
Peace, the prince of the ; Spain, 

1806 
Peall, W. J.; billiards, 1884-6, 1896 
Pearoe, cfcc. ; gold robbery, 1857 
Pearson, sir Charles J., advocate, 

lord, 1891, 1895 
Pearson,. col., Zululand, 1879 
Pearson, John Loughborough, archi- 
tect, 1817-97 ; Truro 
Pearson, vice-adm. H. L. ; navy, 1903 
Peary, lieut. ; N. B. passage, 1902 
Pease, sir Joseph, M.P., 182S-1903 ; 

opium, 1891 ; peace 
Pease, W., Benwell 
Peaucillier ; motion 
Peckham, abp. ; Canterbury, 1279 
Pedro ; Portugal, Brazil, 1822 
Peek u. Gurney ; trials, 1871 
Peek, sir Cuth.; meteorology, d. 1901 
Peel, col. ; West Australia, 1828 
Peel, A. W.; visct. 1:895; speaker 

H. C, 1884-95 ; parliament, 1895 
Peel, capt. sir P. ; India, 1858 
Peel, sir Robert ; cotton manuf. , 
1750-1830; — (son) statesman, 178S- 
1850 ; Peel adm. (see note), 1834- 
Z841 ; acts of parliament, conserva- 
tive, corn bill, duels, 1815 ; in- 
come-iax, tariff; — (grandson), dip- 
lomatist, &c, 1822-95 ; trials, 
1899 
Peele, James ; book-keeping, 1509 
Peixoto, Ploriano ; Brazil, 1891-5 
Pelegrini, Dr. ; Argentine republic, 

1890 
Pelham, H. ; Wilmington adm., 1742 ; 

Pelham adm., 1744 
Pelham, J. T., bp. ; Bristol, 1807 ; 

Norwich, 1857 
Pelham, sir W. ; engineers, 1622 
Pelissier, due de Malakhoff; 1794- 

1864 ; Algiers, Dahra 
Pell, Mr. ; education, 1876 
Pelletier ; quinine, 1820 
Pellew, sir Ed. ; naval battles, 1795 
Peiouze, F. J., 1807-1867 ; formic acid 
Peltier, M. ; libel, trials, 1803 
Peltzen, A. & L., murderers ; Bel- 
gium, 1882 
Pemberton, sir Francis ; king's bench, 

1681 
Pembroke, earl of; Godolphin adm. 
1702 ; lord - lieutenant, Lincoln, 
protectorates, Salisbury, admir- 
alty 
Pender, sir J. D.; electricity, 1901-2 
Pengelly, W. ; man ; Torquay 
Penn, admiral ; Jamaica, 1655 
Penn, Mr. John, M.P. ; steam engine, 

1903 
Penn, Win, 1644-1718 ; Pennsylva- 
nia, Philadelphia, Quaker 
Penny, captain ; Franklin, 1850 
Pennycuick, col. John, engineer ; 

Madras, 1895 
Penrhyn, lord ; trials, 1903 
Penrose, F. C, architect, astrono- 
mer, 1818-1903 
Penruddocke, Mrs. A. E.; trials, 1902 
Penry, John ; Brownists 
Penzance, lord (Wilde), 1816-99 ; 

arches, 1876 ; public worship 
Pepe, gen. F. ; Naples, 1820 
Pepin ; France, 752 ; Ferrara 
PeppS, Wm. ; Buddhism, 1898 .. 



Pepper, prof., Polytechnic, telephone 
Pepys, bp. ; Worcester, 1841 ; Pepys 
Percy (Hotspur) ; Otterburn, 1388 
Percy, E. ; Balfour adm., 1902 
Percy, John ; metallurgist, 1817-89 
Percy, lord; Durham, 1346; Homildon 
Perdiccas; Macedon, 454 b.c. 
Perdita, Mrs. Robinson ; theatres, 

last app. , 1779 
Pereire, M. ; credit mobilier 

Pereyra ; Uruguay, 1856 

Pericles ; Athens, 469 B.C. 

Perillus ; brazen bull, 570 B.C. 

Perkin Warback ; Waroeck, 1492 

Perkin, W. H. ; aniline, 1857 

Perkins ; engraving, copper-plate 
printing, 1819 

Perowne, J. J. S. , bp. ; Worcester, 
1890 

Perreaus ; forgery, trials, 1776 

Perrine, Mr., astron. ; comets, 1902 

Perring, John ; mayor, 1803 

Perrotin ; planets 

Perry, Mr. ; trials, 1810 

Perry, lieut. ; trials, 1854 

Persano, adm. ; Lissa, Italy, 1866-7 

Perseus ; Macedon, 178 ; Pydna, 168 

B.C. 

Persigny, J. (1., 1808-72 ; France, i860 

Persius, 54-62 : satires 

Perugino, Paolo, Ifaal. painter, 1446- 

1524 
Pestalozzi, Jno. Heinrich, 1745-1827 ; 

Switzerland, lit. 
Pestana, Dr. ; Lisbon, d. 1899 
Peter the Cruel ; Montiel, 1369 
Peter the Great ; 1672-1725 ; Russia, 

Deptford, Petersburg, Narva, Pul- 

towa, wills 
Peter the Hermit ; crusades, 1094 
Peter I., 6. 1846 ; Servia, 1903 
Peters, C. H. F., 18C3-90; planets, 

1862 et seq. ; astronomy 
Peters, Dr. C. ; Zanzibar, 1889 ; 

Africa (German E.), 1884 
Petersen, Miss Bertha ; trials, 1899 
Peterson, Dr. Peter ; Sanskrit, d. 

1899 
Petion ; Port-au-Prince, 1806 
Petit, sir Dinshaw M. ; Bombay, 

Parsees, d. 1901 
Peto, sirS. M., 1809-89; diorama, 1855 
Petrarch, 1304-74 ; Petrarch, sonnets, 

humanism 
Petre, sir Wm. ; administrations, 1547 
Petri, O., author, 1497-1552 ; Sweden 
Petrie, prof. Flinders ; Egypt explor. 

fund, 1900-3 
Petroff, gen. ; Bulgaria, 1903 
Petronius ; Ethiopia, 22 B.C. 
Petronius Arbiter, Lat. satirist, d. 66 
Pettigrew, T. ; epitaphs, 1857 
Petty, lord H. ; Grenville adm., 1807 
Petty, Wm., 1623-87 ; Royal Society, 

1660 ; statistics ; political economy 
Pezet, J. A. ; Peru, 1863-5 
Pfeiffer ; railways, 1899 
Phsedrus writes fables, 8 
Phalaris, brazen bull, 570 B.C. 
Pharamond ; France, 418? 
Pharaoh ; Egypt, 1300 B.C. 
Pharnaces ; Pontus, Cappadocia, 744 

B.C. 

Phayre, col. ; India, 1874 
Phayre, sir A. P. ; Mauritius, 1874 
Pheidon,.#. 869 B.C. ; coinage, silver, 

scales, weights 
Phelps, Mr. E. J. ; U. S., 1900 
Phelps, Mr. S., 1804-78; theatres 

(Sadler's Wells), 1844, 1878 
Phepoe, Mrs. ; trials, 1797 
Phidias, fl. 43 B.C. ; statues 
Philidor, concerts, chess 
Philip ; France, Macedon, Spain, 

Hesse, Orleans, 1640 
Philip Neri, St. ; oratorios, 1550 
Philip the Good; Burgundy, Hol- 
land, 1419-67 



Philip the Great, killed 336 b.c ; 
Macedon, /Etolia, Clueronsea, Lo- 
cri, Thessaly 
Philip II. ; Spain, 1556 
Philippa, England, queen (Ed- 
ward III.) ; Durham, 1346 
Phillips, Stephen ; Eng. lang., 1866 
Philipps, T. ; Newport, 1839 
Phillimore, sir R. J., 1810-85 ; admi- 
ralty 
Phillip, gov. ; Australia, 1788 
Phillips, John, 1800-74 ! geologist ; 
Brit. Assoc, 1831 ; Vesuvius, 1869 ; 
— fire-annihilator, 1849 
Phillips v. Eyre ; trials, 1869-70 
Phillips, Wendell-; United States, 

1884 
Philopoemen ; Achaia, 194 b.c 
Philpott ; bp. ; Worcester, 1861 
Philpotts, H., bp. ; Exeter, 1830 
Philpotts v. Boyd ; reredos, 1875 
Phipps, capt. ; north-west passage, 

I 773 
Phipps, C. J., theatrical architect, 

1837-97 
Phipps, H., of U.S.N.A. ; S.A. war, 

1902 
Phocas ; east. emp. , 602 
Phocion, killed 317 b.c; Athens 
Phoroneus ; Argos (1807 b.c), sacri- 
fice, laws 
Photiades, C. J. ; Samos 
Photius, Gallus ; rhetoric, 87 b.c 
Piastus ; Poland, 842 
Piatti, sig. ; music, d. 1901 
Piazzi, M. ; planet, 1801 
Picard, sir H. ; lord mayor, 1357 
Pichegru ; Manheim ; suicide, 1804 
Pickering, prof. ; moon, 1902 
Picquart, col. ; Dreyfus c »se, 1S96-9 
Pictet, R., air, gases, 1877, oxygen, 
hydrogen, distillation ; nav. archi- 
tecture 
Pieton, gen. ; trials, 1806 ; Quatre- 

Bras, Waterloo, 1815 
Pierce ; United States, president, 

1853 
Pierola, N. de, Peru, 1876-82 
Pierre, aim. ; Madagascar, 1883 
Pierrepoint, Mr. ; United States, 

1876 
Piers, abp. ; York, 1589 
Piggott, Jn. Smith ; impostors, 1902 
Pigot, David Richard; exchequer, 

1846 
Pigot, Id. ; India, Pigot diamond, 

1802 
Pigot, major-gen. ; Malta, 1800 
Pigott, Mr. ; trials, 1871 
Pigott, R. ; Parnellites, 1889 
Pike, Miss ; Cork, trials, 1800 
Pilcher, Percy ; flying, artificial, 1899 
Pilkington, bishop ; liturgy 
Pillsbury ; chess, 1903 
Pilpay ; Anvar, fables 
Pindar, abt. 522-439 b.c; Odes; — 

Peter(Dr. Wolcot), 1738-1819; trials, 

1807 
Pine, sir B. C. ; Natal, 1873 
Pinel, M. ; lunatics, 1792 
Pinero, A. W. ; Savoy palace, 189S 
Pinto, Serpa, 1846-1900; Zambesi, 

1889 
Pinzou; America, S., 1500; Peru, 

1863 
Pisander ; naval battles, 394 B.C. 
Pisistratus ; Athens, 527 b.c. 
Pitman, I., 1813-97; phonography, 

1837 ; stenography 
Pitt, Wm. ; see Chatham, earl of 
Pitt, Wm., 1759-1806; Pitt adm., 

1783; India company, E., reform, 

duels, 1798; income-tax 
Pitt - Rivers, gen. ; archaeologist 

1827-1900 
Pius ; popes, 142 et seq. 
Pius IV. ; confession, 1504 
Pius VII. ; concordat,. 1,801 

5 A 2 



1460 



INDEX. 



Pius IX. 1792-1878 ; popes ; 1846-78 ; 

papal aggression, conception 
Pius X., b. 1835 ; pope, 1903 
Pizarro ; America, 1524 
Planche, J. R., 1796-1880; dress 
Planquette, Robt. ; operatic com- 
poser, 1 850- 1903 
Plato, Gr. phil., 429-347 B.C. ; aeade- 
- mics, anatomy, antipodes, names, 

Sicily 
Platts, John ; executions, 1847 
Plante, G., electric battery, i860 
Plautus, Lat., b. 184 B.C. ; drama 
Playfair, Lyon, 1819-98; scientist; 
Gladstone adm., 1880 (baron, 1892) 
Playfair, cape. N. E. ; Red Sea, 1903 
Playfair, sir R. Lambert, author of 

books on the east, 1828-99 
Playfair, Dr. Wm. S., 1836-1903 ; 

trials, 1896 
Playfair, Wm. Smoult, 1836-1903 ; 

phys. 
Plimpton ; rink, 1875 
Plimsoll, S., 1824-98; parliament, 

seamen, 1873 
Pliny the elder, 23-79 ! pearls, Vesu- 
vius ; —the younger, d. 100 
Plowden, Mr. ; Abyssinia, 1849 
Plumer, sir Th. ; att.-gen., 1812 
Plummer, Eugenia ; trials, i860 
Plunket, lord ; chancellor, lord (Ire- 
land). 1830 
Plunket, D. R. ; Salisbury adm., 

1886 
Plunkett, It. -col., 1869-1903 ; Austria, 

1900 ; Somaliland 
Plunkett, sir Francis ; Belgium, 1893 
Plutarch, ft. 80 ; biography 
Po Ching ; China, 1900 
Pocock, admiral ; Cuba, 1762 
Poerio, C. ; Naples, 1850-59-60 
Pogson, N. ; planets, 1856 
Poitevin, M. ; balloons, 1852-58 
Poitiers, Roger de ; Liverpool, 1089 
Pole, abp. ; Canterbury, 1556 
Pole-Carew ; S. A. war, 1900 
Pole, Wellesley; mint, trials, 1825 
Pole, Wm. P. R. S., mus. doc, 1814- 

1900 ; engineer and scientist 
Polignac, prince de ; Prance, 1830 
Polk, Jas. ; United States, president, 

1845 
Pollen, J. H., 1820-1902 ; furniture, 

1874 
Pollock, gen. G. ; Afghanistan, India, 

1842 ; tower 
Pollock, sir J. Frederick, 1783-1870; 

attorney-general, exchequer, 1834- 

1844 
Polo, Marco, writes about 1298 
Polybius, 207-122 (?) B.C. ; signals, 

telegraphs, Aehaia, physic 
Polycarp martyred, 166 
Polydorus ; Laocoon 
Pomare ; Otalieite, 1799 
Pompey, killed 48 B.C.; Rome, Spain, 

Pharsalia 
Pond, J. ; Greenwich, 181 1 
Ponti, G. ; academies 
Pontius, C. ; Caudine forks, 321 

B.C. 

Pook, E. ; trials, 1871 

Poole, bp. ; Japan, 1883 

Poole, A. ; auricular confession, 1858 

Poole, R. S., orientalist, 1832-95 ; 
Egypt, expl. fund ; Brit, museum 

Pope, A. ; air gun, 1874 

Pope, Alex., 1688-1744; Alexandrines, 
satire ; Homer, 1714 

Pope, gen. J. ; Manassas, United 
States, 1862 

Popham, sir Home; Buenos Ayres, 
Cape, trials, 1807 

Popotf, adm., d. 189S ; circular iron- 
clads, 1875 

Popolt'; electricity (\v. telegraphy), 
1902 

Popp, V., clocks, 1 88 1 



Poppsea (wife of Nero) ; masks 
Porsenna ; labyrinth, 520 B.C. 
Porson, prof., 1759-1808 ; writing 
Portal, sir Herbert Gerald, 1858-94 ; 

Zanzibar ; Uganda, 1893 
Porter, sir Charles ; Limerick 
Porteus, bp. ; London, 1787 
Porteus, Robt. ; trials, 1901 
Portland, duke of, Portland adm., 

1783 ; Ireland (lord - lieutenant), 

J unius 
Portman, sir Wm. ; king's bench, 

1554 
Portsmouth, earl of ; trials, 1823 
Porus, Hydaspes, 327 B.C.; India 
Posidonius, ft. 86 b.c ; atmosphere, 

moon, tides, air 
Possiet, adm. ; Russia, d. 1899 
Potamon ; eclectics, about 1 
Potter, abp. ; Canterbury, 1737 
Potter, Edm. ; Manchester, 1883 
Potter, Paul ; painting, 1903 
Pottinger, sir H. ; China, 1841 
Pouchet, M. ; spont. generation, 1859 
Pouillet, C. S. M., Fr. nat. phil., 

1791-1868 
Poulett, Wm. Thos. Tumour ; trials, 

1903 
Poussin, N. ; painters, 1594-1665 
Pouyer-Quertier ; France, 1871 
Powell, Langharne, and Poyer, colo- 
nels ; Wales, 1647 
Powell; balloons, 1881-3 
Powell v. Kempton park racecourse 

co. ; betting houses, 1899 
Power, Mr. ; wrecks, 1841 
Power, Frank ; Soudan, 1884 
Powys, bishop ; Man, 1854 
Poyer, colonel ; Wales, 1648 
Poynter, E. J.. R.A., b. 1836; coins, 

Royal Academy, 1896, 1899 
Prado, M. ; Peru, 1824-67 
Prado, murderer; France, 1888 
Praslin murder, 1847 
Praxiteles, ft. 363 b.c. ; mirrors 
Preece, W. H. ; K.C.B. 1899; elec- 
tricity, 1892-3 
Premislaus ; Poland, 1295 
Prendergast, gen. H. N. ; Burmah, 

1885 
Prescott, Wm., hist,, 1 796-1859 
Preston, lord ; conspiracy, 1691 
Prestwich, sir Joseph, geologist, 

1812-96 
Pretender, old, 1688-1765 ; young, 

1720-88 ; Pretender, Falkirk, Pres- 

tonpans, Culloden 
Pretorius, Natal, 1838 ; Transvaal, 

1880 
Pretsch, P. ; photo-galvanography, 

1854 

Pretyman, maj.-gen. ; O. Free State, 
1900 

Pretyman, capt. E. C. ; Salisbury 
adm. 1900 ; Balfour adm. 1902 

Prevost, sir George; Plattsburg, 1814 

Priam; Troy, 1224 b.c. 

Price, adm. ; Petropaulovski, 1854 

Price, bp. ; B. Free church 

Price, Mr. ; duels, 1816 ; alchemy ; 
annuities 

Price, Chas. ; arson, 1901 

Prichard, Dr., 1785- 1848 ; ethnology 

Pride, col. ; Pride's purge, 1648 

Priessnitz, V. ; hydropathy, 1828 

Priestley, Joseph, 1733-1804 : earth- 
quakes, eudiometer, lunar society, 
nitrousgas, oxygen, fluorine, colour 
blindness 

Priestly, sir Wm., physic. ; 1829- 
1900 

Prim, gen. Juan, 1814-70; Oastel- 
le.jos, Guad-el-ras, i860 ; Spain, 
1866-70 ; assassinations, 1870 

Prince, H. J. ,1811-99; Agapemone. 
1845 

Prior. M., poet, 1664-1721 

Priscillian ; gnostics, 3^4 



Pritchard, Dr. E. W. ; trials, exe- 
cution, 1865 

Probert ; trials, 1824 

Probus ; Rome, emp. 276 ; massacre 

Procles ; biarchy, 1102 b.c. 

Procopius ; Nacolea, 366 

Procopius, Lat. hist. 500-565 ; Hus- 
sites, 1431 

Procter, poets ; Bryan W. (Barry 
Cornwall), 1790-1874; Adelaide, 
daughter, 1835-64 

Proctor, Robt, 1868-1903, biblio- 
grapher ; Tyrol 

Propertius, Lat. poet, 26 b. c. 

Proudhon, P., socialist, 1809-65; 
anarchy 

Prudhomme, M. Sully ; Nobel be- 
quest, 1900 

Prussia, prince Geo. of, dramatist ; 
Prussia, d. 1902 

Prynne, W., legal antiquary, 1600-69 

Psalmanazar, G. ; Formosa, 1704 

Psammetichus ; Egypt, 665 B.C., 
labyrinth, languages, sieges 

Psycho ; automaton, 1875 

Ptolemy (astronomer), d. 161 

Ptolemy; Egypt, '323 b.c, Bible, 
Septuagint, Ipsus, pharos, arith- 
metic, academies 

Ptolemy Epiphanes, 205 B.C.; Egypt, 
Rosetta 

Puchmajer, poet, 1795-1814 ; Bohemia 

Pu Chun ; China, 1901 

Puckering, sir John ; chancellor, lord 
high, 1592 

Pugin, A. W., 1811-52, decorat. art; 
E. W. ; trials, 1874 

Pullan, R. P., dilettante, 1861-70; 
Priene 

Pullen, rev. H. W., i336-*oo3, author 
of "The Fight in Dame Europa's 
School," 1870 

Pullen, capt. ; Franklin, 1852 

Pullinger, G. ; banks, joint stock, 
i860 

Pulteney, Mr. ; Halifax adm., 1714 

Pulteney, sir James ; Ferrol, 1800 

Punjade, M. ; Algiers, d. 1899 

Punshon, R. ; gunpowder, 1872 

Purcell, Henry; music, 1658-95 

Purchas, Sam. ; 1577-1628 

Purdon, col. ; Ashantees, 1826 

Purefoy; duels, 1788; trials, 1794 

Pusey, Dr. E., 1800-82; Puseyism ; 
Oxford univ. 

Pushkin, poet, nov. ; d. 1899, Russia 

Pyat, F., France, 1880 

Pye, Henry J. ; poet-laureate, 1790 

Pye, J. ; engraver, d. 1874 

Pym, J. ; politician, d. 1643 

Pyne, T. S.; Afghanistan, 1891 

Pyrrho ; sceptics, 334 b. c. 

Pyrrhus ; Maeedon, 287 b.c. ; Epirus, 
295-272 B.C. ; Tarentum, Asculum, 
279 

Pythagoras, ft. 555 b.c ; acoustics, 
astronomy, Copernicus, Egypt, the 
globe, harmonic strings, shoes, 
solar system, spheres 



Q. 

Quain, sir Richard, 1816-98, physic 
Quaritch, B., 1819-99; books, 1882; 

" Golden Legend " 
Quawa, sultan of ; suicide ; Africa, 

G. E., 1898 
Queen v. Lords of Treasury; trials, 

1872 
Quekett, prof. ; histology, 1857 
Quentin, col.; duels, 1815; trials, 

1814 
Quesnay, economistes 
Quevedo, Span, writer, 1580-1645 
Quick, Mr. F. J. ; Cambridge, 1903 
Quinet, Edgar, Fr. philos., 1803-75 
Quinn v. Leathern ; trials, 1901 



Quintilia ; Quintilians 
Quintin ; libertines, 525 
Quinton, J. W. ; Manipur 
Quintus Fabius, 291 b.o. ; painting 
Quiros; New Hebrides, 1606 



R. 



Babe, M. ; Congo r., d. 1900 
Rabelais, F., satirist, 1483-1553 
Rachel, mademoiselle, d. 1858 ; — ma- 
dame ; enamelling; trials, 1868, 1878 
Racine, J.; Fr. dramat., 1639-99 
Radcliffe, Dr. John ; Radcliffe library, 

1737 
Radetsky, marshal, 1766-1858; Aus- 
tria, Custozza, Novara, Italy 
Radetsky, gen., Russo-Turkish war 

II., ia 7 8 
Radnor, earl of ; administrations, 1684 
Radolin, prince ; France, 1901 
Radziwill, princess ; C. of Good 

Hope, 1902 
Rae, Dr. John, 1813-93 : Franklin, 

1848 
Raffles, sir T. S. ; Java 
Raglan, lord ; Russo-Turkish war, 

1857 ; — Salisbury adm. 1900 
Ragotski ; Transylvania 
Raikes, Mr., 1781; Sunday-schools, 

education, infanticide 
Raikes, H. C. ; Salisbury adm., 1880 
Raleigh, sir Walter, 1552-1618; dress, 
Pennsylvania, Trinidad, Virginia, 
England 
Ralston, W. C. ; California, 1875 
Ram, rev. B. ; ch. of England, 1899 
Ramboux, Mathilde ; Belgium, 1901 
Rameses; Egypt, 462 B.C. ; mummies 
Ramirez II.; Simancas, 939 B.C. 
Ramsay ; air, 1898, 1901; K.C.B., 1902 
Ramsay, David; combat, 1631 
Ramsay, sir George; duels, 1790 
Ramsden, Jesse, 1735-1800; theodo- 
lite, 1787 
Ranee; trappist, 1662 
Rand, Mr. ; Bombay, ass. 1899 
Randolph, T. ; post-office, 1581 
Randolph, bishop ; Bangor, London, 

1809 
Ranger, M. ; cotton (a speculator) ; 

1883 
Rankin, J., velocipedes, 1878 
Ransome; Ransome.filterers, ploughs 
Raoult, prof. Francois, 1830-1901 ; 

France 
Raphael, 1483-1520; cartoons 
Raphael, Alex. ; Roman catholics, 1834 
Rapieff, electric light, 1878 
Rarey, J. S.; horse, 1858 
Ras Makunen ; Abyssinia, 1899-1902 
Ras Mangascia ; Abyssinia, 1899 
Rassam, H. ; Abyssinia, 1864 ; 
Nineveh; Brit. Mus.; trials, 1893 
Rathbone, Win., 1819-1902 ; Liver- 
pool, 1877 
Rattazzi, U., 1808-73; Italy. 1862 
Rauch, C. ; sculptor, 1777-1857 
Rauscher, card. ; Austria d. 1875 
Ravachol, anarchist ; France, 1892 
Ravensworth, lord, 1821-1903 
Rawdon, lord; Camden, 1781 
Rawlinson, col. sir H., 1810-95; 

Assyria, Babylon, Behistun, 1844 
Rawlinson, sir H. ; S. A. war, 1901 
Rawlinson, sir Robert, sanitary 

engineer, 1810-98 
Rawson, adm., Oil Rivers, 1897 ; knt. 

May, 1897 
Ray, John, naturalist, 1628-1705 ; 

proverbs 
Ray, Peter ; volunteers (19th meet- 
ing), 1878 
Rayhere; Bartholomew's, 1100 
Rayleigh, lord, 1879 ; Royal Institu- 
tion, 1887; argon and air, 1894-5 ; 
teleetridtr (as - , itelesra hv 1800 



INDEX. 

Raymond, lord ; attorney - general, 

1725; king's bench 
Rayneckers, L. ; fuel 
Razlag, Dr. ; leprosy, 1902 
Reade, Chas. ; nov. 1814-84 
Reaumur, d. 1757; light, stefl 
Reay, Miss, killed ; trials, 1779 
Reay, lord; combat, 1631 
Reay, lord ; Bombay, 1884 ; London 

University ; education, 1900 ; 

British Academy, 1902 
Rebeccaites; trials, 1843 
Rechberg, count; Austria, 1806-99 
Redanies, D. ; execution, 1857 
Rede, sir R. ; Rede lecture 
Redesdale, lord; att.-gen., 1800; 

parliament, 1886 
Redington, rt. hon. C. Talbot ; 

Ireland, d. 1899 
Redmond, Mr. J., M.P. ; Dublin, 

1902 
Redpath, L. ; trials, 1857 
Redwood, T. ; analysts, 1874 
Reece, R. ; bogs, 1849 ! congelation, 

1868 
Reed, maj. ; yellow fever, d. 1902 
Reed, Andrew, 1787-1862 ; orphan, 

idiots, incurables 
Reed, sir C. ; metropolitan school 

board, 1873-81 
Reed, sir E. J., navy, 1862-71 ; Chan- 
nel tunnel,-i89o 
Reed, Thos. B. ; U. S., d. 1902 
Reeves, sir Conrad ; Barbadoes, 1902 
Reeves, Sims ; theatres, d. 1900 ; 

burning the dead 
Reeves, Mr. John; levellers, 1792 
Regis, Mr. Max; Algiers, 1899-1902; 

dwelling, igoi 
Regnier, gen. ; Kalitsch, Maida, 

Ximera, 1811 
Regulus, 256 B.C.; Carthage 
Reich, F.,and Richter, T. ; indium, 

1863 
Reiehardt, Wacht 
Reichenbach, C, 1788-1869; paraf- 

fine, 1831 ; odyl 
Reichenstein ; tellurium, 1782 
Reichstadt, dukede, 181 1-32 , France 

(empire) 
Reid, gen. sir Chas. 1819-1901 ; India, 

1857 

Reid, bart., sir Henry Rae ; burying 
the dead, 1903 

Reid, R. T. ; vivisection ; solicitor- 
gen., 1804 ; att.-gen. 1894 

Reinbauer; trials, 1829 

Reinkens, Old Catholic bishop, 
Prussia, 1873 

Reis, P. ; telephone, 1861 

Reitz ; Transvaal rep., 1899 

Rej, N., 1505-69 ; Poland, lit. 

Relly, J as. ; universalists, 1760 

Rembrandt, Paul ; painter, 1608-69 ! 
exhibition at Roy. Academy, 1898 

Remigius de Fescamp ; Lincoln, 
1086 

Remington, type-writers 

Remusat, C. de; France, 1871-3 

Remy, St.; Rheims 

Renard, capt. ; balloons, 1884 

Renata, Maria; witchcraft, 1749 

Renaudot, M.; newspapers, 1631 ; 
France, 1893 

Renoult, M. ; carriages, 1902 

Rendel, J.; Holyhead, Portland 

Rennell, major James ; geographer, 
1742-1830 

Rennie, J. (1761-1S21), and sir J.; 
breakwater. 1812 ; Waterloo-bridge, 
London-bridge 

Repton, Humphry, landscape gar- 
dener, 1752-1818 

Rescind Pacha ; Turkey, 1853 

Reuchlin, J.,reformer,d 1522; Talmud 

Reuss; engraving 

Reuter, baron J. de, 1816-99 ; Persia, 
18-2 ; Reuter 



1461 

Reville, Mrs., Slough 

Revoil, M. ; Algiers, 1901-3 

Reynere, Richard; sheriff, 1189 

Reynolds, sir Joshua, 1723-92; royal 
academy, 1768 

Reynolds, abp. ; Canterbury, 1313 

Reynolds, capt.; trials, 1840 

Reynolds, George ; duels, 1788 

Reynolds, O. ; explosives 

Reynolds, sir John Russell, M.D., 
1828-96, physician 

Reynolds, Samuel Harvey (rev.), 
scholar, 1832-97 

Rhodes, Cecil John, 1853-1902 ; 
Bechuanaland, 1884 ; Cape of Good 
Hope, 1890-1902 ; Mashona, 1893 ; 
Zambesi ; Rhodesia; Oxford ; South 
A. assoc. 

Rhodes, R. G., audiphone 

Rhodes, W. B. , free hospital, life-boat 

Riall, gen. ; Chippawa, 1814 

Ribot, M.; France, 1892-5 

Ricard ; France, 1876 

Ricasoli, B. ; Italy, 1861-7 

Rice, adm. sir Edw. B. , d. 1902 

Rice, Spring (lord Monteagle); ad- 
ministrations, 1834 

Rich, Richard, lord ; chancellor, lord, 

1547 

Richard I., England, 1189; Acre, 
Ascalon, Cceur de Lion, Dieu et 
mon droit, laws, Oleron, naviga- 
tion laws 

Richard III., k. 1485; Bosworth 

Richard, H. ; Wales, 1888 

Richards, Miss ; pedestrianism, 1874 

Richards, Mr. J. M. ; Academy, the, 
1897 

Richards, prof. J. W. ; Electro-chem. 
Soc, 1902 

Richards, adm. sir F. W., 1898 ; 
navy, 1899 

Richardson, B. Ward, M.D., phy- 
siologist ; 1828-96 ; knt., 1893 ; 
hygeiopolis, 1876 

Richardson, sir John ; naturalist, 
1783-1865; Franklin 

Richardson, H. ; life-boat, 1852 

Richardson, lady ; burning the dead, 

1903 

Richardson, Sam.; novels, 1689-1761 

Richardt, Christian, poet ; Denmark, 
1892 

Richelieu, card., 1585-1642; France, 
1624 

Richelieu, duke of ; Closterseven, 1757 

Richmond, duke of; Rockingham ad- 
ministration, 1782, <fcc. ; Ireland, 
duels ; Chas. H., duke of; 1818- 
1903 ; Derby and Disraeli admini- 
strations ; Salisbury adm. 1885 

Richmond, sir W. B. ; smoke nui- 
sance, 1899 

Richter, J. Paul, German novel., 1763- 
1825 

Ridding, Geo., bp. ; Southwell 

Ridel, Stephen, 1189 ; chancellor, 
lord, Ireland 

Rider, William ; stockings 

Ridgeway, C. de, abstinence 

Ridgeway, sir J. ; Ceylon, 1899 

Ridley, bp., burnt, 1555 

Ridley, sir M. W. ; Salisbury adm., 
1895-1900 ; made a peer, Dec. 1900 

Ridsdale, Rev. C. J.; public worship 
act, 1876 

Riego put to death ; Spain, 1823 

Riehl, Wilhelm H. von, German 
publicist and historian, 1823-97 

Riel, L. ; Hudson's bay ; Canada, Ad- 
denda 

Rienzi, N., to. 1354; tribune, Rome 

Rigby, John 1834- 1903 ; att.-gen. 
1894 ; justice, lord, 1894 

Rigg, rev. A., technical education 

Rigoni, M. ; canal boats 

Riguet, M.; tunnels 

Rile Michael ; boxing, d. 190a 



1462 



INDEX. 



Rinuccini, Octavio, 6. 1621 ; opera 
Ripon, earl of, 1782-1859; Goderich 

administration, 1827 ; — marquis 

of; freemasonry; Gladstone adm. 

1873, 1886, 1892 ; India, 1880 ; 

Rosebery adm., 1894 
Risakoff, Russia, 1881 
Risk AJlah ; trials, 1868 
Ristiteh, 1831-99 ; Servia, 1880 
Ritchie, C. T. ; Salisbury adm., 

1886, 1895, 1900; Balfour adm., 

1902-3 ; local government ; ex- 
chequer, 1902-3 
Ritson, Joseph, critic, 1752-1803 
Ritter, Karl, geographer, 1779-1859 
Ritter, J. W., electricity, 1812 
Rivers, earl, m. 1483; Pomfret 
Rivers, Mr., Egypt, 1879 
Riviere, R. T. ; Tonqum, 1883 
Rizzio, David, m. 1566 ; Scotland, 

France 
Robert, duke of Normandy; Tinche- 

bray, 1106; Scotland, 1306 
Robert 11.; pilgrimages, icCo 
Roberts Austen, Win., 1843-1902 ; 

K.C.B. , 1899 ; metallurgist, mint 
Roberts, D., R.A., 1796-1S64 
Roberts, J. J., Liberia. 
Roberts, gen. sirF.,5. i832(aft. lord), 

Afghanistan, 1878-80 ; Burmali, 

1886; Mazra, India, 1893; field- 

marshal, Ireland, 1895 ; S. African 

war, 1900 ; army, 1901 (K.G. and 

earl, 1001) 
Roberts,' F., V.C. ; S.A. war, died, 

1899 
Roberts, J.^junr. ; billiards, 1885- 

1898 
Roberts, sir Alf., 1823-99 ; Sydney 
Roberts, sir Wm. ; physic, 1830- 

1899 
Robertson, archbp., Exeter, 1903 
Robertson, David, naturalist, about 

1806-96 
Robertson, ca.pt. ; trials, 1862 
Robertson, J. P. B. ; Scotland, 1889 
Robertson, T. W., dramatist, 1829-71 
Robertson, Dr. Wm., hist., 1721-93 
Robertson, W., trials, 1878 
Robespierre, F. M. ; reign of terror, 

France, 1793-4 
Robin Hood ; Robin Hood, robbers, 

archery, 1189 
Robinson ; see Perdita 
Robinson, F. ; Goderich, note 
Robinson, sir H. G. R., 1824-97 ; 

created baron Rosmead, 1896 ; 

Ceylon, 1865; N.S.W. 1872; New 

Zealand, 1878 ; Cape, 1880, 1895 ; 

Transvaal, 1895-6 
Robinson, G. F. ; trials, 1903 
Robinson, James ; ether, 1848 
Robinson, sir John, 1828-1903 ; Daily 

Neius, 1868 ; Natal, 1892-7 
Robinson, R., 1735-90; independents 
Robinson, sir Thomas ; Newcastle 

administration, 1754 
Robinson, sir W. C. F. ; Straits, 1877 
Robinson of York, murdered; trials, 

1853 
Robiquet and Colin ; alizarine, 1831 
Robson, W. ; trials, 1856 
Roca, pres. ; Argentina, Brazil, 1899 
Rochambeau ; Yorktowrj, 1781 
Rochebouet, gen. 1811-99; Fiance, 

1877 
Rochefort, II. ; France, 1870-81 ; 

Tunis, 1881 
Rochefoucauld, F. De la, phil. 1630- 

80 
Rochester, earl of; administrations, 

1679 
Rochi'ort, A. II. ; cryptography, 1836 
Rock, Dan., 1779-1871; mass 
Rockefeller, Mr. J. I>. ; Chicago, 

1902 
Rockingham, marq. of ; Rockingham 

administrations, 1765 



Rodenbach, Georges ; Belgium, d. 

1898 
Roderick; Spain, 709; Wales, 843 
Rodney, G. ; Eustatia, 781 
Rodolph of Hapsburg ; Austria, 1278 
Rodolph of Nuremberg; wire, 1410; 

of Suabia, k. Fladenheim, 1080 
Roe, Henry ; Dublin, 1S78 
Rcebling, Mr. & Mrs. ; New York, 

1883 
Roebuck, J.; duel, 1835; Sebastopol 
Rcemer, light, 1676 
Roger; Sicily, Naples, 1130 
Rogers and others ; trials, 1882 
Rogers, J. F. T. ; wages 
Rogers, sir J. G. ; Egypt, 1898 
Rogers, John, burnt, 1555 
Rogers, Sam., poet, 1763-1855 
Rogeis, rev. Wm., philanthropist, 

1819-96; London, 1894 
Rogers, Messrs. ; gas lights 
Roget, P. M., M.D., philologist, 1799- 

1869 
Roggewein, circumnavigator ; Easter 

Island, 1722 
Rogier, Charles, d. 1885 ; Belgium, 

1857 
Rohan, card. ; diamond necklace, 

1786 
Roliin, Chas., Fr. hist., 1661-1741 
Rollinson, Ethel ; trials, 1902 
Rollit, sir Alb. ; Africa B. S., 1902 
Rolt, sir J.; att.-gen., 1866; justice 

of appeal, 1867 
Romagnosi ; 1761-1835 ; Italian lang. 
Romain, M.; balloons, k. 1785 
Romanes, George J., physiologist, 

1848-94 ; Royal Institution, .Oxford, 

species 
Romer, sir Robt. ; justices, lords, 

1899 
Romilly, sir Samuel; criminal law, 

suicide, 1818 ; Romilly's Act 
Romilly, sir J. (aft. Id.); 1802-74; 

solicitor-gen., master of the rolls, 

1S51 
Ronmey, Geo.; piainter, 1734-1S02 
Romulus; Rome, 753 B.C.; calendar, 

Alba, aruspiees 
Romulus Augustulus ; western em- 
pire, 475 
Ronalds, F., 1788-1873 ; electric tele 

graph, 1823 
Ronge, J.; kinder-garten, 1S51 
Rdntgen, prof., photography, 1896 
Rooke, sir George ; Gibraltar, 1704 ; 

snuff, Alderney, Cadiz, Cape la 

Hogue, Cape St. Vincent, Vigo 
Roosevelt, Theodore ; pres. U.S. ; 

electricity (w. telegraphy), 1903 
Roper, colonel; duels, 1788 
Rosa (Rose), Carl ; opera, 1889 
Rosas; Buenos Ayres, 1852 
Roscoe, sir H. E., indigo ; technical 

education ; atomic theory 
Roscoe, W., hist., 1 753-1831 
Rose, German chem., Gustav, 179S- 

1873 ; Heinrich, 1795-1864 
Rose, sir Hugh ; India, Calpee, 1858 
Rosebery, countess of; trials, 1814 
Rosebery, earl of ; Gladstone adm., 

1880, 1886, 1892; Rosebery adm., 

1894, England ; artisan's, etc., 

dwellings, 1899; British Acad., 

1902 
Rose-Innes, Mr. ; C. of Good Hope, 

1900 
Rosenerans, gen.; United S., 1862 
Rosenthal, S. A. ; phosphorus, 1898 
Ross, Adrian ; Savoy palace, 1898 
Ross, lion. G. W. ; Canada, 1899 
Ross, sir J.; Franklin, north-west 

passage, 1848 
Ross, colonel ; duelling, 1817 ; British 

museum, 1876 
Ross, gen.; Baltimore, Washington, 

1814 
ROSS, J. T. ; painter, d. 1903 



Ross, maj. Ronald, K.C.B. 1902 ; 

malaria ; Sierra Leone ; germ. 

theory, 1903 
Rossa, O'Donovan ; Fenians, 1868-83 
Rosse, earl of, 1800-67; telescopes, 

1828 ; Royal Society, 1848 
Rossel, France, 1871 
Rosser, Mr. and Miss Darbon ; trials, 

1841 
Rossetti, Mr. Gabriel Dante ; a?sthe- 

ticism 
Rossi, count, Rome, 1848; assassina- 
tions 
Rossini, G., mus. comp. , 1 792-1 868 
Rostand, Edmond ; drama, b. 186& 
Rostopchin; Moscow, 1812 
Rothery, H. C, Tay -bridge 
Rothsay ; duke, Scotland, 1401 
Rothschild, Anselm (the first), d. 

1812; Rothschild, Evelina hosp. 
Rothschild, baron Ferdinand de, 

1839-98, Rothschild family 
Rothschild ; Jews, 1849 ; deaf and 

dumb, 1872 
Roubiliac; sculptor, 1695-1762 
Rouher, E., 1814-84 ; France, 1863- 

81 
Roupell, W., M.P.; trials, 1862 
Rous, F. ; psalms 
Rousseau, J. J., Fr. phil., 1712-1778 ; 

Panthfon, 1897 ; Switzerland, lit. 
Roustan, M., Tunis, 1881 
Routledge v. Lowe ; copyright, 1868 
Ronvier, M. ; France, 1887 
Roux, Dr. ; diphtheria, 1903 
Rowan, A. H.; trials, 1794, 1805 
Rowe, Nicholas, 1673-1718 ; poet- 
laureate, 1715 
Rowland, prof. H. A. ; U.S. 1848- 

1901 
Rowlandson, Thos., caricaturist, 1756- 

1827 
Rowley, admiral J.; Bourbon, 1810 
Rowsell, C. J. ; graphoscope 
Rowton, lord, 1838-1903 ; Rowton 

houses ; England, 1903 
Roxana; Macedon, 311 B.C. 
Roxburgh, duke of, 1812 ; Boccaccio 
Roy, Charles Smart, M.D., physiolo- 
gist, 1854-97 
Royer, Mme. Clemence ; savant, d. 

1902 ; France 
Rozier, M.; balloons, 1783 
Rubens, P. P.; painter, 1577-1640 
Rubery v. Grant ; trial, 1875 
Rubino ; anarchist, Belginm, 1902 
Rubinstein, Anton G., musician ; 

1829-94 
Ruchdi Pasha ; Turkey, 1866-71 ei 

aeq. 
Rucher, prof. Arthur, scientist ; b. 

1848 ; knt. 1902 
Rucker, Mr. Martin ; bankrupt 

(Hooley), 1898 
Rudbeck, Ol. ; thoracic duct 
Rudini, marquis di ; Italy, 1891, 1896 
Rudolph; Austria, Germany 
Rulrmkorff, induction coil, 1851 
Rumford, Benjamin Thompson, 

count, 1752-1814 ; Royal Institu- 
tion ; heat, 1802 
Runeberg, Johan Ludwig ; author, 

1804-1877 ; Sweden 
Runge, cafeine (Eng. caffeine) 
Runjeet Singh, 1791-1839; Punjaub, 

diamonds 
Rupert, prince, 1619-S2 ; engraving, 

Birmingham, Edgehill, Marston- 

moor, Xaseby, Newark 
Ruric; Russia, 862; Varangians 
Ruser, capt. Hans ; Antarctic pole, 

1901 
Rush, Bloomtield, murderer; trials, 

1849 
Rushworth, E. E. ; Jamaica, 1877 
Ruskin, John, ail critic. 1S19-1900 ; 

Sheffield : Ruskin museum ;iesthe- 

ticism 



INDEX. 



1463 



Russell, sir O, 1832-1900 ; att.-gen., 
1886 ; Parnellites, 1888 ; Gladstone, 
1886, 1892; Behring, 1893; appeal 
(lord), 1894 ; lord chief justice, 1894 
Venezuela, 1899 
Russell, C. ; suicide, 1856 
Russell. E. T. ; trials, 1901 
Russell, colonel ; guards, 1660 
Russell, earl, case ; trials, 1891, 
1895, 1897 ; Russell, countess v. 
earl ; trials, 1901 
Russell, adm. Edw. ; La Hogue, 

1692 
Russell, Henry ; music, d. 1900 
Russell, J. Scott, engineer, 1808-82 ; 

fires, steam-nav., Vienna, wave- 
Russell, lord John, aft. earl, 1792- 
1878 : Russell administration, note, 
Aberdeen ; Germany, 1874 ; papal 
aggression ; reform 
Russell, Id. of Killowen ; d. 1900 
Russell, Odo, Id. Ampthill ; Ger- 
many, 1871-84 
Russell, lord W., murdered ; trials, 

1840 
Russell, bp. W. A. ; China, 1872 
Russell, W. H., b. 1821 ; knt. 1895 ; 

Times, 1854, 1857, 1861 
Rutherford, J.; lectures 
Rutherford, Wm. ; physiologist, 
microtome, 1839-99; Royal Institu- 
tion 
Ruthven, Mr. ; duels, 1836 
Rutland, duke of ; Ireland (lord 

lieutenant), 1784 ; see Manners 
Ruyter, see De Ruyter 
Ryan, Jn. ; executed, 1898 
Ryder, bp. ; Gloucester, 18 15 
Ryder, sir Dudley, king's bench, 

"754 
Rye, Miss, 1329-1903 ; waifs and 

strays, 1897 
Ryle, Herb. B., bp. ; Exeter, 1900 ; 

Winchester, 1903 
Ryle, John C, bp.; Liverpool, 1880 
Rymer- Jones, A. M., temnograph 
Ryves, Mrs. ; trials, 1866 



S. 



Saadeddin Pasha ; Egypt, 1902 
Sabine, gen. sir Edw., 1788-1883 ; 

Royal Society, 1861 ; magnetism 
Sacheverel, Dr. ; high church, 1709 
Sackville, lord George ; Minden, 1759 
Sadleir, J.; suicide, T856; — Dr.; 

suicide, 1858 
Sadler, Mr. ; balloons, 1812 
Sadler, Mr. ; Sadler's Wells, 1863 
Sadler, sir Ralph ; administrations, 

iS4° 
Sadyk ; Turkey, 1878 
Safford, Mr. ; planets, 1862 
Safvet Pasha ; Turkey, 1877-8 
Sagarelli ; Apostolici, 1300 
Sagasta, 1 827-1903 ; Spain, 1871 et seq. 
Saget, gen.; Hay ti, 1870 
Saiiit-Hilaire, Barthelemy, states- 
man, savant and philosopher, 
1805-95 ; aristotelian 
St. Arnaud, marshal : Russo-Turkish 

war, Alma, 1854 
St. Charo ; concordance, 1247 
St. Clair, Bella ; pedestrianism, 1876 
St. Cyr, marshal ; Dresden, 1813 
St. George, Mr. ; trials, 1798 
St. John, John de ; treasurer, 1217 
St. John Long ; quack, 1830 
St. John, Henry, aft. lord Boling- 

broke ;■ Oxford adm., 171 1 
St. John, O. ; benevolences, 1615 
St. John, William ; chancellor, lord 

high, 1547 
St. Leonards, lord, 1781-1875 ; chan- 
cellor, lord high, 1852 
St. Mars, M. de ; iron mask 



St. Ruth, general ; Aughrim, 1691 
St. Vincent, earl ; admiralty, 1801 ; 

Cape St. Vincent 
Sakya Muni, Buddhism 
Sala, George Augustus, journalist, 

etc., 1828-95 
Saladin, sultan, 1136-1193; Ascalon, 

Damascus, Egypt, Syria, Aleppo 
Salar Jung, Hyderabad 
Salcedo, gen. Cuba, 1895 
Sale, lady ; Cabul, India, 1842 
Sale, sir Robert ; Moodkee, 1845 
Salgar, E. , Colombia, 1871 
Salisbury, bishop of ; assay 
Salisbury, countess of; garter 
Salisbury, Robert, earl of; adminis- 
trations, 1603 
Salisbury, earl of, 1604 ; coronets, 

Orleans 
Salisbury, marquis of, d. 1868 ; Derby 

administrations, 1852, 1858 
Salisbury, Robert A. T. G. Cecil, 
marquis of 1830-1903 ; Derby adm. 
as vise. Cranborne, 1866 ; Oxford, 
chancellor, 1869 ; conservative and 
unionist administrations, 1900- 1902; 
Disraeli administration, 1874 ; 
Turkey, 1877; Berlin conference; 
conservatives, 1881 ; Salisbury 
adm., 1885, 1886, 1895, 1900-02 ; 
Zambesi, 1889 ; Brit. Assoc, 1894 ! 
Cinque Ports, 1895 
Salisbury v. Rawson ; trials, May, 

1895 
Salkeld ; Delhi, 1857 
Salleh, Mat. ; Borneo, 1899 ; 1900 
Salles, Dr. Campos ; pres., Argen- 
tine, 1900 
Sallo, Denis de ; critics, reviews, 1655 
Sallust, Lat. hist., d. 34 B.C. ; Mauri- 
tania, Catiline 
Salmasius ; anthology 1606 
Salmeron ; Spain, 1873, 
Salmon, Sampson S. ; executed, 1901 
Salmon, adm. sir Norvell, 1899 
Salnave, gen. ; Hayti, 1865-70 
Salomons, D. ; Jews, 1835 ; mayor ; 

sir D. 
Salt, Titus; 1803-76; alpaca, 1852, 

Bradford 
Salvago-Raggi ; China, 1899 
Salvator Rosa ; painter, 1615-1673 
Salviati, Dr. ; mosaic, 1861 ; glass 
Salvin, Osbert, naturalist, 1835-98 
Salvino degli Armato ; spectacles 
Salvius Julianus ; edicts, 132 
Sambon, Dr. ; malaria, 1900 
Sampson, H. ; advertisements, 1874 
Sampson, admiral ; U.S., d. 1902 
Samuel rules Israel, 1140 B.C. 
Samuel, sir Saul ; New South Wales, 

d. 1900 
Samuelson, sir B. ; technical educa 

tion 
Sanballat ; Samaritan, 332 B.C. 
Sanchez, sen. Arias ; Chili, 1901 
Saneho, king : Portugal, Spain, 970 
Sanslemente, sen. ; Colombia, 1900 
Sancroft, abp., Canterbury, 1678; 

bishops, England 
Sand, Geo. ; 1804-76 ; Fr. lang. 
Sandeman, col. sir R. G. ; Beloo- 

chistan 
Sandeman, R. ; Glasites 
Sanderson, Dr. J. B., bart., 1S99 ; 
Brown Institute ; physiology, 
electricity, 1873 
Sanders, will-forger ; trials, T844 
Sandherr, col. ; Dreyfus case, 1899 
Sandhurst, Bombay, 1899 
Sandilli ; Kaffraria, 1877-8 
Sandon, lord; Disraeli admin., 1874, 
1878 ; elemen. education, 1876 ; see 
Hari'ow'by 
Sandwich, earl of: administrations, 
1660 ; naval battles, Solebay, Aix- 
la-C'hapelle 
Sandys ; administrations, 1742, 1767 



Sandys, Edwin, abp. ; York, 1^77 
Sanford, Wm. Eli, 1838-99 ; Canada 
Santa Anna ; Mexico, 1853-76 
Sapor ; Persia, 240 
Sappho writes 611 B.C. ; Sapphic 

Sarafof ; Bulgaria, 1901 

Sarcey, M. Francisque, 1828-99 ; 
France 

Sardanapalus ; Assyria, 876 b. c. 

Sardou, Victorien, b. 1831 ; drama ; 
Dante's " Divina Commedia," 1903 

Sarmiento, col. D. , Argentine confed. , 
1868 

Sarpi, Paul, 1552-1623 ; thermome- 
ter, blood 

Sarto, card. (Pius X.) ; Italy, 1903 

Sassoon, sir A., Bombay, 1879 

Sassoon, sir E. A. ; electricity, 
1901-2 

Sassulitch, V. ; Russia, 1878 

Satow, sir B. ; China, 1900-2 

Saul, Jews, 1096 B.C. ; Ammonites 

Saumarez, sir James ; Algesiras, 
1801 

Saumerez, Thos. admiral ; 1828-1903 

Saunders ; trials, 1853 

Saunders, com. ; Franklin, 1849 

Saunders, sir Charles ; Chatham 
administration, 1766 

Saunders, W. Sedgwick, Dr., 1S24- 
1901 ; writer of medical works 

Saussure, 1740-1799; hygrometer 

Saurin v. Star; trials, 1869 

Savage, John ; Babyngton's con- 
spiracy, 1586 

Savage, abp. ; York, 1501 

Savage, Rich., poet, i6g8?-i743 

Savage, R. H., 1846- 1903 ; no v. 

Savage, W. ; printing in colours, 
1819-22 

Savary, trials, 1825 

Savary, capt. ; steam-engine, 1698 

Savas Pasha, Turkey, 1 880-1 

Savonarola, Jerome ; burnt, 1498 

Savory, sir Wm. S., bart., F.R.S ^ 
surgeon, 1826-95 

Saward, J. ; trials, 1857 

Sawtre, sir William ; burning alive,. 
1 401 ; Lollards 

Sawyer ; arithmetic, 1878 

Saxe, count; Fontenoy, 1745 ; Laf- 
feldt, 1747 

Saxony, Albert, king of, d. 1902 

Say, Jean Baptiste Leon, political 
economist, 1826-96; France, 1873. 
et seq. 

Say, T. ; Colorado beetle 

Sayce, A. H. ; Accadians, Assyria, 
1875 ; Babvlonia 

Saye and Sele, lord ; administrations, 
1660 

Saye, lord, beheaded, 1450 ; Cade 

Sayers, T. ; boxing, i860 

Scaliger, Joseph Justus, 1540-1609 ; 
eminent scholar 

Scanderbeg ; Albania, 1443 

Scanlan, Mr. ; trials, 1820 

Scarlatti, D. ; spinet 

Scarron, Paul ; French nov., 1610- 
1660 

Schalk-Burger, S. A. war, 1902 

Schamvl ; Circassia, 1859 

Schandorph, Sophus ; poet, nov., 
1 337-1901 ; Denmark 

Seharf, George, K.C.B. ; Nat. Por- 
trait Gallery 

Scheele, 1742-86: nitrogen, oxygen, 
prussic acid, tartaric acid, pho- 
tography, glycerine, chlorine 

Scheepers'; S. A. war, 1901 

Scheffer, Ary ; painter, 1795-1858 

Scheibler, M. ; tonometer, 1834 

Schemer, Chr. ; heliometer, 1625 

Schenck, gen. ; United States, 1870, 
1876 

Scheurer-Kestner ; Dreyfus case, d. 
1899 1 

Scheutz ; calculating machine, 1857 



1464 

Schiaparelli ; planets, 1861 ; comets, 

1866 
Schitf, Dr. ; vivisection 
Schilders, general ; Silistria, 1854 
Schiller, F., Ger. poet, 1759-1805 
Schimmelpenninck ; Holland, 1805 
Schlegel, W., German writer, 1767- 

1845;— F., 1772-1829 
Schleyer ; volapuk 
Sehlickmann, general ; Transvaal, 

1876 
Schliemann, Dr., 1822-90; Mycense, 

Troy, 1872 
Schmidt ; organs, 1682 ; moon, 1874 ; 

— shot, Spain, 1874 
Schnadhorst, Mr., caucus, 1868-94 
Schnadhorst, Mr. F. ; Birmingham, 

d. 1900 
Schneider, Johann ; executed, 1899 
Schceffer, Peter ; printing, 1452 
Schoenborn, card, count ; abp. of 

Prague, d. 1899 ; Bohemia 
Schonbein, M. ; 1797-1868 ;gun cotton, 

1840 ; ozone, T846 
Schomberg, capt. ; naval battles, 

1811 
Schomberg, duke of ; Boyne, Ireland, 

Londonderry, Carrickfergus, 1689 
Schomburgk, sir R. ; Victoria regia, 

. 1838 
■Schopenhauer, A., pessimism 
Schreiber, lady ; fans 
Schreiner, Mr. ; C. of Good Hope, 

1898-1900 
Schroter; pianoforte, 1717 
Schrotter; phosphorus, 1845 
:Schouten ; Cape Horn, 1616 
Scliouvaloff, count, Russia, 1879 
Schubert, F. P. ; Ger. nms., 1797- 

182S 
Schumann, Robert ; Ger. mus., 1810- 

56 
Schunck, Dr., H. E. ; chemist, 

1820-1903 
-Sehwabe, sun 
;Schwann ; cell theory, 1839 
Schwartz, C, missionary ; India, 

1798 
■ Schwartz, M. ; gunpowder 
Schwartzenberg, prince of ; Dresden, 

1813 
Schwarzhoff, gen. von ; China, d. 

1901 
Schwassmann, Dr. ; planets, 1900 
•Schwatka, lieut., Franklin swarch, 

1879-81 
Schweitzer, Geo. ; author ; Emia 

Pasha relief, 1898 
Schwerin, marshal ; Prague, 1757 
Scialoia, A. ; Naples, 1877 
"Scipio Africanus : honour, Numantia, 

Rome, Zama, 202 b.c. 
Seindiah, Gwalior 
JScobeleff, gen. ; Russo - Turkish 

war, 1878 ; Russia, 1882 
Scott, capt. ; Antarctic pole, 1901-3 
Scott; duelling, 1821, 1836 
Scott, Miss C. A., Girton college 
Scott, Dred ; United States, 1857 
Scott, sir Francis ; 1835-1902 ; 

Ashantees, 1893-6 
Scott, sir G. Gilbert; architect, 

181 1-1878 ; Alban's; Asaph's ; mid- 
land 
Scott, H. S., alias Merriman ; now, d. 

1903 (at about 40) 
Scott, R. H. ; meteorology, 1865 
Scott, Walter, 1771-1832; Waverley 
Scott, gen. Wmfleld, 17S6-1866; 

Mexico, 1847 ; United States, 

1861-2 
Scribe, E., dramatist, d. 1861 (a?t. 80) 
Scudamore, lord ; apples 
Scaburv, Samuel; bishoprics, 1784 
Seaforth, earl of; thistle, 1687 
Seal, ,1. ; trials, 1858 
Searle ; planets, 1858 
Sehastiajii, marshal; Talavera, 1809 



INDEX. 

Sebert; Westminster Abbey 
Sebright maniage ; trials, 1886 
Secchi, Padre A., nat. phil., 1818-78 
Seeker, abp. ; Canterbury, 1758 
Secoeceni ; Transvaal, 1876-82 
Seddon, Mr. ; New Zealand ; C. of 

Good Hope ; Dublin, 1902 
Sedgwick, Adam, d. 1873, geology 
Seeley, sir J. R. ; hist, and phil., 

1834-95; "EcceHomo" 
Sefton v. Hopwood ; trials, 1855 
Sejanus, d. 31 

Selborne, chancellor, Id. (aft. earl) 
(Roundell Palmer), 1812-95; sol.- 
gen. , 1861 ; att.-gen., 1863 ; 1872-4, 
appeal ; Gladstone adm., 1880 
Selborne, eail of (Wm. Waldegrave 
Palmer) ; admiralty office, 1900 ; 
Salisbury adm., 1900; Balfour 
adm., 1902 
Selden, J., 1584-1654 ; seas, poet- 
laureate 
Seleucus Nicator ; Seleucides, Syria, 

omens, Ipsus, 311 B.C. 
Selim ; Turkey, Syria, 15 12 
Selkirk, Alexander ; Juan Fernandez, 



Selrner, M. ; Norway, 1881-4 
Selwyn, sir C. J., justice, Id., 1868 
Semiramis ; Assyria, 2007 
Semmes, capt., Alabama, 1862 
Semple ; trials, 1795, 1862 
Sen, Baboo, deism, i860 
Senaputti ; Manipur 
Seneca, put to death, 65 ; Cordova 
Sennacherib ; Assyria, 681 b.c. 
Senefelder ; lithoaraphy, 1796 
Senussi El-Malidi, Sheik ; Africa, 

1902 
Seraphim, Father, canonised ; 

Greece, 1903 
Sergius ; popes, nativity, 690 ; puri- 
fication 
Serrano, marquis de, and duke de la 

Torre. Spain, 1868-75,1882 ; Alcolea, 

1868 
Serrin ; electric lamp 
Sertiirner, morphia, 1803 
Servetus, Michael, burnt, 1553 ; 

Unitarians, Arians, blood 
Servia, Alex, of ; Servia, d. 1903 
Service, sir Jas. ; Victoria, d. 1899 
Sorvius Tullius; coins, census, 5C6 B.C. 
Sesostris ; Egypt, 1322 b.c. 
Setalla ; burning glasses 
Severus ; Rome ; emp. 193 ; Britain, 

Roman walls, Memphis, 202 
Sextus Pompeius ; Mylse, 36 b.c. 
Seymour, sir Edw. ; speaker, 1678 
Seymour, sir M. ; China, 1S56, 1900 
Seymour •«. Butterworth ; trials, 1862 
Seymour, Edward, duke of Somerset ; 

administrations, 1547; protectors, 

admiralty 
Seymour, lord ; duels, 1835 
Seymour, lady ; tournament, 1839 
Seymour, adm. sir Fred. Beauchamp 

P., 1821-95 (aft- l° r( l Alcester), 

Egypt, 1882 
Sforza, cardinal ; Naples, 1877 
Shadwell, Thomas ; poet-laureate, d. 

1692 
Shaftesbury, earl of; administrations, 

1672; (1801-1885) Chichester; eos- 

termongers, Shaftesbury estate ; 

and memorials ; ragged schools 
Shakir, pasha ; Albania, 1901 
Shakspeare, W., 1564-1616; Shak- 

speare, drama, mulberry-tree 
Shalmaneser ; Assyria, 720 b.c. 
Shand, lord; appeals, 1903 
Shapira, M. ; bible, note 
Sharp, A.; circle (squared), 1717 
Sharp, A. H. ; explorer; Africa, 

1898-1900 
Sharp, archbp.'; Scotland, 1679 
Sharp, Granville; slavery, 1772 



Sharpe, corresp. ; Africa, B. Central 
1901-2 

Shaw, rev. Mr. ; Madagascar, 1883 

Shaw, sir James; mayor, 1S05 

Shaw, sir John ; Greenock 

Shaw, capt. ; fire brigade 

Shaw, W., home-rule, 1879 

Shaw, Mr. R. ; Yarkand, 1871 

Sheares, the Messrs.; trials, 1798 

Shedden 1: Patrick; trials, i860 

Sheepshanks, R. ; astronomy, stand- 
ard, iS<;5 ; Sheepshanks' donations, 
1S57-8 " 

Shcil, R. L. ; mint, 1846 

Shelburne, earl of ; Shelbume ad- 
ministration, 1782; duel, 1780 

Sheldon, abp. ; Canterbury, 1663 

Sheldon, William ; tapestry 

Shelley, Percy B., poet, 1792-1822 

Shepherd v. Bennett ; trials, 1870 

Sheppard, Jack; execution, 1724 

Shepstone, sir T., 1817-93; Trans- 
vaal, 1876-7; Swaziland, 1889 

Shere Ali, Afghanistan, 1863, 1879; 
Candahar 

Shere Ali, kills Id. Mayo, 1872 ; An- 
daman, India 

Sheridan, gen. ; United States, 1883, 
1885, d. 1888 

Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 1751- 
1816 ; Grenville administration, 
comedy, theatres 

Sheridan, Dr. ; trials, 181 1 

Sherlock, Dr. J.; Uganda, (?. 1900 

Sherman, gen. Wm. T. ; d. 1891 ; 
United States, 1861 

Sherman, John, 1823-1900, states- 
man ; U.S.N.A., 1880, 1884 

Sherward, Wm. ; Norwich, 1869 ■ 

Shield, Mr. ; oil on waters 

Shillibeer, G., 1807-66; omnibuses, 
1829 

Shipley ; arts, soc. of, 1754 

Shippard, sir Sidney, d. 1902 ; 
Bechuanaland, 1S85-95 

Shirley, bishop ; Man, 1846 

Shore, T. ; Academy, the, 1903 

Short, bishop ; Man, St. Asaph, 
1841 

Shorthouse, J. H., author of "John 
Inglesant," 1834-1903 

Shove], sir Cloudesley ; Scilly. 1707 

Shrapnel, bombs 

Shrewsbury peerage cases ; trials, 
1858, 1859 

Shrewsbury, duke of ; administra- 
tions, 1 714 

Shrewsbury, earl of ; Patay, 1429 ; 
Castillon, 1453 

Shrubb, A.; running, 1902 

Shuttle worth, sir U. K. ; Gladstone 
adm., 1886; made a peer, 26 June, 
1902 

Sibour, abp. ; France, 1857 

Sicard, abbe ; deaf and dumb, 1742 

Siddons, Sarah, actress ; retired, 
T819 

Sidgwick, Henry, moral phil. and 
writer, 1838-1900 

Sidmouth, Henry Addington, vis- 
count, d. 1844 ; Addington adm., 
1 $00 ; green bag, speaker 

Sidney, sir P., 1554-86: Algernon. 
1617-83 ; Rye-house plot 

Siemens, sir C. Wm., 1822-S3 ; heat, 
pyrometer, 1871: Albert medal, 
1S74; attraction, bathometer, elee- 
trie telegraph, heat, light, light- 
houses, 1878 

Siemens, F. ; glass, 1885 

Siemens, Werner, electricity, electric 
railway, 1SS1 

Siemiradzki, Henryk von, 1S44-1902 ; 
painting 

Sieyes, abbe ; directory, France, 1799 

Sigismond : Germany, Bohemia, 
Hungary, Nicopolis, Poland, Prussia 

Silius, Italicus, poet, about 25-99 



Sillim, Mr. ; trials, 1863 
Simeon the Stylite ; abstinence 
Simmonds ; flying, 1875 ; balloons, 

1883 
Simmons ; trials, 1808 
Simmons, sir J. L., d. 1903; Malta, 

1884 
Simms, P. R. ; carriages, 1902 
Simnel, Lambert ; conspiracies, re- 
bellion, i486 ; Stoke 
Simon Magus ; Simonians, 41 
Simon, Jules, d. 1896 : France, 1870-7 
Simonides ; letters, mnemonics, 477 

B.C. 

Simplicius, St. ; collar of SS. , 1407 
Simpson, Dr., aft. sir James, 1811-70; 

chloroform, 1847 
Simpson, traveller ; suicide, 1840 
Simpson, Wm., artist, 1823-99; war 
correspondent (llhis. London Neivs), 
1866 et seq. 
Sims, G. B. ; London, 1883 
Sindercomb ; conspiracy, 1756 
Singer, Dr. Isidore; ency., 1903 
Singh ; Aliwal, 1846 ; Punjaub 
Sipido, assassin ; Wales, Albert Ed., 

p. of, 1900 
Sismey, Thos. ; trials, 1901 
Sismondi, C, hist., 1773, 1842 
Sismondi, Jean, 1773-T842 ; Switzer- 
land, lit. 
Sisyphus ; Corinth, 1326 B.C. 
Sixtus ~ popes 

Sixtus V., pope : interdict, 1588 
Skene, J. H. ; Hittites 
Skene, Miss F. M., 1821-99; women 
Skipwith, Mr. ; trials, 1872 
Skobeleff, gen., Russia, 1880, Senova 
Skrzynecki, gen. ; Praga, Wawz, 1831 
Slade", Dr. ; spiritualism, 1876-7 
Slater ; forgery case ; trials, 1888 
Slidell, Mr. ; United States, 1861 
Sligo, marquis of; trials, 1812 
Sloane, sir Hans, 1660-1752 ; apothe- 
cary, Jesuits' bark, British Mu- 
seum, Chelsea 
Sloanes ; trials, 1851 
Smart, A. ; suicide, 1856 
Smart, sir G. T., mus., 1776-1867 
Smart ; chimneys, 1805 
Smartt, Dr. ; Cape of G. Hope, 1902 
Smeaton, Mr. ; Eddystone, canal, 

J 7S9 
Smeaton, sir John ; Wigan, 1643 
Smethurst, T. ; trials, 1859 
Smee, trials, 1879 
Smirke, B. ; 1780-1867; post-office, 

1825 
Smirke, S. ; Bethlehem, British Mu- 
seum, d. 1877 
Smith, Adam, 1723-90 ; political 

economy, 1776 
Smith, sir A. L. ; master of the 

Bolls, d. 1901 
Smith, Mr. Beaumont ; exchequer, 

trials, 1841 
Smith, Benjamin Leigh ; north-west 

passage, 1871-82 
Smith, bp. Taylor ; Ch. of England, 

1903 
Smith, capt. ; duel, trials, 1830 
Smith, Chas. B. ; trials, 1901 
Smith-Dorrien ; S.A. war, 1900 
Smith, sir C. Euan ; Zanzibar, 1890 ; 

Morocco 
Smith, F. P. ; screw propeller, 

1836 
Smith, George, publisher, 1824-1901 ; 

Publishers' Circular 
Smith, Geo. ; Assyria, 1866-75 ; Brit. 

Museum, 1873 ; forks ; Nineveh ; 

Hittites ; d. 1876. 
Smith, Geo., 1831-95; philanthropist 
Smith, col. Holled ; Soudan, 1891 
Smith, J. ; bribery, trials, 1854 
Smith, Joseph ; savings bank 
Smith, Joseph ; Mormons, 1823 
Smith, Madeleine ; trials, 1857 



INDEX. 

Smith, Miss v. earl Ferrers ; trials, 

1846 
Smith, Dr. B. Angus; chemist, 1817- 

84 ; air, 1858 
Smith, Dr. Southwood, 1790-1861 ; 

sanitary legislation, 1832 
Smith, Mr. W. A.; boys' brigade, 

1884 - 
Smith, sir J. E. ; botanist, 1759-1828 ; 

his widow, Pleasance, longevity, 

1877 
Smith, prof. W. Bobertson, free 

church of Scotland 
Smith, sir Sidney ; Acre, 1799 
Smith, rev. Sydney, 1 769-1845 
Smith, rev. S. ; trials, 1858 
Smith, Sam. Sidney ; trials, 1843 
Smith, sir C. Eardley ; evangelical 

alliance, 1845 
Smith, sir Harry ; India, Aliwal, 

Kaffraria, 1850 
Smith, Mr. Thomas ; customs 
Smith, Thomas ; lord mayor, 1809 
Smith, Wm. ; geology, d. 1840 
Smith, Willoughby ; electricity, 1902 
Smith, Dr. (aft. sir William), 1813-93 \ 

dictionaries, quarterly review 
Smith, W. H., 1825-91 ; admiralty, 

1877 ! Salisbury adm. 1885, 1886 
Smith v. earl Brownlow ; trials, 

1869 
Smith, and Masrkhain, captains; duels, 

trials, 1830 
Smithson, J. ; Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, 1846 
Smollett, Tobias, novelist, 1721-71 
Smyth, W. H., astron., 1788-1865 
Smyth (will case) ; trials, 1855 
Smyth, C. P., astron., 1819-1900 
Snellius ; optics, 1624 
Snider, Jacob, d. 1866 ; fire-arms 
Snorri, Sturleson ; Iceland, killed, 

1241 
Snow, Lorenzo ; Mormons, 1901 
Snow, Dr. ; amylene, 1856 
Soames : cocoa-nut tree oil, 1829 
Soane, sir J., architect, 1753-1837 
Sobieski, John ; Poland, Cossacks, 

Hungary, Vienna 
Soboleff, gen., Bulgaria, 1883 
Sobrero, nitro-glycerine, 1847 
Socinus, Lfelius (d. 1562), and Faus- 

tus (d. 1604) ; anti-trinitarians, 

arians, unitarians 
Socrates, 469-399 B.C. ; Athens, philo- 
sophy 
Solari ; electricity, 1902 
Soleil, saccharometer 
Solly, rev. Henry ; working men, d. 

1903 
Solomon; Jerusalem, 1004 B.C. 
Solon ; Athens, 594 B.C. ; laws, tax 
Solovieff, A., Bussia, 1879 
Solyman ; Turkey, Belgrade, Vienna, 

I S 2 9 
Solyman II. ; Hungary, Buda, Mo- 

hatz, 1526 
Somers, lord ; administrations, i6qo 

corn 
Somers, sir George ; Bermudas, 1609 
Somerset the black declared free, 

1772 ; slavery in England 
Somerset, see Seymour; admiralty, 

1859 
Somerville, Mary, mathemat., <fcc. 

1780-1872 
Sonzogno, B. ; murdered, Bome, 1875 
Sophia, princess ; Hanover, 1659 
Sophia Dorothea, d. 1796; England 

(queens, Geo. I.) 
Sophocles, 495-405 B.C. ; tragedy, 

drama 
Sorel, Agnes ; jewellery, 1434 
Soret ; ozone, 1872 
Soro, Zuan ; cipher, 1516 
Sostratus ; pharos, 298 B.C. 
Sotheby, adm. sir Edw., d. 1902 
Soto, Ferdinand de ; Louisiana, 1541 



1465 

Soult, marshal, 1769-1851 ; Albuera, 
Oporto, Orthes, Pyrenees, Tarbes, 
Toulouse, Villa Franca, Douro 
Southey, Bob., 1774-1843 ; poet-lau- 
reate 
Southwell, W. ; piano, 1807 
Sowerby, J. B. ; Victoria Begia, 1895 
Soyer, A. (cook), d. 1858 
Spalding, Mr. ; diving-bell, 1783 
Sparks, George ; trials, 1853 
Speilman, sir John ; paper-making, 

Dartford, 1590 
Speke, capt., 1827-64 ; Africa, 1863-4; 

— B. ; London, 1868 

Spencer, D.; Coventry, 1883 

Spencer, earl; Grenville adm., 1806 ; 

Boxburghe club ; Gladstone adm., 

1868, 1880, 1886, 1892; Ireland, 

1868-73, 1882 ; Bosebery adm., 1894 

Spencer, Herbert, 1820-1903 ; philos., 

ethics, 1893 ; sociology 
Spencer, Mr. ; electrotype, 1837 
Spener, Phil. J. ; theolog. 1635-1705 ; 

pietists 
Spenser, E., i553<?)-98 ; allegory, 
Faery Queen, poet-laureate, verse 
Spert, sir Thos. ; Trinity-house, 1512 
Spillane, Mary ; trials, 1902 
Spina Alexander de ; spectacles, 

1285 
Spinass, J. ; trials, 1870 
Spinks, F. L. ; serjeant-at-law, d. 

1899 
Spinoza, B. de, 1632-77 ; atheism 
Spohr, L., mus. comp., 1783-1859 
Spollen, Jas. ; trials, 1857 
Spottiswoode, Wm. 1825-83 ; optics, 
1871, British association, 1878, 
Boyal institution, 1865, 1873 ; 
Boyal society, 1878 
Spragge, col. S. A. war, 1900 
Sprengel, Dr. ; air-pump, note 
Sprigg, sir J. G. ; Cape, 1878, 1900-3 
Spruyt, gem_; S. A. war, d. 1901 
Spurgeon, C. H., 1834-92; baptists, 
Surrey gardens, crystal palace, 
tabernacle 
Spurzheim, J. G. ; craniology, 1800 
Spyzer, Beuben ; jewel robbery, 

1894 
Stackpole, capt. ; duel, 1814 
Stackjioles, trials ; 1853 
Stael, mad. de, novelist, d. 1817 
Stafford, abp. ; Canterbury, 1443 
Stafford, marquis of, d. 1803 ; Blooms- 
bury 
Stafford, visct. ; Oates's plot, 1680 
Stahl, G. E. ; chemist, 1660-1743 ; 

animism, phlogiston 
Stainer, sir John, musician and or- 
ganist, 1840-1901 ; music 
Staines, sir William ; lord mayor, 1800 
Stair, earl of; Glencoe, 1692 ; Det- 

tingen, 1743 
Staite ; electric light, 1848 
Stalker, gen. ; Bushire, suicide, 1857 
Stamboloff, Stefan ; Bulgaria, 1886-95 
Stanberry, John ; Eton, 1448 
Standen, T. ; pedestrianism, 1811 
Stanhope, Charles, earl, 1753-1816 ; 
printing-press ; Philip Henry, earl 
(formerly lord Mahon, historian), 
1805-75 : antiquaries 
Stanhope, col. ; trials, 1816 
Stanhope, earl; Halifax adm., 17 14 
Stanhope, Edward, 1843-93; Salis- 
bury adm., 1885-6 
Stanhope, hon. col. ; suicide, 1825 
Stanhope, lieut.-gen. ; Minorca, 1708 
Stanislaus ; Poland. 1704 
•Stanley, bishop, Norwich, 1837 
Stanley, dean A. P., 1815-81 ; Sun- 
day, 1877 
Stanley, Edw., lord. b. 1826 ; Derby, 
1866; Disraeli adm., 1868, see 
Derby ; Stanley, lord, b. 1865 ; 
Salisbury adm., 1900 ; Balfour 
adm., 1902 



1466 

Stanley, colonel F. A. ; Disraeli, 2nd 
adm., 1878; Salisbury adm., 1885, 
1886 (Id. Stanley of Preston, 
earl of Derby, 1893); Canada, 
gov. -gen., 1888 
Stanley, sir H. M. ; G.C.B., 1899; 6. 
1841 ; Africa, 1872-82 ; Congo ; 
Soudan, 18&7 ; Nile 
Stanley, lord, of Alderley ; Aber- 
deen, Palmerston adm. ; son Henry 
Ed., 1827-1903 ; Mussulman. 
Stanley, sir John ; Man, 1406 
Stanley, sir W. ; chamberlain ; Bos- 
worth, 1485 
Stanley, Mr. L. ; education, 1900 
Stansfeld, sir James, 1820-98, a friend 
of Italy ; Gladstone adm., 1886; 
G.C.B. 1895 
Stanton, Mr. ; velocipede, 1874 
Stanton, Mrs. Eliz.; women, d. 1902 
Stanton, Sam.; trials, 1901 
Stapleton, J. ; trials, 1858 
Stapleton, Walter, bp. ; Exeter, 1319 
Stark ; electric telegraph, 1858 
Starley, Mr. ; bicycle, 1885 ; veloci- 
pede ; d. 1901 
Statius, Lat. poet, fl. 79 
Staunton, L. & P., etc. ; trials, 1877 
Staunton, Mr. ; China, 1840 
Stead, W. T. ; trials, 1885 
Stearns ; electric telegraph 
Steele, sir R., 1671-1729 ; Tatler, 

Spectator, clubs, Kit-Cat club 
Steele, Mr. ; murdered, trials, 1807 
Steell, sir J. ; Scotland, 1876 
Steenchel, Magnus ; Sweden, 1314 
Stein, Germany, 1819 ; Prussia, 1807 
Steinitz, Wilheliu, 1836-1900; chess, 

1873, 1882 
Steinthal, Heymann; anther, 1823-99; 

Germany 
Stenhouse, J. ; dyes, charcoal, 1853 
Stephen ; popes, England, Hungary, 

997 ; Poland 
Stephen, sir James F. ; judge, 1829- 

1894 
Stephen, Leslie; K.C.B., 1902; bio- 
graphy 
Stephens, Brunton, poet, d. 1902 ; 

Queensland 
Stephens, G.; Runes 
Stephens, Jas. ; Fenians, d. 1901 
Stephens, Miss ; theatres, Covent- 

garden, 1813-1882 
Stephens, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1839 
Stephens, Robert ; Bible, 1551 
Stephens, dean Wm., ecclesiastical 

biographer, d. 1902 
Stephenson, George, 1781-1848 ; rail- 
ways, Chatmoss ; steam, 1814 ; New- 
castle, 1 88 1 
Stephenson, Robert, 1803-59 ; tubular 

bridges 
Stepniak, Serge M. K., Russian 

author, 1852-^5 ; Russia, 1884 
Sterne, rev. Laurence, humorist, 

1713-68 
Sternhold, T. , d. 1549; Psalms 
Stesichorus ; choruses, 556 b.c. 
Stevens, A., 1870-75 ; Wellington 

(monument), 1858 
Stevens, Joseph, geologist and anti- 
quary, 1818-99 
Stevenson, H. W. ; billiards, 1895 
Stevenson, Messrs.; Granton 
Stevenson, rev. Joseph ; historical 

s 'holar, 1806-95 
Stevenson, Robt. Louis ; novelist, 

1850-94 ; Samoa 
Stewart v. Webber; trials, 1903 
Stewart, James, marquis, 1476 
Stewart, eapt. : Franklin, 1850 
Stewart, col.; Soudan, 1882 
Stewart, col. ; Trincomalee, 1795 
Stewart, gen. ; Madras, 1783 
Stewart, gen. It.; Soudan, 1884-5 
Stewart, S.C.B., adm. sir W. II., d. 
1901 



INDEX. 

Stewart, sir D., 1824-1900, Afghanis- 
tan, 1880 
Stewart, Dugald, phil., 1753-1828 
Stewart, Duncan ; Ctesarean 
Stewarts ; trials, 1829 
Steyn, ex-pres. ; S.A. war, 1900 ; 
O.F. State, C. of Good Hope, 
1902 
Stifelius; algebra, 1544 
Stigand, abp. ; Canterbury, 1052 
Stillingfleet, B. ; blue-stocking 
Stillman, Mr. W. J.; Times, d. 1901 
Stirling, sir Jas. ; justices, lords ; 

1900 
Stirling, W. ; Glasgow, 1791 
Stirling, capt. " Atalanta" 
Stitney, Thos. of ; 1373-1400 ; Bo- 
hemia 
Stock, Thos. ; Sunday-schools 
Stockdale; trials, 1826 
Stoddard, R. H. , author, 1825-1903 
Stoddart, Dr.; Times, 1812 
Stoddart, Reg. v.; trials, 1900 
Stcecklin ; Boulogne, 1878 
Stoiloff, M., 1856-1901 ; Bulgaria 
Stokes, E. S. ; New York, 1872 
Stokes, sir G. G., 1819-1903, sun- 
shine recorder; Royal society, 1885; 
Cambridge, 1887 
Stokes, sir Wm., 1839-1900; army 

surgeon in S. Africa, igoo 
Stone, D. H. ; mayor, lord, 1874 
Stone, Miss ; kidnap., Turkey, 1902 
Stopford, adm. ; Acre, Sidon, 1840 
Storace, madame, d. 1814 
Storck; anabaptists, 1524; levellers 
Storks, sir H.; Ionian Isles, 1859 ; 

army, 1868 
Stormont, vise; Portland adm., 1783 
Stovve, Mrs. Harriet Beecher, Ameri- 
can nov. 1812-96; "Uncle Tom's 
Cabin," United States 
Strabo, geog., writes, 14 
Strachan, admiral sir Richard; Havre, 

Walcheren, 1809 
Straduarius; viol., 1700-22 
Strafford, lord, administrations, 1640; 

beheaded, 1641 
Stratford, earl; admiralty, 1712 
Strahan, sir G. C. ; Gold Coast, 1874 ; 
Windward isles, 1876 ; Grenada, 
1877 ; Van Diemen's land, 1881 
Stransky, Dr. ; Austria, 1900 
Strathcona, lord ; Canada, 1900-1 ; 

Africa, B. S. 1902 
Straton, Norman D. J., bp. ; Sodor 

and Man, 1891 
Strangford, lord ; bribery, 1 784 
Stratford, abp.; Canterbury, 1333 
Stratford de Redcliffe, lord, diplo- 
matist, 1788-1880 
Strauch, capt.; Congo 
Strauss, Johann, 1826-1899 ; Austria, 

music 
Street, Geo. E., 1824-81; architect, law 

courts 
Strelnikoff, gen., assassinated ; Rus- 
sia, 1882 
Strieker, Saloman, M.D., 1S34-98, 

physiology 
Strickland, Hugh; nat. hist., 1811- 

53 
Strindberg, August, author ; Sweden, 

1849 
Stroh, A.; acoustics 
Stromeyer; club-foot, 1831 
Strongbow ; Ireland, n 76 
Strousberg, Dr. H. B. ; Russia, 1875- 

6 ; d. 1884 
Si vie usee, count; Zell, 1772 
Strutbers, sir John, anatomist, 

1823-99 
Strutt, Edward; Aberdeen adm., 

1852 
Struve, F., astron,, 1793-1864 
Strzelecki, count; Australia, 1838 ; 

d. 1S73 
Stuart, see Stewart 



Stuart, Conf. gen. ; United States, 

1862 
Stuart, gen.; Cuddalore, 1783 
Stuart, sir John ; Maida, 1806 
Stubbs, William, bp., 1825-1901 ; 

Oxford, 1888 
Stubbs, Wm., 1825-1901 ; Eng. lang. 
Stukeley, Dr.; earthquakes 
Stum, F.; trials, 1882 
Sturmius ; magnet 
Sturt, capt. ; Sortli Australia, 1830 
Suchet, marshal; Valencia, 1812 
Sudbury, abp. ; Canterbury, 1375 
Sudeikin, lieut., murdered ; Russia, 

1883 
Sue, Eug., Fr. novelist, 1804-57 
Suetonius, C. T., Lat. hist., 118 
Suetonius Paulinus; Menai, 61 
Suffolk, Thomas, earl of; adminis- 
trations, 1540 
Suffrein, Thos.; Trincomalee, 1782 
Sugden, sir Edward (aft. lord St. 

Leonards); chancellor, lord, 1852 
Sugden ; trials, 1875 
Suisse, Nicholas; trials, 1842 
Suleiman Pasha, Russo-Turkish war 

II., 1877-8 ; Turkey, 1877 
Suleiman, Senova, Turkey, 1878 
Sullivan, sir A.; mus.com., 1842-1900; 

operas, Savoy 
Sullivan, sirE.; chancellor (Ireland), 

1883 
Sullivan, Mr.; Lima, 1857 
Sully, J. , pessimism 
Sulpicius, Servius: civil law, codes, 

53B.C. 
Sumner, arclibp., J. B., 1780-1862 ; 

Chester, 1828; Canterbury, 1848 
Sumner, bishop, C. R., 1790-1874 ; 

Llandaff, 1826 ; Winchester, 1827 
Sumner, C, 1815-74 United States, 

1856 
Sunderland, earl of; administrations, 

1684 ; libraries 
Surajah Dowlah; Black-hole, India, 

Plassey, 1757 
Suit, Mrs. ; Paul's school 
Surrey, earl of; Flodden, 1513; Ro- 
man catholics, 1829 
Susarion and Dolon; comedy, 578 

B.C. 

Suso, H. ; mystic, 1300-65 
Sussex, Aug. Fred., duke of, 1773- 
1843; marriage, 1793; Royal So- 
ciety 
Sutherland, duchess of; trials, 1893 
Sutherland, Mr. A., d. 1900 ; Burmah 
Suter, Mr., Turkey, 1881 
Slitter, capt.; California, 1847 
Sutton ; air-pipe, 1756 
Sutton, abp.; Canterbury, 1805 
Sutton, C. M.; speaker, 1817 
Sutton, Thos.; charter-house, 1611 
Suwarrow, marshal, 1730-1800; Ales- 
sandria, Isniael, Novi, Parma, 
Poland, Praga, Warsaw, Trebia, 
1799 
Sverdrup, capt. ; N.E. passage, 1902 
Swan, Mr., M.P. ; bribery, 1819 
Swan, J. W., electric light, 1880 ; 

Savoy 
Swanw'ick. Miss Anna; women, d. 

1899 
Swayne, J. G., M.D., 1819-1903 
Swedenborg, 1688-1772 ; Sweden- 

borgians 
Swete, H. ; cottage hospitals 
Swevn ; Denmark, 9S5 ; England 
Swift, Dean J., 1667-1745; Drapier, 

Scriblerus, Mars 
Swift, L. ; astron. ; comets, 1899 
Swindleliurst, C. ; trials, 1877 
Swvnfen ; trials, 1858 
Sydenham, Floyer, d. 1788; literary 

fund 
Sydenham, lord ; Melbourne adminis- 
tration, 1834 
Sydenham, Thos., physic, 1624-89 



INDEX. 



1467 



Sydney, Henry, viscount; Ireland, 
lord-lieutenant, 1690 

Sydney, see Sidney 

Sykes and Rumbold, Messrs. ; bri- 
bery, 1776 

Sylla, or Sulla; Borne, Athens, 86 

B.C. 

Sylvester, prof. J. J. ; motion 
Symington; steam-engine, 1789 
Symonds, rev. Symon ; Bray, 1533-58 
Symons, sir Wm. Perm, 1843-99 ; 

Tndia, 1897 ; battles, 1899 
Symons, G. J., 1838-iqoo ; rainfall 
Synge, Mr. and Mrs., Turkey, 1880 
Syugros, M. Andreas, d. 1899; Greece 



T. 



Taaffe, Edward, count, statesman, 
1833-95 ; Austria, 1879-93 

Tabak ; diamond robbery, 1886 

Tainter, S., photophone 

Tacitus, M. C. , Eatin hist., about 
62-117; Rome, emp., 275 

Taine, H. A. ; French historian, 
1828-93 

Tait, bp. ; London, 1856; abp. Can- 
terbury, 1868 

Tait, prof. Peter G. ; Edinburgh, d. 
1901 

Talbot, Miss Augusta; trials, 1851 

Talbot, E. S., bp. ; Bochester, 1895 

Talbot, H. F., 1800-77 ; photography, 
calotype, <fec, 1840 

Talbot, maj.-gen. the lion. B. A. J. ; 
Egypt, 1S98 

Talfourd, sirT. N., poet, judge; 1795- 
1854 

Tallard, marshal; Blenheim, 1704 

Talley, Wm. ; trials, 1875 

Talleyrand, 1754-1838; Benevento 

Tallis, Thos., musician, d. 1585 

Talma, Fr. actor, d. 1826 

Talmage, rev. Dr. ; U.S., d. 1902 

Tamerlane, d. 1405 ; India, Damascus 

Tancred, sirT.; Forth bridge; Asia 
Minor 

Tandemus; Adamite 

Tankerville, Ford, earl of : adminis- 
trations, 1699 

Tanner, Dr., abstinence 

Tantia Topee ; India, 1857 

Tarquin ; Rome, kings ; Sibyls 

Tarquinius Priscus ; Borne, kings, 
cloaca, 588 B.C. 

Tarrasch, Dr. ; chess, 1903 

Tas7nan, Abel ; circumnavigator, 
Australia, 1642 ; New Zealand, 
Van Diemen's Land 

Tasso, Torquato ; It. poet, 1544-95; 
Jerusalem Delivered 

Tate, Henry, 1819-99 ; bart. 1898 ; Na- 
tional Gallery ; Lambeth, 1893-97 

Tate, Nahum, d. 1715 ; poet-laureate 

Tatian, about 170 ; aquarians, encra- 
tites 

Tattersall, Mr. ; astron. ; comets, 
1901 

Tattersall, Mr. Edm. ; races, d. 1S98 

Tattersall, B. ; races, 1766 

Tauler, J. ; mystic, 1290-1361 

Tautphceus, baroness, novelist ; d. 
1893 

Tavernier, J. B. ; Fr. traveller, 1605- 
89 ; pearls, 1633 

Tawell, John ; trials, 1845 

Taylor, H.; trials, 1882 

Taylor, I.; alphabet 

Taylor, Mrs.; bells, 1882 

Taylor, bp. Jeremy, 1613-67 

Taylor, gen. Zaehary ; presidents, 
United States, 1849 

Taylor, Messrs. ; oil-gas 

Taylor, M.P., Austin ; ch. discipline 
act, 1903 

Taylor, Dr. Brook ; acoustics, 1714 



Taylor, rev. Bobert ; atheism, trials, 

1827, 1831 
Taylor, col. T. E. (after. Id. Ardgillan) 

Disraeli adm. , 1874 
Taylor, rev. W. ; blind, bells, 1855-6 
Taylor, sir W. T.; Andrew's, St., 

1883 
Tchernaieff, gen. ; Russia, d. 1898 
Tchei'uayett ; Turkey, 1876 ; Bussia, 

1882 
Teacher, Mr. Adam ; Glasgow, </. 

1898 
Teba, countess ; (empress) France, 

1853 
Teck, England, end of royal family, 

Cambridge 
Tegner, author, 1782-1846 ; Sweden 
Teleki ; Austria, i860 ; Hungary, 

1861 
Telesphorus ; pope, 127 
Telford, T., 1757-1834; chain-bridges, 

1819 
Tell, William ; Switzerland, 1307 
Tempel ; planets, 1861 
Temple, F., bp., 1821-1902 ; London, 

1885; Canterbury, 1896-1902 
Temple, earl; Newcastle adm., 1757 
Temple, sir B. , 1826-1902 ; India, 

1869-72; Bengal, 1874; Bombay, 

1S77 
Templer, major ; trials, 1888 
Teniers, D. (two), 1582-1694 
Tenison, abp. ; Canterbury, 1694 
Tennant, Mr. ; bleaching, 1798 
Tennent, sir J. E. ; 1864-69 ; Ceylon 
Tenniel, John (aft. sir), b. 1820 ; 

I'n v ch 
Tennyson, lord ; S. Australia, 1899 ; 

Australasia, 1902 ; G.C.M.G., 1903 
Tennyson, Alfred, lord, 1809-92 ; poet- 
laureate ; Wight 
Tennyson, Frederick, poet, 1807-98 
Tenterden, lord; king's bench, 1818 
Terence, 195-159 b.c. ; drama 
Terentius Varro ; Cannse, 216 B.C. 
Terriss, William, actor (theatres, 

Adelphi), 1897 
Terry v. Brighton aquarium comp., 

trials, 1875 
Terry, Mr. ; boat (tricycle) 
Tertullian writes, 197 ; cross, Mon- 

tanists 
Tetuan, d. of ; Spain, d. 1903 
Teucer; Troy, 1502 B.C. 
Tewfik, Egypt, 1879-92 
Texier, F. ; drowning 
Teynham, lord ; trials, 1833 
Thackeray, W. M., novelist, 1811-63 
Thakombau, Fiji, 1859-74 
Thales, Miletus ; globe, 640 b. c. ; 

Ionic sect, moon, water, world 
Thalestris ; queens 
Thanet, earl of; riots, 1799 
Thebau ; Burmah, 1817-S5 
Thecla ; Alexandrine codex 
Themistocles ; Marathon, Salamis, 

480 B.C. 
Theobald; civil law, n 38 
Theocritus ; verse, 265 B.C. 
Theodore ; Corsica, 1736 ; Samos, 

keys, lathe 
Theodore, emperor, 1818-68; Abys- 
sinia, 1855-68 ; Magdala 
Theodoric ; Spain, Goths, 553 
Theodosius ; Eastern emp., 379; 

Aquileia, Ostrogoths, massacre, 

paganism 
Theodosius, the younger ; academies, 

Bologna 
Theophilus ; Antioch, chronology 
Theophrastus, nat. ph., 370-287 B.C. 
Theopompus ; Ephori, funeral ora- 
tions, Sparta, 353 b.c. 
Theseus; Athens, 1235 b.c. 
Thesiger, sir F. ; solicitor-general, 

1844; attorney-general, chanc, 

lordhigh, 1858 ; trials, 1850; d. 1878 
Thesiger, gen. ; Kaffraria, 1878 



Thespis ; drama, 536 b.c. 
Thevenot, M. ; coffee, 1662 
Thierry ; Holland, 936 
Thiers, A., Fr. hist., 1798-1877; 

France, 1836, 1871-8 ; Bordeaux 
Thirleby ; Westminster, 1541 
Thirlwall, bp. , Connop, 1797-1865 ; 

David's, St., 1840-74 
Thistle wood, A., Cato street consp. 
Thom ; directory, 1903 
Thom, James, sculptor, 1799-1850 
Thomas, CI. ; France, 1871, 1876 
Thomas, col. ; duel, 1783 
Thomas & Gilchrist, steel 
Thomas, Mrs., Bichmond 
Thomas, Ambroise, mus. comp. 

Paris, 1894 
Thome de Gammond, tunnels, 1867 
Thompson, E. ; life-raft, 1874 
Thompson, Eliz. ; scientific assoc. 
Thompson, sir Henry, bart., 1899 

burning dead, 1873 > Greenwich, 

telescope, 1897 
Thompson, sir John, i844-94;Behring 

Straits, Canada, 1893 
Thompson, Miss ; trials, 1821 
Thompson, major ; suicide, 1832 
Thompson, William ; lord mayor. 

1828 
Thompson, W. ; bicycle, 1846 
Thorns, W. J. ; folk lore, longevity, 

notes and queries, wills 
Thomson or Thomas ; dynamite, 1875 
Thomson, sir C. Wyville, 1830-82 ; 

deep sea. 1868-76 
Thomson, Mr. Poulett; Melbourne 

administration, 1835 ; calico 
Thomson, B., road sieamers, 1868 
Thomson, Jas. (the "Seasons"), 

1700-48 ; Bichmond, Rule Britannia 
Thomson, J. B.; bleaching 
Thomson, Jas.> Brown ; Glasgow, d. 

1899 
Thomson, sir William (aft. baron 

Kelvin), b. 1824 ; electricity, tides ; 

atoms ; Glasgow, 1896 ; Boy. Soc. 

1890 
Thomson, Joseph, 1858-95 ; Africa, 

1880-2, 1891 
Thorne, sir Richard, 1841-99 ; pre- 
ventive medicine ; sanitation 
Thornton, Abraham ; appeal; 1817 
Thornton, sir E.; Turkey, 1884 
Thorold, A. W., bp. ; Winchester, 

1891 
Thorpe, William de ; bribery, 1351 
Thorpe, John T. ; lord mayor, 1820 
Thorwaldsen, Alb., sculp., 1777-1844 
Thouvenel, E. A., Fr. statesman, 

1818-66 
Thrasybulus ; Athens, 403 b.o. 
Thring, G., prebendary, 1823-1903; 

liymnologist 
Thrupp, G. ; carriages, 1877 
Thueydides, Gr. hist., 470-404 b.c 
Thun, count ; Austria, 1898-9 
Thurlow, lord ; chancellor, lord higb, 

1778 : great seal 
Thurston, sir John B. 1836-97 ; Fiji 
Thurtell, J. ; executions, 182.1 
Thwaites, sir John, 1815-70; metrop. 

board of works 
Thyra, Damiawerke 
Tibbets, Chas. ; trials, 1901 
Tiberius, 903 B.C. ; Capri, Rome, 

emp. 14 
Tiberius Gracchus ; agrarian law, 

132 B.C. 
Tilmllus, Lat. poet, 50-18 B.C. 
Tichborne, trials, 1871-74 
Ticknor, G., Amer. hist. 1791-1861 
Tieck, L., Ger. poet, 1773-1853 
Tierney, George; duel, 1798; Gode- 

rich 
Tietg n, C. F. ; Denmark, d. 1901 
Tighe, Mr. ; trials, 1800 
Tigranes ; Armenia, 93 b.c. ; Pontus 
Tilden, S. J. ; United States, 1876 



1468 

Tildesley, sir Thomas ; Wigau, 1651 

Tilghman, B. C. ; sand-blast, 1871 

Tilloch, Mr. ; stereotype 

Tillotson, abp. ; Canterbury, 1691 ; 
universalists 

Tilly ; Magdeburg, 1631 ; Palatinate, 
Lech 

Times newspaper ; Times, trials, 
1790 

Timoleon ; Syracuse, 343 B.C. 

Timour ; see Tamerlane 

Tindal and Coverdale ; Bible, 1526 

Tippoo Sahib ; Arikera, Madras, 
Seringapatam, Mysore, 1792 

Tirard ; France, 1888; d, 1893 

Tissandier and others ; balloons,i87s; 
1883-99 

Tissot, James, artist, 1836-1902 

Tisza ; Koloman, 1830-1902 ; Hungarv, 
1875-8 

Titian, painter, 1477-1576 

Titus, Rome, emp. 79; Jerusalem, 
Tyre, arches 

Todd v. Lyne ; trials, 1873 

Todd, prof. ; eclipses, 1901 

Todhunter, I. ; math. 1820-84 > Pro- 
bability 

Todleben, gen., 1818-84; Sebastopol ; 
Plevna, 1877 ; Russo-Turkish war 
II, etc.. 1877-8 

Tofts, Mary; impostor, 1726 

Toler, Mr. ; m., trials, 1853 

Toll, baron ; N.E. passage, 1902 

Tolly, Barclay de ; Smolensko, 1812 

Tolmidas; Coronea, 447 B.C. 

Tolstoi, count; Russia, 1882; (mini- 
ster) Russia, 188S-9 ; Greek church ; 
Greece, 1901 

Tomline, bp. ; Lincoln, Winchester, 
1820 

Tom Thumb ; dwarfs, 1846 

Tommaseo, Niccolo ; author, 1802- 
1874 ; Ital. lang. 

Tompion, Thos. ; clocks, 1695 

Tone, Theobald W. ; trials, 1798 

Tonson, Jacob, bookseller, d. 1736 

Tonti, Laurence ; Tontines 

Tooke, J. Home, 1736-1812 ; "diver- 
sions of Purley," 1786 

Tooke, W. ; prices 

Toole, John ; executed, 1901 

Tooth, rev. A. ; public worship 

Topete, adm., Spain, 1868-73 

Topffer, Rud.; Switzerland, 1799-1846 

Toro, M. M., Colombia, 1872 

Torpey, trials, 1870 

Torr, Elias ; executed, 1899 

Torrence, Mrs. ; trials, 1821 

Torrens, lieut. ; duel, 1806 

Torres ; Australasia, 1606 

Torricelli; d. 1647; air, micro- 
scopes 

Torrington, Herbert, lord; Walpole 
admin., 1727; Ceylon, 1851 

Toselli, diving, 1871 

Totila ; Italy, 54 i 

Tourgenieff, T. S., 1S18-83 ; Rus. nov. ; 
nihilists 

Toussaint, 1794 ; Hayti 

Tower, Mr. ; volunteers, 1803, i860 

Townley, G. V. ; trials, 1863 

Townshend lord; duel, 1773; Ire- 
land 

Townshends ; Rockingham, Chat- 
_ ham, and Grafton admins., 1765-7 

Traill, H. D., 1842-1900 ; literature 

Train, G. F. ; street railways, i860 • 
Ireland, 1868 

Trajan ; Rome, emp. , 98 ; Trajan's 
pillar, Dacia 

Traugott, R. ; Poland, 1864 

Travors, M. 11. ; air, 1895-1901 

Travel's, Samuel ; poor knights of 
Windsor 

Treby, George ; Walpole, 1721 

Tresylian ; Icing's bench 

Tretiakoff, Paul M.,d. i8 8 ; Moscow 

Trevelyan, sirC. ; Madras, 1859-60 



INDEX. 

Trevelyan, sir G. O. ; household suf- 
frage ; Gladstone adm., 1880, 1886 ; 
1892 ; Iicland, 1882 ; Rosebery 
adm., 1894 
Trevelyan, W. C. ; phonography 
Treves, sir Fred. (bart. 1902); physic, 

1853 
Trevethick ; steam engine, 1802 
Trevor, sir John ; speaker, 1694 
Tribe, A. ; copper - zinc couple, 

1872 
Trieoupi, Charilaos, statesman, 1832- 

96 ; Greece, 1878 et seq. 
Trochu, gen., 1815-36; France, 1870-1, 

defence 
Trollope, A.; nov., &c, 1815-82 
Trollope, T. A. ; nov., 1810-92 
Trollope, Messrs.; tapestry 
Tropman, France, 1869 
Troubridge, sir T. ; wrecks, 1807 
" True Sun," prop, of; trials, 1834 
Truman, Hanbury, & Co. : porter, 

1815 
Truro, lord ; chancellor, lord, 1850 
Tryon, sir George, 1832-93 ; navy, 

1890-3 
Tseng, marquis, China, 1879-80 
Tuan, prince ; China, 1900-1 
Tacker, E. ; vine disease, 1845 
Tuckett, capt. Harvey ; duel, 1840 
Tufl'en, Wm. Jos. ; executed, 1903 
Tufnell, E. C, training schools 
Tuite, murderer; trials, 1813 
Tuke, James Hack, philanthropist ; 

Ireland, 1896 
Tuke, W. ; lunatics, 1792 
Tull, William ; posting 
Tulloch, col. ; Sebastopol, 1855 ; 

China, 1901 
Tullus Hostilius ; Alba, saturnalia 
Tuma, prof. ; electricity (w. tele- 
graphy), 1899 
Tunstall, bp. ; administrations, 1529 ; 

arithmetic, privy seal 
Tupper, sir Chas. ; Canada, 1899 
Tupper, M. F., 1810-89; proverbs 
Turenne, marshal, 161 1-75 
Turnbull, Dahomey, 1876 
Turnbull, W. B. ; trials, 1861 
Turner, Joseph Mallord William, 

painter, 1775-1851 
Turner, Miss ; trials, 1827 
Turner, prof. ; eclipses, 1901 
Turner, Miss Eliz. ; Derby, 1903 
Turner, sir Geo. ; Australia, 1901 
Turner, Richard ; teetotaller, 1831 
Turner, rev. Sydney; 1814-70; refor- 
matory schools, 1849 
Turner, Thos. ; boxing, d. 1898 
Turner; trials, 1817 
Turnerelli, T., people's tribute 
Turpin, or Tilpin, bp. ; writes, 818 
Turton, bishop ; Ely, 1845 
Tussaud, Mad. ; waxwork 
Tusser : agriculture, 1562 
Tweedmouth, lord : Rosebery adm., 

1894 
Twycross v. Grant; trials, 1876 
Twyford, maj. ; S. A. war, d. 1901 
Tyce, John ; taffety, 1598 
Tycho Brahe, 1546-1601 ; astronomy, 

platonic year, globe 
Tyler, John ; United States presi- 
dent, 1841 
Tyler. Wat : killed, 1381 
Tylor ; aerated waters, 1840 
Tynan, P. J., " No. 1," dynamite, 

1896; Ireland, 1882, 1896 
Tyndalo, Win. ; martyred, 1536 
Tyndall, J., 1820-93; Roy. Inst,, 
1853 ; magnetism, Mont Blanc, 
1857 ; calorescence, sound, dust, 
Niagara, United States, 1872, 
spontaneous generation, germ 
theory 
Tyrconnel, earl of; Ireland, 1687 
Tyrone ; rebellion, 1599 ; Ireland, 



Tysias, or Stesichorus ; choruses, 

cpithalamium, 536 B.C. 
Tyson, Mr. Jas., 1822-98 ; Queensland 



U. 



Uchatius, gen. von ; cannon, 1875 

Udine ; stucco-work, 1530 

Ufzul ; Afghanistan, 1863 

Ugolinus, B. ; thesaurus 

Ulfllas, bp. ; Bible, about 373 

Ulloa, Antonio ; platinum, 1741 

Ulpian (lawyer) ; slain, 228 

Ulysses ; Homer 

Union Bank ; trials, 1875 

Upton, colonel ; Sebastopol, 1830 

Urban ; popes, 223 

Urban II. ; communion, crusades, 
1094 

Urban VIII., pope, "Eminence," 
1630 

Urich, gen. ; Strasburg, 1870 

Urquiza, gen. ; Argentine, monu- 
ment to, 1901 

Ursula, St. ; Cologne, Ursulines, 
1537 

Uriarte, H. ; Paraguay, 1877 

Usher, abp. ; articles, 1614 

Usher, H. T.; Labuan, 1875 



Vagliano, Mr. P. A. ; Cephalonia, d. 

1902 
Vaillant, Auguste ; France, 1893-4 
Vaillant, Mile. Gabrielle; viol, mus., 

d. 1S99 
Valens ; eastern empire, western 

empire, 364 
Valentia, lord; duel, 1798; trials, 

1796 
Valentia cause ; trials, 1772 
Valentine, B. ; antimony, 1410 
Valentinian ; western empire, 364 
Valerian : persecutions, 257 
Valetta, Dr. John N., D.C.L., 1818- 

1900 ; philology 
Vallaret, Foulques de ; Malta, 1310 
Valliere, madame de la ; midwifery, 

1663 
Vallot, M. ; Alps, 1903 
Valverde, gen. ; Hayti, 1858 
Van Artevelde ; Ghent, 1379-83 
Vanbrugh, sir J. ; 1670- 1726, Claren- 
don printing office, opera 
Van Buren M. (president) ; United 

States, 1837 
Vance & Snee ; trials, 1876 
Vancouver ; north-west passage, 

Vancouver, 1790 
Vandenpeereboom, M. ; Belgium, 

1899 
Van de Weyer, M. ; Belgium, 1874 
Van der Heyden ; lire engines, 1663 
Van der Heydt ; Prussia, 1862, 1874 
Van der Weyde ; photography, 1876 
Vanderbilt, Mr. ; United States, 1885 : 

— his son Cornelius, financier, 

1S43-99 
Vandersmissen, M. ; Belgium, 18S6 
Vandyck, painter, 1599-1641 
Vane, sir Henry ; administrations, 

1640 
Vanes ; trials, 1876 
Van Eyck ; painting, 1366 
Van Horn ; buccaneer, 1603 
Vanl.eyden; engraving on wood, 1497 
Van Marum; electricity, 1785 
Van Mildert, bishop ; Llandaff, Dur- 
ham, 1826 
Van Praagh, W.; deaf and dumb, 1S71 
Vansittart, Nicholas ; Liverpool 

adm., 1812 
Van Tromp ; Holland, naval battles, 

Portland Isle. i6ns 



INDEX. 



1469 



Van Voorst ; bookseller, 1804-94 ; 

British nat. hist. 
Vardon ; golf, 1896-1903 
Varley, C. F., 1828-83 ; electricity, 

telephone, 1870-7 
Varley, John ; water colour painter, 

1778-1842 
Varley, Cornelius ; nat. phil., 1781- 

1873 
Varole, M. ; optic nerves, 1538 
Varro ; writes "de Re Rustica," 37 

B.C. : grammarians, illuminated 

hooks 
Varus, Alfrenus ; civil law, 66 b.c. ; 

code, digest 
Vasali, or Basil ; Russia, 1270 
Vasco da Gama ; Cape, 1497 ; India 
Vattel, E. de, publicist, 1714-67 
Vauban, S. , 1633-1707 ; fortifications, 

Cherbourg 
Vaughan, Fr. Bernard ; trials, 1902 
Vaughan, H. A., 1832-1903 ; cardinal, 

1893 : archbishop, 1892 
Vaughan, sir Thos. ; Pomfret, 1483 
Vaughan, Mackay, &c. ; trial, 1816 
Vauquelin ; chromium, glucinum, 1 798 
Vaux, Jane, Mrs. ; Vauxhall, 1615 
Vega, G. de, 1503-36 ; — Lope de, 

1562-1635, poets 
Velasquez, painter, 1599-1660; Cuba, 

1511 
Venables, Wm. ; lord mayor, 1825 
Venezelo, M. ; Candia, 1901 
Venner, T. ; anabaptists, 1661 
Venn, J., logic 
Verdi ; mus. compos., d. 1901 
Verestchagin, Vasili ; painting, 1842 
Vergara, gen. ; New Grenada 
Vergennes, M. de; notables, 1788 
Verlaine, Paul, French poet, 1844-96 
Vermandois, count de; iron mask 
Vermuyden, Cornelius ; levels, 1621 
Vernet, C. J., 1714-89; A. C. H., 
1758-1836; J. E. Horace, 1789-1863; 
painters 
Vernon, adm. ; grog, Portobello, 1739 
Vernon, abp. ; York, 1808 
Verres; Sicily, 70 B.C. 
Verrocchio, Andrea; plaster, 1466 
Vesalius, 1514-64; anatomy, surgery, 

physic 
Vespasian; Rome, emp. 69; amphi- 
theatres, Coliseum, Rhodes 
Vespucius, Americas, 1498 ; America 
Veuillot ; France, 1883 
Victor Amadeus ; Sardinia, 1630 
Victor Emmanuel, 1820-78; Sardinia, 

1849; Italy, i860 
Victor Emanuel III., b. 1869; Italy, 

1 goo 
Victor, marshal; Talavera, 1809; Bar- 

rosa, Witepsk 
Victor ; pope, 193 

Victoria, queen, 1819-1901 ; England, 

Scotland, Ireland, India (empress) 

Victory, Espartero, duke of; Spain, 

1840-72 
Vidil, baron de ; trials, 1861 
Vieta, Francis; algebra, 1590 
Vigilius ; pope, 537 
Viljoen, Ben. ; S. A. war, 1899 ; d. 

1900 
Viljoen, Piet ; S. A. war, 1901 
Villars, marshal; Malplaquet, 1709 
Villeneuve, adm. ; Trafalgar, 1805 
Villeroy, marshal ; Brussels, 1695 ; 

Ramilies, 1706 
Villiers, sir George : administrations, 

1615 
Villiers, bp. ; Durham, i860 
Vincent de Paul, 1576-1660; sisters of 

charity. 
Vincent, B., 1812-99, Royal Inst, lib- 
rary catalogue, 1857; bible index, 
1848 
Vincent, C. W., electric light, 1879 
Vincent, sir Edgar ; Egypt, 1888 ; 
Turkey, 1889 ; Greece, 1897 



Vincent, H. ; chartists 

Vincent, Howard ; knt. 1896 ; police, 

1884 ; anarchy, 1898 
Vincent, Z. W. ; Caseilian society 
Vinet, Alex. R., Switzerland, 1797- 

1847 
Vinoy, gen. ; France and Franco- 

Pruss. war, 1870-71 ; d. 1883 
Virchow, prof., 1821-1902 ; develop- 
ment, man ; Germany, 1891 
Virgil, Lat. poet, 70-19 B.C. 
Virginia; killed, 449 b.c. 
Vitalianus; pope, 537 
Vitellius, Rome, emp., 69 
Vitruvius, abt. 27 B.C. 
Vivier; trials, 1842 
Vizetelly, E.; trials, 1900 
Vogel, sir Julius, 1835-99 ; N. Zea- 
land 
Volta, Alex.; 1745-1826; electricity, 

Volta 
Voltaire, F. M. A. de ; 1694-1778 ; 

Pantheon, 1897 
Von Benrigsen, Rudolph ; d. 1902 ; 

Germany 
Von Blumencorn, chev. ; Austria, d. 

1899 
Von Biilow, count ; Dreyfus case, 

1899 ; Germany ; Austria, 1902 
Von Fuchs, Dr., d. 1856; water-glass, 

stereochromy 
Von der Tam>, gen. ; Franco-Prussian 

war, 1870-1; Coulmiers, Orleans 
Von Gceben, gen. ; Saarbriick, Franco- 
Prussian war, 1870-1 
Von Groof ; flying, 1874 
Von Haller, Albrecht ; 1708-77; Swit- 
zerland 
Von Ketteler, baron; ass., China, 

1900 
Von Miguel, Dr., 1829-1901 ; Prussia 
Von Mohl ; protoplasm 
Von Moltke, gen.; Franco-Prussian 

war, Sedan, 1870 
Von Mulder, Prussia, 1872 
Von Miiller, Johannes, 1752-1809 ; 

Switzerland 
Von Rothschild, baron Wilhelm 
Carl, 1828-1901 ; Rothschild family 
Von Siemens, Dr. Georg ; Germany, 

d. 1 901 
Von Simson, Dr. Martin Ed.; Ger- 
many, d. 1899 
Von Swab ; blowpipe 
Von Vincke ; Prussia, 1874 
Vortigern; Wales, 447 
Voss, poet, 1751-1826 
Voysey, C. ; trials, 1870 ; Voysey 

establishment fund 
Vyse, Mrs. A.; trials, 1862 



W. 

Waddington. W. II., statesman, 

1826-94; France, 1877-89-93 
Wade, Sir T. ; Chinese diplomatist 

and scholar, 1818-95 ; China, 1875 
Wager, sir C. ; admiralty, 1733 
Waghorn, lieut., 1800-50: Waghom 
Wagner, R., 1813-83 ; music (of the 

future) 
Wainwright, Whitecliapel ; trials, 

1875 
Waithman, Robert ; lord mayor, 1823 ; 

obelisk, bank 
Wake, abp.; Canterbury, 1715 
Wakefield, rev. Russell ; Ch. of Eng- 
land, 1903 
Wakefield, Eliz.; savings banks, 1804 
Wakefield, Ed. Gibbon; marriages, 

South Australia, trials, 1827 
Wakeman, H. O., his., 1853-1899 
Wakley, T., medical reformer, 1795- 

1862 ; Lancet, 1823 
Waldegrave, earl ; trials, 1841 
Waldegrave, tap.; Carlisle, i860 



Waldemar; Denmark, 1157 
Walden, abp.; Canterbury, 1398 
Wales, George, prince of, v. Times ; 

trials, 1790; regency 
Wales, Albert Edward, prince of ; 

England ; Wales 
Wales, George Frederick, prince of; 

England ; Wales 
Walford, Edward; genealogist, etc., 

1823-97 
Walker, A. ; Liverpool, 1877 
Walker, Mr.; Vauxhall, congelation, 

ice, 1782 
Walker, George, Londonderry, Boyne, 

1689 
Walker, gen. ; filibusters, Nicaragua, 

1855 ; executed, i860 
Wall, governor ; trials, 1802 ; Goree 
Wall, Mr. Baring ; trials, 1833 
Wall, Jas. ; copying-machine 
Wallace, A. R. ; development, 1870 
Wallace, sir W. ; exec. 1305 ; Fal- 
kirk, Cambuskenneth, 1297 
Wallace, D. M. ; Molokani 
Wallace, sir Richard, philan., 1818- 

90 ; Bethnal Green 
Wallace, sir Donald McKenzie ; 

ency., 1903 
Wallace, Mr. Alf. ; evolution theory, 

1870 
Wallace, S. H. ; trials, 1903 
Wallaces ; trials, 1841 
Wallenstein, Albert, general, 1583- 

1634 ; Mecklenburg 
Waller, E. ; poet, 1605-87 
Waller, G., velocipede 
Waller, S. E., painter, d. 1903 
Waller, sir W. ; Abingdon, 1644 
Wallis, circumnavigator ; Otaheite, 

Wallis, 1766 
Wallis, sir Provo W. P., 1791-1892, 

Chesapeake 
Wallon ; France, 1875 
Walpole, Horace, 1717-97 ; letters 
Walpole, sir Robert, 1676-1745 ; Wal- 
pole, adm. ; sinking fund 
Walpole, Spencer-Horatio, 1806-98 ; 

Derby adm. , 1852-66 
Walrond, sir Wm. ; Salisbury adm., 

1900; Balfour adm., 1902 
Walsh, abp. ; Parnellites, 1889 
Walsh, Mrs. ; murdered, trials, 

1832 
Walsh, Nicholas ; printing', 1571 
Walsingham, lord; att.-gen., 1766; 

farmers' union, 1874 
Walsingham, sir F. ; administra- 
tions, 1587 
Walter v. Lane ; trials, 1S99 
Walter, Arthur : Times, 1894 
Walter, E. ; commissionaires, 1850-'^ 
Walter, John I., II., III., IV. ; 

Times, 1785-94 ; printing, 1872 
Walters, Annie ; trials, 1903 
Waltheof ; beheading, 1076 
Walton, Brian, 1600-61 ; polyglot 
Walton, Izaac, 1593-1683 ; angling 
Walworth ; Blackheath, mace, 1381 
Wang Chi-chung ; China, 1903 
Wantage, V.C., lord, d. 1901 
Warburton, Eliot (lost), Amazon, 

1852 
Warburton, col. sir R., 1842-99; 

India 
Ward, Mr. ; forgery, 1726 
Ward, prof. Jas.; naturalism, 1899 
Ward, N. B. ; aquarium, Ward's 

cases, 1829 
Ward, Mrs. Humphry ; education, 

1903 
Ward, E. M., R. A., 1816-79 
Wardle, col. ; impeachment, Wardle 

v. duke of York ; trials, 1809 
Wardley, James ; shakers 
Warenne, earl of ; Dunbar, 1296 
Warham, abp. ; Canterbury, 1503; 

administrations, 1509 
Warington, R. ; aquarium, 1850 



1470 



INDEX. 



Wark, Robt. Jno. ; trials, 1899 
Warner, Mrs., d. 1854; theatre 
Warner, Messrs. ; bells, 1856 
Warner, Chas. Dudley, 1829-1900 ; 

English lang. 
Warren, admiral sir John Borlase ; 

naval battles, 1798 
Warren, sir Chas. ; Soudan, 1886 ; 

Bechuanaland ; police 
Warren, Sam., novelist, 1807-77 
Warrington gang ; trials, 1806 
Warsop, Geo. ; aero-steam engine, 

1869 
Warton, Thomas ; poet-laureate, 1785 
Warwick, earl of ; Barnet, St. Albans, 

Wakefield, 1460 
Warwick, John Dudley, earl of ; ad- 
ministrations, 1551 
Washington, George, 1732-99 ; United 

States, York Town, Virginia 
Wason, Rigby ; trial, 1867 
Waterhouse, Mr.; Paul's school, St. 
Waterland, Dr. ; Athanasian Creed, 

1723 . ,_ 

Waterlow, Ernest, lent. 1902 ; paint- 
ing, 1850 
Waters, M. ; infanticide, trials, 1870 
Waterton, Chas. ; naturalist, 1782- 

1865 
Wathen, capt. ; trials, 1834 
Watkins, Chas. ; executed, 1901 
Watkins, sir Ed., 1819-1901 ; railways 
Watson, admiral; India, 1756 
Watson, J. C. ; planets, 1862 
Watson, rev. J. S. ; trials, 1871 ; d. 

1884 
Watson, bishop; Llandaff, 1782; 

phlogiston 
Watson, Thos., M.D., 1792-1882 
Watson, sir Win. ; electricity, 1740 ; 

lightning conductor ; trials, 1817 
Watson, lord, 1828-99 ; appeal, 1880 
Watt and Downie ; trials, 1794 
Watt, McHugh ; trials, 1903 
Watt, Mr. Jas., C.M.G. ; China, 1900 
Watt, Jas., 1736-1819; lunar society, 

steam engine 
Wattenbach, Wilhelm, Ger. scholar, 

1820-97 
Watteau, Ant., French painter, 1684- 

1721 
Watts, George Frederick, R.A. ; 

b. 1S17 
Watts, Mr. G. F, R.A. ; National 

Gallery 
Watts, H., 1815-84 ; chemistry 
Watts, Isaac, 1674-1748 ; hymns 
Watts, Jas., jockey ; d. 1902 ; races 
Watts ; theatres, trials, 1S50 ; suicide 
Watts, Mr. E. H. ; Bamardo homes, 

1901 
Watts, T. ; newspapers, 1766 
Watts-Jones, capt. ; ass. 1900, China 
Wau chops, maj.-gen. ; S. A. war, & 

1899 
Weare, Mr. ; trials, 1824 
Weathershed, abp. ; Canterbury, 1229 
Webb, capt. ; swimming, 1875 
Webbe, Sam., music, 1 740-1817 
Weber, Carl von, 1786-1826; music 
Weber, W. & E., physicists, undu- 

latory theory 
Weber, Albrecht, Orientalist, 1825- 

1901 
Weber, Herr Max ; deep-sea sound- 
ings, 1900 
Webster, C, Richmond murder 
Webster, Daniel, rf. 1852 ; United 

States 
Webster, Dr. ; trials, 1842 
Webster, sir Godfrey; trials, 1797 
Webster, Mr.; aluminium 
Webster, sir R. E. (lord Alverstone, 

1899); king's bench, master of the 

rolls, 1900, att.- gen. 1885, 1886, 

1895 ; Parnellites, 1888 ; Behring 

Straits, 1893; Venezuela 1899 ; 

lord chief justice, 1900 



Webster, T. ; painter, 1800-86 
Wedgwood, Josiah, 1730-95 ; earthen- 
ware, Wedgwood (porcelain) 
Wedgwood, T. ; photography, 1802 
Weed, Thurlow; United States, d. 

1882 
Weekes, H., R.A., 1807-77 
Weismann, Dr. August ; heredity 
Weld, Mr. ; trappists 
Weldon, Mrs.; trials, 1884-8 
Weldon, Walter; alkalies, 1877 
Wellby, capt. M. S., 1866-1900, 

explor. , Abyssinia, Thibet 
Wellcome, Mr. Henry S., chemical 

research, 1900 
Welldon, bp., rev. J. E. C, Calcutta, 

1898-1902 
Wellesley, sir A. ; see Wellington 
Wellesley, marquis ; India, 1798 
Wellesley, Mr. Long ; duel, 1828 
Wellesley, Pole, v. Misses Long ; 

trials, 1825 
Wellesley v. Paget ; trials, 1809 ; v. 

Mornington, trials, 1868 
Wellesley, adm. sir Geo., 1814-1901 
Wellman, Walter, N.E. passage, 1900 
Wellington, duke of, 1769-1852 ; 

Wellington ; commander-in-chief, 

duelling, 1824; duels, 1829; trials, 

1830 
Wells, W. ; dew, 1814 
Wells, lord Lyon ; Ireland (lord lieut. ), 

1438 
Wells, Charles ; trials, 1893 
Wells, H. T., 1828-1903, R.A., 1870 
Weltmann, poisoning, 1859 
Wemyss, see Elcho 
Wenham ; heat 

Wensleydale, lord ; lords, note 
Werdermann, electric light, 1878 
Werner, A. G., 1750-1817; geology, 

I77S 
Werner, capt. ; Spain, 1873 
Weskett, John; commerce, chambers 

of, 1782 
Wesley, J., 1703-91 ; Wesleyans 
West, Benj., 1738-1820; Royal Acade- 
my, 1792 
Westall, rev. H. ; Ch. of England, 

1899 
Westbury, lord chancellor ; Palmers- 
ton adm. , 1861 ; 1873-80 
Westerton v. Liddell ; trials, 1855 
Westcott, B. F., bp., 1825-1901 ; 

Durham, 1890; coal, 1892 
Westland, sir James, 1843-1903 ; 

India, 1896 et seq. 
Westmacott, sir R., sculpt., 1775- 

1856; R. 1799-1872 
Westmeath, lord ; trials, 1796 
Westminster, Hugh Lupus Gros- 

venor, duke of, 1825-99 
Westmoreland, earl of; Ireland (lord- 

lieut.), 1790 
Weston, E. P. ; pedestrianism, 1874-7 
Weston, Richard, lord ; administra- 
tions, 1628 
Wetherell, sir Chas. ; attorney-gen. , 

1826 ; Bristol 
Wetherell, rev. Mr. ; trials, 1845 
Wetterbergh, auth., 1804-89 ; Sweden 
Weyland, Thomas de ; bribery, 1288 
Weylants, lieut.; Congo R., d. 1900 
Weyman, Stanley; Eng. lang., 1855 
Weymouth ; North- West passage, 

1602 
Weymouth, visct. ; Grafton adm. 1767 
Whalley will case ; trials, 1883-4 
Wharncliffe, Id. ; Peel adm., 1834 
Wharton, Thomas, marquis of ; 

Halifax adm., 1714 
Wharton, Miss ; marriages, i6qo 
Whately, abp. R., 1787-1863 ;' logic, 

political economy, &c. 
Wheatstone, sir C, 1802-75 ; cryp- 
tography ; stereoscope, electricity, 
c8 ,1 ; electric telegraph, and clock, 
microphone, telephone 



Wheeler, sir Hugh ; Cawnpore, 1857 
Wheeler, al. Pearcey, Mrs. ; trials, 

1890 
Whewell, Rev. W., philosopher, 1794- 

1866 ; international law 
Whipple, Dr.; d. 1901 ; Minnesota 
Whistler, artist, d. 1903 
Whistler v. Ruskin, trials, 1878 ; im- 
pressionists 
Whiston, W., theol., d. 1752 
Whitaker, Joseph ; bookseller, 1820- 

95 ; almanack, 1S69 
Whitbread, Samuel ; suicide, 1815 
White, rev. Borrett ; London, d. 1903 
White, gen. sir Geo.; India, Dec. 
1892-97 ; S. African war, Gibraltar, 
1900 ; field-marshal, 1903 
White, H. K., poet, 1785-1806 
White, Henry ; trials, 1902 
White, Thos., Sion College, 1623; 

mayor, 1876 
White, sir W. ; Turkey, 1886 ; navy, 

1901 
Whitefield, G., 1714-70; Whitefield- 

ites, Wesleyans, 1741 
Whitehead, Jas. ; Id. mayor, 1888 ; 

volunteers, 1889 
Whitehead, W. d. 1785 ; poet laureate 
Whitelock, gen. ; Buenos Ayres, 1807 
Whitgift, abp.; Canterbury, 1583 
Whitman, Walt, Am. poet; 1819-92 
Whitmarsh, Jno. Lloyd ; trials, 1898 
Whitmore, maj.-gen., 1830-1903 ; New 

Zealand, 1869 
Whitnej r , Eli ; cotton, 1793 
Whittall ; coins, 1884 
Whittier, John G. ; Am. poet, 1807- 

92 
Whittington ; lord mayor, 1405 ; 

Leadenhall 
Whittlesey, archbp. ; Canterbury, 

1268 
Whitworth, sir Joseph, 1803-87 ; 
cannon, plane, Shoeburyness, 1861; 
Whitworth 
Whitworth, earl; Ireland, 1813 
Whymper, E. , Andes ; Matterhorn 
Whyte, maj. - gen. ; Demerara, 

1796 
Wickens, sir J. ; vice-chancellor, 

1871 
Wickham ; see IVykeham. 
Wicklilie (Wvcliffe), John, 1324-87 ; 

Wickliffites, Bible 
Wicklow peerage, trials, 1870 
Wiedemann, Gustav Heinrich, phy- 
sicist, 1826-99 
Wieland, C. ; Germ, miscel., 1733- 

1813 
Wigram, bp. ; Rochester, i860 
Wilberforce, bp. ; Oxford, 1846 
Wilberforce, W. , 1759-1833 ; slave- 
trade; — S., Winchester, bp. 
Wilberforce, bp. E. R., Newcastle- 

on-Tyne, 1882 
Wild, Jonathan, thief-taker ; exe- 
cuted, 1725 
Wilde, sir James ; probate court, 

1863 ; see Penzance 
Wilde, Mr. F. S.; India, mur. 189S 
Wilde, Oscar, author; trials, 1895; 

d. 30 Nov. 1900 
Wilfride, bp. ; Chichester, 673 
Wilkes, capt. ; circumnavigation, 

1838; United States, 1861 
Wilkes, John; North Briton, obe- 
lisk, warrants; duel, 1763; trials, 
1764 
Wilkie, sir D., painter, 1785-1841 
Wilkins, Dr.; Wadham, 1613 
Wilkinson, Catherine ; baths, 1832 
Wilkinson, sir John Gardner, Egyp- 
tologist, 1797-1875 
Wilkinson, sir Jos., d. 1903 ; railways 
Wilkinson, bp. G. H.; Truro, 1883; 

Andrew, St. 
Wilkinson, Is. ; air (compressing), 
1757 



Willcocks, sir J. ; Ashantees, igoo 

Willard, Miss Prances ; world's 
women's C.T.U., 1903 

Willcocks, col., K.C.M.G. ; Ashan- 
tees, 1900 

Willes, adm. sir Geo., d. 1901 

William I., England, 1066; Battle- 
abbey, conquest, Domesday, castles 

William II. ; England, 10S7 

William III. ; England, 1689, revolu- 
tion. Boyne, Enghien, Je main- 
tiendrai, New Forest 

William IV.; England, kings, 1830; 
admiral 

William I.; emperor; Prussia, 1861 ; 
Germany, 1870-88 ; assassinations 

William II. ; Germany, 1888 

William I. -IV., stadtholders ; Hol- 
land, 1579-1795 

William I. -III. ; Holland, 1813-90 
William, the Lron, king Scotland, 

1165 
Williams, sir M. Monier, 1819-99 ; 

Indian inst. 
Williams, Ralph Champneys, C.M.G. ; 

Bechuanaland, 1901 
Williams, Ann ; trials, 1753 
Williams, Dr. Daniel ; libraries, 1716 
Williams, David, d. 1816; literary 

fund 
Williams, Wm. and Ada Chard ; 

trials, 1899 
Williams, Mr. ; Manchester, 1882 
Williams, John, dean ; adminis., 162 1 
Williams; see Burking 
Williams, Roger; America, 1635 
Williams, gen. W. P. ; Kars, 1855 
Williamson, sir Joseph; administra- 
tions, 1629 
Williamson, Wm. Crawford ; natu- 
ralist and botanist, 1816-95 
Willis, Mr. Henry ; organ, d. 1901 
Willoughby, sir Hugh ; north-east 

passage, 1553 
Willoughby de Eresby, lord; cham- 
berlain, lord great, 1626 
Willoughby, lieut.; Delhi, 1857 
Wills, Mr. E. P., K.C.B.; Bristol, 

1899 
Wills, gen.; Preston, 1715 
Willshire, M.D.,Wm. Hughes, 1816-99 
Wilmot, lieut. E. ; Ashantees, 1873 
Wilmot, M. A., trials, 1881 
Wilmington, earl of ; Wilmington 

adm., 1742 
Wilson, capt. ; Pelew Islands, 1783; 

Ashantees, 1900 
Wilson, sir A. ; Delhi, 1857 
Wilson, sir James Erasmus, 1809-84 ; 
Aberdeen ; obelisks (Cleopatra's 
needle), 1877-8 ; Egypt expl. fund 
Wilson, G. , colour blindness 
Wilson, H. H. ; Sanskrit professor, 

1832 
Wilson, sir C. ; Soudan, 1883 
Wilson, sir Daniel, antiquary, 1816- 

92 
Wilson, sir Robert; Lavalette, 1815 
Wilson, prof. John, 1 785-1854 
Wilson, sir John M., Hampstead 
Wilson, Mrs. C. ; poisoning, trials, 

1862 
Wilson, capt. W. ; United States, 

1862, note 
Wilson, M. ; Prance, 1887-8. 
Wilson, Dr.; sun 

Wilson, sir Samuel ; Australian 
statesman and benefactor, 1832-95 
Wilton, earl of; trials, 1859 
Wimborne, lady ; Ch. of England, 

1899, 1903 
Wimshurst, James, 1832-1903; elec- 
tricity, 1882 
Winchelsea, abp. ; Canterbury, 1293 
Winchester, gen. ; Frenchtown, 1813 
Winchester, Henry ; mayor, lord, 

^34 
Winchester, lord ; S. A. war, d. 1899 



INDEX. 

Winchester, W., marquis of; adminis- 
trations, 1554 
Winchilsea, earl of; duel, 1829 
Winchilsea, earl of ; Wilmington 

adm., 1742; Bath adm. , 1746 
Winchilsea, earl of ; agriculture, 

1892, 1851-98 
Windebank, sir Francis ; administra- 
tions, 1635 
Windham, general ; India, 1857 
Windham, W. F. ; trials, 1861-2 
Windham, Wm.; Grenvilleadm., 1806 
Windgate, sir F. ; London, 1899-1901 
Windisclfgratz, prince ; Vienna, 1848 
Windsor, lord ; Balfour adm., 1902 
Winsor, Charlotte; trials, 1865 
Winstanley ; Eddystone, 1696 
Winslow, E. D. ; extradition, 1876 
Winslow, Dr. F.; trials, 1884 
Winter, T. ; boxing 
Winwood, sir Ralph ; administra- 
tions, 1612 
Winzengerode, gen. ; Kaliseh, 18 13 
Wireless telegraphy; see electricity 
Wise, prof. ; balloons, 1873 
Wiseman, cardinal Nicholas, 1802-65; 
ecclesiastical titles, papal aggres- 
sion, Rome, Ireland, 1258 ; West- 
minster 
Wislicenus, prof. J., d. 1902 ; stereo- 
chemistry 
Wissmann, sapt. ; Zanzibar, 1889 ; 

Africa (German E.), 1889 
Withers, Dr. ; libel, 1789 
Witherings, Thomas ; post-office, 

1631 
Witherington, W., painter, 1786-1865 
Withers, Mr. Jas.; ballot, 1886 
Withing, Richard ; Glastoubury, 

1539 
Witikind ( Saxon chief), d. after 

793 

Wittgenstein, gen. ; Polotsk, Witepsk, 
1812 

Witts, De ; massacred, 1672 

Wodehouse, lord ; Ireland (lord- 
lieut.), 1864 

Wodehouse, sir P. ; Bombay, 1872 

Wodehouse, col. ; Soudan, 1889 

Woden ; Wednesday 

W6hler,P., 1830-82; aluminium, 1827; 
acetylene, 1862 

Wolcot, Dr., alias Peter Pindar; 
trials, 1807 

Wolf, F. A. ; Homer 

Wolf, Dr., astron. ; comets, 1899 

Wolf, Jos. ; painting, 1820-99 

Wolf, Hugo ; Germany, d. 1903 

Wolf, prof. Max ; nebulae, 1901 

Wolff, Geo. and Sigmund; trials, 1899 

Wolfe, gen. ; Quebec, 1759 

Wolff, Dr. J. ; Bockhara, 1884 ; sir 
H. D., fourth party; Turkey, 
1885 ; Persia ; Spain 

Wolflus ; anemometer, 1709 

Wollaston, Wm. ; 1766-1828 ; cryo- 
phorus, camera, blow-pipe, pal- 
ladium, rhodium, hypsometer 

Wolseley, sir Charles ; trials, 1820 

Wolseley, sir Garnet (aft. Id.) 6. 1833; 
Hudson's Bay, 1870 ; Ashantee, 
1873 ; Amoafu'l, 1874 ; West Africa, 
1873; Cyprus, 1878; Natal; Zulu- 
land, 1879 ; Egypt, 1882 ; Tel-el- 
Kebir, 1882 ; Soudan, 1884 ; re- 
forms ; army, 1900 

Wolsey, cardinal, 1471-1530 ; adms., 
1514; Hampton, Whitehall, York 

Wolverton, Id. ; Gladstone adm., 
1886. 

Wombwell ; zoology 

Wood, E. J.; dwarfs, 1868 

Wood, sir Charles (aft. lord Halifax) ; 
Russell adm., 1846; Palmerston 
adm., 1855 

Wood, gen. sir Evelyn, Zululand,iS79; 
Egypt, 1882 ; cavalry, field-mar- 
shal, 1903 



1471 

Wood v. Cox ; races, 1888. 

Wood, Matthew ; mayors of London, 

1815 
Wood, sir W. P., justice, chancellor, 

1868 
Wood ; Palmyra, 1751-53 
Woodgate, sir Ed.; S. A. war, d. 1900 
Woodford, bp. J. R. ; Ely, 1873 
Woodfall, Mr. ; trials, 1786 
Woodmason ; ruling machines 
Wooler, Mr. ; trials, 1817, 1855 
Woolley, Mr. ; trials, 1863 
Wools, Sampson, (K.C.B. 1902); S.A. 

war, 1901 
Woolner, Thos.; sculptor, 1826-92 
Worburton ; trials, 1885. 
Worcester, marquis of; steam, tele- 
graph, 1663 
Worcester, Edward, earl of; adms., 

1621 
Wordsworth, Wm. ; 1770-1850; poet- 
laureate 
Wordsworth, bishops ; Christopher, 
Lincoln, 1869 ; Charles, Andrew's, 
St., 1852; John, Salisbury, 1885 
Woronciz ; 1757-1829 ; Poland 
Worth, Charles, 1825-95 > dress 
Worth, F. ; air-gun, 1877 
Wortley, col. H. Stuart; mansion- 
house fund, 1871 
Wotton, sir Edward ; sugar, 1546 
Wouvermanns, painters, 1620-83 
Wray, sir C. ; King's Bench, 1573 
Wrede, gen. ; Hanau, 1813 
Wren, sir Christopher, architect, 
1632-1723 ; Chelsea, engraving, 
Greenwich, monument, St. Paul's, 
Walbrook 
Wren, Matthew ; Royal Society 
Wrench, Mr. ; theatres, 1809 
Wright, Dr. ; dictionary, 1903 
Wright ; Mercator's charts, 1556 
Wright, Mr. Geo. ; Salisbury adm., 

1900 
Wright, sir Jas. ; engineers, d. 1899 
Wright, sir Rob. ; King's Bench, 1687 
Wright, Mr. Whitaker ; trials, 1903 ; 

d. 1904 
Wright and Doyle ; trials, 1851 
Wriothesley, lord ; administrations, 

!S47 
Wurmser, gen. ; Castiglione, 1796 
Wurtz.prof. K. A., 1817-84; chemistry; 

Faraday medal, 1878 
Wyatt, sir Thos. ; rebellions, 1554 
Wybrow ; aquarium, 1876 
Wykeham, William of, 1324-1405 ; 

education, Oxford, Winchester 
Wyld, J. ; globe, 1851 
Wyndham, George; Salisbury adm., 

1898 ; Ireland, 1900 ; Balfour adm., 

1902 
Wynkyn de Worde; angling, 1496 ; 

printing 
Wynn, W. ; Canning adm., 1827 
Wyon, W., medallist, 1795-1851 
Wyse, L. A. B. ; Panama 



Xavier, Francis ; 1506-52 ; Jesuits 
Xenophanes, d 465 B.C. ; Eleaticsect, 

Pantheism 
Xenophon ; couriers, retreat of the 

Greeks, 401 B.C. 
Xerxes; Persia, 485 B.C.; Mycale 

Salamis, Xerxes 
Ximenes, card., 1437-1517; polyglot 



Yakoob, Afghanistan, 1867-79, Kash- 

gar 
Yale, Elisha ; auctions, 1700 
Yano, Fumio ; China, 1899 
Yardley, Wm. ; cricket, d.. tgfeo 



1472 



INDEX. 



Yarrow, Mr. ; spirit motor 
Yate, col. ; Afghanistan, 1903 
Yates, B., 1831-94, nov. ; trials, 

1884-5 ; World 
Yen, commissioner ; China, 1857 
Yelverton, major; trials, i860 
Yeoland, Edith and Ida ; actresses ; 

theatres, d. 1901 
Yonge, sir Geo. ; Shelburne adm. , 1783 
Yonge, miss C. , 1823-1901 ; novelist ; 

names 
Yonoff, col. ; Pamirs, 1891 
Yorck, count ; China, d. 1900 
York, bishop; Ely, 1781 
York, cardinal ; Scotland, 1807 
York, Fred., duke of, 1 763- 182 7 ; 

York 
York, George-Frederick, duke of, 

b. 1865 ; Wales (princes of) ; Eng- 
land, 1893 
York, James, duke of (aft. James II., 

England, 1685); Solebay, 1672 
Yorke, Charles, chancellor, lord high, 

1770 
Yorke, sir Philip; att.-gen. ; kings 

bench, 1733 
Yorke, Mr. Redhead ; trial, 1795 
Youl, J. A., salmon ova 
Youlton, W. ; hyposcope, 1002 
Young ; impostors, 1692 



Young, Brigham, 1801-77 ; Mormon- 

ites 
Young, major ; Prescott, 1838 
Young, Charles ; theatre, 1807 
Young, Edw., poet, 1681-1765 
Young, Thos., 1773-1829 ; Royal In- 
stitution, colour, spectrum, undu- 
latory theory 
Youngman, W. ; executions, i860 
Yuan Shih-kai ; China, 1901-2 
Yu-Chang ; China, 1900 
Yu-Hsien, China, exe., 1900 
Yule, sir H., 1820-89; oriejitalist 



Z. 



Zabala ; Spain, 1874 
Zacharias ; pope, 741 
Zakharoff, gen. ; China, 1900 
Zaleucus ; sumptuary laws, 450 B.C. 
Zalinski, capt. ; air-gun, 1866 
Zamoyski, count; Poland, 1862 
Zanardelli Giuseppe, d. 1903 ; Italy. 

1898, 1901-3 
Zangwill, Israel, writer, 1864 
Zankoff; Bulgaria, 1876 et seq. 
Zasulitch, V. ; Russia, 1878 
Zazel ; Aquarium, 1877 



Zechariah prophesies about 520 B.C. 
Zeno (stoic), fl. 299 B.C. ; eastern 

empire, 474 
Zenobia ; Palmyra, 263 
Zenon ; Armenia, 18 
Zephaniah prophesies abt. 630 B.C. 
Zephyriniis ; pope, 202 
Zetland, earl of; Salisbury adm., 

1886 ; Ireland, Id. lieut., 1889 
Zeuxis, fl. 455-400 B.C. ; painting 
Zimmerman ; physiognomy, 1776 
Zimmerman, 1728-95 ; Switzerland 
Zinzendorf, 1700-60 ; Moravians 
Ziska; Bohemia, 1417 
Zoe ; eastern empire, 1034 
Zola, E. , naturalism ; France, 1898; 

Dreyfus case, 1898-90 ; d. 1902 
Zollicotfer, gen. ; U. States, 1861 
Zorilla, R.; Spain, 1872-3 ; d. 1895 
Zoroaster ; magi 
Zosimus ; alchemy, 410 
Zschokke, Heinrich ; Aargan, d. 

1848 
Zukkertort, J. S., chess 
Zumalacarregui (Carlist) ; killed near 

Bilbao, 1835 
Zumpie, M. ; pianoforte, 1766 
Zurbano, gen. ; Spain, 1844 
Zwingli - Huldreich, 1484 - 1531 ; 

Switzerland 



ADDENDA. 



PAGE 
5- 



1903 



i9°3 



ABYSSINIA.— The emperor Menelik pro- 
hibits the slave trade, reported, mid Oct. 

Lit. -col. sir J. Harrington appointed British 
minister Dec. ,, 

Treaty signed with the United States, open- 
ing friendly commercial relations, re- 
ported 31 Dec. „ 

ACADEMIES.— International Association of 
Academies, founded 1901, met at the Royal 
Society, London .... June, 1903 

ACADEMY.— Last line, for rev. T. Shore 
read T. Shore. 

ACHEEN.— Conflicts between Dutch and 
natives, reported, 21 July; submission of 
the A.chenese leaders, reported . 27 Sept. 1903 

ACTS OF PARLIAMENT.— 47 general acts 
passed in 1903. 

ADEN. — Punitive operations for native out- 
rages, a village near Jimil destroyed, 7 Oct. ; 
successful fighting with natives of the 
Kutebi tribe, many killed, 28 Oct. et seq.; 
country reported quiet . . 19 Nov. 1903 

ADMIRAL. — Adm. of the fleet, hon. sir 
Henry Keppel died, aged 94 . 17 Jan. 1904 

AFGHANISTAN.— 36 sepoys charged with 
inciting to rebellion put to death at Cabul, 
reported 25 Oct. 

AFRICA. — Maj. Powell -Cotton's explora- 
tion in E. Equatorial Africa, completed ; 
unknown country mapped, 6 new tribes, 
one called "Magician," discovered, re- 
ported 6 Oct. 

N.W. Africa,. — Capt. Lenfant, French ex- 
plorer, reaches Shari in a launch ; water- 
way proved from Lake Chad to the Binng, 
reported 30 Dec. 

German S.W. Africa. — Hottentot rising, re- 
ported, Oct. ; severe fighting at Sand- 
fontein . . . . 20, 21 Nov. 

Sharp fighting at Hartebeeste river, 12 Dec. 

Disturbances north of the Herero territory in 
districts worked by the Otavi mining co. ; 
unrest among the Ovambo tribes, some 
60,000 strong ; lieut. von Zulow with 120 
men force a passage and join the besieged 
garrison at Okahandja, reported . 23 Jan. 

Rebels capture and burn small stations north 
of Windhoek, Otjimbigue ; Omaruru cap- 
tured by another body of Hereros, murder- 
ing the inhabitants, reported . 26 Jan. 

ALEXANDRA PARK. — Kite-flying con- 
test won by Mr. S. F. Cody, inventor of 
naval signalling kites ... 3 Oct. 

ALGIERS.— French convoy attacked by 
brigands at El Mungar, 37 killed, 47 
wounded, capt. Vauchez mortally . 5 Sept. 

ANDES.— Mr. Reginald Rankin ascended 
Aconcagua alone, 14 Dec. 1902 ; first ascent 
Of Mt. Orata, highest peak in Bolivia, made 
by Mr. W. G. Tight, reported . 2 Sept. 

ANGLO-JAPANESE AGREEMENT. [The 
Test of the Agreement is Inserted in 
Full in View of the Present Situation 
between Russia and Japan.] — The govern- 
ments of Great Britain and Japan, actuated 
solely by a desire to maintain the status quo 
and general peace in the extreme East, being 
moreover specially interested in maintaining 
the independence and territorial integrity 



1903 



1903 



of the Empire of China and the Empire of 
Korea, and in securing equal opportunities 
in those countries for the commerce and 
industry of all nations, hereby agree as 
follows : — K^J 

Art. 1. The High Contracting Parties, having 
mutually recognised the independence of 
China and Korea, declare themselves to be 
entirely uninfluenced by any aggressive 
tendencies in either country. Having in 
view, however, their special interests, of 
which those of Great Britain relate princi- 
pally to China, while Japan, in addition to 
the interests which she possesses in China, 
is interested in a peculiar degree politi- 
cally, as well as commercially and indus- 
trially, in Korea, the High Contracting 
Parties recognise that it will be admissible 
for either of them to take such measures 
as may be indispensable in order to safe- 
guard those interests if threatened either 
by the aggressive action of any other 
Power, or by disturbances arising in China 
or Korea, and necessitating the interven- 
tion of either of the High Contracting 
Parties for the protection of the lives and 
property of its subjects. 

Art. 2. If either Great Britain or Japan, in 
defence of their respective interests as 
above described, should become involved in 
war with another Power, the other High 
Contracting Party will maintain a strict 
neutrality, and use its efforts to prevent 
other Powers from joining in hostilities 
against its ally. 

Art. 3. If in the above event any other Power 
or Powers should join in hostilities against 
that ally, the other High Contracting Party 
will come to its assistance, and will con- 
duct the war in common, and make peace 
in mutual agreement with it. 

Art. 4. The High Contracting Parties agree 
that neither of them will, without consult- 
ing the other, enter into separate arrange- 
ments with another Power to the prejudice 
of the interests above described. 

Art. 5. Whenever, in the opinion of either 
Great Britain or Japan, the above-men- 
tioned interests are in jeopardy, the two 
governments will communicate with one 
another fully and frankly. 

Art. 6. The present Agreement shall come 
into effect immediately after the date of its 
signature, and remain in force for five years 
from that date. In case neither of the High 
Contracting Parties should have notified 
twelve months before the expiration of the 
said five years the intention of terminating 
it, it shall remain binding until the expira- 
tion of one year from the day on which 
either of the High Contracting Parties 
shall have denounced it. But if, when the 
date fixed for its expiration arrives, either 
ally is actually engaged in war, the alliance 
shall, ipso facto, continue until peace is 
concluded. 

ANGLO - FRENCH AGREEMENT,— This 
agreement, signed 14 Oct. 1903, declares 
that questions of a juridical character, or 

5 B 



1474 



ADDENDA. 



relating to the interpretation of treaties, 
arising between Great Britain and France 
shall, if incapable of settlement by diplo- 
matic means, be referred to the Hague 
Court of Arbitration. 
An Anglo-Italian Treaty on similar lines 
settled in principle, reported . 4 Jan. 

51. ANHALT.— Death of the duke of Anhalt, 
aged 72 ; succeeded by duke Frederic, 

24 Jan. 

53. ANTARCTIC POLE.— Belief ship Terra 
Nora left Hobart ... 4 Dec. 

60. ARBITRATION.— La Justice Internationale, 

a magazine devoted to international 
arbitration, edited by M. Gustave Hubbard, 
published in Paris . . . May, 

61. ABCHES, COUBT OF.— Mr. L. T. Dibdin, 

k.c, ll.d., succeeds sir Arthur Charles as 

dean May, 

64. ARGENTINE CONFEDEBATION. — 
Chilian mission with treaty of friendship 
feted 25 May, 

Budget for 1904 ; reduced taxation and ex- 
penditure 24 Aug. 

Official statement describes the economic 
conditions of Argentina to be sound and 
prosperous ; finances in more prosperous 
state than at any previous period, railway 
traffic returns much improved, and customs 
revenue for 1903 increased by 1,500,000/. 
compared with that of 1902 . 22 Dec. 

68. ABMENIA. — Two monasteries attacked and 
pillaged by the Kurds, near Erzeroum and 
Erzinghan, reported 23 June and 16 July, 

Fighting between Armenians and Turkish 
troops aided by Kurds round Erzeroum, 
reported 31 July, 

Villages pillaged by Kurds, panic in Mush 
and Sasun ; governor of Mush removed, 
reported n, 15 Aug. 

Increased taxation, unrest reported, 7 Oct. 

Sagouni, pres. of an Armenian refugee society 
murdered at Nunhead, London, 26 Oct. ; 
two other Armenians shot dead at Peckham 
Bye by Dikran (an Armenian), who com- 
mitted suicide .... 4 Nov. 

72. ABMY. — Force of 25,000 men to be main- 

tained in S. Africa, announced . 16 July, 

Army manoeuvres in Wilts, Hants, and 
W. Berks .... 13 - z s Sept. 

Colours of the Shropshire Light Infantry 
offered for sale ; secured on behalf of the 
town by the mayor ... 30 Oct. 

Lord Esher, sir J. A. Fisher, and col. sir 
G. S. Clarke appointed to inquire into 
the working of the War Office . 6 Nov. 

Accident to lord Kitchener at Simla 16 Nov. 

Important speech by Mr. Arnold-Forster, sec. 
for war, at the Liverpool conservative club, 
on army reform . . . . 2 i Jan. 

73. ARSENIC— Final report of Royal Com- 

mission, blue book issued, specifying pre- 
cautions to be used with regard to various 
foods and ingredients ; services of analysts 
to be more efficiently utilized . 3 Dec. 
75. ARTS.— Mme. Lelong's collection of paintings 
&c, sold for about 348,000/. . . 29 May, 
77. ASHANTEES. — Railway 180 mi. from 
Sekondi to Coomassie, opened . 1 Oct. 
90. AUSTRALASIA. — High court established 
by royal assent . . . .25 All". 

Sir Samuel Griffith appointed federal chief 
justice, with sir E. Barton and Mr. R. 
O'Connor judges of the high court ; sir E. 
Barton resigns the premiership, ministry 
reconstructed by Mr. Deakin, reported, 

24 Sept. 

Parliament prorogued . . .22 Oct. 

Elections for new federal parliament; in- 
crease of thi' labour party, the strength of 
the parties in the last and new parliament 
being, Senate: ministerialists 12, new 6, 
opposition, 16, new 13 ; labour party 8, 
new 17. House of Representatives: minis- 
terialists 32, new 27 ; opposition, 27, new 
26 ; labour party 16, new 29. Owing to 
representation being governed by popula- 



1904 

1903 

1903 
1903 
1903 



100. 
101. 



1903 

1903 
1903 



1903 



tion, which, since the previous election, 
has increased, the house of representatives 
has now 7 more members, the members 
being 82 instead of 75 . . .16 Dec. 

Australian harvest for 1903 estimated to 
exceed the highest previous yield by 
28,000,000 bushels, reported . 21 Dec. ,, 

AUSTRIA. — Reichsrath reassembles, 

23 Sept. 1903 

Austro-Huugarian army bill virtually re- 
pealed by the adoption of a Polish 
amendment to a German urgency motion 
sanctioning the enrolment of the ordinary 
Austrian contingent 0!' 54,024 recruits, 

26 Sept. ,, 

Czar visits the emperor at Vienna, 30 Sept. ; 
Imperial conference on Macedonian affairs, 

2 Oct. „ 

Battleship Erzherzog Karl launched at 
Trieste 3 Oct. ,, 

Budget for 1904 presented, estimated re- 
venue 1,734,771,291 kronen ; estimated 
expenditure 1,732,032,591 kronen, 17 Nov. ,, 

Austro-Russian instructions for the execu- 
tion of the reforms in Macedonia presented 
to the snltan of Turkey, 22 Oct. ; reform 
scheme accepted by the porte . 25 Nov. ,, 

AYR. — Gaiety theatre, opened 1902, burnt 
down 4 Aug. 

BABYLONIA.— The code of king Kham- 
ihurabi, discovered inscribed on a pillar 
of black diorite, 8 feet high, is the 
longest Babylonian record yet known. See 
Times, 14 April, 1903. 

BALFOUB ADMINISTRATION.— Cabinet 
reconstructed .... 5 Oct. 

[Mr. Chamberlain, colonial secretary ; Mr. 
Ritchie, chancellor of exchequer ; and 
lord George Hamilton, secretary for India, 
resigned 17 Sept. ; lord Balfour of Bur- 
leigh, secretary for Scotland, and Ml'. A. 
R. D. Elliot, financial secretary to the 
treasury, resigned, 21 Sept. ; the duke of 
Devonshire, lord president of the council, 
resigned, 5 Oct. 1903.] 

The Cabinet. 
Prime minister and first ) M Baltour# 

lord of the treasury . I 
Lord chancellor . . . Earl of Halsbury. 
Lord president of they M j f L d 

council and president ' 

board of education 



1903 



1903 



Lord privy seal 
Secretaries ; 

Home affairs . 

Foreign affairs 

War 

Colonies 

India 
First lord of the admiralty 



] y 



Marquis 
deny. 



Marquis of Salisbury. 

Mr. Akers-Douglas. 

Marquis of Lansdowne. 

Mr. Arnold-Forster. 

Mr. Alfred Lyttelton. 

Mr. Brodrick. 

Earl of Selborne. 
Chancellor of the ex-\ Mr. Austen Chamber- 

chequer . . . f lain. 

Lord chancellor of Ireland Lord Ashbourne. 
Chief secretary for Ireland Mr. George Wyndham. 
Secretary for Scotland . Mr. Graham Murray. 
President board of trade . Mr. Gerald Balfour. 
President local govern- > M Walter L 

meat boaul . . . ) 
President board of agri- \ Earl of 0n slow. 

culture ami fisheries ) 

Postmaster-general . . Lord Stanley. 

Not in the Cabinet. 
Cha necllor of the Duchy of \ 

Lancaster . . . I 
First commissioner of » L rf windsor , 

works . . . • I 
Financial secretary to the \ Mr . Victor Cavendish. 

treasury . . . ) 
Civil lord of the admiralty Mr. A. H. Lee. 
Secretary to the admiralty Mr. Pretyman. 
Undersecretaries; 

Home . . . . Mr. Cochrane. 

Foreign . . ■ Earl Percy. 

War . ... Earl of Donough more. 

Colonial . . ■ Duke of Marlborough. 

India . . . . Earl of Hardwicke. 



Sir William Walrond. 



ADDENDA. 



1475 



( Mr. Bromley -~ Daven • 
( port. 

Mr. Bonar Law. 
Mr. Grant Lawson. 
Sir William Anson. 
Sir Robert Finlay. 
Sir Edward Carson. 
Mr. Scott Dickson. 

j Mr. David Dundas. 

Earl of Dudley. 

J Mr. Atkinson. 



i9?3 



1903 



1904 



Financial secretary, war . 

Fa filamentary secreta ries; 
Board of trade 
Local government board 
Board of ednca.tion . . 

Attorney-general . , 

Solicitor-general . . . 

Lord advocate . 

Solicitor-general for Scot- 
land . . ■. . 

Lord-liev tenant of Ireland 

Attorney -general for Ire- 
land .... 

Solicitor-general for Ire- i , r „ -u ■,, 
land . . . . \ Mr - Campbell. 

107. BALLOONS. — Two ascents in Paris, the 

archduke Salvator of Austria and the comte 
de Vaulx, and Don Jaime de Bourbon and 
the comte de Castillon . . 80 

108. Capt. Artois crossed the Apennines from 

Genoa 3 Sept. 

MM. Lebaudy's successful airship, LeJaune, 
left Moisson (Seine-et-Oise* 9.10 a.m., and 
arrived at the Champ de Mars, Paris, 
10.50 a.m. ..... 12 Nov. 

112. BANK OF ENGLAND.— Bank discount, for 

reduced to 3, June 25, read June 18, 1903. 

113. Jan. 1, 1904, government debt, 11,015,100/. 

Other securities, 7,434,900/. Gold coin 
and bullion, 27,010,830/. Notes issued, 
45,460,83c/. Balance, or rest, 3,207,587/. . 
117. BARCELONA. — Strikes, 30,000 men out, 
June ; strike at the gasworks, city in dark- 
ness 22 Oct. 

117. BARDS.— Annual National Eisteddfod held 

at Lla nelly 3 Aug. 1903 

120. BARTHOLOMEW, ST.— Influential meeting 
at the Mansion house approves the appeal 
for 500,000/. to rebuild St. Bartholomew's 
hospital on its present site : 40,000/. given 
or promised, including 1000/. from the 

queen 26 Jan 

141. BELGIUM. — Interpellation on the Congo by 
M. Vandervelde, 1 July ; debates closed, M. 
Woeste's order of the day passed, 91 — 35, 

8 July, 1903 
British note opposing granting of monopolies, 
employment of forced labour, &c, in the 
Congo Free State, presented . 19 Aug. „ 
Visit of the king to Paris, received by pres. 

Loubet 4 Sept. , , 

Reply of the king to the powers ; denies 
charges of cruelty to natives in the Congo 
Free State, and rejects proposed arbitra- 
tion 19 Sept. ,, 

Demonstration in Brussels against British 
attacks on the government of the Congo, 

27 Sept. ,, 
Official reply to the British note . 10 Oct. ,, 
S45. BERLIN. — Monument to Richard Wagner, 
unveiled, tOct. ; monuments to the emperor 
and empress Frederick unveiled . 18 Oct. 1903 
161. BOAT RACES.— Wingficld . Sculls ( 4 £ miles), 
winner, 1903, F. S. Kelly, 23 min. 32 sec. 
Henley Royal Regatta. — Grand Chal- 
lenge Cup 1 mile 550 yds.), 1903, Leander 
Club, 7 min. 9 sees. Silver Goblets, 1903, L. 
Klaus and A. Ehrenberg, Berlin Victoria, 
8 min. 45 sees. Diamond Challenge Sculls, 
1903, F. S. Kelly, BalliolColl., Oxf., 8 min. 
41 sees. Professional Sculling Champion- 
ship, 1899, 190O) 1901, G. Towns. 
161. BOATS. — Capt. Newman and his son (16) 
left New York 9 July, in an oil launch, 
36 ft. long, 8 ft. wide, and reached Falmouth, 

14 Aug. 1903 
Mr. S. F. Cody, the inventor of the war-kite, 
crossed from Calais to Dover in his col- 
lapsible kite- boat . . . 6 Nov. ,, 
Capt. Bisenbraun crossed the Atlantic from 
Boston, Mass., in a sailing- boat, 19 ft. long, 
6 ft. wide, in 100 days, reaching Gibraltar, 

20 Nov. ,, 
165. BOMBAY.— Rt. rev. W. R. Pym, bp. of 
Mauritius, appointed bp. of Bombay, 

early Dec. 1903 



Lord Lamington appointed governor, 26 Aug. 
arrives at Bombay . . .12 Dec. 1903 
165. BONAPARTE FAMILY.— Mathilde, niece 
of Napoleon Bonaparte, died, aged 83, 

2 Jan. 1904 
169. BOSNIA.— Town of Travnik almost des- 
troyed by fire . . . 3, 4 Sept. 1903 
169. BOSTON (U.S.). —Visit of the Hon. Artillery 

Company, arrive .... 2 Oct. 1903 
Hon. Artillery Company of Mass. presented 
by Edward VII. with a signed portrait of 
himself, in recognition of the welcome ex- 
tended to Hon. Artillery Company of 
London 1 Jan. 1904 

181. BRIGHTON- — Inventions exhibition opened 

25 Nov. 1903 
1S1. BRISBANE. — Rt. rev. A. V. Green, bp. of 

Ballarat, elected bp. of Brisbane, early Dec. 1903 

182. BRISTOL.— Failure of electric light supply, 

owing to disastrous tire at works ; the city 
in darkness .... 22 Dec. 1903 
185. BRITISH EMPIRE SHAKESPEARE SO- 
CIETY, founded in 1903. President, sir 
Henry Irving. 
195. BULGARIA. — Joint note from the powers 
warning the government against any action 
leading to war ... 16 Sept. 1903 

Troops mobilized on the frontier 13-20 Sept. ,, 

Turco - Bulgarian negotiations respecting 
Macedonia, concessions offered . 22 Sept. ,, 

British government strongly favours the 
reform schemes . . . .26 Sept. ,, 

Public demonstrations in favour of the 
Macedonians, Sofia . 15 Aug. and 27 Sept. ,, 

Frontier post and village near Kottendail 
attacked by Albanians, 8 Oct. ; Bulgaria 
demands satisfaction . . .11 Oct. ,, 

About 22,000 Macedonian refugees, reported, 

mid Oct. ,, 

Agreement with Turkey ; mutual disarma- 
ment of troops, reported . . 18 Oct. ,, 

Boris Sarafoff, Macedonian leader, welcomed 
in Sofia 14 Nov. ,, 

Elections 7 Oct., government victory; 
Zaukovists defeated, sobranje opened by 
the prince 15 Nov. ,, 

Mr. G. Buchanan appointed British 
minister mid Dec. „ 

218. CANADA. — Riot at Sault Ste. -Marie in con- 

sequence of non-payment of wages by the 
Consolidated Lake Superior Co. ; troops 
called out, 1 death ... 28 Sept. 1903 

Trans-continental railway bill passed, 30 
Sept. ; parliament prorogued . 24 Oct. ,, 

Police post established at the mouth of 
Mackenzie river to stop the lawlessness of 
U.S. whalers .... early Nov. ,, 

Total exports, 225,849,724 dols. ; imports, 
223,700,516 dols. ; T902-3 returns issued, 

30 Nov. ,, 

R.C. university at Ottawa burnt down, 

2 Dec. „ 

219. CANCER.— Radium (which see, Addenda) 

reported to be used successfully in the 
treatment of cancer and lupus during 1903. 
Important discoveries of the origin and 
nature of cancer cells communicated to 
Royal Society by prof. Farmer and Messrs. 
Moore and Walter, 10 Dec. 1903 ; and by 
Drs. Bashford and Murray . 21 Jan. 1904 
222. CANDIA. — Union with Greece again ap- 
pealed for by the chamber of deputies, 

4 May, 1903 
230. CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.— Customs amend- 
ment and tariff preferential treatment for 
British imports passed . . 30 July, 1903 
Congress of Progressive associations at Cape 
Town, resolutions carried recognising the 
services of lord Milner and Mr. Chamber- 
lain ; dr. Jameson elected president, 

20-22 Aug. ,, 
Ministry defeated on a motion concerning an 
inquiry into martial law, fines, and com- 
pensation claims, 25 Aug. ; deadlock ; par- 
liament dissolved . . . 8 Sept. „ 
Great distress among immigrants, reported, 

30 Nov. ,, 

5 i? 2 



1476 



ADDENDA. 



Lord Milner returns from England 15 Dec. 1903 

Mass meeting at Cape Town to protest 
against the introduction of Chinese labour 
in the Transvaal ... 19 Dec. ,, 
234. CAROLINAS.— Mr. Tilman, late It. -gov. of 
S. Carolina, tried for the murder of N. G. 
Gonzales, editor of the State newspaper, 
15 Jan. ; acquitted . . .15 Oct. 1903 
240. CAUCASUS.— Strikes and conflicts, conflag- 
rations at oil wells and factories 

July- Aug. 1903 

Gi'adual repression and Russification of the 
Armenians, schools and libraries closed, 
societies dissolved, the press stopped ; 
imperial ukase issued practically confiscat- 
ing the property of the Armenian church, 
25 June ; disorders and murders, Vassilov, 
an arch-priest of the Orthodox church, 
assassinated at Alexandropol, 23 Aug. ; 
demonstration and petitions to the Arme- 
nian Catholics . . . -29 Aug. ,, 

Demonstrations and fatal riots near Elisa- 
betpol, and at Tiflis . . 11, 13 Sept. ,, 

Disturbances at Nachitchevan . 12 Oct. ,, 

Prince Galitzin, gov. -gen., attacked by 3 
men in Tiflis, 2 of the men killed 27 Oct. ,, 

Conflicts with troops and police in Baku, 
Kars, many Armenians killed, during Nov. „ 
248. CHARITIES.— Mr. K. C. Beauchamp be- 
queathed 43,600?. to public charities, 
May; Mr. Noel Whiting 40,000?., 6 July; 
Mr. J. Hill, over 30,000?.; Miss C. Wilson, 
over 13,000?., announced 1 Sept.; Mr. E. 
Darling, nearly 24,000?., reported 16 Dec. 1903 

Metropolitan charities, 1902-3, total, 
6,950,135?. 

253. CHICAGO. — Strike of liverymen, Nov.; 

funerals stopped, disgraceful scenes, re- 
ported 21, 22 Dec. 1903 

Terrible fire at the Iroquois theatre, 587 
killed, 300 reported missing, 30 Dec. 1903. 
Criminal charges to be preferred against 
the mayor, proprietor of the theatre, chief 
of the fire department, and building com- 
missioner ; arrested and liberated on heavy 
bail 25 Jan. 1904 

Explosion and fire in Masonic Temple, 20 
storeys high, with 2000 occupants of offices 
and stores, no lives lost, damage 20,000 
dols 23 Jan. „ 

254. CHILDREN. — Employment of Children 

Act, royal assent . . .14 Aug. 1903 
256. CHILT. — Resignation of Don Besa 23 Dec. 1903 
268. CHINA. — Russian viceroy appointed for 
the Amur and Kwantung territories ; ukase 

issued 12 Aug. 1903 

Chinese troops defeated at Hevei-chan, re- 
ported 13 Aug. ,, 

Chinese board of commerce created by edict, 

7 Sept. „ 
Messrs. Claude Russell and Hicks-Beach 

successfully explore 100 miles east of the 
Khingan mountains -in E. Mongolia, 

July-Sept. ,, 

Plague and cholera at Peitana during Sept. „ 

Commercial treaties with the United States 
and Japan, signed . . . .8 Oct. „ 

Russia fails to evacuate Manchuria accord- 
ing to agreement on appointed date, 8 Oct. „ 

Total exports for 1902, 39,118,115?., exports 
30,693,946?. , reported . . . 13 Oct. ,, 

M. Lessar, Russian minister, demands the 
appointment of a Russian resident at 
Mukdun, reported . . .5 Nov. „ 

New Belgian railway concession signed, 

i2 Nov. ,, 

Fight between Russian and Chinese imperial 
troops near Shan-hai-Kwan, reported, 

13 Nov. „ 

Army amalgamation on a national basis 
ordered ; Yuan Shih-Kai, viceroy of Chi-li, 
appointed head of the army and navy 
reported 5 Dec. „ 

Russian defeat of the Chunchuses on the 
Lian river, Manchuria, 200 killed, reported, 

8 Dec. ,, 
Shanghai sedition case: 6 Chinese journalists 



271. 
271. 



278. 



arrested end of June for seditious writings 
in the Supao ; their surrender to Pekin 
refused by the British legation after pro- 
tracted negotiations ; tried at Shanghai, 
3 Dec. ; 4 released, 2 convicted, sentence 
deferred 16 Dec. 

Chang-yi, director of Northern railways, 
disgraced for selling the Kai-ping mines, 
mid Dec. 

Commercial treaty by which United States 
consuls may be sent to Mukden and 
Antung in Manchuria, signed by the 
emperor, ratified by telegraph, and consuls 
appointed by U.S. government. Commer- 
cial treaty with Japan, for opening the 
foreign trade and settlement of two treaty 
ports, Mukden and Ta-tung-Ku in Man- 
churia, ratified . . . .13 Jan. 

CHOLERA. — India, 804,378 deaths in 1900 ; 
271,210 deaths, 1901-02. 

CHRIST'S HOSPITAL.— Sites committee of 
Christ's hospital agree (subject to ratifica- 
tion by the council and the treasury) to 
sell the whole of their vacant land in 
Newgate-street to the government for 
post-office extensions, reported . 22 Dec. 

CHURCH OF ENGLAND.— Abp. of Canter- 
bury writes dr. Horton upon education 
question 1 Nov. Reply of dr. Horton de- 
claring that public control and abolition of 
tests for teachers must form basis of any 
settlement 6 Nov. 

Prof. Collins of King's College, London, 
appointed bp. of Gibraltar, 18 Nov. 1903, 
consecrated 25 Jan. 

Bps. of London and Rochester issue mani- 
festo re action of churchmen in the L.C.C. 
elections in 1904 . . . 15 Dec. 

Bp. of Worcester censured by Canon Henson 
at Westminster Abbey for his action 
in the case of the rev. C. E. Beeby, 
vicar of Yardley Wood, who resigned his 
living on account of an article on the 
" Doctrinal significance of a miraculous 
birth " written by him in the October 
number of the Hibbert Journal . 20 Dec. 

New year's letter issued by bp. of London 
on the duty of the church respecting 
education 1 Jan. 

Dr. H. N. Cliurton, bp. of Nassau, drowned 
off Ragged island . . . .20 Jan. 

Benediction of central tower, "Victoria, "and 
spire of Truro cathedral . . 22 Jan. 

Appeal to church people by the bp. of 
London to contribute 30,000?. to bring the 
church schools of the diocese into a fitting 
condition ; 1,000?. subscribed by hon. 
W. F. D. Smith, M.P. ; 500?. each by the 
duke of Westminster, lord Ashcombe, the 
bp. of London, and "M.P.," and 900?. in 
smaller donations, reported . . 25 Jan. 

Dr. Jas. Thomas, bp. of Trinidad, died, 26 Jan. 

Death of the earl of Devon, rector of 
Powderham and prebendary of Exeter 
cathedral, aged 93 ... 29 Jan. 

CLASSICAL ASSOCIATION OF ENG- 
LAND AND WALES, founded ; first 
meeting held in London, president the 
Master of the Rolls. . . . 19 Dec. 

COAL. — Exported from the United Kingdom 
1901, 57,783,000 tons ; 1902, 60,400,000 tons. 
United States, 300,930,659 tons obtained in 
1902. 

Coal mines (certificates) act, royal assent, 

30 June, 

Lord Peel, chairman of S. Wales conciliation 

board (resigned 23 Jan. 1904), decides 

against an 8 j per cent, reduction in wages, 

21 Aug., but grants a 5 percent, reduction, 

21 Nov. 

Accidents: Howie colliery, Durham, cage 
accident, 16 injured, 15 July ; Dudley 
Wood, Netherton, fall of roof, 4 deaths, 
27 July ; similar accident near Coatbridge, 
3 deaths, 8 Oct. ; Connellville, Pa., explo- 
sion, 15 deaths, 21 Nov. ; cage accident, 
11 deaths, 3 Dec. 1903: Harwich mine, 



1904 



ADDENDA. 



1477 



3°3- 
3I7< 



318. 



Cheswick, nr. Pittsburg, Pa., U.S., ex- 
plosion, 184 men entombed, reported, 

25 Jan. 1904 
[1,067 deaths from accidents in 1903.] 

COLOMBIA. — Senate rejects the U.S. 
Panama canal treaty, reported 17 Aug. ; 
treaty becomes dead, the period for its 
affirmation having expired . . 22 Sept. 1903 

Revolt in Panama (which see); Colombian 
warship captured ; independence declared, 

3 Nov. ,, 

U.S. sailors landed at Colon . . 4 Nov. ,, 

Demonstration at Bogota against pres. Maro- 
quin, martial law proclaimed . 9 Nov. ,, 

Colombian proposals and concessions re- 
jected by Panama, reported . 20 Nov. , , 

Panama formally recognised as a republic by 
the United States 13 Dec. ; by Great 
Britain 25 Dec. ,, 

COLONIES. — Conference of the Institut 
colonial international of Brussels on 
colonial legislation held in London, lord 
Reay and lord Geo. Hamilton present, 

26 May, 1903 
Resignation of Mr. Chamberlain, 8 years 

colonial secretary, announced, 17 Sept. ; 
the office offered to and declined by lord 
Milner, reported, 3 Oct. ; accepted by the 
hon. Alfred Lyttelton, announced . 5 Oct. ,, 

COMMERCE.— Fifth congress of chambers 
of the empire, Montreal . . 17 Aug. 1903 

CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES.— Congress at 
Doncaster 1 June, 1903 

National festival at the crystal palace, 

11 July, ,, 

Danish international congress at Copenhagen, 

25 Sept. ,, 

COPYRIGHT.— House of lords, on appeal, 
decided in case of Afialo v. Lawrence and 
Bullen that articles contributed to an en- 
cyclopaedia without stipulations as to copy- 
right become the property of the publishers, 
mid Nov. 

COREA. — Lease of lands and right of timber 
purchase at Yongampho granted to a Rus- 
sian company ; free access to Yalu valley 
and river estuary acquired, reported, 

11 Aug. 

Russo-Japanese negotiations held in Tokio, 
Aug. it seq. 

First section of Japanese railway from Seoul 
to Fusan opened . . . .20 Oct. 

Yongampho fortified by the Russians, re- 
ported 27 Oct. 

Rioting at Mokplio 13 Dec. ; much unrest in 
the south end Dec. 

CORNWALL. — Visit of the prince and 
princess of Wales . . . 14-20 July, 

CREMATION. -Mr. Herbert Spencer 
(Golder's Green) ... 14 Dec. 

Crematorium opened by sir H. Thompson at 
Perry Barr, Birmingham . . 7 Oct. „ 
332. CRICKET. — M.C.C.'s English Team : first 
match, English Team v. South Australia, 
ends in a draw, Adelaide, 7 Nov. ; second, 
v. Victoria, won by English eleven, Mel- 
bourne, 16 Nov. ; third, v. N.S. Wales, won 
by England, Sydney, 23 Nov. ; fourth, won 
by England, Brisbane, 30 Nov. ; fifth, a 
draw, West Maitland, N.S.W. . 3 Dec. 1903 

First test match, at Sydney, won by English 
team by 5 wickets, Mr. Foster scoring 287 
runs ..... 11-17 Dec. ,, 

Second test match, at Melbourne, won by 
England by 185 runs, Rhodes taking 15 
wickets 1 Jan. 

Third test match, at Adelaide, won by 
Australia by 216 runs, Mr. V. Trumper 
scored 172 runs . . . .20 Jan. ,, 
338. CRYSTAL PALACE.— Great nat. temper- 

■ ance fete 18 July, 1903 

Cat and bird shows opened . . 27 Oct. ,, 

Mr. August Manns knighted . . 9 Nov. ,, 

Cage bird show opened . . 8 Dec. ,, 

346. DAILY PAPER.— Anew id. daily, edited by 
Mr. W. T. Stead. First number published, 

4 Jan. 1904 



PAGE 

359- 



366. 



323 
332 



1903 



1903 



1903 
1903 



1904 



38* 



DENMARK. — General elections . 16 June, 1903 

Parliament meets, budget presented, 

5-6 Oct. „ 

DIPHTHERIA.— Dr. L. Martin's method of 
transforming the Roux serum into pastilles, 
reported to be successful with children, 

May, 1903 

DOMINICAN REPUBLIC— Revolution in 
San Domingo, severe fighting, many killed, 
23 March ; troops repulsed after fierce con- - 
test, 5 April ; flight of pres. Vasquez, gen. 
Wos y Gil made president, reported, 

27 April, 1903 

Arsenal at Santiago blown up, gen. Frias 
killed, 21 mortally wounded, reported, 

24 May, ,, 
Diplomatic relations with the United States 

(which see) broken oft', ports blockaded, 

early Nov. ,, 

Further fighting, San Domingo besieged by 

revolutionists, 7 Nov. ; severe fighting,' 17 

Nov. ; town again bombarded, 23, 24 Nov. ; 

town surrenders ; flight of pres. Wos y Gil, 

25 Nov. „ 
Gen. Jiminez made president of provisional 

government, sefior Ramon Caceres mur- 
dered, reported . . . .28 Dec. ,, 

DUBLIN. — Lord Iveagh gives 50,000^. to the ' 
king for hospitals, announced . 1 Aug. 1903 

Horse show and art industries exhibition 
opened, 25 Aug. ; state visit of the lord 
and lady Dudley . . . .26 Aug. ,, 

Death of Mr. Lecky, aged 65 . 22 Oct. ,, 

Duke and duchess of Connaught receive 
honorary degree at the university, 23 Oct. ,, 

Death of Dr. Salmon, provost of Trin. Coll. 
since 1888, aged 84 . . .22 Jan. 1 904 

DURHAM UNIVERSITY.— Fund for com- 
pleting the college, total 50,000^. (memorial 
to lord Armstrong), announced . 5 Oct. 1-903 

EARTHQUAKES. — Severe shocks in St. 
Vincent 21 July, 1903 

Shocks at Albuiion, Granada, 

26, 27, 28 July, ,, 

Destructive shocks at Filattiera and Mulazzo, 
Italy 31 July, ,, 

Shocks in Athens and all Greece, and in Crete, 
2 deaths in Cerigo . . . n Aug. ,, 

Destructive shocks at Mendoza, Argentina, 
5 deaths 12 Aug. ,, 

Violent shocks at Bucharest . . 13 Sept. ,, 

Shocks at Lisbon, 9 Aug. ; again . 14 Sept. ,, 

Severe shock in Santiago de Cuba . 19 Sept. ,, 

Shocks at Blidah, Algeria, and the Canary 
islands 22 Sept. ,, 

EDINBURGH.— Strike of tramway men, 
concessions made . . . 21-28 Aug. 1903 

Lord Strathcona receives the freedom of the 
city 4 Dec. ,, 

EDUCATION.— General purposes committee 
of the London county council present a 
draft scheme for the establishment of an 
education committee, under the London 
Education Act, 1903, recommending its 
constitution as follows : — (1) chairman, 
vice-chairman, and deputy-chairman . of 
the county council ; (2) 35 members of 
the county council ; (3) 5 women selected 
by the council ; (4) members of the exist- 
ing school board, not exceeding 5 in 
number, to be appointed by the council 
only during the term of office of the first 
committee (the trausitional period). Two 
objects to be specially kept in view in the 
constitution .of the education committee: 

(1) That the committee shall be one which 
will work harmoniously with the council 
in developing a complete and well co- 
ordinated system of London education : 

(2) that it shall be such as to retain one of 
the greatest public interests under real 
public control as far as possible. Mr. 
H. P. Harris moved an amendment, "That 
the education committee shall consist of 58 
members, and shall include (1) the chair- 
man, vice-chairman, and deputy-chairman 
for the time being of the council ; (2) 35 



1478 



ADDENDA. 



persons who shall be members for the time 
being of the council ; (3) 12 persons ap- 
pointed by the council on the recom- 
mendation of the following bodies : — 
University of London 1, Church of England 
schools 2, Roman Catholic schools 1, 
Wesleyan and other schools 1, headmasters 
of secondary schools 1, assistant masters 
of secondary schools 1, elementary teachers 
1, Corporation of the City of London 1, 
City and Guilds Institute 1, City parochial 
charities 1, London trades council 1 ; and 
(4) 8 persons, of whom 5 shall be women, 
to be selected by the council ; and that 
the scheme, so amended, be approved and 
forwarded to the Board of Education for 
its approval. On division the council 
voted : for the amendment 26, against 78, 
majority for the scheme 52, which was 
adopted in its entirety . . .26 Jan. 

[On May 1, 1004, the "appointed day," the 
Act comes into operation, and dissolves 
the school board, and hands over the con- 
trol of every branch of education, elemen- 
tary, secondary, technical, and higher, to 
the county council, acting through a com- 
mittee.] 
408. EGYPT.— Surplus revenue for 1903, 25,000?. ; 
actual surplus, 90,000?., reported, 30 Nov. 
411. ELECTRICITY.— Mr. Chamberlain's speech 
on the fiscal question, at the Guildhall, re- 
produced simultaneously to a large as- 
sembly at Queen's hall by electrophone, 
19 Jan. 

Wireless Telegraphy. — New system of radio- 
telegraphy originated by prof. Alessandro 
Artom ; successful experiments made by 
Italian naval authorities, reported, 

14 Nov. 
418. ELECTRONS.— Miniature particlesof matter 
consisting of positive and negative elec- 
tricity, contained in an atom and existing 
in a state of violent movement, investigated 
by prof. Larmor, lord Kelvin, and others. 
435. ENGLAND.— Mr. Herbert Spencer dies, 
aged 83 8 Dec. 

Royal visit to Chatsworth . . 4 Jan. 

456. EXECUTIONS. — Chas. Howell, soldier, 

murder of Maud Luen, Chelmsford, 7 July, 

Thos. Porter, 29, and Thos. Preston, 24, 

murder of cons' able Wilkinson, Leicester, 

21 July, 

Leonard Pachett, 26, murder of his wife, 
Lincoln 2 8 July, 

Edward R. Palmer, 24, murder of Esther 
Swinford, a barmaid, Devizes . 17 Nov. 

Bernard White, soldier, murder of Maud 
Garrett, Chelmsford . . . 1 Dec. 

James Duffy, 46, murder of Ellen Newman, 
Durham 8 Dec. 

William Haywood, 61, murder of his wife", 
Hereford I5 Dee. 

William Brown, soldier, and Thos. Cowdrey, 
labourer, murder of Esther Atkins, Win- 
chester T 6 ]} eo _ 

Chas. W. Ashton, 19, murder of Annie 
Marshall, Hull . . . . 22 D eC- 

John Gallagher, 30, miner, and Emily Swann, 
42. murder of Wm. Swann, her husband, 
Wombwell .... 29 Dec. 

Henry Starr, 31, murder of his wife, "Black- 
Pool 29 Dec. 

467. FIJI.— Severe hurricane; great damage to 

Levuka, 6 deaths, reported . 2 r, 22 Jan. 

468. FINLAND.— Process of expulsion continued, 

43 eminent Finlandeisup to Nov. expelled, 
emigration continues . . . Aug. 

Shipping disaster on Tykojarvi lake, 40 
deaths 16 Aug. 

Extension of repressive measures ; constitu- 
tion violated, Times . . .9 Sept. 

Finnish senate opened in the Rusk an 
language 22 Oct. 

New order of the czar granting to two 
governors complete control over the elec- 
tions issued . . . . 17 Dec. 



1903 
1904 



1904 
1903 



PAOK 
469. 



FIRE BRIGADE.— International fire pre- 
vention congress opened at Earl's court 
by the lord mayor, 500 members present, 
6 July, 

Capt. Wells presented with a testimonial 
from the men of the London fire brigade 
on the occasion of his retirement, 21 July, 

FIRES. —Fire at 386, Hackney - road, 3 
deaths . . " . . . 19 Oct. 

Steam saw-mills, workshops, &c, Busby- 
street, Bethnal-green, burnt . 6 Nov. 

Fire at Messrs. Leighton, Son and Hodge, 
bookbinders, New-street-square . 23 Nov. 

Board school, East Ham, top storey de- 
stroyed, all children saved . 25 Nov. 

Messrs. T. Webb & Co., paper staining 
works, much damage, Overbury-street, 
Pedro-street, N.E. . . . n Dec. 

Large building containing a theatre, 9 shops, 
and a club-room, at Teddington, com- 
pletely destroyed by tire . . 29 Dec. 

City lands committee of the City corpora- 
tion present report opposing the proposal 
for municipal tire insurance . end Dec. 

FRANCE.— King of the Belgians received 
by M. Loubet .... 4 Sept. 

Army manoeuvres ... 16 Sept. 

Strikes : mills and factories stopped round 
Lille and Armentieres, troops called out, 
many arrests, reported . 5-13 Oct. 

Anglo-French arbitration agreement signed, 
London 14 Oct. 

Visit of the king and queen of Italy, 

14-18 Oct. 

Chambers opened, 20 Oct. ; resolution on 

M. Combe's policy against clerical and 

monarchist reactionaries, carried, 332-233, 

22 Oct. 

Great meeting against Turkish misrule in 
Armenia and Macedonia, Paris . 25 Oct. 

London international and commercial assoc. 
visit Paris 28 Oct. 

Czar's letter to M. Loubet expressing his 
pleasure at the Anglo-French arbitration 
agreement and the rapprochement with 
Italy read at the cabinet council . 30 Oct. 

Imports, 227,960,000?. ; exports, 223,880,000?. 
in 1902, reported ... 5 Nov. 

Motion for a commission of inquiry as to the 
complicity of politicians in the Humbert 
frauds carried in the chamber, 360-203, 

12 Nov. 

Amendment to the education bill excluding 
members of religious bodies, whether 
authorised or unauthorised, from teaching, 
passed by the senate, i47-i_,6 . 20 Nov. 

Visit of British M.P.'s . 25 Nov. et seq. 

Second revision of the Dreyfus case decided 
upon ; commission appointed by M. Valle, 
minister of justice, announced . 27 Nov. 

Patrie, battleship, launched at La Seyne, 

17 Dec. 

Budget as voted by the chamber passed the 
senate, 276-17 . . . -30 Dec. 

Baron Arthur de Rothschild, died 10 Dec. ; 
he bequeathed his valuable collection of 
paintings to the Louvre, and collection 
of ancient rings to the Cluny museum, 
reported 31 Dec. 

FREE LABOUR ASSOCIATION. — Con- 
gress in London, opened . . 26 Oct. i 

FREti TRADE. —The new fiscal scheme 
criticised by sirWm. Harcourt at Rawten- 
stall, 31 Oct., and by Mr. John Morley at 
Nottingham 3 Nov. 1 

Sir M. Hicks-Beach, at Manchester, speaks 
in favour of free trade . . .5 Nov. 

Mr. Chamberlain speaks at Bingley-hall, 
Birmingham 6 Nov. 

Lord Goschen addresses the Liverpool 
chamber of commerce, and opposes Mr. 
Chamberlain's policy ; sir H. Campbell- 
Bannerman speaks at Meiglo . 7 Nov. 

Lord Balfour of Burleigh addresses a 
unionist free trade meeting at Glasgow, 
and Mr. Asquith speaks at Worcester, 

9 Nov. 



ADDENDA. 



1479 



Mr. Balfour at the Dolphin Colston banquet 
at Bristol, supported by sir M. Hicks- 
Beach, defines his policy on the fiscal 

question I3 Nov. 

Mr. Chamberlain addresses a great meeting 

at Cardiff 20 Nov. and Newport . 21 Nov. 

Duke of Devonshire and lord Goschen speak 

at Queen's hall under the auspices of the 

free food league . . . .24 Nov. 

Lord Rosebery speaks at the Surrey theatre, 

25 Nov. 
Sir H. Campbell-Bannerman speaks at New- 
port 30 Nov. 

Mr. Ritchie speaks at Croydon . 3 Dec. 

Imperial tariff committee issue a series of 
leaflets dealing with Mr. Chamberlain's 
fiscal proposals as affecting agriculturists, 
4 Dec. 
Central and associated chambers of agricul- 
ture at annual general meeting adopt Mr. 
Rider Haggard's resolution supporting 
Mr. Chamberlain's policy . . 9 Dec. 
Sir William Harcourt speaks at Tredegar, 

11 Dec. 

Lord Rosebery addresses a great free trade 

demonstration in Edinburgh . 12 Dec. 

Australasian Chamber of Commerce in 

London passes a resolution in favour of 

the principle of inter-imperial preferential 

tariffs 15 Dec. 

Mr. Chamberlain addresses two large meet; 
ings at Leeds, closing "his first provincial 

campaign " 16 Dec. 

Duke of Devonshire expresses his opinion 
that any elector who sympathises with 
the objects of the free food league would 
be well advised to decline to give his sup- 
port to any candidate who expresses his 
sympathy with Mr. Chamberlain's fiscal 
policy. The duke's advice concurred in 
by lord Balfour of Burleigh, lord Geo. 
Hamilton, lord Goschen, Mr. Ritchie, and 
lord James of Hereford. Lord Cowper 
and other unionists criticise the duke of 
Devonshire's advice to the party, mid Dec. 
Conference of liberals at Westminster resolve 
to form a liberal tariff league . 23 Dec. 
Lord Rosebery speaks at Edinburgh, 5 Jan. i 
Correspondence, beginning with a letter from 
the duke of Devonshire to Mr. Chamber- 
lain, dated 23 Oct. 1903, and terminating 
with letter from Mr. Chamberlain, 2 Jan. 
1904, on the position of the liberal unionist 
association in reference to the fiscal ques- 
tion ; the duke's opinion that the associa- 
tion should be dissolved opposed by Mr. 
Chamberlain, published . . early Jan. 
First meeting of Mr. Chamberlain's tariff 

commission 15 Jan. 

(See Preferential Tariffs, Addenda). 
Mr. Chamberlain concludes his first tariff 
reform campaign by addressing a great 
gathering of London citizens in the Guild- 
hall, and an overflow meeting in the 
Guildhall-yard . . . -19 Jan. 
Duke of Devonshire speaks at a demonstra- 
tion of the free food league at Liverpool, 
and replies to the charge of breaking up 
the liberal unionist party on the fiscal 

question 19 Jan. 

FRENCH WEST- AFRICA.— Territory on 
the right bank of the Lower Senegal 
annexed to French colonial possessions by 
submission of the tribes, announced, Aug. 1 
FRIENDLY SOCIETIES. -50,000 thrift or- 
ganisations ; membership about 27,000,000 ; 
funds about 360,000,000?., reported, Sept. 1 
FROGMORE. — The queen's memorial to 
queen Victoria, a statue of the Saviour, 
about 17 ft. high, sent from Denmark, 
erected at the royal mausoleum, reported, 
7 Nov. 1 
FRUITS. — Departmental committee ap- 
pointed by the president of the board of 
agriculture and fisheries to inquire into 
and report on the present position of fruit 
culture in Gt. Britain, announced, 30 Dec. 1 



PAGE 

557- 



559- 
564- 



584. 

587- 

59 1 - 
596. 
6oi. 

605. 
605. 



GERMANY. — Visit of the emperor to Vienna, 

18-20 Sept. 1903 
Army scandal : 50 officers, 525 non-commis- 
sioned officers and 52 others convicted 
between 8 July, 1902, and S July, 1903, for 
ill-treatment of soldiers ; Breitenbach sen- 
tenced to 8 years' imprisonment . 20 Sept. „ 
Dippold, a domestic tutor, sentenced to 8 
years' imprisonment and deprivation of 
civil rights for 10 years, for torturing and 
causing the death of his pupil Heinz Loch 
by excessive flogging . . . 9 Oct. ,, 
Death of Gustav von Moser, dramatist, aged 

78 23 Oct. „ 

Congress of non-socialist democratic work- 
men at Frankfort ... 25 Oct. ,, 
Battleship Preusse n launched at Stettin, 3 1 Oct. , , 
Death of prof. Mommsen, aged 85 . 1 Nov. „ 
Meeting of the emperor and czar at Wies- 
baden and Darmstadt . 4, 5 Nov. ,, 
Successful operation for polypus in the 

throat performed on the emperor . 7 Nov. ,, 
Imports, 290,288,800?. ; exports, 240,641, 650I. 

in 1902 Nov. ,, 

Lieut. Bilse sentenced to 6 months' imprison- 
ment for libelling officers in a novel, uNov. ,, 

Elections 12 Nov. ,, 

Financial estimates ; increased expenditure 
of 2,185,304?. ; proposed loan of 10,735,667?. 

1 Dec. ,, 
Reichstag meets .... 3 Dec. ,, 
Debate on the estimates . . 9, 10 Dec. ,, 
Franzky, a non-commissioned officer, sen- 
tenced to 5 years' imprisonment and de- 
gradation for maltreatment of soldiers in 
1,520 cases ; lieut. Schilling to 15 months' 
for 600 offences of a similar nature, 15 Dec. ,, 
Emperor congratulates the German legion 
"on having saved the British army from 
destruction at Waterloo " . . 19 Dec. ,, 
GIBRALTAR.— Death of Dr. Sandford, bp. 
of Gibraltar, 9 Dec. ; succeeded by dr. 
Wm. E. Collins . . . .19 Dec. 1903 
GLASGOW. — Free trade demonstration, 

13 Oct. 1903 
Great fire at warehouses in Buchanan-street, 

damage estimated 150,000?. . 6 Nov. ,, 
Industrial exhibition in Denistoun opened, 

9 Dec. ,, 
Launch of battleship Hindustan . 19 Dec. ,, 
GOLD. — World's production, 1902, estimated 

value, 61,260,000?. 
GREECE. — Mr. Francis Elliot appointed 
British minister in succession to sir E. H. 

Egerton 9 Nov. 1903 

Return of the king after his continental tour, 

27 Nov. ,, 
Ministerial crisis ; resignation of M. Ralli, 
premier, 16 Dec; cabinet formed by M. 

Theotokis 18 Dec. „ 

GRESHAM COLLEGE.— Sir Evelyn Wood 
opens the new Gresham school buildings 
(cost 40,000?.) at Holt, Norfolk . 30 Sept. 1903 
GUATEMALA. — Railway joining the cen- 
tral, southern, and western departments, 

opened 21 Nov. 1903 

GUNPOWDER.— Explosion of nitro-glyce- 
rine at Faversham, Kent; 1 death, several 

injured 9 Nov. 1903 

HAGUE, THE. — Venezuela arbitration tribu- 
nal, president, M. Muravieff, meets, 1 Oct. 1903 
HASTINGS.— Visit of the Norman society, 

19 Aug. 1903 
HERALDRY.— Death of sir Albert Wm. 
Woods, Garter Principal King of Arms 
from 1869, aged 87 . . . 7 Jan. 1904 
HIGH TREASON.—" Colonel " Lynch re- 
leased "on license" . . . 23 Jan. 1904 
HIMALAYA.— Dr. and Mrs. Bullock Work- 
man explore five new peaks and four 
glaciers to the W. and S. W. of the Hunza 
Nagar valley ; two snow peaks were 
ascended from the head of the Choga 
Loongma glacier; first peak 22,568 ft. high, 
was reached by Mrs. Bullock Workman, the 
second peak by dr. Bullock Workman and 
two guides, to a height of 23,394 ft., 12 Aug. 1903 



1480 



ADDENDA. 



PAGE 

611. 

615. 
616. 
616. 



618. 
622. 



631. 



653- 

655- 
658. 



658. 
673- 
687. 



HOME READING UNION.— Founded 1889, 
pres. H.R.H. the duchess of Argyll. 

HOSPITAL SUNDAY.— Total for 1903, 
64,975?. 

Hospital Saturday.— 10 Oct. 1903 ; total 
to 12 Dec. 16,628?. 9s. id. 

HOSPITALS.— Duchess of Albany lays a 
memorial stone at the Royal Waterloo 
hospital . ."'.'. .26 Oct. 

Hon. W. F. D. Smith, m.p., presents a new 
site for King's College hospital at Denmark - 
hill, announced . . . .15 Dec. 

King Edward's Hospital fund : 10,000?. from 
the League of Mercy, reported . 24 Dec. 

HULL. — Great tire and complete destruction 
of Messrs. Walker and Smith's oil-crushing 
mill, estimated damage 40,000?. . 24 Jan. 

HUNGARY. — Count Tisza's programme 
formally received by the chamber, 5 Nov. ; 
his speech on Hungarian constitutional 
rights much commended . . 18 Nov. 

Count Albert Apponyi and others withdraw 
from the liberals, 26 Nov. ; continued ob- 
struction in the chamber 28 Nov.-i Dec. 

Crisis ends : M. Kossuth and other members 
of the independent party oppose further 
obstruction ; declarations exchanged by 
M. Kossuth and Count Tisza . 5 Dec. 

IMPORTS. — 1903, 542,900,000?. ; 1902, for 
797, 000, coo?, read. 528,400,000?. 

INDIA. — Budget: 3,190,000?. surplus realised 
April, 1903, salt tax to be reduced 25 per 
cent.; exemption from income tax raised 
from 33?. to 66?.; available surplus after 
such deductions, 950,000?., 1903-4, 13 Aug. 

Death of Umra, Khan of Jandoul, reported, 

28 Aug. 
Resignation of lord Geo. Hamilton, sec. for 

India, announced . . .18 Sept. 

Total number of persons killed in 1902 by 

wild animals, 2,836 ; by snake bites, 

23,166, reported ... 21 Oct. 
About 20,000,000 acres irrigated in 1902 ; 

value of crops raised 28,000,000?., reported, 

mid Oct. 

Death of Rao Bahadur Moodelliar, merchant 

prince and philanthropist of South India, 

29 Oct. 
Accident to lord Kitchener at Simla, 16 Nov. 
Lord Curzon's tour in the Sikh states ends 

11 Nov.; he visits Muscat and Persian gulf 
ports .... 18 N0V.-7 Dec. 

Indian national congress meets in Madras, 

29 Dec. 

INOCULATION.— Anti-typhoid inoculation 
introduced by prof. Wright successfully 
used in the army in India and S. Africa 
1898-1901, Times .... 9 Oct. 

INTERNATIONAL LAW.— Conference of 
the Institute met at Antwerp . 29 Sept. 

INUNDATIONS. -Destructive floods in the 
Tyne valley, N. Yorks., N. Lines, and 
N. Wales 8-10 Oct. 

Floods in Italy and heavy rains, reported, 

1 Nov. 

Floods in the valley of the Thames and other 
parts of the country, occasioned by the 
heavy rains . during Oct. and' Nov. 

Destructive floods in Mysore, Vanizambadi 
town half ruined, 200 deaths . 12 Nov. 

Floods in St. Petersburg . . 25 Nov. 

Heavy floods in South Italy . . 5 Dec. 

INVERNESS.— Highland Jacobite exhibi- 
tion, over 200,000 visitors, closed 26 Sept. 

IRELAND. — Estates commissioners under 
the new land act, appointed . 19 Sept. 

ITALY. — Imports, 1902, 74,615,568?. ; ex- 
ports, 57,810,544? Nov. 

Vote of confidence in the government pro- 
gramme passed in the chamber, 2S4-117, 
3 Dec. 

Budget ; estimated surplus for 1903, over 
6,000,000 lire .... 9 Dec. 

Death of signor Zanardelli, ex-premier, 

26 Dec. 

Anglo-Italian arbitration treaty reported in 
preparation 27 Hie. 



1903 
1903 



1903 
1903 
1903 



Library of the university of Turin burnt, 

25 Jan. 
694. JAPAN. — Parliament opened by the em- 
peror ; ministry censured in the lower 
house, 10 Dec. ; house dissolved by em- 
peror 11 Dec. 

Unsatisfactory reply of Russia to Japanese 
Corean proposals, received . .11 Dec. 

Japanese reply to Russian proposals ; in- 
creasing tension ... 22 Dec. 

War preparations ; two Argentine warships 
bought by Japan ; imperial ordinances 
issued 28, 29 Dec. 

Japan obtains unlimited credit for military 
defence ; military and naval preparations 
for war pressed forward . . 29 Dec. 

Reported Japanese warning to the powers 
that she will tight if her "demands are not 
conceded ; mobilization of troops, 31 Dec. 

Russia vaguely states her intention to re- 
spect Japanese rights in Manchuria, but 
repeats her request for the neutralization 
of a third part of the territory of Corea, 

6 Jan. 

Japanese reply, claiming an " open door" in 
Manchuria, demands perfect equality in 
all respects for her subjects in that pro- 
vince ; and absolutely declines the proposal 
for a diplomatic partition of Corea, 13 Jan. 

Ordinance issued at Tokio empowering the 
government to take over all private rail- 
way lines for military purposes . 25 Jan. 

701. JEWS. — Estimated population of the Jews 

in the world 1903, 11,000,000 ; in Palestine, 
60,000 ; in London, 104,000. 

702. JOAN OF ARC— Canonized at St. Peter's, 

Rome 6 Jan. 

712. KIEFF. — Student riots (see Russia), 

2, 16 Nov. 

715. KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON. —The re- 
moval of the hospital from Portugal-street 
having been decided upon by the council, 
hon. F. W. Smith, M.P., gives site at Den- 
mark-hill for the new building. Donations 
to the removal fund : Annie Zunz fund, 
io,oco?. ; Daily Telegraph, 500?. ; Mr. H. 
Lloyd, of the Daily Chronicle, 500?., re- 
ported 22 Dec. 

721. LADYSMITH— Partial inundation of the 
town by sudden and extraordinary rising of 
the Klipp river . . . .22 Jan. 

747. LIVERPOOL. — Inauguration of the univer- 
sity of Liverpool ... 7 Nov. 

761. LONDON, UNIVERSITY OF. — 50,000?. 

given anonymously to University college 
for the promotion of higher scientific edu- 
cation and research . . . early Dec. 
Appeal of the senate for funds to build and 
endow an Institute of Medical Science, 

21 Jan. 

762. LONG kVITY.— Mme. De Paepe died, aged 

102 25 Oct., 

Mrs. Mary Paliner Forster died at Hether- 
sett, nr. Norwich, aged 102 . 30 Nov., 

Pat Dwyer, died at Moyne, co. Tipperary, 

' aged 100, reported . . .26 Jan. 

772. MACEDONIA. — Macedonian relief fund 

started in London, reported Times, 9 Oct. 

Karamanitza, on the Bulgarian frontier, 
attacked by the Turks, S Oct. ; much fight- 
ing, work of depopulation and destruction 
continues, reported . . 15, 16 Oct. 

Turco - Bulgarian demobilization on the 
frontier, reported . , about 20 Oct. 

Turkish post at Merkaze captured . 21 Oct. 

Turkish atrocities confirmed ; great suffering 
amongst refugees in Bulgaria, Oct. : con- 
tinuance of barbarities in the Raslog 
district, reported .... 2 Nov. 

A number of Bulgarians killed in European 
Turkey from 15 April to Nov. 1903 ; some 
120 villages destroyed, over 60,000 per- 
sons homeless ; acute distress, reported, 
13 Nov. 

Austro-Russian amended reform scheme pre- 
sented to Turkey (which see) 22 Oct., 
accepted by the porte . . .25 Nov. 



1904 
1903 



1904 
1903 



1904 
1903 



1004 
1903 



ADDENDA. 



14S1 



1904 



1903 



1903 



1903 



1903 



Fighting between Turkish troops and insur- 
gents, casualties on both sides, reported, 
26 Jan. 

781. MALTA. — Protest of members of the council 

against the new constitution ; they resign 
12 Sept. ; other resignations . 23 Oct. 
,, New council opened by the governor, 

11 Nov. 

782. MAN, ISLE OP.— Parliament dissolved, 

31 Oct. 

784. MANCHESTER.— First session of the new 

Victoria university opens . . 1 Oct. 

785. MANCHURIA. — Mukden reoccupied by 

Russian troops (see Japan and China), 

28 Oct. 
S17. MINES.— Value of total mineral produces of 
the United Kingdom in 1902, 107,134,854?. 
Miners' Federation of Great Britain annual 
. conference at Glasgow . . 8 Oct, 
818. MINT. — Number of pieces struck. Imperial. 
gold, 1902, 9,062,971 ; 1903, 11,410,684 ; 
silver, 1902, 26,270,996 ; 1903, 15,017,245 ; 
bronze, 1902, 45,774,848 ; total, 1902, 
81,108,815; I 9 3 3i 64,625,305. Colonial: 
silver, 1902, 32,665,735 ; 1903, 40,820,415 ; 
bronze, 1902, 8,360,000 ; 1903, 9,000,000 ; 
nickel, 1902, 252,000 ; 1903, 252,000 ; total, 
1902, 41,277,735 ; 1903, 50,072,415 ; totals, 
1902, 122,386,550; 1903, 114,697,720. 
820. MOROCCO. — Kl Menebhi, war minister, 
resigns ; is succeeded by Sid Mohammed 
Guebbas .... end Nov. 
Outrages on the Jews by government troops 
on reoccupation of Tesa, reported 1 Dec. 
Settat looted and burnt by tribesmen, re- 
ported 24 Dec. 

831. MOTOR CARRIAGES.— Mr. Glidden, an 

American, reached the arctic circle in his 

motor, from Stockholm . . 16 Aug. 

Motor speed trials at Southport . 2 Oct. 

Motor exhibition opened at Paris . 10 Dec. 

833. MUSCAT.— Visit of lord Curzon . 18 Nov. 

841. NASHVILLE.— Fire at the Central Ten- 

nessee College (negress), 4 killed, 12 fatally 
injured 18 Dec. 

842. NATAL. — Parliament prorogued until 21 

Jan. 1904 24 Sept. 

Imports 1903, value 15,164,000?. ; exports, 
10,215,000?. ; increase over 1902 of 1,634,748?. 
and 1,058, 632?. respectively. 

856. NAVY. — Theadmiralty purchase the Libertad 
and Constitution cruisers, under construc- 
tion for the Chilian government, for 

1,875,000? 3 Dec. 1903 

'[Re-named Swiftsure and Triumph.] 
Cruiser Flora goes ashore off Vancouver, 
3 Dec. ; successfully floated, 10 Dec. ; 
arrives at Victoria, B.C. . . 14 Dec. „ 
Important regulations issued, giving the 
fleet younger admirals and captains, and 
accelerating promotion, to take effect from 
1 July, 1903, and be completed 31 Dec. 
1907. The number of years after their last 
service when officers are to be retired under 
the old and the new regulations will be as 
follows : — Admirals, old regulations, 7 
years ; new regulations, 5 years; vice-adm., 
o.r., 7, n.r., 5; rear-adm., o.r., 7, n.r., 3 J ; 
captains, o.r., 6, n.r., 3 ; commanders and. 
lieuts., o.r., 5, n.r., 3. The future strength 
of the different ranks under the old order 
of 1898 and the new order of 1903 com- 
pares thus : — Adm. of fleet, 1898, 3, 1907, 3; 
adm. , 12, 12 ; vice-adm., 22, 22; rear-adm., 
43i 55 > total, 80, 94 ; captains, 245, 252 ; 
commanders, 360, 373 ; the increase over 
existing numbers to be made by annual 
instalments and completed in 1907 ; pub- 
lished 14 Dec. „ 

Hindustan, battleship, launched at Glasgow, 

19 Dec. ,, 
Roxburgh, cruiser, launched at Glasgow. 

19 Jan. 

861. NEWCASTLE.— Mr. T. Gurney bequeaths 

20,000?. to charities ; he died . 3 Dec. 1903 

869. NEW SOUTH WALES.— Deficit for. 1902, 

324,000?. ; surplus 33,000?. lor . . . 1903 



PAGE 
873. 



875- 



1903 



1903 



I9°3 



i9°3 
1903 



1904 



906, 



908 



NEW YORK.— Greatest rainfall recorded by 
New York weather bureau since its founda- 
tion in 1867, destructive floods . 8 Oct. 1903 
Fire in nth Avenue, 25 deaths, many injured, 

1 Nov. ,, 
Suspension bridge over the East river 

(10,000,000 dols. cost), opened . 19 Dec. ,, 
NEW ZEALAND.— Naval defence bill 

passed 12 Nov. 1903 

Preferential (British goods) trade bill passes 
house of representatives, 50-16, and legis- 
lative council unanimously ; 15,000?. voted 
by house of representatives to Victoria 
memorial in London, 17,0001. additional as 
subsidy to S. African steam service and 
5,000?. to promote the sales of N. Zealand 
meat in England ... 20 Nov. ,, 
NIGER COAST, Southern Nigeria.— Re- 
volt among the Eket tribes . Sept. 1903 
Expedition under maj. Mackenzie successful; 
N'doite, king of Agoi, and people surrender, 

12 Oct. ,, 
Mr. W. Egerton appointed commissioner, 

early Nov. ,, 
Revenue, 1902. 261,815?. ; expenditure, 

33 1, 396 1. , reported . . . Dec. ,, 

Lt. Cecil Amyatt-Burney killed in the Bassa 
province, N. Nigeria, by the Okpotos, 

mid. Dec. „ 
Report of sir F. Lugard on Northern 
Nigeria for 1902, and the Kano campaign in 
1903, issued early .... Jan. 1904 
NORWAY.— Storthing opened by the king, 

19 Oct. 1903 
Resignation of the Blehr ministry ; coali- 
tion cabinet formed by prof. Hagerup, 

21, 22 Oct. ,, 
Great fire at Aalesund, major part of the 
town destroyed, 1 1,000 persons homeless, 

23 Jan. 1904 
NURSES. — Women's memorial to queen 
Victoria ; the endowment of queen Victoria's 
jubilee institute, which she herself founded 
with the 70,000?. presented to her by the 
women of Gt. Britain on the occasion of 
her jubilee, reported complete grand total, 
156,000?. ; about 4,000,000 contributors to 

the fund 22 Dec. 1903 

ORANGE RIVER COLONY.— Legislative 
council opened ; sir H. Gould-Adams re- 
ferred to the drought, the severest in the 
colony since 1862, and the labour difficulty 
which had affected railway construction ; 
finances of the colony most satisfactory, 
large surplus over the estimates, which 
would be partly devoted to paying the 
contribution of 80,000?. towards the inter- 
colonial deficits ... 26 Nov. 1903 
Bursting of a reservoir at Bloemfontein, 23 
deaths, and great destruction of property, 

17 Jan. 1904 
OTTAWA.— University of Ottawa, one of 
the largest R. Catholic institutions in 
America, totally destroyed by fire, esti- 
mated loss 500,000 dols. . . 2 Dec. 1903 
OXFORD UNIVERSITY.— Mr. J. W. Cud- 
worth (died 21 Nov. 1903) bequeaths 
70,000?. to the Dr. Pusey library, an- 
nounced 25 Dec. 1903 

PANAMA. — Concessions by Colombia re- 
jected, reported . . . .20 Nov. 1903 
Canal (neutral) treaty : by its terms Panama 
to receive 250,000 dols. annually, and 
10,000,000 dols. on ratification of the treaty 
signed at Washington, 18 Nov. ; ratified, 

2 Dec. ,, 
Colombian troops landed at the mouth of the 
Altrato, subsequently withdrawn, reported, 

9, n Dec. ,, 
Great Britain recognizes the new republic, 

24 Dec. ,, 
PATRIOTIC FUND CORPORATION, 
ROYAL. — The following members ap- 
pointed, Dec. 1903, under the provisions of 
the Patriotic Fund Reorganization act, 1903, 



1482 



ADDENDA. 



F.M. the duke of Coimanght (president of 
the council), lt.-col. lord B. Talbot, M.P., 
sirJas. Bell, bt., sir F. Mowatt, It. -gen. 
sir T. Kelly-Kenny, sir R. D. Awdry, col. 
sir Jas. Gildea, F. T. Marzials, W. Hayes 
Fisher, M.P., H. E. Kearley, M.P., D. J. 
Shackletoii, M.P., C. H. R. Stansfield. 
937. PEACE. — International peace congress meet 
at the hotel de Ville, Rouen ; about 100 
French and foreign delegates present ; 
M. Arnaud of Paris appointed president ; 
addresses by the prince of Monaco, Mine. 
Severine, and others ; resolutions carried 
exhorting the powers to stop the cruelties 
in Macedonia . . . 22-24 Sept. 1903 
Peace society meets in Queen's hall, London, 

27 Oct. „ 
941. PENNSYLVANIA— 35 Italians killed, 32 
injured by conflagration of a large shanty 

at Lilly 21 Nov. 1903 

945. PERSIA.— Sudden and suspicious death of 
the Hakim-el-Mulk, one of the principal 
rivals of the grand vizier . early Sept. 1903 
Banishment of the grand vizier, the Atabey 
Azam, 15 Sept. ; succeeded by the Ain-ed- 
Dowleh, cousin and son-in-law of the shah, 
stated to be hostile to foreigners, reported 

29 Sept. ,, 
Favourable reception of lord Curzon on his 
tour to the Gulf ports . 24 N0V.-7 Dec. ,, 
952. PHILIPPINE ISLES.— Defeat of insurgents 

in Jolo, 75 killed . . . .20 Nov. 1003 
Condition of the archipelago more favourable 
than at any period of its history ; record 
crop of hemp, 1,000,000 bales produced in 
1903 ; sugar and tobacco showed an in- 
crease over 1902 . . . 24 Dec. ,, 
962. PLAGUE. —Plague in the Punjab, 130,000 

deaths March-April, 1903 

Rats proved to be a means of spreading 
plague ; 185,982 killed in Thames docks, 
&c, during 1902 ; 249,718 killed up to 

1 Nov. ,, 
Plague in Mauritius : many deaths, 3 Sept.- 

Nov. 1903; 170 deaths, 24 Nov. to 17 Dec. ,, 
Plague in China, many deaths at Niuchwang, 

reported Sept. ,, 

971. POLAND.— Gen. Tchertkoff, governor-gen., 

removed for maladministration . Dec. 1903 
974. POLYTECHNIC— New wing (i6,oooZ. cost) 
of the Northern Polytechnic, Holloway, 
opened by lord Londonderry . 28 Oct. 1903 
982. POPE.— Abbe Loisy's works placed on the 

" Index Expurgatorius " . 16, 17 Dec. 1903 
989. PORTUGAL.— King Alfonso of Spain visits 

Lisbon IO -i 4 Dec. 1903 

993. POST-OFFICE.— Inland money orders raised 
from limit of iol. to 40I. ; important con- 
cessions to the half-penny inland post, 
both regulations came into operation, 
~„ 1 Jan. 1004 

1005. PREFERENTIAL TARIFFS. — The ques- 
tion of preferential trade with the colonies 
had its inception in a speech delivered by 
Mr. Joseph Chamberlain at Birmingham, 

15 May, 1903 
Speech by lord Rosebery, 19 May ; and by 
Mr. Asquith, criticising adversely Mr. 
Chamberlain's fiscal proposals . 21 May, ,, 
I For principal speeches pro and con., see 

Free Trade.) 
Debate in the house of commons on Mr. 
Chamberlain's proposals for preferential 

tariffs 2 8 May, „ 

On the debate on the budget, sir M. Hicks- 
Beach, Mr. Ritchie, and Mr. A. R. D. 
Elliot declare their adhesion to the prin- 
ciples of free trade . . . 9 June, ,, 
Debate on fiscal policy in the house of lords, 

15 June, ,, 
Mr. Chamberlain, in a speech at the Consti- 
tutional club, declares Mr. Balfour's 
leadership to be essential to the unionist 
party ... . . . 26 June, ,, 

Free food league formed . . 13 July, ,, 

Tariff reform league inaugurated . 21 July, ,, 



Great demonstration in St. James's hall 
against protection . . .29 July, 1903 

Mr. Balfour's pamphlet, " Insular Free 
Trade," published . . .15 Sept. „ 

" Fiscal Inquiry," blue-book, published by 
board of trade ... 16 Sept. ,, 

Cabinet crisis on fiscal question, resignation 
of Mr. Chamberlain, Mr. Ritchie, and lord 
Geo. Hamilton, 17 Sept. ; lord Balfour of 
Burleigh and Mr. A. R. D. Elliot, 20 Sept. „ 

Mr. Balfour speaks at Sheffield and advocates 
retaliation 1 Oct. ,, 

Resignation of the duke of Devonshire on 
the fiscal question ... 5 Oct. ,, 

Mr. Chamberlain opens his fiscal campaign at 
Glasgow 6 Oct. „ 

Duke of Devonshire becomes president, and 
lord Geo. Hamilton and Mr. Ritchie vice- 
presidents of the free food league, 

16 Oct. ,, 

Duke of Devonshire issues a letter advising 
free trade unionists not to support tariff 
reform candidates . . . . 11 Dec. ,, 

Mr. Chamberlain's Tariff Commission ap- 
pointed, 16 Dec. 1903 ; the complete list of 
members, representing the most important 
trades in the United Kingdom and colonies 
(first meeting, 15 Jan. 1904) : — 

Colonel Charles Allen ; Mr. Frederick Baynes ; 
Mr. J. Henry Birchenough; Mr. Charles 
Booth ; Mr. Henry Bostock ; Mr. S. B. 
Boulton ; Mr. Richard Burbidge ; sir 
Vincent Caillard ; Mr. J. J. Candlish ; Mr. 
Chaplin, M.P. ; sir John A. Cockburn ; 
Mr. J. Howard Colls ; Mr. J. G. Colmer, 
C.M.G. ; Mr. William Cooper; Mr. J. A. 
Corah; Mr. J. W. Dennis: Mr. Charles 
Eckersley ; Mr. Francis Elgar ; sir Charles 
A. Elliott : Mr. Lewis Evans ; Mr. George 
Flett; Mr. Thomas Gallaher: the hon. 
Vicary Gibbs, M.P. ; Mr. Alfred Gilbey ; 
Mr. William Goulding ; Mr. W. H. Gren- 
fell, M.P. ; Mr. John M. Harris ; Mr. F. 
Leverton Harris, M.P. ; Mr. W. Harrison : 
sir Alexander Henderson, M.P. ; sir Robert 
Herbert, G.C.B. (chairman); sir Alfred 
Hickman, M.P. ; sir Alfred L. Jones ; Mr. 
Arthur Keen ; Mr. J. J. Keswick ; sir W. 
T. Lewis ; Mr. I. Levenstein ; Mr. Robert 
Littlejohn ; Mr. Charles Lyle : Mr. A. W. 
Maconochie, M.P. ; Mr. Henry D. Mar- 
shall ; Mr. W. H. Mitchell ; Mr. Alfred 
Mosely, C.M.G. ; sir Andrew Noble; the 
hon. Charles Parsons ; sir Walter Peace ; 
Mr. C. Arthur Pearson ; sir Westby Per- 
ceval ; Mr. C. J. Phillips ; Mr. Joseph 
Rank ; Mr. R. H. Reade ; sir George 
Ryder ; sir S. Clementi Smith ; sir Charles 
Tennant ; Mr. Francis Tonsley ; sir John 
Turney: Mr. S. J. Waring, jun., and Mr. 
W. Bridges Webb. Sec, Mr. W. A. S. 
' Hewins, assisted by Mr. Percy A. Hurd. 
Mr. Chamberlain addresses a large meeting of 
London citizens in the Guildhall ; exhorts 
them to "learn to think imperially," 19 Jan. 1904 
Duke of Devonshire speaks at a free food 
league demonstration in Liverpool, 19 Jan. „ 

1013. PRUSSIA.— Elections for the chamber, 

12 Nov. 1903 

1014. PUBLIC HEALTH ACTS.— Death rate per 

1,000 17 Oct. i5"8; 14 Nov., i7'9. 12 Dec, 

1903, I9'2. 

1026. RACES.— Rock Sand (owner sir J. Millar) 
won the Two Thousand Guineas, 29 April, 
the Derby, 27 May, and the St. Leger, 

9 Sept. 1903 

Death of prince Dimitri Soltykon", well- 
known sportsman and member of the 
jockey club, aged 75 . . . 21 Nov. ,, 

Winners of principal races in 1903. — Liverpool 
Gland Nat., Mr. Morrison's Drumcree; City 
and Suburban, M. Euphrussi's Brambilla ; 
Two Thousand Guineas, sir J. Millar's 
Rock Sand ; Chester Cup, Mr. G. Thursby's 
Vendale ; Manchester Cup, lord Howard de 
Walden's Zinfandel ; the Derby, sir J. 
Millar's Rock Sand ; the Oaks, Mr. J. B. 



ADDENDA. 



1483 



Joel's Our Lassie ; Ascot Stakes, Mr. H. E. 
Randall's Genius ; Royal Hunt Cup, Mr. 
L. de Rothschild's Kunster ; Northumber- 
land Plate, Mr. C. Perkin's Cliftonhall ; 
Eclipse Stakes (Sandown), Mr. G. Gub- 
bins's Ard Patrick ; Stewards' Cup (Good- 
wood), Mr. G. A. Prentice's Dumbarton 
Castle ; Great Ebor Handicap, Mr. J. 
Musker's McYardley ; St. Leger, sir J. 
Millar's Rock Sand ; Cesarewitch, Mr. W. 
A. Bass's Grey Tick ; Middle Park Plate, 
maj. Loder's Pretty Polly ; Cambridge- 
shire, capt. Forester's Hackler's Pride ; 
Liverpool Autumn Cup, Mr. Baird Hay's 
Palmy Days; Manchester November Handi- 
cap, Mr. B. Ellam's Switch Cap. 
RADIUM. — This new, and extremely rare, 
metal is found in combination with 
chlorine and bromine, as radium chloride 
and radium bromide. It is obtained in 
very minute quantities from pitchblende 
after the metal uranium has been ex- 
tracted. The principle of radio-activity 
was discovered by M. Becquerel in Paris in 
1896, from the study of uranium, and Mme. 
Sklodowska Curie's investigation of this 
metal when taking up the subject of radio- 
activity as the thesis for her doctorate 
degree led to the discovery of radium, 
Mme. Curie being assisted in her experi- 
ments by M. Curie. The discovery of the - 
new metal was communicated by M. Curie 
to the Academy of Sciences, Paris, in 
March, 1903, and on 19 June of the same year 
M. Curie gave a demonstration of this 
new substance at the Royal Institution, 
London. Investigations of the properties 
and phenomena exhibited by radium have 
also been carried on by M. Becquerel, prof. 
Rutherford, sir Wm. Ramsay, Mr. Soddy, 
prof. J. J. Thompson, sir Wm. Crookes, 
and others. Radium possesses the extra- 
ordinary property of continually producing 
heat without combustion, and spontane- 
ously producing electricity, and maintains 
its own temperature, 1-5° Cent, or 27 
Fahr. above its surroundings. It gives off 
an emanation or gas which shines by its 
own light, resembling in appearance that 
of the glowworm. This emanation, under 
the cold of liquid air, condenses and leaves 
behind a rare gas, helium, an element exist- 
ing in the sun, and, next to hydrogen, the 
lightest matter known, the atomic weight 
of radium being 225 (on the scale hydro- 
gen =1). It is supposed that radium is an 
element breaking up, and in its dissolution 
giving out energy. Three kinds of rays are 
continually in a state of radiation, and are 
known as the alpha, beta, and gamma rays. 
The alpha rays consist of atoms of matter, 
each 1 per cent, of the weight of a radium 
atom, projected with an enormous velo- 
city, but can be stopped by a thin sheet 
of metal ; these are the projectiles which 
are rendered, visible on a chemical screen, as 
the zinc sulphide screen in sir Wm. Crookes' 
ingenious spinthariscope. The beta rays 
consist of flying or escaped electrons, atoms 
of atoms, a thousand times smaller than 
anything else known, and possess the 
power of penetrating most metals. The 
gamma rays, also very penetrating, are pro- 
bably a variety of the X rays. Radium has 
been detected in the deposit of the hot 
mineral waters of Bath and Buxton,pointing 
to its existence in considerable quantities in 
the interior of the earth. As a therapeutic 
agent, radium rays are being used in cases 
of cancer, lupus, and other skin diseases, 
and also appear to have a bactericidal 
action in certain cases. Experiments made 
by M. Danysz in Feb. 1903 et seq., at the 
Pasteur institute, on the action of radium 
on larvas, demonstrated the power of the 
rays to suspend or modify functional deve- 
lopments. Experiments on various low 



1038 



1065. 



1074. 
i°75- 



HOC 

1 106. 



forms of life have a!so been made by 
M. Bohn, at the biological laboratories of 
the Sorbonne, with remarkable results. 
M. and Mme. Curie have been the reci- 
pients of various honours in recognition 
of their eminent services to scientific 
research. 

RAILWAY ACCIDENTS. — Mrs. Booth- 
Tucker fatally injured in an accident at 
Dean lake, Missouri, U.S. . . 28 Oct. 1903 

Cleveland train wrecked in Indianapolis, 15 
killed, many injured. . . 3T Oct. ,, 

Accident at Palezieux by collision of the 
Berne-Lausanne express with a light 
engine, 6 killed, 7 injured . . 21 Nov. ,, 

Express on St. Louis and San Francisco rail- 
way wrecked at Godfrey, Kansas, U.S., 9 
killed, 20 injured . . . .21 Dec. ,, 

Fallen timber from a goods train derails an 
express on the Baltimore and Ohio railway, 
60 killed, many injured. . . 23 Dec. „ 

Collision between two passenger trains near 
Grand Rapids, Michigan, U.S., 18 killed, 
31 injured 26 Dec. ,, 

ROME. — Site of the Ara Pacis August*, con- 
secrated, 4 July, 13 b.c. : dedicated 30 Jan., 
9 B.C., and the base of the statue of the 
emperor Domitian, cir. 91 a. d., discovered 
in 1903. 

ROYAL SOCIETY— Sir Archibald Geikie 
elected secretary ... 30 Nov. 1903 

RUNNING.— C. W. Hart ran 2,000 miles in 
31 days (15 hours per diem), at St. John's 
hill baths, Clapham . . h Feb. 1903 

L. Hurst, London to Brighton in 6 hr. 
34 min. 50 sec, constituting a record, 

20 June, ., 

L. Hurst ran 25 miles in 2 hr. 33 min. 42 sec. 

27 Aug. ,, 

RUSSIA. — Meeting of the czar and the Ger- 
man emperor . . . . 4, 5 Nov. 1903 

Kishineff massacres (19, 20 April) trial began 
19 Nov., Gretschin and Marosjuk indicted 
lor murder, sentenced to 7 and 5 years' 
penal servitude, 22 others to periods of 1 
to 2 years, and one to 6 months' imprison- 
ment, 12 persons acquitted, and 48 civil 
actions brought against the accused dis- 
missed, reported ... 21 Dec. „ 

Interview between Mr. Bryan and the czar, 

mid Dec. ,, 

Serious disturbances among the students of 

the universities of Tomsk, Kazan, and Kieff, 

Nov. -end Dec. 

Strained relations with Japan (irhich see); 
negotiations continued, war preparations 
proceeding . . . Dec. 1903-Jan. 1904 

Attempted assassination of baron Kortf, 
governor of Lomska, reported 24 Jan. ; and 
of prince Scherchelidze, chief of the police, 
Kars 22 Jan. ,, 

Budget for 1904 : 2,178,637,055 roubles, with 
surplus of ordinary revenue over ordinary 
expenditure of 13,636,242 roubles; 12,000,000 
roubles to be granted for the improvement 
of the roads of the empire. 

Anticipated income for 1904 : 83,000,000 rou- 
bles in excess of that of 1903 ; extraor- 
dinary expenditure, chiefly for railways, 
212,178,804 roubles. 

SALVATION ARMY.— Death of Mrs. Booth- 
Tucker, daughter of "general" Booth, 
from injuries in a railway accident at Dean 
lake, Missouri, U.S. . . . 2S Oct. 1903 

SAXE-WH.IMAR.— Centenary of the death 
of Herder, celebrated at Weimar . 18 Dec. 1903 

SCAFELL.— Mr. A. Goodall, of Keswick, 
killed by slipping on an ice slope, by a fall 
from Lord's Rake . . . .26 Dec. 1903 

SLATE.— Bethesda strike formally declared 
at an end 14 Au S- '903 

SCULPTURE. — The Society of British 
Sculptors inaugurated . . 26 Jan. 190+ 

SOMALI-LAND.— Galadi reoccupied alter a 
forced march, too mi., from Bohotle, 

25 Nov. 1903 



1484 



ADDENDA. 



Mullah's force defeated with heavy loss by 
Somalis at Damot, reported . " 7 Dec. 1903 

Comm. Gaunt, of the Mohawk, wounded and 
a marine killed in a tight with Somalis 
at Durbo, where lieut. Glaban, an Italian 
officer, was killed, reported . 8 Dec. „ 

Italian war vessel Galileo bombards Durbo, 

13 Dec. ,, 

Col. Keuna surprises 2,000 dervishes at Jid- 
balli, 80 kihed, 100 wounded, British 
casualties slight ... 19 Dec. ,, 

British, under gen. Egerton, attack force of 
some 5,000 dervishes at Jidballi, 1,000 of 
whom are killed ; many prisoners taken, 3 
British officers killed, including capt. hon. 
Thos. Lister, son and heir of lord Ribbles- 
dale, and 9 wounded ... 11 Jan. 1904 

Gen. Kenna surprises some Karias of Aligheri, 
near Eilinaade ; 50 of the enemy killed and 
3,000 camels ami many sheep captured, 

17 Jan. „ 
1153. SOUDAN". — Successful expedition under col. 
Mahon in El Obeid against the new Mahdi, 
Mahomed El Amin, who was captured, 
tried and hanged, reported . . 8 Dec 1903 
1162 SOUl'H AFRICAN WAR.— The Royal Com- 
mission on the war reports adversely on 
the military preparations ; the deliciencies 
in stores and materiel disclosing "a con- 
dition of affairs justly described by lord 
Lansdowne in his minute of 21 May, 1900, 
as ' full of peril to the empire,' inasmuch 
as ' we were not sufficiently prepared even 
for the equipment of the comparatively 
small force which we had always contem- 
plated might be employed beyond the 
limits of this country in the initial stages 
of a campaign.' " Various deliciencies are 
mentioned, as the fact that out of 
151,000,000 rounds of small arms ammuni- 
tion (Mark IV.) in stock at the beginning 
of the war 66,000,000 rounds were unavail- 
able ; at the end of 1S99 it was discovered 
that 200,000 reserve rifles in stock, 25,000 
of which had been issued, were so badly 
sighted as to shoot 18 in. to the left at a 
range of 500 yds. ; none of the complete 
kits of clothing in stock for 82,000 reservists 
could be used, except greatcoats, because 
they were red and blue clothing unsuitable 
for Africa or indeed lor most countries 
where the British army is likely to see 
fighting. 40,000 khaki suits were made 
early in 1899, but these were condemned 
by the medical authorities just before the 
war as being too thin, the heavy and 
clump-soled service boots were useless, and 
the situation was just saved by a supply of 
hand-sewn boots by the Indian govern- 
ment. Sir Henry Brackenbury in a minute 
of Jan. 1900 wrote : " All my difficulties 
have arisen from the fact that the troops 
sent out to South Africa had to be entirely 
reclothed Irom head to foot before being 
sent out." The various deliciencies are 
enumerated in detail ; complaints of a 
.similar nature were made as to swords, 
ammunition pouches, and entrenching im- 
plements, the supply of officers and men, 
and their training, the equipment of the 
army medical persons I and establishment ; 
the lack before the war of cohesion and co- 
ordinated action among the different 
departments of the war office, and the 
want at the war office of a supreme board 
of control. The weakness of the stall' of the 
intelligence division as it stood in 1899 is 
criticised, and the opinion expressed, "that 
it was undermanned for the work of pre- 
paration fur a great war will scarcely lie 
denied." The commission, however, think 

in spite of this weakness, the intelligence 
officers achieved a considerable measure of 
success. Attention is directed to the 
position of the commander-in-chief. While 
.not dissenting from the judgment delivered 
by the court of inquiry acquitting gen. 



Truman from personal blame, and recog- 
nising, as urged by that court, that "the 
demands were of unprecedented magni- 
tude," the commission says : " It is 
incredible that anyone who gave any 
thought to the matter could imagine that 
in the event of any war which necessitated 
the mobilisation of two army corps — and 
that, we have been persistently told, was 
the standard of preparation — it could 
have been possible for the inspector- 
general of remounts to continue to buy 
' in a leisurely way,' through accustomed 
channels, from recognised dealers ; and 
thus supply not only the first demands, 
but the wastages of war. It is un- 
necessary to labour the point that in the 
matter of remounts preparations for war 
were inadequate, or that the same state of 
things must not occur again." From 
figures given it is shown that 518,794 
horses and 150,781 mules and donkeys 
were provided lor the war, and that during 
the campaign 347,007 horses and 53,339 
mules and donkeys were " expended," 
besides 13,144 horses and 2,816 mules and 
donkeys "lost en voyage"; the total 
exchequer expenditure on these animals, 
exclusive of freight, amounted to about 
15,500,000?. This immense loss of horses 
is attributed partly to bad riding and 
bad horse-mastership of many of the men, 
and chiefly to the long voyage and their 
being unacclimatized. The report dealing 
with the supply of men (total number of men 
of all ranks employed from the beginning to 
the end of the war, officially estimated at 
448,435 ; of these 256,340 belonged to the 
regular army, 109,048 came from the 
United Kingdom as militia, volunteers or 
imperial yeomanry, 30,633 came from the 
over-sea colonies, and 52,414 were raised in 
S. Africa) shows that the supply of men, 
70,000. in the first phase of the war, was 
quite inadequate to its needs ; the evidence 
taken from numerous officers showed a 
consensus of opinion that " the morale, in- 
cluding in that term the qualities of 
courage, endurance, discipline, and cheer- 
fulness under adverse circumstances, left 
little or nothing to be desired. " Regarding 
physique the evidence showed that in the 
earlier stages of the war the men were in 
good condition, but the later drafts were 
as a whole inferior, sir Archibald Hunter 
in his evidence stating that it did not 
" fairly represent the manhood of the 
nation." The conimission speaks well of the 
volunteers and especially of the City of 
London volunteers, and of the" services of 
the Imperial yeomanry, and the high value 
especially of the first contingents of the 
Colonial volunteers. The personal zeal 
and devotion of the medical officers, the 
work of the engineers and army service 
corps, and the efficiency of the sea trans- 
port service are also commended. The 
commission acquitted the treasury of 
the charge of throwing impediments in the 
way of expenditure urgently required by 
the war office. All the commissioners 
sigii'd the report; some members added 
specitic reforms ; lord Fsher proposed the 
establishment of a council as nearly as possi- 
ble on the lines of the board of admiralty, 
the abolition of the office of commander- 
in-chief, and the appointment of a general 
officer outside the war office exercising the 
function of inspector general of the army. 
Sir Geo. Taubman-Uoldie, referring to the 
military preparations, expresses his 
opinion that the most serious defect was 
" in not having a sufficient number of 
trained men to furnish (by voluntary 
effort in a national emergency) the large 
reinforcements demanded both by the 
wastages of war and the vast area of the 



ADDENDA. 



1485 



operations. In close relation with this 
defect was the lamentable insufficiency of 
trained officers, ' this defect ' has cost 
the country no less than a hundred 
millions sterling, that it was a principal 
indirect cause of the outbreak of the war, 
that for some months it left the United 
Kingdom practically denuded of trained 
soldiers, and that it produced the most 
perilous international situation in which 
the empire has found itself since the days 
of Napoleon. Only an extraordinary com- 
bination of fortuitous circumstances, ex- 
ternal and internal, saved the empire 
during the early months of 1900, and 
there is no reason to expect a repetition of 
such fortune if, as appears probable, the 
next national emergency finds us still 
discussing our preparations." To obviate 
this danger sir G. Taubman-Goldie pro- 
poses a system of compulsory "national 
military education," lord Esher, sir 
Frederick Darley, and sir John Edge 
agreeing with this suggestion. Report 

issued 25 Aug. 1903 

1164. SOUTHERN CONTINENT.— The Norden- 
skjold expedition, in the Antarctic, rescued 
on Seymour and Parileto islands by the 
Argentine relief vessel Uruguay, capt. 
Trizar 8 Nov. 1903 

[The Antarctic was crushed and sunk by the 
ice in Erebus and Terror bay. New islands 
and bays discovered by Dr. Nordenskjold, 
one death only occurred among the expedi- 
tion party.] 

The Scotia of the Scottish antarctic expedi- 
tion reached latitude 70 25' S., and 
returned to Buenos Ayres . . 16 Dec. ,, 
1176. SPAIN. — Municipal elections, republican 

successes 8 Nov. 1903 

Formation of a democratic liberal party, 
under the leadership of sefiors Montero 
Rios, Canalejas, and gen. Weyler, reported, 

1 Dec. „ 

Resignation of ministry under sefior Villa- 
verde, 3 Dec. ; new cabinet (ultra conser- 
vative), sefior Maura, premier, sefior San 
Pedro, minister for foreign affairs, 5 Dec. „ 

Visit of the king to Lisbon . . 10 Dec. „ 
1187. STARVATION.— Parliamentary return, Dec. 
1903, for 1902, number of cases in which 
coroner's jury have returned verdict of 
death from starvation, or starvation 
accelerated by privation, 3d. 
1190. STEAM ENGINE, &c— New steam service 
between Trieste and New York, started, 

11 Nov. 1903 

Baltic, White Star liner, largest ship afloat, 
launched at Belfast . . .21 Nov. ,, 

Kenilworth Castle, Union Castle liner, length 
570 ft., launched at Belfast . . 5 Dec. ,, 

City of York, Ellerman City liner, launched 

at Belfast 17 Dec. „ 

1200. STORMS. — Gale in the Midlands, and round 

the coasts, 5 deaths, reported . 21 Nov. 1903 

Severe storm in the sea of Azoff, several 
lives lost mid Dec. ,, 

Severe hurricane in Fiji Is.; very serious 
damage in Levuka . . 21, 22 Jan. 1904 
1205. STYRIA. — Bomb outrage at Arduing, 6 

deaths, 16 injured, reported . 24 Nov. 1903 
1208. SUICIDE. — Mr. Freeman-Cohen, well-known 
Rand financier and pioneer of deep-level 
mining 23 Jan. 1904 

Mr. Mordaunt Lawson (temporarily of un- 
sound mind while in ill-health) . 25 Jan. ,, 

Whitaker Wright (see Trials, Addenda) 

26 Jan. ,, 

M. Arnold Comtesse (26), at Dijon, son of the 
president of the Swiss republic . 28 Jan. „ 
1219. SWITZERLAND.— Accident at Palezieux to 
the Berne-Lausanne express, 6 killed, 7 
injured 21 Nov. 1903 

M. Comtesse, radical, elected president for 
1904 ...... 16 Dec. ,, 

1224. TARIFF. — Commission of inquiry, see Pre- 
ferential Tariffs (Addenda). 



1234. THEATRES. — Drury Lane. — Dante, by 
MM. Sardou and Mareau, rendered into 
English by L. Irving, 30 April ; Actors' 
Association, matinee: Merchant of Venice, 
14 July ; The Flood Tide, by Cecil Raleigh, 

1 7 Sept. , last night 4 Dec. ; Humpty Dumpty, 
pantomime .... 26 Dec. 

His Majesty's. — Adaptation of Tolstoy's 
Resurrection, by H. Bataille and M. 
Morton, 17 Feb. ; The Gordian Knot, by 
Claude Lowther, 19 May ; Trilby revived, 

30 May: special evening performance in 
aid of Guy's hospital: Flodden Field, by 
A. Austin, and The Man Who Was, by 

F. K. Peile, adapted from Rudyard Kip- 
ling's story, 8 June; The Ballad Monger, 
Flodden Field, The Man Who Was, 20 June; 
Richard J I., revived, 10 Sept., last time 
23 Dec; The Darling of the Gods, by D. 
Belasco and J. T. Long . . 28 Dec. 

Haymarket.— Cousin Kate, by H. H. Davies, 

18 June; Shades of Night, by Robt. Mar- 
shall, revived 20 July^ 1903; Joseph En- 
tangled, by H. A. Jones . . 19 Jan. 

Adelphi. — Her Second Time on Earth, 16 
May ; Mme. Sarah Bernhardt's season : 
Frou Frou, 16 June; La Tosca, 17 June; 
Sappho, 18 June; La Dame aux Camelias, 
22 June; Fedora, 25 June; Andromaque 
and Bohemos, 26 June ; Phedre and La Tosca, 
■zj June ; Plus que Reine, 29 June ; Wer- 
ther, 2 July; Em'ly, by T. Warren and Ben 
Landek, adapted from Dickens's "David 
Copperfield," 1 Aug. ; La Giaconda and 
Hedda Gabbla, signorina Duse, 5, 7 Oct. ; 
The Earl and the Girl, by Seymour Hicks 
and Ivan Caryll, 10 Dec; matinees, Little 
Hans Anderson . . . .23 Dec. 

St. James's. — The Cardinal, by L. N. Parker, 

31 Aug., last night, 5 Dec; The Professor's 
Love Story 7 Dec. 

Wyndham's (new theatre).— First of series of 
Wednesday matinees of David Garrick, 
18 March; Mrs. Gorringe's Necklace, by 
Hubert H. Davies, 1 2 May, revived 23 Sept. ; 
Little Mary, by J. M. Barrie, 24 Sept. ; 
The Joy of Living, trans, by Miss Edith 
Warden of Sudermann, 24 June; The 
Second Mrs. Tanqueray, revived 13 July, 

Shaftesbury. — For Sword or Song, by R. J". 
Legge, L. Calvert, and Raymond Rose, 21 
Jan. ; A Maker of Comedies, by Clotilde 
Graves, 9 Feb.; In Dahomey, negro musical 
comedy, by Jesse A. Shipp . 16 May, 

Garrick. — Amelia, by Nigel Playfair, 22 
Jan.; Whitewashing Julia, by H. A. Jones, 
2 March ; Les Deux Ecoles, by A. Capus ; 
Mme. Jeanne Granier and French com- 
pany, 8- June; Mme. Rejane opens her 
season with La Poupee . . 22 June, 

Royalty. — A Snug Little Kingdom, by Mark 
Ambient, 31 Jan. ; The Exile, by L. 
Osborne and A. Strong, 9 May ; The 
Bishop's Move, revived, 13 July; The Golden 
Silence, by Haddon Chambers, 22 Sept. 
Royalty, opened by Herren Hans Andersen 
and Max Behrend, with Der Sturmgeselle 
Sokrates, by Herr Sudermann, 31 Oct.; 
Kaltwasser, by the German company, 

8 Nov. 

Avenue. — The Adoption of Archibald, by 
Edgar Selwyn, 6 Feb. ; The Prophecy, by 
Dick Ganthony; The Little Countess, by 

G. P. Bancroft, 2 May; Loma Doone, adap- 
tation by Miss Annie Hughes (3 matinees), 
30 June; Dolly Varden, by S. Stange, 
1 Oct. 1903; the Perils of Flirtation, by 
W. Frith 26 Jan. 

Lyric. — The Light that Failed, by George 
Fleming, adapted from Rudyard Kipling's 
novel, 7 Feb.; The Medaland the Maid, by 
Owen Hall and others, 25 April; Duchess 
of Dantzic, by H. Hamilton and Ivan 
Caryll 17 Oct. 

Criterion. — A Clean Slate, by R. C. Carton, 
10 Feb.; The Altar of Friendship, by Made- 
leine L. Ryley, 24 March ; Caste, revived, 



1904 



1486 



ADDENDA. 



12B9. 



23 May; Just Like Callaghan, from the 
French, by C. M. Lennox, 3 June; Billy's 
Little Love Affair, by H. V. Esmond, 

2 Sept. 

Terry's. — A Little Vnfairy Princess and lb 
and Little Christina, 19 Jan. ; My Lady 
Molly, by G. H. Jessop . 14 March 

New Gaiety. — Opened with The Orchid, by 
J. T. Tanner and others . . 26 Oct. 

Court. — Tempest, revived, 26 Oct. 1903 ; 
The Question, by B. B. Ashford and John 
Strange Winter .... 2 Jan. 

Vaudeville. — The Cherry Girl . 21 Dec. 

Apollo. — Special matinees of The Londoners, 
by Mrs. H. Whitestone, beginning 26 
March ; Madame. Sherry . . 23 Dec. 

Imperial. — Ibsen's The Vikings, 15 April; 
Much AdoAbovt Nothing, revived, 23 May; 
Monsieur Beaveaire, revived, proceeds de- 
voted to king Edward's hospital fund, 

2 Nov. 

Prince of Wales's.—:/ he School Girl, by H. 
Hamilton and others ... 9 May, 

Comedy. — The Climbers, by Clyde Fitch, 

5 Sept. 

TRANSVAAL. — Deficiency of labour supply ; 
some 404,000 men required for work in 
mines and on the land in S. Africa, Nov. 
1903 ; Chinese immigration advocated ; 
Mr. Wybergh, commissioner of mines, and 
Mr. Moneypenny, editor of the Johannes- 
burg Star, resign their offices . 3 Dec. 

Legislative council opened . . 7 Dec. 

Enthusiastic reception of lord Milner on his 
return, great meeting of British and Dutch 
at Johannesburg . . . .19 Dec. 

Motion in the legislative council by sir 
Geo. Farrar to import unskilled coloured 
labourers, carried, 22-4 . . 30 Dec. 

Petition in favour of Chinese labour, with 
45, 000 signatures of males over 16 years of 
age, presented to the legislative council, 
25 Jan. 

Total gold output of the mines in the Trans- 
vaal during Dec. 1903, 279,813 oz. of fine 
gold, value 1,188,571?., as compared with 
Dec. 1902, 196,023 oz. of fine gold, value 
832,652?. Total number of natives em- 
ployed in the Transvaal at the end of Dec. 
1903, 68,841. 

TRIALS.— Mrs. Frances Mary Day sentenced 
to 6 months' imprisonment at Exeter for 
ill-treating her two daughters . 22 Oct. 

G. E. T. Edalji sentenced to 7 years' penal 
servitude at Stafford for maiming cattle, 
23 Oct. 

Mrs. C. W. Wallis, widow, v. Maj. H. F. 
Woodgate, for libel in a novel "The Un- 
written Commandment" ; plaintiffawarded 
25?. damages . . . .12 Nov. 

W. James sentenced to 20 years' imprison- 
ment for manslaughter of his sister-in-law, 
21 Nov. 

Mr. F. W. Knight awarded damages, 250?., 
from Mrs. Ricardo for breach of promise of 
marriage 2 6 Nov. 

Jas. Wiseman, post office cmployi, awarded 
damages, 1,200?., from S.E. and Chatham 
railway co. for injuries received in an acci- 
dent 3 Dec. 

Anthony Powe, 38, engineer, pleaded guilty 
to obtaining cheque for 14,75c?. by forged 
share transfers and or misappropriating 
dividend warrants ; sentenced to 10 years' 
imprisonment .... 17 Dec. 
Mabel, countess of Kusscll, obtains a divorce 
from her second husband "William Brown, 
who married her under the name of Allnn- 

bold st uart de Modena, anil was afterwards 
convicted of making a false declaration 
When applying for the marriage licence, 

10 Dec. 
King's Bench division on appeal by the over- 
seers of Wesl Ham raising 1 he question 
whether, when pari payment of a rate has 
been tendered and refused, a magistrate is 
bound to issue a distress warrant I'orthe 



JUL11M9 



1904 
1903 



whole amount of the rate, their lordships 
held that a magistrate is not bound to 
issue a warrant for the whole amount of 
the rate . . . . .12 Dee. 

Miss Marie Corelli obtains one farthing 
damages, without costs, in an action for 
libel against Mr. Winter, a tailor at Strat- 
ford-on-Avon . . . .17 Dec. 

II hitaker Wright Case.— Trial at the king's 
bench division, before Mr. Justice Bingham 
and jury, commenced n Jan. ; Mr. Wright 
found guilty under all the twenty-six heads 
of the indictment ; the first 18 coming un- 
der sec. 84 of the Larceny Act, 1861, which 
deals with the issuing and circulation of 
false balance-sheets with intent to deceive 
shareholders, creditors, and members of 
the public who might become share- 
holders ; the other heads of the indict- 
ment being under sec. 83 of the same Act, 
relatingto false entries in books. Sentence 
7 years' penal servitude. Within an hour 
after the passing of the sentence the pri- 
soner took poison and died ; age 57, 

26 Jan. 

[Companies promoted by Mr. Whitaker 
Wright, or by the London and Globe 
Finance Corporation : Abaria, capital 
125,000?. ; London and Globe, 2,000,000?. ; 
British America, 1,500,000?.; Standard Ex- 
ploration, 1,500,000?. ; Le Roi, 1,000,000?.; 
Le Roi No. 2, 600,000?. ; Ivanhoe, 
i,coo,cco?. ; Caledonia Copper, 750,000?. ; 
Nickel Corporation, 750,000?. ; Loddon 
Valley Goldflelds, 750,000?. ; Rossland 
Great Western, 500,000?. ; Kootenay Mining, 
400,000?. ; Lake View, 350,000?.] 
1296. TURIN.— Fire in the library (founded by 
king Victor Amadeus II.) of the university ; 
several rooms destroyed, one containing 
valuable Egyptian, Babylonian, and As- 
syrian papyri ; over 100,000 books burnt 
or ruined by water ... 25 Jan. 
1308. TYROL.— Mr. Proctor, of the British mu- 
seum, lost on the Taschachferner, about 
6 Sept. 
1312. UNEMPLOYED.— Mansion house meeting, 
system of relief and scheme for employment 
proposed, 3 Dec. ; 50?. from the prince and 
princess of Wales ; Mansion house fund 
started . . ; . . -31 Dec. 
1335. UNITED STATES.— Presidential message 
deals with trusts and the relations of 
capital and labour. In foreign affairs re- 
ference is made to the Alaska boundary 
award, Venezuelan arbitration, the conclu- 
sion of a commercial treaty with China, 

7 Dec. 

Martial law proclaimed in connection with 
the Colorado coal strike, reported 10 Dec. 

Cuban reciprocity treaty passes the senate 
59-18 17 Dec. 

Terrible fire at the Iroquois Theatre, Chicago 
(see Fires) 30 Dec. 

Treaty signed and ratified with China, 

13 Jan. 

Charleston, cruiser, launched . 23 Jan. 
1337. URUGUAY. — Complete defeat and dis- 
persal of rebel troops under gen. Saravia, 
officially announced . . about 27 Jan. 
1345. VENEZUELA.— Final sitting of the Vene- 
zuelan arbitration court at the Hague, 

13 Nov. 

1351. VICTORIA. — Reform bill receives the royal 

assent Oct. 

1352. VICTORY.— Floated and placed alongside 

Portsmouth dockyard, preparatory to 
being taken to her old moorings 24 Jan. 

1357. VIVISECTION.— 332 licences granted in the 
United Kingdom in 1902 ; 12,841 experi- 
ments. 

1360. VOLUNTEERS.— Scheme to raise volunteer 
force of 26 battalions, divided over the 
four provinces of Ireland, reported to be 
sanctioned by the government . 17 Dec. 

1369. WAR AFFAIRS.— Report of the War Office 
Reconstitution Committee recommends, 



1904 
1903 



1903 



1903 
1903 



100 



ADDENDA. 



1487 



the appointment of an army council, con- 
stituted by patent, framed on the model of 
the board of admiralty. The army 
council to consist of 7 members, 3 civil, 4 
military, their duties being respectively : 
(1) Secretary of state : minister responsi- 
ble to the crown and tojparliament. (2) 
First military member : military policy, 
operation of war, training and military 
education. (3) Second militaiy member : 
personnel and discipline. (4) Third mili- 
tary member : supply and transport. (5) 
Fourth military member : armaments and 
fortifications. (6) Civil member : civil 
business other than finance. (7) Civil 
member : finance. The present office of 
commander-in-chief to be abolished, and a 
new post created of inspector-general, who 
will inspect and report on the efficiency of 
the military forces under the control of 
the home government. The committee also 
propose that the council of defence shall 
be based on a new " department " (with a 
permanent staff including one or more 
representatives of the colonies), the main 
functions of which will be : (1) To consider 
all questions of imperial defence from the 
points of view of the navy, the military 
forces, India and the colonies. (2) To 
obtain and collate information from the 



admiralty, war office, India office, colonial 
office, and other departments of state. (3) 
To prepare documents for the prime 
minister and defence committee, and to 
keep adequate records. Report issued, 
and official announcement that the reforms 
recommended by the committee have been 
' approved by the king, and will be carried 
out by the government without delay, 

30 Jan. 1904 

1373. WATERSPOUT. — Large waterspout and 
three smaller ones seen off Calais, 21 Aug. 

1376. WESLEYAN METHODISTS.— Total Metho- 
dists, 1903, 7,801,311, including 105,452 
local preachers; New Connexion, 42,742; 
Primitive Methodists, 198,393 ; Bible 
Christians, 29,720 ; United" Methodist 
Free Churches, 530,761. 

1409. WRECKS. — Savoyard* French sailer, lost 
near Brest, 36 deaths, reported . 26 Oct. 
To KaiMaru* Japanese s.s., sunk in collision 
with the Russian s.s. Progress, 48 deaths, 

29 Oct. 
Greek s.s. Pylaros* and Assos* collide in the 

port of Ithaca, 50 deaths . . 8 Dec. 
Cygnet, s.s., burnt and sunk S. of Vigo, 5 sea- 
men and 5 passengers missing, reported 

30 Dee. 
* Foreign vessels. 



1903 



1903 



THE END. 



BRADBURY, AGNEW & CO. LTD., PRINTERS, LONDON AND TONBRIDOE. 



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